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THE 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNICA 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


nRST           fditi 

on,  published  in 

three               Tolnmee, 

1768— 1771. 

SECOND             „ 

ten                        „ 

«777— 1784. 

THIRD               „ 

eighteen                „ 

1788—1797. 

FOURTH            , 

twenty 

x8oi— 1810. 

FIFTH                „ 

twenty                   „ 

x8is— 1817. 

SIXTH                „ 

twenty                   „ 

1823— 1824. 

SEVENTH          „ 

twenty-one            „ 

1830—1842. 

EIGHTH            „ 

twenty-two            „ 

1853—1860. 

NINTH               „ 

• 

twenty-five            „ 

1875—1889. 

TENTH             „ 

,           ninth  edition  and  eleven 

■uppleincntary  Tolume*, 

1903—1903. 

ELEVENTH       „ 

pablitbed  in 

twenty-nine  volumes. 

1910— 1911.. 

THE 


ENCYCLOP^0m  BRITANNICA 


DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS,    SCIENCES,    LITERATURE   AND    GENERAL 

INFORMATION 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


VOLUME  XXVIII 

VETCH  to  ZYMOTIC  DISEASES 


NEW  YORK 

THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  BRITANNICA  COMPANY 

1911 


^^^    ^CslL2C^<Z) 


7  F  3  ; 

FOGG  ART  MUSEUM 
HARVARD  UniVCRSITY 


Copyright,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  191 1, 

by 

The  Encyclopaedia  Britanaica  Company.  • 


INITIALS  USED  IN  VOLUME  XXVIII.   TO   IDENTIFY  INDIVIDUAL 
CONTRIBUTORS,!   WITH  THE  HEADINGS  OF  THE 
ARTICLES    IN  THIS   VOLUME  SO    SIGNED. 

A.  B.  GOi  Alfred  Biaoley  Gouoh,  M^..  Ph.D.  f 

Sometime  Casberd  Scholar  of  St  John's  College.  Oxford.    Engluh  Lector  in  the  -I  Wtltplialfa^  TtMt  ot 
Univer«ty  of  Kiel.  1896-1905.  I 

A.  C.  S.  Algernon  Charles  Swinburne.  f  nf^i^^..  •  1.- 

See  the  biographical  article:  Swinburne,  Algernon  Charles.  \  "•"••'t  '•■»• 

A.  D.  ■••         Anson  Daniel  Morse,  M.A.',  LL.D.  f 

Emeritus  rrofessor  of  History  at  Amherst  College,  Mass.    IVofenor  at  Amherst  <  WUf  Pirtf. 
College,  1877-1908.  I 

A.  1. 8»  Arthur  Everett  Shipley,  M.A.,  D.  Sc.,  F.R.S.  {w^m  Um  j^^^ 

Master  of  Christ's  College,  Cambridge.   Reader  in  Zoology,  Cambridge  University.  \  !Iz!i*7  r^^  \ 
}oint-^torotxhtC(uiandgfi  Natural  History.  ',[W99vn  {m  part), 

A.F.B.  Alureo  Farrer  Barker,  M.Sc.  /Wool,  Wonted  and  Wodln 

Professor  of  Textile  Industries  at  Bradford  Technical  College.  \  Hanalketuiis. 

A.  F.  B.*  Archibald  Frank  Becke. 


A.F.K 


RIBALD  Frank  Becke.  r 

Captain,  Royal  Field  Artillery.    Author  of  JntrodncOom  to  the  History  ^  Tatlks,  <  Watnrloo  ««m— i^n 
1740-1905:00.  [  »— •— 

A.  F.  Hutchison,  M.A.  f  w,n-„  -,_  unm... 

Sometime  Rector  of  the  High  School.  Stirling.  -j^  WtBRM,  Sir  WOllMlL 


A.  F.  Lb  Arthur  Franqs  Lxach,  M.A. 

Baxriflter<«t-law,  Middle  Temple.  Charity  Commissioner  for  England  and  Wales. 
Formerly  Assistant-Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Education.  Fellow  of  All  Soul« 
College.  Oxford,  1874-1881.  Author  of  English  Schools  at  the  Reformation',  &c. 

A.  F.  P.  Albert  Frederick'  Pollard,  M. A.,  F.R.Hist.S. 


Waynfleto,  wanam; 
William  of  Wykekam. 


Fellow  of  AU'Swiis  College!  Oxford."  'R^fcworof  English  History  in  the  University     Walllngham,  Sir  Ftaaoli; 
of  London.    Assistant-Editor  of  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  1 893-1901.  i  Wbhart,  CoOfgo; 
Author  of  England  under  Uu  Protector  Somerset;  Life  ef  Thomas  Cranmer;  Henry    Wobey,  f-^i^i^^ 

wilt.',  ftc.  \ 


A.1LC.  Agnes  Mary  Clerke. 


ES  Mary  Clerke.  Tw^.. 

See  the  biographical  article :  Clerke.  Acnes  M.  \  Zodlae. 


A.  H.  Alireo  Newton,  F.R.S. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Newton,  Alfred. 


A.  P.  CI  Arthur  Philbmon  Coleican,  M.A.,  Ph.D 


Vottart;    Waftan;    WarMer; 
WaxwlBg;  Woavor-biid; 
Whaatear;  Whltothroat; 
Wigaoo;  Woodooek; 
Woodpoeker;  Wren; 
Wiyneek;  Zostorops. 


HUR  Philbmon  Coleican,  M.A.,  Ph.D..  F.R.S.  f 

Professor  of  Geology  in  the  University  01  Toconto.    Geologist,  Bureau  of  Mines,  \  TokdB  TBTlitoiy. 

Toronto,  i893-i9ia   Author  of  Rsperfs  of  the  Bureau  of  Mtnes  of  Ontario,  i 

A.  9r*  Arthur  Symons.  J  VOIion  do  rble-Adam, 

See  the  biographical  article:  Symons,  Arthur.  \     Comto  do. 

A«  8.  C  Alan  SuinfERLv  Cole,  C.B.  f 

Formerly  Assistant-Secretary,  Board  of  Education,  South  Kensington.  Author  of  J  n..^^^^  ^  l  >  ^^j  m^ 
Ornament  in  European  Silhs;  Catalogue  of  TaUstry,  Embroidery,  Lau  amd  Egyptian  1  Woavmg:  ArcMaeolojy  and  Ark 
Textiles  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum ;  &.  L 

A.  S.  F.pF«        Andrew  Seth  Pringlb-Pattison,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  D.CL.  f 

Professor  of  Logic  and  MeUphysics  in  the  University  of  Edinbunh.     Giffonl  J  Wobor'sLaw; 

Lecturer  in  the  Univereity  of  Aberdeen,  1911.    Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.)  WallL  GkrMlHI   iin  PatH 

Author  oi  Man's  Place  im  the  Cosmos;  The  PUlosopkicttlJiaicaU,^  |^w«imv«««—   v     r^, 

A.VfO.  Aloys  voN  Orelu.  f 

Formerly  Professor  of  Law  in  the  University  of  ZOrich.    Author  of  Das  Staalsrecht  <  Vfto. 
der  schmeieerischen  Eidgenossenschaft.  L 

*  A  complete  list,  shoiring  all- individual  contribators,  appears  In  the  final  volume. 


r 


VI 

A.W.H.* 

A.W.HIL 

iLW.B. 
B.B.8. 

B.H.-S.. 

C^EL 


C.F.A. 

C.F.K. 

C.H.H». 

C.  H.  !.• 

C.K.W. 

CL.K. 


CltK. 


CW.It 

D.B.1L 
D.  F.  T. 

D.O.  H. 


D.H. 
D.  B.-1L 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

Arthur  Wiluam  Holland.  /wta  --  - 

Form^y  Scholar  o(  Sc  John'*  College.  Oxford.    Bacon  SchoUr  o(  Gray'*  Inn,  1900.  ^  WMund; 

Rev.  Arthur  Wollaston  Hutton.  r 

Rector  of  Bow  Church,  Chcapsidc,  London.    Formerly  Librarian  of  the  National  J  «w|^  ^,^,j,^^, 

Liberal  Club«  Author  oif  Life  0/  Cardinal  ilanning.   Editor  of  Newman's  Lwes  of  ike  j  ""'•■■■'*  '••■*■■•• 
EHgluh  SaiiUsi  &c.  L 

Alexander  Wood  Ronton,  M.A.,  LL.B.  f 

Puisne  Judge  of  the  Suprane  Court  of  Ceylon.   E<lttor  of  EMcyetopaeiia  eflk*  Lams  \ 
cf  England,  I 

BENjAum  Eu  SioTR,  A.M. 

Editor  of  the  Century  Dictionary. 


I 


Formerly  Instructor  in  Mathematics  at  Amherst  J  W]||*mw  WinUM 
College,  Mass.,  and  in  Psychology  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore.  |  •■■"■*'»  wuiwm 
Editor  of  the  Century  Cyclopaedia  oj  Nanus;  Century  Alias;  Stc.  I 

B.  HBCKSTALL-SMtTX. 

Associate  of  the  Institute  of  Naval  Architects. 
Yacht  Racing  Union;  Secretary  of  the  Yacht 
Editor  of  The  Field, 


Secretary  of  the  International  J  TM||||bc 
Racing  Association.     Yachting  | 


Sir  Charles  Norton  EDccuiaie  Euot,  K.C.M.G.,  M.A..  tL.D.,  D.CX. 

Vice-Chancellor  of  Sheffield  University.     Formeriy  Fellow  of  Trinity  College. 
Oxford.    H.M.'s  Commissioner  and  Commander-in-Chief  for  the  British  East  Africa  " 
Protectorate;  Agent  and  Consul-Gcneral  at  Zanzibar;  Consul-Gcncral  for  German 
East  Africa,  1900-1904. 

Charles  Francis  Atkinson. 

Formerly  Scholar  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.    Captain,  1st  City  of  London  (Royal  \  WQdMIMn:  Grants  Camfaipu 
Fusiliers).   Author  of  The  Wilderness  and  Cold  Harbor. 

Charles  Francis  Keart,  M.A.  f 

Trinity  College.  Cambridge.     Author  of  The  Vikings  in  Western  Christendom:]  VQdOg. 
Naruay  tmd  the  Narwfgians ;  Ac  I 


{ 


Carlton  Huntley  Hayes,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  History  in  Columbia  University,  New  York  Gfy. 
of  the  American  Historical  Assodatioa. 

Crawiord  Howell  Toy,  A.M..  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Toy.  Crawford  Howbll. 

Charles  Kincsley  Webster,  M.A. 

Fellow  of  King'a  College,  Canhridge.  Whewell  Scholar,  1907. 


Member 


{ 
( 

I  Vtoniia,  CMcms  oC. 


?kl«r  IIL  and  IV.  {Pop^U 
Vboomi  (FamUy), 

Wbdom,  Book  of;  • 
Wiidon  Utoimtuo. 


Charles  Lethbrioce  Kingspord.  M.A.,  F.R.Hist.Soc.,  F.S.A. 

Assistant-Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Education.    Author  of  Life  of  Henry  V.    Editor  • 
of  Ckronides  of  London  and  Stow's  Survey  of  London, 


Charles  Raymond  Bea2ley,  M.A.,  D.LnT.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.R.Hisr.S. 

Professor  of  Modem  History  in  the  University  of  Birmingham.  Formerly  Fellow  of 
Merton  College,  Oxford,  and  University  Lecturer  in  the  History  of  Geography. 
Lothian  Prizeman,  Oxford.  1889.  Lowell  Lecturer.  Boston,  1908.  Author  of 
Henry  the  Navigator ;  The  Dawn  o/'  Modern  Geography;  &c. 

Charles  Walker  Robinson,  C.B.,  D.C.L. 

Major-General  (retired).  Assistant  Military  Secretary,  Headquarters  of  the  Army, 
1890-1892.  Governor  and  Secretary,  Royal  Military  Hospital,  Chelsea,  1895- 
189&   Author  of  StraUgy  of  the  Peninsular  War;  &c 

Davu>  BiionNG  Monro,  M.A.,  Litt.D. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Monro,  David  Binning. 


Warwiok,  Bidnrt  Bmmh 

ohimp,  lul  of; 
Worwtek,  Rlehvd  ]fcYtD^ 

Bvlof; 
Whltttncton,  Richard; 
WorMstar,  John  TIptoft* 

Earl  of; 
York,  Rtehart.  Dnka  oL 


Zamarehui. 


Vltoria. 


{ 


Wolf,  Frfedrleh  Attfast 


Donald  FRANas  Tovey. 

Author  of  Essays  in  Musieal  Analysis:  comprising  The  Classical  Concerto^  The 
CfUdberg  Variations,  and  analyses  of  many  other  classical  wotIql 


David  George  Hogarth,  M.A. 

Keeper  of  the  Ashmolean  M  useum,  Oxford,  and  Fellow  of  Magdalen  College.  Fellow 
of  tne  British  Academy.  Excavated  at  Paphos.  1888;  Naucratis.  1809  and  (903; 
Ephesus,  1904-1905;  Assiut.  1906^1907.  Director,  Britisir  School  at  Athens, 
1 897-1900.  Director,  Cretan  Exploimtion  Fund,  1899. 

David  Hannay. 

Formerly  British  Vice-Consul  at  Barcelona.  Author  of  Short  History  of  Ike  Royal 
Nairyi  Lift  of  EamiUa  CaMelar ;  &c 

DoxncnELO  Henry  Scott,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

Professor  of  Botany.  Royal- College  of  Science,  London,  1865-1892.  Formerly 
President  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society  and  of  the  Linnean  Society.  Author 
of  StrtKlmol  Botany;  Studies  w  fossil  Botany;  &c. 

David  Randall-Mactver,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 

Curator  of  Egyptian  Department.  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Formerly  Worcester 
Reader  in  Egyptology,  University  of  Oxford.    Author  of  Medievat  Rhodesia ;  &c. 


VIetorIa,  Tommaso  L.  4a; 
WaE&er:  Biography  (in  party 
and  Critical  A  ffp^eciation; 
.  Webor:  Critical  Appreciation, 

Xanthui; 
Zoltun. 

f  VUloDouve; 
\  ZumalaeirrofiiL 


WUliamson,  WOllaBi  Crawtofl 
Zlmbabfro. 


JLAt^ 

E.C* 

E.CfL 

B.C.B« 

B.ILW. 

B.0,* 

B.O*I. 

B.Pr. 

F.A.& 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICI^S  *« 

Kbv.  Euukab  AnoTAGB,  M.A.  f 

Trinity  College,  Cambridge.    Profweor  in  Yorkshire  United  Indepen^tsnt  Colltge,  <  ZwtBgD. 
Bradford-  ^ 

EtNEST  CCASKE,  M.D.,  F.R.CS.  f  ^, 

Surgeon  to  the  Central  London  Ophthalmic  Hospital,  and*  ConsOttliig  aphthahaic  J  VMob:  Entrs  of  Rrfra€lhm^ 
Surgeon  to  the  Miller  General  Hospital.    Vice-President  of  the  Ophthaimological  |      &c. 
Sodety.  Author  oi  RtfracHon  of  Uu  Bye;  doc.  I 

EtoMVND  CUKTIS,  M.A.  J  Wflllsm  ff  mttdl  ft  *#  •!■»• 

Keblc  College,  Oxford.  Lectmer  on  Histoey  in  the  University  of  Sheffield.  I """™°  i.  *iia  ll.  ©I  Stag. 

RiCRT  Rzv.  EowASD  CuTHBEST  Bdtlbr,  O.S.B.,  M.A.,  D.Lirr.  f 

Abbot  of  Downside  Abbey,  Bath.   Author  of  "  The  Lausiac  History  of  Palladius  "  i  Wadding,  Lnkt. 
ia  Catohnige  Ttxts  and  Studies.  I 

B.C.  8.  Edmund  Clarence  Steduan.  I  mhmtmw  imAw^  r*»^^^m§ 

See  the  biographical  article :  Stbdman.  Edmund  ClarbnCb.  \  wmiutr,  J«fiii  GlMDIfaL 

Vm&otlle;  Vlraby; 
VoiiiiMr»  Card; 
WaDer,  Edmuod; 
Walloons:  Literaiure; 
Watson,  Tkomas; 
Welb,  CharlM  Jeremiah; 
Wennarbeift  Gunnar; 
WInther,  Christian; 
Wordswortli,  Dorothy. 


B.  Q,  Edmund  Gosse,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article :  Gosse,  Edmund. 


4 

Kd.  IL  EouAKO  Meyer,  Ph.D.,  DXitt.,  LL.D.  f  Vologaeees;  Vonones  I>IL: 

Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  University  of  Berlin.    Author  of  GesckichU  its  i  y«.vM*  VmrA^^^rA 
AUerihumsi  Ceschichto  des  atun  Aegyptens;  Dt*  Israditen  und  tkre  NackbarUdmmo.  !,*•'"»»  xaxoegera. 

Rev.  Edward  Mewbdrn  Walker,  M.A.  /xenoohon  (in  paHi 

Fellow,  Senior  Tutor  and  Ubrarian  of  Queen's  College.  Oxford.  ^^«iw|P«i»n  v»»  |w»/. 


[UND  Owen,  F.R.C.S.,  LL  D.,  D.Sc.  fn,  ^ 

Consulting  Surgeon  to  St  Mary's  Hospital,  London,  and  to  the  Children's  Hospital,  J  Wan; 
Great  Ormond  Street.  London.    Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    Author  of  ]  Whitlow.. 


Edmund  Owen,  F.R.C.S.,  LL  D.,  D.Sc. 
Consulting  Surgeon  to  St  Mary's  Hosf: 
Great  Ormond  Street.  London.    Che 
A  Manual  of  AmUomy  for  Senior  Students,  "  \ 

EuZABETR  O'Neill,  M.A.  (Mrs  H.  O.  O'NEaL).  f  y, 

Formerly  University  Fellow  and  Jones  Fellow  of  the  University  of  Manchester.       ^  *'<^V* 

I 


Edgar  Prestace.  ,  -_^  .    ^_, 

Special  Lecturer  in  Portaniesc  Dtereture  in  the  Unlversitv  of  Manchester.    Com-  J  *•*•'*••»  c; 
mendador.  Portuguese  Order  of  S.  Thiago.   Corresponding  Member  of  Lisbon  Royal  |  Vielia,  Antonlo. 
Academy  of  Sciences  and  Lisbon  Gcografrfucal  Society;  «c. 

B.  P.  W.  Everett  Pepperrell  Wheeler,  A.M. 

Formerly  Chairman  of  the  Commission  on  International  Law.*  American  Bar  J  xBm»t»im»  naitui  t:^  a,>a 

Association,  and  other  similar  Commiseions.  Author  of  Danxd  Webster;  Modemi  •»•»"'»  """W  v«i  fanf. 
Law  of  Comers;  Wages  and  the  Tariff.  I 

B.  R.  L.  Sir  Edwin  Ray  Lankester,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  D.Sc,  LL.D.,  D.C.L. 

Hon.  Fellow  of  Exeter  Colle^,  Oxford.  President  of  the  British  Association,  1906. 
Professor  of  Zoology  and  Comparative  Anatomy  in  University  College,  London, 
l874-i89a  Linacre  Profe«sor  of  Comparative  Anatomy  at  Oxford,  1891-1898.  •{  ZOMOgf. 
Director  of  the  Natural  History  Departments  of  the  British  Museum.  1898-1907. 
Vice-President  of  the  Royal  Society,  1896.  Romanes  Lecturer  ar  Oxford,  1905. 
Author  of  Degeneration;  The  Advancement  of  Science;  The  Kingdom  of  Man;  &c. 

E.  T.  EuHU  tnoMSONj  A.M.,  D.Sc,  Ph.D. 

Inventor  of  Electric  Welding.    Electrician  to  the  Thomson-Houston  and  General 
Electric  Companies.    Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Mechanics,  Ccntrsl  High  School, .  WtMllC. 
Philadelphia.  1870-1880.    President  of  the  International  Electro-technical  Com* 
mission,  1908. 


FsANKLYN   ArDEN   CRALIJ^N  T 

Formeriy  Director  of  Wood-carving»  Gloucester  County  Council.   At-thor  of  Gothic  \  Wood-Carttog. 
Woodcarving.  [^ 


F.  C.  C  Frederick  Cornwallis  Contbease^  M.A.,  D.Th.  r 

Fellow  of  the  British  Academy,    r ormerlv  Fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford.  J  |fo^. 
Editor  of  The  Ancient  Armenian  Texts  of  Aristotie.   Author  of  Myth,  Magic  and] 
Morals;  &C.  (. 

F.  0.  IL  B.        Frederick  George  Mbeson  Beck,  M^.  /  W^nz. 

Fellow  and  Lecturer  of  Clare  CoUege,  Cambridge.  \  «»■•*. 

F.  J.  H.  Francis  John  HAVERnEto.  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.S.A.  r  • 

Camden  Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  University  of  Oxford.   Fellow  of  Brase-  I 
nose  College.    Formerly  Censor,  Student,  Tutor  anci  Librarian  of  Christ  Church.  J  WatUng  StfMt* 
Ford's  LcKrturer,  1906-1907.    Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.    Author  of  Mono-  1 
graphs  on  Roman  History,  especially  Roman  Britain:  &c.  I 

F.  Kt.  Frank  Keiper,  A.M..  B.L.,  M.E.  f  voting  i'«^fc«— - 

Manager  of  tb**  United  States  Voting  Machine  Company.     Formerly  Aadstant-{      ^^ 
Examfner.  United  Sutcs  Patent  Ofl&ce.  I 


Tiii 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


P.L.I.. 

P.1I.H. 

P.ILC 

P.T.H. 

P.Wt. 

r.  W.  It* 

r.  Y.  p. 

G. 

G.A.C 

G.C.Lb 


G. 


O.FL 

ap.D. 

G.  F.  B.  H. 

G.  G.  p.* 

G.H.G. 

G.J. 

G.  J.  T. 

G.ik 

G.  W.  F. 

G.W.IL 
6.  W.  T. 


Laov  Lucauk 

See  the  bio^xaphical  «rtkle:  Lugako.  &•  F.  J.  O. 

Colonel  Frederic  Natuscr  Maude,  C.B. 

Lecturer  in  Miliury  History,  Manchester  Univernty.     Author  cH  Wmr  4mi  tkt 
W^rU^S  PUiey;  The  Lapng  Campaigmi  The  Jen*  Ctmpaigm. 

Frank  R.  Cana. 

Author  of  South  Africa  from  the  Great  Trth  lo  the  I/mm. 


Sir  Frank  Thomas  Mar2uls,  K.C.B. 

Formerly  Acxountaiit*Geiieral  o(  the  Army. 


Editor  oC  the  "Great  Writers**  Scries. 


Frederick  Wedmore. 

See  the  biographical  article.  Wbdmork,  Frbdbrice. 

Frederick  Willuk  Rudler,  I.S.0.»  F.G.S. 

Curator  and  Librarian  of  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology.  Loodoa.  1879-1902. 
President  of  the  Geologists'  Assodatioa,  1887-1889. 

Frederick  York  Powell.  D.C.L.,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Powbll,  Frbdbrick  York. 

Lord  Grimthorpe. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Griuthorpb,  ist  Barom. 

Rev.  George  Albert  Cooke,  M.A.,  D.D. 

Oriel  Professor  of  the  Interpretation  of  Holy  Scripture  in  the  University  of  Oxford, 
and  Fellow_of  Oriel  College.    Canon  o^^^bester.     Hon.  Canon  01  St  Mary's 


Warth. 

VielattoMk: 
VtotortoHyatftt  (m 


Zota, 


Voleuio;  Wol^ialii; 
ZiraoB. 


{ 


VlfftaOB,  G 
Wafeh  (m  pan). 

ZenoMa. 


Cathedral,  Edinburgh.    Author  of  TejU-Boffk  of  North  Semitic  Inscriptions;  &c. 

George  Collins  Levey,  C.M.G.  r 

Member  of  the  Board  of  Advice  to  the  Agent -General  for  Victoria.   Formerly  Editor  J 
and  Proprietor  of  the  Melbourne  Herald,    Secretary,  Colonial  Committee  of  Royal  J 
Commission  to  the  Paris  Exhibition.  looo.    Secretary,  Adelaide  Exhibition,  1887.  ]  Vlctorift  {AuUralia); 
Secretary,  Royal  Commission,  Hobart  Exhibition,  1894-1895.    Secretary  to  Com- 
missioners for  Victoria  at  the  Exhibitions  in  London,  Paris,  Vienna,  Philadelphia  I 
and  Melbourne. 

wuusB  n^  King  or 

Rev.  George  Eduundson,  M.A.,  F.R.Hist.S. 

Formeriy  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Brasenose  College,  Oxford. 


nv  rciiow  ana  1  utor  ot  t$rasenose  i.oiiege,  uxiord.    Ford's  Lecturer,  1900. . 
Hon.   Member,   Dutch   Historical  Society;  and   Foreign  Member,   Netherlands 
Association  of  Literature. 


Histery.       { 


•-    \ 


KlnK   of    Oo 


i 


Author  of  Animal  \  VeteriBRiy  SeiMiee  (m  part). 


George  Fleming,  C.B.,  LL.D.,  F.R.C.V.S. 

Formerly  Principal  Veterinary  ^reeon.  War  Office,  London. 
PlagUits:  their  History^  Nature  and  FrevaUioH. 

George  Frederick  Deacon,  LL.D.,  M.Inst.M.E.,  F.R.M.S.  (1843-1909). 

Formerly  Engineer-in-Chicf  for  the  Liverpool  Water  Supply  (Vymwy  Scheme). 

and  Member  of  theCpundl  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.   Borough  and  Water  i  Wftter  Supplj. 

Engineer  of  Liverpool,  1871-1879,   Consulting  Civil  Engineer,  1 879-1909.    Author  I 

of  addresses  and  papers  on  Engineering,  &c. 

George  Francs  Robert  Henderson. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Henderson,  George  Francis  Robert. 

George  Grenville  Pbilliuore,  M.A.,  B.C.L. 

Christ  Church,  Oxford.   Barrister-at-law,  Middle  Temple. 

George  Herbert  Carpenter. 

Professor  of  Zoology  in  the  Royal  College  of  Science,  Dublin. 
their  Structure  and  lAfe. 

George  Jameson,  C.M.G..  M.A. 


NetlierlRiids; 
WUUam   ni^ 

Netherlands; 
Wnutm  OM  SOent; 
WUnuB  11^  Priiioe  of  Oru^R. 


{war. 

/  Wreek  {in  part). 


Author  of  Insects:  [  ![*'P /?.  ^^\ 
\  WeevU  (til  part). 


RGE  JAMESON,  C.M.G..  M.A.  C 

Formerly  ConsuUGeneral  at  Shanghai,  and  Consul  and  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court,  <| 
Shanghai.  [ 


Tangtsx^-Klaac. 


George  James  Turner.  r 

Barrister-at-law,  Uncoln's  Inn.   Editor  of  Sdect  Pleas  of  the  Forests  for  the  Selden  J  Wapentake. 
Society.  [ 

George. Saintsbury,  D.C:.L.,  LL.D.  f  S??'  S^  *!'  -«..  ^ 

Sec  the  biographical  article:  Saxntbbury,  George  E.  B.  i  ViUebardoulii,  Geoffrey  de; 

I  VnioD,  Francois;  Voltain. 

George  Walter  Prothero,  M.A.,  Lrrr.D.,  LL.D. 

Editor  of  the  Quarterly  Review.     Honorary  Fellow,  formeriy  PelkMr  of  King's 
College,  Cambridge.    Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.    Professor  of  History  in  tne  . 

•       Univeruty  of  Edinburgh,  1894-1899.    Author  of  Life  and  Times  of  Simon  ae  Mont' ' 
fort;  &C.  Joint-editor  of  the  Cambridge  Modem  History, 

Major  George  Williav  Redway. 

Author  of  The  War  of  Secession^  XB61-1862;  Frederichsburg:  a  Study  in  War, 

Rev.  Griffithes  Wheeler  Thatcher,  M.A.,  B.D. 

Warden  of  Camden' College.  Sydney,  N.S.W.    Formerly  Tutor  in  Hebrew  and  Old 
Testament  History  at  Mansfield  College,  Oxford. 


WQliam  IV.,  King  of  SnclaDl 


•TwOderiMtt  (ifi  faff), 

r  Wahh&bis;  Wiqldi; 

J  Ya«4Qb1;  Yftqut; 

1  Zamakhshari;  2ulialr> 


H 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


ix 


B.Ch. 


H«  V*  H« 


H.Oe. 

B.KR* 

aF.G. 

H.H.C 

H«  H.  W. 

H.J«. 

H.J.C. 


H.JA. 


H.L.J. 


ILH.O. 

H.H.V. 

H«R.T. 

H.8t 

H.SW. 

H.W.C.D. 


Ha  WT*  n* 


LA. 


LJ.G. 


Hugh  Cbisholm,  M.A. 

Formerly  Scholar  of  Corpus  Christi  Collece.  Oxford.    Editor  of  the  llth  edttkui  ol ' 
the  BMcytiopiudia  Britamnica.   Co-editor  of  the  lotb  editioii. 

Rsv.  HoiACB  Cartes  Hovey,  A.M.,  D.D. 

Fellow  of  the  American  Asaociation  for  the  Advancement  of  Sdenoe.  the  Geological 
Society  <^  America,  the  National  Geographic 'Society  and  the  Soct^AdeSp^l&iloffie. 
Author  of  Celebrated  American  Caverns i  Handbook  of  Matmnoik  Caoe  ef  JCmlKcty; 
Ac  «. 

HlPPOlYTE  Deleraye,  SJ. 

Botlandist.   Joint  Editor  of  the  Ada  SoMtammi  and  the  Anatecla 

Herbert  Edward  Rylb,  M.A.,  D.D. 
Dein 


Vtetorit,  QMao; 

Walter,  John; 

Wild,  Hn  Hmn^liiy; 

WUde,  OMar. 

Wordsworth,  WflUam  vm  pcrO. 


Wyandotte  Cava. 


iS^ 


-[viBOsnt,  at;  vital,  8L 

r  Edward  Rylb,  M.A.,  D.D.  f 

n  of  Westminster.  Bishop  of  Winchester,  1903-1011.  Bishop  of  Exeter,  1901"  J  iir^«.«M  it««nfc.  »-- 
\.  Formerly  Hulsean  Professor  of  Divinity  in  the  University  of  Cambridge;!  W6IIC0H,  BrooKonfl 
Fettow  of  lung's  College.  Author  of  On  Holy  Scripture  and  CrMcUm  i  Ac  Ac.    I 


Hans  Frieorich  Gadow,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.  f 

Strickland  Curator  and  Lecturer  on  Zoology  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  s  VIptr. 
Author  of  "  Amphibia  and  Reptiles  "  in  the  Gunbridgfi  Hatural  Mutoryi  Ac  L 


Waloh  (m  ^irl). 


Sir  Henry  Hardingb  Cunynciiame,  K.C.B.,  M.A. 

Assistant  Under-Secretary,  Home  Oflke,  London.  Vice-President,  Institute  ^, 
Electrical  Engineers.  Author  of  various  works  on  Enamelling,  Electric  Lighting, 
Ac. 

Rev  Henry  Herbert  Wiluams,  M.A.  f 

Fellow,  Tutor  and  Lecturer  in  Philoeophy,  Hertford  College,  Oxford.    Examining -j  WUk  Philaepky, 


i  of  J 


Chaplain  to  the  Bishop  of  Uandaff. 

Henry  Jackson,  M.A.,  Litt.D.,  LL.D.,  O.M. 

Regius  Professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and  Fdlow  of  Trinity 
College.  Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.  Author  of  Texts  to  iUustraU  tke  History  if 
Creek  Pkihsopkyfrom  t kales  to  Aristotle. 

Henry  James  Chaney,  I.S.O.  (i84i-t9o6). 

Formerly  Superintendent  of  the  Standards  Department  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
and  Secretary  to  the  Royal  Commission  on  Standards.  Represented  Great  Britain 
at  the  International  Coiuerence  on  the  Metric  System,  1901.  Author  of  Treatise  on 
Weights  and  Measures, 

Horace  Lamb,  M.A.,  LL.D.»  D.Sc.»  F.R.S. 

Professor  of  Mathematics  in  thb  University  of  Manchester.  Formerly  Fellow  and 
Assistant  Tutor  of  Trinity  College.  Cambridge.  Member  of  Council  of  the  Royal 
Society,  1894-1896.  Roval  Medallist,  1902.  President  pf  London  Mathematical 
Society,  190^1904.   Author  of  Hyrfrodyiuimtcj;  Ac. 

Henry  Lewis  Jonfs,  M.A.,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.,  M.R.C.S. 

Medical  officer  in  charge  of  the  Electrical  Department  and  Qinlcal  Lecturer  on 
Medical  Electricity  at  St  Bartholomew's  Hospiul,  London.  Author  of  Medical 
Electricity;  Ac. 

Hector  Munro  Chaowicx,  M.A. 

Fellow  and  Librarian  of  Clare  Coltcge,  Cambridge,  and  University  Lecturer  in 
Scandinavian.    Author  of  Studies  on  Anglo-Saxon  Institutions, 

Herbert  Murray  Vaughan,  M.A.,  F.S.A. 

Kcble  College.  Oxford.  Author  of  Tke  Last  ef  tke  Royal  Siuarts;  Tke  Medici 
Popes  \  Tke  Last  Stuart  Queen, 

Henry  Richard  Teooer,  F.S.A. 

Secretary  and  Librarian  of  the  Athenaeum  Club,  London. 

Henry  Sturt,  M.A. 

Author  of  Idola  Tkeatri;  Tke  Idea  of  a  Free  Ckurck ;  Personal  Idealism. 

Henry  Sweet,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

University  Reader  in  Phonetics.  Oxford  University.  Corresponding  Member  of  the 
Academies  of  Munich,  Beriin,  Copenhagen  aad  Helsingfon.  Author  of  A  History 
^f  BMtfisk  Sounds  sinu  tke  Earliest  Period ;  A  Primer  ef  Phonetics ;  Ac 

Henry  Wiluam  Cariess  Davis,  M.A. 

Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Balliol  College.  Oxford.-  Fellow  of  All  Souls  College.  Oxford, 
1895-1902.    Author  of  England  under  tke  Normans  and  Angeoins;  Ckarlemagne, 

Rev.  Henry  WiTfeELER  Robinson.  M.A. 

Professor  of  Church  History  in  Rawdon  College,  Leeds.  Senior.  Kenmcott  Scholar, 
Oxford.  1901.  Author  of  *'  Hebrew  Psychology  in  Relalion  to  Pauline  Anthropo- 
logy "  in  Mansfield  College  Essays;  Ac 

Israel  Abrahams,  M.A. 

Reader  in  Talmudic  and  Rabbinic  Literature  in  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
Formerly  President,  Jewish  Historical  Society  of  Englattd.  Author  of  A  Skort 
History  of  Jeioisk  Literature;  Jewish  Life  in  tke  Middle  Ages;  Judaism;  Ac. 

Isaac  Joslin  Cox,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  History  in  the  University  of  CincinARti.    President  of  the 
*Ohio  Valley  Historical  AsKiciatioii.    Author  of  Tke  Journeys  ^  la  Salle  and  Ms 
Companions;  in. 


[Xanoealif; 

A  Xonophanes  of  Cotopkon; 

I.  Zano  of  Btea. 


Walghteaal 

SdeiUific  and  CommerdaL 


Wava. 


X-Rajr  ItaalmeBl 

Wodoiu 

Waist:  Geoffaphyamd 
StaHstics  and  History. 

Wood*  Anflunqr  i. 
Vbohor^  Vttodrteli  Hnadar. 

Votepok. 

Waoa,  Sohart; 
Waltif  of  Covantiy; 
WlUIam  L,  King  of  Intfaad; 
Wflnam  IL,  King  of  England; 
William  of  MalnMsbnqr; 
William  of  If ewhnrgh. 


•I  Zoehariah  {in  parO- 


Wii«»  baae  Hayor; 
Zau,  Leopold. 


WflUBlOIl, 


J..A.B. 
J.A.P. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OP  ARTICLES 


J.  A.H. 

J.Bt 

J.  Bo. 
J.B.a 

J.P^K. 


J.  P.  ITL. 
J.Oa. 
J.G.a 
J.  O.K. 

J.CB. 

J.G.Se. 
J.H.P. 


J.  J.  L.* 

J.t.W. 
J.  Mm. 


J.  Ms.* 


J.  M.  G. 
J.  M.  J. 

J.M.M. 


Imiis  AiMVMD  Ewnio,  C.B.,  LL.D.,  F.1LS.,  M.IiitT.C.E. 

Director  of  (BrHiah)  Naval  Educmtioa.  Ho«.  Fellow  cH  Kiac's  Cbllcte,  Cambridge. 
ProfeMor  of  Mechaaitni  aad  Applied  Mechanics  in  the  Umwerrity  oi  Cambcidiew 
1890-1903.  AnOwf  ol  TUSlrmifini Mmmair,  Ac 

OHM  AMBftOBE  FLEmMG,  M.A..  D.Sc.,  F.R.S. 

Pmdcr  IVofeiaor  of  Electrical  Engineering  in  the  UuhnttiHtf  id  Loodoa.  Fellow  of 
University  CoHm,  London.  Formeriy  Fellow  of  St  John's  Colkfs,  Cambridge, 
and  UniverMty  Lcctiinr  on  Applied  Mcchanira.  AutAor  of  ifogMto  and  &etmc 
CwnatU. 

OHN  Allen  Hows. 

Curator  and  Librarian  of  the  Mincum  of  Pnctical  Geology,  Loodoa.  Author  of 
Tk$  Geology  9/  ^tnMssg  5fMws. 

'Aim  Bamiett. 

Lecturer  on  Construction,  Architecture.  Sanitation,  Quantities,  &c.,  at  Ring's 
College.  London.   Member  of  the  Society  of  Architects.   Memtaer  of  Che  Institute  of 
uoioc  Figiaww 

OBN  BtTUtOOCilB. 

See  the  biographical  aiticle:  BVftlOOCBi,  Jom. 


{ 


Watt^JtaM. 


Voltmtter;  Wftttatlw; 


WadiMi;  Wealoek  Oraop. 

WaD-Mvtitap. 

{vrUtmftiuWtlt 


uuus  EmL  Olson,  BX. 

Pnofassor  of  Scandinavian  Languam  and  Literatore  at  the  Uolvenity  of  Wlsconihi. 
Author  of  Norwegun  Orammar  am  Reodtr. 

AMES  Fitzmaueice-Kjuliv,  Lbt.D.,  F.R.HXST.S. 

Gllmottr  Professor  of  Spanish  Language  and  Literature,  Liverpool  University. 
Norman  McColl  Lecturer,  Cambridge  UniverutY-  Fellow  of  the  British  Academy. 
Member  of  the  Royal  Spanish  Academy.  Knight  Commander  of  the  Order  of 
Alphonso  XIL   Author  of  A  History  0/  Spanish  LiUraimci  ftc. 

'OHN  Pescvsson  MTemnan. 

See  the  biographical  article:  M'Linnan,  John  FBtctnsoN. 

AVEs  Gaixdnek,  C.B..  LL.D. 

See  the  biographicaJ  article:'  Gairdnee,  jAMBt. 

OSEPH  G.  Horner,  A.M.I.Mech.E. 

Author  of  Plating  and  Boiler  Making;  Practical  Metal 


{ 


flatul 


VmuBidlaM,  Comt  <•; 
Vi]laiia,BBrt4M«t; 
ZorUIe  7  Honl»  iiu. 


Tmnmgi  Ac 


Onr  GXAT  McKsNDRicE,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.^  F.R.S.  (Edin.). 

Eawritus  Ftofcssor  of  Physiology  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  Pk'ofessor  of 
Physiology,  1876-1906.   Author  of  Life  in  Motion ;  Lije  oj  Hdmkolts ;  ftc. 

OHN  George  Robextson,  ■M.A.,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  German  Language  and  Literature,  Univerrity  of  Lpndon.  Editor  of  the 
Modern  Langnage  Journal.  Author-of  History  of  German  Liieratsve;  SckiUer  after 
a  Century,  ftc 

Sir  James  George  Scott,  IC.C.I.E. 

Superintendent  and  P<^itical  Officer.  Southern  Shan  States.  Author  of  Burma; 
The  Upper  Burma  Gasetteer, 

fOHN  Henry  Prbese.  M.A. 

Formerly  Fellow  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge. 

OBN  Henry  Miodleton,  M.A.,  Litt.D.,  F.S.A.»  D.C.L.  (1846-1896). 

Slade  Professor  of  Fine  Art  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  1886-1895.  Director 
of  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum,  Cambridge,  1889-1802.  Art  Director  of  the  South 
KeiMngton  Museum,   1892-1896.     Author  of   The  Bngraoed  Gems  of  Qasskal 

nd  Medietoaf  Times. 


I  WtnraK  (m  part). 

{wddlncCsfi^in). 

{VUm; 
VoiM. 


WielftBl,  Chiisloph  Mwlta. 
•[  ZanophoB  (mi  part). 


Vlfraftai; 

Wnb,  Sir  CbilrtoplMr; 

ZueevoL^n. 


{ 


Times;  lUuminaied  Manuscripts  in  Classical  and 

Rev.  Torn  James  Lus,  M.A. 

ChanceUor  of  LlandafF  Cathedral.  Formerly  Hulscan  Lecturer  in  Divinity  and  Lady 
Margaret  Preacher,  University  of  Cambridge.  Author  of  Miracles,  Scieme  and 
Prayer;  ftc 

ESSIE  Laidlay  Weston. 

Author  of  ArlJbaftaii  Romances  unrepresented  in  Malory. 

MOB  MacQueen,  F.R.C.V.S. 

Professor  of  Surgery  at  the  Royal  Veterinary  College,  London.  Editor  of  Fleming's 
Operative  Veterinary  Surgery  (md  edition);  Duties  VeferMory  Medicines  (loth 
eottion);  and  Neumann's  Parasites  and  Parasitic  Diseases  of  the  Domesticated 
AnimMf  (?ttd  edition). 

OHN  Mm,  A.M.,  LL.D. 

Member  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Letters.  President  of  the  Sierra 
Club  and  the  American  Alpine  Club.  Visited  the  Arctic  regions  on  the  United 
States  steamer  "  Corwin  "  m  search  of  the  De  Long  expedition.  Author  of  The 
Mountains  of  California ;  Our  National  Parks ;  ftc. 

OHN  Mjllee  Gray  (i8«o-i&m)« 

Art  Critic.   Curator  of  the  Scottish  National  Portcait  Gallery,  1884-1894.   Author  \  WlOUeb  Sir  Dftfld. 
of  Damd  Scott,  R.S.A.;  James  and  William  Tassie. 


W«i4»  WnDam  OMTft. 

{WoUrm  YOB  BKhenhRfl^ 

V>lit1nify  SdMiM  {in  part) 


ToMniito. 


OHN  Morris  Tones,  M.A. 

iVofessor  of  Welsh  at  the  University  College  of  North  Wales,  Bangor.  Formerly 
Research  Fellow  of  Jesus  College,  Oaford.  Author  of  The  Elucidarium  in  Welsh; 
ftc. 

OHN  Maixx>im  Mitchell. 

Sometime  Scholar  of  Queen  s  College,  Oxford.  Lecturer  in  Classics,  East  London 
College  (Univenrity  oTLondon).   joint-editor  of  Grate's  History  of  Greece, 


( 

( 
{ 


Langnafe. 


(m  paH), 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTIC3.E8  tf 

J.  S.  1.  Joseph  SmELO  Nicholson,  M.A.,  ScD.  f 

ProfcMor  <d  Political  Economy  at  Edinburgh  Univerrity.    FeUow  of  the  British  1  W«CM; 
AeadBBiy.     Author  of  Prmctplu  of  FolikaU  Economy;  Money  and  Monetary  \  w^mk 

J.  S.  R»  Jakee  Swxk  I^eid,  M.A..  LL.M.,  Lrrr.D.,  LL.D.  f 

PMfeMor  of  Ancient  History  ki  tbaUaivanity  of  CaMbcidge  aad  Fellow  aod  Tutor  j  w-m^w.^^  .> ._,  ,«.,^ 

of  Gonvill*  and  Caiu«  ColW    Hon.  Fellow,  formerly  Fellow  and  Lecturer,  of  1  WJUiiaM*,  HUM  AMIt. 
Chrk'a  College.   Editor  of  Cicero's  iCcAfmica:  D«  it  Nii£t<«a:  Ac.  I 

J.T.*  Rev^okn  Tblvoid.  f  Waitoy  (FaMiTy): 

^MMsieyiatt  Methodist  Connexional  Editor.     Editor  of  the  WesUya*  MotkodistJ  VmIav  Jtthn* 
Mapuino  and  the  Lmira  QnarloHy  Reoiem,    Author  of  Ltfs  «/  /oik*  IK«/^; l  JL^l',™'^ ^ 


J.V.B. 


£0o/aari«|fc«k7:&c. 


J.  T.  !•.  John  Thomas  Bealbx. 

JonE-^othor  of  Stanford's  HitrvAf.    Formerly  Editor  of  the  ScoUisk  Coonaphkal 
Ma^oMino.   TransUtor  of  Sven  Hedin's  Tkrongk  Ana^  Central  Asia  and  Tibeti  &c 


Vhiimlrs  Gotemmeni  (fa  par^; 
Volga  (in  parti; 
Vokfte:  Covemmeni  (m  port); 
Vyatka:  Covemmeni  (in  parii: 
Wamw:  Poland  (m  p^; 
Takutok  {in  pari); 
,  Yeniseisk  (ui  parO, 


J.  T.  GL  Joseph  Thomas  Conninoham,  %LA^  F.Z.S* 

Lecturer  on  Zoology  at  the  Soatb-Westeni  Polytechnic.  London.   Formerly  Fellow  J  ^^  .^  .  ., 
of  Umvenitv  College.  Oxford,  and  AssisUnt  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the  1  WUttMi 
University  ol  Edinburrii.    Naturalist  to  the  Marine  Biological  Association.  I 


{ 

University  oI  Edinbur^    Naturalist  to  the  Marine  Biological  Association.  L 

James  Veknon  Bartlet.  M.A.,  D.D.  f 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Mansfield  College,  Oxford.    Author  of  The  Apostolic  <  VllMt,  Aleiaildn  B. 
Age;  Ac.  I. 


i.  W.  James  Williams,  M.A.,  D.CX.,  LL.D.  r  Wamuily;  Water  Righls; 

An  Souls  Reader  in  Roman  Law  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  Fellow  of  Uncoln  J  Will  (Law); 
College.    Barrister-at'Law  of  Lincoln's  Inn.   Author  of  Law  <r/ lii«  Unioernties;&c  i  Womeil  (£ar/y  Law)'  Wflt* 

J.  We.  Juuus  Wellrausbn,  D.D.  f  2..i»--i-fc  a^  ^^-a 

See  the  biographical  article:  Wbllhausbm,  Julius.  \  ••«™**  ^"»  F^*h 

J.  W.  G.  John  Walter  Gregory,  D.SC.,  F.R.S.  f 

Professor  of  Geolosy^  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.    Professor  of  Geology  and  J  VietsHa:  Geology; 


Wlndthoitt,  LoAfrfi. 


2lika»laki. 


Mineralogy  in  the  UnivefBity  of  Melbourne,  1900-1904.   Author  of  The  Dead  Heart  |  Western  Austnilto:  Geohty. 

J.  W.  Ht.         James  Wycxjpfe  Headlam,  M.A.  f 

Staff  Inspector  of  Secondary  Schools  under  the  Board  of  Education.    Formerly 
Fdlow  of  King's  College.  Cambridge,  and  Professor  of  Greek  and  Ancient  History  at ' 
Queen's  Collegx,  London.    Author  of  Bismarck  and  the  Foundation  of  the  German 
Empirf.  ftc 

K.  G.  Karl  Friedrich  Geloner,  Ph.D.  J » ^  «_,,^.   -       _^._ 

Professor  of  Sanskrit  and  Comparative  Phi1ok>gy  in  the  University  of  Morfamv.  I  ^•■fr'AfiiwI  ZMMiM^ 
Aatkorof  VModks  ShuKm;  &c  *> 

K.  0.  i.  KiNGSLEY  Garland  Jayne.  J  v  -•     ■ -«-     ^ 

Sometime  Scholar  of  Wadham  College.  Oxford.    Matthew  Arnold  Prisemao,  1 903. 1  Xavler,  RanelMO  ie. 
Author  of  Vasco  da  Gama  and  kis  Successors,  ^ 

K.  8.  Kathleen  Scblbsimoer.  f  "^^i  ^^'  Vtol«Ml; 

Editor  of  The  Portfolio  of  Musical  Archaeoloty.    Author  of  TJm  Jnairumonta  of  the  i  Wind  Instrnments; 
Ortiesira,  I  Xylophone. 

It.  Count  LtJrzow,  Lirr.D.,  D.Ph.,  F.R.G.S. 

Chamberlain  of  H.M.  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  King  of  Bohemia.    Hon.  Member  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Literature.    Member  of  the  Bohemian  Academy.  Ac.   Author ' 
of  Bohemia:  a  Historical  Sketch;  The  Historians  of  Bohemia  (llchcster  Lecture, 
OifoiHi,  1904)  i  The  Life nnd  Times  qf  John  Bus;  &c 

L.D**  Louis  Duchesne.  J.*.^    «  •«  /»  ^  v 

See  the  biographical  article:  DueBBSMX.  Louis  M.  O.  \  Victor  L^IL  {Popat)' 

L.  F.  V.-B.        J.EVESON  Franos  Vernon-Harcourt,  M.A.,  M.Inst.C.E.  (1839-1907).  f 

Ihofasem  of  Civil  Engineering  at  University  College,  London,  1693-1905.   Anthor  of  J  ^g,^. 
Rioers  and  Camlsi  Harkonrs  amd  Docks;  Cmif  Bngineoring  ae  applied  in  Con- 1  Weir. 

L.  i.  ft.  I,b«nau>  James  Spencer,  M.A.  f  S^.^'  ^!j?  .*. 

Assistlnt  In  the  Department  of  Mineralogy.  BrftiA  Museum.   Pormeriy  Scholar  of  J  WafelUie;  WlOemlte; 

Sidney  Sussex  CoU^i^  Cambridge,  and  Harkness  Scholar.    Editor  of  the  Minora-  \  Wltherite;  WoDlStontli; 

lotkal  Magamne.  {  Zeolltesj  Zobite. 

L.  R.  f.  Laws  IlicRARD  Farnell,  M.A.,  Lttt.D.  f 

Fellow  and  Senior  Tutor  of  Exeter  Colleee.  Oxford.   University  Lecturer  in  Classical  j  w^.. 

Archaeology:  and  Wllde  Leeturiar  in  Compencive  R«Hgion.    Anthor  of  Odts  of  1  ^™* 

Qmk  Slates',  Evolution  of  Religion.  .  I 

t»  v.*  LVIGl  VXLUB. 

Italian  Foreign  Office  (Emigration  Department).    Formerly  Newspaper  Corre- 
spondent In  the  East  ^f  Europe.    lulian  Vice-Consul  in  New  Orleabi^  1906;  Philai-  i  VMor  BMOaml  IL 
'giphie,  1907  ;awl  Boston,  1907-1910.  Author  of  ItoUam  Ufa  im  Tomn  and  C«¥mtryi 


L.W. 
■.A.B. 

■.Br. 
■.C 


■.H.8. 


1I.W.T. 


P.A.K. 


P.O. 

P.GL 

P.O.H 
P.O.K. 

P.8. 

P  VL 
ILA.W. 

ILC.D. 


1L6. 

italL 


R.J.a. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OP  ARTICLES 


LuaKN  Wolf. 

Vice-Pretident.  formerly  Pmident.  of  the  Jewnh  Hiikoricd  Soddy  of  EnfUad. 
Joint-editor  of  the  BMtotktca  Amgfo-jmdauA. 

Lady  Broome  (Maiy  Anne  Beooiie). 

Author  of  Slatum  I4f*  im  Ntm  ZmUmd;  Sttnts  Ahtal;  Ceitmti  Mmminx  ftc 


1£aicolk  Bell. 

Author  of  P««tar  Pfair;  SirE.Bmwt'Ji 

liAKCAEET  BKYANT. 

Rt.  Rev.  IIahdell  Creicbton,  D.C.L.,  LL.D. 

SeethebiosrapUalvtkle:  Crbiobtom,  Manmll. 


{ 

}  Vlntt:  Tk€  Virga 

{ 


MOBtn  Cantor,  Ph.D. 

Honorary  ProfcMor  of  Mathematics  tn  the  Univerrity  of  HcidelberK.    Hofrat  of 
the Qcnaaa Empire.  AmboralVorUstmgemmberduCaekickUitrMalkematiMi  due. 


{ 


VMi^lhM^ob. 


Marion  H.  Shelmann.  F.S.A. 

Formerly  Editor  of  the  Moionnt  of  Art.    Member  of  Fine  Art  CommUtee  of  lAter> 

natioQal  Exhibitions  of  Bnisseb,  Paris.  Buenos  Aim,  Rome,  and  the  Franco-British  ^  W«llMB»  BPlttt; 

Exhibition.  London.    Author  of  History  «/  *'  Punch  " ;    BrUisk  Portruu  PmuHmi 

to  the  opening  of  the  tglh  Century-.    Works  oj  C.  F.  Watts,  iLA,;   British  Sculpiurt 

and  Scidptors  ej  To-Day,  Henriett*  Ronmer;  Ac 


(sM  fori). 


NORTHCOTE  Whitridge  Thomas,  M.A. 


Corresponding  Member  of  the 


Government  Anthropolorist  to  Southern  Nigeria. 

Soci^td  d'Anthropologie  Be  Paris.    Author  of  Thought  Tramsferemet;   Kinship  mnd 

Marriage  in  Australia;  &c. 


Prince  Peter  AlexeivitcIi  Kropotkin. 

See  the  biographical  article:  KaoroTKiN,  Prihcb  P.  A. 


Peter  Craimers  Mitcrell.  M.A.,  D.Sc..  LL.D.,  F.Z.S.,  F.R.S. 


Secretary  of  the^Zoological  Society  of  London.    University 
parative  Anatomy  ana  Assistant  to  Linacre  Professor 
AuAor  6[  Outlines  oj  Biology;  Ac 

Peter  Giles,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Lrrr.D. 


Demonstrator  m  Com-  J  ZoolOfieRl  GardMM; 
at  Oxford.  1888-1891.'' 


J 


WMk; 

WtrwoU  [inporO; 

Vfaidimir:  CevemmetU  {in  pari^, 
?olg»  (m  AorO; 
VolofdA:  GoHmmemi  (ms  pari 
Vimlkt:  Caternment  (in  part, . 
WacMw:  Poland  {im  part); 
YakwiUk  {in  part); 
TenJMifk  {in  part). 


Fellow  and  Classical  Lecturer  of  Emmanuel  College.  Cambridge,  and  University  1  X. 
Reader  in  Comparative  Philology.  Formerly  Secretary  of  the  Cambridge  Philo-  |  T. 
logical  Society.   Author  <A  Manual  «f  Comparative  Philology.  [2. 


I  ZootoflflRl 


Philip  Gilbert  Hamerton. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Hamerton.  Phiup  Gilbert. 


{ 


(••  pofO- 


pAtTL  George  Konodt.  r 

Art  Critic  of  The  Observer  and  The  DaUy  Mail.    FormeHy  Editor  of  The  ArOaL  i  WstflHM.  AntolM. 
Author  of  The  Art  of  Walter  Crane;  Yelasquea,  Lift  and  Worh;  Ac  \     — — «• 

Phiup  Schidrowitz,  Ph.D.,  F.CS.  e 

Member  of  the  Council.  Institute  of  Brewing:    Member  of  the  Committee  of  the  J  Whbky; 
Society  of  Chemical  Industry.    Author  of  numerous  articles  on  the  Chemistry  and  i  Wilu. 
Technology  of  Brewing,  Distilling;  Ac  I 


Paul  Vinocraooff,  D.CX.,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Vinogradopp,  Paul. 


rvuiagtCommviiltiM; 

1  YlUenace. 


Colonel  Robert  Alexander  Wahab,  C.B.,  C.M.G.,  CLE.  ,  r 

Formerly  H.M.  Commissioner.  Aden  Bouiidary  Delimitation.*  Served  with  Tirah  J  YMiia«. 
Expeditionary  Force,  1897-1898,  and  on  the  Aaglo*Ru8siaa  Boundary  Commission,  1  '""■*"* 
Pamirs,  1895.  I, 

Romesh  Chunder  Dutt,  CLE.  (1848-1909). 

Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature;  Member  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 
Barrister-at-Law,  Middle  Temple.  Formerly  Revenue  Minister  of  Baroda  State, 
and  Prime  Minister  of  Baroda  Stata.  Author  of  Economic  History  of  India  in  the 
Victorian  Age,  18^7-1900;  &c 

Richard  GarnEtt.  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article:  GARMBTt.  RlCHARa 

Reginald  Godfrey  Marsden. 
Barrister-at-Law,  Inner  Temple. 

Sn  Reginald  Hennell,  D.S.O.,  C.V.O. 

Colonel  in  the  Indian  Army  (retired).  Lieutenant  of  the  Kir^g's  Body-Cuard  of  the 
Yeomen  of  the  Guard.  Served  in  the  Abyssinian  Expedition.  18^-68;  Afghan 
War.  1879^80;  Burnuh  Campaign,  1886-87.  Author  of  History  of  the  Yeomen  of 
the  Guard,  i48S'-ipo4i  &c 

Ronald  Johh  McNeill,  M.A.  f 

Christ  Chuitth,  Oxford.    Barriatcr-at-Law,  Lincoln**  Inn.    Pomtrly  Editor  of  the  •{  WtBtlTOrOl  CFamSy), 
St  James' sGatetU{Loadoa).  ^  j^  s  * 


VidyasaCRr,  bwar  Chindnu 


•[  W»kBfi«M.  Bdwui  GKboa. 
{Hffk  (in  part). 


oftheGMil 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


Tin 


K.K.DI 


ILL.* 


1LL.P. 


K.II11.* 


B.H.B. 


ILP.8. 


lL8.a 
B.W.P.B. 


8.1. 

8.P. 

T.Jb. 

T.A.A. 
T.A.a 


T.U, 


T.H.& 


Snt  ROBEBX  Kknnaway  Douglas. 

PohBttty  Pkof  Cttor  of  Chinese,  King's  College,  London.  Keeper  of  Orieotal  Printed 
Books  and  MS&  at  the  British  Mnteum.  1891-1907.    Member  of  the  Chinese  ^ 
Consular  Service.  i858-i86<(.    Author  of  The  Lanmage  and  Literature  qf  China; 
Bm0p9  and  tkt  Far  East;  Sac 


Richard  Lydekkes,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S,>  F.Z.S. 

Member  of  the  Staff  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  1874-1882. 
Catalogiieiff  Fossil  JUammals,  Reptiles  and  Birds  in  the  British  Aft 
^aULands;  The  Game  AitimaU  ef  AJrica;  &c- 


Author  of  ^ 
L  ThtDeer\ 


Reginald  Lane  Poole,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 
Keeper  of  the  Archives  of  the  Unr 
F\ellow  of  the  British  Academy. 
of  Wydiffe  and  movements  Jm  Reft 


Wa«e,8lr 


P. 


Viseacha;  Voie; 
Walnis  impart); 
Water^Deer;  Weaael; 

Whale  (m  ^/); 
Whale-flslnry;  Wolf  {in  fart); 
Wombat;  Zebra  (m  part); 
Zoological  Dtotributton. 


I.II.,  L.L.U.  r 

niyentty  of  Oxford  and  Fellow  of  Magdalen  College.  ( 

.    EdftV  of  the  English  Historical  Rtritw.    Author  -J  WydUb  {in  part). 

eform;  ftc.  (^ 


Rev.  Robert  Munro,3.D.,  F,S.A.  (SooC) 
B^Tchy  M«Oic»0ld  Kilpatrick»  N.  B. 


Robert  NisBEt  Bain  (d.  TO09). 

Asdstaat  Librarian.  Bridth  Moeeott,  1^3-19091    Auibor  of  Ssandhumia:   the 
Folitical  History  of  Denmarh,  Norway  and  Sweden,  1513-1900;  The  First  Rmameos,  - 
161S-1725;  Slavonic  Europe:    the  Folitical  History  t(f  Foland  and  RMSfiaJfom 
14^  to  1796;  &e. 


PRSNi  SftERfi,  F.S.A.,  F.R.I.B.A.  r 

Ftofoifiriy'  Master  of  the  Architectutal  Scbdol.  Royal  Academy,  London.  Past  ]  ynw. 
President  of  the  Architectural  Association.  Associate  and  Fellow  of  Kine's  College,  \  7^~l 
London.    Corresponding  Member  of  the  Institute  of  France.    Editor  of  Fersusson's  I  WmOOW. 


JViMftad  PpfCk 

VUdlnir,  8t; 

Vololns^,  Artomy  Palrovlel^ 
VoronlsoT  (Family); 
Vorosmaily,  Mlhaly; 
Wallfivift,  Olaf ;    •   • 
WMteMoyl,  Barod; 
WltloMskl,  Alekwider: 
Witowtj 

Wladisians  l^W.  of  Poland. 
Zanoyiid,  Jan; 
ZolUtwdd,  fitenUansf 
Zrinyl^  Count  (1508-1566); 
.  Zttagi,  Count  (1630-1664). 


History  of  Architecture,   Author  of  Architecture:  East  and  West;  Ac. 


I  \ 


Robert  Seyicour  Conway,  M.A.,  D.Lirr.  f 

Professor  of  Latin  and  Indo-European  Philology  In  the  Univervty  of  Manchester.  J  VotaeL 
Formerly  Professor  of  Latin  io  University  College,  Cardiff;  awl  Fdlow  o£  CooviUe  | 


tnd  Calu#  College,  Cambridge.   Author  of  The  ItaUc  DiakOs, 

ROBEBT  William  Frederick  Harrison. 

r-at-Law,  Inner  Temple.  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Royal  Society,  London 


\ 


Violin. 


Stanley  Abtbvr  Cook. 

Lecturer  in  Hebrew  and  Syriac,  and  formeriy  Fellow.  GonvOle  and  Caius  College, 
Cambridge.  Editor  for  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  Audior  of  <«lsisary  of 
Atansak  Inscriptions;  The  Laws  of  Mous  and  He  Cede  of  Hommurmbi;  Critical 
Jfotes  Ml  Old  Teslatnenl  History;  Ruigion  of  Ancient  Palestine;  &c 

SiifON  Newcdmb,  D.Sc,  LL.D. 

See  thftbioraplttcsl  article:  Nsi»coii0»  Simon. 


Zobnlont 


{zodlMdUgiit 


stary.i 


Vlvboetlon. 


Stephen  Paoet.  F.R.C.S. 

Surgeon  to  tne  Throat  and  Ear  Department,  Middlesex  Hospital.    Hon.  Secretaiy 
Rcseaich  Defence  Society.   Author  of  Memoirs  ond  Letters  of  Sir  James  Paget 

Tdomas  Asbby,  M.A.,  D.Lrrr.  f  Vetolonfam;  Vtoana; 

Director  erf  the  British  School  of  Archaeoloey  at  Rome.   Formerly  Schdlur  of  Christ    vitsHio*  Volel* 
Church.  Oxfocd.    Craven  Fclkmr.  iSo?-    Cooingiton  Priaeman,  1906.    Member  of '  „'v?[l'  TtImI'     . 
the  Imperial  German  Aichaeoiogioal  Institute.  Author  of  The  Chstical  Topotraphy    Vobtnfl;  Vollanm; 
of  the  Roman  Campagna.  ^  Voltuno. 

l^MAS  Andrew  Archer,  M.A. 

Author  of  The  Crusade  of  Richard  X.;  ftc. 


{ 


Vlnoent  of  Beaovali. 


Hmoxhy  Augustine  Coghlan,  I.S.O. 

Aoeat-Geseral  for  New  South  Wales.  Government  Statistician.  New  South  Wales, 
106-1905.  Honorary  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Statistical  Society.  Author  of  V/ealth 
and  Progress  efNew  South  Wales;  Statimcat  Account  of  Australia  and  fJfw  Zealand; 
Ac. 


Vletorla:  Geography  and 

Statistics; 
Wesleni  Australia:  Geography 

4fnd  Statistics. 


..I 


811  'nnOHAS  BaSCLAT.  I  hi         r  / 

Member  of  the  Institute  of  Intemetlomt  Law.    Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Hononr.  J  Wac:  L4Vfs  oj; 
Author  of  Problems  of  International  Practice  and  Diplomacy;  ftc   M.P.  for  Black-  ]  Waten»  TOBitOllaL 
bum.  1910.  I 

l^OMAs  Hudson  Beare,  M.Ikst.C.E.,  M.Inst.M.E.  f 

Regius  Professor  of  Engineering  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.    Author  of  papers  A  WatOT  S^ton. 
in  tkm  TramtacHona  of  tJie  SocietLss  of  Civil  and  Mechanical  Englacert,  1894-  190a.    I 


ad»  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

T.  B.  G.  Tebbot  Rcatelxy  Gloves,  M.A. 

Fellow  and  Chmicil  Lectmcr  at 
Queea'a  Univenity.  Kiocaton,  Caaada.  1896-1901.  Author dt  SuMtt to  VirgU;  Ac 


F^low  aiid  Oniicall^ect^  CauMdi^  FraTcMor  of  Latin,  i  flfgD  ({»  parO» 


T.  W^D.  Walter  Theodose  Watts-Dvnton.  / 

See  thcbiographkal  article:  Watts-Dumtoii,  Walter Tbbodou.  \ 

T.  W.  F.  Tbouas  WtLUAU  Fox:  f  Wm« 

Profeswr  of  Teztika  in  the  Univmity  of  MuchcMw.    Author  of  Mmkmues  ei<  vJT 


0.  B.  Count  Uoo  Balzamx,  LnT.D. 

Member  of  the  Rcale  Aoa 
Societi  Romana  di  Storia  Pi 
Author  of  Tlu  Popn  and  Ikt  Hoktuttiitftm ;  Ac. 


Membtf  of  the  Rcale  Aocadcmia  del  LiooeL    SoowtinK  IVerident  of  the  Reale  J  •hn^^i  ^ 

Sockti  Romaiia  di  Storia  Pitria,.   Correspoi^iQg  Member  of  the  British  Academy;  |  vllBW»  tflQVUIL 


W*  A«  B.  C       Rev.  Wiulum  Augustus  Beevookt  Coolidge,  M.A.,  P.R.G.S..  Pb^. 

Felkm  of  Masdalen  CoUese,  Oxford.    Fkofesnr  of  EngKah  HuCory.  St  Davids 
Collece,  Lampeter.  1880-1881.    Author  of  (mide  du  Bami  Dampkini;    TTu  Rantf  • 
tf  th0  Ttdi;  Guide  to  GrinddwaU;  Cuid*  to  Switaerlamdi  The  Alps  tu  Nature  and 
M  Histeryi  Ac.   Editor  of  the  Alpime  Journal,  1880-1881 ;  Ac. 


W.  Ay.  WiLFKiD  Airy,  M Jnst.CJE.  f .         '  * 

SonietimebchoIarorTrinityCollese.Cambridffe.  TedinicalAdviwrtotheStaodordai  Wtlghtag  m^ai— 
Departmeat  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  Author  of  £«acttiuxoiidCcoduy;  Ac.  I 

Vefoy;  VtamM:  Tamm; 
TonrltafK;  WalMMtv 
WlokiliM,  AiMU  voB; 
Wlntarthv;  Zuf:  Camion; 
Zuc:  Tomm;  Zng*  Ltkt 
ZWaih:  Canton; 
ZMeh:  Town; 
Zllrieb»  Ltkt  oL 

W.  A.  i.  Ft.      Walter  Asmitagb  Jusrce  Ford.  f  .         r,    ■ 

Sometime  Scholar  of  fOug's  CoUcfCp  Cimbiidft.  T%tchcr  of  SiQgIng  «t  the  Royal -{  yf^  Hnco. 

W.  A*  p.  Walter  Auson  Phillips,  M.A.  f  nraMWA.  «ai«  ju*  vamaIwmm** 

Forraeriy  Exhibitiooer  of  M«rton  College  ami  Seoior  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  i  S-25l  /•    *    a  ''••"••^» 
Oxford.  Author  of  JMam&in^i  1^  I  WytUfle  (w  ^Jf/). 

W.  B.*  William  Burton,  M.A.,  F.C.S.  f 

Chairman  of  the  Joint  Committee  of  Pottery  Manufactufcra  of  Great  Britain. -{  WtdfVO^  Jtllth. 
Author  of  Em^iik  Stonemiro  and  Earthemoare;  Ac.  I 

W.  C.  U.  WnxiAM  Cawthornb  Unwxn,  F.R.S.,  LL.D.,  M Jnst.C.E.,  MJnst.M.E.  f  _,  .  .., 

Emeritus  Professor,  Central  Technical  College.  City  and  Guilds  of  London  Inatltute.  1  WlMmilL 
Author  of  HVragM  Iron  Bridga  and  Roofs;  Treatise  on  HydrauUes;  Ac.  I 

W.  B.  6.  Sir  William  Edmund  Garshn,  G.C.M.G.  f 

British  Government  Director,  Sues  Canal  Co.     Formeriy  Inspector-General  ofS  Vlctorit  ByilUl  (jm  Por^. 
Irrigation,  Egypt.   Adviser  to  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works  in  Egypt.  1904-1908.  1  ■    ^.   . 

W.  F*  C  William  Feilden  Craies,  M.A.  f  Wager;  Wtmnt; 

Barrisler-at-Law,  Inner  Temple.     Lecturer  on  Criminal  Lair.  King's  College,  i  wifnii— 
London.   Editor  of  Archbold's  Crutiml  Pfaidiiic  (23rd  edition).  ^  wiBwn. 

W.  B9'  William  Henry.  f 

Founder  and  Chief  Secretaxy  of  the  Royal  Life  Saving  Society.    Associate  of  the  J  Wtltr  Ftlt. 

Order  of  St  John  of  Jerusalem.   Joint  Author  of  Swimming  (Badminton  Library) ; 

Ac  ^  ,         , 

rmamdnpas^; 

W.  H.  F.  Sir  William  Henry  Flower,  F.R.S.  J.  Whtit  (is  pari); 

See  the  biographical  article:  Flower,  Sir  W.  H.  |  WoB  (m  parO; 

I  Zthm  {in  part), 

W.  L.  G.  William  Lawson  Grant,  M.A.  f 

Professor  of  Colonial  History.  Queen's  University,  Kiagston.  Canada.  Formeriy  J  uruMn  «•  iw«ui 
Beit  Lecturer  on  Colonial  Hutory.  Oxford  UniversityTEditor  of  Ads  of  the  Privy  \  *»™™»  *"  sMsme, 
Council  (Canadian  Series).  I 

W.H.  WiLUAM  Minto,  M.A.  'rWordsWortb,WniltB(fiifarO. 

See  the  biographical  article:  MintO,  Wiluam.  I 


See  the  biographical  article:  Murro,  Wiluam. 

MwSfv   Pmrvidence.  R.I.     Pm>mM>1v 

WMhingtwi,  Otttgt. 


W.  VitD.*        William  MacDonalo,  LL.D.,  Pb.D. 

Professor  of  American  History  in  Brown  University.  I^rovidence,  RJ.    Formerly 
Professor  of  History  and  Polttical  Science,  Bowdoin.    Member  of  the  American ' 
Historical  Association,  Ac.    Author  of  History  and  Government  of  Uatne;    Ac 
Editor  of  SeUa  Charters  and  other  documenU  illustraiiee  of  American  History. 

W.  M.  F,  P.       Wiluam  Matthew  Funders  Petrie,  F.R.S.,  D.C.L.,  Litt.D.  TW^IgMiaDd 

Seethe  biographical  artide:  Pbtmb,  W.  M.  Flinders.  \     Asident  Historical. 

W.  ■•&  William  Michael  Rossetti.  fYlvailiil; 

See  the  biographical  article:  Rossbtti,  Dantb  Gabriel.  \ZiirbtnB» 

W.  0. 8.  Wiluam  Oscar  Scroccs.  Pb.D.  r 

Assistant  Professor  of  History  and  Economics  at  Louisiana  StAte  Uiiivenity.4  Wtflttr, 
Formeriy  Gpodwio  aod  Austin  Fellow,  Harvard  University.  { 

W*  F.  a  Wiluam  Prtocaux  Courtney.  ?  WtlpoK  Homtio; 

See  the  biographical  article:  Courtney.  L.  H.  Bason.  \  Wilkts,  Joltf. 

W.f.J^  Wiluam  Price  James.  f  

Barrister-at'Law,  Inner  Temtfe.    High  Bdliff.  CaidilT  Cbunty  Court.   Author  o(  <  Wttmw  WBHtB  (^o<^. 
Romantic  Pnfessians;  Ac  i 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


ZY 


W.P.B. 


W.BL 


w.s.a 

W.T.OiL 

W.Wr. 

w.  w.  p.* 

W.  W.  It* 

w.y.s. 

How.  WaxiAM  PEian  Reevbs. 

Director  of  the  Loodoo  School  of  Economics.  Afent-General  and  Hiarh  Com- 
miMioner  for  New  Zealand.  1896-1909*  Minister  of  Education,  Labour  and  Justice, 
New  Zealand.  1891-1896..  Author  of  Tkt  Lomg  Wkitt  Claud:  a  Hist&ry  of  New 
ZtotouAx  ^tTt 

WiLUAM  RiDGEWAY,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  LlTT.D. 

Disney  Professor  of  Archaeology,  and  Brereton  Reader  in  Qassics,  in  the  University 
of  Cambridfe.  Fellow  of  GonviUe  and  Caius  CoHege.-  Fellow  of  the  British 
Academy.  President  of  the  Royal  Anthropological  Institute.  1908.  Author  of  Tkt 
Early  Age  0/ Grttui  &c 

WauAM  SmriH  Rockstso. 

Author  of  ii  Great  HutarypfUmsieJr^mlktli^tmytftkiGfmk  Drama  to  tk§Pr$$mU 
p9rioi\  Ac. 

WaxiAM  Tboiias  Caiman.  D.Sc.,  F2.S. 

AsnsUnt  in  charge  of  Crustaoea,  Natonl  Hiatoiv  Museum,  South  Keorington. 
Author  of  *' Cmstacea/' in  a  TVsflJwt  Ml  Zoology,  edited  by  Sir  E.  Ray  Lankester. 

WnusTON  Walkeb,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Yale  Univernty.  Author  of  History  oftkt  Omg^offi^ 
HaualCkmrekesmlke  UmMSlaltti  noR^onmlioii;  JotoCaM*;  ac 

WiixxAM  Waidz  Fowler.  M.A. 

Fellow  of  Lincoln  College.  Oxford.  Sub-rector.  1881-1904.  Gifford  Lecturer, 
Edinburgh  University,  1908.  Author  of  The  CHjStata  rj  tJu  Crmks  aad  Rpmousi 
na  Roaun  Festi&als  of  Ika  tUpMbUcam  JPtriaii  Ac. 

WiLUAM  Waixbk  Rockweix,  LicT^cbol. 

AsBistaat  Professor  of  Church  History,  Union  Theological  Seminary.  New  York. 


VogtUOrJttlak 


VUfaUMfl. 


WnxzAM  Young  SeIlax,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  artade:  Sbllai.  Wiluam  Yodmc. 


{IVagotr:  Biorapky  {m  partly 
Web«r. 

{WatnwflM; 
WooMouM. 

4  WlBflmp^  John  (158^x649). 

\  Vnlean. 

I  Waitiiiliiitor,  flSynodi  oL 
|virgtt(^/arO. 


PRINCIPAL  UNSIGNED  ARTICLES 


VMobVf. 

Waltrtown. 

WlgaiL 

Wyomlns^ 

Vtanu. 

WaxFlgiint. 

Wight,  tab  of. 

Wyoming  VaDif . 

VbM. 

Wclnar. 

Wigtawnshlii. 

Talo  Unifonlly. 

VliMgar. 

WsO. 

WilkM-BairL 

Tannovth. 

VlBgt-«l-Un. 

Weill. 

WllHaiMtnig  (Va.). 

TawB. 

Vhibt 

Weitliidlei. 

Willow. 

YoOowFivw. 

VUghita. 

WwlBMth. 

WiliBii«toa  (M.). 

ToOowstono  Rational 

Vtooomit 

Waftmlmlsr. 

Wiltoa. 

Park. 

Vladis. 

Waitmariaiid. 

WOtdilri. 

Tow. 

VolinitB«n. 

WHtphaUa. 

WlnahMlir. 

Tom. 

Vote  and  Vottag. 

West  Point  (1I.T.). 

Windsor. 

Tork. 

Wadal. 

Weit  Vlrgiaia. 

Wlnalpif. 

Torkihiio. 

Wamm. 

Wntod. 

Wbo. 

Torktown. 

WakdltM. 

WofflMiitb. 

WlMomlB. 

TprihntL 

WtMMk-PymioBi 

WiMat 

WiMonrin,  Unlvinlty 

Tnoatan. 

WaHlBcford. 

WheeUnf. 

of. 

Tukon. 

Walnut 

Whig  and  Toqr. 

Woolwieh. 

Zanto. 

WarOama. 

WhM. 

^^w  ^PH  ^^^^^r^^^B© 

Zanilbar. 

WantagtoB. 

Whitly. 

WoriiwtonMw. 

Zooland. 

Warwick. 

WhttePiamt. 

Worm. 

Zeudi. 

Warwiekihin. 

WhooplBg--Ooiigh. 

WrKtling. 

ZIno. 

WasUngton. 

WMdow. 

Writing. 

Ziroonimn. 

Water. 

Wiishadtii. 

WOrttombwg. 

ZoMiraSia. 

Walwford. 

Wif. 

WteAuf. 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA    BRITANNICA 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


VOLUME  XXVIII 


VSrCH»  in  botany,  the  English  name  for  Vida  soma,  also 
known  as  tare,  a  leguminous  annual  herb  with  trailing  or  dimb- 
Ing  stems,  eompound  leaves  with  five  or  six  pairs  of  leaflets, 
reddiah-purple  flowers  borne  singly  or  in  pau3  in  the  leaf-axis, 
and  a  silky  pod  containing  four  to  ten  smooth  seeds.  The 
wild  fotm,  sometimes  regarded  as  a  distinct  spedes,  V.  anptsfi- 
folia,  it  common  in  d^  soils.  There  are  two  races  of  the 
cultivated  vetch,  winter  and  ^ring  vetches:  the  former,  a 
hardy  form,  capable  of  enduring  frost,  has  smoother,  more 
cylindrical  pods  with  smaller  seeds  than  the  summer  variety, 
|ind  gives  less  bulk  of  stem  and  leaves.  The  spring  vetch  is  a 
more  delicate  plant  and  grows  more  rapidly  and  luxuriantly 
than  the  winter  variety. 

The  name  vetch  is  applied  to  other  spedes  of  the  genus 
Vicia,  Vicia  orobus,  bitter  vetch,  and  V,  syivalicaf  wood 
vetch,  are  British  plants.  Another  British  plant,  HippocrepiSf 
b  known  as  horse^oe  vetch  from  the  fact  of  its  pod  breaking 
into  several  horseshoe-shaped  joints.  ArUhyUis  vulneraria 
is  kidney-vetch,  a  herb  with  heads  of  usually  yellow  flowers, 
found  on  dry  banks.  Astragalus  is  another  genus  of  Legumi- 
nosae,  and  is  known  as  milk-vetdi. 

Vetches  are  a  very  valuable  forage  crc^.  Being  indigenous 
to  Britain,  and  not  fastidious  in  regard  to  soil,  they  can  be 
cultivated  successfully  under  a  great  diversity  of  circumstances, 
and  are  well  adapted  for  poor  soils.  By  combining  the  winter 
and  spring  varieties,  and  making  several  sowings  of  each  in  its 
season  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks,  it  is  practicable  to 
have  them  fit  for  use  from  May  till  October,  and  thus  to  cany 
out  a  system  of  soiling  by  means  of  vetches  alone.  But  it  is 
usually  more  expedient  to  use  them  in  combination  with  grass 
and  clover,  beginning  with  the  first  cutting  of  the  latter  in  May, 
uking  the  winter  vetdies  in  June,  recurring  to  the  Italian 
ryegrass  or  dover  as  the  second  cutting  is  ready,  and  afterwards 
bringing  the  spring  vetches  into  use.  Each  crop  can  thus  be 
used  when  in  its  best  state  for  cattle  food,  and  so  as  gratefully 
to  vary  their  dietary. 

WinUf  Vekhes.—Thttt  is  no  botanical  difference  between 
winter  and  spring  vetches,  and  the  seeds  being  identical  in 
appearance,  caution  is  required  in  purchasing  seed  to  get  it  oC 


tho  right  sort.  Seed  grown  In  England  is  found  the  most 
suiuble  for  sowing  in  Scotland,  as  it  vegetates  mxat  quickly, 
and  produces  a  more  vigorous  plant  than  that  whidi  is  home- 
grown. As  the  great  inducement  to  cultivate  this  crop  is  the 
obtaining  of  a  supply  of  nutritious  greeh  food  which  shall  be 
ready  for  use  about  the  ist  of  May,  so  as  to  fill  up  the  gap  whidi 
is  apt  to  occur  betwixt  the  root  cn^  of  the  previous  autumn  and 
the  ordinary  summer  food,  whether  for  grasing  or  soiling,  it  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  to  txeat  it  in  such  a  way  that  it  may  be 
ready  for  use  by  the  time  mentioned.  To  secure  this,  winter 
tares  should  be  sown  in  August  if  posable,  but  always  as  soon 
as  the  land  can  be  deaicd  of  the  preceding  crop.  They  may 
yidd  *  good  crop  though  sown  in  October,  but  in  this  case  wiU 
probably  be  very  little  in  advance  of  eariy-sown  spring  vetches, 
and  possess  little,  if  any,  advantage  over  them  in  any  respect 
The  land  on  which  they  are  sown  should  be  dry  and  well  sheltered, 
dean  and  in  good  heart,  and  be  further  enriched  by  farmyard 
manure.  Not  less  than  3}  "bushels  of  seed  per  acre  should  be 
sown,  to  which  some  think  it  benefidal  to  add  half  a  bushd  of 
wheat.  Rye  is  frequently  used  for  this  purpose,  but  it  gets 
reedy  in  the  stems,  and  is  rejected  by  the  stock.  Winter  beans 
are  better  than  either.  The  land  having  been  ploughed  rather 
deeply,  and  well  harrowed,  it  is  found  advantageous  to  dcpodt 
the  seed  in  rows,  either  by  a  drilling-machine  or  by  ribbing. 
The  latter  is  the  best  practice,  and  the  ribs  should  be  at  least 
a  foot  apart  and  rather  deep,  that  the  roots  may  be  wdl 
developed  before  top-growth  takes  place.  As  soon  in  spring  as 
the  state  of  the  land  and  weather  admits  of  it,  the  crop  should 
be  hoed  betwixt  the  dhlls,  a  top-dressing  at  the  rateof  40  bushels 
of  soot  or  a  cwt.  of  guano  per  acre  applied  by  sowing  broadcast, 
and  the  roller  then  used  for  the  double  purpose  of  smoothing 
the  surface  so  as  to  admit  of  the  free  use  of  the  scythe  and  of 
pressing  down  the  plants  which  may  have  been  loosened  by 
fnst.  It  is  thus  by  early  sowing,  thick  seeding  and  liberal 
manuring  that  thiscrop  is  to  be  foroed  to  an  early  and  abundant 
maturity.  May  and  June  are  the  months  in  wfakh  trinter 
vetches  era  UMd  to  advantage.  A  second  growth  will  be 
produced  from  the  roots  if  the  crop  is  allowed  to  stand:  but  It 
is  aittch  better  piactice  to  pfoogh  op  the  land  as  the  ero^  is 

2a 


VETERAN— VETERINARY  SCIENCE 


deared,  md  to  sow  turaipt  upon  it  After  a  full  crop  of  vetches, 
land  is  usually  in  a  good  state  for  a  succeeding  crop.  When  the 
whole  process  has  been  well  managed,  the  gross  amount  of  cattle 
food  yielded  by  a  crop  of  winter  vetches,  and  the  turnip  crop 
by  which  it  is  followed  in  the  same  summer,  will  be  found 
considerably  to  exceed  what  could  be  obtained  from  the  fullest 
crop  of  turnips  alone,  grown  on  similar  soil,  and  with  the  same 
quantity  of  manure.  It  is  useless  to  sow  thb  cn^  where  game 
abounds. 

Spring  vetches t  if  sown  about  the  ist  of  March,  will  be  ready  for 
use  by  the  ist  of  July,  when  the  winter  vetches  are  Just  cleared 
off.  To  obtain  the  fuU  benefit  of  this  crop,  the  land  on  which  it 
is  sown  must  be  clean,  and  to  keep  it  so  a  much  fuller  allowance 
of  seed  is  required  than  is  usually  given  In  Scotland.  When  the 
crc^  is  at  thick  set  as  it  should  be,  the  tendrils  intertwine,  and 
the  ground  is  covered  by  a  solid  mass  of  Jicibag^  under  which 
no  weed  can  live.  To  tecure  this,  not  less  than  4  bushels  of 
seed  per  acre  should  be  used  if  iKmn  broadcast,  or  3  bushels  if  in 
drills.  The  latter  plan,  if  followed  by  hoeing,  is  certainly  the 
best;  for  if  the  weeids  are  kept  in  check  until  the  crop  is  fairly 
established,  they  have  no  chance  of  getting  np  afterwards. 
With  a  thin  crop  of  vetches,  on  the  other  hand,  the  land  is  so 
certain  to  get  foul,  that  they  should  at  once  be  ploughed  down, 
and  something  else  put  in  their  place.  As  vetches  are  in  the 
best  state  for  use  when  the  seeds  begin  to  form  in  the  pods, 
repeated  sowings  are  made  at  intervals  of  three  weeks,  beginning 
by  the  end  of  Februaiy,  or  as  early  in  March  as  the  season  admits, 
and  continuing  till  May.  The  usual  practice  in  ScotUnd  has 
been  to  sow  vetches  on  part  of  the  oat  break,  once  ploughed 
from  lea.  Sometimes  this  does  very  well,  but  a  far  better 
plan  is  to  omit  sowing  clover  and  grass  seeds  on  part  of  the 
land  occupied  by  wheat  or  barley  after  a  crop  of  turnips,  and 
having  plou^ed  that  portion  in  the  autumn  to  occupy  it  with 
vetches,  putting  tbem  imkml  ef  **  fmdt "  ht  one  nvolution  of 
the  course. 

When  vetches  are  grown  on  poor  ioils^  the  most  profitable 
Wi^  of  using  them  is  by  folding  sheep  upon  them,  a  practice 
very  suiuble  also  for  days^  upon  which  a  root  crop  cannot 
aafdy  be  consumed  in  this  way.  A  different  course  must, 
however,  be  adopted  from  that  followed  when  turnips  are  so 
diyosed  of.  Wbien  sheep  are  tuned  in  upon  a  piece  of  tares, 
a  large  portion  of  the  food  is  trodden  down  and  wasted.  Cutting 
the  vetches  and  putting  them  into  racks  does  not  much  mend 
the  matteri  as  much  b  still  pulled  out  and  wasted,  and  the 
manure  tmequaUy  distributed  over  the  land.  To  avoid  those 
evils,  hurdles  with  vertical  spats,  betwixt  which  the  sheep  can 
readi  with  head  and  neck,  are  now  used.  These  are  set  dose 
vp  to  the  growing  crop  along  a  considerable  stietdi,  and  shifted 
forward  as  the  sheep  eat  up  what  is  within  their  reach.  This 
requires  the  constant  attention  of  the  shepherd,  but  the  labour 
is  repaid  by  the  saving  of  the  food»  which  being  always  fresh  and 
clean,  does  the  sheep  more  good.  A  modification  of  this  plan 
is  to  use  the  same  kind  of  hurdles,  but  instead  of  shifting  them 
as  just  described,  to  mow  a  swathe  panllel  to  them,  and  fork 
this  forward  within  reach  of  the  sheep  as  required,  repeating 
this  §a  often  during  the  day  as  is  found  necessaiy,  and  at  night 
moving  the  sheep  dose  up  to  the  growing  crop,  so  that  they  may 
lie  for  the  next  twenty-four  hours  on  the  spuot  which  has  yidded 
food  for  the  past  day.  During  the  night  tbqy  have  such  pickings 
as  have  been  left  on  the  recently  mown  space  and  so  mudi  of  the 
growing  crop  as  th^  can  get  at  through  the  spsn.  There  is 
Ices  labour  by  this  last  nK)de  than  the  otlier,  and  lutving  practised 
it  for  many  years,  we  know  that  it  answers  wdL  TUs  folding 
upon  vetches  is  suitable  other  for  finishing  off  for  market  sheep 
that  are  in  forward  condition,  or  lor  recently  weaned  lambs, 
which,  after  five  or  six  weeks'  folding  on  this  dean,  nutritious 
herbage,  are  found  to  take  on.more  readily  to  eat  turnips,  and  to 
thrive  better  upon  tliem,  than  if  they  had  been  kept  upon 
tiie  pastures  aU  the  autumn.  Sheep  Mded  upon  vetches 
must  have  water  always  at  command,  otherwise  they  will  not 
pro4>er, 

M  qniiig-Mwa  vetches  are  in  perfection  at  tbs 


pastures  usually  get  dry  and  scanty,  a  common  practice  is  to 
cart  them  on  to  grass  land  and  spread  them  out  in  wisps,  to  be 
eaten  by  the  sheep  or  cattle.  It  is.  however,  much  better  dther 
to  have  them  eaten  by  sheep  where  they  grow,  or  to  cart  them  to 
the  homestead. 

VETERAN,  old,  tried,  experienced,  particulariy  used  of  a 
soldier  who  has  seen  much  service.  The  Latin  veteranus  {velus, 
old),  as  applied  to  a  soldier,  had,  beside  its  general  application 
in  opposition  to  tiro,  recruit,  a  spedfic  technical  meaning  in  the 
Roman  army.  Under  the  republic  the  full  term  of  service 
with  the  legion  was  twenty  years;  those  who  served  this  period 
and  gained  their  discharge  {missh)  were  termed  emeriti.  If  they 
chose  to  remain  in  service  with  the  legion,  they  were  then  called 
veUranu  Sometimes  a  q)edal  invitation  was  issued  to  the 
emeriti  to  rejoin;  they  were  then  styled  evocati. 

The  base  of  Lat.  vdus  hieant  a  year,  as  seen  in  the  Cr.  fra>  (for 
faror)  and  Sanskrit  m/m;  from  the  same  base  ionics  mtiUtu,  a  calf, 
properiy  a  yearling.  viUUus,  a  young  calf,  whence  O.  Fr.  reel,  modern, 
veau,  English  "  veal."  the  flesh  of  the  calf.  The  Teutonic  cognate  of 
ritidus  is  probably  seen  in  Goth,  witknu,  lamb,  English  "  wether, '~ 
a" 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE  (Lat.  teterinorius,  an  adjective 
meaning  "connected  with  beasts  of  burden  and  draught," 
from  veterinus, "  pertaining  to  yearlings,"  and  vUuluSf  *'  a  calf  "),' 
the  sdetice,  generally,  that  deals  with  the  conformation  and 
structure  of  the  domesticated  snimsh,  especially  the  horse; 
their  physiology  and  special  racial  characteristics;  thdr  breed- 
ing,  feeding  and  general  hygienic  management;  their  pathology, 
and  the  preventive  and  curative,  medical  and  surgical,  treat* 
ment  of  the  diseases  and  injuries  to  which  they  are  exposed; 
thdr  amelioration  and  improvement;  their  relations  to  the 
human  family  with  regard  to  communicable  maladies;  and 
the  supply  of  food  and  other  products  derived  from  them  for 
the  use  of  mankind.  In  this  article  it  is  only  necessaiy  to 
deal  mainly  with  veterinary  sdence  in  its  relation  with  medidne, 
as  other  aspects  are  treated  under  the  headings  for  the  pai^ 
ticular  animals,  &c.  In  the  present  edition  of  the  EncydopaedU, 
Brilannica  the  various  anatomical  artides  (see  Anatomy  for  a 
list  of  these)  are  based  on  the  oomparalive  method,  and  the 
anatomy  of  the  lower  animals  is  d^t  with  there  and  in  tht 
separate  articles  on  the  animals. 

History. 

There  is  evidence  that  the  Egyptians  practised  veterinary 
medidne  and  surgery  in  very  remote  times;  but  it  is  not  until 
we  turn  to  the  Greelu  that  we  obtain  any  very  definite  informa- 
tion with  regard  to  the  state  of  veterinary  as  well  as  human 
medidne  in  antiquity.  The  writings  of  Hippocrates  (460-377 
B.C.)  afford  evidence  of  excellent  investigations  in  comparative 
pathology.  Diodes  of  Carystus,  who  was  nearly  a  contem- 
porary, was  one  of  the  first  to  occupy  himself  with  anatomy, 
whtdi  he  studied  in  animals.  Aristotle,  too,  wrote  on  physiology 
and  comparative  anatomy,  and  on  the  maladies  of  am'mals, 
while  many  other  Greek  writers  on  veterinary  medidne  are 
cited  or  copied  from  by  Varro,  Columella  and  Galen.  And  we 
must  not  overlook  Mago  of  Carthage  (200  B.C.),  whose  work  in 
twenty-eight  books  was  translated  into  Greek  and  was  largely 
used  by  Varro  and  Columella. 

*  Regarding  the  origin  of  the  word  "  veterinary,**  the  following 
occurs  in  ErArboval^  Dictionnaire  de  miduine  et  de  ckirurgte 
tiUrinaireSt  edited  by  Zundd  (1877),  iii.  814:  "  Les  mots 
veUriMoria  et  veUrinamts  ^taient  emplov^s  par  les  Romains  pour 
dMgner;  le  premier,  la  mddecine  des  bCtes  de  somme;  le  second, 
pour  indiquer  cdui  qui  la  pratiquait;  le  mot  vetainas  indiquait  lee 
D^es  de  somme,  et  £talt  la  contraction  de  veheterinae,  du  verba 
vehere,  porter,  tirer,  tratner.  L'6tymolog|e  r^le  du  mot  vMrinatre, 
ou  plutM  du  mot  veterinarius  des  Remains,  serait  d'apris  Lenglet 
encore  plus  andenne;  die  viendrait  du  celti^ue;  d'oA  le  ttot  serait 
pasa^  chea  les  Roeuias;  cet  aateur  fait  vemr  le  mot  de  we,  b^tid 
(d'oQ  Talleroand  VieKU  teeren,  Htt  malade  (d'oi^  I'allemand  ZekreiL 
consomption),   aerts  ou  arts,  artiste^   mMedn   (d'oA  Tallemand 


VETERINARY  SaENCE 


Ihttll  after  tlM 


of  Gnett  tin  Roout  do  not  appear 


to  have  kaown  much  of  reteiinanr  BMdklm.  Vuro  (116^8  b.c.) 
oiay  he  coiuidered  the  ntBt  Roman  miter  inio  deab  with 
animal  medidne  in  a  identlfic  apirit  iaid»DtR§  Rusika, 
in  three  books,  which  la  largely  derived  fromGiaek  writen. 
Cebtts  is  supposed  to  have  written  on  animal  medidne, 
and  Columbia  (ist  centttry)  is  credited  with  having  titiHaed  those 
relating  to  veterinary  science  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  parts  of  his 
De  R§  I^aticat  one  of  the  best  worics  of  its  class  of  andent  times; 
it  treats  not  only  of  medidne  and  suii^ery,  but  also  of  sanitary 
measures  for  the  suppression  of  oontaaiotta  diseases.  From,  the 
3rd  century  onwards  veterinary  science  had  a  litersture  of  its  own 
and  regubur  practitioners,  espedally  in  the  service  of  the  Roman 
armies  {mulomiiiei,  fderimtni).  Perhaps  the  most  renowned 
veterinananof  the  Roman  emjsire  was  Apsyrtus  of  Bithynia,  who 
in  333  acjoomjpanled  the  expedition  of  Cbnstantine  against  the  Sar- 
matians  m  his  professional  capadty,  and  seems  to  nave  enjoyed  a 


and  wdl-deserved  reputation  in  his  time.  He  was  a  keen 
observer;  he  distinguishea  and  described  a  number  of  diseases 
which  were  badly  defined  bv  hb  predecessors,  vecogniaed  the 
contagious  nature  of  ghindem,  farcy  and  anthrax,  and  prescribed 
isolation  for  tbdr  suppression :  he  also  made  interesting  observations 
on  acddents  and  (fiseases  of  hofses'  limbs,  and  waged  war  against 
certain  absurd  emjrfrical  practices  then  prevatling  m  the  treatment 
of  disease,  indicating  rationar  methods,  some  of  which  are  still 
Boccessfally  emptoyed  in  veterinary  therapeutics,  such  as  splints 
for  fractures,  sutures  for  wounds,  ookl  water  for  the  leductm  of 
wolapaed  vagina,  hot  baths  for  tetanus,  Ac.  'Not  less  eminent  was 
nierocles,  the  successor  of  Apsyrtus,  whose  writings  he  largely 
copied,  but  with  improvements  and  valuaUe  additions,  especially 
in  the  hygiene  and  training  of  bones.  Pdagonius,  again,  was  a 
writer  of  empirical  tendency,  and  his  treatment  of  disease  in  general 
was  most  irratioaal.  PuUios  Vegetiua  (not  to  be  confounded  with 
Flavius  VeRHos  Rraatua,  who  wrote  on  the  military  art)  was  a 
popular  author  of  the  end  of  the  5th  century,  thougn  less  disrin- 
guisbed  than  Apsyrtus,  to  whom  and  to  Pdagonius  he  was  to  a  great 
extent  indebted  tn  the  preparation  of  his  MmbfumUeina  inv  An 
Veterinaria.  He  appeait  to  have  been  more  of  a  horse-dealer  than 
a  veterinary  pracmioner,  and  knew  next  to  nothing  of  anatomy, 
which  seems  to  have  been  but  little  cultivated  at  that  period.  He 
was  very  superstitious  and  a  believer  in  the  influence  of  demons  and 
aoroeren;  nevertheless,  he  gives  some  interesting  observations  de' 
rived  from  his  travels.  He  nad  also  a  good  Mea  of  aCrial  Infection, 
recognised  the  utility  of  disinfectants,  and  describes  some  operations 
not  referred  to  by  brevious  writen,  such  as  rerooval  of  calculi  from 
the  bladder  through  the  rectum,  couching  for  cataract,  the  extirpa- 
tion of  certain  plands,  and  several  serious  operations  on  the  horse's 
foot.  Though  inferior  to  several  works  written  by  his  predecessors, 
the  Muhmtdieina  of  VegeHus  maint^ned  its  popufauity  through 
many  centuries.  Of  most  of  the  andent  veterinary  writen  we  know 
little  beyond  what  can  be  gathered  from  the  dtations  and  extracts 
In  the  two  great  collections  of  Hipptairiea  and  Geoponica  compiled 
by  order  of  Constantine  PDrphyrogenitus  ii^  the  loth  century. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  here  on  tlie  urogicss  of  the  veterntary 
art  during  the  middle  ages.  Towards  tne  dose  of  the  medieval 
period  the  subject  was  mudi  cultivated  in  the  cavalry  schoob  of 
Italy:  and  Spain  also  had  an  ornnlaed  system  of  good  practilionera 
in  tne  15th  century,  who  have  left  many  books  still  extant.  Ger- 
mamr  was  far  behind,  and  literature  on  the  subject  did  not  exist 
until  the  end  of  the  isth  centuiy,  when  in  1^99  tbere  was  pubUdied 
anonymous!]^  at  Augu>urff  a  PftrdeanmeihaeUein.  In  the  following 
century  the  influence  of  the  Italian  writen  was  becoming  manifest, 
and  the  works  of  Fugger  and  Fayser  mark  the  commencement 
of  a  new  era.  FayserV  treatises,  von  der  (ksUUerei  and  Von  der 
Zucht  der  Kriegf-  und  BUrftr^Pferdt  (i53^7)i  are  remarkable  for 
originality  and  good  sense.  In  Great  Britain  animal  medidne  was 
perhaps  in  a  more  advanced  condition  than  In  Germany,  if  we 
accept  the  evidence  of  the  Ancient  Lams  and  htstihdes  of  Wales 
(London.  1841);  yet  it  was  taigdy  made  up  of  the  gitwam  super- 
stitions. *  Among  the  Cdts  the  iiealer  of  horse  diseases  and  the 
shoer  were  held  in  high  esteem^  as  among  the  more  dvilised  nations 
of  Europe,  and  the  court  famer  enjoyed  special  privilms.  *  The 
eariiest  Known  works  in  English  appeared  anonymoudy  towards 
the  commencement  of  the  l6th  century,  viz.  Propertus  and 
Hedcynesjor  a  Horse  and  Masxal  of  Oxen,  Horses,  Skeepes,  Hofges, 
Dogfos.  The  word  "  mascal  "  shows  that  the  latter  wwv  was  in  its 
origin  Italian.  There  is  no  doubt  that  in  the  X5th  century  the 
increasing  taste  for  horses  and  horsemanship  brought  Italian  ndtng* 
mastera  and  farrien  into  Engtand;  and  it  b  recorded  that  Henry 
VIIl.  brought  over  two  of  these  men  who  had  been  trained  by 
Grisone  in  the  famous  Neapditan  school.  The  knowledge  so  intro- 
duced becaroepopularized,  and  assumed  a  concrete  form  in  Blunde- 
ville's  Foure  Chief  est  Offices  beionging  to  Horsemanship  (i^),  which 
contains  many  references  to  horse  diseases,  and,  thougn  mainly  a 
compilation,  is  yet  enriched  with  original  observations.     In  the 

^  See  Leechdoms,  Wortcnnnimg  and  Starcrafl  of  Early  En^and  (3  vols, 
flvo,  London,  1864). 
>  Sea  Flaming,  Horse-shoes  and  HorsO'Siooiitg  (Loodom- 1869). 


isth  century  the  anatomy  of  the  damMicated  ttttUMt^'iomUfy 
almost  entirely  n^lectad,  began  to  recdve  attenrion.    A  work  on 


comparative  anatomy  by  Volcher  Koyter  was  issued  at  Nuremberg 
in  1573;  about  the  same  time  a  writer  la  Germany  naoaed  Ccmho 
or  Copbon  published  a  book  on  the  anatomy  of  the  pig,  in  which 
were  many  original  remarks  on  the  lymphatic  vessels ;  and  Jahan 
Harvard  in  France  produced  in  159a  las  rather  incomplete  Hippo- 
OstMogU.  But  by  far  the  most  notable  woric,  and  one  whidi  main- 
tained its  popularity  for  a  century  and  a  half,  was  that  of  Carlo 
Rttini,  a  senator  of  B6k)gna.  puUished  in  1598  in  that  dty,  and 
entitled  XMT  Anaiomia  e  ddt  InfirmiA  del  Cavallo,  0  suoi  RemedH, 
Passing  through  many  editions,  aad  translated  into  Frendi  and 
(jcrman,  thb  hook  was  for  the  most  part  original,  and  a  remarkable 
one  for  the  time  In  which  it  was  composed,  the  anatomiail  portioa 
bang  espedally  praiseworthy.  English  books  of  the  I'jth  century 
exhibit  a  strong  tendency  towards  the  improvement  01  veterinary 
medidne  and  sureery,  especially  as  regards  the  horse.  Thb  b  even 
more  notable  in  the  writmgs  cf  the  i8th  century,  among  which  may 
be  partkularised  Gibson's  Farrier'e  New  Guide  (1719;.  Method  of 
Dieting  Horses  (I73i)  and  (best  of  aH)  hb  Nem  l)miise  on  the 
Diseases  of  Horses,  peddta  Braloen's,  Bunion's,  Bridge's  and  Bartlet's 
treatises.  Veterinary  anatomy  was  greatly  advanced  by  the  ^  nalomy 
of  an  Horse  (i68a)  of  Snape,  farrier  to  Charles  II.,  illustrated  with 
copperplates,  and  by  the  stOl  more  compbte  and  original  work  of 
Stubbs,  the  Anatomy  of  the  Horse  (1766),  which  deddcdiy  marked 
a 'new  era  in  thb  Kne  ot  study.  Of  foreign  works  it  may  snflice  to 
mention  that  of  SoOeysd.  VMUMe  pxarfaU  martschai  (1664),  which 
passed  through  many  editions,  was  trandated  into  several  languages^ 
and  was  borrowed  from  for  more  than  a  century  by  different  writers. 
Sir  W.  Hope's  Comphat  Horseman  (1696)  ia  a  translation  from 
SoUeysd  by  a  pupiL 

Modem  Schools  and  GBOrfW.— The  most  important  era  in  the 
hbtory  of  modem  veterinary  science  commenced  with  the  institution 
of  veterinary  schools.  France  was  the  first  to  take  the 
great  initiative  step  in  thb  direction.  Buflon  had  recom- 
mended the  formation  of  veterinary  schools,  but  his 
recommendations  were  not  attended  to.  .  Claude  Bouigelat 
(i 713-1799),  an  advocate  at  Lyons  and  a  talented hippolo- 
abt.  through  hb  influence  with  Bertin,  prime  roinbter  under  Loub 
XV.,  was  the  firat  to  induce  the  government  to  establish  a  veterinary 
school  and  school  of  equitation  at  Lyons,  tn  1761.  This  school 
he  himself  directed  for  only  a  few  years,  during  wldch  the  great 
benefits  that  had  resulted  from  it  justified  an  extenrion  of  its  teaching 
to  other  parts  of  France.  Bouigelat,  therefore,  founded  (1766)  at 
Alfort,  near  Paris,  a  second  veterinary  school,  which  soon  became, 
and  has  remained  to  thb  day,  one  of  the  finest  and  most  advanced 
veterinary  schools  in  the  world.  At  Lyorut  he  was  replaced  by  the 
Abb6  Rosier,  a  learned  agriculturist,  who  was  killed  at  the  siege 
of  Lyons 
during  wl 

irledse  by  t     . 

tcrr.  T^venty  yean  later  the  Alfort  schooT  added  to  its 
staff  several  distinguished  professore  whose  names  still 
annals  of  sdenoe,  such  as  Daubcrton,  who  taught  rural 
, .  Vic  d'A^rr,  who  lectured  on  comoarative  anatomy; 
Fouftroy,  who  undertook  instruction  in  chemistry;  and  Gilbert, 
one  of  its  most  brilliant  pu^s,  who  had  veterinary  medicine  and 
suri^ery  for  hb  department.  The  last-named  was  also  a  distinguished 
agnculturist  and  published  many  important  treatises  on  agricultural 
as  well  as  veterinary  sub|ects.  The  position  he  had  acquired,  added 
to  hi9  profound  and  vaned  knowleag^  made  him  most  useful  to 
France  during  the  period  of  the  Revolution.  It  b  chiefly  to  him 
that  it  b  indebted  for  the  celd>rated  RarabouIIlet  flock  of  Merino 
shtejK  for  the  conservation  of  the  Tuileries  and  Versailles  parks, 
and  for  the  creation  of  the  fine  experimental  agricultural  estab- 
lishment organized  in  tha  ancient  domain  of  Sceaux.  The  Alfort 
school  q)eeculy  became  the  nurwry  of  veterinary  science,  and  the 
source  whence  all  sLmilar  institutions  obtained  thdr  first  teacfaera 
and  thdr  guidance.  A  third  government  school  was  founded  in 
182s  at  Toulouse;  and  these  three  schools  have  produced  thousands 
of  thoroughly  educated  veterinary  suigeqns  and  many  professors 
of  high  scientific  repute,  among  whom  may  be  naonea  Bouley» 
(Thauveau,  Colin,  Toussaint,  St  Cyr,  Goubaux,  Arlcung,  Galtier, 
Nocard.  Trasbot,  Neumann,  Cadiot  and  Leclainche.  The  opeoiiig 
of  the  Alfort  school  was  followed  by  the  establishment  JoK  national 
schoob  in  Italy  (Turin,  I769)>  Denmark  (Copenhagen.  1773).  Austria 
(Vienna,  1775),  Saxony  (Dresden,  1776),  Prussia  (Hanover,  1778: 
Berlin.  1790).  pavaria  (Munich,  I790),  Hungaiy  (Budapest.  1787) 
and  ^aun  (Madrid,  1795);  and  soon  government  veterinary  schools 
were  lounaed  In  neany  every  European  country,  except  Gxeat 
Britain  and  Greece,  (noltly  on  a  munificent  scale.  I^oabty  all, 
but  especially  those  of  France  and  Germany,  weraestabliahied  as 
much  with  a  view  to  training  veterinary  sunieons  for  the  army  as 
for  the  requirements  of  dvil  life.  In  iQo^  France  possessed  three 
national  veterinary  schoob,  Germany  had  su,  Russia  Tour  (Kharkov. 
Dorpat.  Kaxan  and  Warsaw).  Italy  six,  Spain  five,  Austria-Hungary 
three  (Vienna,  Budapest  and  Lembeig).  Switzerland  two  (ZOrjch 
and  Bern),  Sweden  two  (Skara  and  Stockholm),  Denmark,  Hdland. 
Belgium  and  Portugal  one  each.  In  1849  a  government  veterinary 


VETERINARY  SaENCE 


il  ins  estiUulMd  at  Cof  ittinoplet  and  in  1861  the  gDViem- 
of  Rumania  founded  a  tchool  at  Buchaiest.    The  veterinary 


I/i 


Wjhoffi 

mcttt  of  Kumania  founded  a  tcjiooi  at  tsiicluuest.  TIm  veterinary 
achoob  ol  Berlin^  Hanover  and  Vienna  have  been  raised  to  tne 
potttion  oC  univenities. 

In  1790  St  Bel  (wboee  veal  name  was  Vial,  St  Bel  being  a  vlUase 
near  Lyons,  where  was  his  paternal  estate),  after  studying  at  the 
Lyons  school  and  teaching  both  at  Alfort  and  Lyons, came 
to  Cn^pland  and  pubUshed  piopoaals  forfounding  a  school 
in  which  to  instruct  pupus  m  veterinaiy  medicine  and 
saisery.  The  Agricultural  Society  of  Odiham.  which  had  been 
ineditating  sending  two  young  men  to  the  Alfort  school,  elected 
him  an  honorary  member,  and  delegated  a  oommittee  to  consult 
with  him  respecting  his  scheme.  Some  time  afterwards  thb 
committee  detached  tnemselvcs  from  the  Odiham  Society  and  formed 
an  institution  staled  the  Veterinary  College  of  Ixmdon,  of  which 
St  Bel  was  apipointed  professor.  Tne  school  was  to  be  commenced 
and  maintained  by  private  subscription.  In  March  1793  arrange- 
ments were  made  for  building  temporary  stabling  for  fifty  hones 
and  a  foige  for  shoeing  at  St  Panoas.  The  college  made  raiiid 
pnvress  in  public  estimation,  notwithstanding  considetable  pecuniary 
embarrassments.  As  soon  as  the  building  was  ready  for  the  reoep- 
iion  of  animal  patients,  pupils  b^jaa  to  be  enn^led;  and  amon^  tne 
earliest  were  some  who  afterwards  gained  celebrity  as  veterinanans, 
as  Bloxam,  Blaine.  R.  Lawrence,  Field  and  Biacy  Clark.  On  the 
death  of  St  Bel  in  August  1793  there  appears  to  have  been  some 
difficulty  in  jjrocuring  a  suitable  successor;  but  at  length,  on  the 
fecommendation  of  John  Hunter  and  Cline.  two  medical  men  were 
appointed,  Coleman  and  Moorcroft,  the  latter  then  practising  as  a 
veterinary  surgeon  in  London.  The  first  taught  anatomy  and 
physiology,  and  Moorcroft,  after  visiting  the  French  schools,  diiccted 
the  practical  portion  of  the  teaching.  Unfortunately,  neither  of 
these  teachers  had  much  experience  among  animals,  nor  were  they 
well  acquainted  with  their  diseases;  but  Coleman  (1765^1839)  had 
as  a  student,  in  conjunction  with  a  fellow-student  (afterwaras  Sir 
Astley  Cooper),  performed  many  experiments  on  animab  under  the 
direcnon  of  CUne.  Moorcroft,  who  remained  only  a  short  time  at 
the  college,  afterwards  went  to  India,  and  during  a  journey  in  xSio 
waa  murdered  in  Tibet.  Coleman,  by  bis  scientific  researches  and 
energetic  management,  in  a  few  years  raised  the  coll<^e  to  a^high 
staodard.of  usefulness;  under  his  care  the  progress  of  the  veterinary 
art  was  such  as  to  qualify  its  practitioners  to  hold  commissions  in 
the  army;  and  he  himself  was  appointed  veterinary  surgeon- 
general  to  the  British  cavalry.  In  1031  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  funds,  the  teaching  at 
the  college  must  have  been  very  meagre,  and  had  it  not  been  for 
the  liberality  of  several  medical  men  in  throwing  open  the  doors 
of  their  theatres  to.  its  pupils  for  instruction  without  fee  or  reward, 
their  professional  knowledge  would  have  been  sadly  deficient. 
The  board  of  examiners  was  for  many  years  chiefly  composed  of 
eminent  members  of  the  medical  profession.     Coieman  died  In 

?I830,  and  with  him  disappeared  much  of  the  Interest  the  medical 
rofession  of  London  took  in  the  progress  of  veterinary  medicine. 
ct  the  Royal  Veterinary  College  (first  styled  **  Royal  '"^  during  the 
presidentship  of  the  duKe  of  Kent)  continued  to  do  good  work  in 
a  purely  veterinary  direction,  and  received  such  pubUc  financial 
support  that  it  was  soon  able  to  dispense  «1th  the  small  annual 
grant  given  to  it  by  the  government.  In  the  early  years  of  the 
institution  the  horse  was  the  only  animal  to  which  much  attention 
was  given.  But  at  the  instigation  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society 
of  England,  which  gave  £300  per  annum  for  the  purpose,  an  addi- 
tional professor  was  appointed  tp  investigate  and  teach  the  treatment 
of  the  diseases  of  cattle,  sheep  and  other  animals;  outbreaks  of 
disease  among  these  were  also  to  be  Inquired  into  by  the  officers 
of  the  college.  This  help  to  the  institution  was  withdrawn  in  1875. 
but  renewed  and  augmented  In  1886.  For  fifteen  years  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  annually  voted  a  sum  of  uoo  towards  the 
expenses  of  the  department  of  comparative  pathology,  but  in  1902 
this  grant  was  reduced  to  £200. 

As  the  result  of  representations  made  to  the  senate  of  the  uni- 
venity  of  London  by  the  governors  of  the  Royal  Veterinary  College, 
the  university  in  1906  instituted  a  degree  in  veterinary  science 
(B.Sc.).  The  possession  of  this  degree  does  not  of  itself  entitle 
the  holder  to  practise  as  a  veterinary  surseon,  but  it  was  hoped  that 
an  increasing  number  of  studenu  would,  while  studying  for  the 
diploma  of  the  Royal  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons,  also  adopt  the 
curriculum  which  is  necessary  to  Qualify  for  the  university  examina- 
tions and  obtain  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science.  To  provide 
equipment  for  the  higher  studies  required  for  the  university  degree, 
the  Boartl  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  in  1906  made  a  ^rant  to 
the  college  of  £800  per  annum.  At  this  Khool  post-graduate  instruc- 
tion isgivenon  the  principles  of  bacteriological  research,  vaccination 
and  protective  inoculation,  the  preparation  of  toxins  and  vaccines 
and  the  bacteriology  of  the  specinc  diseases  of  animals. 

The  London  Veterinary  School  has  been  the  parent  of  other  schools 
In  Great  Britain,  one  of  which,  the  first  in  Scotland,  was  founded  by 
Professor  Dick,  a  student  under  Coleman,  aiul  a  man  of  great  per- 
severance  and  ability.  Beginning  at  Edinburgh  in  1819-20  with 
only  one  student,  in  three  years  he  gained  the  patronage  of  the 
Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  which  placed  a  small 
Mim  of  money  at  the  disposal  of  a  committee  appointed  by  itself 


to  |ake  chaist  of  a  department  of  iFcterinary  anfgaiy  it  had  lafflMd. 
This  patronage*  and  very  much  in  the  way  of  roateiiai  aaaietanoe 
aiMl  encouragement,  were  continued  to  the  time  of  Dick's  death  in 
1866.  During  the  long  period  in  which  he  presided  over  the  school 
considetable  progreae  was  made  in  diffusing  a  sound  knowledge  of 
veterinaiy  medidne  in  Scotland  and  beyond  it  For  many  yeara 
his  examining  board,  which  gave  certificates  of  proficiency  undv  the 
auspices  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  waa  compoeed  of 
the  most  distinguished  medical  men  in  Scotland,  such  as  Goodsi^ 
Syme,  Liaars,  fiallingall,  Simpson  and  Knox.  By  his  will  Dick 
vested  the  coUege  in  the  k>rd  provoet  and  town  council  of  Edinbuigh 
as  trustees,  and  left  a  large  portion  of  the  fortune  he  had  made  to 
mainuin  it  for  the  purposes  for  whkh  it  waa  founded.  In  igM 
another  veterinary  school  was  established  in  Edinburgh  by  John 
Gamgee,  and  the  Veterinary  College,  Glasgow,  was  founded  in  1863 
by  James  McCall.  Gamgec's  school  was  discontinued  in  1865: 
and  William  Williama  esublished  in  1873  the  "  New  Veterinary 
College,"  Edinburgh.  This  school  was  transferred  in  1904  to  tha 
univeraity,  LiverpooL  In  1900  a  veterinary  school  was  founded  in 
Dublin. 

In  1&44  the  Royal  Coll^  of  Veteriiwry  Surgeons  (to  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  the  Royal  Veterinary  College)  obtained  its 
charter  of  incorporaticm.  The  functions  of  this  body  were  until 
1881  limited  alaiost  entirely  to  examining  students  taught  in  the 
veterinary  schools,  and  bestowing  diplomas  of  membership  on  those 
who  successfully  passed  the  ^minations  conducted  by  the  boards 
which  sat  in  London  and  Edinburah.  Soon  after  the  Koyal  CoHega 
of  Veterinary  Suigeont  obtainea  its  charter  of  incorporation,  a 
difference  arose  between  the  college  and  Dick,  which  resulted  in  the 
latter  seceding  altogether  from  toe  union  that  had  been  establikhed. 
and  forming  an  independent  examining  board,  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland  granting  certificates  of  proficiency 
to  those  students  who  were  deemed  competent.  This  schism 
operated  very  injuriously  on  the  progress  of  veterinary  education 
and  on  professional  advancement,  as  the.  competition  engendered 
was  6f  a  rather  deteriorating  nature.  After  the  death  of  Dick  in 
1866,  the  dualism  in  veterinary  licensing  was  suppressed  and  tha 
Highland  Society  ceased  to  grant  oertincate^  Now  thane  is  oidy 
one  portal  of  entry  into  the  profesaioiuand  the  veterinary  students 
of  England,  Ireland  and  Scotland  must  satisfy  the  examinera 
appointed  by  the  Royal  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons  before  they 
can  practise  thnr'profession. 

•  Before  beginning  their  professional  studies  students  of  veterinary 
medicine  must  pass  an  examination  in  general  education  equivalent 
in  every  respect  to  that  required  of  students  of  human  medicine*. 
The  minimum  length  of  the  professional  training  is  four  years  of 
three  terms  each,  and  during  that  course  four  searching  examinatkMia 
must  be  passed  before  the  student  obtains  his  diplom^  or  licence  to 

Eraciise  as  a  veterinary  surgeon.  The  subiects  taught  in  the  schools 
ave  been  increased  in  numbers  conformaoly  with  the  requirements 
of  ever  extending  science,  and  the  teaching  is  more  thorough  and 
practical.  During  the  four  yean'  curriculum,  besides  the  pre- 
liminary technical  training  essential  to  every  scientist,  the  student 
must  study  the  aimtomy  and  physiology  of  the  domesticated  animals, 
the  pathology  and  bacteriology  of  the  diseases  to  which  these  animals 
are  exposed,  medicine,  surgery,  hygiene,  dietetics  and  meat  inspec- 
tion, and  learn  to  know  the  results  of  disease  as  seen  poU  mortem  or 
in  the  slaughter-house. 

In  1881  an  act  of  parliament  was  obtained  protecting  the  title  of 
the  graduates  of  the  Royal  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons  and 
conferring  other  advantages,  not  the  least  of  which  is  the  power 
granted  to  the  college  to  remove  the  names  of  unworthy  mcmben 
from  its  register.  In  some  respects  the  Veterinary  Surgeons  Act  is 
superior  to  the  Medical  Act,  while  it  places  the  profession  on  the 
same  level  as  other  learned  bodies,  and  prevents  the  public  being 
misled  by  empirics  and  impostets. 

In  1876  the  coUeie  instituted  a  higher  degree  than  nnerobership — 
that  of  fellow  (F.R.C.V3.),  which  can  only  be  obtained  after  the 
graduate  has  been  five  yeare  in  ixactice.  and  by  furnishing  a  thesis 
and  passing  a  severe  written  and  oral  examination  on  pathology  and 
bacteriolof^,  hygiene  and  sanitary  science,  and  veterinary  medicine 
and  surgery.  Only  fellows  can  be  elected  members  of  the  examining 
boards  for  the  membership  and  fellowship  diplomas.  The  graduates 
of  the  Royal  CoU^e  of  Veterinary  Surgeons  registered  from  its 
foundation  in  1844  until  1907  numbered  about  6ooa 

In  the  British  army  a  veterinary  service  was  first  instituted  at  the 
beginning  of  the  I9tn  century,  when  veterinary  surgeons  with  the 
relarive  rank  of  lieutenant  were  appointed  to  refuments  of  Cavalry, 
the  royal  artillery  and  the  royal  wagon  train.  After  the  Crimean 
War,  and  consequent  on  the  abolition  of  the  East  India  Company 
(which  then  possessed  its  own  veterinary  service),  the  number  01 
veterinary  (  '     ^         '  ^       j!-.«-a-i.- __ 

constituted 

being  regim  , 

time  they  were  all  brought  on  to  a  general  roster  for  foreign  service, 
so  that  every  one  in  turn  has  to  serve  abroad.  In  1003  the  officers 
of  the  department  were  given  substantive  rank,  and  in  1994  were 
constituted  a  "  corps,  "  with  a  small  number  of  non-oommisstoned 
officers  and  men  under  their  command  and  specially  trained  by  them. 
In  1907  the  Army  Veterinary  Corps  consisted  of  167  officer*  and  MO 


VETERINARY  SaENCE 


VttMed 


commuaoned  oficcn  and  raeo.  The  men  an  stationed  at  the 
vetetinary  ho^talB,  Woolwich  depot*  Aldershot,  Bulford  and  llw 
Cunagb,  but  when  trained  are  available  for  duty  under  veterinary 
officers  at  any  station,  and  a  proportion  of  them  are  employed  at 
the  various  hospitals  in  South  Africa.  Owing  to  their  liability  to 
service  abroad  m  rotation,  tt  foUows  that  every  officer  spends  a 
considerable  portion  of  his  service  in  India,  Burma,  Egypt  or  South 
Africa.  Each  tour  abroad  is  five  years,  and  the  average  lencth  of 
service  abroad  is  about  one-half  the  total.  This  offers  a  wide  and 
varied  field  for  the  professional  activities  of  the  corpe,  but  naturally 
entails  a  cotrespondiny  strain  on  the  individuals.  ConunasBi9ns 
as  lieutenants  are  obtained  by  examination,  the  candidates  having 

Srcviously  qualified  as  members  of  the  Royal  College  of  Veterinary 
urgcons.  Promotion  to  captain  and  major  \i  granted  at  five  and 
Mtcen  years'  service  respcctivdy,  and  subsequently,  bv  selection, 
to  lieutenant-colonel  and  o^ncl,  as  vacancies  occur.  The  diractor- 
gener^  has  the  honorary  rank  of  major-gcnetaL 

The  Indian  civil  veterinary  department  was  at  first  recruited 
from  the  A.  V.  Corps,  but  candidates  who  qualified  as  members  of 
g^g^  the  R.C.V.S.  were  subsequently  granted  direct  appoint- 
"^  ments  bv  the  India  Office,  by  selection.  The  service  is 
paid  and  pensioned  on  the  tines  of  the  other  Indian  civil  services, 
and  offers  an  excellent  professional  career  to  those  whose  constitu- 
tion permits  them  to  live  in  the  tropics.  The  work  comprises  the 
investigation  of  disease  in  animals  and  the  management  of  studs 
and  farms,  in  addition  to  the  clinical  practice  which  falls  to  the  share 
of  all  veterinary  su^eon& 

In  India  there  are  schools  for  the  training  of  natives  as  veterinary 
surgeons  in  Bombay,  Lahore,  Ajmerc  and  Bengal.  The  courses 
extend  over  two  and  three  years,  and  the  instruction  is  very  thorough. 
The  professors  are  officers  of  the  Indian  civil  veterinauy  depart- 
ment, and  graduates  are  given  subordinate  appointments  in  that 
service,  or  bad  ready  empwyment  in  the  native  cavalry  or  in  civil 
life. 

In  the  United  States  of  America,  veterinary  science  made  very 
rfow  progress  until  1884,  when  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
wa»  establbhed  in  connexion  with  the  Department  oi 
Agriculture  at  Washington.  The  immediate  cause  of  the 
formation  of  the  bureau  was  the  urgent  need  by  the 
Federal  government  of  official  information  concerning  the  nature 
and  prevalence  of  animal  diseases,  and  of  the  means  required  to 
control  and  eradicate  them,  and  also  the  necessity  of  having  an 
executive  a^ncy  to  carry  out  the  measures  necessary  to  stop  ^  the 
spread  of  disease  and  to  prevent  the  importation  of  contadon  into 
the  country,  as  well  as  to  conduct  investigations  through  which 
further  knowledge  might  be  obtained.  In  1907  the  bureau  consisted 
of  ten  divisions,  etnpbying  the  services  of  815  veterinary  suigcons. 
It  deab  with  the  investigadon,  control  and  eradication  of  contagious 
diseases  ojf  animals,  the  inspection  and  quarantine  of  live  stock, 
horse-breeding,  experiments  in  feeding,  diseases  of  poultry  and  the 
Inspection  of  meat  and  dairy  produce.  It  makes  onginal  invntiga^ 
tioas  as  to  the  nature,  cause  and  pievendon  of  communicable 
diseases  oi  live  stock,  and  takes  measures  for  their  repression, 
frequently  in  conjunction  with  state  and  territorial  authonties.  It 
prepares  tuberculm  and  mallein,  and  supplies  these  substances  free 
of  chari^  to  public  health  officers,  conducts  experiments  with 
immunizing  agents,  and  prepares  vaccines,  sera  and  antitoxins  for 
the  protection  of  animals  against  disease.  It  prepares  and  publishes 
reports  of  scientific  investigations  and  treatises  on  various  subjects 
relating  to  live  stock.  The  diseases  which  claim  most  attention  are 
Texas  fever,  sheep  scab,  cattle  mange,  venereal  disease  of  horses, 
tubereulosis  of  cattle  and  pigs,  hog  cholera,  glanders,  anthrax, 
black-quarter,  and  parasitic  diseases  of  cattle,  sheep  and,  horses. 
The  eUcct  of  the  work  of  the  bureau  on  the  health  and  value  of 
farm  animals  and  their  products  is  well  known,  and  the  people  of 
the  United  State&now  realize  the  immense  importance  of  veterinary 
science. 

Veterinary  schools  were  established  in  New  York  City  in  1846, 
Boston  in  1848,  Chicago  in  1883,  and  subsequent! v  in  Kansas 
City  and  elsewhere,  but  these,  like  those  of  Great  Britain,  were 

f>rivate  institutions.  The  American  Veterinary  College,  N.Y., 
ounded  in  1875,  >'«  connected  with  New  York  University,  and  the 
N.Y.  State  Veterinary  College  forms  a  department  of  Cornell 
University  at  Ithaca.  Other  veterinary  schools  attached  to  state 
univeraities  or  agricultural  cdleges  are  those  in  Philadelphia.  Pa.; 
Columbus,  Ohio;  Ames,  Iowa;  Pullman,  Washington;  Auburn, 
Alabama;  Manhattan,  Kansas;  and  Fort  Collins,  Colorado.  Other 
veterinary  colleges  are  in  San  Francisco;  Washington,  D.C.  (tm-o); 
Grand  Rapids,  Michigan;  St  Joseph,  Missouri;  aodCincinnati,  Ohia 
In  Canada  a  veterinary  school  was  founded  at  Toronto  in  1862, 
and  four  years  later  another  school  was  established  at  Montreal. 
^^,^,  For  some  years  the  Montreal  school  formed  a  department 
^^^  of  McGill  University,  but  in  1902  the  veterinarjr  branch 
was  discontinued.  Veterinary  instruction  in  French  Is  gi\'en  by 
the  faculty  of  comparative  medicine  at  Laval  University.  The 
Canadian  Department  of  Agriculture  possesses  a  fully  equipped 
veterinary  sanitary  service  employing  about  400  qualified 
veterinary  surgeons  as  inspectors  of  live  stock,  meat  and  dairy 


ngtoa 
Ntw 


la  the  Australian  commoaisealth  then  S  only  one  veCerinaiv 

school,  which  was  established  in  Melbourne,  Victoria,  in  1888I 
The  PublK  Health  Departments  of  New  South  Wales,     .     ._., 
Western  Australia,  Tasmania  and  the  other  states  employ    '*""""■' 
qualified  veterinary  sbigeoBS  as  inqiecton  of  live  stock,  cowsheds, 
meat  and  dairy  produce. 

There  is  no  veterinary  school  in  New  Zealand,  but  the  Depart 
ment  of  Agriculture  has  arranged  to  establish  one  at  WelUngtoi 
in  connexion  with  the  investigation  laboratory  and  farm 
of  the  divinon  of  veterinary  science  at  Wallaceville.   The 
government  employs  about  forty  qualified  veterinarians 
as  inspectora  of  live  stock,  abattoirs,  meat-works  and  dairies. 

In  Egypt  a  veterinary  school  with  French  teachera  was  founded 
in  1830  at  Abu-Zabd,  near  Cairo,  by  Clot-Bey.  a  doctor  of  mddkine. 
This  school  was  discontinued  in  184a.  The  Publk:  Health  -  . 
Department  in  i^i  established  at  Cairo  a  new  veterinary  ^'''^ 
school  for  the  mstniction  of  natives^  Ten  quaHfiea  veterinary 
surg^oons  are  employed  in  the  sanitary  service. 

Each  of  the  colonies  Natal,  Cape  Colony,  Transvaal,  Orange  River 
Colony,  Swaziland,  ficchuanaland  and  Rhodesia  has  a  veterinary 
sanitaiy  police  service  engaged  in  dealing  with  the 
contagious  diseases  of  animaTs.  Laboratories  for  the 
investigation  of  disease  and  the  preparation  of  antitoxins 
and  protective  sera  have  been  established  at  Grahaipstown,  "Pretorift 
and  Pietermaritzbuig. 

CkoratftrisHes  of  Veterinary  Medicine, 

Veterinaiy  medicine  has  been  far  less  exposed  to  the  vagaries 
of  theoretical  doctrines  and  systems  than  human  medicine. 
The  explanation  may  perhaps  be  that  the  successful  practice 
of  this  branch  of  medicine  more  clearly  than  m  any  other 
depends  upon  the  carefid  observation  of  facts  and  the  rational 
deductions  to  be  made  therefrom.  No  special  doctrines  seem, 
in  later  times  at  least,  to  have  been  adopted,  and  the  dominating 
sentiment  in  regard  to  disease  and  its  treatment  has  been  a 
medical  edectidsm,  based  on  practical  experience  and  anatomico- 
pathological  investigation,  rarely  indeed  on  philosophical  or 
abstract  theories.  In  this  way  veterinary  science  has  become 
pre-eminently  a  sdence  of  observation.  At  times  indeed  it  has 
to  some  extent  been  influenced  by  the  doctrines  which  have 
controlled  the  practice  of  human  medicine — such  as  those  of 
Broussais,  Hahnemann,  Brown,  Rasori,  Radcmacher  and  others 
— yet  this  has  not  been  for  long:  experience  of  them  when 
tested  upon  dumb  unimaginative  animals  soon,  exposed  their 
fallacies  and  compelled  their  discontinuance. 

Of  more  moment  than  the  cure  of  disease  Is  its  preventibn, 
and  this  is  now  considered  the  most  important  object  in  con- 
nexion with  veterinary  science.  More  especially  is  this  the  Case 
with  those  contagious  disorders  that  depend  for  their  existence 
and  extenaon  upon  the  presence  of  an  infecting  agent,  and 
whose  ravages  for  so  many  centuries  are  written  largely  in  the 
history  of  civilization.  Every  advance  made  in  human  medicine 
affects  the  progress  of  veterinary  science,  and  the  invaluable 
investigations  of  Davaine,  Pasteur,  Chauveau,  Lister  and 
Koch  have  created  as' great  &  revolution  in  veterinary  prac- 
tice as  in  the  medicine  of  man.  In  ''  preventive  medicine  " 
the  benefits  derived  from  the  application  of  the  germ  theory 
are  now  realized  to  be  immense;  and  the  sanitary  poUce 
measures  based  on  this  knowledge,  if  carried  rigorously  into 
operation,  must  eventually  lead  to  the  extinction  of  animal 
plagues.  Bacteriology  has  thrown  much  light  on  the  nature, 
diagnosis  and,  cure  of  disease  both  in  man  and  animals,  and  it 
has  developed  the  beneficent  practice  of  aseptic  and  antiseptic 
surgery,  enabling  the  practitioner  to  prevent  exhausting 
suppuration  and  wound  infection  with  its  attendant  septic 
fever,  to  ensure  the  rapid  healing  of  wounds,  and  to  undertake 
the  more  serious  operations  with  greater  confidence  of  a  success- 
ful  result. 

The  medidne  of  the  lower  animab  differs  from  that  of  man 
in  DO  particular  so  much,  perhaps,  as  in  the  application  it  makes 
of  utilitarian  prindples.  The  Ufe  of  man  is  sacred;  but  in  the 
case  of  animals,  when  there  are  doubts  as  to  complete  restora- 
tion to  health  or  usefulness,  pecuniary  considerations  gener> 
ally  dedde  against  the  adoption  of  remedial  measures.  Th& 
feature  in  the  medidne  of  domesticated  animals  brings  very 
prominently  before  us  the  value  of  the  old  adage  that  **  pre- 
vention is  better  than  cure."    In  Great  Britain  the  value  of 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE 


veterinary  pathology  in  the  relations  it  bescB  to  hunan  medidne, 
to  the  public  health  and  wealth,  as  well  as  to  agricuttnxe,  has  not 
been  sufficiently  appredatedi  and  in  consequence  but  little 
allowance  has  been  made  for  the  difficulties  with  which  the 
practitioner  of  animal  medicine  has  to  contend.  The  tare 
Instances  in  which  animals  can  be  seen  by  the  veterinaxy  suxgeon 
in  the  earliest  8tai;es  of  disease,  and  when  this  would  prove 
most  amenable  to  medical  treatment;  dday,  generally  due  to 
the  inability  of  those  who  have  the  caw  of  animals  to  perceive 
these  early  stages;  the  fact  that  animals  cannot,  except  in  a 
negative  manner,  tell  their  woes,  describe  their  sensations  or 
indicate  what  and.  where  they  8u£fer;  the  absence  of  those 
comforts  and  conveniences  of  the  sick-room  which  cannot  be 
called  in  to  ameliorate  their  condition;  the  violence  or  stupor, 
as  well  as  the  attitude  and  structural  peculiarities  of  the  sick 
creatures,  which  only  too  frequently  render  favourable  positions 
for  recovery  impossible;  the  slender  means  generally  afforded 
for  carrying  out  recommendations,  together  with  the  oftentimes 
intractable  nature  of  their  diseases;  and  the  utilitarian  in- 
fluences dluded  to  above — ^all  these  considerations,  in  the  great 
majority  of  instances,  militate  against  the  adoption  of  curative 
treatment,  or  at  least  greatly  increase  its  difficulties.  But 
notwithstanding  these  difficulties,  veterinary  science  has  made 
greater  strides  since  1877  than  at  any  previous  period  m  its 
history.  Every  branch  of  veterinary  knowledge  has  shared  in 
this  advance,  but  in  none  has  the  progress  been  so  marked  as 
jxi  the  domain  of  pathologyi  led  by  Nocard  in  France,  Schiitz 
and  Kitt  in  Germany,  Bang  in  Denmark,  and  McFadyean 
in  England.  Bacteriological  research  has  discovered  new  dis- 
eases, has  revolutionized  the  views  formerly  held  regarding 
many  others,  and  has  pointed  the  way  to  new  methods  of 
prevention  and  cure.  Tuberculosis,  anthrax,  black-quarter, 
glanders,  strangles  and  tetanus  furnish  ready  examples  of  the 
progress  of  knowledge  concerning  the  nature  and  causation  of 
dis4^ise.  These  diseases,  formerly  attributed  to  the  most  varied 
causes — ^induding  cUmatic  changes,  dietetic  errors,  peculiar 
condition  of  the  tissues,  heredity,  exposure,  close  breeding, 
overcrowding  and  even  spontaneous  origin — have  been  proved 
beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt  to  be  due  to  infection 'by 
specific  bacteria  or  germs. 

In  the  United  Kingdom  vetoinary  science  has  gained  distinc- 
tion by  the  eradication  of  contagious  animal  diseases.  For 
many  years  prior  to  2865,  when  a  government  veterinary 
department  was  formed,  destructive  plagues  of  animals  had 
prevailed  almost  continuously  in  the  British  islands,  and 
scarody  any  attempt  had  been  made  to  check  or  extirpate  them. 
Two  exotic  bovine  diseases  alone  (contagious  pleuro-pneumonia 
or  lung  plague  and  foot-and-mouth  disease)  are  estimated  to 
have  caused  the  death,  during  the  first  thirty  years  of  their 
prevalence  in  the  United  Kingdom,  of  S,549f78o  cattle,  roughly 
valued  at  £83,616,854;  while  the  invasion  of  cattle  plague 
(rinderpest)  in  1865-66  was  calculated  to  have  caused  a  money 
loss  of  from  £5,000,000  to  £8,000,000.  The  depredations  made 
fa  South  Africa  and  Australia  by  the  lung  plague  alone  are  quite 
appalling;  and  in  India  the  loss  brought  about  by  contagious 
diseases  among  animals  has  been  stated  at  not  less  than 
£6,000,000  annually.  The  damage  done  by  tuberculosis — a 
contagious  disease  of  cattle,  transmissible  to  other  animals 
and  to  man  by  means  of  the  mUk  and  flesh  of  diseased  beasts — 
cannot  be  evea  guessed  at;  but  it  must  be  enormous  considering 
how  widely  this  malady  is  diffused.  But  that  terrible  pest  of 
all  ages,  cattle  plague,  has  been  promptly  suppressed  in  England 
with  comparatively  trifling  loss.  Foot-and-mouth  disease, 
which  frequently  proved  a  heavy  infliction  to  agriculture,  has 
been  completely  extirpated.  Rabies  may  now  be  induded, 
with  rinderpest,  lung  plague  and  sheep-pox,  in  the  category 
of  extinct  diseases;  and  new  measures  have  been  adopted  for 
the  suppression  of  glanders  and  swine  fever.  To  combat  such 
diseases  as  depend  for  their  continuance  on  germs  derived  from 
the  soil  or  herbage,  which  cannot  be  directly  controlled  by 
veterinary  sanitary  measures,  recourse  has  been  had  to  pro- 
tective inoculation  with  attenuated  virus  or  antitozie  sera. 


The  Boaid  of  Agricahme  and  Fisheries  has  an  efikient  staff 
of  trained  veterinary  inspectors,  who  devote  their  whole  time 
to  the  work  in  connexion  with  (he  scheduled  diseases  of  animals, 
and  are  frequently  employed  to  inquire  into  other  diseases  of 
an  apparently  contagious  nature,  where  the  circumstances  are 
of  general  importance  to  agriculturists^ 

Veterinary  sdence  can  offer  much  assistance  in  the  study 
and  prevention  of  the  diseases  to  which  mankind  are  liable. 
Some  grave  maladies  of  the  human  qiedes  are  certainly  derived 
from  animals,  and  others  may  yet  be  added  to  the  list.  In 
the  training  of  the  physician  great  benefit  would  be  derived 
from  the  study  of  disease  in  animals— a  fact  which  has  been 
strangdy  overlooked  in  England,  as  those  can  testify  who 
understand  how  dosdy  the  health  of  man  may  depend  upon 
the  health  of  the  creatures  he  has  domesticated  and  derived 
subsistence  from,  and  how  much  more  advantageously  morbid 
processes  can  be  studied  in  animals  than  in  our  own  species. 

Although  as  yet  few  chairs  of  comparative  pathology  have 
been  establishml  in  British  universities,  on  the  European 
continent  such  chairs  are  now  looked  upon  as  almost  indis- 
pensable to  every  university.  Bourgelat,  towards  the  middle 
of  the  z8th  century,  in  speaking  of  the  veterinary  schools  he 
had  been  instrumental  in  forming,  urged  that  "leurs  portes 
soient  sans  cesse  ouvertes  i  ceux  qui,  chargfe  par  I'^tat  de  la 
conservation  des  bommes,  auront  acquis  par  le  nom  qu'ils 
se  seront  fait  le  droit  d'hntoroger  la  nature,  chercher  des 
analogies,  et  verifier  des  id£es  dont  la  conformation  ne  pent  <tre 
qu'utile  i  I'esp^  humaine."  And  the  benefits  to  be  mutually 
derived  from  this  association  of  the  two  branches  of  medicine 
inspired  Vicq  d'Azyr  to  elaborate  his  Notaeau  plan  de  la 
coHstitullon  de  la  mMecine  en  Prance^  which  he  presented  to 
the  National  Assembly  in  1790.  His  fundamental  idea  was  to 
make  veterinary  teaching  a  preliminary  {le  premier  degrS)  and, 
as  it  were,  the  principle  of  instruction  in  himian  medicine.  His 
proposal  went  so  far  as  to  insist  upon  a  veterinary  school  being 
annexed  to  evexy  medical  college  established  in  France.  This 
idea  was  reproduced  in  the  Rapport  sur  Vinstruction  publique 
which  Talleyrand  read  before  the  National  Assembly  in  1790. 
In  this  project  veterinaxy  teaching  was  to  form  part  of  the 
National  Institution  at  Paris.  The  idea  was  to  initiate  students 
of  medicine  into  a  knowledge  of  diseases  by  observing  those  of 
animals.  The  suffering  animal  always  appears  exactly  as  it 
is  and  feels,  without  the  intervention  of  mind  obscuring  the 
s}rmptomatoIogy,  the  symptoms  being  really  and  truly  the 
rigorous  expression  of  its  diseased  condition.  From  this  point 
of  view,  the  dumb  animal,  when  it  is  ill,  offers  the  same  diffi- 
culties in  diagnosis  as  does  the  ailing  infant  or  the  comatose 
adult. 

Of  the  other  objects  of  veterinaxy  science  there  is  only  one 
to  which  allusion  need  here  be  made:  that  is  the  perfectioning 
of  the  domestic  .animals  in  everything  that  is  likely  to  make 
them  more  valuable  to  man.  This  is  in  an  especial  maimer 
the  province  of  this  science,  the  knowledge  of  the  anatomy, 
physiology  and  other  matters  connected  with  these  snimalf 
by  its  students  bdng  essential  for  such  improvement. 

Diseases  iff  Domestic  Animals. 

Conuderatlons  of  space  forbid  a  complete  or  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  all  the  diseases,  medical  and  surgical,  to  which  the 
domesticated  animals  are  liable.  Separate  articles  are  devoted 
to  the  prindpal  plagues,  or  murrains,  which  affect  animals— 
Rinderpest,  Foot-and-Mouth  Disease,  Pieuxo-Pneitiiokia, 
Anthrax,  &c.  Reference  will  be  made  here  only  to  the  more 
important  other  disorders  of  animals  wbkh  aie  of  ft.commum'o 

able  nature. 

Diseases  ef  the  Horse. 

Every  horaeman  should  know  something  of  the  iniuries,  lame* 
nesses  and  diseases  to  which  the  hone  is  liable.  Unfortunatdy 
not  very  much  can  be  done  in  this  direction  by  book  instruction; 
indeed,  there  is  generally  too  much  doctoring  and  too  little  nursing 
of  rick  animals.  Even  in  slight  and  favourable  cases  of  illne« 
recovery  is  often  retarded  by  too  zealous  and  injudicious  medication: 
the  object  to  be  always  kept  in  view  in  the  treatment  of  animal 
patjenu  is  to  plaoe  torn  in  those  conditions  whkh  allow  nature  ts 


VETERINARY  SaBNCE 


Ja  wmol 


. ,  jbeiiillbacertaiBL>rippnciiM«both« 

usd  khsi  in  paia  will  oilea  iippafentLy  cndnvoiu-  to  attnct  Botice 
■ad  HkreW  fmntluMBiritbwboiDlH  hIuuIbt.  Fnaha[ruid 
ckaDLinw,  quiet  and  coaf  ort,  ibould  alnyt  be  •BCundt  if  |Kniibli> 
Tbfl  itJiUc  or  loote-bon  ihaald  be  nnii»  witbooc  baas  ckho.  and 
fne  fron  dmicliu.    If  the  wcacber  »  cold,  Aod  c^Mciilb'  K  tbe 

bone  ii  •nScriiic  bom  laboaitkiB  of  tho  lir-i ' ■- 

•wwvy  to  hxp  up  tbe  tcnpcnnm  by  utificD 

lOuM  be  ukeii  tbit  ibie  dooi  not  nndcr  the  lir 


ly  fetigiied 

beatiDE  of  the  K^ile  thu  to  oveilcad  tbe  body 
nt  by  heavy  vnpfwigi.  If  Uanketi  an  ued,  it 
""  X  Hun  ibnt  under  them,  ihould  the  bene 
[nnwihsuMbecDploynl 

iveiDcnt.    Gean  old  litter. 
1(  Che  booft  1 


the  le^  by  wniUeii  bukiaies.     _  — 
ud  annoved  by  too  much  elDtbinc, 

have  a^imuble  ^n."  For'beddi 

u  little  »  pnHble.  h'ikb  it  bam 

■wduK  oc  pest-iroB  Utier  b  the  boc    1(  Che  booft  are  nrani, 

and  the  horw  likHy  to  be  conSned  for  some  week>,  It  atTbrda  relief 

to  (alie  ofl  the  tkix^    ^T™f  ''P  *bouid  be  avoided,  if  poeeible. 

uiiTc4  it  ifl  urgently  leqiriRd.  the  bone  being  allowed  to  nxpve 

about  or  lie  down  a>  he  nuy  pnfer. 

When  *  lick  hone  hai  lute  hia  appetite,  be  tbould  be  templed  to 

cat  by  oflering  him  audi  food  aa  will  be  eatidn^  to  bim.    It  abould 

benven  fEWueeclyfendlnnal]quaatitica.butfllioiaidiut 

^J^     be  lorcnl  on  himi  lood  wiUofleii  be  taken  if  offsed  bon 

**™*-  Whether  'the  animal  be  led  fiorn  a  bodcet  ot  from  a 
manger,  any  load  tW  ii  left  ihouU  be  IhiowB  sway,  and  the 
rrcepltade  wcU  cleaned  out  after  each  dkoL  Ab  ■  rule,  during 
■ichuas  ■  htnae  nquirea  bjiative  food,  In  ordor  to  allay  fever 
or  infUmnutory  ■ynpComa,  while  luppirting  tbe  itreiigtli.  The 
foUdwifig  lift  compriiea  the  uiital  laxative  foodi  employed:  freen 
gnia.  green  wheat,  oati  and  barley.  hKeme.  camca.  ponaipe. 
Enid,  bnn  maA.  Unaocd  and  bran  maib.  boikd  barley,  liueed  tea. 
hay  tea  and  liiiKed  oil.  Green  naH.  lucerne,  and  aupilar  articka 
of  Food  if  cut  wbes  in  >  wet  itate,  ibould  be  dried  before  being  given. 
Boiled  grain  •boukt  be  coolud  with  vtfy  little  water,  lo  that  it  may 
be  floury  and  cumpai^livcly  diy  when  ready;  a  little  lalt  ibould  be 
mixed  with  iL  One  gallon  of  good  gruel  may  be  made  with  a  pound 
erf  meat  arK]  ajkl  water,  which  ahoold  be  ftined  till  it  boila.  and 
■(lErwardi  pamitled  lo  Hmmer  over  a  gentle  Sre  till  the  Suid  i> 
quife  thirL:  To  make  a  bian  nuih.  acold  a  (table  bucket,  ihiow 
out  the  water,  put  in  J  lb  of  bian  and  t  OI.  of  mlt.  add  2i 
pitita    id    boiiing    water.    Blir    up    well.    cxJver    overand    allow 


ured  up,  GDI 


and  alierwaidB  making  up  tbe  quantity  of  water  to  about  a  gallon 
and  a  liaif.  Hay  tea  nay  be  pcepand  by  filling  a  budan.  after 
■aiding  it,  with  fond  awcet  bay.  pouring  in  an  much  bf^ling  wattf 
aa  the  bucket  will  hold,  covering  it  over,  and  dkiwint  it  u  aaad 
until  cold,  when  the  fluid  may  be  Brained  off  and  gives  to  the  borae. 
T^:-  ' 1  a  lefreahing  drink.     Linaeed  oilf  In  "■ ■!■:—  "*  '— — 


Kancci.  One  or  two  rot  any  be  given  beaten  up  with  a  tittle  nqHir 
aod  mindwitbmillc.tfirDeor  fourtimeaaday.ar  aun  fTvauODtry; 
or  they  nay  be  boikd  hard  and  powdcnd,  and  niiad  in  tbe  nilk. 


or  a  half  to  one  bottle  of  pert  wim  du^.  ScaUedooD.  with  a  little 
•ah  nddad.  an  very  uafiil  wba  connlncaics  la  ntarir  completed. 
A>  a  rak!,  a  •k:k  bone  ahould  ban  a>  nodi  water  na  be  1^  lo  drink, 
though  It  may  be  nmwiy  b  CBtain  taaei  to  reatrict  the  quantily, 
and  to  have  the  drill  takn  ofli  bM  it  •houkl  never  bewarmerlhan 
yj*  IB  to', 
ha  little  groominff  a<  pDtnble  ihtnild  be  aUowcd  when  a  bone  ia 

eyes  and  forehead  with  clou  water,  to  wiiich  a  little  eucalyptui 
or  onitu  may  be  added.  Rub  the  Icga  and  can  with  the  band, 
lake  on  the  clothirw.  and  ibako  or  ctdngr  it  once  a  day.  and  if 
afftaable  nd>  over  lh>  body  with  a  aolt  cloth.   Eaenae  b  of  coune 


ml  nnwid  dnriac  rickncM 
aUowed  will  deptnd  upon  ci 
it  ■  not  ofderad  too  aaily,  or 
Much  can  b  Rquind  in 
ball  or  boluB;  and  fnctice.  aa  wea  aa  course  ana  lacr.  u 
la  order  to  give  it  without  tUnger  id  the  adnuniitiiilDr  ctr 
theaBimaL    The  ball  thooM  be  held  between  the  flngera    ' 
of  the  ri^  hand,  the  tipe  oi  the  flnt  and  fourth  being 

brought  together  bt' ■■ '  — '  ■■-■-■  -'-■-'■  — 

-■ ■^tbeuppei 


placed  on  ilie  upper  tide  of  the  ball ;  the  rifhl  hand  la  Ihui  made 

I  put  oE  the  right  ude  of 'the  lower  jaw  wbkb  it 
With  the  light  hand  th«  bell  iapUced  at  the  loot 
Tbe  moment  the  right  hand  iiwithdnwn.  the  tongue 
ltd.  Thia  cautca  the  ball  to  be  caiiicd  iliU  fanhcr 
ntor  then  cki«  ih*  mouth  and  watchea  the  lift 
1.  to  note  the  paaaage  of  the  WU  down  the  gullet. 

kiwn.  A  raouiUnl  of  water  or  a  kaudlid 
nake  them  awallow  it  readily.  It  ia  moat 
kU  nuderatety  eolt;  nothing  can  be  dhiv 


of  Bonl^ 

da  iahardL__ 

er  a  drink  or  drench  nquirea  ai  much  can  aa  givinff 
a  I  r  u  avoid  ^^"'^^^g  the  horae,  though  it  it  unatlended 

wi  he  adEainiBlzator.    Aa  ordinary  ^aat  or  etono  bottla 

Hfe  rovldii^  there  are  no  ritoippomtaanund  the  mouth; 

be  uaual  drenching^hoe^  or  a  tin  veaael  with  ■  nanw 

Bk  It  la  ■fee.    ItSntcmmfy  to  niia  the  bone'a  heal 

as  M  may  be  *  Ultle  hi^H  tlu  the  bonontal  lin 

Tlw  u.uim  luutt  be  ghrea  by  a  peraon  **i*Hing  on  the  right  aid* 
(Ibe  attesdaiil  bianf  In  front  or  on  the  left  akle  ol  the  bone),  tb* 
cheek  being  pulled  out  a  Mttle.  to  Icrm  a  tack  ot  fuand,  into  which 
the  mndkbie  la  pound,  a  little  at  a  tloie,  aUowiuf  ■■  intaml  Bow 
and  again  [or  the  horae  Is  snUow.  If  aoy  of  the  Imd  gna  into  thi 
windpipe  (whfefa  It  b  liable  to  do  il  tbe  hod  ia  held  too  hkU,  it 
wIU  cauae  cou^kbig,  whereupoo  the  bead  iboukl  be  inatantly  hmuid. 
Neither  the  tongue  aoe  the  aootrila  abould  be  inteiftnd  with. 
Powdeit  may  be  given  in  a  little  maab  or  giuel.  well  atined  up.  or 

ir  a  wide  surUce  it  id  be  fomeiiled  (aa  Ihe  cbnt,  abdocuen  or 
loins),  a  blanket  or  other  lBr|e  wn^len  doth  thouid  be  diffied  Ui 

, — « —  fc_.  __  .t^  1 1  p^m  conxlortably  bear  il,  moderately  wrung 

—   .1..  i —  —J  — : \,ma  retained 


out  and  applied  Id  the  part,  the  beat 
by  CDvBnna  it  with  a  watcrprool  abf 
kial  aome  ol  ila  beat,  it  thouid  be  ren 
and  mffun  nnilicd.   In 


infill' 
bltle  botleri  and.  to  avoid  tl 


it  iereiiiovod.it  may  lie  aecuied  round  the  body  by  wewvaoc  twine. 
the  hoc  water  beins  poored  co  the  outaide  of  the  top  part  of  thn 
blankw  by  any  conveniant  vi  tl.  To  foment  Ibe  feet,  they  tboiikl  be 
placsd  u  a  buckit  or  tub  (thelaturwith  the  bottomRttinf  wholly 
oo  the  groond)  containiiig  warm  water  j  a  quantily  of  noaa  litter  put 
in  the  tub  or  backet  ptewiBta  iplaalunaand  retama  the  heal  kwer. 
Pouhicea  an  lued  for  allaying  pala.  aeflening  horn  or  other 
tittuea.  and,  when  antiinti^  '^'"■^t  and  pnAoting  healthy 
actun  ia  wooBda.  To bebenefieial  Ihay  ibonM be laige  __._ 
and alwaye hn« molit.  FarappJyhupdultictttathereet,  PeoVM^ 
a  lacce  <J  aadcinf,  or  better  a  poullice-boal.  aopplied  tqr  aaildlent 
may  ha  need  trioi  advantage.  PouUIcea  ue  usually  made  with 
bvu,  though  Chit  haa  the  diaadvamage  of  dicing  quickly,  to  prevent 
wbich  it  may  be  mined  with  liaaeod  meal  or  a  little  linieed  oiL 


Acbarnl 


....  _. ,  be  mined  with  lit 

Antiaepcic  poulticta  oontaiaing  lyaol.  leal,  ca 

— ~veryuaefuliB  thceaily  Ircalmeiitcf  Inula--      _,._ . 

' — Hd  pouiticaitaoiBetiineanmpkmd  when  tncie  iaanolfeiH 

be  got  fid  of .    It  it  made  by  mijdng  liaaeed  ineni  n 

rater  aad  Btirnug  until  a  aoft  maaa  it  produced;  with  thia 
od  ehanoal  la  powder  it  mfamd.  and  when  rwly  to  ba 
ome  BKm  dursoal  ia  ipriakled  on  the  lurlace.    It  may  be 

_at,  in  Ilea  of  th«ao  materiaU  for  poulticre,  epongiopdiae 

can  be  uaefuUy  onplDywI.  A  pins  at  euBdent  aia  it  iteeped 
ia  hot  •atar,  applied  to  the  part,  anend  with  oiled  ailk  or  waier- 
pmol  kbecting.  and  aecund  by  taper.  Evea  aa  ordinary  apDage. 
■aeped  ia  hot  water  and  covtt'ed  with  waterproof  material,  makaa 
a  good  poulticing  nK^um;  it  ia  well  adaptHi  for  the  throal,  Ihc 


lo  empty  the  para 


bowela.    Vbey  can  be  admlni 


^Ac., 


ight  angle,  ^a 
J  may  oe  canHoyed,  To  adminia 
horte'i  fon  feet  tbouk]  be  heM  .r.  ■ 


lard,  verygenlly  an 


SS 


8 


VETERINARY  SaENCE 


Any* 


The  efrfzaotfe  diieases  affecting  tlie  horse  are  not  namerous,  and 
may  getiienilly  be  considered  aa  spedfic  and  infectioas  or  contagious 
-  .  „  in  their  nature,  circumstances  of  a  favourable  kind  leaidine 
^doo^  to  their  extension  by  propagation  of  the  a^t  upon  which 
2^^°**  their  existence  depends.  This  agent,  u  most  of  the 
|!|f!,  ,-  maladies,  has  been  proved  to  be  a  micro-oraanism,  and 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  is  to  for  all  of  them. 

Glanders  iq.v.),  or  e^uinia^  one  <tf  the  most  serious  maladies  of 
the  horse,  ass  and  mule,  prevaUs  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  ^vorld. 
It  Is  a  contagious,  inoculable  disease,  caused  by  the  bacillus 
mattei,  and  specially  affects  the  lungs,  respiratory  mucous 
membrane  and  the  lymphatic  system.  The  virulent 
agent  of  glanders  appears  to  establish  itself  most  easily  among 
horses  kept  in  foul,  crowded,  badly  ventilated  stables,  or  among 
>uch  as  are  over-worked,  badly  fed  or  debilitated.  Glanders, 
however,  is  always  due  to  contagion,  and  in  natural  infection  it 
may  be  contractra  by  inhalation  of  the  bacilli,  by  ingestion  of  the 
virus  with  food  or  water,  or  by  inoculation  of  a  wound  of  the  skin 
or  a  mucous  membrane.  Carnivorous  animals — lions,  tigers,  dogs 
and  cats — have  become  infected  through  eating  the  flesh  of  glandcrra 
horses;  and  men  attending  diseased  horses  are  liable  to  be  infected, 
upecialf^r  if  they  have  sores  on  the  expdsed  parts  of  their  bodies. 
Tnou^  in  man  infection  through  wounds  is  the  readiest  way  of 
leceiving  the  disease,  the  bacillus  may  also  obtain  access  through 
the  digestive  organs,  the  lungs  and  mucous  membranes  of  the  eyes, 
nose  and  lips. 

In  descriptions  of  the  cc|utne  disease  sometimes  a  distinction  is 
made  between  glanders  with  nasal  ulcers  and  other  symptoms  of 
respiratory  disease,  and  glanders  of  the  skin,  or  farey,  but  there  is 
no  essentia]  difference  between  them.  Glanders  and  farcy  are  due 
to  the  same  causal  organism,  and  both  may  be  acute  or  chronic. 
Acute  glanders  is  always  rafndly  fital,  and  chronic  glanders  may 
become  acute  or  it  may  terminate  by  apparent,rccovery. 

The  symptoms  of  acute  glanders  are  initial  (ever  with  its  accom- 
fianinients,  thirst,  kMs  of  appetite,  hurried  pulse  and  respiration, 
emaciation,  languor  and  disincli||ition  to  move.  Sometimes  the  Ic^ 
or  joints  are  swollen  and  the  horse  is  utiff ;  but  the  characteristic 
symptoms  are  a  greyish-yellow  viscid  dischar^  from  one  or  both 
nostrils,  a  peculiar  enlarged  and  nodulated  condition  of  one  or  both 
submaxillary  lymphatic  glands,  which  though  they  may  be  painful 
very  rarely  suppurate,  and  on/th^  luual  membrane  small  yellow 
frimples  or  pustules,  nmning  into  deep,  ragged-edged  ulcers»  and 
sometimes  on  the  septum  large  patches  of  aeep  iiTceration.  The 
discharge  from  the  nose  adheres  to  the  nostrils  and  upper  lip,  and 
the  infiltrated  nasal  lining,  impedinji;  breathing,  causes  snuffling 
and  frequent  snorting.  The  lymphatic  vessels  of  the  face  are  often 
involved  and  appear  as  painful  subcutaneous  "cords"  passing 
across  the  cheek.  These  vessels  sometimes  present  nodules  which- 
break  and  discharge  a  glutinous  pus.  As  the  disease  progresses, 
the  ulcers  on  the  nose  increase  in  number,  enlarge  or  become  con- 
fluent, extend  in  depth  and  sometimes  comF^etdy  perforate  the 
septum.  The  nasal  dischaive,  now  more  abundant  and  tenacious, 
is  streaked  with  blood  and  offensive,  the  respiration  is  noisy  or 
roaring,  and  there  may  be  coughing  with  bleeding  from  the  nose. 
PlainflU  oedematous  swellings  appear  on  the  muzzle,  throat,  between 
the  fore  legs;  at  the  flank  or  on  the  limbs, -and  "  farcy  buds  "  may 
form  on  some  of  the  swollen  parts.  Syrnptoms  of  congestioii  <x 
the  lungs,  or  pneumonia  and  pleurisy,  with  extreme  prostration, 
diarrhoea  and  gasping  respiration,  precede  death,  which  is  due  to 
asphyxia  or  to  exhaustion. 

Chronic  or  latent  glanders  generally  presents  feW  definite  symptoms. 
The  suspected  animal  may  have  a  discharge  from  the  tk>se,  or  an 
enlargea  submaxillary  gland,  or  both,  and  small  unbroken  nodules 
may  exist  on  the  septum,  but  usually  there  is  no  visible  ulceration 
of  the  nasal  membrane.  In  some  horses  suspferan  of  glanders  may 
be  excited  by  lameness  and  sudden  swdling  .of  a  joint,  bv  profuse 
staling,  sluggishness,  loss  of  condition  and  general  unthnftiness, 
of  by  ref unu  of  food,  rise  of  temperature,  swollen  fetlocks,  with 

Sr  hacking  cough,  nasal  catarrh  and  other  symptoms  of  a  common 
d.  With  rest  in  the  stable  the  horse  improves,  but  a  one-sided 
nasal  discharge  continues,  the  submaxillary  gland  enlarges,  and, 
after  an  interval,  ulcers  appear  in  the  nose  or  "  farcy  buds  "  form 
on  a  swollen  leg.  In  occult  glandere  the  horse  may  appear  to  be 
in  good  health  and  be  able  to  perform  ordinary  work.  In-  these 
cases  the  existence  of  glanders  can  only  be  discovered  by  resorting 
to  inoculation  or  the  rnallein  test 

I  In  cutaneous  glanders,  or  farcy,  .symptoms  occur  on  the  skin  of 
a  limb,  usually  a  hind  one,  or  on  the  body,  where  the  lymphatics 
become  inflamed  >and  ulcerated.  The  limb  is  much  swollen,  and 
the  animal  moves  with*  pain  and  difficulty.  The  lymphatic  vessels 
appear  as  prominent  lines  or  "cords,"  hard  and  painful  on  manipula- 
tion, and  along  tlieir  course  arise  nodular  swellings — the  so-called 
"  farcy  buds. "  These  small  abscesses  break  and  discharge  a  yellow, 
glutinous,  blood-stained  pus,  leaving  sores  which  heal  very  slowly. 
There  is  a  rise  of  temperature  with  other  symptoms  of  constitutional 
disturbance. 

Medkal  treatment  of  glanders  or  farcy  should  not  be  attempted. 
The  disease  is  dealt  with  under  the  Contagious  Diseases  (Animals) 
Acts.    Hocscs  which  present  suspicious  symptoms,  or  those  which 


have  been  fai  contact,  or  have  stood  in  the  same  stable  with  glandmd 
horses,  should  be  isolated  and  tested  with  mallein.  Animals  which 
are  found  affected  should  immediately  be  destroyed,  and  their 
harness,  clothing  and  the  utensils  employed  with  them  thoroughly 
cleansed,  while  the  stalls,  horse-boxes  arul  places  which  the  horses 
have  frequented  should  be  disinfected.  Forage  left  by  glandered 
horses  should  be  burned  or  fed  to  cattle. 

Mallein,  which  u  almost  indispensable  in  the  diMnosis  of  latent 
glanders,  was  discovered  in  1888  by  Helman,  a  Russian  military 
veterinary  surgeon,  and  the  first  complete  demonstration  of  its 
diagnostic  value  was  given  in  18^1  by  Kalning,  also  of  Russia, 
^allein,  prepared  for  the  diagnosis  of  glandere  m  animals,  is  the 
sterilised  and  filtered  liquid-culture  of  glandere  bacillL  It  ther^ 
fore  does  not  contain  even  dead  bacilli,  but  it  has  in  solution  certain 
substances  which  are  added  to  the  liquid  by  the  bacilli  during  their 
growth  (McFadyean).  Employed  under  proper  precautions  and 
subcutaneously  injected  in  a  glandered  noree,  mallein  causes  a 
marked  rise  ot  temperature  and  an  extensive  painful  swelling  at 
the  seat  of  injection. 

Epizootic  lymphangitis  is  a  omtagions  eruptive  disease  of  the 
horse  caused  by  the  crypioeoccus  ^arciminosus,  and  characterined 
by  nodular  swelling  and  suppuration  of  the  superficial  rgftgtMtt 
lymphatics.  Infection  can  be  transmitted  by  mediate  £wAfta«« 
or  immediato  contagioiL  The  eruption  usually  appean  ^^^^ 
on  the  limbs,  but  it  may  occur  on  the  body  or  on  the  head 
and  neck.  The  symptoms  closely  resemble  those  of  cutaneous 
glandere  or  farcy,'  from  which  this  disease  may  readily  be  distin* 
guishcd  by  microscopic  examination  of  the  pus  dischaiged  from  the 
sores,  or  by  testing  the  horse  with  mallein.  Glandere  and  epizootk: 
lymi^ngitis  may  coexist  in  the  same  animal.  It  is  a  scheduled 
cusease,  and  treatment  should  not  be  attempted. 

Strangles  b  a  specific  contagious  eruptive  fever  peculiar  to  horses, 
and  is  more  especially  incidental  to  young  animals.  It  is  partscu* 
lariy-charactermd  by  the  formation  of  abscesses  in  the  stnaaltMm 
lymphatic  j^lands,  chiefly  those  between  the  branches  of  ^"^"v^** 
the  lower  jaw  (submaxillary).  Various  causes  have  been  ascribed 
for  its  production,  such  as  change  of  young  horses  from  field  to 
stable,  from  grass  to  dry  feeding,  from  idleness  to  hard  work, 
irritation  of  teething,  and  change  of  locality  and  climate.  But  the 
sole  cause  is  infection  by  the  strangles  streptococcus.  Languor  and 
feverishnesB,  diminution  <A  appetite,  cough,  redness  of  the  nasal 
membrane,  with  discharge  from  the  eyes  and  nose,  and  thirst  are 
amon^  the  eariiest  symptoms.  Then  there  is  diflkulty  in  swallowing, 
coincident  with  the  development  of  swelling  between  the  branches 
of  the  lower  jaw,  which  often  causes  the  water  in  drinking  to  be 
returned  through  the  nose  and  the  masticated  food  to  be  dropped 
from  the  mouth.  The  swelling  is  hot  and  tender,  diffused,  and  uni- 
formly rounded  and  smooth;  at  firet  it  is  hard,  with  soft,  doughy 
margins;  but  later  it  becomes  soft  in  the  centre,  where  an  abscess 
is  formliig,  and  soon  "points  "  and  burets,  giving  exit  to  a  quantity 
of  pus.  Relief  is  now  experiencoi  by  the  animal;  the  symptoms 
subside,  and  recovery  takes  place.  In  some  cases  the  swefling  is  so 
great  or  occura  so  dose  to  the  larynx  that  the  breathing  is  interfered 
with,  and  even  rendered  so  difficult  that  suffocation  is  threatened. 
In  other  cases  the  disease  assumes  an  irregular  form,  and  the  swelling, 
instead  of  softening  in  the  centre,  remains  hard  for  an  indefinite 
time,  or  it  may  subskje  and  abscesses  form  in  various  parts  of  the 
body,  sometimes  in  vital  organs,  as  the  brain,  lungs,  liver,  kidneys, 
&c.,  or  in  the  bronchial  or  mesenteric  glands,  where  they  generally 
produce  seriousconscquenccs.  Not  unf  rcquen  tly  a  pustular  eruption 
accompanies  the  other  symptoms.  The  malady  may  terminate 
in  ten  days  or  be  protracted  for  months,  sometimes  terminating 
fatally  from  complications,  even  when  the  anim«d  is  well  nursed  and 
kept  in  a  healthy  stable. 

Good  nureing  is  the  chief  part  of  the  treatment.  The  strei^tli 
should  be  maintained  by  soft  nutritk>us  food,  and  the  body  kept 
warm  and  comfortable;  the  stable  or  loose-box  must  have  plenty  of 
fresh  air  and  be  kept  clean.  The  swelling  may  be  fomented  with 
warm  water  or  poultked.  The  poultice  may  be  a  little  bag  con- 
taining bran  and  linseed  meal  mixed  with  not  water  and  applied 
warm  to  the  tumefaction,  being  retained  there  by  a  square  piece 
of  calico,  with  holes  for  the  care  and  eyes,  tied  down  the  middle  of 
the  face  and  behind  the  ears.  If  the  breathing  is  disturbed  and 
noisy,  the  animal  may  be  made  to  inhale  steam  from  hot  water  in 
a  bucket  or  from  bran  mash.  If  the  breathing  becomes  very  difficult, 
the  windpi^  must  be  opened  and  a  tube  inserted.  Instead  of  the 
swelling  oeinf^  poulticed,  a  little  blistering  ointment  is  sometimes 
rubbed  over  it,  which  hastens  pointing  of  the  abscess.  ^  When  the 
abscess  points,  it  may  be  lanced,  though  sometimes  it  is  better  to 
allow  it  to  break  spontaneously. 

It  is  important  to  distinguidi  strangles  from  glanders,  and  the 
distinction  Can,  with  certainty,  be  ascertained  by  resorting  to  the 
rnallein  test  for  glanders,  or  by  microscopical  examinatiott  of  the 
pus  from  the  strangles  abscess. 

Under  influenza  several  diseases  are  sometimes  included,  and  in 
different  invasions  it   may   (and  doubtless  does)   assume  vary- 
ing forms.     It  is  a  specific  fever  of  a  low  or  asthenic  jggg^ggg^ 
type,  associated  with  inflammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane lining  the  air-passages,  and  also  sometimes  with  that  of 


VETERINARY  SCTENCE 


iMfier  Ofgftiu.  At  various  times  ft  hai  prevnilcd  extensively  over 
different  parts  of  the  worid,  more  especially  during  the  l8th  and 
19th  centuries.  IVrhaps  one  of  the  most  widespread  outbreaks 
recorded  was  that  of  1873^  on  the  American  continent.  It  usually 
radiates  from  the  district  m  which  It  first  appears.  The  8>'mptom8 
have  been  enumerated  as  follows:  sudden  attack,  mark«l  by  ex* 
treme  debtlitjr  and  stupor,  with  iik:reaaed  body-temperature,  quick 
weak  pulse,  rigors  and  cold  extremities.  The  head  u  pendent,  the 
eyelids  swollen  and  half  closed,  eyes  lustreless,  and  tears  often 
flowing  down  the  face.  There  is  great  disinclination  to  move;  the 
body  swavs  on  the  animal  attempting  to  walk :  and  the  limb-joints 
«racK.  The  appetite  Is  lost  and  the  mouth  is  hot  and  dry;  the 
bowels  afe  tonstipated  and  the  urine  scanty  and  high-coloured; 
there  is  ncaHy  always  a  deep,  painful  and  harassing  cough;  on 
auscuHation  of  the  chest,  crcjpitatibiri  ot*  harsh  blowing  sounds  are 
audible;  and  the  membrane  lining  the  eyelids  and  nose  assumes 
either  a  bright  pink  colour  or  a  dull  leaden  hue.  A  white,  yellowish 
or  gr^nbh<oloured  discharge  flows  from  the  nostrils.  In  a  few 
days  the  fever  and  other  symptoms  subside,  and  convalescence 
rapidly  sets  in.  In  unfavourable  cases  the  fever  incpcases,  as  well 
as  the  prostration,  the  breathing  becontts  laboured,  the  cough  more 
painful  and  deep,  and  aMScultatiQft  and  percusston  indkate  that  the 
lungs  are  seriously  Involved,  with  perhaps  the  ()teura  or  the  heart. 
Clots  sometimes  form  in  the  latter  otclii,  ana  Quickly  bring  about  a 
fatal  termii»tk)n.  When  the  lungs  do  not  suffer,  the  bowels  may, 
am)  with  this  complication  there  are,  in  addition  to  the  stupor  and 
torpor,  tension  ana  tenderness  dP  the  abdominal  walls  when  pressed 
upon,  manifestations  of  colic,  great  thirst,  a  coated  tongue^  yellow- 
ness of  the  membranes  of  nose  ami  eyes,  high-coloured  unne,  con- 
stipation, and  dry  faecea  covered  with  mucus.  Sometimes  rheu*^ 
matic  swelling  and  tenderness  takes  place  in  the  mosctes  and  joints 
of  the  limbs,  whfch  rn^y  persist  for  a  long  time,  often  shifting  fram 
leg  to  t<»,  and  involving  the  dieaths  <A  tendons.  At  other  timoa 
acute  inflammation  of  tte  eyes  supervenes,  or  even  paralysis. 

In  this  disease  good  nursing  is  the  chief  factor  in  the  treatment. 
Comfortable,  clean  and  airy  stables  or  loose-boxes  should  be  pro- 
vided, and  the  warmth  of  the  body  apd*  limbs  maintained.  Cold 
and  damp,  fotd  air  and  uncleanliness,  are  aa  inlmKal  to  health  and 
as  antagonistic  to  recovery  as  in  the  case  of  mankind.  In  influenaa 
It  has  been  generally  found  that  tho  lex  medfcine  the  sick  animal 
receives  the  more  likely  it  is  to  recover.  Nevertheless,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  adopt  such  medkatl  measures  aa  the  following.  For 
constipation  administer  enemata  of  warm  water  or  give  a  dose  of 
Unseca  oil  or  salines.  For  fever  give  quinine  or  mild  febrifuee 
diuretics  (as  Ikiuor  of  acetate  of  ammonia  or  spirit  of  nitrous  ether), 
and,  if  there  is  oough  or  nervous  excitement,  anodynes  (such  as 
extract  of  belladonna^  \Vhen  the  fever  sabsides  and  the  prostration- 
ia  great,  it  may  be  necessary  to  give  stimulants  (carbonate  of 
ammonia,  nitxoua  ether,  aromatic  ammonia) -and  tonks,  both  vcse* 
table  (gentian,  quassia,  calumba)  and  mineral  (iron,  copper,  arsenic). 
Some  veterinary  surgeons  administer  large  and  frequent  doses  of 
quinine  from  tne  onset  of  the  disease,  and,  it  is  asserted,  with 
excellent  effect.  If  the  abdominal  oigans  are  chiefly  Involved, 
demulcents  may  supplement  the  above  (linseed  boiled  to  a  jelly, 
to  which  salt  ma^r  be  added,  is  die  moat  convenient  and  best),  and 
drugs  to  allay  pain  (as  opium  and  chloral  hydrate).  Olive  oil  is  a 
safe  bxative  in  such  cases.  When  nervous  symptoms  are  mani- 
fested, it  may  be  necessary  to  apply  wet  cloths  and  vinegar  to  the 
head  and  neck;  even  blisters  to  the  neck  have  been  recommended. 
Bromide  of  potassium  has  been  beneficially  employed.  -  To  combat 
inflammation  of  the  throat,  chest  or  atxiomen,  counter-irritants 
may  be  resorted  to,  such  as  mustard,  soap  liniment  or  the  ordinary 
white  liniment  composed  of  oil  of  turpentine,  solution  of  ammonia 
and  olive  oil.  The  lood  should  be  soft  mashes  and  grud  of  oatmeal, 
with  carrots  and  green  food,  and  small  and  freauent  quantities  of 
scalded  oats  in  addition  when  convalescence  haa  been  established. 

Dtourine,  maladie  du  coii,  or  covering  disease  of  horses,  is,  a 
contagious  malady  caused  by  the  Trj^pSnosoma  eguiptrdum,  and 
Daai^  characleriaed  by  specific  lesions  of  the  male  and  female 
lg^\f  genital  organs^  the  lymphatic  and  central  nervous  sys- 
csivrtec  tems.  It  occurs  in  Arabia  and  continental  Europe,  aiod 
^mu*t  has  recently  been  carried  from  Fsanoe  to  the  United  States 
of  America  (Moatana,  Nebraska,  the  Dakotas,  Iowa  and 
Illinois)  and  to  Canada.  In  some  of  its  featmes  it  resembles  human 
syphilis,  and  it  u  propagated  in  tlie  same  manner.  From  one  to 
ten  days  after  coitus,  or  in  the  stallion  not  unfrequently  after  some 
wcelcs,  there  is  irritation,  swelling  and  a  livki  redness  of  the  external 
organs  of  generatkm  (in  staUioos  the  penis  may  shrink),  followed 
by  unhealthy  utoers,  which  appear  in  auccesanre  crops,  often  at 
considerable  intervals.  In  mares  these  are  near  the  dttoria,  which 
is  frequently  erected,  -and  the  animals  rub  and  switch  the  tail 
about,  betraying  uneasiness.  In  horses  the  eruption  is  on  the 
penis  and  sheath.  In  the  milder  forms  there  is  little  oonstitutk>nal 
disturbance,  and  the  patients  may  recover  in  a  period  varying  from 
two  .veelcs  to  two  months.  In  the  aevere  forms  tlte  local  swell- 
ing increases  by  intermittent  stepa.  In  the  mare  the  vulva  is  the 
aeat  of  a  deep  violet  cot^ieBtion  and  extensive  ukeration;  pustules 
appear  on  the  perinaeum.  tail  and  between  the  thighs;  the  lips  of 
the  vulva  «iis  ported,  exposing  the  irreguhv,  nodular,  pudoKed, 


ulcerated  and  lardaceoua-lookinig  muoous  membrane.  -  If  tlie  1 
happen  to  be  pregnant,  abortion  occurs.  In  all  cases  cmaciatloa 
sets  in;  lameness  of  one  or  more  limbs  occurs;  great  debility  ia 
manifested,  and  this  runs  on  to  paralysis,  when  d^th  ensues  after 
a  miserable -existence  of  from  four  or  five  months  to  two  yean. 
In  horses  swelling  of  the  sheath  may  be  the  only  symptom  for  a 
long  time,  even  for  a  year.  Then  there  may  follow  dark  patches 
of  cxtravasated  blood  on  or  swellings  of  the  penis;  the  testklcs 
jnay  become  tumefied;  a  dropsical  engorgement  extends  forward 
beneath  the  abdomen  and  chest;  the  lymphatic  glands  in  different 
parts  of  the  body  may  be  enlarged;  pustules  and  ulcers  appear 
on  the  skin;  there  is  a  discharge  from  the  eyes  and  nose;  emacia- 
tion becomes  extreme;  a  weak  and  vacillating  movement  of  the 
posterior  limbs  gradually  increases,  as  in  the  ~mare,  to  paralysis; 
and  after  from  tiiree  months  to  three  y^rs  death  puts  an  end  to 
loathsomeness  and  great  suffering.  This  malady  appcan  to  be 
spread  only  by  the  act  of  coition.  The  indications  for  its  suppre^ 
sion  and  extinction  are  therefore  obvious.  They  are  (i)  to  |>ncvent 
diseased  animals  coming  into  actual  contact,  especially  per  coUvm^ 
with  healthy  ones;  (a)  to  destroy  the  infected;  awl  (3)  as  an  addi- 
tional precautionary  measure,  to  thoroughly  cleanse  and  disinfect 
the  stables,  ck>thing,  utensib  and  implements  used  for  the  cick 
hone.  Various  medkines  have  been  tried  in  the  treatment  of 
slowly  developing  cases  of  dourine,  and  the  most  successful  remedy 
is  avoxyl>-«  preparation  of  arsenic 

Hons-pox,  wmch  is  somewhat  rare,  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  identical 
with  cow-pooc,  being  undistinguishable  when  inoculated  on  men 
and  cattle.  It  most  frequently  attacks  the  limbs,  though  nanrnm 
it  may  appear  on  the  face  and  other  parts  of  the  body.  ^j^ 
There  is  usually  alight  fever;  then  avclHng,  heat  and  '^" 
tendoness  are  manifest  in  the  part  which  is  to  be  the  seat  of  enip>' 
tioii,  usually  the  heels;  firm  nodules  form,  increasing  to  one-third 
or  one-half  an > inch  in  diameter;  the  hair  becomes  erect;  and  the 
skin,  if  light-cdoured,  chanses  to  an  intense  ledk  On  the  ninth  to 
the  twelfth  day  a  Kmpld  fluU  ooaes  from  the  surface  and  mats 
the  hain  together  in  yellowish  scabs;  when  one  of  these  is  removed, 
there  is  seen  a  red,  raw  depression,  whereon  the  scab  was  fixed.  In 
three  or  four  days  the  artists  fall  off,  and  the  sores  heal  spontaneously. 
No  medical  treatment  is  needed,  cleanliness  facing  requisite  tb 

Erevent  the  pocla  becoming  sloughs^     If  the  inflammation  runs 
tgh,  a  ^nak.  solution  of  cari>olic  add  may  be  employed^ 

Diseases  of  CattU, 

The  diseases  of  the  bovine  species  are  not  so  numerous  as  those 
of  the  hone,  and  the  more  acute  contagious  maladies  are  dealt 
with  under  RindbupEST  and  other  articles  already  mentioned. 

Tuboculosb  is  a  most  formidable  and  widespread  disease  of 
cattle,  and  it  is  assuming  greater  proportions  every  year,  in  oont> 
sequence  of  the  absence  of  l<^islative  measures  for  its  xoitt* 
suppression.  It  is  a  specific  disease,  contracted  throt'gh  culMA 
Qonabitatlon,  and  caused  by  the  Bacillus  hiberculosist  du- 
covered  by  Koch  in  1882.  Infectk>n  takes  place  by  inhalation  of 
the  bacilb  or  their  spores,  derived  from  the  dried  expectorate  or 
other  diacharges  of  tuberculous  animals;  by  in^tion  of  the 
badlli  carried  in  food,  nuik  or  water,  or  by  inoculaaon  of  a  wound 
of  the  ridn  or  of  a  mucous  or  aerous  membrane.  Occasionally 
the  disease  is  transmitted  by  an  infected  female  to  the  foetus 
in  uterok,  Its  infective  properties  and  communicability  to  other 
species  render  it  a  serious  danger  to  mankind  throuni  the  con- 
sumption of  the  milk  or  flesh  of  tuberculoua  cowa.  The  organs 
chiefly  involved  are  the  lymphatic  glands,  lungs,  liver,  intestine 
and  tne  serous  membranes-^the  characteristk  tuberclea  or  "  grapes  " 
varying  in  sise  from  a  miltet  seed  to  immense  mass^  weighing 
several  pounds.    The  large  diffused   i|odular  growths  are  lound 

{>rindpally  ia  the  chest  and  abdomen  attached  to  the  membranee 
ining  these  cavities. 

The  symptoms  somewhat  resemble  those  of  contagious  pleuro- 
pneumonia iq.v.)  in  its  chronk  form,  though  tubercks,  sometimes 
m  large  numbere,  are  often  found  after  death  in  the  bodies  of 
cattie  whkh  exhibited  no  sign  of  illness  during  life  and  whkh  when 
killed  were  in  exoellent  condltk>n.  When  the  lungs  are  extensively 
involved  there  are  signs  of  constitvtknal  disturbance,  irregular 
appetite,  fever*  difficult  breathing,  dry  cough,  diarrhoea,  wasting 
and  debility,  with  enkirsed  throat  glanda,  and,  ia  milch  cows, 
variation  in  the  quantity  of  milk.  Auscultatkn  of  the  chest  dis- 
covere  dullness  or  absence  of  respiratory  sounds  over  the  affected 
parte  of  the  lungs.  If  the  animal  is  not  killed  it  becomes  more 
and  more  emaciated  from  anaemia,  respiratory  difikulty,.  defective 
nutritbn  and  profuse  diarrhoea.  TubercukMia  of  the  mammary 
glands  usually  b^na  as  a  slowly  devdoping,  painless,  nodular 
uiduration  of  one  quarter  of  the  udder.  The  milk  at  first  may  be 
normal  in  quantity  and  qudity,  but  later  it  becomes  thin  or  wstery 
and  assumes  a  blue  tint.  C^attle  with  tubercdar  lesions  unaltered 
by  retrogiesnve  changes  may  appear  to  be  in  an  ordinary  state 
or  health,  and  in  such  animals  the  exbtence  of  the  disease  can 
ody  be  discovered  by  resorting  to  the  tuberculin  test.  Tuber- 
culin, aa  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  diagnosis,  is  a  sterSiaed  culture 
of  tubercle  bacilli,  and  when  employed  with  proper  precautions, 
it  cauies  a  narked  am  of  temperature  in  affected  cattkii  but  in 


utnoit  iaportuicb  Aiunuli  pfoved  f»  oi  tuberculoui  i 
ibould  mlone  be  bred  fiom,  ud  thoie  found  dneued  Bbouli 
at  ooce  ompleuLy  ■Hnaatcd  or  tUughURd.  Before  host 
u  food  the  Eeih  diould^  weU cooLed. iiid  cbe mUk fcom  ti 
cuku  ran  ihould  be  boiled  01  bcaled  to  ■  umpenlure  of  I  a*  I 
Bladr-quarteTk  or  black-ki,  ha  ipccUic,  inoculable  diieue  « 

lowlvl» 

i4|79.  w4ieti  ii*  oatun  wiB  invati^tcd  by  AdoiiuE.  Co^ 

id  Tbomu,  who  :«iii«d  it  vyinptoiMtic  utbnx  (cWAin 

■«) — *  muloadinf  mime  w  >  difOLK  which  ie  poicctly 


VETERINARY  SaENCE 

Swaioa  o(  inil 


_.,  _  _,-  .__.(•  fMilly,  cm  wbn'nedial 
tneUHini  ia  pmupilv  applied.  Infcctioii  e  ' 
imtiiif  tB  pcDiecnve  laacuktkw  by  one  of 
duced  Sy  Artdnx.  Kitt  and  otben.  Tlw  i 
f  rod  (he  lesDn.  dnedt  lediiced  to  powder  aad 
mt  a  hi^b  leiiipefitMfc  and apure aihoK td  i 
are  entplayed  aa  ^acciriei.    Tbc  vi 

outly  at  tbe  tipof  IheuilorbduoauaiODuii^cr,   jmnumity 
for  (boul  cvefve  morlht. 

"      '  cxpulwa  ol  the  foetui  before  nabOity, 

^IiBk[edfnnilheo(he«,i[iWy(npRnaiit. 

and  ***mw,^mj  ukI  dliiiifectioa  immediately  retnted  to.  or  pninbly 
the  pntaant  oowi  ibould  be  quickly  mnoved  out  oC  the  ehcd  ana 
even  can  ibould  be  lalien  to  Inep  them  any  Cnm  theaflccted  oow 
aad  Iti  diecharteai  the  litter  aid  tke  aboited  loetw  beia(  bonied 
or  otberwiee  completely  deMiuyed.  and  the  cowehed  thgnuchly 
ditififected  with  quicldime-  To  pnwentfurtlrinfectioa,  the  hinder 
part*  c4  the  ia^an  coin  ihould  be  wailied  and  diuEected  fnn  tia^ 

lion  naiPDUtb  Ii  a  commoD  dteeaie  la  mil 
I  Inveatiftated  by  Nocard  add   Mollereau^ 


anoe.  but-li  leeo  in  quantlEy;  it  cunllca  quic 
mbied  with  food  miJk  produceactattinf ;  tbf 
vatery»  and  finatty  vucom,  yeUowiili  and  1 
the  teat  of  the  affected  quarter  laduration 
VEtcndi  upmrdi,  and  if  not  diedad  tbc  dii 


na  and  mAuAtty 

iked.    Pnveation 

by  watitiiK  and  diiinfectiH  the  udder  and  tut> 
t'  nanda  bwnc  and  afto-  miLkin;,  DieeetRl  ravw 
Kd,  Ibeir  milk  destnynl  or  boilKl  and  fed  Di  pigs. 


emia,  alio  IcDown  aa 


■faoukl  be  thonughly  deuuci 

fern,  tbnigh  neither  a  fi*ril „ 

quite  TBccnily  a  very  [atil  aflecdsfl  o{  dairy  cmra.     It  ii 
T~^  csuied  by  a  nervr^  pnnn  wlildi  Ii  Eomed  in  the  udder 

"""■  aaon  after  panuntianj  and.  acsnliiK  to  Schmidt,  tha 
laalniaun  the  cittulaliunnivlaBRtiecptditly,  the  central  itervnn 
'  '    a  km  ar^nt  all  tlie  of^ni  of  the 


body.    Tliia  dboie  usually „ ...„„.. 

few  daye  of  ao  eaay  labour  and  lekkmi  b^«c.the  third 

parturltioo.    En  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  ^ ' 

cow  becoitKC  excited  and  reatleta,  atmea  at 


ifttr  tahriu  the 


the  uddcT.  with  tb 

—  -■---  ' '-r  probably  owiiw  to  imp 

,   localitica  tbe  djaeam  a^r —  

beUera  which  have  recently  calved  on  certain  laime. 
Hien  la  uaually  a  ilifht  premoaitofy  levi 
- — ■  -"  1i  tlda  b  iuoDixded  by  •oow  dimv 
od  couulabili 

obfcrvrd  caaes  the  udder  u  hot  and  leader  on  manipulaiion  fco*  a 
day  or  two  pcTvuua  to  the  develcppmenl  of  amall  pcla-rcd  nodulea 
■boot  the  Me  at  peaa;  Iheae  iocreaae  in  dimciuiaBa  to  from  three- 
(bunlia  to  om  inch  in  diamelei  by  the  dahlh  or  tenth  day,  when 
their  ccntenla  have  become  fluid  and  they  preaent  a  depreaaed 
centre     Thia  fluu],  at   Ent  clear  and  Umnd,  beconva  yalowiah 

•haped  black  cniK.  which  tradu.illy  b«uinci  dcuched.  On  the 
teala.  owing  ID  the  handling  of  the  niilier  or  to  ihe  cov  lying  on 
the  hard  trouod  or  on  draw,  the  veaicJea  are  early  ruptured  and 
•area  are  fcnned.  which  often  prove  troublcaofne  and  may  cauta 
indanmation  of  tbc  udder- 

Actipomycnaia,  though  affecting  man.  honea.  piga  and  other 
eicalnci,  u  far  men  comman  in  the  bovine  aneciea.    Tbe  tunEU 
litdmHJHil  may  be  found 
varioua  mruof  tbe  body,  but 
cf  tha  )awai  upjser  and  low* 
nelghbDUrhood  of  theee,  aa  the  tongue,  che 
(landa  ia  Iti  viciiuty.    About  tht  head  the  di 
mence  with  lUght  eon  on  the  (uibi  or  muc 


alonfliide  decaying  teeth,  and  theic  catcnd 

a.    II  the  iaw  u  aSccled,  a  iaige  mundcd 

a  injia  n,  tbe  denie  outer  bone  becoming  abanrbed 

creaains  nft  growth  within.   Soon  Che  whole  becomca 

^  -Hirulent  diacharget  take  place,  in  which  are  found 

d.ydlowgmnuln  which  contain  the  funEuL   When 

iSeCtcd,  it  becnmea  enlarged  and  rigid;  hence  the 

me  the  aurface  of  trie  cegan  becomea  iilorralcd,  and 
«  or  nodulea  may  be  aeen  on  the  aurface.  Somctimca 
it  involved,  tbe  lipa  and  nonrila  becomiog  cwnilcn, 
vable,  often  rendaiog  reipiralion  dilTicult.  Around 
'  are  rounded  denie  iwelllngi.  Implicaliiifl  Ibe  abud^ 
ue  h  welMefincd  and  bT  alight  esent,  the  paru 
CRnwyed  by  the  knife,  wholly  or  partially.    It  the 


I  uaeful.    A  coune  of  P^ua^um 
Diuatti  at  Siccf. 


'  or  pardally.    ) 
Hihould  betk 


In  mild  gudmalu  to  90  or  93  K 

t"'"*f''  ihaald  be  tbeniiid.  ud , -^ 

pud>  ol  taUBBil  Ocni  or  linitrfl:  acidukud 
■llowed.    If  tlwn  ii  dauiliiiif  nl  Ibe  ikia  « tMa 

be  adopIKl  unl™  then  i<  icOEial  infection  over 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE 

'  vinMnt  ciHa.    Diniaed 
'    d.e^ieeUg 

^£«^  not 


frequently  in  bedLy  druHd»  low-lying,  nunhy  bod.  9xd  !■  f«uied 
tu-t^^^     br  the  Baaittu  titaoikonu-    iDTocdoa  appeuv  Id  be 

trcaa  putune.  Tba  dnua  begina  M  tbe  wk  or  bctwcn  tha 
dm  *ad  nadully  *n«ndi.  caudng  cbuwB  In  Ika  baiiB  and 
tendon^  with  suppvAEiDO,  degeaesatJoo  of  bom  ud  elougUiig. 
Tke  tyaipcom  in  linwiwa,  foot  or  leet  bat,  tender  ud  mllen 

at  the  connn:  the  ham  aaft  and  ntteo.    Allec'"'    '- ''ta 

feeding  may  nal  on  ibv  kneea.  or,  U  fore  and  hind  I  id. 

ihw  Tie  down  oiniuntly.     The  clan  miBt  be  IM 

inid  uadermn  horn  removed,  abacetaca  opened,  ar  jr- 

DUghly  dionfecred  and  protected  from  furtber  aa 

appropnate  buidage.    Some  csHi  nqoin  daily  (  all 

oficcud  feet  dwutd    receive   frequent    allcnlini  m 

numben  of  theep  am  attacked  they  ihould  be  ilowl'  gh 

■  ioDl-kath  conlaining  an  nmiKptic  loIiitiDn.     Pa  ch 

foDl-rot  ha»  been  nKitracted  ahould  be  avoided,  tl  cd 


•o;pe 


But  tbe  CanlBgiDLJI  1 


**•"         aa  well  am  immediile  coolagion;  the  riiua  lan  be  csnied 
by  appafenily  heali'        "      '  .......  .-.. 


J  inf^lBd  pi 

ai^tUng  which  hu  been  foileS'by  the  ibchji^  from  a  ducaK 
\Pi.  It  i«  EeneialLy  very  rapid  in  itt  coune.  death  ensuin^g  in  1 
very  (ew  dayi,  and  wbca  tke  animl  awcvivea,  recovery  a  pn 
timed.  After  eipowre  to  inlrclion  ihe-aidmal  eihibiu  aigni  c 
nines  by  dullneu,  wealmcu,  ihivcringa.  burying  itidi  in  the  liltei 
diancUnation  to  move,  ataggcrinfi  pit,  gr^l  Ihirct.  boi  dry  inoul 
los  ol  appetite,  and  incnaied  pute.  leipirallon  and  tempiratiir 

iacling  cough:  nausea  ■■  loHowcd  by  vomiting;  diarrhoea  nniuei 
the  hind  len  become  paralysed;  atupor  icu  in,  and  llie  &mxpi 
pcnahcA.     Treatment  •Kould  nor  be  aticmpied,     Nalihcaiion  c 

and  cover  with  quicVIime.     Diunfect  evciy^ing  that  may  hav 

Disaau  ef  Oe  Dot. . 
The  conrarioua  dimsea  of  the  dog  an  likeariie  very  few,  but 

the  one  which  attiacii  most  attention  ia  commoa  and  general!) 

m^^^,m        Thlm   U   B.h>,   i>   nrtp,.lar4u   lrn,.«n    »  Ai^^wnn^ 


dilferent  familiet  of  Carnivora  eppcBT  « 
attaciD  yMng  doga,  tcs  cHecta  being  ] 


»", 


noae,  at  fiT9t  dry  aad  har^h,  becomes  BiHarr 
wbkh  aoona  begin*  to  flow  [mm  the  nostril 
bcMU  at  the  eyet:  viuon  ia  more  or  leia  im 
aeo  pHa,  and  ofren  ihe  cornea  becomea  uke 
foiated.     There  il  a  coujih,  which  in  aome  ca: 


naplfeaoaoa   nanifot  Ihenudvta;  4iid 


DebiUty  being  the  iB___ 

tbe  Btrength  ehouH  be  maintained 
—  , u^t  j„^_  t^ 


rcftond  until  (ha  (ever  hn  run  iu 

et.  Pzepaiationa  of  qiddiK,  given  from  t^  commenmenl  of 
«  attack  in  a  little  wine,  lucn  aa  ahetry,  havv  proved  very  bav. 
JaL  Often  1  nihl  iaaattva  ii  nquind.  CompRcationa  ihovld  b* 
eated  aa  tbey  ariit.  Hm  diaaae  bein  eatrnnely  infectimta,  pre- 
lUtion  (faoud  bt  adopted  with  leganTtn  other  does.  Protective 
Hxineaand  antidlnonper  eeia  have  been  introduced  byUgaieRi, 
gMnaa,  niialfai  and  othtn,  but  their  action  I*  uncertaio. 
The  (ormtdable  aflictlea  known  aa  hydiophobia  (g^vO  or  rabiea  ia 

frltuipal  ParalSa  ef  DaniHic  Amiaali.' 
febapa  the  comnnneat , worm  inlisting  the  bone  la  iticani 

long;  fenialn  7  to  17  in.    Th^  are  found  in  almoat    hkank 
every  port  of  the  intotioe.  When  pment  in  cnniidcrable 
numbn  they  pivdiKe   alight  Inlenuiltent    colicky    ptiBi,   an 
unthrifty  coacEtiaa  of  the  diin,  with  Marina  coat.    AttbDUth  the 

'-  -*-"  not  improve  In  conditkn,  but  i>  "  tucked 

ftnv  rh*  principal  remetliea  la  a  mbanjie  ot 
eedoiC  Santonin,  lermiaaulphate, 
lemployid.   &IiFBfniaM  efinnm 
DC  paliiade  worm  ia  a  moderaie-Bied  nematode,  having  a  atiai^l 
biid7  with  a  *>me*ihal  globubl  head— malea  1  to  lila„  fem^ea 
T  t..  tn  >  in.  innr.   Thi>  worm  11  found  in  the  intesiiiK*,  eueeially 
im.    Tbe  embryoa  are  deveh^ed  ia  lb* 


emetic,  turpentine  and  finaeed 


egga  after  their  eapuluoo  from  the  hoM,  and  are  lodged  in  aui 
tntid,  where.  accoidinB  to  Cobbold.  they  change  their  fint  akin  „ 
about  three  weeka,  alter  •rbicta  they  pnhably  enter  Ihe  body  of 
an  intennediate  bearer,  vhcoce  they  arc  cnnvt^red  in  food  or  water 
to  the  di^Blvc  canal  of  the  hoiK,  tha  ultiAilc  boat.  Tbey  thea 
penetrate  tbe  mucovs  membnng  and  enter  tbe  blood  veiaeli,  ncic 
they  aiv  vmally  diSerentiated  aad  give  rlae  to  aneuiinB.  Aftir 
a  time  they  reaume  their  wanderinga  and  reach  the  itige  intcatine. 
where  they  form  amall  HbmiKaua  cyitt  and  rapidly  acquire  aaxual 
maturity.  Tbey  are  moat  danseitiiii  when  migmiim  Imm  nnn 
. ^i._    -n ,  found  in  theaBttrlor  a 


bBpan.and'in  thiaway  ijieembiyo  ia  carried  bv  the 

gntli  and  awalhjwed.    In  the  alomKh  the  embiTO 

ei  fma  a  bkiod-Rd  te  •  yiUowiib-brnwa 


ta 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE 


colour.  The  bot  remains  in  the  utonach  UU  the  following  omog, 
when  it  detaches  itself,  passes  into  the  food  and  is  dischaqeed  vdth 
the  faeces.  When  very  numerous,  hots  may  cause  symptoflu  of 
indigestion,  though  frequently  their  presence  in  the  stomach  is  not 
indicated  by  any  sign  of  ill-health.  They  are  difficult  to  dislodfe 
or  kill.  Green  focxl,  iodine,  naphthaHn,  hydrochloric  acid  and 
vegetable  bitters  have  been  recommended;  but  the  most  effective 
remedy  is  a  dose  of  carbon  bisulphide  given  in  a  gelatin  capsule, 
repeated  in  twelve  hours,  and  foUowed  twelve  hours  later  by  an 
aloetic  ball. 

Of  the  parasites  which  infest  cattle  and  sheep  mention  will  only 
be  made  of  DiUomum  Jupaticum,  or  common  fluke,  which  causes 
I  eaitfii  liver-rot  or  distomiasis,  a  very  fatal  disease  of  lambs  and 
"?f?~  sheep  under  two  years  old.  It  occurs  most  frequently 
auw^tp,  ^fter  a  wet  season  on  low-lying,  marshy  or  undiainodland, 
but  it  may  be  carried  to  other  pastures  by  sheep  which  have  been 
driven  through  a  fluke-infested  country,  and  sheep  allowed  to  graze 
along  di^es  by  the  roadside  may  contract  the  parasite.  For  a 
full  description  of  its  anatomy  and  development  see  Trematodes. 
Preventive  treatment  comprises  the  destruction  of  flukes  and 
snails;  avoidance  of  low-lying,  wet  pastures  draining  infested  land, 
and  top-dressing  with  salt,  gas-lime,  lime  water  or  soot ;  supplying 
sheep  with  pure  drinking  water;  placing  rock-salt  in  the  fields,  and 
providing  extra  food  and  a  tonic  lick  consisting  of  salt,  aniseed, 
(crrous  sulphate,  linseed  and  peas-meal. 

Husk,  boose  or  verminous  bronchitis  of  calves  b  caused  by 
Sirongyius  micrurust  or  pointed-tailed  strongyle,  a  thread-worm 
1  to  3  in.  long,  and  5..  ptdmonaris,  a  similar  but  smaller  nematode; 
and  the  corresponding  disease  of  shecf)  is  due  to  5.  filaria  and  5. 
ruffscens.  The  male  S.fhna  is  i  to  a  in.,  and  the  female  a  to  4  in. 
long.  They  are  white  m  c(4our  and  of  the  thickness  of  ordinary 
sewing  cotton.  The  5.  rufucens  h  thinner  and  shorter  than  S.  filaria 
and  its  colour  is  brownish  red.  The  development  of  these  strongyles 
is  not  accurately  known.  When  expelled  and  deposited  in  water  or 
moist  earth,  the  embryos  may  live  for  many  months.  Hoose  occurs 
in  spring  and  continues  until  autumn,  when  it  may  be  most  severe. 
In  sheep  the  symptoms  are  coughing,  at  first  strong,  with  Ions 
intervals,  then  weak  and  frequent,  leaving  the  sheep  distressed  and 
wheezing;  discharge  from  the  nose,  salivation,  occasional  retching 
with  expulsion  of  parasites  in  frothy  mucus,  advancing  emaciation, 
anaemia  and  wealcness.  In  calves  the  symptoms  are  similar  but 
less  acute.  Various  methods  of  cure  have  Seen  tried.  Remedies 
given  bv  the  mouth  are  seldom  satisfactory.  Good  results  have 
followea  fumigations  with  chlorine,  burning  sulphur,  tar,  &c.,^  and 
Intra-tracheal  injections  of  chloroform,  icKline  and  ether,  oil  of 
turpentine,  carbolic  add,  and  opium  tincture,  or  chloroform, 
ether,  creosote  and  olive  oil.  The  system  should  be  supported  with 
as  much  good  nourishing  food  as  possible. 

The  principal  parasites  which  infest  the  alimentaty  canal  of  cattle 
or  ^cep  are  strongyles  and  taeniae.  The  strongyfes  of  the  fourth 
stomach  arc  5.  conlortus,  or  twisted  wire-worm  (male  10  to  30  mm., 
female  20  to  30  mm.  long),  S.  conw^ntus  (female  10  to  13  mm.), 
5.  urviecmis  (female  10  to  12  mm.),  5.  gracilis  (female  3  to  4  mm.), 
and  an  unnamed  qiecie^  (female  9  mm.  long)  discovered  by 
McFadyean  in  1896.  In  the  contents  of  the  stomach  the  coHtortus 
may  easily  be  recognized,  but  the  other  parasites,  owing  to  their 
small  size  or  situation  in  the  mucous  membrane,  may  be  overkx>kcd 
in  an  ordinary  post-mortem  examination.  The  corUortuSt  which 
is  best  known,  mav  serve  as  the  type.  It  lives  on  the  blood  which 
it  abstracts  from  tne  mucous  membrane,  and,  according  to  the  state 
of  repletion,  its  body  may  be  red  or  white.  The  ova  of  this  worm 
are  discharged  in  the  faeces  and  spread  over  the  pastures  by  infected 
sheep.  The  ova  hatch  in  a  few  days,  and,  according  to  Ransom, 
within  a  fortnight  embryos  one-thirtieth  ci  an  inch  kmg  may  be 
found  encased  in  a  chitinokl  investment,  which  protects  ihom 
from  the  effects  of  excessive  cold,  heat  or  moisture.  When  the 
ground  Is  damp  and  the  temperature  not  too  low,  the  embryos 
creep  up  the  leaves  of  grasses  and  other  plants,  but  when  the 
temperature  is  below  40*^  F.  they  are  inactive  (Ransom).  Sheep 
feeding  on  infected  pasture  gather  the  young  worms  and  convey 
them  to  the  fourth  stomach,  where  they,attain  maturity  in  two  or 
thrse  weeks.^  In  wet  weather  the  embryos  may  be  washed  into 
ponds  and  ditches,  and  cattle  and  sheep  may  swallow  them  when 
drinking.  Strongyles  cause  k>ss  of  appetite.  Irritation  and  inflam- 
mation of  the  stomach  and  bowel,  diarrhoea,  anaemia,-  progressive 
emaciation,  and,  if  not  destroyed  or  expelled,  a  lingering  death  from 
exhaustion.  The  success  or  failure  of  medicinal  treatment  depends 
on  the  degree  of  infestation.  A  change  of  pasture  is  always  de- 
arable,  and  as  remedies  a  few  doses  of  oil  01  turpentine  in  hnsecd 
oil, -or  a  solution  of  lysol  or  cyllin,  and  a  powder  consisting  of  arsenic, 
ferrous  sulphate,  areca,  nux  vomica  and  common  salt  may  be  tried. 
The  ox  may  be  the  bearer  of  three  and  the  sheep  of  twelve  species 
of  taeniae,  and  of  these  the  commonest  is  Monitua  (taenia)  ex^iua, 
which  is  more  frequently  found  in  shc«>  than  in  cattle.  It  is  the 
fengcst  tapeworm,  being  from  6  to  30  ft.  in  sheep  and  from  40  to 
100  ft.  in  cattle.  Its  maximum  breadth  is  f  in.;  it  is  found  in  the 
small  intestine,  and  sometimes  in  sufficient  numbcre  in  lambs  to 
obstruct  the  bowel.  Infested  animals  are  constantly  spreading 
the  rfpcr  aegments  over  the  pastures,  from  which  the  ova  or  embryos 


are  gathered  by  sheep.    The  i^aiutOBit  an  luppctenoe,  diy 
wool,  weakness,  anaemia  and  diarrhoea  with  segiiieots  of  the 

in  the  faeces.    Various  drugs  have  been  prescribed  for  thcte|^ 

of  tapeworms,  but  the  most  useful  are  male  fern  extract,  turpeatin*. 
kamala,  kousso,  akies  and  linseed  oil.  Very  young  animals  should 
be  supported  by  dry  nourishing  food  and  tonics,  ^i^'Hl^g  salt  and 
ferrous  sulphate. 

The  principal  rMind-worms  of  the  intestine  of  rominaau  af« 
Ascarit  vitulomm,  or  calf  ascarid,  StramcHus  filicMU^  S.  wnfriqiwr, 
ScUrostomum  hypcstomumt  AnckylostoMMm  cemmum  mad  T  ' 
upkalus  afinis,  or  common  whip-worm,  which  sometinwi 

severe  symptoms  in  sheep.    For  a  full  account  of  the  lieiiiak^ 

of  Cystieeretu  howis,  or  beef  meaale,  the  larval  form  of  Tosma  st^^ute 
of  the  human  subject,  see  Tapeworms.  Another  bladder-worm, 
found  in  the  peritoneum  of  shen>  and  cattle,  b  CvMHetraa  Anum* 
ccUis,  or  slender-necked  hydatid,  tne  larval  form  of  Tatmia  ■sflniwifia 
of  the  dog.  It  seklom  produces  serious  lenon.  An  impotUMt 
hydatid  of  ruminaMs  in  Coenttrus  cerebralis,  which  psoducea.in  sherp, 
cattle,  goats  and  deer  pd  or  aturdy,  a  peculiar  allaction  of  the 
central  nervous  ayuem  characterized  by  congestion,  rorafTssiim  of 
the  brain,  vertigo,  inco-ordination,  and  other  aympCoina  of  oerebnK 
spinal  paralysis.  Thb  bladder-worm  b  the  cystic  tana  of  Taenia 
coenmrus  of  the  dog.  It  b  found  in  the  crmnial  cavity,  resttag  on  the 
bmin,  within  its  substance  or  at  its  base,  and  aometimea  in  thf* 
spinal  canal.  The  symptoms  vary  with  the  position  and  number  of 
the  vesicles.  In  an  onlinary  case  the  aninial  feeds  intermittently 
or  not  at  all;  appears  unaccountably  nervous  or  very  dull,  orare  or 
less  blind  and  deaf,  with  ^baed  eye,  dibted  pupil,  the  head  twisted 
or  inclined  always  to  one  side — that  occupied  by  the  cyst— nad  what 
moving  the  sheep  constantly  tends  to  turn  in  the  same  directioii. 
When  the  vesicle  is  deep-seated  or  within  the  cerebral  lobe,  the 
sheep  carries  the  head  low,  brings  the  feet  together  and  turns  round 
and  round  tike  a  dog  preparing  to  lie  down.  When  the  developing 
cyst  exerts  pressure  at  the  base  of  the  cerebellum,  the  sheep  re- 
peatedly falls  and  rolb  over.  In  other  cases  the  dibf  symptoms 
may  be  frequent  falling,  always  on  the  same  side,  high  trotting 
action  with  varying  length  of  step,  advancing  by  rearing  and  leaping, 
complete  motor  paralysis,  and  in  spinal  cases  posterior  par^ysua 
with  dragging  of  the  hind  limbs.  Medicinal  treatment  is  of  no  avail, 
but  in  some  cases  the  hydatid  can  be  removed  by  trephining  the 
skull.  Gid  may  be  prevented  by  attending  to  the  treatment  of  doga 
infested  with  the  tapeworm. 

The  helminthcs  of  the  pig,  although  not  very  detrimental  to^the 
animal  itself,  are  nevertheless  of  great  importance  as  regaixb  the 
cntozoa  of  man.  Allusion  must  be  made  to  7>tcAin«0a  ..  ^  . 
sbiraliSf  which  causes  trichinosis.  The  male  is  Ath,  *J*^ 
the  fcnnale  ith  in.  long,  and  the  embryos  A tfa  to  /ytn  in.  '^ 
The  ova  measure  Wnth  in.  in  their  long  oiametcr;  they  are  hatched 
within  the  body  of  the  female  worm.  When  scraps  of  trichinous 
flesh  or  infested  rats  have  been  ingested  by  the  pig,  the  cysts  cn^ 
closing  the  larval  trichinae  arc  dissolved  by  the  gastric^  juice  in 
about  eighteen  hours,  and  the  worms  are  found  free  m  the  intestine. 
In  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours  later  these  larvae,  having  under- 
gone certain  transformations,  become  sexually  mature:  then  they 
copulate,  and  after  an  interval  the  embryos  leave  the  body  of  the 
female  worm  and  immedbtdy  begin  to  penetrate  the  intestinal 
wall  in  order  to  pass  into  various  voluntary  muscles,  where  they 
become  encysted.  About  twelve  days  ebpse  from  the  time  they 
begin  their  wandering.  Usually  each  larva  is  enveloped  in  a  capsule, 
but  two  or  even  three  larvae  nave  been  found  in  one  investment. 
They  have  been  known  to  live  in  their  capsules  for  eighteen  months 
to  two  years. 

Cysiicercus  cdlulosae  Is  the  brval  form  of  Taenia  sothttH  of  man 
(sec  Tapeworms).  "Measly  pork"  b  caused  by  the  presence 
in  the  flesh  of  the  pig  of  this  entozoon,  which  b  bladder-like  in 
form.  It  has  also  been  discovered  in  the  dog.  Other  impoctant 
parasites  of  the  pig  are  Stephanurns  dentatus,  or  ciowft-tailed 
strongyle,  EektHornynckus  iitias,  or  thom-hcaded  worm,  Ascaris 


fuir,  or  pig  ascarid,  and  Stronfyhides  mis.  For  these  the  most 
useful  remMies  are  castor  oil  seras,  given  with  the  food,  and  <m1  of 
turpentine  in  milk,  foUovred  by  a  dose  of  Epsom  saUs. 

(X  all  the  domestkatcd  animals  the  dog  b  by  far  the  .most  fre> 
quently  infested  with  worms.  A  vei^  common  rovnd-worm  b 
A  scans  margit§ala  (3  to  8  in.  long),  a  variety  of  the  ascarid  .   .. 

(A,  mystax)  of  the  cat.  It  occurs  in  the  intestine  or  ih«r* 
stomach  of  younf^  dogs.  The  symptoms  areemadation*  ^^ 
drooping  belly,  irritable  skin,  irregular  appetite,  vomiting  the 
worms  in  mucus,  colic  and  diarrhoea.  The  treatment  coinprisci 
the  administration  of  areca  or  santonin  in  milk,  followed  by  a  dose 
of  purgative  medicine.  A  nematode,  Filaria  tmrntfu,  inhabits  the 
heart  of  the  dog,  and  its  brvae  may  be  found  in  the  blood,  cansing 
endocarditb,  obstruction  of  the  vessels,  and  fits,  ndiich  often  end 
in  death.  Spiroptera  sanguinoleiOa  may  be  found  in  the  dog 
encysted  in  the  wall  of  the  stomach.  Other  nematodes  of  the  dog 
are  Anckyiostomum  trigtmocepkalum,  which  causes  frequent  bkeding 
from  the  nose  and  pernicious  anaemb,  and  Trickocepkalms  iepnmm*' 
cuius,  or  whip-worm,  which  is  found  in  the  caecum.  The  dog 
harboura  eight  species  of  taeniae  and  five  species  of  BolkriaeepkatuM. 
Taenia  serrata,  about  3  ft.  in  length,  b  found  in  about  10%  of 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE 


«3 


Etfdbh  dofi,  most  fit^uently  in  sporting  does  and  tbow  etapSay^ 
<m  lanm,  owing  to  their  eating  the  viscera  ofrabbits,  &c.,  in  which 
the  larval  form  {Cysticereus  ptstformts)  of  thi»  tapeworm  dwells. 
T,  marginata  a  the  largest  cestode  of  the  dog.  It  varies  in  length 
from  5  to  9  ft.,  aad  ia  found  in  the  ainatt  intestine  of  30%  of  dogs  in 
Great  Britain;  its  cystic  form  (C  UnutcoUts)  occun  in  the  peritoneum 
of  sheep.  T.  cotnurus  causes  gid  in  sheep  as  previously  stated.  It 
seldom  exceeds  3  ft.  in  length.  Uogs  contraa  this  parasite  by  eating 
the  heads  of  sheep  infested  with  the  bladder-worm  {Coemtnts 
cerehrtUu).  Dipyltdimm  commfM,  T.  cvcwrtunna^  or  melon  seed 
tapeworm,  in  a  very  common  pnraMte  of  dogs.  It  varies  in  length 
from  3  to  IS  in.;  its  larval  form  {Cryplocyslts  tnckodtctis  et  fulicu) 
ia  found  in  the  abdomen  of  the  dog-6ea  {Pnlex  strraUeeps)^  the  dog- 
kmse  jThtkodttUt  kUtu)  and  in  the  flea  (P.  trraams)  of  the  human 
subiect.  The  dog  contracts  thia  worm  by  swallowing  fleas  or  lice 
containing  the  cryptocysts.  T  ecktnocoecits  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  other  tapeworms  fay  its  small  siac.  It  seldom  exceeds 
£^fn.  in  length,  and  consista  of  four  segments  including  the  head 
The  fourth  or  temunal  jwoglottis  when  ripe  b  larger  than  all  the 
rest.  Its  cystic  form  u  Eckuueouus  vetenmonan,  which  causes 
hydatid  disease  of  the  liver,  lungs^  and  other  organs  of  cattle,  pigs, 
sheep,  horses,  and  even  man.  This  affection  may  not  be  discovcnrd 
duriiw  life.  In  well-marked  cases  the  liver  is  much  defoancd. 
tfreialy  enlari^,  and  increased  In  weight,  in  the  ok  the  hydatid 
fiver  may  weigh  faom  50  to  100  lb  or  more.  Another  tapeworm 
iT,  serialis)  sometimes  occurs  in  the  small  intestine.  Its  cystic 
form  is  found  in  rodents.  Botknocephalns  Utus,  or  broad  tapeworm, 
about  i$  ft.  lon^  and  x  in.  broad,  is  found  in  the  intcstmc  01  the  dog 
and  sometimes  in  man.  Its  occprrence  appcare  to  be  confined  to 
OBtain  parta  of  the  Eurapeaa  continent.  Its  larval  form  is  met 
with  in  pike,  turbot.  tench,  perch,  and  other  fishes.  The  heart- 
shaped  bothriocephalus  {B,  cordatus)  infests  the  dog  and  man*  in 
Greenland.  For  the  eicpul^n  of  tapeworm  male  fern  extract  has 
been  found  the  most  effectual  agent;  areca  powder  in  linseed  oil, 
and  a  oomblnation  of  areca,  colocynth  and  jalap,  the  dose  varying 
acooiduig  to  the  age,  stae  and  condition  ol  the  dog,  have  also  proved 
benefidaL 

The  parasites  wliich  cause  numerous  skin  affections  in  the 
domesticated  animals  may  be  arranged  in  two  Ktoups,  viz. 
animal  peiasttes  or  DenmaUnn^  and  vcgetu>lc  parasites 
or  DermUophytes*  The  dcraatoma,  or  those  which 
produce  pruritus,  mange,  scab,  &c.,  are  lice,  fleas,  ticks, 
•CIU9  or  manse  mites,  and  the  larvae  of  certain  flies.  The  lice  of  the 
horse  are  Haematoptnus  maerocepkains,  Trichodecies  pilona  and 
T.  pMbacau;  those  of  cattle,  H.  enrysUmus,  or  laige  ox-louse, 
H*  wihitit  or  calf-louse,  and  T.  scaiaris,  or  amatt  os-loaae;  and  sheep 
may  be  attacked  by  T.  sphaerocephattu,  or  dieep'buse,  and  by  the 
louse-like  ked  or  fag  {Uelopkapu  annus)  which  belongs  to  the 
pupiparous  diptera.  Dogs  may  be  infested  with  two  species  of 
lioe,  H,  pUiterus  and  T.  Jwnf ,  and  the  {Mg  with  one,  H.  «rfw. 

Ticks  befcmg  to  the  family  Ixodidae  oithe  order  Acarina.  A  few 
species  have  been  proved  icspoosible'fbr  the  transmission  of  diseases 
caused  by  blood  parsntes,  and  this  knowledge  has  grratly  increased 
the  importance  of  ticks  in  veterinary  practice.  The  best  known 
ticks  are  Ixodts  rUinus,  or  castor-bean  tick,  and  /.  AcapogoRiu,  which 
are  fouad  all  over  Europe,  and  which  attack  dogs,  cattle,  sheep, 
deer  and  horses.  RkipiUphalus  anntdatust  oc  Texan  fever-tick  of 
the  United  States,  Rk.  decdoraius^  or  blue-tick  of  South  Africa,  and 
Rh.  australis^  or  scrub-tick  of  Australia,  transmit  the  parasite  of 
red  water  or  bovine  piroplasmosis.  JUu  appewduulalus  carries  the 
germs  of  East  Coast  lever,  Rk.  buna  b  the  bearer  of  the  parasite 
oi  ovine  pirophsmosis,  and  Rk.  evtrtsi  distributes  the  germs  of 
eouine  biliary  fever.  AmHyomma  kibraeum  conveys  the  parasite 
01  *'  heart-water  *'  of  cattle  and  sheep,  and  Haemaphysalu  kacki 
transmitstheparasiteofcaninepiroplasmosis.  Hyahmma aetypUum, 
or  Egyotian  tick,  Rh.  simms  and  Rk.  €apeiuitt  are  common  m  most 
parts  of  Africa. 

The  acari  of  itch,  scab  or  mange  are  species  of  Sarco/tks,  which 
burrow  in  the  skin;  PsoropUs,  which  puncture  the  skin  and  live 
on  the  surface  sheltered  by  hairs  and  scurf;  and  Ckoriopus,  which 
live  in  \»lonies  and  limply  pierce  the  epidermis.  Representatives 
of  thoe  three  genera  have  been  found  on  the  horse,  ox  and  sheep; 
varieties  of  the  first  genus  (Sarco^tes)  cause  mange  in  the  dog  and 
pig;  and  Chorioptes  cynoHs  sometunes  invades  the  ears  of  the  dog 
and  cat.  These  parasites  live  on  the  exudation  produced  by  the 
irritation  which  they  exdte.  Another  acarus  (J>emodt*  faUicuUmm) 
invades  the  do^'s  Mcin  and  sometimes  occurs  in  other  animals.  It 
inhabits  the  hair  follicles  and  sebaceous  glands,  and  causes  a  very 
intractable  acariasis — the  follicular  or  demodedc  mange  of  tbe 
dog  (see  Mitb).  A  useful  lemedy  for  mange  in  the  horse  is  a  mixture 
of  sulphnr,  oil  of  tar  and  whale  oil,  applied  daily  for  three  days, 
then  washed  off  and  applied  a^ain.  For  the  dog,  sutphur,  olive  oil 
and  potassium  carbonate,  or  oil  of  tar  and  fish  oil,  may  be  tried. 
Various  approved  patent  dips  are  employed  for  scab  in  sheep.  A 
good  rememr  for  destroying  nee  may  be  compounded  from  Staveaacre 
powder,  soft  soap  and  hot  water,  appUed  warm  to  the  skin.  FolUc* 
ttlar  mange  is  neariy  iocuimble,  but  recent  cases  shoukl  be  treated 
by  dafhr  rubbing  with  an  ointment  of  3  parts  cylfia  and  too  pnrtt 
OK  lamnine. 

xxvin  re 


The  vegetable  paradtes,  or  0ermatopkytes,  which  cause  finra 
or  ringworm  in  horses,  cattle  and  dogs,  belong  to  five  distinct 
genera:  rndbsM^ton,  iiurosponuUt  BuiameUa,  Ack^nan  j^^^^^ 
and  Onpon.  Kuigworm  of  the  horse  is  either  a  Tricho-  ^["^r* 
phytoris  produced  by  one  oC  four  species  of  fungi  {Trtcho*  '^>'**** 
phyUm  nutUagropkytes,  T,flavtttn,  T  equinutn  and  T.  verrucosnm)t 
or  a  Microsponosis  caused  by  MKtosporum  otudomnt.  Ringworm 
of  cattk  is  always  a  Trichophytosis,  and  due  to  T.  nutUagrvpkyles. 
Four  different  dermatophytes  (r  tamnumt  M  atidomm  var. 
camnuw^^  EtdameUa  spnutta  and  Oaspora  canttta)  affect  the  dog, 
producing  Trichophytic,  Microsporous  and  Eidamellian  ringworm 
and  favus.  Little  is  known  m  ringworm  in  sheep  and  swine. 
The  fungi  attack  the  roots  of  the  hairs,  which  after  a  time  lose 
their  elasticity  and  break  off,  leaving  a  grcvish-yellow,  bran-like 
crust  of  epidermic  ppoducts,  dried  blood  and  sometimes  pus.  In 
favus  the  crusts  arc  ydlow,  cupped,  almost  entirely  composed  of 
fungi,  and  have  an  odour  like  that  of  mouldy  cheese.  Ringworm 
may  affect  any  part  of  the  skin,  but  occurs  principally  on  the  head, 
face,  neck,  back  and  hind  quarters.  It  is  very  contagious,  ana 
It  may  be  communicated  from  one  species  to  another,  and  from 
animals  to  man.  The  affected  parts  should  be  carefully  scraped 
and  the  crusts  destroyed  by  burning;  then  the  patches  should  be 
dressed  with  iodine  tincture,  solution  of  copper  sulphate  or  carbolic 
aad.  or  with  oil  of  tar. 

BiBUOCiiAPHV. — Modem  veterinary  literature  affords  striking 
evidence  of  the  progress  made  by  the  science :  excellent  text-books, 
manuals  and  treatises  on  evenr  subject  belonging  to  it  are  numerous^ 
and  arc  published  in  every  European  language,  while  the  abundant 
periodical  press,  vrith  marked  anility  and  discrimination,  records 
and  distributes  the  ever-increasing  knowledge.  The  substantial 
advances  in  veterinary  pathology,  bacteriology,  hygiene,  surgery 
and  preventive  medicine  point  to  a  still  greater  rate  of  progress. 
The  schools  in  c^Try  way  are  better  equipped,  the  education  and 
training — general  and  tecnnical— of  students  of  veterinary  medicine 
are  more  comprehenuve  and  thorough,  and  the  appliances  for 
observation  and  investigation  of  disease  have  been  greatly  improved. 
Among  the  numerous  modem  works  in  English  on  the  >«rious 
branches  of  veterinary  science,  the  following  may  be  mentioned: 
McFadyean,  Afuxtomy  of  the  Horse:  a  Dissection  Guide  (London, 
1002) ;  Chauveau,  Comparatioe  Anatomy  0/  tke  Domesticated  Animals 
(London,  1891);  Cuycr,  ArtisHe  Anatomy  of  Animals  (London, 
1905);  Share-Jones,  Surgical  Anatomy  of  tke  Horse  (London, 
1907):  JowettT  Blood-Serum  Therapy  and  Preventive  Inoculation 
((London,  iQOo);  Swithinbank  and  Newman,  The  Bacteriolo^  of 


Milk  (London,  IQOS);  Flemlnjr,  Animal  Plagues  (London,  i88a)'; 
McriUat,  Animal  Dentistry  (London,  1905);  Liautard,  Animal 
Castration  (9th  cd.,  London,  190a);  Moussu  and  Dollar,  Diseosta 
of  Cqttle,  Sheep,  Coats  and  Swine  Qlondon.  1905):  Reeks,  Common 
Colics  of  tke  Horse  (London,  190^);  Sessions,  Cattle  Tuberculosis 
(London,  1905);  Sewdl,  Dogs:  Iketr  Management  (London,  1897}; 
Hobday,  Surgical  Diseases  of  tie  Dog  and  -  Cat  (London^  1906) ; 
Hill,  Managiment  and  Diseases  of  tke  Dog  (London,  190^);  SMreU, 
The  Do£s  Medical  Dictionary  (London,  1907);  Gouoaux  and 
Barrier,  Exterior  of  tke  Horse  (London,  1904) ;  Reeks,  Diseases  of 
tke  Pool  of  Ike  Horse  (London,  1906);  Roberge<  Tke  Foot  of  Ike 
Horse  (London,  1894);  Jensen,  Mdk  Hygiene:  a  Treatise  on 
Dairy  and  Milk  Inspection,  Sfc.  (London,  1907);  Smith,  Manmak 
0f  Veterinary  Hygiene  (London.  190^);  Fleming,  Human  and 
Animal  Vanolae  (London.  1881);  Huntbig.  Tke  Art  of  Horse- 
shoeing (London,  1899);  Fleming,  Horseshoeing  (London,  1900); 
Dolhir  and  Whcatley,  Handbook  of  Horse^skoeing  (London,  1898) ; 
Lungwita,  Text-Book  of  Horse-skoeing  (London.  1904);  Axe,  Tke 
Horu:  its  Treatment  in  HeaUk  and  Disease  (9  vols.,  London,  1905) ; 
Hayes,  Tke  Points  of  tke  Horse  (London,  1904):  Robertson.  Equtne 
Medicine  (London,  1883);  Hayes,  Horses  on  Board  Skip  (London, 
190a);  FitxWynam,  Horses  and  Sables  (London,  looi);  Liautard, 
Lameness  of  Horses  (London,  1888);  Walley,  Meat  InspeeUon 
(2nd  ed.,  London.  1901);  Ostertag,  Handbook  of  Meat  Jnspu^on 
(London,  1907^  Courtenay,  Practice  of  Veterinary  Medicine  and 
Surgery  (London,  looa);  Williams,  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Veterinary  Medicine  (8th  ed.,  London,  1897);  J.  Law,  Text'book  of 
Veterinary  Medicine  ($  vols..  New  York,  i^)\  Cadiot  and  Dollar. 
Clinical  Veterinary  Medicine  and  Surgery  (London,  1900);  Steel, 
Diseases  of  the  Ox  (London,  1881);  Leblanc^  Diseases  of  tie  Mam- 
mary dond  (London,  1904) ;  De  Bruin,  Bonne  Obstetrics  (London, 
iQOi);  Fleming,  Veterinary  Obstetrics  (London,  1896);  Dalrymple. 
Veterinary  Obstetrics  (London,  1898);  Neumann,  Parasites  and 
Parasitic  Diseases  of  tke  Domesticated  Animals  (London,  1005); 
F.  Smith,  Veterinary  Physiology  (sid  ed.,  London,  1907);  Meade 
Smith,  Physiology  of  tke  Domeaie  Animals  (London,  1889);  Kitt, 
Compantiee  CenenU  Patkohgy  (London,  1907);  Friedberger  and- 
Fr&hner,  Vderimtry  Patkolop  (London,  1905);  Brown,  Atlas  of 
tke  Pig  (London,  1900);  Rusbworth,  Skeep  and  tkeir  Diseases 
(London,  1903) ;  Fkrming,  Operative  Veterinary  Surgery  (London, 
I90t);  Wilwims,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Vetertnary  Surgery 
(loch  ed.,  London,  1903);  Moller  and  Dollar.  PractieiofYHer^iary 
Snfgjtry  (London,  190^) «  FriShner,  General  Veterinary  Surg/vy 
(New  Voric,  1906) ;  MenlUt,  Principles  ef  Veterinary  Surgpy  eatd 
Snrgfcal  Palkehgy  (London,  1907);  Cadiot  and  Almy,  Snrgfcd 


14 


VETO 


ThemptHlta  of  D^nusHc  Animtit  (London,  1906);  Hasrv.  SidbU 
Momagmunt  (Loodon.  IQ03);  Dun,  VHerinary  Medianes:  tketr 
Actions  and  Usts  (nth  ed..  Edinbunh.  1906);  Tusoa,  A  FharmO' 
a>poeta  (London,  1904);  Hoare,  VeUruuiry  TktrapaUica  and 
Phamuudoty  (London,  1907),  GreanreU.  Tlu  Veterinary  Pkarma- 
C9poeta  and  Manual  of  TherateuUcs  (Loodon,  190$);  Wiasknr, 
Veterinary  Materia  Medka  atta  Therapeutics  (New  York,  1901); 
Nunn,  VOerinary  Toxicolagy  (London.  1907) :  Lavccan  and  Menu, 
Tryj^anosomata  and  the  Trypanosomiases  (London.  1907):  Journal 
of  Comparatae  Patholoey  and  TherapetUics  (quarterly,  EdinbuxKh); 
The  Veterinary  Joumar(n»onth\y,  London);  The  Veterinary  Record 
(weekly,  London) ;  The  Vetertnary  News  (weekly.  London). 

(G.Fl.:J.Mac.) 

VETO  (Lat.  for  "  I  forbid  ").  generally  the  right  of  preventing 
any  act,  or  its  actual  prohibition;  in  public  law,  the  constitu- 
tional right  of  the  competent  authority,  or  in  republics  of  the 
whole  people  in  their  primary  assembly,  to  protest  against  a 
legislative  or  administrative  act,  and  to  prevent  wholly,  or  for 
the  time  being,  the  validation  or  execution  of  the  same. 

It  is  generally  sUtcd  that  thb  right  was  called  into  existence 
in  the  Roman  republic  by  the  tr^unicia  potestaSf  because  by 
this  auth<Mity  dedai<Mis  of  the  senate,  and  of  the  consuls  and 
other  magistrates,  oould  be  declared  ioopentive.  Sndi  a  state- 
ment must,  however,  be  qualified  by  reference  to  the  facts  that 
interdicOf  interdicimus  were  the  expressions  used,  and,  in  general, 
that  in  andent  Rome  evezy  holder  of  a  magistracy  would  check  a 
negotiation  set  on  foot  by  a  colleague,  his  equal  in  rank,  by  his 
opposition  and  intervention.  This  was  a  consequence  of  the 
portion  that  each  of  the  colleagues  possessed  the  whole  power  of 
the  magistracy,  and  this  rig^t  of  intervention  must  have  come 
into  existence  with  the  introduction  of  colleagued  authorities, 
».e.  with  the  commencement  of  the  republic.  In  the  Roman 
magistracy  a  twofold  power  must  be  distinguished:  the  positive 
management  of  the  affairs  of  the  stAte  entrusted  to  each  indi- 
vidual, and  the  power  of  restraining  the  acts  of  magistrates  of 
equal  or  inferior  rank  by  his  protest.  As  Ihe  tribuni  pkHs 
possessed  this  latter  negative  competence  to  a  great  extent,  it 
is  customary  to  attribute  to  them  the  origin  of  the  veto. 

In  the  former  kingdom  of  Poland  the  precedent  first  set  in 
1653  was  established  by  law  as  a  constant  rig^t,  that  in  the 
imperial  diet  a  single  deputy  by  his  protest  "  I^e  pozwalam," 
«.«.  "I  do  not  permit  it,"  could  invalidate  the  decision 
sanctioned  by  the  other  members.  The  king  of  France  received 
the  right  of  a  suspensory  veto  at  the  commencement  of  the 
French  Revolution,  from  the  National  Assembly  sitting  at  Ver- 
sailles In  1789,  with  regard  to  the  decrees  of  the  latter,  which 
was  only  to  be  valid  for  the  time  being  against  the  decisions 
come  to  and  during  the  following  National  Assembly,  but  during 
the  period  of  tho  third  session  it  was  to  lose  its  power  if  the 
Assembly  persisted  in  its  resolution.  By  this  means  it  was 
endeavoured  to  diminish  the  odiiun  of  the  measure;  but,  as  is 
well  known,  the  monarchy  was  soon  afterwards  entirely  abol- 
ished. Similariy  the  Spanish  Constitution  of  x8ia  prescribed 
that  the  king  might  twice  refuse  his  sanction  to  bills  laid  twice 
before  him  by  two  sessions  of  the  cortes,  but  if  the  third  session 
repeated  the  same  he  could  no  longer  exerdse  the  power  of 
veto.  The  same  was  the  case  in  the  Norwegian  Constitution  of 
1814. 

In  the  French  republic  the  president  has  no  veto  strictly  sa 
called,  but  he  has  a  power  somewhat  resembling  iL  He  can, 
when  a  bill  has  passed  both  Chambers,  by  a  message  to  them, 
refer  it  bade  for  further  deliberation,  llie  king  or  queen  of 
England  has  the  right  to  withhold  sanction  from  a  biU  passed 
by  both  houses  of  parliament.  This  royal  prerogative  has  not 
been  exercised  ance  1692  and  may  now  be  considered  obsolete. 
The  governor  of  an  English  colony  with  a  representative  legis- 
lature has  the  power  of  veto  against  a  bill  passed  by  the  legi»- 
lative  body  of  a  colony.  In  this  case  the  bill  is  finally  lost,  just 
«a  a  bill  would  be  whidi  had  been  rejected  by  the  colonial  council, 
or  as  a  bin  passed  by  the  English  houses  of  parliament  would 
M  if  the  down  were  to  exert  the  prerogative  of  refusing  the 
royal  assenL  The  governor  may,  however,  without  refusing  his 
assent,  reserve  the  bill  for  the  consideration  of  the  crown.  In 
that  case  the  bill  does  not  come  into  force  until  it  has  dther 


actaaSy  or  constructively  received  the  royal  assent,  wUch  b  te 
effect  the  assent  of  the  English  miiustry,  and  therefore  indirectly 
of  the  imperial  parliament  Thus  the  colonial  liberty  of  legisla- 
tion is  made  l^ally  reoondlable  with  imperial  sovereignty,  and 
conflicts  between  oAonial  and  impoial  laws  are  prevented.^ 

The  constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America  contains  ia 
art.  i,  sect.  7,  par  2,  the  following  order: — 

"  Evecy  bill  which  shall  have  posied  the  House  of  Representative* 
and  the  Senate  shaU,  before  it  oeoome  a  bw,  be  presented  to  the 
president  of  the  Umted  States,  if  he  approve,  he  shall  lign  it.  If 
not,  he  shall  return  it  with  his  objections  to  that  bouse  m  which 
it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on 
their  journal  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If,  after  such  veooa> 
aidcration,  two-thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  ImII,  it 
shail  be  sent,  together  with  the  objecdons,  to  the  other  house,  fay 
which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and,  if  appravcd  by  two- 
thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a  law.  Every  order,  resolotkm 
or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repve- 
sentatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  question  of  adjoumment) 
shall  be  presented  to  the  presdent  of  the  United  States,  and,  before 
the  same  shall  take  <^ect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or,  being  da*, 
approved  bv  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  accocding  to  the  rules  and  liautatkias 
prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bilL" 

In  all  states  of  the  Union  excqpt  one  the  governors,  in  the 
same  manner  or  to  a  modified  extoit,  possess  the  right  of 
vetoing  bills  passed  by  the  legislature.  Here,  therefore,  trm 
have  again  a  suspensory  veto  which  is  frequently  exerdsed. 

According  to  the  constitution  of  the  German  empire  of  1871, 
the  imperial  legislation  is  executed  by  the  federal  council  aiid 
imperial  diet;  the  emperor  is  not  mentioned.  In  the  federal 
council  the  simple  majority  of  votes  deddes.  But  in  the  case 
of  bills  concerning  the  army,  the  navy  and  certain  specially 
noted  taxes,  as  well  as  in  the  case  of  decisions  concerning  the 
alteration  of  orders  for  the  administration,  and  atiangements 
for  the  execution  of  the  laws  of  customs  and  taxes,  the  proposal 
of  the  federal  coundl  is  only  accepted  if  the  Prussian  votes  are 
on  the  side  of  the  majority  in  favour  of  the  same  (art.  vif.,  sect.  3). 
Prussia  presides  in  the  federal  council.  The  state  of  things  a 
therefore,  in  tactt  as  follows:  it  is  not  the  (jerman  emperor,  but 
the  same  monarch  as  king  of  Prussia,  who  has  the  right  of  veto 
against  bills  and  decisions  of  the  federal  coundl,  and  therefore 
can  prevent  the  passing  of  an  imperial  law.  The  superior  power 
of  the  presidential  vote  obtains,  it  is  true,  its  due  influence  only 
in  one  legislative  body,  but  in  reality  It  has  the  same  effect  as 
the  veto  of  the  head  of  the  empire. 

The  Swiss  federal  constitution  grants  the  president  of  the 
Confederation  no  superiw  position  at  all;  ndthcr  he  nor  the 
federal  coundl  possesses  the  power  of  veto  against  laws  or 
decisions  of  the  federal  assembly.  But  in  some  cantons,  viz. 
St  Gall  (1831),  Basel  (1832)  and  Lucerne  (1841),  the  veto  was 
introduced  as  a  right  of  the  pec^le.  Thedtisenshadthepowerto 
submit  to  a  i^ebisdte  laws  which  had  been  debated  and  accepted 
by  the  cantonal  coundl  (the  legislative  authority),  and  to  reject 
the  same.  If  this  plebisdte  was  not  demanded  within  a  oeitain 
short  sped&ai  time,  the  law  came  into  force.  But,  if  the.voting 
took  place,  and  if  the  number  of  persons  voting  against  the  law 
exceeded  by  one  vote  half  the  number  of  persons  entitled  to  vote 
in  the  canton,  the  law  was  rejected.  The  absent  voters  were 
considered  as  having  voted  in  favour  of  the  law.  An  atteDq>t 
to  introduce  the  veto  in  Zurich  in  1847  failed.  Thuxgau  and 
Schaffhausen  accepted  it  later.  Meanwl^e  another  arrangement 
has  quite  driven  it  out  of  the  field.  This  is  the  so-called  "  refa>- 
endum  " — properly  speaking,  direct  legishtion  by  the  people— 
which  has  been  introduced  into  most  of  the  Swiss  cantons. 
Formerly  in  all  cantons— with  the  exception  of  the  small  moun- 
tainous districts  of  Uri,  Schwyz,  Unterwalden,  Zug,  Glarus  and 
Appenzell-~it  was  not  a  pure  democracy,  but  a  representative 
constitution  that  prevailed:  the  great  coundllors  or  cantonal 
coundllors  periodically  chosen  by  the  people  were  the  possessors 
of  the  sovereign  power,  and  after  ddiberating  twice  passed  the 
bills  definatdy.    Now  they  have  only  to  discuss  the  bills,  which 

*  A.  V.  Dicey,  Introduction  to  the  Study  oJ(he  Law  of  the  QnistituHon^ 
pp.  iti  scq.  (6th  ed.,  London,  1902);  Sir  H.  Tcnkyns,  British  Rid* 
and  Jurisdiction  beyond  the  Seas,  pp.  X13  seq.  (London,  1902). 


VETTER— VEVEY 


«S 


in  pifaced  awl  seal  to  ftIL  voftcft  wikb  Ml  eipkoatoiy  awflace; 
then  the  people  on  a  certain  day  vote  for  the  acceptance  or  xe> 
leotioa  of  the  law  Iqrwiitin^  **  yea  "  Of  *' no  "  on  a  printed  voting 
paper,  which  Is  pteced  ii)  an  um  nnder  official  oontioL  In 
aome  cantona  important  finannal  icaohitiona  involving  laige 
atate  «yiprni»f»  axe  also  aubmitted  to  the  dedaon  of  the  people. 
In  the  sevued  federal  oooBtittttion  of  i874>  tnider  certain  aop* 
poaitiefts  winch  have  no  further  intereat  for'  ua  at  pteacnt,  a 
facultative  referendum  or  Iniliatim  (•>.  the  poaaibiKty  of  de- 
manding a  plehndte  under  exceptional  drcunatancea)  waa 
faitioduced  for  federal  laws.  Since  that  period  it  haa  often  been 
employed  and  haa  operated  like  a  veto.  It  ia  evident  that  fay 
the  oompulaory  referendum  in  the  cantona  the  mere_veto-ia 
eendered  aoperfluooa. 

In  cuaniining  the  questiott  as  to  what  petition  tlw  veto  occupies 
in  iuriapnMdeaaer.we  must  •eponto  quite  dmcfent  conoepcioBs  which 
•le  comprised  under  the  eaae  name. 

I.  The  veto  may  be  a  mere  rigfU  of  interventian  on  the  part  of  a 
manstrate  against  the  order  of  another  official,  or  against  that  of  an 
authority  of  equal  or  inferior  ranlc  This  was  the  case  in  ancient 
Home.  To  thb  class  bdoog  also  those  cases  in  which,  as  in  the  Faench 
republic,  the  pcendent  makes  his  "  no  "  vaM  asaiost  decisioos  of 
the  general  couocilbrs,  and  the  prefect  does  the  same  against 
dedsTons  of  the  communal  councillors.  The  use  of  the  expres- 
sion here  b  quite  iostifiable,  and  this  veto  is  not  confined  to  bills, 
but  refen  perticolariy  to  adflrinistrative  measures^  It  afFords  a 
guaraatee  against  the  abuse  of  an  official  ^ositioiL 

a.  The  veto  nuy  be  a  safety-valve  against  pred{Htate  dcdsions, 
and  so  a  preoenthe  measure.  Inis  task  is  fulfitlcti  by  the  suspensory 
veto  of  the  president  of  the  United  States,  ^milariy,  fo  this  class 
belong  the  above-mentioned  prescriptions  of  the  Spanish  and 
Norwegian  oiastltutiomL  and  mto  the  veto  of  the  governor  of  an 
EngUsh  colony  against  decisions  of  the  legislature;  for  this  protest 
b  only  intended  to  prevent  a  certain  want  of  harmony  between  the 
general  and  the  colonial  legislation,  bv  calling  forth  a  renewed 
uvcstigation.  Tbb  veto  is  neither  an  interference  with  the  com- 
petence of  an  authority*  aor  a  division  of  the  legidative  power 
among  different  factors,  but  simply  a  guarantee  against  predpttancy 
in  the  case  of  a  purely  legislative  measure.  The  wisdom  of  estab- 
fishlw  this  veto  power  by  the  constitution  is  thus  manifest. 

%,  ft  is  wrong  to  apply  the  term  veto  to  what  is  merely  the  iMfBlsM 
nM  tf  lh$  sanciunmi  of  tko  tams^  in  other  words,  an  act  of  sove* 
fetgn^  It  Would  not  be  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  a  con- 
stitutional monarchy  to  declare  the  monarch's  consent  to  a  law 
unnecessary,  or  make  it  a  compulsory  duty;  the  legislative  power 
is  divided' between  him  and  the  chamben.  The  sovereign  must 
therefoie  be  perfectly  at  liberty  to  aav  *'  yes  "  or  "  no  "  ia  each 
single  case  acceding  to  his  opinion.  If  he  says  the  latter,  we  speak 
of  It  as  his  veto,  but  this — if  he  possesses  an  absolute  and  not  merely 
a  suspensory  veto— is  not  an  intervention  and  not  a  preventive 
■Masure,  but  the  negative  ride  of  the  exercise  of  the  legisbtive  power, 
and  therafere  an  act  of  sovereignty.  That  this  right  bdoogs  fully 
and  entirely  to  the  holder  of  sovereign  power — ^however  he  may  be 
called — is  self-evident.  One  chamber  can  also  by  protest  prevent  a 
bSn  of  the  other  from  coming  into  force.  The  "  placet  of  the  temporal 
power  for  church  affairs— when  It  occurs— also  Involvesin  this  maimer 
m  itself  the  veto  or  non  plaoet."  Where  in  pure  democracies  the 
people  in  their  assembly  have  the  right  of  veto  or  referendum,  the 
exercise  of  it  is  also  a  result  of  the  sovereign  rights  of  lenslature. 
(For  the  question  of  the  conflict  between  the  twohouses  of  England, 
ace  RanaaBirraTiON.) 

The  peculiar  power  of  veto  pomtssed  by  the  (Prussian)  president 
of  the  federal  council  of  Ormany  lies  on  the  boundary  between 
(a)  and  (3).  (A.  v.  O.) 

VETTER  [Vauer  or  WelUr,  often  written,  with  the  addition 
of  the  defipite  article,  VeUernl,  a  lake  of  aouthem  Sweden, 
80  m.  bag,  and  x8  mu  in  extreme  breadth.  It  haa  an  area  of 
735  sq.  m.,  and  a  drainage  area  of  9S2i  eq.  m.;  ita  maxhnum 
depth  in  390  ft.,  and  iu  elevation  above  aea-level  289  ft.  It 
drajna  eaatward  by  the  Motala  river  to  the  Baltic.  lU  waters 
are  of  remarkable  traoaparency  and  hluenen,  iU  shorea  pktur- 
eaque  and  steep  on  the  east  side,  where  the  Ombecg  (863  fL) 
riaes  abruptly,  with  furrowed  flanka  pierced  by  cavca.  The 
lake  is  subject  to  sudden  atorma.  Ita  northern  part  ia  croased 
from  Karlsbotg  to  Motala  (W.  to  E.)  by  the  (^ta  canal  route* 
At  the  southern  end  is  the  important  manufacturing  town  of 
Jttnkdping,  and  15  m.  N.  of  it  the  picturesque  island  of  Vising, 
with  a  ruined  palace  of  the  X7th  centuxy  and  a  fine  church. 
Vadstena,  8  m.  S.  of  MoUb^  with  a  sUpk  industry  in  hux, 
has  a  convent  (now  a  hospital)  of  St  Bridget  or  Birgitu  (1383), 
»  beautiful  monastic  church  (1395-1484)  and  a  oaatle  <rf  King 


Ooatannia  Vasa.  At  Ahmatia,  x6  a  S.  a^un,  aie  mio*  of  a 
Cisterdan  monastery  of  the  irth  century.  Cloae  to  MMala 
areaomeof  tfaekxgest  mechanical  workahopa  in  Sweden,  bnliding 
wan^ipa^  machinery,  bridgea,  Ac. 

VimJLOliniM,  or  Vbtdlonxa  (Etmacan  VeUtma)^  an  ancient 
town  of  Etmria,  Italy,  the  aite  of  vdiicfa  ia  psobaUy  ^^'-^pM 
by  the  modem  village  of  Vetnlonia,  which  up  to  1887  bom  the 
name  of  Cokmna.  It  Ilea  1x30  ft.  above  8ea4evel,  ahont  xo  nt. 
direct  N.W.  of  (Srosaeto,  on  the  N  JL  aide  of  the  hilla  which 
project  from  the  flat  Maremma  and  form  the  prmnontory  of 
Castiglione.  The  place  is  fittle  mentioned  in  ancient  literature, 
thou^  Silius  Italicua  tells  us  that  it  waa  hence  that  the  Romana 
took  their  magisterial  insignia  (fasces,  cunde  chair,  purple  toga 
and  braaen  tnimpeta),  and  it  waa  undoubtedly  one  of  the  twelve 
cities  of  Etiuria.  Ita  aito  waa  not  identified  before  x88i,  and 
the  identification  haa  been  denied  in  varioua  worka  by  C  Dotto 
del  Daatli,  who  placea  it  on  the  Poggio  Cattriglionf  near  Massa 
Marittinm,  where  scanty  mmaina  of  buildings  ^Masibly  of  dty 
wail^)  have  also  been  found.  This  aito  aeema  to  agree  better 
with  the  indicationa  of  mecBeval  documenta.  But  certainly 
an  Etmacan  dty  wasaituated  on  the  hill  of  Cokmna,  where  these 
at^  remaina  of  dty  walla  of  maanve  limeatme,  in  almoat  hoo- 
aontal  cooxsea.  The  objecta  discovered  in  ita  extensive  xmao- 
poUa,  where  over  xooo  tmnba  have  been  enavated,  are  now 
in  the  muaeitaa  of  Gtoasetoand  Florence.  The  most  InqMirtant 
were  aoirdiaKled  by  t&nmHy  which  atill  fom  a  pramlnent 
feature  in  the  landaape. 

See  G.  Deoms.  Cdnev  and  CmdfHn  af  Birmia  (London,  x883>» 
ii.  263;  Nodmt  djfU  &ast,  passim;  I.  Falchi,  Eicnthe  d»  VdnUmia 
(Prato,  188I).  amd  other  works,  especially  VdvUmia  c  la  sua 
necropoli  anHchissima  (Florence,  i^i);  C  Sordini,  Vetuhnia 
(Spoleto,  1894)  and  references.  (T.  As.) 

VBUILLOT,  LOUIS  (1813-1883),  Ftcnch  journalist  and  man 
of  letters,  was  bom  of  humble  parents  at  Boynes  (Loiret)  on 
the  xith  of  October  18x3.  When  Louis  Vcuillot  was  five 
years  old  his  parenta  removed  to  Paris.  After  a  very  slight 
education  he  entered  a  kwyer's  office,  and  was  sent  in  1830  to 
serve  on  a  Rouen  paper,  and  afterwards  to  P£rigueux.  He 
returned  to  Paris  in  1837,  and  a  year  later  visited  Rome  during 
Holy  Week.  There  he  embraced  extravagant  ultramontane 
sentiments,  and  was  from  that  time  an  ardent  champion  of 
(Catholicism.  The  results  of  his  conversion  appeared  in  P^Ur- 
inage  en  Suisse  (1839),  Rime  a  Larette  (1841)  and  other  works. 
In  1843  he  entered  the  staff  of  the  Univers  religieux.  His 
violent  methods  of  journalism  had  already  provoked  more  than 
one  dud,  and  for  his  polemics  against  the  umversity  of  Paris 
in  the  Univers  he  was  Imprisoned  for  a  short  time.  In  1848 
he  became  editor  of  the  paper,  which  was  suppressed  in  i860, 
but  revived  in  1867,  when  VeuiDot  recommenced  his  ultra- 
montane propaganda,  which  brought  about  a  second  suppression 
of  his  joiffnal  in  1874.  When  his  paper  was  suppressed  Veuillot 
occupied  himself  in  writing  violent  pamphlets  directed  against 
the  moderate  Cathofics,  the  Second  Empire  and  the  Italian 
government.  His  services  to  the  papal  see  were  fully  recog- 
nized by  Pius  IX.,  on  whom  he  wrote  (1878)  a  monograph.  He 
died  on  the  7th  of  March  X883. 

Some  of  his  scattered  papers  were  collected  !n  MBanges  rdigteux, 
hisloriques  el  lUKrMres  (la  vols.,  1857-75).  and  his  Correspondane* 
(6  vols.,  1883-85)  has  great  political  mterest.  His  younger  brother. 
Engine  Veuulot,  publiuied  (1901-4)  a  comprehensive  a^  valuable 
life,  L4mis  VeuiUok 

VBVBT  [(German  Vinsi  a  small  town  in  the  Swiss  canton  of 
Vaud  and  near  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 
It  ial^  rail  xs  m.  S.E.  of  Lausanne  or  3I  nu  N.W.  of  the  Vemest' 
Montreox  railway  station,  while  it  is  well  served  by  steamers 
plying  over  the  Lake  of  (kneypu  In  X900  it  had  a  populatjon 
of  xx,78x,  of  whom  8878  were  French-speaking,  iriule  there 
were  8377  ProtcstanU  to  3494  Romanista  and  56  Jews.  It  is 
the  second  town  in  point  of  population  m  the  canton,  coming 
next  after  Lausanne,  though  iiiferior  to  the  "  ag^meiation  " 
known  aa  Montrenx.  It  atanda  at  the  mouth  of  the  Veveyae 
and  commanda  fine  views  of  the  snowy  mountaina  aeen  over 
the  glassy  surface  of  the  lake.    The  whole  of  the  aurxounding 


x6 


VEXILLUM— VIANDEN 


country  is  ooveved  with  vineyaids,  wfaldi  (with  the  entertain- 
ment of  foreign  visitors)  occupy  the  inhabitants.  Every  twenty 
years  or  so  (last  in  1889  and  1905)  the  Pile  des  Vigneronsii  held 
here  by  an  andent  gUd  of  vinedreaserB,  and  attracts  much 
attention.  Besides  a  railway  line  that  joins  the  Montreuz- 
Bernese  Oberland  line  at  Chamby  (5  m.  from  Vevey  and  i|  m. 
bebw  Les  Avants)  there  is  a  funicular  railway  from  Vevey  up 
the  M<mt  Pllerin  (3557  ft.)  to  the  north-west. 

Vevey  was  a  Roman  lettlemcnt  [Vimscus]  and  later  formed  part 
of  the  barony  of  Vaud,  that  was  held  by  the  counts  and  dukes  of 
Savoy  till  1536,  when  it  was  conquered  by  Bern.  In  1798  it  was 
freed  from  Bcmesc  rule  and  became  part  of  the  canton  dii  L<6man 
(renamed  canton  de  Vaud  in  1803)  of  the  Helvetic  Republic 

(W.  A.  B.  C) 

VBXILLUM  (Lat.  dim.  of  vdum,  piece  of  doth,  sail,  awning, 
or  from  vehere,  vedum,  to  carry),  the  name  for  a  small  ensign 
consisting  of  a  square  doth  suspended  from  a  cross-piece  fixed 
to  a  spear.  The  TcxtUum  was  strictly  the  ensign  of  the  maniple, 
as  siguum  was  of  the  cohort,  but  the  term  came  to  be  used  for 
all  standards  or  ensigns  other  than  the  eagb  {aqu$la)  of  the 
legion  (see  Flag).  Caesar  (BX),  ii.  so)  uses  the  phrase  vexiUum 
proponefe  of  the  red  flag  hoisted  over  the  genoal's  tent  as  a 
signal  for  the  march  or  battle.  The  standard-bearer  of  the 
maniple  was  styled  vexilianuSt  but  by  the  time  of  the  £m|^e 
vexiUum  and  vexiUarisu  had  gained  a  new  significance.  Tadtos 
uses  these  terms  frequently  both  of  a  body  of  soldiers  serving 
apart  from  the  legion  under  a  separate  standard,  and  also  with 
the  addition  of  «ome  word  implying  connexion  with  a  legion 
of  those  soldiers  who,  after  serving  sixteen  3rears  with  the 
legion,  continued  their  service,  under  thdr  own  vexUluntf  with 
the  legion.  The  term  is  also  used  for  the  scarf  wrapped  round 
a  bishop's  pastoral  staff  (q.v.).  Modem  sdence  has  adopted 
the  word  for  the  web  or  vein  of  a  feather  of  a  bird  and  of  the 
large  upper  petal  of  flowers,  such  as  the  pea,  whose  cordia  is 
shaped  like  a  butterfly. 

VBXiO*  or  WEXid,  a  town  and  bishop's  see  of  Sweden, 
cs^ital  of  the  district  (Idn)  of  Kronobcrg,  124  m.  N.£.  of  MalmS 
by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  7365.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  among 
low  wooded  hills  at  the  north  end  of  Lake  Vezid,  and  near  the 
south  end  of  Lake  Helga.  Its  appearance  is  modem,  for  it 
was  burnt  in  1843.  The  cathedral  of  St  Siegfrid  dates  from 
about  X300,  but  ha^  been  restored,  the  last  time  in  1898.  The 
Sm&land  Museum  has  antiquarian  and  numismatic  collections, 
a  library  and  a  bust  of  Linnaeus.  There  are  iron  foundries, 
a  match  factory,  &c  At  Ostrabo,  the  episcopal  residence 
without  the  town,  the  poet  Esaias  Tegn£r  died  in  1846,  and  he 
is  buried  in  the  town  cemetery.  On  the  shore  of  Lake  Helga 
is  the  royal  estate  of  Kronobcrg,  and  on  an  island  in  the  lake 
the  ruins  of  a  former  castle  of  the  same  name. 

V^ZEIAT,  a  village  of  France,  in  the  department  of  YonnC) 
10  m.  W.S.W.  of  Avallon  by  road.  Its  population,  which  was 
over  xo.ooo  in  the  middle  ages,  was  524  in  1906.  It  is  situated 
on  the  summit  and  slopes  of  a  hill  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cure, 
and  owes  its  renown  to  the  Maddeine,  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  beautiful  basilicas  in  France.  The  Madeldne  dates  from 
the  1 2  th  century  and  was  skilfully  restored  by  VioUet-le-Duc 
It  consists  of  a  narthcx,  with  nave  and  aisles;  a  triple  nave, 
without  triforium,  entered  from  the  narthex  by  three  door- 
ways; transepts;  and  a  chcnr  with  triforium.  The  oldest 
portion  of  the  church  is  the  nave,  constructed  about  X125. 
Its  grmned  vaulting  is  supported  on  wide,  low,  semicircular 
arches,  and  on  piers  and  colunms,  the  capitab  of  which  are 
embdlished  with  sculptures  full  of  animation.  The  narthex 
was  probably  built  about  114a  The  central  entrance,  leading 
from  it  to  the  nave,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of 
the  church;  it  consists  of  two  doorways,  divided  by  a  central 
pier  supporting  sculptured  figures,  and  is  surmounted  by  a 
tympanum  carved  with  a  representation  of  Christ  bestowing 
the  Holy  Spirit  upon  His  apostles.  The  choir  and  transepts 
are  later  in  date  than  the  rest  of  the  church,  which  they  surpass 
in  height  and  grace  of  proportion.  They  resemble  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  church  of  St  Denis,  and  were  doubtless  built  in 
place  of  a  Romanesque  choir  damaged  in  a  fire  m  1105.    A 


crypt  beneath  the  chmr  Is  peihaps  the  idic  of  a  pievioat 
Romanesque  chiuxh  whidi  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  xiaoi. 
The  west  facade  of  the  Madeleine  has  three  portals;  that  in  the 
centre  is  divided  by  a  pier  and  surmounted  by  a  tympanttm 
sculptured  with  a  bas-relief  of  the  Last  Jodgment.  The  ttppet 
portion  of  this  front  belongs  to  the  xsth  century.  Only  the 
lower  portion  of  the  northernmost  of  the  two  fl*«Hng  towen 
is  left,  and  of  the  two  towers  which  formeiiy  rose  above  the 
transept  that  to  the  north  has  disappeared.  Of  the  other 
buildings  of  the  abbey,  there  remains  a  clii4>ter-houie  (x5th 
century)  adjoining  the  south  transept.  Moat  of  the  lampazts  ol 
the  town,  which  have  a  circuit  of  over  a  mile,  are  stiU  in 
existence.  In  particular  the  Forte  Neuve,  oonaasting  of  two 
massive  towers  flanking  a  gateway,  is  in  good  preservatioiLi 
There  are  several  interesting  old  houses,  among  them  one  in 
wluch  Theodore  of  Beza  was  bom.  Of  the  old  parish  chmdi, 
built  in  the  X7th  coitury,  the  dock-tower  alone  is  left.  A  mile 
and  a  half  from  V6zelay,  in  the  viUage  of  St  P£re-sous-V6zelay, 
there  is  a  remarkable  Burgundian  Gothic  church,  built  by  th« 
monks  of  V6zelay  in  the  13th  century.  The  west  facade, 
flanked  on  the  north  by  a  fine  tower,  is  richly  deeorated;  ita 
lower  portion  is  formed  of  a  projecting  porch  snzmounted  by 
pmnades  and  adorned  with  daborate  sculpture. 

The  history  of  V£aelay  is  bound  up  with  its  Benedictine  abbey, 
which  was  founded  in  the  9th  century  under  the  influence  of 
the  abbey  of  Quny.  This  dependence  was  soon  shaken  oft 
by  the  younger  monastery,  and  the  acquisition  of  the  relics 
of  St  Magdalen,  soon  after  its  foundation,  began  to  attract 
crowds  of  pilgrims,  whose  presence  enriched  both  the  monks 
and  the  town  whidi  had  grown  up  round  the  abbey  and  ac- 
knowledged its  supremacy.  At  the  beginning  of  the  xath 
century  the  exactions  of  the  abbot  Artaud,  who  required 
money  to  defray  the  expense  of  the  reconstruction  of  the 
church,  and  the  refusal  of  the  monks  to  grant  political  independ- 
ence to  the  dlizens,  resulted  in  an  insurrection  in  which  the 
abbey  was  burnt  and  the  abbot  murdered.  During  the  next 
fifty  years  three  similar  revolts  occurred,  fanned  by  the  oounta 
of  Nevers,  who  wished  to  acquire  the  suzerainty  over  V^xday 
for  themsdves.  The  monks  were,  however,  aided  by  the 
influence  both  of  the  Pope  and  of  Louis  VII.,  and  the  towns* 
men  were  unsuccessful  on  each  occasion.  During  the  isth 
century  Vfzelay  was  the  scene  of  the  preaching  of  the  second 
crusade  in  1x46,  and  of  the  assumption  of  the  cross  in  x  190  by 
Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  and  Philip  Augustus.  The  influence 
of  the  abbey  began  to  diminish  in  1280  when  the  Benedictinct 
of  St  Maximin  in  Provence  affirmed  that  the  true  body  of 
St  Magdalen  had  been  discovered  in  their  church;  its  decline 
was  precipitated  during  the  wars  of  religion  of  the  x6th  century, 
when  V^zday  suffered  great  hardships. 

VIANDEH,  an  andent  town  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Luxem- 
burg, on  the  banks  of  the  Our,  dose  to  the  Prussian  frontier^ 
Pop.  (1905)  2350.  It  possesses  one  of  the  oldest  charters  in 
Europe,  granted  early  in  the  X4th  century  by  Philip,  count  of 
Vianden,  from  whom  the  family  of  Nassau-Vianden  sprang, 
and  who  was  consequently  the  ancestor  of  William  of  Orange 
and  Queen  Wilhelmina  of  Holland.  The  semi-mythical 
foundress  of  this  family  was  Bertha,  "  the  White  Lady  "  who 
figures  in  many  German  legends.  The  original  name  of  Vianden 
was  Viennensis  or  Vienna,  and  its  probable  derivation  is  from 
the  Celtic  Vien  (rock).  The  extensive  ruins  of  the  andent 
castle  stand  on  an  eminence  of  the  little  town,  but  the  cfaapd 
whi<^  forms  part  <^  it  wss  restored  in  1849  by  Prince  Henry 
of  the  NetherUinds.  The  size  and  importance  of  this  castle 
in  its  prime  may  be  gauged  from  the  fact  that  the  Knights' 
Hall  could  accommodate  five  hundred  moi-at-arms.  A  re- 
markable feature  of  the  chapel  is  an  hexagonal  hole  fn  the 
centre  of  the  floor,  opening  upcm  a  bare  subterranean  dungeon. 
This  has  been  regarded  as  an  instance  of  the  "  double  chapel," 
but  it  seems  to  have  been  constracted  by  order  of  the  crasader 
Count  Frederick  H.  on  the  modd  of  the  Churdi  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Vianden  are  other  ruined 
castles,  notably  those  of  Stolxemburg  and  Falkenstdn.    The 


VIANNA 


CASTELLO— VICAIRE 


«7 


UUk'toim  and  Ifa  plusant  saiTOimding&  lave  tieen  pEsIsed 
by  many,  amons  otlien  by  Victor  Hugo,  who  BcsLded  here  on 
several  occasioiifi.  Duriog  his  kst  vait  he  wiote  his  finie  work 
VAmmU  kniUe,  Id  the  tkne  of  the  Romans,  the  Vianden 
valky  was  covered  vith  vineyasdst  but  at  the  present  day 
its  chief  souKe  of  wealth  is  derived  from  the  rearing  of  pigs. 

VIAHNA  DO  GASTBLLO,  a  seaport  and  the  capital  of  the 
district  of  Viansa  do  Caatello,  Portugal;  at  the  mbuth  of  the 
liver  Luok,  which  is  here  crossed  by  the  iron  bridge  of  the  Oporto- 
Vaieftfia  do  Minho  railway.  Pop.  (1900)  10,000.  Vianna  do 
CasteUo  has  manufactures  of  laoe  and  dairy  produce.  Its 
fisheries  are  importanL  Salmon  and  kmprays  are  exported, 
both  fresh  and  preserved.  The  administrative  district  of  Vfanna 
do  CasteUo  coincides  with  the  northern  part  of  the  andent 
province  of  Entre  Minho  4^  Douro  (9.9.).  Pop.  (1900)  nSt^li 
area,  857  sq.  m. 

VIARE6GI0,  a  maritime  town  and  sea>bathing  resoct  of  Tus- 
cany, Italy,  in  the  province  of  Lucca,  on  the  Moditertanean, 
13  m.  N.W.  of  Pisa  by  rail,  7  fu  above  sea4evel.  Pop.  (1906) 
X4,86j  (town);  21,557  (commune).  Being  sheltered  by  dense 
|Hne<woods  on  the  north,  and  its  malaria  having  been  banished 
by  drainage,  it  is  frequented  as  a  winter  resort,  and  in  summer 
by  some  thousands  for  its  sea«bathing.  In  1740  the  population 
was*  only  300,  and  in  1841,  6549.  The  body  of  Shelley  was 
burned  on  the  shore  near  Viareggio  after  his  <^th  by  drowning 
in  1833.  The  town  possesses  a  sdioolof  navigation  and  a 
technical  school,  and  carries  on  some  shipbuilding. 

VIATICUli  (a  Latin  word  meaning ''  provision  for  a  journey  "; 
Gr.  r&  «4>6&a>,  is  often  used  by  eady  Christian  writers  to  denote 
the  sacrament  of  the  Eucharist,  and  is  sometimes  also  applied 
to  baptism.  Ultimately  it  came  to  be  employed  in  a  restricted 
sense  to  denote  the  last  commimion  given  to  the  dying.  The 
13th  canon  of  the  council  of  Nicaea  is  to  the  effect  that  "  none, 
even  of  the  lapsed,  shall  be  deprived  of  the  last  and  most  neces- 
sary viaticum  (l^o^ou)"  and  that  the  bishop,  on  examination, 
is  to  give  the  oblation  to  all  who  desim  to  partake  of  the  Eucharist 
on  the  point  of  death.  The  same  principle  still  rules  the  canon 
law,  it  being  of  course  understood  that  penitential  discipline, 
which  in  ordinary  circumstances  would  have  been  due  for  their 
offence,  is  to  be  imdergone  by  lapsed  persons  who  have  thus 
received  the  viaticum,  in  the  event  of  recovery.  In  extreme 
cases  it  is  lawful  to  administer  the  ^aticum  to  persons  not 
fasting,  and  the  same  person  may  receive  it  frequently  if  his 
illness  be  prolonged.  The  ritual  to  be  observed  in  its  adminis- 
tration does  not  differ  from  that  laid  down  in  the  ofiice  for  the 
communion  of  the  sick,  except  in  the  words  of  the  formula, 
which  is  "  acdpe,  carissime  f rater  (carissima  soror),  viaticum 
corporis  nostri  Jesu  Christi,  quod  te  custodiat  ab  hoste  maligno, 
protegat  te,  et  perducat  te  ad  vitam  aeternam.  Amen."  After- 
a'ards  the  priest  rinses  his  fingers  in  a  little  water,  which  the 
communicant  drinks.  The  viaticimt  is  given  before  extreme 
unction,  a  reversal  of  the  medieval  practice  due  to  the  impor- 
tance of  receiving  the  Eucharist  while  the  mind  is  still  clear.  In 
the  early  centuries  the  sick,  like  those  in  health,  generally  re- 
ceived both  kinds,  though  there  are  instances  of  the  viaticum 
being  given  under  one  form  only,  sometimes  the  bread  and 
sometimes,  where  swallowing  was  difficult,  the  wine.  In  times 
of  persecution  laymen  occasionally  carried  the  viaticum  to  the 
sick,  a  practice  that  persisted  into  the  9th  century,  and  deacons 
continued  to  do  so  even  after  the  Council  of  Ansa  (near  Lyons) 
in  9QO  restricted  the  function  to  priests. 

VIBORG*  a  town  of  Denmark,  capital  of  the  ami  (county) 
of  its  name,  lying  in  the  bleak  midland  district  of  Jutland, 
though  the  immediate  situation,  on  the  small  Viborg  lake,  is 
picturesque.  Pop.  (1901)  8623.  It  has  a  station  on  the  railway 
running  east  and  west  between  Langaa  and  Vemb.  The  most 
notable  building  is  the  cathedral  (1x30-1169,  restored  1864- 
1876).  The  Black  Friars'  church  is  of  the  X3th  century,  and 
Che  museum  possesses  specimens  of  the  Stone,  Bronze  and  Iron 
Ages,  also  medieval  antiquities.  The  Borgevold  Park  borders 
the  lake  on  the  site  of  a  former  castle.  The  industries  embraco 
distilleries,  iron  foundries  and  manufactures  of  cloth.    The 


country  to  the  south  attains  to  a  certain  degree  of  beaaly  near 
Lake  Hakl,  where  the  ground  is  slightly  elevated. 

ViBORG  (Finnish  Viipuri)j  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same 
name  in  Finland,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Viborg 
in  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saima  Canal  and 
on  the  railway  which  connects  St  Petersburg  with  Helsingfoes. 
Population  of  the  town  (1904)  34,67a,  of  the  province  458,269. 
The  Saima  Canal  (37  m.  long),  a  fine  engineering  work,  connects 
with  the  sea  Lake  Saima — the  principal  lakk  of  Finland,  249  ft* 
above  sea-level-— and  a  series  of  others,  including  Puruvcsi, 
Orivesi,  HfiytiSnen  and  KaUavesi,  all  of  which  are  navigated 
by  steamers,  as  far  faorth  as  lisalmi  in  63"  30^  N.  lat.  Viborg  is 
thus  the  seaport  of  Karelia  and  eastern  Savolaks,  with  the  towns 
of  Vilmanstrand  (2393  inhabitants  in  1904),  St  Michel  (3933)4 
Myslott  (2687),  Kuopio  (13,5x9)  and  lisalmi,  with  their  numerous 
saw-mills  and  iron-works.  Viborg  stands  most  picturesquely 
on  the  glaciated  and  dome-shaped  granite  hiUs  surroimding  tiie 
bay,  wbdch  is  protected  at  its  entrance  by  the  naval  station  erf 
Bj<}rkO  and  at  its  head  by  several  forts.  The  castle  of  Viborg, 
built  in  1293  by  Marshal  Torkel  Knutson,  was  the  first  centre 
for  the  spread  of  Christianity  in  Karelia,  and  for  establishing 
the  power  of  Sweden;  it  is  now  used  as  a  prison.  Its  lofty  and 
elegant  tower  has  fallen  into  decay. .  The  court-house  (1839), 
the  town-house,  the  gymnasium  (164  r;  with  an  excellent 
library),  and  the  museum  are  among  the  prindpal  buildings  of 
the  city.  There  are  also  a  lyceum  and  two  higher  schools  for 
girls,  a  school  of  navigation  and  several  primary  schools,  both 
pubUc  and  private,  a  literary  and  an  agricultural  society,  and 
several  benevolent  institutions.  There  are  foundries,  machine 
works  and  saw-mills,  and  a  considerable  export  of  timber  and 
wood  products.    The  coasting  trade  is  also  considerable. 

The  environs  are  most  picturesque  and  are  visited  by  many 
tourists  in  the  summer.  The  park  of  Monrcpoa  (Old  Viborg),  in 
a  bay  dotted  with  domc-shapod  islands,  is  specially  attractive, 
The^cencry  of  the  Saima  Canal  and  of  the  Finnish  lakes  with 
the  grand  ds  of  Pungaharju;  the  Imatra  rapids,  by  which  the 
Vuokscn  discharges  the  water  of  Lake  Saima  into  Lake  Ladoga, 
with  the  castle  of  Kcxholm  at  its  mouth;  Scrdobol  and  Valamo 
monastery  on  Lake  Ladoga*— all  visited  from  Viborg — attract 
many  tourists  from  St  Petersburg  as  well  as  from  other  parts  of 
Finland. 

VIBURNUM,  in  medicine,  the  dried  bark  of  the  black  haw 
or  VUmmum  pruntfoliuni,  grown  in  India  and  North  America. 
The  black  haw  contains  vibumin  and  valerianic,  tannic,  gallic, 
citric  and  malic  adds.  The  British  Pharmacopoeial  prepara- 
tion is  the  EaUraclum  Viburni  Prunifoiii  liquidum;  the  United 
States  preparation  is  the  fluid  extract  prepared  from  the 
Viburnum  optdus.  The  physiological  action  of  viburnum  is 
to  lower  the  blood  pressure.  In  overdose  it  depresses  the  motor 
fimctions  of  the  spinal  cord  and  so  produces  loss  of  reflex 
and  paralysis.  Therapeutically  the  drug  is  used  as  an  anti- 
spasmodic in  dysmenorrhoea  and  in  menorrhagia. 

VICAIRE,  LOUIS  GABRIEL  CHARLES  (1848-1900),  French 
poet,  was  bom  at  Belfort  on  the  25th  of  January  1848.  He 
served  in  the  campaign  of  1870,  and  then  settled  in  Paris  to 
practise  at  the  bar,  which,  hovrever,  he  soon  abandoned  for 
literature.  His  work  was  twice  "  crowned  "  by  the  Academy, 
and  in  1892  he  rccdved  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  Born 
in  the  Vosges,  and  a  Parisian  by  adc^tion,  Vicaire  remained  all 
his  life  an  enthusiastic  lover  of  the  country  to  which  his  family 
belonged — ^La  Bresae — spending  much  of  his  time  at  Amb^rieu. 
His  freshest  and  best  work  is  Yu^Hmaux  bressans  (1884),  a  volume 
of  poems  full  of  the  gaiety  and  spirit  of  the  old  French  chansons. 
Other  volumes  followed:  Le  Lkre  de  la  patrie,  L'Heure  en* 
chanUe  (1890),  A  la  bonne  JranquciU  (1892),  Au  boisjoli  (1894) 
and  fu  Clos  desfies  (1897).  Vicaire  wrote  in  collaboration  with 
Jules  TrufTter  two  short  pieces  for  the  stage,  FUurs  d'cvril  (1890) 
and  La  Farce  du  man  refondn  (1895);  also  the  Miracle  de  Saint 
Nicolas  (iS$8).  With  his  friend  Henri  Beauckur  he  produced  a 
parody  of  the  Decadents  entitled  Les  Diliquescences  and  ugned 
Ador£  Floupette.  His  fame  rests  on  his  J^maux  bressans  and  on 
his  Babelaisian  drinking  songs;  the  religious  and  faity  pocma 


|8 


VICAR— VICE-CHANCELLOR 


charming  as  they  often  are,  cany  limplidty  to  the  veise  of 

affecUlion.  The  poet  died  ia  Paris,  after  a  long  ai|d  fMinful 
illness,  on  the  33rd  of  September  190a 

See  Henri  Corbel.  Un  PoHe,  Cabrid  Vieain  (1909). 

VICAR  (Lat.  vUariuSf  8iU)stitute),a  title.more  especially  ecclesi- 
astical, describing  various  officials  acting  in  some  spedal  way 
for  a  superior.  Gcero  uses  the  name  tkanus  to  describe  an 
under*slave  kept  by  another  as  part  of  his  private  property.  The 
vicarius  was  an  important  official  in  the  reorganized  empire  of 
Diodctian.  It  remained  as  a  title  of  secdar  officials  in  the 
middle  ages,  bemg  applied  to  persons  appointed  by  the  Roman 
emperor  to  judge  cases  in  distant  parts  of  the  empire,  or  to 
wield  power  in  certain  districts,  or,  in  the  absence  of  the  emperor, 
over  the  whole  empire.  The  prefects  of  the  dty  at  Rome  were 
called  Vicani  Romae,  In  the  eariy  middle  ages  the  term  was 
applied  to  lepresenutives  of  a  count  administering  justice  for 
him  in  the  countiy  or  small  towns  and  dealing  with  unimportant 
cases,  lev3dng  taxes,  &c.  Monasteries  and  religioQS  houses  often 
employed  a  vicar  to  answer  to  their  feudal  lords  for  those  of  their 
lands  which  did  not  pass  into  mortmain. 

The  title  of  "  vicar  of  Jesus  Christ,"  borne  by  the  popes,  was 
introduced  as  their  spedal  designation  during  the  8th  century,  in 
place  of  the  older  style  of  "  vicar  of  St  Peter  "  (or  vicarius  prin- 
cipis  aposlolorum).  In  the  eariy  Church  other  bishops  commonly 
described  themselves  as  vicais  of  Christ  (Du  Cange  gives  an 
example  as  late  as  the  9th  century  from  the  capitularies  of 
Charles  the  Bald);  but  there  is  no  proof  in  their  case,  or  indeed 
ia  that  of  "  vicar  of  St  Peter  '*  given  to  the  popes,  that  it  was  part 
of  thdr  formal  style.  The  assumption  of  the  style  "  vicar  of 
Christ "  by  the  popes  coindded  with  a  tendency  on  the  part  of 
the  Roman  chancery  to  insist  on  pladng  the  pontiff's  name 
before  that  of  emperors  and  kings  and  to  refuse  to  other  bishops 
the  right  to  address  him  as"  brother  "(MasLatrie,  s.''  Sabinien," 
p.  1047).  It  was  not  till  the  13th  ocntuiy  that  the  alternative 
style  "  vicar  of  St  Peter  "  was  definitivdy  forbidden,  this-pro- 
hibition  thus  coindding  with  the  extreme  claims  of  the  pope  to 
rule  the  world  as  the  immediate  "  vicar  of  God  "  (see  Innocent 

m.). 

All  bishops  were  looked  upon  as  in  some  sort  vicais  of  the  pope, 
but  the  title  vicarius  sedis  apostelicae  came  espedally  to  be  ap- 
plied as  an  alternative  to  Icgatus  sedis  apostelicae  to  describe  papal 
legates  to  whom  in  certain  places  the  pope  delegated  a  portion 
of  his  authority.  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  tells  us  in  his  treatise 
Dt  synodo  dicccesana  that  the  pope  often  names  vicars-apostolic 
for  the  government  of  a  particuli^  diocese  because  the  episcopal 
see  is  vacant  or,  being  filled,  the  titular  bishop  cannot  fulfil 
his  functions.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  England  was 
governed  by  vicars-apostolic  from  1685  until  1850,  when  Pope 
Pius  IX.  re-established  the  hierarchy.  Vicars-apostolic  at  the 
present  day  are  nearly  always  titular  bishops  taking  thdr  titles 
from  places  not  acknowledging  allegiance  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  title  is  generally  given  by  the  pope  to  bishops  sent 
on  Eastern  missions. 

A  neighbouring  bishop  was  sometimes  appointed  by  the  pope 
vicar  of  a  church  which  happened  to  be  without  a  pastor.  A 
spedal  vicar  was  appointed  by  the  pope  to  superintend  the 
spiritual  affairs  of  Rome  and  its  suburbs,  to  visit  its  churches, 
monasteries,  &c.,  and  to  correct  abuses.  It  became  early  a 
custom  for  the  prebendaries  and  canons  of  a  cathedral  to  employ 
"  priest-vicars  "  or  "  vicars-choral "  as  their  substitutes  when  it 
was  thdr  turn  as  hebdomedary  to  sing  Hig^  Mass  and  conduct 
divine  office.  In  the  English  Church  these  priest-vicars  remain 
in  the  cathedrals  of  the  old  foundations  as  beneficed  clergy  on  the 
foundation;  in  the  cathedrals  of  the  new  foundation  they  are 
paid  by  the  chapters.  "  Lay  vicars  "  also  were  and  are  employed 
to  sing  those  parts  of  the  office  which  can  be  sung  by  laymen. 

In  the  early  Church  the  assistant  bishops  (chorepiscopi)  were 
sometimes  described  as  vicarii  episcoporum.  The  employment 
of  such  vicars  was  by  no  means  general  in  the  early  Church,  but 
towards  the  13th  century  it  became  very  general  for  a  bishop  to 
employ  a  vicar-general,  often  to  curb  the  growing  authority  of 
the  archdeacons.    In  the  middle  ages  there  was  not  a  very  dear 


distinctioB  drawn  between  the  vicar  and  tbt  official  of  the  bSakop. 
When  the  voluntaiy  and  contentious  jurisdiction  came  to  be  dis- 
tinguished, the  former  fell  generally  to  the  vicais,  the  latter  to 
the  officials.  In  the  style  of  the  Ronuui  chancery,  offidal  docu- 
meats  are  addressed  to  the  bishops  or  their  vicars  for  dioceses 
beyond  the  Alps,  but  for  French  dioceses  to  the  bishops  or  their 
oflkials.  The  institution  of  nears-gmeral  to  hdp  the  bJdwps  is 
now  general  in  the  Catholic  Chiirch,  but  it  is  not  certain  that  n 
bishop  b  obliged  to  have  such  an  offidaL  He  may  have  two^ 
Such  a  vicar  possesses  an  ordinary  and  not  a  deviated  juris- 
diction, whidi  he  exercises  like  the  bishop.  He  cannot ,  however, 
cserdse  functions  which  concern  the  episcopal  order,  or  confer 
benefices  without  express  and  particular  oommission.  In  the 
An^ican  Church  a  vicar-general  is  emfrioyed  by  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  and  some  other  bishops  to  assist  in  such  matters 
as  ecdesiastical  visitations.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Churdi 
bishops  sometimes  appoint  lesser  vicars  to  exercise  a  more 
limited  authority  over  a  limited  district.  They  are  called 
"  vicars-fonne  "  or  rural  deans.  They  ars  entrusted  espedally 
with  the  surveillance  of  the  parish  priests  and  other  priests  of 
thdr  districts,  and  with  matters  of  ecdesiastical  disc^ne.  They 
are  charged  espedally  with  the  care  of  sick  priests  and  in  case  of 
death  with  the  celebration  of  thdr  funerals  and  the  charge  of 
their  vacant  parishes.  In  canon  law  priests  doing  work  in 
place  of  the  parish  priest  are  called  vicars.  Thus  in  Frsnce  the 
curi  or  head  priest  in  a  parish  churdi  is  assisted  by  several 
vicaires. 

Formerly,  and  eqjedally  in  En^and,  many  churches  were 
appropriated  to  monasteries  or  colleges  of  canons,  whose  custom 
it  was  to  appoint  one  of  thdr  own  body  to  perform  <Kvine  service 
in  such  churches,  but  in  the  13th  century  such  corporations  were 
obliged  to  appoint  permanent  paid  vicars  who  were  called 
perpetual  vicars.  Hence  in  En^znd  the  distinction  between 
rectors,  who  draw  both  the  greater  and  lesser  tithes,  and  vicars, 
who  are  attached  to  parishes  of  which  the  great  tithes,  formerty 
hdd  by  monasteries,  are  now  drawn  by  Uy  rectors.   (See  Apno- 

PRIAtlON.) 

See  Du  Cange,  Qossarium  mediae  et  infiniae  Latinilalis,  ed.  L. 
Favre  (Niort,  1883,  &c.);  Mtgne,  Encychpidie  thMogique,  aeries  ?. 
vol.  10  (Droit  Canon);  Comte  dc  Mas  Latrie,  Trisor  de  ekroualogia 
(Paris,  1889);  and  Sir  R.  J.  Phillimore,  Ecdesiastical  Law  of  tka 
Church  of  England  (2nd  ed.  1895).  (E.  O'N.) 

VICE,  (i)  (Through  Fr.  from  Lat.  vitium),  a  fault,  blemish, 
more  spedfically  a  moral  fault,  hence  depravity,  sin,  or  a  par- 
ticular form  of  depravity.  In  the  medieval  morality  plays  a 
spedal  character  who  acted  as  an  attendant  on  the  d^ril  was 
styled  "  the  Vice,"  but  sometimes  took  the  name  of  spedfic 
vices  such  as  Envy,  Fraud,  Iniquity  and  the  like.  He  was 
usually  dressed  in  the  garb  that  is  identified  with  that  of  the 
domestic  fool  or  jester,  and  was  armed  with  a  wooden  sword  or 
dagger,  (a)  (M.E.  vyce,  vise  or  vyse;  Fr.  vis;  Lat.  vitis,  a 
vine,  or  biyony,  i.e.  something  that  twists  or  winds),  a  portable 
or  fixed  tool  or  appliance  which  h<^ds  or  grips  an  object  while 
it  is  being  worked;  a  spedal  form  of  damp.  The  tool  consists 
essentially  of  movable  jaws,  dther  jointed  by  a  hinge  or  moving 
on  slides,  and  the  closing  motion  is  applied  by  a  screw,  whence 
the  name,  as  of  something  which  turns  or  winds,  or  by  a  lever, 
ratchet,  &c.  (see  Tools).  (3)  (Lat.  vice^  in  place  of,  abl.  sing, 
of  a  noun  not  found  in  the  nom.),  a  word  chiefly  used  as  a  prefix 
in  combination  with  names  of  office-holders,  indicating  a  position 
subordinate  or  alternative  to  the  chief  office-holder,  especially 
one  who  takes  second  rank  or  acts  in  default  of  his  superior, 
e.g.  vice-chairman,  vice-admiral,  &c 

VICB-CHANCELLOR,  the  deputy  of  a  chancellor  iq.v.).  In 
the  English  legal  system  vice-chancellors  in  equity  were 
formerly  important  officials.  The  first  -  'dee-chancellor  was 
appointed  in  X813  in  order  to  lighten  the  work  of  the  lord 
chancellor  and  the  master  of  the  rolls,  who  were  at  that  time 
the  sole  judges  in  equity.  Two  additional  vice-chancellors  were 
appointed  in  1841.  The  vice-chancellors  sat  separately  from 
the  lord  chancellor  and  the  lords  justices,  to  whom  there  was 
an  appeal  from  their  decisions.    By  the  Judicature  Act  1873 


VICENTE 


*9 


Uey  bccaine  jodges  of  the  Hith  Court  of  Jiudoe,  reUlaing  Ueir 
titles,  but  il  WM  eOACted  that  on  the  death  or  retlreioent  of  any 
one  hia  socoeaBor  was  to  be  styled  "  judge."  Vice-chanceUor 
Sir  J.  BaooB  (179&-1B95)  was  the  last  to  hold  the  ofiBce,  lesigaiog 
iniS86. 

Vioe^ancenor  is  also  the  title  given  to  the  judge  ol  the  duchy 
court  of  liancsater.  For  the  vice-chaocdlor  of  a  univeraity, 
seeGiiANCtLLOft. 

VI€BliTB»  GIL  (147^1540),  the  father  of  the  Portuguese 
drama,  was  bom  at  Guiuaries,  but  came  to  Lisbon  in  boyhood 
and  studied"  jurisprudence  at  the  univenity  without  taking  a 
degree.  In  1493  we  find  him  acting  as  master  of  rhetoric  to  the 
duke  of  fieja,  aftervrards  King  Manod,  a  post  which  gave  him 
adniissioo  to  the  court;  and  the  Cattciotteiro  Geral  cont^s  some 
early  lytica  6f  his  which  show  that  he  took  part  in  the  famous 
seroes  do  paco.  The  birth  of  King  John  III.  furnished  .the 
occasion  for  his  first  dramatic  essay— ribe  Ne(UMerd*s  Monologiu, 
which  he  recited  on  the  night  of  the  7th-8th  June  1502  in  the 
queen's  chamber  in  the  presence  of  King  Manok  and  his  court. 
It  was  written  in  Spanish  out  of  compliment  to  the  queen,  a 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  anid  because  that  language 
was  then  the  fashionable  medium  with  the  higher  classes.  This 
manger-hymn,  which  was  a  novelty  in  Portugal,  so  pleased  the 
king's  mother,  the  infanU  D.  Beatris,  that  she  desired  Gil 
Vicente  to  repeat  it  the  following  Christmas,  but  he  composed 
instead  the  Castilian  Pastond  Aula,  a  more  developed  piece  in 
which  he  uitroduced  six  characters.  The  infanta,  pleased 
again,  required  a  further  diversion  for  Twelfth  Day,  whereupon 
he  produced  the  Auto  of  the  Wise  Kiugs,  He  had  now  estab- 
lished his  reputatkm  as  a  playwright,  and  for  the  next  thirty 
years  he  entertained  the  courts  of  Kings  Manoel  and  John  III., 
accompanying  them  as  they  moved  from  place  to  place,  and 
providing  by  his  antes  a  detraction  in  times  of  calamity,  and 
in  times  of  rejoicing  giving  expression  to  the  feelings  of  the 
people.  Though  himself  both  actor  and  author^  Gil  Vicente 
had  no  regular  company  of  players,  but  it  is  probable  that  be 
easily  found  students  and  court  servants  willing  to  get  up  a 
part  for  a  small  fee,  especially  as  the  plays  would  not  ordinarily 
run  for  more  than  one  night.  The  Auto  of  ike  Sytril  Cassandra 
(produced  at  the  monastery  of  Euxobregas  at  Christmas  1503), 
the  Auio  of  St  Martin  (played  in  the  chuith  at  Caldas  on  the 
feast  of  Corpus  Christi  1504),  and  a  mystery  play,  the  Auto  of 
the  Four  Seasonst  all  bdong,  like  their  predecessors,  to  the 
religious  drama,  but  in  1505  Gil  Vicente  wrote  a  comedy  oi  real 
life,  Who  has  Bran  to  seUf  a  title  given  it  by  the  public  It  Is  a 
dever  farce  depicting  an  amorous  poor  squire  and  his  ill-paid 
servants,  and  opens  a  rich  portrait-gallery  in  which  the  dramatist 
indudes  every  type  of  Portuguese  society,  depicting  the  fail- 
ings of  each  with  the  freedom  of  a  Rabdais.  The  next  three 
years  saw  no  new  play,  but  in  1506  Gil  Vicente  delivered  before 
the  court  at  Almeirim  a  sermon  in  verse  on  the  theme  Non-voh, 
ooto,  el  defUior,  in  which  he  protested  against  the  intolerance 
shown  to  the  Jews,  just  as  in  1531  he  interfered  to  prevent  a 
massacre  of  the  "New  Christians"  at  SanUrem.  The  Anto 
of  the  Sotd,  a  Catholic  prototype  of  (joethe's  Faust,  containing 
some  beautiful  lyrics,  appeared  in  1508,  and  in  150Q  the  Auto 
da  India,  a  farce  which  has  the  eastern  enterprise  of  his  country- 
men for  background,  while  the  Auio  da  Fama  (15x6)  and  the 
Exhortation  to  War  (1513)  are- inspired  by  the  achievements 
that  made  Portugal  a  worid-power.  If  the  farce  niTheOld  Man 
of  the  Garden  (isia)  breathes  the  mfiuenoe  and  spirit  of  the 
Celestina,  the  popular  trik>gy  of  the  Boats  of  Hell,  Purgatory 
and  Glory  (15x7,  1518,  1519)  is  at  once  a  dance  of  death,  full 
of  splendid  pageantry  and  caustic  irony,  and  a  kind  of  Portuguese 
Dioina  Commedia.  The  Auto  of  the  Fairies  (1516),  the  Farce 
of  the  Doctors  (15x9)  and  the  Comedy  ef  Ruhena  (1531)  ridicule 
unchaste  derics  and  ignorant  physidans  with  considerable 
freedom  and  a  medieval  coarseness  of  wit,  and  the  Faru  of  the 
Gipsies  is  interesting  as  the  first  piece  of  the  European  theatre 
dealing  professedly  with  that  race,  /fiux  Pereira,  usually  hdd 
to  be  Gil  Vicente's  masterpiece,  was  produced  in  1533  before 
King  John  III.  at  the  convent  of  Chtial  at  Tlionar»  and  owed 


iu  origin  to  certain  men  of  bom  saher,  perhaps  e&vk>us  partisans 
of  the  dassical  school.  They  pretended  to  doubt  his  author- 
ship of  the  autos,  and  accordingly  gave  him  as  a  theme  for  a 
fresh  piece  the  proverb:  "  I  prefer  an  ass  that  carries  me  to  a 
hone  that  throws  me."  Gil  Vicente  accepted  the  challenge, 
and  furnished  a  triumphant  reply  to  his  detractors  in  this 
comedy  of  ready  wit  and  lively  dialogue.-  The  Beira  Judge 
(1526),  the  Forge  of  Love  (1525)  and  The  Beira  Priest  (1526) 
satirize  the  maladministration  of  justice  by  ignorant  magistrates 
and  the  lax  morals  of  the  regular  dei^y,  and  the  Farce  of  the 
Muleteers  (1526)  dramatizes  the  type  of  poor  nobleman  described 
in  Cleynart's  Letters,  The  Comedy  of  the  Arms  of  the  City  of 
Coimbra  (1527)  has  a  considerable  antiquarian  interest,  and  the 
facetious  Ship  of  Love  is  full  of  quaint  imagery,  while  the  lengthy 
Auto  of  the  Fair  (1527),  with  its  twenty-two  characters,  may 
be  described  as  at  once  an  indictment  of  the  sodety  of  the  time 
from  the  standpoint  of  a  practical  Christian  and  a  tdling  appeal 
for  the  reform  of  the  church.  In  an  oft-quoted  passage,  Rome 
personified  comes  to  the  booth  of  Mercury  and  Time,  and  offers 
her  indulgences,  saying,  "  Sdl  me  the  peace  of  heaven,  since  I 
have  power  here  Mow  ";  but  Mercury  reuses,  dedaring  that 
Rome  absolves  the  whole  world  and  never  thinks  of  her  own 
sins.  The  play  condudes  with  a  dance  and  hymn  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  The  Triumph  of  Winter  (1529)  exposes  the  unskilful 
pilots  and  ignorant  seamen  who  cause  the  loss  of  ships  and  livea 
on  the  route  to  India,  and  the  Auio  da  Lusitania  (r532)  portrays 
the  household  oi  a  poor  Jewish  tailor,  ending  with  a  curious 
dialogue  between  ''AU  the  World"  and  "Nobody."  The 
Pilgrimage  of  the  Aggrieved  (1533)  »  an  attack  on  discontent  and 
ambition,  lay  and  clerical.  After  representing  the  Auio  da 
fcsta  for  the  Conde  de  Vimioso  (1535),  and  dramatizing  the 
romances  of  diivalry  m  D.  Duardos  and  Amadis  de  Gaula,  Gil 
Vicente  ended  his  dramatic  career  In  1536  with  a  mirthful 
comedy,  The  Garden  of  Deceptions,  He  spent  the  evening  of 
life  in  preparing  his  works  for  the  press  at  the  instance  of  King 
John  ni.,  and  died  in  1540,  his  wife  Branca  Bezerra  having 
predeceased  him.  Four  chil(hen  were  bom  of  thdr  union,  and 
among  them  Paula  Vicente  attained  distinction  as  a  member 
of  the  group  of  cultured  women  who  formed  a  sort  of  female 
academy  presided  over  by  the  infanta  D.  Maria. 

The  forty-four  pieces  comprising  the  theatre  of  Gil  Vicente  fall 
from  the  point  of  view  of  language  into  three  groups:  (1)  those  ia 
Portuguese  only,  numbering  fourteen;  (2)  tho»e  in  Spanish  only,' 
numbering  eleven;  and  (31  the  biUogual,  bdng  the  remainder, 
nineteen  in  all.  They  are  also  from  thdr  nature  divisible  as  follows : 
a.  Works  of  a  religious  character  or  of  devotion.  Most  of  these 
are  a  devdopment  of  the  mystery  or  mirade  play  of  the  middle 
ages;  and  they  may  be  subdivided  tato  (i)  Biblical  pieces;  (a)  inecca 


allied  to  beauty  of  expression,  b.  Aristocratic  works,  or  tragi- 
comedies, the  oomporition  of  which  was  the  result  of  his  oontact 
with  the  court;  these,  though  often  more  spectacular  than  strictly 
dramatic  are  remarkable  for  opulence  of  invention  and  sweetness 
of  versification,  c.  The  |)opular  theatre,  or  comedies  and  farces. 
Gil  Vicente's  plays  contain  some  evidence  of  his  knowledge  and 
appreciation  oi  French  poetiy;  «.e.  Tiu  Beira  Judge  wean  a  general 
Itlceneas  to  the  products  of  tne  Ciercs  de  la  Baaocne.  and  bis  TestO' 
mcnl  of^  Maria  Parda  ia  reminiscent  of  the  better-known  work  of 
Francois  Villon.  Most  of  the  plays  are  written  in  the  national 
redonditha  verse,  and  are  j^reccded  by  initial  rubrics  stating  the 
date  when,  the  plate  where,  m  whose  presence,  and  on  what  occasioa 
each  was  first  performed,  and  these  make  up  the  annals  of  the  finl 
thirty^fonr  years  of  the  Portuguese  drama.  Most  of  them  were  put 
on  the.  stage  at  the  different  royal  palaces;  some,  however,  were 
played  in  hospitals,  and,  it  is  said,  even  in  churches,  though  this  is 
doubtful;  thoae  of  which  the  subjects  are  liturgical  at  the  great 
festivals  of  Christmas,  Epiphany  and  Maundy  Thursday,  others  on 
the  happening  of  some  event  of  importance  to  the  royal  family  or 
the  nation.  Many  of  the  plays  contain  songs,  either  written  and 
set  to  music  by  the  author,  or  collected  by  him  from  popular  sources, 
while  at  the  cioee  the  characters  leave  the  stage  singing  and  dandng, 
as  was  the  custom  in  the  medieval  comedies. 

Though  so  large  a  proportran  of  his  pieces  are'  in  Spanish,  they 
arc  all  eminently  nationsu  in  idea,  texture  and  subject.  No  other 
Portuguese  writer  reflects  so  faithfully  the  language,  types,  customs 
and  colour  of  hb  age  as  Gil  Vicente,  and  the  rudest  01  his  dramas 
•re  foil  cf  genuine  coodc  feeling.    If  they  never  attain  to  perfect 


ao 


VICENZA 


art,  c^ey  ptrntm  the  sufMvme  gift  of  Ufe.  None  of  them  are,  strictly 
speaking,  historical,  and  he  never  attempted  to  write  a /tragedy. 
Himscira  man  of  the  people,  he  would  not  imitate  thenroducisof 
the  classical  theatre  as  did  S&  de  Miranda  and  Ferreira,  but  thoueh 
he  remained  faithful  to  the  Old  or  Spanish  school  in  form,  yet  ne 
bad  imbibed  the  critical  spirit  and  mental  ferment  of  the  Renaissance 
without  its  culture  or  erudition.  Endowed^  by  nature  with  acute 
observation  and  considerable  powers  of  analysis,  Gil  Vicente  possessed 
a  felicity  of  phrase  and  an  unmatched  knowledge  of  popular  super- 
stitions, languagje  and  lore.  Above  all,  he  was  a  moralist,  with  satire 
and  ridicule  as  his  main  weapons;  but  if  his  invective  is  often  stinging 
it  is  rarely  bitter,  while  more  than  one  incident  in  his  carecrshows 
th^t  he  possessed  a  kindly  heart  as  well  as  an  impartial  judgment, 
and  a  well-balanced  outlook  on  life.  If  he  owed  his  early  mspiration 
to  Juan  de  Encina,  he  repaid  the  debt  by  showing  a  better  way 
to.  the  dramatists  of  the  neighbouring  country,  so  that  he  may 
truly  be  called  the  father  of  the  rich  Spanish  drama,  of  Lope  de 
Vega  and  Calderon.  Much  of  his  fame  aoroad  is  due  to  his  position 
as  an  innovator,  and,  as  Dr  Garnett  truly  remarked,  **  One  little 
comer  oif  Europe  alone  passessed  in  the  early  i6th  century  a  drama 
at  once  living,  indigenous  and  admirable  as  literature." 

Gil  Vicente  perluips  lacks  psycholo^al  depth,  but  he  possesses 
a  breadth  of  mental  vision  and  a  critical  acumen  unknown  in  any 
medieval  dramatist.  In  his  attitude  to  religion  he  acts  as  the 
spokesman  of  the  better  men  of  his  age  and  country.  A  convinced 
but  liberal-minded  Catholu:,  he  has  no  sympathy  with  attacks  on 
the  u.iity  of  the  Church,  but  he  cries  out  for  a  reform  of  morals, 
pillories  the  corruption  and  ignorance  of  the  clergy  and  laity,  and 
pens  the  most  bitter  things  of  the^  popes  and  their  court.  He 
strove  to  take  a  middle  course  at  a  time  when  moderation  was  still 
possible,  though,  had  he  lived  a  few  years  lon^r,  in  the  reign  of 
religious  fanaticism  inaugurated  by  the  InquisitiMi,  his  bold  stand 
for  religious  toleration  would  have  meant  his  imprisonment  or  exile, 
if  not  a  worse  fate.  He  is  a  great  dmmatist  in  embryo,  who,  if 
he  had  been  bom  fifty  years  Liter  and  preserved  his  liberty  of  thought 
and  expression,  might  with  added  culture  have  surpassed  Calderon 
and  taken  his  place  as  the  Latin  and  Catholic  rival  of  Shakespeare. 

Some  of  the  plays  were  printed  in  Gil  Vicente's  lifctimCi^  but  the 
first  collected  edition,  which  included  his  lyrics,  was  published  after 
his  death  by  his  son  Luiz  (Lisbon,  1562),  with  a  dedication  to  King 
Sebastian.  A  second  edition  appeared  in  1586.  wit  h  various  omtssiohs 
and  alterations  made  at  the  instamx  of  the  Inauisition.  A  critical 
edition  of  the  text  in  3  vols,  came  out  at  Hamburg  (1834},  with  a 
glossary  and  introductory  essay  on  Vicente's  life  and  writings,  and 
a  poor  reprint  of  this  edition  is  dated  Lisbon  1 852.  He  has  never 
found  a  translator,  doubtless  because  of  the  difficulty  of  rendering 
bis  form  and  explaining  his  wealth  of  topical  allusions. 

Authorities. — Dr  Theophilo  Braga,  GU  Vicente  e  as  origens  do 
thealro  nacional  (Oporto.  1898);  J.  I.  de  Brito  RcbcUo,  (7(7  V^eiite 
(Lisbon,  1902);  ''The  Portuguese  Drama  in  the  16th  Century — 
Gil  Vicente."  in  the  Manchester  Quarterly  (July  and  October  1807); 
introduction  by  the  Conde  de  Sabugosa  to  his  edition  of  the  Attto 
defesta  (Lisbon,  1906).  (E.  PR.) 

VICENZA,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Venetia,  Italy,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Vicenza,  42  m.  W.  of  Venice  by  rail,  131  ft. 
above  sea-Ievel.  Pop.  (1901)  32,200  (town);  47,558  (com- 
mune). It  lies  at  the  northern  base  of  the  Monti  Bcrici,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Bacchiglionc,  at  its  confluence  with  the  Retione. 
It  was  surrounded  by  13th-century  walls,  once  about  3  m.  in 
circumference,  but  these  are  now  in  great  part  demolished. 
Though  many  of  the  streets  are  narrow  and  irregular,  the  town 
has  a  number  of  fine  buildings,  many  of  them  the  work  of  Andrea 
Palladio.  The  best  of  these  is  the  town  hall,  otherwise  known 
as  the  basilica,  one  of  the  finest  works  of  the  Renaissance  period, 
<rf  which  Palladio  himself  said  that  it  might  stand  comparison 
with  any  similar  work  of  antiquity.  It  is  espedally  noteworthy 
pwing  to  the  difficulty  of  the  task  the  architect  had  to  accom- 
plish— that  of  transforming  the  exterior  of  the  Palazzo  dclla 
Ragione,  a  Gothic  building  of  the  latter  half  of  the  15th  century, 
which  the  colonnades  of  the  basilica  entirely  enclose.  It  was 
begun  in  1549,  but  not  finished  till  1614,  long  alter  his  death. 
He  also  designed  many  of  the  fine  palaces  which  give  Vicenza 
its  individuality;  only  two  of  them,  the  Barbarano  and  Chieri- 
cati  palaces  (the  latter  containing  the  picture  gallery),  have  two 
orders  of  architecture,  the  r«t  having  a  heavy  rustica  basis 
with  only  one  order  above  it.  Many  palaces,  however,  have 
been  wrongly  attributed  to  him  which  ate  really  the  work  of 
Scamozzi  and  others  of  his  successors.  The  famous  Teatro 
(Mhnpico  was  begun  by  him,  but  only  finished  after  his  death; 
it  is  a  remarkable  attempt  to  construct  a  theatre  in  the  ancient 
style,  and  the  stage,  with  the  representation  of  streets  ascending 
At  the  back,  U  curious.   The  cathedral,  which  is  Italian  Gothic, 


dating  mainly  from  the  13th  century,  contitts  of  a  iitve  with 
eight  chapels  on  each  side,  and  a  very  high  Renaissance  domed 
choir;  it  contains  examples  of  the  Montagi»s  and  of  Lovenso 
da  Venezia.    The  churches  of  S.  Loreiuo  (i28&-i544)  and 
S.  Corona  (i  260-1300),  both  of  brick,  are  better  examples  off 
(Gothic  than  the  cathedral;  both  contain  interesting  wodcs  of 
art— the  latter  a  very  fine  "  Baptism  of  Christ,"  by  GlevsiiBi 
BellinL    In  S.  Stefano  is  an  imposing  altar-piece  by  Palni& 
Vecchio.    The  chnrch  of  SS.  Felice  e  Fortunato  was  restored 
in  A.D.  975,  but  has  been  much  altered,  and  was  tnonfonned 
in  1613.    The  portal  is  of  11 54,  and  the  Lombardeaque  square 
brick  tower  of  1160.    Under  it  a  mosaic  pavement  with  the 
names  of  the  donors,  belonging  to  the  original  church  of  the 
Lombard  period  (?),  was  discovered  in  1895  (see  F.  Berchet, 
///.  Relaaione  ddP  Ufficio  ReponaU  per  la  emiservatUme  dei 
moHumenii  dd  VenetOf  Venice,  1895,  p.  11 1).    None  of  the 
churches  of  Vicenza  is  the  work  of  Palladio.    Of  the  PaUadtaa 
villas  in  the  neighbourhood,  La  RotMida,  or  Villa  PaUadiaiia, 
1^  m.  S.E.,  deserves  special  mention.    It  is  a  square  building 
with  Ionic  colonnades  and  a  central  dome,  like  an  ancient 
temple,  but  curiously  unlike  a  Roman  villa.     Viccnaa  also 
contains  some  interesting  remains  of  the  Gothic  period  besidea 
the  churches  mentioned—^the  lofty  tower  of  the  town  hall 
(11 74-13 1 1-1446;  the  Piazza  contains  two  columns  of  tlie 
Venetian  period,  with  S.  Theodore  and  the  Lion  of  S.  Maik 
on  them)  and  several  palaces  in  the  Venetian  style.    Among 
these  may  be  especially  noted  the  small  Casa  Pigafetta  dating 
from  1481,  but  still  half  Gothic,  prettily  decorated.    Some  of 
these  earlier  houses  had  painted  facades.     The  fine  picture 
of  "  Christ  bearing  the  Cross  "  (wrongly  ascribed  to  Giorgione), 
according  to  Burckhardt  once  in  the  Palazzo  Loschi,  is  now 
in  the  Gardner  collection  at  Boston,  U.S.A.    The  most  im- 
portant manufacture  is  that  of  silk,  which  employs  a  luge 
proportion  of  the  inhabitants.    Great  numbers  of  mulberzy 
trees  are  grown  in  the  neighbourhood.     Woollen  and  linen 
cloth,  leather,  earthenware,  paper,  and  articles  in.  gold  and 
silver  are  also  made  in  Vicenza,  and  a  considerable  trade  in 
these  articles,  as  well  as  in  com  and  wine,  is  carried  on. 

Vicenza  is  the  ancient  Vicetiaf  an  ancient  town  of  Venetia. 
It  was  of  less  importance  than  its  neighbours  Veifetia  and 
Patavium,  and  we  hear  little  of  it  in  histoiy.  It  no  doubt 
acquired  Roman  citizenship  in  49  B.C.,  and  became  a  mmm- 
apiHtH;  and  is  mentioned  two  yeais  later  apropos  of  a  dispute 
between  the  citizens  and  their  slaves.  Remains  of  a  theatre 
and  of  a  late  mosaic  pavement  with  hunting  scenea  have  been 
found,  three  of  the  bridges  across  the  Bacchiglione  and  Retrone 
are  of  Roman  origin,  and  arches  of  the  aqueduct  exist  outside 
Porta  S.  Croce.  A  road  diverged  here  to  Opitergium  (mod. 
Oderzo)  from  the  main  road  between  Venma  and  Patavium 
(Padua)  :see  T.  Mommsen  in  Corp.  Inscr.  Latin,  v.  (Berlin,  1883). 
p.  304.  It  suffered  severely  in  the  invasion  of  Attila,  by  whom 
it  was  laid  waste,  and  in  subsequent  incursions.  It  mts  for 
some  time  during  thp  middle  ages  an  independent  republic, 
but  was  subdued  by  the  Venetians  in  1405.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  1 5th  century  it  became  the  seat  of  a  schoql  of  painting 
strongly  influenced  by  Mantegna,  of  which  the  principal  repre- 
sentatives were,  besides  Bartolomeo  Montagna,  its  founder, 
his  son  Benedetto  MonUgna,  Giovanni  Spcraaia  and  Gio- 
vanni Buonconsiglio.  Good  altar-pieces  by  the  former  exist 
in  S.  Bartolommeo,  S.  Corona,  and  the  cathedral,  and  severs) 
pictures  also  in  the  picture  gallciy;  while  his  son  Benedetto 
had  greater  merits  as  an  engraver  than  a  painter.  Some  works 
by  both  of  the  last  two  exist  at  Vicenza*-the  best  is  a  Pleti 
in  tempera  in  the  g&Uery  by  Buonconsigh'o,  by  whom  is  also  a 
good  Madonna  at  S.  Rocco.  Andrea  Palladio  (151^1580)  was 
a  native  of  Vicenza,  as  was  also  a  contemporary,  Vinoenza 
Scamozzi  (i 553-1616),  who  was  largely  dependent  on  him, 
but  is  better  known  for  his  work  on  architecture  {ArckiUUtim 
universale,  161 5).  Palladio  inaugurated  a  school  of  followers 
who  continued  to  erect  similar  buildings  in  Vicenza  even  down 
to  the  French  Revolution.  (T.  AsO 

-See  G.  PeltiiiA,  ViangA  (Befgamo^  r90s)» 


VICEROY— VICKSBURG 


2t 


VIOIBOy  (fiMb  O.  Fr.  maroy^  nod.  ifcdvt,  ue»  Lat.  vice,  in 
place  of,  and  r«y  M  rot,  king) ,  the  governor  of  *  kingdom  or  colony 
to  whom  is  ddegated  by  his  sovereign  the  power  to  exercise 
regal  authority  in  his  name.  The  tord-lieuienant  of  Ireland 
and  the  govemoi-general  of  India  are  frequently  referred  to  as 
yioeroys,  but  the  title  has  no  oflkial  recogmtion  in  British 
government. 

VlCHt  a  city  of  north-eastern  Spain,  in  the  provmce  of 
Barcelona,  on  the  river  Gurri,  a  small  right-hand  tributary 
of  the  Ter,  and  on  the  GranoUte-RipoU  railway  Pop  (1900) 
U»67&  Vtch  is  an  ancient  episcopal  city*  with  narrow,  iX^ 
paved  streets  and  many  curious  old  houses  urroguiarly  built  on 
the  slope  of  a  hill,  which  rises  above  one  of  the  side  valleys  of 
the  Ter  basm.  The  cathedral,  founded  about  X040  and  built 
chiefly  in  the  14th  century,  was  to  some  extent  modernized  m 
t8o3  Its  Gothic  cloisters  (1340)  are  remarkable  for  the  beauti« 
ful  tracery  in  their  windows,  and  there  is  a  fine  ahar  of  sculp- 
tured marble.  Some  valuable  manuscrqtts  are  preserved  in 
the  library  of  the  chapter-house,  and  the  museum  contains 
an  interesting  archaeological  collection,  besides  statuary,  pic* 
tures,  &c  The  city  is  locally  celebrated  for  the  manufacture 
of  sausages;  other  industries  include  tanning  and  the  weaving 
of  linen  and  woollen  fabrics^ 

Vich,  the  Ansa  of  the  ancient  geographciB,  was  the  chief 
tpwn  of  the  Ausetani;  in  the  middle  ages  it  was  called  Ausona 
a^id  Vicus  Ausonensis,  hence  V^ic  de  Osona,  and  simply  Vich. 

VICHT)  a  town  of  central  France  in  the  department  of  Allier, 
oti  the  right  bank  of  the  AUier,  33  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Moulins  by 
raiL  Pop.  (1906)  14,520.  Vichy  owes  its  importance  to  its 
mineral  waters,  which  were  well  known  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans.  They  afterwards  lost  their  celebrity  and  did  not  regain 
it  till  the  17th  century,  in  the  tetter  half  of  which  they  were 
visited  and  written  of  by  Madame  de  S6vign6.  Within  the 
town  or  in  its  immediate  vicinity  there  are  between  thirty  and 
forty  springs,  twelve  of  which  are  state  property,  four  of  these 
having  been  tapped  by  boring.  The  waters  of  those  which  are 
outside  the  town  are  brought  in  by  means  of  aqueducts.  Hie 
most  cebbrated  and  frequented  are  the  Grande  Grille,  L'HApital, 
the  Cilestins,  and  Lardy  The  most  copious  of  all,  the  Puits 
Carr6,  is  reserved  for  the  baths.  All  these,  whether  ccAA  at  hot 
(maximum  temperature,  1x3^  F.),  are  largely  charged  with 
bkarbonate  of  soda;  somo  also  are  chalybeate  and  tonic.  The 
waters,  which  are  Umpid,  have-  an  alkaline  taste  and  emit  a 
slight  odour  of  suli^uretted  hydrogen.  They  are  lecom' 
mended  in  cases  of  stomachic  and  liver  complaint,  also  for 
diabetes,  gravel  and  gout.  Largo  quantities  are  bottled  and 
exported*  A  luxurious  bathing  estaUishment,  the  property 
of  the  state,  was  opened  in  1903.  In  addition  to  this,  Vichy 
has  the  hydropathic  establishments  of  Lardy,  Larbaud  and 
L'HApitaU  and  a  largo  military  hospital,  founded  in'  1843.  A 
fine  casino  and  two  puUic  parks  add  to  its  attraction.  The 
promenade  commands  a  splendid  view  of  the  mountains  of 
Auvecgne.  Cusset,  about  i  m.  dist^t,  has  similar  mineral 
waters  and  a  bathing  establishmehL 

VICKSBUHG,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Warren  county, 
Mississippi,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Mississippi  and  Yasdo  rivers,^  44  m. 
by  rail  W.  of  Jackson,  and  S36  m.  N.  by  W.  of  New  Orleans. 
Pop.  (1890)  13(373;  (1900)  149834*  of  whom  8x47  were 
negroes;  (19x0  census)  soy8i4,  being  the  second  largest  dty 
In  MissisaqpiH.  It  Is  served  by  the  Alabama  &  Vicksburgy 
the  Vicksburg,  Shrevepoit  &  Padfic,  and  the  Yazoo  & 
Mississ^i  Valley  railways,  and  by  steamboat  lxi)e&  It  is  built 
among  the  Walnut  Hllls>  which  rise  about  960  ft.  above  the 
river.  Among  the  principal  buildings  and  institutioiis  are 
the  oourt-house,  standing  00  one  of  the  highest  hills,  a  fine 
Federal  binlcfing,  the  dty  hall,  a  state  charity  hospital,  an 

■'The  channel  of  the  Missfsstopi  has  changed  greatly:  until  1876 
the  entire  dty  was  on  the  MissMsippi,  which  made  a  bend  forming 
a  tongue  oi  land  opposite  the  dty:  in  1876  the  ri\-Br  cut  across 
this  tongue  and  formed  an  island,  making  the  northern  part  of  the 
city  front  on  the  shallow  *'  Lake  Centennial."  The  Federal  govern- 
ment, by  turning  the  Yazoo  through  a  canal  across  the  upper  end 
of  the  okl  channel,  gave  the  dty  a  river  front  onoe  mora. 


infirmary,  a  saaatoiiatti,  a  public  library,  the  medical  cdOege 
of  the  university  of  Misnsslppi,  All  Saints'  Episcopal  College 
(Protestant  Episcopal,  1909)  for  girls,  Saint  Francis  Xa>^er's 
Academy,  and  Samt  Aloysius  College  (Roman  Catholic).  The 
Qvil  War  battle-ground  has  been  converted  into  a  beautiful 
National  Military  Park,  embracing  1283  acres  and  containing 
numerous  markers,  memorials  and  monuments,  hiduding  one 
(19 10)  to  Lieut.-General  Stephen  Dill  Lee,  who  was  super' 
mtendent  of  the  Military  Park  from  1899  until  his  death  in  1908. 
On  the  bluffs  just  beyond  the  northern  limits  of  the  city  and  ad- 
joinmg  the  Mihtary  Park  is  the  Vicksburg  National  Cemetery,  in 
which  are  the  graves  of  16,892  Federal  soldierj1(x  2,769  tmknown). 
The  principal  industry  of  Vicksburg  is  the  construction  and 
repair  of  rolling  stock  for  st«un  railways.  It  has  also  a  dry 
dock  and  cotton  compresses;  and  among  its  manufactures  are 
cottonseed  oil  and  cake,  hardwood  hunbtf,  fumiturs,  boxes 
Mid  baskets.  In  1905  the  factory  products  were  valued  at 
$1,887,934.  The  dty  has  a  hirge  trade  in  long-staple  cotton 
grown  m  the  surroimding  country.  It  is  a  port  of  entry  but 
has  practically >no  foreign  trade. 

The  French  buOt  Fort  St  Peter  near  the  site  of  Vicksburg 
early  in  the  i8th  century,  and  on  the  and  of  January  1230  its 
garrison  was  murdered  by  the  Yasoo  Indians.  As  early  at 
1783  the  Spanish  erected  Fort  Nogales,  and  hi  1798  this  was 
taken  by  some  United  States  tnx^  and  renamed  Fort  McHeory, 
The  first  permanent  settlement  in  the  vicinity  was  made  about 
18x1  by  Rev.  Newett  (or  Newit)  Vick  (d.  X819),  a  Methodist 
preacher.  In  accordance  with  Us  will  a  town  was  laid  out  in 
1824;  and  Vicksburg  was  Incorix)rated  as  a  town  in  1825^ 
and  was  diartered  as  a  dty  in  1836.  The  campaigns  of  which 
it  was  the  centra  in  1862  and  1863  are  described  below.  Vicks- 
burg was  the  home  of  Seargen(  Smith  Prentiss  from  183a  10 

1845. 

See  M.  F.,SimniU.  "Vicksburg:  the  City  on  the  Walnut  Hills'* 
in  L.  P.  Po«-drs  Historic  Towns  oj  the  SotUhem  Staffs  (New  York, 
1900). 

Campaign  of  1862-63,'^Vidkshuiz  is  historically  famous  as 
being  the  centre  of  interest  of  one  of  the  most  important  cam- 
paigns  of  the  Civil  War.  The  command  of  the  Mississippi| 
which  would  imply  the  severance  of  the  Confederacy  into  two 
halves,  and  also  Uie  reopening  of  free  oommerdal  navigation 
from  St  Louis  to  the  sea,  was  one  of  the  priodpal  objects  of 
the  Western  Union  amdes  from  the  time  that  they  began 
their  southward  advance  from  Illinois,  Missouri  and  Kentucky 
in  February  1862.  A  series  of  victories  in  the  spring  and 
summer  carried  them  as  far  as  the  line  Memphis-C^orinth, 
but  in  the  autumn  they  came  to  a  standstill  and  were  called 
upon  to  repulse  the  counter-advance  of  the  Southern  armies. 
Tliese  armies  were  accompanied  by  a  flotilla  of  thinly  armoured 
but  powerful  gunboats  winch  had  been  btiilt  on  the  upper 
Mississippi  in  the  autumn  of  1861,  and  had  co-operatrd  with 
the  army  at  Fort  Donelson,  Shiloh  and  Island  No.  xo,  besides 
winning  a  victory  on  the  water  at  Memphis. 

At  the  same  time  a  squadron  of  sea-going  vessds  under 
Flag-officer  Farragut  had  forced  the  defences  of  New  Orieans 
iq.v.)  and,  accompanied  by  a  very  small  military  force,  had 
steamed  up  the  great  river.  On  reaching  Vicksbuig  the  heavy 
vessels  again  forced  their  way  past  the  batteries,  but  both  at' 
Vicksburg  and  at  Port  Hudson  they  had  to  dnd,  no  longer 
with  low-sited  fortifications,  but  with  incon^cuous  earth- 
works  on  blufl^s  far  above  the  rivor-level,  and  they  failed  to 
make  any  impression.  Farragut  then  returned  to  New  Orieans. 
From  Hdena  to  Port  Hudson  the  CSonfederates  nMdntained 
complete  control  of  the  Mississippi,  the  improvised  fortresses 
of  Vicksburg,  Port  Hudson  and  Arkansas  Post  (near  the  mouth 
of  Arkansas  river)  being  the  framework  of  the  defence.  It 
was  to  be  the  task  <^  Grant's  army  around  Corinth  and  the 
flotilht  at  Memphis  to  break  up  this  system  of  defences,  and, 
by  joining  hands  with  Farragut  and  dearing  the  whole  course 
of  the  Mississippi,  to  cut  the  Confederacy  in  half. 

The  long  and  painful  operations  by  which  this  was  achieved 
group  themsdvcB  Into  four  episodes:  («)  the  Grsnoda  espeditiOB 


e,  {«  tl 


colnir 


itDikc  UcOcm 


ShtiimU,  (f)  (be  operations  io  Ihe  bayouii  mod  (J)  the 
"ovcrUfxd"  cAinpiuED  from  Gnod  Gull*  The  counUy  In 
■rJiich  liicte  opcntiooi  took  plicc  divida  iticU  tbuply  into 
two  nnies,  the  upUuid  cast  ol  the  ma,  upon  which  it  kxiki 
down  Inim  high  bluSi,  mid  the  leveli  wst  ol  It,  wbidi 
maze  oi  baroui,  backnUn  ud  tide  chumcb,  Ihe  icien 
land  bcine  liept  diy  new  the  riv«r  ilteU  by  anifidal  bauka 
(levea)  but  elicwbert  musp^.  At  VWk^urg,  il  la  inpi 
to  obaeivct  (be  blufli  lrei>d  *way  from  Ibe  Miuasippi  to  i 
the  CDUige  oi  the  Yuoo,  rejoinms  the  great  river  at  Ucmphia. 
Thui  Iheie  ate  two  nbvioiu  Unei  of  advance  lor  the  Nonhctn 
army,  oalbe  upland  (Memj^uaaixd  Grand  Jimctkm  on  Gnnada- 
JacktoD),  and  downatream  throuEb  the  bayou  coiuilry 
(MeDipbia- Helena- VickabuigJ.  The  main  army  of  the  dcienden, 
who  were  commanded  by  LieuIXienenl  J  CPembenon,  between 
Vicksbutg  and  Jackun  and  Greaada,  could  front  either  nmih 
agajnit  an  advance  by  Grenada  or  weit  along  the  bluBi  above 
and  hflow  Vickaburg. 


The  £nt  advance  wai  made  at  the  end  of  November  iSti 
by  two  columni  from  Grand  Jimctian  and  Memphia  on  Cienndi- 
The  ConfederUea  ia  tbe  field,  groilly  outnumbered,  fell  back 
without  Eghling.  But  Cranl'a  line  of  aupply  was  one  Igpg 
ihigle-line,  ilUcquippcd  nulway  through  Grand  Junction  to 
Columbua,  and  tba  oppoiing  ckvaliy  uoder  Van  Dora  awept 
round  hi)  Bank  and,  by  deatroyiDg  orie  of  hia  principal  magazines 
(al  Hully  Springs),  without  further  eSort  compelled  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  advance-  Meantime  one  of  Grant^s  aubordinates, 
UcClemand,  was  intriguing  to  be  ^poioied  lo  Dommand  an 
eipedition  by  the  river-line,  and  Grant  roceting  half-way  an 
evil  which  he  felt  hinuelf  unable  to  prevent,  had  aent  Sherman 
with  (he  flotilla  and  aome  30,000  men  to  attack  Viduburg 
from  the  water-side,  while  be  himielf  should  deal  wi^  the 
(^federate  field  army  on  the  high  ground.  But  the  scheme 
completely  when  Van  Dom  *        ■    »- 


id(hcO 


mSben 


blufli  above  Vicksburg  (badle  of  Chickauw  Bayov)  on  Decem- 
bn  iQthj  but  a  larje  ponioo  of  Pembciton'i  Geld  army  had 
■nivad  w  help  the  Vkksburg  garriaoo,  and  the  Fedenli  were 


easily  repulsed  wht  ■  Im  <i  n»  men.  HcChniMtd  now 
appeared  and  took  the  command  out  of  Shermaa%  **aiaifc. 
Infonninf  him  at  the  lune  tune  of  Cnull's  retreat  ShcrmaA 
thereupon  piopoied,  before  allempliii(  fresh  operationa  acaiiut 
Vicksburg,  to  dear  (he  counuy  behmd  them  by  doUoying 
the  CenfederMe  (amson  ai  Arfcanaaa  Post.  This  eip«di<iofl 
was  (omfdetely  tucceufut.  at  a  cost  of  about  looo  nwn  ifae 
fort  and  its  {udo  deienden  vete  capiund  00  the  nth  of 
Januvy  i8d).  UcClertiand,  elated  at  his  vtctory,  w«ild 
have  continued  10  ascend  the  Arkansas,  but  such  an  ecceni  ric 
oficration  would  have  been  pro&tleia  d  not  dangerQua,  ttnd 
Grant,  authorued  by  the  general-in-chlet.  Halleck,  per- 
emplonly  ordered  UcClemand  back  10  the  UississippL 


Retreaiinc  from  (be  upland,  Ciani  sailed  down  (be  irret 
and  jomed  UcClemand  tud  Sbennin  at  MiUiken't  Bttid  at 
lbs  beguuung  of  FebruvT.  and,  lupetseding  the  reseoifut 
McCletnand,  assumed  command  of  (be  ihiee  corpa  (XIII., 

McClemsnd;  XV.,  SbermaniXVU.,McI'henon)  available.  He 
llEtdy  imagined  the  daring  iclutian  of  his  moat  diffictdt 
problem  which  he  afterwards  put  iaio  eiecullon,  but  lor  the 
proent  he  tried  a  senei  ol  less  risky  opedicnU  to  leacb  ilv 
high  gTMind  beyond  Pemberton's  flanks,  without  indeed  murh 
"  'enre  in  their  soccei*,  yet  desirous  in  these  unhealthy 
il  keeping  up  the  spirits  of  bis  army  by  active  work,  and 
iding,  ala  crisis  m  the  fotluuesof  the  war,  any  appmtance 
of  discouragement.  Hiree  suet  iLtteinpts  were  made -in  all, 
with  (he  co-operation  of  the  fiolllla  xinder  Cap(ain  David  D. 
Porter,  flnt.  Grant  endeavouttd  to  cut  a  canal  across  the 
bend  of  the  hjiausaippi  at  Vkksburg,  hoping  (bus  to  isolate 

and  to  knd  an  army  on  the  bUifts  b^nd  Pemberton's  left 
flank.  This  was  unsuccessfuL  Neit  be  liied  to  n^e  a 
practicable  channel  from  Ibe  Mississipp  to  the  upper  Yato^ 
and  to  to  lum  Pemberton's  tight,  but  the  Confederates,  warned 
in  lime,  constracted  a  fort  at  the  point  when  Cnnl's  advance 
emerged  from  the  bayoui.  Lastly,  an  advance  through  ■. 
maze  of  creeks  (Steele's  Bayou  eipedition),  towards  the  middle 
Yazoo  and  Haines's  Blufl,  encoun(cred  the  enemy,  not  OD  the 
blofis,  but  in  the  low-lying  woods  and  islands,  and  tbe*e  as 
hsrssied  and  delayed  the  progresa  of  tbe  eipedition  that 
.  recalled  it.  ShorUy  afterwards  Grant  delermined  on 
anecuvre  in  rear  of  Vlckibnrg  which  tstablished  bit  repit- 
-  The  troops  roarched  overland  from  Uiliikeb'l  Bend 
w  Carthage,  and  on  the  i6(h  of  April  Porter's  gunboM 
flotilla  and  the  tranqwrt*  ran  put  (he  Vicksburg  batterlo. 
All  Una,  which  Involved  careful  anangemeat  and  bard  woit, 
'one  by  (he  ]4tb  of  AptiL  General  Banka,  with  a  DnioD 
from  New  Oriesns.  was  now  advancing  up  the  river  lo 
Port  Hudson,  and  by  way  of  diverting  attention  from 
lissiauppl,  a  cavalry  brigade  under  Benjamin  Grienon 
irom  La  Gnnge  lo  Baton  Rouge  (600  m.  in  16  days), 
destroymg  railways  and  magazlnea  and  cutting  the  telaftaph 


VICO 


43 


wires  m  rouh,  Shenxi,aii'8  XV.  corp$,  too,  made  vigorous 
demonstratioos  at  Haines's  Bluff,  and  in  tha  confusion  and 
ttDcertainty  Pcmberton  was  at  a  loss. 

On  the  30th  of  April  ^MfcQeniand  and  the  Xm.  coips  crossed 
the  Mississippi  6  m.  below  Grand  Gulf,  followed  by  McPherson. 
The  nearest  Confcdezate  brigades,  attempting  to  oppose  the 
advance  at  Port  Gibson,  were  driven  back.  Grant  had  now 
deliberately  placed  himself  in  the  middle  of  the  enemy,  and 
although  his  engineers  had  opened  up  a  water-line  for  the 
barges  carrying  his  supplies  from  MillikenlB  Bend  to  New 
Carthage,  his  bng  Hne  of  supply  curving  round  the  enemy's 
flank  was  very  exposed.  But  his  resolute  purpose  outweighed 
all  text-book  strategy.  Having  crossed  the  Mississii^i,  he 
collected  wheeled  transport  for  five  days'  rations,  and  on 
Sherman's  arrival  cut  kxMe  faom  his  base  ^together  (May  7th). 
Free  to  move,  he  aimed  north  from  the  Big  Black  river,  so  as 
to  interpose  between  the  Confederate  forces  at  Vicksburg  and 
those  at  Jackson.  A  fight  took  place  at  Raymond  on  the  xath 
of  May,  and  Jackson  was  captmed  just  in  time  to  forestall  the 
arrival  of  remforcements  for  Pemb^on  under  General  Joseph 
£.  Johnston.  The  latter,  being  in  supreme  command  of  the 
Coi^ederates,  ordered  Pemberton  to  come  out  of  Vicksburg 
and  attack  Grant.  But  Pemberton  did  not  do  so  until  it  was 
too  late.  On  May  x6th  Grant,  with  all  ha  forces  well  in  hand, 
defeated  him  in  the  battle  of  Qiampion  Hill  with  a  loss  of 
nearly  4000  men,  and  ahaqdy  pursuing  him  drove  him  into 
Vicksburg.  By  the  19th  of  May  Vicksburg  and  Pemberton's 
army  in  it  was  invested  by  land  and  water.  Grant  promptly 
assanlted  his  works,  but  was  repulsed  with  k»s  (May  19th); 
the  assault  was  repeated  on  the  amd  of  May  with  the  same 
result,  and  Grant  found  Umself  oompdled  to  resort  to  a  bkickade. 
Reinforcements  were  hurried  up  firom  all  quarters,  Johnston's 
force  (east  of  Jackson),  was  hdd  off  by  a  covering  corps  under 
Blair  (afterwards  under  Sherman),  and  though  another  un- 
tucccMtful  assault  was  made  on  the  35th  of  June,  resistance  was 
almost  at  an  end.  On  the  4th  of  July,  the  day  after,  far  away  in 
Pennsylvania,  the  great  battle  of  (Gettysburg  had  closed  with  Lee's 
(Kfeat,  the  garrison  of  Vicksburg,  37^000  strong,  surrendered. 

VI(»,  OIOVAinn  BATrmA  (r668-x744).  Italian  jurist  and 
phUosopber,  was  bom  at  Naples  on  the  23rd  of  June  x668. 
At  the  university  he  made  rapid  progress,  especially  in  juris- 
prudence, thou^  preferring  the  study  of  history,  literature, 
juridical  science  and  phikisophy.  Bdng  appointed  tutor  to 
the  nenhews  of  the  bishop  of  lachia,  G.  B.  Rocca,  he  accom- 
pam'ed  them  to  the  castle  of  VatoUa,  near  CBento,  m  the  province 
of  Salerno.  There  he  passed  nfaie  studious  years,  chiefly  de* 
voted  to  dassica]  reading,  Plato  and  Tacitus  being  his  favourite 
authors,  because  "  the  former  described  the  ideal  man,  and  the 
latter  man  as  he  really  is."  On  has  return  to  Naides  he  found 
himself  out  of  touch  ^irith  the  prevailing  Cartesianism,  and  lived 
quietly  until  hi  1697  he  gained  the  professorship  of  rhetoric  at 
the  university,  wiUi  a  scanty  stipend  of  zoo  scudL  On  this 
be  supported  a  growing  iandly  and  gave  himself  to  untiring 
study.  Two  authors  exeicned  a  iraighty  influence  on  his 
mind-~Frands  Bacon  and  Grotius.  He  was  no  follower  of 
their  Ideas,  indeed  often  opposed  to  them;  but  he  derived 
from  Baom  an  increasing  stimulus  towards  the  Investigation 
of  certain  great  problems  ci  history  and  philosophy,  while 
Grothis  proved  valuable  in  his  study  of  phflosophU:  jurispru- 
dence, in  1708  he  published  his  De  raiione  sUidiontm,  in  i7re 
Jk  antiqitusima  IMorum  sapUntia,  in  1730  JH  uruptni  juris 
uno  prinei^  d  fmt  wm^  and  in  1731  Dt  anuiatilia  jwitpnt' 
ieiUis*  (hi  the  strength  ci  these  works  he  offered  himsdf  as 
a  candidate  for  the  univeisity  chair  Of  jurisprudence,  but 
as  be  had  no  personal  or  family  influence  was  not  dected. 
With  calm  courage  he  returned  to  hb  poverty  and  his  favourite 
studies,  and  in  17 35  published  the  first  edition  of  the  work 
that  forms  the  ba^  of  his  renown,  Prhapii  ^  una  scietaa 
nwva.  In  1730  he  produced  a  second  edition  of  the  Scienza 
tHwwi,  so  mudk  altered  in  style  and  with  so  many  substantial 
additions  that  it  was  practically  a  new  work.  In  173s  Charles 
UL  of  Naples  marked  his  recognition  of  Vko's  DMriu  by 


appointing  him  historlographer-royal,  with  a  yearly  stipend  of 
zoo  ducats.  Soon  after  his  mind  began  to  give  way,  but  durizig 
frequent  intervals  of  lucidity  he  made  new  corrections  in  his 
great  work,  of  which  a  third  edition  appeard  in  1744,  prefaced 
by  a  letter  of  dedication  to  (^dlnal  Trojano  Acquaviva.  He 
died  on  the  20th  of  January  of  the  same  year.  Fate  seemed 
bait  on  persecuting  him  to  the  last.  A  fierce  quarrd  arose 
over  his  burial  between  the  brotherhood  of  St  Stephen,  to 
which  he  had  belonged,  and  the  university  professors,  who 
desired  to  escort  his  corpse  to  the  grave.  Finally  the  canons 
of  the  cathedral,  together  with  the  professors,  buried  the  body 
In  the  church  of  the  (SeroliminL 

Vko  has  been  generally  described  as  a  solitary  soul,  out  of  harmony 
with  the  si>irit  01  his  time  and  often  directly  opposed  to  it.  Yet  a 
closer  inouiry  into  the  social  conditions  of  Vico  s  time,  and  of  the 
studies  then  flourishing,  shows  him  to  have  been  thoroughly  la 
touch  with  them. 

Owing  to  the  iustorical  past  of  Naples,  and  its  social  and  economic 
condition  at  the  end  of  the  X7th  centunr,  the  only  study  that  really 
flourished  there  was  that  01  law:  and  thb  soon  penetrated  from 
the  courts  to  the  umvcrsity.  and  was  raised  to  the  level  of  a  science. 
A  great  school  of  jurispruaence  was  thus  formed,  including  many 
men  of  vast  learning  and  great  abihty,  although  little  known  out»de 
their  immediate  surroundings.  Three  men,  however,  obtained  a 
wider  recognition.  By  his  expoeition  of  the  poHHcal  history  of  the 
kingdom,  based  on  a  study  ot  its  laws  and  uistitutions  ana  of  the 
legal  conflurts  between  tbe  state  and  the  court  of  Rome,  Pictro 
Gunnone  was  the  initiator  of  what  has  been  since  known  as  crvfl 
history.  Giovan  Vincenxo  Gravina  wrote  a  history  of  Roman  law, 
specially  distinguished  for  its  accuracy  and  elq;ance.  Vico  rsised 
tfie  pffobkm  to  a  higher  plane,  by  tracing  the  otipn  of  law  in  the 
human  mind  and  eicplaining  the  historical  chan^  of  the  one  by 
those  of  the  other.  Thus  he  made  the  original  discovery  of  certain 
ideas  whidi  constitute  the  modem  psychologico-historic  method. 
This  problem  he  proceeded  to  develop  in  various  works,  until  in  his 
Scieum  nuan  be  arrived  at  a  more  complete  solutkm,  whkh  may  be 
formulated  as  follows:  If  the  principle  of  justice  and  law  be  one, 
eternal  and  immutable,  why  should  there  be  so  many  different 
codes  of  kslslation?  These  differences  are  not  caused  by  difference 
of  nationaiit^r  only,  but  are  to  be  noted  in  the  history  of  the  same 
peo(>le,  even  m  that  of  the  Romaaa.  This  problem  is  touched  upon 
m  hu  OraHoHS  or  Imueurai  Address$s  (Oramoni  0  Prdusion^  and 
in  hu  Minor  Works  (ScritH  minori).  FhiaUy  he  applied  himself 
to  its  solution  in  his  Universal  Laa  {Diriito  trntorrsaik),  which  is 
divided  into  two  books.  The  first  ci  these,  D*  uno  a  unioerH 
jurts  principio  ot  fino  ime,  was  subdivided  into  two  parts;  so  like 
wise  was  the  second,  wiu  the  respective  titles  of  Do  constanHa 
pkilologiao  and  De  consUmUa  jmisprudenHs. 

The  following  is  the  general  idea  derived  from  these  researdiea. 
Vico  held  Cjod  to  be  the  ruler  of  the  worid  of  nations,  but  ruling, 
not  as  the  providenoe'of  the  middle  ages  by  meant  of  oontinnra 
minudes,  but  as  He  rules  nature,  by  means  oC  natural  bws.  If, 
therefore,  the  physicist  seeks  to  discover  the  laws  of  nature  by 
study  of  natural  iMienomena,  so  the  philosopher  must  seek  the  laws 
of  historical  change  by  the  investigation  of  human  events  and  of  the 
human  mind.  ^  Aoooroing  to  Vico,  law  emanates  from  the  conscience 
of  mankind,  in  whom  God  has  infused  a  sentiment  of  iustice 
and  is  therefore  in  close  and  continual  rdation  with  the  numan 
mind,  and  partidpates  In  its  changes.  This  sentiment  of  justice 
is  at  first  confused,  uncertain  and  almost  instinctive — is,  as  it  were, 
a  divine  and  rdigions  inspiration  instilled  by  Heaven  into  the  primi- 
tive tribes  of  the  earth,  it  b  an  unconscious,  uAiversal  sentunent, 
not  the  personal,  conscious  and  ra^onal  sentiment  of  the  superior 
few.  Hence  the  bw  to  which  It  gives  birth  is  enwrapped  in  lelij^ious 
forms  which  are  likewise  vbiUe  and  palpable,  inasmuch  as  primitive 
man  b  incapabb  of  abstract,  philosophical  ideas.  Thb  bw  b  not 
the  individual  work  of  any  philosophical  Icgidator,  for  no  man 
was,  or  could  be,  a  philosopher  at  that  time.  It  b  first  dispteyed 
in  the  shape  of  natural  and  necessary  usages  consecrated  by  ruigmn. 
The  names  d  leading  leglsbtofs,  which  we  so  often  fina  recorded 
in  die  history  of  primitive  peoples,  are  symbols  and  myths,  merely 
serving  to  mark  an  historic  period  or  epoch  by  some  definite  and 
persoiml  denomination.  For  nations,  or  rather  tribes,  were  then 
distinguished  by  personal  names  only.  The  first  obscure  and  con- 
fused conception  of  bw  gradually  becomes  clearer  and  better  defined. 
Its  visibb  and  religious  forms  then  give  way  to  abstract  formulae, 
whfch  in  thdr  turn  are  sbwly  rrpbced  by  the  ratbnal  manifestation 
of  the  philosophic  principles  of  bw  that  gains  the  vbtory  in  the 
final  st^  of  development,  dedgnatcd  by  Vico  as  that  of  dvQ  aiw 
human  bw.  Thb  b  the  period  of  individual  and  phitoeophfc 
tegisbtors.  Thus  Roman  law  has  passed  through  three  great 
periods— ^he  divuie,  the  heroic  and  the  human — •rhfch  are  like- 
wise the  three  chief  periods  of  the  history  of  Rome,  with  whicb 
it  is  intimately  and  intrinsically  connected.  Nevertheless,  on  careiol 
examination  of  these  three  successive  stages,  it  will  easily  be  see» 
that,  in  spite  of  the  apparent  difference  between  them,  all  tava  • 
coaunon  foundation,  sooroe  and  purpose.    The  human  and  civil 


bw  of  tha  third  period  ii  uraimdlr  vety  diflere 
the  primilive  liwi  but  in  nibiuiKC  it  u  mewl; 
wituc  (nd  pbilanjiliic  nunifenaliM  of  the  mme  i 
tice  and  tbc  ■hoc  pcinciplH  which  wen  v^cuety  I 
UDc*-  Heoce  one  devclopDiut  of  law  du^  bt  ■ 
nto  ■iwthFr,  Thu*  in  tbc  vuisd  maiufenattfu  o 
iLe  la  dJKOvcr  a  hngte  dod  enduriog  prifldpte  (IViiK 
imtiftetlfintiiiu).  Ob  tb«e  flround*  it  hftt  becii  K  ,  . 
■  cine  icIuiaB  hmimi  Vko  ud  Cntiui.   Tb*  btwi 


Varly  tUdingukbed  bawcen  a  poiidve  kv  difloiu  id  diPout 
L»tioiH  Mad  ■  DuimL  law  bued  on  a  smcnl  and  ubovivjii  pria- 
iple  (A  huinaa  naluR.  and  tbcnfon  nbligatoiy  upon  ilL  ^ul  Vlco 
nioppoicd  loGmiui,  cnKnllyii  nordiliB  cnHcptlu  of  tbc 
srifinof  KiciMy.  ud  tbRfiBcollav.   Gntiiii  haul  tbi  ita  orifia 


siS 


Kbt_--, 

'  law  aoved  OB  alnott  cofiitant 

lowaidt  die  otbcr,  poiitivc  law  jbowing 


_, , —  ^-„  -,-„—„_  —  him  by  hi*  atudy  al 

nv  that  the  luatoiy  of  Roman  juni^wudenae  ■.—  -  »».»».»« 
pnrtnt  til  the  namiw,  riBofoua,  priniuvt  and  ahnoat  iron  law  i 
tbc  XII.  Tabid  lowardt  the  wider,  more  geoeral  and  monhumai 
ims  ftniium.    Having  OBce  derived  thia  cooceptioB  frotn  Roma 

thai  the  poaidve  law  of  all  nattona.  througbout  hiatorvi  ia  acontinu^ 
advance,  keeping  pace  with  the  pnyeta  of  ciinlintion.  rowanls  tt 
pbiloaophic  and  natural  law  founded  on  the  prioeiplca  of  hiuna 

Aa  almdy  •BUd.  the  Scinaa  niuni  appeaiKt  in  ihine  dSR'cRi 
aditioOL  Tdc  thlid  may  be  diil^aidtd;  but  the  fint  and  leajii 
adilion  are  almnat  diitiocl  VDika,  In  the  former  the  author  bci 
forth  the  aaalytkal  prouat  by  which  the  lawi  he  discovered  wci 
deduced  Iron  (acta,  la  tbe  Kcsnd  be  not  onty  cnlarga  hii  maiu 
aad  fivea  mulLiplied  applicaiioiii  of  hia  idraa.  but  alio  folio* 
the  aynthelic  nvihod,   ont  expouoding  the  lawa  he  had   dij 


[he  htcnry  laboun  i 
turned  otitwarda  a 


s5j£ 

™mn 

I.  They  bad  DO  abHcfct 
libLe  and  taogiblc.  All 
',  logclhct  wTtb  mental 


illv  flashed  od  u 
Hfd  d(  n^lioni  i 
rlo  be  found  li 


there  ii  gmdually  developed  the  c 


Vico  givefl  nuny  .-ipplicaiiuni  of  tbia  funt^mentAt  idc^.  T 
religion  of  primitive  peoplca  ia  m  lea  inythleal  Iban  Iheir  btm-r 
■ince  they  coukf  at\y  conceive  of  it  by  nieau  of  nyifaa.  Ob  chi^ 
lioea  he  mtcrpreli  ilie  whole  history  oi  primitive  Rome,  One  b*. 
o[_  tbe  aecood  edition  of  the  Stuitta  Hima  i*  devoted  ta  "  1  ^ 

OdjitryannA  the  wochof  one.  but  of  many  popular  pDvt«,  and  j 
true  creation  of  the  Creek  people  which  ia  in  every  city  of  CrTecn. 


Uatory,  eipccialiy  ia  lucb  poniona_aa  related  to  tbe  hiaipry  of  b*- 

tnitb  aftcrwaida  confirmed  by  new  documenla  tad  later  mean-i. 

■■* — ^ ^ ^rinof  Rome,  theatrugtle  between  tbe  pat ncuu 

the  lawB  a  the  XU.^abki.  not.  aa  tiwdiua 
'rom  Greece,  but  the  natvial  axid  t^rfm- 

n,   wil  derived   Iroin    Ron. 

ona.    From  the  aavagr  ■o*" 

inh  to  leligioBa.  tbrou  ' 
ugh  burial  riio  and 


iadetignated  L^  Viooai  _.  .     __. „  ,_..,, 

lurse  of  bumanitv,  ipvariably  followed  by  all  nationa. '    It  muu 


1  afilce.    Thu.,  whi'l 


into  a  bed  of  ProcniBtea.  to  which 
hai  <o  be  flitcd  by  force.  And  wher 
ledp  failed  he  ■«  led  inte  increaaed 
artHtrary  effort, 

ft  baa  b«n  jualy  DbKTved  by  maoy 
mo^Tmctil  entirely  eiu^iide*  the  (irogi 


other,  but  mcreh>  thi 
i>  based  on  the  bumai 

actiBlly  dtrived  froB 


-er  Vico'a  hiiloiirsl  know- 
irror  by  thia  aitibdal  and 

,., minht  dilte  from  another. 

leceaaarily  nrluded  1^  the  law  of 
aidcred  the  poetic  Wlillpn  of  tba 
m  that  of  tbc  CrcehaaiHl  Roman, 
erior  to  the  ^ean  leligion.  But  he 
1  whether,  nnti  ihei*  b  a  law  of 
toiy  of  different  nation^  iqiuitel* 
■e  be  another  law  ruUng  the  genetd 


cvciea.     Vico  undokiblodly  t 

a  newneriod.aaitwere.  In  the  history  of  humanity  81  laiie"  Thm^ 
fore,  although  the  Seinta  niina  cannot  be  said  ibnliitely  to  deny 
the  law  of  pTDgnaa.  it  aiuet  be  allowed  that  Vico  n«  only  faiM  to 
ulve  tbe  pcoblcn  but  even  ahrsak  fioin  altackioB  it- 

Viu  founded  no  ichool,  and  tboufh  during  his  liftlime  and  fcr 
a  while  after  hit  death  he  had  many  admitrn  both  in  Naples  and 
the  northeni  dtin,  bn  fame  and  name  wore  noon  olMcund.e^jeciiily 
aa  the  Kantian  lyitem  dominated  the  worid  of  ihourht.  At  at 
beginninEof  the  IQth  century,  bovevcr,  tome  Ncnpolitui  eiilca  at 
MuAo  called  attention  to  the  merits  of  their  great  countrymaD,  aad 
hisreinstatementwascompletedby  Michclct,  ifchoin  iBij  (nndated 
the  Sriatra  imnad  and  other  win-In  with  p  landatury  inlroduclicia. 
Vico's  writings  luner  through  their  author's  not  havira  fuUond  a 
regular  courae  of  Biudies,  and  his  style  ia  very  involved.  He  was  * 
deeply  rrlipous  men,  but  his  exemption  of  Jewish  Olipoa  trrun  iIh 

__ *i._,__.__i  ' ■_.  _.i.'_fc.  !._  ... _.!._.  ipplitj  m probably 

^. lheda.niJsemiiii 

and  legaided    ■     —  -  "-  


Id  fmamon  ud'tte  H. 


VICTORr— VICTOR,  SEXTUS  AURELIUS 


35 


1  Z 

-c 


F^  Vico'a  pertonul  hiBt9ry  see  bit  autobiography,  wntten  at 
the  requeat  of  the  Conte  di  rorcia,  and  his  letiera;  also  Cantoni, 
C.  B.Vice,  Shidii  CrilUi  e  Comparalivi  (Turin,  1867);  R.  Hint. 
Yic9  (Edinburgh  and  London,  1884).  For  editiona  of  Vico'a  own 
worka,  aaa  Optr*^  cd.  Giuaeppe  Ferrari,  with  introductory  «nay, 
*'  U  Mente  de  Vico  **  (6  vote.,  Milan,  i8m~^}.  and  Mkhelet, 
(Btans  Choines  ie  Vico  (3  vols..  Paris.  1835).  A  full  list  is  given 
in  B.  Croce,  BiUiotrafia  Vickiana  (Naples.  1904).  See  also  O. 
Ktemm.  G,  B.  Vito  ats  Cesckkhtsphilosopk  und  VUktrpsyckdot 
(Leipsig.  1906):  M.  H.  Rafferty  in  Jmnud  <4  tk§  Socitty  oj  Com- 
paratioe  L$eislatwu,  Ntw  Sm$s,  jcviL,  xx. 

VICTOR*  the  name  taken  by  three  popes  and  two  antipopcs. 

Victor  I.  waa  bishop  of  Rome  from  about  x^o  to  19S.  He 
submitted  to  the  opinion  of  the  episcopate  in  the  various  parts 
of ,  Christendom  the  divergence  between  the  Easter  usage  of 
Rome  and  that  of  the  bishops  of  Asia.  The  bishops,  particu- 
larly St  Irenaeus  of  Lyons,  dedared  themselves  in  favour 
of  the  usage  of  Rome,  but  refused  to  associate  themselves 
with  the  excommunication  pronounced  by  Victor  against 
their  Asiatic  ooUeagues.  At  Rome  Victor  eaoommonldated 
Thcodotus  of  Bysantium  on  account  of  his  doctrine  as  to  the 
person  of  ChrisL  St  Jerome  attributes  to  Victor  some  *pus«Mta 
ip  Latin,  which  are  believed,  to  be  lecognised  in  certain  apo- 
cryphal treatJaes  of  St  Cyprian. 

VmoE  U.,  the  successor  of  Leo  DC,  was  consecrated  in 
St  Petet^s,  Rome,  on  the  13th  ol  Apdl  1055.  His  father  was 
a  Swabian  baron,  Count  Hartwig  von  Calw,  and  his  own 
baptismal  name  was  Gebhard.  At  the  instance  of  Gebbard, 
bishop  of  Rcgensbiug,  uncle  of  the  en^)enMr  Henxy  IIL,  he  bad 
been  appointed  while  stiH  a  young  man  to  the  see  of  Eichstldt; 
in  flus  position  his  great  talents  soon  enabled  him  to  render 
important  servioea  to  Henxy,  whose  chief  adviser  he  ultimately 
became.  His  nomination  to  the  papacy  by  Henry,  at  Maina, 
in  S^ember  1654,  was  made  at  the  instanr^  of  a  Roman 
deputation  headed  by  Hlldebrand,  whose  polky  donbtkss  was 
to  detach  from  the  imperial  interest  one  of  its  ablest  supporters. 
In  jQne  1055  Victor  met  the  emperor  at  Florence,  and  held  a 
OMmdl,  wMch  anew  condemned  derkal  marriages,  simony 
and  the  alienation  of  the  estates  of  the  church.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  ivas  summoned  to  Germany  to  the  ade  of'  the 
emperor,  and  was  with  Urn  when  he  died  at  Botfeldin  tlie 
Haxs  on  the  sth  of  October  1056.  As  guardian  oi  Henry's 
infant  smi,  and  adviser  of  the  enq)ress  Agnes,  Victor  now  wielded 
enormous  power,  which  he  began  to  use  with  much  tact  for 
the  maintenaace  ol  peace  throughout  the  empire  and  for 
strsngtheidng  the  papacy  against  the  aggressions  of  the  barons. 
He  «licd  shortly  after  his  return  to  Italy,  at  Aresw,  on  the 
sSth  of  July  1057.  His  successor  was  Stephen  IX.  (Frederick 
ofLomhie).  (L.D.*) 

VicTOm  III.  (Dauferius  Epifani),  pope  from  the  a4tli  of  May 
1066  to  the  x6th  of  September  1087,  was  the  successor  of 
Gregory  Vn.  He  wsa  a  son  of  Landolfo  V.,  prince  of  Bene- 
vento,  and  was  bom  in  1087.  Alter  studying  in  various 
monasteries  he  became  provost  of  St  Benedict  at  Capua, 
and  in  1055  obtained  permisBloa  from  Victor  II.  to  enter  the 
cloister  at  Monte  Cassino,  changing  his  name  to  Desiderius. 
He  succeeded  Stephen  IX.  aa  abbot  hi  1057,  and  his  rule 
marks  the  golden  sge  of  that  celebrated  monastery;  he 
promoted  literary  activity,  and  estsMished  an  important 
school  of  mosaic.  Desiderius  was  created  cardinal  priest  of 
Sta  Gedlla  by  Nicholas  II.  in  1059,  and  as  papal  vicar  hi 
south  Italy  conducted  frequent  negotiations  between  the 
Normans  and  the  pope.  Among  the  four  men  suggested  by 
Gregory  VII.  on  his  death-bed  as  most  worthy  to  succeed 
him  was  Desiderius,  who  was  favoured  hiy  the  cardinals  because 
of  hb  great  learning,  his  connexion  with  the  Normans  and 
Ills  diplomatic  ability.  The  abbot,  however,  declined  the 
papal  crown,  and  the  year  1085  passed  without  an  election. 
The  cardinals  at  length  proclaimed  him  pope  agamst  his  will 
on  the  34th  of  May  1086,  but  he  was  driven  ^m  Rome  by 
Imperialists  before  his  consecration  was  complete,  and,  laying 
a^de  the  papal  insignia  at  Terradna,  he  retired  to  his  beloved 
monastery.  As  vicar  of  the  Holy  See  he  convened  a  synod 
ttt  Capua  on  the  7tb  of  Maxdi  loflfr,  resumed  the  papal 


on  the  21st  of  March,  and  recdved  tardy  coosecntion  at  Komc 
on  the  9th  of  May.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  the  antipope, 
Clement  III.  (Guibert  of  Ravenna),  who  had  powerful  partisans, 
his  stay  at  Rome  was  brief.  He  sent  an  army  to  Tunis,  which 
defeated  the  Saracens  and  compelled  the  sultan  to  pay  tribute 
to  the  papal  see.  In  August  1087  he  hdd  a  synod  at  Bene- 
vento,  which  renewed  the  excommunication  of  Guibertj 
banmSd  Archbishop  Hugo  of  Lyons  and  Abbot  Richard  of 
Marseilles  as  schismatics;  and  confirmed  the  prohibition  of 
lay  investiture.  Falling  ill  at  the  ^nod.  Vicar  relumed  to 
Monte  Cassino,  where  he  died  on  the  i6th  of  September  Z087. 
He  was  buried  at  the  monastery  and  is  accounted  a  saint  by 
the  Benedictine  order.  His  successor  was  Urban  II. 

Victor  III.,  while  abbot  of  Monte  Cassino  contributed  pereonaUy 
to  the  literary  activity  of  the  monastery.  He  wrote  Dialogi  ae 
miraaUts  S.  Btnedicli,  which,  along  with  nis  Bpistolae,  are  in  J.  P. 
Mignc,  Patrol.  Lat.  vol.  149,  and  an  account  of  the  miracles  of  Leo  IX. 
(in  Ada  Sanctorum,  19th  of  April).  The  chief  sources  for  his  life 
are  the  **  Chronica  monaaterii  Caamensis,"  in  the  Mw.  Ctrm.  kisL 
Scriid,  vii..  and  the  Vitae  in  J.  P.  Miane,  Patra.  LaL  vol.  149» 
and  in  J.  M.  Watterich,  Ponlif.  Roman.  Vitae. 

See  J.  Laneen,  Ctschickte  atr  rdmiscken  Kirche  von  Gregor  VIIx 
bis  Innocent  III.  (Bonn,  1893);  F.  Grecoroviua,  Romoimlk4  UOdU 
AiU,  vol.  4.  trans,  by  Mn  G.  W.  Hamilton  (London,  1900-2); 
K.  J.  von  Hefele,  Contiliengesckicktt  (and  ed.,  1873--90).  vol.  ^; 
Hirsch,  "  Desiderius  von  Monte  Cassino  als  Papst  Victor  III.,*'  m 
Forschunten  zur  deutschen  Ceschichte,  vol.  7  (G5ttingen,  1867); 
H.  H.  Mtlman,  History^ Latin  Ckristianityt  vol.  3  (repub.  London, 
1899). 

ViCTOft  IV.  was  a  title  taken  by  two  antipopes.  (i)  Gxcgorio 
Conti,  cardinal  priest  of  Santi  Dodid  ApostoH,  wsa  chosen  by  a 
party  opposed  to  Innocent  II.  in  succession  to  the  antipope 
Anadetus  11.,  on  the  x sth  of  March  1x38,  but  through  the  hi- 
fluence  of  Bernard  of  Claixvauz  he  was  induced  to  make  hia 
submission  on  the  29th  of  May.  (s)  Octavian,  count  of  IHisculum 
and  cardinal  deacon  of  St  Nicola  in  carcere  TuUlano,  the  Ghi- 
belline  antipope,  was  dected  at  Rome  on  the  7th  of  September 
XX 59,  in  opposition  to  Alexander  HI.,  and  supported  by  the- 
emperor  FMeridc  Barbarossa.  Consecrated  at  Faila  on  the 
4th  of  October,  Victor  was  the  first  of  the  series  of  antipopes 
supported  I7  Frederidc  against  Alexander  HI.  Though  the 
excommunication  of  Fkederick  by  Alexsader  in  March  ixte 
made  only  a  slight  Impresdon  in  Germany,  tiiis  pope  was  never- 
theless able  to  gain  the  support  of  the  rest  of  western  Eun^pe^ 
because  since  the  days  of  HQdebrend  the  power  of  the  pope 
over  the  church  in  the  various  countries  had  increased  so  greatly 
that  the  kings  of  FVance  and  of  England  could  not  view  with 
indifference  a  revival  of  such  imperial  control  of  the  papacy  aa 
had  been  exerdsed  by  the  emperor  Henty  III.  He  died  at 
Lucca  on  the  30th  of  April  1164  and  was  succeeded  by  the  anti- 
pope  Paschal  III.  (1X64-X 16S). 

See  M.  Meyer.  Di4  WaU  Alexanders  JIT.  nnd  Victors  TV.  riKQ 
(Gottingen,  1871);  and  A.  Hauck,  Kirehengesckiekle  DndschiAnds, 
Band  iv.  (C.  U.  Ha.) 

VICTOR,  GAIXrS  JXJUU8  (4th  cent!  a.d.),  Roman  writer 
on  rhetoric,  possibly  of  Gallic  origin.  HiS'  extant  manual  (in 
C.  Halm's  Rketores  Latini  Minores,  1863)  is  of  some  importance 
as  facilitating  the  textual  criticism  of  (^uintilian,  whom  he 
dosely  follows  in  many  places. 

VICTOR,  SEXTUS  AURSUUS,  prefect  of  Pannonia  about 
360  (Amm.  Marc.  xxl.  10),  possibly  the  same  as  the  consul 
(jointly  with  Valentinian)  in  373  and  is  the  prefect  of  the  dty 
who  is  mentioned  in  an  inscription  of  the  time  of  Tfaeodosius. 
Four  small  historical  works  have  been  ascribed  to  him  on  more  or 
less  doubtful  grounds — (i)  Origo  Centis  Romanae^  (2)  De  Viribus 
lUustribus  Romae,  (3)  De  Caesaribus,  (4)  De  Vita  a  Moribus 
Imperalorum  Romanorum  excerpia  ex  Libris  Sex.  Aur.  Victoris. 
The  four  have  generally  been  published  together  under  the  name 
Hisloria  Romana,  but  the  fourth  piece  is  a  richaufft  of  the  third. 
The  second  was  first  printed  at  Naples  about  1472,  in  4to,  under 
the  name  of  Pliny  (the  younger),  and  the  fourth  at  Strassburg 
in  1505. 

The  first  edition  of  all  four  was  that  of  A.  Schottus  (8vo.  Ant- 
werp, 1579).  The  most  recent  edition  of  the  Dt  Caosofihts  is  by 
F.  PichUnayr  CMunich,  1893). 


26 


VICTOR  AMEDEUS  IL—VICTOR  EMMANUEL  II. 


VICTOR  AHBDVU8  II.  (1666-1733),  duke  of  Savoy  and  fint 
king  of  Sardinia,  was  the  son  of  Duke  Charles  Emmanuel  II. 
and  Jeanne  de  Savoie-Nemoun.  Born  at  Turin,  he  lost  his 
father  in  1675,  and  spent  his  youth  under  the  regaicy  of  his 
mother,  known  as  "  Madama  Reak  "  (madame  ro^de),  an  able 
but  ambitious  and  overbearing  wonun.  He  assumed  the  reins 
of  government  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  married  Princess  Anne, 
daughter  of  Philip  of  Oiieans  and  Henrietta  of  England,  and  niece 
of  Louis  XIV.,  king  of  France.  That  sovereign  was  determined 
to  dominate  the  young  duke  of  Savoy,  who  from  the  first  resented 
the  monarch's  insolent  bearing.  In  1685  Victor  was  forced  by 
Louis  to  persecute  his  Waldensian  subjects,  because  they  had 
given  shelter  to  the  French  Huguenot  refugees  after  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  With  the  unwelcome  help  of  a 
French  army  under  Marshal  Catinat,  he  invaded  the  Waldensian 
valleys,  and  after  a  difficult  campaign,  characterized  by  great 
cruelty,  he  subjugated  them.  Nevertheless,  he  became  more 
anxious  than  ever  to  emancipate  himself  from  French  thraldom, 
and  his  first  sign  of  independence  was  his  visit  to  Venice  in 
1687,  where  he  conferred  on  political  affairs  with  Prince  Bugine 
of  Savoy  and  other  personages,  without  consulting  Louis.  About 
this  time  the  duke  plunged  into  a  whirl  of  dissipation,  and  chose 
the  beautiful  but  unscrupulous  Contessa  di  Vemta  as  his  mistress, 
neglecting  his  faithful  and  devoted  wife.  Louis  having  dis- 
covered Victor's  intrigues  with  the  emperor,  tried  to  predpitate 
hostilities  by  demanding  his  participation  in  a  second  expedi- 
tion ag^nst  the  Waldensiaos.  The  duke  unwillingly  complied, 
but  when  the  French  entered  Piedmont  and  demanded  the 
cession  of  the  fortresses  of  Turin  and  Vernxa,  he  refused,  and 
wbile  stUl  professing  to  negotiate  with  Louis,  joined  the  league 
of  Austria,  Spain  and  Venice.  War  was  declared  in  1690,  but  at 
the  battle  of  Stafiarda  (i8th  of  August  1691),  Victor,  in  spite 
of  his  great  courage  and  skill,  was  defeated  by  the  French  under 
Catinat.  Other  reverses  followed,  but  the  attack  on  Cuneo  was 
Jieioically  repulsed  by  the  citizens.  The  war  dragged  on  with 
vacyittg  success,  until  the  severe  defeat  of  the  allies  at  Marsiglla 
and  their  selfish  n^^lect  of  Victor's  interests  induced  him  to 
open  negotiations  with  France  once  more.  Louis  agreed  to 
restore  most  of  the  fortresses  he  had  captured  and  to  make 
other  concessions;  a  treaty  was  signed  in  1696,  and  Victor 
appointed  generalissimo  of  the  Frsnco-Piedmontese  forces  in 
ItiUy  operating  against  the  imperialists.  By  the  treaty  of 
Ryswick  (1697)  a  general  peace  was  concluded.  On  the  out- 
bieak  of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  in  1700  the  duke  was 
again  on  the  French  side,  but  the  insolence  of  Louis  and  of 
Philip  V.  of  Spain  towards  him  induced  him,  at  the  end  of  the 
two  years  for  which  he  had  bound  himsdif  to  them,  to  go  over 
to  the  imperialists  (1704).  At  first  the  French  were  successful 
and  captured  several  Piedm<mtese  fortresses,  but  after  besieging 
Turin,  which  was  skilfully  defended  by  the  duke,  for  several 
months,  they  were  completely  defeated  by  Victor  and  Prince 
Engine  of  Savoy  (1706),  and  eventually  driven  out  of  the  other 
towns  they  had  capy^ured.  By  the  peace  of  Utrecht  (17 13)  the 
t^owers  conferred  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  on  Victor  Amedeus,  whose 
government  proved  efficient  and  at  first  popular.  But  after  a 
brief  stay  in  the  island  he  returned  to  Piedmont  and  left  his 
new  possessions  to  a  viceroy,  which  caused  much  discontent 
among  the  Sicilians;  and  when  the  Quadruple  Alliance  decreed 
in  1 718  that  Sicily  should  be  restored  to  Spain,  Victor  was  unable 
to  offer  any  opposition,  and  had  to  content  himself  with  receiving 
Sardinia  in  exchange. 

The  last  years  of  Victor  Amedeus's  life  were  saddened  by 
domestic  troubles.  In  r  71 5  his  eldest  son  died,  and  in  1738  he 
lost  his  queen^  After  her  death,  much  against  the  advice  of  his 
remaining  son  and  heir,  Cailino  (afterwards  Charles  Emmanuel 
IIL),  he  married  the  Contessa  di  San  Sebastiano,  whom  he 
created  Marchesa  di  SiMgno,  abdicated  the  crown  and  retired  to 
Chamb^ry  to  end  his  £iys  (1730).  But  his  second  wife,  an 
ambitious  sntrigante,  soon  tired  of  her  quiet  life,  and  induced 
him  to  return  to  Turin  and  attempt  to  revoke  his  abdication. 
TMs  led  to  a  quarrel  with  his  son,  who  with  quite  unnecessary 
harshness,  partly  due  to  his  minister  the  Marquis  d'Ormea, 


arrested  his  father  and  confined  him  at  MvoU  and  later  at 
calieri;  there  Victor,  overwhelmed  with  sorrow,  died  00  tlie 
31st  of  October  1732. 

Victor  Amedeus,  although  accused  not  without  reason  of  h^d 
faith  in  his  diplomatic  deahngs  and  of  cruelty,  was  undoubtedly 
a  great  soldier  and  a  still  greater  administrator.  He  not  only 
won  for  his  country  a  high  place  in  the  council  of  nations,  but  be 
doubled  its  revenues  and  increased  iu  prosperity  and  induttrles^ 
and  he  also  emphasized  its  character  as  an  Italian  state.  His 
infidelity  to  his  wife  and  his  harshness  towards  his  son  Carlino 
are  btomishes  on  a  splendid  career,  but  he  more  than  expiated 
these  faults  by  his  tragic  end. 

See  D.  Carutti.  Storia  M  Regno  di  Viitorio  Amedio  TI.  (Torin, 
18^6);  and  E.  Parri.  Viil^o  Amedio  II.  ed  Butonio  di  Satma 
(Milan,  1888;.  The  Marcheta  VitclleKhi's  work.  The  Rnmamee  ^ 
oowy  (3  vols.,  London,  1905),  is  based  on  original  authorities,  and 
is  the  most  complete  monograph  on  the  subject. 

VICTOR  BMMANUBL  H.  (1820-1878),  Ung  of  Sardinia  and 
first  king  of  Italy,  was  bom  at  Tarin  on  the  14th  of  March 
1820,  and  was  the  son  of  Charles  Albert,  prince  of  Savoy- 
Carignano,  who  became  king  of  Sardinia  in  183 1.  Brought  up 
in  the  bigoted  and  chilling  atmosphere  of  the  Piedmontese  court, 
he  received  a  rigid  military  and  religious  training,  but  little 
intellectual  education.  In  r843  he  was  married  to  Adelaide, 
daughter  of  the  Austrian  Archduke  Rainer,  as  the  king  desired 
at  that  time  to  improve  his  relations  with  Austria.  Tbe  young 
couple  led  a  somewhat  dreary  life,  hidebound  by  court  etiquette^ 
which  Victor  Emmanuel  hated.  He  played  no  part  in  politics 
during  his  father's  lifetime,  but  took  an  active  interest  in  miUiary 
mattera.  When  the  war  with  Austria  broke  out  in  1848,  he  was 
delighted  at  the  prospect  of  distinguishing  himself,  and  was 
given  the  command  of  a  division.  At  Goito  he  was  shrilly 
wounded  and  displayed  great  bravery,  and  after  Cuateaia 
defended  the  rearguard  to  the  Isst  (25th  of  July  1848).  la 
the  campaign  of  March  1849  he  conmianded  the  same  division. 
After  the  disastrous  defeat  at  Novara  on  the  33rd  of  Match, 
Charies  Albert,  having  rejected  the  peace  terms  offered  by  the 
AtBtrian  field-marshal  Radetzky,  abdicated  in  favour  df  baa 
son,  and  withdrew  to  a  monastery  in  Portugal,  where  he  died 
a  few  months  later.  Victor  Emmanuel  repaired  to  Radctsky's 
camp,  where  he  was  received  with  every  sign  of  respect,  and 
the  field-marshal  offered  not  only  to  waive  the  claim  that 
Austria  should  occupy  a  part  of  Piedmont,  but  to  give  him 
an  extension  of  territory,  provided  he  revoked  the  omastitutioa 
and  substituted  the  old  blue  Piedmontese  flag  for  the  Italian 
tricolour,  which  savoured  too  much  of  revolution.  But  although 
the  young  king  had  not  yet  .sworn  to  observe  the  charter,  and 
in  any  case  the  other  Italian  princes  had  all  violated  their 
constitutional  promises,  he  rejected  the  offer.  Consequently 
he  had  to  agree  to  the  temporary  Austrian  occupation  of  the 
territory  comprised  within  the  Fo,  the  Sesia  and  the  Tidno, 
and  of  half  the  citadel  of  Alessandria,  to  disband  his  I.«mbard, 
Polish  and  Hungarian  volunteers,  and  to  withdraw  his  fleet 
from  the  Adriatic;  but  he  secured  an  amnesty  for  all  the  Lom- 
bards compromised  in  the  recent  revolution,  having  even 
threatened  to  go  to  war  again  if  it  were  not  granted.  It  was 
the  maintenance  of  the  constitution  in  the  face  of  the  over- 
whelming  tide  of  reaction  that  esublished  his  position  as  the 
champion  of  Italian  freedom  and  earned  him  the  sobriquet  of 
Ri  Gohniitomo  (the  honest  king).  But  the  task  entrusted  to 
him  was  a  most  difficult  one:  the  army  disorganized,  the 
treasury  empty,  the  people  despondent  if  not  actively  disloyal* 
and  he  himsdf  reviled,  misunderstood,  and,  Iflce  his  father, 
accused  of  treachery.  Parliament  having  rejected  the  peace 
treaty;  the  king  dissolved  the  assembly;  in  the  famous  pn>> 
damation  from  Moncalieri  he  appealed  to  the  people's  loyalty, 
and  the  new  Chamber  ratified  the  treaty  (9th  of  January  1850). 
This  flame  year,  Cavour  (0.9.)  was  appointed  minister  of  agri* 
culture  in  D'AsegUo's  cabinet,  and  in  1852,  after  the  fall  of  the 
latter,  he  became  prime  minister,  a  post  which  with  brief  in- 
terruptions he  held  until  his  death. 

In  having  Cavov  aa  his  chief  adviser  Victor  Emmanuel  waa 


VICTOR  EMMANUEL  II. 


27 


aiott  foilaoate,  &nd  but  for  that  ■utesmui's  astoondliig 
diplomatic  genius  the  libenition  of  Italy  woold  have  been 
impossible.  The  years  from  1850  to  1859  were  devoted  to  restor- 
ing the  shattered  finances  of  Sardinia,  reorganizing  the  army 
and  modernising  the  antiquated  institutions  of  the  kingdom. 
Among  other  refcmns  the  abolition  of  the  foro  eccUsiastico 
(privikged  ecclesiastical  courts)  brought  down  a  storm  of 
hostifity  from  the  Church  both  on  the  king  and  on  Cavour, 
but  both  remained  firm  in  sustaining  the  prerogatives  of  the 
dvil  p»wer.  When  the  Crimean  War  broke  out,  the  king  strongly 
supported  Cavour  in  the  proposal  that  Piedmont  dmuld  join 
France  and  Engkind  against  Russia  so  as  to  secure  a  place  in 
the  councils  of  the  great  Povecs  and  establish  a  claim  on  them 
for  eventual  assistance  in  Italian  afiairs  (1854).  The  foifewing 
year  Victor  Emmanuel  was  stricken  with  a  threefold  family 
misfortune;  for  his  mother,  the  Queen  Dowager  Maria  T^vcsa, 
his  wifo,  Qneen  Adelaide,  and  his  brother  Ferdinand,  doke  of 
Genoa,  died  within  a  few  weeks  of  each  other.  The  clerical 
party  were  not  slow  to  point  to  this  drcumstance  as  a  judgment 
on  the  king  for  what  they  deemed  his  saaakgkMis  policy.  At 
the  end  of  1855,  while  the  allied  troops  were  stiH  in  the  East, 
Victor  Emmanuel  visited  Paris  and  London,  where  he  was 
warmly  welcomed  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  IIL  and  Queen 
Victoria,  as  well  ta  by  the  peoples  of  the  two  countiiea. 

Victor  Emmanuel's  object  now  was  the  eopalsion  of  the 
AuBtrians  from  Itaiy  and  the  expansion  of  Piodmofit  into  a 
North  Italian  kingdom,  but  he  did  not  regard  the  idea  of  Italian 
unity  as  coming  within  the  sfdiere  of  practical  politics  lor  the 
time  being,  akbough  a  movement  to  that  end  was  already 
beginning  to  gain  ground.  He  was  in  communicatian  with  some 
of  the  fionspirators,  c^>ecialiy  with  La  Farina,  the  leader  ol 
the  SocietA  NaaianaUf  an  associatinin  the  object  of  which  was 
to  unite  Italy  under  the  king  of  Sardinia,  and  he  even  oodh 
municated  with  MJaauni  and  the  lepubUcans,  both  in  Italy  and 
abroad,  whenever  he  thought  that  they  •could  hel^  in  the 
cipialsion  of  the  Austrians  from  Italy.  In  1859  Cavour's 
diploflaacy  succeeded  in  drawing  Napolran  IIL  into  an  alliance 
igainat  Austria,  although  the  king  hod  to  agree  to  the  cesskm 
of  Savoy  and  possibly  of  Nice  and  to  the  marriage  of  his  daaghter 
Oofchildo  to  Prince  Napoleon.  These  conditions  were  very 
painful  to  him,  for  Savoy  was  the  heioditaiy  home  of  his  family, 
and  he  was  gieatty  attodied  to  Princess  rinthiWe  and  disliked 
the  idea  of  manying  her  to  a  man  who  gave  little  promise  <A 
proving  a  good  husband.  But  he  was  always  ready  to  sacrifice 
his  own  personal  feelings  for  the  good  of  hb  oountiy.  He  hod  an 
ioteiviev  with  Garibaldi  and  appomted  him  commander  ef 
the  newly  nused  volunteer  corps,  the  CoceuioH  deUe  AlpL 
Even  then  Napoleon  would  not  decide  on  immediate  hostilities, 
and  it  required  all  Cavour's  genius  to  bring  him  to  the  pomt  and 
lead  Auatria  into  a  declaration  of  war  (April  1859):.  Although 
the  FVanco-Sardinian  forces  were  sucoessfid  in  the  fidd,  Napoleon , 
fearing  an  attadc  by  Prussia  and  disliking  the  idc«  of  a  too 
powiStful  Italian  kingdom  on  the  frontiers  of  France,  insisted  on 
making  peace  with  Austria,  while  Venetia  stiH  remained  to  be 
freed.  Victor  Emmanuel,  reoliang  that  he  could  not  continue 
the  i'^**^r*%"  alone,  agreed  most  unwiUuigly  to  the  armistice  of 
Villafnnca.  When  Oiivour  heard  the  news  he  hurried  to  the 
king's  headquarters  at  Monaambono,  and  In  violent,  almost 
disrespectfinl  language  implored  him  to  oontanue  the.  campaign 
at  All  haaarri%  relying  on  his  fiwn  army  and  the  revolutionaiy 
movement'in  the  rest  of  Italy.  But  the  king  on  this  occasion 
showed  more  political  insight  than  his  great  minister  and  sow 
that  by  adopting  the  heroic*  course  proposed  by  the  latter  he 
an  the  risk  of  finding  Napoleon  on  the  aide  of  the  enemy, 
whenas  by  woithig  all  daight  be  gained.  Cavour  resigned 
office,  and  by  the  peace  9f  Zurich  (loth  of  November  1859) 
Austria  ceded  Lombardy  to  Piedmont  but  retained  Venetia; 
the  central  Italian  princes  who  had  been  deposed  by  the  revolu- 
tion were  to  be  reinstated,  and  Italy  formed  into  a  confederation 
of  independent  states.  But  this  solution  was  most  unacceptable 
to  Italian  public  opinion,  and  both  the  king  and  Cavour  deter- 
mined  to  awst  the  pecfde  in  preventing  its  realization,  and 


gMisequently  entered  into  secret  idatioBs  with  the  eevohitioMiy 
governments  of  Tuscany,  the  duchies  and  of  Romagna.  As 
a  result  of  the  events  of  1859-60,  those  provinocs  were  all 
annexed  to  Piedmont,  and  when  Garibaldi  dedded  on  the 
Sicilian  expedition  Victor  Emmanuel  assisted  him  in  various 
ways.  He  had  considerable  influence  with  Gaifbakil,  who, 
although  in  theory  a  republican,  was  greatty  attached  to  the 
bluff  soldler-king,  and  on  several  occasions  restrained  Urn 
from  too  foolhardy  cowses.  When  Garibaldi  having  conquered 
Sicily  was  determined  to  invade  the  mainland  posscsslOBS  ef 
Frsnds  II.  of  Naples,  Victor  Emmanuel  foreseeing  international 
difficulties  wrote  to  the  chief  of  the  red  shirts  asking  him  not  to 
cross  the  Straits;  but  Garibaldi,  although  acting  ^iroughout 
In  the  luune  of  His  Majesty,  refused  to  obey  and  continued 
hia  victorious  nurcb,  for  he  knew  that  the  king's  letter  was 
dictated  by  diplomatic  considerations  rather  than  by  his  own 
personal  desire.  Then,  on  Csvonr^  advicie,  King  Victor  dedded 
to  partidpate  himself  in  the  occupation  of  Neapolitan  territory, 
lest  Garibaldi's  entourage  should  prodsim  the  repnbfiic  or 
create  anarchy.  When  he  accepted  the  annexation  of  Romagna 
offered  by  the  inhabitants  theoasdves  the  pope  eaoommunicated 
him,  but,  although  a  devout  Ciaholic,  he  continued  in  his 
course  undeteired  by  ecdedostical  thunders,  and  led  his  anny 
in  person  through  the  Papal  States,  occupying  the  Marches 
and  Umbria,  to  Naples.  On  the  39th  of  October  he  met 
Garibsldi,  who  handed  over  his  conquests  to  the  Idng.  The 
whole  peninsula,  except  Rome  and  Venice^  was  now  annwrrd 
to  Pie(hnont,  and  on  the  i8th  of  February  1861  the  pariiamcnt 
peocfaumed  Victor  Emmaaind  king  of  united  Italy. 

•The  next  few  years  woe  oocnpied  with  iwepamtions  lor  ths 
Uberatu>n  of  Venice,  and  the  king  oorrespondtod  widi  Maadn^ 
Kbpka,  Tttrr  and  other  conspirators  against  Austria  in  Venetia 
itsdf,  Hungary,  Poland  and  elsewhere,  keeping  Ids  activity 
secret  even  from  his  own  minlsten.  The  alliance  with  Pmada 
and  the  wtsr  with  Austria  of  1866,  although  fortune  did  not 
favour  IlaUaa  arms,  added  Venetia  to  his  dominions. 

The  Roman  question  yet  remained  unsolved,  for  Napokos, 
although  he  had  assisted  Piedmont  in  1859  and  had  lehiotoatly 
consented  to  the  annexation  ci  the  central  aiui  southern 
provinces,  and  of  port  of  the  Papal  States,  would  not  permit 
Rome  to  be  occupied,  and  maintained  a  French  garrison  there 
to  protect  the  pope.  When  war  with  Prussia  appeared  ismdnent 
he  tried  to  obtain  Italian  assistance,  and  Victor  Eanamid 
was  very  anxious  to  fly  to  the  assistance  of  the  maa  who  hod 
helped  him  to  eaqtel  the  Austrians  from  Italy,  but  he  could  not 
do  so  unless  Napoleon  gave  him  a  free  hand  In  Rome.  This 
the  emperor  would  not  do  until  it  was  too-  late.  Even  after 
the  first  French  ddeats  the  chivahoos  king,  in  spite  of  the 
advioe  of  his  nxwe  imident  councillors,  wi^ed  to  go  to  the 
rescue,  and  asked  Thiers,  the  French  representative  who  was 
imploring  him  for  help,  if  with  100,000  Italian  troops  FroBce 
could  be  saved,  but  Thiers  could  give  no  such  undertaking 
and  Italy  remained  neutioL  On  the  10th  of  September  1870^ 
the  Fkench  troops  having  been  withdrawn,  the  Italian  army 
entered  Rome,  end  en  the  and  of  July  1871  Victor  Emmaottd 
made  his  solemn  entry  into  the  Eternal  City,  which  then  b^ 
came  the  capital  of  Italy. 

The  pope  refused  to  recognize  the  new  kingdom  even  bdore 
the  occupation  of  I^ome,  and  the  latter  event  lendeted  lelations 
between  church  and  stale  for  many  yean  extremely  delicate 
The  king  himself  woa  anxious  to  be  reconciled  with  the  Vatican^ 
but  the  pope,  or  rather  his  entourage,  rejected  all  ovetturesb 
and  the  two  sovetdgns  dwdt  dde  by  side  in  Rome  until  death 
without  ever  meeting.  Victor  Emmanud  devoted  himself 
to  his  duties  as  a  constitutional  king  with  great  conscientious 
ness,  but  he  took  more  interest  in  foreign  than  in  dontstie 
politics  and  contributed  not  a  little  to  improving  Italy's  inter* 
national  position.  In  1873  he  visited  the  emperor  Frandl 
Joseph  at  Vienna  and  the  emperor  WlUiam  at  Berlin.  H* 
received  an  enthusiastic  welcome  in  both  capitals,  but  Iht 
visit  to  Vienna  waa  never  returned  in  Rome,  for  Francis  Joseph 
M  a  Catholic  aoveretgn  feared  to  offend  the  pQ!pe»  a  orcunttanct 


28 


VICTOR  EMMANUEL  III.— VICTORIA,  QUEEN 


which  served  to  embitter  AiiBtro-Italiftn  idatioos.  On  the 
9th  of  January  1878,  Victor  Emmanttel  died  of  fever  in  Rome, 
and  was  buried  in  the  Fantheoo.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Humbert. 

fihifl,  hearty,  good-natured  and  simple  in  his  habits,  yet 
he  always  had  a  high  idea  of  his  own  kin^y  dignity,  and  his 
really  statesmanlike  qualities  often  suifwised  foreign  diplomats, 
who  were  deceived  by  his  homely  exterior.  As  a  soldier  he 
was  very  brave,  but  he  did  not  show  great  qualities  as  a  military 
leader  in  the  nunpaign  d  1866.  He  was  a  keen  sportsman 
and  would  spend  many  days  at  a  time  pursuing  chamois  or 
steinbock  in  the  Alpine  fastnesses  of  Piedmont  with  nothing 
but  bread  and  cheese  to  eat.  He  always  used  the  dialect  Of 
Piedmont  when  conversing  with  natives  of  that  country,  and 
he  had  a  vast  fund  of  humorous  anecdotes  and  provcriis  with 
which  to  illustrate  hb  arguments.  He  had  a  great  weakness 
for  female  society,  and  kept  several  mistresses;  one  of  them, 
the  beautiful  Rosa  Veroellone,  he  created  Countess  Mirafiori  e 
Fontanafredda  and  married  morganatically  in  1869;  she  bore 
him  one  son. 

BiBLiOGitAniY. — Beddes  the  general  works  on  Italy  and  Savoy 
•ee  V.  Benezio,  //  Regno  di  Vittorio  EmMmde  II.  (8  vols.,  Turin, 
1869):  G.  Maiaari.  La  Vita  €d  U  HegM  di  Vittorio  Enumuttt  II. 
{2  vols.,  Milan.  1878);  N.  Biancbi.  Storia  ddia  Dipiomama  Eatropea 
In  Italia  (8  vols..  Turin,  1865).  (L-  V.*) 

VICIOR  BHMANUEL  III.  (1869-  ),  king  of  Italy,  son 
of  King  Humbert  L  and  Queen  Margherita  of  Savoy,  was  bom 
St  Maples  on  the  xith  of  November  1869.  Carefully  educated 
by  his  mother  and  under  the  direction  of  Colond  Oslo,  he 
ttutprew  the  weakness  of  his  childhood  and  became  expert  in 
horsemanship  and  military  exercises.  Entering  the  army 
at  an  early  age  he  passed  throuf^  the  various  gndes  and, 
soon  alter  attaining  his  majority,  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Florenoe  Army  Corps.  During  frequent  Joum^s  to 
Germany  he  enlaiged  his  military  experience,  and  upon  his 
appointment  to  the  command  of  the  Naples  Anny  Coips  in 
1896  ifisplayed  sound  military  and  administxative  capacity. 
A  keen  huntsman,  and  passionately  fond  oi  the  sea,  he  extendod 
his  yachting  and  hunting  excursions  as  far  cast  as  Syria  and 
ss  far  north  as  Spitsbergen.  As  representative  of  King 
Humbert  he  attended  the  coronation  of  Tsar  Nidiolas  IL  in 
1896,  the  Victorian  JubSlee  celebrstions  of  1897,  and  the 
festivities  connected  with  the  coming  of  age  of  the  German 
crown  prince  in  1900.  The  prince's  intellectusl  and  artistic 
kapitags  were  well  known;  in  particulsr,  he  has  made  a  magnifi- 
cent collection  of  historic  Italian  coins,  on  which  subject  he 
became  a  recognized  authority.  At  the  time  of  the  aasassina- 
tion  of  his  father.  King  Humbert  (the  39th  of  July  1900),  he  was 
returning  from  a  yachting  cruise  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean. 
Landuig  at  R^sjo  di  Calabria  he  hsitfenfd  to  Monza,  where  he 
condxicted  with  firmness  and  tact  the  preparations  for  the 
burial  of  King  Humbert  and  for  his  own  formal  accession, 
whidi  took  i^ace  on  the  9th  and  xxth  of  August  1900.  On  the 
24tb  of  October  1896  he  married  Princess  Elena  of  Montenegro, 
who,  on  the  xst  of  June  1901,  bore  him  a  daughter  named 
Yolanda  Margherita,  on  the  19th  of  November  190s  a  second 
daughter  named  Mafalda,  and  on  the  15th  of  September  1904 
a  son,  Prince  Humbert. 

VICTORU  [ALBXANDRINA  VICTORIA],  Queen  of  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Irdai^,  Empress  of 
India  (T8X9-X901),  only  child  of  Edward,  duke  of  Kent,  fourth 
son  of  King  George  HI.,  and  of  Princess  Victoria  Maiy  Louisa 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  (widow  of  Prixure  Emich  Kari  of  Lein- 
Ingen,  by  whom  she  already  had  two  children),  was  bom  at 
Kensington  Palace  on  the  24th  of  May  18x9.  The  duke  and 
duchess  of  Rent  had  been  living  at  Amorbadi,  in  Franconia, 
owing  to  their  straitened  circumstances,  but  tb^r  returned  to 
London  on  purpose  that  their  child  should  be  bom  in  England. 
In  X817  the  death  of  Princess  Chariotte  (only  chUd  of  the  prince 
regent,  afterwards  George  IV.,  and  wife  of  Prince  Leopold  of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  afterwards  king  of  the  Belgians),  had  left 
the  uMmate  succession  to  the  throne  of  England,  hi  the  younger 


ceneration«  so  uncertain  that. the  three  nnniafried 
George  IH.,  the  dukes  of  Clarence  (afterwards  WUilnna  IV.), 
Kent  and  Cambridge,  all  married  in  the  foUoning  ynar»  Use 
two  elder  on  the  same  day.    All  three  had  children,  but  tlse 
duke  of  Clarence's  two  baby  daughters  died  in  infancy,  in  X819 
and  x82x;  and  the  duke  of  Cambridge's  son  Geoige,  born  oei 
the  36th  of  March  18x9,  was  only  two  months  old  when  tlie 
birth  of  the  duke  of  Kent's  daughter  put  her  bcfose  him  in  tht 
succession.    The  question  ss  to  what  name  the  chQd  should 
bear  was  not  settled  without  bickerings.    The  duke  «f  Keat 
wished  her  to  be  christened  Elisabeth,  and  the  piinoe  icyent 
wanted  Georgiana,  while  the  tsar  Alexander  I.,  who  had 
promised  to  stand  sponsor,  stipulated  for  Alexandiinn.    The 
baptism  was  performed  in  a  drawing-nMsn  of  KeminstoB 
Palace  on  the  S4th  of  June  by  Dr  Manners  Sutton,  arcbbishop 
of  Canterbury.    The  prince  regent,  who  was  present,  named 
the  child  Alexandrine;  then,  being  requested  by  the  duke  oi 
Kmt  to  give  a  second  name,  he  aaid,  rather  abraptly,  **  Let 
her  be  called  Victoria,  after  her  motlier,  but  this  name  must 
come  after  the  other."  *■    Six  weeks  after  her  duistenfatg  the 
princess  was  vaccinated,  this  being  the  first  occarion  on  iriiich 
a  member  of  the  rojral  fs^Dy  underwent  the  operation. 

In  January  i8ao  the  duke  of  Kent  died,  five  days  before  Iris 
brother  succeeded  to  the  throne  aa  George  IV.  The  widowed 
duchess  of  Kent  wSs  now  a  woman  of  thirty-four,  handsome, 
homely,  a  German  at  heart,  and  with  little  liking  for  English 
ways.  But  she  wss  a  woman  of  experience,  and  shrewd;  and 
fortunately  she  had  a  safe  and  affectionate  adviser  in  her  brother, 
Prince  Leopold  of  Oriiurg,  afterwards  (X831)  king  of  the  Belgians, 
who  as  the  husband  of  the  late  Princess  Chariotte  had  once  bem 
a  proq>ective  prince  consort  of  En^snd.  His  former  doctor  and 
private  secretary.  Baron  Stockmar  (^.s.),  a  man  of  encyclopaedic 
information  and  remarkable  judgment,  who  had  given  spedsl 
attention  to  the  problema  of  asoverdgn's  position  in  'R»gi*««l,  was 
afterwards  to  pjay  an  important  rMe  in  Queen  Victoria^  Bfe; 
and  Leopold  himself  took  a  fatheriy  interest  in  the  yo«i« 
princess's  education,  and  contributed  some  thomands  of  pounds 
annuaUy  to  the  duchess  of  Kent's  inoonse.  Prince  Leopold 
still  lived  at  this  time  at  Cbremont,  where  Princess  Charlotte 
had  died,  and  this  became  the  dudiesa  of  Kent's  ^^"'^■Hnl 
Eufl^  home;  but  she  was  much  adcKcted  to  txaveiUng,  and 
spent  several  months  every  yesr  in  virits  to  watettBg-phces. 
It  was  said  at  court  that  die  liked  the  demonstrative  homa^s 
of  crowds;  but  she  had  good  reason  to  fear  kst  her  cbiU  should 
be  tsken  away  from  her  to  be  educated  according  to  the  viewt 
of  George  IV.  Between  the  king  and  his  sister-in-law  there  waa 
little  love,  and  when  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Claxenoe*s  second 
infant  daughter  Elisabeth  in  x8si  made  it  pretty  certabi  that 
Princess  Victoria  would  eventually  become  queen,  the  duchesb 
felt  that  the  king  might  possibly  obtain  the  support  of  faia 
ministers  if  he  insisted  that  the  future  sovereign  should  be 
brought  up  under  masters  and  mistresses  designated  by  Umsdf  . 
The  little  princess  could  not  have  received  a  better  educatiosi 
than  that  which  was  given  her  under  Prince  Leopold's  direction. 
Her  unde  considered  that  she  oujb^  to  be  kept  as  k»g  as 
possible  from  the  knowledge  of  her  position,  which  might  raise 
alarge  growth  of  pride  or  vanity  in  her  and  make  her  un- 
manageable; so  Victoria  was  twelve  yean  old  before  she 
knew  that  she  wss  to  wear  a  crown.  Until  she  became  queen 
she  never  slept  a  night  away  from  her  mother's  room,  and  ahe 
was  not  allowed  to  converse  with  any  grown-up  person,  friend* 
tutor  or  servant  without  the  duchess  of  Kent  or  the  Baroncaa 
Lehcen,  her  private  governess,  being  present.  Louise  Lehien, 
a  native  of  Coburg,  had  come  to  England  as  governess  to  the 
Feod(xe  of  Lciningen,  the  duchess  of  Kent's  daughter 


*  The  question  of  her  name,  as  that  of  one  who  was  to  be  oueen, 
remained  even  up  to  her  accession  to  the  throne  a  much-debated 
one.  In  August  1831,  in  a  discussion  in  pariiament  upon  a  grant 
to  the  ducfaeis  of  Kent,  Sir  M.  W.  Ridley  siygested  dumfing  it  to 
Elizabeth  as  "  more  accordant  to  the  feeluigs  of  the  people  *'; 
and  the  idea  of  a  change  seems  to  have  been  powerfully  supported. 
In  1836  MHlUam  IV.  approved  of  a  proposal  to  change  it  to 
Charlotte;  but,  to  the  pnnoe^'s  own  deught,  it  was  given  ap^ 


VlClttfUA,  QUEEN 


I 

ir 
1 

i 

11 
I 
I 
I 
I 

f 

i 


by  her  first  btabanc*;  and  she'  became  teacher  to  the  Princess 
Victoria  when  the  latter  was  five  years  old.  George  IV.  in  1827 
made  her  a  baroness  of  Hanover,  and  she  continued  as  lady-in- 
attendance  after  the  duchess  of  Northumberland  was  appointed 
ofl^cial  governess  In  1830,  but  actually  performed  the  functions 
first  of  governess  and  then  of  private  secretary  till  1842,  when 
she  left  the  court  and  returned  to  Germany,  where  ^e  died  In 
1870.  The  Rev.  George  Davys,  afterwards  bishop  of  Peter- 
borough, taught  the  princess  Latm;  Mr  J.  B.  Sale,  music; 
Mr  Westall,  history;  and  Mr  Thomas  Steward,  the  writing 
ntaster  of  Westminster  School,  instructed  her  in  penmanship. 

In  1830  George  IV.  died,  and  the  duke  of  York  (George  III.'s 
second  son)  having  died  childless  in  1827,  the  duke  of  Clarence 
became  king  as  William  IV.  Princess  Victoria  now  became  the 
direct  heir  to.  the  throne.  William  IV.  cherished  affectionate 
feelings  towards  his  niece;  unfortunately  he  took  ofTence  at 
the  duchess  of  Kent  /or  declining  to  let  her  child  come  and  live 
at  his  court  for  several  months  in  each  year,  and  through  the 
whole  of  his  reign  there  was  strife  between  the  two;  and 
Prince  Leopold  was  no  longer  in  England  to  act  as  peacemaker. 

In  the  cariy  hours  of  the  20th  of  June  1837,  William  IV.  died. 
His  thoughts  had  dwelt  often  on  his  iHece,  and  he  repeatedly 
said  that  he  was  sure  she  would  be**&  good  woman  and  a  good 
queen.  It  will  touch  every  sailor's  heart  to  have  a  girl  queen 
to  fight  for.  Theyll  be  tattooing  her  face  on  their  arms,  and 
I'll  be  bound  they'll  all  think  she  was  christened  after  Nelson's 
ship."  Dr  Howlcy,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  the  marquis 
of  Conyngham,  bearing  the  news  of  the  king's  death,  started  in 
a  landau  with  four  horses  for  Kensington,  which  they  reached 
at  five  o'clock.  Their  servants  rang,  knocked  and  thumped; 
and  when  at  last  admittance  wa»  gained,  the  primate  and  the 
marquis  were  shown  into  a  lower  room  and  there  left  to  wait. 
Presently  a  maid  appeared  and  said  that  the  Princess  Victoria 
was  "  in  a  sweet  sleep  and  could  not  be  disturbed."  Dr  Howley, 
who  was  nothing  if  not  pompous,  answered  that  he  had  come 
on  state  business,  to  which  everything,  even  sleep,  must  give 
place.  The  princess  was  accordingly  roused,  and  quickly  came 
downstairs  in  a  dressing-gown,  her  fair  hair  flowing  loose  over 
her  shoulders.  Her  own  account  of  this  interview,  written  the 
same  day  in  her  journal  {Letters,  i.  p.  97),  shows  her  to  have 
been  quite  prepared. 

The  privy  council  assembled  at  Kensington  In  the  morning; 
and  the  usual  oaths  were  administered  to  the  queen  by  Lord 
Chancellor  Cottenham,  after  which  all  present  did  homage. 
There  was  a  touching  incident  when  the  queen's  uncles,  the 
dukes  of  Cumberland  and  Sussex,  two  old  men,  came  forward 
to  perform  their  obeisance.  The  queen  blushed,  and  descending 
from  her  throne,  kissed  them  both,  without  allowing  them  to 
kneel.  By  the  death  of  William  IV.,  the  duke  of  Cumberland 
had  become  King  Ernest  of  Hanover,  and  immediately  after 
the  ceremony  he  made  haste  to  reach  his  kingdom.  Had 
Queen  Victoria  died  without  issue,  this  prince,  who  was  arro- 
gant, ill-tempered  and  rash,  would  have  become  king  of  Great 
Britain;  and,  as  nothing  but  mischief  could  have  resulted  from 
this,  the  young  queen's  life  became  very  precious  in  the  sight 
of  her  people.  She,  of  course,  retained  the  late  king's  ministers 
in  their  offices,  and  it  was  under  Lord  Melbourne's  direction 
that  the  privy  council  drew  up  their  declaration  to  the  kingdom. 
This  document  described  the  queen  as  Alexandrina  Victoria, 
and  all  the  peers  who  subscribed  the  toU  in  the  House  of  Lords 
on  the  20th  of  June  swore  allegiance  to  her  under  those  names. 
It  was  not  till  the  following  day  that  the  sovereign's  style  was 
altered  to  ^ctoria  simply,  and  this  necessitated  the  issuing  of  a 
new  declaration  and  a  re-signing  of  the  peers'  roll.  The  public 
proclamation  of  the  queen  took  place  on  the  szstat  St  James's 
Palace  with  great  pomp.     . 

The  queen  bpened  her  first  parliament  in  person,  and  in  a 
wefl-wri':ten  speech,  which  she  read  with  much  feeling,  adverted 
to  her  youth  and  to  the  necessity  which  existed  for  her  being 
gt  ided  by  enlightened  advisers.  When  both  houses  had  voted 
loyal  addresses,  the  question  of  the  Civil  List  was  considered, 
tfid  a  inek  or  two  later  a  measage  was  brought  to  parfiameut 


29 

requesting  an  increase  of  the  grant  formeriy  made  tq  ihe  duchess 
of  Kent.  Government  recommended  an  addition  01  £30,000  a 
year,  which  was  voted,  and  before  the  close  of  the  year  a  Civil 
List  Bin  was  passed,  settling  £385,000  a  yearpn  the  queen. 

The  duchess  of  Kent  and  her  brothers,  King  Leopold  and  the 
duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  had  always  hoped  to  arrange  that 
the  queen  should  marry  her  cousin,  Albert  (q.v.)  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha,  and  the  prince  himself  had  been  inade  acquainted  with 
this  plan  from  his  earliest  years.  In  1B36  Prince  Albert,  who 
was  bom  in  the  same  year  as  his  future  wife,  had  come  on  a  visit 
to  England  with  his  father  and  with  his  brother,  Prince  Ernest, 
and  his  handsome  face,  gentle  disposition  and  playful  humour 
had  produced  a  favourable  impression  on  the  princess.  The 
duchess  of  Kent  had  communicated  her  projects  to  Lord  Mel- 
bourne, and  they  were  known  to  many  other  statesmen,  and  to 
persons  in  society;  but  the  gossip  of  drawing-rooms  during  the 
years  1837-38  continually  represented  that  the  young  queen 
had  fallen  in  love  with  Prince  This  or  Lord  That,  and  the  more 
imaginative  babblers  hinted  at  post-chaises  waiting  outside  Ken- 
sington  Gardens  in  the  night,  private  marriages  and  so  forth. 

The  coronation  took  place  on  the  28th  of  June  1838.  No  more 
touching  ceremony  of  the  kind  had  ever  been  performed  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  Anne  was  a  middle-aged  married 
woman  at  the  lime  of  her  coronation;  she  waddled  juoio^^ 
and  wheezed,  and  madje  no  majestic  appearance  upon 
her  throne.  Mary  was  odious  to  her  Protestant  subjects,  Eliza- 
beth to  those  of  the  unreformed  religion,  and  both  these  queens 
succeeded  to  the  crown  in  times  of  general  sadness;  but  the 
youthful  Queen  Victoria  had  no  enemies  except  a  few  Chartists, 
and  the  land  was  peaceful  and  prosperous  when  she  began  to 
reign  over  it.  The  cost  of  George  IV. 's  coronation  amounted 
to  £240,000;  that  of  William  IV.  had  amoimted  to  £50,000  only; 
and  in  asking  £70,000  the  government  had  judged  that  things 
could  be  done  with  suitable  luxury,  but  without  waste.  The 
traditional  banquet  in  Westminster  Hall,  with  the  -throwing 
down  of  the  glove  by  the  king's  champion  in  armour,  had  been 
dispensed  with  at  the  coronation  of  William  IV.,  and  it  was 
resolved  not  to  revive  it.  But  it  was  arranged  that  the  sove- 
reign's procession  to  the  abbey  through  the  streets  should  be 
made  a  finer  show  than  on  previous  occasions;  and  it  drew  to 
London  400,000  country  visitors.  Three  ambassadors  for  different 
reasons  became  objects  of  great  interest  on  the  occasion.  Marshal 
Soult,  Wellington's  old  foe,  received  a  hearty  popular  welcome 
as  a  military  hero;  Prince  Esterhazy,  who  represented  Austria, 
dazzled  society  by  his  Magyar  uniform,  which  was  encrusted 
all  over,  even  to  the  boots,  with  pearls  and  diamonds;  while 
the  Turkish  ambassador,  Sarim  Effendi,  caused  much  diversion 
by  his  bewilderment.  He  was  so  wonder-struck  that  he  could 
not  walk  to  his  place,  but  stood  as  if  he  had  lost  his  senses, 
and  kept  muttering,  '*  AH  this  for  a  woman  I " 

Within  a  year  the  court  was  brought  into  sudden  disfavour 
with  the  country  by  two  events  of  unequal  importance,  but  both 
exciting.  The  first  was  the  case  of  Lady  Flora  Hastings,  th* 
In  February  1839  this  young  lady,  a  daughter  of  the 
marquis  of  Hastings,  and  a  maid  of  honour  to  the 
duchess  of  Kent,  was  accused  by  certain  ladies  of 
the  bedchamber  of  immoral  conduct.  The  charge  having  been 
laid  before  Lord  Melbourne,  he  communicated  it  to  Sir  James 
Clark,  the  queen's  physician,  and  the  result  was  that  Lady  Flora 
was  subjected  to  the  indignity  of  a  medical  examination,  which, 
while  it  cleared  her  character,  seriously  affected  her  health. 
In  fact,  she  died  in  the  following  July,  and  it  was  then  discovered 
that  the  physical  appearances  whidi  first  provoked  suspicion 
against  her  had  been  due  to  enlargement  of  the  Uver.  The 
queen's  conduct  towards  Lady  Flora  was  kind  and  sisterly 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  this  painful  business;  but  the 
scandal  was  made-  public  through  some  indignant  letten  which 
the  marchioness  of  Hastings  addressed  to  Lord  Melbourne  pray(> 
ing  for  the  punishment  of  her  daughter's  tmducers,  ana  the 
general  opinion  was  that  Lady  Flora  had  been  grossly  treated 
at  the  instigation  of  some  private  court  enemies.  While  tha 
agiution  about  the  afiair  was  yet  unappeated,  tb*  pdUtkal 


PhL 


A 


30 


VICTORIA,  QUEEN 


crisis  known  as  the  "  Bedchamber  Plot  "occurred.  The  Whig 
miais}:ry  had  introduced  a  bill  suspending  the  Constitution  of 
Jamaica  because  the  Assembly  in  that  colony  had  refused  to 
adopt  the  Prisons  Act  passed  by  the  Imperial  Legislature.  Sir 
Robert  Peel  moved  an  amendment,  which,  on  a  division  (6th 
May),  was  defeated  by  a  majority  of  fiv^  only  in  a  house  of 
5S3,  and  ministers  thereupon  resigned.'  The  duke  of  Wellington 
was  first  sent  for,  but  he  advised  that  the  task  of  forming  an 
administration  should  be  entrusted  to  Sir  Robert  PeeL  Sir 
Robert  was  ready  to  form  a  cabinet  in  which  the  duke  of  Welling- 
ton, Lords  Lyndhurst,  Aberdeen  and  Stanley,  and  Sir  James 
Graham  would  have  served;  but  he  stipulated  that  the  mistress 
of  the  robes  and  .the  ladies  of  the  bedchamber  appointed  by  the 
Whig  administration  should  be  removed,  and  to  this  the  queen 
would  not  consent.  On  the  loth  of  May  she  wrote  ourtly  that 
the  course  proposed  by  Sir  Robert  Ped  was  contrary  to  usage 
and  repugnant  to  her  feelings;  the  Tory  leader  then  had  to 
inform  the  House  of  Commons  that,  having  failed  to  obtain  the 
proof  which  he  desired  of  her  majesty's  confidence,  it  was  im- 
possible for  him  to  accept  office.  The  ladies  of  the  bedchamber 
were  so  unpopular  in  consequence  of  their  behaviour  to  Lady 
Flora  Hastings  that  the  public  took  alarm  at  the  notion  that  the 
queen  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  an  intriguing  coterie;  and 
Lord  Melbourne,  who  was  accused  of  wishing  to  rule  on  the 
strength  of  court  favour,  resumed  ofiice  with  diminished  prestige. 
The  Tories  thus  felt  aggrieved;  and  the  Chartists  were  so  prompt 
to  make  political  capital  out  of  the  affair  that  laige  numbers 
were  added  to  their  ranks.  On  the  14th  of  June  Mr  Attwood, 
M.P.  for  Birmingham,  presented  to  the  House  of  Commons  a 
Chartist  petition  alleged  to  have  been  signed  by  1,280,000  people. 
It  was  a  cylinder  of  parchment  of  about  the  diameter  of  a  coach- 
wheel,  and  was  literally  rolled  up  on  the  floor  of  the  house.  On 
the  day  after  this  curious  document  had  furnished  both  amuse- 
ment and  uneasiness  to  the  Commons,  a  woman,  describing 
herself  as  Sophia  Elizabeth  Guelph  Sims,  made  application  at 
the  Mansion  House  for  advice  and  assistance  to  prove  herself 
the  lawful  child  of  George  IV.  and  Mrs  Fitaherbert;  and  this 
incident,  trumpery  as  it  was,  added  fuel  to  the  disloyal  flame 
then  raging.  Going  in  state  to  Ascot  the  queen  was  hissed  by 
some  ladies  as  her  carriage  drove  on  to  the  course,  and  two 
peeresses,  one  of  them  a  Tory  duchess,  were  openly  accused  of 
this  unseemly  act.  Meanwhile  some  monster  Chartist  demon- 
strations were  being  organized,  and  they  commenced  on  the  4th 
of  July  with  riots  at  Birmingham.  It  was  an  untoward  coinci- 
dence that  Lady  Flora  Hastings  died  on  the  5th  of  July,  for  though 
she  repeated  on  her  deathbed,  and  wished  it  to  be  published,  that 
the  queen  had  taken  no  part  whatever  in  the  proceedings  which 
had  shortened  her  life,  it  was  remarked  that  the  ladies  who  were 
believed  to  have  persecuted  her  still  retained  the  sovereign's 
favour.  The  riots  at  Birmingham  lasted  ten  days,  and  had  to 
be  put  down  by  armed  force.  They  were  followed  by  others  at 
Newcastle,  Manchester,  Bolton,  Chester  and  Macde^eld. 

These  troublous  events  had  the  effect  of  hastening  the  queen's 
marriage.  Lord  Melbourne  ascertained  that  the  queen's  dis* 
nt  positions  towards  her  cousin,  Prince  Albert,  were  un- 

f0tea*s  changed,  and  he  advised  King  Leopold,  through  M. 
MAHiMfB.  Van  der  Wcyer,,the  Belgian  mim'ster,  that  the  prince 
should  come  to  England  and  press  bis  suit.  The  prince 
arrived  with  his  brother  on  a  visit  to  Windsor  on  the  loth  of 
October  1859.  On  the  X2th  the  queen  wrote  to  King  Leopold: 
"  Albert's  beauty  is  most  striking,  and  he  is  so  amiable  and 
unaffected — in  short,  very  fascinating."  On  the  15th  all  was 
settled;  and  the  queen  wrote  to  her  uncle,  "  I  love  him  more 
than  I  can  say."  The  queen'si  public  announcement  of  her 
betrothal  was  enthusiastically  received.  But  the  royal  lovers 
still  had  some  parliamentary  mortifications  to  undergo.  The 
government  proposed  that  Prince  Albert  should  receive  an 
annuity  of  £50,000,  but  an  amendment  of  Colonel  Sibthorp — 
a  politician  of  no  great  repute— for  making  the  annuity  £30,000 
was  carried  against  ministers  by  26a  votes  to  158,  the  Tories  and 
Radicals  going  into  the  same  lobby,  and  many  ministerialists 
taking  no  part  in  the  division.    Prince  Albert  had  not  been 


described,  in  the  queen's  dedantkm  to  th«  privy  couodl,  $m  • 
Protestant  prince;  and  Lord  Palmerston  «'as  obliged  to  ask 
Baron  Stockmar  for  assurance  that  Prince  Albert  did  not  belong 
to  any  sect  of  Protestants  whose  rules  might  prevent  him  from 
taking  the  Sacrament  according  to  the  ritual  of  the  English 
Church.  He  got  an  answer  couched  in  somewhat  ironical  terms 
to  the  effect  t^t  Protestantism  owed  its  existence  in  a  measure  to 
the  house  of  Saxony,  from  which  the  prmce  descended^  seeing  that 
this  house  and  that  of  the  landgrave  of  Hease  had  stood  quite 
alone  against  Europe  in  upholding  Luther  and  his  cause.  Even 
after  this  certain  High  Churchmen  held  that  a  Lutheran  was  m 
"  dissenter,"  and  that  the  prince  should  be  asked  to  subscribe 
to  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles. 

The  queen  was  particularly  concerned  by  .the  question  of 
the  prince's  future  status  as  an  Englishman.  It  was  impractic- 
able for  him  to  receive  the  title  of  king  consort;  but  the  quee« 
naturally  desined  that  her  husband  -should  be  placed  by  act  of 
parliament  in  a  position  which  would  secure  to  him  precedence, 
not  only  in  England,  but  in  foreign  courts.  Lord  Melbourne 
sought  to  effect  this  by  a  clause  introduced  in  a  naturalizition 
bill;  but  he  found  himself  obliged  to  drop  the  cbuse,  and  to 
leave  the  queen  to  confer  what  precedence  she  pleased  by 
letters-patent.  This  was  a  lame  way  out  of  the  difficulty,  for 
the  queen  could  only  confer  precedence  within  her  own  realms, 
whereas  an  act  of  pariiament  bestowing  the  title  of  prince 
consort  would  have  made  the  prince's  right  to  rank  above  all 
royal  imperial  highnesses  quite  clear,  and  woul^  have  left  no 
room  for  such  disputes  as  afterwards  occurred  when  foreign 
princes  chose  to  treat  Prince  Albert  as'  having  mere  courtesy 
rank  in  his  wife's  kingdom.  The  result  of  these  political  diffi- 
culties was  to  make  the  queen  more  than  ever  disgusted  with 
the  Tories.  But  there  was  no  other  flaw  in  the  happiness  of 
the  marriage,  which  was  solemnized  on  the  loth  of  February 
1840  in  the  Chapel  Royal,  St  James's.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  queen  was  dressed  entirely  in  articles  of  British  manu- 
facture. Her  dress  was  of  Spitalfields  silk;  her  veil  of  Honiton 
lace;  her  ribbons  came  from  Coventry;  even  her  gloves  had 
been  made  in  London  of  English  kid — a  novel  thing  in  days 
when  the  French  had  a  monopoly  in  the  finer  kinds  of  gloves. 

From  the  time  of  the  queen's  marriage  the  crown  played  an 
increasingly  active  part  in  the  affairs  of  state.  PreviousI;^; 
ministers  had  tried  to  spare  the  queen  all  disagree- 
able and  fatiguing  details.  Lord  Melbourne  saw  her 
eveiy  day,  whether  she  was  in  London  or  at  Windsor, 
and  he  used  to  explain  all  current  business  in  a  benevolent, 
chatty  manner,  which  offered  a  pleasant  contrast  to  the  style 
of  his  two  principal  colleagues,  Lord  John  Russell  and  Lord 
Palmerston.  A  statesman  of  firmer  mould  than  Lord  Melbourne 
would  hardly  have  succeeded  so  well  as  he  did  in  making  rough 
places  smooth  for  Prince  Albert.  Lord  John  Russell  and  Lord 
Palmerston  were  naturally  jealous  of  the  prince's  interference 
— and  of  King  Leopold's  and  Baron  Stockmar's — in  state 
affairs;  but  Lord  Melbourne  took  the  common-sense  view  that 
a  husband  will  control  his  wife  whether  people  wish  it  or  not. 
Ably  advised  by  his  private  secretary,  George  Anson,  and  by 
Stockmar,  the  prince  thus  soon  took  the  de  facto  place  of  the 
sovereign's  private  secretary,  though  he  had  no  official  status 
as  such;  and  his  system  of  dassifying  and  annotating  the 
queen's  papers  and  letters  resulted  in  the  preservation  of  what 
the  editors  of  the  Letters  of  Queen  Victoria  '(X907)  describe  as 
"  probably  the  most  extraordinary  collection  of  state  documents 
in  the  world  " — those  up  to  1861  being  contained  in  between 
500  and  600  bound  volumes  at  Windsor.  To  confer  on  Prince 
Albert  every  honour  that  the  crown  could  bestow,  and  to  let  hiia 
make  his  way  gradually  into  public  favour  by'  his  own  tact, 
was  the  advice  which  Lord  Melbourne  gave;  and  the  prince 
acted  upon  it  so  well,  avoiding  every  appearance  of  intrusion, 
and  treating  men  of  all  parties  and  dc^reca  with  urbanity,  that 
within  five  months  of  his  marriage  he  obtained  a  signal  mark 
of  the  public  confidence.  In  expectation  of  the  queen  becoming 
a  mother,  a  bill  was  passed  through  parliament  providing  for 
the  appointment  of  Princ*  Albert  as  sole  regent  in  case  the 


VICtORIA,  QUEEN 


qneoi,  After  trvfag  biKh  to  •  chdd ,  idled  before  her  son  or 
daughter  came  of  age. 

The  Rege&cy  BUI  bad  been  hurried  on  in  consequence  of  the 
attempt  of  a  crazy  pot-boy,  Edward  Oxford,  to  take  the  queen'a 
life  On  xoth  June  1840,  the  queen  and  Prince  Albert 
were  driving  up  Constitution  Hill  in  an  open  carriage, 
when  Oxfoid  fired  two  pistok,  the  bullets  from  which 
flew,  it  is  said,  close  by  the  prince's  head.  He  was 
arrested  on  the  spot,  and  when  his  lodgings  were  searched  a 
quantity  of  powder  and  shot  was  found,  with  the  rules 
of  a  secret  society,  called  "  Young  England,"  whose  members 
were  pledged  to  meet,  "  carrying  swords  and  pistols  and  wearing 
crape  masks."  These  discoveries  raised  the  surmise  that 
Oxford  was  the  tool  of  a  widespread  Chartist  conspiracy— 
or,  as  the  Irish  pretended,  of  a  conspiracy  of  Orangemen  to 
set  the  duke  of  Cumberland  on  the  throne;  and  while  these 
dduaiotts  were  fresh,  they  threw  well-disposed  persons  into  a 
paroxysm  of  loyalty. '  Even  the  London  street  dogs,  as  Sydney 
Smith  said,  joined  with  O'Connell  in  barking  "  God  save  the 
Queen."  Oxford  seems  to  have  been  craving  for  notoriety; 
but  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  jury  who  tried  him  did 
right  to  pronounce  his  acquittal  on  the  ground  of  insanity. 
He  feigned  madness  at  his  trial,  but  during  the  forty  years  of 
his  subsequent  confinement  at  Bedlam  he  talked  and  acted 
like  a  rational  being,  and  when  he  was  at  length  released  and 
sent  to  Australia  he  earned  his  living  there  as  a  house  painter, 
and  used  to  declare  that  he  had  never  been  mad  at  alL  His 
acqm'ttal  was  to  be  deprecated  as  establishing  a  dangerous 
precedent  in  regard  to  outrages  on  the  sovereign.  It  was  always 
Prince  Albert's  opinion  that  if  Oxford  had  been  flogged  the 
attempt  of  Francis  on  the  queen  in  1843  and  of  Bean  in 
the  same  year  would  never  have  been  perpetrated.  After 
the  attempt  of  Bean — who  was  a  hunchback,  really  insane — 
parliament  passed  a  bill  empowering  judges  to  order  whipping 
as  a  punishment  for  those  who  molested  the  queen;  but  some- 
bow  this  salutary  act  was  never  enforced.  In  1850  a  half-pay 
officer,  named  Pate,  assaulted  the  queen  by  striking  her  with 
a  stick,  and  crushing  her  bonnet.  He  was  sentenced  to  seven 
years'  transportation;  but  the  judge,  Baron  Ald'irson,  excused 
him  the  flogging.  In  1869  an  Irish  lad,  O'Connor,  was  sentenced 
to  eighteen  months'  imprisonment  and  a  whipping  for  presenting 
a  pistol  at  the  queen,  with  a  petition,  in  St  James's  Park;  but 
this  time  it  was  the  queen  herself  who  privately  remitted  the 
corporal  punishment,  and  she  even  pushed  clemency  to  the 
length  of  sending  her  aggressor  to  Australia  at  her  own  expense. 
The  series  of  attempts  on  the  queen  was  closed  in  1882  by 
Maclean,  who  fired  a  pistol  at  her  majesty  as  she  was  leaving 
the  Great  Western  Railway  station  at  Windsor.  He,  like  Bean, 
was  a  genuine  madman,  and  was  relegated  to  Broadmoor. 

The  birth  of  the  princess  royal,  on  the  3ist  of  November 
1840,  removing  the  unpopuhir  King  Ernest  of  Hanover  from 
g^^  the  position  of  heir-presumptive  to  the  British  crown, 
mitMt  was  a  subject  of  loud  congratulations  to  the  people. 
frtec^n  A  curious  scare  was  occasioned  ai  Buckingham  Palace, 
'^^  when  the  little  princess  was  a  fortnight  old,  by  the 
discovery  of  a  boy  named  Jones  concealed  under  a  bed  in  the 
royal  nursery.  Jones  had  a  mama  for  palace-breaking.  Three 
times  he  effected  a  clandestine  entry  into  the  queen's  residence, 
and  twice  he  managed  to  spend  several  days  there.  By  day  he 
concealed  himself  in  cupboards  or  under  furm'ture,  and  by  night 
he  groped  his  way  into  the  royal  kitchen  to  eat  whatever  he  could 
find.  After  his  third  capture,  in  March  1841,  he  coolly  boasted 
that  he  had  lain  under  a  sofa,  and  listened  to  a  private  con- 
versation  between  the  queen  and  Prince  Albert.  This  third 
time  he  was  not  punished,  but  sent  to  sea,  and  turned  out 
very  well.  The  incident  strengthened  Prince  Albert's  f)ands  in 
trying  to  carry  out  sundry  domestic  rdbrms  which  were  being 
stoutly  resisted  by  vested  interests.  The  royal  residences  and 
grounds  used  to  be  under  the  control  of  four  different  officials — 
the  lord  chamberlain,  the  lord  steward,  the  roaster  of  the  horse 
and  the  commissioners  of  woods  and  forests.  Baron  Stockmar, 
detcribing  the  conf uakm  fostered  by  this  state  of  things, 


3« 

"The  kird. steward  finds  the  fuel  and  hiys  the  fire;    the  tord 

chambsrlaia  lights  it.  The  lord  chamberlain  provides  the  lamps; 
the  lord  steward  must  clean,  trim  and  light  them.  .The  inside 
cleaning  of  windows  belongs  to  the  lord  chambeilain  s  depart* 
ment,  but  the  outer  parts  must  be  attended  to  by  the  office  of 
woods  and  forests,  so  that  windows  remain  dirty  unless  the  two 
departments  can  come  to  an  understanding." 
It  took  Prince  Albert  four  years  of  firmness  and  diplomacy 
before  in  1845  he  was  able  to  bring  the  queen's  home  under 
the  efficient  control  of  a  master  of  the  household. 

At  the  general  election  of  1841  the  Whigs  returned  in  a 
minority  of  seventy-six,  and  Lord  Melbourne  was  defeated  on 
the  Address  and  resigned.  The  queen  was  affected  sk  Kobtrt 
to  tears  at  parting  with  him;  but  the  crisis  had  been  P—f* 
fully  expected  and  prepared  for  by  confidential  com-  "'■*'^» 
munlcations  between  Mr  Anson  and  Sir  Robert  Peel,  who 
now  became  prime  minister  (see  LetUrs  of  Quern  Victoria, 
i.  34Z  et  seq.).  The  old  difficulty  as  to  the  appointments  to 
the  royal  household  was  tactfully  removed,  and  Tory  appoint* 
ments  were  made,  which  were  agreeable  both  to  the  queen 
and  to  Peel.  The  only  temporary  embarrassment  was  the 
queen's  continued  private  correspondence  with  Lord  Melbourne, 
which  led  Stockmar  to  remonstrate  with  him;  but  Melbourne 
used  his  influence  sensibly;  moreover,  he  gradually  dropped 
out  of  politics,  and  the  queen  got  used  to  his  not  being  indis- 
pensable. On  Prince  Albert's  position  the  change  had  a 
marked  effect,  for  in  the  absence  of  Melbourne  the  queen  relied 
more  particularly  on  his  advice,  and  Peel  himself  at  once  dis- 
covered and  recognized  the  prince's  unusual  charm  and  capacity. 
One  of  the  Tory  premier's  first  acts  was  to  propose  that  a  royal 
commission  should  be  appointed  to  consider  the  best  means  for 
promoting  art  and  science  in  the  kingdom,  and  he  nominated 
Prince  Albert  as  president.  The  International  Exhibition 
of  1851,  the  creation  of  the  Museum  and  Science  and  Art 
Department  at  South  Kensington,  the  founding  of  art  schools 
.and  picture  galleries  all  over  the  country,  the  ^read  of  musical 
taste  and  the  fostering  of  technical  education  may  be  attri- 
buted, more  or  less  directly,  to  the  commission  of  distinguished 
men  which  began  its  hibours  under  Prince  Albert's  auspices. 

The  queen's  second  child,  the  prince  of  Wales  (see 
Edward  VII.),  was  bom  on  the  9th  of  November  1841;  and 
this  event  "  filled  the  measure  of  the  queen's  domestic  Bkth  •# 
happiness,"  as  she  said  in  her  speech  from  the  throne  tttpHoe* 
at  the  opening  of  the  session  of  184a.  It  is  unnecessary  *'  H'cfe*, 
from  this  point  onwards  to  go  seriatim  through  the  domestic 
history  of  the  reign,  which  is  given  in  the  article  English 
History.  At  this  time  there  was  much  political  unrest  at 
home,  and  serious  difficulties  abroad.  As  regards  internal 
politics,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  queen  and  Prince  Albert 
were  much  relieved  when  Peel,  who  had  come  in  as  the  leader 
of  the  Protectionist  party,  adopted  Free  Trade  and  re- 
pealed the  Com  Laws,  for  it  closed  a  dangerous  agitation  which 
gave  them  much  anxiety.  When  the  country  was  in  distress, 
the  queen  felt  a  womanly  repugnance  for  festivities;  and  yet 
it  was  undesirable  that  the  court  should  incur  the  Th^mui 
reproach  of  living  meanly  to  save  money.  There  mmdUn 
was  a  conversation  between  the  queen  and  Sir  Robert  '^''"y* 
Peel  on  this  subject  in  the  early  days  of  the  Tory  adminis- 
tration, and  the  queen  talked  oi  redudng  her  establishment 
in  order  that  she  might  give  away  larger  sums  in  charities. 
"I  am  afraid  the  people  would  only  say  that  your  majesty 
was  returning  them  change  for  their  pounds  in  halfpence," 
answered  Fed.  "  Your  majesty  is  not  perhaps  aware  that  the 
most  unpopular  person  m  the  parish  is  the  relieving  officer,  and 
i(  the  queen  were  to  constitute  herself  a  relieving  officer  for  all 
the  parishes  in  the  kingdom  she  would  find  her  money  go  a  very 
little  way,  and  she  would  provoke  more  grumbling  than  thanks." 
Peel  added  that  a  sovereign  must  do  all  things  in  order,  not 
seeking  praise  for  doing  one  partictilar  thing  well,  but  striving 
to  be  an  example  in  all  respects,  even  in  dinner-giving. 

Meanwhile  the  year  1843  was  ushered  in  by  splendid  f^es  in 
honour  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  who  held  the  prince  of  Wales  at 
the  font.  In  the  spring  there  was  a  fancy-dress  ball  at  Budclng- 
ham  Palaot,  which  lemaiocd  memorable  owing  to  the  offence 


32 


VICTORIA,  QUEEN 


which  it  gave  in  Fnnce.  'Prince  Albeit  ma  costiuned  as 
Edward  III.,  the  queen  as  Queen  Phillppa,  and  all  the  gentle- 
men of  the  court  as  knights  of  Poitiers.  The  French  chose  to 
?iew  this  as  an  unfriendly  deroonstraiion',  and  there  was  some 
talk  of  getting  up  a  counter-ball  in  Paris,  the  duke  of  Orleans 
to  figure  as  William  the  Conqueror.  In  June  the  queen  took 
her  first  railway  journey,  travelling  from  Windsor  to  Paddington 
-J.  on  the  Great  Western  line.    The  master  of  the  horse, 

fusEB'M  whose  business  it  was  to  provide  for  the  queen's 
"nninih  ordinary  journeys  by  road,  was  much  put  out  by  this 
J"!^  innovation.     He  marched  into  the  station  several 

''""*^'  hours  before  the  start  to  inspect  the  engine,  as  he  would 
have  examined  a  steed;  but  greater  merriment  was  occasioned  by 
the  queen's  coachman,  who  insisted  that,  as  a  matter  of  form, 
he  ought  to  make-believe  to  drive  the  engine.  After  some 
dilute,  he  was  told  that  he  might  climb  on  to  the  pilot  engine 
which  was  to  precede  the  royal  train;  but  his  scarlet  livery, 
white  gloves  and  wig  suffered  so  much  from  soot  and  sparks 
that  he  made  no  more  fuss  about  his  rights  in  after  trips.  The 
motion  of  the  train  was  found  to  be  so  pleasant  that  the  queen 
readily  trusted  herself  to  the  railway  for  a  k)nger  journey  a 
few  weeks  later,  when  she  paid  her  first  visit  to  Scotland. 
A  report  by  Sir  James  Clark  led  to  the  queen's  visiting 
Balmoral  in  1848,  and  to  the  purchase  of  the  Balmoral  estate  in 
1852,  and  the  queen's  diary  of  her  journeys  in  Scotland  shows 
what  constant  enjoyment  she  derived  from  her  Highland  home. 
Seven  years  before  this  the  estate  of  Osborne  had  been  pur- 
chased in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  order  that  the  queen  might  have 
a  home  of  her  own.  VVindsor  she  considered  too  stately,  and 
the  Pavilion  at  Brighton  too  uncomfortable.  The  first  stone 
of  Osborne  House  was  laid  in  1845,  and  the  royal  family  entered 
into  possession  in  September  1846. 

In  August  1843  the  queen  and  Prince  Albert  paid  a, visit  to 
King  Louis  Philippe  at  the  chiteau  d'Eu.  They  sailed  from 
Ktiathma  Southampton  for  Tr^port  in  a  yacht,  and,  as  it  hap- 
witk  pened  to  be  raining- hard  when  they  embarked,  the 

tbniia  loyal  members  of  the  Southampton  Corporation  reroem- 
JJ2i,  bercd  Raleigh,  and  spread  their  robes  on  the  ground 
^^  for  the  queen  to  walk  over.    In  1844  Louis  Philippe 

returned  the  visit  by  coming  to  Windsor.  It  was  the  first 
visit  ever  paid  by  a  king  of  France  to  a  sovereign  of  England, 
and  Louis  Philippe  was  much  pleased  at  receiving  the  Order 
of  the  Garter.  He  said  that  he  did  not  feel  that  he  belonged 
to  the  "  Qub  "  of  European  sovereigns  until  he  received  this 
decoration.  As  the  father  of  King  Leopold  of  Belgium's  con- 
sort, the  queen  was  much  interested  in  his  visit,  which  went 
of!  with  great  success  and  goodwill.  The  tsar  Nicholas  had 
visited  Windsor  earlier  that  year,  in  which  also  Prince  Alfred, 
w^o  was  to  marry  the  tsar's  grand-daughter,  was  born. 

In  1846  the  affair  of  the  "  Spanish  marriages "  seriously 
troubled  the  relations  between  the  United  Kingdom  and 
France.  Louis  Philippe  and  Guizot  had  planned  the  marriage 
of  the  duke  of  Montpensier  with  the  infanta  Louisa  of  Spain, 
younger  sister  of  Queen  Isabella,  who,  it  was  thought  at  the 
time,  was  not  likely  ever  to  have  children.  The  intrigue  was 
therefore  one  for  placing  a  son  of  the  French  king  on  the 
Spanish  throne.  (See  Spain,  History.)  As  to  Queen  V^ictoria's 
intervention  on  this  question  and  on  others,  these  words, 
written  by  W.  E.  Ghdstone  in  1875,  may  be  quoted  J— 

"Akhough  the  admirable  arrangements  of  the  Constitution  have 
now  shielded  the  sovereign  from  personal  responsibility,  they  have 
left  ample  scope  fpr  the  exercise  of  direct  and  personal  influence 
ia^  the  whole  work  of  government. .  . .  The  sovereign  as  compared 
with  her  ministers  has,  because  she  Ls  the  sovereign,  the  advantage 
ci  long  experience,  wide  survey,  elevated  position  and  entire  dis- 
connexion from  the  bias  of  party.  Further,  personal  and  domestic 
relations  with  the  ruling  families  abroad  give  openings  in  delicate 
cases  for  saying  more,  and  saying  it  at  once  more  gently  and  more 
efficaciously,  than  could  be  ventured  in  the  formal  correspondence 
and  rude  contacts  of  government.  Wc  know  with  how  much 
truth,  fulness  and  decision,  and  with  how  much  tact  and  delicacy, 
the  queen,  aided  by  Prince  Albert,  took  a  principal  part  on  behalf 
of  the  nation  in  the  painful  question  of  the  Spanish  marriages." 

Tbe  year  1848,  which  shook  so  many  continental  thrones. 


left  that  of  the  United  Kingdom  unliiut.    RevoluliMM  btoke 

out  in  Paris,  Vienna,  Berlin,  Madrid,  Rome,  Naples,  Venice, 
Munich,  Dresden  and  Budapest.  The  queen  and  Prince 
Albert  were  affected  in  many  private  ways  by  the  events  abroad. 
Panic-stricken  princes  wrote  to  them  for  political  assistance 
or  pecuniary  aid.  Louis  Philippe  abdicated  and  fled  to  Eng- 
land almost  destitute,  being  smuggled  over  the  Channel  by 
the  cleverness  of  the  British  consul  at  Havre,  and  the  queea 
employed  Sir  Robert  Peel  as  her  intermediary  for  providing  him 
with  money  to  meet  his  immediate  wants.  Subsequently  CUre- 
mont  was  assigned  to  the  exiled  royal  family  of  France  as  a 
residence.  During  a  few  weeks  of  1848  Prince  W'illiam  of  Prussia 
(afterwards  German  emperor)  found  an  asylum  in  England. 

In  August  1849  Ibe  queen  and  Prince  Albert,  accompanied 
by  the  little  princess  royal  and  the  prince  of  Wales,  paid  a  visit 
to  Ireland,  landing  at  the  Cove  of  Cork,  which  from 
that  day  was  renamed  Queenstown.  The  reccp-  ji^**" 
tion  was  enthusiastic,  and  so  was  that  at  Dublin. 
"  Such  a  day  of  jubilee,"  wrote  Tfu  Tinus^  "  such  a  night 
of  rejoicing,  has  never  been  beheld  in  the  ancient  capital  of 
Ireland  since  first  it  arose  on  the  banks  of  the  Liffey."  The 
queen  was  greatly  pleased  and  touched.  The  project  of  estab- 
lishing a  royal  residence  in  Ireland  was  often  mooted  at  this> 
time,  but  the  queen's  advisers  never  urged  it  with  sufficient 
warmth.  There  was  no  repugnance  to  the  idea  on  ihe  queen *s 
part,  but  Sir  Robert  Peel  thought  unfavourably  of  it  as  an 
"empirical"  plan,  and  the  question  of  expense  was  always 
mooted  as  a  serious  consideration.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
absence  of  a  royal  residence  in  Ireland  was  felt  as  a  slur  upon 
the  Irish  people  in  certain  circles. 

During  these  years  the  queen's  family  was  rapidly  becoming 
larger.  Princess  Alice  (afterwards  grand  duchess  of  Hesse) 
was  bom  on  the  25th  of  April  1843;  Prince  Alfred  (afterwards 
duke  of  Edinburgh  and  duke  of  Saxe-Cobui^-Gotha)  on  the 
6th  of  August  1844;  Princess  Helena  (Princess  Christian) 
on  the  asth  of  May  1846;  Princess  Louise  (duchess  of  Argj'Il) 
on  the  i8th  of  March  1848;  and  Prince  Arthur  (duke  of  Con- 
naught)  on  the  ist  of  May  1850.. 

At  the  end  of  iSsi  an  important  event  took  place,  which  ended 
a  long-standing  grievance  on  the  part  of  the  queen,  in  Lord 
Palmcrston's  dismissal  from  the  office  of  foreign  sccre-   y^ 
tary  on  account  of  hi£  expressing  approval  of  Louis  «aa«fl  ma^ 
Napoleon's  coup  d'itat  in  Paris.     The  circumstances  ^^j^^ 
are'  of  extreme  interest  for  the  light  they  throw  on   ■'"*"'■ 
the  queen's  estimate  of  her  constitutional  position  and  authority. 
Lord  Pahnerston  had  never  been  persona  grata  at  court.    His 
Anglo-Irish  nature  was  not  sympathetic  with  the  somewhat 
formal  character  and  German  training  of  Prince  Albert;  and 
his  views  of  ministerial  independence  were  not  at  all  in  accord 
with  those  of  the  queen  and  her  husband.    The  queen  had 
more  than  once  to  remind  her  foreign  secretary  that  his  des- 
patches must  be  seen  by  her  before  they  were  sent  out,  and 
though  Palmerston  assented,  the  queen's  complaint  had  to  be 
conthiually  repeated.    She  also  protested  to  the  prime  minister 
(Lord  John  Russell)  in  1848,  1849  and  1850,  against  various 
instances  in  which  Palmerston  bad  expressed  his  own  personal 
opinions  in  matters  of  foreign  affairs,  without  his  despatches 
being  properly  approved  either  by  herself  or  by  the  cabinet. 
Lord  John  Russell,  who  did  not  want  to  offend  his  popular 
and  headstrong  colleague,  did  his  best  to  smooth  things  over; 
but  the  queen  remained  exceedingly  sore,  and  tried  hard  to  get 
Palmerston  removed,  without  success.    On  the  12th  of  August 
1850  the  queen  wrotei  to  Lord  John  Russell  the  following 
important  memorandum,  which  foHowed  hi  its  terms  a  private 
memorandum  drawn  up  for  her  by  Stockmar  a  few  months 
earUcr  {Letters,  ii.  282): — 

"  With  reference  to  the  conversation  about  Lord  Palmerston 
which  the  queen  had  with  Lord  John  Russell  the  other  day,  and 
Lord  Palmerston's  disavowal  that  he  ever  intended  any  disrespect 
to  her  by  the  various  neelecu  of  which  she  has  had  bo  long  and  so 
often  to  complain,  she  thinks  it  rii^ht,  in  order  to  avoid  any  mi» 
takes  for  the  future,  to  explain  what  it  la  she  expects  from  tfa* 
foreign  secretary. 


VICTOHIA,  QUEEN 


33 


•*  I.  That  he  will  distinctly  state  what  he  proposes  in  a  given 
case,  in  order  that  the  queen  may  know  as  distinctly  to  what  she 
has  given  her  royal  sanction. 

"  3.  Having  given  her  sanction  to  a  measure,  that  it  be  not 
arbitrarily  altered  or  modified  by  the  minister.  Such  an  act  she 
must  regard  as  failing  in  sincerity  to  the  crown,  and  justly  to  be 
visited  by  the  cxerase  of  her  constitutional  right  of  dismissing 
that  minister.  She  expects  to  be  kept  informed  of  what  passes 
between  him  and  the  foreign  ministers,  before  important  decisions 
are  taken,  based  upon  that  intercourse;  to  receive  the  foreign 
despatches  in  good  time,  and  to  have  the  drafts  for  her  approval 
sent  her  in  sumcient  time  to  make  herself  acquainted  with  their 
contents  before  they  must  be  sent  off.  The  queen  thinks  it  best 
that  Lord  John  Russell  should  show  this  letter  to  Lord  Polmcrbton." 

Lord  Palmerston  took  a  copy  of  this  letter,  and  promised  to 
attend  to  its  direction.  But  the  queen  thorotighly  distrusted 
him,  and  in  October  1851  his  proposed  reception  of  Kossuth 
nearly  led  to  a  crisis.  Then  finally  she  discovered  (December  13) 
at  the  time  of  the  coup  d'  itat,  that  he  had.  of  hts  own  initiative, 
given  assurances  of  approval  to  Count  Walewski,  which  were 
not  m  accord  with  the  views  of  the  cabinet  and  with  the 
**  neutrality  which  had  been  enjoined  "  by  the  queen.  This  was  too 
much  even  for  Lord  John  Russell,  and  after  a  short  and  decisive 
correspondence  Lord  Palmerston  resigned  the  seals  of  office. 

The  death  of  the  duke  of  Wellington  in  1852  deeply  afifeclcd 
the  queen.  The  duke  had  acquired  a  position  above  parties, 
Death  of  and  was  the  trusted  adviser  of  all  statesmen  and  of  the 
tfdutt  court  in  emergencies.  The  queen  sadly  needed  such 
^utiat  *  counsellor,  for  Prince  Albert's  position  was  one  full 
pJSpff  of  difficulty,  and  party  malignity  was  continually 
AtbfCa  putting  wrong  constructions  upon  the  adv|c6  which  he 
P****""'  gave,  and  imputing  to  him  advice  which  he  did  not 
give.  During  the  Corn  Law  agitation  offence  was  taken  at 
his  having  attended  a  debate  in  the  House  of  Commons,  the 
Tories  declaring  that  he  had  gone  down  to  overawe  the 
house  in  favour  of  Peel's  measures.  After  Palmerston's  en- 
forced resignation,  there  was  a  new  and  more  absurd  hubbub. 
A  climax  was  reached  when  the  difficulties  with  Russia  arose 
which  led  to  the  Crimean  War;  the  prince  was  accused  by  the 
peace  party  of  wanting  war»  and  by  the  war  party  of  plotting 
surrender;  and  it  came  to  be  publicly  rumoured  that  the  queen's 
husband  had  been  found  conspiring  against  the  state,  and  had 
been  committed  to  the  Tower.  Some  said  that  the  queen  had 
been  arrested  too,  and  the  prince  wrote  to  Stockmar:  "  Thou- 
sands of  people  surrounded  the  Tower  to  see  the  queen  and  me 
brought  to  it."  This  gave  infinite  pain  to  the  queen,  and  at 
lerigth  she  wrote  to  Lord  Aberdeen  on  the  subject.  Eventually, 
on  31st  January  1854,  Lord  John  Russell  took  occasion  to  deny 
most  emphatically  that  Prince  Albert  interfered  unduly  with 
foreign  affairs,  and  in  both  houses  the  statesmen  of  the  two 
parties  delivered  feeling  panegyrics  of  the  prince,  asserting  at 
the  same  time  his  entire  constitutional  right  to  give  private 
advice  to  the  sovereign  on  matters  of  state.  From  this  time 
it  may  be  said  that  Prince  Albert's  position  was  established  on 
a  secure  footing.  He  had  declined  (1850)  to  accept  the  post 
of  commander*in-chief  at  the  duke  of  Wellington's  suggestion, 
.and  he  alwajrs  refused  to  let  himself  be  placed  in  any  situation 
which  would  have  modified  ever  so  slightly  his  proper  relations 
with  the  queen.  The  queen  was  very  anxious  that  he  should 
receive  the  title  of  "  King  Consort,"  and  that  the  crown  should 
be  jointly  borne  as  it  was  by  William  III.  and  Mary;  but  be 
himself  never  spoke  a  word  for  this  arrangement.  It  was  only  to 
please  the  queen  that  he  consented  to  take  the  title  of  Prince  Con- 
tort (by  letters  patent  of  June  25, 1857),  and  he  only  did  this  when 
it  was  manifest  that  statesmen  of  all  parties  approved  the  change. 

For  the  queen  and  ro3ral  family  the  Crimean  War  time  was 
a  very  busy  and  exciting  one.  Her  majesty  personally  super- 
n«  intended  the  committees  of  ladies  who  organized 

Critmsa  relief  for  the  wounded;  she  helped  Florence  Nightin- 
'*'*''•  gale  in  raising  bands  of  trained  nurses;  she  visited 
the  crippled  soldiers  in  the  hospitals,  and  it  was  through 
her  resolute  complaints  of  the  utter  insufficiency  of  the 
bospita]  accommodation  that  Netley  Hospital  was  built.    The 


distribution  of  medals  to  the  sotdiers  and  the  inkftutioii  of 
the  Victoria  Cross  (February  1857)  as  a  reward  for  individual 
instances  of  merit  and  valour  must  also  be  noted  among  the 
incidents  which  occupied  the  queen's  time  and  thoughts.  In 
i8s5  the  emperor  and  empress  of  the  French  visited  <he  queen 
at  Windsor  Castle,  and  the  same  year  her  majesty  and  the  prince 
consort  paid  a  visit  to  Paris. 

The  queen's  family  life  was  most  happy.  At  Balmoral  and 
Windsor  the  court  lived  in  vntual  privacy,  and  the  queen  and 
the  prince  consort  saw  much  of  their  children.  Omni-  -/^ 
less  entries  in  ihe  queen's  diaries  testify  to  the  anxious  quota 
affection  with  which  the  progress  of  each  little  member  ^^t^ 
of  the  household  was  watched.  Two  more  children  ""^r* 
had  been  bom  to  the  royal  pair,  Prince  Leopold  (duke  of  Albany) 
on  the  7th  of  April  1S55,  and  on  the  14th  of  April  1857  their  \asl 
child,  the  princess  Beatrice  (Princess  Henry  ol  Battenbeig)» 
bringing  the  royal  family  up  to  nine — four  sons  and  five 
daughters.  Less  than  a  year  after  Princess  Beatrice's  birth 
the  princess  toyal  was  married  to  Prince  Frederick  William  of 
Prussia,  afterwards  the  emperor  Frederick.  The  next  marriagd 
after  the  princess  royal's  was  that  of  the  princess  Alice  to 
Prince  Louis  (afterwards  grand  duke)  of  Hesse-Darmstadt  in 
1862.  In  1863  tbeprince  of  Wales  married  the  princess  Alex- 
andra of  Denmark.  In  1866  the  princess  Hdcna  became  the 
wife  of  Prince  Christian  of  Schlcswig-Holstein.  In  187 1  the 
princess  Louise  was  wedded  to  the  marquis  of  Lome,  eldest  son 
of  the  duke  of  Argyll.  In  1874  Prince  Alfred,  duke  of  Edln" 
burgh,  married  Princess  Marie  Alexandrovna,  only  daughter  of 
the  tsar  Alexander  IL  The  duke  of  Connaught  married  in 
X879  the  princess  Louise  of  Prussia,  daughter  of  the  soldier- 
prince  Frederick  Charles.  In  1882  Prince  Leopold,  duke  of 
Albany,  wedded  the  princess  Helen  of  Waldeck-Pyrmont. 
Finally  came  the  marriage  of  Princess  Beatrice  in  1885  with 
Prince  "Henry  of  Batlenbcrg. 

On  the  occasion  of  the  coming  Of  age  of  the  queen's  sons  and 
the  marriages  of  her  daughters  parliament  made  provision. 
The  prince  of  Wales,  in  addition  to  the  revenues  of  the  duchy 
of  Cornwall,  had  £40,000  a  year,  the  princess  £10,000,  and  an 
addition  of  £36,000  a  year  for  their  children  was  granted  by 
parliament  in  1889.  The  princess  royal  received  a  dowry  of 
£40,000  and  £8000  a  year  for  life,  the  younger  daughters  £30,000 
and  £6000  a  year  each.  The  dukes  of  Edinburgh,  Connaught 
and  Albany  were  each  voted  an  income  of  £15,000,  and  £10,000 
on  marrying. 

The  dispute  with  the  United  States  concerning  the  **  Trent " 
affair  of  i86r  will  always  be  memorable  for  the  part  played  in 
its  settlement  by  the  queen  and  the  prince  consort,  n* 
In  1861  the  accession  of  Abraham  Lincoln  to  the  presi-  AmtHeam 
dcncy  of  the  United  States  of  America  caused  the  ^f**  *''■''• 
Southern  States  of  the  Union  to  revolt,  and  the  war  began. 
During  November  the  British  Wc^  India  steamer  "Trent "  was 
boarded  by  a  vessel  of  the  Federal  l^avy,  the  "  San  Jacinto,**  and 
Messrs  Slidell  and  Mason,  cotnmissioners  for  the  Confederate 
States,  who  were  on  their  way  to  England,  were  seized.  The 
British  government  were  on  the  point  of  demanding  reparation 
for  this  act  in  a  peremptory  manner  which  could  hardly  have 
meant  anything  but  war,  but  Prince  Albert  insisted  on  revising 
Lord  Russell's  despatch  in  a  way  which  gave  the  American 
government  an  opportunity  to  concede  the  surrender  of  the 
prisoners  without  humiliation.  The  memorandum  from  the 
queen  on  thk  point  was  the  prince  consort's  last  political  drafts 

The  year  1861  was  the  saddest  in  the  queen's  life.  On  16th 
March,  her  mother,  the  duchess  of  Kent,  died,  and  on  i4tb 
December,  while  the  dispute  with  America  about  the  Death  of 
"  Trent  "  affair  was  yet  unsettled,  the  prince  consort  <**f>*»p» 
breathed  his  last  at  Windsor.  His  death  left  a  void  '"■'"'*• 
in  the  queen's  life  which  nothing  could  ever  fiU.  She  built  at 
Frogmore  a  magnificent  mausoleum  where  she  might  be  buried 
with  him. 

Never  again  during  her  reign  did  the  queen  live  fn  London, 
and  Buckingham.  Palace  was  only  used  for  occasional  visits  of -a 
few  days. 


34 


VICTORIA,  QUEEN 


WMh», 


At  the  time  of  the  prince  oonaort't  death  the  prince  of  Wales 
vas  in  his  twenty-firet  year.  He  had  spent  several  terms  at 
HarH^t  each  of  the  two  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
mitk0  and  he  had  already  travelled  much,  having  visited 
Hnost  of  Europe,  ^gypt  and  the  United  Stales. 
His  marriage  was  solemnized  at  Windsor  on  the  loth  of 
March  1863.  The  queen  witnessed  the  wedding  from  the  private 
pew  or  box  of  St  George's  Chi^sd,  Windsor,  but  she  wore  the  deep 
mourning  which  she  was  never  wholly  to  put  off  to  the  end  of 
her  life,  and  she  took  no  part  in  the  festivities  of  the  wedding. 

In  foreign  imperial  affairs,  and  in  the  adjustment  of  serious 
parliamentary  difficulties,  the  queen's  dynastic  influence  abroad 
and  her  position  as  above  party  at  home,  together  with  the 
respect  due  to  her  diaracter,  good  sense  and  experience,  still 
remained  a  powerful  element  in  the  British  pdity,  as  was  ^wn 
AmaifO'  o^  i>>ore  than  one  occasion.  In  x866  the  Austro« 
PtnusiMm  Prussian  War  broke  out,  and  many  short-sighted  people 
**''"'*  were  tempted  to  side  with  France  when,  in  1867, 
Napoleon  III.  sought  to  obtain  a  '*  moral  compensation  "  by 
laying  a  claim  to  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg.  A  oonference  met 
in  London,  and  the  difficulty  was  settled  by  neutralizing  the 
duchy  ^nd  ordering  the  evacuation  of  the  Prussian  troops 
who  kept  garrison  there.  But  this  solution,  which  averted  an 
imminent  war,  was  only  arrived  at  through  Queen  Victoria's 
personal  intercession.    In  the  words  of  a  French  writer — 

""The  queen  wrote  both  to  the  king  of  PruMia  and  to  Che 
emperor  Napoleoa.  Her  letter  to  the  emperor,  pervaded  with 
the  religious  and  almost  myuic  sentiments  which  predominate  in 
the  queen's  mind,  particularly  since  the  death  of  Prince  Albert, 
Seems  to  have  made  a  deep  impresaon  on  the  sovereign  who, 
amid  the  stnigvles  of  politics,  had  never  templetdy  repudiated  the 
philaathroptc  theories  of  his  youth,  and  who,  on  the  battlelield  of 
Solferinok  covered  with  the  dead  and  wounded,  was  seized  with  an 
unspeakable  horror  of  war." 

Moreover,  Disraeli's  two  premienhips  (x868,  1874-180)  did 
a  good  deal  to  give  new  encoungement  to  a  xigjbt  idea  of  the 
Oigfaga  constitutional  function  of  the  crown.  Disraeli  thought 
mmd  that  the  queen  ought  to  be  a  power  in  the  state.   His 

Oimd-  notion  of  duty — ^at  once  a  loyal  and  chivalrous  one — 
''*'^  was  that  he  was  obliged  to  give  the  queen  the  best 
of  his  advice,  but  that  the  final  decision  in  any  coiuse'lay 
with  her,  and  that  once  she  had  decided,  he  was  bound,  what- 
ever might  be  his  own  opinion,  to  stand  up  for  her  decision  in 
public  The  queen,  not  unxuiturally,  came  to  trust  Disraeli 
implicitly,  and  she  frequently  showed  her  friendship  for  him. 
At  his  death  she  paid  an  exceptional  tribute  to  his  "dear 
and  honoured  memory  "  from  his'  '*  grateful  and  affectionate 
sovereign  and  friend."  To  something  like  this  position  p)rd 
Salisbury  after  1886  succeeded.  A  somewhat  different  con* 
ceptiott  of  the  sovereign's  functions  was  that  of  Disraeli's 
great  rival,  Gladstone,  who,  though  his  respect  for  the  person 
and  office  of  the  sovereign  was  unbounded,  not  only  expected 
all  people,  the  queen  included,  to  agree  with  him  when  he 
changed  his  mind,  but  to  become  suddenly  enthusiastic  about 
his  new  ideas.  The  queen  consequently  never  felt  safe  with  him. 
Nor  did  she  like  his  manner — he  spoke  to  her  (she  is  believed  to 
have  said)  as  if  she  wero  a  public  meeting.  The  queen  was 
opposed  to  the  Disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church  (1869)— 
the  question  which  brotight  Gladstone  to  be  premier— and 
though  she  yielded  with  good  grace,  Gladstone  was  fretful 
and  astonished  because  she  would  not  pretend  ta  give  a 
hearty  assent  to  the  measure.  Through  her  secretary,  General 
Grey,  the  queen  pointed  out  that  she  had  not  concealcxl  from 
Gladstone  "  how  deeply  she  deplored  "  his  having  felt  himsdf 
under  the  necessity  of  raising  the  question,  and  how  appre- 
hensive she  was  of  the  possibb  consequences  of  the  measure;, 
but,  when  a  general  election  had  pronounced  on  the  principle, 
when  the  bill  had  been  carried  through  the  House  of  Commoia 
by  unvarying  majorities,  she  did  not  see  what  good  cpuld  be 
gained  by  rejecting  it  in  the  Lords.  Later,  when  through  the 
skilful  diplomacy  of  the  primate  the  Lords  had  passed  the  second 
leading  by  a  small  but  sufficient  majority  (179  to  146),  and  after 
amendments  had  been  adoptedi  the  queen  herself  wrote — 


"  The  queen ...  Is  very  aensiUe  of  the  prudence  and.  wt  the 
same  time,  the  anxiety  for  the  welfare  of  the  Irish  Establishment 
which  the  archbishop  has  manifested  during  the  coune  of  the 
debates,  and  she  will  be  very  glad  if  the  amendments  which  have 
been  adopted  at  hn  suggestion  lead  to  a  settlement  of  the  que» 
tion;   but  to  effect  this,  concessions,  the  queen  believes,  will  nava 
to  be  made  on  bolk  Mcs.    The  queen  must  say  that  she  cannot 
view  without  alarm  possible  consequences  of  another  year  of  agita- 
tion on  the  Irish  Church,  and  she  would  ask  the  archbishop  seriouUy 
to  consider,  in  case  the  concessions  to  which  the  government  may 
agree  should  not  go  so  far  as  he  may  himself  wish,  whether  the 
postponement  of  the  settlement  for  another  year  may  not  be  likely 
to  result  in  worae  rather  than  in  better  terms  for  the  Church.    The 
queen  trusts,  therefore,  that  the  archbishop  will  himself  consider, 
and,  as  far  as  he  can,  endeavour  to  induce  the  others  to  consider, 
any  concessions  that  may  be  offered  by  the  House  of  Commons  in 
the  most  condliatoty  spirit." 

The  correspondence  of  which  this  letter  forms  a  part  b  one  of 
the  few  published  witnesses  to  the  queen's  careful  aad  active 
interest  in  home  politics  during  the  latter  half  of  her  roign; 
but  it  is  enough  to  prove  how  wise,  how  moderate  and  how 
steeped  in  the  spirit  of  the  Constitution  she  was.  Another 
instance  is  that  of  the  County  Franchise  and  Redistribution 
Bills  of  1884-^5.  There,  again,  a  conflict  between  the  two 
houses  was  imminent,  and  the  queen's  wish  for  a  settlement  had 
considerable  weight  in  bringing  about  the  curious  but  effective 
conference  of  the  two  parties,  of  which  the  first  suggestion,  it 
is  believed,  was  due  to  Lord  Randolph  Churchill. 

In  1876  a  bill  was  introduced  into  parliament  for  conferring  on 
the  queen  the  title  of  "  Empress  of  India."  It  met  with  much 
opposition,  and  Disraeli  was  accused  of  ministering 
simply  to  a  whim  of  the  sovereign,  whereas,  in  fact» 
the  title  was  intended  to  impress  the  idea  of  British 
suzerainty  forcibly  upon  the  minds  of  the  native  princes,  and 
upon  the  population  of  Hindustan.  The  prince  of  Wiilcs's  voyage 
to  India  in  the  winter  of  1875-76  had  brought  the  heir  to  the 
throne  into  personal  relationship  with  the  great  Indian  vassals 
of  the  British  crown,  and  it  was  felt  that  a  further  demonstra- 
tion of  the  queen's  interest  in  her  magnificent  dependency 
would  confirm  their  loyalty. 

The  queen's  private  life  during  the  decade  1870-80  was  one  of 
quiet,  broken  only  by  one  great  sorrow  when  the  Princess  Alice 
died  in  1878.  In  1867  her  majesty  had  started  in  author- 
ship by  publishing  The  Early  Days  of  the  Prince 
Consort f  compiled  by  General  Grey;  in  1869  she  gave 
to  the  world  her  interesting  and  simply  written  diary  entitled 
Leaves  from  ike  Journal  of  our  Life  in  Ike  Higklands,  and  in 
1874  appeared  the  first  volume  of  Tke  Life  and  LetSers  of  tke 
Prince  Consort  (and  voL  in  1880),  edited  by  Sir  Theodore  Martin. 
A  second  instalment  of  the  Highhuid  journal  appeared  in 
1885.  These  literary  occupations  solaced  the  hours  of  a  life 
which  was  mostly  spent  in  privacy.  A  few  trips  to  the  Continent, 
in  which  the  queen  was  always  accompanied  by  her  youngest 
daughter,  the  Princess  Beatrice,  brought  a  little  variety  into 
the  home-life,  and  aided  much  in  keeping  up  the  good  health 
which  the  queen  enjoyed  almost  uninterruptedly.  So  far  as 
public  ceremonies  were  concerned,  the  prince  and  princess  of 
Wales  were  now  coming  forward  more  and  more  to  represent 
the  royal  family.  People  noticed  meanwhile  that  the  queen 
had  taken  a  great  affection  for  her  Scottish  man-servant,  John 
Brown,  who  had  been  in  her  service  since  1849;  she  made  him 
her  constant  personal  attendant,  and  looked  on  him  more  as 
a  friend  than  as  servant.  When  he  died  in  1883  the  queen's 
grief  was  intense. 

From  1880  onwards  Ireland  almost  monopolized  the  field 
of  domestic  politics.  The  queen  was  privately  opposed  to 
Gladstone's  Home  Rule  policy;  but  she  observed  in  public 
a  constitutional  reticence  on  the  subject.  In  the  year,  however, 
of  the  Crimes  Act  1887,  an  event  took  place  which  was  of  more 
intimate  personal  concern  to  the  queen,  and  of  more  attractive 
import  to  the  country  and  the  empire  at  large.  June 
soth  was  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  her  accession  to  jSuhm. 
the  throne,  and  on  the  following  day,  for  the  second 
time  in  English  history,  a  great  Jubilee  celebration  was  held 
to  commemorate  u>  happy  an  event.  *  The  country  threw 


VICTORIA,  QUEEN 


35 


Ik 

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itseH  into  the  celebration  with  unchecked  enthusiasm;  luge 
sums  of  money  were  everywhere  subscribed;  in  every  dty, 
town  and  village  something  was  done  both  in  the  way  of 
rejoicing  and  in  the  way  of  establishing  some  permanent 
memorial  of  the  event.  In  London  the  day  itself  was  kept  by 
a  solemn  service  in  Westminster  Abbey,  to  which  the  queen 
went  in  sUte,  surrounded  by  the  most  brilliant,  royal,  and 
princely  escort  that  had  ever  accompanied  a  British  sovereign, 
and  cheered  on  her  way  by  the  applause  of  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  her  subjects.  The  queen  h&d  already  paid  a  memorable  visit 
to  the  East  £nd,  when  she  opened  the  People's  Palace  on  the 
14th  of  May.  On  the  2nd  of  July  she  reviewed  at  Buckingham 
Palace  some  28,000  volunteers  of  London  and  the  home  counties. 
On  the  4th  of  July  she  laid  the  foundation  stone  of  the  Imperial 
Institute,  the  building  at  Kensington  to  which,  at  the  instance 
of  the  prince  of  Wales,  it  had  been  determined  to  devote  the 
large  sum  of  money  collected-  as  a  Jubilee  offering,  and  which 
was  opened  by  the  queen  in  1893.  On  the  9th  of  July  the 
queen  reviewed  60,000  men  at  Aldershot;  and,  last  and  chief 
of  all,  on  the  23rd  of  July,  one  of  the  most  brilliant  days  of 
a  brilliant  summer,  she  reviewed  the  fleet  at  Spitbead. 

The  year  188S  witnessed  two  events  which  greatly  affected 
European  history;  and  in  a  minor,  though  still  marked,  degree 
Tk0^u0»a  the  life  of  the  EngUsh  court.  On  the  9th  of  March 
<fl'  the  emperor  William  I.  died  at  Berlin      He  was 

BtsmMtvk,  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  emperor  Frederick  III., 
regarded  with  special  affection  in  England  as  the  husband 
of  the  princess  royal.  But  at  the  time  he  was  suffering 
from  a  malignant  disease  of  the  throat,  and  he  died  on  the 
iSth  of  June,  being  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  the  emperor 
William  II.,  the  grandson  of  the  queen.  Meanwhile  Queen 
Victoria  spent  some  weeks  at  Florence  at  the  Villa  Palmieri, 
and  returned  home  by  Darmstadt  and  Berlin.  In  spite  of  the 
illness  of  the  emperor  Frederick  a  certain  number  of  court 
festivities  were  held  in  her  honour,  and  she  had  long  con- 
versations with  Prince  Bismarck,  who  was  deeply  impressed 
by  her  majesty's  personality.  Just  before,  the  prince,  who 
was  still  chancellor,  had  taken  a  very  strong  line  with  regard  to 
a  royal  marriage  in  which  the  queen  was  keenly  interested — 
the  proposal  that  Prince  Alexander  of  Battenberg,  lately  ruler 
of  Bulgaria,  and  brother  of  the  queen's  son-in-law,  Prince  Henry, 
should  marry  Princess  Victoria,  the  eldest  daughter  of  the 
emperor  Frederick.  Prince  Bismarck,  who  had  been  anti- 
Bat  tenbcrg  from  the  beginning,  vehemently  opp(»ed  this  mar- 
riage, on  the  ground  that  for  reasons  of  state  policy  it  would 
never  do  for  a  daughter  of  the  German  emperor  to  marry 
a  prince  who  was  personally  disliked  by  the  tsar  This  affair 
caused  no  little  agitation  in  royal  circles,  but  in  the  end  state 
reasons  were  allowed  to  prevail  and  the  chancellor  had  his 
way. 

The  queen  had  borne  so  well  the  fatigue  of  the  Jubilee  that 
during  the  succeeding  years  she  was  encouraged  to  make  some- 
iMA'ML  ^^^^  *"^'^*^  frequent  appearances  among  her  subjects. 
In  May  1888  she  attended  a  performance  of  Sir  Arthur 
Sullivan's  Golden  Legend  at  the  Albert  Hall,  and  in  August  she 
visited  Glasgow  to  open  the  magnificent  new  municipal  buildings, 
remaining  for  a  couple  of  nights  at  Blythswood,  the  seat  of 
Sir  Archibald  Campbell.  Early  in  1889  she  received  at  Windsor 
a  special  embassy,  which  was  the  beginning  of  a  memorable 
chapter  of  English  history:  two  Matabelc  chiefs  were  sent 
by  King  Lobcngula  to  present  his  respects  to  the  "  great  White 
il^ucen,"  as  to  whose  very  existence,  it  was  said,  he  had  up 
till  that  time  been  sceptical.  Soon  afterwards  her  majesty 
went  to  Biarritz,  and  the  occasion  was  made  memorable  by  a 
visit  which  she  paid  to  the  queen-regent  of  Spain  at  San  Sebas- 
tian, the  only  visit  that  an  English  reigning  sovereign  had  ever 
paid  to  the  Peninsula. 

The  relations  between  the  court  and  the  country  formed 
matter  in  1889  for  a  somewhat  sharp  discussion  in  parliament 
and  in  the  press.  A  royal  message  was  brought  by  Mr  W.  H. 
Smith  on  the  2nd  of  July,  expressing,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
<yiecn's  desire  to  provide  for  Prince  Albert  Victor  of  Wales,  and, 


on  the  other,  informing  the  house  of  the  intended  marriage  of  • 
the  prince  of  Wales's  daughter,  the  Princess  Louise,  to  the 
earl  (afterwards  duke)  of  Fife.    On  the  proposal  of 
Mr  Smith,  seconded  by  Gladstone,  a  s«lcct  committee  „„i^^ 
was  appointed  to  ccMisider  these  messages  and  tojrutfto 
report  to  the  bouse  as  to  the  existing  practice  and  as  tt9ptiai» 
to  the  principles  to  be  adopted  for  the  future.    The  Jjjjljjj*** 
evidence  laid  before  the  committee  explained  to  the 
country  for  the  first  time  the  actual  state  of  the  royal  income, 
and  on  the  proposal  of  Gladstone,  amending  the  proposal  of 
the  government,  it  was  proposed  to  grant  a  fixed  addition  of 
£36.000  per  annum  to  the  prince  of  Wales,  out  of  which  he 
should  be  expected  to  provide  for  his  children  without  further 
api^cation  to  the  country.    Effect  was  given  to  this  proposal 
in  a  biU  called  "  The  Prince  of  Wales's  Children's  Bill."  which 
was  carried  in  ^te  of  the  persistent  opposition  of  a  small  group 
o(  Radicals. 

In  the  spring  of  1890  the  queen  visited  Aix-les-Bains  in  the 
hope  that  the  waters  of  tlut  health  resort  might  alleviate 
the  rheumatism  from  which  she  was  now  frequently  iggo^i, 
suffering.  She  returned  as  usual  by  way  of  Darmstadt, 
and  shortly  after  her  arrival  at  Windsor  paid  a  visit  to  Baron 
Ferdinand  Rothschild  at  Waddesdon  Ma&or.  In  February 
she  launched  the  battleship  "  Royal  Sovereign  "  at  Portsmouth; 
a  week  bter  she  visited  the  Horse  Show  at  Islington.  Her 
annual  spring  visit  to  the  South  was  this  year  paid  to  the  little 
town  of  Grasse. 

At  the  beginning  of  1892  a  heavy  bk>w  fell  upon  the  queen 
in  the  death  of  the  prince  of  Wales's  eldest  son  Albert  Victor, 
duke  of  Clarence  and  Avondalc.    He  had  never  been  d^^ji 
of  a  robust  constitution,  and  after  a  little  more  than  •/<«• 
a  week's  illness  from  pneumonia  following  influenza,  ^*  ^ 
he  died  at  Sandringham,    The  pathos  of  his  death  «»•«». 
was  increased  by  the  fact  that  only  a  short  time  before  it  had 
been  announced  that  the  prince  was  about  to  marry  his  second 
cousin.  Princess  May,  daughter  of  the  duke  and  duchess  of 
Teck. 

The  death  of  the  young  prince  threw  a  gloom  over  the 
country,  and  caused  the  royal  family  to  spend  the  year  in 
such  retirement  as  was  possible.  The  queen  this  year  paid  a 
visit  to  Costebelle,  and  stayed  there  for  some  quiet  weeks. 
In  1893  ^he  country,  on  the  expiration  of  the  royal  mourning, 
began  to  take  a  more  than  usual  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the 
royal  family.  On  the  19th  of  February  the  queen 
left  home  for  a  visit  to  Florence,  and  spent  it 
in  the  Villa  Pahtneri.  She  was  able  to  display  remarkable 
energy  in  visiting  the  sights  ot  the  city,  and  even  went  as 
far  afield  as  San  Gimignano;  and  her  visit  had  a  notable 
effect  in  strengthening  the  bonds  of  friendship  between  the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  Italian  people.  On  28th  April 
she  arrived  home,  and  a  few  days  later  the  prince  of  Wales'a. 
second  son,  George,  duke  of  York  (see  Geokce  V.),  who  by  his 
brother's  death  had  been  left  in  the  direct  line  of  succession  to 
the  throne,  was  betrothed  to  the  Princess  May,  the  marriage 
being  celebrated  on  6th  July  in  the  Chapel  Royal  of  St  James'a 
PaUce. 

In  1894  the  queen  stayed  for  some  weeks  at  Florence,  and 
on  her  return  she  stopped  at  Coburg  to  witness  the  marriage 
between  two  of  her  grandchildren,  the  grand  duke 
of  Hesse  and  the  Princess  Vict<Mria  Melita  of  Coburg. 
On  the  next  day  the  emperor  William  officially  announced 
the  betrothal  of  the  Ccsarcvitch  (afterwards  the  tsar  Nicholas  H  ) 
to  the  princess  Alix  of  Hesse,  a  granddaughter  whom 
the  queen  had  always  regarded  with  special  affection.  After 
a  few  weeks  in  London  the  queen  went  northwards  and  stopped 
at  Manchester,  where  she  opened  the  Ship  Canal.  Two  days 
afterwards  she  celebrated  her  seventy-fifth  birthday  in  quiet 
at  Balmoral.  A  month  later  (June  23)  took  place  the  birth 
of  a  son  to  the  duke  and  duchess  of  York,  the  child  receiving 
the  thoroughly  English  nsune  of  Edward. 

In  1895  the  queen  lost»  her  faithful  and  most  efficient  private 
secretary,  (General  Sk  Henry  Ponsonby,  whe  for  man*'  yea** 


1893, 


§894. 


36 


VICTORIA,  QUEEN 


had  helped  her  in  the  management  of  her  most  private  affairs 
and  had  acted  as  an  intermediary  between  her  and  her  ministers 
with  singular  ability  and  success.  His  successor  was 
Sir  Arthur  Bigge.  The  following  year,  1896,  was 
iumnr^t  marked  by  a  loss  which  touched  the  queen  even  more 
ncariy  and  more  personally.  At  his  own  urgent 
request  Prince  Henry  of  Battcnberg,  the  queen's 
son-in-law,  was  permitted  to  join  the  Ashanti  expedition,  and 
early  in  January  the  prince  was  struck  down  with  fever.  He 
was  brought  to  the  coast  and  put  on  board  her  majesty's  ship 
"  Blonde,"  wiiere,  on  the  20th,  he  died. 

In  September  1896  the  queen's  reign  had  reached  a  point 
at  which  it  exceeded  in  length  that  of  any  other  English 
Tf  sovereign;  but  by  her  special    request    all    public 

celebrations  of  the  fact  were  deferred  until  the  follow- 
ing June,  which  marked  the  completion  of  sixty 
years  from  her  accession.  As  the  time  drew  on  it  was 
obvious  that  the  celebrations  of  this  Diamond  Jubilee,  as 
it  was  popularly  called,  would  exceed  in  magnificence  those 
of  the  Jubilee  of  1887.  Mr  Chamberlain,  the  secretary  for  the 
colonies,  induced  his  colleagues  to  seize  the  opportunity  of 
making  the  jubilee  a  festival  of  the  British  empire.  Accordingly, 
the  prime  ministers  of  all  the  self-governing  colonies,  with 
their  families,  were  invited  to  come  to  London  as  the  guests 
of  the  country  to  take  part  in  the  Jubilee  procession;  and 
drafts  of  the  troops  from  every  British  colony  and  dependency 
were  brought  home  for  the  same  purpose.  The  procession 
was,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  term,  unique.  Here  was  a 
display,  not  only  of  Englishmen,  Scotsmen,  Irishmen,  Welsh- 
men, but  of  Mounted  Rifles  from  Victoria  and  New  South 
Wales,  from  the  Cape  and  from  Natal,  and  from  the  Dominion 
of  Canada.  Here  were  Hausas  from  the  Niger  and  the  Gold 
Coast,  coloured  men  from  the  West  India  regiments,  zaptiehs 
from  Cyprus,  Chinamen  from  Hong  Kong,  and  Dyaks— now 
dvilized  Into  military  police-^from  British  North  Borneo. 
Hcre«  most  brilliant  sight  of  all,  were  the  Imperial  Service  troops 
sent  by  the  native  princes  of  India;  while  the  detachments 
of  Sikhs  who  marched  earlier  in  the  procession  received  their 
full  meed  of  admiration  and  applause.  Altogether  the  queen 
was  in  her  carriage  for  more  than  four  hours,  in  itself  an 
extraordinary  physical  feat  for  a  woman  of  seventy-eight. 
Her  own  feelings  were  shown  by  the  simple  but  significant 
message  she  sent  to  her  people  throughout  the  world:  "  From 
my  heart  I  thank  my  beloved  people.  May  Cod  bless  them." 
The  illuminations  in  London  and  the  great  provincial  towns 
were  magnificent,  and  all  the  hills  from  Ben  Nevis  to  the  South 
Downs  were  crowned  with  bonfires.  The  queen  herself  held 
a  great  review  at  Aldershot;  but  a  much  more  significant 
display  was  the  review  by  the  pnncc  of  Wales  of  the  fleet 
at  Spithead  on  Saturday,  the  36th  of  June.  No  less  than  165 
vessels  of  all  classes  were  drawn  up  in  four  lines,  extending 
altogether  to  a  length  of  30  m. 

The  two  years  that  followed  the  Diamond  Jubilee  were,  as 
regards  the  queen,  comparatively  uneventful.  Her  health 
remained  good,  and  her  visit  to  (^mies  in  the  spring  of  i8q8 
was  as  enjoyable  and  as  beneficial  as  before.  In  May  1899, 
after  another  visit  to  the  Riviera,  the  queen  performed  what 
proved  to  be  her  last  ceremonial  function  in  London:  she 
'proceeded  b  "semi-state"  to  South  Kensington,  and  laid  the 
foundation  stone  of  the  new  buildings  completing  the  Museum 
—henceforth  to  be  called  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum — 
which  had  been  planned  more  than  forty  years  before  by  the 
prince  consort. 

Griefs  and  anxieties  encompassed  the  queen  during  the  last 
srear  of  her  life.  But  if  the  South  African  War  proved  more 
<nf  serious  than  had  been  anticipated,  it  did  more  to 

4M««*s  weld  the  empire  together  than  yean  of  {peaceful 
imiymr,  progress  might  have  accomplished.  The  queen's 
frequent  messages  of  thanks  and  greeting  to  her  colonics 
and  to  the  troops  sent  by  them,  and  her  reception  of 
the  latter  at  Windsor,  gave  evidence  of  the  heartfelt  joy 
with  which  she  saw  the  sons  of  the  empire  giving  their  lives 


for  the  drfence  of  its  integrity;  and  the  satisfaction   which 
she  showed  in  the  Federation  of  the  Australian  colonies  was 
no  less  keen.    The  reverses  of  the  first  part  of  the  Boer  cam- 
paign, together  with  the  loss  of  so  many  of  her  oflScers  and 
soldiers,  caused  no  small  part  of  that  "  great  strain  "  of  which 
the  Court  Circular  spoke  in  the  ominous  words  which  first 
told  the  country  that  she  was  seriotuly  ill.    But  the  queen 
faced  the  new  situation  with  her  usual  courage,  devotion  and 
strength  of  will.     She  reviewed  the  departing  regiments;  she 
entertained  the  wives  knd  children  of  the  Windsor  soldiers  who 
had  gone  to  the  war;  she  showed  by  frequent  messages  her 
watchful  interest  in  the  course  of  the  campaign  and  in  the 
efforts  which  were  being  made  throughout  the  whole  empire; 
and  her  Christmas  gift  of  a  box  of  chocolate  to  every  soldier  in 
South  Africa  was  a  touching  proof  of  her  sympathy  and  interest. 
She  relinquished  her  annual  holiday  on  the  Riviera,    feeling 
that  at  such  a  time  she  ought  not  to  leave  her  country.   Entirely 
on  her  own  initiative,  and  moved  by  admiration  for  the  fine 
achievements  of  **  her  brave  Irish  "  during  the  war,  the  queen 
announced  her  intention  of  paying  a  long  visit  to  Dublin;  and 
there,  accordingly,  she  went   for  the  month  of  April   1900, 
staying  in  the  Viceregal  Lodge,  receiving  many  of  the  leaders 
of  Irish  society,  Inspecting  some  50,000  school  children  from 
all  parts  of  Ireland,  and  taking  many  a  drive  amid  the  charming 
scenery  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Dublin.    She  went  even  further 
than  this  attempt  to  condliate  Irish  fceh'ng,  and  to  show  her 
recognition  of  the  gallantry  of  the  Irish  soldiers  she  issued  an 
order  for  them  to  wear  the  shamrock  on  St  Patrick's  Day,  and 
for  a  new  regiment  of  Irish  Guards  to  be  constituted. 

In  the  previous  November  the  queen  had  had  the  pleasure 
of  receiving,  on  a  private  visit,  her  grandson,  the  German  Em- 
peror, who  came  accompanied  by  the  empress  and  by  two  of 
their  sons.  This  visit  cheered  the  queen,  and  the  successes  of 
the  army  which  followed  the  arrival  of  Lord  Roberts  in  Africa 
occasioned  great  joy  to  her,  as  she  testified  by  many  published 
messages.  But  independently  of  the  public  anxieties  of  the 
war,  and  of  those  aroused  by  the  violent  and  unexpected  out- 
break of  fanaticism  in  China,  the  year  brought  deep  private 
griefs  to  the  queen.  In  1899  her  grandson,  the  hereditary  prince 
of  Coburg,  had  succumbed  to  phthisis,  and  in  1900  his  father, 
the  duke  of  Coburg,  the  queen's  second  son,  previously  known 
as  the  duke  of  Edinburgh,  also  died  (July  30).  Then  Prince 
Christian  Victor,  the  queen's  grandson,  fcU  a  victim  to  enteric 
fever  at  Pretoria;  and  during  the  autumn  it  came  to  be  known 
that  the  empress  Frederick,  the  queen's  eldest  daughter,  was 
very  seriously  ill.  Moreover,  just  at  the  end  of  the  year  a  kws 
which  greatly  shocked  and  grieved  the  queen  was  experienced 
in  the  sudden  death,  at  Windsor  Castle,  of  the  Dowager  Lady 
Churchill,  one  of  her  oldest  and  most  iniimatc  friends.  Tliese 
losses  told  upon  the  queen  at  her  advanced  age.  Throughout 
her  life  she  had  enjoyed  excellent  health,  and  even  in  the  last 
few  years  the  only  marks  of  age  were  rheumatic  stiffness  of  the 
joints,  which  prevented  walking,  and  a  diminished  power  of 
eyesight.  In  the  autumn  of  1900,  however,  her  health  began 
definitely  to  fail,  and  though  arrangements  were  made  D^mtk 
for  another  holiday  in  the  South,  it  was  plain  that  her  oitbo 
strength  was  seriously  affected.  Siill  she  continued  •"*•"• 
the  ordinary  routine  of  her  duties  and  occupations.  Before 
Christmas  she  made  her  usual  journey  to  Osborne,  and  there 
on  the  2nd  of  January  she  received  Lord  Roberts  on  his  return 
from  South  Africa  and  handed  to  him  the  insignia  of  the  Garter. 
A  fortnight  later  she  commanded  a  second  visit  from  the  field- 
marshal;  she  continued  to  transact  business,  and  until  a  week 
before  her  death  she  still  took  her  daily  drive.  A  sudden  loss 
of  power  then  su()ervcned,  and  on  Friday  evening,  the  18th  of 
January,  theCo«r/Ct>CB/dr  published  an  authoritative  announce- 
ment of  her  illness.  On  Tuesday,  the  23nd  of  January  1901. 
she  died. 

Queen  Victoria  was  a  ruler  of  a  new  type.  Whe^i  she  ascended 
the  throne  the  popular  faith  in  kings  and  queens  was  on  the 
decline.  She  revived  that  faith;  she  consolidated  her  throne; 
she   not  only  captivated  the  affections  of  the  multitude,  bat 


VICTORIA,, T.  L.  DA— VICTORIA  (AUSTRALIA) 


37 


won  Uie  reapcct  Af  tboughtM  BM&f  ttod  aH  thi»  she  aciucyed  < 

by  methods  which  to  her  predecessors  would  have  seemed  im- 
practicable— methods  which  it  required  no  less  shrewdness  tO; 
discover  than  force  of  character  and  honesty  of  heart  to  adopt 
steadfastly.  Whilst  all  who  approached  the  queen  bore  witness 
to  her  candour  and  reasonableness  in  rdation  to  her  ministers, 
all  likewise  proclaimed  how  anxiously  she  considered  advice 
that  waa  submitted  to  her  before  letting  herself  be  persuaded 
that  she  must  accept  it  for  the  good  of  her  people. 

Though  richly  endowed  with  saving  common  sense,  the 
queen  was  not  specially  remarkkble  for  high  development  of 
any  spedaliced  intellectual  force.  Her  whole  life,  public  and 
private,  was  an  abiding  lesson  in  the  paramount  importance 
of  character.  John  Bright  said  of  her  that  what  ^)edally 
struck  him  was  her  absolute  truthfulness.  The  extent  of 
ha  family  connexions,  and  the  correspondence  she  maintained 
with  foreign  sovereigns,  together  with  the  confidence  inspired 
by  her  personal  character,  often  enabled  her  to  smooth  the 
rugged  places  of  international  relations;  and  she  gradually 
became  in  later  years  the  link  between  all  parts  of  a  demo- 
cratic empire,  the  citizens  of  which  felt  a  passionate  loyalty  for 
their  venerable  queen. 

By  her  long  reign  and  unblemished  Kcotd  her  name  had 
ttecome  associated  inseparably  with  British  institutions  and 
inq>ecial  solidarity.  Her  own  life  was  by  choice,  and  as  far 
as  her  position  would  admit,  one  Of  almost  austere  simplicity 
and  homeliness;  and  her  subjects  were  proud  of  a  royalty 
which  involved  none  of  the  mischiefs  of  caprice  or  ostentation, 
but  set  to  example  alike  of  motherly  sympathy  and  of  queenly 
dignity.  She  was  mourned  at  her  death  not  by  her  own  country 
only,  nor  even  by  all  English-speaking  people,  but  by  the 
whole  world.  The  funeral  in  London  on  the  ist  and  2nd  of 
February,  including  first  the  passage  of  the  coffin  from  the  Isle 
of  Wight  to  Gospoct  between  lines  of  warships,  and  secondly  a 
military  processloii  from  London  to  Windsor,  was  a  memorable 
solemnity:  the  greatest  of  English  sovereigns,  whose  name 
would  in  history  mark  an  age,  had  gone  to  her  rest. 

There  is  a  good  bibliographical  note  at  the  end  of  Mr  Sidney  Lea's 
article  in  the  National  Diclumary  cf  Biopaphy,  See  also  the  LeUers 
of  Queen  Victoria  (1907),  and  the  obituary  pabli«hed  by  The  Times, 
fBQOi  which  come  passaigea  have  been  bonnwed  above.       (U.Ch.) 

VICTORIA    (or    Vittosia),    TOMMASSO    LUDOVICO    DA 

ic.  iS4.o-<.  16x3),  Spanish  musical  composer,  was  bom  at  Avila 
(unless,  as  Haberl  conjectures,  his  titie  of  PreshyUf  Abnlensis 
refers  not  to  his  birthplace  but  to  his  parish  as  priest,  so  that  his 
name  would  indicate  that  he  waa  bom  at  Vittoria).  In  1573  he 
was  appointed  as  Maestro  di  Cappella  to  the  Collegium  Germani- 
cum  at  Rome,  where  he  bad  probably  been  trained.  Victoria 
left  Rome  in  1589,  being  then  appointed  vicc-maslcr  of  the  Roj-al 
Chapel  at  Msidrid,  a  post  which  he  held  until  1602.  In  1603 
be  composed  for  the  funeral  of  the  empress  Maria  the  greatest 
TCquiem  of  the  Golden  Age,  which  is  his  last  known  work, 
though  in  161^  a  contemporary  speaks  of  him  as  still  living. 
He  was  not  ostensibly  Palestrina's  pupil;  but  Palestrina  had 
the  main  influence  upon  his  art,  and  the  personal  relations 
between  the  two  were  as  intimate  as  were  the  artistic  The 
work  begun  by  Morales  and  perfected  by  Palestrina  left  no 
•tumbling-blocks  in  Victoria's  path  and  he  was  able  from  the 
outset  to  express  the  purity  of  his. ideals  of  religious  music 
without  having  to  sift  the  good  from  the  bad  in  that  Flemish 
tradition  which  had  entangled  Palestrina's  path  while  it  enlarged 
lus  style.  From  Victoria's  first  publication  in  1572  to  his  last 
requiem  (the  Ojficium  Defunctorum  of  1605)  there  is  practically 
no  change  of  style,  all  being  pure  church  music  of  unswerving 
loftiness-  and  showing  no  inequality  except  in  concentration 
of  thought.  Like  his  countryman  and  predecessor  Morales,  he 
wrote  no  secular  music  ;^  yet  he  differs  from  Morales,  perhaps 
more  than  can  be  accounted  for  by  his  later  date,  in  that  his 
devotiotial  spirit  is  impulsive  rather  than  ascetic.    His  work 

'One  French  soog  ie  mentioned  by  Hawkina,biut  no  secular 
music  appears  in  the  proBpectus  of  the  modem  oomplete  edition 
•(  his  works  p«UialKd  by  Breitkopf  and  HArtet 


is  the  crown  of  Spanish  music:  mush:  which  has  been  regnded 
as  not  constituting  a  special  school,,  since  it  absorbed  itacK  so 
thoroughly  in  the  Rome  of  Palestrina.  Yet,  as  has  been  aptly 
pointed  out  in  the-  admirable  article  "  Vittoria  "  in  Grove's 
DiclUmary  of  Music  and  MusieianSf  Roman  music  owes  so  much 
to  that  Spanish  school  which  produced  Guerrero,  Morales  and 
Victoria,  that  it  might  fairly  be  called  the  Hispano-Romaa 
schooL  In  spite  of  the  comparative  smallness  of  Victoiia'f 
output  as  compared  with  that  of  many  of  his  contempocarie9| 
there  is  no  mistaking  his  claim  to  rank  with  Palestrina  and 
Orlando  d|  Lasso  in  the  triad  of  supreme  16th-century  masters. 
In  any  extensive  anthology  of  Uturgical  pdlyphony  such  as  the 
Musica  Divina  of  Proske,  his  ^vork  stands  out  as  impressively 
as  Palestrina's  and  Lasso's;  and  the  style,  in  spite  of  a  resem* 
blance  to  Palestrina  which  amounts  to  imitation,  la  as  individual 
as  only  a  successful  imitator  of  Palestrina  can  be.  That  is  to 
say,  Victoria's  individuality  is  strong  enough  to  assert  itself 
by  the  veiy  act  of  following  Palestrina's  path.  When  he  is 
below  his  best  his  style  does  not  become  crabbed  or  haxsh,  but 
over-fadle  and  thin,  though  never  failing  in  euphony.  If  ho 
sddom  displays  an  elaborate  technique  it  is  not  because  bo 
conceals  it,  or  lacks  it.  His  mastery  is  unlailitag,  but  his 
methods  are  those  of  direct  emotional  effect;  and  the  intellectual 
qualities  that  strengthen  and.dcepen  this  emotion  are  themsdvei 
innate  and  not  sought  out.  The  emotion  is  reasonable  and 
lofty,  not  because  he  has  trained  himself  to  think  correctly, 
but  because  he  does  not  know  that  any  one  can  think  otherwise^ 

His  works  fin  eight  volumes  in  the  complete  edition  of  Messn 
Breitkopf  and  UfirteL  (  D.  F.  T.)    • 

yiCTORIAt  a  British  o^nial  state,  occupying  the  south« 
eastern  comer  of  Australia.  Its  westen  boundary  is  in  140^ 
58'  £.;  on  the  east  it  runs  out  to  a  point  at  Cape  Howe,  in  150^ 
E.  long.,  being  thus  rudely  triangular  in  shape;  the  river  Murray 
constKutes  ncady  the  whole  of  the  northern  botudary,  its 
most  northerly  point  being  in  34**  S.  lat.;  the  aouthem  boundaiy 
is  the  coast-line  of  the  Southern  Ocean  and  of  Bass  Strait;  tha 
most  southerly  point  is  Wilson's  Promontory  in  39'  S.  lat. 
The  greatest  length  east  and  west  is  about  480  m.;  the  greatest 
width,  in  the  west,  is  about  250  m.  The  area  is  officially 
stated  to  be  87,684  sq.  m. 

The  coast-I^e  may  be  estimated  at  about  800  m.  It 
begins  about  the  Z4zst  meridian  with  bold  but  not  lofty  sand- 
stone cliffs,  worn  into  deep  caves  aad  capped  by  grassy  undu* 
lations,  which  extend  inland  to  pleasant  paxk-like  lands.  Capes 
Bridgewater  and  Nelson  form  a  peninsula  of  forest  lands, 
broken  by  patches  of  meadow.  To  the  east  of  Cape  Nelson' 
lies  the  moderately  sheltered  inlet  of  Portland  Bay,  consisting 
of  a  sweep  of  sandy  beach  flanked  by  bold  granite  rocks.  Then 
comes  a  long  unbroken  stretch  of  high  cliffs,  which,  owing  to 
insetting  currents,  have  been  the  scene  of  many  calanutous 
wrecks.  Cape  Otway  is  the  termination  of  a  wild  mountain 
range  that  here  abuts  on  the  coast.  Its  brown  cliffs  rise  verti- 
cally from  the  water;  and  the  steep  slopes  above  are  covered 
with  dense  forests  of  exceedingly  tall  timber  and  tree-ferns. 
Eastwards  from  this  cape  the  line  of  cliffs  gradually  diminishes 
in  height  to  about  20  to  40  ft.  at  the  entrance  to  Port 
Phillip.  Next  comes  Port  Phillip  Bay,  at  the  head  of  which 
stands  the  city  of  Melbourne.  When  the  tide  recedes  from  this 
bay  through  the  narrow  entrance  it  often  encounter?  a  strong 
current  just  outside;  the  broken  aad  somewhat  dangerous  sea 
thus  caused  is  called  **the  Rip."  East  of  Port  Phillip  Bay 
the  shores  consist  for  15  m.  of  a  line  of  sandbanks;  but 
at  Cape  Schanck  thoy  suddenly  become  high  and  bold.  East 
of  this  comes  Western  Port,  a  deep  inlet  more  than  half  occupied 
by  French  Island  and  PMllip  Island.  Its  shores  are  flat  and 
uninteresting,  in  some  parts  swampy.  The  bay  is  shallow  and 
of  little  use  for  navigation.  The  coast  continues  rocky  round 
Cape  Liptrap.  Wilson's  Promontory  is  a  great  rounded  mass 
of  granite  hiHs,  with  wild  and  striking  scenery,  tree-fern  gullies 
and  gigantic  gum-trees,  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a 
narrow  sandy  isthmus.  At  its  extremity  lie  a  multitude  oC 
rocky  Islets^  with  steep  granite  edges.    North  of  this  cape,  and 


38 


VICTORIA  (AUSTRAUA) 


The  Bli^l  bcDil  Dorthwud  fonss  m  loit  of  Inght 
S'aaty  Mile  Beach,  but  it  leilly  eiceetb  tbit  length.  It  Ii  an 
unbroken  line  ot  uudy  shore,  backed  by  low  *»nflKiTt*,  oq 
which  snnri  t  >pu»  dwuf  vegetslioD.  Behind  thae  hiUi 
comH  t.  MKxEaiDn  ol  Ukei,  tumiunded  by  eiceUent  Und,  ud 
bcyood  these  ii»  the  (oft  blue  auttinei  of  the  mount^n  masses 
o!  Ihe  interiof.  The  ihorea  on  the  eilreme  east  ate  somewhat 
higher,  and  occa^onally  rise  in  bold  potnli.  They  terminate 
in  Cape  Howe,  oS  which  lies  Gaba  Island,  of  small  eileni  but 
containing  an  important  lighthouse  and  Kgnalling  station. 

The  wratem  hair  ot  Victoria  k  level  or  riiglHly  undulatliig,  and 
u  a  nile  tmcne  Ln  its  sceoery,  eahibiting  only  thinfy  (Imbeivd  ETUBy 
lands,  with  all  the  appearance  of  open  paika.  The  portH-wot 
coracT  ot  the  colooy,  equally  fla:.  Is  dry  and  ■ometimea  aody, 
and  frequently  bare  of  "  "  ""  ''       "'       *  ' 


with  tl 


n  plain 


iliffhtly 


PytHn™,  II  the  wi 
irreguLarly  placed  Ira 

b  MountWaiiamj;; 
wholly  diHisnt.    Tl 


n  half  ol  the  colony 


met  Inlet  H>  Cape  Howe.  But  a  (ral  par 
ojlded  with  the  complicated  mais  of  range 
he  Aunnliin  Alp*.    Tba,  wliole  forms  a 


lands  ranging  from  tooato  sooo  ft.  In  hdghi.  The  Itighm  psk, 
BofoDg,  u  6}0S  ft.  in  altitude.  The  niua  are  so  danariy  cuvered 
with  vgcMatuo  thai  it  is  earemely  difficult  to  penetnle  Iheni. 
About  £lieen  peaks  ovec  5000  (i.  in  haght  have  been  mcuuRd. 

Thejiarrow  nlleys  and  guines  conuin  eniuisile  scenery,  tlie  rocky 

»»,_  h^ t.j ■  ■..,  poves  of  graceful  ttee-fenu,  fniA 

Ilie  tall  enooth  stems  of  the  whin 


the  stale.  The  Auitralian  Alps  an  connected  with  ihe  P^Tenee^ 
by  a  long  tldge  called  the  Dividing  Range  (issotojooofi.  high), 

Victoria  b  fairly  well  ■fatered,  but  bs  Knans  are  pnerairy  tos 
small  to  admit  of  navigation.  This,  boarever,  is  km  Oie  case  with 
„^  the  Murray  river  (),b.).  The  Murray  for  ■  dlMance  ot 
■"■""■  670  m.  (or  iiso  m,  if  its  various  windinn  be  followid)  farma 
the  boundary  between  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria,  h  rtceim 
a  number  of  tributaries  fmn  the  Victorian  side.  The  HHta  Mini. 
which  rises  in  the  heart  of  (he  Australian  Alpa.  Ii  iy>  m.  long. 
The  Ovens,  rising  among  the  tame  mouniains.  is  slightly  sbortet. 
The  Couibum  (3*0  m.)  flows  slnKHt  entirely  thfougfi  well-eniled 

pin  for  navigation.'  The  vsUey  of  this  river  b  a  fetlile  rain- 
producing  distrid.  The  Campa^  (lyj  m.)  has  too  little  vSum* 
of  water  to  be  of  use  for  navigation;  its  vall^  b  also  agricuhuial, 
and  along  its  bnnia  there  lie  a  close  succession  of  thriving  town, 
ships.   The  Loddon  (over  3DO  m.)  rises  In  the  EVrenees.   The  upper 

Bit  flows  through  a  plain,  to  the  right  sgricultt"^  — ■"  "  ''  " 
t  auEilerous,  containin||  Olnrly  forty  thriving  b _. , 


sinine  oinrly  forty  thriving  towns, 

.-    .lamcd  Sandhurst)  and  Castlemaine. 

lower  pan  ol  the  valley  the  sidl  Is  also  fertile,  but  the  1 _ 

iniall.  To  the  west  of  the  Loddon  isIheAvoca  riverwilba  lenglli 
jf  140  m.;  it  is  of  slight  volume,  and  Ihouvh  it  flows  towaeds  tbe 
Murray  it  loses  ita^  la  marshes  and  nit  lagoDns  before  teaching 


The  rivers  wliich  flow  ■DOthwaids  in 
he  Snowy  liver  rbes  in  New  South  V 
itirdy  tlmuih  wild  and  ahnost  wl 


n  Victoii 


VICTORIA  (AUSTRALIA) 


The  Tambo  (lao  m.  lone}*  wUch  rim  in  the  heart  of  the  AiMtnlian 
Alps,  croiwM  the  Cippwand  plains  and  (alls  into  Lake  King,  one 
of  the  Cip^sland  lakes;  into  tne  same  lake  falls  the  Mitchell  river, 
rising  also  in  the  AustnUian  Alps.  The  Mitchdl  Is  navisated  (or  a 
abort  distance.  The  Latrobe  empties  itself  into  Lake  Wellington 
after  a  course  of  ias  m.;  it  rises  at  Mount  Baw  Baw.  The  Varra 
Varra  rises  in  the  'nBlack  Spur  "  of  the  Australian  Alps.  Emerging 
in  a  deep  valley  from  the  ranges,  it  follows  a  sinuous  course  throush 
the  undulating  plains  called  the  "  Yarra  Flats,"  which  are  wholly 
enclosed  hy  huia.  on  whose  slopes  axe  some  of  the  best  vineyaxds  of 
Australia;  it  finds  its  way  out  of  the  Flats  between  high  and  pre- 
cipitous but  well-wooded  banks,  and  finally  reaches  Port  Phillip 
Bay  below  Melbourne.  ^  Owing  to  its  numerous  windings  its  courK 
through  that  city  and  its  suburbs  is  at  least  thirtv  mflcs.  Nearer 
to  the  sea  its  waterway,  formerly  available  for  vessds  drawing  i6  ft., 
has  now  Ixsen  deepened  so  as  to  be  available  for  vessels  drawing 
30  ft.  The  Barwon,  farther  west,  is  a  river  of  considerable  len^b 
but  little  volume,  flowing  chiefly  through  pastoral  lands.  The 
Hopkins  and  Glenclg  (280  m.)  both- water  the  splendid  pastoral 
lands  of  the  west,  int  lower  course  of  the  former  passing  through 
the  fertile  district  of  Warrnambool,  wril  known  througboMt  Australia 
as  a  potato-growing  region. 

In  the  west  there  are  Laket  Corangamite  and  Colac,  due  north 
of  Cape  Otway.  The  former  is  intensely  salt;  the  latter  is  fresh, 
having  an  outlet  for  its  waters^  'Lakes  Tyrrell  and  Hindmarsh 
lie  in  the  pbins  of  the  north-west.  In  summer  they  are  dried  up, 
and  in  winter  are  again  formed,  by  the  waters  of  nvers  that  have 
no  outlet.  In  the  east  are  the  Gippsland  lakes,  formed  by  the  waters 
of  the  Latrobe,  Mitchell  and  Tambo.  being  dammed  back  by  the 
sandhills  of  the  Ninety  Mile  Beach.  Thev  are  connected  with  Bass 
Strait  by  a  narrow  and  shifting  channel  through  a  shallow  bar; 
the  government  of  Victoria  has  done  a  great  deal  of  late  years  to 
deepen  the  entrance  and  make  it  safer.  The  upper  lake  is  called 
Lake  Wellington;  a  narrow  passage  leads  into  I^ke  Vktoria, 
which  is  joined  to  a  wider  expanse  called  Lake  King.  These  are  all 
fresh-water  lakes  and  are  visited  by  tourists,  being  readily  accessible 
from  Melbourne,  (T.  A.  C.) 

Geology. — ^Victoria  includes  a  more  varied  and  complete  geo- 
logical sequence  than  any  other  area  of  eaual  size  in  Australia.  Its 
geological  foundation  consists  of  a  band  of  Archcan  and  Lower 
ralaeoxoic  rocks,  which  forms  the  backbone  of  the  state.  The 
sedimentary  rocks  in  this  foundation  have  been  thrown  into  folds, 
of  which  the  axes  trend  approximately  north  and  south.  The 
Lower  Palaeozoic  and  Archean  rocks  buikl  up  the  Highlands  of 
Victoria,  which  occupy  the  whole  width  of  the  state  at  tts  eastern 
end,  extending  from  the  New  South  Wales  border  on  the  north 
to  the  shore  01  the  Southern  Ocean  on  the  south.  These  Highlands 
constitute  the  whole  of  the  mountainous  country  of  Gippsland 
and  the  north<eastem  districts.  They  become  narrower  to  the 
west,  and  finally,  beyond  the  old  j^teau  of  Dundas,  disappear 
beneath  the  recent  loams  of  the  plains  along  the  South  Australian 
border.  The  Lower  Pblaeozok:  and  Archean  rocks  bear  upon  their 
surface  some  Upper  Palaeozoic  rocks,  whkh  occur  in  belts  running 
north  and  south,  and  have  been  present  by  infolding  or  faulting; 
such  are  the  Gram|Man  Sandstones  in  the  west;  the  Cathedral 
Mounuin  Sandstones  to  the  north-east  of  Melbourne;  the  belt 
of  Devonian  and  Lower  Carboniferous  rocks  that  extends  across 
eastern  Vkrtoria,  through  Mount  Wellington  to  Maaafidd;  and 
finally,  far  to  the  east,  is  the  belt  of  the  Snowy  river  porphyries, 
erupted  by  a  chain  of  Lower  Devonian  vok:aiiOes.  Further  Upper 
Palaeoaok  rocks  and  the  Upper  Carbonifcfous  glacial  beds  occur 
in  basins  on  both  northern  and  southern  flanks  of  the  Highlands. 
The  Mesozoic  rocks  are  confined  to  southern  Victoria;  they  build 
up  the  hills  of  southern  Gippsland  and  the  Otwav  Ranges;  and 
farther  west,  hidden  by  kiter  racks,  they  occur  under  the  coast  of 
the  western  district.  Between  the  southern  mountain  chain  and 
the  Vkrtorian  Highlands  occurs  the  Great  Valley  of  Victoria,  occupied 
by  sedimentary  and  volcank  rocks  of  Kainoxok  age.  The  N<Mth- 
Westem  Plains,  occurring  between  the  northern  foot  of  the  Highlands 
and  the  Murray,  are  occupied  by  Kainoeoic  sediments. 

Victoria  has  a  fairly  complete  geobgical  sequence,  though  it  is 
poorer  than  New  South  Wales  in  the  Upper  Carboniferaoa  aiKl  Lower 
Metozoic  The  Aicheaa  rocks  form  two  Uocks  of  gneisses  and 
schists,  whuh  build  up  the  HighUnds  of  Dundu  in  the  west,  and 
of  the  north-eastern  part  of  Victoria.  They  were  originally  de- 
scribed as  metamorphosed  Silurian  racks,  but  must  be  of  Aichean 
age.  Another  series  of  Archean  rocks  is  mora  widely  developed, 
and  forms  the  old  framework  upon  which  the  Keobgy  of  Victoria 
has  been  built  up.  They  are  known  as  the  Heatncotian  series, 
and  consist  of  phyllites,  schists  and  amphiboGtes;  while  their  most 
characteristic  feature  is  the  constant  association  of  foliated  diabase 
and  beds  of  jasperoids.  Volcanic  agglomerates  occur  in  the  series 
at  the  tYpKaJ  locality  of  Heathcote.  The  Heathcotuui  rocks  form 
the  Colbinabbin  Range,  whkrh  runs  for  40  m.  northward  and 
southward,  east  of  Bendigo.  They  are  also  exposed  q|i  the  surface 
at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Grampian  Range,  and  at  Dookic,  and  on  the 
Bouthem  coast  in  Waratah  Bay:  thev  nave  been  proved  by  bores 
under  Rushworth,  and  they  apparently  undertie  paru  of  the  Gippe- 
lud  coalfields.    The  Cambnan  rocks  have  so  far  only  been  <|e- 


39 

finitely  proved  near  Mansfield.  Mr  A.  M.Howkt  has  thera  collected 
some  fragmentary  remains  of  Oiendlus  and  worm  tubes  of  the 
Cambrian  genus  SalUi^tUa,  These  beds  at  Mansfield  contain  phoa- 
phatiC|lime8tones  and  wavellite. 

The  Ordovician  system  is  well  developed.  It  consists  of  ilatei 
and  ^uartzites;  and  some  schists  around  the  granites  of  the  western 
district,  and  in  the  Pyrenees,  are  regarded  as  metamorphk:  Ordovician. 
The  Ordovician  has  a  rich  graptolitk:  fauna,  and  they  have  been 
classified  into  the  following  oivisions^^ 


Upper  Ordovician 
Lower  Ordovician 


Darriwill  Series 
Castlemaine  Seriee 
Bendiffo  Series 
Lancraeld  Soies 


The  Ordovkian  beds  are  best  devdopcd  in  a  band  running  north- 
north-west  and  south-south-east  across  Victoria,  of  which  the 
eastern  boundary  passes  through  Melbourne.  This  Ordovician 
band  begins  on  the  south  with  the  bkxk  forming  the  plateau  of 
Arthur's  Seat  and  Momingtoa  Peninsula,  as  proved  by  Ferguson. 
This  outlier  b  bounded  to  the  north  by  the  depression  of  Port  Phillip 
and  the  basalt  plains  west  of  Melbourne.  It  reappears  north  of 
them  at  Lancefidd.  whence  it  extends  ak>ng  the  Highlands,  past 
Ballarat.  with  southern  outliers  as  far  as  Sieiglitz.  It  forms  the 
whole  of  the  Ballarat  Plateau,  and  is  continued  northward  through 
the  goldfields  of  Castlemaine,  Bendigo  and  the  INrenees,  till  it 
dips  under  the  North- Western  Plains.  Certain  evidence  as  to  the 
age  of  the  rocks  in  the  Pyrenees  has  not  yet  been  collected,  and  they 
may  be  pre-Ordovician.  Some  Upper  Ordovician  rocks  occur  in 
the  mountains  of  eastern  Gimisland,  as  near  Woods  Point,  and  in 
jiorth-eastern  Vkrtoria,  in  Wombat  Creek. 

The  Silurian  system  consists  of  two  divisions:  the  lower  or  Mel- 
bournian.  aixl  the  u|»per  or  Yeringian.  Both  consist  in  the  main 
of  sandstones,  quaitates  and  shales;  but  the  upper  series  includes 
lenticular  masses  of  limestone,  at  Lillydale,  Loyola  and  along 
the  Thomson  river.  The  limestones  are  rich  in  typical  Silurian 
corals  and  bryosoa,  and  the  shales  and  sandstones  contain  brachio- 
pods  and  trilobitea.  The  Silurian  rocks  are  well  exposed  in  sections 
near  Melbourne;  they  occur  in  a  belt  running  from  tne  southern  coast 
at  Waratah  Bay,  west  of  Wilson's  Promontory,  north-north-west- 
ward across  Vkrtoria,  and  parallel  to  the  Ordovkian  belt,  whkh 
underlies  them  on  the  west.  The  Silurian  rocks  include  the  gold- 
fields  of  the  Upper  Varra,  Woods  Point,  Walhalia  and  Rushworth, 
while  the  liroestoiies  are  worked  for  lime  at  Lillydale  and  Waratah 
Bay.  The  Devonian  system  includes  representatives  of  the  lower, 
middle  and  upper  series.  The  Lower  Devonian  series  includes  the 
porphyries  arid  their  associated  igneous  rocks,  along  the  valley  of 
the  Snowy  river.  They  represent  the  remains  of  an  old  chain  of 
volcanoes  whkh  once  extended  north  and  south  across  Victoria.  The 
Mkldle  Devonian  is  mainly  formed  of  marine  sandstones,  and  lime- 
stones in  eastern  Gippsland.  It  js  best  developed  in  the  valteys 
of  the  Mitchellf  the  Tambo  and  the  Snowy  nvers.  The  Upper 
Devonian  rocks  include  sandstones,  shales  and  coarse  conglomerates. 
At  the  ck>se  of  Mkldle  Devonian  times  there  were  intense  crustaj 
disturbances,  aixi  the  granitk  massifs,  whkh  formed  the  primitive 
mountain  axis  of  Vktoria,  were  then  intruded. 

The  Carboniferous  svstem  begins  with  the  Avon  river  sandstones, 
containing-  Ltpidodenarott,  and  the  red  sandstones,  with  Lower 
Carboniferous  fish,  collected  by  Mr  Geo.  Sweet  near  Mansfield. 
Probably  the  Grampian  Sandstone,  the  Cathedral  Mountain  Sand- 
stone, and  some  in  the  Mount  Wellington  district  belong  to  the  same 
period.  The  Upper  Carboniferous  includes  the  famous  glacial 
deposits  and  boulder  clays,  by  whkh  the  occurrence  of  a  Carboni- 
ferous glaciation  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  was  first  demonstrated. 
These  oeds  occur  at  Heathcote.  Bendigo,  the  Loddon  Valley, 
southern  Gippsland  and  the  North-Eastem  distrkt.  The  beds 
comprise  boulder  clay,  containing  ke-scratchcd  boulders,  and 
sometimes  rest  upon  icc^scratched^  rooutonni  surfaces,  and  some 
lake^  deposits,  similar  to  those  laid  down  in  glacial  lakes.  The 
glacial  bods  are  overlain  by  sandstonea^  containmg  Cangamopteris, 
and  Kitson's  work  in  Northern  Tasmania  leaves  no  doubt  that  they 
are  on  the  horizon  of  the  Greta  or  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  New  South 
Wales. 

The  Mesosok  group  b  represented  only  hy  Jurassk  rocks,  whkh 
form  the  mountains  of  southern  Gippsland  and  include  its  coal- 
fields. The  rocks  contain  fossil  land  plants,  occaswnal  fish  remains 
and  the  claw  of  a  dinosaur,  &c.  The  coal  b  of  excellent  quality. 
The  mudstoncs.  whkh  form  the  main  bulk  of  thb  series,  are  largely 
composed  of  vokank  debris,  whkh  decomposes  to  a  fenile  soil. 
These  rocks  trend  south-westward  along  tne  Bass  Range,  whioh 
reaches  Western  Port.  They  skirt  the  Momington  Peninsula, 
underik  part  of  Pon  Phillip  and  the  Bellarine  Peninsula,  and  are 
exposed  in  the  Barrabool  Hub  to  the  south-west  of  Geclong;  thence 
they  extend  into  the  Otway  Ranges,  which  are  wholly  built  of  these 
rocks  and  contain  some  coal  seams.  Farther  west  they  disappear 
bek>w  the  recent  sediments  and  vokank  rocks  of  the  Wamuunbool 
district.  They  are  exposed  a«iin  in  the  Pbrtland  Peninsula,  and 
rise  again  to  form  the  Wannon  Hills,  to  the  south  of  Dundas. 

The  Kainozok  beds  include  three  main  series:  lacustrine,  marine 
and  vokanic.    The  main  lacustrine  series  b  probably  of  Oligocene 


4.0 

ase.  and  is  important  from  ito  thick  beds  of  brown  coal,  which  arc 
tnickest  in  the  Great  Valley  of  Victoria  in  southern  Cippsland.  A 
cliff  face  on  the  banks  of  the  Latrobe,  near  Morwell,  shows  90  ft.  of 
it.  and  a  bore  near  Morwell  is  recorded  as  having  passed  through 
850  ft.  of  brown  coal.  Its  thickness,  at  least  in  patches,  is  very 
great.  The  brown  coals  occur  to  the  south-east  of  Melbourne, 
under  the  basalts  between  it  and  Geelong.  Brown  coal  is  also 
abundant  under  the  Murray  plains  in  north-western  A^ctoria.  The 
Kainozoic  marine  rocks  occur  at  intervals  along  the  southern  coast 
and  in  the  valleys  opening  from  it.  The  most  important  horizon 
is  apparently  of  Miocene  ^e.  The  rocks  occur  at  intervals  in  eastern 
Victoria,  along  the  ooast  and  up  the  river  vaUeya,  from  the  Snowy 
river  westwara  to  Alberton.  At  the  time  of  the  deposition  of  these 
beds  Wibon's  Promontory  probably  extended  south-eastward  and 
joined  Tasmania;  for  the  mid-Kamozoic  marine  deposits  do  not 
occur  between  Alberton  and  Flinders,  to  the  west  of  western  Port. 
They  extend  up  the  old  valley  of  Pott  Phillip  as  far  as  Keifer  to  the 
iiorui  of  Melbourne,  and  are  widely  distributed  under  the  volcanic 
rocks  of  the  Western  Plains.  They  are  exposed  on  the  floors  of  the 
volcanic  cauldrons,  and  have  been  found  by  mining  operations 
under  the  volcanic  rocks  of  the  Ballarat  plateau  near  Pitficld.  The 
Miocene  sea  extended  up  the  Glenelg  valley,  round  the  western 
border  of  the  Dundas  Hwnlands,  and  spread  over  the  Lower  Murray 
Basin  into  New  South  Wales;  its  farthest  south-eastern  limit  was 
in  a  valley  at  Stawell.  Some  later  marine  deposits  occur  at  the 
Lakes  Entxance  in  eastern  Cippsland,  and  in  the  valley  of  the 
Glenelg. 

The  volcanic  series  be^ns  with  a  line  of  great  dactte  domes 
including  the  geburite-daate  of  Macedon,  which  is  associated  with 
sOlvsbergites  and  trachy-dolerites.  The  eruption  of  these  domes, 
was  followed  by  that  ot  sheets  of  basalt  of  several  different  ages, 
and  the  intrudon  of  some  trachyte  dykes.  The  oldest  basalts  are 
associated  «ath  the  Oligocene  lake  deposits;  and  fragments  of  the 
l&rge  lava  sheets  of  this  period  form  some  of  the  table-topped  moun- 
tains in  the  Highlands  of  eastern  Victoria.  The  river  gravels  below 
the  lavas  have  oeen  worked  for  gold,  and  land  plants  discovered  in 
the  workings.  At  Flinders  the  rasalts  are  associated  with  Miocene 
limestones.  The  laivest  development  of  the  volcanic  rocks  are  a 
series  of  confluent  uieets  of  bualt,  forming  the  Western  Plains, 
which  occupy  over  10,000  sq.  m.  of  south-western  Victoria. 
They  are  crossed  almost  continuouslv  by  the  South-  Western 
railway  for  166  m.  from  Melbourne  to  Wanmambool.  The  volcanic 
craters  built  up  by  later  eruptions  are  well  preserved:  such  are 
Mount  Elephant,  a  simple  bruurhed  cone;  Mount  Noorat,  with 
a  large  primary  crater  and  four  secondary  craters  on  its  flanks; 
Mount  Warremieip,  near  Ballarat,  a  single  cone  with  the  crater 
breached  to  the  north-west.  Mount  Franklin,  standing  on  the 
Ordbvician  rocks  north  of  Daylesford,  is  a  weathered  cone  breached 
to  the  south-east.  In  addition  to  the  volcanic  craters,  there  are 
numerous  volcanic  cauldrons  formed  by  subsidence,  such  as  Bullen- 
merri  and  Gnotuk  near  Campcrdown,  Keilembete  near  Terang,  and 
Tower  Hill  near  Port  Fairy.  Tower  Hill  consists  of  a  large  vcMcanic 
cauldron,  and  rising  from  an  island  in  a  lake  on  its  floor  is  a  later 
volcanic  crater. 

The  Pleistocene,  or  fserhaps  Upper  Pliocene,  depodts  of  most 
interest  are  those  containing  the  bones  of  giant  marsupials,  such  as  the 
Diprotodcn  and  PalorchesteSt  which  have  been  found  near  Geelong. 
Castlemainc,  Lake  Kolungulak,  &c.;  at  the  last  locality  Diprotodon 
and  various  extinct  kangaroos  have  been  found  in  association  with 
the  dingo.  There  is  no  trace  in  these  deposits  of  the  existence  of 
man,  and  T.  W.  Gregory  has  reassert^  the  striking  absence  of 
evidence  of  man's  residence  in  Victoria,  except  for  a  very  limited 
period.  There  is  no  convincing  evidence  of  Pleistocene  glacial 
deposits  in  Victoria.  Of  the  many^  records,  the  only  one  that  can 
•till  be  re^rded  as  at  all  probable  is  that  regarding  Mount  Bogon^. 

The  chief  literature  on  the  geology  of  Victoria  is  to  be  found  in 
the  maps  and  publications  of  the  Geolop;ical  Survey — a  branch  of 
the  Mines  Department.  A  map  of  the  State,  on  the  scale  of  eight 
inches  to  the  mile,  was  issued  in  1902.  The  Survey  has  published 
numerous  quarter-sheet  maps,  and  maps  of  the  gold  fields  and 
pa9shes.  The  geology  is  described  in  the  Reports,  Bulletins  and 
Memoirs  of  the  Survey,  and  in  the  puarteriy  Reports  of  the  Mining 
Registrars.  Statistics  of  the  mining  industry  are  stated  in  the 
Annual  Report  of  the  Secretary  for  Mines.  Sec  also  the  general 
summary  of  the  geology  of  Victoria,  by  R.  Murray,  issued  by  the 
Mines  Omartment  in  1887  and  1895.  Numerous  papers  on  the 
geology  of  the  State  are  contained  m  the  Trans.  R.  Soe.  Victoria^ 
and  on  its  mining  geology  in  the  Trans,  of  the  Austral.  Inst,  iiin. 
Engineers.  The  physical  geography  has  been  described  by  J.  W. 
Grwory  in  the  Geography  of  Victoria  (1903).  {J.  W.  G.) 

Flora. — The  native  trees  belong  chiefly  to  the  Myrtaceae,  being 
largely  composed  of  Eucalypti  or  gum  trees.  There  arc  severm 
hundred  species,  the  most  notable  being  Eucalyptus  amygdalina,  a 
tree  with  tall  white  stem,  smooth  as  a  marble  column,  and  without 
branches  for  60  or  70  ft.  from  the  ground.  It  is  singularly  beautiful 
when  seen  in  groves,  for  these  have  all  the  appearance  of  lofty 
pillared  cathedrals.  These  trees  are  among  the  tallest  in  the  world, 
averaging  in  some  districts  about  300  ft.  The  longest  ever 
measured  was  found  prostrate  on  the  Black  Spar:  rt  measured 


VICTORIA  (AUSTRALIA) 


470  ft.  in  lennh;  it  was  81  ft.  in  girth  near  the  root.  EmeaKptm* 
globulus  or  blue  gum  has  broad  green  leaves,  which  yield  the 
eucalyptus  oil  of  the  pharmacopoeia.  Eucalyptus  rostrata  is  ea- 
tcnsively  used  in  the  colony  as  a  timber,  being  popularly  known  aa 
red  gum  or  hard  wood,  it  is  auite  unaffectra  oy  weather,  and 
almost  indestructible  when  used  as  piles  fof  piers  or  wharves. 
Smaller  species  of  eucalyptus  form  the  common  "  bush.**  Mela- 
leucas, also  of  Myrtacea  Kind,  are  prominent  objects  along  all  the 
coasts,  where  they  grow  densely  on  the  sand-hills,  lorming  "  ti-tree  " 
scrub.  Eucalyptus  dumosa  is  a  species  which  grows  only  6  to  12  ft. 
high,  but  with  a  straight  stem;  the  trees  grow  so  dose  toKethcr 
that  it  is  difficult  to  penetrate  the  scrub  formed  by  them.  Eleven 
and  a  half  million  acres  of  the  Wimmera  district  are  covered  with 
this  "  mallee  scrub,"  as  it  is  called.  Recent  legislation  has  made 
this  land  easy  of  acquisition,  and  the  whole  of  it  has  been  taken 
up  on  pastoral  leases.  Five  hundred  thousand  acres  have  recently 
been  taken  up  as  an  irrigation  colony  on  Califomian  principles  and 
laid  out  in  40-acre  farms  and  orchards.  The  Lcguminocac  are 
chiefly  represented  by  acacias,  of  which  the  wattle  is  tnecomaibnest. 
The  blacK  wattle  is  ot  considerable  value,  its  gum  being  marketable 
and  its  bark  worth  from  £s  to  £10  a  ton  for  tanning  purpoees.  The 
golden  wattle  is  a  beautiful  tree,  whose  rich  yellow  blossoms  fill  the 
river-vallfe>'s  in  early  spring  with  dcliciouB  scent.  The  Casuarinae 
or  bhe-oaks  are  gloomy  trees,  of  little  use,  but  of  frequent  occurrence. 
Heaths,  grass-trees  and  magnificent  ferns  and  fern-trees  are  also 
notable  features  in  Victorian  forests.  But  European  and  subtropical 
vegetation  has  been  introduced  into  the  colony  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  have  largely  altered  the  characters  of  the  flora  in  roanv  districts. 
Fauna. — ^The  indigenous  animals  belone  almost  wholly  to  the 
Marsupialia.     Kangaroos  are  tolerably  aoundant  on  the  grassy 

Slains.  but  the  process  of  settlement  is  causing  their  extermination. 
.  smaller  spories  of  almost  identical  appearance  called  the  wallaby 
is  still  numerous  in  the  forest  lands.  Kangaroo  rets,  opossums, 
wombats,  native  bears,  bandicoots  and  native  cats  all  belong  to 
the  same  class.  The  wombat  forms  extensive  burrows  in  some 
districts.  The  native  bear  is  a  frugivorous  little  animal,  and  very 
harmless.  Bats  are  numerous,  the  largest  species  being  the  flying 
fox,  very  abundant  in  some  districts.  Eagles,  hawn,  turiuevs, 
pigeons,  ducks,  quail,  snipe  and  plover  are  common;  but  tiie 
characteristic  denizens  of  the  forest  are  vast  flocks  of  pamota, 
parakeets  and  cockatoos,  with  sulphur-coloured  or  crimson  crests. 
The  laughing  jackass  (giant  kingfisher)  is  heard  in  all  the  country 

Krts,  and  magpies  are  numerous  everywhere.  Snakes  are  numerouap 
t  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  species  are  venomousr  and  they  aiB 
all  very  shy.  The  deaths  from  snake-bite  do  not  average  two  per 
annum.  A  great  chan^  is  rapidly  taking  place  in  the  fauna  of  the 
country,  owing  to  cultivation  and  aoclimatixation.  Dingoes  have 
nearly  disappeared,  and  rabbits,  which  were  introducen  only  a 
few  years  ago,  now  abound  in  such  numbers  as  to  be  a  positive 
nuisance.  Deer  are  also  rapidly  becoming  numerous.  Sparrows 
and  swallows  are  as  common  as^  in  Engkind.  The  trout,  which 
has  also  been  acclimatized,  is  taking  full  poasesaioB  of  some  of  the 
streams. 

C/tma<£v^Victoria  enjoys  an  exceptionally  fine  climate.  Roughly 
speaking,  about  one-halt  of  the  days  in  the  year  present  a  bright. 
Cloudless  sky,  with  a  bracing  and  dry  atmosphere,  pleasantly  warm 
but  not  relaxing.  These  days  are  mainly  in  the  autumn  and 
spring.  During  forty-eight  years,  ending  with  1905,  there  have 
bieen  on  an  avera^  132  days  annually  on  which  rain  has  fallen  more 
or  less  (chiefly  in  winter,  but  rainy  days  do  not  exceed  thirty 
in  the  year.  The  average  yearly  rainfall  was  25*61  in.  The 
diEagrecable  feature  of  the  Victorian  climate  is  the  occurrence  of 
north  winds,  which  blow  on  an  average  about  sixty  days  in  the 
year.  In  winter  they  are  cold  and  dry,  and  have  a  slightly  ocpresang 
effect;  but  in  summer  they  are  hot  and  dry,  and  generally  bring 
with  them  disagreeable  ck)uds  of  dust.  The  winds  themselves  bk>w 
for  periods  of  two  or  three  days  at  a  time,  and  if  the  summer  haa 
six  or  ei^ht  such  periods  it  becomes  relaxing  and  produces  languor. 
These  winds  cease  with  extraordinary  suddenness,  b^ng  repbtced 
in  a  minute  or  two  by  a  cool  and  bracing  breeae  from  the  south. 
The  temperature  often  falls  40**  or  50^  F.  in  an  hour.  The 
maximum  shade  temperature  at  Melbourne  in  190$  was  108-5% 
and  the  minimum  32%  giving  a  mean  o^  56*  I^  The  temperature 
never 'falls  below  freezing-point,  except  for  an  hour  or  two  before 
sunrise  in  the  coldest  month.  Snow  has  been  known  to  fall  in 
Melbourne  for  a  few  minutes  two  or  three  times  during  a  loi^ 
period  of  ycara.  It  is  common  enough,  however,  on  the  plateau; 
Ballarat,  which  is  over  1000  ft.  high,  always  has  a  few  snowstonna. 
and  the  roads  to  Omeo  among  the  Australian  Alps  lie  under  several 
feet  of  snow  in  the  winter.  The  general  healthiness  of  the  climate 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  average  death-rale  for  the  last  five 
yeara  has  been  only  12*71  of  the  popubtion. 

Population.-^ As  regards  population,  Victoria  maintained  tfie 
leading  position  among  the  Australasian  colonies  until  the  end 
of  1 89 1,  when  New  South  Wales  overtook  it.  The  population 
in  1905  was  1,218,571,  the  proportion  of  the  sexes  bdng  nearly 
equal.    In  i860  the  population  nninbered  $37,847;  in  1870^ 


VICTORIA  (AUSTRALIA) 


79o,S99;  In  x8$o,  860,067;  tnd  in  1890,  1,133,266.  Tbe  state 
had  gained  little,  if  anything,  bj  immigration  during  these 
years,  for  the  excess  of  immigration  over  emigration  from  1861 
to  1870  and  ffom  i88t  to  1890  was  counterbalanced  by  the 
excess  of  departnres  during  the  period  187 1  to  z88o  and  from 
1891  to  1905.  The  mean  population  of  Melbdume  In  1905 
was  5ii,900t. 

k.  The  births  in  1905  nomliered  3O1XO7  and  the  deaths  14.676. 
lepreaenting  cespectively  2^*83  and  12*10  per  1000  of  the  pop«la> 
tion.  The  Birth-Fate  has  fallen  markedly,  ainee  iS7%,  as  the  following 
statement  of  the  averages  arranged  in  quinquennial  periods  shows: — 


Period. 

Births  per  1000 
of  Population. 

Period. 

Births  per  looo 
of  Population. 

1861-65 
1866-70 

43-30 
39-37 
35-69 
31-43 

iSSi'-Sfl 

1886-90 
1891-95 

1896-1900 
1901-1905 

30-76 

32-72 
3r-o8 
26*20 
»4-97 

The  number  of  illegitimate  births  during  1^5  was,  1689,  which 
gives  a  proportion  of  5-6t  to  every  100  births  registered.  The 
oeath-rste  has  greatly  improved.  -Arranged  in  quinquennial 
periods  the  death-rates 


Period. 

s 

Deaths  per  lOoo 
of  Population. 

Period. 

Deaths  per  1000 
of  Population. 

1861-65 
1866-70 

17-36 
16-53 

15-64 
14-92 

l88i->85 

1886-90 

1891-95 

1896-1900 

1901-190S 

14-65 
16*07 

X4'io 

iS-67 
if  7 1 

The  marriages  In  1905  numbered  877^.  which  represents  a  rate  of 
7-24  per  1000  persons.  This  was  the  highest  number  reached 
during  a  period  of  fourteen  years,  and  was  564  more  than  in  1904 
and  1 169  more  than  in  1903.  In  the  five  years  1871-75  the  marriage- 
rate  stood  at  6-38  per  1000;  in  1876-80,  6-02-.  in  1881-85,  7'37; 
in  1886-90.  8*13;  in  1901-5,  6-86. 

Outride  Melbourne  and  suburbs,  the  most  important  towns  are 
Ballarst  (49,648),  Bendigo  (43,666),  Geelong  (26.642),  Clastlemaine 
(8063),  Wanmambool  -^600),  Maryborough  (6000)  and  Stawell 
(5200). 

J?</ffMm.— The  Church  of  England,  as  disclosed  at  the  census  of 
190? ,  had  432.704  adherents;  the  Roman  C^tht^ic  Church  came 
next  with  263,710;  the  Pretbyterians  had  190.725;  Wesleyans 
and  Methodists,  180,272;  Congregationaltsts.  17.141:  Baptists, 
33,648;  Lutherans.  15,935;  J«vs.  5907;  and  the  Salvation  Army, 
whose  Australian  headquarters  are  m  Melbourne.  8830. 

^iica/ios.— There  were  in  1905  1030  state  schools,  in  which 
there  were  210,200  children  enrDued,  the  teachers  numbering  4689. 
Th^re  were  also  771  private  schools  with  2289  teacher*  and  a  net 
enrolment  of  43,014  cnildren;  the  majority  of  them  being  connected 
with  one  or  other  of  the  principal  religious  denominations.  The 
toul  cost  of  primary  instruction  in  IO05  was  £676.238.  beiog  lis.  ad. 
per  h«Ml  of  population  and  £4,  X4S.  40.  per  head  of  scholars  in  average 
attendance.  Melbourne  Umveruty  mainuins  its  high  position  as 
a  teaching  body.  In  1905  the  number  of  matriculants  was  493  and 
the  graduates  11 8. 

Crime  is  decreasing.  In  1905  the  number  of  penons  brought 
before  the  magistrates  was  4)8,345.  Drunkenness  accounted  for 
14,458.  which  represents  11-92  per  xooo  of  the  population:  in 
1 901  the  proportion  was  1443.  Charges  against  the  person  numbered 
1932,  ana  against  property  4032. 

AiministratUm. — As  one  of  the  six  states  of  the  Common- 
wealth, Victoria  returns  six  senators  and  twepty-tbree  repre- 
sentatives to  the  federal  parliament.  The  local  legislative 
authority  is  vested  in  a  parliament  of  two  chamber  both  elective 
— the  Legislative  Council,  composed  of  thirty-five  members, 
and  the  legislative  Assembly,  composed  of  sixty-eight  members. 
One-half  of  the  members  of  the  C^undl  retire  every  three  years. 
The  members  of  the  Assembly  are  elected  by  universal  suffrage 
for  the  term  of  three  years,  but  the  chamber  can  be  dissolved 
at  any  time  by  the  Governor  in  counciL  Membets  of  the 
Assembly  are  paid  £300  a  year. 

The  whole  of  Victoria  in  1905  was  under  the  control  of  munici- 
palities, with  the  exception  of  about  600  sq.  m.  in  the  mountain- 
ous part  of  Wonnangatta,  and  64  sq.  m.  in  French  Island.  The 
number  of  municipalities  in  that  year  was  206;  they  comprised 
11  cities,  I X  towns,  38  boroughs  and  146  shires. 


41 

A'mius.— The  public  revenue  in  T905'  showed  an  hicrease  on 
that  of  the  three  prsvioos  years,  being  £7.515,142,  equal  to  £6, 4s.  2d^ 
per  head  of  population;  the  expenditure  amounted  to  £7.343.742t 
which  also  showed  a  slight  increase  and  was  equal  to  £6,  is.  4d.  per 
inhabitant.  The  public  revenue  in  five-yeariy  periods  since  1880 
was:  1880,  £4^21,282;  1885,  £6,290,361;  1890,  £8.519,159: 
i895>  £6.712,512;  and  1901,  £7.722.397*  The  chief  sources  of 
revenue  in  1905  were:  Customs  duties  (federal  refunds).  £2«oi7,378; 
other  taxation,  £979,029;  railway  nxeipts,  £3,609,120:  public 
lands.  £408.836;  other  sources.  £501.379.  The  main  ftems  of 
expenditure  were;  railways  (working  expenses).  £2,004.601; 
pubric  instruction,  £661.794:  interest  ami  charges  on  ouUic  debt, 
£1,884.208;  other  services.  £2,703,139.  On  the  30Ch  ol  lune  1905 
the  public  debt  of  the  state  stood  at  £511513.767,  equal  to  {/^^  9s.  7d. 
per  inhabitant.  The  great  bulk  of  the  proceedfs  of  loans  was  apphed 
to  the  construction  of  revenue-yieldii^  works,  only  about  three 
millions  steriing  being  otherwise  used. 

Up  to  1905  the  state  had  alienated  26.^46.802  acres  of  the  public 
domain,  and  had  17.994.233  acres  unoer  kaise;  the  area  neithcf 
alienated  nor  leased  amuuntra  to  11.904,725  acres. 

The  capiral  value  of  properties  as  returned  by  the  municipalities 
in  1905  was  £210,920.174,  and  the  annual  value  £11,743,270.  In 
1884  the  values  were  104  milliona  and  £8.099,000,  and  in  1891, 
203  millions  and  £13.7,34*000;  the  year  last  mentioned  marked  tba 
highest  point  of  inflation  in  land  values,  and  during  the  following 
yean  there  was  a  vast  reduction,  both  in  capiral  and  in  annuu 
values,  the  lowest  point  touched  being  in  1895;  since  1895  a  gradual 
improvement  has  taken  place,  and  there  is  evenr  evidence  that  this 
improvement  will  continue.  The  revenues  ol  municipalities  are 
derived  chiefly  from  rates,  but  the  rates  are  largely  supplemented 
bv  fees  and  bcences,  and  contributions  for  services  rendered.  .  Ex- 
cluding government  endowments  and  special  grants,  which  in 
1905  amounted  to  £90.572,  the  revenues  of  the  municipalities  ia 
the  yean  named  were:  1880,  £616,132;  1885,  £789>^:  i690t 
£1,274,85^;  i895..£l.038,;«p;  1900,  £1.036497:  1905.  £1^.221. 
In  addition  to  the  mUniapalitics  there  are  other  local  bodies 
empowered  to  levy  rates;  these  and  their  revenues  in  1905  were? 
Melbourne  Harbour  Trust,  £189^983;  Melbourne  and  Metropolitan 
Board  of  Works.  £390441:  Fire  Boards,  £53>279>  The  Board  off 
Works  is  the  authontv  administering  the  metropiriitan  water  and 
sewerage  works.  Excluding  revenue  from  services  rendered,  the 
amount  of  taxation  levied  in  Victoria  reached  in  1905  £4,621,608:  of 
this  the  federal  government  levied  £2488,844,  the  state  government 
^^79.029,  the  municipalities  £986,009,  and  the  Melbourne  liarbour 
Trust  £167,727, 

ProducUons  aad  Industry:  Minerals. — ^About  25,400  persons  find 

ployment  in  the  goldfieids,  and  the  quantity  oigold  won  in  1905 


810,050  oz.,  vauued  at  £3(173,744,  a  decrease  of  Xo,9|67  02.' as 
compared  with  1904.  The  mvioeods  paid  by  gold-mining  com- 
panies in  1905  amounted  to  £454i43i*  which,  altncugh  about  the 
average  of  recent  years,  showed  a  decline  of  £168,966  as  compared 
with  the  sum  distnbuted  in  1904.^  Up  to  the  close  of  1905  the  total 
value  of  gold  won  from  the  first  discovery  in  1851  was  £273,236,500. 
No  other  metallic  minerals  are  systematically  worked,  although 
many  valuable  deposits  arc  known  to  exist.  Brown  coal,  or  lignite, 
occura  extensively,  and  attempts  have  frequently  been  made  to  use 
the  mineral  for  ordinary  fuel  purposes,  but  without  much  success. 
Black  coal  is  now  being  raised  in  increasingly  large  quantities. 
The  principal  collieries  are  the  Outrim  Howitt,  the  Coal  Creek 
Proprietary,  the  lumbunna  and  the  Korumburra,  all  in  the  Gipps- 
land  distnct.  The  production  of  coal  in  1905  was  155,185  tons, 
valued  at  £79.060;  (a^oo  worth  of  rilver  and  £11,159  worth  of 
tin  were  raised;  the  value  of  other  minerals  produced  was 
'93r392.  making  a  total  mineral  production  (exclusive  of  gold)  of 
187,711. 

Agriculture. — Judged  bv  the  area  under  tilUce,  Victoria  ranks 
first  among  the  states  of  toe  Australian  group.  Tne  area  under  crop 
in  1905  was  4.269,877  acres,  compared  with  2,116,000  acres  in  18^1 
and  1,435,000  acres  in  1881.  Wheat-growing  claims  the  chief 
attention.  2,070^17  acres  being  under  that  cereal  in  1905.  The 
areas  devoted  to  other  crops  were  as  folkiws;  maize,  11.785  acres; 
oats,  312,052  acres;  barley,-  40,938  acres;  other  cereals,  14,212  acres; 
hay,  591.771  acres;  potatoes,  44,670  acres;  vines,  26402  acres; 

f[rcen  foliage,  34.041  acres;  other  tillage,  73.574  acres;  land  in 
allow  composed  1,049,915  acres.  Victonan  whilst  is  of  exception- 
ally fine  quality,  and  usually  commands  a  high  price  in  the  London 
market.  The  average  yield  per  acre  in  1905  was  11-31  bushels; 
except  for  the  yeaf  1903,  the  total  crop  and  the  average  per  acre  in 
1905  were  the  highest  ever  obtained.  The  yield  of  oats  was  23*  iS 
bushels  per  acre,  of  bariey  25-95,  and  of  potatoes  2-58  tons.  Great 
progress  has  been  made  in  the  cultivation  of  the  grape  vine,  and 
Victoria  now  produces  more  than  one-thir^  of  the  wine  made  in 
Australia. 

Live  S/ocib.—- The  number  of  sheep  in  1905  was  11,455,115.  The 
quality  of  the  sheep  is  steadily  improving.  Systematic  attemioo 
to  stock  has  brought  about  an  improvement  in  the  weight  of  the 
fleece,  and  careful  observations  show  that  between  1861  and  1871 
the  average,  weight  of  wool  per  sheep  increased  about  one-third; 
between  187 1  and  1881  about  one  pound  was  added  to  the  weight 


4? 

per  fleew.  and' there  lias  been- a  further  impravement  nnoe  the  year 
oamed.  The  Collowing  were  the  number  oi  sheep  depastured  at  the 
dates  named:  1861,  6^40.000;  1871,  10.002,000;  1881,  10.367,000; 
1891,  12.938,000;  1901,  10,841,790.  The  horses  number  385.513, 
the  swine  273,683,  and  the  homed  cattle  i.737>69o;  of  these  last. 
649,100  were  dairy  cows.  Butter-making  has  greatly  increased 
since  1890,  and  a  fairly  large  export  trade  has  arisen.  In  1905. 
57,6o6.8ii  lb  of  butter  were  made.  4>^7.350  tt>  of  cheese  and 
16.433,665  lb  of  bacon  and  ham& 

SiamtfaclMra. — ^There'has  been  a  good  deal  of  fluctuation  in  the 
amount  of  employment  afforded  by  the  factories,  as  the  following 
figures  show:  hands  employed,  1885.  49.997:  1890.  S^fi29\  (893. 

e473:  1895.  itjoqs;  1900.  64.307;  1905.  80,335.  Of  the  hands 
«  named.  53,935  were  males  and  37.^10  females.  The  total 
number  of  escablishments  was 4364.  and  thehorse-power  of  machinery 
actually  used.  43493.  The  value  of  machinery  was  returned  at 
£6.187,919,  and  of  land  and  buildings  il,77\a2l^  The  majority 
of  the  establishments  were  small;  those  employing  from  50  to  100 
hands  in  1905  were  161,  and  upwards  of  100  hands,  134. 

Commerct. — Excluding  the  coastal  trade,  the  tonnage  of  vessels 
entering  Victorianports  in  190^  was  3.989,903.  or  about  %\  tons 
per  inhabitant.  The  imports  in  the  same  year  were  valued  at 
£33t337iS86,  and  the  exports  at  £23.758,838.  These  fif^ures  repre- 
sent £18,  8s.  5d.  and  £18,  15s.  6d.  per  inhabitant  respectively.  The 
domestic  produce  exported  was  valued  at  £14,376.961 ;  in  1891  the 
value  was  £13,026436;  and  in  1 881.  £13.^80,567.  The  compara- 
tively smallincrease  over  the  period  named  is  due  mainly  to  the  large 
fall  in  prices  of  the  staple  articles  of  local  production.  There  hu, 
however,  been  some  loss  of  trade  due  to  the  action  of  the  New  South 
Wales  government  in  extending  its  railways  into  districts  formerly 
supplied  from  Melbourne.  The  principal  articles  of  local  production 
exported  during  1905  with  their  values  were  as  follows:  butter  and 


VICTORIA  (AUSTRALIA) 


horses,     £^78,033^    cattle,  ^£393,3^1; 
im,  £89 


sheep, 


£336,536;    oats, 

bacon  and 

fresh), 


£165.585:  flour,  £590 W.;  hay  and  chaff,  f97;47.i";  m© 
ham,  £89.943;  jams  and  j^ies,  £73.233;  fruit  (dried  and 
£i35,33a. .  The  bulk  of  the  trade  passes  through  M^x>ume,  the 
imports  in  1905  at  that  port  being  £18,1 12.538. 
.  i></nrc«.— The  Commonwealth  defence  forces  in  Victoria  number 
about  5700  men,  4360  being  partially  paid  militia  and  tooo  unpaid 
volunteers.  There  are  also  18400  riflemen  belonging  to  rifle  clubs. 
Besides  these  there  are  300  naval  artilleiymen,  capable  of  being 
employed  either  as  a  light  artillery  land  force,  or  on  board  war 
vessels.  The  total  expenditure  in  1905  for  purposes  of  defence  in 
the  state  was  £291,577. 

Railways. — The  railways  have  a  total  length  of  ^394  m.,  and  the 
cost  of  their  construction  and  equipment  up  to  the  30th  of  June 
1905  was  £41.259.387;  this  sum  was  obtained  by  raising  loans, 
mostly  in  London,  on  the  steurity  of  the  general  revenues  of  the 
state.  In  1905  the  gross  railway  earnings  were  £3.582,266.  and  the 
working  expenses  £2,222,279;  so  that  the  net  earnings  were 
£ti3S0i987t  which  sum  reptx»ents  3*30%  on  the  capital  cost. 

Posts  and  Telegraphs. — Victoria  had  a  length  of  63^8  m.  of  tele- 

graph  line  in  operation  in  1905;  there  were  969  stations,  and  the 
usiness  done  was  represented  oy  2,2^482  telegrams.  The  post- 
ofiices,  properly  80<alled,  numbered  1673;  during  that  year 
119,689,000  letters  and  postcards  and  59.024,000  newspapers  and 
packets  passed  through  them.  The  postal  service  is  carried  on  at 
a  profit;  the  revenue  in  1905  was  £708,369,  and  the  expenditure 
£627.735.  Telephones  are  widely  used;  m  1905  the  length  of 
telei^one  wire  in  use  was  28,638  m.,  and  the  number  of  telephones 
14,134;  the  revenue  from  this  source  for  the  year  was  £102.^5^. 

Banking. — At  the  end  of  1905  the  banks  of  issue  in  Victoria, 
eleven  in  number,  had  liabilities  to  the  extent  of  £36422,844,  and 
assets  of  £40,511,^35.  The  principal  items  among  tne  liabilities 
were:  notes  in  circulation,  £835,^99;  depomts  bearing  interest, 
£2^,055,743;  and  deposits  not  bearing  interest,  £12,068,1  M.  The 
chief  assets  were:  coin  and  bullion,  £8,056.666;  dMits  due, 
£29.918,326;  property,  £1,919,230;  other  assets,  £617,213.  The 
money  in  deposit  in  the  savings  banks  amounted  to  £10,806,741, 
the  number  of  depositors  being  447.383.  The  total  sum  on  deposit 
in  the  Mate  in  1905  was,  therefore,  £46,030,637,  which  represents 


£37, 15s.  4d.  per  head  of  population. 

AuTBORmss.  —  J.  Bonwick,  iHseovery  and  SetBemeni  of  Port 
Phillip  (Melbourne.  1856),  Early  Days  of  Mdbetime  (Melbourne, 
18^7),  and  Port  PkiUitt  SettUment  (London.  1883) ;  Rev.  J.  D.  Lang. 
BisUnical  Account  of  the  StparaHon  of  Victoria  irom  Hew  South 
Wales  (Sydney.  1870);  Victorian  Year-Book  U^nnually,  1873- 
1905,  Melbourne);  F.  P.  Labilliere,  Early  History  of  the  Colony  of 
Victoria  (London,  1878);  G.  W.  Rusden,  Diuopery,  Survey  and 
SettUment  of  Port  PhtOtp  {Melbourne,  1878);  R.  B.  Smyth,  The 
Aborigines  of  Victoria  (3  vols..  Melbourne.  i^tIB);  J.  J.  Shulinglaw, 
Bislorical  Records  of  Port  PkUlip  (Melbourne.  1879) ;  David  Blair, 
Cjfclopaedia  of  Australasia  (Melbourne,  x88i);  E.  Jenks,  The 
Covemment  of  Victoria  (London,  1881);  C.  M.  Curr,  T7u  Australian 
Race:  its  Origin,  Language,  Customs,  ^e.  (Melbourne.  1886-87); 
Edmund  Finii«  Ckromdes  §f  Bafly  lidbowme  (Melbourne,  1889): 


Ui^ 


Philip  MnnelU  TluDiciumaryofAmtlralasidnBi0gnpky  (Melboiiai% 
1892) :  T.  A.  Coghlan,  Austraiia  and  New  Zealand  (1903^). 

(T.  A.  C.) 

History.— Tht  fint  ditcovever  of  Victoria  was  Captain  Cook, 
in  command  of  H.M.S. "  Endeavour,"  who  siihtcd  Cape  Eveiaidg 
about  half-way  between  Cape  Howe  and  the  mouth  of  the  Snowy 
river,  on  the  19th  of  April  1 770,  a  few  days  prior  to  has  arrival  at 
Botany  Bay.  The  lin^t  persons  to  land  in  Victoria  were  the 
supercaiso  and  a  portion  of  the  crew  of  the  merchant  ship 
"  Sydney  Cove,"  which  was  wrecked  at  the  Fumeauz  Islands  in 
Bass  Strait  on  the  9ih  of  February  1797.  In  the  same  year, 
Mr  Bass,  a  surgeon  in  the  navy,  discovered  the  strait  which 
bears  his  name  and  separates  Victoria  from  Tasmania.  Lieut. 
Grant  in  the  "  Lady  Nelson  "  surveyed  the  south  coast  in  x8oq, 
and  in  i8ox  Port  Phillip  was  for  the  first  time  entered  by  Lieut. 
Murray.  In  1802  that  harbour  was  surveyed  by  Captain 
Flinders,  and  in  the  same  3rear  Mr  Grimes,  the  siirveyor-general 
of  New  South  Wales,  explored  the  country  in  the  neighbour* 
hood  of  the  present  site  of  Melbourne.  In  1804  Ueut.-Colonel 
Collins,  who  had  been  sent  from  England,  formed  a  penal 
settlemoit  on  the  shores  of  Port  Phillip,  but  after  remaining 
a  little  more  than  three  months  near  Indented  Head,  he  semoved 
his  party  to  Van  Diemen  Land.  Victoria  was  visited  in  1S34 
by  two  sheep  farmers  named  Hume  and  Hovell,  who  rode 
overland  from  Lake  George,  New  South  Wales,  to  the  shores 
of  Corio  Bay.  In  1826  a  convict  establishment  was 
attempted  by  the  government  of  New  South  Wales  at 
Settlement  Point,  near  French  Island,  Western  Port 
Bay,  but  it  was  abandoned  shortly  afterwards.  In  1834 
Messrs  Edward  and  Fnincis  Henty,  wlio  had  taken  part  in 
the  original  expedition  to  Swan  river,  West  Austialta,  and 
afterwards  migrated  to  Van  Diemen  Land,  crosaed  Bass  Strait, 
established  a  shore  whaling  station  at  Portland  Bay,  and  formed 
sheep  and  cattle  stations  on  the  river  Wannon  and  Wando 
rivulet,  near  the  site  of  the  present  towns  of  Merino,  Casterton 
and  Coleraine.  In  1835  a  number  of  flodc  owners  in  Van 
Diemen  Land  purchased  through  Batman  from  the  aborigines 
a  tract  of  700,000  acres  on  the  shores  of  Port  Phillip.  The  sale 
was  repudiated  by  the  British  government,  winch  regarded 
all  unoccupied  land  in  any  part  of  Australia  as  tlte  property  of 
the  crown,  and  did  not  recognize  the  title  of  the  aborigines. 
Batman,  however,  remained  at  Port  Phillip,  and  commenced 
farming  within  the  boundaries  of  the  {Mresent  city  of  Melbourne. 
He  was  followed  by  John  Pascoe  Fawkner  and  other  settlers 
from  Van  Diemen  Land,  who  occupied  the  fertile  plains  of  the  new 
territory.  In  1836  Captain  Lonsdale  was  sent  to  Melbourne  by 
the  government  of  New  South  Wales  to  act  as  resident  mag^- 
trate  fai  Port  Phillip.  The  firsjt  census  Uken  in  1838  showed  that 
the  population  was  3511,  of  whom  3080  were  males  and  431 
females.  In  1839  Mr  Latrobe  was  appointed  superintendent  of 
Port  Phillip,  and  a  resident  judge  was  nominated  for  Melbourne, 
with  jurisdicti<m  over  the  territory  :wiiich  now  forms  the  state 
of  Victoria.  The  years  1840  and  1841  were  periods  of  depression 
owing  to  the  decide  in  the  value  of  all  descriptions  of  live  sto^, 
for  which  the  first  settlers  had  paid  high  prices;  but  there  was 
a  steady  immigration  from  Great  Britain  of  men  with  means, 
attracteid  by  the  profits  of  sheep-farming,  and  of  labourers 
and  artisans  who  obtained  free  passages  under  the  provisi<His 
of  the  Wakefield  system,  under  which  half  the  proceeds  from  the 
sale  and  occupation  of  crown  lands  were  fespended  upon  the 
introduction  of  workers.  The  whole  district  was  occupied  by 
sheep  and  cattle  graziers,  and  in  x84t  the  population  had 
increased  ta  11,738.  Melbourne  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in 
1842,  and  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  city  in  1847.  In  that 
same  year  the  first  Anglican  was  ordained,  andSn  1848  the  fint 
Roman  Catholic  bishop.  Tlie  tUrd  census  (taken  in  1846) 
showed  a  population  of  33,870. 

The  elective  element  was  introduced  into  the  Legislative 
Council  of  New  South  Wales  in  r842,  in  the  proportion  of 
twenty-four  members  to  twelve  nominated  by  the  crown,  and 
the  district  of  Port  Phillip,  including  Melbourne,  returned  sit 
members.   But  the  colonists  were  not  satisfied  with  government 


VICTORIA  (AUSTRALIA) 


♦3 


Irom  and  by  Sydney;  an  agifation  in  favour  of  separation 
commenced,  and  in  1851  Victoria  was  formed  into  a  separate 
colony  with  an  Executive  Council  appointed  by  the  crown,  and 
a  Legislative  Council,  partly  elective  and  partly  nominated,  on 
the  same  Unes  as  that  of  New  South  Wales.  The  population  at 
that  date  was  77,435.  Gold  was  discovered  a  few  weeks  after 
the  colony  had  entered  upon  its  separate  existence,  and  a  large 
number  of  persons  were  attracted  to  the  mines,  first  from  the 
neighbouring  colonies— some  of  which,  such  as  South  Australia, 
Van  Diemen's  Land  and  West  Australia,  were  almost  denuded  of 
able-bodied  men  and  women-r-and  subsequently  from  Europe 
and  America.  Notwithstanding  the  difficulties  with  which  the 
local  government  had  to  contend,  the  task  of  maintaining  law 
and  order  was  fairly  grappled  with;  the  foundations  of  a  liberal 
system  of  primary,  secondary  and  university  education  were 
laid;  roads,  bridges  and  telegraphs  were  constructed,  anci 
Melbourne  was  provided  with  an  excellent  supply  of  water. 

Local  self-government  was  introduce  in  1853,  and  the 
Legislature  found  time  to  discuss  a  new  Constitution,  which  not 
L0eml§0tf-  only  eliminated  the  nominee  element  from  the  Legis- 
guvtrw  lature,  but  made  the  executive  government  responsible 
••■*  to  the  people.  The  administration  of  tho  gold-iields 
was  not  popular,  and  the  miners  wtre  dissatisfied  at  the  amount 
charged  for  permission  to  mine  for  gold,  and  at  there  being 
no  representation  for  the  gold-fields  in  the  local  Legislature. 
The  discontent  culminated,  at  Ballarat  in  December  1854,  irf 
riots  in  which  there  was  a  considerable  loss  of  life  both  amongst 
the  miners  and  the  troops.  Eventually,  an  export  duty  on  gold 
was  substituted  for  the  licence  fee,  but  every  miner  had  to  take 
out  a  right  which  enabled  him  to  occupy  a  limited  area  of  land 
for  mining,  and  also  for  residence.  Th^  census  taken  in  1854 
showed  a  population  of  336,778.  The  new  Constitution  was 
proclaimed  in  1855,  and  the  old  Executive  Council  was  gazetted 
as  the  first  responsible  ministry.  It  held  office  for  about 
axteen  months,  and  wu  succeeded  by  an  administration 
formed  from  the  popular  party.  Several  changes  were  made 
in  the  direction  of  democratizing  the  government,  and  vote  by 
ballot,  manhood  suffrage  and  the  abolition  of  the  property 
qualification  followed  each  other  in  rapid  succession.  To  several 
of  these  changes  there  \mls  strenuous  opposition,  not  so  much  in 
the  Assembly  which  represented  the  maiUiood,  as  in  the  Council 
is  which  the  property  of  the  colony  was  supreme.  The  crown 
lands  were  occupied  by  graaers,  termed  locally  **  squatters," 
who  hekl  them  under  e  licence  renewaUe  annually  at  a  low 
rentaL  These  licences  were  veiy  valuable,  and  the  goodwill 
of  a  graxing  farm  or  "ran"  commanded  a  high  price.  Persons 
who  desired  to  acquire  freeholds  for  the  purpose  of  tillage  could 
only  do  so  by  purchasing  the  land  at  auction,  and  tbe  local 
squatters,  unwilling  to  be  deprived  of  any  portion  of  a  valuable 
property,  were  generally  willing  to  pay  a  price  per  acre  with  which 
00  person  of  small  means  desirous  of  embarking  upon  agricultural 
pursuits  could  a>mpete.  The  result  was  that  although  the 
population  had  increased  in  x86i  to  540)333,  the  area  of  land 
under  crop  had  not  grown  proportionately,  and  Vict(»ia  was 
dependent  upon  the  neighbouring  colonies  and  even  more  distant 
countries  for  a  conaderable  portion  o\  its  food.  A  series  of  Land 
Acts  was  passed,  the  first  in  i860,  with  the  view  of  encouraging 
a  class  of  small  freeholders.  The  principle  underlying  all  these 
laws  was  that  residence  by  landowners  on  their  farms,  and  their 
cultivation,  were  more  important  to  the  state  than  the  st^m 
realized  by  the  sale  of  the  land.  The  policy  was  <mly  partially 
successful,  and  by  a  number  of  ingenious  evas!i>ns  a  large 
proportion  of  the  best  land  in  the  colony  passed  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  original  squatters.  But  a  sufficient  proportion  was 
purchased  by  small  farmers  to  convert  Victoria  into  a  great 
agricultural  country,  and  to  enable  it  to  export  brge  quantities 
of  farm  and  dairy  produce. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  revenue  was  raised  by  the  taxation 
through  the  customs  of  a  small  number  of  products,  such  as 
spirits,  tobacco,  wine,  tea,  cofTee,  &c.  But  an  agitation  arose 
in  favour  of  such  an  adjustment  of  the  import  duties  as  would 
protect  the  manufactures  which  at  that  tkne  were  being  com- 


menced. A  determined  opposition  to  this  policy  was  made  by  a 
large  minority  in  the  Assembly,  and  by  a  large  majority  in  the 
Council,  but  by  degrees  the  democratic  party  triumphed.  The 
victory  was  not  gained  without  a  number  of  political  arises 
which  shook  the  whole  fabric  of  society  to  its  foundations. 
The  Assembly  tacked  the  tariff  to  the  Appropriation  Bill,  and 
the  Council  threw  out  both.  The  result  was  that  there  was  no 
legal  means  of  paying  either  the  civil  servants  or  the  contractocs, 
and  the  government  had  recourse  to  an  ingenious  though 
questionaUe  system  by  which  advances  were  made  by  a  bank 
which  was  recouped  through  the  crown  **  confessing  "  that  it 
owed  the  money,  hereupon  the  governor  issued  his  warrant 
for  its  payment  with<nit  any  recourse  to  parliament.  Similar 
opposition  was  nuide  by  the  Council  to  payment  of  members, 
and  to  a  grant  made  to  Lady  Dariing,  the  wife  of  Governor  Sir 
Charles  Darling,  who  had  been  recalled  by  the  secretary  of 
state  on  the  charge  of  having  shown  partiality  to  the  democratic 
party.  Indeed  on  one  occasion  the  dispute  between  the 
government  and  the  Council  was  so  violent  that  the  former 
dismissed  all  the  police,  magistrates,  county  court  judges  and 
other  high  officials,  on  the  ground  that  no  provision  had  been 
made  by  the  Council,  which  had  thrown  out  the  Appropriation 
Bill,  for  the  payment  of  salaries. 

Notwithstanding  these  political  struggles,  the  population  of 
the  colony  steadily  increased,  and  the  Legislature  found  time 
to  pass  some  measures  which  affected  the  social  life  and  the 
commercial  poution  of  the  colonies.  State  aid  to  reli^on 
was  abolished,  and  divorce  was  made  comparatively  easy.  A 
system  of  free,  compulsory  and  secular  primary  education  was 
introduced.  The  import  duties  were  increased  and  the  tnnsiw 
of  land  was  simplified.  In  1880  a  fortnightly  mail  service  via 
Suez  between  England  and  Melbourne  was  introduced,  and  in 
1880  the  first  International  Exhibition  ever  held  in  Victoria 
was  opened.  In  the  following  year  the  census  showed  a  popu- 
lation of  863,346,  of  whom  453,083  were  males  and  410,363 
females.  During  the  same  year  the  lengthy  dbpute  between 
the  two  houses  of  parliament,  which  had  caused  so  much  incon* 
venience,  so  many  heartburnings  and  so  many  political  crises, 
was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  passage  <rf  an  act  which  reduced 
the  qualifications  for  members  and  the  election  of  the  Legis- 
lative Council,  shortened  the  tenure  of  their  seats,  increased 
the  number  of  provinces  to  fourteen  and  the  number  of 
members  to  forty-two.  In  1883  a  coalition  government,  in 
which  the  Liberal  or  protectio^st  and  the  Conservative  ct 
free-trade  party  were  represented,  took  office,  and  with  some 
changes  remained  in  power  for  seven  years.  During  this  political 
truce  several  important  changes  were  made  in  the  Constitution. 
An  act  for  giving  greater  facilities  for  divorce  was  passed,  and 
ynth  some  difficulty  obtained  the  royal  assent.  The  Victorian 
railways  were  handed  over  to  the  control  of  three  commissioners, 
who  to  a  considerable  extent  were  made  independent  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  civil  service  was  placed  under  the  supervision  of  an 
independent  board.  In  1887  the  representatives  of  Victoria  met 
those  of  the  other  British  colonies  and  of  the  United  Kingdom 
in  London,  imder  the  presidency  of  Lord  Knutsford,  in  order  to 
discuss  the  questions  of  defence,  postal  and  telegraphic  com- 
munication, and  the  contribution  of  Australia  to  the  Imperial 
navy.  In  1888  a  weekly  mail  service  was  established  via  Suez 
by  the  steamers  of  the  P.  &  O.  and  the  Orient  Companies,  and 
the  second  Victorian  International  Exhibition  was  opened. 
In  1890  all  the  Australian  colonies,  including  New  South  Wales 
and  New  Zealand,  sent  representatives  to  a  conference  at 
Melbourne,  at  which  resolutions  were  passed  in  fevour  of  the 
establishment  of  a  National  Australian  Convention  empowered 
to  consider  and  report  upon  an  adequate  scheme  for  the  Federal 
Constitution.  This  Convention  met  in  Sydney  in  1891  and 
took  the  first  step  towards  federation  (see  Avstraua). 

In  1 891  the  coalition  government  resigned  and  a  Uberal 
administration  was  formed.  An  act  passed  in  that  year 
placed  the  railways  again  under  the  control  of  the  government. 
Measures  of  a  democratic  and  coUectivist  tendency  have  since 
obtained   the  assent  of  the  Legislature.    The  franchise   of 


VICTORIA— VICTORIA  FALLS 


prapsty-lvddcn  noL  roident  In  ui  fllcctDnta  wu  abotisbcd 
uid  the  prindplfl  ol  "  ont  nuu  ddq  wle "  wm  cEltblkbcd. 
Acu  btve  been  puscd  ivxtioniDg  Old  Age  Peniiom;  . 
UbitiDg  tbopSf  eicqH  thou  idling  paisbabla  goodi,  iioai 
kcqiing  open  more  than  eight  bouiii  a>mpeIUiig  tfac 
prieton  to  ^vc  Ihcir  msisiaota  one  bidl-bolicU;  evei, 
diyi;  pirrenting  penou  (mm  worLing  Dtoie  than  forty-eight 
hour»  a  veek;  and  appointing  for  each  trade  a  tiibuDai 
poaed  o[  an  equal  numtxr  of  employen  and  employed  I 
■  minimum  wage.    (See  Austuua.) 

Victoria  rajoyed  a  large  masuie  ol  pnxperity  duiini  ibe 
Uter  'dghllea  and  earlier  'niueties,  and  ita  finanda]  pnaperity 
enabled  tho  govenuncDt  to  expend  large  Buma  in  eite  *' 
laiJway  communicalioii  U>  almoit  every  locality  and  to 
DKiKe  *  (yilein  ai  inlgatioD.  The  aoil  of  Vkloria  ii  c 
«1»le  luore  fertile  tliaa  in  any  oths  colony  on  the  mainland 
of  Auiiralia,  and  in  no  portion  ol  the  coniioeni  i>  there  any 
locality  equal  in  fertility  to  the  western  district  and  lome  paita 
of  Gippabnd,  The  cainTall  ia  more  equable  than  in  any  portion 
of  AuAtialia,  but  Ibc  uortberu  and  oorth-wotem  diatricta, 
idlich  art  Ilie  most  remote  from  the  sea  am)  the  Dividing  Range, 
are  subject  to  droughts,  which,  although  not  ao  severe  or  so 
frequent  as  in  the  interior  of  the  continent,  are  aufhdeotJy 
disaitrous  to  their  eSecta.  The  results  of  the  apendilute 
irrlcalion  have  not  been  »  luuissful  aa  was  bi^wd.  Vi< 
bai  no  Duuniains  covered  with  snow,  which  in  Italy  and  South 
America  supply  with  water  the  rivers  at  the  season  of  the  year 
when  the  Laud  needs  ijii^tiDn^andit  wasnecesssjy  toconslnict 
luge  and  eipenaive  reservoirs.  The  cost  of  water  a  tberelore 
greater  than  the  ordinary  agriculturist  who  grows  grain  or 
breeds  and  fattens  stock  can  afford  tn  pay,  although  the  price 
may  not  be  too  high  for  orchardisis  and  vine-growers.  Id 
_  iSpa  the  jHosperity  of  the  colony  was  checked  by  a 

2^jj[j,  great  strike  which  for  some  months  affected  produc- 
tion, but  ^icculation  in  land  continued  for  some  time 
longer,  eipedaUy  in  Melbourne,  which  at  tha-t  time  contained 
nearly  half  the  papulation,  soo,ooo  out  of  a  total  ol  1,140,105. 
There  does  not  seem  to  liave  been  any  olbti  reasons  lor  this 
ificreaae  in  land  valuta,  for  there  was  on  immigration,  and  the 
v^ue  of  every  description  of  produce  had  fallen — cacept  that 
Ibe  working  classes  were  prosperous  and  well  paid,  and  that 
the  purchase  of  small  allotments  in  the  suburbs  was  a  popular 
mode  of  iDvesIroenl.  In  iSgJ  there  was  a  collapse.  The 
value  of  land  declined  enorinoujly,  hundreds  of  persons  believed 
to  be  wealthy  were  ruined,  and  there  was  a  financial  panic  which 
caused  the  suspension  of  all  the  hanks,  with  the  eiception  of 
the  Australasia,  the  Union  of  Australia,  and  the  New  South 
Walo.  Most  of  them  resumed  payment,  but  three  went  into 
liquidation.  It  was  tome  yean  before  the  normal  condition 
of  proqierily  was  restored,  but  the  great  resources  of  the  colony 
and  the  energy  ol  its  people  discovered  new  markets,  and  new 
products  [or  them,  and  easbled  them  materially  to  increase  the 
eapon  trade,  (G.  C.  L.) 

VICTORIA,  a  city  and  port  of  Brazil,  capital  of  the  state 
U  Esinriio  Santo,  on  the  W.  side  of  an  island  at  the  head  oi 
(he  Bay  of  Eipirito  Sinlo,  370  m.  K.f..  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  ia 
lat.  >o°  iS'  S.Jong.  40°  10'  W.  rop.  (tool,  estimated)  900a. 
The  city  occupies  the  beach  and  tahis  at  the  base  of  a  high, 
wooded  mountain.  The  principal  stIEela  lolkiw  the  water-h'ne, 
rivng  in  terraces  [mm  the  shore,  and  are  crossed  by  nanow, 
steep,  roughly  paved  streets.  The  buildings  are  old  and  ol 
the  colonial  type.    The  governor's  rcsidenco  is  an  old  convent, 

tortuous  and  difficult,  but  Is  luSicienily  deep  for  the  largest 
vessels.  It  is  defended  by  five  small  forts.  The  harbour  is 
not  large,  but  is  safe  and  de^  being  completely  shut  in  by 
hills.  A  large  quay,  pier,  warebouscs,  lie..  lacilitate  the  hand- 
ling of  cargoes,  which  were  previously  transported  to  and  from 
ibc  anchorage  by  lighters.  Victoria  is  a  port  of  till  for  coasting 
sleamera  and  a  shipping  port  in  the  colFce  trade.  The  other 
cxjiorts  arc  sugar,  rice  aitd  mandioca  (manioc)  to  home  porls- 
Vktwia  was  founded  in  ij};  by  Vasco  Fernando  Coulinbo, 


VICTORIA  NYANZA 


45 


sending  up  vast  columns  of  vapour.  Hence  the  native  name 
Musi-oa-lunya,  "  Smoke  docs  sound  there."  The  ctiasm  ex- 
tends the  whole  breadth  of  the  river  and  Is  more  than  twke 
the  depth  of  Niagara,  varying  from  256  ft.  at  the  right  bank 
to  343  ft',  in  the  centre.  Unlike  Niagara  the  water  does  not 
fall  into  an  open  basin  but  is  arrested  at  a  distance  of  from 
80  to  240  ft.  by  the  opposite  wall  of  the  chasm.  Both  walls 
are  of  the  same  height,  so  that  the  faUs  appear  to  be  formed 
by  a  huge  crack  in  the  bed  of  the  river  The  only  outlet  is  a 
narrow  channel  cut  in  ihe  barrier  wall  at  a  point  about  three- 
fifths  from  the  western  end  of  the  chasm,  and  through  this 
gorge,  not  more  than  100  ft.  wide,  the  whole  volume  oJ  the 
river  poucs  for  130  yds.  before  emerging  into  an  enormous 
zigzag  trough  (the  Grand  CaAon)  which  conducts  the  nver 
past  the  basalt  plateau.  The  tremendous  pressure  to  which 
the  water  is  subjected  in  the  confinement  of  the  chasm  causes 
the  perpetual  column^  of  mist  which  rise  over  the  precipice. 

The  fall  is  broken  by  islands  on  the  lip  of  the  precipice  into 
four  parts.  Close  to  the  right  bank  is  a  sloping  cataract  36  yds. 
wide,  called  the  Leaping  Water,  then  beyond  Boanika  Island, 
about  300  yds.  wide,  is  the  Main  Fall,  473  yds.  broad,  and 
divided  by  Livingstone  Island  from  the  Rainbow  Fall  535  yds. 
wide.  At  both  these  falls  the  rock  is  sharp  cut  and  the  river 
maintains  its  level  to  the  edge  of  the  precipice.  At  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  is  the  Eastern  Cataract,  a  millrace  resembling 
the  Leaping  Water.  From  opposite  the  western  end  of  the 
falls  to  Danger  Point,  which  overlooks  the  entrance  of  the 
gorge,  the  escarpment  of  the  chasm  is  covered  with  great  trees 
known  as  the  Rain  Forest ,  looking  across  the  gorge  the  eastern 
part  of  the  wall  (the  Knife  Exlge)  is  less  densely  wooded. 

At  the  end  of  the  gorge  the  riyer  has  hollowed  out  a  deep 
pool,  named  the  BoQing  Pot.  It  is  some  500  ft.  across,  its 
surface,  smooth  at  low  water,  is  at  flood-time  troubled  by 
slow,  enormous  swirls,  and  heavy  boilings.  Thence  the  channel 
turns  sharply  westward,  beginning  the  great  zigzag  mentioned.' 
This  grand  and  gloomy  cafion  is  over  40  m.  long.  Its  almost 
perpendicular  walls  are  over  400  ft.  high,  the  level  of  the  escarp- 
ment being  that  of  the  lip  of  the  falls.  A  little  below  the 
Boiling  Pot,  and  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  falls,  the  cafton 
is  spanned  by  a  bridge  (completed  in  April  190$)  which  forms 
a  link  in  the  Cape  to  Cairo  railway  scheme.  This  bridge, 
650  fL  k>ng,  with  a  main  arch  of  500  ft.  span,  is  slightly  below 
the  top  of  the  gorge.  The  height  from  low-water  level  to  the 
rails  is  420  ft. 

The  volume  of  water  borne  over  the  falls  varies  greatly,  the 
level  of  the  river  in  the  cafion  sinking  as  much  as  60  ft.  between 
the  full  flood  of  April  and  the  end  of  the  dry  season  in  October. 
When  the  river  is  high  the  water  rolls  over  the  main  falls  in 
one  great  unbroken  expanse;  at  low  water  (when  alone  it  is 
possible  to  look  into  the  grey  depths  of  the  great  chasm)  the 
falls  are  broken  by  crevices  in  the  rock  into  numerous  cascades. 
The  falls  are  In  the  territory  of  Rhodesia.  They  were  dis- 
covered by  David  Livingstone  on  the  17th  of  November  i8s5, 
and  by  him  named  after  Queen  Victoria  of  England.  Living- 
stone approached  them  from  above  and  gained  his  first  view 
of  the  falls  from  the  island  on  its  lip  now  named  after  him. 
In  i860  Livingstone,  with  Dr  (afterwards  Sir  John)  Kirk,  made 
a  careful  investigation  of  the  falls,  but  until  the  opening  of  the 
railway  from  Bulawayo  (1905)  they  were  rarely  visited.  The 
land  in  the  vicinity  of  the  falls  is  preserved  by  (he  Rhodesian 
government  as  a  public  park. 

See  Livingstone's  Missionary  Travtls  and  Researches  in  South 
Africa  (London.  1857)  for  the  story  of  the  discovery  of  the  falls, 
and  the  Popular  Account  of  Dr  Livinestone's  Expedition  to  the 
Zambesi  and  its  Tributaries  1858-1864  (Condon,  189^^)  for  a  fuller 
description  of  the  falls  and  a  theory  as  to  their  ongln.  How  I 
crossed  Africa,  by  Major  Serpa  Pinto  (English  trans.,  London. 
1881).  contains  a  graphic  account  of  the  visit  paid  to  the  falls  by  the 
Portuguese  explorer.  In  the  Geographical  Journal  for  January  190^ 
is  an  article  by  A.  J.  C.  Molyneux  on  "The  Physical  History  of 
the  Victoria  Falls."  The  article  is  illustrated  by  excellent  photo- 
graphs and  gives  a  bibliography.  Consult  also  "  The  Gorge  and  Basin 
of  the  Zambesi  below  the  Victoria  Falls."  by  G.  W.  LampluEh  in 
the  Ceog.  Jour  (1908).  vol.  xxxi.  (F.  R.  C.) 

Axvtu  2 


VICrORIA  MTAMZft,  the  largest  lake  in  Africa  and  chief 
reservoir  of  the  Nile,  lyic^  between  o*  20'  N  to  3*  S  and 
31*  40'  to  34*  52'  £.  Among  the  fresh-water  lakes  of  the  world 
it  is  exceeded  in  size  by  Lake  Superior  only  and  has  an  area  of 
over  26,000  sq.  m.,  being  nearly  the  size  of  Scotland.  In  shape 
it  is  an  irregular  quadrilateral,  but  its  shores,  save  on  the  west, 
are  deeply  indented.  Its  greatest  length,  taking  into  account 
the  principal  gul£s,  N.  to  S.  is  250  m.,  its  greatest  breadth  200  m 
Its  coast-line  exceeds  2000  m.  It  fills  a  depression  in  the 
central  part  of  the  great  plateau  which  stretches  between  the 
western  (Albertine)  and  eastern  rift-valleys  (see  Atkica,  $  1). 
and  has  an  elevation  of  about  3720  ft.  above  the  sea^  Its 
greatest  ascertained  depth  is  some  270  ft ,  which  compares  with 
soundings  of  2000  ft  on  Tanganyika  and  2500  ft  on  Nyasa. 
Victona  Nyanza  is  renuirkable  for  the  severe  and  sudden  storms 
which  sweep  across  it,  rendering  navigation  dangerous.  It 
contains  many  groups  of  islands,  the  majority  being  near  the 
coast-line.  The  lake  is  full  of  reefs,  many  just  below  the 
surface  of  the  water,  which  is  clear  and  very  fresh.  It  is 
abundantly  stocked  with  fish.  Geological  research  shows 
that  the  land  surrounding  the  lake  consists  of  gneiss,  quarts 
and  schistose  rocks,  covered,  in  the  higher  regions,  with  marl 
and  red  clay,  and  in  the  valleys  with  a  rich  black  loam. 

Shores  and  Idands.-'The  shores  of  the  lake  present  varied  aspects. 
The  western  coast,  which  contains  no  large  indentations,  is.  m  its 
southern  part,  backed  b)r  precipices  of  300  or  more  ft.  high,  behind 
which  rise  downs  to  thrice  the  height  of  the  cliffs.  Going  north, 
the  hills  give  way  to  papyrus  and  ambach  swamps,  which  mark  the 
delta  of  the  Kageia.  Beyond  the  raouth  of  that  nver  the  hills 
rea'ppcar,  and  increase  in  height,  till  on  reaching  the  N  W.  corner 
of  the  nyanza  they  rise  some  500  ft.  above  the  water.  This  western 
shore  is  marked  by  a  continuous  fault  line  which  runs  parallel  to  the 
lake  at  a  short  distance  inland.  The  northern  coast  oT  the  lake  ia 
very  daepljr  indented  and  is  marked  throughout  its  length  by  rocky 
headlands  jutting  into  the  waters  This  nigh  land  is  very  narrow, 
and  the  streams  which  rise  on  its  northern  face  within  a  mile  or  two 
of  the  nyanza  drain  north  away  from  the  lake.  On  a  promontory 
about  30  m.  east  of  the  Katonga  (see  below)  is  Entebbe,  the  port  of 
Uganda  and  seat  of  the  British  administration.  The  chief  indenta- 
tions on  the  north  side  are  Murchison  Bay  and  Napoleon  Gulf, 
the  entrance  to  the  last  named  being  partly  Ailed  by  the  triangular- 
shaped  island  of  Buvuma  or  Uvuma  (area  160  s<^.  m.).  Napoleon 
Gulf  itself  is  deeply  indented,  one  bay,  that  of  lin^a.  running  N  W. 
and  being  the  outlet  of  the  Nile,  the  water  here  forcing  its  way 
through  the  rock-bound  shore  of  the  lake.  The  north-east  corner 
of  the  lake  is  fUt  and  bare.  A  narrow  channel,  partly  masked  by 
islands,  leads  into  Kavirondo  Gulf,  which,  with  an  average  width 
of  6  m.,  extends  45  m.  E.  of  the  normal  coast-linc — a  fact  taken 
advantage  of  in  building  the  railway  from  Mombasa  to  the  lake. 
A  promontory,  174  tt.  aoove  lake-level,  jutting  into  the  small  bay 
of  Ugowe,  at  the  north-east  end  of  Kavirondo  Gulf,  is  the  point 
where  the  railway  terminates.  The  station  is  known  as  Port 
Florence.  On  the  south  side  of  the  gulf  tall  hilts  approach,  and  in 
some  cases  reach,  the  water's  edge,  and  behind  them  towers  the 
rugged  range  of  Kasagunga  with  its  saw-like  ed^.  Proceeding 
south  the  uiore  trends  generally  south-west  and  is  marked  witti 
many  deep  inlets,  the  coast  presenting  a  succession  of  bold  bluffs, 
while  inland  the  whole  district  is  distinctly  mountainous.  At  the 
S.K.  comer  off  the  lake  Speke  Gulf  projects  eastward,  and  at  the 
S.W.  corner  Emin  Pasha  Gulf  pushes  southward.  Here  the  coast 
is  barren  and  hilly,  while  long  ridges  of  rock  run  into  the  lake. 

The  largest  island  in  the  IsHce,  Ukerewe,  on  the  S.E.  coast,  imme> 
diacely  north  of  Speke  Gulf,  is  almost  a  peninsula,  but  the  strip  of 
land  connecting  it  with  the  shore  is  pierced  by  two  narrow  channels 
about  }  of  a  mile  lon^.  Ukercwe  is  25  m.  long,  and  12  broad  at 
its  greatest  width.  It  is  uninhabited,  wooded  and  hilly,  rising  6^0  ft. 
above  the  lake.  At  the  N.W.  corner  of  the  nyanza  is  the  §css6 
archipelago,  consisting  of  sixty*two  islands.  The  largest  island 
in  this  group,  namely,  Bugab,  is  narrow,  resemblins;  the  letter  S 
in  shape,  and  is  almost  cut  in  two  in  the  middle.  Most  of  these 
islands  arc  densely  forested,  and  some  of  them  attain  considerable 
elevation.  Their  scenery  is  of  striking  beauty.  Forty>two  were 
inhabited.'  Buvuma  Island,  at  the  entrance  of  Napoleon  Gulf, 
has  already  been  mentioned.  Between  it  and  as  far  as  the  mouth 
of  Kavirondo  Gulf  are  numerous  other  islands,  of  which  the  chief 
are  Bugaia.  Lolui,  Rusunga  and  Mfwanganu.  In  general  char^ 
acteristics  and  the  beauty  of  their  scenery  these  islands  resemble 
those  of  the  Sessi  archipelago.  The  islands  arc  ol  ironstone  forma* 
tion  overlying  quartzite  ana  crystalline  schists. 

Rivers.— The  Kagera,  the  largest  and  most  important  of  the  lake 


*  For  the  altitude  see  Ceog.  Jour.,  March  1907  and  July  1908. 

'  To  prevent  the  spread  01  sleeping  sickness  the  inhabitants  were 

removed  to  the  tnatnland  ('909). 

2a 


4^6 


\aCTORINU8— VICTOR-PERRIN 


liRacnu,  wbicfa  has  ht  rite  in  th«  hill  countiy  eait  q(  Ulae  Kivu. 
and  enters  the  west  side  of  the  nyanza  iust  north  of  i*  S.,  is  described 
In  the  anidc  Nile,  of  which  it  is  tne  most  remote  head-strram. 
The  other  riven  entering  Victoria  Nvanca  from  the  west  are  the 
Katonga  and  Ruici,  both  north  of  the  Kagera.  The  Katonga  rises  in 
the  plateau  east  of  the  Oweni  branch  of  Albert  Edward  Nyanza,  and 
after  a  sluggish  course  of  I55  nt'  enters  Victoria  Nyanra  in  a  wide 
swamp  at  its  N.W.  corner.  The  Ruizi  (180  m.)  is  a  deep,  wide  and 
swift  stream  with  sinuous  course  flowing  in  part  through  great 

Sorgea  and  in  part  through  laige  swamps.  It  rises  in  the  Aokole 
istrict  and  reaches  the  nyansa  a  Uttle  north  of  the  Kagera.  Be- 
tween the  Katonga  and  the  Nile  outlet,  the  rivers  which  rise  dose 
to  the  lake  drain  away^  northward,  the  watershed  being  the  lake 
shcre.  On  the  N.E.  side  of  the  nyanza,  however,  several  con- 
siderable streams  reach  the  lake— notably  the  Sio,  Naoia  and 
Lukos  (or  Yala).  The  Ncoia  (150  m.).  the  largest  of  the  three, 
rises  in  tht  foothills  of  the  Elgcyo  escarpment  and  flows  swiftly 
over  a  rocky  bed  in  a  south-westerly  direction,  emptying  into  the 
lake  south  nf  Berkeley  Bay.  On  the  east  side  the  Mara  Dabagh 
enters  the  lake  between  i*  and  2*  S.  It  b,  next  to  the  Kagera,  the 
largest  of  the  lake  tributaries.  All  the  rivers  mentioned  are  per^ 
ennial,  and  most  of  them  bring  down  a  considerable  volume  of 
water,  even  in  the  dry  season.  On  the  S.,  S.E.  and  S.W.  shores  a 
number  of  short  rivers  drain  into  the  lake.  They  traverse  a  tree- 
less and  arid  region,  have  but  an  intermittent  flow,  and  are  of 
little  importance  in  the  hydrography  of  the  district. .  The  only 
outlet  of  the  lake  is  the  Nile  (q.9.). 

Drainage  Area,  Rainfall  and  Lake  Leoel. — ^The  very  important  part 

played  by  the  Victoria  Nyanza  in  the  Nile  system  has  led  to  careful 

study  of  Its  drainage  basin  and  rainfall  and  tne  perplexing  variations 

in  the  level  of  the  lake.    The  area  drained  by  tne  lake  covets,  with 

the  lake  itself,  92,240  sq.  m.    In  part  it  is  densely  forested,  part 

consists  of  lofty  mountains,  and  a  considerable  portion  b  somewhat 

arid  tableland.    According  to  the  calculations  of  Sir  William  Garstin 

the  rainfall  over  the  whole  area  averages  50  in.  a  year.    Allowing 

that  as  much  as    25  %  of  this  amount  enters   the  lake,    th»  b 

eauivalcnt  to  a  total  of  138,750,000,000  cub.  metres  in  a  year. 

NIcasurcments  at  the  Ripon  Falls  show  that  18,000,000.000,  or  some 

13%  of  this  amount,  is  taken  off  by  the  Nile,  and  when  alkjw- 

ance  has  been  made  for  the  annual  rise  and  fall  of  the  lake-level  it 

is  apparent  that  bv  far  the  greater  part  of  the  water  which  enters 

the  nyanza  is  lost  by  evaporation ;  in  fact,  that  the  amount  drawn 

off  by  the  river  plays  a  comparatively  small  part  in  the  annual 

oscillation  of  the  water  surface.    Rain  falls  reorc  or  less  in  every 

month,  but  is  heaviest  during  March,  April.  May  and  again  in 

September,  October  and  November.     The  level   of   the  lake   is 

chiefly  aflcctcd  by  the  autumn  rains  and    generally    reaches  its 

maximum  in  July.    The  annual  rise  and  fall  is  on  an  average  from 

1  to  3  ft.,  but  between  November  looo  and  June  1901  a  diftcrencc 

of  42  in.  was  recorded.    Consideraole  speculation  was  caused  by 

the  fact  that  whereas  in  1878-70  the  lake-level  was  high,  from 

1880    to    1890   the    level    was    falling,    and    that    after   a    few 

years  (1892-95)  of  higher  level  there  was,  from  1896  to  1902^  again 

a   steady   fall,    amounting    in    seven   years    to   30   in.   in   the 

average  levels  of  the  lake.     In  1903,  however,  the  level  rose  and 

everywhere  the  land  gained  from  the  lake  in  the  previous  years 

was   flooded.     These   variations  are  attributed   by  Sir   William 

Garstin  to  deficiency  or  excess  of  rainfall.    Any  secular  shrinking 

of  the  lake  in  common  with  the  lakes  of  Central  Africa  generally 

must  be  so  gradual  as  to  have  no  practical  importance.    It  must 

also  be  remembered  that  in  such  a  vast  sheet  of  water  as  b  the 

nyanza  the  wind  exercises  an  influence  on  the  level,  tending  to 

pile  up  the  water  at  different  parts  of  the  lake.    The  winds  may 

also  be  the  cause  of  the  daily  variation  of  level,  which  on  Spclce 

Gulf  has  been  found  to  reach  20  in.;  but  this  may  also  partake 

of  the  character  of  a  "  seiche."    Currents  setting  towards  the  north 

or  north-west  have  been  observed  in  various  parts  of  the  lake. 

Discovery  and  Expioraiion.-^Thc  quest  for  the  Nile  sources kd 
to  the  discovery  of  the  lake  by  J.  H.  Speke  in  1858,  and  it  was 
by  him  named  Victoria  in  honour  of  the  queen  of  England. 
In  1862  Speke  and  hb  companion,  J.  A.  Grant,  partially  explored 
the  N.W.  shore,  leaving  the  lake  at  the  Nile  outlet.  Great 
difTcrcnces  of  opinion  existed  as  to  its  size  until  its  circum- 
navigation in  id74  by  H.  M.  Stanley,  which  proved  it  to  be  of 
vast  extent.  The  invitation  sent  by  King  Mtesa  of  Uganda 
through  Stanley  to  the  Christian  missionaries  led  to  the  despatch 
from  England  in  1876  of  the  Rev.  C.  T.  Wilson,  to  whom  we 
owe  our  first  detailed  knowledge  of  the  nyanza.  Mr  Wilson 
and  Lieut.  Shergold  Smith,  R.N.,  made,  in  1877,  the  first  voyage 
across  the  nyanza.  Lieut.  Smith  and  a  Mr  O'Neill,  both 
members  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  were  in  the  same 
3rcar  mtirdered  on  Ukerewe  Island.  In  18S9  Stanley  further 
explored  the  lake,  discovering  Etnin  Pasha  Gulf,  the  entrance 
to  which  b  masked  by  several  islands.  In  iSgo  the  ownership 
of  the  lake  was  divided  by  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  the  first 


degree  of  south  latitude  being  taken  a^.tbe  boundary  Bat 
The  southern  portion,  which  fell  to  Germany,  was  visited  ai^ 
described  by  scientists  of  that  nation,  whose  objects,  howc\a, 
were  not  primarily  geographic.  At  the  instance  of  the  Briiisk 
Foreign  GlTicc  a  survey  of  the  northern  shores  of  the  lake  ujs 
carried  out  in  1899-1900  by  Commander  B.  Whitehousc,  R..V 
The  same  officer,  in  1903,  undertook,  in  agreement  with  tht 
German  government,  a  survey  of  the  southern  shores.  Coa- 
mandcr  Wbitehouse's  work  led  to  considerable  modification  of 
the  previously  accepted  maps.  He  discovered  numerous  islar.is 
and   bays  whose  existence  had  previously  been  unknown. 

Previously  to  1896  navigation  was  confined  to  Arab  dhous, 
which  trade  between  the  south  end  of  the  lake  and  Uganda, 
and  to  canoes.  In  the  year  named  a  small  steamer  (the  "  Ru«co 
xori  ")  was  launched  on  the  lake  by  a  Zanzibar  firm,  whik  ic 
1900  a  somewhat  larger  steamer  (the  "  William  Mackinnon  ' ), 
built  in  Glasgow  at  the  instance  of  Sir  W.  Mackinnon,  and 
afterwards  taken  over  by  the  British  government,  made  her 
first  trip  on  the  lake.  In  1903,  the  year  in  which  the  railway 
from  Mombasa  to  the  lake  was  completed,  a  Reamer  of  600  toes 
burden  was  launched  at  Port  Florence.  Since  that  date  trad« 
has  consideiably  increased. 

See  NiLR  and  Uganda  and  the  British  Blue-book  Egypt  No.  2 
O904),  which  is  a  Refwri  In  Sir  Wm.  Carslin  upon  Ike  Basin  oj  the 
Upper  Nile.    This  report,  besides  giving  (pp.  4-24)  much  orii:ir.iJ 
information  upon  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  summarizes  the  informa- 
tion of  previous  travellers,  whose  works  are  auotcd.     In  1908  ;he 
British  Admiralty  publitJicd  a  chart  of  the  lake  (scale  4  in.  to  thr 
mik:)  from  the  surveys  of  Commander  VVhitchousc.     Non-onk;..' 
books  which  deal  with  the  lake  include:  C.  T.  Wilson,    Ugc-^ 
and  the  Soudan  (London,  1882):  (Sir)  F.  D.  Lugard,  The  Risr  pJ  rj 
East  African  Empire,  vol.  ii.  (London,  1803^:  Franz  Stuhlmar.r. 
Mil  Emin  Pasha,  &e.  (Berlin,  1894);  Paul  KoUmann.  The  Vitu.rM 
Nyanaa  (English  translation;  London.   1899);  E.  G.  RavenMcin, 
*'  The  Lake'Tcvcl  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,     Geographical  Jourvcl. 
October    1901 ;  Sir    H.    H.    lohnston.    The    Uganda    Protectcrcte 
(London,   1902).     In  most  of  these  publications  the  descriptions 
of  the  lake  occupy  but  a  small  part.  (W.  E.  G.;  F.  R.  C.) 

VICTORINUS.  OAIUS  MARIUS  (4th  century  a.d.).  Roman 
grammarian,  rhetorician  and  neo-Platonic  philosopher,  an 
African  by  birth  (whence  his  surname  Afcr),  lived  during  the 
reign  of  Constantius  II.  He  taught  rhetoric  at  Rome  (one  of 
his  pupils  being  Jerome),  and  in  his  old  age  became  a  convert 
to  Christianity.  His  conversion  is  said  to  have  greatly  influenced 
that  of  Augustine.  When  Julian  published  an  edict  forbid<ling 
Christians  to  lecture  on  polite  literature,  Victorintis  closed 
his  school.  A  statue  was  erected  in  his  honour  as  a  teacher 
in  the  Forum  Trajanum. 

His  translations  of  platonic  writers  are  lost,  but  the  treatise  De 
Definitionibns  (cd.  T.  Stangl  in  Tulliana  et  ifario-Victoriniana, 
Munich,  1888)  is  probably  by  him  and  not  by  BoiHius,  to  whom  it 
was  formerly  attributed.  His  manual  of  prosodv,  in  four  books, 
taken  almost  literally  from  the  work  of  Aphthonlus,  is  extant 
(H.  Keil,  Crammalici  Latini,  vi.).  It  is  doubtful  whether  he  is  the 
author  of  certain  other  extant  treatises  attributed  to  him  on  metrical 
and  grammatical  subjects,  which  will  be  found  in  Kcil.  His  com- 
mentary on  Cicero's  De  Inventione  (in  Halm's  Rhetores  Latirti 
Minores,  1863)  is  very  difl'use,  and  is  itself  in  need  of  commentary. 
His  extant  theological  writings^  which  will  be  found  in  J.  P. 
Migne,  Cursus  Patrologiae  Lattnae,  viii.,  include  commentaries 
on  Galatians,  Ephesians  and  PhiliJ>pians',  De  Trinitate  contra 
Arium;  Ad  justtnum  Manichaeum  ae  Vera  Came  Christi;  and  a 
Uttle  tract  on  "  The  Evening  and  the  Morning  were  one  day  "  (the 
genuineness  of  the  last  two  is  doubtful).  Some  Christian  poems 
under  the  name  of  Victorinus  arc  probably  not  his. 

See  G.  Geiger,  C.  Marius  Victorinus  Afer,  ein  neupiatonischer 
Philosoph  (Vlctten,  1888);  G.  Kofl'mann,  De  Mario  Viclorino 
phUosopho  Christiana  (Brcslau,  1880);  R.  Schmid,  Marius  Vic- 
torinus Rhetor  und  seine  Be&iehungen  zu  Augustin  (Kiel,  1895);  Gore 
in  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography,  iv.;  M.  Schanz,  Ceschichle 
der  rdmischm  Litteralur.  iv.  I  (1904);  Teuffcl,  Hist,  of  Roman 
Literature  (Eng.  tr.,  1900J,  408. 

VICTOR-PBRRIN,  CLA0DE,  DiniE  of  Belluno  (1764- 
1841),  marshal  of  France,  was  bom  at  La  Marche  (Vosges)  on 
the  7th  of  December  1764.  In  1781  he  entered  the  army  as  a 
private  soldier,  and  after  ten  years'  service  he  received  his 
discharge  and  settled  at  Valence.  Soon  afterwards  he  joined 
the  local  volunteers,  and  distinguishing  himself  in  the  war  on 
the  Alpine  frontier,  in  less  than  a  year  he  had  risen  to  the 


VICTUAL— VIDAME 


47 


f  command  of  a  battalion.  For  fiis  bravery  at  the  siege  of  Toulon 
I  in  1793  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade.  He 
I  afterwards  served  for  some  time  with  the  array  of  the  Eastern 
t  Pyrenees,  and  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1796-97  ^^  «> 
t  acquitted  himself  at  Mondovi,  Roveredo  and  Mantua  that  he 

was  promoted  to  be  general  of  division.    After  commanding 
I  for  some  lime  the  forces  in  the  department  of  La  Vendue,  he 

[  was  again  employed  in  Italy,  where  he  did  good  service  against 

I  the  papal  troops,  and  he  took  a  very  .important  part  in   the 

i  battle  of  Marengo.    In  1802  he  was  governor  of  the  colony  of 

Louisiana  for  a  short  time,  in  1803  he  commanded  the  Batavian 
army,  and  afterwards  he  acted  for  eighteen  months  (1805-6) 
as  French  plenipotentiary  at  Copenhagen.  On  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities  with  PAissia  he  joined  the  V.  army  corps  (Marshal 
Lannes)  as  chief  of  the  general  staff.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  Saalfeld  and  Jena,  and  at  Friedland  he  comma/ided  the 
I.  corps  in  such  a  manner  that  Napoleon  gave  him  the  marshal- 
ate.  After  the  peace  of  Tilsit  he  became  governor  of  Berlin, 
and  in  1808  he  was  created  duke  of  Belluno.  In  the  same  year 
he  was  sent  to  Spain,  where  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Peninsular  War  (especially  at  Espinosa,  Talavera,  Barrosa  and 
Cadiz),  until  his  appointment  in  181 2  to  &  corps  command  in 
the  invasion  of  Russia.  Here  his  most  important  service  was 
in  protecting  the  retreating  army  at  the  crosang  of  the 
Beresina.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  wars  of  1813-14,  till 
in  February  of  the  latter  year  he  had  the  misfortune  to  arrive 
too  late  at  ^fontereau-sur-Yonne  The  result  was  a  scene  of 
violent  recrimination  and  his  supersesaon  by  the  emperor,  who 
transferred  his  command  to  Gerard.  Thus  wounded  in  his 
amour-propre,  Victor  now  transferred  his  all^iance  to  the 
Bourbon  dynasty,  and  in  December  18x4  received  from 
Louis  XVIII.  the  command  of  the  second  military  division. 
In  1815  he  accompanied  the  king  to  Ghent,  and  on  the  second 
restoration  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France^  He  was  also 
president  of  a  commission  which  inquired  into  the  conduct 
of  the  officers  during  the  Hundred  Days,  and  dbmissed 
Napoleon's  sympathizers.  In  1821  he  was  appointed  war 
minister  and  held  this  office  for  two  years.  In  1830  he  was 
major-general  of  the  royal  guard,  and  after  the  revolution  of 
that  year  he  retired  altogether  into  private  life.  His  death 
took  place  at  P&ris  on  the  xst  of  March  1841. 

His  papers  for  the  period  1793-1800  have  been  pnbliabed  (Paris. 

1846). 

VICTUAIi,  food,  provisions,  most  commonly  in  the  plural. 
"  victuals."  The  word  and  its  pronunciatbn  came  into  English 
from  the  O.  Fr.  vitaUle.  The  modem  French  and  English 
spelling  are  due  to  a  pedantic  approzimatioa  to  the  Latin 
original,  vktualia^  a  neuter  plural  substantive  formed  from 
victualis,  victtts,  nourishment,  provisions  (vtivre,  to  live).  The 
most  familiar  use  of  the  term  is  in  "  licensed  victualler,"  to  which 
the  Licensing  Act  1873  (}  27)  has  applied  the  wide  significance 
of  any  person  selling  any  intoxicating  liquor  under  a  licence 

from  a  justice  of  the 
peace.  Properly  a 
"  victualling  house  " 
is  one  where  persons 
are  provided  with  food 
and  drink  but  not 
lodgings^  and  is  thus 
distinct  from  an  inn, 
which  also  provides 
the    last. 

VICUOilA,  one  of 
the  two  wild  living 
Soutji  American  re- 
presentatives  of  the 
camel-tribe,  a  CanU' 
lidac  (see  TirLOPooA). 
From  its  relative  the 
guanaco  the  vicugfta 
{Lama  ticunia)  differs  by  its  Inferior  stature,  more  slender  build 
and  diorter  head,  as  well  as  by  the  absence  of  bare  patches  or 


Head  of  Vicugiia. 


callosities  on  the  hind  limbs.  The  general  colour  of  the  woolly 
coat  is  orange-red.  Vicugfias  live  in  herds  on  the  bleak  and 
elevated  parts  of  the  mountain  range  bordering  the  region  of 
perpetual  snow,  amidst  rocks  and  precipices,  occurring  in 
various  parts  of  Peru,  in  the  southern  part  of  Ecuador,  and  as 
far  south  as  the  middle  of  Bolivia.  The  wool  is  extremely 
delicate  and  soft,  and  highly  valued  for  the  purposes  of  weaving, 
but  the  quantity  which  each  animal  produces  is  not  great. 

VIDA,  HARCO  GIROLAHO  (c.  I489>i566).  Italian  scholar 
and  Latin  poet,  was  born  at  Cremona  shortly  before  the  year 
1490.  He  received  the  name  of  Marcantonio  in  baptbm,  but 
changed  this  to  Marco  Girolamo  when  he  entered  the  order  of 
the  Canonici  Regolari  Lateranensi.  During  his  early  manhood 
he  acquired  considerable  fame  by  'the  composition  of  two 
didactic  poems  in  the  Latin  tongue,  on  the  Game  of  Chess 
{Scacckiae^Ludus)  and  on  the  Silkvmm  {Bombyx).  This  reputa- 
tion induced  him  to  seek  the  papal  court  in  Rome,  which  was 
rapidly  becoming  the  headquarters  of  pohle  learning,  the  place 
where  students  might  expect  advancement  through  their 
literary  talents.  Vlda  reached  Rome  in  the  last  years  of  the 
ponti6cate  of  Julius  II.  Leo  X ,  on  succeeding  to  the  papal 
chair  (15x3),  treated  him  with  marked  favour,  bestowed  on  him 
the  priory  of  St  Sylvester  at  Frascati,  and  bade  him  compose 
a  heroic  Latin  poem  on  the  life  of  Christ  Such  was  the  origin 
of  the  Christiad,  Vida's  most  celebrated,  if  not  his  best,  per^ 
forman(%.  It  did  not,  however,  see  the  light  in  Leo's  lifetime. 
Between  the  years  1520  and  1527  Vida  produced  the  second  of 
his  masterpieces  in  Latin  hexameters,  a  didactic  poem  on  the 
Art  of  Poetry  (see  Baldi's  edition,  WGrzburg,  1881).  Clement 
VII.  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  apost<^c  protonotary,  and  in 
1532  conferred  on  him  the  bishopric  of  Alba.  It  is  probable 
that  he  took  up  hb  residence  in  this  town  soon  after  the  death 
of  Clement;  and  here  he  spent  the  greater  portion  of  his  remain- 
ing years.  Vida  attended  the  council  of  Trent,  where  he 
enjoyed  the  society  of  Cardinab  Cervini,  Pole  and  Del  Monte, 
together  with  hb  friend  the  poet  Flaminio.  A  record  of  their 
conversations  may  be  studied  in  VIda's  Latin  dialogue  De 
Repvhlica.  Among  hb  other  writings  should  be  mentioned 
throe  eloquent  orations  in  defence  of  Cremona  against  Pavia, 
composed  upon  the  occasion  of  some  dbpute  as  to  precedency 
between  those  two  cities.  Vida  died  at  Alba  on  the  371b  of 
September  1566. 

See  the  Life  by  Lancetti  (Milan.  1840). 

VIDAME  (Lat.  nUe-dominus),  a  French  feudal  title.  The 
vidame  was  originally,  like  the  avou£  {advocatus),  an  official 
chosen  by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  with  the  consent  of- the 
count  (see  Advocate).  Unlike  the  advocate,  however,  the 
vice-dominus  was  at  the  outset  an  ecclesiastic,  who  acted  as 
the  bishop's  lieutenant  [locum  lenem)  or  vicar.  But  the  causes 
that  changed  the  character  of  the  advoealus  operated  also  in 
the  case  of  the  vidame.  During  the  Carolingian  epoch,  indeed, 
advocatMS  and  vUe-dominuS  were  interchangeable  terms,  and 
it  was  only  m  the  nth  century  that  they  became  generally 
differentiated:  the  title  of  avou^  being  commonly  reserved  for 
nobles  charged  with  the  protection  of  an  abbey,  that  of  vidame 
for  those  guarding  an  episcopal  see.  With  the  crystallization 
of  the  feudal  system  in  the  I3th  century  the  office  of  vidame, 
like  that  of  avouft,  had  become  an  hereditary  fief.  As  a  title, 
however,  it  was  much  less  common  and  also  less  dignified  than 
that  of  avoul.  The  advocati  were  often  great  barons  who  added 
their  function  of  protector  of  an  abbey  to  their  own  temporal 
sovereignty,  whereas  the  vidames  were  usually  petty  nobles, 
who  exercised  their  office  in  strict  subordination  to  the  bishop. 
Their  chief  functions  were:  to  protect  the  temporalities  of  the 
see,  to  represent  the  bishop  at  the  count's  court  of  justice,  to 
exercise  the  bbhop's  temporal  jurisdiction  in  his  name  {plactlum 
or  curia  vice-dominf)  and  to  lead  the  episcopal  levies  to  war. 
In  return  they  usually  had  a  house  near  the  episcopal  palace, 
a  domain  within  and  without  the  city,  and  sometimes  the  right 
to  levy  certain  dues  on  the  city.  The  vidames  usually  took 
their  title  from  the  see  they  represented,  but  not  infrequently 
they  styled  themselves,  not  alter  their  official  fief,  Ixut  alter 


48 


VIDIN— VIDYASAGAR 


their  private  sciptewia.'  Thus  the  vidame  de  Picquigny  was 
the  representative  of  the  bishop  of  Amiens,  the  vidame  de 
Gerberoy  of  the  bishop  of  Beauvais.  In  many  sees  there  were 
no  vidames,  their  function  being  exercised  by  viscounts  or 
ch&telains.  With  the  growth  of  the  central  power  and  of  that 
of  the  municipalities  the  vidames  gradually  k»t  ail  importance, 
and  the  title  became  merely  honorary 

See  A.  Luchaire,  Manud  des  institulums  franfaises  (Paris,  1892); 
Du  C&ngc.Glassarium  (cd.  Niort.  1 637),  s.  "  Vice^iotnanus  " ;  A. 
Mallet.  "  Etude  hist,  sur  les  avouds  et  les  vidames,"  'uCPosUion  des 
thtscs  de  V&cole  des  charUs  (an.  1870-72). 

VIDIN  (formerly  written  Widin  or  Widoin),  a  fortified 
river-port  and  the  capital  of  a  department  in.  the  extreme 
N.E.  of  Bulgaria;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Danube,  near 
the  Servian  frontier  and  151  m.  W.N.W.  of  Sofia.  Pop.  (1906) 
x6,i68,  including  about  3000  Turks  and  1500  Spanish  Jews — 
descendants  of  the  refugees  who  fied  hither  from  the  Inquisition 
in  the  i6th  century.  Vidin  is  an  epis(X)pal  see  and  the  head- 
quarters of  a  brigade;  it  was  formerly  a  stronghold  of  some 
importance,  and  was  roidered  difficult  to  besiege  by  the  sur- 
rounding marshes,  formed  where  the  Topolovitxa  and  other 
streams  join  the  Danube.  A  steam  ferry  connects  it  with 
Calafat,  on  the  Rumanian  bank  of  the  Danube,  and  there  is  a 
branch  railway  to  Mezdra,  on  the  main  line  Sofia-Plevna.  The 
city  consists  of  three  divisions — the  modem  suburbs  extending 
beside  the  Danube,  the  citadel  and  the  old  town,  still  sur- 
rounded by  waUs,  though  only  four  of  its  nine  towers  remain 
standing.  The  old  town,  containing  several  mosques  and 
synagogues  and  a  bazaar,  preserves  its  oriental  appearance; 
the  citadel  is  used  as  a  military  magazine.  There  are  a  modem 
cathedral,  a  school  of  viticulture  and  a  high  school,  besides  an 
a&dent  dock-tower  and  the  palace  {Konak)  formerly  occupied 
by  the  Turkish  pashas.  Vidin  exports  cereals  and  fruit,  and 
is  locally  celebrated  for  its  gold  and  silver  filigree.  It  has 
important  fisheries  and  manufactures  <^  spirits,  beer  and 
tobacco. 

Vidin  stands  on  the  ute  of  the  Roman  town  of  Bononia  in 
Mocsia  Superior,  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Pannontan 
Bononia,  which  stood  higher  up  the  Danube  to  the  north  of 
Sirmium.  Its  name  figures  conspicuously  in  the  military  annals 
of  medieval  and  recent  times;  and  it  is  specially  memorable 
for  the  overthrow  of  the  Turks  by  the  imperial  forces  in  1689 
and  for  the  crushing  defeat  of  the  hospodar  Michael  Sustos 
by  Pasvan  Oglu  in  1801.  It  was  again  the  scene  of  stirring 
events  during  the  Russo-Turkish  Wars  of  X854-55  and  1877-78, 
and  successfully  resisted  the  assaults  of  the  Servians  in  the 
Servo-Bulgarian  War  of  1886-87. 

VIDOCQ.  FRANCOIS  EUG^B  (i77S-i857)i  French  detective, 
was  bom  at  Arras  in  1775  (or  possibly  1773).  After  an  adven- 
turous youth  he  joined  the  French  army,  where  he  rose  to  be 
lieutenant.  At  Lille  he  yns  imprisoned  as  the  result  of  a  quarrel 
with  a  brother  ofiker,  and  while  in  gaol  became  involved, 
possibly  innocently,  in  the  forgery  of  an  order  for  the  release  of 
another  prisoner.  He  was  sentenced  to  ei^t  years'  bard  labour, 
and  sent  to  the  galleys  at  Brest,  whence  he  escaped  twice  but 
was  recaptured.  For  the  third  time  he  succeeded  in  getting 
free,  and  lived  for  some  time  in  the  company  of  thieves  and 
other  criminals  in  Paris  and  elsewhere,  making  a  careful  study 
of  their  methods.  He  then  o£fered  his  services  as  a  spy  to  the 
Paris  police  (1809).  The  o£fer  was  accepted,  on  condition  that 
he  should  extend  his  knowledge  of  the  criminal  classes  by 
himself  serving  a  further  term  in  prison  in  Paris,  and  subse- 
quently Vidocq  was  made  chief  of  the  reorganized  detective 
department  of  the  Paris  police,  with  a  body  of  ex-convicts  under 
his  Immediate  command.  In  this  capacity  Vidocq  was  ex- 
tremely successful,  for  he  possessed  unbounded  energy  and  a 
real  genius  for  hunting  down  criminals.  In  1827,  having  saved 
a  considerable  sum  of  money,  he  retired  from  his  post  and 
started  a  paper-mill,  the  work-people  in  which  were  drawn 
entirely  from  ex-convicts.  The  venture,  however,  was  a  failure, 
and  in  1832  Vidocq  re-entered  the  police  service  and  was  em- 
f>loyod  mainly  in  political  work,  though  |^ven  no  special  office. 


Anxious  to  get  back  to  his  old  detective  pott  he  himself  tooUsiJy 

organized  a  daring  theft.    The  authorities  were  unable  to  trace 

the  thieves,  who  at  the  proper  moment  were  "  discovered  " 

by  Vidocq.   His  real  part  in  the  matter  became  known,  however, 

and  he  was  dismissed  from  service.    He  subsequently  standi 

a  private  inquiry  agency,  which  was  indifferently  successful, 

and  was  finally  suppressed.      Vidocq  died  in  great  poverty  in 

1857.    Several  volumes  have  been  published  under  his  name, 

the  best  known  of  which  is  Mimoires  dt  Vidocq  (1828).      It 

is,  however,  extremdy  doubtful  whether  he  wrote  any  of  them. 

See  Charles  Ledru,  La  Vie,  la  mart  et  les  derniers  momemis  4% 
Vidocq  (Paris,  1857). 

VIDYASAGAR,  I5WAR  CHANDRA  (1820-1891),  writer  and 
social  reformer  of  Bengal,  was  bora  at  Birsinha  in  the  Midnapur 
district  in  1820,  of  a  Kulin  Brahman  family.    He  was  removed 
to  Calcutta  at  the  age  of  nine,  was  adoutted  into  the  Sanskrit 
College,  and  carried  on  his  studies  in  the  midst  of  privations  and 
extreme  poverty.    In  1839  he  obtained  the  title  of  Vidyasagar 
(s"  Ocean  of  learning  ")  after  passing  a  brilliant  examination, 
and  in  1850  was  appointed  head  pandit  of  Fort  William  College. 
In  1846  appeared  his  first  work  in  Bengali  prose,  The  Tweniy- 
Five  Talcs  of  a  Betel.    This  was  succeeded  by  his  SakutUala  in 
1855,  and  by  his  greatest  work.  The  Exile  of  SUat  in  1863.   These 
are  marked  by  a  grace  and  beauty  which  Bengali  prose  had  never 
known  before.    The  literature  of  Bengal,  previous  to  the  i9tfa 
century,  was  entirely  in  verse.    Ram  Mohan  Roy,  the  rdigious 
reformer  of  Bengal,  created  the  literary  prose  of  Bengal  early 
in  the  X9th  century  by  his  numerous  translations  and  religious 
tracts;  and  Iswar  Chandra  Vidyasagar  and  his  fellow-worker, 
Akhay  Kumar  Datta,  added  to  its  power  and  beauty  about  the 
middle  of  that  century.    These  three  writers  are  generally  re- 
cognized as  the  fathers  of  Bengali  prose  literature.    As  a  sodal 
reformer  and  educationist,  too,  Iswar  Chandra  made  his  mark. 
He  associated  himself  with  Drinkwater  Bethune  in  the  cause  of 
female  education;  and  the  management  of  the  girls'  school, 
called  after  Bethune,  was  cntmsted  to  him  in  1851.    And  when 
Rosomoy  Datta  resigned  the  post  of  secretary  to  the  Sanskrit 
College  of  Calcutta,  a  new  p(»t  of  principal  was  created,  and 
Iswar  Chandra  was  appointed  to  it.    Iswar  Chandra's  influence 
in  the  education  department  was  now  unbounded.    He  simpli- 
fied the  method  of  learning  Sanskrit,  and  thus  spread  a  know- 
ledge of  that  ancient  tongue  among  his  countrymen.    He  was 
consulted  in  all  educational  matters  by  Sir  Frederick  Haliiday, 
the  first  lieutenant-governor  of  Bengal.    And  when  the  great 
scheme  of  education  under  Sir  Charles  Wood's  dtspatcfa  of  1854 
was  inaugurated  in  India,  Iswar  Chandra  established  numerous 
aided  scIkioIs  under  that  scheme  in  the  most  advanced  districts 
of  Bengal.    In  1858  he  resigned  his  appointment  under  govern- 
ment, and  shortly  afterwards  became  manager  of  the  Metro- 
politan Institution,  a  private  college  at  Calcutta.    But  a  greater 
task  than  literar>   work  or  educational  reforms  claimed  his 
attention.    He  had  discovered  that  the  ancient  Hindu  scriptures 
did  not  enjoin  perpetual  widowhood,  and  in  1855  he  startled 
the  Hindu  world  by  his  work  on  the  Remarriage  of  Hindu  Widows, 
Such  a  work,  from  a  learned  and  presumably  orthodox  Brahman, 
caused  the  greatest  excitement,  but  Iswar  Chandra  remained 
unmoved  amidst  a  storm  of  indignation.    Associating  himself 
with  the  most  influential  men  of  the  day,  like  Prosonno  Kumar 
Tagore  and  Ram  Gopal  Ghosh,  he  appealed  to  the  British 
government  to  declare  that  the  sons  of  remarried  Hindu  widows 
should  be  considered  legitimate  heirs.     The  British  govern- 
ment responded;  the  act  was  passed  in  1856,  and  some  ycara 
after  Iswar  Chandra's  own  son  was  married  to  a  widow.    In 
the  last  years  of  his  h'fe  Iswar  Chandra  wrote  works  against 
IHndu  polygamy.    He  was  as  well  known  for  his  charity  and 
wide  philajithropy  as  for  his  educational  and  social  reforms. 
His  large  income,  derived  from  the  sale  of  school-books,  was 
devoted  almost  entirely  to  the  succour  of  the  needy;'  hundreds 
of  young  men  owed  their  education  to  him;  hundreds  of  widows 
depended  on  him  for  their  daily  bread.   The  Indian  government 
made  him  a  Companion  of  the  Indian  Empire  in  1880.    He  died 
on  the  29th  of  July  1891.  (R.  C.  D.) 


VIEIRA 


4^ 


VIBIRA,   AMTONIO'  (1608-1697;,   Portuguese   Jesuit   and 
writer,  the  "  prince  of  Catholic  pulpit-orators  of  his  time,"  was 
born  in  Lisbon  on  the  6th  of  February  160S.    Accompanying 
hiB  parents  to  Brazil  in  1615  he  received  his  education  at  the 
Jesuit  college  at  Bahia.    He  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  in 
J1625,  and  two  years  later  pronounced  his  first  vows.    At  the 
age  of  eighteen  he  was  teaching  rhetoric,  and  a  little  later 
dogmatic  theology,  at  the  college  of  Olinda,  besides  writing 
the  "  annual  letters  "  of  the  province.   In  1635  he  received  the 
priesthood.    He  soon  began  to  distinguish  himself  as  an  orator, 
and  the  three  patriotic  sermons  he  delivered  at  Bahia  (1638-40) 
are  remarkable  for  their  imaginative  power  and  dignity  of 
language.    The  sermon  for  the  success  of  the  aims  of  Portugal 
against  Holland  was  considered  by  the  Abb6  Raynal  to  be 
**  perhaps  the  most  extraordinary  discourse  ever  heard  from 
a  Christian  pulpit."    When  the   revolution  of  1640  placed 
John  IV.  on  the  throne  of  Portugal,  Brazil  gave  him  its  allegi- 
ance, and  Vicira  was  chosen  to  accompany  the  viceroy's  son  to 
Lisbon  to  congratulate  the  new  king.    His  talents  and  aptitude 
for  a£fairs  impiessed  John  IV.  so  favourably  that  he  appointed 
him  royal  preacher,  gave  him  free  access  to  the  palace  and 
constantly  consulted  him  on  the  business  of  the  state.    Pos- 
sessed of  great  political  sagacity  and  knowledge  of  the  lessons  of 
history,  Vieira  used  the  pulpit  as  a  tribune  from  which  he 
propounded  measures  for  in^>roving  the  general  and  particularly 
the  economic  condition  of  Portugal.    His  pen  was  as  busy  as 
his  voice,  and  in  four  notable  pamphlets  he  advocated  the  crea* 
tion  of  companies  of  commerce,  the  abolition  of  the  distinction 
between  Old  and  New  Christians,  the  reform  of  the  procedure 
of  the  Inquisition  and  the  admission  of  Jewish  and  foreign 
traders,  with  guarantees  for  their  security  from  religious  per- 
secution.   Moreover,  he  did  not  spare  his  own  estate,  for  in  his 
Sexagesima  sermon  he  boldly  attacked  the  current  style  of 
preaching,  its  subtleties,  affectation,  obscurity  and  abuse  of 
metaphor,  and  declared  the  ideal  of  a  sermon  to  be  one  which 
sent  men  away  "  not  contented  with  the  preacher,  but  discon- 
tented ^ith  themselves." .  In  1647  Vieira  began  his  career  as  a 
diplomat,  in  the  course  of  which  he  visited  England,  France, 
Holland  and  Italy.    In  his  Papel  Forte  he  urged  the  cession  of 
Pemambuco  to  the  Dutch  as  the  price  of  peace,  while  his  mission 
to  Rome  in  2650  was  undertaken  in  the  hope  of  arranging  a 
marriage  between  the  heir  to  the  throne  of  Portugal  and  the 
only  daughter  of  King  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.   His  success,  freedom 
of  speech  and  reforming  zeal  had  made  him  enemies  on  all 
tides,  and  only  the  intervention  of  the'  king  prevented  his 
expulsion  from  the  Company  of  Jesus,  so  that  prudence  coun- 
eelled  his  return  to  Brazil. 

In  his  youth  he  had  vowed  to  consecrate  his  life  to  the  con- 
Version  of  the  negro  skives  and  native  Indians  of  his  adopted 
country,  and  arriving  in  Maranh&o  early  in  1653  he  recom- 
menced hia  apostolic  labours,  which  had  been  interrupted 
during  his  stay  of  fourteen  years  in  the  Old  World.  Starting 
from  Pari,  he  penetrated  to  the  banks  of  the  Tocantins,  making 
numerous  converts  to  Christianity  and  civilization  among  the 
most  savage  tribes;  but  after  two  years  of  unceasing  labour, 
during  which  eveiy  difficulty  was  placed  in  his  way  by  the 
colonial  authorities,  he  saw  that  the  Indians  must  be  with- 
.  drawn  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  governors,  to  prevent  their 
exploitation,  and  placed  imdcr  the  control  of  the  members  of  a 
single  religious  society.  Accordingly  in  June  1654  he  set  sail 
for  Lisbon  to  plead  the  cause  of  tlie  Indians,  and  in  April  1655 
he  obtained  from  the  king  a  scries  of  decrees  which  placed 
the  missions,  under  the  Company  of  Jesus,  with  himself  as  their 
superior,  and  prohibited  the  enslavement  of-the  natives,  except 
in  certain  specified  cases.  Returning  with  this  charter  of 
freedom,  he  organized  the  missions  over  a  territory  having 
a  coast-line  of  400  leagues,  and  a  population  of  200,000  souls, 
and  in  the  next  six  years  (x655<6x)  the  indefatigable  mis- 
sionary set  the  crown  on  his  work.  After  a  time,  however, 
the  cdom'sts,  attributing  the  shortage  of  slaves  and  the  con- 
sequent diminution  in  their  profits  to  the  Jesuits,  began  actively 
to  oppose  Vieira,  and  ttaiy  were  joined  by  memben  of  the 


secular  clergy  and  the  Other  Orden  who  were  jealous  of  the 
monopoly  enjoyed  by  the  Company  in  the  government  of  the 
Indians.  Vieira  was  accused  of  want  of  patriotism  and  usurpa* 
tion  of  jurisdiction,  and  in  1661,  after  a  popular  revolt,  the 
authorities  sent  him  with  thirty-one  other  Jesuit  missionaries 
back  to  Portugal.  He  found  his  friend  Ring  John  IV.  dead  and 
the  court  a  prey  to  faction,  but,  dauntless  as  ever  in  the  pursuit 
of  his  ambition,  he  resorted  to  his  favourite  arm  of  preaching, 
and  on  Epiphany  Day,  1662,  in  the  royal  chapel,  he  repli^ 
to  his  persecutors  in  a  famous  rhetorical  effort,  and  called  for 
the  execution  of  the  royal  decrees  in  favour  of  the  Indians. 
Circumsunces  were  against  him,  however,  and  the  count  of 
Castelmelhor,  fearing  his  influence  at  court,  had  him  exiled 
first  to  Oporto  and  then  to  Coimbra;  but  in  both  these  places 
he  continued  his  work  of  preaching,  and  the  reform  of  the 
Inquisition  also  occupied  his  attention.  To  silence  him  his 
enemies  then  denoimced  him  to  that  tribunal,  and  he  was 
cited  to  appear  before  the  Holy  Office  at  Coimbra  to  answer 
points  smacking  of  heresy  in  his  sermons,  conversations  and 
writings*  He  had  believed  in  the  prophecies  of  a  16th-century 
shoemaker  poet,  Bandarra,  dealing  with  the  coming  of  a  ruler 
who  would  inaugurate  an  epoch  of  unparalleled  prosperity 
for  the  churdi  and  for  Portugal,  and  in  the  Quinto  Jmpcrio 
or  Clavis  Prophetarum  he  had  endeavoured  to  prove  the  truth 
of  his  dreams  from  passages  of  Scripture.  As  he  refused  to 
submit,  the  Inquisitors  kept  him  in  prison  from  October  1665 
to  December  1667,  and  finally  imposed  a  sentence  which  pro- 
hibited him  from  teaching,  writing  or  preaching.  It  was  a 
heavy  blow  for  the  Company,  and  though  Vicira  recovered  his 
freedom  and  much  of  his  prestige  shortly  afterwards  on  the 
accession  of  King  Pedro  II.,  it  was  determined  that  he  should 
go  to  Rome  to  procure  the  revision  of  the  sentence,  which  still 
hung  over  him  though  the  penalties  had  been  removed.  During 
a  six  years'  residence  In  the  Eternal  City  Vieira  won  his  greatest 
triumphs.  Pope  Clement  X.  invited  him  to  preach  before  the 
College  of  Cardinals,  and  he  became  confessor  to  Queen 
Christina  of  Sweden  and  a  member  of  her  literary  academy. 
At  the  request  of  the  pope  he  drew  up  a  report  of  two  hundred 
pages  on  the  Inquisition  in  Portugal,  with  the  result  that 
after  a  judicial  inquiry  Pope  Innocent  XI.  suspended  it  for 
five  years  (1676-81).  Ultimately  Vieira  returned  to  Portugal 
with  a  papal  bxtll  exempting  him  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
grand  inquisitor,  and  in  January  x68x  he  embarked  for  Brazil. 
He  resided  in  Bahia  and  occupied  himself  in  revising  his  sermons 
for  publication,  and  in  1687  he  became  superior  of  the  piovince. 
A  false  accusation  of  complicity  in  an  assassinatidn,  and  the 
intrigues  of  members  of  his- own  Company,  clouded  his  last 
months,  and  on  the  i8th  of  July  1697  he  passed  away. 

His  works  form  perhaps  the  greatest  monument  of  Portuguese 
prose.  Two  hundred  discourses  exist  to  prove  his  fecundity, 
while  his  versatility  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  could  treat 
the  same  subject  differently  on  half  a  dozen  occasions.  His 
letters,  simple  and  conversational  iif  style,  have  a  deep  his- 
torical and  political  interest,  and  form  documents  of  the  first 
value  for  the  history  of  the  period.  As  a  man,  Vieira  would 
have  made  a  nobler  figure  if  he  had  not  been  so  great  an  egotist 
and  so  clever  a  courtier,  and  the  readiness  with  which  he  sus- 
tained directly  opposite  opinions  at  short  Intervals  with  equal 
warmth  argues  a  certain  lack  of  uncerity.  His  name,  how- 
eve)*,  is  identified  with  great  causes,  justice  to  the  Jews  and 
humanity  to  the  Indians,  and  the  fact  that  he  was  in  advance 
of  his  age  led  to  many  of  his  troubles,  while  his  disfaiterested- 
ness  in  money  matters  is  deserving  of  aU  praise. 


Principal  works:  Sermoes  (Sermons)  (i^  vols.,  Lisbon,  1679* 
1748).  there  are  many  subso<;iuent  editions,  but  none  com- 
plete; translations  exist  m  Spanish,  Italian,  German  and  French, 
which  have  gone  throa^  several  editions.  Historia  do  Fuiuro 
(Lisbon,  I7l8(  and  cd.,  tbid.,  1755);-  this  and  the  Quinto  Imptrio 
and  the  Clavis  Prophetarum  seem  to  be  in  essence  one  anci  the 
same  book  in  different  redactions.  Cartas  (Letters)  (3  vols..  Lisbon, 
1735-46).  Noticias  rtconditas  do  modo  de  proccdrr  a  Inquiikdo 
de  Portutoi  com  os  stus  presos  (Lisbon,  1811^.  The  Arte  de  Futtof 
pubtisbea  under  Vidia's  name  vx  many  ediuoqa  Is  now  known  not 


so 


VIELE-GRIFFIN—VIENNA 


to  be  his.  A  iMcDy  ccfited  edition  of  the  wrks  of  Vieira  in 
a?  volumes  utpeared  ia  Lisbon,  i854'-s8.  There  are  uapul>> 
lishod  MSS.  of  nis  in  the  British  Museum  in  London,  and  in  the 
BibIiotb6que  Nationale  in  Paris.  A  bibliography  of  Vieiia  will 
be  found  in  Sommervogel*  BiblioUAque  de  la  compagnie  de  JinUt 
vin.  653-«5. 

AUTHORiTiBSw— Andr6  de  Barroe,  Vida  Qjabon,  i746)-"«  pane- 
sync  by  a  member  of  the  same  society;  D.  Francisco  Alexandre 
Lobo,  bishop  of  Vizeu,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Discourse,'*  Obras 
(Lisbon,  1849),  vol.  ii. — a  valuable  study;  JoSo  Francisco  Ltsboa, 
Vida  (5th  ed.,  Rio,  1891) — he  is  unjust  to  Vieira,  but  may  be  con- 
sulted to  check  the  next  writer;  Abb6  E.  Carel.  Vieira,  sa  vie  d 
ses  mares  (Paris,  187^);  Luiz  Cabral,  Vieira^  biog.,  coracthe.  Ho- 
ouence  (Pans,  1900);  idem,  Vieira  prepuhr  (2  vok..  Oporto,  1901): 
aotero  dos  Rcis,  Curso  de  litterahtra  Poriugueta  e  BnuiUira,  iiL 
121-^44.  (E.  Pe.) 

VlfiL6-0RIFFIN»  FRAKCR  (1864-  )',  French  poet,  was 
born  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  U.S.A.,  on  the  26tfa  of  May  1864. 
He  was  educated  in  France,  dividing  his  time  between  Paris 
and  Touraine.  His  volumes  include  Cueiile  d'ovrU  (1885); 
Les  Cygnes  (1887;  new  aeries,  1892);  La  Chevauckie  d'Yeldis 
(1893)1  Swanhitde,  a  dramatic  poem'  (1894);  Laus  Veneris 
(1895),  a  volume  of  translations  from  Swinburne;  PcHmts  H 
Poisies  (1895),  a  collection  containing  much  of  his  earlier  work; 
Phocas  le  jardinier  (189S);  and  La  Ligende  ailie  de  Wielond  U 
Forgcron  (1899),  a  dramatic  poem.  M.  Viilf-Grifiin  is  one  of 
the  most  successful  writers  of  the  vers  libre,  the  theory  of  which 
he  expounded,  in  conjunction  with  MM.  Paul  Adam  and 
Bernard  Lazare,  in  the  pages  of  a  periodical  entitled  Bniretiens 
polUiques  el  lUUraires  (1890-92).  He  is  at  his  best  in  the 
adaptation  of  the  symbolism  of  old  legend  to  modem  uses. 

VIELLB)  wAe^  viile,  a  French  term,  derived  from  Lat.  fidi- 
culay  embracing  two  distinct  types  of  instruments:  (i)  from 
the  1 2th  to  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century  bowed  instru- 
ments having  a  box-soundchest  with  ribs,  (2)  from  the  middle 
or  end  of  the  isth  century,  the  hurdy-gurdy  (q.v.).  The 
medieval  word  vielle  or  viile  has  often  been  incorrectly  applied 
to  the  latter  instrument  by  modem  writers  when  dealing  with 
the  13th  and  14th  centuries.  The  instruments  included  under 
the  name  of  vicUe,  whatever  form  their  outline  assumed,  always 
had  the  box-soundchest  consisting  of  back  and  belly  joined  by 
ribs,  which  experience  has  pronounced  the  most  perfect  con- 
struction for  bowed  instruments.  The  most  common  shape 
given  to  the  earliest  vielles  in  France  was  an  oval,  which  with 
its  modifications  remained  in  favour  until  the  guitar-fiddle, 
the  Italian  lyra,  asserted  itself  as  the  finest  typ>e,  from  which 
also  the  violin  was  directly  evolved.  (K.  S.) 

VIEN,  JOSEPH  MARIE  (17 16-1809),  French  painter,  was  bom 
at  Montpellier  on  the  i8th  of  June  1716.  Protected  by  Comte 
de  Caylus,  he  entered  at  an  early  age  the  studio  of  Natoire, 
and  obtained  the  grand  prix  in  1745.  He  used  his  time  at  Rome 
in  applying  to  the  study  of  nature  and  the  development  of  his 
own  powers  all  that  he  leaned  from  the  masterpieces  around 
him;  but  his  tendencies  were  so  foreign  to  the  reigning  taste 
that  on  his  return  to  Paris  he  owed  his  admission  to  the  academy 
for  his  picture  "  Daedalus  and  Icarus  "  (Louvre)  s<rfely  to  the 
indignant  protests  of  Boucher.  When  m  1776,  at  the  height 
of  his  established  reputation,  he  became  director  of  the  school 
of  France  at  Rome,  he  took  David  ^th  him  amongst  his  pupils. 
After  his  return,  five  year»  later,  his  fortunes  were  wrecked 
by  the  Revolution;  but  he  undauntedly  set  to  work,  and  at 
the'age  of  eighty  (1796)  carried  oflF  the  prize  in  an  open  govern- 
ment competition.  BonapMirte  acknowledged  his  merit  by 
making  him  a  senator.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  27th  of  March 
1809,  leaving  behind  him  several  brilliant  pupib,  amongst  whom 
were  Vincent,  Regnault,  Suv€e,  Mcnageot,  Tailiasson  and 
others  of  high  merit;  nor  should  the  name  of  his  wife,  Marie 
Ther&e  Reboul  (i 728-1805),  herself  a  member  of  the  academy, 
be  omilted  from  this  list.  Their  son,  Marie  Joseph,  bom  in 
1 76 1,  also  distinguished  himself  as  a  painter. 

VIENNA  (Ger.  Wien\  Lat.  Vindobona),  the  capital  of  the 
Austrian  empire,  the  largest  dty  in  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy,  and  the  fourth  dty  in  Europe  as  regards  popula- 
tion. It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  at  the 
base  of  the  Wiener  Wald.  and  at. the  beginning  of  the  great 


plain  which  separates  the  Alps  from  the  Carpathians.  This 
plain  is  continued  on  the  opposite  bank  ot  the  Danube  by  the 
valley  of  the  March,  which  constitutes  the  easiest  access  to  the 
north.  Thus  Vienna  forms  a  junction  of  natural  ways  from 
sonth  to  north,  and  from  west  to  east.  It  also  lies  on  the 
frontier  which  separates  from  one  another  three  races,  the 
German,  the  Skivonic  and  the  Hungarian. 

Curiously  enough,  Vienna  has  for  a  long  time  turned    its 
back,  so  to  speak,  on  the  magnificent  waterway  of  the  Danube, 
the  dty  being  built  about  i)  m.  away  from  the  main  stream. 
Only  an  arm  of  the  river,  the  Danube  Canal,  so  called  becauee 
it  was  regulated  and  widened  in  1598,  passes  through  the  city, 
dividing  it  into  two  unequal  paxtSb    It  is  true  that  the  river 
forms  at  this  point  several  arms,  and  the  adjoining  districts 
were  subjected  to  periodical  inundations,   while  navigatioD 
was  by  no  means  easy  here.     But  in  1870  works  for  the 
regulation  oi  the  river  were  started  with  the  object  of  making 
it  quite  safe  for  navigation,  and  of  avoiding  the  dangers  of 
inundation.     By  these  magnificent   works  of  regulation   the 
new  bed  was  brought  nearer  to  the  town,  and  the  new  river 
channel  has  an  average  width  of  915  ft.  and  a  depth  of  xo  ft. 
On  its  left  bank  stretches  the  so-called  inundation  Kgion, 
1525  ft.  wide,  while  on  the  right  bank  quays  have  been  con* 
structed  with  numerous  wharfs  and  warehouses.     By  these 
works  of  regulation  over  2400  acres  of  ground  were  gained  for 
building  purposes.     This  new  bed  of  the  Danube  was  com- 
pleted in  1876.     In  conjunction  with  this  work  the  entire 
Danube  Canal  has  been  transformed  into  a  harbour  by  the 
a>nstmction  of  a  lock  at  its  entrance,  while  increased  accons 
modation  for  shipping  has  also  been  provided  at  the  other  end 
of  the  canal  known  as  the  winter  harbour.    Into  the  Danube 
Canal  flows  the  small  stream,  called  Wicn,  now  arched  over 
almost  in  its  entirety.    Vienna  extends  along  the  right  bank 
of  the  Danube  from  the  historic  and  legendary  Kahleoberg 
to  the  point  where  the  Danube  Canal  rejoins  the  main  stream, 
being  surrounded  on  the  other  side  by  a  considerable  stretch 
of  land  viiich  b  rather  mral  than  suburban  in  character. 

Vienna  is  officially  divided  into  twenty-one  districts  or 
Bezirke.  Until  1892  it  contained  only  ten  of  the  present 
districts;  in  that  year  nine  outlying  districts  were  incorporated 
with  the  town;  in  1900  Brigittenau  was  created  out  of  part 
of  the  old  district  of  Leopoldstadt,  and  in  1905  the  Floridsdorl 
district  was  made  up  by  the  incorporation  of  the  following 
former  suburbs:  Aq>em-an-der-D<mau,  Donaufcld.  Floridsdorf, 
Gross  Jedlersdorf,  Hirschstctten,  Jedlcsee,  Kagrah,  Loopoldau, 
Lobau-Insel  and  Stadiau.  By  the  incorporation  of  the  suburbs 
in  1892,  the  area  of  Vienna  was  more  than  trebled,  namely, 
from  ai}  sq.  m.  to  69  sq.  m.;  while  a  new  increase  of  about 
one-fifth  of  its  total  area  was  added  by  the  incorporation  of 
1902.  A  feature  of  the  new  city  is  the  unusually  large  proper* 
tion  of  woods  and  arable  land  within  its  bounds.  These  form 
nearly  60%  of  its  total  area,  private  gardens,  parks  and 
open  spaces  occupying  a  further  13%.  While  from  the 
standpoint  of  population  it  takes  the  fourth  place  among 
European  capitals,  Vienna  covers  about  three  times  as  much 
ground  as  Berlin,  which  occupies  the  third  place.  But  the 
bulk  of  its  inhabitants  bdng  packed  into  a  comparatively 
small  portion  of  this  area,  the  working  chisses  suffer  greatly 
from  overcrowding,  and  all  sections  of  the  community  froid 
high  rents. 

The  inner  dty,  or  Vienna  proper,  was  formerly  separated 
from  the  other  districts  by  a  drcle  of  fortifications,  consisting 
of  a  rampart,  fosse  and  glads.  These,  however,  were  removed 
in  1858-^50,  and  the  place  of  the  glacis  has  been  taken  by 
a  magnificent  boulevard,  the  Ring-Strassc,  2  m.  in  length, 
and  about  150  ft.  in  average  width.  Another  series  of  works, 
consisting  of  a  rampart  and  fosse,  were  constructed  in  1704 
to  surround  the  whole  city  at  that  time,  i.e.  the  first  ten  districts 
of  modern  Vienna.  This  second  girdle  of  fortifications  was 
known  as  the  Lines  (Linien),  and  a  second  wide  boulevard 
(GQrtel-Strasse)  follows  thdr  course  round  the  dty.  This 
second  or  outer  girdle  of  fortifications  formed  the  boundary 


VIENNA 


51 


iMtween  the  dty  and  the  outJyug  suburbs,  but  was  lemofved 
in  1893,  when  the  incorporation  of  the  suburbs  took  place. 

The  inner  town,  which  lies  almost  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the 
others*  is  still,  unlike  the  older  parts  of  most  European  towns, 
the  most  aristocratic  quarter,  containing  the  palaces  of  the 
emperor  and  of  many  of  the  nobility,  the  government  offices, 
many  of  th^  embassies  and  legations,  the  opera  house  and  the 
principal  hotels.  Leopoldstadt  which  together  with  Brigit- 
tenau  are  the  only  districts  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube 
Canal,  is  the  chief  commercial  quarter,  and  is  inhabited  to  a 
great  extent  by  Jews.  Mariahilf,  Neubau  and  Margarethen  are 
the  chief  seats  of  manufacturing  industry.  Landstrasse  may 
be  described  as  the  district  of  officialism;  here  too  are  the 
British  and  German  embassies.  Alscrgrund,  with  the  enormous 
general  hospital,  the  military  hospital  and  the  municipal 
asylum  for  the  insane,  is  the  medical  quarter. 

Near  the  centre  of  the  inner  city,  most  of  the  streets  in  which 
are  narrow  and  irregular,  is  the  cathedral  of  St  Stephen,  the 
most  important  medieval  building  in  Vienna,  dating  in  its  present 
form  mainly  from  the  14th  and  15th  centimes,  but  incorporating 
a  few  fragments  of  the  original  X2th-century  edifice.  Among  its 
most  striking  features  are  the  fine  and  lofty  tower  (450  ft.), 
rebuilt  in  1860-64;  the  extensive  catacombs,  in  which  the 
emperors  were  formerly  interred;  the  sarcophagus  (1513)  of 
Frederick  III.;  the  tombs  of  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy;  thirty- 
eight  marble  altars;  and  the  fine  groined  ceiling.  A  little  to  the 
south-west  of  the  cathedral  Is  the  Hofburg,  or  imperial  palace, 
a  huge  complex  of  buildings  of  various  epochs  and  in  various 
styles^  enclosing  several  courtyards.  The  oldest  part  of  the 
present  edifice  dates  from  the  13th  century,  and  extensive 
additions  -have  been  made  since  1887.  In  addition  to  private 
rooms  and  state  apartments,  the  Hofburg  contains  a  library 
of  about  800,000  volumes,  7000  incunabula  and  24,000  ^SS., 
including  the  celebrated  "  Papyrus  Rainer ";  the  imperial 
treasury,  containing  the  family  treasures  of  the  house  of 
Habsburg-Lorraine,  and  other  important  collections. 
».  In  the  old  town  are  the  two  largest  of  the  H$fe,  extensive 
ibiocks  of  buildings  belonging  to  the  great  abbeys  of  Austria, 
which  arc  common  throughout  Vienna,  These  arc  the  Schotten- 
hof  (once  belonging  to  the  "  Sooti,"  or  Irish  Benedictines) 
and  the  Mdlkerhof ,  adjoining  the  open  space  called  the  Freiung, 
each  forming  a  little  town  of  itself.  As  in  most  continental 
towns,  the  custom  of  living  in  flats  is  prevalent  in  Vienna,  where 
few  except  the  richer  nobles  occupy  an  entire  house.  Of  late 
the  so-called  "  ZinspaUste  "  ("  tenement  palaces  ")  have  been 
built  on  a  magnificent  scale,  often  profusely  adorned  without 
and  within  with  painting  and  sculpture.  Other  notable  buildings 
within  the  line  of  the  old  fortifications  are  the  Gothic  Augustine 
church,  built  in  the  14th  oentu?y,  and  containing  a  fine  monu- 
ment of  Canova;  the  Capuchin  church,  with  the  burial  vault  of 
the  Habsburgs;  the  church  of  Maria-Stiegen,  an  interesting 
Gothic  building  of  the  14th  century,  restored  in  x8ao;  the 
handsome  Greek  church,  by  T.  Hansen  (1813-1891),  finished  in 
1858;  the  Minorite  church,  a  Gothic  edifice  of  the  14th  century, 
containing  an  admirable  mosaic  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci's  "  Last 
Supper  "  by  RafTaeli,  executed  in  1806-14  by  order  of  Napoleon 
%nd  placed  here  in  i84<}.  Other  churches  worth  mentioning  are 
the  Schottenkirche,  built  in  the  13th  century,  reconstructed 
in  the  17th  and  restored  by  H.  von  Ferstel  (1828-1S83),  con- 
taining the  tombs  of  the  count  of  Starhemberg,  the  defender 
of  Vienna  against  the  Turics  in  1683,  and  of  Duke  Heinrich 
Jasomirgott  (d.  1177);  the  church  of  St  Peter,  reconstructed 
by  Fischer  von  Erlach  in  1702-13,  and  the  University  church, 
erected  by  the  Jesuits  in  1625-31,  both  in  the  baroque  style 
with  rich  frescoes;  lastly,  the  small  church  of  St  Ruprecht,  the 
oldest  church  in  Vienna,  first  built  in  740,  and  several  times 
reconstructed;  and  the  old  Rathaus.-  At  the  comer  of  the 
Graben,  one  of  the  busiest  thoroughfares,  containing  the  most 
fashionable  shops  in  Vienna,  is  the  Stock  im  EiseHt  the  stump 
of  a  tree,  said  to  be  the  last  survfvor  of  a  holy  grove  round 
which  the  original  settlement  of  Vindomina  ^rang  up.  It  is 
hH  of  nails  driven  into  it  by  traveUing  journ^nifa. 


The  Ring-Strasse  raidis  as  one  of  the  most  impoefng 
achievements  of  modem  street  architecture.  Opposite  the 
Hofburg,  the  main  body  of  which  is  separated  from 
the  Ring-Strasse  by  the  Hofgarten  and  Volksgartcn,  rise 
the  handsome  monument  of  the  empress  Maria  Theresa 
-(erected  x888)  and  the  imperial  museums  of  art  and  natural 
history,  two  extensive  Renaissance  edifices  vfith  domes 
(erected  1870-89),  matching  each  other  in  every  particular 
and  grouping  finely  with  the  new  part  of  the  palace. 
Hans  Makart's  painted  dome  in  the  natural  history  museum 
is  the  largest  pictorial  canvas  in  the  world.  Adjoining  the 
museums  to  the  west  Is  the  palace  of  justice  (1881),  and  this  is 
closely  followed  by  the  houses  of  parliament  (1883),  in  which 
the  Grecian  style  has  been  successfully  adapted  to  modern 
requirements.  Beyond  the  houses  of  parliament  stands  the 
new  Rathaus,  an  immense  and  lavishly  decorated  Gothic 
building,  erected  in  1873-83.  It  was  designed  by  Friedrich 
Schmidt  (1825-1891),  who  may  be  described  as  the  chief 
exponent  of  the  modem  Gothic  tendency  as  T.  Hansen  and 
G.  Semper,  the  creators  respectively  of  the  parliament  house  and 
the  museums,  are  the  leaders  of  the  Classical  and  Renaissance 
styles  which  are  so  strongly  represented  in  Viennese  architecture. 
Opposite  the  Rathaus^  on  the  inner  side  of  the  Ring,  is  the  new 
court  theatre,  another  specimen  of  Semper's  Renaissance  work, 
finished  in  1889.  To  the  north  stands  the  new  building  of  the 
university,  a  Renaissance  structure  by  H.  von  Ferstel,  erected 
in  1873-84  and  rivalling  the  Rathaus  in  extent.  Near  the  uni- 
versity, and  separated  from  the  Ring  by  a  garden,  stands  the 
votive  church  in  Aisergrund,  completed  in  1879,  &nd  erected 
to  commemorate  the  emperor's  escape  from  assassmation  in  1853, 
one  of  the  most  elaborate  and  successful  of  modem  Gothic 
churches  (Ferstel).  The  other  important  buildings  of  the 
Ring-Strasse  include  the  magnificent  opera  house,  built 
1861-69,  by  E.  Van  der  Nttll  (181 2-1868)  and  A.  von 
Siccardsburg  (1813-1868),  the  sumptuous  interior  of  which 
vies  with  that  of  Paris;  the  academy  of  art,  built  in  1873- 
76;  the  exchange,  built  in  1872-77,  both  by  Hansen;  and 
the  Austrian  museum  of  art  and  industry,  an  Italian  Renais- 
sance building  erected  by  Ferstel  in  1868-71.  On  the  north 
aide  the  Ring-Strasse  gives  place  to  the  spacious  Frana  Josef's 
quay,  flanking  the  Danube  Canal.  The  municipal  districts  out- 
side the  Ring  also  contain  numerous  handsome  modem  buildings. 
Vienna  possesses  both  in  ,the  inner  city  and  the  outlying  dis- 
tricts numerous  squares  adorned  with  artistic  monuments. 
One  of  the  finest  squares  in  the  world  for  the  beauty  of  the 
buildings  whidi  encircle  it  is  the  Rathausplat2,  adjoining  the 
Ring-Strasso. 

Vienna  is  the  intellectual  as  well  as  the  material  capital 
of  Austria — emphatically  so  in  regard  to  the  German  part 
of  the  empire.  Its  university,  established  in  1365,  is  now 
attended  by  nearly  6000  students,  and  the  medical  faculty  en- 
joys a  world-wide  reputarion.  Its  scientific  institutions  are 
headed  by  the  academy  of  science.  The  academy  of  art  was 
founded  in  1707. 

Mu^ms. — In  the  imperial  art-history  museum  are  stored  the 
extensive  art-collections  of  the  Austrian  imperial  family,  which  were 
formerly  in  the  Hofburg,  in  the  Belvedere,  and  in  other  places.  It 
contains  a  rkh  collection  of  Egyptian,  Greek,  Roman  ana  Etruscan 
antiquities;  of  coins  and  medals,  and  of  industrial  art.  The  last 
contains  valuable  specimens  of  the  industrial  art  of  the  middle 
ages  and  of  the  Renaissance  period  in  gold,  silver,  bronze,  glass, 
enamel,  ivory,  iron  and  wood.  The  famous  salt-ccIIar  {saliera)  of 
Benvenuto  Cellini,  executed  in  1539-^  for  Francis  I.  of  France,  is 
here.  Then  comes  the  collection  orweapons  and  armour,  including 
the  famous  Ambras  collection,  so  called  after  the  castle  of  Arobras 
near  Innabruck,  where  it  was  for  a  long  time  stoxwl.  The  picture 
gallery,  which  contains  the'CoIlection  formerly  preserved  in  the  Bel- 
vedere palace,  contains  masterpieces  of  almost  every  school  in  the 
world,  but  it  is  unsurpassed  for  its  specimens  of  Rubens,  DQrer  and 
the  Venetian  masters.  Next  come  the  imperial  treasury  at  the  Hof- 
burg, already  mentioned;  the  famous  collection  of  drawings  and 
engnvings  known  as  the  Mbertina  in  the  palace  of  the  archduke 
Frederick,  which  contains  over  200,000  engiavings  and  16,000  draw- 
ings; the  picture  gallery  of  the  academy  of  art;  the  collection  of 
the  Austrian  museum  of  art  and  industry;  the  historical  museum 
of  the  city  of  VJennai-  and  the  autitary  maseam  at  the  arsenal. 


52 


VIENNA 


Besides,  there  are  in  Vienna  a  number  of  private  pkture  galleries 
of  great  imporuncc.  The  largest  is  that  bdonging  to  Prince 
Liechtenstein,  containinK  about  800  paintings,  and  specially  rich 
in  important  works  by  Rubens  and  Van  Dyck;  the  iikture  gallery 
of  Count  Harrach,  with  over  400  paintings,  possessing  numerous 
examples  of  the  later  Italian  and  French  schools;  that  of  Count. 
Caemin,  with  over  340  paintings;  and  that  of  Count  Sch6nbom,  with 
no  pictures.  The  imperial  natural  history  museum  contains  a 
mincralogical,  geological  and  zoological  section,  as  wcU  as  a  pre- 
historic and  ethnographical  collection.  Its  botanic  collection 
contains  the  famous  Vienna  herbarium,  while  to  the  university  is 
attached  a  fine  botanical  garden.  Besides  the  Hofbuig  lUnary, 
there  are  important  libraries  belonging  to  the  umvcrsity  and  other 
societies,  the  corporation  and  the  various  monastic  orders. 
Parks,  6fc. — Tne  Prater,  a  vast  expanse  (2000  acres)  of  wood  and 

Krk  on  the  east  side  dt  the  city,  between  the  Danube  and  the 
mubc  Canal,  is  greatly  frequented  by  all  classes.  The  exhi- 
bition of  1873  was  held  in  this  park,  and  several  of  its  buDdlngs, 
including  the  large  rotunda,  have  been  left  standing.  Other  carks 
arc  the  Hofgartcn,  the  Volkaganen  and  the  Town  Park,  all  adjoin- 
ing the  Ring-Strasse:  the  Augnrten  in  the  Lcopddstadt,  the  Bdve- 
dwe  Park  in  the  Landstrasse,  the  Esterhdzy  Park  in  Mariahilf,  and 
the  TUrkcnschanz  Park  in  D(>bling.  Among  the  most  popular 
resorts  arc  the  parks  and  gardens  belonging  to  the  imperial 
ch&teaux  of  Sch5nbruna  and  Laxcnbuzs;* 

Gtnemmenl  and  Administration. — ^Vienna  is  the  residence  of 
the  emperor  of  Austria,  the  seat  of  the  Austrian  Biimsters,  of 
the  Rcichsrat  and  of  the  Diet  of  Lower  Austria.  It  is  also 
the  seat  of  the  common  ministries  for  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy,  of  the  foreign  ambassadors  and  general  consuls  and 
the  meeting-place,  alternately  with  Budapest,  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  delegations.  It  contains  also  the  highest  judicial, 
financial,  military  and  administrative  ofBcial  authorities  of 
Austria,  and  is  the  see  of  a  Roman  Catholic  archbishop.  Vienna 
enjoys  autonomy  for  communal  affairs,  but  is  under  the  control 
of  the  governor  and  the  Diet  of  Lower  Austria,  while  the  election 
of  the  chief  burgomaster  requires  the  sanction  of  the  sovereign, 
advised  by  the  prime  minister.  The  municipal  council  is 
composed  of  158  members  elected  for  a  period  of  six  years. 
The  long  struggle  between  the  municipality  and  the  Austrian 
ministry  arising  out  of  the  refusal  to  sanction  the  election 
(1895)  of  Dr  Lueger,  the  anti-Setnitic  leader  and  champion, 
recalls  in  some  respects  the  Wilkes  incident  in  London.  In  this 
instance  the  ultimate  success  of  the  corporation  greatly  strength- 
ened the  Obscurantist  and  reactionary  dement  throughout 
Austria. 

The  cost  of  the  transformation  of  Vienna,  which  has  been  in 
progress  since  1858,  cannot  be  said  to  have  fallen  heavily  on  the 

Eopulatlon.  Great  part  of  the  burden  has  been  borne  throughout 
y  the  "  City  Extenswn  Fund,"  realized  from  the  utilixation  ol  the 
ground  formerly  occupied  by  the  fortifications  and  glacis.  The 
8ubs«iuent  regulation  of  the  former  suburbs  has  to  a  large  extent 
covered  its  own  expenses  through  the  acquisition  by  the  town  of 
the  improved  area.  The  municipal  finance  has  on  the  whde  been 
sound,  and  notwithstanding  the  extra  burdens  assumed  on  the 
incorporation  of  the  suburbs,  the  equilibrium  of  the  communal 
budget  was  maintained  up  to  the  fall  of  the  Liberal  administration. 
In  spite  of  shortsighted  parsimony  in  the  matter  of  schools,  &c., 
and  increased  resources  through  the  allocation  to  the  municipality 
of  a  certain  percentage  of  new  state  and  provincial  taxation,  theu- 
anti-Semitic  successors  have  been  unable  to  avoid  a  deficit,  and  have 
been  obliged  to  increase  the  rates.  But  the  direct  damage  done 
in  thb  and  other  ways  would  seem  to  be  less  than  that  produced 
by  the  mistrust  they  inspired  for  a  time  among  <he  propertied 
classes,  and  the  consequent  paralysing  of  enterprise.  Their  violent 
anti-Magyar  attitude  has  driven  away  a  certain  amount  of  Hungarian 
custom,  and  helped  to  increase  the  politk:al  difiiculties  of  the 
Ci»-Leithan  government. 

Vienna  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  550  ft.  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  and  possesses  a  healthy  climate.  The  mean  annual- 
temperature  is  48-6°  ¥.,  and  the  range  between  January  and  July 
b  about  40*  F.  The  climate  is  rather  changeable,  and  rapid 
falls  of  temperature  are  not  uncommon.  Violent  storms  occur 
in  spring  and  autumn,  and  the  rainfall,  including  snow,  amounts 
to  25  in.  a  year.  Vienna  has  one  of  the  best  supplies  of 
cbinldng  water  of  any  European  capital.  The  water  is  brought 
by  an  aqueduct  ^rect  from  the  Alps,  viz.  from  the  Schnee- 
beig,  a  distance  of  nearly  60  m.  to  the  south-west.  These 
flufnificent  watcnrark^  ve»  opeaed  in  187^  and  tbcir  auiitaiy 


influence  was  soon  felt,  in  the  almost  complete  disnppeftraooe 
of  typhoid  fever,  which  had  numerous  victims  before. 

Great  enlargements,  by  tapping  new  sources  of  supply,    « 


made  in  1891-93,  whQe  since  1903  works  have  been  m   proi^ress 
for  bringing  a  new  supply  of  pure  water  from  the  regk>n  of    the 
Salza,  a  distance  of  nearly  150  m.    Another  sanitary  work  of  ^rrat 
importance   was   the   improvement  carried   out   in    the   drairia);e 
system,  and  the  regulation  of  the  river  Wicn.    This  river,  whk  h. 
at  ordinary^  times,  was  little  more  than  an  ill-smelling  brook  at  one 
side  of  an  immense  bed,  was  occasionally  converted  mto  a  formid- 
able and  dcstriKtive  torrent.    Now  hall  the  bed  of  the  river  has 
been  walled  over  for  the  metropolitan  railway,  while  the  other  half 
has  been  deepened,  and  the  portion  of  it  witnm  the  town  has  lieen 
arched  over.    A  bc{;inning  was  thus  made  for  a  new  and  magnificeot 
avenue  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Ring-Strasse. 

Population. — In  x8oo  the  population  of  the  old  districts  was 
331,050;  in  X840,  356,870;  in  1857,  476,222  (or  with  suburbs. 
587,235);  in  i86g,  607,514  (with  suburbs,  842,951);  in  1880, 
704,756  (with  suburbs,  1,090,119);  in  1890,  town  and  suburbs, 
1,364,548;  and  in  1900,  1,662,269,  including  the  garrison  of 
26,629  TBden.  Owing  to  the  peculiarities  of  its  situation,  the 
population  of  Vienna  is  of  a  very  cosmopolitan  and  betero* 
geneous  character.  Its  permanent  population  (some  45-5% 
are  bom  in  the  city)  is  recruited  from  all  parts  of  Austria, 
and  indeed  of  the  entire  monarchy.  The  German  element 
is,  of  course,  the  most  numerous,  but  there  are  also  a  great 
number  of  Hungarians,  Czechs  and  other  Slavs. 

Previous  to  the  loss  of  the  Italian  provinces,  a  considerable  ptt>> 
portion  came  from  Italyr  (39.000  in  1859),  including  artists,  members 
of  the  learned  professions  and  artisans  who  IcTt  their  mark   00 
Viennese  art  and  taste.    The  Italian  colony  now  numbers  ahout 
3509  (chicQy  navvies  and  masons),  in  addition  to  some  1400  Austrian 
subjects  of  that  ^  nationality.     At  present  the  largest  and   most 
regular  contributions  to  the  population  of  Vienna  come  from  the 
Czech  orovinccs  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  next  in  importance  bring 
thosejnnn  Lower  Austria  and  Styria.    This  steady  and  increasing 
influx  of  Czechs  is  gradually  infusing  a  large  proportion  of  Slav 
blood  in  what  Bismarck  (in  1864)  detKribcd  as  the  German  capital 
of  a  Slav  empire.     Formerly  the  Czech  labourers,  artisans  and 
domestk  servants  who  came  to  Vienna  were  somewhat  ashamed 
of  their  mothcr-toneue,  and  anxious  to  conceal  that  cvklence  ol 
their  origin  as  speedily  as  possible.    The  revival  of  the  nationality 
agitation  has  produced  ^a  marked  change  in  this  respect.     The 
Czech  immigrants,  attracted  to  Vienna  as  to  other  German  towns,  by 
the  growth  of  industry,  are  now  too  numerous  for  easy  absorption, 
which  is  further  retarded  by  their  national  organisation,  and  the 
proviaoQ  of  separate  institutions,  cbunches,  schools  (thus  far  private) 
and  places  of  resort.    The  consequence  ia  that  they  take  a  pride  in 
accentuating  their  national  characteristics,  a  circumstance  which 
threatens  to  develop  into  a  hew  source  of  discord.     In  1900  the 
population   included    1,386,115   persons  of   German   nationality, 
102,974  Caechs  and  Slovaks,  4346  Pokw,  805  Rutheaians,  i^ 
Slovenes,  371   Serbo-Croatians,  and   1368   Italians,  all   Austrian 
subjects.*  To  these  should  be  added  133,144  Hungarians,  21,733 
natives  of  Germany  07^2  less  than  in  1890),  2506  natives  of  Italy, 
1703  Rusdans,  11 76  French,  1643  Swiss,  &c.    Of  this  heterogeneous 
population  1461,891  were  Roman  Catholics,  the  Jews  coming  next 
in  order  with  I4i5,926«    Protestants  of  the  Augsburg  and  Uelvctk; 
Confcssiions  numbered  541364;   members  of  the  Church  of  Fnsland. 
490;  Old  Catholics.  975;   members  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church, 
3674;  Greek  Catholics,  2531;  and  Mahommcdans,  889. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  Viennese  are  gay,  pleasure-lo\ing  and 
geniaL  The  Viennese  women  are  justly  celebrated  for  their 
beauty  and  elegance;  and  dressing  as  a  fine  art  is  cultivated 
here  with  almost  as  great  success  as  in  Paris.  As  a  rule,  the 
Viennese  are  passionately  fond  of  dancing;  and  the  city  of 
Strauss,  J.  F.K.Lanner  (1801-1843)  c^nd  J.  Gungl  (1810-1889) 
gives  name  to  a  "  school  **  of  waltz  and  other  dance  music. 
Opera,  especially  in  its  lighter  form,  flourishes,  and  the  actors 
of  Vienna  maintain  with  success  a  traditional  reputation 
of  no  mean  .order.  Its  chief  place  in  the  histoiy  of  art 
Vietma  owes  to  its  musicians,  among  whom  are  counted 
Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven  and  Schubert.  The  Viennese 
school  of  painting  is  of  modern  origin;  but  some  of  its  members, 
for  instance,  Hans  Makart  (1840-1884^  have  acquired  a  European 
reputation. 

Trade. — ^Vienna  is  the  roost  important  commercial  and  industrial 
centre  of  Austria.  For  a  lon^  time  the  Austrian  government,  by 
failing  to  keep  the  Danube  m  a  proper  state  for  navlgntion,  let 
slip  the  opportttAi^  of  maUag  the  city  the  great  Damibiaii 


VIENNA,  CONGRESS  OF 


S3 


metropolis  which  its  gecMiraphical  position  cotitles  it  to  be.  But 
during  the  last  quarter  otthe  19th  century  active  steps  were  taken 
to  foster  the  economic  interests  of  the  city.  The  regulation 
of  the  Danube,  mentbned  above,  the  oonvenion  of  tlw  entire 
I>anube  Canal  into  a  harbour,  the  construction  of  the  navinble 
canal  Danube*March-Oder — ^all  ^ve  a  n^w  impetus  to  the  traBe  of 
Vienna.  The  fast-growing  activity  of  the  port  of  Trieste  and  the 
new  and  shorter  railway  line  constructed  between  it  and  Vienna 
&lso  contribute  to  the  same  effect.  Vienna  carries  on  ao  extensive 
trade  in  com,  flour,  cattle,  wine,  sugar  and  a  large  variety  of  manu- 
factured articles.  Besides  the  Danube  it  is  served  by  an  extensive 
net  of  railways,  which  radiate  from  here  to  every  part  of  the  empire. 
The  staple  productions  are  machinery,  railway  engines  and  car- 
riages, steel,  tm  and  bronxc  wares,  pottery,  bent  andi  carved  wood 
furniture,  textiles  and  chemicals.  In  the  number  and  variety  of 
its  leather  and^  other  fancy  goods  Vienna  rivals  Paris,  and  is  also 
renowned  for  its  manufacture  of  jewelry  and  articles  of  precious 
metals,  objets  d^art,  musical  instruments,  physical  chemicals  and 
optical  instruments,  and  artistic  products  generally.  Its  articles 
01  clothing,  silk  soods  and  millinery  also  enjoy  a  great  reputation 
for  the  taste  with  which  they  are  manufactured.  Books,  artistic 
publications,  paper  and  beer  are  amongst  the  other  principal 
products.   The  building  trade  and  its  allied  trades  are  also  active. 

History. — For  several  centuries  Vieana  filled  an  impoitant 
r6le  as  the  most  advanced  bulwark  of  Western  civilization  and 
Christianity  against  the  Turks,  for  during  the  whole  of  the 
middle  ages  Hungary  practically  retained  its  Asiatic  character. 
The  story  of  Vienna  begins  in  the  earliest  years  of  the  Christian 
era,  with  the  seizure  of  the  Celtic  settlement  of  Vindcmina  by 
the  Romans,  who  changed  its  name  to  Vhtdobona,  and  estab- 
lished a  fortified  camp  here  to  command  the  Danube  and  protect 
the  northern  frontier  of  the  empire.     The  fortress  grew  in 
importance,  and  was  afterwards  made  a  munidpium;  and  here 
Marcus  Aurelius  died  in  x8o.    On  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
empire  Vindobona  became   the  prey  of  successive  barbarian 
invaders.     Attila  and  his  Huns  were  among  the  temporary 
occupants  of  the  place  (5th  century),  and  in  the  following  century 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Avars,  after  which  its  name 
disappears  from  history  until  towards  the  dose  of  the  8th  century, 
when  Charlemagne  expelled  the  Avars  and  made  the  district 
between  the  Enns  and  the  Wiener  Wald  the  boundary  of  his 
empire.    In  the  time  of  Otho  II.  (976)  this  "  East  Mark  " 
(Ostmark,  Oesterreich,  Austria)  was  granted  in  fief  to  the  Baben- 
beigers,  and  in  (he  reign  of  Frederick  Barbarossa  (1156)  it  was 
advanced  to  the  rank  of  a  duchy.    There  is  no  certain  record 
tliat  the  site  of  Vind<^na  was  occupied  at  the  time  of  the 
formation  of  the  Ostmark,  though  many  considerations  make 
it  probable.    It  is  not  likely  that  the  Avars,  living  in  their 
''ring"   encaropmentS}   destroyed   the   Roman   munidpium; 
and  Bees,  the  Hungarian  name  for  Vienna  to  this  day,  is  sus- 
ceptible of  a  Slavonic  Interpretation  only,  and  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  site  had  been  occupied  in  Slavonic  tunes.   The 
frequent  mention  of  '*  Wiene  "  in  the  oldest  extant  version  of 
the  NiMuHgerUi^  points  in  the  same  direction.    Passing  over 
a  doubtful  mention  «f  "  Vwienni "  in  the  annals  of  X030,  we 
find  the  "dvitas"  of  Vienna  mentioned  in  a  document  of 
X130,  and  in  x  156  it  became  the  caiHtal  and  residence  of  Duke 
Heiaricb  Jasomirgott.    In  1237  Vienna  received  a  charter  of 
freedom  from  Frederick  II.,  confirmed  in  1247.    In  the  time 
of  the  cnuades  Vienna  increased  so  rapidly,  in  consequence  of 
the  txafiBC  that  flowed  throughlt,  that  in  the  days  of  Ottacar  II. 
of  Bohemia  (1351-76),  the  successor  of  the  Babenbcrgers,  it  had 
attained  the  dimensions  of  the  present  inner  town.    A  new  era 
of  power  and  splendour  begins  in  irf6f  when  it  became  the 
capital  of  the  Habsbuig  dynasty,  after  the  defeat  of  Ottacar 
by  Rudolph  of  Habsbuig.    From  this  time  on  it  has  shared  the 
iwtunes  of  the  house  of  Austria.   In  1477  Vienna  was  besieged 
unsuccessfully  by  the  Hungarians,  and  in  X4d5  it  was  taken  by 
Matthew  Corvinfos.    Of  more  importance  were  the  two  sieges 
by  the  Turks  (1529  and  1683),  when  the  dty  was  saved  on  the 
Ihsl  occasion  by  the  gallant  defence  oi  Count  Nidas  von  Salm 
(1459-1530),  and  on  the  second  by  Rtidiger  von  Starhemberg 
(1638^1701),  who  held  out  until  the  arrival  bf  the  Poles  and 
Gennans  under  John  Sobieski  of  Poland.  The  suburbs,  however, 
were  destroyed  on  both  occaaons.    In  1805,  and  again  in  1809, 
Yienaa  was  for  a  abort  time  occttpicd  by  the  French.  In  1814-1$ 


it  was  the  meeting-place  of  the  congress  which  settled  the  political 
affairs  of  Europe  after  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon.  In  1848  the 
city  was  for  a  time  in  the  hands  of  the  revolutionary  party;  but  it 
was  bombarded  by  the  imperial  forces  and  compelled  to  surrender 
on  30th  October  of  the  same  year.  Vienna  was  not -occupied  by 
the  Prussians  in  the  war  of  x866,  but  the  invaders  marched  to 
within  sight  of  its  towers.  In  1873  a  great  international  exhibit 
tion  took  place  here. 

While  Berlin  and  Budap^t  have  made  the  most  rapid  progress 
of  all  European  dties,  having  multiplied  their  population  by 
nine  in  the  period  x8oo^,  Vienna — even  including  the  extensive 
annexations  of  1892 — only  increased  sevenfold.  Many  causea 
conspired  to  this  end,  but  most  of  them  date  from  the  years  1859, 
1866  and  1867.  The  combined  effect  of  these  successive  bdows^ 
aggravated  by  the  long  period  of  decentralizing  policy  from 
Taaffe  to  Badeni,  is  still  fdt  in  the  Kaiserstadt.  The  gaiety 
of  Vienna  had  for  centuries  depoidcd  on  the  brilliancy  of  its 
court,  recruited  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  induding  the  nobility 
of  the  whole  empire,  and  on  its  musical,  light-hearted  and  con- 
tented population.  Even  before  it  fell  from  its  high  estate  as  the 
social  centre  of  the  German-speaking  world,  it  had  suffered 
sevcrdy  by  the  crushing  defeats  of  1859  and  the  consequent  exodus 
of  the  Austrian  nobles.  These  were  hdd  rc^x>nsible  for  the 
misfortunes  of  the  army,  and  to  escape  the  atmosphere  of 
popular  odium  retired  to  thdr  country  seats  and  the  provincial 
capitals.  They  have  never  since  made  Vienna  their  home  to 
the  same  extent  as  before.  The  change  thus  begun  was  con- 
firmed by  the  exdusion  of  Austria  from  the  German  Confedera- 
tion and  the  restoration  of  her  Constitution  to  Hungary,  events 
which  gave  an  immense  impetus  to  the  two  rival  capitals. 
Thus  within  eight  years  the  range  of  territory  from  which 
Vienna  drew  its  former  throngs  of  wealthy  pleasure-seeking 
visitors  and  more  or  less  permanent  inhabitants — Italian, 
German  and  Hungarian — was  enormously  restricted.  Since  then 
Vienna  has  benefited  largely  by  the  enlightened  efforts  of  \jA 
citizens  and  the  exceptional  opportunities  afforded  by  the 
removal  of  the  fortifications.  But  a  decline  of  its  importance, 
similar  to  that  within  the  larger  sphere  which  it  influenced 
prior  to  1859,  has  continued  uninterruptedly  within  the  Habs- 
burg  dominions  up  to  the  present  day.  Its  commercial  dasscs 
constantly  complain  of  the  increasing  competition  of  the 
provinces^  and  of  the  progressive  industrial  emancipation  of 
Hungary.  The  efforts  of  the  Hungarians  to  complete  their 
social  and  economic,  no  less  than  their  political,  emancipation 
from  Austria  and  Vienna  have  been  unremittingly  pursued. 
The  formal  recognition  of  Budapest  as  a  royal  residence  and 
capital  in  1892,  and  the  appointment  of  independent  Hungarian 
court  functionaries  in  November  1893,  mark  new  stages  in  its 
progress.  It  would  no  longer  be  correct  to  speak  of  Vienna 
as  the  capita]  of  the  dual  monarchy.  It  merely  shares  that 
distinction  with  Budapest. 

BIBLIOOEAPBT.— K.  von  LCltsow  and  L.  Tischler,  Wieiur 
Neubauten  (6  vols.,  Wien,  1889-97);  M.  Bcrmann,  Alt- und 
NeuwUn  (2Bd  cd.,  Wien,  1003),  edited  by  Schimmer;  E.  GugUa, 
GeschichtederStadt  Wien  fWien,  1892):  H.  Zimmcrmann,  GescmchU 
d&r  Stadt  Wien  h  vols.,  Wien,  1807-1900);  Hickmann,  Wien  im 
10  Jakrhmidert  (Wien,  1903):  Wien,  1848S8,  published  by  the 
Vienna  corporation;  ^aHsluches  Jahrbuch  der  Stadt  Wien,  annually 
since  1883;  GescJnchte  der  Stadt  Wien,  published  by  the  Vienna 
AUerthtt$naerein  since  1897. 

VIBHNA.  0ON6RBS8  OF  (18x4-18x5).  The  fall  of  Napoleon 
was  only  achieved  by  the  creation  of  a  special  alliance  between 
Great  Britain,  Austria,  Russia  and  Prussia.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Chaumont  of  March  xo,  X814,  these  four  powers  bound'  them- 
selves together  in  a  bond  which  was  not  to  be  dissolved  when 
peace  was  conduded.  When  Napoleon  had  been  beaten^ 
France  conceded  to  these  allies  by  a  secret  article  of  the  first 
Treaty  of  Paris  of  May  30, 18x4,  the  disposition  of  all  countries 
which  Napoleon's  fall  had  freed  from  French  suzerainty.  This 
stupendous  task  was  reserved  for  a  general  congress,  and  it 
was  agreed  to  meet  at  Vienna.  The  visit  of  the  allied  sovereigns 
to  E^Qgland  and  the  pressing  engagements  of  the  emperor 
Alexander  and  Lord  Castlcrea^  delayed  the  congress  untfl  the 


54 


VTONNA,  CONGRESS  OP 


autumn,  wlien  all  Europe  sent  its  representatives  to  accept  the 
hospitality  of  the  impoverished  but  magnificent  Austrian  court. 

Metternich,  though  he  had  not  yet  completely  established 
his  position,  acted  as  chief  Austrian  representative,  and  he  was 
naturally  in  his  capacity  as  host  the  president  of  the  congress. 
Friedrich  v.  Gentz  acted  as  secretary  both  to  him  and  the  congress 
and  did  much  of  the  routine  work.  Alexander  of  Russia 
directed  his  own  diplomacy,  and  round  him  he  had  gathered  a 
brilliant  body  of  men  who  could  express  but  not  control  their 
master's  desires.  Of  these  the  chief  were  foreigners,  according 
to  the  traditions  of  Russian  diplomat^.  Capo  d'lstria,  Nessel- 
rode,  Stein,  Pozzo  di  Borgo  were  perhaps  the  best  men  in 
Europe  to  manage  the  Russian  policy,  while  Czartoriski  repre- 
sented at  the  imperial  court  the  hope  of  Polish  nationaUty. 
Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia  was  a  weaker  character  and, 
as  will  be  seen,  his  policy  was  largely  determined  by  his  aUy. 
Prince  von  Hardcnberg,  who  by  no  means  shared  all  the  views 
of  his  master  but  was  incapacitated  by  his  growing  infirmities, 
was  first  Prussian  plenipotentiary,  and  assisting  him  was  Baron 
von  Humboldt.  Great  Britain  was  represented  by  Lord  Castle- 
rcagh,  and  under  himnnrere  the  British  diplomats  who  had  been 
attached  to  the  foreign  armies  since  1813,  Clancarty,  Stewart 
and  Cathcart.  Castlercagh  brought  with  him  decided  views, 
which  however  were  not  altogether  those  of  his  cabinet,  and 
his  position  was  weakened  by  the  fact  that  Great  Britain  was 
still  at  war  with  the  United  States,  and  that  public  opinion  at 
home  cared  for  little  but  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade.  When 
parliamentary  duties  called  Castlercagh  home  in  February  181 5, 
the  duke  of  WMlington  filled  his  place  with  adequate  dignity 
snd  statesmanship  until  the  war  broke  out. 

France  sent  Prince  Talleyrand  to  conduct  her  difficxdt  a£Fairs. 
No  other  man  was  so  well  fitted  for  the  task  of  maintaining 
the  interests  of  a  defeated  coimtry.  His  rare  diplomatic  skill 
and  supreme  intellectual  endowments  were  to  enable  him  to 
play  a  deciding  part  in  the  coming  congress.  All  the  minor 
powers  of  Europe  were  represented,  for  all  felt  that  then:  in- 
terests were  at  stake  in  the  coming  settlement.  Gathered  there 
also  were  a  host  of  publicists,  secretaries  and  courtiers,  and 
never  before  had  Europe  witnessed  such  a  collection  of  rank 
and  talent.  From  the  first  the  social  side  of  the  congress  im- 
pressed observers  with  its  wealth  and  variety,  nor  did  the 
statesmen  disdain  to  use  the  dining-table  or  the  ballroom  as 
the  instruments  of  their  diplomacy. 

All  Europe  awaited  with  eager  expectation  the  results  of  so 
great  an  assembly.  The  fate  of  Poland  and  Saxony  hung  in 
the  balance;  Germany  awaited  an  entirely  new  reorganization; 
Italy  was  again  ready  for  dismemberment;  rumours  went  that 
even  the  pope  and  the  sultan  might  be  largely  affected.  Some 
there  were  who  hoped  that  so  great  an  opportunity  would  not 
Jl>e  lost,  but  that  the  statesmen  would  initiate  such  measures 
of  international  disarmament  as  would  perpetuate  the  blessings 
of  that  peace  which  Europe  was  again  enjoying  after  twenty 
years  of  warfare. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the  allies  displayed  their 
Intention  of  keeping  the  management  of  affairs  entirely  in  their 
own  hands.  At  an  informal  meeting  on  the  22nd  of  September 
the  four  great  powers  agreed  that  all  subjects  of  general  interest 
were  to  be  settled  by  a  committee  consisting  of  Austria,  Russia, 
Prussia  and  Great  Britain  together  with  France  and  Spain. 
At  the  same  time,  however,  it  was  decided  by  a  secret  protocol 
that  the  four  powers  should  first  settle  among  themselves  the 
distribution  of  the  conquered  territories,  and  that  France  and 
Spain  should  only  be. consulted  when  their  final  dedsion  was 
announced. 

This  was  the  situation  which  Talleyrand  had  to  face  when 
he  arrived  on  the  24th  of  September.  His  first  step  when  he 
was  admitted  to  the  European  committee,  which  was  in  the 
plans  of  the  allies  to  act  so  colourless  a  part,  was  to  ignore  the 
position  of  the  Four  and  to  assert  that  only  the  congress  as  a 
whole  could  give  the  committee  full  powers.  This  would  have 
meant  an  almost  indefinite  delay,  for  how  was  it  possible 
to  decide  the  exact  rights  of  all  the  different  states  to  a 


voice  in  affairs?  After  some  heated  discusaion  a  compromlae 
was  arrived  at.  The  opening  of  the  congress  was  postpooed, 
and  Sweden  and  Portugal  were  added  to  the  European  com- 
mittee, but  the  Four  still  persisted  in  the  informal  meetings  which 
were  to  decide  the  important  questions.  Meanwhile  separate 
committees  were  formed  for  the  discussion  of  special  problenoa. 
Thus  a  special  committee  was  appointed  consisting  of  the  five 
German  powers  to  discuss  the  constitution  which  was  to  replace 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  another  to  settle  that  of  Switzerland, 
and  others  for  other  minor  questions.  Talleyrand  had,  how- 
ever, already  shaken  the  position  of  the  allies.  He  had  posed 
as  the  defender  of  the  public  rights  of  Europe  and  won  to  his 
side  the  smaller  powers  and  much  of  the  public  opinion  of  Europe, 
while  the  allies  were  beginning  to  be  regarded  more  in  the  light 
of  rapacious  conquerors  than  as  disinterested  defenders  of  the 
liberties  of  Europe. 

Had  the  Four  remained  imited  in  their  views  they  would 
still  have  been  irresistible.  But  they  were  gradually  dividing 
into  two  unreconcilable  parties  upon  the  Saxon-Polish  question. 
Alexander,  exaggerating  the  part  he  had  played  in  the  final 
struggle,  and  with  some  vague  idea  of  nationality  in  his  brain, 
demanded  that  the  whole  of  Poland  should  be  added  to  the 
Russian  dominions.  Austria  was  to  be  compensated  In  Italy, 
while  Prussia  was  to  receive  the  whole  of  Saxony,  whose  unfor- 
tunate monarch  had  been  the  most  faithful  of  Napoleon's  vassals. 

It  was  Castlereagh  that  led  the  opposition  to  these  almost 
peremptory  demands  of  Alexander.  A  true  -  disciple  of  Pitt, 
he  came  to  the  congress  with  an  overwhelming  distrust  of  the 
growing  power  of  Russia,  which  was  only  second  to  his  hatred 
of  revolutionary  France.  He  considered  that  the  equilibrium 
of  Europe  would  be  irretrievably  upset  were  the  Russian 
boundaries  to  be  pushed  into  the  heart  of  Germany.  Thus 
while  wiUing,  even  anxious  that  Prussia  should  receive  Saxony, 
in  order  that  she  might  be  strong  to  meet  the  danger  from  the 
East,  he  was  prepared  to  go  to  any  lengths  to  resist  the  claims 
of  Russia.  For  Austria  Saxony  was  really  of  more  vital  interest 
than  Poland,  but  Castlereagh,  despite  a  vigorous  resistancr 
from  a  section  of  the  Austrian  court,  was  able  to  win  Metternich 
over  to  his  views.  He  hoped  to  gain  Prussia  also  to  bis  side, 
and  by  unitmg  the  German  powers  to  force  Alexander  to  retire 
from  the  position  he  had  so  uncompromisingly  laid  down. 
With  the  Prussian  statesmen  he  had  some  success,  but  be  could 
make  no  impression  on  Frederick  William.  Alexander  used  to 
the  utmost  that  influence  over  the  mind  of  the  Prussian  monarch 
which  he  had  been  preparing  since  the  beg:nning  of  1813. 
Against  Castlereagh  he  entered  the  lists  personally,  and  memor- 
andum after  memorandum  was  exchanged.  Despite  the  warning 
letters  of  the  British  ccbinet  which,  dismayed  at  the  long  con- 
tinuance of  the  American  War,  counselled  caution  on  a  question 
in  which  England  had  no  immediate  interest,  Castlereagh 
yielded  no  inch  of  his  ground.  But  Metternich  wavered  on  the 
question  of  Saxony,  and  December  saw  the  allies  hopelessly 
at  difference.  It  seemed  by  no  means  unlikely  that  the  armies 
which  had  conquered  Napoleon  woidd  soon  be  engaged  in 
conflict  with  one  another. 

It  was  Talleyrand's  opporlum'ty.  As  Castlereagh  and  Metter- 
nich began  to  regard  the  position  as  hopeless  they  began  to 
look  upon  him  as  a  possible  ally.  Talleyrand  had  constantly 
defended  the  rights  of  France's  old  ally  Saxony  in  the  name 
of  the  principle  which  his  master  Louis  XVIII.  represented. 
His  passionate  appeal  on  behalf  of  "legitimacy"  was  par. 
ticulariy  adapted  to  the  necessities  of  the  situation.  Alex- 
ander  was  driven  into  transports  of  rage  by  this  championship 
of  the  ancien  rigime  by  one  who  had  been  a  servant  of  its 
bitterest  foe.  But  Castlereagh  saw  that  war  could  only  be 
avoided  if  one  party  was  made  stronger  than  the  other.  The 
reluctant  consent  of  the  British  cabinet  was  obtained  and 
Talleyrand  was  approached  as  an  equal.  He  came  boldly  to 
the  front  in  the  middle  of  December  as  the  champion  of  Saxony: 
and,  as  Russia  and  Prussia  were  still  obstinate,  Metternich 
and  Castlereagh  demanded  the  admission  of  France  to  the 
I  secret  conndL    This  was  refMed,  and  on  the  jid  of  Jamiary 


Ftano 


it  tiMty  d(  deteoslvc  lUiiBce  wu  ligDa]  betweeo 


hung  ID  the  bal^DCc,  but  Atciaa 
<rf  bii  oiiponents.  Gmdually  a 
by  Ihe  end  of  ibe  montb  ill 
Austria  and  Pnusia  ictalDcd  r 
And  tbe  latter  power  only  icceh 


praoUsi  B«s  aifan^cd,  and 
ger  wu  put.  Eventually 
of  tbeii  Polish  doDunions, 
ibout  two-fiflbs  of  Saiony. 
The  rut  of  Poland  wai  incoiponted  as  a  separate  lin^om  in 
the  Russian  dominion!  with  »,  promise  of  a  DoiLUitution  of  its 
owD.  Talteynnd  hsd  icscued  France  fn>m  i»  bumiliating 
position,  and  Kt  it  u  SJi  equal  by  tbe  side  of  Ihe  allies.  Hence- 
forward he  made  oo  efioti  for  tbe  ogbls  of  the  whole  congres. 
Meaawhitc  other  aSaii)  had  been  progressing  more  hai- 
mosiously  under  tbe  direction  of  qiedal  committees,  which 
included  repicaeatative*  of  the  powers  ^iccially  interested. 
SwiderilDd  was  given  a  conitilulJon  which  led  it  in  the  direc- 
tion o(  its  later  fedenlism.  In  Italy  Austria  retained  ber  hold 
on  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  Genoa  was  assigned  to  the  kingdom 
of  Sardiniftt  while  Parma  went  to  Marie  Louise,  the  legitimate 
beir.  Carlo  Ludivico,  having  to  be  content  with  the  reversion 

him  as  a  duchy;  tbe  chUMS  of  tbe  young  Napcjeon  to  succeed 
bis  mother  in  Parma  were  only  destroyed  by  the  eSoits  of 
Frmnce  and  England,  The  otiiei  petty  monarchs  were  restored, 
■nd  Munt's  ruh  attempt,  after  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba, 
to  make  hioi^lf  king  of  united  Italy,  gave  back  Naples  to  the 
"      "  ' "  '  been  brought  about 


It  few 


>  (h» 


JOACHIH).  Holland  wat  confirmed  in  tbe  possession  c 
Belgiua  and  Luiemburg,  LJmhuiB  and  Lifge  wrce  added  to  hei 
dominions.  Sweden,  who  had  sacrificed  Finland  to  Russia^ 
obtained  Norway. 

German  aflairs,  however,  proved  too  cwtitilicated  for  complete 
B^ution.  It  was  difficult  enough  to  decide  tbe  dainu  of  the 
states  in  tbe  soamble  tor  tciritory.     EveptuaJiy,  however,  by 

The  greater  states  gained  largely,  especially  Pnusin.  who  wu 
given  large  accessions  of  territory  on  the  Rhine,  partly  as  a 
compeosation  for  her  dis^tpointment  in  the  matter  of  Saxony, 
paitly  that  she  niigbt  act  as  a  bulwark  against  France.  Some 
disputn  bttween  Baden  and  Bavaria  remained  unsetlled,  and 
many  (|uestioDS  arising  out  of  the  new  federal  constitution  of 
Germany,  which  had  been  hurriedly  patched  together  under 
the  influence  of  tbe  news  of  Nqnleon's  return,  had  to  tx  post- 
poned for  further  discussion,  and  were  not  settled  until  the 
Final  Act  agreed  upon  by  the  tonfcRoa  of  GcRnao  statesmen 


Other  more  general  objects,  nich  as  tbe  free  navigatioa  of 
Internationa]  riven  and  the  regulation  of  the  tights  of  precedence 
among  diplomatists  (ice  Diplohacv),  were  managed  with  much 
address.  CasUereagb's  great  efiorts  were  rewarded  by  a  de- 
daiatioa  that  tbe  slave  trade  was  to  be  abolished,  though  each 
power  was  left  free  to  fix  such  a  date  as  was  most  convenient 
to  itself.    Tbe  Final  Act,  embodying  all  the  sepantt 

wu  signed  on  lb*  oth  of  ju       "  

ofWati 


HioDlbe«thaf  JuneiSis, 


was  again  at  Paris,  and  the  doaing  stages  were  hurried  j 
considered.     One  negociatiou  of  supreme  impoitance  ■ 
ibort  f«  this  reason.     CastlcrEagh  had  left  Vienna  with  the 
hope  that  the  powers  would  solemnly  guarantee  their  lerritor 
Klllemeat  aud  promUe  to  make  collective  war  on  whoei 
dated  to  disturb  it.    This  guarantee  wu  to  include  the  Oil 
man  doninioni,  in  whose  intennts.  Indeed,  it  had  been  brou( 
[oiward.     Aleundei  made   no  abjection  provided   that   i 
Poite  would  submit  all  otrtstindisg  riaims  to  arbltraiioD.    T 
distance  of  Conslaotinople  from  Vienna  and  the  obstiuK;y 
the  Buttan  would  probably  have  [Hcvented  a  settlement,  but  the 
TetDm  of  Napoleon  rendered  all  such  proposals  almost  absord, 
and  the  scheme  wu  dropped. 

lyslem  tm  securing  the  stability  ol  the  European  polity,  nor  did 


it  recognize  those  new  (orce*  of  liberty  and  nationaltly  lAicb 
bad  really  caused  Napoleon's  downfalL  Following  the  tradi' 
tion  of  all  preceding  congresses,  it  was  mainly  a  scramble  for 
territory  and  power.  Territories  were  disEributed  among  the 
powers  with  no  consideration  for  (be  feelings  of  their  in- 
habitants, and  in  general  the  right  of  tbe  strongest  prevailed. 

perh^u  been  unmerited.  It  is  true  that  the  map  of  Europe 
shows  to.day  but  little  trace  of  its  influence;  but  much  of  iu 

little  control.  Europe  wu  mt  ready  for  tbe  recognition  of 
nationality  and  liberalism.  What  it  wanted  most  of  all  was 
pcatr,  and  by  establishing  somethiog  like  a  todtorial  equili' 
brium  the  coniress  did  much  to  win  that  breathing  spaa  wkudi 
was  tbe  cardinal  need  of  alL 


VIEHIIK  a  liver  of  central  France,  a  left-hand  liibuUry 
of  the  Loire,  watering  tbe  departments  of  Coir^,  Haute- 
Vienne,  Charente,  Vienne  and  Indnset-Loire.  Length,  Jio  m,; 
area  of  basin,  SiSe  aq.  m.  Rising  on  the  plateau  of  MiUevaches 
14  m.  N.W.  of  Ussel  (department  of  Corrise)  'at  a  height  of 
i;gq  n.,  tbe  Vienne  Sows  westward,  between  tbe  highlands 
o[  Liroousin  ou  the  south  and  the  plateau  of  Gentioui  and  the 
Blond  mounUini  on  the  north.  The  fiist  large  (own  on  its 
banks  is  Limoges  (Hauie-Vienne),  below  its  confluence  with 
the  Taurion:  in  this  part  of  its  course  the  river  supplies  motive 
power  to  paper-mills  and  other  factories.  Tbe  river  next 
readies  St  Junien,  below  which  it  tuns  abruptly  northwards 
to  Confoltns  (Charente),  Flowing  through  a  picturesque  and 
now  wider  valley,  and  passing  in  its  coune  the  churches  and 
chileaux  of  Cbauvigny,  the  river  proceeds  to  the  confiuepce 
of  the  Clain  just  above  Chllellerault.  Below  that  town  it 
receives  the  Creuse  (rising  on  the  plateau  of  Miltevacbes  and 
reaching  the  Vienne  ajter  a  course  of  iS9  m.),  and  turns  north- 
west, uniting  with  the  Loire  below  the  hisioric  town  of  ChinoD, 
Tbtrt  is  Utile  river-UaSc  OD  the  Vienne,  and  that  only  below 
Its  confluence  with  the  Creuse  (jo  lo.). 

TIBHHB.  a  department  of  west-central  France,  fonncd  in 
1790  out  of  Foitou  (four-Glths  of  its  present  area],  Toutaioe 
(one-seventh)  and  Berry,  and  bounded  by  Deui-Sivres  on  the 
W.,  Channte  on  the  S..  Haule-Vienne  on  the  S.E.,  Indre  on 
the  E.,  Indre-et-Loire  on  the  N.E.  and  N.,  and  If aine^et -Loire 
on  the  N.W,  Pop.  (i!«5)  331,611.  Area,  1719  sq,  m.  The 
river  Vienne,  which  gives  ita  name  to  tbe  department,  with 
in  tributaries  the  Creui*  (auhlributaiy  the  Garlempe)  6n  the 
east  and  the  Ckin  on  tbcjnst,  Hovs  from  south  to  north.  The 
general  slope  of  the  department  it  in  the  same  direction,  the 
highest  point  1764!!,)  being  in  the  soiilh-eaat  and  the  bwest 
(ir5  ft.)  at  the  jnnction  al  tbe  Vienne  and  the  Creuse.  In 
the  south  the  Charente,  on  the  nortb.wesl  the  Dive,  and  in 
the  west  some  streams  bekinging  to  the  basin  of  Ihe  Sivre- 
Nisctaise  drain  small  portions  of  Ibe  department.  The  average 
temperature  is  54°  P.     The  prevailing  winds    are  from  tbo 


S6 


VIENNE— VIENNE,  COUNCIL  OF 


Wheat,  OAfes  and  barley  are  the  principal  cereal*  cnhtvated, 
other  important  crops  beinif  lucerne,  sainfoin,  clover,  man^el- 
wurzeU  and  potatoes.  Colza  and  hemp  are  grown  to  a  Ihnitcd 
extent.  The  district  oi  Poitiers  grows  good  red  wine,  and  the  white 
wine  of  Trois-Moutlers  near  Loudun  is  well  known.  The  breeding 
of  live  stock  in  all  its  branches  b  fairly  active.  Poitou  is  famous  for 
its  mules,  and  the  geese  and  turkeys  of  the  de|»rtment  are  highly 
esteemed.  Oak,  ash,  alder  and  birch  are  the  principal  forest  trees, 
and  amon{|[  the  fruit  trees  are  the  chestnut,  walnut  and  almond. 
Freestone  ts  quani«!.  The  most  important  industrial  establish- 
ments  are  the  national  arms  manufactory  at  Ch&tellcreult  and  the 
cutlery  works  near  that  town.  In  other  parts  of  the  department  are 
wool-spinning  mills,  hemp-spinning  mills,  manufactories  of  serges 
and  coarse  doth,  vinegar,  candles,  goose  and  fcoat  skins,  leather, 
tiles  and  pottery,  paper-works,  breweries,  distilleries,  lime-kilns 
and  numerous  flour-mtlls.  Com,  wine,  brandy,  vegetables,  fruit, 
chestnuts,  fodder,  cattle,  stone,  cutleiv,  arms  and  dressed  hides  are 
exported:  butcher's  beasts,  colonial  produce  ami  coals  are  im- 
ported. The  department  is  served  by  the  Ouest-£tat  and  Orleans 
railways.  Vtenne  forms  part  of  the  diocese  of  Poitiets,  has  its 
court  of  appeal  and  educational  centre  at  Pkntiers,  and  belongs 
to  the  region  of  the  IX.  army  corps.  The  ca{nta1  is  Poitiers,  and 
the  department  b  divided  for  purposes  of  adminbtration  into 
S  arrondissements  (Poitiers,  ChAtellerault,  Civray.  Loudun,  Mont- 
morillon),  31  cantons  and  300  communes.  The  more  noteworthy 
towns  are  Poitiers,  Chfttellerault,  Loudun,  Montmorillon  and  Chau- 
vigny,  these  being  separately  treated.  Other  places  of  interest 
are  3t  Maurice,  Civray  and  St  Savin,  which  have  Romanesque 
churches,  the  abbey  church  of  St  Savin  being  remarkable  for  its 
mural  paintings;  Ligugd,  with  an  abbey  church  of  the  15th  and  i6th 
centunes;  Charroux,  which  has  a  Romanesque  octagonal  tower  and 
other  remains  of  a  famous  abbey:  and  Sanxay,  near  which  there  are 
ruins  of  a  theatre  and  other  Galio-Roman  remains.  Viennc  is  rich 
in  megalithic  monuments. 

VIENNE*  the  chief  town  of  an  anondissement  of  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Isdre,  France.  Hbtorically  the  first,  it  is  by 
population  (34,619  in  xgoi)  the  second  dty  of  the  department 
•of  the  Is^e,  after  Grenoble;  and  the  third,  after  Valence,  of 
the  Dauphin^.  It  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone 
just  below  the  junction  of  the  G^  with  the  Rhone,  and  about 
30  m.  by  rail  S.  of  Lyons. .  On  the  N.,  £.  and  S.  the  town 
is  sheltered  by  low  hills,  the  Rhone  flowing  along"  its  western 
side.  Its  ute  b  an  immense  mass  of  andent  d4Ms,  which  b 
constantly  yielding  interesting  antiquities.  On  the  bank  of 
the  Gire  are  traces  of  the  ramparts  of  the  old  Roman  dty, 
and  on  the  Mont  Pipet  (£.  of  the  town)  are  the  remains  of  an 
amphitheatze,  while  the  ruined  castle  there  was  built  in  the 
13th  century  on  Roman  substructures.  Several  of  the  andent 
aqueducts  (one  only  b  now  actually  in  use)  are  still  to  be  seen, 
while  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  dty  some  bits  of  the  old 
Roman  loads  may  still  be  found. 

The  streets  of  the  town  are  narrow  and  tortuous,  but  it  poseeases 
two  Roman  monuments  of  the  first  class.  One  b  the  temple  of 
Augusta  and  Uvia,  a  rectangular  building  of  the  Corinthian  order, 
erected  by  the  emperor  Claudius,  and  inferior  onl^  to  the  Maison 
Carrie  at  Nfmes.  From  the  5th  century  to  1793  it  was  a  church 
(Notre  Dame  de  Vie),  and  the  "  festival  of  reason  "  was  celebrated 
in  it  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution.^  The  other,  in  the  more  modern 
part  of  the  town,  b  the  Plan  de  PAiptillei  a  truncated  quadrangular 
pyramid  about  52  ft.  in  height  and  restme  on  a  portico  with  four 
arches.  Manv  theories  have  been  advanced  as  to  what  thb  singular 
structure  really  was  (some  imagine  that  it  was  the  tomb  of  Pontius 
Pilatus,  who,  according  to  the  legend,  died  at  Vienne),  but  it  b  now 
generally  believed  to  have  been  part  of  the  spina  01^  a  large  circus, 
the  outlines  of  which  have  been  traced.  The  church  of  St  Peter 
belonged  to  an  ancient  Benedictine  abbey  and  was  rebuilt  in  the 
9th  century.  _  It  is  in  the  earliest  Romanesque  style,  and  forms 
a  basilica,  with  tall  square  piere,  reminding  one  oil  Lucca,  while 
the  two  ranges  of  windows  in  the  aisles,  with  their  coupled  marble 
columns,  recall  Ravenna  from  withifh  and  the  Basse  (Euvre  of 
Beauvab  from  without.  The  porch  is  in  the  eariiest  Romanesque 
style.  Thb  church  has  of  late  years  been  completely  restored,  and 
smu  1895  shelters  the  magnificent  Unsie  Lapidaire  (formerly  housed 
ui  the  temple  of  Augusta  and  Livia).  The  former  cathedral  church 
(pnmatial  as  well  as  metropolitan^  of  St  Maurice  contains  some  of 
the  best  forms  01  the  true  N.  Gothic,  and  was  constructed  at  various 

Eenods  between  1053  and  1533.  It  b  a  basiUca.  with  three  aisles. 
.  ut  no  apse  or  transepts..  It  is  315  ft.  in  length,  1 18  ft.  wide  and  89 
in  height.  The  most  striking  portion  b  the  W.  front  (1533).  which 
nscs  majestically  from  a  terrace  overhanging  the  Rhone.  But  the 
statuary  was  much  injured  by  the  Protestants  in  1562.  The  church 
of  St  Andr«  le  Bas  was  the  church  of  a  second  Benedictine  monas- 
tery, and  later  the  chapel  of  the  earlier  kings  of  Provence.  It 
jras  rebuilt  m  1152,  in  the  later  Romanesque  style.  The  town 
bbrary  and  art  museum  are  now  in  the  com  hall,  which  has  been 


reconstructed  for  that  purpose.  A  sospenaon  bridge  laada  f rofA  the 
city  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhone,  where  the  industrial  quariei 
of  Ste  Colorobe  now  occupies  part  of  the  ancient  dty.  Here  i%  a 
tower,  built  in  13M  by  Philip  of  Valois  to  defend  the  Frendi  bcnk 
of  the  Rhone,  as  oistinguished  from  the  left  bank,  which,  as  P^rt  of 
the  kingdom  of  Provence,  was  dependent  on  the  Holy  Kosnan 
Empire.  Thb  state  of  things  b  also  recalled  by  the  name  of  the 
village,  St  Romain  en  C«al,  to  the  N.W.  of  Ste  Colombe. 

Tm  G^  supplies  the  motive  ix>wer  to  numerous   factories 
The  most  important  are  those  which  produce  cloth   ^bouc    30 
factories,  turning  out  daily  about  15.000  yds.  of  cloth).    There  are 
numerous  other  mdustrial  establishments  (paper  mills,  iron  foundries, 
brick  works,  refining  furnaces,  &c.). 

Vienne  was  originaUy  the  capital  of  the  Allobroges,   and 
became  a  Roman  colony  about  47  B.C.  under  Caesar,    is  bo 
embellished  and  fortified  it.    A  little  later  these  cotonists  were 
expelled  by  the  Allobroges;  the  exiles  then  founded  the  colony 
of  Lyons  (Lugdunum).    It  was  not  till  the  days  of  Augustus 
and  Tiberius  that  Vienne  regained  all  its  former  privileges  as' a 
Roman  colony.    Later  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Provinda 
Viennensis.    In  357  Postumps  was  proclaimed  emperor  here, 
and  for  a  few' years  from  that  day  onwards  Vienne  was  the 
capital  of  a  short-lived  provincial  empire.    It  b  said  to  ha\t 
bten  converted  to  Chrbtianity  by  Crcsccns,  the  disciple  of 
St  Paul.    Certainly  there  were  Christians  here  in  177,  as  in  the 
Greek  letter  (preserved  to  us  by  Eusebius)  addressed  at  that 
date  by  the  churches  of  Vienne  and  Lyons  to  those  of  Asia 
and  Phrygia  mention  b  made  of  **  the  "  deaom  of   Vienne.    | 
The  first  bishop  certainly  known  b  Verus,  who  was  present  at 
the  Council  of  Aries  in  3x4.    About  450  Vienne  became  as 
archbishopric  and  continued  one  till  1790,  when  the  see  via 
suppressed.     The  archbbhops  disputed  with  those  of   Lyou 
the  title  of  "  Primate  of  All  the  Gauls."     Vienne  was  con- 
quered by  the  Burgundians  in  438,  and  in  534  was  taken  by  the     ' 
Franks.    Sacked  in  558  by  the  Lombards  and  in  737  by  the    I 
Saracens,  the  government  of  the  dbtrict  was  given  by  Charles 
the  Bald  in  869  to  a  certain  Count  Boso,  who  in  879  was  pro-     I 
claimed  king  of  Provence,  and  was  buried  on  hb  death  in  £^7     { 
in  the  cathedral  church  of  St  Maurice.    Vienne  then  continued 
to  form  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Provence  or  Aries  tiilln  1032  ii 
reverted  to  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.    The  sovereigns  of  that 
kingdom,  as  well  as  the  emperors  in  the   lath  century  (io 
particular  Frederick  Barbarossa  in  X153),  recognized  the  rights 
of  the  archbishops  as  the  rulers  (in  the  name  of  the  emperor) 
of  Vienne.    But  the  growing  power  of  the  counts  of  Albon. 
later  Dauphins  of  the  neighbouring  county  of  the  Viennois, 
was  the  cause  of  many  dbputes  between  them  and  the  arch- 
bishops.    In  X349  the  reigning  Dauphin  sold  bb  Dauphin^ 
to  France,  but  the  town  of  Vienne  was  not  induded  in  this 
sale,  and  the  archbbhops  did  not  give  up  their  rights  over  it  to 
France  till  1449,  when  it  first  became  French.    In  1311-13 
the  fifteenth  General  Coundl  was  held  at  Vienne.  when  Clement 
V.  abolbhed  the  order  of  the  Knights  Templar.    Vienne  was 
sacked  in  1562  by  fhe  Protestants  under  the  baron  des  Adrets, 
and  was  hdd  for  the  Ligue  1590-95,  when  it  was  taken  in  the 
name  of  Henri  IV.  by  Montmorency.     The  fortifications  were 
demolished  between  1589  and  1636.    In  1790  the  archbishopric 
was  abolbhed,  the  title  "  Primate  of  All  the  Gauls  *'  being 
attributed  to  the  archbishops  of  Lyons.    Among  famous  natives 
of  Vienne  may  be  mentioned    St  Julian  (3rd  century)  and 
Nicholas  Chorier  (16x2-1692),  the  hbtorian  of  the  Dauphin^, 
while  Gui  de  Bourgogne,  who  was  archbishop  1090"!  119,  became 
pope  in  1 1x9  as  Calixtus  II.  (d.  1124). 

See  A.  Allmer  et  A.  de  Terrebasse,  TnseripHons  ttniiques  et  in 
moyen  Age  de  Vienne  *n  Dauphini  (6  vols.,  Vienne.  1875-76);   CI- 
Charvet.  Pastes  de  la  ville  de  Vienne  (Vienne,  1869);   U.  ChevaliV. 
CoUection  des  Cartulaires  Danpkinois^  in  vol.  i.   (Vienne.    1869, 
is  that  of  St  Aiidr£  le  Bas.  and  in  vol.  ii.  (1891)  a  description  of  tha 
of  St  Maurice ;    N.  Chorier,  Pecherckes  sur  Us  anti^uitfs  de  la  villt 
de  Vienne  (Vienne,  1658);   E.  A.  Freeman.  Article  in  the  Saturday 
Review  for  Feb.  6,  1875;  F.  Raymond,  Le  Guide  Vienneis  (Troves, 
1897).  (W.A.B,  C.)        i 

VIENIfE,  COUNCIL  OF.  an  ecdesiastical  coundl,  which  in  ' 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  ranks  as  the  fifteenth  ecumenical  i 
synod.    It  met  from  October  16,  1311,  to  May  6, 1312,  under 


VIERGE— VIETA 


57 


the  presldeney  of  Pope  Clement  V.  The  transference  of  the 
Curia  from  Rome  to  Avignon  (1309)  had  brought  the  papacy 
under  the  influence  of  the  French  crown;  and  this  position 
Philip  the  Fair  of  France  now  endeavoured  to  utilize  by  de- 
manding from  the  pope  the  dissolution  of  the  powerful  and 
wealthy  order  of  the  Temple,  together  with  the  ihtroduction 
of  a  trial  for  heresy  against  the  late  Pope  Boniface  VIIL  To 
evade  the  second  claim,  Clement  gave  way  on  the  first.  Legal 
trials  and  acts  of  violence  against  the  Templars  had  begun  as 
early  as  the  year  1307  (see  Teicplass);  and  the  principal 
object  of  the  council  was  to  secure  a  definite  decision  on  the 
question  of  their  continuance  or  abolition.  In  the  committee 
appointed  for  preliminary  consultation,  one  section  was  for  the 
immediate  condemnation  of  the  order,  and  declined  to  allow 
it  any  opportunity  of  defence,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  now 
supei^uous  and  simply  a  source  of  strife.  The  majority  of 
the  members,  however,  regarded  the  case  as  non-proven,  and 
demanded  that  the  order  should  be  heard  on  its  own  behalf; 
while  at  the  same  time  they  held  that  its  dissolution  was  unjustifi- 
able. Under  pressure  from  the  king,  who  was  himself  present 
in  Vienne,  the  pope  determined  that,  as  the  order  gave  occasion 
for  scandal  but  could  not  be  condemned  as  heretical  by  a  judicial 
sentence  (dejure),  it  should  be  abolished  p^  modum  provisionis 
seu  ordinoHonis  apostolicae;  in  other  words,  by  &a  administra- 
tive ruling  based  on  considerations  of  the  general  welfare, 
Td  this  proc^urc  the  council  agreed,  and  on  the  23nd  of  March 
the  order  of  the  Temple  was  suppressed  by  the  bull  Vox 
demands',  while  further  decisions  as  to  the  treatment  of  the 
Order  and  its  possessions  followed  later. 

In  addition  to  this  the  discussions  announced  in  the  opening 
speech,  regarding  measures  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church 
and  the  protection  of  her  liberties,  took  place;  and  a  part  of 
the  Constitutions  found  in  the  Clementinum,  published  in  1317 
by  John  XXII.,  were  probably  enacted  by  the  coimdl.  StiU 
it  is  impossible  to  say  with  certainty  what  decrees  were  actually 
passed  at  Vienne.  Additional  decisions  were  necessitated  by 
the  violent  disputes  which  raged  within  the  Franciscan  order 
as  to  the  observance  of  the  rules  of  St  Francis  of  Assisi,  and 
by  the  multitude  of  subordinate  quesdons  arising  from  this. 
Resolutions  were  also  adopted  on  the  Begxiines  and  their  mode 
of  life  (see  Beguines),  the  control  of  the  hospitals,  the  mstitu- 
tion  of  instructors  in  Hebrew,  Arabic  and  Chaldaic  at  the 
universities,  and  on  numerous  details  of  ecclesiastical  discipline 
and  law. 

See  MansI,  CoUectio  ConeHiorum,  vol.  xxv.;  Hefele,  ConcUien- 
gesckickte,  \oL  vL  pp.  532-54. 

VIEROB,  DANIEL  (1851-1904),  Spanish  painter  and 
draughtsman,  was  bom  in  Madrid  in  1851.  He  went  to  Paris 
in  1867  to  seek  his  fortune,  fired  by  the  vivid  energy  of  his 
national  temperament.  He  became  attached  to  the  Monde 
iUusirS  in  1870,  just  before  the  Franco-Prussian  War  broke  out, 
and,  like  other  artists  in  the  paper,  came  under  the  powerful 
influence  of  Edmond  Morin,  the  first  newspaper  draughtsman 
bi  France  who  sought  to  impart  to  drawings  for  journals  the 
character  of  a  work  of  art.  Vierge's  eariier  drawings,  therefore, 
partake  greatly  of  Morin's  style;  such  are,  "  The  Shooting  in 
the  Rue  de  la  Paix,"  "The  Place  d'Armes  at  Versailles," 
"The  Loan,"  «*The  Great  School-F«te  of  Lyons,"  "Anni- 
versary of  the  Fight  of  Aydes  "  and  "  Souvenir  of  Coulmiers." 
Vierge  lost  no  time  in  proving  the  extraordinary  vigour  and 
picturesqueness  of  his  art.  Apart  from  the  contribution  of  his 
own  original  work,  he  was  required  by  his  paper  to  redraw  upon 
the  wood,  for  the  engraver,  the  sketches  sent  in  by  artist-corre- 
spondents, such  as  Luc  Ollivier  Merson  in  Rome  and  Samuel 
Urrabieta  (Vierge's  brother)  in  Spain.  From  1871  to  1878 
his  individuality  became  more  and  more  pronounoed,  and  he 
produced,  among  his  best-known  drawings,  "  Christmas  in 
Spain,"  "The  Republican  Meeting  in  Thifalgar  Square," 
"  Attack  on  a  Train  in  Andalusia,"  "  Feast  of  St  Rosalia  in 
Palermo,"  "  In  the  Jardin  d'Acdimatation,"  "  The  Burning  of 
the  Libraiy  of  the  Escurial,  1872,"  "  Grasshoppers  in  Algiers,'*- 
"Brigandage  in  Sidly,"   "Night   F6te   in   Constantinople." 


"Episode  of  the  CIvfl  War  in  Spain,"  "Marriage  of  the 
King  of  Spain"  and  "The  Bull  Fight."  About  tins  tune 
he  illustrated  with  remarkable  dash  and  skill  Victor  Hugo's 
Annit  terrible  (Michd  L£vy,  1874,  and  Hugues,  1879),  "  18 ij  " 
(HugueSy  1877)  and  Les  Misirables  (1883).  His  niasterpiece 
of  illustration  is  Michelet's  History  of  Franu  (1876),  consist- 
ing of  36  volumes  containing  xooo  drawings.  In  1879  he  wa« 
drawing  for  La  Vie  modeme,  and  then  prooee4ed  to  illustrate 
P<Mo  de  Segovia,  While  engaged  upon  this  work  he  was 
attacked  by  paralysis  in  the  right  arm,  but  with  characteristic 
energy  and  courage  he  set  himself  to  acquire  the  necessary  skill 
in  drawing  with  the  left,  and  calmly  proceeded  with  the  illus- 
trations to  the  book.  In  1891  be  illustrated  L'Espagnolef 
by  Bexgerat,  and  in  1895  Le  Cabaret  des  trois  vertus.  In  X898 
he  held,  at  the  PeUetan  Gallery  in  Paris,  an  exhibition  of  his 
drawings  for  Chateaubriand's  Le  Dernier  Abencirage  ("  The 
Last  of  the  Abcncerrages  "),  and  in  the  following  year  a  com- 
prehensive exhibition  of  his  work  (including  the  illustrations 
to  Don  Quixote)  at  the  Art  Nouveau  Gallery,  also  in  Paris.  In 
1898  Vierge  contributed  to  Ulmage,  a  magazine  devoted  to  the 
encouragement  of  engraving  upon  wood;  and  two  years  later, 
at  the  International  Exhibition  at  Paris,  he  was  awarded  a 
grand  prix.  In  1903  he  exhibited  at  the  New  Salon  a  scene 
from  the  Franco-Prussian  War.  He  died  at  Boulogne-sur- 
Seine  in  May  1904.- 

See  Roger  Marx.  L* Image  (1898) ;  Bdraldi,  La  Cravure  au  7{f 
sOcle. 

yiERSEH,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  Rhine  pro- 
vince, XX  m.  by  rail  S.W.  from  Crefcld,  and  at  the  junction  of 
lines  to  Mlinchen-Gladbach,  Venlo,  &c.  Pop.  (1905)  27,577.  It 
has  an  evangelical  and  four  Roman  Catholic  churches,  among 
the  latter  the  handsome  parish  church  dating  from  the  15th 
centtuy,  and  various  educational  establishments.  Vicisen  is 
one  of  the  chief  seats  in  the  lower  Rhine  country  for  the  manu- 
facture of  velvets,  silks  (especially  umbrella  covers)  and  plush. 

VIEBZON,  a  town  of  central  France,  m  the  department  of 
Cher,  30  m.  N.W.  of  Bourges  by  rail.  The  Cher  and  the  Y^vre 
unite  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which  lie  Vierzon-Ville  (pop. 
(1906)  tpwiu  11,812)  and  Vierzon- Village  (pop.  town,  2026; 
conuttune,  97x0);  Vieizon-Bourgneuf  (pop.  town,  X482)  is  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Cher.  The  town  his  a  port  on  the  canal  of 
Berxy  and  is  an  important  jimction  on  the  Orleans  railway; 
there  are  several  large  manufactories  for  the  production  of 
agricultural  machines,  also  foundries,  porcelain,  brick  and  tile 
works  and  glass  works.  A  technical  school  of  mechanics  and  a 
branch  of  the  Bank  of  France  are  among  the  institutions  of  the 
town. 

VIETA  (or  Vi^e),  FRANCOIS,  Sezcneub  de  la  Bicon£RE 
(x  540-1603),  more  generally  known  as  Fkanciscus  Vieta, 
French  mathematician,  was  bom  in  1540  at  Fontenay-le-Comte, 
in  Poitou.  According  to  F.  Ritter,*  Vieta  was  brought  up  as 
a  Catholic,  and  died  in  the  same  creed;  but  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  he  belonged  to  the  Huguenots  for  several  years. 
On  the  completion  of  his  studies  in  law  at  Poitiers  Vieta  began 
his  career  as  an  advocate  in  his  native  town.  This  he  left 
about  1567,  and  somewhat  later  we  fixid  him  at  Rennes  as  a 
comuillor  of  the  parlement  of  Brittany.  The  rdigious  troubles 
drove  him  thence,  and  Rohan,  the  well-known  chief  of  the 
Huguenots,  took  hdm  under  his  special  protection.  He  recom- 
mended him  in  1580  as  a  "ixialtre  des  requdtes"  (master  of 
requests);  and  Henry  of  Navarre,  at  the  instance  of  Rohan, 
addressed  two  letters  to  Henry  III.  of  France  on  the  3rd  of 
March  and  the  26th  of  April  1585,  to  obtain  Vieta's  restoration 
to  his  former  office,  but  without  result.  After  the  accession  of 
Henry  of  Navarre  to  the  throne  of  France,  Vieta  filled  in  1589 
the  position  of  councillor  of  the  parlement  at  Tours.  He 
afterwards  became  a  royal  privy  councillor,  and  remained  so 
till  his  death,  which  took  place  suddenly  at  Paris  in  February 
1603,  but  in  what  maimer  we  do  not  Imow;  Anderson,  the 
editor  of  his  scientific  writings,  speaks  only  of  a  "  praeoeps  et 
immaturum  autoris  fatxun." 

\Boaelino  Bonc^mpagiU  (Rocne,  1868),  voL  L  p.  237.  n*  i« 


58 


VIEUXTEMPS— VIGEE-LEBRUN 


We  know  of  tne  tmportant  lervice  leudtced  by  VieU  n 
%  royal  officer.  Wliile  at  Tours  bo  discovered  the  key  to  a 
Spanish  cipher,  consisting  of  more  thaa  500  characters,  and 
thenceforward  all  the  despatches  in  that  language  which  fdl 
into  the  hands  of  the  French  could  be  easily  read.  His  fame 
now  rests,  however,  entirely  upon  his  achievements  in  mathe- 
matics. Being  a  man  of  wealth,  he  printed  at  his  own  expense 
the  numerous  papers  which  he  wrote  on  various  branches  of 
this  science,  and  communicated  them  to  scholars  in  almost  every 
country  of  Europe.  An  evidence  of  the  good  use  he  made  of 
his  means,  as  well  as  of  the  kindliness  of  his  character,  is  fur- 
nished by  the  fact  that  he  entertained  as  a  guest  for  a  whole 
month  a  scientific  adversary,  Adriaan  van  Roomen,  and  then 
paid  the  expenses  of  his  Journey  home.  Vieta's  writings  thus 
became  very  quickly  known;  but,  when  Frandscus  van 
Schooten  issued  a  general  edition  of  his  works  in  1646,  he  failed 
to  make  a  complete  collection,  although  probably  nothing  of 
very  great  value  has  perished. 

The  form  of  Vteta'a  writings  b  th«r'  weak  side.  He  indulged 
freely  in  flourishes;  and  in  devising  technical  terms  derived  from 
the  Creek  he  seems  to  have  aimed  at  making  them  as  unintelligible 
as  possible.^  None  of  them,  in  point  of  fact,  has  held  its  ground, 
ana  even  his  proposal  to  denote  unknown  quantities  bv  the  voweb 
A,  B,  1,  o,  u,  Y — the  consonants  b,  c,  &c..  being  reserved  for  general 
knoMm  quantities — ^has  not  been  taken  up.  In  thb  denotation 
he  followed,  perhaps,  some  older  contemporaries,  as  Ramus,  who 
designated  the  points  in  geometrical  figures  by  vowels,  making  use 
of  consonants,  R,  s,  T,  &c.,  only  when  these  were  exhausted.  Vieta 
n  wont  to  be  called  the  father  of  modern  alsebra.  Thb  does  not 
mean,  what  b  often  alleged,  that  nobody  Defore  him  had  ever 
thought  of  choosing  symbob  different  from  numerab.  such  as  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  to  denote  the  quantities  of  arithmetict 
but  that  he  made  a  general  custom  of  what  until  hb  rime  had  been 
only  an  exceptional  attempt.  All  that  b  wanting  in  hb  writings, 
especially  in  his  Isagoge  %n  atttm  analyticam  (1591),  in  order  to 
make  them  look  like  a  modern  school  algebra,  b  merely  the  sign 
of  equality — a  want  which  b  the  more  striking  because  Robert 
Recordc  had  made  use  of  our  present  symbol  for  this  purpose  since 
1557,  and  Xylander  had  employed  vertical  parallel  lines  since  1 575. 
On  the  other  hand,  V^ta  was  well  skilled  in  most  modem  artifices, 
aiming  at  a  simplification  of  equations  by  the  substitution  of  new 
quantities  having  a  certain  connexion  with  the  primitive  unknown 
quantities.  Another  of  hb  works,  Recensio  canonica  effectumum 
geometricarumt  bears  a'stamf)  not  less  modem,  being  what  we  now 
call  an  algebraic  geometry^n  other  words,  a  collection  of  precepts 
how  to  constroct  algebraic  expressions  with  the  use  of  rule  and 
compass  only.  Whue  these  writings  were  generally  intelligible, 
and  therefore  of  the  greatest  didactic  importance,  the  principle 
ojT  homogeneUy^  first  enuncbted  by  >^eta,  was  so  far  in  advance  of 
hb  times  that  most  readers  seem  to  have  passed  it  over  without 
adverting  to  its  value.  That  principle  had  been  made  use  of  by 
the  Greek  authors  of  the  classic  age;  but  of  bter  mathematicians 
only  Hero,  Diophantus,  &c.,  ventured  to  regard  lines  and  surfaces 
as  mere  numbers  that  could  be  joined  to  give  a  new  number,  their 
sum.  It  may  be  that  the  study  of  such  sums,  which  he  found 
in  the  works  of  Diophantus,promptod  him  to  by  it  down  as  a  prin- 
ciple that  quantities  occiunng  in  an  equation  ought  to  be  homo- 
geneous, all  of  them  lines,  or  surfaces,  or  solids,  or  supersolids — 
an  equation  between  mere  numbers  being  inadmissible.  During 
the  three  centuries  that  have  elapsed  between  Victa's  day  and^our 
own  several  changes  of  opinion  have  taken  place  on  tlus  subject, 
till  the  principle  has  at  last  proved  so  far  victorious  that  modem 
mathcmatidans  like  to  make  homogeneous  such  equations  as  are 
not  so  from  the  beginning,  in  order  to  get  values  of^a  symmetrical 
shape.  Vieta  himself,  of  course,  did  not  see  so  far  as  that;  never- 
theless the  merit  cannot  be  denied  him  of  having  indirectly  suggested 
the  thou|;ht.  Nor  are  his  writings  lacl^ng  in  actual  inventions. 
He  conceived  methods  for  the  general  re»>lution  of  equations  of  the 
^econd^  third  and  fourth  degrees  difTenent  from  those  of  Feno  and 
Ferran,  with  which,  however,  it  b  difficult  to  believe  him  to  have 
^een  unacquainted.  He  devised  an -approximate  numerical  solution 
of  equations  of  the  second  and  third  degrees,  wherein  Leonardo  of 
Pisa  must  have  preceded  him,  but  by  a  method  every  vestige  of 
wjiich  b  completely  lost.  He  knew  the  connexion  existing  between 
the  positive  roots  of  an  equation  (which,  by  the  way,  were  alone 
thought  of  9A  roots)  and  the  coefficients  of  the  different  ppwers  of 
the  unknown  quantity.  He  found  out  the  formula  for  deriving 
the  sine  of  a  multiple  angle,  knowing  that  of  the  simple  angle  with 
due  regard  to  the  periodicity  of  sines.  This  formula  must  have 
been  known  to  Vieta  in  1593.  In  that  year  Adriaan  van  Roomen 
gave  out  as  a  problem  to  all  mathematicbns  an  equation  of  the 
45th  degree,  which,  being  recognized  by  Vieta  as  depending  on 
the  equation  between  sin  $  and  sin  ^/45,  was  resolved  by  him  at 
once,  all  the  twenty-three  positive  roots  of  which  the  said  equation  I 


was  capable  being  given  at  tha  same  diM  Ciet  Tiksonomxtrw). 
Such  was  the  first  encounter  of  the  two  scholars.  A  second  took 
place  when  Vieia  pointed  to  Apollonius's  problem  of  taction  as  not 
yet  being  mastered,  and  Adriaan  van  Roomen  gave  a  solution  by 
the  hyperbola.  Vieta,  however,  did  not  accept  it,  as  there  existed 
a  solution  by  means  of  the  rule  and  the  compass  only,  which  he 
published  himself  in  hb  ApoUontus  CoUus  (1600).  In  this  paper 
vieta  made  use  of  the  centre  of  similitude  of  two  circles.  Lastly  he 
gave  an  tnfimte  product  for  the  number  r  (see  Cibclb.Squarjnc  of). 

Vbta's  collected  works  were  issued  under  the  title  of    Opera 
Mathematica  by  F  van  Schooten  at  Leiden  in  1646.  (M.  Ca.) 

VIEUXTBIIP8,  HENRI     (x82o>i88i),  Belgian  vioUmst   and 
composer,  was  bom  at  Vendees,  on  the  20th  of  February  1820. 
Until  hb  seventh  year  he  was  a  pupil  of  LecJoux,  but  when  De 
B6riot  heard  him  he  adopted  hLn  as  hb  pupil,  taking  him  to 
^pear  in  Paris  in  1828.    Fr9m  1833  onwards  he  spent   the 
greater  part  of  hb  life  in  concert  tours,  visiting  all  parts  of  the 
world  with  uniform  success.    He  first  appeared  in  London  at 
a  Philharmonic  concert  on  the  and  of  June  1834,  and  in  the 
following  year  studied  composition  with  Reicha  in  Paris,  and 
began  to  produce  a.  k>ng  series  of  works,  full  of  formidably 
difficult  passages,  thou^  also  of  pleasing  themes  and  fine 
musical  ideas,  which  are  consequently  highly  appreciated  by 
violinbts.    From  1846  to  1852  he  was  solo  violinbl  to  the  tsar, 
and  professor  m  the  oonservatorium  in  St  Petersburg.    From 
1871  to  1873  he  was  teacher  of  the  violin  class  in  the  Brussels 
Conservatoire,  but  was  disabled  by  an  attack  of  paralysb  in  the 
latter  year,  and  from  that  time  could  only  superintend  the 
studies  of  favourite  pupils.    He  died  at  Mustaphs,  in  Algios, 
on  the  6th  of  June  x88x.    He  had   a  perfect  command  of 
technique,  faultless  intonation  and  a  marvellous  command  of 
the  bow.    Hb  staccato  tras  famous  all  over  the  world,  and  his 
tone  was  exceptionally  rich  and  fulL 

VIOAN,  a  town  and  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Docos  Sur, 
Luzon,  Phiiq>pine  Islands,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Abra  xiver, 
about  soo  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Manila.  Pop.  of  the  municipaUty 
(1903)  x4i94S»  After  the  census  of  1903  was  taken  there  were 
united  to  Vigan  the  municipalities  of  Bantay  (pop.  7020), 
San  Vicente  (pop.  5060),  Santa  Catalina  (pop.  5625)  and  Coayan 
(pop.  6aoi),  making  the  total  population  of  the  municipality 
38,851.  Vigan  b  the  residence  of  the  bbhop  of  Nueva  Segovia 
and  has  a  fine  cathedral,  a'  substantial  court-house,  other 
durable  public  buildings  and  a  monument  to  Juan  de  Salcedo, 
its  founder.  It  b  engaged  in  farming,  fishing,  the  manufacture 
of  brick,  tile,  cotton  fabrics  and  furniture,  and  the  building 
of  boats.    The  language  b  Ilocano. 

VIG^E-LEBRUK,  MARIE-ANlfB  EUSABBTH  (1755-1842), 
French  painter,  was  bom  in  Parb,  the  daughter  of  a  painter, 
from  whom  she  received  her  first  instructi<Hi,  though  she  bene- 
fited more  by  the  advice  of  Doyen,  Greuze,  Joseph  Vemet  and 
other  masters  of  the  period.  When  only  about  twenty  years 
of  age  she  had  already  risen  to  fame  with  her  portraits  of  Count 
Orloff  and  the  duchess  of  Orleans,  her  personal  charm  making 
her  at  the  same  time  a  favourite  in  society.  In  1776  she 
married  the  painter  and  art-critic  J.  B.  P.  Lebrun,  and  in 
1783  her  picture  of  "  Peace  bringing  b&ck  Abundance  "  (now 
at  the  Louvre)  gained  her  the  membership  of  the  Academy. 
When  the  Revolution  broke  out  in  1789  ^e  escaped  first  to 
Italy,  where  she  worked  at  Rome  and  Naples.  At  Rome  she 
painted  the  portraits  of  Priacesses  Adelaide  and  Victorb,  and 
at  Naples  the  "  Lady  Hamilton  as  a  Bacchante  "  now  in  the 
collection  of  Mr  Tankerviile  Chamberb3mei  and  then  jour- 
neyed to  Vienna,  Berlin  and  St  Petersburg.  She  returned  to 
Parb  in  1781,  but  went  in  the  following  year  to  London,  where 
she  painted  the  portraits  of  Lord  Byron  and  the  prince  of 
Wales,  and  in  1808  to  Switzerland.  Her  numerous  journeys, 
and  the  vogue  she  enjoyed  wherever  she  went,  account  for  the 
numerous  portraits  from  her  brush  that  are  to  be  found  in 
the  great  collections  of  many  countries.  Having  returned  .to 
France  from  Switzerland,  she  lived  first  at  her  country  house 
near  Marly  and  then  in  Parb,  where  she  died  at  the  age  of 
eighty-seven,  in  1842,  having  been  widowed  for  twenty-nine 
years.  She  published  her  own  memoirs  under  the  title  of 
Soiaenirs     (Paris,    1835-37).    Among  her  many  sitteis  was 


VIGEVANO^VIGILANCB  COMMITTEE 


S9 


Marie  Antoinette,  of  whom  she  peibted  o<ver  twenty  portniti 
between  1779  and  1789.  A  portrait  of  the  artist  is  in  the  hall 
of  the  painters  at  the  Uffid,and  another  at  the  National  GaUery. 
The  Louvre  owns  two  portraits  of  Mme  Lebmn  and  her 
dauber,  besides  five  other  portraits  and  an  allegorical  com- 
position. 

A  full  account  of  her  eventful  life  is  given  in  the  artist's  5S0MMJrr, 
end  in  C.  Fillet's  Mtw  Vigte-U  Bnin  <Paris»  1890).  The  aitkt's 
autobiography  has  been  translated  bv  Lboel  Strachey*  Memoirs 
of  Mme  Vigie-Lebrun  (Kew  York,  1903),  fully  iHustrated. 

VIGEVANO,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Lombardly,  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Pavia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ticino,  24  m. 
by  rail  S.W.  from  Milan  on  the  line  to  Mortara,  581  ft.  above 
sea-level.  Pop.  (1901)  18,043  (town);  23,560  (commune). 
It  is  a  medieval  wallcd  town,  with  an  arcaded  market-place, 
a  calhcdral,  the  Gothic  church  of  S.  Francesco,  and  a  castle 
of  the  Sforza  family,  dating  from  the  Z4th  century  and  adorned 
wiih  a  loggia  by  Bramante  and  a  tower  imitating  that  of 
FUarete  in  the  Caslello  Sforzcsco  at  Milan.  It  is  a  place  of 
some  importance  in  the  silk  trade  and  also  produces  excellent 
macaroni.    There  is  a  steam  tramway  to  Novara. 

VIGFCsSON,  GtJBBRANDR  (1838-1889),  the  foremost 
Scandinavian  scholar  of  the  i9tE  century,  was  bom  of  a  good 
and  old  Icelandic  family  in  Breidaf  jord  in  x8a8.  He  was  brought 
up,  till  he  went  to  a  tutor's,  by  his  kinswoman,  Kristin  Vfgfuss- 
dottir,  to  whom,  he  records,  he  "  owed  not  only  that  he  became 
a  man  of  letters,  but  almost  everything."  He  was  sent  to  the 
old  and  famous  school  at  Bessastad  and  (when  it  removed  thither) 
at  Reykjavik;  and  in  1849,  already  a  fair  scholar,  he  came  to 
Copenhagen  University  as  a  bursarius  in  the  Regense  CoUegc. 
He  was,  after  his  student  course,  appointed  slipendiarius  by 
the  Arna-Magnacan  trustees,  and  worked  for  fourteen  years  in 
the  Afna-Magnacan  Library  till,  as  he  said,  he  knew  every 
scrap  of  old  vellum  and  of  Icelandic  written  paper  in  that  whole 
collection.  During  his  Dam'sh  life  he  twice  revisited  Iceland 
(last  in  1858),  and  made  short  tours  in  Norway  and  South 
Germany  with  friends.  In  x866,  after  some  montl^  in  London, 
he  settled  down  in  Oxford,  which  he  made  his  home  for  the 
rest  of  his  life,  only  quitting  it  for  visits  to  the  great  Scandi- 
navian libraries  or  to  London  (to  work  during  two  or  three  long 
vacations  with  his  fellow-labourer,  F  Y  Powell),  or  for  short 
trips  to  places  such  as  the  Isle  of  Man,  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands, 
the  old  mootstead  of  the  West  Saxons  at  Downton,  the  Roman 
station  at  Pevenscy,  the  burial-pbce  of  Bishop  Brynjulf*s 
ill-fated  son  at  Yarmouth,  and  the  like  He  held  the  office 
of  Reader  in  Scandinavian  at  the  university  of  Oxford  (a  post 
created  for  him)  from  1884  till  bis  death.  He  was  a  Jubilee 
Doctor  of  Upsala,  1877,  and  received  the  Danish  order  of  the 
Dannebrog  in  1885.  Vfgfusson  died  of  cancer  on  the  31st  of 
January  1889,  and  was  buned  in  St  Sepulchre's  Cemetery, 
Oxford,  on  the  3rd  of  Febiuary  He  was  an  excellent  judge 
of  literature,  reading  most  European  languages  well  and  being 
acquainted  with  their  classics.  His  memory  was  remarkable, 
and  if  the  whole  of  the  Eddie  poems  had  been  lost,  he  could 
have  written  them  down  from  memory.  He  spoke  English 
well  and  idiomatically,  but  with  a  strong  Icelandic  accent.  He 
wrote  a  beautiful,  distinctive  and  clear  hand,  in  spite  of  the 
thousands  of  lines  of  MS.  copying  he  had  done  m  his  early  lif  e^ 

By  his  Tunaldl  (written  between  October  1854  and  April  1855) 
he  laid  the  foundations  for  the  chronology  of  Icelandic  history,  in  a 
series  of  conclusions  that  have  not  been  displaced  (^ve  by  his  ovm 
additions  and  corrections),  and  that  justly  earned  the  praise  of 
Jacob  Grimni.  His  editions  of  Icelandic  classics  (1858-68),  Bukopa 
Sogur,  Bardar  Saga,  Fom  Sogur  (with  Mdbius),  Eyrbyigia  Saga 
and  Flateyar-bSk  (with  Unger)  opened  a  new  era  of  Icelandic  scholar- 
ship, and  can  only  fitly  be  compared  to  the  Rolls  Scries  editions  of 
chronicles  by  Dr  Stubbs  for  the  interest  and  value  of  their  prefaces 
and  texts.  Sc\'en  years  of  constant  and  severe  toil  (1866-73)  *'^rc 
given  to  the  Oxford  Icelandic* English  Dictionary,  incomparably 
the  best  guide  to  classic  Icelandic,  and  a  monumental  example  of 
sintrle-handed  work.  His  later  series  of  editions  (1874-85)  included 
Orkneytnga  and  Hdconar  Saga,  the  great  and  complex  mass  of 
Icelandic  historical  sagas,  known  as  Sturlunga,  and  the  Corpus 
Poeiicum  BoreaU,  in  which  he  edited  the  whole  body  of  classic 
Scandinavian  poetry.  As  an  introduction  to  the  Sturlunga,  he 
wrote  a  complete  noagh  concise:  history  of  the  classic  Northern 


Uteratuie  and  its  •ouraes.  In  the  introduction  to  t!he  Carpms^  he 
laid  the  foundations  of  a  critieal  history  of  the  Eddie  poetry  and 
Court  poetiy  of  the  North  in  a  series  of  brilliant,  original  and  well^ 
supportcxl  theories  that  are  gradually  being  accepted  even  by  those 
who  were  at  first  indined  to  reject  them.  His  little  Icelandic 
Proso  Raadtr  (with  F.  York  Powdl)  (1879)  furnishes  the  English 
student  with  a  pleasant  and  trustworthy  rath  to  a  sound  kaowfedge 
of  Icelandic.  The  Grimm  Centenary  Pabcrs  (1886)  give  good 
examples  of  the  range  of  his  historic  work,  while  his  Appendix 
on  Icelandic  currency  to  Sir  G.  W.  Dasent's  Burnt  Njal  is  a  mod«l 
of  methodical  investig^itioa  uito  an  intricate  and  somewhat  import- 
ant auhject.  As  a  wnter  in  his  own  tongue  he  at  once  gained  a  high 
position  by  his  excellent  and  delightful  Rdalions  of  Travel  in  Norway 
and  South  Germany.    In  English,  as  his  "  Visit  to  Grimm  *'  and  his 

G>werful  letters  to  The  Times  show,  he  had  attained  no  mean  skill, 
is  life  is  mainly  a  record  of  well-directed  and  efficient  labour  is 
Denmark  and  Oxford;  (F.  Y.  P.) 

VIGIL  (Lat.  vigUia,  *' watch"),  in  the  ChrisUan  Chuzch, 
the  eve  of  a  festival.  The  use  of  the  word  is,  however,  late,  the 
vigUiae  (pemoctatwnes,  ronvxIiSet)  having  otigiaally  been  the 
services,  consisting  oC  prayen,  hymns,  processions  and  some- 
times the  eucharist,  celebrated  on  the  preceding  night  in  pre- 
paration for  the  feast.  The  oldest  of  the  vigils  is  that  of  Eaotcr 
Eve,  thoseof  Pentecost  and  Christmas  being  instituted  somewhat 
later.  With  the  Easter  vigil  the  eucharist  was  specially  asso- 
ciated, and  baptism  with  that  of  Pentecost  (see  Whitsunday). 
The  abuses  connected  with  nocturnal  vigils^  led  to  their  being 
attacked,  especially  by  Vigilentius  of  Barcelona  {c.  400),  against 
whom  Jerome  fidmlnated  in  this  as  in  other  matters.  The 
cnstom,  however,  increased,  vigUs  being  instituted  for  the 
other  festivals,  including  those  of  saints. 

In  the  middle  ages  the  nocturnal  vigUia  were,  except  in  the 
monasteries,  gradually  discontinued,  matins  and  vespers  on 
the  preceding  day,  with  fasting,  taking  their  place.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  the  vigil  is  now  usually  celebrated 
on  the  morning  of  the  day  preceding  the  festivsd,  except  at 
Christmas,  when  a  midnight  mass  is  celebrated,  and  on  Easter 
Eve.  These  vigils  are  further  distinguished  as  privileged  and 
unprivileged.  The  former  (except  that  of  the  Epiphany)  have 
special  offices;  in  the  latter  the  vigil  is  merely  commemorated. 

The  Church  of  England  has.  reverted  to  early  custom  in  so 
far  as  only  "  Easter  Even '"  is  distinguished  by  a  special  collect, 
gospel  and  epistle.  -The  other  vigils  are  recognized  in  the 
calradar  (including  those  of  the  saints)  and  the  rubric  directs 
that  "  the  collect  appointed  for  any  Holy-day  that  hath  a 
Vigil  or  Eve,  shall  be  said  at  the  Evening  Service  next  before.*' 

VIOILANCB  COMHrrnSE,  in  the  United  States,  a  self- 
constituted  judicial  body,  occasionally  organized  in  the  western 
frontier  districts  for  the  protection  of  life  and  property.  The 
first  committee  of  prominence  bearing  the  name  was  organized 
in  San  Francisco  in  June  1851,  when  the  crimes  of  deq)eradoeB 
who  had  immigrated  to  the  gold-helds  were  rapidly  increasing 
in  numbers  and  it  was  said  that  there  were  venal  judges,  packed 
juries  and  false  witnesses.  At  first  this  committee  was  com- 
posed of  about  200  members,  afterwards  it  was  much  larger. 
The  general  committee  was  governed  by  an  executive  committee 
and  the  city  was  policed  by  sub-committees.  Within  about 
thirty  days  four  desperadoes  were  arrested,  tried  by  the  execu- 
tive committee  and  hanged,  and  about  thirty  others  were 
banished.  Satisfied  with  the  results,  the  committee  then 
quietly  adjourned,  but  it  was  revived  five  years  later  Similar 
committees  were  common  in  other  parts  of  California  and  in 
the  mining  districts  of  Idaho  and  Montana.  That  in  Montana 
exterminated  in  1863-64  a  band  of  outlaws  organized  under 
Henry  Plummer,  the  sheriff  of  Montana  City;  twenty-four  of 
the  outlaws  were  hanged  within  a  few  months.  Committees 
or  societies  of  somewhat  the  same  nature  were  formed  in  the 
Southern  states  during  the  Reconstruction  period  (i 865-7 ») 
to  protect  white  famih'cs  from  negroes  and  **  carpet-baggers," 
and  besides  these  there  were  the  Ku-Rlux-Klan  (g.v.)  and  its 
branches,  the  Knights  of  the  White  Camdia,  the  Pale  Faces,  and 
the  Invisible  Empire  of  the  South,  the  principal  object  of  which 
was  to  control  the  negroes  by  striking  them  with  terror. 

*  The  ^5th  canon  of  the  council  of  Elvira  (305)  forbids  women  to 
attend  them. 


6o 


VIGILANTIUS— VIGLIUS 


See  H.  H.  Bancroft*  Poptdar  TribmaU  (a  vols.,  Ska  Fibikmoo, 
I887);  and  T.  J.  Dimadale,  The  Vi^hnUs  of  MoiUaaa  (Viiginia 
aty,  1866). 

VIQfLAMnUS  (fl.  c,  400),  the  presbyter,  celebrated  u  the 
author  of  a  work,  no  ionger  extant,  against  superstitious  prac- 
tices, which  called  forth  one  of  the  most  violent  and  scurrikMis 
of  Jerome's  polemical  treatises,  was  bom  about  370  at  Cala- 
gurris  in  Aquitania  (the  modem  Caz&es  or  perhaps  Saint 
Bertrand  de  Comminges  in  the  department  of  Haute*Garonne), 
where  his  father  kept  a  "  statio  "  or  inn  on  the  great  Roman 
road  from  Aquitania  to  Spain.  While  stSl  a  youth  his  talent 
became  known  to  Sidpidus  Severus,  who  had  estates  in  that 
neighbourhood,  and  in  395  Sulpicius,  who  probably  baptized 
him,  sent  him  with  letters  to  Paulinus  of  Nola,  vrhen  he  met 
with  a  friendly  reception.  On  his  return  to  Sevous  hi  Gaul 
he  was  ordained;  and,  having  soon  afterwards  inherited  means 
through  the  death  of  hiis  father,  he  set  out  for  Palestine,  where 
he  was  recdved  with  great  respect  by  Jerome  at  Bethlehem. 
The  stay  of  Vigilantius  lasted  for  some  time;  but,  as  was  almost 
inevitable,  he  was  dragged  into  the  dispute  then  ra^ng  about 
Origen,  in  which  he  did  not  see  fit  wholly  to  adopt  Jerome's 
attitude.  On  his  return  to  the  West  he  was  the  bearer  of  a 
letter  from  Jerome  to  Paulinus,  and  at  various  places  where 
he  stopped  on  the  way  he  appears  to  have  expressed  himself 
about  Jerome  in  a  manner  that  when  reported  gave  great 
offence  to  that  father,  and  provoked  him  to  write  a  reply 
{Ep.  61).  Vigilantius  now  settled  for  some  time  in  Gaul,  and 
is  said  by  one  authority  (Gennadius)  to  have  afterwards  held 
&  charge  in  the  diocese  of  Barcelona.  About  403,  some  years 
after  his  return  from  the  East,  Vigilantius  wrote  his  celebrated 
work  against  superstitious  practices,  in  which  he  argued  against 
relic  worship,  as  also  against  the  vigils  in  the  basilicas  of  the 
martyrs,  then  so  common,  the  sending  of  alms  to  Jerusalem, 
the  rejection  oi  earthly  goods  and  the  attribution  of  special 
virtue  to  the  unmarried  state,  especially  in  the  case  i^  the  dergy. 
He  thus  covers  a  wider  range  than  Jovinian,  whom  he  surpasses 
also  in  intensity.  He  was  espedsdly  indignant  at  the  way  in 
which  spiritual  worship  was  being  ousted  by  the  adoration 
of  saints  and  their  relics.  All  that  is  known  of  his  work  is 
through  Jerome's  treatise  Conira  VigUaniiumf  or,  as  that  contro- 
versialist would  seem  to  prefer  saying,  "  Contra  Dormitantium." 
Notwithstanding  Jerome's  ocoeedingly  unfavourable  opinion, 
there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  tract  of  Vigilantius  was 
exceptionally  illiterate,  or  that  the  views  it  advocated  were 
exceedingly  "heretical."  Soon,  however,  the  great  influence 
of  Jerome  in  the  Western  Church  caused  its  leaders  to  espouse 
an  his  quarrels,  and  Vigilantius  gradually  came  to  be  ranked 
in  popular  opinion  among  heretics,  though  his  influence  long 
remained  potent  both  in  France  and  Spain,  as  is  proved  by  the 
polemical  tract  of  Faustus  of  Khegium  (d.  c  490). 

VIGIUUS,  pope  from  537  to  555,  succeeded  Silverius  and 
was  followed  by  Pelagius  L  He  was  ordained  by  order  of 
Belisarius  while  Silverius  was  still  alive;  his  elevation  was 
due  to  Theodora,  who,  by  an  appeal  at  once  to  his  ambition 
and»  it  is  said,  to  his  covetousness,  had  induced  him  to  promise 
to  disallow  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  in  connexion  with  the 
"  three  chapters "  controversy.  When,  however,  the  time 
came  for  the  fulfilment  of  his  bargain,  Vigilius  declined  to 
give  his  assent  to  the  condemnation  of  that  council  involved 
in  the  imperial  edict  against  the  three  chapters,  and  for  this 
act  of  disobedience  he  was  peremptorily  summoned  to  Con- 
stantinople, which  he  reached  in  547.  Shortly  after  his  arrival 
there  he  issued  a  document  known  to  history  as  his  Judicatum 
(548),  in  which  he  condemned  indeed  the  three  chapters,  but 
expressly  disavowed  any  intentions  thereby  to  disparage  the 
council  of  Chalcedon.  After  a  good  deal  of  trimming  (for  he 
desired  to  stand  well  with  his  own  dergy,  who  were  strongly 
orthodox,  as  well  as  with  the  court),  he  prepared  another  docu- 
ment, the  Constilutum  ad  Jmperatorem,  which  was  laid  before 
the  so-called  fi'th  "  oecumenical "  council  in  553,  and  led  to 
Us  condemnation  by  the  majority  of  that  body,  some  say 
Ken  to  his  banishment.    Ultimately,  however,  he  was  mduced 


to  assent  to  and  oonfirm  the  decrees  of  the  oouiidl,  and 

allowed  niUx  jxa  enforced  absence  of  seven  years  to  set  out  

Rome.    He  died,  however,  at  Syracuse,  before  he   xeacfacd 
his  destination,  on  the  7th  of  Jane  555. 

VIQINTISBXVUU,  in  Rmaan  histoiy,  the  collective  _ 

given  in  republican  tunes  to  "  twenty-six  "  magistrates  of 

ferior  tank.    They  were  divided  mto  six  boards,  two  of  wluc2x 
were   abolished   by  Augustus.    Their  number  was   thereby 
reduced  to  twenty  and  then:  name  altered  to  Vxcikti\-tex 
("the  twenty").    They  were  originally  nominated  by   tibe 
lugher  magistrates,  but  subsequently  elected  in  a  body  at  a. 
single  sitting  of  the  amitia  tributa;  under  the  empire  they  were 
chosen  by  the  senate.    The  following  are  the  names  of  the 
six  boards:*  (i)  Tresviri  capUaUs  (see  TiESViu);    (2)  TresviH 
marutaUs;  (3)  Quatuomri  viis  in  urbe  purgandis,  who  had  the 
care  of  the  streets  and.  roads  inside  the  city;  (4)  Duonri  riis 
extra  urbem  purgandis  (see  Duoviri),  abolished  by  Augustus; 
(5)  Decetmiri  stiitibus  judicandii  (see  Decemviu);  (6)  Quatuor 
pratjecti  Capuam  Cumas,  abolished  by  Augustus.    The  members 
of  the  kist-named  board  were  appomtcd  by  the  praetor  vrbcnus 
of  Rome  to  administer  justice  in  ten  Campanian  to'wns  (list 
in  Mommsen),  and  received  their  name  from  the  two  most 
important  of  these.    They  were  subsequently  elected  by  the 
people  under  the  title  of  quatuorviri  jure  dicundOf  but  the  date 
is  not  known. 

See  Mommsen,  Rdmisches  Staatsrecht,  ii.  (1887),  p.*  592.- 

VIGLIUS,  the  narhc  taken  by  Wigle  van  Aytta  van  Zuicki:ii 
(1507-1577),  Dutch  statesman  and  jurist,  a  Frisian  by  birth, 
who  was  bom  on  the  19th  of  October  r507.  He  studied  ^ 
various  universities — ^Louvain,  D61e  and  Bourgcs  among  others— 
devoting  himself  mainly  to  the  study  of  jurisprudence,  and  after- 
wards visited  many  of  the  principal  scats  of  learning  in  Europe. 
His  great  abilities  attracted  the  notice  of  Erasmus  and  other 
celebrated  men,  and  his  renown  was  soon  wide  and  generaL 
Ha\*ing  lectured  on  law  at  the  universities  of  Bourgcs  and 
Padua,  he  accepted  a  judicial  position  under  the  bishop  of 
Mlinster  which  he  resigned  in  1535  to  become  assessor  of  the 
imperial  court  of  justice  {Reichskammergcricht),  He  would 
not,  however,  undertake  the  post  of  tutor  to  Philip,  son  of  the 
emperor  Charles  V.;  nor  would  he  accept  any  of  the  many 
lucrative  and  honourable  positions  offered  him  by  various 
European  princes,  preferring  instead  to  remain  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Ingolstadt,  where  for  five  years  he  occupied  a  pro- 
fessorial chair.  In  1542  the  ofiicial  connexion  of  Viglius  with 
the  Netherlands  began.  At  the  emperor's  invitation  he  became 
a  member  of  the  council  of  Mechlin,  and  some  years  later 
president  of  that  body.  Other  responsible  positions  were 
entrusted  to  him,  and  he  was  soon  one  of  the  most  trusted  of  the 
ministers  of  Charles  V.,  whom  he  accompanied  during  the  war 
of  the  league  of  Schmalkalden  in  1546.  His  rapid  rise  in  the 
emperor's  favour  was  probably  due  to  his  immense  store  of 
learning,  which  was  useful  in  asserting  the  imperial  rights  where 
disputes  arose  between  the  empire  and  the  estates.  He  was 
generally  regarded  as  the  author  of  the  edict  against  toleration 
issued  in  1550;  a  charge  which  he  dcmed,  maintaining,  on 
the  CLUtrary,  that  he  had  vainly  tried  to  induce  Charles  to 
modify  its  rigour.  When  the  emperor  abdicated  in  1555 
Viglius  was  anxious  to  retire  also,  but  at  the  instance  of  King 
Philip  II.  he  remained  at  his  post  and  was  rewarded  by  being 
made  coadjutor  abbot  of  St  Bavon,  and  in  other  ways  In 
iS59i  when  Margaret,  duchess  of  Parma,  became  regent  bf  the 
Netherlands,  Viglius  was  an  important  member  of  the  small 
drcle  who  assisted  her  in  the  work  of  government.  He  was 
president  of  the  privy  council,  member,  and  subsequently 
president,  of  the  state  coundl,  and  a  member  of  the  committee 
of  the  state  council  called  the  consulta.  But  his  desire  to  resign 
soon  returned.  In  1565  he  was  allowed  to  give  up  the  presi- 
dency of  the  state  council,  but  was  persuaded  to  retain  his 
other  posts.  However,  he  had  lost  favour  with  Margaret,  who 
accused  him  to  Philip  of  dishonesty  and  simony,  while  his  ortho- 
doxy was  suspected  When  the  duke  of  Alva  arrived  in  the 
Netherlands  Viglius  at  first  assisted  him,   but  he  subsequent^ 


I 


VIGNE— ViGNY 


61 


oppowd  t!ie  duke*s  scheme  of  extortion,  and  sought  to  htdttce 
Philip,  himself  to  visit  the  Low  Countries.  His  health  was 
now  impaired  and  his  work  was  nearly  over.  Having  suffered 
a  short  imprisonment  with  the  other  members  of  the  state 
council  in  1576,  he  died  at  Brussels  on  the  5th  of  May  1577, 
and  was  buried  in  the  abbey  of  St  Bavon. 

Viglius  was  an  advocate  of  peace  and  moderation,  and  as 
such  could  not  expect  support  or  sympathy  irom  men  engaged 
in  a  life-and-death  struggle  for  liberty,  or  from  their  kelentless 
enemies.  He  was  undoubtedly  avaricious,  and  accumulated 
great  wealth,  part  of  which  he  left  to  found  a  hospital  at 
bis  native  place,  Zwichem,  and  a  college  at  the  university  of 
Louvain.  He  married  a  rich.  lady,  Jacqueline  Damant,  but 
had  no  children. 

He  wrote  a  Tagthuck  des'Schmalkaldischen  VonaukrUgs,  edited 
by  A-  von  DrulTer  (Munich,  1877),  and  some  of  his  lecture*  were 
published  under  the  title  Commentarii  in  decern  Insktutumitm 
tUmlos  (Lyons.  1564).  His  VHa  et  opera  kistcHta  are  given  in  the 
AnaUcta  BHgica of  C.  P.  Hoynck  van  Papend(ccht  (the  Haaue,  1743)* 
See  L.  P.  Cachard,  Correspondance  de  Philippe  II.  sur  Us  affaires 
des  PayS'Bas  (Brussels,  1848-79) ;  and  Correspondance  de  Marguerite 
d'Aulriehe,  duckesse  de  Parme,  avec  PkiKppe  II.  (Brusaels,  1867-81); 
and  E.  Poullet,  Correspondance  de  cardinal  de  CranetUe  (Brutseb, 
1877-81). 

VIONB,  PAUL  DB  (1843-1901),  Belgian  sculptor,  vna  bom 
at  Ghent.  He  was  trained  by  his  father,  a  stattuiiy,  and 
began  by  exhibiting  his  **  Fra  Angelico  da  Flesole "  at  the 
Ghent  Salon  in  1S68.  tn  1873  he  exhibited  at  the  Brussels 
Salon  a  marble  statue,  "  Heliotrope  "  (Ghent  Gallery),  and  in 
1875,  at  Brussels,  "Beatrix"  and  " Domenica."  He  was 
employed  by  the  government  to  execute  caryatides  for  the 
conservatpire  at  Brussels.  In  1876  at  the  Antwerp  Salon  he 
had  busts  of  E.  Hiel  and  W.  Wilson,  which  were  afterwards 
placed  in  the  communal  maseum  at  Brussels.  UntO  1882  he 
lived  in  Paris,  where  he  produced  the  marble  statue  **  Immor- 
tality" (Brussels  Gallery),  and  "The  Crowning  of  Art,"  a 
bronze  group  on  the  facade  of  the  Palais  des  Beatix-Arts  at 
Brusseb.  His  monument  to  the  popular  heroes,  Jean  Breydel 
and  Pierre  de  Coninck,  was  unveiled  at  Bruges  in  1887.  At  his 
death  he  left  unfinished  his  principal  work,  the  Anspach  monu- 
ment, which  was  erected  at  Brussels  under  the  direction  of  the 
architect  Janlet  with  the  co-operation  of  various  sculptors. 
Among  other  notable  works  by  De  Vigne  may  be  mentioned 
"Volumnia"  (1875);  "Poverella"  (1878);  a  bronze  bust  of 
"  Psyche  "  (Brussels  Gallery),  of  which  there  is  an  ivory  replica; 
the  marble  statue  of  Mamix  de  Ste  Aldegonde  in  the  Square  du 
Sablon,  Brussels ;  the  Metdepenningen  monument  in  the  cemetery 
at  Ghent;  and  the  monument  to  Canon  de  Haeme  at  Courtrai. 

See  E.  L.  Detage.  Les  Artistes  Beiges  contemporains  (Brussels), 
and  O.  G.  Destrte,  Tke  Renaissance  of  Sculpture  in  Belgium  (London, 

X895). 

YIOHETTB  (Fr.  for  "  little  vine  ")f  Jn  architecture,  a  running 
ornament,  representing,  as  its  name  imports,  a  little  vine, 
with  branches,  leaves  and  grapes.  It  is  common  in  the  Tudor 
period,  and  runs  or  roves  in  a  large  hollow  or  casetnerU.  It  is 
also  called  trayle.  From  the  transference  of  the  term  to  book- 
iUustration  resulted  the  sense  of  a  small  picture,  vanishing 
gradually  at  the  edge. 

*  VIOHY,  ALFRBD  DB  (1797-1863),  French  poet,  was  bom  at 
Loches  (Indre-et-Loire)  on  the  27th  of  March  1797.  Salnte- 
Beuvc,  in  the  rather  iU-natured  essay  which  he  devoted  to 
Vigny  after  his  death,  expresses  a  doubt  whether  the  title  of 
count  which  the  poet  bore  was  well  authenticated,  and  hints 
that  no  very  ancient  proofs  of  the  nobility  of  the  family  were 
forthcoming;  but  ft  is  certain  that  in  the  i8th  century  persons 
of  the  name  occupied  positions  which  were  not  open  to  any 
but  men  of  noble  birth.  For  generations  the  ancestors  of 
Alfred  de  Vigny  had  been  soldiers,  and  he  himself  joined  the 
army,  with  a  commission  in  the  Household  Troops,  at  the 
age  of  sixteen.  But  the  Revolutionary  and  Napoleonic  wars 
were  over,  and  after  twelve  ycara  of  life  in  barracks  he  retired, 
preserving,  however,  a  very  high  estimate  of  the  duties  and 
career  of  the  soldier.    WhdJe  still  senrfng  he  had  made  his 


mark,  if  as  yet  unrecognized,  by  tbe  pubfication  In  t%2i  ol  a 
volume  of  poems,  and  in  1826  by  another,  together  with  the 
fanwus  prose  romance  of  Cinq-Mars.  Siainte-Beuve  aiierta 
that  the  poet  antedated  some  of  his  most  remarieable  woriu 
This  may  or  may  not  be  the  case;  he  certainly  could  not  ante- 
date the  publication.  And  i^  ao  happens  that  some  of  his  most 
celebrated  pieces — Eloa,  Dolaridaf  iif^tf— appeared  (1822-23) 
before  the  worit  of  younger  members  of  the  Komantic  school 
whose  productions  strongly  resemble  these  poems.  Nor  is  this 
originality  limited  to  the  point  which  he  himself  daimed  la 
the  Preface  to  his  collected  Poems  in  1837 — that  they  were 
"  the  first  of  thetr  kind  in  France,  in  which  philosophic  thought 
is  clothed  in  epic  or  dramatic  form."  Indeed  this  daim  is 
disputable  in  itself,  and  has  misled  not  a  few  of  Vigny's  recent 
critics.  It  is  in  poetic,  not  pkilosopkie  quality,  that  his  idio^n- 
crasy  and  precursorship  are  most  remarkable.  It  is  quite 
certain  that  the  other  Alfred— Alfred  de  Musset— felt  the 
influence  of  his  elder  namesake,  and  an  impartial  critic  might 
discern  no  insignificant  marks  of  the  same  effect  in  the  work 
of  Hugo  himself.  Even  Lamartine,  considerably  Vigny's  elder 
and  his  predecessor  in  poetry,  seems  rather  to  have  been 
guided  by  Vigny  than  Vigny  by  him.  No  one  can  read  DoUh 
rida  or  Le  Cor  without  seeing  that  the  author  had  little  to 
learn  from  any  of  his  French  contemporaries  and  much 
to  teach  them.  At  the  same  tioM  Vigny,  (torn,  whatever  cause, 
hardly  made  any  further  public  appearance  in  poetry  proper 
during  the  more  than  thirty  years  of  his  life,  and  his  entire 
poems,  including  posthumous  fragments,  form  but  one  vory 
small  pocket  volume.  Cirtq-Mars,  which  at  least  equalled  the 
poems  in  popularity,  will  hardly  stand  the  judgment  of  posterity 
so  well.  It  had  in  its  favour  the  support  of  the  Royalist  party, 
the  immense  vogue  of  the  novels  of  Walter  Scott,  on  which 
it  was  evidently  modelled,  the  advantages  of  an  exquisite  style, 
and  the  taste  of  the  day  for  the  romance  as  opposed  to  the  novel 
of  analjrsb.  It  therefore  gained  a  gr^t  name  both  in  France 
and  abroad.  But  any  one  who  has  read  it  critically  must 
acknowledge  it  to  be  disappointing.  The  action  is  said  to  be 
dramatic;  if  it  be  so,  it  can  only  be  said  that  this  proves  very 
conclusively  that  the  action  of  drama  and  the  action  of  the 
novel  are  two  quite  different  things.  To  the  reader  who  knows 
Scott  or  Dumas  the  story  is  singularly  uninteresting  (far  less 
interesting  than  as  told  in  history);  the  characters  want  life; 
and  the  book  generally  stagnates. 

Its  author,  though  idways  as  a  kind  of  outsider  (the  phrase 
constantly  applied  to  him  in  French  literary  essays  and  histories 
being  that  he  shut  himself  up  in  a  tour  d'ivoire),  attached 
himself  more  or  less  to  the  Romantic  movement  of  1830  and 
the  years  immediately  preceding  and  following  it,  and  was 
stimulated  by  this  movement  both  to  drama  and  to  novel- 
writing.  In  the  year  before  the  revolution  of  July  he  pro- 
duced at  the  llii&tre  Francais  a  translation,  or  rather 
paraphrase,  of  Othello,  and  an  original  piece.  La  Marickaia 
d'Ancre.  In  1833  he  pubh'shed  the  curious  book  Stelio,  contain- 
ing studies  of  unlucky  youthful  poets — Gilbert,  Chatterton, 
Ch6nier — and  in  1835  he  brought  out  his  drama  of  CkaUerton, 
which,  by  the  hero's  suicide,  shocked  French  taste  even  after 
five  years  of  Romantic  education,  but  had  a  considerable  success. 
The  same  year  saw  the  publication  of  Servitude  et  grandeur 
militoires,  a  singular  collection  of  sketches  rather  than  a  con- 
nected work  in  which  Vigny's  military  experience,  his  idea  of 
the  soldier's  duties,  and  his  rather  poetical  views  of  history 
were  all  worked  in.  The  subjects  of  Chatterton  and  OtkeUo 
naturally  suggest  a  certain  familiarity  with  English,  and  in 
fact  Alfred  de  Vigny  knew  English  well,  lived  in  England  for 
some  time  and  married  in  1828  an  Englishwoman,  Lydia 
Bunbury.  His  father-in-law  was,  according  to  French  gossip, 
so  conspicuous  an  example  of  insular  eccentricity  that  he  never 
could  remember  his  son-in-law's  name  or  anything  about  him, 
except  that  he  was  a  poet.  By  this  fact,  and  the  kindness 
of  casual  Frenchmen  who  went  through  the  list  of  the  chief 
living  poets  of  their  country,  he  was  sometimes  able  to  dis- 
cover his  daughter's  husband's  designation.     In  2845  Alfred  de 


«1 

vimr  «u  dcctol  t< 


VIGO— VIKING 


e  th*  Actdemy,  but  oudc  do  camprombc 

"'      which      kU      ■mflinrhingly 

Still,  be  produced  noibinj  uvc  i  lew  Kiipa; 
ftnd,  beyond  (he  work  &Lmdy  equmenled,  Littk  has  to  be 
■ddcd  aapl  his  Jimnial  d'nn  t^lU  >nd  Ibe  pocmi  calJed  La 
DtUinlts,  edited,  with  t.  few  [ragmentt,  by  Loub  RalitbanK 
dlci  hii  dalh.  Among  bii  dHQUlic  woilt,  bowevei,  ihould 
be  mcnliaBed  Qiiiiu  four  la  ptiB  ud  u  idapUtioD  of  the 
Umhant  •>!  Vaia  olkd  SkyUxk.  La  DtUiiUa  ticited  do 
(Kill  «dmi™iion  in  Fruia,  but  tlwy  conUm  Miae  eiteediDgly 
bCMitiful  poclry  d[  an  aiulcre  lund.  (ucb  u  ibe  oufDificcot 
•lieedi  of  NaLura  in  "  Li  Mauon  du  bcrgci "  uid  ihe  lemarlublc 
poeiQ  tnlilkd  "  La  CoUn  de  SamiSB."  Vifoy  died  at  Fuii 
OD  the  i;tb  ol  Seplembei  1S6}. 
Hitblcf  JiftwaialmoM  wholly  UMvuifuLand  Itattit-maattn, 

It,'  Itmay,  and  pmbaMy  iHI 

, iOM.  though  it  will  not  he  lent  — ,  _..._.  , 

ry  oltkliin  it  (onntned,  ihould  (he  nadtr  pnocd  w 


only  on  bi.  .n 


^ny 


Ihe  province  of  Pontcvedra;  on  Vigo  Bay  (Ria  de  Vigo)  and 
on  a  biancb  of  the  railway  from  Tuy  to  Coiunni.  Pop.  (1900) 
ll.iSQ-  Vigo  Bay,  one  of  Ihc  Gn«l  ol  Ibe  Galician  fjoids, 
cilendi  inland  lot  ig  m..  iHd  a  sbeUtred  by  low  mountains  and 
by  the  islands  (IsUs  de  Cies,  andenl  Inndat  Sictv)  at  its 
OKHilh.  The  town  is  huill  on  the  loulh-eaiteni  ihore,  and 
:ie  dominated  by  two  ol 


older  s 


It  Iheii 


1  large  Diodem  quarter.  Vigo  owa  iu  imp 
deep  and  spacious  baibour,  and  10  iu  fisheiies.  Il  is  a  port 
of  coll  for  many  lines  trading  between  Wesleni  Europe  and 
South  America-  Shipbuilding  is  carried  on,  and  large  quanti- 
ties ol  tardines  are  canned  for  eiport.  In  iqoq,  1041  ships 
ol  3,7iD,6gi  tons  (i,isj,s6<  being  British)  entered  at  Vigo; 
Um  unponi  in  that  year,  mcluding  tin  and  tinplaie,  cinl, 
Biachlnny.  cement,  lulphate  ol  copper  tod  loodatuBs,  were 


valued  at   £43i.7Sii  the  eiports.  inctudinf  urdloes,  ninctml 

fiour,  paper   and   saumiils.   sugar   and    petroleum    ie£oeric3. 
tanneries,  distilleries  and  soap  works,  il  has  also  a  large  agri' 


Vigo  was  allacted  by  Sir  Fcantis 
In  i;o]  a  combined  Biiliih  and  l>u 
Rooke  and  the  duLe  ol  Ornwnde  di 
Sect  in  Ibe  bay,  and  captured  ireas 


Drake  in  isSj  and  1589. 
:h  Beet  under  Sir  Ceorge 
itroyed  a  Franco-Spanish 

vas  supposed,  on  tloubtful 


isl  Mahommr 
i  even  great 


the 
UabomD 


At   1 


beginr 


3  had  elleci 


lindu 


,  icipaLty  throughout  southern  India,  but  did  n 
lo  occupy  the  country  permanently.  In  thi)  state  of  deti^lion 
Hindu  nationiliiy  role  again  under  two  brothers,  named 
Uiiihan  and  ButU.  of  whom  little  more  can  be  laid  tban 
that  they  were  Kanarese  by  race-  Hence  their  kingdom  waa 
afterwards  known  as  the  Cainalic  At  its  widest  eitent,  it 
■irelched  acron  the  peninsula  from  sea  lo  sea,  irom  Masulipatam 
to  Cos;  and  every  Hindu  prince  in  tbe  south  acknovledsed 
ils  supremacy.  The  site  of  the  capital  was  chosen,  with 
itntegic  ikiil,  on  Ibe  right  bank  of  the  river  Tun^bbidra, 
which  bete  runs  through  a  rocky  gorge.  Within  thirty  year* 
the  Hindu  Rnyis  of  Viiayanagar  viere  able  to  hold  ibeir  oun 
against  the  Bahmani  sultans,  who  had  now  established  their 
independence  ol  Delhi  in  the  Deccan  proper.  Warfare  with 
Ibe  Mahommedans  aciois  Ibe  border  in  the  Raichur  doab  was 
cairied  on  aluunt  unceasingly,  and  with  varying  result.  Two, 
01  piKsibly  thice,  different  dynasties  are  believed  to  have 
occupied  the  throne  of  VijayaDagu  as  time  ■tot  on;  arid 
■     '     ■    ■    rafaU  mi     ■  ■■     ■ 


This- 


I    Golcoi 


I    had 


whetaned  the  Vijayanagar  army  in  the  plain  of  Talikota.  aitd 
tacked  Ibe  defenceless  cily.  The  Raya  Sed  south  10  Peoukondi. 
and  later  lo  Cbandiagiri,  where  one  ol  his  descendants  granted 
10  the  En^ish  the  site  ol  Fort  St  George  or  Madras.    The  city 

See  R.  Sewcll,  A  FoiicUni  Empin  (1900) :  and  B,  5.  Row,  Hiiiory 
0/  VyoysMjof  (Madras,  ijot). 

VIKINO.  The  word  "  Vikmg,"  In  tbe  sense  in  which  It  is 
used  to-day,  is  derived  from  the  Icelandic  (Old  Norse)  Vlkinti 
(m.),  signilying  simply  a  sea-rover  or  pirate.  There  Is  also  in 
Icelandic  the  allied  word  tikinf  ((.),  a  predatory  voyage.  As  a 
loan-word  vtking  occurs  in  A.S.  poetry  (pifjirf  or  wffJHg),  r.g- 
in  WidiUk.  Byraah,  Eialus.  During  tbe  Sags  Age  (900-1050), 
in  the  beginning  ol  Norse  literature,  Htwsr  is  not  as  a  nile 
used  to  designate  any  class  ol  men.  Almost  every  young 
Icelander  of  sufficient  means  and  portion,  and  a  very  large 

w>iii(,  pero  t  m'linj.  or  very  olten  faro,  tic  ,  Ki'oa  i  ilkiii). 
Tbe  procedure  was  almost  a  recognized  part  ol  education,  and 
was  analogous  to  the  grand  tour  made  by  out  gietl -grand  lathers 
in  the  iSih  (cniury.  Bui  the  use  ol  tUinfr  in  a  more  genetic 
sense  is  still  to  be  lound  in  tbe  Saga  Age.  II  the  designation 
of  Ibis  or  thai  personage  as  mitill  tltinir  or  rauSa  tMJiigr  (red 
viking)  be  not  reckoned  an  instance  of  such  use,  we  have  It  ai 
all  events  in  the  name  ol  a  small  quasi- naiionalily.  the  J6msvl' 
kingat,  settled  at  Jimiboig  00  Ibe  IBaltic  (in  modern  Pomerania), 


VIKING 


63 


to  whom  m  sagt  Is  dedicated:  who  possessed  rather  peculiar 
institutions  evidently  the  relic  of  what  is  now  called  the  Viking 
Age',  that  preceded  the  Saga  Age  by  a  century.  Another 
instance  of  such  more  generic  use  occurs  in  the  following 
typical  passage  from  the  LandndmahSk  (Sturlab6k),  where 
it  is  recorded  how  Harald  Fatrkair  harried  the  vikings  of  the 
Scottish  isles — that  famous  harrying  which  led  to  most  <tf  the 
settlement  of  Iceland  and  the  birth  of  Icelandic  literature: — 

"  Haraldr  en  harfari  herjatS  vestr  am  haf . .  .  Hann  lagVi 
"  undir  sig  allar  Sudreyjar.  ...  En  cr  hann  f6r  vcstann-  slogust 
*M  tyjemar  vikingar  ok  Skotar  ok  Irar  ok  herjuOu  ok  nentu 
"  vafia  "  (XomIii.,  ed.  J6nssoo.  1906.  p.  135). 

It  fe  m  this  more  generic  sense  that  the  word  "  viking  **  is 
now  generally  employed. .  Historians  of  the  north  have  dis- 
tinguished as  the  "  Viking  Age  *'  (Vikingertiden)  the  lime  when 
the  Scandinavian  folk  first  by  thefr  widespread  piracies  brought 
themselves  forcibly  into  the  notice  of  all  the  Christian  peoples 
of  western  Europe.  We  cannot  to-day  determine  the  exact 
homes  or  provenance  of  these  freebooters,  who  were  a  terror 
alike  to  the  Prankish  empire,  to  England  and  to  Ireland  and 
west  Scotland,  who  only  came  into  view  when  their  ships 
anchored  in  some  Christian  harbour,  and  who  were  called  now 
Normaimit  now  Dacii,  now  Danes,  now  LocMannochf  which 
last,  the  Irish  name  for  them,  though  etymologically  "men 
of  the  lakes  or  bays,"  might  as  well  be  translated  '*  Norsemen," 
seeing  that  LocUann  was  the  Irish  for  Norway.  The  exact 
etymology  of  tfktngr  itself  is  not  certain:  for  we  do  not  know 
whether  tik  is  used  in  a  general  sense  (bay,  harbour)  in  this 
connexion,  or  in  a  particular  sense  as  the  Vfk,  the  Skagerrack 
and  Christiania  Fjord.  The  reason  for  using  "  viking  "  in  a 
more  generic  sense  than  is  warranted  by  the  actual  employ- 
ment of  the  word  in  Old  Norse  literature  rests  on  the  fact  that 
we  have  no  other  word  by  which  to  designate  the  early  Scandi- 
navian pirates  of  the  9th  and  the  beginning  of  the  loth  century. 
We  cannot  tell  for  the  most  part  whether  they  came  from 
Denmark  or  Norway,  so  that  we  cannot  give  them  a  national 
name.  "  Normanner  "  is  used  by  some  Scandinavian  writers 
(as  by  Steenstrup  in  his  cbssical  iK'ork  Normanneme).  But 
"Normans"  has  for  us  quite  different  associations.  And 
even  those  who  have  preferred  not  generally  to  use  the  word 
"  vit^ings  "  to  designate  the  pirates  and  invaders,  have  adhered 
to  the  term  "  Viking  Age  "  for  the  period  in  which  they  were 
most  active  (cf.  Munch,  Det  Norske  Folks  HUtorie,  Deel  I. 
Bd.  i.  p.  356;  Steenstrup  and  others,  Danmarks  Riges  Historie, 
bk.  ii.  &c.).  At  the  same  time,  the  significance  which  the 
word  "  viking  **  has  had  in  our  language  is  due  in  part  to  a  false 
etymology,  connecting  the  word  with  "  king  ";  the  effect  of 
which  still  remains  in  the  customary  pronunciation  vi-king 
instead  of  vik-ing,  now  so  much  embedded  in  the  language 
that  it  is  a  pedantry  to  try  and  change  it. 

We  may  fairiy  reckon  the  "  Viking  Age  "  to  lie  between  the 
date  of  the  first  recorded  api)earancc  of  a  northern  pirate 
fleet  (a.d.  789)  and  the  settlement  of  the  Normans  in  Normandy 
by  the  treaty  of  St  Clair-sur-Epte,  a.d.  911  or  912  *  For  a 
few  years  previous  to  that  date  our  chief  authority  for  the 
hbtory  of  the  piracies  and  raids  in  the  Frankish  empire  fails 
us:*  we  know  that  the  Norsemen  had  a  few  years  before  that 
date  been  driven  in  great  numbers  out  of  Ireland;  and  England 
had  been  in  a  sense  pacified  through  the  concession  of  a  great 
part  of  the  island  to  the  invaders  by  the  peace  of  Wedmore, 
A.D.  878.  Although,  outside  the  information  we  get  from 
Christian  chrohiclcrs,  this  age  is  for  the  people  of  the  north 
one  of  complete  obscurity,  it  is  evident  that  the  Viking  Age 
corresponds  with  some  universal  disturbance  or  unrest  among 
the  Scandinavian  nations,  strictly  analogous  to  the  unrest 
among  more  southern  Teutonic  nations  which  many  centuries 
before  had  heralded  the  break-up  of  the  Roman  empire,  an 
epoch  known  as  that  of  the  Folk-wanderings  {V OUtrrwandcr- 
ungen).    We  judge  this  because  we  can  dimly  see  that   the 

*  W.  Vogcl  give»  the  former  date;  913  is  that  more  commonly 
accepted. 
^Tht, Annates  VedasHm. 


impulse  which  was  driving  part  of  the  NbrK  tnd  Danish  peofJlet 
to  piracies  in  the  west  was  also  driving  the  Swedes  and  perbiq» 
a  portion  of  the  Danes  to  eastward  invasion,  which  resulted 
in  the  establishment  of  a  Scandinavian  kingdom  ((iarOariki) 
in  what  is  now  Russia,  with  its  capital  first  at  Novgorod,  after- 
wards at  Kiev.*  This  was,  in  fact,  the  germ  of  the  Russian 
empire.  If  we  could  know  the  Viking  Age  from  the  other, 
the  Scandinavian  side,  it  would  doubtless  present  far  more 
interest  than  in  the  form  in  which  the  Christian  chroniclert 
present  it.  But  from  knowledge  of  this  sort  we  are  ahnost 
wholly  cut  off.  We  have  to  content  ourselves  with  what  is 
for  the  greater  part  of  this  age  a  mere  catalogue  of  embarka- 
tions and  plunderings  along  all  the  coasts  of  western  Europe 
without  distinctive  characteristics. 

The  Viking  J?a»^.— The  detail  of  these  raids  is  quite  beyond 
the  compass  of  the  present  article,  and  a  summary  or  synopsis 
must  suffice.  For  aH  record  whodi  we  have,  the  Viking  Age 
was  inaugurated  in  a.d.  789  by  the  appearance  in  England 
on  our  Dorset  coast  of  three  pirate  ships  "  from  Haerethaland  " 
(Hardcland  or  Hardyssel  in  Denmark  or  Hdrdeland  in  Norway), 
which  are  said  in  the  Angh^axon  Chronicle  to  be  "  the  first 
ships  of  the  Danish  men  "  who  sought  the  land  of  England. 
They  killed  the  port-reeve,  took  some  booty  and  sailed  away. 
Other  pirates  appeared  in  793  on  a  different  coast,  Northumbrian 
attacked  a  monastery  on  Lindisfame  (Holy  Island),  slaying 
and  capturing  the  monks;  the  foUowing  year  they  attacked 
and  burnt  Jariow;  after  that  they  woe  caught  in  a  atom, 
and  all  perished  1^  shipwreck  or  at  the  hands  of  the  country^ 
men.  In  795  a  Hect  appeared  off  Glamorganshire.  They 
attacked  Man  in  798  and  lona  in  803.  But  after  this  date  for 
the  lifetime  of  a  generation  the  chief  scene  of  viking  exploitt 
was  Ireland,  and  probably  the  western  coasts  and  islands  of 
Scotland. 

The  usual  course  of  procedure  among  the  northern  adven- 
turen  remains  the  same  to  whatever  land  they  may  direct 
their  attacks,  or  during  whatever  years  of  the  9th  century  these 
attacks  may  fall.  They  beght  by  more  or  less  desultory  raidSy 
in  the  course  of  which  they  seize  upon  some  island,  which  they 
generally  use  as  an  arsenal  or  point  4*appui  for  attacks  on  th« 
mainland.  At  first  the  raids  are  made  in  the  summer:  the 
first  wintering  in  any  new  scene  of  plunder  forms  an  epoch  so 
far  as  that  country  or  region  is  concerned.  Almost  always 
for  a  period  all  power  of  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants 
seems  after  a  while  and  for  a  limited  time  to  break  down,  and 
the  plunderers  to  have  free  course  wherever  they  go.  Then 
they  show  an  ambition  to  settle  in  the  country,  and  some  sort 
of  division  of  territory  takes  place.  After  that  the  northemerff 
assimilate  themselves  more  or  less  to  tlie  other  inhabitants  of 
the  country,  and  their  history  merges  to  a  less  or  greater  extent 
in  that  of  the  country  at  large.  This  course  is  followed  in  the 
history  of  the  viking  attacks  on  Ireland,  the  earliest  of  their 
continuous  series  of  attacks.  Thus  they  begin  by  seising  the 
island  of  Rechni  (now  Lambay)  hi  Dublin  Bay  (a.d.  795);  in 
the  course  of  about  twentv  years  we  have  rK>tice  of  them  on 
the  northern,  western  and  southern  toasts;  by  ajd.  835  they 
have  already  ventured  raids  to  a  considerable  distance  inlandi 
And  in  a.d.  833  comes  a  large  fleet  ("  a  great  royal  fleet,"  say 
the  Irish  aimak)  of  whfch  the  admiral's  name  is  given,  TQrgesiot 
(Thorgeia  or  Thorgisl?).  The  new  invader,  though  with  a 
somewhat  chequered  course,  cstended  Ms  conquests  till  fat 
A  D.  843  one-half  of  Ireland  (called  Lethcotnn,  or  Cbn^  Half) 
seems  to  have  submitted  to  hfan;  and  we  have  the  curion 
picture  of  Turgesiusestablishing  his  wife  Ota  as  a  sort  of  vUta^ 
or  priestess,  in  what  had  been  one  of  Ireland's  roost  famous 
and  most  literary  monasteries,  Clonmacnoise.  Turgesius  was, 
however,  killed  very  soon  after  this  (in  845);  and  though  in 
A.D.  853  Olaf  the  White  was  over-king  of  Ireland,  the  vikings' 
power  on  the  whole  diminished.  In  the  end,  territory  was— 
if  by  no  formal  treaty— ceded  to  their  influence;  and  the 
(Irish)  kingdoms  of  Dublin  and  Waterford  were  esublishcd  on 
the  island. 

*The  word  gaifk  (fort)  b  preserved In  the  ** gprvd" ^  tlcn^xmA: 


64 


VIKING 


Tbis  brief  iketdb  may  be  taken  as  the  prototype  of  viking 
invasion  of  any  region  of  western  Christendom  Mrhicfa  was  the 
object  of  their  continuous  attacks.  Of  such  regions  we  may 
distinguish  five.  Almost  simultaneously  with  the  attacks  on 
Ireland  came  others,  probably  also  from  Norway,  on  the  western 
regions  (coasts  and  islands)  of  Scotland.  Piunderings  of  lona 
are  mentioned  in  aj>.  803,  806.  In  the  course  of  a  genera- 
tion almost  all  the  monastic  communities  in  western  Scotland 
had  been  destroyed.  But  details  of  these  viking  piunderings 
are  wanting.  On  the  OKLtiuent  these  were  three  distinct 
tegions  of  attack.  First  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt.  There 
the  Danes  very  early  settled  on  the  island  of  Walcheren,  which 
bad  in  fact  been  given  by  the  emperor  Louis  the  Pious  in  fief 
to  a  Danish  furtive  king,  Harald  by  name,  who  sought  the 
help  of  Louis,  and  adopted  Christianity.  After  the  partition 
of  the  territory  of  Charlemagne's  empire  among  the  sons  of 
Louis  the  Pious,  Walcheren  and  the  Scheldt-mouth  fell  within 
the  possessions  of  the  emperor  Lothair,  and  in  the  region  sub- 
sequently distinguished  as  Lotharingia.  From  this  centre, 
the  Scheldt,  the  viking  raids  extended  on  either  side;  some- 
times eastward  as  far  as  the  Rhine,  and  so  into  Germany 
proper,  the  territory  assigned  to  Louis  the  German;  at  other 
times  westward  to  the  Somme,  and  thus  into  the  territory 
of  Charles  the  Bald,  the  future  kingdom  of  France.  In  the  event, 
toward  the  end  of  the  9th  century  all  Frisia  between  Walcheren 
and  the  German  Ocean  seems  to  have  become  the  permanent 
possession  of  the  invaders.  In  like  fashion  was  it  with  the 
next  district,  that  of  the  Seine,  only  that  here  no  important 
bland  served  the  pirates  for  their  first  arsenal  and  winter 
quarters.  The  serious  attacks  of  the  [urates  in  any  part  of  the 
empire  distant  from  their  own  lands  begin  about  the  time  of 
the  battle  of  Fontenoy  between  Louis'  sons  (a.d.  841).  The 
first  wintering  of  the  vikings  in  the  Seine  territory  (a.o.  850) 
was  in  "  Givoldi  fossa,''  the  tomb  of  one  Givoldus,  not  far  from 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  but  no  longer  exactly  determinable. 
Their  first  attack  on  Paris  was  in  aj>.  845:  a  much  more 
important  but  unsuccessful  one  took  place  in  aj>.  885-87,  un- 
successful that  is  so  far  as  the  city  itself  was  concerned;  but 
the  ^vaders  received  an  indemnity  for  raising  the  si^e  and 
leave  to  pass  beyond  Paris  into  Burgundy.  The  settlement  of 
Danes  under  RoUo  or  Rolf  on  the  lower  Seine,  «.«.  in  Normandy, 
dates  from  the  treaty  of  St  Clair-sur-Epte,  a.d.  912  (or  911). 

The  third  region  is  the  mouth  of  the  Loire.  Here  the  island 
faint  d'appui  was  Noirmoutier,  an  island  with  an  abbey  at  the 
Loire  m<Mith.  The  northmen  wintered  there  in  a.d.  843.  No 
ce^n  was  more  often  ravaged  than  that  of  the  lower  Loire, 
80  rich  in  abbeys — St  Martin  of  Touss,  Marmoutiers,  St  Bene- 
dict, &c.  But  the  coimtry  ceded  to  the  vikings  under  Hasting 
at  the  Loire  mouth  was  insignificant  and  not  in  permanent 
oocupation. 

Near  the  end  of  the  9th  century,  however,  the  plundering 
expeditions  which  emanated  from  these  three  sources  became 
to  incessant  and  so  widespread  that  we  can  signalize  no  part 
of  west  France  as  free  from  them,  at  the  same  time  that  the 
vikings  wrought  immense  mischief  in  the  Rhine  country  and 
in  Burgundy.  The  defences  of  west  France  seem  quite  to 
have  broken  down,  as  did  the  Irish  when  Turgcsius  took  "  Con's 
half,"  or  when  in  aj>.  853  Olaf  the  White  became  over-king  of 
Ireland.  Unfortunately  at  this  point  our  best  authority 
ceases;  and  we  cannot  well  explain  the  changes  which  brought 
about  the  Christianization  of  the  Normans  and  their  settlement 
in  Normandy  as  vassals,  though  recalcitrant  ones,  of  the  West 
prankish  kings. 

For  the  viking  attacks  in  the  5th  (or  6th)  territory,  our  own 
country,  the  course  of  events  is  much  dearer.  As  a  part  of 
English  history  it  is,  however,  sufficiently  known,  and  the 
briefest  summary  thereof  must  suffice.  That  will  show  how 
in  its  general  features  it  follows  the  normal  course.  The  first 
appearance  of  the  vikings  in  Eni^d  we  saw  was  in  a.d.  789. 
The  first  serious  attacks  do  not  begin  till  838.  The  island  of 
Sheppey,  however,  was  attacked  in  835,  and  in  the  following  year 
Che  vikings  entrenched  themselves  there.    The  first  wintering 


of  the  pirates  in  England  was  on  the  ooatiguoiis  island   of 
Thanet  in  a.d.  850.    The  breakdown  of  the  English  defences 
in  all  paru  of  the  country  save  Wessex  dates  from  868:   in 
Wessex  that  occurs  in  877-88.    But  the  position  is  suddenly 
recovered  by  Alfred  in  878,  by  the  battle  of  Aethsadune,  as 
suddenly  though  not  so  unaccountably  as  it  was  later  in  West 
Francia.    As  Rollo  was  to  do  in  91  a,  the  Danish  leader  Gutharm 
received  baptism,  taking  the  name  of  Aethclstan,  and  settled 
in  his  assigned  territory,  East  Anglia,  according  to  the  terms 
of  the  peace  of  Wedmore.    But  die  forces  whidi  Alfred  de- 
feated at  Aethandune  represented  but  half  oi  the  viking  army 
in  England  at  the  time.    The  other  half  under  Halfdan  (Ragnar 
Lodbrog's  son?)  had  never  troubled  itself  about  Wcsscz»  but 
had  taken  firm  possession  in  Northumbria. 

The  six  territories  which  we  have  signalized— Ireland,  Western 
Scotland,  England,  the  three  in  West  Francia  which  merge  into 
each  other  by  the  end  of  the  9th  century — do  not  comprise  the 
whole  field  of  viking  raids  or  attempted  invasion.  For  farther 
still  to  the  east  they  twice  sailed  up  the  Elbe  (aj).  851,  S80) 
and  burnt  Hamburg.  Southwards  they  plundered  far  up  the 
Garonne,  and  in  the  north  of  Spain;  and  one  fleet  of  them 
sailed  all  round  Spain,  plundering,  but  attempting  in  vain 
to  establish  themselves  in  this  Arab  caliphate.  Tliey  plundered 
on  the  opposite  African  coast,  and  at  last  got  as  ^  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Rhone,  and  thence  to  Luna  in  Italy. 

What  we  found  in  the  case  of  the  Irish  raids,  that  at  first 
they  are  quite  anonymous,  but  that  presently  the  names  of  the 
captains  of  the  expeditions  emerge,  is  likewise  the  case  in  all 
other  lands.  In  Ireland,  besides  the  important  and  successful 
Turge^us,  we  read  of  a  SaxuU  who  early  met  his  death,  as  well 
as  of  Ivar  (Ingvar),  famous  also  in  England  and  called  the  son 
of  Ragnar  Lodbrog,  and  of  Oisla,  Ivar's  comrade;  finally  (the 
vikings  in  Ireland  being  mostly  of  Noise  descent)  of  the  well- 
known  Olaf  the  White,  who  became  king  of  all  the  Scandinavian 
settlements  in  Ireland.  In  France,  Oscar  is  one  of  the  earliest 
and  most  successful  of  the  invaders.  Later  the  name  of  Ragnar 
(probably  Ragnar  Lodbrog)  appears,  along  with  Weland,  Hast- 
ing and  one  of  the  sons  of  Ragnar,  Bjom.  Farther  to  the  cast 
we  meet  the  names  of  Rurlk,  Godfred  and  Siegfried.  In  the 
eastern  region  the  viking  leaders  seem  to  have  been  closely 
connected  with  one  of  the  Danish  royal  families,  the  kings  of 
Jutland.  The  pracjtical  though  short-lived  conquest  of  England 
begins  under  Ivar,  Ubbe  and  Halfdan,  reputed  sons  of  Ragnar, 
and  is  completed  by  the  last  of  the  three  in  conjunction  with 
the  Guthorm  above  mentioned.  This  is,  of  course,  what  we 
should  expect,  that  larger  acquaintance  gives  to  the  Christian 
chroniclers  more  knowledge  of  their  enemy.  Precisely  the  same 
process  in  a  converse  sense  develops  the  casual  raids  of  early 
times  into  a  scheme  of  conquest.  For  at  the  outset  the  Christian 
world  was  wholly  strange  to  these  northmen.  We  have,  it  has 
been  said,  hardly  any  means  of  viewing  these  raids  from  the 
other  side.  But  one  small  point  of  light  is  so  suggestive  that 
it  may  be  cited,  here.  The  mythical  saga  of  Ragnar  Lodbrog  is 
undoubtedly  concerned  with  the  Viking  Age,  though  it  is  im- 
possible now  to  identify  most  of  the  expeditions  attributed 
to  this  northern  hero,  stories  of  conquest  in  Sweden,  in  Finland, 
in  Russia  and  in  England,  which  belong  to  quite  a  different 
age  from  this  one.  In  the  Christian  chronicles  the  name  of 
Ragnar  is  associated  with  an  attack  on  Paris  in  aj).  845,  when 
the  adventurers  were  (through  the  interposition  of  St  Germain. 
say  the  Christians)  suddenly  enveloF>ed  in  darknessi — in  a  thick 
fog? — and  fell  before  the  arms  of  the  defenders.  In  Saxo 
Grammaticus's  account  of  Ragnar  Lodbrog,  this  event  seems  to 
be  reflected  in  the  story  of  an  expedition  of  Ragnar's  to  Bjarma- 
land  or  Perm  in  Russia.  For  Bjarmaland,  though  it  gained 
a  local  habitation,  is  also  in  Norse  tradition  a  wholly  mythical 
and  mythological  place,  more  or  loss  identical  with  the  under- 
world (Niflhel,  mist-hell).  So  it  appears  in  the  history  gjven  by 
Saxo  Grammaticus  of  the  voyage  to  Bjarmaland  of  one  "  Gorm 
the  old."  It  "  looks  like  a  vaporous  cloud  *'  and  is  full  of 
tricks  and  Illusions  of  sense.  We  see  then  that  In  virtue 
of  some  quite  historical  misfortune  to  the  viking  invaders 


VIKING 


6S 


OODiiectcd  with  a  ixiist  and  with  a  great  sickness  which  invaded 
the  army,  the  place  they  have  come  to  (in  reality  Paris)  is  in 
Scandinavian  tradition  identified  with  the  mythic  Bjormaland; 
and  later,  in  the  history  of  Saxo  Grammaticus,  it  is  identified 
with  the  geographical  Bjarmaland  or  Perm.  (Saxo  Grammat.» 
HuL  Dan,  p,  452,  Gylfaginning  (Edda  Snorra);  Acta  SS.  x8th 
May  and  xith  Oct.;  Steenstrup,  NormannernCy  L  p.  97  seq.; 
Keary,  The  Vikings  in  Western  Christendom,  pp.  162,  260.) 

No  example  codd  better  than  this  bring  home  to  us  the 
strangeness  of  the  Christian  world  to  the  first  adventurers 
from  the  north,  nor  better  explain  the  process  of  familiarity 
which  gradually  extended  the  sphere  of  their  ambition.  The 
expedition  which  we  have  made  mention  of  took  place  almost  in 
the  middle  of  the  9th  century,  and  exactly  fifty  years  after  the 
effective  opening  of  the  Viking  Age.  But  after  this  date  events 
developed  rapidly.  It  was  fourteen  years  later  (in  a.d.  859)  that 
Ragnar's  son  Bjorn  Ironside  and  Hasting  made  their  great 
exfwdition  round  Spain  to  the  Mediterranean.  In  865  or  866 
came  to  England  what  we  know  as  the  Army,  or  the  Great 
Army,  whose  first  attacks  were  in  the  north  of  England.  Five 
kings  are  mentioned  in  connexion  with  this  veritable  invasion 
of  England,  and  many  earls.  Their  course  was  not  unchequered; 
but  it  was  only  in  Wessex  that  they  met  with  any  effective 
resistance,  and  the  victory  of  Ashdown  (871)  put  no  end  to  their 
advance;  for,  as  we  know,  Alfred  himself  had  at  last  to  wander 
a  fugitive  in  the  fastnesses  of  Selwood  Forest.  Much  was 
retrieved  by  the  victory  of  Aethandune;  yet  even  after  the 
peace  of  Wedmore  as  large  a  part  of  the  land  lay  imder  the 
power  of  the  Danes  as  of  the  English. 

It  is  from  this  time  that  we  discern  two  distinct  tendencies 
in  the  viking  people.  While  one  section  is  ready  to  settle 
down  and  receive  territory  at  the  hands  of  the  Christian  rulers, 
with  of  without  homage,  another  section  still  adheres  to  a  life 
of  mere  adventure  and  of  plunder.  A  large  portion  of  the  Great 
Army  refused  to  be  bound  by  the  peace  of  Wedmore,  made  some 
further  attempts  on  England  which  were  frustrated  by  Alfred's 
powerful  new-built  fleet,  and  then  sailed  to  the  continent 
and  spread  devastation  far  and  wide.  We  see  them  under 
command  of  two  Danish  "  kings,"  Godfred  and  Siegfried,  first 
in  the  country  of  the  Rhine-mouth  or  the, Lower  Scheldt;  af tee- 
wards  dividing  their  forces  and,  while  some  devastate  far  into 
Germany,  others  extend  their  ravages  on  every  ude  in  northern 
France  down  to  the  Loire.  The  whole  of  these  vast  countries, 
Northern  Francia,  with  part  of  Burgundy,  and  the  Rhineland, 
seem  to  lie  as  much  at  their  mercy  as  England  had  done  before 
Xethandune,  or  Ireland  before  the  death  of  Turgcsius.  But  in 
every  country  alike  the  wave  of  viking  conquest  now  begins  to 
recede.  The  settlement  of  Normandy  was  the  only  permanent 
outcome  of  the  Viking  Age  in  France.  In  England  under 
Edward  the  Elder  and  Aethelilacd,  Mercia  recovered  a  great 
portion  of  what  had  been  ceded  to  the  Danes.  In  Ireland  a 
great  expulsion  of  the  invaders  took  place  in  the  beginning  of 
the  loth  century.  Eventually  the  Norsemen  in  Ireland  con- 
tented themselves  with  a  small  number  of  colonies,  strictly 
confined  in  territory  around  certain  seaports  which  they  them- 
selves had  created:  Dublin,  Waterford  and  Wexford;  though 
as  the  whde  of  Ireland  was  divided  into  petty  kingdoms,  it 
night  easily  happen  that  the  Norse  king  in  Ireland  rose  to  the 
position^not  much  more  than  nominal— of  over-king  (Aid-Ri) 
for  the  whole  land. 

Character  of  the  Vikings.r-^Sevatf  thetefore,  as  were  the 
viking  raids  in  Europe,  and  great  as  was  the  suffering  they 
nilicted — on  account  ol  which  a  special  prayer,  A  furore 
NormannoruM  libera  nos,  was  inserted  in  some  of  the  litanies 
of  the  West— if  they  had  been  pirates  and  nothing  more  their 
place  in  history  would  be  an  insignificant  one.  If  they  had 
been  no  more  than  what  the  Iltyrian  pirates  had  been  in  the 
early  history  of  Rome,  or  than  the  Arabic  corsairs  were  at  this 
time  in  southern  Europe,  the  disappearance  of  the  evil  would 
have  been  quickly  followed  by  its  oblivion.  But  even  at  the  out- 
set  the  vikings  were  more  than  isolated  bands  of  freebooters. 
At  we  have  seen,  the  viking  outbreak  was  probably  part  of  a 


national  movement.  We  know  that  at  the  same  time  that 
some  Scandinavian  folk  were  harrying  all  the  western  lands, 
others  were  founding  GarOarfki  (Russia)  in  the  cast;  others  were 
pressing  still  farther  south  till  they  came  in  contact  with  the 
eastern  empire  in  Constantinople,  which  the  northern  folk  knew 
as  MikillgarCr  (Mikklegard);  so  that  when  Hasting  and  Bjdm 
had  sailed  to  Luna  in  the  gulf  of  Genoa  the  northern  folk 
had  almost  put  a  girdle  round  the  Christian  world.  There  is 
every  evidence  that  the  vikings  were  not  a  mere  lawless  folk — 
that  is,  in  their  internal  relations — but  that  a  system  of  laws 
existed  among  them  which  was  generally  respected.  The  nearest 
approach  to  it  now  preserved  is  probably  the  code  of  laws 
attributed  to  the  mythic  king  FroOi  (the  Wise)  and  preserved  in 
the  pages  of  Saxo  (jrammaticus.  It  confains  provisions  for  the 
partition  of  booty,  punishments  for  theft,  desertion  and  treachery. 
But  some  of  the  clauses  securing  a  comparative  liberty  for 
women  appear  less  characteristic  of  the  Viking  Age  (cf .  Alexander 
Bugge,  •  Vikingeme,  voL  i.  p.  49).  Women,  indeed,  did  not 
take  part  in  their  first  expeditions.  In  the  constitution  of 
the  J6mborg  state  and  again  in  that  of  the  eastern  Vaerings 
(a  Scandinavian  body  in  the  service  of  the  East  Rom^an  Empire) 
we  see  a  constitution  which  looks  like  the  foretaste  of  that  of 
the  Templars  or  the  Teutonic  Knights.  Steenstrup  thinks  the 
code  cited  by  Saxo  may  be  identical  with  the  laws  which  Rollo 
promulgated  for  his  Norman  subjects.  In  any  case,  they  fall 
more  near  the  viking  period  than  any  other  northern  table  of 
laws.  A  certain  republicanism  was  professed  by  these  ad- 
venturers. "  We  have  no  king,"  one  body  answered  to  some 
Prankish  delegates.  We  do  read  frequently  of  kings  in  the 
accounts  of  their  hosts;  but  their  power  may  not  have  extended 
beyond  the  leadership  of  the  expedition;  they  may  have  been 
kings  ad  hoc.  On  the  other  hand,  the  whole  character  of  northern 
tradition  (Teutonic  and  Scandinavian  tradition  alike)  forbids 
us  to  suppose  that  any  would  be  elected  to  that  office  who  was 
not  of  noble  or  princely  blood.  They  were  not  entirely  un-* 
lettered;  for  the  use  of  runes  dates  back  considerably  eaiUer 
than  the  Viking  Age.  But  these  w^re  used  almost  exclusively 
for  lapidary  inscriptions.  What  we  can  alone,  describe  as  a 
literature,  first  the  early  Eddie  verse,  next  the  habit  of  narrat- 
ing sagas:  these  things  the  Norsemen  learned  probably  from 
their  Celtic  subjects,  partly  in  Ireland,  partly  In  the  western 
islands  of  Scotland;  and  they  first  developed  the  new  literature 
on  the  soil  of  Iceland.  Nevertheless,  some  of  the  Eddie  songs 
do  seem  to  give  the  very  form  and  pressure  of  the  viking  period.' 
In  certain  material  possessions — those,  in  fact,  belonging  to 
their  trade,  which  was  war  and  naval  adventure — these  viking 
folk  were  ahead  of  the  Christian  nations:  in  shipbuilding, 
for  example.  There  is  certainly  a  historical  connexion  between 
the  ships  which  the  tribes  on  the  Baltic  possessed  in  the  days 
of  Tacitus  and  the  viking  ships  (Keary,  The  Vikings  in  Western 
Europe,  pp.  X08-9):  a  fact  which  would  lead  us  to  believe  that 
the  art  of  shipbuilding  had  been  better  preserved  there  than 
elsewhere  in  northern  Europe.  Merchant  vessels  must  of  course 
have  plied  between  Enf^d  and  France  or  Frisian  But  it  is 
certain  that  even  Charlemagne  possessed  no  adequate  navy, 
though  a  late  chronicler  tells  us  how  he  thought  of  building  one. 
His  descendants  never  carried  out  his  designs.  Nor  was  any 
Engli^  king  before  Alfred  stirred  up  to  undertake  the  same 
task.  And  yet  the  Romans,  when  threatened  by  the  Carthaginian 
power,  built  in  one  year  a  fleet  capable  of  holding  its  own  against 
the,  till  then,  greatest  maritime  nation  in  the  worid.  ThA 
viking  ships  had  a  character  apart.  They  may  have  owed  thefar 
origin  to  the  Roman  galleys:  they  did  without  doubt  owe 
their  sails  to  them.*  EqiuJly  certain  it  is  that  this  special 
type  of  shipbuilding  was  developed  in  the  Baltic,  if  not  before 

•More  especially  the  beautiful  aeries  contained  In  book  lii.  of 
the  Corpus  Poeticum  Boreale,  and  ascribed  by  the  editors  of  that 
collection  to  one  poet— -"the  Heigi  Poet.*  Here  vikings  aie 
mentioned  by  name — e.g.: — 

"  VartJ  Ara  ymr,  ok  lama  glymr; 
Brast  rOnd  vl«  rOnd;  rero  vJkingar:'* 
*"Sair'  in  every  Teutonic  language  is  practically  the  laflM 
word,  and  derived  from  the  Latin  «^tM. 


thf  lime  of  Tatitiu,  long  btfore  the  diwn  of  Ihe  Viking  Age, 
Their  siruclure  is  aiipted  to  short  voyages  in  »  sea  well  siudded 

dingcious  tides.  To  the  last,  judging  by  the  specimens  o( 
Standinavian  boils  whit}]  have  come  down  to  us,  ihcy  must 
lonhy;  they  were  shalloi 


VIKRAMADITYA— VILAS 

Europe.    It  it  abo  tnii 


lebeam, 


lenlly    s 


for  raantiaivting  (with  oais)  in  creeks  and 

ays.    The  viking 

ship  had  but  one  large  and  heavy  square  sa 

d.    When  a  n»al 

battle  Has  [o  progress,  it  would  depend  for  i 

Ihe  poweis.    The  accounls  of  naval  battles 

n  the  sigas  show 

us.  too,  that  this  WIS  the  case.    The  tow 

rs  in  e>ch  vesel, 

(hough  among  the  northcia  (oik  these  w 

re  Iree  men  and 

warriors,  not  slaves  as  in  Ihe  Roman  and  Ca 

Lhaginian  galleys. 

iogeot  of  fighting 

mtn,  marines,  in  addition  to  their  c.ew.    ^ 

siiuially  the  ship- 

building  developed:  so  that  vessels  in  the 

iking  time  would 

be  much  smaller  than  in  the  Saga  Agt. 

t  (of" 


ihips")  , 


o  6a  oars.    Tlxre 


werefound  in  Ihe  ndghbouihood:  one,  the  GSkstad  ship,  is  in 
vety  loler^le  preservation.  It  belongs  probably  to  the  nth 
century.  On  this  boat  there  are  places  lor  i6  oan  ■  side, 
It.  is  not  probabk  that  the  largest  viking  ^pt  had  more  than 
lo  oars  a  side.  As  these  ships  must  often,  against  a  contrary 
wind,  have  had  to  row  both  day  and  night,  It  seems  reasonable 
to  imagine  the  crew  divided  into  three  shifts  (as  they  call  them 
in  mioing  districts),  which  would  ^ve  double  the  number  of 
men  available  to  fight  on  any  occasion  as  to  row.'  Thus  a 
aOHMred  vessel  would  curry  Go  men.  But  some  40  men 
per  ship  seems,  (or  this  period,  nearer  the  average.  In  ig6, 
towaid  the  end  of  out  age,  it  Is  incidentally  mentioned  in  one 
place  that  five  vessels  carried  100  vikings,  an  average  of  40  per 
ship.    Elsewhere 


TheiQ 


:  of  48. 

ds  of  Ihe  w 


d  and  paint 
along  the  bulwarks:  the  vessel  was  steered  by 
rij^t  side  (as  whaling  boats  are  to-day),  the  sleeiooani  or  siai- 
boardside.  Prow  and  stem  rose  high;  and  the  former  was  carved 
most  often  into  the  likeness  of  a  snake's  or  dragon's  heid:  so 
generally  that  "  dragon  "  or  "  worm  "  (snake)  became  synony- 
mous with  a  wac-ahip.  The  warriors  were  well  armed.  The 
byrnit  or  mall-sliirt  is  often  mentioned  fn  Eddie  son^:  so  arc 
the  Bie,  the  speat,  the  javelin,  Ihe  bow  and  arrows  and  the 
swonL  The  Danes  were  specially  renowned  for  thdr  aies; 
but  about  the  sword  Ihe  most  of  northern  poetry  and  mythology 
dings.    An  immense  joy  in  battle  breathes  through  the  earliest 

and  we  know  that  Ihe  language  recognized  a  peculiar  battle 
fuiy,  a  veritable  madness  by  which  certain  were  seized  and 
which  went  by  the  name  of  "  berserk's  way  "  (icritrtitangr).' 
The  courage  o(  Ihe  vikings  was  proof  against  anything,  even  as 


oiten  afraid  at  sea.  a  trained  sailor  lost  if  he  has  not  the  pro- 
tecting sense  of  his  own  ship  beneath  him.  The  viking  i-entured 
upon  unknown  waters  in  ships  very  ifl-6tled  (or  Iheir  work. 
He  had  all  Ihe  spirit  o(  adventure  of  a  Drake  Dt  a  Hawkins,  aH 
the  trained  valour  of  reliance  upon  his  comrades  ihat  mark  a 
soldiery  fighting  a  mililia  "  (Tic  Vifcnjj  in  Walmi  Chiiilaidtm, 
p.  143).  He  was  unfortunately  haldtj'  less  marked  for  cruelty 
and  faithlessness.      Livy's  words,  "  inhumana  crudelilas,  per- 

spplicd  as  justly  to  Ihe  vikings  as  to  any  people  of  westero 

I  5t««iMnp  (NormaaiuriH,  1.  p.  jj:),  10  get  ihe  number  of  men 

on  (isy)  s  jo-oared  veset,  adds  but  tome  10  more.     This  icemi 

M^lhait^"-'*"-   """-*--— ■-'''-"^--*'----  -".?P^1'"?-? 


bowiever,  Ihat  they  shoved  ■  gruat 
capacity  lor  government,  and  in  times  of  peace  for  peaceful 
organiiation.  Normandy  was  the  best-governed  part  of  Fnnc« 
in  the  nib  century;  and  Ihe  Danes  in  East  Angtit  and  tb« 
Five  Burgs  were  in  many  legaids  a  model  lo  their  Saton  neigh- 
bours IStecnstrup,  fp,  dl.  Iv.  ch,  1).  Of  ill  Eumpesn  lands 
England  is  without  doubl  that  on  which  Ihe  Viking  Age  has 
left  most  impressiDo;  in  the  number  of  original  seltleis  ■flea' 
8jSi  in  Ihe  way  which  these  prepared  for  Canute's  conquest; 
and  finally  in  that  which  she  absorbed  from  the  conquering 
Normans.  £n}:land's  gain  was  France's  loss:  bad  Ihe  Norniaiu 
lumed  their  ailenlion  in  Ihe  other  directioii,  Ihcy  oilght  likely 
enough  have  gained  the  kingdom  fn  France  and  saved  Ihai 
country  from  the  inlemiiltent  anarchy  from  which  it  suffered 
ftom  the  irth  till  the  middle  of  the  ijlhcenluiy. 

t  g/  VHifit  Hisltry.—Thete  are,  as  ha>  been  said,  almost 
e>  ly  the  chronicles  of  Ihe  lands  iriilted  by  ihe  vikings.    For 

Ir  re  have,  as  on  Ibe  wbok  our  best  iBlliDtity,  Ihe  Ammala 

U  HI  (C.  O'Conor,  Sa.  Ka.  Ma.  iv.).  laiiiikaiaui)  by  tbc 

A  }J  Uli  PcMi  JToteri  (ed.  O-Donwan)  and  Ihc  aasnicim 

S,  1  tnl.  Heoniy).    Finally.  Tit  Ifir  ^  Mi  Cauf^iRuxYi  tAa 

C.  .  Todd);  r»™  Fra.mewi  of  IriA  tliibry  (O'Donovan): 

d  '.  Skene,  CrIHt  ScMiaid.    For  England  ilie  Aailr-Saiom 

,,...,,«»,.  O  ....  6   ,.™.  _F„«jggh 

...J  second  bv  Prudenliui.  Ihe  third  bi    " 

lulhonliefl  Cor  the  novrbviB  and  ubicrn  rcnons.  and  the 


lay  beta 
Itelererv 


apumc 


la  Loire  "  <£^ 


ttriiaai  (feitl. 
ind  by  Prudei 

inala  Xamtmut  [a.d.  S76.  ijy.  fatt,  vol.  ii., 
IT  the  AovrbviB  and  eablcrn  rcnons.  and  the 
lich  fKgia  with  T^nn  of  1  [cicslcl  and  go  do^ 
ol.  I.)  lor  Germany.  Toward  Ihe  ni3  of  I 
la  VMisfim  (PcRi.  vols.  i.  and  il.)  ale  atnwn 
y  (or  Ihe  western  nidi.  In  Ihe  hiaurisni  of 
in  Dudoof  Si  Quemin,  much  incidealal  mutter 

/Iking  Age  in  a  general  way  sre  to  be  (otin-t 
lookt.  especially  ni^ionct  ol  the  Scandinai^n 
lunch's  ba  Kmln  FdkM  HiiUrU  Uift,  Ac) 

.  ,k,„  ._  i.!:r„.4.,i  ,...A...  fc.  B.  Drppini! 

!»«).  •;?  ™j; 
*3'^''iw 


.nd,  E.  Mab 

is  W.  V^ei'i 


'iJ&Awia 

- .., — ,-    .V ..».. .»..  however.  brcaK  any  irc&n  DrountL 

J.  C.  H.  Steenstmp's  JVomaiamie  (1876-61),  In  four  vofumes,  is  »« 
a  coatinuoui  hisiocy.  but  a  scries  of  stodies  of  neat  kuniic  and 
valuei  C  F.  Keaiy.  Tti  Vitinri  n  Walm  Eiatpt  (liftl)  is  a 
historyoftheviking  raids  on  all  the  western  lands.bulcndsa.D.SSB. 
A.  Bugee'i  Vihinffnti  {1904-6)  is  a  sludy  ol  the  moral  and  social 
na^n  lofk.    '""^ °'' "«     °"    "    " "»>'•  '"'(CF. K?)  " 

VIKRAHADtTTA,  a  legendary  Hindu  king  of  Usjain,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  given  his  rume  10  Ihe  Vikram  Samvat, 
Ihe  era  which  is  used  all  over  northern  India,  eicept  In  Bengal, 
and  at  whose  court  Ihe  "  nine  gcras  "  of  Sanskrit  lllerstuit  art 
also  supposed  10  have  flourished.  The  Vikram  en  is  reckoned 
from  the  vernal  equinoi  ol  Ihe  yeat  SJ  B c,  but  there  is  no 
evidence  Ihat  that  dale  corresponds  wilh  any  eient  in  the  life 
ot  an  actual  king.    As  a  matter  of  fact,  alt  dates  in  this  en 

of  Malava  instead,  Ihat  being  the  tribe  thai  gives  lis  name  to 
Milwa.  The  name  Vikramadilya  simply  means  "  sun  of  power," 
and  was  adopted  by  several  Hindu  klng>,  of  whom  Chand- 
ragupia  II.  (Chandragupia  Vikramadilya),  who  ascended  th« 
throne  of  the  Guptas  about  a.O.  37s,  approaches  most  nearly 

See  A]e>an(Jer  CunninEham,  Boot  0/  Udian  Em  (1S83):  and 
Inccnl  Smilh,  Sirfy  Millar-/  eg  I'Ha  lTg04). 
VILAS.  VILLI  AM  FREEH  AN  (i  $40-1903),  American  poh'tical 
ider  and  laivyer,  was  bom  in  Chdsea,  Vermont,  on  Ihe  ^Ih  of 
uly  1840.  His  falher,  Levi  B.  Vilas,  a  lawyer  and  Democratic 
olltidan,  emigrated  in  iBji  10  Madison,  Wisconsin.  William 
radualed  al  Ihe  univeruly  of  Wisconsin  in  igjS,  and  at  the 
Albany  (New  York)  Law  School  in  1S60,  and  began  to  practise 
'  '  I  Madison  wilh  his  father.  In  1E61  he  rccruiled  and  b»- 
captain  of  Company  A  of  (he  Twenly-TUrd  Wlscouiii 


VILL— VILLACH 


67 


Volantetn,  of  wbidk  he  wu  n$de  lieutenant-coIoDd  in  1863, 
and  which  he  commanded  in  the  siege  oC  Vkksbuiv*  i^ 
August  1863  he  resigned  his  commission  and  resumed  his  law 
|>ractice.  He  was  professor  of  law  in  the  university  of  Wisconsin 
in  i868r-85,  and  again  in  x889-g2,  and  in  i875->78  was  a 
member  of  the  commission  which  revised  the  statutes  of 
Wisconsin.  From  1876  to  x886  he  was  a  member  of  the 
National  Democratic  Committee,  and  virtually  the  leader  of 
his  party  in  his  state;  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  National 
Democratic  Conventions  of  1876,  x8So  and  1884,  and  was 
permanent  chairman  of  the  last.  In  1885  he  was  a  member 
of  the  state  Assembly.  He  was  postmaster>general  in  President 
Grover  Geveland's  cabinet  from  March  1885  until  January  x888, 
and  was  then  secretary  of  the  interior  until  March  1889.  From 
1S9Z  until  1897  he  was  a  member  of  the  United  States  Senatet 
in  which,  during  President  Cleveland's  second  term,  he  was 
recognised  as  the  chief  defender  of  the  Administration,  and 
he  was  especially  active  in  securing  the  repeal  of  the  silver- 
purchase  clause  of  the  Sherman  Act.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Democratic  National  Convention  of  1896,  but  withdrew  after 
the  adoption  of  the  free-silver  plank.  He  then  became  one  of 
the  chief  organizers  of  the  National  (or  Gold)  Democratic 
party,  attended  the  convention  at  Indianapolis,  and  was 
chairman  of  its  committee  on  resolutions.  In  1881-85  and 
in  1898-190S  he  was  a  regent  of  the  university  of  Wisconsin; 
and  he  was  a  member  (1897-1903)  of  the  commission  which 
had  charge  of  the  erect  i(»  of  the  State  Historical  Library  at 
Madison,  and  in  1906-8  of  the  commission  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  new  state  capitol.  He  died  at  Madison  on 
the  37th  of  August  1908. 

With  E.  E.  Biyanthe  edited  vols.  i.  to  xx.,  except  vol.  v.,  of  the 
Rtports  of  the  Wisconsin  Supreme  Court. 

VILL,  the  Anglicized  form  of  the  word  villa,  used  in  Latin 
documents  to  translate  the  Anglo-Saxon  tun,  township,  "  the 
unit  of  the  constitutbnal  machinery,  the  simplest  form  of 
social  organization"  (Stubbs,  Const.  Hist.  |  39).  The  word 
did  not  always  and  at  all  times  have  thiis  meaning  in  Latin- 
En^ish  docimients,  but  "  vill "  and  "  township "  were 
ultimately,  in  English  law,  treated  as  convertible  terms  for 
describing  a  village  community,  and  they  remained  in  use  in 
kgal  nomenclature  until  the  ecclesiastical  parishes  were  con- 
verted into  areas  for  ct^  administration  under  the  Poor 
Law  Acts.  This  technical  sense  is  derived  from  the  late  Latin 
use  of  villa  for  vicus,  a  village.  Thus  Fleta  (vi,  c.  51),  writing 
in  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  distinguishes  the  villa,  as  a  collection 
of  habitations  and  their  appurtenances,  from  the  mansie^  a 
single  house,  nuUi  vicina,  and  the  manor,  which  may  embrace 
one  or  more  viUae.  In  classical  Latin  viUa  had  meant  "  country- 
bouse,"  "  farm,"  "  vilhi  "  (see  Villa);  but  the  word  was  pro- 
bably an  abbreviation  of  vicula,  diminutive  of  vicns,  and  in 
the  sense  of  vicus  it  b  used  by  Apuleius  in  the  and  century. 
Later  it  even  displaced  civitaSt  for  dty;  thus  Rutilius  Numa- 
tianus  in  his  Itinerarium  q)eaks  of  vUlae  ingetUes,  oppida 
parva;  whence  the  French  viUe  (see  Du  Cange,  dossarium  lot. 
8.V.  Villa).  In  the  Frankish  empire  viUa  was  also  used  of  the 
royal  and  imperial  palaces  or  seats  with  their  appurtenances. 
In  the  sense  of  a  small  collection  of  habitations  the  word  came 
into  general  use  in  Enghmd  m  the  Frendi  form  "village." 
Prom  villa,  too,  are  derived  villem  and  viUenage  {q.v.)  (see  also 
Village  CoMMUNrnas). 

VILLA,  the  Latin  word  (diminutive  of  view,  a  v9Iage)  for 
a  country-house.  This  term,  which  in  England  is  usually 
given  to  a  small  country-bouse  detached  or  semi-detached 
In  the  vicinity  of  a  large  vown,  is  being  graduaUy  supoaeded 
by  such  expressions  as  "country"  or  "suburban  house," 
"  bungalow,"  &c.,  but  in  Italy  it  is  still  retained  as  in  Roman 
times  and  means  a  summer  residence,  sometimes  being  of  great 
extent.  References  to  the  villa  are  constantly  made  by  Roman 
writera.  Cicero  is  said  to  have  possessed  no  less  than  seven 
villas,  the  oldest  of  which  was  near  Arptnum,  which  he  inh^ted. 
Pliny  the  younger  had  three  or  four,  of  whkh  the  example 
aaaf  Lautntium  is  the  best  known  from  hid  desci^ti 


lliere  is  too  wide  a  divergence  in  the  various  conjectural 
restorations  to  make  them  of  much  value,  but  the  remains 
of  the  villa  of  Hadrian  at  Tivoli,  which  covered  an  area  over 
seven  miles  long  and  in  which  reproductions  were  made  of  all 
the  most  celebrated  buildings  he  had  seen  during  his  travels, 
those  in  Greece  seeming  to  have  had  the  most  attraction  for 
him,  and  the  villas  of  the  i6th  century  on  similar  sites,  such 
as.  the  Villa  d'Este  near  TivoU,  enable  one  to  form  some  idea 
of  the  exceptional  beauty  of  the  positions  selected  and  of  the 
splendour  of  the  structures  which  enriched  them.  According 
to  Pliny,  there  were  two  kinds  of  villas,  the  villa  urhana,  which 
was  a  country  seat,  and  the  villa  rustica,  the  farm-house, 
occupied  by  the  servants  who  had  charge  generally  of  the 
estate.  The  Villa  Boscorcale  near  Pompeii,  which  was  excavated 
in  1893-94,  was  an  example  of  the  villa  rustica,  in  which  the 
principal  room  was  the  kitchen,  with  the  bakery  and  stables 
beyond  and  room  for  the  wine  presses,  oil  presses,  hand  mill, 
&c.  The  villas  near  Rome  were  all  built  on  hilly  sites,  so  that 
the  laying  out  of  the  ground  in  terraces  formed  a  very  important 
element  in  their  design,  and  this  forms  the  chief  attraction  of 
the  ItaUan  villas  of  the  i6th  century,  among  which  the  following 
are  the  best  known:  the  Villa  Madama,  the  design  of  which, 
attributed  to  Raphael,  was  carried  out  by  Giulio  Romano  in 
1520;  the  Villa  Medici  (1540);  the  Villa  Albani,  near  the 
Porta  Salaria;  the  Borghese;  the  Doria  Pamphili  (1650); 
the  ViUa  di  Papa  Giuh'o  (1550),  designed  by  Vignola;  the 
Aldobrandini  (1592);  the  Falconieri  and  the  Montdragon 
Villas  at  Frascati,  and  the  Villa  d'Este  near  Tivoli,  in  which 
the  terraces  and  staircases  are  of  great  importance.  In  the 
proximity  of  other  towns  in  Italy  there  are  numerous  villas, 
of  which  the  example  best  known  is  that  of  the  Villa  Rotunda 
or  Capra  near  Vicenza,  which  was  copied  by  Lord  Burlington 
in  his  house  at  Chiswick. 

The  Italian  villas  of  the  x6th  and  X7th  century,  like  those  of 
Roman  times,  included  not  only  the  country  residence,  but  the 
whole  of  the  other  buildings  on  the  estate,  such  as  bridges, 
casinos,  pavilions,  small  temples,  rectangular  or  circular,  which 
were  utilized  as  summer-houses,  and  these  seem  to  have  had 
a  certain  influence  in  England,  which  may  account  for  the 
numerous  examples  in  the  large  parks  in  England  of  similar 
erections,  as  also  the  laying  out  of  terraces,  grottos  and  formal 
gardens.  In  France  the  same  influence  was  felt,  and  at 
Fontainebleau,  Versailles,  Meudon  and  other  royal  palaces,  the 
celebrated  Le  N6tre  transformed  the  parks  surrounding  them 
and  introduced  the  cascades,  which  in  Italy  are  so  important 
a  feature,  as  at  St  Cloud  near  Paris.  (R.  P.  S.) 

VILLACH,  a  town  in  Carinthia,  Austria,  24  m.  W.  of  Klagen- 
furt  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  9690.  It  is  situated  on  the  Drave, 
near  its  confluence  with  the  Gail,  in  a  broad  fertile  basin  at  the 
foot  of  the  Dobratsch  or  Villacher  Alp  (7107  ft.).  The  parish 
church  is  an  interesting  Gothic  edifice  of  the'  15th  century.  The 
principal  industry  of  Villach  consists  in  the  fabrication  of  various 
lead  wares,  and  is  mostly  dependent  on  the  lead  mines  of 
Bleibexg,  which  is  situated  about  9  m.  to  the  west.  This  village 
(pop.  3435)  is  one  of  the  richest  lead-mining  centres  in  Europe. 
The  ores  found  here  comprise  silver-free  galena,  sulphate  of  zinc 
and  calamine.  The  mines  were  already  worked  during  the 
middle  ages.  Warmbad  Villach,  a  watering-place  with  hot 
sulphur  bath^  and  Mittewald,  a  favourite  summer  resort,  whence 
the  ascent  of  the  Dobnatach  can  be  made,  arc  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Villach.  Some  of  the  prettiest  Carinthian  lakes  are 
to  be  found  near  Villach,  as  the  Ossiacher-see,  on  whose  southern 
thorr  stands  the  ruined  castle  of  Landskron,  dating  from  the 
middle  of  the  i6th  century,  the  Wdrther-see  and  the  small  but 
lovely  Faaker-«ee. 

Villach  is  im  old  town,  which  ws»  given  by  Heinrich  II.  to 
the  bishopric  of  Bambeig  in  X007.  During  the  middle  ages  it 
was  an  important  centre  of  commerce  between  Germany  and 
Italy.  With  the  advent  of  new  trade  routes  at  the  begixming 
of  modem  times  the  town  lost  iu  importance,  axKl  in  174$ 
the  dtiaens  nearly  decided  to  emigrate  en  mosse.  Its  trade 
levived  during  the  Fueocb  occupation  of  x8e^x3«  and  it 


68 


VILLA  DEL  PILAR— VILLAGE  COMMUNITIES 


continued  to  improve  during  the  19th  century.  The  Turks  were 
defeated  here  in  1492  by  Maximilian  I.,  and  an  engagement 
between  the  Austrians  and  the  French  took  place  here  on  the 
3ist  of  August  xSij. 

VILLA  DEL  PILAR,  a  city  of  Paraguay,  104  m.  S.  by  E.  of 
Asuncion,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  navigable  river  Paraguay, 
which  receives  the  Bermejo  from  the  right  immediately  opposite. 
Pop.  (19Z0)  about  10,000.  Villa  del  Pilar  is  a  thriving  modem 
city,  containing  barracks,  law  courts,  a  national  college,  several 
schools  and  a  branch  of  the  Agricultural  Bank.  It  has  a  fine 
harbour,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  centres  in  the  republic  for 
the  exportation  of  oranges. 

VILLAFRANCA  DI  VERONA,  a  town  of  VenetU,  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Verona,  ix  m.  S.S.W.  of  Verona,  on  the  railway 
to  Mantua,  174  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1901)  5037  (town); 
963s  (commune).  It  has  considerable  spk  industries.  Here 
preliminaries  of  pKsace  were  signed  between  Napoleon  III.  and 
the  Austrians  in  1859  after  the  battle  of  Solferino.  Five  miles 
to  the  N.  is  Custozza,  where  the  Italians  were  defeated  by  the 
Austrians  in  1848  and  x866.  Villafranca  is  a  common  place 
name  in  Italy. 

VILLAGE  COHHUNITIBS.  The  study  of  village  communities 
has  become  one  of  the  fundamental  methods  of  discussing  the 
ancient  history  of  institutions.  It  would  be  out  of  the  question 
here  to  range'ovcr  the  whole  field  of  human  society  in  search  for 
commimal  arrangements  of  rural  life.  It  will  be  sufficient  to 
confine  the  present  inquiry  to  the  varieties  presented  by  nations 
of  Aryan  race,  not  because  greater  importance  is  to  be  attached 
to  these  nations  than  to  other  branches  of  humankind,  although 
this  view  might  also  be  reasonably  urged,  but  principally  because 
the  Aryan  race  in  its  history  has  gone  through  all  ton%  of 
experiences,  and  the  data  gathered  from  its  historical  life  can 
be  tolerably  well  ascertained.  Should  the  road  be  sufficiently 
cleared  in  this  particular  direction,  it  will  not  be  difficult  to 
connect  the  results  with  similar  researches  in  other  racial 
surroundings. 

The  best  way  seems  to  be  to  select  some  typical  examples, 
chiefly  from  the  domain  of  Celtic,  Slavonic  and  Germanic 
social  history,  and  to  try  to  interpret  them  in  regard  to  the 
general  conditions  in  which  communal  institutions  originate, 
grow  and  decay.  As  the  principal  problem  will  consist  in 
ascertaining  how  far  land  was  held  in  common  instead  of  being 
held,  as  is  usual  at  present,  by  individuals,  it  is  advisable  to 
look  out  for  instances  in  which  this  element  of  holding  in  common 
is  very  clearly  expressed.  We  ought  to  get,  as  it  were,  acclima- 
tized to  the  mental  atmosphere  of  such  social  arrangements  in 
order  to  counteract  a  very  natural  but  most  pernicious  bent 
prompting  one  to  apply  to  the  conditions  of  the  past  the  key 
of  our  modern  views  and  habitual  notions.  A  certain  acquaint- 
ance with  the  structure  of  Celtic  society,  more  especially  the 
society  of  ancient  Wales,  is  likely  to  make  it  clear  from  the  out- 
set to  what  extent  the  husbandry  and  law  of  an  Aryan,  race 
may  depend  on  institutions  in  which  the  individual  factor  is 
greatly  reduced,  while  the  union  first  of  kinsmen  and  then  of 
neighbours  plays  a  most  decisive  part. 

F.  Seebohm  has  called  our  attention  to  the  interesting  surveys 
of  Welsh  tracts  of  country  made  in  the  14th  century,  soon  after 
these  regions  passed  into  the  hands  of  English  lords.  The  frag- 
ments of  these  surve)rs  published  by  him  and  his  commentary 
on  them  are  very  illuminating,  but  further  study  of  the  docu- 
ments tfiemselves  discloses  many  important  details  and  helps 
to  correct  some  theories  propounded  on  the  subject.  Let  us 
take  up  a  concrete  and  simple  case,  e.g.  the  description  of 
Astret  Canon,  a  trev  or  township  (villaia)  of  the  honour  of 
Denbigh,  surveyed  in  1334.  In  the  time  of  the  native  Welsh 
princes  it  was  occupied  entirely  by. a  kindred  {progenies)  of  free 
tribesmen  descended  from  a  certain  Canon,  the  son  of  Lawaurgh. 
The  kindred  was  subdivided  into  four  gavells  or  bodies  of  joint- 
tenants.  On  the  half-gavell  of  Monryk  ap  Canon,  e.g.  there  are 
no  less  than  sixteen  coparceners,  of  whom  eight  possess  houses. 
The  peculiarity  of  this  system  of  land  tenure  consists  in  the 
fact  that  all  the  tenants  o(  these  gavells  derive  their  position 


on  the  land  from  the  occupation  of  the  township  by  tlieir 
kindred,  and  have  to  trace  their  rights  to  shares  in  the  original 
unit.  Although  the  village  of  Astret  Canon  was  occupied  under 
the  Survey  by  something  like  fifty-four  male  tenants,  the  majority 
of  v^om  were  settled  in  houses  of  their  own,  it  continued 
to  form  a  unit  as  well  in  regard  to  the  payment  of  tungpound, 
that  is,  of  the  direct  land  tax  and  other  services  and  pay- 
ments, but  also  in  respect  of  the  possession  and  usage  af  the  soil. 
On  the  other  hand,  noovable  property  is  owned  in  severalty. 
Services  have  to  be  apportioned  among  the  members  of  the 
kindreds  according  to  the  number  of  heads  of  cattle  owned  by 
them.  From  the  description  of  another  township — Pireyon^^ 
we  may  gather  another  important  feature  of  this  tribal  tenure. 
The  population  of  this  village  also  clustered  in  gavells,  and  we 
hear  that  these  gavells  ought  to  be  considered  as  equal  shares 
in  respect  of  the  arable,  the  wood  and  the  waste  of  the  town- 
ship. If  the  shares  were  reduced  into  acres  there  would  have 
fallen  to  each  of  the  eight  gavells  of  Pireyon  ninety-one  acres, 
one  rood  and  a  half  and  six  perches  of  arable  and  woodland, 
and  fifty-three  and  one-third  of  an  acre  and  half  a  rood  of  waste 
land.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  land  was  not  divided  in  such 
a  way,  and  the  rights  of  the  tenants  of  the  gavell  were  realized 
not  through  the  appropriation  of  definite  acres,  but  as  propor- 
tionate opportunities  in  regard  to  tillage  and  as  to  usages  in 
pasture,  wood  and  waste.  Pastoral  habiu  must  have  greatly 
contributed  to  give  the  system  of  landholding  its  peculiar 
character.  It  was  not  necessary,  it  would  have  been  even 
harmful,  to  subdivide  sharply  the  area  on  whidi  the  herds  of 
cows  and  the  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  were  grazing.  Still 
Welsh  rural  life  in  the  14th  century  had  already  a  definite 
though  subordinate  agricultural  aspect,  and  it  is  Xnxportant  to 
notice  that  individual  appropriation  had  as  yet  made  vary 
slight  progress  in  it. 

We  do  not  notice  any  systematic  cqtialization  between 
members  of  the  tribal  communities  of  the  treva.  In  fact, 
both  differences  in  the  ownership  of  cattle  and  differences  of 
tribal  standing,  established  by  complex  reckonings  of  pedigree 
and  of  social  rank,  led  to  marked  inequaUties.  But  there 
was  also  the  notion  of  birthright,  and  we  find  In  the  laws  that 
every  free  tribesman  considered  himself  entitled  to  claim  from 
his  kindred  grazing  facilities  and  five  erws  for  tillage.  Such 
a  claim  could  be  made  unconditionally  only  at  a  time  whea 
there  was  a  superabundance  of  land  to  dispose  of.  In  the 
X4th  century,  to  which  our  typical  descriptions  refer,  this  state 
of  things  had  ceased  to  be  universal.  Although  great  tracts  of 
Welsh  land  were  undoubtedly  still  in  a. state  of  wilderness,  the 
soil  in  more  conveniently  situated  rcgioits  was  beginning  to  be 
scarce,  and  considerable  pressure  of  population  was  already, 
felt,  with  a  consequent  transition  from  pastoral  pursuits  to 
agriculture.  The  tract  appropriated  to  the  township  of  Astret 
Canon,  for  instance,  contained  only  574  acres  of  land  of  all 
kinds.  In  this  case  there  was  hardly  room  for  the  customary 
five  erws  per  head  of  grown-up  males  besides  commons.  And 
yet  although  the  population  lived  on  a  small  pittance,  the  system 
of  tribal  tenure  was  not  abandoned. 

Although  there  are  no  rearrangements  or  tedivision  within 
the  tribe  as  a  whole,  inside  every  gavell,  representing  more 
narrow  circles  of  kinsmen,  usually  the  descendants  of  one  great- 
grandfather,  i.e,  second  cousins,  the  shares  are  shifted  and 
readjusted  according  to  one  of  two  systems.  In  one  caae« 
that  of  the  trevcyvriv  or  joint-account  village,  every  nan 
receives  "  as  much  as  another  yet  not  of  equal  value  "— whick 
means,  of  course,  that  the  members  of  such  communities  were 
provided  with  equal  allotments,  but  left  to  make  the  best  of 
them,  each  according  to  chance  and  ability.  This  practice  of 
reallotment  was,  however,  restricted  in  the  14th  century  to 
taeog  trevs,  to  villages  occupied  by  half-free  settlers.  The 
free  tribesmen,  the  prutdarH  ol  Wales,  held  by  daddenhud, 
and  reallotted  shares  within  the  trev  on  the  coming  of  each 
new  generation  or,  conversely,  on  the  going  out,  the  dying  out, 
of  each  older  generation.  In  other  words:  at  the  demise  of 
the  last  of  the  grandfathers  in  a  gavell,  4II  The  fathea  look 


"VILLAGE  COMMUNITIES 


69 


eqnal  itnk  and  da&Ded  equal  shares,  althoogh  formerly  some 
of  the  portions  had  been  distributed  equally  only  between  the 
grandfathers  or  their  offspring  {stirps).  The  right  to  claim 
redtviaion  held  good  only  vithm  the  circle  o£  second  cousms. 
Members  of  the  kindred  who  stood  further  than  that  from 
each  other,  that  is,  thud  cou^ns,  were  not  entitled  to  leallot- 
ment  on  the  strength  of  daddenkud. 

Another  fact  which  is  brought  out  with  complete  evidence 
by  the  Welsh  Surveys  is  that  the  tenure  is  ascribed  to  com- 
munities of  kinsmen  and  not  to  chiefs  or  headmen  The  latter 
certainly  existed  and  had  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  the 
disposal  of  common  land  as  well  as  <m  government  and  justice. 
But  in  the  view  of  i4th-centttry  surveys  each  township  is 
owned  not  by  this  or  the  other  elder,  but  by  numerous  bodies 
of  coparceners.  The  gavdl  of  Owen  Gogh,  for  instance, 
contained  twenty-six  coparceners.  In  this  way  there  is  a 
dear  attribution  of  rights  of  communal  ownership,  if  we  like 
to  use  the  term,  and  not  merely  of  rights  of  maintenance.  Nor 
b  there  any  warrant  for  a  construction  of  these  arxangements 
on  a  supposed  patriarchal  system. 

Let  us  now  compare  this  description  of  Celtic  tribal  tenune 
with  Shivonic  institutions.  The  most  striking  modem  ex- 
amples of  tribal  communities  settled  on  a  territorial  basis  are 
presented  by  the  history  of  the  Southern  Slavs  in  the  Balkan 
Peninsula  and  in  Austria,  of  Slovenes,  Croats,  Serbs  and  Bul- 
garians, but  it  IS  easy  to  trace  customs  of  the  same  kind  in  the 
memories  of  Western  Slavs  conquered  by  Germans,  of  the 
Poles  and  of  the  different  subdivisions  of  the  Russians.  A  good 
due  to  the  subject  is  provided  by  a  Serb  proverb  which  says 
that  a  man  by  kimsdf  is  bound  to  be  a  martyr.  One  might 
almost  suggest  that  these  popular  customs  illustrate  the  Aristo- 
telian ocmception  of  the  single  man  seddng  the  "  autarkeia," 
a  complete  and  sdf-suffident  existence  in  the  sodety  of  his 
Idlow-men,  and  aniving  at  the  stage  of  the  tribal  village,  the 
yipott  whidi  is  also  a  nSipafit  as  described  in  the  famous  intro- 
ductory chaptor  of  the  Greek  philosopher's  Politics*  The 
Skvs  of  the  mouiitainous  regions  of  the  Balkans  and  of  the 
Alps  in  their  stubborn  struggle  with  nature  and  with  human 
enemies  have  dusteted  and  still  cluster  to  some  extent  («.;.  in 
Kiontcnegro)  in  dosdy  united  and  widdy  spreading  brother- 
hoods ibrctsha)  and  tribes  (Jdemena),  Some  of  these  brother- 
hoods derive  their  names  from  a  teal  or  supposed  common 
ancestor,  and  are  composed  of  relatives  as  wdl  as  of  affiliated 
strangers.  They  numbor  sometimes  himdreds  of  members,^  of 
guns,  as  the  fitting  males  are  characteristically  called.  Such 
are — ^the  Vukotid,  Kovaoevi£i,  as  one  might  say  in  Old  English 
—the  Vukotings  or  Kovachevings,  of  Montenegro.  The  dwell- 
ings, fidds,  and  pasturages  of  these  brotherhoods  or  kindreds 
are  scattered  over  the  country,  and  it  is  not  always  possible  to 
trace  them  in  compact  divisions  on  the  map.  But  there  was 
the  dosest  union  in  war,  revenge,  funeral  rites,  marriage  ar- 
rangements, provision  for  the  poor  and  for  those  who  stand 
in  need  of  special  hdp,  as,  for  instance,  in  case  of  fires,  inunda- 
tions and  the  like.  And  corTeqx>nding  to  this  union  there 
existed  a  strong  feeling  of  unity  in  regard  to  property,  especially 
property  in  land.  Although  ownership  was  divided  among 
the  diffelwit  families,  a  kind  of  superior  or  eminent  domain 
stretched  over  the  whole  of  the  bratstvo,  and  was  expressed  in 
the  participation  in  common  in  pasture  and  wood,  in  the  right 
to  control  alienations  of  land  and  to  exerdse  pre-emption.  If 
any  of  the  members  Of  the  brotherhood  wanted  to  get  rid  of  his 
share  he  had  to  apply  first  to  his  next  of  kin  witiun  the  family 
and  then  to  the  further  kinsmen  of  the  braistw. 

As  the  Welsh  kindred  iprogenies)  were  subdivided  into 
gsvdls  formed  of  extended  family  communities,  even  so  the 
Bosnian,  Montenegrin,  Servian,  Slovene  tribes  fdl  mto  house 
eommumties,  Kudos,  Zadrugas,  which  were  built  up  on  the 
prindple  of  keeping  blood-relatives,  and  their  property  to- 
gether as  long  aa  possible,  Th^  consisted  generally  of  some 
1 5  to  20  grown-up  persons,  some  6  or  7  first  and  second  cousins 
with  their  wives  and  children,  living  in  a  hamlet  around  the 
*  They  nmge  from  80  or  90  to  70a 


central  house  of  the  dontadnf  Hbe  house  leader.  In  some  in^ 
stances  the  numbor  of  coparceners  increased  to  50  or  even  to 
70.  The  members  of  the  united  house  community,  which  in 
fact  is  a  small  village  or  hamlet,'^joined  in  meals  and  work. 
Their  rights  in  the  undivided  household  of  the  handet  were 
apportioned  according  to  the  pedigree,  ix.  this  apportion- 
ment took  account  first  of  the  stirpes  or  extant  descendants  of 
former  sdons  of  the  family,  so  that,  say,  the  offspring  of  each 
of  t^o  grandfathers  who  had  been  brotiiers  were  considered 
as  equal  sharers  although  the  stirps,  the  stock,  of  one  was 
represented  only  by  one  person,  while  the  sttrps  of  the  other 
had  grown  to  consist  of  two  uncles  and  of  three  nephews  all 
alive.  There  was  no  resettlement  of  shares,  as  in  the  case  of 
Wales,  but  the  life  of  the  house  community  while  it  existed 
unbroken  led  to  work  in  common,  the  contributions  to  which 
are  regulated  by  oonmion  consent  and  supervised  by  the  leader. 
Grounds,  houses,  implements  of  agriculture  (ploughs,  oxen, 
carts)  and  of  viniculture — casks,  cauldrons  for  the  making 
of  brandy,  &c.,  are  considered  to  be  common  capital  and  ou^^t 
not  to  be  sold  unless  by  common  consent.  Divisions  were  not 
prohibited.  Naturally  a  family  had  to  divide  sooner  or  later, 
and  the  shares  have  to  be  made  real,  to  be  converted  into  fields 
and  vineyards.  But  this  was  an  event  which  marks,  as  it  -were* 
the  dose  of  the  regular  existence  of  one  union  and  the  birth  of 
similar  unions  derived  from  it.  As  a  rule,  the  kuia  kept  together 
as  long  as  it  could,  because  co-operation  was  needed  and  isola- 
tion dangefousr— for  economic  ocmsidenitions  as  wdl  as  for  tha 
sake  of  defence. 

Attention,  however,  should  be  called  more  particularly  to 
the  paralld  phenomena  in  the  social  history  of  the  Russians, 
where  the  conditions  seem  to  stand  out  in  specially  strong 
contrast  with  those  prevailing  among  the  mountain  Slavs  of 
the  Balkans  and  of  the  Alps.  In  the  enormous  extent  of 
Russia  we  have  to  reckon  with  widely  different  geographica)' 
and  racial  areas,  among  other,  with  the  Steppe  settlemenu  of 
the  so-called  little  Russians  in  the  XJkraina  and  the  forest 
settlements  of  the  Great  Russians  in  the  north.  In  aipiti  of 
great  divergencies  the  economic  history  of  all  tlKse  brandies  of 
Slavonic  stock  gravitates  towards  one  main  type,  viz.  towards 
rural  imions  of  kinsmen,  on  the  basis  of  enlaxig^  households. 
In  the  south  the  typical  village  settlement  is  the*  dvoriiU,  the 
big  court  or  hamlet  consisting  of  some  four  to  eight  related 
families  holding  together;  in  the  north  it  is  the  petiiCe,  the  big 
oveu,  a  hamlet  of  somewhat  smaller  size  in  which  three  to  five 
families  are  closely  united  for  purposes  of  common  husbandry. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  even  the  break-up  of  the  joint 
household  does  not  lead  to  an  entire  severance  of  the  ties 
between  its  members.  They  mostly  continue  in  another  form, 
viz.  in  the  shape  of  an  open-field  system  with  intexmiztura 
of  strips,  compulsory  rotation  of  crops,  commons  of  pasture, 
of  wood,  sometimes  shifting  allotments  as  regards  meadows. 
There  is»  e.g.  an  act  of  division  between  six  brothers  from  the 
north  of  Russia  of  the  year  1640.  They  agree  to  divide  bread 
and  salt,  house  and  liberties,  money,  doth  and  stores  of  all 
kinds  and  to  settle  apart.  As  to  arable,  Shumila  is  to  taka 
the  upper  strip  in  the  field  by  the  settlement,  and  next  to  him 
Tretjak,  then  Maxim,  then  Zaviala,  then  Shestoy,  then  Luke. 
In  the  big  harvest  furlong  likewise,  and  in  the  small  likewise, 
and  by  the  meadow  like^se  and  so  on  through  all  the  furlongs. 
So  that  in  this  case  and  in  innumerable  other  cases  d  the  same 
kind  the  open-fidd  system  with  its  inconvenient  intermixture 
of  plots  and  limited  power  of  evexy  husbandman  to  mana^s 
his  land  appeaxs  as  a  direct  continuation  of  the  joint  tribal 
households. 

Another  fact  to  be  noticed  .is  the  tendency  to  form  artificial 
associations  on  the  pattern  of  the  prevailing  unions  of  kinsmen. 
People  who  have  no  blood-relations  to  appeal  to  for  rlftftring 
the  waste,  for  providing  the  necessary  capital  in  the  way  oi 
cattle  and  plough  implements,  for  raising  and  fitting  out 
buildings,  join  in  order  to  carry  on  these  economic  under^ 
takings,  and  also  to  hdp  each  other  against  enemies  and 
aggressors.    The  members  of  these  voluntary  aasodation^ 


70 


yiLLAG£  COMMUNITIES 


wliich  at  ODce  call  to  nund  Gefman,  None  aadEnglifh  gilds,  are 
called  "  aabri,"  "  sidadniki,"  and  the  gilds  themselve  "  sp61kie," 
in  souUi  Russia.  Ih  a  district  of  the  Ukraina  called  the 
"Ratensky  Sharostvo"  there  wete  no  fewer  than  278  such 
gilds  interchanghig  with  natural  kindreds.  The  organization 
of  all  these  unions  coul4  in  no  way  be  called  patriarchal 
Even  in  cases  when  there  b  a  de&iite  elder  or  headman  (&o^ 
tiwy)i  he  was  only  the  first  among  equals  and  exercised  only  a 
limited  authority  over  his  fellows,  all  the  important  decisions 
had  to  be  taken  by  the  council  of  the  community. 

In  Great  Russia,  in  the  districts  ^etthered  under  the  sway 
of  the  Moscow  tsars,  the  basis  el  the  housdiold  community  and 
of  the  rural  settlements  which  sprang  from  it  was  modified 
in  another  direction.  The  entire  agricultural  population  was 
subjected  to  strict  supervision  and  coerdve  measures  for 
purposes  of  military  orgaxdzarion  and  taxation.  Society  was 
drilled  into  uniformity  and  service  on  the  principle  that  every 
man  has  to  serve  the  tsar,  the  upper  dass  in  war  and  dvU 
administration,  the  lower  dass  by  agricultural  labour.  A 
consequence  of  the  heavy  burden  laid  on  the  land  and  of  the 
growth  of  a  landed  aristocracy  somewhat  resembling  the  gentry 
and  the  noUcsse  of  the  West  was  a  chan^  in  the  management 
of  land  allotments.  They  became  as  much  a  badge  (A  service 
and  a  basts  for  fiscal  requirements  as  a  means  of  UveUhood. 
The  result  was  the  practice  of  reallotments  according  to  the 
strength  and  the  needs  of  different  families.  The  shifting  of 
arable  (peredel)  was  not  in  this  case  a  reapportionment  of 
rights,  but  a  consequence  of  the  correspondence  between  rights 
and  obligations.  But  although  this  admeasurement  of  claims 
f^peaiB  as  a  comparatively  recent  growth  of  the  system,  the 
fundamental  solidarity  between  kinsmen  or  neighbourly  asso- 
dates  grouped  into  villages  was  in  no  way  an  invenrion  of 
the  tsars  or  of  their  officials:  it  was  rooted  in  traditional 
customs  and  naturally  suggested  by  the  practices  of  joint 
hotiseholds.  When  these  househ(^ds  become  crowded  in  cer- 
tain areas,  open-fidd  systems  arise;  when  they  are  burdened 
with  public  and  private  service  their  dose  co-operation  pro- 
duces occasional  or  periodical  redivisions  of  the  soil  between 
the  shareholders. 

Let  us  now  pass  to  village  o>mmunities  in  Teutonic  countries, 
induding  England.  A  convenient  starting-point  is  afforded 
by  the  sodal  and  economic  conditions  of  tbe  southern  part  of 
Jutland. 

Now  the  Saxon  or  Ditmarschen  portion  of  this  region  gives 
us  an  opportunity  of  observing  Uie  effects  of  an  extended 
and  highly  systematized  tribal  organization  on  Germanic  soil. 
The  independence  of  this  northern  peasant  republic,  which 
reminds  one  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  lasted  until  the  time  of  the 
Reformation.  We  find  the  Ditmarschen  organized  in  the  X5th, 
as  they  had  been  in  the  loth  century,  in  a  niunber  of  liurge 
kindreds,  partly  composed  of  relatives  by  blood  and  partly  of 
"  cousins  "  who  had  joined  them.  The  membership  of  these 
kindreds  is  based  on  agnatic  ties— that  is,  on  relationship 
through  males—or  on  affiliation  as  a  substitute  for  such  agnatic 
kinship.  The  families  or  households  are  grouped  into  brother- 
hoods, and  these  again  into  dans  or  "  SdUachien  "  {GescklechUr), 
corresponding  to  Roman  gentes.  Some  of  them  could  put 
as  many  as  500  warriors  in  the  fidd.  They  took  their  names 
from  ancestors  and  chieftains:  the  WoUemnannen,  Henne- 
mannen,  Jerremannen,  &c — that  is,  the  men  of  Woil,  the  men 
of  Henne,  the  men  of  Jerre.  In  spite  of  these  personal  names 
the  organization  of  the  dans  was  by  no  means  a  monarchical 
one:  it  was  based  on  the  partidpation  of  the  full-grown  fight- 
ing men  in  the  government  of  each  cUm  and  on  a  council  (rf 
co-opted  dders  at  the  head  of  the  entire  federation.  We  need 
not  repeat  here  what  has  already  been  stated  about  the  mutual 
support  which  such  clans  afforded  to  thdr  members  in  war 
and  in  peace,  in  judicial  and  in  economic  matters. 

Let  us  notice  the  influence  of  this  tribal  organization  on 
husbandry  and  property.  The  regular  economic  arrangement 
was  atk  open-fidd  one  based  on  a  three-field  and  similar  systems. 
Th«  furlongs  were  divided  into  intennixed  strips  with  cooi- 1 


pnlaory  rotation  an  the  moal  patton.    And  ft  is  liiliHWHiwg 
to    notice    that  in  these  economic  surroundings  indivisible 
holdmgs  conespondmg  to  the  organic  unities  requixed    far 
efficient  agriculture  arose  of  themsdves.    In  spite  oi  the  equal 
right  of  all  coheirs  to  an  estate,  this  estate  docs  not  get  divided 
according  to  their  numben,  but  either  remains  undivided  or 
else  falls  into  such  fractions,  halves  or  fourths,  whidi  will  mnhte 
the  farming  to  be  earned  on  successfully,  without  misduevoue 
bitemiption  and  disruption      Gradually  the  people  settled 
down  into  the  custom  of  united  succession  for  agrarian  units. 
The  Hufe  or  Hof,  the  virgace,  as  might  have  been  said  in 
England,  goes  mosdy  to  the  ddest  son,  but  also  sometimes 
to  the  youngest,  whUe  the  brothers  of  tlie  heir  dtlier  remain 
m  the  same  household  with  him,  generally  unmarried,  or  leave 
the  house  after  having  settled  with  the  heir,  who  takes  diarge 
of  the  holding,  as  to  an  indemnity  for  their  rdinquished  daixnsu 
This  indemnity  is  not  equivalent  to  the  market  price,  but  is 
fixed,  in  case  of  dispute  or  doubt,  by  an  award  of  impartial 
and  expert  neighboozs,  iriio  have  to  consider  not  only  the 
claims  of  interested  persons  but  also  the  economic  quality  and 
strength  of  the  hoMing.    Isk  other  words,  the  hdr  has  to  pay 
so  much  as  the  estate  can  conveniently  provide  without  being 
wrecked  by  the  outlay. 

This  evidence  is  of  deddve  importsoioe  in  regard  to  the 
formation  of  unified  holdings;  we  are  on  entirdy  frae  soil,  with 
no  vestige  whatever  of  manorial  organization  or  of  coercion 
of  tenants  by  the  lord,  and  yet  the  Hufe,  the  normal  heading, 
comes  to  the  fore  as  a  result  of  the  economic  situation,  on  the 
strength  of  oonnderations  drawn  from  the  effidcncy  of  the 
farming.  This  "  Anerben  "  system  is  widely  spread  all  through 
Germany.  The  question  whether  the  ddest  or  the  youngest 
succeeds  is  a  sobordinate  one.  Anyhow,  manorial  authority 
is  not  necessary  to  produce  the  limitation  ol  the  righu  of  socces- 
sion  to  land  and  the  creation  of  the  system  of  holdhigB,  although 
this  has  been  often  asserted,  and  one  of  the  arguments  for  n 
servile  origin  of  village  communities  turns  on  a  tnppoted  incom- 
patibility between  unified  succession  and  the  equal  rights  of 
free  cohdrs. 

We  need  not  speak  at  any  length  about  other  partsof  Germany, 
as  space  does  not  permit  of  a  description  of  the  innumerafala 
combinations  o(  communal  and  individual  elements  in  Geimaa 
law,  the  various  shapes  of  manorial  and  political  institutions 
with  which  the  influmce  of  blood  relationdiip,  gild  and  ncigh> 
hourly  union  had  to  struggle. 

But  we  must  point  out  some  facts  from  the  range  of  Scandi> 
navian  customs.  In  the  mountainous  districts  of  Norway  we 
notice  the  same  tendency  towards  the  unification  of  holdings 
as  in  the  plains  and  hills  of  Schleswig  and  ^olstdn.  The 
binder  of  Gudbrandsdalen  and  Telemarken,  the  free  peasantry 
tilling  the  soil  and  pasturing  herds  on  the  slopes  of  the  hiUa 
since  the  days  of  Harold  Hiriagr  to  our  own  tiroes,  sit  m  Odo^ 
gaardsi  or  freehold  estates,  from  which  supernumerary  heirs 
are  removed  on  recdving  some  indemnity,  and  whidi  are  pro- 
tected from  alienation  into  strange  hands  by  the  privilege  of 
pre-emption  exercised  by  relatives  of  the  sdler.  Equally 
suggestive  are  some  facts  on  the  Danish  side  of  the  Straits, 
viz.  the  arrangements  of  the  hiis  which  correspond  to  the 
hides  and  virgatcs  of  England  and  to  the  Hufen  of  Germany. 
Here  again  we  have  to  dk>  with  normal  holdings  independent 
of  the  number  of  (»hdrs,  but  dependent  on  the  requirements 
of  agriculture— on  the  plough  and  (ocn,  on  certain  constant 
relations  between  the  arable  of  an  estate  and  its  outlying  com- 
mons, meadows  and  woods.  The  b61  does  not  stand  by  Itseli 
like  the  Norwegian  gaard,  but  is  fitted  into  a  very  dose  union 
with  ndghbouring  b61s  of  the  same  kind.  Practices  of  coaratioiiv 
of  open-fidd  intermixture,  of  compulsory  rotation  of  lot-meadows, 
of  stinting  the  commons,  arise  of  themsdves  in  the  villages  ol 
Denmark  and  Sweden.  Laws  compiled  hi  the  13th  centsiy 
but  based  on  even  mora  ancient  customs  c^ve  us  most  inter* 
eating  and  definite  information  as  to  Scandinavian  piseticei  ol 
allotment. 

We  catdi  a  gliaiptt,  to  begin  with*  of  a  method  of  dividing 


VILLAGE  COMMUNITIES 


7> 


fields  which  was  ooniidezed'  uchaic  even  in  those  earlv  times. 
The  STTcdish  laws  use  the  expression  "  forniskift/*  which 
means  ancient  mode  of  allotment,  and  another  term  corre- 
sponding to  it  is  "  hamarskift,"  which  may  possibly  be  con- 
nected with  throwing  the  hammer  in  order  to  mark  the  boundary 
Df  land  occupied  by  a  man's  strength.  The  two  principal  features 
of  forni  or  hamar  skift  are  the  irregularity  of  the  resulting 
shapes  of  plots  and  the  temporary  character  of  their  occupation. 
The  first  observation  may  be  substantiated  by  a  description 
like  that  of  Laasby  in  Jutland:  **  These  lands  are  to  that 
extent  scattered  and  intermixed  by  the  joint  owners  that  it 
cannot  be  said  for  certain  what  (or  how  much)  they  are." 
Swedish  dociunents,  on  the  other  hand,  q)eak  expressly  of 
practices  of  shifting  arable  and  meadows  periodically,  some- 
times year  by  year. 

Now  the  tmcertainty  of  these  practices  based  on  occupa- 
tion became  in  process  of  time  a  most  inconvenient  feature 
of  the  situation  and  evidently  led  to  constant  wrangling  as 
to  rights  and  boimdaries.  The  description  of  Laasby  which 
I  have  just  quoted  ends  with  the  significant  remark:  "  They 
should  be  compelled  to  make  allotment  by  the  cord.''  This 
making  of  allotments  by  the  cord  is  the  process  of  rebning, 
from  reb,  the  surveyor's  cord,  and  the  juridical  procedure 
necessary  for  it  was  called  "  solskift  "—^because  it  was  a  division 
following  the  course  of  the  sun. 

The  two  fundamental  positions  from  which  this  form  of 
sllotment  proceeds  are:  (i)  that  the  whole  area  of  the  village 
is  conunon  land  (Jaellesjordjf  which  has  to  be  btted  out  to  the 
single  householders;  (2)  that  the  partition  should  resxUt  in  the 
creation  of  equal  holdings  of  normal  size  (bols).  In  some 
cases  we  can  actiully  recognize  the  effect  of  these  allotments 
by  andent  solskift  in  the  i8th  century,  at  a  time  when  the 
Danish  enclosure  acts  produced  a  second  general  revolution  in 
land  tenure. 

The  oldest  twelve  inhabitants,  elected  as  swdm  arbitrators 
for  effecting  the  allotment,  begin  their  work  by  throwing  to- 
gether into  one  mass  all  the  grounds  owned  by  the  members 
of  the  community,  indudlng  dwellings  and  farm-buildings, 
with  the  exception  of  some  privileged  plots.  There  is  a  dose 
correspondence  between  the  sites  of  houses  and  the  shares  in 
the  fidd.  The  first  operation  of  the  surveyors  consists  in 
marking  out  a  village  green  for  the  night-rest  and  pasture  of 
the  cattle  employed  in  the  tillage  (Jortd),  and  to  assign  sites 
to  the  houses  of  thd  coparceners  with  orchards  appendant  to 
them  (tofts);  every  householder  getting  exactly  as  much 
as  his  neighbour.  From  the  tofts  they  proceed  to  the  fields 
on  the  customary  notion  that  the  toft  is  the  mother  of  the 
field.  The  fields  are  disposed  into  furlongs  and  shots,  as  they 
were  called  m  England,  and  divided  among  the  members  of 
the  village  with  the  strictest  possible  equality.  This  is  effected 
by  assigning  to  every  householder  a  strip  in  every  one  of  the 
furlongs  constituting  the  arable  of  the  village.  Meadows 
were  often  treated  as  lot-meadows  in  the  same  way  as  in  Eng- 
land. According  to  the  account  of  a  solrebning  executed  in 
»Si3  (Oestcr  Hoejstcd),  every  otting,  the  eighth  part  of  a  bol 
(corresponding  to  the  English  oxgang  or  bovate),  got  a  toft 
of  40  roods  in  length  and  6  in  breadth.  One  of  the  coparceners 
received,  however,  8  roods  because  his  land  was  worse  than  that 
of  his  neighbours.  Of  the  arable  there  were  allotted  to  each 
otting  two  roods'  breadth  for  the  plough  in  each  furlong  and 
appendant  commons  "  in  damp  and  in  dry  " — in  meadow  and 
pasture.  After  such  a  "solskift"  the  peasants  held  their 
tenements  in  xmdisturbed  ownership,  but  the  eminent  dcmesor 
of  the  village  was  recognized  and  a  revision  of  the  allotment 
was  possible.  Many  such  revisions  did  actually  take  place, 
and  in  such  cases  all  rights  and  claims  were  apportioned  accord- 
ing to  the  standard  of  the  original  shares.  Needless  to  say 
that  these  shares  were  subjected  to  all  the  usual  Umitations  of 
champion  farming. 

After  having  said  so  much  about  different  types  of  village 
communities  which  occur  in  Europe  it  will  be  easier  to  analyse 
the  incidents  of  English  land  tenure  which  disdose  the  work- 


ing of  similar  conceptions  and  arrangements.  Featmes  wluch 
have  been  very  prominent  in  the  case  of  the  Welsh,  Slavs, 
Germans  or  Scandinavians  recur  in  the  EngU^  instances  some- 
times with  equal  force  and  at  other  times  in  a  mitigated  shape. 

There  are  some  vestiges  of  the  purely  tribal  form  of  com- 
munity on  English  soil,  lirlany  of  the  place-names  of  ^arly 
Saxon  and  Anglican  settlements  are  derived  from  personal 
names  with  the  suffix  ing,  as  designations  like  Oakington,  the 
town  of  the  Hockings. 

True,  it  is  just  possible  to  explain  some  of  these  place-names 
as  pointing  to  settlements  belonging  to  some  great  man  and 
therefore  talung  their  designation  from  him  with  the  adjunct 
of  an  ing  indicating  possession.  But  the  group  of  words  in 
question  falls  in  exactly  with  tlie  common  patronymics  of 
Saxon  and  German  families  and  kindreds,  and  therefore  it  is 
most  probable,  as  Kemble  supposed,  that  we  have  to  do  in 
most  of  these  instances  with  tribal  and  family  settlements, 
although  the  mere  fact  of  belonging  to  a  great  landowner  or 
a  monastery  may  have  been  at  the  root  of  some  cases. 

A  very  noticeable  consequence  of  tribal  habits  in  regard 
to  landowncrship  is  presented  by  the  difficulties  which  stood 
in  the  way  of  idienation  of  land  by  the  occupiers  of  it.  The 
Old  English  legal  system  did  not  originally  admit  of  any  aliens- 
tion  of  folkland,  land  held  by  folkright,  or,  in  other  words,  oi 
the  estates  owned  under  the  ordinary  customary  law  of  the 
people.  Such  land  could  not  be  bequeathed  out  of  the  kmdred 
and  could  not  be  sold  without  the  consent  of  the  kinsmen. 
Such  complete  disabilities  could  not  be  upheld  indefinitdy, 
however,  in  a  growing  and  progressive  community,  and  we 
find  the  andent  folkxight  assailed  from  different  points  of  view. 
The  Church  insists  on  the  right  of  individual  possessors  to  give 
away  land.for  the  sake  of  thdr  souls;  the  kings  grant  exemption 
from  folkright  and  constitute  privileged  estates  held  by  book 
and  following  in  the  main  the  rules  of  individualized  Koman 
law;  the  wish  of  private  persons  to  make  provision  for  daughters 
and  to  deal  with  land  as  with  other  commodities  produces  con- 
stant coUiaons  with  the  customary  tribal  views.  Already, 
by  the  end  of  the  Saxon  period  .transfer  and  alienation  of  land 
make  their  way  everywhere,  and  the  Norman  conquest  brings 
these  features  to  a  head  by  substituting  the  notion  of  tenure 
— that  is,  of  an  estate  burdened  with  service  to  a  superior — for 
the  ancient  notion  of  tribal  folkland. 

But  although  the  tribal  basis  of  conmiunal  arrangements 
was  shaken  and  removed  in  England  in  comparatively  early 
times,  it  had  influenced  the  practices  of  rural  husbandry  and 
landholding,  and  in  the  modified  form  of  the  village  com- 
munity it  survived  right  through  the  feudal  period,  leaving 
characteristic  and  material  traces  of  its  existence  down  to  the 
present  day. 

To  begin  with,  the  open-fidd  system  with  intermixture  of 
strips  and  common  rights  in  pasture  and  wood  has  been  the 
prevailing  system  in  England  for  more  than  a  thousand  years. 
Under  the  name  of  champion  farming  it  existed  everywhere  in 
the  country  until  the  Indosure  Acts  of  the  iBth  and  19th  centuries 
put  an  end  to  it;  it  may  be  found  in  operation  even  now  in 
some  of  its  features  in  badcward  districts.  It  would  have 
been  absurd  to  buUd  up  these  practices  of  compulsory  rotation 
of  crops,  of  a  temporary  rdapse  of  plots  into  common  pasture 
between  harvest  and  ploughing  time,  of  the  interdependence 
of  thrifty  and  negligent  husbandmen  in  respo^t  of  weeds  and 
times  of  cultivation,  &c.,  from  the  point  of  view  of  individual 
appropriation.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  the  natural  system 
for  the  aji^rtionment  of  daims  to  the  diareholders  of  an 
organic  and  perpetual  joint-stock  company. 

Practices  of  shifting  arable  are  seldom  repotted  in  English 
evidence.  There  are  some  traces  of  periodical  redivisions  of 
arable  land  in  Northumberland:  under  the  name  of  runrig 
system  such  practices  seem  to  have  been  not  uncommon  in  the 
outer  fidds,  the  non-manured  portions  of  townships  in  Scotland, 
both  among  the  Saxon  inhabitants  of  the  lowlands  and  the 
Celtic  population  of  the  highlands.  The  joining  of  «nall  tenants 
for  the  purpose  of  coaration,  for  the  formation  of  the  big, 


72 


VILLAGE  COMMUNITIES 


heavy  ptougbs,  drawn  by  eight  oxen,  also  produced  sometimes 
the  riiiftmg  in  the  possession  of  strips  between  the  coparceners 
of  the  undertaking.  But,  as  a  rule,  the  arable  was  held  in 
severalty  by  the  different  members  of  the  township. 

On  the  other  hand,  meadows  were  constantly  owned  by  entire 
townships  and  distributed  between  the  tenements  entitled  to 
shares  from  year  to  year  either  by  lot  or  according  to  a  definite 
order.  These  practices  are  in  fidl  vigour  in  some  places  even 
at  the  present  day  Any  person  living  in  Oxford  may  witness 
the  distribution  by  lot  on  T^mmas  day  (xst  of  August)  of  the 
Lammas  meadows^  that  is,  the  meadows  indosed  for  the  sake 
of  raising  hay-grass  m  the  village  of  Yamton,  some  three  miles 
to  the  north  of  Oxford. 

Let  us,  however,  retuip  for  a  moment  to  the  arable.  Although 
held  in  severalty  by  d^erent  owners  it  was  subjected  to  all 
sorts  of  interference  on  the  part  of  the  village  union  as  repre- 
sented in  iater  ages  by  the  manorial  court  framing  by-laws 
and  settling  the  course  of  cultivation.  It<inight  also  happen, 
that  in  consequence  of  encroachments,  disputes  and  general 
uncertainty  as  to  possession  and  boundaries,  the  whole  distri- 
bution of  the  strips  of  arable  in  the  various  fields  had  to  be  gone 
over  and  regulated  anew.  In  an  interesting  case  reported  from 
a  Cartulaty  of  Dunstable  in  Bedfordshire,  all  the  possessions 
of  the  villagers  in  a  place  called  Segenhoe  w^re  thrown  together 
In  the  Z2th  century  and  redivided  according  to  an  award  of 
experts  chosen  by  a  meeting  of  the  villagers  from  among  the 
oldest  and  wisest  inhabitants. 

Exactly  as  in  the  Danish  examples  quoted  before,  the  strips 
were  apportioned,  not  to  the  single  owners,  but  to  the  nonnal 
holdings,  the  hides,  and  the  actual  owners  had  to  take  them 
in  proportion  to  their  several  rights  in  the  hides.  This  point 
is  very  important.  It  gives  the  English  village  community  its 
peculiar  stamp.  It  is  a  conununity  not  between  single  members 
or  casual  households,  but  between  detcnnlned  holdings  con- 
structed on  a  proportional  scale.  Although  there  was  no 
provision  for  the  admeasurement  and  equalization  of  the  claims 
of  Smith  and  of  Brown,  each  hide  or  ploughland  of  a  township 
took  as  much  as  every  other  hide,  each  virgate  or  yardland  as 
every  other  yardland,  each  bovate  or  oxgang  as  every  other 
oxgang.  Now  the  proportions  themselves,  although  varying 
in  respect  of  the  number  of  acres  included  in  each  of  these 
units  in  different  places,  were  constant  fn  their  relation  to  each 
other.  The  yardland  was  almost  everywhere  one-fourth  of  the 
hide  or  ploughland,  and  corresponded  to  the  share  of  two 
oxen  in  an  eight-oxen  plough;  the  'Oxgang  was  reckoned  at 
one-half  bf  the  yardland,  and  corresponded  to  the  share  of  one 
ox  in  the  same  unit  of  work.  The  constant  repetition  of  these 
fractions  and  units  proves  that  we  have  to  do  in  this  case  with 
phenomena  arising  not  from  artificial  devices  but  from  the  very 
nature  of  the  case.  Nor  can  there  be  a. doubt  that  both  the 
unit  and  the.  fractions  were  produced  by  the  application  to  land 
of  the  chief  factor  of  working  strength  in  agrarian  husbandry, 
the  power  of  the  ploughteam  for  tillage. 

The  natural  composition  of  the  holdings  has  its  counterpart, 
as  in  Schleswig-Holstein  and  aS  in  the  rest  of  Germany,  in  the 
customs  of  united  succession.'  The  English  peasantry  worked 
out  customary  rules  of  primogeniture  or  of  so-called  Borough 
English  or  claim  of  the  youngest  to  the  land  held  by  his  father. 
The  German  examples  adduced  in  the  beginning  of  this  article 
teach  us  that  the  device  is  not  suggested  primarily  by  the  inte- 
rest of  the  landlord.  Unified  succession  takes  the  place  of  the 
equal  rights  of  sons,  because  it  is  the  better  method  for  preserving 
the  economic  efficiency  of  the  household  and  of  the  tenement 
corresponding  to  it.  There  are  exceptions,  the  most  notorious 
being  that  of  Kentish  gavelkind,  but  in  agricultural  districts  the 
holding  remains  undivided  as  long  as  possible,  and  if  it  gets 
divided,  the  division  follows  the  lines  not  of  the  casual  number 
of  coheirs,  but  of  the  organic  elements  of  the  ploughlands. 
Fourths  and  eighths  arise  in  connexion  with  natural  fractions  of 
the  pbughteam  of  eight  oxen. 

One  more  feature  of  the  situation  remains  to  be  noticed, 
tnd  it  is  th«  one  which  is  still  before  our  eyes  in  all  parts  of 


the  countxy,  that  is,  the  commons  which  have  survived   the 
wholesale  process  of  indosure.    They  were  an  integral   part 
of  the  andent  village  oonununity  from  the  fizst,  not  only  because 
the  whole  ground  of  a  township  could  not  be  taken  up  by  axmble 
and  meadows,  at  a  time  when  population  was  scanty,    but 
because  there  existed  the  most  hitimate  connexion  betireen 
the  agricultural  and  pastoral  part  of  husbandry  In  the  time  of 
the  open-fidd  system.    Pasture  was  not  treated  as  a  commodity 
by  itself  but  was  mosdy  considered  as  an  adjunct,  as  appendant 
to  the  arable,  and  so  was  the  use  of  woods  and  of  Vat.    This 
fact  was  duly  emphasixed,  e.g.  in  an  Elisabethan  case  reported 
by  Coke — ^Tyrringham's  case.    The  problem  of  admeasuxement 
of  pasture  was  regulated  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  the.  appor- 
tionment of  arable  strips,  by  a  reference  to  the  proportional 
holdings,  the  hides,  yardlands  an4  oxgaags  of  the  township, 
and  the  only  question  to  be  dedded  was  how  many  heads  of 
cattle  and  how  many  sheep  each  hide  and  yardland  had  the 
right  to  send  to  the  common  pasturage  grounds. 

When  in  course  of  time  the  cptn-6idd  system  and  the  tenure 
of  arable  according  to  holdings  were  j^ven  up,  the  ri^t  of  free- 
holders and  copyholders  of  the  old  manors  in  which  the  ancient 
townships  were,  as  it  were,  encased,  still  hdd  good,  but  it  became 
much  more  difficult  to  estimate  and  to  apportion  such  rights. 

In  oonnexion  with  the  individualistic  policy  of  indosoie 
the  old  writ  of  admeasurement  of  commons  was  abolished 
in  1837  (3  &  4  Will.  IV.)  The  ordinary  expedient  is  to  make 
out  how  much  commonable  cattle  could  be  kept  by  the  tene- 
ments daiming  commons  through  the  winter.  It  is  very 
characteristic  and  important  that  in  the  leading  modem  case 
on  suffidcncy  of  commons — ^in  Robertson  v.  Hortopp— it  was 
admitted  by  the  Court  of  Appeal  that  the  suffidency  has  to 
be  construed  as  a  right  of  turning  out  a  certain  number  of 
beasts  on  the  common,  quite  apart  from  the  number  which 
had  been  actually  turaed  out  at  any  given  time.  Now  a  vested 
right  has  to  be  construed  fnmi  the  point  of  view  of  the  time 
when  it  came  into  existence.  The  standards  used  .to  estimate 
such  rights  ought  not  to  be  drawn  from  modem  practice,  which 
might  hdp  to  di^>ense  altogether  with  commons  of  pasture  by 
stable  feeding,  substitutes  for  grass,  &c.,  but  ought  to  correspond 
to  the  ordinary  usages  established  at  a  time  when  the  open-fidd 
system  was  in  fuU  vigour.  The  legal  view  stands  thus  at 
present,  but  we  cannot  conceal  from  oursdves  that  after  all  the 
inroads  achieved,  by  individual  appropriation  it  is  by  no  means 
certain  that  the  reference  to  the  rights  and  rules  of  a  previous 
period  will  continue  to  be  recognized.  However  this  may  be, 
in  the  present  conmions  we  have  certainly  a  system  whidi 
draira  its  roots  from  customs,  as  to  the  origin  of  which  legal 
memory  does  not  run. 

We  may,  in  conclusion,  summarixe  vety  briefly  the  pxindpal 
results  of  our  inquiry  as  to  the  history  of  European  village 
communities.  It  seems  that  they  may  be  stated  under  the 
following  heads:  (i)  Primitive  stages  of  dvillzatiOn  disdose 
in  human  sodety  a 'strong  tendency  towards  mutual  support 
in  economic  matters  as  well  as  for  the  sake  of  defence,  (a)  The 
most  natural  form  assumed  by  such  unions  for  defence  and 
co-operation  is  that  of  kinship.  (3)  In  epochs  of  pastoral 
husbandry  and  of  the  beginnings  of  agriculture  land  is  mainly 
owned  by  tribes,  kindreds  and  enlarged  householdi,  whik 
individuals  enjoy  only  rights  of  usage  and  possession.  (4)  In 
course  of  time  unions  of  neighbours  are  substituted  for  unions 
of  kinsmen.  (5)  In  Germanic  societies  the  community  of  the 
township  rests  on  the  foundation  of  efficient  holdings— b^, 
hides,  hufen — kept  together  as  far  as  possible  by  rules  of  united 
or  single  succession.  (6)  The  open-field  system,  which  prevailed 
in  the  whole  of  Northern  Europe  for  neariy  a  thousand  yeare, 
was  dosdy  dependent  on  the  customs  of  tribal  and  neighbouriy 
unions.  (7)  Even  now  the  treatment  of  commons  represents 
the  last  manifestations  of  andent  conununal  arrangements,  and 
it  can  only  be  reasonably  and  justly  interpreted  by  reference 
to  the  law  and  practice  of  former  times. 

Authorities.— Sir  H.  S.  Maine.  ViUatfi  Communities  in  iko 
East  and  West  (1872) ;  E.  dc  Lavdcye,  Das  Urmgisnaum,  Oben.  vqa 


VILLALBA— VILLANELLE 


73 


tC.  Backer  O^lp^iaTA;  A.  Mc . ^ 

Wanitniiv.  Entail  aai  AparricU  itr  VUka  Er'opai  ndnUuA  irr 
Alpa  (4  veil.,  BeriiD.  tSgi):  I^.  dt  C«ilaiiir«,  tci  Onr'nu  ib  In 
MvffiiM  (Puk,  I8u)  1 M.  Kovulmky.  Dtt  abnamuikc  Gutoictliiiii 
£im««.b(  ant  BttAw  d(r  JuMoJwjkn  Ifirfiuhii/ii/iinn  (Beilin. 
lQai);B.  H.  Bidcn-PonicU,  Thtlniia*  KiUui  C«iiiiniiU>  (LDndoo, 
iSq&);  Tiki  Z^od  5jiilniii  iff  Sriluk  liju  (Oitord,    iSqi):   1. 

}olLy,  rafori  iMUra  m  Uu  Law  qI  /■AirUaiicc  and  5ii[k1ii»  in 
wfia;  1%.   Monuucn,  RmriicliI   f>ril*iin(ni   (Berlin.    1M4).  P. 


!!:■?■ 

I87J); 


^^Sl 


(Loud 


.  ■  town  of  nciilh-watcm  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Lu«a]  on  the  left  bank  of  the  liver  Ladia,  one  of  ihe  head- 
Aicams  of  the  Mlfto,  ud  at  the  function  d  the  main  TO*ds 
tiDm  Ferro!  and  Hondooedo  to  the  dly  of  Lugo.  Pop.  (i , 
I3t31i  Viljalba  ii  the  chief  town  of  the  district  watered  by 
the  I.adia,  Tunlioga  and  otIieT  imall  atieami— a  fertile 
plateau  ijoo  ft.  abovit  len-level.  Cloth  and  pottery  are 
manutaetuied,  and  then  is  some  trade  h.  grdn  and  live  ("  ' 
The  neunt  nQway  lUtion  I*  Otero,  i;  m.  S.  by  E.,  o 
Lugo-Camnnt  line. 

YlLUMBDIiHA,  COUNT  DB  (1581-1611),  Spuiith  poet, 
wu  bora  at  Uibon  toward!  the  end  of  isSi.  His  father^  * 
diitlngulihed  diplomatlit,  npoB  whom  the  digidty  of  count 
was  confeRcd  in  i&>3,  eotruMed  the  education  of  the  brillianl 
boy  (JniB  dc  Tuda  y  Penlu)  to  Lub  Tribaldoa  d«  Tokdo, 


the  future  editor  of  Mendaia'i  Cvtrtas  ii  Granada,  and  to 
BartoloBit  Jimenei  Pat6it,  who  tubsequently  dedicated 
ifmiiruii  Triimiiistus  to  his  pupiL  On  leaving  Salamanca  the 
youth  married  in  i6oi,  and  luccceded  to  llu  title  on  the  death 
of  hi>  latlwi  in  i6a;,  he  wat  piominenL  in  the  diisipalcd  life 
of  the  capital,  acquired  a  bad  reputation  ai  a  gambler,  was 
foriridden  to  attend  court,  and  resided  m  Italy  (torn  i6e[  to 
1617.  On  his  return  to  Spain,  he  soon  proved  hinueif  ■  (evlaa, 
pungent  utiiist.  Such  public  men  a*  Lenna,  Rodrlgo 
CaldeiAo  and  Jorge  de  Tobai  writhed  beneath  his  muidennu 
bivectivci  the  foiblei  of  humbler  private  pcisaos  were  exposed 
to  public  ridicule  in  verses  furtively  pasted  from  hand  to  hand. 
So  great  wai  tlie  retenlmcnl  caused  by  these  envenomed 
alLAclts  that  Villaniediana  was  once  more  ordered  to  withdraw 
from  cobrt  in  i6i£  He  returned  on  the  death  of  Philip  UL 
and  waa  ^pointed  gentleman  in  waiting  to  Philip  IV  'a  young 
wife.  Isabel  de  Bourbon,  daughter  of  Henri  IV.  Secure  in 
ha  position,  he  scattered  his  mrathin^  c^Hgrams  in  [»ofu»onj 
but  his  ostentatious  atlentioiis  to  the  queen  supplied  hia 
countless  foes  with  a  weapon  which  was  destined  10  dcstioy 
him.  A  hre  broke  out  while  hia  masque.  La  Cleria  de  Nituio, 
was  being  acted  before  the  court  on  the  isth  of  May  j$ig,  and 
Villamediana  earned  >ha  queen  to  a  place  of  safety.  Smpidoa 
deepened;  Villamediana  neglected  a  signiGtant  waiuing  that 
his  Ufe  was  in  perO,  and  on  the  iiM  of  August  161)  be  was 
murdered  as  he  stepped  out  of  hia  coach.  The  responsibilily 
for  his  death  was  divided  between  FhiUp  IV.  and  Olivares,  i1m 
actual  assassin  was  either  Alonso  Mateo  or  Ignado  Mendex; 
and  naturally  the  crime  remained  unpunished. 

Villamediana "s  wcH-ta,  first  published  at  Saragoeaa  in  i6ig, 
contain  not  only  the  nervous,  blighting  verses  which  mado 
him  widely  feared  and  hated,  but  a  number  of  tnora  ktIoui 
poems  embodying  the  most  euggerated  ooncsta  of  gongotlsia. 
But,  even  when  adopting  the  perverse  ronventions  of  the  hour, 
he  remains  a  poet  of  high  distinction,  and  his  satirical  verses, 
more  perfect  in  form,  are  Inslinct  with  a  cold,  coocentrated 
Kora  which  has  never  been  luipassed.  0'  F.-K.) 

VILUHELLB,  a  form  of  verse,  originally  loose  m  coustruc- 
tion,  but  since  the  1 6th  century  boond  in  exact  limits  of  an  arU- 
trary  kind.  The  word  is  ultimately  derived  from  theLatinviUd, 
a  country  house  or  farm,  through  the  Ijalian  vitlana,  a  peasant 
or  farm  hand,  and  a  villanelle  was  primarily  a  round  song 
taken  op  by  men  on  a  farm,  the  Spaniards  called  such  a  song 
a  riUoiB^g  or  nOsncrd  or  a  i/Usikko,  and  a  man  who  impro- 
vised viUanelles  was  a  vmaiKiquem,  The  villanelle  was  a 
pastorat  poem  made  to  accompany  a  rustic  dance,  and  from,  the 
Gnt  it  waa  necttsary  that  it  should  contain  a  regular  system 
of  repeated  lines.  The  old  French  villanelies,  however,  were 
irregular  in  form.  One  of  the  most  celeijrated,  tfie  "  Rosette, 
pour  un  peu  d'absence  "  of  PbiSppe  Desportes  (1545-1606),  la 
a  nrt  of  ballade,  and  those  contained  in  the  ,1ilrfe  of  dUrff,. 
l6to,  are  scarcely  less  unlike  the  viUanelles  of  modem  times.  It 
tppetn,  indeed,  to  have  been  by  an  accident  that  the  sptdll 
wid  rigorously  dcfiiied  form  of  the  villanelle  waa  invented.  In 
the  posihuroouB  poemi  of  Jean  Paaterat  dsja-ifios),  which 
were  printed  in  r6o6,  several  viUaneUes  were  discovered,  hi 
different  forms.  One  of  these  became,  and  has  remained,  so 
deservedly  popular,  thai  it  has  given  Its  mart  character  10 
the  subsequent  history  ol  the  v^neUe.     This  famoua  poem 

"  rai  perdu  ma  tourterelle: 
En-ce  poinl  cetle  qi»  J-o!f 
]e  vena  alter  ap^eUe. 
tafem 


HasTauMl  fals-ie  mol: 
ai  perdu  esa  tourterelle. 


Je  veu  aller  aprii  dti 
Ta  ptalnte  se  renouvd 
Touiours  plair 
J'alpadi/ui 


^e. 


last  two  Uflps  of  which  an  ihc  hnt  u 
tcicet.  Tbc  villueUi  wu  utninel. 
poeis  of  the  PamuK,  and  one  of  th 
oompand  [i  to  a  ribband  of  ulvrr 
thcead  of  nue^olouTr     Boulmicr,  v 


:  vnuiUtcapriscUt."' 

o  b(  Iba  type  of  its  dua, 
e  laA  three  htuidred  yean 
I,  wrilLen  Id  tercets,  oa  tiro  rhyoiei,  the  first 
e  being  repeated  aliemaiively  m  each  tercet 
five  tercets,  but  Ihal  is 
ose  with  B  quatrain,  the 
id  third  line  of  Ibe  ongmaL 
y  admired  by  tb;  French 
em,  TbtodoTT  de  Banville, 
acid  Kold  ttavtned  by  ■ 
bo  was  the  first  to  point 
ol  the  defiDile  vUhmdJe, 
published  collections  of  theM  poems  in  1S7S  and  1879,  and 
was  preparing  another  when  he  died  in  iSSi  When,  io  1877, 
fto  many  of  the  e«rly  French  forms  of  verse  were  introduced,  or 
rciniroduced,  iaia  English  literature,  the  villaneUc  attracted 
ft  grtAt  deal  of  attention,  it  was  umultaneously  cukivalcd  by 
W  E.  Henley,  Austin  Dobson,  Lang  and  Cone  Henley  wrote 
■  large  number,  and  he  described  the  form  itself  in  a  specimen 

"  A  dainty  thing'i  the  Vaiinelle, 


I(  hai  since  then  been  very  frequently  used  by  English  and 
AnwriciB  poets.  There  ate  several  eicellent  cmnpics  in 
English  of  humorous  villanelles,  especially  tbosc  by  Austin 
Dobson  and  by  Henley. 

See  Joieph  Boulmier,  La  ViUavIia  (Pirii,  l87<;  Jnd  enbned 
edition,  1879)-  IE.  Cl 

:.  1175-1343).  Italian  chrooidet,  was 
do,  and  was  bora  al  Floteoce  in  the 
eotuly;  the  precise  yeir  is  unltnown. 
Ettficlion,  and,  following  the  traditions 
iself  to  commerce.     During  the  early 

men  and  ihiiigs  with  the  sagadly 


of  his  family,  applied  h 
years  of  the  i4(h  cent 
the  Netherlands,  leeini 
■like  of  the  man  of  h 
leaving  Florence,  or  rati 
And  another,  he  had  at '. 
period  of  civil  conleniic 


Villani  saw  Charles,  i 
the  false  name  of  peai 
whicb  immediately  fallowed, 
'ud  in  September  ijo^  he 


1  which  Dino  Compa; 
Alighieci  into  banish 
I  of  Valois,  ruining  hi 


of  aU  the 
sited  fluden.     It  is  not 


cHtunly  living  there  ihonly  after  the  empeioi  Henry  VII. 
visited  Italy  In  ijii,  and  probably  be  bad  been  Ihere  foe  some 
time  before.    .While  still  onlinuing  to  occupy  himself  with 

affairs.  In  iji6  and  1317  he  was  one  of  the  priors,  and  shared 
In  the  crafty  tactics  whereby  Pisa  and  Lucca  were  induced  to 
conclude  a  peace  with  Florence,  to  which  they  were  previously 
averse.  In  1317  he  also  had  charge  of  the  mint,  and  during 
*      "  e  he  collected  its 


d  had  a  register 


if  all  II 


mPlorei 


Just  then  undertaken  the  i 


or;  and,  the  Florentines  having 
rebuildinE  o(  the  dly  walls,  be  and 
some  suier  oluens  were  deputed  to  look  after  the  work.  They 
were  afterwards  accused  of  having  diverted  the  public  money 
to  private  ends,  but  VillanJ  clearly  established  his  innocence. 
He  was  next  sent  with  the  army  against  Castiucdo  Casttacani, 
lord  of  Lucca,  and  was  present  at  its  defeat  at  Altopasdo  In 
1318  a  terrible  famine  visited  many  provinces  of  Italy,  including 
TuacBiiy,  and  ViUtnl  was  appointed  to  guaid  Florence  (rom 


r,  which  abow> 


afie 

the  deal 

of  Cislratcio 

onw  nth 

Florentine'  mercbania. 

m  Vdlani,  treated  for  ihe 

.cqn.sit.on  ot  Lucca 

by 

0  .upply   the    Urges 

part 

of  thai 

ate  means,   bui    rhe 

negotiations  le 

11  ibrotigh.  owin 

hen 

the  government 

{Ckrn  I 

143)     The  (olloviu 

rear 

making 

of  Andrea    FisMo'a 

ledooTsf 

In  the  same  year  he  watrhed 

rnrc 

inal  Giov. 

nni  Orsini  (C*f« 

1   177) 

In  iiti  the  acauisi- 

treaty,  this  lime  with  hUniao 

Itlla  Scla,  foi 

Villani 

ns  sent  wiUi  others 

bosuget 

be  remain 

ed  for  some  months. 

"' 

ITi'vfr, 

1  m  Floience  d 

nng  the 

unhappy  period  that 

:lipsed  between  the  entry  ol  Walter  of  Biienne,  duke  of  Atheos. 
and  bis  expulsion  by  the  Florentines  0347-43)  Involved 
through  no  fault  of  his  own  in  the  failure  of  the  commercijj 
company  of  the  Bonacconi,  which  in  lis  lum  had  been  dtmwB 
into  the  failure  of  the  company  of  the  Bardi,  Villaai,  lowarda 

was  kept  In  prison.  In  1348  he  'fell  a  victim  to  the  plapu 
described  by  Boccaccio. 

The  Idea  ol  wnling  the  CSnmiilt  wai  niggnted  to  Villaai  under 
the  foifoving  cIieumsiaDees.  "In  the  yeu-  of  Christ  I3DO  Pope 
Boniface  Vtll-  nude  in  honour  of  Chriat^i  naiivity  ■  special  arv] 


by  Vi 


iding  the  historii 
■  of  hist     ■     ■ 
iiiderin^  th 


:  of  Rome 


,  Uvy,  Vale 


j.i.  Paul 


thpBtand 


Nothing  but 
[  Villnni's  »otI>. 
iimiif  Sai 


^n"gjid.^£y 


angers,  in  ihe  whole  woitd  .  .  . 
ice,  the  dauxhter  and  oJlBprin^ 
lefitined  to  00  great  thio^,  aa 
d  10  me  fittine  to  set  dou-n  ia 
ihe  facts  and  DeginningB  of  (ha 
h  been  poMbIc  to  me  Ia  collect 
he  doings  of  Ihe  Flomtinn  at 
<o,  Dfl  my  retvrn  from  Rome, 
nour  of  God  an^  of  the  bleW 

Ipeak.  unclpcclcdly  in  Ihe 
he  hinoiy.  of  Florence,  the 

rich  and' "po^Sful  Ih  ol 
irty  and  pinly  leatnilary 
hich  rests  in  part  on  chem. 

d^niie  about  iisj,  at  the  tine  of  ibe 
-lorcnce.  The  Chnmiia  ie  (Mgiai  CmWii 
inn,  made  by  various  hands  and  al  varioui 
lifTerent  legends  rcfrardlng  the  city's  oririn 
csltecied.  The  Aimala  Florentaii  Fiumi 
Insnbi  FbrBiliBi  Sttmii  (1107-1147}.  to- 
.c  consuls  and  podestas  frdm  1197  to  1207, 
formerly  attributed,  but  apparently  wllh- 


stber  irilhont  cicuig  them 


id  within  the  wads  of  the  nniveraal  city.     Whtrras  Dlno 

Compagni  i  CkTSHH-Je  is  coa&ied  within  definite  llnils  of  time  and 
place,  this  of  Villaai  is  a  (cneral  chronicle  euendiac  orer  tb* 
..U.I.  uf  £o„p,.  Q^„a  Compagni  feds  and  livci  in  ibe  (scis  ol 
■tory,  Villaid  loota  at  them  and  relates  them  vlmly  and 
fairly,  with  a  ierenhy  which  mslsa  him  seem  an  outsider,  erea 
when  he  is  aiiud  up  In  them.    Wlule  vtiy  imponant  f«  Italian 


VILLANOVA— VILLARD 


li 


;rly    medkmi  history  of  Fbf«aee.     Of  contemporary  events 
Villani  has  a  veiy  exact  knowledge.    Having  been  a  sharer  in  the 
public  affairs  and  in  (he  intellectual  and  economic  life  of  his  native 
city    at  a  time  when  In  both  it  had  no  rival  in  Europe,  he  depicts 
what  he  saw  with  the  vividness  natural  to  a  clear  mind  accustomed 
to  business  and  to  the  obeervation  of  mankind.    He  was  Cuclph. 
but  without  passion;  and  his  book  is  much  more  taken  up  with  an 
inquiry  into  what  is  useful  and  true  than  with  party  considerations. 
He  is  really  a  chronicler,  not  an  historian,  and  nas  but  little  method 
in   his  narrative,  often  reporting  the  things  which  occurred  Ions 
ago  just  as  he  heard  them  and  without  criticism.    Everv  now  and 
then  he  (alls  into  some  inaccuracy;  but  such  defects  as  lie  has  are 
largely  compensated  (or  by  his  valuable  qualities.    He  was  for  half 
a  century  eyewitness  of  his  history,  and  he  provides  abundant 
information  on  the  constitution  of  Florence,  its  customs,  industries, 
comnnerce  and  arts:  and  among  the  chroniclers  throughout  Eurofie 
he  is  perhaps  unequalled  for  the  value  of  the  statistical  data  he  has 
preserved.     As  a  writer  Villani  is  clear  and  acute;  and,  though 
nis  prose  has  not  the  force  and  colouring  of  Compagnl's,  it  has  tnc 
advantage  of  greater  simplicity,  so  that,  taking  his  work  as  a  m-hole. 
he  may  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  chronicler  who  has  written  in 
Italian.    The  OMny  difficulties  connected  with  the  publication  of 
this  important  text  have  hitherto  prevented  the  preparation  o(  a 
perfect  edition.    However,  the  Chronicle  has  been  printed  by  L.  A. 
Muratori  in  tome  xiii.  of  the  Rerum  Italtcarum  Scriptores  (Milan, 
1738),  and  has  been  edited  by  I.  Moutier  and  F  G.  Dragomanni 
(rk>rence.  1844).    Amone  other  editwns  is  one  published  at  Trieste 
in  1857  and  another  at  Turin  in  1879.    Selections  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  R.  E.  Sclfe  (1896). 

Villani's  Ckronide  was  continued  by  two  other  members  of  his 
family.  (1)  Mattbo  Villani,  his  brother,  of  whom  nothing  is 
known  save  that  he  was  twice  married  and  that  he  died  of  the 
plague  in  1363.  continued  it  down  to  the  year  of  his  death.  Matteo's 
work,  though  inferior  to  Giovanni's,  is  nevertheless  very  valuable. 
A  more  prolix  writer  than  his  brother  and  a  less  acute  observer. 
Matteo  is  well  informed  in  his  facts,  and  for  the  years  of  which  he 
writes  b  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of  Italian  history, 
(a)  FiLiPPO  Villani.  the  son  oi  Matteo.  flourished  in  the  end  of  the 
lath  and  the  beginning  of  the  isth  century.  In  his  continuation 
which  goes  down  to  1364,  though  showing  greater  literary  ability, 
he  is  very  inferior  as  an  historian  to  his  predecessors.  His  most 
valuable  work  was  a  collection  of  lives  of  illustrious  Florentines. 
Twice,  in  1401  and  1404,  he  was  chosen  to  explain  in  public  the 
Divina  'Commedia.    The  year  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

See  P.  Scheffer-Boichorst,  FloreiUiner  Studien  (Leipxig,  1874): 
G.  Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Florentinen  Historiogmphic  "  in  his 
Hislorische  Schriflen  (1833):  U.  Balzani.  Le  cronache  Italiaue 
net  medio  <vo  (Milan.  1884;:  A.  Gaspary.  CeichichU  der  italirniickrn 
LUeratur  (Berlin,  1885):  O.  Knoll,  Beilrage  tur  italimiscken  Historto- 
vra^kie  im  14.  Jahrhundert  (G<^ttingen  1876).  and  O.  Hartung.  "  G. 
villani  und  die  Legeenda  di  Mescer  Gianni  di  Procida  "  in  Band 
XXV.  of  H.  von  Sybcls  IluUfriscU  ZeiUchriJt.  (U.  B.) 

VILLANOVA,  the  name  given  to  an  ancient  cemetery  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Bologna,  Italy,  and  generally  applied  by 
archaeologists  to  all  the  remains  of  that  period,  and  to  the 
period  itself,  owing  to  the  discovery  therein  of  a  large 
number  of  the  characteristic  remains  of  the  earliest  Iron  Age  of 
Italy.  The  antiquities  of  this  culture  are  widely  spread  over 
upper  Italy  and  differ  essentially  from  those  of  the  previous 
epoch  known  as  Terramara,  and  they  have  been  described 
by  some  as  following  at  a  considerable  interval,  for  they  show 
a  great  advance  in  metal  work.  The  chief  cemeteries  of  the 
ViUanova  period  are  aX  Bologna,  Este,  Villanova,  Golasccca, 
Trezzo,  Rivoli  and  Oppiano.  As  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  Terrtunara  •  culture  was  that  of  the  aboriginal  Ligurians 
(see,  however,  Tcrrauaka),  so  the  Villanova  is  that  of  the 
Umbrians,  who,  according  to  the  historians,  were  masters  of 
aH  northern  Italy,  as  far  as  the  Alps  at  the  time  of  the 
Etruscan  conquest  (c.  1000  B.C.).  They  contain  cist-graves, 
the  bottoms,  sides  and  tops  being  formed  of  flat  unhewn 
stooes,  though  sometimes  there  are  only  bottom  and  top 
slabs:  the  dead  were  burnt,  and  the  remains  are  usually 
in  urns,  each  grave  containing  as  a  rule  but  one  ossuary; 
sometimes  the  vessel  is  covered  with  a  flat  stone  or  a  dish 
inverted,  sometimes  the  urns  are  deposited  in  the  ground 
without  any  protection.  The  vases  are  often  band -made 
and  adorned  with  incised  linear  ornament,  though  in  later 
times  the  bones  were  often  placed  in  bronze  urns  or  buckets. 
Though  iron  is  steadily  making  its  way  into  use,  flat,  flanged, 
and  socketed  and  looped  celts  of  bronze  are  found  in  con- 
sklerabie  numbers.  Brooches  of  many  kinds,  ranging  from 
(he  most   primitive  safety-pin   fashioned  out  of  a  common 


bronze  pin  (tuch  as  those  fotmd  In  the  Bttnue  Age  tettlemetf 
at  Peschiera  on  Lake  Maggiore)  through  many  varieties,  are 
in  universal  use.  Representations  of  the  hum.tn  figure  are 
practically  unknown,  but  models  of  animals  of  a  rude  and 
primitive  kind  are  very  common,  probably  being  votive 
offerings.  These  are  closely  parallel  to  the  bronze  frguret 
found  at  Olympia,  where  human  figures  were  likewise  rare. 
All  these  objects  are  decorated  in  repoussi  with  geometric 
designs.  The  culture  of  the  Villanova  period  is  part  of  the 
Hallstatt  civilization,  though  the  .contents  of  the  Hallstatt 
(q.v.)  graves  differ  in  several  marked  features  from  the  anti- 
quities of  the  ordinary  Villanova  period,  there  is  no  breach 
of  continuity  between  Hallstatt  and  Villanova,  for  the  types 
of  Vadena,  Esle,  Golasecca  and  Villanova  are  found  in  the 
Hallstatt  culture.  The  connexion  between  the  north  and  the 
south  of  the  Alps  is  never  interrupted.  The  chief  difference 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  Celts  of  the  Danubian  region  made 
greater  advances  in  the  development  of  weapons  and  defensive 
armour  than  their  kindred  in  northern  Italy.  The  Po  and 
Danube  regions  alike  are  characterized  by  bronze  buckets, 
cists,  girdles  and  the  like,  wrought  in  repoussi  with  animal  and 
geometric  designs;  but  the  introduction  of  iron  into  Italy  i% 
considerably  posterior  to  its  development  in  the  Hallstatt 
area. 

See  Montelius.  La  Civilisation  primitive  en  Flolie;  Ridgeway, 
Early  Age  of  Greece,  vol.  L;  Brizio,  in  C  R.  Acad.  Inscr.  (1906), 
315  8<)q.;  Grenier.  in  MHangts  de  I'fcole  franioise  (1907),  325  sqq.^ 
Pigorini  and  Vaglieri  have  contributed  articles  to  the  tUndtamti 
del  Lincei  and  the  Noltzie  degli  scavi  from  1907  onwards.  (\V.  Rl) 

VILLANUEVA  DB  LA  SERENA,  a  town  of  western  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Badajoz,  near  the  left  bank  of  the  rivet 
Guadiana,  and  on  the  Madrid-Badajoz  railway.  Pop.  (1900) 
13.489.  Villanueva  is  a  clean  and  thriving  place,  with  good 
modem  public  buildings — town  hall,  churches,  convents  and 
schools.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  an  undulating  plain,  La  Serena, 
locally  celebrated  for  red  wine  and  melons.  Grain  and  hemp 
are  also  cultivated,  and  live  stock  extensively  reared  in  the 
neighbourhood. 

VILLANUEVA  Y  GELTRU.  a  seaport  of  north-eastern  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Barcelona;  on  the  Barcelona-Tarragona 
section  of  the  coast  railway.  Pop.  (1900)  11,850.  Villanueva 
is  a  busy  modem  town,  with  manufactures  of  cotton,  woollen 
and  linen  goods,  and  of  paper.  It  has  also  iron  foundries  and 
an  important'  agricultural  trade.  '  The  harbour  affords  safe 
and  deep  anchorage;  it  is  a  lifeboat  slation  and  the  head* 
quarters  of  a  large  fishing  fleet.  I'he  coasting  trade  is  also 
considerable.  Villanueva  has  a  museum,  founded  by  the 
Catalan  poet,  historian  and  diplomat,  Vittorio  Balaguer  (1824- 
1901),  which  contains  collections  of  Roman,  F.gyptian  and 
prehistoric  antiquities,  besides  paintings,  engravings,  sculptures, 
coins  and  a  large  library,  including  many  valuable  MSS. 

VILLARD,  HENRY  (1835-1Q00),  American  journalisl  and 
financier,  was  born  in  Spcycr,  Rhenish  Bavaria,  on  the  lolh  at 
April  1835.  His  baptismal  name  was  Ferdinand  Ilcinricb 
Gustav  Hilgard.  His  parents  removed  to  Zwcibriickcn  in 
1S39,  and  in  1856  his  father.  Guslav  Lconhard  Hilgard  (d.iSO;)! 
became  a  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Bavaria,  at  Munich* 
Henry  was  educated  at  tlic  gymnasium  of  Zwcibriicken,  at 
the  French  semi-military  academy  in  Phalsbourg  in  1849-50, 
at  the  gymnasium  of  Spcycr  in  1850-52,  and  at  the  universities 
of  Munich  and  Wiirzburg  in  1552-53;  and  in  1853,  having  had 
a  disagreement  with  his  father,  omigraled— without  his  parents' 
knowledge — to  the  United  Stales.  It  was  at  this  time  that 
he  adopted  the  name  Villard.  Making  his  way  westward  in 
1854,  be  lived  in  turn  at  Cincinnati,  Belle viUc  (Illinois),  Peoria 
(Illinois)  and  Chicago,  engaged  in  various  employments,  and 
in  1856  formed  a  project,  which- can^  to  nothing,  for  establish- 
ing a  colony  of  "  free  soil  '*  Germans  in  Kansaa.  In  1856-57 
he  was  editor,  and  for  part  of  the  time  was  proprietor,  of  the 
Racine  (Wis.)  VolksUatt,  in  which  he  advocated  the  election 
of  John  C.  Fremont  (Republican).  Thereafter  he  was  assod* 
ated  (in  1857)  with  the  Staats-Zeilung^  Frank  Leslie's  and  the 
Tribune,  of  New  York,  and  with  the  Cincinnati  Commercial 


76 


VILLA  REAL— VILLARS 


la  1859-^;  wai  correspondent  o£  the  New  York  Herald  in 
1861  and  of  the  New  York  Tribusu  (with  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac)  in  2863-63,  u^d  in  1864  was  at  the  front  as  the 
representative  of  a  news  agency  established  by  him  in  that 
year  at  Washington.  In  1865  he  became  Washington  corre- 
apondent  of  the  Chicago  Tribune,  and  in  1866  was  the  corre- 
spondent of  that  paper  in  the  Pnuso-Attstiian  War.  He  began 
to  take  an  interest  in  railway  financiering  in  1871,  was  elected 
president  of  the  Oregon  &  Cdifomia  railroad  and  of  the  Oregon 
Steamship  Company  in  1876,  was  receiver  of  the  Kansas  Pacific 
railway  in  1876-78,  organised  the  Oregon  Railway  &  Navigar 
tion  Company  in  1879,  the  Oregon  Improvement  Company  in 
1880,  and  the  Oregon  &  Transcontinental  Company  in  1881, 
becoming  in  that  year  president  of  the  Northern  Pacific  rail- 
way,  which  was  completed  under  his  management,  and  of 
whidi  he  remained  president  until  1883.  In  1887  he  again 
became  connected  with  the  Northern  Pacific,  and  in  1889  was 
chosen  chairman  of  its  finance  committee.  He  was  actively 
identified  with  the  financing  of  other  Western  railway  projects 
until  1893.  In  1 88 1  he  acquired  the  New  York  Evening  Post 
and  the  Nation.  In  1883  he  paid  the  debt  of  the  state  uni- 
versity of  Oregon,  and  gave  to  the  institution  $50,000,  and 
he  also  gave  to  the  town  of  Zwdbrtlcken,  the  home  of  his 
boyhood,  an  orphan  asylum  (1891).  He  died  on  the  xath  of 
November  1900. 

See  Memoirs  ef  Henry  ViUard,  Joumalia  and  Financier,  iSjS" 
tgoo  (a  vols..  Boston,  X904). 

VILU  RBAU  the  capital  of  the  district  of  Villa  Real, 
Portugal;  xo  m.  N.  of  the  river  Douro  and  47  m.  by  road 
EJ^.£.  of  Oporto.  Pop.  (1900)  67x6.  The  town  has  a  large 
transit  trade  in  wine,  mineral  waters  and  live  stock,  especially 
pigs.  The  administrative  district  of  Villa  Real  corresponds 
with  the  western  part  of  the  ancient  province  of  Traz  os  Montes 
{g.v.).  Pop.  (X9C0)  243,x96;  area,  1650  sq.  m.  There  are 
elkaline  waters  and  baths  at  Vidago  (near  Chaves)  and  at 
Pedras  Salgadas  (near  Villa  Pouca  d'Aguiar).  The  district 
adjacent  to  the  Douro  is  known  as  the  Paii  do  vinhot  or  "  wine 


country  '*;  here  are  the  vineyards  from  which  "  port "  wine  is 
manufactiued. 

VILLARET  DB  J0TEU8B,  LOUIS  THOHAS  (X750-X812), 
French  admiral,  was  bom  at  Auch,  of  a  noble  family  of  Lan- 
guedoc.  He  was  originally  destined  for  the  church,  but  served 
for  some  time  in  the  royal  guard,  which  he  had  to  leave  at 
the  age  of  sixteen  after  killing  one  of  his  comrades  in  a  duel. 
He  then  entered  the  navy,  and  in  1773  was  lieutenant  on  the 
**  Atalante  "  in  Indian  waters.  In  1778  he  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  siege  of  Pondicherry,  and  was  promoted  captaiiL  He 
afterwards  served  under  Suffren,  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Cuddalore,  and  in  1781  was  taken  prisoner  after  a  fierce 
encounter  with  an  English  vessel  He  was  released  in  X783, 
and,  unlike  the  majority  of  naval  officers,  did  not  emigrate 
during  the  Revolution.  In  X79X  he  was  in  <:ommand  of  the 
**  Prudente  "  in  the  waters  of  San  Domingo,  and  in  1794  was 
^ypointed  rear-admiral  and  assisted  the  Conventional,  St 
Andre,  in  the  reorganization  of  the  fleet.  Villaret  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  French  fleet  at  the  battle  of  the  First  of  June.  He 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Council  of  the  Ancients  in  1796, 
and  was  sentenced  to  deportation  in  the  following  year  on  ac- 
count of  his  royalist  sympathies.  He  escaped  arrest,  however, 
and  until  the  Consulate  lived  in  obscurity  at  016ron.  In  1801 
he  commanded  the  squadron  which  transported  the  French 
army  to  San  Domingo,  and  the  following  year  was  made  captain- 
general  of  Martinique,  which  he  surrendered  to  the  Englidi  in 
1809  after  a  brave  defence.  In  x8xi,  after  some  hesitation  on 
the  part  of  Napoleon,  Villaret  was  rewarded  for  his  services  with 
the  command  of  a  military  division  and  the  post  of  governor- 
general  of  Venice.    He  died  at  Venice. 

VILURI,  PASQUALB  (1827-  ),  Italian  historian  and 
statesman,  was  bom  at  Naples  on  the  3rd  of  October  1827. 
He  studied  together  with  Luigi  la  Vista  under  Francesco  de 
Sanctis.  He  was  implicated  in  the  riots  of  the  x  5th  of  May  1 848 
•t  Naples,  against  tJie  Bouzboa  goverxwient,  and  had  to  take 


refuge  in  Florence.    There  he  devoted  himself  to 
and  historical  research  in  the  public  libraries,  and  in    ZS59  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  Storta  di  Cirolamo   Savtne^- 
roia  e  d^  suoi  tempi,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  appoinLni 
professor  of  history  at  Pisa.    A  second  volume  appesured   ia 
x86r,  and  the  work,  which  soon  came  to  be 
Italian  Clasac,  was  transbitcd  into  various  foreign 
It  was  followed  by  a  work  of  even  greater  critical    value, 
Niccold  Mackundli  e  i  suoi  tempi  (X877-82).    In  the    nseaxi- 
whde  Villari  had  left  Pisa  and  was  ttvnsferred  to  the  diali 
of  philosophy  of  history  at  the  Institute  of  Studii  Superiori  in 
Florence,  and  he  was  also  appointed  a  member  of  the  council 
of  education  (1862).    He  served  as  a  juror  at  the  intematiooal 
exhibition  of  that  year  in  London,  and  contributed  an  iniTioitant 
monograph  on  education  in  England  and  Scotland.     In   186^ 
he  was  appointed  under-secrctary  of  state  for  education,  and 
shortly  afterwards  was  elected  member  of  parliament,  a  poaiUoo 
which  he  held  for  several  years.    In  X884  he  was  nominated 
senator,  and  in  1891-92  he  was  minister  of  educaticm  in  the 
Marchese  di  Rudinl's  first  cabinet.    In  1893-94  he  <x)llected  a 
number  of  essays  on  Florentine  history,  originally  published  in 
the  Nuava  Antologia,  under  the  title  of  /  primi  due  secoli  i^Ua 
storia  di  Pirenu,  and  in  1901  he  produced  Le  Imasioni  bar- 
bariche  in  Italia,  a  popular  account  in  one  volume  of  the  evenu 
following  the  dissolution  of  the  Roman  empire.    All   these 
works  have  been  translated  into  English  by  the  histoiian's 
wife,  Linda  White  ViUarL    Another  side  of  Villari's  activity 
was  his  interest  in  the  political  and  social  problems  of    the 
day;  and  although  never  identified  with  any  political  party, 
his  speeches  and  writings  have  always  commanded  considerable 
public  attention. 

Among  his  other  literary  works  may  be  mentioned:  Sam 
Cniici  (1868);  Arte,  Storia.  e  Filosofia  OFIorence,  1884):  ScnUi 
varit  (Bolc^na,  1894);  another  volume  of  Saggi  Critici  (Bologna, 
1896):  and  a  volume  of  Discussioni  criliche  e  discorsi  (Bolosna, 
190^),  containing  his  speeches  as  president  of  the  Dante  Alighieri 
SocieC)r.  His  most  important  pohtical  and  social  essa]^  are  col- 
lected in  his  Letiere  Mendionali  ed  altri  scriUi  suUa  fuestione  sociaU 
in  Italia  (Turin,  1885),  and  Scritti  sutta  guestione  sociaU  in  Italia 
(Florence,  1902).  The  Lettere  Meriddonali  (originally  published  in  the 
newspaper  VOpinione  in  1875)  produced  a  deep  impression,  as  tb^ 
were  the  first  ex]x»ure  of  the  real  conditions  of  southern  Italy.  A 
selection  of  Villari's  essays,  translated  by  his  wife,  has  been  published 
in  England  (1907). 

See  also  Francesco  Baldasseroni,  Pasguaie  ViOari  (Florence,  1907;. 

VILLA  RICA,  the  largest  city  in  the  interior  of  Paraguay, 
on  the  railway  from  Asuncion  (70  m.  N.W.)  to  Encamadon. 
Pop.  (1910)  about  25,000.  Situated  In  a  rich  agricultural 
region  watered  by  the  upper  Tepicuary,  with  finely  timbered 
mountains  extending  to  the  £.  and  W.,  Villa  Rica  has  an  im- 
portant trade  in  tobacco  and  yerha  fnaU.  It  is  to  a  great 
extent  modem,  and  contains  some  fine  buildings,  including  a 
national  college,  a  church,  many  schools,  and  a  branch  of  the 
Agricultural  Bank. 

VILLARRBAL,  a  town  of  eastern  Spain,  in  the  provmce  of 
CastelI6n  de  la  Plana;  4  m.  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  near 
the  right  bank  of  the  river  Mijares,  and  on  the  Barcelona- 
Valencia  railway.  Pop.  (1900)  x6,o68.  ViQarrcal  has  a 
station  on  the  light  railway  between  Onda  and  the  seaports 
of  Ca8tell6n  de  la  Plana  and  Burriana.  Under  Moorish  rule, 
and  up  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Moriscoes  in  1609,  it  was  the 
headquarters  of  a  flourishing  trade,  and  in  modern  times  its 
industries  have  revived.  Palm-groves,  churches  with  blue- 
tiled  cupolas,  and  houses  with  fiat  roofs  and  view^urrets 
(miradores)  to  some  extent  preserve  the  Moorish  character 
of  the  town.  There  are  extensive  orange-groves,  watered 
by  the  irrigation  canal  of  CasteI16n,  whidi  is  a  good  example 
of  Moorish  engineering  skill.  The  local  mdustries  indude 
manufactures  of  paper,  woollen  goods  and  spirits. 

VILLARS,  CLAUDE  LOUIS  RECTOR  DB,  Prince  dx  Mar- 

TIGNES,  MAKQmS  AND  DUC  DE  ViLLARS  AND  ViCOUTE  DE  MeLUN 

(X653-1734),  marshal  of  France,  one  of  the  greatest  generab 
of  French  history,  was  bom  at  MouUns  on  the  8th  of  May  1653, 
and  entered  the  army  through  the  corps  of  pages  m  1671.   H« 


VILLAVICIOSA— VILLEGAS 


77 


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«rved  in  the  light  cavalry  (n  the  Dutch  wan,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  daiing  and  resourcefulness.  But  in  spite  of  a 
long  record  of  ezeeUent  service  under  Tursnne,  Cond£  and 
Luxembourg,  and  of  lijs  aristocratic  birth,  liis  promotion  was 
but  slow,  for  he  had  mcuned  the  enmity  of  the  powerful  Louvdis, 
and  although  be  had  been  proprietary  colonel  (mestre  de  uunp) 
of  a  cavalcy  regiment  smce  1674,  thirteen  years  dapsed 
before  he  was  made  a  marichal  de  camp  In  the  interval  bo* 
tween  the  Dutch  wars  and  the  formation  of  the  League  o£  Augs- 
burg, Villars,  who  oombmed  with  his  mihtary  gifts  the  tact 
and  subtlety  of  the  diplomatist,  was  emi^yed  in  an  nnoffirial 
mission  to  the  court  of  Bavaria,  and  there  became  the  constant 
companion  of  the  dector,  with  whom  he  took  the  field  against 
the  Turks  and  fought  at  Mohacs.  He  returned  to  France  in 
1690  and  was  given  a  command  in  the  cavalry  of  the  army  m 
Flanders,  but  towards  the  end  of  the  Grand  AUianoe  War  he 
went  to  Vienna  as  ambassador  His  part  m  the  next  war 
(see  Spanish  Succession  Wak),  beginmng  with  Friedlingen 
<Z702)  and  Hdchstett  (1703)  and  ending  with  Denam  (1712), 
has  made  him  immortaL  For  FriedUngen  he  received  the 
marshalate,  and  for  the  pacification  of  the  msurgent  C^vennes 
the  Ssint-Esprit  order  and  the  title  of  duke  FriedUngen  and 
HCchstett  were  barren  victories,  and  the  campaigns  of  which 
they  formed  part  records  of  lost  opportunities.  Villais's  glory 
thus  begins  with  the  year  1709  when  France,  apparently  help- 
less, was  roused  to  a  great  effort  of  self-defence  by  the  exorbi- 
tant demands  of  the  Coahtion.  In  that  year  he  was  called  to 
command  the  main  army  opposing  Eugene  and  Marlborough 
on  the  northern  frontier  During  tiie  famine  of  the  winter  he 
shared  the  soldiers'  miserable  rations.  When  the  campaign 
opened  the  old  Marshal  Boufflers  volunteered  to  serve  under 
him,  and  after  the  terrible  battle  of  Malplaquet  (9.V ),  m  which 
be  was  gravely  wounded,  he  was  able  to  tell  the  king.  "  If 
it  please  God  to  give  your  majesty's  enemies  another  such 
victory,  they  are  ruined  "  Two  more  campaigns  passed  without  a 
battle  and  with  scarcely  any  advance  on  the  part  of  the  invaders, 
but  at  last  Marlborough  manceuvied  Villam  out  of  the  famous 
Ne  pUts  uUra  lines,  and  the  power  of  the  defence  seemed  to  be 
broken.  But  Louis  made  a  last  effort,  the  English  contingent 
and  its  great  leader  were  withdrawn  ixom  the  enemy's  camp, 
and  Villars,  though  still  suffering  from  his  Malplaquet  wounds, 
outmanceuvred  and  dedsivdy  defeated  Eugene  in  the  battle 
of  Denain.  This  victory  saved  France,  though  the  war  dragged 
on  for  another  year  on  the  Rhine,  where  VUlars  took  Landau, 
led  the  stormexs  at  Freiburg  and  negotiated  the  peace  of  Rastatt 
with  Prince  Eugene. 

He  played  a  conspiciwus  part  in  thepolitics  of  the  Regency 
period  as  the  princ^Mtl  opponent  of  Cardmal  Dubois,  and  only 
the  memories  of  Montmorency's  rebellion  prevented  his  being 
made  constable  of  France.  He  took  the  field  for  the  last  time 
in  the  War  of  the  Polish  Succession  (1734),  with  the  title 
**  maishal-gwieral  of  the  king's  armies,"  that  Turenne  alone 
had  held  before  him.  But  he  was  now  over  eighty  years  of 
age,  and  the  war  was  more  diplomatic  than  earnest,  and  after 
^(q)ening  the  campaign  with  all  the  fire  and  restless  energy  of 
his  youth  he  died  at  Turin  on  the  17th  of  June  X734. 

Vniars's  memoirs  show  us  a  "fanfaron  plein  d'honneur," 
as  Voltaire  calls  him.  He  was  indeed  boastful,  with  the  gas- 
conading habit  of  his  native  province,  and  also  covetous  of 
honours  and  wealth.  But  he  was  an  honourable  man  of  high 
courage,  moral  and  physical,  and  a  soldier  who  stands  above 
all  his  contemporaries  and  successors  in  the  x8th  century,  on 
the  same  height  as  Marlborough  and  Frederick. 

The  memoirs,  part  of  whidi  waa  published  in  1734  and  afterwards 
several  times  republished  in  untrustworthy  versions,  were  for  the 
fnt  time  completely  edited  by  the  Marquis  de  Vogu6  in  1884-98. 

VILLAVICIOSAt  a  seaport  of  northern  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Oviedo;  on  the  Ria  de  ViUaviciosa,  an  estuary  formed  by  the 
small  river  ViOaviciosa  which  here  enters  the  Bay  of  Biscay 
Pop.  (1900)  20,995.  The  town  Is  the  headquarters  of  a  Urge 
fishery,  and  has  some  coasting  trade.  Its  exports  are  chiefly 
agricultural  produce.   ViUavkiMa  soffers  from  the  oompetition 

xxvis  2* 


of  the  neighbouring  ports  of  Gij6n  and  Avi]^,  and  from  the  lack 
of  railway  communication.  It*is  connected  by  good  roads  with 
Siero  (13  m )  and  Infiesto  (9  m.)  on  the  Oviedo-Infiesto  railway- 

VILLBFRAMCHB-DB-ROUBRQUE,  a  town  of  France,  capital 
of  an  airondissement  in  the  department  of  Avcyron,  36  m.  W 
of  Rodes  by  road.  Pop  (1906)  town,  6297,  commune,  3359. 
Villefranche,  which  has  a  station  on  the  Orieans  railway,  Uet 
amongst  the  hills  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aveyron  at  its  junction 
with  the  Alsou  One  of  the  three  bridges  that  cross  the  river 
belongs  to  the  13th  century,  and  the  straight,  narrow  streets  are 
full  of  gabled  houses  of  the  13th  and  X4th  centuries  One  of  the 
pnncipal  thoroughfares  passes  beneath  the  porch  of  Notre-DamOi 
the  principal  church  of  Villefranche.  Notre-Dame  was  built 
from  L2^  to  1581',  the  massive  tower  which  surmounts  its 
porch  being  of  late  Gothic  architecture.  The  remarkable  wood- 
work in  the  choir  dates  from  the  xsth  century  A  Carthusian 
monastery  overlookmg  the  town  from  the  left  bank  of  the 
Aveyron  derives  much  mterest  from  the  completeness  and 
fine  preservation  of  its  buildings,  which  date  from  the  xsth 
century  They  include  a  fine  refectory  and  two  cloisters,  the 
smaller  of  which  is  a  masterpiece  of  the  late  Gothic  style.  The 
manufacturo  of  leather,  animal-traps,  hosiery,  bell-founding, 
hemp-spinxiing,  &c.,  axe  carried  on.  Quarries  of  phosf^tes 
and  mines  of  argenUferous  lead  are  worked  near  Villefranche 

Villefrukche,  founded  about  1252,  owes  its  name  to  the 
numerous  immunities  granted  by  its  founder  Alphonse,  count 
of  Toulouse  (d.  1271),  and  in  1348  it  was  so  flourishing  that 
sumptuary  laws  were  {Mssed.  Soon  afterwards  the  town  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Edward,  the  Black  Prince,  but  was  the  fint 
place  in  Guienne  to  rise  against  the  English.  New  privileges 
were  granted  to  the  town  by  King  Charles  V ,  but  these  were 
taken  away  by  Louis  XI  In  X588  the  inhabitants  repulsed  the 
forces  of  the  League,  and  afterwards  murdered  a  governor  sent  by 
Henry  IV.  The  town  was  ravaged  by  plague  in  1463, 1558  and 
1628,  and  in  1643  a  revolt,  excited  by  the  exactions  of  the 
wlendantSt  was  cruelly  repressed. 

VIUBFRANCHB-SUR-SAOnB,  a  manufacturing  town  of  east- 
central  France,  capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department 
of  Rh^e,  on  the  Morgon  near  its  junction  with  the  SaAne,  21  m. 
N  by  W.  of  Lyons  by  raiL  Pop  (1906)  14,794.  Among  its 
Industries  the  chief  are  the  manufacture  of  working  clothes,  the 
manufacture,  dyeing  and  finishing  of  cotton  fabrics,  the  ginning 
of  cotton  thrcaui,  copper  founding  and  the  manufacture  of 
machinery  and  agricultural  implements.  The  wines  of  Beau- 
jolais,  hemp,  doth,  linen,  cottons,  drapery  goods  and  cattle 
are  the  principal  artides  of  trade.  An  old  Renaissance  house  is 
used  as  the  town  hall.  The  church  of  Notre-Dame  des  Marais, 
begun  at  the  end  of  the  X4th  and  finished  in  the  x6th  century, 
has  a  tower  and  spire  (rebuilt  in  1862),  standing  to  the  right  of 
the  facade  (xsth  century),  in  which  are  carved  wooden  doors. 
Villefranche  is  the  seat  of  a  sub-prefect  and  has  tribunals  of  first 
instance  and  of  conunerce,  a  chamber  of  commerce  and  a  com- 
munal college  among  its  public  institutions. 

Founded  in  12x2  by  Guichard  IVc  coimt  of  Beaujeu,  Ville- 
franche became  in  the  X4th  century  capital  of  the  BeaujoUfs. 
As  a  punishment  for  an  act  of  violence  towards  the  mayor's 
daughter,  Edward  II.  was  forced  to  surrender  the  Beaujolids  to 
the  duke  of  Bourbon. 

VILLE0A8,  ESTEBAN  MANUEL  DE  (x  58^x669),  Spanish 
poet,  was  bom  at  Matute  (Logrofio)  on  the  sth  of  February  is39, 
matriculated  at  Salamanca  on  the  20th  of  November  x6xo,  and 
challenged  attention  by  the  mingled  arrogance  and  accomplish- 
ment of  Las  Erdticas  (16x7),  a  collection  of  clever  translations 
from  Horace  and  Anacreon,  and  of  original  poems,  the  charip  of 
which  is  marred  by  the  writer's  petulant  vanity  Marrying 
in  X626  or  earlier,  Villegas  practised  law  at  N&jwa  Ull  1639,  when 
he  was  charged  with  expressing  unorthodox  views  on  the 
subject  of  free  will;  he  was  exiled  for  four  years  to  Santa  Maria 
de  Ribaredonda,  but  was  allowed  to  return  for  three  months 
to  N&jera  in  Maixh  x66o.  It  seems  probable  that  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  was  remitted,  for  the  report  of  the  local  inquisition  lays 
stress  on  ViUeffss's  simple  piety,  on  the  extravagance  of  his  attire. 


78 


VILLEHARDOUIN 


ridicototis  In  a  man  of  his  age,  and  on  the  eccentricity  of  his 
general  conduct  and  coDvenation,  so  marked  as  to  suggest  "  a 
kind  of  mania  or  lesion  of  the  miagination."  In  his  version  of 
Boetius  (1665),  Villegas  showed  that  he  had  profited  by  his 
experience,  for  he  maide  no  attempt  to  translate  the  last  book 
(in  which  the  problem  of  free  will  is  discussed),  and  reprmted 
the  Latin  text  without  comment.  He  died  at  N&jera  on  the  3rd 
of  September  1669.  His  tragedy  El  Hipdlito,  uniiaitd  from 
Euripides,  and  a  series  of  critical  dissertations  entitled  Vanat 
Phdciapae^  finished  in  i65o»  are  unpublished,  and  *'  a  book  of 
satires,"  found  among  his  papers  by  the  inquisitois,  was  con- 
fiscated. 

VIUfiHABOOmir,  OBOFFROT  DB  {c.  IX60-C.  tai3).  the 
first  vernacular  historian  of  France,  and  perhaps  of  modem 
Europe,  who  possesses  literary  merit,  Is  rather  supposed  than 
known  to  have  been  bom  at  the  ch&teau  from  which  he  took 
his  name,  near  Tro3res,  in  Champa^e,  about  the  year  ti6a 
Hot  merdy  his  literary  and  historical  unpmtance,  but  almost  all 
that  is  known  about  him,  comes  from  his  chronicle  of  the  fourth 
crusade,  or  Ctmquite  de  ConstonlinopU.  Nothing  is  positively 
known  of  his  ancestry,  for  the  supposition  (originating  with  Du 
Cange)  that  a  certam  William,  maishal  of  Champagne  between 
1x63  and  1 1 79,  was  his  father  appears  to  be  erroneous.  Ville- 
hardottin  himself,  however,  undoubtedly  held  this  digm'ty.  and 
certain  minute  and  perhaps  not  very  trustworthy  indications, 
chiefly  of  an  heraldic  character,  have  led  his  most  recent  bio- 
graphers to  lay  it  down  that  he  was  not  bom  earh'er  than  1150 
or  later  than  1164.  He  introduces  himself  to  us  with  a  certain 
abruptness,  merely  specifying  his  own  name  as  one  of  a  list  of 
km'ghts  of  Champagne  who  with  their  count,  Thibault,  took 
the  cross  at  a  tournament  held  at  Escry-sur-Aisne  in  Advent 
X199,  the  crusade  in  contemplation  having  been  started  by  the 
preaching  of  Fulk  de  Neuiily,  who  was  commissioned  thereto  by 
Pope  Innocent  III  The  next  year  six  deputies,  two  appointed 
by  each  of  the  three  aUied  counts  of  Flanders,  Champagne  and 
Blois,  were  despatched  to  Venice  to  negotiate  for  ships  Of 
these  deputies  Villehardouin  was  one  and  Quesnes  de  B^thune, 
the  poet,  another.  They  concluded  a  bargain  with  the  seigniory 
for  transport  and  provisions  at  a  fixed  price.  Villehardouin 
had  hardly  returned  when  Thibault  fell  ack  and  died,  but  this 
did  not  prevent,  though  it  somewhat  delasFod,  the  enterprise  of 
the  crusaders.  The  management  of  that  enterprise,  however, 
Was  a  difficult  one,  and  cost  Villehardouin  another  embassy  into 
Italy  to  prevent  if  possible  some  d  his  fe]low«pilgrims  from 
breaking  the  treaty  with  the  Venetians  by  embarking  at  other 
ports  and  employing  other  convoy.  He  was  only  in  part  suc- 
cessful, and  there  was  great  difficulty  in  lai^ng  the  charter- 
money  among  those  who  had  actually  assembled  (in  1202)  at 
Venice,  the  sum  collected  falling  far  short  of  the  stipulated 
amount.  It  is  necessary  to  remember  this  when  the  somewhat 
erratic  and  irregular  character  of  the  operations  which  foUowed 
is  judged.  The  defence  that  the  crusaders  were  bound  to  pay 
their  passage-money  to  the  Holy  Land,  in  one  form  or  other,  to 
the  Venetians,  is  perhaps  a  weak  one  in  any  case  for  the  attack 
on  two  Christian  cities,  2^ara  and  Constantinople;  it  becomes 
weaker  still  when  it  is  found  that  the  expedition  never  went  or 
attempted  to  go  to  the  Holy  Land  at  all.  But  the  desire  to 
discharge  obli^tions  incurred  is  no  doubt  respectable  in  itself, 
and  Villehardomn,  as  one  of  the  actual  negotiators  of  the 
bargain,  must  have  felt  it  with  peculiar  strength. 

The  crusaders  set  sail  at  last,  and  Zara,  which  the  Venetians 
coveted,  was  taken  without  much  trouble.  The  question  then 
arose  whither  the  host  should  go  next.  Villehardouin  does  not 
ten  us  of  any  direct  part  taken  by  himself  in  the  debates  on  the 
question  of  interfering  or  not  in  the  disputed  succession  to  the 
empire  of  the  East—debates  in  which  the  chief  ecclesiastics 
present  strongly  protested  against  the  diversion  of  the  enterprise 
from  its  proper  goal.  It  is  quite  clear,  however,  that  the  mar- 
shal of  Champagne,  who  was  one  of  the  leaders  and  inner 
counsellors  of  the  expedition  throughout,  sympathised  with  the 
majority,  and  it  is  fair  to  point  out  that  the  temptation  of 
chivalrous  adv^ture  was  probably  as  great  as  that  of  gain. 


He  nanatcs  spiritedly  enough  the  ^*ftfnslf>*if  and 
in  the  wmter  camp  of  Zara  and  at  Corfu,  bat  is  evidently  macfa 
more  at  ease  when  the  voyage  was  again  resumed,  and,  after  • 
fair  passage  round  Greece,   the  crusaders  at  last  saw  beforo 
them  the  great  dty  of  Constantinople  which  they  hail  it  4n 
nund  to  attack.    When  the  assault  was  dedded  upon,  Ville- 
hardouin himself  was  in  the  fifth  "  battle,*'  the  leader  of  whidi 
was  Mathieu  de  Montmorency.    But,  though  his  aoooimt  of  the 
siege  is'  full  of  personal  touches,  and  contains  one  refetenca  to 
the  number  of  witnesses  whose  testimony  he  took  for  a  certain 
wonderful  fact,  he  does  not  tell  us  anything  of  his  own  prowess. 
After  the  flight  of  the  usurper  Alexius,  and  when  the  blind 
Isaac,  whose  claims  the  cnisaden  were  defending,  had  been 
taken  by  the  Greeks  from  prison  and  placed  on  the  throne, 
Villehardouin,  with  Montmorency  and  two  Venetians,  formed 
the  embassy  sent  to  arrange  terms.    He  was  again  similarly 
distinguished  when  it  became  necessary  to  remonstrate  with 
Alexius,  the  blind  man's  son  and  virtual  successor,  on  the  non- 
keeping  of  the  terms.     Indeed  Villehardouin's  talents  as  a 
d4}lomatist  seem  to  have  been  held  in  very  hi^  esteem,  for 
later,  when  the  Latin  empire  had  become  a  fact,  he  was  chained 
with  the  delicate  bushiess  of  mediating  between  the  emperor 
Baldwin  and  Boniface,  marquis  of  Montferrat,  in  which  task 
he  had  at  least  partial  success.    He  was  also  appointed  maishal 
of  "Romame" — a  term  very  vaguely  used,  but  ^parcntly 
signifying  the  mainland  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  while  hi 
nephew  and  namesake,  afterwards  prince  of  Achaia,  took  a 
great  part  in  the  Latin  conquest  of  Peloponnesus.   Villehardomn 
himself  before  long  received  an  important  command  against 
the  Bulgarians.   He  was  left  to  maintain  the  siege  of  Adrianc^e 
when  Baldwin  advanced  to  attack  the  relieving  force,  and 
with  Dandolo  had  much  to  do  in  saving  the  defeated  crusadcn 
from  Qtter  destruction,  and  conducting  the  retreat,  in  which 
he  commanded  the  rearguard,  and  brought  his  troops  in  safety 
to  the  sea  of  Rodosto,  and  thence  to  the  capital.   As  he  occupied 
the  post  of  honour  in  this  disaster,  so  he  had  that  (the  command 
of  die  vanguard)  in  the  expedition  which  the  regent  Henry 
made  shortly  aftowards  to  revenge  his  brother  Baldwin's 
defeat  and  capture     And,  when  Henry  had  succeeded  to  the 
crown  on  the  announcement  of  Baldwin's  death,  it  was  ViUe- 
hardoum  who  fetched  home  his  bride  Agnes  of  Montferrat, 
and  shortly  afterwards  commanded  under  him    in  a  naval 
battle  with  the  ships  of  Theodore  Lasauis  at  the  fortress  of 
Cibotus.    In  the  settlement  of  the  Latin  empire  after  the  truce 
with  Lascaris,  Villehardouin  received  the  fief  of  Messinople 
(supposed  to  be  Mosynopolis,  a  little  inland  from  the  modem 
Gulf  of  Lagos,  and  not  far  from  the  ancient  Abdera)  from 
Boniface  of  Montferrat,  with  the  record  of  whose  death  the 
chronicle  abraptly  doses. 

In  the  foregoing  account  only  those  particulars  which  bear 
directly  on  Vuldiardouin  himsell  have  been  detailed;  but  the 
chronicle  is  as  far  as  possible  from  being  an  aatobiaaraphy,  and 
the  displays  of  the  writer's  personality,  numerous  as  tney  are,  ar« 
quite  involuntary,  and  consist  merely  in  his  vrzy  of  handling  the 
subject,  not  in  the  references  (as  briel  as  his  functions  as  chronicler 
will  admit)  to  his  own  proceedings.  The  chronicle  of  Villehardouin 
is  Justly  held  to  be  the  very  best  presentation  we  possess  of  the 
spirit  Of  chivalry^— not  the  designedly  exalted  and  poetized  chivalry 
of  the  romances,  not  the  self-conscious  and  deliberate  chivalry  of 
the  14th  century,  but  the  unsophisticated  mode  of  thinldng  and 
acting  ipi^ich  brought  about  the  crusades,  stimulated  the  vast 
literary  development  of  the  12th  and  X3th  centuries,  and  sent 
knights-errant,,  prindpally  though  not  wholly  of  French  blood,  to 
establish  principalities  and  kingdoms  throughout  Europe  and  the 
nearer  £1^.  On  the  whole,  no  doubt,  it  is  the  more  masculine 
and  practical  side  of  this  enthusiastic  state  of  mind  which  Ville* 
hardouin  shows.  No  woman  makes  any  but  the  briefest  appear- 
ance in  his  pages,  though  in  reference  to  this  it  must  of  course  b^ 
remembered  that  he  was  certainly  a  roan  past  middle  life  when  tho 
events  occurred,  and  perhaps  a  man  approaching  old  age  when  be 
set  them  down.  Despite  the  strong  and  graphic  touchciB  here  and 
there,  exhibiting  the  impression  which  the  beauty  of  i»a  and  land, 
the  splendour  of  Constantinople,  the  ^magnitude  of  the  effete  but 
still  imposing  Greek  power,  made  on  him,  there  is  not  only  an  entire 
absence  of  dilation  on  such  subjects  as  a  modem  wonld  hav« 
dilated  on  (that  was  to  be  expected),  but  an  abwnce  likewise  of  tbt 
elabomite  and  painful  deacriptkm  of  detail  in  which  contempoc»iy 


VILLELE 


79 


tr^mhts  would  have  indulged.  It  is  (nirioua,  for  inataiice»  to 
compare  the  scanty  references  to  the  material  marvels  of  Constan- 
tiaople  which  ViUehardouin  saw  in  their  giory,  wkiich  perislied  by 
9mdk  and  fire  onder  his  vety  eyas,  and  wiuch  live  chiefly  in  the 
melancholy  pages  of  his  Greek  contemporary  Nicetas,  with  the 
t^borate  descnptions  of  the  scarcely  greater  wonder»  of  fabulous 
courts  at  Constantinople  Itself,  at  Babylon,  and  elsewhere,  to  be 
found  in  his  other  contemporaries,  the  later  ckans^m  de  guu  writen 
ud  the  earlier  embroiderers  of  the  Arthurian  rooianoea  and  nmans 
d'avtntures.  And  this  later  contrast  is  all  the  more  striking  that 
Vniehardouin  agrees  with,  and  not  impossibly  borrows  from,  these 
\try  writers  in  many  points  of  style  and  phraseology.  The  brief 
chapters  of  his  work  have  been  justly  compared  to  the  laissts  or 
tiradeM  of  a  chanson  in  what  may  be  called  the  vigaettiog  of  the 
subject  of  each,  in  the  absence  of  any  attempt  to  run  on  the  narra- 
tive, in  the  stock  forms,  and  in  the  poeticah  rather  than  prosaic 
word-order  of  the  sentences.  Undoubtedly  this  half-poetic  style 
{animated  as  it  is  and  redeemed  from  any  chaise  of  bastardy  by  the 
freshness  and  viirour  which  petvade  it)  adds  not  a  Uttle  to  the 
charm  of  the  book.  Its  succession  of  word  pictures,  conventional 
and  ^et  vigorous  as  the  illuminations  of  a  medieval  manuscript, 
and  m  their  very  conventionality  free  from  alt  thought  of  literary 
presentation,  must  charm  all  readers.  The  sober  lists  of  names 
with  which  it  opens;  the  account  of  the  embassy,  so  business-like 
in  its  estimates  of  costs  and  terms,  and  suddenly  breaking  into 
a  fervent  description  of  how  the  six  deputies,  "  prostrating  them- 
selves on  the  earth  and  weeping  warm  tears,  begged  the  doge  and 
people  of  Venice  to  have  pity  on  Jerusalem  " ;  the  story  immediately 
following,  how  the  young  count  Thibault  of  Champagne,  raising 
himself  Tn>m  a  skkbed  in  his  joy  at  the  successful  return  of  his 
ambassadors,  "  leva  sus  et  chevaucha,  et  lazl  com  giant  domages, 
tar  onques  truis  ne  chevaucha  oue  cele  foia,"  coro(>ose  a  most  striking 
overtuje.  Then  the  history  rdapses  into  the  business  vein  and  tells 
of  the  debates  which  took  place  as  to  the  best  means  of  carrying 
out  the  vow  after  the  count's  decease,  the  rendezvous,  too  ill  kept 
at  Venice,  the  plausible  suggestion  of  the  Venetians  that  the  balance 
due  to  them  should  be  made  up  by  a  joint  attack  on  their  enemy, 
the  king  of  Hungary.  ViUehardouin  does  not  in  the  least  oonccal 
the  fact  that  the  pope  ("  I'apostoiUes  de  Rome,"  as  he  calls  him, 
in  the  very  phrase  of  the  cbonsons)  was  very  angry  with  this: 
for  his  own  part  he  seems  to  think  of  little  or  nothing  but  the 
reparation  due  to  the  republic,  which  had  loyally  kept  its  bargain 
and  been  defrauded  c^  the  prKe,  of  the  infamy  of  Dteaking  company 
on  the  part  of  members  ot  a  joint  association,  and  perhape  oi  the 
unknightliness  of  not  taking  up  an  adventure  whenever  it  presents 
Itself.  For  here  again  the  restoration  of  the  disinherited  prince  of 
Constantinople  supplied  an  excuse  quite  as  plausible  as  the  liquida- 
tion of  the  debt  to  Venice.  A  famous  passage,  and  one  short  enough 
to  quote,  is  that  describing  the  old  blind  doge  Dandolo.  who  had 
"  Grant  ochoison  de  remanoir  (reason  for  staying  at  home),  car  vieL» 
horn  ere,  et  si  avoit  les  yaulx  en  la  teste  biaus  et  n'cn  v£oit  gote 
(goutte),"  and  yet  was  the  foremost  in  fight. 

It  would  be  out  of  place  to  attempt  any  forther  analyns  of  the 
ConquiU  here.  But  it  is  not  impertinent,  and  is  at  the  same  time 
an  excuse  for  what  has  been  already  said,  to  repeat  that  Viliehar- 
douin's  book,  brief  as  it  is,  is  in  reality  one  of  tne  capital  books  of 
literature,  not  merely  for  its  merit,  out  because  it  is  the  most 
authentic  and  the  most  striking  embodiment  in  contemporary 
Ktereture  of  the  sentiments  which  determined  the  action  of  a  great 
and  important^  period  of  histoiv.  There  are  but  very  few  books 
Which  hold  this  position,  and  Villchardouln's  is  one  of  them.  If 
every  olher  contemporary  record  of  the  crusades  perished,  *•-  should 
still  be  able  by  aid  of  this  to  understand  and  realize  what  the 
mental  attitude  of  crusaders,  of  Teutonic  knights,  and  the  rest  was, 
and  without  this  we  should  lack  the  earliest,  the  most  undoubtedly 
^nuine.  and  the  most  characteristic  of  all  such  records.  The  very 
mconsistency  with  which  ViUehardouin  is  chargeable,  the  absence 
of  compunction  with  which  he  relates  the  changing  of  a  sacred 
religious  pilgrimage  into  something  by  no  means  unlike  a  mere 
filibustering  raid  on  the  great  scale,  ado  a  charm  to  the  book.  For, 
religious  as  it  is,  it  is  entirely  free  from  the  very  slightest  touch  of 
hypocrisy  or  indeed  of  self-consciousness  of  any  kind.  The  famous 
description  of  the  crusades,  gesta  Dei  per  Francos,  was  evidently  to 
ViUehardouin  a  plain  matter-of-fact  description,  and  it  no  more 
occurred  to  him  to  doubt  the  divine  favour  being  extended  to  the 
expeditions  against  Alexius  or  Theodore  than  to  doubt  that  it  was 
shown  to  expeditions  against  Saracens  and  Turks. 

The  person  of  VUlehardouin  reappeais  for  tis  once,  but  once 
Only,  in  the  chronicle  of  his  continuator,  Henri  de  Valendennes. 
Then  Is  a  great  gap  in  style,  though  none  in  subject,  between 
the  really  poetical  prose  of  the  first  historian  of  the  fifth  crusade 
and  the  Latin  empire  aud  the  awkward  mannerism  (so  awkward 
that  it  has  been  taken  to  represent  a  '*  disrhymed  "  verse 
chronicle)  of  his  follower  But  the  much  greater  length  at 
which  ViUehardouin  appears  on  this  one  occasion  shows  us  the 
restraint  which  he  must  have  exercised  in  the  passages  which 
4esl  with  himsdf  in  his  own  work.    He  again  led  the  vanguard 


in  the  emperor  Heniy's  expedition  aoinst  Bnrilaa  the  BwlgarUn, 
and  he  is  represented  by  the  Valenciennes  scribe  as  encouraging 
his  sovereign  to  the  attack  in  a  long  speech.  Tlien  he  disappears 
altogether,  with  the  exception  of  some  brief  and  chiefly  diplo- 
matic mentions.  Du  Cange  discovered  and  quoted  a  deed  of 
donation  by  him  dated  1207,  by  which  certain  properties  were 
devised  to  the  churches  of  Notre  Dame  de  Foissy  and  Notre 
Dame  de  Troyes,  with  the  reservation  of  fife  interests  to  his 
daughters  Alix  and  Damerones,  and  his  sisters  Emmcline  and 
Haye,  all  of  whom  appear  to  have  embraced  a  monastic  life. 
A  letter  addressed  from  the  East  to  Blanche  of  Champagne  is 
cited,  and  a  papal  record  of  lui  styles  him  still  "  marahal  of 
Romania. "  The  next  year  this  title  passed  to  bis  son  Erard; 
and  Z2X3  is  accordingly  given  as  the  date  of  his  death,  which, 
as  there  is  no  record  or  hint  of  his  having  returned  to  France, 
may  be  supposed  to  have  happened  at  Messinople,  where  also 
he  must  have  written  the  ConquUe. 

The  book  appears  to  have  been  known  in  the  ages  immediately 
succeeding  his  own;  and,  though  there  is  no  contemporary  manu- 
script in  existence,  there  are  some  half-docen  which  appear  to  date 
from  the  end  of  the  13th  or  the  contae  ci  the  14th  century,  while 
one  at  least  appeaxs  to  be  a  copy  made  from  his  own  work  m  that 
spirit  of  unintelligent  faithfulness  which  is  much  more  valuable 
to  posterity  than  more  pragmatical  editing.  The  first  printed 
edition  of  the  book,  by  a  certain  Blaise  de  Vieen^,  dates  from 
15SS,  is  dfrtirated  to  the  seignioiy  of  Venice  (ViUefaArdouin,  it  ahonkl 
be  said,  has  been  accused  of  a  rather  unfair  ptedilection  for  the 
Venetians),  and  speaks  of  either  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  memoirs 
as  having  been  printed  twelve  years  earlier.  Of  this  earlier  copy 
nothing  seems  to  be  known.  A  better  edition,  foundexl  on  a  Nether- 
landish MS.,  appeared  at  Lyons  in  itex.  But  both  these  wen 
completely  antiquated  by  the  great  edition  of  Du  Cange  in  1697, 
wherein  that  learned  writer  employed  aU  his  knowleoge,  never 
since  equalled,  of  the  subject,  but  added  a  translation,  or  rather 
paraphrase,  into  modem  French  vrhkh  is  scarcely  worthy  dither  of 
nimsdf  or  bis  author.  Dom  Brlal  gave  a  new  edition  from  different 
MS.  sources  in  1823,  and  the  book  figures  with  different  degrees  of 
dependence  on  Du  Cange  and  Brial  in  the  collections  of  Petitot. 
Buchon,  and  Michaud  and  Poujoulat.  AU  these,  however,  have 
been  superseded  for  the  modem  student  by  the  editions  of  Natalis  de 
Wailly  <i87a  and  1874),  in  which  the  text  is  critkaUy  edited  from 
aU  the  avaiUble  MSb.  and  a  new  translation  added,  while  there  is  a 
stiU  later  and  rather  handier  one  by  E.  Bouchet  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1891}, 
which,  however,  rests  mainly  on  N.  de  WaiUy  for  text.  The  charm 
of  Villehardouin  can  escape  no  reader;  but  few  readen  wiU  fail  to 
derive  some  additional  pleasure  from  the  two  essays  which  Sainte- 
Beove devoted  to  him^rnrinted  in  the  ninth  volume  of  the  Cowmsf 
du  lundu  See  also  A.  Deoidour,  Les  Chroniqucws  ( 1 888) .  There  are 
English  translations  by  T.  Smith  (1829),  and  (more  literally)  Sir 
F.  T.  Marzials  (Everyman's  Library,  i9oiB).  (G.  bA.) 

VILLiLB,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  GUILLAiniB  MARIE  ANNE 
S6rAPHIN,  Coute  de  (i 773-1854),  French  statesman,  was 
bom  at  Toulouse  on  th^  X4lh  of  April  1773  <^d  educated  for 
the  navy.  He  joined  the  "Bayonnaise"  at  Brest  in  July 
1788  and  served  in  the  West  and  East  Indies.  Arrested  in 
the  Isle  of  Bourbon  under  the  Terror,  he  was  set  free  by 
the  revolution  of  Thermidor  (July  1794).  He  acquired  some 
property  in  the  island,  and  married  in  I799  the  daughter 
of  a  great  proprietor,  M.  Desbassyns  de  Richemont,  whose 
estates  he  had  managed.  His  apprenticeship  to  politics  was 
served  in  the  Colonial  Assembly  of  Bourbon,  where  he  fought 
successfully  to  preserve  the  colony  from  the  consequences  of 
perpetual  interference  from  the  authorities  in  Paris,  and  on 
the  other  hand  to  prevent  local  discontent  from  appealing  to 
the  English  for  iMx>tection.  The  arrival  of  General  Decaen, 
sent  out  by  Bonaparte  in  1802,  restored  security  to  the  island, 
and  five  years  later  Villdle,  who  had  now  realized  a  large  fortune, 
returned  to  France.  He  was  mayor  of  his  commune,  and  a 
member  of  the  council  of  the  Haute-Garonne  under  the  Empire 
At  the  restoration  of  1814  he  at  once  declared  for  royalist 
principles.  He  was  mayor  of  Toulouse  in  18 14-15  and  deputy 
for  the  Haute-Garonne  in  the  "  Chambre  Introuvable  "  of  1815 
Villtie,  who  before  the  promulgation  of  the  charter  had  written 
some  Ohservatums  sur  le  projel  de  constitution  opposing  ft,  as 
too  democratic  in  character,  naturaUy  took  his  place  on  the 
extreme  right  with  the  ultra-royalists.  In  the  new  Chamber 
of  i8i6  Vill^c  found  his  party  in  a  minority,  but  his  personal 
authority  nevertheless  increased.     He  was  looked  on  by  the 


8o 


VILLEMAIN—VILLENA,  E.  DE 


xninisterialisto  as  the  least  Tinreasoiuible  of  hb  party,  and  by 
the  "ultras"  as  the  safest  of  their  leaders.  Under  the 
electoral  law  of  18x7  the  Abb6  Gr6goire,  who  was  popularly 
supposed  to  have  voted  for  the  death  of  I/niis  XVI.  in  the 
Convention,  was  admitted  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  The 
Conservative  party  gained  strength  from  the  alarm  raised  by 
this  incident  and  still  more  from  the  shock  caused  by  the 
assassination  of  the  due  de  BerrL  The  due  de  Richelieu  was 
compelled  to  admit  to  the  cabinet  two  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Left, 
Villile  and  Corbi^re.  Vill^le  resigned  within  a  year,  but  on 
the  fall  of  Richelieu  at  the  end  of  x8ai  be  became  the  real  chief 
of  the  new  cabinet,  in  which  he  was  minister  of  finance. 
Although  not  himself  a  courtier,  he  was- backed  at  court  by 
Sosthtoes  de  la  Rochefoucauld  and  Madame  du  Cayla,  and  in 
1822  Louis  XVnL  gave  him  the  title  of  count  and  made  him 
formally  prime  minister.  He  immediately  proceeded  to  muzzle 
opposition  by  stringent  press  laws,  and  the  discovery  of  minor 
liberal  conspiracies  afforded  an  excuse  for  further  repression. 
Forced  against  his  will  into  interference  in  Spain  by  Mathieu 
de  Montmorency  and  Chateaubriand,  be  contrived  to  rei^ 
some  cr^t  for  the  monarchy  from  Uie  succnsful  campaign 
of  1823.  Meanwhile  he  had  consolidated  the  royal  power  by 
persuading  Louis  XVIII.  to  swamp  the  liberal  majority  in 
the  upper  house  by  the  nomination  of  twenty-seven  new  peers; 
he  availed  himself  of  the  temporary  popularity  <rf  the  monarchy 
after  the  Spanish  campaign  to  summon  a  new  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  This  new  and  obedient  legislature,  to  which  only 
nineteen  liberals  were  returned,  made  itself  into  a  septennial 
parliament,  thus  providing  time,  it  was  thought,  to  restore 
some  part  of  the  ancien  rSgime.  Villdle's  plans  were  assisted 
by  the  death  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  the  accession  of  his  bigoted 
brother.  Prudent  finanrial  administration  since  18x5  had  made 
possible  the  conversion  of  the  state  bonds  from  5  to  4%.  It 
was  proposed  to  utiUze  the  money  set  free  by  this  operation 
to  indemnify  by  a  milliard  francs  the  endgris  for  the  loss  of  their 
lands  at  the  Revolution;  it  was  also  proposed  to  restore  their 
former  privileges  to  the  religious  congregations.  Both  these 
pit>positions  were,  with  some  restrictions,  secured.  Sacrilege 
was  made  a  crime  pimishable  by  death,  and  the  ministiy  were 
preparing  a  law  to  alter  the  law  of  equal  inheritance,  and  thus 
create  anew  the  great  estates.  These  measures  roused  violent 
opposition  in  the  country,  which  a  new  and  stringent  press 
law,  nicknamed  the  "  law  of  justice  and  love,"  failed  to  put 
down.  The  peers  rejected  the  law  0/  inheritance  and  the  press 
law;  it  was  foimd  necessary  to  disband  the  National  Guard; 
and  in  November  1827  sevcnty-dx  newpeers  were  created,  and 
recourse  was  had  to  a  general  election.  The  new  Chamber  proved 
hostile  to  Vill^e,  who  resigned  to  make  way  for  the  short-lived 
moderate  ministry  of  Martignac 

The  new  ministry  made  VillMe's  removal  to  the  upper  house 
a  condition  of  taking  office,  and  he  took  no  further  part  in 
public  affairs.  At  the  time  of  his  death,  on  the  X3tb  of  March 
X854,  he  had  advanced  as  far  as  x8i6  with  his  memoirs,  which 
were  completed  from  his  correspondence  by  his  family  as 
Mimoires  el  correspondance  du  comU  dt  VUiUe  (Paris,  5  vols*, 
1887-90). 

See  also  C.  de  Mazade,  VOpposition  royaliste  (Paris,  1804) ;  J.  G. 
Hyde  de  Neuville.  Notice  sur  le  comU  de  VillUe  (Paris,  1899);  and 
M.  Chotard,  "  L'CEuvrc  financi&ne  de  M.  de  Villde."  in  Annates  des 
sciences  politigues  (vol.  v.,  1890). 

VILLEMAIN,  ABEL  FRANCOIS  (X79&-X867),  French  poUtidan 
and  man  of  letters,  was  bom  m  Paris  on  the  gth  of  Jime  X79a 
He  was  educated  at  the  lycfo  Louis-Ie-Grand,  and  became 
assistant  master  at  the  lyc^  Charlemagne,  and  subsequently 
at  the  £cole  Normale.  In  181 2  he  gained  a  prize  from  the 
Academy  with  an  Hoge  on  Montaigne.  Under  the  restoration 
he  was  appointed,  first,  assistant  professor  of  modem  history, 
and  then  professor  of  French  eloquence  at  the  Sorbonne.  Here 
he  delivered  a  series  of  literary  lectures  which  bad  an  extra- 
ordinary effect  on  his  younger  contemporaries.  Villcmain  had 
the  great  advantage  of  coming  just  before  the  Romantic  move- 
ment, of  having  a  wide  and  catholic  love  of  literature  without 


being  an  extremist.    All,  or  almost  aS,  tbe  clever  youiif 
of  the  biiUiant  generation  of  1830  passed  under  bis  InfliMmfe; 
and,  while  he  pleased  the  Romanticists  by  his  frank  apprecia- 
tion of  the  beauties  of  English,  German,  Italian  and  Spanish 
poetry,  he  had  not  the  least  inclination  to  decry  the  daaaics— ~ 
either  the  daasics  proper  of  Greece  and  Rome  or  the  so-called 
classics  of  Fhmce.    In  1819  he  published  a  book  on  CromwMil, 
and  two  years  later  he  was  dected  to  the  Academy.     Ville- 
main  was  appointed  by  the  restoration  government  "  chef  de 
rimprimerie  et  de  la  libraixie,"  a  post  involving  a  kind  of 
irregular  censorship  of  the  press,  and  afterwards  to  the  office 
of  master  of  requests.    Before  tbe  revolution  of  July  he  had 
been  deprived  of  his  office  for  bis  liberal  tendencies,  and  had 
been  elected  deputy  for  £vieuz.    Under  Louis  PhiliK)e  he  re» 
ceived  a  peerage  in  1831.    He  was  a  member  of  tbe  ooixncil  of 
public  instmction,  and  was  twice  minister  of  that  department, 
and  he  also  became  secretary  of  the  Academy.    During  the 
whole  of  the  July  monarchy  he  was  thus  one  of  the  chief  dis- 
pensers of  literary  patronage  in  France,  but  in  his  later  yeais 
his  reputation  declined.    He  died  in  Paris  on  the  8th  of  May 
1867. 

Viltemain's  diief  work  Is  his  Canrs  de  to  UtUrahirefiranfaisie  (5  vois., 
1828-do).  Among  his  other  works  are:  TabteandelaUUtrahmt^ 
moyen  dgi  (2  vob.,  1846);  Tableau  de  la  UtUraiun  au  XVIII* 
sOde  (4  vols.,  1864);  Souvenirs  ecniemporaiiu  (2  vols.,  1856); 
Hisloire  de  Grigoire  VI I.  (a  vols..  1873;  Ene.  trans.,  187s). 

Among  notices  on  Villemain  may  be  cited  that  of  Louis  de  Lom^aie 
(1841),  E.  Mireoourt  (1858),  T.  L.  Dubut  (18:^5).  See  also  Sainte- 
Beuve,  Portraits  (184X,  vol.  ui.),  and  Qauertes  d»  lundi  (voL  3d. 
"  Notes  et  ptoaita  "). 

VILLBNA,  ENRIQUE  DB  (i384-x434)>  Spanish  author,  was 
bom  in  1384.    Throuj^  his  grandfather,  Alphonso  de  Aiagoo, 
count  de  Deniay  Ribagorza,  he  traced  his  descent  from  Jaime  II. 
of  Aragon  and  Blanche  of  Naples.    He  is  commonly  known 
as  the  marquess  de  ViUena;  but,  although  a  marquessafe  vra» 
at  one  time  in  the  family,  the  title  was  revoked  and  ani^iiH<>d 
by  Henry  III.    Villena's  father,  Don  Pedro  de  Villena,  was 
killed  at  Aljubarrota;  the  boy  was  educated  by  his  grand- 
father, showed  great  capacity  for  learning  and  was  reputed 
to  be  a  wiasard.    About  1402  he  married  Maria  de  Albomos, 
sefiora  del  Infantado,  who  speedily  became  the  recognised 
mistress  of  Henry  UI.j  the  complaisant  husband  was  rewarded 
by  being  ^pointed  master  of  the  military  order  of  Calatrava 
in  1404,  but  on  the  death  of  Henry  at  the  end  of  1406  the  knights 
of  the  order  refused  to  accept  the  nomination,  which,  after  a 
long  contest,  was  rescinded  in  14x5.    He  was  present  at  the 
coronation  of  Fcrdinafid  of  Aragon  at  Saragossa  in  1414,  retir^ 
to  Valencia  till  1417,  when  he  moved  to  Castile  to  claim  com- 
pensation  for  the  loss  of  his  mastership.    He  obtained  in  return 
the  lordship  {seftorio)  of  Micsta,  and,  conscious  of  his  unsuita- 
bility  for  wuriare  or  political  life,  dedicated  himself  to  literature. 
He  died  of  fever  at  Madrid  on  the  isth  of  December  1434. 
He  is  represented  by  a  fragment  of  his  Arte  de  Irobar  (14x4), 
an  indigestible  treatise  composed  for  the  Barcelona  Consistory 
of  Gay  Science;  by  Los  Trabajos  de  H&cules  (1417),  a  pedantic 
and  unreadable  allegory;  by  his  Tratado  de  la   Consdacidm 
and  his  handbook  to  the  pleasures  and  fashions  of  the  table 
the  Arte  cisoria,  both  written  in  1423;  by  a  commentary  on 
Psalm  vilL  ver.  4,  which  dates  from  X424;  by  the  lAbro  de 
Aqjamienlo  (1425),  a  ponderous  dissertation  on  the  evil  ^e  and 
its  effects;  and  by  a  translation  of  the  Aeneid^  the  first  ever 
made,  which  was  finished  on  the  loth  of  October  1428.    His 
treatise  on  leprosy  exists  but  has  not  been  published.    ViIIena'& 
writings  do  not  justify  his  extraordinary  fame;  his  subjects 
are  devoid  of  charm,  and  his  style  is  so  uncouth  as  to  be  almost 
unintelligible.    Yet  he  has  an  assured  place  in  tbe  history  of 
Spanish  literature;  he  was  a  generous  patron  of  letters,  his 
translation  of  Virgil  marks  him  out  as  a  pioneer  of  the  Re- 
naissance, and  he  set  a  splendid  example  of  intellectual  curiosity. 
Moreover,  there  is  an  abiding  dramatic  interest  lA  the  baffling 
personality  of  the  soUtary  high-bom  student  whom  Lope  de 
Vega  introduces  in  Porfiar  hasta  morir^  whom  Ruiz  de  AIarc6n 
presents  in  La  Cueva  di  Salamanca^  and  who  reappears  in  the 


VILLENA— VILLENAGE 


8i 


t 
S 
E 
C 
3- 
k 


toih  ceutury  in  L&rra's  Maciat  and  in  Hait2eabaach*s  play 
La  Redoma  cucantada.  (J-  F.-K.) 

VILLENA,  a  town  of  eastern  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Alicante; 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Vinalapo,  and  at  the  junction 
of  railways  from  Valencia,  Alicante,  Albacete  and  Yecla.  Pop. 
(1900)  14,099.  Villcna  is  a  labyrinth  of  winding  alleys,  which 
contain  some  interesting  examples  of  Moorish  domestic  archi- 
tecture. It  is  dominated  by  a  large  and  picturesque  Moorish 
castle.  The  surrounding  hUls  are  covered  with  vines,  and  to 
the  east  there  is  an  extensive  salt  lagoon.  Silk,  linen,  flour, 
wine,  brandy,  oil,  salt  and  soap  are  the  chief  industrial  products. 

VILLBNAGB  (Villainage,  Villanage.  Villeinage),  a 
medieval  term  (from  viZ/a,  villatius)^  pointing  to  serfdom,  a 
condition  of  men  intermediate  between  freedom  and  slavery. 
It  occurs  in  France  as  well  as  in  Engbnd,  and  was  certainly  im- 
ported into  English  speech  through  the  medium  of  Norman 
French.  The  earliest  instances  of  its  use  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Latin  and  French  versions  of  English  documents  in  the  nth 
and  i2tb  centuries  (cf.  Domesday  Book;  Liebermann,  Glossary 
to  the  Gesetze  der  Angelsachsen^  s.v.  vUlanuSt  viloitt).  The 
history  of  the  word  and  of  the  condition  is  especially  instructive 
in  English  usage. 

The  materials  for  the  formation  of  the  villein  class  were 
already  in  existence  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  period.  On  the  one 
hand,  the  Saxon  ceoris  (twihyndemai),  although  considered  as 
including  the  typical  freemen  in  the  earlier  laws  (i£tbclbcrht, 
Hlothhere  and  Edric,  Ine),  gradually  became  differentiated 
through  the  action  of  political  and  economic  causes,  and  many 
of  them  bad  to  recognize  the  patronage  of  magnates  or  ifl  seek 
livelihood  as  tenants  on  the  estates  of  the  latter.  These  ceoris, 
sitting  on  gafoMand,  were,  though  personally  free,  considered 
as  a  lower  order  of  men,  and  lapsed  gradually  into  more  or  less 
oppressive  subjection  in  respect  of  the  great  landowners.  It  is 
characteristic  in  this  connexion  that  the  West  Saxon  laws  do 
not  make  any  distinction  between  ceoris  and  laets  or  half- 
freemen  as  the  Kentish  laws  had  done:  this  means  that  the 
half-free  people  were,  if  not  Welshmen,  reckoned  as  members 
of  the  ceorl  class.  Another  remarkable  indication  of  the  decay 
of  the  ceorl's  estate  is  afforded  by  the  fact  that  in  the  treaties 
with  the  Danes  the  twihynde  ceoris  are  equated  with  the  Danish 
Icysings  or  freedmen.  It  docs  not  mean,  of  course,  that  their 
condition  was  practically  the  same,  but  in  any  case  the  fact 
testifies  to  the  gulf  which  had  come  to  separate  the  two  principal 
subdivisions  of  the  free  dass—t^c  ceorl  and  the  thane.  The 
Latin  version  of  the  Roclitudines  Stnguiarum  Perumarum^  a 
document  compiled  probably  in  the  nth  century,  not  long 
before  the  Conquest,  renders  f^neat  (a  peasant  tenant  of  a 
superior  kind  performing  lighter  services  than  the  gebur,  as  he 
was  burdened  with  heavy  week-work)  by  vilianus;  but  the  gebur 
came  to  be  also  considered  as  a  viUanus  according  to  Anglo- 
Norman  terminology.  The  group  designated  as  geburs  in 
Anglo<Saxon  charters,  though  distinguished  from  mere  slaves 
itkano  baerde-burbacrde,  Kemble,  Cod.  Dipl.  1079),  undoubtedly 
included  many  freedmen  who  in  point  of  services  and  economic 
subjection  were  not  very  much  above  the  slaves.  Both  ceoris 
and  geburs  disappear  as  separate  classes,  and  it  is  clear  that  the 
greater  part  of  them  must  have  passed  into  the  rank  of  villeins. 

In  the  terminology  of  the  Domesday  Inquest  we  find  the 
villeins  as  the  most  numerous  element  of  the  English  popula- 
tion. Out  of  about  340,000  households  enumerated  in  Domes- 
day xoo,ooo  are  marked  as  belonging  to  viUcins.  They  are 
rustics  performing,  as  a  rule,  work  services  for  their  lords.  But 
not  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  villages  were  designated  by  that 
name.  Villeins  are  opposed  to  socmen  and  freemen  on  one 
hand,  to  bcrdarii^  cottagers  and  slaves  on  the  other.  The 
distinction  in  regard  to  the  first  two  of  these  groups  was  evi- 
dently derived  from  their  greater  freedom,  althougli  the  differ- 
ence is  only  one  in  degree  and  not  in  kind.  In  fact,  the  villein 
is  assumed  to  be  a  person  free  by  birth,  but  holding  land  of 
which  he  cannot  dispose  freely.  The  distinction  as  against 
bordarii  and  cottagers  is  based  on  the  size  of  the  holding:  the 
villeins  are  holders  of  regular  shares  in  the  village— that  is,  of  the 


virgatcs,  bovates  ct  half-hides  which  constitute  the  prfaicipal 
subdivisions  in  the  fields  and  contribute  to  form  the  plougfa- 
teams^-whereas  the  bordarii  hold  smaller  plots  of  some  $  acres, 
more  or  less,  and  coharii  are  connected  with  mere  cottages  and 
crofts.  Thus  the  terminology  of  Domesday  takes  note  of  two 
kinds  of  differences  in  the  status  of  rustics:  a  legal  one  in  con- 
nexion with  the  right  to  di^>ose  of  property  in  land,  and  an 
economic  one  reflecting  the  opposition  between  the  holders  <tf 
shares  in  the  fields  and  the  holders  of  auxiliary  tenements.  The 
feature  of  personal  serfdom  is  also  noticeable,  but  it  provides  a 
basis  only  for  the  comparatively  small  group  of  serci,  of  whom 
only  about  aSiOOo  ^^  enumerated  in  Domesday  Book.  The 
contrast  between  this  exceptionally  situated  class  and  the  rest 
of  the  population  shows  that  persoiud  slavery  was  rapidly  dis- 
appearing in  England  about  the  time  of  the  Conquest.  It  is  also 
to  be  noticed  that  the  Domesday  Survey  constantly  mentions 
the  iara  vUlantrum  as  opposed  to  the  demesne  in  the  estates  or 
manors  of  the  time,  and  that  the  land  of  the  rustics  is  taxed 
separately  for  the  geld,  so  that  the  distinction  between  the 
property  of  the  lord  and  that  of  the  peasant  dependent  on  him  is 
ckarly  marked  and  by  no  means  devoid  of  practical  importance. 
The  Domesday  Survey  puts  before  us  the  state  of  things  in 
England  as  it  was  at  tU  very  beginning  of  the  Norman  and 
at  the  ck>se  of  the  Saxon  period.  The  development  of  feudal 
society,  of  centralizing  kingship  and  ultimately  of  a  system  of 
common  law,  brought  about  great  changes  whidi  all  hinge  on 
the  fundamental  fact  that  the  kings,  while  increasing  the  power 
of  the  state  in  other  respects,  surrendered  it  completely  as 
regards  the  relations  between  the  peasants  and  their  lords. 
The  protection  of  the  assizes  was  tendered  in  civil  matters  to 
free  tenants  and  refused  to  villeins.  The  royal  courts  refused 
to  entertain  suits  of  villeins  against  their  lords,  although  there 
was  a  good  deal  of  vacillation  before  this  position  was  definitely 
taken  up.  Bracton  still  speaks  in  his  treatise  of  the  possibility 
for  the  courts  to  interfere  against  intolerable  cruelty  on  the  part 
of  the  lord  involving  the  destruction  of  the  villein's  waynage, 
that  is,  of  his  ploughtearo,  and  in  the  NtOdfcok  of  Bracton  there 
are  a  couple  of  cases  which  prove  that  ijth-century  Judges 
occasionally  allowed  themselves  to  entertain  actions  by  pcnons 
holding  in  villcnage  against  their  lords.  Gradually,  however, 
the  exception  of  villcnage  became  firmly  settled.  As  the 
hbtorical  and  practical  position  was  developing  on  these  lines 
the  lawycra  who  fashioned  English  common  law  in  the  12th  and 
13th  centuries  did  not  hesitate  to  apply  to  it  the  teaching  oC 
Roman  law  on  slavery.  Bracton  fits  his  definition  of  villenage 
into  the  Romanesque  scheme  of  Azo's  Summa  of  the  Institutes, 
and  the  Judges  of  the  royal  courts  made  sweeping  inferences 
from  this  general  position.  To  begin  with,  the  relation  between 
the  villein  and  his  lord  was  r^pirded  as  a  personal  and  not  a 
praedial  one.  Everyone  bom  of  villein  stock  belonged  to  his 
master  and  was  bound  to  undertake  ajiy  service  which  might  be 
imposed  on  him  by  the  master's  or  the  steward's  command. 
The  distinction  between  villeins  in  gross  and  villeins  regardant, 
of  which  much  is  made  by  modem  writers,  was  suggested  by 
modes  of  pleading  and  docs  not  make  its  appearance  in  the 
Year-Books  before  the  15th  century.  Se«Dndly,  all  independent 
proprietary  rights  were  denied  to  the  villein  as  against  his  lord, 
and  the  legal  rale  "  quicquid  servo  acqulritur  domino  acquiri- 
tur  "  was  extended  to  villeins.  The  fact  that  a  great  number 
of  these  serfs  had  been  enjoying  protection  as  free  ceoris  in 
former  ages  made  itself  felt ,  however,  in  three  directions,  (i )  In 
criminal  matters  the  villein  was  treated  by  the  King's  Court 
irrespectively  of  any  consideration  as  to  his  debased  condition. 
More  especially  the  poUce  association,  organised  for  the  keeping 
of  the  peace  and  the  presentation  of  criminals — ^the  frankpledge 
groups  were  formed  of  all  "  worthy  of  were  and  wite,"  villeins 
as  well  as  freemen,  (a)  Politically  the  villeins  were  not  elimin- 
ated from  the  body  of  citizens:  they  had  to  pay  taxes,  to  serve 
in  great  emergencies  in  the  militia,  to  serve  on  inquests,  &c., 
and  although  there  was  a  tendency  to  place  them  on  a  lower 
footing  in  all  these  respects  yet  the  fact  of  their  being  lesser 
members  of  the  conunonnjtBalth  did  not  remqgve  the  fundamental 


82 


VILLENAGE 


quolifir&tioti  of  dtisenshiix  (3)  Even  ia  dvil  nutten  villeins 
were  deemed  free  as  regards  ihird  persons.  They  could  sue 
and  be  sued  in  their  own  name,  and  although  they  were  able 
to  call  in  their  lords  as  dcfcmlanis  when  proceeded  against, 
there  was  nothing  in  law  to  prevent  ihem  from  appearing  in 
their  own  right.  The  state  even  afforded  them  protection 
against  extreme  cruelly  on  the  part  of  their  mastem  in  respect 
of  life  and  limb,  but  in  bying  down  this  rule  English  lawyers 
were  able  to.  follow  the  precedents  set  by  late  Roman  juris- 
prudence, especially  by  measures  of  Hadrian,  Antonine  and 
Constantine  the  Great. 

There  was  one  exception  to  this  harsh  treatment  of  villeins, 
namely,  the  ruslk  tenantry  in  manors  of  ancient  demesne^ 
that  is,  in  estates  which  had  belonged  to  the  crown  before  the 
Conquest,  had  a  standing-ground  even  against  their  lords  as 
regards  the  tenure  of  their  plots  and  the  fixity  of  their  services. 
Technically  this  right  was  limited  to  the  inhabitants  of  manors 
entered  in  the  Domesday  Survey  as  terra  regis  of  Edward  the 
Confessor.  On  the  other  hand  the  doctrine  became  effective 
if  the  manors  in  question  had  been  granted  by  later  kings  to 
subjects,  because  if  they  remained  in  the  hand  of  the  king  the 
only  remedy  against  ejectment  and  exaction  lay  in  petitioning 
for  redress  without  any  definite  right  to  the  latter.  If,  however, 
the  two  conditions  mentioned  were  forthcoming,  villeins,  or,  as 
they  were  technically  called,  villein  socmen  of  ancient  demesne 
manors,  could  resist  any  attempt  of  their  lords  to  encroach 
on  their  rights  1^  depriving  them  of  their  holdings  or  increasing 
the  amount  of  their  customary  services.  Their  remedy  was  to 
apply  for  a  little  writ  of  right  in  the  first  case  and  for  a  writ 
of  monstraverunt  in  the  second.  These  writs  entitled  them 
to  appear  as  plaintiffs  against  the  lord  in  his  own  manorial 
court  and,  eventually,  to  have  the  question  at  issue  examined 
by  way  of  appeal,  on  a  writ  of  error,  or  by  reservation  on  some 
Iq^  points  in  the  upper  courts  of  the  king.  A  number  of  cases 
arising  from  these  privileges  of  the  men  of  ancient  demesne 
are  published  in  the  Notebook  of  Bracton  and  in  the  Ahbreviatio 
ptttcitorum.  This  exceptional  procedure  does  not  simply  go 
back  to  the  rule  that  persons  who  had  beoi  tenants  of  the  king 
ought  not  to  have  their  condition  altered  for  the  worse  in  con- 
sequence of  a  royal  grant.  If  thb  were  the  only  doctrine 
applicable  in  the  case  there  would  be  no  reason  why  similar 
protection  should  be  denied  to  all  those  who  held  under  grantees 
of  manors  escheated  after  the  Conquest.  A  material  point 
for  the  application  of  the  privilege  consists  in  the  fact  that 
ancient  demesne  has  to  be  proved  from  the  time  before  the 
Conquest,  and  this  shows  clearly  that  the  theory  was  partly 
derived  from  the  recognition  of  tenant  right  in  vUleins  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period  who,  as  we  hive  said  above,  were  mostly 
ccorls,  that  is,  frecbom  men. 

In  view  of  the  great  difference  in  the  legal  position  of  the  free 
man  and  of  the  villein  in  feudal  common  law,  it  became  very 
important  to  define  the  exact  nature  of  the  conditions  on  which 
the  status  of  a  villein  depended.  The  legal  theory  as  to  these 
conditions  was  somewhat  complex,  because  it  had  to  take 
account  of  certain  practical  considerations  and  of  a  rather 
abrupt  transition  from  a  previous  stale  of  things  based  on 
different  premises.  Of  course,  persons  bom  from  villein 
parents  in  lawful  wedlock  were  villeins,  but  as  to  the  condition 
of  illegitimate  children  there  was  a  good  deal  of  hesitation. 
There  was  a  tendency  to  apply  the  rule  that  a  bastard  follows 
the  mother,  especially  in  the  case  of  a  servile  mother.  In 
the  case  of  ;nixed  marriages,  the  condition  of  the  child  is 
determined  by  the  free  or  villdn  condition  of  the  tenement  in 
which  it  was  born.  This  notion  of  the  influence  of  the  tene- 
ment is  well  adapted  to  feudal  notions  and  makes  itself  felt 
again  in  the  case  of  the  pursuit  of  a  fugitive  villein.  He  can 
be  seized  without  further  formalities  if  he  is  caught  m  his 
"nest,"  thai  b,  in  his  native  phcc.  If  not,  the  lord  can  follow 
him  in  fre^  pursuit  for  four  days;  once  these  days  past,  the 
fugitive  is  maintained  provisionally  in  possession  of  his  liberty, 
and  the  lord  has  to  bring  an  action  de  naUvo  habendo  and  has  to 
aMume  the  burden  of  proof. 


So  much  as  to  the  proof  of  viHenage  by  birth  or  previous 
condition.     But  there  were  numbers  of  cases  when  the  dis- 
cussion as  to  servile  status  turned  not  on  these  foraal  points 
but  on  an  exammation  of  the  services  performed  by  the  person 
claimed  as  a  villein  or  challenged  as  holding  in  villenage.     la 
both  cases  the  courts  had  often  recourse  to  proof  derived  not 
from  direct  testimony  but  from  indirect  indications  as  to  the 
kind  iA  services  thai  had  been  performed  by  the  supposed 
villein.    Certain  services,  especially  the  payment  of  merchet — 
the  fine  for  marrying  a  daughter — were  considered  to  be  the 
badge  of  serfdom.    Another  service,  the  performance  of  which 
established  a  presumption  as  to  villenage,  wss  compulsory 
service  as  a  reeve.     The  courts  also  tried  to  draw  a  distinction 
from  the  amount  and  regularity  of  agricultural  services  to 
which  a  tenant  was  subjected.    Bracton  speaks  of  the  contrast 
between  the  irregular  aorvices  of  a  serf,  "  who  could  not  know 
in  the  evening  what  he  would  have  to  do  in  the  morning." 
and  services  agreed  upon  and  definite  in  their  amount.    The 
customary  arrangements  of  the  work  of  villeins,  however* 
render  this  contrast  rather  fictitious.    The  obligations  of  down* 
right  villeins  became  to  that  degree  settled  and  regular  that 
one  of  the  ordinary  designations  of  the  class  was  custumarii. 
Therefore  in  most  cases  there  were  no  arbitrary  exactions 
to  go  by,  except  perhaps  one  or  the  other  tallage  imposed  at 
the  will  of  the  lord.    The  original  distinction  seems  to  have 
been  made  not  between  arbitrary  and  agreed  but  between 
occasional  services  and  regular  agricultural  week-work.    While 
the  occasional  services,   even   when   agricultural,  in   no  way 
established  a  presumption  of  villenage,  and  many  socmen, 
freemen  and  holders  by  serjeanty  submitted  to  them,  agri- 
cultural  week-work  was  primarily  considered  as  a  trait  of 
villenage  and  must  have  played  an  important  part  in  the 
process  of  classification  of  early  Norman  sodety.    The  villein 
was  in  this  sense  emphatically  the  man  holding  "  by  the  fork 
and  the  OaiL" 

This  point  brings  us  to  consider  the  matter-of-fact  conditions 
of  the  villeins  during  the  feudal  period,  especially  in  the  i2th» 
13th  and  14th  centuries.  As  is  shown  by  the  Hundred  Rolls, 
the  Domesday  of  St  Paul,  the  Surveys  of  St  Peter,  Glouc, 
Glastonbury  Abbey,  Ramsey  Abbey  and  countless  other  records 
of  the  same  kind,  the  customary  conditions  of  villenage  did  not 
tally  by  any  means  with  the  ideniification  between  villenage 
and  slavery  suggested  by  the  jurists.  It  is  true  that  in  nomen- 
clature the  word  "  scrvi  '*  is  not  infrequently  used  (e.g.  in  the 
Hundred  Rolls)  where  viUani  might  have  been*  mentioned,  and 
the  feminine  nief  {natofa)  appears  as  the  regular  parallel  of 
vUlanuSt  but  in  the  descriptions  of  usages  and  services  we  find 
that  the  power  of  the  lord  loses  its  discretionary  character  and 
is  in  every  respect  moderated  by  custom.  As  personal  depend- 
ents of  the  lord  native  villeins  were  Uable  to  be  sold,  and  we  find 
actual  sales  recorded:  Glastonbury  Abbey  e.g.  sells  a  certain 
Philipp  Hardyng  for  20  shillings.  But  such  transfers  of  human 
chattels  occur  seldom,  and  there  is  nothing  during  the  English 
feudal  period  corresponding  to  the  brisk  tnide  in  men  character- 
istic of  the  ancient  world.  MercJtet  was  regarded,  as  has  been 
stated  already,  as  a  badge  of  serfdom  in  so  far  as  it  was  said 
to  imply  a  "  buying  of  one's  own  blood  "  (sennis  de  sanguine 
sua  emando).  The  explanation  is  even  more  characteristic 
than  the  custom  itself,  because  fines  on  marriage  may  be 
levied  and  were  actually  levied  from  people  of  different  con* 
dltion,  from  the  free  as  well  as  from  the  serf.  Still  the  tendency 
to  treat  mcrchet  as  a  distinctive  feature  of  serfdom  has  to  be 
noted,  and  we  find  that  the  custom  spread  for  this  very  reason 
in  consequence  of  the  encroachments  of  powerful  lords:  in 
the  Hundred  Rolls  it  is  applied  indiscriminately  to  the  whole 
rustic  population  of  certain  himdreds  in  a  way  which  can 
hardly  be  explained  unless  by  artificial  extension.  Htriot, 
the  surrender  of  the  best  horse  or  ox,  is  also  considered  as  the 
common  incident  of  villein  tenure,  although,  of  course,  its  very 
name  proves  its  intimate  connexion  with  the  outfit  of  soldiers 
{Jhere'ge(Uu). 

Economically  the  institution  of  villenage  was  bound  4p 


VILLENAGE 


83 


with  the  manorial  organization — that  is,  with  the  fact  that  the 
country  was  divided  into  a  number  of  districts  in  which  central 
home  farms  were  cultivated  by  the  help  of  worlc  supplied  by 
villein  households. 

The  most  important  of  villein  services  is  the  toeek-jpork  per- 
formed by  the  peasantry.  Every  virgatcr  or  holder  of  a  bovate 
has  to  send  a  labourer  to  do  work  on  the  lord's  farm  for  some  days 
in  the  week.  Three  days  is  indeed  the  most  common  standard 
for  service  of  this  kind,  though  four  or  even  five  occur  sometimes, 
as  well  as  two.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  the  case  of  heavy 
charges,  such  as  four  or  five  days'  week -work,  that  only  one 
labourer  from  the  whole  holding  is  meant,  while  generally  there 
were  seveval  men  living  on  every  holdini^— otherwise  the  service 
of  five  days  would  be  impossible  to  perform.  In  the  course  of 
these  three  days,  or  whatever  the  number  was,  many  require- 
ments of  the  demesne  had  to  be  met.  The  principal  of  these 
was  Roughing  tht  jidds  belonging  to  the  lord,  and  for  snch 
plou^ing  the  peasant  had  not  only  to  appear  'personally  as  a 
labourer,  but  to  bring  his  oxen  and  plough,  or  rather  to  join  with 
hb  oxen  and  plough  in  the  work  imposed  on  the  village:  the 
heavy,  costly  plough  with  a  team  of  eight  oxea  had  to  be  made  up 
by  several  peasants  coutributing  their  beasts  and  implcmctits 
towards  its  composition.  In  the  same  way  the  villagers  had  to 
go  through  the  work  of  harrowing  with  their  harrows,  and  of 
removing  the  harvest  in  their  vans  and  carts.  Carriage  duties 
in  carts  and  on  horseback  were  also  apportioned  according  to 
the  time  they  tuok  as  a  part  of  the  week-work.  Then  came 
innumerable  varieties  of  manual  work  for  the  erection  and 
keeping  up  of  hedges,  the  preservation  of  dykes,  canals  and 
ditches,  the  threshing  and  garnering  of  com,  the  tending  and 
shearing  of  sheep  and  so  forth.  All  this  hand-work  was  reckoned 
according  to  customary  standards  as  day-work  and  week-work. 
But  besides  all  these  services  into  which  the  regular  week-work 
of  the  peasantry  was  differentiated,  stood  some  additional  duties. 
The  ploughing  for  the  lord,  for  instance,  was  not  only  imposed 
in  the  shape  of  a  certain  number  of  days  in  the  week,  but  took 
sometimes  the  shape  of  a  certain  number  of  acres  which  the 
village  had  to  plough  and  to  sow  for  the  lord  irrespectively 
of  the  time  emi^oyed  on  it.  This  was  sometimes  termed 
gajoleartk.  Exceedingly  burdensome  services  were  required 
in  the  seasons  when  farming  processes  are,  as  it  were,  at  their 
height —in  the  seasons  of  mowing  and  reaping,  when  every  day 
is  of  special  value  and  the  working  power  of  the  farm  hands  is 
strained  to  the  utmost.  At  that  time  it  was  the  custom  to  call 
up  the  whole  able-bodied  population  of  the  manor,  with  the 
exception  of  the  housewives  for  two,  three  or  more  days  of 
momvig  and  reaping  on  the  lord's  fields;  to  these  boon-works 
the  peasantry  was  asked  or  invited  by  special  summons,  and 
their  value  was  so  far  appreciated  that  the '  vOlagers  were 
usually  treated  to  meals  in  tases  where  they  were  again  and 
again  called  off  from  their  own  fields  to  the  demesne.  The 
liberality  of  the  lord  actually  went  so  far,  in  exceptionally  hard 
straits,  that  some  ale  was  served  to  the  labourers  to  keep  them  in 
good  humour. 

In  the  Z4th  century  this  social  arrangement,  based  primarily 
on  natural  economy  and  on  the  feudal  disrupt  ion  of  society,  began 
to  give  way.  The  gradual,  spread  of  intercourse  rendered  un- 
necessary the  natural  husbandry  of  former  times  which  sought 
to  produce  a  complete  sei  of  gpods  in  every  separate  locality. 
Instead  of  acting  as  a  little  world  by  itself  for  the  raising  of  com, 
the  breeding  of  cattle,  the  gathering  of  wool,  the  weaving  of 
linen  and  common  cloths,  the  fabrication  of  necessary  imple- 
ments of  all  kinds,  the  local  group  began  to  buy  some  of  these 
goods  and  to  sell  some  others,  renouncing  isolation  and  making 
its  destiny  dependent  on  commercial  intercourse.  Instead  of 
requiring  from  its  population  all  kinds  of  work  and  reducing 
its  ordinary  occupations  to  a  hard-and-fast  routine  meeting 
in  a  slow  and  unskilled  manner  all  possible  contingencies,  the 
local  group  began  to  move,  to  call  in  workmen  from  abroad  for 
tasks  of  a  special  nature,  and  to  send  its  own  workmen  to 
look  out  for  profitable  employment  in  other  places.  Instead 
of  managing  the  land  by  ibt  constaat  repetition  of  the  same 


processes,  by  a  customaiy  Immobffity  of  tenure  and  servie*,  by 
communalislic  restrictions  on  private  enterprise  and  will,  load 
society  began  to  try  improvements,  to  escape  from  the  bounds 
of  champion  farming.  Instead  of  producing  and  collecting 
goods  for  immediate  consumption,  local  society  came  mote  and 
more  into  the  habit  of  exchanging  com,  cattle,  cloth,  f6r  money, 
and  of  laying  money  by  as  a  means  of  getting  all  sorts  of 
exchangeable  goods,  when  required.  In  a  word,  the  time  of 
conmurcialt  contractual^  cash  intercourse  was  coming  fast.  What 
was  exceptional  and  subsidiary  in  feudal  times  came  to  obtain 
general  recognition  in  the  course  of  the  14th  and  15th  centuries, 
and,  for  this  very  reason,  assumed  a  'very  different  aspect. 
A  similar  transformation  look  place  in  regard  to  government. 
The  local  monarchy  of  the  manorial  lords  was  fast  giving  way  to 
a  central  power  which  maintained  its  laws,  the  circuits  of  its 
judges,  the  fiscal  daims  of  its  exchequer,  the  police  interference 
of  its  civil  officers  all  through  the  country,  and,  by  prevailing 
over  the  franchises  of  manorial  lords,  gave  shape  to  a  vast 
dominion  of  legal  equality  and  legal  protection,  in  which  the 
forces  of  commercial  exchange,  of  contract,  of  social  intercourse, 
found  a  ready  and  welcome  sphere  of  action.  In  truth  both 
processes,  the  economic  and  the  political  one,  worked  so  much 
together  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  say  which  influenced 
the  other  more,  which  was  the  cause  and  which  the  effect. 
Government  grew  strong  because  it  could  draw  on  a  society 
which  was  going  ahead  in  enterprise  and  well-being;  social 
intercourse  progressed  because  it  could  depend  on  a  strong 
government  to  safeguard  it. 

If  we  now  turn  to  the  actual  stages  by  which  this  momcntotif 
passage  from  the  manorial  to  the  commeitial  arrangement  was 
achieved,  we  have  to  notice  first  of  all  a  rapid  devdopmeni  of 
contractual  relations.  We  know  that  in  feudal  law  there  ran  a 
standing  contrast  between  tenure  by  custom — ^villein  tenure — ^and 
tenure  by  contract — free  tenure.  While  the  manorial  system  was 
in  full  force  this  contrast  led  to  a  classification  of  holdings  and 
affected  the  whole  position  of  people  on  the  land.  Still,  even  at 
that  time  it  might  happen  that  a  freeholder  owned  some  land 
in  villenage  by  the  side  of  his  free  tenement,  and  that  a  villehi 
held  some  land  freely  by  agreement  with  his  lord  or  with  a 
third  person.  But  these  cases,  though  by  no  means  infitquent, 
were  still  exceptional.  As  a  rule  people  used  land  as  holdings, 
and  those  were  rigidly  classified  as  villein  or  free  tenements.  The 
interesting  point  to  be  noticed  is  that,  without  any  formal  break) 
leasing  land  for  life  and  for  term  of  years  is  seen  to  be  rapidly 
spreading  from  the  end  of  the  13th  century,  and  numberless  small 
tenancies  are  created  in  the  14th  century  which  break  up  the 
disposition  of  the  holdings.  From  the  close  of  the  13th  century 
downwards  countless  transactions  on  the  basis  of  leases  for  terms 
of  years  occur  between  the  peasants  themselves,  any  suit- 
ably kept  set  of  14th-century  court  rolls  containing  entries  in 
which  such  and  such  a  villein  is  said  to  appear  in  the  kalimott 
and  to  surrender  for  the  use  of  another  person  named  a  piece  of 
land  belonging  to  the  holding.  The  number  of  years  and  the 
conditions  of  payment  are  specified.  Thus,  behind  the  screen  of 
the  normal  shares  a  number  of  small  tenancies  arise  which  run 
their  economic  concerns  independently  from  the  cumbersome 
arrangements  of  tenure  ond  service.-and,  needless  to  add,  all  these 
tenancies  are  burdened  with  money  rents. 

Another  series  of  momentous  changes  took  place  In  the 
arrangement  of  serticts.  Even  the  manorial  system  admitted 
the  buying  off  for  money  of  particular  dues  in  kind  and  of 
specific  performance  of  work.  A  viUcin  might  be  allowed 
to  bring  a  penny  instead  of  bringing  a  chicken  or  to  pay  a  rem 
instead  of  appearing  with  his  oxen  three  times  a  week  00  lh« 
lord's  fields.  Such  rents  were  called  mal  or  mail  in  contrast 
with  the  gafol,  ancient  rents  which  had  been  imposed  inde- 
pendently, apart  from  any  buying  off  of  customary  services. 
There  were  even  whole  bodies  of  peasants  called  Motmen,  because 
thoy  had  bought  off  work  from  the  lord  by  settling  with  him 
on  the  basiy  of  money  rents.  As  time  went  on  these  practices 
of  commutatiott  became  more  and  more  frequent.  There  wcxe 
for  both  sides,  many  advantages  in  arranging  thek  mtttutf 


8+ 


VILLENEUVE 


nlaiioiB  on  thi*  bui*.    Tbt  tanl,  uutad  at  duBiy  voik,  got 
dtu  amxYt  a  much-covcicd  means  of  uli&fyins  need 
■ubt*  ol  any  kind— uulcsd  ol  cumbiaut  pcclormancs 


did» 


1  haU-hoiUd  muiner,  yitldid  no  unmcdialc  raulli. 
did  Bot  idmtt  of  convenient  reamnccment,    Tbe  pcAiant 
rid  dE  ■  balctuJ  dmdgery  whvb  not  only  took  up  bit  lime 
■ncani  in  *a  tuprofitibit  nuuincr.  but  placrd  bim  uodei  Ilic 
rough  control  Ami  the  arbiLrHiy  di$dpiin«  ai  stewards  or 
■sd  ttvt  occuion  to  all  sorts  af  fines  and  nhuiioia. 

With  Uk  groinh  ol  InLcrcouiH  and  scturily  money  b 
tnoR  frequent  and  Ihe  number  of  sucb  transactions  iocrcased 
ib  pfoponion.  But  it  must  be  icept  in  mind  Ibat  Ibe  coi 
version  ol  scrviAs  into  rents  went  on  very  pudualiy,  us 
series  of  private  agiwmcnti,  and  ibal  it  would  be  very  wrong 
to  suppose,  as  some  scholats  have  done,  that  il  bad  led  la  « 
(cneral  conunuLation  by  Ihe  middle  or  even  tbe  esd  oC  tltt 
I4lh  century.  The  14th  cinluiy  wu  maried  by  violent  Oi 
lions  bi  lb<  demand  lod  supply  of  Islwui,  and  particukrly 
tbe  tremendous  las  in  population  occasioned  in  Ibe  middle  of 
Ibis  ccnlur>  by  the  BlAck  Death  called  forth  a  twMI  t 
crisis.  No  wonder  Ibal  many  lords  clung  very  tenac 
Ut  customary  services,  and  etrksiastical  institutions  sci 
J)a«t  been  especially  backward  in  going  over  to  the  sysl 
money  rents.  There  is  evidence  to  shew,  for  Instance, 
tbe  manon  ol  ibe  abbey  ol  Banuey  were  maiugcd  o 
■ystem  of  enforced  bbour  right  dows  to  the  niiddle  t 
ijlh  century,  afld,  of  couise,  survivals  of  these  customs  i 
shape  oi  scattered  services  livecf  on  much  longer.  A  second 
drawback  from  Ibc  point  of  view  of  the  landlords  was 
forth  by  the  (act  Ihat  commulalkm  foe  bicd  rents  gradually 
lessened  tbe  value  irf  the  ei.icIioDE  lo  which  they  wcrt  eniiileU. 
Money  not  only  become  less  scarce  but  it  became  cheaper, 
•a  thai  tbe  couple  of  pence  for  which  a  day  of  manual  work 
was  bougbt  oS  in  the  beginning  of  the  ijtb  century  did  not 

r«ita  were  cistomuy  and  not  rack  rents,  Ihe  succeMOis  of 
those  who  bad  ledcemed  their  services  wi;[C  gtunjng  Ibe  wbolc 
surplus  in  tbe  value  of  goods  and  labour  as  sgain&t  money, 
whde  the  succcsKus  of  ibole  who  bad  tommulcd  their  rij^t 
to  claim  services  for  certain  sums  in  money  lost  all  tbe 
corresponding  difference.  These  iocvitable  consequences  came 
to  be  perceived  in  course  of  lime  and  ocrasioned  a  backward 
tendency  towards  setvird  in  kind  which  could  not  pievaij 
against  Lhe  general  movement  from  natural  economy  to  money 
dealings,  but  was  strong  enough  to  produce  social  friction  and 

The  economic  crisis  of  Ibe  i^ih  cenlury  has  its  complement 
in  the  legal  crisis  of  the  ijlh.  At  that  time  the  courls  of 
law  bcgia  to  do  away  with  the  denial  of  protection  to  villeins 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  consttluled  tbe  legal  basil  of  viUmage. 
This  is  effected  by  the  recognitiou  of  copyhold  leDure '  (ice 

Il  is  a  tad  of  lust-iBte  magnitude  that  in  the  ijihcentuiy 
cuslomary  relalions  on  one  band,  J  he  power  of  gnvemment 
OD  the  01  her,  ripened,  as  it  were,  to  Ihat  client  that  Ibe  judgis 
of  tbe  king  began  to  take  cogm'iance  of  Ihe  relations  of  Ibe 
peasants  to  Ibeir  lords.     The  first  cases  which  occur  in  this 


rof  ju 


:b  red  re 


o  be  brought  by  tbe 
power  of  the  court  of  chancery.  But  this  interleience  of 
i5th-centuiy  chancellois  paved  the  way  towards  one  of  Ihe 
greatest  revolulions  ia  the  lav;  without  fomially  enfranchising 
villebis  and  villein  lennie  they  created  a  legal  basis  for  it  in 
the  law  of  the  realm:  in  Ihe  formula  of  copyhold — tcncmnU 

6rst  pari  lost  ils  significance  and  the  strOud  prevailed,  fn  down- 
right contrast  wiih  former  timn  when,  on  the  contrary,  Ihe 
tecond  pari  had  no  legal  value  and  the  first  ciprcMcd  the  view 


if  the  court!.    One  may  alnott  be  tempted  tn  ny  thai  tbcM 

ibscure  decisions  rendered  unnecessary  in  England  the  vork 
ichievcd  wiib  sucb  a  flourish  of  trumpets  in  France  by  llie 
■mandpaling  decree  of  Ibe^tb  of  August  1789. 

The  persooal  condition  of  villcnage  did  net,  however,  dis- 
ippeai  at  once  wiih  lhe  rise  of  copyhold.    It  lintercd  thtougb 
id  appears  eiceptiunally  even  (n  Ihe  171b. 


Deeds  of  ei 


ncipalion 


iȴij; 


iplaiij  (OifonL 


fiSM),^ 


S);P.  Vinijgradofl._ 


i»97). 


Esay  1.  il  », 

(isai)i  w.  s 

P.Vinogradoa  .^.^ .._ 

SxiityhUtX  incmlixEntliikHuUiTici- 

(1904):  AS.  «  TudorV*  in  thf  TVriiu. 

ailwua  tfike  t  L  (1903).  (P.  Vl.) 

VILLEKEUVK  fqSIBB  CHABLEI  JSUI  BAPTUn  av- 
VBSTBB  {176J-1S06),  French  admiral,  was  bom  at  Voleosoles  in 
t^rovence  an  lhe  jisl  of  December  i;6j.  He  enlered  tbe  French 
royal  navy  as  a"  galde  du  Pavilion."  Although  he  belonged  to 
the  corps  of  '*  noble  "  oncers,  who  were  tbe  object  of  peculiar 
animosity  to  the  Jacobins,  ha  escaped  Ihe  fate  of  the  majority 
of  his  comrades,  which  was  10  be  massacred,  or  driven  Into  eiile. 
He  sympailiiied  sincerely  with  tbe  general  aims  of  Ibe  Ecvolu- 
liun,  and  had  a  full  share  of  the  Provencal  Bucocy  which  enabled 
him  lo  make  a  limcly  and  impressive  display  of  **  civic " 
Ecntimenls.  In  the  dearth  of  trained  officers  be  rose  with  what 
for  the  French  navy  was  ciccplional  rapidity,  Ibough  it  woiifd 
England  ui  the  case  of  an  officer  « 


r7Q6.  At  the  close  of  the  year 
tbe  unsuccessful  eipedilion  to  Ireknd'  which 
rcacbed  Bantty  Bay,  but  tbe  ships  which  were  to  have  come  lo 
Brst  from  Toulon  with  him  arrived  loo  Ute,  and  were  forced 
L^Orient.  He  accompanied  the  expedition  10 
Egypt,  with  his  flag  m  Ibe  "  GuDlauraa  TcU  "  (S6).  She  was 
the  thuxl  ship  from  tbe  rear  of  the  French  line  at  Ihe  bsltle  of 

iih  the'"Cfn6reui"  (jS).    Villcneuve 


,jrd  0         _ 


His  . 


IIS  letter 


jDiely  b: 


isl  of  August  1708,  three 
that  the  only  leproacb  Ville 
was  that  he  bad  not  ret 
:n  by  the  French  commanc 
unded.  When,  loweve 
ilofth 


Egypt  to  General  Bertrand  at  St  Helena,  he  attributed  tbe 
'  ':at  at  the  Nile  brgely  to  the  "bad  conduct  of  Admiial 
eneuve,"  In  the  interval  Villcneuve  had  failed  in  the  ne- 
on of  Ibe  compVcatcd  scheme  for  Ihe  inva^on  of  England 
iSoj.  Napoleon  must  still  have  believed  In  the  admiral's 
idty  and  good  fortune,  a  qualihcalion  for  which  he  bad  a 
It  regard,  when  he  selected  him  lo  succeed  Latouche  Trtrille 
n  bia  death  at  Toulon  in  August  1S04.  The  duty  ol  tbe 
lion  squadron  was  to  draw  Nelson  to  the  West  Indies,  reluin 
combination  with  other  French  and  punish 


It  Viltenci 


had  from  1> 


first  IH 


ifidence 


lation  of  good  luck  and  efTiciency 

oncemcd.    He  knew  thai  the  Frencn  were  itei 

,    Il  required  a  very  lart  order  from  Nipoleoi 
Hit  of  Fails  in  October  iSo«.     He  took  (bi 


VILLENEUVE-L^S-AVIGNON— VILLEROI 


85 


ccMBiiiBiid  In  Movcnber.  On  the  X7t3i  of  January  1805  be  left 
Toulon  for  the  first  time,  but  was  dhven  back  by  a  aquiJl  which 
dismasted  some  of  his  awliwardly  handled  ships.  On  the  jcd  of 
March  he  was  out  again,  and  this  time  he  headed  Nelson  by 
some  weeks  on  a  cnuse  to  the  West  Indies.  But  ViUeneuve's 
success  so  far  had  not  removed  his  fears.  Though  on  taking 
up  his  oognnand  he  had  issued  an  order  of  the  day  in  which  he 
spoke  boldly  enough  of  the  purpose  of  his  cruise,  and  his  de- 
termination to  adhere  to  it,  he  was  racked  by  fears  of  what 
might  happen  to  the  force  entrusted  to  his  care.  For  the 
details  of  the  campaign  see  Txavalgak.  In  so  far  as  the 
biography  of  Villeneuve  is  concerned,  his  behaviour  during 
thoe  trjong  months  cannot  escape  condemnation.  He  had 
undertaken  to  carry  out  a  plan  of  which  he  did  not  approve. 
Since  he  had  not  declined  the  task  altogether,  it  was  clearly  his 
duty  to  execute  Us  orders  at  all  hazards.  If  he  was  defeated, 
as  be  almost  certainly  would  have  been,  he  could  have  left  the 
responsibiUty  for  the  disaster  to  rest  on  the  shoulders  of  Napoleon 
who  assigned  him  the  task.  But  Villeneuve  could  not  free  him- 
self from  the  conviction  that  it  was  his  business  to  save  his  fleet 
even  if  he  mined  the  emperor's  pUm  of  invasion.  Thus  after 
he  returned  to  Europe  and  fought  kis  confused  action  with 
Sir  H.  Calder  off  Ferrol  on  the  sand  of  July  1805,  he  first  hesi- 
tated, and  then,  in  spHe  of  vehement  orders  to  oome  on,  turned 
south  to  Cadiz.  Napoleon's  hafiit  of  suggesting  ahemative 
courses  to  his  lieutenants  gave  him  a  vague  appearance  of  excuse 
for  making  for  that  port.  But  it  was  one  which  only  a  very 
weak  man  would  have  availed  himself  of,  for  all  hi^instructions 
ought  to  have  been  read  subject  to  the  standing  injunction  to 
tiome  on  to  the  Channel-- and  in  turning  south  to  Cadis,  he  was 
going  in  the  opposite  direction.  His  decisicm  to  leave  Cadiz 
and  give  battle  in  October  X805,  which  led  directly  to  the  battle 
of  Trafalgar,  cannot  be  justified  even  on  his  own  principles.  He 
foresaw  defieat  to  be  inevitable,  and  yet  he  went  out  solely 
because  he  learnt  from  the  Minister  of  Marine  that  anothtf 
officer  had  been  sent  to  siq>er8ede  him.  In  fact  he  ran  to  meet 
the  very  destruction  he  had  tried  to  arvoid..  No  worse  fate 
would  have  befallen  him  in  the  Channel  than  came  uix>n  him  at 
Trafalgar,  but  it  might  have  been  incurred  in  a  manly  attempt 
to  obey  his  orders.  It  was  provoked  in  a  tpaam  of  wounded 
vanity.  At  Trafalgar  he  showed  personal  courage,  but  the 
helpless  incapadty  of  die  allies  to  manoeuvre  gave  him  no 
opportunity  to  influence  the  course  of  the  battle.  He  was  taken 
as  a  prisoner  to  Engbnd,  but  was  soon  released.  Shortly  after 
landing  in  France  he  committed  suicide  in  an  inn  at  Rennes,  on 
the  3and  of  April  1806.  Among  the  other  Improbable  crimes 
attributed  to  Napoleon  by  the  fear  and  hatred  of  Europe,  was 
the  murder  of  Villeneuve,  but  there  »  not  the  faintest  reason  to 
doubt  that  the  admiral  died  by  bis  own  hand. 

The  correspondence  of  Napoleon  contauis  many  references  to 
ViHeneuve.  Accounts  of  the  naval  operations  in  which  he  was 
ooBcemed  will  be  found  in  James's  NrnxU  History,  Troude,  in  his 
BataiUts  tuataUs  de  la  France,  vol.  UL,  publishes  several  of  his  letters 
and  orders  of  the  day.  (p.  H.) 

VILLBIIBUVB-LiB-AVlOllOir,  a  town  of  south-eastern 
France,  in  the  department  of  Card  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhone  opposite  Avignon,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
suspension  bridge.  Pop.  (1906)  2582.  VIDeneuve  preserves 
many  remains  of  its  medieval  importance.  The  diurdi  of 
Notre  Dame,  dating  fjrom  the  r4th  century,  contains  a  rich  marble 
altar  and  remarkable  pictures.  The  hospice,  once  a  Franciscan 
convent,  part  of  which  is  occupied  by  a  museum  <tf  pictures  and 
antiquities,  has  a  chapel  in  which  is  the  fine  tomb  of  Innocmt 
VL  (d.  X369).  The  church  and  otlwr  remains  of  the  Carthusian 
monastery  <Mf  VaI-de-Bfo€diction,  founded  in  1356  by  Innocent 
VL,  are  now  used  for  habiution  and  other  secuhir  purposes.  A 
gateway  and  a  rotunda,  built  as  shelter  for  a  fountain,  both 
dating  from  about  1670,  are  of  architectural  not^  On  the  Mont 
Andaon,  a  hill  to  the  north-east  of  the  town,  stands  the  Fort  of 
St  4°(M  (x4th  century),  which  is  entered  by  an  imposint 
fortmed  gateway  and  contains  a  Romanesque  chapel  and 
remains  of  the  abbey  of  St  Andxtr    The  other  buildhigs  of 


interest  include  several  <rfd  maiuioiis  once  belonging  to  cardinals 
and  nobles,  and  a  tower,  the  Tour  de  Philippe  le  Bel,  built  in  the 
14th  century,  which  guarded  the  western  extremity  of  the  Pont 
St  Binint  (see  Avicnon). 

In  the  6th  century  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  St  Andr6  was 
founded  on  Mount  Andaon,  and  the  village  which  grew  up  round 
it  took  its  nsne.  In  the  rath  century  the  monks,  acting  in 
concert  with  the  crown,  established  a  basttde,  or  "  new  town," 
which  came  to  be  called  ViBcneuve.  The  town  was  the  resort 
of  the  French  cardinals  during  the  sojourn  of*  the  popes  at 
Avign<Mi>  and  its  importance,  due  largely  to  its  numerous  re- 
ligious establishments,  did  not  decline  till  the  Revolution. 

YILLBNEUVE-SUR-LOT,  a  town  of  south-weslem  France, 
capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Lot-et-Garonne, 
as  m.  N.  by  £.  of  Agen  on  a  branch  line  of  the  Orleans  railway. 
Pop.  (1906)  town,  6978;  commune,  r3,54a  Villeneuve  is 
divided  into  two  unequal  portions  by  the  river  Loty  which  here 
runs  between  high  banks.  The  chief  quarter  stands  on  the 
right  bank  and  is  united  to  the  quarter  on  the  left  bank  by  a 
bridge  of  the  X3th  century,  the  principal  arch  of  which,  con- 
structed in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  in  place  of  two  older  arches, 
has  a  span  of  xx8  ft.  and  a  height  of  59  ft.  On  the  teft  bank 
portions  of  the  X3th  centuiy  ramparts,  altered  and  surmounted 
by  machicolations  in  the  X5th  centuiy,  remain,  and  high 
square  towers  rise  above  the  gates  to  the  north-east  and  south- 
west, known  respectively  as  the  Porte  de  Paris  and  Porte  de 
Pujols.  On  the  right  bank  boulevards  have  for  the  most  part 
taken  the  place  of  the  ramparts.  Arcades  of  the  X3th  centtiiy 
surround  the  Place  La  Fayette,  and  old  houses  of  the  X3th, 
X4th  and  xsth  centuries  are  to  be  seen  in  various  parts  of  the 
town.  The  church  of  St  £tlenne  is  in  kte  Gothic  style.  On 
the  left  bank  of  the  Lot,  2  m.  S.S.W.  of  Villeneuve,  are  the 
X3th-century  walls  of  Pujols.  The  buildings  of  the  andcnt 
abbey  of  Eysses,  about  a  mile  to  the  N.E.,  which  are  mainly  of 
the  X7th  century,  serve  as  a  departmental  prison  and  peni- 
tentiary settlement  The  principal  hospital,  the  hospice  St 
Cyr,  is  a  handsome  building  standing  in  beautiful  gardens. 
Villeneuve  has  a  sub-prefecture,  tribunals  of  first  instance  and 
of  commerce  and  communal  colleges  for  both  sexes.  It  is  an 
important  agricultural  centre  and  has  a  very  large  trade  in 
plums  (pnaus  d*eHte)  and  in  the  produce  of  the  market  gardens 
which  surround  It,  as  well  as  in  cattle,  horses  and  wine  The 
preparation  of  preserved  jrfums  and  the  tinning  of  peas  and 
beans  occupy  many  hands;  there  are  abo  manufactures  of 
boots  and  shoes  and  tin  boxes.  The  important  mill  of  Gajac 
stands  on  die  bank  of  the  Lot  a  little  above  the  town. 

Villeneuve  was  founded  in  X254  by  Alphonse,  count  of 
Poitiers,  brother  of  Louis  IX.,  on  the  site  of  the  town  of 
Gajac,  which  had  been  deserted  during  the  AU)igensian  crusade. 

VILLBROI,  FRANCOIS  bB  NEUFVILLB,  Due  de  (i644-z7,3o), 

French  soldier,  came  of  a  noble  family  which  had  risen  into 

prominence  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.    His  father  Nicolas 

de  Neufville,  Marquis  de  Villeroi,  marshal  of  France  (i  598-1685), 

created  a  duke  by  Louis  XIV.,  vtbm  the  young  king's  governor, 

and  the  boy  was  thus  brought  up  in  dose  relations  with  Louis. 

An  intimate  of  the  king,  a  finislMxl  courtier  and  leader  of  sodrty 

and  a  man  of  great  personal  gallantry,  Villeroi  was  marked 

out  for  advancement  in  the  army,  which  he  loved,  but  which 

had  always  a  juster  appreciation  of  his  incapadty  than  Louis. 

In  X693,  without  having  exercised  any  really  important  and 

respoi^ble  command,  he  was  made  a  marshal.    In  1695,  when 

jAoemhoaig  died,  he  obtained  the  command  of  the  army  in 

Flanders,  and  WiUiam  HL  found  him  a  far  more  complaisant 

opponent  than  the  "  little  hunchback."    In  X70X  he  was  sent 

to  Italy  to  supersede  Catinat  and  was  soon  beaten  by  the  inferior 

army  of  Eugene  at  Cfaiari  (see  Spakish  SuocEsnoN  Was).     In 

the  winter  of  1701  he  was  made  prisoner  at  the  surprise  of 

Cremona,  and  the  wits  of  the  army  made  at  his  expense  the 

famous  rhyme: 

**  Vkr  la  faveof  de  Bellone,  et  par  on  bonhem*  sans  €gal. 
Nous  avons  conaerv6  Cr6mone— et  perdu  notre  fn^niaX.** 

In  dla  following  yeats  he  was  pitted  against  Marlboivugh  in 


86 


VILLERS  LA  VILLE— VILLOI80N 


the  Low  Countries.  Marlboxou^'s  own  di£kulties  with  the 
Dutch  and  other  allied  comroissionecs,  rather  than  Villeroi's 
own  skill,  put  ofif  the  inevitable  disaster  for  some  years,  but 
in  1706  the  duke  attacked  him  and  thoroughly  defeated  hjm 
at  RamiUics  (f.v.).  Louis  consoled  his  old  friend  with  the 
remark,  *'  At  our  age,  one  is  no  lopger  lucky,"  but  superseded 
him  in  the  command,  and  henceforward  Villeroi  lived  the  hfe 
of  a  courtier,  much  busied  with  intngues  but  retaining  to  the 
end  the  friendship  of  his  master.  Ue  died  oa  the  i8th  of 
July  X730  at  Paris. 

VUi£RS  LA  VILLE,  a  town  of  Belgium  fai  the  provmce  of 
Brabant,  2  m.  E.  of  Quatre  Bras,  with  a  station  on  the  direct 
line  from  Lou  vain  to  Charleroi.  Pop.  (1004)  1166.  It  is 
chiefly  interesting  on  account  of  the  fine  niins  of  the  Cistercian 
abbey  <rf  Villers  founded  in  1 147  sod  destroyed  by  the  French 
republicans  in  1795.  In  the  ruined  church  attached  to  the 
abb^  are  still  to  be  seen  the  tombstones  of  several  dukes  of 
Brabant  of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries. 
VILLBTTB,  CHARLES.  Marqitis  de  (1736-1793),  French 
writer  and  politician,  was  bom  in  Paris  on  the  4th  of  December 
1736,  the  son  of  a  financier  who  left  him  a  large  fortune  and 
tbtt  title  of  marquis.  After  taking  part  in  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  young  Viilette  returned  in  1763  to  Paris,  where  he  made 
many  enemies  by  his  insufferable  manners.  But  he  succeeded 
in  gaining  the  intimacy  of  Voltaire,  who  had  known  his  mother 
and  who  wished  to  make  a  poet  of  him.  The  old  philosopher 
even  went  so  far  as  to  call  his  proiigS  the  French  Tibullus.  In 
1777,  on  Voltaire's  advice,  Viilette  married  Mademoiselle  de 
Varicourt,  but  the  marriage  was  unhappy,  and  his  wife  was 
subsequently  adopted  by  Voltaire's  niece,  Madame  Dems. 
During  the  Revolution  Viilette  publicly  burned  his  letters  of 
nobihty,  wrote  revolutionary  articles  in  the  Chrcnique  de 
Paris,  and  was  elected  deputy  to  the  Convention  by  the 
department  of  Seine-et-Oise  He  had  the  courage  to  censure 
the  September  massacres  and  to  vote  for  the  imprisonment 
only,  and  not  for  the  death,  of  Louis  XVL  He  died  in  Paris 
on  the  7  th  of  July  1793. 

In  1784  he  published  his  (B«rtr«t,  which  axe  of  little  value,  and  in 
1792  hts  articles  in  the  Ckrotaqme  dt  Ports  appeared  in  book  form 
under  the  title  l^Ures  choisus  sur  Us  principamx  MmemaUs  de  la 
Rtoolution. 

VILUERS,  CHARLES  PELHAM  (1802-1898),  English  sUtes- 
man,  son  of  George  VUliers,  grandson  of  the  ist  earl  of  Clarendon 
of  the  second  (Villiers)  creation,  and  brother  of  the  4th  earl 
(9.9),  was  bora  in  London  on  the  3rd  of  January  1802,  and 
educated  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  read  for  the 
bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  became  an  associate  of  the  Bentha 
mites  and  "  philosophical  radicals  "  of  the  day.  He  was  an 
assistant  commissioner  to  the  Poor  Law  Commission  (1832), 
and  in  1833  was  made  by  the  master  of  the  Rolls,  whose  secretary 
he  had  been,  a  chancery  examiner  of  witnesses,  holding  this 
office  till  1852.  In  1S35  be  was  elected  M.P.  for  Wolverhampton, 
and  retained  his  seat  till  his  death.  He  was  the  pioneer  of  the 
free-trade  movement,  and  became  prominent  with  Cobden  and 
Bright  as  one  of  its  chief  supporters,  being  indefatigable  in 
pressing  the  need  for  free  trade  on  the  House  of  Commons,  by 
resolution  and  by  petition.  After  free  trade  triumphed  in  1846 
his  importance  in  politics  became  rather  historical  than  actual, 
especially  as  he  advanced  to  a  venerable  old  age;  but  he  was 
president  of  the  Poor  Law  Board,  with  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet, 
from  1859  to  1866,  and  he  did  other  useful  work  in  the  Liberal 
reforms  of  the  time.  Like  Bright,  he  parted  from  Mr  Gladstone 
on  Home  Rule  for  Ireland.  He  attended  pariiament  for  the 
last  time  in  1895,  and  died  on  the  i6th  of  January  1898. 

VILUBRS  DE  L'ISLB-ADAM,  PHILIPPE  AU6U8TE 
HATHIAS,  CoKTE  DK  (1838-1889),  French  poet,  was  born 
at  St  Brieuc  in  Brittany  and  baptized  on  the  28th  of  November 
1838^  He  may  be  ttAd  to  have  inaugurated  the  Symbolist 
movement  in  French  literature,  and  AxU,  the  play  on  which 
he  was  engaged  during  so  much  of  his  life,  though  it  was  only 
published  after  his  death,  is  the  typical  Symbolist  drama.  He 
began  with  a  volume  of  PremUres  Poisics  (185^58).   Thifr  was 


followed  by  a  wild  romanGe  at  the  supcnatunl,  IMf  (tM*), 
and  by  two  plays  in  prose,  EUh  (x866)  and  Uari9n$  (1866) 
La  Rivclie,  a  play  in  which  Ibsen's  Doll*s  House  aeum  to  be 
antiapated,  was  represented  at  the  Vaudeville  in  1870;  CpnSes 
cruels,  his  finest  volume  of  short  stories,  in  1883,  ijmI  a  new 
series  m  1889,  Le  Nouveau  Monde,  a  drama  in  five  acts,  in  1880, 
L'^ve  fulwe,  an  amazing  piece  of  buffoonery  satuidag  4lie 
pretensions  of  science,  in  1886,  TnbnUU  Bonkomet  in  1887, 
Le  Secret  de  Vickafaud  in  1888,  AxU  in  1890.    He  died  in  Paris, 
under  the  care  of  the  Frires  Saint -Jean-de-Dieu,  on  the  19th 
of  August  1889.    Villiers  has  left  behind  him  a  legend  probably 
not  more  fantastic  than  the  truth.     Sharing  mamy  of   the 
optmons  of  Don  Quixote,  he  shared  also  Don  (^uucole's  life. 
He  was  the  descendant  of  a  Grand  Master  of  the  Knights  ol 
Malta,  famous  in  htstoty,  and  his  pnde  as  an  aristocrat  and 
as  an  ideahst  were  equal    He  hated  mediocrity,  science,  pro^ 
ress,  the  present  age,  money  and  "  serious  "  people.    In  ooe 
division  of  his  work  he  attacked  all  the  things  which  he  hated 
with  a  savage  irony;  in  another  division  of  his  work  be  dis- 
covered at  least  some  ghmpses  of  the  ideal  world.    He  remains 
a  remarkable  poet  and  a  remarkable  satirist,  imperfect  as  both. 
He  improvised  out  of  an  abundant  gemus,  but  the  greater  part 
of  his  work  was  no  more  than  improvisation.    He  was  ac> 
customed  to  talk  his  stories  before  he  wrote  them.    Sometimes 
he  talked  them  instead  of  writing  them.    But  he  has  left,  at 
all  events,  the  CorUes  cruels,  in  which  may  be  found  every 
classic  quality  of  the  French  conk,  together  with  many  of  tbe 
qualities  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe  and  Ernst  Hoffman,  and  the 
drama  of  AxU,  m  which  the  stage  takes  a  new  splendour  and  a 
new  subtlety  of  meaning     ViUiers's  influence  on  the  youngcr 
French  writers  was  considerable     It  was  always  an  exaltation. 
No  one  in  his  time  followed  a  Uterary  ideal  more  romantically 

(A.  Sy.) 

See  also  R  du  Pontavice  de  Heussey,  ViUten  deT Isle-Adam  (1893), 
a  biography.  English  trans  (1Q04)  by  Ladv  Mary  Loyd,  S 
fAaWirmc,  Les  Miens  Villiers  de r Isle- Adam  {iSqi),^  Maxtincan, 
Un  vaanl  et  deux  marls  (1901).  bibliography  A  Belection  from  hia 
stories,  HtsUnres  mueeratnes,  was  made  by  hts  fnends  (Bniaaebw 
1899) 

VILUNGEN,  a  town  of  Germany  in  the  grand  duchy  of 
Baden,  pleasantly  situated  amid  well- wooded  hills,  5  a  m.  by 
rail  N  of  Schaffhausen  Pop  (1905)  9582  It  is  in  part  still 
surrounded  by  walls,  with  ancient  gate  towers.  It  is  the  chief 
seat  of  the  watch-making  mdustry  of  the  Blade  Forest.  It 
also  produces  musical-boxes,  ^ass  and  silk,  and  has  a  Gothic 
church  of  the  X3lh  century  and  another  of  the  nth,  a  t.sth- 
century  town  hall,  with  a  museum  of  antiquities,  and  musi^ 
technical  and  agricultural  schools. 

VILLOISON,  JEAN  BAPTISTS  GASPABO  D'AMSSB  (or 
Dannse)  de  (i75<^i805),  French  classical  scholar,  was  bom 
at  Corbeil-sur-Scine  on  the  5th  of  March  1750  (or  1753,  authori- 
ties differ).  He  belonged  to  a  noble  family  (De  Ansso)  of  Spanish 
origin,  and  took  his  surname  from  a  village  in  the  neighbour^ 
hood.  In  1773  he  published  the  Homeric  lexicon  of  ApoUoniua 
from  a  MS.  in  the  abbey  of  Saint  Germain  des  Pr£s.  In  1778 
appeared  his  edition  of  Longus's  Dapknis  and  ChUe,  In  178Z  he 
went  to  Venice,  where  he  spent  three  years  in  examining  the 
library,  his  expenses  being  paid  by  the  French  government. 
His  chief  discovery  was  a  10th-century-  MS.  of  the  Iliad,  with 
ancient  scholia  and  marginal  notes,  indicating  supposititious^ 
corrupt  or  transposed  verses.  After  leaving  Venice,  he  accepted 
the  invitation  of  the  duke  of  Saxc- Weimar  to  his  court.  Some 
of  the  fruits  of  his  researches  in  the  library  of  the  palace  were 
collected  into  a  volume  (Episbflae  Vitutrienses,  1783),  dedicated 
to  his  royal  hosts.  Hoping  to  find  a  treasure  similar  to  the 
Venetian  Homer  in  Greece,  he  returned  to  Paris  to  pzcfMtre 
for  a  journey  to  the  East.  He  visited  Constantinople,  Smyrna, 
the  Greek  islands,  and  Mount  Athos,  but  the  results  did  not 
come  up  to  his  expectation.  In  1786  he  returned,  and  in  X788 
brought  out  tde  Codex  Venetus  of  Homer,  which  cnated  a 
sensation  in  the  learned  worid.  When  the  revcdution  hxcke 
out,  being  banished  from  Paris,  he  lived  in  retirement  at  Orlfana, 
occupying  himself  chiefly  with  the  tsanscription  of  the  notes 


VILLON 


87 


fb  die  Bbraiy  of  tlie  btothen  Valob  (Vileshis).  On  the  restora- 
tion of  order,  having  returned  to  Faris»  he  accepted  the  pro- 
fessoiBhip  of  modem  Greek  esublished  by  the  government, 
and  held  it  until  it  was  transferred  to  the  College  de  France 
as  the  professorship  of  the  ancient  and  modem  Gre^  languages. 
He  dl^  soon  after  his  ^pointment,  on  the  25th  of  April  1805. 
Another  work  of  some  importance,  Aruodota  Graeca  (1781), 
from  the  Paris  and  Venice  libraries,  conUins  the  loma  (violet 
garden)  of  the  empress  Eudoda,  and  several  fragments  of 
lamblichus,  Porphyry,  Procopius  of  Gaza,  Choricius  and  the 
Greek  grammarians.  Materials  for  an  exhaustive  work  con- 
templated by  htm  on  ancient  and  modem  Greece  are  preserved 
m  tiie  n^al  library  of  Paris. 

See  J.  Dacier.  Notice  hisUfrique  sur  la  vie  d  Us  omrapi  dt 
ViUoison  (1806);  Cbaidon  dc  la  Rocbette.  U&anges  de  cnUque  el 
de  pkiMojne,  UL  (1812) ;  and  eBpcctaUy  the  article  by  his  friend  and 
pupil  E.  Quatremere  in  Nomdle  biognpkie  fjMrale^  nil.,  baaed  upon 
private  imoanation. 

VILLOV.  FRANCOIS  (jAii-c-  i463)>  French  poet  (whose  real 
Muname  is  a  matter  of  much  dispute,  so  that  he  is  also  called 
De  Montcorbier  and  Des  Logcs  and  by  other  names,  though 
hi  literature  Villon  is  the  sole  term  used),  was  bom  in  143 1,  and, 
as  it  seems,  certainly  at  Paris.  The  singular  poems  called 
TeakunaOs,  which  form  his  chief  if  not  his  only  certain  work, 
are  largely  autobiographical,  though  of  course  not  fully  trust- 
worthy. But  his  frequent  coUisiotts  with  the  law  have  left 
more  certain  records,  which  have  of  late  been  ransacked  with 
extraordinary  care  by  students,  espedaUy  by  M.  Longnon. 
It  ai^)earB  that  he  was  bora  of  poor  folk,  that  his  father  died 
in  his  youth,  but  that  his  mother,  for  whom  he  wrote  one  of 
hia  most  famous  ballades,  was  alive  when  her  son  was  thirty 
years  old.  The  very  name  Villon  was  stated,  and  that  by  no 
mean  authority,  the  president  Claude  Fauchet,  to  be  merely 
a  common  and  not  a  proper  noun,  signifying  "  cheat "  or 
"rascal";  but  this  seems  to  be  a  mistake.  It  is,  however, 
certain  that  Villon  was  a  person  of  loos^  life,  and  that  he 
continued,  long  after  there  was  any  excuse  for  it  in  his  years, 
the  reckless  way  of  living  common  among  the  wilder  youth 
of  the  university  of  Paris.  He  appears  to  have  derived  his 
surname  from  a  friend  and  benefactor  named  Guillaume  de 
Villon,  chaplain  in  the  colle^le  church  of  Saint-Benolt-Ie- 
Bestourni,  and  a  professor  of  canon  law,  who  took  Villon  into 
his  house.  The  poet  became  a  student  in  arts,  no  doubt 
early,  perhaps  at  about  twelve  years  of  age,  and  took  the 
degree  of  bachelor  in  1449  and  that  of  master  in  1452.  Between 
this  year  and  1455  nothing 'positive  is  known  of  him,  except 
that  nothing  was  known  against  him.  Attempts  have  been 
made,  in  the  usual  fashion  of  conjectural  biography,  to  fill  up 
the  gap  with  what  a  young  graduate  of  Bohemian  tendencies 
would,  could,  or  might  have  done;  but  they  are  mainly  futile. 

On  the  5th  of  June  1455  the  first  important  incident  of 
his  life  that  is  known  occuned.  Being  in  the  company  of  a 
priest  named  Giles  and  a  girl  named  Isabeau,  he  met,  in  the 
rue  Saint-Jacques,  a  certain  Breton,  Jean  le  Hard!,  a  master 
of  arts,  who  was  with  a  priest,  Philippe  Chermoye  or  Sermoise 
or  Sermaise.  A  scuffle  ensued;  daggers  were  drawfi,  and 
Sermaise,  who  is  accused  of  having  threatened  and  attacked 
Villon  and  drawn  the  first  blood,  not  only  received  a  dagger- 
thrust  in  return,  but  a  blow  from  a  stone  which  struck  him 
down.  Sermaise  died  of  his  wounds.  Villon  fled,  and  was 
sentenced  to  banishment— a  sentence  which  was  remitted  in 
January  1456,  the  formal  pardon  being  extant,  strangely 
enough,  in  two  different  documents,  in  one  of  which  the  culprit 
is  described  as  "  Francois  des  Logcs,  autrcment  dit  Villon,** 
in  the  other  a.^  "  Francois  de  Montcorbier  "  That  he  is  also 
said  to  have  described  himself  to  the  barber-surgeon  who 
dressed  his  wounds  as  Michel  Mouton  is  less  surprising,  and 
hardly  needs  an  addition  to  the  list  of  his  aliases.  It  should, 
however,  be  said  that  the  documents  relative  to  this  affair 
confirm  the  date  of  his  birth,  by  representing  him  as  twenty- 
six  years  old  or  thereabouts.  By  the  end  of  1456  he  was  again 
in  trouble.    In  his  first  broO  **  la  femme  Isabeau  **  b  only 


generally  named,  and  it  Is  imposs3>le  to  say  whether  she  had 
anything  to  do  with  the  quarrel.  In  the  second,  Catherine 
de  Vaucelles,  of  whom  we  hear  not  a  little  in  the  poems,  is  the 
declared  cause  of  a  scuffle  in  which  Villon  was  so  severely 
beaten  that,  to  escape  ridicule,  he  fled  to  Angers,  where  lie 
had  an  unde  who  was  a  monk.  It  was  before  leaving  Paris 
that  he  composed  what  is  now  known  as  the  P«fif  iestamenlf 
of  which  we  shall  speak  presently  with  the  rest  of  his  poems, 
and  which,  it  should  be  said,  shows  little  or  no  such  mark  of 
profound  bitterness  and  regret  for  wasted  life  as  does  its  in 
every  sense  greater  successor  the  Grand  testament.  Indeed, 
Villon's  serious  troubles  were  only  beginning,  for  hitherto  he 
had  been  rather  injured  than  guilty.  About  Christmas-time 
the  chapel  of  the  college  of  Navarre  was  broken  open,  and 
five  hxmdred  gold  crowns  stolen.  The  robbery  was  not  dis- 
covered till  March  1457,  and  it  was  not  till  May  that  the  police 
came  on  the  track  of  a  gang  of  student-robbers  owing  to  the 
indiscretion  of  one  of  them,  Guy  Tabarie.  A  3rear  more  passed, 
-when  Tabarie,  being  arrested,  turned  king's  evidence  and 
accused  Villon,  who  was  then  absent,  of  being  the  ring-leader, 
and  of  having  gone  to  Angers,  partly  at  least,  to  arrange  for 
simiLu-  burglaries  there.  Villon,  for  this  or  some  other  crime, 
was  sentenced  to  banishment;  and  he  did  not  attempt  to  return 
to  Paris.  In  fact  for  four  years  he  was  a  wanderer;  and  he 
may  have  been,  as  each  of  his  friends  Regnier  de  Montigny 
and  Colin  des  Cayeux  certainly  was,  a  member  of  a  wandering 
thieves'  gang.  It  is  certain  that  at  one  time  (in  1457),  and 
probable  that  at  more  times  than  one,  he  was  in  correspondence 
with  Charles  d'0rl6ans,  and  it  is  likely  that  he  resided,  at  any 
rate  for  some  period,  at  that  prince's  court  at  Blois.  He  had 
also  something  to  do  with  another  prince  of  the  blood,  Jean 
of  Bourbon,  and  traces  are  foimd  of  him  in  Poitou,  in  Dauphin6, 
&C.  But  at  his  next  certain  appearance  he  is  again  in  trouble. 
He  tells  us  that  he  had  spent  the  summer  of  1461  in  the  bishop's 
prison  (bishops  were  fatal  to  VUlon)  ci  Meung.  His  crime  is 
not  known,  but  Is  supposed  to  have  been  church-robbing; 
and  his  enemy,  or  at  least  judge,  was  Thibault  d'Aussigny, 
who  held  the  see  of  Orleans.  Villon  owed  his  release  to  a 
general  gaol-delivery  at  the  accession  of  Louis  XI.,  and  became 
a  free  man  again  on  the  2nd  of  October. 

It  was  now  that  he  wrote  the  Grand  testament,  the  work 
which  has  immortalised  him.  Although  he  was  only  thirty 
at  the  date  (1461)  of  this  composilion  (which  is  unmistakable, 
because  given  in  the  book  itselQ,  there  seems  to  be  no  kind 
of  aspiration  towards  a  new  life,  nor  even  any  hankering  after 
the  old.  Nothing  appears  to  be  left  him  but  regret,  his  very 
spirit  has  been  wom  out  by  excesses  or  sufferings  or  both. 
Even  his  good  intentions  must  have  been  feeble,  for  in  the 
autumn  of  1462  we  find  him  once  more  living  in  the  cloisters, 
of  Saint-Benolt,  and  in  November  he  was  in  the  Ch&telet  tor 
theft.  In  default  of  evidence  the  old  charge  of  the  college 
of  Navarre  was  revived,  and  even  a  royal  pardon  did  not  baV 
the  demand  for  restitution.  Bail  was,  however,  accepted, 
but  Villon  fell  promptly  into  a  street  quarrel,  was  arrested, 
tortured  and  condemned  to  be  hanged,  but  the  sentence  was 
commuted  to  banishment  by  thepariemcnt  on  the  5th  of  January 
1463.  The  actual  event  is  unknown:  but  from  this  time  he 
dbappears  from  history.  Rabelais  indeed  tells  two  stories 
about  him  which  have  almoet  necessarily  hetn  dated  later. 
One  is  a  countryside  anecdote  of  a  trick  supposed  to  have 
been  played  by  the  poet  in  bis  old  age  at  Saint  Maixent  in 
Poitou,  whither  he  bad  retired.  The  other,  a  coarse  but 
pointed  jest  at  th^  expense  of  Eng^d,  is  told  as  having  been 
addressed  by  Villon  to  King  Edward  V  during  an  exfle  in  that 
country.  Now,  even  if  King  Edward  V  were  not  evidently  out 
of  the  question,  a  passage  of  the  story  refers  to  the  wdl-known 
scholar  and  man  of  science,  Thomas  linacre,  as  court  ph3rsicLan 
to  the  king,  and  makes  Villon  mention  him,  whereas  Linacre 
was  only  a  young  scholar,  not  merely  at  the  time  of  Edward  V  *s 
supposed  murder,  but  at  the  extreme  date  (1489)  which  can  be 
assigned  to  Villon's  life.  For  in  this  year  the  first  edition  of 
the  poet's  work  appeared,  obviously  not  published  by  himself. 


VILNA 

it  of  hit  htviiif  lived  bita  tlian  the  dtite 


if  Villon 


tiooi,  if  it  wen  Dot  tlut  the  aathor  of  Pamlcgruel  was  bora 
almost  looa  oii>iiAh  to  h»ve  actually  kcq  VLUon  if  he  had 
lived  to  isytbiiic  that  could  be  [ailed  old  age,  Ibit  he  iIdkiM 
certusly  mmt  have  known  men  who  had  known  VillDQ,  and 
that  tlie  poet  undoubtaQy  spent  much  time  in  Rabtlaii'*  owi 
conntiy  od  the  bankA  of  Ihe  lower  Loire. 

The  obBcuHly.  the  onhappcnev  arid  the  evil  remote  of  VIDaa' 

life  vnuld  not  be  in  tbeiaaclvct  a  reuon  for  the  nuaiite  iaveKin- 

tian  lo  which  the  event*  of  that  life  have  been  ■ub>«ted,  and  the 

lit  of  *hkh  hat  beeo  nimmed  up  here-    But  hi(  poetical 


ng  tieure^  haa  l»ca  often  prai 
wc  wRich  be  realty  poa^fucfT  B 
m  ii  Eltolled  for  fuving  Erat  I 

Chads  d'OiUana  Hii  m  Tulm 
ID  Id  them  of  a  rcfular  daia-aane 
'  "f  bcutaHbe  teiaciB  to  hi-  -'»'»■ 
anai  (i  cight-ayllabled 


,11™^  "nd.  with  exceptloaa  not  r -'- 

e,  cLutkal  poeftry,  are  diidiwiuibed  by  their  kck  c( 
DOW  uUed  iIh  penoul  dole,    fa  Vilkw  Uiia  soR  WHmdi 
with  BuiKular  foice  and  aVill.    AE^in,  the  timple  joy  of  ilv'ui_ 
dittiDPUuhes  both  period* — the  medieval,  doipitc  a  common  otuoion. 
icarcej^  leea  than  the  ancienl— haa  diHppcgred._    Even  the  not 


id  roUickillB:  of  hia  eaiijer  daya 


Baiia^du  aama^ilitlempsjadu.vith  itai 
(he  other  ballade  of  La  Crosu  iSartol.  «i 


hia  work,  the  Jtffnb  it  la  BOt  Hmmlmiin,  is  which  •  wonu, 
ice  young  aod  beautiJut,  now  old  and  withered,  lamenta  ber 
■t  cnannt.    So  it  la  almoat  thnnuhout  hia  pocma,  iDchiding  the 

glim  Ballaie  da  »nid«i,  and  hardly  effiludinj  •'■ ' — •^"' 

itOadi  ftar  a  nUrt.  with  Ita  '---'-'--  -'  -■ 


their  codi^  (the  Utter 
frroperly  Epiiaplu  en  Jo 


-holy  fehich  the  ■ 

inlajnioff  the  Baliadt  des  padt 
nf  da  bStad*.  and  Krnie  other 


, ,  baltedea 

.jliedion  (caUed  U  Jtrtn  tu  )etil<K)  o 

irrater.pact  of  wUch  ia  aov  totally  uunttllifible 


of  Ofaieu  UbM,  oh  of  whoaa  noK  horanUa  <i»tlDerio—  k 

the  caie  he  looh of  hit  poetical  predtcMnra.  Tin  nfiiili una  m 

and  ihe  rlaMririm  of  the  psnd  litilt  put  VlUaa  niher  out  at 
favour,  ud  he  waa  nc  vain  reprined  tOI  early  in  the  Itth  cemnry, 
whn  he  anncctd  the  attcnliaa  al  atndeata  of  old  Fnoch  IUk  Lm 
I>uchat,  BenULRl  de  la  Uoaooye  and  Pn^nr  hlaichaad.  Tlw 
tint  criiknl  edition  in  the  modem  aeme — that  ia  10  lay,  an  oilitio«a 
founded  on  MSS.  (of  which  there  are  ia  Villon  a  caae  levenl,  chieflr 
at  Paria  and  Stockholm)— m  that  a(  the  Abbt  J.  H.  RThmp- 
•aoh  in  lau.  The  nen  waa  that  (d  the  "  Bflbphlle  JUDb  " 
(P.  Laonirin  the  BiiUitUaMi  BMrinmm  (Faik,  iBu).  Tin 
atandard  edition  ia  CEwei  UHfUUi  di  FraMftiiViOim,  by  U. 
Auguate  Lon^noD  (iAqi)-  Thia  oodlalna  oopiea  of  the  docuAtenta 
on  which  the  atory  a  Vilion'i  life  it  baaed.  atHl  a  blUioaiwnbT- 
Thc  lite  M.  Mairel  Scbwob  diaoovend  new  dacuema  relating  ts 
the  poet,  but  died  befarr  be  could  canplMe  hia  wotk.  irtiich  m* 
potthunuuily  publiahed  in  1905.  See  aljo  A.  Campaux,  F.  Vilitrit, 
atitH  smnarei  (1859);  A.  Lonrnon,  £hidi  tuini^Mjya  (IBM); 
and  eipeciiHy  C.  Farii,  FmiBii  Villm  (1901),  a  book  of  the  Brat 
merit.  A  complete  tiantlalion  of  Villan  waa  written  by  Mr  Join 
Payne  (1978)  Tor  the  Villon  Society.  There  an  abo  mndatiofB 
-'  ■-•'■■■■•■-•  poema  in  Mr  Andrew  lAu^a  BtOaii  ant  Lrria 
'  -  •  ■  i-  .K.-~k,of  D.  C.  RoiaettlaiidMr 
of  VmoB  may  be  mefilnfied 
■  ■  ■  *  ■  „bvThda- 
^tamOUr 
isai).    An  unedited  ballad  by  Vflloo^ 

b)  [891)^  Vn  foiu  tnannn.    m.  Pierre 

ini  "  ■'"*"         *(g!^Y" 

nuiA,  or  Wnjio,  ■  Lithuaiaui  gomnimeBt  of  Weit  Kohn, 
having  the  Foliihgoveniinait  of  Suwalki  on  theW.,Eon»  and 
VitdMk  on  the  N,,  and  Misak  and  Crodoo  on  the  E.  ud  S. 
Area,  76,178  tq.  m.;  pop.  (1906  eatimale)  1,806.300.  Viln« 
lies  on  tbe  broad  manby  awellingi  dotted  wflh  lako,  which 
separate*  Polaad  from  the  province  of  E«M  Pnueia  and  Itietches 
£.N£.  towards  the  Valdai  Haleau. 

Ita  higheaf  parta  are  a  little  moie  than  toOOjt.  above  teB-lri-e!. 


in  the  worlo  of 
nl  nudiea  of  \ 
be  CamUTiadm- 
,  and  by  R.  L.  St 


I  Lower  Tertiary  dq»eiI9,  bi 


hiefly  taj 


.     The  Teitlaiy  dcpmila  conUat  of  E«c 

—  ,. „ .»  onpn.     ThTwhole  _ 

n  of  Gladat  boulder  clay  and  nnt'Clackl 


"^^^ 


from  Vitebik.    The  dimi 


J;   it  now*  ina   marahy  valley  in  The 

Lie  of  the  jrovenuReDC  it  oulv  aliahdr 
tcmpereo  Dy  it*  proiimiiy  to  the  iSik  Sea  {Jaouary.  ai'-f; 
■'"!?■  '^„ft*nwii,{'e7^ihllll^^d°'  "''u"™^  "'  Vilna.il only 
ri  -}o'  P  having  been  obsoved.  Tbe  flora  and  fauna  are  inter- 
mediate between  those  of  Poland  and  midtile  Ruwa. 

The  oovenuDcnt  1*  divided  into  aeven  dlBIricEi,  the  chief  (own 
of  wlllcli  an  Vilna,  VileiU.  Diana,  Lids,  Oahmyany,  Zveniajany 

VIUIl.  01  Wumo,  a  (own  ol  Riiuia,  caiH(a1  of  tbe  govem- 

ment  of  the  same  name,  436  m.  S.S.W.  of  St  Fetersburi,  si  the 

intenection  of  the  railways  from  St  Feteisbuig  to  Wanaw  and 

from  Ubau  to  tbe  mouth  ol  the  DoiL    Pop.  (iS8j)  g],76o; 

(1900)  161,63^.    With  its  lubuibs  Antokol,  Lukishki,  Pogul- 

yanka  and  Sarechye,  it  stands  on  and  aroimd  a  knot  of  hilli 

(siSofDaltheconllueDceol  the  Vilcika  wilh  tbe  Viliya.    lis 

stieets  are  in  part  narrow  nud  not  very  clean;  but  Vilna  Is  an 

old  town,  rich  in  biatoticnl  asfioci^tioEis.    lis  imperial  palace, 

and  the  cslbedial  of  St  SlanisUus  (13S7,   restored  iSoi),  con- 

'ning  Ihe  silver  ssitophagus  of  St  CaaimLT  and  tbe  totnb  of 

ince  Vitof  t,  atefine  buildings.    There  is  a  second  cathedral,  thai 

St  Nicholas,  built  in  1^96-160^;  alio  sevenL  churches  dating 


VILVORDE— VINCENT,  ST 


89 


from  the  z4th  to  the  i6tb  centuries.  The  Ostra  Brama  chapel 
contains  an  image  of  the  Virgin  greatly  venerated  by  Orthodox 
Greeks  and  Roman  Catholics  alike.  The  museum  of  antiquities 
has  valuable  historical  collections.  The  ancient  castle  of  the 
JagcUones  is  now  a  mass  of  ruins.  The  old  university,  founded 
in  1578,  was  restored  (1803)  by  Alexander  I.,  but  has  been  closed 
since  1833  for  political  reasons;  the  only  departments  which 
remain  in  activity  are  the  astronomical  observatory  and  a 
medical  academy.  Vibia  is  an  archiepiscopal  see  of  the  Ortho- 
dox Greek  Church  and  an  episcopal  see  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  the  headquarters  of  the  governor-general  of  the 
Lithuanian  provinces  and  of  the  III.  army  corps.  The  dty 
possesses  a  botanical  garden  and  a  public  library,  and  is  adorned 
with  statues  to  Catherine  II.  (1903),  the  poet  Pushkin  and 
Count  M.  Muraviev  (1898).  It  is  an  important  centre  for  trade 
in  timber  and  grain,  which  are  exported;  and  has  theological 
seminaries,  both  Orthodox  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic,  a 
military  school,  a  normal  school  for  teachers  and  professional 
schools.  It  is  the  seat  of  many  sdeiUific  societies  (geographical, 
medical  and  archaeological),  and  has*  a  good  antiquarian 
museum  and  a  public  library. 

History. — ^The  territory  of  Vilna  has  been  occupied  by  the 
Lithuanians  since  the  loth  century,  and  probably  much  earlier; 
their  chief  fortified  town,  Vilna,  is  first  mentioned  in  xia8.  A 
temple  to  the  god  Pcrkunas  stood  on  one  of  its  hills  till  1387, 
when  it  was  destroyed  by  Prince  Jagiello,  after  his  baptism. 
After  1323,  when  Gedymin,  prince  of  Lithuania,  abandoned 
Troki,  Vilna  became  the  capital  of  Lithuania.  The  formerly 
independent  principalities  of  Minsk  and  Lidy,  as  well  ss  the 
territory  of  Disna,  which  belonged  to  the  Polotsk  principality, 
were  annexed  by  the  Lithuanian  princes,  and  from  that  time 
Vilna,  which  was  fortified  by  a  stone  wall,  became  the  chief  city 
of  the  Lithuanian  state.  It  was  united  with  Poland  when  its 
prince,  Casimir  IV.,  was  elected  (1447)  to  the  Pob'sh  throne. 
The  plague  of  1 588,  a  fire  in  x6io  and  stUl  more  the  wars  between 
Russia  and  Poland,  which  began  in  the  17th  century,  checked 
its  further  grovih.  The  Russians  took  Vilna  in  1655,  and  in 
the  following  year  it  was  ceded  to  Russia.  The  Swedes  captured 
it  in  1702  and  in  1706.  The  Russians  again  took  possession  of 
it  in  1788;  and  it  was  finally  annexed  to  Rusaa  in  1795,  after 
the  partition  of  Poland.  Its  Polish  inhabitants  took  an  active 
part  in  the  risings  of  1831  and  1863,  for  which  they  were 
severely  punished  by  the  Russian  government. 

VILVORDE,  a  town  of  Belgium  in  the  province  of  Brabant, 
9  m.  N.  of  Brussels  and  on  the  Senne.  Pop.  (1904)  14,4 18.  The 
old  castle  of  Vilvorde,  which  often  gave  shelter  to  the  dukes  of 
Brabant  in  their  days  of  trouble,  is  now  used  as  a  prison.  The 
younger  Teniers  lived  and  died  a£  a  farm  outside  Vilvorde,  and 
is  buried  in  the  parish  church  of  Dry  Toren. 

VIJICENNES,  a  town  of  northern  France,  in  the  department 
of  Seine,  on  a  wooded  plateau  xi  m.  £.  of  the  fortifications  of 
Paris,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail  and  tram.  Pop.  (1906) 
town,  29,791;  commune,  34,185.  Its  celebrated  castle,  situated 
to  the  south  of  the  town  and  on  the  northern  border  of  the  Bois 
de  Vincenncs,  was  formerly  a  royal  residence,  begun  by  Louis 
VII.  in  XX64,  and  more  than  once  rebuilt.  It  was  frequently 
visited  by  Louis  IX.,  who  held  informal  tribunals  in  the  neigh- 
bouring wood,  a  pyramid  marking  the  spot  where  the  oak  under 
which  he  administered  justice  is  said  to  have  stood.  Tbe  chapel, 
an  imitation  of  the  Sainte  Chapelle  at  Paris,  was  begun  by 
Charles  V.  in  1379,  continued  by  Charles  VI.  and  Francis  I., 
conseoated  in  1552  and  restored  in  modem  times.  In  the 
sacristy  is  the  monument  erected  in  x8i6  to  the  memory  of  the 
duke  of  Enghien,  who  was  shot  in  the  castle  moat  in  1804. 
Louis  XI.  made  the  castle  a  state  prison  in  which  Henry  of 
Navarre,  the  great  Cond£,  MIrabcau  and  other  distinguished 
persons  were  afterwards  confined.  Under  Napoleon  I.  the 
castle  became  a  magazine  of  war-material.  Louis  XVin. 
added  an  armoury,  and  under  Louis  Philippe  numerous  case- 
mates and  a  new  fort  to  the  east  of  the  donjon  were  constructed. 
The  place  now  serves  as  a  fort,  arsenal  and  )>arracks.  It  forms 
A  le^ang^  417  y^-  long  by  345  yds.  wide.    Tht  enfloang  waU 


was  originally  flanked  by  nine  towers,  which  were  cut  down  to 
its  lev(;,l  between  x8o8  and  x8ix,  and  now  serve  as  bastions. 
The  donjon  is  a  square  tower,  170  ft.  high,  with  turrets  at  the 
comers.  Tbe  Bois  de  Vincennes,  which  covers  about  2300 
acres  and  stretches  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Mame,  contains 
a  race-course,  a  military  training-ground,  a  school  of  military 
explosives  (pyrotechnic),  several  arti^dal  lakes,  an  artillery 
polygon  and  other  military  establishments,  an  experiments 
farm,  the  redoubts  of  Gravelle  and  La  Faisanderie  and  the 
normal  school  of  military  gymnastics.  The  wood,  which  now 
belongs  to  Paris,  was  laid  out  during  the  second  empire  on  the 
same  lines  as  the  Bois  de  Boulogne.  On  its  south  border  is  the 
asylum  of  Vincennes,  founded  in  1855  for  the  benefit  of  con- 
valescents from  the  hospitals.  In  the  town  there  is  a  statue  of 
General  Daumesnil,  celebrated  for  his  defense  of  the  castle 
against  the  allies  in  X814  and  1815.  Vincenncs  has  a  school  of 
military  administration  and  carries  on  horticulture  and  the 
manufacture  of  ironware  of  various  kinds,  rubber  goods, 
chemicals,  perfumery,  mineral  waters,  &c. 

VINCENNES*  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Knox  county, 
Indiana,  U.S.A.,  in  the  S.W.  part  of  the  state,  on  the  £.  bank  of 
the  Wabash  river,  about  117  m.  S.W.  of  Indianapolis.  Pop. 
'  (i8yo)  8853;  (1900)  xo,249,  of  whom  736  were  foreign-bom; 
(1910  census)  141895.  It  is  served  by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio 
South- Western,  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati ,  Chicago  &  St  Louis, 
the  Evansville  &  Tcrre  Haute,  and  the  Vandalia  railways. 
Extensive  levees,  15  m.  in  length,  prevent  the  overfiow  of  the 
Wabash  river,  which  for  nine  months  in  the  year  is  navigable 
from  this  point  to  the  Ohio.  The  city  is  level  and  well  drained, 
and  has  a  good  water-supply  S3rstem.  In  Vincennes  are  a  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral,  erected  in  1835,  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  West, 
occupying  the  site  of  a  church  built  early  in  the  18th  century; 
Vincennes  University  (1806),  the  oldest  educational  institution 
in  the  state,  which  in  1910  had  14  instructors  and  236  students; 
St  Rose  Female  Academy,  and  a  public  library.  Coal,  natural 
gas  and  oil  are  found  near  Vincennes.  The  city  is  a  manufactur- 
ing and  railway  centre,  and  ships  grain,  pork  and  neat  cattle. 
The  total  value  of  the  factory  products  in  1905  was  $3,x72,279. 
Vincenncs  was  the  first  permanent  settlement  in  Indiana.  On 
its  site  Francois  Margane,  Sieur  de  Vincennes,  established  a 
French  military  post  about  X73X,  and  a  permanent  settlement 
was  made  about  the  fort  in  1735.  After  the-  fall  of  Quebec  the 
place  remained  under  French  sovereignly  until  1777,  when  it  was 
occupied  by  a  British  garrison.  In  1778  an  agent  of  George 
Rogers  Gark  took  possession  of  the  fort  on  behalf  of  Virginia, 
but  it  was  soon  afterwards  again  occupied  by  the  British,  who 
called  it  Fort  Sackville  and  held  it  until  February  17 79,  when  it 
was  besieged  and  was  captured  (on  the  25th  of  Febmary)  by 
George  Rogera  Clark,  and  passed  finally  under  American  juris- 
diction. The  site  of  the  fort  is  marked  by  a  granite  shaft  erected 
in  X905  by  the  Daughters  of  the  Revolution.  Vincennes  was  thtt* 
capital  of  Indiana  Territory  from  1800  to  1813,  and  was  the 
meeting-place  in  X805  of  the  first  General  Assembly  of  Indiana 
Territory.  In  X839  it  was  incorporated  as  a  borough,  and  it 
became  a  dty  in  1856. 

Sec  T.  Law,  The  CoUmial  History  0/  Vincennes  (Vincennes,  1858): 
W.  H.  Smith,  "  Vi»ccnne«,  the  Key  to  the  North-West."  in  L.  P. 
Powell's  Historic  Towns  of  the  Western  States  (New  York,  1901) ; "  The 
Capture  of  Vincennes  by  George  Rogers  Clark,"  Old  South  Leaflets, 
No.  43  (Boston,  n.d.) ;  also  chap.  ii.  of  J.  P.  Dunn's  Indiana  (Boston, 
1892). 

VINCENT  (or  Vincbntzxts),  8T,  deacon  and  martyr,  whose 

festival  is  celebrated  on  the   22nd  of  January.    In   several 

of  his  discourses  St  Augustine  pronounces  the  eulogy  of  this 

martyr,  and  refers  to  A  cis  which  were  read  in  the  church.     It  is 

doubtful  whether  tht  Acts  that  have  come  down  to  us  (AcUl 

Sanctorum,  January,  ii.  394-397)  are  those  referred  to  by  St 

Augustine,. since  it  is  not  certain  that  they  are  a  contemporary 

document.    According  to  this  account,  Vincent  was  bom  oi 

noble  parents  in  Spain,  and  was  educated  by  Valerius,  bishop 

of  Saragossa,  who  ordained  him  to  the  diaconate.    Under  the 

persecution  of  Diodetian,  Vincent  was  arrested  and  taken  to 

VaJenda.    Having  itood  firm  in  bis  profession  before  Daciaous^ 


90 


VINCENT  OF  BEAUVAIS 


the  governor,  he  was  subjected  to  excruciating  tortures  and 

throwD  into  prison,  where  angels  visited   him,  lighting    his 

dungeon  with  celestial  light  and  relieving  his  sufferings.    His 

warders,  having  seen  these  wonders  through  the  chmks  of  the 

wall,  forthwith  became  Christians.    He  was  afterwards  brought 

out  and  laid  upon  a  soft  mattress  in  order  that  he  might  regain 

sufficient  strength  for  new  torments;  but,  while  Dacianus  was 

meditating  punishment,   the  saint  gently  breathed  his  last. 

The  tyrant  exposed  his  body  to  wild  beasts,  but  a  raven 

miraculously  descended  and  protected  it.    It  was  then  thrown 

into  the  sea,  but  was  cast  up  on  the  shore,  recovered  by  a  pious 

woman  and  buried  outside  Valencia.    Prudentius  devoted  one 

of  hb  hymns  {Perisupk.  v.)  to  St  Vincent,  and  St  Augustine 

attests  that  in  his  lifetime  the  festival  of  the  saint  was  celebrated 

throughout  the  Christian  world  (Serm.  276,  n.  4). 

See  T.  Ruinart,  Acta  martyrum  sincera  (Amsterdam,  171^).  pp. 
36^-66;  Le  Nain  de  Tillemont^  Mimoires  pour  servir  A  rJtistoire 
atUsiastigue  (Paris,  1 701 .  aeq.).  v.  2 15-325, 673-675.  (H.  Ds.) 

YINCENT  OF  BEAUVAIS,  or  Vincentius  Bellovaccnsis 
{e.  X190-C.  X364),  the  encydo|>aedist  of  the  middle  ages,  was 
probably  a  native  of  Bcauvais.*  The  exact  dates  of  his  birth 
and  death  arc  unknown.  A  tolerably  old  tradition,  preserved 
by  Louis  a  Valleolcti  (c.  1413),  gives  the  latter  as  1264;*  but 
Tholomaeus  de  Luca,  Vincent's  younger  contemporary  (d.  1321), 
seems  to  reckon  him  as  living  during  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  X. 
(1271-76).  If  we  assume  1264  as  the  year  of  his  death,  the 
immense  volume  of  his  works  forbids  us  to  think  he  could  have 
been  bom  much  later  than  11 90.  Very  little  is  known  of.  his 
career.  A  plausible  conjecture  makes  him  enter  the  house  of  the 
Dominicans  at  Paris  between  12x5  and  x22o,  from  which  place  a 
second  conjecture  carries  him  to  the  Dominican  monastery 
founded  at  Beauvais  in  1228-29.  There  is  no  evidence  to  show 
that  the  Vincent  who  was  sub-prior  of  this  foundation  in  X246 
b  the  encyclopaedist;  nor  indeed  is  it  likely  that  a  man  of  such 
abnormally  studious  habits  could  have  found  time  to  attend  to 
the  daily  bu^ness  routine  of  a  monastic  establishment.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  he  at  one  time  held  the  post  of  "  reader  " 
at  the  monastery  of  Royaumont  {Mons  Regfdis)^  not  farlrom 
Paris,  on  the  Oise,  founded  by  St  Louis  between  1228  and  1235. 
St  Louis  read  the  books  that  he  compiled,  and  supplied  the  funds 
for  procuring  copies  of  such  authors  as  he  required  for  his  com- 
pilations. Queen  Margaret,  her  son  Philip  and  her  son-in-law, 
Theobald  V.  of  Champagne  and  Navarre,  are  also  named  among 
those  who  urged  him  to  the  composition  of  his  "  little  works," 
especially  the  De  Inslilutionc  Principum.  Though  Vincent  may 
well  have  been  summoned  to  Royaumont  even  before  1 240,  there 
is  no  actual  proof  that  he  lived  there  before  the  return  of  Louis  IX. 
and  his  wife  from  the  Holy  Land,  early  in  the  summer  of  1254. 
But  it  is  evident  that  he  must  have  written  his  work  De 
,EntdUione  FUiorum  Regalium  (where  he  styles  himself  as 
"  Vincentius  Belvacensis,  de  ordine  praedicatorum,  qualiscumque 
lector  in  monasterio  de  Regali  Monte  ")  after  this  date  and  yet 
before  January  1260,  the  approximate  date  of  his  Tractatus 
Consdotorius.  "When  he  wrote  the  latter  work  he  must  have 
left  Royaumont,  as  he  speaks  of  reluming  from  the  funeral  of 
Prince  Louis  dsih  January  1260)  "ad  n^tram  domum,*'  a 
phrase  which  can  hardly  be  explained  otherwise  than  as  referring 
to  his  own  Dominican  he  use,  whether  at  Beauvais  or  elsewhere. 

The  Speculum  Majus,  fhe  great  compendium  of  all  the  knowledge 
of  the  middle  ages,  as  it  left  the  pen  01  Vincent,  seems  to  have  con- 
sisted of  three  parts  only.  vit.  the  Speculum  Nalurale,  Doctrinale 
and  Hutoriale.  Such,  at  least,  is  £chard's  conclusion,  derived  from 
an  examination  of  the  earliest  extant  MSS.  All  the  printed  editions, 
however,  consist  of  four  parts,  the  additional  one  being  entitled 
Speculum  Morale.  This  has  been  clearly  shown  to  be  the  production 
of  a  later  hand,  and  is  ascribed  by  Echard  to  the  period  between 
1310  and  1325.    In  arrangement  and  style  it  is  quite  different  from 

*He  is  sometimes  styled  Vincentius  Burgundus;  but.  according 
to  M.  Daunou,  this  appellation  cannot  be  traced  back  further  than 
the  fiiit  half  of  the  I5tn  century. 

•  Apparently  confirmed  by  the  few  enigmatical  lines  pmerved  by 
£chara  from  nis  epitaph — 

"  Pertulit  ibie  necem  post  annos  miiic  ducentos, 
Senginu  decern  sex  habe.  tex  mihi  rcteatoa.'* 


the  other  three  parts,  and  lodeed  it  b  ntainly  a  oompllation 
Thomas  Aquinas,  Stephen  de  Bourfooa,  and  two  or  three  4>ti»«r 
contampoFary  writers. 

The  Speculum  NaturaU  fills  a  bulky  folio  volume  of  848  closely 
printed  double-columned   pagca.       It  b  divided   into  thirty-two 
books  and  3718  chapters.    It  b  a  vast  summary  of  all  the  natural 
bbtory  known  to  western  Europe  towards  the  middle  of  the  13th 
century.     It  is,  as  it  ware,  the  great  temple  of  medieval  sck^nce, 
whose  floor  and  walb  are  inbid  with  an  enormous  mosaic  of  skilfully 
arranged  passages  from  Latin,  Greek,  Arabic,  and  even  Hebrew 
authors.    To  eaA  quotation,  as  he  borrows  it,  Vincent  prefixes 
the  name  of  the  book  and  author  from  whom  it  is  taken,  dbtinguisb- 
ing,  however,  bb  own  remarka  by  the  word  "  actor."  The  Spectdum 
tfalurale  is  so  constructed  that  the  various  subjects  are  dealt  tiith 
according  to  the  order  of  their  creation;  it  b  in  fact  a  gigantic 
commentary  on  Ctenesis  i.    Thus  book  i.  opens  with  an  account 
of  the  Trinity  and  its  rebtion  to  creation;  then  follows  a  similar 
series  of  chapters  about  angels,  their  attributes,  powers,  ordera,  &c.. 
down  to  such  minute   points  as  their  methods  of  oommunicating 
thought,  on  which  nnatter  the  author  decides,  in  hb  own  person, 
that  they  have  a  kind  of  intelligible  speech,  and  that  with  angels  to 
think  and  to  speak  are  not  the  same  ^occss.    The  whole  bcx>lc,  in 
fact,  deab  with  such  things  as  were  with  God  "  in  the  beginning." 
Book  ii.  treats  of  our  own  worU,  of  light,  colour,  the  four  element^ 
Lucifer  and  his  fallen  angels,  thus  corresponding  in  the  main  with 
the  sensible  world  and  the  work  of  the  first  day.    Books  iii.  and  iv. 
deal  with  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens  and  of  time,  which  b 
measured  by  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  with  the  sky  and 
all  its  wonders,  fire,  rain,  thunder,  dew,  winds,  &c    Books  v.-xiv. 
treat  of  the  sea  and  the  dry  land:  they  discourse  of  the  seas,  the 
ocean  and  the  srcat  rivers,  agricultural  operations,  metals,  precious 
stones,  plants,  herbs,  with  their  seeds,  grains  and  juices,  trees  wild 
and  cultivated,  their  fruits  and  their  saps.    Under  each  species, 
where  possible.  Vincent  gives  a  chapter  on  its  use  in  modidne,  and  be 
adopts  for  the  most  part  an  alphabetical  arrangement.    In  book  vi. 
c.  7  he  incidentally  discusses  what  would  become  of  a  stone  if  it 
were  dropped  down  a  hole,  pierced  right  through  the  earth,  and, 
curiously  enough,  decides  that  it  would  stay  in  the  centre.    Book  xv. 
deab  ¥nth  astronomy — the  moon,  stars,  and  the  zoduc,  the  sun, 
the  planets,  the  seasons  and  the  calendar.     Books  xvi.  and  xvii. 
treat  of  fowls  and  fishes,  mainly  in  alphabetical  order  and  with 
reference  to  their  medical  qualities.^    Books  xviiL-xxii.  deal  in  a 
similar  way  with  domesticatra  and  wild  animals,  including  the  dof, 
serpents,  bees  and  insects;  they  also  include  a  general  treatise  on 
animal  physiology  spread  over  books  xxi.-xxii.     Dooks  xxiii.-xxviu. 
discuss  the  psychology,  physiology  and  anatomy  of  man,  the  five 
senses  and  their  organs,  siecip,  dreams,  ecstasy,  memory,  reason,  &c. 
The  remaining  four  books  seem  more  or  less  supplementary ;  the  last 
(xxxii.)  b  a  summary  of  geographv  and  history  down  to  the  year 
125a,  when  the  book  seems  to  nave  oeen  given  to  the  world,  perhaps 
along  with  the  Speculum  Historiale  and  possibly  an  eariier  form  of 
the  Speculum  Dectrinaie. 

The  Speculum  Doctrinale^  in  seventeen  books  and  2374  chapters, 
is  a  summary  of  all  the  scholastic  knowledge  of  the  age  and  does  not 
confine  itself  to  natural  history.  It  is  intended  to  ne  a  practical 
manual  for  the  student  and  the  official  alike;  and.  to  fulfil  this  object, 
it  treats  of  the  mechanic  arts  of  life  as  well  as  the  subtleties  01  the 
scholar,  the  duties  of  the  prince  and  the  tactics  of  the  generaL 
The  first  book,  after  defining  philosophy,  &c.,  gives  a  long  Latin 
vocabulary  of  some  6000  or  7000  words.  Grammar,  logic^  rhetoric 
and  poetry  arc  discussed  in  books  ii.  and  iii..  the  latter  including 
several  ^'ell-known  fables.  such*as  the  lion  and  the  mouse.  Book  iv. 
treats  of  the  virtues,  each  of  which  has  two  chapters  of  quotations 
alk)tted  to  it,  one  in  prose  and  the  other  in  verse.  Book  v. 
b  of  a  somewhat  simibr  nature.  With  book  \n.  we  enter  on  the 
practical  part  of  the  work;  it  deab  with  the  ars  oeconomiea,  and 
gives  directions  for  building,  gardening,  so^nng,  reaping,  rearing 
cattle  and  tending  vineyards;  it  includes  also  a  kind  oi  agricuU 
tural  almanac  for  each  month  in  the  year.  Books  vii.-ix.  have 
reference  to  the  ars  politica:  they  contain  rules  for  the  education 
of  a  prince  and  a  summary  of  the  forms,  terms  and  statutes  of 
canonical,  civil  and  criminal  bw.  Book  xi.  is  devoted  to  the  arUs 
meckanicae,  viz.  those  of  weavers,  smiths,  armourers,  merchanta, 
hunters,  and  even  the  general  and  the  sailor.  Books  xii.-xiv.  deal 
with  medicine  both  in  practice  and  in  theory :  they  contain  practical 
rules  for  the  prcscr\'ation  of  health  according  to  the  four  seasons  of 
the  year,  and  treat  of  various  diseases  from  fever  to  gout.  Book  xv. 
deals  with  physics  and  may  be  re^rdod  as  a  sununanr  of  the 
Speculum  Ncturale.  Book  xvi.  b  given  up  to  mathematics,  under 
which  head  are  included  music,  geometry,  astronomy,  astrology, 
weights  and  measures,  and  metaphysics.  It  is  noteworthy  that  m 
this  book  Vincent  shows  a  knowledge  of  the  Arabic  numerals,  though 
he  docs  not  call  them  by  tliis  name.  With  him  the  unit  is  termed 
"digitus":  when  multiplied  by  ten  it  becomes  the  "artk^ulus"} 
while  the  combination  of  the  artkulus  and  the  digitus  b  the 
"  numerus  compositus."  In  this  chapter  (xvi.  9),  which  is  super- 
scribed "  actor,  he  dearly  explains  how  the  value  oC  a  number 
increases  tenfold  with  every  place  it  is  moved  to  the  left.  He  b 
acquaiottd  with  the  btcr  invention  of  the  "  rifra  "  or  cipher. 


VINCBNT,  Q.T- VINCENT  DB  PAUL,  ST 


^« 


The  last  book  (xvu.)  treatB  of  theology  or  (u  we  ■hould  now  ny) 
mythology,  and  winds  up  with  an  account  of  the  Holy  Scri|>tufes 
and  of  the  Fathers,  from  Ignatius  and  Dionyslus  the  Areopacitc  to 
Jerome  aad  Gregory  the  Great,  and  even  of  later  writers  from  Isidore 
and  Bede,  through  Alcuin,  Lanfranc  and  Anselm,  down  to  Bernard 
of  Clalrvaux  and  the  brethren  of  Sc  Victor. 

As  the  6Xteenth  book  of  the  Speculum  Doctrinale  b  a  summary  of 
the  Sfeculum  ffaturaU,  so  the  Speculum  Historiaie  may  be  reg^arded 
as  the  expansion  of  the  last  book  of  the  same  work.  It  consists  of 
thirty-one  books  divided  into  3793  chapters.  The  first  book  opens 
with  the  mysteries  of  God  and  the  angels,  and  then  passes  on  to  the 
works  of  the  six  days  and  the  creation  of  man.  It  includes  disserta- 
tions on  the  various  vices  and  virtues,  the  different  arts  and^  sciences, 
and  carries  down  the  history  of  the  worid  to  the  sojourn  in  £gypt. 
The  next  eleven  books  (ii.-^i.)  conduct  us  throagh  sacred  and  secular 
history  down  to  the  triumph  of  Christianity  under  Constamine. 
The  story  of  Barlaam  and  josapbat  occupies  a  ereat  part  of  book 
XV. ;  and  book  xvi.  eives  an  account  of  Daniel  s  nine  kingdoms, 
in  which  account  Vincent  differs  from  his  professed  authority, 
Sigebert  of  Gembloux,  by  reckoning  England  as  the  fourth  instead 
of  the  fifth.  In  the  chapters  devoted  to  the  origines  of  Britain 
he  relies  on  the  Brutus  legend,  but  cannot  carry  his  catalogue  of 
British  or  Engh'sh  kings  Hirther  than  735,  where  he  honestly  con- 
fesses that  his  authorities  fail  him.  Seven  more  books  bring  us  to  the 
rise  of  Mahomet  (xxjii.)  and  the  days  of  Charlemagne  (xxiv.). 
Vincent's  Charlemagne  is  a  curious  mcdlev  of  the  great  emperor  of 
history  and  the  champion  of  romance.  He  is  at  once  the  gicantic 
eater  of  Turpin,  the  huge  warrior  ciglit  feet  high,  who  could  hit  the 
armed  knight  standing  on  his  open  l^nd  to  a  levd  with  his  head,  the 
crusading  conqueror  of  Jenisaliem  in  days  before  the  crusades,  and 
yet  with  all  this  the  temperate  drinker  and  admirer  of  St  Augustine, 
as  his  character  had  filtered  down  through  various  channels  from  the 
historical  pages  of  Einhard.  Book  xxv.  includes  the  first  crusade, 
and  in  the  course  of  book  xxix.,  which  contains  an  account  of  the 
Tatars,  the  author  enters  on  what  is  almost  contemporary  history, 
winding  up  in  book  xxxi.  with  a  short  narrative  of  the  crusade  of 
St  Louis  in  1 250.  One  remarkable  feature  of  the  Speculum  Historiaie 
is  Vincent's  constant  habit  of  devoting  several  chapters  to  selections 
from  the  writings  of  each  great  author,  whether  secular  or  profane, 
as  he  mentions  him  in  the  coarse  of  his  work.  The  extracts  from 
Cicero  and  Ovid,  Origeo  and  St  John,  Chrysostom.  Augustine  and 
Jerome  are  but  specimens  of  a  useful  custom  which  reaches  its 
culminating  point  in  book  xxvlii.,  which  is  devoted  entirely  to  the 
writings  of  St  Bernard.  One  main  fault  of  the  Speculum  Historiaie 
b  the  unduly  large  space  devoted  to  miracles.  Four  of  the  medieval 
historians  from  whom  he  quotes  most  frequently  are  Sigebert  of 
Gembloux,  Hugh  of  Fleury,  Hclinand  of  Froidmont,  and  William 
of  Malmesbury,  whom  he  uses  for  Continental  as  well  as  for  English 
history. 

Vincent  has  thus  hardly  any  claim  to  be  reckoned  at  an  original 
writer.  But  it  b  difficult  to  apeak  too  highly  of  hb  immense  in- 
dustry in  collecting,  classifying  and  arranging  these  three  huge 
volumes  of  80  books  and  9885  chapters.  The  undertaking  to  com- 
bine an  human  knowledge  into  a  single  whole  was  in  itself  a  colossal 
one  and  could  only  have  been  born  in  a  mind  of  no  mean  order. 
Indeed  nlore  than  six  centuries  passed  before  the  idea  was  again 
resuscitated;  and  even  then  it  required  a  group  of  brilliant  French- 
men to  do  what  the  old  Dominican  had  carried  out  unaided.  The 
liumber  of  writers  quoted  by  Vincent  b  almost  incredible:  In  the 
Speculum  NaturaU  alone  no  less  than  350  distinct  works  are  cited, 
and  to  these  must  be  added  at  least  too  mote  for  the  other 
two  Specula.  His  reading  ranges  from  Arabian  philosophers  and 
naturalbts  to  Aristotle,  Eusebius,  Cicero,  Seneca.  Julius  Caesar  fwhom 
he  calb  Julius  Celsus^,  and  even  the  Tew,  Peter  Alphonso.  But 
Hebrew,  Arabic  and  Greek  he  seems  to  nave  known  solely  through 
one  or  other  of  the  popular  Latin  versions.  He  admits  that  bis 
quotations  are  not  always  exact,  but  asserts  that  thb  was  the  fault 
of  careless  copybts. 

A  list  of  Vincent's  works,  both  MS.  and  printed,  will  be  found  in 
the  Histoire  liUhaire  de  France,  vol.  xviii.,  and  in  Jacques  Echard's 
Seripteresordinis praedicatorum  (1719-21).  The  Tractatusconsolatorius 
pro  marte  amici  and  the  Liber  de  erudUione  filiarum  repUtum  (dedi- 
cated to  Queen  Margaret)  were  printed  at  Basel  m  December 
1480.  The  Liber  de  Institutione  Prtncipum,  a  treatise  on  the  duties 
of  kings  and  their  functionaries,  has  never  yet  been  printed,  and 
the  only  MS.  copy  the  writer  of  this  article  has  been  able  to  consult 
does  not  contain  in  its  prologue  all  the  information  which  £chard 
seems  to  imply  b  to  be  found  there.  The  so-called  first  edition  of 
the  Speculum  Majus,  including  the  Speculum  Morale^  ascribed  to 
Johann  Mentelin  and  lone  celebrated  as  the  earliest  work  printed 
at  Stras^urg,  has  lately  oeen  challenged  as  being  only  an  earlier 
edition  of  Vincent's  three  genuine  5a<vh/ii  (c.  1468-70).  with  uhk-k 
has  been  bound  up  the  Speculum  Morale  first  printed  by  Mentelin 
U.  1473-76).  The  edition  most  frequently  quoted  b  tnat  by  the 
Jesuits  (4  vols.,  Douai,  1624). 

See  J.  B.  Bourgeat,  Etudes  sur  Vincent  de  Beauvais,  thfologien, 
pikilosopke,  encychpfdiste  (Paris.  1856):  E.  Boutaric,  Examm  des 
sources  du  Speculum  historiaie  de  Vineent  de  Beautais  (Paris,  1863). 
and  in  tome  xvii.  of  the  Revue  des  questions  kistoriquts  (Parb.  1875)1 


W.  Wattenbach,   DetOscUand*   Cesckichtspietten,   vol.   H.  (1894 
B.  Haur£ati,  Notices  .  .  .  de  iiSS.  latins  de  fa  BibliotMoue  NaUonale, 
tome  V.  (1892) ;  and  E.  Mftle,  L'arlrdieieuxdH  XIII*  Steele  en  France. 

(T.A.A.> 

VINCENT,  GEORGE  (i  796-1831?),  English  landscape  and 
marine  painter,  was  bom  al  Norwich  in  June  1796.  He  studied 
art  under  *'  Old  "  Crome,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  began  to 
contribute  to  the  Norwich  exhibition.  From  1814  till  1823  he 
exhibited  occasionally  at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  also  in  the 
Water-Coiour  Exhibition  and  the  Britbh  Institution.  In  1819 
he  removed  from  Norwich  to  London,  and  he  was  a  contributor 
to  the  Suffolk  Street  gallery  from  its  foundation  in  1824  till  183a 
He  possessed  great  artbtic  abilities;  but  he  fell  into  dissipation, 
and  hb  works  became  slight  and  hastily  executed.  Finally  he 
dropped  out  of  sight,  and  he  b  befieved  to  have  died  about  183T. 
His  most  important  wotk,  a  "  View  of  Greenwich  Hospital," 
was  shown  in  the  International  Exhibition  of  1862.  His"  London 
from  the  Surrey  Side  of  Waterloo  Bridge  "  b  also  a  fine  work. 

VINCBNT,  HART  ANN  (18x8-1887),  American  actress,  was 
bom  in  Portsmouth,  England,  on  the  i8th  of  September  xSx8, 
the  daughter  of  an  Irishman  named  Farlin.  Left  an  orphan  at  an 
early  age,  she  tumed  to  the  stage,  making  her  first  appearance  in 
X834  as  Lucy  in  The  RevieWf  at  Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight.  The  next 
year  she  married  J.  R.  Vincent  (d.  1850),  an  aCtor,  with  whom 
she  toured  England  and  Ireland  for  several  years.  In  1S46 
Mrs  J.  R.  Vincent  went  to  America  to  join  the  stock  company  of 
the  old  National  theatre  in  JSoston.  Here  she  became  a  great 
favourite.  No  actress  in  America,  except  Mrs  Gilbert,  has  ever 
been  such  "  a  dear  old  lady  "  to  so  wide  a  circle  of  constant 
admirers.  She  died  in  Boston  on  the  4th  of  September  1887. 
Her  memory  b  honoured  by  the  Vincent  Memorial  Hospital, 
founded  in  that  city  in  1890  by  popular  subscription,  and 
formally  opened  on  the  6th  of  April  1891,  by  Bishop  Phillips 
Brooks,  as  a  hospital  for  wage-earning  women  and  girb. 

VINCENT  DE  PAUL,  ST  (1576-1660),  French  divine,  founder 
of  the  "  Congregation  of  Priests  of  the  Mission,"  usually  known 
as  Lazarites  {q.v.),  was  bom  on  the  24th  of  April  1576  at  Pouy, 
near  Dax,  in  Gascogne,  and  was  educated  by  the  Franciscans 
at  Dax  and  at  Toulouse.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  x6oo. 
Voyaging  from  Toulouse  to  Narbonne,  he  was  captured  by 
Barbary  pirates,  who  took  him  to  Tunb  and  sold  him  as  a  slave. 
He  converted  his  third  master,  a  renegade  Italian,  and  escaped 
with  him  to  Aigues-Mortes  near  MacseiUes  m  June  1607.  After 
short  stays  at  Avignon  and  Rome,  Vincent  found  his  way  to 
Paris,  where  he  became  favourably  known  to  Monsieur  (after- 
wards Cardinal)  de  BfruUe,  who  was  then  founding  the  con- 
gregation of  the  French  C>tatory.  At  B^ruUe's  instance  he 
became  curate  of  Clichy  near  Paris  (161  x);  but  this  charge  he 
soon  exchanged  for  the  post  of  tutor  to  the  coiint  of  Joigny 
at  Follcville,  in  the  diocese  of  Amiens,  where  hb  success  in 
dealing  with  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  peasants  led  to  the 
'^missions'*  with  which  hb  name  b  associated.  In  16x7  he 
accepted  the  curacy  of  Ch&tUlon-les-Dombes  (or  sur-Chala- 
ronne),  and  here  he  received  from  the  countess  of  Joigny  the 
means  by  which  he  was  enabled  to  found  hb  first  "  confr£rie 
de  charil6,"  an  association  of  women  who  ministered  to  tlio 
poor  and  the  sick.  In  1619  Loub  XIU.  made  him  royal 
almoner  of  the  galleys.  Among  the  works  of  benevolence 
with  which  his  name  is  associated  arc  the  establishment  of  a 
hospital  for  galley  slaves  at  Marseilles,  the  institution  of  two 
establishments  for  foundlings  at  Paris,  and  the  organization 
of  the  "  Filles  de  la  ChariiJ,"  to  supplement  the  work  of  the 
conjrtries,  whose  members  were  mainly  married  .women  with 
domestic  duties.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  27th  of  September 
x66o,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  St  Lazare.  He  was 
beatified  by  Benedict  XIII.  in  1729,  and  canonized  by  Clement 
Xn.  in  1737,  his  festival  (duplex)  being  observed  on  the  19th 
of  July.  The  Society  of  St  Vincent  de  Paul  was  founded  by 
Frederic  Oeanam  and  others  in  1833,  in  reply  to  a  charge 
brought  by  some  free-thinking  contemporaries  that  the  church 
no  longer  had  the  strength  to  inaugurate  a  practical  enterprise. 
In  a  variety  of  ways  it  does  a  great  deal  of  social  service  similar 


92 


VINCENT  OF  LERINS»  ST— VINE 


to  that  of  gQds  of  help.  Its  Adminbtratlon  has  always  been  In 
the  hands  of  laymen,  and  it  works  through  local  "conferences" 
or  branches,  the  general  council  having  been  suspended  because 
it  declined  to  accept  a  cardinal  as  its  official  head. 

Lives  by  Maynard  (4  vc^,  Paris,  i860);  Bounud  (a  vols.,  Paris, 
1891);  E.  de  BrogUe  (5th  edition,  Paris,  1899};  Letters  (2  vols.. 
Paris,  1882);  A.  Loth  (mis,  1880):  H.  Simard  (Lyons,  1894). 

VINCBNT  OF  LERINS,  8T,  or  Vincentis  Lerxnensis  (d.  c. 
A.D.  450),  an  ecclesiastical  writer  of  the  Western  Church  of 
whose  personal  history  hardly  anything  is  hnowni  except  that 
he  was  a  native  of  Gaul,  possibly  brother  of  St  Loup,  bishop 
of  Troyes,  that  he  became  a  monk  and  priest  at  Lerinum,  and 
that  be  (Ued  in  or  about  450.  Lerinum  (Lerins,  off  Cannes) 
had  been  made  by  Honoratus,  afterwards  bishop  of  Aries,  the 
seat  of  a  monastic  community  which  produced  a  number  of 
eminent  churchmen,  among  them  Hilary  of  Aries.  The  school 
did  not  produce  an  extensive  literature,  but  it  played  an 
important  part  in  resisting  an  exaggerated  Augustinianism 
by  reasserting  the  freedom  of  the  will  and  the  continued  exist- 
ence of  the  divine  image  in  human  nature  after  the  falL  As 
regards  Vincent  he  himself  tells  us  that  only  after  long  and  sad 
experience  of  worldly  turmoil  did  he  betake  himself  to  the 
haven  of  a  religious  life.  In  434,  three  years  after  the  council 
of  Ephesus,  he  ¥rrote  the  Commoniiorium  adversus  fro/anas 
omnium  kacreticorum  novUaies,  in  which  he  ultimately  aims 
at  Augustine's  doctrine  of  grace  and  predestination.  In  it  he 
discusses  the  *'  notes  "  which  distinguish  Catholic  truth  from 
heresy,  and  (cap.  2)  lays  down  and  e^pLies  the  famous  threefold 
test  of  orthodoxy — ^uod  ubiquCt  quod  semper f  quod  ab  omnUms 
credUum  est.  It  is  very  striking  that  in  his  appeal  to  tradiUon 
Vincent  assigns  no  part  to  the  bishops  as  such — ^apart  from 
the  council;  he  appeals  to  the  ancient  "  teachers,"  not  to 
any  apostolic  succession.  His  "  semi-Pds^^  "  opposition  to 
Augustine  is  dealt  with  by  Flo^>er  of  Aquitania  in  his  Pro 
Auguslini  doctrina  responsiorus  ad  capUula  ohjedionum.  Vin- 
unliarnarium.  It  explains  why  the  Com}fumiton»m  has  reached 
us  only  in  a  mutilated  form. 

The  Commonitorium  has  been  edited  by  Baluae  (Paris,  1663, 1660 
and  1684)  and  by  Klflpfel  (Vienna,  1809).  It  also  occurs  in  vol.  L 
of  Migne's  Patrol.  Ser.  Lot.  (i8^6).  A  full  sumroaryr  is  given  in 
A.  Harnack*s  History  of  Dogma,  iii.  230  ff.  See  also  F^  H.  Stanton, 
Place  0/  Authority  in  ReligioH,  pp.  167  ff.;  A.  Cooper-Marsdin,  The 
School  of  Lerins  (Rochester,  1905). 

VINCEMT  FERRER,  ST  (1355-14x9),  Spanish  Dominican 
preacher,  was  bom  of  respectable  parentage  at  Valencii  on  the 
23rd  of  January  1355.  In  February  1374  he  took  the  Domini- 
can habit,  and  after  spending  some  years  in  teaching,  and  in 
completing  his  theological  studies,  he  was  Ucensed  to  preach. 
He  graduated  as  doctor  of  theology  at  Lcrida  in  1374,  and  his 
sermons  in  the  cathedral  of  Valencia  from  1385  onwards  soon 
became  famous.  Cardinal  Peter  dc  Luna  took  him  with  him 
to  Paris  in  1391;  and  on  his  own  election  to  the  pontificate  as 
antipope  Benedict  XIII.  made  Ferrer  his  confessor  and  master 
of  the  sacred  palace.  Finding,  however,  the  ecclesiastical 
atmosphere  of  Avignon  an  uncongenial  one,  he  in  1397  resumed 
his  work  as  a  preacher,  and  Spain,  France,  Italy,  Germany 
and  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  were  successively  visited  by  him; 
and  in  every  case  numerous  conversions  were  the  result  of  his 
eloquence,  which  is  described  as  having  been  singularly  power- 
ful and  moNdng.  In  141 2  he  was  delegated  by  his  native  dty 
to  take  part  in  the  election  of  a  successor  to  the  vacant  crown 
of  Aragon;  and  in  1416  he  received  a  special  invitation  to 
attend  the  council  of  Constance,  where  he  supported  the  cause 
of  the  Flagellants  (q.v.).  He  died  at  Vannes  on  the  sth  of  April 
14 1 9,  and  was  canonized  by  Calixtus  III.  in  1455,  bis  festival 
(duplex)  being  observed  on  the  5th  of  April. 

See  A.  Sorbelli,  //  trattato  ii  S.  Vincenxo  Ferrer  intomo  al  Grande 
Scisma  S  Ouidente  (Bdlogna.  1906). 

VINCI,  LEONARDO  (1690-1730);  Italian  musical  composer, 
was  bom  at  Strongoli  in  Calabria  in  1690  and  educated  at 
Naples  under  Gaetano  Greco  in  the  Conservatorio  dei  Poveri  di 
GesO  Cristo.    He  became  known  first  by  his  comic  operas  in 


Neapolitan  dialect  in  1719;  he  also  composed  many  serioia 
aptxts.  He  was  receivMi  into  the  Congregation  of  the  Rosary 
at  Formiello  in  1728  and  died  by  poisoning  in  1730,  not  1732, 
as  is  generally  stated.  His  comic  operas,  of  which  Le  Ziu  *n 
Calera  (1722)  is  the  best,  are  full  of  life  and  spirit;  in  his  serious 
operas,  of  which  Diddne  Abbandonata  (Rome,  1 728)  and  Ar laser se 
(Rome,  1730)  are  the  most  notable,  have  an  incisive  vigour 
and  directness  of  dramatic  expresaioa  deservedly  praised  by 
Bumey.  The  well-known  air  "  Vo  aokando,*'  fnm  Arlaserse, 
is  a  good  example  of  his  style. 

VUfDBUCIA,  in  andent  geography,  a  cowitry  bounded  on 
the  S.  by  Raetia,  cm  the  N.  by  the  Danube  and  the  Vallum 
Hadriani,  <m  the  E.  by  the  Oenus  (Inn),  on  the  W.  by  the 
territory  of  the  Helvetii.  It  thus  corre^wnded  to  the  N.£. 
portion  of  Switzerland,  the  S.£.  of  Baden,  and  the  S.  of  Wtirt- 
temberg  and  Bavaria.  Together  with  the  neighbouring  tribes 
it  was  subjugated  by  Tiberius  in  15  B.C.,  and  towards  the  end 
of  the  ist  century  a;d.  was  made  part  of  Raetia  {q.v,).  Its 
chief  town  was  Augusta  Vindeliomun  (Augsburg).  Its  in- 
habitants were  probably  of  Celtic  origin  (cf .  the  recurrence  of 
F«mf- in  other  Celtic  names— Vindobona,  Vhidonissa);  some 
authorities,  however,  regard  them  as  German.  According  to 
Dio  C^assius  (liv.  22)  they  were  an  agricultural  people,  and  later 
writers  {,e.g.  Isidorus,  Origines,  i.  4),  describe  the  country  as  very 
fertile. 

VINDHTA,  a  range  of  mountains  in  Central  India.  It  forms 
a  well-marked,  though  not  quite  continuous,  chain  across 
India,  separating  the  Ganges  basin  from  the  Deccan.  Starting 
on  the  west  in  Gujarat,  the  Vindhyas  cross  Malwa  and  the 
central  portions  of  India,  until  their  easternmost  ^urs  abut 
on  the  valley  of  the  Ganges  at  RajmahaL  They  thus  joughly 
form  the  northern  side  of  the  triangle,  of  which  the  other  two 
sides  are  the  Eastern  and  Western  Ghats.  They  have  an 
elevation  of  1500  to  4500  ft.,  nowhere  exceeding  5000  ft.  Geo> 
logically  they  give  their  name  to  the  "  Vindhyan  formation," 
one  of  the  recognized  rock  systems  of  India.  In  legends^ 
tradition  they  formed  the  demarcating  line  between  the  Madya- 
desha  or  middle  land  of  the  Sanskrit  invaders  and  the  noo- 
Aryan  Deccan,  and  they  are  still  largely  inhabited  by  aboriginal 
races  such  as  the  Bhils. 

VINE.  The  grape-vine,  botanically  ViliSf  is  a  genus  of 
about  thirty  species,  widespread  in  the  north  temperate  sone, 
but  richest  in  species  in  North  America.  The  best  knovn 
and  longest  cultivated  species  is  the  old-worid  grape-vine,  Vitis 
viniferaj  a  variety  of  this,  sUvestris^  occurs  wild  in  the  Medi- 
terranean  region,  spreading  eastwards  towards  the  Caucasus 
and  northwards  into  southem  Germany,  and  may  be  regarded 
as  the  parent  of  the  cultivated  vine.  It  is  of  interest  to  note 
that  grape-stones  have  been  found  with  mummies  in  Egyptian 
tombs  of  not  later  age  than  3000  yean.  The  seeds  have  the 
characteristics  of  those  of  V.  viniferat  but  show  some  very 
slight  variations  from  the  type  of  seed  now  prevalent.  Among 
the  Greeks  in  the  time  of  Homer  wine  was  in  general  use.  The 
cultivation  of  the  vine  must  also  have  been  introduced  into 
Italy  at  a  very  early  period.  In  Vir^l's  time  the  varieties 
in  cultivation  seem  to  have  been  exceedingly  numerous;  and 
the  varied  methods  of  training  and  culture  now  in  use  in  Italy 
are  in  many  cases  identical  with  those  described  by  Columella 
and  other  Roman  writers.  Grape-stones  have  been  found 
among  the  remains  of  Swiss  and  Italian  lake  dwellings  of  the 
Bronze  period,  and  others  in  tufaceous  volcanic  deixisits  near 
Montpellier,  not  long  before  the  historic  era. 

The  old-world  species  is  also  extensively  cultivated  in 
California,  but  the  grape  industry  of  the  eastern  United  States 
has  been  developed  from  native  species,  chiefly  V.  Labrusc4i 
and  V.  aestivalis  and  their  hybrids  with  V.  vinifera  Some 
of  the  American  varieties  have  been  introduced  into  France 
and  other  countries  infested  with  Phylloxera^  to  serve  as  stocks 
on  which  to  graft  the  better  kinds  of  European  vines,  because 
their  roots,  though  perhaps  equally  subject  to  the  attacks  of 
the  insects,  do  not  suffer  so  much  injury  from  them  as  the 
European  spedes. 


T>  A  hi^  nunravr  tempentim  ud  a 
a  be  protiUblj'  cultivated,  even  tb«u|^  ll 


ilchef  n 


Bokhui  Ihc 

ouin-ia°C., 

In  tbe 


Ii  7*1  C.  ud  kits  in  J»nu»ry  id  -jo' 
mean  Icmpenture  of  Juiiury  ii  4°  C.  ind  Lhc  miDimun 
and  y«t  At  both  pLico  the  vine  a  grovn  with  luccoi 
Alps  it  h  prnSubly.  culLivated  up  (0  an  allilude  of  lajo 
■nd  in  the  noTth  of  I^cdmoot  u  high  u  3180  ft.  At  the  pre 
ticDS  tile  limit  of  piofitftble  cultivation  in  Euiopc  pa 
fniu  Brittany,  lat.  47°  y/,  to  beyond  the  Rhine  by  Litge 
Ihrougb  Thuringia  to:  Sile»a  in  lat.  Ji*  s^.  In  foe 
centuries  vines  were  cultivated  to  tlie  nocth  ol  (lii)  (etion, 
in  bigdy,  and  In  Eogli 


«  they  mieht  still  b 
made  in  this  directif 


near  CaidifC  i: 
!  wine  made,  I 


[ill  cbunpagne. 
^  tbe  ■ 


the  middle  1  _    .  _ 

of  Fiaoce  uid  Cermany  codd  not  be  obtained  In  EngUnd 
aceiH  al  probibitlve  prices;  but  when  this  stale  of  things 
ceased,  and  foreign  wine  could  be  imported,  the  English  coit- 
■vimcn  wonld  no  kingct  tolerate  the  inferior  ^produciions  of 
their  own  vineyards.  Tt  is  also  probable  that  tbe  En^ish 
miaedsugaiorhoney  with  the  wine  and  thus  supplied  artificially 
that  sweetness  which  the  English  sun  denied.  It  is  a  curious 
fact  that  at  the  pieient  day  much  01  even  most  of  the  iriiu 
of  finot  quality  is  made  at  or  Dew  to  (he  nonhern  Lmiis  of 
possible  cullivation  with  profit.  This  drcumslance  is  probably 
elpl^cd  by  the  sreatc  can  and  stleution  txstowed  both 
on  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  cm  tbe  manufacture  o{  tbe 
wine  in  northcm  countries  than  in  those  where  tbe  dimate 
is  moR  propitious.  The  relative  inferiorily  of  the  wines  made 
at  the  C^ie  ol  Good  Hope  aad  in  AuslraL'a  is  partly  due  to 
vaiiatiem  oC  clinutte,  the  vine  not  yet  having  adapted  itself 

mancifacturers.  That  such  inferiority  may  be  eipected  to 
disappear  is  suggested  by  the  success  of  vino-culture  id  Madeira 
and  the  Canary  i*ia^HM 

The  devdopment  of  other  spedes  of  Vilis,  locfa  ss  the  curious 
Buccvlent  species  of  the  Soudan  and  olher  puis  of  equatorial 
Africa,  or  the  numcmus  kitub  in  Tndja  and  Cochin  China,  is 
of  course  possible  under  suitable  conditions;  but  it  is  obvious 
that  an  extremely  long  period  must  dspse  before  tfaey  can 
suctcssEully  compete  with  the  product  of  many  centuries. 

[See  also  generally  the  article  WlHE.  Far  curraoU  and 
raisins,  both  produced  by  vadetin  of  the  grape-vine,  see  the 

Apart  from  their  etonomic  value,  vines  are  ollen  mkivaled 
tar  purely  omamenlal  purposes,  ow; 
Foliage^  the  rich  coloration  Ihey  assume,  the  shade  ihey  afford, 
and  their  hardihood. 

Vines  liave  waody  climlnnE  stans,  trith  alternate,  entire  < 
— I — — 1,.  i-i^d  leaves,  provided  at  tbe  base  with  imall  ttinle 

TTiereare  o"">«m'i«  "•"•J-"      -  ■- -  ■' 


pl^»t  climb 


us  tran^titniai  elam 


wbidi  cohere  by  thdr  t 


•ife" 


.  opposite  tbe  petals  and  ' 

celled  aother.    Tbe  anomalous  poaiiDii  of  the  lU 
'  'V  petals  .is  enlained  by  tbe  abottiDii  or  lu 

<_  J ^j:_,tjj„  J,  ,rtilch 

rclina  the  ovary.    The  ovary 
or  kea  oanpldcly  Iwo-allDf, 


rritw  cl  St _._ 

be  bypogynous  disk  ei 
"^le  Btigma  and  is  mo 


^. 


TTie  cultivated  vine 


>   the 


a  wild  state,  or  u  as  ■ 


■SS"£ 


I  have  been  observed.    Scedlinf 


fact  that  some  of  the  cuhivaied 
id  setters,"  — i.t-  do  not  rjpen  their 
m,— is  to  be  aougbt  id  thu  nstursl 


.__-_  jnd  thultaied  pi 

cential  wle  of  the  seed  is  a  ridge  bounded  on 

L>r  ■  BiiaLvw  graove.   This  ridge  uk"^--"—  '' '""  "*' 

"raphe"  or  iced.Bialk  with  Ine  te . 

varieticmof  I'.  eiK^frt  fron  ibose  of  otber  sp 


94 

hislorickl  or  gnvalogial  purpoas  thu  tlio«  wbkh  u«  (be  oum 

or  IniiKd  over  a  >unny  nwT.  luch  »ru  u  the  BLuk  CluilR,  Bl 
PnncF,  PitmuloD  WbilcCluslcr.  RayA  MuicaJiTic.  S-m<VUtT,i 


be  lone-rod  : 
Ihe  plant  i 


■  at.-.  1* 


K  bocder  ibould 


1  •rail  at  the  ciircmc     ' 


if  the  bordrr,  liuiJe  bord&i  rcquue  frcquenL  and  IhorouLjh 
vaierinn.  In  wvU-drainrd  localitib  tlv  border  may  be  panuillv 
wlow  the  (round  level,  but  b  damp  uiuatioiu  ii  ihoiild  be  nude  on 


outwanji  towardi  aj 
formed  by  dulk  ran 


A  mulcboT  hair-dcaynl  luble  lit 


InuldV'bid  Jit 
.4  bycr  fi  muEh 

TT!!J!f^«|™hklirtoE5'bfIlor 

1U&I  of  five  nrlK  ndl  Iut/v 

ibbiib  or  broken  bricks,  imludmit  a  lilllc 

"    "      '  pan  brolrtn  cl 


brol^n  rhaifoal.  a  nit 


^Jd™tr''ed 


ilunvcdinapropagBlinlbed.  havinfabotromheatof  73*. 
WIIIL.U  >i.vdld  be  increaaej  to  65'  *btn  Ibey  Hive  produced  sevenl 
leaver.  Ihc  atmoepliere  lirinE  kept  at  about  the  same  tenipei?ture  or 
higher  by  lun  beat  during  the  day,  and  at  about  75*  at  night.    As 

u  Se  ^''f^oiM  btMSowed  to'grow  ™  'rhT'hei'l  iime*S 
pbntini  it  in  Kri™.  when  the  j-oung  shoou  have  juat  .laned. 
The  vine*  bhoiikl  be  planted  m^ule  ItK  bouie.  {mm  I  to  I  ft. 
Irom  the  front  wall,  and  from  6  ft,  to  A  ft.  apart,  the  roota  bcinff 
placed  an  inch  deeper  in  tlie  loil  than  before,  carefully  diacntangU^d 


50*.  Fire  heat  mual  be  at  iinl  applied  very  aenlly,  and  may  range 
about  55*  at  DiRhE,  aitd  from  6s  to  70°  by  day,  but  a  few  degrees 
more  may  be  ^veo  them  aa  the  bvds  break  and  the  new  ihooti 
appear.    When  Ihey  are  id  flower,  atui  onwardi  during  the  nrelliuE 

with  Hjn  heal   and    Ibe  temperature  may  be  lowered  lOmewhat 


A  .moi«  powinjr  almoiphcre  Li 
Se  Ismdiauld  not  be  lyringBd. 


nparaling  trough!  and 
three  timea  a  fky,  but 

_  ._   — ^.  —  ,._,jratirw  trougha  ehould 

be  kept  dry.  but  the  aridity  muK  not  be  eKOHnc.  led  the  red 
tpider  and  other  peaii  ibould  attack  the  leavea.  In  Ibe  count 
of  the  leaiDO  the  bordera  (imide}  wPI  require  aeveral  Iboieugh 
aoakinp  of  mum  waler~4bc  fint  when  Ibe  home  ii  ahul  up. 
thia  bong  repeated  when  the  vinet  have  made  young  ihoola  a  lew 
incbea  long,  (gain  when  tbivinnstein  ftom-.  and  ttill  again  when 
the  berria  are  lakJniE  the  amnd  nrelling  after  atoning.  Ontaide 
bordera  require  watenna  in  very  dry  aummer  w^ber  oiuy. 
Tharv  are  three  priudpai  ayitema  of  pnminc  viuca.  Ipncd  tbe 


^rJcV""^'' 


icmt-rad,  the  Uffff-f  Af  and  the  l^vr  lystcma.  and  ffocd  cropa  faaw 
b«n  obtained  by  each  of  them.  It  is  admilted  that  larger  Lunciw* 
are  generally  obtained  bv  the  bn^-iod  than  by  the  apur  ^neTTL 

knjsth.  accorduu  to  tbcir  ^ftngih.  ahooli  of  the  Ian  ye^'a  gmwih 
for  producing  ^orrlB  to  Ijcar  fiuil  in  the  prev;af .  lbc4  rods  Krv 
afierward«  cut  away  and  replaced  by  yi]un^;  iboots  trairied  up 
during  the  preceding  aummer^  and  theaeare  inlht^r  lumctR  oul  in 
the  followine  autunv  after  Ijearinc.  and  reptared  by  Bboofa  td 
that  sumnvr  i  growth.     Ely  tiie  shoJI-rod  ■VKlem.  ahwt  unl^td  d 

The  jpur  lyitem  hu.  however.  ' ■'■ '      '-  -"-'- 

ca4  the  vines  are  u^ially  plan 

being  ^(crable. '  Tbc''>Jiooi™ 

Men.,   .huh   thouM   U  cnrour.„._ _.    _,_. 

disrancei  right  and  Wl.  by  rcnrnving  thme  bmli  Irom  the  oriein. 
hhoot  which  are  not  tonvenienlly  pljced-  The  young  ahoofa  from 
ihct«  budi  are  to  be  Keoily  brought  to  a  bon'ontaT  poytion.  by 
bending  them  a  tittle  at  a  lime,  and  IKd  in.  and  UMrally  oppnjie 
about  Mic  fourth  leaf  ihc  rtidimeni.v  of  a  bunch  will  bt  developed 
The  leaf  directly  o[ip«ite  the  l>unch  mu4(  in  all  art*  be  preier^cd, 
and  Ibr  young  bhont  ia  to  lie  topped  at  one  ot  two  jointa  bcyoTHf 
the  incipi0ii  fniil.  the  latter  didance  bdng  preferable  if  (here  ia 
plenty  of  room  fur  ibefoliaf^  toeipand;    the  lateral  ahoota,  ^ich 

be  thinned  btifort  the  fkoavn  eipand.  and  the  Ivnia  also  must  be 
pTDpcrly  thinned  out  atKl  regEpilated  ia  aoon  as  they  are  frell  aec. 
care  being  taken,  in  avoiding  overciDwding,  that  lb*  buachca  tw 

The  euliivation  of  vines  in  po15  ij  veiy  commonly  praniied  with 
good  resulia.  and  fxH-vinei  are  very  UHtul  to  force  for  the  earliest 
ciofL  The  planta  thotild  be  raued  frooi  tyet.  and  grown  aa  atnniw 
at  pofi&ible  m  Ihe  way  already  n«ed.  in  nch  tuify  loam  mined  vith 


of  powtb.  The  penoclieal  tborough  cleanrmic  of  the  viae  stoma 
and  every  pan  of  the  hourio  19  of  the  uimo^  unponaacc. 

The  number  of  varietiea  of  grapes  po^cf^ng  bomc  merit  ia  con. 
■iderablc.  t>ul  a  very  few  of  them  will  Ik  fuund  ^ufTicient  to  supply 
all  the  wants  ol  iV  cultivator.  For  geneml  pnrpo^  nDtli<nt 
ap«oach«  the  Black  Hamburgh  Qncluding  Frankenlbal)  in  merit. 

fwinti  iJuuKtv— Tbe  mott  deatructix  (arm  of  (anfaii  disease 


I.  Vint  leaf  attacked 

by  mildew.  U 

ci^n-h'-Rotar 

(ayirjAsIW*. 

I.  Giaiits  similarly  i 

"urn  ^  Ibe  f 
^"  of  the 

on  Ihe  upper 
ngu.  bearing 

ace,  lednctd. 
ipotea  (DonkUaX 
curled  appeiKl- 

J.  A^^f mm  perithedum  OMitalnlng  tii  aporea. 

^^kr  r-Xi)  (figTS 

ia  caused  by  a  mltdev,  ^Kiaaite  ■fraJar  (B7- 
The  diseaae  .»  bat  noticed  in  England  ;<> 

VINE 


9S 


i»*y,    b  iM  tl  appMml  at  Vcnimc*;    bjt  ilji  ft 

thrDi^h  hD  tu  wine-pnrdudfiE  cDuaCrifs  cf  Europe,  be 
vimlcnf  in  tht  luidi  borderipc  on  the  M«fitFTT»imn; 
foLlowiiia  Year  it  nude  iu  appnraiKe  in  Madtin-    l^ki 


u  apptaniKe  in  Hadciri.    ljic  ihc  P*;^ 
he  ruEdew  ia  in  ils  ongin  protiabJ^  Amcncaa. 

falclis  on  tneyoung  L^va:  1^  IpcBUlj 
■  tAdnt  lavet  bad  braocha,  and  uUinuicly 
bm  ibtue  are  nuriud  only  by  unnll  biDvn 
rad  and  fuse  tocethcfi  the  lion  o(  the  grapf^ 
h  decayi.  the  leed  only  remaining  apfsmtly 
K  Bpieads  by  tlw  myceliuD  noving  ov^ 
--~  Tbe  hypbae  compoting  the  m^eliiiin 
k  wJiicn  pro^tct  mio  the  crila  of  (he 
affected  pan  (fit  J).    Soireot 

— .-icted  off  one 


•  the  hypbae  ■ 


Amerim,  is  Plumop^a  mHaia^  which  K 

[hepliiit.«Itackinatbcleavc«.twi(jand  unripe  pipo.   Onlhcui 
wW  iJ  Ibe  \mt,  where  it  is  bnt  vuible, 

■potit  whicb  beojme  doriier  in  colour.    ■_ 

iboepatcheiareivhitcADdajccDnipuai^aElbeepoic-bearLnghyphae. 

'    '  ifflAidy  iKcomn  dcicd  up  and  brittle.    The  Erapei 

:acked  ceuK  to  ftlD*.  turn  brown  or  white,  nod  ulti- 


leen  im^uiar 


rSr  u 


-catcd  with  a  spray  of  copper  tulphatc 
on;  Boluiiana  ol  Lhcw  Hits  prevent  the  i 
AnlhracnoK  a  thu  nnme  UHtelly  given 


□  rjf  SpHauUma  ampdiauB 
g.  4].    The  fungua  auailfl  a 

;  iiwlf    Tlie  £itt  Hga  oT  ii 
e  ipirt.  which  rfl  gfeyvb  in  th 


"one'i^uild..  'later  the 

The  ni>teUuin  of  Sfiait- 

imbcr  of  niiwi*c  hyphac.  whrch  bear  conidia. 


affected  by  die! 


^  D^.  CDlourleH  H 


ie^hLMory  of  thii  form  b  at 


-ope  for  many  v^tv,  but  hai  ooly  been  obicrved  i 
lEAi.  whitfi^  11  wnt  pnibably  imported  from  the  of 
preventive  to  il»  atiacks  tlie  copper  Bulpbale  9pra> 
I  (^o  %]  of  iro*«  hllphate  have  been  found  very  u»ef u 
re  in  planting  on  weU-diaincd  loil  ibat  don  net  li 


•n  apfHuiiu:  is 


te  tuu  frequently  been  fo 


Hiiphur  at  interval*  of  ten  da^,  while  the  diuK  continuee  10 
ipieHd,  z  tmall  quanlhy  d  quiddidu  in  a  finely  powdped  «ui- 


Fk>.  j,— Bladi  Rot  of  Gnpe^ 

Ka;  Ibe  fruit  beiAmei  black, 
id  and  ahrivelM. 
a.  FTuclifiiAljDn  Ot  the  fungva. 


FUi.  6.— JiiM^'i 
A,  Myeeliitm  of  rbe  fungus  attachlnE 


ificalion  (fcnJbcia)  of 
tutaHed   until  ntarfy 


96 


VINEGAR— VINELAND 


whole  grape.  Tbe  Utter  for  a  time  retains  Its  plumpness,  but  on  tlie 
appearance  of  little  black  pustules,  which  mst  occur  on  the  part 
primarily  affected,  the  grape  begins  to  shrivel.  This  continues  until 
the  grape  is  reduced  to  a  black  hard  mass,  with  the  folds  of  skin 
pressed  doedy  against  the  seed.  The  disease  spreads  from  grape 
to  grape,  so  that  as  a  rule  many  of  the  grapes  in  a  bunch  are 
destroyed.  The  hyphae  of  the  my^ium  of  this  fungus  are 
septate,  with  numerous  short  brancheB.  The  pustules  on  the  sur- 
face are  due  to  fructifications,  pycnidia  and  spennagonia.  The 
fungus  passes  the  winter  in  the  withered  grapes  which  fall  to  the 
ground,  and  on  these  the  mature  form  of  the  fungus  (fig.  5,  2  and  3) 
IS  produced;  hence  every  care  should  be  taken  to  collect  these  and 
bum  them.  The  use  of  the  copper  sdutions  mentiooed  above  may 
also  be  recommended  as-a  preventive. 

Among  the  other  fungi  whkh  infest  the  vine  may  be  mentioned 
PkylhsttciaviiiMlaaMd  Ph.  Labnucae,  which,  when  theattackisscvere, 
cause  the  destruction  of  the  leaves,  the  only  part  they  assail  These, 
like  the  foregoing,  arc  memben  of  the  PyrenomyceteSt  while  many 
other  allied  fungi  nave  been  described  as  causing  spots  on  the  leaves. 
Cereospora  Vitts  (Cladosporium  viiicolum),  which  has  club-shaped 
spores  of  a  green-brown  colour,  also  attacks  the  leaves;  butt  unless 
the  season  is  extremely  unfavourable,  it  does  little  harm. 

A  very  disastrous  root-disease  of  the  vine  is  due  to  the  rav- 
ages of  another  pyrenomycetous  fungus,  Rosdlinia  (pematopkora) 
necatrix  (fig.  6),  which  forms  subterranean  strings  of  myccuum — 
so<aUed  rhizomorphs.  The  diseased  roots  have  been  confounded 
with  those  attacked  by  Phyllcxera,  The  only  mode  of  combating 
the  malady  seems  to  be  to  uproot  the  jdants  and  bum  them.  Isola- 
tion of  the  diseased  areas  by  means  of  trenches  has  also  been  prac- 
tised. 

VUfEOAR,  a  dilute  solutioii  of  impure  acetic  add,  prepared 
by  the  acetous  fermentation  of  alcohol  or  of  substances  which 
3ridd  alcohol  when  suitably  decomposed  (ordinary  vinegar),  or 
obtained  from  the  products  resulting  on  the  dry  distillation 
of  wood  (wood  vinegar).  Ordinary  or  table  vinegars,  which 
contain,  in  addition  to  acetic  acid,  small  quantities  of  alcohol, 
higher  adds  such  as  tartaric  and  sUcdnic,  various  esters,  albu- 
minous substances,  &c.,  are  produced  soldy  by  acetous  fer- 
mentation, wood  vinegar  bdng  only  employed  in  certain  arts. 
Ordinary  vinegar  has  been  known  from  the  earUest  times,  and 
its  power  of  combining  with  or  dissolving  mineral  substances 
caused  the  alchemists  to  investigate  its  preparation  and  pro- 
perties. They  failed,  however,  to  obtain  pure  acetic  add, 
although  by  distillation  they  prepared  more  concentrated  solu- 
tions (spiritus  Veneris).  In  1697  Stahl  showed  that  vinegar 
could  be  concentrated  by  freezing  out  part  of  the  water,  and, 
better,  in  1702,  by  neutralizing  the  add  with  an  alkali  and  dis- 
tilling the  salt  with  oil  of  vitrioL  A  notable  improvement  was 
made  in  1789  by  Ldwitz,  who  showed  that  the  dilute  add  could 
be  concentrated  by  repeatedly  passing  it  over  charcoal  powder, 
and  by  cooling  he  obtained  a  crystalline  substance  named  in 
X777  by  Durandc,  ''gladal  acetic  add."  The  presence  of  an 
add  substance  in  the  products  of  the  dry  distillation  of  wood 
was  mentioned  by  Glauber  in  1648  and  received  the  name  of 
pyroligneous  add.  Its  identity  with  acetic  add  was  demon- 
strated by  Vauquelin  in  1800. 

The  mechanism  of  acetous   fermentation  is  described  under 

Fesiientation;  here  we  only  treat  of  the  aaual  processes. 

There  are  two  methods  in  use:  the  "  quick  "  process,  proposed 

m  X720  by  Boerhaave  and  introduced  by  Schatzenbach  in  1823 

(analogous  processes  were  proposed  at  about  the  sfuxie  time  by 

Wagmann  in  Germany  and  by  Ham  in  England),  and  the  older  or 

"  slow  "  process. 

In  the  ''  qukk  "  process  advantage  is  taken  of  the  fact  that  the 
fermentation  proceeds  more  quickly  when  a  large  surface  of  the 
lk]uid  is  exposed  to  air.  Any  alcoholic  liquid  can  be  treated.  The 
apparatus  consists  essentially  of  a  vat  divided  into  three  portions: 
the  lowest,  which  is  separated  from  the  one  above  by  a  grid  or  false 
bottom,  serves  for  the  collection  of  the  vinegar;  the  central  portion, 
which  is  by  far  the  largest,  is  the  chamber  wherein  the  fermentation 
is  effected ;  and  it  is  separated  from  the  topmost  section  by  a  disk 
perforated  with  holes  about  the  size  of  quills  through  which  thin 
strings  lead  into  thifc  upper  part  of  the  central  section.  The  purpose 
of  this  disk  is  to  subdivide  the  liquid  placed  upon  it  into  drops  so  as 
to  increase  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  The  sides  of  the  vat  enck>sing 
the  lowest  portion  are  provided  with  a  ring  of  holes  to  admit  air  to 
the  tub; and  the  vat  is  enclosed  with  a  tightly  fitting  lid  perforated 
by  a  hole  through  which  the  liquor  to  be  fermented  is  admitted  and 
the  air  drawn  upwards  from  the  base  escapes.  The  central  chamber 
is  filled  with  some  material  of  large  surface  The  commonest  are 
beech-«ood  shavings,  which,  before  use.  must  be  carefully  freed 


from  aO  extractives  by  wadilng  and  stctmlngi  then  dried,  aad 
finally  soured  by  tmmerrion  in  Kot  vinegar  for  twenty-four  botirs. 
The  fermefited  wort,  prepared  in  various  ways  and  of  varying  coa- 
podtion,  or  wine,  is  warmed  to  about  ^8*  C.  and  then  fed  into  the 
upper  chamber.  Falling  on  to-the  shavmgs,  the  surface  is  largely  Ia- 
croued,  and  the  fermentation  whkh  ensues  maintains  the  temppTa- 
ture  at  about  37*,  and  draws  a  current  of  air  upwards- through  xhr 
shavings,  which  after  a  time  become  covered  with  tHe  ao-called 
mother  of  vinegar.  If  the  liquid  contains  only  4%  of  alcohol,  it 
u  completdy  converted  into  acetic  acid,  but  stron|per  liquor*  reqube 
to  be  passed  through  the  vat  three  or  four  times,  aome  of^  the 
alcohol  (and  c 


consequently  some  acetic  acid)  is  carried  awa3r  by  the 
air  which  escapn  to  the  top  of  the  vat;  this  is  avoided  in  son-c 
factories  by  leading  the  air  over  or  into  water,  whereby  the  alcohd 
and  aldehyde  are  recovered.  The  same  is  effected  in  Singer's 
generators,  which  are  coupled  together  in  tiers. 

For  making  wine-vincpu'  by  the  slow  process,  full-bodied  winf* 
about  one  year  old  and  containing  10%  of  akoliol  (this  anxKiut 
being  obrained,  when  neccsaaryj  by  blending)  are  preferred:  and 
they  are  clarified  by  standing  with  beech  shavings  upon  which  the 
lees  deposit.    The  fermentation  is  carried  out  in  casks  hokUnc  f  ^0=^ 
50  to  100  gallons;  these  casks  are  repeatedly  extracted  with  water  in 
order  to  prevent  any  impurity  finaing  its  way   into  the   vinegar: 
also  it  is  found  that  the  casks  foul  after  about  six  yeara*  use,  wKfc 
it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  deposits  of  argol,  yeast  sedinieots,  Ac, 
and  Tt-cxtnct  with  water,  after  which  tney  are  ania  fit  for  u«r. 
In  conducting  the  fermentation  the  cask  is  one-tnini  filled  «ith 
boiling  strong  vinegar  and  allowed  to  stand  for  eight  dayv.     Jiiat 
pints  of  the  wine  are  now  added  every  day  until  the  cade  is  tvt»- 
thirds  full,  and  the  mixture  b  allowca  to  stand  for  fourteen  da>^ 
After  this  interval  from  to  gallons  to  half  the  contents  of  the  cisk 
are  drawn  off,  and  more  wine  added.    The  working  temperaturr  s 
about  25*.    The  progress  of  the  operation  is  shown  by  the  wfa.tr 
froth  which  appeare  on  a  qntula  after  immenifui  in  the  liquid, 
if  it  be  rcddidi,  more  wine  must  be  added.    In  certain  parts  t 
France,  Holland  and  of  the  Rhine  district  a  different  procedure  b 
adopted.    Two  casks,  fitted  with  false  bottoms  on  whicn  are  plac«c 
vine  cuttings,  are  takien:  one  cask  is  completely  filled  with  the  «tT». 
whilst  the  other  is  only  half  filled.     The  acetification   procerd« 
more  rapidly  in  the  second  cask,  and  after  twenty-four  hours  hafi 
the  contents  of  the  firet  cask  are  transferred  to  it,  and  the  procea 
repeated.    The  product  is  settled  in  casks  concaiining  biich  wood 
and  after  fourteen  days  It  is  put  upon  the  market. 

In  preparing  malt  vinegar,  an  infusion  of  malt  ia  prepared  br 
extracting  it  with  water  at  72*,  then  at  a  higher  temperature  and 
finally  at  the  boiling-point.    After  cooling  the  extracts  are   fer* 
mented  with  yeast,  and  the  product  kept  for  some  months  bcfoie 
acetification.    This  stop  can  be  effected  by  the  quick  process  ss 
described  above,  or  by  the  slow  process.    In  the  latter  the  liquid  st 
25*  is  transferred  to  barrels  lying  on  their  sides  and  the  fermentatioa 
allowed  to  proceed.    When  the  process  is  complete  the  product  is 
filtered  through  rancs  in  a  fining  tun.    This  is  a  cask  fitted  with  a 
false  bottom  in  which  are  placed  spent  tanner's  wood,  shavinp, 
or,  better,  the  pressed  stalks  and  skins  of  grapes  and  raisins  froo 
wine  manufacture.    Household  vinegar  is  made  in  upright  casb; 
after  twenty-four  hours  it  is  transferred  to  a  similar  cask,  and  the 
process  repeated  in  a  third  and  fourth  cask.    Malt  vinegar  is  sold  is 
lour  strengths  designated  18,  20,  22,  24,  the  last  being  "  proof " 
vinegar,  conraining  6%  of  acetic  acid  and  having  a  specific  gravity 
of  I  •019.    These  numbers  represent  the  grains  of  dry  pure  sodims 
carbonate,  which  are  neutralized  by  one  fluid  ounce  dT  the  vinegar. 

Several  other  vine^rs  are  made.  Crystal  vinegar  is  oidinary 
\^negar  decolorized  oy  treatment  with  animal  charcoal.  Ale 
vinegar  b  prepared  from  strong  sour  ^Ic  ale;  it  has  a  tendency 
to  putrefy.  Glucose  or  sugar  vinegar  is  made  hy  first  fermenting 
amylaceous  substances  to  alcoh9l,  and  then  acetifying  the  akohoT 
Compound  table  vinegars  are  made  by  digesting  ordinary  vinenr 
with  condiments  such  as  pepjser,  garlic,  capcre,  Ac.;  whflst 
aromatic  vinegars  popularly  used  in  vinaigrettes  on  account  of  their 
refreshing^  stimulating  pungency  are  obtained  by  distilling  ordinary 
vinegar  with  plants,  pcifumes  uid  aromatic  substances.  Medicinal 
vinegars  are  prepared  either  by  digestion  or  dbtillation  of  vinegar 
with  various  drugs.  Vinegar,  however,  is  not  now  much  used  ia 
medkrine,  althougti  occasionally  taken,  under  a  false  impreasjon,  ia 
order  to  reduce  obesity. 

Wood  vinegar  is  not  used  in  cooking,  as  it  lacks  those  substancei 
which  render  ordinary  vinegar  palarable.  It  is  largely  nianu> 
factiired  for  conversion  into  pure  acetkr  acid  and  acetom ;  and  atoo 
for  use  as  an  antiseptic  and  wood  preservative.   (See  Acetic  Acidl) 

VINELAND,  a  borough  of  Cumberland  county,  New  Jersey, 
U.S.A.,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  slate,  about  34  m.  S.  of 
Philadelphia  and  about  1x5  m.  S.W.  of  New  York.  Pop. 
(1890)3822;  (1900)  4370,  including  590  foreign-bom;  (1905  lUte 
census)  4593;  (1910)  538a.  Area,  x  sq.  m.  It  is  served  by  the 
Central  of  New  Jersey'and  the  West  Jersey  &  Seashore  railways, 
and  by  electric  railway  to  Millville  and  Bridgeton.  Vinehuid 
is  situated  at  an  allftude  of  90-118  ft    above  the  sea,  on  a 


VINER— VINGT-ET-UN 


97 


generally  level  or  sfightly  undulating  plain,  and  has  unusually 
broad,  straight  and  weU-shaded  streets.  The  borough  main- 
tains a  public  library,  a  public  park  of  40  acres,  artesian  water- 
works, a  sewerage  system  and  an  electric  lighting  plant.  It 
is  the  scat  of  the  New  Jersey  Training  School  for  Feeble- 
Minded  Girb  and  Boys  <i888),  the  State  Home  for  the  Care 
and  Thuning  <A  Feeble-Minded  Women  (1888),  and  the  State 
Home  for  Disabled  Soldiers,  Sailors,  Marines  and  their  Wives. 
The  Vineland  Historical  and  Antiquarian  Society  (organized 
in  1864)  has  a  library  (8000  volumes  in  1909)  housed  in  the 
Society's  building,  and  it  maintains  a  free  lecture  course. 
9akx>ns  for  the  ^e  of  intoxicating  liquors  have  never  been 
allowed  in  Vineland.  The  surrounding  country  is  largely  de- 
voted to  the  growing  of  small  fruits,  grapes,  peaches,  pears 
and  apples,  and  the  raising  of  sweet  potatoes;  and  within 
the  borough  are  manufactured  unfermented  grape  juice  wine, 
boots  and  shoes,  clothing,  carpets,  rugsj  cheniUe  curtains,  peart 
buttons,  flint-glass  tubes  and  bottles,  and  iron  castings. 

Vineland  was  founded  in  1861  by  Charles  K.  Landis  (1835- 
X900),  who  conceived' the  idea  of  creating  a  settlement  in  the 
almost  uninhabited  "Pines"  of  Southern  New  Jersey;  and 
after  purchasing  a  large  tract  he  laid  out  a  village  with  small 
farms  adjoining.  The  settlers,  largely  from  New  England 
and  the  Middle  States,  received  the  land  at  moderate  prices 
on  agreeing  to  make  certain  stipulated  improvements.  The 
township  of  Landis  (pop.  in  1910,  6435),  named  in  honour 
of  the  founder  of  the  settlement,  was  incorporated  in  1864, 
having  formerly  been  a  part  of  Millville;  from  it  Vineland  was 
separated  and  was  incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1880. 

See  The  Founder^s  Own  Story  of  the  Founding  of  Vindand 
(Vineland,  1903),  a  pamphlet  published  by  the  Vineland  Historical 
and  Antiquarian  Society. 

VINER,  SIR  ROBERT  (x63i-x688),  lord  .mayor  of  London, 
was  born  in  Warwick,  but  migrated  in  early  life  to  London, 
where  he  was  apprenticed  to  his  uncle.  Sir  Thomas  Viner  (1558- 
1665),  a  goldsmith,  who  was  lord  mayor  of  London  in  1653-54, 
and  who  was  created  a  baronet  in  1661.  Soon  Robert  became 
a  partner  in  his  kinsman's  business,  and  in  1666  an  alderman 
of  the  city  of  London;  in  1665  he  was  made  a  knight,  and  in 
the  f<^owing  year  a  baronet.  He  was  sheri£F  during  the  year 
of  the  great  fire  in  London,  and  was  chosen  lord  mayor  in  1674. 
Combining  like  his  uncle  the  business  of  a  banker  with  that 
of  a  goldsmith,  Viner  was  brought  much  into  contact  with 
Charles  II.  and  with  the  court.  The  king  attended  his  mayoral 
banquet,  and  the  lord  mayor  erected  an  equestrian  statue  in  his 
honour  on  a  spot  now  covered  by  the  Mansion  House.  Having 
been  appointed  the  king's  goldsmith  in  1661,  Sir  Robert  was 
one  of  those  who  lent  large  sums  of  money  for  the  expenses 
of  the  state  and  the  extravagances  of  the  court;  over  £400,000 
was  owing  to  him  when  the  national  exchequer  suspended 
payment  in  1672,  and  he  was  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  com- 
pounding with  his  creditors.  He  obtained  from  the  state  an 
annuity  of  £2 5,00a  Viner  died  at  Windsor  on  the  and  of 
September  x688. 

Soe  Viner:  a  Family  History,  published  anonymously  (1885). 

VINET.  ALEXANDRE  RODOLPHE  (i797-i847)>  French 
critic  and  theologian,  of  Swiss  birth,  was  bom  near  Lausanne 
on  the  17th  of  June  1797.  He  was  educated  for  the  Protestant 
ministry,  being  ordained  in  18 19,  when  already  teacher  of  the 
French  language  and  literature  in  the  gymnasium  at  Basel; 
and  during  the  whole  of  his  life  he  was  as  much  a  critic  as  a 
theologian.  His  literary  criticism  brought  him  into  contact 
with  Sainte-Beuve,  for  whom  he  procured  an  invitation  to 
lecture  at  Lausanne,  which  led  to  his  famous  work  on  Port- 
Royal.  Vinet's  Chrestomatkie  franqaise  (1829),  his  £tudes  sw 
ia  litUraiure  franqaist  au  XIX^  sihcle  (1849-51),  and  his 
Histoire  de  la  liUtrature  fran^aise  au  X  VIII'"  siicle,  together 
with  his  £tudes  sur  Pascal j  £ludes  sur  lesmoralistei  aux  XVI** 
et  XV  11*^  Slides  y  Histoire  de  la  pridicalion  par  mi  Its  Riformis 
de  Prance  and  other  kindred  works,  gave  evidence  of  a  wide 
knowledge  of  literature,  a  sober  and  acute  literary  judgment 
and  a  distinguished  faculty  of  appreciation.    He  adjusted  his 


theories  to  the  work  under  review,  and  condemned  nothing  so 
long  as  it  was  good  work  according  to  the  writer's  own  standard. 
His  criticism  had  the  singular  advantage  of  being  in  some 
sort  foreign,  without  the  disadvantage  which  attaches  in  French 
eyes  to  all  criticism  of  things  French  written  in  a  foreign  language. 
As  theologian  he  gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  Protestant  theology, 
especially  in  French-speaking  lands,  but  also  in  England  and 
elsewhere.  Lord  Acton  classed  him  with  Rothe.  He  built 
all  on  conscience,  as  that  wherein  man  stands  in  direct  per- 
sonal relation  with  God  as  moral  sovereign,  and  the  seat  of 
a  moral  individuality  which  nothing  can  rightly  infringe. 
Hence  he  advocated  complete  freedom  of  religious  belief,  and 
to  this  end  the  formal  separation  of  church  and  state  {klimoue 
en  faveur  de  la  liberU  des  cultes  (1826),  Essai  sur  la  conscience 
(1829),  Essai  sur  la  manifestation  des  convictions  religieuses  (1842}. 
Accordingly,  when  in  1845  the  dvil  power  in  the  canton  of 
Vaud  interfered  with  the  church's  autonomy,  he  led  a  secession 
which  took  the  name  of  L'^glise  litre.  But  already  from 
1 83 1,  when  he  published  his  Discows  sur  qudques  steels  rdigieux 
{Nouveaux  discows,  1841),  he  had  begun  to  exert  a  liberalising 
and  deepening  influence  on  rdigious  thought  far  beyond  his 
own  canton,  by  bringing  traditional  doctrine  to  the  test  oi  a 
living  personal  experience  (see  also  Froidcel,  Gaston).  In 
this  he  resembled  F.  W.  Robertson,  as  also  in  the  change  which 
he  introduced  into  pulpit  style  and  in  the  permanence  of  his 
influence.  Vinet  died  on  the  4th  of  May  1847  at  Clarens 
(Vaud).  A  considerable  part  of  his  works  was  not  printed  till 
after  bis  death. 

Hifl  life  waa  written  in  1875  by  Eug^e  Rambert,  who  re-edited 
the  Chrestomatkie  ia  1876.  bee  ahp  L.  M.  Lane,  Lijfe  and  Writines 
of  A.  Vinet  (1890);  L.  Moltncs,  Etude  sur  Alexandre  Vind  (Pans, 
1890) ;  V.  Roaael,  HisL  de  la  litt.  framt^aise  kors  de  France  (Lausanne, 
18^5)  t  V.  Rivet,  £tudes  sur  les  orinnes  de  la  pens^  rdigieuse  de 
Vtnd  (Paris,  1896);  A.  Schumann,  Alex.  Vinet  (1907).  A  uniform 
edition  of  his  works  was  begun  in  1908,  see  Reeue  de  tkMoeie  ef 
phUosepkie  (Lausanne,  1908.  234  sqq.).  (J.  V.  B.) 

VINGT-ET-UN  (colloquiaUy,  "  Van  John "),  a  round  gams 
of  cards,  at  which  any  number  of  persons  may  play,  though 
five  or  ax  arc  enough.  The  right  to  deal  having  been  decided, 
the  dealer  gives  one  card  face  downwards  to  each  person,  in- 
cluding himself.  The  others  thereupon  look  at  their  cards 
and  declare  their  stakes — one,  two,  three  or  more  counters  or 
chips — according  to  the  value  of  their  cards.  When  all  have 
staked,  the  dealer  looks  at  his  own  card  and  can  double  all 
stakes  if  he  chooses.  The  amount  of  the  original  stake  should 
be  set  by  each  player  opposite  his  card.  Another  card  is  then 
dealt,  face  downwards,  ail  round;  each  player  looking  at  his 
own.  The  object  of  the  game  is  to  make  21,  by  the  pips  on 
the  cards,  an  ace  counting  as  i  or  11,  and  the  court  cards  as 
xo  each.  Hence  a  player  who  receives  an  ace  and  a  ten-card 
scores  2X  at  once.  This  is  called  a  "  natural ";  the  holder 
receives  twice — sometimes  thrice — the  stake  or  the  doubled 
stake.  If  the  dealer  has  a  natural  too,  the  usual  rule  is 
that  the  other  natural  pays  nothing,  in  spite  of  the  rule  of 
"  ties  pay  the  dealer."  The  deal  passes  to  the  player  who 
turns  up  the  natural,  unless  it  occurs  in  the  first  round  of  a 
deal  or  the  dealer  has  a  natural  too.  If  the  dealer  has  not  a 
natural,  he  asks  each  player  in  turn,  beginning  with  the  player 
on  his  left,  if  he  wishes  for  another  card  or  cards,  the  object 
stiU  being  to  get  to  21,  or  as  near  up  to  it  as  possible.  The 
additional  cards  are  given  him  one  by  one,  face  upwards,  though 
the  original  cards  are  not  exposed.  If  he  requires  no  additional 
card,  or  when  he  has  drawn  sufficient,  he  says,  '*  Content," 
or  "  I  stand."  If  a  player  ovcrdmws,  i.e,  if  his  cards  count 
more  than  21,  he  pays  the  dealer  at  once.  When  all 
are  either  overdrawn  or  content,  the  dealer  may  "stand" 
on  his  own  hand,  or  draw  cards,  till  he  is  overdrawn  or  stands. 
All  the  hands  are  then  shown,  the  dealer  {Mtying  those  players 
whose  cards  are  nearer  to  21  than  his  own,  and  receiving  from 
all  the  others,  as  "  ties  pay  the  dealer."  If  the  dealer's  cards, 
with  the  additions,  make  exactly  21,  he  receives  double  the 
stake,  or  doubled  stake;  if  a  player  holds  21,  he  receives  double 
likewise,  but  ties  still  pay  the  dealer.    If  a  player  receives  two 


98 


VINITA— VINLAND 


«imiUr  cards  he  ntay  put  his  slake  on  each  and  draw  on  them 
separately,  receiving  or  i>aying  according  as  he  stands  success- 
fully or  overdraws,  but  the  two  cards  must  be  similar,  i.e.  he 
cannot  draw  on  both  a  knave  and  a  queen,  or  a  king  and  a 
ten,  though  their  values  are  equal  for  the  purpose  of  counting. 
A  natural  drawn  in  this  way,  however,  only  counts  as  21,  and 
does  not  turn  out  the  dealer.  Similarly  a  player  may  draw  on 
three  cards,  or  even  four,  should  they  be  dealt  him.  A  player 
who  overdraws  on  one  of  such  cards  must  declare  and  pay 
immediately,  even  though  he  stands  on  another.  After  a  hand 
is  played,  the  "  pone  "  (Latin  for  "  behind  ")— the  pkiyer  on 
the  dealer's  rightT-coIlects  and  shuffles  the  cards  played,  the 
dealer  dealing  from  the  remainder  of  the  pack,  till  it  is  exhausted, 
when  he  takes  the  cards  the  pone  holds,  after  the  pone  has  cut 
them.  It  is  a  great  advantage  to  deal,  as  the  dealer  receives 
from  all  who  have  already  withdrawn,  even  if  he  overdraws 
himself. 

French  VtHtt-et-un,  or  vingt-^un  with  PoriatunUj  is  played  by 
any  number  of  persons.  The  first  deal  is  played  as  m  the  ordinary 
game.  In  the  second  ("  Imaginary  Tens  ")  each  player  is  supposed 
to  hold  a  ten<ard  and  rccet\'es  one  card  from  the  dealer,  face  aown- 
wards;  he  is  then  considered  to  bold  a  ten<aTd  fdusthe  one  dealt, 
and  stands  or  draws,  receives  or  pays,  as  in  the  ordinary  game.  If 
be  receives  an  ace  he  holds  a  natural.  In  the  third  deal  ("  Blind 
Vingt-et-un  *')  each  player  receives  two  cards,  and  draws  or  stands 
without  looking  at  either.  The  fourth  deal  is  "  Sympathy  and 
Antipathy,"  each  player  staking,  and  declaring  which  of  the  two 
he  backs:  two  cards  are  then  dealt  to  him:  if  they  are  of  the  saoie 
colour,  it  is  "  sympathy  " ;  if  of  different  colours,  "  antipathy." 
At  the  fourth  deal  {Rouge-et'Hoir),  each  player,  having  rereived  three 
cards,  bets  that  the  majority  will  be  either  black  or  red,  as  he  chooses. 
In  "  Self  and  Company  "  every  one  stakes  but  the  dealer,  who  then 
sets  out  two  cards,  face  upwards,  one  for  himself  and  one  for  the 
players.  If  the  two  cards  are  pairs,  the  dealer  wins;  if  not,  he  deals 
till  one  of  the  cards  exposed  is  paired,  paying  or  receiving  according 
as  that  card  belongs  to  himself  or  the  company."  The  seventh 
deal  M  **  Paying  the  difference."  Each  player  receives  two  cards, 
face  upwards.  The  dosler  pays  or  receives  a  stake  for  the  difference 
in  number  between  the  pips  on  his  own  cards  and  those  of  each 
player.  The  ace  counts  as  one.  The  eighth  deal  is  "  Clock."  The 
stakes  are  pooled.  The  dealer  deals  the  cards  out,  face  upwards, 
calling  "  one  "  for  the  first,  "  two  "  for  the  second,  and  so  on,  the 
knave  being  11,  queen  12,  and  king  13.  If  any  of  tlie  cards  dealt 
correspond  to  the  number  called,  the  dealer  takes  the  pool;  if  none 
correspond,  he  forfeits  that  amount.  At  the  end  of  this  (the  eighth) 
deal,  the  next  player  deals. 

VINITA,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Craig  county,  Okla- 
homa, U.S.A.,  in  the  N.E.  part  of  the  state,  about  135  m.  E.N.E. 
of  Guthrie.  Pop.  (1900)  2339;  (1907)  3157,  including  624 
Indians  and  479  negroes;  (1910)  40S2.  Vinita  is  served  by  the 
Missouri,  Kansas  &  Texas  and  the  St  Louis  &  San  Francisco 
railways.  In  the  city  are  the  Sacred  Heart  Institute  (Roman 
Catholic),  and  a  hospital  for  masons.  Vinita  is  situated  in  an 
agricultural  and  stock-raising  region,  and  lead,  zinc,  oil  and 
natural  gas  arc  found  in  the  vicinity;  the  city's  water  supply  is 
obtained  from  artesian  wells.  Bricks  are  manufactured.  The 
first  settlement  was  made  here  in  1870  and  Vinita  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1898. 

VINUND  (Old  Norse,  Vinland,  i.e,  Vincland  or  Wineland), 
some  region  on  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America,  visited  and 
named  by  the  Norsemen  in  the  beginning  of  the  nth  century. 
The  word  first  appeared  in  print  in  Adam  of  Bremen's  Dc- 
scriplio  Insularum  AquUonhy  an  appendix  to  his  Ccsta  Hamma- 
burgensis  Ecclesiae  Potitificum,  published  by  Lindenbrog  in 
1595.  In  pursuit  of  historical  study,  Adam  visited  the  Danish 
court  during  the  reign  of  the  well-informed  monarch  Svend 
Estridsson  (1047-1076),  and  writes  that  the  king  "  spoke  of  an 
island  (or  country)  in  that  ocean  discovered  by  many,  which  is 
called  Vinland,  because  of  the  wild  grapes  [viks]  that  grow 
there,  out  of  which  a  very  good  wine  can  be  made.  Moreover, 
that  grain  imsown  grows  there  abundantly  [fruges  ibi  turn 
seminalas  abundare]  is  not  a  fabulous  fancy,  but  is  based  on 
trustworthy  accounts  of  the  Danes,"  This  passage  offers  im- 
portant corroboration  of  the  Icelandic  accounts  of  the  Vinland 
voyages,  and  is,  furthermore,  interesting  "as  the  only  un- 
doubted reference  to  Vinland  in  a  medieval  book  written  be- 
yond the  linuts  of  the  Scandinavian  world  "  (Fiske).    Adam's 


information  concerning  VinUnd  did  not,  hovevor,  (ii^iimb   Sub 
medieval  readers,  as  he  placed  the  new  land  somewhere  in  tiie 
Arctic  regions:  "  All  those  regions  which  are  beyond  are  filled 
with  insupportable  ice  and  boundless  gloom."    These   words 
show  the  futility  of  ascribing  to  Adam'a  account  Columbus*s 
knowledge  of  lands  in  the  West,  as  many  overzeaJous  advocates 
of  the  Norse  discoveries  have  done,    l^e  importance  of  the 
information,  meagre  as  it  is,  lies  in  the  fact  that  Adam  received 
from  the  lips  of  kinsmen  of  the  expioren  (as  the  Danes  in  a 
sense  were)  certain  characteristic  facts  (the  finding  of  grapes 
and  unsown  grain)  that  support  the  general  reliability  of  the 
Icelandic  sagas  which  tell  of  the  Vinland  voyages  (in  which 
these  same  facts  are  prominent),  but  which  were  not  put  into 
writing  by  the  Norsemen  until  later^^just  how  much  later  it  is 
not  possible  to  determine.    The  fact  that  the  Icelandic  sagas 
concerning  Vinland  are  not  contemporaneous  written  records 
h^  caused  them  to  be  viewed  by  many  with  suspicion;  hence 
such  a  significant  allusion  as  that  by  Adam  -of  Bremen  is  not 
to  be  overlooked.    To  the  student  of  the  Norse  sources,  Adam's 
reference  is  not  so  important,  as  the  internal  evidence  of  the 
sagas  is  such  as  to  give  easy  credence  to  them  as  records  of 
exploration  in  regions  previously  unknown  to  civilization.     The 
contact  with  savages  would  alone  prove  that. 

During  the  middle  ages  the  Scandinavians  were  the  first  to 
revive  geographical  science  and  to  practise  pelagic  navigation. 
For  six  centuries  previous  to  about  800,  European  inter^t  in 
practical  geographical  expansion  was  at  a  standstill.    During 
the  6th  and  7th  centuries,  Irish  anchorites,  in  their  "  passion 
for  solitude,"  found  their  way  to  the  Hebrides,  Orkneys,  Shet- 
lands,  Faroes  and  Iceland,  but  they  were  not  interested  in 
colonizatk>n  or  geographical  knowledge.  The  discovery  of  new 
lands  in  the  West  by  the  Norsemen  came  in  the  course  of  the 
great  Scandinavian  exodus  of  the  9th,  xoth  and  nth  centuries — 
the  Viking  Age — ^when  Norsemen,  Swedes  aiul  Danes  swarmed 
over  all  Europe,  conquering  kingdoms  and  founding  colonio. 
The  main  stream  of  Norsemen  took  a  westerly  course,  striking 
Great  Britain,  Ireland  and  the  Western  Isles,  and  ultimatdy 
reached  Iceland  (in  874),  Greenland  (in  985)  and  Vinland  (in 
xooo).    This  western  migration  was  due  mainly  to  political 
dissatisfaction  in  Norway,  doubtless  augmented  by  a  xestlcs 
spirit  of  adventure.    The  chiefs  and  their  followers  that  settled 
Iceland  were  "  picked  men,"  the  flower  of  the  land,  and  sought 
a  new  home  from  other  motives  than  want  or  gain.    They  sought 
political  freedom.    In  Iceland  they  lived  active,  not  to  say 
tumultuous,  lives,  and  left  fine  literary  records  of  their  doings 
and  achievements.    The  Icelandic  colony  was  an  interesting 
forerunner  of   the  American   republic,   having  a  prosperous 
popuhition  living  under  a  republican  government,  and  main- 
taining an  independent  national  spirit  for  nearly  four  centuries. 

Geographically  Iceland  belongs  to  America,  and  its  ooloniza- 
ti(m  meant,  sooner  or  later,  the  finding  of  other  lands  to  the 
West.  A  century  later  Greenland  was  peopled  from  Iceland, 
and  a  colony  existed  for  over  four  hundred  years,  when  it  was 
snuffed  out,  doubtless  by  hostile  Eskimos.  Icelandic  records, 
among  them  the  Vinland  sagas,  also  a  Norwegian  work  of  the 
13th  century,  called  Speculum  regale  (The  King's  Mirror),  and 
some  papal  letters,  give  interesting  glimpses  of  the  life  of  this 
colony.  It  was  from  the  young  Greenland  colony  that  an 
attempt  was  made  to  establish  a  new  outpost  in  Vinland,  but 
plans  for  permanent  setdement  were  given  up  on  account  of 
the  hostih'ty  of  the  natives,  with  whom  the  settlers  felt  powerless 
to  grapple.    Gunpowder  had  not  yet  been  invented. 

Icelandic  literature  consists  mainly  of  the  so-called  "  sagas," 
or  prose  narratives,  and  is  rich  in  historical  lore.  In  the  case 
of  the  Vinland  sagas,  however,  there  are  two  independent  narra- 
tives of  the  same  events,  which  clash  in  the  record  of  details. 
Modem  investigators  have  been  interested  in  establishing  the 
superiority  of  one  over  the  other  of  the  two  narratives.  One  of 
them  is  the  "  Saga  of  Eric  the  Red  "  as  found  in  the  collection 
known  as  Hauk's  Book^  so  called  because  the  manuscript  was 
made  by  Hauk  Erlendsson,  an  Icelander  who  spent  much  of  his 
life  in  Norway.    It  was  copied,  in  part  by  Hauk  himself,  between 


VINLAND 


99 


the  yean  1305  and  1334,  the  date  of  his  death,  and  probahly 
during  the  period  13x0-20  It  is  No.  544  of  the  Ame- 
Magnacan  collection  in  Copenhagen.  Another  manuscript 
that  tells  the  same  story,  with  only  verbal  variations,  is  found 
in  No.  557  of  the  same  collection.  This  manuscript  was  made 
later  than  Hauk's^  probably  in  the  early  part  of  the  isth  century, 
but  it  is  not  a  copy  of  Hauk's.  Both  were  made  independently 
from  earlier  manuscripts.  The  story  as  found  in  these  two 
manuscripts  has  been  pronounced  by  competent  critics,  especi- 
ally Professor  Gustav  Storm  of  the  university  of  Christiania, 
as  the  best  and  the  most  trustworthy  record. 

The  other  saga,  which  by  chance  came  to  be  looked  upon  as 
the  chief  repository  of  facts  concerning  the  Vinland  voyages,  is 
found  in  a  large  Icelandic  work  known  as  the  Flatey  Book,  as 
it  was  once  owned  by  a  man  who  lived  on  Flat  Island  (Flatey), 
on  the  north-western  coast  of  Iceland.  This  collection  of  sagas, 
completed  in  about  1380,  is  "the  most  exienave  and  most 
perfect  of  Icelandic  manuscripts,"  and  was  sent  to  Denmark  in 
1662  as  a  gift  to  the  king.  It  was  evidently  the  general  ex- 
cellence of  this  collection  that  gave  the  version  of  the  Vinland 
story  that  it  contained  precedence,  in  the  works  of  early  investi- 
gators, over  the  Vinland  story  of  Hauk's  Book.  (Reeves's 
Finding  of  Winelaitd  contains  fine  photographs  of  all  the  vellum 
pages  that  gfve  the  various  Vinland  narratives.) 

According  to  Flatey  Book  saga,  Biami  Heriulfsson,  on  a 
voyage  from  Iceland  to  Greenland  in  the  early  days  of  the 
Greenland  colony,  was  driven  out  of  his  course  and  sighted  new 
lands  to  the  south-west.  He  did  not  go  ashore  (which  seems 
strange),  but  sailed  northward  to  Greenland.  Fifteen  )rears 
later,  according  to  this  account,  Leif  Ericsson  set  out  from 
Greenland  in  search  of  the  lands  that  Biami  had  seen,  found 
them  and  named  them — Helluland  (Flat -stone-land),  Markland 
(Forestland)  and  Vinland.  After  his  return  to  Greenland, 
several  successive  expeditions  visited  the  new  lands,  none  of 
which  (strangely  enough)  experienced  any  difficulty  in  finding 
Leif 's  hut  in  the  distant  Vinland. 

According  to  the  Vinland  saga  in  HauVs  Book,  Leif  Ericsson, 
whose  father,  Eric  the  Red,  had  discovered  and  colonized  Green- 
land, set  out  on  a  voyage,  in  999,  to  visit  Norway,  the  native  land 
of  his  father.  He  visited  the  famous  King  Olaf  Tryggvason,  who 
reigned  from  995  to  1000,  and  was  bending  his  energies  toward 
Christianizing  Norway  and  Iceland.  He  immediately  saw  in  Leif 
a  likely  aid  in  the  conversion  of  the  Greenlandem.  Leif  was 
converted  and  consented  to  become  the  king's  emissary  to 
Greenland,  and  the  next  year  (xooo)  started  on  his  return  voyage. 
The  saga  says  that  he  was  "  tossed  about "  on  this  long  voyage, 
and  came  upon  an  unknown  country,  where  he  found  "self- 
sown  wheatfields,  and  vines,"  and  also  some  trees  called  "  mUsur," 
of  which  he  took  specimens.  Upon  his  arrival  in  Greenland, 
Leif  presented  the  message  of  King  Olaf,  and  seems  to  have 
attempted  no  further  expeditions.  But  his  visits  to  the -new 
lands  aroused  much  interest,  and  his  brother  Thorstein  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  find  them.  Later,  in  1003,  an  Icelander, 
Thorfinn  Karlsefni,  who  was  visiting  the  Greenland  colony,  and 
who  had  married  Gudrid,  the  widow  of  Leif 's  brother  Thorstein, 
set  out  with  four  vessels  and  160  followers  to  found  a  colony  in 
the  new  lands.  Here  they  remained  three  years,  during  which 
time  a  son,  Snorri,  was  bom  to  Thorfirm  and  Gudrid.  This 
expedition,  too,  found  '*  grapes  and  self-sown  wheat,"  though 
seemingly  not  in  any  great  abundance.  Concerning  the  southern- 
most region  of  Vinland,  the  saga  says:  '*  They  found  self-sown 
wheatfields  in  the  lowlands,  but  vines  everywhere  on  higher 
places.  .  .  .  There  were  great  numbers  of  wild  animsds  in  the 
woods."  Then  the  saga  relates  that  one  morning  a  large 
number  of  men  in  skin  canoes  came  paddling  toward  them  and 
landed,  staring  curiously  at  them:  "They  were  swarthy  men 
and  ill-looking,  and  the  hair  of  their  heads  was  ugly;  they  had 
large  eyes  and  broad  cheeks."  Later  the  saga  says:  "  No  snow 
came  there,  and  all  of  their  live  stock  lived  by  grazing,  and 
thrived."  The  natives  appeared  again  the  next  spring,  and  a 
clash  occurred.  Fearing  continued  troubh:  with  them,  Karlsefni 
resolved  to  return  to  Greenland.    This  he  did  a  ytzx  later,  and 


spent  the  winter  of  1006-7  there,  whereupon  he  settled  in 
Iceland.  From  hiiti  and  Gudrid  a  number  of  prominent 
ecclesiastics  claimed  descent,  and  also  Hauk  Erlenduon.  The 
Vinland  story  was  doubtless  a  cherished  ftfmily  possession, 
and  was  put  into  writing,  when  writing  sagas,  instead  of  letling 
them,  came  into  fashion.  And  here  it  is  important  to  remember 
that  before  the  age  of  writing  in  Iceland  there  was  a  saga-telling 
age,  a  most  remarkable  period  of  intellectual  activity,  by  the  aid 
of  which  the  deeds  and  events  of  the  seething  life  of  the  heroic 
age  was  carried  over  into  the  age  of  Meriting.  "  Among  the 
medieval  literatures  of  Europe,  that  of  Icdland  is  unrivalled  in 
the  profusion  of  detail  with  which  the  facts  of  ordinary  life  are 
recorded,  and  the  clearness  with  which  the  individual  characters 
of  numberless  real  persons  stand  out  from  the  historic  back- 
ground "  {Origines  Islandieae),  Icelandic  literary  history  says 
that  Ari  the  Learned  (bom  in  1067)  was  "  the  first  man  in  this 
land  who  wrote  in  the  Norse  tongue  history  relating  to  times 
ancient  and  modem."  Among  hb  works  is  the  Book  of 
SetUemenls,  "  a  work  of  thorough  and  painstaking  research 
unequalled  in  medieval  literature "  (Fiske).  His  work  The 
Book  of  Icdanders  is  unfortunately  lost,  but  an  abridgment 
of  it,  Lihtttus  Idandorum,  made  by  Ari  himself,  contains  a 
significant  reference  to  Vinland.  It  tells  that  the  coloiusts  in 
Greenland  found  "both  broken  cayaks  (canoes)  and  stone 
implements,  whereby  it  may  be  seen  that  the  same  kind  of 
folk  had  been  there  as  they  which  inhabited  Vinland,  and 
whom  the  men  of  Greenland  (i.e.  the  explorers)  called  the 
'  skraelinfps '  {i.e.  inferior  people)."  From  this  allusion  one 
cannot  but  think  that  so  keen  and  alert  a  writer  as  Ari  had  given 
some  attention  to  Vinland  in  the  lost  work.  But  of  this  there 
is  no  other  proof.  We  are  left  to  affirm,  on  account  of  definite 
references  in  various  sagas  and  annals  to  Leif  Ericsson  and  the 
discovery  of  Vinland,  that  the  saga  as  preserved  in  HauVs  Book 
(and  also  in  No.  557)  rested  on  a  strong  viva  voce  tradition  that 
was  early  put  into  writing  by  a  competent  hand.  Dr  Finnur 
Jonsson  of  Copenhagen  say's:  "The  classic  form  of  the  saga  and 
its  vivid  and  excellent  tradition  surely  carry  it  back  to  about 
1200."  This  conservative  opinion  does  not  preclude  the  possi> 
bifily,  or  even  probability,  that  written  accounts  of  the  Vinland 
voyages  existed  before  this  date.  Vigfusson,  in  speaking  of  the 
sagas  in  general,  says: "  We  befa'eve  that  when  once  the  first  saga 
was  written  down,  the  others  were  in  quick  succession  committed 
to  parchment,  some  still  keeping  their  form  through  a  succession 
of  copies,  other  changed.  .  .  .  That  which  was  not  written  down 
quickly,  in  due  time,  was  lost  and  forgotten  for  ever." 

The  fact  that  there  are  discrepancies  between  the  two  ver- 
sions as  they  appear  in  the  Ha«k*s  Book  and  in  the  FlaUy  Bock 
does  not  justify  the  overthrow  of  both  as  historical  evidence. 
The  general  truth  of  the  tradition  is  strengthened  by  the  fact 
that  it  has  come  down  from  two  faidependent  sources.  One  c^ 
them  must  be  the  better,  however,  and  this  it  is  the  province  of 
competent  scholars  to  determine.  The  best  modem  scholarship 
gives  theprecedence  to  the  Hauk*s  Book  narrative,  as  it  harmonizes 
better  with  well-established  facts  of  Scandinavian  history,  and 
is  besides  a  more  plausible  account.  In  accordance  with  this 
decision,  Biami  Heriulfson's  adventure  should  be  eliminated, 
the  priority  of  discovery  given  to  I*cif  Ericsson,  and  the  honour 
of  being  the  first  European  colonists  on  the  American  continent 
awarded  to  Thorfinn  Karlsefni  and  his  followers.  This  was 
evidently  the  only  real  attempt  at  colonization,  despite  the 
numerous  contentions  to  the  contrary.  Under  date  of  11 21  the 
Icelandic  annals  say:  "  Bishop  Eric  of  Greenland  went  in  search 
of  Vinland."  Nothing  further  is  recorded.  The  fact  that  his 
successor  as  bishop  was  ap}x>inted  in  1 123  would  seem  to  indicate 
that  the  Greenlanders  had  information  that  Eric  had  perished. 

The  only  important  phase  of  the  Vinland  voyages  that  has  not 
been  definitely  settled  is  the  identifications  of  the  regions  visited 
by  Leif  and  Thorfinn.  The  Danish  antiquarian  Rafn,  in  hia 
monumental  Anliquitales  Americanae,  published  in  1837,  and 
much  discussed  in  America  at  that  lime,  held  for  Rhode  Island 
as  Lcif's  landfall  and  the  locality  of  Thorfinn's  colony.  Vro* 
fessor  £.  N.  H(»sford,  in  a  number  of  m<Hiographs  (unfortunately 


lOO 


VINCXJRADOFF— VINT 


of  DO  biitoTical  <ir  scientific  value),  fixed  upon  the  vidnity  of 
Boston,  where  now  stand  a  Leif  Ericsson  statue  and  Hoisford's 
^orumbexa  Tower  as  testimonials  to  the  Norse  explorers.  But 
in  1887  Professor  Storm  announced  his  conviction  that  the 
lands  visited  by  the  Norsemen  in  the  early  part  of  the  nth 
century  were  Labrador,  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia.  And 
a  careful  reading  of  the  Hauk*s  Book  narrative  seems  to  show 
that  the  numerous  details  of  the  saga  fit  Nova  Scotia  remarkably 
well,  and  much  better  than  any  other  part  of  the  continent. 
This  view  has  in  recent  years  been  quite  generally  accepted  by 
American  scholars.  But  in  1910  Professor  M.  L.  Feinald,  a 
botanist  of  Harvard  University,  published  a  paper  in  JUudora, 
voL  za.  No.  134,  in  which  he  contends  that  it  is  most  probable 
that  the  "  vinbcr  "  of  the  sagas  were  not  "  grapes,"  but  "  wine- 
berries,"  also  known  as  the  mountain  or  rock  cranberries.  The 
**  self-sown  wheat  "  of  the  sagas  he  identifies  as  strand  wheat, 
instead  of  Indian  com,  or  wild  rice,  and  the  mdsur  trees  as  the 
canoe  birch.  He  thinks  the  natives  were  Eskimos,  instead  of 
American  Indians,  as  stoutly  maintained  by  John  Fiske.  Pro- 
fessor Femald  concludes  his  paper  by  saying  that:  "  The  mass 
of  evidence  which  the  writer  has  in  hand,  and  which  will  soon  be 
ready  for  publication,  makes  it  dear  that,  if  we  read  the  sagas 
in  the  light  of  what  we  know  of  the  abundant  occurrence  north  of 
the  St  Lawrence  of  the  *  vinber '  ( Vauinium  VUis-Idaea  or 
possibly  Ribes  tristCt  R.  prosUratum^  or  R.  lactisfre),  *  hveiti ' 
{Elymus  arenarius)^  and '  mSsur '  (Bctula  alba,  le.  B.  papyrif^ra 
of  many  botanists),  the  discrepancies  in  geography,  ethnology 
and  zoology,  which  have  been  so  troublesome  in  the  past,  will 
disappear;  other  features,  usually  considered  obscure,  will 
become  luminous;  and  the  older  and  less  distorted  sagas,  at 
least  in  their  main  inddents,  will  become  vivid  records  of  actual 
geographic  exploration." 

It  is  possible  that  Professor  Femald  may  show  oondusivdy 
that  Leif's  landfall  was  north  of  the  St  Lawrence.  That  the 
"  vinber  "  were  mountain  cranberries  would  explain  the  fact, 
mentioned  in  the  FUUey  Book  saga,  that  Leif  filled  his  after- 
boat  with  "  vinber  "  in  the  spring,  which  is  possible  with  the 
cranberries,  as  they  arc  most  palatable  after  having  lain  under 
the  snow  for  the  winter.  But  Thorfinn  Karlsefni  found  no 
abundance  of  "  vinber,"  in  fact  one  of  his  followers  composed 
some  verses  to  express  his  disappointment  on  this  score. 
*'  Vines  "  were  found  only  in  the  southernmost  regions  visited 
by  Karlsefni  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  word  "vines"  is 
more  prominent  in  the  Hauk*5  Book  narrative  than  the  word 
"  vinber."  At  present  it  does  not  seem  likdy  that  Professor 
Femald's  argument  will  seriously  affect  Proiessor  Storm's 
contention  that  Thorfinn's  colony  was  in  Nova  Scotia.  At 
any  rate,  the  incontrovertible  facts  of  the  Vinland  voyages 
are  that  Leif  and  Thorfinn  were  historical  characters,  that 
they  visited,  in  the  early  part  of  the  ixth  century,  some  part 
of  the  American  continent  south-west  of  Greenland,  that  they 
found  natives  whose  hostility  prevented  the  founding  of.  a 
permanent  settlement,  and  that  the  sagas  telling  of  these 
things  are,  on  the  whole,  trustworthy  descriptions  <A  actual 
experience. 

BiBLiOGKAPHT.— The  bibliography  of  thw  subject  u  large,  but 
adequate  documents,  accounts  and  discussions  may  be  found  in 
the  following  modem  works:  Gustav  Storm,  Studies  on  the  Vine- 
land  Voyages  (Copenhagen,  1889);  Arthur  M.  Reeves,  The  Finding 
of  Wineiand,  the  Good  (London,  1890  and  1895):  John  Fitkc.  The 
Discomry  of  America^  vol.  L  (Boston,  1802);  Juul  Dieserud,  "  Norse 
Discoveries  in  America,"  in  BuUetin  of  the  American  Geographical 
Society,  vol.  xxxiii.  (New  York,  1901) ;  Gudbrandr  Vfgffiiison  and 
F.  Yorkc  Powell.  Origines  Islondicae  (Oxford,  I90S):  and  Julius 
E.  Olson  and  others.  The  Northmen,  Columbus  ana  Cabot,  (f8<-isos 
(New  York,  1906},  the  fint  volume  of  Original  Narratives  of  Early 
American  History.  (J.  £.  O.) 

V1N0GRAD0FF»  PAUL  (1854-  ),  Anglo-Russian  jurist, 
was  born  at  Kostroma  in  Russia.  He  became  professor  of 
history  in  the  university  of  Moscow,  but  his  zeal  for  the  spread 
of  education  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  authorities, 
and  consequently  he  was  obliged  to  leave  Russia.  Having 
settled  in  England,  Vinogradoff  brought  a  powerful  and  original 
mind  to  bear  upon  the  sodal  and  economic  conditions  of  early 


EngUnd,  a  subject  which  he  had  already  bq^n  to  A\idy  ia 
Moscow.    His   Villainage  in  England  (189a)  is  perhaps    the 
most  important  book  written  on  the  peasantry  of  the  feudal 
age  and  the  village  community  in  England;  it  c^  only   be 
compared  for  value  with  F.  W.  Maitland's  Domesday  Book  and 
Beyond.    In  masterly   fashion  Vinogradoff  here   shows   that 
the  viUdn  of  Norman  times  was  the  direct  descendant  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon   freeman,   and   that     the   typical   .Anglo-Saxoo 
settlement  was  a  free  community,  not  a  manor,  the  pgsitioo 
of  the  freeman  having  steadily  deteriorated  in  the  centuries 
just  around  the  Norman  Conquest.    The  status  of  the  villein 
and  the  conditrans  of  the  manor  in  the  xath  and  ijtb  centuries 
are  set  forth  with  a  li^  precision  and  a  wealth  of  detail  which 
shows  its  author,  not  only  as  a  very  capable .  historian,    bat 
also  as  a  brilliant  and  learned  jurist.    Almost  equally  valuable 
was  Vinogradoff 's  essay  on  *'  Folkland  "  in  vol.  viii.  of  the 
English  Historical  Review  (1893),  which  proved  for  the  first  time 
the  real  nature  of  this  kind  of  land.    Vinogradoff  followed  up 
his  Villainage  in  England  with  The  Growth  of  the  Manor  (1905) 
and  English  Society  in  the  nth  Century  (2908),  works  on  the  lines 
of  his  eariier  book.    In  1903  he  was  appointed  Corpus  professor 
of  jurispmdence  in  the  university  of  Oxford,  and  subsequently 
became  a  fellow  of  the  British  Academy.    He  received  honorary 
degrees  from  the  principal  universities,  was  made  a  member 
of  several  fordgn   academies  and  was  appointed  honoraxy 
professor  of  history  at  Moscow. 

VmOT,  JOSEPH  (1803--1880),  French  soldier,  was  originally 
intended  for  the  Church,  but,  after  some  years  at  a  aemiuary, 
he  decided  upon  a  military  career,  and  entered  the  army  la 
1823.  When  he  was  a  sergeant  in  the  14th  line  infantry,  he  took 
part  in  the  Algerian  expedition  of  2830.  He  won  his  com- 
mission at  the  capture  cf  Algiers,  and  during  the  subsequent 
campaigns  he  rose  by  good  service  to  the  rank  of  colond.  He 
returned  to  France- in  1850,  and  m  the  Crimean  War  served 
under  Canrobert  as  general  of  brigade.  For  his  brilliant  con- 
duct at  the  Malakoff  he  was  promoted  general  of  division,  and 
he  led  a  division  of  Nid's  corps  in  the  campaign  of  Solferino. 
Return!  on  account  of  age  in  1865,  he  was  readied  to  active 
service  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  1870,  and  after  the  early 
reverses  was  put  at  the  head  of  the  XIII.  army  corps,  which, 
fortunatdy  for  France,  did  not  arrive  at  the  front  in  time  to 
be  involved  in  the  catastrophe  of  Sedan.  By  a  skilful  retreat 
he  brought  his  corps  intact  to  Paris  on  September  7th.  Vinoy 
during  the  siege  commanded  the  HI.  army  operating  on  the 
south  side  of  the  capital  and  took  part  in  all  the  actions  in 
that  quarter.  On  Trochu's  resignation  he  was  appointed  to 
the  supreme  command,  in  which  capadty  he  had  to  n^otiate 
the  surrender.  During  the  commime  he  hdd  important 
commands  in  the  army  of  Versailles,  and  occupied  the  burning 
Tuileries<and  the  Louvre  on  May  33rd.  He  was  in  the  same 
year  made  grand  chancellor  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 

Vinoy  wrote  several  mcmoiiB  on  the  war  of  1870-71;  Opirati^ms 
de  Varmie  pendant  le  siige  de  Paris  (1872),  L'Armistice  el  ia  im- 
mune (1872),  L*Armie  fran^ise  (1873). 

VINT,  a  Russian  card-game.  It  is  generally  considered  as 
the  immediate  ancestor  of  Bridge  (9.0.).  Vint  means  in 
Russian  "  screw,"  and  is  given  to  the  game  because  the  four 
players,  each  in  turn,  propose,  bid  and  overbid  each  other 
until  one,  having  bid  higher  than  the  others  care  to  follow, 
makes  the  trump,  his  vis-drvis  becoming  his  partner.  It  has 
many  points  of  resemblance  to  Bridge.  The  cards  have  the 
same  rank;  the  score  of  tricks  is  entered  under  the  line,  and 
points  for  siam,  penalties  and  honours  above  the  line;  while 
the  value  of  the  different  suits  is  the  same  as  in  Bridge:  spades, 
clubs,  diamonds,  hearts  and  "  no  trumps."  In  a  "  no  trump  " 
dedaration  aces  only  count  as  honours;  in  a  suit  declaration 
both  the  aces  and  the  five  next  highest  cards.  During  the 
progress  of  the  bidding  and  dedaring,  opportimity  is  taken  by 
the  players  to  indicate  by  their  calls  thdr  strength  in  the 
various  suits  and  the  high  cards  they  hold,  so  that,  when  the 
playing  begins,  the  position  of  the  best  cards  and  the  strength 
of  the  diff($rent  bands  can  often  be  fairly^accuratdy  estimated. 


VINTON— VIOLET 


Iht  leuls  IT*  Mb)ect 

_  SttTluLapa  and  Prtiitipla  ^  VM, 


mDch  the  nme  rules  * 


9d  by  Frank  W.HuIdui 


(LondDd.  1900). 

VINTON.  FRKBEHIO  FORTES  (.ai6-  ),  Amtticin 
ponnit  painlei,  «ai  bora  at  Bmgor,  Maine,  on  the  19th  of 
Januaiy  1S461  He  was  1  pupil  of  Duvencck,  of  WilUam  H. 
Hunt  in  Boston,  o(  Lion  BonnU  and  Jean  Paul  Laureni  b 
Fui>,  and  of  the  Royal  Acul«n/oE  Munich.  Id  1S91  he  nis 
elected  a  lull  membec  of  the  Matiooal  Academy  of  Deaigs, 
New  Voik~ 

VlOl,  a  genoric  term  for  the  bowed  precuraora  of  Uw  iriolin 
(j.b),  but  in  England  morespeciaUyappliedlo  those  tamidiile 
prsdeccsurs  of  Uis  violin  which  are  diatinguisbed  in  Italy  and 
Geimany  ai  tho  GanAa  family.  The  chief  characteristics  of 
the  viola  woe  a  flat  back,  sloping  ahouldcra,  "c"-shaped 
■ound-hola,  and  a  Bboit  finger-board  with  frets.  All  these 
fealutea  »eic  changed  or  modified  in  the  violin,  the  back 
becoming  delicately  arched,  the  shoulden  revtiting  to  the 
rounded  outlins  ol  the  guitnr  or  troubadour  fiddle,  the  shape 
of  the  sound-hnlts  changing  from  "  c  "  to  "  f,"  and  the  finger- 
board being  ranied  considerably  neater  the  bridge.  The  viols, 
of  which  the  ori^  may  be  traced  to  the  13th  and  i4lh  cen- 
(ury  German  Minncahiger  fiddle,  characleriied  also  hy  sloping 
ahoulders,  can  hardly  be  said  10  have  evolved  into  the  vidin. 
The  Utter  was  derived  from  the  guitar-fiddle  through  the 
Italian  lyre  or  viol-lyra  family,  dlstingiiished  as  do,  hraav}  and 
da  fomba,  and  having  early  in  the  ]7Ih  century  the  ootlrne 
and  "  I "  sound-holes  of  the  violin.  The  viol  family  ccmsi^tcd 
of  treble,  alto,  tenor  and  bass  inslniments,  being  further 
differentiated  as  da  braaio  or  da  lanba  according  to  the  position 
in  which  they  were  held  against  the  arm  or  betneen  the  knees. 
The  favourite  viol  da  gamba,  or  divition  viol,  frequently  had 
a  man  or  a  woman's  head  instead  of  the  scroll  finish  10  the  peg- 
boi,  and  sometimes  a  lew  fine  wire  Eympiihetic  Hrings  tunnl 
AD  octave  higher  than  the  strings  in  lie  bridge. 
■  Michael  Pisetodus  mentions  no  Icsa  than  five  siits  of  the 
viol  da  gamba,  the  largest  correspanding  to  tlie  double  bass, 
and  in  a.  table  he  note^  the  various  accordances  in  use  for  each. 
He  carefully  distinguishes  these  instrameota  as  vhltn  and  the 
viole  da  biacdo  (our  violm  family)  aa  seigoL  Of  the  latter  he 
gives  sii  sizes,  the  highest  being  the  pocluUt  with  vaulted  back, 
a  rebec  in  fact,  and  the  lowest  corresponding  to  the  vJolonceUo, 
which  he  calls  boss  viol  or  geige  da  bracdo. 
I  .Thevioli  weie  very  popular  in  England  in  the  ifilb  and  17th 

SimpKin'.  Ditisum  VioJ  (It*;)',  Tlwmaa  Mac^riCiuicfj ^nii- 
■mu  (1676)  and  John  Playfoid't  ItlroitaUm  le  lit  StiU  cf  Uuiic 
(K.S.) 

VIOLA  [Fr.  iMir,  Ga.  Brtlsikt,  ItaL  >Mi,  allo\.  the  tenor 
member  of  the  vlcdin  family.  The  coDstructioB  of  the  viola  Is 
the  same,  but  on  ■  larger  scale,  as  that  of  the  violin  (f.i.]. 
The  instrument  is  pitched  a  perfect  fifth  bdow  the  violin. 

VIOLET.^  The  violets  comprise  a  large  botanical  genua 
CViofa)— in  which  more  tliio  soo  specita  have  been  described 
■ — fouttd  prindpaUy  in  temperate  or  mountain  regions  of  the 
northern  hemiiphixei  they  also  occur  in  mountauious  districta 
'"     ■'    '  d  South  and  Tropical  Africa,  while  a  few 

■-        ""  "es  are  mostly  low-growing 

d  with  large  leafy  atipules 
(fig,  i).  The  flowers,  which  are  solitary,  m  taiely  in  paira.  at 
the  end  ol  slender  axillary  ficnrer^talki,  are  very  irregular  in 
farm,  with  five  sepah  prolonged  at  the  base,  and  five  petals, 
the  lowest  one  larger  than  the  others  and  with  a  spur,  in  which 
collects  ;be  honey  secreted  by  the  spurs  of  the  two  adjoining 
■tamena.  'The  five  anthers  are  remarkable  for  the  coloured 
processa  which  eilend  beyond  the  anther  cella  and 
of  conAround  the  style  (fig,  3).  The  ovary 
one-ccUed,  with  there  parietal  placentas  and  nunierous  ovuia; 
ft  bean  a  ^ngle  style,  which  ends  in  a  dilated  nr  hood-like 
ttigma  (fig.  )).    The  liuit  ia  a  capsule  bunting  locuiiddally. 


are  found  in  Australasia 


a  TOW  down  the 
the  patent  plant, 
connected  wit!    ' 
honey  In  the 
proboscis  hito 
stigma.    This 


hot  out  to  some  little  distance  from 
gular  construcUon  of  the  flower  is 
by  insect  agency.  To  reach  the 
flower,  the  insect  must  thrust  its 
flower  close  uuler  the  ^bular  head  of  the 


a  groove  (ringed  with 


this 


upper  surface  of 
In  the  sweet  vio 
permanently  da 


irior  petal.    The  anthers  shed  their  . 

er  of  themsdvei  or  when  the  pistil  b  shaken 

of  the  bee's  proboscis.  The  proboscis,  passing 
'B  to  the  spur,  becomes  dusted  with  pollen; 
hack,  it  preoes  np  the  Up-like  valve  of  the 
no  pollen  can  enter  the  stignutic  chamber; 

the  next  flower  It  leaves  some  pi^en  on  the 
the  valve,  and  thus  ooss-fertilization  is  effected. 
let,  V.  odorata  and  otter  species,  inconsincuoas 
led  or  "deislogamic"  Bowers  (fig.  4)  occur  of  a 


the  stigma;  in  such  flnwen  seil-IertiUiBtion  ii  tompiilsory  and 
very  effectual,  as  seeds  in  piolusian  are  produced. 

Several  ipeciea  of  Vitia  are  native  to  Gr^t  Britain.  ViMa 
eanna  (fig,  s)  i>  the  dcg  violei,  many  (onu  or  lub^xciu  of  which 
uE  rccogmad ;     V.  ciomU.  sweet  violei,  ia  highly  piiad  for  in 

The  Neapoli»n  or  Psnna  violet  (var,  paUida  flaia)  Is  a  form  wilb 
very  sweer-acented,  double,  pale  lavender  flower*;  var.  sidpkutra 
has  ihinini  deep  gren  leavei  and  lemon-yellow  flowem.  detp" 
yellow  In  iha  cestrei  and  with  a  pale-violet  ipui.  Sweet  vioku  Ute 
a  rich,  fiuiy  heavy  soD,  with  a  omth  or  oenh-wtii  aipeci  if  pSHbT 


eSecIed  upon 
d. 

inktuiiltBi 


VIOLIN 

■  prndiul  pnoCM  tt  devdninBait  la  iH  that  ptrtiniUn  tk 

Dwdeni  vtolin  wu  evolved  from  earlier  bowAl.  iiulniiutiiU, 
•od  atUined  JU  highnt  pcrlfidion 
Itiliin  Duken  in  Ifae  i6th,  lylh  ini 
vhkh  lime,  ilthough  muqr  e 

mode  cl  cootuuctlon  then  idop 

The  kdr.  or  icwiidiiif-lxiM,  clllv  vi^n  ii  tuiilt'unodaoinJMi) 
pUla  ol  loin  wood,  the  belly  mod  tba  back,  qriico  by  itdr  i^eca 
m  iib>  to  (orni  1  thallow  box.  The  belly  l>  cut  irom  Bft  cLi'.lic 
mod.  pine  bdnfl  univenally  iiied  for  tMa  puTpcne.  while  (he  back  is 
made  a  a  clQie%raJncd  wood,  icHrBlly  lycamaR  or  mapte-  Both 
back  and  bcUy  an  carvad  Go  vku  nw  firpqi  the  tolid,  bat  ioe 
mlUtarian  rcajofu  an  (enanlly,  though  not  always,  buill  up  o(  tvo 
longitudinal  acctioiu;  while  the  eidee  or  rib*,  oi  veiy  Ihin  aycanLDrr 
or  pople,  uiually  in  di  eectloni,  are  bent  on  a  nioLild,  by  tfe  aid  of 
heat,  to  (he  ttquind  fom.  ln(o  the  eornen  are  f  lued  coener-bhirlu 
of  eott  wbad,  which  help  to  letain  the  ribs  ia  their  aharply  lecurwd 
fona,  and  maiinally  Mnnlhea  the  whole  HriKlure.  Into  ihe 
angle  of  the  joinu  between  tlx  tida  and  ihc  back  and  belly  an  glued 
thin  limng  unph  '>"'(  (o  the  mould,  giving  a  bcnring  luificc  for 
the  glued  joint  alcniE  the  whole  outline  of  the  instmmeiK;  while, 
in  addition,  end  bkcka  an  luiencd  at  the  bead  and  botina  €d  (be 
body,  the  lonner  la  nceivi  (he  baae  of  the  neck,  and  the  latter  (he 
"  tail  pin  "  to  which  Is  a(tachcd  the  tait-pitce.  carr>4ng  the  lone 
(fixed)  end!  of  the  KringL  Tbc  beUy  ii  pierced  with  two  lound- 
bolei  in  the  form  of  ft  near,  and  approjunuldy  paialld  Is,  llie 
"  bautB.*    The  eiie.  ihape  and  poeitxHi  of  theie  balei  haw  u 


iDi.    It  i>  placed  oa  (be  belly  eiactly  mklaa 

anai.  that  ia,  about  if  in.  below  the  ntkldle,  the  lower  end  of  Ihe 
body  banc  wider  than  the  upper  part  or  afaDuldm;    whereby  a 


dlnaiKS  behind  the  tight  foot  oT  the  bridge,  the  Ktnd- 
I  gf  waCt  piBt  about  \  ia.  thick,  iu  bied  inside  the  Ih$  Id 
ith  Ihe  belly  and  thelack.  and  uves  directly,  not  only  n, 
-  belly  agdnn  the  prewun  of  the  bridge  under  the  tei'u» 

iga,  but  to  convey  idbratioiH  to  the  back.    It  ebo  eaer- 


Df  On  Other  foot  oi  the  bridee, 
tring  Ii  far  les  than  that  of  ihe 
y  the  fgiT.tar — a  itrip  td  w«xl 
endi.  which  ii  ^lued  uodaueatll 


ibratiiw  plates.    The  press 
rhere  llie  tension  of  the  foui 

L/at  string,  is  partljr  sustain 

heSHy  and'enends  to  with 

'  ent.   Thi«  fitring  not  only  "^vee  to  itreogtben  Ihe  beHy 

t«  ■  prolouDd  cnect  upon  tbe  vibrntiuaa  of 


scroll,  01 


rs  lolk>wcd  the  traditional  pancfB  d  a 

•^'i  skilled  craftsmen  Infinite  scope  for 

seculiiini    but  someiima.  apeciaDv 

was  carved  in  (he  [orm  of  an  animal's 


in  theiiroleui  initninenls,  1 
bead,  usually  a  lion'a 

whldi  Is  Its^  attached  by  a  gut  loop  to  the  pin  at  (he  bue  of  the 
Liutrument.panovertbebridge.altmg  the  finger  hoard  and  over  tlw 
Hsff  (a  dwarf  bridge  Eormins  the  lenninalion  of  (he  fiitGcr-board)  to 
(be  pen.  The  eAective  vibiadng  pac(nn  of  the  iHfngs  ia  acooid- 
ingly  the  length  between  (he  nut  and  the  bridge,  and  meaniita  nmr 


■Up(c 


o  the  cdd  lulbn  makers.  l>Ktidi(« 
•     nually 


Uie'Soclt 


VIOLIN 


103 


la  an  ordiiuiiv  full-tlzed  vioHn  abouf  13  fn.'^  He  portkMi  of  tlie 
strings  to  which  the  bow  is  apiJied  lies  over  the  space,  measuring 
about  si^in.,  between  the  bnage  and  the  free  end  of  the  finger- 
board. The  strings  are  manufactured  from  so-called  catgut,  made 
from  the  intestines  of  lambs,  and  range  in  thickness  from  the  fint 
to  the  third  or  D  string  from  '026  to  '046  in.  more  or  less.  The 
necessary  weight  is  given  to  the  strin|^  of  lowest  pitch,  G,  without 
unduly  sacrificing  its  elasticity,  by  winding  a  thin  gut  string  with 
fine  silver  wire  to  about  the  same  thickness  as  the  A  string. 

An  ornamental  feature  characteristic  of  nearly  all  viouns  is  the 
purfiing,  a  very  thin  slip  of  wood  with  maivins  oil  ebony  or  (rardy) 
whalebone,  inlaid  in  thin  strips  close  to  the  edge  of  Doth  plates, 
and  following  the  entire  outhne  of  the  instrument.  In  some  in- 
struments, espedany  of  the  Bresdan  school,  a  double  line  of  purfllng 
was  inserted. 

The  total  number  of  pieces  of  wood  of  which  the  viotm  is  composed 
amounts  to  about  70,  varying,  as  the  plates  are  made  in  one  piece 
or  built  together,  and  with  the  number  of  sections  in  which  the 
ribs  are  put  together.  Of  this  number  57  pieces  are  built  into 
the  permanent  structure,  while  13  may  be  described  as  fittinp. 
The  whole  of  the  permanent  structure  is  cemented  together  with 
glue  alone,  and  it  is  a  striking  testimony  to  the  mechanical  condi- 
tions satisfied  by  the  design,  that  the  instrument  built  of  such 
slender  material  withstands  without  deformation  the  considerable 
stresses  applied  to  it.  It  Is  worthy  of  remark  that  after  the  lapse 
of  so  many  years,  since  it  attained  perfect  musical  efficiency,  no 
unessential  adjunct  has  entered  into  the  constructbn  of  this  in- 
strument. No  play  of  fancy  has  grafted  anything  beyond  quite 
minor  ornamentation  on  a  work  of  art  distinguished  by  its  simplicity 
of  pure  outline  and  proportion. 

The  following  are  the  exact  principal  dimensions  of  a  very  fine 
specimen  of  Stradivari's  work,  which  has  been  preserved  in  perfect 
condition  since  the  latter  end  of  the  17th  century: — 

Length  of  body      ......     -14  in.  full. 

Wimh  across  top  "CU  in.  bare. 

Width  across  bottom »8|  in. 

Height  of  sides  (top) "lA  •• 

Height  of  mdes  (bottom)       .  •     ""  i/t  it 

The  back  is  in-one  piece,  supplemented  a  little  in  width  at  the  lower 
part,  after  a  common  practice  of  the  great  makers,  and  is  cut  from 
very  handsome  wood;  the  ribs  are  of  the  same  wood,  while  the  belly 
is  formed  of  two  pieces  of  soft  pine  of  rather  fine  and  beautifully 
even  grain.  The  sound-holes,  cut  with  perfect  precision,  exhibit 
much  grace  and  freedom  of  design.  The  scroll,  which  is  very  char- 
acteristic of  the  maker's  style  and  beautifully  modelled,  harmonizes 
admiiably  with  the  general  modelling  of  the  instrument.  The 
model  is  flatter  than  in  violins  of  the  earlier  period,  and  the  design 
bold,  while  dispbying  all  Stradivari's  microscopic  perfection  of 
workmanship.  The  whole  is  coated  with  a  very  fine  orai^e-red- 
brown  vanush,  untouched  «nce  it  left  the  maka''s  band  in  1690, 
and  the  only  respects  in  which  the  instrument  has  been  altered  since 
that  date  arc  in  the  fitting  of  the  longer  neck  and  stronger  bass-bar 
necessitated  by  the  increased  compass  and  raised  pitch  of  modem 
violin  music 

The  measurements  given  above  are  tiie  same  as  those  of  a- well- 
known  Stradivari  of  later  date  (1714). 

The  acoustics  of  the  violin  are  extremely  complex,  and  not- 
withstanding many  investigations  by  men  of  science,  and  the 
enunciation  of  some  plausible  hypotheses  with  regard 
to  details  of  its  operation  as  a  musical  instrument, 
remain  as  a  wh<de  obscure.  So  far  as  the  elementary  principles 
which  govern  its  action  are  concerned,  the  violin  f<^ows 
familiar  laws  (see  Sound).  The  different  notes  of  the  scale 
are  produced  by  vibrating  strings  differing  in  weight  and 
tension,  and  varying  in  length  under  the  hand  of  the  player. 
The  vibrations  of  the  strings  are  conves^ed  through  the  bridge 
to  the  body  of  the  instrument,  which  fulfils  the  common  function 
of  a  resonator  in  reinforcing  the  notes  initiated  by  the  strings^ 
So  far  fifst  principles  cany  us  at  once.  But  when  we  endeavour 
to  elucidate  in  detail  the  causes  of  the  peculiar  chamcter  of 
tone  of  the  violin  family,  the  great  range  and  variety  in  that 
character  obtained  in  different  instruments,  the  extent  to 
which  those  qualities  can  be  controlled  by  the  bow  of  the 
player,  and  the  mode  in  which  they  are  influenced  by  minute 
variations  in  almost  every  component  part  of  the  instrument, 
we  find  ourselves  faced  by  a  series  of  problems  which  have  so 
far  defied  any  but  very  partial  solution. 

The  distinctive  quality  of  the  musical  tones  of  the  vioKn  is 
gmerally  admitted  to  be  due  largely  to  its  richness  in  the  upper 
harmonic  or  partial  tones  superimposed  on  the  fundamental  notes 
produced  by  the  simple  vibrations  of  the  strings. 

The  characteristic  tone  and  its  control  by  the  player  are  un- 
doubtedly conditioned  in  the  fint  place  by  the  peculiar  path  of  the 


vibratkig  string  under  tlia  actiDn  of'the  rasined  bow.  This  takes 
the  form  not  of  a  symmetrical  oscillation  but  of  a  succession  cl 
alternating  bound  and  free  movements,  as  the  string  adheres  to  tha 
bow  accoraing  to  the  pressure  applied  and,  retoasii^  itself  by  its 
elasticity,  rebounds. 

The  lightness  of  the  material  of  which  the  strings  are  made 
conduces  to  the  production  of  very  high  up|)er  partial  tones  which 
give  brilliancy  of  sound,  while  the  tow  elasticity  of  the  gut  causes 
these  high  constituents  to  be  quickly  damped,  thus  softening  the 
ultimate  quality  of  the  note. 

In  Older  that  the  resonating  body  ol  the  instrument  may  fulfil 
its  highest  purpose  in  rehiforcing  the  complex  vibtatiooa  set  up  by 
the  strings  vibrating  in  the  manner  above  described,  not  only  as  a 
whole,  but  in  the  number  of  related  sq;ment8  whose  oscillations 
determine  the  upper  partial  tones,  it  is  essential  that  the  plates, 
and  consequently  the  body  of  air  oontaincd  between  them*  should 
respond  sensitively  to  the  sdective  impulses  oommunicated  to  them. 
It  IS  the  attainment  of  this  perfect  selective  responsiveness  which 
marks  the  construction  of  the  best  instruments.  Many  factors 
contribute  to  this  result.  The  thickness  of  the  plates  in  different 
parts  oi  their  areas,  the  siae  and  form  of  the  interior  of  the  body, 
the  siae  and  shape  of  the  sound-holes  through  which  the  vitMratkms 
of  the  contained  air  are  communicated  to  the  external  air,  and 
which  also  influence  the  nodal  points  in  the  belly,  according  to  the 
number  of  fibres  of  the  wood  cut  across,  varying  with  the  angle  at 
which  the  sound-holes  cross  the  giain  ot  the  wood.  Their  position 
in  this  remect  also  affects  the  width  of  the  central  vibrating  portion 
of  the  belly  under  the  bridge. 

All  these  important  factors  are  influenced  by  the  quality  and 
elasticity  of  the  wood  employed. 

Much  has  been  written  and  many  speculations  have  been  ad- 
vanced with  regard  to  the  superiority  m  tone  oC  the  old  ItaUaa 
instruments  over  those  of  mooem  construction.  This  superiority 
has  sometimes  been  disputed,  and,  judging  from  the  many  cxampk» 
of  second-rate  Instruments  which  have  survived  from  the  17th 
and  i8th  centuries,  it  is  certain  that  antiquity  ak>ne  does  not  confer 
upon  violins  the  merits  which  have  frequently  been  daimed  for  it. 
when,  however,  we  compare  the  oomparativeh^  few  really  fine 
si>ecimensof  the  Italian  school  which  have  survived  in  ^ood  conaition, 
with  the  best  examples  of  modem  construction  in  which  the  propor* 
tions  of  the  older  masterpieces  have  been  faithfully  followra,  and 
in  which  the  most  careful  workmanship  of  skilled  nands  has  been 
embodied,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  former  possess  a  superiority 
in  the  quality  of  their  tone  which  the  musical  ear  immediately 
recognizes.  After  taking  into  account  the  practical  identity  in 
dimensions  and  construction  between  the  classical  and  many  (rf  the 
best  modem  models,  the  conclusion  sogsest*  itself  that  the  difference 
must  be  attributed  to  the  nature  of  the  materials  used,  or  to  the 
method  of  their  empkiyment,  as  influenced  by  loail  conditions 
and  practice.  The  argument,  not  infrequently  advanced,  that  the 
great  makers  of  Italy  had  special  kx»l  sources  of  supply,  jeakusly 
guarded,  for  wood  with  exceptional  acoustical  properties,  can  hardly 
be  sustained.  Undoubtedly  they  exercised  great  care  in  the  selec- 
tion of  sound  and  handsome  wood;  but  there  is  evidence  that  some 
of  the  finest  wood  they  used  was  imported  from  across  the  Adriatic 
in  the  ordinary  course  of  trade;  and  the  matter  was  for  them,  in 
all  probability,  largely  one  of  expense.  There  is  good  reason  to 
suppose  that  a  far  larger  cboioe  of  equally  good  material  ia  accessible 
to  modem  makers. 

There  remains  the  varnish  with  which  the  completed  instrument 
is  coated.  This  was  an  item  in  the  manufacture  which  received  roost 
careful  attention  at  the  hands  of  the  great  makers,  and  much  im« 
portance  has  been  attached  to  the  superiority  of  their  varnish  over 
that  used  in  more  recent  times— so  much  so  that  its  composition 
has  been  attributed  to  secret  processes  known  only  to  themselves. 
The  probability  is  that  they  were  able  to  exercise  more  personal 
selection  of  the  materials  used  than  has  been  generally  practised 
by  makers  dependent  upon  commercial  products  unotr  modern 
conditions,  ami  the  general  result  has  been  analogous  to  that  seen 
in  the  pigments  employed  by  modem  painters  as  compared  with 
those  made  op  for  themselves  by  the  old  masters  who  could  ensure 
perfect  purity  in  their  ingredients.  But  that  the  Italian  makers 
individually  or  collectiwiy  attempted,  or  were  able,  to  preserve 
as  a  secret  the  composition  of  the  vamish  thc^  used  is  unlikely. 
Instruments  exhibiting  similar  excellence  in  this  respect  were  too 
widespread  in  their  range,  both  of  perkxl  and  locality,  to  justify 
the  assumption  that  the  general  composition  of  the  nncst  vamish 
of  the  early  makers  was  not  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  in  an 
industry  so  flourishing  as  that  of  violin-making  in  the  17th  and  early 
i8th  centuries.  The  exoellence  of  an  instrument  in  respect  of  its 
vamish  depended  on  the  quality  of  the  constituent  materials,  on 
the  proportions  in  which  they  were  combined,  and,  perhaps  mafnly, 
on  tne  method  of  its  application.  The  most  enduring  and  perfect 
vamish  used  for  violins  is  an  oil  vamish,  and  the  best  results  there- 
with can  only  be  obtained  under  the  most  advantageous  conditions 
for  the  drying  process.  In  this  respect  there  can  kw  no  doubt  that 
the  southern  climate  placed  the  makers  whose  work  lies  in  higher 
latitudes  at  a  disadvantage.  In  a  letter  to  Galileo  in  1638  concern- 
lag  a  violin  he  had  ordsMd  from  Creaa^na,  the  writer  suus  that 


t04 


VIOLIN 


it  cannot  be  brouf^ht  to  perfection  without  the  strong  heat  of  fhe 
san  " ;  and  ali  recorded  experience  indicates  the  i^eat  importance 
of  slow  drying  of  the  vamub  under  suitable  conditions.  Stradivari 
himself  wrote  to  account  for  delay  in  the  delivery  of  an  instrument 
because  of  the  time  required  for  the  drying  of  the  varnish. 

That  a  perfect  varnish  conduces  to  the  preservation  of  a  fine  tone 
in  the  instrument  is  generally  admitted;  and  its  operation  in  this 
respect  is  due,  not  merely  to  the  «xteri»l  protection  of  the  wood 
from  deterioration,  but  especially  to  its  action,  when  supplied  under 
favourable  conditions  to  wood  at  a  ripe  stage  of  seasonine  (when 
that  process  has  proceeded  far  enough,  but  not  so  far  as  to  allow  the 
fibres  to  become  brittle),  in  soaicing  into  the  porca  of  the  wood  and 
preserving  its  elasticity.  This  being  so,  successful  varnishing  will 
be  seen  to  be  an  opecation«of  great  delicacy,  and  one  in  which  the  old 
masters  found  full  scope  for  their  skill  and  large  experience.  The 
effects,  upon  the  vibrational  qualities  of  the  wood,  of  thickness  of 
coat,  texture  and  g^dual  absorption  into  the  pores  of  the  wood  under 
favourable  conditions  of  drying,  are  great  and  far-reaching,  as  is 
proved  in  the  survival  through  two  centuries  of  the  great  qualities 
of  the  specimens  most  fittingly  treated  in  this  respect. 

After  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  century  the  use  of  the  fine  oil 
varnish  cmpbyed  by  the  great  makers  was  gradually  abandoned,  con* 
currently  with  the  decline  of  the  instrument  maker's  art  in  Italy. 
Except  m  the  hands  of  the  fast-diminishing  band  of  craftsmen  trained 
in  the  old  traditions,  its  place  was  taken  by  the  newer  spirit  varnishes 
whkh,  with  their  <|uicK-drying  Qualities  and  ease  ex  application, 
satisfied  the  requirements  of  the  more  cheaply  manufactured 
instruments  of  the  ocriod  following  the  death  of  Stradivari;  and 
before  the  end  of  the  century  these  inferior  vamisheB  had  quite 
supplanted  the  old  recipes. 

Having  regard  to  all  these  considerations  it  is  noC  unreasonable 
to  conclude  that  the  varnish  of  the  old  instruments  contributed 
probably  the  most  important  single  dement  of  their  superiority 
m  tone  to  their  more  modem  copies.  It  must,  however,  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  instrument  makers  of  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries 
carried  on  a  great  and  flourishing  and  a  highly  developed  craft;  and 
that  their  best  creations  owe  their  distmction  laraely  to  causes 
similar  to  those  which  produced  the  great  art  works  of  the  same 
period.  The  violin  makers  had  a  lifelong  training  in  their  craft. 
The  productk>ns  of  the  famous  among  them  were  eagerly  sought 
after.  Throughout  western  Europe  the  highest  in  the  land  were 
true  amateurs  of  music  and  vied  with  one  another  to  secure  the 
masterpieces  of  Brescia  and  Cremona.  In  such  circumstances 
the. trained  judgment  and  wide  experience  of  the  craftsman  were 
naturally  concentrated  upon  securing  the  preliminary  conditions  of 
high  excellence  in  his  work:  the  choice  of  sound  and  handson>e  wood ; 
perfection  of  design  and  workmanship;  the  composition  of  his' 
varnish,  and  the  utmost  care  and  skill  in  applying  it  under  the  best 
conditions;  and,  not  least  important,  time  lor  deliberate  and 
thoughtful  production.  The  masterpieces  of  that  period  were  not 
constructed  upon  any  exact  or  scientific  system,  but  were  the  pro- 
ducts of  development  of  a  traditional  craft  working  on  empirical 
lines.  Such  theories  of  their  construction  as  have  been  propounded 
are  based  on  analysis  of  an  already  perfected  organism;  and  careful 
historical  research  has  revealed  no  record  or  trace  of  kiws  or  rules 
by  which  the  great  makers  worked. 

Elaborate  attempts  have  been  made,  notably  by  Savart  early  in 
the  19th  century,  to  educe  from  experiments  on  the  elasticities  and 
vibration  periods  of  various  specimens  of  wood  used  in  some  of  the 
older  instnimentv  an  exact  system  for  the  adjustment  of  these 
factors  to  the  production  of  the  best  results;  out  data  obtained 
by  experiments  with  test  specimens  of  regular  shape  do  not  carry 
us  very  far  when  applied  to  so  complex  and  irregular  a  structure 
as  the  violin.  The  vibrating  plates  of  the  violin  are  neither  sym- 
metrical nor  uniform  in  dimensions.  They  are  not  free  plates,  out 
are  fixed  round  the  whole  ed^  of  a  very  irregular  outline;  and  these 
conditions,  taken  together  with  their  unsymmetrically  arched  form, 
held  under  pressure  03^  the  tension  of  the  strings,  establish  a  state  of 
complex  stresses  under  vibration  which  have  so  far  escaped  analysis. 
Thetr  vibratory  movements  are  moreover  influenced  oy  so  many 
accessory  features  of  the  instrument,  such  as  the  base-bar,  already 
described,  the  reaction  of  the  sound-post,  and  the  different  pres- 
sures by  the  two  feet  of  the  bridge,  that  it  is  impossible  to  ngure 
closely  the  vibrations  of  any  given  area  of  the  instrument,  ft  is 
certamly  very  remarkable  that  so  precise  a  pattern  of  irregular  form 
should  nave  been  arrived  at  empirically,  and  should  have  survived 
as  the  standard,  apparcntljr  for  all  time.  Not  only  is  the  arch  of  the 
plates  unsymmetrical  in  its  longitudinal  section,  but,  as  is  less 
commonly  noticed,  the  upper  bouts,  especially  in  violins  of  the 
Cremona  school,  are  slightly  shallower  than  the  lower;  so  that 
the  edges  of  the  belly  are  not  strictly  parallel  to  those  of  the 
back,  but  the  two  plates  converge  in  the  direction  of  the  head. 
Probably  the  most  successful  attempts  at  analysing  the  vibrations 
of  the  violin  have  been  those  made  by  Sir  William  Muggins,  by  means 
of  direct  tactile  observation  with  the  finger  holding  a  small  rod  of 
soft  wood  upon  various  spots  on  the  surface  of  the  vibrating  plates. 
By  this  method  he  made  a  number  of  observations  partially  con- 
firming, and  in  part  correcting  the  determinations  of  previous 
iavett^tors.    He  found  that  the  positkm  of  maximum  vibration  of 


the  belly  is  dose  to  the  foot  of  the  bridge,  under  the  fourth  atrin^ 
while  that  of  least  vibration  is  exactly  over  the  top  ai  the  sound>posc 
The  back,  which  is  st|pngly  agitated,  also  has  its  point  of  least 
vibrauon  where  the  sound-post  rests  upon  it.  With  the  sound-pcst 
removed  the  belly  vibrated  almost  equally  on  both  sides  cd  its  area, 
while  the  vibration  of  the  back  was  very  feeble,  and  the  tone  became 
very  poor;  supporting  the  view  that  in  the  complete  instrument 
the  vibrations  01  the  back  are  derived  from  the  belly  mainly  through 
the  sound-post.  Pressure  on  that  point  in  the  belly  normally  in 
contact  with  the  top  of  the  sound-pMt  partially  restored  the  proper 
character  though  not  the  power  of  the  tone;  indicating  the   im- 

e>rtant  function  of  the  sound-post  in  establishing  a  nodal  point  which 
rgcly  determines  the  normal  vibration  of  the  belly.  Modifications 
of  the  material  of  which  the  sound-post  was  made  produced  a  |>ro- 
found  effect  upon  the  quality,  but  comparatively  small  effect  upon 
the  power  of  the  tone.  Of  the  part  puyed  by  the  sides  in  trans- 
mitting vibrations  from  belly  to  back,  the  most  important  share 
u  borne  by  the  middle  bouts,  or  incurved  sides  at  the  waist  of  the 
instrument. 

Experiments  made  lately  afford  aome  interesting  evidence  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  vibrations  set  up  in  a  soundlng-lxn  in  response 
to  those  of  a  string  at  various  pitches  and  under  various  conditions 
of  bowing.  These  observations  were  made  on  a  monochord  and 
restricted'^  td  one  portion  of  a  sounding-board  of  regular  shape. 
Experiments  on  similar  lines  made  with  an  actual  violin  body  might 
throw  further  light  upon  the  behaviour  of  that  instrument  as  a 
resonator;  but  such  researches  entail  prolonged  investigation. 

Two  phenomena,  familiar  to  violin  plavers,  are  suggestive  of 
further  fines  of  research  that  may  help  to  elucidate  the  problctns  of 
the  localization  of  the  principal  responses  in  the  body  of   the 
violin,  and  of  the  action  of  the  wood  under  vibration.     Many 
violins,  especially  old  and  inferior  ones,  fail  to  resonate  clearly 
and  fully  to  particular  notes,  the  sounds  produced  being  commonly 
known  as  "  Wolf  "  notes;  and  these  notes  are,  certainly  sometimes 
and  possibly  always,  associated  with  partkular  spots  in  the  body  of 
the  mstrument;  for,  if  pressure  be  applied  at  these  spots,   the 
resonance  of  the  respective  *'  Wolf "  notes  is  improved.     This 
observation  suggests  that  the  n^on  concerned  has  been  cut,  or 
has  become  disproportionately  thin  in  relation  to  the  normal  thick* 
ness  of  the  plate;  and,  when  stimulated  by  the  appropriate  note; 
sets  up  a  local  system  of  vibrations,  which  interfere  with,  instead  ol 
sharing,  the  proper  vibrations  of  the  pbite  as  a  whole;  this  inter- 
fering vibration  being  damped  by  local  pressure. '    These  defects 
are  said  to  develop  with  age  and  constant  use,  and  to  be  minimiaed 
by  the  use  of  thin  strings  out  aggravated  by  thick  ones;  a  circvmS 
stance  which  tends  to  support  the  hypothesis  of  thin  repons  in  the 
plate,  which  might  be  expected  to  respond  more  truly  to  the  vibra- 
tions  of  lighter,  than  to  those  of  heavier  strings.    Detailed  investi- 
gation  of  these  phenomena  on  the  lines  of  the  experiments  already 
referred  to  may  have  valuable  results.    Another  well-known  char« 
acteristic  of  the  violin  is  that  a  new  instrument,  or  cme  that  has 
been  long  in  disuse,  is  found  to  be  "  sleepy,"  that  is,  it  fails  to  qscak 
readily  in  mponse  to  the  bow,  a  defect  which  gradually  disappears 
with  use.    Experiments  made  to  test  the  effect  of  prolonged  trans* 
verse  vibrations  upon  strips  of  suitable  wood  have  shown  that  such 
treatment  increases  the  flexibility  of  the  wood,  which  returns  to  iu 
normal  degree  of  rigidity  after  a  period  of  rest.     No  conclusive 
Interpretation  of  these  experiments  has  yet  been  offered:  but  they 
indicate  the  probability  of  modifications  of  the  internal  viscosity 
of  the  wood,  by  molecular  changes  under  the  influence  of  continued 
vibratory  movement. 

The  function  of  the  bridge,  as  above  mentioned,  is  to  communicate 
the  vibrations  of  the  strings  to  the  resonating  body  of  the  violin. 
This  communication  is  made  mainly,  though  not  entirely,  through 
the  left  foot  of  the  bridge,  which  under  the  comparatively  low 
tension  of  the  G  string  reets  with  light  pressure  upon  the  belly, 
which  at  that  point  has  accordingly  greater  freedom  of  movement 
than  under  the  other  foot,  in  proximity  to  which  the  sound-post, 
extending  from  back  to  belly,  nuintains  that  region  of  the  plates 
in  a  state  of  relative  rigidity,  imder  the  high  tension  of  the  E  string. 
The  viewj  however,  maintained  by  some  writers  that  the  right  toot 
of  the  bndge  communicates  no  vibrations  directly  to  the  belly  is 
inaccurate.  The  main  object  of  placing  the  sound-post  some  dis- 
tance behind,  instead  of  immediately  under,  the  bridge  foot  is 
to  allow  the  bcUy  under  that  foot  to  vibrate  with  some  freedom. 
This  has  been  proved  by  the  destructive  effect  produced  upon 
the  tone  by  fixing  the  sound-post  immediately  under  the  foot  of 
the  bridge. 

The  form  mto  which  the  bridge  is  fretted  after  the  pattern  devised 
by  Stradivari  has  given  rise  to  some  speculation ;  but  the  justifica- 
tion of  thb  form  is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  explanation  pro- 
pounded by  Sir  William  Huggins,  namely,  that  the  strings,  whcA 
agitated  by  the  bow,  vibrate  in  a  plane  oblique  to  the  vertical 
axis  of  the  bridge:  the  vibrations  may  be  accordmgly  resolved  into 
two  components,  one  horizontal  along  the  length  of  the  bridge,  the 
other  vertical — ^that  is,  in  a  direction  favourable  for  setting  the 
belly  into  vibration  across  its  lines  of  support. 

It  is  advantageous  to  maintain  simplicity  in  direction  of  the 
vibrations  communicated  to  the  body,  and  therefore  to  diroinate 


VIOLIN 


tos 


ITMMy. 


the  trantverae  vibrations  before  they  reach  the  belly.  This  is 
accomplished  by  a  certain  lateral  elasticity  of  the  bridge  itself, 
attained  by  under-cutting  the  sides  so  as  to  allow  the  up^r  half  of 
the  bridge  to  oscillate  or  rock  from  side  to  side  upon  tts  central 
trunk;  the  work  done  in  setting  up  this  oscillation  absorbing  the 
transverse  vibrations  above  mentioned. 

The  function  of  the  sound-post  is  on  the  one  hand  mechanical, 
and  on  the  other  acoustical.  It  serves  the  purpose  of  sustaining 
the  greater  share  of  the  pressuie  of  the  strings,  not  so  much  to 
save  the  belly  from  yielding  under  that  pressure,  as  to  enable  it  to 
vibrate  more  freely  m  its  several  parts  than  it  could  do.  if  unsup- 
ported, under  the  stresses  which  would  be  set  up  in  its  substance  by 
that  .pressure.  The  chosen  position  of  the  post,  allowing  some 
freedom  of  vibration  under  the  bridge,  ensures  the  belly's  proper 
vibrations  being  directly  set  up  before  the  impulses  are  transmitted 
to  the  back  through  the  sound-post:  this  transmission  being,  as 
already  shown,  its  principal  function.  The  post  also  by  its  contact 
with  both  vibrating  plates  is,  as  already  shown,  a  governing  factor 
in  determining  the  nodal  division  of  their  surfaces,  and  its  posttran 
therefore  influences  fundamentally  the  related  states  of  vibration 
of  the  two  plates  of  the  instrument,  and  the  compound  oscillations 
set  up  in  the  contained  body  of  air.  This  b  an  important  element  in 
determining  the  tone  character  of  the  instrument. 

The  immediate  ancestors  of  the  violins  were  the  viols,  which 
were  the  principal  bowed  instruments  in  use  from  the  end  of  the 
X5th  to  the  end  of  the  zyth  century,  daring  the  latter 
part  of  which  period  they  were  gradually  supplanted 
by  the  violins;  but  the  bass  viol  did  not  go  out  of  use  finally 
until  towards  the  later  part  of  the  i8th  century,  when  the  geoend 
adoption  of  the  larger  pattern  of  violoncello  drove  the  viol 
from  the  field  it  had  occupied  so  long.  The  sole  survivor  of  the 
viol  type  of  instrument,  although  not  itself  an  original  member 
of  the  family,  is  the  double  bate  of  the  modem  orchestra,  which 
retains  many  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  viol,  notably 
the  flat  back,  with  an  oblique  slope  at  the  shoulders,  the  high 
bridge  and  deep  ribs.  Excepting  the  marine  trumpet  or  bowed 
monochord,  we  find  in  Europe  no  trace  of  any  large  bowed  in- 
struments before  the  appearance  of  the  viols;  the  bowed 
instruments  of  the  middle  ages  being  all  small  enough  to  be 
rested  on  or  against  the  shoulder  during  performance.  The 
viob  probably  owe  their  origin  directly  to  the  mianesiflger 
fiddles,  which  possessed  several  of  the  typical  features  ol  the 
violin,  as  diAinct  from  the  guitar  famfly,  and  were  sounded  by 
a  bow.  These  in  their  turn  may  be  traced  to  the  "  guitar 
fiddle  "  (g.f .),  a  bowed  instrument  of  the  13th  century,  with  five 
strings,  the  lowest  of  which  was  longer  than  the  rest,  and  was 
attached  to  a  peg  outside  the  head  so  as  to  clear  the  nut  and 
finger>board,  thus  providing  a  fiized  baas,  or  bourdon.  This 
instrument  had  incurved  sides,  fomung  a  waist  to  facilitate  the 
use  of  the  bow,  and  was  larger  than  its  descendants  the  fiddles 
and  violins.  None  of  these  earlier  instruments  can  have  had  a 
deeper  compass  than  a  boy's  voice.  The  use  of  the  fidel  in  the 
hands  of  the  troubadours,  to  accompany  the  aduU  male  vdce, 
may  «q>lam  the  attempts  which  we  trace  in  the  13th  century  to 
lengthen  the  oval  form  of  the  instrument.  The  parentage  of  the 
fiddOe  family  may  safely  be  ascribed  to  the  rebec,  a  bowed 
instrmnent  of  the  early  middle  ages,  with  two  or  three  strings 
stretched  over  a  low  bridge,  and  a  pear-shaped  body  pierced 
with  sound-holes,  having  no  separate  neck,  but  narrowed  at  the 
upper  end  to  provide  a  finger-board,  and  (judging  by  pictorial 
representations,  tot  no  actual  example  is  known)  surmounted 
by  a  carved  head  holding  the  pegd,  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  of  the  violin.  The  bow,  whidi  was  short  and  clumsy,  had 
a  considerable  curvature.  So  far  it  is  justifiable  to  trace  back 
the  descent  of  the  violin  in  a  direct  line;  but  the  earlier  ancestry 
of  this  family  is  largely  a  matter  of  speculation.  The  best 
anUiorities  are  agreed  that  stringed  instruments  in  general 
are  mainly  of  Asiatic  (Mi^n,  and  there  is  evidence  of  the  mention 
of  bowed  instruments  in  Sanskrit  documents  of  great  antiquity. 
Too  much  genealogical  importance  has  been  attached  by  some 
writers  to  similarities  in  form  and  construction  between  the 
bowed  and  plucked  instruments  of  andent  times.  They  prob- 
ably developed  to  a  great  extent  independently;  and  the  bow 
is  of  too  great  and  undoubted  antiquity  to  be  regarded  as  a 
development  of  the  plectrum  or  other  devices  for  agitating  the 
plucked  string.    The  two  ritwft  of  instcUin^t  m  doubt  were 


under  mutual  obligations  from  time  to  time  in  their  develop- 
ment. Thus  the  stringing  of  the  viols  was  partly  adapted  from 
that  of  the  lute;  and  the  form  of  the  modem  Spanish  guitar 
was  probably  derived  from  that  of  the  fidel. 

The  Italian  and  Spanish  forms  (ribeba,  rabe)  of  the  French 
name  rebec  suggest  etymologically  a  relationship,  which  seems 
to  find  confirmation  in  the  striking  similarity  of  general  appear- 
ance between  that  instrument  and  the  Persian  rebab,  mentioned 
in  the  X2th  century,  and  used  by  the  Arabs  in  a  primitive  form 
to  this  day.  The  British  crwlh,  which  has  been  claimed  by  some 
writers  as  a  progeniU>r  of  the  violin,  was  primarily  a  plucked 
instrument,  and  cannot  be  accepted  as  in  the  dkect  line  of 
ancestry  of  the  viols. 

The  vi<d  was  made  In  three  main  kinds— discant,  tenor  and 
bass — ^answering  to  the  cantus,  medius  and  bassus  of  vocal 
music  Each  of  these  three  kinds  admitted  of  some  variation 
in  dimensions,  eq;>eciaUy  the  bass,  of  which  three  distinct  sizes 
ultimately  came  to  be  made — (i)  the  largest,  called  the  concert 
bass  viol;  (2)  the  division  or  solo  bass  viol,  usually  known  by 
its  Italian  name  of  viola  da  gamba;  and  (3)  the  lyra  or  tabla- 
ture  bass  vioL  The  normal  tuning  of  the  viols,  as  laid  down  in 
the  earliest  books,  was  adapted  from  the  lute  to  the  bass  viol, 

and  repeated  in  higher  in-  Di«»tVioL    T«orVioL  ^"4.^^ 

tervab    in    the    rest.     The    p_ ^  ^ 

fundamental  idea,  as  in  the  fezrraizz  £ ^z=z  {^ — S^^^ 

lute,  was  that  the  outermost  ^    *       ^     ^       :g. — 

strings  should  be  two  octaves  

apart— hence    the    intervals  (^zz^^^z  f^^:z^:z:z 

of  fourths  with  a  third  in  the  ** 

middle.    The  highest,  or  discajit  viol,  is  not  a  treble  but  an  alto 

instrument,  the  three  viols  answering  to  the  three  male 

voices.    As  a  treble  instrument,  not  only  for  street 

and  dance  music,  but  in  orchestras,  the  rebec  or  geige 

did  duty  until  the  invention  of  the  violin,  and  long  after* 

wards.    The  discant  viol  first  became  a  real  treble  instrument 

in  the  hands  of  the  French  makers,  who  converted  it  into  the 

quinton. 

The  earliest  ose  of  the  viols  was  to  doable  the  parts  of  vocal 
concerted  music;  they  were  next  employed  in  ^)edal  composi- 
tions for  the  viol  trio  written  in  the  same  compass.  |}9»«h^ 
Many  such  works  in  the  form  of  "fantasies"  or  '  anmtof 
"  fancies,"  and  preludes  with  suites  in  dance  form,  by  **•  »**• 
the  masters  of  the  end  of  the  z6th  and  17th  centuries, 
exist  in  manuscript;  a  set  by  Orlando  Gibbons,  which  are 
good  qiedmens,  has  been  published  by  the  English  Musical 
Antiquarian  Society.  Later,  the  viols,  especially  the  bass,  were 
employed  as  solo  instrumentSt  the  methods  of  composition  and 
execution  being  based  on  those  of  the  lute.  Most  lute  music  is 
in  fact  equally  adapted  for  the  bass  viol,  and  vice  versa.  In  the 
17th  century,  when  the  violin  was  coming  into  general  use,  con- 
structive innovations  began  which  resulted  in  the  abandonment 
of  the  trio  of  pure  six-stringed  viols.  Instruments  which  show 
these  innovations  are  the  quinton  and  the  viola  d'amore.  The 
first-moitioned  is  of  a  type  intermediate  between  the  viol  and 
the  violin.  In  the  case  of  the  discant  and  tenor  viol  the  lowest 
string,  which  was  probably  found  to  be  of  little  use,  was  aban- 
doned, and  the  pressure  on  the  bass  side  of  the  belly  thus  con- 
siderably lightened.  The  five  strings  were  then  spread  out,  as 
it  were,  to  the  compass  of  the  six,  so  as  to  retain  the  fundamental 
principle  of  the  outer  strings  being  two  octaves  apart.  This  was 
effected  by  tuning  the  lower  half  of  the  instrument  in  fifths,  as 
in  the  violin,  and  the  upper  half  in  QAteor 

fourths.    This  innovaUon  altered  the  ^'^  ^""^  Tt     " 


:ar.\z 


tuning  of  the  treble  and  tenor  vioils, 

thu»-One    half    of    the   instrument 

was  therefore  tuned  like  a  viol,  the 

other  half  aa  in  a  violin,  the  middle 

string    forming    the    division.     The 

tenor  viol  thus  Improved  was  called  in  France  the  quinte,  and  the 

treble  corresponding  to  it  the  quinton.    From  the  numerous 

specimens  which  survive  it  must  have  been  a  popular  instni- 

meat,  as  it  is  undoubtedly  a  substantially  excellent  oa«t    The 


io6 


VIOLIN 


relief  in  the  bass,  and  the  additional  piosure  caused  by  the 
higher  tuning  in  the  treble,  gave  it  greater  brHIiancy,  without 
destroying  the  pure,  ready  and  sympathetic  tone  which  charac- 
terizes the  viol.  While  the  tendency  in  the  case  of  the  discant 
and  tenor  was  to  lighten  and  brighten  them,  the  reverse  process 
took  place  in  that  of  the  bass.  The  richer  and  more  sonorous 
tones  of  the  viola  da  gamba  were  extended  downwards  by 
the  addition  of  a  string  tuned  to  double  bass  A.  Marais,  a 
French  virtuoso,  is  tlsually  credited  with  this  improvement; 
and  this  extended  compass  is  recognized  in  the  classical  viola 
da  garaba  writings  of  Sebastian  Bach  andOe  Caix  d'Hervelois. 
The  result,  however,  was  not  universally  satisfactory,  for  Abel 
used  the  six-stringed  instrument;  and  the  seven  strings  never 
came  into  general  use  in  England,  where  the  viola  da  gamba  was 
more  generally  employed  and  survived  longer  than  elsewhere. 

The  chief  defect  of  the  viols  was  thdr  weakness  of  tone; 
this  the  makers  thought  to  remedy  in  two  ways:  first  by 
additional  strings  in  unisons,  fifths  and  octaves;  and  secondly 
by  sympathetic  strings  of  fine  steel  wire,  laid  under  the  finger- 
board as  close  as  possible  to  the  belly,  and  sounding  in  sympathy 
with  the  notes  produced  on  the  bowed  strings.  The  sympathetic 
strings  were  attached  to  ivory  pegs  driven  into  the  bottom 
block,  and,  passing  through  the  lower  part  of  the  bridge,  or  over 
a  very  low  bridge  of  their  own,  were  stretched  to  pitch  either  by 
means  of  additional  pegs  or  by  wrest  pins  driven  into  the  sides 
of  the  head,  and  tuned  with  a  key.  Ori^nally  six,  seven  or 
eight  wire  strings  were  used,  tuned  to  the  diatonic  scale  of  the 
piece  to  be  performed.  Later  on  a  chromatic  set  of  twelve  was 
employed,  and  occasionally  viols  were  made  with  twenty-four 
wire  strings,  two  for  each  semitone  in  the  scale.  This  system 
of  reinforcement  was  applied  to  all  the  various  sizes  of  viols  in 
use  during  that  period. 

The  improvements  which  resulted  fai  the  production  of  the 
violin  proceeded  on  different  lines.  They  consisted  m  increas- 
ing the  resonance  of  the  body  of  the  instrument,  by  making 
it  lighter  and  more  symmetrical,  and  by  stringing  it  more 
lightly.  These  changes  transformed  the  body  of  the  viol  into 
that  of  the  Violin;  and  the  transformation  was  completed  by 
rejecting  the  lute  tuning  with  its  many  strings,  and  tuning  the 
instrumeijLt  by  fifths,  as  the  fiddle  had  been  tuned.  The  tenor 
viol  appears  to  have  been  the  first  instrument  in  which  the 
change  was  made,  and  thus  the  viola  or  tenor  may  probably  be 
claimed  as  the  father  of  the  modem  violin  family.  Violas 
were  used  in  church  music  before  the  modem  violin  period,  and 
violins  as  vn  know  them  were  at  first  called  "  Piccoli  Violini " 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  earlier  and  larger  instruments. 
A  tenor  viol  of  date  1500  is  still  extant,  bearing  in  general  out- 
Mncr  the  typical  features  of  the  violin,  as  distinct  from  the 
viol  family.  This  instrument  was  exhibited  in  1873  in  the 
Loan  Eidiibition  of  Muncal  Instruments  at  South  Renangton 
with  the  label  "  Pietro  Zanure,  Brescia,  1509."  From  existing 
specimens  we  know  that  a  bass  violin,  precursor  of  the  violon- 
cello, with  a  tuning  an  octave  below  the  tenor,  appeared 
shortly  after  that  instnmient.    A  double  bass  violin,  tuned 

a  fourth  below  the  violon- 
cello and  usually  known  as 
the  "  basso  da  camera,"  com- 
pleted the  set  of  instmments 
hi  violin  shape;  but  from 
the  difficulty  attending  its 
manipulation  it  never  came 
into  general  use.  The  celebrated  double  bass  player,  Dragonetti, 
occaAonally  used  the  basso  da  camera,  and  an  English  player 
named  Hancock,  who  dispensed  with  the  highest  or  £  string,  is 
still  remembered  for  his  performances  on  this  unusual  instrument. 
The  tenor  and  violoncello  are  made  on  the  same  general 
model  and  principles  as  the  violin,  but  with  modifications. 
naor  Both  are,  relatively  to  their  pitch,  made  in  smaller  pio- 
TMmma4  portions  than  the  violin,  because,  if  they  were  con- 
structed to  dimensions  having  the  same  relation  t6 
pitch  and  tension  of  strings  as  the  violin,  they  would 
not  only  have  an  ovtcpovreting  tone  but  would  be  unmanageable 


TenorVlQliii.      YUoBcdlo. 


Banotk 
Camen. 


from  their  size.    These  relatively  diminished  dimenfiooa,  both  in 
the  size  of  the  instrument  and  in  the  thickness  of  the  wood  and 
Strings,  give  to  the  tenor  and  violoncello  a  graver  and    more 
sympathetic  tone.    To  some  extent  the  reduced  size  is  com- 
pensated by  giving  them  a  greater  proportional  height  in  the 
ribs  and  bridge;  an  increase  hardly  perceptible  in  the  tenor. 
but  very  noticeable  in  the  violcmcello.    To  lighten  the  tension 
and  thus  allow  greater  freedom  of  vibration  to  the  belly  on  the 
bass  aide,  as  with  the  lowest  string  of  the  violin,  Uietwo  lowest 
of  the  tenor  and  violoncello  are  made  of  thin  gut,  covered 
with  fine  metal  wire;  thus  providing  the  necessary   weight 
without  inconvenient 'thickness.    If  the  tension  of  the  lowest 
string,  or  the  two  lowest  strings,  be  increased,  not  only 
will  they  be  elevated  in  pitch,  but  the  violin  wiU 
produce  a  more  powerfiii  tone;  if  the  bass  string  be 
lowered,  the  contrary  will  take  place.    By  adapting  the  muse 
to  this  altered  tuning  {scordatura)  some  novel  effects  are  pro- 
duced.   The  following  are  the  principal  scotiatwe  which  have 
been  occasionally  employed  by  various  players: — 

4= 


1  m 


Taitinf. 

CUstnicd. 

(Scotch  Rcdk) 

5 

LoIU. 


Bibo. 


Rtbcr. 


NwdiaL 


Barbdh. 


DcBMot. 

Prume, 
^tfaf^  dec. 


•I 


PkfiaiaL 


The  violoncello  is  less  amenable  to  the  Kordahara  tfaaa 
the    violin;    the   only   classical    instance    is    the 
tunmg   employed   by   Bach   in   his  fifth    sonata, 
which  consists  in  lowering  the  first  string  by    a 
tone. 


The  eariy  Italian  school  is  chiefly  represented  by  the  Bresdan 
makers,  Caspar  da  Said,   Giovanni  Paolo  Magxini,  Gbvita 
Rodiani   and   Zanetto   Peregrino.    It   is,   howe^r, 
somewhat  mideading  to  denominate  it  the  Bresdan 
school,  for  its  characteristics  are  shared  by  the  earliest 
m^ers  of  Cremona  and  Venice.    To  eyes  familiar  with  the 
geometrical  curves  ol  the  later  Cremona  school,  most  of  the 
violins  of  these  makers  have  a  rude  and  tmoouth  appearance. 
The  height  of  the  model  varies;  the  pattern  is  attenuated; 
the  /-holes  share  the  general  rudeness  of  design,  and  are  set 
high  in  the  pattern.    Andreas  Amati  of  Cremona,  the  ddeat 
maker  of   that  name,  effected  some  improvements  on  this 
primitive  modd;  but  the  vioUn  owes  most  to  his  sons,  Antooio 
and   Geronimo,   who  were  partners.    They  introduced  the 
substantial  improvements  which  devdoped  the  Bresdan  violin 
into  the  modem  instrument.    These  improvements  were  in 
thdr  inception  probably  of  an  artistic  rather  than  a  «rii»nMfig 
nature.    Painting  and  inlaying  had  long  been  employed  in  the 
decoration  of  stringed  instruments;  but  the  brothers  Amad 
were  the  first  who  applied  to  the  violin  the  fundamental  law 
of  decorative  art,  that  the  decorative  and  constmctive  dements 
should  be  blended  in  their  conception:  in  other  words,  the 
constraction  should  be  itsdf  decorative  and  the  decoration 
itself  constmctive.   Nicholas  Amati  (i596-*x6S4),  son  of  Gero- 
nimo, made  some  slight  improvements  in  the  model,  and  his 
pupil  Antonio  Stradivari  (2644-1737)  finally  settled  the  typical 
Cremona  pattern,  which  has  been  generally  followed;  for  the 
majority  of  .violins  since  made,  whether  by  good  or  bad  makers, 
are  copies  of  Stradivari.    Besides  the  last-named,  the  following 
makers  worked  generally  on  the  Amati  model — Cappa,  Gobetti, 
the  Grandno  family,  Andreas  Guamieri  and  his  son  Giuseppe^ 
the  Ruggieri  family  and  Serafin  of  Venice.    The  Beigcma 
family,  Alessandro  Gagliano,  the  earlier  members  of  the  Gua- 
dagnini  family,  and  Panormo  were  dther  pupils  or  followers 
of  Stradivari.    But  excepting  Carlo  Bergonzi  and  Stradivari's 
two  sons,  Omoboao  'and  FxaocoKax  there  is  no  evidenoe  el 


VIOLLET— VIOLLET^LE-DUC 


107 


any  IwvtBc  tctually  worked  witb  or  for  him.  Landoliit 
Storioni,  and  Carlo  Giuseppe  Testore,  a  pupil  of  Ciovonoi 
Grandno,  leaned  to  the  model  of  Giuseppe  GuarnJeri  del  GesOu 
Some  resemblances,  especially  in  the  matter,  of  the  varnish, 
are  traceable  between  the  works  of  makers  who  lived  con- 
temporaneously in  the  same  town,  e.g.  in  Naples,  Milan  and 
Venice. 

A  high  model  was  adopted  by  Jacob  Stainer  of  Absam,  near 
Hall  in  Tirol,  whose  well-known  pattern  was  chiefly  followed  by 
(hrmaa  ***®  makers  of  England,  Tirol  and  Germany,  down  to 
EutUth  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century.  It  thenceforward  fell 
«atf  into  disuse,  owing  to  the  superior  musical  qualities  of  the 

^'*?^  Cremona  violin.  The  school  of  Stainer  is  represented  by 
"  Albani,  Homsteiner,  the  Klotz  family  (who  made  large 

ntirabers  of  instruments  excellent  in  their  kind),  Schom  of  Salz- 
burg and  Withalm  of  Nuremberg,  and  others.  The  English 
makers  may  be  divided  into  three  successive  groups:  (i)  an 
antique  English  school,  having  a  character  of  its  own 
(Rayman,  Urquhart,  Pamphiloh,  Barak  Norman,  Duke,  of 
Oxford,  &c.);  (2)  imitators  of  Stainer,  at  the  head  of  whom 
stands  Peter  Wamsley  (Smith,  Barrett,  Cross,  Hill,  Aireton, 
Noixis,  &c.);  (3)  a  later  school  who  leaned  to  the  Cremona 
model  (Banks,  Duke,  of  Holbom,  Belts,  the  Forstera,  Gilkes, 
Carter,  Fendt,  Parker,  Harris,  Matthew  Hardie  of  Edinburgh, 
&c.)*  The  early  French  makers  have  Hltle  merit  or  interest 
(Bocquay,  Gavinies,  Pierray,  Guersan,  &c),  but  the  later 
copyists  of  the  Cremona  models  (Lupot,  Aldric,  Chanot  the 
elder,  Nicholas,  Pique,  Silvestre,  Vuillaume,  &c.)  produced  ad- 
mirable instruments,  some  of  which  rank  next  in  merit  to 
the  first-rate  makers  of  Cremona. 

The  general  form  of  the  violin,  as  finally  developed  under  the 
hands  of  the  leading  makers,  resolved  itself  into  two  main  types, 
the  high  and  the  flat  models,  of  which  the  Utter,  on  the  Imcs 
ulcimatcly  adopted  by  Stradivari,  has  survived  as  the  most  efficient 
pattern  for  all  modern  instruments.  The  distinction  is  one  of 
degree  only,  the  maximum  difference-  of  actual  measurement  in 
extreme  cases  amounting  to  little  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  the  convexity  of  the  belly  above  the  top  line  of  the  ribs;  but 
the  difference  in  character  of  tone  of  the  two  types  is,  in  the  main, 
well  marked.  Speaking  generally,  the  tone  of  the  high-built  instru- 
ment is  less  powerful  and  sweeter,  and  it  speaks  more  readily,  but 
responds  less  completely  to  gradations  of  tone  under  the  action 
of  the  bow  than  the  flatter  type,  which  yields  a  tone  of  greater 
carrying  power  and  flexibility,  susceptible  to  more  subtle  variation 
by  the  player,  and  with  a  peculiar  penetrating  quality  lacking  in  the 
highly  arched  model.  These  differences  in  tone  probably  depend 
less  upon  any  direct  effect  of  variations  in  depth  of  the  sounding- 
box  than  on  the  incidental  effects  of  cutting  the  wood  to  the  higher 
or  lower  arch ;  for  it  would  seem  that  the  best  results  in  tone  have 
been  attained  in  instruments  with  a  fairly  constant  volume  of 
contained  air,  the  depth  of  the  sides  being  roughly  in  inverse  pro- 
portion to  the  height  of  arch  in  the  best  examples  of  the  different 
models.  In  the  high-cut  arch  the  fibnes  of  the  wood  on  the  upper 
surface  are  necessarily  cut  shorter,  with  the  result  that  the  plate 
as  a  whole  does  not  vibrate  so  perfectly  as  in  the  flatter  model, 
and  this  has  a  wealicning  effect  on  the  tone.  Again,  the  higher 
arch,  with  steeper  curves  towards  the  sides,  necessitates  the  mcfina- 
tion  of  the  sound-holes  at  a. considerable  angle  to  the  main  horizontal 
plane  of  the  instrument ;  and  it  is  conceivable  that,  under  such  con- 
ditions, the  vibrations  of  the  upper  layer  of  air  within  the  body  are 
dissipated  too  readily,  before  the  composite  vibrations  of  the  whole 
mass  of  air  inside  the  instrument  have  attained  their  (uU  harmonic 
value.  Apart  from  these  acoustical  considerations,  the  question 
is  probably  one  of  material,  the  flatter  construction  demanding 
the  use  of  a  very  strong  and  clastic  wood  in  relation  to  the  most 
suitable  thickness,  in  order  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  the  bridge, 
a  resistance  which  the  higher  arch  renders  possible  with  a  stiffer  and 
more  brittle  material;  and  the  effect  of  these  qualities  upon  tone 
must  be  taken  into  account  in  estimating  the  tone  characters  of  the 
two  types  of  instrument. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  higher-arched  type  found  favour  with  the 
earlier  makers  up  to  the  end  of  the  Amati  period.  Stainer  in  Tirol 
inclined  particulariv  in  the  direction  of  this  model,  whkh  he  appears 
to  have  developed  on  independent  linos,  the  tradition  that  he 
hmrnt  his  craft  from  the  Amati  being  no  longer  tenable.  The 
flatter  model  was  gradually  evolved  b^  Stradivari  as  he  outgrew 
the  immediate  influence  of  the  Amati  and  developed  on  his  own 
incomparable  lines  a  somewhat  larger  and  more  powerful  instru- 
ment, adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  increasing  clacs  of  solo 
players. 

The  violins  as  a  distinctive  family  of  instruments  cannot 


be  fully  discussed  without  leference  to  the  bow  (9.9.)  as  an 
essential  adjunct,  on  account  of  the  very  important  7^^^, 
part  uken  by  the  bow  in  determining,  as  already 
mentioned,  the  peculiar  form  of  the  vibrations  of  the  stringp 
and  in  controlling,  in  the  hand  of  a  skilled  player«  the  subtle 
gradations  of  tone  produced  from  the  instrument.  The  evola« 
lion  of  the  modem  bow  has  taken  place  almost  entirely  since 
the  violin  attained  its  final  form,  and  has  followed,  more 
completely  perhaps  than  the  instrument  itself,  the  devek>p> 
ment  of  violin  music  and  the  requirements  of  the  player.  U 
reached  its  highest  perfection  at  the  hands  of  the  celebrated 
Francois  Tourte  of  Paris,  about  1780,  whose  bows  have  served 
as  a  model  for  all  succeeding  makers,  even  more  exclusively 
than  the  violins  of  Stradivari  controlled  the  pattern  of  later 
instruments;  and  at  the  present  time  Tourte  bows  are  valued 
beyond  any  others. 

For  more  than  250  years  the  violin  and  its  larger  brethren 
have  held  the  leading  position  among  musical  instruments. 
For  them  have  been  written  some  of  the  most  inspired  works 
of  the  great  musicians.  Famous  composers,  such  as  Tartini, 
Corelli,  Spohr  and  Viotti  have  been  great  violinists,  and  by 
their  compositions,  as  much  as  by  their  talents  as  virtuosi, 
have  largely  developed  the  capacity  of  the  violin  as  a  vehicle 
of  profound  musical  expression.  To  the  listener  the  violin 
speaks  with  ah  intensity,  a  sympathy,  and  evokes  a  thrill  of 
the  senses  such  as  no  other  instrument  can  produce.  For 
the  player  it  seems  to  respond  to  eveiy  pulse  of  h^  emotions. 

Referencbs.— A.  Vidal,  La  Lutherie  et  Us  lutkitrs  (Paris,  1889); 
G.  Hart,  The  VJolin  (London,  1875);  Hill,  Antonio  Stradivari 
(London,  1902);  Sir  W.  Huggins,  *'  On  the  Function  of  the  Sound- 
Post,  &C.,  of  the  Violin,"  Proc.  Royal  Society,  vol.  xxxv.  p.  241 ; 
H.  Helmholtz,  On  the  Sensations  of  Tone,  Gfc.  (trans,  by  A.  J.  EUlis); 
E.  H.  Barton  and  C.  A.  B.  Garrett,  "Vibration  Curves  obtained 
from  a  Monochord  Sound  Box  and  String,"  Philosophical  Mag. 
(July  1905);  Carl  Engel,  Musical  Instruments  (London,  T875;; 
A.  J.  Hipicins  Musical  Instruments,  Histories  Rare  and  Unique 
(Edinburgh.  X887).  (R.  W.  F.  H.) 

VIOLLSr,  PAUL  MARIS  (1840-  ),  French  historian,  was 
bom  at  Tours  on  the  34th  of  October.  x84a  After  serving 
bis  native  city  as  secretary  and  archivist,  he  became  archivist 
to  the  national  archives  in  Paris  in  1866,  and  later  librarian 
to  the  faculty  of  law.  In  1890  he  was  appointed  professor  0/ 
dvil  and  canon  law  at  the  £coIe  des  chartes.  His  work  mainly 
concerns  the  history  of  law  and  institutions,  and  on  this  subject 
he  published,  two  valuable  and  scholarly  books — Droit  public: 
Histoire  des  institutii^ns  polUtgues  et  administralives  de  la  France 
(1890-98),  and  Precis  de  Vkistoire  du  droit  fran^ais  (x886). 

VIOLLET-LE-DUC.  EUOtNB  EMMANUEL  (1814-1879), 
French  architect  and  writer  on  archaeology,  was  bom  in  Paris 
on  the  2i5t  6f  January  1814.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Achille  Leclere, 
and  in  1836-37  spent  a  year  studying  Greek  and  Roman 
architect ture  in  Sicily  and  Rome.  His  chief  interest  was, 
however,  in  the  art  of  the  Gothic  period,  and,*  like  Sir  Gilbert 
Scott  in  England,  he  was  employed  to  "  restore  "  some  of  the 
chief  medieval  buildings  of  France,  his  earliest  works  being  the 
abbey  church  of  V£zelay,  various  churches  at  Poissy,  St  Michel 
at  Carcassonne,  the  church  of  Semur  in  C6te-d'0r,  and  the 
fine  Gothic  town  halls  of  Saint-Antonin  and  Narbonne,  all 
carried  out  between  1840  and  1850.  From  1845  to  1856  he 
was  occupied  on  the  restoration  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris  in 
conjimction  with  Lassus,*  and  also  with  that  of  the  abbey  of 
St  Denis.  In  1849  he  began  the  restoration  of  the  fortifications 
of  Carcassonne  and  of  Amiens  cathedral;  and  in  later  years 
he  restored  Laon  cathedral,  the  ch&teau  of  Pierrefonds,  and 
many  other  important  buildings.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Napoleon  III.,  and  during  the  siege  of  Paris  (1871)  gave  valuable 
help  as  an  engineer  to  the  beleaguered  army.  He  held  many 
important  offices,  both  artistic  and  political,  and  was  for  many 
years  inspector-general  of  the  ancient  buildings  throughout  a 
large  part  of  France.    His  kst  work  was  the  general  scheme 

*  He  pubUshed  in  1867-6^  a  fine  work  showing  his  not  very 
successful  coloured  decoration  applied  to  the  chapels  of  Notre 
Dame. 


VIOLONCELLO— VIPER 


ir  dus,  find  mn  a 


for  tlie  Puis  ahlblltoa  bnOdJnp  In  1878.    He  diad  m  the 
i;th  of  Septembei  1874  at  Linunnc. 

Ai  4  desiED'T  VJoilet'le'DDC  occupud  only  1  ttrmadary 
pUce;  but  u  a  writer  on  medieval  architectim  and  the  Idadnd 
uti  be  tika  tbe  highat  n 
tbe  lUndard  vorki  in  tin 
iUuatnted  with  very  skilful  „     . 

le-Duc  wu  ■  man  of  Ibe  Bi«t  vuiei  uid  brilliuit  (billtio, 
[  wort  which  b»»  jddom  been  eqmjled. 
a  man  ol  ideoce,  a  teamed  inHueolofitt 
andaichalar.  ThelnipinhisLc  tfoiii/i'w  Wnif  filiiKi:,>b<iwiDg 
tbe  rock  contoon  and  the  glauen  of  Mont  Blue,  it  a  model  of 
Il9  kind,  which  combine*  great  artistic  beauty  with  ihe  accuracy 
ol  the  most  skilful  engineer.  His  strong  poetical  fancy  enabled 
him  to  reconstruct  tbe  life  and  bmldingi  of  tbe  middle  age)  in 


His  principal  literary  wt 

Sxtouc  iu  XI.  au  XVI. 
■(ail  (1858-75);  t'XrcjMMtjKi  nuuii 
£iUr(fi«u  nr  J'trdiUdnri  (1M1-71);  ( 
(|86])1  ittmmn  jv  In  Ujnui  it  f 
ms^na     (1874- 7--     "-•— -    •'■ 


n  wiTeii  6tt  Wit): 


It  iim  caMdrale   (1S79J:   La  Diiatuui»  apflifiitt 

VIOLONCELLO  (Fr.  vuAentdU,  Ger.  VuloaaU,  ItaL  tMnt- 
idb),  Ihe  bass  member  of  Ihe  violin  family.  Although  the 
word  violoncello  is  a  diminutive,  tlgnifying  **  imiUI  violone." 
or  double  bass,  the  insItuineDl  ll  really  a  basa  violin,  formed 
on  a  different  model  from  the  violone,  which  haa  the  slopbg 
shoulders  and  flat  back  of  the  viol  family,  whereas  those  of 
the  viohmceDo  are  rounded  ai  In  tbe  vialin.  Tbe  constructiofl 
of  tbo  violoncello  b  therefore  the  same  tt  (hat  of  the  violin 
til  her  held,  on  account 


afoo' 


be  perform 


hfrai 


^  belwe. 
ene  of  tl 


d  [he 


jn  the  it 


b  and  the  Germans  (see  Mel 
I-1814),  Italian  vi 


ville(Ri 

i8;o  between  the  Frcnc 

FbancoCerman  Wab). 

VlOrn,  QIOVAHHI  BATTISTA  (1  .. 
and  musical  composer,  was  bom  at  Fontaoeito  in  toe  provuce 
ol  Turin  on  the  ijid  of  May  17;].  He  learned  the  rudimenu 
of  music  Irom  bis  father,  a  blacksmith  who  played  the  horn; 
and  in  r764  Giovannini  taught  him  the  violin  for  a  year. 
Two  years  later  he  was  placed  at  Ibe  cost  ol  the  prince  de  la 
Cisteme  under  Ibe  violinist  G.  Fugnani  at  Turin,  where  he 
became  violinist  In  Ihe  court  chapel.  In  i;Sa  Viotti,  having 
already  made  himself  a  name,  travelled  through  Germany  and 
Poland  10  Russia,  where  the  empress  Catherine  honoured  him 
with  marks  of  extraordinary  favour.  -  He  next  appeared  in 
London,  in  company  nilh  Pugnaui,  and  at  once  achieved 
*  brUliant  (nd  lasting  reputation.  In  1781  he  was  equally 
succeiiful  in  Paris.  Two  years  later  he  was  appointed  leader 
of  (he  prince  de  Souhise'a  private  orchestra;  and  in  1788  he 
undertook  the  direction  c^  the  opera,  raising  the  perlot- 
mances,  with  Cberubini's  assisUnce,  to  a  very  high  levd.  He 
had  also  started  an  Italian  opera  in  co-operation  with  the 
barber  Uonard,  which  was  opened  in  17S9  in  the  Tuileries, 
being  subsequently  unalgamated  with  the  ThUtre  de  la  Foire 
St  Germain  in  1790  and  EnaUy  merged  in  tbe  new  ThUlie 
Feydeau  in  1751.  In  17BI  the  Revolufion  compelled  Viotti 
to  0/  to  London,  where  he  took  part  in  the  Hanover  Square 
concerts;  bui  being  suspected  to  be  an  agent  ol  (he  Revolu- 
tionary CommillM  in  Paris  he  was  compelled  to  retire  for  a 
time  lo  Ihe  neighbourhood  of  Hamburg,  which  he  subsequently 
quilted,  although  the  dalenf  hia  departure,  nften  ^ven  as  1703, 
does  not  seem  probable.  It  is  possible  that  be  was  already 
In  1794  In  London,  where  he  took  shares  In  a  wine  business, 
and  he  resided  alnsoM  umntertuptcdly  there  until  1819,  when 


e  once  more  settled  In  Parb,  nturaed  the  diRCtfoa  of  tte 

pera.  and  retired  in  iSii  with  a  penuon.    He  died  In  London 
n  the  loth  (or  jrd)  of  March  18)4. 
VioerL't  playing  was  diAiD^iahed  n>;  an  extreme  purity  ol  Myle. 

it — .  ,^ — ^  ^^  ^n  ineabaUBtible  variety  of  poetical  ar^ 


I    family   of   Old-World 


it  UJ^de  on] 


article  Shakes.     In 
t,  namely  tluae  without 


re  treated  under  Sn*i:ii,  and  thooa 
ich  are  poaseaaed  of  a  raltle  under  Rattizshue.  The 
le  v^iers  comprise  about  nine  genera  with  some  forty  specie*, 
icb  can  be  distinguished  as  follows: — 

riiuu  in  AIKca,  and  Aumufkii  /cu  in  Bunna.  an  tbe  only 
•ers  which  have  the  head  covered  »ith  laiie  lyruinetrical  thieldv- 
tle  in  the  other  Henera  the  head  *hiel('-  -"  * — ''^^  —  '-'- 

Eckii  ind  Alhtrit  have  only 
arid  easily  ovcrlooln 


-ilh^Paje  .i»t.^and^deli^l 


— EcJii  urinta.  Tbe  "  Krait "  of  India. 

Kuppur  'Mn  Sind,  Ihrou^h  North  Afric 


Athtrii,  which,  bi 


of  the  side*  of  the  body  is  timilar  (o 


VXRBKIS' 


109 


_     „  _. ._,__._, Liac.luialarfehorA 

■pilu  mbon  acta  er*.  TUi,  tha  "  Ef>  "  oC  the  Anbi,  buns  iUcU 
ia  the  Bod,  vltb  vdy  the  eyx.  DoniDi  ud  the  honu  ipiieariiig 
^ovetlWHrfur.  Itnniualaiitboliltt.  C. i^fwrt le taomlea. 
Nil  e.  jGtiUJiu  a.  OMJM  bie  twc  run  d  iliWdt  oa  the  nndniik 
of  tlie  iBtv  'Ixs*  tail;  the  ihiik  bead  it  niidi  ifcpimed,  Uke  the 
body.  The  nual  ihielda  are  lefianled  from  the  fomrai  by  nnall 
•caln,  oibcTwiw  much  RKOibliai  the  genot  Vifm.  B.  oricfaiu, 
the  "  puff-adder  "  of  neariy  the  whole  ol  Afnca,  an  a^y,  very 
danwnxia  bruit  growtiu  to  a  lenftb  of  4  or  J  It,  3.  nawkorni*, 
the  Wbu  Afncan  ime-hanied  viper,  bai  a  pair  of  enctUi  tcatea 
on  the  nua.  Scaitely  uiaHcr  and  leii  bulky  than  the  pua-addo 
and  iuAt  afl  poiwnoui.  It  it  yet  very  bandiorody  macVcd  with  a 
srrln  of  largF  palt.  dark-edEed  tpott  and  oblique  crmei  on  a  porpliA 
or  Trddiih  brown  KToand.  EapccialLv  haadioiDe  an  tbe  ywaf. 
^bkh  at  birth  are  aa  modi  aa  I  ft.  U  leocth.  Oa  00a  occuion 
one  of  tbeae  anaWca,  after  nviDf  birth  to  tweaty^jie  yousg  (vbich 
bit  and  killed  mice  within  Bve  minuta  of  bcinclnni),  became  very 
itl-temiiend.  and  wbea  two  adult  mala  wenphKed  in  her  ate 


:.— iltibru  ttrl—L  (L«ith,  »  la.) 
however,  ap^eartd  net  to  inffiT  the  diihleM 
I  wa>  nevat  Ae  want  lot  it  (n  Pnc-  ZiS.  Soc. 

'aA  it  covered  with  tmalT  icilei  and  a  few  larger 

Hflact  witb  the  roMral  ihleld  or  K|»rand  by  one 
■sin  of  the  body  aie  MmoCly  keeled :  twg  raw* 
w^  — — _—  ^^  Lbc  Ahori  tail,  Thia  £anui  of  about  ten  ipcciei 
yiith  numeioui  fccjl  vacitlici  langit  over  Europe,  A^  and  the 
gicaler  part  of  Africa. 

„  K-  ff™*;  the  mmmon  Eunpean  vfper.  raOfhil  from  Walea  to 
S«h^  Ida^  .ad  from  Cai^h^  to  the  htAdI  Spait^  frora 
the  noRhnn  boonduy  of  Fciiia  to  beyond  tht  Arctic  DRk  ■■ 
Sundinavia.  _  It  inhabit,  all  »rt.  ot  iHuitioojL  but  prefm.  heaihfc 
moon  and  raimd  woodi  with  mnny  >lopM.  ti  Jmnd.  the  AIpe 
upioJooOMToooft  ThenJoratfonBveryvarlaMr.gfer.lmwii. 
rtddHA  or  enhelr  blade  iprrimnni  oneutriat  hi  the  Hine  OHintr* 
The  qiuch-uakenHil  black  iJM.  line  alont  the  back  it  «o  often 
Indiitincl,  lh*l  It  cannot  be  rcU^  upon  a>  1  lafe  character.  Th« 
full-jrown  male,  art  imalltr  than  the  Femalei.  and  have  uniatly 
dirkermaTkliiiiandil.Bliieriraiindcolaar.  A  •pnnnen  which  li 
afc.ki^fanni,aiiditinvanablyaleBak.  Tk* i£m Iki4 It kHO, 


whkik  an  brinlad  ({Ki' m 


»nd/bt  hibHnation,  tbey  often 


vfper;  it  li  liMitiy  anub-noied.  aad  thit  featun  it  ttiU  more  pro* 
■onarcd  la  Y.  lokiUi  of  S(«in  aad  Potliw^,  In  V.  niniu^fd 
of  Boutb^aaten  Europe  the  raified  paction  it  produced  into  a  aolt, 

"v.  niHcJtf,  t^  "  Dabola."  I1  one  ef  the  onat  polnnoni  taakea  «( 
India.  Ceylon.  Java,  Burma  and  Sjan.  It  ie  pak  brows  with  IhiM 
I — <__.:..i  _|„  ^  ^^  B(ht4(kad  riaca  which  avetiiaaf 

•pota.   It  oowi  to  « leiinh  ol  about  j  ft. 

(H,  F.  C.) 

old  ItalUa  dJvitiity,  aiabckled  with  tbo  wei«hip 
of  Diana  ai  And*  {mc  Diau).  Uoder  Ctcck  influence,  bawat 
idcatificd  with  Hqipoiytua  (g.i.),  who  aflcr  he  bad  been  tninpled 
to  daalk.  by  the  bonea  c>f  Poaddan  va*  KStmed  to  lilt  by 
Aidtpiiia  and  mnovod  by  Artemii  to  the  grove  at  Aticia,  which 
bond  were  not  allowed  to  enter.  Viibiui  wai  the  oideu  prieM 
of  Diaiia,  the  first  "  kini  of  the  (rove  "  {Rix  Ktmaraiiis).  ,H» 
h  Mid  to  havt  aUhbihed  the  rule  IhU  any  candidate  lor  Iht 
ofi:*  iilaiiilil  moot  and  alay  ia  tuiglc  cotnbal  lla  bolder  at  Ih* 
tirae,  who  alwaya  vent  about  aimed  wilh  a  diawn  iwoid  in 
■aticipMkin  of  the  ttrug^  Candidalea  had  tutthn  lo  be 
lugili»ei  (probably  alavci).  and  ai  a  pidiminaty  had  to  break  oH 
a  bacgh  fran  a  ^iccibed  tree.  By  the  epouynijiia  nympb 
Alida.  Vicblua  had  a  aon  of  the  Hme  name,  who  lought  on  the 
■de  oi  the  RutDltan  Tmui  afainH  Aeneaa.  J,  G.  Fnuer 
lomcely  held  \^rb]iiB  IA  he  a  irood  and  itte  H>''tl,  to  whom 
botM,  IB  which  Isnn  tree  ipiiiu  were  often  tepitteBtcd,  vti* 
eBaed  in  aaoifia.  Hia  ideBtiGcaUan  with  Hlppalytiu  ukI  the 
navwt  oi  tbg  iMMr'i  death  WMild  explain  tin  nduaioa  ol  boncf 
bom.  Ua  crow.  TUiqiiril  m^teavly  be  coafoiudeit  with  the 
•m,  wboae  pcMct  ma  nqipoMd  lo  be  itond  up  in  th*  wannlb- 
■ivilis  Uae,     Sun   (in  SoMhcr't  Utlttn)  ■!»  identifica 


IKO 


^^RCHOW 


H^)IM>lytitt  with  the  "  hfltttk^gTibig  tim,''  and  VUiiit  vi<h  a 
healSng  god  akin  to  Aadqiius.  Fraxer's  latest  view  is  that  he  is 
the  old'  cult  associate  of  Diana  of  Arida  (to  whom  he  is  related 
as  Attis  to  Cybde  or  Adonis  to  Venus),  the  mythical  predecessor 
Of  archetype  of  the  kings  of  the  grov^  This  grove  was  probably 
an  oak  grove,  and  the  oak  being  sacred  to  JufMter,  the  khig  of  the 
grove  (and  consequently  Virbius)  was  a  local  form  of  Jupiter. 
A.  B.  Cook  suggests  that  he  may  be  the  god  of  the  stream  of 
Nemi. 

See  Vtrgil,  Aen.  vit.  761  and  Scrvius,  ad  toe.;  Ovid.  Fasti,  iii. 
365,  vi.  737.  Meiam.  xv.  A97;  Suetonius,  Ca/t^itfa,  35:  Strabo, 
V.  p.  239;  G.  Wissowa.  Ratgicn  und  KuUus  der  Rdnur  (1002). 
according  t6  whom  Virbius  was  a  divinity  who  assisted  at  childmith 
(cp.  the  uixi  di);  J.  G.  Frazer.  Golden  Bwgk  (1900),  ii.  p.  31^.  iii. 
o.  4^6,  and  Early  History  of  the  Kingship  (1905),  pp.  34, 381 ;  A.  B. 
Cook  in  Qassicat  Review^  xvi.  p.  37a. 

VIBCHOW,  RUDOLF  (1831-1903),  German  pathologist  and 
politician,  was  born  on  the  13th  of  October  iSai  at  Schivelbein, 
Uk  Pomerania,  where  his  father  was  a  small  farmer  and  shopkeeper. 
As  a  boy  he  attended  the  Volkssdude  of  his  native  village,  and 
at  the  age  of  seventeen,  having  passed  through  the  gymnasium 
of  KOsIin,  went  to  Berlin  to  study  medkbe.  He  took  his 
doctor's  degree  in  1843,  and  almost  immediatdy  received  an 
app<untment  as  assistant-surgeon  at  the  Charit6  HospitlU, 
becoming  pro-rector  three  years  Uter.  In  1847  he.lSigin  to  act 
as  PiwUdoutU  in  the  university,  and  founded  with  Reinhardt 
the  Arckh  fUr  paikologiscke  Anatomia  und  Fkysiohiie,  which, 
after  his  collaborator's  death  in  1852,  he  carried  on  alone,  and  in 
1848  he  went  as  a  member  of  a  goveipnMnt  commission  to 
investigate  an  outbreak  of  typhus  in  upper  Silesia.  About  the 
same  time,  having  shown  too  open  sympathy  with  the  revolu- 
tionary or  reforming  tendencies  of  1848,  he  was  for  political 
reasons  obliged  to  leave  Berlin  and  retire  to  the  seclusion  of 
WQizburg,  the  medical  school  of  which  profited  enormously  by 
his  labours  as  professor  of  pathological  anatomy,  and  secured  a 
wide  extension  of  its  reputation.  In  1856  he  was  recalled  to 
Berlin  as  ordinary  professor  of  patholo^ca!  anatomy  in  the 
university,  and  as  director  of  the  Pathological  Institute  formed 
a  centre  for  research  whence  has  flowed  a  constant  stream  of 
ori^al  work  on  the  nature  and  processes  of  disease.  On  the 
Z4th  of  October  1901  his  eightieth  birthday  waa  celebrated  in 
Berlin  amid  a  brilliant  gathering  of  men  of  science,  part  of  the 
ceremonies  taking  place  in  the  new  Patholo^cal  Museum,  near 
the  Charit6,  which  owes  its  escisteiye  mainly  to  his  eneigy  and 
powers  of  organization.  Oa  that  occasion  all  Europe  united  to 
do  him  honour,  many  learned  societies  sent  delegates  to  express 
their  congratulations,  the  king  of  Italy  gave  him  his  own  portrait 
on  a  gold  medallion,  and  among  the  numerous  addresses  he 
feceiv«l  was  one  from  Kaiser  Wiihelm  II.,  who  took  the  oppor- 
tunity of  presenting  him  with  the  Grand  Cold  Medal  for  Science. 
In  the  early  part  of  1902  he  slipped  from  a  tramcar  in  Berlin 
and  fractured  his  thigh;  finm  this  injury  he  never  really 
recovered,  and  his  death  occurred  in  Berlin  on  the  sth  of 
September  1902. 

Wide  ss  were  Virchow's  studies,  and  soocesshd  as  he  was  in  aB, 
yet  the  foremost  place  must  be  given  to  his  achievements  in 
pathological  investigation.  He  nuy,  in  fact,  be  called  the 
father  of  modem  pathofegy,  for  hb  view,  that  every  ammsl  is 
constituted  by  a  sum  of  vital*  units,  each  of  which  manifests 
the  characteristics  of  life,  has  ahnost  onifbrmiy  dominated  the 
theory  of  dlsease^incc  the  middle  of  the  xgth  century,  when  it  was 
enunciated.  The  beginnings  of  hb  doctrme  of  oellcdar  pathology 
date  from  the  earliest  period  in  hb  career.  When,  towards  the 
end  ci  hb  student-days  in  Berlin,  he  was  acting  as  diniod 
assbtant  in  the  eye  department  of  tlie  Berlin  Hospital,  he 
noticed  that  in  keratitb  and  corneal  wounds  healing  took  place 
without  the  appearance  of  plastic  exudation.  Thb  observation 
led  him  to  further  work,  and  he  succeeded  in  showing  that  in 
vascular  <M^ns  the  presence  of  oelb  in  inilanunatory  exudates  b 
not  the  result  of  exudation  but  of  muitqdication  of  pre-existbg 
cells.  Eventually  he  waa  able  to  prove  that  the  biological 
doctrine  of  ^mnit  €dMa  eedltda  applies  to  pathological  peocesMS 
as  w«Q  « to  Uiose  of  nonnal  growth.  Hid  in  hb  fajnooa  book  OA 


CawUt'P9lkot9gu,  pnblbhed  at  Seriki  in  1898,  he  wtaMUed 
what  Lord  Lister  described  as  the  "  inie  and  fertile  doctrine  that 
every  morbid  structure  counts  of  cells  which  have  been  derived 
from  pre*«xistiag  cdh»  as  a  progeny.*'  But  in  addUion  to  bringing 
forward  a  fundamental  and  philosophical  view  of  morbid  pio- 
cesses,  which  probably  contributed  more  than  any  other  single 
'cause  to  vindicate  for  pathology  the  place  which  he-daimed  for 
it  among  the  biological  sciences,  Virchow  made  many  important 
contributbns  to  hbtology  and  morbid  anatomy  and  to  the  study 
of  particular  diseases.    The  dasification  into  epithelial  or]gaaa» 
connective  tissues,  and  the  more  ^)ecialiaed  muscle  and  n«rve, 
was  largdy  due  to  him;  and  he  proved  the  presence  of  neuroglia 
in  the  brain  and  s|Hnal  coed,  disooveied  crysuUiae  haematoidine, 
and  made  out  the  structure  of  the  umbilical  cord.    Medical 
sdence  further  owes  to  him  the  daasification  of  new  growths  on  a 
natural  hbtological  basb,  the  duddation  of  leucaemia,  glioma 
and  lardaceous  tumours,  and  detailed  investigations  into*  many 
dbeases    tuberculosis,  pyaemia,  diphtheria,  leprasyv  typhus,  &c. 
Among  the  books  he  publish  on  pathological  and  medical 
subjects  may  be  mentioned  VorUsungen  Uber  Palkdcgie,  the 
first  volume  of  which  was  the  CeUnlar'PaihologieXiZ^),  ai^  the 
remauung  three  Dia  Krankhajlen  GaetaMsU  (1863-67);  Hand' 
buck  derspaiellen  Patkologie  und  Tkerapie  (3  vob.,  1854-63),  in 
coUabocation  with  other  German  surgeons;  Getamrndte  Ai^ud" 
lungen  Mur  tnaauchafUicken  Medisin  (1856);  Vier  Xeden  iiber 
Leben  und  Kranksein  (1862);  Untersuchungen  Hiber  die  Brntmich' 
lung  dei  Schddelgrundes  (1857);  Lekre  van  den  Tridnnet%  ti86s); 
Ud>er  den  Hunger-lyphus  (1868);  and  Gesammdte  Abkandlumgtm 
auf  dam  Cebiete  der  djenilicken  Medisin  und  der  SeucketUiirt 
(1879).  .  In  EngUnd  hb  pathological  work  won  genexal  reoogu* 
tion.    Tlie  Royal  Society  awarded  him  the  Coplqr  medal  m 
1892,  atid  sdected  him  as  Croonian  lecturer  in  the  iollowlng  year, 
hb  subject  being  the  position  of  pathology  among  the  biological 
sdences;  and  in  1898  he  delivered  the  second  Hoidtgr  memorial 
lecture  at  Charing  Cross  Hospital. 

Another  sdence  which  Virchow  cultivated  with  oonsplcBons 
success  was  anthropology,  which  he  did  much  to  pot  on  a  aeund 
critical  basb.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Naturfonchervecsaramlimg 
at  Innsbruck  in  1869,  he  was  one  ot  the  founders  of  the  GCTman 
Anthropological  Sodety,  of  which  he  became  president  in  the 
following  year;  and  from  1869  onwards  he  presided  over  the 
Berlm  Anthropological  Sodety,  also  acting  as  editor  of  its  pro-' 
ceedings  in  the  Zeitsckrijl  jUr  Etkndogie.  In  ethnology  he 
published  a  volumeH>f  essays  on  the  physical  anthropology  of  the 
Germans^  with  spedal  reference  to  the  Frisians;  and  at  hb 
instance  a  census,  which  yidded  remarkable  results,  was  carried 
out  among  school  children  throughout  Germany,  to  determine 
the  relative  dbtribution  of  blondes  and  brunettes.  Hb  archaeo- 
logical work  included  the  investigation  of  lake  dwdKngs  and 
other  [wdibtoric  structures;  he  went  with  Schliemana  to  Troy 
in  i879,-fruits  of  the  expedition  being  two  books,  ZurLandaskunde 
der  Troas  (1880)  and  Alt-trojaniscke  CrUhtr  und  Schadel  (1882); 
in  1881  he  vbited  the  Caucasus,  and  on  hb  return  published  Das 
Crdberfdd  van  Koban  im  Land*  der  Osseten;  and  in  x888  he 
accompanied  Schliemann  to  Egypt,  Nubia  and  the  Pek^ooaese. 

As  a  politician  Virchow  had  an  active  career.  In  x86a  he 
was  dected  a  member  of  the  Prussian  Lower  House.  Professing 
advanced  Liberal  and  democratic  views,  he  was  a  founder  and 
Inder  of  the  Fortschritt^partd,  and  the  expression  Kdtur^ 
kempf  had,  it  b  bdieved,  its  origin  in  one  of  hb  dectoni 
manifestoes.  For  many  years  he  was  chairman  of  the  finance 
committee,  and  b  that  capadty  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  dud 
founder  of  the  constitutkMial  Prussian  Budget  system.  In 
t88o  he  entered  the  Reidisftag  aa  representative  of  a  Berlin 
constituency,  but  was  ousted  hi  T893  by  a  Sodal  Democrat  In 
the  Rdcbstag  he  became  tl^  leader  of  the  Opposition,  and  a 
vigorous  antagonist  to  Bismarck.  In  the  local  and  munidpal 
pditics  of  Berlin  again  be  took  a  leading  part,  and  as  a  member 
of  the  rounicQMd  council  was  largdy  responsible  for  the  trans- 
formation which  came  over  the  dty  In  the  last  thirty  years  of 
the  X9th  century.  That  it  has  become  one  of  the  hfflUhicst 
dtia  In  the  irodd  from,  being  one  of  the  onbealtUat  Ii 


Ill 


-ttttibuttbleiaiffett  measure  to  liis  in^ence  on  the  necessity 
of  sanitary  refonn,  and  it  was  his  nnceastng  efforts  that 
Mcuied  for  its  iniwbitants  the  drainage  system,  the  sewage  farms 
and  the  good  water-supply,  the  benefits  of  ^hlch  are  .reflected 
m  the  decreased  death-rate  they  now  enjoy.  In  respect  of 
hospitab  and  tiie  treatment  of  the  sick  hH  energy  and  know- 
ledge were  of  enormons  advantage  to  his  country,  both  in  times 
of  peace  and  of  war,  and  the  unrivalled  accommodation  for 
medical  treatment  possessed  by  Berlin  is  a  standing  tribute  to 
his  name,  which  wiH  be  perpetuated  in  one  of  the  largest 
hospitals  of  the  city. 

Of  his  writings  on  social  and  poltticat  questions  may  be  mentioned 
DU  Bniekung  des  Weibes  (1865):  Ueber  die  nationaU  EnlwicUung 
9nd  Bedeviimi  der  Nalurtmsenschaflen  (1865);  Die  AufgabtH  dtr 
NatMfwissauauflM  in  dem  neuen  natioHaUu  Lebm  JMutscklands 
(187 1);  DU  Fmkeii  der  WissenKkaft  im  modenun  Stoat  (1677). 
in  which  he  oppoeed  the  idea  o(  Haeckel— that  the  principles  of 
evolution  Bhouid  be  taught  in  elementary  schools— on  the  ground 
that  th^  were  not  as  yet  proved,  and  that  it  was  mischievow  to 
teach  a  hypothesis  which  stilt  remained  id  the  speculative  stage. 

See  Liees  by  Becher  (Berlin.  1894)  and  Pagel  (Uipsia,  1906); 
Rudolf  Virehow  als  Patkelot  by  Marchand  (Munich.  IQ02T;  Rudolf 
Virckow  ah  i4f«f  by  Ebstein  (Stuttgart,  1003);  GedScklntsrede  aitf 
R.  Virckem  (Beriin,  1903)$  and  Bnefe  Virctums  an  seine  EUem 
i839'i864,  bv  Marie  KabI  (Leipzig.  1907).  A  bibliography  of  bis 
worn  was  puoliahcd  at  Berlin  in  1901. 

VIRB»  a  town  of  north-western  Fvanoe,  capital  of  an  ar- 
londisBeinent  in  the  department  of  Calvados,  47  m.  S.W.  of 
Caen  by  rail.  Pop.  (1906)  6228.  Vire  stands  on  an  eminence 
surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the  Vire  and  crowned  by  the 
remains  of  a  xath-century  ch&teau.  The  church  of  Notre 
Dame  (13th  to  isth  century),,  and  the  picturesque  Tour  de 
THoiioge  (13th  century),  beneath  which  runs  the  chief  street, 
are  the  principal  buOdingS.  A  library  and  a  small  museum 
with  good  collections  of  porcelain,  pictures  and  curiosities,  are 
Installed  in  the  town  hall  (xyth  and  t8th  centuries).  In  the 
public  garden  there  is  a  statue  of  Marshal*  Jacques  Gojfon, 
comte  de  Matignon  (1525-1597);  and  the  native  poets  C.  J.  L. 
Ch^edoll^  and  P.  L.  R.  Castel  are  represented,  the  former  by 
m  nmrble  bust,  the  latter  by  a.  bronze  statue.  Vire  grew  up 
around  a  castle  built  m  the  12th  century  by  Henry  I.  of  England, 
and  in  the  middle  ages  was  one  of  the  important  strongholds 
of  Normandy.  South-west  of  the  town  is  the  gorge  called 
Vaux-de-Vire,  in  which  was  sitnated  the  mill  of  Olivier  BasseUn 
(z5th  century),  the  fuller  and  reputed  author  of  the  satiric 
songs,  hence  known  as  ^'vaudevilleB*'  (see  Basscun, 
OiiviEa). 

VIRBLAT,  the  title  applied  to  more  than  one  fixed  form  of 
▼erse,  from  the  French  s^er,  to  turn  or  veer.  The  history  and 
exact  character  of  the  virelay  are  more  obscure  than  those  of 
any  other  of  the  old  French  forms.  It  is  possible  that  It  is 
connected  with  the  Provencal  ley.  Historians  of  poetry  have 
agreed  in  stating  that  it  is  a  modification  of  the  medieval  /at, 
but  it  is  curious  that  no  example  erf  the  laf  is  forthcoming,  except 
thk  following,  which  was  first  printed  by  the  Pdre  Mourgues 
in  his  TraiU  de  la  Paste  :— 

"  Sur  I'appui  du  Monde 
Que  faut-il  qu'on  fonde 
D'espoir? 

Cettc  mcr  profonde 
Et  debris  icconde 
Fait  voir 

Calme  au  matin  I'onde 
Et  rorage  y  gronde 
Le  Soir, ' 

But  this  appears  to  be,  noY  a  complete  poem,  but  ft  fragment 
of  a  vireby,  which  proceeds  by  shifting  or  "  veering  "  the  two 
rhymes  to  an  extent  limited  only  by  the  poct*^  ingenuity.  This 
Is  the  Old  Virelay  {tirelai  ancten),  of  which  examples  have  beeil 
rare  in  recent  literature.  There  is,  however,  a  New  Virelay 
(nrehi  niveau),  the  newness  of  which  is  merely  lehitive,  since 
H  was  nsed  by  AUiin  Chartler  in  the  15th  oentmy.  In  French 
the  old  and  popular  verses  beginning'^ 

••  Adieu  vous  dy  triste  Lyre, 
C'est  trop  apprlter  i  mt^^  -  - 


form  a  perfect,  example  of  the  New  Virelay,  ird  in  English  we 
have  at  least  one  admirable  specimen  in  Mr  Austin  Dobson'a 
"  July  "  — 

"Good-bye  to  the  Townl  good-byel 
Hurrah !  for  the  sea  and  the  sky  I " 

The  New  Virelay  is  entirely  written  on  two  rhytaes,  and  begins 
with  two  lines  vhich  are  destined  to  form  recurrent  refrains 
throughout  the  whole  course  of  the  poem,  and,  reversed  in 
order,  to  dose  it  with  a  couplet.  The  virelay  is  a  vaguer  and 
less  vertebrate  form  of  verse  than  the  sonnet,  the  ballad  or 
the  viUanelle,  and  is  of  less  importance  than^ese  in  the  history 
of  prosody.  (£.  G.) 

VIROIL  (PuBUDS  VsKcnivs  Maso),  the  great  Roman  poet, 
was  bom  on  the  15th  of  October  in  the  yeifr  70  B.c.y  on 
a  farm  on  the  banks  of  the  Mincio,  in  the  district  of  Andes,  not 
far  from  the  town  of  Mantua.  In  the  re^on  north  of  the  Po 
a  race  of  more  imaginative  susceptibility  than  the  people  of 
Latium  formed  part  of  the  Latin-speaking  population.  It 
was  favourable 'to  his  development  as  a  national  poet  that  he. 
was  bom  and  educated  during  the  interval  of  comparative 
cabn  between  the  first  and  second  civil  wats,  and  that  he 
belonged  to  a  generation  which,  as  the  result  of  the  social  war, 
first  enjojred  the  sense  of  an  Italian  nationality.  Yet  it  was 
only  after  Viigil  had  grown  to  manhood  that  Uie  province  to 
which  he  belonged  obtafned  the  full  rights  of  Roman  citizen- 
ship, tl  is  remarkable  that  the  two  poets  whose  imagination 
seems  to  bave  been  most  powerfully  possessed  by  the  spell 
of  Rome— Ennius  and  Vii|^l— were  bom  outside  the  pale  of 
Roman  citizenship. 

The  scenery  familiar  to  his  chfldhood,  which  he  recalls  with 
affection  both  in  the  Eclogues  and  the  Georgics,  was  that  of  the 
green  banks  and  slow  windings  of  the  Mincio  and  the  rich 
pastures  in  its  neighbourhood.  Like  his  friend  and  contem- 
porary Horace,  he  sprung  from  the  class  of  yeomen,  whose  state 
he  pronounces  the  happiest  allotted  to  man  and  most  condudve 
to  virtue  and  piety.  Virgil,  as  well  as  Horace,  was  fortunate 
in  having  a  father  who,  though  probably  uneducated  himself, 
discerned  his  genius  and  spared  no  pains  in  giving  it  the  best 
culture  then  obtainable  in  the  world.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he 
was  taken  for  his  education  to  Cremona,  and  from  an  expression 
in  one  of  the  minor  poems  attributed  to  him,  about  the  authen- 
ticity of  whidi  there  cannot  be  any  reasonable  doubt,  it  may 
be  inferred  that  his  father  accompanied  him.  Afterwards  he 
removed  to  Milan,  where  he  continued  engaged  in  study  till 
he  went  to  Rome  two  years  later.  The  time  of  his  removal 
to  Rome  must  have  neariy  coincided  with  the  publica- 
tion of  the  poem  of  Lucretius  tod  of  the  collected  poems  of 
Catullus. 

After  studying  rhetoric  he  began  the  study  of  philosophy 
under  Siron  the  Epicurean.  One  of  the  minor  poems  written 
about  this  time  in  the  scazon  metre  tells  of  his  deKght  at 
the  immediate  prospect  of  entering  on  the  study  oi  philo* 
sophy,  and  of  the  first  stirring  of  that  enthusiasm  for  phik>- 
sophical  investigation  which  haunted  him  through  the 
whole  of  his  life.  At  the  end  of  the  poem,  the  real  master- 
passion  of  his  life,  the  charm  of  the  Muses,  reasserts  itself 
{CaialepioH  v.). 

Our  next  knowledge  of  him  is  derived  from  alhisions  in  the 
Eclogues,  and  belongs  to  a  period  nine  or  ten  jrears  later.  Of 
what  happened  to  him  in  the  interval,  during  which  the  first 
civil  war  took  place  and  Julius  Cuesar  was  assassinated,  we 
have  no  indication  from  ancient  testimony  or  from  his  own 
writings.  In  42  b.c.,  the  year  of  the  battle  of  Philippi,  we  find 
him  "cultivating  his  woodland  Muse"  under  the  protection 
of  Asmius  PolHo,  governor  of  the  district  north  of  the  Po. 
In  the  following  year  the  femous  confiscations  of  land  for  the 
benefit  of  the  soldiers  of  the  triumvirs  took  pbce.  Of  the 
impression  produced  on  Virgil  by  these  confiscations,  and  oi 
their  effect  on  his  fortunes,  we  have  a  vivid  record  in  the  first 
and  ninth  ectogues.  Mantua,  |n  consequence  of  its  vicinity 
^  Cremona,  which  had  been  faithful  to  the  cause  of  the  re- 
public, was  involved  in  tMt  calMonty;  and  ViigO's  father 


112 


VIKGIL 


driven  from  lus  fftrm.  By  the  fnflnfncc  ol  hii  powerful  fcioids, 
and  by  pexsooal  application  to  the  young  Octavian,  Vixgil 
obtained  the  restitution  of  his  land.  In  the  meantime  he  had 
taken  his  father  and  family  with  him  to  the  small  country  house 
of  his  old  teacher  Sicon  iCatalepion  z.). 

Soon  afterwards  we  hear  of  him  living  in  Rome,  enjoying, 
In  addition  to  the  patronage  of  FoUio,  the  favour  of  Maecenas, 
Intimate  with  Varius,  who  was  at  first  regarded  as  the  rising 
poet  of  the  new  era,  and  later  on  with  Horace.  His  friendship 
with  Gallus,  for  whom  he  indicates  a  warmer  affection  and  more 
enthusiastic  admiration  than  for  any  one  else,  was  iormcd 
before  his  second  residence  in  Rome,  in  the  Cisalpine  province, 
with  which  Callus  also  was  connected  both  by  birth  and  office. 
The  pastoral  poems,  or  "  eclogues,"  commenced  in  his  native 
distria,  were  finished  and  published  in  Rome,  probably  in 
^7  B.C.  Soon  afterwards  he  withdrew  from  habitual  residence 
in  Rome,  and  lived  chiefly  in  Campania,  either  at  Naples  or  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Nola.  He  was  <me  of  the  companions  of 
Horace  in  the  famous  journey  to  Brundisium;  and  it  seems 
not  unlikely  that,  some  time  before  23  B.C.,  he  made  the  voyage 
to  Athens  which  forms  the  subject  of  the  third  ode  of  the  first 
book  of  the  Odcsoi  Horace, 

The  seven  years  from  37  to  50  B.C.  were  devoted  to  the  com- 
position of  the  Georgics,  In  the  following  year  be  read  the 
poem  to  Augustus,  on  his  return  from  Asia.  The  remaining 
years  of  his  lUe  were  spent  on  the  composition  of  the  Aeneid.  In 
19  B.a,  after  the  Aeneid  was  finished  but  not  finally  corrected, 
lie  set  out  for  Athens,  intending  to  pass  three  years  in  Greece 
and  A^a  and  to  devote  that  time  to  perfecting  the  poem.  At 
Athens  he  met  Augustus,  and  was  persuaded  by  him  to  return 
with  him  to  Italy.  While  visiting  Megara  under  a  burning  sun, 
he  was  seized  with  illness,  and,  as  he  continued  his  voyage 
without  interruption,  he  ^ew  rapidly  worse,  and  died  on  the 
2iil  of  September,  in  bis  fifty-first  year,  a  few  days  after  landing 
at  Brundisium.  In  his  last  illness  he  called  for  the  cases  con- 
taining  his  manuscripts,  with  the  intention  of  burning  the 
Aeneid.  He  had  previously  left  directions  in  his  will  that  his 
literary  executors,  Varius  and  Tucca,  should  publish  nothing  of 
his  which  had  not  already  been  given  to  the  world  by  himself. 
This  pathetic  desire  that  the  work  to  which  he  had  given  so 
much  care,  and  of  which  such  great  e:q;>ectations  were  formed, 
should  not  survive  him  has  been  used  as  an  argument  to  prove 
his  own  dissatisfaction  with  the  poem.  A  passage  from  a  letter 
of  his  to  Augustus  is  also  quoted,  in  which  he  sgcak&  as  if  he  felt 
that  the  nnderUking  of  the  work  had  been  a  mistake.  This 
dissatisfaction  with  his  work  may  be  ascribed  to  his  passion  for 
perfection  of  workmanship,  which  death  prevented  him  from 
attaining.  The  command  of  Augustus  overrode  the  poet's  wish 
and  rescued  the  poem. 

Virgil  was  buried  at  Naples,  where  his  tomb  was  long  regarded 
with  religious  veneration.  Horace  is  our  most  direct  witness  of 
the  affection  which  he  inspired  among  his  contemporaries.  The 
qualities  by  which  he  gained  theii  love  were,  according  to  his 
testimony,  raiu2<>r— sincerity  of  nature  and  goodness  of  heart 
— and  pidoi — the  union  of  deep  affection  for  kindred,  friends 
and  country  with  a  spirit  of  reverence.  The  statement  of  his 
biographer,  that  he  was  known  in  Naples  by  the  name  "  Par- 
tbenias,"  is  a  testimony  to  the  exceptional  purity  of  his  life  in 
an  age  of  licence.  The  seclusion  of  his  life  and  his  devotion  to 
his  art  touched  the  imagination  of  his  countrjrmcn  as  the  finer 
qualities  of  his  nature  touched  the  heart  of  his  friends.  It  had 
been,  from  the  time  of  Cicero,^  the  ambition  of  the  men  of  finest 
culture  and  most  original  genius  in  Rome  to  produce  a  national 
literature  which  might  rival  that  of  Greece;  and  the  feeling 
tint  at  last  a  poem  was  about  to  appear  which, would  equal 

}  Cf.  Tuse.  Disp.  il.  3!  "  Quamobrem  hcrtor  omnes  qui  facere  id 
possuAt,  ot  Inijua  qnoquo  generis  laudem  jam  langucntl  Giaedae 
tcipiaot."  &c  These  words  apply  specially  to  philosopl^ical  Utera* 
lure,  but  other  passages  in  the  same  and  in  other  workis  imply  that 
Cicero  thought  that  toe  Romans  had  equal  aotitudes  for  other  de- 
partments of  Ktcrature;  and  the  practice  of  the  AMiistan  poets 
ra  each  appropriating  to  himself  a  special  piovince  of  Greek  Utefary 
•Kt  ccems  to  indicate  the  same  aoihitiw. 


or  mjiua  the  gicatcst  anonf  all  the  wedte  o(  Gmk  fcakis 
found  a  voice  in  the  Imes  of  Propertius— 

**  Cedite  Romani  tcriptores.  ccdite  CraU; 
Neado  quid  majus  nascitur  Iliade.** 

The  feeling  of  his  oountiymen  and  cootemporazies  aeema 
justified  by  the  personal  impression  which  he  produces  on 
modem  rndeis— an  impression  of  sanctity,  as  of  one  who 
habitually  lived  in  a  higher  and  serener  sphere  than  that  of  this 
worid.  The  veneration  in  which  his  name  was  held  during  the 
bng  interval  between  the  overthrow  of  Western  dvilizatioii 
and  the  revival  of  letters  affords  testimony  of  the  d^th  of  tlx 
impression  which  he  made  on  the  heart  and  imagination  of 
the  ancient  world.  The  traditional  belief  in  his  pre-emineDoe 
has  been  on  the  whole  sustained,  though  not  with  absolute  «n«- 
nimity,  in  modem  times.  By  the  sdiohis*  and  men  of  letteis 
of  the  x6th,  17th  and  i8th  centuries  It  was  never  seriouriy 
questioned.  During  the  first  half  of  the  xpth  centuxy  his  right 
to  be  ranked  among  the  great  poets  of  the  worid  was  disputed 
by  some  German  and  English  critics. 

The-  effect  of  this  was  a  Juster  estimate  of  VlrgO's  rdative 
position  among  the  poets  of  the  world.  It  may  still  be  a  matter 
of  individual  opinion  whether  Lucretius  himself  was  not  a  moie 
powerful  and  original  poetical  force,  whether  he  docs  not  apeak 
more  directly  to  the  heart  and  inuigination  of  ovr  own  time. 
But  it  can  hardliy  be  questioned,  on  a  survey  of  Roman  litera- 
ture, as  a  continuous  expression  of  the  national  mind,  from  the 
age  of  Naevius  to  the  age  of  CUudian,  that  the  position  of  Virgil 
is  central  and  commanding,  while  that  of  Lucretius  is  in  a  great 
measure  isolaled.  If  we  could  imagine  the  place  of  Vixgil  ia 
Roman  literature  vacant,  it  would  be  much  the  same  as  if 
we  imagined  the  place  of  Dante  .vacant  in  modem  Italian,  and 
that  of  Goethe  in  German  literature.  The  serious  efforts  of  the 
early  Roman  literature— the  efforts  of  the  older  epic  and  tragic 
poetry— found  their  fulfilment  in  him.  Tilie  revelation  of  the 
power  and  life  of  Nature,  first  made  to  Lucretius,  was  able  to 
charm  the  Roman  mind,  only  after  it  had  passed  into  the  mind 
ofViq^ 

Vir^  is  the  only  complete  representative  of  the  deepest  senti- 
ment and  highest  mood  of  his  countrymen  and  of  his  time.  Ia 
his  pastoral  and  didactic  poems  he  gives  a  living  voice  to  the 
whole  charm  of  Italy,  in  the  Aeneid  to  the  whole  ^ory  of  Rome. 
He  was  in  the  maturity  of  his  powers  at  the  most  critical  epoch 
of  the  national  life,  one  of  the  moat  critical  epochs  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  Keeping  aloof  from  the  trivial  dally  life  of  his  con- 
temporaries, he  was  moved  more  profoundly  than  any  of  them 
by  the  deeper  currents  of  emotion  in  the  sphere  of  government, 
rdigion,  morals  and.human  feeling  which  were  then  changing  the 
world;  and  in  uttering  the  enthusiasm  of  the  hour,  and  aU  the 
new  sensibilities  that  were  stirring  in  his  own  heart  and  imaginac 
tion,  he  had,  in  the  words  of  Sainte>Beuve, "  divined  at  a  decisive 
hour  of  the  world  what  the  future  would  love."  He  was  also  by 
universal  acknowledgment  the  greatest  literary  artist  whom 
Rome  produced.  Virgil  had  a  more  catholic  sympathy  with 
the  whole  range  of  Greek  poetry,  from  Homer  and  Hesiod  to 
Theocritus  and  the  Alexandrians,  than  any  one  else  at  any 
period  of  Roman  literature.  The  effort  of  the  precedmg  genera- 
tion to  attain  to  beauty  of  form  and  finish  of  artistic  execution 
fotmd  in  him,  at  the  most  susceptible  period  of  his  life,  a  ready 
recipient  of  its  influence.  The  rude  dialect  of  Latium  had  been 
moulded  Into  a  powerful,  and  harmonious  organ  of  literary 
expression  by  a  long  series  of  orators;  the  Latin  hexameter, 
first  shaped  by  Ennius  to  meet  the  wants  of  his  own  spirit  and 
of  his  high  argument,  had  been-  smoothed  and  polished  bj 
Lucretius,  and  still  mare  perfected  by  the  finer  ear  and  more 
careful  industry  of  CatuUus  and  his  drcle;  but  neither  had 
yet  attained  their  final  development.  It  was  left  for  Virgil  to 
bring  both  diction  and  rhythm  to  as  high  a  pitch  of  artistic 
perfection  as  has  been  attamed  in  any  literature.  This  great 
work  was  accomplished  by  the  steady  devotion  of  his  genius  to 
his  appointed  task.  For  the  first  half  of  his  life  he  prepared 
himself  to  be  the  poet  of  his  time  and  country  with  a  high 
ambition  and  unresting  industiy.    The  second  half  of  his  career 


VIRGIL 


113 


was  ft  frUstoo*  oooflecntlon  of  «n  hi»  powexs  of  heart,  mind 
and  spirit  to  his  high  office. 

Virgil's  fome  as  a  poet  restv  on  the  three  acknowledged  works  of 
his  early  and  mature  manhood — ^the  instoral  poems  or  E£lop$es^  the 
Georgia  and  the  Aeneid—tJ\  written  in  that  hexameter  verse  «iilch 
Tennyson  has  called 

"  The  stateliest  measure  ever  moulded  by  the  lips  of  man.*' 

The  pastoral  poems  or  Edognes—a.  word  denoting  short  selected 
pieces — ^were  composed  between  the  years  42  and  37  B.C.,  when 
og/^mgrnm,    ViixU  was  bctwccn  the  age  of  twenty-eight  and  thirty- 

^  three.    By  his  invocation  to  the  **  Sicelides  Musae  "  and 

"  Arethusa,"  and  by  many  other  indications,  he  avows  the  purpose 
of  eliciting  from  th«  strong  Latin  lansrua(;e  the  melody  which  the 
"  Sicilian  shepherd  "  drew  out  of  the  "  Done  reed,"  and  of  expressing 
that  tender  feeling  for  the  beauty  of  Italian  scenes  which  Theocritus 
had  expreancd  for  the  beauty  of  Scily. 

The  earliest  poems  in  the  series  were  the  second,  third  and  fifth; 
and  these,  alongwith  the  seventh,  are  the  most  purely  Theocritean 
in  character.  The  first  and  ninth,  which  probably  were  next  in 
order,  are  much  more  Italian  in  sentiment,  are  much  more  an 
expression  of  the  poet'a  own  feelings,  and  have  a  much  more  direct 
rcierence  both 'to  his  own  circumstances  and  the  circumstances  of 
the  time.  The  first  is  a  true  poetical  reflex  of  the  distress  and 
confusion  whtdi  arose  out  of  the  new  distribution  of  lands,  and 
blends  the  poet's  own  deep  love  of  his  home,  and  of  the  sights 
and  sounds  familiar  to  him  tirom  childhood,  with  his  Italian  suscepti- 
bility to  the  beauty  of  nature.  The  ninth  is  immediately  connected 
in  subject  with  tlie  first.  It  contains  the  lines  which  seem  accurately 
to  describe  the  site  of  Virgil's  farm,  at  the  point  where  the  range  of 
hills  which  accompany  the  river  for  some  distance  from  the  foot  of 
the  Lago  di  Garcu  sinks  into  the  plain  about  14  or  15  m.  above 
Mantua.  The  sixth  is  addressed  to  Varus,  who  succeeded  Pollio  as 
governor  of  the  Cisalpine  district.  Its  theme  is  the  creation  of  the 
world  (according  to  trie  Epicurean  cosmogony),  and  the  oldest  talcs 
of  mythology.^  The  fourth  and  eighth  are  both  closely  associated 
with  the  name  of  Virgil's  earliest  protector,  Pollio.  The  fourth 
celebrates  the  consulship  of  his  patron  in  dO  B.C.,  and  alsb  the 
prospective  birth  of  a  child,  though  it  was  dlsi^uted  in  antiquity, 
and  still  is  disputed,  who  was  meant  by  this  child  whose  birth  was 
to  be  coinci<knt  with  the  advent  of  the  new  era,  and  who.  after 
filling  the  other  great  offices  of  state,  was  to  "  rule  with  his  father's 
virtues  the  irond  at  peace."*  The  main  purpose  of  the  poem, 
however,  is  to  express  the  bngiag  of  the  world  for  a  new  era  of  peace 
and  happiness,  01  which  the  treaty  of  Brundisium  seemed  to  hold  out 
•omedenntte  hopes.  There  is  no  trace  in  this  poem  of  Theocritean 
influence.  The  ideas  are  derived  partly  finon  Greek  representations 
of  the  GoMen  Age,  and  partly,  it  is  supposed,  from  the  later 
Sibylline  prophecies,  circulated  after  the  burning  in  the  time  of  Sulfa. 
oC  the  okI  Sibytlhie  books,  and  possibly  tinged  with  Jcwidi  ideas. 
Some  of  the  phraseology  of  the  poem  led  to  a  belief  ia  the  eariy 
Christian  church  that  Vnrgil  had  been  an  unconscious  instrument  of 
inspired  piopheey.  The  wte  of  the  eighth  is  find  by  a  reference  to 
the  campaign  of  Poltio  against  the  Dalmatians  m  39  b.c.  It  i» 
founded  on  the  i^i>ttaiuurptm  of  Theocritus,  but  brings  before  us, 
with  Italian  assodatloas,  two  love  tales  of  homely  Italian  life.  The 
tenth  teproduces  the  Dapbnis  of  Theocritus,  and  is  a  dirge  over 
the  unhappy  love  of  Galhis  and  Lycoris.  As  in  the  other  poems,  the 
second  ana  eighth,  of  which  kwe  » the  burden.  It  is  to  the  romantic 
and  fantastic  melancholy  which  the  passbn  assumes  in  cerutn 
natures  that  Vif^il  gives  a  voice. 

There  is  no  important  work  In  Latin  literature,  with  the  exception 
of  the  comedy  of  Terence,  'so  imitative  as  the  Bchfues.  Bat  they 
ore  not,  like  the  comedies  of  Terence,  purely  exmk:  as  well  as 
imitative.  They  are  rather  compoaite,  partly  Greek  and  partly 
Italian,  and,  as  a  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  feeling,  hold  an 
undefined  place  between  the  objectivity  of  the  Greek  idyll  and  the 
subjectivity  of  the  Latin  elegy.  For  the  most  pert,  they  express 
the  sentiment  inspired  by  the  beauty  of  the  world,  and  the  kindred 
sentiment  inspired  by  the  charm  01  human  velatiooshipa.  Virgil's 
susceptibility  to  the  beauty  of  nature  appears  in  the  truth  with  wiifeh 
b»  #ork  suggests  the  charm  of  Italy^he  fresh  life  of  an  Italian 
spring,  the  <Kfkate  hue*  of  the  wild  (towera  and  the  quiet  beuity  of 
the  pastute^  and  orehank  of  has  native  district.  The  sepresentative 
character  of  the  poems  is  enhanced  by  the  fidelity  and  grace  with 
which  he  has  expressed  the  Italian  peasant^  love  of  his  home  and  of 
an  things  associated  with  It.  The  sapraine  chann  of  the  diction  and 
iljtythm  Is  universally  tecognised.  The  power  of  varied  harmony  is 
as  conspicuous  in  Vlrnl's  earliest  poems  as  in  the  inaturer  and  more 
daborate  worknianrilnp  of  the  Ctvrtks  and  Aeneid.  The  Italian 
language,  without  sacrifice  of  the  fulneas,  strei^ith  and  majes^  of 
its  tones,  acquired  a  mof*  tender  grace  and  move  liqiiid  flow  ftom 
ttie  gift— the  *  molle  atque  faottma  "•—which  the  Muses  of  county 
We  bestowed  on  Virgit  _ 

^.ammmmm^t^mmm        i      I—    ■— i  -  i.i      ii n     .■!  i    i        ■  ii  ilim        ii       

■  In  the  Georgia  also  Virgil  attempts  to  combine  science  with  the 
poetic  fandes  m'hich  filled  its  place  in  older  times. 

*See  Virgo's  Messianic  Juhg^e:  its  Meaning,  Oaasion  and 
Senrtes,  three  studies  by  J  B.  Mayor,  W.  Waide  Fowler  and 
R.  S.  Conway  (1907)- 


But  these  Muses  had  a  more  serious  and  dignified  function  to 
fulfil  than  that  of  glorifying  the  picturesque  pastime,  the  "  otia  dia,** 
of  rural  life*  The  Italian  imagination  formed  an  ideal  of  a^onict, 
the  happiness  of  a  country  life  nobler  than  that  of  passive 
susceptibility  to  the  sights  and  sounds  of  the  outward  world.  It  is 
stated  that  Maecenas,  acting  on  the  principle  of  employing  the  poets 
of  the  time  in  favour  of  the  conservative  and  restorative  policy  of 
the  new  government,  directed  the  genius  of  Virgil  to  the  subject  of 
the  Ceorgics.  No  object  could  be  of  more  consequence  in  the  eyes 
of  a  statesman  whose  master  inherited  the  policy  of  the  popular 
leaders  than  the  revival  of  the  great  national  industry,  associated 
with  happier  memories  of  Rome,  which  had  fallen  into  abeyance 
owing  to  the  long  unscttlement  of  the  revolutionary  era  as  well  as 
to  other  causes.  Virgil's  previous  life  and  associations  made  it 
natural  for  him  to  identify  himself  with  this  object,  while  his  genius 
fitted  him  to  enlist  the  imagination  of  his  countrymen  in  its  favour* 
It  would  be  a  most  inadequate  view  of  his  purpose  to  suppose  that, 
like  the  Alexandrian  poets  or  the  didactic  poets  of  modern  times, 
he  desired  merely  to  make  useful  information  more  attractive  by  the 
aid  of  verse.  His  aim  was  rather  to  describe  with  realistic  fidelity, 
and  to  surround  with  an  atmosphere  of  poetry,  the  annual  round  of 
labour  in  which  the  Italian  yeoman's  lite  was  passed;  to  brinjg  out 
the  intimate  relation  with  nature  into  which  man  was  brought  in  the 
course  of  that  life,  and  to  suggest  the  delight  to  heart  and  imagination 
which  be  drew  from  it;  to  contrast  the  simplicity,  security  and 
sanctity  of  such  a  life  with  the  luxury  and  lawless  bassions  of  the 
great  world;  and  to  associate  the  ideal  of  a  life  of  rustic  labour 
with  the  beauties  of  Italy  and  the  glories  of  Rome.  This  larger 
conception  of  the  dignity  of  his  subject  separates  the  didactic  poem 
of  Virgil  from  all  other  didactic^  as  distinct  from  philosophic,  poems. 
He  has  produced  in  the  Ceorgtcs  a  new  type  <A  didactic,  as  in  the 
Aeneid  he  has  produced  a  new  type  of  epic,  poetry. 

The  subject  is  treated  in  four  books,  var>'ing  in  length  fct>m  5U  to 
566  lines.  The  first  treats  of  the  tillage  of  the  fields,  of  the  consteila- 
tions,  the  rise  and  setting  of  which  form  the  fanner's  calendar,  and 
of  the  signs  of  the  weather,  on  wtudi  the  success  of  his  labours 
largely  depends.  Tlic  second  treats  of  trees,  and  especially  of  the 
vine  and  olive,  two  great  staples  of  the  national  wealth  and  industry 
of  Italy ;  the  thbrd  of  the  rearing  of  herds  and  flocks  and  the  breeding 
of  horses;  the  fourth  of  bees. 

As  he  had  found  in  Theocritus  a  model  for  the  form  in  which 
his  idler  fancies  were  expressed,  he  turned  to  an  older  page  in 
Greek  literature  for  the  outline  of  the  form  in  which  his  graver 
interest  in  rural  affairs  was  to  find  its  outlet.  The  Works  and 
Days  of  Hesiod  could  not  supply  an  adequate  nK>uld  for  the 
systematic  treatment  of  all  the  processes  of  rural  industry,  and  still 
less  for  the  treatment  of  the  larger  Ideas  to  which  this  was  sub- 
sidiary, yet  that  Virgil  considered  him  as  his  prototype  is  shown  by 
the  line  which  concludes  one  of  the  cardinal  episodes  of  the  poem-<* 

"  Ascraeuroque  cano  Roroana  per  oppida  carmen.** 

Vii^l  aooepts  also  the  guidance  of  the  Alexandrian  poets  who 
treated  the  science  of  their  day — astronomy,  natural  history 
and  geography — in  the  metre  and  daetioo  <rf  epK  poetry.  But,  in 
avaihng  himself  of  the  work  ol  the  AlexandnanSi  Vhgil  is  like  a 

f;reat  master  making  use  of  mechanical  assistants.  A  more  povvr- 
ul  influence  on  the  form,  ideas,  sentiment  and  diction  of  the 
Ceorgics  was  cxcrcisod  by  the  great  philosophical  poem  of  Lucretius, 
of  which  Virgil  had  probably  been  a  divigent  student  since  the 
time  of  its  first  appearance,  and  with  which  nis  mind  was  saturated 
when  he  was  engaged  in  the  composition  of  the  Ceorgics.  Vlrail  is 
at  once  attracted  and  repelled  by  the  eenius  and  attitude  of  the 
philosophic  poet.  He  is  possessed  by  nis  imaginative  conception 
of  nature,  as  a  living,  all-pervading  poiR'er;  he  shares  his  Italian  love 
of  the  beauty  of  the  world,  and  his  s>'mpathy  with  animal  as  well 
as  human  life.  He  recognizes  with  enthusiasm  his  contemplative 
elevation  above  the  petty  interests  and  passions  of  life.  But  he 
is  repelled  by  his  apparent  separation  frpm^  the  ordinary  beliefs, 
hopes  and  feare  of  his  fdlow-raen  Viml  is  in  thorough  sympathy 
with  the  best  restorative  tendencies — reli^ous,  social  and  national 
—of  his  time;  Lucretius  was  driven  into  isolation  by  the  anarchic 
and  dissolving  forces  of  his. 

So  far  a^  any  specubtive  idea  underlying  the  details  of  the 
Ceorgics  can  be  detected,  it  is  one  of  which  the  source  can  be  traced 
to  Lucretius— the  idea  ol  the  struggle  of  human  force  with  the 
forces  of  nature.  In  VlrgU  this  idea  u  modified  by  Italian  piety 
and  by  the  Italian  delight  in  the  results  of  labour  In  the  general 
plan  ot  the  poem  Virgil  follows  the  guidance  of  Lucretius  rather  than 
that  of  any  Greek  model  The  distinction  between  a  poem  addressed 
to  natmnal  and  one  addressed  to  philosophical  sympathies  isrqarkcd 
by  the  prominence  assigned  In  the  one  poem  to  Caesar  as  the 
supreme  pcraonality  of  the  age,  in  the  other  to^  Epicurus  as  the 
supreme  master  in  the  realms  of  mind.  The  invocation  to  the 
"  Di  agrestes.'*  to  the  old  gods  of  mythology  and  art,  to  the  Imng 
Caesar  a»  the  latest  power  added  to  the  pagan  Pantheon,  is  both 
a  parallel  and  a  contrast  to  the  invocation  to  the  aH-pcrvadrng 
principle  of  life,  personified  as  *'  Alma  Venus."  In  the  systematic 
treatment  of  his  materials,  and  the  interspersioii  of  episodes  dealmff 
with  the  deeper  poetical  and  human  inteiett  of  the  subject.  Virgil 
adheres  to  the  practice  of  the  older  poet.   He  usee  his  connecting 


VIRGIL,  POLYDORE 


M   e^ti^ni 


t  Ubtdc  h  the  cmttmuttra  of  llw  d 


l^noi 


Satiibuty  ■Ihiite*  n  Ihe 


ind  Akdndrr  of 


•fsd 


huiH.  dg 
ini  Vlrpl. 

t  h  Ntm 

»^ 

M  ot    tt» 


a^^t. 


lUdda,  loM  Liiiniiiirt  (yd  cd.  1B99). 

Tike  ViriJJ  £<iflid. 

Witf '1  gjest  popuUiity  In  the  middle  ages  fa  lo  bt  partly 
nplamed  by  Ihe  Itct  that  he  wu  lo  1  certaia  eitcnl 
ncDgnued  by  the  Church.  He  wu  tuppoGcd  to  have 
piophaied  the  commg  c[  ChriK  in  Ihe  (outth  Edoiiu,  and 
by  some  divinet  |he  Aentid  wai  held  la  be  an  allcgoiy  ol 
■acred  things.  This  position  iias  suBicieatly  empha^ied  by 
Dante  when  he  chose  htm  from  imong  all  the  aaEcs  of  antiquity 
to  be  bk  guide  In  the  Diruia  Crnimedia,  Andent  poets  and 
philosophers  were  commonly  Iransfonoed  by  medieval  writen 
iiuo  nectomancen,  and  Vir^l  and  Anstotte  became  popularly 
fsmoia,  not  far  poetry  and  sdenti,  but  for  Iheir  suppo«d 
knowledge  of  the  black  att.  Naples  appears  to  have  been 
the  home  of  the  popular  legend  of  Virgil,  which  repregented 
him  as  the  special  protector  of  the  cily,  but  wis  probably 
never  quite  independent  of  learned  tradition. 


ir  Conn 


(inh  cenloiy)  and  the  Imnti  i%  Uewim 

11  King  Lion 

,.  _  , , receipt..    Ha 

n  la  the  populai  fblk-tale  Tin  San 


ter.  Reynaid  the  Foi  intc 
eViigaaquBlicyefva'  ' 
\k  part  la  the  popular 

islnlheCdAiftmoiin 

le  UirtUn  Kami.    Ife  <•  to 


•uh'jectT  Many  of  Ibe 


out  EuToiie  wen 

)  •  complMHy  new  Ufc,  ttnnph 

m.    They  wm  c^blltrted  in  fret 

tf«*ri:te«:  *   V«^l.c   I«^.  a  quarto 


aianaled  corpse.  In  I 
tie  naked  ch^  inn  th 
lOur  that  ye  ever  came  nen."  and  vanuned. 
lected  with  VIraU  •■•  etpcdally  D.  Coni- 
tif  flV  (md  ed..  Fletmce,  ■Ig6!  Earliik 
e.  tin).  The  chM  original  ionee  foe  tin 
le  IillHHitury  Crmira  di  Paritntpt.  Sm 
irty  Emt,  Prm  Xmemeti  (1836);  G.  Bmwn, 
It   Firiik  (Geneva,   IW7J1  E.   DuaMl, 

lllflnia  ■reUotogifw,  iMo];  Goths 
w.   (ed.   Uebcechl.   l«j«):   iC  SetwnUc. 

ailtUm  (IWettiam,  ilsa}:  Siebahsai. 
•tIsM  <lt  Vipftta  e»«i>r (Beriia.  1S17): 
fge  sar  LiiL  ■.  Siuif  iliudaOtrt  (iSjo): 
.  d.  Zaab.  ViisH"   (E^eiBcr'i  Cmwan; 

-  [>er  Zauliem  Viigiliui "  libid.  a.  iWsh 
I.  Zaub.  Viigllio. '^  (ibid.  IV.  i8B)i  ft. 
6tr  V\wgamtB"fZBl.f.r,m.  put.  t%»jr}t 


I  FeriUim  ill  FMn 
rimd  ZttitTtr  (ind  td.,  Magdebm,  1(57). 

E  le.  uja-isis),  English  historian,  of 
lerwise  known  aa  P.  V.  Casnuxiiiis, 
rdinal  Hadrian  Cisteileniis,  a  native  of 
lis  father's  name  fa  said  to  have  been 
yt-grandl»ther,  Anthony  Vligil,  "  a  man 
le  and  aitrolcgy,"  had  piofcued  philo- 
1  Polydoic'i  own  btolhu  and  imutgi 
at  Pavia,  in  isi;.  A  third  bnlberwu 
I  1511.  Potydore  was  bora  at  Utbino, 
Incaled  at  Bologna,  and  wis  probably  In 
Ibsldo,  duke  of  Vibfno.  before  14^,  as 
lis  first  work,  £i6er  Prmrbi^Hm  [April 
Ibis  prince's  chonU  Folydore's  seiond 
Kmwm.  h  dadlcMed  t«  Cnido^  imot. 


VIRGINAL— VIRGINIA 


Lodorkoi  OduJiM,  fmn  Dibteo,  in  Anciot  mm-  After 
beug  chunbcriun  to  ALcxuidci  VL  be  ane  to  England  in 
■  501  It  diplllr  coUecIOI  of  Pcls'i  pence  tor  the  tarduul.  Ai 
Hadiian'i  ptmy,  be  wu  ealbroncd  bblKqi  of  Balh  uid  Weill 
in  October  1504.  U  waj  ei  Heniy  VII. '1  initince  Ihai  he  com- 
menced bfi  Hufcria  A  nitiat — ft  work  which,  though  secminily 
bejun  u  eailjF  u  1505,  wu  not  completed  till  August  15JJ, 

tin.  la  Miy  1514  he  and  his  patron  tbe  cardinal  are  found 
■upporting  Woticy'i  daimt  to  the  cardinaUliip,  bnt  be  had 
lost  Ibe  gnu  mioiUcr'i  ftvour  before  Ibe  ynr  wu  out  A 
nsb  letter.  teBeeting  levtrdj'  on  Henfy  VIII,  and  Wobey, 
wu  intercepted  early  In  1515,  after  which  Polyijore  wu  cast 
Into  pfison  and  aur^)lanted  in  hia  collectorship  (Maicb  aad 
AprilX  He  was  not  without  loine  powerful  lupporterm,  ai 
both  Ctthetfoe  de'  Mettid  and  Leo  X.  wrote  to  the  king  on  hli 
behalt.  From  hil  priion  he  Bent  an  abject  and  almost  bias- 
pbemout  letter  to  Ibe  offeoded  minister,  begging  that  the  tait 
ifipraacbing  ChriWBu*— *  lime  wblch  oitnened  tbe  RstilulioD 
Of  a  world — might  see  hfa  petdoQ  also  He  wu  set  at  liberty 
before  Chriilmas  isij,  though  he  never  regabied  bii  collKtoi- 
■hip.  In  1535  be  published  the  6nt  edition  o[  Gildas,  dedicating 
the  work  to  Tunstall.  bishop  of  Londtm.  Neat  year  af^Karcd 
Ills  Lihtr  it  Pntitiii.  dedicated  [lom  London  Oily)  to  Fnncesco 
Uaiia.  duke  of  Urbino  Somewbete  about  i  sjS  he  left  England, 
ud  remained  ia  Italy  for  tome  time.  Dl-health,  he  tells  ui, 
bibadc  him  on  bis  return  to  contiaue  his  cmtom  of  making 
^ily  note*  cm  coniemporary  eriata.  About  tbe  end  of  1551 
be  went  home  to  Urbino,  where  he  appears  to  have  died  In 
1555.  Be  had  been  naturalized  an  Englisbraan  in  (October 
1510,  and  bad  held  Hveia]  clerical  appoinlmenls  in  England. 
In  1508  be  was  appcnnted  ucbdelcon  ol  Wells,  and  In  1513 
prebendary  of  Oi^U  in  St  Paul's  catbedml,  both  ti  which 

TIk  GrB  edhlan  o(  Ibe  Hitiiri  na 

Biintnl  «  Buel  In  i«4;  tbe  ti  ilh 

&H  Tngn  of  Heary  VltlTdowa  to  jer 

■S3»].  ■uaddcd^istbetUrdcdl  to 

h£n  b»  H3T  careful  In  eollao  od 

takes  crv^  for  using  foreign  bl  for 

HTtral  things  reported  in  t^  pag  la 

wUcb  tbey  are  tetd  la  eorrent  m  ler 

lalonoatloa  be  applied  to  Jamea  ha 

ScDttWi  Ungs  aaJ^thetr  aaoalii  [or 

Cavia  Dsadiia  ohU  indm  Uir.  „  . „ al 

netiouol  tlus  •ceonnKAed  t^ihep.  who  need  ike  pediEn*  of  the 
Snu  dowB  ffon  tBe^btaklMd  son  of  an  Aiheniaii  k{iv^>iid  Sccxu 
the  daugbttr  of  the  Enpdaa  lyraatjif  the  lmtGta.^_A  nniiUr 


'En^uT  (iHe)  aifd  Spaniih  d'^J.' ' AU  edlluni 
■^ —  foUowuig  the  ten  sanctioAed  by  Qrcgor 

he  Indei  Eipurcattnus.    Tbe  Di  PrtiSfii 


I  dialogue  between  Polydon  and  bit 
'Ht«.     T»  •-!.«  nCace  in  ihe  open  afr« 


dale  the  prgbkini  aiKl  supply  (he  hiHoiical  iltuu 
frKnd's  to  explain.  lationaTue  and  depreciate  as  b 
Hne.  as  in  the  Mlaima  A:<dua.  It  u  plain  that  (he  w 
hirnvIE  specially  on  the  eHxItcnce  of  his  Latin.  <^->-  ' 

VIBSIHAL,  or  Pah  or  Vhcinals,  a  name  applied  In 
England,  and  also  recognized  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
to  the  qiinct,  and  mote  especially  to  Ibe  small  pentagonal 
and  to  the  rectangular  ntodels.  Tbe  word  virginiil.  bestowed 
bectuBO  it  was  pre-eminently  the  instrument  for  giib,  denolel 
before  all  a  keyboard  insiniracnt.  having  for  each  note  one 
siring  only,  plucked  by  means  of  a  quill  attached  to  a  i<tk.' 
The  fine  iostrument  in  the  Victoria  and  Albeit  Museum,  kiwwn 
as  Qatea  Ebzabetb's  viijinal,  is  an  Italian  pentagonal  spinet, 
claboraldy  embUzoned  with  the  c^at  of  arms  of  tbe  queen, 
and  having  a  compass  of  just  over  tour  octavo.  King  Henry 
VIIL  and  his  daughters.  Queen  Mary  and  Queen  Elizabeth, 
•ete  all  actomijliibed  performets  on  the  virginaL        (K  S.) 

VmOIHIA.  or  VEactMA,  in  Roman  legendary  history, 
daughtet  of  L.  Virginius.  a  plebeian  centurion.  Her  beauty 
attracted  the  noiiix  of  the  decemvir  Appiui  daudiui.  wbo 
instructed  Marcus  Claudius,  one  of  hit  clients,  to  claim  her 
as  his  slavt  Marcus  aecordin^y  brought  her  before  Applus, 
and  asserted  that  the  wu  the  daugbtei  of  one  of  bis  female 
slaves,  wbo  bad  been  stolen  and  passed  o9  by  the  wife  of 
Virguiias  as  her  own  child.  Virgirn'os  presented  blm. 
self  with  ha  riaughter  before  the  tribunal  of  Appius,  wbo, 
refusing  to  Hsien  to  any  argument,  declared  Virginia  to  be 
a  slave  and  (he  property  of  Marcus.  Vitginiut  tbenupon 
slabbed  ber  to  tbe  heart  in  the  pretence  of  Appiis  and  lbs 
pei^k-  A  storm  of  popular  Indignation  arose  and  the  decem- 
virs were  forced  to  lesign.  The  people  for  the  second  time 
"teceded"  to  Ibe  Sacred  Mount,  and  refuted  to  return  lo 
Rone  imtU  the  old  loim  of  govcmment  was  re-etlablidied. 

See  Uvy  ill.  44-58;  Dion.  Hilic  A  1S-4J.  whoee  account 
diBen  In  tome  respects  frnm  Livy's;  Cicero,  T>*  finibui.  ii.  20| 

Lewis.  OvtibaUj  (^  Early  RumnH  Hulory.  ii. ,  Schwegle^.  SfmiKii 
CrKknUr,  blc  «x.  4.  s;  aim  E.  Pais.  Axcint  Lcsfndi  of  Rrman 
Hutory  (Eng.  trans.  l»161,p.  IB5.  according  to  whom  the  legend!  ut 
Viteinla  anJ  Lucrwia  Itwo  diffoenl  version,  of  one  and  iFie  ume 

wiSithTSJus'S  M^'  '""  '*"  ''''"™""'  "'  "^"^  connected 

TIROIHU,  oat  d 

of  the  United  Slalei  ,  -,    „     -     

and  39*  3a'  N..  and  longitude  vs*  ij*  and  Sj°  41 
bounded  on  Ibe  N  W.  by  Kentucky  and  Wcil  Viiginia,  the 
irregular  boundary  line  foBowing  Dnonlain  ridge*  for  a  part 
of  its  tmiite;  on  tbe  N.E.  by  Maryland,  from  which  it  it 
separated  by  thfc  Potomac  tiver;  on  the  S.  by  North  Catoh'na 
and  Tennessee,  the  boundary  line  being  nominally  a  parallel 
of  latitude,  but  actually  a  mote  irregular  line.  Virginia  bat 
an  area  of  4J.firj  sq.  m.,  of  which  1365  vj.  m.  are  water  surface, 
Including  land-locked  bays  and  harboun,  rivers  and  Lake 
DrunuDond.  The  slate  his  a  length  of  about  440  m.  E.  and 
W.,  tteoiured  along  its  S.  traundaryi  and  an  eilreoK  bretdib 
N  and  S.  of  about  loo  m. 

Fkyikal  FmIiwi.— Vitjinia  ia  crotKd  from  N  to  S.  or  N.E.  to 
S.W  by  four  distinct  phytiographic  province*.    Tbe  euienunait 

HibtCottlal  Plaia  Province,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  great  '' ' 

Plain  bordein«  the  5.E.  United  States  lioin  New  \^ik  [ 
to  the  ft'iD  Grande.    TUa  provinct  occupiet  about  ~ 


'oik  Harbour 


of  the 


Tidewater  Virpnia." 
«H-fvel  10  a  higher  elevati 

drowned  ri 


which  tbe  other  ai 


ed  rivet  vilW"  among  whKh 
Rawahamiock.  Yoik  and  Jamea 
he  drowned  lower  course  of  i1i« 


ttS 


VIRGINU 


tributary;  pievtou*  to  the  dcpresnon  which  tcaasforroed  them  into 
bays-  The  land  between  the  drowned  valleys  is  relatively  Bat, 
and  varies  in  height  from  sea-Uvd  on  the  E.  to  isc>;-,300  ft.  on  the 
W.  border.  Passing  westward  across  the  "  fall-line/'  the  next 
province  is  the  Piedmont,  a  part  of  the  extensive  Piedmont  Belt 
reaching  from  Pennsylvania  to  Alaliama.  Thb  is  the  most  ex- 
tensive  of  the  subdivisions  of  Virginia,  comprising  18,000  so.  m. 
of  its  area,  and  varying  in  elevation  from  151^300  it.  on  the  E.  to 
70O-13OO  ft.  along  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Ricbe  at  the  W.  The  slop- 
ing surface  is  gently  rolling,  and  has  resulted  from  the  uplift  and 
dbscction  of  a  nearly  level  plain  of  erosion  developed  on  folded, 
crystalline  rocks.  Occasionaf  hard  rock  ridges  rise  to  a  moderate 
devation  above  the  general  level,  while  areas  of  unusually  weak 
Triassic  sandstones  have  been  worn  down  to  form  ^lowlands.  W.  of 
the  Piedmont,  and  like  it  consisting  oC  crystalline  rocks,  u  the 
Blue  Ridge,  a  mountain  belt  from  ^  to  30  m.  in  breadth,  narrowing 
toward  the  N.,  where  it  passes  mto  Maryland,  and  broadening 
southward  toward  its  ^reat  expansion  in  W.  North  Carolina  and 
E.  Tennessee,  where  it  is  tmnsformed  into  nassive  mountain  gronpa. 
In  elevatKMi  the  Blue  Ridoe  of  Viiigiiua  varies  from  t^  ft.  at 
Harper's  Ferry,  where  the  Totomac  river  breaks  through  it  in  a 
splendid  water-gap.  to  ^719  ft.  in  Mt.  Rogers.  Grayson  county. 
About  3500  sq.  m.  of  tne  state  ate  compnsed  in  this  province. 
W.  of  the  Blue  Ridge  is  the  Newer  Appalachian  or  Great  Valley 
Province,  charactcriiod  by  oaraUel  ridgei  and  valleys  devdopni 
by  erosion  on  folded  beds  of  sandstone,  limestone  and  shales,  and 
comprising  an  area  of  about  10400  sq,  m.  in  Virginia.  The  belt^ 
of  non-resistant  itick  have  been  worn  away*  leaving  fengitudlnal 
vallcvs  separated  by  hard  rock  ridges.  A  portion  oithis  piavinos 
in  whuh  weak  rocla  predominate  ^ves  an  unusually  broad  valley 
region,  known  as  the  Valley  of  Virginia,  drained  by  tli«  Shenandoah 
river,  and  the  headwaters  of  the  James,  Roanoke,  New,  and  Holston 
rivers,  which  dissect  the  broad  valley  floor  into  gently  rolling  low 
hiUa.  At  the  N.,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Shcnanooah,  the  valley  is 
about  250  ft.  above  sea-level,  but  rises  south-westward  to  an  eleva- 
tion of  more  than  1600  ft.  at  the  S.  boundary  of  the  state. 

The  rivers  of  the  state  flow  in*  general  from  N.W.  to  S£.,  across 
the  Blue  Ridge,  the  Piedmont  and  the  Coastal  Plain,  following 
courses  whidi  were  estabiisbed  before  erosbn  bad  prodaood  much 
of  the  present;  topography.  But  in  the  Newer  Appalachians  the 
streams  more  often  loUow  the  trend  of  the  Amcture  until  they 
empty  into  one  of  the  larger,  transverse  streams.  Thus  the  Shen- 
andoah  flows  N.E.  to  the  Potomac,  the  Holston  S.W.  toward  the 
Tennessee.  A  pert  ci  this  sane  piovinoe,  in  the  S.W.  part  of 
the  state,  is  drained  by  the  New  river,  which  flows  N.W.  across  the 
ridges  to  the  Kanawha  and  Ohio  rivers  in  the  Appalachian  Plateau. 
In  the  limestone  regions  caverns  and  natural  bridges  occur,  among 
which  Luray  Cavern  and  the  Natural  Bridge  are  well  known.  The 
drowned  lower  courses  of  the  SwE.  flowing  streams  are  navigable, 
and  afford  many  excellent  harbours.  Chesapeake  Bay  covers  much 
land  that  might  otherwise  be  agriculturally  valuable,  but  repays 
this  loss,  tn  part  at  least,  by  its  excellent  nsherics,  including  those 
for  oysters.  In  the  S.E.,  where  the  low,  fiat  Coastal  Plain  is  poorly 
drained,  Is  the  Great  Dismal  Swamp,  a  fresh-water  marsh  covering 
700  sq.  m.,  in  the  midst  of  which  b  Lake  Drummond,  3  m.  or 
more  m  diameter.  Aloi^  the  shores  of  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  are  low.  aaady  beaches,  often  enclosing  tt0ooda  or 
salt  marshes. 

FatMa.~Till  about  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  the  bison 
and  the  elk  roamed  the  W.  part  of  the  sute.  The  \^rginia  deer 
b  common  m  the  bottomlands;  a  few  beaver  still  frequent  the 
lemoter  sticams;  in  the  higher  portions  are  still  a  few  black  bears 
and  pumas,  besides  the  lynx,  the  Virginia  vaxyini^  hare,  the  wood- 
chuck,  the  red  and  the  fox  squirrel  and  flying  squirrels.  The  grey 
•quirrd  is  plentiful  in  wooded  districts.  On  the  Coastal  Plain 
are  the  musk-rat,  the  eastern  cotton-tail,  chipmunk,  erey  fox, 
common  mole  and  Virginia  opossum.  In  colonial  tunes  the 
Atlantic  ri^^t-whale  was  killed  in  some  numbers  oflF  the  coast. 

Many  species  of  water  and  shore  birds  migrate  along  the  coast, 
where  also  others  breed,  as  the  royal,  common  and  least  terns 
and  black  skimmer;  practically  all  the  ducks  are  migrant  species, 
though  the  wood-dock  breeds  Swan,  geese  and  brant  winter  on  the 
ooast.  The  yellow-crowned  night-heron  and  the  little  blue  heron 
nest  rarely.  The  turkey-buzzard  and  the  barn-owl  are  resident. 
Red-headed  and  red-bdlled  woodpeckers,  orchard  orioles,  yellow- 
winged  sparrows,  the  cardinal,  the  blue  grosbeak,  the  Carolina 
wren  and  the  mocking-bird  are  characteristic  of  the  lower  elevations. 
The  ruffed  grouse  and  wild  turkey  are  found  in  the  wooded  moun- 
tainous districts,  while  the  quail  (here  called  '^rtridge")  is  a  game 
bird  of  the  open  stubble  fields. 

Of  reptiles,  the  rattlesnake  and  copperhead  are  the  only  poisonous 
species,  but  numerous  harmless  varieties  are  common.  In  the 
salt  marahes  of  the  coast  occurs  the  diamond-backed  terrapin. 
Trout  abound  in  the  mountain  streams,  and  black  bass  In  the  riverv 
of  the  interior.  The  cat-fish  grows  to  a  large  nze  in  the  duggi^ 
rivers.  On  the  coast,  the  striped  bass,  aearbasSj  drum,  sheepChcad. 
weakfish.  Uuefish  and  Spanish  mackerel  are  important  as  food 
fbhes.    There  are  valuable  oyster  fisheries  in  Chesapeake  Bay. 

iVsra^^Tte  Coastal  Plaid  of  Viiginia  Is  covcrtd  with  pine  foreMs 


which  merge  westward  vlth  the  %ard  woods  t4  the  ftedmcnt  firft. 
where  oaks  formerly  prevailed,  bat  where  a  second  growth  of  pine 
BOW  constitutes  part  of  the  toiac.  Even  on  the  Coancal  Flaia 
the  Jersey  and  olofield  pines  of  to-day  replace  more  valuable  spec  tea 
of  the  original  growth.  The  Blue  Ridge  and  Newer  AppaLacliLia 
— [ions  are  covered  with  pine,  hemlock,  whfte  oak,  cherry  and 
low  poplar;  while  that  portion  of  these  pravinecs  lying  m  the 

W.  part  of  the  state  still  contains  vahiabie  forests  of  hIclBOfy  and 
walnut|  besides  oak  and  cherry.  On  the  Coastal  Plain  th«  cypress 
grows  m  the  Dismal  Swamp,  river  birch  atons  the  streams,  and 
sweet  gum  and  black  gum  iniBwampy  woods.  Other  characteristic 
plants  of  the  Coastal  Plain  are  the  cranberry,  wild  rice,  wild  yam, 
wax  mjrrtle,  wistaria,  trumpet  towert  pnsaian  flower,  holly  aad  u  hit* 
alder.  Many  ot  these  ^Mscies  spread  into  the  Piednostt  Belt. 
Rhododendron,  mountain  laurel  and  azaleas  are  common  in  the 
mountains.  The  blackberry,  black  raspberry,  huckleberry,  btue> 
berry,  wild  i;inger  and  ginseng  are  widely  dtstrAnited. 

CliwtaUj-^^lhe  dimate  of  Virginia  is  generally  free  from  extremes 
of  heat  and  coki,  la  the  Coastal  Plain  legion  the  temperature  is 
quite  stable  from  day  to  day,  as  a  result  of  the  eoualizii^  effect  of 
the  numerous  bays  which  indent  this  province.  The  moan  uintcr 
temperature  b  39*8*,  the  mean  summer  temperature  77*2*.  with  a 
mean  anaual  01  58*6*  Killing  fnasu  do  not  occur  before  the 
middle  of  October,  nor  later  than  the  last  part  of  April.  In  the 
Piedmont  Province  temperature  conditions  are  naturally  less  stable, 
owing  to  the  distance  from  the  sea  and  to  the  greater  inequality 
of  surface  topography.  In  autumn  and  winter  sudden  temperature 
changes  are  esmenenced,  though  not  frequently.  The  aaenn  winter 
tomnM«»i*ff«  M  tuu  nM»i.w«  ..  *e.a«.  f/^gf^  wQgomef  tenpemture. 

frosts  may  occur  as  early  as 
the  last  of  May.  The  greatest 
variability  in  temperature  conditions  in  the  state  occurs  in  the  Blue 
Rid^,  Newer  Appalachian  Pkoviaoes,  trtwre  the  ttost  nigged  and 
variable  topogn^yb  likewise  found.  The  nsean  winter  teoiperature 
for  thb  section  b  33*8*;  mean  summer  tempetj^tust,  71*3  ;  mens 
annual,  53'3*« 

50t/.— Mardiy  soils  are  found  along  the  lowest  portions  of  the 
Coastal  PUan,  and  are  emaetUnriy  productive  wherever  reclalnwd 
by  draining,  as  in  portions  of  tlie  Dismal  Sawnp.  Otter  partiom 
of  the  Coastal  Plain  aflocd  more  valuable  soib,  sandy  loana  otvcr- 
lying  sandy  clays.  On  the  higher  etevationB  the  soil  b  light  and 
sandy,  and  such  areas  remain  rebtively  unproductive.  The 
crysttlfina  rodca  oC  the  Piedmont  area  ase  eotvmtd  witK  rraittii  il 
soda  of  variabb  cotaposition  and  moderate  fartili^.  Passing  tl« 
hi^  and  tvgged  Blue  Ki6gc,  which  b  iafertile  encept  in  the  mtefw 
vening  valleys  of  its  S.W.  exfiannon,  wt»  reach  the  Newer  Apml- 
acbians,  where  fcrtib  limestone  soils  cover  the  valley  floors.  The 
Valley  of  >^rKinb  b  the  most  productive  part  of  the  atate. 

Forests,— tht  woodbnd  area  of  Virginia  waa  eadmated  in  1900 
at,  3^400  sq.  m^  or  58  %  of  the  area  oTtbe  rtata.  The  timber  area 
originally  comprised  three  divisions:  the  mountain  regiona  growisif 
pine  and  hard  woods  and  hemlock;  the PkdaMmt  regionpndiiciiw 
chbfly  oaks  with  some  pn>e;  and  the  lands  bdow  the  "  Fall  Line^ 
which  were  forested  with  yellow  inne.  Moat  of  the  pine  d  the 
mountain  region  has  been  cut,  and  the  yellow  ptneaad  nacd  wooda 
have  also  lareefy  disappeared.  The  prodactbn  of  tsosher  I 
however,  steaoily  increased.  In  1900  the  value  of  the  pwwhici 
$12,137,177,  representing  chiefly  yelkm  pine. 

/isAcrMf.— Oysters  are  by  far  the  most,  vahiable  of  the  fishc 
products,  but,  of  the  400,000  acres  of  watere  ivithin  the  atate 
suitable  for  oyster  culture,  in  1909  only  about  one^hird  was  uaed 
for  that  purpose.  Next  in  importance  were  the.catchea  of  men* 
haden,  shad,  cbms,  equeteague  and  akwives?  while  minor  catchca 
were  made  of  crabs,  croaker,  bluefish,  butter&h,  catfish,  parch  and 
spotted  and  striped  bass. 

^ffscnUare.— -Tobacco  waa  an  important  crop  in  the  earlier 
history  of  the  colony,  and  Vfa|nida  continued  to  be  tte  feeding 
tobaooo-produdng  state  of  the  Dnkm  (repoitfaig  in  1850  38>4%  c2 
the  total  crop)  until  after  the  Civil  War.  whi<A,  with  the  divWoa 
of  the  state,  caused  it  to  fall  into  second  pboe*  Kentudey  taking 
the  lead;  and  in  1900  the  crop  of  North  Caralina  aba  was  iaiger 
The  state's  production  of  tobaooo  fai  1909  wias  130,195^000  lb, 
valued  at  $10,310,635. 

The  production  of  Indian  corn  in  tooo  waa  47,338/»o  bua., 
valued  at  $35i023«ooo;  of  wheat,  8^48,000  bus.,  valued  at 
$10,175,000;  of  oata,  zAjofiCO  butb,  valued  at  $2,053^000;  «< 
rye,  184,000  bus.«  valued  at  $155^000;  of  buck^Hietft,  378,000  bus^ 
valued  at  $387,000;  the  hay  crop  was  valued  at  $8,o6o/)Oo 
<6o6,ooo  tons).  The  amount  of  the  oottoa  crop  in  1909  waa 
10,000  500-lb  bales. 

The  value  of  hones  in  1910  was  $34,561/300  (333<ooo  headh 
of  mulca,  $7,030,000  (M,ot»  head);  of  neat  cattfe.  $aOiQ34,ooo 
(875,000  head);  of  swine,  $S,03tTOOO  {77^090  head);  ot  aheep, 
$3,036,000  (533,000  head). 

MiiKfaU.— The  value  of  all  mineral  produets  in  1908  was 
Sl3t 1 37,395.  By  far  the  most  valuable  sinele  product  was  bit«> 
minous  coal  ($3,868,524;  4,350,042  tons).  The  exbtence  ol  thb 
mineral  in  the  vicinity  of  Kicnmond  was  known  as  eatfy  as  1770, 
and  the  mining  of  it  there  began  in  1775,-  boc  U  was  practically 


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VIRGINIA 


119 


d]8090tin«ed  about  the,  iQiddle  of  the  19th  .oeatnnu  The  most 
fmportaiit  to&Sm  of  the  state  lie  in  the  Appafachfan  regiom  in 
the  S.  W.  part  of  the  state,  though  there  are  also  rich  deposits  in  the 
gounties  of  Henrico,  Chesterfield  and  Goochland,  and  in  parts  of 
Powhatan  and  Amelia  counties.  In  the  S.E.  portion  of  the  Kanawha 
basin,  iaduding  Taeewell,  Russell,  Scott,  Buchanan,  Wise  and  Loe 
counties,  occar  rich  deposits  of  coal,  which  are  of  great  value  because 
irf  their  ptoximfty  to  vast  deports  of  iron  ores,  fn  Tazewell  county 
b  the  ramous  Pocahontas  bed,  which  oroduces  one  of  the  roost 
valifaole  eracfca  of  ooldng  and  steam  coaf  to  be  found  in  the  United 
Stated  There  are  remarkably  rich  deposits  of  iron  ore  in  the 
Alleghanies,  and  the  W.  foothills  of  the  Bhie  Ridge,  from  which  most 
of  the  iron  ore  of  the  state  isprociired,  are  lined  with  brown  hematite. 
Jron*mining — perluips  the  first  in  the  New  World'-was  begun  in 
Virginia  in  1608,  when  the  Virginia  OMnpany  shipped  a  quantity  of 
we  to  England;  and  in  1619  the  Company  estacAishcd  on  Falling 
Creek,  a  tributaiy  of  the  Tames  river,  a  colony  of  about  150  iron- 
workns  from  Warwickshue,  Staffordshire  and  Sussex,  who  liad 
established  there  several  oie-redudng  plants  under  the  general 
management  of  John  Berkeley  of  Gloucestef,  England,  when  on  the 
mid  of  March  1622  the  entire  colony,  excepting  a  nri  and  a  boy, 
were  massacred  by  the  Indians.  The  firat  btast*fumace  in  tTO 
colony  seems  to  have  been  owned  by  Governor  Spotswood,  and  wai 
built  and  operated  at  the  head  of  the  Rappahannock  river  about 
1715  by  a  colony  of  Gcrnjan  Protestants.  Immediatefy  after  the 
War  01  Independence  Virginia  became  an  important  iton-producing 
state.  The  uidustry  waned  rapidly  toward  the  middle  of  the  I9tn 
century,  but  waa  renewed  upoa  the  diKaarvcsy  of  the  high'gRuie  ores 
in  toe  S.W.  pact  of  the  state  and  the  oevetopoMnt  of  nulway 
iadlities.  The  product  of  inoo  ore  in  1906  w«s  692,323  long  tons, 
valued  at  $1445,691.  The  prodoct  of  pq^irtm  in  1906  niaa  32045S 
lone  tons,  valued  at  $44(78,000. 

Manganese  otenraining  b^n  in  Viigiaia  in  iSs?  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley,  and  the  pfodoct  iacitased  from  about  100  tons  in  that  year 
to  about  50QO  tons  (mtaed  near  Wanninster,  Nelson  county}  In 
l«6S  and  1809^  Thereafter  Virginia  and  Geoigia  supfOied  noel  of 
this  flsinenal  ^oduced  in  the  United  States,  and  tliegraaterpartof 
It  has  been  shipped  to  En^and.  Between  1885  and  1891  the  average 
annual  produotion  was  about  i5x>m>  tonsw  the  greatest  outpat*~ 
»o»sS7  tona-~-being  mined  in  1880.  After  iSoi  the prodact  decUned 
eapidiy,  amounting  in  1907  to  800  tons  valoed  at  1480a 

In  tne  piodaction  of  pyrites  which  is  found  in  Loussa  ooimty  and 
is  used  (or  tlie  manufaetuie  of  sulphuric  add  employed  in  the  treat- 
ment of  wood  pulp  for  pfl4)cr<making  and  in  tne  maiMfactare  of 
sopecphospliatet  from  phosphate  rode*  Virginia  took  6rst  tank  in 
iQoez  with  an  output  valued  at  $50i442t  or  64*7  %  of  the  total  yield 
01  thb  mineral  in  the  United  States)  and  this  miuc  was  mamtiuned 
in  1908,  wbeniihe  prodoct  was  1 16,340  kMW  tons,  valued  at  l4354S2a. 
Limestone  is  found  in  the  region  west  oithe  Blue  Rid^  and  has 
been-ottairied  eatensively,  the  product,  used  chiefly  for  flax,  being 
iralued  In  i9o9  at  K4S>^5- 

Virginia  was  by  far  the  most  impoitant  state  in  1908  inthepro- 
ductkm  of  soapstone,  nearly  the  whole  product  being  taloea  nom 
a  kag  narrow  belt  running  north«eaSt  from  Nelson  county  into 
Albemarle  county;  more  than  90%  of  the  ouniut  was  sawed  into 
slabs  for  laundry  and  labomtonr  appUaoces.  The  product  of  talc 
and  soapetone  in  K908  was  19,616  short  tons,  valued  at  $408,252. 

The  value  of  mineml  waters  produced  in  1908  was  $207,115.  Tlie 
state  has  many  mineral  springs  occurring  in  connexion  with  faults 
In  the  Appalachian  chain  of  mountains;  in  1906,  <i6  were  reported, 
making  the  state  third  among  the  states  of  the  United  Sottes  in 
number  of  springsi  and  of  these  several  have  been  in  h^  medical 
repute.  At  18  ol  these  resorts  are  situated,  some  of  which  have  at 
times  had  considerable  social  vogue.  White  Sulphur  Springs,  in 
Greenbrier  county,  impregnated  with  sulphur,  with  theiapeutic 
application  in  jaundice,  dyspepsia,  &c.:  All^hany  Springs,  in 
Montgomery  county*  calcareous  and  earthy,  pui^tiv^  and 
diuretic;  Rawley  Springs  in  Roduiwham  county^  Sweet  chalybeate 
Springs  in  Alleighany  county,  and  Rockbridge  Alum  Sprines  In 
Rockbridge  county,  classed  as  iron  springs  and  reputed  of  value  as 
tonics,  and  the  thermal  springs,  Ucahng  Springs  (88*'  F-)  and  Hot 
Springs  (i  10  Ff),  both  in  Bath  county  arc  noted  medicinal  springs. 

The  value  of  metals  produced  in  1908  was  as  follows:  gold 
[which  is  found  in  a  belt  that  extends  from  the  Potoauc  river  to 
Halifax  county  and  varies  from  15  to  25  in.  in  width),  $3600  (174 
bne  ox.  troy) ;  copper,  $3312  ^25,087  Ib>;  and  lead,  $1092  (13  short 
tons)^  MTnerals  produced  m  small  quantities  include  gypsum, 
millstones,  salt  and  sandstone,  and  among  those  found  bat  not 
produced  (in  1902)  in  commercial  quantities  may  be  mentioned 
allanite,  alum,  arsenic,  bismuth,  carbonite,  felspar,  kaolin,  marble, 
plumbago,  quartz,  serpentine  and  tin.  Asbotos  was  formerly 
mined  in  the  western  and  south-western  parts  of  the  state.  Baiytes 
b  mined  near  Lynchburg;  the  value  of  the  output  in  I907  was 
1^2,833,  since  which  date  the  output  has  dccreasol. 

AimnfflUurts. — ^Virginia's  manufacturing  establishments  incroaoed 
very  rapidly  in  number  and  in  the  value  of  their  fwodiicte  diwimr 
the .  last  two  decadf^  of  the  19th  century.  The  number  «f  nfl 
establishments  increased  from  5710  in  1880  to  8248  In  1900 ;  the 
capital  bvested  from  $26,968^990  to  $103,670,988,  the  average 


number  of  wage-earoefs  from  40,184  to  78,702.  the  tota)  wages  from 
$7,425,361  to  ^,445,720,  and  tne  value  01  products  from  $51 .770, 092 
to  $132,173,910.  The  number  of  factories*  increased  from  3186  m 
1900  to  3187  in  1905,  the  capital  invested  from  $92,299,589  to 
$147,989,182,  the  average  number  of  wage-earners  from  66,323  to 
80.285,  the  total  wages  from  $20,269,026  to  $27,943,0^8.  and  the 
11 


$147,989,182,  the  average  number  of  wage-earners  from  66,323  to 
80.285,  the  total  wages  from  $20,269,026  to  $27,943,058.  and  the 
value  of  DToducts  from  $108,64^,1  j^  to  $148,856,525.  The  manu- 
facture ot  all  forms  of  tobacco  is  toe  most  important  industry;  the 


value  of  its  products  in  X905  was  $i6,768;2Q4.  Since  1880  there 
has  been  a  rapid  development  in  textile  manufacture,  for  which  the 
water  power  of  the  Hedmont  leglon  Is  used.  A  peculiar  industry 
is  the  grading,  roasting,  cleaning  and  shelling  of  peanuts. 

TmnsportaHoH  end  Commerce, — Four  lai^  railway  systems  prB<^ 
tically  originate  in  the  state  and  radiate  to  the  S.  and  W.:  the 
Southern  railway,  with  its  main  line  tiavcrsing  the  state  in  the 
ditectlon  of  its  greatest  length  leaving  Washington  to  run  south-west 
through  Alexandria,  Charlottesville  Lynchburr  and  Danville  to 
the  natth  Carolina  lino,  with  oonneidons  to  Ricnmond'  and  a  line 
to  Norfolk  ou  the  eaat;  the  Atlantic  Coast  Une  with  its  main  linos 
running  S.  from  Richmond  and  Norfolk;  the  Seaboard  Air  line, 
having  its  main  lines  also  running  to  the  S.  from  Richmond  and 
Norfolk;  the  Norfolk  ft  Western  crossing  the  state  from  east 
to  west  in  the  southern  part  with  Norfolk  its  eastern  terminus, 
passing  through  Lynchburg  and  loavinc  the  state  at  the  aouth-weeteni 
comer  at  Bristol,  and  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  crossing  the  state 
from  east  to  west  Darther  north  than  the  Norfolk  &  Western 
from  Newport  News  on  the  ooast  through  Richmond  to  the  West 
Viiginia  line.  Of  moro  rec^t  oonstruction  is  the  Vkginian  eaUway, 
a  project  of  H.  H.  Rogers,  opraed  for  traffic  in  19091  which  connects 
the  coal  region  of  West  Vuginia  with  Norfolk,  crossing  the  southerp 
part  of  the  state  from  E.  to  W.,  and  is  designed  chiefly  for  neavy 
ineight  ttafiic.  The  N.  W.  part  of  the  state  is  entered  by  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio,  which  hat  a  line  down  the  Shenandoah  Valley  to  Lexington. 
Connexion  between  Richmond  and  Washington  is  by  a  taiiou  line 
(Richmond,  Fredericksburg  &  Potomac  and  Washin{^on  Southeiii 
railways)  operated  jointly  by  the  Southern,  Atlantic  Coast  line, 
Sdboard  Air  Une,  Chesapeake  &  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and 
ISakimore  &  Ohio  ratlwaysL  In  iQjjo  there  were  ^  m.  ^f 
railway  in  Viiginiaj  in  1880,  X839  m.,  nnd  in  1890  it  had  nea«^ 
doubled,  having  increased  to  3459'^  m^  a  nun  ooinadent  with 
the  newly  awakened  industrial  activity  of  the  Southern  States  and 
an  era  of  railway  building  throughout  this  section.  Therailway 
mileage  in  1900  was  3.780'58,  and  in  January  1909  it  was  4,346<S3. 

Hampton  Roads  at  the  mouth  of  tbe  Jamea  rfiver*  which  (orms 
the  harbottr  for  the  leading  ports  of  the  state,  Norfolk  and  Newport 
News,  affords  one  of  the  6^  anchorages  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  tt 
gives  riielter  not  only  to  vessels  piving  to  its  adjoining  ports  but 


nerves  as  a  hasbonr  of  refuge  for  s^ipphig  bound  up  or  down  tht 
Atlantic  ooast,  nnd  is  frequently  usea  for  the  assemplingof  naval 
Beets.  There  is  a  large  foreign  trade  and  a  regular  steamuip  service 
to  Boston,  Pirovidcnce,  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Savannah  from 
Norfolk,  and  there  is  a  considerable  traffic  on  Chesapca]ce  Bay,  the 
Rnpnahnnnoefc,  York,  James  and  Elizabeth  rivers.  Ftedericksbiirg 
ac  tne  head  of  navigation  on  the  RepMbannock  and  V/tm.  Point 
on  the  York  have  traffic  of  commercial  importance  in  lumber  and 
timber,  oysters  and  farm  produce,  cotton  and  tobacco  espcciaTly 
beine  shipped  in  coastwise  vessels  frorn  West  Point.  Petereburg 
and  Richmond  on  the  James  aie  connected  with  regular  steamship 
iines  triith  Norfolk,  Richihoiid's  water  trade  being  chiefly  in  ooai, 
oil,  logs  and  fertilizer.  Steamboats  plying  on  Chesapeake  Bay 
connect  Alexandria  w^ith  Norfolk.  From  the  EHzabetn  river  on 
which  Norfolk  is  situated  lead  the  Albemarfe  &  Chesapeake  Canid 
and  the  Disitttl  Swamp  Canal,  which  connect  with  the  waters  Hi 
Albemarle  Sound.  Traffic  through  these  eanals  oaasiela  chiefly 
of  forest  products,  logs,  lumber  and  shingles. 

Populatiofi,— The  population  of  Virgima  in  1890  was 
x»6S5,93o;  in  1900,  1,8549184;  and  in  x9io»  2,061,612.*  Of  the 
total  population  in  X90(^  11X73,787  were  native  whites,  191461 
were  foretgn-born,  660,72*  (or  35*7%  of  the  total  population) 
were  negroes,  354  were  Indians,  343  were  Chinese  and  xo  were 
Japanese.  Tlie  stete  was  fifth  among  the  states  nnd  Territories 
in  the  ixamber  of  negro  inhabitants,  but  showed  a  marked 
decrease  in  the  ratio  of  negroes  to  the  tota!  population  in  the 
decade  from  1890  to  1900,  the  percentage  of  the  total  popula- 
tion in  X890  having  been  3S>4. 

Of  the  inhabitants  bom  hi  the  United  States  53,335  w«re  nattvi^ 
of  North  Carolhm.  12,504  were  natives  of  Maryland,  and  10,273 

were  nafives  of  Pennsylvania.    Of  the  foreign-born   4504  were 

.  --  —  ■- 1-^      ■ 

*  Statiatiot  for  1890  lepiesent  the  value  of  all  manufactures;  those 
for  1900  (from  this  point)  and  1905  show  valuer  under  the  factotV 
system,  excluding  neighbourhood  industries  and  hand  trades. 

*  Aooording  to  previous  censuses  the  population  was  as  follows: 
(1790)1  747*610;  (1800),  880^00;  (leio).  974.600;  (/820), 
1/165,366;  (i83(C^  1,21140s;  (1840).  ■»239.797;  (1850).  i,4ai.66t; 
(i860).  1.596^18:  (1870).  i.239*>63:  (1880),  t^ia^s. 


I20 


VIRGINIA 


Germana,  3534  nere  natim  of  Irdand  and  3425  of  F-ndanrf.  Of 
the  total  population  5^,364  were  of  foreign  parentage  Re  eitber 
one  or  botn  parents  were  foreign-born)  and  9769  were  oi  German, 
823s  of  Irish  and  4792  of  English  pazentage,  both  on  the  father's 
and  on  the  mothers  nde.  Out  of  the  total  of  793>546  members  of 
religious  denominations  in  190&  more  than  half,  4i3;987t  were 
Baptists;  the  Methodists  numbered  aoo.771;  ana  there  were 
30,628  Presbyterians,  38,700  Roman  Catholics,  38,487  Ptotestant 
ETpiscopalians,  36,348  Duciples  of  Christ,  and  15,010  Lutherans. 
Vuginia  in  X900  had  46*3  inhabitants  to  the  square  roilew  The  prin- 
cipal cities  of  the  state  are:  Richmond  (the  capital),  Norfolk. 
Pictersbuis*  Roanoke,  Newport  Newi^  Lyachbuig.  Portsoiouth  and 
DanviUe. 

Gcvemmenf.'^Viiipsh  hu  liad  rix  ftate  ocnttdtutioiit: 
the  first  was  adopted  in  1776,  the  seooad  in  18301  the  thud 
in  1851,  the  fourth  in  1864*  the  fifth  in  1869,  and  the  sixth, 
the  piesent,  in  1909.  Amendments  to  the  present  constitn- 
tkm  may  be  proposed  b  either  house  of  the  General  Assembly, 
Bad  if  they  pass  both  hoosca  of  that  and  the  suooeeding  Gcnerd 
AaaemUy  1^  a  xnt  joitty  of  the  membecs  elected  to  each  bouie 
And  are  siAsequently  sppeoved  by  a  majority  of  the  people 
who  vote  on  the  question  at  the  next  general  election  they 
become  a  part  of  the  constitution.  A  majority  of  the  members 
in  each  house  of  the  General  Assembly  may  at  any  time  propose 
n  convention  to  revise  the  constitntion  and,  if  at  the  next 
succeeding  election  a  majority  <rf  the  pec^e  voting  on  the 
question  approve,  the  General  Assembly  must  provide  for  the 
election  of  del^sates.  To  be  entitled  to  vote  one  nmst  be  a 
male  dtizen  of  the  United  States  and  twenty-one  years  of  age-, 
have  been  a  resident  of  the  state  for  two  years,  of  the  county, 
dty,  or  town  for  one  year,  and  oi  the  election  precinct  for 
thirty  days  next  preceding  the  election;  have  paid,  at  kast 
dz  months  before  the  dection,  all  state  poU  taxes  assessed 
against  him  for  three  years  next  preceding  the  election,  unless 
he  is  a  veteran  of  the  Civil  War;  and  have  registered  after 
the  adoption  of  the  constitution  (1903).  For  registration  piior 
to  1904  one  of  four  additional  qualifications  was  required: 
service  in  the  army  or  navy  of  the  United  States,  of  the  Con- 
federate States,  or  of  some  state  of  the  United  States  or  of  the 
Confederate  States;  direct  descent  from  one  who  so  served; 
ownenhip  of  property  upon  which  state  taxes  amountiDg  to 
at  least  one  dollar  were  paid  hi  the  preceding  year;  or  ability 
to  read  the  constitution  or  at  least  to  show  an  understanding 
of  it.  And  to  qualify  for  registration  after  1904  one 
most  have  paid  all  state  poll  taxes  assessed  against  him  for 
the  three  years  immediately  preceding  his  application,  unless 
he  is  a  veteran  of  the  Civil  War;  and  unless  physically  unable 
he  must  "  make  application  in  his  own  handwriting,  without 
aid,  soggesdon  or  memorandum,  In  the  presence  of  the  r^ls- 
tration  officers,  stating  therein  his  name,  age,  date  and  place 
of  iMrth,  residence  and  occupation  at  the  time  and  for  two 
years  next  preceding,  whether  he  has  previously  voted,  and, 
if  so,  the  state,  covnty  and  prednct  In  which  he  voted  last "; 
and  must  answer  questions  relating  to  his  qualifications. 

EsersCwe. — The  governor,  lieotenant-govcmor,  attomey>eeneraI, 
secretary  of  the  commonwealth,  treasurer,  superintendent  of  public 
instfuctma  and  commissioner  of  agriculture  are  elected  for  a  term 
of  (our  years,  every  fourth  year  from  1905,  and  each  new  administra- 
tion begins  on  the  1st  of  February,  The  governor  must  be  at  least 
thirty  yean  of  age,  a  resident  of  the  state  for  five  years  next  pre- 
ceding his  ekctbn;  and,  if  of  foreign  birth,  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  for  ten  years.  He  appoints  numerous  oflkcars  with  the  con- 
currence of  the  Senate,  has  the  usual  power  of  vetotiw  legislative 
bills,  and  has  authority  to  in^ject  the  records  of  omcers,  or  to 
employ  accountants  to  do  so,  and  to  suspend,  during  a  recess  of  the 
General  Assembly,  any  executive  officer  at  the  seat  of  government 
except  the  lieutenant*^overnor:  he  must,  however,  report  to  the 
General  Assembly  at  its  next  session  the  cause  of  any  suspension 
and  that  body  determines  whether  the  suspended  officer  shall  be 
restored  or  removed. 

X<gula/tiw.~-Tfae  General  Assembly  consists  of  a  Senate  and  a 
House  of  Delegates.  The  Constitution  provides  that  the  number  of 
senators  shall  not  be  more  than  forty  nor  less  than  thirty-thrse, 
and  that  the  number  of  delegates  shall  not  be  more  than  one  hundred 
nor  less  than  ninety.  Senatora  and  delegates  are  elected  by  etn^e 
districts  (into  which  the  state  is  apportioned  once  every  ten  years, 
according  to  population),  the  seiaiore  for  a  term  of  four  years, 
the  delegates  lor  a  term  of  two  yean.    The  only  qualifications  for 


aeoaton  and  delegates  are  tlMse  lequimd  of  an  dscsar  and  1 

in  tbdr  districU;  there  are,  however,  a  few  dis^ualificatiome, 

as  holding  certain  offices  in  the  state  or  a  aalanad  Federal   ~ 

The  General  Assembly  meeu  regularly  at  Richmond  on  the  i 

Wednesday  in  January  of  each  evett'Oumberad  year,  and  the  goi 

must  call  an  extra  session  on  the  applinatkw  ol  two-thiroa  of  the 

membere  of  both  houses,  and  may  call  one  whenever  he 

the  interests  of  the  state  require  it.   The  length  of  a  pqgular 

is  limited  to  sixty  days  unless  three-fifths  oT  the  memben  of 

house  concur  in  extending  it,  and  ao  extension  may  eaoeed  ti , 

days.    Senatora  and  ddcsates  are  paid  $500  each  lor  each  iwyular 
and  $250  for  each  extra  asssioa.    Any  biB  may  ~~ 


in  either  house,  but  a  bill  of  special,  private  or  local  interest  muae 
referred  to  a  standing  committee  of  five  membeis  appointed 


by  the  Senate  and  seven  memben  appointed  bv  the  House  01  Dele- 
gates, before  it  is  referred  to  the  committee  01  the  house  in  whidt 
tt  originated.  The  governor's  veto  power  extends  to  items  tnappco* 
priation  bills,  and  to  overcome  his  veto,  whether  of  a  whole  biB'or  aa 
Item  of  an  appropriation  bilL  a  two-thirds  vote  in  each  house  of  the 
memben  present  is  required,  and  such  two-^hirds  must  incdude  in 
cachhouseamajorityof  the  membere  dected  to  that  house.  Wliea- 
ever  the  governor  approves  of  the  general  purpose  of  a  bill,  but 
disapproves  of  some  portion  or  portions,  he  may  return  the  bill 
with  nis  recommmdations  for  amendment,  and  when  it  comes  back 
to  him,  he  may,  whether  his  recommendations  have  been  adopted 
or  not.  treat  it  as  if  it  were  before  him  foe  the  first  time. 


Jedictary.— The  admiwistmtiga  of  fustks  is 
m  a  supreme  oonrt  of  appsria,  cncuit  courts,  oty  courts  aad  con 
of  a  justice  of  the  pence     The  enfewfi  coort  of  appeals  coos' 
of  five  iudges,  but  any  three  of  theoi  aaay  hold  a  eoart.  They 
chosen  tor  a  term  of  twdveyean  by  a  Mnt  vote  of  thef 
the  House  of  DdegaSea.    The  Obort  srts  at  Rfchmeod, 
aadWythcjviUe.  Tie  oooonence  of  at  least  three  )iidte«  Is  1 
to  the  decisioa  of  a  case  iavolving  the  coastitutionalit/  of  a  law. 

Whenever  the  docket  of  this  ooait  IS  crowded,  or  there  is  a  ( 

itiairiiidiitlsf 
Assembly  may  pri 
of  not  more  toao 

and  city  courts,  in  ettiea  having  a  population  of  toysoo  or  1 
state  b  divided  into  thirty  judicial  dreults  and  in  each  of  these  m 
dicuit  judge  is  chosen  Cor  a  term  of  dght  yean  by  a  joiat  voee  of 
the  Senate  and  the  Houre  of  Delegates.    The  jutfadktioo  of  the 
drcuit  ooerts  was  extended  by  the  present  Constitutioo  to  faidiHie 
that  which,  under  the  precediiHf  Constitutioo,  was  vested  in  oomty 
courts,  and  the  prinapal  tCBtriction  is  that  they  shall  not  have 
original  jurisdiction  in  dvil  oases  for  the  ncovtiy  of  peraonal 
property  amounting  to  leas  than  fa:    Similar  to  the  dieuit  court 
IS  the  corporation  court  in  each  city  having  a  pojpolation  of  10,000 
or  more;  the  judge  of  each  of  there  corporation  couru  is  chosen  for 
a  term  0^  eight  yean  by  a  joint  vote  of  the  Senate  and  the  Houre  of 
Ddegates^  and  he  may  heki  a  drcnit  as  well  esacorpomtion  court. 
Cirauit  oourts  aad  corporation  oouits  appoint  the  eommissiaocn  in 
ehanoe^f.    Three  justices  of  the  peace  are  elected  in  each  magis- 
terial district  for  a  term  of  four  yean.    There  are  also  histiees  of 
the  peace  (elected)  and  police  justices  (appointed)  In  cities,  Snd  fai 
various  minor  cases  a  justice's  court  has  original  juiiKlictloo,  cither 
exclusive  or  concurrent  with  the  dreult  aad  cuqwratiow  courts. 
In  each  dty  having  a  population  of  70/tao  or  more  a  special  justice 
of  the  peace,  known  as  a  dvU  justice,  is  elected  by  a  joint  vote  of 
the  Senate  and  the  Houre  <rf  Delegates  for  a  term  of  Mur  yeafiw 

Lccai  GofernmetU. — Each  county  is  divided   into  magisterial 
districts,  varying  in  number  from  three  to  eleven.  Each  district  elects 
a  supervisor  for  a  term  of  four  jreare,  and  the  district  supervisors 
constitute  a  county  board  of  supervisors,  which  represents  the 
county  as  a  corporation,  manages  the  county  propeity  and  county 
business,  levies  the  county  taxes,  audits  the  accounts  of  the  county, 
and  recommends  for  appointment  by  the  cireuit  court  a  county  suiv 
veyor  and  a  county*  superintendent  of  the  poor.    Each  county  aho 
elects  a  treasurer,  a  snerilT,  an  attorney  and  one  or  more  com- 
misslooerB  of  the  revenue,  each  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  a  derk, 
who  is  derk  of  the  drcuit  court,  for  a  term  of  eight  yean.   The 
coroner  is  appointed  by  the  circuit  court  for  a  term  of  two  yeara. 
Each  magisterial  district  elects,  besdes  a  supervisor  and  justices 
of  the  peace,  a  constable  and  an  overseer  of  the  poor,  eadi  for  a  term 
of  lour  years.    The  Constitution  provides  that  all  "  comraunities  ** 
with  a  population  less  than  5000,  incorporated  after  its  adoption, 
shall  be  known  as  towns,  and  that  those  with  a  ])opulatioQ  01  5000 
or  more  shall  be  known  as  cities.    In  each  dty  incorporated  after 
its  adoption,  the  Constitution  requires  the  election  in  each  of  a  mayor, 
a  treasurer  and  a  sergeant,  each  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  the 
dection  or  appointment  of  a  commissioner  of  the  revenue  for  an 
equal  term;  that  in  dties  having  a  population  of  10,000  or  more 
the  council  shall  be  composed  01  two  branches:  that  the  foayor 
shall  have  a  veto  on  all  acts  of  the  ooundl  and  on  Items  of  appro- 
priation,  ordinances  or  resolutions,  which  can  be  overridden  only  bv 
an  affirmative  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  memben  elected  to  etd^ 
branch :  and  that  no  dty  shstl  incur  a  bonded  indebtedness  tM» 
ceeding  18%  of  the  asaesscd  value  of  its  real  estate. 

idisuUatuous  Laws. — ^A  married  woman  may  manage  her  aepaiate 


VlkGINlA 


tiJf 


0rti|wrqr  as  if  dk«  «wte  tfri^e,  «aM^  that  dM  0M»6t  by  Imt  toU 
act  deprive  Iwrbiisiand  of  fail  c«ancsy  in  her  f«»l<acals.  A  widow 
•a  cntitkd  to  «  dower  in  oae-third  (d  the  real  esuu  o€  which  her 
husband  was  seized  at  any  time  during  coverture  If  the  husband 
dies  intestate,  leaving  no  descendants  and  no  paternal  or  maternal 
kindred,  the  whole  of  bia  csute  see*  to  hi*  widow  abaoluttly.  If 
the  tunbaod  dies  intesuteb  teaving  a  widow  and  isaac.  either  by  bcr 
or  by  a  fonner  marriage,  the  widow  is  entitled  to  at  lcast_  one-third 
of  his  personal  estate;  if  lie  leaves  no  issue  by  her,  she  is  entitled 
to  so  much  of  hb  personal  estate  as  was  acquired  by  him  by  virtue 
of  his  marriage  with  her  prior  to  the  4th  of  April  1877;  if  he  leaves 
•o  isBna  whatever,  she  is  entitled  10  one-half  of  his  pcnonal  estate. 
A  widower  is  entitled  by  courtesy  to  a  life  interest  in  all  his  wife's 
Teal  estate:  if  she  dies  intestate,  he  is  entitled  to  alt  her  personal 
estate:  if  she  dies  intestate,  leaving  no  descendants  and  no  paternal 
or  maternal  kindred,  he  is  entitled  to  her  whole  estate  absolutely. 
The  caaaes  for  an  absolute  divorce  arc  adultery j  impotent);; 
desertion  for  three  years;  a  sentence  to  con5nemciu  in  the  peni* 
tentiary;  a  iconviction  of  an  Infamous  offence  before  marriage 
unknown  to  the  other;  or,  if  one  of  the  parties  b  charged  with  an 
ofTenee  panishable  with  death  or  condnemcat  in  the  penitentiary, 
and  has  been  a  fugitive  fron  iaatice  for  two  yeani;  pttgnaocy  of 
the  wife  before  marriage  unknown  to  the  husband,  or  the  wife's 
being  a  prostitute  before  marriage  unjcnown  to  the  husband.  One 
party  must  be  a  resident  of  the  state  for  one  year  preceding  the 
cowniencement  of  a  suit  for  a  divorce.  When  a  divorce  is  obtained 
because  of  adultery,  permission  of  the  gmlty  party  to  marry  again 
is  in  the  discretion  of  the  court.  Marriages  between  whites  and 
negroes  and  bigamous  marriages  are  void.  The  homestead  of  a 
householder  or  head  of  a  family  to  the  value  of  I2000  and  properly 
recorded  is  eaiempt  from  levy,  seiaure.  garnishment  or  forced  sale, 
exctmt  for  paicfaase  money.  Cor  seivkes  of  a  labouring  person  or 
mecnanic,  for  liabilities  incurred  by  a  public  ofiiccr,  nduciary  or 
attorney  for  money  collected,  for  taxes,  for  rent  or  for  legal  fees 
of  a  puolic  officer.  If  the  owner  is  a  married  man  his  homestead 
cannot  be  sold  except  by  the  joint  deed  of  himself  and  his  wife; 
neither  can  it  be  mortgaged  without  bis  wife's  conaoit  except  for 
purchase  money  or  for  the  erectipa  or  repair  of  buildinn  upon  it. 
The  exemption  continues  after  his  death  so  long  as  there  is  an 
unmarried  widow  or  an  unmarried  minor  child.  The  family  library. 
family  pictures,  scbocl  books,  a  seat  or  pew  in  a  house  of  worship, 
a  kK  m  a  banal  ground,  necessary  wearing  apparel,  a 'limited  amount 
of  furniture  and  household  utensils,  some  of  a  farmer's  domestic 
animals  and  agricultural  implements,  and  the  wages  of  a  labouring 
man  who  is  a  householder  are  exempt  from  levy  or  distress.  A  law 
enacted  in  1908  forbids  the  emfrfoyment  of  childivn  under  fourteen 
jrears  of  age  In  any  factory,  workshop,  mcnantilc  esublishment. 
or  mine  within  the  sute,  except  that  orphans  or  other  children 
dependent  upon  their  own  labour  for  support  or  upon  whom  invalid 
parents  are  dependent  may  be  so  employed  after  they  are  twelve 

I  ears  of  age.  and  that  a  parent  may  work  his  or  her  own  children  in 
is  or  her  own  factory,  workshop,  mercantile  eatabliahment  or  mine. 
CharitaUe  <Md  Penal  iMsUhUumsj^Yu^ina  has  four  hospitals 
for  the  insane:  the  Eastern  Sute  Hospiul  (l773)i  *t  Williams- 
buiig:  the  South- Western  State  Hospital  (1837),  at  Marion;  the 
Western  State  Hospital  (i8a8),  with  an  epileptic  eokmy,  at  Suun« 
ton:  and  the  Central  State  Hospital  (1870:  for  negroes),  at  Peters- 
burg. For  the  care  of  the  deaf  and  blind  there  is  the  Virginia 
School  for  Deaf  and  Blind  (i^^)*  at  Staunton,  and  the  Virginia 
School  for  Coloured  Deaf  and  Blind  Children  (1908).  at  Newport 
News.  The  State  RenitentiSfy  is  at  Richmond.  The  Prison 
Association  of  Virginia  with  an  Industrial  School  (1890)  at  Laurel 
Statbn.  the  Negro  Reformatory  Association  of  Virgiaia  with  a 
Manual  Labour  School  (1S97)  at  Broadneck  Farm.  Hanover,  and 
the  Virginia  Home  and  Industrial  School  for  white  giris  (1910)  at 
Bon  Air  take  care  of  juvenile  offenders;  these  are  all  owned  and 
contmlled  by  aelf^perpetnating  boards  of  trustees,  but  are  supported 
by  the  state,  receiving  an  allowance  per  capita,^  For  each  state 
hospital  for  the  insane  there  is  a  special  board  of  directors  consistir^ 
of  three  members  appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  concurrence 
of  the  Semite,  one  every  two  yean,  and  over  them  all  is  the  com- 
fnissioner  of  state  Imspitals  for  the  insane,  who  is  appointed  by  the 
governor  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  for  a  term  of  foar 
years.  The  members  of  the  special  boards  under  the  chairmanship 
of  the  coiiunissioner  constitute  a  general  board  for  all  the  hospitals, 
and  the  superintendent  of  each  hospital  b  a|>pointed  by  the  general 
board.  Each  school  for  the  deaf  aiid  blind  b  aianagaa  by  a  board 
of  visi^rs  appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate.  Alx>ut  five-sixtiM  01  the  convicts  are  negroes.  Some  of 
them  are  empToy'ed  on  a  state  farm  at  Lassiter,  Goochland  county, 
on  which  there  ts  a  tuberculosis  hospital,  and  some  of  them  on  the 
public  roads;  in  1909  there  were  350  men  at  the  state  farm,  14 
mad  camps  with  about  (50  men,  and  1973  men  and  96  women  in 
the  pem'tentiary  at  Richmond.  When  a  prisoner  has  served  one- 
hair  of  hU  term  and  hb  conduct  has  been  good  for  two  year$ 
(if  he  has  been  confined  fof  that  period)  the  board  of  directors  may 
parole  him  for  the  remainder  of  hb  term,  provkled  there  ts 
latbfactoiy  aasutance  that  he  will  not  be  dependent  on  public 
charity.  The  Prison  Aaaociation  of  Virginia,  the  Kegro  Reformatory 


AsBOciaCfen  of  Virginia  and  the  VirgfbU  Hoine  and  Indnstritf  School 
for  girls  are  each  under  a  board  of  trustees  appointed  by  the  General 
Assembly,  and  each  is  authorized  to  establish  houses  of  correction, 
reformatories  and  industrial  schools.  A  general  supervbion  df  all 
state,  county,  municipal  and  private  charities  and  corrections  b 
vested  by  a  law  enacted  in  1906  in  a  board  of  charities  and  correc* 
tfons  consbting  of  five  members  appoint«l  by  the  governor  with 
the  concurrence  o(  the  Senate. 

Educatum.-'The  puMk  free  school  system  is  administered  by  a 
state  board  of  educarion,  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
division  superintendents,  and  district  and  county  school  boards. 
The  state  board  of  education  consists  of  the  governor;  the  attorney* 
^neral;  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  who  b  ex  o^ci» 
Its  president;  three  experienced  edxicators  chosen  quadrenntally 
by  the  Senate  from  members  of  the  faculties  of  the  University  oif 
Virginia,  the  Virginia  Military  Institute,  the  Virginia  Polytechnic 
Institute,  the  State  Female  Normal  School  at  FarmviTle,  the  School 
for  the  Deaf  and  Blind,  and  the  Cotl<^  of  William  and  Mary; 
and  two  division  superintendents,  one  from  a  county  andonefronf 
a  city,  chosen  biennially  by  the  other  members  of  tlie  board.  This 
board  prescribes  the  duties  of  the  superintendent  of  public  instruc* 
tion  and  decides  appeals  from  his  decisions;  keeps  the  state  divided 
into  school  divisions,  comprising  not  less  than  one  county  or  city 
each;  appoints  quadrennially,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate, 
one  superintendent  for  each  school  divbion  and  prescribes  his 
powers  and  duties;  selects  textbooks;  provides  for  examination 
of  teachers:  and  appoints  fchool  inspectors.  In  each  county  an 
electoral  board,  consisting  of  the  atloraey  for  the  Commonwealth, 
the  division  superintendent  and  one  member   appointed   by   the 

{'udge  of  the  circuit  court,  appoints  a  board  of  three  school  trustees 
or  each  district,  one  each  year.  The  division  superintendent 
and  the  school  trustees  of  the  several  districts  constitute  a  county 
school  board.    The  clementaiv  schooU  are  maintained  from  the 

[>rocecds  of  the  state  school  funds,  consisting  of  irrterest  on  the 
iterary  fund,  a  portion  of  the  state  poll  tax.  a  property  tax  not  leas 
than  one  mill  nor  more  than  five  mills  on  the  dollar,  and  special 
appropriations:  county  funds,  consisting  principally  of  a  property 
tax;  and  district  funds,  consisting  principally  of  a  property  tax 
and  a  dog  tax.  A  law  enacted  in  1908  encourages  the  establish- 
ment of  departments  of  agriculture,  domestk:  economy  and  manual 
training  in  at  least  one  high  school  in  each  congressional  district. 
A  law  enacted  in  1910  provides  a  fund  for  special  aid  from  the 
state  to  rural  graded  schools  with  at  least  t^o  rooms.  With  state 
aid  normal  training  departments  arc  maintained  in  several  of  the 
high  schools  in  counties  which  adopt  the  provisions  of  the  statute. 
All  children  between  the  ages  of  eight  and  twelve  years  are  re<|uircd 
to  attend  a  public  school  at  least  twelve  weeks  in  a  year  (six  weeks 
consecutively)  unless  excused  on  account  of  weakness  of  mind  or 
body,  unless  the  child  can  read  and  write  and  is  attending  a  private 
school,  or  unless  the  child  lives  more  than  two  miles  from  the 
nearest  school  and  more  than  one  mile  from  an  estafotbhed  publit 
school  wagon  route.  The  State  Female  Normal  School,  at  rarm- 
viUe,  b  governed  by  a  board  consbting  of  the  state  superintendent 
and  thirteen  trustees  appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  con- 
currence of  the  Senate  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  Virginia 
Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  at  Petersburg,  is  governed  by  4 
board  of  visitors  consbting  of  the  superintendent  of  publk:  insrnjc- 
tion  and  four  other  members  appointed  by  the  governor  with  the 
concurrence  of  the  Senate  for  four  years.  In  1908  the  General 
Assembly  made  an  appropriatnn  for  estabibhing  two  state  normal 
and  industrial  schools  for  women,  one  at  Harrisonburg  and  tfaa 
other  at  Fredericksburg,  both  under  a  board  of  trustees  consbting 
of  the  superintendent  0?  public  instruction  and  ten  other  members 
appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate. 
The  Virginia  Aericultural  and  Mechanical  College  and  Polytechnic 
Institute,  at  Biacksburg,  is  governed  by  a  board  consbting  of  the 
state  superintendent  and  ebht  visitors  appointed  by  the  governor 
with  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate.  The  Vir^nia  Military  Instuutc; 
at  Lexington,  is  governed  by  a  board  of  visitors  consisting  ot  the 
adjutant  general,  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  nine 
other  members  appointed  by  the  gorvemor  with  the  concurrence  of 
the  Senate.  The  University  of  Vuginia  (c^.),  at  Charlottesvillsk 
was  founded  in  1817  and  opened  in  1825.  The  College  of  William 
and  Mary  (16^3),  at  Williamsburg,  became  a  state  institution  lA 
1906  and  b  likewise  ^vemcd  under  a  board  appointed  by  the 
governor.  Other  institutions  of  higher  feaming  wfafch  are  not 
under  state  coatrol  are:  Washington  and  Lee  liniversi^  <mm» 
sectarian,  1749),  at  Lexington;  Harapdcn-Sidney  College  (Presby- 
terian, 1770),  at  Hampden-Sidney;  Richmond  College  (Baptist, 
1832),  at  Richmond;  Randolph- Macon  College  (Methodist  Episco*- 
paf,  1832),  at  Ashland:  Emory  and  Henry  College  (Method kt 
Episcopal,  1838),  at  Emory;  Roanoke  College  (Lutheran.  18^3)^ 
at  Salem;  Bridgewater  College  (German  Baptist,  1879),  at  Bndgc- 
watcr;  Fredericksburg  College  (Presbyterian,  1891),  at  Fredericks- 
burg; Virginia  Union  University  (Baptist.  1899;,  at  Richmond: 
andVirginia  Christian  College  ((Thristian.  1903),  at  Lynchburg. 

fitaNCtf.— Revenue  for  state,  county  and  munkipal  puiposes  b 
derived  principally  from  Uxes  oa  real  estate,  tangible  personal 
property,  incomes  in  excess  of  liooo,  wills  and  administrations. 


122 


VIRGINIA 


deeds,  seals*  Uwsittts,  faftoks,  trust  «sd  seoirity  oonptnacs,  insuiaace 
companies,  expRss  oompuucs,  nuUvay  and  canal  cocporations, 
8leeping<ar,  parlour<ar  and  duiuig<ar  companies,  tek^ph  and 
telephone  companies,  franchise  taxes,  poU  taxes,  an  inheritance  tax 
and  taxes  on  various  business  and  professional  licences.  The  tax 
laws  ret^uire  that  property  shall  be  assessed  at  its  full  value  by 
conunissioners  of  the  revenue  elected  by  counties  and  cities.  The 
revenue  is  collected  by  county  and  city  treasurers,  clerks  of  courts, 
and  the  state  corpoiation  commission,  consisting  of  three  members 
appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  concurrence  of  the  General 
Xaacmbly  in  joint  session.  The  total  receipts  in  the  fiscal  year 
1908-1909  amounted  to  $5,536,510  and  the  total  disbursements  to 
$5,796,980.  By  the  1st  of  January  1861  Virginia  had  incurred  a 
debt  amounting  to  nearly  $30,000,000,  principally  in  aid  of  internal 
improvements.  She  Was  unaole  to  pay  the  interest  on  this  during 
the  Civil  War,  and  in  March  187 1  the  principal  together  with  the 
overdue  interest  amounted  to  about  $47,000,000.  The  General 
Assembly  passed  an  act  at  that  time  for  refunding  two-thirds  of  it, 
claiming  that  the  other  third  should  be  paid  ov  West  Virginia. 
But  the  advocates  of  a  "  forcible  readjustment  **  of  the  debt  carried 
the  election  in  1879  with  the  aid  of  the  tiegro  vote,  and  after  prolonged 
negotiations  in  1892  a  settlement  was  effected  under  which  a  debt 
aviounting  to  about  $28,000,000  was  again  refunded.  In  1908  this 
bad  been  reduced  to  about  $2a.ooo,ooo.  The  sinking  fund  consists 
of  damages  recovered  against  oefaulting  revenue  collectors,  railway 
stock  and  appropriations  from  time  to  time  by  the  legislature. 

/ftilory.— Virginia  was  the  first  permanent  En|^ish  settle- 
ment  in  North  America.  From  1583  to  1588  attempts  had  been 
made  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  others  to  establish  colonics  on 
the  coast  of  what  is  now  North  Carolina.  The  only  result  was 
the  naming  of  the  country  Virginia  in  honour  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. But  glowing  accounts  were  brought  back  by  the  eariy 
adventurers,  and  in  x6o6  an  expedition  was  sent  out  by  the 
London  Company,  which  was  chartered  with  rights  of  trade 
and  settlement  between  34*^  and  41^  N.  lat.  It  landed, 
at  a  place  which  was  called  Jamestown,  on  the  13th  of  May 
1607,  and  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  many  plantations 
along  the  James  river.  The  purpose  of  the  company  was 
to  build  up  a  profitable  commercial  and  agricultural  com- 
munity; but  the  hostility  of  the  natives,  unfavourable  climatic 
conditions  and  the  character  of  the  colonists  delayed  the  growth 
of  the  new  community.  John  Smith  became  the  head  of  the 
government  in  September  1608,  compelled  the  colonists  to  submit 
to  law  and  order,  built  a  church  and  prepared  for  more 
extensive  agricultural  and  fishing  operations.  In  1609  the 
London  Company  was  reorganized,  other  colonists  were  sent  out 
and  the  boundaries  of  the  new  country  were  fixed,  according  to 
which  Virginia  was  to  extend  from  a  point  200  m.  south  of  Old 
Point  Comfort,  at  the  mouth  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  to  another 
point  200  m.  north,  "  West  and  northwest  to  the  South  Sea." 

The  government  of  the  coimtry  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
London  Company,  which  in  turn  committed  administrative  and 
local  affairs  to  a  governor  and  council  who  were  to  reside  in  the 
colony.  Before  the  arrival  of  the  "government"  and  their 
shiploads  of  settlers  the  original  colony  was  reduced  to  the 
direst  straits.  Captain  Christopher  Newport  (d.  161 8),  Sir 
Thomas  Gates  and  Sir  George  Somers,  the  new  authorities, 
reached  Jamestown  at  last  with  150  men,  but  finding  things 
in  such  a  deplorable  state  all  agreed  (June  10,  i6ic)  to  give  up 
the  effort  to  found  a  colony  on  the  James  and  set  sail  for  New- 
foundland. At  the  mouth  of  the  river  they  met  Lord  Delaware, 
however,  who  brought  other  colonists  and  plentiful  supplies; 
and  they  returned,  set  up  a  trading  post  at  what  is  now  Hampton 
and  undertook  to  bring  the  hostile  natives  to  subjection.  In 
x6ix,  650  additional  colonists  landed,  the  James  and  Appo- 
mattox rivers  were  explored  and  "plantations"  were  estab- 
lished at  Henrico  and  New  Bermuda.  In  16x7  Vitginia  fell 
into  the  hands  of  a  rigid  Puritan,  Captain  Samuel  Argall.  The 
colonists  were  compelled  on  pain  of  death  to  accept  the  doctrine 
of  the  trinity,  respect  the  authority  of  the  Bible  and  attend 
<thurch.  This  rigid  regime  was  superseded  in  x6iq  by  a  milder 
system  under  Sir  George  Yeardley  (d.  1627).  Twelve  hundred 
new  colonists  arrived  in  16 19.  At  the  same  time  negro  slaves 
and  many  **  indentured  "  servants  were  imported  as  labourers. 

At  the  beginning  Virginia  colonists  had  held  their  bnd  &nd 
improvements  in  common.  But  in  16x6  the  land  was  psr- 
celled  out  and  the  settlers  were  scattered  along  the  shores  of  the 


James  and  A^pooMttos  thtn  mu^  auku  inlaiid.  Twvntap 
tbouaaad  pooMk  of  tobacco  wti«  exported  in  1619.  The  com* 
munity  bad  now  become  self-supporting,  and  the  year  that 
witnesed  these  changes  witnessed  also  the  first  representative 
assembly  in  North  America,  the  Virginia  House  of  Buisesses, 
a  meeting  of  planters  sent  from  llie  pfamutioRS  to  assist  the 
governor  in  reforming  and  remaking  the  laws  of  the  colony.  In 
1621  a  constitution  was  granted  whereby  the  London  Company 
appointed  the  goyenior  and  a  council,  and  the  people  were  to 
choose  aimnally  from  their  eooniies,  towns,  hundreds  and 
plantations  delegates  to  the  House  of  Burgesses.  The  popular 
assembly,  like  the  English  House  of  Commons,  granted  supplies 
and  originated  lawa»  and  the  governor  and  Coundl  enjoyed 
the  right  of  revision  and  veto  as  did  the  king  and  the  House  of 
Lords  at  home.  The  Council  sat  also  as  a  supreme  court  to 
review  the  county  courts.  This  system  remained  unchanged 
tmlil  the  revolution  of  1776.  But  in  2624  the  king  took  the 
phice  and  exercised  the  authority  of  the  London  Company. 

Before  1622  there  was  a  population  of  more  than  4000  in 
Virginia,  and  the  many  tribes  of  Indians  who  were  still  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  soil  over  a  greater  portion  of  the  country  naturally 
became  jeak)us,  and  on  the  22nd  of  March  d  that  year  fell  upon 
the  whiles  and  slew  350  persons.  Sickness  and  famine  once 
again  visited  the  colony,  and  the  population  was  reduced 
by  neariy  one-half.  These  b>sses  were  repaired,  however;  the 
tobacco  industry  grew  in  importance,  and  the  settlers  built  their 
cabins  far  in  the  interior  of  lowland  AHrginla.  This  mpid 
growth  was  scarcely  retarded  by  a  second  Indian  attack,  m 
April  1641,  which  resulted  in  the  death  of  about  350  setUess. 
By  1648  the  population  had  increased  to  15,000. 

Virginia  was  neither  cavaHer  nor  roundhead,  but  both. 
Sir  William  Berkeley  had  been  the  governor  since  1641,  and 
though  he  was  loyal  enough  to  the  crown,  it  was  without 
diflkulty  that  his  authority  was  overthrown  in  March  165a  and 
that  of  Cromwell  proclaimed  in  its  stead.  Richard  Bennett,  & 
Puritan  from  Marybnd,  now  ruled  the  province.  Bennat  and 
his  Puritan  successors,  Edward  Digges  and  Samuel  Mathews, 
made  no  serious  change  in  the  adrahkistration  of  the  colony 
except  to  extend  greatly  the  elective  franchise.  But  this  policy 
was  reversed  in  1660,  when  Berkeley  was  restored  to  power. 
The  return  of  Berkeley  was  the  beginning  of  a  reaction  which 
concentrated  authority,  both  in  the  House  pf  Burgnsses  and  in 
the  Council,  In  the  hands  of  the  older  families,  and  thus  created 
a  privileged  class.  The  governor,  supported  by  the  great 
families,  retained  the  same  House  of  Burgesses  for  sixteen  years 
lest  a  new  one  might  not  be  submissive.  The  increasing  mass 
of  the  population  dwelt  along  the  western  border  or  on  the  less 
fertile  ridges  which  make  up  the  major  part  of  the.  land  even  in 
tide-water  Virginia.  These  poorer  people— who  were  not^ 
however,  "poor  whites  "-developed  an  abiding  hostility 
towards  the  oligarchy.  They  desired  a  freer  hnd-giftnl  ^tetn, 
proUction  against  the  inroads  of  the  Indians  along  the  border, 
and  frequent  sessions  of  an  assembly  to  be  diosen  by  all  the 
freeholders.  But  a  new  code  of  laws  outlawed  many  of  these 
people  as  dissenters,  and  in  1676  a  burdensome  tax  was  laid  by 
the  unrepresentative  assembly.  The  Indians  had  again  attacked 
the  border  farmers,  and  the  governor  bad  refused  assistance* 
being  willing,  il  was  generally  bdievcd,  that  the  border  pop* 
olation  should  suffer  while  he  and  his  adherents  enjoyed  a 
lucrative  fur  trade  with  the  Indians.  Under  these  circum* 
stances,  Nathaniel  Bacon  (1647-1676),  whose  grandfather  was 
a  cousin  of  Francis  Bacon,  took  up  the  cause  of  the  borderers 
and  severely  punished  the  Indians-  at  the  battle  of  Bloody 
Run.  But  Berkeley  meanwhile  had  outlawed  Bacon,  whose 
forces  now  marched  on  the  capital  demanding  recognition  as  the 
authorized  apny  of  defence.  This  was  refused,  and  civil  war 
began,  in  which  the  govertior  was  defeated  and  Jamestown  was 
burned.  But  Bacon  fell  a  victim  to  malaria  and  died  in 
October  in  Gloucester  county.  Berkeley  closed  the  conflict 
with  wholesale  executions  and  confiscations.  ■  Casured  by 
the  ^'ng.  he  sailed  to  England  to  make  his  defence,  but  died 
h.  London  in  1677  without  having  seen  Charles.     Vifginia 


VIRGINIA 


»23 


fcnflnncu  in  t  w  hsBOi  of  the  TCftCCioiisfy  pftTty  and  wss  govcnied 
by  men  whose  primary  purpose  was  to  **  make  their  fortunes  " 
At  the  expense  of  the  colonials.  Even  the  accession  of  William 
and  Mary  scarcdy  affected  the  fortunes  of  the  "  fifth  kingdom," 
though  Middle  Plantation,  a  hamlet  not  far  from  Jamestown, 
became  Williamsburg  and  the  capital  of  the  province  in  1691, 
and  the  dergy  received  a  head,  though  not  a  bishop,  in  the 
person  of  James  Bhiir  (1656-1743),  an  able  Scottish  churchman, 
who  as  commissary  of  the  bishop  of  London  became  a  counter- 
poise to  the  arbitrary  governors,  and  who  as  founder  and  head 
of  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  (established  at  Williams- 
burg in  1693)  did  valiant  service  for  Virginia.  Under  the 
stimulus  of  Blair's  activity  religion  and  education  prospered 
as  never  before.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  vestry  were 
defined,  the  position  of  the  parish  priest  was  fixed  and  his  salary 
Was  regulariy  provided  for  at  the  public  expense,  and  peda- 
gogues were  brought  over  from  Scotland. 

By  1700  the  population  of  Virginia 'had  reached  70,000,  of 
whom  30,000  were  negro  slaves.  The  great  majority  of  whites 
were  small  farmers  whose  condition  was  ai\y thing  but  desirable 
and  who  constantly  encroached  upon  the  Indian  lands  in  the 
Rappahannock  region  or  penetrated  the  forests  south  of  the 
James,  several  thousand  having  reached  North  Carolina.  Be- 
tween r707  and  1740  many  Scottish  immigrants,  traders,  teachers 
and  tobacco-growers  settled  along  the  upper  Rappahannock, 
and,  uniting  with  the  borderers  in  general,  they  offered  strong 
resistance  to  the  older  planters  on  the  James  and  the  York. 

Tobacco-growing  was  the  one  vocation  of  Virginia,  and  many 
of  the  planters  were  able  to  spend  their  winters  in  London  or 
Glasgow  and  to  send  their  sons  and  daughters  to  the  finishing 
schools  of  the  mother  country.  Negro  slavery  grew  so  rapidly 
during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  the  blacks 
outnumbered  the  whites  in  1740.  The  master  of  slaves  set 
the  fashion.  Handsome  houses  were  built  along  the  banks  of 
the  sluggish  rivets,  and  numerous  slaves  were  employed.  There 
was  as  great  a  social  distance  between  the  planters  and  their 
families  on  the  one  side  and  the  masses  of  people  in  Virginia 
on  the  other  as  that  which  separated  the  nobles  from  the  yeo- 
manry in  Europe;  and  there  was  still  another  chasm  between 
the  small  farmers  and  the  negroes. 

In  X716  an  expedition  of  Governor  Alexander  Spotswood 
over  the  mountains  advertised  to  the  world  the  rich  back- 
country,  now  known  as  the  Valley  of  Virginia;  a  migration 
thither  from  Pennsylvania  and  from  Europe  followed  which 
revolutionized  the  province.  The  majority  of  blacks  over 
whites  soon  gave  way  before  the  influx  of  white  immigrants, 
and  in  1756  there  was  a  population  of  292.000,  of  whom  only 
120,000  were  negroes,  and  the  small  farmer  class  had  grown 
so  rapidly  that  the  old  tide- water  aristocracy  was  in  danger 
of  being  overwhelmed.  The  "  West "  had  now  appeared  in 
American  history.  This  first  West,  made  up  of  the  older 
small  farmers,  of  the  Scottish  settlers,  of  the  Germans  from 
the  Palatinate  and  the  Scottish- Irish,  far  outnumbering  the 
people  of  the  old  counties,  demanded  the  creation  of  new 
counties  and  proportionate  representation  in  the  Burgesses. 
They  did  not  at  first  succeed,  but  when  the  Seven  Years'  War 
came  on  they  proved  their  worth  by  fighting  the  battles  of 
the  community  against  the  Indians  and  the  French.  When 
the  war  was  over  the  prestige  of  the  up-country  had  been 
greatly  enhanced,  and  its  people  soon  found  eastern  leaders 
in  the  perMns  of  Richard  Henry  Lee  and  Patrick  Henry.  In 
1763-1765  an  investigation  of  the  finances  of  the  cok>ny, 
forced  by  the  up-country  party,  showed  widespread  corruption, 
and  resulted  in  the  collapse  of  the  tide-water  oligarchy,  which 
had  been  in  power  since  r66o.  In  the  meantime  the  Presby- 
terians, who  had  been  officially  recognized  in  Virginia  under 
the  Toleration  Act  in  1609,  and  had  been  guaranteed  religious 
autonomy  in  the  Valley  by  Governor  Gooch  in  1738,  had  sent 
missionaries  into  the  bonier  counties  of  eastern  Virginia. 
The  Baptists  about  the  same  time  entered  the  colony  both 
from  the  north  and  the  south  and  established  scores  of  churches. 
Thr  new  dcnomiiuitions  vigorously  attacked  the  methods  and 


fmmunities  of  the  established  dinrch,  whose  clergy  had  grown 
lukewarm  in  zeal  and  lax  in  morals.  When  the  dergy, 
refusmg  to'  acknowledge  the  authority  of  the  Burgesses  in 
redudng  their  stipends,  and,  appealing  to  the  king  against  the 
Assembly,  entered  the  courts  to  recover  damages  from  the 
vestries,  Patrick  Henry  at  Hanover  court  in  1763  easily  con- 
vinced the  jury  and  the  people  that  the  old  diurch  was  well- 
nigh  worthless.  From  this  time  the  old  order  was  doomed, 
for  the  up-country,  the  dissenters  and  the  reformers  had 
combined  against  it.  But  the  passage  of  the  Stamp  Act 
hastened  the  catastrophe  and  gave  the  leaders  of  the  new 
combination,  notably  Henry,  an  opportunity  to  humiliate  the 
British  ministry,  whom  not  even  the  tide-water  party  could 
defend.  The  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act,  followed  as  it  was  by 
the  Townshend  scheme  of  indirect  taxation,  displeased  Virginia 
quite  as  much  as  had  the  former  more  direct  system  of  taxation. 
When  the  Burgesses  undertook  in  May  1769  to  declare  in 
vigorous  resolutions  that  the  right  anid  power  of  taxation, 
direct  and  indirect,  rested  with  the  local  assembly,  the  governor 
hastily  dissolved  them,  but  only  to  find  the  same  men  assem* 
biing  in  the  Raleigh  tavern  in  Williamsburg  and  issuing  forth 
their  resolutions  in  defiance  of  executive  authority.  Patrick 
Henry  and  Richard  Henry  Lee,  with  Thomar  Jefferson,  a  new 
up-country  leader  of  great  ability,  were  the  leaders. 

In  1774  Lord  Dunmore,  the  governor,  led  an  army  to  the 
Ohio  river  to  break  an  Indian  coalition  which  had  been  formed 
to  check  the  rapid  expansion  of  Virginia  over  what  is  now 
Kentucky  and  West  Virginia.  The  up-country  again  furnished 
the  troops  and  did  the  fighting  at  Point  Pleasant  (q.v.),  where 
on  the  loth  of  October  the  power  of  the  Indians  was  completely 
broken.  But  the  struggle  with  England  had  reached  a  crisis, 
and  Virginia  supported  with  zeal  the  revolutionary  movement 
and  took  the  lead  in  the  Continental  Congresses  which  directed 
the  succeeding  war.  (see  UNrrso  States).  In  1775  Patrick 
Henry  organized  a  regiment  of  militia  and  compelled  the 
governor  to  seek  safety  on  board  an  English  man-of-war  in 
Chesapeake  Bay.  The  war  now  assumed  continental  proportions, 
and  the  Virginia  leaders  dcdded  in  May  1776  that  a  declaration 
of  independence  was  necessary  to  secure  foreign  asastance. 
When  the  Continental  Congress  issued  the  famous  Declaration 
Virginia  had  already  assembled  in  convention  to  draft  a  new 
Constitution.  Although  Henry,  Lee  and  Jefferson  exercised 
great  power,  they  were  unable  to  secure  a  Constitution  which 
embodied  the  demands  of  their  party:  universal  suffrage, 
proportioruil  representation  and  religious  freedom.  A  draft 
for  such  a  Constitution  was  submitted  by  Jeffehson,  but  the 
Conservatives  rejected  it.  The  system  which  was  adopted 
allowed  the  older  counties,  which  must  be  conciliated,  a  large 
majority  of  the  representatives  in  the  new  Assembly,  on  the 
theory  that  the  preponderance  of  property  (slavery)  in  that 
section  required  this  as  security  against  the  rising  democracy. 
In  place  of  the  former  governor,  there  was  to  be  an  executive 
chosen  annually  by  the  Assembly;  the  old  Coundl  was  to  be 
followed  by  a  simUar  body  elected  by  the  Assembly;  and  the 
judges  were  likewise  to  be  the  creatures  of  Jthe  legislature. 
The  Assembly  was  divided  into  two  bodies,  a  Senate  and  a 
House  of  Delegates.  The  legislature  would  be  all-powerful, 
and  yet  representation  was  so  distributed  that  about  one-third 
of  the  voters  living  in  the  tide-water  region  would  return  neariy 
two-thirds  of  the  members  of  the  legislature.  The  franchise, 
though  not  universial,  was  generously  bestowed;  it  was  a  very 
liberal  freehold  system. 

The  recruiting  ground  for  the  American  army  in  Virginia  was 
the  up-country  among  the  Scottish-Irish  and  the  Germans  who 
had  long  fought  the  older  section  of  the  colony.  In  1779 
Norfolk  was  again  attacked,  and  great  damage  was  also  done 
to  the  neighbouring  towns.  In  January  1781  Benedict  Arnold 
captured  Richmond  and  compelled  governor  and  legislature 
to  flee  beyond  the  Blue  Ridge  moimtains,  where  one  session  of 
the  Assembly  was  held.  The  last  campaign  of  the  war  dosed 
at  Vorkiown  on  the  lOth  of  October  i78r. 

Virginia  leaders,  including  Henry,  were  the  first  to  urge  the 


«24 


VIRGINW 


fonxuiion  of  a  xutional  government  with  adequate  powen 
to  supersede  the  lame  confederacy.  In  1787,  under  the  pre- 
tidency  of  Washington,  the  National  Convention  sat  in  Phila- 
delphia, with  the  result  that  the  present  Federal  Constitution 
was  submitted  to  the  states  for  ratification  during  1787-1789. 
In  Virginia  the  tide-water  leaders  urged  adoption,  while  the  up- 
country  men,  following  Henry,  opposed;  but  after  a  long  and 
a  bitter  struggle,  in  the  summer  of  1788  the  new  instrument  was 
accepted,  the  low-country  winning  by  a  majority  of  ten  votes, 
partly  through  the  influence  ol  James  Madison.  Thus  the 
eastern  men,  who  had  reluctantly  supported  the  War  of  Inde« 
pendence,  now  became  the  sponsors  for  the  national  government, 
and  Washington  was  compelled  to  rely  on  the  party  of 
slavery,  not  only  in  Virginia  but  in  the  whole  South,  in  order  to 
administer  the  affairs  of  the  nation. 

In  X784,  Virginia,  after  some  hesitation,  ceded  to  the  Federal 
government  the  north-west  territory,  which  it  held  under  the 
charter  of  1609;  in  1792  another  large  strip  of  the  territory 
of  Virginia  became  an  independent  state  under  the  name 
of  Kentucky.  But  the  people  ot  these  cessiohs,  especially  of 
Kentucky,  were  closely  allied  to  the  great  up-country  party  of 
Virginia,  and  altogether  they  formed  the  basis  of  the  Jeflfersonian 
democracy,  which  from  1794  opposed  the  chief  measures  of  the 
Washington  administration,  and  which  on  the  passage  of  the 
Alien  and  Sedition  laws  in  1798  precipitated  the  first  great 
constitutional  crisis  in  Federal  politics  by  the  adoption  in  the 
Kentucky  and  Virginia  legislatures  of  the  resolutions,  known 
by  the  names  of  those  states,  strongly  asserting  the  right  and 
duty  of  the  states  to  arrest  the  course  of  the  national 
government  whenever  in  their  opinions  that  course  had  become 
unconstitutional.  Jefferson  was  the  author  of  the  Kentucky 
resolutions,  and  his  friend  Madison  prepared  those  passed  by 
the  Virginia  Assembly.  But  these  leaders  restrained  their 
followers  sharply  whenever  the  suggestion  of  secession  was 
made^  and  the  question  of  what  was  meant  by  arresting  the 
course  of  Federal  legislation  was  left  in  doubt.  The  election 
of  1800  rendered  unnecessary  all  further  agitation  by  putting 
Jefferson  in  the  President's  chair.  The  up-country  party  in 
Virginia,  with  their  allies  along  the  frontiers  of  the  other  stales, 
was  now  in  power,  and  the  radical  of  1776  shaped  the  policy 
of  the  nation  during  the  next  twenty-five  years.^  Virginia  held 
the  position  of  leadership  in  Congress,  controlled  the  cabinet 
and  supplied  many  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

Virgmia  played  a  leading  r6Ie  in  the  War  of  181 2,  and  up  to 
1835  her  influence  in  the  new  Western  and  North- Western  states 
was  overwhelming.  But  the  steady  growth  of  slavery  in  the  East 
and  of  a  virile  democracy  in  the  West  neutralized  this  influence 
and  compelled  the  assembling  of  the  constitutional  convention 
of  1829,  whose  purpose  was  to  revise  the  fundamental  law  in  such 
a  way  as  to  give  the  more  populous  counties  of  the  West  their 
legitimate  weight  in  the  legislature.  The  result  was  failure,  for 
the  democracy  of  small  farmers  which  would  have  taxed  slavery 
out  of  existence  was  denied  proportionate  representation.  The 
slave  insurrection  under  Nat  Turner  (q.v.)  in  1831  led  to 
a  second  abortive  effort,  this  time  by  the  legislature,  to 
do  away  with  the  fateful  institution.  The  failure  of  these 
popular  movements  led  to  a  sharp  reaction  in  Virginia,  as  in 
the  whole  South,  in  favour  of  slavery.  From  1835  to  186 1 
many  leading  Virginians  defended  slavery  as  a  blessing  and  as 
part  of  a  divinely  established  order. 

In  1850  a  third  Convention  undertook  to  amend  the  Constitu- 
tion, and  now  that  the  West  yielded  its  bitter  hostility  to  slavery, 
representation  was  so  arranged  that  the  more  populous  section 
was  enabled  to  control  the  House  while  the  East  still  held  the 
Senate;  the  election  of  judges  was  confided  to  the  people;  and 
the  suffrage  was  broadened.  Although  the  West  was  not  pleased, 
the  leaders  of  the  slave-holding  counties  threatened  secession. 

In  the  national  elections  of  t86o  Virginia  returned  a  majority 
of  unionist  electors  as  against  the  secession  candidates,  Breckin- 
ridge and  Lane,  many  of  the  large  planters  voting  for  the 
continuance  of  the  Union,  and  many  of  the  smaller  slave-owners 
supportinc  the  .s:cc<«ionisls.     The  governor  called  an  ej(tra 


in  turn  called  a  Conventioa  to  meet  on  the  13th  of  February  i  S6x. 
The  majority  of  this  body,  consisted  of  Unkwisti,  but  the  Con- 
vention patfed  the  ordinance  of  secession  when  the  Federal 
government  (April  17)  called  upon  the  stale  to  supply  its  quora 
of  anned  men  to  suppreis  "  insurrection  "  in  the  lower  Southern 
states.  An  alliance  was  made  with  the  provisional  government 
of  the  Confederate  Stales,  on  April  25,  without  waiting  for  the 
vote  of  the  people  on  the  ordinance.  The  Convention  called 
out  10,000  troops  and  ai^xHnted  Colonel  Robert  £.  Lee  oi  the 
United  States  army  as  commander-in-chief.  On  the  3jxd  of 
May  the  people  of  the  eastern  counties  almost  unanimously 
voted  ai^roval  of  the  acts  of  the  Convention,  and  the  western 
counties  took  steps  to  form  the  state  of  West  Virginia.  (q.t,). 
Richmond  soon  became  the  capital  of  the  Confederacy. 

The  Civil  War  was  already  begun,  and  Virginia  was  of  neces- 
sity the  battle-ground.  Of  the  six  great  impacts  made  upon 
the  Confederacy,  four  were  upon  Virginian  soil:  the  first  ^lan- 
assas  campaign  (1861),  the  Peninsular  battles  (1862),  second 
Manassas  (1862),  Fredericksburgt  Chancellorsville  (i862-<3iJ 
and  the  great  Wilderness-Petersburg  series  of  attacU 
(1864-65).  About  50,000  men  were  killed  in  Virginia,  arid 
probably  100,000  died  of  wounds  and  disease.  The  principal 
battles  were:  the  first  ManassaSr  or  Bull  Run  (July  ax,  iSbi), 
those  around  Richmond  (June  36-'July  i,  1862);  second 
Manassas  (August  39-30);  Fredericksburg  (December  xa,  1862}; 
Mcchanicsville  (May  2  and  3,  1863);  the  Wilderness  (May  5 
and  6);  Spottsylvaaia  (May  8);  North  Anna  and  Bcthesda 
church  (May  29-30);  Cold  Harbor  O^ne  3);  the  battles  around 
Petersburg  (June  15,  July  30  and  November  j,  1864);  and 
Five  Forks  (April  i)  and  Appomattox  (April  8-9,  1865). 

With  the  surrender  of  the  Confederate  army  under  Genera) 
Lee  to  Grant  at  Appomattox  the  task  of  reconstruction  bef^ui. 
Pre^dent  Lincoln  offered  a  very  liberal  plan  of  re-establishing 
the  civil  authority  over  the  counties  east  of  the  AlJcgharj 
mountains,  and  Governor  Francis  U.  Pierpont  set  up  in  Rich- 
mond a  government,  based  upon  the  Lincoln  plan  and  supported 
by  President  Johnson,  which  continued  till  the  2nd  of  March 
1S67,  when  the  famous  reconstruction  order  converting  the 
state  into  Military  District  No.  x  was  ksued.  General  John 
M.  Schofield  was  put  in  charge,  and  under  hb  authority  a 
constitutional  Convention  was  summoned  which  bestowed  the 
suffrage  upon  the  former  slaves,  who,  led  by  a  small  group  of 
whites,  who  had  come  into  the  state  with  the  invading  armies, 
ratified  the  X4th  and  xstb  amendments  to  the  Federal  Consiiiu- 
tion  and  governed  the  community  until  1869.  Then  the 
secessionists  and  Union  men  of  1861  united  and  regained 
control.  Virginia  was  readmitted  to  the  Union  on  the  26ih 
of  January  1870.  The  Constitution  of  the  reconstruction 
years  was  unchanged  until  1902,  when  the  present  fundamental 
bw  was  adopted. 

In  national  elections  the  stale  has  supported  the  Democratic 
party,  except  in  i860,  when  its  vote  was  cast  for  John  Bell,  the 
candidate  of  the  Constitutional  Union  party. 


Governor^  of  Virginia 
Undtr  the  Company 

Edward  Maria  Wingfield.  Preiident  of  the 

Council  ....... 

Tohn  Ratcliffe,  President  of  the  Council 
John  Smith.  „  „  »,    •         > 

George  Percy,        „  „  „    1 

Thomas  West.  Lord  Delaware. "  Governor  and 

Captain  General  " 

George  Percy,  Dcputv  Governor    . 

Sir  Thomas    Dale.  '**  High    Marehal "   and 

Deputy  Governor 
Sir  Thomas  Gates.  Acting  Governor 
Sir  Thomas  Dale,  '     ,.  „     . 

George    Veardley,    Lieutenant    or    Deputy 

Covemor.  ... 

Samud  Arftalt.Ueutenant  or  Deputy  Go^^mor 
Nathanirl  PowHU  AcltnK  Governor 
Sir  George  Veardley,  Governor 
Sir  Francis  Wyatt.  „  ... 


1607  (April  to  Sept.) 
1O07-1608 
1606-1609 
1609-1610 

l6io-l6t8 

1611  (March  toMay) 

1611  (May  to  Aug.) 

1O11-1612 

1612-1616 

1616-1617 
I6l7'-i6t9 
i6t9(April  9  to  19) 
I6l9-ib:;i 
I63i-i6.;4 


Sir  Frudi  WyiR.  Cavmur. 
Sit  George  VcaMky,  ^  , 
Francii  WeH  (dccud  by  Coundl). 

Sir  John  Humy.  Ccmnnr  '. 
JchD  Wiw  (dicud  by  Council) 

sif  l^lSSdl  v)yr«f°™T : 

Sir  William  Berkeley.     ..    . 
Richanl  Koop  (etoncd  by  Coaadl) 
Sit  WiUiu  Bakeler,  Gawiw    . 
VmirUt 


VCRGINIA,  UNIVERKTY  OF 


ibiT-iteS 


»«5 


BkbirdBouiMtfclKtclbyCeiamlAaKinbh')  i 
Ed~anlDi|g(a(deci«[byKiwieii(B>ir|nH}  i 
Samuel  Mallinn  (ckcted  1^  Hsiue  si  Bur- 


_ ,.r  M«yHO).    Deputy 

Sir  Henry  ChEMey,  Deputy  CotWBoi 
ThoDU,  Lord  CiUpcper,  Govrmor 
KichoUt  Spcncor  Pmidcnt  of  ilic  Counci] 
Fnnciit  L^rd  Kcpwiird  d  CffiDgtuni,  Ueu- 

NubuM  Bacon.  Pic^deat  ol  Ibe  ConadI 
Fruicifl  Nidioliaa.  Lieinenant  Gonrwr 
Sir  Edmund  Aodroo.  Governor 
Franca  Nidiolnn,  Licuteisnt  Corrmr 
C«iT(e  HuaittDB  ItauctH,  Eul  tt  OilBHr. 


Edmund  Jtflion,  Preaidenl  at  tbi  Cauncil 
Robert  Hunter.  Ueuiensnt  Governor'  . 
Alennder  Spoumnd,  IJwigmnt  Govns 
Hufh  DnwWe. 

RoCm  Cvur,  Pitnidcnt  of  tbt  Csodl. 
WlUiim  Gooch,  Linitaiun  Covenigr  . 
Wimun    Anne   Kopd,  Eiri  et  Atbeui 

CovefnoiH[f<Sin'  .... 
JuKfBUr.PmidBntafthcCoucil    . 
Sic  Willius  Goodi.  Goveivir 
Jofaii  Robinun,  PmidcDt  of  ths  Couudl 


Ceocnl  of  the  Ame 


lerkckv,    1 


Ednuiid  RndoUi 
Bnoinrlhad^ 


'ue,  Z  Z 

..nUCnteU.    „  . 

Ceoie  Wo.  ^Mi  tKti«),  DnMe 

Fcyioa  lUadolph  [ectuiE}    . 
Iimei  Buboor,  AotUDenwcrmt 
WIbd  Cuy  NIcIidIu.  RepublicaB 

TlioaiH  Mud  Randal^    Z 


IioiB  PlHBiitB.  iaa., 

Wm  TVln.  Sute  Rir 
Wniiim  Bnadi  GOs. 


T^ln.  Sute  Ri^ti  DeoBcnt 
—  Bnail  GOs.  Denocnt  . 


1683-168* 


|J«'tf>StoS<(«.l 

I7SO-I7SI 
'7Si->75* 

I7Si-IT68 
17*3-1768 


»77«-im 

■  7iI-ITS« 
■T»-I7»I 
1791-I7M 

IM-Illl 


■■ie-i(i9 


"VIRGIN  ISLANDS— VfROO ' 


a  brgi  rccUnnlar  Inra  and  CRCtecI  troia  i  phn  pnpuvd 
by  Tbonu  Jtffmon,  uc  noted  for  theii  michiitciutal  eflecl 
At  tha  head  of  tbe  Uwn  ii  the  RotuiuU,  modelled  tiler  Itai 
RomiD  PiintbKin  ud  sow  coutaiaiiig  the  univenity  library; 
and  At  the  foot  of  the  lawn  uc  tbnc  modern  TedtHlion  an' 
laboratory  buUdinjp.  Ob  the  aids  uc  grouped  builduics  fo 
each  individual  pcolctsor  aod  donnitoiies  lor  aludoita.  Her 
are  il»  a  dtapel,  a  gymuasium,  a  hoapiul,  and  dd  tbe  tunmi 
o(  Mount  Je9ciun  l{iH,  a  mite  sniib-wHt  oF  th;  campus,  is,ih 
U'Cannick  Observatory.  Tie  university  comprises  twniL> 
'  '  'it  schools,  hut  the  courses  oE  iristruction  0ve 
o  form    -     - 


mcadeiuic— the  college  asd  the  depatti 


by  a  rector,  chosco  by  and  [r 
viiilori  appointEd  by  the  go^ 
tbe  staU  superiDtcndeiLt  of  pu 
of  the  rmiver^ty;  and  ' 


,  (ugineciing  and  igri- 
1  icrea  of  laod,  haa  ptoduclire 
ti,vit,eoei,  tad  ractivti  (rom 
,000.  It  ii  lovemed 
liars,  and  a  boird  of 


Miblic  iostructioii  aad  the  preaidei 
corporate  name  of  the  university 
»  -  ine  Kccior  ana  visiuiis  of  the  Unlvenily  of  Virginia." 
In  I9H  Edwin  Anderson  Alderman  (b.  iWi]  ni  elected 
liEBBdcnt.  In  iqio  the  [acuity  and  oSctrs  aurabcred  no, 
tbe  itudints  (men  only]  8oj,  and  the  Dumber  of  volume*  in 
tbelibnric*SS,oas. 

lite  unfvenily  tiscea  it»  begfaning  to  an  act  of  the  fcgtslature 
in  Januaiy  rSoj  for  Incorporating  the  "  Trustees  of  Afbcmarlo 
Academy."  In  iAi4i  before  the  «le  of  this  proposed  institu- 
tion had  been  chosen,  TlMmas  Je8eaon  ma  elected  a  tnialee, 
and  under  hb  influence  the  le^tlalnrr,  in  Fetnaiy  rBi6, 
anlhortted  tbe  eaubUshmoit  of  Central  College  hi  lieu  of 
Albemarle  Academy.  Ilia  corser-atone  of  Central  College  was 
laid  in  Octobe  igi7,  and  Jcffetgao,  who  wa«  rector  of  its  board 
of  truateea,  evolved  ■  plan  for  its  development  into  (he  uriivev>- 
ihy  of  Virginia.  The  legislature,  thanhs  to  the  eHorts  of  Joseph 
(Harrington  Cabell,  a  dose  personal  friend  of  Jcflason,  adopted 
the  plan  in  rSrS  arKi  iBiQ,  and  seven  Indepertdent  pclh»ls — 
ancient  languages,  modem  languages,  mathenalics,  natural 
phik>»ophy,  moral  phifcaophy,  chemistry  and  medicine — were 
opened  to  ttudenu  En  Much  1S15;  a  echool  of  law  was  opened 
Ib  igi6.  la  iSj7  the  School  of  Htdidne  became  a  depaitmcnt 
of  three  individual  icbools;  and  in  1850  tbe  Sebeol  of  Law 
became  a  department  of  two  schools.  After  the  gift  of  1500,000 
by  Andrew  Carnegie  there  were  estahlisbed  in  1909  the  Andrew 
Carrtegie  SdiocJ  ol  Enginecfing,  the  James  Madison  School 
ol  Law.  the  Jamei  Uonroe  School  of  International  Law,  the 
James  Wibon  School  of  Folilicel  Economy,  the  F.dg3r  Allin 
Kie  School  of  ^■'g'***'  and  the  Walter  Reed  Sdiool  of  Pathology. 

Under  JdTenon'i  plao  only  two  degreei  were  granted'.   "  Grad' 


TmaiK  nLAinM,  ■  gnmp  of  small  Uands  in  the  Wax 
Indiea,  about  too  in  number,  for  the  most  part  uninhabited. 
They  eaend  E.  from  Puerto  Rico,  lying  between  17°  and 
18°  jrf  N.,  and  64°  10'  and  65°  jo'  W.,  their  total  area  being  about 
46J  sq.  m.  Tie  islands  are  mostly  rocky,  or  sondy  and  barren, 
tal  Hck  DonlOBa  •*  aie  under  enltlvatiod  yfiSd  stgD,  (aatee, 
1  and  indigo.     Ginnia  giaa  grows  abondaotty 


tbou^  few,  indude 

The  coaslB  abonnd  wim  nan.  ine  cumaie  n  more  Beajtrry 
than  that  ol  the  other  West  Indian  isbnrb,  and  the  heal'  li 
not  10  great.  Some  of  tbe  iittndi  belong  10  the  United 
, States,  save  to  Deumaric  and  some  to  Gn«l  Britnio.  The 
'United  Stairs'  possessions  (once  dependencies  of  Puerto  Kico, 
Init  ceded  by  Spain  in  iS^S)  have  aa  area  of  about  150  tq.  m. 
and  include  Culebra  or  Snake  Island,  and  Vieqgea  or  Crab 
Island.  The  chief  Danish  islands  arc  St  Thomas  («,«.),  St  Cmix 
;(v,p,)  and  St  John  f?,!-.],  the  total  ilrte  being  about  14a  sq.  til. 
lOI  the  BritiiJi  portion  ol  tbe  group  At  principal  are  Tottola, 
Anegada,  Virgin  Gotda,  JtmL  vu  Dyke,  Fiter^  lalaod  and 
Silt  Island,  In  aH  numbfting  ji.  with  an  area  ot  gi  wn.  m. 
With  the  eactption  of  tbe  island  of  Sombrero  they  fwm  one 
of  Ibe  five  presidencies  in  the  colony  ol  the  Leeward  Islands. 
The  inhabitants  are  peasant  proprietors',  mainly  engaged  in 
raising  cattle  and  in  hummg  charcoal  but  some  att  fohermen 
and  boalmeiL  The  chief  town  is  Roadlown  (pop.  400}  at  the 
head  of  a  qitendid  harbour  OB  the  S.  of  Tottrda,  and  what  trade 
there  is  is  mostly  with  St  Tltoinas.  Sombrrro  is  maintained 
as  a  lighthouse  by  the  British  govenmient.  Population  of 
the  presidency,  mostly  negmes  (1891)4430;  (igot)  4908, 

Tlie  Virghi  latands  were  discovered  by  Columbus  in  his  Mcmd 
voyage,  in  i4Q4,andaaiBedLai  VIrgena,  hbDcourot  St  Unula 
and  her  companions.  In  t666  the  British  estahllAed  tfeem- 
•elva  on  TortoU,  which  has  ever  since  remained  in  their  pos- 
session. In  the  17th  ccBtuty  (he  Virgin  Islands  wtie  favourite 
resorts  of  the  bnccaneen..  The  Danish  islands  of  St  TVunu 
and  St  Jobn  were  taken  by  the  British  In  iSor,  bnt  resttned 
in  the  following  year.  In  1807  they  surrendered  to  tbe  Britidi, 
and  continued  in  thdr  htadi  till  igij,  when  they  were  again 

VIROIHTtn  RnPDg,  LIKm  (xj).  TS-gj),  Roman  patriot 
end  soldier,  three  times  consul  (a-D.  Gj,  6g,  97),  was  bom  near 
Comum,  the  birthplace  of  the  two  Plinys.  Whoi  governor  of 
upper  Geiinany  under  Nero  <H),  aitir  he  had  pvl  dawn  the 
revolt  of  JuHns  Vindei  in  (iaul,  he  ms  toon  than  once  urged 
by  his  troops  to  aaSime  the  auptetne  power;'  but  he  firmly 
refused,  and  further  dedaied  that  lie  would  recogniie  no  one 
as  emperor  i4»  had  not  been  cfanen  kj  the  Knale.  Galba, 
on  his  accession,  aware  of  the  ieelfoga  M  the  German  troope  and 
unceiiain  as  to  the  intentions  of  Virgiolm,  induced  him  10  accom- 
pany him  to  Rome.  But  Virginius,  is  always,  remained  loyal 
to  the  head  ol  tbe  state.  After  the  death  of  Otho,  the  aiddien 
again  oSered  the  throne  to  Vlrginha,  but  he  agahi  refuKd  It, 
Consideriiig  themselvis  slighted,  diey  drew  their  swotdj  upon  him, 
and  he  only  saved  bimMlf  from  their  hands  by  making  his  escape 
through  the  back  of  the  tent.  But  the  aoldiers  txiver  lor^ve 
tbe  fancied .  Insult.  Under  Vilelli us,  during  a  military  dfatoh- 
ance  at  Ticinum,  one  of  Viigblhu'l  slaves  was  arrested  and 
charged  with  Ibe  design  of  murdering  the  emperoc  Vinfiriiig 
was  accused  of  being  implicated  m  the  con^lncy,  and  his 
death  was  loudly  demanded  by  the  soldiers.  To  his  credit 
Viielliua  refused  to  sacrifice  so  valuable  a  servant,  on  whcM 
loyalty  be-could  depend,  to  the  vengeance  of  a  capticioiB  aimy, 
■■■  jnius  wbseqnestJy  livad  in  retirement,  chiefly  in  his  villa  at 
um,  on  the  coast  of  Eiruiia,  tlUhlsdeaChini}?,  in  which  year 
leld  the  consulship,  together  with  the  cmpemr  Xcrva.  At 
publia  burial  with  which  he  was  honoured,  th*  historian 
Tadtus  (then  consul)  deUvered  the  funeral  oration,  Tb* 
younger  Pliny,  his  neighbour  and  ward,  haa  KCorded  the  line* 
whkh  Virginius  had  ordered  to  be  engraved  upon  fua  tomh; 
"  Hlc  situi  est  Rntua,  pulKi  qui  Vfaidk*  qaeadam 

See  Taeltiu.  Bin.  I.  S.;   Dio  C^asiis 
tay'M'rnoio°*''Lr%ur 


a'rtiriniidM'Miaium  (1899),  liv.  pp. 


VIRUES— VISCHER  (FAMILY) 


Hevdius  so..  The  Gredu  lepRMBted  tins  constellatioii  is  a 
Virgiii,  but  different  fables  axe  canent  aa  to  the  identity  o<  tbc 
maid.  She  ia  variously  conaidexed  to  be:  Justitia,  daughter  of 
Astiaeus  and  Ancora,  ^o  Mved  before  man  sinned,  and  tani^t 
him  his  duty,  and  when  the  golden  age  ended  die  letnmed  to 
hearen;  acEording  to  Heaiod  the  virgin  is  the  daughter  of  Jupater 
and  Themis;  others  make  her  to  be  Erigone,  daughter  of 
Icarina,  or  Farthene,  daughter  of  Afxiilo.  The  moat  interesting 
stars  of  this  amsteUation  are:  a  Yirgiuisy  or  Spica,  a  star  of  the 
first  magnkude  vntb  a  very  faint  companion;  and  7  Virp$ds, 
a  binary  star,  Uaving  componenta  of  the  third  magtutiule. 

VIRU^  CHBIBTOBAL  DB  (x55o?-i6i5?),  Sininish  dzmnatist 
and  poet,  iras  bom  :aX  Valenda  about  the  middle  of  the  x6th 
century,  joined  the  army,  fought  at  Lepanto,  aiui  xedxed  to  his 
native  place  with  the  nmk  of  captain  shortly  before  xs86.  The 
fiist-fruit  of  his  leisuze  waa  El  Monsenctt  (15S7),  a  dull  poem  on 
a  repulsive  subject  which  had  the  honour  of  being  praised  by 
Cervantes,  and  of  being  reprinted  in  r6ci.  Shortly  afterwaxxia 
Vlru6a  returned  to  Italy  and  issued  a  recast  of  bis  poem  entitled 
Bl  Uonsttrttte  se^und*  (i6oa)«  His  Obras  irdgieas  y  Uricas  (i6oq) 
include  five  tragedies:  Xs  Ctan  SentframiSf  La  Cr*d  Casanirat 
AtUafuHosot  La  Inftlks  Marcda  and  Elaa  Dido,  The  date  of 
his  death  b  unknown,  but  he  is  conjectured  to  have  been  alive 
as  late  as  k6i4..  Vird^s  belongs  to  the  school  of  dnmatists 
displaced  by  Lc^  de  Vega,  and  hfs  methods  were  out  of  fashion 
before  his  f^ys  were  printed;  yet  he  is  an  interesting  6gure, 
chiefly  because  of  the  very  extravagances  which  destroy  the 
effect  of  his  best  scenes. 

VISBT,  or  WiSBV,  the  capital  of  the  Swedish  idand  and 
administrative  district  (/Ah)  of  Gotland,  in  the  Baltic  Sea. 
Pop.  (1900)  8376.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  the  port  of  the 
island,  and  a  favourite  watering-place.  It  is  picturesquely 
situated  on  the  west  coast,  150  dl  S.  by  E.  of  Stockholm  by  sea. 
The  houses  cluster  beneath  and  above  a  cliff  {HinS^  xoo  ft.  high, 
and  the  town  is  thoroughly  medieval  in  appearance.  The 
remains  from  its  period  of  extraordinary  prosperity  from  the 
iith  to  the  X4th  century  are  of  the  highest  interest.  Its  walls 
date  from  the  end  of  the  x^th  century,  replacing  earlier  forti' 
fications,  and  enck>se  a  space  much  larger  than  that  now 
covered  by  the  town.  Massive  towers  rise  at  close  fntervals 
along  them,  and  nearly  forty  art  in  good  preservation.  Between 
them  are  traces  of  bartizans.  The  cathedral  church  of  St 
Mary  dates  from  1190^1225,  but  has  been  much  altered  in 
later  times:  it  has  a  great  squlire  tower  at  the  west  end  and 
two  graceful  octagonal  toweis  at  the  east,  and  contains  numerous 
memorials  of  the  i7lh  century.  There  are  ten  other  churches, 
in  part  ruined,  none  of  which  is  used  for  service.  Among  those 
of  chief  interest  St  Nicholas',  of  the  early  part  of  the  X3th 
century,  formerly  belonged  to  a  Dominican  monastery.  If 
retains  two  beautiful  rose-windows  in  the  west  front.  The 
church  of  the  Holy  Ghost  {Hdgeandi-Kyrha)  in  a  late  Roman- 
esque style  (c.  X 2  50)  is  a  remarkable  structure  with  a  nave  of  two 
storeys.  The  Romanesque  St  Gement's  has  an  ornate  south 
portal,  and  the  church^  of  St  Drotten  and  St  Lars,  of  the  12th 
cetitury,  are  notable  for  their  huge  towers.  St  Catherine's,  of 
the  middle  of  the  X3th  century,  is  Gothic,  with  a  pentagonal 
apse.'  It  belonged  to  a  fVanciscan  convent,  of  .the  buildings  of 
which  there  are  sUght  ruins.  'Among  ancient  remains  in  tht 
vicinity  may  be  mentioned  Galgbcrgct,  the  place  of  execution, 
with  talt  stone  pillars  ^tUl  standing;  and  the  remarkable  stone 
labyrinth  ^of  Trdjeborg.  Modern  buildings  include  the  Gotland 
museum  of  antiquities,  and  the  high  school,  with  a  museum  and 
library.  The  artificial  harbour,  somewhat, exposed,  lies  south 
of  the  ancient  Hanseatic  harbour,  now  filled  up  and  covered 
with  gardens.  The  town  Is  the  terminus  of  railways  to  north 
and  south.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  the  army  divisloh  of 
Gotland  troops,  and  there  are  some  modem  forts. 

The  name  Visby  is  derived  from  the  old  Norse  ix  (sanctuary) 
and  by  (town):  This  was  ncf  doubt  a  place  of  religious  sacrifice 
In  heathen  times.  At  any  rate  it  was  a  notable  trading-place 
and  emporium  as  early  as  the  Stone  Age,  and  continued  to-  enjoy 
its  importance  as  such  through  the  Bronze  and  Iron  Ages,' as  is 


127 

pnomd,  inkf  aUUj  by  the  lacgfr  immb«r  of  Atihic,  Aii^fr'StfKMi 
and  other  coins  wUkh  have  been  found  on  the  ialaad.  Sea 
GonAKD  and  Ssa  Lawb. 

VISCAiCHA.  or  Bescac&a,  a  large  South  American  buftowiBf 
rodent  mammal  belonging  to  the  fiunily  f*J»^ffr*W^«^  aod  com* 
monly  kxmwn  aa  i^aitoMM  iSrkilbtfaclyhM,  aHhoug^ 
prefer  the  name  Viscatia,  With  tha  cheeknteetix  formed  of  A 
number  of  paiaid  platea  in  the  manner  chanctcriAlc  of  tht 
fanUly,  the  viacadia  ia  distinguiafaed  fxom  the  other  membeta 
of  that  9011P  by  havjng^  only  three  hind  toea;  while  it  ia  alao 
the  he&viestifauilt  and  largest  member  of  thegitmp,  with  amaUet 
ears  than  the  vest.  It  has  a  kmg  tall  and  aluggy  lur;  thf 
gpuietal  cobur  oi  the  latter  being  dark  grey,  with  conqncamua 
black  and  wUte  markings  on  the  face*  Viacacfaaa  iiihabit 
the  South  American  pampas  between  the  Uruguay  river  and 
the  Rio  Negro'  in  Patagonia,  where  they  dwell  in  warren^ 
covering  from  xoo  to  soo  sq.  ft.  and  forming  mounds 
penetrated  by  numerous  bnirows.  ^The  ground  around  the 
"  Viscachera "  is  cleared  from  vegetation,  the  rctfoaa  of  wfaicik 
h  heaped  upon  the  mound.  Ansrthing  the  radenta  may  meei 
with  on  their  journeys,  such  as  tUatle-atalka  or  b<Miea,  ait 
collected  and  deposited  on  the  viscaehera.  Beep  down  in 
the  burrows  dwell  the  viscadms,  trom  which  in  frequented 
districts  they  seldom  emerge  till  evenhig,  unless  to  drink  after  a 
shower.  Their  chief  food  is  grass  and  seeds,  but  they  alas 
consume  roots.  When  alarmed,  they  rush  to  their  burrows^ 
and  if  these  are  disturbed  utter  a  growling  sound.  A  pair  of 
pi'airie  burrowing  owls  (Spedyto)  are  almost  invariably  inhabit* 
ants  of  a  viacachera  (see*  Rodektia).  (R.  L.*) 

VISCHBR,  the  name  of  a  family  of  Nuremberg  sculptors, 
who  contributed  largely  to  the  masterpieces  of  German  art 
in  the  xsth  and  x6th  centunes. 

X.  HsaiTANN,  the  elder,  came  to  Nuremberg  as  a  worker  in 
brass  in  1453  and  there  became  a  "  master ''  of  his  gild.  Therb 
is  only  one  work  that  can  be  ascribed  to  him  with  certainty, 
the  baptismal  font  in  the  parish  churdi  of  Wittenberg  (X457). 
This  is  decorated  with  figures  of  the  Apostles. 

a.  His  son,  Peter,  the  elder,  was  bom  about  1455  in  Norem»> 
berg,  where  he  died  on  the  7th  of  January  XS29.  He  became 
"  master  "  ?h  T489,  and  in  X494  was  summoned  by  the  Electoral 
Prince  Philipp  of  the  Palatinate  to  Heidelberg.  He  soon 
returned,  however,  to  Nuremberg,  where  he  worked  with  th* 
help  of  his  five  sons,  Hennann,  Peter,  Hans,  Jakob  and  Paul. 
His  works  are:  the  tonlb  of  Bishop  Johannes  IV.,  in  the  Breslan 
cathedral  (1496);  the  tomb  of  Archbishop  Ernest,  in  Magde- 
burg cathedral  (1497);  the  dirine  of  Saint  Sebald  in  the  SebaK 
duskirche  at  Nuremberg,  between  1508  and  X519;  a  large  grille 
ordered  by  the  Fugger  brothers  in  Augsburg  (lost);  a  relief  of 
the  "  Crowning  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  "  in  the  Erfurt  cathedral 
(a  second  example  in  the  Wittenberg  Schlosskirche,  xsai); 
the  tombstones  for  Margareta  Tucherin  in  the  Regensburg 
cathedral  (1521),  and  for  the  Eisen  family  in  the  Agidienkirche 
at  Nuremberg  (1522);  the  epitaph  lor  the  cardinal  Albrecht 
of  Brandenburg  in  the  collegiate  church  at  Aschaffenburg 
(1525);  the  tomb  of  the  electoral  prince  Frederick  the  Wise  in 
the  Schlosskirche  at  Wittenberg  (1521);  the  epitaph  of  the 
duchess  Helcne  of  Mecklenburg  in  the  cathedral  at  Schweriji. 
Besides  these  works  there  are  a  number  of  others  ascribed  fo 
Peter  the  elder  yrith  less  rtrtainty.  In  technique  few  bronze 
sculptors  have  ever  equalled  him,  but  his  designs  are  marred 
by  an  excess  of  mannered  realism  and  a  too  exuberant  fancy. 
His  chief  early  work,  the  tomb  of  Archbishop  Ernest  in  Magde- 
burg cathedral  (1495),  ^  surrounded  with  fine  statuettes  of  the 
Apostles  under  serai-Gothic  canopies;  it  is  purer  in  st>le  than 
the  magnificent  shrine  of  St  Sebald,  a  tall  canopied  bronze 
structure,  crowded  with  reliefs  and  statuettes  in  the  most 
lavish  way.  The  general  form  of  the  shrine  is  Gothic,*  but  the 
details  are  those  of  the  16th-century  Italian  Renaissance  treated 

« This  grbat  worit  is  Rally  a  canopied  pedestal  to  tnpport  and 
(TOfkne  the  shrine,  not  the  «hrint  itseU.  which  it  a  work  of  the  14th 
century,  having  the  gabled  iorro  commonly  used  in  the  middle  ages 
lor  metal  reliquaries. 


128 


VISCHER,  F.  T.— VISCONTI  (FAMILY) 


with  much  ireedom  and  origliiaUfy.  Some  of  the  sutuettes 
of  saints  mtuched  to  tbe  slender  columns  of  the  canopy  are 
modelled  with  much  grace  and  even  dignity  of  form.  A  small 
portrait  figure  of  Peter  himself,  introduced  at  one  end  of  the 
base,  is  a  marvel  of  clever  leUism:  he  has  represented  himself 
as  a  stouty  bearded  man,  wearing  a  largb  leathern  apron  and 
holding  some  of  the  tools  of  his  cnft.  This  got^^eous  shrine  is  a 
lemarkabto  example  of  the  unoommeidal  spirit  which  animated 
the  artists  of  that  time,  and  of  the  evident  delight  which  they 
took  in  their  work.  Dragons,  grotesques  and  little  figures  of 
boys,  mixed  with  graceful  scroll  foliage,  crowd  every  possible 
part  of  the  canopy  and  iu  shafts,  desipied  in  the  most  free  and 
unconventional  way  and  executed  with  an  utter  disregard  of 
the  time  and  Labour  which  were  lavished  on  them. 

See  R.  Bauer.  PeUr  Visdur  imd  das  alte  HOmberi  (1886); 
C  fleadUun,  Peter  Viscker  (1901). 

VUCHBR.  FRIEDRICH  THBDOOR  (1807-1887).  German 
writer  on  the  philosophy  of  art,  was  bom  at  Ludwic^uix  on  the 
30th  of  June  1807,  and  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman.  He  was 
educated  at  Tubingen,  and  began  life  in  his  father's  profession. 
In  1^35  he  became  Privatdcunt  in  aesthetics  and  German 
literature  at  his  old  university,  was  advanced  in  1837  to  extra- 
ordinary professor,  and  in  1&44  to  full  professor.  In  conse- 
quence, however,  of  his  outspoken  inaugural  address,  he  was 
8uq>ended  for  two  years  by  the  WUrttcmberg  government,  and 
In  his  enforced  leisure  wrote  the  first  two  volumes  of  bis  Aestikdikt 
Oder  Wissenschajt  des  Sckdnen  (1846),  the  fourth  and  last  volume 
of  which  did  not  appear  till  1857.  Vischer  threw  himself 
heartily  into  the  great  German  political  movement  of  1848-49, 
and  shared  the  disappointment  of  patriotic  democrats  at  its 
failure.  In  1855  he  became  professor  at  Ziirich.  In  1866,  his 
fame  being  now  established,  he  was  invited  back  to  Germany 
with  a  professorship  at  Tiibingen  combined  with  a  post  at  the 
PoLytechnikum  of  Stuttgart.  He  died  at  Gmunden  on  tbe 
14th  of  September  1887.  His  writings  include  literary  essays 
collected  under  the  titles  Kritiscke  Cdnge  and  AUes  und  Neues, 
poems,  an  excellent  critical  study  of  Goethe's  Faust  (1875), 
and  a  successful  novel,  Auck  Einer  (1878;  25th  ed.,  1904). 
Vischer  was  not  an  original  thinker,  and  hU  monumental 
Aesthetik,  in  spite  of  industry  and  learning,  has  not  the  higher 
qualities  of  success.  He  attempts  the  hopeless  task  of  explain- 
ing art  by  the  Hegelian  dialectic.  Starting  with  the  definition 
of  beauty  as  *'  the  idea  in  the  form  of  limited  appearance,"  he 
foes  on  to  develop  the  various  elements  of  art  (the  beautiful, 
sublime  and  comic),  and  the  various  forms  of  art  (plastic  art, 
music  and  poetry)  by  means  of  the  Hegelian  antitheses— form 
and  content,  objective  and  subjective,  inner  conflict  and  recon- 
ciliatk>n.  llie  shape  of  the  work  also  is  repellently  Hegelian, 
coasting  of  short  highly  technical  parai^raphs  containing  the 
main  argument,  followed  by  detailed  explanations  printed 
in  different  type.  Still,  Vischer  had  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
every  branch  of  art  except  music,  and  much  valuable  material 
is  buried  in  his  volumes.  In  later  life  Vischer  moved  consider- 
iJ>ly  away  from  Hegeliamsm,  and  adopted  the  conceptiods 
of  sensuous  completeness  and  cosmic  harmony  as  criteria  of 
beauty;  but  he  never  found  time  to  rewrite  his  great  book.  His 
own  work  as  a  literary  artist  is  of  high  quality;  vigorous,  im- 
aginative and  thoughtful  without  academic  technicality. 

See  O.  Keindl.  P,  T.  Visehet,  EnnneruntsU&Uer  (1888):  J.  E. 
von  GOnthcrt.  P.  T.  Viscker^  ein  Ckarakterbild  (1888):  I.  Frapan, 
Viscker-Erinnerungen  (1880);  T.  Zieglcr,  P.  T.  Viscker  (Vortrag) 
(1893):  J-  G.  Oswald.  p7t.  Viscker  a&  Dickler  (1896).    (H.  St.) 

VISCOHn,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  Italian  family  which 
k>ng  ruled  Milan;  they  claimed  descent  from  King  Desiderius, 
and  in  the  xith  century  possessed  estates  on  Lakes  O)mo  and 
Maggiore.  A  certain  Ottone,  who  distinguished  himself  in 
the  First  Crusade,  is  mentioned  in  X078  as  viscount  of  Milan. 
Tbe  real  basis  for  the  family's  dominion  was  laid,  however, 
by  another  Ottonb,  a  canon  of  Desio,  appointed  archbishop 
of  Milan  by  Pope  Urban  IV.  in  ia6a  through  the  influence  if 
rardinal  UbaldinL    The  DeBst  Torre  familyi  who  then  con- 


trotted  the  dty,  <)pposed  the  appointment,  tad  not  ontil  his 
victory  at  Desio  in  1377  was  Ottone  able  to  take  poaetstfan.  of 
his  see.  He  imprisoned  Napoleone  DeUa  Tone  and  five  of  his 
relatives  in  iron  cages,  and  directed  ha  later  efforu  tow«d 
the  advancemeia  of  his  nephew  Matteo.  He  died  on  the 
18th  of  .August  X99S,  aged  eighty  years.  Mattbo,  bora  at 
Invorio  on  the  xsth  of  August  1255,  auooeeded  his  unde  as 
political  leader  of  Milan,  and  although  an  uprising  of  the  DeUa 
Tom  in  1302  compelled  him  to  take  refuge  at  Verona,  his 
steadfast  loyalty  to  the  imperial  cause  in  Italy  earned  him  the 
gratitude  of  Henry  VII.,  who  restored  him  to  Milan  in  1310 
and  made  him  imperial  vicar  of  Lombardy.  He*  brought 
under  his  rule  Piacenza,  Tort<ma,  Pavia,  Bergamo,  Vercelli, 
CremoruL  and  Alcssandro.  An  able  general,  he  yet  relied  for 
his  conquests  more  on  diplomaqr  and  bribery,  and  was  esteemed 
as  a  inodel  of  the  prudent  Italian  despot.  Persevering  in 
his  Ghibelline  policy,  arni  quarrdling  with  Pope  John  XXIL 
over  an  appointment  to  the  archbishopric  of  Milan,  be  was 
excommunicated  by  the  papal  legate  Bertrand  du  Puy  in 
r322.  He  at  once  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son  Galeaazo, 
and  died  at  Crescenzago  on  the  S4th  of  June  of  the  same  year. 
He  left  besides  GalfaMO  several  sons:  Marco,  Lucchino, 
Giovanni  and  Stefano.  Galeaso  L  (1277-1328),  who  ruled 
at  MiUtt  from  1322  to  1328,  met  the  Holy  Army  which  the 
pope  had  sent  against  the  Visconti  at  Vaprio  on  the  Adda 
(1324),  and  defeated  it  with  the  aid  of  the  emperor  Louis  the 
Bavarian.  In  1327  he  was  imprisoned  by  the  ^mperor  at 
Monza  because  he  was  thought  guilty  of  making  peace  with 
the  church,  and  was  released  only  on  the  intercession  of  his  friend 
Castrucdo  Castracane.  By  hb  wife  Beatrice  d'Este  he  had 
the  son  Aazo  who  succeeded  him.  His  brother  Marco  com- 
manded a  band  of  Germans,  conquered  Pisa  and  Lucca  and 
died  in  1329.  Azzo  (1302-1339),  who  sucueded  hu  father 
in  1328,  bought  the  title  of  imperial  vicar  for  25,000  florins 
from  the  same  Louis  who  had  imprisoned  Galeazzo  L  He  cox»- 
quered  ten  towns,  murdered  his  unde  Marco  (1329),  suppressed 
a  revolt  led  by  his  cousin  Lodrisio,  reorganized  the  administra- 
tion of  his  estates,  built  the  octagonal  tower  of  S.  Gottardo, 
and  was  succeeded  in  turn  by  his  uncles  Luccluno  and  Gio- 
vannL  Luochino  made  peace  with  the  church  in  1341,  bought 
Parma  from  Obizzo  d'Este  and  made  Pisa  dependent  on  Milan. 
Althoui^  he  showed  ability  as  gener^  and  gpvcrzMr,  be  was 
jealous  and  cruel,  and  was  poisoned  in  1349  by  his  wife  Isabella 
Fieschi.  Giovanki,  brother  of  the  preceding,  archbishop  of 
Milan  and  lord  of  the  city  from  1349  to  1354,  was  one  of  the 
most  notable  characters  of  his  time.  He  befriended  Petrarch, 
extended  the  Visconti  sway  over  Bologna  (1350),  defied  Pope 
Clement  VI.,  aimexed  Genoa  (1353),  and  died  on  the  5th  of 
October  1354  after  having  established  the  rule  of  his  family 
over  the  whole  of  northern  Italy  except  Piedmont,  Verona, 
Mantua,  Ferrara  and  Venice.  The  Visconti  from  the  time 
of  Archbishop  Giovanni  were  no  longer  mere  rivals  of  the 
Delia  Tom  or  dependants  on  iraperiah  caprice,  but  real  sove- 
reigns with  a  recognized  power  over  Milan  and  the  surrounding 
territory.  The  state  was  partitioned  on  the  death  of  Giovaimi 
among  his  brother  Stcfano's  three  sons,  Matteo  II.,  Galeazzo  II. 
and  Bemabo.  Matted  II.,  who  succeeded  to  Bologna,  Lodi, 
Piacenza  and  Parma,  abandoned  himself  to  the  most  revolt- 
ing immorality,  and  was  assassinated  In  1335  by  direction 
of  his  brothers,  who  thenceforth  governed  the  state  jointly 
and  with  considerable  ability.  Galeazzo  II.,  who  held  hi& 
court  at  Pavia,  was  handsome  and  distmguisbed.  the  patron 
of  Petrarch,  the  founder  of  the  university  of  Pavia  and  a 
gifted  diplomat.  He  married  his  daughter  Violante  to  the 
duke  of  Garence,  son  of  Edward  HI.  of  England,  giving  a 
dowry  of  200,000  gold  florins;  and  his  son  Cian  Galeazzo  to 
Isabella,  daughter  of  King  John  of  France.  He  died  in  1378. 
Bcsmabo,  who  held  his  court  at  Milan,  was  involved  in  constant 
warfare,  to  defray  the  expenses  of  which  he  instituted  very 
oppressive  taxes.  He  fought  Popes  Innocent  VI.  and  Urban  V., 
who  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  him.  He  foughl  the  em- 
peror Charles  IV.,  who  declared  the  forfeiture  of  his  fief.    He 


VISOONTI-VENOSTA 


129 


endeavoured  to  cieidse.  walk  power  Id  Uie  fUte  after  the  death 
ol  his  broiher*  but  hit  young  nephew  Giaa  Caleano  plotted 
against  turn  and  put  him  to  death  (138s).  Gun  Galsaxio, 
the  most  powerful  of  the  Visoontl,  beome  joint  ruler  of  the 
Milanoie  territories  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  137S  and 
sole  lukr  on  the  death  of  his  uncle  seven  yeacs  later.  He 
founded  the  cathedral  of  Milan,  built  the  Certosa  and  the 
bridge  across  the  Ticino  at  Pavia,  Improved  the  university 
of  Pavia  and  established  the  libniy  there,  and  restored  the 
university  at  Piacenza.  His  bureaucratic  government  was 
exceUisit;  he  was  an  able  and  <«nnoinical  administrator, 
and  was  reputed  to  be  one  of  the  wealthiest  piiDces  of  his  timew 
He  was  ambitious  to  reduce  all  Italy- under  the  sway  of  the 
Viscootl.  He  conquered  Verona  in  1387;  and  in  the  foUowing 
year,  with  the  aid  of  the  Venetians,  took  Padua.  He  plotted 
successfully  against  the  rulers  of  Mantua  and  Ferrara,  and 
now  that  the  whole  x)f  Lombardy  lay  prostrate  before  him  he 
turned  his  attention  to  Tuscany.  In  1399  he  bought  Pisa 
and 'seized  Siena.  The  emperor  Wenceslaus  had  already  con- 
ferred on  him  the  title  of  duke  of  Milan  for  loo^ooo  florins, 
reserving  only  Pisat  and  refused  to  take  acma  aganst  hnn. 
Cian  Galeaszo  took  Perugia,  Xucca  and  Bologna  (i40o~i), 
and  was  besieging  Florence  when  he  died  of  the  plague  (3rd  of 
September  140s)  at  the  age  of  fifty-five  years.  His  sens, 
Giovanni  Maria  and  Filippo  Maria,  were  mere  boys  at  the 
time  of  his  death,  and  were  taken  under  the  protection  of 
the  celebrated  condottiere  Fadno  Cane  de  Cesale;.but  most  of 
Gian  Galeazzo's  conquests  were  lost  to  his  self-seeking  generala. 
GiovANha  Maria  was  proclaimed  duke  of  Milan  in  1403,  dis- 
played an  insane  cruelty,  and  was  killed  in  141a  by  Ghibelline 
partisans.  Fiuppo  Maua,  who  became  nominal  nUer  of  Pavia 
in  1403,  succeeded  his  brother  ^  duke  of  Milan.  Cruel  and 
extremely,  sensitive  about  his  personal  u^ess,  he  nevertheless 
was  a  great  politician,  and  by  ompbying  such  powerful  con- 
dottieri  as  Carmagnola,  Piodnino  and  Francesco  Sfona  he 
managed  to  recover  the  Lombard  portion  of  his  father's  duchy. 
From  his  marriage  with  the  unhappy  widow  of  the  above- 
mentioned  Fadno  Cane  he  received  a  dowry  of  near^  half  • 
million  florins.  ,He  died  in  14471  the  last  of  the  Visoonti  in  direct 
male  line,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  duchy,  after  the  shortlived 
Ambroaian  republ^,  by  Francesco  Sforsa,  who  had  married 
his  daughter  Bianca  in  1441  (see  SvoaXA).  Valenhna  (1366* 
1408),  a  daughter  of  Gian  Gakaazao  and  a  sister  of  the  preoeding, 
married.  Louis  of  Orleans  in  1387,  and  it  was  from  lier  that 
Louis  Xll.  of  France  derived  his  claims  to  the  duchy  of  Milan. 
GABRiELBt  an.  illegitimate  brother,  gained  posiesswn  of  Pisa 
and  other  towns,  but  was  despoiled  and  beheaded  (1407)  by 
Charles  VL's  governor  of  Genoa,  under  whose  protection  be 
had  placed  himsdf.  Among  ooUateral  branches  of  the  Vis- 
Qonti  family  were  the  counts  of  Saliceto,  counts  of  Zagnano, 
lords  of  Brignano,  marquis  of  San  Giorgio  di  Borgoratto,  marquis 
of  Invorio  and  Marquia  Delia  Motta.  Other  branches  attained 
to  some  prominence  in  the  local  history  of  Bari  and  of  Tarento. 
Tebaido  Visqmti  of  Piaceosa  became  Pope  Gregory  X.  in 
la?!.  Among  the  Visconti  lords  of  Fontaneio  was  Gasparo, 
who  died  in  1595  ardibisbop  of  Milan.  An  Ignatius  Visoonti 
was  iixtoenth  general  of  the.  Jesuits  (i75>~55)* 

There  is  a  coattinpocarv  history  of  the  ptiodpal  avmben  of  she 
fanuly  by  Paolo  Gio^o.  oiahop  of  ({ooeta,  which  may  be  bad  in 
aevcial  editions.  See  J.  Burckhardt.  The  OnRzatum  of  the  Ra- 
noiisance  in  Italy,  trans,  by  S.  G.  C.  Mtddletnore  (London.  1898); 

J.  A.  Symonds,  Ate  of  Ou  Despots  (New  Yorit,  i88«);  C.  Maeema. 
Visanii  «  gU  Sform  fid  OastdUt  H  Pasm  (1883);  A.  Mcdin^  £ 


ViseoHH  luUa  poena  tetUemporaiiM  (Mifam*  i39l)i  F.  Mugnier, 
"  Lettres  des  Visconti  dc  Muao  "  in  M4moires  el  documents  de  la 
socUti  saooisienne  d'kistoire  el  d'ardUologU,  vol.  x.  of  the  tecood 
(1896).  (C.H.  Ha.) 


VIS001in-VEK08TA«  BHIUO,  Mabqdis  <x829-  ), 
ItaUaa  statesman,  was  bom  at  Milan  on  the  aand  of  January 
a&s9.  A  disciple  of  Massini,  he  took  part  in  aU  the  aatjp 
Austrian  oonspirades  until  the  ineSectusl  rising  at  Milan,  on 
the  6th  of  Febiuaiy  1853,  of  which  be  had  foretoki  the  failure, 
toJuced  him  to  tmouace  his  Maasiniao  aUagjancf «    Contia^w, 


nevertheless,  has  aaU-Anftriao  propaganda»  he  reodemi  aood 
aervicB  to  the  national  cause,  but  being  molested  by  the  Austrian 
poUcei  was  obliged  in  1850  to  escape  to  Turin,  and  during  the 
war  with  Austria  of  that  year  was  appointed  by  Cavour  laysd 
commissioner  with  the  Garibaldian  forces.  £l«:ted  deputy  in 
1860^  he  accompanied  Farini  on  diplomatic  missipna  to  iiodena 
and  Naples,  aiui  was  subsequently  despatched  to  London  and 
Paris  to  acq^iaint  the  British  ^ad  French  governments  with 
the  course  of  events  in  Italy.  As  a  recompense  for  the  tact 
diq>layed  on  this  occasion,  he  was  given  by  Cavour  a  permanent 
appointment  in  the  Italian  foreign  office,  and  was  subsequently 
appointed  under-aecretary  of  state  by  Count  Pasolini.  Upon 
the  huter's  death  he  beoune  minister  of  foreign  afhurs  (a4th 
March  1863)  ii|  the  Mingbctti  cabinet,  in  which  capacity  be 
negotiated  the.  September  Convention  for  the  evacuation  of 
Rome  by  the  French  troopa:.  Resigning  office  witli  Mingbetti 
in  the  autumn  of  1864,  he  was  in  March  1866  sent  by  La  Marmora 
as  minister  to  Constantinople,  but  was  almost  Immediately 
recalled  and  reappointed  foreign  minister  by  Ricasoli.  Assuntp 
ing  office  on  the  monow  of  the  second  battle  of  Custozza,  be 
succeeded  in  preventing  Austria  from  burdening  Italy  with 
a  proportion  of  the  Austrian  imperial  debt,  in  addition  to  the 
Venetian  debt  proper.  The  fall  of  RicasoU  in  February  1867 
deprived  him  for  a  time  of  his  office,  1i>ut  in  December  r86o  be 
entered  the  Lanza-SeUa  cabinet  as  foreign  minister,  and  retamed 
his  portfolio  in  the  succeeding  Mingbetti  cabinet  until  the  fall 
of  the  Right  in  1876.  During  this  long  period  be  was  called 
upon  to  conduct  the  delicate  negotiations  connected  with  the 
Franco-German  War,  the  occupation  of  Romel>y  the  Italians,  and 
the  consequent  destruction  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope^ 
the  Law  of  Guarantees. and  the  visits  of  Victor  Emmanuel  U. 
to  Vienna  and  Berlin.  «Upon  the  occasion  of  his  marriage 
with  the  dauj^ter  of  th^  marquis  Alfieri  di  Sostegoo,  gramf- 
niece  of  Cavour,  he  was  created  marquis  by  the  king.  For  a 
time  he  remained  a  member  of  the  parliamentary  opposition, 
and  in  1886  was  nmninated  senator.  In  1894,  after  Hghtern 
years'  absence  from  active  political  life,  he  was  chosen  to  be 
Italian  arbitrator  an  the  Bering  Sea  question,  and  in  1896  once 
more  accepted  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  Di  Rudini 
cabinet  at  a  juncture  when  the  disasters  in  Abyssinia  and  the 
Indiscreet  pul^icaUon  of  an  Abyssinian  Green  Book  had  rendered 
the  international  position  of  Italy  exceedingly  difficult.  His 
first  care  was  to  improve  Franco-Italian  relations  by  negotiating 
.with  Franco  a  treaty  with  regard  to  Tunis.  During  &  ncgo- 
tiatimis  relating  to  the  Cretan  question  and  the  Graeco-Turldsh 
War,  he  secured  for  Italy  a  worUiy  part  in  the  European  Concert 
and  joined  Lord  Salisbury  in  saving  Greece  from  the  loss  of 
Thessa^y.  Resigmng  office  in  May  1898,  on  a  question  of 
inteisal  policy,  he  once  more  retired  to  private  life,  but  in 
May  1899  again  assumed  the  management  of  foreign  aflairs 
m  the  second  Pelloux  cabinet,  and  continued  to  hold  office  in 
the  succeeding  Saracco  cabinet  until  its  fall  in  February  i9or> 
During  this  period  his  attention  was  devoted  chiefly  to  the 
Chbiese  problem  and  to  the  maintenance  of  the  equilibrium 
in  the  Meditemmean  and  tho  Adriatic.  In  regard  to  the 
Mediterranean  he  esublisbed  an  Italo-French  agreement  by 
which  France  tadUy  undertook. to  leave  Italy ,«  free  hand  in 
Tripoli,  and  Italy  not  to  interfere  with  French  policy  in  the 
farteriof  of  Morocco;  and,  in  regard  to  the  Adriatic,  he  came 
to  an  understanding  with  Austria  guaranteeing  the  status  otic 
in  Albania.  Prudence  and  sagadty,  coupled  witk. unequalled 
experience  of  foreign  policy,  enabled  him  to  assure  to  Italy  W 
full  poftioa  of  infliience  in  international  affairs,  and  secured 
for  MmseU  the  unanimous  esteem  of  European  cabinets.  In 
necognitioB  of  hia  services  he  was  created  Knight  of  the  AonuA- 
alata.  by  Victor  Emmanuel  UL  on  the  occasion  of  the  bictV 
of  Princess  Volanda  MargheriU  of  Savoy  (xst  of  June  igaii, 
U  Februa^  1906  he  was  Italian  delegate  to  the  Morocco  cour 
femiM  at  Algedias. 

Ati  account  of  V&cond-Venorta's  eariy  fife  (jAo^m  t6  l«5^ViS 
hi  an  ibteNsclne  vohime  br  his  bsotbav  Gkfvaani  :Viaeont» 
" --         '  (Milai^  19<H).  . 


|»v«ain 
Vsaosti^ 


I30 


VISCOUNT— VISION 


mSOOUn  (tbrough  O.  ft.  tiseomftt  mod.  vie&mie,  from  Low 
Lat.  9ue-ameSt  cf.  Portui;.  vi$cotide,  ltd.  witMfe),  the  title 
of  the  foaith  nnk  of  the  Eoropean  nobility.  In  the  British 
peerage  it  intervenes  between  the  dignities  of  earl  and  baron. 
The  title  is  now  pnrely  one  of  honour,  hainng  long  been 
dissociated  from  any  special  office  or  functions. 

In  the  Carolingian  epoch  the  tice-comUes,  or  wnsn  annUis, 
were  the  deputies  or  vicars  of  the  counts,  whose  offieiid  pewera 
they  exercised  by  ddegation,  and  from  these  the  vfacowrts  of 
the  feudal  period  were  undoubtedly  derived.  Soon  after  the 
counts  became  hovditaiy  the  same  happened  in  the  case 
of  their  lieutenants;  e.g.  in  Narbonae,  NImes  and  Alby  the 
viscounts  had,  accordmg  to  A.  MoUnier,  acquired  hereditary 
rights  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  xoth  century.  Viscouilt- 
cies  thus  developed  Into  actual  fiefs,  with  their  own  iurisdiction, 
domain  and  seigniorial  rights,  and  could  be  divided  or  even 
transmitted  to  females.  Viscounts,  however,  continued  for 
some  time  to  have  no  more,  than  the  status  of  lieutenants,  call* 
ing  themselves  either  simply  tice^omiUs,  or  adding  to  this  title 
the  name  of  the  count^ip  from  whidi  they  derived  their 
powers.  It  was  not  till  the  12th  century  that  the  univeraal 
tendency  to  territorialize  the  feudal  dominions  affected  the 
viscounrdes  with  the  rest,  and  that  the  viscounts  began  to 
take  the  name  of  the  most  important  of  their  patrimonial 
domains.  Thus  the  viscounts  <k  PoitierB  called  themselves 
viscounts  of  Thouars,  and  those  of  Toulouse  viscounts  of 
Bruniqud  and  Montelar.  From  this  time  the  significance  of 
the  title  was  eactremdy  various.  Some  viscounts,  notaUy  in 
the  duchy  of  Aquitaine  and  the  county  of  Toulouse,  of  which 
the  sise  made  an  effective  centralized  government  impossible, 
were  great  barons,  whose  authority  extended  over  whole 
provinces,  and  who  disputed  for  power  on  equal  terms  with 
counts  and  dukes.  Ebewbere,  on  the  other  hand,  e.g.  In  the  tie 
de  France,  Champagne,  and  a  great  part  of  Burgundy,  the 
Hcomtes  continued  to  be  half  feudatories,  hslf  oflSdals  of  the 
eounts,  with  the  same  functions  and  rank  in  the  feudal  hierarchy 
as  the  chatelalns;  their  powers  were  Jeakrasly  limited  and, 
with  the  organization  of  ihe  system  of  prMts  and  baiUis  in  the 
13th  century,  practically  disappeared.  In  the  royal  domains 
especially,  these  petty  feudatories  could  not  maintain  them- 
selves against  the  growing  power  of  the  crown,  and  they  were 
early  assimilated  to  the  pritdts;  thus  there  is  do  record  of  a 
9k0mU  at  Paris  after  1077. 

In  Normandy,  where  from  the  first  the  central  power  had 
been  strong,  ticomtes  vppeutd  at  a  very  early  date  as  deputies 
of  the  coimts  (afterwards  dukes)  of  the  Normans:  **  They  are 
both  personal  compi^nlons  and  hereditary  nobles."  When 
load  Norman  counts  began  in  the  xxth  century,  some  of  them 
had  fk^mtes  under  them,  but  the  normal  tkomte  was  still  a 
deputy  of  the  duke,  and  Henry  I.  largely  replaced  the  hereditary 
hoMers  of  the  vicomUs  by  officials.  **By  the  time  of  the 
Conqueror  the  judicial  functions  of  the  viscount  w^re  fully 
ncognizcd,  and  extended  over  the  greater  part  of  Normandy." 
Eventually  almost  the  whole  of  Normandy  was  divided  mto 
administrative  viscountdes  or  bailiwicks  by  the  end  of 
the  X2th  century.  When  the  Normans  conquered  England, 
they  applied  the  term  viscounle  or  tkecomes  to  the  sheri& 
of  the  EngHsh  system  (see  SBxam),  whose  office,  how- 
ever, was  quite  distinct  and  was  hardly  affected  by  the 
Conquest. 

Nearly  four  centuries  later  "  viscount  '^  was  introduced  as  a 
peerage  style  into  England,  when  its  king  was  once  more  lord 
of  Normandy.  John,  Lord  Beaumont,  K.G.,  who  had  been 
created  count  of  Boulogne  m  1436,  was  nutde  Viscount  Beau> 
mont,  February  l9^  X440,  and. granted  precedence  ov*  an 
barons,  wUch  was  doubtless  the  reason  for  his  creation.  Within 
a  year  the  feudal  vkomti  of  Beaumont  hi  Normandy  was  granted 
to  him  and  the  heiis  male  of  his  body  on  the  ground  that  he 
traced  his  descent  from  that  district.  In  1446  Lord  Bourchter, 
who  held  the  Norman  countship  of  Eu,  was  similady  made 
a  visooont.  The  oldest  viscouatcy  now  on  the  roll  is  that  of 
Hcrefoid,  created  li^  \$^,  but  the  Iiisli  vitoountcy  of  Gonaao- 1 


ston  is  as  old  as  f4j&.  '^le-dfgfA)^  was  sparfngly  confer rej  in 
the  peerage  of  England  tiH  recent  times,  -wtien  the  number  of 
viscounts  was  iticr^ased  by  bestowii^  the  dignily  on  retiring 
speakers  {e.g-.  Viscounts  Canterbury^  Hampden,  Fed,  Selby) 
and  minbters  who  accepted  peerages  {t.g.  Viscounts  Melville, 
Halifax,  Knutsford,  Llandaff,  Cross,  Rtdley,  Goschea,  St 
Aldwyn,  Morley  of  Blackburn,  Wolveriiampton). 

A  viscount  is  "Right  Honourable,"  and  h  styled  ""My 
Lord."  His  wife,  also  **  Right  Honourable,"  b  a  "  viscduntcss," 
and  is  styled  *'  My  Lady."  All  their  sons  and  daughters  are 
'*  Honourable."  'Hie  coronet  first  granted  by  James  I.  has  oa 
the  g<rfdea  drclet  a  row  of  fourteen  small  pearls  set  in  contact, 
of  which  number  in  representations  nine  are  shown.  The  scarlet 
parliamentary  robe  of  a  \iseount  has  two  and  a  half  doublings 
of  ermine. 

See  A.  Ludhalre.  tfanuet  des  instUutions  ftan^alset  (Paris,  18^3). 
bibliorraphy  on  p.  s8i:  Stapleton't  JRo/Wi  SeatcarU  ihrmanniaex 
Powicke's  '  The  Angtvia  Adminittratioii  d  Normandy  '*  (£ag. 
H%H.  Ra.  .vols,  xxi.,  xxli.) ;  Lordt>*  Rtp^ts  on  the  Digmly  #/  a  Pteri 
Courthope  Kicdas'a  Htsknic  Peerage., 

VUBim  (Sanskrit, "  the  worker,"  from  root  mJk,  *to  work  **), 
a  solar  deity,  in  later  Hindu  mythology  a  god  of  the  first  im« 
portance,  one  of  the  supreme  trinity  with  Brahma  and  Siva,  but 
in  the  Rig  Veda  only  a  minor  deity.  In  the  Vedic  8Ci^ux«» 
his  only  anthropomorphic  characteristics  are  the  frequently 
mentioned  strides  that  be  takes,  and  his  being  a  youth  vast  in 
body.  His  essential  feature  is  the  three  strides  (vi-kram)  with 
which  he  traverses  the  universe.  Two  of  these  steps  are  visible 
to  tnen,  but  the  third  or  highest  Is  beyond  mortal  sight.  These 
steps  are  symbdic  of  the  rising,  culminating  and  settmg  of  the 
sun,  or  aftemativdy  the  ooune  of  the  solar  deity  through  tha 
th^e  divisions  of  the  universe.  To-day  Vishnu  is  adored  by  tha 
Vishnavite  sects  as  the  equal  or  even  the  superior  of  Brahma, 
and  is  styled  the  Preserver.  He  is  represented  with  four  arms, 
and  black  in  cofour;  in  one  hand  he  holds  a  club  and  in  the 
others  a  shell,  a  discus  and  a  lotus  respectively.  He  rides 
on  the  Garuda,  half  man  and  half  bird,  having  the  head,  wings, 
beak  and  talons  of  an  eagle,  and  human  body  and  limbe^  its 
face  being  white,  its  wings  rod  and  its  body  golden.  In  his 
character  as  preserver  of  men  ^hnu  has  from  time  to  time 
become  incarnate  to  rid  the  worid  of  some  great  evil  (see  also 
Brahmanisu  and  Hinduisii). 

See  A.  A.  Macdonell.  Vedie  Mythology  (Strassburg,  1807): 
Sir  W.  Muir.  Original  SatukrU  Texts,  iv.  63-398:  Sir  m!  Modern 
Williams^  Brahmauinn  <md  Hinduism,  iii.  v.  vi. 

VlfllOlf  (from  Lat.  tidere,  to  see),  or  Sicht,  the  function,  in 
physiology,  of  the  organ  known  as  the  eye  (9.V.).  The  sense  of 
vision  is  ocdted  by  the  influence  of  light  on  the  retina,  the 
special  tennind  orglan  connoted  with  the  optic  nerve.  By 
exdtation  of  the  retina,  a  change  is  induced  in  the  optic  nerve 
fibres,  and  b  conveyed  by  these  to  the  brain,  the  result  berog  a 
luminous  perception,  or  what  we  call  a  sensation  of  light  or 
cdour.  If  fight  were  to  act  uniformly  over  the  retina,  then 
would  be  no  bnage  of  the  source  of  the  light  formed  on  that 
structure,  and  consequently  there  would  be  only  a  generd 
consciousness  of  light,  without  reference  to  any  particular 
object.  One  of  the  first  conditions,  therefore,  of  vision  for  usefd 
purposes  b  the  formation  of  an  imace  on  the  retina.  To  effect 
thb,  Just  as  in  a  photographic  camera,  i^fractive  structures  must 
be  placed  in  front  of  the  retina  which  will  so  bend  luminous 
rays  as  to  bring  them  to  a  focus  on  the  retina,  and  thus  produce 
an  image.  Throughout  the  animd  kingdom  various  arrange^ 
ments  are  found  for  thb  purpose;  bat  they  may  be  all  rderred 
to  three  types,  namdy— (i)  eye-specks  or  eye^ots,  met  with -in 
Medusae,  Annelidae,  &c.;  (2)  the  compound  eye,  as  found  in 
insects  and  crustaceans;  and  (3)  the  simple  eye,  common,  to 
all  vertebrates.  The  tye-s pecks  nay  be  regarded  simply  as 
cxpansfons  of  optk:  nerve  filaments,  coveted  by  a  traa^uucent 
membrane,  but  having  no  refitactlve  media,  so  that  the  creature 
wodd  have  the  consciousness  of  light  only,  or  a  simple  Inmixwus 
impression,  by  which  it  might  dbifaigdsh  Hght  from  darknesa 
The  mispnmd  syt  consisla  essentially  of  a  ttrics  of 


PHYSIGIL  eAIMS|> 


amt-Vkit  bodies,  anaasMt  ift  •  ndkite  mumer  afunst  the 
iaoer  suiface  oi  the  coraea,  with  which  thdi  b«fM  gire  muted, 
while  their  epices  are  coanected  with  the  ends  of  the  optic 
filaments.  As  each  cone  is  separated  from  its  neighbours,  it 
admits  only  a  lay  of  light  parallel  with  its  axis,  and  iu  apex 
represent^  oo^  a  portion  of  the  image,  which  must  be  otule  up, 
like  a  mofaic^work^  of  as  many  parts  as  there  are  eone|  in  the 
eye.  When  the  cones  are  of  considerable  length,  it  is  ^vident, 
from  their  form  and  direction,  their  apices  being  directed  in- 
wards, that  the  oblique  nys-emamtlng  from  ahtiainoiw'  surface 
will  be  oat  oflf,  and  that  only  those  lays  proceeding  atong  the 
axis  of  the  oone  will  fModuce  an  effect.  Thus  distinctness  or 
shaipness  of  definitioa  will  be  oecured.  The  sixe  of  the  visual 
field  will  depend  on  the  form  of  the  jeye,  the  oultrmost  cones 
marking  its  limits.  Consequently  the  size  of  the  vinial  field  will 
depend  on  the  si4e  '«f  the  segntwt  of  tl»e  splien  UntaAg  it$ 
surfatce.  The  <yes  of  Aialty  inaects  have  a  iiekl  of  about  Jhalf  a 
sphere,  so  that  (he  cteature  wiU  seeobjecls  before  and  behind  it 
as  well  as  those  at  Ifae  side.  On  the  othef  hand,  ia  matoy  Ibfc 
eyes  have  scaiQBly  ajty  0Qnvexity»  m  that  they  must  have  a 
nan«w  field  of  vinon.  for  anatomical  <l»taib»  and  diseases  of 
the  eye,  see  ]£vE{  the  patfietogical  aq)ects  of  riahn  itself  are 
trcatcd  St  the  end  of  Miis  article. 

I.  PHYSiCAt  Causes*  or  VbsOm 

A  luminous  sensation  may  be  excited  by  various  modes  d 
irritation  of  the  retina  or  of  the  optic  nerve.  Pressure,  cutting 
or  eledrical  shocks  may  act  as  stimuli,  but  the  normal  exdtation 
is  the  mflucnCB  of  H^t  on  the  retina.  Vwottk  a  physical  point  ci 
view,  light  is  a  mode  of  movement  oocurtxng  tn  a  inedium, 
termed  the  aether,  which  pervades  all  space;  but  the  pbysiologbt 
studies  the  operation  of  these  movements  on  the  sentient 
organism  as  resulting  in  consciousness  of  the  particular  kind 
which  we  term  a  luminous  impression.  Outdde  of  the  body, 
such  movements  have  been  studied. with  great  acooacy;  but 
the  physiological  effects  depend  upon  such  complex  conditions 
as  to  make  it  impossible  to  state  them  in  the  same  predse 
way.  Thus,  when  we  look  at  the  spectrum,  we  are  conscious  ol 
fhe  sensations  of  red  and  violet,  referable  to  its  twor  extremities: 
the  physicist  states  that  red  is  produced  by  39a  billions  of 
impuls<^  on  the  retina  per  second,  and  that  violet  corresponds 
to  757  billions  per  second;  but  he  has  arrived  at  this  informa- 
tkm  by  inductive  reasoning  from  facts  which  have  not  at  present 
any  physiok>gicaI  explanation.  We  cannot '  at  present  trace 
any  connexion,  as  cause  and  effect,  between  392  billions  of 
fmpulaes  on  the  retina  per  second  and  a  sensation  of  ted.  Below 
the  red  and  above  the  violet  ends  of  the  spectrum  there  are 
vibrations  which  do  not  excite  luminous  sensations.  In  the 
first  case,  below  the  red,  the  effect  as  a  sensation  is  heat;  and 
above  the  violet  the  result  is  that  of  chemical  activity.  Thus 
the  method  of  dispersion  U  Nght,  as  fe  followed  in  passing  a 
ray  through  a  prism,  enables  us  to  recognise  these  general 
facts:  (z)  rays  below  the  red  excite  thermal  impressions; 
(3)  from  the  lower  red  up  to  the  middle  of  the  violet,  the  thermal 
rays  become  gradually  weaker  until  they  have  nO  effect  ^ 
(3)  from  the  lower  red  to  the  extreme  violet,  they  cause  luminous 
impressions,  which  reach  their  greatest  intensity  in  the  yellow; 
and  (4)  from  about  the  end  of  the  yellow-  to  far  beyond  thfr 
extreme  violet,  the  rays  have  gradually  a  less-  and  less  luminous 
effect,  but  they  have  the  power  of  exciting  such  chemical 
changes  as  are  produced  in  photography.  In  general  terms, 
therefore,  the  lower  end  of  the  spectrum  may  be  called  thermal, 
the  middle  luminous,  and  the  upper  actinic  or  chemical;  but 
the  three  merge  into  and.  overlap  one  another.  It  may  be 
observed  that  the  number  of  vibrations  in  the  extreme  violet 
is  not  double  that  of  the  low  red,  so  that  the  sensibility  of  the 
eye  to  vibrations  of  light  does  not  range  through  an  octave. 
The  Qltn-violet  rays  may  act  on  the  retina  in  certain  condi- 
slsns,  as  when  they  are  reflMed  by  a  sohition  ^  sulphate  of 
quinine,  constituting  the  phenomenon  of  fluorescence.  Far 
above  the  violet  are  the  ROntgen  radiatioos  and  piobftbly 


visiQisr 


i3t 


Fio«  i.«-'Refractioo  of  Light. 


s.  CvncAL  AttAMBtiaeinib.  ov  tub  Emi 
I.  (kneral. — ^When  light  traverses  any  homogeneous  trans- 
parent inedium,  such  as  the  air,  it  pssses  on  ia  a  straight  course 
with  a  certain  velocity;  but  if  it  meet  with  any  other  trans- 
parent body  of  a  different  density,  part  of.  it  is  reflected  or 
returned  to  the  first  medium;  whihi  the  remainder  is  propagated 
through  the  second  medium  in  a  different  direction  and  i^th  a 
]  different  velocity.  Thus  we  may  account  for  the  phenomena  of 
refle<;t)Qn  of  light  ({.«.)  and  of  ref  raaion  (^.s.).  Let  o^,  in  fig.  i ,  be 
a  plane  surface  of  some  trans- 
parent si|bstanoe,  say  a  sheet  'fL 
of  glass;  a  ray,  of,  perpendi- 
cular to  the  surface,  will  pass 
'througfr- without  refraction; 
but  an  oblique  ray,  ef,  will 
be  sent  in  the  direction  «A. 
If  the  r^  cA  had  passed 
from  a  dense  into  a  rarer 
meoiumy  then  the  iflrection 
would  have  been  «g.  It 
might  also  be  shown  that  the 
sine  of  Iho  angle  of  incidence  alwtys  bosis  a  certain  ratio,  to 
the  sine  of  the  angle  of  refraction;  this  ratio  is  termed  the 
indtx  of  rcff actum.  Thus,  ii^f^Jf  pM*  ^m  ^  ^^  water,  the 
sine  of  the  angle  of  inddenoe  will  have  to  the  sine  ol  the  angle 
of  the  refraction  the  ratio  of  4:3,  or  f. 

Before  a  ray  of  light  can  reach  the  retba,  it  must  pass  through 
a  number  of  tran^xuent  and  refractive  surfaces.  The  ^e 
is  a  nearly  spherical  organ,  formed  of  transparent  parts  situated 
behind  each  other,  and  surrounded  by  various  membranous 
structures,  the  anterior  part  of  which  is  also  transparent.  The 
transparent  parts  are — (i)  the  cornea;  (a)  the  cqutMu  ik«sieiir, 
found  in  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye;  (3)  the  crystaUint 
tens,  formed  by  a  transparent  convex  body,  the  anterior  sur- 
face of  which  is  less  convex  than  the  posterior;  and  (4)  the 
vitreous  humour,  filling  the  posterior  chamber  of  the  eye..  The 
ray  must  therefore  traverse  the  cornea,  aqueous  humour,  lens 
and  vitreous  humour.  As  the  two  surfaces  of  the  cornea 
are  parallel,  the  rays  practically  suffer  no  deviation  in  passing 
throtigh  that  structure,  but  they  are  bent  or  refracted  during 
their  transmission  through  the  other  media. 

From  the  optical  point  of  view,  the  eye  may  be  regarded 
as  a  dioptric  system  consisting  of  various  refractive  media.  In 
such  a  8ystem,'as  shown  by  K.  F.  Gauss,  there  are  six  cardinal 
points,  which  have  a  certain  relation  to  each  other.  These  are-^ 

(1)  Two  focal  (oiiUs*.  every  ray  passing  through  tht  first  focal  point 
becomes,  after  its  refraction,  parallel  to  the  axis,  and  every  ray 
which  before  refraction  ia  parallel  to  the  axli  pasaes  after  its  ref  radtion 
to  the  second  focal  point ;  (3)  two  principal  points :  every  ray  which 
passes  through  the  Arat  poiat  before  ref ractkw  passes  after  ref rae« 
tion  through  the  second,  and  every  ray  which  passes  through  any 
point  <4  a  plane  elevated  00  a  perpendicular  axis  from  the  first 
principal  pomt  (the  first  'principal  pUne)  passes  through  the  corre- 
sponding point  tof  pn  analogous  p&ne  raised  upon  the  axis  at  the 
secood  pnacit>aV  point  (the  soetnd  trindpal  plane) ;  and  (3)  two 
nodal  points/  which  QOrrespond  to  tne^  optical  centres  of  the  two 
principal  planes  iust  alludca  to.  The  dtstanoe  of  the  first  principal 
point  from  the  nrst  focal  point  Is  called  "the  anterior  focal  length, 
and  the  term  posterior  food  tengfh  h  applied  to  the  distance  of  the 
posterior  focal  .point  front  the  second  principal  poiift.  Usting  has 
given  die  following  measurements  ill  millimeties  from  the  centra 
of  Uie  cornea  for  the  cai^inal  points  in  an  ideal  eye:— 


Anterior  focal  point     .'  12*8336 

Posterior  focal  point    •  33*6470 

First  principal  point    .  3*1746 

Second  principal  point.  a«S734 


First  nodal  point  7*3420 

Second  nodal  potn^  7-6398 

Anterior  focal  length  .'  15*0072 

PosBsrior  focal  length  .   ao*0746 


Aviewof  SQohanidealeyeissbownlnfig.  3.    . 

The  remaining  measureoieats  of  such  an  eye  are  as  follows^— 

Radii  of  Curvature 
Of  Mtforfor  face  of  cornea  ••  6  milBsKtns. 
Of  anterior  face  of  lens      ■  10       ,,' 
Of  posterior  face  of  lens     •  6       „ 


Indices  of  Refraction 
Aqueous  humour 
Crystalline  lens 
vnraom  niMRMr         •      «       • 


.  ^-1-3379 
W -1-3379 


»3» 


(OPTICAL  MtKAHcraiBHTS 


Fio.  i.-TnntviTK  Section  of  an  Idol  or  SdwEUiiqiK  Eye 
A.  Hiniii^  •(  Vna:  SC,  KlenHici  5.  Schkcnni'i  ciiul;  CH. 
chnraidi  I.  in>:  M.  ciliary  nuvk;  R.  ntiu:  N,  opic 
MTRi  HA.  aquKMi  bamout:  L.  cryiulhw  leni,  the  (nttrior 
et  the  double  Hum  on  iu  I*ce  ihowiiii  u  fom  Airing  iccmainDcta. 
tbni  HV.  vClnoul  btinow;  DN.  launul  rtctu*  inuicle;  DE, 
cxunnl  netmi  YY',  principal  oplicil  aniii  *«.  viuial  am, 
aiklng  sn  aule  oT  s*  wiih  the  opilol  axii;  C,  ccnire  ol  the  oculai 
•lobe.  7»*  ctr*inal  poUai  </  tulnw:  HiH,.  prinnjal  pointi; 
ItiKfc  nodal  poiim:  FJ',.  pcudp*]  racal  jmma  r*«  J»^<ni 
fniUali  aldH^inr  la  (n>aiii-r«Jn;  H,  pnncipal  pginu 
uniled;  fc*!,  piiudpal  foci  duiiiii:  the  rcpcnc  oi  accmmnodatwn ; 
•'i*'i.  principal  foci  during  tbe  naxiBumol  accominadaiion; 
O.  fuwd  nodal  poinrv. 
nodal  point!  respectively  or  Wenticat.  Thui  we  ray  cflartnid 
a  mtwrf  nr.  in  which  ttie  principal  point  !•  i-M4«  mm-  behmd  tbi 
cornea  and  Iba  ilnfle  nodal  point  »  1-4764  mm.  m  [lonl  ol  Ihi 
pcwurior  lurfaca  of  Ike  tens.   The  nfraciini  wiriKa,  or  lent,  ku  • 


I.  TlH  Fimt 
be  weU   tlliutn 
If  properly  focused, 
glut  pUte  at  the  back  of  the 


i  wiUi  the  . 


..  K  candle  flai 

rot  in  lurmiriB  an  inverted  image  ii  iUuslmtcd  by 
the  pencil  oI  iay»  proceeding  from  0  ii  brought 


Fta  «.— Fodutloa  al  Ciidei  of  DHorioK 

i.  or  bdM  it  M  M  /,  or,  ia  atkcr  wotdt.  If  the  mini,  io  pUo* 
of  bring  M  F,  be  Ib  (he  poridMB  C  or  H,  then  wlU  bt  ■  luodnoiM 

the  retina  wfll  be  kOccted.    The  fix  of  thcM  iUvikm  drdei 
dependi  en  (he  dbUME  tram  (he  retJM  ol  th*  poimt  whtte 


be  on  d'.    The  Kitena  F  li^O  A 


ilhcEipcrimcmofSchein 

_   _      .  I  placed  behind  it 

a  card  perioraied  by  two  bale*  A  and 
mirous  point  a  ra  pau  throng  iheae  bo] 


.  (lie  focal  vould  then 


Mmai^on.h 


object,  My  ■ 


h  (.)  it  i 


vened;  (i)  it  ti  diirp  and 
cuniely  focused  on  the  retina;  and 
nds  on  the  visual  angle.  If.  we  looh  at  1  distant 
Lar,  the  rayi  reaching  the  eye  are  parallel,  and 
ough  the  refractive  media  they  are  focmed 
tt  the  posterior  focal  point — that  ii.  on  the  retina.  A  line 
from  the  luminaui  point  on  the  retina  puaing  llinjuch  the 
Bodil  point  i>  called  the  Jiiu  a/  dirtitin.  Ii  the  luminoui 
object  be  not  nearet  than,  oay,  60  yda.  the  Imafe  ii  Mill 
brought  to  a  focus  on  (he  retina  willraDl  any  eflort  on  the 
part  ol  the  eye.  Wittun  Ihlj  dislince,  supposing  the  condition 
of  the  eye  to  be  the  s.-inie  as  in  looUng  ai  a  star,  the  image 
would  be  formed  somewhat  behind  the  posterior  for*l  point, 
and  (be  effeci  would  be  an  indisiinci  ImpreialoD  on. the  retbo. 
To  obviate  this,  for  near  diotancet,  actommodalion,  Io  as  to 
adapt  the  eye,  is  fSected  by  a  mechanism  to  be  afterwards 
described. 

When  nya,  reflected  from  on  object  or  coming  tram  a  lumin- 
ous point,  ore  not  bmught  to  an  accurate  focus  on  the  retina, 
the  image  it  not  distinct  in  consequence  of  the  formation  of 
tirefci  0/  dijujiba,  the  production  of  which  will  be  rendered 
evident  by  fig.  4.  F'tom  the  point  A  luminous  rays  enter 
the  eye  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  the  hind  oi  wbicb  Bill  depend 


HtkeeytbeplMcdaio,  only  one  image  will  be  Ken;  b«i  if  .t  be 
placed  Bther  in  the  plane  of  F  or  D.  then  two  iroace.  ■  ill  be  setn, 

he  rirJlS'o?d'ifln^'3'SniKn^nn™.  and  only  in  the  plane  E 
will  Ibere  tx  sharp  defiaitloo  ol  dte  Image. 

To  uodentuid  the  fonnation  of  as  image  on  the  niuui, 
siqiposc  a  line  dniwB  from  each  ol  its  two  «iti«aiilic«  to  the 
nodal  point  >itd  oiatinued  onwards  to  the  retina,  as  in  Sg.  6, 
where  the  visual  angle  ii  t.  It  Is  evident  that  its  siie  will 
depend  on  the  (lie  of  the 
object,  Ukd  the  distance  el  the 
object  from  the  eye.  Thva, 
alio,  obfccu  d[  diSeroil  site*.  , 
t,  d,  I  in  fig.  6,  may  be  ■       " 


listances  liom  the  eye.    The 

iu  ol  the  letinal  image  may 

K  calculated  il  we  know  the 

siie  of   the   object,  iU  dis- 

ance  (rem  the  nodal  point  •, 

and  the  distance  of  the  nodal 

«inl  from  the  potteriot  fucm 

>l   A  be  the  aiie  of  the  1 

nodal    point,    and    C    the   di 

T^    smallnt    v-iwol    ■ 


ob^,  B  ill  diuance  fmn  tho 
lux  of  p  iroDi  the  ntlno, 
retinal  image  t  —  lfi-^-is)IB. 


1  ht  obKTved  i*  to  McondK  b 


OPTKM.  A(tSAMCEI4»(79 


vmoH 


'2S 


coRcspomling  to  this  ai«le  is  •004  min.,iieariy  tlie  diameter 

of  a  sijDi^  retinal  rod  or  cone.    Two  objects,  tHerefore,  included 

in  a  visual  angle  of  less  than  60  seconds,  appear  as  one  point. 

A  small  visual  angle  is  in  most  eyes  a  conidiiion  of  sharpness 

of  definition.    With  a  large  angle,  objects  appear  less  sharply 

marked.    Acateness  is  determined  by  a  few  retinal  elements, 

or  even  only  one,  being  affected.    A  very  minute  image,  if 

thrown  on.  a  single  retinal  element,  is  apparently  sufficient 

to  excite  it.    Thus  it  Is  possible  to  see  a  brilliant  point  in  an 

angle  even  so  small  as  i  of  a  second,  a<id  a  sharp  eye  can  see 

a  body  the  ^th  of  a  line  in  diameter— that  Is,  about  the  rbth 

part  of  an  inch. 

3.  The  Optical  Drfects'oJ  UU  £ye.-^As  9h  optical  Instrument, 

the  eye  is  defective;  but  from  habit,  and  want  of  attention, 

its  defects  are  not  appreciated,  and  consequently  they  have 

little  or  00  influence  on  our  sensations.    These  defecU  are 

cbieily  of  two  kinds— (i)  those  due  U>  the  curvature  of  the 

refractive  surfaces,  and  (2)  those  due  to  the  dispersion  of  light 

by  the  refractive  media. 

(a)  Aberration  of  ^^A«rtc»ry.— Suppose,  as  In.fig.  7>  ^  A  K 

M  to   be  n   refractive 

surface    on     which 

parallel    rays    from 

L  to  S  impinge,  it 

will    be    seen    that 

-|.j  those    rays    passing 

^   near  the  drcumfer- 

cncfe  are  brought  to 

a  focus  at  P,  and 

those   passing    near 

17      *     e  u    •    •  *u-     ..  tl>«  centre  at  P— 

Fic.  7.-Sphcrical  Abcrmtion.  intermediate       rays 

being  focused  at  N.  Thus  on  the  portion  of  the  axis 
between  F  and  P  there  will  be  a  series  of  focal  points, 
and  the  effect  will  be  a  blurred  and  bent  image.  In  the  eye 
this  defect  is  to  a  large  extent  corrected  by  the  following 
arrangements:  (i)  the  iris  cuts  off  the  outer  and  more 
stron^y  refracted  rays;  (2)  the  curvature  of  the  cornea  is 
more  ellipsoidal  than  spherical,  and  consequently  those 
farthest  from  the  axis  are  least  deviated;  (3)  the  anterior 
and  posterior  curvatures  of  the  lens  are  such  that  the 
one  corrects,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  action  of  the  other; 
and  (4)  the  structure  of  the  lens  is  such  that  its  power  of  re- 
fraction diminishes  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference,  and 
consequently  the  rays  farthest  from  the  axis  are  less  refracted. 
(6)  Astigmatism. — ^Another  defect  of  the  eye  is  due  to  different 
meridians  having  different  degrees  of  curvature.  This  defect 
is  known  as  astigmatism.  It  may  be  thus  detected.  Draw 
on  a  sheet  of  white  paper  a  vertical  and  a  horizontal  line  with 
ink,  crossing  at  &  right  angle;  at  the  point  of  distinct  vision, 
it  will  be  found  impossible  to  see  the  lines  with  equal  dHtinct- 
nesf  at  the  same  time;  to  see  the  horizontal  line  distinctly 
the  paper  must  be  brought  near  the  eye,  and  removed  from  it 
to  see  the  verticaL  In  the  cornea  the  vertical  meridian  has 
generally  a  shorter  radius  of  curvature,  and  is  consequently 
more  refractive  than  the  horizontal.  The  meridians  of  the 
lens  may  also  vary;  but',  as  a  rule,  the  asymmetry  of  the 
cornea  is  greater  than  that  of  the  lens.  The  optical  explana- 
tion of  the  defect  will  be  understood  with  the  aid  of  fig.  8. 
Thus,  suppose  the  vertical  meridian  C  A  D  to  be  more  strongly 
curved  than  the  horizontal  F  A  E,  the  rays  which  fall  on  C  A  D 
will  be  brought  to  a  focus  G,  and  those  falling  on  F  A  £  at  B.  If 
we  divide  the  pencil  of  rays  at  successive  points,  G,  H,  I,  K,  B, 
by  a  section  perpendicular  to  A  B,  the  various  forms  it  would 
present  at  these  points  are  seen  in  the  figures  underneath,  so  that 
if  the  eye  were  placed  at  G,  it  would  see  a  horizontal  line  e  a';  if 
at  H,  an  ellipse  with  the  long  axis  a  a'  parallel  to  A  B;  if  at  I,  a 
circle;  if  at  K,  an  ellipse,  with  the  long  axis,  6  (,  at  right  angles 
to  A  B;  and  if  at  B,  a  vertical  line  h  c.  The  degree  of 
astigmatism  is  ascertained  by  measuring  the  difference  ol  re- 
fraction in  the  two  chief  meridians;  and  the  defea  is  corrected 
by  the  use  oi  cylindrical  glasses,  the  curvature  of  which,  added 


to  that  ef  the  miliimum  meridian,  makea  its  ideal  length  eqitfl 
to  that  of  the  maiimum  meridiaiu 


Flo.  8.— Diagram  illustrating  Astigmatiftm. 

(c)  Aherraiiou  of  Refrangibility. — When  a  ray  of  while  light 
traverses  on  a  lens,  the  different  rays  composing  it,  being 
unequally  refrangible^  are  dispersed:  the  violet  rays  (see  fig.  9), 
the  most  refran- 
gible, are  brought^ 
to  a  focus  at  e,   ' 

and  the  red  rays,  S .-.„ 

less     refrangible.^ 
at  d.    If  a  screen 

were  placed  at  e,  .         ^ 

a    scries  of  con-    F'C.  9.— Diagram  illustrating  the  DiRpcrsionof 
centric     coloured  Light  by  a  Lens, 

circles  would  be  formed,  the  central  being  of  a  violet,  an^ 
the  circumference  of  a  red  colour.  The  reverse  effect  would 
be  produced  if  the  screen  were  placed  at  4.  Imagine  the 
retina  in  place  of  the  screen  in  the  two  positions,  the  sensa- 
tional effects  would  be  those  just  mentioned.  Under  ordinary 
circumstances,  the  error  of  rcfran&biliiy  due  to  the  optic^ 
construction  of  the  eye  is  not  observed,  as  for  vision  at  near 
distances  the  interval  between  the  focal  point  of  the  red  and 
violet  rays  is  very  smalL  If,  however,  we  look  at  a  candle  ffame 
through  a  bit  of  oobalt  Uue  glass,  which  transmits  only  the  red 
and  blue  rays,  the  flame  may  appear  violet  surrounded  by  blue, 
or  blue  surrounded  by  violet,  according  as  we  have  accommodated 
the  eye  for  different  distances.  Red  surfaces  always  appear 
nearer  than  violet  surfaces  situated  in  the  same  plane,  because 
the  eye  has  to  be  accommodated  more  for  the  red  than  for  the 
violet,  and  oonscquently  we  imagine  them  to  be  nearer.  Again, 
if  we  contemplate  red  letters  or  deigns  on  a  violet  ground  th.e 
eye  soon  becomes  fatigued,  and  the  designs  may  appear  to  move. 

(d)  Defects  due  to  Opacities ^  bre.^  in  the  Transparent  Mfedia,*^ 
When  small  opaque  particles  exist  in  the  transparent  media, 
they  may  cast  their  shadow  on  the  retina  ao  as  to  give  rise  to 
images  which  arc  projected  outwards  by  the  mind  into  space, 
and  thus  appear  to  exist  outside  of  the  body.  Such  phenomena 
are  termed  cntoptic  They  may  be  of  two  kindst  (1)  extra- 
retinal,  that  is,  due  to  opaque  or  semi-transparent  bodies  in  any 
of  the  refractive  structures  anterior  to  the  retina,  and  presenting 
the  appearance  of  drops,  striae,  linos,  twisted  bodies,  forms  of 
grotesque  shape,  or  minute  black  dots  dandng  before  the  eye; 
and  (2}  inira-rdinal,  due  to  opacities,  &c,  in  the  layers  of  the 
retina,  in  front  of  Jacob's  noembrane.  The  intra-retinal  may 
be  produced  in  a  normal  eye  in  various  ways*  (x)  Throw  a 
strong  beam  of  light  on  the  edge  of  the  aderotlc,  and  a  curious 
branched  figure  will  be  seen,  which  is  an  image  of  the  retinal 
vessels.  The  construction  of  these  images,  usually  called 
Purkiiije's  figures,  will  be  understood  from  fig.  10.  Thus,  in  the 
figure  to  the  left,  the  rays  passing  through  the  sclerotic  at  6', 
in  the  direction  h'  c,  wiU  throw  a  shadow  of  a  vessel  at  c  on  the 
retina  at  h\  and  tms  will  appear  as  a  dark  line  at  B.  If  the 
light  move  from  6*  to  a',  the  retinal  shadow  will  move  from  b* 
to  a\  and  the  line  in  the  field  of  vision  will,  pass  from  B  to  A. 


13+ 


VIS^I^ 


(DPtlCAL  AMANOeUENTS 


It  may  be  Aown  thftt  tfie  ^sUnce  e  V  correspomb  to  the 
distance  of  the  retinal  vessels  from  the  layer  of  rcNds  and  cones. 

If  the  Ughl  enter 
the  cornea,  as  in 
the  figure  to  the 
right,  and  if  tlie 
light  be  moved, 
the  image  will 
be  displaced  in 
the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  light, 
if  the  movement 
does  not  extend 
beyond  the 
middle  of  the 
^(y  oomea, but  in  the 

Fio.  io.«^Purkinie*ft  Figuftsfc  opposite  direction 

In  the  eye  to  the  right  the  illumination  bto  the  light 
through  the  Klcrottc,  and  ia  the  one  to  the  wheA  the  latter 
left  through  the  cornea.  js  moved  up  and 

down.  Thus,  if  a  be  moved  to  a',  d  win  be  moved  to  i',  the  shadow 
«a  the  retina  from  c  to  £',  and  the  image  h  to  V,  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  be  moved  above  the  plane  of  the  paper,  6  will  move 
below,  consequently  c  will  move  above,  and  V  wiH  appear  to 
sink.  (2)  The  retinal  vessels  may  also  be  seen  by  looking  at  a 
strong  light  throu^  a  minute  aperture,  in  front  of  which  a  rapid 
to-and-fio  movement  Is  made.  Such  experiments  prove  that  the 
sensitive  part  of  the  retina  is  its  deepest  and  most  external  layer 
(Jacob's  membrane). 

•  4.  AcammodatwH,  or  tks  Heckanism  of  Adjustment  for 
Different  Distances, — ^When  a  camera  is  placed  In  front  of  an 
object,  it  is  necessary  to  focus  accurately  in  order  to  obtain  a 
dear  and  distinct  image  on  the  sensitive  plate.  This  may  be 
done  by  moving  either  the  lens  or  the  sensitive  plate  backwards 
or  forwards  so  as  to  have  the  posterior  focal  point  of  the  lens 
corresponding  with  the  sensitive  plate.  For  similar  reasons, 
a  mechanism  of  adjustment,  or  accommodation  for  different 
distances,  is  necessary  in  the  human  eye.  In  the  normal  eye, 
any  number  of  parallel  rays,  coming  from  a  great  distance,  are 
focused  on  the  retina.  Such  an  eye  is  termed  emmetropic 
(fig.  XI,  A).   Another  form  of  eye  (B)  may  be  such  that  parallel 

rays  are  brou^t  to  a  focus  in 
front  of  the  retina.  This  form 
of  eye  is  myopic  or  short- 
sighted,  inasmudi  as,  for  dis- 
tinct vbion,  the  object  must  be 
brought  near  the  eye,  so  as  to 
catch  the  divergent  rays,  which 
are  then  focused  on  the  retina. 
A  third  form  is  seen  in  C,  where 
the  focal  point,  for  ordinary 
distances,  is  behind  the  retina, 
and  consequently  the  object 
must  be  held  far  off,  so  as  to 
allow  only  the  less  divergent  or 
parallel  rays  to  reach  the  t^ye. 
•  This  kind  of  eye  is  called  hyper- 
metropiCf  or  far-sighted.  For 
ordinary  distances,  at  which 
objects  must  be  seen  distinctly 
in  everyday  life,  the  fault  of 
the  myopic  eye  may  be  corrected 
by  the  use  of  concave  and  of 
the  hypermetropic  by  convex 
glasses.  In  the  first  case,  the 
concave  g^Uss  will  move  the  posterior  focal  point  a  little 
farther  bade,  and  in  the  second  the  convex  glass  will  bring 
it  farther  forwards;  in  both  cases,  however,  the  glasses  may 
be  so  adjusted,  both  as  regards  refractive  index  and  radius 
of  curvature,  as  to  bring  the  rays  to  a  focus  on  the  retina, 
and  consequently  secure  distinct  >dsion. 
From  any  point  65  metres  disunt,  rays  may  be  t«garded 


Fio.  II. 

i.  Emmetropic  or  nOrmal  eye: 
B,  Myopic  or  ahort-sighted 
eye;  C»  Hypermetropic  or 
long-sighted  eye. 


as  almost  paraltel,  and  the  point  ^-^l  be  seen  without  any  effort 
of  accommodation.  This  point,  either  at  this  distance  or  ia 
infinity,  is  called  the  punctum  rtmotum,  or  the  most  distant 
point  seen  without  accommodation.  In  the  myopic  €>*€  It  is 
much  nearer,  and  for  the  hypermetropic,  there  is  really  no  sudi 
point,  and  accommodation  is  always  necessary.  If  an  object  were 
brought  too  dose  to  the  eye  for  the  refractive  media  to  focus  it  on 
the  retina,  ardes  of  diffusion  would  be  formed,  with  the  result 
of  caiising  indistinctness  of  vision,  unless  the  eye  possessed  some 
power  of  adapting  itself  to  different  distances.  That  the  eye 
has  some  such  power  of  accommodation  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that,  if  we  attempt  to  look  through  the  meshes  of  a  net  at  a 
distant  object,  we  cannot  see  both  the  meshes  and  the  object 
with  equal  distinctness  at  the  same  time.  Again,  If  we  look 
continuously  at  very  near  objects,  the  eye  speedily  becomes 
fatigued.  Beyond  a  distance  of  6$  metres,  no  accommodation 
is  necessary;  but  within  it,  the  condition  of  the  eye  must  be 
adapted  to  the  ^minished  (fistatice  ontil  we  reach  a  point  near 
the  eye  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  limit  of  Viability  for  near 
objects.  This  point,  calkd  the  punctum  proximnm,  Is  usually 
12  cendmetrcs  (or  4-8  inches)  from  the  eye.  The  nnge  of 
accommodation  is  thus  from  the  pundum  remotum  to  the 
punctum  proxLmum, 

The  mechanism  of  accommodation  has  be«i  much  disputed, 
but  there  can  be  no  doubt  it  is  chiefly  effected  by  a  change  in 
the  curvature  of  the  anterior  surface  of  the  crystalline  lens. 
If  we  hold  a  b'ghted  candle  in  front  and  a  little  to  the  side  of  an 
eye  to  be  examined,  three  reflections  may  be  seen  in  the  eye, 
as  represented  in  fig.  13.  The  first,  a,  is  erect,  laig6  and  bright, 
from  the  anterior  surface  of  the  .cornea;  z        » 

the  second,  h,  also  erect,  but  dim,  from  the 
anterior  siuface  of  the  crystalline  lens;  and 
the  third,  <:,  inverted,  and  vexy  dim,  from 
the  posterior  surface  of  the  lens,  or  perhaps 
the  concave  surface  of  the  vitreous  humour 
to  which  the  convex  surface  of  the  lens  is 
adapted.  Suppose  the  three  images  to  be 
in  the  position  shown  In  the  figure  for  Fic.  13.— Reflected 
distant  vision,  it  will  be  found  that  the  middle  Images  »«  the  E>'e. 
image  b  moves  towards  a,  on  looking  at  a  near  object.  The  change 
is  due  to  an  alteration  of  the  ctirvature  of  the  lens,  as  shown  in 
fig.  15.    The  changes  occurring  during  accommodatioii  are: 


'■^\ 


'f^i 


Fig.  13. — ^Mechanism  of  Accommodation. 

A,  The  lens  during  accommodation,  showing  its  anterior  surface 
advanced;  B,  The  lens  as  for  distant  vision;  C,  Position  of  the 
ciliary  nuMde. 

(i)  the  curvature  of  the  anterior  surface  of  the  crystalline  lens 
increases,  and  may  pass  from  xo  to  6  mm.;  (2)  the  pupil  con- 
tracts; and  (3)  the  intraocular  pressure  increases  m  the  posterior 
part  oli  the  eye.  An  explanation  of  the  increased  curvature  of 
the  anterior  surface  of  the  lens  during  accommodation  has  been 
thus  given  by  H.  von  Hdmholtx.  In  the  normal  condition, 
that  ht  for  the  emmetrof^c  eye,  the  crystalline  lens  is  flattened 
antericnily  by  the  pressure  of  the  anterior  layer  of  the  capsule; 
during  accommodation,  the  radiating  fibres  of  the  dliary  musdcs 
pull  the  dliaxy  processes  forward,  thtis  relieving  the  tension 
of  the  anterior  layer  of  the  capsule,  and  the  lens  at  once  bulges 
forward  by  its  dastidty. 
By  this  mechanism  the  redtus  of  curvature  of  the  anterior 


orriCAL  arrangembnts) 


*3S 


flutfaee  of  tlie  lem,  u  the  eye  tecommodfctei  from  tke  f*r  to  the 
near  point,  may  shorten  from  lo  mm.  to  6  mm.  The  cilitfy 
muscle,  however,  contains  two  sets  of  fibres,  the  hmgitndinal  or 
meridiodal,  whid  run  from  before  bidkwards,  and  the  circular 
or  equatorial  (MCdler's  muscle),  which  run,  as  their  name 
indicates,  aroond  the  band  of  longitudinal  fibres  formfng  the 
muscle.  Direct  ol»ervation  on  the  eye  of  an  animal  immediately 
after  death  shows  that  stimulation  of  the  ciliary  nerves  actually 
causes  a  forward  movement  of  \ht  dliaxy  processes,  and  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  etplanation  above  |^en  applies  to 
man,  probably  moot  nuunmals,  and  to  birds  and  most  reptiles. 
In  birds,  which  ase  remarkable  for  acuteness  of  vision,,  the 
mechanism  is  somewhat  peculiar.  In  them  the  fibres  of  the 
ciliaTy  musde  have  a  ittortg  attachment  posterioriy,  and  when 
these  contnct  they  p^O  back  the  inner  posterior  layers  of  the 
cornea,  and  thus  relax  that  part  of  the  dliary  zone  called  the 
tigamentum  pectinatum.  In  a  state  of  rest  this  structure  in 
the  bird's  eye  is  tense,  but  In  accommodation  it  becomes  relaxed. 
Thus  by  a  somewhat  different  mechanism  in  the  bird,  accom- 
modation consists  in  allowing  the  anterior  surface  of  the  lens 
to  become  more  and  more  convex.  In  reptiles  generally  the 
mechanism  resembles  that  of  the  bird;  tmt  it  is  said  that 
in  snakes  and  amphflna  there  is  a  movement  forwards  of  the 
lens  as  a  whole,  so  as  to  catch  rays  at  a  less  divergent  angle. 
When  the  eye  is  directed  to  a  distant  object,  sudi  as  a  star,  the 
mechanism  of  accommodation  is  at  rest  In  mammals,  bir<b, 
reptQes  and  amphibia,  but  in  fishes  and  cephalopoda  the  eye 
at  rest  is  normally  adjusted  for  near  vision.  Consequently 
accommodation  In  the  latter  is  brought  about  by  a  mechanism 
that  carries  the  lens  as  a  whole  backwards.  There  is  still  some 
difficulty  in  explaining  the  action  of  the  equatorial  (circular) 
fibres.  Some  have  found  that  the  increased  convexity  of  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  lens  takes  place  only  in  the  central 
portions  of  the  lens,  and  that  the  circumferential  part  of  the 
lens  i&  actually  flattened,  presumably  by  the  contraction  of 
the  equatorial  fibres.  Seeing,  however,  that  the  central  part 
of  the  lens  is  the  portion  used  in  vision,  as  the  pupil  contracts 
during  accommodation,  a  flattening  of  the  margins  of  the  lens 
can  have  no  optical  effect.  Further,  another  explanation  can 
be  offered  of  the  flattening.  As  just  stated,  during  accommoda- 
tion the  pupil  contracts,  and  the  pupilbiy  edge  of  the  iris, 
thinned  out,  spreads  over  the  anterior  surface  of  the  capside 
of  the  lens,  which  it  actually  touches,  and  this  part  of  the  Iris, 
along  with  the  more  convex  central  part  of  the  lens,  bulges 
into  the  anterior  chamber,  and  must  thus  displace  some 
of  the  aqueous  humour.  To  make  room  for  this,  however, 
the  circumferential  part  of  the  iris,  related  to  the  h'gamentum 
pectinatum,  moves  backwaids  very  slightly,  while  the  flatten- 
ing of  the  circumferential  part  of  the  lens  facilitates  this 
movement. 

Helraholtz  succeeded  in  measuring  with  accuracy  the  sixes  of 
these  reflected  images  by  means  of  an  mstrumcnt  termed  an  opktfuU- 
mometer^  the  construction  of  which  is  based  on  the  following  optical 
principles:  When  a  luminoat  ray  traverses  a  plate  of  glass  having 
parallel  aides,  if  it  fall  perpendicular  to  the^  plane  of  the  plate,  tt 
will  pass  throi^h  without  deviation ;  but  if  it  fall  obliquely  on  the 
plate  (as  shown  in  the  left-hand  diagram  in  fig.  14)  it  undergoes  a 
lateral  deviation,  but  in  a  direction  parallel  to  that  of  the  incident 
ray,  so  that  to  an  eye.  placed  behind  the  glass  pbte,  at  the  lower  A, 
the  lonunous  point*  npper  A,  would  be  m  the  direcrion  of  the  pro- 
longed cnergeift  ray.  and  thus  there  would  be  an  apparent  lateral 
displacement  of  the  point,  the  amount  of  which  would  increase 
with  the  oblioulty  of  the  incident  ray.  If,  Instead  of  one  plate, 
we  take  two  plates  of  equal  thickness,  one  placed  above  the  other, 
two  imaaes  will  be  seen*  and  by  tumiiig  the  one  plate  with  reference 
to  the  other,  each  hnage  may  be  displaced  a  little  to  one  side.  The 
instrument  consists  of  a  smal^  telescope  (fig.  14)  T,  the  axis  of  which 
coincides  with  the  plane  separating  the  two  glass  plates  C  C  and 
B  B.  When  we  look  at  an  object  X  Y,  and  turn  the  plates  till  we 
see  two  objects  xy,  «y  touching  each  other,  the  aise  of  the  image 
X  Y  will  be  equal  to  the  distance  the  one  object  is  di^iaoed  to  the 
one  side  and  the  other  object  to  the  other  side.  Having  thus 
measured  the  size  of  the  reflection,  it  is  not  difficult,  if  we  know  the 
aise  of  the  object  reflecting  the  light  and  its  distance  from  the  eye, 
to  oaknkite  the  radius  of  the  curved  surface  (Appendix  to  M'Ken- 


I's  Owilitm  e/  PhysMogy,  1878).    The  ^eAeral  result  is  that, 
in  accommodation  for  near  objects,  the  middle  reflected  image 


Fio.  i4.^Diagrammatic 
View  of  theOphthahn^ 
meter  of  Helmholtz. 


>,  and  the  ra4iua  of  e«fv«tuiw  of  the  anterior  swlace 
of  the  lens  becomes  shorter. 

5.  AbMrpUcmmid  ReJhcHm  tf  Lumkwtn  JCeyi  Jrwrn  Hk  Eyt^ 
-~Wktn  Ught  eaten  the  eye,  it  is 
partly  abeoibed  by  the  black  pijpBent 
of  the  choeoid  and  partly  reflected. 
The  ttfleeied  rays  are  retunad 
throvgh  the  pupH,  not  only  following 
the  same  direction  as  the  rays  enter- 
ing the  *y%  but  uniting  to  form  an 
image  at  the  same  point  in  qsace  as 
the  luminous  object.  The  pnpAl  of  an 
eye  appears  black  to  an  observer, 
because  the  eye  of  the  observer  does 
not  receive  any  of  those  reflected  rays. 
If,  however,  we  strongly  illuminate 
the  retina,  and  hM.  a  lens  in  front  of 
the  eye,  so  as  to  bring  the  reflected 
rays  to  a  focus  nearer  the  eye,  then 
a  vtftual  and  erect,  at  a  real  and  re- 
versed, image  of  the  retina  will  be 
seen.  Sudi  is  the  principle  of  the 
ophthalmoscope,  invented  by  Helm- 
holts  in  iSsr.  Eyes  deficient  in  pig- 
ment, as  in  albinos,  appear  luminous, 
reflecting  Kght  of  a  red  or  pink  coloor; 
but  if  we  place  in  front  of  such  an 
eye  a  card  perforated  by  a  round  hole 
of  the  diameter  of  the  pupQ,  the  hole 
will  appear  quite  dark,  Kke  the  pupil  of  an  ordinary  eye.  la 
many  ftnimab  a  portion  of  the  fundus  of  the  eyeball  has  no 
pigment,  and  presents  an  Iridescent  appeannce.  This  is  called 
a  tapttum.  It  probably  renders  the  eye  more  sensitive  to  Ught 
of  feeble  inten^ty. 

6.  Functions  cf  the  Iris.-— The  iris  constitutes  a  diaphngm 
which  regulates  the  amount  of  light  entering  the  eydnU.  The 
aperture  in  the  centre,  the  pnpU,  may  be  dikted  by  contnctioii 
of  a  system  of  radiating  fibres  of  involuntaiy  muscle,  or  con* 
traded  by  the  action  of  another  system  of  fibres,  forming  • 
sphincter,  at  the  margin  of  the  pupil.  The  radiating  fibres 
are  controlled  by  the  sympathetic,  while  thoee  of  the  circular 
set  are  exdted  by  the  third  cranial  nerve.  The  variations 
in  diameter  of  the  pupil  are  determined  by  the  greater  or  less 
intensity  of  the  light  acting  on  the  retina.  A  strong  I^ht 
causes  contraction  of  the  puj^I;  with  fight  of  less  intensity, 
the  pupil  will  dilate.  In  the  human  being,  a  strong  light  acting 
on  one  eye  will  often  cause  contraction  of  the  pupil,  not  only 
in  the  eye  affected,  but  in  the  other  eye.  These  facts  indicate 
that  the  phenomenon  is  of  the  nature  of  a  reflex  action,  in 
which  the  fibres  of  the  optic  nerve  act  as  sensory  conductors 
to  a  centre  in  the  encephalon,  whence  influences  emanate  which 
affect  the  pupil.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  if  the  fibres 
of  the  optic  nerve  be  affected  hi  aDy  way,  contraction  of  the 
pupil  follows.  The  centre  is  in  the  anterior  pair  of  the  corpora 
quadrigemina,  as  destruction  of  these  bodies  causes  immobility 
of  the  pupil.  On  the  other  hand,  the  dilating  fibres  are  derived 
from  the  sympathetic;  and  It  has  been  shown  that  they  come 
from  the  lower  part  of  the  cervical,  and  upper  part  of  the  dorsal, 
region  of  the  cord.  But  the  iris  seems  to  be  directly  susceptible 
to  the  action  of  light.  Thus  the  pupn  of  the  eye  of  a  dead 
animal  will  contract  if  exposed  to  light  for  several  hours,  whereas, 
if  the  eye  on  the  opposite  side  be  covered,  its  pupil  wiB  remain 
widely  dilated,  as  at  the  moment  of  death. 

The  pupil  contracts  under  the  influence— (i)  of  an  Increased 
intensity  of  Ught;  (a)  of  the  effort  of  accommodation  for  near 
objects;  (3)  of  a  strong  convergence  of  the  two  eyes;  and  (4)  of 
such  active  substances  as  nicotine,  morphia  ajjd  physostig- 
mine;  and  it  dUalcs  under  the  influence — (i)  of  a  diminished 
intensity  of  light;  (2)  of  vision  of  distant  objects;  (3)  of  a 
strong  excitation  of  any  sensory  nerve;  (4)  of  dyspnoea;  and 
(5)  of  such  substances  as  atropine  and  hyoscyamine.  The  chief 
function  of  the  iris  is  to  so  moderate  the  amount  of  light  entering 


.136 


VISIOM 


imrtVBNCB  OP  LIGHT 


the  tyt  u  to  ftecure  ihaipiiMs  of 'defiahioD  of  dM  ivtind 
image.  Thb  it  accomplishes  by  (x)  diminishing  the  amount  of 
Ji|^  reflected  ixbrM  noar  ob|ccta»  by  cuttiog  off  tho  more 
diveigent  rays  and  admitting  only  thoae  approaching  a  panlld 
direc&B*  which,  in  a  nonaai  eye,  ave  focused  oa  U»  letina; 
and  (a)  preventing  the  enor  of  spherical  aberratioD  by  cutting 
off  divergent  rays  which  would  otherwise  impinge  near  the 
margistt  of  the  lens,  and  would  thni  be  brought  to  a  focus  in 
front  of  the  retina. 

3.  Sp£cmc  IimuENCx  or  ugbt  on  the  Rxuka 
The  retina  is  the  terminal  organ  of  vision,  and  all  the  parts 
in  front  of  it  are  <^tical  anangements  for  securing  that  an  image 
will  bo  acnirBtel[y  focused  upon  it.  The  natucal  stimulus  of 
the  retina  is  light.  It  is  often  said  that  it  may  be  excited  by 
mechanical  and  electrical  stimuli;  but  such  an  observation 
rei^y  ^ipBes  to  the  stimulation  of  the  fibres  of  the  optic  nerve. 
It  Is  wdl  know0  that  such  stimuli  applied  to  the  optic  nerve 
behind  th^  eye  produce  always  a  luminous  impression:  but 
thef  e  jto  no  proof  that  the  retina,  strict^  speaking,  is  similarly 
affected.  Pressure  or  electrical  currents  may  act  00  the  Qreball, 
but -in  doing  so  they  not  only  affect  the  retina,  consisting  of  its 
various  layers  and  of  Jacob's  membrane,  but  also  the  fibres 
of  th«  optic  nerve.  It  is  possible  that  the  retina,  by  which 
b  meant  all  the  layers  except  those  on  its  surface  formed 
by  the  fibres  of  the  optic  nerve,  is  affected  only  by  its 
ipeeiJU  kind  of  stimulus,  light.  This  stimulus  so  affecU  the 
terminal  apparatus  as  to  set  up  actions  which  in  turn  stimulate 
the  optic  fibres.  The  next  question  naturally  is-^What  is  the 
fl^fic  action  of  light  on  the  retina?  A.  F.  Holmgren,  and 
also  J.  Dewar  and  J.  G.  M'Kendokk,  have  shown  that  when 
light  faUs  on  the  retina  it  excites  a  variation  of  the  electrical 
purrent  obtained  from  the  eye  by  placing  it  on  the  cushions  of 
a  sensitive  galvanometer.  One  electrode  touches  the  vertex 
pf  the  cornea  and  the  other  the  back  of  the  eyeball.  The 
{corneal  vertex  is  positive  to  the  back  of  the  eye,  or  to  the 
ftransverse  section  of  the  optic  nerve.  Consequently  a  current 
passes  through  the  galvanometer  from  the  cornea  to  the  back. 
^Then  the  impact  of  light  causes  an  increase  in  the  natural 
jdectrical  current— during  the  cciUinuance  of  light  the  current 
diminishcB  slowly  and  falls  in  amount  even  below  what  it  was 
hdoit  the  impact— «nd  the  wUkdrawai  of  light  is  followed 
by  a  rebound,  or  second  increase,  after  which  the  current  falls 
in  strength,  as  H  the  eye  suffered  from  fatigue. 
>■  It  was  also  observed  in  this  research  that  the  amount  of 
electrical  variation  produced  by  light  of  various  intensities 
corresponded  pretty  closely  to  the  results  expressed  by  G.  T. 
Fechner's  law,  which  regulates  the  relation  between  the  stimulus 
gad  the  sensational  effect  in  sensory  impressions.  This  law  is, 
jthat  the  sensational  effect  does  not  increase  proportionally  to 
the  stimulus,  but  as  the  logarithm  of  the  stimulus.  Thus,  sup- 
posing the  stimulus  to  be  zo,  zoo  or  1000  times  increased,  the 
sensational  effect  will  not  be  10,  100  or  1000  times,  but  only 
2,  3  and  3  times  greater. 

Such  electrical  phenomena  probably  result  either  from 
thermal  or  chemical  changes  in  the  retina.  Light  produces 
chemical  changes  in  the  retina.  If  a  frog  be  killed  in  the  dark, 
and  if  its  retina  be  exposed  only  to  yeliow  rays,  the  retina  has 
peculiar  purple  colour,  which  is  at  once  destroyed  by  exposure 
to  ordinary  light.  The  purple  matter  apparently  is  decom- 
posed by  lighL  An  image  may  actually  be  fixed  on  the  retina 
by  plunging  the  eye  into  a  solution  of  alum  immediately  after 
death.  Thus  it  would  api>ear  that  light  affects  the  purple- 
matter  of  the  retina,  and  the  result  of  this  chemical  change  is 
to  stimulate  the  optic  filaments;  if  the  action  be  arrested, 
we  inay  have  a  picture  on  the  retina,  but  if  it  be  not  arrested, 
the  picture  is  evanescent;  the  purple-matter  is  used  up,  and 
new  matter  of  a  similar  kind  is  formed  to  take  its  place.  The 
retina  might,  therefore,  be  compared  to  a  sensitive  photographic 
plate  having  the  sensitive  matter  quickly  removed  and  replaced; 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  electrical  expression  of  the  chemical 
changes  is  what  has  been  above  described. 


<•)  HHifnM,*  liuminwii  Impieaioas  ma^  also  ba  pro- 
duced by  pressure  oa  the  ^yabaU.  Such  impressions^  tenned 
pko$ipHgs,  uiuaJly  appear  as  a  Jumiaout  icentre  surrouzaded 
by  coloured  or  dark  riagk  Somctimei  th^  seem  to  be  small 
blight  adntillationB  of  various  forma.  Similar  appearances 
may  be  observed  at  the  moments  of  openizig  or  of  dosing  a 
strong  electrical  current  transmitted  through  the  eyebalL 

(6)  Tkt  Bdina*t  Proper  Ui/U.—Tho  visual  field,  even  wLen 
tlie  eyelids  are  closed  in  a  dazk  room,  is  not  absolutely  dark. 
There  is  a  sensation  of  faint  luminosity  which  may  at  one 
moment  be  brighter  than  at  another.  This  is  often  termed 
the  proper  light  oftke  retina,  and  it  indicates  a  molecular  change, 
even  in  darkness. 

(«)  The  Excitability  of  tha  JUUna.—Tbfi  retina  is  not  equally 
excitable  in  all  its  parts.  At  the  entrance  ol  the  optic  nerve, 
aa  was  shown  by  £.  Matiotte  in  z668,  there  is  no  sensibility  to 
lighu  Hence,  this  part  of  the  retina  la  called  the  blind  spoL 
If  we  shut  the  left  ^e,  fix  the  riglit  eye  on  the  cross  seen  in 
fig.  Z5,  and  move  the  book  towards  and  Away  from  the  eye, 
a  position  will  be  found  when  the 
round  spot  disappears,  that  is 
when  its  image  falls  on  the  en- 
trance of  the  optic  nerve.  There  FKjwts^DlMam  for  the 
is  also  complete  insensibility  to  Study  of  the  BUmi  Spot. 
colours  at  that  spot    The  diameter 

of  the  optic  papilla  is  about  z-8  mm.,  giving  an  angle  of  6*; 
this  angle  determines  the  apparent  size  of  the  blind  spot  in 
the  visual  field,  and  it  is  sufficiently  large  to  cause  a  human 
figure  to  disappear  at  a  distance  of  two  metres. 

The  yellow  spot  in  the  centre  of  the  retina  is  the  most  sensitive 
to  light,  and  it  is  chieffy  employed  in  direct  vi»on.  Thus,  if 
we  fix  the  eye  on  a  word  in  the  centre  of  this  line,  it  is  distinctly 
and  sharply  seen,  but  the  words  towards  each  end  of  the  line 
are  vague.  If  we  wish  to  see  each  word  distmctly,  we  "  run 
the  eye"  along  the  line^that  is,  we  bring  each  successive 
word  on  the  yc^ow  spot.  Thi^  spot  has  a  horizontal  diameter 
of  2  mm.,  and  a  vertical  diameter  of  -Smm.;  and  it  corresponds 
in  the  visual  field  to  an  angle  of  from  a  to  4^  The  fossa  in 
the  spot,  where  there  are  no  retinal  elements  except  Jacob's 
membrane,  consisting  here  entirely  of  cones  (2000  in  number), 
is  the  area  of  most  acute  sensibility.  This  fossa  has  a  diameter 
of  only  'S  mm.,  which  makes  the  an^^e  ten  times  smaller.  Thus 
the  field  of  distinct  vision  is  extremely  limited,  and  at  the  same 
moment  we  see  only  a  very  small  portion  of  the  visual  field: 
Images  of  external  objects  are  brought  successively  on  this 
minute  sensitive  area,  and  the  different  sensations  seem  to 
be  fused  together,  so  that  we  are  conscious  of  the  object  as 
a  whole. 

Towards  the  anterior  margin  of  the  retina  sensitiveness  to 
light  becomes  diminished;  but  the  diminution  is  not  uniform, 
and  .it  varies  in  different  persons. 

00  Duration  and  Persistence  of  Retindl  Impressions, — ^To 
excite  the  retina,  a  feeble  stimulus  must  act  for  a  certain  time; 
when  the  retina  is  excited,  the  impreesion  lasts  after  the  cessa* 
tion  of  the  stinralus;  but  if  the  stinndus  be  strong,  it  may  be 
of  very  short  duration.  Thus  the  duration  of  an  electrical 
spark  is  extremely  short,  but  the  impression  on  the  retina  is 
so  powerful,  and  remains  so  long;  as  to  make  the  spark,  visible. 
If  we  rotate  a  disk  having  white  and  black  sectors  we  see  conp> 
tinuous  dark  bands.  Even  if  we  paint  on  the  face  of  the  disk 
a  single  large  round  red  spot,  and  rotate  rapidly,  a  continuous 
red  band  may  be  observed.  Here  tlie  impressions  of  red  on 
the  same  area  of  retina  succeed  each  other  so  rapidly  that 
before  one  disappears  another  is  superadded,  the  result  being 
a  fusion  of  the  successive  impressions  into  one  continuous 
sensation.  This  phenomenon  is  called  the  persistence  of  retinal 
impressions.  An  impression  lasts  on  the  retina  from  ^  to  ^ 
of  a  second.  The  dneroatograph  owes  ita  effects  to  perust- 
ence  of  retinal  impressions. 

(0  The  Phenomena  of  Irradiation. — ^If  we  look  at  fig.  16, 
the  wUte  square  in  the  black  field  appears  to  be  larger  than  the 
black  square  in  the  white  fidd,  although  both  are  of  precisely 


POfPIHt  SEI^TWNI 


VISION 


137 


h  dartd  imiiliflMi.    Tile  borders  of 
advance  in  the  visual  field  and  encroach  00 

obscure  suziaces.  Prob- 
ably»  even  with  the  most 
exact  accommodation, 
diffutton  images  form  round 
the  image  of  a  white  sur-* 
face  on  a  Uack  ground, 
forming  a  kind  of  penum- 
bra, thuscausingit  toappear 
larger  than  it  really  is. 


Fig.  »6.-"{j23i^'>«  Eflea  of    ^Jy  inUmUyof  Utktrt^mM 
"^^^  lo  txeiU  Ike  itoiiio.— Light 

must  have  a  certain  intensity  to  produce  a  luminous  impres- 
^OD.  It  is  impossible  to  fix  the  minimum  intensity  necessary, 
as  the  effect  will  depend,  not  only  on  the  intensity  of  ihestimulus, 
but  on  the  degree  of  retinal  cxdubility  at  the  time.  Thus, 
after  the  retina  has  been  fbr  some  time  in  the  dark,  its  excita- 
bility b  tnacased;  00  the  ottier  hand,  it  is  much  dimintsbed 
by  fatigue.  Aubert  has  stated  that  the  minimum  intensity 
b  about  300  thnes  less  than  that  of  the  full  moon.  The  sensi- 
bility  of  the  eye  to  light  is  measured  by  the  piuUawuter, 

(i)  CoHsectam  Retinal  Images.—^hMgfin  which  persist  on 
the  retina  are  either  positive  or  negative.  They  are  termed 
positive  when  the  bright  and  obscure  parts  of  the  Image  are 
the  same  as  the  bright  and  obscure  paru  of  the  object;  and 
negative  when  the  bright  parts  of  the  object  are  dark  in  the 
image,  and  vke  versa.  Positive  images  are  strong  and  sharply 
marked  when  an  intense  light  has  acted  for  not  less  than  \  of 
a  second.  If  the  excitation  be  continued  much  bnger,  a  nega- 
tive and  not  a  positive  image  will  be  seen.  If,  when  the  positive 
image  is  still  visible,  we  look  on  a  very  brilliantly  illuminated 
sur^ice,  a  negative  image  appean.  Negative  images  are  seen 
with  greatest  intensity  after  a  strong  light  has  acted  lor  a 
eonsiderable  time.  These  phenomena  may  be  best  studied 
when  the  retina  is  very  excitable,  as  in  the  morning  after  a 
sound  sleep*  On  awakening,  if  we  look  steadily  for  an  instant 
at  the  window  and  then  close  the  eyes,  a  pasiHo*  image  of  the 
window  will  appeari  if  we  then  gaze  fixedly 
at  the  window  for  one  or  two  minutes,  close 
the  eyes  two  or  three  times,  and  then  look  at 
a  dark  part  of  the  room,  a  negative  image  will  ^^ 
be  seen  floating  before  us.  The  positive  image  o^^qm 
is  due  to  eadtatioa  of  the  retina,  vmd  the 
negative  to  fatigue.  If  we  fatigue  a  small  Yellow 
area  of  the  retina  with  white  light,  and  then  _.  ,,  . . 
aUow  a  less  intense  light  to  f aU  on  it,  the  ^"^^"^ 
fatigued  area  responds  feebly,  and  oonse-  Creui 
quently  the  object,  such  as  the  window-pane, 
appflin  to  be  dark.  Greenish 


seen  to  be  red,  and  in  a  green  light,  green.  Cbloor  depends  on 
the  nature  of  the  body  and  on  tbe  nature  of  the  light  falling  on 
it,  and  a  sensation  of  colour  arises  when  the  body  reflects  or 
transmits  the  special  rays  to  the  eye.  If  two  rays  of  diflcrent 
rates  of  vibntion,  that  is  to  say,  of  different  colours,  afiect  a 
surfoce  of  the  retina  at  the  same  moment,  the  efi^ects  are  fused 
together  and  we  have  the  sensation  of  a  third  colour  different 
from  its  cause.  Thus,  if  red  be  removed  from  tlie  sokr  spec- 
trum,  all  the  other  colours  combined  cause  a  sensation  of  green- 
ish yellow.  Agsin  red  and  violet  give  purple,  and  yellow 
and  blue,  white  Yellow  and  blue,  however,  only  give  white 
when  pure  spcctiml  colours  are  mixed.  It  b  well  known  ihtX 
a  mixture  of  yellow  and  blue  pigmemtt  do  not  produce  whiter 
but  green;  but,  aa  was  explained  by  Helmholts,  thb  b  because 
the  blue  pigment  absorbs  aU  the  rays  at  the  red  end  of  tbe 
spectrum  up  to  the  green,  while  the  yellow  pigment  absorbs 
sil  the  rays  at  the  violet  end  down  to  the  green,  and  as  the 
only  rays  reflected  into  the  eye  are  the  green  rays,  the  sub- 
stance appean  green.  FinaUy,  if  colours  are  painted  on  a 
disk  in  due  proportions  and  in  a  proper  order,  the  disk  will, 
when  quickly  rotated,  i^pear  white,  from  the  rapid  fusion  of 
colour  effects. 

When  we  examine  a  spectrum,  wc  see  a  series  of  colours 
merging  by  insensible  gradations  the  one  into  the  other,  thus: — 
red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue  and  violet.  These  are  termed 
sim^  colours.  If  two  or  more  coloured  nys  of  the  spectrum 
act  simultaneously  on  the  same  q>ot  of  the  retina,  they  may 
give  rise  to  sensations  of  mixed  eoloitrs.  These  mixed  colours 
are  of  two  kinds:  (1)  those  which  do  not  corre^wnd  to  any 
colour  in  the  spectrum,  such  as  purple  and  white,  and  (s)  those 
which  do  oxist  in  the  spectrmn.  White  may  be  produced 
by  a  mixture  of  two  simile  colours,  which  are  then  said  to  be 
complementary.  Thus,  red  and  greenish  blue,  orange  and 
cyanic  blue,  yellow  and  indigo  blue,  and  greenish  yellow  and 
violet  all  produce  white.  Purple  b  produced  by  a  mixture  of 
red  and  violet,  or  red  and  bluish  violet.  The  following  table 
by  Hdmholtz  shows  the  compound  colours  produced  by  mixing 
other  colours: — 


4.  Sensations  or  CoLouft 
I.   General  Statements — Colour   {q.v.) 


b  a 


blue 
Cyanic 
blue 


Violet 

Indigo 
blue 

Cyaiuc 
blue 

Creemah 

blue 

Green 

Yellowbh    Yellow, 
green 

Purple 

Deep 

rose 

White 

Deep 

rose 
White 

rose 
WkiU 

White 

rote 

White 

Whitish 

WkiU 

Whitish 

yellow 

Whitish 

Whitish 

yellow 

Yellow 

Yellowfah 

Golden       Orange 

yellow 
YcUow 

rose 
WkiU 

Green 

green 
Ctfeen 

ffcen 
Creen 

gresQ 

Blue 

Water 
blue 

Indigo 
blue 

Water 

blue 

Water 

blue 

Greeobb 
Uoe 

Special  sensation  excited  by  tbe  action  on  the  retina  of  rsys  of 
light  of  a  definite  wave-length.  On  the  most  likely  hypothesb  as 
to  the  physical  nature  of  light ,  colour  depends  on  the  rate  of  vibra- 
tion of  the  luminiferotts  aether,  and  white  light  b  a  compound  of 
all  the  colours  in  definite  proportion.  When  a  surface  reflects 
solar  light  into  the  eye  without  affecting  thb  proportion,  it  b 
white,  but  if  it  absorbs  all  the  light  so  as  to  reflect  nothing,  it 
appears  to  be  black.  If  a  body  held  between  the  eye  and  the  sun 
transmits  light  unchanged,  and  b  transparent,  it  b  colourless, 
bat  if  translucent  it  b  white.  If  the  medium  transmits  or  reflecu 
some  rays  and  absorbs  others,  it  b  coloured.  Thus,  if  a  body 
absorbs  all  the  rays  of  the  spectrum  but  those  which  cause 
tbe  sensation  of  green,  we  say  the  body  b  green  in  colour; 
but  this  green  can  only  be  perceived  if  the  rays  of  light  falling 
on  the  body  contain  rays  having  tbe  special  rate  of  vibration 
leciaired  for  this  special  colour.  For  if  the  surface  be  illumin- 
ated by  any  other  pure  ray  of  the  spectrum,  say  red,  these 
red  rsys  will  be  absorbed  and  the  body  will  appear  to  be  black. 
At  a  white  surface  reflects  all  the  »ys»  in  red  light  U  will  be 


Thb  table  shows  that  if  we  mix  two  dmple  eoloars  not 
so  far  separated  in  the  spectrum  as  the  complementary  colour^ 
the  mixed  colour  contains 

more  white  as  the  interval  ^  ^^ 

between  the  colours  em- 
ptoyed  b  greater,  and  that 
if  we  mix  two  colours 
farther  dbtant  in  the 
spectrum  than  the  com- 
plemcntaiy  colours,  the 
mixture  b  whiter  as  the 
interval  b  smaller.    By  mixing  more  than  two  simple*  ooloun^ 


Fig.  i7.--Fonn  of  Double  Slit  for  thr 
Partial  Superposition  of  Two  Spectra, 


no  new  colours  are  produced,  but  only  different  shades  of  colour. 

2.  liodes  of  Mixing  Colour  Sensations.^VsaUmB  methods 
haye  been  adopted  for  studying  the  effea  of  nuxing  colours. 

(a)  By  Superposing  Two  Spectra,— -This  may  be  done  in  a  simple 
way  by  having  a  slit  in  the  form  of  the  letter  V  (see  fig.  tjh 
of  which  the  two  portions  abtndbc  form  a  right  angle;  behind 
tiib  slit  b  placed  a  vertical  prisn,  and  tw»  spectra  are  obtained 


138 


VISION 


{COLOUR  SBHfiATMC 


•s  seal  id  iif.  18,  in  wbkSn-iftii  a  the  spectram  of  the  aKt  ofr. 

And  ufd  that  oC  the  alii  c^;  the  oolotixed  spectra  are  contained 

»  .in  the  txianf^c  gef,  and, 

e.  '    *  by     arrangement,     the 

effects  of  mixture  of  any 

two  sinqsle  oolouxs  may 

be  observed. 

/^X>^X  (A)  By  Mdhod  of  Re- 

^  ifactfpff.-— Place    a    red 

Fic.  18.— Diagiam  of  Double  Spectrum  wafer  on  6,  in  fig.  19,  and 

paitiany  superpoaed.  .  ^^^^  ^^^  on  i,  and 

•0  angle  a  smaJI  glaas  plate  a  as  to  tcansniit  to  the  eye  a 
reflection  of  the  blue  wafer  on  i  in  the  same  line  as  the  lays 

transmitted  from  the  red 
wafer  on  h»  The  sensation 
will  be  that  of  purple;  and 
by  using  waf en  of  different 
colours,  many  experiments 
may  thus  be  performed. 

(c)  By  Rdating  Disks  takiek 
fuiclUy  superposa  on  the  same 
Area  of  Retina  the  Iwtpra- 
,  stem  of  JXffermt  Wavelengths. 
— Such  disks  may  be  con- 
structed of  cardboard,  on 
which  coloured  sectors  are 
painted,  as  shown  in  fig.  9o» 
representing  diagrammatically  the  arrangement  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton.    The  angles  of  the  sectors  were  thus  given  by  liim: — 

Red  .    60;  45.5'  I  Green         .    6o'4S-5' 

Orange      .     34*  10-5'  Blue      .     .    S4*4»' 

Yellow      .    54*  41'  I  Indigo        .    34*  lo-j' 

Violet  .  6o*  45*5' 

With  sectors  of  such  a  sise,  while  will  be  produced  on  routing 
the  disk  rapidly.  This  method  has  been  carried  out  with  gicat 
«acieiicy  by  the  oolour-top  of  J.  Clerk-MaxwcU.   It  is  a  flat  top, 

on  the  surface  of  which  disks 
of  various  cdoun  may  be 
placed.  Dancer  has  added 
to  It  a  method  by  which,  even 
while  the  top  is  rotating 
rapidly  and  the  sensation  of 
a  mixed  colour  is  strongly 
perceived,  the  eye  may  be 
able  to  see  the  simple  colours 
of  which  it  is  composed. 
This  is  done  by  placing  on 
the  handle  of  the  top,  a 
short  distance  above  the 
coloured  surface,  a  thin  black 
disk,  perforated  by  holes  of 
various  sise  and  pattern,  and 


Fig.  10.— Diagram  showing  Lam- 
bert s  Method  of  mixing  Seaaa- 
tlons  of  Colour. 


for  the  eomplefltentary  ofllonia;  lor  example,  fior  bhm  and  Ni.  tlM* 

line  SB  -  the  amouiu  of  blue,  and  the  line  SR  "the  amoMH  m-mk 
required  to  form  white. 
Again,  any  point,  lay  M, 
on  the  surface  of  the 
triangle,  will  represent  a 
mixed  colour,  the  compoii- 
ftion  of  which  may  be  ob- 
tained by  mixing  the  three 
fundamental  colours  in  the 
proportionf  represented  by 
the  icncth  of  ific  line*  M  to 
green,  MV  and  MR.  But 
the  line  VM  passes  on  to 

^tj^''t!i\!!A^^^i^     Fig.  ai.-C«omrtrieal  Representation 

portion  of  the  len^h  orthc       1^  Wewion. 

line  MY,  and  mix  it  with  violet  fn  the  proportion  of  SV.  The 
•ame  colour  would  also  be  formed  by  mixing  the  amount  MV  of 
ycUow  with  MS  of  white,  or  by  the  amonnc  RM  of  red  with  the 
amount  MD  of  greenish  blua< 

The  following  list  shows  characteristic  aMnplencntaiy  cbloats» 
with  their  wave-lengths  (X)  in  millionths  of  m  nuUlmetn?-^ 


Jit^ 


Red,X«5^- 
Orange,  X608. 
Gold-yellow,  X  S74< 
Y£Uow,Xs67. 
OoBtnisb  yeUow,  X  564. 


BIne-giieen,X49x. 
Blue,  X49a 
Blue,  X  48s. 
IndigO'blue^  X464. 
Violet,  X  435. 


Fig.  ao.— Diagram  of  the  Colour 
Disk  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 


weighted  a  little  on  one  side.  This  disk  vibrates  to  and  fro 
npidly,  and  breaks  the  continuity  of  the  colour  hnpiessk>n; 
and  thus  the  ooostituent  oohNirs  are  readily  seen. 

3.  The  Geometric  Representation  of  Colours. — Colonn  may 
be  arranged  Id  a  linear  scries,  as  in  the  solar  spcctmm.  Each 
point  of  the  line  corrssponds  to  a  determinate  impression  of 
colour;  the  line  is  not  a  straight  line,  as  regards  luminous  effect, 
but  is  better  represented  by  a  curve,  passing  from  the  red  to  the 
violet.  This  curva  mi^  be  oepresented  as  a  drclc  in  the 
circumference  of  which  the  various  colours  might  be  placed, 
in  which  case  the  complementaiy  colours  would  be  at  the 
extremities  of  the  same  diameter.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  arranged 
(he  colours  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  as  shown  in  fig.  ai.  If  we 
place  three  of  the  spectral  colours  at  three  angles,  thus— green, 
violet  and  red— the  sides  of  Che  triangle  include  the  inter- 
mediate cohmn  of  the  spectrum,  except  purpfc. 

The  p<Mnt  S  corresponds  to  white,  consequently,  from  the  inter- 
action ot  ttic  lines  which  join  the  complementary  colours,  the 
•straight  hues  from  green  to  5,  RS  and  VS  represent  the  amount  of 
«peen,  sedaad  violet  oeoesaary  t»fora»  white  i  the  nme  holds  good 


By  combining  colours  at  opposite  ends  of  the  spectnnn,  the 
effea  of  the  intermediate  colours  may  be  pRMlucsd;  but  the 
lowest  and  the  highest,  red  and  violet,  cannot  thus  be  formed. 
These  are  therefore  fundamental  or  pcimssy  <ootoi|XB,  coknua 
that  cannot  he  produced  by  the  fusion  of  other  colours.  If  now 
to  red  and  violet  we  add  green,  which  has  a  rate  of  vibration 
about  midway  between  red  and  violet,  we  obtain  a  sensation  of 
white.  Red,  green  and  violet  are  theiefore  the  three  fnada- 
mental  cokmra. 

4.  Fhysiological  Charadtn  of  Ca{<»Mrf.'**0)loiir  phyaSologically 
is  a  sensation,  and  it  therefore  does  not  depend  only  on  the 
physical  stimulus  of  light,  but  also  on  the  part  of  the  retina 
affected.  The  power  of  distinguishing  colours  Is  greatest  when 
they  fall  on,  or  immediately  around,  the  yeHow  spot,  where  the 
number  of  cones  is  greatest.  In  these  legions  more  tha|i  two 
hundred  different  tinu  of  coknir  may  be  distinguished.  Out- 
side of  this  area  lies  a  middle  aone.  where  fewer  tints  are  per- 
ceived, mostly  confined  to  shades  of  yeUow  and  blue.  If  Intense 
coloured  stimuli  arc  bnployed,  cohnirs  may  be  perceived  even 
to  the  margin  of  the  periphery  of  the  retina,  but  with  weak 
stimuli  coloured  «bjects  may.  seem  to  be  black,  or  dark  fa*ke 
shadows.  In  passing  a  colour  from  the  periphery  to  the  centre 
of  the  yellow  spot,  remarkable  changes  in  hue  may  be  obserrcd. 
Orange  is  first  grey,  then  ydlow,  and  it  only  appean  as  orange 
wh<m  it  enters  the  zone  sensitive  to  red.  Purple  and  btuisb 
green  are  blue  at  the  periphery,  and  only  show  the  true  tint 
in  the  central  region.  Four  tints  have  been  found  which  do  not 
thus  change:  a  red  obtained  by^Kkling  to  the  rod  of  the  spectrum 
a  little  blue  <a  purple),  a  yellow  of  574*5  X,  a  green  of  495  X  and 
a  blue  of  471  X. 

The  question  now  arises.  How  can  we  perceive  differences 
in  colour?  Wc  might  suppose  a  molecular  vibration  to  be  set 
up  in  the  nerve-endings  synchronous  with  the  undulations  of  the 
luminiferous  aether,  without  any  diange  in  the  chemical  con- 
stitution of  the  sensory  surface,  and  we  might  suppose  that 
where  various  series  of  waves  in  the  aether  corresponding  to 
different  cofooia  act  together,  these  may  be  fused  together,  or  to 
interfere  so  as  to  give  rise  10  a  vibration  of  modified  form  or  rate 
that  corresponded  in  some  way  to  the  sensation.  Or,  to  adopt 
another  line  of  thought,  we  might  suppose  that  the  effect  of 
different  rays  (rays  differing  in  froquency  of  vibration  and  in 
physiological  effect)  Is  to  promote  or  retard  chemical  changes 
in  the  sensory  sarface,  **  which  again  so  affect  the  senaoty  nerves 
as  to  give  rise  to  differing  stales  fn  the  nerves  and  the  nerve 
centres,  with  differing  coilcomitant  sensations."  The  former 
of  these  thoughts  is  the  foundation  of  the  Young'Hdmholtc 
theory,  whik  the  kitter  is  applicable  to  the  theoiy  of  E.  Refing. 


COLObR  SeNSATfdNl 


VISEOM 


139 


n   o 

Fig.  JS. — Diagram  sKowfng  the  Ircita- 
bility  of  thQ  Th«ce  Kiods  o{  RctU^l 
Eletnents. 

I,  tH;  2,  green;  %,  viokt.  R.O.Y, 
G^  B,  V,  iokial  letters  of  colour*. 


5.  Theories  of  Cglwr'.|%wr<^f?byt.--A  theofy  «rlitel]r  •e«pl«d 
by   physicists   was   first   proposed    by  Hiomas  Yotmg  and 

ftfienwftttls  ivvived  by 
Helmbolts.  It  is  based 
ott  the  aasamptfon  that 
three  kfttds  of  nervous  ele- 
ments exist  In  the  retina, 
the  cacdtation  of  which 
give  respectively  senas* 
tions  df  i^,  green  mnd 
violet.  These  may  be 
regarded  83  fundamental 
sensations.  Homogene' 
ous  lic^t  excites  aH 
three,  but  with  difletmt 
intensities  accomSng  to 
the  length  of  the  wave. 
Thos  long  waves  will 
exdte  most  sbtrngiy 
fibres  sensitive  to  ted, 
tnt&Wtt  waves  those 
senative  to  grNh,  end 
shoft  wftves  those  sensi' 
tive  to  violet.  Fig.  ss 
shows  '  graphidtUy  the 
irritability  of  ibt  three 
sets  of  fibres.    Hdmhgltz  thus  applies  the  tlieory: — 

*'  I.  Red  e^rites  strongly  the  fibres  tensittvc  to  vod  and  feeMy  the 
other  two — yensation:  Red. 
a.  YeU<yw  excites  moderately  the  fibres  ■  teniNtive  to  rod  and 

green,  fectny  the  violet — scnsa^on :    Yellow.  , 
^Cttftn  cxckea  strongly  the  green, '  feebly  the  Other  two— • 
sensation:  Green, 

4.  Bkie  excites  moderately  the  fibres  ae^sWve  to  greea  and 

violet,  and  feebly  the  red— sensation:  Bhi, 

5.  Vimet  excites  strongly  the  fibres  soasitLve  to  violet,  and  feebly 

tbtfother two— sensation:  Violei, 

6.  When  the  excitation  is  nearly  <$quat  for  the  three  kinds  of 

fibres,  then  the  aensatioa  is  WkUe*** 
The  Young-Helmholts  theory  explains  the  appearance  of  the 
coasecative  coloured  iai^^es.  Suppose*  for  example,  that  we  look 
at  a  red  objoot  for  a  considerable  ume ;  the  retinal  elements  sensitive 
to  red  become  fatigued.  Then  Cl)  if  the  eye  be  kept  in  darkness, 
the  fibres  affected  by  ced  being  fatigued  do  not  aet  so  as  to.give  a 
sensation  of  red ;  those  of  ^ccn  and  of  violet  hate  been  less  eKcited, 
•ad  this  exeitation  insufficient  to  give  the  sensation  01  pale  greenish 
blue;  (2)-n  the  eye  be  fixed  on  a  white  sorfacc,  the  red  fibres,  being 
fatigued,  are  not  excited  by  the  red  rays  contained  in  the  white  light; 
on  the  contrary,  tKe  green  and  violet  fibres «yo  sttfongly  excited,  and 
the  consequence  is  that  we  have  an  intense  complementary  imngo; 
(3)  if  we  look  at  a  bli^  green-  surface,  the  complemeotary  of  red, 
the  effect  will,  be  to  excite  stJW  more  strongly  the  green  and  violet 
fibres,  and  consequently  to  have  a  still  more  intense  complementary 
image:  (4)  if  we  regnrd  a  i^«urfaco,  the  primitive  colour,  the  red 
fibres  are  little  affected  in  consequence  of  being  fatis:ued.  the  green 
and  violet  fibres  will  be  only  feebly^  excited,  and  tncrefore  only  a 
very  feeble  complementary  image  will  be  seen ;  and  (5)  if  we  look 
at  a  sitff  ace  of  a  different  colour  altogether,  this  colour  may  combine 
with  that  of  the  consecutive  image,  and  prodoco  a  nifoed-oolour, 
thus,  on  a  yellow  surface,  we  will  seeen  amSge  ofan  orange  colour. 

Every  colour  has  three  qualitiaft:  (i)  Aim,  or  tint,  sock  as  red, 
given,  violet;  (s)  degree  of  96»krtUi(m^  or  pufily,  ecconlisg  to 
the  amount  of  white  mixed  wkb  the  tint,  ns  wheflewe  fetogniae 
a  red  or  green  as  pale  or  deep;  and  {$)  intstuii^.  or  hmdnositfy, 
or  brightness  ofl  when  we  designate  the  tint  of  a  rod  rose  as-'daik' 
or  bright.  Two  colours  are  identical  "when  xh^  agree  as  to. 
these  three  qualities.  Observation  shows,  howcoer,  that  oui  of 
one  hundred  men  ninety-six  agree  in  ideatifyiffg  or  in  dltcrlmfai- 
ating  colours,  while  ihe  remaining  four  show  d^ectivo  ap(MteoUi' 
tion.  These  latter  ere  called  edlottr-Hifid.  This  d«fect  b  abe«t 
ten  times  le^  frequent  in  #omen.  Celodt-blindAeis  is  congen- 
ital and  incurable,  and  H  is-' due  to  tm  Mknown' conditftn  of 
the  FDtina  or  nerve  Centnes.  or  both,  ttntf  must  be  distinguished 
from  transient  colour-blindness,'  '^omelimes  ctfused  by  the 
excessive  use  of  tobacco  and  by  disease.  -  WhU^n  caused  by 
tobacco,  the  sensation  of  blue  t^  (he  last  to  disappear  Absclnte 
Inability  to  distinguish  coloienr  is  ral«,^if  it  really  erist's*  ln>soMe^ 
tsve  caaei  that  ia-odly  .Odt^cdlbur-setaMitmf  mkt^ir  s^^lp*' 


cases  the  ooltiur-blfhd  falls  to  distingofsh  blue  from. green,  or 
there  is  inseo^ibnity  to  violet.  Baltomsm,  or  red-green  blind- 
neas,  of  which  there  are  two  varieties,  the  led^blind  and  the 
green-blind,  is  the  more  common  defect.  <Red  appeara  to  a  red- 
blind  person  as  a  dark  green  or  greenish  yellow,  yellow  and 
orange  as  cUrty  green,  and  green  Is  green  and  brighter  than  the 
fvcen  of  the  yellow  and  orange.  To  a  green-bUnd  person  red 
appears  as  dawk  ycUow,  yellow  is  yellow,  except  a  little  lighter 
in  shade  than  the  red  he  calls  dark  yeDov,  And  green  is  pale 
yellow^ 

Aocordti^  to  the  Young-Helmholts  tbeopr,  there  are  three  funda- 
meatal  colour  sensations*  red,  green  and  violet,  by  the  combination 
of  which  aU  other  colours  nay  be  formed,  and  it  is  assumed  that 
there  exist  in  the  retina  three  kinds  of  nerve  elements,  each  of 
which  ia  speciaUy  rBspoasivn  to  the  stimulus  of  waves  of  a  certain 
frequency  corresponding  to  one  colour,  and  much  less  so  to  waves 
of  other  frequencies  and  other  colours.  If  waves  conesponding 
to  pure  red  alone  act  on  the  retina*  only  the  corresponding  nerve 
element  for  red  would  be  excitedi  and  so  with  green  and  violet. 
But  if  waves  of  difierent  frequencies  are  mixed  (corresponding  to  a 
mixture  of  ooloars),  then  the  nerve  elements  wHl  be  set  in  action  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  and  intensity  of  the  constituent  excitant 
rsys  in  the  ooloar.  Thus  if  all  the  nerve  elcroents  were  simultane- 
ously set  in  actios,  the  sensation  is  that  of  white  light :  if  that  corre- 
•pofMani;  to  led  and  green,  the  resultant  sensation  will  be  orange  or 
yettoW)  if  mainly  the  green  and  violet,  the  sensation  will  be  blue  and 
uidigo.  Then  fed-bliadoess  may  be  explained  by  supposing  that  the 
elements  oorresponding  to  the  sensation  of  rra  are, absent;  and 
ireen-bliadaess,  to  the  absence  of  the  eleinents  sensitive  to  green. 
If  to  a  rod-blind  person  the  green  and  violet  are  equal,  and  w£en  to 
a  green-bliad  person  the  red  and  vit^t  are  equaf,  they  may  have 
senaattona  which  ,to  them  ^constitute  white,  while  to  the  normal 
eye  the  sensation  is  not  white,  but  bluish  green  in  the  one  case  mid 
green  in  the  other.  In  each  case,  to  the  normal  eye.  the  sensaticm 
of  green  has  been  added  to  the  sensations  of  red  and  blue.  It  w3l 
be  evident,  also,  that  whiteness  to  the  colour-blind  eye  cannot  be 
the  same  as  whiteness  to  the  normal  eye.  No  doubt  this  theory 
explahis  certain  phenomena  of  colour-blindnesik  of  after-coloured 
images,  and  of  contrast  of  colour,  but  it  is  open  to  various  objections. 
It  has  no  anatomical  basis,  as  it  has  been  found  to  be  impossible 
to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  three  kinds  of  nerve  elements,  or 
retinal  elements,  conesponding  to  the  three  fundamental  colour 
sensations.  Why  should  red  to  a  o^ur-blind  person  give  rise  to  a 
sensation  of  something^  like  green,  or  why  should  it  give  rise  to  a 
sensation  at  all  ?  Again,  and  as  already  stated,  in  cases  of  colour- 
blindness due  to  tobacco  or  to  disease,  only  blue  may  be  seen,  while 
it  is  said  that  the  rest  of  the  spectrum  seems  to  be  white.  It  is 
difiieult  to  understand  how  wkUe  can  be  the  sensation  if  the  cexiw 
tions  of  red  and  green  are  lost.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  he 
argued  that  such  colour-blind  eyes  do  not  really  see  white  as  seen 
by  a  normal  person,  and  that  they  only  hav^  a  sensation  whioi 
they  have  been  accustooled  to  call  white.  Aocordiog  to  this  theory, 
we  never  actually  experience  the  jjrimary  sensations.  Thus  we 
never  see  primary  red,  as  the  sensation  is  more  or  less  mixed  witn 
primary  green,  and  even  with  primary  blue  (violet).  So  with  regard 
to  primarv  green  and  primary  violet.  Hclmholts,  in  his  last  wodc 
00  the  stibject,  adooted  as  the^  three  primary  colours  a  red  bluer 
than  spectral  red,  (a)  a  green  lying  between  540  X  and  560  X  (6,  IiIk 
the  green  of  vegetation),  and  a  blue  at  aboot  470  X  (c,  like  ultra- 
marine), all,  however,  much  more  highly  saturikted  than  any  colours 
exBting  in  ^e  spectrum. 

In  Hanikmh  der  Phyiidogiseken  O^ik  (Hamburg  and  Leipeig. 
1896}  Hclmholtz  pointed  out  that  luminosity  or  brightness  plays  a 
more  important  dart  in  colour  perception  than  has  been  supposed. 
Each  spectral  colour  is  composed  of  certain  proportions  of^  these 
fundamental  oeloun,  or,  to  put  it  ifa  another  way,  a  combination  of 
two  of  them  added  to  a  certain  amount  of  white. 

Hcring's  theory  proceeds  on  the  assumption  of  chemkal  changes 
in  the  retina  under  the  influence  of  light.  It  also  assumes 
that  certain  fundamental  sensations  are  excited  by  light  or  occur 
during  the  absei^  of- light.  These  fundaknental  sensations  are 
White,  black,  ie<f.  yellow,  green  and  blue.  They  are  arranged  in 
pairs,  the  onfe  eri[our  in  each  pair  being,'  in  a  sense.  oonlplessentar>'  to 
the  other,  as  whftc  to  black,  red  to  green,  and  yellow  to  blue.  Hcring 
also  supposes  that  when  rays  of  a  certain  wavC'lengtb  fall  on  visual 
substances  assumed  to  exist  in  the  retina,  destructK-e  or,  as  it  ts 
termed,  kataboKc  •changes  occur,  while  rsys  having  other  wave- 
lengths  cause  .ccmskDictive  or  anabolic  diangea.  Suppose  that  in  a 
red-grccn  substance  katabolic  and  anabolic  changes  occur  in  equal 
amount,  there  may  be  no  sensation,  but  when  waves  of  a  certafn 
wave-length  or  frequency  cauM  katabolic  changes  in  excess,  there 
win  be  a  iensstion  of  red.  while  shoiter  waves  and  of  greater  fre- 
quency, by,  eaciting.  aaaboKc .  dmnges»  will  cause  a  sensation  of 
green.'  In  like  manner,  katabolism  of  a  yellow-blue  visual  sub> 
stance  gives  rise  to  a  sensation  we  call  yellow,  while  anabolisrit 
by  shorter  waves  acting  on  the  same  substance,  causes  the  sensation 


I+O  VIS 

B,  in  tb*  dark,  liH*  liM  u  the  nmminn 

m  k  ■  ■Ba£ii  u  na  u  whiten™. 

ach  pur  ue  antagotiiitic  u  nil  ai  ccunplc 
iDcwif.  >»  UK  iiM  <Ad  of  the  ipectntn  ibe  nv«  GaHK  kiuboluin 
«f  ibi  rtd-ffecB  luhitiBCB*  wUla  they  bave  ao  eficic  oa  ibe  ydloh- 
blw  HbHuee.  Hcr  tha  niatiiia  k  itil.  The  ihancr  mvti 
af  the  iiMctnl  ydlow  caoie  katabDlum  o(  ibe  ydkiW'Uue  milerial. 
while  latJiboliiiA  uid  uubolUm  of  (be  led-freen  aubniice  ue  heie 
equal.  Hen  tbt  Muatiu  k  ytOow.  Si»  ■homi  wive^  tarn- 
■pDo^nff  toEicMriiowcauacaitobglkinfll  the  nd-tr^w  AubAadce, 
•hile  ibeir  ndunca  oa  (he  ydloir-liluc  ubaun,  being  equal  in 

the  leiuatkHi  a  Enen.    Shett  wives  of  the  blue  iil  the  ipectniiB 
caine  auboKn  ot  tbo  jdlow-bliie  mitenal,  ind  u  tbeir  actioa  on 


nd-tnen  HbnwKa.  and  thm  pve 
The  feuatiua  oniife  la  arpenenctd 
bolitin,  and  (neniiS  Uua  when  Iben 
ubMaaco.  Anin.  wben  all  tbc  ri 
Rtlnat  hatabouiB  and  anabolivn  In 
iflatcenareequilaMlfintnLExc  ad 
In  Ibe  whhe^blaric  labMance,  and 
Laxly,  when  no  HeM  lilk  on  the  re( 
on  and  there  Is  the  tcButian  irf  blarl 
Hefins't  theory  at 

lated  bf  red  lighiTluti 

after  withdrmnloT  the  red  iiimulua,  we  have  j 
Then  anabolk  changei  otut  under  the  Inflm 
the  cHect  a  anntcd  bv  the  anabolic  ellect  ol 
with  the  imit  that  the  negative  (fier-inute 
Peihan  Ibe  dlninctive  (otuic  a(  Hering'*  tl 
an  Independent  9nuation»  and  not  the  Konda 

The  gieaiot  diRiculiy  in  the  way  <i(  lb* 
theory  it  witb  reference  to  the  lesialidB  of 

be  dne  to  atubotic  chanfes  oeeurring  in  the 

Suppoie  that  anaboUui  and  kalabaUm  el  the  wbito 
■tance  are  in  eqiulibrtuiii.  aaaecoaifiaaied  by  ilinnlatif 
Ibe  Ted.freen  or  tbe  yeRow-blne  ufaataBcca,  we  And  thai  we 
•enaiion  of  daifcneH,  bat  aM  ooa  of  Inieno  blidmoa 
'  dulmeii "  bai  itDI  a  «efta!n  amoaat  of  Inmlnority.  aud 
been  termed  ibe  "  htriuk  lifht "  of  the  retina.  Seiiaai 
u.j.  JIK.^^  I .i;.  j-j ■ 1:]^  nperien 


[^"J^. 


oviv-HlIni] 


when  we  opeac  the  tvuna  to  bright  nnobiue  lor  ■  Jew  nwn 
and  tben  rlw  ihe  eye.  We  then  have  a  ■enaailon  sf  intenia  b 
UH,  which  aDan.  however,  k  aucrecded  by  the  darknoa  w  m 
**  int/fiulc  lifhi."  The  varlgui  degrcea  of  burhneaa,  if  it  k  inily 
•enation»  an  aniaU  cocnrarBd  with  ihe  degrees  in  ilie  intenaity  < 
wbiteaeaa.  In  the  contfdention  of  both  theorka  cfaangea  in  ih 
cerebral  eenltva  have  not  beeo  taken  into  account,  and  ni  iheie  w 


of  grey  paper  on  i 
li  heigbtened  If  w 


e  look  at  a  amill  while, 
coloured  froiiitd,  Ibe  object  appcan 
icnlaiy  to  the  ground.  Thus  a  ciitlc 
iind  appeaia  to  be  of  a  greenuh-blue 
>und  it  will  appear  pink.  Thii  effect 
ivei  the  paper  a  thin  iheet  of  Iusue 
paper;  cut  u  tiiuppean  at  ooce  if  we  place  a  black  ring  or 
border  round  the  grey  paper.  Again,  if  we  place  two  comple- 
DKnlary  colours  tide  bf  nde,  both  appear  to  be  increased  in 
Inlinsity.  Various  thcolica  bave  been  advanced  to  eiplain 
these  facts.  Helmholli  was  of  o[Hmon  that  Ihe  pbcnonicna 
Consisl  rallier  in  modifications  of  judgment  than  in  diBeicnt 
sensory  impressions;  J.  A,  F.  Ptaleau,  on  ibe  olhcr  hand, 
attempted   to  nfiliin    them   by  Ibe   [bcoty   of   consecutive 

S.  TBt  HovcnNTs  or  mz  En 
I.  CflKTof  SfaKnmL— The  globe  of  the  eye  has  a  cnCri 

but  a  tittle  behind  it.  On  this  centre  it  rnay  move  round  aia 
cl  rotatin,    <ji   which  there  are    three — an   anlero^xatcrior, 

always  placed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  fixed  on  one  point,  called 
the  fiii  twit  or  the  potni  »/  rr^sidL  A  line  passing  from  ihe 
cenlti  of  rotation  to  the  point  of  regard  is  oiled  the  I'm  »/ 
rtgari.  The  iwo  lines  of  regard  [orni  u  antfe  ai  Ihr  pdnl  td 
ngird,  and  the  baie  ii  formed  by  a  line  passing  from  the  one 
centre  of  rouuon  to  the  other.  A  [jane  passing  through 
both  lines  Ol  Rpud  la  oiled  llw  Hm»  ^  mpii.    Willi  tbaae 


iEVE  MCWSMENTS 

•*  CMi  DOB  imiiln  tbt  Bovcounti  of  the  qfehgitl, 
wnicn  are  of  three  kinds:  (0  f'"'  /MifUH.  The  head  is  eicci, 
and  the  line  of  ngaid  is  directed  toward*  the  diiiaat  horiaoo. 
())  Sasud  fcsilieH.  This  indicate!  all  the  movEmenta  nund 
Ibe  itansvene  and  boiiiontd  axes.  When  the  eye  totatea 
round  Ihc  first,  the  line  of  r«fard  li  di^illitcd  above  01  below, 
and  nukes  with  a  line  indicating  its  farmer  poikioD  ut  aagle 
lemed  by  Helmholu  the  angle  of  veittcal  dbptaocmeil,  or  Ibe 
auaiioiui  auflti  and  when  It  TOtatet  raond  tbe  venical 
aiis,  the  tine  of  regard  is  displaced  trotn  side  to  ^dc,  foraiiiig 
wiib  the  median  plane  of  (be  eye  an  angle  tailed  tbt  iwfb  if 
laUrai  iiiplaiauiU.  ii)  TJiird  vdcr  tf  peiiOm.  This  intJudea 
all  tbote  which  the  gtobe  may  uaumc  in  pcrfonning  a  roUtory 

along  with  lateral  or  vertical  d^tlactmenls.  This 
leasured  by  the 


:    whidi  The  a: 


t.  that  k.  perpendiculariatha 


tercepted      _,      .„     ,. 
Heme  visual  Una  which  '''=:«-T?»V™?l"i!!'*™??T^ 
pan   through    (be    ceniie      ¥.'!"^;"^^.'?'!'«.f?^'^°'.**!" 
of  tlie  pupil,  tbt  a^ 
of    dUalation 
determines    it*    aiie.      It 
follows     the     movemenii 
of    the   eye,    and   Is  dis- 
placed with  iL      Each  poi 
quoding  point  on  Ibe  rctij 
plained,  which  secure*  ou 
yellow  spot. 

I.  Simpli  yiiiaH  viM  Two  Bja. — When  we  look  at  u  object 
with  both  eyes,  having  the  opiic  axes  parallel.  111  Image  fall* 
■■--  ---  yellow  spots,  and  it  ' 

.     If,  however,  we 

'  pressing  It  with  the  bn{ 

e  in  the  displaced  eye  d< 

yellow  spot,  and  we  see      ^J|C  f"  >■  > 


pladeofthepaper,t 
It  in  the  visual  fidd  hti  > 
u,  but  the  portion,  as  slrea 
'  attoidon  is  that  falling  t 


objects,  ( 


e  object  FiG.  u— Diagiua 
images  fall      lo  illustrate  the 


with   two  eyes  (hat   (be  two  ii 

on  the  two    yellow  ^nts; 

always  single   if  its  image  fall  on  Mrrt- 

ipimdint  tn»U  in  the  two  eyts. 

The  eye  may  rotate  round  three  possible  axes,  a  vcnicat. 
hotitoalal  and  antertpposlerior.  These  movements  are  eSecled 
by  four  ilraight  musdcs  and  (wo  oblique.  1'he  four  slraighl 
tnutcles  arise  from  the  back  of  (he  orbit,  and  put  forward  lo  h« 

regard  IIk  anterior  and  posterior  ends  ol  Ihe  globe  at  the  pole*. 
The  (HO  obliques  (one  originating  ai  the  back  of  (he  orbit) 

eyeball,  the  other  below,  while  both  are  intened  into  the  rye- 
ball  on  the  tcmponi  side,  llie  lupetior  oblique  above  and  the 
inferior  obliiiue  below.  The  sii  tnulclei  worl:  in  pain.  Tbe 
ialetaU  and  utHod  recti  tun  Ihc  *yt  found  tbc  venicaj  udt. 


VMUHL  macEmoiai 


VISION 


HI 


f»  that  the  fiAe  df  visioii  is  directei  to  the  rigiht  or  left.  The 
ioperior  end  Inferior  recti  rotate  the  eye  round  the  horizontal 
aids,  and  thus  the  line  of  vision  is  raticd  or  towered.  The 
obEqne  muscles  turn  the  eye  round  an  axis  passing  through  the 
centre  of  the  eye  to  the  bacli  of  the  head,  so  that  the  superior 
oblique  mnsde  tovners,  while  the  inferior  oblique  raises,  the 
visual  tine.  It  was  also  shown  by  Helraholu  that  the  oblique 
muscles  sometimes  cause  a  slight  rotation  of  the  eyeball  round 
the  visual  axis  itself.  These  movements  are  under  the  control 
of  the  will  up  to  a  certain  pcnnt,  but  there  are  slighter  move- 
mNits  that  are  altogether  involuntary.  Hdmholta  studied 
these  slighter  movements  by  a  method  first  suggested  by  F.  C. 
Donders.  By  this  method  the  apparent  position  of  after- 
images produced  by  exhausting  the  retina,  say  with  a  red  or 
green  object,  was  compared  with  that  of  a  line  or  fixed  point 
gased  at  with  a  new  position  of  the  eyeball.  The  ocular  spectra 
soon  vanish,  but  a  quick  observer  can  determine  the  coincidence 
of  lines  with  the  spectra.  After  producmg  an  after-image 
with  the  head  m  the  erect  position,  the  head  may  be  placed 
into  any  mclined  position,  and  if  the  attention  is  then  fixed  on  a 
diagram  having  vertical  lines  ruled  upon  it,  it  can  easily  be  seen 
whether  the  ajfter-image  coincides  with  these  lines.  As  the 
after-image  must  remain  in  the  same  position  on  the  retina, 
it  >nll  be  evident  that  if  it  coincides  with  the  vertical  lines  (here 
must  have  been  a  slight  rotation  of  the  eyeball.  Such  a  coin' 
cidence  always  takes  place,  and  thus  it  is  proved  that  there  is 
an  involuntary  rotation.  This  minute  rotation  enables  us  to 
judge  more  accurately  of  the  position  of  external  objects. 

3.  The  hcr»p$er  is  the  locus  of  those  pdnts  of  space  which 
are  projected  on  retinal  points.  While  gooroetrically  it  may 
be  conceived  as  simple,  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  generally  a  line 
of  double  curvature  produced  by  the  intersection  of  two  hypcr- 
boloids,  or,  in  other  words,  it  b  a  twisted  cubic  curve  formed 
by  the  intersection  of  two  hyperbolokls  which  have  a  common 
generator.  The  curves  pass  through  the  nodal  point  of  both 
eyes.  An  infinite  number  of  lines  may  be  drawn  from  any  point 
of  the  horopter,  so  that  the  point  may  be  seen  as  a  single  point, 
and  these  lines  lie  on  a  cone  of  the  second  order,  whose  vertex 
is  the  point.  When  we  gaze  at  the  horizon,  the  horopter  is 
teally  a  horizontal  plane  passing  through  our  feet.  The 
Iwropter  in  this  instance  is  the  ground  on  which  we  stand. 
Experiments  show  **  that  the  forms  and  the  distances  of  these 
objects  which  are  situated  in,  or  very  nearly  in,  the  horopter, 
are  perceived  with  a  greater  degree  of  accuracy  than  the  same 
forms  and  distances  would  be  when  not  situated  in  the  horopter  " 
(M'Kendrick,  Life  oj  fielmholu,  1 899,  p.  x  7  3  d  seq.) . 

An  object  which  is  not  found  in  the  horopter,  or,  in  other 
trords,  does  not  form  an  image  on  corresponding  points  of  the 
letinae,  is  seen  double.  Wh»  tJie  eyeballs  axe  so  acted  upon 
by  their  muscles  as  to  secure  images  on  non-corresponding 
points,  and  consequently  double  vision,  the  condition  h  termed 
strabismus,  or  squinting,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties 
treated  of  in  works  on  ophthalmic  surgery.  It  Is  important 
to  observe  that  in  the  fusion  of  double  images  we  must  assume, 
not  only  the  correctness  of  the  theory  of  corresponding  points 
cf  the  retina,  but  also  that  there  are  corresponding  points  m  the 
brain,  at  the  central  ends  of  the  optic  fibres.  Such  fusion  of 
images  may  occur  without  consciousness^-at  all  events.  It  is 
possible  to  imagine  that  the  cerebral  effect  (except  as  regards 
consciousness)  would  be  the  same  when  a  single  object  was 
{rfaoed  before  the  two  eyes,  in  the  proper  position,  whether  the 
individual  were  conscious  Or  not.  On  the  other  hand,  as  we 
are  habitually  conscious  of  a  ungle  image,  there  is  a  psychical 
tendency  to  fuse  double  images  when  they  are  not  too  dissimilar. 

4.  Binocular  Perception  of  Colour. — ^^lis  may  be  studied  as 
loQows.  Take  two  Ko.  3  eye-pieces  of  s  Hartnack's  micro- 
scope, or  two  eye-pieces  of  the  same  optical  value  from  any 
microscope,  place  one  in  front  of  each  eye,  direct  Ihem  to  a  dear 
window  in  daylight,  keep  them  parallel,  and  two  luminous  fields 
will  be  seen,  one  corresponding  to  each  eye.  Then  converge 
the  two  eye-pieces,  until  the  two  luminous  circles  cross,  and 
the  central  part,  like  a  bl-convex  lenS,  will  appear  dor  and 

xxvm  ^* 


bright,  while  the  oiUer  segmsnis  will  be  much  less  intense,  and 
may  appear  even  of  a  dim  grey  colour  Here,  evideaily,  the 
sensation  is  due  to  a  fusion  of  impressions  m  the  braui.  With 
a  similar  arrangement,  blue  hght  may  be  admitted  by  the  one 
eye-piece  and  red  by  the  other,  and  on  the  convergence  of  the 
two,  a  resultant  colour,  purple,  will  be  observed.  This  may 
be  termed  the  binocular  vision  of  colours  It  is  remarkable 
that  by  a  mental  effort  this  sensation  of  a  compound  colour 
may  be  decomposed  mto  its  constituents,  so  that  one  eye  wiU 
again  see  blue  and  the  other  red. 

6.  The  Psycbicai.  tUiAnoNS  or  Visual  PEKCSPnoNS 

1.  General  Ckaracters  of  Visual  Poruptions, — ^AU  visual 
perceptions,  if  they  last  for  a  suffident  length  of  time,  appear 
to  be  external  to  ourselves,  erect,  localized  in  a  position  in  space 
and  more  or  less  continuous. 

(a)  Vuual  Se$tsations  are  referred  to  Ike  Exteru/r.-^TYm  appears 
to  be  due,  to  a  large  extent,  to  habit.  Those  who  have  been 
bom  blind,  on  obtaining  eyesight  by  an  operation,  have 
imagined  objects  to  be  in  dose  proximity  to  the  eye,  and  have 
not  had  the  distinct  sense  of  exteriority  which  most  individuals 
possess.  Slowly,  and  by  a  process  of  education,  in  which  the 
sense  ti  touch  played  an  important  part,  they  gained  the 
knowledge  of  the  external  relations  of  objects.  Agsin,  phos- 
genes, when  first  produced,  appear  to  be  in  the  eye,  but  whas 
conscious  of  them,  by  an  effort  of  imagination,  we  may  transport 
them  into  space,  although  they  never  appear  very  far  off. 

(fr)  Viswil  Sensations  are  referred  to  Erect  Objects, — ^Although 
the  images  of  objects  are  inverted  on  the  retina  we  see  them 
erect.  The  explanation  of  the  effect  is  that  we  are  conscious 
not  of  the  image  on  the  retina,  but  of  the  luminous  object  from 
which  the  rays  proceed,  and  we  refer  the  sensation  in  the 
direction  of  these  rays.  Again,  in  running  the  eye  ovet  the 
object,  say  a  tall  pole,  from  base  to  apex,  we  are  not  conscioxis 
of  the  different  images  on  the  retina,  but  of  the  muscular  move- 
ments necessary  to  bring  the  parts  successively  on  the  yellow 
spot. 

(c)  Visual  Sensations  art  referred  to  a  Position  in  Space.*^ 
The  localisation  of  a  luminous  point  in  space  can  only  be 
determined  by  observing  its  relations  to  other  luminous  points 
with  a  given  position  of  the  head  and  of  the  eye.  For  example, 
in  a  perfectly  dark  room,  if  we  look  at  a  single  luminous  point, 
we  cannot  fix  its  exact  position  in  space,  but  we  may  get  some 
information  of  a  vague  character  by  moving  the  head  or  the 
eye.  If,  however,  a  second  luminous  point  appears  in  the  darlb- 
ness,  we  can  tell  whether  it  is  nearer  or  farther  distant,  above 
or  below  the  first.  So  with  regard  to  other  luminous  pobts 
we  observe  their  reciprocal  relations,  and  thus  we  localize  a 
number  of  visual  impressions.  There  are  three  principal 
directions  in  space:  the  transverse  (breadth),  the  veriieal 
(height)  and  the  sagittal  (depth).  Luminous  points  may  be 
localized  either  in  the  transverse  or  vertical  directions.  Here 
we  have  to  do  simply  with  localization  on  a  surface.  A  number 
of  points  may  be  observed  simultaneously  (as  when  the  eye  Is 
fixed)  or  successively  (as  when  the  eye  moves).  If  the  move- 
ment of  the  eye  be  made  rapidly,  the  scries  of  impressions  from 
different  points  may  be  fused  to*  •  g 

gether,  and  we  are  conscious  at  •  g 

a  fine,  the  direction  of  which  Is  •  # 

indicated  chiefly  by  the  muscular  •  # 

sensations   fdt   in   following   iUH 0 1 

The  case  is  different  as  regards 

points  in  the  sagittal  direction.  a..»*  ••/•« 

\Ve  see  only  a  single  point  of     ..«,,«£*« 

this  line  at  a  time;  it  may  be     • z  •  •  •  •  • 

a    tmnsverse    seriei    of    retinal     ...•••4 

elements,  A  B,  and  each  of  these     ••••••*••••• 

formed  by  a  number  of  smaller  Fic.  25j-Djagiam  Ulustratinff 

elements,^,  a,  3.  4.  situated  in  {SS^iSSiS"'*^  "^  ^"^ 
the  axis  of  each  principal  element ; 

it  may  be,  on  the  other  hand,  the  transverse  line  a  b  situated 
in  space  and  formed  by  a  series  of  points  in  juxtaposition. 


*  «J 


HI 


VISION 


|ER|MS  ommAcnoif 


Each  of  these  pointe  wSL  bapum  A'tfctiiiil  elemenU  and  the 
Msuk  wiU  be  the  perception  of  a  tnnBvene  line;  but  this  witt 
ikot  be  the  same  for  the  poinU  c,  J,  «,  /,  ; ,.  satualed  in  space  in 
a  linear  seriesp  in  the  sagittal  diraction;  only  one  of   those 
points,  c,  win  impress  the  corresponding  retinal  element,  and  we 
Can  see  only  Me  point  at  a  time  in  the  line  eg.     By  acoom- 
modathig   snccessively,  however,  for  the  various  points  at 
different  and  considcsable  distamys  along  the  line  eg,  we  may 
exdte  retinal  elements  in  rapid  succession.    Thus,  partly  by 
the  fusion  of  the  successive  imprcasiaiis  on  the  retina,  and  partly 
from  the  muscular  sensations  caused  by  repeated  icoommoda- 
tions  and  possibly  of  ocular  movements,  we  obtain  a  notion  of 
depth  in  space,  even  with  the  use  of  only  one  eye.    It  is*  how- 
ever, one  of  the  chief  effects  of  binocular  vision  to  give  precision 
to  the  notion  of  space  in  the  sagKtal  direction. 

id)  Visual  Sensalions  are  ConlinMom, — Suppose  the  image 
of  a  hireinous  line  falls  on  the  retina^  it  will  appear  as  a  line 
although  it  is  placed  on  perhaps  aoo  cones  or  rods,  each  of 
which  may  be  separately  excited,  so  as  to  cause  a  distinct 
sensation.    Again,  on  the  same  principle,  the  impression  of  a 
superficial  surface  may  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of  wtcsait,  made 
up  of  Individual  portions  corresponding  lo  the  rods  or  cones 
on  which  the  image  of  the  surface  falls.     But  in  both  cases 
the  sensation  is  continuous,  so  that  we  see  a  line  or  a  surface. 
The  individual  images  are  fused  together. 

2.  Notitms  derived  from  Visual  Perctptions.-'When  we  look 
at  any  object,  we  judge  of  its  size,  the  direction  oi  its  surfaces 
(unless  it  be  a  point),  its  distance  from  the  eye,  its  apparent 
movement  or  fixedness  and  its  appearance  of  solidity. 

(o)  Apparent  5«se.— This,  so  far  as  regards  a  comparatively 
small  object)  depends  on  the  size  of  the  retinal  image,  as  deter- 
mined by  the  visual  angle 
•  •••••  •  With    a   very   large   object, 

^  o  C  there  is  an  appreciation  of 

•I'f •  ?^'--9»»F*™  i<>  muatratc  tize  from  the  muscular 
lUusions  of  Sia  and  Disuocc.  iensaUons  derived  from  the 
movements  of  the  eyeball  as  we  "  range "  the  eye  over  it. 
It  is  difficult  to  appreciate  the  distance  separating  two  points 
between  which  there  are  other  points,  as  contrasted  with  an 
apparently  similar  distance  without  intermediate  points.  For 
example,  the  distance  A  to  B  appeals  to  be  greater  than  from 
B  to  C,  in  fig.  26. 

ib)  DirecOatkr-ki  the  retina  is  a  curved  surfacey  «  long 
strait  line,  especially  when  seen  from  a  distance',  appears 
curved.    In  fig.  ay  a  curious  illusion  of  direction,  first  shown 

by  J.  K.  F.  ZocUner. 
is  depicted.  If  these 
lines  be  looked  at 
somewhat  obliquely, 
say  from  one  comer, 
they  will  appear  to 
converge  or  diverge, 
and  the  oblique  lines, 
on  each  side  of  the 
vertical  lines,  will 
ai^iear  not  to  be 
exactly  opposite  each 
other.  But  the  ver- 
tical lines  are  parallel, 
and  the  oblique  lines 
are  continuous  across 
them.  The  effect  is 
evidently  due  to  an 
error  of  judgment, 
as  it  may  be  con- 
trolled by  an  intense 
effortf  when  the  lines  will  be  seen  as  they  really  are. 
'  (c)  Apparent  Distance.-^Vfe  judge  of  distance,  as  regards 
large  objects  at  a  great  distance  from  the  eye — (i)  from  their 
apparent  size,  which  depends  on  the  dimensions  of  the  visual 
angle,  and  (a)  from  the  interposition  of  other  objects  between 
the  eye  and  the  distant  objccL    Thus,  at  sea,  we  cannot  form. 


Pio.  sjw-^oellner's  Ft^re  showing  an 
Illusion  of  Direction.. 


FlC.  >8.— Illustrating 
^ •  Vk" 


without  peat  npnliWi  $m  •coorste  mtim»U  of 
miles  we  are  off  the  coast,  and  all  know  bow  difioik  it  ia  ta 
estimate  accurately  the  width  of  a  river.  But  if  objects  be 
interposed  between  the  eye  and  the  distant  object  say  a  few 
vessels  at  different  distances  at  sea,  or  a  boat  in  the  river,  then 
we  have  certain  autterials  on  which  to  fona  a  judgment,  the 
aocuragr  of  which,  however,  even  with  these  aids»  will  depend 
on  experience.  When  we  look  at  a  near  object,  we  judge  of 
iu  distance  chiefly  by  the  sense  of  effort  p«t  forth  in  bringiag 
the  two  lines  of  regard  to  oMveige  upon  it. 

(d)  Tkt  Mopemnt  ef  a  Body,-^\i  the  eye  be  fixed,  we  judca 
of  movement  by  suoccasive  portions 
of  the  retina  being  affected,  and 
possibly  also  by  a  feeling  of  an 
absence  of  muscular  contractions 
necessary  to  move  the  eyeballs.  L 
When  the  eye  moves,  so  as  to 
"follow"  the  object,  there  is  a 
sense  of  muscular  effort,  which  is 
increased  when.  In  addition,  we  require  to  move  the  head. 

ie)  The  Apparent  Solidity  of  an  0bj€a.—li  we  look  at  an 
object,  say  a  cube,  first  with  the  right  eye  and  then  with  the 
left,  it  will  be  found  that  the  two  images  of  the  object  are  some- 
what different,  as  in  fig.  a8.  If,  then,  by  means  of  a  stereoscope, 
or  by  holding  a  card  between  tlio  two  eyes,  and  causing  a  slight 
convergence  of  the  eyes,  the  two  images  are  brought  upon 
corresponding  points  of  the  two  retinae,  the  image  will  at  once 
be  seen  in  relief. 

See  also  article  "  Vuton  "  by  W.  H.  R.  Rivera  in  ScMfei^s  Text- 
Book  qf  Physiology*  vol.  ii.  p,  1026.  (J.  G.  M.) 

7.  IEr&oss  of  Refraction  amd  AccoMUOOAnoN  and 
THEia  CuRAnvE  Treatucmt 

The  following  is  a  classification  of  the  diseases  of  vision,  fron 
a  medical  point  of  view  (see  also  £yb;  diseases): — 

a.  Errors  of  refraction:  hyperopia.  msrofMS,  astigmatism,  aniao* 

metropia,  aphakia. 

b.  Errors  of  acconunodadon:— 

<i)  LoM   of  accommodation     (a)  From  advancing  years  (presby- 
opia), or  from  debility. 
if))  From   paralysis   (cydoplcgai) 
due  to— 

1.  Drugs  such  as  atropine. 

2.  Systemic  poisons:    diph- 

thcria.in  tluenxa,8yphilia, 
Ac. 
5.  Diieasee  of  the  nervous 
tystem,  coocnaaion  of  the 
brain. 
fa)  Scasm  of  accommodation. 

(3)  Meridional  asymmetrical  accommodation  by  means  of  whidi 
low  errors  of  asdgmatian  are  corrected,  produdog  eyeetram. 

Hyperopia  or  Hypermetropia  (H.)  (Far-sight;  (German 
«■  Uebersicht). — This  is  a  condition  of  the  refraction  of  the  eye 
in  which,  with  the  eye  at  rest,  parallel  rays  of  light  focus  beyond 
the  retina,  which  means  that  the  image  of  a  distant  object  b 
not  in  focus  when  it  meets  the  retina,  because  the  eye  is  too 
short  antexo-posteriorly.  Most  eyes  at  birth  are  hyperopic, 
but  as  the  child  grows  the  eye  also  grows;  when,  however, 
this  does  not  take  place,  or  does  not  take  place  sufficiently, 
normal  development  is  thus  arrested.  There  are  other  con- 
ditions that  cause  hyperopia,  but  this  shortening  of  the  antero- 
posterior axis  is  by  far  the  commonest. 

Hyperopia  is  corrected  by  convex  glasses  (fig.  29),  and  the 
measurement  of  the  hyperopia  is  that  convex  glass  which  enables 
the  hyperopic  eye,  at  rest,  to  see  distinctly  objects  at  a  distance. 
When  the  hyperopia  is  not  too  high  it  can  also  be  corrected 
by  the  eye  itself  by  means  of  the  ciliary  musde  (muscle  of 
accommodation)  which  causes  the  crystalline  lens  to  become 
more  convex,  and  thus  brings  about  Uie  same  restih  as  pbdng 
a  convex  glaas^^fore  the  eye. 

In  young  people  when  the  error  is  not  too  hi|^  this  work 
is  done  unconsciously,  vision  appears  to  be  perfect,  and  ft  is 
only  by  placing  the  eye  under  the  influence  of  atropine  that 


EUKUtSOF  RSFBACnoMI 


VISION 


t*S 


I  DM  of  the  cflhty  niude 


which  ii  oaiy  employed  «hcn  looking  at  m«r  ob^ecti;  bat 
tlK  hypcmpe  hu  to  UM  tU>  imiidg  nil  Ui  mUag  boun  loi 
bolti  nnr  ud  i&liiat  vjiioa,  »  tint  bk  eyra  ue  «vei  u  i«l- 
Fonauttly  he  hu  Knnc  anpenWinn  far  (kk  out.  mA, 
lot  in  aim  bypetopca  the  dliiry  bukIc  becona  bihc  oi  lea 
bypenniJiIed ;  but  even  so,  il  neir  work  ia  u  all  euenin, 
or  11  the  defect  it  uaocnted  intbuii|iuiIsiiiarui>«»tHipi>, 
lynptacu  of  ^e-Mnia  wiU  »oner  or  lius  tluir  tbenaahrc* 
(lee  Sy-ii/ain,  below). 

Ib  aids  people  &  very  comnon  lyiBploin  b  binning  of  the 
type  vthibe  nading;  the  book  hu  lo  be  put  down  ajid  the  eyes 
RMed  foe  KHile  ninutei  befon  Ruling  can  be  leBimed.  Thii 
il  due  to  the  litigDcd  dliuy  ntvcle  (ItIbc  way  and  bccemiiig 


on),  but  he 


Frabyfpia,  behiw). 

If  he  Uve  long  cnouj^,  when  he  not  only 
nadbig  (at  an  earlier  period  than  the  no 
abo  find!  that  be  1*  gradually  lodng  hli  oiitaiu  vison.  inn 
I*  veiy  alamung  to  EiHiny.  until  it  is  explafaied  that  all  that 
haa  happened  ii  the  \oea  of  pawn  la  cotiect  the  defe<±,  which 
delect.  oI  cDune,  hu  alwayi  cabled,  and  which  in  fuiure  will 
have  to  be  cocreclcd  by  mitable  gluari.  Tbe  higher  ihe 
hyperopia  the  KOner  will  thcH  lynptDmi  maDifesI  ifaemielvei. 
In  qvila  yosng  children,  aometima  Ihe  oiuliat  ugn  of  Ihe 
preiencc  of  hypenipia  l>  a  convergent  itiaUnnMa  (inlnnal 
squint).  A»  a  rale,  this  M"'"'  ■•  nothing  more  than  an  over- 
convngence  brought  about  by  over-acoHnmodatioD  in  thou 
who  cansot  dinodale  their  convergence  and  accoaiEaodation; 

Ihe  defect  wllh  suitable  ^siea,  the  oveT'Coavergence  diaap^ean 
and  the  squint  ia  cured. 

'  The  total  hyperopii  of  the  eye  ft  dIvUid  inlo  manifeU 
byperopiti  ind  latent  hyperopia.  MaaileM  hyperopia  Is  ei- 
tiRsaed  in  amount  by  the  stmngeit  convei  gjaci  (hat  allows 
clear  dietanl  vision  when  the  eye  a  not  under  atropine.  LalenI 
hypeivpia  it  the  additional  hypctDpia  which  ii  revealed  under 
atropine.    With  advancing  yean  the  latent  hyperopia  beconea 

the  total  hyperopia  ii  entirely  muiCest. 

In  additkin  to  the  aymptoni  alnody  described,  a  very 
common  one  among  young  hyperopes  is  jpttvi  ^  Me  nSiary 
unadi.  This  cramp  of  the  muacle  causes  distant  objects 
lo  be  very  iodisiinct,  inproveoient  only  uking  place  with  a 
t9iUitK  glass,  and  near  work  hu  to  be  approached  very  dose 
to  Ibe  eyes,  thn  giving  a  wrong  idea  that  the  child  ii  auaoing  , 
tntm  myopia;  by  paralysing  the  ciliary  mueclo  with  atropine 
the  spam  dlsappnis  and  the  true  nature  of  (be  defect  is  revealed, 

The  tieatmcnt  essentially  consists  in  ascertaining  the  local 
hypen^ia  ol  the  eye.  and  this  can  only  be  done  satiifaciorily, ' 
when  latent  hyperopia  is  pmcnl,  by  paralysing  the  accommoda- 
lion,  uaing  atropine  for  those  under  15,  and  homampint  for 
Ihoae  between  Ihe  ages  ol  ij  and  J5  or  40.  Over- 40  (and 
who  tbc  hyperopia  It  high,  cvca  ti  •an  ttriier  age)  no^cyclo- 


-pligic  it  necesmy — io  fact  il  k  Id  many 

an  attack  of  glaucona  niay  be  induced.  {See  Eve:  dittaia.) 
Having  found  the  loi&l  hyperopia,  we  learn  the  amouat 
of  the  lateot  hyperopia,  and,  roughly  speaking,  the  convei 
glaia  requind  it  equal  to  the  whole  of  the  maniltst  hyperopia 
added  to,  from  one-thiid  to  a  hall,  oi  the  latcDL;  but  the  trcat- 

of  the  hyperopia,  and  is  too  complicated  lo  be  detailed  here, 

ilyetia  (M.J  (Short-tight). —Typical  myopia  it  due  to  tn 
elongalion  of  tbe  aotero.poticiiot  diameter  oi  the  eye,  so  uiat 
the  retina  it  situated  behind  the  principal  locua,  and  oidy  diver- 


gent rayt  ol  light  from  ■ 


the  rethia.    tn  o(bcr  words,  tbe  fn  potnt  of  a  myope 
ol  thie  eye,  the  distance  being 
of  the  myopia. 

can  aee  dislinetly  at  1  diittnce  *bea  the  eye  it 
when  accommodation  il  not  being  used),  with  IhM 
focal  Itngth  it  equal  to  tl      "  ' 


EeycB 


d  the  GO 


;  glass  with  which  the  myopic 
ye  sees  d'istinclly  objects  at  a  distance,  and  its  fecal  length 
I  equal  to  the  distance  of  Ihe  myope't  far  point  from  tbe  eye. 

Tki  Causti  ij Uyepia. — Althou^  myopia  itberedituy,  itii, 
rith  few  emptlont,  not  congenhaL  We  havt  *een  that  ilmoM 
n  eyes  are  hypetopic  at  birth.    TTie  savage  is  rarely  myopic: 


n  that  is  ] 


it;  the 


contlBDily  adapting  the  eye  for  near  objects  means  undue  coit- 
vergence.  We  bid  that  myopia  geneially  fint  shows  itself  at 
the  age  of  8  to  10,  when  school  work  begins  in  eamesi— Ibal  is, 

that  it  it  eicessive  coaveigence  that  is  mostly  respoosihle  for  Ibe 
development  of  myopia.  Tlic  orer-oeed  hiteisal  recti  conalaBtly 
polling  at  the  sclerotic  tend  to  lenplien  the  anlero-potlerloi 
diameter  ot  the  eye,  and  at  this  lengthening  ol  the  anteto- 

dicle  is  produced,  and  Ihe  myofiia  gradually  incmtea.    Tht 

iharacler  ol  myopis  is  eiphined  hy  the  eilstenee  !n 
'  BD  "  anatomical  predbpositlon  "  to  myopia.    The 

sclera  is  unusually  thin,  and  coosequcDlly  leas  able  lo  retiti 
the  iMcniat  recti,  and  Oie  niative  position  of  the 
e  position  of  the  optic  nerve,  both  ol  which  may  be 
may  be  factors  in  the  production  of  this  defect. 

Anything'  which  causes  young  iub)ecis  to  approach  IbeiiBOik 


ir  the  ( 
e  light  o 


ming  Itoi 


tbe  " 


.ng  direct: 
oduccd  by  c( 

■a  nay.be  pe 


n  tlor  Insl 


144 


VISION 


{ERRORS  OP  RETRACTION 


It  is  interesting  to  note  that  when  the  work  is  approached 
very  near  the  eye,  but  convergence  is  not  used,  as  in  the  case  of 
watchmakers,  who  habitually  use  a  strong  convei  ^ass  in  one 
eye,  there  is  no  special  tendency  to  myopia. 

Some  of  the  more  common  symptoms  of  myopia  are: — 
(i)  Distant  objects  are  seen  indistinctly,  (s)  Near  objects  are 
seen  distinctly,  and  the  near  point  is  mudi  nearer  than  in  the 
normal  eye.  (3)  Acuteness  of  vision  is  often  lowered,  and 
cspedaliy  is  this  the  case  in  high  myopia.  (4)  Eye-strain  is 
often  present,  due  to  overuse  of  the  musdes  of  convergence, 
and  this  may  lead  to  (5)  an  external  or  divergent  squint. 

(6)  Floating  black  specks  are  often  complained  of,  these  are 
generally  muscae  volitantes,  but  often,  espcdaUy  in  high 
myopia,  may  be  actual  opacities  floating  in  the  vitreous. 

(7)  Myopes  often  stoop  and  become  "  round  shouldered  "  from 
their  habit  of  poring  over  their  work. 

A  small  amount  of  myopia,  if  it  is  stationary,  is  in  no  sense 
a  serious  defect  of  the  eye,  the  possessors  of  it  are  often  quite 
unconscious  of  any  deficiency  in  vision,  and  in  fact  brag  that  they 
have  better  vision  than  their  fellows.  The  reason  of  this  is 
that  they  learn  in  early  life  to  recognize  indistinct  distant 
objects  by  the  aid  of  other  senses  in  a  way  that  the  ordinary 
individual  can  hardly  luidersland,  and  in  later  life  they  can 
postpone  the  wearing  of  glasses  for  near  work  for  Many  years, 
and  sometimes  until  extreme  old  age.  Unfortunately  myopia 
is,  as  aTule,  not  stationary;  it  almost  always  tends  to  incicase, 
and  if  this  increase  leads  to  very  high  myopia  such  serious 
changes  may  occur  in  the  eyes  as  to  lower  the  visual  acuity 
enormously  and  sometimes  lead  to  total  loss  of  vision. 

The  treatment  of  myopia  is  general  and  local. 

General  Treatmeni.— The  most  important  part  of  this  is  the  pre* 
ventive  treatment  (prophylaxis),  especially  in  its  application  to 
children.  All  children  who  have  one  or  both  parents  myopic  are 
specially  "  marked  down  "  for  this  defect,  for  they  have  probably 
inherited  an  anatomical  predisposition.  Bearing  in  nund  that 
excessive  convergence  is  the  most  potent  cause  of  myopia,  the  most 
rigid  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  ophthalmic  hyeiene  of  the 
schoolroom.  This  room  should  be  large,  lofty  and  weS  ventilated, 
and  have  good-sixcd  high  windows  on  one  wall,  preferably  on  the 
north  side.  Each  scholar  should  have  an  adjustable  seat  and  desk 
so  arianeed  that  his  head  is  upright  and  the  work  hot  too  near  his 
eyes.  These  desks  should  be  arranged  in  rows  so  placed  that  the 
pupils  sit  with  the  light  on  their  left.  Scboolbooks  must  be  clearly 
pnntcd  and  the  type  should  not  be  too  small.  The  school  work 
that  needs  close  application  of  the  eyes  should  be  continued  only  for 
a  short  period  at  a  time,  the  period  alternating  with  other  work 
whkh  docs  not  require  the  use  01  the  eyes,  such  as  mental  arithmetk;, 
black«board  demonstrations,  recitation,  or  play.  Schoolmasters 
should  teach  more— that  is,  they  should  explain  and  impart  know* 
ledge  by  demonstrations  and  simple  lectures,  and  reduce  as  much  as 
possible  the  time  spent  in  "  home  preprations,  "  whkh  is  usually 
work  done  by  bad  light  and  when  the  student  b  physically  and 
mentally  tired.  Even  in  the  nursery  the  greatest  care  should  be 
taken.  The  little  ones  should  be  supplied  with  laige  toys,  a  laree 
box  of  plain  wooden  bricks  being  tne  best  form;  pkture  books 
should  oe  discouraged,  and  close  work  that  entails  undue  con- 
vergence, such  as  sewing,  threading  beads,  &c.,  ought  to  be  forbidden. 
The  nursny  governesscan  teach  the  alphabet,  sniall  words  and  even 
simple  arithmetic  with  the  bricks.  Ko  child  with  a  tendency  to 
myopia,  or  with  a  myopic  family  history  should  be  allowed  to  learn 
to  write  or  draw  until  at  least  seven  years  old.  The  child's  bed 
should  not  be  allowed  to  face  the  window,  preferably  it  should  be 
back  to  the  light.  Students,  or  those  engaged  in  literary  or  other 
work  which  entails  close  application  for  many  hours  a  day,  should  be 
advised  to  regulate  their  work,  if  they  are  free  to  do  so.  by  working 
for  shorter  periods  and  taking  longer  Intervals  of  rest,  thoy  should 
be  specially  careful  not  to  approach  their  work  too  near  to  the  eyes 
and  (hey  should  always  work  m  a  good  light. 

Local  TreatmetU.—ThM  consists  in  correcting  the  error  with 
a  concave  ^lass.  The  testing  must  be  done  when  the  eye  is 
under  atropine  in  all  those  under  as,  and  under  homatropine 
between  the  ages  of  25  and  35  or  40.  Over  40  no  cycloplegic  is 
required.  Except  when  playmg  rough  eames  the  glasses  must  be 
worn  always.  The  wearing  of  glasses  for  near  work  produces  at 
first  considerable  rebellion  m  children,  because  they  can  see  near 
work  so  much  better  without  a  glass.  The  object  of  enforcing  this 
treatment  is  to  make  the  muscfe  of  accommodation  do  its  proper 
work,  and  not  only  do  we  do  this,  but  we  also  do  away  with  the 
excess  01  convergence  over  accommodation,  and  lastly,  make 
excessive  convergence  impossible,  because,  with  the  glasses  on,  the 
near  work  has  to  be  held  at  some  considerable  distance  from  the 
eyes.    In  other  wprds,  we  have  practically  made  the  eyes  normal. 


and  h  m  only  b^  doing  iMs  ttat  we  can  prevent  the  incMase  «f 
myopia.  AduUs  who  have  never  worn  their  corraccioo  (especially 
if  the  myopia  is  high)  must  have  a  weaker  glass  for  near  work. 
Each  case  must  be  txaited  on  iu  own  merits.  SxaUcd  malignant 
myopia,  which  is  b^  mvofrfa  with  serious  changes  in  the  cye» 
must  be  treated  in.a  special  manner  and  with  the  greatest  care. 

Asligmaiism} — ^The  principal  seat  of  astigmatism  is  the 
cornea,  the  curvature  61  one  meridian  being  greater  than  thAt 
of  the  other.  In  reguhir  astigmatism,  which  is  the  only  form 
that  can  as  a  rule  be  treated  by  glasses,  the  meridians  of  greatest 
and  least  curvature  are  at  ri^t  angles  to  each  other,  and  the 
intermediate  meridians  pass  by  regular  gradations  from  one 
to  the  other.  Rays  of  light  pas^ng  through  such  an  astigmatic 
surface  do  not  focus  at  one  point,  but  form  many  points,  with 
the  result  that  the  image  is  more  or  less  indistinct  according 
to  the  amount  of  the  error.  In  tmcorrected  astigmatism  a 
clock-face  viewed  at  a  distance  of  4  or  5  yds.  will  appear  to 
have  certain  figures  distinct,  and  others  (at  right  angles) 
indistinct;  for  instance,  figures  XI  and  V  may  appear  quite 
Uack»  while  figures  II  and  VIII  are  grey  and  ind^tihct.  Iff 
one  of  the  principal  meridians  be  emmetropic  the  a.-ftigmattsm 
is  simpU\  il  both  be  fayperopic,  or  if  both  be  myopic,  it  is 
compound;  and  if  one  meridian  be  hyperopic  and  the  other 
myopic,  it  is  styled  mixed  astigmatism.  Generally  the  vertical 
moidian  or-  one  near  it  is  the  most  convex,  and  this  is  called 
direct  astigmatism  (astigmatism  "  according  to  the  rule "). 
When  the  horiaontal  meridian  or  one  near  it  is  the  most 
convex,  the  term  inverse  astigmatism  is  used  (astigmatism 
'*  against  the  rule  ").  When  the  meridians  are  obliqtie,  that  is, 
abwit  45*,  it  is  called  oblique  astigmatism.  Low  degrees 
of  astigmatism  (of  the  cornea)  are  collected  by  the  dliaxy 
muscle,  producing  an  astigmatism  of  the  crystalline  lens,  the 
opposite  of  that  of  the  cornea,  and  so  neutralizing  the  defect. 
This  work  is  done  unoonsctoudy,  vision  is  geneiaily  quite  good 
and  no  sdspidon  is  entertained  of  anything  wrong  until  some 
symptom  of  eye-strain  shows  itself  (see  Eye-strain,  below), 
and  the  detection  of  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  duties 
of  the  oculist.  The  only  certain  method  .of  dcftecting  and 
consequently  correcting  a  low  error  of  astigmatism,  in  all 
below  the  age  of  50,  is  by  paralysing  the  ciliary  muscle  with 
atropine  or  homatropine  and  thus  preventing  it  from  correcting 
the  defect,  and  revealing  the  true  refraction  of  the  eye.  As- 
tigmatism is  ootreoted  by  cylindrical  glasses  coofebined  with 
spherical  convex  or  concave  passes  if  hyperofna  or  myopia 
oo*exlst,  uid  the  correction  must  be  worn  always  In  the  form 
of  rigid  innoo-nex  or  spectacles. 

Presbyopia  (Old  Sight).~>A  nohnal^ghted  child  at  the  age 
of  ten  has  his  neax  point  of  accommodation  7  cms.  from  the  eye, 
and  as  age  advances  this  near  pcnnt  recedes  gradually.  At  the 
age  of  40  it  has  receded  to  22  cms.,  in  other  wo«ds  at  this  age 
fine  print  cannot  be  read  nearer  to  the  eye  than  21  cms.  Between 
the  ages  of  45  and  $0  the  person  who  has  apparently  enjoyed 
good  sight  up  till  then,  both  for  distance  and  near,  finds  that 
by  artificial  light  he  cannot  read  the  newspaper  imless  he 
holds  it  some  distance  from  the  eyes,  and  he  has  to  give  up 
consulting  "  Bradshaw  "  because  he  cannot  distinguish  between 
3's  and  S*s.  Another  symptom  often  complained  of  is  the 
"  runm'ng  together  of  letters,"  so  that  the  book  has  to  be  closed 
and  the  eyes  rested  before  work  can  be  resumed.  This  loss  of 
accommodation  power  is  due  to  the  gradual  hardening  of  the 
crysuUine  lens  from  age,  and  convex  glasses  have  to  take 
its  place,  in  order  to  make  reading  possible  and  ^drnfortabte^ 
In  hyperopia  the  presbyopic  period  is  eodser,  and  in  myopia 
it  is  later  than  normal  (see  Above). 

It  is  unwise  for  the  presbyope  to  select  the  glasses  for  himself, 
as  astigmatism  or  anisometropia  may  be  present  and  mnsl« 
of  course,  be  corrected;  the  eyes  should  be  properiy  tested,  and 
this  testing  should  be  repeated  every  two  or  three  years,  as. 
not  only  does  the  old  sight  increase,  but  changes  in  the  static 
refractbn  of  the  eyes  ar^  probably  taking  p^ce.  When  an 
error  of  refraction  exists  with  the  presbyopm,  glasies  for  distanoti 
as  well  as  reading,  have  to  be  worn,  and  to  avoid  the  trouble 
'  See  also  fiirt^CMofusi.  aboue. 


VISITATION— VISITING  CARDS 


HS 


«f  CTrtrtiiaHr  ^^i*'it'"!f]  ^^  ^^"^  sboold  be  eombiiied  as  b{-focd 
glasses.  The  upper  portion  of  the  bi-tocal  corrects  the  distant, 
and  the  lower  the  near  vision,  and  m  the  best  form  the  division 
between  the  two  is  invisible.  When  properly  6tled  these 
bi-fooals  {nrove  the  greatest  boon  to  the  presbyope. 

Anisomelropui  (Odd  Sight)  is  a  condition  in  which  the  re- 
fraction of  the  two  eyes  is  different.  There  are  three  varieties, 
(i)  Binocular  vision  exists.  As  a  rule  a  very  small  difference 
is  present,  and  the  difference  is  generally  in  the  astigmatism; 
consequently  eye-strain  is  very  commonly  manifested,  and  the 
correction  by  smtable  glasses  is  imperative.  (2)  The  eyes  are 
used  alternately.  For  instance,  one  eye  may  be  faypcropic  or 
emmetropic,  and  the  other  my<^ic,  in  such  a  case  the  former 
will  be  used  for  distant  and  the  latter  for  near  vision,  and 
although  binocular  or  stereoscopic  visioii  is  lost,  glasses  may 
never  be  required  and  any  attempi  at  a  correction  of  the  defect 
may  be  useless.  However,  if  eye-strain  is  present,  the  attempt 
should  be  made.  (3)  One  ti  the  eyes  is  permanently  excluded. 
When  the  difference  between  the  eyes  is  great  the  most  defective 
eye  is  little  used  and  tends  to  become  amblyopic  (ilartially 
blin4),  if  it  is  not  so  already.  This  coftt<fition  is  very  common 
in  squint,  and  the  treatment  ia  sudi  cases  consists  In  providmg 
the  defective  eye  with  its  correcting  glass,  completely  covering 
up  the  good  eye  and  practising  for  certain  periods  every  day, 
and  thus  forcing  the  defective  eye  to  work.  This  eye  may 
never  take  its  share  in  binocular  vision,  but  ft  may  become 
very  useful,  especially  if  disease  or  damage  should  affect  the  good 
eye ;  and  the  improvement  of  the  vision  of  the  eye  materially 
assists  the  treatment  of  the  squint.  When  one  eye  is  irre- 
mediably lost,  the  other  should  be  very  carefully  tested,  and 
if  any  error  exists  it  ought  to  be  corrected  and  the  ghiss  worn 
always. 

Apkakia  is  the  absence  of  the  aystalline  lens  through  dis- 
location, or  removal  by  operation,  or  injury.  A  strong  convex 
glass  has  to  be  worn  in  front  of  sucli  an  eye  in  order  to  obtain 
dear  vision  even  for  distance,  and  a  still  stronger  one  for  near 
vision;  after  cataract  operation  astigmatism  Is  generally 
present  and  the  convex  ^ass  must  be  combmed  with  a  cylinder: 
these  glases  are  best  ^m  in  the  form  of  bi-focals  (see  Prer- 
Ayopia,  above). 

Bye-Strain. — ^E3re-strain  is  a  symptom,  or  group  of  symptoms, 
produced  by  the  correction,  or  attempt  at  correction,  by  the 
pliary  muscle  of  an  error  of  refraction,  or  a  want  of  bidance 
between  the  external  muscles  of  the  eye  (heterophoria).  Where 
gross  erron  exist  either  in  the  refraction  or  in  the  muscular  equili- 
brium, the  correction  cannot  be  made,  and  consequently  no 
attempt  is  made  to  correct  the  defect,  and  eye-strain  b  not 
produced,  "the  smaller  the  error  the  more  likely  is  the  eye- 
strain to  be  present,  and  also,  unfortunately,  the  more  likely  is 
it  to  be  ovcrkx)ked.  It  is  important  to  recognize  what  may  be 
the  different  manifestations  of  eye-strain.  They  may  be  grouped 
under  three  headings :  (0  manifestations  on  the  eye  and  h'ds, 
such  as  conjunctivitis,  blepharitis,  iritis,  cyclitis,  glaucoma 
and  cataract.  (2)  Peripheral  irritation:  (a)  with  pain:  head- 
aches and  megrim;^  (ft)  without  pain:  epileptic  atladu  and 
choreiform  movements  of  the  facial  muscles:  vertigo,  nausea, 
vomiting.  (3)  Nerve  waste:  nerve  exhaustion,  neurasthenia, 
brain-fag.  This  last  form  of  eye-strain  is  as  common  as  it  is 
subtle.  It  is  subtle  because  the  sufferer  never  suspects  the 
eyes  to  be  at  fault;  all  his  waking  houn  he  is  unconsciously 
correcting  a  low  degree  of  astigmatism,  or  anisometropiat  or 
heterophoria,  which  means  a  constant  nerve  waste;  and  when 
Jie  begins  near  work  he  starts  with  a  big  deficit,  and  further 
strain  results. 

Insomnia  is  a  prominent  symptom  of  eye-strain;  this  leads 
to  depression,  which  m  its  turn  may  lead  to  the  alcohoh'cor 
morphia  habit.  There  is  no  form  of  functional  nerve  disorder 
that  may  not  be  caused  by,  or  aggravated  by,  eye-strain. 

The  treatment  of  eye-strain  consists  in  correcting  aU  erron 
of  refraction  (and  in  the  case  of  astigmatism  and  anisometropia, 
even  the  smallest)  and  in  wearing  the  correction  always.  A 
small  amount  of  heterophoria  will  generally,  in  a  short  time, 


disappear  when  the  error  is  corrected;  If  not,  it  must  be  corrected 
by  prrams  or  dccentring.  (E.  C.*) 

VISITATION  (Lat.  from  viiitare,  frequentative  form  of  mere, 
to  look  at,  9>  to  sec.  visit,  videre,  to  see),  an  act  of  visiting,  or 
going  to  see,  a  formal  vbit.  The  use  of  the  word  for  an  act  of 
divine  retributive  justice,  or  generally  of  an  occurrence  of  grave 
import,  such  as  a  plague  or  famine,  b  due  mainly  to  Biblical 
phraseology,  as  in  *'  the  day  of  visitation  "  (Isa.  x.  3).  For  the 
duty  of  bbhops  of  the  Roman  Church  to  visit  periodically  the 
tombs  of  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul  at  Rome,  the  Visttatio 
lAmmium  Aposldorum,  see  Bisbop.  The  specific  application 
of  the  term  b  to  a  formal  periodical  visit  paid  by  a  superior 
authonty  to  an  institution  or  to  a  district  for  the  purpose  of 
investigation,  examination  or  the  like.  There  are  three  classes 
of  such  visitadoDs:  ecclesiastical,  charitable  and  heraldic. 
Ecclesiastical  visitations,  originally  the  periodical  jouraeys  of 
personal  inspection  to  ascertain  the  temporal  and  spiritual 
condition  of  each  parish,  form  part  of  the  functions  of  an  arch- 
bishop, a  bishop  and  an  archdicacon.  Ail  charitable  corpora^ 
tions  are  at  law  subject  to  visitation;  the  functions  of  the 
"  visitors "  have  been  largely  taken  over  by  the  Board  of 
Chanty  Commissioners.  Collies  at  a  university  are  regarded  ia 
law  as  charitable  institutions,  and  each  college  has  a  "  visitor  " 
whose  duty  it  is  to  represent  the  founder  and  see  that  his  wishes 
are  canied  out.  Heraldic  visitations  were  perambulation^ 
made  by  a  lung-at-arms  or  other  hi^  heraldic  officer  with  a 
commission  under  the  Great  Seal  to  examine  into  pedigrees  and 
claims  to  bear  arnn.  The  results  of  these  visitations  wer6 
entered  in  "  Visitation  Books,'*  which  are  hi  the  nature  of 
official  records;  their  admissibility  as  evidence,  though  claimed) 
b  judicially  questioned  as  containing  merely  experts'  statements 
from  the  families  to  whom  they  refer  (D'Arcy  de  Knayth 
Peerage  Case,  1901).  These  heraldic  visitations  ceased  about 
1686. 

In  addition  to  these  specific  meanings  may  be  mentioned  the 
festival  of  the  "  Visitation  of  Mary,"  in  commemoration  of  the  visit 
of  the  Virgin  to  Elisabeth,  mother  of  St  John  the  Baptist,  celebrated 
in  the  Roman,  Greek  and  other  churches  00  the  2nd  of  /uly.  and  the 
office  of  the  English  Church,  the  "  Visitation  ai  the  Sick,  ordered 
for  the  spiritual  comfort  and  benefit  of  sick  persons. 

For  the  international  law  ralating  to  the  right  of  bcUigetent  veaaelt 
to  "  visit  and  search  "  neutral  veaaeb  in  tine  of  war,  see  SsAkCH, 
Right  of. 

VBITINO  CARM.  Tlie  use  of  cards  of  personal  identifica* 
tion  for  social  purposes  b  generally  supposed  to  have  had  its 
origin  at  the  court  of  Loub  XIV.  of  France,  that  centre  of  the 
etiquette  of  the  17th  century.  But  there  appears  to  be  little 
doubt  that,  in  a  rougher  and  ruder  form,  thb  mark  of  intercourse 
dates  from  much  earlier  times,  and  that  the  Chinese,  and  possibly 
other  Oriental  nations  also,  had  in  bygone  ages  employed  such 
mediums  of  communication  on  calling  at  the  houses  of  absent 
friends.  When  and  where  visiting  cards  first  came  into  vogue  tn 
Europe  b  a  matter  of  some  uncertainty.  It  b  probable,  how- 
ever, that  they  were  fint  used  in  Germany — and  as  eariy  as  the 
z6th  century.  A  German  visiting  card  recently  discovered  in 
Venice  bears  this  inscription:  Johannes  WesterkoU  Wesiphdns 
scribebai,  PaUrviit  4  MartU  is  x  60.  Concerning  this,  Professor 
Dr  Kirmb  {Dakeim,  September  30th,  1905)  remarks  that  the 
German  students  in  Padua  were  wont,  on  quitting  the  university, 
to  pay  farewell  calb  at  the  houses  of  the  professors,  and,  in  th^ 
event  of  not  finding  them  within,  to  leave  their  names  on  paper 
billeU;  and  he  adds  that  the  custom  must,  untO  that  time, 
have  been  unknown  in  Italy,  for  thb  card  of  the  student  Wester- 
holt  was  sent  by  Professor  Giacomo  Contarini  on  the  xsth  of 
January  1572  to  Venice  as  a  curiosity.  Under  the  reign  of 
Loub  XIV.,  however,  the  fsshion  appears  to  have  become  firmly 
establbhed  in  France.  Small  strips  of  papa*  were  at  first  em- 
ployed for  the  purpose  of  the  communication;  but  gradually 
they  attained  a  more  elaborate  finbh  and  executioa.  Ladies 
especially  seem  to  have  been  the  pioneers  hi  thb  direction,  and 
to  have  embellished  their  cards  with  hand  drawings,  Sometimes 
taking  the  form  of  "hearts"  and  other  amorous  tokens  of 
affection.    Under  Loub  XV.,  the  reign  of  exquisite  extravagance 


i4<6 


VISOKO— VITEBSK 


and  refined  taste,  visiting  cards  wetefarnished  with  deli- 
cate engravings,  frequently  masterpieces  <rf  that  art,  sliowing 
some  fanciful  laxkdscape,  or  a  view  of  the  town  or  place  where 
the  person  redded.  A  further  stage  in  the  development  of  this 
custom  was  the  autograph  signature  at  the  foot  of  the  card 
beneath  the  engraved  view.  England  followed  the  lead  of 
France,  and  visiting  cards  became  a  universal  fashion  in  Europe 
towards  the  close  of  the  xSth  century.  But  though  in  almost 
every  European  country  there  are  variations  in  the  sue  and 
shape  of  the  card  and  the  way  of  describuig  the  quality  o£  the 
person  whom  it  represents,  the  modem  tendency  is  everywhere 
in  favour  of  simplicity  and  the  avoidance  of  oslentatioiu 

A  valuable  collection  of  visiting  cards  is  that  of  the  Cabinetto 
dcUa  Stampe  in  Rome  and  the  Museo  Civioo  in  Venice. 

VISOKO  (or  VisoKi),  a  town  of  Bosnia,  on  the  river  Bosna, 
15  m.  N.W.  of  Setajevo  by  rait  Pop.  (1895),  about  5000. 
Yisoko  has  a  brisk  trade  in  leather,  carpets  and  tolMCCo. 

Between  the  xjth  and  i6th  centuries  Visoko  was  only  second 
to  Jajce  as  a  stronghold  of  the  Bosnian  rulers.  There  were 
fortified  palaces  at  Sutjetka,  and  Bobovac,  among  the  mountains 
on  the  north.  Bobovac,  which  had  withstood  many  previous 
assaults,  was  betrayed  to  the  Tariu  in  1463;  at  SutjeSka  there 
Is  a  Franciscan  monastery,  founded  in  1391,  often  rased  by  the 
Turks,  and  finally  rebuilt  in  1821.  Just  below  Visoko  lay  the 
town  of  Podvisoko,  called  Sotto  VisocH  by  the  Ragusans,  which 
.was  the  chief  mart  of  the  country  from  1348  to  1430W 

VI60B  (also  spdkd  viser,  vizor,  vizard  or  visard),  a  term  now 
used  jsenerally  of  the  various  forms  of  movable  face-guards  in 
the  hdmet  <^  medieval  and  later  times.  It  meant  pvoperly 
a  mask  for  the  face,  and  is  an  adaptation  of  the  O.Fr. 
vintrtt  mod.  vUUre,  as  is  seen  hy  the  M.E.  forms  viser,  tistre. 
It  is  thus  to  be  referred  to  the  Fr«  sir,  face,  Lat.  visus,  from 
fidere,  to  see.  In  this  sense  the  word  "  visor  '*  is  modem,  the 
movable  guard  for  the  upper  part  of  the  face  being  known  as 
an  "  aventaH "  or  "  ventail,"  and  that  for  the  lower  part  a 
"  beaver  "  (see  Helmxt). 

VISTULA  (Ger.  Wekksd,  Polish  VTw/a),  one  of  the  chief  rivers 
of  Europe,  risng  in  Austria  and  flowing  first  through  Russian 
and  then  through  Prusuan  territory.  Its  source  is  in  Austrian 
Silesia  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  West  Beskiden  range  of 
the  Carpathian  mountains. 

The  stream  runs  thfoug^h  a  mountain  valley,  in  a  N.N.W.  direction 
to  Schwarxwasser,  where  it  leaves  the  mountains,  turns  E.  and  N.E., 
and  Cornia  part  of  the  Auatro-German  frontier.  Returning  within 
Austrian  territory  (Gahda),  it  passes  Cracow,  and  thereafter  forms 
a  long  stretch  of  the  frontier  witn  Russia  ^Poland),  bending  gradually 
towards  the  north,  until  at  Zawichost  it  runs  due  N.  and  enters 
Poland.  Here  it  at  first  bisects  the  high-lying  plateau  of  southern 
Poland,  but  leaves  this  near  Jozefow,  and  flows  as  far  as  the  junction 
with  the  Pilica  in  a  broad  valley  between  wooded  bluffs.  Crossing 
the  plain  of  central  and  northern  Poland,  it  passes  Warsaw,  and  at 
the  junction  of  the  Bug  sweeps  W.  and  N.W.  to  pass  Plock  and 
Wloclawek  (see  further  Poland  for  its  course  within  this  territory). 
It  enters  Prussia  10  m.  above  Thorn,  turns  N.E.  on  receiving  tne 
Brshe,  passes  Graudenz  and  turns  towards  the  north.  From  this 
point  it  throws  off  numerous  branches  and  sweeps  from  side  to  side 
of  a  broad  valley,  having  steep  banks  on  the  side  upon  which  it 
Impinges,  and  on  the  other  being  bordered  b^  extensive  flat  lands. 
Nearing  the  Baltk  Sea  it  forms  a  delta,  dividing  into  two  main 
arms,  the  left  or  western  of  which  bears  the  name  of  Vistula,  and 
flows  directly  to  Danzig  Bay,  while  the  right  is  called  the  Nogat,  and 
flows  into  the  Frisches  Haft.  The  enclosed  deltaic  tract  is  very 
fertile.  Parts  of  it  are  known  as  Werdtr  (cf .  the  English  "  islands  ' 
or  "  hofans  "  in  the  Fens  and  other  low>Iying  tracts  <rf  the  east).  In 
the  lower  part  of  the  delta  the  Haff  Canal  l^da  from  the  main  river 
to  the  Frisches  Haff;  there  are  also  various  natural  channels  in  that 
direction,  but  the  main  river  passes  on  towards  the  N.W.,  having  a 
tendency  to  run  parallel  to  the  coast,  and  reaching  Danzig  Bay  with 
a  direct  course  only  through  an  artificial  cut  constructed  m  1888-06. 
The  river  broke  a  new  channel  into  the  bay,  at  a  point  between  this 
cut  and  the  old  mouth  at  Ncufahrwaaacr,  on  the  nig;^t  of  the  ist~2nd 
of  Febiuary  i8ao.  The  important  seaport  of  Danzig,  however,  is  on 
the  old  channel,  and  this  channel  is  used  by  shipping,  which  enters 
it  by  a  canal  at  Neufahrwasser.  The  Nogat,  formcriy  inconskler- 
able,  had  become  so  much  deepened  and  broadened  by  natural 
means  in  the  cariy  part  of  the  19th  century  that  it  carried  mors 
water  than  the  Vistula  itself  (t.«.  the  other  main  deltaic  branch). 
In  1845-57  the  outflow  of  the  Nogat  was  stopped  and  an  artificial 


chaaad  was  lomicd  for  it,  so  as  to  restate  dn 

to  the  Vistula. 

Shifting  banks  form  s  serious  impediment  to  navigation,  and 
these  and  floods  (pnncipally  m  un-tng  and  midsummer)  necessitate 
careful  works  of  regulation.  The  nver  is  iee-bouod  at  Wanaw. 
on  an  average,  from  about  the  aoch  of  December  to  the  loch  of 
March.  The  navigation  of  the  Vistula  is  considerable  up  to  Cracow, 
and  the  river  forms  a  very  important  highway  of  commerce  in 
Poland  {.q.v.)  and  Prusna.  For  small  craft  it  is  navisabie 'above 
Cracow  up  to  the  AustnvGemian  frontier,  where  the  Praenaan 
enters  it.  This  nver  and  the  Pilica,  Bzura.  Brshe,  Sch wai zwasser  and 
Ferae  are  the  chief  feft-bank  tnbutancs:  on  the  right  the  Vistula 
receives  the  Skawa,  Raba,  Dunajec,  Wisloka  and  Sao  before  reach- 
ing Poland,  the  Wieprz  and  Bug  in  Poland,  and  the  Drewenz  ia 
Prussia.  The  Brahe  and  the  Bromberg  Canal  give  access  from  the 
Vistula  to  the  Netze  and  so  to  the  Oder.  The  nver  is  rich  in  fish. 
Its  total  length  is  about  650  m.,  and  its  drainage  area  appraacbea 
74,000  sq.  m. 

.  See  H.  Keller,  Memd',  Pregel-  vnd  Wetchidstrom^  ikn  Stromgf- 
6WIS,  &C.,  vols.  iiL  and  iv.  (Berlin,  1900).  ' 

VFTALIAIIUS,  bishop  of  Rome  from  657  to  672,  succeeded 
Eugenius  I.  and  was  followed  by  Adeodatus.  In  the  mono- 
theUte  controvcny  then  raging  he  acted  with  cautious  reserve,' 
refraining  at  least  from  express  condemnatbn  of  the  Typut 
of  Constaos  II.  The  chief  episode  in  his  uneventful  pontificate 
was  the  visit  of  Constans  to  Rome;  the  pope  received  him 
"  almost  with  religious  honours,"  a  deference  which  he  requited 
by  stripping  all  the  brazen  ornaments  of  the  city — even  to  the 
tUes  of  the  Pantheon — and  sending  them  to  Constantinople. 
Archbishop  Theodore  was  sent  to  Canterbury  by  Vitalian. 

VITEBSK,  a  government  of  western  Russia,  with  the  govern* 
ment  of  Pskov  on  the  N.,  Smolensk  on  the  E.,  Mogilev,  Minsk 
and  Vilna  on  the  S.,  and  CourUnd  and  Livonia  on  Uie  W., 
having  an  area  of  16,978  sq.  m.  Except  on  its  south-eastern 
and  northern  borders,  where  there  are  low  hills,  deeply  eroded 
by  the  rivers,  its  surface  is  mostly  flat,  or  slightly  liodulating, 
and  more  than  a  million  acres  are  occupied  by  immense  marshes, 
while  there  are  as  nuiny  as  3500  small  bJtes.  It  is  mainly 
built  up  of  Devonian  red  sandstones  and  red  days,  but  the 
Carboniferous  formations — both  the  Lower,  characterized 
by  layers  of  coal,  and  the  Upper — crop  out  in  the  east.  The 
whole  is  covered  with  Glacial  and  post-Glacial  formations,  in 
which  remains  of  extinct  mammals  and  stone  implements  are 
found  in  large  quantities.  There  are  numerous  burial-mounds 
containing  bones  and  iron  implements  and  ornaments.  The 
soil  is  for  the  most  part  unproductive.  The  W.  Dvina  rises 
not  far  from  the  north-eastern  angle  of  the  government,  and 
flows  through  it,  or  along  its  southern  boimdary,  for  530  m. 
From  its  confluence  with  the  Kasplya,  i.e.  for  more  than  450  m., 
it  is  navigable;  and,  through  a  tributary,  the  Ulyanka,  it  is 
connected  with  the  Dnieper  by  the  Berezina  CanaL  The 
Mezha  and  Rasplya,  tributaries  of  the  W.  Dvina,  are  navigable 
in  spring.  The  climate  is  relatively  mild,  the  average  yearly 
temperature  at  the  city  of  Vitebsk  being  40*  F.  (January  i6*-4; 
July  64''*3).  The  population  was  estimated  at  1,740,700  in 
1906.  The  government  is  divided  into  eleven  districts,  the 
chief  towns  of  which  are  Vitebsk,  Drisa,  Dvinsk,  formerly  DQna- 
burg,  Gorodok,  Lepel,  Lyutsyn,  Nevel,  Polotsk,  Ryezhitsa, 
Sebezh  and  Velizh. 

VITEBSK,  a  town  of  Russia,  capitaPof  the  government  of 
the  same  name,  on  both  banks  of  the  W.  Dvina,  and  on  the 
railway  from  Smolensk  to  Riga,  85  m.  N.W.  from  the  former. 
Pop.  (1885)  54,676;  (1897)  65,871.  It  is  an  old  town,  with 
decaying  mansions  of  the  nobilily,  and  dirty  Jewish  quarters, 
half  of  its  inhabitants  being  Jews.  There  are  two  cathedrals, 
founded  b  1664  and  1777  respectively.  The  church  of  St 
Elias,  a  fine  example  of  the  Old  Russian  Style  of  architecture, 
founded  in  1643,  ^^  burned  down  In  1904.  The  manufactures 
are  insignificant,  and  the  poorer  dasses  support  themsdves  by 
gardening,  boat-building  and  the  flax  trade,  while  the  merdiants 
carry  on  an  active  business  with  Riga  in  coin^  flax,  hemp, 
tobacco,  sugar  and  timbpr.  - 

Vitebsk  (Dbcsk,  Vitbesk  and  Vitcpesk)  is  mentioned  for 
the  first  time  in  io2j,  when  it  belonged  to  the  Polotsk  prind- 
pality.  Eighty  years  later  it  became  the  chief  town  of  a  separate 


VITELLI—VITERBO 


147 


priocfpality,  tiid  »  eoAttntiad  until  xjflo,  when  it 'came  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Lithuanians.  In  the  i6th  century  it  kll 
to  Poland.  Under  the  privileges  granted  to  the  dty  by  the 
Pob'sh  sovereigns  it  flourished,  but  it  soon  began  to  suffear  from 
the  wars  between  Russia  and  Poland,  dtiring  which  it  was 
thrice  taken  by  the  Russians  and  burned.  Russia  annesed  it 
finaOy  in  1773. 

VITBLU.  VITBLLOZZO  (  ?-iso2),  Italian  eandelHen. 
Together  with  his  father,  Niccold,  tyrant  of  CHti  di  Castello, 
and  bis  brothers,  who  were  all  solders  of  fortune,  be  bistituted 
a  new  type  of  infantry  armed  with  sword  and  pilie  to  resist  the 
German  men-at-arms,  and  also  a  corps  of  mounted  infantry 
armed  with  arquebuses.  Vhellocso  took  service  with  FlMence 
against  Pisa,  and  later  with  the  French  in  Apulia  (1496)  and 
with  the  Orsini  faction  against  Pope  Alexander  VI.  In  1500 
Vitellozso  and  the  Orsini  made  peace  with  the  pope,  and  the 
latter's  son  Cesare  Borgia,  being  determined  to  crush  the  petty 
tyrants  of  Romagna  and  consolidate  papal  power  in  that 
province,  took  the  condMUri  into  his  service.  Vitellosso 
distinguished  himself  in  many  engagements,  and  in  i5or  he 
advanced  against  Florence,  moved  as  much  by  a  desire  to  avenge 
his  brother  Paolo,  who  while  in  the  service  of  the  republic  had 
been  suspected  of  treachery  and  pat  to  death  (1499),  as  by 
Cesare's  orders.  In  fact,  while  the  latter  was  actuaJIy  nego> 
tiating  with  the  republic,  VrteiH  seized  Areszo.  Forced  by 
Borgia  and  the  French,  much  against  bis  Will,  to  give  up  the 
tity,  he  began  from  that  moment  to  nurture  hostile  feelinc^ 
towards  his  master  and  to  aspire  to  mdependent  rule.  He  took 
part  with  the  Orsini,  OKverotto  da  Fermo  and  other  captains 
in  the  conspiracy  of  La  Magione  against  the  Borgia;  but 
mutual  distrust  and  the  incapacity  of  the  leaders  before  Cesare's 
energy  and  the  promise  of  French  help,  brought  the  plot  to 
naught,  and  Vitelli  and  other  condoUiert,  hoping  to  ingratiate 
themselves  with  Cesare  once  more,  seized  Senigallia  in  his  name. 
There  they  were  decoyed  by  him  and  arrested  while  their 
troops  were  Out  of  n»ch,  and  Vitelli  and  Oliverotto  were 
strangled  that  same  night  (31st  of  December  1502). 

See  vol.  iii.  of  E.  Ricotti's  Storia  della  comparnie  di  veniura  (Turin. 
1845).  in  which  Domcnichi's  MS.  Vtta  di  VlteUozzo  ViteUi  is  quoted; 
CTYriane,  asar  Bor%ia  (Paris,  1889):  P.  VUlari,  Uf»  and  times 
^  N.  MaehiaMUi  (English  ed.,  London,  1S99);  see  also  under 
Alucampbr  VI.  and  Cbsajcb  Bokgu. 

VITELUUS*  AULtJS»  Roman  emperor' from ^  the"  and  of 
J^uaxy  to  the  a  2nd  of  December  a.d.  69,  was  bom  ,on  the 
34  th  of  September  a.o.  15.  He  was  the  son  of  Lucius  Vftel- 
lius,  who  had  been  consul  and  governor  of  Syria  tmder  Tiberius. 
Aulus  was  consul  in  48,  and  (perhaps  in  60-61)  proconsul  of 
Africa,  in  which  capacity  he  is  said  to  have  acquitted  himself 
with  credit.  Under  Galba,  to  the  general  astonishment,  at 
the  end  of  6S  he  was  chosen  to  command  the  army  of  Lower 
Germany,  and  here  he  made  himself  popular  with  his  subalterns 
and  with  the  soldiers  by  outrageous  prodigality  and  excessive 
good  nature,  which  soon  proved  fatal  to  order  and  discipline. 
far  from  being  ambitious  or  scheming,  he  was  lazy  and  self- 
indulgent,  fond  of  eating  and  drinking,  and  owed  his  elevation 
to  the  throne  to  Caccina  and  Valens,  commanders  of  two  legions 
on  the  Rhine.  Tbrou^  these  two  men  a  military  revolution 
was  speedily  accomplished,  and  early  in  69  VitelUus  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  at  Colonia  Agrippinensis  (Cologne),  or,  more 
accurately,  emperor  of  the  armies  of  Upper  and  Lower  Ger- 
many. In  fact,  he  was  never  acknowledged  as  emperor  by 
the  entire  Roman  world,  though  at  Rome  the  senate  accepted 
him  and  decreed  to  him  the  usual  imperial  honours.  He 
advanced  Into  Italy  at  the  head  of  a  licentious  and  ruffianly 
soldiery,  and  Rome  became  the  scene  of  riot  and  massacre, 
^diatodal  shows  and  extravagant  feasting.  As  soon  as  it 
was  known  tliat  the  armies  of  the  East,  Dalmatia  and  Illyricum 
had  declared  for  Vespasian,  Vitellius,  descried  by  many  of  his 
adherents,  would  have  resigned  the  title  of  emperor.  It  was 
said  that  the  terms  of  resignation  had  actually  been  agreed 
upon  with  Primus,  one  of  Vespasian's  chief  supporters,  but 
tbe  praetorians  refused  to  allow  him  to  cany  out  the  agreement. 


and  forced  him  to  return  to  the  palace,  when  he  was  on  his  way 
to  deposit  the  insignia  of  empire  in  the  temple  of  Concord. 
On  the  entrance  of  Vespasian's  troops  mto  Rome  he  was  dragged 
out  of  some  miserable  hiding-place,  driven  to  tbe  fatal  Gcmonian 
stairs,  and  there  struck  dowiL  "  Yet  I  was  once  your  emperor,*' 
were  the  last  and,  as  far  as  we  know,  the  noblest  words  of 
Vitellius.  During  hb  brief  administration  Vitellius  showed 
indications  of  a  desire  to  govern  wisely,  but  he  was  complete^ 
under  the  cootrol  of  Valens  and  Caedna,  who  for  their  own 
ends  encooTi^ed  him  in  a  course  of  vicious  excesses  which  tJhrev 
his  better  qualities  into  the  background. 

See  Tacitus,  HisUtriesx  Suetonius,  FtleiZtm;  Dio  Cassius  facv.; 
Merivale,  HisL  oj  ike  Romans  under  the  Empire^  chs.  56,  57; 
H .  Schiller,  Cesckickte  der  rdmisehen  Kaiseneit,  i.  pt.  i ;  W.  A.  Spooners 
ed.  of  the  Histories  of  Tacitus  (introduction) ;  B.  W.  Henderson, 
CspU  War  and  Rebellion  in  the  Roman  Empire^  AJ).  6Q-70  (1908). 

VITERBO,  a  city  and  episcopal  see  of  the  province  of  Rome, 
Italy,  54  m.  by  rail  N.N.W.  of  Rome,  1073  ft.  above  sea-leveL 
Pop.  (i9or)  17,344  (town),  ai,as8  (commune).  It  lies  on  the 
old  high  road  between  Flwence  and  Rome,  and  besides  the 
raflway  to  Rome  it  has  a  brandi  line  (as  ni.)  going  N.£.  Co 
Altigliano,  on  tbe  railway  from  Rome  to  Florence.  It  is 
picturesquely  surrounded  by  luxuriant  gardens,  and  enclosed 
by  walls  and  towers,  whidi  date  partly  from  the  Lombard 
period.  The  streets  ar«  paved  with  large  lava  blocks,  of  which 
the  town  is-  also  built.  It  has  many  picturesque  medieval 
towers  and  other  edifices  (the  Palazzo  degli  Atessandri  is  perhaps 
the  nrost  Interesting),  for  which  indeed  it  is  one  of  the  best 
towns  in  central  Italy,  and  some  elegant  fountains;  among 
the  latter  may  be  mentioned  the  Gothic  Fontana  Grande  (1279, 
restored  in  1424)  and  Fontana  della  Rocca  by  Vignola  (is^)* 
The  citadel  (Rocca)  itself,  erected  by  Cardinal  Albomoz  in 
t345,  is  now  a  batrack.  The  Palazzo  Patrizi  is  a  building  of 
the  early  Renaissance  in  the  Florentine  style.  The  cathedral, 
a  fine  basilica,  of  the  rath  (?)  century,  with  columns  and  fantastic 
cafMtals  of  the  period,  originally  flat-roofed  aixl  later  vaulted, 
with  T6th-century  restorations,  contains  the  tomb  of  Pope 
John  XXI.,  and  has  a  Gothic  campanile  in  black  and  white, 
stone.  It  is  more  probable  that  it  was  S.  Silvtstto  (now  Chiesa 
del  Gesd)  and  not  the  cathedral  that.  In  1271,  was  the  scene 
of  tbe  murder,  on  the  steps  of  the  high  altar,  during  public 
worship;  of  Henry,  son  of  Richard  of  Cornwall,  by  Guy  de 
Montfort  (see  Dante,  Inf.  zii.  xi8).  In  front  of  the  cathedral 
Pope  Adrian  IV.  (Nicholas  Breakspear)  ootnpdlM  the  emperor 
Frederick  L  to  hold  his  stirrui>  as  htif' vassal.  Tho  old  epis« 
copal  palace  with  a  double  loggia  built'  on  to  it  (recently 
restored  to  Its  original  form)  is  a  Gothic  building  of  the  13th 
century,  in  which  numerous  conclaves  have  been  hdd.  The 
church  of  S.  Rosa  exhibits  the  embalmed  body  of  that  saint, 
a  native  of  Viterbo,  who  died  in  her  eighteenth  year,  after 
working  various  miracles  and  having  distinguished  herself  by 
her  invectives  against  Frederick  II.  (rasr),  some  ruins  of  whose 
palace,  destroyed  after  his  death,  exist.  S.  Francesco,  a  Gothic 
church  (before  ta56),  contains  the  fine  Gothic  tombs  of  Popes 
Clement  IV.  and  Adrian  V.,  and  has  an  external  pulpit  of 
the  15th  century.  The  town  also  contains  a  few  smaU  Roman- 
esque chtirches  (S.  Maria  Nuova,  S.  Andrea,  S.  Giovanni  in 
Zoocoli,  S.  Sisto,  &c.)  and  several  other  Gothic  churches. 
S.  Maria  delta  Cella  is  noteworthy  among  the  former  as  having 
one  of  tbe  earliest  campanili  of  any  size  in  Italy  (9th  century). 
The  town  hall,  with  a  medieval  tower  and  a  isth-centuiy 
portico,  contains  some  Etruscan  sarcophagi  from  sites  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  a  few  good  paintings.  At  one  comer  of 
the  picturesque  square  in  front  of  it  is  a  Roman  sarcophagus 
with  a  representation  of  the  hunt  of  Meleager,  with  an  inscrip- 
tion in  honour  of  the  fair  Galiana,  to  win  whom,  it  is  said,  a 
Roman  noble  laid  siege  to  Viterbo  fn  1135.  Gose  by  is  the 
elegant  Gothic  facade  of  S.  Maria  della  Salute,  in  white  and 
red  marble  with  sculptures.  The  Gothic  cloislcrs  of  6.  Maria 
della  Veriti  just  outside  the  town  are  strikingly  beautiful. 
The  church  contains -frescoes  by  Lorenzo  da  Viterbo  <]469)  »nd 
a  fine  majolica  pavement.    A  mile  and  a  half  to  the  north-east 


H^ 


VITET— VUORIA 


is  tlie  liandaome  «ariy  ReoalMam  pflgrintce  cfcach  of  the 
MadoBoo  deUa  Queida;  the  facade  is  adoned  witk  three 
•luoettcs  by  Andrea  della  Robbia.  The  fine  wooden  roof  of 
the  interior  is  by  Antonio  da  Saogallo  the  yoanger  (i5X9~>5)- 
The  adjoining  monastery  has  a  phfasing  cloistered  court.  A 
mile  and  a  quarter  farther  is  the  town  of  Bagnaia,  with  tlie 
ViHa  Lante,  still  belonging  to  the  family  of  that  name,  with 
fine  fountains  and  beautiful  trees,  ascribed  to  Vignola.  The 
inhabitants  of  Viterbo  are  chiefly  dependent  on  agriculture; 
hemp  is  a  specialty  of  the  district,  and  tobacco  and  various 
grains  are  hugely  grown,  as  well  as  the  olive  and  the  vine. 
Tliere  are  in  the  vicinity  numerous  mineral  springs;  the  warm 
sidpbur  spring  of  Bollicame,  about  a  m.  off,  is  alladed  to  by 
Dante  (Inf.  ziv.  79). 

Viterbo  is  by  some  identified  with  Stmina  no9a,  which  is 
only  mentioned  in  inscriptions,  while  some  place  it  at  the 
sulphur  springs,  called  the  Bollicame,  to  the  west  of  Viterbo 
on  the  line  of  the  Via  Cassia,  where  Roman  remains  enst. 
This  might  well  be  the  site  of  the  Roman  town.  Here  the 
Vfai  Cassia  was  joined  by  the  Via  Qminia,  passing  east  of  the 
Lactts  Ciminius,  while  a  road  branched  off  to  Ferentum.  See 
E.  Bormann  in  Corp.  Inscr.  Lai.  xi.  (Berlin,  1S88),  p.  454; 
H.  Ntssen,  ItaUscke  Landesktmde  (Berlin,  iQoa),  iL  343.  Tlie 
forgeries  of  the  Dominican  Annio  da  Viterbo  (d.  150a)  were 
directed  to  prove  that  Viterbo  was  the  site  of  the  Fanum 
Voltumnae  (see,  however,  Montefiascone).  There  are  no 
arehaeolo^cal  remains  in  Viterbo  itself,  except  a  few  courses 
(rf  masonry  under  the  bridge  which  connects  the  cathedral 
with  the  dty,  neu  the  cathedral,  possibly  the  pier  of  an  older 
bridge.  But  the  site  is  not  unreasonably  considered  to  be 
aadent,  and  the  name  to  be  derived  from  Veius  urbs',  tombs, 
too,  have  been  found  in  the  neigfabouriiood,  and  it  is  not  an 
unlikely  assumption  that  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  medieval 
town  occupies  the  Etruscan  site.  It  was  fortified  by  the  Ix>m- 
bard  king  Desiderius  (the  decree  ascribed  to  him,  now  in  the 
municipal  palace,  has  long  been  recognized  as  a  forgery  of 
Annio).  It  is  the  centre  of  the  territory  of  the  "patrimony 
of  Peter,"  which  the  countess  Matilda  of  Tuscany  gave  to 
the  papal  sea  in  the  latb  century;  in  the  13th  centuiy  it 
became  a  favourite  papal  residenca  Popes  yrban  IV.  (1261), 
Gregoiy  X.  (1371),  John  XXI.  (1276),  Nicholas  Ul.  (1277) 
and  Martin  IV.  .(i  281)  were  elected  here,  and  it  wA  at  Viterbo 
that  Alexander  IV.  (1261),  Clement  IV.  (1268),  Adrian  V. 
(1276)  and  John  XXI.  (1277)  <lied.  (T.  As.) 

VITET.  LUDOVIC  (x8o2'i873),  French  dramatist  and  poli- 
tician, was  bom  in  Paris  on  the  18th  of  October  zSoa.  He  was 
educated  at  the  £coIe  Normals.  His  politics  were  liberal,  and 
he  was  a  member  of  the  society  "  Aide-loi,  le  del  t'aidcra."  On 
the  triumph  of  liberal  prindples  in  1830  Cuizot  created  an  office 
especially  for  Vitct,  who  b^me  in^)ector-general  of  historical 
monuments.  In  1834  he  entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
and  two  years  later  was  made  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Stale. 
He  was  consistent  in  his  monarchist  prindples,  and  abstained 
from  taking  any  part  in  politics  daring  the  second  empire.  The 
disasters  of  r87o-7i  reawakened  Vitet's  interest  in  public 
affairs,  and  he  published  in  the  Revue  dcs  deux  mondes  his 
optimistic  "  Lettres  sur  le  siige  de  Paris."     He  died  in  1873. 

Vitet  was  the  author  of  aome  valuable  works  on  the  history  of 
art.  and  his^  Monographic  de  VE.ilise  Noire  Dame  de  Noyon  (1845) 
especially  did  much  to  awaken  popular  inicirest  in  architecture. 
In  the  early  days  of  the  Romantic  movement  he  wrote  some  vivid 
dramatic  sketches  of  the  time  of  the  League.  They  are:  Les 
Barricades^  schtes  kistoriques  (1826),  Les  Etats  de  BUris,  seines 
(1827),  and  La  hiort  de  Henri  III.  (1829).  all  three  being  published 
together  in  18^  with  the  title  of  La  Litue.  The  best  of  these  b  the 
Etats  de^BUns,  in  which  the  murder  of  the  duke  of  Guise  is  described 
in  the  most  oonvindng  manner. 

VITORIA,  an  episcopal  city  of  northern  Spain,  and  capital 
of  the  province  of  Alava;  on  the  Miranda  de  Ebro-Alsasua 
sectk>n  of  the  Northern  railways,  among  the  southern  outliers 
of  the  Cantabrian  mountains,  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
Zadorra.  a  left-hand  tributary  of  the  Ebro.  Pop.  (iQOo)  30,701. 
The  dty  is  built  on  a  hill  1750  ft.  high,  and  overiooks  the  plain 


olAkvB.  Itt  «ldMt  part,  tiM  CMwOb  or  VUlt'SQao, 
the  top  of  the  hiU;  some  of  the  walls  and  towers  by  which  it 
was  formcriy  defended  still  remain.  Below  it  is  Vkoria  Antigua, 
with  Dazrow  toitnotts  lanes;  on  the  stiU  lower  level  ground  is 
the  modem  town,  with  wide  streets,  an  arcaded  market-place 
and  shady  promenades..  The  cathedrsl  of  Santa  Maria  in  the 
Campillo  dates  from  ii8x,  but  has  been  considerably  qwiled 
by  late  additions:  the  church  of  San  Mignd  also  dates  froos  the 
isth  oentwy;  it  has  an  exceptiooally  bnutiful  akar,  carved  in 
wood  by  J.  Vdasqucs  and  G.  Hemandex,  in  the  i6th  century. 
The  town  hall  and  the  palace  of  the  provincial  assembly  contain 
tome  fine  psintings  and  interesting  relics  connected  wiili  the 
histoiy  <rf  Alava.  Vitoria,  from  its  favourable  position  on  the 
main  lines  from  Madrid  to  France  and  to  the  port  of  San  Sebaft- 
tjan,  is  an  important  centre  of  trade  in  wine,  wool,  horses,  mules 
and  hardware;  other  industries  are  paper-making,  carriage- 
building,  cabinet-making,  tanning  and  the  manufacture  of 
earthenware.  There  is  a  branch  railway  from  Vitoria  to 
ViUarreaL  The  dty  is  lighted  by  electricity;  lU  trade  and 
population  have  laigely  increased  since  187$. 

Vitoria  was  founded  in  581  by  Leovigiid,  king  of  the  Visi- 
goths; but  its  importance  dates  from  the  zoth  century.  In 
1181  Sancho  the  Wise  of  Navaxre  granted  it  a  charter  and  forti- 
fied it. 

BaUk  9f  Vitoria. — For  the  operations  which  preceded  the 
battle  of  Vitoria  see  Penxnsuiae  War.  On,  June  sist,  18x3, 
the  French  army  in  Spain  (about  65,000  men  with  150  guns), 
under  King  Joseph  Bonaparu,  hdd  an  extended  position  in  the 
basin  of  Vitoria,  south  (with  the  exception  of  the  extreme  right) 
of  the  river  Zadorra.  The  left  rested  on  the  heights  of  Puebla, 
north  of  the  PuebU  Pass,  aiul  Puebla  de  Arganxon,  through 
which  ran  the  Miranda-Vitoria-Bayonne  road,  Joseph's  line  of 
communication  with  France.  Thence  the  line  stretched  to  the 
ridge  of  Margarita,  the  troops  so  far  being  under  General  Gazan, 
with  a  second  supporting  line  under  D*£rk>n  between  Arinex 
and  Hennandad  and  a  reserve  behind  Arinez.  The  right  undtf 
Rdlle  guarded  the  Bilbao-Vitoria  road,  occupying  heif^ts  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Zadorra,  and  also  the  viUages  and  bridges 
of  Abechuco  and  Gamarra  Mayor,  as  well  as  a  ridge  near  Ariaga 
<m  the  south  bank. 

There  were  no  troops  between  Hennandad  and  Ariagsi,  except 
a  mass  of  cavahy  near  Ail.  The  Zadorra,  ferdable  in  certain 
spots  only,  was  spanned  by  bridges  at  Puehia  de  Axganxon, 
Nandares,  Villodas,  Tres  Puentes,  Mendoza,  Abechuco  and 
Gamarra  Mayor,  which  French  guns  commanded;  but,  for  some 
reason,  none  of  these  had  been  destroyed.  The  faults  of  the 
French  position  and  their  occupation  of  it  were  its  extension; 
that  it  was  in  prolongation  of  and  (on  the  right  espedally)  very 
dose  to  their  line  of  retreat,  so  that  if  the  right  were  driven  back 
this  line  could  be  at  once  seized;  that  the  centre  was  not  stron^y 
held;  and  that  all  bridges  were  left  intact. 

The  Allies  (nearly  80,000,  with  90  guns),  under  Wellington, 
had  moved  from  the  river  Bayas  at  daylight  to  attack  Joseph, 
in  four  columns,  the  right  being  under  lUll  (20,000,  indudiog 
Morillos's  Spaniards),  Uie  right  centre  and  left  centre  under 
Wellington  (30.000)  and  the  left  under  Graham  (20,000,  includ- 
ing Longa's  Spaniards).  As  the  columns  mardied  across  the 
intersected  country  between  the  Bayas  and  Zadorra,  extending 
from  near  PuebU  de  Arganzon  to  the  Bilbao-Vitoria  road,  they 
kept  touch  with  each  other;  and  as  they  nearcd  the  Zadorra 
the  battle  opened  all  along  the  Une  soon  after  ib  a.m.  Welling- 
ton's instructions  to  Graham  were  to  tmdertake  no  manonivre 
which  would  separate  his  column  from  those  on  the  right;  but, 
with  this  proviso,  to  seize  the  Vitoria -Bayonne  road  if  the  enemy 
appeared  dedded](y  in  retreat.  Hill  after  a  sharp  contest  gained 
the  Puebla  heights,  too  weakly  held;  and  pushing  throu^  the 
pass  carried  the  village  of  Subijana  de  Alava.  Hie  right  centre 
column  having  reached  Villodas,  was  waiting  for  Hill  to  gain 
further  ground,  when  the  bridge  at  Tres  Puentes  was  observed 
to  be  unguarded,  probably  because  it  was  commanded  from  the 
south  bank;  and,  the  French  attention  bdng  now  turned  towards 
their  flanks,  it  was  surprised  and  rushed  by  Wdlington  with  the 


VITKfe— VITRIFIED  FORTS 


<49 


tight  tfivisioii,  sttpport«l  qiiickty1>y  c&valry  and  Otkcr  ttoops, 
who  ouOntamed  themselves  on   the   soaih   bank.    Joseph's 


RcdnwB  iton  hlaioi-Ctmenl  C.  W,  Robioson's  Wdlinfftm'i  Cmi>wciii, 
by  pcrmiuloQ  of  Hufh  Ren.  Ltd. 

centre  wbs  |>artiaUy  forced,  while  his  left  was  hard  pressed  by 
Hill;  and* fearing  that  Gasan  and  D'Erlon  might  becttt  off  from 
Retlie,  be  ordered  then  to  withdraw  to  a  ridge  farther  back, 
whkh  they  did,  holding  Arines  in  front.  Here  there  was  no 
hard  fighting;  but,  sa  Wellington  had  now  passed  three  divisions, 
many  guns  and  the  cavalry  (which,  however,  from  the  nature  of 
the  ground  could  be  but  little  used)  across  the  Zadorra,  Mar- 
gariUt,  Hermandad  ind  Arinea  soon  fell  to  the  Allies. 

On  the  left,  Graham,  h&ving  turned  the  heights  north  of 
Zadorra  with  Longa's  Spaniards,  seized  Gamarca  Manor  dose 
to  the  Bayonne  road.  He  also  with  heavy  loss  carried  Gamarra 
Mayoc  and  Abcchuco,  but  the  bridges  south  of  these  villages, 
though  EDore  than  once  taken,  were  always  recaptured  by  Reille. 
At  length,  when  a  brigade  from  the  Allied  centre  had  been 
pushed  up  from  Hermandad  against  ReiUe's  flank,  he  withdrew 
fioin  the  obstinately  defended  bridges,  and  before  this  Gazan 
and  D'Erlon  had  also  fallen  back,  fighting,  to  a  third  position 
on  a  ridge  between  Armentia  and  Ali  west  of  Vitoria.  Here,  at 
•bout  6  pwm.,  they  made  a  last  stand,  being  oompcUed  in  tlie  end 
Id  yield;  and  as  Graham  having  now  crossed  the  bridges  was 
close  to  the  Bayonne  road,  the  main  body  of  Joseph's  army  fled 
liy  a  bod  cross  road  towards  Pampeluaa,  abandoning  artillery, 
vehicleft  and  baggage  (of  which  aa  enormous  quantity  was  parked 
near  Vitoria),  ReQle  afterwards  joining  it  through  Betonia. 
The  Allies  then  occupied  Vitoria  and  pursued  the  French  until 
aightfalL  AU  Joseph's  equipages,  ammunition  and  stores, 
145  guns,  a  millbn  sterling  in  money,  and  vaiwus  trophies  fell 
into  Wellington's  hands,  the  French  k)ss  in  men  being  nearly 
7000,  that  of  the  Allies  over  5000,  of  whom  x6oo  were  Portuguese 
and  Spaniards.  This  decisive  victory  practically  freed  Spain 
from  Frmch  dominatwn.  (C.  W.  R.) 

VITBB,  a  town  of  north-western  France,  c^tal  oif  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Ille-et-Vilaiiie,  situated 
on  a  hill  rising  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Vilaine,  34  m.  E.  of 
Rennes  by  rail  Pop.  (1906)  town,  7106;  commune,  10,099. 
The  town  largely  retains  iu  feudal  aspect.  The  ramparts  on 
the  north  side  and  on  the  west,  consisting  of  a  oA^icolated 
wall  with  towers  at  intervals,  are  stfll  standing.  Only  one 
gateway  remains  of  the  original  castle,  founded  towards  the 
end  of  the  zxth  century;  the  rest  was  rebuilt  in  the  X4th  and 
X5th  centuries  (the  beat  period  of  Breton  military  architecture) 
and  restored  in  recent  times.  It  is  now  occupied  by  a  prison, 
a  museum  of  natural  history  and  painting  and  the  town  library. 
The  cburch  of  Notre-Dame,  former^  a  priory  of  the  abb^ 


of  St  M^laineof  Rennes,  dates  from  the  isthand  16th  centurica^ 
An  outside  stone  pulpit  is  a  fine  example  of  16th-century 
sculpture.  The  church  possesses  a  fine  enamelled  triptych 
of  the  t6th  century.  A  tower  of  the  16th  century  is  all  that 
remains  of  the  church  of  Si  Martin.  The  ch&teau  of  Lea 
Rocherir  3  xn.  from  Vitri  was  the  residence  of  Madame  de 
S^vign^. 

Vitri  was  formerly  a  Breton  barony,  and  belonged  in  the 
10th  century  to  the  younger  branch  of  the  counts  of  Rennes. 
In  za95  it  passed  to  Guy  IX.,  baron  of  Ldval,  on  his  marriage 
with  the  heiress,  and  afterwards  successively  belonged  to  the 
fanulies  of  Rieuz,  0)Ugny  and  La  Tr^moille.  The  town  was 
seized  by  Charles  VIIX.  in  X488.  Protestantism  ^read  under 
the  rule  of  the  houses  of  Rieux  and  Coligny;  \\\xi  became  a 
Huguenot  stronghold;  and  a  Protestant  diurch  was  estab- 
lished, which  was  not  suppressed  till  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes  in  X685.  Philip  Emmanuel,  duke  of  Mercceur,  the 
head  of  the  members  of  the  Lesgue  in  Brittany,  besieged  thQ 
town  in  vain  for  five  months  in  X589.  The  estates  of  Brittany, 
over  which  the  batons  of  Vitr^  and  of  L£on  alternately  presided, 
met  here  several  times. 

VITRIFIED  FORTS,  the  name  pven  to  certain  rude  stone 
enclosures  whose  walls  have  been  subjected  in  a  greater  or 
Icbs  degree  to  the  action  of  fire.  They  are  generally  situated 
on  hilb  offering  strong  defensive  positions.  Their  form  seems 
to  have  been  determined  by  the  contour  of  the  flat  summits 
which  they  enclose.  The  walls  vary  in  size,  a  few  being  up- 
wards of  xs  ft.  high,  and  ore  so  broad  that  they  present  the 
appearance  of  embankments.  Weak  parts  of  the  defence  are 
strengthened  by  double  or  triple  walls,  and  occasionally  vast 
lines  of  ramparts,  composed  of  Urge  blocks  of  unhewn  and 
unviuified  stones,  envelop  the  vitrified  centre  at  some  distance 
from  it.  No  Nme  or  cement  has  been  found  in  any  of  these 
structures,  all  of  them  presenting  the  peculiarity  of  being  more 
or  less  consolidated  by  the  fusion  of  the  rocks  of  which  they 
are  built.  This  fusion,  which  has  been  caused  by  the  applica- 
tion of  intense  heat,  is  not  equally  complete  in  the  various  forts, 
or  even  in  the  iKi'alls  of  the  same  fort.  In  some  cases  the  stones 
are  only  partially  mdted  and  calcined;  in  others  their  adjoining 
edges  are  fused  so  that  they  are  firmly  cemented  together  i 
in  many  instances  pieces  of  rock  are  envetoped  in  a  glassy 
enamcMike  coating  which  binds  them  into  a  unifoim  whole; 
and  at  times,  thou^  rarely,  the  entire  length  of  the  wall  presents 
one  solid  mass  of  vitreous  substance. 

Since  John  Williams— one  of  the  earliest  of  British  geologists, 
and  author  of  The  Mineral  Kingdom— ^nl  described  these 
singular  ruins  in  1777,  about  fifty  examples  have  been  dis- 
covered in  Scotland.  The  most  remarkable  are  Dun  Mac 
Uisneachain  (Dun  Macsnoicban),  the  ancient  Bercgonium, 
about  9  m.  N.N.E.  of  Oban;  Tap  o*  Noth,  in  Aberdeenshire; 
Craig  Phadraic,  or  Phadrick,  near  Inverness;  Dun  Dhardhail 
(Dunjardil)  in  Glen  Nevis;  Knockfarrail,  near  Strathpeffer; 
Dun  Creich,  in  Sutherland;  Finhaven,  near  Aberlemno; 
Banyhill,  in  Perthshire;  Laws,  near  Dundee;  Dun  Gall  and 
Burnt  Island,  in  Butc^iire;  Anwoth,  in  Kirkcudbright;  and 
Cowdenknowes,  in  Berwickshire.  Dim  Mac  Uisneachain  is  the 
largest  in  area,  being  250  yds.  long  by  50  yds.  broad.  In  the 
Tap  o'  Noth  the  walls  are  about  8  ft.  high  and  between  30 
and  y>  ft.  thick.  In  Dun  Mac  Uisneachain,  Barryhill  and  Laws 
the  remains  of  small  rectangular  dwdlings  have  been  found. 

For  a  long  time  it  was  supposed  that  these  forts  were  pectiliar 
to  Scotland;  but  they  are  found  also  in.  Londonderry  and 
Cavan,  in  Ireland;  in  Upper  Lusatii,  Bohemia,  Silesia, 
Saxony  and  Thuringia;  in  the  provinces  on  the  Rhine,  especi- 
ally in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Nahe;  in  the  Ucker  Lake, 
in  Brandenburg,  where  the  walls  are  formed  of  burnt  and 
smelted  bricks;  in  Htmgary;  and  in  several  places  in  France, 
such  as  Chiteauvieux,  Peran,  La  Courbe,  Sainte  Suzanne, 
Puy  de  Gaudy  and  Thaoxon.  They  have  pot  been  found  is 
England  or  Wales. 

In  some  continental  foru  the  vttriiled  walls  are  supported 
by  masses  of  unvitxified  stone  built  tip  on  each  iide.    This* 


I50 


VITRIOL— VITRUVIUS 


in  all  probability,  constituted  tn  essentfal  feaiare  in  the  Scottish 
forts.  Except  on  tlie  hypothesis  of  buttresses  of  a  ^milar 
kind,  it  is  impossible  to  explain  the  vast  quantities  of  loose 
stones  vihith  are  found  both  inside  and  ouljide  many  of  the 
vitrified  walls. 

The  method  by  which  the  fuaon  of  such  extensive  fortifications 
was.  produced  has  excited  much  conjecture.  Williams  main- 
tained  that  the  builders  found  out,  either  daring  the  process 
of  smelting  bog-ore,  or  whilst  offering  sacrifices,  the  power  of 
fire  in  vitrifying  stone,  and  that  they  utilized  this  method  to 
cement  and  strengthen  their  defences.  This  view  has  been 
keenly  controverted,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  vitrified 
summits  were  not  forts  but  the  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes, 
an  hypothesis  long  since  abandoned;  that  they  are  not  so 
niuch  forts  as  vitrified  utes,  and  that  the  vitreacenoe  was 
produced  by  fires  lighted  during  times  of  invasion,  or  in 
religious  celebrations;  and,  lastly,  that  if  they  were  forts  they 
must  originally  have  been  built  of  wood  and  stone,  and  that 
their  present  appearance  is  due  to  their  being  set  on  fire  by 
a  besieging  enemy.  The  theory  of  Williams  has,  with  modi- 
fications, been  accepted  by  the  principal  authorities.  It  is 
supported  by  the  following  facts: — 

(i)  The  idea  of  strengithening  walls  by  means  of  fire  is  not  stn- 
flUbr,  or  confined  to  a  distinct  race  or  area,  as  fo  provod'  by  the 
Dumt-earth  enclosure  of  Aztaian,  in  Wisconsin,  and  the  vitrified 
•tone  monuments  of  the  Mississippi  valley.  (2)  Many  of  the 
Primary  rocks,  particularly  the  schists,  gneisses  and  traps,  which 
contain  lar^e  quantities  of  potash  and  soda,  can  be  readily  fused  in 
the  open  air  by  means  of  wood  fires — the  alkali  of  the  wood  serving 
in  some  measure  as  a  flux.  (3)  The  walls  are  chiefly  vitrified  at 
the  weakest  points,  the  naturally  inaccessible  parts  being  un- 
vitrified.  (4)  When  the  forts  have  been  placed  on  materials  prac- 
tically infusible,  as  on  the  ouartzosc  conglomerates  of  the  Old 
Red  Sandstone,  as  at  Craig  Phadraic,  and  on  the  limestones  of 
Dun  Mac  Uisoeachain.  pieces  of  fusible  rocks  have  been  selected  and 
carried  to  the  top  from  a  considerable  distance.  (5)  The  vitrified 
walls  of  the  Scottish  forts  are  invariably  formed  oif  small  stones 
which  could  be  easily  acted  upon  by  fire,  whereas  the  outer  ram- 
parts, which  are  not  vitrified,  are  built  of  large  blocks.  (6)  Many 
of  the  cominental  forts  are  go  constructed  that  the  fire  must  have 
been  applied  internally,  and  at  the  time  when  the  structure  was 
being  erected.^  (7)  Daubr6e,  in  an  analysis  which  he  made  on 
vitrined  materials  taken  from  four  French  forts,  and  which  he  sub- 
mitted to  the  Academy  of  Paris  in  February  1881,  found  the  pre- 
sence of  natron  in  such  great  abundance  that  he  inferred  that 
sea-salt  was  used  to  facilitate  fusion^  (S)  In  Scandinavia,  where 
there  are  hundreds  of  ordinary  forts,  and  where  for  centuries  a 
system  of  signal  fires  was  enforced  by  law,  no  trace  of  vitrifaction 
has  yet  been  detected. 

A  great  antiquity  has  been  assigned  to  vitrified  forts,  without 
suffident  proof.  Articles  of  bronze  and  iron  have  been  found 
in  the  Sa>ttish  forts,  while  in  Puy  de  Gaudy  a  Roman  tile  has 
been  discovered  soldered  to  a  piece  of  vitrified  rock.  In  a  few  of 
the  German  forts  Professor  Virchow  found  some  of  the  logs  used 
as  fuel  in  vitrifying  the  walls,  and  he  concluded  from  the  even- 
ness of  their  cut  surfaces  that  iron  and  not  stone  implements 
must  have  been  used.  These  results  indicate  that  these 
structures  were  possibly  in  use  as  late  as  the  early  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era.  It  has  been  suggested  that  they  were 
built  as  refuges  against  the  Norsemen.  Much  in  the  situation 
and  character  of  the  forts  favours  this  supposition.  This  is 
especially  the  case  with  reference  to  the  Scottish  forts.  Here 
the  vitrified  summits  are  invariably  so  selected  that  they  not  only 
command  what  were  the  favourite  landing-places  of  the  vikings, 
but  are  the  best  natural  defences  against  attacks  made  from 
the  direction  of  the  seacoast.  In  Saxony  and  Lusatia  the 
forts  are  known  as  Sckwedcnburgen^  and  in  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland  as  the  fortresses  of  the  Feiune — designations  which 
also  seem  to  point  to  an  origin  dating  back  to  the  times  of  the 
vikings. 

AuTRORrriRS.— John  Williams,  An  Account  of  some  Remarkable 
Ancient  Rntns  (i777):  A.  Fraser  Tytler,  Bdin.  Fhil.  Trans.  \o\.  M; 
Sir  Georse  Mackenzie,  Observations  on  Vitrified  Forts:  Hibbcrt,  Arch. 
Scot.  vol.  iv.;  J.  MacCulIoch,  HiiUands  and  Western  Islands 
(1824),  vol.  i.;  Hugh  Milter.  Rambiesofa  Cetdogist  (1858),  chap.  ix. : 
Sir  Daniel  Wilson,  Arckasohgy  and  Prehistoric  Annals  of  Scotland 
(185O,  vol.  ii.:  J.  H.  Burton,  History  of  Scotland  (1867),  vol.  i.; 
R.  Angus  Smith,  Loch  Bitse  and  the  Sons  of  Uisneack   (1879): 


J.  AnderaoA.  SaotUnd-ut  Pcgatt  Thm  (iMi):  C 
Hill  Forts  of  Ancient  Scotland;  Thomas  Aitken,  Trans.  Jmemass 
Scientific  Soc.  vol.  i. ;  Charles  Proctor,  Chemical  Analysis  of  Vitri- 
fied Stones  from  Tapo*  Nolh  amd  Dmmideet  (Huntlv  Fiald  Club); 
various  papers  in  Proceedings  of  Soc.  AnHq.  Seel,  (since  1903  The 
Scottish  Historical  Reoiew)  and  Proceedimgs  of  Royal  Irish  Acaiamyi 
R.  Munro,  Prehistoric  Scotland  (1899);  G.  Chalmers.   "  •  '    "^ 


(new  ed..  7  vols.,  Paisksy.  1887-94);  Murray's  Handbook  to  Scotlmnd 
(1903  ed.):  Leonhard,  Archto  Jtir  Mineralogie,  vol.  L;  Viichow, 
Ztschr.  fUr  Ethnologie,  vols»  tii.  and  tv.;  Scoaaffhausen,  Verlumd' 
lungen  der  deutsch.  anthrnp.  CeseUsehaft  (1981);  Ktihl,  Verhamd.  d. 
deutseh.  anthrop.  GesellschafI  (1883);  Thnot,  La  Forloreue  vitriJiSa 
du  Puy  de  Gaudy,  fire;  De  Nadailuic,  Les  Premiers  Hommes,  vol.  L; 
Mimotres  de  la  Soc.  AnHg.  de  France,  vol.  xxxviii.;  Hildebrmnd. 
l>e  fdrhistoriska  folken  i  Europa  (Stockholm,  1880}:  Behla.  Die 
vorgeschichtlichen  Rundmile  im  ^stlicken  Deutschland  {BtrMn,  1888); 
Oppermaon  and  Schuchhardt,  Atlas  vorgeschichtlicker  BefutigumieH 
^  Niodersachen  (Hanover.  i888<-98):  2schk»che.  Die  vorgachicht- 
lichen  Burgen  und  Walle  im  ThUringer  Zentralbecken  (Uafle.  iSte); 
Bixf.  Schlesisehe  Heidonsehan$en  (Grottkau,  1890);  Gohausen.  Du 
Befestigungsweisen  der  Voraeii  und  da  MiUetaltersiWwOMiea,  1898). 

(R.  Mu.*) 
VITRIOL,  a  name  given  to  sulphuric  add  and  to  certain 
sulphates.  Oil  of  vitiiol  is  concentrated  sulphuric  add.  Blue 
or  Roman  vitriol  is  copper  sulphate;  green  vitriol,  fcrnxis 
sulphate  (copperas);  white  vitriol,  zinc  sulphate;  and  vitriol 
of  Mars  is  a  basic  iron  sulphate. 

VITRUVIUS  (Marcos  Vrrauvnjs  Poluo),  Roman  architect 
and  engineer,  author  of  a  celebrated  woili  on  architecture. 
Nothing  is  known  concerning  faim  except  what  can  be  fathered 
from  his  own  writings.    Owing  to  the  discovery  of  inscriptions 
relating  to  the  Gens  Vitruvia  at  Formiae  in  Campania  (Mola  di 
Gaeta),  it  has  been  suggested  that  he  waa  a  native  of  that  dty, 
and  he  has  been  less  reasonably  connected  with  VetiMia  on  the 
strength  of  an  existing  arch  of  the  3rd  oeiictify,  which  isinactibed 
with  the  name  of  a  h&ter  architect  of  the  same  family  name-- 
"Ludus  Vitruvius   Ceido,  a  freedman  of  Ludtia"     From 
Vitruvius  himself  we  learn  that  he  was  appointed,  in  the  itsga 
of  Augustus,  together  with  three  others,  a  superintendent  of 
balislae  and  other  military  engines,  a  post  which,  be  saya,  Ite 
owed  to  the  friendly  in^uenoe  of  the  erapeior's  sister,  pr^idily 
Octavia  (De  ArckHedura,  i.  pref.).    In  another  passage  (v.  1)  he 
describes  a  basilica  and  adjacent  aedes  Augusti,  of  which  be  was 
the  architect.    From  viii.  3  it  has  been  supposed  that  be  had 
served  in  Africa  in  the  time  of  Julhis  Caesar,  probably  aa  a 
military  engineer,  but  the  words  hanrdly  bear  this  interprttatioii* 
He  speaks  of  himsdf  as  being  low  in  suture,  and  at  the  Ume  of 
his  writing  bowed  down  by  age  and  ill-health  (U.  pref.).    He 
appears  to  have  enjoyed  no  great  reputation  as  an  architect, 
and;  with  jj^ilosophic  contentment,  records-  that  he  posBeised 
but  little  fortune.    Though  a  great  student  of  Gteck  philosophy 
and  sdence,  he  was  unpractised  in  literature,  and  his  style  »  very 
involved  and  obscure.    To  a  great  extent  the  theoretical  and 
historical  parts  of  his  work  are  compiled  froih  eatlSer  Creek 
authors,  of  whom  be  gives  a  list  at !.  t  and  viiL  3.   Tlie  practical 
portions,  on  the  contn£ry,  are  evidently  the  result  of  his  own 
professwnal  experience,  and  are  written  with  much  sagadty, 
and  in  a  far  clearer  style  than  the  more  pedantic  chapters,  in 
which  he  gives  the  somewhat  fandful  theories  of  the  Greeks. 
Some  sections  of  the  latter,  espedally  those  an  the  connexion 
between  music  aoid  architecture,  the  scale  of  harmonic  pro* 
portkms,  and  the  Greek  use  of  bronae  vases  to  reverberate  and 
strengthen  the  actors'  voices  in  the  theatre,  are  now  almost 
wholly    unintelUgiblie.      Vitmvius's    name   is    mentioned    by 
Frontinus  in  his  work  On  the  aqnedxicts  of  Rome;  and  most  of 
what  Pliny  says  (Hiit.  Not.  lactv.  and  xxxvi.)  about  methods 
of  wall-painting,  the  prepanation  of  the  stucco  surface,  and  other 
practical  details  in  building  is  taken  almost  word  for  word  from 
Vitruvius,  »pedally  from  vi.  i,  though  without  any  acknow- 
ledgment of  the  source. 

The  treatise  De  Arckitedura  Libri  Decern  is  dedicated  to 
Augustus.  Lost  for  a  long  time,  it  was  rediscovered  in  the 
Z5th  century  at  St  Gall;  the  oldest  existing  MS.  dates  from 
the  Tolh  century.  From  the  eariy  Renaistence  down  to  a  com- 
paratively  recent  time  the  influence  of  this  treatise  has  been 
remariiably  great.   Throughout  the  period  of  the  daasica]  revival 


VITRY-LE-BRANgOIS^VlTTORIA 


VhnxvTUS  was  tbe  chfef  aatltofitT-  studied  by  arclixtects,  and  h. 
every  point  his  precepts  were  accepted  as  &ud.  In  some  cases 
a  failore  to  understand  his  meaning  led  to  cunous  resulU; 
for  example,  the  medieval  custom,  Jiot  uncommon  in-  England, 
of  pladng  rows  of  earthenware  jars  under  the  floor  of  the  stalls 
in  dundi  dmirs,  appears  to  have  been  an  attempt  to  follow  Out 
fufliiestioiks  laised  br  Vitmviu*  as  to  the  advaatsges  of  pladng 
bronse  vases  round  the  amditerium  of  tbeatfcs.  Bnonante, 
Michelangelo,  PaOadio,  Vignola  and  earlier  architects  were 
careful  students  of  the  work  of  Vitruvhis,  which  through  them 
has  hugely  influeaoed  the  ardntecture  of  almost  all  Eutopeaa 
oountries. 

Btr.  i.  opens  with  a  de^cation  to  Aagustus.  C.  i  Is  on  the  adenoe 
of  architecture  generally,  and  the  branches  of  kRowled|;e  with  which 
the  trained  architect  ought  to  be  acquainted,  vu.  grammar, 
nusic»  painting,  sculpture,  medicine,  geometry,  mathematics  and 
optics;  c.  3  is  on  the  general  prindpTes  of  architectural  design; 
c.  3  on  the  considerations  which  cfetermine  a  design,  such  as  strength, 
utility,  beauty:  c.  4  on  the  nature  of  different  sorts  of  ground  for 
sites;  a  $  on  walls  of  fortification;  c«  6  on  aspects  towards  the 
north,  south  and  other  pomts;  c.  7  on  tbe  proper  situations  01 
temples  dedicated  to  the  various  deities. 

Blc.  li.  relates  to  materials  (iirefacc  about  Pinocrates,  architect  to 
Alexander  the  Great).  C.  x  is  on  the  earliest  dwellings  of  man; 
c.  a  tm  syatcms  of  Thaka,  Heraditus,  Dcmocritua,  &c.;  c  3  on 
bricks,  c.  4  on  sand;  c  5  00  lime;  c  6  on  pozaolana;  c.  7  on  kinds 
of  stone  for  building;  c.  8  oh  methods  of  constructing  walls  in  stone, 
brick,  concrete  and  marble,  and  on  the  materials  lor  stucco:  c^  9 
on  timber,  time  for  felling  it,  seasoning,  dec.;  and  c  10  on  tho  fir 
trees  Of  the  Apenmnea. 

Bk.  iii.,  on  styles*  has  a  preface  on  ancient  Greek  writers.  C.  1  is 
on  symmetry  and  proportion;  c  3  on  various  forms  of  Greek 
temples,  e.g  in  antis,  prostyle,  peripteral,  dipteral,  hypaethral;>' 
c.  3  on  intcr-cohimniation— -pycnostyle,  systyle,  eustyte,  Stc;  c  4 
on  foondations,  steps  and  styiobatcs;  c  5  en  the  Ionic 'order,  its 
form  and  details. 

Bk.  iv.,  on  styles  and  orders,  has  a  preface  to  Augustus  on  the 
scope  of  the  work.  Th^  subjects  of  its  nine  chapters  arc — (i)  the 
Corinthian,  loHtf  and  [)oric  orders ;  (a)  the  ornaments  of  capitals, 
Ac;  (3^  the Dorin  ofdcr:  (4)  propbrtions  of  the edlaend  proeaei){ 
is)  sites  of  temples;.  (6)  doorways  of  tempUa  and  their  archi- 
traves; (7)  the  Etruscan  or  Tuscan  order  of  temples;  (8)  circular 
temples;    (9)  altars. 

Bk.  v.,  on  public  birildings,  has  a  preface  on  the  theories  of 
Pythagoras,  &c.  Its  twelve  chapters  treatr- (1)  of  fora  and  basiiicaeb 
with  a  description  of  his  own  basilica  at  Fanum:  (3)  of  the  adjuncts 
of  a  forum  (acrarium,  prison  and  curia);  (3)  of  theatres,  their  site 
and  construction;  (4)  of  laws  of  harmonics;  (S)^of  the  arrangement 
of  tuned  bronze  vases  in  theatres  for  acoustic  purposes;  (6)  of 
Roman  theatres;  (7)  of  Greek  theatres;  ^8)  of  the  sdection  of  sites 
of  theatres  accoctling  to  acoustic  principles;  (9)  of  porticus  an^ 
covered  walks;  (10)  of  baths,  their  floors,  nypixrausts,  the  construc- 
tion and  use  of  various  parts;  (n)  of  palaestrae,  xysti  and  other 
Creek  bailings  for  the  exercise  of  athfetes;  <I3)  of  harboikrs  and 
qfuaya. 

Bk.  vi*  is  on  sites  and  planning,  and  the  preface  treats  of  various 
Greek  authors  C.  1  is  on  selection  of  utcs;  c.  2  on  the  planning 
of  buildings  to  suit  dflTercnt  sites;  c  3  on  private  houses,  theCr 
constructioifi  and  styles,  the  names  of  the  atffcrent  apartments; 
c.  4  00.  the  aspjBCta  suited  for  the  various  rooms:  c  ^  on  buildings 
fitted  for  special  positions:  c  6  on  farms  ana  country  houses^ 
c.  7  on  Greek  houses  and  tne  names  of  various  parts;  c.  8  on  con- 
struction of  houses  in  wood,  stone,  brick  or  concrete. 

Bic.  vfi.,  mostly  on  methods  of  decoration,  has  a  preface  (as  usual) 
on  thcopinionaal  andent  Greek  writers,  with  listaei  Greek  Sculpters, 
architects  and  writers  on  architecture,  and  of  Ropan  architects. 
C.  I  has  for  its  subject  pavements  and  roads,  tncir  construction, 
mosaic  floors;  c.  3  is  on  white  stucco  for  waits  ifipvs  atbarium); 
c.  3  on  concrete  vauits,  gypsum  mouldingst  stucco  prepared  for 
painting;  c.  4  on  building  oi  hollow  walls  to  keep  out  tiw  damp* 
wall  decoration  by  various  processes;  &  5  on  methods  and  styles  ctf 
wall  painting,  the  debasea  taste  of  his  time;  c.  6  on  fine  stucco 
made  of  pounded  marble — three  coats  to  receive  wall  paintings; 
c.  7  on  colours  vsed  for  mural  decoration ;  c.  8  on  red  lead  <fii*iif«fN) 
and  mercury,  and  how  to  use  the  latter  to  extract  the  gdd  from  worn* 
out  pieces  of  stuff  or  embroidery;  c  9  on  the  preparation  of  red 
lead  and  the  jnethod  of  encaustic  painting  with  hot  wax.  finished 
by  friction;  cc.  10-14  t*  artificial  colours — black,  blue,  purple: 
e.  10  white  lead  and  ostmmt  i.4.  murex  porple  and  imitations  of 
Ldye. 


*The  excsvations  made  in  1887  have  shown  that  Vitruvius  was 
right  in  describing  the  great  temple  of  Olympian  Zeus  at  Athens  as 
being  octastyle.  The  previously  almost  universal  opmion  that  it 
yns  decastyle  had  led  to  the  needless  theory  thai  the  passage  con> 
taimng  this  statemsnl  was  corrupt. 


r5« 

.,  Blhi^llMLlvditfu^l^englseM^ 

the  anaents.  C.  I  treats  ortbe  finding  of  good  water ;  c-  2  of  rain> 
water  arid  rivers — rivers  in  various  c<iuntnest  c.  3  o(  hot  springs, 
mineral  waters,  with  an  account  of  thechkf'mcdlaML  springs 
of  the  world;  a  4  of  seleeli^of  wigtei;  by  obseriimti^h  and  expen* 
meet;  c  5  of  iaftrumtfatafer  levellisg  um»  by^uedMct  engineem; 
c  6  of  construction  of  aqaeducts,  pipes  ot  lesBO,  day,  oc.,  and  other 
matter  on*  the  subject  of  water-snpply. 

Bk.  ix.  is  on  astronomy.  The  preface  treats  of  Greek  sciences, 
fsoflsetry,  the  diaoovery  of  speculc  gravity  by  Archimedes,  and 

Slier  discoveries  of  tbe  Greeks*  and  of  Romans  of  his  tisae  who 
ve  vied  with  the  Greeks — ^Lucretius  in  his  poem  De  Rerum  Natura, 
Cicero  in  rhetoric,  and  Varro  in  philology,  as  shown  by  his  D$ 
Lingua  Latina*  The  subjects  of  the  eight  chapters  are — (i )  the  signs 
of  the  sodiac  and  the  se^n  planets;  <3)  the  phases  ef  the  moon; 
is)  the  passage  of  tbeeun  throueh  the  sodiac;  (4)  and  <5)  various 
constellations;  (6)  the  relation  of  astrological  influences  to  nature; 

S)  the  mathematical  divisions  of  the  gnomon;  (8)  various  kinds 
sundials  and  thdr  inventors. 

Bk.  X.  is  on  machinery,  with  a  preface  concerning  a  law  at  ancsens 
Ephesua  oompeUiSg  an  architect  to  complete  any  public  Irailding 
he  had  undertaken;  this,  he  says,  would  be  useful  among  the 
Romans  of  his  time.*  The  chapters  are — (i)  on  various  machines, 
sudi  as  scaling-ladders,  windmills,  ftc. ;  (3)  on  windlasses,  axles, 
pulleys  and  cruies  for  moving  heavy  wdghts^  such  ae  those  used 
by  Chorsipllron  in  building  the  great  temple  of  Piana  at  Ephesua. 
and  on  the  discovery  by  a  shepherd  of  a  quarry  of  marble  requireo 
to  build  the  sam^  temple;  (3)  on  dynamics;  (4)  on  machines  for 
drawing  water;  (5)  on  wheels  for  irrigation  worked  by  a  river; 
(6)  on  raisine  water  by  a  revDlvine  spiral  tube;  (7)  on  the  machine 
of  Ctesibius  for  raising  water  to  a  height;  (8)  on  a  very  compUcatnl 
water  engine,  the  description  of  which  is  not  intdhgible,  though 
Vitruvius  remarks  that  he  has  tried  to  make  the  matter  clear; 
(9)  on  machines  with  wheds  to  register  the  distance'travdicd,  dther 
by  land  or  water;  (to)  on  the  construction  of  scorfienu  for  burling 
stones.  (11)  and  (13)  on  balisia$  and  catapults;  (13)  on  battcring« 
rams  and  other  machines  for  the  attack  of  a  fortress;  (1^)  on  shields 
{jiestudines)  to  enable  soldiers  to  fill  up  the  enemy's  ditcncs;  (15)  on 
other  kinds  of  testudines ;  (16)  on  machines  for  defence,  and  examples 
of  their  use  in  ancient  tiroes.  (J .  H.  M.) 

The  best  edition  is  by  Rose  (3nd  edi,  Ldpalg,  1809):  see  also 

VitruK  Aestkeiik  (1906); 


There  is  a  good  transla' 


Nohl,  Index  Vttruvianus  (1876):  JoUes. 
Sonthdmcr,  Vitruv  und  setne  Zeu  (1908). 
tion  by  Gwik  (1836;  reprinted,  1874). 

The  iiame  of  Vknivios  has  been  given  to  several  works  on  modern 
anctntecture,  such  as  Campbell,  Vitruvius  Brilanmcus  (London, 
1715-^1).  a  series  of  illustrations  of  the  chief  buildings  of  the  i8th 
century  In  England,  including  many  works  of  the  brothers  Adam; 
one  of  these  brothera,  William  Adam,  produced  a  similar  work  illos* 
treting  tbe  buiMings  which  he  had  designed  for  Scotland,  under  the 
title  of  VHrunus  Scolicus  (Edinburgh,  1790).  Thurah,  Le  Vtlruve 
danois  (Copenhagen,  1746-49),  b  a  similar  collection  of  modem 
boiklings  in   Denmark. 

VITRY-LB-PRAHPOIS,  a  town  of  north-eastern  Prance, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Marne,  on  the  right  bnnk  of  the 
Mame,  20  m.  S.£.  of  Ch&Ions,  on  the  railway  from  Paris  to 
Strassburg.  Pop.  (1906)  7985.  The  Mame-Rhine  canal,  the 
Haute-Mame  canal,  and  the  lateral  canal  of  the  Mame  unite 
at  Vitry.  Its  church  of  Notre-Dame  is  a  17th-century  building 
with  fme  iglh-cenlury  monuments.  A  convent  of  the  R^coIIctS 
now  contains  the.  town  hall,  the  court-house,  a  library  and  a 
small  museum.  There  is  a  bronze  statue  of  P.  P.  Roycr-CoIIard 
(i  763-1845),  the  politidan  and  philosopher,  a  native  of  the 
district.  The  industrial  establishments  include  Important  cement 
works  and  the  manufacture  of  fatence  is  carried  on.  The 
present  town  was  built  lA  1545  on  a  uniform  plan  by  Frands  I. 
to  replace  the  older  one  of  Vitty-en-Perthois,  2|  m.  to  the  north" 
east,  burned  in  the  previous  year  by  Charles  V. 

VITTEL,  a  watering-place  of  north-eastern  France,  in  the 
department  of  Vosges,  31  m.  W.  of  Eplnol  by  rail.  Pop.  (1906) 
X954.  The  waters  resemble  those  of  Contrex^villc,  but  are 
lighter  in  character;  they  arc  bottled  and  esqwrted  in  large 
quantities.  They  are  prescribed  in  cases  of  gravd,  gout,  &c 
Vittd  has  been  considerably  developed  in  recent  years,  and  Is 
well  supplied  with  hotds,  a  fine  casino  and  park,  &c 

VnrORIA,  a  town  of  Sidly  in  the  province  of  Sytactlse, 
05  m.  W.S.W.  of  Syracuse  by  rail  (42  m.  direct),  founded  In  1605 
by  Giovanni  Alphonso  Henriquez,  who  named  it  after  his 
mother,  .the  famous  Vlttoria  Ck>lonna.    It  is  a  prosperous  towd 

*  Vitruvius  names  Cicero  and  Lncretius  as  post  nostram  menuriam 
nasaemts. 
\  The  ^chUie^.bdng  at  that  time  also  the  contractor. 


«5* 


VITTORIO— VIVES 


fai  the  centre  of  a  fertile  dbokt,  with  tlie  largest  wine  trade  in 
Sidly     Pop*  (190*)  iofii*  (town),  3»i««9  (commune). 

VinOfilO.  a  town  and  episcopal  residence  of  the  provmce 
of  Txeviio,  Venetia,  Italy,  35  m.  by  rail  N.  ol  Treviso,  466  ft. 
above  sea-level.  Pop.  (igoz)  3977  (town),  I9>i53  (commune). 
It  is  a  summer  resort,  with  sulphur  and  saline  springs  (51*8*  to 
59**  F.),  and  was  formed  in  1879  by  the  union  of  Ceneda  (the  epis- 
copal see)  and  Serravalle.  The  cathedral  contains  pamtings 
by  Pomponio  Amalteo  (a  pupil  of  Pordenone)  and  others.  At 
Serravalle  is  a  church  with  a  fine  altar-piece  (1547)  by  Titian. 
It  is  a  seat  of  the  silkworm  breeding  and  silk-throwing  industries. 

VITUS,  8T  (German,  Vdt;  French,  Guy).  According  to  the 
legend,  where  he  is  aseociated  with  Modestus  and  Crescentia, 
b/  whom  he  had  been  brought  up,  St  Vitus  suffered  martyrdom 
at  a  very  oirly  age  under  the  emperor  Diocletian.  Son  of  a 
Sicilian  nobleman  who  was  a  worshipper  of  idols,  Vitus  was 
converted  to  the  Christian  faith  without  the  knowledge  of  his 
father,  was  denounced  by  him  and  scourged,  but  resisted  all 
attacks  on  bis  profession.  Admonished  by  an  angel,  he  crossed 
the  sea  to  Lucania  and  went  to  Rome,  where  he  suiSfered  martyr- 
dom. His  festival  is  celebrated  on  the  xsth  of  June.  The 
Passion  of  St  Vitus  has  no  historical  value,  but  his  name  occurs 
in  the  Martyrclogium  kieronymianum.  In  836  the  abbey  of 
Corvey,  in  Saxony,  received  his  relics,  and  became  a  very  active 
centre  of  his  cult.  In  the  second  half  of  the  9th  century  the 
monks  of  Corvey,  according  to  Hdmold's  Chronica  Slawmtm, 
evangelized  the  island  of  RQgen,  where  they  built  a  church  In 
honour  of  St  Vitus.  The  islanders  soon  rcUpsed,  but  they  kept 
up  the  supersUtbus  cult  of  the  saint  (whom  they  honoured  as  a 
god),  returning  to  Christianity  three  centuries  later.  At  Prague, 
too,  there  are  some  relics  of  the  saint,  who  is  the  patron  of 
Bohemia  and  also  of  Saxony,  and  one  of  the  fourteen  "  pro- 
tectors "  {Nolkkdfer)  of  the  chnrch  in  Germany.  Among  the 
diseases  against  whidi  St  Vitus  is  invoked  is  chorea,  also  known 
as  St  Vitus's  Dance. 

See  Ada  uMCtornm,  June.  lit.  1013-42  and  vi.  137-40; 
BibUotkeca  hafiotr^phica  Lalina  (BrusoeU.  1899).  n.  8711-33;  J.  H. 
Kend,  "  St  Veit.  tcinc  GeKhkhte.  Vcrehrung  und  bildlichc  Dar- 
•tellungen."  in  Jakrbucktr  des  Vereins  von  AUerthnmsfreunden  im 
Rheinlaade  (1867),  pp.  153-63.  (H.  Db.) 

VIYALDO,  UOOLENO  and  SORIBOMB  DB  (fl.  1391-1315), 
Genoese  explorers,  connected  with  the  first  known  expedition 
in  search  of  an  ocean  way  from  Europe  to  India.  UgoUno, 
with  his  brother  Guido  or  Vadino  Vivaldo,  was  in  command  of 
(his  expedition  of  two  galleys,  which  he  had  organized  in  con- 
junction with  Tedisio  Doria,  and  which  left  Genoa  in  May  1 291 
with  the  purpose  of  going  to  India  "  by  the  Ocean  Sea  *'  and 
bringing  back  useful  things  for  trade.  Planned  primarily  for 
commerce,  the  enterprise  also  aimed  at  prosclytism.  Two 
Franciscan  friars  accompanied  UgoUno.  The  galleys  were  well 
armed  and  sailed  down  the  Morocco  coast  to  a  place  called 
Gozora  (Cape  Nun),  in  28**  47'  N.,  after  which  nothing  more 
was  heard  of  them.  Early  in  the  next  (14th)  century,  Sorlcone 
de  Vivaldo,  son  of  UgoEno,  undertook  a  series  of  distant  wander- 
ings in  search  of  his  father,  and  even  penetrated,  it  is  said,  to 
Magadoxo  on  the  Somali  coast.  In  145s  another  Genoese 
seaman,  Antoniotto  Uso  di  Mare,  sailing  with  Cadamosto  in 
the  service  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator  of  Portugal,  claimed 
to  have  met,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia,  with  the  last 
descendant  of  the  survivors  of  the  Vivaldo  expedition.  The 
two  galleys,  he  was  told,  had  sailed  to  the  Sea  of  Guinea;  in 
that  sea  one  was  stranded,  but  the  other  passed  on  to  a  place 
on  the  coast  of  Ethiopia-Mena  or  Amenuan,  near  the  Gihon 
(here  probably  meaning  the  Senegal) — where  the  Genoese  were 
seized  and  held  in  close  captivity. 

See  Jaoopo  Doria.  "  Annates  '*  (under  a.d.  I30i)  in  Perta.  Monu- 
menla  Gcrmaniae  histortca.  Scnptorts^  xvtii.  335  (1863);  the 
**  Cono^imicnto  de  todos  los  Rctnos/*  ed.  Marcos  limencz  dc  la 
Espada  m  the  B^ettn  of  the  Geographical  Societal  of  Madrid,  vol.  U., 
No.  3,  pp.  111.  '13.  117-18  (Madrid.  February,  1B77);  Canale. 
2>rf/«  anluki  naxngatori  e  %rof*nlori  Cenooest  (Genoa,  1 846),  G  H. 
Ivtr,  Det  iUesle  Versuc'm  atf  EtMetkmng  des  Seeweges  nacJk  OsHndien 

2>criin,  1859):  Annali  di  Ceografia  e  di  Statislica   compoUi  .  .  . 
GiaumoUfOherg  (Genoa.  iHoit):  Belgrano,  ** .  .  •  AonaK  ...  da 


CaAaro.*'iaitrcikip.5tor./«at..aRlaeries.U.  U4.lkc.) 
Soc.  Lig.  di  Storia  Palria,  xv.  330  (1881):  W.  Heyd,  HisUrire  du 
commerce  du  Levant  (the  improved  French  edition  of  the  Cesckickle 
des  LeiwHekMdels),  ii.  140-43  (Pkxia.  1886);  C.  R.  Bcadey,  Domm  o§ 
Modem  Ceogrupky,  iiL  4^3*19*  S5>  (Oxfotd,  1906). 

VIVARINI,  the  surname  of  a  family  of  painten  of  Muimno 
(Venice),  who  produced  a  great  quantity  of  work  in  Venice  and 
its  neighbourhood  in  the  15th  ccntiuy,  kadlng  on  to  that  phaae 
of  the  school  which  is  represented  by  Carpaodo  and  the  BeUoaii. 

Antonio  Vivauni  (Antonio  of  Murano)  was  probably  the 
earliest  of  this  family.  He  canae  from  the  adiool  of  Andzca 
da  Murano,  and  his  works  show  the  influence  of  Gentile  da 
Fabriana.  The  earliest  known  date  of  a  picture  of  hia,  an 
altar-piece  in  the  Venetian  academy,  ia  1440;  the  latest,  in  the 
Lateran  museum,  1464,  but  he  appears  to  have  been  ahve 
in  1470.  He  worked  in  company  with  a  certain  '*  Jouincs  de 
Alemania,"  who  has  been  (with  considerable  doubt)  regarded 
as  a  brother  (Giovanni  of  Murano),  but  no  trace  of  this  painter 
exbts  of  a  date  later  than  i447*  After  1447  Antonio  painted 
dther  alone  or  in  combination  with  his  younger  brother  Barto- 
lommeo.  The  works  of  Antonio  axe  well  drawn  for  their  epoch, 
with  a  certain  noticeable  degree  of  softness,  and  with  good  flesh 
and  other  tints.  Three  of  his  principal  paintings  are  the 
"  Virgin  Enthroned  with  the  Four  Doctors  of  the  Church,"  the 
"  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  and  "  Sis  Peter  and  Jerome.'* 
The  first  two  (in  which  Giovanni  oo-operated)  are  in  the  Venetian 
academy,  the  third  in  the  National  Gallery,  London.  This 
gallery  contains  also  specimens  of  the  two  under-named  painten. 

BAaTOLQMiiEO  ViVASiNi  is  known  to  have  worked  from 
1450  to  1499*  He  learned  oU-painting  from  AntoneUo  da 
Messina,  and  is  said  to  have  produced,  in  1473,  the  first  oil 
picture  done  in  Venice.  This  is  in  the  church  of  S.  Giovanm 
e  Paolo— a  large  allar-piece  in  nine  divisions,  rqiresenting 
Augustine  and  other  saints.  Most  of  his  works,  however, 
indudmg  one  in  the  National  Gallery,  are  m  tempera.  His 
outline  is  always  hard,  and  his  colour  good;  the  figures  have 
much  dignified  and  devout  expression.  As  "  vivarino  "  means 
in  Italian  a  goldfinch,  he  sometimes  drew  a  goldfinch  as  the 
signature  of  his  pictures. 

Luici  or  Alvise  Vivakini,  bom  about  1446,  painted  in 
147 S  and  on  to  1502,  when  he  died.  It  has  sometimes  been 
supposed  that,  besides  the  Luigi  who  was  the  latest  of  this 
pictorial  family,  there  had  also  been  another  Luigi  who  was  the 
earliest,  this  supposition  being  founded  on  the  fact  that  one 
picture  is  signed  with  the  name,  with  the  date  1414.  There 
is  good  ground,  however,  for  considering  this  date  to  be  a  forgery 
of  a  later  time.  .The  works  of  Luigi  show  an  advance  on  those 
of  Ms  predecessors,  and  some  of  them  are  productions  of  high 
attainment;  one  of  the  best  was  executed  for  the  Scuola  di 
S.  Girolamo  in  Venice,  representing  the  saint  caressing  his  lion, 
and  some  monks  decamping  in  terror.  The  architecture  and 
perspective  in  this  work  are  superior.  Other  works  by  Luigi 
are  in  Treviso  and  in  Milan.  He  painted  some  remarkable 
portraits.  (W.  M.  R.) 

VIVERO,  a  town  of  north*westero  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Lugo;  on  the  Ria  de  Vivero,  aA  estuary  formed  by  the 
river  Landrove,  which  here  enters  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Pop. 
(1900)  1 2,843.  Vivero  is  an  old-fashioned  and  picturesque  town, 
connected  with  the  opposite  bank  of  the  estuary  by  a  bridge 
of  twelve  arches  and  a  causeway.  Its  fishing  fleet,  its  coasting 
trade  and  the  agricultural  products  of  the  fertile  country 
around  are  important.  The  only  means  of  oommunication  with 
the  interior  »  by  the  road  to  Cabreiros,  for  Lugo  and  FerroL 

VIVES.  JUAN  LUIS  (1492-1540),  Spanish  achoUr,  was  bom 
at  Valencia  on  the  6th  of  March  1492.  He  studied  at  Paris 
from  1509  to  1512,  and  in  1519  was  appointed  professor  of 
humanities  at  Louvain.  At  the  instance  of  his  friend  Erasnras 
he  prepared  an  elaborate  commentary  on  AugtistineS  Dt 
CftilaU  Dei,  which  was  published  In  1533  with  a  dedication 
to  Henry  VIII.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  invited  to  England, 
and  is  said  to  have  acted  as  tutor  to  (he  princess  Mary,  for 
whose  use  he  wrote  Dt  raliom  sitedii  pmritis  epistoiae  duae 


VIVIAN,  HT  BARON— VWISECTION 


&'S 


(ftjij).  WbDelnEa^nidbernlBlmtCoipviCbtfadColkse. 
(MMd,  what  he  ww  made  doctcti  of  lam  ud  lectOKd 

divoicc  [rom  CUlmiiH  of  Aiagon,  be  lou  the  loysl  bvoui  ud 
wu  confined  to  hti  bouse  for  sii  weeks.  On  lii*  rcleaie  he 
wilhdRw  to  Bniia,  wbtre  be  devoted  himadf  to  the  enn- 
position  of  DUmemw  worki,  chieSy  dbeeted  ifaiiut  the  acbid- 
■Stic  philosophy  ud  the  prepondenat  aDthoriiy  oF  Aristotle. 

Arlium,  libicll  ha*  been  unked  irilh  Becsn'i  OrfOHsn.  He 
died  at  Bniges  on  the  tth  a[  Hay  1J40. 

Ud«d  by  GretDrio 
line  y  Su  Mutln'i 
,i^3)[>avaluabte 
...^  ^.itoniing  aitive  bibliography 

of  Vives'i  wiiti  vfJuna  nofiognpht, 

Ttaebetiofihe  urlavieMtetfariti 

deJeanLouk'  r  rAoMmit  KayaU 

ill  Kiactt  a  a,,  1841]^.  tv.; 

Bed  y1SAc*Wi  Berthe  Vadicr^K 

Uor^itu  Jux  tn  l<n  <fe  rUKo- 

IfoM  dt  li  ftmmi  dirhiinie  (Crnfva.  1S9JI  r  G.  Hopne,  DU  Pi* 
c)alspt  <m  Juan  Luis  Vmu  (BcMin,  1901). 

VIVIAN,  KICHARD  HUISEY  VIVUM,  in  Saxdh  (ijtj^ 
1B41),  Briilih  cavaliy  leader,  came  oF  a  Conhh  family.  Edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  Eieter  CoUege,  Oxford,  Tiviaii  entered 
the  army  in  1 7qj,  and  lesa  than  a  year  tatei  baame  a  captain 
io  Iha  3Sth  loot.  Under  Lord  Moiia  he  served  in  the  cwnpaign 
ef  1 794  in  Handen  and  Holland.  At  the  end  ol  the  expedilioM, 
the  iSlii  bote  a  distinguished  pait  in  Loid  Cailicatt's  aciiou  of 
GuelderDuJMQ.  la  i;o8  Vivian  was  Itaniferred  to  the  ;th 
Light  Diagoona  [no*  Haasui),  and  in  Sir  Ralph  Afaenmnby'a 
dtvlsim  wa*  prewnt  at  the  battlea  ol  Btr^ca  and  AlkmaB  (iqth 
September  to  fitb  October  1799).  In  1800  be  recetvtd  hii 
Dujorily,  and  in  1804  he  became  lieuL-colaael  of  the  jtSi.  In 
commaDd  of  tbii  regiment  he  aailed  to  join  Baiid  at  Coriuuia  in 
tSoS,  and  took  pait  in  Lord  Paget'*  cavalry  Bgfau  at  Sahagun 
and  Benavente.  During  the  ntieit  of  Moore's  anny  the  ;th 
wen  constantly  employed  with  the  leaiguatd,  Vivian  wai 
present  at  Cociinna.  and  tetuined  with  the  lemainder  lA  the 
army  to  Enghnd.  It  was  not  una  late  in  xt\i  that  the  7tb 
returned  to  the  Peninsula,  and  Vivian  [now  colonel  and  A.D.C 
to  the  piincc  regent)  was  soon  taken  awa>  to  command  a  cavalty 
bfigade  under  Hill.  With  thi*  corpa  he  seived  tbrodghout 
the  fighting  gn  the  "Nive  (ijlh-ijlh  December).  At  t)«  begin- 
ning of  1814  be  wa*  transferred  10  a  cavalry  brigade  of  Beres- 
(Ord's  corps,  and  took  a  marked  part  in  the  action  of  Cava  de 
Fui  and  Ibe  battle  of  Oilhea.  In  the  advance  on  Toalouw 
Vivian  fought  a  brflliuit  action  at  Cioia  d'Orade  on  the  En 
(ith  April),  when  he  wu  very  severely  wounded.  At  the 
beginnwg  of  1815  he  was  made  K.C.B.;  be  had  been  a  majoi- 
general  [or  Kveial  month*.  In  April  Sir  HusMy  Vivian  wa* 
■fipobited  lo  command  a  brigade  o(  Udnidge'a  cavalry,  and 
at  Waterloo  hia  regimenu,  with  those  of  Vanddenr's  brigade, 
made  the  final  charge  of  the  day  between  Hougoumoal  and  La 
Haye  Sainte.  iweefang  eveiything  before  them.  This  service 
ma  rewaldod  by  the  Ihank*  of  both  bouse*  ol  parliament, 
the  K.C.H.  and  the  orders  of  Maria  Theresa  and  St  Vladimir 
Itom  the  empeton  ol  Austria  and  Kussta.  He  sat  hi  the 
Hunseof  Cwnmons  a*  member  for  Truro  from  iSti  to  iSji; 
he  wa*  then  made  commander  of  the  force*  m  Ireknd,  and 
given  the  G.CH.  In  tSjs  he  became  ma*ter.general  of  the 
ordnance.  In  1S37  he  received  the  C.C.B..  and  in  1&41,  being 
then  MJ>.  for  East  Cornwall,  was  created  Btioa  Vivian  in  the 
English  peerage.  A  year  later  he  died  at  Baden-Baden.  He 
was  twice  married  (first  in  iBat),  and  the  title  deacended  in  the 
direct  line.  His  natural  son.  Sir  Kobcrt  John  Husacy  Vivian 
<ieoa-iSST)t  waa  a  famoua  soldier  in  India,  who  in  igj}  wa* 
made  K-C.B.  and  in  ig?!  0.C3.,  having  prarioiwly  attained  Ibe 
(tnfcof  geatnL 

VXVUHUB,  a  minsa. „  .. 

rtJXOilf\-tna,  oyilalliibig  In  the 
Oyitab  po**a*  a  perfect  ckavage  panllel 


3f  bydnted  boti  phe^hate 
■■   t  ayattn.    The 


(H>-1),  Benble  sod  lectile.  The  ipcdSc  cavity  ii  »-b. 
Wkaa  Doaltacd  and  OHiuinln(  ■>  fcnk  oilde,  the  mineial 
b  dJonileH,  hot  on  expoauie  to  the  li^t  it  very  soon  become* 
ol  a  cfaatactaiistic  hidi^i>.Uue  colonr.  Ciyatals  were  fiiat  found 
B  Coinwall  (at  Wheal  Jaue.  near  Truro, 
pynfaotite)  by  J.  G.  Vivina,  after  whom  the  19 


eariier  known  aa  a  blue  powdery  aubstance,  called  "  blue  iron, 
euth,"  met  with  in  peat-bon  in  bog  iron-ore,  or  with  fcssil 
bene*  and  shell*.  (L.J.5.) 

nvmOTMM,  litenlly  the  cutthig  (iMto)  of  livii«  (n'nu) 
animal*,  a  woid  wUch  might  be  applied  to  all  *u    '    ' 
wheiha  piactiied  npoD  the  lower  aninuda  a 


.  ._ thelowtruiinalttDdcMalMslofilMadnacB- 

tA  Bcdiial  Ktoco.    Tbet*  are  a  mnber  of  peo|ik  whot 
tben»ctT9  aatMvkecliiiBbt*,  ainmglr  obiact  to  tli 


Ji  tbow  who  mild  nuke  ■  baibanms  u*e  of  tl 

na  01  loeanL    What  i*  at  Make  ben  is  the  right  to  u*c  1 

It  would  b«  posalble  (or  cruelty  of  u 


the  hi4>  (4  viviMcUnu    Suck  a 
thetr  obicct  the  adnDconent  of  the  •dance*  ol  phyriirioar 
and  patbologyi    fitm  the  c»rtiMt  pcdod*  eipenramtal  vlvi- 


hi*  greatly  extended  the  Kopa  a 
hccante  an  animal  caa  be  kept  dm 
evenaqniwofftimndeidiiiinspiBlengcdopaatios*.  Further, 
the  fntnMliKtioa  of  the  fehtiaeptlc  method  baa  laade  it  [joasible 
la  sdiiat  all  thma  and  ttgisni  of  tlie  body  lo  NUgiail  laCef- 
ban  iIm  had  the  effect  of  ittoteuing  the  ptaai- 


oeau  Evir  A.  J.  Kam.  K.L.,  look  ine  crair.  I  ne  ^.ommtiaiafi  ui 
from  October  1906  \a  Miich  1908.  and  hnrd  no  fewer  than  ai.ttt 
quFXions  and  answcn.     In  view  of  altempts  on  (be  wiaf  ihe 

before  the  CommLsuon,  in  January  E^oft  the  luppoKm  of  eapcrl- 
inenu  on  animals  fouBded  thr  Rneirch  fMince  Society,  under  the 
preiidcncy  oC  Lord  Cramer:  by  July  1910  this isciety  had  asm!  3500 
membcia.    IIigKdal  addieu  Is  11  Ladbroke  Square.  London,  W. 

I.  Uethods  Ekfujieu, — The  pccaent  act  relating  to  eiperl- 
mcnts  Du  animab  was  passed  b  1876.  At  that  time  the 
majority  of  these  eiperimeni*  were  physiologicaL  There  wa*, 
it  may  be  fairly  said,  no  such  thing  at  bactenology,  no  general 
lollowing  up  oi  Faateur'a  work.  A  few  etperiments  were  made 
in  pathology,  lor  mstance  in  tubercle;  and  a  few  In  auigery, 
in  pharmacology,  and  in  the  action  ol  poisons,  especiaBy  snake 
venom.  But  the  chief  use  ol  ejq>eriments  on  animals  was  foe 
the  advancement  of  physiology.  The  evidence  ^vcn  be 
Royal  Commission  (1875)  waa  almost 
matttn,  on  the  ditcovades  ol  Harvi 
Claiide  Bernard,  oa  the  Handbook  Jor  At 

and  10  lolh.  The  act,  therefor^  was  oiaiiea  wim  a  new  tu 
physiology,  without  much  concern  for  pathology,  and  without 
loiekMwkdae  of  bacLeriolvgy.  At  the  time  ol  writing  (1910), 
9]%  ol  (he  eiperimenu  are  inoculations.  Every  eiperi- 
mutt  be  made  in  a  teglMered  place  open  to  govem- 
intpection-     But  inocuUlion  ciperimenlt  are  sometime* 


in  physiological 
'.  Bell,  Magendie  and 
Pkyiiatogitai  Laboratory, 


«$4 


VIVlSBCTIOiN 


pemtittttl  <A  fioti-fegktCNd  fiiaccs,  fortbe  jtiwrfhtf  itady  of 
outbre&ks  of  disette,  or  in  drcuintUuiees  iriiidi  render  il  im- 
tnctkable  to  use  a  registeKd  place.  Every  cspeiimeat  maak 
be  made  under  a  Ikeoce;  and  every  appKcation  for  «  licence 
must  be  recommended  by  the  rignatures  of  two  out  of  a  small 
body  of  authorities  specified  in  the  act— pccsidenU  of  certain 
learned  sodetaes  and  professon  of  certain  univemitiea  and 
colleges.  The  word  **  eiperimeat "  is  not  attowed  to  cover 
the  use  of  m<»e  than  one  animal. 

Most  experiments  are  mads  not  undet  a  licence  alone,  but 
under  a  Soence  ^us  one  or  more  certificates,  and  the  wording 
and  wotking  of  these  certificates  must  be  deafly  understood, 
because  it  is  over  them  that  the  question  arises  as  to  the  amount 
of  pain  infiicted  by  these  experiments.  Under  the  licence  alone, 
the  animal  must  be  kept  under  an  anaesthetic  duxmg  the  whole 
of  the  experiment;  and  "  If  the  pain  Is  likely  to  contimie  after 
the  effect  of  the  anaesthetic  has  ceased,  or  if  any  serious  injury 
has  been  inflicted  on  the  animal,"  It  must  be  killed  forthwith 
under  the  anaesthetic  Thus,  under  the  licenco  alone*  it  b 
impossible  to  make  an  inoculation;  for  the  experiment  omsists, 
not  in  the  introduction  of  the  needle  under  thie  skin,  but  in  the 
observation  of  the  results  of  the  taocolation.  A  guineai[>ig 
Inoculated  with  tubercle  cannot  bo  kept  under  an  anaesthetic 
till  the  disease  appears.  The  disette  is  the  espeximont,  and  it 
is  therefore  an  experiment  made  without  an  anaesthetic,  and 
fioi  authorised  by  the  licence  akme^  Again,- under  the  licence 
alone  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  work  out  the  thyroid 
treatment  of  myaoedema,  or  the  facta  of  cerebral  localisation. 
For  to  remove  the  thyroid  gland,  or  to  remove  a  portion  of  the 
surface  of  the  brain,  is  to  inflict  a  serious  injury  on  the  animal. 
The  operatkm  is  done  under  profound  anaesthesia-^t  would 
be  impracticable  otherwise;  the  wound  is  treated  and  dressed 
by  the  antiseptic  method---suppuratkm  woqU  invnh'date  the 
result.  But  a  serious  injury  has  been  inflicted.  NevertheieaB« 
the  animal  must  not  be  kflled  forthwith:  the  result  must  be 
watched.  These  and  the  like  experimenta  cannot  therefore 
be  made  under  the  licence  alone.  For  the  removal  of  such 
disabilities  as  these,  the  act  empowers  the  home  secretary  to 
allow  certain  certificates,  to  be  held  with  the.  licence.  They 
must  be  recommended  by  two  signatures,  and  various  restrictions 
are  put  upon  them  by  the  home  secretary.  On  July  ii^  1898, 
the  home  secretaty  was  asked,  in  the  House  of  Commons,  what 
were  the  conditldns  and  regulations  attached  by  the  Homp  Office 
to  licences  and  certificates;  and  he  answered— 

"  The  conditions  are  not  always  the  same,  bee  may  vary  acooftfag 
to  the  natnre  of  the  investigation.  It  t»  hardly  powible.  therefore, 
for  me  to  ftate  alt  the  conditions  attached  to  licences  and  certificates. 
The  most  important  conditions,  however  (besides  the  limiutfons  as 
to  place,  time  and  number  of  experiments),  and  the  conditions 
most  fraqueaUy  imposed,  are  those  as  to  reporting  and  the  use  of 
antiseptics.  The  latter  condition  b  that  the  ammals  are  to  be 
treated  with  stria  antiseptic  precautions,  and  if  these  fail  and  pain 
results,  they  are  to  be  killed  immediatdy  uoder  anaestlietics.  The 
reporting  conditions  are.  in  brief,  chat  a  written  record,  in  a  pre- 
scribed form,  is  to  be  icept  of  every  experiment,  and  is  to  be  open  for 
examination  by  the  inspector;  that  a  report  of  all  experiments  is  to 
be  forwarded  to  the  inspector;  and  that  any  published  account  of 
an  experiment  is  to  be  transmitted  to  the  secretary  ol  state.  Another, 
conditbn  requires  the  immediate  destruction  under  anaesthetics 
of  an  animal  m  which  severe  pain  has  been  induced,  after  the  maia 
result  of  the  experiment  has  been  gttaioed." 

The  home  secretary  attaches  to  licences  and  certificates  such 
endorsements  as  he  thinks  fit.  The  bare  text  of  the  act,  now 
thirty-four  years  old,  is  a  very  different  thing  from  theadministA- 
tion  of  the  act;  and  the  present  writer  is  m  a  position  to  say  that 
the  act  Is  administered  with  great  strictness,  under  a  carefnl 
system  of  inqubry  and  reference. 

The  certificates  are  distinguished  as  A,  B,  C,  E,  EE  and  F. 
Certificate  D,  which  permitted  the  testing,  by  experfments,  of 
**  former  discoveries  a&eged  to  have  been  made,"  has  fallen  hito 
disuse.  Certificate  C  permits  experiments  to  be  made  by  way 
of  illustration  of  lectures.  They  must  be  made  under  the 
provisions  contained  in  the  act  as  to  tli^  use  of  anaoMhetics. 
Certificates  E  and  E£  permit  experfirnents  on  dogs  <ff  cats; 
certificate  F  perodts  experiments  on  hoxtes,  asitt«r  ntatefL 


It  iaroMnd 
as  to  the  pain 


linksd  with  Cettiftatle  A  or  Certificate  B. 

two  'certificates,  A  and  B,  that  the  oontrovcny 

by 


Certificate  A  permits  experiments  to  be  made  without  anaesthesia. 
It  u  worded  as  follows:  "  Whereas  A.  B.  of  [here  insert  address 
amd  pr^eswmj  has  represented  to  as  (•.«.  two  authorities)  that  ht 
proposes,  if  cfuly  aothoriced  under  the  aboveHnentionea  act.  to 


perform  on  living  animals  certain  cxp^iments  described  bdow: 
we  hereby  certify  that,  in  our  opinion,  insensibility  in  the  ^oimal 
on  which  any  such  experiment  may  be  performed  cannot  be  pn^ 
dttced  by  aoaesthetics  without  necessarily  f rustratiag  ^  object  of 
such  experiment."  All  inoculations  Under  the  akin,  all  fecdiqg 
ejmeriments  and  the  like,  arc  scheduled  under  this  certificate. 
They  must  be  scheduled  somehow:  they  cannot  legally  be  made 
under  a  licence  alone.  Though  the  only  instrument  used  is  a 
hypodermic  needle,  yet  every  inoculation  is  (^cially  returned  aa 
an  experiment,  ouculated  to  give  pain,  performed  without  aa 
anaesthetic  It  is  for  inoculations  and  the  like  ejqxriments.  and 
for  them  alone,  and  for  nothing  else,  that  Certificate  A  is  allowed 
(or  A  linked  with  E  or  F).  This  want  of  a  special  certificate  for 
inoculations,  and  this  wresting  of  Certificate  A  for  the  purpose, 
have  led  to  an  erroneous  beucf  that  "cuttinx  operatiooa**  are 
permitted  b^  the  act  without  an  anaesthetic.  But,  as  the  home 
secretary  said  in  parliament,  in  March  1897,  "  Certificate  A  is  never 
alfowed  except  for  inoculations  and  similar  trivial  operations, 
and  In  every  case  a  condition  is  attached  to  prevent  unneceseary 
pain."  And  aeaia  he  wrote  in  1S9S,  "Such  special  certificates 
(dispensing  with  anaesthetics)  are  xranted  only  for  inoculatioaS| 
fcediag  and  similar  procedures  involving  no  cutting.  The  animal 
has  to  be  killed  under  anaesthetics  if  it  oe  in  pain,  eo  soon  aa  the 
result  of  the  experiment  is  ascertained/* 

Certificate  B  permits  the  keeping  alive  of  the  animal  after  the 
iaitial  opeiation  of  an  experiment.  It  is  worded  aa  foUovrss 
"  Whereas  A.  B.  of  {here  insert  address  and  pr^esstan]  has  repre* 
sentcd  to  us  (t.r.  two  authorities)  that  he  propofles,  If  duly  authorized 
under  the  above-mentioned  act,  to  perform  on  Kvinganunals  certain 
experiments  described  below,  Mich  animals  being,  during  the  whoie 
of  the  initial  ofiemtion  of  such  ekperiments,  unoer  the  influenoe  ef 
some  anaesthet|c  of  sufficient  power  to  prevent  their  feeling  pain: 
We  hereby  certify  that,  in  onr  opinion,  tiie  killing  of  the  animal  00 
which  any  such  experiment  is  performed  before  it  recovers  from  the 
influence  of  the  anaesthetic  administered  to  it  would  necessarily 
frustrate  the  object  of  such  experiment"  Certificate  B  (or  B  linked 
with  EE  or  F)  is  used  for  those  experiments  which  consist  in  an 
operation  plus  subsequent  observation  of  the  animal.  The  section 
01  a  nerve,  the  removal  of  a  secretory-  organ,  the  establishment  of 
a  fistula,  the  plastic  surgery  of  the  intestine,  the  sub-duml  method 
of  inoculation'-Hhese  and  the  like  experiments  are  asade  under 
this  certificatep  We  may  take,  to  illustrate  the  use  of  Certificate 
B,  Horsley's  observations  on  the  thyroid  gland.   The  removal  of  the 

J  land  was  the  initial  operation;  and  this  was  performed  under  an 
naesthetic  and  with  the  antiseptic  method.  Then  the  aniasal 
was  kept  under  obeervarioo*  The  experiment  is  neither  the  opec»- 
tion  alone  nor  the  observation  alone,  but  the  two  together.  The 
purpose  of  this  certificate  b  set  forth  in  the  inspectors  report  for 
190^.  **  In  the  experiments  performed  under  Certificate  B,  or 
B  Imked  with  EE,  1704  in  number,  the  initial  operations  are 
performed  under  anaesthetics  from  the  Influence  of  whkfa  the 
animals  are  allowed  to  recover.  The  operations  are  lequared  to 
be  performed  aotiseptkallv.  so  that  the  healing  of  the  wounds 
shall,  as  far  as  possible,  take  place  without  pain.  If  the  antiseptic 
precautions  fail,  and  suppuraoon  occurs,  the  animal  is  required  to 
be  killed.  It  is  genersUy  essential  for  the  wooesa  of  these  expcri- 
ments  that  the  wounds  should  heal  cleanly,  and  the  surrounidtog 
parts  remain  in  a  healthy  condition.  Alter  the  healing  of  the 
wounds  the  animals  are  not  necessarily,  or  even  generally,  m  pain, 
since  experiments  involving  the  removal  of  important  orgnna, 
including  portions  of  the  bmin,  may  be  performetl  without  giving 
rise  to  pain  after  the  recovery  from  the  operation;  and  after  the 
section  of  a  part  of  the  nervous  system,  the  resulting^  degenerative 
changes  are  painless.  In  the  event  of  a  subsequent  operation  being 
necessary  in  an  experiment  performed  under  Certificate  B,  or  B 
linked  with  EE,  a  condition  is  attached  to  the  licence  reouiring  aH 
operative  procedures  to  be  carried  out  under  anaesthetics  01  sufficient 
power  to  prevent  the  animal  feeling  pain;  and  no  observations  or 
stimulations  of  a  character  to  cause  pain  are  allowed  to  be  made 
without  the  animals  being  anaesthetised.  Ivt  no  case  has  a  cutting 
operatioo  more  severe  than  a  superficial  venesection  (the  opening 
of  a  vein  iust  under  the  akin)  been  idlowed  to  be  performed  without 
anaesthetics.'* 

From  this  brief  account  of  the  chief  provisions  of  the  act,  we 
tome  to  consider  the  general  method  of  experiments  on  animali 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  question  of  the  infliction  of  ptik 
on  thcns..  The  figines  for  a  nprescntative  yttct  may  be  given. 
The  total  number  of  Bcsnsees  In  1909,  in  England  end  Seetbad, 
was  483:  ef  wbom  m$$  pedonned  ao  expeifmentt  duflng  tte 


VF^ISBCTION 


tss 


less  than  in  1908.  They  were  made  as  foUowt  :^ 

Under  Licence  alooe  •      *      •      •  •  M^ 

„  CeftificateC  ..••'.  19* 

„  Certi&csteA  .      •      •      v  .^  Bt^fiA 

„■  CertificateeA+E  ;      .      ;  'i  59» 

'„  CcrtificatceA+F  .      .       J  ?  aM 

„  Certificated  .    '.            V  S  t.3S5 

„  Certificates  B-fEE      -*      ;  «  3>? 

„  Certificate  F  ....  *.'  1^ 

Tlie  expetimenU  perfonned  tn¥ier  Certificate  A  (oTA+l^f 
or  A+F)  were  mostly  kioculatioiia;  but  a  lew  were  feeding 
experiments,  or  the  admfnistratioB  of  yuioua  Mbstancea  by 
the  mouth  or  by  inhalation^  or  the  abstraction  of  blood  by 
puncture  or  by  simple  venesection.  Inoculatioos  ifdo  deep 
parts,  involving  a  preliminary  incision,  are  nquifed  to  bt  per* 
formed  under  anaothetica  (Certificate  B). 

"  It  wiU  be.«een."  says  the  report  ior  1909.  "  that  the  operative 
procedures  in  expcrimenu  performed  under  Certificate  A»  without 
anaesthetics,  are, only  such  as  are  attended  by  no  considerable, 
if  appreciable,  pain.  The  certificate  is,  in  fact,  not  required  to 
(Sovcr  ^«se  proceedings,  bat  to  alloir  of  theaobsequent  course  of  the 
dqwrimeat* 

The  animals  most  used  for  Inoculations  are  mice,  t;^,  gttlnea- 
pigs  and  rabbits.  It  is  not  once  in  a  thousand  times  that  a  dog 
or  a  cat  is  used  for  inoculation.  The  act  of  inoculation  is  not  in 
itself  painful.  A  small  area  of  the  skin  is  carefully  shaved  and 
deansed,  that  it  may  be  aseptic,  the  hypodermic  needle  is 
sterilized  and  the  method  of  hypodermic  injection  or  of  vaccina- 
tion is  the  same  as  it  b  in  medical  practice.  "A  guinea-pig 
that  will  rest  quietly  in  your  hands  before  you  commence  to 
inject  it,  will  remain  perfectly  quiet  during  the  introduction  of 
the  needle  under  the  skratt)  and  the  moment  it  is  returned  to  the 
cage  it  resumes  its  interrupted  feeding.  Arteries,  veins  and 
most  of  the  parts  of  the  viscera  are  without  the  sense  of  touch. 
We  have  actual  proof  of  this  in  what  takes  place  when  a  horse 
is  bled  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  curative  serum.  With  a 
sharp  lance  a  cut  may  be  made  in  the  skin  so  quickly  and  easily 
that  the  animal  does  nothing  more  than  twitch  the  skin-muscle 
of  the  neck,  or  give  his  head  a  shake,  while  of  the  further  pro- 
ceeding of  introducing  a  hollow  needle  into  the  vein,  the  animal 
takes  not  the  slightest  notice.  Some  horses,  indeed,  will  stand 
perfectly  quiet  during  the  whole  operation,  munching  a  carrot, 
nibbling  at  a  wisp  of  hay,  or  playing  with  a  button  on  the  vest 
of  the  groom  standing  at  its  head."  These  sentences,  written 
in  the  Medical  Afagaiine  (June  189S)  by  Dr  Sims  Woodhead, 
Professor  of  Pathology  ait  Cambridge,  are  sufficient  evidence  that 
inoculations  and  the  like  experiments  are  not  painful  at  the  time. 
In  a  few  instances  cultures  of  micro-organisms  have  been  made 
in  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye,  by  the  introduction  of  a 
needle  behind  the  cornea.  This  might  be  thought  painful,  but 
cocaine  renders  the  surface  of  the  eye  wholly  insensitive.  Many 
operations  of  ophthalmic  surgery  are  done  under  Cocaine  alone, 
and  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye  is  so  far  insensitive  that  a 
man  may  have  blood  or  pus  {hypopyon)  in  it,  and  hardly  be 
conscious  of  the  fact.  The  results  of  inoodation  are  in  some 
cases  negative,  in  others  positive;  the  positive  results  are,  In  the 
great  majority  of  cases,  not  a  local  change,  but  a  general  infection 
which  may  end  in  recovery,  or  in  death.  The  diseases  thus 
induced  may,  in  many  cases,  fairly  be  called  painless — such  are 
septicaemia  in  a  mouse,  snake-venom  in  a  rat,  and  malaria  in  a 
sparrow.  Rabbits  affected  with  rabies  do  not  suffer  in  the  same 
way  as  dogs  and  some  other  animals,  but  become  subject  to  a 
painless  kind  of  paralysis.  It  is  probable  that  animals  kept 
for  inoculation  have,  on  the  whole,  less  pain  than  falls  to  the  lot 
of  a  like  number  of  animals  in  a  state  df  nature  or  in  subjection 
to  work:  they  are  well  fed  and  sheltered,  and  escape  the  rapacity 
5f  larger  animals,  the  inevitable  cruelties  of  sport,  and  the 
drudgery  and  sexual  mutilation  that  man  inflicts  on  the  higher 
domestic  animals. 

The  present  writer  has,  9f  eowne,  seen  the  mice  that  are 
used  for  the  study  of  caAoer  (Imperial  Cancer  Reteaich  Pund)^ 
and  the  guinea-pigs  that  an  vied  at  the  Lister  institute  for  the 


TfWiBg  01  CM  iiffliwiMi  vamittHf^tyit  mc  wm  siK-wioaMi  oaanfByi 
tubercle.  He  did  not  see^  among  all  the  many  anfinab»  one  thi^ 
afpeaitd  t»  be  iuifeiihg:  save  that  a  very  £sw  of  the  mice  vtre 
inoommoded,  or,  if  the  word  be  applicafale  to  mios,  distnsicd, 
by  laige  tmnouis.  Of  the  gttinea-pigs  that  had  been  inoculated^ 
not  one  seemed  to  be  in  any  pain.  A  nodule  of  tuberde,  or  a 
tuberculous,  gland,  is  painless  in  us,  and  tlierefore  cannot  be 
painful  in  a  gaiaeapig.  It  is  ncft  denied  that  the  study  of  some 
diseases  (plague,  tetanus)  causes  some  pain  to  rats  and  rabbits; 
but  this  pain  is  hardly  to  be  compared  with  the  pain  and  horror 
of  these  diseases  in  man. 

We  come  now^  to  Certificate  B.  tf  H  were  lawful,  under 
Certificate  B,  to  make  an  incision  \mder  an  anaesthetic,  to  call 
this  the  "  initial  operation,"  and  then,  without  aa  anaesthetic; 
to  mfiJbs  painful  expeiiments»  through  the  incision,  on  the  deeper 
structiuefy  donbUess  much  pain  might  be  ipficifd  under  this 
certificate.  But  fiperimcnts  of  this  kind  can  be,  and  are,  madet 
under  the  licence  alone,  the  animal  being  kept  under  an 
anaesthetic  all  the  time,'anfl  killed  imder  it.  "  No  experiments 
requiring  anything  of  the  nature  of  a  surgical  operation,  or  that 
woiild  cause  the  infliction  <4  an  appiedable  amount  of  pain,  are 
allowed  to  be  performed  without  an  anaesthelic"  (Inspector's 
Report  for  1699).  "  These  certificates  (B)  are  granted  on  con- 
dition that  antiseptic  precautions  are  used;  and  if  these  fail, 
and  pain  continues  after  the  aaae^hetics  have  ceaaed  to  operate, 
the  animal  is  iminrdiately  killed  painlessly  "  (Letter  from  the 
Home  Secretary,  X89S). 

Of  experiments  made  under  this  certificate  (which  must  be 
linked  witk  Certificate  ££  for  uoy  teperiment  on  a  dog  or  a  cat), 
three  instances  nay  be  given  here:  an  operation  on  the  brain, 
a  removal  of  part  or  the  whole  of  a  secreting  gland,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  fistula.  It  is  to  be  noted  that,  for  these  and 
the  Hke  opeastions,  profound  anaesthesia  and  the  strict  obscry« 
ance  of  the  antiseptic  method  aie  matters  of  absolute  necessity 
for  the  success  of  the  experiooent:  the  operation  .could  not  be 
performed  without  anaesthesia;  and  the  experiment  would 
come  (o  nothing  if  the  wound  suppurated.  It  is  .to  be  noted, 
alsQ^  that  these  operations  are  such  as  axe  performed  in  surgery 
for  the  saving  of  life  or  for  the  relief  of  pain. 

As  to  operations  on  the  brain,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  surface  of  the  brain  is  sot  sensitive.  Therefore  the  removal 
or  dwtruction  of  apportion  of  the  surface  of  the  braiu)  or  the 
division  of  some  tract  of  central  nervous  tissue,  though  it  might 
entail  some  loss  of  power  or  of  control,  does  not  cause  pain: 
a  wound  of  the  brain  n  painless.  Tension  within  the  cranial 
cavity,  as  in  cases  of  cerebral  tumoor  or  cerebral  abscess,  may 
indeed  cause  great  pain;  and,  if  the  aseptic  method  failed  in  an 
experiment,  inflammation  and  tension  would  ensue:  in  that  case 
the  animal  must  be  killed. 

The  removal  of  part  or  the  whole  of  a  secreting  gland  (e.g. 
the  thyroid,  the  spleen,  the  kidney)  is  performed  by  the  same 
methods^  and  with  the  same  precautions,  as  in  human  surgery. 
Profound  anaesthesia,  and  the  use  of  a  strict  antiseptic  pro- 
cedure, are  of  absolute  necessity.  The  skin  over  the  part  to  be 
removed  must  be  shaved  and  carefully  cleansed  for  the  operas 
tion;  the  instruments,  sponges  and  ligatures  must  be  sterile,  not 
capable  of  infecting  the  wound;  and  when  the  operation  is  ovcs, 
the  wound  must  be  carefully  dosed  with  sutures^  and  left  to  heal 
under  a  pr<^>er  surgical  dressing 

The  establishment  of  a  fistula,  again,  is  an  operation  practise^ 
as  9,  matter  of  course,  in  large  ntunbtfs  of  surgical  cases«  Th^ 
stomach,  the  gall-bladder,  the.large  intestine,  are  opened  for  the 
relief  of  obstruction,  and  kept  opes,  either  for  a  time  or  perr 
manentiy,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case.  Under  anae^ 
thesia,  the  organ  that  is  to  be  opened  is  exposed  through  an 
incision  made  throu^^  the  structures  ov^lying  it,  and  is  secured 
in  the  wound  by  means  oi  fine  sutures.  Then,  when  it  has 
become  adherent  there,  it  b  opened  by  an  incision  made  hilo  it; 
no  anaesthetic  h  needed  for  this  purpose,  because  these  internal 
organs  are  so  unlike  the  skin  in  sensitiveness  that  an  incision 
is  hardly  felt:  the  patient  may  say  that  he  ^*  folt  a  prick,"  or  he 
may  be  wholly  usconsdovs  that  anything  has  been  done.    A 


VIVffiBCnON- 


■thinic  (ad  vkonu:  i 

hakbT  ud  Mtlve  people.    1 __ 

UDUHulI/  plelhane  (Dd  robuit.  (hougb  aWMinly  nibiecis)  id 


■lloviiH  to  bt  uLtrodiiced  or  taken  out  i 
kind*  ol  ioai,  drinki,  dutk:  catlwten,  tt 

inia,  chyiM.  Ae.,  ttoMB  dilly.  r-' 

ban  (bii  nua'i  coadUioa  ud  dt 


-me  different 

drctmutaBcei  for  icwiil  yew  put; 

-. ~,-,- *  perfect  healUi  ■«!  conMiliuwiul 

aouDdiieiB.«itkcveryfdiictkiDaf  theiyitaninfidlfanceEHj  vifcfur^' 
(Bwinaal,  acpv^HMi  tad  OtnnaMw  en  U>  OhMc  Jute,  1B38}. 

We  carae  now  to  ilie  queitlOB,  Wh>t  uaesthetlta  an  Died  in 
Skm  eipenDKBti,  md  ui  they  ptopnl)'  adniniatcied  ?  Tlw 
uuesthMics  loed  are— {1)  ehkrotonn,  «hei,  or  *  murture 
conUininK  chloccioim  ud  etlier-,  (>)  motphSi,  cUotal,  ote- 
tbane.  It  li  lometlniei  •^d  tbit  morpbU  is  not  an  uuestbetic. 
Tbat  depend!  on  the  quintlty  given.  Not  a  moniii  puMi  in 
tUs  country  without  loinebody  killing  himself  or  hetsdf  irilh 
mon^ih  or  chlonL  Tliey  dte  pfofoundly  AJiaeithetiied:  they 
oonot  be  roused;  even  tlte  pain  of  a  ttnng  electric  shock  is  no! 
coough  to  ronse  them.  So  ft  is  with  sjUoials.  The  doses  given 
to  them  are  eootmotu  and  pioduce  tomplete  inaensilBlity.  On 
this  point  the  evidence  given  before  the  Royal  Commission  of 
1906-8  by  Mr  Thane,  Professor  SchUer,  Sir  Lauder  Brunton,  Sii 
Henry  Honis,  Professor  Diion,  Dt  Dudley  Buiton  and  Frofeasor 
Stiriing  is  abaolutely  condusvc.  "  As  to  the  ttateraents," 
says  Sir  Lauder  Brunton,  "  that  dilonJ  and  opium  or  morphia 
are  not  narcotiCB,  and  do  not  remove  pain,  thetv  is  no  other  word 
(or  It,  it  is  simply  »  lie;  you  may  aa  wdl  aay  that  ddorofara 
doea  not  remove  pain.  If  you  give  any  animal  a  auffidently 
large  dose  of  chloral  or  ofrium,  you  so  completely  abolish  sensi- 
blUty  that  there  is  nothing  you  can  do  that  will  iwaketi  its 
sensihility.   The  animal  is  as  senseless  as  a  pnoco  oi  board-" 

With  regard  to  chloroform,  ethet  Hid  tbe  A.C.E.  mix- 
ture (alcohol,  chloroform  and  ether)  It  ii  absolntely  certain 
that  animats  can  be  kept,  with  these  aoaesthetia,  profoundly 
unccudoas  lot  three  or  four  or  more  boun.  Notbing  on 
this  point  1>  more  worthy  ol  considenttkNi  thin  the  evidence 
hi  Teteriaary  surgery,  ^ven  before  the  Royal  ComnUssion 
by  Mi  Hobday,  one  ol  the  very  totemOst  velerbisry  MigcoRs 
In  this  cotmtry  <_Rtpirrlt  ef  Enjttice,  voL  iv.  Q.  ttiS^-tfijij). 
Tbe  opponenti  of  aU  ciperimentB  on  uiimilt  are  apt  to  beticve 
that  (k^  and  cats  must  be  bound  and  fattened  on  boards,  and 
then  have  the  anaesthetic  given  to  them.  That  is  not  the  case. 
They  con  take  the  anaestbelic  Erst,  and  tlicn  be  put  in  position; 
just  as  ire,  Inr  many  of  the  operalioiis  of  surgery,  are  bound  in 
portion.  And,  of  course,  dogi  and  cats  caimot  lie  on  their  backi 
aa  we  en.  "  The  nsual  thing  we  do,"  said  Professoi  Starling, 
In  his  evidence  before  the  Royal  Commistion,  "  is  to  give  the 
animal,  half  an  hour  before  the  eiperiment,  a  bypcxlennic 
Injection  of  morphia,  of  about  a  qnaner  of  a  gruin — from  a 
quarter  to  s  third.  The  effect  of  that  is,  that  the  dog  becomes 
^cepy  tod  (tupid,  and  then  sometimn  it  wfll  h'e  down  quietly, 
and  U  it  b  very  sleepy  yon  can  put  ■  mask  over  Its  note  con- 
laiiUng  the  chlorofonn.  alcoboj  and  ether  mliture,  which  It 
lakes  quite  quietly.  If,  at  the  time  one  wants  to  begin  the 
operation,  the  tiurnal  b  not  fully  under  the  fnfloence  of  morpfaii 
— il  it  stUl  seems  reatlesa— It  la  put  in  a  boi,  and  there  it  has 
some  wool  saturated  wHh  the  A.C.E.  mirture  put  In  the  l>oi. 
The  air  gradually  gets  sstorated,  the  dog  gels  mote  and  more 
tktpy,  and  hnaUy  sub^dcs  at  tbe  bottom  of  the  box.' 


A  few 


na' 


■oi-ds  must  bt  laid  here  about  cu 


daily  II 


wsbout  Eoglaad." 


ft  or  kind  ot  Dp&atiOE 

DUW  be  given,  and  is  given.     In  large  dMn  trunie  r 
ibdtihea  the  movetneM  al  the  voluntary  laiidei.  but  i 


but  BHce  profound.  (See  the  evidence  Jim  befon  the  Royal 
omMon  by  Frolewir  Langiey  and  l>ro(eBsiir  WaUet.) 
It  may  be  inteiestiiig  to  coDipaie  the  pain,  01  death,  or  dis- 
comfort among  8(,i;7  anitoals  used  for  eipcrimeots  in  (kcat 
Britain  la  iing,  with  tbe  pain,  ot  death,  or  disramlort  ol  an 
equal  number  ol  the  same  kinds  ol  animals,  either  In  a  state 
□I  nature,  or  kept  foi  sport,  or  used  fur  the  service  ol  human 
profit  ot  amusement.  But  it  would  be  outude  the  purpose  ol 
tbb  article  to  describe  the  ctuellies  wluch  are  inseparable 
from  sport,  and  from  tlie  kHUjig  of  animals  for  [ood,  tnd  from 
fasMoni  neiiher  Is  this  tbe  place  to  describe  ibe  miltions  ot 
mutilations  nbicb  are  practised  on  domestic  aidmals  by  larmen 
and  breeders.  As  ow  of  the  Royal  Commissioners  recently  said, 
the  fannyaids,  al  ceitain  times  ot  the  year,  simply  "  seethe 
witb  vivisection."  The  number  ol  animals  wounded  in  sport, 
or  In  ttt^is,  cannot  be  guessed.  Against  this  vast  amount  of 
suffering  we  have  to  put  on  estimate  of  the  condition  of  SS,S77 
animals  used  for  medical  scienu.  Ninety-five  per  cent,  of  them 
were  used  lor  inoculation.  Id  many  of  tliese  inoculations  the 
result  was  negative:  the  animal  did  not  take  any  disease, 
and  thue  did  not  suffer  any  pain.  In  many  more,  r.g.  cancet 
in  mice,  tubercle  in  guinea-pigs,  the  pain  ot  discomfort,  il  any, 
may  fairly  be  called  trivial  ot  Inconsiderable.  It  could  hardly 
be  said  that  these  small  animals  sulfet  much  more  than  an 
equal  number  of  the  same  kind  of.  animals  kept  in  little  cages 
to  amuse  chUdrcn.  There  remain  siSS  animals  which  were 
eubmiited  to  toleration  under  an  anaesthetic.  In  the  greater 
number  of  these  cases  the  animal  was  killed  thai  and  thne 
under  the  anaesthetic,  without  recovering  consciousness.  In 
the  remaining  cases  the  animal  was  allowed  to  recover,  and 
to  be  kept  for  observation;  but  no  further  otservation  tri  any 
kind,  nblch  could  cause  pain,  was  allowed  to  be  made  ou  it; 
unlesa  it  were  again  placed  under  an  anieslhetic.    Many  ol 


irly  be  c 


lefon 


n-  of  don; 


life  I 


proportion  of  the  total  number  of  cxperim 
the  United  Kingdom;  and  they  have  led, 
discoveries  of  Ihe  very  utmost  importarite 
health, 
n.  SflEMTTTtc   Resni.TS.— We   come  now   to  considi 


not  we  alune,  hut  aidmal*  also,  owe  a 
epiiootic  diseases  like  anthrax,  in 
silkworm    disease,    pleuro-pneumon 

fever,  blackleg,  tuberculosis  in  cattle,  have  killed  yearly  millioni 
of  animals,  and  have  been  brought  under  f>eLter  control  by 
these  experiments.  The  advantages  that  have  been  obtained 
for  man  may  be  arranged  under  two  heads — (A)  Phystologj, 
(B)  Pathology,  Bacteriology  and  Therapeutics. 


coafund  the  doenine  of  Emit- 
tba(Uh,praviic 


VIYISECnON 


«57 


by  CTparimfWt.  tint,  they  cnotain  UkkL  "OuneKo,  hsviiig 
■Qed  tne  exposed  arteries  above  and  baow,  openied  then,  and 
•bowed  that  they  were  indeed  full  of  blood."  Kealdua  Columbua 
0559)>  tboush  ne  did  not  discover  the  general  or  "  systematic  " 
circulation  m  the  blood,  yet  seems  to  have  discovered,  by  experi- 
ment, the  pulmonary  circulatioti.  "  The  blood  is  carried  through 
the  pulmonary  artery  to  the  lung,  and  there  is  attenuated;  thence, 
mixed  with  air,  it  is  carried  through  the  pulmonary  vein  to  the 
left  side  of  the  heart.  Which  thing  no  man  hitherto  has  noted  or 
left  00  record,  though  it  is  roost  worthy  of  the  observance  of  all 
men. . . .  And  this  is  as  true  as  truth  itself;  for  if  jyou  will  look 
not  only  in  the  dead  body  but  also  in  the  living  ammal,  you  will 
always  find  this  pulmonary  vein  full  of  blood,  which  assuredly  it 
would  not  be  if  It  were  designed  only  for  air  and  vapours. . . . 
Verily  I  pray  you,  O  candid  reader,  studious  of  authority,  but  more 
studious  of  truth,  to  make  experiment  on  animals.  You  will  find 
the  pulmonary  vein  full  of  blood,  not  air  or  fuligo,  as  these  men  call 
it,  God  help  tnem."  Harvey's  treatise  D$  Motu  CorHs  et  Sanguims 
M  Animaiunts  was  published  at  Frankfort  ip  1631.  It  begins  thus: 
'*  When  by  many  dissections  of  living  animals,  as  they  came  to 
hand. — Ctan  mtiuis  vivorum  disstctiomwits,  uU  ad  manum  4a6ttii|ir, 
— I  first  gave  myself  to  observing  how  I  might  discover,  with  my 
own  eyes,  and  not  from  books  and  the  writings  of  other  men.  thie 
use  and  purpose  of  the  movement  of  the  heart  in  animals,  forthwith 
I  found  the  matter  hard  indeed  and  full  of  difficulty;  so  that  I 
began  to  think,  with  Frascatorius,  that  the  movement  <>f  the  heart 
was  known  to  Cod  alone. ...  At  last,  having  daily  used  greater 
disquisition  and  diligence,  by  frequent  examination  of  many  and 
various  living  animals — mtuta  JremtaUtr  et  vana  antmalia  viva 
introipicicnd^X  came  to  believe  tnat  I  bad  succeeded,  and  had 
escaped  and  got  out  of  this  labyrinth,  and  therewith  had  dis- 
covered what  1  desired,  the  movement  and  use  of  tho^teart  and  the 
arteries.    And  from  that  time,  not  only  to  my  friends  but  ^so  in 

rublic  in  my  anatomical  lectures,  after  the  manner  of  the  Academy, 
did  not  fear  to  set  forth  my  opinion  in  this  matter."  Here,  and 
asain  at  the  end  of  the  Preface,  and  again  in  the  eigbth  chapter 
of  the  De  iiotu,  be  puts  his  experiments  in  the  very  ioiegroond 
gf  the  aigumenL  Take  the  headings  of  his  first  four  chainers: 
I.  Causae^  quibus  ad  acribendum  atictor  permalus  fturiL  a.  Ex 
momm  dussecUamt^  qualis  /Si  c^dis  wialus.  3.  Arttrtarum  matus 
fuaUst  €x  MsoruM  disseciumo,  ^  Motus  cordis  «t  auncularum 
qjtudis,  $x  vioonun  disstUione.  He  had,  of  course,  help  from  ether 
■ources— from  anatomy  aiKl  from  physics:  but  it  i»  certain,  from 
his  own  words,  that  he  attributed  his  discoverr,  in  a  very  great 
measure,  to  experiments  on  animals.  Malpighi  (1661),  professor  of 
medicine  at  Bologna,  by  examining  with  a  micmscope  tne  lung  and 
the  mesentery  of  the  live  frog,  made  out  the  capillary  veswis.  He 
writes  to  Borelli,  professor  of  mathematics  at  Pisa,  that  he  has 
failed  in  every  attempt  to  discover  them  by  injecting  fiuids  into 
the  larger  vessels,  but  has  succeeded  by  examining  the  tissues  with 
the  microscope:  "  Such  is  the  divarication  of  tJiese  little  vessels 
coming  off  from  the  vein  and  the  artery,  that  the  order  in  which  a 
vessd  ramifies  is  no  longer  preserved,  nit  it  looks  like  a  network 
Koven  from  the  offshoots  of  both  vesseb  "  {De  Pulmombus,  t66i). 
Stephen  Hales  (1733).  rector  of  Farringdon  and  minister  of  Tedding- 
ton,  and  a  Fellow  of •  the  Royal  Society,  made  the  first  exact  esti* 
mates  of  the  blood  pressure,  the  real  force  of  the  blood,  by  inserting 
one  end  of  a  >^ertical  glass  tube  into  the  crural  artery  of  a  mare, 
and  noting  the  rise  of  the  Uood  in  the  tube  (5<a/zca/  Essays,  con- 
tasking  HaeMosUUickSt  Ste.,  1733)'  John  Hunter,  bom  1738.  made 
aiany  observations  on  the  nature  and  processes  of  the  blood :  and. 


above  all,  he  discovered  the  facts  of  collateral  drculatwn.  These 
facta  were  fresh  in  his  mind  when  he  first  'itontured,  in  December 
1785.  to  tie  the  femood  artery  in  "  Hunter's  canal  "  for  the  cure 
01  aneurism  in  the  popliteal  space.  The  experiment  that  gave 
him  bis  kaowledee  of  the  collateral  circulation  was  made  on  one  of 
the  deer  in  Racnroond  Park:  he  tied  its  external  carotid  artery, 
to  see  what  effect  would  be  produced  en  the  shedding  of  the  antler. 
Some  days  later  he  found  that  the  circulation  bad  returned  in 
the  antler.  He  had  the  buck  Idlkxl,  and  found  that  the  artery 
had  been  completely  closed  by  the  Kgature,  but  the  small  branches 
coming  from  it,  between  the  heart  and  the  ligature,  were  enlarged 
and  were  in  communication  with  others  of  its  branches  beyond 
the  I«ature:  and  by  this  collateral  circulation  the  flow  of  bkx>d 
to  the  ailtler  bad  been  restored.  Among  later  observations  on 
the  circulation  must  be  mentioned  the  use  of  the  mercurial  mano^ 
meter  by  Poiseoitte  (i8a8)  and  Lodwfg  (r^9).  the  study  of  the 
blood  pressure  within  the  heart  by  Hering  (1849)  and  the  per- 
manent treeing  of  the  pressure  curves  by  Chauveau  and  Marey 
(1863).  Finally  caana  the  study  of  those  more  abstruse  problems 
of  the  cifculatioo  that  the  older  physiologists  had  left  alone^the 
inffnenoee  of  the  centtal  nervous  systeira,  the  relations  between 
bkiod  pressnreand  seoetlon,  the  automatism  of  the  heart-beat,  and 
the  inffmnce  el  gravitation.  Professor  Starting,  in  1906.  writes 
aa  foUowa  vi  tfaia  part  of  physiology:  "  Atnonf  the  researches  of 
the  last  thirty  yeata,  those  bearing  on  the  cirruntlon  of  the  blood 
must  take  an  important  pbce,  both  for  their  physiological  interest 
and  for  the  ireignty  iiiflueiio  they  have  exerted  on  our  knowledge 
and  tawtmenr  of  dieorden  of  the  veaeular  system;  sikrh  as  heart 


,         We  fcave  lie«id  *» 

by  the  great  beartrpump;  and  by  studying  the  maaaer  in  wbicb 
this  work  is  affectco  by  different  oonditioas,  we  a«e  enabled  to  in- 
crease or  diimniib  it,  according  to  the  needs  of  the  oagan.  E> 
periments  in  what  ia  often  regarded  a^  the  most  tfaasoaadeotB] 
department  of  physiology- ■  -m;  that  wbieb  treata  of  mnacla  and 
nerve- -have  thrown  light  on  the  wondeiful  piocess  of  *  oom- 
pensatioa '  by  whsch  a  diseased  heart  ia  aUe  to  keep  op  a  aonnal 
circulation  '*  And  X>r  James  Mackende.  writing  in  1910  of  certain 
irregularities  of  the  cireulation  during  pregnancy  (venoos  poise  in 
the  neck  and  irregular  beat  of  the  bout),  says,  very  emphatically, 
that  these  oondittoas  in  patients  have  been  interpreted  by  ex- 
periments on  animals.  "  The  outcome  of  these  rescaivbea  IWaxkb- 
bach's  clinical  studied,  aa  well  aa  those  of  a  great  number  of  other 
observers,  has  been  to  elucidate  the  nature  aind  meaning  of  a  great 
number  of  abnormal  conditions  of  the  heart.  It  might  be  said 
with  truth  that,  whereas  a  few  years  ago  irregular  action  of  the 
heart  was  one  of  the  meet  obscure  eympuims  in  dinical  medicine, 
it  is  now  one  of  the  best  undentood.  It  is  needless  to  nneat  that 
this  advance  would  have  been  absolutely  impossible  without  the 
knowledge  gained  by  experiment  '*  (Research  Defence  Society,  May 
1910). 

a.  Tfu  LactenJf.^-AseUius  (1623)  by  a  single  experiment  demeM- 
atreted  the  flow  of  chyle  akmg  the  lacteals.  The  existence  ol 
these  minute  vessels  had  been  known  even  to  Galen  and  Erastis- 
trattis,  but  they  bad  made  nothing  of  their  knowledge.  AselKus 
says;  "I  observed  that  the  nerves  of  the  intestines  were  quite 
distinct  from  these  white  threads,  and  ren  a  different  course. 
Struck  with  this  new  fact,  I  was  silent  for  a  time,  thinking  of  the 
bitter  warfare  of  words  among  anatomista  as  to  the  mesenteric 
veins  and  their  purposes.  Whco  I  came  to  myself,  to  satisfy  my- 
sdf  by  an  experiment.  1  pierced  one  of  the  fargeet  cords  with  a 
scalpel.  I  hit  the  right  pcnnt.  and  at  onoe  observed  a  white  Kquid 
like  milk  flowing  from  the  divided  vessel."  Jehan  Pecquet  (16^7), 
in  the  coune  <n  an  experiment  on  the  heart,  observed  the  flow 
of  chyle  into  the  siAdavian  vein,  and  its  identity  with  the  chyle 
in  the  lacteals;  and  by  further  experiment  found  the  thoracic 
duct,  and  the  chyle  flowing  up  it:  "1  perceived  a  white  sub- 
stance, like  milk,  flowing  from  the  vena  cava  ascendens  into  the 
rricardium,  at  the  place  where  the  right  auricle  had  been 
found  these  vessels  (the  thoracic  duct)  all  along  the  dorsal  ver- 
tebrae, lying  on  the  spine,  beneath  the  aorta.  They  swelled  beliyw 
a  lijsature;  and  when  1  relaxed  it,  I  saw  the  milk  carried  to  the 
orifices  that  1  had  obs^ved  in  the  subclavian  vein."  The  existence 
of  this  duet,  which  is  empty  and  collapsed  after  death,  had  beeh 
overlook«l  by  Vcsalius  and  all  the  great  anatomists  of  his  time. 

3.  Th€  Gastric  Juice.— Our  knowledge  about  digestion  dates 
back  to  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  when  Valisnieri  first  ob« 
served  that  the  stomach  of  a  dead  animal  contained  a  fluid  which 
acted  on  certain  bodies  immersed  in  it — ^'  a  ]dnd  of  afua  foftis.** 
In  175s  Rfaumur  began  his  observations  on  this  fluid,  making 
birds  swallow  flne  fenestrated  tubes  containing  grain  or  meat,  tn 
spooMs  with  threads  atuched;  and  observed  that  digestion  con- 
sists m  the  dissolution  of  food,  not  in  any  sort  of  mechanical  action 
or  trituration.  His  observations  were  extended  and  perfected  by 
Spallanaani  (1777).  Then  came  a  period  of  uncertainty,  with- 
out further  advance;  until  in  1823  the  French  Academy  offered 
a  prise  for  the  beat  work  on  the  subject,  and  Tiedemann  and 
Gmetin  submitted  their  observatkms  to  them:  "The  work  df 
Tiedemann  and  GmeKn  is  of  especial  interest  to  as  on  accourft 
of  the  great  number  <yf  their  experiments,  from  which  came  not 
only  the  absolute  proof  of  the  emstence  of  the  gastric  juice,  birt 
also  the  study  of  tne  transformation  of  starcb  into  glucose.  Then 
the  theory  of  digestion  entered  a  new  phase:  it  was  finally  recog- 
rtlced,  at  least  for  certain  substances,  tnat  digestion  is  not  sinaply 
dissolution,  but  a  true  chemical  transformation  "  (Claude  Bernard, 
PhysioioM  ophat^r9^  1879).  Beaumont's  experiments  on  Alexis 
St  Martin  {nde  snpra)  were  published  In  1838.  They  were,  of 
course,  based  on  the  work  of  the  f^ysiologists:  "  I  make  no  claim 
to  originality  in  my  opinions  as  respects  the  existence  and  opera- 
tion of  the  gastric  juice.  My  experiments  confirm  the  doctrines 
(with  some  modifications)  taught  t>y  Spallanzani  and  many  of  the 
most  enlightened  nliysiological  writers'*  (3caumont*s  preface  to 
his  book).  Eberle,  in  1834,  showed  how  thttf  knowledge  of  the 
rastric  juice  might  be  turned  to  a  practical  tne,  by  extracting  Jt 
from  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomachs  of  anim<ils  after  deatb: 
hence  came  the  invention  of  the  various  preparations  of  pepsin. 
Later.  Blondlot  of  Nancy,  in  1842.  studied  tne  gastric  juice  by  the 
method  of  a  fistula,  like  that  of  St  Martin.  More  recent  observa- 
tions have  been  made  on  the  movements  of  the  stomach  during 
digestion,  and  on  the  influences  of  the  nervous  system  on  the  prorc?^. 

The  stomach  is,  of  course  not  the  only  organ  of  digestion:  the 
Kver.  the  pancreas  and  the  intesHnal  giknds.  all  are  concerned. 
The  recent  work  of  Pawlow  and  of  Starling  has  greatly  advanced 
our  knowledge  of  the  actions  of  the  secretions  from  these-  orean^. 
The  whole  chain  of  processes,  nervous  and  chemical,  psychical  and 
physical,  from  the  taking  of  food  into  the  mouth  to  the  expuUion 
of  the  waste  residue,  is  now  viewed  In  its  entirety:  and  espe<*lal 
stady  has  been  given  to  the  influences,  nervous  or  chemical,  whkb 


IS8 


VIVISECTION 


tn  eufdied',  m  It  «cn,  on  t  pafticultr  tract  of  the  digeitive 
systein,  at  tbe  bidding  of  another  tract.  Pawtow.  recof^nizing  th« 
importance  of  keeping  the  animals  under  the  moit  normal  condi- 
tions that  were  possible,  and  of  studying  the  different  tracts  of  the 
digestive  system  in  animab  not  anaesthetized,  yet  free  from  pain 
or  dtstrass,  made  use  of  fistulae  established  at  different  ^ints  of 
the  digestive  caaal,  and  was  able  to  study  the  digestive  juices  at 
different  stages  during  digestion,  without  causing  pain  to  the 
animals.  The  work  of  Piawlow  has  been  further  developed  by 
Profesaor  Starling's  recent  work  on  the  chemical  substances  produced 
in  the  body,  dunng  the  act  of  digestion,  to  promote  digMtion. 

4.  C/jw^gm.— Cuude  BcmarcTs  work  on  the  assimilation  and 
d^niction  oi  sugar  in  the  bodv  was  begun  in  »84A.  His  discovery 
of  the  glycogenic  action  of  the  liver  was  made  by  keeping  two  dogs 
on  diffevent  diets,  one  with  sugar,  the  other  without  it,  tnen  killing 
them  during  digestion,  and  testing  tbe  bk>od  in  the  veins  coming 
from  the  liver:  "  What  was  my  surprise  when  I  found  a  considerable 

Siuantity  of  supr  in  the  hepatic  veins  of  the  dog  that  had  been 
ed  OB  neat  omy,  and  had  been  kept  for  eight  days  without  sugar ! 
Finally,  afto-  many  attempts— of^  beaucomp  d'estats  tt 

fusiettn  Ulusunu  que  jg  fus  oUtti  de  waAifi/er  par  d*s  Mtomuments-- 
succeeded  in  showing,  that  in  dogs  fed  on  meat  the  blood  passing 
through  the  portal  vein  (from  tbe  stomach)  does  not  contain  sugar 
before  it  reaches  the  liver;  but  when  it  leaves  the  liver  and  comes 
by  the  hepatic  veins  into  the  inferior  vena  cava,  this  same  blood 
contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  a  sugary  sabstance  (gluoose)  " 
(Nmtotlk/omcliondmfeut  Paris,  i8s3)< 

5.  The  Pamreas. — The  17th  century  was  a  time  of  v^ry  fanei* 
ful  theories  about  the  pancreas  (Linctomis.  Wharton.  BartholiniK 
which  ne«l  not  be  recalled  here.  But  Sylvius  (Francois  de  ikns) 
had  the  .wisdom  to  see  that  the  pancreas  must  be  estimated,  not 
according  to  its  position,  but  according  to  its  structure,  as  of  the 
nature  of  the  sauivary  glands.  He  uraed  has  pupil,  Regnier  de 
Graaf.  to  study  it  by  experiment,  and  de  Craaf  says:  "  1  put  my 
hand  to  the  work;  and  though  many 'times  I  despaired  of  success, 
yet  at  last,  by  the  blessing  of  Cod  on  m)r  work  and  prayers,  in  the 

Bsar  1662  I  discovered  a  way  of  collecting  the  pancreatic  juice  " 
V  the  method  of  a  6stula  he  collected  and  studied  the  secretion 
01  the  pancreas;  and  by  further  experiment  he  refuted  Bartholin! 's 
theory  that  the  pancreas  was  a  sort  of  appanage  or  "  bilianr  vesicle  " 
cl  the  spleen.  But  he  got  no  help  from  the  chemistry  of  his  time; 
he  coula  no  more  discover  the  amytoiytic  action  of  tne  pancreatic 
secretion  than  Galvani  could  discover  wireless  telegraphy.  Still, 
he  did  Kood  work;  and  Claude  Bernard.  180  vears  later,  went  back 
to  de  Craaf's  method  of  the  fistula.  His  observaiionsk  begun  in 
18^6,  received  a  prise  from  the  French  Academy  in  18^0.  Sir 
Michael  Faster  ttvs  of  them:  "  Valentin,  it  is  true,  had  m  i8<i4 
not  only  inferred  that  thi  pancreatic  juice  had  an  action  on  starch, 
but  confirmed  his  view  by  actual  experiment  with  the  juice  expressed 
from  the  gland;  and  Eberle  had  suggested  that  the  juice  had  some 
action  on  fat:  bat  Bernard  at  one  stroke  made  clear  its  threefold 
action.  He  showed  that  it  on  the  one  hand  emulsified,  and  on  the 
other  hand  split  up  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerine,  the  neutral  fats; 
he  clearly  proved  that  it  had  a  powerful  action  on  starch,  converting 
it  into  sugar:  and  lastly,  he  laid  bare  its  remarkable  action  on 
proleid  matters."  At  a  later  date  it  was  discovered  that  the 
pancreas,  beside  its  work  in  digestion,  has  an  "  internal  Mcretk>n  " : 
that  it.  like  the  thyroid  gland  and  the  suprarenal  capsules,  helps 
to  keep  the  balance  of  the  general  chemietry  of  the  whole  body. 
Profeswr  SchAfer.  writing  m  1894,  savs  on  thu  subject:  "  It 
was  discovered  a  few  years  |igo  by  von  Mering  and  Minkowski  that 
if,  instead  of  merely  diverting  its  secretion,  the  pancreas  is  bodily 
removed,  the  metabolic  processes  of  the  oiganism,  and  especially 
the  metabolism  of  carbo-hydrates,  are  entirely  deranged,  the  result 
being  the  production  of  pci'nianent  diabetes.  But  if  even  a  very 
small  part  of  the  gland  is  left  within  the  body,  the  carbo*hytlrate 
metabolism  remains  unaltered,  and  there  is  no  diabetes.  The 
small  portion  of  the  organ  which  has  been  allowed  to  remain  (and 
which  need  not  even  be  left  in  its  proper  pUce,  but  may  be  trans* 
planted  under  the  skin  or  elsewhere)  is  sufficient,  by  the  exchanges 
which  go  on  between  it  and  the  blood  generally,  to  prevent  those 
serious  oonsetiuences  to  the  composition  of  toe  blood,  and  the 
general  constitution  of  the  body,  which  result  from  the  complete 
removal  of  this  organ."  This  fact,  that  complete  removal  01  the 
pancreas,  in  a  cat  or  a  dog,  may  cause  fatal  diabetes,  is  of  import- 
ance, because  the  pancreas  in  some  cases  of  diabetes  in  man  is 
diseased:  but,  at  present,  experiments  on  animals  have  not  led  to 
any  certain  or  specific  cure  of  diabetes  in  man. 
■  6.  The  Gmw  of  Bone. — l*he  experiments  made  by  du  Hamel 
O759-1843)  on  the  growth  of  bone  by  deposit  from  the  periosteum 
(the  thin  membrane  enshcathing  each  bone)  rose  out  01  Belchier's 
observation  (1735)  that  the  bones  take  up  the  stain  of  madder 
mixed  with  the  food.  Du  Hamel  studied  the  whole  subject  very 
carefully,  and  discovered  this  bone<producing  |>ower  of  the  peri- 
osteum, which  is  an  important  fact  in  all  operations  on  the  bones. 
As  he  puts  it.  in  the  title  of  one  of  his  own  memoirs  bes  os  croisunt 
en  frosseur  par  Faddition  de  couches  osseuses  qui  tireni  leur  origine 
du  piriotU^  comme  le  corps  Itgneux  des  Arbres  augmente  en  grosseur 
jPor  faddititm  de  couches  Ugneuus  qui  u  formenl  dan*  Ficoru*    By 


feeding  pigs  at  one  time  with  dyed  food,  at  anocber  with  tuidyed 
food,  he  obtained  their  bones  in  concentric  layers  alternately  etaioMl 
and  unstained.  His  facts  were  confirmed  oy  Bazan  (1746)  and 
Boehmer  (iT^i):  but  his  conclusions,  unfortunately.  wereoppa«ed 
by  Haller.  Still,  he  brought  men  to  study  the  whole  subject  of  the 
growth  of  bones,  in  lengdi  as  well  as  in  thickness,  and  the  whole 
modellinc  of  the  bones,  in  adult  life,  by  deposit  and  absoqxioiL 
Bkhat,  John  Hunter,  Troja  and  Cruveilbier  took  up  his  work  in 
physiology  and  in  surgery.  Later,  from  the  point  of  view  of  surgery, 
by  me  (1837)  and  Stanley  (18^9)  made  experiments  on  the  growxh 
of  bone,  and  on  the  exfoliation  of  dead  bone;  and,  after  them. 
Oilier,  whose  influence  on  this  part  of  surgical  practice  has  been  oi 
the  very  highest  value. 

7.  The  Nervous  System. — A.  The  Nerve-Roots. — ^Through  all  tbe 
centuries  between  Galen,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Commodus.  and 
Sir  Charles  Bell,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  George  III.,  no  great 
advance  was  made  in  our  knowledge  of  the  nervous  system.  The 
way  of  experiment,  which  had  led  Galen  far  ahead  of  nis  age.  wa* 
neglected,  and  everything  was  overwhelmed  by  theories.  Bell  in 
London  ajid  Magendie  in  Paris  took  up  the  experimental  study  of 
the  nervous  system  about  where  Galen  had  lelt  ft.  The  question 
of  priority  of  discovery  does  not  concern  us  here :  we  may  take  Sir 
Michael  Foster's  judgment,  that  Magendie  brought  exact  and  full 
proof  of  the  tnith  which  Bell  had  divined  rather  than  demonstrated, 
that  the  anterior  and  posterior  roots  of  spinal  nerves  have  essentially 
different  functions —  a  truth  which  is  the  venr  foundation  of  the 
physiology  of  the  nervous  system."  The  date  of  Bell^  work  is  1 8 1 1 , 
A  n  Idea  of  a  New  A  natomy  of  Ike  Brain,  submitted  for  like  Observatton 
pfthe  A  utkor's  Friends.  In  it  he  says :  "  Considering  that  the  spinal 
ner\'es  have  a  double  root,  and  betn^.of  opinion  that  the  propettica 
of  the  nerves  are  derived  from  their  connexions  with  the  parts  of 
the  brain.  I  thought  that  I  had  an  opportanity  of  putting  m)^  opinion 
to  the  test  of  experiment,  and  of  pttyvine  at  the  same  time  that 
nerves  of  different  endowments  were  in  the  same  cord  (the  same 
nerve-trunk)  and  behl  together  by  the  same  sheath.  On  laying 
bare  the  roots  of  the  spinal  nerves  1  found  that  I  could  cut  across 
the  posterior  fasciculus  of  nerves,  which  took  its  origin  from  tbe 
spinal  marrow,  without  convulsing  the  muscles  of  the  back;  but 
that  on  touching  the  anterior  fasciculus  with  the  point  of  the  knife, 
the  muscles  oi  the  back  were  immediately  convulsed.  Such  were 
my  reasons  for  concluding  that  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum  were 
parts  disrinct  in  function,  and  that  every  nerve  poaeearing  a  double 
function  obtained  that  by  having  a  double  root.  I  now  saw  the 
meaning  of  the  double  connexion  of  the  nerves  with  the  spinal 
marrow,  and  also  the  cause  of  that  seeming  intricacy  in  the  con- 
nexions of  nerves  throughout  their  course,  which  were  not  double 
at  their  origins."  His  other  work,  on  the  cranial  nerves,  which  are 
"  not  double  at  their  origins,"  bore  fruit  at  once  in  surgery.  Sir 
John  Erichsen  says  of  it :  "  Up  to  the  time  that  Sir  Charles  Bell 
made  his  experiments  on  the  nerves  of  the  face,  it  was  the  common 
custom  of  surgeons  to  divide  the  facial  nerve  for  the  relief  of 
neuralgia,  tic  douleureux;  whereas  it  exercises,  and  was  proved 
by  Sir  Charles  Bell  to  exercise,  no  influence  over  sensation,  and  its 
division  consequently  for  the  relief  of  pain  was  a  useless  operation." 

B.  Reflex  Action. — The  observations  made  by  Sir  Robert  Boyle. 
Rcdi,  Le  Galh)is  and  othere  on  the  reflex  movements  of  decapitated 
vipers,  frogs,  eels  and  butterflies  were  of  no  great  use  from  the 
point  of  view  of  physiology;  but  they  led  toward  the  discovery 
that  nerve-power  is  stored  m  the  spinal  cord,  and  ia  liberated  thence 
in  action  independent  of  the  higher  cerebral  centres.  Marshall  Hall 
(1832-1837)  discovered,  by  his  experiments,  that  reflex  actions  are 
tbe  work  of  definite  groups  of  cells,  set  at  certain  points  or  levels  in 
the  cord;  he  proved  the  segmental  structure  of  the  oord,  the  exist- 
ence of  nerve-centres  in  it,  and  thus  foreshadowed  the  diacdVery 
of  the  like  centres  in  the  brain.  In  his  earlier  writings  (1S32-33) 
he  extended  the  principles  of  the  doctrines  of  reflex  actkm  to  the 
larynx,  the  pharynx  and  the  sphincter  muscles;  later,  in  1837,  he 
demonstrated  the  course  of  nerve-impulses  within  the  cord,  from 
one  level  to  another,  and  the  effects  of  direct  stimulation  of  the  jcord. 
Also  he  noted  the  effects  of  opium  and  of  strychnine  on  reflex 
action:  and  the  reflex  character  of  the  convulsions  that  occur  in 
certain  diseases. 

C.  The  Medulla  Oblongata  and  the  Cerebellum.— Floiniens,  who 
was  among  the  earliest  students  of  the  use  of  chkMoform,  ia  beet 
known  for  his  experiments  on  the  respiratory  centre  and  the  cere- 
bellum. He  k>caUzed  the  cells  in  the  medulla  that  govern  the  reflex 
movement  of  respiration.  Afterward  came  the  discovery  of  cardiac 
and  other  centres  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  reapiratory  centre. 
He  showed  also  that  the  cerebellum  is  ooooemed  mtb  the  equilibra- 
tion and  coK>rdination  of  the  muscles;  that  an  animal,  a  few  days  old. 
deprivcKi  of  sensation  and  consciouaneas  by  removal  of  the  cerebral 
hemispheres,  was  yet  able  to  stand  and  to  move  foiieard,  but  when 
the  cerebellum  also  was  removed,  lost  all  power  of  oo-ordtnation 
(Recherches  expfrimenlalee,  Paris,  1842).  And  from  the  obeervatkms 
made  by  him  and  by  othera.  it  was  found  that  the  semicircular  caaals 
of  the  internal  cars  are  tne  terminal  ocgana  of  the  eense  of  equilibra- 
tion. 

D.  The  Vaso-Motor  Nerves.'— Claude  Bernard,  studying  the  sym- 
pathetic nervous  system,  discovered  the  vaao-motor  nervee  that 


VIVISECTIOM 


159 


control  tiwoMBMt^fttejvttrlH.  TheqiMakioa  of  priority  bccmn 
Ua.  aad  Browa  SAqtiam'and  not  be  considered  here.  Ui*  nnt 
aooDunt  of  his  work  was  oonununicated  to  the  SociiU  de  Bidotie  in 
December  1851.  pw  foUowios  account  of  it  it  from  his  Uimi  di 
pkysiotpgu  op^alotM  (1879);-^ 

'*  Let  OK  remind  you  how  1  was  led  to  dinover  the  vaso-motor 
nerves.  Staiting  from  the  cKnical  observation,  m^de  lone  ago,  that 
in  paralysed  Ijmbs  you  find  at  one  time  an  incnease  <M  cold  and 
at  another  an  mcrease  of  heatt  I  thought  that  this  contradiction 
miffhc  be  exfdained  by  supposing  that*  side  by  side  with  the  genemi 
action  of  the  nervous  system,  the  sympathetic  nerve  might  have  the 
functioci  of  presiding  over  the  production  of  heat;  that  is  to  say,  that 
in  the  case  where  uie  paralysed  limb  was  chiljcd,  I  supposed  the 
sympathetic  nerve  to  be  paralysed,  as  well  as  the  motor  nerves; 
while  in  the  paralysed  limbs  that  were  not  diilled  the  sympathetic 
nerve  had  retained  its  function,  the  systematic  nerves  alone  having 
been  attacked.  This  was  a  theory,  that  is  tp  say,  an  idea,  leading 
me  10  make  experiments;  and  for  these  experiments  I  must  find  a 
sympathetic  nerve-trunk  of  sufficient  size,  going  to  some  organ  that 
was  easy  to  observe;  and  must  divide  the  tninlc  to  see  what  would 
happen  to  the  heat-supply  of  the  organ.  You  know  that  the  rabbit's 
car,  and  the  cervical  sympathetic  of  this  animal,  offered  us  the 
required  conditions.  So  I  divided  this  ncr>'e;  and,  at  once,  the 
experiment  gave  the  He  direct  to  my  theory — Je  coupai  iota  u  fUtt 
et  aussiidt  rapfrienet  dotuta  A  man  iypothise  le  plus  eclatani  iimentU 
1  had  thought 'that  the  section  of  the  nerve  would  suppress  the 
function  of  nutrition,  of  calorification,  over  which  the  sympathetic 
system  had  been  supposed  to  preside,  and  would  cause  the  hollow  of 
the  ear  to  become  cnilled;  and  here  was  just  the  opposite,  a  very 
warm  ear,  with  great  dilatation  of  its  vessels."  The  experiments  of 
Budge  and  Waller  (1853)  and  of  Schiff  (1856)  threw  light  on  the 

place  of  the  vaso* 


action  of  these  vaso-motor  nerves,  and  on  the  . 
motor  centre  in  the  cord;  and  in  1838  Claude  Bernard,  by  his 
experiments  on  the  chorda  tympant  and  the  submaxillary  gland, 
demonstrated  their  twofold  inRuence,  cither  to  dilate  or  to  constrict 
the  vessels^  "  It  i»  almost  impossible  to  exaggerate  the  Importance 
of  these  labours  of  Bernard  on  the  vaso-motor  nerves,  since  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  exaggerate  the  in0uence  which  our  knowledge 
of  the  VBso-mocor  system,  sprin^ng  as  it  docs  from  BernarcTs 
researches  as  from  its  fount  and  ongin.  has  exerted,  is  exerting,  and 
in  widening  measure  will  oontkne  to  exert,  on  all  our  physk>logical 
and  pathowgiGal  conceptions,  on  medical  practice,  und  on  the 
conduct  of  human  fife.  There  is  hardly  a  physiological  discussion 
of  any  width  in  which  we  do  not  sooner  or  later  come  on  vaso-motor 
questions"  (Foster,  Lift  of  Claude  Btmard), 

B.  Cerebral  Localization. — The  study  of  the  motor  and  sensory 
centres  of  the  cerebral  hemispheres  began  in  clinical  observation. 
Observation  of  cases,  and  examination  of  the  brain  after  death 
(Bouillard,  1825,  Dax,  1836,  Broca,  1861).  kxi  men  to  believe  that  a 
particular  area  of  the  left  frontal  lobe  of  the  brain  did  indeed  govern 
and  permit  the  use  of  speech.  Physiological  experiments  had 
nothing  to  do  with  the  discovery  of  the  speedi  centres.  "  Bouillard 
in  183}  collected  a  scries  of  cases  to  show  that  the  faculty  of  speech 
residea  in  the  frontal  lobes.  In  186 1  his  views  were  brooght  by 
Aubertin  before  the  notice  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of  Paris, 
Broca,  who  was  present  at  the  meeting,  hsid  a  patient  under  his  cave 
who  had  been  aphadc  for  twenty-one  years,  and  who  was  in  an 
almost  moribund  state.  The  autopsy  proved  of  great  Intnrest,  as 
it  was  found  that  the  lesion  was  confined  to  the  left  side  of  the  brain, 
and  to  what  we  now  call  the  third  frontal  convolution.  ...  In  a 
subsequent  series  of  fifteen  typical  cases  examined,  it  was  found  that 
the  lesion  bad  destroyed,  among  other  parts,  the  posterior  part  of 
the  third  frontal  in  fourteen  "  (Hamilton,  Text-Book  of  PeUhology), 
From  this  clinical  fact,  that  the  movements  of  speech  depend  on  the 
integrity  of  s  special  area  of  the  bmin's  surface,  and  from  the  facts 
of  "  Jacksonian  epilepsy,''  and  simOar  observati'^ns  in  medicine  and 
surgery,  began  the  experimental  wor'  of  cerebral  localization,  by 
riitzig,  Gohz,  Schifi^  Fcrrier,  Yeo,  Horsley,  Becvor  and  many  more. 
It  would  be  hard  to  find  a  more  striking  instance  of  the  familiar 
truth  that  science  and  practice  work  hand  in  hand. 

Again,  the  experimental  method  has  thrown  a  flood  of  light  on 
the  minute  anatomy  of  the  central  nervous  system.  For  example, 
we  have  what  is  called  Marchi's  method:  it  was  described  to  the 
Royal  Cbmmisswn  (1906^)  by  Dr  Head  and  Sir  Victor  Horsley. 
It  was  found,  by  Professor  Waller,  that  nerve-fibres,  separated  from 
the  nerve-cells  which  nourish  them,  d«enerate  in  a  definite  way. 
The  applicatioo  of  this  law  experimentally  has  been  of  great  value. 
'*Let  me,"  says  Dr  Head,  '^just  take  a  simile.  Imagine  a  wall 
oovered  with  creepers  arising  from  several  stems.  If  we  wished  to 
know  from  which  of  these  stems  any  one  bmnch  takes  its  origin,  we 
could  cut  one  stem,  and  every  leaf  arising  from  it  wouM  die,  marking 
out  among  the  healthy  foliage  the  offshoots  of  the  divided  stem. 
This  is  the  principle  that  has  been  used  in  tracing  the  paths  in  the 
nervous  v/stem.  Cowers,  by  applying  this  method,  discovered 
the  ascending  tracts  In  the  lateral  columns  of  the  spinal  cord."  If  a 
mkroseoplc  scctk>n  of  a  si^al  cord,  containing  some  fibres  thus 
degenerate,  be  treated  with  osraic  acid  (Marchi's  method),  the 
degenerate  fibres  show  dark:  and  in  this  way  their  course  may  be 
tnced  ftt  nil  levels  of  the  corL 


Indeed,  it  may  truly  be  said  that,  alike  in  anatomy  and  in 
k>gy,  the  whole  present  knowledge  of  the  brain,  the  spinal  omdaad 
the  nerves,  is  in  great  measure  due  to  the  use  of  experiments  on 
animals.  And  this  knowledge  is  daily  applied  to  the  diagnosis  and 
treatment  of  diseases  and  injuries  01  the  central  nervous  system. 
"  In  the  case  of  operations  on  the  bram,  you  have  to  form  your 
opinion  as  to  what  is  going  on  entirely  from  your  knowledge  ol  th« 
physit^ogy  of  the  brain .  and  that  we  owe,  of  course,  in  the  greatest 
measure  to  the  discoveries  of  Hiizig  and  Fritsch  and  Ferrier.  That 
has  alt  happened  »incc  1870;  and  we  are  now  abIe4o  cure  epilepsy, 
we  are  able  to  cure  abscess  of  the  brain,  and  we  are  able  to  cure 


technique  of  that  operation  I  owe  entirely  to  experiments  oh  animals. 
As  regards  operations  on  the  peripheral  nerves.  Bell's  operative 
treatment  of  neuralgia  was  guided  entirely  by  his  experiments  on 
animals.  Then  we  come  to  the  great  subject  of  nerve  suture.  The 
initial  work  bearing  upon  that  subject  was  carried  out  by  Flourens, 
who  was  the  first,  to  my  knowledge,  to  nuke  experiments  on  animals, 
to  suture  nerves  together,  to  investigate  their  functran  "  (Sir  Victor 
Horsley,  evidence  before  the  Royal  Commission,  vol.  iv.  p.  124). 

[These  notes  cover  a  part  only  of  the  results  that  nave  been 
obtained  in  physiology  by  the  help  of  experiments  on  animals. 
The  work  of  Boyle.  Hunter,  Lavoisier,  Dcspretz,  Rcgnault  and 
Haldanc,  on  animal  heat  and  on  respiration;  of  Petit,  Dopuy, 
Breschet  and  Reid,  on  the  symrathetic  system;  of  Galvani,  Volu, 
Haller,  du  Bois-Reymond  and  PflQger,  on  muscular  contraction— 
all  these  subjects  have  been  left  out,  and  many  more.  In  his  evidence 
before  the  Royal  Commission  (1875),  Mr  Darwin  said:  "  I  am  fully 
convinced  that  physiology  can  progress  only  by  the  aid  of  experi- 
ments on  living  animals.  1  cannot  think  of  any  one  step  which  haji 
been  made  in  physiology  urithout  that  aid."] 

B.  Patholoov,  Bacteriology  and  TRBftAPBurica 

1.  /fiAMisnilwfi.— PathokiKy  b  so  intimately  associated  with 
the  worlc  of  the  microscope  that  it  is  a  new  study,  in  comparison 
with  physiokigy.  In  1890  the  microscope  was  qot  in  general  use 
as  it  IS  now;  npr  did  men  have  the  lenses,  microtomes  and  stain- 
ing  fluids  that  are  essential  to  modern  histoloffy.  Bacteriology, 
again,  is  even  younger  than  pathology.  In  1875  it  had  hardfy 
begun  to  exist.  For  example,  in  the  evidence  before  the  Royal 
CommiaSmn  (187^)  one  of  the  witnesses  said  that  they  **  bdicved 
they  were  beginning  to  get  an  idea  of  the  nature  of  tubercle." 
Anthmx  was  the  first  disease  studied  by  the  methods  of  bacteriology; 
and  in  his  evidence  concerning  this  disease.  Sir  John  Simon  speaks 
of  bscteriology  as  of  a  discovery  wholly  new  and  unexplcxred.  Then» 
in  1881.  came  Koch's  discovery  of  the  bacillus  of  tubercle.  But  a 
great  advance  was  made,  in  days  before  1875,  by  the  mote  general 
use  of  the  microscope.  Every  change  in  the  tissues  during  inflam- 
mation— the  slowing  of  the  blood  stream  in  the  capillary  vessels, 
the  escape  of  the  leucocytes  through  their  walls  into  the  surround- 
ing tissues,  the  stagnation  of  the  bk)od  in  the  affected  part— all 
these  were  observed  m  such  transparent  structures  as  the  web  or  the 
mesentery  of  the  frog,  the  bat's  wing,  or  the  tadpole's  tail,  irritated 
by  a  drop  of  acid,  or  a  crystal  of  salt,  or  a  scmtcn  with  a  needle.  It 
was  in  the  course  of  observations  of  this  kind  that  Wharton  Jones 
observed  the  rhythmical  contraction  of  veins,  and  Waller  and 
Cohnheim  observed  the  escape  of  the  leucocytes,  diapeduis^  through 
the  walls  of  the  capillaries.  From  these  simple  experiments  unoer 
the  microscope  arose  all  our  present  knowledge  of  the  minute  pro- 
ccsses.of  inflammation.  Later  came  the  work  of  Metschnikoff  and 
others,  showing  the  importance  of  diapedesis  in  relation  to  the 
presence  of  bacteria  in  tlie  tissues. 

2.  Suppuration  and  R'piifni-iir/ec/tdn.-r-PracticallyeverycMe  of  sup- 
puration, wound-infection  or  "  blood-poisoning,"  all  abscesses,  boiiSi 
carbuncles,  and  all  cases  of  puerperal  lever,  septicaemia,  or  pyaemia, 
are  due  to  infection,  either  from  without  or  from  withinthebody,  by 
various  forms  of  micro-oiganisms.  The  same^is  true  of  every  case 
of  erysipelas,  or  cellulitis,  or  acute  eangrene — in  short,  of  the  whcAe 
multitude  of  "  septic  "  diseases.  The  work  done  on  these  micro- 
cocci, and  on  other  pathogenic  micro-organisms,  involved  the  study 
of  the  phases,  antagonisms  and  preferences  of  each  kind,  their  range 
of  variation  and  of  virulence,  their  products,  and  the  influences  on 
them  of  air,  light,  heat  and  chemical  agents.  The  beginning  of 
Lister's  work  was  in  Pasteur's  study  of  the  souring  of  milk,  about 
1856.  ^Pasteur's  discovery,  that  lactic  fermentation  was  due  to 
a  special  micro-oiganism,  opened  the^  way  for  modern  surgery. 
Luter  had  been  k)ng  stud  '  '  '^  '  '  *  '  ^ 
blood  and  other  animal 
line  with  Pasteur's  wor 
writing  on  the  antiseptic  treatment  of  compound  fractures,  he  speaks 
as  follows:  "  We  find  that  a  flood  of  light  has  been  thrown  upon 
this  most  important  subject  by  the  philosophic  writing  of  M.  Pas- 
teur, who  has  demonstrated,  by  thoroughly  convincing  evidence, 
that  it  is  not  to  its  oxygen,  or  to  any  of  its  gaseous  constituents, 
that  the  air  owes  this  property  (pf  producing  decomposition),  but  to 
minute  particles  suspended  in  it,  which  are  the  germs  of  various 
low  forms  of  life  long  since  revealed  by  the  microscope,  and  resarded 


t6o 


VIVISECTION 


as  merely  aeddemal  eoooomitantt  of  pntreaocnce:  butnowshowa 
by  Paatettr  to  be  its  essential  cause."  The  present  antiseptic 
method  includes  the  aseptic  method.  That  is  to  say.  the  instru* 
tnents  and  other  accessories  of  an  operation  are  "  sterilized  "  by 
heat:  and,  where  heat  cannot  be  applied,  as  to  the  patient's  skin 
and  the  suq^eon's  hands,  antiseptics  are  used.  Modem  sui^ery  is 
both  antiseptic  and  asqnic 

3.  iliifArax.  ~  The  bacillus  of  anthrax  (charbon,  malisnant 
pustule,  wool-sorter's  disease)  was  the  first  specific  micro-orcanism 
discovered.  Raver  and  Davaine  (1850)  observed  the  J^tits  batonnets 
in  the  blood  ot  sheep  dead  of  the  disease:  and  m  18631.  when 
Pastebr's  observatioRS  on  lactic-acid  fermentation  were  published. 
Davaine  recognized  that  the  bdUmntls  were  not  bloocf  crystals, 
but  living  organisms.  Koch  afterward  succeeded  in  cultivating 
the  baallus,  and  in  reproducing  the  disease  in  animals  by  inocub 
tion  from  these  cultures.  Pasteur's  discovery  of  preventive  in- 
oculation of  animals  against  the  disease  was  communicated  to  the 
A(^6mie  des  Sciences  in  February  1881:  and  in  May  of  that  year 
he  gave  his  public  demonstration  at  Pouitly-le-Fort.  Two  months 
later,  at  the  International  Medical  Congress  in  London,  he  spoke  as 
follows  of  this  discovery :  "...  La  mcthode  que  je  viens  de  vous 
exposer  pour  obtenir  des  vacdns  du  charbon  etait  k  peine  connuc 
qu  elle  passait  dans  la  grande  pratique  pour  pr^venir  I'affection 
cnarbonneuse.  La  France  perd  chaaue  annfe  pour  une  valeur  de 
plus  de  vingt  millions  d'animaux  trappds  du  charbon,  plus  de 
30  millions,  m'a  dit  unc  des  pcrsonncs  autorisdcs  de  notre  Ministdrc 
de  r Agriculture:  mais  des  statistiques  exactes  font  encore  d^aut. 
On  me  demanda  de  mettre  k  I'dpreuve  les  rdsultats  qui  pricMent 
par  une  grande  experience  publique,  k  Pouilly-le-Fort.  pr^  de 
Melun  .  .  .  Je  la  r&ume  en  quelqucs  mots:  50  moutons  furent 
mis  4  ma  disposition,  nous  en  vaccin&mes  25,  les  25  autrcs  ne  sub- 
irent  aucun  traitement  puinze  jours  apr^a  environ,  les  50  moutons 
furent  inocul^  par  le  microbe  charbonneux  le  plus  virulent.  Les 
25  vaccinas  r^sistdrent:  les  25  non-vaccin6s  moururcnt.  tous  char- 
bonneux, en  einquante  heures.  Depuis  lors,  dans  mon  laboratoire, 
o«i  ne  peut  frfus  sufiire  k  preparer  assez  de  vaccin  pour  les  demandcs 
des  fermicrs.  En  quinze  jours,  nous  avons  vacdno  dans  les  ddpartc^ 
mentft  voistna  de  Paris  pres  de  20^000  moutons  et  un  grand  nomore  de 
bceufs.  de  vaches  et  de  chevaux."  The  extent  of  this 'preventive 
vaccination  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  a  single  institute,  the 
Sero-Therapeutic  Institute  of  Milan,  in  a  single  year  (1897^98)  sent 
Out  i^SfiOO  tubes  of  anti-charbon  vacdne,  enough  to  inoculate 
33,734  cattle  and  98,792  sheep.  In  France,  during  the  y^rs 
1882-93,  more  than  three  million  sheep  and  neariy  half  a  million 
cattle  were  inoculated.  In  the  Annales  de  rinslitut  Ptuteur,  March 
1894.  M.  Charaberland  published  the  results  of  these  twelve  years  m 
a  paper  entitled  "  R^ultats  pratiques  des  vaccinations  contre  le 
charbon  et  le  rouget  en  France."  The  mortality  from  charbon. 
before  vaccination,  was.  xo%  among  sheep  and  5%  among 
cattle,  aooording  to  estimates  niade  by  veterinary  surgeons  all  over 
the  country,  with  vaccination,  the  whole  loss  of  sheep  was  about 
1%:  the  averase  for  the  twelve  years  was  o>94.  The  loss  of 
faccinated  cattle  was  still  less:  for  the  twelve  years  it  was  0-34. 
or  about  one^third  %.  The  annual  reports  sent  to  M.  Chamber- 
land  by  the  veterinary  surgeons  represent  not  more  than  half  of 
the  work.  "  A  certain  number  of  veterinary  surgeons  neglect  to 
send  their  reports  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Ine  number  of  reports 
that  come  to  us  even  tends  to  become  less  each  year.  The  fact  is, 
that  manv  veterinary  surgMns  who  perform  vaccinations  every  year 
content  tnemaelvcs  with  writing.  'The  results  are al«-ays very  good; 
it  is  useless  to  send  you  reports  that  are  always  the  same.'  We 
have  every  reason  to  believe,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that  those  who  send 
no  reports  are  satisfied ;  for  if  anything  goes  wrong  with  the  herds, 
they  do  not  fail  to  let  us  know  it  at  once  by  special  letters." 

The  following  tables,  from  M.  Chamberland's  paper,  give  the 
results  of  Pasteur's  treatment  against  charbon  during  1882-93, 
and  against  rouget  (swine-meosles)  during  1886-92.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  the  mortality  from  rougel  among  swine,  in  years  before 
vaccination,  was  much  higher  than  that  from  charbon  among  sheep 
and  cattle:  "  It  was  about  20%;  a  certain  number  of  reports 
speak  of  losses  of  60  and  even  80%;  so  that  almost  all  the 
veterinary  surgeons  are  loud  in  their  praises  of  the  new  vaccination." 

It  would  be  too  much  to  say  that  every  country,  in  every  year, 
has  obtained  results  with  this  anthrax>vaccine  equal  to  those  which 
have  been  obtained  in  France.  Nor  would  it  be  re<isonable  co 
advocate  the  compulsory  or  wholesale  use  of  the  vaccine  in  the 
British  Islands,  where  anthrax  is  rare.  For  the  general  value  of  the 
vaccine,  however,  we  have  this  striking  fact,  that  the  use  of  it  has 
steadily  increased  year  by  year.  A  note  from  the  Pasteur  Institute, 
dated  November  29.  1909,  say%:  "  Depuis  1882  jusqu'au  !•' Janvier 
1909,  *il  a  6t^  exp6di6,  pour  la  prance.  8,400,000  doses  de  vaccin 
anti-charbonneux  pour  moutons,  1.300.000  pour  boeufs.  Pour 
I'etranger,  8.500,000  doses  pour  moutons,  6.200.000  pour  boeufs. 
Le  nombre  de  doses  augmente  d'aanto  en  ann^e,  de  sorte  que  pour 
rann4^  1908  seule  il  (aut  compter  en  tout  1,500.000  doses  pour 
moutons  (France  et  Stranger)  1. 1 00.000  pour  boeufs."  (Two  doses 
are  used  foi;  each  animal.)  It  remains  to  be  added  that  a  serum- 
treatment,  introduced  by  Sclavo.  has  been  found  of  considerable 
value  in  cases  of  anthrax  (malignant  pustule)  occurring  in  man. 


VaCCIMATKMT  ACAINST  ChAWOW  (PkaMCB) 


9iieep. 

1 

Yean. 

Total  Number  of 
Animals  Vaccinated. 

I 

s 

1 

s 
Z 

Animals  Vaccinated 

according  to  Reports 

received. 

Mortality. 

• 

1 

< 

II 

1 

After  Second  Vac> 
ctnation. 

Durins  the  Rest 
of  tne  Year. 

I8«2 

270,040 
268.505 

112 

243.199 

756 

847 

1037 
784 

2,640 

I'OS 

10% 

'S!^ 

103 

193.119 

436 

272 

1.492 

0-77 

•» 

'524 

316.553 

109 

231.693 
280,107 

III 

444 

1033 

2.247 

0-97 

•« 

1885 

342.0^0 
313.288 

*^ 

735 

990 

2,609 

0-93 

N 

1886 

88 

202.064 

^H 

303 

5a 

1.469 

072 

M 

1887 
1888 

293.572 

107 

187.811 

7»8 

W 

2.423 

I  29 

.» 

269.574 

50 

101,834 
88.483 
69,865 

149 

I8i 

300 

630 

0-62 

«t 

1889 

239.974 

n 

238 

285 

501 

1,024 

116 

•t 

1890 

223.61 1 
218,629 

331 

261 

244 

836 

I '20 

•t 

1891 

65 

53.640 
63.125 

181 

102 

77 

628 

067 

•» 

1892 

259.696 

70 

3*9 

183 

126 

099 

•• 

1893 

281.333 

30 

73.939 

234     56   224 

514 

0-69 

•* 

Total: 

3^96,815 

990 

1,788.879 

5668  4406  6798 

16,872 

0-941     ..     1 

Cattle.                                            j 

1883 

35.654 

127 

23,9l6|     a2 

12 

48 

82 

0*35 

.    5  /• 

1883 

26^453 

130 

20,501 

«7 

1 

46 

s* 

o»3i 

»t 

1864 

33.900 

139 

22,616 

20 

«3 

52 

85 

0.37 

»* 

1885 

34.000 

192 

ai.073 

32 

8 

67 

107 

0-50 

** 

1886 

39.154 

135 

22.113 

18 

.1 

s 

64 

0*29 

»t 

1887 

48.484 

148 

28,083 

** 

109 

0.39 

*t 

1888 

34.464 

61 

10,920 

5|      4 

35 

47 

043 

•f 

1889 

32.251 

68 

11,610 

14 

7 

31 

52 

0-45 

t« 

1890 

33.965 

7t 

".057 

51      4 

14 

as 

0*21 

fi 

1891 

40.736 

68 

10476 

6^ 

4 

4 

'4 

0.13 

M 

1892 

41,609 

7« 

9.757 

8 

3 

15 

0*26 

tf 

1893 

38,154 

45 

9*840 

4 

1 

13 

Id 

O'lS 

M 

Total : 

438,824 

1255 

200,962 

»77 

82 

432 

691 

0-34 

«, 

Vaccination  against  Roucet  (Fkancb) 


Years. 

Number  of 
1  Vaccinated. 

•0 

s  Vaccinated 
ig  to  Reports 
sceived. 

Mor(ality. 

1 

Loes  before 
ci  nation. 

1^- 

9 «« 

•3 -a 

.8 

d^ 

u:g 

1^ 

g»Jg 

V  0 

ess 

o.§ 

E 

.5  0 

fc-c 

uO 

T,r 

2 

g-' 

^5 

1 

c  0 

53 

< 

a^ 

|2 

< 

For  these 

two  years 

1886 
X887 

France 
and  other 

M9 

7.087 

91 

24 

56 

171 

241 

20% 

countries 

49 

7,467 

57 

10 

23 

90 

1-21 

M 

are  put 

together^ 

1888 

15.958 

31 

6.968 

31 

25 

38 

94 

1-35 

1889 

19.338 

41 

11.257 

92 

12 

40 

144 

1*28 

1890 

17.658 
20.583 

41 

14.992 

118 

64 

72 

"54 

I'TO 

1891 

47 

17.556 

102 

34 

70 

206 

1.17 

1892 

37.900 

38 
296 

10,128 

43 

«9 

46 

106 

l«07 

Total: 

111.437 

75.455 

534 

188 

345 

1067 

1-4S 

,1 

4.  TuhercU. — Laennec,  who  in  1816  invented  the  stethoscope, 
recognized  the  fact  t^at  tubercle  is  a  specific  disease,  not  a  simple 
degeneration  of  the  affected  tissues.  ViUemin,  in  iB65,oommuni- 
cated  to  the  Acaddmie  des  Sciences  the  fact  that  he  had  produced 
the  disease  in  rabbits  by  inoculating  them  with  tuberculous  matter; 
and  he  appealed  to  these  inoculations — en  void  Us  pretaa-^to 
show  that  La  Ittberculose  est  une  affection  spicifiqut:  Sa  cause  r^idg 
dans  un  agent  inocvlable:  UinoctUalion  se  fait  trks-lnen  de  I'komme 
au  lapin:  La  tuberculose  appartient  done  a  la  dasse  des  m-aladits 
vvruUiues.  In  1868  Chauveau  woduced  the  disease  not  by  inocula- 
tion but  by  admixture  of  tuDcrculpus  mat tn*  with  theanina^' 
food.     In  1880,  after  a  period  of  some  uncertainty  and  oonfusioa 


VIVISECTION 


i6i 


6(  doctrines*  Caiinlulili  resfftniMd  the  infectivity  of  the  diaeaae, 
«nd  even  made  the  proof  of  tubercle  depend  on  inoculation  alone: 
"  eveiytbing  b  tubenulout  that  oin  produce  tuberculous  disease  by 
inoculation  in  animaU  that  are  susceptible  to  the  disease;  and 
nothing  is  tuberculous  that  cannot  do  this."  In  i88l  Koch  di»* 
covered  the  tubercle  bacillus,  and.  in  spite  of  the  tragic  failure  of  his 
tuberculin  in  iSqo^oi.  a  vast  amount  of  practical  advantage  has 
already  issued  out  of  Koch's  discovery,  both  by  way  of  cure  and  by 
way  oc  prevention.  It  has  been  proved,  by  experiment  on  animals, 
that  the  sputa  of  phthisical  patients  are  infective;  and  this  and  the 
like  facta  nave  profoundly  influenced  the  nursing  and  general  care 
of  such  cases.  Bacteriology  has  brought  about  (under  the  safe- 
guard of  modern  methods  of  surgery)  a  thorough  and  early  survical 
treatment  of  all  primary  tuberculous  sotes  or  deposits— 'the  excwion 
of  tuberculous  ulcers,  the  removal  of  tuberculous  glands  and  the 
Uke.  It  has  helped  us  to  make  an  early  diagnosis,  in  obscure  cases, 
by  finding  tubercle  badlti  in  the  sputa,  or  in  the  discharges,  or  in  a 
particle  of  the  tissues.  It  has  proved,  past  all  reasonable  doubt, 
that  tabes  mesenieriea,  a  disease  that  Idils  every  year  in  Engbnd 
alone  many  thousands  of  children,  may  arise  from  infection  (X  the 
bowela  by  the  milk  (^  tuberculous  oows.  And  it  has  helped  to 
bring  lUwut  the  present  rigorous  control  of  the  milk  trade  and  the 
meat  trade. 

The  "  new  tuberculin,*'  now  that  the  use  of  the  opsonic  index 
has  guided  physicians  to  a  better  understandii^  of  the  tuberculin 
treatment,  nas  been  found  of  great  value,  and  is  giving  exccHent 
results  in  suitable  cases.  Moreover,  tuberculin  h  used,  oecause  of 
the  reaction  that  it  causes  in  tuberculous  animus,  as  a  test  for  the 
detection  of  latent  tuberculosis  in  cattle.  An  injection  of  one  to 
two  cubic  centimetres  under  the  sldn  of  the  neck  is  followed  by  a 
high  temperature  if  the  animal  be  tuberculous.  If  it  be  not,  there 
is  no  rise  of  temperature,  or  only  a  very  slight  rise.  For  example, 
in  1899  this  test  was  applied  to  270  cows  on  farms  in  Lancashire: 
180  reacted  to  the  test,  85  did  not,  5  were  "  doubtful."  Tuberculous 
disease  was  actually  found  in  175  out  of  the  f  80.  Eber  of  Dresden 
used  the  test  on  17I  animals,  01  whom  136  reacted,  33  did  not  react 
and  6  were  doubtful.  Of  the  136,  a2  were  slaughtered,  and  were  all 
found  to  have  tubercle;  of  the  3a,  %  were  slaughtered,  and  were 
found  free.  The  opinion  of  Professor  M'Fadyean.  one  of  the  highest 
authorities  on  the  subject,  is  as  follows:  '*  1  have  most  implicit 
faith  in  tuberculin  as  a  test  for  tuberculosis  when  it  is  used  on  animals 
standing  in  their  own  premises  and  undisturbed.  It  is  not  reliable 
when  used  on  animals  in  a  market  or  slaughter-house.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  errors  at  first  were  found  when  I  examined 
animals  in  slaughter-houses  after  they  had  been  conveyed  there  by 
raU,  &c.  Since  that,  using  it  on  cmmals  in  their  own  premises,  I 
have  found  that  it  a  practically  infallible.  I  have  notes  of  one 
particular  case  where  as  animals  in  one  dairy  were  tested,  and  after- 
wards all  were  killed.  There  was  only  one  animal  which  did  not 
react,  and  it  was  the  only  animal  not  found  to  be  tuberculous  when 
killed."  This  test  has  now  been  in  regular  use  for 'many  years 
in  many  countries,  and  it  is  accepted  everywhere  as  of  national 
importance. 

5.  DipktkeHa.^The  BaciUus  diphlheruie  (Klebs-LOfiler  baciflus) 
was  described  by  Klebs  in  1875,  and  obtained  in  pure  culture  by 
LOflfler  in  1884.  Behring  and  Kitasato,  in  1890,  succeeded  in 
immunizing  animals  against  the  disease.  The  first  cases  treated 
with  diphtheria  antitoxin  were  published  in  1893  by  Behring. 
Kossel  and  HQbner.  In  England  the  antitoxin  treatment  was 
begun  in  the  latter  part  of  1894.  Besides  its  curative  use,  the 
antitoxin  has  also  been  used  as  a  preventive,  to  stop  an  outbreak 
of  diphtheria  in  a  school  or  institute  or  hospital  or  village,  and 
with  admirable  success.    (See  Diphthbria.) 

6.  Tetanus  Oock-jaw). — Experiments  on  animals  have  tanght 
us  the  true  nature  of  this  disease,  and  have  led  to  the  discovery 
of  an  antitoxin  which  has  given  fairly  ((ood  results.  We  possess, 
moreover,  a  preventive  treatment  against  *'he  disease;  though, 
unfortunately,  the  time  of  latency,  when  the  antitoxin  is  most 
needed,  cannot  be  recognized.  The  old,  mischievous  doctrine 
that  tetanus  was  due  to  acute  inflammation  of  a  nerve,  tracking 
up  from  a  wound  to  the  central  nervous  system,  was  abolished 
once  and  for  ever  by  Sternberg  (1880),  Carle  and  Rattone  (1884) 
and  Nicolaier  (18811),  who  proved  that  the  disease  is  due  to  infection 
by  a  specific  flagellate  or^nism  in  superficial  soil.  "  It  b  said  to 
be  present  in  almost  all  nch  garden  soils,  and  that  the  presence  of 
horse-dung  favours  its  occurrence.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
as  to  the  ubiquity  of  the  tetanus  germ  "  ^Poore,  Mfilroy  Lechtres, 
1899).  The  work  of  discovering  and  isobtine  the  bacillus  was  full 
of  difiiculty.  Nicolaier,  starting  from  the  utmilbr  fact  that  the 
disease  mostly  comes  from  wouiras  or  scratches  contaminated  with 
earth,  studied  the  various  microbes  of  the  soil,  and  inocubted 
rabbits  with  garden  mould.  He  produced  the  disease,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  finding  and  cultivating  the  bacillus,  but  failed  to  obtain  a 
pure  culture.  Kitasato,  in  1899.  obtained  a  pure  culture.  Others 
studied  the  chemical  products  of  the  bacillus,  and  were  able  to 
produce  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  by  injection  of  these  chemical 
products  obtained  from  cultures,  or  from  the  tissues  in  cases  of 
tetanua.  It  has  been  proved  that  the  infection  tends  to  remain 
local  i  that  the  bacilli  in  and  near  the  wound  pour  tbenct  into  the 


blood  their  chemicai  products,  and  that  these  have  a  selective  action, 
like  strychnine,  on  the  cells  of  the  central  nervous  system.  There* 
fore  the  rub  that  the  wounded  tissues  should  be  at  once  cxcisea. 
in  all  cases  where  thU  can  possibly  be  done,  has  received  confirmap 
tion.  Before  Nicobicr,  wnib  men  were  still  free  to  believe  that 
tetanus  was  the  result  of  an  acute  ascending  neuritis,  this  rule  was 
neither  enforced  nor  explained. 

As  a  preventive  against  tetanus,  in  man  or  in  animals,  tht 
antitoxin  has  proved  of  the  very  utmost  value.  This  has  been 
shown  in  a  striking  way  in  America.  "  One  of  the  wounds  most 
commonly  followea  by  lock-jaw  is  the  bbnk-cartridge  wound  of  the 
hand  common  on  the  elorious  Fourth  of  July.  The  death-rate  from 
these  wounds  b  appalung.  An  active  campaign  has  been  conduacd 
throughout  the  medical  profession  to  reduce  this  mortality.  All 
over  the  country,  surgeons  and  medical  journals  have  advised  the 
injection  of  tetanus  antitoxin  In  every  case  of  blank-cartridge  wound. 
The  American  Medical  Aasocbtion  has  compiled  statistics  of  Fourth 
of  July  fatdities  for  the  past  six  years.  In  1903,  the  Fourth  of  July 
tetanus  cases  numbered  4 16.  Then  physicbns  began  a  more  general 
ase  of  antitoxin  In  all  cases  of  blank-cartridge  and  common  cracker 
wounds.  As  a  result  of  thb  campaign  of  prophylaxis  by  antitoxin 
injections,  from  416  cases  of  tetanus  in  1903  the  numbier  dropped 
to  105  cases  in  1904, 104  cases  in  1905,  89  cases  in  1906,  73  cases  in 
1907  and  ss  cases  in  190^.  Thb  reduction  in  the  number  of  tctanua 
cases  took  pbce  whib  the  number  of  accidents  remained  practically 
the  same  each  year,  and  while  the  number  of  deaths  from  causes 
other  than  tetanus  was  steadily  rising  from  60  in  1903  to  108  in  1908. 
It  Is  thus  evident  that  the  saving  of  at  least  300  lives  from  tetanus 
has  been  accomplished  each  year  through  the  prophylactic  use  of 
antitoxin  in  the  cases  of  Fourth  of  July  wounds  alone  "  (James  P. 
Wart>as6e,  M.D.,  The  Conquest  of  Disease  through  Animal  Experi- 
mentation,  Appleton  &  Co.,  19 10). 

The  preventive  use  of  the  serum  in  veterinary  practice  ha4 
yielded  admirable  results.  In  some  parts  of  the  world  tetanus  i^ 
terribly  common  among  horses.  Nocard  of  Lille  has  reported  at 
follows:  "  The  use  of  anti-tetanus  serum  as  a  preventive  has  beet^ 
in  force  for  some  years  In  veterinary  practice  in  cases  of  wounds  or 
surgia.1  procedures.  To  thb  end  the  Pasteur  Institute  has  supplied 
7000  doses  of  anti-tetanus  serum,  a  dose  being  10  cubic  centimetres; 
a  quantity  which  has  suflfioed  to  treat  preventively  3100  horses  in 
those  parts  of  the  country  where  tetanus  is  endemic.  Among  these 
there  has  been  no  death  from  tetanus.  In  the  case  of  one  horse, 
injected  five  days  after  receiving  a  wound,  tetanus  developed,  but 
the  attack  was  slight.  During  the  same  time  that  these  animals  were 
injected,  the  same  veterinary  surgeon  observed,  among  animals  not 
treated  by  injection,  359  cases  of  tetanus  "  (Lancet,  August  7, 1897). 

7.  Rabtes  (hydrophobb). — The  date  of  the  first  case  treated  bv 
PAsteur's  preventive  method — ^Joseph  Meister,  an  Alsatbn  shepbcrcf- 
boy— b  July  1885.  The  existence  of  a  specific  micro-organism  ol 
rabies  was  a  matter  of  inference.  The  incubation  period  of  the 
disease  is  so  variable  that  no  preventive  treatment  was  possible 
unless  this  incubation  period  could  be  regulated.  Inoculations  of 
the  saliva  of  a  rabid  animal,  introduced  under  the  skin  of  animals, 
sometimes  failed;  and  if  they  succeeded,  the  incubation  period  ot 
the  disease  thus  induced  was  hopelessly  variable.  Next.  Pasteur 
used  not  saliva,  but  an  emulsion  of  the  brain  or  the  spinal  cord; 
because  the  central  nervous  system  is  the  chbf  seat  of  the  poison. 
But  this  emulsion,  introduced  under  the  skin,  was  9I8O  uncenain 
in  action,  and  gave  no  fixed  incubation  period.  Therefore,  he  argued, 
as  the  poison  has  a  selective  action  on  the  nerve  cells  of  the  central 
nervous  system,  and  a  son  of  natural  affinity  with  them,  it  must  be 
introduced  directly  into  them,  where  it  will  have  its  proper  environ- 
ment; the  emulsion  must  be  put  not  under  the  skin,  but  under 
the  dura  mater  (the  membrane  enveloping  the  brain).  These  sub- 
dural inoculatbns  were  the  turning-point  of  his  work.  By  trans- 
mitting the  poison  through  a  series  ofrabbits.  by  subdural  inoculation 
of  each  rabbit  with  a  minute  quantity  01  nerve  tissue  from  the 
rabbit  that  had  died  before  it,  he  was  able  to  intensify  the  ^poison, 
to  shorten  its  period  of  incubation,  and  to  fix  thU  period  at  six  days. 
Thus  he  obtained  a  poison  of  exact  strength,  a  definite  standard  of 
vinibnce,  virus  fixe:  the  next  rabbit  inocubted  would  have  the 
disease  in  six  days,  neither  more  nor  less.  By  gradual  drying,  after 
death,  of  the  cords  of  rabid  animals,  he  was  able  to  attenuate  the 
poison  contained  in  them.  The  spinal  cord  of  a  rabbit  that  has 
died  of  rabies  slowly  loses  virulence  by  simple  drying.  A  cord 
dried  for  four  days  b  less  virulent  than  a  cord  dried  for  three,  and 
more  virulent  than  a  cord  dried  for  five.  A  cord  dried  for  a  fortnight 
has  lost  all  virulence:  even  a  brge  dose  of  it  will  not  produce  the 
disease.  By  this  method  of  drying.  Pasteur  was  able  to  keep  going 
one  or  more  series  (4  cords,  of  known  and  exaaly  graduated  strengths, 
according  to  the  length  of  time  they  had  been  dried,  ranging  from 
absolute  non-virulence  through  every  shade  of  virulence. 

As  with  fowl  cholera  and  anthrax,  so  vAxh  rabies:  the  poison, 
attenuated  till  it  b  innocuous,  can  yet  confer  immunity  againict  a 
stronger  dow  of  the  same  poison.  A  man.  bitten  by  a  rabid  animal, 
has  at  bast  some  weeks  of  respite  before  the  disease  can  break  out; 
and  during  that  time  of  respite  he  can  be  immunt/rd  against  the 
disease,  while  it  is  still  dormant.  He  begins  with  a  dose  of  poibon 
attenuated  past  nil  power  of  doing  harm,  and  advances  day  by  day 


t62 


VIVISECTION 


to  mart  active  doaes.  giiaided  each  day  by  the  dow  of  tke  day 
before,  till  he  has  manufactured  inthin  hiznaelf  enou^  antttosdn 
to  make  him  proof  against  any  outbrealc  of  t^  disease.    (Sea 

HVDaOPHOBIAj 

8.  Cholera, — The  specific  ocsaoism  of  Asiatic  cholera,  the 
"  comma-bactUuSf**  was  discovered  by  Koch  in  1883;  but  such  a 
mukitude  of  difficulties  arose  over  it  that  it  was  not  universally 
recognized  as  the  real  cause  of  the  disease  before  18^2,  the  year  oiF 
the  epidemic  at  Hamburg.  The  discovery  of  preventive  inoculation 
was  tne  work  of  many  men,  but  especially  of  Haffkine,  one  of 
Pasteur's  pupils.  Fermn'i  earlier  inoculations  in  Spain  (1885) 
were  a  failure.  Haffkine's  first  inoculations  were  made  in  1893. 
At  Agra,  in  April  1893.  he  raccinated  over  Qoo  persona^  and  from 
Agra  went  to  many  other  cities  of  India.  Altogether,  m  twenty- 
eight  months  (April  i8Q3-July  1895)  no  less  than  42,179  penoos 
were  vaccinated  (manyot  them  twice^  in  towns,  cantonments*  gaob,. 
tea  estates,  villages,  schools,  ftc,  "  without  haiong  to  record  a  single 
instance  of  mishap  or  acddent  of  any  land  pnxluced  by  our  vacdaes." 
(See  Cholkra.)  • 

9.  Bubonic  Ptapte.— The  Bacillus  pesHs  was  discovered  in  1894 
by  Kitasato  and  Yerrin,  working  independently.  The  preventive 
treatment  was  worked  out  by  HaSkine  m  i{|96:  "  Twenty  healthy 
rabbits  were  put  in  cagesL  Ten  of  them  were  inocukuted  with 
HafTkine's  plague  vaccine.  Then  both  the  vaccinated  rabbits  and 
the  other  ten  rabbits  that  bad  not  been  vaccinated  were  infected 
with  plague.  The  unprotected  rabbits  all  died  of  die  diseaae,  and 
in  their  bodies  innumerable  quantities  of  the  microbes  Vvere  found. 
But  the  vaccinated  rabbits  remained  in  good  health.  Professor 
Haffkine  then  vaccinated  himself  and  his  friends^  This  produced 
some  fever,  from  whidt  after  a  day  or  two,  they  recovered.  Plague 
broke  out  in  BycuUa  Gaol,  in  Bombay,  in  January  1807.  About 
half  the  prisoners  volunteered  to  be  inoculated.  Cn  these*  3 
developed  plague  on  the  day  of  inoculation,  and  it  is  probable 
that  they  had  already  plague  before  the  treatment  was  carried  out. 
Of  the  remaining  148  who  were  inoculated,  only  2  were  afterwards 
attacked  with  plague,  and  both  of  them  recovered.  At  the  lame 
time,  of  the  173  who  had  not  been  vaccinated,  12  were  attacked, 
and  out  of  these  6  died."    (See  Plague.) 

10.  Typhoid  Faer. — ^The  Bacillus  typhosus:'!^  discovered  by 
Klebs,  Eberth  and  Koch  in  1880-81.  The  first  protective  inocula- 
tions in  England  were  made  at  Netley  Hospital  in  1806  by  Sir 
Almroth  Wnght  and  Surgeon-Major  Semple:  16  medical  men 
and  2  others  offered  themselves  as  subjects.  The  first  use  of 
the  vaccine  during  an  actual  outbreak  of  tvphoid  was  in  October 
1897  at  the  Kent- County  Asylum's  i^'iAH  the  medical  staff  and  a 
number  of  attendants  accepted  the  oner.  Not  one  of  those  vaccin-' 
ated — 84  in  number — contracted  typhoid^  fever;  while  of  those 
unvaccinated,  and  living  under  similar  conditions,  16  were  attacked. 
This  b  a  significant  fact,  though  it  should  in  fairness  be  stated  that 
the  water  was  boiled  after  a  certain  date,  and  other  precautions 
were  taken,  so  that  the  vaccination  cannot  be  said  to  be  altogether 
responsible  for  the  immunity.  Still,  the  figures  are  striking  " 
(Lancet,  March  1898).  In  1899  Wright  vaccinated  against  typhoid 
more  than  3000  of  the  Indian  army,  at  Banealore,  Rawal  Pindi  and 
Lucknow.  Government  has  now  sanctioned  voluntary  inoculation 
against  typhoid,  at  the  public  expqiae,  among  the  British  troops. 
**  All  regiments  leaving  for  the  tropics  are  offered  thb  inoculation, 
and  each  year  a  larger  percentage  of  the  soldiers  are  accepting  it. 
Here  are  some  of  the  statistics:  In  Auoust  and  September  1905. 
150  men  of  a  single  recent  were  inoculated:  of  these,  23  refused 
to  accept  a  second  inoculation.  The  renment  reached  India. 
September  28.  A  month  later,  typhoid  fever  broke  out:  and 
during  the  following  few  months  03  cases  were  observed  in  the 
regiment.  With  but  two  exceptions,  the  disease  attacked  only  the 
men  who  had  not  been  inoculated,  and  both  of  these  exceptions 
were  men  who  had  refused  a  second  inoculation.  Careful  experi- 
ments were  made  with  the  second  battalion  of  Royal  Fusiliers  in 
India  in  190S  and  1006.  The  average  strength  of  this  regiment  was 
948  men.  During  tne  two  years,  384  were  inoculated  with  Wright's 
anti-typhoid  vaccine.  The  regiment  had  a  total  of  46  cases  of 
typhoid.  Thirty-five  of  these  were  men  who  had  not  been 
inoculated ;  9  had  been  inoculated.  Five  of  the  uninoculated  died ; 
none  of  the  inoculated  died.  Another  Indian  regiment,  the  17th 
Lancers,  in  1905,  1906  and  1907  inoculated  about  one-third  of  its 
men.  During  the  three  years  it  had  293  cases  of  typhoid  fever. 
There  were  aa  deaths,  with  not  a  nngle  death  of  an  inoculated  man. 
During  the  nrst  half  of  1908,  in  tlie  largest  seven  Indian  stations 
where  careful  records  were  kept,  out  of  a  total  of  10,420.  soldiers, 
2207  volunteered  for  inoculation.  Typhoid  developed  in  2% 
of  the  uninoculated,  and  in  less  than  i  %  of  the  inoculated  men. 
Forty-five  deaths  occurred.  Five  per  cent  of  these  deaths  were 
among  the  uninoculated  and  i  %  was  among  the  inoculated  men. 
...  In  the  United  States  armjr,  a  medical  board  has  strongly 
recommended  akiti-typboid  vaccinations,  and  vaccination  is  now 
cffered  to  those  who  desire  it.  Already  2000  soldiers  have  volun- 
tarily received  inoculation.  The  German  army  has  adopted 
the  same  means  of  prophylaxis,  axid  is  pushing  it  vigorously " 
(Warbasse,  loc.  cit.). 

'  Bedde  the  preventive  txeatmeat,  bacteriology  has  given  us 


'*  Wldil's  iMCtioB  "  for  tte  eifly  «N»Mit  of  Utt  < 
of  the  very  higlMst  practioal  imponanoe.  A  drop  of  Mood,  f  1 .  __ 
the  finger  of  a  patient  suspected  to  be  auffefing  from  typhoid  f ever, 
is  diluted  fifty  or  more  tiinca,  that  the  perfect  delicacy  of  the  test 
may  be  ensured;  a  drop  of  this  dihitioa  is  mlsed  tritn  a  mitrieoi 
fluid  containing  Uviag  faocUli  of  typhoid,  and  a  drop  of  this  mixtme 
is  observed  under  the  mkroaoope.  The  motility  of  the  bauciUi  is 
instantaneously  or  very  4|ttickly  arrested,  and  in  a  few  minutes  tbe 
bacilli  begin  to  Mgregate  together  into  dimipa.  This  "  dnanpiiw  ** 
is  also  inade  visible  to  the  naked  eye  by  the  aubsidence  of  die 
agglutinated  badUi  to  the  bottom  01  the  oootatning  Tfaml  The 
amaxing  delicacy  of  "  Widal's  test "  is  bat  a  natt  of  the  wonder. 
Long  after  recovery,  a  fiftieth  part  of  a  drop  01  the  Uood  will  stiU 
cause  dumping:  it  has  even  been  obtained  from  an  infant  wfaoae 
mother  had  typhoid  shortly  bdors  tbe  chikl  was  bom.  A  drop  of 
blood  from  a  case  suspecteo  to  be  typhoid  can  now  be  sent  by  post 
to  be  tested  a  hundred  miles  away,  and  the  answer  tekgn^ied 
back. 

11.  Malta  Feoer  (Meditenanean  fever).^Tbe  Micneoeems  MM. 
tensis  was  discovered  in  1887  by  Sir  Davkl  Bruce.  The  work  of  dis- 
covering and  prepariag  an  immunlan^  serum  was  done  at'Netknr 
Hospital.  In  this  fever,  aa  in  typhoid  and  some  ochcn,  Widri^ 
test  IS  of  great  value:  "  The  diagnosis  of  Malta  fever  from  typhokl 
is,  of  coarse,  a  highly  important  practical  nuiRer.  It  is  eaceediagly 
difficult  in  the  early  stagiss"  (Manson).  i^ven  in  a  dilution  of  i  on 
looOb  the  blood  of  Malta  fever  can  give  the  typical  reaction  widt  the 
Micrococcus  Mditensisi  and  this  oocurped  in  a  case  at  Netley  of  acci- 
dental inoculation  with  Malta  fever:  one  of  three  cases  tnat  have 
happened  there.  The  case  is  cepofted  in  the  Britisk  Medici 
Joumalt  October  16,  1897:  "  It  appears  that  he  had  scfatdKd  his 
hand  with  a  hypodermic  needle  on  September  17,  when  inuninridng 
a  horse  for  the  preparation  o^  semmoprotective  agaiost  Malta  fever: 
and  his  blood,  when  examined,  had  a  typical  reaction  with  the 
micrococcus  of  Malta  fever  in  looo^old  dtlutiao.  The  1k»M|,  whkJi 
has  been  immunized  for  Malta  fever  for  the  last  dgkt  oMxitha,  wm 
immediatdy  bled,  and  we  are  informed  thalt  the  patient  haa  now 
had  two  injections,  each  of  30  cub.  cm.  of  the  senim.  He  b  doii^ 
well,  and  it  b  hoped  that  the  attack  haa  been  out  short."  Atmnt 
50  cases  of  the  fever,  by  April  1899,  had  been  treated  at  Netley. 
The  Lancet,  April.  15,  1809,  ays  that  the  treatment  waa  "with 
marked  benefit:  whereas  thiey  found  that  all  drug  treatment  failed, 
the  antitoxin  treatment  had  been  generally  suooessfuL"  Hapnily, 
it  has  now  been  proved  that  the  usual  source  of  infectico  with  Malta 
fever  b  the  drinking  of  the  milk  of  infected  foats:  thus,  by  the 
avoidance,  or  by  the  careful  and  thorough  boihng  of  the  milk,  the 
fever  may  be  fxeveated:  and  prevention  b  better  than  cure.  In 
IQ04  a  commission  was  seat  out  to  Malta  by  the  Royal  Society,  at 
the  request  of  our  government,  to  discover  how  the  fever  b  convened 
to  man.  They  found  that  it  b  not  conveyed  by  air.  or  by  driiUanf. 
uatcr,  or  by  pollution  of  sewage,  or  by  contact;  nor  are  tea  germs 
carried,  like  those  of  malaria,  yellow  fever  and  sleepinff  eicfcuen, 
by  insects.  They  found  that  it  might  be  conveyed  in  food.  There- 
fore Bruce  examined  the  milch-goats,  since  goats'  milk  b  ttniversally 
drunk  in  Malta.  The  goats  boked  healthy  enough,  but  it  was  found 
that  the  bkwd  of  50%  of  them  gave  itih  WidaT  reaction,  and  that 
some  10%  of  them  were  actively  poisonous:  monkeys  fed  on  milk 
from  one  of  them,  even  for  one  day,  almost  invariably  got  die 
disease.  On  the  1st  of  July  1906.  an  official  order  waa  issued 
forbidding  the  supply  of  goats*  milk  to  our  aarrison.  The  year 
before,  there  had  been  643  cases  among  our  soldiers  alope.  In  1906^ 
up  to  the  i8t  of  July,  thme  were  123  cases.  During  the  rest  of  the 
year,  induding  the  three  worst  mooths^for  the  fever,  there  were  40 
cases.  In  1907  there  were  1 1  cases;  in  1908  there  were  5  oases; 
in  1909  there  was  i  case;  in  1910,  by  latest  accounts,  non» 

12.  epidemic  MeningUis.-^Tht  hbtory  of  the  serum  treatment 
of  epidemic  meningitis  affords  an  admirable  example  of  the  place 
of  experiments  on  animab  in  tbe  advancement  of  medical  pcactioe. 
This  form  of  meningitb  b  one  oL  the  worst  ways  in  which  a  man  can 
die^  Dr  Robb,  who  had  charge  of  the  Bielfast  fever  hospitab 
during  an  efuderaic  in  Belfast,  calls  it  /*  the  most  terrible  ui  its 
manifestations,  and  the  most  disastrous  in  its  death-rate,  of  all  tbe 
epidemic  diseases  met  with  in  Englbh-spcaking  countries."  Vei)r 
little  b  known  as  to  the  way  in  which  it  spreads,  and  the  public 
health  authorities  cannot  prevent  its  sudden  appearance  in  a  tonro. 
"  Many  of  those  attacked,"  says  Dr  Robb,  ^'died  within  a  few 
houn  of  the  onset,  and  that  after  terrible  suffering;  while  many 
of  those  who  survived  the  acute  attack  lingered  on  for  weeks  and 
months,  going  steadily  downhill  in  spitie  of  every  effort  to  save 
them.  Anin,  many  of  those  who  did  survive  were  kf  t  peronancatly 
maimed.  That  b  the  usual  picture  of  the  disease  when  it  b  left 
to  the  older  methods  of  treatment. 

By  means  of  inocubtion  experiments,  Dr  Flexner  and  Dr  Jofaling, 
of  the  Rockefeller  Institute,  proved  that  tbe  disease  b  due  to  a 
particular  kind  of  germ,  diplocoocus  intraoellularis.  They  obtained 
these  germs  from  the  bodies  of  patients  who  had  died.of  the  disease; 
they  cultivated  the  germs  all  by  themselves,  in  test  tubes,  apart 
from  all  other  kinds  of  germs;  and  they  were  able  to  rquoauoa 
tbe  disease  in  monkeys  i)y  injecting  under  the  sldn  a  pftii^^**'^ 
quantity  of  thb  pure  caltum  of  the  germs*  Jit  may  be  worth  tiodnt 


VlVlSECTrON 


thftt  the  dlaeate  In  monlcM  is  lew  viblent  and  len  painful  than  it  Is 
in  man.  By  the  help  of  these  experiments,  Flexner  and  Jobllngr 
were  able  to  prepare  a  aerum  for  the  treatment  Of  tha  dlMMe,  in 
the  same  way  as  the  aerum  is  orepared  wliich  haa  been  such  a 
blcssins  to  the  world  in  oasea  of  diphtlieria.  This  scrum  for  the 
treatment  of  epidemk  meningitis  was  irat  need  in  the  ^mag  of 

The  coirtrast  between  caaee  without  semm  titatmcat  and  cases 
with  serum  treatment  w  very  plain.  We  may  first  give  the  records 
before  the  ose  of  the  scruiku  Of  4000  cases  m  New  York  in  19Q ' 
75%  died;  Baker  zcportB  from  Greater  New  York  aii3  cases  wii 


reporta  in  tsettast  U907)  6«3  .^^  .  _      _ 

79-2  %  mortality:  Ker  leports  that  m  the  Ediabureh  epidemic  there 
was  78  %  mortahty;  Robertson  reports  from  Leitn  (1907)  6a  cases 
with  74*4%  mortality;  Tumour  reports  fram  the  Tiaiifvaal  aoo 
cases  with  74.%  mortality.  Amongst  patients  treated  ia  hospitals 
the  death-rate  was  no  better.  Of  aoa  cases  in  Ruchill  Hoq>ital, 
GhuKOw,  70-2%  diod;  of  108  cases  in  Edinbuigh  Fever  Hospital, 
8o>5%  died;  of  27^  cases  in  Belfast  Fever  Hospital*  73*3%  died; 
and  Dunn  reports  that  in  the  Boston  Children's  HospitaJ,  duriauE  the 
eight  yean  1899*1907,  the  mortality  varied  from  69%  to  80%. 
Contrast  with  these  the  resulta  in  cases  treated  with  Flekner's  and 
Jobling's 


City  Hospital,  Cincinnati. 
Dr  Dunn,  Boston 

Johns  Hopkins  Hospital,  Baltlmoie 
Khode  Island  Hospital 
Lakeside  Hospital,  Cleveland    , 
Edinbureh  Fever  Hospital 
Mount  Sinai  Hospital  (Children) 
Municipal  Hospital.  Philadelphia 
Belfast  Fever  Hospital 


Cases* 


45 
40 
22 

17 

29 

53 

15 
21 

98 


Died. 


14 
9 

i 

It 
«3 

2 
9 


Mortality 
per  cent. 


3i'i 

22-5 

l8-i 

35-2 

377 

43-3 

«3-3 
42.7 

29-6 


Thew  figures  speak  for  themselves.  Similar  reauhs  have  been 
obtained  with  similar  treatment  in  FVance  and  Germany.  "  Fsom 
these  figures,"  says  Dr  Robb,  *'  it  will  be  seen  that  the  death-rate  in 
cases  not  treated  with  serum  averaged  some  75  %.  This  has  been 
reduced  in  cases  treated  with  the  serum  to  less  than  half,  and  in 
many  instances  much  bcfew  that  figure."  "  My  i»wn  experience 
has  been  that  of  275  cases  und  '    '       *-*  *^  ' 

of  the  serum  was  commenced, 
treated  with  serum  29'6^ 

every  case  sent  into  hospitial  since  September  1907  haa  been  treated 
tn  this  way.  No  change  in  the  wntttiv  of  tfie  attack  waaobscrved: 
In  the  three  months  nnmediately  beibre  the  scrum  arrived  with 
us  45  cases  came  under  treatment,  of  whom  37^  or  Saddled;  and 
in  the  first  four  months  after  we  began  its  use  m  hospital  30  cases 
were  treated,  of  whom  8  died,  a  mortality  of  26<6%;  whtte  of  the 
^  cases  ooeunidg  in  the  dty  in  the  sane  pefiodr  bnt  MC  sent 
mto  hofliMtal,  and  not  treated  with  the  serum,  over  80%  died. 
Great  as  this  change  in  the  death-rate  has  been,  it  is  not  more  strik- 
ing than  the  improvement  in  the  course  run  by  the  cases;  for 
whereas  it  was  common  to  have  cases  running-  00  into  weeks 
and  even  months,  such  casea  are  no  bnger  mat  with !'  (IL  D.  & 
pamphlet,  1909). 

I3-  Afo/orta.— Lavesan,  ia  1880,  discovered  the  Plasmodium 
malariae,  an  amoeboid  ofganism,  in  the  blood  of  malarial  patients. 
In  18Q4  Manson  took,  as  a  working  theory  of  malaria,  the  old  belief 
that  the  mosquito  Is  the  intermediate  host  of  the  parasite.  In  1895 
came  MacCuUmn'a  observations  on  an  allied  organism^  H^ilmtUmm. 
In  X897*  after  two  years'  work,  Ross  found  booieS}  pwmented  like 
the  PlasmwUum,  in  the  outer  coat  of  the  Btomach  oTthe  grey  or 
*'  dapple- winged  '*  mosquito,  after  it  had  been  fed  on  malariafblood. 
In  Pel)ruary  1898  he  started  work  in  Calcutta:  "Arriving  there 
at  a  non^fever  season,  he  took  up  the  study  of  what  mav  be  called 
'  bird  malaria.'  In  birds,  two  parasites  have  become  well  kaown-^ 
(1)  the  Halteridium.  (2)  the  ProUoscma  of  Labh6.  Both  have 
flaeellate  forms,  and  both  are  closely  allied  to  the  Plasmodium 
malariae.  Using  grey  mosquitoes  and  proteoeoma>infected  birds, 
Ross  showed  by  a  la«ge  number  of  observatkiaB  that  it  was  only 
from  blood  eontaimng  the  protoosoma  that  ngnented  cells  in  the 
grey  mosquito  could  be  got;  therefore  that  this  cell  is  derived  from 
we  proteosoma,  and  is  an  evolutionary  stage  of  that  parasite  " 
iManson,  i8q8).  These  pigmented  cells  give  issue  to  innumerable 
«w»rms  of  epindle^haped  bodies,  "  germinal  rods  ";  and  in  infeclol 
mosottitoet  Roes  found  these  rods  in  the  glands  of  the  probosds.' 
r  maiiy,  h«  oompleted  the  circle  of  development,  by  infecting  healthy 
sparrows  by  causing  mosquitoes  to  bite  them.  It  would  be  hard  to 
JUTiass  Roes's  work,  and  that  done  in  Italy  by  Grass!  and  others, 
tor  fineness  and  carefulness.  He  ays,  for  Instance,  "  out  af  24$ 
Vcywaquitoes  fed  on  binla  with  protapeona,  iTfi  or  9aV^  fsp- 
wned  ptgmented  cella;  out  of  349  fed  on  bkx)d  oontainii«  halter- 


«6$ 

wTtll 


velU 
has 


idiom,  fanmatttfe  proteosoma,  Ac^  not  one  contained  a  sfi 
pigmented  cell.    .   .    .  Ten  mosquitoes  fed  on  the  sparrow 
numerous  proteosoma  contained  1009  p^mented  oells,  or  an  avenge 
of  loi  each.    Ten  mosquitoes  fed  on  the  sparrow  with  modeiata 

?roteosoma  contained  392  pigmented  cdls,  or  an  average  of  29  each, 
en  ^mosquitoes  fed  on  the  sparrow  with  no  proteosoma  contained 
no  tttgmented  cefls." 

By  these  and  the  like  obeervations  it  wnamMie  practically  oertala 
that  malaria  is  tranamitted  from  man  to  man  by  a  qtedaf  kind  of 
mosQuito.  Then  came  the  final  experiments  on  man.  In  1900 
Samoon,  Low  and  Teni  made  thev  famous  experiment  on  diem* 
selves  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ostia.  They  put  up  a  little  mosquko. 
proof  hut  in  a  neighbourhood  *'  saturated  with  malaria."  In  this 
little  hut  they  lived  through  the  whole  of  the  malarh  season, 
without  takinga  grain  of  quuiine,  and  not  one  of  them  had  a  touch 
of  the  fever.  Then  another  experiment  was  made.  A  consignment 
of  mosquitoes  containine  blood  from  a  case  of  malaria  was  sent  from 
Rome  to  the  London  Sdhool  of  Tropical  Medicine.  Dr  Manson  and 
Dr  Warren  then  submitted  themselves  to  being  bitten  by  these 
inosquitoes,  and  in  due  time  suffered  miUarial  fever.  On  these  proven 
facts  was  founded  the  whole  plan  of  campaign  against  mabria. 
The  nature^  habits  and  breediiw^kwes  of  the  mosquito  of  malaria 
{Anopl^eles  macuKpennis)  have  been  studied  with  Infinite  care,  and 
are  now  thoroughly  recognised.  The  task  ia  to  destroy  its  egss  and 
Its  larvae,  to  break  the  cyde  of  its  lifot  and  to  do  away  with  its 
favourite  breeding-places. 

14.  YeOaa   Few.  —  A  specta!  mosquito   (Stegomyia)   conveys 
'low  fever  from  man  to  man.    The  germ,  lilix  the  germ  of  rabies, 

not  yet  been  made  visible  under  the  microeeope.  It  is  {nobably 
ia  very  minute  spirochacte,  whidi  undergoes  a  dow  evolution  in  the 
body  of  the  mosquito  told  off  for  that  purpose.  The  earlier  experf- 
ments  (18x0-20)  made  on  themselves  bv  Chervin,  PMter,  Firth 
and  others  were  truly  heroic,  but  provea  nothing.  Finlay  (1880^ 
1900)  experimented  with  mosquitoes  on  himself  .and  other  volunteers, 
and  certainly  proved  the  transmisribflity  of  the  fever  throuj^ 
mosquitoes.  Sanarelli  (1898)  prepared  an  immunizing  serum  which 
gave  good  results:  but  the  gam  which  he  took  to  be  the  specific 
cause  of  the  fever,  having  found  it  in  cases  of  the  fever,  b  not  now 
accepted  by  bacteriologists  as  specific:    But  the  great  work,  which 

§  roved  to  the  world  the  way  of  infection  of  yellow  fever^jraa  done 
y  the  Army  Commisrion  of  the  United  States  (1900).  This  Com« 
mission  was  sent  to  Havana,  and  the  experiments  were  carried  out 
by  Drs^  Walter  Reed,  Carrol,  Lazear  and  Agnunonte  In  the  Army 
Camp  in  Havana.  A  hot  was  constructed  with  two  compart- 
ments^ divided  from  each  other  by  a  wire  mosquito-proof  screen. 
In  one  compartment  they  placed  mfected  mosquitoes,  which  had 
bitten  a  yellow  fever  patient  within  the  first  three  days  of  the  fever. 
More  than  twenty  volunteers  offered  themselves  for  experiment.  In 
one  set  of  experiments,  dothing  and  other  material,  soiled  by  the 
vomit  or  bkwid  or  excretions  from  cases  of  the  fever,  were  placed  in 
one  of  the  rooms,  and  some  of  the  experimenters  slept  for  ai  oon- 
sccutivc  nights  in  contact  with  these  materials,  and  in  some  cases 
in  the  very  sheets  on  whidi  yellow  lever  patients  had  died.  Not  one 
of  these  experimenten  tdok  the  fever.  In  another  set  of  experi- 
ment^ 22  01  the  experimenters  subndtted  themselves  to  be  bitten  by 
the  infected  mosquitoes,  and  in  eadb  instance  they  took  the  disease. 
It  was  thus  proved,  past  all  reasonable  doubt,  that  ycBow  fever 
cannot  be  conveyed  by  ordinary  Infection,  but  must  be  transmitted 
from  man  to  man  through  the  agency  of  the  moequieo.  It  might 
be  said,  by  the  opponenu  of  all  experiments  on  anhnals,  that  the 
disa)very  of  these  facts  has  nothing  to  do  with  "  vivisection."  But, 
as  Professor  Oder  said  in  his  evidence  before  the  Royal  Commission 
(vol.  iv.  p.  156),  these  experiments  would  never  have  been  thought  of 
if  it  had  not  been  for  previous  experiments  on  anlmak.  *'  The  men 
who  made  these  investigations  spent  their  lives  in  laboratoriea,  and 
their  whole  work  has  been  based  on  experimentation  on  animals. 
They  could  not  otherwise,  of  course,  have  ventured  to  devise  a  serks 
of  experiments  of  this  sort.'*  Out  of  this  work  came  the  wipins  out 
of  yclk)w  fever  (q.v.)  from  Cuba  after  the.Spanlsh-Americas  War, 
and  from  the  area  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

15.  Steepini-Sickness.-^^Expcnments  on  animals  have  proved  that 
sleeping-sickness  is  due  to  spedfic  germs  carried  by  tsc-tse  flica  froan 
man  to  man.  By  measures  taken  to  prevent  this  way  of  infectioa, 
legions  of  human  lives  have  been  saved  or  safeguaideo. 

16.  HfantiU  P<valffsis.~~FlexaertOi  the  Rockefeller  Tnstrtute,  has 
proved,  oy  experiments  on '  animals,  the  infective  nature  of  this 
disease,  and  its  transmissibillty  by  moculation:  a  discovery  of  the 
very  utmost  value  and  sfgnifioince. 

17.  J/yxoedlrma.— Our  knowledge  of  myxoedema,  like  our  know- 
ledge of  cerebral  localization,  began  not  in  experimental  arience 
but  in  dinical  observation  (Gulf.  1873;  Ord.  1877).  In  1882- 
1883  Revcrdin  and  Kocfaer  published  cases  where  removal  of  the 
thyroid  gland  for  disease  goitre)  had  been  followed  by  symptoms 
such  as  Cull  and  Ord  had  described.  In  i88a  Horslcy,  by  removal 
of  the  thyroid  gLind  of  monkeys,  producea  in  them  a^  chronic 
myxoedema,  a  cretinokl  state,  Uie  exact  image  of  the  disease  in 
roan;^  the  same  oyvniitoms,  coune,  dssue-changes,  mental  and 
physical  hebetude,  the  same  alterations  of  the  exrretk>n8,  the 
temperature  and  the  voice.    In  1888  the  Clinical  Society  of  London 


»9 


of  the 


«64 

niblifhed  an.exbaiisttve  report.  «f  ai5  PH^  ot  .,~—^  -  j 
Sucaae,  giving  all  historical,  dimcal.  pathological,  chemical  and 
experimeotal  tocu;  but  out  of  815  pa^  there  is  but  half  a  page 
•bout  treatment,  of  the  uaelen  oU-lashioned  sort.  In  1 890  Honley 
publiabed  the  Miggestion  that  a  graft  of  thyroid  gland  from  a 
newly  Idlkd  animal  should  be  transplaoted  beneath  the  skin  m 
cases  of  rayxoedema:  "  The  justification  of  this  procedure  rested  on 
the  remarkable  experiments  of  Schiff  and  voo  £assdsbeig.  I  only 
became  aware  in  April  1800  that  this  proponl  had  been  in  fact 
fbcestalled  in  1889  by  Dr  Bucher  m  Aarau.  Kocber  had  tned  to 
do  the  aame  thing  in  1883,  but  the  graft  waa  soon  absorbed;  but 
early  in  1889  he  tried  it  again  in  five  cases,  and  one  gnatly  ui- 
proved."  In  1891  Georae  Murray  published  his  NoU  on  Uu  Treal- 
metU  0/  Myxoedema  by  Hypodemic  Injections  of  onExtnui  of  tkf 
Thyrmd  Ghnd  of  a  Slu^p.  Later,  the  gland  was  adnumsterBd  m  food. 
At  the  present  time  tabloids  of  thyroid  extract  are  given.   We  could 


VIZAGAPATAM 


not  have  a  better  example  how  experiments  on  animals  are  necessary 
for  the  advancement  of  medicine.  Now,  with  httle  bottkaof  Ubloids* 
men  and  women  are  restored  to  health  who  had  become  degenerate 
in  body  and  mind,  disfigured  and  debased.  The  same  treatment 
has  given  back  mental  and  bodily  grofwtb  to  countlMs  cases  of 
sporadic  cretinism.  Moreover,  the  action  of  the  thyroid  dand  haa 
been  made  known,  and  the  facu  of  "  uitemal  secreUon  have  been 
fai  part  eluddatcd.  (Claude  Bernard,  speaking  of  the  thyroid, 
the  thymus  and  the  suprarenal  capsules,  said: ^'  We  know  abso- 
•lutely  nothing  about  the  functMus  of  these  organs;  we  have  not 
ao  much  as  an  idea  what  use  and  imporunce  they  may  possess, 
because  experiments  have  told  us  nothing  about  them,  and  anatomy, 
left  to  itself,  M  absolutely  silent  00  the  subject.*') 

18.  Tht  Actum  0/  />r««J.— Even  in  the  18th  century,  medkane 
was  still  tainted  with  magic  and  with  gross  superrtition:  the 
t73i  Pharmacopoeia  contauis  substances  that  were  the  re;^lar 
stock-in-tiade  of  witchcraft.  Long  after  1721  neither  dmical 
observation,  nor  anatomy,  nor  pathology  brought  about  a  reason- 
able uadenunding  of  the  acuon  of  drugs:  it  was  the  physiologtsts, 
mora  than  the  [Ayaicians,  who  worked  the  thmg  out--Bichat, 
Magsndie,  Oaude  Bernard.  Magendie's  study  of  upas  and  strych- 
jkioe,  Bemaid's  study  of  curare  and  digitalis,  revealed  the  seUcttoe 
action  of  drags:  the  direct  influence  of  strychnine  on. the  central 
nerve-oells.  of  curare  on  the  terminal  filaments  of  motor  nerves. 

Two  Instances  may  be  given  bow  experimenU  on  animab  have 
elucidated  the  action  of  drugs.  A  long  list  might  be  made— 
aconite,  bdladoana,  ditoride  of  caldum,  cocain,  chloral,  ergot, 
morphia,  salicylic  add,  strophanthus,  the  chief  diuretics,  the  chief 
diaphoretiea— all  these  and  many  more  have  been  studied  to  good 
purpose  by  this  method;  but  it  roust  suffice  to  .quote  here  (i)  Sir 
ThomM  Fiaser's  account  of  digiults,  and  (^)  Str  Thomas  Lauder 
Bnmton's  account  of  nitrite  of  amyl  J—        ,    ,      .  . 

"  1.  Digiulis  was  introduced  as  a  remedy  for  dropsy;  and  on 
the  applications  which  were  made  of  it  for  the  treatment  of  that 
disease,  a  slowing  action  upon  the  cardiac  movements  was  observed, 
which  led  to  its  acquiring  the  repuution  of  a  cardiac  sedative. . . . 
It  was  not  until  the  cxpenmeotal  method  was  applied  in  its  investiga- 
tbn,  in  the  first  instance  by  Claude  Bernard,  and.  subsequently 
by  Dybkowsky.  Pelikan,  Meyer.  B<ihm  and  Schmiedeberg,  that 
the  true  actM>n  of  digitalis  upon  the  circulation  was  discovered. 
It  was  shown  that  the  effects  upon  the  circulation  were  not  in  any 
r»*r*  sense  sedative,  but,  on  the  contrary,  stimulant  and  tonic, 
rendering  the  actwn  of  the  heart  more  powerful,  and  increasing 
the  tension  of  the  blood  vessels.  The  Indications  for  its  use  in 
disease  were  thereby  revolutionized,  and  at  the  same  time  rendered 
nK>re  exact;  and  the  striking  benefits  which  are  now  afforded  bv 
the  use  of  this  substance  in  most  (cardiac)  diseases  were  made  avail- 
able to  humanity."        ,    ^.     .  .    ,  . .       ,  « 

"  3.  In  the  spring  of  1867  I  had  opportumties  of  5x>nstantly 
observing  a  patient  who  suffered  from  angina  pectoris,  and  of 
obtaining  from  him  numerous  spbygmographic  tracings,  both 
during  the  attack  and  during  the  interval.  These  showed  that 
during  the  attack  the  pulse  became  quicker,  the  bk>od-prcssure  rose 
and  the  arterioles  contracted.  ...  It  occurred  to  me  that  n  »t  waa 
possible  to  diminish  the  tension  by  drugs  instead  of  by  bleeding. 
the  pain  would  be  removed.  1  knew  from  unpublished  experiments 
00  animals  by  Dr  A.  Gamgee  that  nitrite  of  amyl  had  this  power, 
and  therefore  tried  it  on  the  oatiest.  My  expecUtions  were  per- 
fectly answered."  ....  ,     •         ,. 

19.  Snake  Kaww.— Sewall  (1887)  "bowed  that  animab  could 
be  unrounizcd,  by  repeated  injection  of  small  doses  of  rattlesnake  s 
venom,  against  a  sevenfold  fatal  dose.  Kanthack  (1891)  immun< 
ixed  animals  against  cobra  venom:  afterward  Fraser,  C^mette  and 
many  otben  worked  at  the  subject.  Fraser's  work  on  the  anti- 
doui  properties  of  the  bile  of  eerpents  is  of  the  very  highest  interest 
and  value,  both  in  physiology  and  in  sero-therapy.  Calmette  s 
work  is  an  admirable  instance  of.  the  delicacy  and  accuracy  of 
the  experimental  method.  The  different  venoms  were  measured 
in  decimal  milligrammes,  and  their  action  was  estimated  by  the 
body-weightt  of  the  animals  inoqutated;  but  of  course  this  estimate 
of  virulence  was  checked  according  to  the  susceptibility  of  the 
animals;  guinea-pigs,  rabbiu  and  especially  rate  being  more  sus- 
captible  than  doga^ 


"  The  following  table  gives  the  relative  tcndcity.  fori  _ 
of  rabbit,  of  the  different  venoms  that  1  have  tested  '*  >* 

I.  Venook  of  Nnja  ....  0*15  aiUjgrainnia 
kilogramme  of  rabbit.  One  gmmne  of  this  venom 
kills  4000  kilograaunes  of  rsMk:  activity ■•4,oocm>ool 

9.  Venom  of  Hcploeefhahtt     .      .'  0-39      .    3450,000^ 

3.  Venom  of  Pseudochis    .  1*25  800.000. 

4.  Venom  of  Pcfios  Asms  •    4<oo  390^000^ 


By  experiments  in  mtro  Calmette -studUed  the  iniuence  of 

and  chemical  agento  on  these  venooss;  and,  working  by  various 

methods,  was  able  to  immunise  aniasals>- 

**  I  have  got  to  immunisiag  rablnts  against  doses  of  venom  that 
are  truly  colossal.  I  have  several,  vaorinated  more  than  a  year 
ago.  that  take  without  the  least  discomfort  so  much  as  forty  milla- 
grammes  of  venom  of  Naja.  tnpmdians  at  ooce.  Five  drops  ol  aeruni 
ffom  these  rabbiu  whoUy  nevtraliae  ta  vitro  the  toxidty  of  one 
milttgramme  of  Najn  venom.  ...  It  is  not  even  necessary  that 
the  serum  should  come  from  an  animal  vaodnated  against  the 
same  sort  of  venom  as  that  in  the  mixtare.  The  serum  of  a  rabbit 
Immunised  against  tbe  venom  of  the  cobra  or  the  viper  acts  in- 
differently on  all  the  venoms  that  I  have  tested." 

In  189s  he  had  prepared  a  curative  scrum:  **  If  you  first  inocn- 
late  a  rabbit  with  such  a  dose  of  venom  as  IdUs  the  contcol-asrimals 
in  three  houn;  and  then,  an  hour  after  injecting  tbe  veaom,  inject 
under  the  skin  of  the  abdomen  four  to  five  cubic  centimetres  of 
serum,  recovery  is  the  rulcb  When  you  interfere  bter  than  this, 
the  results  are  uncertain;  and  out  of  all  my  experiments  tbe 
delay  of  aa  hour  and  a  half  is  the  most  that  1  have  been  able  to 
reach." 

In  1896  four  suGoesilol  cases  were  reported  in  the  Britisk  MtHsd 
Journal.   lb  1898  Calmette  reports  >— 

**  It  as  now  neariy  two  yean  ance  the  use  of  my  antivenomoa 
serum  was  introduced  in  India,  in  Algeria,  in  Egypt,  on  the  West 
Coast  of  Africa,  in  America,  in  the  West  Indies.  Antilles.  Ac  it 
has  been  very  often  used  tor  men  and  domestic  animals  (dogs, 
horses,  oxen),  and  up  to  now  none  of  those  that  have  received 
an  injection  <rf  serum  have  succumbed.  A  great  number  of  obser- 
vations have  been  communicated  to  me,  andnot  one  of  them  refcn 
to  a  case  of  failure"  {Brit.  Med.  Joum.,  May  14,  X898;  see  also 
Boston  Medical  and  SmtJUal  Jonmal,  A^l  7, 1808). 

It  u  of  oottfse  Impossible  that  "  antivenene  should  be  always 
at  hand,  or  that  it  should  bring  about  any  great  decrease  in  tae 
number  of  deaths  from  snake-bite,  which  in  India  alone  are  30,000 
annually;  but  at  least  something  has  been  accomplished  with  it. 

The  account  ipven  above  of  the  chief  disooveriea  that  have 
been  made  by  the  help  of  experimeots  on  animals,  in  phsrsi- 
ology,  pathology,  bacteriology  and  therapeutics,  might  easily 
have  been  lengthened  if  we  added  to  it  other  methods  of  treat- 
ment that  owe  leas,  but  yet  owe  something,  to  these  experi- 
ments. Kevertheless  the  facts  quoted  in  this  article  are 
suffident  to  indicate  the  great  debt  that  medicine  owes  to  the 
empk>3rmcnt  of  vivisection.  (S.  P.) 

VIZAOAPATAM.  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the 
Madras  presidency.  The  town  stretches  3  m.  along  the  coast, 
and  has  a  station  on  a  short  branch  of  the  East  Coast  railway, 
4S4  m.  N.E.  of  ^ladras.  Pop.  (1901)  40,8192.  It  lies  on  a 
small  bay,  the  south  extremity  of  which  is  bounded  by  a 
promontory  known  as  the  Dolphin's  Nose,  and  its  nortben 
extremity  by  the  suburb  of  Waliair.  The  town  or  fort,  as  it 
is  called,  is  separated  from  the  Dolphin's  Nose  by  a  small  river, 
which  forms  a  bar  where  it  enters  the  sea,  but  is  passable  for 
vessels  of  300  tons  during  spring  tides.  An  Eni^ish  factory 
was  established  here  early  in  the  17  th  century,  which  was  cap- 
tured by  the  French  in  1757.  but  shortly  afterwards  recover^. 
The  town  owes  much  to  the  munificence  of  the  neighbouring 
raja  of  Vizianagram.  A  water  supply  has  been  provided  at 
ft  cost  of  £30,ooa  Waltair  is  the  European  quarter.  There 
is  a  considerable  Roman  Catholic  population  and  a  branch  of 
the  London  Mission.  The  exports  by  sea  include  manganese 
ore,  rice  and  sugar.  Some  weaving  is  carried  on,  and  there 
is  a  spenah'ty  of  ornamental  boiees,  &c..  carved  oat  of  sandal- 
wood, horn,  ivory,  porcupine  quills  and  ulver. 

The  DiSTUCT  or  Vuagapatam  has  an  area  of  17,33a  sq.  no., 
bong  one  of  the  largest  districts  in  India.  It  Is  a  picturesque 
and  hilly  country,  but  for  the  most  part  unhealthy.  Tbe 
surface  is  generally  undulating,  rising  towards  the  interior, 
and  crossed  by  streams,  which  are  dry  except  during  the  rainy 
season.  The  main  portion  is  occupied  by  the  Eastern  Ghats. 
Tbe  .slopes  of  theas  nountainB  are  dotbed  with  kixuriaat 


VIZETELLY— VLAARDINGEN 


165 


vegeUdon,  anM  wiiicli  rise  many  t&Il  forest  trees,  while  tlie 
lyamboo  grows  profusely  in  the  valleys.  The  drainage  ota  the 
east  is  carried  by  numeimis  streams  direct  to  the  sea,  and  that 
to  the  west  flows  into  the  Godivari  throu|^  the  Indravati  or 
through  the  Sabati  and  Slier  rivers.  To  the  west  of  the  range 
is  situated  the  greater  portion  of  the  extensrve  zamindan  of 
Jftipur,  which  is  for  the  most  part  very  hilly  and  jungly  In  the 
extreme  north  a  remarkable  mass  of  hiUs,  aJled  the  Nim- 
giris,  rise  to  a  height  of  5000  ft.  The  plain  along  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  is  a  vast  sheet  of  cultivati(»i,  green  with  rice  fields  and 
gardens  of  sugar-cane  and  tobacco  There  are  great  varieties 
of  chmate  in  the  district.  Along  the  coast  the  air  is  soft  and 
itlaxing,  the  prevaOmg  winds  being  south-easterly  The 
acverage  annual  rainfall  at  Vizagapatam  exceeds  40  hi  Pop 
(I901)  2,933,650.  showing  an  increase  of  4  7%  in  the  decade 
The  principal  crops  are  rice,  millets,  pulses  and  oil-seeds,  with 
some  sugar-cane,  cotton  and  tobacco  The  coast  portion  of 
the  district  is  traversed  throughout  by  the  East  Coast  radway 
opened  from  Madras  to  Calcutta  m  1904.  and  a  Ime  throo^ 
the  hills  from  Vizianagram  to  Raipur  m  the  Central  Provinces 
has  been  sanctioned  The  chief  seaports  are  Bimbpatam  and 
VizagapatauL 

On  the  dissolution  of  the  Mogul  empire  Vizagapatam  formed 
part  of  the  territory  known  as  the  Northern  Circars.  which  were 
ceded  to  the  East  India  Company  by  treaties  in  1765  and  1766 
It  was  long  before  British  authority  was  esub&M  over  the 
hilly  tract  inhmd,  mhabited  by  aborigmal  tribes,  and  stHl  ad- 
ministered under  a  peculiar  system,  whidi  vests  m  the  collector 
the  powers  of  a  political  agent  This  tract,  forming  more  than 
two-thirds  of  the  whole  district,  is  known  as  the  Agency 

See  Tk$  Vkaj^ptttamDuina  GaatUeer  (Madias,  1907) 

VlZirBLLT,  HEVBY  (iSaoHi894),  Enghsh  publisher,  was 
bom  m  Loadon  on  the  30th  of  Jufy  iSso^  the  sod  of  a  printer 
He  wte  eariy  apprenticed  as  a  wood  engraver,  and  one  of  his 
iifst  blocks  was  a  poftrait  of  **  Old  Fur."  EnoouragMi  fay  the 
SQOoess  of  the  I9iuirated  London  Kma,  Vbetelly  ia  1843,  with 
iSt  brother  James  TlMBai  ViseteUy  liStt-iS^r)  and  Anidrew 
SpMtiswoodA  (I78r-r866),  started  the  PiUoHai  Times,  wUch  was 
publMied  McceHfally  lor  several  years*  In  1855,  m  partnership 
with  Bo3fiie^  he  started  a  threepenny  paper  caOed  the  lUta- 
tFoied  Timet,  wliich  four  years  later  waa  merged  la  the  Penny 
ittrntimei  Paper,  In  i80s  ^aetclly  became  Paris  oorre- 
spondent  for  the  tOmstntei  London  Newt.  Daring  the  yean  he 
remained  hi  Parb  he  pubHahed  several  booka— i>«fif  in  Pent 
(i88t>,  Tke  Story  ej  the  Diamond  Necklace  (r867)  and  a  free 
tnnslatioD  of  Topiors  Mam  in  tke  Iron  Mask.  In  1872  he  was 
transfetved  to  Berihi,  where  he  wrote  Berlin  under  Ike  Netv 
Empire  <t879).  In  1887  he  esUhKshed  a  ptibHshing  bouse  in 
London,  IsMhif  numeiow  transtotions  of  Fiendi  and  Russian 
authors.  In  1888  he  was  proseeiited  for  pubfishing  a  transla- 
tlbii  of  Zek's£«  7W«,  and  was  fined  £xoo,  and  when  he 
reissued  Zola's  works  hi  1889  he  was  agate  prosecuted,  fined 
£soo  and  inprisMied  iir  thiee  months.  In  1893  he  wrote  a 
i^Ivne  of  aatobligittphfcal  remiaisisenee  caltod  daneea  Baek 
Ikrorngk  Saeenly  Yaara,  a  gnphk  picture  of  UteiBry  Bohemia  te 
Pkrisaad  London  between  1840  and  18701  He  died  on  the  tst  of 
January  1894-  ffit youger biecber,  Frank  ^^etdly  (1830-1883), 
was  a  clever  artist  and  foanalist ;  he  went  to  Egypt  as  war 
eonespoMint  for  the  tUmttrated  London  Nems  and  was  never 
heard  of  after  the  aaasaato  of  Hick*  Piufaa's  army  in  Ronfoffan. 

VBBO,  er  Vtexv,  an  episcopal  dty  and  the  capital  of  the 
district  of  Viaeu,  PoMngal,  at  the  termmus  of  a  branch  of  the 
Fignein  da  Foa-Ooarda  raflway,  and  on  the  Rfbeira  d'Asnoe, 
a  sttb-tribataiy  of  the  Kondego.  Pop.  (1900)  8os7  The 
cathedral,  Which  was  founded  te  the  tith  century,  contains 
pictures  by  the  native  aititt  Gfio  Vasoo  (x«th  century).  The 
<ity  stands  near  the  tutea  of  the  andent  Vaeca,  or  Caea  de 
Virialo,  a  RoHHui  odBtaiy  tolony  founds  by  Dechis  Brutus 
and  captmed  hy  VMathns  (snd  omtuiy  b.c.).  The  admin!*- 
tiative  district  of  Visea  eoteddiet  with  the  centtal  and  northern 
puts  of  the  andtnt  ptfovince  of  BefM  (f.f.).  Pop^  (1900) 
40s,as9;  aiea,  1937  aq*  m. 


VIZUJUM^,  V1TAYA001G  01  GKEUAy  a  port  on  tbo  W 
coast  of  India  m  Ratnagih  distnct.  Bomt>ay,  170  m  S  of  Bom 
bay  aty  Pop  {1901}  2339  It  is  one  of  the  best  harboun  on 
the  west  coast,  being  without  any  bar,  and  may  be  entered  m 
all  weathers,  even  to  hrge  ships  It  affords  safe  shelter  dur 
mg  the  south-west  monsoon.  At  the  beginning  of  the  tSth 
century  the  pirate  chief  Angna  made  Viziadrug  the  capital  of 
a  territory  stretching  for  150  m  along  the  coast  and  from  30 
to  60  m.  inland.  The  fort  was  taken  by  Admiral  Watson  and 
Colonel  Clive  m  X7<6 

VIZIAVAQRAM,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the  Vizagapatam 
district  of  Madras,  r7  m.  from  the  seaport  of  Bimlipatam,  on 
the  East  Coast  raOway,  522  m  NE.  of  Madras.  Pop.  (X901) 
37.270  It  has  a  small  mihtary  cantonment.  It  contains  the 
residence  of  a  umindar  of  the  same  name,  who  ranks  as  the 
first  Hindu  nobleman  of  Madras  His  estate  covers  about 
jooo  sq  m.,  with  a  populaticm  of  900,000.  The  esiunated 
mcome  a  £r8o,oob,  pa3ring  a  permanent  land  revenue  of 
£34.000  Tbe  town  possesses  many  fine  btiildings,  entirely 
supported  by  the  raja.  It  has  a  college  and  two  high 
schools. 

The  ruling  family,  which  cSalms  descent  from  a  his^  official 
at  the  court  of  Gokonda,  established  itself  in  Vizagapatam  in 
the  17th  century  In  1754  Viziarama  Raz  made  an  alliance 
wittt  the  French,  but  his  son,  on  succeeding,  fell  out  with  them, 
captured  Vizagapatam  from  them  and  ceded  it  to  the  British 
in  1758  The  next  raja,  another  Viziarama,  was  entirely  under 
the  influence  of  hn  half-brother  Sita  Ram,  whose  power,  how* 
ever,  became  so  great  a  menace  that  he  was  forced  to  retire  ia 
1 793  A  period  of  decay  now  set  hi.  The  raja  was  moompetent, 
and,  his  esute  having  been  sequestrated  for  debt,  revolted  and 
was  defeated  and  killed  In  1794.  The  next  raja,  Karayana 
Babu,  was  no  more  successful,  and  his  estate  had  been 
long  under  the  management  of  the  British  government  when 
he  died  m  1845.  Vbiarama  GaJapatI  Raz,  who  succeeded 
him  and  took  over  full  powen  in  1852,  was  a  man  of  abilhyi 
and  received  the  titles  of  maharaja  and  K.C.S.I.;  as  also  was 
his  son,  the  maharaja  Ananda  Raz,  G.C.I.E.  He  died  in  1897, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Raja  Pusapati  Viziarama  Gajapati  Ras, 
during  whose  minority  (till  1904)  the  estate  was  again  under 
government  administration. 

VIZIBII,  more  correctly  Vmx  (Arabic  WaOf),  literally 
"burden-bearer"  or  "hcfper,"  originaUy  the  chief  ministec 
or  representative  of  the  Abba^d  caliphs.  The  office  of  vizier, 
which  spread  from  the  Arabs  to  the  Persians,  Turks,  Mongols, 
and  other  Oriental  peoples,  arose  under  the  first  Abbakd  caliphs 
(see  Maroioieoak  Institutions,  and  Caliphate,  C  f  i)  and 
took  shape  during  its  tenure  by  the  Barmc^des  (q.v.).  The 
vizier  stood  between  sovereign  and  subjects,  representing  the 
former  in  all  matters  touching  the  hitter.  This  withdrawal 
of  the  head  of  the  state  from  direct  contact  with  his  people 
was  unknown  to  the  Omayyads,  and  was  certainly  an  imitation 
of  Perdan  usage,  it  has  even  been  plausibly  conjectured  that 
the  name  b  but  the  Arabic  adaptation  of  a  Persian  title.  In 
modem  usage  the  term  is  used  in  the  East  generally  for  any 
important  official  under  the  sovereign. 

VIZZOLA  TlCmO,  a  vilkge  of  Lombardy,  Italy,  hi  the 
province  of  Milan,  6  m.  W.  of  Gallarate  and  31  m.  N.W.  of 
MlUm,  725  ft.  above  sea4eveL  Pop.  (r9oi)  469.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Tkino,  and  Is  remarkable  as  having  one  of  the  largest 
electric  works  te  Emope,  worked  by  water-power  from  the 
Tidno  brought  by  a  cuial  4)  m.  long,  constructed  in  1889-^1 
by  the  Sodet4  Lombarda  per  Distribuaione  di  Energia  Bettrica. 
OaOarate,  Sesto  Calende,  Saronno  and  other  neighbouring 
places  are  supplied  from  here  with  electricity. 

VLAABINIIOBII,  a  river  port  of  Holland,  hi  the  proves  ot 
South  Holland,  on  the  Maas,  6  m.  by  rail  W.  of  Rotterdam. 
Pop.  17,000^  A  very  old  town  and  the  seat  of  a  former  mar 
graviate  belongliig  to  the  oounu  of  Holland,  Vlaardingca  is 
now  chiefly  important  as  the  centre  of  the  great  herring  and 
Qod  fisheries  of  tibe  North  Sea.  lu  only  otnaneou  are  the  old 
Batk«<i^lace  and  the  fardsna  foraMd  by  the  purchase  in  s8sr 


1 66 


VLACHS 


of  a  seat  called  the  Hof.  ThecfakliBdiiitricatiethOMCQOiMcied 
with  the  large  fishing  trade. 

VLACHS.  The  Vlach  (VUkh,  WaHach)  or  Runua  ran 
constitutes  a  distinct  division  of  the  Latin  family  of  peoples, 
P^i^n^  widely  disseminated  throughout  south-«asteni  Europe, 
mmot  both  north  and  south  of  the  Danube,  and  extending 
OwMacft  sporadically  from  the  Russian  river  Bug  to  the 
'*^  Adnatic.    The  total  numben  of  the  Vlachs  may  be 

estimated  at  10,000,000  or  11.000^000  North  of  the  Daiuibe, 
5,400,000  dwell  in  Rumania^  1,250,000  are  settled  in  Transyl> 
vaniai  where  they  constitute  a  large  majority  of  the  population, 
and  a  still  greater  number  are  to  be  fotmd  in  the  Banat  and 
other  Hungarian  districts  west  and  north  of  Transylvania. 
Close  upon  1,000,000  inhaUt  Bessarabia  and  the  adjoining 
paxts  of  South  Russia,  and  about  250,000  are  in.  the  Austrian 
province  of  Bukovuuu  South  of  the  Danube,  about  500,000 
are  scattered  over  northern  Greece  and  European  Turkey, 
under  the  name  of  £ut2o-VUchs,  Tzintzars  or  Aromani  In 
Servia  this  element  is  preponderant  in  the  Timok  valley,  while 
in  Istria  it  is  represented  by  the  Gd,  at  present  largely  Slavon- 
ized,  as  are  now  entirely  the  kindred  Morlachs  of  Dalmatia. 
Since,  however,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  obtain  enct  sutistica 
over  so  wide  an  area,  and  in  countries  where  politics  and  radal 
feeling  are  so  closely  connected,  the  figures  given  above  can 
only  be  regarded  as  approximately  accurate;  and  some  writers 
jfbufx.  the  total  of  the  Vlachs  as  low  as  9,000,00a  It  is  note- 
worthy that  the  Rumans  north  of  the  Danube  continually  gain 
ground  at  the  expense  of  their  neighbours;  and  even  the  long 
successful  Greek  propaganda  among  the  Klitao-Vlacha  were 
checked  after  x86o  by  the  labours  of  Apostolu  Margaritis  and 
other  nationalists. 

A  detailed  account  of  the  phyncal,  mental  and  moral  characteristics 
of  the  Vlachs,  their  modem  avilixation  and  their  historical  develop* 
ment,  will  be  found  under  the  headings  Rumania  and  Macedonia. 

All  divisions  of  the  race  prefer  to  style  themselves  RomqrU, 
Romenit  Rumeni  or  Aroftuun;  and  it  is  from  the  native  pro- 
nunciation of  this  name  that  we  have  the  equivalent  expre»* 
non  Rttman,  a  word  which  must  by  no  means  be  confined  to 
that  part  of  the  Vlach  noe  inhabiting  the  present  kingdom  of. 
Rumania. 

The  name  "  Vlachs,"  applied  to  the  Rumans  by  their  neigh- 
bours but  never  adopted  by  themselves,  appears  under  many 
allied  forms,  the  Slavs  saying  Volokh  or  Wolock,  the 
Greeks  Vlackoif  the  Magyars  OUh,  and  the  Turks, 
at  a  later  date,  IffUk.  In  iu  origin  identical  with  the 
EngUsh  Wedlk  or  fKebA,  it  represents  a  Slavonic  adaptation 
of  a  generic  term  applied  by  the  Teutonic  races  to  ail  Roman 
provincials  during  the  4th  and  5th  centuries.  The  SUvs,  at 
least  in  their  ptindpal  extent,  first  knew  the  Roman  empire 
through  a  Teutonic  medium,  and  adopted  their  term  Vdokk 
from  the  Oatro-Gothic  equivalent  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Wealh. 
It  thus  finds  its  aiuUogies  in  the  German  name  for  Italy — 
WehckUmd  {Waischhnd),  in  the  Walloons  of  the  Low  Countries 
and  the  WaUgau  of  Tirol  An  early  mstance  of  its  application 
to  the  Roman  population  of  the  Eastern  empire  is  found  (c.  550- 
600)  in  the  Traveller's  Song,  where,  in  a  passage  which  in  all 
probability  connects  Itself  with  the  early  trade-route  between 
the  Baltic  staple  of  WoUin  and  Byzantium,  the  g^man  speaks 
of  Caesar's  realm  as  Waiaric,  "Welshiy."  In  verse  140  he 
speaks  of  the  Rum^oalos,  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  Rum  is 
one  of  the  words  by  which  the  Vlachs  of  eastern  Europe  BtHl 
know  themselves. 

The  Vlachs  daim  to  be  a  Lathi  race  in  the  same  tense  as 
the  Spaniards  or  Provencab— Latin  by  language  and  culture, 
and,  in  a  uaalitx  degree,  by  descent.  Despite  the 
long  predominance  of  Greek,  Slavonic  and  Tuifcish 
influence,  there  is  no  valid  objection  to  this  daim, 
which  is  now  generally  accepted  by  competent  ethnologists. 
The  language  of  the  Vlachs  is  Latin  in  structure  and  to  a  great 
extent  in  vocabulary;  thdkr  features  and  stAture  would  not 
lender  them  oenspicuotts  as  foreigners  in.  south  Italy;  and  that 
their  aDosstois  were  Romaft  proviiicials  is  sittAsted  not  on^ 


KMLaUt 


hy  the  names  '*  Vlach  **  and  '*  Ruman  ^  but  also  by  pofMdar 
and  literary  tiariition.    In  their  customs  and  folk-lore    both 
Latin  and  Slavonic  traditions  assert  themselves.     Of    their 
Roman  traditions  the  Trajan  saga,  the  celebration  of  the  La.tla 
festivals  of  the  Rosalia  and  Kalendae,  the  belief  in  the  suiga 
(wiuh),  the  names  of  the  months  and  days  of  the  week,  may 
be  taken  as  typical  fwsmpirs     Some  Roman  words  connected 
with  the  Chnsuan  religion,  like  histrka  (JbasiUca)^%  diurch, 
btOez'^bapitxo,    dumintca^  Sunday,    preot    {freshyUr)'^pr\ess., 
pomt    to   a    contmuous   tradition    of    the    lUyrtan    cjiurch, 
though  most  of  their  ecdesiastical  terms,  like  their  liturgy 
and  alphabet,  were  derived  from  the  Slavonic.    In  most  that 
concerns  poUucal  organization   the  Slavonic  element  is  also 
preponderant,  though  there  are  words  like  impHral^impcratar^ 
and  demwrndominuSf  which  point  to  the  old  stock.     Many 
words  relating  to  kinship  ue  also  Latin,  some,  like  vitrig 
(si/rici»)  <- father-in-law,  being  alone  preserved  by  this  branch 
of  the  Romance  family.    But  if  the  Latin  descent  of  the  Vlachs 
may  be  regarded  as  proven,  it  is  far  less  ea^  to  determine 
their  place  of  origin  and  to  trace  ihdr  eady  migrations 

The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  Vlach  or  Ruman  race  is  at  present 
unquestionably  north  of  the  Danube  in  the  almost  drcuhr 
territory  between  the  Danube,  Tbeiss  and  Dniester;  j^ 
and  cone^xmds  roughly  with  the  Roman  province  ■ifciaif 
of  Dada,  fmrmed  by  Trajan  in  a.o.  106.  From  this  *■■* 
circumstance  the  popular  idea  has  arisen  that  the  race  itseS 
represents  the  descendants  of  the  Romanized  population  d 
Trajan's  Dada,  which  was  assumed  to  have  maintained 
an  unbroken  existence  in  Walachia,  Ttan^lvania  and  the 
neighbour  provinces,  beneath  the  dominion  of  a  succcsaon  of 
invaders  The  Vlachs  of  Pindus,  and  the  southern  region 
generally,  were,  on  this  hypothesis  to  te  segaidcd  n  inter 
immigrants  from  the  lands  north  <rf  the  Danube.  In  1871,  £.  R. 
Roealer  published  at  Ldpsig,  in  a  c<rilecttve  f<wm,  a  series  of 
essays  entitled  RpmUniscke  Stndient  in  which  he  abscdntely 
denied  the  cUim  of  the  Rumanian  and  Tmnsylvaiuatt  Vladis 
to  be  legaided  m  autpchthonoui  Dedans.  He  laid  stsess  on 
the  statements  of  Vopiseus  sad  othen  as  imp^yiog^  the  total 
withdrswal  of  the  Roman  {woidndsis  fn>m  Thijan'sDacia  by 
Aurelian,  in  a.o«  a7s,  and  on  the  nen-m<mtion  by  histiOrianw  of  a 
Latin  population  in  the  lands  on  the  kf t  bsak  of  the  lower 
Danube,  during  their  sucoessiw  oocupallon  by  Goths,  Huns 
Gepidae,  Avacs,  Slavs,  Bulgais  and  other  baibadan  noes.  He 
found  the  first  trace  of  a  Ruman  settlement  iK)rth  <A  the  Danube 
in  •  Tran^lvaniao  dipknnjt  of  xsss.  Raesler's  thesis  has  been 
generally  regarded  as  an  entirely  new  departure  in  cciticnl 
ethnography.  As  a  matter  of  lact,  his  wnditsioBS  had  to  a 
great  extent  been  already  antidpated  by  F.  J.  Sulser  in  his 
Gesckickte  des  TransfUpimsckm  J^a€ienSf  published  at  Vienna  in 
1781,  and  at  a  still  earlier  date  by  the  Dahnatian  historian 
G.  Locio  GLudus  of  TtaU)  in  his  work  Ik  Regfio  DahuUia*  H 
CroaUat,  Amsterdam,  1666. 

The  theory  of  the  later  immigratioB  of  the  Rumans  into 
thett  present  abodes  north  of  the  Danube,  as  staled  in  iu  most 
extreme  focm  by  Roesler,  i»mmanded  wide  acceptance,  and  in 
Hungary  it  was  poUtically  utilised  ts  a  plea.for  refu^  parity 
of  deatment  to  a  race  oH  compaiatively  recent  intruders^  la 
Rumania  itself  Roesler's  views  weie  resented  as  an  attack  on 
Ruman  luitiDnaUty.  Outside  Rumania  they  found  a  determined 
opponent  in  Dr  J.  JuQg»  of  Innsfanick,  who  upheld  the  continuity 
of  the  Roman  pxoTincial  stock  in  Trajan's  Dada,  diaiiuting 
from  historic  analogies  the  total  withdrawal  of  the  previndals 
hy  Anreliani  and  the  reaction  against  Roesler  wss  carried  still 
farther  by  J.  L.  PiC,  Professor  A.  Q.  Xoiopol  of  JasQr,  B.  P. 
Hasdeu,  D.  Ondul  and  many  othor  Rumanian  writersi  who 
maintain  that,  while  their  own  race  north  of  the  Danube  repre- 
sents the  original  Daco-Roman  pepulatioB  of  this  region,  the 
Vlsfihs  of  Turk^  and  Greece  ace  similarly  desoinded  from 
the  Moeso-Roman  and  niyiO'Roman  inhabitanu  of  the  pro- 
vinces lying  south  of  the  river.  On  this  theory  the  entire 
Vlach  rate  occupies  alooit  precisely  the  same  leaitories  to-day 
as  in  the  3rd  century. 


VLACHS' 


167 


Ob  tin  whole  H  nmy  be  wM  xhkt  the  tratli  Hes  betvMii 
the  tim  extrciiMt.  Roesier  b  no  doubt  aoiar  rigbt  that  aftet 
373,  aod  thimii^oiit  the  early  middle  ages,  the  bulk  of  the 
Runiaii  people  lay  aouth  of  the  Danube.  PiC's  view  that  the 
population  of  the  Roman  provinces  of  Moesia  aod  Illyria  were 
Hellcwised  rather  than  Romanized,  and  that  it  is  to  Trajan's 
Dada  alone  that  we  most  look  for  the  Roman  souite  of  the 
Vlach  race,  conflicts  with  what  we  know  of  the  Latinixing 
of  the  Balkan  lands  from  inscrfptitms,  niartyrologies,  Pro- 
copius's  list  of  Jnstinian'a  lUyrian  fortresses  and  other  sources. 
This  Roman  efenent  south  of  the  Danube  had  farther  reddved 
a  great  increase  at  the  expense  of  Tcajan's  colonial  foundation 
to  the  north  when  Aurdian  established  his  New  Dacia  on  the 
Moesian  side  of  the  river.  On  the  other  hand,  the  analogy 
supplied  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  Rcmian  provmdals  from 
Riparian  Noricum  tells  against  the  assumption  that  the  official 
withdrawal  of  the  Roman  colonists  of  Trajan's  Dacia  by  Aufelian 
entailed  the  entire  evacuation  of  the  Carpathian  regions  by 
their  Latin-speaking  inhabitants.  As  on  the  upper  Danube  the 
continuity  of  the  Roman  population  is  attested  by  the  ViH 
MmmmmU  of  early  medieval  diplomas  and  by  other  traces  of  a 
Romanic  race  still  represented  by  the  Ladhies  of  the  Tirol,  so  il 
is  reasonable  to  suppose  a  Latin-speaking  population  continued 
to  exist  in  the  foimerly  thickly  ooloniseid  area  embracing  the 
present  Transylvania  and  Little  Wabchia,  with  adjoining 
Carpathian  regions.  Even  as  late  as  Justinian's  time  (483-565), 
the  ofiidal  coraiexkm  with  the  old  Dadan  piovince  was  not 
wholly  lo8t«  as  is  shown  by  the  erectfen  or  restoration  of  certain 
fortified  posts  on  the  left  bank  of  the  lower  Danube 

We  may  therefore  assume  that  the  Latin  race  of  eastern 
Europe  never  wholly  lost  touch  of  its  former  trenS'Danubian 
strongholds.  It  was,  however,  on  any  showing  greatly 
diminished  there.  Tlie  open  country,  the  broad  plains 
of  what  is  now  the  Rumanian  kingdom,  and  the  Banat 
ol  Hungary  were  in  barbarian  occupation  The  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  Roman  or  Romance  element  of  lUyricum  bad 
now  shifted  south  of  the  Danube  By  the  6th  century  a 
large  part  of  Thrace,  Macedonia  and  even  of  Epirus  had 
become  Latin^speaking 

What  had  occurred  in  Tnjan's  Dacia  in  the  3rd  century  was 
consummated  in  the  6th  and  7th  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  the  Soutb-IUyrian  provinces,  and  the  Slavonic  and  Avar 
conquests  severed  the  official  connexion  with  eastern  Rome. 
The  Roman  dement  was  uprooted  from  its  fixed  scats,  and  swept 
hither  and  thither  by  the  barbarian  flood.  Nomadism,  became 
an  essential  of  indq)endent  existence,  while  Urge  masses  of 
homdess  provincials  were  dragged  as  captives  in  the  train 
of  their  oonquetons,  to  be  distributed  in  servile  colonies.  They 
were  thus  in  many  cases  transported  by  barbarian  chlds-^ 
Slav,  Avar  and  Biilgarian^-to  tranS'Danubian  and  Pannonian 
Rgiona.  In  the  Ads  of  St  Demetrius  of  Tbessak>nKa  <d.  A.D. 
306)  we  find  an  account  of  such  a  Roman  colony,  whkh, 
having  been  carried  away  from  Sovth-IllyTlan  dties  by  the 
Avar  kkagan  (prince),  and  settled  by  him  in  the  Slrmian  district 
beyond  Uie  S^ve,  revolted  after  seventy  years  of  captivity, 
made  thdr  way  once  more  across  the  Balkan  passes,  and  finally 
settled  as  an  independent  community  in  the  oountry  inland  from 
SflJonica.*  Others,  no  doubt,  thus  transported  northwards 
never  returned  Tke  earliest  Hungarian  historians  who  describe 
the  Magyar  invasion  of  the  gth  century  speak  of  the  old  in> 
habitants  of  the  country  as  Romans,  and  of  the  countiy  they 
occupied  as  Pascua  Romancrum;  and  the  Russian  Nestor, 
writing  about  xioo,  makes  the  same  invaders  fight  against 
Slavs  and  Vlacbs  in  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  So  far  from 
the  first  mention  of  the  Vlachs  north  of  the  Danube  occurring 
only  in  i27i,  as  Roesier  asserts,  it  appears  from  a  passage  of 
Nuxtas  of  Cbonae  that  they  were  to  be  found  afaready  in  1164 
as  far  afidd  as  the  borders  of  GaUda^  and  the  date  of  a  passage- 
in  the  NibdmnieMHtd^  which  mentions  the  Vlachs,  under  tlieir 
leader  RAmunc,  in  assodatlon  with  the  Poles,  cannot  ^t^  be 
later  than  I  apa 

Nevcrthdoi*  thraughout  the  cadjr  middle  agca  the  bulk  of 


the  Runuin  popuUtlon  lay  south  of  che  Danube.  It  was  in  the 
Balkan  lands  that  the  Ruman  race  aod  language  took  their 
characteristic  mould.  Itisherethat  this  new  Illytian  Romance 
first  rises  int6  htttorfc  prominence.  Already  in  the  6tb  century, 
as  we  learn  from  the  place-names,  such  as  Sceptecasas^  Bur- 
guaitu,  Clisura,  &c.,  given  by  Procopius,  the  Ruman  language 
was  assuming,  so  ^  as  its  Latin  elements  were  concerned, 
its  typkal  form.  In  the  somewhat  later  fampaigna  of  Com- 
mentiolus  (587)  «u<i  Piiscus,  against  the  Avars  and  Slavs,  we 
find  the  Latin-speaking  soldiery  of  the  Eastern  emperor 
making  use  of  such  Romance  expressions  as  toma  fratei  (turn, 
brother  Of  or  tcidia  (out  of  bed)  applied  to  a  watch  (cf.  Ruman 
a  se  cifiMB  Italian  c^ricarsi+ex-(js-)  privative).  Next  we  find 
this  warlike  Ruman  population  largdy  incorporated  in  the 
Bulgarian  kingdom,  and,  if  we  are  to  judge  from  the  names 
Paganns  and  SalMnus,.  already  supplying  it  with  rulers  in 
the  8th  century.  The  blending  and  close  contact  during  this 
period  of  the  surviving  Latin  population  with  the  Slavonic 
settlem  of  the  peninsula  ImpttgfiaJbtd  the  langua^  with  its  largt 
Slavonic  ingredient.  The  presence  of  an  important  Latin 
dement  in  Albanian,  the  frequent  occurrence  of  Albanian 
words  in  Rumanian,  and  the  remarkable  retention  by  both 
languages  of  a  suffix  artide,  may  perhaps  imply  that  both  alike 
took  thdr  characteristic  shapes  in  the  same  region.  The  fact 
that  these  peculiarities  are  common  to  the  Rumans  north  of  the 
Danube,  whose  language  differs  dialectically  from  that  of  thdr 
southern  brothen,  shows  that  it  was  this  southern  bruich 
that  throu^out  the  eariy  periods  of  Ruman  history  was  exer- 
cising a  dominating  ix^uencOi  Migrations,  vblent  trans- 
plantation, the  intercourse  which  was  kept  up  between  the  most 
outlying  members  of  the  race,  in  its  very  origin  nomadic,  at  a 
later  period  actual  colonisation  and  the  political  influence  of 
the  Bulgaro-Vlachian  empire,  no  doubt  contributed  to  propa- 
gate these  southern  linguistic  acquisitions  throughout  that 
northern  area  to  which  the  Ruman  race  was  destined  almost 
imperceptibly  to  shift  its  centre  of  gravity. 

Byzantium,  which  had  ceased  to  be  Roman,  and  had  become 
Romanic,  renewed  its  acquaintance  with  the  descendants  of  the 
Latin  psovindals  of  lUyricum  through  a  Slavonic  medium,-  and 
applied  to  them  the  name  of  Vlach,  which  the  Slav  himself  had 
borrowed  from  the  Goth.  Hie  first  mention  of  Vlachs  In  a 
Byzantine  source  is  about  the  year  976,  when  Cedrenus  (ii.  439) 
reUtes  the  murder  of  the  Bulgaiian  tsar  Samud's  brother 
'*  l^  certahi  VhuJi  wayfarers,"  at  a  spot  called  the  Fair  Ofedks, 
between  Castoria  and  Prespa.  From' this  period  onwards  the 
Ruman  inhabitanta  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  are  constantly 
mentioned  by  this  name,  and  we  find  a  aeries  of  political  organiza* 
tions  and  territorial  dfviskNis  connected  with  the  name  of 
Vlachia.  A.  short  synopsis  may  be  given  of  the  most  important 
of  t  hese,  outside  the  limiu  of  Rumania  itself. 

T     Tktf  BMlgaro-  Vlach  EmpiVtf.— After  the  overthrow  of  the  older 
Bolgariaa  tsardom  by  BasS  Balgaroktonos  (976-1095).  the  Vlach 
population  of  Thrsoe,  Haemus  and  the.  Mocsian  lands    _  ^.   . 
paaed  once  move  under  Byxantioe  dominion;  and  in    f™?'*' 
1 185  a  heavy  tax,  levied  in  kind  on  the  cattle  of  these    t^mljLj 
wartike  mountain  shepherds,  stirred  the  Vlachs  to  revolt    ^'{11^ 
against  the  em  petty  Isaac  Angdua,  and  under  the  leader-        •■■■■ 
nuft  of  two  brothers  Peter  and  Aseo.  to  found  a  new  Bulgaro- 
VUchian  empire,  ^ich  ended  with  iCdiman  II.  in  ia57.    The 
dominions  01  these  half-Slavonic  half-Ruman  empeiorB  extended 
north  of  the  Danut)e  over  a  great  deal  of  what  is  now  Rumania, 
and  it  wae  during  this  period  that  the  Vlach  population  north  of 
the  river  setnis  to  have  oecn  most  laigely  seinforeed.    The  13th- 
century  Freoeb  traveller  Rubruouis  n^ks  of  all  the  country 
between  Don  and  Danube  as  Asen  s  (ana  or  Blakia. 

2.  Great  WalacMa  (HtY&Xa  BXaxf«). — It  is  from  Anna  Comnena, 
in  the  second  half  Of  the  lith  century,  that  we  fint  hear  of  a  Vlach 
jKttlement,  the  nndeus  of  which  was  the  mountainous  region  o( 
Theasaly.  Benjamin  of  Tsdda,  in  the  succeediqg  century,  gives 
an  interesting  account  of  this  Great  Walachia,  then  complctdy 
independent.  It  embnuxd  the  southern  and  central  ranges  of 
Pfnaus,  and  extended  over  port  of  Macedonia,  thus  inclading  the 
region  in  whfch  the  Roman  scttlcn  mentioned  in  the  AtU  of 
^  Demetrius  had  fixed  their  abode.  After  the  Latin  con<|ueil  of 
Constantinople  in  1204.  Great  Walachia  wa»  included  in  the  enlarged 
despotate  01  Epirus,  but  it  soon  reappears  as  an  independent 
'  under  its  old  naOM^  which,  after  pasting  under  theyoke 


i6$ 


VLADIKAVKAZ—VLADIMIR 


of  the  Serb  emperor  DimImb,  wu  finally  coaqiacred  by  the  Turin 
b  1393.  Many  of  their  oM  privileges  were  accorded  to  the  in- 
habitants, and  their  taxes  were  limited  to  an  annual  tribute.  Stnoe 
this  period  the  Megalovlachitcs  have  been  landy  HcUeniaed,  but 
they  are  still  represented  1^  the  flouriahii«  Tsmtar  actUementa  of 
Pindus  and  its  neighbouriu>od  (see  Macbdonia).  ^  . .    ^ 

3.  Little  WaiaduaOltMfiA.  BX«xI«)«a«  &  name  applied  by  Byantme 
wnters  to  the  Ruman  settlements  of  Aetolia  and  Acamania.  and 


4.  Tk$  MoHadu  {Mavrodacki)  ^  As  West.—Thttt  are  already 
mentioned  as  Sign  Laimi  by  the  presbyter  of,  Dioclea  (c. ,  1150) 
in  the  old  DalmatiaB  ttttond  and  the  mountains  of  what  la  now 
Montenegro.  Heraegovina  and  North  Albania.  Other  oolonics  ex- 
tended through  a  great  part  of  the  old  Servian  mtenor,  where  is 
a  region  stiU  called  Stara  VlaJka  or  "Old  WaUcfaia/'  The  great 
oommerdal  staple  of  the  east  Adriatic  shores,  the  repubbc  of  Ragusa. 
seems  in  its  origin  to  have  been  a  Rumaa  settleosent*  and  many 
Vhch  traces  survived  in  iu  later  dialect.  PhiUppus  de  Dtvcrsis. 
who  described  the  city  as  it  existed  in  If^.  says  that  "  the  various 
officers  of  the  republic  do  not  make  use  either  of  Slav  or  lulian,  with 
which  they  convene  with  strangers,  but  a  oertam  other  dialect  only 
mirtiaUy  intelligible  to  us  Latms^"  and  dtes  wocida  with  strong 
Ruman  affinities.  In  the  mountams  above  Ragusa  a  number  <» 
Vlach  tribes  are  mentbned  in  the  archives  of  that  city,  and  the 
original  relationship  of  the  Ragusans  and  the  nomadic  Alpine  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Roman  pro^ndals,  who  preserved  a  traditional 
knoiriedge  of  the  old  lines  of  oommunicatioa  throughout  the  penin- 
sula, explains  the  extraordinary  development  of  the  Raguaaa  com- 
merce. In  the  14th  century  the  Mavrovlachi  or  Morlachs  extended 
themselves  towards  the  Croatian  borders,  and  a  large  part  of  mari- 
time Croatia  and  northern  Dalmatia  began  to  be  known  as  Uorlacckia, 
A  Jfofor  ViMckta  was  formed  lUwut  the  triple  frontier  of  Bosnia, 
Croatia  and  Dalmatia,  and  a  "  Little  Walachia  "  as  far  north  as 
Po2ega    The  Morlachs  have  now  become  Slavoniaed  (see  Dalmatia) 

5.  Oct  of  I  stria. — ^The  extreme  Ruman  offshoot  to  the  north-west 
is  still  represented  by  the  Cka  of  the  Val  d'Ana  and  adjoining 
Istrian  districts.  They  represent  a  I5th<entury  Moriach  colony 
from  the  Isles  of  Veglia,  and  had  fooneriy  a  wider  extension  to 
Trieste  and  the  counties  of  Gradisca  and  Gon.  The  Cid  have 
almost  entirely  abandoned  their  native  tongue,  which  is  the  last 
remaining  representative  of  the  old  Moriach,  and  forms  a  connecting 
link  between  the  Daoo-Romaa  (or  Rumaman)  and  the  Ittyro-  or 
Macedo-Roman  dialects. 

6.  Ruman$  of  Transyhania  and  Himgary,-^As  already  suted, 
a  large  part  of  the  Hungarian  plains  were,  at  the  coming  of  the 
Magyars  in  the  9th  century,  known  as  Pascwa  Rimanorum,  At  a 
later  period  privilqred  Ruman  communities  existed  at  Fogaras» 
where  was  a  SUto  Vlackontm,  at  Marmarosk  Deva,  Hatttg,  Hunyad 
and  Lugos,  and  in  the  Banat  were  aeven  Ruman  districts.  Two  of 
the  greatest  figures  in  Hungarian  history,  the  I5th<entury  rulers 
John  Corvinns  of  Hunyad  and  his  son  King  Matthias,  were  due  to 
this  dement.     For  its  later  history  see  T&ansylvamta.      _ 

Xenopol.  Les 

.»»,«„ ,..,  _._  ^ ,. ,.  _.  . . eu,  "Strata  li 

Substrata  -  Genealogia  poporelorS  balcanioe/'  in  AmuUU  AcademtA, 
ser.  II,  vol.  14  (Bucharest,  1803);  D.  Onctol,  "  RominU  in  Dada 
Traiaaa."  &c,  in  Encidopadia  RcmiAt»,  vol  iii.  CBuchaiest.  190a). 

VLADIKAVKAZ,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Russia  in  northern 
Caucasim  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Terek.  Pop.  (1900) 
49,934.  It  stands  on  a  plateau,  at  an  altitude  of  2345  ^t.,  on 
both  banks  of  the  Terek,  where  that  river  issues  from  the  Darial 
gorge.  It  is  434  in.  by  rail  S.E.  from  Rostov-on-the-Don,  and 
has  rq^r  communication  with  Tiflis  (133  m.)  by  coach  through 
tbe  Daxfal  Pass  (Georgian  militaxy  road)  of  the  Caucasus. 
Moreover,  a  line  of  railway,  running  eastwards  to  the  Caspian 
ports  of  Petrovsk  and  Baku,  connects  Vladikavkaz,  or  rather 
the  station  Beslan,  14  m.  N.  of  it,  with  the  Transcaucasian 
nllway,  «.«.  with  Tiflis,  Poll  and  Batum.  Russians,  Armenians 
and  Jews  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  peculation,  which  also  con- 
tains Ossetes,  Chechens,  Ingushes  and  others.  There  are  dis- 
tilleries and  a  number  of  smaller  factories.  Hie  fort,  around 
whldi  the  town  has  grown  up,  was  built  in  1784.  The  town  is  an 
<|MS00pa]  see  of  the  Orthodox  Gredt  Church. 

VLADIMIR,  ST  {c.  956-1015),  grand  duke  of  Kiev  and  of  all 
Russia,  was  the  youngest  son  of  Svyatoslav  I.  and  his  mistress 
Malushka.  In  970  he  recdved  Great  Novgorod  as  his  apanage. 
On  the  death  of  Svyatoslav  in  972,  a  long  dvil  war  took  place 
between  his  sons  Varopolk  and  Oleg,  in  whidi  Vladimir  was 
involved.  From  977  to  9S4  he  was  in  Scandinavia,  ooUect- 
ing  as  many  of  the  viking  warriors  as  be  oouki  to  aieist  him 


to  recover  Novgorod,  and  ott  hla  retum  mardied 
polk.    On  hb  way  to  Kiev  he  seat  ambassadors  to  Rasirald, 
prince  of  Polotsk,  to  sue  for  the  hand  ol  his  daughter  BagnilH^ 
The  haughty  princess  refused  to  affiance  herself  to  '*  tlte  moat  ai 
a  bondswoman,"  but  Vladimir  attached  Polotsk»  slefw  IUcv«kl. 
and  took  RagniMa  by  force.    Subaequentfy  (9&0)  he  csptured 
Kiev  also,  slew  Yarapolk  by  treachciy,  and  was  prorlaimed 
prince  of  all  Russia.   In  981  he  oonquend  the  Chervenak  citaeSk 
the  modem  Gahda;  in  983  he  subdned  the  heathen  Yatwjags, 
whose  territories  lay  betwaen  Lithuania  and  Poland;  isi  98s 
he  led  a  6eet  along  the  central  rivers  of  Rnnia  to  conquer  the 
Bulgarians  of  the  Kama,  planting  numerous  fbrtTeaaes  and 
colonica  on  his  way.   At  this  time  Vladimir  was  a  thflatogghgoing 
pagan.    He  increased  the  number  of  the  trebishtka,  or  heathen 
temples;  oflered  up  Christians  CThfcodore  and  Ivan,  the  proto> 
martyrs  of  the  Russian  Church)  on  his  altaa;  had  cii^t 
hundied  ooocubhies,  besides  numeioua  wives;  and  apcnt  his 
whole  leisure  in  feasting  and  hunting.    He  also  formed  a  great 
ooondl  out  of  his  boyars,  and  set  his  twelve  sons  over  his  subject 
principalities.    In  the  year  987,  as  the  result  of  a  consuliatiaB 
with  his  boyars,  Vladimir  sent  env<>ys  to  study  the  religioiis  of 
the  various  neighbouring  nations  whose  rcpicsentatives  had 
been  uiging  him  to  embraoe  their  respective  £uths.   The  icsah 
is  amusingly  described  by  the  chronicler  Nestor.  Of  the  Mittsnl* 
man  Bulgarians  of  the  Volga  the  entoys  reported  "  there  is  m 
ghulneas  among  them;  only  sorrow  and  a  great  standi;  tltf 
religion  is  not  a  good  one."  In  the  temples  oi  the  Gemoaiis  thq 
saw  *'  no  beauty ";  but    at  Conataatinople,  where   the  /bD 
festival  ritual  of  the  Orthodox  Churdi  was  set  In  motion  to 
impress  them,  th^  found  their  ideaL    "  We  no  longer  knew 
whether  we  were  in  heaven  or  on  earth,  nor  such  beaaty,  and 
we  know  not  bow  to  tell  of  it."   If  Vladimir  was  impressed  by 
this  account  of  his  envoys,  he  was  yet  more  so  by  the  offer  of 
the  emperor  Basil  II.  to  give  him  Ins  sister  Anna  in  marriage. 
In  988  he  was  baptized  at  Kherson  in  the  Crimea,  takmg  the 
Christian  name  of  Basil  out  of  compliment  to  his  ii 
brother-in-law;  the  sacrament  was  loUoired  1^  his 
with  the  Roman  princess.    Returning  to  Kiev  in  triumph,  he 
converted  his  people  to  the  new  faith  with  no  apparent  diffi- 
culty.  Crypto^hrisiians  had  been  numerous  in  Kiev  for  some 
time  before  the  public  recognition  of  the  Orthodox  faith.    The 
remainder  of  the  rdgn  of  Vladimir  was  devoted  to  good  works. 
He  founded  numerous  churches,  including  the  splwiriid  Day*' 
tinnuy  Sitbor  or  **  Cathedral  of  the  Tithes"  (989),  »«>«K%hH 
schools,  protected  the  poor  snd  intioduoed  ecdesiastieal  coiirt& 
With  his  neighbours  he  lived  at  peace,  the  incursions  of  the 
savage  Pctchencgs  alone  disturbing  his  tranquillity.   His  nephew 
Svyatpolk,  son  of  his  brother  and  victim  Yait^iolk,  he  mairied 
to  the  daughter  of  Boleslaus  of  Poland*   He  died  at  Beresiova, 
near  Kiev,  while  on  his  way  to  chastise  the  insolence  ef  his  son. 
Prince  Yaroslav  of  Novgorod.    The  various  |)arts  of  hia  dis* 
memboed  body  were  distributed  among  his  numeeous  aacied 
foundations  and  were  venerated  as  relica.    The  university  of 
Kiev  has  rightly  been  named  after  the  man  who  both  dvihsed 
and  Christianised  ancient  Russia.    His  memory  was  also  kept 
alive  by  innumerable  folk  ballads  and  legends.    With  him  the 
Varangian  period  of  Russian  histoiy  ceasts  and  tim  Chiistiaa 
period  begins.  * 

See  Mtmoriah  (Rva.)  pobfiahed  by  the  Commission  for  the  ex- 
amination of  ancient  documents  (Kiev,  t88i.  &e.);  1  Komanin 
and  M  Istomm.  Ccttectum  of  UutortuL  MattnaU  (Rus.)  (Kiev.  1890. 
&c):  O.  Panttsky,  Scandtnavxantsm  tn  Anctent  Ruista  (Rus.) 
(Lcmberg.  1897),  A.  Lappo-Danilevsky,  Scytktan  Antiquities 
(Rot.)  (Peterdbure.  1887);  J  Macquart,  OsteuropStseke  «.  astasia- 
tiuhf  Slraifwdiie  (lleipsig*  1003).  L  C.  Goetz.  Das  Ku9tr  H6kUn- 
taaOer  al$  KuUumntrMm  an  aarmtmgaitschtn  Rnttjamit  (jPSaaau, 


1904) 


(R.N  B.) 


VLADIHIB,  a  govcmmentof  middle  Russia,  bounded  W  by  the 
govemmenuof  Moscow  and  Tver,  N.  by  Yenslavand  Kostroma, 
E.  by  Nixhniy-Novgorod,  S.  by  Tambov  and  Ryaaaft,  with  an 
avea  of  18,815  sq.  m.  It  belongs  to  the  eastern  part  of  the 
central  plateau  of  middle  Russia,  which  has  an  average  elevation 
of  800  to  9SO  fW  •bA  is  grooved  by  river  valleys  io«  depth  of 


VLADIMIR— VLADIVOSTOK 


169 


jDo  iu  to  450  lu  below  the  eeneral  leweli  so  tbat  the  coaotiy  hu  1 

«,  billy  appearance. 

The  lacustrine  depression  of  the  middle  Volga  and  Oka  extend* 
into  the  east  of  the  government.  The  Upper  Carboniferous  time- 
tton«ft,  of  which  it  u  mostly  built  up,  arc  overiain  by  Permian 
umkaann  towanis  the  east,  and  patches  of  Juiasdc  claysr^-deauded 
remnanu  of  formerly  axtensive  deposit»*-aic  scattered  o^rer  )u 
surface.  The  whole  is  covered  with  a  thicic  sheet  of  boulder  clay, 
considered  to  be  the  bottom  moraine  of  the  North- European  ice- 
sheet,  and  overlaid,  in  its  turn,  in  the  depressions,  by  extensive 
bcustrine  clays  and  sands.  The  seology,  especially  of  the  western 
parts,  lias  been  investigated  by  Professor  Nikicin,  who  has  asoer* 
tained  that  under  the  Clacial  and  post-Glacial  deposits — the  lower 
strata  of  which  contain  remains  of  the  mammoth  and  rhinoceros 
and  the  upper  fcMsils  of  extensive  prehistoric  forests — ocnir  Lower 
Cretaceoua  deposits  and  dtt)osits  intermediate  between  the  Cre- 
taceous and  the  lurassk:  ("  Volga "  deposits)*  Upper  Jurassic 
(Kellaway  and  Oxford)  and  Upper  Carboniferous  deposiu  are  also 
found,  and  at  Corbatov  Permian  marls. 

The  soil  is  for  the  most  oart  unfertile,  save  in  the  district  of 
Yuricv,  where  are  patches  of  blaek  earth»  which  have  occasioned  a 
good  deal  of  discussion  amoag  Russian  geologists^  Iron  ore  is 
widely  diflTased.  and  china  day  and  gypsum  ase  met  with  in  several 
places.  Feat  is  of  common  occurrence.  Forests  cover  extensive 
tracts  in  the  south-east.  The  climate  resembles  that  of  Moscow, 
but  is  a  little  colder,  and  still  more  continental:  the  average  yearly 
temperature  at  the  city  of  Vladimir  ia  58*  F.  (Januaiy,  16*;  July, 

The  Oka  Rows  through  the  government  for  85  ra.j  and  is  navigable 
throughout.  Of  its  tributaries,  the  Klyarma  is  navigable  to  Kovrov, 
and  even  to  Vladimir  in  summer;  and  timber  is  floated  on  the  Teza. 
Small  lakes  are  numerous;  that  of  Pleshcheyevo  or  Peievaslavl 
(S  m.  in  length)  has  historical  assocbtions,  Peter  the, Great  haying 
there  acquired  in  his  boyhood  his  first  expericoces  in  navigation. 
The  marshes  extend  to  more  than  haff  a  million  acres, 

Tho  population  was  estimated  in  1^  as  i,73O»40O.  It  Is 
tborougrily  Great  Russian.  The  Finnish  tribes,  Muroma  and  Merya. 
which  formerly  inhabited  the  region,  have  been  absorbed  by  the' 
Slavs,  AS  also  have  the  Karelia ns,  who  arc  supposed  to  have  formerly 
inhabited  the  territory.  The  descendants  01  the  few  hundred  Kare- 
lian families,  which  were  settled  by  Peter  the  Great  on  the  shores 
of  Lake  Peieya^vl,  stiH.  however,  piescrve  their  own  language. 
The  government  is  divided  into  thirteen  districts,  the  chief  town* 
o(  which  are  Vladimir,  Alexandrov,  Gorokhoveta*  Kovrov,  Melenki, 
Murom,  Pfereyaslavl  Zalyeskiy,  Polcrov,  9hu>*a,  Sudogda.  Suzdal. 
Vyazniki  and  Vuriev  Poiskiy*  Ivanovo-Voenesensk,  Gusevsk  and 
Rholui  are  importaat  industrial  towns.  The  temslvos  (district 
councils)  make  considerable  efforts  to  foster  educatioa  and  tjnpiovo 
the  sanitary  arrangements. 

The  soil  is  not  very  fertite.  and  the  standard  of  agriculture  is  low, 
the  inhabitants  being  largely  engaged  in  manaCacttires.  In  1900 
1,008^00  acres  (15-8%  of  the  entire  area)  were  under  oereali. 
Chorncs  and  apples  are  exported  in  considerable  quantities. 

The  cultivation  of  flax,  both^  for  local  manufactures^  and  for 
export '  ■  es-pecbtly  about  McfcnH — is  important;  so  also  is  that  of 
hemp.  Natural  pastures  aro  numerous,  and  support  laiige  herds 
of  cattle.  The  principal  crops  are  rye,  oats,  wheat,  barley  and 
potatoes.  The  peasants  hold  5.591,000  acres  in  communal  owner' 
ship:  of  this  60%  is  arable  lano,  3,803,800  acres  belong  to  private 
owners,  552.300  acnes  to  the  crown  and  370,000  acres  to  the  imperial 
family.  The  only  important  mineral  is  alabasier. 

Vladimir  tanks  third  among  the  governments  of  European  Russia 
(or  nunufactures.  It  has  some  500  brae  factories,  which  eoc^oy 
over  100.000  persons  (one-third  women;;  the  principal  establish- 
ments are  cotton,  linen  and  sifk  mills,  dye-works,  and  rope,  paper, 
cardboard,  oil,  chemical,  machinery,  glass  and  iron  works,  tanneries 
and  disiiUeriesL   Wood,  coaI»  petroleum  and  peat  are  all  used  as  fuel. 

A  distinctive  feature  of  Vladimir  is  the  (reat  variety  of  petty 
trades  carried  on  by  peasants  who  stilt  contmuc  to  cultivate  their 
allotments.  While  m  some  villages  almost  all  the  male  population 
leave  their  homes  and  travel  all  over  Ru^ia  as  caipenters,  masons, 
iroo-roof  makers^  or  aft  pedlars  or  travdliikg  merchants,  other  villagef 
have  their  specialties  in  some  branch  of  manufactured  producOk 
Ncariy  3O.000  carpenters  leave  Vladimir  every  year,  AVhoIe 
villages  are  engaged  in  painting  sacred  pictures  or  ikons;  and 
although  tlw  ikons  are  sold  at  a  shilling  the  hundred,  the  aggregate 
trade  la  valued  at  £150,000  a  year;  aad  the  Vladiimr  (or  rather 
Suzdal)  pictures  are  sold  ail  over  Russia  and  the  Balkan  penliuula. 
In  other  villages  some  1200  men  are  employed  in  making  sickles, 
knives  and  locks.  Woodbn  vessels,  boxes  and  baskets,  hpti  (shoes 
made  of  lime-tree  bark,  which  ate  worn  in  Groat  Russia  and  are 
pnxJuced  by  the  million),  wheels  and  sledges,  sieves,  cembs.  wooUea 
stockings  and  gloves,  sheep-skins  and  sheep>skin  gloves,  felt,  toys, 
earthenware,  and  all  kinds  of  woven  fabrics,  are  specialties  of  other 
villages.  In  the»  petty  trades  Vladimir  occupies  the  first  rank  in 
Russia,  the  annaal  production  being  one-third  of  the  total  output  for 
the  whole  country. 

The  movement  of  shipping  on  the  Volga  and  its  tributaries  and 
tub-tributaries,  the  Oka,  Klyazma  and  leza,  js  considerable.   The 


principal  portft  are  Murom  on  the  Volga  and  Kovrov  and  Vyazniki 
on  the  Kfyazma.  Timber,  wood  for  luei  and  manufactured  ^oodi 
are  the  chief  exports. 

Numbers  of  Palaoolithk:  stone  implements,  intermingled  with 
bomesof  the  maromoihand  the  rhinoceros,  and  still  greater  mimbefs 
of  Neolithic  stone  implements,  have  been  discovered.  There  are  a 
great  number  of  bunal-mounds  belonging  to  the  Bronze  and  Iroa 
periods,  and  containing  decorations  In  amber  and  gold:  nearly 
2000  such  burial-mounds  are  scattered  round  Late  Fwshcheyevo, 
soow  of  them  bdenging  to  the  pagan  period  and  some  to  the  early 
Christian.  Coins  from  Arabia,  Bokhara,  Germany  and  Ai^o-SaiiAa 
lands  are  found  in  great  quantities.  (P.  A-  K.;  J,  T,  Be.) 

VLADnilR,  a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of  the 
same  name  known  in  history  as  Vladimir-on-the-KIyazma,  to 
distinguish  it  from  Vhdimir  in  Volhynia.  It  is  picturesquely 
situated  on  the  RIyasma  and  Lybed,  ixS  m.  by  raQ  EN.E. 
of  Moeooir.  Pop.  (1884)  18,420;  (1900)  32,029.  The  city  is  an 
ardiiepiscopal  see  of  the  Orthodox  Greek  church.  The  Lybcd 
divides  it  into  two  parts.  Extensive  cherry  orchards  occupy 
the  surrounding  dopes,  and  in  each  is  a  small  watch-tower,  «itb 
cords  drawn  in  all  directions  to  be  shaken  by  the  \v-atcher  when 
hhrds  alight.  The  kreml  stands  on  a  hill  and  contains  two  very 
old  cathedral»->the  U^jenskiy  (1150;  restored  in  1891),  where 
all  the  princes  of  Vladimir  have  been  buried,  and  the  Dmitri- 
evskiy  (1197;  restored  in  1834-1835).  Several  churches  date  from 
the  I2tb  century,  including  one  dedicated  to  the  Birth  of  Christ, 
in  which  St  Alexander  Nevski  was  buried.  The  **  Golden 
Gate  ^'~a  triumphal  gate  surnionnted  by  a  church— ^was  built 
by  the  grand  dtike  Andrei  Bogolyubskly  in  1158. 

Vladimir  was  founded  In  the  X2lh  century.  It  first  corner 
into  notice  in  1x51,  when  Andrei  Bogolyubskiy  secretly  left 
Vyshgorod — the  domain  of  his  father  in  the  principality  of  Kiev 
"•^iid  migrated  to  the  newly  settled  land  of  Suaial,  vrhere  he 
became  (1157)  grand  prince  of  the  principalities  of  Vladimir; 
Stodal  and  Rostov.  In  1242  the  principality  was  overrun  by 
the  Mongols  uiuier  Batn  Khan,  and  he  and  his  successor* 
asserted  their  suzerainty  irrer  it  until  1328.  During  this  period 
Vladindc  became  the  cUef  town  of  the  Russian  settlcmentt 
in  the  basiii  of  the  Oka,  and  it  di^Mited  the  superiority  with  th« 
new  princip^y  of  Moscow,  to  which  it  finally  succumbed  in 
133&    lo  tise  X4th  century  it  began  to  decay. 

VLAOmiB^OLHTllSKlY,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern* 
ment  <rf  Volhytiia,  X9  m.  N  JI.E.  df  the  spot  where  the  frontiers 
of  Russia,  Poland  and  OaHcia  meet  and  300  m.  W.N.W.  of 
Kiev.  Fop.  (1885)  8732;  (1897)  969s,  Ihreo^dorths  Jews. 
Though  not  mentioned  in  the  annals  bofoio'988;  Vladimir  was 
piobnbly  m  existem»  in  the  9th  century  under  the  natne  dl 
Ladamiv.  In  tho-iolh  ceatuiy  it  was  the  caipital  of  the  princi« 
pality  of  Volhynaa.  The  Tatars  and  the  Lithuani&ns  destroyed 
it  several  times,  but  it  always  recovered,  aiul  onlyieM  iatodoca^ 
in  the  X7th  century.  It  was  fiAally  annnmri  to  Russia  after  the 
fiist  division  of  Pohuid  (177a)*  The  rtiins  in  and  titas  the  town 
include  remains  of  a  chiuxh  supffBsod  to  have  been  built  by 
Vhuiimir,  gmid  dukft  of  Kiev»  in  tho.  xptb«'iitk  ceotudcs,  aod 
of  another  iMdlt  in  1x60  by  his  desoendant  MsUshtv.  Tbi9 
latter  was  appatenijy  veiy  well  built,  and  Its  length  exceeded 
that  of  the  temple  of  St  Sophia  at  Kiev.  The  town  oonuins  h 
good  archaeological  museum. 

VLADIV06IOK.  tho  chief  Russi«A  scaporl  and  n»val  statiot 
on  the  Padiic  .Ocean,  situated  at  the  southem  exiiemity 
(43**  f  N.  and  131.''  55'  £.)  of  the  Markime  Province^  not  far  from 
the  point  where  that  govcmokent  touches  both  Manchuiia  and 
Korea  (Chorea).  It  is  coonected  by  rail  with  Khabarovsk 
(479  m.  N.N.E.),  the  capital  of  the  Amur  vogion,  aad  adth  €h|t« 
ia  Transbaikalia  (1362  m.)  via  Mii^uta,  Kharbin,  Tsit»ikar  and 
Khailar.  Pop*^  (1900)  38^000,  Tbe  town  stands  on  Peter  the 
Great  Gulf,  occupying  tbe  aorifaern  shore  of  one  of  its  hom'likf 
expansions,  which  the  Russians  have  called  tlie  Golden  Horn. 
The  depth  of  the  Eastern  Bosporus  ranges  from  13  to  sp 
fathoms,  and  that  of  the  IMden  Horn  fram  5  tox3,  the  latter 
affording  a  spacious  harbour.  The  hills  are  covered  with  forest^ 
of  oak,  lime,  birch,  maple,  cork,  walnut,  acacia,  ash,  aspen, 
poplar,  elm,  apple,  pear  and  wild  cherry,  with  a  rich  undergrowto 
of  the  most  varied  sbcubs.    ExceUont  timber  14  supplied  by 


170 

)oak  and  oedar  foicsts  not  !kr  v>ff.  tht  dim&te,  however,  is 
severe,  as  compftred  with  that  of  corresponding  latitudes  in 
Europe.  Though  standing  in  almost  the  same  parallel  as 
Marseilles,  Vladivostok  has  an  aversge  annual  temperature  of 
only  46^  F.|  and,  although  the  gulf  itself  never  freoes,  a  thin 
Ice-crust  forms  along  the  shores  in  December  and  remains  until 
ApriL  Hie  town  has  sevexal  handsome  buildings,  a  monumeEd 
to  Admiral  Nevelskiy  (1897),  a  cathedral,  a  museum,  an  observa- 
tory, an  Oriental  institute  (opened  in  1899),  professional  schools, 
a  na^  hospital,  mecfaaniod  and  naval  >iirorks,  steam  saw-mills 
and  flour-mills.  The  drawback  of  Vladivoalok  is  that  it  has 
not,  and  cannot  have,  a  well-developed  hinterland,  despite  the 
great  efforts  which  have  been  made  by  the  Russian  goverament 
to  supply  the  Usuri  region  (to  the  north  of  Vladivostok)  with 
Russian  settlers.  The  town  of  Vladivostok  was  founded  in 
i86o-x86x,  and  from  1865  to  1900  was  a  free  port. 

VODENA  (Turk,  and  Bulg.  Voden,  anc.  Edessa,  f.vi),  a  dty 
of  European  Tudtey,'  in  the  vilayet  of  Salonica,  western 
Macedonia;  at  the  source  of  the  small  ixver  Bistritza,  which 
flows  east  and  south  into  Lske  Yenije,  and  on. the  railway 
from  Salonica  to  Monastir.  Pop.  (1905)  about  S5,ooo,  con-, 
aisting  of  Turks,  Slavs  and  Greeks.  Tbt  town  stands  on  a 
rocky  height  commanding  views  of  Pindus  and  Ol^npus; 
the  approaching  slopes  are  richly  wooded,  and  traversed  by 
picturesque  waterfalls,  from  which  the  name  of  Vodena  (Slav. 
vodOf  water)  is  probably  derived.  Vodena  is  the  see  of  a  Greek 
archbishop,  and  possesses  numerous  churches  and  mosques, 
besides  unimportant  remains  of  Roman  and  Byxantine  huHd- 
ingB.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton,  tobacco  and  leather  and 
a  lazge  trade  in  wine,  silk  cocoons  and  red  pepper. 

VODBYSHAWKAB,  GOWRUHANKAR  (x8oS-x89s),  native 
minister  of  the  state  Of  Bhaunagar  hi  Kathiawar,  Bombay, 
was  bom  on  the  sist  of  August  1805,  of  a  family  of  Nagar 
Brahmins.  He  rose  from  being  a  revenue  officer  to  be  state 
minister  ini  1847.  His  success  in  this  capacity  was  such  that 
pn  the  death  of  the  reigning  chief,  in  1870,  he  was  appointed 
joint  administrator  in  concert  with  a  British  ofllicial.  The 
experiment  was  in  every  respect  successful.  Under  the  sfinple 
and  economical  forms  used  in  native  jBtates,  improvements 
suggested  by  British  experience '^^rere  intxoduoed.  The  land 
revenue  was  bsSed  on  a  cash  system,  the  fiscal  and  customs 
systems  were  remodelled  ami  tree  planting  was  encouraged. 
The  town  of  Bhaunagar , received  the  great  boon  of  .the  Gowri* 
ahankar  Waterworks^  on  which  six. lakhs  of  rupees  were' spent 
The  Bhaunagar  state  also  warmly  pressed  for  railway  'com- 
munication with  the  eontinient  of  Indiay  and  thus  began  a 
movement  whidi  hsa  spread  a  network  of  railway  lines  over 
the  penhisula  of  Kathiawar.  The  British  government  re- 
warded these  mai^  services  of  Gowrishankar-  With  the  disdno- 
tion  of  CSX  in  1S77.  He  helped  to  establish  the  Rajkumar 
College  at  Rajkot,  for  the  education  of  native  princes,  and  also 
the  Rajasthsnik  Court,  which,  after  settling  innumerable  dis^ 
putes  between  the  land-owning  classes  aiul  the  chiefs,  has  since 
been  abolished.  In  X879  Gowxidiankar  resigned  office,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  higher  literature  of  that 
Vedanta  philosophy  which  throu^  his  whole  life  had  been  to  him 
a  solace  and  a  goide.  In  1884  he  wrote  a  work  called  Swtrupanu- 
sandkaHt  on  the  union  of  the  soul  with  Deity,  which  led  to 
a  letter  of  warm  congratulation  from  Max  MiUler,  who  also 
published  a  short  biography  of  him.  In  1887  he  put  on  the  robe 
of  the'  Sanyati  or  ascetic,  the  fourth  stage,  according  to  the 
Hindu  Shastrasy  in  the  life  of  the  twice-bofn  man,  and  m  this 
manner  passed  the  remainder  Of  his  life,  giving  above  ten  hours 
esch  day  to  Vedantk  studies  and  holy  contemplation.  He 
died,  revered  by  all  classes,  in  December  1893. 

See  Javerital  U.  Yafnik,  GtmrishMkar  Udayaskankar  (Bombay, 
1889). 

VODKA*  Vodh  or  Wookt,  the  Russian  nations!  spirituous 
bevoage.  Origiiially  vodka  was  made  almost  entirely  from 
lye,  bariey  malt  to  the  extent  of  15  to  20%  being  used 
to  effect  ssccharification  (see  Srans),  but  at  the  present  day 
potatoes  and  maise  are  the  staple  raw  materials  from  friiich 


VODENA— VOGEL,  SIR  J. 


thb  spirit  b  manufactured,  and,  as  a  mfe,  green  rye  msslt  io 
now  used  instead  of  barley.  The  distillation  is  conducted 
by  means  of  live  steam  in  a  double  stOl  of  the  "  patent  "  type. 
Vodka  as  manufactured  contains  from  90  to  96%  of 
alcohol,  but  it  is  diluted,  prevkms  to  retailing,  to  a  stzvsscth 
of  60  to  40%.  Itis  illegal  to  sell  it  with  kss  than  40%  of 
alooh^^ 

VOEnUS  (Voet),  OTSBSRTUt  (x58ft-i676),  Dutch   theo- 
logian,   was   bom   at  Heusden,   Hdland.     He   studied     sit 
Ldden,  and  in  x6ix  became  pastor  of  Blymen,  whence  in  x  6x7 
he  returned  to  Heusden.    In  16x9  he  played  an  influential 
part  in  the  S>'nod  of  Dott,  and  in  1634  was  made  pxofesBor 
of  .theology  aiul  Oriental  science  at  Utrecht.     Tlxreo  y^ears 
later  he  became  pastor  of  the  Utrecht  congregation.    He  was 
an  advocate  of  the  extremest  form  of  Calvii^sm  against  tJbe 
Arminians;  but  his  personal  mfluenoe  was  good,   and    the 
dty  of  Utrecht  perpetuated  his  memoiy  by  giving  his  Bame 
to  the  street  in  which  he  had  lived. 

.  VOQBU  EDUARI)  (X829-X856),  German  traveller  in  Centxal 
Africa,  was  bom  at  Krefeld  on  the  7th  of  March  1829.     He 
studied  mathematics  and  astronomy  at  Leipzig  and  Berlin, 
and  in  1851  engsged  in  astronomical  work  in  London.     In 
1853  he  was  chosen  by  the  British  government  to  take  supplies 
to  Heinrich  Barth,  then  in  the  western  Sudan;  and   Vogel 
met  Barth  at  Kuka  in  Bomu  (1854).    During  z8$4  and  x8xr 
he  explored  the  countries  round  Lake  Chad  and  the  upps 
course  of  the  Benue.    On  the  zst  of  December  1855  he  left 
Kuka  for  the  Nile  Valley,  and  nothing  further  .was  heard  of 
him.    Several  search  cxpciditions  were  organized  to  ascertain 
his  fate  and  to  recover  his  papers;  it  was  not  until  1873  that 
Gustav  Nachtigal  on  reaching  Wadai  )eamt  that  Vogd  had 
been  murdered  in  that  country  in  February  X856. 

See  Erinneningen  an  eitun  VenckofUnem  (Leipzig,  1863),  by 
Vogel't  aUter.  E.  Polko,  and  Dtr  Afrihrforuhtr  Biturd  Vefrf 
(Hambaig,  1889). 

VOQBL,  SIR  JULIUS  (i83S'-i899),  British  colonial  statesman, 
son  of  Albert  Le<^ld  Vogel,  was  bom. in  London  on  the  t4th 
of  F^braary  1835,  was  educated  at  University  College  school, 
London,  and  emigrated  to  Victoria  during  the  exciting  years 
which  followed  the  discovery  of  goldfields  there.  He  became 
editor  of  a  newspaper  at  Maryborough,  stood  for  the  Legislative 
Afsembly  and  was  defeated,  and  in  x  861  left  Victoria,  carried  In 
the  mining  rush  to  Otago,  New  Zealand,  where  much  gold  had 
Just  been  found.  Settling-  in  Dunedin,  he  bought  a  half-share 
in  the  Otago  Daily  TimeSt  and  was  soon  its  editor  and  a  member 
of  the  Otago  Pnyvindal  CoundL  He  made  his  paper  the  most 
influential  in  the  colony,  and  was  returned  to  Uie  House  of 
Representatives.  In  x866  he  was  head  of  the  Otago  Provincial 
Executive;  by  1869  be  had  made  his  mark  ih  the  New  Zealand 
parliament,  uid  was  treasurer  in  the  ministry  of  Sir  William  Fox. 
Without  delay  he  brought  forward  a  scheme  for  the  construction 
of  trunk  railways  and  other  public  works,  the  purchase  of  land 
from  the  Maori  tribes,  and  Uie  introduction  of  immigrants,  all 
to  be  d<Mie  with  money  borrowed  in  London.  At  thst  time  New 
Zealand  hardly  contained  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  white  settlers, 
was  exhausted  by  the  ten  years'  struggle  with  the  Maori,  not 
then  ended,  and  was  depressed  by  the  low  price  of  her  staple 
product,  wool,  and  the  abatement  of  a  gold>fever.  Yet  Vogd's 
sanguine,  energetic  appeals  and  remarkable  gift  of  persuasion 
induced  the  Ho\ise  of  Assembly  to  adopt  a  modified  version  of 
his  scheme.  For  the  next  six  years  be  was  the  most  powerful 
man  in  the  colony.  Millions  were  borrowed,  ralla'a3rs  were 
pushed  on,  immigrants—state  and  voluntaiy^— streamed  in. 
Lasting  peace  was  made  with  the  Maori,  a  telegraph  line  laid  to 
Australia,  a  steam  mail  service  secured  acioss  the  Pacific  to  San 
Frandsoo;  a  government  life  insurance  office,  and  a  pubKc 
trust  office,  were  established,  both  of  which  proved  useful  and 
were  well-managed.  During  a  visit  to  London  on  the  colony's 
financial  busuiess,  Vogel  succeeded  in  arranging  for  the  in* 
scription  of  colonhl  loans  at  the  Bank  of  England,  an  airange- 
ment  afterwards  confirmed  ,by  th^  imperial  parliament.  In 
1875  he  was  knighfed. 


VOGHERA— VOGLER 


171 


In  1874  Voflel,  UBtil  that  time  a  supporter  of  the  Provincial 
system,  decid^  to  abolish  it.  In  this,  with  the  aid  of  SirX.  W. 
Staffoid  and  Sir  II.  A.  Atkinson,  he  succeeded.  In  the  struggle, 
however,  he  broke  with  many  of  his  old  allies,  and.  in  1^76  sud- 
denly quitted  New  2^1and  to  take  the  post  of  agent-general  in 
London.  This  he  held  until  x88o,.and  while  hokling  it  nego- 
tiated a  loan  for  five  millions.  Having  become  o(mnected  with 
certain  public  companies,  and  the  New  Zealand  government 
objecting  thereto,  he  had  to  resign  his  positicHi.  An  attempt, 
too,  which  be  made  in  i83o  to  enter  the  House  of  Commons  as 
Conservative  member  for  Peniyn  was  unsuccessful.  In  J884 
he  returned  to  New  Zealand,  was  at  once  elected  to  parliament, 
and  formed  a  coalition  ministry  with  the  Radical  leader,  Sir 
R.  Stout.  They  held  office  for  three  years,  but  though  Vogel 
showed  some  of  his  old  financial  skill,  they  were  not  years  of 
pn>^>erity  for  the  -colony,  or  ti[iumph  for  the  govemmont^  A 
deficit,  a  rejected  scheme  of  taxation  and  a  crushing  defeat  at 
the  polls  ended  Vogel's  career  as  a  minister.  After  a  few 
months  of  failure  as  leader  of  an.  outnumbered  Opposition  he 
gave  up  the  contest,  left  New  Zealand  for  the  last  .time,  and 
for  the  last  eleven  years  of  his  life  lived  quietly  near  London. 
Throughout  his  life  he  had  from  time  to  time  to  struggle  with 
deafness,  lameness  and  acute  bodily  pain,  while  an  impul- 
sive, speculative  nature  led  him  once  and  again  into  financial 
difficulties.  The  persistency  with  which  be  faced  trouble  and 
embarrassment,  the  hopefulness  he  showed  under  stress  of  ill 
fortune,  the  qrmpathy  and  pleasantness  of  manner  which  won 
him  friends  at  all  times,  were  elements  in  his  curious  and 
interesting  character  no  less  remaikable  than  the  fertility  and 
imaginative  power  of  his  busy  brain. 

Vogel  was  among  the  pioneers  of  Imperial  Federation;  he 
would  have  extended  Great  Britain's  influence  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean  had  he  been  allowed.  He  was  the  first  minister  to 
secure  the  second  reading  of  a  Women's  Franchise  Bill  in  New 
Zealand.  As  long  ago  as  1874  he  endeavoured  to  save  the 
New  Zealand  forests  from  the  reckless  destruction  by  axe  and 
fire  which  has  since  gone  on.  In  1889  a  novel  from  his  pen, 
Anno  Dumini  2000,  was  published,  and  reached  a  second  edition. 
He  died  at  East  Molesey  on  the  zjth  of  March  1899.  His  wife, 
who  was  the  daughter  of  William  Clayton,  government  architect. 
New  Zealand,  two  sons  and  a  daughter  survived  him.  Anpther 
son  had  been  killed  in  the  Matabele  War  in  South  Africa.  Vogel 
was  a  Jew  of  the  Ashkenazi  rite.  (W.  P.  R.) 

VOOHBRA  (anc.  Iria),  -a  town  of  Lombardy,  Italy,  in  the 
province  <rf  Pavia,  and  tg  m.  by  rail  S.S.W.  of  that  city,  305  ft. 
above  sea-level,  on  the  Staffora  (a  tributary  of  the  Po).  Pop. 
(1901)  14,453  (town);  90^42  (commune).  The  fortifications 
erected  by  the  Visconti  in  the  middle  ages  have  given  place  to 
shady  promenades.  The  large  church  of  San  Lorenzo  dates 
from  the  nth  centuiy,  but  was  remodelled  in  the  baroque 
style  about  the  beginning  of  the  Z7th.  The  suppressed  church 
of  S.  Ilario  (Chiesa  Rossa),  so  called  from  the  red  colour  of  the 
brick  of  which  it  is  built,  dates  from  the  loth  century.  The 
neighbourhood  produces  much  silk,  in  which,  as  well  as  in  com 
and  wine,  an  active  trade  is  carried  on.  The  ancient  Iria  took 
its  name  from  the  river  on  which  it  was  shuatcd.  It  wts  on 
the  road  from  Placcntia  to  Dertona,  and  was  made  a  colony 
by  Augustus  (coionia  Forum  Itdium  Iriensium), 

VOOLER,  GBORO  JOSEPH  (1749-18 14),  usually  known  as 
Abb6  or  Abt  (Abbot)  Vogler,  German  organist  and  composer, 
was  bom  at  Pleichach  in  Wurzburg  on  the  15th  of  June  1749. 
His  father,  a  vioHn  maker,  while  educating  him  in  the  Jesuit 
college,  encouraged  his  musical  talent,  which  was  so  marked 
that  at  ten  years  old  he  could  not  only  play  the  organ  well,  but 
had  also  acquired  a  fair  command  of  the  violin  and  some  other 
instruments.  In  1771  he  went  to  Mannheim,  where  he  com- 
po3fed  a  ballet  for  the  elector  Karl  Theodor,  who  sent  him 
to  Bologna  in  1774  to  study  under  the  Padre  Martini.  Dis- 
satisfied with  the  method  of  that  learned  theorist,  he  studied 
for  five  months  under  Valotti  at  Padua,  and  afterwards  pro- 
ceeded to  Rome,  where,  having  been  ordained  priest,  he  was 
admitted  to  the  famous  academy  of  Arcadia,  made  a  kni|^t  of 


the  Goldca  Spur,  and  appoi&ted  protonolary  and  chamberlain' 
to  the  pope. 

On  his  return  to  Mannheim  in  175$  Vogler  was  appointed 
court  chaplain  and  second  "maestro  di  cappella."  He  now 
established  bis  first  great  music  schooL  His  pupils  were 
devoted  to  him,  but  he  made  innumerable  enemies,  for  the 
principles  upon  which  he  taught  were  opposed  to  those  of  all 
other  teachers.  He  had  invented  a  new  system  of  fingering 
for  the  harpsichord,  a  new  form  of  construction  for  the  organ, 
and  a  new  ^tem  of  musical  theory  founded  upon  that  of 
Valotti.  Mozart  condemned  the  fing»ing  as  ''miserable/' 
and  many  rumours  to  his  discredit  have  survived  to  this  day 
owing  10  Mozart's  share  in  the  prejudice  felt  against  him.  The 
proposed  change  in  the  construdion  of  the  organ  consisted  in 
simplifying  the  mechanism,  introducing  free-reeds  in  place  of 
ordinaiy  reed-stops,  and  substituting  unisonous  stops  for  the 
great  "mixtures  '  then  in  vogue.  The  theoretical  system, 
though  professedly  based  upon  Valotti's  principles,  was  to  a 
great  extent  empirical.  Nevertheless,  in  virtue  of  a  certain 
substratum  of  truth  which  seems  to  have  underlain  his  new 
theories,  Vogler  undoubtedly  exercised  a  powerful  influence 
over  the  progress  of  musical  science,  and  numbered  among  his 
disdples  some  of  the  greatest  geniuses  of  the  period. 

In  1778  the  elector  removed  his  court  to  Munich.  Vogl^ 
followed  him  thither  In  1780,  but,  dissatisfied  with  the  reception 
accorded  to  his  dramatic  compositions,  soon  quitted  his  post. 
He  went  to  Paris,  where  after  much  hostility  his  new  system 
was  recognised  as  a  continuation  of  that  started  by  Rameau. 
His  organ  concerts  In  the  church  of  St  Sulplce  attracted  con- 
siderable attention.  At  the  request  of  the  queen,  he  composed 
the  opera  Le  Patriotismet  which  was  produced  before  the  court 
at  Versailles.  His  travels  were  wide,  and  extended  over  Spain, 
Greece,  Armenia,  remote  districts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  even 
Greenland,  in  search  of  uncorruptcd  forms  of  national  melody. 
In  Z786  he  was  appointed  "kapellmeister"  to  the  king  of 
Sweden,  founded  his  second  music  school  at  Stockholm,  and 
attained  extraordinary  eclebrity  by  his  performances  on  an 
instrument  called  the  "  ordiestrion  *' — a  species  of  oigan  in- 
vented by  himself.^  In  1790  he  brought  this  instrument  to 
London,  and  performed  upon  it  wRh  great  effea  at  the  PlAthcon, 
for  the  a>nocrt-l-oom  of  which  he  also  constructed  an  Oi^gan.  upon 
his  own  principles.  The  ahb£'s  pedol-plaj'ing  excited  great 
attentf(Mi.  His  most  popidar  pieces  wme  a  fugue  on  (hcnuift 
from  the  "  Hallelujah  Chorus,"  composed  after  a  visit  to  the 
Handel  festival  at  Westminster  Abbey,  and  A  ilnskal 
PictHTt  jor  thg  Organ,  by  Knecht,  containing  the  imitation 
of  a  storm. 

From  London  Vogler  proceeded  to  Rotterdam  and  the  chief 
towns  on  the  Rhine.  At  Esslingen  he  waa  presented  with  the 
"  wine  of  honour,"  reserved  for  the  use  of  sovereigns.  At 
Frai^fort  he  attended  the  coronation  of  the  emperor  Leopold  II. 
He  then  visited  Stockhohn,  and  after  a  long  residence  there, 
interrupted  by  endless  wanderings,  once  more  established 
himaelf  in  Gemany,  where  fais  compositions,  both  sacred  and 
dramatic,  received  at  last  full  credit.  We  hear  of  him  at  Beriin 
in  1800,  at  Vienna  in  1804  and  at  Munich  In  1806.  While 
at  Frankfort  in  1807  he  received  an  invitation  from  Louis  I., 
grand  duke  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  offering  him  the  appointment 
of  "  kapellmeister,"  with  the  order  of  merit,  the  title  of  privy 
councillor,  a  salary  of  3000  florins,  a  house,  a  table  supplied 
from  the  duke's  own  kitchen,  and  other  privileges^whidi  deter- 
mined Mm  to  bring  his  wanderings  at  last  to  a  close. 

At  Darmstadt  he  opened  his  third  and  most  famous  music 
school,  the  chief  ornaments  of  which  were  GSnsbacbert  Weber 
and  Meyerbeer,  whose  affection  for  their  old  master  was  un* 
bounded.  One  of  Vogler's  latest  exploits  was  a  joucney  to 
Frankfort  in  1810^  to  witness  the  production  of  Weber's  Sylvana. 
He  continued  to  work  hard  to  the  lost,  and  died  suddenly  of 
apoplexy  at  Darmstadt  on  the  6th  of  May  1814.    He  was  a 

*  Robert  Browning's  i>oem  on  '*  Abt  Vogler  extern  poriring  on  an 
instrument  of  his  own  invention  "  has  made  his  name  familiar  te 
thelHerarypiibUc*' 


in 


VOOT— VOICE 


biSiant  uid  accomplbbM)  perimmn,  tnd  an  einlleni  if  in 
tmnlric  iMchci;  bui  hit  own  composiiioiu  hive  not  sinvi*ei). 

VOOT,  KARl  CHRISTDPH  (1817-1805),  German  nmtunlot 
and  (colDgist,  was  born  at  Glesen  on  the  5th  oF  July  iRiT- 
In  i!47  he  became  profeasor  of  aoology  at  Gienen.  and  in  ig;I 
pcofcBOt  o(  geology  ind  afterwards  also  of  loology  ai  Gelwva, 
when  he  died  on  the  sih  of  May  1S95.  His  earlier  pabUnlions 
were  on  zoology;  he  dcah  vilh  the  Amphibia  {1830),  Reptiles 
(1S40],  wilh  lilollusca  and  Cnislacca  (1S4;)  and  more  genenlly 
with  the  invoTlebrate  fauna  oftheMedilcrmnenn  (1854) 

Hi!  Kparair  mnhs  include  la  CtUrt  Hud  an/  dn  CMitluTm 
(iBii):  Ptyiitletisilie  Brtrft  (■■i(-46):  Cnmdria  4ir  Ctalertt 
hUo):  and  Lihrlnuk  in  Cialtpi  aid  PiMttarnkiinit  (1  vori.. 
lij6-47:«t.  4,  iEtq).  An  EkifIe^  vcraonof  liij  Ltctvtt  OH  Man- 
bi  Plait  fn  Crml/on  ind  in  Ikt  HlMiy  of  Iti  Eartt  was  published 
by  the  AnihnipDlot^ical  Society  of  London  In  t8&4. 

VOOTLAHD,  or  VoiciLAND,  a  district  of  C« 
(he  S.W.  corner  of  the  kingdom  of  Saiony,  and 
parls  of  the  principality  of  Beuss  and  of  the  d 
Ahenburg  and  Slie-Wctmai.  Il  is  bounded  on  me  n.  oy 
the  principjiiiics  of  Rcuss,  In  the  S.E.  by  Bohcmb,  and  on  the 
S.W.  and  W.  by  Bavaiia-  Its  character  Is  generally  mountain- 
ous, and  geologically  it  belongs  to  the  Eiigcbirge  riiigc.  It 
it  eitictncly  rich  In  mineral  ores— silver,  copper,  lead  and 
bismuth.  The  name  denoted  the  counlty  governed  for  the 
empeioT  by  a  Vogl  (bailiff  or  steward),  and  was,  in  the  middle 
ages,  known  as  icrra  adntcalwuM.  The  VOgte  are  first  met 
with  in  tl«  country  in  the  10th  ccniuiy,  and  the  ofBci  shortly 
afterwards  appears  lo  have  become  hereditary  in  the  princely 
line  of  Rcuss.  But  this  bouse  was  not  in  undivided  possession, 
rival  claims  being  raised  from  -•       -     ^-  .... 


y,  forming 
embracing 
?s  of  Saxe- 


:  ages  a 


mbetwe 


d  the  Saion  house  of  Welti 
it  passed  gradually  lo  the  Weltins,  falling  by  the  division  of 
USs   10  the   Ernestine  branch  of  the  family.    The  elector 

See  Limner.  Ccsrh'ihU  its  Votfianie'  (Cera.  iSlJ-iS.  4  voh); 
Simon.  Dai  VirlbindOilciwn.  i«)4):C.  P.  Collminn.  txa  VoiWmd 
iia  iriNilQjIcF  (Creii.  1891)  :and  Meiins .  VmitoMadit  Wamitrmnttii 
^Anubeei.  l«oi). 

VOaOi.  BUGtiri  MELCBIOR.  Comte  dk  (iS^ft-  ), 
French  author,  was  bom  11  Nice  on  ibe  isih  of  February  1848. 
He  itrved  in  (he  camptign  of  1S70,  and  on  the. conclusion  of 
the  war  entered  (Ik  diploinaiic  service,  being  appointed  suc- 
cessively attach*  lo  (he  legions  at  Constantino^e  and  Cuio 
and  secretary  at  St  Petersburg.  He  resigned  in  iE8f,  and 
from  jSi)i  to  1898  was  deputy  for  Ardeche.  His  conneiicn 
wiih  (he  Rtm  <lcs  deia  mendis  began  in  1S7J  wilh  bis  Voysu 
eti  Syru  tt  en  PaUttine,  and  subscquendy 


iwalieo  Frencb  ir 


inieileeloal  life  of  o(her  countries,  especially  of  Russia,  bis 
sympathy  wilh  which  was  strengihciicd  by  hs  marriige  in 
1878  with  ■  Russian  lady,  the  sister  of  General  Annenkov 
De  VogOt  was  pranicaliy  the  first  to  draw  French  altcnlion 
to  Dostotevski  and  his  successor.     He  became  a  member  of 


U%ii\\  Lt  Roman  ruin  (i3«6);  Kit 


iqAy,  Lt  KApptI  dts  omtitu  (1900);  U  Matin  ^  fa  ikt  {19 


VOICB  (Ft.  wii,  from  Lit.  tai).  (he  uund  produted  by  (be 
vibra[ians  of  (he  vocal  cords,  two  liganMnd  or  bands  of  fibrous 
(lasiic  tisstw  situated  in  the  larynx.  It  is  to  be  distinguished 
fnm  sptuk,  which  is  the  production  of  articulaie  sounds 
inlended  to  eipress  ideas.  Many  of  the  lovfcr  animaU  hive 
voice,  but  none  has  the  power  of  s|>e«ch  in  the  sense  in  which 
ilian  possesses  lha[  faculty.  Then  may  be  speech  wilhoul 
voice,  as  in  whispering,  whilst  in  singing  a  scale  of  musical 
tones  we  have  voice  without  speech,  (Set  SoHCi  and  for 
speech  see  Phoniucs;  also  ihe  anicles  on  the  various  lelteis 
of  (he  alphabet.) 

I.  Pkyialotkal  Aiatemy. — The  oigao  of  votce.  (lie  iaijia. 


I]  situated  in  man  In  Ihe  upper  atid  fere  part  of  ttw  neck.whov 
It  lotms  a  well-known  prominence  in  (he  middk  Une  (see 
details  under  ReSpImTORV  Snmf).  It  opens  below  into  the 
(rachea  or  windfrfpe,  and  above  into  Ibe  cavity  of  the  phiiyoz, 
cartilages,  connected    by 


embrancs  or  ligamc 


byth 


al  coids.    The  tr 


Tiovable  c 

us  regulate  the  p 


:  the 
otlia 


»  convey  the 
and  ttie  whole 


Uast  of  air  from  the  lungs  during  enpira 
apparatus  may  be  compared  to  an  acoust 
which  (he  lungs  repnjen(  the  wind  chest  and  the  tiachea  the 
tube  pissing  from  the  whuj  chest  to  the  sounding  body  con- 
tained in  the  laryni.  Suppose  two  light  bands  of  any  elas(ic 
membrane,  luch  as  (hin  ihert  Indis-rubber,  stretched  over 
(be  end  of  a  wide  glass  tube  so  that  the  margins  of  the  hands 
touched  each  other,  nnd  (hat  a  powerful  Masi  of  air  is  driven 
through  the  lube  by  a  bcBows.  The  pressure  would  lu  distend 
Ihe  margins  of  the  menbtaEie  as  to  open  the  aperture  and 
allow  (he  air  (a  escape;  this  would  cause  a  fall  of  pmsure, 
and  the  edges  of  the  membnne  woiiid  spring  back  by  their 
elasticily  to  (heir  former  posbion;  again  the  pressure  woeld 
increase,  and  again  the  edges  of  the  membrane  would  bedii- 
tended,  and  those  actions  would  be  so  quickly  repeated  aato 
cause  the  edges  of  the  membrane  to  vibrate  wilh  sufficient 
rapidity  to  produce  a  musical  lone,  (he  pitch  of  which  ««uM 
depend  on  the  number  of  vibrations  eieeuted  in  a  kcoimI  oI 
lime.  In  other  words,  there  wouM  be  a  rapid  succession  o{ 
pu&  of  air.  Tbc  condensation  and  rarefaction  of  the  ah-  ttnii 
produced  are  the  chiei  cause  of  the  lone,  as  I 
has  pointed  out.  and  in  ihis  way  the  larynx  K 
in  ill  mode  of  prndocing  lone.  It  b  evident  also  that  the 
intensity  or  loudness  of  the  tone  would  be  determined  by  the 
am|iliiude  of  the  vibrations  of  the  marginaof  the  mnnbrane, 
and  that  ill  pilch  would  be  affecled  by  any  arrangements 
effecting  an  increase  or  decrease  ol  the  tension  of  the  margins 
of  the  membrane.  The  pilch  might  also  be  raised  by  the 
sirengih  of  Ihe  current  ol  air.  because  the  great  amplittide  of 

pressure  of  the 


1  dqual  to  that  ol 


I  of  rr 


;.  I.— Cartilaccs  and  Ligaments  of  the  Larynx,  sees  from  Ihe 
rant:  abl  halTn^ii  liiF  I,  epigbittli;  1.  hvoid  bone;  y  small 
lornu  of  hyoid  bone;  4,  middle  thyro-hyoid  liitameDI;  3.  great 
:ornu  ol  hyoid  bone;  6.  small  nodules  el  cutibga  (urMig« 

;.  >,— CaniliEeB  and  Ligament  of  Laryni. 


EOIritic 


iu  of  hyo 


pisbili. 


Oflhynj 


hyoid  bonof 

.  iiient;s.car. 

rhvn>.epi(iottie  1^- 


_. , ,.  aryteaoid  canilufia;  10.  fefi 

bmina  of  thyroid;  11.  muicuLir  pcoce»  of  arytenoid  cartitaie; 
11,  inferior  cocnu  of  Ihyrdd;  ij.  Km  rins  of  trachea;  14.  poURioe 
membcanous  wall  of  iiacbea;  is,  lamina  of  cricbid  cinilace. 
((■■rom  Krause.) 


M  that  rqmcBtcd  by  ]o 
conception  of  the  mechuusD 

Tbe  cafHIaga  For 
of  time  ilDgle  pieci 


VQICE 

of  mler.    Soch  k  ft  fatal 

rk  of  the  licyiii.    They 


thyroid,  the  cricoid  end  the  cextiloffe 
the  epi^Lottii)  end  of  thiee  piin  (Ii 
uyteaoidi,  two  comicula  lajyniu 
cutikgee  of  Sentoriai,  end  tva  cud 
fotm  ortitagei  or  eanUa|ei  df  Wt^ 
bat).  He  li|i-  ■  end  i.  Ine  epigJcHtn. 
the  cornicole  luynglt.  the  tumibrir 
carttSagei  end  tbe  epica  of  tbe  trytcD 
okb  are  coeipead  of  yeUo*  or  chwi 
Shnxaitilage,  vbila  tb*  cartlkf*  o 
■II  the  otben  i>  of  ibe  binline  nriet} 

conil^ia.    These  cenilqa  an  batiiu 

•<r,w  tocetherbyliniDout.n'wof  vhicliar 

£/ftr~— >    HH  is  £(L  I  end  1,  whiM  the  it 

*'  moulder  are  reprcaentcd  ID  Gg.  1.   Tbe 

ligamenu  ipecially  concerned  ui  ihe  pro- 

dtidion  of  Tirfce  an  the  n/mnr  ik^ii- 

luyUmaid  ligmit-'-  —  • ' ■- 

Tbeieanoomp 

jectiMi  of  (he , 

no.  J.-Ri(ht  Half  of  the  ""llfW.  *™™"  "so;"- J  J"  f-l-  i- 
L™..  from  e  vertitml  ""<  «  fm«  to.lhenMdle  ol  th»  jeA 
end  JiihilyoWiqaei™-  '•"*5>  '•■.™P  «  UniieM  ol  Ae 
tinn-  abi.  Ewn-thirriii  thyroid  caitdaie.  They  are  onctically 
^«?  T.  ^^^;  ™a«nau.irt^beUie«leric^SJs!S 
I,  aryioodd  cartilan;  "'5?'*^.  * '"  ^  ?•  ,_..,. 
J.  trwwu  walra  Tbe'»»'^o'lhel»rynj:hd!™lei|-" 
■ryteaoidi     4,    erfcmd  "  "PP"  "<'  '°7*i  P"™  ">', 

6.  tateil  oioMh^J  ™^  '1;'  ""^  t'°«^"-     fmricdb 

Old  linoeat,  or  tree  '«™™  *,'«  ""'"f''  ol  M<"Bi,Eni, 
vocal  cord;  9,  thyroid  fSFi"!^  1.  '^L^  vcnuide  iW 
cartBaio;  10/  lupcrior  "P!  f™""  f«e».  the  /orjmjBj  po 
tbyn>4ryteDoid 


KToiiic    liiBiScal  •    T;    •  I"  vtbiaiion  of  the  true  wol  coidi. 

KxlvofhTOidboriir  1?  'n«  "BW  appTdrt  of  tbe  ttoitit  u 

■nJler  cirnu  of  fanKJ  tn»«<ul«I.  wide  in  front  and  Mmw 

bono.    CFromKra™.)     Mjj^if'Jfc '  T^JjILJS!;!?^"^!^'' 

An  »Iew  rcptcemnl  in  feTj**  a^ttaraTbDmiM  fTtam 

by  the  epiiloltit,  (,  behind  by  the  •ummiti  of  the  uylcooid  carr' 

I  u«,  0^  and  OR  the  ddei  by  i< 


Fio.  4- — Laryneoacajnc' 

•,e[^otci«;  fe,  pheryngo-  , 
flaglottic    fold;      I,    pha- l„u 
lypgo-larynKHl      croove ;  fron 
«.aiyuaMidglotticfoldip„t,   aceoniinB    to    1 
c,  cuneifotm  canilage.  or  dJlatatiDii.    InlenulB 

•'■  ,y*™°  K™?C'  dameter  b  about  17  mm.  and  iti 
r,  toetMrytaoldlSditranwme  «.meter  .bout  4  mm. 
t'   f?^'    *■  ''™<™'*i  The  vocal  coida  U  the  adu't  mah: 

,   .  .  epilbelium.  which  u  doseiy  adherent 

to  underWnj  itniftu™,  mm  cepecuilly  twer  Ibe  tnie  voeal 
eordi.  Tha  ceHi  of  tbe  opiibaliiim.  in  the  neater  portion  of  the 
latynt,  »n  rf  the  columnar  caiated  variety,  end  ty  Ihc  vibratory 
•ctiOB  (f  (bt  dUn  Biicui  !•  dHvM  upwudi.  but  o»w  the  trJi 

'  xxvm  4 


arjynoid  canilaiea,  and  on  the  free  bolder  o(  the  u| 

the  hryni,  more  eqieciaUy  in  (be  epiglotlii.     In  cai 
pouch  tlwroare  uty  10  .eventy  iudi  glands  niiroundi 

of  (he  larynx  Iv  wbi^  ibe  vocal  cordi,  fomuDf  the  r 
can  he  t«hteiied  or  itlaud,  and  by 


clfa  —  itcroo-hyoul.  omoh/aid, 
lo-thyroid  and  Ihyro-hyoid — ehich 
e  the  larynx  a.  a   whole,   (here 


ten  id  &g.  J.  These  miu, 
!  cricD-lbyroid,  (()  Ihe  [ 
mid,  M  Ihi  Ihyn 


obliqiRly  upwirdi 
iwerleirinlo  the 


le  thyiT>flryteruhd, ,. 

d  CO  lie  >ryteno-" 
ir  aclioiu.  will  he" 
nth  the  aid  o(  the,, 
I)  The  criio-lhymid 

nd  oulwarS  wK 


T  hotn. 


:.i™id  end  ihv-      '^ 
»or,m.tcd.  _  (n       ™ 


iDid  canihiEa  are  npproxiT 

mid  that  u  depretied  on  thccrinl^, 
oM  B  gvnerally  etaled.  but.  the  thyroid 
bjang  Sjied  in  potilion  by  tbe  action 

thyroid,  is  depreHcd.  carrying  Ihe  ary- 
lemid  ouilUiM  along  "lib  It.    Thua 

lli;/ni-iufmoid    ha>    b«n    divided    by 


^.  lower  cornuorihyniid 
cartilage  cut   through; 


,,  inime-      of  ihyroid 


._.o.Lhj™. 
14,   Ihyp. 


etjglolliei    IS.  [bdp 


baae  of  the  arytenoid  caitilage.    They      --■;.-     t .-..-- 

are  thua  paiand  with  the  true  vocal  median  Ihyro-hyoidliga. 
rord,  and  when  ihey  contiad  ihe  iiy.      ■"="».    <FroBi  KnuK.) 

wiih  (hem  the  poaterior  part  of  Ihe  tncoW  and  rdaxini  the  votal 
awJi  Thua  Ihe  thyitMrylenoida  ara  the  ant^oniua  tJ  the  trico- 
ibyroida.  K.F.W.I.udwi(hMjiDinie(loutthBlcottain6brM(pcWi»- 
iry-mfiijfj)  anK  [njm  Ihc  iide  olihs  cold  itself  and  poB  obliquely  back 
la  the  proceaui  voealn.  Theae  wlU  tlghien  ihc  parts  of  the  cord  In 
Inml  and  nlai  the  pans  behind  (heir  pdmi  of  aluchment.  Some' 
jf  Ihe  Bin  of  the  outer  poniu  ran  obflquely  npwaidi  rmm  the  tide 
of  iba  ciico^yroid  nembrant,  paaa  thiaigh  the  ■mero.poaicnoi 

"• '  --  Inner  portion  of  Ihe  muscle,  and  finally  end  in  iSTliisue 

.  ..  cord.    TheM  fibrca  have  been  auppf^ed  10  render  Ihc 

'edge  of  Ihe  cord  moie  prominent.    Other  fines  inserted  into  llie' 

""" — ""  "ill  rotate  ilightly  the  arytenoid  omwaidt,  wKhf 

'■»a  Iht  arytoiD-epiglMiideaa  [cJdi  may  4H>K 


Ming 


^iglottii  (QtiBin}._  ^  The  f>iiiin>iir  ai 


.    The 


[ilage,  and  passing  upwan! 
angleof  the  EHae^  ihearv 


a.    To  the  inna  angle 


,  and.  whan  the  two  muKJa  act,  Hdcnisi  tlw  rinia  alatlidiB. 
.ction  IS  oppoaed  by  the  laieial  crict>.|byroidi,  which  draw  the 
angle  faiwdi  ana  oulwanb.  ntatt  tli*  ioDU  Cngla  inwardi. 


«7+ 


VOICE 


and  thai  a|ipi«Ddnut«  the  eofdt.  (4)  The  oryUmnA  ftam  from  the 
ooe  aiyteiioKl  curtilaae  to  the  other,  and  in  actioa  these  cartOages 
will  be  appcaximatea  and  slightly  depressed.  (5)  The  aryUno-epi- 
^otiidtttH  musdes  arise  near  the  outer  angles  of  the  arytenoid;  their 
pass  obliquely  upwaids,  decussate  and  are  inserted  partly  into 


fibres 


Fko.  ^—DiosTains  explaining  the  action  of  the  musdes  of  the  huyns. 
The  dotted  lines  show  the  positions  taken  by  the  cartilages  and  the 
true  vocal  cords  by  the  action  of  the  muscle,  and  the  arrows  show 
the  general  direction  In  which  the  muscular  fibres  act.  A,  Action 
of  crico-thytoid :  i,  crieoid  cartilage;  2,  arytenoid  cartilage; 
3,  thyroid  cartilage;  4,  true  vocal  coni;  5,  thyroid  cartilage,  new 
position ;  6,  true  vocal  cord,  new  position.  B,  ActioD  of  arytenoid : 
I,  section  of  thyroid;  3,  arytenoid;  3,  po^erior  border  of  epi- 

flottis;  4,  true  vocal  cord;  5,  direction  of  mupcuiar  fibres; 
,  arytenoid,  new  position;  7,  true  vocal  cord,  new  position. 
C,  Action  of  latenu  cricoarytenoid;  same  description  as  for  A 
and  B ;  S,  posterior  border  of  epiglottis,  new  position ;  9»  arvtenoid 
in-  new  position.  D,  Action  of  posterior  cric&«rytemMa ;  same 
description.    (From  Beaunis  and  Bouchard.) 

the  outer  and  upper  border  of  the  oppottte  cartilage,  partly  into 
the  aryteno-epHilottic  fold,  and  partly  join  the  fibres  of  Uie  thyro- 
a^tenoids.  In  action  they  assist  tn  banking  the  arytenoids  together, 
whilst  they  also  draw  down  the  epiglottis,  and  constrict  the  upper 
aperture  of  the  larynx.  The  vocal  cords  win  be  also  relaxed  by  the 
dasticity  of  the  parts. 

9.  PkysMogy  tf  Voic$  Produdum. — The  vocal  cords  axe 
tightened  by  the  action  of  the  crico-thyroid,  or,  at  it  might 
jMifscoisr  be  more  appropriatdy  termed,  the  ihyro-cricoid 
flicdkaa-  musde.  It  stretches  the  thyro-arytcnoid  ligaments, 
^'"^  the  free  edges  of  which,  covered  by  mucous  membrane, 
form  the  vocal  cords.  The  adductors  of  the  cords  are  the 
lateral  crlco-arytenoids,  while  the  posterior  crico-arytenoids 
are  the  abductors.  The  arytenoid  musde  brings  the  cords 
together.  Many  of  the  fibres  of  the  thyro-arytenoid  are  inserted 
obliquely  into  the  sides  of  the  cord,  and  in  contraction  they 
tighten  the  cord  by  pulling  on  the  edge  and  making  it  curved 
instead  of  straight.  Some  such  action  is  indicated  by  the 
elliptical  shape  of  the  rima  glottidis  in  passing  from  the  chest 
register  to  the  middle  register.  Other  fibres,  however,  running 
puallel  with  the  cord  may  tend  to  relax  it  in  certain  drcum- 
stances.  All  the  musdes  except  the  thyro-cricoid  (which  is 
innervated  by  the  superior  laryngeal)  receive  nerve  filaments 
from  the  inferior  laryngeal  branch  of  the  vagus,  the  fibres 
being  derived  from  the  accessory  roots.  Both  the  abductor 
and  adductor  nerves  come  therefore  from  the  inferior  laryngeal. 
When  an  ammal  is  deeply  anaesthetized  stimulation  of  the 
inferior  laiyngeal  nerve  causes  abduction  of  the  cord,  but  if 
the  anaesthesia  is  slight,  then  we  have  addnction.  The  tonic 
contraction  of  the  abductors  is  stronger  than  that  of  the 
adductors,  so  hi  a  state  of  rest  the  glottis  is  slightly  open.  The 
centrt  of  innervation  is  in  the  medulla  oblongata,  and  this  is 
dominated  by  a  centre  in  the  Rolandic  region  of  the  cerebral 
cortex. 

The  infentUy  or  touitiett  off  votoe  depends  on  tbe  amplitude 


*ot  the  movement  of  the  vocal  'cords.  PUdk  depends  on  tht 
number  of  vibrations  per  second;  and  the  length,  sixe  and 
degree  of  tension  of  the  cords  will  determine  the  number  <d 
vibrations.  The  more  tense  the  cords  the  higher  the  pitch, 
and  the  greater  the  length  of  the  cords  the  lower  will  be  the 
pitch.  The  range  of  the  human  voice  is  about  three  oct aires 
that  is,  from  fai  (87  vibrations  per  second)  to  soU  (768  vibra- 
tions). In  men,  by  the  development  of  the  larynx,  the 
cords  become  more  dongstcd  than  in  women,  in  the  ratio  ol 
3  to  1,,  so  that  the  nude  voice  is  of  lower  pitch  and 
is  usually  stronger.  At  the  age  of  puberty  the  larynx 
grows  rapidly,  and  the  voice  of  a  boy  "  breaka " 
in  consequence  of  the  lengthening  of  the  cords, 
generally  falling  aa  octave  in  pitch.  A  umilar 
diange,  but  very  much  less  in  amount,  occurs  at  the 
period  in  the  female.  At  puberty  in  the  female  there  is  an 
increase  of  about  one-third  in  the  size  of  the  glottis,  but  it  is 
nearly  doubled  in  the  mala,  and  the  aduH  male  larynx  is 
about  one-tfahd  greater  than  that  of  the  female.  In  advanced 
Ufe  the  upper  notes  of  the  register  are  gradually  weakened 
and  ultlmatdy  disappear,  whilst  the  character  of  the  voice 
also  changes,  owing  to  loss  of  elastidty  caused  by  ossification, 
which  first  begins  about  middle  life  in  the  thyroid  caitilage, 
then  appears  in  the  cricoid,  and  much  later  in  the  arytcmid. 
Eunuchs  retain  the  voices  of  childhood;  and  by  careful  tna- 
iflg  it  is  possible  in  normal  persons  to  arrest  the  developnoc 
of  the  larynx  so  that  an  adult  male  can  still  sing  the  aopraa 
parts  sometimes  used  in  cathedral  choirs.  The  ranges  of  tk 
different  varieties  of  voice  are  shown  in  the  following  dSagrasi, 
where  the  dotted  lines  give  the  range  of  certain  remarkable 
voices,  and  the  figures  represent  vibrations  per  second* 
the  middle  C  of  the  piano  as  356  vibrations  per  second. 


fti 


ijSf.    tJpptc  artt  of  WibwB  ia // flwito  ifgf/o. 

H5«.    A|iifM<  tfSltd  on  thfasoW. 
1014. 


TM. 


Itf. 


SL 


SAt. 


Ml4 
fM 

mi* 

m 

de« 

■ii 

!a. 

fu 

Bib 
tei 

dn 

M 

hi 
■ob 

«^ 

mil 

re* 

t 

wb 

fai 

mil 

f«i 

Alt 

a-t 
f»-i  —<» 

mi— I 


in. 

ts6.   MidCh 

»4<X 


lOf. 


ite. 


I  ft. 


oS. 


«7. 


i 
Tmor. 


MfflO'lOpHHO. 


I 


B«k( 


s«. 


SmlTtoctsvci^ 
FiuwdlCiroctsvek 


AjuchL 


Ciiiviutl  Fomer,  s  octtvci. 
do- 1     i».   B«sianJa(  o(  mutkal  tone 


A  basso  named  Gaspard  Forster  passed  from  fa^  to  la«;  the 
younger  of  the  sisters  Scssi  had  a  contralto  vo^  from  doi  to 
fa«;  the  voice  of  Cataiani  ranged  throe  and  a  half  octaves;  a 
eunuch  singer,  Farinelli,  passed  from  Isi  to  rcii  Nilsson,  in  // 
Plauio  Magico,  could  take  fsi;  and  Mozart  states  that  he  heard 
in  Parma  hi  1770  a  singer,  Lucrezia  Ajngari,  range  from  sols  to 
dof,  which  she  gave  purely,  whilst  she  could  execute  trills  on  rei. 
The  latter  is  the  most  highly  pitdied  voice  referred  to  in 
musical  literature,  an  octave  and  a  half  above  the  highest 
ordinary,  soprano.  It  will  be  observed  that  .the  iawtU  note 
of  Gaspard  Forster's  voice  is  not  much  above  th»  pitch  at  which 


IIm  fwennliia  ot  nniiial  tmc  begiiu,  tai  thit  bom  thii 
to  (bi  niqier  note  of  Lncrcm  Aju^ii  then  i*  >  nnge  of  DoHy 
>ix  ocUvss,  vluhE  tbe  einane  nogs  of  ordlnuy  nice*,  fran 
tlM  lomd  bus  to  U»  hishcst  hi{huo,  ii  a  liule  over  thice 
ocUvo.  It  !•  kIb  intovning  to  abiem  tint  the  nnie  of 
the  hunun  ear  for  the  penqnkii  ef  Duuiol  tone  b  bota  do^ 


.  Til   Yeic 


peiM 

(  Stpsitri. — The  voice  its  beco  divided  try 
wntBi  Into  (Dice  KgisiRs — the  lower  or  chot,  tke  mUdle 
and  the  mutl  or  bead  regiitci.  In  dngmg,  (he  voice  chioga 
Id  volume  ud  in  quality  in  punng  fiom  one  tEghter  into 
Bnother.  Tbeie  is  remarkible  divenity  ol  otdnioa  M  to 
what  happens  in  the  Uryni  in  panng  tbioBgJi  the  variote 
regitttn.  Then  has  also  been  audi  di*cu»iaii  u  to  the 
productkoi  ol  fulsctto  lonci.  Lehieldt  and  Johannes  HUllel 
held  that  •  neak  blast  of  aii  caused  on^  a  portion  of  the  corda, 
■s  regards  length,  to  vibnte;  M.  J.  Oilel  noticed  that  when 
a  falMtto  tone  is  produced  nodal  Imes  are  fonned  in  the  cords 
peraliel  to  Ibeii  edges,  an  observalioa  aupporting  the  £nt 
contentioD;  M.  GBida  was  ol  opinion  that  as  tbe  Toice  rose 
in  pitch  into  faketto  only  tbe  ligamentous  edges  ol  the  cords 
vibnted;  aad  W.  R.  E.  Hodgkinion  ahowcd,  by  dusting  bnely 
powdmd  iadigo  into  the  laiym  and  observing  the  btae  specks 
with  the  laryngoscope,  tbit  "  in  the  deeper  note  of  the  lower 
rcgbiei  the  vibmting  margin  extended  Inm  the  Ihyioid  orti- 
lage  in  front  to  a  poipt  behind  the  junction  of  tbe  ligamentoua 
and  cattilaginDui  portions  of  the  cord."  In  am^ng  falsetto 
tones  tfaoe  additional  pans  are  not  thrown  into  action.  Some 
remarkable  and  inalructive  photogfiphi  obtained  by  French 
dia«  that  in  proceeding  from  tbe  loweu  to  the  higbeat  Dota 
of  the  lov,-et  register  the  oirds  became  lengthened  by  one-eighth 
of  aa  iDch  in  a  contralto  singer's  lai>nii  the  same  singer,  in 
pasing  itno  the  middle  regbtcr,  showed  a  aboitening  of  the 
cords  by  one-nitccnlh  of  an  inch,  and  another  Imreise  In 
leagth  when  [he  unwr  part  tA  the  middle  regitto'  was  lEached. 
4.  Omdidan  0/  Iki  Laryia  i%  Uti  Variout  KtgisUri. — In 
ringing,  ofis  can  readily  observe  that  the  tcne  may  appear  to 
GMue  chicdy  from  the  chest,  fmrn  the  throat  or  from  the  head, 
or  it  may  show  tbe  peculiar  quaHty  of  tone  tcffmcd  falsetto. 
Authoriliei  diGer  much  in  the  nomeodttuie  a[^i]ied  la  tti«« 

spoke  of  the  voce  di  potto,  voce  di  goli  and  voce  di  testa. 
Uadame  Sdler  describes  fira  aaidllions,  vl*.  tbe  finl  series 
of  lonei  of  the  chest  Raster,  the  setond  aerie*  of  tones  of  the 
chest  register,  the  61M  series  <^  tones  ol  the  lalseilo  register,  the 
second  series  of  tones  of  the  falsetto  register,  and  the  head  rcgiilcr. 
French  wrilen  usually  refer  lo  two  re-lets  only,  the  cheat  and 
the  head;  wliiljt  Behnte  gives  thtee  regisiets  for  male  voices 
(lower  thick,  upper  thick  and  upper  thin)  and  five  for  the  voices 
ol  nomen  acd  children  Qawtt  thick,  upper  thick,  bun  thin, 
upper  thin  and  imall).  These  dlslinctions  are  ol  more  impoit- 
ance  piaclknlly  than  as  implying  any  madied  phyiiologia] 
dilfetences  in  the  mechaidsni  of  the  laiynK  during  the  pro- 
dactlon  of  the  tones  In  the '  diflerent  teglsten.  By  means 
of  the  laryngoscope  il  Is  possible  to  see  the  condition  of  the 
rima  glollidia  and  the  coeds  Id  passing  tbrough  all  tbe  range 
ol  the  voice, 
la  iSo;  Doadni  Gni  showed  (bat  it  was  pooible  to  see  into  the 

in  1S19  W.  BabiHEion  fint  bw  the  glot^  In  this  way.    In  1B54 
— '-  ' — cMigatcd  his  own  larynx  and  thai  o(  other  linnrs,  and 
TUKk.aBd*sp«llyJ.  N."  ■    -    ''-■-•-- 


n  Uur  TUkI 


eposlntction  of  the  laryngoscoiie.  In  1863  Lennox  firowae 
Bmil  Behake  obtained  photognphs  ol  tbe  cCxtii  in  the  livlni 
Tbe  laryngoscope  is  a  small  nintir.  about  the  diameter  ol  a  tEl 

'—"-■"- --^falongha  ■■      -         -■     -     - 

pushed  tD> 


le  back  ol  the  Ihroal.  and  i 


--  -e.-  »  v.irown  [mo  the  moulh  fiom  a  lamp,  aiul  if  the 
tbat^nerver  be  ia  the  prrfper  pcahion.  by  angling  the  small 
it  h  not  dlbcuK  to  gel  a  vin  of  tha  glottH.  ^Tb*  light 
b*  lamp  is  nAacled  by  the  niln«c  down  oa  the  glDltisi  froia 
BreAedid  b«k  to  tha  munr.  aad  ib*a  by  the  -' —  '■  - 


rver.    Usuall)'  the  observer 


ICE  175 

can  he  thnws  tnna  a  lainp  Into  tha  noutb  and  ttuoat.    In  the 

the  otiserver  sees  the  ImaEe  in  the  amall  ndrror  at  the  back  of  the 
thtoat.  By  placing  a  second  plane  mirror  in  fiont  ol  Itie  face,  an 
□bscrver  can  easily  study  tbe  niechanjam  of  his  own  laiyna. 

Suppose  Iha  picture  ol  the  larynx  to  be  examined  in  the  small 
mirror  at  the  b«ck  ol  the  throat,  an  inuige  will  be  seen  u  in  fig.  4. 
During  calm  breathing,  tba  elotti^  >n  l^nce-shaped,  between  tba 

widely,  and  In  lavoursble  cucumBtancea  one  may  look  into  the 
tnchta.  When  a  sound  ia  to  be  made,  ihc  vocal  ojrds  are  brought 
cloae  tocether,  eitber  along  their  whole  length,  as  bi  fig.  7.  or  only 
along  the  ligamentous  portion,  the  ipace  between  the  aiytenoids 
beiag  ■till  open,  as  in  fig.  S.    Then  srben  tbe  sound  begins  the 


Flo.  7. — ArrangcnK 


b.  epiglottis:  fj,  false  cord;  n, 
cartO^    JFron  Mandl.) 
Flo,  B.— Ctoniieiil  the  Ligamentou 

'ahE  cord;  r4.  true  1 
ir^tauHd  canilagEki: 


vocal  cord^  ar^  aryteni^ 

FoRlon  of  Glottis,  t.epigloltls; 
;  er»  space  between  arytenoids^ 
jHj  QutuwEvi  b,  cuDoiorm  cartHaieai  mp,  ary-epialottic 
..~„,.,,.iter-aiyteaoidlotd.  (FmoHaojL) 
glottis  opens  (Eg.  4),  the  form  ot  the  openii«  uiflucndng  tbe  Idnd  ol 
vain,  whilst  the  degree  cf  tenslaa  ol  the  cords  will  determipc  the 

During  Insf^ration  tbe  ed|es  of  the  true  vocal  cords  may  oca- 
lianally  be  close  toiEther,  as  in  Babbing.  and  during  losplralloa  the 
lalse  cords  are  easily  separated,  even  when  Ihey  touch,  and  during 
expriaiian,  owing  to  dilataiion  of  the  venlriclct,  they  come  logelhef 
-_  _..jM..  _i.  .     T^        f  ^^  ^^  plane  of  the  cords,  the 


coidi  doling  ixpintloa.  J.  Wytlie  clBufr  ehomd  In  1S65  that  the 
lalse  vocalorda  pity  tha  thief  put  in  dbaureof  ibe  Blotiii  duriM 
eipuaika.    Laudn  Branton  and  Cash  have  confirmed  J.  Wyllie^ 


J.  TIk  fiullly  of  the  htuntn  vtiec  depaid*  on  tbe  iame 
ws  thai  determine  the  quality,  dang-tinl  ot  timbre  ol  the 
nes  produced  by  any  muical  batrument.  Uusical  loon 
e  lotmed  by  the  vibrations  tH  the  true  vocal  cords.  Tbese 
tMM  rmf  be  tftbtr  pure  or  adBd,  and  b  b*tb  <■■■>  tbsgr  ate 


■76 


1  «(  tbt  tlr  In  tht  tir-pi 


pc.  pluiynBO*p 


t.  H«h  Tone. 
R.   D«p  Ton 


uforfiti.  J 


iwidloldt.    (Fnin  Maodl.) 


It  the  tone  is  rompounded  of  a  number  o[  p«nl»!i— or 
more  of  Ihoe  wUl  be  tirengthened  by  ihe  cmvitiii  »bovi 

ba  Ihus  leiolorod  Ihlt  Ibe  ruBdimcntal  one  may  be  Bb»cu«d, 
uid  ft  eetlain  qunlity  or  timbre  will  be  commuBiciied  to  (he 
«r.  Funher,  HeJmholtz  has  (hovin  Ihit  special  fornu  ol 
Iho  oral  eaviiy  reintorce  in  parliraiar  ctrtain  panials,  and  thm 
give  >  iharacier  to  vowel  tones,— indeed  to  such  an  eiienl 
that  cull  vdwci  tone  tniy  be  uid  to  have  a  filed  pitch.  This 
may  be  proved  by  puttJiig  the  mouih  in  a  certain  form,  keep- 
ing the  lips  <4>eii,  and  brrngiiig  various  tuning  lorki  lounding 
feebly  in  Iron!  of  the  opening.  When  a  fork  is  found  to  w" '  ' 
the  resonant  cavity  ol  the  moutb  connponds,  then  the 

capacity  ol  Ibe  oral  cavity  its  pitch  In  various  coiidillou 

be   determined.     Thus,   accaiding   to   Hclmholti,   the  pitch 

corresponding  to  the  vowels  may  be  nprestedi — 


Tone 


Al     E 


EU     V 
I    doi    »l. 


le  vowels  diHerenliy,  tbut: 


five  >  veefad  darvur  to  tbr  mmd;  lad  la  tbr  CMft  of  • 
*  tone  the  pitch  doM  not  tppou  to  depemd  on  ihai  of  tba 

laealal  looi  but  oa  the  pilch  of  the  tctanaoce  nvii^, 

u  adjusicd  be  the  MUiuUiii  id  any  particular  voireL      Wlina 
nah  lo  ptOBOUEfe  or  ting  a  vowel  ibe  oral  ca\-it]r   must 
jljusled  to  a  certain  (orra,  and  it  ia  only  when  il     tus 
loim  that  the  vowel  can  be  (oiuded.     The  nature    of 
rl  tones  has  been  investigated  by  meant  of  tbc   phooo. 
graph  by  Fleemioj  Jenkin  and  Ewing,  L.  Hermann,  Hpping, 
boeka,    Lloyd,    McKendridi    and   otbera.      E.  W.  Sciiptm 
bat  worked  with  ^he  graraophacte.     These  observen  may    btt 
ranged  in   two  divisiorit — those  who   uphold  the   theory    of 
'  re  as  opposed  to  iboee  who  crmtend  lor  tbe  theory  od 
pilch.     Assuming  that  a  vowd  it  always  a  compaond 
composed  ol  a  fundamental  and  partialt,  tbcoe  who  upbold 
rlative  pilcb  theory  state  that  if  ibe  pitch  of  the  funds- 
mental  is  changed  tbe  pitch  of  the  panials  rauti  undergo  > 
T^Live  change,  while  tbdr  opponents  contend  ibat  whatevo' 
may  be  tbe  pitcb  of  the  lone  produced  by  tbe  laiyni,  the  pitch 
ol  the  paitiab  that  gives  quality  or  charsfier  lo  a  vowel  Is 
always  the  lame,  or,  in  other  muds,  vowel  tone*  have  ■  fixed 
pilch.     Helmholu  held  Ihit  all  tbe  panials  in  a  vowel  loaa 
were  haimonic  lo  the  lundomealal  tone,  ihat  ii  Ibai  thrir  periods 
were  thaple  mulliples  of  the  powd  of  the  luodamental  Iode 
Hennann,  howevei.  hu  cendtisively  shown  Ihal  many  o(  ib- 
jMuIiils  are  inbarmoruc  (0  Ibe  fuodamentaL     This  practi^ 
upeeis  the  theory  of  Hebnholcz.    The  methods  by  which  ilia 
problem  can  be  invcstigaled  we  mainly  two.    The  [Hlch  of  lbs 
oral  cavity  lor  a  ^ven  vavcl  may  be  etperimenlally  determined, 
or  an  analysis  may  be  made  of  the  curvt-Iorms  of  vowels  oo 
the  wax  cylinder  at  the  pboDograph  or  the  disk  of  the  gramo- 
pbonc.     By  loch  an  anslyoit,  according  to  Fourier's  tbamn^ 
tbe  curve  may  be  resolved  into  tbe  partiali  that  take  part,  m 
its  formation,  and  tbe  intensity  of  those  partialt  m«y  be  Ibta 
determined.     The  obiervalioDs  of  Dondn,  Helmholta,  KBoig 
and  otbera  ai  to  the  pitcb  of  the  lesonating  cavities  gan 
different  results.     Greaier  succna  has  fdlowed  the  attempis 
made  by  Hennaiw,  Bocke,  McKendiick,  Uoyd  and  UaiicheUe 
to  analyse  the  curves  imprinted  en  the  phonograph.    (Eiampks 
of  such  phonograins  are  given  by  HcKendnck  in  tbe  article  oa 
"Vocal  Sounds"  in  ScbUei's  Fkynalta,  ii-  i*>Sl  sec  >1*» 

pHOHOCUrH,) 

The  fiJIowing  b  an  instruetrvc  tnalysk  by  Bod*  oi  thi 
curve!  representing  the  tones  of  a  comet,  and  it  iUasiratti 
the  laws  that  govern  the  psoductjon  of  quality  In  sodi  ■> 


I 


o.  ol  vlbntian  .  ijs  4;o  940  i>8o  3760 
F.  C.  OondcTs  has  given  a  third  result.  diHering  from  ei 
the  above;  and  [here  is  little  doubt  that  much  will  depend 
on  the  quaUiy  of  tone  peculiar  to  different  nalionalilies.  F  ~ 
means  of  Koenig's  manometric  fiames  with  Rvolving  thim 
the  varying  quality  ol  tone  may  be  illustraled;  with  a  pu 
tone,  the  teeth  in  the  flame-picture  are  equal,  like  the  tctraiioi 
of  a  saw,  whilst  usuUy  the  tone  is  mined  with  panials  whir 
show  Ihenuelves  by  Ihe  unequal  senatlons.  Thus  quality  of 
mico  depends,  not  merely  on  the  tiie.  degree  of  elaslicil; 
Heneral  rnobilily  oF  the  vocal  cords,  hut  also  on  the  fo 
the  resonating  cavities  above,  and  very  ilighl  diSerencct  In  these 
nay  produce  striking  results. 

6. .  Vaaid  Timtt. — A  vowel  is  ■  musjcsl  tone  produced  by  Ibe 
ribratbns  of  Ihe  vocal  cords.  The  tone  produced  by  '*  ~ 
vocal  cords  Is  a  mlled  one,  composed  of  a  fundament^ 
partialt,  and  certain  of  the  panials  are  strengthened  by 
fcsonnncc  ol  the  air  in  ihe  ati-pastaga  and  in  tbe  pharyngeal 
tod  oral  caviiies.  In  tbii  respect  tbe  quality  of  ihe  bumae 
Voko  depends  <«  the  same  laws  as  those  detetmioipg  tbt 
qusKly  or  timbre  ol  the  tones  produced  by  any  mosicsl  inttru- 
*Knt.  The  pitch  of  the  note  ol  a  musical  instrument,  however, 
dqiends  on  lb*  pilch  of  the  first  «  fundaniental  (on*,  while 
Ibi  pvtisls  an  added  with  peatir  01  lass  iauasily  so  a*  t* 


f-:iii' 


diminishes.  Tbit  ansiyw  may  be  contraab 
rel  U  Mini  by  Bocke  (ael.sn)  on  Ibe  BWea/ii 
■et  >ung  on  ibc  notes  r  and  ('  by  hii  loa  (art.  11 


Man,  aet.  50, 


i!i ::;  tn  ts  ts 

tingmgU. 


fas-t 


It  wQl  be  observed  that  in  both  these  case*  the  intensity  of  lh« 
partlals  does  not  fade  away  gradually  aa  we  procsBd  front  the 
lower  to  tbe  higher  partlals,  as  with  ihe  comet,  bnl  that  certain 
panials  are  intensified  more  than  otbers.  namdy.  those  prinled 
in  bhuk.  In  other  words,  tbe  /arm  of  tbe  resonating  cavily 
devek^  panicuUi  panials,  and  Ibess  modify  ihe  qualitj 
of  the  lone.  If  we  muliiply  the  vibrational  number  of  tbe 
fundamental  tone  by  the  number  of  the  panial  we  obtain  tbt 
pitch  ol  lb*  icsonance  cavityi  m  U  wo  take  Iba  nwu  «i  tk» 


VOIRON— vorruRE 


'77 


pntMin 


(■:&•: 


tbit  uulyii*  ■hum:  (i)  thu  ths  i 
Oulf-KDiilone)  ia  uccading  kvee 
hii  ngiitcr;  (i)  that  the  bp/t  ta 
in  aaccndinjE  niaG  KmitoDO  in  Ih 

id-register  the  boy*i  r 


a  rim  iligbUy 


..'■xhiUQlIm 
ud  tj)  in  the 

u  5:4.  Thua,u  we  ling  H  vowel  in  aQ  aBceadiag  iakLD«  piicn 
of  the  ond  cavity  Blightly  dungesi  or,  in  otlwr  wordA.  the  pitch 
of  the  monating  cavity  foi  a  given  vowel  nuy  be  ilighlJy  altered. 

It  would  appear  that  both  theoriei  are  partially  true;  they 
■re  001  mutually  eicIuHve.  The  view  ol  Donden  that  each 
vowel  bai  aa  onl  cavity  ol  unchangeable  and  filed  pitch  ti  too 
uduiivo,  uid,  00  the  olhei  hand,  it  cannot  be  dznied  Ihal 
each  vowel  bu  a  piedominant  partial  or  predominanl  paniall 
which  give  it  t.  definite  cbacicler,  and  which  mual  be  ptoducid 
by  the  ots!  nvily  ti  a  nbole,  or  by  the  double  reioDancs  of 
poitiont  of  the  cavity,  ai  niggcited  by  Lloyd.  As  we  aing  a 
vowel  in  an  aicending  teak  Iho  fomi  of  the  rcionance  cavity 
Day  lUghtly  change,  but  not  luffidntly  to  alter  Ibe  quality 
of  the  vowel.  Thui  we  Mill  detect  the  vowel  tone.  A  lincei 
alnuat  iutiDclively  choows  fuch  voweb  aa  beat  luit  the  re- 
■oaating  airangtmenti  of  hii  or  bet  voico,  and  avoida  voweb 
or  wordi  containing  vowela  iluE  would  kid  to  Ihc  pnductlon 
of  ootei  of  iaierioc  quality. 

AtTTBOurna. — Hrimholti.  SmtaHtiH  tt  Tm,  irana.  by  Ellli 
(iStj}.  P-  Its-  K«*i(,  Ctrnfla  XimiMi  (1I70),  t  In.  p.  931 ;  alio 
Qui&ui  aftncnca  tamiili^K  (iBSi),  p.  47.  Doodcn,  Dt 
ihyiwlerU  iti  ipnutUmifli  (IS?!)],  ■.  9:  alio  "  Ucber  de  Vokell," 
AnUt  I  i-  iMid  Btilr.  3.  Hal.  t.  HtU.  (UtiRht,  1657),  Bd.  i. 
a.  M^  Donkin,  FmrUr't  tktortm,  Actum--  -  '-■  " — " — 
lenfcSr  and  Ewii«.  Trau.  Key.  At  £d. 
Uoyd,  Proc.  Xcy.  £oc.  Ed.  (1848):  Plunilit 
Jl,  i4  Ami,  and  Flisi.  (LondonJ,  vol.  iind.  n.  j]; 
p.  uo,  Hennann,  Pimopkliliirratiixlu  Unlrrsxca,,  m.  >.~v.; 
AriUtf.i.  in.  i>i^n<>l,.  (gmnt._B^.!dv.  a  sg2;^Bd.ilvrLi.  44; 

rtniika,.   B  he   Ph^^noErnm- 

(Die.  16,191  F  the  important 

rmvcbea  1  nit  d'ltrf  I* 

liact   iu   r  morit  it   la 

farmalim  it  ta  Ugob).    S« 

al»  ft'olMfi  Q.  C.  M.) 

.  VOlRDtt,  a  (own  of  Piuea  In  tb«  dqnRmait  of  tbe  Ut«. 
Fop.  (igoi)  ii,6ij.  It  (tud*  at  a  ke^ht  of  950  ll^  on  the 
Uorgc  (a  tribiitaiy  of  thelsinj.  It  la  a  manafactDring  town, 
'  factcrin  which  produce  a  aort  of  doth 

I  and  alto  ailk-weavlng  factorlca  (3000 
output  of  d^t  to  Din*  milliia  yaidi). 
Then  an  also  papei-malting  facioiia  In  the  town.  T^  fine 
(kureh  ef  St  Bruno  waa  built  1U4-T3  at  the  eipenae  of  the 
monks  of  the  Grande  Cliutnuw.  Voiroa  Is  the  Uaiting-point 
of  the  Mcam  tiamwayt  10  St  LauROt  dn  Pont,  11  m.  (for  the 
Ciandi  ChaitiEuK),  and  (0  Chaisvinc*,  »)  m.  (far  the  Lac 
de  Paladn).  Voron  long  fotraed  part  of  Savoy,  but  in  1J55 
waa  e»-hangtd  (wiUi  the  mt  of  lb*  leglDn  botween  the  RboOB 
ud  tba  Iibt,  waucad  by  the  Cuieit  Hort)  by  the  nwnl  wiih 
Flaneg  for  Faudgny  and  Gci. 

VOUBHOII,  CL4UDB  HtHKI  DB  TVStg,  \*vk  os  (170MS). 
noch  diamatsl  and  man  of  talten,  WM  born  at  tho  chUanu 


ef  Vooenon  Dear  HeluB,  «D  tlw  Sth  ^  Jdy  IT«B.  At  the  ago 
of  ten  be  addnntd  an  q>blle  in  vene  to  Voltaire,  who  aiked  Ibe 

boy  to  viaL  him.  From  this  introduction  dated  a  MendsUp 
that  lailed  for  UtT  yean.  Votienon  made  liis  dftut  aa  k 
dramaiiat  with  VHturmu  rtuimtloiut  in  1711,  fotlowed  In 
'739  by  a  thm.act  comedy  L'&alt  it  monde  at  the  ThfUie 
franfak.  This  wat  preceded  1^  a  vene  pmlogiie,  L'Omirt  it 
ittlitn,  and  *  raanlh  later  Vobenon  produced  a  critldBn  on 
his  own  pkce  in  Lt  KUtar  it  FmOn  it  UtUirt.  A  duel  in 
which  be  was  the  aggrtnor  tna^nred  him  w^ib  temone,  and  be 
entered  the  pri««bood,  betomlng  vicaT^grneral  to  the  bishop  of 
Boulogne.  lie  received  the  abbey  ol  Jud,  which  made  tn 
demindi  on  hint.  Be  became  cloaely  attached  to  Madune  du 
Chbelet,  Ibe  mkinn  of  Voltaire  (f.i.),  and  was  intimate  with 
the  comte  de  Caylua  and  Mademoiselle  Quinault  DuTresDc.  He 
nude  witly  Wit  by  no  means  edifying  ojnttibutiotn  to  the 
Slrtuaa  it  Saint-Jian,  the  AiJi  it  Bail,  tec  In  1744  be  pro- 
duced the  UtHatei  aiiurlu  and  in  1746  hit  nMslerpwce,  the 
CtguiOt  Jail.  He  lived  on  terms  of  the  closeat  intiaucy  wiih 
Charles  Simon  Favait  and  hi>  wife.  His  pen  was  elwiya  at  the 
■ervice  of  any  of  bis  fiiendi,  and  it  wu  generally  fuppoMd, 
though  on  InnilSclent  grounds,  (hat  be  had  ■  considenfale  share 
in  Favatt')  nwit  luccetiful  operas.  Votsenoa  had,  iiraogt  (o 
lay,  soupls  all  hU  life  aboul  the  incongniity  betwtea  hit  way 
of  living  and  hit  pcofetaion,  but  he  oonlinued  to  write  indectnt 
storks  for  private  circuktion,  and  wrote  verses  in  hononr  o( 
Madame  du  Bury,  at  be  had  done  for  Madame  de  Pompadour. 
He  wat  Fleeted  to  the  Academy  in  1761.  On  the  diigratx  of  Ma 
patron,  the  dtic  de  Cboleeul,  be  loat  his  pensions  and  honours, 
but  soon  recovered  hk  position.  He  was  Intimate  with  the 
charKellor  Maupeou,  and  waa  tuipccled  of  wiftbig  on  hk  behal 
in  defence  of  the  abolition  of  the  pariement.  This  and  some 
other  inddenu  brought  him  Into  general  ditgtaie.  Early  in 
r7JS  he  retired  to  the  chtteau  de  Voisenon,  where  he  died  OB 
the  indgf  November  of  the  lame  year. 

Hit  (X»n>  ctrnifiUf  were  puhriAed  by  hk  executrix,  Madame 
de  Turpiu,  la  1781. 

voir UH^  VmcnT  (i59»-i<S48),  French  poet,  was  tbean  ot 
a  tlch  nodmnt  ol  Amleaa.  Be  wat  Introduced  by  a  icbo^ 
fellow,  tbe  cotnte  d'Avaui,  to  Culon  d'Orlfans.  and  accom- 
panied him  to  Bruuels  and  Lorraine  on  diplomatic  misslont. 
Ahboagh  k  fnUowei  of  Gaston,  be  won  the  favour  of  Richeliei^ 


S<:hil«*i 


and  wu  one  of  the  eaiUeat  a 


lidani 


He  a: 


■  from  Louii  XITI.  and  Anne 
AtEIria.  He  publlsbed  nothing  in  book  fonn,  hut  his  versa 
■nd  Ms  pTOee  ktten  wen  the  delight  of  the  coteries,  and  were 
a»pled.  handed  about  and  admired  more  perfiApe  than  the 
work  of  any  cooiemporary.  Ho  had  beeo  early  inlioduted  10 
the  Hftiel  de  RBmbouillel,  where  he  wit  the  etpecUl  friend  of 
JnBe  d'Angennea,  who  called  him  her  "dwarf  king."  Hit 
ingenuity  in  providing  ■mutemBRt  lor  the  younger  membera  <A 
the  drcie  ensured  his  poputatily,  which  irat  never  seriously 
threatened  eicept  by  Antoine  Godetu,  and  thii  rivalry  ceased 
when  Richelieu  appomted  Godeau  bUhop  ol  Grataev  When  at 
tbe  dcure  of  the  due  de  Uonuusler  nioeteea  peeti  contributed 
to  the  Guirlanit  it  JulU,  which  wu  lo  decide  tbe  mucb-fliBd 
Juhe  in  favour  of  hk  >uic,  Voiture  refuted  lo  take  part.  The 
qoorrd  between  the  Unnbtet  and  the  Jobelini  ircse  over  the 
reipeclive  merit!  of  a  sonnet  ol  Voituii  addressed  to  a  tcrtiin 
Urania,  and  of  another  compoecd  by  Isaac  de  Benterade,  till 
tlien  Daknowa,  on  tbe  subject  ol  Job.  Another  famous  ^ece 
of  hk  of  the  lame  kind,  la  BdU  Uullnttist,  k  less  enivisilo; 
but  ulll  very  admirabk,  and  Voiture  stands  in  the  highest  rank 
of  writers  of  ten  it  ttcUtt.  Hk  proae  ktten  an  full  ol  lively 
wit,  and.  In  tome  casct,  at  in  the  ktter  on  Richelieu'i  policy 
(Letter  LXXIV.),  show  considcnibk  political  penetration.  He 
rank*  wfth  Jean  de  Baliac  as  Ibe  chief  director  of  the  reform  in 
French  ptoee  which  aco^panied  that  of  Malherbe  In  French 
vene.  Vt^un  died  at  tbe  outbreak  ol  the  Fronde,  which  killed 
Ibe  Bodety  to  which  be  waa  accuitomed,  DO  the  i4th  of  Hay  1648k 
■  See  A.  Roui.  0^x70  (k  V.  d(  Vi-Owt  (Fuk.  i«5fi} ;  and  C  A. 


i7« 


VOIVODB— VOLCANO 


VOIVODB  («]ao  V4it0^»  Vgf9od«,  W&ymde,  fta,  Med.  Off. 

fiotfioSos)^  a  title  in  uae  among  certain  Slavonic  peoples, 
meaning  Uteraliy  "  leader  oi  an  anny  "  (SL  w,  ho8t»  army; 
voidili,  to  lead),  and  so  applied  at  various  periods  and  in  various 
eastern  European  countries  to  ruler^  governors  or  officials  of 
varying  degree.  It  is  best  known  as  the  title  of  the  pcinoes  of 
Moldavia  and  WaUachia,  In  these  states  the  title  remained  in 
use  irom  the  earliest  times  until  1658  in  the  case  of  the  first 
fitate^  and  until  17x6  in  that  of  the  second,  when  it  gave  way  to 
Hospodar  (q.v.).  During  the  period  of  Hungarian  domination 
of  Transylvania  (1004-1  sa6}  it  was  governed  by  a  voivode  as  an 
Hungarian  province,  the  last  voivode  laising  himself  to  the 
position  of  an  independent  prince.  In  Poland  the  title  was 
used  of  certain  administrative  officials;  Polish  historians 
latinized  it  by  poiaUnus*  At  the  present  day  voivode  is  used, 
in  its  original  sense  of  a  high  military  officer,  in  the  Monte- 
negrin army,  where  it  concsponds  to  the  general  officer  in 
other  European  armies. 

YOKES,  the  name  of  a  family  of  English  actors.  Frederick 
MoRTiuER  VoKiis  (X846-18S8),  the  SOU  of  a  costumier,  made 
his  first  appearance  on  the  stage  In  1854.  In  i86x  he,  his  aisten 
Jessie  (1851-1884),  Victoria  (1853-1894)  and  Rosina  (1858- 
1894),  and  Walter  Fawdon  (Yokes),  first  as  the  '■'  Yokes 
Children  "  and  then  as  the  "  Yokes  Family,"  began  to  perform 
at  music  ^alls  and  at  the  pantomimes,  and  by  their  agility  and 
humour  made  the  name  well  known  to  English  and  American 
theatre-goexs.  Fred  Yokes  was  a  man  of  real  inventiveness  as 
well  as  rare  acrobatic  skilL 

VOLAPOK,  the  first  artificial  language  (see  UMiVERfiAL 
Languages)  to  attain  any  measure  of  piactical  success.  First 
published  in  x88o,  it  was  the  work  of  J.  M.  Schleyer  (b.  1839), 
a  south-German  priest.  Yolaptik  is  not,  like  the  earUest 
attempts  of  the  kind,  an  a  priori  language,  but  is  based  mainly 
on  English,  the  rest  of  the  vocabulary  being  made  up  from 
Latin  and  the  Romance  languages,  llie  borrowed  words  are 
reduced  to  a  monosyllabic  form  and  are  <rften  altered  in  a  very 
arbitrary  manner.  Thus  the  name  YoIapUk  itself  is  made  up 
of  the  two  English  words,  world  and  ipeah,  the  first  in  the 
genitive,  the  three  vowels,  a,  e,  t ,  being  used  to  express  the  three 
cases,  genitive,  dative  and  accusative  respectively;  the  nomina- 
tive is  expressed  by  the  bare  root,  and  9  is  add^  to  foim  the 
pluraL  The  granunar  of  Yplapfik  is  therefore  paJrtly  borrowed, 
like  the  vocabulary,  partly  originaL  Adjectives  end  in  •4k, 
The  persons  of  the  verb  are  indicated  by  adding  the  pronouns 
«&  "  I,"  a  "  thou,"  om  "  he,"  &c,  plural  obs  "  we,"  &&;  the 
tenses  and  the  passive,  are  indicated  by  prefixes,  the  moods  by 
aufiixes  following  the  person-endings,  many  other  inflections 
being  used  as  well,  so  that  the  YolapCUt  vexb  boasts  of  no  less 
than  505,440  different  forms. 

Although  founded  on  English,  VolapQk  Is  mainly  GeTmail 
in  structure.  It  gets  rid  of  the  German  word-ord^r  and  the 
irregularities  of  German  gi;^mmar,  but  it  Is  often  impossible 
to  understand  a  Yolapttk  text  without  thinking  in  G«;man. 
The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  language: — 

Ldfob  kctnents  vallk  vola  loUk.  patBco  etis  pckulivM,  kds  kon- 
fidoms  VoiapiQke,  as  bale  medaa  gietikQn  netasfetamu 
.  *'  1  love  all  jnv  fclk>w<ceaCHres  Of  the  whole  world,  especially 
those  cultivated  (ones)  who  believe  in  Yolapltk  as  (bcyig)  one  of  the 
greatest  means  of  natlon^binding." 

Here  kor^fid  govenu  the  dative  just  as  its  German  equivalent 
does,  and  "cultivated '.'  is. used  in  the  sense  of  the  German 
gebilfUkr, 

,  The  history  of  VolapOk  has  an  hiterest  greater  than  that  of 
the  language  itself.  It  has  proved  (x)  that  people  in  general 
arc  ready  to  adopt  an  artificial  language,  and  (2)  that  an 
artificial  language  is  easier  to  learn  than  any  national  language, 
and  supplies  an  efficient  means  of  communication  between 
those  who  .have  no  other  language  in  common.  Yolapttk  had  no 
special  philological  merits  to  recommend  it;  yet,  after  a  few 
years'  incubation  in  south  Germany,  it  spread,  first  to  France 
(about  X885)  and  then  in  a  few  years  over  the  whole  civilized 
world,  so  that  in  1889,  when  the  third  Volapttit  coDgoest  met 


at  Yvm,  there  woe  983  Yohiplik  sodetks  all  ovtf  the  ^wotM, 
and  the  total  number  of  Yolapilk  students  was  estimated  at 
over  a  million.    At  this  congress  every  one — even  the  waiters— 
spoke  YoUpttk,  and  the  permanent  triumph  of  the  language 
seemed  certain.    But  the  year  of  its  ^nith  was  the  beginning 
of  a  decline  even  more  rapid  than*  its  rise.    It  fell  to  pieces 
through  dissensions  in  its  own  camp,  the  first  cause  of  which 
was  the  opposition  of  the  inventor  to  those  of  his  disciples  who 
aimed  at  making  the  language  mainly  an  instrument  of  com« 
meiciat  correspondence,  and  advocated  the  greatest  possible 
simplification  of  grammar  and  vocabulary.     The  divergence 
of  views  between  the  inventor  and  his  colleagues  became  more 
and  more  marked;  and  after  the  third  congress  the  breach 
between  M.  Schleyer  and  the  Yolapttk  Academy  (founded  at 
the  second  congress  in   1887)  became  a  definite  one:    the 
director  of  the  Academy  proposed  a  totally  new  scheme  of 
grammar,  and  other  members  proposed  others,  although  one 
of  the  objects  of  the  foundation  of  the  Academy  was  the  pre> 
servation  of  the  integrity  of  the  language.    A  new  director, 
M.  Rosenberger  of  St  Petersburg,  was  elected  in  1893;  and 
from  this  moment  the  Academy  dissociated  itsdf  from  Volapuk 
and  began  to  construct  a  new  international  language.  Idiom 
Neutral  (see  Universal  Lanquaoes).  (H.  Sw.) 

VOLCAB,  a  Celtic  people  in  the  province  of  Gallia  Nar- 
bonensis,  who  occupied  the  district  between  the  Garumai 
(Garonne),  Ceri>cnna  mons  (C€vennes),  and  the  Rhodanus ;« 
even  farther  to  the  east  in  earlier  times),  corresponding  rough^ 
to  the  old  province  of  Languedoc.  They  were  divided  uiio 
two  tribes,  the  Arecomid  on  the  east  and  the  Tectosages 
(whose  territory  induded  that  of  the  Tolosates)  on  the  west, 
separated  by  the  river  Arauris  (H^ult)  or  a  line  between  the 
Arauris  and  Orbis  (Orbe).  The  Yolcae  were  free  and  mdepen- 
dent,  had  their  own  laws,  and  possessed  the  jus  LotiL  The 
chief  town  of  the  Tectosages  was  Tolosa  (Toulouse);  of  the 
Arecomid,  Nemausus  (NImes);  the  cajMtal  of  the  province 
and  residence  of  the  governor  waA  Narbo  Martins  (Narbonne). 
It  was  said  that  tbere  was  an  eariy  settlement  of  Volcac 
Tectosages  bear  the  Hercynia  SUva  in  Germany;  Tectosages 
was  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  three  great  oomnxunities  of 
Gauls  who  invaded  and  settled  in  Asia  Minor  in  the  country 
called  after  them  Galatia. 

See  A   Holder.  AUceUischer  SpmehsckUi,  I  tu   (iM,   1904). 

S.W,  "Arccomicr'  and   "Tcctoaaji";  T.   R.  HolmesTCWjarV 

Conauest  of  Caul  (1890)  p.  513;  A.>  De$jardio4  Gioffa^iie  ds  U 

Game  romatnc,  u  (1876).' 
•» 

VOLCAlffO,  an  opening  in  the  Earth's  crust,  through  which 
heated  matti&r  is  brought,  permanently  or  temporarily,  froia 
the  interior  of  the  earth  to  the  surface,  where  it  usually  forms 
a  hill,  more  or  less  conical  in  shape,  and  gienerally  with  a  hollow 
or  crater  at  the  top.  This  hill,  though  not  an  essential  part 
of  the  volcanic  mechanism,  is  what  is  commonly  called  the 
volcano.  The  name  seems  to  have  been  applied  originally 
to  Etna  and  some  of  the  Lipari  Islands,  which  were  regarded 
as  t,he  seats  of  H(*phaestu8,  a  Greek  divinity  identl^^d  wiih 
Yulcan,  the  god  of  fire  in  Roman  mythology.  All  the  pheno- 
mena connected  directly  fit  indiiecdy  with  volcanib  activity 
are  comprised,  under  the  general  designation  of  vukanism  or 
vukoHtcUy'^^oisdn  which  dre  also  written  less' fiamiliariy  as 
volcanism  .and  voknnidty;  whilst  the  study  of  the  phmomena 
forms  a  department  of  natiixal  knowledge  known  as  mtkan^l^gy, 
Yulcanidty  is  the  chief  superficial  eq>ression  of  the  earth's 
internal  igneous  activity. 

It  may  happen  that  a  volcsno  wiU  remain  fof  1^  long  period 
in  a  state  of  moderate  though  variable  adSvity,  as.  Ulwtxmted 
by  the  normal  condition  of  Stromboli,  one  of  the  Lipari  islands; 
but  in  most  VQlcanocs  the  activity  »  mors  decidedly  intei^ 
mittent,  paroxysms  of  greater  or  les$  violence  occurring  after 
intervals  of  comparative,  or  even  complete,  repose.  If  the 
period  of  quiescenoe  hss  been  veiy  protracted,  the  renewed 
activity  is  apt  to  be  exceptionally  violent.  Thus,  Krafcatoa 
before  the  great  enitK^n  of  1883  bfiid  beftn  doxtnant  for  some- 
thing liko  two  oentiuic^-  and  it  is  believed  that  the  JapsacM 


ITOLCANO 


179 


'vtteado  JlMirfritm  pimiBiidy  t»  the  gigsntk  ovtbont  o£  s888 
ihad  bten  tttnit*  <br  book  than  a  thousand  ywn;  A  volcano 
may  indaed  remain  so  long  dormant  at  to  be  mistakan  for  one 
completdy  extinct.  The  vdcanoes  of  central  France  ace 
regarded  as  extinct,  inasmuch  as  no  authentic  historical  record 
<of  any  eruption  is  known,  but  there  are  not  wanting  signs  that  in 
:s6nie  parts  of  this  volcanic  region  the  subterranean  forces  may 
yet  be  slumbering  rather  than  dead. 

PreHMnitory  Symftomsj^h  volcanic  eruption  is  usually 
pieosded  by  certain  symptoms,  of  which  the  moat  common  are 
locsl  earthquakes.  The  mountain,  or  other  eruptive  centre,* 
may  be  thrown  by  internal  activity  into  a  state  of  tremor; 
the  tremon  perhaps  continuing  intermittently  for  months  or 
even  years,  and  becoming  more  frequent  and  vk>lont  as  the 
crisis  approaches^  At  fifst  they  are  usually  confined  to  the 
volcano  and  its  immiediate  neighbourhood,  but  may  sub- 
sequently  extend  to  a  considerable  distance,  though  probably 
never  devdoping  into  earthquakes  of  the  first  magnitude. 
The  sudden  opening  of  a  subteiranean 'crack,  by  rupture  pf  a 
rock  under  strain,  or  the  rapid  injection  of  lava  into  such  a 
fissure,  will  tend  to  produce  a  jar  at  the  surface.  For  at  lesst 
sixteen  years  before  the  first  recm^ded  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in 
a.D.  79  earthquakes  had  been  frequent  in  the  Campania  and 
had  wrought  havoc  in4he  cities  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii. 
Again,  the  formation  of  Monte  Nuovo,  near  Pozzuoli,  m  1538, 
was  heralded  by  local  earthquakes  beginning  several  years  in 
lidvance  of  the  eruption.  So  too  in  recent  years  many  virfcanic 
outbursts  have  been  preceded  by  a  succession  of  earthquakes; 
but  as  volcanoes  are  frequently  situated  in  areas  of  marked 
^smic  activity,  the  shocks  antecedent  to  an  eruption  may 
not,  unless  exceptionaHy  violent,  receive  much  attention  from 
local  observers. 

-  It  commonly  happens  thtft  a  volcanic  outburst  is  announced 
by  iubternmean  roaring  and  rumbling,  often  compared  to 
thunder  or  the  discharge  of  artillery  underground.  Other 
precursory  symptoms  may  be  afforded  by  ndgfabouring  springs, 
wfaidi  not  unusually  flow  with  dhninished  volume,  or  even 
fafl  altogether.  Possibly  fissures  open  underground  and 
drain  off  the  water  from  the  spring^  and  wells-  in  the  im- 
mediate locality.  Occasionally,  however,  an  increased  flow 
iias  been^  recorded.  In  some  cases  thermal  springs  make  their 
appearance,  whilst  the  temperature  of  any  existing  warm  springs 
nay  be  increased,  and  perhaps  carbon  dioxide  be  evolved.  A 
disturbed  stsite  of  th^  atmosphere  is  by  no  means  a  constant 
forerunner  of  an  eruption,  some  of  the  greatest  outbursts 
iiaving  occurred  in  a  period  of  atmo^beric  stability:  indeed 
thi  air  is  often  felt  to  be  close  and  stilL 
*  Immediatdy  before  a  renewed  outburst  in  an  old  volcano, 
the  floor  of  the  cxater  Is  gentrally  upheaved  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent,  whilst  the  discharge  of  vapour  from  any  f umaroles 
is  increased.  Where  a  crater  has  been  occupied  by  water, 
forming  &  crater-lake,  the  water  nn  the  approach  of  an  erup" 
tion  becomes  warm,  evolves  visible  vapour,  and  may  even  boil. 
In  the  caseof  cooes  which  are  capped  with  snow,  the  internal 
Beat  of  the  rising  lava  usually  causes  a  rapid  melting  of  the 
snow-cap,  resulting  perhaps  in  a  disastrous  deluge. 

It  seems  probable  that  by  attention  to  the  premonitory 
'symptoms  a  careful  local  observer  might  in  many  esses  foretell 
an  eruption.. 

It  generally  happens  that  a  great  'eruption  is  preceded  by 
a  preliminary  phase  of  feeble  activity.  Thus^  the  gigantic 
catastrophe  at  Krakatoa  on  the'  37th  of  August  1883,  so  fax 
from  having  been  a  sudden  outburst,  was  the  culmination  of  a 
state  of  excitement,  sometimes  moderate  and  sometimes  violent, 
which  had  been  in  progress  for  several  months. 
.  Emission-  of  Vapour. — Of  all  volcanic  phenomena  the  moat 
constant  sb  the  emission  of  vi^xMir.  It  is  one  of  the  eariiest 
features  of  an  eruption;  it  persists  during  the  paroxysms, 
attaining  often  to  prodigious  volume;  and  it  lingers  as  the 
last  relic  of  an  outburat,  so  that  long  after  the  ejection  of  ashes 
•nd  lava  has  ceased  an  occasional  puff  of  vapoor  may  be  the 
MJy^flieflaento  <if  ihe  disturbance. 


By  fsr  the  greatest  propottioB  of  the  vapour  Ss  steam,  whicli 
sometimes  occurs  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other  gaseous 
products.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  usual  and  probably  correct 
view,  though  it  is  opposed  by  A.  Bnm,  who  r^ards  the  v<dcanic 
vapours  as  chiefly  composed  of  chlorides  with  steam  in  only 
subordinate  amount.  In  the  case  of  a  mild  eruption,  like 
that  occurring  normally  at  StromboU,  the  vapours  may  be 
disffhaigcd  in  periodical  puffs,  marking  the  explosion  of  bubbles 
rising  more  or  less  rhythmically  from  the  seething  lava  in 
the  volcanic  cauldron*  S.  Wise  observed  at  the  volcano  of 
Sangay,  in  Ecuador,  no  fewer  than  367  explosions  in  the  course 
of  an  hour,  the  vapour  here  l>eing  associated,  as  is  so  often 
the  case,  with  ashes.  During  a  violent  eruption  the  vapour 
may  be  suddenly  shot  upwards  as  a  vertical  column  of  enormous 
height,  penetrating  the  passing  clouds.  For  a  short  distance 
above  the  vent  the  superheated  steam  sometimes  exists  as  a 
transparent  vapour,  but  it  soon  suffers  partial  condensation, 
forming  clouds,  which,  if  not  dispersed  by  winds,  accumulate 
over  the  nountaia.  When  the  vapour  is  free  from  ash  it  forms 
rolling  balls  of  fleecy  doud,  but  usually  it  carries  in  mechanical 
association  more  or  less  finely  divided  lava  as  volcanic  dust 
and  ashes,  whereby  it  becomes  yellow,  brown,  or  even  black, 
sometimes  as  foul  as  the  densest  smoke.  In  a  calm  atmo* 
sphere  the  dust-laden  vapour  may  rise  in  immense  rings  with 
a  rotatory  movement,  like  that  of  vortex-rings.  Frequently 
the  vapours,  emitted  in  a  rapid  succession  of  jets,  form  cuimdua 
clouds,  or  are  massed  together  in  cauliflower-like  forms.  Th« 
well-known  "pine-tree  ai^>endage"  of  Viesuvius  {pino  mJ- 
canioo)^  noted  by  the  younger  Pliny  in  his  first  letter  to  Tacitus 
on  the  eruption  in  the  year  79,  is  a  vertical  shaft  of  vapour 
terminating  upwards  in  a  canopy  of  doud,  afid  compared 
popularly  v/ith  the  trunk  and  spreading  brandies  oi  the  stone- 
pine.  Whilst  in  some  cases  the  cloud  resembles  a  gigantic 
expanded  umbrella,  in  others  it  is  more  mushroom-shaped. 
In  a  great  eruptk>n,  the  height  of  the  mountain  itself  may 
appear  dwarfed  by  comparison  with  that  of  the  column  of 
vapour.  During  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  April  1906,  the 
steam  and  dust  rose  to  a  height  of  between  6  and  8  m. 
At  Krakatoa  in  1883  the  column  of  vapour  and  ashes  reached 
an  altitude  of  neariy  do  m.;  wlnlst  it  was  estimated  by  some 
authorities  that  during  the  most  violent  explonons  the  findy 
divided  matter  must  have  been  carried  to  an  devation  of  more 
than  30  m.  The  emission  of  vast  volames  of  vapour  at  high 
tension  naturally  produces  much  atmospheric  disturbahce,  ofteft 
felt  at  great  distances  from  the  centre  of  eruption. 

BUctrkat  Excitemeni.'^lt  is  probably  to  the  uprushing  current 
of  vapour  that  much  of  the  electrical  excitement  whicb  invari- 
ably accompanies  an  eruption  may  be  referred.  The  friction 
of  the  steam  rushing  in  jets  through  the  volcanic  vent  must 
produce  electrical  disturbance,  and  indeed  an  active  volcano 
has  been  aptly  compared  to  a  liydrodeetric  machine  of  gigantic 
power.  Another  cause  of  ejKitement  may  be  found  in  the 
mutual  friction  of  the  ejected  dndets  and  ashes  as  they  rise 
and  fall  in  sliowers  through  the  air.  Much  trituration  of 
volcanic  material  may  go  on  in  the  crafer  and  elsewhere  during 
the  eruption,  whereby  the  solid  lava  is  reduced  to  a  fine  dust. 
Otiier  means  of  generating  dectridty  are  found  in  the  chemical 
reactions  ^ected  in  the  volcano  and  in  the  sudden  condensa-i 
tion  of  the  emitted  vapour.  L.  Palmieri,  in  the  course  of  his 
investigations  at  the  obsetvatory  on  Vesuvius,  found  that  the 
vapours  frtt  from  dndera  carried  a  positive  charge,  whilst  the 
cinders  were  negative. 

The  electrical  phenomena  attending  an  eruption  are  often 
of  great  intensity  aind  splendour.  The  dark  ash-laden  douds 
of  vapour  are  shot  through  and  through'  by  volcanic  lightning; 
sometimes  in  rapid  horizontal  flashes,  then  in  oblique  forked 
Streaks,  or  again  in  tortuous  lines  compared  to  fiery  serpents) 
whflst  the  borden  of  the  doud  may  be  brilliant  with  dectrie 
sdntillations,  often  forming'  balls  and  stars  of  fire.  During 
the  great  eruption  of  Krakatoa  remarkable  phenomena  wenft 
observed  by  ships  in  the  Strait  of  Sunda,  luminous  balb 
like  **St  £hno^  fire*^  appearing  at  the  mast-heads  and  the 


x8o 


VOLCANO 


yiud4UiBs»  whilst  tlw  vdcank  Bvd  wUch  fdl  QpQB  ziggtof 
deck  was  strongly  phosphoracent. 

Quite  distinct  from  any  electrical  phenomeaa  is  that  inter- 
mittent leddiah  f^ut  which  is  often  leeo  at  night  in  clouds 
hanging  over  an  active  craUr,  and  which  is  simply  a  glow  due 
to  reflection  from  the  incandescent  lava  and  stones  in  the 
volcanic  cauldron  below. 

Volcanic  Rai»  end  ATiii.— The  condensation  of  the  vast 
volumes  of  steam  exhaled  during  an  eruption  produces  tonents 
of  rain,  which,  mingling  bo  a  greater  or  less  extent  with  the 
volcanic  ashes,  forms  a  hot  muddy  stream  known  in  Italy  as 
hva  d'aequa  and  Una  di  fango,  and  in  South  America  as  moya. 
Deluges  of  such  mud-lava  may  rush  violently  down  the  moun* 
tain-side  and  spread  over  the  neighbouring  countxy  with  terribly 
destructive  effect,  whence  they  are  greatly  dreaded  by  those 
who  dwell  at  the  base  of  a  volcano.  The  solidified  volcanic 
mud,  often  mingled  with  larger  fragmenU  of  lava,  is  known  as 
tuff  or  tufa,  Herculancum  was  buried  beneath  a  flood  of  mud 
swept  down  from  Vesuvius  during  the  Plinian  eruption  of  79, 
and  the  hard  tufaceous  crust  which  thus  sealed  up  the  ill- 
fated  city  came  in  turn  to  be  covered  by  lava-flows  from  sub- 
sequent eruptions:  hence  the  dif&culty  of  excavating  at 
Hcrculaneum  compared  with  similar  work  at  Pompeii,  where 
there  was  probably  much  less  nuid,  since  the  city,  having  been 
at  a  greater  distance  from  the  volcanic  centre*  was  overwhelmed 
in  great  measure  by  loose  ashes,  capable  of  removal  with  com- 
parative ease. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  volcanic  mud  is  formed  by  the 
mingling  of  hot  ashes  not  directly  with  rain  but  with  water 
from  streams  and  lakes,  or  ev^i,  as  in  Icdand,  with  melted 
snow.  A  torrent  of  mud  was  one  of  the  earliest  symptoms  of 
the  violent  eruption  of  Mont  Pel6  in  Martinique  in  1902.  This 
mud  had  its  source  in  the  £tang  Sec,  a  crater-basin  high  up 
on  the  S.W.  aide  of  the  mountain.  By  the  explosive  discharge 
of  ashes  and  vapours  mingled  with  the  water  of  the  tarn 
there  was  produced  b  vast  volume  of  hot  muddy  matter  which 
on  the  5th  of  May  suddenly  escaped  from  the  basin,  when  a 
huge  torrent  of  boiling  black  mud,  charged  with  blocks  of  rock 
and  moving  with  enormous  rapidity,  rolled  like  an  avalanche 
down  the  gorge  of  the  Rividre  Blanche.  If  a  stream  of  lava 
obstructs  the  drainage  of  a  volcano,  it  may  give  rise  to  floods. 

Ejected  Biocks, — ^When  a  volcano  after  a  long  period  of  re- 
pose starts  into  fresh  activity,  the  materials  which  have  accu- 
muhted  in  the  crater,  including  probably  large  blocks  from 
the  disintegration  of  the  ccater-walls,  have  to  be  ejected* 
If  the  lava  from  the  last  eruption  has  consolidated  as  a  plug 
in  the  throat  of  the  volcano,  the  conduit  may  be  practically 
closed,  and  hence  the  first  effort  of  the  renewed  activity  is 
to  expel  this  obstruction.  The  hard  mass  becomes  shattered 
by  thie  explosions,  and  the  angular  fragments  so  formed  are 
hurled  forth  by  the  outmshing  stream  of  vapour.  When  the 
discharge  is  violent,  the  vapour,  as  it  rushes  impetuously  up 
the  volcanic  duct,  may  tear  fragments  of  rock  from  its  walls  and 
project  them  to  a  considerable  distance  from  the  vent.  Such 
ejected  blocks,  by  no  means  uncommon  in  the  early  stages  of 
an  eruption,  are  often  of  large  size  and  naturally  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  rocks  through  which  the  duct  has 
been  opened.  They  may  be  irregular  masses  of  igneous  rocks, 
possibly  Uvas  of  earlier  crupticms,  or  they  may  be  stratified* 
sedimentary  and  fossiliferous  rocks  representing  the  pUtform 
on  which  the  volcano  has  been  built,  or  the  yet  more  deeply 
seated  fundamental  rocks.  By  Dr  H.  J.  Johnston-Lavis, 
who  specially  studied  the  ejeaed  blocks  of  Vesuvius,  the 
volcanic  materials  broken  from  the  cone  are  termed  "  accessory  " 
ejccta,  whilst  other  fragmentary  materials  he  conveniently  calls 
''accidental"  products,  leaving  the  term  "essential"  ejecta 
for  plastic  hva,  ashes,  crystals,  &.c  Masses  of  Cretaceous 
or  Apennine  limestone  ejected  from  Somma  are  scattered 
through  the  tuffs  on  the  slopes  of  Vesuvius;  and  objects  carved 
In  such  altered  limestone  are  sold  to  tourists  as  "  lava  "  oma- 
nents.  Under  the  influence  of  volcanic  heat  and  vapours,  the 
bloiks  suffa  more  or  lets  allfration,  and  may  contain 


in  their  ca.vKbt  Buuy  oyitalUsed  rthmli.,  Gacttfti  blodu 
of  sandstone  ejected  occasionally  at  Etna  an  oompdaed  of  wbite 
granular  quartx,  permeated  with  vitreous  matter  aad  ny  ncci 
In  a  black  scoriaccous  crust  of  basic  lava. 

A  rock  consisting  of  an  irreguUr  aggregation  of  coarse  ejected 
materials,  including  many  large  blocks,  js  known  as  a  "  volcaxuc 
aggtomcrate^"  Any  iragmental  matter  dischaifed  fiom  a 
volcano  may  form  rocks  which  are  described  as  "  pyrodastic." 

Cinders,  Ashes  and  DnsL'—AittK  the  throat  of  a  volcano  h.ns 
been  cleared  out  and  a  free  exit  established,  the  copious  dis- 
charge of  vapour  is  generally  accompanied  by  the  ejection  of 
fresh  lava  in  a  fragmentaiy  cooditioo«    If  the  ejected  masses 
bear  olmoua  resemblance  to  the  producta  of  the  hearth  and  the 
furnace,  they  are  known  as  **  cinders  "  or  "  scoriae,"  whilst  the 
small  cinders  not  larger  thaa  walnuts  often  pass  under  their 
Italian  name  of  "  lapiUi "  (g.f.).   When  of  globular  or  ellipsoidal 
form,  the  ejected  masses  are  known  as  "bombs"  (f.v.)  or 
"volcanic  tears."     Other  names  are  given  to  the  smaller 
fragments.    If  the  lava  has  become  granulated  it  is  termed 
"  volcanic  sand  ";  when  in  a  finer  state  of  division  it  is  callcdl 
ash,  or  if  yet  more  highly  comminuted  it  is  classed  as  dust; 
but  the  lattw  terms  are  sometimes  used  interchangeably.    Tlw 
pulverized  material,  consisting  of  lava  which  has  been  brokea 
up  by  the  explosion,  or  triturated  in  the  crater,  is  often  dis- 
charged in  prodigious  quantity,  so  that  after  an  eruption  the 
country  for  miles  around  the  volcano  may  be  covered  with  * 
coating  of  fine  ash  or  dust,  sometimes  nearly  white,  like  a  fi& 
of  snow,  but  often  of  greyish  colour,  looking  rather  like  Portland 
cement,  and  in  many  cases  becoming  reddish  by  oxidation  of 
the  ferruginous  constituents.    Even  when  first  ejected  the  ash 
ii  sometimes  cocoa-coloured.    This  find^  divided  lava  insinu- 
ates itself  into  every  crack  and  cranny,  reaching  the  interior  of 
houses  even  when  windows  and  doois  am  closed.    A  hesvy  fall 
of  ash  or  cinders  may  cause  great  structural  damage,  crushing 
the  roofs  of  buildings  by  sheer  weight,  as  was  markedly  the  case 
at  Ottajano  and  San  Guiseppe  during  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius 
in  April  1906.   On  this  occasion  the  dry  ashes  slipped  down  the 
sides  of  the  volcanic  cone  like  an  avjdanche,  forming  great  ash- 
slidcs  with  ridges  and  furrows  rather  like  barrancos,  or  ravines, 
caused  by  rain.    The  burial  of  Ottajano  and  San  Giuseppe  in 
1906  by  Vesuvian  ejecta,  mostly  lapiUi,  has  been  compared  with 
that  oi  Pompeii  in  79. 

^  Deposits  of  volcanic  and  and  ashes  retain  their  heat  long  after 
ejectjoa,  so  that  rain  will  cause  them  to  evolve  steam,  and  if  the 
rain  be  heavy  and  sudden  it  may  produce  explosions  with  emis- 
sion of  great  clouds  of  vapour.  The  fall  of  ash  is  at  first  prejudicial 
to  vegetation,  and  is  often  aoDompanied  or  followed  by  acid  rain; 
but  ultimately  the  ash  may  prove. beaeficial  to  the  sod,  chiefly  ia 
consequence  of  the  alkalis  which  it  contains.  The  "  May  dust  of 
Barbados  was  a  rain  of  volcanic  ash  which  fell  in  May  181  a  from 
the  eruption  of  the  Soufridre  in  St  Vincent.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  amount  of  dost  which  dui^g  this  eruption  fell  on  the  surfaoe 
of  Barbados,  100  m.  distant  from  the  eruptive  centn)|  was  about 
3,000,000  tons.  The  dutance  to  which  ash  is  carried  depends 
greatly  on  the  atmospheric  conditions  at  the  time  of  the  eruption. 
Ashes  from  Vesuvius  in  an  eruption  in  the  year  47*  were  carried, 
it  is  said,  as  faras  Constanrinoplc.  During  an  emprion  cf  Cotopaxi 
on  the  3rd  of  July  1880,  observed  by  E.  Whymper.  an  enormous 
black  column  of  dust-laden  vapour  was  .shot  vertically  upwards 
with  such  rapidity  that  in  less  than  a  minute  it  rose  to  a  height 
estimated  at  ao.obo  ft.  above  the  crater-rim,  or  heariy  40,000  ft; 
above  sea-level,  when  it  was  dispersed  by  the  wind  ever  a  very 
wide  area.  It  is  believed  that  the  amoant  of  dust  in  ibis  discharge 
must  have  been  more  than  3,000,000  tons.  Enormous  quantitws 
of  dust  ejected  from  Kralcatoa  in  1883  wi^re  carri«l  to  prodigious 
distances,  samples  having  been  collected  at  more  than  a  thonsand 
miles  from  the  volcano;  whilst  the  very  fine  material  in  ultra* 
microscopic  grains  which  rennined  suspended  for  months  in  the 
higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere  seems  to  have  enjoyed  an  almost 
world-wide  distribution,  and  to  have  been  responsible  for  the  re- 
markable sunsets  at  that  period. 

The  ash  falling  in  the  Immediate  vicinity  of  a  volcanie  vent  wig 
generelly  be  coarser  than  that  carried  to  a  distance,  since  the 
particles  as  they  are  wafted  through  the  air  undergo  a  kind  of 
sifting.  Professor  T.  W.  Judd,  who  made  an  exhaustive  examination 
of  the  producu  of  the  eruption  of  Kralcatoa,  found  that  the  dust 
near  the  volcano  was  compamtively  coaise,  dense  and  retber  darh^ 
coloured,  in  oonaequenoe  of  the  presence,  of  juiid^ms  lng]M0ts^ 


VOLCANO 


i8i 


hmvy,  <kf1c.  OTBtelfiBe  mfawrak,  wlflat  ^ledint  at  ft  iltMftilce  wfta 
OBccamvely  nne  and  perfectly  white.  According  to  thift  obicrver,  the 

Krtides  tended  to  fall  in  the  £aUowing  order :  magnetite,  pyroicaes* 
Kpar,  glaaa.  The  finely  oomnunuted  material,  carried  to  a  great 
height  in  the  atmosphere,  oonsiatod  largely  of  ddicate  threads  and 
attenuated  ijlatea  oi  vitreous  matter,  m  many  cases  hollow  and 
containing  air>babfales.  The  greater  port  of  the  dust  was  formed 
by  the  mutual  attrition  of  fragments  of  brittle  pumice  as  they  rose 
and  feH  in  the  crater,  which  thus  became  a  powerful  "dust-mckiftg 
nUll."  By  this  trituration  of  the  pumiceoos  lava,  carried  on  for  a 
space  of  thref  roonihs  during  which  the  eruption  lasted,  the  quantity 
of  finely  pulverized  material  must  have  been  enormous;  yet  the 
amoant  of  ejected  matter  was  probably  very  much  leas  than  that 
extruded  during  tome  other  historical  eruptions,  soch  as  that  of 
Tombcnro  in  Sumbawa,  in  i8i^  The  explosions  at  Krakatoa 
were,  however,  exceptionally  violent,  having  been  sufiicicnt  to 
project  some  of  the  nncly  pulvcriacd  ktva  to  an  altitude  estimated 
to  have  been  at  least  30  nu  It  b  usually  impossible  during  a  great 
eruption  to  dfltermine  the  height  of  the  columa  of  smoke/* 
since  it  hangs  over  the  countr^r  as  a  pall  oS  darkness. 

The  great  black  cloud,  which  was  so  characteristic  a  fcatute  in 
the  terrible  eruptions  in  the  West  Indies  in  1901a,  was  formed  of 
•team  with  sulphur  dioxide  and  other  gases,  very  heavily  charged 
with  incandescent  sand  or  dust,  forming  a  dense  mixture  that  in 
some  respects  behaved  like  a  liquid.  Unlike  the  Krakatoa  dust, 
«i^ich  was  derived  from  a  vitreous  pumice,  the  solid  matter  of  the 
black  cloud  was  largely  composed  of  fragments  of  crystalline 
minerals.  According  to  Drs  Anderson  and  Fleet  it  is  not  impossible 
that  on  the  afternoon  of  the  17th  of  May  1902.  the  solid  matter 
ejected  from  the  Soufriire  of  St  Vincent  amounted  to  several 
billions  of  tons,  and  that  some  of  the  dust  fdl  at  distances  more 
than  3000  m.  east  of  the  centre  of  eruption. 

In  Mexico  and  Central  America,  under  the  favourable  influence 
of  warmth  and  moisture,  rich  soils  are  rapidly  formed  by  the  dccom- 
pontion  of  finely  divided  volcanic  cjccta.  Vast  areas  in  North 
America,  espedally  in  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  arc  covered  with  thick 
deposits  of  volcanic  dust,  partly  from  recent  eruptions  but  princi- 
pally from  vcdcanic  activity  in  geologic  time.  Tne  dust  is  used  in 
the  arts  as  an  abrasive  agent. 

Lava.— The  volcanic  dndeis,  sand,  ashes  and  dust  described 
abiove  are  but  varied  forms  of  solidified  lava.  Lava  is  indeed 
the  most  characteristic  product  of  volcanic  activity.  It  consists 
of  minerd  matter  which  is,  or  has  been,  in  a  imrfUn  state; 
but  the  liquidity  Is  not  due  to  simple  dry  fusion.  The  magma, 
or  subterranean  molten  matter,  may  be  regarded  as  composed 
essentially  of  various  silicates,  or  their  constituents,  in  a  state 
of  mutual  Bohition,  and  heavily  charged  with  certain  vapoon 
or  gases,  principally  water-vapour,  superheated  and  under 
pressure.  In  consequence  of  the  peculiar  constitution  of  the 
magnum  the  order  in  whkh  minerals  separate  and  solidify  from 
it  on  cooling  does  not  necessarily  correspond  with  the  inverse 
order  of  their  relative  fusibility.  The  lava  differs  from  the 
magma  before  eruption,  inasmuch  as  water  and  various  volatile 
substances  may  be  expelled  on  extrusion.  The  rapid  escape 
of  vapour  from  the  lava  contributes  to  the  explosive  phenomena 
of  an  eruption,  whilst  the  rate  at  which  the  vapour  is  disengaged 
depends  largely  on  the  viscosity  of  the  magma. 

The  lava  on  its  immediate  issue  from  the  volcanic  vent  is  probably 
at  a  white  heat,  but  the  temperature  is  difficult  of  determination  since 
the  molten  matter  is  usually  not  easy  of  approach,  by  reason  of  the 
enshroudinff  vapour.  Determinations  of  temperature  are  generally 
made  at  a  snort  dislaooe  from  the  exit,  when  the  lava  has  undergone 
more  or  leris  cooling,  or  on  a  small  stream  from  a  subordinate  x'ent. 
A.  Bartoli.  using  a  platinum  electric  resbtance  pj^rrometer,  found  that 
a  stream  of  lava  near  a  boeta,  ot  orifice  of  emisMon,  on  Etna,  in  the 
eruption  of  iS^a,  had  at  a  depth  of  one  foot  a  temperature  of  1060* 
C.  In  the  lavas  of  Vesuvius  and  Etna  thin  wires  of  silver  and  of 
eopoer  have  frequently  been  melted.  f*roliably  the  lava  at  the 
aurface  of  the  stream  has  a  temperature  of  something  fike  1100*  C, 
but  thb  must  not  be  assumed  to  be  its  temperature  at  the  vokainic 
fociM.  C.  Doelter,  In  some  experiments  on  tne  mchintpoint  of  lava 
by  means  (rf  an  electric  furnace,  found  that  a  lava  f rom^nn  softened 
at  from  96a*  to  970*  C.  and  became  fluid  at  1010*  to  loao*,  whilst  a 
Vesuvian  lava  softened  at  1030*  to  1060*  and  acc)uired  fluidity  at 
fo6o*  to  1090*.  These  results  were  obtained  at  ordinary  atmospheric 
pressure,  but  it  haa  bean  assumed  that  the  mclting*point  of  lava  at  a 
great  depth  would,  through  pressure  alone,  exceed  that  obtained  in  the 
laboratory.  On  the  other  hand  the  presence  of  water  and  of  certain 
volatile  fluxes  in  the  maoma  lowen  the  fnnng-point,  and  hence  the 
extruded  lava  from  which  these  have  lai^ely  escaped  may  be  much 
less  fanbte  than  the  original  magma. 

Determinations  of  the*  melting-points  of  various  glasses  formed 
by  the  fusion  of  certain  igneous  rocks  have  been  made  by  j.  A 
Douglas,  with  the  meMometer  of  Professor  J.  Joly.  The  results  give 


temperaturearantdni^  (iroro  lafio*  C.  for  rhyolite  to  1070*  for  dolerita 
from  the  Clce  Hills  in  Shropshire.  The  inelting-points  of  the  rocks 
in  a  glassy  condition  as  here  given  are,  however,  lower  than  those  of 
the  oorrcsponding  rocks  in  a  crystalline  state. 

It  should  be  noted  that  all  determinations  of  the  melting-points  of 
minerals  and  rocks  involving  ocular  Inspectwn  of  the  physical 
state  of  the  material  are  liable  to  considerable  error,  and  vk  only 
accurate  method  seems  to  be  that  of  determining  the  point  at  whicn 
absorption  of  heat  abruptly  occur»:-the  latent  heat  01  fusion.  Thb 
has  been  done  in  the  refined  investigations  by  Mr  A.  L.  Day  and  hb 
colleagues  ia  the  Geophysical  Laboratory  of  the  Caniegie  losUtuiioa 
at  Washington. 

it  is  believed  that  the  temperature  of  lava  in  the  volcanic  conduit 
may  be  in  some  cases  sufficiently  hieh  to  fuse  the  neighbouring  rocks, 
and  so  melt  out  a  passage  through  them  in  its  ascent.  The  walU 
rock  thus  dissolved  in  the  m^ma  will  not  be  without  influence  on  the 
coniposition  of  the  lava  with  which  it  bccomesassimilated. 

Many  interesting  observations  are  on  record  with  regard  to  the 
heating  effect  of  lava  on  motab  and  other  objects  with  which  it  may 
have  come  ia  contact.  Thus,  after  the  destruction  of  Torre  del 
Greco^by  a  currcol  of  lava  from  Vesuvius  in  1794,  it  was  found  that 
brass  in  the  houses  ucicr  the  lava  had  suffered  decomposition,  the 
copper  having  become  crystallized;  whibt  silver  had  been  not  only 
fused  but  suUimcd.  This  indicates  a  temperature  of  upwards  of 
1000*  C.  Panes  of  glass  in  the  windows  at  Tone  del  Gieco  on  the 
same  occasion  suffered  devitriiicatwn. 

Notwithstanding  the  high  temperature  of  lava  on  emission,  it 
coob  so  rapidly,  and  the  consolidated  lava  conducts  heat  so  dowly, 
that  vegetable  structures  may  be  lifvolvcd  in  a  lava-flow  without 
behig  entirely  destroyed.  A  stream  of  lava  on  entering  a  wood,  as 
in  the  sylvan  region  on  Etna,  may  burn  up  the  undergrowth  but 
leave  roan^  of  the  larger  trees  with  their  trunks  merely  carbonised* 
On  Vesuvius  a  lava-flow  has  been  observed  to  surround  trees  while 
the  foUagc  has  been  apparently  uninjured.  A  vertical  trunk  of  a 
coniferous  tree  partiaflv  enveloped  m  Tertiary  basalt  occurs  at 
Gribon  in  the  Isle  of  Miul,  as  described  by  Sir  A.  Gcikie  and  others; 
plant-remains  in  basalt  from  the  Bo'ncss  coalfield  in  LinlithKow- 
shire  have  been  noticed  by  H.  M.  Cadcll ;  and  attention  has  oceo 
called  by  B.  Hobson  to  a  specimen  of  scoriaccous  basalt,  from  Mexico, 
which  snows  the  impression  of  ears  of  maize  and  even  relics  of  the 
actual  grains.  In  conseouence  of  the  slow  transmission  of  heat  by 
solid  lava,  the  crust  on  tne  surface  of  a  stream  may  be  crossed  witn 
impunity  whilst  the  matter  b  still  glowing  at  a  short  distance  below. 
Lichens  may  indeed  grow  on  lava  which  remains  highly  heated  in  the 
interior. 

The  solidified  surface  of  a  sheet  of  lava  may  be  smooth  and 
shining,  sometimes  quite  satiny  in  sheen,  thougn  locally  wrinkled 
and  perhaps  even  ropy  or  hummocky,  the  irregularities  being  mainly 
due  to  superficbl  movement  after  partbl  solidification.  The 
'*  corded  lava  "  has  a  surface  similar  to  that  often  seen  on  bbst* 
furnace  slag,  and  b  suggestive  of  a  tranquil  flow.  After  a  hva 
stream  has  become  crusted  over  on  cooling,  the  subjacent  lava,  sttU 
moving  In  a  viscous  condition,  tends  to  tear  the  crust,  forming 
irregular  blocks,  or  clinkers,  which  are  carried  forward  by  the  flow 
and  ultimately  left  in  the  form  of  confused  heaps,  perhaps  of  con- 
siderable magnitude.  The  front  of  a  stream  may  present  a  wall  of 
seoriaoeous  tragmcnts  looking  like  a  huge  pile  of  coke.  As  the 
clinkers  are  carried  along,  on  the  surface  of  the  lava,  they  produce 
by  mutual  friction  a  cfunchine  noise;  and  the  sluggbh  flow  of  the 
bva;Stream  bden  with  its  burden  has  been  compaivd  with  that  0^  a 
glacier.  Since  the  upper  part  of  the  stream  moves  more  rapidly  than 
the  lower,  which  is  retaroied  by  cooling  in  contact  with  the  bed-rodi, 
the  superficbl  clinkers  are  carried  forward  and,  rolline  over  the  endk 
may  become  embedded  in  the  bva  as  it  advances.  Scoriae  formed 
on  the  top  of  a  stream  may  thus  find  their  way  to  the  base.  Roclo> 
fragraents  or  other  detritaf  matter  occurring  in  the  path  of  the  lava 
will  be  caught  up  by  the  flow  and  become  involved  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  molten  mass;  whilst  the  rocks  over  which  the  bva  travclr 
may  sufter  more  or  less  alteration  by  the  heat  of  the  stream. 

The  rapidity  of  a  bva  flow  b  determined  partly  by  the  slope  of 
the  bed  over  which  it  moves  and  partly  by  the  consistency  of  the  lava, 
this  beii^  dependent  on  its  chemical  composition  and  on  the  conds> 
tions  of  cooling.  In  an  eruption  of  Mauna  Loa,  in  Hawaii,  in  1855, 
the  bva  was  estimated  to  flow  at  a  rate  ci  40  m.  an  hour ;  and  at  an 
eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  1805  a  velocity  of  more  than  50  m.  an  hour,  at 
the  moment  of  emission,  was  reoorded.  The  rapidity  of  flow  is,  hosfv. 
ever,  rapidly  checked  aa  the  stream  advances,  the  retardation  being 
very  msurkcd  in  small  flows.  Where  bva  travds  down  a  steep  incline 
diere  is  naturally  a  great  tendency  to  form  a  nigged  surbce,  whibt 
a  quiet  flow  over  a  flat  pbne  favours  smoothness.  If  the  bva  meet 
a  p^ecipke  it  may  form  a  cascade  of  great  beauty,  the  clinkcn 
rapidly  rolling  down  with  a  cbtter,  as  described  by  Sir  W.  Hamilton 
in  the  eruption  of  Vesuviua  in  1771,  when  the  fiery  torrent  had  a 
perpendicular  faU  of  90  ft. 

In  Hawaii  the  smooth  shining  bva,  often  auperficblly  waved  and 
lobed,  b  known  as  pakodtoe,  whilst  the  rugged  clinker  beds  an 
termed  an.  These  terns'  are  now  used  in  general  terminology, 
having  been  introduced  by  American  geologists.  The  fields  of  aa 
often  contain  bv»-balb  and  bombs.      It  may  be  said  that  the 


1*82 


VOLCANO 


p^odioe  oorropoada  prtcCicalfy  With  ^  tfadm  km  of  Cmmn  i 
vvlcanologists,  and  the  aa  with  thdr  SckelUu  lam.    Rumd  6ow» 
are  kndwn  in  Auvet^^ne  as  ckeires.    The  turfaoe  of  a  cfiaker-licld 
has  often  a  horribly  lagged  character,  being  ooverad  with  rami 
Uocks  bristling' wtd  sharp  points.    In  the  case  of  an  obskiian-flow 
a  most  dangerous  surface  ts  produced  by  the  keen  cd^  and  points 
of  the  fragmentary  volcanic  glass.  ... 

;    If,  after  a  stream  of  lava  has  become  crusted  o>ver,  the  mdertyiiw 
magma  should  flow  away,  a  long  cavern  or  tnnnd  may  be  formed. 
Should  the  flow  be  rapid  the  roof  may  collapse  and  the  fiapnents^ 
falling  on  to  the  stream,  may  be  carried  forward  or  bcoonse  aoaoibed 
in  the  f  usol  mass.   The  walls  and  roof  of  a  lava-cave  are  occasionally 
adorned  with  stalactites,  whilst  the  floor  may  be  covered  wrth 
stalagmitic  deposits  of  lava.    The  volcanic  stalactites  are  ■lender, 
tubular  bodies,   extremely   fiagile«  often  knotted   and   rippled. 
Beautiful  examples  of  lava  stakU^tites  from  Hawaii  have  been 
described  by  Pkofesaor  E.  S.  Dana.    Caverns  may  also  be  formed  m 
bva-flows  by  the  presence  of  large  bubbles,  or  by  the  union  of  several 
bubbles.    It  may  happen,  too,  that  certain  monticules  thrown  up  on 
the  surface  of  the  lava  are  hollow,  of  which  a  famous  example  is 
furnished  by  the  Cavcmc  de  Roeemond.  at  the  bass  of  Piton  Barry, 
in  the  Isle  of  Reunion.  ...  .       . 

It  is  of  great  interest  to  determine  whether  nolten  atVA  contractt 
or  expands  dn  8o1kiifkattk>n,  but  the  experimental  evklence  on  this 
subject  is  rather  conflkttng.  According  to  some  observers  a  piece 
of  solid  lava  thrown  on  to  the  surface  of  the  same  hiva  m  a  liquid 
state  will  sink,  white  according  to  others  it  floats.  It  has  often  been 
observed  that  cakes  formed  by  the  natural  fracture  of  the  crust  pn 
the  bva  of  Kilaucasink  in  the  Uquid  mass,  but  it  has  been  suggested 
that  the  fragments  are  drawn  down  by  convectk>n>currents.  On 
the  other  hand  a  solid  piece,  though  denser  than  the  coiresponding 
liquid,  may  be  buoyed  up  for  a  time  by  the  viscous  condition  of  the 
molten  lava.  Moreover,  the  presence  of  minute  vesicles  may  lighten 
the  mass.  Although  the  minerals  of  a  rock^magma  may  separately 
contract  on  crystallization  it  does  not  follow  that  the  magma  itself, 
in  which  they  probably  exist  in  a  state  of  solution,  will  undeigo  on 
crystallization  a  sfmihu*  change  of  volume.  On  the  whole,  however, 
there  seems  reason  to  believe  that  lava  on  solidif^ng  almost  always 
diminishes  in  volume  and  consequently  increases  in  density.  ^ 
■■  According  to  the  experiments  of  C.  i>oelter  the  specific  navity  of 
molten  lava  is  invariably  less  than  that  of  the  same  lava  when  solid, 
though  in  some  cases  the  difference  is  brtt  slight  In  a  vitreous  or 
isotropic  condition  the  lava  has  a  lower  density  than  when  crystalline. 
The  differences  are  illustrated  by  the  following  table,  where  the 
figures  give  the  specific  gravity : — 


• 

Natural 
■olkl 
bva. 

Liquid. 

Rapidly 

cooled, 

gUasy. 

Sk>wly 

cooled, 

crystalline. 

Lava  of  Etna  ^  . 
„      Vesuvius 

3*83 
2*83*3'8s 

a-58-3-74 

2-68-a-74 

a-ri-a*75 
2-69-2'75 

2.81-9-83 
a«77-a-8i 

Experiments  by  Dr  C.  Barus'showed  that  a  diabase  of  specific 
gravity  3-017  formed  a  glass  of  sp.  gr.  2-^17,  and  nMlted  to  a  lk)uid 
of  sp.  gr.  3*sa.  J.  A.  Douglas  on  examining  various  igneous  rocks 
found  tnat  in  all  cases  the  rock  in  a  vitreous  state  had  a  lower  sp.  en 
than  in  a  crystalline  condition,  the  difference  beine  greatest  in  the 
add  plutonic  rocks.  A.  Harker,  however,  has  called  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  ghusy  selvage  of  certain  basic  dykes  la  Scotland  b 
denser  than  the  same  rook  ia  a  crystaUine  oonditioa  in  the  interior 
«f  the  dykes. 

I  Pkysioal  Stnutun  tf  Iomu.*— An  amocpboila  vitreous  mass  may 
lesult  from  the  naid  cot^ag  of  a  lava  on  its  extruaba  from  die 
volcanic  vent.  Ine  common  type  of  volcanic  glass  is  known  as 
obsidian  {q^a.).  Microscopic  esarainatioa  usually  shows  that  even 
in  this  glu9  some  of  the  molecules  of  the  magma  have  assumed 
defijiite  orientation,  forming  the  incipient  crystalUne  bodies  known 
as  miaolites,  &c.  By  the  increase  of  these  minute  enclosures;  in 
number  and  magnitude,  the  lava  may  become  devitrified  and  assume 
a  lithoidal  or  stony  structure.  If  the  molten  magma  consolidate 
slowly,  the  various  silicates  in  solution  tend  to  separate  by  crystalliza- 
tion as  their  respective  points  of  saturation  are  reached.  Should 
the  process  be  arrested  before  the  entire  mass  has  etystallized,  the 
crystals  that  have  been  devebpcd  wfll  be  embedded  in  the  residual 
manna,  which  may,  on  consolidation,  form  a  vitreous  base.  It 
is  believed  that  in  oiaay  cases  the  Lava  brings  up,  through  its 
ccMiduit,  myriads  of  crystals  that  have  been  developed  during  slow 
•olidification  in  the  heart  of  the  volcanic  apparatus.  Showers  of 
crystals  of  leudte  have  occurred  at  Vesuvius,  of  kibiadorite  at 
Etna,  and  of  pyroxene  at  Vesuvius,  Etna  and  Stromboli.  These 
**  intratsUuric  crystals  *'  were  probably  floating  in  the  molten 
magma,  and  had  they  remained  in  suspension,  this  magma  might  on 
oonsolkiation  have  .envelopod  thvm  as  a  ground-mass  or  base.  A 
nek  so  formed  is  generally  known  as  a  "porphyry/'  and  die 
structure  as  porphyritic.  In  such  a  lava  the  uuge  cryrtals,  or 
phenocrysts,  evidently  represent  an  early  phase  01  consolidation, 
•ad  the  minerals  of  the  matrix  a  Uoer  stage  It  is  notable  that  die 
fauratelluric  crystals  often  lack  shaipasas  of  outUnei  as  Uwugh  they 


had  aiiliefBd  corrAauMi  by  MCmx  m  the  Moftai 
may  contain  vitreous  cndosures,  sonesdng  that  the  sumousKlinK' 
mass  was  liquid  during  their  oonsoliution.    It  n  LdieveJ  thmt. 
more  slowly  consolidation  has  occurred,  the  laigcr  generally 
the  cryitab;  and  the  higher  the  temperature  of  the  magma 

greater  the  corrosion  or  resorptbn.    Possa>ly  under  cettain   < 

ditkins  the  phenocrysu  and  the  groond-aass  may  have  snisrtilicd 
simultaneously. 

In  some  cases  the  entire  igneous  mass  assumes  a  crysDUJIine 
structure,  or  becomes  "  hokxrystalliac."  Such  a  structure  is  well 
displayed  when  the  magma  has  consolidated  at  oonsidcqabte  ^ptba, 
cooling  slowly  under  great  pressure,  and  forming  woeks  whscli  are 
termed  "  plutonic  "  or  "  abyssal  "  to  distiagyish  them  fnkn  xocka 
truly  volcanic,  or  those  whicn,  if  not  effusive,  like  lavarAows,  have  at 
least  solidified  very  near  to  the  surface  as  dykes  and  silla.  Volcanic 
and  plutonic  rocks  pass,  however,  into  each  other  by  gradn^  transi- 
tion. The  dyke-rocks,  or  intrusive  mafwes,  form  an  intermediate 
group  sometimes  distinguished  under  the  name  of  "  hypnbyssnl  " 
rocks,  as  sug|ested  by  W.  C  Brfimer.  Lavas  eAnioed  ia  sab- 
marine  eruptions  may  have  sc^ified  under  a  great  weight  of  aea« 
water,  wnA  therefore  to  that  Cktent  rather  under  plutonic  conditions. 

CkemiaU  ComUsUiom  ef  Latar.-~La%'as  are    usually  classified 
roughly,  from  a  diemical  point  of  view,  in  broad  groups  aocordins  to 
the  proportion  of  rilica  which  they  contain.    Those  in  which  thn 
proportion  of  silica  reaches  66%  or  upwards  are  said  to  be  acid  or 
addic,  whilst  those  in  which  it  falls  to  S5  %  or  Mow  an  called  basie 
lavas.   Tlie  two  scries  are  connected  by  a  grouerof  intermediate  cow 
position,  whilst  a  small  number  of  igneous  rodcs  of  exceptional  type 
are  reoognized  as  uitrabasic.    Professor  F.  W.  Chuke  has  iugm«ed 
a  gronmng  of  igneous  rocks  as  |)cr*silicic  medio^ide  and  sDb> 
silicic,  HI  whidi  tne  proportk>n  of  silica  is  respectively  more  than  6c^ 
between  50  and  60,  or  less  than  50%. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  all  lavas  connstt  of  various  eillcam, 
dther  crystallized  as  definite  minerab  or  aniadividualiaed  as  vokaait 
l^lass.  In  addition,  however,  to  the  mineral  silicates,  a  volcanic  rock 
may  contain  a  limited  amount  of  free  add  and  basic  osddes,  ivpn- 
sented  by  such  minerals  as  quartz  and  magnedte.  Rhyolhe  may  be 
cited  as  a  typical  essimple  of  an  add  lava*  andedte  as  an  intermcaiace 
and  basalt  as  a  basic  lava.  The  various  vokanic  rocks  are  drscribcd 
under  their  respective  headings,  so  that  it^  is  seedless  to  refer  here 
to  their  chemical  or  mineralog^cal  composition.  It  may,  however, 
be  useful  to  dte  a  few.  selected  analyses  of  some  recent  lavas  ami 
ashes  ^— 


I. 

U. 

HI. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

Silica         .       .       . 

48-28 

49-73 

5000 

68-99 

61-88 

4920 

Alumina    .'     '/     '. 

18-39 

18.46 

1399 

r6"07 

18-30 

14*90 

Ferric  oodde      . 

i-ia 

6*9$ 

5-13 

2-63 

1-97 

4*5« 

Ferrous  oxide   ..     . 

7-88 

5*59 

9*  10 

X'lO 

4'S» 

13-75 
028 

Manganous  oxide    . 

»  ■ 

•  • 

•  • 

028 

9  • 

Magnesia  . 

37» 

3-99 

4-o6 

x-o8 

2-71 

390 

Lime          .       .'      '. 

9-20 

10-71 

lO'St 

316 

6*32 

9*20 

Soda  .      ^      ,       . 

a-84 

3'SO 

:«»o» 

4.04 

3-«7 

1-96 

Potasb 

7-25 
1-38 

1'07 

2.87 

1.83 

1*09 

0-95 

Titanium  dioxide     . 

•  ■ 

m   « 

0-82 

0-31 

1-72 

Phosphorus  pentoxide 
Loss  on  ^nition 

0-51 
o-6a 

•  ■ 

•  • 

0*24 

•   • 

0-09 
o<t9 

o>4a 
o*io 

1 00*96 

100*00  |99'a2 

zoo -00 

100-35 

99*89 

I.  From  Vesuvius,  eruption  of  1906;  by  M.  Pisani. 

II.  N  Etna.    Mean  of  sovecal  analyses  by  Silvcstri  and  Fuchs 
,             (MercaiU). 

III.  M  Stromboli,  1891 ;  by  Ricdacdi. 

IV.  „  Krakatoa  eruptbn  of  1883;  by  C  WinUer. 

V.  ,,  Mont  Pfcl^,  Marthuqne,  emption  of  1902;  by  M.  PEsanL 

VI.  „  Kibuea,  Hawau.*  by  O.  SUvestri. 

In  the  course  of  the  life  of  a  yolcano,  the  lava  which  It  emits  nay 
undergo  changes,  within  moderate  limits,  being  At  one  rime  more  aci«u 
at  another  more  basic  Such  chattrai  are  sometimes  connected  with 
a  shifting  of  the  axb  of  eruption.  Thus  at  EuM  the  lavas  from  the 
old  axis  of  Trifofflietto  ia  the  Valle  dd  Bove  were  andcallcs,  with 
about  55%  of.  silica,  but  those  rising  ia  the  present  conduit  are 
doleridc,  with  a  silica-content  of  only  about  50%.  It  aeesM 
probable  that,  to  a  limited  ektent,  duknges  in  the  character  of  a  lava 
may  sometimes- be  doe  to  contact  of  the  magma  with  different  rocks 
underground:. if  these  are  rich  in  sUica,  the  acidity  of  the  lava  wiB 
naturfily  increase;  while  if  they  are  rich  in  calcareous  vid  ferr» 
magnestan  constituents,  the  baiidty  will  iacretse;  the  vanatioa  is 
consequentljr  apt  to  be  only  local,  and  j^bsbly  ohrays  slight. 

By  von  Kichthofea  and  some  others  it  has  been  bdd  that  during 
a  long  period  of  igneous  acdvity  a  definite  order  in  the  succcssloff 
of  the  erupted  rodcs  »  everywhere  constant;  but  though  some 
striking  coinddences  may  be  dted.  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  this 
generaiiiadon  has  been  satisfactorily  established.  It  has,  however, 
often  been  observed,  as  emphasixed  by  Professor  Iddspgt,  that  < 
volcamc  centre  will  start  with  the  emission  of  lavtts  of  neutral  or 
intermediate  type,  followed  in  the  course  of  a  .geological  period  tgr 


VOLCANO 


183 


acid  and  luaHc  tsvas,  aim!  emfift^  wftll  Ch(M«  t^  extreme  conpositfon, 
indicating  progressive  chance  m  the  magma. 

The  olo  idea  of  a  universal  magma,  or  contiAuotts  pyToq>here,  has 
been  generally  abandoned.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  case  in  a 
primitive  condition  of  the  interior  of  the  earth,  k  Mems  necessary  to 
admit  that  tfie  magma  must  now  exist  in  separate  reservoirs.  The 
independent  activi^  of  neighbouring  volcanoes  strikingly  illustrated 
in  lulauea  and  Mauna  Loa  in  Hawaii,  only  20  m.  apart,  suggests 
a  want  of  communication  between  the  conduits;  and  though  the 
lavau  are  very  similar  at  these  two  centres,  It  would  seem  that  they 
can  hardly  be  drawn  from  a  common  source.  Again,  the  volcanoes 
of  southern  Italy  and  the  neighbouring  islands  exhibit  little  or  no 
sympathy  in  their  action,  and  emit  lavas  of  divene  type.  The  lavas 
of  Vulcano,  one  of  the  Lipari  Isles,  are  rhyolitie,  whilst  tlioee'of 
Stromboli,  anotiiei'  oif  the  group,  are  basaltic 

It  is  believed  that  the  magma  in  a  subterranean  reservoir,  though 
originally  homogeneous,  may  slowly  undergo  certain  changes, 
whereby  the  more  basic  constituents  migi^te  to  one  quarter  whilst 
the  acid  segregate  in  another,  so  that  the'canal,  at  succesave  periods, 
may  bring  up  material  of  diflfettrnt  types.  The  cause  of  this  -'  mag« 
matic  differentiatioa,**  which  has  bera  the  subject  of  ^udi  discus* 
sion,  is  of  fundamental  importance  in  any  broad  study  of  the  genetic 
relations  of  igneous  rocks. 

It  has  often  bees  observed  that  all  the  rocks  from  a  definite 
igneous  centre  have  a  general  similarity  hi  chemical  and  minera- 
logical  characters.  This  relationship  is  called,  after  Professor  Iddlngs, 
"  consanguinity,"  and  appears  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  rocks 
arc  drawn  from  a  common  source.  Professor  Judd  pointed  out  the 
existence  of  distinct  "  petrbgraphical  provinces,"  within  which  the 
eruptive  rocks  during  a  given  geological  period  have  a  certain  family 
likeness  and  have  appeared  in  definite  succestriiin.  Thus  he  recog- 
nized a  Brito-Icelandic  petrcigraphical  province  of  Tertiary  and  recent 
lavas.  It  has  been  shown  by  A.  Harkcr  that  alkali  igneous  rocks 
are  generally  associated  witn  the  Atlantic  type  of  coast-line  and 
sub-alkali  rocks  with  the  Pacific  type.  ■ 

Although  changes  in  the  character  of  an  erupted  product  from  a 
given  centre  are  usually  brought  about  very  slowly,  it  has  often  been 
supposed  that  even  in  the  course  of  a  single  prolonged  eruption,  or 
series  of  eruptions,  the  character  of  the  lava  may  vary  to  some 
extent.  That  this  is  not,  however,  usually  the  case  has  been  re> 
peatedly  proved.  M.  H.  Arsandaux,  for  instance,  analysed  the 
Bombs  of  augite-andesite  thrown  out  from  Santorin  at  the  lieginning 
of  theeruption  of  1866,  others  ejected  in  1867,  and  others  again  at  the 
close  of  toe  eruption  in  1868;  and  he  found  no  important  variation 
in  the  composition  of  the  magma  during  these  successive  stages. 
Moreovt^^  Professor  A.  Lacroix  found  that  the  material  extruded  from 
Vesuvius  in  1906  remained  practically  of  the  same  composition  from 
thebeginningtotheendof  tneeniptlon,  and  further,  that  it  presented 
great  analogy  to  that  of  1873  and  even  to  that  of  1631. 

All  the  Vesuvian  lavas  are  of  the  type  of  rock  known  as  leoco- 
tephrite  or  leudtetephrite^  or  they  pass,  by  the  presence  of  a  little 
olivine,  into  leucite-oasanite.  Leucite  is  duiracteristtc  of  the  lavas 
of  Vesuvius,  whilst  it  is  excessively  rare  in  those  of  Etna,  where  a 
normal  doleritic-type  prevails.  Nepheline,  a  felspethoid  related  to 
leucite,  is  charactenstic  of  certain  lavas,  such  as  those  of  the  Canary 
Islands,  which  comprise  nepheline-tephrites  andnephcltne-basanites. 
Most  of  the  lavas  from  the  volcanoes  of  South  America  consist  of 
hypersthene-andesite,  and  it  is  notable  that  the  fragmental  ejccta- 
mcnta  from  the  eruptions  of  St  Vincent  and  Martinique  in  190a  and 
from  Krakatoa  in  1883  were  evidently  derived  from  a  magma  of 
this  Pacific  type. 

It  commonly  happens  that  add  lavas  are  paler  In  colour,  less  dense 
and  less  fusible  than  basic  lavas,  and  they  are  probably  drawn  in 
some  cases  froqi  shallower  depths.    As  a  consequence  of  the  ready 
fusibility  of  many  basic  lavas,  they  flow  freely  on  emission,  running 
to  groat  distances  and  forming  far-spreading  sheets,  whilst  the  more 
acid  lavas  rapidly  become  viscid  and  tend  to  consolidate  nearer  to 
their  origin,  often  in  hummocky  masses.    The  shape  of  a  volcanic 
mountain  is  consequently  determined  to  a  large  extent  by  the 
chemical  character  of  the  lavas  which  It  emits.    In  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  for  instance,  where  the  lavas  are  highly  basic  and  fluent, 
they  form  mountains  which,  though  lofty,  are  flat  domes  with  very 
gently  sloping  sides.  Such  is  the  ffutdity  of  the  lava  on  emission  that 
It  flows  freely  on  a  slope  of  less  than  one  degree.    In  consequence, 
too.  of  this  mobility,  it  is  readily  thrown  into  spray  and  even  pro- 
jected by  the  expansive  force  of  vapour  into  jets,  which  may  rise 
to  the  height  of  hundreds  of  feet  and  fall  back  still  incandescent, 
produdng  the  appearance  of  "fire  fountains.'*   The  emission  is  not 
usually  accompanied,  however,  by  violent  explosions,  such  as  are 
often  assodated  with  the  eruption  of  magmas  of  less  baric  and 
more  viscous  nature.    The  viscosity  of  the  lava  At  Kilauca  was 
estimated  by  G.  F,  Qccker  to  be  abbut  fifty  times  as  great  as  that 
of  water.   It  may  tie  pointed  out  that  the  fusibility  of  a  lava  depends 
not  on  the  mere  fact  that  it  is  basic,  but  rather  on  the  character  of 
the  bases.    A  lava  from  Etna  or  Vesuvius  may  be  really  as  basic 
••  one  from  Hawaii. 

CapUtary  Lata.^A  filamentous  forto  of  lava  well  known  at  Kilauea, 
m  Hawaii,  is  termed  Pel*'»  hair,  alter  Pele.  the  reputed  goddess  of  the 
Hawauan  volcanoes.    It  resembles  the  capillary  slag  much  used  ia 


the  arts  rnider  the  nMue  of  "  irfnera!  w6ef  *'— «  material  ^bmed  by 
injecting  ateiaffl  Into  molten  slag  from  an  iron  blast-furnace.  It  is 
commonly  supposed  that  Pele's  nair  has  been  formed  from  drops  of 
lava  splashed  into  the  air  and  drawn  out  by  the  wind  into  fine 
threads.  According,  however,  to  Major  C.  E.  Dutton,  the  filaments 
are  formed  on  the  eddying  surface  of  the  lava  by  the  elongation  of 
minute  vesicles ^  water-vapour  expdled  from  the  magma.  C.  F.  W. 
Krukenberg,  who  examined  the  hair  microscopically,  figured  a  large 
number  of  fibres,  some  of  which  showed  the  presence  of  minute 
vesicles  and  microscopic  crystals,  the  former  when  drawn  out 
tendering  the  thread  tubular. .  In  a  spongy  vitreous  scoria  from 
Hawaii,  described  as  **  thread-lace,"  a  polygonal  network  of  delicate 
fibres  forms  little  skeleton  cdls.  •  Capillary  lava  is  not  confined  to 
the  Hawaiian  volcanoes:  it  is  known,  for  example,  in  Ronton,  and 
may  be  formed  even  at  Vesuvius. 
Fumiceous  Lava. — ^The  copious'  disengagement  of  vapour  in  * 


CHvrui^ii  livri.  siiTaiiawijri  |/ivnj«n.ii^j  iivn»^>ii  »M\,t\A  •«tb,  siiu  iiiajr  nviuc 

times  be  regarded  fts  ttie  solidified  foam  of  an  obsidian.  During  the 
eruption  of  Krakatoa  in  1883  enormous  quantities  of  pumice  were 
ejected,  and  were  carried  by  the  sea  to  vast  distances,  until  they 
ultima  tdy  became  water-logged  and  sank.  Professor  J  udd  found  the 
pumioe  to  consist  of  a  vitreous  lava  greatly  Inflated  by  imprisoned 
vapours;  the  walls  of  the  air-cells  were  formed  of  the  lava  drawa 
out  into  thin  plates  and  threads,  often  with  delicate  fibres  running 
across  the  cavities.  Having  been  suddenly  cooled,  it  was  extremely 
brittle,  and  its  ready  pulverization  gave  rise  to  much  of  the  asK 
ejected  during  this  eruption.  It  has  been  shown  by  Dr  Johnston- 
Lavis  that  a  bed  of  pumiceous  lava,  espedally  if  baric,  is  generally 
vitreous  towards  the  base,  becoming  denser,  darker  and  more  crys- 
talline upwards,  nnril  it  may  pass  superficially  into  scoria.  The 
change  is  explicable  by  reduction  in  the  temperature  of  the  magma 
consequent  on  the  conversion  of  water  into  steam. 

Water  in  Lavas. — ^Whether  an  eruption  is  of  an  explouve  or  * 
tranquil  character  must  depend  largely,  though  not  wholly,  on  the 
chemicat  composition  of  the  magma,  especially  on  the  extent  to 
which  it  is  aquiferous.  By  relin  of  pressure  on  the  rise  of  the 
column  in  the  volcanic  channel,  or  otfierwise,  more  or  less  steam 
will  be  disengaged,  and  if  in  large  quantity  this  must  become,  with 
other  vapours,  a  projectile  agency  of  enormous  power.  The  predse 
physical  condition  in  which  water  exists  in  the  magma  is  a  matter 
of  speculation,  and  hence  Tohnston-Lavis  proposed  to  designate  it 
rimply  as  HiO.  Water  above  its  critKai  pmnt,  which  is  about 
370*  C.  or  698*  F.,  cannot  exist  as  a  liquid,  whatever  be  the  pressure, 
ndther  is  it  an  ordinary  vapour.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the 
critical  point  would  probably  be  reached  at  a  depth  of  about  7  m. 
At  very  high  temperatures  the  elements  of  water  may  exist  in  a 
state  of  dissociation. 

Much  discussion  has  amen  as  to  the  origin  of  the  volcanic  water, 
but  probably  it  is  not  all  attributable  to  a  single  source.  Some  may 
be  c«  superndal  origin,  derived  from  rain,  nver  or  sea;  whilst  the 
upward  passage  of  lava  through  moist  strata  must  generate  lai^ 
volumes  of  steam.  ^  It  has  often  been  remarked  that  wet  weather 
increases  the  activity  of  a  volcanqj  and  that  in  certain  mountains 
the  eruptions  are  more  frequent  in  winter.  According,  however,  to 
Professor  A.  Ricc6'8  prolonged  study  of  Etna,-  rain  has  no  apparent 
influence  on  the  activity  of  this  mountain,  and  indeed  the  number  oi 
eruptions  in  winter,  when  rains  are  abundant,  seems  rather  less  than 
in  summer. 

The  popular  belief  that  explosive  action  is  due  to  the  admission 
of  water  to  the  volcanic  focus  is  fourided  mainly  on  the  topographic 
relation  of  volcanoes  to  large  natural  bodies  01  water,  many  being 
situated  near  the  shore  of  a  continent  or  on  blands  or  even  on 
the  aca-floor.  Salt  water  gaining  access  to  heated  rocks,  through 
fissures  or  by  capillary  absorption,  would  give  rise  not  only  to  water- 
vapour  but  to  tne  volatile  chlorides  so  common  in  volcanic  exhala- 
tions. Yet  It  is  notable  that  comparatively  little  chlorine  is  found 
among  the  products  exhaled  fay  the  volcanoes  of  Hawaii,  thou{[h 
these  are  typjpally  insular.  L.  Palmieri,  however,  described  certain 
sublimates  on  lava  at  Vesuvius  after  the  eruption  of  1872  as  deports 
of  "  sea-salt,"  to  show  that  they  were  not  simply  sodium  chloride, 
but  contained  other  constituents  found  In  sea-water.  Professor 
T.  J.  J.  See  believes  that  sea-water  gains  access  to  the  heated  rocks 
of  .the  earth's  interior  by  leakage  through  the  floor  of  the  ocean,  the 
bottom  never  being  water-ti^nt,  and  Arrhenius  supposes  that  it 
reaches  the  magma  oy  capillarity  through  this  floor. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  water  on  reaching  the  hot  walls  of  a 
snbterranean  cavity  would  pass  into  the  spheroidal  state,  and  on 
subsequent  reduction  of  temperature  might  come  into  direct  contact 
with  the  heated  surface,  when  it  would  flash  with  explosive  violence 
into  staam.  Such  catastrophes  probablv  occur  in  Certain  cases. 
When,  for  example,  a  volcano  becomes  dormant,  water  commonly 
accumulates  in  the  crater,  and  on  a  renewal  of  activity  this  crater- 
lake,  may  be  absorbed  through  fissures  in  the  floor  leading  to  the 
reopened  duct,  and  thus  become  rapidly,  even  suddenly,  converted 
into  vapour.  But  such  inddents  are  accidental  rather  than  normal, 
and  seem  incompetent  to  account  for  volcanic  activity  in  general. 

The  effect  of  tne  contact  of  lava  with  water  is  often  misunderstood* 


i84 


VOLCANO 


When  a  streftia  of  lav*  flo«^  Into  dit  m  tt  ao  danbt  tounediately 
gcoerate*  a  prodigious  volume  of  tteam ;  but  this  i*  only  a  temporary 
phenomenon,  for  the  lava  rapidly  becomes  chilled  by  the  cold  water, 
with  formation  of  a  superficial  solid  layer,  which  by  its  low  thermal 
conductivity  allows  the  internal  mass  to  cool  slowly  and  quietly. 
In  the  great  eruption  of  Krakatoa  in  1883  the  sea-water  gained 
occasional  access  to  the  molten  lava,  and  by  its  cooling  effect  cbiBcked 
the  escape  of  vapour,  thus  temporarily  diminishing  the  volcanic 
activity.  But  Judd  compares  thb  action  to  that  of  fastening  down 
the  safety-valve  of  a  steam-boiler.  The  tension  of  the  elastic  fluids 
being  increased  by  this  repression  would  give  rise  subsequently  to 
an  explosion  of  greater  violence:  and  hence  the  short  violent 
paroxysms  characteristic  of  the  Krakatoa  eruption  were  due  to 
what  be  calls  a  "  check  and  rally  "  of  the  subterranean  forces.  The 
action  in  the  volcanic  conduit  has,  indeed,  been  compared  with  that  of 
a  geyser. 

The  downward  passage  of  water  through  fissures  most  be  confined 
to  the  upper  portion  of  the  earth's  crust  known  as  the  "  zone  of 
fracture,  for  it  is  there  only  that  open  channels  can  exist.  Water 
m^ht  also  percolate  through  the  pores  of  the  rocks,  but  even  the 
pores  are  closed  at  great  depths.  It  was  shown  many  years  ago  by 
G.  A.  Daubr£e  that  water  could  pass  to  a  limited  extent  through  a 
heated  rock  against  the  pressure  of  steam  in  the  opposite  direction. 
According  to  S.  Arrhentus,  water  may  pass  inwards  through  the 
sea-bottom  b)r  osmotic  pressure. 

As  the  melting  points  of  various  silicates  are  lowered  by  admixture 
with  water,  it  appears  that  the  access  of  surfac^watcrs  to  heated 
rocks  must  promote  their  fusibility.  Judd  has  sugeested  that  the 
proximity  of  large  bodies  of  water  may  be  favourable  to  volcanic 
manifestations,  because  the  hydrated  rocks  become  readily  melted 
by  internal  heat  and  thus  yield  a  supply  of  lava. 

Whilst  some  of  the  water-vapour  exhaled  from  a  volcano  is 
undoubtedly  derived  from  superficial  sources,  notably  in  such  insular 
volcanoes  as  Stromboli,  the  opinion  has  of  late  years  been  gaining 
ground^  through  the  teaching  of  Professor  E.  Suess  and  others,  that 
the  volcanic  water  must  be  largely  referred  to  a  deep-seated  sul>> 
terranean  origin — that  it  is,  in  a  word,  "  hypogene  "  or  magmatic 
rather  than  meteoric.  It  is  held  that  the  magma  as  it  rises  through 
the  volcanic  conduit  brin^^  up  much  water-vapour  and  other  gaseous 
matters  derived  from  original  sources,  perhaps  a  relic  of  what  was 
present  in  the  earth  in  its  molten  condition,  having  possibly  been 
absorbed  from  a  dense  primordial  atmosphere,  or,  as  suggested  by 
Professor  T.  C.  Chamoeriin,  entrapped  by  the  globe  during  its 
formation  by  accretion  of  planctestmal  matter. 

Water  brought  from  magmatic  deptlis  to  the  surface,  and  appear- 
ing  there  for  the  first  time,  has  been  termed  "  juvenile,"  and  it 
has  been  assumed  that  such  water  may  be  seen  in  hot  spriiws  like 
those  at  Carisbad.  Professor  I.  W.  Gregory  has^  suggested  that 
certain  springs  in  the  interior  of  Australia  may  derive  part  of  their 
supply  from  juvenile  or  f^utonic  waters. 

According  to  A.  Gautier,  the  origin  of  volcanic  water  may  be 
found  in  the  oxidation  of  hvdrogen,  developed  from  masses  of 
crystalline  rock,  which  by  subsidence  have  been  subjected  to  the 
action  of  subterranean  heat. 

Volcanic  Vapours. — ^It  seems  not  unlikely  that  the  vapoun 
and  gases  exist  in  the  volcanic  magma  in  much  the  same  way 
that  they  can  exist  in  molten  metal.  It  is  a  familiar  fact 
that  certain  metals  when  melted  can  absorb  lax^ge  volumes  of 
gases  without  entering  into  chemical  combination  with  them. 
Molten  silver,  for  example,  is  capable  of  absorbing  from  the 
atmosphere  more  than  twenty  times  its  volume  of  oxygen, 
which  it  expels  on  solidification,  thus  producing  what  is  called 
the  "  spitting  of  silver."  Platinum  again  can  absorb  and  retain 
when  solid,  or  occlude,  a  large  volume  of  hydrogen,  that  can  be 
expelled  by  heating  the  metal  in  vacuo.  In  like  manner  molten 
rock  under  pressure  can  absorb  much  steam.  It  appears  that 
many  igneous  rocks  contain  gases  locked  up  in  their  pores,  not 
set  free  by  pulverization,  yet  capable  of  expulsion  by  strong 
heat.  The  gases  in  rocks  have  been  the  subject  of  elaborate 
study  by  R.  T.  Chamberlin,  whose  results  appear  in  Publication 
No.  106  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington. 

Sir  W.  A.  Tildcn  has  found  that  granite,  gabbro,  basalt  and 
certain  other  igneous  rocks  enclose  manv  times  their  volume  of 
gases,  chiefly  hydrogen  and  carbon  dioxide,  with  carbon  monoxide, 
methane  and  nitrogen.  Thus,  the  basalt  of  Antrim  in  Ireland, 
which  is  a  Tertiary  lava,  yielded  eight  times  its  volume  of  gas  having 
the  following  percentage  composition:  hydrogen  36*15.  carbon 
dioxide  33-o8k  carbon  monoxide  30>o8.  methane  10.  nitrogen  i-6i. 
No  doubt  some  of  the  gases  evolved  on  heating  rocks  may  be  gener- 
ated by  reactions  during  the  experiment,  as  shown  by  M.  W.  Travers, 
and  also  by  Armand  Gautier.  It  has  been  pointco  out  by  Gautier 
that  the  |[as  exhaled  from  Mont  Peld  during  the  eruption  of  1902 
had  practically  the  same  composition  as  that  which  he  obtained 
00  heating  granite  and  certain  other  rocks.    Acoording  to  this 


authority  a  cubic  UloMetra  of  cnake  kaated  to 

not  less  than  26,060,000  tons  of  water-vapour,  besides  other  fpmi 

If  then  a  mass  of  granite  m  the  earth's  crust  were  subject  to  ss,  s* 

local  accession  of  beat  it  might  evolve  vast  volumes  of  s^ae 

matter,  capable  of  producing  an  eruption  of  explosive  type.  J  udd 
found  that  the  little  balls  of  Siberian  obsidian  called  roarelcAiutc 
threw  off,  when  strongly  heated,  clouds  of  finely  divided  part.icles 
formed  by  rupture  01  the  distended  mass  through  the  escape  of 
vapour.  Pitchstone  when  v^ited  loses  in  some  casps  as  muds  mm 
10%  of  its  weight,  due  to  expulsion  of  water. 

Much  of  the  steam  and  other  vapour  brought  up  from  below 
by  the  lava  may  be  evolved  on  mere  exposure  to  the  air,  and  hence 
a  stream  freshly  extruded  is  generally  Beclouded  with  more  or  less 
vapour.   Gaseous  bubbles  in  the  tiody  of  the  lava  render  it  veaicular, 
especially  in  the  upper  part  of  a  stream,  where  the  pressure  is  retirved, 
and  the  vesicles  by  toe  onward  flow  of  the  lava  tend  to  bccoene 
elongated  in   the  direction  of  movement.     Vesiculatioo.    beuv 
naturally  resisted  by  cohesion,  k  not  common  In  very  visdd  lavas  of 
acid  type,  nor  is  it  to  be  expected  where  the  lava  has  been  subjecc 
to  ^reat  pressure,  but  it  is  seen  to  periection  in  suriaoc-flowo  oi 
Ikiuid  lavas  of  basakic  character.    A  vesicular  structure  may  tnmc 
times  be  seen  even  in  dykes,  but  the  cavities  are  usually  roundeit 
rather  than  elongated,  and  are  often  arranged  in  bands  parallel  to 
the  walls  of  the  dyke.    A  very  small  proportion  of  water  in  a  lava 
suffices  to  produce  vesiculation.   Secondary  minerals  developed  in  a 
cellular  lava  may  be  deposited  in  the  steam-holes,  thus  prodoctQg  aa 
amygdaloidal  rock. 

AUcr  the  surface  of  a  lava-stream  has  become  crusted  over,  ymoaar 
may  still  be  evolved  in  the  interior  of  the  mass,  and  in  seeking  idease 
may  elevate  or  even  pierce  the  crust.    Small  cones  may  thus  be 
thrown  up  on  a  lava-flow,  and  when  vapour  escapes  from  terminal  or 
lateral  orifices  they  are  known  as  "  spiracles."   tlie  steam  may  tsar 
with  sufficient  projectile  force  to  toss  up  the  lava  in  little  fountsas. 
When  the  lava  u  very  liquid,  as  in  the  Hawaiian  volcanoes,  it  wdm 
after  projection  from  the  blow-hcle  fall  back  in  drops  and  plastc 
dots,  which  on  consolidation  form,  by  their  union,  small  cones. 

Vapour-vents  on  lava  are  often  Known  as  fumarolcs  (9.9.).  The 
character  of  the  gaseous  exhalations  varies  with  the  temperature, 
and  the  following  clasMfication  was  suggested  by  C.  Sointe-Claire 
Deville:  (l)  Dry  or  white  fumaroles  having  a  temperature  alwve 
SOO*  C.  and  evolving  compounds  of  chlorine,  and  perhaps  fluorine. 
{2)  Acid  fumaroles,  exhaling  much  steam,  with  hydrocholoricacid  and 
sulphur  dioxide.  (3)  Alkaline  fumarolcs,  at  a  temperature  of  about 
lOO*.  with  much  steam  and  ammonium  chloride  and  some  sulphuretted 
hydrogen.  (4)  Cold  fumaroles.  below  100*,  with  aqueous  vapour, 
carbon  dioxide  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  (5)  Mofettes,  indicatiiq( 
the  expiring  phase  of  vulcanism.  A  similar  sequence  of  emanations, 
following  progressive  cooling  of  the  lava,  has  been  noted  by  other 
observers.  During  an  eruption,  the  gaseous  products  may  vary 
considerably.  Johnston-Lavis  found  at  Vesuvius  that  the  vapour 
which  first  escaped  from  the  boiling  lava  contained  much  sul- 
phurous acid,  and  that  hydrochloric  acid  and  other  chlorides 
appeared  later. 

if  the  vapours  exhaled  from  volcanoes  were  derived  originaQy 
from  superficial  sources,  the  lava  would,  of  course,  merely  return  to 
the  surface  of  the  earth  what  it  had  directly  or  indirectly  absorbed. 
But  if.  as  is  now  rather  generally  believed,  much  if  not  most  of  the 
volcanic  vapour  is  derived  from  original  subterranean  sources,  it 
must  form  a  direct  contribution  from  the  interior  of  the  earth  to  the 
atmosphere  and  hydrosphere,  and  consequently  becomes  of  extreme 
geological  interest. 

Description  of  Special  Cases  ami  Va^rari.^Hydrochloric  acid, 
HCI.  escapes  abundantly  from  many  vents,  often  accompanied  with 
the  vapours  of  certain  metallic  chlorides,  and  is  responsible  for  much 
of  the  acrid  effects  of  volcanic  exhalations.  To  avoid  dangerous 
vapours  an  active  volcano  should  be  ascended  on  the  windward  side. 
Free  hydrofluoric  acid,  HF,  has  sometimes  been  detected  with  the 
hydrochlonc  acid  among  Vesuvian  vapours,  and  silicon  fluoride, 
S1F4.  has  also  been  reported.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  HiS,  is  a 
frequent  emanation,  and  being  comoustiblc  may  oontiibuM  to  the 
lamiient  flames  seen  in  some  eruptions.  It  readily  suffers  ooiidation, 
giving  rise  to  sulphur  dioxide  and  water.  By  the  interaction  of 
hydrogen  uijphide  and  carbon  dioxide,  water  and  carbon  oxy- 
sulphide,  COS,  arc  formed ;  whilst  bv  reaction  with  sulf^ur  dioxide, 
water  and  free  sulphur  arc  produced,  such  being  no  doubt  the  origin 
of  many  deposits  of  volcanic  sulphur.  Hydrogen  sulphide  may  m 
formed  by  the  decomposition  of  certain  metallic  sulphides,  like  that 
of  calcium,  in  the  presence  of  moisture,  as  suggested  by  Anderson 
and  Flctt  with  rraard  to  certain  muds  at  the  Soufridrcof  St  Vincent. 
Sulphur  dioxide.  SOi,  is  one  of  the  commonest  exhalations,  especially 
at  acid  fumarolcs.  ^  It  may  be  detected  by  its  characteristic  smell, 
that  of  burning  brimstone,  even  when  present  in  very  small  pro* 
portion  and  in  the  presence  of  an  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid.    By 


issues  from  the  vokano  of  Purac^  in  the  Andes  of  Colombia:  and 
it  occurs  also  in  certain  other  volcanic  waters.  Carbon  dioxkls^ 
COi.  is  generally  a  product  of  the  later  suges  of  «n  eruption,  nad  It 


VOLCANO 


«85 


pftMKwrt^red  fcrfttr  tH  Mber  ntet  huvt  cmed  to—pfc  AltboMkii 
It  may  aometiines  be  due  to  toe  deoompoaition  of  Umeatoae,  it  Meow 
to  be  mostly  of  true  magmatk  origin.  At  the  weU-koown  Crottft 
del  Cane,  at  Lain  Agnanok  in  the  Phlegfaean  Fields  near  Naples, 
there  has  been  for  ages  a  copious  dischargcit  and  analyses  of  the  air 
of  the  cave  by  T.  Gmham  Young  showedthe  preKnce  of  fnmi  61-5 
to  71  %  of  carbon  dioxide.  Gautier,  in  1907,  found  96  to  97%  of 
this  gas  in  the  vapours  (excluding  water^vapour)  emitted  from  the 
Solfatara  near  Posiuoli  in  the  Bay  of  Naples.  The  gas  by  its 
density  tends  to  accumulate  in  depressed  areas,  as  in  the  Death 
Cukh  in  the  Yellowstone  Park  and  in  the  Upas  Valley  of  Java.  In 
the  Eifel,  in  the  Auvergne  and  in  many  other  volcanic  E^;ions  it  is 
discharged  at  temperatures  not  above  that  of  the  atmonherb  This 
natural  carbonic  add  gas  is  now  utilised  industriaUy  at  many 
localities.  In  the  gases  of  the  fumaroles  of  Mont  PeU,  carbon 
monoxide,  CO,  was  detected  by  H.  Moissaa.  Probably  certain 
hydrocarbons,  notably  methane  or  inacsh>gas,  CH«,  often  exist  in 
vokanic  gases.  They  might  be  formed  by  the  action  of  water  on 
natural  carbides,  such  as  that  of  magnesium,  calcium,  &c.  Moissan 
found  5-46%  of  methane  in  vapour  from  a  fumarole  on  Mont  Pd6 
in  IQ02.  Free  hydrogen  was  detected  by  R.  Bunsen  as  far  back  as 
1846  in  vapours  from  volcanoes  in  Iceland.  In  1861  Deville  and 
Fouau^  found  it,  with  hydrocarbons,  at  Torre  del  Greco  near  Naples; 
and  in  1866  Fouqu£  discovered  it  at  Santorin,  where  some  of  the 
vapour  at  the  immediate  focus  of  eruption  contained  as  much  as 
30%  of  hydrMen.  It  is  notable  that  at  Santorin  free  oxygen  was 
also  found.  The  elements  of  water  may  possibly  exist,  at  toe  hi^h 
temperature  of  the  magma,  in  a  state  01  diseodatioo,  and  certain 
volcanic  explosions  have  sometimes  been  attributed  to  the  com- 
bination of  these  elements.  Oxygen  »  not  infrequently  found  among 
volcanic  emanations,  but  may  perhaps  be  derived  in  most  cases  from 
superficial  air  and  ground-water;  and  in  like  manner  the  nitrocen, 
often  detected,  may  be  sometimes  of  atmospheric  origin,  though  in 
other  cases  daWed  from  nitrides  in  the  lava.  In  the  vapours 
emitted  by  Mont  Pel6  in  1903  argon  was  detected  by  H.  Moissan, 
to  the  extent  of  0-71  %:  and  in  those  from  Vesuvius  in  1^06  argon 
and  neon  were  found  by  Gautier.  The  collection  of  volcanic  vapouis 
offers  diflScutty,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  avoid  admixture  with  the  atmo- 
ephere.  F.  A.  Ferret  has  sucoesifuUy  collected  gases  on  Vesuvius. 
Volcanic  Flames. — ^Although  the  incandescence  of  the  lava  and 
stones  projected  during  an  eruption,  and  the  reflection  from  incan* 
descent  matter  in  the  crater  have  often  been  mistaken  for  red  flames, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  true  combustion,  though  generally  feeble, 
4oes  occur  during  volcanic  outbursts.  Among  the  gases  dted  above. 


hydrogen,  hydrogen  sulphide  and  the  hydrocarbons  are  inflammaUe. 
Tne  wunes  seen  in  vokanoes  are  generally  pale  and  of  bluish, 
greem'sh  or  yellowish  tint.  They  were  first  examined  spectro- 
scopically  by  J.  Jansien,  who  in  1867  detected  the  lines  of  burning 
hydrogen  at  Santorin.  Subsequently  he  proved  the  presence  of 
hydrogen,  sodium  and  hydrocarbons  in  the  volcanic  flames  of 
Kilauea.  During  the  eruption  of  Vulcano,  in  the  Lipari  Isles,  in 
1888,  flames  wiui  a  bluish  or  greenish  tii^  were  seen  by  A.  E. 
Narlian,  an  ocperienced  observer  resident  tn  the  iskind.-  These, 
however,  were  referred  to  the  kindling  of  sali^iur  deposited  around 
the  fumaroles.  the  flames  being  colouied  by  the  piesenoe  of  boric 
add  and  anenic  sulphide. 

When  a  stream  of  lava  ftows  over  vegetation  the  combustion  of 
the  leaves  and  wood  may  be  mistaken  for  flames  issuing  from  the 
lava.  In  like  manner  orushwood  may  grow  la  the  crater  of  a 
dcM-mant  volcano  and  be  ignited  by  a  ireui  outburrt  of  lava,  thus 
prododng  flames  which,  /rom  thdr  positioa  in  the  crater,  may  readily 
deceive  an  observer. 

V&tcanic  StMimales. — Certun  mineral  substances  occur  as  sub- 
limates in  and  around  the  volcanic  vents,  forming  incrustations  on 
the  lava*  They  are  either  deposited  directly  irom  the  effluent 
vapours,  which  carry  them  in  a  volatile  condition,  or  are  produced 
by  interaction  of  the  vapours  among  themselves;  whilst  some  of  the 
incrustations,  rather  loosely  called  subGinates,  are  due  to  reaction 
of  the  vapours  on  the  constituents  of  the  bva.  Possibly  at  the 
temperature  of  the  ma^ma-reservoirs  even  olica  and  various 
ailicatcs  may  be  volatilized,  and  might  thus  yield  sublimation 
products.  Many  of  the  volcanic  suUimates  occur  at  first  as  incan- 
descent crusts  on  the  lava.  Bnng  generally  unstable  they  are 
difficult  of  preservation,  and  are  not  usually  well  represented  in 
collections. 

Among  the  commonest  sublimates  is  halite,  or  sodium  chloride. 
NaCl,  occurring  as  a  white  crystalline  incrustation,  sometimes 
accompanied,  as  at  Vesuvius,  by^  sylvite.  or  potassium  chloride. 
KQ,  which  forms  a  similar  sublimate.  The  two  chlorides  may 
be  intimately  assodated.  Sal  ammoniac,  or  ammonium  chloride, 
NH4CI,  is  not  uncommon,  especially  at  Etna,  as  a  white  crystalline 
crust,  probably  formed  in  part  by  the  reaction  of  hydrochloric  add 
with  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  in  the  vapours.  Bunsen,  on  finding 
it  in  Iceland,  regardeH  it  as  «  product  o(  the  distillation  of  organic 
matter.  At  thiTx/ifitara.  near  Pozzuoll,  sal  ammoniac  was  formeriy 
Villtcttd  as  a  sublimate  on  tiles  placed  round  a  bocca  or  vapour- 
vent.  Ferric  chk>ride.  FeGi.  not  infrequently  occurs  as  a  reddiiA 
or  brownish  yellow  deliquescent  incrustation,  and  because  it  thus 
colours  the  lava  it  has  reci^ved  the  name  of  molysite  (fnm  Gr. 


0l!imu,  fltalii).  The  aetioii  of  hydmoliloifc  add  on  the  Inm  com* 
pounds  ia  the  lava  may  readily  yiekl  this  chkiride,  which  from  its 
yelk>wish  colour  has  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  sulf^ur.  A 
crystalline  sublimate  from  the  fumaroles  on  Vesuvius,  containing 
ferric  and  alkaline  chfeiMes,  KaNH4a-2Fea.+6HsO,  is  knowA 
as  kremersate,  after  P.  Kremers.  From  a  scoriaceous  lava  found  on 
Vesuvius  after  the  eruption  of  I(;jo6,  Johnston-Lavis  procured  a 
yellow  rhombohedral  sublimate,  which  he  proved  to  be  a  chloride  of 
manganese  and  potassium,  whence  he  proposed  for  it  the  name 
chlormanganokahte.  It  was  studied  by  L.  J.  Spencer,  and  found 
to  contain  4KC1  •  MnCW.  Chkwocakite,  or  native  caldum  chloride, 
CaCIa,  has  been  found  in  cubic  crystab  on  Vesuvian  lava.  Fluorite. 
or  calcium  fluoride,  CaFt,  b  also  known  as  a  volcanic  product.  Lead 
chloride,  PbCIt,  a  rare  Vesuvian  mineral,  was  named  cotunnite, 
after  Dr  Cotu^no  of  Naples.  The  action  of  hydrogen  sulphide  on  this 
chloride  may  give  rise  to  galena,  PbS,  found  by  iC  Lacroix  on  Vesu- 
vius in  1906.  Atacamite,  or  cupric  oxychh>nde,  CuCli-3Cu(OH)s. 
occure  as  a  green  incrustation  on  certain  Vesuvian  lavas,  notably 
those  of  1631.  Another  green  mineral  from  Vesuvius  was  found 
by  A.  ScacchI  to  be  a  sulphate  containing  copper,  with  potas- 
sium and  sodium,  which  he  named  from  iu  fine  coloar  «tiaortiia 
—a  word  whkh  has  been  written  in  Enalish  as  euchlorinite.  The 
copper  in  the  sublimates  on  Vesuvius  iriu  sometimes  plate  the  iron 
nails  of  a  traveller's  boots  when  crossing  the  newly  erupted  kiva. 
Cupik  oxide,  CuO,  occurs  in  delicate  ciystalline  scales  termed 
tenorite,  after  Professor  G.  Tenore  of  Naples;  whilst  cupric  sulphide, 
CuS,  forms  a  delicately  reticulated  incrusutioQ  known  aa  oovdlite, 
after  N.  Covelli,  iu  ducoverer  at  Vesuvius. 

A  sublimate  not  infrequently  found  in  feathery  crystalline 
deposits  on  lava  at  Vesuvhis,  and  formerly  called  "  Vesuvian  salt," 
is  a  potassium  and  sodium  sulphate,  (K<Na)iS04,  known  as  aphthK- 
ulite  (from  Gr.  ii^rm,  imperishable,  and  AXs,  salt).  A  sulphate 
with  the  composition  PbSO4*(K'Na)iS04,  found  in  the  fumaroles  at 
Vesuvius  after  the  eruption  of  1905,  was  named  by  A.  Lacroix 
palmierite,  after  L,  Paimieri,  who  was  formerly  director  of  the 
observatory  on  Vesuvius.  Various  sulphites  are  formed  on  lavas 
by  the  sulphurous  add  of  the  vapours.  Ferric  oxide,  FeiOa,  which 
occun  in  beautiful  metallic  scales  as  specular  iron*ore,  or  as  an 
amorphous  reddish  incrustation  on  the  lava,  is  probably  formed  in 
most  cases  by  the  interaction  of  vapour  ai  ferric  chloride  and  steam 
at  a  hi^  temperature.  Less  freouently,  magnetite,  Fe/)4,  and 
magnesiofernte,  MgFei04,  are  found  in  ocUhedral  crystals  on  bva. 
An  iron  nitride  (Fe«Nt)  was  detected  thinly  incrusting  a  lava  erupted 
at  Etna  in  1874,  and  was  named  l^y  O.  SUvestri,  who  examined  it, 
siderarote. 

Boric  add,  HgBOi,  oocan  in  the  crater  of  Vukano  so  abundantly 
that  it  was  at  one  Ume  collected  commercially.  It  has  also  led  to 
the  foundation  of  an  industry  in  Tuscany,  where  it  is  obtained  from 
the  sofiioni  (o.v.)  of  the  Maremma.  From  Sasso  in  Tuscany  it 
has  recdved  the  name  of  saswlin  or  sassolite.  Realgar,  or  arsenic 
sulphide,  AsiSt,  occun  in  certain  vokanic  exhalations  and  is  de- 
posited as  an  orange-red  incrustation,  often  associated  with  aulphuTf 
as  at  the  Solfatara,  where  orpiment,  AsiSa^  has  also  been  found. 

Of  all  volcanic  products,  sulphur  (^.v.)  is  in  some  respects  the  most 
important.  It  misy  occur  in  large  quantity  lining  the  walls  of  the 
crater,  as  at  Popocatepetl  in  Mexico,  where  it  was  formerly  worked 
by  the  Indian  **  volcaneros,"  or  on  the  other  hand  it  may  be  a  rare 
product,  as  at  Vesuvius.  Sulphur  appean  generally  to  owe  its 
orioin  in  volcamc  areas  to  the  interaction  of  sulphur  dknide  and 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  or  to  the  action  of  water  on  the  latter.  A 
volcamc  vent  where  sulphur  is  deposited  is  truly  a  solfatara  («o//o 
Una)  or  a  soufriire,  but  all  volcanoes  which  have  passed  into  that 
stage  in  which  they  emit  merely  heated  vapours  now  pass  under 
this  name  (see  SoLrATAJu).  Tne  famous  Solfatara,  an  old  crater 
in  the  PhlMracan  Fields,  exhales  sulphurous  vapoura,  especially  at 
the  Bocca  Grande,  from  which  sulphur  is  d^Msited.  In  tne  orange- 
coloured  sulphur  of  the  Solfatara,  realgar  may  be  present  to  the 
extent  of  as  much  as  18  %.  A  brown  seleniferous  sulphur  occurring 
at  Vukano,  one  of  the  Lipari  Islands,  was  termed  by  W.  Haidinger 
volcanite.  but  it  should  be  noted  that  Professor  W.  H.  Hobbs  has 
applied  this  name  to  an  anorthodase-augite  rock  ejected  as  boroba 
at  Vulcano.  Sulphur  containing  selenium  is  known  aa  a  volcanic 
product  in  Hawaii,  whilst  in  Japan  not  only  sdenium  but  teUurium 
occure  in  certain  Idnds  of  sulphur. 

At  the  Solfatara,  near  Pozzuoli,  the  hot  sul|>him>u8  vapoun  attack 
the  trachytic  rocks  from  which  they  issue,  giving  rise  to  such  pro- 
ducts as  alum,  kaolin  and  gypsum.  To  some  of  these  products, 
including  alun^en  and  mendoute  (soda-alum),  the  name  solfatarite 
was  given  by  C.  W.  Sheppard  in  1835.  By  prolonged  action  of  the 
acid  vapoure  on  lava,  tne  bases  of  the  silicates  may  be  removed, 
leaving  the  silica  as  a  soft  white  chalk-like  substance.  The  occur- 
rence of  kaolin  and  other  white  earthy  alteration-moducts  led  to 
the  hills  around  the  Solfatara  bdng  known  to  the  Komans  aa  the 
Colli  lettcogeu 

The  Ha  Dim  Cloud  and  Atahnckt  of  PoU.-^Tht  terrific  erup- 
tions in  the  islands  of  Martinique  and  St  Vincent  in  the  West 
Indies  in  1902,  furnished  examples  of  a  type  of  activity  not  pm4- 
ously  ttoopuied  by  vuIcanok>gist8,  though,  as  Professor  A.  Lacroix 


i86 


VOLCANO 


has  poiBted  <mt,  limOar  phenoneiiA  have  no  doabt-  occurred 
elsewhere,  espedaUy  in  the  Azores.  By  Drs  Tempest  Anderson 
and  J.  S.  Flett,  who^were  commissioned  by  the  Royal  Society  to 
report  on  the  phenomena,  this  type  of  explosive  eruption  is 
distinguished  as  the  **  Pelian  type."  lu  distinctive  character 
is  found  in  the  sudden  emission  of  a  dense  black  doud  of  super- 
heated and  suffocating  gases,  heavily  charged  with  incandescent 
dust,  moving  with  great  velocity  and  accompanied  by  the  dis- 
duKfge  of  immense  volumes  of  volcanic  sand,  which  are  not 
rained  down  in  the  normal  manner,  but  descend  like  a  hot 
avalanche.  The  cloud,  with  the  avalanche,  is  called  by  Lacroix 
a  uuic  Pdienntt  or  nuit  ardente,  the  latter  term  ha^dng  been 
applied  to  the  fatal  doud  in  the  eruptions  at  San  Jocge  in  the 
Azores  hi  1818.  In  its  typical  form,  the  doud  seen  at  Pd£ 
appeared  as  a  solid  bank,  opaque  and  impenetrable,  but  having 
the  edge  in  places  hanging  like  folds  of  a  curtain,  and  apparently 
of  brown  or  purplish  cokmr.  Rolling  along  like  an  inky  torrent, 
it  produced  in  its  passage  hitense  darknos,  rdieved  by  vivid 
lightnmg.  So  mudi  solid  matter  was  suspended  m  the  doud, 
that  it  became  too  dense  to  surmount  obstacles  and  behaved 
rather  like  a  liquid.  It  has,  however,  been  suggested  that  its 
peculiar  movement  as  it  swept  down  the  mountain  was  due  not 
simply  to  its  heavy  charge  of  solids,  but  partly  to  the  oblique 
direction  of  the  initial  e^losion.  After  leaving  the  crater, 
it  underwent  enormous  expansion,  and  Anderson  and  Flett  were' 
led  to  suggest  that  possibly  at  the  moment  of  emission  it  might 
have  been  partly  in  the  form  of  liquid  drops,  which  on  solidtfy- 
ing  evolved  large  voliimes  of  gas  held  previously  in  ocdusion. 
The  deadly  effect  of  the  blast  seems  to  have  been  mostly  due 
to  the  irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane  <^  the  respiratory 
passages  by  the  fine  hot  dust,  but  suffocating  gases,  like  sulphur 
dioxide  and  sulphuretted  hydrogm,  were  associated  with  the 
water-vi^wur.  Possibly  the  incandescent  dust  was  even  hotter 
than  the  surrounding  vapour,  since  the  latter  might  be  cooled 
by  expansion. 

It  is  said  that  the  black  doud  as  it  swept  along  was  accom- 
panied by  an  indraught  of  air,  not  however  suffidently  powerful 
to  check  its  rapid  advance.  The  current  of  air  was  likened  by 
Mderson  and  Flett  to  the  inrush  of  air  at  a  railway  station  as 
an  express  train  passes.  An  attempt  was  made  to  determine 
the  temperature  of  the  fatal  blast  which  destroyed  St  Pierre, 
but  without  very  definite  results.  Thus  it  was  assumed  that 
as  the  telephone  wires  were  not  melted  the  temperature  was  below 
the  fusing-point  of  copper:  possibly,  however,  the  blast  may 
have  passed  too  rapidly  to  produce  the  effects  which  might 
normally  be  due  to  its  temperature. 

Skap0  of  VdUamic  CimM9.— Those  votcanic  products  which  are  solid 
wlien  ejected,  or  wliich  aoUdify  after  extniaon,  tend  to  form  by 
their  accumulation  around  the  eruptive  vent  a  htU,  which,  though 
nnerally  more  or  le»  conical,  b  subject  to  much  variation  in  shape. 
It  occasionally  happens  that  the  hiU  »  composed  wholly  of  ejected 
blocks,  not  themselves  of  volcanic  origin.  In  this  case  an  explosion 
has  rent  the  ground,  and  the  effluent  va^un  have  hurira  forth 
fiagments  of  the  shattered  rock  through  which  the  vent  was  opened, 
but  no  ash  or  other  fragmentary  volcanic  material  has  been  ejected, 
nor  has  any  lava  been  poured  forth.  This  exceptional  type  u 
fcpresented  In  the  Eifd  by  certain  monticules  which  consist  mainly 
of  fragments  of  Devonian  slate,  more  or  less  altered.  In  some  cases 
the  area  within  a  ring  of  such  rocky  materials  is  occupied  by  a  sheet 
of  water,  forming  a  crater-lake,  known  in  the  Eifel  as  a  maar.  Piles 
of  fragmentary  matter  of  this  character,  though  containing  neither 
dnders  nor  lava,  may  be  fairtjr  regarded  as  volcanic,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  due  to  the  explosive  action  of  hot  subterranean  vapours. 

In  the  ordinary  paroxysmal  type  of  eruption,  however,  cinders  and 
ashes  are  shot  upwards  by  the  explosion  and  then  descend  in  showers, 
forming  around  the  orifice  a  mound,  in  sh^  rather  like  the  diminu- 
tive cone  of  sand  In  the  lower  lobe  of  an  hour-glass.  Little  dnder- 
cones  of  this  character  may  be  formed  within  the  crater  of  a  large 
volcano  during  a  sincle  eruption;  whilst  large  cones  are  built  up 
by  many  successive  aischanns,  each  sheet  of  fragmentary  material 
mantling  more  or  less  regiuarly  round  the  prereding  layer.  Tlie 
symmetry  of  the  hill  is  not  mfrsquently  affected  by  disturbing 
influences— a  strong  wind,  for  example,  blowing  the  loose  matter 
towards  one  side.  Thendesofacinder  cone  have  generally  a  steep 
sbpe,  varying  from  30*  to  45*^,  depending  on  the  angle  of  repose 
of  the  ejectamenta.  Excellent 'examples  of  small  scoria-cones  are 
found  aiDoag  the  pays  of  Auwgne  in  central  France,  whilst  a  mag- 


nificent niuaisation  of  this  cm  of  hill  Is  funilshed  by 

in  Japan,  whieh  readies  an  altitude  of  ia,ooo  ft.    How  such . 

may  be  rapidly  built  up  was  well  shown  by  the  formation  of  Monte 
Nuovo.  near  Poszuoli— «  hill  400  ft.  high  and  a  mile  and  a  half  in 
documferenoe,  which  b  known  from  contemporary  evidence  to  have 
been  formed  in  the  ooune  of  a  few  days  in  September  15}^  The 
shape  of  a  dnder  cone  may  be  retained  for  a^,  since  it  b  not  liable 
Co  suffer  greatly  by  denudation,  as  the  rain  soaks  into  the  loo«e 
porous  mass  instead  of  running  down  the  outside.  If  lava  rises  in 
the  duct  of  a  dnder  cone,  it  may,  on  accumulation  in  the  crater, 
break  down  the  wall,  and  thus  effect  its  escape  as  a  stream.  Cooes 
breached  in  thb  way  are  not  uncommon  in  Auveigne. 

It  often  happens  that  the  dndere  and  ashes  ejected  fitMU  a  volcano 
become  mixed  with  water,  and  so  form  a  paste,  whidi  sets  readily 
as  a  hard  tufaoeous  mass.  Such  natural  Cuff  b  indeed  similar  to 
the  hydraulic  cement  known  as  pozsolana,  which  b  formed  artificially 
from  volcanic  aslies,  and  b  renowned  for  durability.  Although 
streams  of  volcanic  mud  are  commonly  associated  with  the  sahcc  of 
a  dnder*cone  they  may  also  form  Independent  structures  or  tuff- 
cones.  These  are  generally  broad-topped  hills,  having  sides  with  an 
anf  le  of  slope  as  low  in  some  cases  as  15*. 

Lava-cones  are  built  up  of  streams  of  lava  which  have  consolidated 
around  the  funnd  of  escape.  Assodated  with  the  lava,  however, 
there  b  usually  more  or  leas  f r^;mentary  matter,  so  that  the  cooes 
are  composite  in  structure  and  consequently  more  acute  in  shape 
than  if  tney  were  composed  wholly  of  lava.  As  the  stieama  of  lava 
in  a  volcano  run  at  different  times  in  different  directions,  they  radbte 
from  the  centre,  or  flow  from  bterel  or  eceentric  orifices,  aa  inefular 
tonguesj  and  do  not  generally  form  continuous  sheets  covering  the 
mountain. 

When  lava  b  the  sole  or  chief  element  in  the  cone,  the  shape  of  the 
htU  b  determined  to  a  great  extent  by  the  diemical  composation  autf 
viscosity  of  the  bva,  its  copiousness  and  the  rapidity  of  flow.  H 
the  lava  be  highlv  basic  and  very  mobile,  it  may  spread  to  a  great 
distance  before  soudifying,  and  thus  form  a  hill  covering  a  large  area 
and  rbing  periiape  to  a  great  height,  but  remarkably  flat  in  pro6Ie. 
Were  the  lava  perfectly  Cquid,  it  would  indeed  form  a  sheet  without 
any  perceptible  sbpe  of  surface.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  some  lavas 
are  so  fluent  as  to  run  down  an  incline  of  I^  and  flat  cones  of  basalt 
have  in  some  cases  a  slope  of  only  xo*  or  even  less.  The  coJoseai 
mass  of  Mauna  Loa,  in  Hawaii,  forms  a  remarkably  flat  broad  cotw, 
spreading  over  a  base  of  enormous  area  and  riung  to  a  height  of 
13,900  ft.  Major  Dutton,  writing  in  1683,  said  that  "  a  moderate 
eruption  of  Mauna  Loa  represents  more  material  than  Vesuvius 
has  emitted  since  the  days  of  Pompdi."  Yet  the  lava  b  so  mobile 
that  it  generally  wdb  forth  quietly,  without  explosive  demonstra- 
tion, and  therefore  unaccompanied  by  fragmentary  ejectamenta. 
Fluent  lavas  like  those  of  Hawaii  are  also  poured  lortn  from  the 
volcanoes  and  volcanic  fissures  of  Iceland. 

If  the  lava  be  less  basic  and  less  fusible,  the  hill  formed  by  its 
accumubtion  instead  of  bdng  a  low  dome  will  take  the  slaape  of  a 
cone  with  sides  of  higher  gradient:  in  the  case  of  andesite  cones,  for 
instance,  the  slope  may  vary  from  25"  to  35*.  Acid  rocks,  or  those 
rich  in  silica,  such  as  rhyoUtes  and  trachytes,  may  be  emitted  ns 
very  vbcous  Uvas  tending  to  form  dome-shaped  or  bulbous  masses. 
Experiment  shows  that  such  Uvas  may  perast  for  a  omsiderable 
time  in  a  semi-solid  oonditioii.  It  b  possiDle  for  a  dome  to  increase 
in  size  not  by  the  lava  running  over  the  crater  and  down  the  sides 
but  by  injectbn  of  the  pasty  magma  within  the  expanding  bulb 
while  still  soft;  or  if  solidified,  the  crust  yields  by  cracking.  Such 
a  mode  of  growth,  in  which  the  dome  consisuoi  successive  sheets 
that  have  b^  compared  to  the  skins  of  an  onion,  has  been  illustrated 
by  the  experiments  of  Dr  A.  Reyer,  and  the  structure  Is  typically 
represented  by  the  mamelons  or  steep^ded  domes  of  the  Isle  of 
BourixxL  The  Puy-de-D6me  in  Auvergne  b  an  example  of  a  cone 
formed  of  the  trachytic  rock  called  from  its  locality  domite,  whilst 
the  Grand  Sarcoui  m  the  same  region  illustrates  the  broad  dome- 
shaped  type  of  hill.  Such  domes  may  have  no  summit-crater,  and 
it  b  then  usually  assumed  that  the  top  with  the  crater  has  been 
removed  by  denudation,  but  possiUy  in  some  cases  such  a  feature 
never  eristed.  The  "  dome  volcano  of  von  Seebach  is  a  dome  of 
add  bva  extruded  as  a  homogeneous  mass,  without  conspicuous 
chimney  or  crater.  Although  domes  are  usually  composed  of  acid 
rocks,  it  seems  possible  that  they  may  be  formed  also  of  basic  bvas, 
if  the  magma  be  protruded  slowly  at  a  low  temperature  so  as  to  be 
rapidly  congealed. 

The  Spine  cfPdi. — A  peculiar  volcanic  structure  appeared  at  Mont 
Pd£  In  the  course  of  toe  eruption  of  1902,  and  was  the  subject  of 
careful  study  by  Professor  A.  Lacroix,  Dr  E.  A.  Hoovey,  A.  Heilprin 
and  other  observers.^  It  appears  that  from  fissures  in  the  floor 
of  the  Etang  Sec  a  viscous  andesitic  bva,  partly  quartxiferous,  was 
poured  forth  and  rapidly  solidified  fuperncblly,  forming  a  dome- 
shaped  mass  Invested  by  a  crust  or  carapace.  According  to  Lacroix, 
the  crust  soon  becam^  fractured,  partly  by  shrinkage  on  consolida- 
tion and  partly  by  internal  tension,  and  the  dome  grew  rapidly  by 
injection  of  molten  matter.  Then  there  gradually  roee  from  the 
dome  a  huge  monolith  or  needle,  forming  a  terminal  spine,  which  in 
the  course  of  Its  existence  varied  in  shape  and  height,  having  been 
at  tts  maximum  in  July  1903,  when  its  absolute  height  was  about 


VOLCANO 


187 


79*  to  90*  to  the  horitoo.  wen  sppUBfltly  afaokMaifded,  or  poliafacd 
and  Kntched  by  (itctioa:  mmwm  were  oocaaiomUly  detacncd  and 
vapoun  wefe  oontinuaUy  escaping.  Seveial  aBuller  needles  woe 
also  formed.  Some  observen  r^Berded  the  gieat  spine  as  a  eoUdificd 
pti^  ci  lava  htm  a  pnvious  outbunti  extyilen  on  a  lenewal  of 
activity.  Laoeix*  however*  believed  that  it  was  fanned  by  the 
exUttiioii  of  en  eoonnoos  mass  of  highly  viadd  magma*  ptf  haps 
partly  solidified  befoie  emisBiott,  and  he  compered  the  fbnaetioa  of 
the  <k»ie  ia  the  cfsUsr  to  the  atruGture  on  Saatorin  ia  iM6»  described 
by  Fouqo6  as  a  "  cumuto-volcaao."  Professor  H.  F.  Clelaad  has 
•limited  a  comparison  with  the  oooeof  anderite  in  the  aaterof  die 
voEaaoof  Toluca  in  Mexico*  and  it  is  said  that  eimilar  fonnations 
have  be«B  observed  in  the  volcanoes  of  the  Andes.  Dr  Temipest 
Andenon,  on  visiting  Pel6  in  1907.  fixmd  a  stump  of  the  spme. 
consiaring  of  a  kind  of  vokaaic  agglonterate,  rising  from  a  cone  of 
Calus  formed  o(  its  niina 

The  Grotor.— The  ertipdve  orifice  in  normal  volcano— the  ftooea 
caf  Italian  vuhamologiata  is  uaually  aituated  at  the  bottam  of  a 
tdepressiott  or  cup»  known  as  the  crater.  This  hoUov  is  fcMmed  and 
leept  open  by  Uie  explosive  focot  of  the  elastic  vapoina,  and  when'the 
volcano  becomea  dormant  etf  extinct  it  may  oe-  closed,  pardy  by 
ffock  falling  from  its  crumbling  walls  aad  partly  by  the  solidification 
of  the  lava  which  it  may  contain.  If  a  lenewcd  outbnrst  oocun, 
the  floor  of  the  old  crater  may  reopen  or  a  new  outlet  may  be  iofaea 
0t  aome  weak  point  on  the  aide  of  the  mountain:  hence  a  crater  may, 
with  ngard  to  poririon,  be  either  terminal  or  latend.  The  position 
of  the  crater  will  evidently  be  also  cfaan|^  on  any  diiftinf^  of  tlw 
general  axia  of  eraptum.  In  ahape  and  aize  the  crater  valwa  from 
time  to  time,  the  walla  being  perhaps  bnached  or  even  blown  away 
during  an  outbunt.  Hence  the  height  of  a  vdcanic  moontmn 
Ja  activity,  measured  to  the  xkn  of  the  crater  or  the  terminal  peak. 
Ja  not  constant.  Vesuvius,  for  example,  auffered'  a  reduction  of 
•evefal  hundred  feet  duiijq;  the  great  eruption  of  1906,  the  cast  ude 
of  the  cone  haidng  loat,  aoxKding  to  V.  R.  Matteucd,  MO  meCies. 

Whilat  ia  many  caaea  the  ccater  ia  a  comparatively  amaU  circular 
Ik^ow  aroimd  the  qtifice  of  dischaiga,  it  forms  in  oChtfs  a  huge  bowl- 
nice  cavity,  such  as  ia  termed  in  some  localities  a  "  caldera."  In 
jtbe  Sandwich  lahnda  the  cratera  are  iride  pita  bounded  by  neariy 
vertical  walla,  showine  stratified  and  terraccxl  lavas  and  floosed  by  a 
great  fdain  of  black  oaaalt,  aometimea  with  lafcea  of  molten  bva. 
Profeasor  W.  H.  Pickering  compares  the  lava-pits  of  Hawaii  to  the 
crater-^ng*  in  the  amon.  Some  of  the  pit^mtera  in  the  Sandwich 
Isbnds  are  of  great  size,  but  none  comparable  with  the  greatest  of 
the  lunar  craters.  Dr  G.  K.  Gilbert,  however,  has  suggested  that  the 
ring-ehaped  pita  on  the  moon  are  not  of  volcanic  origin,  but  are 
depreaaiDna  formed  by  the  inmaot  of  meteoritea  SttnUariy  the 
"  crater  "  of  Coon  Butte,  near  Canyon  Diablo,  in  Ariaoaa,  which  ia 
4000  ft.  in  diameter  and  500  ft.  deep,  baa  been  regarded  aa  a  vast 

£it  due  to  collision  of  a  meteorite  ofprcxligloua  size.  Ptobably  the 
irgest  terreatrial  volcanic  ciater  fa  that  of  Aso-aan,  in  the  isle  of 
Kinahhi  (J^^panX  which  ia  a  hu^  ovaldeprsaaion  estimated  by  aome 
obaervera  to  have  an  avaa  <a  at  least  100  aq.  m.  Some  of  the 
laige  mt-craters  have  probably  been  formed  by  subsidence*  the 
cone  of  a  volcano  havlnj;  been  eviscerated  by  extravasatbn  of  lava, 
and  the  roof  of  the  cavity  having  then  anbsided  by  loss  of  support. 
The  term  caldera  haa  aonwtiaaea  oeen  limited  to  csateia  f oraaed  by 
ouch  oi^lapae. 

On  the  floor  of  the  crater,  ejected  matter  may  aocvmuUte  as  a 
conoidal  {rile;  and  if  such  action  be  repeated  in  the  crater  of  the 
new  cone,  a  succession  of  concentric  cones  will  ultimately  be  formed. 
The  walla  of  a  perfect  ciater  form  a  ring,  giving  the  cone  a  truncated 
appeacanoe^  but  the  ring  may  suffer  more  or  Icaa  destruction  in  the 
courae  of  the  history  of  the  mountain.  A  familiar  instance  of  such 
change  ia  afforded  by  Vesuvius.  The  mountain  now  so  called,  using 
the  term  in  a  restricted  sense,  is  a  huge  composite  cone  built  up 
within  an  oU  cateial  hollow,  the  waUs  of  which  still  rise  aa  an 
cnciieliog  rampart  oa  the  N.  and  N.E.  aidea,  and  are  known  aa 
Monte  Somma;  but  the  S.  and  S.W.  aidea  of  the  ancient  crater  have 
disappeared,  having  been  blown  away  during  some  former  outburst, 
probably  the  Pfinian  eruption  of  79.  In  like  manner  the  reHcs  of  an 
old  crater  form  an  amphitheatre  paatially  engirdliaff  tlie  SoufrMre 
ia  St  Vincenti  and  other  canmpks^  "  Sorana  rin^a^  aio  known  to 
vulcanolorasta. 

Much  <^  the  fragmeqtal  matter  ejected  from  a  volcano  rolls  down 
the  in^e  of  the  enter,  forming  beds  of  tuff  whk^  incline  towards 
Che  ceotril  aoda,  or  have  a  oentmcfinal  dlp^  On  the  eonttary,  the 
dieets  of  cinder  and  lava  whkh  form  the  bulk  of  the  cone  slope 
away  from  the  aads*  or  have  a  dip  that  ia  aometimea  described  as  peri- 
centric or  qua-4)ua-ver8al.  Accordina;  to  the  old  "  crater-of-elevation 
theory,"  held  especially  by  A.  von  Humboldt,  L.  von  Buch  and  £lie 
de  Beaumont,  this  inchnation  of  the  beds  was  regarded  as  mainly  due 
to  upheaval.  It  was  contended  that  the  voicahk  cone  owed  its 
ahape,  for  the  most  part,  to  local  distension  of  the  ground,  and  was 
Indeed  comparable  to  a  huge  blister  of  the  earth's  crust,  burst  at 
the  summit  to  form  the  "  elevation  crater.**  Palma,  in  the  Canaiy 
Islands,  was  cited  as  a  tvpical  example  of  such  a  formation.  Thts 
view  waa  opposed  maino''  by  Poulett-Scrope,  Sir  Charles  Lyell  and 
vonttant  Prevost,  who  aigued  that  the  volcano,  so  far  from  being 


UaddMvtQbfe;,  i«a  nnciioafly «  aoUd  oone  of  arupted  matter:  henee 
tUa  view  came  to  be  known  as  the  "  crater-of-eniption  theory."  Ita 
ceneml  aoundnesa  haa  been  demonatrated  whenever  an  insight  haa 
been  obtained  into  the  internal  structure  of  a  volcaiuK  Thua,  after 
the  eruption  of  Krakatoa  in  1883  a  magnifioent  natural  section  oi  the 
gieat  cone  01  Rakata,  at  the  Sb  end  of  the  island,  waa  exposed — the 
oMtheni  half  having  been  blown  awayy-  and  it  was  then  evident 
tiMt  this  mountain  waa  practically  a  aolid  oooe^  built  up  of  a  groat 
aucoeasioB  of  irregidar  beda  of  tuff  and  lava,  braced  together  by 
intenwcting  dykea.  The  internal  azchitecture  of  a  volcano  is  raiely 
aowdli&playedaain  thiacasei  but  dissections  of  cones,  more  or  less 
distinct,  are  often  obtained  by  denudation.  It  should  be  mentioned 
that*  in  oonneXMMi  with  the  structures  called  laccoliths,  there  may 
have  been  aa  elevation,  or  folding*  and  even  faulting,  of  the  super- 

ficiy  locka  by  aubterranean  intruaion  of  hiva ;  but  thia  IS  different  from 
the  local  expanswn  and  rupture  of  the  ^und  requirad  by  the  <rid 
theery.  It  may  be  noted,  however,  that  in  recent  yean  tb!e  view  of 
ekvatmn,  in  a  modified  form,  haa  not  been  without  auMortefa. 

\Vhere  the  growth  of  a  volcanic  mound  takea  plaoe  uom  ^irithin* 
aa  in  certain  steep-ndcd  trachytic  cenea,  there  may  be  no  perceptible 
craMroreKtemaUMitlet*  Agaia,  there  are  many  velcanoea  which  have 
no  crater  at  the  aununiti  becauae  the  eniptiona  alwaya  taJbe  place 
from  lateral  outleta.  Evea  when  a  terminal  ^t  ia  present*  the  lava 
may  iasuefron  tlie  body  of  the  mountain,  and  in  aome  caaea  it  exiidea 
from  ao  mmay  ventaor  cracka  that  the  volcaao  haa  boen  deacribed  ia 
"  aweatiag  fire*" 

Puwm  Cones.— In  thecaae  of  a  kfty  vokaoo  the  column  of  lava 
may  not  have  aufficient  aaceaeional  force  to  leacb  the  crater  at  the 
aumiait«  or  at  any  rate  it  finda  easier  means  of  egresa  at  aome  weak 
t,  often  along  radial  cracka,  on  the  flanka  of  the  mountain. 


Thua  at  Etna,  which  riaea  to  a  height  of  more  thsA  lo^too  ft.,  the 
eniptiona  uaually  piooeed  f  lom  lateral  fisaurea,  aometimea  at  leaat 


hal|o«ay  down  the  wounfaiiMiide.   When  fragmental . 

ejected  fiom  a  lateral  vent  a  dnder-ooae  i«  fonned,  and  fay  freqaent 
repetition  of  auch  ejeotiooa  the  flanka  of  $tna  have  become  dotted 
over  with  hundreda  of  aooria  cones  much  like  the  paya  of  Auvergne, 
the  faunst  (Monte  Minardo)  ririag  to  a  height  of  as  much  as  750  ft. 
Hills  of  thia  character,  seated  on  the  parent  mountaia,  are  known  at 
paraaitic  oonea,  minor  cones,  lateral  conca*  6te. 

Sudi  subordinate  oonea  often  ahow  a  tendency  to  a  linear  arranges 
meat*  riling  from  venta  or  houhei  along  the  9u30s  of  a  Kee  of  fiasurai. 
Thus  in  1893  a  chain  of  five  oonea  arose  from  a  rift  on  the  S.  side  of 
Etna,  ffonnlitf  in  a  N.  and  S.  direction,  and  the  hills  became  known  aa 
the  Monti  Silmtrl,  after  Professor  OiasioSilvestri  of  Catania.  Una 
rift,  howcver,waa  but  aeoatimaatioaof  a  fissure  from  whichthcrearosa 
in  1886  the  aeriea  of  oonea  called  the  Monti  Gemmellaio*  while  th» 
in  turn  wai  a  pvoloogatioa  of  a  kent  opened  in  1889.  The  eruption 

3n  Etna  in  the  spring  of  1910  took  place  akmg  the  aame  general 
irection,  but  at  a  much  higher  elevation.  The  tendency  for  erupi- 
tiona  to  be  renenaed  aloas  old  Unea  of  weakneaa,  whuih  can  be  readily 
opened  afrcahand extended,  ua  feature  well  known  to  vukanologiMaL 
The  amall  oonea  which  are  f  requeatly  threwa  up  on  lava  aticama 
w«f»  admiiibly  c^nrnpUfied  on  Veauvioa  in  the  eruption  of  1855  and 
figured  by  J.  Schnddt.  The  name  of  "driblet  eonea *'  waa  givea 
by  /.  D.  Dana  to  the  little  oonea  and  pUlaia  formed  by  jeta  oTlava 
projected  from  bkming  holea  at  KUauea,  the  dropa  of  lava  remaining 
plaatic  and  cohering  aa  they  fell.  Such  dota  may  form  oolnmna  ana 
pynnuda,  with  almost  veitical  ridea  Steep-aided  oonea  more  or 
lesa  of  thia  diaraeter  occur  elaewhere,  butareuau^fybidlt  up  asound 
spiraclea.  Small  conaa  fonned  by  mere  daba.oi  lava  are  kaowit 
trivially  aa  "  apatter  cottea." 

Fissun  BmUionsj^ln  oertain  parts  of  the  worid  there  are  vaat 
tracta  of  baaaltic  lava  with  little  or  no  evidenoe-of  oonea  or  of 
pyroclastic  accompaniment.  To  explain  their  formation.  Baron  F* 
von  Ridithofctt  auggeated  that  they  repreaent  great  fliooda  of  lava 
which  were  poureo  forth  not  from  onunary  vokaiuc  craters  with 
more  or  less  explosive  violence,  but  from  neat  fissures  in  the  earth'a 
cruat,  whence  they  may  have  quietly  wdled  forth  and  apread  aa  a 
delni^  over  the  aurface  of  the  country.  The  eruptions  were  thua 
effusive  rather  thsin  explorive.  Such  phenomena,  contdtuting  a 
distinct  type  of  vulcaniam,  are  distinguished  as  fissure  eruptions  or 
massive  eniptiona  terms  which  suggttt  the  mode  of  extmrion  nnd 
the  character  of  the  extruded  matter.  Aa  the  lava  in  audi  outflowa 
must  be  very  fusible,  it  la  generally  of  baaaltic  type,  lika  that  of 
Hawaii:  indeed,  the  Hawaiian  volcanoea,  with  their  quiet  emisaiop 
of  highly  fluent  lavas,  connect  the  fissure  eruptions  with  the  "  central 
eruptions,"  which  are  usually  regarded  as  itpresenting  the  normal 
type  of  activity.  At  the  present  day  true  assure  eruptions  seem 
to  be  of  rather  limited  occurrence,  but  excellent  examples  are 
furnished  by  Jcdand.  Here  there  are  vast  fields  of  black  basalt, 
formed  of  sheets  of  lava  which  have  issued  from  long  chasms, 
studded  in  most  cases  with  rows  of  small  cones,  but  these  generally 
so  Insignificant  that  they  make  no  soenic  features  and  might  be 
readily  obliterated  by  denudation.  Dr  T.  Thoroddaen  enumerates 
87  great  rifts  and  lines  of  cones  in  Iceland,  and  even  the  larger  cones 
of  Vesilvian  type  are  situated  on  fissures. 

It  is  believea  that  fissure  eruptions  must  have  played  a  far  mora 
Important  part  in  the  history  of  the  earth  than  eruptions  of  the 
familiar  cooe-aod-crater  type,  the  latter  representing  indeed  only 


J  88 


VOLCANO 


«  doctlnlQg  plMM  of  vukanSsin.  Sk  AreMbald  Cdkic;  who  hw 
tpectally  •tuaiadthe  mibject  of  finurb  eniptioRs,  reMids  theTcrtiary 
basaltic  plateaus  o(  N  £.  Ireland  and  tlic  Inner  Hebridet  aa  out- 
flows from  fissures,  which  may  be  represented  by  the  gigantic 
system  of  dykes  that  form  so  marked  a  feature  in  the  geological 
structure  of  the  northern  part  of  Britain  and  Ireland.  These  dykes 
extend  over  an  area  of  something  like  40^000  8C|.  m..  while  the 
outflows  form  an  anrcgate  of  about  ^000  ft.  in  thickness.  In  parts 
of  Nevada,  Idaho,  Oregon  and  Washington,  sheets  of  late  Tertiary 
basalt  from  fissure  eruptbns  occupy  an  area  of  about  90o»ooo 
sq.  m.,  and  constitnte  a  pile  at  least  aooo  ft.  thkk.  In  India  the 
*'  Deocan  traps  "  represent  enormous  masses  of  volcanic  matter, 
probably  of  like  origin  but  of  Cretaceous  date,  whilst  South  Africa 
lumishMother  examplcsof  similar  outflows.  Professor  J.  W.  Grc^gory 
recognized  in  the  Kapte  plains  of  East  Africa  evidence  of  a  type  of 
vulcanism.  which  he  distinguished  as  that  of  "  plateau  eruptions.  " 
Aocordinr  to  him  a  number  of  vents  opened  at  the  points  of  inter- 
section 01  lines  of  weakness  in  a  high  plateau,  giving  rise  to  many 
•mall  cones,  and  the  simultaneous  flows  of  lava  from  these  cones 
united  to  form  a  far-spreading  sheet. 

Extfusi9€  and  Intrusive  Afaf m(U.~-When  the  molten  magma  in  the 
Interior  of  the  earth  makes  its  way  upwards  and  flows  forth  super- 
ficially as  a  stream  of  lava,  the  proaoct  ii  described  as  extrusive, 
effusive,  effluent  or  eruptive:  but  if.  failing  to  reach  the  surface, 
the  magma  solidifies  in  a  fissure  or  other  subterranean  cavity,  it  is 
said  to  oe  intrusive  or  irruptive.  Rocks  of  the  former  group  only 
are  sometimes  recognised  as  strictly  '*  vtdcankr.  "  but  tne  term  is 
conveniently  extended,  at  least  in  certain  cases,  to  %neous  rocks 
of  the  latter  type^  including  therefore  certain  hypabyssal  and  even 
plutonic  rocks. 

When  the  intrusive  magma  has  been  forced  into  narrow  uregular 
crevk^s  it  forms  "  veins,  ^  whkh  may  exhibit  complex  ramifications, 
especially  marked  in  some  acid  rocks;  but  when  injected  into  a 
fcgulariy  shaped  fissure,  more  or  less  paralld-sided,  and  cutting 
across  the  planes  of  bedding,  it  forms  a  wall-like  mass  <^  rock  termed 
a  "  dyke.  *'  Most  dykes  are  approximately  vertfcal,  or  at  least 
highly  inclined  in  posttwn.  The  inclination  of  a  dyke  to  a  vertical 
plane  is  termed  its  "  hade:  "  In  a  cinder<one,  the  lava  as  it  rises 
may  force  its  way  into  cracks,  formed  by  pressure  of  the  magma 
and  tensbn  of  the  vajMura,  and  will  thus  form  a  ^tcm  of  veins 
and  dykes,  often  radiating  from  the  vokanic  axis  and  strengthening 
the  structure  by  binding  the  k)ose  materials  together.  Thus,  in 
the  Valle  del  Bove,  a  huge  cavity  on  the  east  side-of  Etna,  the  walls 
exhibit  numerous  vertical  dykes,  which  by  their  hardness  stand  out 
as  rocky  ribs,  forming  a  marked  feature  in  the  scenery  <A  the  valley. 
In  a  similar  way  d^kes  traverse  the  walls  of  the  dd  crater  of  Monte 
Somma  at  Vesuvius.  Exccptwnally  a  dyke  may  be  hollow,  the 
lava  having  solidified  as  a  crust  at  the  margin  of  the  fissure  but 
having  escsiped  from  the  interior  while  stfll  liquki. 

When  molten  matter  is  thrust  between  beds  of  tuff  or  between 
successive  hva-flows  or  even  ordinary  sedimentary  strata,  it  forms 
an  intrusive  sheet  of  volcanic  rock  known  as  a  "  sill.  "  A  sill  may 
sometimes  be  traced  to  its  connexxm  with  a  dyke,  which  represents 
the  channel  up  which  the  lava  rose,  bat  instead  of  reaching:  the 
surface  the  fluid  found  an  easier  path  between  the  strata  or  p<^tiaps 
along  a  horizontal  rent.  Although  a  dyke  may  represent  a  conduit 
for  the  ascent  of  lava  which  has  flowed  out  superncially,  yet  if  the 
lava  has  been  removed  at  the  surface  by  denudation  the  dyke 
terminates  abruptly,  so  that  it*  functkm  as  the  former  feeder  of  a 
lavarcucrent  u  not  evkient.  In  other  cases  a  dyke  may  end  bluntly 
because  the  crack  which  it  occupies  never  reached  the  surface. 

Lava  which  has  insinuated  itself  between  planes  of  stratification 
may,  instead  of  spreading  out  as  a  sheet  or  sill,  accumulate  locally  as 
a  lenticular  mass,  known  as  a  taccolith  or  Uuc^ile  {q.v.).  Sucn  a 
mass,  in  many  cases  rather  mushroom-shaped,  may  foire  the  super- 
incumbent  rocks  upwards  as  a  dome,  and  though  at  first  concealed 
may  be  uhimatdy  exposed  by  removal  of  the  oveHying  burden  by 
erosion.  The  term  phaeelii*  was  introduced  by  A.  Harker  to  denote 
a  meniscus^haped  mass  of  lava  intruded  in  fokled  strata,  along 
a  crest  or  a  tit>ueh.  The  bysmalith  of  Professor  Iddings  is  a  iaeedttk 
of  rather  plugxluce  shape,  with  a  faulted  roof  An  intrusive  mass 
Quite  irregular  in  shape  has  been  termed  by  R.  A.  Daly  a  chonolith 
fGr.  x^«  a  mould),  whilst  an  intrusion  01  very  great  size  and  Ul- 
defined  form  is  sometimes  described  as  a  batkytiik  or  batkotite* 

Structural  Pecvliarities  in  £ava.~Many  of  the  structures  exhibited 
by  lava  are  due  to  the  conditions  under  which  solidification  has  been 
effected  A  dyke,  for  example,  may  be  vitreous  at  the  margin 
where  it  has  been  rapidly  chilled  by  contact  with  the  walls  of  the 
fissure  into  which  it  was  injected,  whilst  the  main  body  may  be 
llthoidal  or  crystalline:  hence  a  basalt  dyke  will  sdmeumes  have 
a  sdvage  formed  of  the  basaltic  glass  known  as  tachylyie.  A 
simflar  glass  may  form  a  thin  crust  on  certain  lava-flows.  In  a 
homogeneous  vitreous  lava,  contraction  on  solklificatran  may 
develop  curved  fissures,  well  seen  in  the  delicate  "  perlitic  "  cracks 
01  certain  obsidians,  indicating  a  tendency  to  assume  a  globubr 
structure  This  structure  becomes  very  distinct  by  the  develop- 
ment of  •  sphcnilites.  •'  or  globular  masses  with  a  radiating  fibrous 
structure;  sometimes  well  seen  in  devitrified  glass.  Occasionally 
the  spheruKtlc  bodies  in  lava  are  hollow,  when  they  are  known  as 


llthopkyMt,  of  whfcli  esMlltet  4nmpt«s  occur  at  ObiidiaA  CWF  te 
the  VeUowstonc  Natnnal  Park,  as  described  by  Ptofcisor  Iddincm. 
Globular  stfwrture  on  a  large  scale  is  sometimes  displayed  by  Uva^ 
exfMcially  those  of  bask:  type,  such  as  the  basalt  of  Aci  Castdio  in 
Sicily,  which  was  probably  formed,  according  to  Professor  Gaetatko 
Platania,  by  flow  of  the  biva  into  submarine  silt,  lelks  of  which  still 
occur  between  the  spheroids.  Ellipsoidal  or  piUowwshaped  masses  are 
m»t  infrequently  developed  in  ancient  lava-flows;  aad  Sir  A.  Geiide 
has  sinmted  the  tcm  "  pllk>w<«tructtti«  '*  for  such  formations. 
Dr  T.  Anderson  has  observed  them  m  the  recent  lavas  of  SavaiL 

Joints,  or  cracks  formed  by  shrinkage  on  soHdificatiDO,  may 
divide  a  sheet  of  lava  into  columns,  as  familiariy  seen  in  baaalt, 
where  the  rock  often  consists  of  a  close  mass  of  regular  poljrsDnal 
prisms,  mostly  hexagonal.    Each  prism  is  divkied  at  intervab  by 
transvene  jointt.  more  or  less  carved,  so  that  the  portioBS  are 
united  by  a  alight  ball-and-socket  articahition.    As  the  km^  axes 
of  the  columns  lie  at  right  angles  to  the  cooling  syrface  they  are 
vertical  in  a  horizontal  dieet  of  lava,  horizontal  In  a  vertical  dyke, 
and  inclined  or  curved  ia  other  cases.    It  sometimes  happcna  that 
in  a  basaltic  dyke  the  formatkm  of  the  prisms,  having  started  from 
the  opposite  walls  as  chilling  surfaees,  has  act  been  completed; 
and  hence  the  prisms  fail  to  meet  in  the  middle;    A  spheroidel 
structure  is  often  dcvdpped  in  basalt  columns  by  weathering,  the 
rock  exfoliating  in  spherical  shdis,  rather  like  the  wins  of  an  onion: 
such  a  structure  is  characteristically  shown  at   the  KSaekdlaur, 
known  also  as  the  Elfen  Grotto,  at  Botrich,  near  Alf  on  the  Mosci, 
where  the  pillars  of  the  lava  are  broken  into  short  segments  which 
suggest  by  their  flattened  globuhu'  shape  a  pile  d  EHitch  cheeseSk 
Although  prismatic  jointing,  or  columnar  structure;  is  most  conunoa 
in  basalt,  it  ocoun  also  in  other  volcanic  rocloL    Fine  columns  of 
obsklian,  for  instance,  are  seen  at  Obaklian  Cliff  m  the  YeUowatoae 
Pkrk,  where  the  pillars  nay  be  50  ft.  or  more  in  height.    Such  ai 
occurrence,  however,  ia  esBceptxmaL 

Vitreous  lavas  often  show  fluxion  structure  In  the  form  of  streaks, 
bands  or  trains  of  incipient  crystals,  indicatii^  the  flow  of  the  mass 
when  visooua  The  character  of  thb  structure  is  related  to  the 
viscosity  of  the  lava.  Those  structural  peculbrities  which  depend 
mainly  on  the  presence  of  vapour,  such  as  vcsicuhition,  have  been 
already  aoticea,  and  the  porphyritic  structure  has  likewise  been 
described. 

Submarine  Volcanoes. 

Considering  how  large  a  proportion  of  the  face  of  the  earth 
is  covered  by  the  sea,  it  seems  likely  that  volc&nic  eruptions 
must  frequently  occur  on  the  ocean-floor.  When,  as  occasionally 
though  not  often  happens,  the  cffecu  of  a  submarine  eruptioa 
are  observed  during  the  disturbance,  it  Is  seen  that  the  surface 
of  the  sea  is  violently  agiuted,  with  copious  discharge  of 
steam*,  the  water  passes  into  a  state  of  ebullition,  perhaps 
throwing  up  huge  fountains;  shoals  of  dead  fishes,  with  volcanic 
cinders,  bombs  and  fragments  of  pumice,  float  around  the  centre 
of  eruption,  and  ultimately  a  Utile  island  may  appear  above 
sea-level  This  new  land  is  the  peak  of  a  volcanic  cone  which 
is  based  on  the  sea-floor,  and  if  in  deep  water  the  submarine 
mountain  must  evidently  be  of  great  magnitude.  Christmas 
Island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  described  by  Dr  C.  W.  Andrew*s, 
appears  to  be  a  volcanic  mountain,  with  Tertiary  limestones, 
standing  in  water  more  than  14,000  ft.  deep.  Many  volcanic 
islands,  such  as  those  abundantly  scattered  over  the  Pacific, 
must  have  started  as  submarine  volcanoes  which  reached  the 
surface  either  by  continued  upward  growth  or  by  txpheaval  of 
the  sea-bottom.  Etna  began  its  long  geological  hiatoiy  by 
submarine  eruptions  in  a  bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  Vesuvius 
in  like  manner  represents  what  was  originally  a  volcano  on 
the  sea-floor.  As  the  ejectamenia  from  a  submarine  vent 
accumulate  on  the  sea-bottom  they  become  intermingled  with 
relics  of  marine  organisms,  and  thus  form  fossiliferous  volcanic 
tuffs.  By  the  distribution  of  the  ashes  over  the  sea-floor, 
through  the  agency  of  waves  and  currents,  these  tuffs  may  pass 
insensibly  into  submarine  deposits  of  normal  sedimentary  type. 

One  of  the  best  examples  of  a  submarine  eruption  resulting  in  the 
formation  of  a  temporary  island  occurred  in  1831  In  the  Mediter- 
ranean between  SJcilv  and  the  coast  of  Afrkra,  u  here  the  water  was 
known  to  have  previously  had  a  depth  of  xoo  fathoms.  After  the 
usual  manifestations  of  volcanic  activity  an  accumulation  of  black 
cinders  and  ashes  formed  an  island  which  reached  at  one  point  a 
height  of  900  ft,  so  that  the  pile  of  erupted  matter  had  a  thickness 
of  about  800  ft.  The  new  island,  which  was  studied  by  Constant 
rr^vost.  became  known  in  England  as  Graham's  Island,  in  Fiance  as 
Tie  Julie  and  in  Italy  by  various  names  as  Isola  Ferdinandca.  Being 
merely  a  k>ose  pile  of  scoriae,  it  rapidly  suffered  crouon  by  the  se^ 
and  ui  about  tnree  months  was  reduced  to  a  shoal  callvd  Crshami 


VOLCANO 


189 


HM&  III  189'  ft*  tnihiMMiMt  cnipUuB  oocnrred  mbt  fhs  fate  of 
IteteBam  in  the  nine  tntten,  and  the  crupthre  centre  ims  termed 
by  PrafenorH.  S.Wadisngtoo and Foentaer volcano,  butit  ^verite 
to  no  klaod.  A  well'knowa  instance  of  a  tempoiary  volcamc  island 
was  fumislMd  by  Sabrina— an  islet  of  cinders  thrown  up  by  sub- 
nuuine  eruptions  in  161 1,  off  tih<f  coast  of  St  Michael's,  one  of  the 
Azores.  The  island  of  Bogosloff,  or  Castle  Idand,  in  Berins;  Sea, 
about  40  ni.  W.  of  Unalaska  Island,  Is  a  volcanic  mass  which  was 
firat  observed  in  1796  after  an  erupdon.  In  1883  another  eruption 
ia  the  neighbouring  water  threw  up  a  new  volcanic  oooe  cS  black 
sand  and  sahss,  known  as  New  Bogasfeff  or  Fire  Island,  situated 
about  half  a  mile  to  the  N.W.  of  OM  Bogosbff,  with  whch  it  was 
connected  by  a  low  beach.  Another  isuad,  called  Perrv  Island, 
laivea^than  either  of  the  others,  made  its  appearance  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood about  the  time  of  the  great  earthquake  in  California  in 
1906.    It  ii  reported  that  some  of  these  isbnds  have 


Utti  Vtlcatufes, 
Mud  volcanoes  are  imall  conical  bills  of  dsyVhicli  dischaine, 
more  or  less  persisteDtly,  streams  of  fine  mud,  sometimes  as- 
sociated with  naphtha  or  petroleum,  and  usually  with  bubbles 
of  gas.  As  the  mud  is  fenerally  saline,  the  hills  are  known  also 
as  "  salses."  The  gases  are  chiefly-  hydrocarbons,  often  with 
more  or  less  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  carbon  dioxide,  and 
sometimes  with  nitrogen.  Though  generally  less  than  a  yard 
in  height,  the  cones  may  in  exceptional  cases  rise  to  an  elevatioB 
of  as  much  as  500  ft.    The  mud  oozes  from  the  top  and 

S reads  over  the  sides,  or  is  spurted  forth  with  the  gases, 
xasionally  the  discharge  is  vigorous,  mud  and  stones  being 
thrown  up  to  a  considerable  height,  sooietimes  aooompanied 
by  flames  due  to  combustion  of  the  hydrocarbons. 

Mud  volcanoes  occur  in  groups,  and  have  a  wide  distribu- 
tion. They  are  known  in  Iceland;  in  Modfina;  at  Taman  and 
Kertch,  in  the  Crimea;  at  Baku  00  the  Caspian;  in  Java  and  in 
Trinidaid:  Humboldt  describtel  those  near  Tozbaoo,  in  Colombia. 
In  Sicily  they  occur  near  Ghgenti,  and  a  group  is  known  at 
Patemo  on  Etna.  By  the  Sicilians  they  are  termed,  maccaiubet 
a  word  of  Arabic  ofigin.  The  "  paint-pots"  of  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park  are  small  mud  volcanoes. 

Many  so-called  mud  volcanoes  appear  to  be  due  to  the  de- 
imngement  of  subterranean  water-flow  or  to  landslips  in  con- 
nexion with  earthquakes,  whilst  others  may  be  referabk  to 
certaiA  chemical  reactions  gdng  on  underground;  but  there  are 
others  again  which  seem  to  be  truly  of  volcanic  origin.  Hot 
water  and  steam  escaping  through  clays,  or  crumbling  tuffs 
reduced  to  a  dayey  condition,  may  form  conical  mounds  of 
pasty  material,  through  which  mud  ooaes  and  water  escapes. 

Geysers  are  closdy  related  to  volcanoes,  but  in  consequence  of 
their  special  niterest  they  are  treated  separatdy  (see  Gbyses).  For 
mituru  steam-holes  and  other  phenomena  connected  with  declining 
vulcanicify,  see  Sofpioni,  Solpatara  and  Mofktta. 

CeogropkUai  DistHbuUon  cf  Vdeanon. 

It  is  matter  of  frequent  observation  that  volcanoes  are  most 
abundant  in  regions  marked  by  great  seismic  activity.  Although 
the  vokaiio  and  the  earthquake  are  not  usually  connected 
in  the  direct  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  yet  in  many  cases 
they  seem  referable  to  a  common  origin.  Both  volcanic  cx- 
tfttiioB  and  cmstal  movement  may  be  the  means  of  relieving 
local  strains  in  the  earth's  cmst,  aind  both  are  found  to  occur, 
as  Bright  reasonably  be  expected,  in  many  parts  of  the  earth 
where  folding  and  fracture  of  the  rocks  have  frequently 
happened  and  where  mountain-making  appears  to  be  still  in 
progresa.  Thus,  volcanoes  may  often  be  traced  along  aonea 
of  crostal  deformation,  or  Mded  mountain-chains,  especially 
where  they  nm  near  the  borders  of  the  oceanic  basins.  They 
are  frequently  aaaoctated  with  the  Pacific  type  of  coast-line. 

The  most  conspicuous  example  of  linear  distribation  is  fumkhed 
by  tbejBTeat  bdt  of  volcanoes,  coinculine  for  the  most  part  with  a 
land  off  sdsmic  disturbance,  whkh  engirales  iotcrmhtcntly  the  fau^e 
badn  of  the  Pacific;  though  here,  as  elsewhere  in  studying  vokaoic 
tDpogiaphy,  regard  must  be  paid  to  dormant  and  extinct  centres 
as  well  as  to  those  that  asw  active  at  the  present  time  Asvolcanoes 
are  in  many  cases  rangad  along  what  are  commonly  regarded  as 
Uacs  of  fmctare,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  centres  oi  most  intense 
rulcanicity  are  in  many  cases  situated  at  the  intersection  of  two  or 

(Hi  tha  eMem  Side  of  iht  ftcific  Oceaa  the 


great  wHcanic  rng  may  be  traced,  though  wMi  many  and  actenalve 
laterruptioas,  from  Cape  Hani  to  Alaslta.  In  South  America  the 
chain  of  the  Andes  between  Coreovado  in  the  south  and  Tolima  in 
the  north  Is  studded  at  irre^lar  intervab  with  volnnocs,  some  recent 
and  many  more  extinct,  including  the  loftiest  vokranic  mountains 
in  the  world.  The  -graiidcst  group  of  South  American  volcanoes, 
though  mostly  quiescent,  is  in  Ecuador.    Cotopaxi,  seen  in  activity 


distribution  of  vdcanocs,  is  well  excinplified  in  the  general  north-and- 


south  trend  of  the  Andean  ranges,  the  vofeaftocs  being  situated  along 

TheM  folded  mountains  with  their  voloanoea 


tha  orographic  axis. 

also  illttstrate  theckwe  relationship  to  the  sea  so  frequently  observed 

ia  volcanic  topography,  a  relation^lp^  however,  not  witnout  many 


rock  called  andesite  was  so  named  by 
U  von  Buch  from  itsdmracterisde  occumnoe  in  the  Andes.  It  ie 
notable  that  the  volcank  rocks  thtougboot  the  great  Pacific  bdt 
present  much  similarity  in  oorapoaithm.  The  volcanoes  of  Ecuador 
nave  been  described  in  detail  by  A  StObel  and  others  (see  Andbs). 

Ccotral  America  contains  a  large  number  of  aetive  volcanoes 
and  aalfatamsk  many  of  which  are  located  hi  the  mountains  parallel 
to  the  western  coast.  Comegalna,  on  the  south  side  of  the  GaK  of 
Fonseca,  is  remarkable  for  its  cniptioa  in  1835,  when  an  enormoua 
volume  of  ash  was  ejected  and  the  summit  of  the  mountain  bknvn 
away,  balco^  In  San  Salvador,  came  into  existence  in  1770^  and 
is  habituallv  active.  In  the  centre  of  Lake  Hopango  hi  Sah^der, 
which  possibly  occupies  an  ancient  crater,  a  volcanic  island  aroot  in 
1880.  and  attained  a  height  of  160  ft.  Guatenula  is  peculiarly 
rich  in  volcaaoea,  as  described  by  Dr  Tempest  Anderson,  who 
visited  the  country  in  1907.  The  Ceno  Quemado.  or  the  Volcano 
of  Qncsaltaiango,  was  ue  scene  of  a  great  eruption  in  1785.  At 
the  vokano  of  Santa  Maria  there  was  an  outburst  in  1902  more 
violent  than  the  simultaneous  eruptions  in  the  Lesser  Antilles. 
The  cones  of  Guatemala  include  the  Vdcan  de  Fueigo  and  the 
Vokan  de  Agua,  the  former  often  active  in  historic  times,  whilst 
the  latter  is  notable  for  the  flood  which  in  1541  swept  down  from 
the  mountain  and  destroyed  Old  Guatemala,  but  this  flood  was 
probably  not  of  volcanic  origin. 

The  plateau  of  Mexico  tt  die  seat  of  several  aetive  volcanoes 
which  occur  in  a  band  stretchinr  across  the  country  from  Colnna 
ia  the  west  to  Tuxtla  near  Vera  Crux.  The  highest  of  these  volcanio 
mountains  is  Orisaba,  or  Cithahcpetl,  rising  to  an  altitude  of 
i8,300  feet,  and  known  to  have  been  active  in  the  E6th  century. 
Popocatepetl  ("  the  smoking  mountain  ")  reaches  a  height  of  about 
17,880  ft.,  and  from  its  enter  sulphur  was  at  one  time  systematic 
cally  collected.  The  famous  volcano  of  Jorullak  naar  Toluca,  at  a 
distance  of  about  120  ra.  from  the  sea.  has  beni  the  centre  of  much 
scientific  discussion  since  it  was  regarded  fay.HumboIdt,  who  visited 
it  in  1803,  as  a  striking  proof  of  the  devataon  theory.  It  came  into 
existence  rabidly  during  an  enijidon  which  began  in  September 
I7d9i  when  it  was  aaid  by  ansaentific  observers  that  the  ground' 
became  suddenly  inflated  from  below.  The  cone,  though  not  of 
exccptkmal  nngnltude^  is  situated  ui  an  elevated  district,  and  its 
summit  rises  to  about  4330  ft.  above  oeaF*leveL  In  the  neighbour* 
hood  of  JoruUo  there  are  three  suboidinate  cones  of  sinuar  chiU 
racter  known  as  solcoiici/or,  with  great  numbers  of  small  mounds 
of  cinder  and  ash  formed  around  fumareles  on  the  lava,  and  locally 
called  kamUn.  or  "  little  ovens.  "  The  streams  of  basaltic  lava 
from  Jorulb  form  rough  barren  surfaces,  which  pass  under  the 
name  of  mo/^yt,  or  bad  lands. 

In  the  Umted  States  very  few  volcanoes  are  active  at  the  present 
day,  though  many  have  become  extinct  only  in  times  that  are 
^logKally  recent.  An  eruption  occurred  in- 18)57  at  Tree  Virgincs, 
in  the  south  of  CaKforaia,  and  the  cinder  cone  on  Lassen's  Peak 
(California^  was  also  active  in  the  middle  of  the  19th  century.  Tho 
Mono  Valnr^  craters  and  Mount  Shasta,  In  California,  are  extinct. 
The  Caacaae  Range  contains  numerous  volcanic  peaks,  but  oidy 
few  show  signs  of  activity.  Mount  Hood,  in  Orqgon,  exhales  vapour, 
as  also  does  Mount  Rainier  ia  Washington.  Mount  St  Hdcna 
(Washington)  was  in  eruptkm  in  k8ai  and  184s;  and  Mount  Baker 
(Washington),  the  most  northern  of  the  volcanoca  connected  with 
the  Caacadc  Range,  is  aaid  to  have  been  active  in  1843.  Few 
volcanic  peaks  occur  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  but  evidence  of< 
lingering  activity  is  very  mariced  in  the  geysers  and  hot  springs  of 
the  YeUowslone  NatkM^  IVvk.  The  eaitvs  imemal  heat  is  also 
manifested. at  many  points  clwwlicn,  as  at  Stesmboat  Springs  on 
the  Viigiaia  Range,  an  offshoot  of  the  Sierm  NiVncte.  and  in  tho 
Corostock  Lode. 

Vokanie  activity  is  prominent  in  Alaaka,  abng  the  Coast  Range 
and  in  the  neigihboiiring  islands.  The  crater  of  Mount  fidgtcsmbe, 
in  Laxarus  Iskind,  is  said  to  have  been  active  ia  1796,  but  this  ie 
doubtful.  Mount  Fairweather  has  probably  been  ia  recent  acttvity^- 
and  the  lofty  oooe  of  Mount  Wrangell,  00  Copper  rivec.  is  reported 
to  have  been  in  eruption  in  1819^  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Cook's 
Inlet  there  are  sevarel  volcanoes,  includiot  the  islandof  St  Augustine 
Uniroak  Island  has  two  volcanoes,  wbk^  have  supplied  the  natUnsn 
with  sulphur  and  obsklian;  one  of  these  votcanoes  being  Mouut 
ShiskaMuin.a  gOM  rjaralKng  Fosiyamii  la  gsaccful  osiatoMr.    The 


■*> 


tolvbunt 


tke  P>d&i:  Cype. 

Wkhin  Uk  imt  buia  of  the  fmciSc,  Impcrfictty  loiTeuDdR]  by 
ht  broken  linu  of  voIoukh,  tbo*  is  ■  -mt  numbR  d(  icHttnTd 
Mlirit  UH  rrouf*  o4  Uaada  al  volanic  DciEUi,  HunD  fram  d«p 

poRMt  cnnip  U  £e  Hiwaiun  Archip^liiia.  when  Ibcre  ii  ■  clui 
ol  mt  hut  HUcn  luge  valcuric  lUDunUiai— til  eilinn.  howevei 
vkh  tin  «Knfici>a  a<  thne  b  HHweii,  ikmely  Mwiiu  Loo,  KiLaue 
■ad  Miolilu:  ud  of  time  HuakUi  bu  baeii  durnunl  aince  ISii. 

wkhiB  to  at.  at  eub  <itb«,  (ppiv  M  bt  lodcpadnt^'ia  tb£ 
tfuHMly.  SorbI  ol  the  Kaniiu  ■•taodi,  u  pobnd  out  by 
J.  D.  DuK,  wfao  VH  4  vny  faifb  niUmity  cm  tkk  gRHjp,  Gondii  dl 
mo  voteunea  UBlted  «t  the  bwc,  fonniiif  mkinie  twinordoubleu. 
The  vekuuc  nfion*  of  tki  i>u3ic  uc  oomtcteil  whh  Ihoee  of 
Ae  Indkn  Ocean  bv  a  cnad  oaii  ol  Wind*  ridi  in  mkanoeB. 
■tnuhkif  fKH  Omwrnccl  New  CiBma  tbrouih  the  Holuaw  sod 
tli*SaHBIduHb,wbactbnFlDfmabaDdalei(liDfU>dLythnw0 
JavmaadSi— atia-  Hoe  itikiAtedtbepniidjial  theatre  ofteneitTu] 
TBicaniciQr,  ^naimt*  maaitiKlnf  an  enoffmom  fiiHre,  or  lynefn 
ol  6aiuna,  In  die  eaRh'a  mu,  iwceiilag  in  a  boU  cunn,  wtlk  lu 

NuDicnai  vdcank  pcaha  oceor  in  da  itfiaf  ol  anal  lifanda  la 
ib*  oat  e(  Ia»>-iKilably  In  Flarce,  Soaibawa,  Loabek  aad  Ball; 
and  oM  of  tlia  lioat  tenUie  dvMloBa  aa  laaaid  la  anjr  pan  of  tb« 
■ortd  oooirnd  in  the  ptovioc*  aiToaibeie,  ta  the  btaadolSioabaiin, 
la  the  year  rtis.    Java  oonldai  within  lu  imiill  >n«  ai  ma      -  - 

EifBtli  SmeriB,  about  itioaa  ft.  jriih,  but  the  okm  nc 


in  iHj  1««  ■tnnHd  ronh.     Many  of  the  Jl 

pccaaat  laaitod  nnilarity  of  contwr,  with  the  lidea  of  tha  <x. — 
mlwr  lynunetrlallT  fsnowed  by  tnpteal  rdoe  and  probably 

iMfid  by  aih  illfci.    The  ndlal  lunow*  oa  »olc»r'- — 

■DmetLuM  knon  aa  "  banrnocoa." 
The  Ittle  nnnlitbtlal  liUai  si  KnkMo*  ta  tbi  St 


diaaael  ol  Mmmbiqa*  cdAk  vakMic  activity,  whan  tl  Euc  ud 
Central  Africa  then  are  levefv  centre^  nioatly  ejobct  but  aomm 
paitiany  active,  inotiitcd  with  tha  BjttVaUqra.    The  mmiiran 


v^aaatt,  &.  of  Lake  E^wd.  die  to  a  beiaht  of  mon 

14.nn  feeL  Klrunea.  N.  of  Lake  KIvo,  k  Hifl  panUUy  KtJtT. 
eGrib  b  aa  oM  volanK  peak,  but  Raweiumi  U  not  of  vokioic 
of&in.  OatheweM^deoTiUrtca.lheCBmfDenPakiaanlaai 
wUi&ni  active  in  igoo,  awl  the  kaad  of  Fnaadii  Pa  if  alao  VH). 
caaic.  Aknt  the  Red  Sea  ihete  aie  b«  waBllni  levErxl  oaaiDki 
of  TOkarion,  luch  ai  ]ebd  Teir.  Aden  b  •iluaied  ia  an  old  enter. 
PaHihg  ta  the  Atlantic  a  broken  band  of  valcanaa,  recefli  and 
eitlitH,  nay  be  traced  loa^udlnally  throath  cinaia  lala  nifa.  vaa 

In  pan  ol  iu  length,  uflo  aa  eaateca  aads  waaten  tisuch.    Tk 
northnn  rninniiy  of  the  Kriea  il  found  in  Jan  Mayoi.  anialai^* 

"   Ibe  Atlantk:  oeam.     Arxoidiaf  to    Dr  T. 


Thoroddaen  Iheie 

and  it  ii  knows  thai  In™  ij  to  JD  have  been  la  nuptionounnfibi 
hiltoifc  period.  Maay  of  tbe  Icelandic  lavB-Aowi.  Hich  aa  the 
Imnuaa*  Hood  fnai  LiU  (Skapta  JdkuU)  la  lySj.  an  refenble  to 
Sbbis  tniptiDiiB,  which  an  tha  chawtathlk:  thouth  not  the 
nclualvi:  HnTS  activity  In  tUa  blaad.  Pnbali^llw  type  wia 
alio  rcaponaible  lor  tlie  ihceta  of  old  lava  la  the  terracvf  hilla  of 
tha  Faroe  IiUnda.  to  which  nay  have  been  iflated  Ih«  TenLary 
vokanoeaof  the  wm  ol  Ststknd  and  the  north  of  Ireland. 

An  EiBCBenie  np  leparatea  the  old  nlcanle  atea  ol  BrkaiK  Ema 
tha  volcuiie  anAtoelagcea  d  the  Aaorea,  the  Caoaiia  and  tbe  Cape 
Vtid  ■•Unda.  Palma— a  litik  iiland  la  the  Caiucy  froup,  witb'a 
caldeca  or  brge  enter  at  Itaiuminlt.  from  which  fiuutetorbarrancoi 
""""-    --' ua  in  the  hiitory  of  vidCaacAagy,  En  that  it  fumiabed 

ioing  vuleiiw:  ialanda  of  tht  Atluiic 
I,  include  Aaceniion,  St  Helena  and 

. —  ^„  j(  ,(,,  5^,^  Allnntie 

I  Ferdlnando  do  Noronha. 

iona  ol  the  world  b  found 
i» — the  icene  of  the  ^reat 
idv  itretchinB  in  a  regular 

(.thcae  tobndi  a 


:ial»ofTrinidulan 


rich  in  valcuKK*,  s^auimi  and  hoe  Hpjm,  th 

form  the  BUCDOiitol  a  ETcatcaTtb-foid  which,  rial eix  aa  a  curved  ri<Ue 

iFom  deep  water.  Kpai^toa  the  Caribbean  Sea  Irom  the  Albntlc. 


notable  that  tbe  Ai 


The  Eurapon  < 
4  npcetenline  rati 
heAtlaaticbaod. 


It  b 


earth,  at*  iituatea  at  tha 
trrntly  an  caitera  avJ  tlu 


Sidly:  the  Liuri  Islanda,  with  StromboU  and  Vulnno  In  chi 
activity^  and  farther  to  Ibe  out  Ihe  archipelaco  of  Santocta.  w 
■ev  blanda  have  appeared  in  histtiila  isiBea.    Subaurioe  cApl 


tij]  having  ^veo  rbe  tempon 
in  1A91  appearing  near  Pan 
Ihe  emnct  European  volranc 
Auveigne,  In  the  Elld,  h  Bohi 
canic  &o3  of  Italy  iathidn  Ihi 
Phlegiacan  FieMa.  Ac   The| 


nia  arid  in  Catalonia,  wbilit  th 
Ennnm  hilk  the  Albca  hOI 
atnakxa  of  Bclina  ud  Br« 


■ilea.   The  vnlcaiJc  iilandi  r«  lengg  ao 


VOLCANO 


igi 


•ctMlf  any  be  Uaocd  lato  Asia  Minor  and  thence  to 

Armenia  and  the  Caucasus.  East  of  Smyrna  there  is  a  mat  desolate 
tract  which  the  ancients  recognized  as  volcanic  and  termed  the 
Catacccaumene  (burnt countiy).  Thevdcanic districtsof  Lydia were 
etudied  by  Professor  H.  S.  Washington.  In  dbe  plateau  of  Arsieoia 
there  are  several  extinct  volcanic  mountains,  more  or  less  destroyed, 
of  which  the  best  known  is  Ararat.  Nimnid  Dagh  on  the  shore  of 
Lake  Van  is  said  to  have  been  in  eruption  in  the  year  1441.  Dr  F. 
Oswald  has  described  the  vokanoes  of  Armenia.  Of  the.vokaaoea 
in  Persian  territory  not  now  active.  Demavendf  south  of  the  Caspian, 
is  an  important  example;  Elburz  is  also  described  as  an  old  volcano. 
It  has  been  aakl  that  in  Central  Asia  there  are  certain  vents  still 
active,  and  r^cnt  volcanic  rocks  are  known  from  the  Przhevalsky 
chain  and  other  localities. 

The  number  of  vokanoet  known  to  be  actually  active  on  the  earth 
is  generally  estimated  at  between  300  and  41x11,  but  there  is  reason 
to  oelieve  that  this  estimate  is  far  too  low.  If  account  be  taken  of 
those  volcanic  cones  whkh  have  not  been  active  in  historic  time,  the 
total  will  probably  rise  to  several  thousanda  The  distribution  of 
▼okanoes  at  various  periods  of  the  earth's  history,  as  revosled  by  the 
local  occumnce  of  volcanic  rocks  at  different  borixona  in  the  cnist 
of  the  earth,  is  discussed  under  Geology.  Periods  of  groat  earth- 
movement  have  been  marked  by  exceptional  volcanic  activity. 

Causes  qJ  VukamcUy. 

In  dbcottfaig  the  cause  of  vnlcuucky  two  proUems  demand 
attentions  fint  the  origin  of  the  heat  nacenaiy  for  the  mani« 
festation  of  volcanic  phoiomena,  and  secondly,  the  nature  of 
the  force  by  which  the  heated  matter  is  rftised  to  the  suiface 
and  ejected.  According  to  the  old  view,  which  assumed  that 
the  eacth  was  a  q>heroid  of  molten  matter  invested  by  a  com- 
paiativdy  thin  cmst  of  solid  rock,  the  explanation  of  the 
phenomena  appeared  fairly  simple.  The  moken  interior 
supplied  the  heated  matter,  while  the  shrinkage  of  the  cooling 
crust  produced  fractures  that  formed  the  volcanic  rhanifi<>^ 
throu^  whkh  it  was  assumed  the  magma  might  be  squeezed 
out  in  the  process  of  cootcaction*  When  physicists  urged  the 
necessity  of  assuming  that  the  globe  was  practically  solid, 
vulcaaologists  were  oonttrafated  to  modify  their  views.  Follow- 
ing a  suggestion!  of  W.  Hopkins  of  Cambridgei,  they  supposed 
that  the  magma,  mstead  of  existing  m  a  general  central  cavity, 
was  located  in  comparatively  small  subtenaaean  lakes.  Some 
authorities  agahi,  like  the  Rev.  O.  Fisher,  regarded  the  magma 
as  constituting  a  liquid  sone^  intermediate  between  a  solid  ton 
and  a  solid  sheO. 

If  soUdification  of  the  primitive  molten  gbbe  proceeded  from 
tiie  centre  outwards,  so  as  to  form  a  sphere  practically  «>lid,  it 
is  conceivable  that  pottion»of  the  orighMJ  magma  might  never« 
theless  be  retained  in  cavities,  and  thus  form  "  residual  lakes." 
Although  the  mass  might  be  for  the  most  part  solid,  the  outer 
|X)rtion,  or  *' crust,"  could  conceivably  have  a  honeycombed 
structure,  and  any  magma  retained  in  the  edBs  might  serve 
indirectly  to  feed  the  volcanoes.  Neighbouring  volcanoes  seem 
in  some  cases  to  draw  thdr  tupply  of  lava  from  independent 
sources,  favottring  the  Idea  of  local  ctetems  or  *'  intercmstal 
leservTiirs."  It  b  probable,  however,  that  subterranean  n- 
servoirs  of  magma,  if  th^r  exist,  do  not  represent  relics  of  an 
original  floid  condition  ef  the  earth,  but  the  molten  material 
may  be  merely  rock  which  has  become  fused  ktcaUy  by  a 
temporary  devriopment  of  beat  or  more  likely  by  a  lehcf  ef 
pressure.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  quantity  of  magma 
required  to  supply  the  most  cofrious  biva-flows  is  comparatively 
small,  the  greatest  recorded  outffew  (that  ci  Tomboro  in  Sum- 
f>awa,  in  1815)  not  having  exoeedeitf,  it  b  said,  six  cubic  miles; 
and  even  this  estimate  is  probably  too  high.  Whilst  in  many 
cases  the  magroa-dstems  may  be  oompaxatxvely  small  and 
temporary,  it  musit  be  remembered  that  there  are  regions  where 
the  volcanic  rocks  are  so  shnilar  throughout  as  to  itggest  a 
common  origin,  thus  needing  intercmstal  reservoirs  of  great 
extent  and  capacity.  It  has  been  suggested  that  comparatively 
small  basins,  feeding  Imfividual  volcanoes,  may  diiaw  their 
supply  from  more  extensive  reservoirs  at  greater  depths. 

Much  speculation  has  been  rife  as  to  the  source  of  the  heat 
required  for  the  local  melting  of  rock.  Chemical  action  has 
natuxaHy  been  suggested,  cspedally  that  of  superficial  water,  but 
Its  adequacy  may  be  doubted.    After  Sir  Humphry  Dayy^  dl» 


covety  of  the  metals  of  the  alkalis,  he  thought  that  their  remark- 
able behaviour  with  water  might  explain  the  origin  of  subterranean 
heat;  and  in  more  recent  years  others  have  seen  a  local  source  of 
heat  in  the  oxidation  of  large  deposits  of  iron,  such  as  that  brought 
up  in  the  basalt  of  Disco  Island^  in  Greenland.  It  has  been 
assumed  by  Moissan  and  by  Gautier  that  water  might  attack 
certain  metallic  carbides,  if  they  occur  as  subterranean  deposits, 
and  give  rise  to  some  of  the  products  characteristic  of  volcanoes. 
But  it  seems  that  all  such  action  must  be  very  limited,  and 
utterly  inadequate  to  the  general  explanation  of  volcanic 
phenomena.  At  the  same  time  it  must  be  remembered  that 
access  of  water  to  a  rock  already  heated  may  have  an  important 
physical  effect  by  reducing  its  melting  point,  and  may.  thus 
greatly  assist  in  the  proiduction  of  a  supply  of  molten  matter. 
The  admission  of  surface-waters  to  heated  rocks  is  naturally 
regarded  as  an  important  source  of  motive  power  in  consequence 
of  the  sudden  generation  of  vapour,  but  it  is  doubtful  to 
what  extent  it  may  contribute,  if  at  all,  to  the  origin  of 
volcanic  heat. 

According  to  Robert  Mallet  a  competent  source  of  sub- 
terranean heat  for  volcanic  phenomena  might  be  derived  from 
the  transformation  of  the  mechanical  work  of  compressing  uul 
crushing  parts  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  as  a  consequence  of 
secular  contraction.  This  view  he  worked  out  with  much 
ingenuity,  supporting  it  by  mathematical  reasoning  and  an 
sppeal  to  experimental  evidence.  It  was  claimed  for  the  theory 
that  it  explained  the  linear  distribution  of  volcanoes,  their 
relaticMi  to  mountain  chains,  the  shallow  depth  of  the  foci  and 
the  intermittence  of  eruptive  activity.  A  grave  objection, 
however,  is  the  difficulty  of  conceiving  that  the  heat,  whether 
due  to  crushing  or  compression,  could  be  concentrated  locally 
so  as  to  produce  a  sufficient  elevation  of  temperature  for 
melting,  the  rocks.  According  to  the  calculations  of  Rev.  O. 
Fisher,  the  crushing  could  not,  under  the  most  favourable  cir- 
cumstances, evolve  heat  enough  to  account  for  volcanic 
phenomena* 

Since  pressure  raises  the  melting-pdnt  of.  any  solid  that 
expands  on  liquefaction,  it  has  been  conjectured  that  many 
deep-seated  rocks,  thou^  actually  solid,  may  be  potentially 
liquid;  that  is,  th^r  are  maintained  In  a  solid  state  by  pressure 
only.  Any  local  relief  of  pressure,  such  as  might  occur  In  the 
folding  and  faulting  of  rocks,  would  tend,  without  further 
accession  of  heat,  to  induce  fusion.  But  although  moderate 
pressure  raised  the  fusing-point  of  most  solids,  it  is  believed, 
from  modem  researches,  that  very  great  pressures  may  hava 
a  contrary  effect. 

It  is  held  by  Professor  S.  Arrhenius  that  at  great  depths  m 
the  earth  the  molten  rock,  being  above  its  critical  point,  can 
exist  only  in  the  gaseous  oonditiMi;  but  a  gas  under  enormous 
pressure  may  behave,  so  far  as  compressibility  is  concerned, 
like  a  rigid  solid.  He  concludes,  from  the  high  density  of  the 
earth  as  a  whole  and  from  other  considerations,  that  the  central 
part  of  our  pbmet  consbts  of  gaseous  iron  <about  80%  of  the 
earth's  diameter)  followed  by  a  sone  of  rock  magma  in  a 
gaseous  condition  (about  15%},  which  passes  insensibly  out- 
wards uito  liquid  rock  U%),  covered  by  a  thin  solid  crust  Qess 
than  r  %  of  diameter).  If  water  from  the  crust  penetrates  by 
bsmosis  throuc^  the  sea-floor  to  the  molten  interior,  it  acu,  at 
the  high  temperature,  as  an  add,  and  decomposes  the  alicate^ 
of  the  magma.  The  liquid  rock,  expanded  and  rendered  mors 
mobile  by  thb  water,  rises  in  fissures,  but  in  its  ascent  suffen 
coolmg,  so  that  the  water  then  loses  its  power  as  an  acid  and  b 
displaced  by  silicic  acid,  when  the  escaping  steam  gives  rise  to 
the  explosive  phenomena  of  the  volcano.  The  mechimism  of  the 
volcano  b  therefore  much  like  that  of  a  geyser,  a  camparison 
long  ago  suggested  by  Rev,  O.  Fbher  and  other  geologists. 

According  to  the  " planetesimal  theory"  of  Professor  T.C. 
ChamberUn  and  Dr  F.  R.  Moulton,  which  assumes  that  the 
earth  was  formed  by  the  accretion  of  vast  numbers  of  small 
cosmical  bodies  called  planetesimals,  the  original  heat  of  the 
eartVs  interior  was  due  chiefly  to  the  compresaion  of  the  grow- 
ing gk>ba  by  its  own  gravity.    Thi(  he^t^  proceeding  from  the 


VOLCANO  ISLANDS— VOLE 


Ctatn  outmrdi,  ciiiNit  loal  fndni 
vlihoul  foTtning  dbiinci  nwnnrin  a(  mohen  dutn*,  tnd  lbs 
fuKd  BUUiu  durged  wlUi  gun  nut  In  liquid  [hmdi  or  toncuet, 
wliich  inirkid  their  wiy  upwudi,  wine  mchiiig  Ihe  ■  ■ 
llciil  put  of  the  earth  mnd  eKipiiig  thiougb  fitsuid 
tant  of  (rActure,  thui  giving  me  to  vc^uilc  phcnomef 
b  held  thu  Iha  eq)1i»ivc  activity  of  i  vokano  is  due 
preaeiice  of  gaua  which  have  been  broushl  up  Iroin  tbe  Interior 
o(  the  eanh,  whtlii  only  a  imaU  and  pnhapa  Insignifiont  put 
li  played  by  water  of  superEdal  origin. 

Enlirely  new  viein  of  tlu  origin  of  the  ewth's  intenul  heat 
bAve  raulled  from  the  discovery  of  radioactivity^  II  bat 
thowif  hy  the  Hon.  R.  J.  Struit.  Ptofcsm  J,  Joly  and  othen 
'that  radium  is  present  in  all  igneous  nxkt,  and  It  l>  eilinuu  ' 
that  Ihe  quantily  in  the  crust  of  the  e«rth  ii  amply  suffidei 
to  maintain  lu  lemperature.  An  Incenious  bypolhesii  wi 
enunciated  by  Ma>or  C.  E.  Dnlton,  wbo  found  in  Ibe  rtdio- 
activliy  ol  the  radu  a  sufficient  sounx  of  bt*t  («  tbe 
pianation  of  all  volcanic  pheiuimcns.  He  believes  Ibat  tbe 
devdopment  of  heal  arising  from  TadiOBCIivily  may  gradually 
bring  about  the  local  melting  of  the  locks  so  as  to  [orm  luge 
(nbtciranean  pools  of  magma,  from  which  the  volouoo  may 
be  supplied.  Tbt  supply  is  usually  drawn  from  shaUow  source), 
probably,  according  to  Dutlon.  from  a  depth  of 


al  magma  ■hould 
attain  suffidcnt  erpansive  power,  it  will  rupture  tbe  overlying 
tocks  and  thus  give  rise  to  a  volcanic  eniption.  Wben  tbe 
IBcrvoir  becomes  exhausted  the  eruption  ceases,  but  if  rooie 
beat  be  generated  by  continued  radioactivity  futtber  fusion 
may  ensue,  and  in  time  the  eruption  be  repeatC)!.  According, 
however,  to  ProIiHor  Joly,  it  is  improbable  tblt  mffident 
heat  for  the  manifestation  of  volcanic  phenomena  could  be 
developed  hy  the  local  radioactivity  ol  Iba  rocks  in  the  upper 
part  Ol  Ibe  earth's  crast. 

AtiTKOUTicl.— On  general  vulcanicity  lee  G.  Mercalli,  /  Vtkaid 
lUtiMltltmiiit/l)!  SlrA.G<ilde.riil-BH*i!rc;M*DU<hed., 
1903)  (with  bblunaphyh  Tit  AMirM  Vakaua  0]  Cttal  BriUn 
(Ivg4s.,lS97)(wiSgeii<nliketcbcifviilcaix:lisy)^  T, C. Chamberlin 
and  R.  O.  Silitbury,  Gnlon,  Frxiisa  aiiithtir  Rmla  (190s); 
C.  P.  Scrape.  Vskinua  (ind  ed.,  1B73);  j-  W.  ludd,  Viitanaa 
(snd  cd.,  lS8t)i  T.  G.  Bonney,  VakmiBV  (ii^a):  Tempen  Andir. 
BR.  VelaiMk  Sludia  !■  wny  Um^  (1901)  (eiceUeni  viewi). 
On  mtcial  wkaoos  see  J.  PhDW  Vtimiu  (iSte);  I.  L.  Lobley, 
V»iil  V««im  (i8»9);  H.  J.  TauWon-UvVrlK  inU* /Ute» 
Vilimxs  (with  copioua  tHhtJornphy)  (iBoi);  "The  Eniplion  ol 
Vouviiu  in  April  1906,"  Sci.  fnru  Jby,  Dmblim  Sot,  (Jan.  Itog); 

A  von  Luauli.  iSte):  F.  Foiusai.  SanlBriitit  IH  trufliimi  (liK); 
R.  D.  M.  Verb«k.  jti-.*aM»  (1886)  (wIlli  Album  A(l..)r  Til 
BmCliim  of  Krahilaa  oni  SkUejuna  Ftummmo,  ~ 
KnlutcB  Comniiitie  of  ihe  Royal  Society-  ("  0 
Phe»inna,  Ac.,"  by  Proron  J.  W.  Judd)  (t«U) 
Kifal  SI  ilu  Eftptln  tl  lit  SmA"'-  '  "'  "■ 
•'--      -  ■    iersonand  J.  '   "— 


JSX™    ™   .no   .         ™.    ™-     ,. 
FtUt  (i4o!l');'^'jU^a^pM  AM*  ofrif  Z 


(span,"  TVww 


NaU _ 

wailifi  Idandt) 
U.S.Ge!fcgi«l 


Si«).  vol,.  >iv. 


VOlCUn  UMKM,  thiM  HOta  Ua^i  h  tki  iiilUB 
Fsdfic  Ocean,  S.  of  the  Bonln  Islands,  tormmg  part  at  xl» 
Japanese  empin  (auaeaed  In  iSgi).  Ihey  an  alas  knoim  as 
Ihe  UageUas  Ardupelato,  and  In  Japan  as  Kwuan-niia 
(series  of  volcanic  blands).  Tbey  an  rituatad  between  14' 
and  16*  N.  and  141'  aod  U'*  E'  Tbeii  namo  arc  Kita-in. 
jima  (StBto  Akssandto),  Iwo-^ma  (Sulphur)  and  Ulnunl- 
iwo-iima  (Santo  Agostiao).  Kiia-iwo-Jima^whidi,  as  its 
name  (lain)  implies,  it  the  moat  noitherly  of  tha  three — riaea 
ijio  [t.  above  the  water,  and  Mloami-iwo-jima,  tbe  t 
southerly.  10  a  hdghi  of  jeii  IL  Tbe  islands  are  lu  '  ' 
With  this  group  Is  sometimes  included  anoibsr  li 
bispo,  nearer  the  Benin  group. 

VOLCB  (mod.  Bticniio),  an  andent  lows  of  Lucanla,  iiii 
ft.  abovt  lea-levcl,  the  chief  town  of  tbe  Independent  tribe 
of  Ibe  Volceiani,  Vuldentes  or  Vokxntani,  whose  taiitosy 
was  bounded  N.  by  that  of  the  Hirpird,  W.  aul  S.  by  Lucaw 
and  £.  by  tbe  territory  of  Venusia.  Some  pne-RoBtan  rvim 
still  eiitt  (VrK.  Stoj.,  iBg4,  I's)-  It  became  a  inn(ici>'aat, 
and  in  aj>.  313  bad  an  extensive  territory  attached  10  it,  iDchid- 
ing  the  town  of  Numisiro,  the  large  Cyclopean  walls  of  which 
may  atill  be  seen,  i(  ra.  bdav  Huro  Lucano.  Belev  tbe  ton 
is  a  well-preserved  Roman  bridge  over  the  Tsnuii  (nnd 
Tana^o). 

See  C.  PaCrod  In  Notak  in/i  icaif  (1(97).  IlJ- 

VOLCI,  or  Vdut,  an  ancient  town  of  Etnuia.  The  circ* 
of  Ihe  walls  measures  about  4  n,,  and  scanty  tneca  of  tiam 
and  of  Roman  buildings  within  them  sllU  eail.  The  PoaK 
della  Badia  over  the  Fiora,  *  bridge  witb  a  raaia  arch  of  66  fL 
span,  i)t  ft,  above  the  stream,  is  also  Roman.  An  aqucdDa 
passes  over  It.  The  former  wealth  of  tbe  town  is  mainly  proved 
by  the  discoveries  made  in  ita  entniive  nectopolia  from  iSil 
onwards — Greek  vaaes,  bronies  and  Mber  rcmaiiB — maay 
ol  which  are  now  in  Ibe  Vatican.  By  iBjS  over  ij.oaa  hunla 
bad.  It  was  cslculatcd,  been  opened.  These  wire  entirely  sub- 
terranean, and  little  h  now  to  be  teen  on  ihe  site  but  a 
great  (umulut,  tbe  Cucumella,  and  a  law  amallei  oDea.  Ihe 
frescea  from  the  Fiancois  tomb,  discovered  in  iS;?,  IDastratiig 
Greek  and  Etruscan  myths,  are  now  in  the  Uuseo  Toriooia 
at  Rome.  Void  was  one  of  the  twelve  towtu  of  Etmtia. 
Corvncaotus  triumphed  over  the  peo[Je  of  Vulsinli  and  Voki 
in  ito  B.C.,  and  the  colony  of  Cosa  was  founded  In  tbdr  territory, 
have  led  to  the  decline  of  the  chy,  and  it  doe* 


I  ImF 


■SiS" 


period,  though  It  became  an 

See  G.  Dennk  ClUtt  nd  CemtUria  tf  Blnirla  (Lendoo.  lUaL 

S.  C«!l,  FnOlii  Ami  la  nlireftit  di  Vtki  IPSm, 

,._.  ^  ijg^  (with  copious  rafereBce*  to  eaiiier 

rr.Ai) 

VOLK  a  book-name  (invented  by  Dt  J.  Fteming,  author  td 

work  on  British  animals)  for  the  water-rat  and  those  spcciea 

of  field-mice  which  have  cheek-teeth  of  the  tame  general  lypa. 

Although  Ihe  British  repnocntativea    of    thti    group  abould 

■jubiedly  retain  their  vernacular  doignstions  of  water-rat 

thrfft-tailcd  field-mouK,  the  term   "  vole"  is  one  of  gieat 

'eniena  In  soology  as  a  general  one  loc  all  the  metnhcis 

I*  group,    Syiionalically  voica  arc  classed  in  iha  mammaliaa 

order  Rodxhtia,  in  which  they  consiiiuia  the  lypiol  section 

ily  Mictotiaae  in  the  Muridae,  or  PMute-group, 

,      .  .   votes  are  chataclerizKl   by  being  more  heavily 

built  than  itlt  and  mice,  and  by  their  lest  brisk  movcmenis- 

They  have  very  small  eyes,  blunt  tnouls,  ioconspicuDus  ean 

and  short  Umha  and  tails,  in   all   of   which  points  they   are 

lai^edly  ccolnsted  with  true  lau  and  mice.    In  common  with 

mmin^  and  other  repreaentativea  ol  the  Microiinac,  voles 

re.  however,  bntadly  diitiiiguithed  from  typical  rats  and  mice 

by  lbs  structure  of  their  three  pairs  of  molu  Icelb.     These, 

In  the  figure,  are  composed  of  a  variable  number  of 

riangular  prisma,  In  contact  with  ona  another  by  two 

>f  their  angles-    On  the  number  and  relations  of  these 

c  voiea.  irtklA  fem  an  exceedingly  large  group,  rang- 

rcr  ElvofM  aad  Asia  north  of  (and  indiuive  of)  tbe 


VOLGA 


193 


fBoMhyfty  Mid  North  Atterica,  are  divided  into  genera  and 
nbpgiMTtr    ^r*«*nrW  of  eome  oC  theie  are  affwded  by  the 

Eni^ish   rq>icientativet 
of  thegroupu 

The  iint  of  these  is 
the  common  short- 
tailed  field-mousey  or 
"fidd-vole/'  MicrolHS 
agres^,  which  belongs 
to  the  typical  section 
of  the  type  genus,  and 
is  about  the  siae  of  a 
mouse,  with  a  short 
stumpy   body,    and   a 

Upperand  Lower  Mobnof  the Water-Rat  f**^  ^'  one-third  the 
(or  Water-Vole).  MieroUa  amfkUrius,     length  of  the  head  and 

body.  The  hind  feet 
have  six  pads  on  their  mferior  surfaces,  and  the  colour  is  dull 
grizzled  brown  above  and  greyish  white  bdow.  The  molar  teeth 
have  respeaively  5,  5  and  6  prisms  above,  and  9,  s  and  3  bdow. 
This  rodent  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  British  mammals,  and  fre- 
quents fields,  woods  and  gardens  in  numbers,  often  doing  consider- 
able damage  owing  to  its  fondness  for  garden  produce.  It  is 
spread  over  the  whofe  of  Great  Britain  (exclusive  of  the  Orkneys), 
while  on  the  continent  of  Europe  its  range  extends  from  Fin- 
hind  to  North  Italy  and  from  France  and  Spain  to  Russia. 

The  second  and  larger  species  ts  the  water-rat,  or  "water- 
vole,"  which  belongs  to  a  second  section  of  the  genus,  and  is 
commonly  known  as  Microtus  (Arvicola)  amphibiuSt  although 
some  writers  employ  the  inappropriate  specific  name  ierrcstris. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  rat,  and  has  long  soft  thick  fur,  of  a 
uniform  griazled  brown,  except  when  (as  is  not  uncommon) 
it  is  black.  The  tail  is  about  half  the  length  of  the  head  and 
body,  and  the  hind  feet  are  long  and  powerful,  although  not 
webbed,  and  have  five  rounded  pads  on  their  lower  surfaces. 
In  the  upper  jaw  the  first  molar  has  5,  the  second  4  and  the 
third  4  prisms,  of  which  the  last  is  irregular  and  sometimes 
divided  into  two,  making  5.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  first  molar 
has  7  prisms,  of  which  the  3  anterior  are  generally  iK>t  fully 
separated  from  one  another,  the  second  5  and  the  third  3. 
The  water-rat  is  perhaps  the  most  often  seen  of  all  English 
mammals,  owing  to  its  diurnal  habits.  It  frequents  rivers 
and  streams,  burrowing  in  the  banks,  and  often  causing  con- 
siderable damage.  Its  food  consists  almost  wholly  of  water- 
weeds,  rushes, and  other  vegetable  substances,  but  it  will 
also  eat  animal  food  on  occasion,  in  the  shape  of  insects,  mice 
or  young  birds.  The  female  has  during  the  summer  three  or 
four  litters,  each  of  from  two  to  seven  young.  The  range  of 
the  water-rat  extends  over  Europe  and  North  Asia  from 
England  to  China,  but  the  spedes  is  not  found  in  Ireland, 
where  no  member  of  the  group  is  native. 

The  red-backed  field-mouse  or"  bank-vole  '*  may  be  distinguished 
externally  from  the  first  speoies  by  its  more  or  less  rusty  or  rufous- 
ooioured  back,  its  laiger  eats  and  its  comparatively  loneer  tail, 
which  attains  to  about  half  the  length  of  the  head  and  boay.  Oa 
acoount  of  an  important  diiTereDce  in  the  structure  of  its  molars. 
It  is  now  very  generally  referred  to  a  distinct  genus,  under  the  name 
of  Evot&mys  gbtrecius;  these  teeth  developing  roots  at  a  certain 
stage  of  existence,  instead  of  growing  permanently.  Their  prisms 
number  respectively  5  and  4  and  5  above,  and  7,  3  and  3  below« 
The  habits  of  this  species  are  in  every  way  similar  to  those  of  the 
one  first  on  the  list.  Its  range  In  Great  Britain  extends  northwards 
to  Motaysbtre,  but  it  is  represented  in  an  island  oflF  the  Pembroke 
€oa8t  by  a  distinct  form:  on  the  continent  of  Europe  it  extends 
from  France  and  halv  to  southern  |Lassia,  while  it  is  represented 
in  northern  Asia  ana  North  America  by  cloacly  aUiea  species. 
Fossil  voles  from  the  Pliocene  of  England  and  Italy  with  molars 
triifch  are  rooted  as  soon  as  developed  form  the  genus  JdTtmomys. 

VOUA  (known  to  the  Tatats  as  EHl,  m  or  Atd\  to  the 
Finnish  tribes  as  Ra«,  and  to  the  andents  as  Sha  and  Oana), 
the  longest  and  most  important  river  of  European  Russia.  It 
rises  hi  the  Valdai  plateau  of  Tver  and,  after  a  winding  course 
of  33 >s  m.  (1070  in  a  straight  line),  falls  into  the  Caspian  at 
Astxakhaa     It  is  by  far  the  tongest  river  of  Europe,  the 


n* 


Danube^  WhSdi  oomes  next  to  ft,  htang  only  1775  m.,  while 
the  Rhine  (760  m.)  is  shorter  even  than  two  of  the  chief  tri- 
butaries of  the  Volga^the  Oka  and  the  Kama.  lis  drainage 
area,  which  includes  the  whole  of  middle  and  eastern  as  wdl 
as  part  of  south-eastern  Russia,  amounts  to  563,300  sq.  m., 
thus  exceeding  the  aggregate  superficies  of  Germany,  France 
and  the  United  Kingdom,  and  containing  a  population  of  fifty 
millions.  Its  tributaries  are  navigable  for  an  aggregate  length 
of  nearly  ao,ooo  m.  The  "  basin  "  of  the  Volga  is  not  limited 
to  its  actual  catchment  area.  By  a  system  of  canals  which 
connect  the  upper  Volga  with  the  Neva,  the  commercial  mouth 
of  the  Volga  has  been  transferred,  so  to  speak,  from  the  Caspian 
to  the  Baltic,  thus  making  St  Petersburg,  the  capital  and 
chief  seaport  of  Russia,  the  chief  port  of  the  Volga  basin  as 
well.  Other  less  important  canals  connect  it  with  the  Western 
Dvina  (Riga)  and  the  White  Sea  (Archangel);  while  a  railway 
only  45  m.  in  length  joins  the  Volga  with  the  Don  and  the  Sea 
of  Azov,  and  three  great  trunk  lines  bring  its  lower  parU  hito 
connexion  with  the  Baltic  and  western  Europe. 

The  Volga  rises  in  extensive  marshes  on  the  Valdai  plateau,  where 
the  W.  Ovina  also  has iu  origin.  Lake  Seliger  was  fornierlyooosideied 
to  be  the  principal  source:but  thatdistinctbnisnowgivento 
a  small  spring  issuing  beneath  a  chapel  C57*  15'  N.;^2''  30' 
E.)  in  the  midst  of  a  brge  marsh  to  the  *-cst  of  Sefi|:cr. 
The  honour  has  also  been  claimed,  not  without  plausibility,  for  the 
Runa  rivulet.  Recent  exact  snrveva  have  shown  these  originating 
marshes  to  be  no  more  than  665  ft.  above  sea-level.  The  ^tzeam 
first  traverses  several  small  lakes,  all  having  the  same  level,  and, 
after  its  confluence  with  the  Runa,  enters  Lake  Volga.  A  dam 
erected  a  few  miles  below  that  lake,  with  a  sCorage  of  nearly  10,000 
million  cub.  ft.  of  water,  inak»  it  possible  to  raise  the  level  of  the 
Volga  as  far  down  as  the  Sbeksna,  thus  rendering  it  navigable,  even 
at  low  water,  from  its  6sth  mile  onwards. 

From  its  confluence  with  the  Sheksna  the  Volga  flows  with  a  very 
gentle  descent  towards  the  80Uth>east,  past  Yaroslavl  and  Kostraansi, 
along  a  broad  valley  hollowed  to  a  depth  of  150-^200  ft.  in  the 
Permian  and  Jurassic  deposits.  In  fact,  its  oourse  lies  through  a 
string  of  depressions  formerly  filled  with  wide  lakes,  all  linked 
together.  When  the  Volga  at  length  assumes  a  due  south-east 
direction  it  is  a  large  river  (a^socub.  tt.  per  second,  rising  occastonally 
m  high  flood  to  as  much  as  178,360  cub.  ft.);  of  its  numeious  tribu- 
taries, the  Unzha  (363  m.i  330  navi0able)»  from  the  north,  la  the 
most  important.  . 

The  next  great  tributary  u  the  Oka,  which  comes  from  the  south- 
west after  having  traversed,  on  its  course  of  950  m.,  all  the  Gnat 
Russian  provinces  of  central  Rusoa.  It  rises  hi  the  govern*  ^^gg^ 
mentof-Orel,  among  hills  which  abo  send  uibutaries  to  the  ^^gf^g/^ 
Dnieper  and  the  Don,  and  recdves  on  the  left  the  Upa,  the  ^^  #m.^ 
23iIzora,  the  Ugra  (300  m.)t  the  Moskva,  on  which  steamers 
ply  up  to  Moscow,  the  Klyazma  (395  m.)i  on  whose  banks  arose  the 
middie-RttSsian  pnncipality  of  Suzdal,  and  on  the  right  the  navigable 
Tsna  (^S^  m.)  and  Moksha.    Every^one  of  these  tributaries  is  fon- 
nected  with  some  important  event  in  the  history  of  Great  Russia, 
The  drainage  area  of  the  Oka  is  a  territory  of  07,000  sq.  m.   It  has 
been  maintained  that,  of  the  two  rivers  which  unite  at  Nlahniy- 
Novgorod,  the  Oka,  not  the  Volga,  is  the  chief;  the  fact  b  that  both 
in  length  (81 S  mt)  and  in  drainage  area  abovethecoofluence  (89,«)0 
sq.  m.1,  as  well  as  in  the  aggrogate  length  of  its  tributaries,  the  Volga 
is  the  inferior  stream.  ... 

At  hs  confluence  with  the  Oka  the  Volga  enters  the  broad  lacustrrae 
depression  which  must  have  communicated  with  the  Caspian  durisg 
the  post- Pliocene  period  by  means  of  at  least  a  broadstrait.   t^^g 
lufevelatlowwaterisonfy  190  ft  abovethat  of  the  ocean,  ^^^^j^ 
Immediately  bcfow  the  confluence  the  breadth  of  the  river  jfyy.frnf, 
ranges  from  350  to  1 750  yds.  There  are  many  islands  which  "^ 
change  their  appearance  and  position  after  each  inundation.    On 
the  nght  the  Volga  is  joined  by  the  Sura,  which  drains  a  large  area 
and  brings  a  volume  of  2700  to  32,000  cub.  ft.  of  water  per  secof>d, 
the  Vetluga  (46^  m.  bng,  of  which  365  are  navigable),  from  the 
forast-tracts  of  YaxDshtvi,  and  many  smaller  tributaries.    Then 
the  stream  turns  south*eaSt  and  descends  into  another  lacustrine 
'depression,  where  it  receives  the  Kama,  below  Kaxafi.    Remains 
of  molluscs  still  extant  in  the  Caspian  occur  extensively  throughout 
this  depression  and  up  the  lower  Kama. 

The  Kama.i  which  brings  to  the  Volga  a  contribution  rangifig 
from  52,500  to  144400  cub.  ft.  and  occaaonally  reaching  515,000  cub. 
ft.  per  second,  might  again  be  considered  as  the  more  important 
of  the  two  rivers.  It  rises  In  Vyatka,  takes  a  wide  sweep  towards 
the  north  and  east,  and  then  flows  south  and  south-west  to  join  the 

Volga  after  a  course  of  no  less  than  1150  m. 

^^  -        -  -  ■-  -        I ....     

»To  the  Votyaks  It  is  known  as  the  Budshlm-Kam,  to  the 
Chttvashes  as  the  Shotga-edil  and  to  the  Tauia  as  the  Cholman-Kiel 
or  Ak-idel|  an  wofdasfaniifyiag  "  Whhe  riv«fc" 


«94 


VOLGA 


Akns  theaert  738  ouofittcooiMtlift  Volf»--aoir58oio  aAKk  ydl. 

wide — ^flows  south-south-west,  with  but  one  great  bend  at  Sainara. 
At  this  point,-  where  it  pierces  a  range  of  limestone  hiUSi 
the  course  of  the  river  is  very  picturesque,  fringed  as 
it  IB  by  cliffs  which  rise  1000  fL  above  the  level  of  the 
•trieani  (which isonly 54 ft. above thescaatSamara).  Along 
the  whole  of  the  Samara  bend  the  Volga  is  accompanied  on  its 
right  bank  by  high  cI'ifTs,  which  it  is  constantly  undermining,  while 
broad  lowland  areas  stretch  alons  the  left  or  eastern  bank,  aiid  are 
intenccted  by  several  old  beds  of  the  Volga. 

At  Tsaritsyn  the  great  river  reaches  lU  extreme  aputhrwcstcn 
Ifanit,  and  is  there  separated  from  the  Don  by  an  isthmus  only 
45  m.  in  width.  The  isthmus  is  too  high  to  be  crossed  by  means 
01  a  canal,  but  a  railway  to  Kalach  brings  the  Volga  into  some  sort 
of  connexion  with  the  Don  and  the  Sea  of  A20V.  At  Tsaritsyn  the 
river  takes  a  sharp  turn  in  a  south-easterly  direction  towards  the 
Caspian;  it  enters  the  Caspian  bteppes,  and  a  few  miles  above 
Tsaritsyn  sends  off  a  branch — the  Akhtuba — which  accompanies 
It  for  330  m.  before  falling  into  the  Caspian.  Here  the  Volga. 
yj^  -  receivea  no  tributaries;   ita  right  bank  a  skirted  by  lew 

iJVjTr  hills»  but  on  the  Wt  it  anastomoses  freely  with  the 
^L^M^  Akhtuba  when  its  waters  are  high,  and  floods  the  cou  ntry  for 
^^  15  to  35  m.  The  width  of  the  main  stream  ranges  from  ^20 

to  3500  yds.  and  the  depth  exceeds  80  f  l  The  ddu  proper  begins 
40  m..  above  Astrakhan,  and  the  branchea  subdivkleeo  as  to  reacb 
the  sea  by  as  many  as  200  separate  mouths.  Bdow  Astrakhan 
nav^twft  is  difficult,  and  on  the  sand-bars  at  the  mouth  the 
maxumim  depth  is  only  12  ft.  In  calm  weather. 

The  figures  given  show  how  immensely  the  river  varies  in 
volume,  and  the  greatness  of  the  changes  which  are  constantly 
going  on  in  the  channel  and-  on  its  banks.  Not  only  does  its 
level  occasionally  rise  in  flood  as  much  as  50  ft.  and  overflow 
its  banks  for  a  distance  of  5  to  15  m.;  even  the  level  of  the 
Caspian  is  considerably  affected  by  the  sudden  influx  of  water 
brought  by  the  Volga.  The  amount  of  suspended  matter 
brought  down  Is  correspondingly  great.  AU  along  its  course 
the  Volga  is  eroding  and  destroying  its  banks  with  great 
rapidity;  towns  and  loading  ports  have  constantly  to  be 
shifted  farther  back. 

The  question  of  the  gradual  desiccation  of  the  Volga,  and 
its  causes,  has  often  been  discussed^  and  in  1838  a  committee 
which  induded  Karl  Baer  among  its  members  was  appointt^d 
by  the  Russian,  academy  of  sciences  to  investigate  the  subject. 
No  pontive  remit  was,  however,  arrived  at,  principally  on 
account  of  the  want  of  regular  measurements' of  the  volume  of 
the  Volga  and  its  tribiAarles^measurements  which  began 
to  be  made  on  scientific  principles  only  in  1880.  Still,  if  we 
go  Wk  two  or  three  centuries,  it  is  indisputable  that  rivers 
Zi  the  Volga  basin  which  were  easily  navigable  then  are  now 
hardly  accessible  to  the  smallest  craft.  The  desiccation  of  the 
rivers  of  Russia  has  been  often  attiibuted.to  the  steady  destruc- 
tion of  its  forests.  But  it  is  obvious  that  there  axe  other 
general  causes  at  work,  which  are  of  a  much  more  important 
character— causes  of  which  the  larger  phenomena  of  the 
general  desiccation  of  Eastern  and  Western  Turkestan  are 
contemporaneous  manifestations.  The  gradual  devation  of 
the  whole  of  northern  Russia  and  Siberia,  and  the  consequent 
draining  of  the  marshes,  is  one  of  these  deeper-seated,  ampler 
causes;  another  is  the  desiccation  of  the  hikes  all  over  the 
northern  hemisphere. 

FM^mu.— The  network  of  shallow  and  still  limans  or  "  cut-offs  " 
In  the  delta  of  the  Volga  axid  the  shallow  waters  of  the  northern 
Caspian,  freshened  as  these  are  by  the  water  of  the  Volga,  the  Urol, 
the  Kuca  and  the  Terek,  is  exceedingly  favourable  to  the  breeding 
of  fish,  and  as  a  whole  constitutes  one  of  the  most  productive 
fishing  grounds  in  the  world.  As  soon  as  the  Ice  breaks  up  in  the 
ddta  innumerable  shoals  of  roach  (Leucisciu  ruiilus)  and  trout 
(LucioiruUa  Uuckkthys)  rush  up  the  river.  ^  Thcv  are  followed  by 
the  great  sturgeon  Qicipenser  huso),  the  pike,  the  bream  and  the 
pike  perch  (jCeuciofeyca  sandm).  Later  on  appears  the  Caspian 
herring  (Clupea  caspia)t  which  formerly  was  neglected,  but  has  now 
become  more  important  than  sturaeon;  the  sturgeon  A,  itelhtus 
and  "wds"  {Silunu  gAiifu)  follow,  and  finally  the  sturgeon 
Acipauer  tflUtnslodlii^  sp  much  valued  for  its  caviare.  In  search 
of  a  gravdly  sivtv'ning^eround  the  sturgeon  go  up  the  river  as  far 
as  Sarepta  (250  m.).  The  lamprey,  now  extcnsivdy  pkrkled.  the 
steriet  {A.  rutkenus\  the  tencn.  the  gudgeon  and  other  fluvial 
•pedes  also  appear  m  immense  numbers.  It  Is  estimated  that 
180,000  tons  of  fish  of  all  kinds,  of  the  value  of  cooskleraUy  over 
£1.500,000.  are  taken  annually  in  the  four  fishing  districts  of  the 
Voiga«  Ural,  Terek  and  -Kura.    Sesl-bi^iUag  is  futkd  00  off  tha 


y^sa  mMth.  aari  eMryretr  about  40JOOO  «f'PlM« 

killed  to  the  north  of  the  Maogbishlak  peninsula  on  the  east  asde  ol 
the  Caspian. 

Ite  Cnerimg. — In  winter  the  numberies*  tributaries  and  sab> 
tributaries  of  tho  Volga  become  highways  for  tledgasL  •  TIm  ic« 
last*  90  to  160  days,  apd  breaks  up  earlier  in  its  upper  course  titan  in 
some  parts  lower  down.  The  avcrsge  date  of  the  Dccak-uQ  m  April 
nth  at  Tver,  and  14  days  later  about  Kostroma,  from  which  potnt 
a  r^ilar  acceleration  is  observed  (April  i6th  at  Kasafi,  A|»il  7th  at 
Tsaritsyn,  and  March  17th  at  Astrakhan). 

rrojif.— 'The  greater  part  of  the  trafiic  u  up  ffvcr,  the  amoaac 
of  merchandise  which  reaches  Astrakhan  being  nearly  fifteen  times 
less  than  that  reaching  St  Petersl)Ufg  by  the  Volga  canals.  The 
goods  transmitted  in  largest  quantity  are  fish,  metan,  manufactured 
wares,  hides,  flax,  timber.cercals,  petroleum,  oilsand  salt.  Thedowa- 
river  traffic  consists  chiefly  of  manufactured  goods  and  timber,  the 
latter  mosdy  for  the  treeless  governments  oC  Samara,  Saratov  and 
Astrakhan,  as  well  as  for  the  region  adjacent  to  the  lower  courBe  of 
the  I>ofi.  Dred^ng  machines  are  kept  constantly  at  work,  whflt 
steamers  are  stationed  near  the  roost  dangerous  sandbanks  to  assist 
vesBcla  that  rua  aground.  The  following  table  shows  the  principal 
river  porta,  with  the  movement  of  shippmg  in  an  aveiage  year:—  - 


Chief  Uvtr 
Boctt  oqUm 


Astrakhan 
Tsaritsvn. 
Rybinsk  . 
Nuhniy* 
Novgorod 
Saratov 


VcMch. 


a.724 
6412 

3 


7606, 


W.960 
1.639 


3.328 
1.48a 
295 


7.58; 
1.73 


938,000 

1.152,000 

590,000 

4,P92.'boo 
923.000 


Toot. 


3.7 


734.000 
'462,000 
172.000 

84,000 
128,000 


TottL. 


4.672,000 

1,614,000 

762,000 

4,176,000 
1,051,000 


Apprao- 


£ 
7.812,000 
5.000.000 

3.573.a», 

a.7a7J»( 
1.882,00^ 


Formeriy  tetu  of  thousands  of  burlaki,  or' porters,  were  emplovtd 
in  dragging  boats  up  the  Volga  and  its  tributaries,  but  this  mctfiod 
of  tracdon  has  disappeared  unless  from  a  few  of  the  tributarica 
Horse>power  is  Mill  extensively  resorted  to  along  the  three  caaol 
aystcms..  The  first  laxge  steamers  of  the  American  t>pe  were  builc 
in  X872.'  Thousands  of  steamers  are  now  employed  m  the  traffic, 
to  say  nothing  of  smaller  .boats  and  rafts.  Many  of  the  steamers 
use  as  fuel  mastU  or  petroleum,  refuse.  Large  numbers  of  the  boats 
and  rafts  are  broken  up  after  a  single  voyage 

nisiory.—Tht  Volga  was  not  improbably  known  to  the  eu)y 
Greeks,  though  it  is  not  mentioned  by  any  writer  previous  to 
Ptolemy.  According  to  him,  tbe-Rha  is  a  tributary  of  an 
interior  sea,  formed  from  the  confluence  of  two  great  rivers, 
the  sources  of  which  are  separated  by  twenty  degrees  of  longi- 
tude, but  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  judge  from  his  statements 
how  far  the  Slavs  had  by  that  time  succeeded  in  penetrating 
into  the  basin  of  the  Volga.  The  Arab  geographers  throw 
little  li^t  on  the  condition  of  the  .Volga  during- the  great 
migrations  of  the  3rd  century,  or  subsequently  tmder  the 
invasion  of  the  Huns,  the  growth  of  the  Khazar  empire  in  the 
southern  steppes  and  of  that  of  Bulgaria  on  the  middle  Volga. 
But  we  know  that  in  the  9th  century  the  Volga  basin  was 
occupied  by  Finnish  tribes  in  the  north  and  by  Khazars  and 
various  Turkish  races  in  the  south.  The  Slavs,  driven  perhaps 
to  the  west,  had  only  the  Volkhov  and  the  Dnieper,  while  the 
(Mahommedan)  Bulgarian  empire,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Volga  with  the  Kama,  was  so  powerful  that  for  some  time 
it  was  an  open  question  whether  Islam  or  Christianity  would 
gain  the  upper  hand  among  the  SUv  idolaters.  But,  while 
the  Russians  were  driven  from  the  Black  Sea  by  the.KhazarSy 
and  later  on  by  a  tide  of  Ugrian  migration  from  the  north-east, 
a  stream  of  Slavs  moved  slowly  towards  the  north-east,  down 
the  upper  Oka,  into  the  botdcrland  between  the  Finnish  and 
Turkish  regions.  After  two  centuries  of  struggle  the  Russians 
succeeded  in  colonizing  the  fertile 'vallejps  of  the  Oka  basin; 
in  the  12th  century  thqr  buUt  a  series  of  fortified  towns  on  the 
Oka  and  Klyazma;  and  finally  they  reached  the  mouth  of  the 
Oka,  there  founding  (in  1222)  a  new  Novgorod— the  Novgorod 
of  the  Lowlands,  now  Nizhniy-Novgcrod.  The  great  lacustrine 
depression  of  the  middle  Volga  iras  thus  reached;  and 
when  the  Mongol  invasion  of  z  239-42  came,  it  encountered  in 
the  Oka  basin  a  dense  agricultural  population  with  nuusy 
fortified  and  wealthy  towns— m  population  which  the  Mongols 
found  they  could  conquer,  indeeid,  but  were  unable  to  drive 
befoEs  the«k  u  thxy  h^  done  so  many  <rf  the  Turkish  tiibci. 


VDLHYJIIA— VOtLMAR 


«95 


TUs  Invasion  checked  but  <fitf  not  Mop  the  advance  of 
the  Rusaums  down  the  Volga.  Two  centttries  lapsed  before 
the  Russians  covered  the  300  m.  which  separate  the  mouths 
ci  the  0^  and  the  Kama  and  took  possession  of  Kasafi.  But 
in  the  meanthne  a  flow  ol  Novgorodian  cotonfti^tSon  had 
moved  eastward,  along  the  upper  portions  of  the  left-bank 
tributaries  of  the  Vol^,  and  had  reached  the  Urab. 

With  the  capture  of  Ka^fi  (1552)  the  Russians  fbtnid  the 
lower  Volga  open  to  their  boats,  and  eight  years  afterwards 
they  were  masters  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  at  Astrakhan. 
Two  centuries  more  elapsed  before  the  Russians  secured  a  free 
passage  to  the  Black  Sea  and  became  masters  of  ^e  Sea  of 
Azov  and  the  Crimea;  the  Volga,  however,  was  tb«ir  route. 
During  these  two  centuries  they  fortified  the  lower  river, 
settled  it,  and  penetrated  farther  eastward  into  th^  steppes 
towards  the  upper  Ural  and  thence  to  the  upper  parts  of  the 
t'obol  and  other  great  Siberian  rivers. 

BrBLiocRAPHY.— P.  P.  Semenov's  Ceopuphkai  'and  Staiistied 
Dietimtan  (5  voh.,  St  Petcnbui^,  l86;}-85)  contains  a  f^Il  biblio* 
nraphy  of  the  Volga  and  tribu  canes.    See  also  V.  Rascnn's   VoIm 
vola.,  St  PetcfdNin,  iMo^i*  with  atlas;    in   Rueciaa);     N. 


Boffolyubov,  tJu  VolMa  from  7W  /o  Astrakhan  (Russian,  1876); 
H.  RosWoschny,  Die  WtAia  und  ikrt  ZtOlHsse  (Leipzig.  1S87,  vol.  I.), 
history,    ethno^phy,    nydioerepky   and   t>iciigtaMiy,    with   rich 


^m 


b&lkignplMcal  infomiatioa}  N.  Boguslscvakiy,  The  Ko^m  of  •  Means 
«/  CommunieaHan  (Rusdan,  1887),  with  detailed  profile  and  mape; 
Peretyatkovich,  VoiM  Region  in  the  i^th  and  16th  Centuries  (1877); 
and  Lender.  Dm  Waga  (1889).  (P.  A.  K. ;  J.  T.  Be.) 

VOLHTNIAr  a  government  of  south-western  Russia,  bounded 
by  the  Polish  icovemments  of  Lublin  and  Siicdke  on  the  W., 
Grodno  and  Minsk  on  the  N.,  Kicy  on  the  £.  and  Podolia  and 
Galicii  (Austria)  on  the  S.,  with  an  area  of  27,690  sq.  m.'  A 
brOad,  flat  spur  of  the  Carpathians— the  Avratynsk  plateau — 
which  entens  from  the  west,  and  stretches  out  eastward  towards 
the  Dnieper  occupies  its  southern  portion,  reaching  a  maximum 
ekyation  of  1200  ft.;  another  bnnch  of  the  Carpathians  in 
the  west  ol  the  government  rangos  between  700  and  900  ft.  at 
its  highest  points.  Both  are  deeply  grooved  in  places,  and 
the  crags  give  a  hilly  aspect  to'  the^  districts  in  which  they  occur. 
The  remainder  of  the  government,  which  is  ^uite  flat,  with 
an  imperceptible  slope  towards. the  marshes  of  Pinak,  is  knpwn 
as  the  Polyesie  (see  Minsk). 

The  population  in  1906  was  estimated  at  3fS47«5oo.  Some 
three-fourths  of  the  population  are  Little  Rutsiaiy;  the 
Mier  elements  are  White  and  Great  Russians,  Poles  (5-2%), 
Jews  (x3'a%)  and  Germans  (5*7  %).  The  govemmeot 
il  divided  into  twelve  districts,  the  chief  towns  of  which 
are  Zhitomir,  the  capital,  Dubno,  Kovel,  Kremenets,  Lutsk, 
Novopad  Vdhynskiy,  Ostrog*  Ovruch,  Vladimir  Volhynskiy, 
Rovm^  Staro-Kopstantiaov  and  Zaslavl.  The  conditions  of 
peasant  ownersh^  differ  from'  those  which  pfSvaU  in  other 
parts  of  Russia,  and  of  the  total  area  the  peasants  hold  ap- 
proidmau^yr  oncUialf;  42%  of  the  total  »  m  the  han^ls  of 
private  owners,  a  considerable  number  of  Germans  having  settled 
Iknd  bought  land  in  the  governmcsit. 

Forests  cover  nearly  50%  of  the  area  in  the  north  (that  i%  In  the 
Polype)  and  15%  elsewhere.     Agriculture  b  well  developed  in  • 
the  south,  and  in  I900  there  were  4.222,400  acres    (24%)  under 
cereal  crops  alone.     In  the  Potyesie  the  principal  occupationB  are 
connected  with  the  export  of  timber  and  nrewood,  tha  preparation 
of  pitch,  tar,  potaah  and  wooden  waits,  and  boat-building.    LigTute , 
ana  coaL  sojpe^graphtte  and  kaolin,  arc  m^lncd,  as  also  amber,  which 
is  often  found  in  biglumps.    Manufacturing  industries  are  not  very 
highly  developed.    The  factories  are  confined  to  suRar  works,  dis- . 
tillenes,  wooHea  mills,  and  candle,  tobacco^  gtaai,  doth  and  agtv 
cultural  machinery  works.     E>onicstic  industry  in  the  villagos  is 
chiefly  limited  to  the  ranking  of  wooden  jeoods,  including  parquetfy.- 
The  exports  of  grain  and  timber,  chleny  to  Germany  and   Great 
Britain,  and  of  wool  and  cattle,  are  considerable. 

Volhynia  has  been  inhabited  by  $Iavs  from  a  remote  antiquity. 
In  Nestor's  Annals  its  people  are  mentioned  under  the  name  of 
Dulcbs,  and  later  in  the  12th  century  they  were  known  as 
Velhynians  and  Buzhans  (dwellers  on  the  Bug).  From  the 
9th  century  the  towns  of  Volhynia-Vladimif,  Ovruch,  Lutsk 
and  Dubno  were  ruled  by  descendants  of  the  Scandinavian 
6r  VarangUn  chief  Rurik,  and  the  land  of  Volhynia  remained 


independent  nntfl  the  X4th  century,  when  it  fell  under  Lfthttanla. 
In  1569, it  was  annexed  to  Poland,  and  so  remained  n(iti!  1795, 
when  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  Russia. 

.  VOLK,  LEONARD  WBLL8  (x82a-x895),  American  sculptor, 
was  bom  at  Wellstown  (noW  Wells),  Hamilton  county,  New 
York,  on  the  7th  of  November  1828.  He  first  followed  the 
trade  of  a  marble  cutter  with  his  father  at  Pittsfield,  Massa- 
chusetts., In  1848  he  opened  a  studio  at  St  Louis,  Missouri, 
and  in  1855  was  sent  by  his  wife's  cousin,  Stephen  A.  Douglas, 
to  Rome  to  study;  Retttramg  to  America  in  1857,  he  settled 
in  Chicago,  where  he  helped  to  establish  an  Academy  of  Design 
and  was  for  eij^t  yean  its  head.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  the  Douglas  monument  at  CfaScago  and  the  Soldiers'  and 
Sailors'  monument  at  Rochester,  New  York,  and  statues  of 
President  Lincoln  and  Stephen  A.  Douglas  (in  the  Illinois  State 
Capitol  at  Springfieldi  Bl.),  and  of  General  James  Shields  (in 
Sutuary  Hall,  Capitol,  Washington),  Elihu  B.  Washburn, 
Zachariah  Chandler  and  David  Davis.  In  x86o  he  made  a  life- 
mask  (now  in  the  National  Museum,  Washington)  of  Lincoln, 
of  wh<Mn  only  one  other,  by  Clark  MiDs  in  1865,  was  ever  made. 
His  son,  Douglas  Volk  (b.  1856),  figure  and  portrait  painter, 
who  studied  under  J.  L.  G6r6me  in  Paris,  becsme  a  member 
of  the  Sodety  of  American  Artists  in  1S80  and  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  in  1899. 

V€LK8RUST,  a  town  of  the  Thmsvaal,  175  m.  S.£.  of 
Johannesburg  and  308  m.  N.N.W.  of  Durban.  Pop.  (1904) 
2382,  of  whom  X342  were  whiles.  The  town  lies  at. an  ele- 
vation of  5429  ft.  just  within  the  Transvaal  frontier  and  4  m.  N. 
of  the  pass  through  the  Drakensberg  known  as  Laing's  Nek. 
It  a  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  district.  It  was  founded 
by  the  Boer  government  in  t888.  As  a  customs  port  of  entry 
it  Was  of  some  importance,  uxd  it  niaintains  its  position  as 
a  distributing  depot.  It  was  created  a  municipality  hi  1903. 
Sandstone  is  quarried  in  the  dbtrict. 

VOLLBHDAM,  a  small  fishmg  vilhge  of  Holhnd  hi  the 
province  of  North  Holland,  adjoining  Edam  on  the  shores  of 
the  Zulder  Zee.  It  is  remsikable  for  the  quaintness  of  the 
buildmgs  and  the  picturesque  costume  of  the  villagers,  who  are 
of  a  singularly  dark  and  robust  type.  Many  artists  have  been 
attracted  to  settle  here.  VoUendm  has  its  origin  in  the  build- 
ing of  the  great  seardam  for  the  new  .waterway  to  £dam  in  the 
middle  of  the  14th  century.  On  the  seaward  side  of  the  dike 
afe  some  houses  btiilt  on  piles  in  the  style  of  lake  dweUtngs. 

VOUJIAR,  GEORO  HBINRICH  VOH  (x8so-  ),  German 
Socialist,  was  bom  at.  Munich  hi  1850.  He  was  educated  in  a 
school  attached  to  a  Benedictine  monfutery  at  Augsburg,  and 
in  1865  entered  the  Bavarian  army  as  a  lieutenant  in  a  cavalry 
regiment.  He  served  in  the  campaign  of  1866,  and  then 
entered  the  papal  army  as  a  volunteer.  In  1869  he  returned 
to  Germany,  and  during  the  war  with  France  served  in  the  army 
railway  department.  He  was  severely  wounded  at  Blois  aiui 
pensioned.  Permanently  crippled  by.  his  wounds,  he  devoted 
himself  to  political  and  social  studies.  In  1872  he  was  con- 
verted to  the  principles  of  Social  Democracy,  and  threw  himself 
with  gieat  energy  into  political  agitation.  In  X877  he  became 
editor  of  the  party  organ  at  Dresden,  and  under  the  Socialist 
law  was  repeatedly,  condemned  to  various  terms  of  imprisonment, 
and  was  sdso  expelled  from  that  city.  From  1879  to  1882  he 
lived  at  Zilrich,  then  the  headquarters  of  Social  Democracy, 
when,  besides  attending  the  university,  he  took  part  in  editing 
the  Social  Domokrat.  In  18&1  he  was  elected  member  of  the 
Reichstag,  and  from  1883  to  1889  was  a  member  of  the  Saxon 
diet.  After  1885  he  resided  in  Bavaria,  and  it  was  to  him 
that  was  chiefly  due  the  great  success  of  the  Socialists  in  the 
older  Bavarian  provinces.  He  identified  himself  with  the  more 
moderate  and  opportunist  section  of  the  Socialist  party,  deci^vcly 
dissociating  himself  from  the  doctrine  of  a  sudden  and  violent 
overthrow  of  society,  and  urging  his  associates  to  co-operate  in 
bringing  about  a  gradual  development  towards  the  Socialistic 
state.  He  refused  to  identify  Social  Democracy  with  the  extreme 
views  as  to  religion  and  the  family  advocated  by  Bcbel,  and 
successfully  resisted  attempts  made  in  1891  to  expel  him  from 


xq6 


VOtNBY— VOLOGDA 


tbe  ptity  in  conaegqencegf  htoopjnfont.  .He  became  a  member 

<rf  the  Bavaxian  Diet  in  1893. 

In  addition  to  a  couple  of  booka  on  the  pnaervmtioa  of  tonau,  be 
published  Der  isolierte  SonaU  Stoat  Uiarich,  iMo). 

VOLNET,  CONSTAMTIN  FRANCOIS  CHASSBB(BUP»  Coins 
OE  (1757-1820),  French  sofiant,  wag  bom  at  Crapp  (Maine-et- 
.  Loire)  on  the  3rd  of  February  1757,  of  good  family;  he  was  at 
first  sumamed  Boisgirais  from  his  father's  estate,  but  afterwards 
assumed  the  name  of  Vobey.  He  spent  some  four  years  in 
Egypt  and  Syria,  and  published  his  Voyage  m  ^ypl*  el  en 
Syrie  in  1787,  and,  Considiraiions  sur  la  punt  des  Turcs  ei  de  la 
Russie  in  1788.  He  was  a  member  both  of  the  States-General 
and  of  the  Constituent  Assembly.  In  179 1  appeared  Les  RuincSy 
ou  mldilalions  sur  Us  rtvolutioru  des  empires,  an  essay  on  the 
philosophy  of  faistoiy,  containing  a  vision  which  predicts  the 
final  union  of  all  religions  by  the  recognition  of  the  common 
truth  underlying  them  alL  Volney  tried  to  put  his  politico- 
economic  theories  into  practice  in  Corsica,  where  in  2793  he 
bought  an  estate  and  made  an  attempt  to  cultivate  colonial 
produce.  He  was  thrown  into,  prison  during  the  jKobin 
triumph,  but  escaped  the  guillotine.  He  was  some  time 
professor  of  history  at  the  newly  founded  £cole  Normale^  In 
1795  he  undertook  a  journey  to  the  United  States,  where  he 
was  accused  in  1797  of  being  a  French  spy  sent  to  prepare  for 
the  reCH:cupation  of  Louisiana  by  France.  He  was  obl^ed 
to  return  to  France  in  179&  The  results  of  his  travels  took 
form  in  his  Tableau  du  climat  et  du  sd  des  £lats-Unis  (1803). 
He  was  not  a  partisan  of  Napoleon,  but,  being  a  moderate 
jnan,  a  sofant  and  a  Liberal,  was  improsed  into  service  by 
the  emperor,  who  made  him  a  count  and  put  him  into  the  senate. 
■At  the  restoration  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France.  He  became 
^  member  o(  the  Institute  in  2795.  He  died  in.  Paris  on  the 
d5th  of  April  zSsa 

VOLOi  a  towB  and  seaport  ot  Greece,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Thessaly,  at  the  head,  of  the  gulf  to  which  it  gives  its  name. 
Pop.  (1907)  33,3x9.  It  is  the  chief  seaport  and  second  in- 
dustrial town  of  Thessaly,  connected  by  rail  with  the  town  of 
Larissa.  The  anchorage  is  safe,  vessels  loading  and  discharging 
by  means  of  lighters.  Ihe  port  has  a  depth  of  33  to  a  5  ft. 

The  Kastro,  or  dtadcl.  of  Volo  stands  on  or  doce  to  the  site  of 
Pagasae,  whence  the  gulf  took  the  name  of  Sinus  Pagasaeus  or 
Pagasicus,  and  which  was  one  of  the  oldest  places  of  which  mention 
oocun  In  the  ksendaiy  history  of  Greece.  Fiorn  thia  port  the 
Afgonautic  expedition  was  said  to  have  sailed,  and  it  was  already 
a  flourishing  place  under  the  tyrant  Jason,  who  from  the  nejdibour- 
ing  Pherae  ruled  over  all  Thessaly.  Two  miles  fanher  south  stand 
the  ruins  of  Demctrias,  foumlcd  (290  B.C.)  by  f)emetrius  Poliorcetcs, 
and  for  some  time  a  favourite  residence  01  the  Macedonian  Idngs. 
On  the  opposite  aide  of  the  little  inlet  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  rises  the 
hill  of  £pisoo|M,  on  which  stood  the  ancient  city  of  lokus.  At 
Dimini.  about  3  m.  \V.  of  Volo,  several  tombs  have  Been  found  which 
yielded  reniains  of  the  later  Myccnean  Age. 

V0L00ABSE8  (Vologaesus,  Vologases;  on  the  coins 
Ologases\  Armch.  Valarsk\  •  Mod.  Pers.  Bala^k),  the  name 
of  five  Parthian  kings. 

(i)  VoLOCAESES  I.,  son.  of  Vonones  11.  by  a  GreeK  con- 
cubine (Tac.  Anru  xii.  44),  succeeded  his  father  in  a.d.  51 
(Tac.  Ann.  xii.  14;  cf.  Joseph.  Ant.  xx.  3,  4).  He  gave  the 
kingdom  of  Media  Atropatcne  to  his  brother  Pacorus,  and 
occupied  Armenia  for  another  brother,  Tiridates  (Tac.  Ann, 
xii.  50,  XV.  2;  Joseph.  Ant.  xx.  3,  4).  This  led  to  a  long 
war  with  Rome  (54-63)1  which  was  ably  conducted  by  the 
Roman  general  Corbulo.  The  power  of  Vologacses  was 
weakened  by  an  attack  of  the  Dahan  and  Sacan  nomads, 
a  rebellion  of  the  Hyrcanians,  and  the  usurpation  of  VardanesII. 
(Tac.  Ann.  xiil.  7,  37;  xiv.  25;  xv.  1;  cf.  Joseph.  Ant. 
XX.  4,  2,  where  he  is  prevented  from  attacking  the  vassal 
king  of  Adiabcne  by  an  invasion  of  the  eastern  nomads). 
At  last  a  peace  was  concluded,  by  which  Tiridates  was  ac- 
knowledged as  king  of  Armenia,  but  had  to  become  a  vassal 
of  the  Romans;  he  went  to  Rome,  where  Neto  gave  him 
back  the  diadem  (Tac.  Ann.  xv.  iff.;  Dio  Cass.  Ixii.  19  flf., 
Urn.  I  ff.);  from  that  time  an  Arsacid  dynasty  ruled  in  Armenia 
under  Roman  supremacy.    Vologaeses  was  latis^ed  with  this 


result.  Mad  bonoused  tba  mtmoty  of  Hen  (SmC  Nmm,  57), 

though  he  stood  in  good  relations  with  Vespasian  also,  to  whom 
he  offered  an  army  of  40iOoo  archers  in  the  war  against  VitelUus 
(Tac.  HisL  iv.  51;   Suet,    Vespas,  6;  cL  Joseph.  Ani.   viL 
5>  <•   7»  Si  I^io  Cass.  Ixvi  ix).    Soon  afterwards  the  Alaai, 
a  great  nomadic  tribe  beyond  the  Caucasus,  invaded  Media 
and  Armenia  Q^^pb*  BelL  vU.  7,  4);  Vologaeses  applied  in 
vain  for  help  to  Yeiv>asian  (Dio  Cass.  Ixvi.  jx; SueL  Dffmitian,  2). 
It  appears  that  the  Persian  losses  in  the  east  abo  could  not  be 
repaired;  Hyrcania  remained  an  independent  kingdom  (Joseph. 
BeU,  vii.  7,4{  Aurel.   VicL  £^.  15,  4).    Voloffuses  I.  died 
about  AJ>.  77.    His  reign  is  marked  by  a  decided  reactioa 
against  Hellenism;  he  built  Vologesocerta  (Balashkert)  in  the 
neighboarheod  of  Ctesiphon  with  the  intention  of  drawing  to 
this  new  town  the  inhabitants  of  the  Greek  city  Seleuda  (Plin. 
vi,  X33).    Another  town  founded  by  him  is  Vologesias  on  a 
canal  of  the  Euphrates,  south  of    Babylon   (near  Him;   d 
Ndldeke  in  Zeitscknft  der  deulsckcn-morgniL  Cesellsckqft,  xxviii. 
93  fl.).   On  some  of  his  coins  the  initials  of  his  name  appear  xb 
Aramaic  letters. 

(3)  VotOGAESES  n.,  probably  the  ion  of  Vologaeses  L, 
appears  on  coins,  which  bear  his  proper  nanoe,  Ih  77-79^  and 
again  xax-47.  During  this  time  the  Parthian  kiiigdom  was 
torn  by  dvil  watS  between  different  pretenders,  whidi  readied 
thdr  height  during  the  war  of  Trajan,  xt4-x7.  Besido 
Vologaeses  II.  we  find  on  coins  and  in  the  anthors  Pacoos 
(7S-C.  X05),  Artabanus  III.(8o-8i),  Osroes  (106-39),  Mithradaua 
V.  (c.  X  39-47)  and  some  others;  thus  the  Parthian  empire  seems 
dtiring  this  whole  time  to  have  been  divided  Into  two  or  three 
different  kingdoms.  By  classic  authors  Vologaeses  n.  is  men- 
tioned in  the  time  of  Hadrian  (r.  131),  when  Cappadoda,  Armenia 
and  Media  were  invaded  by  the  Alani  (Dio  Cass.  bdx.  1$). 

(3)  V0LOOAESC8  III.,  i47^r-  Under  him,  the  unity  of 
the  empire  was  restored.  But  he  was  attacked  by  the  Romans 
under  Marcus  Aurdius  and  Verus  (16^-65).  In  this  war 
Seleuda  was  destroyed  and  the  palace  of  Ctesiphon  burnt  down 
by  Avidittt  Cassius  (1^4);  the  Romans  even  advanced  into 
Media.  In  the  peace,  western  Mesopotamia  was  ceded  to  the 
Romans  (Dio  Cass.  Ixxi.  1  ff.;  CapitoKn.  Mare.  Aw.Bf.\  Veras 
8,  itt.).  Vologaeses  III.  is  probably  the  king  Volgash  of  the 
Parsee  tradition,  preserved  in  the  Dinkart,  who  began  the  gather- 
faig  of  the  writmgs  of  Zoroaster. 

(4)  Vologaeses  IV.,  191-309.  I^«  was  attacked  by  Septtmlos 
Sevefus  ia  195,  who  advance  into  Mesopotamia,  occupied 
NiaUs  and  pitmdered  Ctesiphon  (199),  but  attempted  in  vain 
to  conquer  the  Arabic  fortress  Atra;  in  303  peace  was  restored. 

(5)  VoLOGA£SES  V.,  309~«.  333,  son  of  Vologaests  IV:  Soon 
after  his  accession  his  brother  Artabanus  IV.,  the  hst  Arsadd 
king,  rebelled  against  him,  and  became  master  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  empire  (Dfo  Cass.  IxxvH.  13).  But  Vologaeses  V. 
maintained  himsdf  in  a^part  of  Babylonia;  .his  dated  coiqs 
readi  down  to  a.o.  3S3.  (£■»•  M  ) 

VOEAQDA»  a  government  of  nortb-esstem  Russia,  having  the 
government  of  Archangel  on  the  N.;  Tbbolsk  on  the  E.,  Perm, 
Vyatka,  Kostroma  and  Varosbvt  on  the  S.,  Novgotx>d,  iMoncta 
and  Archangel  on  the  W.  This  immense  government,  which 
comprises  an  area  of  i  $5,3 18  sq.  m.,  stretches  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  for  800  m.,  from  Novgorod  to  the  Urals,  and 
indudes  the  broad  depression  drained  by  the  Sukhona  frcm 
the  S.W.,  and  the  Vychegda  from  the  N.E.,  both  head-wateis 
of  the  N.  Dvina.  From  the  basin  of  the  Volga  it  is  sq)arated 
by  a  flat,  swampy,  wooded  swelling,  where  the  beads  of  tribu- 
taries belonging  to  both  Arctic  and  Caspian  drainage-areas 
are  closely  intermingled.  The  eastern  boundaiy  of  Vologda 
follows  the  main  water-parting  6f  the  Urals,  which  has  but  few 
points  over  3000  ft.;  wide  parrias,  or  vcoody  plateaus,  fill  up 
the  space  between  the  main  chain  of  the  IJrals  and  the  southern 
spurs  of  the  Timan  Mountains,  in  the  upper  basin  of  the  Pechora. 
It  is  above  the  ^armo*— especially  over  those  which  ara 
nearest  the  Urals  proper— that  the  highest  summits  of  the 
Urals  rise  in  the  form  of  dome-shaped  mountains  (TOU-pos-ti, 
5335  ft.;  Kothem-ia,  4235  ft.;  Shadmaha,  41 15  ft.}.  The  Timan 


VOLOGDA—VOLSCI 


197 


MounUiw  m  a  fttmiipy  pbtcav,  vboe  the  riven  Bowing  to 
the  N.  Dvina  or  to  the  Pecbont  take  Uidr  rise  ia  eommon 
marshes;  to  that  oa  the  Mylva  poctage  boats  have  to  be 
dragged  a  distance  of  oaiy  3  m.  to  be  tiaiwportrd  fiom  one 

system  to  the  other. 

Pcrmiao  sandstones  and  cuprileious  sbtes  cover  most  of  the 
territory:  only  a  few  patches  of  Jurassic  clays  overiie  them:  in 
the  east,  in  the  Ural  parmos,  coal-bean  ng  Carbonirerous,  Devonian 
and  Silurian  slates  and  limestones  appear,  wrapping  the  crystalline 
slates  of  the  main  ridge.  Vast  layers  of  boulder  clay  and  Lacustrine 
dcposiu  overlie  the  wholes  Rock>9alt  and  salt  sbrings,  inm  one. 
milUtones  and  grindstones  are  the  chid  minenl  products:  but 
mining  n  in  its  Infancy. 

The  river  Sukhona,  which  rises  in  the  aeuth-wast  and  flows 


proceeds  _ 

740  m.  long  and  navigable  for  570  m.,  though  it  passes  through  a 
neariy  uninhabited  regioa.  The  Luza,  a  tributary  of  the  Yug,  ts 
also  navigated  for  more  than  950  m.  The  Pechora,  which  flows 
through  eastern  Vblcfda,  b  an  artery  for  the  export  of  com  and  the 
import  of  fish.  The  Pinega,  the  Meaeft  and  the  Vaga,  all  belonging 
to  the  Arctic  basin,  rise  In  northern  Vologda.  In  the  south-west  the 
Sukhona  is  connected  by  means  of  Lake  Kubina  and  the  canal  of 
Aleyaiwtrr  vea  WiUtteiabeiv  with  the  upper  Volga.  Numberiess 
smaller  lakes  occur,  «nd  flpaiahes  eover  «  omsiderable  part  of  the 
surface. 

The  dimate  is  severe,  the  average  yeariy  temperature  being 
56*  F.  at  Vologda  fjan.,  io*-7;  July,  63^-5)  and  ja'-S  at  Ust-Sysolsk 
Uan^  4*-«;  July,  61  ••7). 

The  flora  and  the  physical  aspects  vary  gitatly  aa  the  traveller 
moves  north-east  down  the  Sukhona  and  up  the  Vychegda,  towards 
the  parmas  of  the  Pechora.  In  the  aouth-west  the  forests  are  cleared, 
and  the  dry  slopes  of  the  hills  have  been  converted  into  fields  and 
awadows;  the  population  is  relativeljr  dense,  and  neariy  one-quarter 
of  the  area  is  under  crops.  Ther;  is  a  surplus  of  grain,  which  is 
used  for  di<itil!eries.  ana  apples  are  extensively  cidiivated.  The 
flora  b  middle- Russian.  Farther  north-east  the  climate  grows  more 
severe;  but  still,  until  the  Dvina  is  reached,  corn  succeeds  well, 
and  there  b  no  kick  of  excellent  meadows  on  the  river-terraces. 
Flax  b  cultivated  for  export:  but  only  4%  of  the  area  is  tilled,  the 
remainder  being  covered  with  thkJc  flr  forests  wHh  occasions^  groups 
of  deciduous  trees  (birch,  aspen,  elder).  At  about  46*  E.  the  larch 
appears  and  soon  supersedes  the  fir.  Several  plants  unknown  In 
western  Russb  make  their  appearance  {Silene  tartaricot  Antkyllis 
vutturariat  Euphorbia  palustns,  Filago  arvensis,  Lyeo^ium  com- 
planatum,  Sanptisorba  officimatis).  The  l^cfalrKM  is  espenally 
characteristic;  it  sometimes  encroaches  on  jthe  meadows  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  compel  their  abandonment.  The  region  of  the  upper 
Mexefl  (the  Udora)  aeain  has  a  distinctive  character.  The  winter 
b  so  protracted,  and  the  snowfall  so  copious,  that  the  Syryenians  are 
sometimes  compelled  to  clear  away  the  snow  from  their  barley-fields. 
But  the  summer  b  so  hot  (a  mean  of  54*  for  the  three  summer  months) 
that  barley  ripens  within  forty  days  after  beins  town.  The  Timan 
plateaus  are  a  marked  boundary  for  the  nuddle- Russian  flora. 
lliose  to  the  east  of  them  are  uninhabitable;  even  on  the  banks 
of  the  rivers  the  climate  b  so  severe,  especially  on  account  of  the 
icy  northern  winds,  that  rye  and  bariey  are  mostly  grown  only  in 
orchards.  The  whole  b  covered  with  quite  impenetrable  forests, 
crowing  on  a  soil  saturated  with  water.  Moaauitoes  swarm  in  the 
forests;  birds  are  rare.  The  Siberian  cedar  begins  and  the  lime 
tree  disappears.  Fir,  cedar,  pine  and  larch  compose  the  forests, 
with  birch  and  aspen  on  their  outskirts.  Hunting  b  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  Syryenian  inhabitants. 

The  popuUtioa  was  estimated  in  1906  at  1,51 7,500, of  whom 
57,407  lived  in  towns;  90%  were  Great  Russians  and  8*4% 
Syiyeniaos  {q.v.).  The  gpvenunent  b  divided  into  ten  districts, 
the  chief  towns  of  which  are  Vologda,  Gryazovets,  Kadnikov, 
Nikolsk,  Solvychegodsk,  Totma  or  Totyma,  Ustyug  Velikiy, 
Ust-Sysokk,  Velsk  and  Yarensk.  Agricultuie  thrives  in  the 
three  south-western  dbtricts.  Live-stock  breeding  occnpies 
considerable  numbers  of  people.  A  littje  salt  b  raised,  and 
there  are  a  few  ironworks,  but  manufacturing  industries  are  in 
their  infancy;  the  chief  branch  is  the  weaving  of  linen  in  the 
villages.  (P.  A.  K.;  J.  T.  Be.) 

VOLOGDA,  a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of  the 
same  name,  situated  in  its  south-western  comer  on  the  river 
Votogda,  above  its  confluence  with  the  navigable  Sukhona, 
127  m.  by  rail  N.  of  Yaroslavl.  Pop.  (1881)  i7/>35;  (1897) 
37,831.  It  b  an  old  town,  having  many  ancient  ctrarchM, 
including  one  which  dates  from  the  12th  centnry,  and  the 
cathedral,  foonded  in  1568.  Vologda  b  a  considerable  com- 
mercial centre— flax,  linseed,  oau,  heny,  butter  and  eggs 


being  exported  to  both  St  Petersbuig  and  Archangel.  It  has 
distilleries,  tanneries,  and  oil,  soap,  tobacco,  candle  and  fur- 
dressing  works. 

Vok>gda  existed  as  a  trading  town  as  eariy  as  the  i2tli 
century  It  was  a  colony  of  Novgorod,  and  was  founded  in 
1147,  and  carried  on  a  brisk  trade  in  flax,  tallow,  furs,  com, 
leather  and  manufactured  goods.  In  1273  it  was  plundered 
by  the  prince  of  Tver  in  idliance  with  the  Tatars,  but  soon 
recovered  Moscow  dbputed  its  possession  with  Novgorod 
until  the  istb  century,  the  Moscow  princes  intrigued  to  find 
soppoift  amidst  the  poorer  inhabitants  against  the  richer  Nov- 
gorod merchants,  and  four  successive  times  Vologda  had  to 
fight  against  its  metropolis.  It  was  definitely  annexed  to 
Moscow  In  t447.  When  Archangel  was  founded,  and  opened 
for  foreign  trade  in  1553,  Vologda  became  the  chief  depot  for 
goods  exported  through  that  channel  Polish  bands  plundered 
it  in  1613,  and  the  plague  of  1648  devastated  it,  but  it  main- 
tained its  onmmerdal  importance  until  the  foundation  of 
St  Petcr^urg.  when  Russian  foreign  trade  took  another  channel 

VOiSCl,  an  ancient  Italian  people,  well  known  in  the  history 
of  the  fiist  century  of  the  Roman  Republic.  They  then,  in- 
habited the  partly  billy,  partly  marshy  district  of  the  S.  of 
Latium,  bounded  by  the  Aurund  and  Samnites  on  the  S., 
the  Hemid  on  the  E.,  and  stretching  roughly  from  Norba 
and  Cora  in  the  N.  to  Antium  In  the  S.  They  were 
among  the  most  dangerous  enemies  of  Rome,  and  frequently 
allied  with  the  Aequi,  whereas  the  Hemid  from  486  B.C. 
onwards  were  the  allies  of  Rome.  In  the  Volsdan  territory  lay 
the  little  town  of  Velitrae(VeUetri),the  birthplace  of  Augustus. 
From  this  town  we  have  a  very  interesting  though  brief  in- 
scription dating  probably  from  early  in  the  3rd  century  B.C.; 
it  b  cut  upon  a  small  bronze  plate  (now  in  the  Naples  Museum), 
which  must  have  once  been  fixed  to  some  votive  object,  dedi-> 
cated  to  the  god  Declunus  (or  the  goddess  Decluna). 

The  htnguage  of  thb  inscription  is  clear  enough  to  show  the 
very  marked  pecullarittes  which  rank  it  dose  beside  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Iguvine  Tables  (see  Icuvixm).  It  shows  on  the 
one  hand  the  labialisation  of  the  original  velar  ^(Volscfan  pis^ 
Latin  qms)^  and  on  the  other  hand  it  palatalizes  the  guttural 
c  before  a  following  i  (Volsdan  /ffcid*  Latin  Jaciat).  Like 
Umbrian  also,  but  unlike  Latin  and  Oscan,  it  has  degraded  all 
the  diphthongs  into  simple  vowels  (Volscian  rr  parallel  to  Oscan 
JM»;  Volsdan  d«tr«,  Old  Latin  and  Oscan  deitiai  or  deiuoi). 
This  phenomenon  of  what  might  have  been  taken  for  a  piece  of 
Umbrian  teat  appearing  in  a  district  remote  from  Umbria  and 
hemmed  In  by  Latins  on  the  north  and  Oscan-speaking  Sam- 
nites on  the  eouth  b  a  most  curious  feature  in  the  geographical 
dbtributimi  of  the  Italic  dialects,  and  is  dearly  the  result  of 
some  complex  hbiotical  movements. 

In  seeking  for  an  explanation  we  may  perhaps  trust,  at  least 
in  part,  the  evidence  of  the  Ethidcon  itself.  The  name  Volsci 
bdongs  to  what  may  be  called  the  •CO-  group  of  tribal  names 
in  the  centre,  and  mainly  on  the  west  coast,  of  Italy,  all  of 
whom  were  subdued  by  the  Romani  before  the  end  of  the  4th 
century  B.  c;  and  many  of  idmm  were  conquered  by  the 
Samnites  about  a  century  or  more  earlier.  They  are,  from 
sooth  to  north,  Oad,  Awunch  HemMf  Marruci,  Falisci;  with 
these  were  no  doubt  asiodated  iheori^nal  inhabitants  of  Aricia 
and  of  Sidici'Humf  of  Vescia  among  the  Aumnci,  and  of  Labici 
close  to  Kemican  territory.  The  same  formative  dement  appeals 
in  the  adjective  ifinu  Ma$skus^  and  the  names  Clanica  and 
Marica  bebnging  to  the  Auruncan  dbtrict,  with  Gratiscae  in 
south  Etxnria,  and  a  few  other  names  in  central  Italy  (see 
"  I  due  strati  nella  popolaxione  Indo-Europea  ddl'  Italia  Antica/' 
intht  AUi id  Congraso  IntemashnaU  di  Scieme  St&ricMe,  Rome, 
1903,  p.  17).  With  these  names  must  clearly  be  judged  the 
forms  Tusci  and  Etnucit  althmigh  these  forms  must  not  be  re- 
garded as  anything  but  the  names  given  to  the  Etruscans  by 
the  folk  among  whom  they  settled.  Now  the  hbtorical  fortune 
of  these  tribes  b  reflected  in  several  of  their  names  (see  SabinO* 
The  Samnite  and  Roman  oonqncfors  tended  to  impose  the 
form  of  their  own  Ethnitioa,  aamdy  the  siiffia  •NO-*  upon 


198 


the  tribes  Ui^  coo^uend;  faeooe  die  iiarmd  bcGsme  tbe 
Marrucini,  the  *Arici  became  Aricim,  and  it  ieema  at  kaat 
probable  Uiat  the  forms  Sidkini,  Caredid,  and  others  of  this 
shape  are  the  lesujts  of  this  same  pioceas.  The  oonduaion  sug- 
gested is  that  these  -CO-  tribes  occupied  the  centre  and  west 
coast  of  Italy  at  the  time  of  the  Etruscan  invasion  (see  Etkusia: 
Language)',  whereas  the  -NO-  tribes  only  reached  this  part  of 
Italy,  or  at  least  only  became  dominant  there,  ktog  after  the 
Etruscans  had  settled  in  the  Peninsula. 

It  remains,  therefore,  to  ask  whether  any  information  can 
be  had  about  the  language  of  this  primitive  -CO  folk,  and 
whether  they  can  be  identified  as  the  authors  of  any  ol  the 
various  archaeological  strata  now  reoogniaed  on  ItalUn  soil. 
If  the  a>nclusioos  suggested  under  Sabini  may  be  accepted  as 
sound  we  should  expect  to  find  the  Volsd  q>aiking  a  language 
similar  to  that  of  the  Liguies,  whose  fondness  for  the  su&c 
-SCO-  we  have  noticed  (see  Licures),  and  identical  with  that 
spoken  by  the  plebeians  of  Rome,  and  that  this  branch  of 
Indo-European  was  among  those  which  preserved  the  original 
Indo-European  Velars  from  the  labialization  which  befell  them 
in  the  speech  of  the  Samnites.  The  language  of  the  inscription 
of  Velitrae  offers  at  first  sight  a  difficulty  from  this  point  of  view, 
in  the  conversion  which  it  shows  of  q  to  P\  but  it  is  to  be 
observed  that  the  Ethnicon  of  Velitrae  is  VdiUrnus,  andHhat  the 
people  are  called  on  the  inscription  itself  VeUsirom  (genitive 
plural) ;  so  that  there  b  nothing  to  prevent  our  assuming  that 
we  have  here  a  settlement  of  Sabines  among  the  Volsdan  hills, 
with  their  language  to  some  extent  (fi.g.  in  the  matter  of  the 
diphthongs  and  palatals)  corrupted  by  that  of  the  people  'Tpund 
about  them;  just  as  we  have  reason  to  suppose  was  the  case 
with  the  Safine  language  of  the  Igtnini,  whose  very 'name  was 
later  converted  into  Igtainaies,  the  suffix  -ti-  being  much 
more  frequent  among  the  -CO-  tribes  than  among  the  Safiaes 
(see  Sabini). 

The  name  Volsci  itself  is  significant  not  merely  in  its  suffix; 
the  older  form  Volusci  clearly  contains  the  word  meaning 
"  marsh"  identical  with  Gr.  cXot,  since  the  change  of  *vdos' 
to  ^volus"  b  phonetically  regular  in  Latin.  The  name  Marica 
("  goddess  of  the  salt-marshes  ")  among  the  Aurund  appears 
also  both  on  the  coast  of  Pioenum  and  am<Hig  the  Ligurians; 
and  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  identified  the  Osd  with  the  Siculi, 
whom  there  is  reason  to  suspect  were  kinsmen  of  the  Llgurefi. 
It  is  remarkable  in  how  many  marshy  places  this  •<4h  or  <&- 
suffix  is  used.  Besides  the  Aurund  and  the  dea  MaricQ  and  the 
inlemptsiatpu  Graviscae  (Virg.  Atiu  s.  184),  we  have  the  UsHca 
Cubans  of  Horace  (Odes  I  17,  11),  the  Hernki  in  the  Trenis 
valley,  Sabricum  and  Clanica  in  the  Pomptme  marshes. 

For  the  text  and  fuller  account  of  the  Volscian  Inscripdon,  and  for 
other  records  of  the  dialect,  see  R.  S.  Conway,  Thi  JtalU  DiaUcts, 
pp.  267  sqq.  (R.  S.  CO 

VOLSINII,  an  andent  town  of  Etniria,  Italy.  The  older 
Vol&inii  occupied  in  all  probability  the  isolated  tufa  rock,  so 
strongly  defended  by  nature,  upon  which  in  Roman  times  stood 
the  town  which  Procopius  (B,G.  ii.  ix  seq.)  caUs  ObpfitfiarrSt 
iUrbs  vetus,  the  modem  Orvkto).  This  conjecture,  first  made 
by  O.  MUller,  has  been  generally  accepted  by  modem  archae- 
ologists;  and  it  is  a  strong  point  m  its  favour  that  the  bishop 
of  Orvieto  in  595  signs  himself  tpiscofus  civiiaiis  Buisiniensis 
(Gregor.  Magn.  Regisir.  v.  570;  cf.  iL  11,  vL  27).  It  had,  and 
needed,  no  outer  walls,  bdng  surrounded  on  all  sides  except 
the  S.W.  by  abrupt  tuffi  di&;  but  t,  massive  wall  found  by 
excavation  on  the  S.W.  side  of  the  town  may  have  belonged 
to  the  acn^Mlis.  No  remains  of  antiquity  are  to  be  seen 
within  the  city;  but  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  the  N.  a  large 
Etruscan  necropolis  was  found  in  1874,  datmg  from  the  sth 
century  b.c  The  tombs,  constructed  of  blocks  of  stone  and 
arranged  in  rows  divided  by  passsges  Oike  houses  in  a  town), 
often  had  the  name  of  the  deceased  on  the  facade.  Many 
painted  vases,  &c.,  were  found;  some  of  the  beat  arS  in  the 
Miiseo  Civico  at  Orvieto.  Tombs  with  paintings  have  also 
been  found  to  the  W.  of  the  town  on  the  way  to  Bolsena. 

Volainii  was  reputed  the  xicbest  of  the  twdve  dtica  of 


— VOLTA 

EtnHa.    Wan  hetwwB  VdhUI  Md  ftMM  «ra  BMOtioBed   In 

39a,  308  and  S94  bX.,  and  in  S65H64  B.C.  the  Romans  assisctd 
the  tnhabitaau  agaiast  their  former  daves*  who  had  sucoesshxlly 
asserted  tbemsdvcs  ■jp^w*  tkeir  masteis  and  took  the  to^m. 

Fulvius  Fhuxus  gained  a  trhmiph  for  his  victory,  and  it  was 
probably  then  that  the  statue  of  Vertiunnus  which  stood  in 
the  Vtctis  Tuscus  at  Rome  was  brought  from  VohuniL  Zoaaras 
states  that  the  city  was  destroyed  and  removed  elaewlaae, 
though  the  old  site  continued  apparently  to  be  inhabited,  to 
judge  from  the  inscriptions  found  there.  The  new  dty  was 
ceruinly  stnated  on  the  hills  on  the  N.E.  bank  of  the  Lake 
of  Bolsena  (Locus  Votsinunsis),  la  m.  W.S.W.  of  Orvieto,  where 
many  remains  of  antiquity  have  been  found,  on  aad  above 
the  site  of  the  modem  Bobena  (q.t.).  These  remains  consist 
of  Etruscan  tombs,  the  sacred  endosure  of  the  goddess  Nortia, 
with  votive  objects  and  coins  ranging  from  the  beginning  of 
the  5rd  century  B.C.  to  the  middle  of  the  3rd  century  a.d., 
remains  of  Roman  houses,  &c.,  and  an  amphitheatre  of  the 
imperial  period  (E.  Gabnd  in  Monumenti  id  Lincn,xvL,  1906, 
169  sqq.,  and  in  Notitie  degfi  Scavi,  1906, 59  sqq.) 

The  history  of  the  new  Vobioii  b  somewhat  scanty.  Sejanns, 
the  favourite  of  Tiberius,  and  Musoaius  Rufus  the  Stoic  were 
natives  of  the  place.  The  earliest  dated  inscription  from  the 
cemetery  of  S.  Christina  (discovered  with  its  subterraness 
church  in  1880-81)  bdongs  to  A.D.  376  and  the  first  knosa 
bishop  of  Vobinh  to  a.d.  499.  In  the  next  century,  however, 
the  see  was  transferred  to  Orvieto.  Etrxiscan  tombs  han 
been  found  on  the  Isola  Bisentina,  in  the  lake;  and  on  the 
west  bank  was  the  town  of  Visentium,  Roman  inscripcioas 
belonging  to  which  have  been  found.  Tlie  site  b  marked  by 
a  medieval  castie  bearing  the  name  Bisenzo. 

See  E.  Bormann  in  Corp.  Inscr.  Laiin.  xL,  1888,  pp.  423  sqq.; 
Notide  degli  Scad^  passim  i  G.  Dennis,  op.  cU.  (iL  18  sqq.)o 

(T.  As.) 

VOLTA,  ALBSSANDBO  (1745-1827),  ItaUan  physidst,  was 
bom  at  Como  on  the  18th  of  Febnury  1745.  He  b  celebrated 
as  a  pioneer  of  electrical  science,  after  whom  the  "  volt "  b 
named.  In  1774  he  was  appointed  professor  of  physics  in  the 
gymnasium  of  Como,  and  in  1777  he  travelled  through  Switzer- 
land, where  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  H.  B.  de 
Saussure.  In  1779  a  chair  of  physics  was  founded  in  Pa  via, 
and  Volta  was  chosen  to  occupy  it.  In  1782  he  journeyed 
through  France,  Germany,  Holland  and  England,  and  became 
acquainted  with  many  sdentific  celebrities.  In  1791  he  re- 
cdved  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Sodety.  In  i8ox 
Napoleon  called  him  to  Paris,  to  show  hb  experiments  on  contact 
electridty,  and  a  medal  was  stmck  in  hb  honour.  He  was 
made  a  senator  of  the  kingdom  of  Lombardy.  In  18  ts  the 
emperor  of  Austrb  made  him  director  of  the  philosophical 
faculty  of  Padua.  In  1819  he  retired  and  settled  in  his  native 
town,  where  he  died  on  the  5th  of  March  1827.  For  Volta's 
electrical  work,  and  hb  |daoe  in  the  hbtory  of  discovery  (see 
Electricity;  also  Voltjieter). 

VOLTA,  the  largest  river  of  the  coast  of  Upper  Guinea, 
between  the  Gambia  and  the  Niger,  with  a  length  of  about 
900  m.  Its  mouth  and  the  greater  part  of  its  course  *are  in 
British  territory.  lis  lower  course  had  been  known  since  the 
discoveries  of  the  Portuguese,  from  whom  it  recdved  (isth 
century)  its  name  on  account  of  the  winding  nature  of  its 
stream.  It  was  not,  however,  until  the  last  fifteen  years  of 
the  19th  century  that  the  extent  of  its  basin— extending  far 
north  within  the  bend  of  the  Niger— was  made  known. 

There  are  two  main  upper  branches,  the  Black  and  the  White  Volta. 
Their  sources  lie  on  the  grassy  pUtcaus  north  of  the  forest  bdt  of  the 
Guinea  coast,  the  Black  Volta  rising  (as  the  Baule)  in  about  1 1  *  N. 
4*  30'  W.  Its  counw  b  at  firrt  £.  and  N.E..  to  la*  25'  N.,  at  whkh 
point,  after  receiving  a  tributary  from  nearly  14*  N^— the  most 
northerly  point  of  tne  basin, — it  turns  sharply  south.  From  the 
eleventh  to  the  ninth  parallel  the  river  forms  the  boundary  between 
the  Northern  Tenitones  of  (te  Gold  Coast  (Britbh)  and  the  French 
Ivory  Coast  colony.  The  southeriy  course  of  the  stneam  ceases 
at  8'  15'  N.  where  it  U  deflected  £^  and  even  N..  by  a  mountain  raaga 
composed  of  sandstone  and  g:ranitc,  which  it  finally  breaks  through 
fay  a  narrow  pass,  in  aditch  its  width  b  only  some  60  yds.   Elsewfaers 


VOLTAIRE 


J99 


it  las  a  fMHal  «U&  of  iflo  to  aoo  yds.  ^  In  o*  50^  W.  it  re- 
ceives the  While  Volta,  which  flows  generally  south  irom  about 
13*  N.  and  likewise  breaks  through  a  narrow  gap  in  the  plateau 
escarpment.  Both  riven  shrink  greatly  in  the  dry  seaMMi,  reaching 
their  lowest  level  at  the  end  oC  January.  Below  the  junction  the' 
Volta  flows  S.E.  and  S.,  turning,  however,  E.  for  40  m.  just  north 
of  6*  In  7*'37'  N.  it  receives  on  the  left  bank  a  large  tributary, 
the  Oti,  coming  from  12"  N.  In  its  lower  courae,  through  the  forest 
belt,  the  river  nas  often  a  width  of  over  half  a  mile,  with  a  depth 
in  places  of  40  to  90  ft.  in  the  raina,  but  in  6*  18'  N.  it  ttavervs  a 
pass  in  which  its  width  is  nairowed  to  30  yds.  Its  use  as  a  water- 
way is  limited  by  a  number  of  rapids,  the  lowest  of  which  occur 
in  6*  /  N.,  above  the  trading  port  o(  Akuse.  Its  mouth  is 
also  obstructed  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  by  a  bar. 
The  fiver  is  tisually  navigable  by  small  jvctscIs  fiom  its  mouth  for 
idsouttem. 

Hie  lower  VolU  was-ezploxed  by  M.  J.  Boonat  in  1875,  biit 
the  upper  basin  was  first  traveised  by  the  Gennan  tiaveller 
G.  A.  ^rauae  (1886-87)  and  the  French  captain  L.  G.  Binger 
(1888).  It  has  since  been  explored  by  a  number  of  colonial 
o6kids~-Gemian,  French  and  British.  Between  6^  41'  and 
8°  8'  N.  the  VoUa  lonns  the  boundary,  between  tbe  Gold  Coast 
and  Toffjiand, 

VOLTAIRB»  FRAKQ0I8  MARIS  AROUET  DB  (i694'Z778), 
French  philosopher,  historian,  dramatist  and  man  of  letters, 
vbose  rod  name  was  Francois  Marie  Arouet  simply,  was  bom 
on  the  aist  of  November  1694  at  Paris,  and  was  baptized  the 
next  day.  His  father  was  Francois  Arouet,  a  notary;  his 
mother  was  Marie  Marguerite  Daumart  or  D'Aumard.  Both 
father  and  mother  were  of  Poitevin  extraction,  but  the  Aioucts 
bad  been  for  two  generations  established  in  Paris,  the  grand- 
fstber  being  a  prosperous  tradesman.  The  family  appear  to 
have  always  belonged  to  the  yeoman-tradesman  class;  their 
apedal  home  was  the  town  of  Saint-Loup.  Voltaire  was  the 
fifth  child  of  his  parents — twin  boys  (of  whom  one  survived), 
a  girl.  Marguerite  Catherine,  and  another  boy  who  died  young, 
having  preceded  him.  Not  very  much  is  known  of  the  mother, 
who  &d  when  Voltaire  was  but  seven  years  old.  She  pretty 
certainly  was  the  chief  cause  of  his  early  introduction  to  good 
societyr  the  abb£  de  Ch&teauneuf  (his  sponsor  in  more  ways 
than  one)  having  been  her  friend.  The  father  appears  to  have 
been  somewhat  peremptory  in  temper,  but  neither  inhospitable 
nor  tyrannicaL  Marguerite  Arouet,  of  whom  her  younger 
brother  was  very  fond,  married  eariy,  her  husband's  name 
being  Mignot;  the  elder  brother,  Armand,  was  a  strong  Jan- 
senist,  and  there  never  was  any  kind  of  sympathy  between  him 
and  Francois. 

The  abb^  de  Ch&tcauneuf  instructed  him  early  in  belles- 
lettres  and  deism,  and  he  showed  when  a  child  the  unsurpassed 
faculty  for  facile  verse-making  which  always  distingubhed  him. 
At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  sent  to  the  College  Louis-lc-Grand, 
which  was  under  the  management  of  the  Jesuits,  and  remained 
thieR  till  1711.  It  was  his  whim,  as  part  of  his  general  libcral- 
iflffl,  to  depreciate  tbe  education  he  received;  but  it  seems 
to  have  been  a  very  sound  and  good  education,  which  formed 
the  baas  of  his  extraordinarily  wide,  though  never  extra- 
ordinarily accurate,  collection  of  knowledge  subsequently,  and 
(a  mote  important  thing)  disciplined  and  exercised  his  literary 
faculty  and  judgment.  Nor  can  there  be  much  doubt  that  the 
great  attention  bestowed  on  acting— the  Jesuits  kept  up  the 
Renaissance  practice  of  turning  schools  into  theatres  for  the 
performance  of  plays  both  in  Latin  and  in  the  vernacular— 
had  much  to  do  with  Voltaire's  lifelong  devotion  to  the  stage. 
It  must  have  been  in  his  very  earliest  school  years  that  the 
celebrated  presentation  of  him  by  his  godfather  to  Ninon  de 
Lendos  took  place,  for  Ninon  died  in  1705.  She  left  him  two 
thousand  francs  "  to  buy  books  with."  He  worked  fairly, 
played  fairly,  lived  comfortably,  made  good  and  lasting' friends. 
Some  curious  traits  are  recorded  of  this  life — one  being  that 
in  the  terrible  famine  year  of  Molplaquet  a  hundred  francs  a 
year  were  added  to  the  usual  boarding  expenses,  and  yet  the 
boys  had  to  cat  pain  lAi, 

In  August  1 71 T,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  came  home, 
and  the  usual  battle  followed  between  a  son  who  deared  no 
profession  but  literature  and  a  father  who  refused  to  oonsider 


literature  a  piofcsiion  at  alL  For  a  time  Voltaire  submitted, 
and  read  law  at  least  nominally.  The  abb£  de  Ch&tcauneuf 
died  before  his  godson  left  school,  but  he  had  already  intro- 
duced him  to  the  famous  and  dissipated  coterie  .of  the  Temple, 
of  which  the  grand  prior  Vend6me  was  the  head,  and  the 
poets  Chaidieu  and  La  Fare  the  chief  literary  stars.  It  does 
not  appear  that  Voltaure  got  into  any  great  scrapes;  but  his 
father  tried  to  break  him  off  from  such  society  by  sending  him 
first  to  Caen  and  then,  in  the  suite  of  the  marquis  de  Ch&teauneuf , 
the  abba's  brother,  to  the  Hague.  Here  he  met  a  certain 
Olympe  Pimoyer  ("  Pimpette  "},  a  guri  apparently  of  respect- 
able character  and  not  bad  connexions,  but  a  Protestant, 
penniless,  and  daughter  of  a  literary  lady  whose  literary  reputa- 
tion was  not  spotless.  Tbe  mother  discouraged  the  affair,  and, 
though  Voltaire  tried  to  avail  himself  of  the  mania  for  prosely- 
tising which  then  distinguished  France,  his  father  stopped  any 
idea  of  a  match  by  procuring  a  leUre  de  cacket,  which,  however, 
he  did  not  use.  Voltaire,  who  had  been  sent  home,  subim'tted, 
and  for  a  time  pretended  to  work  in  a  Parisian  lawyer's  office; 
but  he  agidn  manifested  a  faculty  for  getting  into  trouble — 
this  time  in  tbe  still  more  dangerous  way  of  writing  libellous 
poems—fio  that  his  father  was  glad  to  send  him  to  stay  for 
nearly  a  year  (1714-15)  with  Louis  de  Caiunartin,  marquis 
de  Saint-Ange,  in  the  country.  Here  he  was  still  supposed 
to  study  law,  but  devoted  himself  in  part  to  literary  essays, 
in  part  to  storing  up  his  immense  treasure  of  gossiping  history. 
Almost  exactly  at  the  time  of  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  he 
returned  to  Paris,  to  fall  once  more  into  literary  and  Templar 
society,  and  to  make  the  tragedy  of  (Edipe,  which  he  had 
already  written,  privately  known.  He  was  now  introduced  to 
a  less  questionable  and  even  more  distinguished  coterie  than 
Vendue's,  to  the  famous  "court  of  Sceaux,"  the  circle  of 
the  beautiful  and  ambitious  duchesse  du  Maine.  It  seems 
that  Voltaire  lent  himself  to  the  duchess's  frantic  hatred  of 
the  regent  Orleans,  and  helped  to  compose  lampoons  on  that 
prince.  At  any  rate,  in  May  1716  he  was  exiled,  first  to  Tulle, 
then  to  Sully.  Allowed  to  return,  he  again  fell  under  su^icion 
of  having  been  concerned  in  the  composition  of  two  violent 
libels— one  in  Latin  and  one  in  French— called  from  their  first 
words  the  Pnero  RegnanU  and  the  J*ai  vw,  was  inveigled  by 
a  spy  named  Beauregard  into  a  real  or  burlesque  confession, 
and  on  the  i6th  of  May  171 7  was  sent  to  the  Bastille.  He 
there  recast  CEdipe,  began  the  Hairiadc  and  determined  to 
alter  his  name.  Ever  after  his  exit  from  the  Bastille  in  April 
1 7 18  he  was  known  as  Arouet  de  Voltaire,  or  simply  Voltaire, 
though  legally  he  never  abandoned  his  patronymic  The  origin 
of  the  famous  name  has  been  much  debated,  and  attempts 
have  been  made  to  show  that  it  actually  existed  in  the  Daumart 
pedigree  or  in  some  territorial  designation.  Some  are  said  to 
maintain  that  it  was  an  abbreviation  of  a  childish  nickname, 
"  U  petit  whntaire."  The  balance  of  <^inion  has,  however, 
always  inclined  to  the  hypothesis  of  an  anagram  on  the  name 
"  Arouet  le  jeune,"  ok  "  Arouet  1.  j.,"  u  being  changed  to  v 
and  j  to  i  according  to  the  ordinary  rules  of  the  game. 

A  further  "  exile  "  at  Ch&tcnay  and  elsewhere  succeeded  the 
imprisonment,  and  though  Voltaire  was  admitted  to  an  ^audience 
by  the  regent  and  treated  graciously  he  was  not  trusted. 
(Edipe  was  acted  at  the  Theitre  Frangais  on  the  18th  of  Novem- 
ber of  the  year  of  release,  and  was  very  well  received,  a  rivalry 
between  parties  not  dissimilar  to  that  which  not  long  before 
had  helped  Addison's  Cato  assisting  its  success.  It  had  a  run 
of  forty-five  nights,  and  brought  the  author  not  a  little  profiL 
With  these  gains  Voltaire  seems  to  have  begun  his  long  series 
of  successful  financial  speculations.  But  in  the  spring  of  next 
year  the  production  of  Lagrange-Chancel's  libels,  entitled  the 
Fliilippiquts^  again  brought  suspicion  on  him.  He  was  in- 
formally exiled,  and  spent  much  time  with  Marshal  Villars, 
again  increasing  his  store  of  **  reminiscences."  He  returned 
to  Paris  in  the  winter,  and  his  second  pUy,  ArUmire,  was  pro- 
duced in  February  1720.  It  was  a  failure,  and  though  it  was 
recast  with  some  success  Voltaire  never  published  it  as  a  whole, 
and  used  paru  of  it  in  other  work.     Hr  again  spent  much  of 


200 


VOLTAIRE 


his  tfane  with  ViOan,  fistenhig  to  the  mmhAl^  stories  and 
malung  harmless  love  to  the  duchess.  In  December  1721  his 
father  died,  leaving  him  property  (rather  more  than  foar 
thousand  livtes  a  year),  which  was  soon  increased  by  a  pension 
of  half  the  amount  from  the  regent.  In  return  for  this»  or  in 
hopes  of  more,  he  offered  himself  as  a  spy— or  at  any  rate  as 
a  secret  diplomatist--to  DubcHS.  But  meeting  his  old  enemy 
Beauregaid  in  one  of  the  minister's  rooms  and  making  an 
offensive  remarlc,  he  was  waylaid  by  Beauregard  some  time 
after  in  a  less  privil^ed  place  and  soundly  beaten. 

His  visiting  e^onag^  as  unkind  critics  put  h— his  secret 
diplomatic  mission,  as  he  would  have  liked  to  have  it  put 
himself— b^an  in  the  summer  of  1722,  and  he  set  out  for  it 
in  company  with  a  certain  Madame  de  Rupdmonde,  to  whom 
he  as  usual  made  k>ve,  taught  deism  and  served  as  an  amusing 
travelling  companion.  He  stayed  at  Cambiai  for  some  time, 
where  EuTopoia  diplomatists  were  still  in  full  session,  |our- 
neyed  t6  Brussels,  where  he  met  and  quarrdled  with  Jean 
Baptiste  Rousseau,  went  on  to  the  Hague,  and  then  returned. 
The  Henriade  had  got  on  ooi^derably  during  the  journey, 
and,  according  to  Ms  lifdong  habit,  Ihe  poet,  with  the  help 
<A  his  friend  Thi^riot  and  others^  had  been  "woridng  the 
orade"  of  puffery.  During  the  late  autumn  and  winter  of 
1722-93  he  abode  chiefly  in  Paris,  taking  a  kind  of  lodging  in 
the  town  house  of  M.  de  Bemidres,  a  nobleman  of  Rouen,  and 
endeavouring  to  procure  a  "privilege"  for  his  poem.  In  this 
he  was  disappointed,  but  he  had  the  ivork  printed  at  Rouen 
nevertheless,  and  spent  the  summer  of  1723  revising  it.  In 
November  he  caught  smallpox  and  was  very  seriously  ill,  so 
that  the  book  was  not  given  to  the  worid  till  the  spring  of 
1724  (and  then  of  course,  as  it  had  no  privilege,  appeared 
privately).  Almost  at  the  same  time,  the  4th  of  March,  his 
third  tragedy,  Mariamne  appeared,  was  well  received  at  first, 
but  underwent  complete  damnation  before  the  curtain  fell. 
The  regent  had  died  shortly  before,  not  to  Voltaire's  advantage; 
for  he  had  been  a  generous  patron.  Voltaire  had  made,  however, 
a  useful  friend  in  another  grand  scignatTf  as  profligate  smd 
neariy  as  intelligent,  the  duke  of  Richelieu,  and  with  him  he 
passed  1724  and  the  next  year  chiefly,  recasting  Mariamne 
(which  was  now  successful),  writing  the  comedy  of  Ulndiscret, 
and  courting  the  queen,  the  ministers,  the  favourites  and 
everybody  who  seemed  worth.  The  end  of  1725  brought  a 
disastrous  dose  to  this  period  of  his  life.  He  was' insulted  by 
the  chevalier  de  Rohan,  replied  with  his  usual  sharpness  of 
tongue,  and  shortly  afterwards,  when  dining  with  the  duke  of 
Sully,  was  called  out  and  bastinadoed  by  the  chavdier's  hire- 
lings, Rohan  himself  looking  on.  Nobody  would  take  his  part, 
and  at  last,  nearly  three  months  after  the  outrage,  he  challenged 
Rohan,  who  accepted  the  challenge,  but  on  the  morning 
appointed  for  the  duel  Voltaire  was  arrested  and  sent  for  the 
second  time  to  the  Bastille.  He  was  kept  in  confinement  a 
fortnight,  and  was  then  packed  off  to  England  in  accordance 
with  his  own  request.  Voltaire  revenged  himself  on  the  duke 
of  Sully  for  his  conduct  towards  his  guest  by  cutting  Maxi- 
milien  de  B6lhune's  name  out  of  the  Henriade, 

No  competent  judges  have  ever  mistaken  the  importance 
of  Voltaire's  visit  to  England,  and  the  influence  it  cxerdscd 
on  his  future  career.  In  the  first  place,  the  ridiculous  and 
discreditable  inddent  of  the  beating  had  time  to  blow  over; 
m  the  second,  England  was  a  very  favourable  place  for  French- 
men  of  note  to  pick  up  guineas;  in  the  third,  and  most  im- 
portant of  all,  his  contact  with  a  people  then  far  more  different 
in  every  conceivable  way  from  their  ndghbours  than  any  two 
pcof^cs  of  Europe  are  different  now,  acted  as  a  soverdgn  tonic 
and  stimulant  on  his  intellect  and  literary  faculty.  Before 
the  EngUsh  visit  Voltaire  had  been  an  elegant  trifler,  an  adept 
In  the  forms  of  literature  popular  in  French  sodety,  a  sort  of 
superior  Dorat  or  Boufflers  of  earlier  growth.  He  returned 
from  that  visit  one  of  the  foremost  literary  men  in  Europe, 
with  views,  if  not  profound  or  accurate,  yet  wide  and  anite 
on  all  Us  grands  sujeis,  and  with  a  soUd  stock  of  money.  The 
visit  lasted  about  three  years,  ffom  1796  to  1729;  and,  as  if 


to  make  the  visitor's  lock  certain,  George  1. 6kd  and  George  IT. 
succeeded  soon  after  his  arrival    The  new  king  was  not  fond 
of   "boetry,"   but  Queen   Caroline   was,   and    intcrzkational 
jealousy  was  pleased  at  the  thou^t  of  welcoming  a    <lxstin- 
guished  exQe  from  French  illiberality.    The  Walpcrfes,  Bubb 
Dodington,  Bolingbroke,  Congrcve,  Sarah,  duchess  of    Maji* 
bonNi^,  Pope,  were  among  his  English  friends.     He    made 
acquaintance  with,  and  at  least  tried  to  appreciate,    ShaJie* 
spearc.     He  was  much  struck  by  English  manners,  was  deeply 
penetrated  by  English  toleration  for  personal  freethouglit  mad 
ecoentridty,  and  gained  some  thousands   of  pounds  from  an 
authorized  English  edition  of  the  Henriade,  dedicated  to  the 
queen.    But  he  visited  Paris  now  and  then  withoat  pera^ 
don,  and  his  mind,  like  the  mind  of  every  exiled  Frenrhman, 
was  always  set  thereon.    He  gained  full  licence  to  vetiuxi  m 
the  ^ring  of  1729. 

He  was  full  of  literary  projects,  and  immetfiafdy  after  fab 
return  he  is  said  to  have  increased  his  fortune  immensely  by 
a  lucky  lottery  speculation.    The  Henriade  was  at  last  liocised 
in  France;  BrutuSf  a  play  which  he  had  printed  in  England, 
was  accepted  for  performance,  but  kept  back  for  a  time  by  tkc 
author;  and  he  began  the  celebrated  poem  of  the  PuceBe,  the 
amusement  and  the  torment  of  great  part  of  his  life.     But  ht 
had  great  difficulties  with  two  of  his  chief  works  which  vere 
ready  to  appear,  Charles  XII.  and  the  Ldtres  swr  les  Av^sis, 
With  both  he  took  all   imaginable  pains  to  avoid    offcafiai 
the   censorship;   for   Voltaire   had,    more    than    any    otka 
man   who   ever   lived,    the   ability  and   the   wiDingness  ta 
stoop  to  conquer.    At  the  end  of  1730  Brutus  did   actuaBy 
get  acted.      Then  in  the  spring  of  the  next  year  he  went  to 
Rouen  to  get  Charles  XII.  surreptitiously  printed,  which  be 
accomph'shed.    *in  1732  another  tragedy,  EiiphUe,  appeared, 
with  the  same  kind  of  halting  success  which  had  distinguished 
the  appearance  of  its  elder  sisters  dnce  CEdipe.    But  at  last, 
on  the  13th  of  August  1732,  he  produced  Zatre,  the  best  (with 
Mirope)  of  all  his  plays,  and  one  of  the  ten  or  twelve  best  plays 
of  the  whole  French  classical  school     Its  motive  was  borrowed 
to  some  extent  from  Othdlo,  but  that  matters  little.    In  the 
following  winter  the  death  of  the  comtesse  de  Fontaine-Martd, 
whose  guest  he  had  been,  turned  him  out  of  a  comfortable 
abode.    He  then  took  lodgings  with  an  agent  of  his,   one 
Demoulin,  in  an  out-of-the-way  part  of  Paris,  and  was,  for 
some  time  at  least,  as  much  occupied  with  contracts,  specu> 
lation  and  all  sorts  of  means  of  gaining  money  as  with  literature. 

In  the  middle  of  this  period,  however,  in  1733,  two  important 
books,  the  Lettrcs  philosophiques  sur  les  An^ais  and  the  tetnpU 
du  go^t  appeared.  Both  were  likdy  to  make  bad  blood,  for 
the  latter  was,  under  the  ma^  of  easy  verse,  a  satire  on  coa* 
temporary  French  literature,  espcdally  on  J.  B.  Rousseau, 
and  the  former  was,  in  the  guise  of  a  criticism  or  rather  panegyric 
of  English  ways,  an  attack  on  everything  established  in  the 
church  and  state  of  Franco.  It  was  published  with  certain 
"remarks"  on  Pascal,  more  offcnavc  to  orthodoxy  than  itself, 
and  no  mercy  was  shown  to  it.  The  book  was  condemned 
(June  loth,  1734),  the  copies  seized  and  burnt,  a  warrant,  issued 
against  the  author  and  his  dwelling  searched.  He  himself 
was  safe  in  the  independent  duchy  of  Lorraine  with  £milie 
de  Breteuil,  marquise  du  Ch&tdet,'  with  whom  he  began  to  be 
intimate  in  1733;  he  had  now  taken  up  his  abode  with  her 
at  the  ch&teau  of  Cirey. 

If  the  English  visit  may  be  regarded  as  having  finished 

*  Gabrielle  £m'ilic  Lc  Tonnclicr  dc  Breteuil.  marquise  du  Ch&telet 
(1706-1749^,  was  ihe  daughter  of  the  baron  de  Breteuil.  and  married 
the  martquis^  du  Ch&telet-Lomont  in  1725.  She  was  an  accom- 
plished lingubt,  musician  and  mathematidan,  and  deeply  interested 
in  metaphysics.  When  she  first  became  intimate  wiih  Voltaire  she 
was  practically  separated  from  her  husband,  though  he  occasionally 
visited  Cirey.  She  is  only  important  from  her  connexion  with 
Voltaire,  though  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  treat  her  as  an 
original  thinker;  see  F.  Hamel.  An  Eighitenlk  Century  Uarquiu 
(1910).     Sh9  wrote  Institutions  de  physique  (1740).  Dissertation 


sur  la  nature  et  la  propagation  du  feu  (i  744;.  DouUi  sur  les  rdiguns 
recuUes  (1792),  and  m  1756  published  a  tr 


PHsicipia. 


translatian  of  Newtop> 


VOLTAIRE 


201 


Voltitre^  education,  the  Cfhy  lesidenM  imiy  be  joitly  said  to 
be  the  first  stage  of  his  literary  manhood.  He  had  written 
important'  and  characteristic  work  before;  but  he  bad  always 
been  in  a  kind  of  literary  Wanderjahre.  He  now  obtained  a 
settled  home  for  many  years  and,  taught  by  his  numerous 
brushes  with  the  authorities,  he  began  and  successfully  carried 
out  that  system  of  keeping  out  of  personal  harm's  way,  and  of 
at  once  denying  any  awkard  responsibility,  which  made  him 
|br  nearly  half  a  century  at  once  the  chief  and  the  most  pros- 
perous of  European  heretics  in  regard  to  all  established  ideas. 
It  was  not  till  the  summer  of  1734  thatCirey,  a  half-dismantled 
country  house  on  the  borders  of  Champagne  and  I<orraine, 
was  fitted  up,  with  Voltaire's  money  and  became  the  head- 
quarters of  himself,  of  his  hostess,  and  now  and  then  of  her 
accommodating  husband.  Many  pictures  of  the  life  here, 
some  of  them  not  a  little  malicious,  survive.  It  was  not  en- 
tirely a  bed  of  roses,  for  the  "respectrible  Emily's"  temper 
was  violent,  and  after  a  time  she  sought  lovers  who  were  not 
so  much  d€S  dribraux  as  Voltaire.  But  it  provided  him  with 
a  safe  and  comfortable  retreat,  and  with  every  opportunity 
for  literary  work.  In  March  1735  the  ban  was  formally  taken 
o£f  him,  and  he  was  at  liberty  to  retum  to  Paris,  a  liberty  of 
which  he  availed  himself  sparingly. 

At  Cirey  be  wrote  indefatigably  and  did  not  neglect  business. 
Tlie  principal  literary  results  of  his  early  years  here  were  the 
Disanurs  en  vers  sur  Vhomme,  the  play  of  Alsir*  and  UEnjatU 
prodigue  (1736),  and  a  long  treatise  on  the  Newtonian  system 
which  he  and  Madame  du  Ch&telet  wrote  together.  But,  as 
usual,  Voltaire's  extraordinary  literary  industry  was  shown 
rather  in  a  vast  amount  of  fugitive  writings  than  in  substantive 
works,  though  for  the  whole  space  of  his  Cirey  residence  he 
was  engaged  in  writing,  adding  to,  and  altering  the  Pucdle. 
In  the  very  first  days  of  his  sojourn  he  had  written  a  pamphlet 
with  the  imposing  title  of  Treatise  on  Metaphysics.  Of 
metaphysics  proper  Voltaire  neither  then  nor  at  any  other 
time  understood  anything,  and  the  subject,  like  every  other, 
merely  served  him  as  a  pretext  for  laughing  at  religion  with 
the  usual  reservation  of  a  tolerably  affirmative  deism.  In 
March  1736  he  received  his  first  letter  from  Frederick  of  Prussia, 
then  crowa  prince  only.  He  was  soon  again  in  trouble,  this 
time  for  the  poem  of  L<  Mondain,  and  he  at  once  crossed  the 
frontier  and  then  made  for  Brussels.  He  spent  about  three 
months  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  in  March  1737  returned  to 
Cirey.  and  continued  writing,  making  experiments  in  physics 
(he  had  at  this  time  a  large  laboratory),  and  busying  himself 
with  iron-founding,  the  chief  industry  of  the  district.  The 
best-known  accounts  of  Cirey  life,  those  of  Madame  de  Grafigny, 
date  from  the  winter  of  i73S-*39;  they  are  somewhat  spiteful 
but  very  amusing,  depicting  the  frequent  quarrels  between 
Madame  du  Ch&telet  and  Voltaire,  his  intense  suffering  under 
criticism,  his  ronstant  dread  of  the  surreptitious  publication 
of  the  PuceUe  (which  nevertheless  he  could  not  keep  his  hands 
from  writing  or  his  tongue  from  reciting  to  bb  visitors),  and 
so  forth.  The  chief  and  most  galling  of  his  critics  at  this  time 
was  the  Abb^  Desfontaines,  and  the  chief  of  Desfontaines's 
attacks  was  entitled  La  VoltairomanU,  in  reply  to  a  libel  of 
Voltaire's  called  Lt  Priservatif,  Both  combatants  had,  accord- 
ing to  the  absurd  halMt  of  the  time,  to  disown  their  works, 
Desfontaines's  disavowal  being  formal  and  procured  by  the 
exertion  of  all  Voltaire's  own  influence  both  at  home  and 
abroad.  For  he  had  as  little  notion  of  tolerance  towards  others 
as  of  dignity  in  himself.  In  April  1739  a  journey  was  made 
to  Brussels,  to  Paris,  and  then  again  to  Brussels,  which  was 
the  headquarters  for  a  considerable  time,  owing  to  some  law 
affairs,  of  the  Du  Chitdets.  Frederick,  now  king  of  Prussia, 
made  not  a  few  efforts  to  get  Voltaire  away  from  Madame  du 
Cb&telet,  but  unsuccessfully,  and  the  king  earned  the  lady's 
cordial  hatred  by  persistently  refusing  or  omitting  to  invite 
her.  At  last,  in  September  1740,  master  and  pupil  met  for  the 
first  time  at  Cleves,  an  interview  followed  thrto  months  later 
by  a  longer  visit.  Brussels  was  again  the  headquarters  in  1 7411 
br.wbkh  tiiM  Voltain  had  fimahed  th«  best  and  tho  avood 


or  third  best  4»(  hb  plays,  USropg  and  MakomH.  iiakam$ 
was  played  first  at  Lille  in  that  year;  it  did  not  appear  ioi 
Paris  till  August  next  year,  and  iiirope  not  till  1743.  Thia 
last  was,  and  deserved  to  be,  the  most  successful  of  its  author'f 
whole  theatre.  It  was  in  this  same  year  that  he  received  the 
singular  diplomatic  mission  to  Frederick  which  nobody  seems 
to  have  taken  seriously,  and  after  his  return  the  osciUalioa 
between  Brusselsy  Cirey  and  Paris  was  resumed.  During 
these  years  much  of  the  Essai  sur  les  maurs  and  the  Sitcle  di 
Louis  XIV.  was  composed.  He  also  returned,  not  too  weU« 
advisedly,  to  the  business  of  courtiership,  which  he  had  given 
up  since  the  death  of  the  regent.  He  was  much  emfJoyed, 
owing  to  Richelieu^  influence,  in  the  f^tes  of  the  dauphin'^ 
marriage,  and  was  r«!warded  through  the  influence  of  Madanw 
de  Pompadour  on  New  Year's  Day  1745  by  the  appointment 
to  the  post  of  historiographer-royal,  once  jointly  held  by 
Racine  and  Boileau.  The  situation  itself  and  its  accompanying 
privileges  were  what  Voltaire  chiefly  aimed  at,  but  there  wss  a 
salary  of  two  thousand  livrcs  attached,  and  be  had  the  year 
before  come  in  for  three  times  as  much  by  the  death  of  his 
brother.  In  the  same  year  he  wrote  a  poepi  on  Fontenoy,  he 
received  medals  from  the  pope  and  dedicated  Mahomet  to  him, 
and  he  wrote  court  dioertissements  and  other  things  to  admira- 
tion. But  he  was  not  a  thoroughly  skilful  courtier,  and  one  o| 
the  best  known  of  Voltairiana  is  the  contempt  or  at  least  silence 
with  which  Louis  XV. — a  sensualist  but  no  fool — received  the 
maladroit  and  almost  insolent  inquiry  Trofan  est-U  amtentf 
addressed  in  his  hearing  to  Richelieu  at  the  close  of  a  piece; 
in  which  the  emperor  had  appeared  with  a  transparent  referenco 
to  the  king.  All  this  assentation  had  at  least  one  effect.  He, 
who  had  been  for  years  admittedly  the  first  writer  hx  France, 
had  been  repeatedly  passed  over  in  elections  to. the  Academy. 
He  was  at  last  elected  in  the  spring  of  1746,  ajad  received  on 
the  9th  of  May.  Then  the  tide  began  to  turn.  His  favour 
at  court  had  naturally  exasperated  his  enemies;  it  had  not 
secured  him  any  real  friends,  and  even  a  gentlemanship  of  the 
chamber  was  no  solid  benefit,  except  from  the  money  point 
of  view.  He  did  not  indeed  hold  it  very  long,  but  was  per- 
mitted to  sell  it  for  a  large  sum,  retaining  the  rank  and  privileges. 
He  had  various  proofs  of  the  instability  of  his  hold  on  the  king 
during  1747  and  in  1748.  He  once  lay  in  hiding  for  two  months 
with  the  duchesse  du  Maine  at  Sceaux,  where  were  produced, 
the  comedietta  of  La  Prude  and  the  tragedy  of  Ronu  sauvU, 
and  afterwards  for  a  time  lived  chiefly  at  Lun^ville;  here 
Madame  du  Ch&telet  had  established  herself  at  the  court  of 
King  Stanislaus,  and  carried  on  a  liaison  with  Saint-Lambert, 
an  officer  in  the  king's  guard.  In  September  1749  she  died 
after  the  birth  of  a  child. 

The  death  of  Madame  du  Ch&telet  is  another  turning-point 
in  the  history  of  Voltaire.  He  was  fifty-five,  but  he  had 
nearly  thirty  years  more  to  live,  and  he  had  learnt  much  during 
what  may  be  called  his  Cirey  cohabitation.  For  some  time, 
however,  after  Madame  du  ChAlelet's  death  he  was  in  a  state 
of  pitiable  unsettlement.  At  first,  after  removing  his  goods 
from  Cirey,  he  hired  the  greater  part  of  the  ChAtelet  town  house, 
and  then  the  whole.  He  had  some  idea  of  settling  down  in 
Paris,  and  might  perhaps  have  done  so  if  mischief  had  not 
been  the  very  breath  of  his  nostrib.  He  went  on  writing 
satiric  tales  like  Zadig.  He  engaged  in  a  fo<^sh  and  undigni* 
fied  struggle  with  Cr6billon  pire  {not  fils)^  a  rival  set  up  against 
him  by  Madame  de  Pompadour,  but  a  dramatist  who,  in  part 
of  one  play,  Rhadamiste  et  ZCnobiey  has  struck  a  notejof  tragedy 
in  the  grand  Cornelian  straip,  which  Voltaire  could  never 
hope  to  echo.  Semirame  (1748),  Orestc  (1750)  and  Rome  sauvic 
itself  were  all  products  of  thb  rivalry.  He  used  the'  most 
extraordinary  efforts  to  make  himself  more  popular  than  he  was, 
but  he  could  not  help  being  uncomfortable. 

All  this  timfi  Frederick  of  Prussia  had  been  continuing  his 

invitations.    Voltaire  left  Paris  on  the  i$th  of  June  1751,  and. 

reached  Berlin  on  the  loth  of  July.    Thb  Berlin  visit  b  more 

or  less  familiar  to  English  readers  from  the  two  great  essays 

,of  Macsulay  aodr.  Carole  as  well  m  from  the  Proderkk  of  the 


io» 


VOLTAIRE 


htter.  But  tlieae  two  masters  of  EagBsh  were  not  petliaps 
the  best  qualified  to  relate  the  stoiy.  Both  were  uojust  to 
Voltaire,  and  Macaulay  was  unjust  to  Frederick  as  well.  It 
is  certain  that  at  first  the  king  behaved  altogether  like  a 'king 
to  his  guest.  He  pressed  him  to  renain;  he  gave  him  (the 
words  are  Voltahre's  own)  one  of  his  orders,  twenty  thousand 
francs  a  year,  and  four  thousand  additional  for  his  niece, 
Madame  Denis,  in  case  she  would  come  and  keep  house  for  her 
uncle.  But  Voltaire's  conduct  was  from  the  first  Voltairian. 
He  tnabted  on  the  consent  of  his  own  king,  which  was  given 
without  delay.  But  Frenchmen,  always  touchy  on  such  a 
point,  regarded  Voltaire  as  something  of  a  deserter;  and  it 
was  not  long  before  he  bitterly  repented  his  desertion,  thotigh 
his  residence  in  Prussia  lasted  nearly  three  years.  It  was 
quite  impossible  that  Voltaire  and  Frederick  should  get  on 
together  for  long.  Voltaire  was  not  humble  enough  to  be  a 
mere  butt,  as  many  of  Frederick's  led  poets  were;  he  was  not 
enou{^  of  a  gentleman  to  hold  his  own  place  with  dignity  and 
discretion;  he  was  constantly  jealous  both  of  his  equals  in 
age  and  reputation,  such  as  Maupertuis,  and  of  his  juniors 
and  inferiors,  such  as  Baculard  D'Amaod.  He  was  greedy, 
restless,  and  in  a  way  Bohemian.  Frederick,  though  his  love 
of  teasing  for  teasing's  sake  has  been  exaggerated  by  Macaulay, 
was  a  martinet  of  the  first  wata,  had  a  sharp  though  one-sided 
idea  of  justice,  and  had  not  the  slightest  intention  of  allowing 
Voltaire  to  insult  or  to  tyrannize  over  his  other  guests  and 
servants.  If  he  is  to  be  blamed  in  this  particular  matter,  the 
blame  must  be  chiefly  confined  to  his  imprudence  in  inviting 
Voltaire  at  the  beginning  and  to  the  brutality  of  his  conduct 
at  the  end.  WithL  Vdtaire  there  was  always  a  mischievous 
and  in-behaved  child;  and  he  was  never  more  mischievous, 
more  ill-behayed  and  more  childish  than  in  these  years.  He 
tried  to  get  D'Araaud  exiled,  and  succeeded.  He  got  into  a 
quite  unnecessary  quarrel  with  Lessing.  He  had  not  been  In 
Uie  country  six  months  before  he  engaged  in  a  discreditable 
piece  of  financial  gambling  with  Hirsch,  the  Dresden  Jew. 
He  was  accused  of  somethhig  like  downright  forgery— that  b 
to  say,  of  altering  a  paper  signed  by  Hirsch  after  be  had  signed 
it.  The  king's  disgust  at  this  affair  (which  came  to  an  open 
scandal  before  the  tribunals)  was  so  great  that  he  was  on  the 
point  of  ordering  Voltaire  out  of  Prussia,  and  Darget  the 
ieaetary  had  no  small  trouble  in  arranging  the  matter  (February 
1 751).  Then  it  was  Voltaire's  turn  to  be  disgusted  with  an 
occupation  he  had  undertaken  himself— the  occupation  of 
**  buckwashing  "  the  king's  French  verses.  However,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  fintihing  an3  printing  the  SiicU  de  Louis  XIV. , 
while  the  DkUonnairB  pkSosopktque  is  said  to  have  been 
devised  and  begun  at  Potsdam.  But  Voltaire's  restless  temper 
was  brewing  up  for  another  storm.  In  the  early  autumn  of 
1751  La  Mettrie,  one  of  the  king's  parasites,  and  a  man  of 
much  more  talent  than  is  generally  allowed,  horrified  Voltaire 
by  telling  him  that  Frederick  had  in  conversation  applied  to 
him  (Voltaire)  a  proverb  about "  sucking  the  orange  and  flinging 
away  its  skin,"  and  about  the  same  time  the  dispute  with 
Maupertuis,  which  had  more  than  anything  else  to  do  with  his 
exclusion  from  Prussia,  came  to  a  head.  Maupertuis  got  into 
a  dispute  with  one  Rdnig.  The  king  took  his  president's  part; 
Voltidre  took  KOnig's.  But  Maupertuis  must  needs  write  his 
Letters t  and  thereupon  (1752)  appeared  one  of  Voltaire's  most 
fiunous,  though  perhaps  not  one  of  his  most  read  works,  the 
Diatribe  du  Docteur  Akakia,  Even  Voltaire  did  not  venture  to 
publish  this  lampoon  on  a  great  official  of  a  prince  so  touchy 
as  the  king  of  Prussia  without  some  permission,  and  if  all  tales 
are  true  he  obtained  this  by  another  piece  of  something  like 
forgery — getting  the  king  to  endorse  a  totally  different  pamphlet 
on  its  last  leaf,  and  aflixing  that  last  leaf  to  Akakia.  Of  this 
Frederick  was  not  aware;  but  he  did  get  some  wind  of  the 
Diatribe  itsdf,  sent  for  the  author,  heard  it  read  to  his  own 
great  amusement,  and  either  actually  burned  the  MS.  or  be- 
lieved that  it  was  burnt.  In  a  few  days  printed  copies  appeared. 
Frederick  did  not  like  disobedience,  but  he  still  less  liked  being 
nade  a  fool  of,  and  he  put  Voltaire  under  arrest.    But  again 


the  affair  blew  over,  ^he  king  believing  that  die  ««Iitiofi  of 
Akakia  confiscated  in  Prussia  was  the  only  one.     Alais!  Vol- 
taire had  sent  copies  away;  others  had  been  printed  ftbrcmd; 
and  the  thing  was  irrecoverable.    It  could  not  be  proved  tbat 
he  had  ordered  the  printing,  and  ail  Frederick  could  do  was 
to  have  the  pamphlet  burnt  by  the  hangman.    Thin^  were 
now  drawing  to  a  crisis.    One  day  Voltaire  sent  hu  ordersy 
&c.,  back;  the  next  Frederick  returned  them,  but    Voltaire 
had  quite  made  up  his  mind  to  fly.    A  kind  of  reconciliatioB 
occurred  in  March,  and  after  some  days  of  .good>fel!owsfaxp 
Voltaire  at  last  obtaineAhe  long-sotight  leave  of  absence  and 
left  Potsdam  on  the  36th  of  the  month  (1753).    I^  ^ss  nearly 
three  months  afterwards  that  the  famous,  ludicrous  and  bnita! 
arrest  was  made  at  Frankfort,  on  the  persons  of  himself  and 
his  niece,  who  had  met  him  meanwhile.    .There  was  aone 
faint  excuse  for  Frederick's  wrath.    In  the  first  place,  the  poet 
chose  to  linger  at  Leipzig.    In  the  second  place,  in  direct  dis- 
regard of  a  promise  given  to  Frederick,  a  supplement  to  Akakia 
appeared,  more  offensive  than  the  main  text. .  FnSm  Leiprig, 
after  a  month's  stay,  Voltaire  moved  to  Gotha.    Onoe  more, 
on  the  25th  of  May,  he  moved  on  to  Frankfort.     Frankfort, 
nominally  a  free  city,  but  with  a  Prussian  resident  who  <^ 
very  much  what  he  pleased,  was  not  like  Gotha  azici  Lc^pz^. 
An  excuse  was  provided  in  the  fact  that  the  poet  had  a  cap/ 
of  some  unpublished  poems  of  Frederick's^  and  as  soe  es 
Voltaire  arrived  hands  were  laid  on  him,  at  first  witb  ooostsf 
eiiough.    The  resident,  Freytag,  was  not  a  very  wise  penca 
(though  he  probably  did  not,  as  Voltaire  would  have  it,  spA 
"pofeie"  "pofehie");  constant  references  to  Frederick  wett 
necessary;  and  the  affair  was   prolonged  so   that    Madame 
Denis  had  time  to  join  her  uncle.    At  last  Voltaire  tried  to 
steal  away.    He  was  followed,  arrested,  his  niece  seized  separ- 
ately, and  sent  to  join  him  in  custody;  and  the  two,  with  tht 
secretary  CoUini,  were  kept  close  prisoners  at  an  inn  called  the 
Goat.    This  situation  was  at  last  put  an  end  to  by  the  dry 
authorities,  who  probably  felt  that  they  were  not  playing  a 
very  creditable  part.    Voltaire  left  Frankfort  on  the  7tb  of 
July,  travelled  safely  to  Mainz,  and  thence  to  Mannheim, 
Strassburg  and  Colmar.     The  last-named  place  he  reached 
(after  a  leisurely  journey  and  many  honours  at  the  little  courts 
just  mentioned)  at  the  beginning  of  October,  and  here  he  pro- 
posed to  stay  the  winter,  finish  his  Annals  of  the  Empire  and 
look  about  him. 

Voltaire's  second  stage  was  now  over.     Even  now,  however, 
in  his  sixtieth  year,  it  required  some  more  external  pressure 
to  induce  him  to  make  himself  independent.    He  had  been, 
in  the  first  blush  of  his  Frankfort  disaster,  refused,  or  at  least 
not  granted,  permission  even  to  enter  France  proper.     At 
Colmar  he  was  not  safe,  especially  when  in  January  1754  a 
pirated  edition  of  the  Essai  sur  les  mcsurs,  written  long  before, 
appeared.     Permission   to   establish   himself  in   France    was 
now  absolutely  refused.    Nor  did  an  extremely  offensive  per- 
formance of  Voltaire's — the  solemn  partaking  of  the  Eucharist 
at  Colmar  after  due  confession — at  all  mollify  his  enemies. 
His  exclusion  from  France,  however,  was  chiefly  metaphorical, 
and  really  meant  exclusion  from  Paris  and  its  neighbourhood. 
In  the  summer  he  went  to  Plombi^res,  and  after  returning 
to  Colmar  for  some  time  journeyed  in  the  beginning  of  winter 
to  Lyons,  and  thence  in  the  middle  of  December  to,  Geneva. 
Voltaire  had  no  purpose  of  remaining  in  the  city,  and  almost 
immediately  bought  a  country  house  just  outside  the  gates, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Les  D^lices.     He  was  here 
practically  at  the  meeting-point  of  four  distinct  jurisdictions-*,' 
Geneva,  the  canton  Vaud,  Sardinia  and  France,  while  other 
cantons  were  within  easy  reach;  and  he  bought  other  houses 
dotted  about  these  territories,  so  as  never  to  be  without  a  refuge 
close  at  hand  in  case  of  sudden  storms.    At  Les  D^ces  he 
set  up  a  considerable  establishment,  which  his  great  wealth 
made  him  able  essily  to  afford.     He  kept  open  house  for 
visitors;  he  had  printers  close  at  hand  in  Geneva;  he  fitted 
up  a  private  theatre  in  which  he  could  enjoy  what  was  periiaps 
the  greatest  pleasure  oi-  his  whole  life — acting  in  a  play  of  his 


VOLTAIRP 


?03 


•ti^»4iiiiaie(f  by  blmMlf.  Hfe  reAknoe  U  Geneva 
broogkt  htm  into  oorraspondence  (at  first  quite  amicable)  with 
the  most  famous  of  her  citizens,  J.  J.  Rousseau.  His  Orpkdin 
de  la  Ckine,  perfonned  at  Paris  in  1755,  was  veiy  well  received; 
the  notorious  La  Pucdle  appeared  in  the  same  year.  The 
earthquake  at  Lisbon,  which  appalled  other  people,  gave 
Voltaire  an  excellent  opportimity  for  ridlcuKng  the  beliefs 
of  the  ortiiodoz,  first  in  verse  (1756)  and  later  in  the  (from  a 
literary  point  of  view)  nnsurpasaable  tale  of  CandUe  (1759)* 
All  was,  however,  not  yet  quite  smooth  with  him.  Geneva 
had  a  biw  expressly  forbidding  theatrical  performances  In 
any  circumstances  whatever.  Voltaire  had  infringed  this  law 
already  aa  far  as  private  perforroanoes  went,  and  he  had 
thought  of  building  a  regular  theatre,  not  indeed  at  Geneva 
but  at  Lausanne.  In  July  1755  a  very  polite  and,  as  far  as 
Voltaire  was  concerned,  indizect  resolution  of  tlie  Consistory 
declared  that  in  consequence  of  these  proceedings  of  the  Sieur 
de  Voltaire  the  pastors  should  notify  their  flocks  to  abstain, 
and  that  the  chief  syndic  should  be  informed  of  the  Conslstoiy's 
perfea  confidence  that  the  edicts  would  be  carried  out. 
Voltaire  obeyed  this  hint  as  far  as  Les  Polices  was  concerned, 
and  consoled  himself  by  having  the  perfoiraanoes  in  his 
Lausanne  house.  But  he  never  was  the  man  to  take  opposir 
Uon  to  his  wishes  either  quietly  or  without  retab'ation.  He 
undoubtedly  instigated  D'Alembert  to  include  a  censurer  of 
the  prohibition  in  his  Bncychpfdie  artide  on  ''Geneva,"  a 
proceeding  which  provoked  Rousseau's  odebrated'  Lettre  d 
D^AUmbert  sur  les  speciacUs.  As  for  himself,  he  looked  about 
for  a  place  where  he  could  combine  the  sodal  liberty  of  France 
with  the  political  liberty  of  Geneva,  and  he  found  one. 

At  the  end  of  1758  he  bought  the  considerable  pi;operty  of 
Ferney,  on  the  shore  of  the  lake,  about  four  miles  from  Geneva, 
and  on  French  soiL  At  Les  D^lices  (which  he  sold  in  1765) 
he  had  become  a  householder  on  no  small  scale;  at  Ferncy 
(which  he  increased  by  other  purchases  and  leases)  he  became 
a  complete  country  gentleman,  and  was  henceforward  known 
to  all  Europe  as  squire  of  Femey.  Many  of  the  most  cdebrated 
men  of  Europe  v^ted  him  there,  and  lange  parts  of  his  usual 
biographies  aje  composed  of  extracts  from  thdr  accounts  of 
Ferncy. .  His  new  occupations  by  no  means  quenched  his 
literary  activity.  He  did  not  make  himself  a  slave  to  his 
visitors,  but  reserved  mnch  time  for  work  aiMi  for  his  immense 
correspondence,  which  had  for  a  long  time  once  more  induded 
Frederick,  the  two  getting  on  very  well  when  they  were  not 
in  contact.*  Above  all,  he  now,  being  comparatively  secure  in 
position,  engaged  mudi  more  strongly  in  public  controversies, 
and  resorted  less  to  his  old  labyrinthine  tricks  of  disavowal, 
garbled  publication  and  private  libd.  The  suppression  of 
the  EnuydopaUt  to  which  he  had  been  a  considerable  con- 
tributor, and  whose  conductors  were  his  intimate  friencb,  drew 
from  him  a  shower  of  lampoons  directed  now  at  "  i'inf ftme  ** 
(see  infra)  generally,  nov^  at  literary  victims,  such  as  Le  Franc 
de  Pompignan  (who  had  written  one  piece  of  verse  so  much 
better  than  anything  serious  of  Voltaire's  that  he  could  not 
be  forgiven),  or  Palissot  (who  in  his  play  Les  PhUosophes  had 
boldly  gibbeted  most  of  the  persons  so  termed,  but  had  not 
included  Voltaire),  now  at  Fr6ron,  an  excellent  critic  and  a 
dangerous  writer,  who  had  attadced  Voltaire  from  the  con- 
servative side,  and  at  whom  the  patriarch  of  Femey,  as  he 
now  began  to  be  called,  levelled  in  return  the  vexy  inferior 
farce-lampoon  of  L*£cossaise,  of  the  first  night  of  which  Fr^ron 
himself  did  an  admirably  humorous  criticism. 

How  he  built  a  diurch  and  got  into  trouble  in  so  doing  at 
Ferncy,  how  he  put  **  Deo  erexit  Voltaire  "  on  it  (1760-61)  and 
obtained  a  relic  from  the  pope  for  his  new  building,  how  he 
entertained  a  grand-niece  of  ComdUe,  and  for  her  benefit  wrote 
-his  well-known  ''commentary"  on  that  poet,  are  matters  of 
interest,  but  to  be  passed  over  briefly.  Here,  too,  be  began 
:that  scriea  of  interferences  on  behalf  of  the  oppressed  and 
the  ill-treated  which,  whatever  mixture  of  motives  may  have 
prompted  il,  Is  an  honour  to  his  memory.  Volumes  and 
llmost  Vbraries  have"  been  written  off  the  Cihs  afiair,  and 


we  can  but  ceier  here  to  the  o«ly  less  famoua  cases  of  Sirven 
(very  similar  to  that  of  Cal^  though  no  Judicial  murder  was 
actually  committed),  Espinasse  (who  had  been  sentenced  to 
the  galleys  for  harbouring  a  Protestant  xm'nisler),  Lally  (the 
son  of  the  unjustly  treated  but  not  blamdess  Irish-French 
commander  in  India),  D'£talonde  (the  companion  of  La  Barre), 
MontbailU  and  others.  In  1768  he  entei^  into  controversy 
with  the  bishop  of  the  diocese;  he  had  differences  with  the 
superior  landkftd  of  part  of  his  estate,  the  president  Be  Brossea; 
and  he  engaged  in  a  long  and  tedious  return  match  with  the 
republic  of  Geneva.  But  the  general  events  of  this  Femey 
h'fe  are  somewhat  of  that  happy  kind  which  are  no  events. 

In  this  way  Voltaire,  who  had  been  an  old  man  when  he 
established  himself  at  Femey,  became  a  vary  old  one  almost 
without  notidng  it.  The  death  of-  Louis  XV.  and  the  accesaiotf 
of  Louis  XVI.  esdted  even  in  his  aged  breast  the  hope  of 
re*cntering  Paris,  but  he  did  not  at  once  recdve  any  encourage- 
ment, despite  the  reforming  ministry  of  Turgot.-  A  much 
more  solid  gain  to  his  happiness  was  the  adoption,  or  practical 
adoption,  in  1776  of  Reine  Philiberte  de  Varicourt,  a  young 
girl  of  noble  but  poor  family,  whorft  Voltaire  rescued  from  the 
convent,  installed  in  his  house  as  an  adopted  daughter,  and 
married  to  the  marquis  de  Villette.  Her  pet  name  was  "  Belle 
et  Bonne,"  and  nobody  had  more  to  do  with  the  happiness 
of  the  Ust  years  of  the  "  patriarch  "  than  she  had.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  his  last  and  fatal  visit  to  Paris  was  due  to 
his  own  wish  or  to  the  instigation  of  his  niece^  Madame  Denia; 
but  this  lady~«  woman  of  disagreeable  temper,  espedally  to 
her  inferiors — ai^am  to  have  been  rather  hardly  treated 
by  Voltaire's  earlier,  and  sometimes  by  his  later,  biographers. 
The  suggestion  which  has  been  made  that  the  soccess  of 
Beaumarchais  piqued  him  has  nothing  impossible  in  iL  At 
any  rate  he  had,  at  the  end  of  1777  and  the  beginning  of  1778/ 
been  carefully  finishing  a  new  tragedy — Irhte — for  production 
in  the  capital  He  started  on  the  5th  of  Febmary,  and  fiye 
d^ys  later  arrived  at  the  dty  which  he  had  not  seen  for  dght- 
and^twenty  yeais». 

He  was  recdved  with  immense  rejoidngp^  not  indeed  directly 
by  the  couct,  but  by  the  Academy,  by  sodety  and  by  all  the 
more  important  fordgn  visitors.  About  a  fortnight  after  hk 
atrival,  age  and  fatigue  made  him  seriously  ill,  and  a  confessor 
was  sent  for.  But  he  recovered,  scoffed  at  himself  aa  usual, 
Bod  psepaied  more  eagerly  than  ever  for  the  first  performance 
of  /f^iM,  on  the  16th. of  Mardb  At  the  end  of  the  month  be 
was  able  to  attend. a. performance  of  it,  which  was  a  kind  of 
apotheosis.  He.  was  crowned  with  laurel  in  his  box,  amid 
the  plauditfl  ol  the  audience,  and  did  not  seem  to  be  the  worse 
for  it.  He  even  began  or  proceeded  with  another  tragedy-^ 
Agaikadc—^oA  attoKkd  several  Academic  meetings.  But 
such  proceedings  in  the  case  of  a  man  of  dghty-four  were 
impossible*  To  keep'hunself  14),  he  exceeded  even  his  usual 
excess  in  coffee,  and  about  the  middle  of  May  he  became  veiy 
ill.  On  the  3oCh  of  May  the  priests  were  once  more  sent  for 
— to  wit,  his  nephew,  the  abbt  Mignot,  the  abb£  Gaultier,  who 
had  officiated  on  the  former  occasion,  and  the  parish  priest, 
the  cur£  of  St  Sulpice.  He  was,  however,  in  a  state  of  half- 
insensibility,  and  petulantly  motioned  them  away,  dying  ifk 
the  cpwse  <^  the  .night.  Thf  legends  about  his  death  in  a 
state  of  terror  and  despair  are  certainly  false;  but  it  must 
be  regarded  as  dngnlar  and  unfortunate  that  he,  #ho  had  more 
than  once  gone  out.  of  his  way  to  conform  ostentatiously  and 
with  his  tongue  in  his  chedk»  should  have  negieaed  or  missed 
this  last  opportunity.  The  result  was-a  difiioilty  as  to  burial, 
which  was  compromised  by  hurried  interment  at  the  abbc|y 
of  Scelli&res  in  Champagne,  anticipating  the  interdict  of  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese  by  an  hour  or  two.  On  the  xoth  of  July 
i79r  the  body  waa  tiansfaned  to  the  Pantheon,  but  during 
the  Hundred  Days  it  w>8  once  mote,  it  is  said,  disentombed, 
and  stowed  away  in  a  piece  of  waste  ground.  His  heart,  taken 
from  the  body  when  it  was  embalmed,  and  given  to  Madame 
Denis  and  by  her  to  Madame  de  ViiletLe,  was  preserved  in  a 
>  sihrer  ease,  and  wften  It-witt  prnpcaed  (In  t86i4)  to  tsstore  It  lo 


D  Vollsii 


It  Sabrtc  GeneviiTE  (the 
:  (mply- 


commcniaialed,  rnnong  ollin 
tilings,  by  Ibe  very  poor  but  wcU-kaawa  cpignn  uliributcil 
to  Young,  and  idenlUying  him  at  once  «ilb  "  5*l*n,  Dmih 
ud  Sin."  In  old  age  he  w»  >  men  skeleioa,  with  i  long  note 
and  eyes  of  pictematuial  biiUiincy  peeriof  out  of  bii  wig. 
He  never  seemi  to  have  been  addicted  to  any  nunly  ipoit.  and 
took  little  oercitc.  He  wu  lobei  enouf^  (foi  hii  day  and 
•odety)  in  eating  and  ddnking  generallyi  but  drank  coffee, 
■1  bii  nrntempDiary,  counlerpart  ud  enemy,  Jnbraon.  drank 
tea,  In  a  hirdencd  and  invetccale  mannei.  It  may  be  pmumcd 
with  some  cetlatnty  that  hit  attention)  to  women  *ere  f«  the 
most  part  pUtoaic ;  indeed,  both  on  the  good  and  the  bad  aide 
o(  higi,  he  was  atl  brain.  He  appean  la  bave  had  no  grcai 
aense  of  natural  beauly,  !n  ivhich  point  he  resembled  hi) 
geneialion  (Ihough  one  lemarLsble  story  i>  told  of  hii  being 
dee(dy  affected  by  Alpine  accneiy);  and,  eacepi  in  bis  panion 
lot  the  stage,  he  does  not  seem  to  have  cared  much  for  any  of 
Iheans.  Conversaiion and liieraiure were, agam as  injohnwn's 
case,  the  sole  godi  of  his  Idolaiiy.  As  tot  iiis  moial  chamclei, 
the  whoUy  inieHeclua!  cast  of  mind  Just  referred  to  makes  it 
difficull  (a  Judge  that.  His  beliefs  or  ahseoceof  beliefs  eman- 
cipated him  from  convenlioiial  Kruple);  and  he  is  not  a  good 
subject  for  ihose  who  maintain  that  a  nice  morality  may  erist 
Independently  of  reliffon.  He  was  good-naturad  when  not 
crossed,  gcnenwa  to  dependents  who  made  themselves  usefnl 
to  him,  and  indefatigable  in  ddending  the  cause  of  tbose  who 
were  ^pressed  by  the  tystems  with  which  he  was  at  war.  But 
he  waa  inordinately  vain,  and  (aialiy  unscnipDlous  in  gaining 
money,  h)  attacking  an  enemy,  or  hi  protecting  bimself  when 
be  was  threatened  (Hth  danger.  His  peculiar  fashion  of  attack- 
ing (be  popular  beliefs  of  his  time  has  also  failed  to  secure  the 
appmval  of  some  who  had  very  tittle  sympathy  with  ihi 
belieb.     The       '  ...... 


In  thb  main 
ighl  with  a 


en 1  to  make  il>  jokci  give  pain  to  Ihejn  ai 

make  Iheir  diigiitl  at  such  jokes  piqu.mt  lo  others.      Nevertbi 
with  all  the  Aulb'i  laulls.  it  >•  ainuHni.    The  minor  poena  — 
at  much  above  ike  PmcelU  a*  the  Puiille  ii  above  the  Htm^ 
It  is  tn»  that  there  is  nolbint,  or  hardly  anytblng.  thai  pnofti 

prosody,  and  none  of  thai  indefini 
rightly  taki  lo  ix  of  the  poetic  cuen 


d  lying 


er.  has  been  Ihe  very 

I  system — a  plea  which  is  sufficiently  answered  by 
ine  retort  that  a  great  many  men  have  so  lought  and  have  won. 
Vollaiie's  w<iHis,  and  especially  his  private  letteisf  conitantly 
-etintain  Ihe  word  "I'infame"  and  tlie  eipiession  (in  full  or 
abbreviated)  "  fcrasei  llnllme."  Tbit  baa  been  misunderstood 
hi  many  arays — Ihe  mistake  going  so  far  as  Id  lome  cases 
suppose  that  Voltaire  meant  Christ  by  this  opprobrious 
No  careful  and  compelent  student  of  bis  works 
has  ever  failed  to  correct  this  gross  misapprehension.  "  Lln- 
Unw"  is  not  God;  It  is  not  Christ;  h  is  Dot  Chiislianlly) 
It  b  not  even  Catholidsm.  Its  briefest  equivalent  may  be 
given  as  "  persecuting  and  privileged  onbodoiy"in  genera], 
and,  more  particularly,  It  it  the  pailicular  system  which 
VollaiR  law  around  him,  of  which  he  bad  fdt  the  effects  in  his 
own  nilet  and  Ibe  confiscathma  of  hit  books,  and  of  which  he 
taw  (be  ttiU  worae  elects  Id  Ibe  hideou  suSeringc  of  Galas  aDd 


"^  fct  ol 

though  not  the  lint 
congenial  labour  «pen 
diirEreiit  ------  "--■ 


>   the  woffc  of  Vollaire 


divisions  In  order,  n 


(kttcbn)  are  included  In  hit  wfiiinn  and  ihey  i 
life.  Ii  is  •■  Ant  (hIu  lemarkabh  (hit  Volta 
power  was  undoubtedly  lar  b  eiceti  of  his  iia 


nd  nsay  be  treated 

c  leatl  hi  bulk,  and, 

tween  fifty  and  sixty 
'-■'■  -n  f  ragmen  II  or 


iny  tragedies  of  no  small  eKcetlenr 
oniy  one  lair  second<laai  comedy.  Nm 
this  latter  dinction  are  eliher  iTighl  an 

all  their  interest  fiom  being  penonal  tibc 
other  hand,  are  works  of  ealraDrdinarv 
Although  Voltain  had  neither  the  peile 


■^  Etotsarst,  deriving 
nlicalion  of  Racine 


ibvdiu 


mlheni 


Ik  and  anlUd  nn*  of  tk*  PiMcfa    ii  i  i  il. 
■  whtn  love  is  adaiittad  «  a  srfnciiial  ^uiiv« 

Slbonwhttc  this  matin  iteacluledaHl  kept  is 
^Unopl^^  their  clane  in  uich  inlercsi  «  Ii 


m  that  Ihe  public  apioiaa  ol  hit  lime 
pnaes  lor  a  capable  and  ■utceasfal  dramai' 

mined  to  win  Iboae  piiiea.     He  ibefeton  

clevecoeia  to  the  task,  going  lo  far  as  lo  adopi  a  liiile  even  of  thai 
RomanlK  diaabedience  to  ihe  strict  clauicaf  theory  which  Ik  cso- 
demoed.  and  no  doubt  lincetely,  in  Shakeineaie. 

Aa  icganlB  hit  •««  jmper,  of  chick  ihen  an  two  huw  nma. 
[he  Hairiadt  and  the  /ncaie,  besides  wnalter  piecet,  of  whiclia 
baie  catalogue  Ub  fourteen  royul  octavo  colilnint,  their  value 
h  very  unequal.  The  Jlnriadl  hai  by  universal  conient  tmrn 
lekgatHl  to  Ibe  position  of  a  school  leading  book.  Conauun^ 
almoet  slavish  imiution  of  Virgil.  employinB  '« 


lunetiion  which  hat  been 


the  most  remarkable  end  moil  absolutely  good  fr 
were  Litially  composed  ai  pamphlcn.  wiih  a  puipoK  of  poleink 
in  religion,  polilici,  or  what  not.  Thus  CamJUr  attacki  irbioo 
and  pUloiiaphleal  aptimiim,  L'Himmi  iiu  )u.a.([  &*,  c^ain 
social  and  poUlKal  wiyiof  the  lime.  Zaifit  and  othen  the  received 
forms  of  mtKal  and  metaphysical  orthodoxy,  while  aome  are  mere 
lampoons  on  the  Bible,  tbe  unfaiHiig  source  of  Voltaire's  wit.  But 
(at  always  happens  In  Ihe  caae  of  lireiaiy  «ork  when  Ihe  form 

disappears  almost  enirely.  It  is  in  these  works  more  than  in  any 
othm  that  the  peculiar  goaliiy  of  Voltaire— ironic  style  without 
cuaggeralion— appear*.  Thai  he  learned  it  partly  Inm  Saint 
Evremond.  still  mote  Imm  Anthony  Hamilton,  partly  eves  (roa 
Le  Ssge,  ia  perfectly  true,  but  be  ^ve  it  perfectkHX 
" -ne  eipecial  peculiarilv  can  be  tingled  out, 

he  hoa  said,  elucidales  or  commenct  on  his  own  jokes,  gulTawi  ot<r 
them  or  exaoeralet  their  fomt.  The  famoui  "  p4Hir  encounger 
ki  Butret "  llEat  the  thooting  ol  Byng  did  "  encoumge  the  orhcrx  *' 
very  much  is  not  to  Ihe  point)  ii  a  typical  example,  and  indeed  tbe 
whole  id  Ctniiii  shows  the  style  at  its  peificiian. 
The  fourth  divMon  of  Voltaiie's  work,  the  ttiilBrlal,  h  ihw 


bulkiest  of  an  except  bit  comsponde 
Of  have  been  am^ig  the  mr"  ^-  -" 
among  the  best.    The  small 
Great  are  Indeed  nodeb  of 
what  superAcial  grasp  and  arranEtr 
Lena XIV. and Siitli  Ji_ Lumii X V.  ( 

wKling,  who  had  also  had  aci 


'^^'1 


nXII 


.  and  f^er  the 
_rnious  il  some- 
trailed  SUdt  6t 
rior  (o  the  f onber 


much  more  strongly  in  the  siiRular  oUa  poddda  entitled  Euat  uar 
It!  Moiui.  in  tbe.1iiiui!c]  drtimpin  and  m  the  minor  hliioiical 
woiki.  Thne  defect!  are  an  almost  lolnl  aheence  ol  any  rompn- 
hensioo  of  what  has  since  been  called  the  philosophy  of  history. 
Ihe  conilant  presence  of  gnna  prejudice,  frecjuonl  inaccoisfy  pi 
deiail,  and,  abo>'e  alL  a  compleic  iiaapacity  to  look  ai  anythiw 
except  from  Ihe  narrow  orandpoint  of  a  balf-peisiliiial  and  ball 
tcll-iatiiAed/nhifiusf>t(o(ihe  iBihcemurv. 

however,  not  inconulerable  In  bulk,  and  it  laid  by  experts  lo  gli4 
proof  of  unllude. 
To  his  own  age  Voltalie  was  pre-eminenily  a  pnM  .id  a  .>hn,^ 


VOLTERRA 


^5 


wlwilier  lie  had  any  title  to  eWwr  name,  and  edpecblly  to  the  tatter. 
His  lareest  pkiiosophical  work,  at  least  so  called,  is  the  cunoiM 
medley  entillcd  Diclionnaire  phOosophique,  which  is  compounded 
of  the  articles  contributed  by  him  to  the  g;reat  EncydopidtetxtA  of 
several  minor  pieces.  No  pne  of  Voluire  s  works  shows  his  anti- 
leligious  \^  at  least  anti-ecclcsiastfcal  animus  more  strongly.  The 
vanous  liilc- words  of  the  several  anicles  are  often  the  roercst  sUlkine' 
horses,  under  cover  of  which  to  shoot  at  the  Bible  or  the  church,  the 
target  being  now  and  ihcn  shifted  to  the  polttKal  institutions  of  the 
writer's  country,  his  personal  foes.  &c,  and^  the  whole  being  largely 
seasoned  with  ilut  acute,  rather  superficial,  common-sense,  but 
also  commonplace,  ethical  and  social  crittism  whfch  the  i8th  ccntunr 
called  philosophy.  The  book  ranks  perhaps  second  only  w  the 
novels  as  showing  the  character,  literary  and  personal,  of  Voltaire: 
and  despite  its  form  it  is  nearly  as  readable.  The  minor  philosophical 
workf  are  of  no  very  different  character.  In  the  bnei  Traite  m 
nUtaphysique  the  author  makes  his  grand  effort,  but  scarcely  succeeds 
in  doing  more  than  show  that  he  had  no  real  conception  of  what 

mclaphysk:  is.  .      .     »  ..,,,.. 

In  general  criticism  and  miscellaneous  writing  Voltaire  is  not 
inferior  to  himself  in  any  of  his  other  functions.  Almost  all  his 
more  substantive  works,  whether  in  verse  or  prose,  arc  preceded  by 


criticism  pure  and  simple  his  principal  work  b  the  Commentaire 
sur  CometUe,  though  he  wrote  a  good  deal  more  of  the  same  kind— 
sometimes  (as  in  his  Life  and  notices  of  Molidre)  independently 
sometimes  as  part  of  his  Sikles.  Nowhere,  perhaps,  except  when 
he  is  dealing  with  religion,  'are  Voltaire's  defects  felt  more  than 
here.  He  was  quite  unacquainted  with  the  history  of  his  own 
language  and  literature,  and  more  here  than  anywhere  else  he  showed 
the  extraordinarily  liniiied  and  convcntbnal  spirit  whkrh  accom- 
panied the  revolt  of  the  French  1 8th  century  against  limits  and 
conventions  in  theok)gical,  ethical  and  political  matters. 

There  remains  only  the  huge  division  of  his  corres^ondenett  which 
is  constantly  being  augmented  by  fresh  discoveries,  and  which, 
according  to  Georges  Scneesco,  Has  never  been  fully  or  correctly 
printed,  even  in  some  of  the  parts  longest  known.  In  this  great 
mass  Voltaire's  personality  is  of  course  best  shown,  and  perhaps  his 
literaiy  qualities  not  worst.  His  immense  energy  and  versatility, 
his  adroit  and  unhesitating  flattery  when  he  chose  to  flatter,  his 
ruthless  sarcasm  when  he  chose  to  be  sarcastic,  hb  rather  un- 
scrupulous business  faculty,  hb  more  than  rather  unscrupulous 
resolve  to  double  and  twbt  in  any  fashion  no  as  to  escape  his  enemies, 
— all  these  things  appear  throughout  the  whole  mass  of  letters. 

Most  judgments  of  Voltaire  have  been  unduly  coloured  by  sympathy 
with  or  diMike  of  what  may  be  briefly  called  hb  polemical  side. 
When  sympathy  and  dislike  are  both  discarded  or  allowed  for,  he 
remains  one  of  the  most  astonbhing,  if  not  exactly  one  of  the  most 
admirable.  Inures  of  letters.  That  he  never,  as  Carlyle  complains, 
gave  utterance  to  one  great  thought  b  strictly  true.  That  his 
characterbikr  b  for  the  most  part  an  almost  superhuman  cleverness 
rather  than  positive  genius  b  also  true.  But  that  he  was  merely 
a  mocker,  whteh  Carlyle  and  others  have  also  sakl,  b  not  strictly 
true  or  fair.  In  politics  proper  he  seems  indeed  to  have  had  few  or 
no  constructive  ideas,  and  to  have  been  entirely  ignorant  or  quite 
reckless  of  the  fact  that  his  attacks  were  destroying  a  state  of  things 
for  which  as  a  whole  he  neither  had  nor  apparently  wbhed  to  have 
any  substitute.  In  religion  he  protested  stoutly,  and  no  doubt 
sincerely,  that  his  own  attitude  was  not  purely^ negative;  but  here 
also  he  seems  to  have  failed  altogether  to  distinguish  betuTCn  pruning 
and  cutting  down.  Both,  here  and  elsewhere  nis  great  fault  was  an 
inveterate  superficiality.  But  this  superficiality  was  accompanied 
by  such  wonderful  acuteness  within  a  certain  range,  by  such  an 
aosolutely  unsurpassed  literary  aptitude  and  sense  of  style  in  all 
the  lighter  and  some  of  the  graver  modes  of  literature,  by  such 
untiring  energy  and  versatility  in  enterprise,  that  he  has  no  parallel 
amonf^  ready  writers  anywhere.  Not  the  most  elaborate  work  of 
V(Ataire  b  of  much  value  for  matter;  but  not  the  very  slightest 
work  of  Voltaire  b  devoid  of  value  in  form.  I  n  literary  craftsmanship, 
at  once  versatihi  and  accompibhcd,  he  has  no  superior  and  scarcely 
s  rival. 

BiBUOGKAPHY.— The  bibliography  of  Voltaire  b  a  very  large 
subiect,  and  it  has  been  the  special  occupation  of  a  Rumaniaa 
diplomatbt  of  much  erudition  and  judgment,  Ceorgcs  Bengesco. 
BtUiograthie  ie  VcUairt  (4  vols..  Parts,  1882-90).  The  best  edi- 
tion of  the  works  is  that  by  Loub  Moland  in  52  volumes  (Paris, 
Gamier) ;  the  handiest  and  most  compact  b  that  issued  in  13  volumes 
toval  octavo  by,Furne,  and  kept  in  print  by  the  house  of  DtdoL 
Oi  the  earlier  editions,  thoush  tneir  bulk  b  an  objection,  several  arc 
interesting  and  valuable.  Especially  may  be  noticed  the  eo-called 
edition  of  Kehl,  in  which  Voltaire  himself,  and  later  Boauroarehais, 
were  concerned  (70  vols.,  1785-89);  those  of  Oalibon  and  Baudouin. 
each  In  97  volumes  (from  whkh  "  the  hundred  volumes  of  Voltaire  " 
liavv  become  a  not  infreouent  figure  of  speech);  and  the  excellent 
edltwn  of  Beuchot  (1829)  in  7a  volumes.  Editions  of  separate  or 
selected  works  are  innumerable,  and  so  are  books  upon  Voltaire. 
There  b  no  really  good  detailed  life  of  him,  with  oonplelD  exaroinap 


tion  of  hb  w«rk,  in  any  fangoitfe,  thougli  the  iwDribt  eoiftalning 
materials  for  such  are  numerous  (the  first  of  importance  being  that 
of  T.  J.  Duvemet  in  1797).  and  sometimes  (especially  in  tbecaseof 
M.  Desnoinisterres,  VeUain  et  la  socUti  fmnfaise,  1867  and  othere) 
excellent.  In  English  the  essay*  of  Cariyie  and  Viscount  Mortey 
(1872)  are  both  in  their  way  invaluable,  and  to  a  great  extent  correct 
one  another.  The  principal  detailed  life  in  En^ibh  b  that  of  a« 
American  writer,  James  Barton  (1881),  which  gives  the  facts  with 
very  considerable  detail  and  fair  accui^acy,  but  with  littlo  power  of 
criticbm.  That  of  Mr  S.  G.  T^lent^re  (London,  1903.  a  vcrfs.)  is 
gossiping  and  popular.  Francb  Espinasse's  Voltaire  (1882),  which 
contains  a  useful  bibliography,  J.  Churton  Collins's  Voltain  As 
England  (1886),  and  J.  K.  Lounsbury's  Shakespeare  and  Vellair$ 
(1902)  may  also  be  ^leci&od.  (G.  Sa.) 

VOLTBRRA  (anc.  Volatarce),  a  town  and  episcopal  see  ol 
Tuscany,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Pisa,  from  which  it  b  51  m. 
by  rail  S.E.,  and  35  by  road  W.N.W.  from  Siena.    Pop.  (igoi) 
5S22  (town);  14,207  (oommnne).    It  stands  on  a  otMninanding 
olive-clad  eminence  1785  ft.  above  sea-level,  with  a  magnificent 
view  over  mountains  and  sea  (the  bttcr  some  ao  m.  distant), 
and  b  surrounded  by  the  massivo  remains  of  its  andent  walls 
ci  large,  roughly-rectangular  blocks  of  stone,  some  4I  m.  fai 
drcuR,  enclosing  an  area  which  must  have  been  larger  than 
was  actually  needed  for  habitation.    Tombs  of  the  pre^Etruscaa 
or  Villanova  period  have  been  found  within  its  drcuit,  but 
only  at  the  north-west  extremity  near  S.  Glusto.    Here  the 
clay  of  which  the  hill  b  formed  b  gradually  giving  way,  causmg 
landslips  and  the  collapse  of  buildings,  notably  of  the  abbey 
church  of  S.  Salvatore  (1030).    The  medieval  town  occupies 
only  the  southern  portion  of  thb  area.    The  most  Important 
relic  of  its  Etruscan  period  b  the  PorU  dell'  Arco,  an  archway 
of  dark  greystone,  about  20  ft.  high,  the  corbeb  of  which  an 
adorned  with  almost  obliterated  heads,  probably  representing 
the  guardian  deities  of  the  city.    There  are  remains  of  baths 
and  a  clslcm  of  Roman  dale.    Vokcrra  preserves  Us  medi- 
eval character,  having  suffered  little  modification  since  the 
16th  century.    The  town  contains  many  picturesque  medieval 
towers  and  houses.    The  Palazzo  dei  Priori  (1208-54),  now 
the  municipal  palace,  b  especially  fine,  and  the  piazza  in  which 
it  stands  most  picturesque.    The  museum  contains  a  very 
vahiable  collection  of  Etruscan  antiquities,  especially  cinerary 
urns  from  the  andent  tombs  N.  and  E.  of  the  town.    The  umt 
themselves  are  of  alabaster,  with  the  figure  of  the  deceased  on 
the  lid,  and  reliefs  from  Greek  myths  on  the  front.      They 
belong  to  the  3id'2nd  centuries  B.C.    A  tomb  outside  the 
town  of  the  6lh  century  b.c,  discovered  in  1898,  consisted  of 
a  round  underground  chamber,  roofed  with  graduaJly  projecting 
slabs  of  stone.    The  roof  was  suppoUed*  In  the  centre  by  a 
massive  square  pillar  (E.  Petersen  in  Jidmische  MiUrilungen, 
1898, 409;  cf.  id.  ibid.,  1904,  244  for  a  similar  one  near  Florence). 
There  are  also  in  the  museum  Romanesque  sculptures  from  the 
old  church  of  S.  Giusto,  &c.    The  cathedral,  consecrated  in 
If 20  (?),  but  enlarged  and  adorned  by  Niccolo  Pisano  (?)  la 
1254,  htt  a  fine  pulpit  of  that  period,  and  on  the  high  altar  are 
sculptures  by  Mino  da  Flcsole;  it  contains  several  good  pictures— 
the  best  b  an  "  Annunciation  "  by  Luca  Signordli.    The  sacristy 
has  fine  carvings.    The  baptbteiy  belongs  to  the  X3th  century; 
the  font  is  by  ^drea  Sansovino,  and  the  ciborium  by  Mino 
da  Fiesole.    Both  these  buildings  are   In   bUick  and   white 
marble.    S.  Fmncesco  has  freaoocs   of  1410,  and  S.  Girolamo 
tcrra-cottas  and  piaures.    The  citadel,  now  a  house  of  correct 
tion,  consists  of  two  portions,  the   Rocca   Vecchia,   built  in 
1343  by  Walter  de  Brienne,  duke  of  Athens,  and  the  Rocca 
Nuova,  built  by  the  Florentines  (1472).    The  inhaUtants  are 
chiefly  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  vases  and  other  oma* 
ments  from  alabaster,  of  good  quality^  found  in  the.  vicinity. 
There  are  also  In  the  neighbourhood  roctc-salt  works  and  mines^ 
as  wen  as  boraclc  add  works.    This  add  b  exhaled  in  volcanoe 
gas,  which  b  passed  through  water  tanks.    The  add  u  deposited 
in  the  water  and  afterwards  evaporated.    It  b  sent  to  KnglmH, 
and  used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of  pottery  glaae. 


Voleteme  (Etruscan  VUs/Art)  was  oee  of  the  Most  powerful  of 
the  twelve  coofedemte  cities  of  Etouria.  DuBiiig.lke  war  lwawu.n 
Menus  and  Sulla  it  withstood  the  btter's  troops  for  two  yean  la 


?o« 


VOtTMETER 


»»-^a%£.  Aaa 5 

ODn&Hialion  oT  (he  Uad  i^  tlwH  ialubiunti  st  Vdaunac  »lu>  had 
t)*d  (ho  privlkcn  oT  RiiniBB  dtiieiHUp.   "Kju  hcnncr,  data  e  " 
■Km  to  have  bKn  cairicd  ant  BBiil  Guar  »  dictator  divideil  n 
ol  Ihc  UmUry  d(  Vol^uctlC  ainoai  hia  vcunaa.    Anunf  iu  not 
UpiiLiei  the  clutf  was  that  ol  tli«Xaecma*.  who  took  tnor  nar 
bsm  the  livB  whicti  nini  clow  ta  VohUnw  and  aull  Rtaiiu  1 

'«nh.     1(  ia  uicluckil  by  Pliny  nauif  [he  munidiul  tovni 

'    '-  fell  undo'  the  power  o(  Flgmite.    It  iib  "   '  '    ■  - 


mitn  %d 


d  piUa^fed  in  1471. 
Vbltim  wan  f»tt 


and  the  paint f 
.   SevEnTvoiIi 


See  C,  Rkci,  Volierra  {Beinmo,  1905);  Em  BonaaaD  in  Csrfi^ 
Ifsir.  Lttin.  :d.  (Oaln,  iSaSlTi).  114:  C.  Dannk  aHa  tnd 
Ctaticriu  el  Etnuvi  CLandoi^  iM3),ll  136.  (T.Aa.) 

VOmBTER.  ta,  insttumaiL  for  measuiing  difftRats 
declric  poijeiitiil  {we  ELEcraoeiAiics}  in  teima  of  Lbe  lu 
ailed  •  volL  Tlu  volt  (»  oUed  alter  A.  VelU)  ia  defined 
In  diStreiwe  of  poUotuJ  which  acting  betwe^  the  Icnnini 
ff  *.  recuuna  o(  ooe  ohm  aends  Ihrougb  it  a  contiououi  cutn 
fl  oDp  ampere.  A  volDneiei  ii  iherdore  noe  form  ol  ekcli 
IPein  (g.s.),  but  the  (erm  ia  generally  emplsyed  to  deacril 
lbs  iBiInuiient  which  indicates  on  a  scale,  not  inetdy  ._ 
■rbitrajy  unita  but  dbectly  ia  volt^  the  potential  diSerence  ol 

(ft)  elcctnntatk,  (t)  Dfectrokinelic 

BlectnMatk:  voUnieteta  ite  baaed  I. , , 

■onducton  are  at  differant  poteotialt  th^  attract  one  aiwthCT 
with  ■  force  which  vanct  as  the  Huare  «C  the  potential  — 
{P.  D.)  between  ■'■—      ■^' •■—■--■ -  >- 


wklle  (he  D(her  it  nov^ite.  tUa  lait  bcui(  wbiKI  to  a  connniat 
due  tsa  ipckic  or  isinviiy,  iiMana  beint  alM  mvided  lor  neaur- 
fag  difcer  the  dlapUcaaroe  a(  the  menhlc  eaDduoar  agaiiut  the 
Goiulnlatatbe  tons  itqibed  to  hold  !l  in*  filed  poutioo  relatively 
Id  the  tnd  condnctor.  Ooe  bnc  clan  of  doctnwatic  volimctcn 
•naiiititf  ■  filed  iBctal  plaM  or  datn  and  ■  movable  plate  or  plalei. 


, kfiar(KeLsVDBHJ»-,. 

ponbbnntea  laauieaidBlor  pivoted,  and  when  a  P.  U.  !•  cruttd 
between  the  iied  and  «no»»blc  pUlei.  the  latter  are  drawn  into  a 
newpontlon  which  It  rc«1iKd  by  the  torque  oln  wire  of  by  the  foire 
dee  ta  ■  wtifht,  Vlllidnc  thb  principle  nunv  Inwnton  have 
4evi*d  formi  o(  dntnmattc  vakmeter.  One  of  the  beit  Iminra 
ol  Iheie  11  Loiil  Kelvin'i  BuUicelhilac  voltKlrr.  In  thii  inUni- 
nent  (ig.  1)  (here  an  two  ku  o(  &xcd  nKi;il  platn,  coonecied 


I.— Lord  KeMn'l  MuItWelluUt  Elettroeutic  Voltmeter. 
'  and  having  a'  miadrantal  ehape.  that  is,  approviniatdy 
pe  of  a  quarter  cf  a  circular  ditb.    In  the  ipnoe  between 
:h  eonilitm  ol  a  Kelit  aluminium 


the  dlHercnce  ol 


inium  bLidu  ai;^  nweiBcludedbctweu  the  &~x^ 
ovemeut  a  misted  by  the  tonional  claBtkity  of 
■ire.  and  hence  a  fiud  indJealiog  oeodte  attached 
ryttem  un  be  nude  (D  indicate  directly  on  a  ac^ 

...  but  alu  by  W.  E.  Ayrtonand  at  tiers,  foi  mianirina 
c  inUruuKnti  the  Diovahic  lyitcni  nitalei  round  a 

■li  is  generaUy  due  to  gravity,  the  plalei  betne  ao 
Jie  kode  edge  that  they  tend  to  take  up  *  certain 
Iron  which  Ihev  are  conurained  -hen  the  ekclrie 
mo  play,  their  diiplacemcnl  relativdy  la  the  bud 

1 1.1....  :.ji_.j^[|^p_  p    b^,^    - 


having  a  reilitanco  ol  about  300  ohnu.  ia  Nrctched  in  a  tube  01  upon 
a  Inne  cootalaed  in  1  tube.  This  ftaoie  or  lube  ig  »  conuracted  at 
— ^and  bran  (one-third  iron  and  two-thirdi  bnu)  that  ita  tempera, 
x  coeAdeot  of  Hncar  enpamion  i>  the  Hjne  aa  thai  of  (he  platinun- 
H-  alloy.  The  line  wire  ii  fixed  to  one  end  of  the  lube  or  Iraow 
-,  Jntoawued  nipportand  the  other  end  li  attached  la  a  motion- 
nuhlplylag  gear.  A>  the  frame  hai  the  aime  linear  eipan^n  a* 
the  wire,  external  change*  of  (he  temperature  will  not  affect  their 
icltlivc  length,  but  if  the  fine  wire  ii  heated  by  the  pauage  of  an 
-"eclnc  nuient.  Iti  expaniiun  will  move  the  indicating  needle  over 
le  Kite,  the  notion  bdna  multiplied  by  the  (car.  In  the  Hart  nuna 
td  Braun  form  of  hot-wire  vollmetec,  the  line  wire  Is  fixed  between 
■o  anpppiti^  and  the  eipaniion  piUduced  when  a  current  >•  panted 
ilaBgh  It  (bMco  the  wm  to  sag  down,  the  ng  being  multiplied 
r  a  gear  and  mode  lo  move  an  Indicating  needle  over  a  Kale. 
I  working  wire,  being  ahiHt,  muB  be  placed 
ional  high  iwinanw.  Mot  wire  voltmeten, 
iclen,  are  nlitable  lor  nse  with  altemtinV 
current!  of  any  frequency  as  udl  at  with  ccntlnuoui  cniienU.  lince 
their  Inthcationa  depend  upon  the  heating  power  of  the  current- 

.hirh  1.  .1 — .  ,5  ,g,  „„,„  e(  it„  current  and  thetdore 

erence  <^  potential  between  the  termlnali. 
etm  conaiftt  of  a  coil  of  fine  wiie  connected 
s  liutniment,  and  the  cnnent  produced  in 


VOLTURNO— VOLUINSKY 


207 


tn  a  tmall  piece  of  soft  tnUt  u  ta  ifce  case  of  tfie  correspondiag: 
ammeters,  and  this  in  turn  maV  be  made  to  displace  an  tnciicatiiiK 
needle  over  a  scale  so  that  /XMrespondtng  to  every  eiven  potentiju 
difference  between  the  terminals  of  the  instrument  tncre  is  a  corre- 
sponding fixed  position  of  the  needle  on  the  scale.  One  of  the  most 
useful  forms  01  electromagnetic  voltmeter  is  that  geneially  known 
as  A. movable  coil  voltmeter  (fig.  3).    In  this  instrament  tnere  is  a 

fixed  permanent  magnet,  produc- 
ing a  constant  magnetic  field,  and 
in  .the  interspace  between  the  poles 
is  fixed  a  delicatelyr  pivoted  coil 
of  wire  carried  in  jewcBed  bear* 
ings.  The  normal  position  of  this 
coil  is  with  its  plane  paralld  to  the 
lipes  of  force  of  the  field.  The 
ciirrent  is  -got  in  and  out  of  the 
movable  coil .  by  means  of  fine 
flexible  wires.  The  movable  coil 
has  attached  to  it  an  index  needle 
moving  over  a  scale,  and*  a  fixed 
coil  of  high-rtststance  wire  is 
included  in  series  with  the  movable 
ooil  between  the  terminals  of  the 
instrument.  When  a  difference 
FiC.T. — Round  Dial  Voltmeter  of  potential  is  made  between  the 
of  Kelvin  Siphon  Recorder,  terminals,  a  current  passes  through 
dead  beat  moving  coil  type«  the  movable  coil,  which  then  tends 
with  front  removed.  to  place  itself  with  its  plane  more 

at  right  angled  to  the  lines  of  force 
of  the  field.  This  motion  u  resisted  by  the  torsion  of  a  spiral  spring 
resembling  the  hair-spring  dT  a  watch  having' one  end  fixed  to  the 
coil  ajds,  and  there  Is  therefore  a  definite  postion  of  the  needle  on 
the  scale  corresponding  to  each  potential  difference  between  the 
terminals,  provided  it  is  within  tne  range  of  the  control,  lliese 
instruments  are  only  adapted  for  the  measurement  of  continuous 
potential  diflfercncc,  that  is  to  say,  unidirectional  potential  differ- 
ence,  but  not  for  alternating  VMtagcs.  Like  the  corresponding 
ammeters,  they  have  the  great  advantage  that  the  scales  are  equi- 
divisional  and  that  there  is  no  dead  part  in  the  scale,  whereas  both 
the  electrostatic  and  electrothermal  voltmeters^  above  described, 
labour  under  the  disadvantage  that  the  scale  divtsbns  arc  not  equal 
but  increase  with  rise  of  voltages,  hence  there  is  generally  a  portion 
of  the  scale  near  the  aero  point  where  the  divisions  are  so  close  as  to 
be  useless  for  reading  porpoaes  and  are  therefore  omitted.  For  the 
measurement  of  voltages  in  continuous  current  generating  stations, 

movable  coil  voltmeters  are  much 
employed,  generally  constructed 
then  in  the  "edgewise"  pattern 
(|fig-4)- 

Elecirodyuamk  Voltmtlers.r-A 
high-resistance  electrodynamo- 
meter  may  be  employed  as  a  volt- 
meter. In  this  case  both  the  fixed 
and  movable  circuits  consist  of 
fine  wires,  and  the  instrument  is 
constructed  and  used  in  a  manner 
similar  to  the  Siemens  dynamo- 
meter employed  for  measuring  con- 
tinuous akemating  cuncnt  (see 
Ampbrbmetbr).  Another  much- 
used  method  of  mcasurinK  con- 
tinuous current  voltages  or  unidirectional  potential  difference 
employs  the  principle  m  potentiometer  (q.v.).  In  this  case  a  high- 
resistance  wire  is  connected  betwcdi  the  points  of  winch  the  potential 
difference  is  reouired,  and  from  some  known  fraction  of  this  resist- 
ance wires  are  brought  to  an  electrostatic  voltmeter,  or  to  a  mov- 
able coil  electromagnetic  voltmeter,  according  as  the  voltage  to 
be  measured  Is  alternating  or  continuous.  Ihis  measurement  is 
applicable  to  the  meaaurement  of  high  potentiala,  either  alternating 
or  continuous,  provided  that  in  the  case  of  alternating  currents  the 
high  resistance  employed  is  wound  non-inductively  and  an  electro- 
static voltmeter  is  used.  The  high-resistance  wire  should,  moreover, 
be  one  having  a  n^ligible  change  of  resistance  with  tempeiature. 
For  this  purpose  it  must  be  an  alloy  sudi  as  manoanin  or  constanun. 
it  is  always  an  advanti^e,  if  possible,  to  employ  an  ckctiosUtic 
voltmeter  for  measuring  potential  difference  »f  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  voltmeter  permanently  connected  to  the  ttro  points.  Any 
form  of  electrokinetic  voltmeter  which  involves  the  passage  of  a 
current  through  the  wire  necessitates  the  expenditure  of  energy  to 
maintain  this  current  and  therefore  involves  cost  of  production. 
This  amount  may  not  by  any  means  be  an  insignificant  quantity. 
Consider,  for  instance,  a  hot-wire  instrument,  such  as  a  Cardew  s 
voltmeter.  If  the  wire  has  a  resistance  of  300  ohms  and  is  oonnectcd 
to  two  points  differing  in  potentnl  by  100  vohs,  the  instrument 
passes  a  current  of  one-third  of  an  ampere  and  takes  up  ^3  watts  in 
power.  Since  there  are  8760  hours  in  a  year,  if  such  an  instrument 
were  connected  continuously  to  the  circuit  it  would  take  up  energy 
equal  to  963,000  watt-hours,  or  2G0  Board  of  Trade  units  per  annum. 
If  the  cost  of  production  of  this  energy  was  only  one  penny  per  unit, . 


Pia  4.— Efteewise  VohmeCer* 
Sttoley  D'Arsonval  type» 


the  working  emutusea  of  Icecpfaig  audi  b  vokmelcr  in  connenon  witb 
a  circuit  would  therefore  be  more  than  £1  per  annum,  representing 
a  capitalized  value  of.  say,  £10.  Electrostatic  instruments,  however, 
take  up  no  power  and  hence  cost  nothing  for  maintenance  other  than 
wear  and  tckr  of  the  instrument. 

The  qualitiea  required  in  a  good  voltmeter  are:— (L)  It  should  be 
quick  in  action,  that  is  to  aay,  the  needle  should  come  quickly  to  a 
position  dving  immediately  the  P.D.  of  the  terminals  of  the  instru* 
ment.  ui.)  The  instrument  should  give  the  same  reading  for  the 
same  P.D.  whether  this  has  been  arrived  at  by  increasing  from  a  lower 
value  or  decreasing  from  a  larger  value;  in  other  words,  there  should 
be  no  instrumental  hysteresis,  ^iii.)  The  instrumont  should  have 
no  temperature  correction;  this  is  a  good  quality  of  electrostatic 
instruments,  but  in  all  voltmeters  of  tne  electrokinetic  type  which 
are  wound  with  copper  wire  an  incrmie  of  one  degree  centigrade 
in  tile  average  tempenture  of  that  wire  altera  the  resistance  by 
o«4^  and  therefore  to  the  tame  extent  alters  the  correctness  of 
the  indications,  (iv.^  It  should,  if  possible,  be  available  Both  for 
aftcmating  and  continuous. currents,  (v.)  It  should  be  portable 
and  work  m  any  position,  (vi.)  It  should  not  be  disturbed  easily  try 
external  electric  or  magnetic  fields.  This  bst  point  is  important  in 
connexion  with  voltmeters  used  00  the  switchboards  of  electric 
aeneratiog  statwns,  where  relatively  strong  electric  or  magnetic 
fields  may  be  present,  due  to  strong  currents  passing  through  con- 
ductors near  or  on  the  board.  It  is  therefore  dways  necessary  to 
check  the  readings  of  snch  an  instrument  te  sUm.  Electrostatic 
voltmeters  are  also  fiable  to  have  their  indications  disturbed  by 
electrification  of  the  glass  cover  of  the  instrument;  this  can  lie 
avoided  by  varnishing  the  glass  with  a  semi-conducting  varnish  so 
as  to  prevent  the  location  of  electrostatic  charges  on  the  glass. 

See  J.  A.  Fleming,  Handbook  for  the  Electrical  Laboralory  omA 
TesUnpRoom  (London,  1903);  G.  Aspinall  Parr.  Eleeirital  Engituet- 
ing  Measuring  Instruments  (London,  1903);  K.  EdgecumM  and 
F..J'unga,  "  On  Direct  Reading  Measuring  Instruments  for  Switch* 
board  Use,*'  Journ.  Inst.  Elec.  Eng.  (London,  1904),  33,  620. 

(J.  A.  F.) 

VOLTURNO  (anc  Voltumus,  from  9elvere,  to  roll),  s  river 
of  eentral  Italy,  which  rises  in  the  neaghbourhood  of  Alfedena 
in  the  central  Apennines  of  Samnium,  runs  S.  as  far  as  Venafro, 
and  then  S.E.  After  a  course  of  some  75  zn.  it  receives,  about 
5  m.  £.  of  Caiazzo,  the  Calore,  only  3  m.  kss  in  length, whidi 
runs  first  N.  and  then  W.,  and  after  37  m.  reaches  Bcnevento, 
near  which  it  receives  several  tributaries;  then  curves  round 
the  mountain  mass  to  the  N.  of  the  (^udine  Forks,  and  so 
beyond  Telese  joins  the  Voltumo.  The  united  stream  now 
flows- W.S.W.  past  Capua  (anc.  Casilinum)^  where  the  Vib 
Appia  and  Latina  joined  just  to  the  N.  of  the  bridge  over  it, 
and  so  through  the  Campanian  plain,  with  many  windings, 
into  the  sea.  The  direct  length  of  the  lower  course  is  about 
31  m.,  so  that  the  whole  is  slightly  longer  than  that  of  tho 
Lin,  and  its  basin  far  larger.  The  river  has  always  had  con* 
siderable  military  importance,  and  the  colony  of  Voltumum 
(no  doubt  preceded  by  an  older  port  of  Capua)  was  founded 
in  194  B.C.  at  its  mouth  on  the  S.  bank  by  the  Romans;  it 
is  now  about  one  mile  inland.  A  fort  had  already  been  placed 
there  during  the  Roman  siege  of  Capua,  in  order,  with  PuteoU, 
to  serve  for  the  provisioning  of  the  army.  Augustus  placed  a 
colony  of  veterans  here.  The  Via  Domitiana  from  Sinucssa  to 
Puteoli  crossed  the  river  at  this  point,  and  some  remains  of 
the  bridge  are  visible.   The  river  was  navigable  as  far  as  (^pua. 

On  the  ist  of  October  x86o  the  Neapolitan  forces  were 
defeated  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Voltumo,  near  S.  Maria  di  (Zapua 
Vetere,  by  the  Piedmonteae  and  Garibaldi's  troops,  a  defeat 
which  led  to  the  fall  of  Capua.  (T.  As.) 

VOLUINSKY,  ARTEMY  PETROVICH  (1689-1740),  Russian 
general  and  statesman,  son  of  Peter  Voluinsky,  one  of  the 
dignitaries  at  the  court  of  Theodore  III.,  came  of  an  ancient 
family.  He  entered  a  dragoon  regiment  in  1704  and  rose  to 
the  lank  oi  captain;  then,,  exchanging  the  military  service  Sot 
diploroaGy,  he  was  attached  to  the  suite  of  Vice-Chancellor 
Shafirov.  He  was  present  during  the  campaign  of  the  Prutl^ 
shared  Shafirov's  captivity  in  the  Seven  Towers  and  in  17x5 
was  sent  by  Peter  the  Great  to  Persia  to  promote  Russian 
influence  there,  and  if  possible  to  find  an  outlet  to  India.  In 
K718  PetiT  made  him  one  of  his  six  adjutant-generals,  and 
governor  of  Astrakhan.  In  this  post  Voluinsky  displayed  dis- 
tinguished administrative  and  financial  talents.  In  1723  be 
marxisd  Alexandca  NaruisUkina,  Peter's  cousin.     The  same 


2IO 


VOLUTfi— VONNOH 


«ttorance  of  gnce  which  bitaka  wif  h  the  traditiomit  Chrittianky 
of  his  time  and  is  based  en  ethical  motives  akin  to  those  of  the 
German  Reforewrs.  The  verses  which  occur  in  the  dJaJopie,  and  the 
poem  which  coodudes  it,  gj^ve  Volusenus  a  place  among^  Scottish  Latia 
poets,  but  it  is  as  a  Christian  philosopher  that  he  attains  distinction. 
The  dialogue  was  reissued  at  Leiden  in  1637  by  the  Scots  writer 
David  Echlin,  whose  poepis,  with  a  aelectkm  of  three  poems  from 
the  dialogue  of  Volusenus,  appear,  with  others,  in  the  famous 
Amsterdam  collection  Deliliae  Poetarum  Scotorum  kujus  aevi, 
printed  by  Blaev  in  3  vols,  in  1637.  Later  editions  of  the  dialogue 
appeared  at  Edinburgh  in  1707  and  1751  (the  latter  edited  by 
C.  Wishart).  All  the  reissues  contain  a  snort  life  of  the  author  by 
Thomas  Wilson,  advocate,  son-in>Jaw  and  biographer  of  Arch- 
bishop Patrick  Adamson.  Supplementary^  facts  are  found  in  the 
letters  and  state  papers  of  the  period,  and  in  Sadolct's  Letters. 

VOLUTE  (Lat.  vo/m^mm,  vohere^  to  roll  up),  in  architecture, 
the  spiral  scroll  of  the  capital  of  the  Ionic  order.  As  in  the 
eariiest  example  known,  that  of  the  archaic  temple  of  Diana 
at  Ephous,  the  width  of  the  abacus  is  twice  that  of  the  depth, 
constituting  therefore  a  bracket-capital;  it  is  probable  that  at 
first  it  consisted  of  an  oblong  block  of  timber,  whidi,  raised 
on  a  vertical  post  or  orfumn,  lessened  the  bearing  of  the 
architrave  or  beam,  and  the  first  volutes  or  scrolls  were  painted 
on.  In  votive  columns  carrying  a  sphinx,  as  at  Delphi,  or 
statues,  the  obk>ng  form  of  capital  with  largely  devebped 
volutes  was  long  retained,  but  in  the  porticoes  oJF  the  Greek 
temples  the  abacus  was  made  square  and  the  volute  diminished 
in  projection  on  each  side,  In  the  side  elevation  the  portion 
of  the  capital  which  joins  the  two  volutes  is  known  as  the 
cushion,  and  when  the  Ionic  column  was  used  in  porticoes  in 
the  capitals  of  the  angle  columns  the  volute  was  brought  out 
on  the  diagonal,  so  as  to  present  the  same  design  on  front  and 
side;  this,  however,  at  the  back  led  to  a  very  awkward  arrange- 
ment with  two  half  volutes  at  right  angles  to  one  another, 
which  was  not  of  much  importance  under  the  portico,  but 
when,  in  the  open  peristyle  of  the  Pompcian  house,  it  faced 
the  open  court,  another  design  was  necessary,  and  the  angle 
volute  was  employed  on  all  four  sides.  A  similar  arrangement 
was  devised  by  Ictinus  for  the  capitals  in  the  interior  of  the 
temple  at  Bassae  (430  B.C.),  and  was  employed  in  the  semi- 
detached columns  of  the  raised  stage  at  Epidaurus.  The 
Romans  adopted  the  an^e  volute  in  the  temple  of  Fortuna 
Virilis  at  Rome,  but.  except  in  their  porticoes  and  as  semi- 
detached between  arches,  the  Ionic  order  was  rarely  employed 
by  them,  and  few  Roman  examples  are  known. 

The  architects  of  the  Revival  in  the  l6th  century  entirely  mis- 
understood the  origin  and  meaning  of  the  volutes  (the  upper  fillet 
of  whkh  was  always  carried  horizontally  across  under  the  abacus 
in  Greek  and  Roman  work),  and  mistook  them  for  horns,  which  they 
turned  down  into  the  echinus  moulding. 

VONDEt.  JOOST  VAN  DEN  {i^-j-i^li),  Dutch  poet,  was 
bom  at  Cologne  on  the  17th  of  November  1587.  His  father, 
a  hatter,  was  an  exile  from  Antwerp  on  account  of  his  Ana- 
baptist opinions;  but  he  returned  to  Holland  when  Joost  was 
about  ten  years  old,  and  settled  in  Amsterdam,  where  he  carried 
on  a  hosieiy  business.  Joost  was  the  eldest  son,  and  was 
expected  to  succeed  to  his  father's  shop.  He  was  early  intro- 
duced to  the  chamber  of  the  Eglantine,  however,  and  devoted 
most  of  his  time  to  poetry  and  study.  When  the  elder  Vondel 
died  he  married  Maria  de  Wolff,  and  seems  to  have  left  the 
management  of  his  affairs  in  her  capable  hands.  He  read  the 
Frendi  contemporary  poets,  and  was  especially  influenced  by 
the  Divifu  Sepmaine  of  Du  Bartas;  he  made  some  translations 
from  the  German;  he  was  soon  introduced  to  the  circle  gathered 
in  the  house  of  Roemer  Visscher,  and  with  these  friends  began 
to  make  a  close  study  of  classical  writers.  His  first  play,  Hei 
Pascha,  was  printed  in  161 2,  and  proved  to  be  th6  beginning 
of  a  long  and  brilUant  literary  career  (see  Dtrrcn  Litebature). 
After  the  production  of  his  political  drama  of  PalcmedeSt  or 
Murdfftd  Innocence  (1625),  which  expressed  his  indignation 
at  the.  judicial  murder  of  Oldenbameveldt  in  16 19,  Vondel  had 
to  go  into  hiding,  but  the  Amsterdam  magistrates  eventually 
satisfied  themselves  with  exacting  a  small  fine.  In  the  follow- 
ing years  he  issued  a  number  of  stinging  satires  against  the 
extreme  Calvinists,  and  Jie  entered  into  dose  relationship 


with  Hugo  Grottos,  another  ■aflieicr  for  his  liberal  opinions. 
Vondel  had  long  been  attracted  by  the  aesthetic  side  of  the 
Roman    Catholic  Church,   and  this  inclination  was  perhaps 
strengthened  by  his  friendship  with  Marie  Tesaelsdude  VisBcher, 
for  the  Visscher  housefaoki  had    been   Catholic  and    libevaL 
Tesscbchade's  husband  died  in   1634;    Vondel 's  wife  died  in 
1635;  and  the  ties  between  the  two  were  strengthened  by  time. 
Vondel  eventually  showed  his  revolt  against  the  C^vinist 
tyranny  by  formally  embracing  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  in 
164a    The  step  was  ill-received  by  many  of  his  friends,  and 
Hooft  forbade  him  the  hospitality  of  his  castle  at  Muiden. 
In  1657  his  only  surviving  son,  who  was  entrusted  with   the 
hosiery  business,  mismanaged  affairs  to  such  an  extent  that 
he  had  to  take  ship  for  the  East  Indies,  leaving  his  father  to  face 
the  creditors.    Vondel  had  to  sacrifice  the  whole  of  his  small 
fortune,  and  became  a  government  clerk.    He  was  pensioDed 
after  ten  years'  service,  and  died  on  the  5th  of  February  1679. 

The  more  important  of  his  thirty-two  dramas  are:  HierusaUm 
Vertpoest  ("Jerusalem  laid  desolate")  (1620):  Paiamedes,  of  Ver- 
moorde onnooselheyd  ("  Palamedes,  or  Mordercd  Innocence  **)  (1625); 
CijsbregiU  tan  Aemstel  (1637):  De  Cebroeders  (1640),  the  subject 
of  which  is  the  ruin  of  the  sons  of  Saul;  Joseph  in  EgyptOH  (1640); 
Maria  Stwtrt,  of  gemartdde  mqjeUeU  (1646):  the  oastoral  of  De 
Leeuwendalers  (1648):  Lucifer  (1654):  Salmoneus  (Solomon)  (i6<;7): 
Jepktfia  (i65q):  Konint  David  in  baUinguhab  ("King  E>a\>id  in 
banishment    ),  Koning  David  hersteld  ("  King  E^vid  restored  ")  iid 
Samson  (1660);  Balamxhe  Cebroeders,  the  subject  of  which  is  lir 
story  of  Claudius  Civilis.  (1663):  Adam  in  baUtngsthap  ("  Adan  is 
exile  ")  (1664).  after  the  Latin  tragedy  of  Hugo  Grotius.     He  in 
wrote  translations  from  the  tragedies  of  Seneca,  Euripides  and 
Sophocles;  didactic  poemy,  and  much  lyrical  poetry  beside  what 
is  to  be  found  in  the  choruses  of  his  dramas. 

His  complete  works  were  edited  by  van  Lennep  (i3  vols..  1850- 
1869).  A  bibliography  (1888)  was  published  by  J.  H.  W.  l'ni:er. 
who  revised  van  Lennep's  edition  in  l888-9<i.  Lucifer  was  trans- 
lated into  English  verse  oy  L.  C.  van  Noppen  (New  York,  1898).  See 
also  E.'C*osse,  Studies  in  Northern  Literature  (1879) ;  G.  Edmnndsoo, 
Milton  and  Vondel  (1885),  where  Milton's  supposed  indebtedness 
to  Vondel  is  discussed;  and  critical  studies  by  A.  Baumgartner. 
S.  J.  (Freiburg.  1882);  C.  Looten  (Lille,  1880),  by  J.  A.  Alberdinek 
Thijm  {Portrelten  van  Joost  van  den  Vondel,  1876);  and  especially 
the  chapters  on  Vondel  (pp.  133-325)  in  W.  J.  A.  Jonckbloet'a 
Ceschieaenis  der  nederlandscne  lelterkunde  (vol.  iv.  1890). 

VON  HOLST.  HERMANN  BDUARD  (1841-1904),  German- 
American  historian,  was  bom  at  Fellin  in  the  province  of  Livonia, 
on  the  19th  of  June  1841.  He  was  educated  at  the  tinaversities 
of  Dorpat  and  Heidelberg,  receiving  his  doctor's  6egnt  from 
the  latter  in  1865.  He  emigrated  to  America  in  1867,  remaining 
there  until  1873.  He  was  professor  of  history  in  the  nevdy 
reorganized  university  of  Strassburg  from  187s  to  1874,  and 
at  Freiburg  in  Baden  from  1874  to  1892,  and  for  ten  years  be 
was  a  member  of  the  Baden  Herrenhaus,  and  vice-president  for 
I  four.  He  revisited  the  United  States  in  1878-79  and  in  1884, 
and  in  1892  he  became  head  of  the  department  of  history  at 
the  university  of  Chicago.  Retiring  on  account  of  ill-health 
in  1900,  he  returned  to  Germany  and  died  at  Freiburg  on  the 
2oth  of  January  1904.  Both  through  his  books  and  through 
his  lectures  at  the  university  of  Chicago,  Von  Hoist  exerted 
a  powerful  influence  in  encouraging  American  students  to 
follow  more  closely  the  German  methods  of  historical  research. 
Hisprincipal  work  is  his  Constituiional  and  Political  History  ofUu 
United  States  (German  ed.,  5  vols.,  1873-91;  English  trans, 
by  Lalor  and  Mason,  8  vols.,  1877-92),  which  covers  the  period 
from  1783  to  1 861,  though  more  than  half  of  it  is  devoted  to  the 
decade  1850-60;  it  Is  written  from  a  strongly  anti-slavery 
point  of  view.  Among  his  other  writings  are  The  Consii^ 
tulional  Law  of  the  UnUed  Slates  of  America  (German  ed.,  1885; 
English  trans.,  1887);  JohnC.  Calhoun  (1882),  in  .the  American 
Statesmen  Series;  John  Brown  (1888),  and  The  French  JUoolmiicm 
Tested  by  Mirabeau*s  Career  (1894). 

See  the  Political  Science  Quarterly,  v.  677-78;  the  Nation, 
Ixxviii.  65-67, 

VONNOH,  ROBERT  WILLUM  (1858-*  ),  American 
^rtrait  and  landscape  painter,  was  bom  in  Hartford^  Connec* 
ticut,  on  the  17th  of  September  1858.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Boulanger  and  Lefebvxa  in  I'aris;  became  an  instructor  at 
the  Cowles  Art  School,  Boston    (1884-85),    at    the    Boston 


.  VO.NONES—VORONfiZH 


mi 


JduMum-of  Fine  Art  School  (x885n87)y  a^din  tbe  tchook 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  oi  the  Fine  Arts,  PhiUdelphifi 
<i89i'^),  and  a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design, 
New  York  (1906),  and  of  the  Secessionists,  Munich.  His  wife, 
Bessie  Potter  Vonnoh  (b.  187a),  a  sculptor,  was  a  pupil  of  the 
Art  Institute,  Chicago^  and  beotme  a  member  of  the  Natiomil 
Sculpture  Society. 

VONONES  (on  coins  Onokes),  the  name  of  two  Parthian  kings. 

( i)  V0NONE8 1.,  eldest  son  of  Phraates  IV.  After  the  assassinar 
tion  of  Orodes  II.  {e.  a.o.  7),  the  Parthians  applied  to  Augustus 
for  a  new  king  from  the  bowse  of  Arsaccs.  Augustus  sent  them 
Vonones  (Mon.  Anc,  5,  9;  Tac  Atut.  ii.  1  f.;  Joiepli.  Ank 
xviii.  a,  4),  who  was  living  as  a  hostage  in  Rome.  But  Vonones 
could  not  maintain  himself;  he  had  been  educated  as  a  Roman, 
and  was  despised  as  a  slave  of  the  Romans.  Another  member 
of  the  Arsacid  hous^  Artabanus  IL»  who  was  living  among  the 
Dahan  nomads,  was  invited  to  the  throne,  and  defeated  and 
expelled  Vonones.  The  coins  of  Vonones  (who  always  uses 
his  proper  name)  date  from  a.o.  ^x2,  those  of  Artabanus  IL 
begin  in  aj).  10.  Vonones  iled  into  Armenia  and  became 
king  here.  Bot  Artabants  demanded  his  deposition,  and  as 
Augustus  did  not  wish  to  begin  a  war  with  the  Parthians  he 
removed  Vonones  into  Syria,  where  he  was  kept  in  custody 
(Tac.  A  MM.  ii.  4).  When  he  tried  to  escape,  a.d,  19,  he  was 
killed  by  his  guards  (Tac  Ann,  u.  58. 68). 

(2)  Vonones  II.,  governor  of  Media,  was  raised  to  the  throne 
after  the  death  of  Gotarzes  in  a.d.  51  (perhaps  he  was  his 
brother,  d.  Joseph.  Ani,  xx,  s,  4)«  But  he  died  after  a  few 
months,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Vologaeses  L  (Tac 
Ann.  xii.  14).  (Ed.  M.) 

VOODOO  or  Vaudoux  (Creole  Fr.  vaudouxt  a  negro  sorcerer, 
probably  originally  a  dialectic  form  ol  Fr.  Vaitdoit,  a  Walden- 
sian),  the  name  given  to  certain  magical  practices*  supetstitions 
and  secret  rites  prevalent  among  the  negroes  of  the  West  IndicSj 
^nd  more  particularly  in  the  Republic  of  Haiti. 

VOQRHBESi  DANIEL  WOLSBT  (1827-1897),  American 
lawyer  and  political  leader,  was  bom  in  Butler  county,  Ohio^ 
on  the  a6th  of  September  1827,  <tf  Dutch  and  Irish  descent 
During  his  infancy  his  parents  removed  to  Fountain  county, 
Indiana,  near  Veedecsburg.  He  graduated  at  Indiana  Asbuiy 
(now  De  Pauw)  University,  Greeacastle,  Indiana,  in  1849; 
was  admitted  to  the  \m  in  1850,  and  began  to  practise  in 
Covingtonj  Indiana,  whence  in  1857  he  removed  to  Terre 
Haute.  In  1858760  he  was  U,S.  district^attorn^  for  Indiana; 
in  1861-^  and  in  1869-73  he  was  a  Democratic  repre- 
sentative in  Congress;  and  in  1877-97  he  was  a  bember 
of  the  U.S.  Senate.  During  the  Civil  War  he  seems  to  have 
been  affiliated  with  the  Knights  of  the  Golden  Circk,  but  he 
was  not  so  radical  as  Vallandigham  and  others.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  committee  on  finance  throughont  his  service  in 
the  Senate,  and  his  first  speech  in  that  body  was  a  defence  of 
the  free  coinage  of  silver  and  a  plea  for  the  preservation  of  the 
full  legal  tender  value  of  greenback  currency,  though  in  1893 
he  voted  to  repeal  the  sUver  purchase  clause  of  the  Sherman 
Aa.  He  had  an  active  part  in  bringing  about  th«  building 
of  the  new  Congressional  libraxy.  He  was  widely  known  as 
an  eflective  advocate,  especially  in  jury  trials.  In  aUuiioQ  to 
his  unusual  stature  he  was  called  "  the'  Tall  Sycamore  of  the 
Wabash."  He  died  in  Washington,"  D.C*  on  the  xoth  of  April 
1897. J     _ 

Some  of  kis  speeches  were  pubtSdhed  under  the  titlei  Forly  Ytars 
e/  Oratory  (a  vols.,  lodiaoapoKs.  Indiana.  1898).  edited  by  his  thite 
sons  and  bis  daughter,  Harriet  C  Vooriiees,  and  with  a  biographical 
•ketch  by  T.  ^  Long. 

VORARLBERO,  the  most  westerly  province  of  the  Austrian 
empire,  extending  S.  of  the  Lake  of  Constance  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine  valley.  It  consists  of  three  districts,  Bregena, 
Bludenz  and  Feldkirch,  which  are  under  the  administrative 
authority  of  the  Statlhalter  (or  prefect)  at  Innsbruck,  bat 
possess  a  governor  and  a  diet  of  thef  r  own  (twenty-one  members) , 
and  send  four  members  to  the  imperial  porliament.  Vorarl- 
.berg  h  c9iiApo$ed.o(  the  iiiliy  region  of  the  BregrnaepvaJd, 


and,  to  Its  lotiih,  of  the  nounlifn  valley  of  MQniaf6n  or  of  tHe 
upper  111,  through  which  an  easy  pass,  the  Zeinisjoch  (6076  fL), 
leads  to  the  Tirolese  valley  of  Paznaun,  and  so  to.Landech. 
Near  Bludens  the  Kloster  glen  parts  from  the  HI  vall^; 
through  the  latter  runs  the  Arlbeig  railway  (1884) — beneath 
the  pass  of  that  name  (591  a  ft.)~>to  Landcck  and  Innsbruck. 
The  111  valley  is  bounded  south  by  the  snowy  thain  of  the 
Rhtttikon  (highest  pooit,  the  Scesaplani,  9741  ft.,  a  famous 
view.i)oint),  and  of  the  Silvretta  (highest  point,  Gross  Piz  Buin, 
10,880  It.),  both  dividing  Vonurlberg  from  Switzerland;  sUght^ 
to  the  north-east  of  Pis  Buin  is  the  Dreil&nderspitae  (10,539 
ft.),  where  the  Vorarlberg,  Tirolese  and  Swisa  frontiers  unite. ' 

The  total  area  of  Vorerlberg  is  1004-3  v\.  m.  Of  this  881%, 
or  about  886  sq.  m.,  is  reckoned  "  productive,"  30%  of  iim 
limited  area  being  occupied  by  forests,  while  118  sq.  m.  rank  as 
"  unproductive."  In  2900  the  total  population  was  129,937, 
aU  but  wholly  German-speaking  and  Romanist.  The  largest 
town  is  Dombim  (pop.  X3P52),  but  Bregena  (pop.  7595)  is  the 
political  capital;  Feldkirch  has  about  4000  inhabitants,  while 
Bludenz  has  rather  more  (see  the  separate  articles  on  the  three 
former).  In  the  hilly  districts  the  inhabitaitts  mainly  fptlow 
pastoral  pursuits,  posscssMig  much  cattle  of  all  kinds.  In  the 
towns  the  spinm'ng  and  weaving  of  cotton  (introdnced  towards 
the  end  of  the  i8th  century)  is  very  flourishing.  Foreals  cover 
about  one-sixth  of  the  district,  and  form  one  of  the  principal 
sources  of  its  riches.  But  the  Vorarlberg  is  predominantly  an 
Alpine  region,  though  its  mountains  rarely  surpass  the  snow- 
level.  Ecclesiastically  it  is  in  the  diocese  of  Brixcn,  whose 
vicar-generai  (a^sufiiragan  bishop)  resides  at  Feldkirch. 

The  name  of  the  district  means  the  "land  that  is  beyond 
the  Arlbcrg  Pass,"  that  is,  as  it  seems  to  one  looking  at  it  from 
the  Tirol*  This  name  is  modem  and  is  a  collective  appellation 
for  the  various  counties  or  lordships  in  the  region  which  the 
Habsburgs  (after  they  secured  Tirol  in  1363)  succeeded  in  pur- 
chasing or  acquiring — Feldkirch  (1375,  but  Hohenems  in  1765 
only),  Bludenz  with  the  Montafon  valley  (1394),  Brcg(Uiz  (in 
two  parts,  145 1  and  2523)  and  Sonncnbcrg  (1455)-  After 
the  annexation  of  Hohenems  (its  lords  having  become  extinct 
in  1759),  Maria  Theresa  united  all  these  lordships  into  an 
administrative  district  of  Hither  Austria,  under  the  name 
Vorarlbergf  the  governor  residing  at  Bregenz.  In  1782 
Joseph  II.  transfetrcd  the  region  to  the  province  of  Tirol.  The 
lordship  of  Blumenegg  was  added  in  1804,  but  in  1805  aU 
these  lands  were  handed  over,  by  virttie  of  the  peace  of  Press- 
burg,  to  Bavaria,  which  in  18x4  gave  them  all  back,  save 
Hobeneck.  In  2825  the  picsent  administrative  arrangements 
were  made. 

See  A.  Achleitncr  and  E.  Ubl,  Tirol  und  Vorarlberg  (Leipzig.  1895): 
R.  von  Bcrgmann.  Landeskundi  v.  Vorarlberg  (Inn&bruck,  1868); 
ax  Hau«hofcr,  Tirol  und  Vorarlberg  (Bielefclcl  and  Leipzig,  1899); 


kirc! 


[.  C.  Heer.  Vorarlberg  und  Liechtenstein — Land  und  Lente  (Fold- 
drch,  1906);  O.  von  Pfiatcr,  "Das  Montavon  (Augsburg,  1B84); 
J.  Stafiler.  Tirol  und  K#raf/6erf  (5*  vqU..  Innsbruck,  1839-46): 
A.  Stcinitzer,  Ceschichtlicke  und  Kiulurgeschichtliche  Wanderunt>en 
durch  Tirol  und  Vorarlberg  (Innsbruck,  1905);  A.  Waltcnbcrgcr, 
Atgdu,  Vfiraribere  und  Westttrd  (loth  edition,  Innsbruck,  1906). 
Sec  also  the  list  of  books  at  the  end  of  TiftOL,  and  etpeciaUy  vol.  »ai. 
("Tirol  u.  Vorarlberg  ")  (Vienna,  iS(»).of  the  great  oiHcial  work 
entitled  Die  oesterreifhiuh'Ungarische  ifonarchie  in  Wort  und  BUd. 

(W.  A.  B.  C.) 

VORONEZHi  a  government  of  southern  Russia,  bounded  N. 
by  the  government  of  Tambov,  E.  by  Saratov  and  the  Don 
Cossacks,  S.  by  Kharkov  and  W.  by  Kursk  and  Orel;  area, 
25»435-  Sf^  m.  It  occupies  the  southern  slopes  of  the  middle- 
Russian  plateau,  and  its  average  elevation  is  from  450  to 
700  ft.  The  surface  is  hilly,  and  intersected  by  ravines  in  the 
west  (where  two  ranges  of  chalk  hills  separated  by  a  broad 
valley  run  north  and  south),  but  flat  and  low  east  of  the  Don. 
Devonian  sandstones  crop  out  in  the  north;  further  south 
these  are  coveird  with  Cretaceous  deposits.  Glacial  days  with 
northern  erratic  boulders  extend  as  far  south  as  Voronezh, 
and  extensive  areas  are  covered  with  Lacustrine  clays  and 
sands.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  owing  to  the  prevalence  of 
Uack  .fftrth;  it  be^mes,  ^however,  sandy  towards  the  eas|. 


212 


VORONEZH— VORONTS6V 


VoMmezh  lies  on  the  bonkr  between  the  foiest  and  meadow 
region  of  middle  Russia  and  the  southern  steppes;  the  forests 
disappear  rapidly  towards  the  south,  and  those  which  in  the 
time  of  Peter  the  Great  stood  on  the  upper  tributaries  of  the 
Don,  and  were  used  for  shipbuilding,  have  now  been  almost 
entirely  destroyed.  .  Less  than  one-tenth  of  the  entire  area  is 
under  wood. 

The  Don  traverses  Voronezh  from  N.  to  S.E.,  draining  it 
for  more  than  400  m.;  it  is  aui  important  channel  for  the 
export  of  com,  tallow  and  other  raw  produce,  as  well  as  for 
the  import  of  wood,  floated  down  from  the  north.  Its  tributary 
the  Voronezh  is  also  navigated,  and  the  Bityug  and  Khoper, 
both  left-hand  affluents  of  the  Don,  flow  in  part  through  the 
government.  Many  other  small  streams  flowing  into  the  Don 
intersect  the  territory,  but  the  influence  of  the  dry  steppes 
begins  to  make  itself  fell;  there  are  no  lakes,  and  marshes 
persist  only  in  the  valleys.  The  climate  is  continental,  and 
although  the  mean  temperature  at  the  town  of  Voronezh  is 
43*7^  F.,  that  of  January  is  as  low  as  8*3^  and  that  of  July 
OS  high  a.^  74*  3^ 

•  The  estimated  pop.  in  1906  was  3,097,700.  The  inhabitants 
consist  in  nearly  equal  parts  of  Great  Russians  in  the  north 
and  Little  Russians  in  the  south,  but  there  are  a  few  Poles, 
Germans  and  Jews,  both  Orthodox  and  Karaites.  The  govern- 
ment Is  divided  into  twelve  districts,  the  chief  towns  of  which 
are  Voronezh,  Biryuch,  Bobrov,  Boguchar,  Korotoyak,  Nizhne- 
Dyevitsk,  Novo-Khopersk,  Ostrogozhsk,  Pavlovsk,  Valuiki, 
Zadonsk  and  Zemlyansk.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation, 
and  grain  is  exported  to  a  considerable  amounf.  The  peasants 
own  67%  of  the  land,  the  crown  and  the  imperial  domains 
3%  and  private  owners  30%. 

The  principal  crops  are  rye,  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  potatoes. 
Afiiaeccl,  sunflowers,  tobacco  and  beetroot  are  extensively  culti- 
vated, and  much  attention  is  paid  to  the  growth  of  the  pineapple. 
There  are  large  tracts  of  excellent  pasture  Und,  on  which  cattle  arc 
bred;  good  breeds  of  cart-horses  and  trotting-horscs  arc  obtained. 
There  arc  nearly  two  hundred  breeding  establishments,  those  at 
Hrenovoye  and  Chesmenka  being  the  most  important.  In  many 
villages  the  inhdntants  are  enga^  in  the  moking  of  wooden 
wares.  There  are  flour-mills,  distilleries,  oil.  sugai  and  woollen 
mills,  iron  works  and  tobacco  factories. 

VORONEZHt  a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the  government 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  river  Voronezh,  5  m.  above  its 
confluence  with  the  Don  and  367  m.  by  rail  S.S.E.  of  Moscow. 
Pop.  (1901)  84,146.  It  is  one  of  the  best-built  and  most 
picturesque  provincial  towns  of  Russia,  and  is  situated  on 
the  steep  bank  of  the  river,  surrounded  by  three  large  suburbs 
— ^Troitskaya,  Yamskaya  and  Chizhovka.  It  has  a  military 
school  of  cadets,  two  museums,  a  monument  (x86o)  to  Peter  the 
Great,  a  railway  college,  a  pilgrimage  church,  and  a  theatre 
which  figures  in  the  history  of  the  Russian  stage:  It  was  the 
birthphice  of  two  peasant  poets,  who  wrote  some  of  the  finest 
examples  of  Russian  poetry — ^A.  V.  Koltsov  (1809-1842)  and 
I.  S.  Nikitin  (1824-1861).  A  memorial  to  the  former  was 
erected  in  1868.  There  are  factories  for  cleansing  Wool  and 
for  the  preparation  <A  linens,  woollens,  bells,  tallow  and  oil, 
as  well  as  some  distilleries.  Voronezh  is  an  important  entrepot 
for  com,  flax,  tallow,  hides,  sugar,  wood  and  coal  from  the  Don. 

The  city  was  founded  in  1586,  as  a  fort  against  Tatar  raids, 
on  a  site  which  had  been  occupied  from  the  xith  century  by  a 
Khazar  town,  but  had  been  deserted  during  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries.  Four  years  afterwards  It  was  burned  by  the  Tatars, 
but  again  rebuilt,  and  soon  became  an  important  trading  place. 
Peter  the  Great  recognized  its  Importance,  and  in  1695  built 
here  a  flotilla  of  boats  for  the  conquest  of  Azov.  The  tovii 
was  almost  completely  destroyed  by  fire  in  1703,  1748  and 
1773,  but  was  always  rebuilt. 

■  VORORTSOV  (or  Wokonsoft),  the  name  of  a  Russian  family, 
various  membeis  of  which  are  distinguished  in  Russian  history. 

Mikhail  Illakionovicr  Vorontsov  (17x4*1767)1  Russian 
Imperial  chancellor,  was  the  first  to  become  prominent.  At 
the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  appointed  a  Kammer  junker  at 
the  court  of  the  cesarevna  Elizabeth  Petrovna,  whom  he 


materially  asabted  during  the  famous  coup  d*Hdi  of  the  6th  of 
December  X74r.  when  she  mounted  the  Russian  throne  on  the 
shoulders  of  the  Preobrazhensky  Grenadiers.    On  the  3rd  off 
January  1742  he  married  Anna  Skavronskaya,  the  empress's 
cousin;  and  ia  1744  was  created  a  count  and  vice-chancellor. 
His  Jealousy  of  Alexis  Bestuzhev  induced  him  to  participate 
in  Lestocq's  conspiracy  against  that  statesman.    The  empress's 
afl'ection  for  him  (she  owed  much  to  his  dtilfti!  pen  and  stiH 
more  to  the  liberality  of  his  rich  kinsfolk)  saved  him  front  the 
fate  of  his  accomplices,  but  he  lived  in  a  state  of  scmi-eclxpae 
during  the  domination  of  Bestuzhev  (i 744-1 758>.    On  the  dis- 
grace of  Bestuzhev,  Vorontsov  was  made  imperial  chancellor 
in   his  stead.     Though  well-meaning  and  perfectly   honest, 
Vorontsov  as  a  politician  was  singularly  timorous  and   irre- 
solute, and  always  took  his  cue  from  the  court.    Thus,  under 
Elizabeth  he  was  an  avowed  enemy  of  Prussia  and  a  warm 
friend  of  Austria  and  France;  yet  he  made  no  cfi'ort  to  prevent 
Peter  III.  from  reveising  the  policy  of  his  predecessor.     Yet 
he  did  not  lack  personal  courage,  and  endured  torture  after 
the  Revolution  of  the  9th  of  July  1762  rather  than  betray  his 
late  flriaster.    He  greatly  disliked  Catherine  II.,  and  at  first 
refused  to  serve  under  her,  though  she  reinstated  him  in  the 
dignity  of  chancellor.    When  he  found  that  the  real  contnil 
of  foreign  affairs  was  in  the  hands  of  Nikita  Panin,  he  resigned 
his  ofilce  (1763).    Vorontsov  was  a  generous  protector  c(ihc 
nascent  Russian  Uterature,  and,  to  judge  from  his  letters,  ma 
highly  cultivated  man. 

Alexandeb  Romanovich  Vorontsov  (1741-1805),  Russiaa 
imperial  chancellor,  nephew  of  the  preceding  and  son  of  Count 
Roman  Vorontsov,  began  his  career  at  the  age  of  fifteen  in  the 
Izmailovsky  regiment  of  the  Guards.  In  1759,  his  kinsman, 
the  grand  chancellor  Mikhail  Illarionovich,  sent  him  to  Stntss- 
burg,  Paris  and  Madrid  to  train  him  in  diplomacy.  Under 
Peter  III.  he  represented  Russia  for  a  short  time  at  the  court 
of  St  James's.  Catherine  II.  created  him  a  senator  and 
president  of  the  Board  of  Trade;  but  she  never  liked  him,  and 
ultimately  (1791)  compelled  him  to  retire  from  public  lif& 
In  1803  Alexander  I.  suipmoned  him  back  to  oflice  and  ap* 
pointed  him  imperial  chancellor.  This  was  the  period  oi 
the  triumph  of  the-  Vorontsovs,  who  had  always  insisted  on 
the  necc^ty  of  a  close  union  with  Austria  and  Great  Britain, 
in  opposition  to  Panin  and  his  followers,  who  had  leaned  on 
France  or  Prussia  till  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  made 
friendship  with  France  impossible.  Vorontsov  was  also  an 
impkicable  <^ponent  at  Napdeon,  whose  "  topsy-turvyness  ** 
he  was  never  weaiy  of  denouncing.  The  rupture  Wr'ith  Napolcim 
In  1803  is  mainly  attributable  to  him.  He  also  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  internal  administration  and  was  in  favour  of  a 
thorough  reform  of  the  senate  and  the  ministries.  He  retired 
in  1804.  He  possessed  an  extraordinary  memory  and  a  firm 
and  wide  grasp  of  history. 

Hts  '*  Memoirs  of  my  Own  times  **  (Rus.)  is  printed  in  vol.  vii.  of 
the  Vorontsov  Archives* 

Seven  Rouanovich  VoRONtsov  (1744-1832),  Russian 
diplomatist,  brother  of  Alexander  Romanovieh,  distinguished 
himself  during  the  first  Turkish  War  of  Catherine  II.  at  barga 
and  Ragula  in  1770.  In  1783  he  was  appointed  Russian 
minister  at  Vienna,  but  in  1785  was  transferred  to  London, 
where  he  lived  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Vorontsov  enjoyed  gtx^at 
influence  and  authority  in  Great  Britain.  Quickly  acquainting 
himself  with  the  genius  of  English  institutions,  their  ways  and 
methods,  he  was  able  to  render  important  services  to  his 
country.  Thus  during  Catherine's  second  Turkish  War  he 
contributed  to  bring  about  the  disarmament  of  the  auxiliary 
British  fleet  which  had  been  fitted  out  to  assist  the  Turks,  and 
in  1793  obtained  a  renewal  of  the  commercial  treaty  between 
Great  Britain  and  Russia.  Subsequently,  his  extreme  ad< 
vocacy  of  the  exiled  Bourbons,  his  sharp  ctitidsm  of  the 
Armed  NeutraUty  of  the  North,  which  he  considered  dis- 
advantageous to  Russia,  and  his  denunciation  of  the  partitions 
of  Poland  as  contrary  to  the  first  prindples  of  equity  and  a 
shock  to  the  oonsdeaoe  of  weatain  Eoiope.  piofouad^  initatcd 


VOROSMARTY— VORTIGERN 


«i3 


Utt  enpreH.  On  tht  aocesloDr  o(  FauI  he  was  railed  to  the 
rank  oC  ambassador  extiaordioary  and  minister  plenipotentiary, 
and  received  immense  eaUtcs  in  Finland.  Neither  Vorontsov's 
detention  of  the  Russian  squadron  under  Makarov  in  British 
porta  nor  his  refusal,  after  the  death  of  Bezborodko,  to  accept 
the  digniiy  of  imperial  chancellor  could  alienate  the  favour  of 
Paul.  It  was  only  when  the  emperor  himself  began  to  draw 
nearer  to  France  that  he  began  to  consider  Vorontsov  as 
incompetent  to  serve  Russia  in  England,  and  in  February  1800 
all  the  count's  estates  were  confiscated.  Alexander  I.  on  his 
accession  at  once  reinstated  him,  but  ill-health  and  family 
aflaics  induced  him  to  resign  his  post  in  1806.  From  that  time 
tJUl  his  death  in  1832  he  contimied  to  live  in  I^ondon, 

Betides  his  valuable  JWo<e  en  ikt  Russian  War  (Rue.)  and  nuifterous 
letters,  Vorontsov  was  the  author  of  an  autobtogiaphy  (in  Huuky 
Arkkiv,  Petersburg,  1S81)  and  **  Notes  on  the  Imernal  Government 
of  Russia  "  (Rus.)  (in  Ruuky  Arkka,  1881). 

&I1KHAIL  Semenovich  Vokoktsov  (1782^x856),  Russian 
prince  and  field-marshal,  son  of  the  preceding,  ^>ent  his 
dilldhood  and  youth  with  his  father  in  London,  where  he 
received  a  brilliant  education.  During  x8o3'4  he  served  in 
the  Caucasus  under  Tsltsianov  and  Gulyakov,  and  was  nearly 
killed  in  the  Zakatahko  disaster  (J^^'^^i'^  'S«  ^^04).  From 
180S  to  1807  he  served  in  the  Napolecmic  wars,  and  was  present 
at  the  battles  of  Puhusk  and  Friedland.  From  1809  to  i8ti 
he  participated  in  the  Turkish  War  and  distinguished  himself 
'in  nearly  every  important  action.  He  was  attached  to 
iBagration's  array  during  the  war  of  181 2,  was  seriously 
wounded  at  Borodino,  sufHciently  recovering,  however,  to  re- 
join the  army  in  1813.  In  18x4,  at  Craonne,  he  brilliantly 
withstood  Napoleon  in  person.  He  was  the  commander  of 
the  corps  of  occupation  in  France  from  181 5  to  x8i8.  On  the 
7th  of  May  1823  he  was  appointed  governor-general  of  New 
Russia,  as  the  southern  provinces  of  the  empire  were  then 
called,  which  under  his  administration  developed  marvellously. 
He  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  creator  of  Odessa  and  the 
benefactor  of  the  Crimea.  He  was  the  first  to  start  steam- 
boats on  the  Black  Sea  (1828).  The  same  year  he  succeeded 
the  wounded  Menshikov  as  commander  of  the  forces  besieging 
Varna,  which  he  captured  on  the  28th  ol  September.  In  the 
campaign  of  1829  it  wss  through  his  enetgetic  efforts  that  the 
plague,  which  had  broken  out  in  Turkey,  did  not  penetrate 
into  Russia.  In  1844  Vorontsov  was  appointed  commander- 
in*chief  and  governor  of  the  Caucasus  with  plenipotentiary 
powers.  For  his  brilliant  campaign  against  Shamyl,  and 
especially  for  his  difficult  march  through  the  dangerous  forests 
of  Ichkerinta,  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  prince,  with  the 
title  of  Serene  Highness.  By  1848  he  had  captured  two-thirds 
of  Daghestan,  and  the  situatkm  of  the  Russians  in  the  Caucasus, 
so  long  almost  desperate,  was  steadily  improving.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  1853  Vorontsov  was  allowed  to  retire  because  of 
bis  increasing  infirmities.  He  was  made  a  field-marshal  m 
X856,  and  died  the  same  year  at  Odessa.  Statues  have  been 
erected  to  him  both  there  and  at  Tifliii. 

Sec  V.  V.  O^rkov,  The  Vorontsms  (Rus.)  (Petersburg,  »892); 
Vorontsov  Archives  (Rus.'  and  Fr)  (Moscow,  1870,  Ac);  M.  P. 
Shdverbinin,  Biography  of  Prntca  M,  S.  Vorontsov  (Rus.)  (Peters- 
buig.  1838).  (R.  N.  B.) 

VdRaSMARTY,  HIHAlT  (xSoo-xSss),  Hungarian  poet,  was 
bom  at  Puszta-Nyik  on  the  ist  of  December  x8oo,  of  a 
noble  Roman  Catholic  family.  His  father  was  a  steward  of 
the  Nadasdys.  Mihily  was  educated  at  Ss£kesfej£rvir  by 
the  Cisterdans  and  at  Pest  by  the  Piarists.  The  desth  of  the 
elder  V5r6smarty  in  x8ix  left  his  widow  and  numerous  famQy 
extremely  poor.  As  tutor  te  the  Percsel  family,  however,  VOrOs- 
marty  contrived  to  pay  his  own  way  and  go  throng  his  sea- 
demical  course  at  Pest.  The  doings  of  the  diet  of  xSss  first 
enkindled  his  patriotism  and  gave  a  new  directkm  to  his  poetical 
genius  (he  had  already  begun  a  drama  entitled  Salamom),  and 
he  flung  himself  the  more  recklessly  into  public  life  as  he  was 
consumed  by  a  hopeless  passion  for  Etclka  Pcrcsd,  who  socially 
WM  fir  above  him.    To  his  uniequited  love  we  owe  a  wbolt 


host  of  exqtiisite  lyrics,  while  his  patriotism  found  expression 
in  the  heroic  epos  Zaldn  fui4sa  (1824),  gorgeous  in  cc^uring, 
exquisite  in  style,  one  of  the  gems  of  Magyar  literature.  This 
new  epic  marked  a  transition  from  the  classical  to  the  romantic 
school  Henceforth  Vorflsmarty  was  hailed  by  Kisfaludy  and 
the  Hungarian  romanticists  as  one  of  themselves.  All  this 
time  he  was  living  from  hand  to  mouth.  He  had  forsaken 
the  law  for  literature,  but  his  contributions  to  new^>apers  and 
reviews  were  oiiscrably  paid.  Between  1823  and  1831  he 
composed  four  dramas  and  eight  smaller  epics,  partly  historical, 
partly  fanciful.  Of  these  epics  he  always  regarded  Cserhalam 
(1825)  as  the  best,  but  modem  criticism  has  given  the  pre- 
ference to  Kit  stomsid  vAr  (1831),  a  terrible  story  of  hatred 
and  revenge.  When  the  Hungarian  Academy  was  finally 
established  (November  17,  1830)  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  phildk)gical  section,  and  ultimately  succeeded  Kar^y  Kis* 
faludy  as  direaor  with  an  annual  pension  of  500  florms.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Kisfaludy  Society,  and  in  1837 
sUrted  the  Alkenaeum  and  the  Fitydnum,  the  first  the  chief 
bellettristic,  the  second  the  best  critical  periodical  of  Hungary. 
From  1830  to  1843  he  devoted  himself  mainly  to  the  diama» 
the  best  of  his  plays,  perhaps,  being  V4m4s»  (1833),  which  won 
the  Academy's  xoo-f^lden  prise.  He  also  pubUahed  several 
volumes  of  poetry,-  containing  some  of  his  best  work.  5s4^ 
(1836),  which  became  a  national  hymn,  A%  elhagyoU  anya 
(1837)  and  Az  iiri  hUgykSst  (1841)  are  all  inspired  by  a  burning 
patriotism.  His  nutfriage  in  1843  to  L>aura  Csaj&ghy  inspired 
him  to  compose  a  new  cycle  of  erotics.  In  1848,  in  conjunction 
with  Arany  and  PetAfi,  he  set  on  foot  an  excellent  tmndation 
of  Shakeq)eare's  works.  He  himself  was  responsible  for 
JuLims  Caesar  and  King  Lear.  He  represented  Jankovics  at 
the  diet  of  1848,  and  in  1849  was  made  one  of  the  judges  of 
the  high  oourt.  The  national  catastrophe  profoundly  affected 
turn.  For  a  short  time  he  was  an  exile,  and  when  he  returned 
to  Hungary  in  1850  he  was  already  an  old  man.  A  profound 
mdaacholy  crippled  him  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  In  1854  he 
wrote  his  last  great  poem,  the  touching  A  vhi  dginy.  He  died 
at  Pest  in  1855  in  the  same  house  where  Kar^iy  Kisfaludy 
had  died  twenty-five  years  before.  His  funeral,  on  the  aist  <4 
November,  was  a  day  rA  national  mourning.  His  penniless 
children  were  provided  for  by  a  national  subscription  collect^ 
by  Fcrencs  De&k,  who  acted  as  their  guardian. 

The  best  edition  of  VOrOBmarty^s  collected  works  »  by  Pfil  Gyulal 
(Budapest,  1 884).   Some  of  them  have  been  translated  into  Geiroan^ 


one  of  the  nobint  bioaraphics  m  the  language;  Brajjer,  VHrdsmar^t 
sein  leboH  und  seine  Werke  (Nagy-Becakerek,  188a).        (R.  N.  B) 

VORTICBLIiA,  the  Bell-Animalcule,  a  genus  of  Peritrichoui 
Infusoria  ig.v.)  characterised  by  the  bell-shaped  body,  with 
short  oral  disk  and  collar,  attached  by  a  hollow  stalk,  inaids 
and  around  which  passes,  attached  spirally  a  oontractOt 
bundle  of  myonemes.  By  their  contraction  the  stalK  is  brought 
into  the  form  of  a  corkscrew,  the  thread  being  now  on  the 
shorter,  t.«.  the  inner,  side  of  the  turns;  and  the  animal  is 
jerked  back  near  to  the  base  of  the  stalk.  As  soon  as  ths 
contraction  of  the  thread  ceases,  the  elasticity  of  the  stalk  ex* 
tends  the  animal  to  its  previous  position.  On  fission,  one  of  th«  ' 
two  animab  swims  off  by  the  development  of  the  temporary 
posterior  girdle  of  membranelles,  the  disk  beho^  setracted 
and  closed  over  by  the  collar,  so  that  the  cell  is  ovoid:  on 
its  attachment  the  posterior  girdle  of  cilia  disappears  and  a 
stalk  forms.  The  other  cell  remains  attached  to  the  dd  stalk. 
In  the  allied  genera  Carehesitem  and  Zcetkanmium  the  two 
produced  by  fission  remain  oitited,  so  that  a  hnmching  colony 
h  ultimately  produoedl  The  genus  is  a  latge  one,  and  many 
species  are  episoic  on  varioas  water  aiumals. 

VORTIOBRN  (GuosTHioiRBus,  Wvrtoborn),  kSng  ol  tk» 
Britons  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Saxons  under  Hengeal 
and  Horsa.  The  records  do  not  agree  as  to  the  date  of  thi| 
arrival  of  these  chieftains  or  the  motives  which  led  them  to 
come  to  Britain.    It  aeen^s  dott,  howtWi  that  V«tl0Bni 


•  » 


•  • 


2i4 


VOSGfiS— VOSMAER 


made  use  of  them  to  protect  bis  kfngdom  tiguost  the  Picts  and 

Scots,  and  rewarded  them  for  their  services  with  a  grant  of 

land.    Later  we  find  the  Britons  at  war  with  the  newcomers, 

now  cstabl^ed  in  Kent,  and  four  battles  are  fought,  in  the 

last  ol  which,  according  to  the  Histeria  BriUonrnm^  the  king's 

son  Vortemir,  their  leading  opponent,  is  dain.    The  Historic 

BriOonum  h  our  only  authority  for  the  maniage  of  Vortigem 

with  the  daughter  of  Hengest  before  the  war.    It  also  records 

the  massacre  of  the  British  nobles  after  the  death  of  Vortemife 

and  the  subsequent  grant  of  Essex  and  Sussex  to  the  invaders 

by  Vortigem. 

See  ffistoria  Britfonum,  ed.  Th.  Mommsen  in  Mm.  Hist,  Cerm. 
idii. ;  Aitj^oSaxoH  Chronide^  ed.  Earic  and  Plummer  (Oxford,  1899) ; 
Bede,  HuLEccL,  ed.  C.  Plummer  (Oxford,  1896). 

VOSQBSt  a  frontier  department  of  eastern  France,  formed 
m  1790- chiefly  of  territory  previously  betonging  to  Lorraine, 
together  with  portions  of  Pranche-Comti  and  Champagne, 
and  bounded  N.  by  the  department  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle, 
E.  by  Alsace,  S.E.«  by  the  territory  of  Betfort,  S.  by  the 
department  of  Haute-Sa6ne,  W.  by  Haute-Mame  and  N.W. 
by  Meuse.  Pop.  (1906)  439,8x»;  area^  3379  sq.  nu  The 
Vosges  mountains  (see  below)  form  a  natural  boundafy  on 
i\^e  east,  their  highest  French  .eminence,  the  Hohnedt,  attaining 
448s  ft.  The  Monts  Faucilles  traverse  the  south  of  the  depart* 
ment  in  a  hroad  curve  declining  on  the  north  into  elevated 
plateaus,  on  the  south  encircling  the  upper  basin  of  the  Sa6ne. 
This  chain,  dividing  the  basins  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Rhine, 
forms  part  of  the  European  watershed  between  the  basins  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic.  The  MoseUe  and  the  Meuse, 
tributaries  of  the  Rhine,  have  the  largest  drainage  areas  in  the 
department;  a  small  district  in  the  N.W.  sends  its  ivaters  to. 
the  Seine,  the  rest  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhone.  The 
Moselle  rises  in  the  Col  de  Bussang  in  the  extreme  south-east, 
and  in  a  N.N.W.  course  of  about  70  m.  in  the  department 
receives  the  Moselotte  and  the  Vologne  on  the  right;  the 
Mortagne  and  Meurthe  on  the  right  and  the  Madon  on  the 
left  bank  also  belong  to  this  department  though  they  join 
the  Mosdle  outside  its  borden.  The  source  of  the  Satoe  is 
on  the  southern  slope  of  the  FauciUes.  On  the  shore  of  Lake 
G^rardmer  lies  the  beautifully  situated  town  of  Gdiardmer,  a 
well-known  centre  for  mountain  excursions. 

The  elevation  and  the  northward  exposure  of  the  valleys  make 
the  cMmate  severe,  and  a  constant  dampness  prevails,  owing 
both  to  the  abundance  of  the  rainfall  and  to  the  imper- 
meability of  the  subsoil.  The  average  temperature  at  £pinal 
{1070  ft.)  is  49^  F.  The  annual  rainfall  at  Epinal  is  28  in.,  at 
St  Di£  33  in.  and  in  the  mountains  more.  Arable  farming 
flourishes  in  the  western  districts  where  wheat,  oats  and  potatoes 
are  largely  grown.  The  vine  is  cultivated  on  the  tivor  btanks, 
to  best  advantage  on  those  of  the  MoseUe.  Pasture  is  abundant 
In  the  mountainous  region,  where  cbeese^making  is  carried  on 
to  some  extent,  but  the  best  grazing  is  in  the  central  vall^. 
Forests,  which  occupy  hirge  tracts  on  the  flanks  of  the  Vosges, 
cover  about  one-third  of  the  department,  and  are  a  princ^Md 
source  of  its  wealth.  Sawmills  are  numerous  in  the  Vosges 
and  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  sabots,  brushes  and  wood- 
working in  general  are  prominent  industries.  The  department 
has  mines  of  lignite  and  stone  quarries  of  various  kinds. 
There  are  numerous  mineral  brings,  of  which  thne  of  Contrex£« 
vide,  Plombi^res,  Vittd,  Baias^le»-Bain8,  Maitigny-les-Bains 
and  Bussang  may  be  named.  The  manufacture  of  textiles' is 
the  chief  industry,  comprising  the  spinning  and  weaving  of 
cotton,  wool,  silk,  hemp  and  flax,  and  the  manufacture  of 
hosiery  and  of  embroidery  and  lace,  Mirecourt  (pop.  SP93) 
being  an  important  centre  for  the  two  last.  The  department 
Ibrms  the  diocese  of  St  Di6  (province'of  Besan^on),  has  its  court 
of  appeal  and  educational  centre  at  Nancy,  andlselOngs  to  the 
iHstridt  ot  the  XX.  Army  Corps.  It  is  divided  into  the  arrondiS^ 
meats  of  fipinal,  Mirecourt,  Nenfchltcau,  Remicemont  and 
SI  Di^,  wi(;h  39  caiitons  and  530  communes. 

VOMEt  (Lat.  Votesus  or  Vosagus,  Oer.  Waspm  or  VoicsttCi^^ 
a  MauBtain  range  of  central  Europe,  ttretching  along  the  west 


side  of  the  Rhine  vadejp  hi  a  RK.B.  direcfibn,  from  Pnel  to 
Mainx,  for  a  distance  of  150  m.  Since  1871  the  soothcm 
portion,  from  the  Ballon  ^'Alsace  to  Mont  Doiion,  has  been  the 
frontier  between  France  and  Gwmaay.  There  is  a  remarkj%ble 
similarity  between  the  Vosges  and  the  corresponding  range 
of  the  Black  Forest  on  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine:  both  lie 
within  the  same  degrees  of  htitude  and  have  the  same  geological 
formation;  both  are  characterised  by  fine  forests  on  their 
lower  slopes,  above  which  are  open  paotuniges  and  poended 
summits  of  a  uniform  altitude;  both  have  a  steep  fall  to  the 
Rhine  and  a  gradual  descent  on  the  other  side.  The  Vosges 
in  their  southern  portion  are  mainly  of  gnuilte,  with  some 
porphyritic  masses,  and  of  a  kind  of  red  san^tono  (occasiOBaUy 
1640  ft.  in  thickness)  which  on  the  wesCera  voaai^  bears  tbie 
name  of  "  ^H  Vosgiep. " 

Orographically  the  range  is  divided  sooth  to  north  into  four 
sections:  the  Grandes  Vosges  (63  m.),  extending  from  BeUon  to 
the  valley  of  the  Bruche;  the  Central  Vomes  (31  m.),  between  the 
Bruche  and  the  Col  dc  Savernc;  the  Lower  Voages  (30  m.).  between 
the  Col  de  Saveme  and  the  source  of  Che  Lauter;  and  the  Hardt 
(9.9.).,    The  rounded  summits  of  the  Graadea  Vosges  are  called 
"  ballbns."     The  departments  of  Vosges  and  Haute  SaOne  ace 
divided  from  Alsace  and  the  territory  of  qclf ort  by  the  Ballon  d*  Alsace 
or  St  Maurice  (4100  ft.).   Thence  northwards  the  average  height  of 
the  range  is  3000  ft.,  the  highest  point,  the  Ballon  de  Guebwilkr 
(Gebwealer),  or  Soultx,  rising  to  the  east  of  the  main  chain  to  4680  fL 
The  Col  de  Saales,  between  the  Grandes  Vosges  and  the  centni 
section,  is  nearly  1000  ft.  high ;  the  latter  is  both  lower  and  narronr 
than  the  Grandes  Vosges,  the  Mont  Donon  (3307  ft.)  being  the  h  ighea 
summit.    The  railway  from  Paris  to  Strassburg  and  the  Rhine  and 
Marne  Canal  traverse  the  Col  dc  Saveme.    No  railway  craaaes  the 
Vosges  betweeii  Saverne  and  Belfort,  but  there  are  carriage  roads 
over  the  passes  of  Bussang  from  Remiremont  to  Thann,  the  Schluokc 
(3766  ft.)  from  (j^rardmer  to  Munster,  the  Bonhomme  from  St 
D16  to  Colmar,  and  the  pass  from  St  Di6  to  Ste  Marie«nx*Miiies. 
The  Lower  Vosges  are  a  sandstone  plateau  langing  fsom  looo  to 
1650  ft.  high,  ana  are  crpesed  by  the  railway  from liagenau  to  Sarie- 
guemtncs,  defended  by  the  fort  of  Bitche. 

Meteorologically  tne  difference  between  the  eastern  and  western 
versants  of  trie  range  is  very  marked,  the  annual  rainfall  being  much 
higher  and  the  mean  temperature  being  much  lower  in  the  latter 
thin  in  the  former.  On  the  eastern  slope  the  vine.ripens  to  a  height 
of  1300  ft ;  on  the  other  hand,  its  only  rivers  are  toe  111  and  other 
shorter  streams.  The  Moselle,  Meurthe  and  Sarre  all  rise  on  the 
Lorraine  side.  Moraines,  boalders  and  polished  rocks  testify  the 
existence  of  the  glaciers  which  formerly  eovered  the  Vosges.  The 
lakes,  surrounded  by  pines,  beeches  and  maples,  the  green  meadows 
which  provide  pasture  for  large  herds  of  cows,  and  the  fine  views 
of  the  Rhine  valley,  Black  Forest  and  snow-covered  Swiss  moun- 
tains  combine  to  make  the  district  picturesque.  On  the  lower 
heights  and  buttresses  of  the  main  chain  on  tne  Alsatian  side  are 
numerous  castles,  g^^nemlly  in  ruins.  At  several  points  on  the  mala 
ridge,  esjxcially  at  St  Odile  above  Ribeauville  (Icappoltsweikr).  are 
the  remains  of  a  wall  of  unmortared  stone  with  ten<»ts  of  wood, 
6  to  7  ft.  thick  and  ^  to  5  ft.  high,  called  the  pagan  wall  (Mur  Payen). 
It  was  used  for  defence  in  the  middle  a^es,  and  archaeoloeists  are 
divided  as  to  whether  it  was  built  Cor  this  purpose  by  the  ftoBaansa 
or  before  their  arrival. 

VOSKAER,  CAREL  (iSad-iSSS),  Dutch  poet  and  art-cridc, 
was  bom  at  the  Hague  on  the  aoth  of  hlarch  1826.  He  was 
trained  to  the  law,  and  held  various  judiciary  posts,  but  ia 
1873  withdrew  entirely  from  Ifigal  practice.  His  first  volume 
of  poems,  i860,  did  not  contain  much  that  was  remarkable. 
His  temperament  was  starved  in  the  very  thin  air  of  the 
intellectual  Holland  of  those  days,  and  it  was  not  until  alter 
the  sensational  appearance  of  Multatuli  (Edward  Douwes- 
Dekker)  that  Vosmaer,  at  the  age  of  foityi  woke  up  to  aeon- 
scioosness  of  his  own  talait.  In  1869  he  produced  an  exhaustive 
monograph  on  Rembrandt,  which,  was  issued  in  French. 
Vosmaer  became  a  contributor  to,  and  then  the  leading  spirit 
and  editor  of,  a  journal  which  playe4  an  immeose  par^  in  the 
awakenmg  of  Dutch  litetatura;  this  was  the  Nederlandseke 
Specidtor,  in  which  a  great  many,  of  bis  own  works,  in  prose 
and  verse,  originally  appeared.  The  remarkable  ;aiisceUanies  of 
Vosmaer,  called  Birds  0/  Diverse  Plumaget  appeared  in  three 
volumes,  in  1872,  1874.  and  1876.  In  1879  be  selected  from 
these  sll  the  pieces  in  verse,  and  added  other  poems  to  them. 
In  i88x  he  published  an  archaeological  novel  called  Amazotu^ 
the  scene  of  which  was  laid  in  Naples  and  Rome,  and  which 
described  the  raptuces  pf  a  Dubqb  antiquary  in  lovt.    Vosmaer 


VOSS,  J.  H.rWVOSSIUS 


«ii<l«itook  tbe  gigantic  task  of  tranafating  Ifomer  bto  Dutch 
hexameten,  and  he  lived  just  k>ngL  enough  to  see  this  completed 
and  revised.  In  1873  he  came  to  London  to  visit  his  lifelong 
friend,  Sir  (then  Mr)  Lawitnce  Ahna-Tadema,  and  on  his 
letun  published  Londimas,  an  excoedisgly  briUiant  mock* 
heroie  poem  in  hexameten.  His  last  poem  .waa  NannOt  an 
idyll  on  the  Greek  model.  Vosmaer  died,  while  travelling  in 
Switzerland,  on  the  lath  of  June  1888.  He  was  unique  in  his 
fine  sense  of  plastic  expression;  he  was  eminently  tasteful, 
lettered,  refined.  Without  being  a  genius,  be  possessed  immense 
taknt,  just  of  the  order  to  be  useful  m  combating  the  wom^ 
out  rhetoric  of  Dutch  poetry.  Hia  veise  was  modelled  on 
■Heine  and  still  more  on  the  Greeks;  it  is  sober,  without  colour, 
stately  and  a  little  cold.  He  was  a  curious  student  in  versifica- 
tion, and  it  is  due  to  him  that  hexameters  were  introduced  and 
the  sonnet  reintnxluced  into  Holland.  He  was  the  first  to 
repudiate  the  traditional,  wooden  alexandrine.  In  prose  he 
was  greatly  influenced  by  MuUatuli,  in  praise  of  whom  he  wrote 
an  eloquent  treatise,  Een  Zaaier  (A  Souta).  He  was  also  some^ 
what  under  the  influence  of  English  prose  models.         (E.  G.) 

VOBS.  JOHANN  HBINRIGH  (x75i*x826),  German  poet  and 
translator;  lyas  bom  at  Sommeisdorf  in  Mecklenbuxg-Strelita 
on  the  3oth  of  February  1751,  the  son  of  a  fapner.  After 
attending  <  1766*69)  the  gymnasium  at  Neubfandenburg,  he 
was  obliged  to  accept  a  private  tutorship  in  order  to  earn  money 
to  enable  him  to  study  at  a  vniversity.  At  the  invitation  ^ 
H.  C.  Boie,  whose  attention  he  had  attracted  hy  poems  con*- 
tributed  to  the  Gdttingen  MusefuUmanMht  he  went  to  GSttingen 
in  1773.  Here  he  studied  philology  and  became  one.  of  the 
leadhag  spirits  In  the  famous  Hakt  or  DUfUerbuni'.  In  1775 
Boie  made  over  to  him  the  editorship  of  the  Mmenalmanack^ 
which  he  continued  to  issue  for  several  years.  He  married 
Boie's  sister  Ernestine  In  1777  and  in  1778  was  appointed  rector 
of  the  school  at  Ottemdorf  in  Hanover.  In  1782  he  accepted 
the  rectorship  of  the  gymnasium  at  Eutin,  where  he  remained 
ontil  i8o3.  Retiring  in  this  year  with  a  pension  of  600  thalers 
he  settled  at  Jena,  and  in  1805,  although  Goethe  used  his  utmost 
endeavours  to  persuade  him  to  stay,  accepted  a  call  to  a  pro- 
fessorshfp  at  Heidelberg;  Here,  in  the  enjoyment  of  a  consider- 
able salary,  he  devoted  himself  entirely  U^  his  literaiy  labours, 
translations  and  antiquarian  research  until  hi^  death  on  the 
99th  of  March  1836. 

Vots  was  a  man  of  a  ismarkd>ly  independent  and  vigorous 
character.  In  1785-9^  he  published  in  two  volumes  a  collection  of 
original  poema.  to  which  he  aftemrards  made  many  additions.  The 
best  of  these  works  is  his  idyllic  poem  Luise  (i79$)i  in  which  he 
souRht,  with  much  success,  to  .apply  the  style  and  methods  of 
clauioal  poetry  to  the  expreasion  of  modem  German  thouffht  and 
sentimeot.  In  his  MytkMoiische  BrUJe  L2  vols.,  1794},  in  which  he 
attacked  the  Ideas  of  Christian  Gottlob  Heyne,  in  his  Antisymbolih 
(2  vols.,  1824-36)^  written  in  opposition  to  Georg  Friedrich  Creuzcr 
(1771-1858),  and  m  other  writings  he  made  im{>ortant  contributions 
to  the  study  of  mythology.  He  was  also  prominent  as  an  advocate 
of  the  right  of  free  iudgment  in  relizioa.  and  at  the  tine  when  some 
members  off  the  Komantic  school  were  being  converted  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  he  produced  a  strong  impression  by  a 
powerful  article,  in  Sophronixtm,  on  his  friend  Tnedrich  von  Stol- 
berg's  repudetion  of  ProtesUntism  (1819).  It  is,  however,  as -a 
traoslator  that  Voas  chiefly  owes  bis  place  in  German  literature. 
His  translatioos  indicate  not  only  sound  scholarship  but  a  thorough 
mastery  of  the  laws  of  German  diction  and  rhythm.  The  most 
famous  of  his  translations  are  those  of  Homer.  Of  these  the  best 
Is  the  translation  of  the  Odytsey,  as  orieinally  issued  In  1781.  He 
also  tnuudated  Hesiod,  Theocritus,  Bion  and  MoschuSk  Viivit, 
Horace*  Tibullus,  Prqpertius  and  other  classical  poets,  and  ne 

{>rcpared  a  critical  edition  of,  Tibullus.  In  1818-39  was  published, 
n  9  vols.,  a  translation  of  Shakesfteare's  plays,*  which  he  com- 
plettd  with  the  help  of  his  son's  Heinrich  and  Abraham,  both  of 
whom  were  scfaolan  and  writers  of  considerable  ability.. 
*  J.  H.  Voss's  SamtUcke  poetitche  Work*  were  published  bv  his  son 
Abraham  in  183$;  new  ed.  185a  A  good  selection  w  in  A.  Sauer, 
Der  GMinger  Dtchterbund,  vol.  L  (KQrschner's  Deutsche  tfational- 
HUratur,  ynL  49,  1887).  Hi>  Letters  were  also  published  by  his  son 
ia  4  vols.  (1839-33).  VosB  left  a  short  autobios^apbyt  Abnss  mmnes 
LAWS  (1818).  &e  also  W.  Herbrtt.  /.  H,  Voss  6  vols,,  x87a-76); 
A.  Heussner,  /.  B.  Voss  ds  Sckulmann  in.Eutin  (1883). 

V0S8,  RICHARD  (1851'  '},  German  dramatist  and 
novelui,  WW  bom  at  Neiigrapet  in  Pomesania,  on  the  3nd  of 


September  1851,  the  son  of  a  eomtiy  aqolrft.  HMmgfa  iatendell 
for  the  Ufe  of  a  country  gentleman,  he  showed  no  bdination 
for  outdoor  life,  and  on  his  return  from  the  war  of  xSio-ji,  in 
which  he  was  wounded,,  he  studied  philosophy  at  Jena  and 
Munich,  and  then  settled  at  Berchtesgaden.  In  1884  Voss  was 
appointed  by  the  grand  duke  of  Weimar  librarian  of  the 
Wartburg,  but,  in  consequence  of  illness,  he  reigned  the  post. 

Chief  among  his  dramas  are  Savonar(^  (1878):  Magda  (1879); 
DU  Pclrieierin  (1880);  Der  iiokr  ies  Zareu  (1885)1  UtukiUek  Yolk 
(1885);  Alextmira,  (1888);  £m  (1889);  Wtk6  dem  BuUtfim  (1889); 
Die  neue  Zeit  {i8ai)'t.Sckuldit  (1893).  Among  hia  noveb  may  be 
mentioned  San  Sebastian  (1883);  Der  Sokn  aer  Volskerin  (1885): 
Die  Sabinerin  (1888);  Der  M^nck  wm  Bercktesgaden  (1891);  Det 
neue  Gott  (1898)  t  Die  Rdckerin  (189^):  AUerlei  Brtebtes  (1903); 
and  Die  Leute  smi  Vddari  (1903). 

See'M.  (joldroann,  Rickard  Voss,  ewi  literarisckes  Chardkterbiid 
C1900). 

VOSSEVANGEN»  or  Voss,  a  village  and  favourite  tourist- 
centre  of  Norway,  in  South  Bergenhus  aptt  (county),  67  m.  N.W. 
of  Bergen  byridl.  It  was  the  terminus -of  the  finely  engineered 
Bergen  &  Vossevangen.  rulway,  which,  however,  forms  part 
of  the  projected  trunk  line  between  Christiania  and  Bergen. 
Vossevangen  is  pleasantly  situated  on '  the  Vangsvand,  in 
fertile  upland,  and  has  a  stone  church  of  the  X3th  century, 
an^tifinneloft  or  two-storeyed  timber  house  of  the  X4th  century, 
with  an  outside  stair.  Driving  roads  run  N.E.  and  S.E.  from 
Vossevangen.  The  former,  passing  Stalheim,  descends  into  the 
sombre  Naerddal,  a  pirecipitous  valley  terminating  in  the  Naerd 
Fjord,  a  head-branch  of  the  Sogne  Fjord.  The  latter  route 
iollows  the  deep  but  gentler  valley  of  the  Skjerve,  whence  from 
Ovre  Vasenden  roads  continue  to  £ide  (18  m.)  and  to  XJIvik 
(3  3  m.),  both  on  branches  of  the  Hardanger  Fjord. 

VOSSIUS  [Voss],  GERHARD  JOHAKN  (X577-X649),  Cktrman 
classical  scholar  and  theologian,  was  the  son  of  Johannes  Voss, 
a  Protestant  of  the  Netherlands,  who  fled  from  persecution 
into  the  Palatinate  and  became  pastor  in  the  village  near 
Heidelberg  where  (jerhard  was  born.  Johannes  was  a  Cahrinistp 
however,  and  the  strict  Lutherans  of  the  Palatinate  caused 
him  once  iftore  to  become  a  wanderer;  in  x-578  he  settled  at 
Leiden  as  studen(  of  theology,  and  finally  became  pastor  at 
Dort,  where  he  di6d  ini585>  Here  the  son  received  his  educar 
tion,  until  in  1595  he  entered  the  university  of  Leiden,  where 
he  became  the  lifelong  friend  of  Hugo  Grotius,  and  studied 
dassacs,  Hebrew,  chnrch 'history  and  theology.  In.  x6oo  he 
was  made  rector  of  the  high  school,  at  port,  and  devoted 
himself  tci  philology  and  historical  theology.  From  1614  to 
1619  he  was  director  of  tbe  theological  collet  at  Leideii; 
Meantime  he  was  gaining  a  great  rq>utation  as  a  scholar,  not 
only  in  the  Netherlands,  but  also  in  Francib  And  England. 
But  in  spite  of  the  moderation  of  his  views  and  his  abstention 
from  controversy,  he  came  under  suspicion 'of  heresy,  and 
escaped  expulsion  from  his  ofllice  only  by  resignation  (16x9)^ 
The  year  before  he  had  published  bis  Valuable  history  of 
Pelagian  controversies,  which  his  enemies  considered  favoure<l 
the  views  of  the  Axminians  or  Remonstrants.  In  1633,  however, 
he  was  appointed  professor,  of  rhetoric  and  chronology,  and 
subsequently  of  Greek,  in  the  university.  He  declined  invilao 
tions  from  C^bridge,  but  accepted  from  Arcbbishbp  Laud  a 
prebend  in  Canterbury  cathedral  without  residence,  and  went 
to  England  to  be  installed  in  X629,  when  he  was  made  LL.D.  at 
OxfoM.  In  X633  he  left  Leiden  to  take  the  post  of  professor 
of  history  in  the  newly  founded  Athenaeum  at  Amsterdam, 
which  he  held  till  his  death  on  the  X9th  of  March  X649. 

Htt  son  IsAAK  (16x8-1689),  after  a  brilliant  career  of  pcholai> 
ship  in  Sweden,  became  residentiary  canon  at  Windsor  In  167*. 
He  was  the  author  of  De  sepimgirUa  itOerprettbm  (ilS6x),  p\ 
pocmatum  cantu  ei  viribus  rkylkmi  (x673)»  wA  Variaru$n 
obsarvaiumwn  titer  (t6&s). 

VossiuB  was  amongst  the  first  to  treat  theological  doginas  and  the 
heathen  relinons  from  the  historical  point  of  view.  His  pnndpal 
works  are  Historia^  Pelagiana  siee  Histeriae  de  coutraeeniit  ffuoi 
Pdagius  ejusaue  reliquiae  moeerunt  (1618) ;  AristarckuSt'simjle  orlr 
erammatita  (1635  and  1695;  jiew  ed.  in  a  vols.,  183^-35) ;  JStyme* 
legimm,  UnguQuJMtkm  (i^fo;  p«v  «d«  in  two  vSk^  «7te-4s)i 


«x6 


VOTE 


C^mmtKiaritnm  Rkdaflceftm  oMtHanm  iiutUiaiomm  Ltbri  VJ, 
(1606  and  often);  Dt  Historici*  Cratcis  Ubri  HI.  (1624);  <^' 
Uistorkis  LalinU  Libn  III,  (1627):  Dt  Tkeolopa  Ctf«ii7«  Q642): 
DisstrtaHones  Trts  dt  Tribus  SymMis,  Apostcltca,  Atkanastano  et 
CtruioMtinopclitano  (164J).  Collected  works  published  4t  Amster- 
dam (6  volk,  1695-1701). 

See  P.  Nioeion,  Mimoires  pour  senir  d  rkistoirt  its  hommes 
iUustres,  vol.  »U.  (Paris,  1750);  Hersog*s  ReaUncyldopddu,  art. 
*'  Vossius  ";  and  the  article  in  the  AUgtmtint  DeuUclu  Biographie. 

VOTB  and  VOTIMO.  The  Latin  Mtem,  derived  from  vavert, 
to  vow,  meant  a  solemn  promise,  hence  a  wish,  desire  or  prayer, 
in  which  senses  the  doublet "  vow,"  derived  through  French, 
is  used  now  chiefly.  "  Vote  "  is  specially  employed  in  the  sense 
of  a  registering  of  one's  choice  in  elections  or  on  matters  of 
debate,  and  the  political  meaning  is  the  only  one  which  requires 
comment. 

Ancu9U.—ln  andent  Greece  and  Italy  the  .institution  of 
suffrage  already  existed  in  a  mdimcntaiy  form  at  the  outset 
of  the  historic^  period.  In  the  primitive  monarchies  it  was 
customary  for  the  king  to  invite  pronouncements  of  his  folk 
on  matters  in  which  it  was  prudent  to  secure  its  assent  before- 
hand. In  these  assemblies  the  people  recorded  their  opinion 
t>y  damouring  (a  method  which  survived  in  Sparta  as  late  as 
the  4th  century  B.C.),  or  by  the  clashing  of  spears  on  shields. 
This  latter  practice  may  be  inferred  to  have  obtained  originally 
fai  Rome,  the  word  suffrapum  meaning  literally  a  responsive 
crash.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  routine  in  the  early  monarchies 
and  aristocrades  of  Greece  and  Italy  the  vote  as  yet  lacked 
importance  as  an  instrument  of  government.  But  in  the  days 
of  their  full  political  development  the  communities  of  these 
countries  had  firmly  established  the  prindple  of  government 
according  to  the  will  of  majorities,  and  their  constitutions 
required  almost  ev^ry  important  act  to  be  directed  by  a  formal 
vote.  This  rule  applied  equally  to  the  dedsons  of  general 
assemUies,  administrative  coundls  and  law  courts,  and  obtained 
alike  in  states  where  suffrage  was  universal  and  where  it  was 
restricted. 

In  every  case  the  taking  of  votes  was  effected  in  the  form  of 
a  poll.  The  practice  <rf  the  Athenians,  which  is  shown  by 
inscriptions  to  have  been  widely  follo^'cd  in  the  other  states 
of  Greece,  was  to  hold  a  show  of  hands  (xeiporoiitk),  except 
on  questions  affecting  the  status  of  individuals:  these  latter, 
which  induded  all  lawsuits  and  proposals  of  ostracism  (9.9.), 
were  determined  by  secret  ballot  (^^/la,  so  called  from  the 
i^^  or  pebbles  with  wUdi  the  votes  were  cast).  At  Rome 
the  method  which  prevailed  up  to  the  2nd  century  B.C.  was 
that  of  division  (discessio).  But  the  economic  and  sodal  depend- 
ence of  many  voters  on  the  nobility  caused  the  system  of  open 
suffrage  to  be  vitiated  by  intimidation  and  corruption.  Hence 
a  series  of  kws  enacted  between  139  and  107  b.c  prescribed 
the  use  of  the  ballot  ("  tabella,"  a  slip  of  wood  coated  with  wai) 
lor  all  business  done  in  the  assemblies  of  the  people. 

For  the  purpose  of  carrying  resolutions  a  simple  majority  of 
"^tes  was  deemed  sufficient.  Regulations  about  a  qwmtm 
seem  to  have  been  unusual,  though  a  notable  exception  occurs 
in  the  case  of  motions  for  ostracism  at  Athens.  As  a  general 
nde  equal  value  was  made  to  attach  to  each  vote;  but  in  the 
popular  assemblies  at  Rome  a  system  of  voting  by  groups  was 
in  force  until  the  middle  of  the  3rd  century  B.C.  by  which  the 
richer  classes  secured  a  decisive  preponderance  (see  CoicrnA). 

As  compared  with  modem  practice  the  function  of  voting  was 
restricted  in  some  notabk*  ways,  (i)  In  the  democrades  of  Greece 
the  u«e  of  the  lot  largely  supplanted  polling  for  the  election  of 
magifltreteB:  at  Athens  voting  was  limited  to  the  choice  of  oflkers 
%itji  Bpecial  technical  qualifications.  (3)  In  accordance  with  the 
theory  which  required  residence  at  the  seat  of  government  as  a 
condition  of  franchise,' the  suffrage  could  as  a  rule  only  be  exercised 
in  the  capital  town.  The  only  known  exception  under  a  centralized 
government  was  a  short-lived  experiment  under  the  emperor 
Augustus,  who  arranged  for  polling  stations  to  be  opened  at  election- 
time  in  the  country  towns  of  Italy.  In  federal  governments  the 
election  of  deputies  to  a  central  legislature  seems  to  be  attested 
by  the  practice  of  the  Achaean  League,  where  the  federal  Council 
was  probably  elecred  in  the  several  constituent  towns.  Bat  little 
Js  known  as  to  ancient  methods  of  electing  delegates  to  represcnta- 
fH»  imtkutton,  tad  in  geaoml  it  nay  bt  mf  that  the  f aaction 


if0  kpit  vpoa 
oonstituencies 


of  soff ngt  In  GnaoB  and  Inly 

problems,  sudi  as  the  use  01 
portional  representation. 

If otfem.— The   modem   method  of   obtai&iag  a  coHoctlvB 
expression  of  opinion  of  any  botly  of  penont  may  be  citlier 
"  open  "  or  secret.    An  open  expreMioa  of  opinion  nsay  be  by 
some  word  of  assent  or  negation,  or  by  some  visible  sign,  m^  the 
holding  «q»  of  a  hand.   Indeed  any  method  of  voting  which  does 
not  exprosly  make  proviskm  for  concealing  the  identity  of  the 
person  registering  the  vote  is  "open."    Some  methods  of 
voting  still  empko^  (as  in  the  case  of  pariiamentary  electioiis 
for  some  of  the  Eni^ish  umversitiesy  where  votes  may  be  sent 
by  post)  must  neoeasarily  reveal  the  manner  in  whidi  the  doctor 
has  recorded  his  vote.    It  is  in  connesion  with  the  eiectioB 
of   members  of   representative  bodiesr— especially   legislative 
bodies~-that    the  qualifications  for  and  methods  of   voting 
become    especially    important.      Practically    every    civiliaed 
country  has  accq>ted  and  put  in  foree  smne  form  of  representa- 
tion, which  may  be  defined  as  the  theory  and  principles  on 
which  the  obtaining  of  a  vote  is  founded.    These  are  desk 
with  in  the  aitide  Reprceentahon,  and  it  will  be  sufficknt 
to  give  here  the  various  qualifications  which  are  considered  by 
different  coimtries  as  sufficient  to  give  effect  to  the  principle 
of  representation  and  the  methods  of  recording  votes,    h 
detail  these  are  given  for  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  Uiaierf 
Sutes  in  the  articles  Reobtiation  of  Voters  and  ELEcnoAt 
and  for  other  countries  tuider  their  ie^)ective  titles,  in  ik 
.sectims  dealing  with  the  Constitution. 

The  first  consideration  Is  the  age  at  which  a  person  should 
be  qualified  for  a  vote.  This  in  a  large  number  of  oovntxies 
is  fixed  at  the  age  of  manhood,  namdy,  twenty-one  years  of  age^ 
but  in  Hungary  the  age  is  fixed  at  twenty  years,  in  Austria 
twenty-fotur  years,  while  in  Belgium,  Baden,  Bavaria,  Hease^ 
Prussia,  Saxony,  Japan,  the  Netheriands  and  Norway  the  age 
is  twenty-five  years,  and  in  Denmark  thirty  years.  Smne 
countries  (e.g.  Austria,  Germany,  France)  have  adopted  the 
prindple  of  what  is  often  termed  "manhood  or  universal 
stifirage,"  ».e.  every  male  adult,  not  a  criminal  or  a  luniUic,  being 
entitled  to  a  vote,  but  in  all  cases  some  further  qualifications 
than  mere  manhood  are  required,  as  in  Austria  a  year's  residence 
in  the  {dace  of  election,  or  in  France  a  six  months'  residence. 
A  common  qualification  is  that  the  dector  should  be  able  to 
read  and  write.  This  is  required  in  Italy  and  Portugal  and 
some  of  the  smaller  Eurcq^can  states,  tn  some  states  of  the 
United  Stales  (see  Elections)  and  in  many  of  the  South 
American  republics.  But  the  most  universal  qualification  of 
all  is  some  outward  visible  sign  of  a  substantial  interest  in  the 
state.  The  word  "  substantial "  is  tised  here  in  a  comparative 
sense,  as  opposed  to  that  form  of  suffrage  which  requires  nothing 
more  for  its  exercise  than  attainment  of  manhood  and  perhaps 
a  certain  qualifying  period  of  residence.  This  tangible  sign 
of  interest  in  the  state  may  take  the  form  of  possession  of 
property,  however  small  in  amount,  or  the  payment  of  some 
amount  of  direct  taxation,  indeed  In  some  cases,  as  wHl.be 
seen,  this  is  rewarded  by  the  conferring  of  extra  votes. 

In  the  United  Kingdom  possession  of  freehold  or  leasehold 
property  of  a  certain  value  or  occupation  of  premises  of  a  certain 
annual  value  gives  a  vote.  This  qualification  of  property  may 
be  said  to  be  induded  in  what  is  termed  the  "  lodger  "  vote, 
given  to  the  occupier  of  lodgings  of  the  yearly  value  unfur^ 
nished  of  not  less  than  £ia  In  Himgary,  the  payment  of  a 
small  direct  tax  on  house  property  or  land  or  on  an  inconte 
varying  with  occupation  is  necessary.  So  in  Prussia,  Saxony, 
Bavaria,  Hesse,  Italy  (unless  a  certain  standard  in  dementaty 
education  has  been  reached),  Japan,  the  Netherlands,  Portug^ 
(unless  the  elector  is  able  to  read  and  write)  and  Rusia.  Some 
of  the  states  in  the  United  States  also  require  the  i&ymcnt  of 
a  poll  tax.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Russia,  students,  soldiers, 
governors  of  provinces  and  police  officers  are  disqualified  from 
voting;  in  Portugal,  bankrupts,  beggars,  domestic  servants, 
workmen  in  government  service  and  non-commissioned  officers 
ate  Mi  electofs;  it  must  be  noted,  howeveri  that  the  govcmmeot 


VOTING  MACHINES 


9ty 


«f  tiv  WW  Poftvgoiie  leimblie  •pUKtiM  in  i9«>  *  dtuOc 

ttvisloQ  of  the  eiistiiig  franchise.  Italy  disfranchiMS  noD- 
(ommiauoBed  o&ctn  and  men  in  the  army  while  under  arms, 
•a  do  Fiance  and  BraaiL  The  United  Kingdom  and  Denmark 
diiquatify  those  in  actual  receipt  of  parish  lelief,  while  In 
Norway,  apparently,  receipt  of  parish  relief  at  any  time  is  a 
disqualification,  which,  however,  may  be  removed  by  the 
recipient  paying  back  the  suns  so  received.  In  some  countries, 
«.g.  Brazil,  the  suffrage  is  refused  to  members  of  monastic 
orders,  &c.,  under  vows  of  obedience.  Apart  from  those 
countries  where  a  modicum  of  education  is  necessary  as  a  test 
of  right  to  the  franchise,  there  are  others  where  education  is 
specially  favoured  in  granting  the  franchise.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  the  members  of  dgfat  univeraties  (Oxford,  Cambridge, 
London,  Dublin  University,  Glasgow,  Edinburgh  Aberdeen 
and  St  Andrews)  send  nine  members  to  parliament;  in 
Hungary  members  of  the  profcssiooal,  scientific,  learned  and 
other  classes  (over  80,000)  are  entitled  to  vote  without  any 
other  qualification;  in  Brunswick  the  scientific  classes  elect 
three  members  to  the  legislative  chamber;  in  Saxony,  members 
of  scientific  or  artistic  professions  have  extra  votes;  in  Italy, 
members  of  academies  and  professors  are  qualified  to  vote 
by  their  position;  while  In  the  Netherlands  legal  qualifications 
for  any  profession  or  employment  give  a  vote. 

Many  objections  have  been  uiged  of  late  years  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  according  a  plurality  of  votes  to  one  individud  on 
account  of  superior  qualifications  over  othera  which  he  may 
be  considered  to  possess.  In  the  Unhed  Kingdom,  where, 
roug^y  speaking,  the  principle  of  representation  is  that  of 
taxation,  the  possession  of  qualifying  property  in  any  number 
of  electoral  districts  will  {^ve  a  vote  hi  each  of  those  districts. 
Whether  those  votes  can  be  actually  reg^ered  win  of  course 
depend  on  certain  circumstances,  such  as  the  distance  of  the 
districts  apart  and  whether  the  elections  are  held  on  the  same 
day  or  not.  The  Radical  party  tn  the  United  Kingdom  have 
of  late  years  been  hostile  to  any  system  of  plurality  of  votes 
(whether  gained  by  educational,  property  or  other  qualifications), 
thou^  it  may  be  said  that  the  tendency  of  sosne  recent  electoral 
systems  has  been  to  faitroduce  a  steadying  principle  of  this 
nature.  In  1906  a  bill  was  introduced  for  reducing  the  system 
of  plural  voting  In  the  United  Kingdom;  it  passed  thrbugh  the 
House  of  Commons,  but  was  rejected  by  the  House  of  Lords. 
The  most  remarkable  system  of  plural  voting  was  that  fntfo- 
doced  in  Bel^um  by  the  electoral  law  of  1894.  Under  it,  every 
dtizen  over  thirty-five  years  of  age  with  legitimate  issue,  and 
paying  at  least  5  franca  a  year  in  house  tax,  has  a  supple* 
mental  vote,  as  has  eveiy  dtizen  over  twenty--five  owning 
fmrnovable  property  to  the  value  of  sooo  francs,  or  having  a 
correspondirig  income  from  such  property,  or  who  for  two 
years  has  derived  at  least  100  francs  a  year  from  Bel^aa  funds 
dther  directly  or  through  the  savings  bank.  Two  ^)ipple- 
mentary  votes  are  given  to  dtizens  over  twenty-five  who  have 
rccdvcd  a  diploma  of  higher  instruction,  or  a  certificate  of 
higher  secondary  instruction,  or  who  fill  or  have  filled  offices, 
or  engaged  In  private  professional  instruction.  Implying  at 
least  average  higher  instruction.  Three  .vdtes  is  the  highest 
number  allowed,  while  failure  to  vote  is  punishable  as  a  mis- 
demeanour. In  1908-9  the  number  of  electors  in  Belgium 
was  1,651,647.  of  whom  981,866  had  one  vote«  378.264  two 
votes  and  291,517  three  votes.  In  some  other  countries  weight 
is  given  to  spedal  qualifications.  In  the  town  of  Bremen  the 
government  b  in  the  hands  of  a  senate  of  16  members  and  a 
Convent  of  Burgesses  (Btlrgerschaft)  of  150  members.  These 
latter  are  elected  by  the  votes  of  all  the  citizens  divided  into 
classes.  University  men  return  14  members,  merchants 
40  members,  medunics  and  manufacturen  20  members, 
and  the  other  inhabitants  the  remainder.  So  in  Brunswick 
and  in  Hamburg  legislaton  are  returned  by  voters  representing 
various  interests.  In  Prussia,  representatives  are  diosen  by 
direct  electors  who  in  their  turn  are  dected  by  indirect  electors. 
One  direct  dector  is  dected  from  every  complete  number  of 
s^  souls.   The  indirect  electors  are  divided  into  three  classes, 


the  fiat  daas  oomprisbg  Ihote  who  p«y  tlt^  Ughot  Iftaea  to 
the  amount  of  one-third  oi  the  whole;  the  second,  of  those  who 
pay  the  next  highest  amount  down  to  the  limits  of  the  second 
third;  the  third,  of  aU  the  lowest  taxed.  In  Italy  electois 
must  either  have  attained  a  certain  standard  of  elementary 
edncadoa,  or  pay  a  ccrtahi  amount  of  direct  taxation,  or  if 
peasant  fannen  pay  a  certain  amount  of  rent,  or  if  occupants 
ef  Indgiwgi,  shops,  &c.,  in  towns,  pay  an  annual  rent  acoocdiqg 
to  the  population  of  Umb  commune.  In  Japan,  votcft  must  pay 
either  land  tax  of  a  certain  amount  fiir  not  le»  than  a  year 
or  direct  taxes  other  than  huul  tax  for  more  than  two  years* 
In  the  WetherlaiMls,  householdeka,  or  thoee  who  have  {»id  the 
rent  of  houses  or  lodgings  for  a  certain  period,  are  qualified  for 
the  franchise,  as  are  ownen  or  tenants  of  boats  of  not  less  than 
24  tons  capadty,  as  well  as  those  who  have  been  for  a  certain 
period  in  employment  with  an  annual  wage  of  not  less  than 
£22,  x8s.  4d.,  have  a  certificate  of  state  interest  of  net  less  than 
100  florins  or  a  savings  bank  deposit  of  not  less  than  50  florins. 

The  method  now  adopted  in  most  countries  of  recording 
votes  is  that  of  secret  voting  or  ballot  (9.S.).  Thia  is  carried 
out  sometimes  by  a  machine  (see  Voting  Machini8>.  The 
method -of  determining-  the  successful  candidate  varies  greatly 
in  different  countries.  In  the  United  Kingdom  the  candidate 
who  obtains  a  relative  majority  is  eleaed,  ix.  it  is  necessary 
only  to  obtain  more  votes  than  any  other  candidate  (see 
Repkesentation). 

VOTING  MACHINBS.  The  complications  m  the  voting  at 
American  elections  have  resulted  in  the  invention  of  various 
marhinfs  for  registering  and  counting  the  ballots.  These 
machines  are  in  fact  mechanical  Australian  ballots.  The 
necessity  for  them  has  been  emphasized  by  election  practice 
m  many  parts  of  the  United  States,  where  in  a  single  election 
there  have  been  from  five  to  ten  parties  on  the  ballot,  with 
an  aggregate  of  four  hundred  or  five  hundred  candidates,  making 
the  paper  ballots  large  and  difficult  to  handle.  The  objections 
to  the  paper  ballot  are  further  emphasized  in  the  results  ob- 
tamed.  The  number  of  void  and  blank  ballots  is  seldom  less 
than  5%  of  the  number  of  voten  voting,  and  b  often  as  high 
as  40%.  This  lost  vote  is  often  greater  than  the  majority  of 
the  successful  candidate.  In  dose  elections  there  is>n  endless 
dispute  as  to  whether  the  disputed  ballots  do  or  do  not  comply 
with  the  law.  The  dection  contest  and  recount  expenses 
frequent^  exceed  the  cost  of  holding  the  dection,  and  the  title 
of  the  candidates  to  the  office  is  frequently  held  in  abeyance 
by  a  protracted  contest  until  after  the  term  of  office  has  expired* 
A  number  of  ways  have  been  devised  for  marking  the  Australian 
ballot  for  identification  without  destroying  its  legality.  The 
X  is  a  very  simple  and  wdl-known  mark,  yet  in  the  case  of 
Cmdehan  v.  WkiUt  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  Mazylandi 
twenty-seven  different  ways  of  making  the  mark  "  X "  were 
shown  in  the  ballots  in  controversy,  and  all  of  them  were  a 
subject  for  judicial  consideration,  on  which  the  judges  of  even 
the  highest  court  could  find  room  for  disagreement.  Wigmore 
in  lus  book  on  the  Australian  ballot  system  points  out  thirteen, 
ways  of  wrongly  pladng  the  mark,  and  forty-four  errors  in 
the  style  of  the  mark,  besides  many  other  errors  tending  to 
invalidate  the  ballot,  all  of  them  having  frequently  occurred 
hi  actual  practice.  These  erron  are  not  confined  to  the  illiter- 
ates, but  are  just  as  common  among  the  best-educated  people. 
The  baUots  can  and  have  frequently  been  altered  or  miscounted 
by  unscrupulous  dection  officers,  luid  the  detection  of  the 
fraud  is  frequently  difficult  and  always  expensive. 

Voting  machines  were  devised  first  by  English,  and  later 
with  more  success  by  American  inventors.  The  earlier  machines 
of  Vassie,  Chamberlain,  Sydserff  (1869)  and  Davie  (1870)  were 
practically  all  directed  to^rd  voting  for  the  candidates  of 
a  singhe  office  by  a  ball,  the  baU  gohig  into  one  compart- 
ment or  the  other  according  to  the  choice  of  the  voter.  The 
use  of  the  ball  is  in  accordance  with  the  original  idea  of  ballot, 
which  means  "  a  little  ball ";  and  because  of  the  requirement 
of  many  of  the  constitutions  of  the  states  of  the  United  Sutes, 
that  "elections  shall  be  by  ballot,"  many  American  inwitort 


fi8 


VOTING  MACaONIS 


lottow  diB'ldt*  of  isdas  htta  ta  indkite  tkor  vi 

boirevcr,  nutDUinuig  thi' 

voting  by  ballot,  uid  that 

vorked  on  the  Ha  oi  usng  a  key  and 

dale.  Ihe  couater  RgiileriiiB  Ihe  luccnhn  impiilgi  ^en  to 

U  by  ibt  key,  tbe  Buchiae  pRrenting  (be  votri  fnaa  (jving 

Uie  key  moie  (ban  OdO  impubs,  aod  pnvcntkt  tbe  voter  fnan 

aptralint  men  key*  than  be  ii  cBtitled  t<i  vote.    Tbe  blgheet 

eouilB  of  [our  di&rent  Araeticaii  tutt*  have  ruled  that  any 

[arm  of  votinf  machiiie  (bu  Kcuted  woecy  muU  be  con- 

■tUutuHial. 

The  lint  votinf  macUiie  nad  la  an  dedkn  ni 
BiJtiiiMuhiiieiuedalLockpoR.HnYarkiliilSsi.  1 
luid  a  verlicaL  keyboan!  with  columu  of  puth  key*  tj 
fcjumn  rrprHcntinea  party,  a'nd  each  kry  belongirv  to  h  laiiuiudic 
of  thitl  party,  the  teya  of  eatb  hdrinntat  ttve  bekinwif  to  tbe  candi- 
dBta<i(lhenciciai|i«nie>[«ra|iaitIcnlaraBcs.  Tbtyota fu^ti 
one  of  xht  knoba  In  eaek  office  line.  »Ud  knob  opcnted  fti  coiutef 
and  locked  all  other  poHihle  vote*  lor  the  lasie  office  unlH  the  voter 
Left  the  booih.  The  operated  keyi  vreie  reteated  t^  (he  ofjeratioD 
of  the  flcccriid  hooih  door  aa  the  voter  left  tbe  machine,  and  (hey 
wet*  Ibea  naet  by  aprlnn.  The  dooca  were  to  arrannd  thai  (he 
.  ._.  ^fJTv jri.. ^  ,_  ,.  ,.  .-...— .^-^b^o„^ 


Mvm 


could  open  tbeaecond  ooe  (o  get  out.  TliubothpjeeervedK' 
Bodptevented  repaiinB.  Some  liity-five  or  moirof  tbetematl 
wen  wed  in  tbe  ei^ion  In  tbe  rity  of  Rochener.  N.  Y.,  in  Nove 
ISoS.  and  w»h  m;   ' 

IbeMcTunma 
in  a  web  of  paper,    C 
ftU  punched  !n  *  lingl 


a  pneuai4(E  countina  madune.  Tbe  ^per  meb  makes  a  wpantc 
record  of  each  man'*  ballot  that  can  be  ideniified  by  a  penon  ikillcd 
In  the  UK  of  the  machine.    The  nwchine  li  alw  ilow  in  (iving 


In  cHber  tnia  of  m 


:t  that  the  vote  baa  10 


SC 


(hii  type  u  1 


r  wai    opented  and 


Tbe  Bardwdl  Volometer  had  a  aeparate  < 
^K.  irlth  a  nngle  kevfnrapenllBgall  tbcco 
A  keyhije  waa  provided  in  each  counter,  in 
be  inieited.  and  by  IMnuni  It  iBo*  the  conn 
Ihe  key  could  be  removed  for  uie  In  anothei  luu.,.c..     ,„^  .^ 

countert  in  very  npid  luccH^n.  The  limiiBd  use  of  ihia  mach 
can  he  attributed  principally  to  the  >1owim«»  with  which  it  can 
wai4ied.   The voterealen thUmacbine  by lalunga  bual  ooee 

bar  a(  the  other  end  a>  the  voter  paiaea  out  mtti  the  aiacbliie 

ibe  neit  voter  and  kicki  it.  

Tbe  AbbottMachiaehaa  attained  owudinble  uKintheitaii 

on  a  uparale  alide^  and  Ihe  voter  move*  thcw  ilidn  lot  the  vaiic 
oflicei  finin  left  10  right,  unol  the  connter  canyint  tha  name  of  1 
candidate  of  hii  chc«e  In  each  office  row  u  lined  up  with  the  oper 
ini  bar.  The  vertical  movtmeal  of  (he  operating  bar  rounu  1 
von  on  ench  of  Iheae  tlidei,  ringa  a  bell  wbu:h  notifiei  ihe  elect 
officer  that  a  vole  bu  been  oM,  and  lotka  tbe  machine  agai 
further  voting.  The  ekctioii  oflicer  then  mont  a  ilWe  which  nt 
■he  ntachinc  for  Ihe  Beat  voter.  Tbe  machine  u  Umned  in 
apiiUcatioa  bacaus  two  or  neic  candidalta  on  tbe  mat  ofic*  I 
cannot  b«  voted  for  by  (be  tame  voter^  although  tbe  voter  may 
entitled  to  vote  for  moie  than  one  candidate. 
The  U.S.  Standard  Voting  Machine  baa  had  tbe  mou  esrteni 

«e  of  any.    A  KDanTe  her  ia  piovided  for  ea-"- "■*—  -•■ 

keyi  an  arraoied  on  tbe  kdyMaid  c4  the  aa 


ped  like  a 
'horlunlal 


and  vertical  oflioe  bi 

cr,  which  eaienda  (o  (h 

1  keybcard    Tbe  key  twinp  1 

poaition  and  polnta  to  tbe  name  of  tbe  _. 

kgri  an  lenered  eonaecnthely  by  »ify  lowi,  and  nuinbeiHl  by 
sika  nwa,  aa  (hat  Hicb  key  bean  a  nlimberand  a  letter  disiuiEuuh- 
■!«  it  f isn  all  othen.  At  (he  left  of  each  panv  tow  u  a  party  lever, 
by  the  inovenHM  of  whkb  aU  of  the  kevi  in  ihit  piny  row  are 
Birnutlaneouily  placed  In  voted  poiilion.  In  ilitn  that  do  not  have 
party  ciRlea  on  the  halkit  Ihew  levm  ate  onulled.  _  Ewendini 
outwaidtrom  tbe  (opol (he machine  narail,  from  which  ■•uipendri 
acunaia.   Hvotad  n  (be  middle  el  (be  top  of  (ha  machine  u  a  lever. 


A  ettcnda  outwaafly  and  baa  a  looae  ca 


.    Tbe 
nt  of  (hie  curtain  lever,  n' 


opecatHO  of  apy  at 
e  hat  voted,  and  pe 


rtitbeve 


opeuaf  tba  eoitala  the  vole  it  not  coualed.  and  (he  voter  can  (■!• 
back  or  ehaaaa  bla  vote.  Repeadng  b  pewmKed  by  a  knob  fia  iW 
end  of  (be  nachlae.  which  kcka  Ihe  curtain  lever  a^nat  a  aacond 
Duviaient  uitil  i(  ia  relcaicd  by  (he  election  officer.  At  tba  top  of 
tbe  nacbioe  h  a  paper  roll  on  wfucb  the  voter  can  write  (he  namB  of 
candidatet  whoae  namea  do  not  appear  on  tbe  machine  in  am- 
aexlaB  wltb  kcya.  Thit  roU  b  antealed  by  tlidea.  oaa  for  eac^ 
office  Use  of  teyi,  which  iltdea  miM  he  liflel  (o  eapen  the  paper. 
An  latcrloekiBf  nechaniim  coattoli  aQ  the  voliog  device*  io  uat 
tbe  voter  cannot  vote  mnre  than  he  ia  entitled  to  vote.  Tk« 
machine*  have  been  built  laige  enough  to  provide  for  hwb  pariH 
of  aiaty  caBdida(ea  each,  and  for  thirty  queitiont  and  amendDBeata, 
a  laai  hiiui  of  auch  liie  carrying  4A0  counters,  beaidea  the  total  vole 

Tbe  Dean  Machine  baa  it*  keyboard  placed  hoiinintaTly,  the  ki^ 

""" ■  "" ~"    ""^■"'   "" '  ■"  party  colunai  aad 

ided  by  which  the 
Qmiiifarable  loem 

ind  the  aeparate  caidballol 

Each  Btale  thai  adopta  voting  maduoei  Gift  eoacts  a  lar 

tioa  of  tbe  machiu.  Tbeae  lequiremcnta  are  ctibBIanmll 
(he  aajne  ui  alJ  the  itate*,  tbe  law*  being  copied  larticly  inm 
the  New  Yoik  Voting  Machine  Law,  Tbe  U«s  lequin  a 
general  that  the  machine  aball  give  tbe  voter  all  the  farititid 
for  eipreuing  bii  choice  which  the  Auimliaa  baBat  giia 
him,  aiid  futthec  require  (bat  (he  iitachine  shall  ptevent  tbcae 
mlatakea  or  fiaudt,  whicli  if  made  onaoAuatnUiubalkH  wvuld 


(beie  CI 


tbe  iraportuit  benefiti  attentUng  the  u 

n  be  meotioned  accuracy  both  io  the  caitlng  and  (be 
couDUng  of  the  vole,  speed  in  getlmg  in  letuiiu,  and  economy 
in  hoMing  elections,  Tlie  improvciDeDt  la  accuracy  b  ahowa 
by  the  fact  that  the  vote  for  each  oSce  usually  runs  99%  or 
more  of  tbe  highest  possible  vote  (hat  could  be  rcglsteied  by 
the  number  of  voleia  that  have  voted.  Speed  is  diown  by 
tbe  fact  that  In  the  dty  ol  BuSaki,  witb  60,000  volen  voting  on 
election  day,  the  complete  relunis,  including  tbe  vote  on  over 
100  candidalei  tot  the  whole  dty,  have  been  colkclfd,  tabulated 
and  announced  within  ;;  minulca  from  the  dosing  of  Ihe  polls. 
GcODOmy  is  shown  by  tbe  fact  that  although  Ibtie  mtcUDe* 
are  used  but'  one  or  tiro  days  in  each  year,  election  txptuaa 
ate  reduced  to  sucb  an  extent  that  the  machines  pay  lor  them- 
selves In  Eve  or  tit  elections.  This  it  partly  due  to  (he  amalkc 
number  of  ptecincti  necessary  and  the  imatler  number  of  etecUoB 
ofEcers  in  eacb  pndncl  and  Ihe  iboner  bovn  that  they  mutt 
work.  The  dty  ol  Buffalo  has  1  doien  or  more  ptedncts,  bt 
each  ol  whirh  Soo  volen  or  mote  are  voted  in  an  election  day 
of  len  boon,  aod  in  Ibil  city  at  many  u  I0i|t  >oteii  ban 
voted  Id  one  election  day  on  one  nuchine  (F.  Kb.) 


VOtKlNSlC— vow 


ii^ 


VOTKIMIC,  a  town  aifd  iroii-iroirics,  (n  the  Russlftn  govern- 
ment of  Vyatka,  40  m.  N.  of  Sarapul  and  8  m.  W.  from  the 
Kama,  founded  in  1754.  Pop.  3x,ooa  Votkinsk  was  formerly 
one  of  the  chief  government  establishments  for  the  construc- 
tion of  steamers  for  the  Ca^ian,  as  wdl  as  of  kx»motives 
for  the  Siberian  raihray,  and  it  has  kmg  been  renowned  for 
its  exccflent  tarantasses  (driving  vehicles)  and  other  smaller 
fron-wares,  as  well  as  for  its  knitted  goods.  Its  agricultural 
machinery  is  known  throughout  Russia. 

▼OUCHBE  (from  "  to  vouch,"  to  warrant,  answer  for,  O.  Fr. 
voneker,  to  dte,  call  in  aid,  LAt.  aoeorv,  to  call,  summon),  any 
document  in  writing  which  confirms  the  truth  of  accounts  or  estab- 
bhes  other  facts,  more  particukxty  a  receipt  or  other  evidence 
in  writing  which  establishes  the  fact  of  the  payment  of  money. 

VOUBT,  nMOH  (1590-1649),  French  painter,  was  bom  at 
Paris  on  the  ^h  of  January  159a  He  pasped  many  years  in 
Italy,  where  he  married,  and  established  himself  at  Rome, 
enjoying  there  a  high  reputation  as  a  portrait  painter.  Louis 
XIII.  recalled  him  to  France  and  lodged  hxm  in  the  Louvre 
iHth  the  title  of  First  Painter  to  the  Crown.  All  royal  work 
for  the  palaces  of  the  Louvre  and  the  Luxembourg  was  placed 
fn  hu  hands;  the  king  became  his  pupil;  he  formed  a  large 
school,  and  renewed  the  traditions  of  that  of  Fontainebleau. 
Among  his  scholars  was  the  famous  Le  Bran.  Vouet  was  an 
ezceecingly  skilful  painter,  eqiecially  in  decoration,  and  executed 
important  works  of  this  dass  for  Cardinal  Richelieu  (Rue3 
and  Palais  Royal)  and  other  great  noUes.  His  better  easd 
pictures  bear  a  curious  resemblance  to  those  of  Sassoferrato. 
Almost  everything  he  did  was  engraved  by  his  sons-in-law 
Tortebat  and  Dorigny. 

TOU8801R  (Ger.  WdtbesUin),  the  French  term  used  by 
architects  for  tlie  wedge-shaped  stones  or  other  material  with 
which  the  arch  (q.v.)  is  constracted;  the  lowest  stone  on  each 
side  is  termed  the  springer  {tr.  coussinet  sommier)  and  the 
upper  one  at  the  crown  of  the  arch  the  keystone  (Fr.  doveau). 

VOW  (Lat.  votum,  vow,  protiUu:  cf.  Vote),  a  transaction 
between  a  man  and  a  god,  whereby  the  former  undertakes  in 
Che  future  to  render  some  service  or  gift  to  the  god  or  devotes 
something  valuable  now  and  here  to  his  use.  'Hie  god  on  his 
part  is  reckoned  to  be  going  to  grant  or  to  have  granted  already 
some  special  favour  to  his  votary  in  return  for  the  promise 
made  or  service  declared.  Different  formalities  and  ceremonies 
may  in  different  religions  attend  the  taking  of  a  vow,  but 
in  all  the  wrath  of  heaven  or  of  hdl  is  visited  upon  one  who 
breaks  It.  A  vow  has  to  be  distinguished,  firstly,  from  other 
and  lower  ways  of  persuading  or  constraining  supernatural 
powers  to  give  what  man  desires  and  to  help  him  in  time  of 
need;  and  secondly,  from  the  ordered  ritud  and  regularly 
recurring  ceremonies  of  religion.  These  two  distinctions  must 
be  examined  a  little  mdre  at  length. 

It  would  be  an  abuse  of  language  to  apply  the  term  vow' 
to  the  uses  of  Imitative  magic,  e.g.  to  the  action  of  a  barren 
woman  among  the  Battas  of  Sumatra,  who  In  order  to  become 
a  mother  makes  a  wooden  Image  of  a  child  and  holds  it  in  her 
lap.  For  la  such  rites  no  prominence  Is  given  to  the  idea — 
even  if  it  exists— of  a  personal  relatiork  between  the  petitioner 
and  the  supernatural  power.  The  Utter  is,  so  to  speak, 
mechanically  constrained  to  act  by  the  spell  or  magical  rite; 
the  forces  Uberaied  in  fulfilment,  not  of  a  petition,  but  of  a 
wish  are  not  those  of  a  conscious  wiJl,  and  therefore  no  thanks 
are  due  from  the  wisher  in  case  he  !s  successful.  The  deities, 
however,  to  whom  vows  are  made  or  discharged  are  already 
perwnal  beings,  capable  of  entering  into  contracts  or  covenants 
with  man,  of  understanding  the  claims  which  his  vow  estabKshea 
on  their  benevolence,  and  of  valuing  his  gratitude;  conversely, 
in  the  taking  of  a  vow  the  petitioner's  piety  and  spiritual 
attitude  have  begun  to  outweigh  those  merely  ritual  detaib  of 
the  ceremony  which  in  magical  rites  are  all-important. 

Sometimes  the  old  magical  usage  survives  side  by  ade  with  the 
more  developed  idea  of  a  personal  power  to  be  approached  in 
prayer.  For  example,  in  the  Maghrib  (in  North  Africa),  in  time 
of  drought  the  maidens  of  Mazovna  carry  every  evening  in  pto- 


cesnon  through  the  streets  a  doll  called  ghdnjot  really  a  <fressed* 
up  wooden  spoon,  symbolizing  a  pre-Itlamic  rain-spirit. '  Often 
one  of  the  girb  carries  on  her  shouldets  a  sheep,  and  her  com- 
panions sing  the  following  words: — 

"  Rain,  (all,  and  I  wiU  give  you  my  kid. 
He  has  a  black  bead;  he  neither  bleau 
Nor  complains;  he  cays  not,  '  I  am  cold.' 
Rain,  who  fillert  the  aldns, 
Mr  et  our  lament. 
Baia,  who  feedot  the  riven. 
Overturn  the  doon  of  our.  houses,*' 

Hei«  we  have  a  sympathetic  raSn  charm,  eomUned  «fth  » 
prayer  to  the  tain  viewed  as  a  personal  goddess  and  with  a 
promise  or  vow  to  give  her  the  animal.  The  point  of  the  promise 
lies  of  course  in  the  fact  that  water  Is  in  that  oonntry  stored  and 
carried  in  sheep-skin^' 

Secondly,  the  vow  h  quite  apart  from  established  cuks,  and  Uf 
not  provided  for  is  the  teligjous  caliendar.  The  Roman  vow 
(wlflMi),  ks  W.  W.  Fowler  observes  in  his  work  The  R&mtm 
FtsUvalt  (London,  1899),  p.  346,  **  was  the  exception,  not  the 
rule;  it  was  a  promise  tnaide  by  an  individual  at  some  critkaA 
mojnent,  not  the  ordered  and  recurring  ritual  of  the  famOy  or  the 
State."  The  vow,  however,  contaiiMd  so  large  an  element  of 
ordinary  prayer  that  in  the  Greek  language  one  atd  the  same 
word  (c^)  expressed  both.  The  characterbtic  mark  of  the  vow,' 
as  Suldas  in  his  lexicon  and  the  Gmk  Church  fathers  remark, 
was  that  it  was  a  promise  either  of  things  to  be  offered  to  God 
in  the  future  and  at  onoe  consecrated  to  Him  in  view  of  thefar 
being  so  offered,  or  of  austerities  to  be  undergone.  For  ofervag 
and  austerity,  sacrffica  and  suffering,  are  equally  calculated  W 
appease  an  offended  deity's  wrath  or  win  his,  goodwill. 

The  Bible  affords  many  examples  of  vows.  Thus  in  Judges  xi. 
Jephthah  "  vowed  a  vow  unto  the  Lord,  and  said,  If  thou  wili 
indeed  deliver  the  children  of  Ammon  into  my  hand,  then  it  shall 
be  that  whosoever  oometh  forth  out  of  the  doors  of  my  house  to 
meet  me,  when  I  return  in  peace  from  the  children  of  Ammon,  it 
shall  be  the  Lord's,  and  I  will  offer  it  up  for  a  burnt-offering."' 
In  the  sequel  it  Is  his  own  daughter  who  so  meets  him,  and  fa* 
sacrifices  her  after  a  respite  of  two  months  granted  her  in  onder 
to  "Iwwail  her  virginity  npoa  the  mountains."  A  thing  or 
person  thus  vowed  to  the  deity  became  holy  or  faboo;  and  for 
it,  as  the  above  story  indicates,  nothing  could  be  substituted. 
It  belonged  to  once  to  the  sanctuaiy  or  to  the  priests  who  n* 
presented  the  god.  In  the  Jewish  religion,  the  latter,  uadir 
certain  conditions,  defined  in  Leviticus  xxvfi.,  oould  permit  it  t»- 
be  redeemed.  But  to  substitute  an  undean  for  a  dean  beast' 
which  had  been  vowed,  or  an  imperfect  victim  for  a  flawlesc  Me, 
was  to  court  trith  certainty  the  divine  dtspleasure. 

It  is  often  difficult  'to  dbtinguish  a  vow  from  an  oath.  TiR&sia 
Acts  xxiii.  2 1 ,  over  forty  Jews,  enemies  of  Paul,  bound  themselves, 
under  a  curse,  neither  to  eat  nor  to  drink  t31  they  had  dain  hkA# 
In  the  Christian  Fathers  we  hear  of  *vows  to  abstiin  from  Utah' 
diet  and  wine.  But  of  the  abstentions  observed  by  votaries/ 
those  which  had  relation  to  the  barber's  art  were  the  oommdMit^ 
Wherever  individuals  were  concerned  to  create  or  eonfhn  ff 
de  connecting  them  with  a  god,  a  shrine  or  a  potflcular  tdiglOM' 
drde,  a  hair-offering  was  in  some  form  or  ether  impeiatff  <> 
They  began  by  polling  their  locks  at  the  shfine  and  left  them  a«  «| 
soul-token  in  charge  of  the  god,  and  never poOMtSein  afresbuAtll' 
the  vow  was  fulfilled.  So  Adnllcs  consecrated  hkliairte  the  fiv«r* 
Spercheus  and  vowed  not  to  cut  it  tifi  he  shoidd  iMun  safefftMS 
Troy;  and  the  Hebrew  Nazarite,  whose  sttength  redded  in  M» 
flowing  locks,  only  cut  them  off  and  boned  them  oat  tie  «ltar 
when  the  days  of  his  vow  were  ended,  uid  he  ooeid  tttum  W 
ordinary  life,  having  achieved  hb  missioiL  So  in  Actv  xvM.:  «9 
Paul "  had  shorn  hh  head  in  Cendireae,  for  he  had  a  fo^r."  Iii 
Acts  xxi.  33  we  hear  of  four  Jews  who,  hav^  a  vow  on  ttoni 
had  thdr  heads  shaved  at  Paul's  expense.  Among  the  andeM- 
Chatti,  as  Tacitus  relates  {GirtnanUi,  31),  young  men  ifflowod  theic 
hair  and  beards  to  grow,  and  vowed  to  cOurt  danger  fn  that  fuisa 

^  f  rofeMnr  A.  Bel  in  paper  Qua^ue  nUs  pcur  obtcnirta  tinit,\nxh^ 
CoAgrks  des  OrienkUisin  (Alger,  1905). 


aso 


VOZNESENSK— VRIENDT 


UDtil  they  each  had  slain  an  enemy.  RoberMon  Smith  (Rdiikm 
9/ the  SemiUSi  ed.  X9QI,  p.  483')  with  much  probabUily  expUina 
such  usages  from  the  widespread  primitive  belief  that  a  man's 
life  lurks  in  his  hair,  so  thai  the  devotee  being  consecrated  or 
laboo  to  a  god,  his  hair  must  be  retained  during  the  period  cS 
laboo  or  purification  (as  it  is  called  in  Acts  xxL  26)  lest  it  be 
dissipated  and  profaned.  The  hair  being  part  and  parcel  of  the 
votary,  its  profanation  would  profane  him  and  break  the  taboo. 
The  same  author  remarks  that  this  is  why,  when  the  hair  ol  a 
Maori  chief  was  cut,  it  was,  being  Uke  the  rest  of  his  person 
sacred  or  laboo^  collected  and  buried  b  a  sacred  place  or  hung 
go  a  tiee.  And  we  meet  with  the  same  scrapie  in  the  iaitiaticm 
ate,  called  cjaiu^  <^  Eastern  monks.  First,  the  novice  is  care- 
fuQy  denuded  of  the  clothes,  shoes  and  headgear,  which  he  wore 
in  the  world,  and  which,  being  profane  or  unclean,  would  violate 
the  lahoo  about  to  be  set  on  him.  His  hair  ia  thca  polled  cioaa- 
wiae  by  way  of  conaecnting  it;  and  in  some  forms  of  the  rite 
the  presiding  monk,  called  "  the  lather  of  the  hair,*'  coOecU  the 
shorn  locks  and  deposits  them  under  the  altar  or  in  some  other 
safe  and  sacred  place.  Greek  nuns  used  to  keep  the  hair  thus 
abom  off,  weave  it  into  girdles,  and  wear  it  for  the  rest  of  their 
Kves  lound  their  waists^  where  dose  to  their  ho^  persona  there 
wasnoriskof  its  being  defiled  by  alien  contact.  The  vest  of  this 
rile  of  cc9f>a>  especially  as  it  is  preserved  in  the  old  Armenian 
versionSi  smacks  no  less  of  the  most  primitive  taboo.  For  the 
novice,  after  being  thus  tonsured,  advances  to  the  altar  holding 
a  taper  in  either  hand,  just  aa  tapers  were  tied  to  the  horns  of  an 
animal  victim;  the  new  and  sacxed  garb  which  is  to  demarcate 
him  henceforth  from  the  unclean  world  is  put  upon  him,  and  the 
pncsiding  father  laying  his  right  hand  up<»  him  devotes  him 
with  a  prayer  which  begins  thus: — 

*'  To  thee,  O  itord,  aa  a  mtional  whole  humt-^iBaiag,  aa  mystic 
frankinceoae^  as  voluntaxy  homage  and  wozship.  ve  Oatr  up  this 
thy  aervant  N.  or  M/' 

From  the  same  point  of  view  is  to  be  explained  the  prohibition 
to  one  ujuier  a  vow  of  flesh  diet  and  fermented  drinks;  for  it  was 
believed  that  by  partaking  of  these  a  man  might  introduce  into 
hai  body  the  undean  spirits  which  inhabited  them — the  brute 
soul  which  infested  meat»  especially  when  the  animal  was 
strangled,  and  the  cardiac  demon,  as  the  Rabbis  called  it,  which 
harboured  in  wine. 

The  same  considerations  help  to  explain  the  custom  of 
votive  offerings'  Any  popular  shrine  in  Latin  countries  is 
hung  with  wax  models  of  limbs  that  have  been  healed,  of  ships 
saved  frtNn  wreck,  or  with  pictures  representing  the  votary's 
escape  from  perUs  by  land  and  sea.  So  Cicero  (ie  Deorum 
Nattira,  iii*  57)  relates  how  a  friend  remarked  to  Diagoias  the 
Atheist  when  they  ntxhcd  Samothraoe:  "  You  who  say  that 
the  gods  neglect  men's  affairs,  do  you  not  perceive  from  the 
many  pictures  how  many  have  escaped  the  force  of  the  tempest 
and  rMcfaed  harbour  safely."  Diagoras'a  answer,  that  the 
many  more  who  had  auffeied  shipwreck  and  perished  had  no 
pictures  to  record  their  fate  does  not  concern  us  here.  It  is 
only  pertinent  to  remark  that  these  votivae  tabeUae  and  offerings 
may  have  had  originally  another  significance  than  that  of 
merely  recording  the  votary's  salvation  and  of  marking  his 
gratitude.  The  model  ship  may  be  a  substitute  for  the  entire 
ship  which  ia  become  sacred  to  the  god,  but  cannot  be  deposited 
in  the  shrine;  the  miniature  limbs  of  wax  are  substitutes  for 
Ihe  leal  lambs  which  now  belong  to  the  god.  In  other  cases 
the  very  objects  which  are  taboo  are  given  to  the  god  as  when 
a  sailor  deposits  his  salt-stained  suit  before  the  idoL 

The  general  idea,  then,  involved  in  vows,  whether  andent 
or  modem,  is  that  to  express  which  the  modem  anthropologist 
borrows  the  Polynesian  word  lahoo.  The  votary  desirous  to 
**  antedate  his  future  act  of  service  and  make  its  efficacy  begin 
at  oncse,"*  formally  dedicatee  through  spoken  formula  and  ritual 
act  a  lifeless  object  such  as  a  ring,  an  animal,  his  hair  or  his 
entire  pcnov  to  the  god.  He  so  either  makes  sure  of  future 
bhwings^  or  shows  gratitude  fbr  those  already  conferred.  Most 
«f  the  ritual  pmcriptions  that  accompany  vows  axe  intended 
>  Xe/f  ^  t^Ao  Smites,  Lcct.  ix. 


to  guard  inviolate  the  sandity  or  taboo,  the  at 
holiness  or  ritual  purity,  which  envekpa  the  persona  w  ol  _ 
vowed  or  reserved  to  the  god,  anothereby  separated   Iroa 
ordinary  secular  use. 

The  consideration  of  the  moral  effect  of  vows  upon  those  who 
take  them  bdongs  rather  to  the  history  of  Christian  strrf  arittn 
It  may,  however,  be  remarked  here  that  monkish  vows,  while 
they  may  lend  to  a  man's  life  a  certain  fixity  of  aim  and  moral 
intensity,  neverthdess  tend  to  narrow  his  interests*  azid 
paralyse  his  wider  activities  and  lympathies.  In  particular 
a  monk  binds  himself  to  a  lifelong  and  often  morbid  struggle 
against  the  order  of  nature;  and  motives  become  for  him  itot 
good  or  bad  according  to  the  place  they  occupy  in  the  living 
context  of  social  life,  but  according  aa  they  bear  upon  an 
abstract  and  useless  ideaL  (F.  C.  C.) 

VOZHSSBNSK,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of 
Kherson,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Bug,  at  the  head  of 
navigation,  $$  m.  N.W.  from  Nikolayev,  to  which  atearaecs 
p^  regularly.  Pop.  14,176.  It  is  a  river  port  of  aopic  im- 
portance, and  holds  four  large  faits  annuaUy.  It  contains  a 
cathedral,  a  public  garden  and  distUleries  and  breweries. 

VIANCZ,  tBSASTUH,  bom  about  157  a,  was  a  painter  d 
the  Antwerp  school,  of  very  moderate.  abUity.    Most  of  bs 
pictures  represent  scenes  of  war,  such  as  the  sack  of  iowu, 
cavalry  combats  and  the  like.    Though  occasionally  vicona 
in  drawing,  his  paintings  axe  dull  and  heavy  in  tone    Ik 
date  of  his  death  is  uncertain. 

VRANYA,  or  VaANYi,  the  most  southerly  town  of  the 
kingdom  of  Servia,  7I  m.  from  the  Macedonian  frontier,  on  a 
slope  descending  from  Mount  Placevitsa  to  the  plain  of  the 
Upper  Moxava,  in  a  picturesque  and  fertile  country.  Pop. 
(1900)  xi,92i.  In  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  XS77  it  was 
captured  by  the  Servian  army  from  the  Turks,  and  sulnequently 
was  incorporated  in  the  kingdom.  It  is  the  capital  of  a  dqwrt- 
ment  ol  the  same  name,  and  is  an  important  station  on  the 
railway  from  Nish  to  Salonica,  with  a  custom  house,  pijn- 
dpally  for  merchandise  imported  into  Servia  via  Salonica. 
Its  inhabitants  are  employed  chiefly  in  the  cultivation  of  flax 
and  hemp,  and  in  the  .making  of  ropes.  There  is  a  much 
frequented  summer  resort  4)  m.  E.,  called  Vranyska  Banya, 
with  baths  of  hot  sulphurous  mineral  water. 

VRATZA,  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Vratza,  Bulgaria, 
on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Stara  Planina  and  on  a  small 
subtributazy  of  the  Danube.  Pop.  (1906)  14,852.  Vratza 
is  an  archiepiacopal  see  and  the  headquarters  of  a  militaiy 
division.  Wine,  leather  and  gold  and  silver  filigree  are  manu- 
factured, and  there  b  a  school  of  sericulture. 

VRIENDT,  JUUAEN  JOSEPH  DB  (1843-  ),  and  AL- 
BRBCHT  FRANCOIS  UEVEN  DB  (1843-X900),  Belgian  painters, 
both  bom  at  Ghent,  sons  of  a  decorative  painter.  The  two 
brothers  were  dose  friends,  and  their  w<»ks  show  marked  signs  of 
resemblance.  Having  recdved  their  early  training  from  tbdr 
father  at  Ghent,  they  removed  to  Antwerp,  where  they  soon 
yielded  to  the  influence  of  the  painter  Baron  Henri  Leys. 
Albrechl  became  director  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Ant  werp 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother.  Albrecht  *s  principal  works  are 
"Jacqueline  of  Bavaria  imploring  PhiUp  the  Good  to  pardon 
her  Husband  "  (1S71,  tiige  Gallery),  "  The  Excommum'catlon 
of  Bouchard  d'Avesnes"  (1877,  Brassels  Gallery),  "The 
Angelus "  (1877,  acquired  by  Leopold  II.,  king  of  the 
Bdgians),  "  ^ope  Paul  m.  before  Luther's  Portrait "  (1883. 
Antwerp  Gallery),  "The  Citizens  of  Ghent  paying  homage 
to  the  child  Charies  V."  (1885,  Brussels  Gallery),  "  Philip  the 
Handsome  swearing  fiddily  to  the  privileges  of  the  Town  of 
Furnes  "  (1893,  Fumes  town  hall),  **  The  Virgin  of  St  Luc  " 
(1894.  triptych  in  Antwerp  Cathedral),  and  the  decoration  of 
the  municipal  hall  at  Bmges,  which  was  completed  by  his  brother. 
Among  Juliaen's  more  notable  works  are  "The  Citizens  of 
Eisenach  driving  out  St  EUzabeth  of  Hungary  "  (1871,  Li£ge 
Gallery),  "  Jairus's  Daughter  "  (i888,  Antwerp  GaUcry),  mural 
paintings  In  the  Palais  de  Justice  at  Antwerp  U^^i  *^ 
"  The  Christmas  Cait4  "  (1894,  Bnnecia  GaUeiy) 


VRYHHD— VULTURB 


2^1 


ra  61  BonherH  Nttil,  -191  m.  b]t  nil  N.  b)F 
W,  ol  Durbln.  Pop.  (19W)  iiBj,  ol  whom  1144  it«t  irhUcs. 
It  <>  Eli«  chief  Mwn  ol  1  diurict,  of  llw  um  nune.  rkh  in 
miDcnl  wnlih,  including  copper,  coil  ud  gold,  'tint  tcmt- 
Bddl  d  Hlobin  ire  S.E.  of  the  towa.  OrigiuUy  part  cS 
2utuiind  the  dislrkit  of  VrylKid  mi  ceded  by  DuixuJu  to  a 
puly  of  Boen  under  Lucu  Meyer,  who  aidiid  kim  to  cnuh  hn 
opponents,  and  vu  ptoclaimed  an  Independent  Uile  undet 
the  title  of  ibe  New  Republic  in  (S84.  In  iSM  il  wu  incnt- 
potaled  vritb  l!ie  Transvul  and  in  190J  inDcnd  In  Natal  (let 
T««N!VA.!„  I  Hiilory:  ind  ZuLUtAW),  1  Hislery). 

V-SHAPED  DEPRnSIOH,  in  meieotulnty,  1  mtnDw  area 
of  low  pceisun  luuiUy  occuniot  bel'ten  tuo  adjacent  inti- 
cyclones,  and  taking  the  fDrm  of  1  V  or    longue, 


e  regarded  «»  1  projection  from  a  cyclonic  i>s[en 
tide  of  the  two  inticyclona.     A  similar  depres 

fr,  is  frequently  formed  within  1  larger  area  o(  depro 
ordiniry  cyclone,  and  lometjmes  devekipl  ■>  fa 


tying 


u  a  "  Kcondary."  The  line  of  lowetl  depreaion  foUowing  liie 
ui>  of  the  V  brings  with  it  heavy  squalli  and  a  sudden  change 
of  «ind  fioiB  one  directioo  almoat  to  the  opposte.  It  ii  pre- 
ceded by  signs  of  break  in  the  weather  such  as  usually  lieraJd 
Ihe  appTDflcFi  of  an  ordinary  cyclone,  and  is  foDowed  by  Ibe 
usual  signs  of  clearance.  The  occurrence  of  a  V^iepritflon 
or  secondary  within  an  ordinary  cyclonic  lystem  inteneilicl, 
often  to  a  dangerous  degiee,  the  usual  disiartuicet  in  Ibe 
weaiber  accompinying  thai  lysiem.  Condilioai  exactly  opposite 
to  those  accompanying  ■  V-ihaped  deprcMJon  an  provided 
by  •"wedge"  U-r.). 

VULCAH<McMw),  the  Roman  god  of  fire,  and  more  espcd- 
•Tly  of  devouring  flane  (Virg.  Aai.  j.  661).  Whether  be  wia 
abo,  Uke  Hephaestus,  the  deity  of  smiths,  k  very  doubtfuli 
his  mmame  Mtltibir  may  rather  be  lefemd  to  bis  power  to 
lilsy  conflsigtations.  In  the  Comllium  wu  an  "  area  Votcani," 
also  called  "Volcanil";  and  hen  on  the  ijrd  of  August 
(Volcanalia)  the  Flamen  Vdcanalis  lactiGced,  and  Ibe  h«ds 
of  Roman  families  threw  into  Ibe  lin  small  fish,  vhicb  the 
Tibet  fishermen  sold  on  the  spot.  Tbis  Simen  ibo  nrrificed 
on  the  tsl  of  May  lo  Meia,  whoinuiold  prayer  focraula  (GdUus 
13.  13)  wu  coupled  Kllh  Votonus  as  Maia  Volcan).  It  ii  not 
easy  to  explain  these  survivaEs  of  an  old  cull.  But  fn  htstoiical 
limes  the  siiociatian  of  this  god  with  confligrationa  Insnes 
Teiy  apparent^  when  Augustus  organieed  the  dty  in  refitHa 
■nd  tiii  10  check  the  constanl  danger  ftnm  fires,  tbe  maiUlri 
ficorum  (officers  of  administrative  districts)  wonUpped  him  si 
Vilaima  queliit  aujiufui  {C.I.L.  vl.  Soi  and  801)  and  on  the 
I  of  AnguV  there  was  a  sacrifice  lo  him  together  with  Ope 


Opife 


Nymr 


Ls  tbe  I 


I  of  w 


in  quenching  the  flames.  At  Oslli,  where  much  of 
was  stored  which  fed  the  Roman  population,  the  cult  of  thb 
god  became  famous;  and  it  Is  probable  thai  the  fixing  of  his 
festival  in  AnguU  by  Ihe  olHy  Romans  had  some  reference 
to  the  danger  to  the  newly  harvested  com  from  Jiro  in  thai 
monlh.  CW.  W,  F.*J 

VULSATI  (from  Lai.  tu/fui,  the  common  people),  a  Lalin 
version  of  the  Bible  prepired  In  the  4th  century  by  Si  Jemme. 
and  so  called  from  Its  common  ose  In  Ibe  Roman  Cntholic 
Church  (ice  Bible;  TtHi  aad  Vatinj).  Plus  X.  in  i«oS  en- 
trusted lo  the  Benedictine  Order  the  task  of  levfelng  the  text, 
beginning  with  the  Old  Testament. 

VUtPECULA  EI  AMSBR  ("Tot  Fat  «m  Goosi"),  in  aslnv 
nomy,  a  tnodem  constellation  nf  the  northern  hemisphere, 
Inltoduced  by  Hevelios,  who  catalogued  twenty-seven  stars, 
[merest  is  attached  to  Naa  VidfeaOat.  a  "  new "  star  dis- 
covered by  Anthelm  in  ttiTo;  T  Vutpaulat,  a  sbott  period 
variable:  and  the  famous  "  Dumb-bell "  nebula. 

VULPfUg.  CHRinTAH  ADQDff  (iT6r-iB))1.  German  intbor, 
was  bom  at  W^mir  on  the  ijrtt  of  January  1761,  and  wai 
educated  at  Jena  and  Erlingeo.  In  1 790  he  returned  to  Weimar, 
wbtte  Coeibt,  who  bad  entered  Into  tdalioBt  witli  VnlpiWs 


),  whom  be  aflervatdi  m 


e  Vi^pdus  befan.  in  imita- 


■iuer  Oiiisline  (iT6s-iai6; 
talned  emptoymeni  lot  hii 
lion  of  Chiistian  Heiniich  Splcss.  tt 
namlivts.  Of  these  (aboiu  siily  in  numberl  his  SintUt 
SmaUixi  (ifqT),  the  scent  of  which  a  bid  tn  luly  during  the 
middle  age*,  is  the  best.  Is  ifqr  Vulpivs  oms  given  in  appoint- 
ment on  (be  Weimar  libisry,  of  which  be  beame  chid  librarian 
in  j3o&     He  died  31  Weimar  on  tbe  ijib  of  June  iSi;- 

VULTUR&  the  naine  of  certain  birds  whose  bot-knawp 
characteristic  is  that  of  feeding  upon  caicasa.  Tbe  scnui 
VhUv,  as  instituted  by  Linnaeus,  is  now  restricted  by  omilb- 
oldgists  to  a  single  spedea,  V.  mmadaa.  Tbe  olber  species 
includol  therein  by  him.  or  thereto  referred  by  lucceeding 
iyttematisia,  being  etsewhcm  relegated  (ace  LfLuUEaiiEYEa). 
A  fflon  impoilanl  taiooomrc  cbinge  waa  introduced  by  T,  H. 
Huilty  {Pnc    ZoU.  Seeitiy,  1B67,  pp.  iai-«4),  who  pointed 

of  Ibe  New  World  and  tkoM  of  Ihe  Old.  reguding  the  fomet 
at  mnslitullng  a  distinct  family,  Catbattidae  (which,  however, 
would  be  mote  properly  named  SaKOcbamphidu),  while  be 
uniied  Ibe  latter  with  tbe  ORUnaiy  diwiuil  biida  of  prey  *s 
Gypaetldae. 

The  American  Toltuce  niay  be  nld  lo  Include  (our  geneia: 
(i)  Sorcorlamplna,  the  gigantic  condor,  Ihe  male  dbtinffuiabed 
by  a  large  Heshy  comb  and  nuOt:  (s)  Grfapa,  tbe  Ung- 
vnllDic,  with  iu  gaudBy  gotonnd  bead  and  nasal  caRmdo) 


King-Vxh 


e  (Cyfi'V"  foA")- 


(])  Calkiuiilii,  coDtaining  the  siKallcd  turkey-butaatil  with 
its  allies;  and  (4)  Pimdairyfliui,  the  great  CaiifamiaB  vnlluie 
— «<  vciy  limited  range  on  ihc  western  shqies  of  North  America, 
lliongh  all  these  birds  are  structuiBUy  dilfsent  from  the  irae 
vultuies  of  the  Old  World,  in  biUii  the  Vulturidae  and  Sanv- 
rhamphadae  are  much  alike. 

The  trve  vullurea  of  the  Old  World.  Vidturidae  in  tbe  »- 
str^cled  sense,  arc  generally  divided  into  five  or  six  geneA, 
of  which  Htvflim  bat  been  sepanled  as  fatminc  a  dislinct 
subfamily,  Neophrontnae— its  membeis,  of  comparatively 
small  slK,  diSering  both  In  stiuctute  and  habit  considerably 
from  the  rest.  One  of  then  It  the  to-called  Egyptian  vuhuR 
or  Phtxaoh's  hen,  N.  ftnuttkmt,  a  remaitably  foul-feeding 
■pedes,  HVIot  much  m  ordure.  It  It  a  well-known  tpedtt 
in  tome  pans  ol  India,'  and  thence  wtMward  lo  Africa,  where 
pan  of  the  Ind'xn  peninula  k  ii  npliced  bye 


wUdHiwI 


yelln  iBKwl  af  a  blMI  ba 


222 


VURJEEVANDAS—VYSHNIY-VOLOCHOK 


it  has  an  eiteniive  tange.  It  ako  occuts  oa  tbe  noftkmi 
ahoicB  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  has  tlcajred  to  such  a  distaiice 
as  to  have  suffered  capture  in  England  and  even  in  NcM-vay. 
Of  the  genera  composing  the  other  subfamily,  Vulturinae, 
Gyps  numbers  seven  or  eight  hxad  spcdea  and  races,  on  more 
than  one  of  which  the  English  name  griffon  has  been  kstened. 
The  best  known  is  G./ultus,  which  by  some  authors  is  accounted 
"  British "  from  an  example  having  been  taken  in  Ireland, 
though  under  circumstances  which  suggest  its  appeannce  so 
far  bom  its  nearest  home  in  Spain  to  be  due  to  man's  inter- 
ventioa.  The  species,  however,  has  a  wider  distribution  on 
the  EunH>ean  continent  (especially  towards  the  nortb-east) 
than  the  Egyptian  vulture,  and  in  Africa  neariy  reaches  the 
Equator,  extending  also  in  Asia  to  the  Himabya;  but  both 
in  the  Ethiopian  and  Indian  regions  its  range  inosculates 
with  that  of  several  allied  forms  or  species.  Psmd^gyps  with 
two  formsr^M>ne  Indian,  the  other  African*— differs  from  Gyps 
by  having  la  instead  of  14  lectncea.  Of  the  genera  Otogyps 
and  Lophogyps  nothing  here  need  be  said;  and  then  we  have 
KmI/mt,  with,  as  mentioned  before,  its  sole  representative, 
V.  monackut,  common^  known  as  the  dnereous  vulture,  a 
bird  which  is  found  from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  the  sea^ 
coast  of  China.  Almost  all  these  birds  inhabit  rocky  cliffs, 
on  the  ledges  of  which  they  build  their  nests* 
•  The  question  whether  vuHures  in  their  search  for  food  are 
guided  by  sight  of  the  object  or  by  its  scent  has  excited  much 
interest.  It  seems  to  be  now  generally  admitted  that  the 
sense  of  sight  is  in  nlmost  every  case  sufficient  to  accotmt  for 
the  observed  facts.  (A.  N.) 

.  VURJBBVAliDAS  MADHOWDAS  (1817-1896),  Hindu  mer- 
chant of  Bombay,  of  the  Kapole  Bania  caste,  was  bom  on  the  28th 
of  January  18 17  at  Gogla,  in  Kathiawar,  whence  his  father  came 
to  Bombay  with  Sheth  Manoredas  for  trading  purposes.  Vur- 
jeevandas  was  educated  in  Bombay,  started  a  new  firm  under 
the  name  of  Vurjeevandas  &  Sons,  and  soon  became  one  of  the 
wealthiest  merchants  in  Bombay.  He  was  appointed  a  justice  of 
the  peace  and  a  member  of  the  Bombay  Port  Trust.  He  took 
a  keen  interest  in  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  and  the  Bombay 
university,  where  a  prize  has  been  established  to  commemorate 
his  name.  He  constructed  the  Madhow  Bang  in  memory  of  his 
father,  and  gave  it  to  the  use  of  poor  Hindus,  endowing  it  with 
nearly  five  lakhs  oi  rupees.  He  built  a  rest-house  in  Bombay  in 
memory  of  his  brother  Mooljibhoy,  and  another  one  at  Nasik. 
The  sanatorium  which  he  buUt  in  memory  of  his  youngest  son 
Rumhoredas  at  Sion  Hill  is  a  great  boon  to  the  poor  people  of  his 
community.  He  also  established  a  dispensary  at  Matoonga  and 
a  fund  for  the  relief  of  indigent  Hindus.  He  died  on  the  12th 
of  Januarv  1896. 

VTATkA,  or  ViATKA,  a  government  of  N.E.  Russia,  with 
the  government  of  Vologda  on  the  N.,  Perm  on  the  £.,  Ufa  and 
Kazan  on  the  S.  and  Nizhniy-Novgorod  and  Kostroma  on  the 
W.,  having  an  area  of  59,100  sq.  m.  It  has  on  its  northern 
boundary  the  flat  water-parting  which  separates  the  basins  of 
the  Northern  Dvina  and  the  Volga,  and  its  surface  is  an  undulat- 
ing plateau  800  to  1400  fL  above  sea-level,  deeply  grooved  by 
rivers  and  atsiiming  a  hilly  aspect  on  their  banks.  The  Kama 
rises  in  the  N.E.,  and,  after  making  a  wide  sweep  through  Perm, 
flows  along  its  S.E.  boundary,  while  the  rest  of  the  government 
b  drained  by  the  Vyatka  and  its  numerous  tributaries.  Both 
the  Kama  and  the  Vyatka  are  navigable,  as  also  are  several 
tributaries;  the  Ish  and  Votka,  which  flow  into  the  V^^ka, 
have  important  ironworks  on  their  banks.  The  only  railway 
is  one  from  Perm  to  Archangel,  through  the  town  of  Vyatka; 
the  govcmment  is  traversed  by  the  great  highway  lo  Siberia, 
and  by  two  other  roads  by  which  goods  from  the  south  are 
transpMted  to  loading*p4aces  on  the  Vychegda  and  the  Vug  to 
be  shipped  to  Archangel.  Lakes  are  numerous,  and  vast  marshss 
exist  everywhere,  espedaUy  in  the  north.  The  climate  is  very 
■evere,  the  averase  yearly  temperature  being  36"  F.  at  Vyatka 
(January,  8'2'*;  July,  67'0*)  and  35"  at  Slobodsk  O^nutryiJ'S"; 
July,  6s- J*). 

The  estimated  pop.  in  1906  wu  ^,iiifiQQ,    The  bulk  of 


the  mhafaittau  (78  %)  •!«  RoniaBs;  Votytks  ooaki  re*»  %». 
ChetemisKS  5  %,  and  TatanjI  %,  tbe semainder  being BashUrg, 
Teptyars  and  Permyaks.  The  Votyaks  (Otyaks),  a  Fiani^ 
tribe,  caU  themselves  Ot,  Ui  or  Ud,  and  the  Tatars  call  tikcm 
Ar,  so  that  they  nuty  pooibly  be  akin  to  the  Ars  of  tbe  Yenisei. 
They  are  middle-sized,  with  fair  hair  and  eyes,  often  red-haired; 
and  the  general  structuce  of  the  face  and  skull  is  Finnish.  By 
their  dialect  thev  bekmg  to  the  same  branch  as  the  Pen^yaks. 

The  government  is  divided  into  eleven  districts,  the  chief  tofwam 
of  which  are  Vyatka,  Claboga.  Clazov.  Koccbuch.  Malmyj^,  Noliaak, 
Orlov.  Sarapul,  Slobod«k,  Urzhum  and  Varansk.  Ishcvsk  and 
Votkinsk.  or  Kam&ko-Votkinsk.  have  important  ironworks.    Some 

g%  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  forests,  two-thirds  of  wfiich 
long  to  the  crown,  and  hunting  (especially  squirrel-hanting)  and 
fishing  are  of  commeRial  importance.    The  peasants,  who  form 
89%  of  Che  population,  own  44%  of  the  whole  govemmeat,  tbe 
crown  53%  and  private  persons  2%.    Tlie  soil  is  fertile,  especially 
in  the  valleys  of  the  south.     Vyatka  is  one  of  the  chief  grain- 
producing  governments  of  Russia.     The  principal  crops  are  rye, 
wheat,  oats,  barley  and  potatoes.    Fbuc  and  hemp  are  extcnnivciy 
cultivated,  and  large  niimbers  of  cattle  ore  kept,  but   they  aic 
mostly  of  inferior  oreed.     The  sovernment  has  a  race   of  good 
ponies  that  are  widely  ex|)oned.     Domestic  industries   occupy 
laq^  numbers  of  the  inhabitants.    The  principal  manufacturine 
establishments    are    tanneries,    distilleries,    iroaworka,     cheadcu 
works,  glass  factories,  cotton  and  steam  flour-mills,  and  hardwaie, 
machinery,  paper  and  fur-dressing  works.      (P.  A.  K.;  J.  T.  Be.) 

VTATKAy  a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of  :k 
same  name,  on  the  Vyatka  river,  304  m.  by  rail  W.N. V.  of 
Perm.    Pop.  24*782.    It  is  built  on  the  steep  hills  whicb  m. 
above  the  river  and  at  their  base.    Its  old  walls  have  been 
demolished,  and  its  old  churches  built  anew.    It  is  an  episoyal 
see  and  has  a  fine  cathedraL    Its  manufactures  include  silver 
and  copper  wares,  and  ecclesiastical  ornaments,  and  it  has  an 
important  trade  in  corn,  leather,  tallow,  cancUes,  soap,  waz, 
paper  and  furs  (exported),  and  in  manufactured  and  grocery 
wares    (imported).      Vyatka   was   founded   in    zi8x    by    the 
Novgoiodians,  as  Khlynov.    In  1391  it  was  plundered  by  the 
T^tais,  and  again  in   1477.     Moscow  annexed  Khlynov  in 
1489.   It  received  the  name  of  Vyatka  in  178a 

VYAZMAy  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Smolensk, 
109  m.  by  rail  E.N.E.  of  the  town  of  Smolensk.  Pop.  15,676. 
It  was  a  populous  place  as  early  as  the  nth  century,  and  carried 
on  a  lively  trade  with  Narva  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  In  the  15th 
century  it  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Lithuania,  but  was  retaken 
by  the  Russians.  Tbe  Poles  took  it  again  in  x6ix,  and  kept  it 
till  the  peace  of  1634.  It  is  now  an  important  centre  for  trade. 
It  has  a  cathedral,  dating  from  1596. 

VYBRNYI  (formerly  Almaty),  a  town  and  fort  of  Asiatic 
Russia,  capital  of  the  province  of  Semiiyechensk,  5a  m.  N.  of 
Lake  Issyk-kul,  at  the  northern  foot  of  the  Tcans>Ili  Ala^au 
Moufktains,  at  an  altitude  of  2440  ft.  Pop.  24,798.  Founded 
in  1854,  it  is  well-built,  provided  with  boulevards*  and  sur> 
rounded  by  luxuriant  gardens.  It  has  a  cathedral,  being  an 
archiepiscopal  see  of  the  Orthodox  Creek  Church,  a  school  of 
gardening  and  sericulture,  a  public  h'brary,  and  a  few  distilleries, 
tanneries  and  oil  works.  Situated  at  the  intersection  of 
two  roads— from  Kulja  to  Tashkent,  and  from  Semipalatinsk 
to  Kashgar — Vyernyi  carries  on  an  active  trade  in  wheat,  rice, 
com,  tea,  oil  and  tobacco.  It  was  the  centre  of  a  remarkable 
earthquake  on  the  9th  of  June  1887. 

VYRMWY  (f  yrmpy),  an  artificial  lake  or  reservoir  in  the  north- 
west ol  Montgomeryshire,  N.  Wales,  constructed  for  the  Liver- 
pool water-supply.  It  was  formed  by  damming  the  river 
Vymwy,  which  runs  through  Montgomeryshire  and  joins  the 
Severn  above  Shrewsbury  (sec  WATEK-Stnn*LY). 

VYSHNIY-VOLOCHOR,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Tver,  74  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  the  city  of  Tver.  Pop.  16,722. 
The  place  owes  its  importance  to  iu  situationin  the  centre  of  the 
Vyshne-Volotsk  navigation  system  (540  m.  long,  constructed  by 
Peter  the  Great  in  1703^9),  which  connects  the  upper  Volga  with 
the  Neva.  The  portage  (volok)  is  less  than  17  n.  between  the 
Tvcrtsa,  a  tributary  of  the  Volga,  and  the  Tsna,  which  flows  into 
the  Msta  and  the  Volkhov  (Lake  Ladoga) ;  but  boau  now  prefer 
the  Mariinsk  syateoL 


W-i WAAGEN,  G:  F. 


«d3 


W'tlie  twenty-tliird  letter  of  tlie  En^hh  alpliabet, 
shows  its  origin  in  its  name;  it  is  but  VV,  snd, 
as  the  name  shows,  V  had  the  vowel  value  of 
u,  while  the  "  double  u  "  was  employed  for  the 
consonant  value.  In  German  the  same  symbol  v  is  called  Vey, 
because  in  that  language  it  has  the  value  of  the  English  v, 
while  the  German  v  ( VaUf  faw  in  pronunciation)  is  used  with 
the  same  value  as/.  In  the  English  of  the  gth  century  the  uu  of 
the  old  texts  (and  the  u  of  the  Northern)  was  found  not  to  repre- 
sent the -English  w  satisfactorily,  and  a  symbol^  was  adopted 
from  the  Runic  alphabet.  This  survived  sporadically  a^  late  as 
the  end  of  the  1 3th  cent  ury ,  but  long  before  that  had  been  generally 
again  replaced  by  uu  (w  only  in  Early  Middle  English)  and  by  v. 
For  V  the  earliest  En^^ish  printen  had  a  type,  but  French  printers 
had  not;  hence  a  book  lUce  the  Roman  CathoUc  version  of  the 
New  Testament  printed  at  Rheims  in  1582  prints  w  with  two  v's 
set  side  by  side.  Throughout  the  history  of  English  the  sound 
seems  to  have  remained  the  same — the  consonantal  m.  For  this 
value  as  well  as  for  u  Latin  always  used  only  V;  in  Greek, 
except  in  a  few  dialects,  the  consonant  value  was  early  lost  (see 
under  F).  W  is  produced  by  leaving  a  very  small  opening 
between,  the  slightly  protruded  lips  while  the  back  of  the  tongue 
is  raised  towards  the  soft  palate  and  the  nasal  passage  dosed. 
The  ordinary  10  is  voiced,  but  according  to  some  authorities  the 
w  in  the  combination  wh  (really  kw)  b  not,  in  when,  wAa/,  &c., 
even  when  the  A  is  no  longer  audible.  The  combination  WH 
(kw)  represents  the  Indo-European  q*  when  changed  according 
to  Grimm's  law  from  a  stop  to  a  spirant.  Thus  what  corresponds 
philologically  to  the  Latin  quod  and  the  first  syllable.of  the  Greek 
voj-osr^.  In  Southern  English  the  h  soimd  has  now  been 
generally  dropped.  In  Scotland,  along  the  line  of  former  contact 
with  Gaelic,  it  chsmfsa. Into  f:  Jlie^whiU,  fori ^whorl]  but 
before  f  (c«)  it  remains  in  whcd.  In  Early  English  w  appeared 
not  only  before  r  as  in  write,  l^ut  also  before  /  in  wlisp  (lisp). 
In  write,  wring,  &c.,  the  10  is  now  silent,  though  dialectically,  e.g, 
in  Aberdeenshke,  it  has  changed  to  v  and  is  still  pronounced, 
vreet,  wing,  &c.  In  English  and  in  other  languages  there  is 
considerable  difficulty  in  pronouncing  w  before  long  u  sounds: 
hence  it  has  disappeared  in  pronunciation  in  two  (tU),  but  survives 
in  Scotch  t»a,  thou^.  otherwise  the  difficulty  is  more  noticeable 
in  Scottish  dialects  than  in  literary  English,  as  in  "  00  "^wool 
and  in  the  Scottish  pronunciation  of  English  words  like  wood 
as  'ood,  ^  (P.  Gi.) 

WA>  a  wild  tribe  inhabiting  the  north-east  frontier  of  Upper 
Burma.  Their  country  lies  to  the  east  of  the  Northern  Shan 
Sutes,  between  the  Salween  river  and  the  state  of  KSng-TQng, 
extending  for  about  100  m.  along  the  Salween  and  for  consider- 
ably less  than  half  that  distance  inland  to  the  watershed  between 
that  river  and  the  Mekong.  The  boundaries  may  be  roughly  said 
to  be  the  Salween  on  the  W.,  the  ridge  over  the  Namting  valley 
on  the  N.,  the  hills  £.  of  the  Nam  Hka  on  the  eastern  and  southern 
ttdes,  while  the  country  ends  in  a  point  formed  by  the  jimction 
of  the  Nam  Hka  with  the  Salween.  The  Was  claim  to  have 
inhabited  the  country  where  they  now  are  since  the  beginning  of 
time;  but  it  appears  more  probable  that  they  were  the  aborigines 
of  the  greater  part  of  northern  Siam  at  least,  if  not  of  Indo-China, 
since  old  records  and  travellers  (e.g.  Captain  McLeod  in  1837) 
speak  of  their  having  been  the  original  inhabitants  with  small 
communities  left  behind  from  K<ng  TClng  down  to  Chlengmai; 
while  the  state  of  KCng  TQng,  just  S.E.  of  the  Wa  country,  has 
still  scattered  villages  of  Was  and  traditions  that  they  were  once 
q>read  all  over  the  country.  Their  fortified  village  sites  too 
are  still  to  be  found  covered  over  with  jungle.  The  people  are 
short  and  dark-featured,  with  negritic  features,  and  some  believe 
that  they  are  alUcd  to  the  Andamanese  and  the  Selunga  inhabiting 
the  islanda  of  the  Mergui  archipelago,  who  have  been  driven  back, 
or  retreated,  northwards  to  the  wUd  country  they  now  inhabit; 


bat  their  langnage  proves  them  to  belong  to  the  Mdn-Khmer 
family.  They  are  popuUrly  divided  into  Wild  Was  and  Tsme 
Was.  The  Wild  Was  are  reaourkable  as  the  best  authenticated 
instance  of  head-hunters  in  the  British  Empire.  They  were 
formerly  supposed  to  be  also  cannibals;  but  it  is  now  known 
that  they  are  not  habitual  cannibals,  though  it  is  possible  that 
human  flesh  may  be  eaten  as  a  religion^  function  at  the  annual 
harvest  feast.  Their  head-hunting  habits  have  an  animistic 
basis.  In  the  opinion  of  the  Wa  the  ghost  of  a  dead  man  goes 
with  his  skull  and  hangs  about  its  neighbourhood,  and  so  many 
skulls  posted  up  outside  his  village  gate  mean  so  many  watch- 
dog umbrae  attached  to  the  village.  Jealous  of  their  own  preserves 
and  intolerant  of  interl(^rs  from  the  invisible  world.  Thus 
every  addition  to  the  collection  of  skulls  is  an  additional  safe- 
guard against  01-aflfected  demons,  and  a  head-hunting  expedition 
is  not  undertaken,  as  was  once  thought,  from  motives  of  cannibal* 
ism  or  revenge,  but  solely  to  secure  the  very  latest  thing  in 
charms  as  a  protection  against  the  powers  of  darknos.  Outside 
every  village  is  an  avenue  of  human  skulls,  andd  groves  con- 
spicuous from  long  distances.  These  consist  of  strips  of  the 
primeval  jungle,  huge  forest  trees  left  standing  where  all  the 
remaining  country  b  cleared  for  cultivation.  Tht  undergrowth 
is  usually  cut  away,  and  these  avenues  are  commonly  but  hot 
always  in  deep  shade.  Along  one  side  (which  side  apparently 
does  not  matter)  is  a  line  of  posts  with  skulls  fitted  into  niches 
facing  towards  the  path.  The  niche  is  cut  sometimes  in  front, 
sometimes  in  the  back  of  the  post.  In  the  latter  case  there  is  a 
round  hole  in  front,  through  which  sometimes  only  the  teeth 
and  empty  eye-sockets,  sometimes  the  whole  skull,  grins  a 
ghastly  smile.  Moat  villages  count  their  heads  by'  tens  or 
twenties,  but  some  of  them  have  hundreds,  especially  when  the 
grove  lies  between  several  large  villages,  who  combine  or  run 
their  collections  into  one  another.  The  largest  'known  avenue  & 
that  between  Hsfing  Ramang  and  Hsan  Htung.  Here  there 
must  be'a  couple  of  hundred  or  more  skulls;  but  it  is  not  certain 
that  even  this  is  the  largest.  It  is  thought  necessary  to  add  some 
skulls  to  this  pathway  every  year  if  the  crops  are  to  be  good. 
The  heads  of  distinguished  and  pious  men  and  of  strangers  are 
the  most  efficacious.  The  head-hunting  season  lasts  through 
March  and  April,  and  it  is  when  the  Wa  hill  fields  are  being  got 
ready  for  planting  that  the  roads  in  the  vidnity  become  dangerous 
to  the  neighbouring  Shans.  The  little  that  19  known  of  the 
practice  seems  to  hint  at  the  fact  that  the  victim  selected  was 
primarily  a  harvest  victim.  A  Wild  Wa  village  is  a  very  formid- 
able pbce  to  attack,  except  for  dvilixed  weapons  of  offence. 
All  the  villages  are  perched  high  up  on  the  slope  of  the  hills, 
usually  on  a  knoll  or  spine-like  spur,  or  on  a  narrow  ravine  near 
the  crest  of  the  ridge.  The  only  entrance  is  through  a  long  tunneL 
There  is' sometimes  only  one,  though  usually  there  are  two,  at 
opposite  sides  of  the  village.  This  tunnellJed  way  is  a  few  inches 
over  5  ft.  high  and  not  quite  so  wide,  so  that  two  persons  cannot 
pass  freely  in  it,  and  it  sometimes  winds  slightly,  so  that  a  gun 
cannot  be  fired  up  it;  moreover,  the  path  is. frequently  studded 
with  pegs 'in  a  sort  of  dice  afrangement,  to  prevent  a  rush. 
None  of  the  tunnels  is  less  than  50  yds.  long,  and  some  are  as 
much  as  100  yds.  Round  each  village  is  carried  an  earthen 
rampart,  6  to  8  ft.  high  and  as  many  thick,  and  this  is  overgrown 
with  a  dense  covering  of  shrubs,  thin  bushes  and  cactuses,  so  as 
to  be  quite  impenetrable.  Outside  this  is  a  deep  ditch  which 
would  effectually  stop  a  rash.  These  preparations  indicate  the 
character  of  the  inhabitants,  which  is  so  savage  and  siispiciout 
that  the  Wa  country  is  still  tmadministered  and  naturally  does 
not  appear  in  the  190X  census  returns.  Hie  total  number  of 
the  Wa  race  is  estimated  at  more  than  50,000.        0*  G.  Sc.) 

WAAGEN.  GUSTAV  FRIEDRICH  (1794-1868),  German  art 
historian,  was  bom  in  Hambui^i  the  son  of  a  painter  and  nephew 
of  the  poet  Ludwig  Tieck.    Having  passed  through  the  college 


<24 


WAAGEN,W.  H.— WACH8MUTH 


of  Hiischberg,  be  volunteered  for  service  in  the  Napoleonic 
campaign  of  1813-1814,  and  on  his  return  attended  the  lectures 
at  Brcslao  University.  He  devoted  himself  to  tlie  study  of  art, 
which  he  pursued  in  the  great  European  galleries,  first  in  Ger- 
many, then  in  Holland  and  Italy.  A  pamphlet  on  the  brothers 
Van  Eyck  led  to  his  appointment  to  the  directorship  of  the  newly 
founded  Berlin  Museum  in  1833.  The  result  of  a  journey  to 
London  and  Paris  was  an  important  publication  in  three  volumes, 
Kunstwarke  und  KUnsUer  in  England  und  Paris  (Berlin,  1837- 
x839)>  which' became  the  basis  for  his  more  important  The 
Treasures  of  Art  in  Greal  Britain  (London,  1854  and  1857).  In 
1844  he  was  appointed  professor  of  art  history  at  the  Berlin 
University,  and  in  x86x  he  was  called  to  St  PeUrsburg  as  adviser 
in  the  arranging  and  naming  of  the  pictures  in  the  imperial 
collection.  On  his  return  he  published  a  book  on  the  Hermitage 
collection  (Munich,  1864).  Among  his  other  publications  axe 
some  essays  on  Rubeos,  Mantegna  and  Signorelli;  Kunstwerke 
und  Kiinsiler  in  DeulscMand  and  Die  vornehmsten  KunstdenknUtler 
in  Wien.  He  died  on  a  visit  to  Copenhagen  in  x868.  In  the  light 
of  more  recent  research  his  writings  are  not  of  much  value 
as  regards  trustworthy  criticism,  though  they  are  useful  as 
catalogues  of  art  treasures  in  private  collections  at  the  time 
when  they  were  compiled.  His  opinions  were  greatly  respected 
in  England,  where  he  was  invited  to  give  evidence  before  the 
royal  commission  inquiring  into  the  condition,  and  future  of  the 
National  Gallery. 

I  WAAGEN,  WILHBLH  HEINRICH  (1841-1900),  (krman 
palaeontologist,  was  born  at  Munich  on  the  23rd  of  June  1841. 
He  was  educated  at  Munich  and  Zurich,  and  through  the  influence 
of  A.  Oppel  he  commenced  to  study  the  rocks  and  fossils  of  the 
Jurassic  sysj^em,  and  published  an  essay  in  1865,  Versuck  einer 
AUgemeinen  Classification  der  SckictUen  des  oberen  Jura,  In  1870 
he  joined  the  staff  of  the  (jeological  Survey  of  India,  and  was 
appointed  palaeontologist  in  1874,  but  was  obliged  to  retire 
through  ill-health  in  1875I  He  published  important  monographs 
in  the  Palaeontohgia  Indica  on  the  palaeontology  of  Cutch  (1873- 
1876)  and  the  Salt  Range  (1879-1883),  dealing  in  the  last-named 
work  with  fossils  from  the  Lower  Cambrian  to  the  Trias.  In 
1879  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mineralogy  and  geology 
in  the  German  technical  high  school  at  Prague,  and  he 
became  a  contributor  to  the  continuation  of  Barrande's  great 
Work  on  the  Systhne  SUurien  de  Bohhne,  In  1890  he  became 
professor  of  palaeontology  at  the  univermty  of  Vienna,  and 
in  1898  the  Lyell  medal  was  awarded  to  him  by  the  Geological 
Society  of  London.  He  died  in  Vienna  on  the  a4th  of  March 
1900. 

WABASH,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Wabash  county, 
Indiana,  U.S.A.,  about  42  m.  S.W.  of  Fort  Wayne.  Pop.  (1890) 
S105,  (1900)  8618,  of  whom  498  were  foreign-bom  and  134 
negroes;  (1910  U.S.  census)  8687.  It  is  served  by  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  CHiicago  &  St  Loub  railway  (which  has  extensive 
shops  here),  by  the  Wabash  railway,  and  by  interurban  electric 
fines.  It  has  a  public  library,  a  Memorial  Hall  (1897),  erected 
to  the  memory  of  Federal  soldiers  in  the  Civil  War  and  occupied 
by  the  local  "  camp  "  of  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic,  a 
Masonic  temple,  a  coimty  hospital  and  two  parks.  The  city  is 
tn  a  fertile  agricultural  region,  and  has  a  considerable  trade 
In  grain  and  produce.  Among  its  manufactures  are  furniture, 
agricultural  implements  and  foundry  and  machine-shop  products. 
In  1905  the  factory  products  were  valued  at  $3,202,932  (31*2  % 
more  than  in  1900).  Wabash  was  settled  about  1834,  in- 
corporated as  a  village  in  1854,  and  firsi  chartered  as  a  city 
fai  x866.  It  was  one  of  the  first  dtics  in  the  world  to  bic 
lighted  with  electricity,  a  lighting  plant  being  established  In 
February  1880. 

WACE,  HBNRT  (1836-  ),  EngUsh  divine,  was  bom  in 
London  on  the  xoth  of  December  1836,  and  educated  at  Marl- 
borough, Rugby,  King's  College,  London,  and  Brasenose  College, 
Oxford.  He  was  ordained  in  the  (Thurch  of  England  in  1861, 
and  held  various  curades  in  London,  being  diaplain  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  in  1872  and  preacher  in  1880.  From  1875  to  1896  he  was 
prominently  connacted  with  King's  College,  London,  where  be 


was  profeator  of  ecclesiastical  history,  and  subteqaently  (iSSy}) 
prindpaL  Both  as  preacher  and  writer  Dr  Waoe,  who  took  his 
D.D.  degree  in  1883,  became  conspicuous  in  the  theological 
world.  He  was  Boyle  lecturer  in  1S74  and  1875,  and  Bajnpton 
lecturer  in  1879;  and  besides  publi^iing  several  volumes  of 
sermons,  he  was  co-editor  of  the  Didienary  of  Christian  Bioffo^ 
(1877-1887),  .and  editor  of  The  Speaker*s  Commentary  en  the 
Apocrypha,  He  took  a  leading  part  as  the  champion  of  historic 
orthodoxy  in  the  controversies  with  contemporary  Rationalism 
in  all  its  forms,  and  firmly  upheld  the  importance  of  denomi- 
national education  and  of  the  religious  test  at  King's  CoUege; 
and  when  the  test  was  abolished  in  1902  he  resigned  his  seat  on 
the  coundL  Ini88i  he  was  given  a  prebendal  stall  at  St  Paul'% 
and  in  1889  was  appointed  a  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Queea 
Victoria.  When  he  resigned  the  principalship  of  King's  College 
in  1896  he  was  made  rector  of  St  Michael's,  CornhOl; 
and  in  1903  he  became  dean  of  Canterbury,  in  succession  to 
Dr  Farrar. 

WACB.  (?)  ROBERT  (xioo?-xi75?),  Anglo-Norman  chronicler, 
was  bom  in  Jersey.   He  studied  at  Caen;  he  became  pexsonallj 
known  to  Henry  I.,  Henry  IL,  and  the  latter's  eldest  son.  Prince 
Henry;  from  Henry  II.  he  recdved  a  prebend  at  Baycux  and 
ojther  gifts.   Except  for  these  facts  he  is  known  to  us  only  as  th: 
author  of  two  metrical  chronidcs  in  the  Nonnen-Frcnch  ha- 
guage.    Of  these  the  earlier  in  date  is  the  Roman  de  Brut,  cob- 
pleted  in  X155,  which  is  said  to  have  been  dedicated  to  'Ehsx 
of  Aquitaine  (od.  A.  J.  V.  Le  Roux  de  Lincy,  2  vols.,  Rcaia, 
X  836-  X  838) .  This  is  a  free  version  of  the  Latin  Hisioria  JBriiMvn 
by  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  in  rhyming  octosyllables;  it  vas 
rendered  into  English,  shortly  after  x  200,  by  Layamon,  a  xiua- 
priest  of  Worcestershire,  and  is  also  largely  used  in  the  rhymed 
English  chronide  of  Robert  Mannyng.   Wace's  second  work,  the 
Roman  de  Rou^  written  between  x  1 60  and  x  1 74,  has  a  less  fabulous 
character  than  the  Bria,  being  a  chronicle  of  the  Norman  dukes 
from  RoUo  to  Robert  Curthose.    It  has  been  ably  dissected  by 
Gustav  K&rting  {Vher  die  Qudlen  its  Roman  de  Rou,  Leipzig, 
X867),  who  shows  that  it  is  mainly  based  upon  Dudo  and  William 
of  Jumi^ges.   There  is  also  reason  forthiiOung  that  Wace  used 
the  Cesta  regum  of  William  of  Malmesbury.   Where  Wace  follows 
no  ascertainable  source  he  must  be  used  with  caution.     Un- 
doubtedly he  used  oral  tradition;  but  he  also  seems  to  ha>-e 
given  free  play  to  his  imagination. 

The  Rinnan  de  Ron  is  written  in  rhyming  octosyllablea,  varied  by 
assonanccd  alexandrines.  It  has  been  edited  by  r.  Pluquet  (2  voU. 
and  supplement.  Rouen,  1827-1829)  and  more  completely  by  H. 
Andreaen  (2  vols.,  Hdlbronn,  1877-1879).  (H.  W.  C  D.) 

WACHSHUTH,  CHARLES  (1829- 1896),  American  palaeonto- 
logist, was  born  in  Hanover,  Germany,  on  the  i3lh  of  September 
X829.  Educated  as  a  lawyer  in  his  native  dty,  he  abandoned 
the  profession  on  account  of  ill-health,  and  in  X852  went  to  New 
York  as  agent  for  a  Hamburg  shipping  house.  Two  years  later, 
for  reasons  of  health,  he  removed  to  Burlington,  Iowa,  U.S.A.. 
where  he  settled.  Here  he  was  attracted  by  the  fossils,  and 
espedally  the  crinoids,  of  the  Burlington  Limestone,  and  in  a 
few  years  possessed  a  fine  collection.  In  1864  he  made  acquaint- 
ance with  L.  Agassiz,  and  In  the  following  year  paid  a  visit  to 
Europe,  where  he  studied  the  crinoids  in  the  British  Museum 
and  other  famous  collections.  He  now  dedded  to  devote  all  his 
energies  to  the  elucidation  of  the  crinoidea,  and  with  signal  success. 
He  made  further  extensive  collections,  and  supplied  spedmens 
to  the  Agassiz  museum  at  Cambridge,  U.SJV.,  and  the  British 
Museum.  Becomingacquainted  with  Frank  Springer  (x 848-  ), 
a  lawyer  at  Burlington,  he  stirred  up  his  enthusiasm  in  the  subject, 
and  together  they  continued  the  study  of  crinoids  and  published 
a  series  of  important  papers.  These  include  "  Discovery  of  the 
Ventral  Stmcture  of  Taxocrinus  and  Haplocrinus,  and  Conse* 
quent  Modifications  in  the  Classification  of  the  Crinoidea  "  {Proc, 
Acad.  Nat.  Set.,  Philadelphia,  1889);  *'  The  Perisomlc  Plates  of 
the  Crinoids  "  (/Mcf.,  X891);  and  a  monograph  on  "  The  North 
American  Crinoidea  Camerata,"  published,  after  the  death  of 
Wachsmuth,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Museum  of  ComparaifH 
Zoology  at  Harvard  (x8o7).  Of  thb  last-itamed  work  a  4etjiM 


WACO— WADAl 


n$ 


revlefr  i&d  antlytis  vat  pvlblbhed  by  F.  A.  Batber,  of  the  British 
Mttseam,  in  Uie  Ced,  Mai.  for  1898*1899.   Wadismuth  died  on 

the  7th  of  February  1896. 

Obituaiy  (with  portrait)  by  F.  A.  Bather.  Ge^  Mag,  (April  1896). 

WACO»  a  dty  and  the  coimty-eeat  of  McLennan  county, 
Texas,  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  state*  on  both  skies  of  the 
Braaos  river,  about  xoo  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Dallas.  Pop.  (1890) 
I4f445i  (1900)  ao,686,  of  whom  $^^6  were  negroes;  (1910 
census)  26,435.  Waco  is  served  by  the  Missouri,  Kansas  ft 
Texas,  and  by  other  railways.  Waco  is  the  seat  of  Baylor 
University  (cxveducational)  and  of  the  Texas  Christian  University 
(Christian;  co-cducalional).  Baylor  University  was  founded  at 
Independence,  Texas,  by  the  Texas  Union  Baptist  Association, 
in  1S45,  and  was  consolidated  in  1886  with  Waco  University 
(Baptist,  1861,  founded  by  Dr  Rufus  C.  Burleson,  a  fonricr 
preddent  of  Baylor  University).  It  was  named  in  honour  of 
Robert  £.  B.  Baylor  (179^1874),  a  representative  In  Congress 
from  Ahibama  in  t85o-x83X,  and  one  of  its  founders.  In  1908- 
1909  it  iiad  40  instructors  and  1296  students  (664  women),  of 
whom  647  were  in  the  college.  The  Texa&  Christian  University 
was  founded  in  1873  &t  Thorp'a  Springs  as  a  private  school, 
chartered  as  Add  Ran  0»Uege,  transferred  to  the  Christian 
Churches  of  Texas  in  1889,  and  removed  to  Waco  in  1895.  l^* 
present  name  was  adopted  in  1902,  the  name  Add  Ran  College 
being  retained  for  the  college  of  arts  and  sciences.  In  1908-1909 
the  university  had  26  instructois  and  379  students  (279  in  the 
college  of  arts  and  scimces).  Waco  is  situated  in  a  fertile 
farming  region.  In  1905  the  factory  products  were  valued 
at  $2,979,800.  The  dty  was  named  after  the  Waco  (or  Hueco) 
Indiana  (Caddoan  stock),  who  had  a  large  village  here  until  1830, 
when  they  were  nearly  exterminated  by  the  Chcrokces;  in  1855 
they  removed  to  a  reservation,  and  ^ter  1859  became  incor- 
porated with  the  Wichita.  The  first  white  settlement  was  made 
jn  1849.  Waco  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1856;  in  1909  the 
administration  was  entrusted  to  a  mayor  and  foiw  commissioners. 

WAD,  a  black,  earthy  mineral  consisting  mainly  of  hydrated 
manganese  dioxide;  of  importance  as  an  ore.  Being  an  amor- 
phous sul^tance,  it  varies  considerably  in  chemical  composi- 
tion, and  contains  different  impurities  often  in  large  amount. 
A  variety  containing  much  cobalt  oxide  is  called  "  asbolite," 
while  "  iampadite  "  is  a  cupriferous  variety.  It  is  very  soft, 
readily  soiling  the  fingers,  and  may  be  considered  as  an  earthy 
form  of  psilomelane  (^.v.).  It  results  from  the  decomposition 
of  other  manganese  minerals,  and  is  often  deposited  in  marshes 
("  bog  manganese  ")  or  by  springs.  The  name  wad  is  of  uncertain 
origin,  and  has  been  applied  also  to  graphite.  (L.  J.  S.) 

WAOAI,  a  country  of  north  central  Africa,  bounded  N.  by 
Borku  and  Eondi,  S.  by  the  Ubangi  sultanates,  W.  and  S.W.  by 
Kanem  and  Bagirmi,  and  £.  by  Darfur.  Formerly  an  independent 
Mahommedan  sultanate,  it  was  in  1909  annexed  to  French 
Equatorial  Africa  (French  Congo).  Wadai  has  an  area  estimated 
at  150,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  3,000,000  to  4,000,000. 

Thegcneral  level  of  thecountry  isabout  1^00 ft.  North,  north-east, 
•outh-west  and  in  the  centre  are  ranges  of  hills  n«ng  another  1000  ft. 
West  and  north-west  the  fall  to  the  Sahara  is  gradual.  Here  occur 
remarkable  sand-ridges  of  fantastic  shaped-hollow  mounds,  pyra- 
mids, crosses,  Ac-^which  are  characteristic  of  the  Libyan  desert. 
There  are  also  sandstone  rocks  of  varying  colours— red,  blue,  white, 
black,  &C. — presenting  the  aspect  of  ruined  castles,  ramparts  and 
churches.  North-west  is  a  wide  district  of  dreary  plain — part  of 
the  clay  tone  which  stretches  from  the  middle  Niger  to  the  Nile — 
covered  with  thorn  bush  and  dum  palms.  The  central  and  eastern 
r^ions  are  the  most  fertile,  and  contain  large  forest^  areas.  The 
country  bdongs  to  the  Chad  drainage  area,  though  it  is  possible 
that  the  Bahr-d-Chazal  (of  the  Chad  system)  may  anord  a 
connexion  with  the  Nile  (see  Suaki).  The  streams  which  rise  in 
the  north-eastern  districts,  of  which  the  Batha  (over  300  m.  long)  is 
the  largest.  Bow  west,  the  Batha  ending  in  a  depresaion,  some  200  m. 
E.  of  Lake  Chad,  called  Fittri.  Another  stream,  the  Wadi  Rime, 
with  a  more  northerly  course  than  the  Batha,  goes  in  the  direction 
of  Chad,  but  ends  in  swamps  in  the  clayey  soil.  These  rivers  are 
intermittent,  and  after  seasons  of  drought  Fittri  it  comfdetely  dry. 
In  the  dry  season  water  is  obtained  from  wells  250  to  300  ft.  deep. 
The  rivers  of  Dar  Runga  flow  «*estward  towards  the  Shari.  but.  sa\'e 
the  Bahr  Salamat,  none  reaches  it.  They  only  contain  water  in  the 
rainy  season.  About  100  m.  abo\'e  the  Salamat-Shari  confluence 
b  Lake  Iro,  joined  to  the  Salamat  by  a  short  channel.    In  the  foresu 


are  large  herds  of  dephaats,  and  hippopotami  abound  along  the 
river-beds.  In  the  north  are  the  camel  and  the  ost^icb.  Amone 
the  trees  is  a  species  of  wild  coffee  which  reaches  50  to  60  ft.  ana 
yields  bernes  01  excellent  quality.   The  cotton  plant  is  indigenous. 

Inkabilants  and  Trade,^Tht  inhabitants  consist  of  negroid 
and  negro  tribes,  Arabs,  Fula,  Tibbu  and  half-castes.  The  Maba; 
the  dominant  race,  are  said  to  be  of  Nubian  origin;  they  are 
believed  not  to  number  more  than  750,000,  and  live  chiefly  In 
the  north-eastern  district.  They  are  in  political  alliance  with  the 
Arab  tribes,  known  in  Wadai  as  Zoruk  (dark)  and  Homr  (red). 
The  Maba  have  a  reputation  for  pride,  valour,  cruelty,  dnmken* 
ness  and  barbaric  splendour. 

The  capital,  Abeshr,  is  in  the  N.E.,  in  about  21**  E.,  13^  50'  N. 
Thence  a  caravan  route  croeses  the  Sahara  via  the  Kufra  oases 
to  Benghaxi  in  Barca.  Another  trade  route  goes  east  through 
Darfur  to  Khartum.  The  people  possess  large  numbers  of  horses, 
cattle,  sheep  and  goats.  Maize,  durra,  cotton  and  indigo  are 
cultivated,  and  cloth  is  woven.  Ivory  and  ostrich  feathers,  the 
chief  articles  of  export,  are  taken  to  Tripoli  by  the  desert  route, 
together  with  small  quantities  of  coffee  and  other  produce. 
There  is  a  trade  in  cattle,  horses  and  coffee  with  the  countries 
to  the  south.  Until  the  French  conquest  Wadai  was  a  great 
centre  of  the  slave  trade.  Slaves  were  obtained  by  raiding  and 
in  the  form  of  tribute  from  Bagirmi,  Kanem  and  other  countries 
once  dependent  on  Wadai.  The  skves  were  sent  chiefly  to 
Barca.    Wadai  was  also  notorious  for  its  tntfl^c  in  eunuchs. 

Histcry. — Situated  between  the  Sahara  and  the  dense  forest 
lands  of  equatorial  Africa,  Wadai  early  became  a  meeting  ground 
of  negro  and  Arab  culture.  Eastern  influences  and  the  Mahom- 
medan religion  ultimately  obtained  predominance,  though  the 
sovereignty  of  the  country  reverted  to  the  negro  race.  It  was 
sometimes  tributary  to  and  sometimes  the  overlord  of  the  neigh- 
bouring countries,  such  as  Bagirmi  and  Kanem.  It  was  made 
known  to  Europe  by  the  writings  of  the  Arab  geographers, 
but  it  was  not  imtil  Nachtigal's  visit  in  1873  that  accurate 
knowledjge  of  the  land  and  people  was  obtained.  About  1640  a 
Maba  chieftain  named  Abd-el-Kerim  conquered  the  cotmtry, 
driving  out  the  Tunjur,  a  dynasty  of  Arabian  origin.  Thereafter 
Wadai,  notorious  as  a  great  slave-raiding  state,  suffered  from 
many  dvil  and  foreign  wars.  Mahommed  Sherif ,  sultan  from 
1838  to  1858,  introduced  Senussiism  into  the  country. 

In  the  last  decade  of  the  X9th  century  the  French  advancing 
from  the  Congo  and  from  the  Niger  made  their  infltience  fch  in 
Wadai,  and  by  the  Anglo-French  dedaration  of  the  sist  of 
March  1899  Wadai  was  recognized  as  within  the  French  sphere. 
That  state  was  then  torn  by  dvil  wars.  The  Sultan  Ibrahim 
(sec  Senussi)  was  murdered  in  1900,  and  Ahmed  Ghazili  became 
sultan.  He  was  warned  by  the  Sheikh  Senussi  el  Mahdi  of  the 
danger  ariang  from  the  approach  of  the  Christians  {Le.  the 
French),  but  he  had  to  meet  the  opposition  of  the  princes 
Doud  Murra  (a  brother  of  Ibrahim)  and  Acyl.  Ahmed  Ghazili 
and  Doud  Murra,  though  of  the  royal  family,  had  non-Maba 
mothers;  Acyl,  a  grancbon  of  the  Sultan  Mahommed  Sherif, 
was  of  pure  Maba  descent.  Acyl,  ordered  to  be  blinded  by 
Ahmed  Ghazili,  fled  to  Kdk£16,  west  of  Lake  Fittri,  and  entered 
into  friendly  rdations  with  the  French.  A  few  months  later 
(Doc.  1901)  Ahmed  was  dethroned.  With  Doud  Murra,  who  then 
became  sultan,  the  French  endeavoured  to  come  to  an  under- 
standing,  and  in  November  1903  the  Wadaians  agreed  to  recog- 
nize the  possession  of  Bagirmi,  Kanem,  &c.,  by  France.  How- 
ever, in  the  spring  of  1904,  acting,  it  is  believed,  at  the  instigation 
of  the  Senussites,  the  Wadaians  attacked  French  posts  in  the 
Shari  region  and  carried  off  mai^  sUves.  At  Tomba  (13th  of 
May  1904)  they  suffered  a  severe  defeat,  but  they  renewed  their 
raids,  and  there  was  continual  fighting  on  the  west  and  south- 
west  borders  of  Wadai  during  1905-1907.  The  fighting  resulted 
in  strengthening  the  position  of  the  French  and  of  their  ally  Acyl, 
and  in  1908  Doud  Murra,  again,  it  is  sUted,  at  the  instigation  of"> 
the  Senussites,  proclahned  the  jikad.  His  army  was  split  up 
under  agtdis  (feudal  lords),  and  was  beaten  in  detail  by  the 
French.  At  Joue  \n  the  Batha  vaUcy  (June  16,  X908)  Command 
dant  Juliea  inQiptedeoonBoualoiies  on  the  enmy.  Jn  May 


WADDING-^WADE,  B.  F. 


■909  CipUiB  Flegaudnib,  vltli  >  tmall  font  ol  Unfltenn, 

4nd  Acyl'i  (oniingents,  idvanod  op  (he  Bithi  10  a  plue 
within  ij  m.  of  Abohr,  whcR,  oD  the  1st  of  June,  the  enemy 
wete  (Ideated.  The  oeit  day  anathet  Bght  took  plaa  close  to 
Abeshi.  The  Wadaians  Km  (gain  put  Ut  flight  ami  the  town 
bombarded  wilh  cvmon.  Doud  Mum  with  >  ainill  ffdlowmj 
fled  Qonh,  and  Ab«hr  wu  occupied  by  the  FRuh.  The 
prince  Acy]  wak  subsequently  placed  on  the  Ihntne^  and,  under 
French  giAdancc,  governed  Wadjapnper.  Dar  Sila,  Dar  Runga 
and  other  tiibutai;  lUle*  bein|  directly  sovcmed  by  FiBah 

The  wai  WIS  not,  however,  erkkd  by  the  occnpalion  o( 
Abeshr.  Captain  Fiefeuchab'i  cohima,  openting  aoulhoit 
irf  Abeihr,  was  cut  ofl  by  tbe  HaNslit  Aiabs  ncu  the  Dvfur 
fnntief,  but  a  punitive  btnt  retrieved  this  dbaater  in  April 
fallowing.  While  tbac  operations  were  in  profiBB.  Lieitt.  Boyd 
Alciandet  (b.  iS;]),  who  had  previously  Qoased  fiom  the  Nifcr 
to  the  Nile,  the  first  British  exptocu  to  enter  Wadaj,  passed 
through  Abcihi  on  his  Way  (D  DaiJur.  At  the  walion  ol  Nyeri, 
in  Du  Tama,  on  the  Daifur  Ixv^ler,  he  wa*  murdered  on  the 
and  o[  April  iqio. 

In  November  iQio  a  French  column,  300  •tmos,  ando 
Colonel  Moll,  while  operating  in  the  Muulit  countiy  was  ot- 
tscked  by  500a  men  oiultr  Doud  Mum  and  the  sultan  ol  the 
Husalit.  The  enemy  wu  beaten  oS,  but  the  French  had  over 
iiuallies,  including  ColoQel  Moll  killed. 


w  rtefj.  July  3ISI.  1910  (di  I. 

WAUHHfi.  LtmS  (t5SS-i657),  Irish  Fiasdican  filar  and 
bktorisB,  was  born  in  Witeifaid  in  i£Sa  and  went  to  study  at 
lisboo.  He  becaou  a  Fnndscaa  in  i6oj,  and  in  1617  he  was 
made  president  of  the  Irish  tJiUege  at  Salamanca.  The  neit  year 
be  went  to  Rome  and  stayed  there  till  his  death.  He  collected 
the  (unds  far  the  establishment  of  the  Irish  College  of  St  Isldoie 
i>  Rome,  fat  the  education  ollrith  priests,  opened  ifiij,  and  for 


work  wu  ibe  Atmnla  Uiiwnim  in  S  (olio  vols.  (1635-1654),  le- 
Cdited  in  the  iSlh  century  and  continued  up  to  the  year  i6ti; 
it  Is  the  claaucal  work  on  Frandscan  history.  He  published  also 
a  BihliMua  of  Frandscan  wrilen,  an  edition  of  the  woriu  of 
Duns  Scotui,  and  the  box  colkctlon  of  the  wiilings  of  St  Francis 

WlDDIHimm,  WIUIAM  HEHBT  (1816-1894),  Fmch 
■Ulsmiin.  was  bore  at  Si  Reeni-iut-l'ATic  (Eure-et-Loir)  on 
the  nth  of  Deciunber  iSiiS.  He  waa  Ibe  son  of  a  wealthy 
EDgiishmu  who  had  established  a  large  spinning  factory  to 

receiving  his  early  education  in  Paria,  he  was  unt  to  Rugby, 
and  thence  proceeded  to  Triofty  College,  Cambridge,  wbcrc  he 
was  aecand  ciuiii:  and  chancellor's  medallist,  and  lowed  lor  the 

Fr*Dce,  be  devoted  himself  for  sotoe  yrem  to  aichacological 
research.  He  undenook  tnvels  in  Asia  MIdoi,  Greece  and  Syria, 
the  fniita  of  which  were  published  in  two  U4mi>vti.  crowned  by 
the  Inttitnte,  and  in  bis  Uilanga  it  HmmsmaHqm  e>  it  HilolegU 
(I86t).   Eicepl  his  CKuy  on  "The  Prole  ~       ■  ■    - 

pobUsbcd  in  iSsS  in  Caminlii  Eaayi, 

UkewiM  aicluieolagic^  Tbey  indude  inc  rmaa  at  itmfirt 
f*l»airt,andedilioruiof  Diocletian ^s  edict  and  of  Philippe  Lebss'a 
Veyeti  cnUcicfiqia  (186S-1S77).  He  wis  dccted  in  iG£j  a 
BKmber  of  the  Acadfmie  des  Inscriptions  at  Belles-Lcttres. 

After  slanding  uniucceufully  for  Ibe  department  of  the  Aisne 
b  1865  Bod  i86g,  Waddington  was  returned  by  that  constituency 
•t  the  election  of  1B71,  He  was  minister  of  pubUt  instniction 
b  the  ifaon-lived  caUiiO  of  tlv  igth  of  Usy  iS;),  ud  Id  1876, 


iMvisg  hen  deetod  •nttoT  far  UK  AlMe,  be  WM  «tita  attnotod 

bv  Dulaure  with  the  miniBtiy  of  public  ii 
ras  not  permitled  lo 

■  inoM  bDportant  pniect,  ■  hill  tnaafening 
jre«  to  the  Mate,  paaed  the  Chamber,  but 

was  thrown  out  by  the  Senste.    He  continued  to  hold  his  ofictt 

lew  mat  1877.  The  triumph  0 
election  broeght  him  back  (o  power  in  the  foQowhi, 
as  mmlsln'  lA  (oreign  aflain  under  Dufaure.  He  waa  taie  ot  the 
French  plenipotenibrft*  at  the  Berlin  Congress.  The  ceanon  ol 
Cyprus  10  Great  Britain  was  at  first  denounced  by  the  French 
greai  blow  to  hit  diplomacy,  but  he  ofataliwd, 
1  with  Lord  Salistiaiy,  a  protnlse  that  Great 
Britain  la  return  would  aUow  Fiance  a  free  band  in  Torus. 

Early  in  1S79  Waddhigton  lucceeded  Dufinte  as  pinie 
minister.  Holding  office  by  suflennce  of  Gambett*,  be  haKed 
in  an  undeteimhwd  altitude  between  the  radicals  and  the  rt- 
adlonaries  till  the  delay  of  urgent  reforms  lost  him  Ilia  support 
t>f  all  parties.  He  was  forced  on  the  J71h  of  Decembrr  to  rclin 
from  Dfilce.  He  refused  the  oBer  of  the  London  emboiBy.  and 
in  1880  was  reporter  of  the  conuniltee  en  the  sdoptioo  cf 


October  180a,  of  Puritan 


advene  judgments  In  i88j  be  accepted  the  Lontion  embassy, 
wbich  be  ccntinued  to  hdd  till  1893,  showing  an  axaeptiiail 
lenadty  in  defence  oi  bis  (ountiy's  interests.  He  died  ■ 
the  ijlb  ol  Januaty  iSm.  His  wile,  an  American  lady,  whs 
maiden  name  was  Mary  A.  King,  wrote  some  inleteating  lenl' 
lections  of  Ihrir  fiiplrimstir  rrprrirnrfn  f  i^hii  i/ii  f^iJifii—nfiVi 
Wiji,  iSSj-igoo  (New  ViKt,  1903),  and  IlaliaH  LHUrt  (Loodoo, 
"905}- 
WADK,  1DUA>IM  FRAHKUK  (1800-1878),  Amtrtcu  «atc» 
■■■'■■■'         ■  the  sjthoJ 

inc^4iy.  jie  was  reveo  on  &  fajrn, 
education,  and  in  tSii  he  lenoved 
with  hii  family  to  Andover,  hi  the  Western  Reserve  ot  Ohio. 
Here  he  spent  two  mare  yean  on  a  farm,  and  then,  •ecuiing 
employment  aa  a  drover,  worked  his  way  10  Phlladeli^a  and 
finally  to  Albany.  New  York,  wbeiv  for  two  yean  be  taught 
school,  studied  medicine,  and  wu  a  labourer  on  the  Erte  CanaL 
Returning  to  Ohio  in  tSi;,  he  studied  law  il  Canfield,  wu  ad- 
mitted lo  the  bar  in  1817,  and  began  practice  at  Jefferson, 
Ashtabula  ojunly,  where  from  iSjt  10  1837  he  was  a  law  partner 
of  Joshua  R.  Glddbigs,  the  antl^lavery  leader.  During  1837- 
1839  and  1341-1S43  he  was  a  Whig  member  of  the  Ohio  Stale 
Senate.  From  1S47  until  iBji  he  waa  a  auto  district  judge,  and 
from  1851  until  1869  was  s  member  oi  the  United  StMos  Senate, 
first  as  sn  anti-slaveiy  Whig  and  later  as  a  Republkam.  In  the 
Senate  Wade  was  from  the  first  an  uncompromising  opiMHient 
of  slavery,  his  bitter  denuncialions  of  that  institution  and  o(  the 
rholden  receiving  added  force  from  his  rugged  honesty  and 
rity.  His  blunt,  direct  style  ot  otaloiy  and  his  aonewhat 
he  outbreak  of  the 

r,  Salmon  F.  Chue, 


:  been  a  political  rivaL    He  advooted  the  in 
iilon   end   aiming  of   the   slaves,    the   execution   ot 
It  Souihem  leaden,  and  the  wholonle  confiscation  oi 
lie  property.    During  i86i-i86j  he  was  cbairmao  of 
iitant  joinl-comraitteo  cm  the  conduct  of  the  war,  and 
B9  chairman  of  the  Senate  Committee  on  Territories, 
umenlaf  In  iibolishing  slavery  in  the  Federal  TEiriiortea. 
..  with  11.  W.  Divi;  [q.s,),  he  seemed  the  passage  ol  the 
Wade-Davis  Bill  (for  the  reconstruction  of  the  Soulbera  States), 
fundamental  prindplc  of  which  was  that  reconsttuclion  was  a 
This  bUi  was  passed  by 


President 


,  of  Con, 


adjour, 


Lincoln  withheld  his  sigRature,  and  on  the  Sth  of  July 
dued  a  proclamation  eiplaining  his  course  and  defining  his 
osition.  Soon  afterward  (Aug.  s)  Wade  and  Davis  publisbsd 
1  the  New  York  TriiuHi  the  famous  "  Wade.Davls  Manifcalo," 
vitl^>eIative  document  impugning  the  President's  honest/  ol 


WADE,  G.:— WADE,  SIR  T*  P. 


a^j 


pnrpoee  aod  attacking  hs  leadership.  Aa  kmg  as  PitaidMt 
Johnson  proniised  severe  treatment  ot  the  conquered  South, 
Wade  supported  him,  but  when  the  PresidMt  deAnitavely 
adopted  the  more  lenient  poficy  of  his  predecessor,  Wade  became 
one  of  his  most  bitter  and  uncompromising  opponents.  In  1867 
he  was  dected  pre^dent  pro  fern,  of  the  Senate,  thus  becoming 
acting  vice-president.  He  voted  for  Johnson's  ccmviction  or  faia 
trial  for  impeachment,  and  for  this  was  severdy  critidzod,  ^nct, 
in  the  event  of  conviction,  he  would  have  become  president; 
but  Wade's  whole  course  before  and  after  the  trial  woald  seem 
to  belie  the  charge  that  he  was  actuated  by  any  such  meiUve. 
After  leaving  the  Senate  he  resumed  his  law  practice,  beeomiiig 
attorney  for  the  Northern  Pacific  railway,  and  in  1S71  he  was  ft 
member  of  President  Grant's  Santo  Domingo  CommiBBioa.  He 
died  at  Jefferson,  Ohio,  on  the  and  of  March  1878.  Hie  aon, 
James  Fsankun  Wade  (b.  1843),  was  colonel  of  the  6th  United 
Sutes  (coloured)  cavalry  during  the  Civil  War,  and  attained  the 
rank  of  major-general  in  the  regular  army  in  19013,  cainBiian<fia8 
the  army  in  the  Philippines  In  tga$-t^p4. 
See  A.  G.  Riddle.  Life  ofBenjami»  F.  Wade  (Oevdaad,  ObJo»  1886). 

WAI>S»  QEOROB  (1673-1748),  British  field  marshal,  was  the- 
son  of  Jerome  Wade  of  Kllavaily,  Westmeath,  and  entered  the 
British  army  in  1690.  He  was  present  at  Stdnkirt  in  169),  and 
in  1695  he  became  captain.  In  1702  he  served  in  Mariborough'a 
army,  earning  particular  distinction  at  the  assault  on  the  dtadd 
of  Li6ge,  and  in  1 703  he  became  successively  major  and  Heutenant- 
colonel  in  his  regiment  (later  the  roth  Fool).  In  1704,  with  the 
temporary  rank  of  colonel,  he  served  on  Lord  Galway^  staff 
hi  Portugal.  Wade  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of 
Alcantara  in  1706,  in  a  rearguard  action  at  Vflla  Nova  bi  the 
same  autumn  (m  which,  according  to  Galway,  his  two  batuUons 
repulsed  twenty-two  allied  squadrons),  and  at  the  disastreina 
battle  of  Almanza  on  the  25th  of  April  1707.  He  had  now  risen 
to  the  command  of  a  brigade,  and  on  the  following  ist  of  Jamiary 
(1707/8)  he  was  promoted  brigadier-general  in  the  Brhish  army. 
His  next  service  was  as  second  in  commancl  to  James  (1st  earl) 
Stanhope  in  the  expe(fition  to  Minorca  in  1706.  tn  1710  he  was 
again  with  the  main  An^o-alKed  army  in  Spain,  and  took  part 
in  the  great  battle  of  Saragossa  on  die  Mth  of  August,  after 
which  he  was  promoted  major-general  and  given  a  command  at 
home.  The  Jacobite  outbreak  of  1715  brought  him  into  pmmin- 
ence  in  the  new  r6Ie  of  military  governor.  He  twice  detected 
important  Jacobite  conspiracies,  and  on  the  second  oecasioo 
procured  the  arrest  of  the  Swedish  ambassador  in  London* 
Count  Gyllenborg.  In  1719  he  was  second  in  command  of  the 
land  forces  in  the  successful  *'  conjunct "  mitftary  and  naval 
expedition  to  Vigo.  In  1724  he  was  sent  to  the  Highlands  to 
make  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  country  and  its  people, 
and  two  years  later,  having  meantime  been  appointed  com> 
mander-in-chicf  to  give  effect  to  his  own  recommendations,  he 
began  the  system  of  metalled  roads  which  b  his  chief  title  to 
fame,  and  is  commemorated  in  the  line^— 

"  Had  you  seen  these  roads  before  they  were  made, 
You  would  lift  up  your  hands  and  bttss  General  Wade.'* 

In  the  course  of  this  engineering  work  Wade  superintended  the 
construction  of  no  le^  than  40  stone  bridges.  At  the  same 
time,  slowly  and  with  the  tact  that  came  of  long  experience,  he 
disarmed  the  clans.  In  1742  he  was  made  a  privy  coundBor  and 
lieutenaat-general  of  the  ordnance,  and  in  1743  fidd  marshal. 
In  this  year  he  commanded  the  British  contingent  hi  Flanders, 
and  was  assodated  in  the  supreme  command  with  the  duke 
d'Aremberg,  the  leader  of  the  Austrian  contingent.  The  cam- 
paign, as  was  to  be  expected  when  the  ^emy  was  of  one  nation, ' 
superior  in  numbers  and  led  by  Saxe,  was  a  failure,  and  Wade, 
who  was  seventy  years  of  age  and  in  bad  health,  resigned  the 
command  in  March  1744.  George  11.  promptly  made  him 
commander-in-chief  in  England,  and  In  that  capacity  Fidd 
Marshal  Wade  had  to  dc^  with  the  Jacobite  insurrection  of 
i745t  in  which  he  Was  uttcriy  baffled  by  the  perplexing  rapidity 
of  Prince  Charles  Edward's  marches.  On  the  appointment  of  the 
duke  of  Cumberiand  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces,  Wade 
retired.    He  died  on  the  14th  of  March  1748. 


WADB,  fHOlUt  (i8o^f875)»  £iigltt  poei  and  droDatist* 
waa  bo*n  at  Woodbridge»  Sttffolk,  io  1805.  He  ear^r  went  to 
L^ndDii,  vhete  he  Wgaa  to  taiblish  vcne  oC  coasidecable  merit 
under  the  mspitatien  of  Byinmf  £cato  aad  e^tedally  Shelley. 
He  wwte somephgn  that  weit  pwxhiced  00  the  Loadoa  stage 
witk  a  certain  meaaore  of  suooeit,  o^ng  na»re  peihapa  to  the 
acting  of  Cfaariea  aad  Faany  KemUe  thajt  to  the  merits  of  the 
dmnatiat.  Wade  frequent^  ooBtiibuted  venes  to  the  anaga- 
aiaet,  aad  for  aome  yean  he  waa  editor  aa  well  aa  paii-pro- 
prietor  of  BtWs  WuUy  Messtttier.  Thia  venture  proving 
finandally  uniucccatfal,  he  xetiicd  to  Jersey,  where  he  edited 
the  Bfitiik  Ptess,  continning  to  publish  poetry  from  time  to 
time  until  1871.  He  died  in  Jeiley  on  the  X9th  of  September 
18^5.    His  wife  waa  Lucy  Eagov  *  muaidan  ol  aome  repute. 

The  mast  notarble  of  Wade'a  publications  were:  Tasso  and  Ou 
Sister*  (4825).  a  volume  of  poems,  among  which  "  The  Nuptials  of 
Juno  *'  m  partrciltar  showed  rare  gifts  of  imaginarion.  though  KIce 
all  Wade's  work  defident  in  sense  of  melody  and  feeling  for  artisdc 
form;  Womai^t  lam  (1828),  a  play  produced  at  Covent  Gacdrn; 
Tki  JPkr»Mol0ii$l$,  a  faUce  pfoduoed  at  Covent  Garden  in  1830;  TJ» 
Jew  gfArroipn^  a  play  that  was  "  howled  from  the  stage  '*  at  Covent 
Garden  in  1830  owioE  to  its  exaltation  of  the  Jew;  Sivnii  et  cordis 
carmina  (1835},  a  volume  of  poems,  many  of  which  had  previously 
appeared  in  the  M<mMy  Rgpasitory;  Tkt  ConUntiom  of  ^toth  end 
Love,  iUiMo  and  Tho  Shodmo  Mmt— these  three  bang  published 
in  the  form  of  pamphlets  in  1837;  Prothanasia  and  oImt  Poems 
(1839).  Wade  also  wrote  a  drama  entitled  King  Henry  II.,  and  a 
translation  of  Dante's  '*  Inferno  "  in  the  metre  of  the  original,  both 
of  which  remain  in  manuscript ;  and  a  series  of  aonnets  inspired  by 
his  wife,  oomt  of  which  have  bdtti  pttbliihod. 

See  Alfred  H.  Mills,  Tho  Poets  and  Poetry  of  the  Century,  vol.  ill 
(ro  vols.,.  London,  1891-1897);  Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  igtk 
Century,  edited  by  Sir  W.  Robertson  NIcoll  and  T.  J.  Wke  (a  vols., 


London,  1895-^1896),  eonuining  a  number  of  Wade's  aonneU,  a 
sperimen  of  his  Dante  taiwlation  aad  a  refNrint  of  two  of  his  vena 
pampMeta* 

WAOB.  am  THOMAS  FRAKCa  (1818-1895),  British  dlplo* 
raatist^  ban  in  London'oo  the  2Sth  of  August  x8i8,  was  the  son 
of  Major  Wade  of  the  Black  Watch,  by  his  wife  Anne,  daughter 
of  WiUiam  Smythe  of  Bavbavilla,  Westmeath.  In  1838  his 
father  purchaaed  lor  him  a  oommLKUon  in  the  8ut  Regiment. 
Bicfaanging  (1839)  into  the  4dnd  Highlanders,  he  served  with 
hia  regiment  in  the  Ionian  lahinda,  devoting  his  leisure  to  the 
congenial  study  of  Italian  and  modem  Greek.  On  receiving  his 
CDnmwaion  aa  Eentenaat  in  1841  he  exchanged  into  the  98th 
Regiment^  then  under  orders  for  China,  and  landed  in  Hong-Kong 
in  lone  1843.  The  soeiie  of  the  war  had  at  that  time  been  trans^ 
ferred  to  the  Yangtae-kiang,  and  thither  Wade  was  ordered  with 
hisRgiflientk  There  he  took  part  in  the  attack  on  Chin-kiang-fu 
and  in  the  advance  00  Hanking.  In  1845  he  was  appointed 
interpMter  in  Cantanese  to  the  Supreme 'Court  of  Hong-Kong, 
and  in  1846  assistant  Chinese  secretary  to  the  superintendent  of 
tissde.  Sir  Jehn  Davis.  In  1853  he  was  appointed  vice-consul 
at  Shanghai.  The  Tai-ping  rebellion  had  so  disorganized  the 
admlnistnitson  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Shanghai  tJiat  it  .was 
Mnsidered  advisable  to  put  the  collection  of  the  foreign  customs 
difties  into  comnissiDn,  a  committee  of  three,  of  whom  Wade 
waa  the  chief,  being  entrusted  with  the  administration  of  the 
tusOonM.  This  formed  the  beginning  of  the  imperial  maritime 
customs  aervice.  In  1855  Wade  waa  appointed  Chinese  secretary 
to  Sir  Jehn  B«wriag,  who  had  succeeded  Sir  J.  Davis  at  Hong- 
Kong.  On  the  deckrstion  of  the  second  Chinese  War  in  1857, 
he  wafe  attadied  to  Lord  Elgin'a  staff  aa  Chinese  secretary, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  H.  N.  Ley  he  conducted  the  negotia- 
tions which  led  up  to  the  treaty  of  Tientsin  (1858).  In  the 
foBowing  year  he  accompanied  Sir  Frederick  Bruce  iahis  attempt 
to  exchange  the  ratification  lof  the  treaty,  and  was  present  M 
Taku  when  the  force  attending  the  mission  was  treacherously 
attacked. and  driven  hack  irttn  the  Peiho.  On  Lord  Elgin'a 
return  to  China  in  i860  be  resumed  his  former  post  of  Chirese 
secretary,  and  was  mainly  instrumental  in  arranging  for  the 
advance  of  the  spedal  envoys  and  the  British  and  French  forces 
tb  Ttentsin/and  subsequently  towards  Peking.  For  the  purpose 
at  artmngiag  for  a  camping  ground  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
TtangcSiew  ha  accompanied  Mr  (afterwards  Sir)  Hany  Parkes  on 
Idi  flrat  visit  te  that  dty,  where  on  the  next  day  Padtsa  with 


23© 


WAOEST 


madrtsl 


It  nay  be  gnuited  tkal  Id  ceitaln  tOPMric  inqoirks  Jt  » 
extremely  useful  to  bring  out  tbe  poiatt  of  JBifmbbnrf  betwaen 
"  workers  "  at  the  varioua  stages  of  tbt  tocial  scaie,  aad  it  is 
especially  serviceable  in  sbowing  that  the  opposition  between 
*'  employer  "  and  the  "  empk^ed^"  and  the  "  classes  "  and  the 
"  massest"  is  often  exaggerated.  At  the  same  time  the  differ* 
ences,  if  not  in  kind  at  any  rate  in  degree,  aie  so  great  that  if  the 
analogy  is  carried  very  far  it  becomes  misleading.  Acoordmglyit 
seems  natural  to  adopt  as  the  preUminaiy  definition  of  "  wages  " 
something  equivalent  to  that  of  Francis  Walker  in  his  standard 
work  on  the  Wages  Question,  vis.  "  the  reward  of  thoae  who 
are  employed  in  production  with  a  view  to  the  pco6i  of  their 
ttaployas  and  are  paid  at  stipulated  rates." 

It  may  be  observed  that  by  extending  the  meaning  of  pro- 
duction,  as  b  now  done  by  most  economists,  to  Include  all  kinds 
of  Ubour,  and  by  substituting  benefit  for  profit,  this  definition 
will  include  all  grades  of  wages. 

Having  thus  limited  the  class  of  those  who  cam  **  wages,"  the 
next  point  is  to  consider  the  way  In  which  the  wages  ought  to  be 
measured.  The  most  obvious  method  is  to  take  as  tbe 
Nomiaai  j^^  ^f  time-wages  the  amount  of  money  earned  in  a 
certain  time,  and  as  the  rate  of  task-ioagfis  the  amount  of 
money  obtained  for  a  given  amount  of  work  of  a  given 
quality;  and  in  many  inquiries  this  rough  mode  of  measurement 
IS  sufikient.  But  the  intioducdon  of  money  as  the  measure  at 
once  makes  it  neceasaxy  to  assume  that  for  purposes  of  comparison 
the  value  of  the  money  to  the  wage-earners  may  be  considered 
constant.  This  supposition  does  not  hold  good  even  between 
different  places  in  the  same  oountxy  at  the  same  time,  and  still 
less  with  variations  in  time  as  well  as  place.  To  the  labourers, 
Iwwever,  the  amount  of  money  they  obtain  is  only  a  means  to 
an  end,  and  accordingly  economists  have  drawn  a  sharp  dis* 
tinction  between,  nominal  and  real  wages..  "  Labour,  like  com* 
modities,"  says  Adam  Smith,  "  may  be  said  to  have  a  real  and 
a  nominal  price.  Its  real  price  may  be  aaid  to  consist  in  the 
quantity  of  the  necessaries  and  conveniences  of  lifie  which  are 
given  for  it;  its  nominal  price  in  the  quantity  of  money.  The 
labourer  is  rich  or  poor,  is  well  or  ill  rewarded,  in  proportion  to 
the  real  not  to  the  nominal  price  of  bs  labouc" 

Walker  (0^,  cif.  pp.  is  sqq.)  has  given  4  full  analysis  of  the 
piindpal  dements  which  ou^t  to  be  taken  into  account  in 
estimating  theras/wagesof  labour.  They  may  bedassi- 
^nS^  fied  as  follows,  (i)  Variations  in  the  purchasing  power 
4^^^  «f  money  may  be  due  in  the  first  place  to  causes 
affecting  the  geneml  level  of  prices  in  «  country. 
Such,  idr  instance,  is  a  deboseroent  of  the  coinage,  of  which  a 
good  example  is  furnished  in  Eni^Ush  history  in  the  reigns  of 
Heniy  VIII.  and  Edward  VL  Thorold  Kogers  has  ascribed 
much  of  the  degradation  of  labour  which  ensued  to  this  fact; 
and  Macaulay  has  given  a  graphic  account  of  Che  evils  suffered 
by  the  labouring  dasacs  prior  to  the  reooinage  of  1696.  The 
issues  of  inconvertible  paper  notes  in  excess  have  frequently 
caused  a  disturbance  of  real  wages,  and  it  is  generally  asrerled 
that  in  this  case  wages  as  a  rule  do  not  rise  so  quick^  as  com- 
modities. A  general  rise  fin  prices  due  t»  great  discoveries  «f 
the  predous  metab  would,  i£  nominal  wages  remained  the  same, 
of  course  cause  a  fall  in  real  wages.  Tber9  are,  however,  good 
grounds  for  supposing  that  the  stimukia  given  to  trade  in  thiscaie 
would  raiae  wages  at  lesst  in  pooportion;  and  certainly  the  great 
gold  discoveries  in-  Australia  and  CaXfomia  raised  waguM  in 
England,  as  Is  shown  in  Tookc^s  History  «f  Prices,  voL  v.  p.  284. 
Similariy  it  is  possible  that  a  general  fall  in  prices,  owing  to  a 
relative  scarcity  of  the  predous  metals,  may  hmer  tbe  prices  of 
commodities  before  it  lowers  the  price  of  labour,  in  wUdi  case 
there  is  a  rise  in  real  wages.  In  the  controversy  as.to  the  posaiUe 
advantages  of  bimetallism  this  was  one  of  the  points  most  fre- 
quently discussed.  It  is  Impossible  to  say  a  priori  whether  a  rise 
or  fall  in  general  prices,  or  a  change  in  the  value  of  money,  will 
raise  or  kmer  real  wages,  rinoe  tbe  result  is  effeacd  prindpally 
by  indirect  influences.  But,  apart  from  these generd  movements 
in  pricea,^  we  must,  in  order  to  find  the  real  talue  of  nominal 
wages,  consider  variations  i&  hnU  |)ricci^  ^ad  in,  AaUag  this. 


estiBsate  we  must  notice  the  principal  itanv  in  tJhe  ei|>cndltBie 
of  the  kboureiSb    Much  attention  has  been  given  recoitly  by 
statisticiaaa  to  this  subject,  with  the  view  of  finding  a  good 
**  mdex  number  "  lor  real  wages.    (a>  Vacieiies  in  the  fom  of 
payment  require  carefiU  attention.    Sooaetiases  tbe  paymeat  b 
only  partly  u  money,  especiallj^in  agiicultwie  m  some  pbcei 
In  many  parts  of  Scotland  the  labourers  receive  neal,  pcali^ 
potatoes,  &c     (3)  Oppottunilics  lor  cxtrA  earnings  aie  sometima 
of  much  importance,  especially  if  we  take  as  the  wage-eamlng 
unit  the  family  and  not  the  indtviduaL    At  the  end  of  the  i9A 
century  Arthur  Young,  in  his  celebrated   tours,  often  caih 
attention  to  thb  fact.    In  Northumbetland  and  other  couoiics  i 
"  hind  "  (is;  agricultural  Uibourer)  b  more  valued  if  he  has  a  Inge 
working  family,  and  the  family  earnings  are  relatively  bigc 
(4)  Regubrity  of  employment  b  always  etpedaily  in  medm 
times,  one  of  the  most  important  points  to  be  considered.   Aput 
from  such  obvious  causes  of  fluctuation  as  the  nature  of  tbe 
en4>ld3rment,  e.g.  in  tbe  caw  of  fishermen,  guidca,  gsc,  there  tie 
various  social  and  industrial  causes  (for  a  part^ular  and  sbk 
investigation  of  which  the  reader  may  consult  Pfeofeasor  FoxvcH^ 
essay  on  the  subject).    Under  the  ^ratem  of  production  on  t  lii«e 
scale  for  foreign  mariceta,  with  widdy  extended  division  of  hboor, 
it  aecms  impossible  to  adjust  accuraitdy  the  supply  to  tk 
demand,  and  there  are  la  consequence  constant  fluauatioaiiB 
the  empkiyment  of  labour.    A  atriking  examph;,  happily  ran,  a 
furnished  by  the  cotton  famine  during  the  Awieiicaii  Civil  ftf 
(s)  In  forming  a  scientific  conception  of  real  wages  we  ou^v 
take  into  account  the  longer  or  the  shorter  charationctf  the  poM 
to  labour:  the  man  whose  employment  b  healthy  and  who  iiio 
more  comfortably  and  longer  at  the  same  nominal  rate.of  mfS 
may  be  held  to  obtain  a  hi^er  real  wage  than  his  less  fonusatc 
competitor.    It  b  worth  noting,  in  thb  respect*  chat  in  needy 
every  spedal  industry  there  »*  liability  to  some  special  foosd 
disease:  e.g.  bee-workers  often  suffer  from  diseases  of  the  eyo» 
miners  from  diseases  of  the  lungs,  4fec    Thus,  in  attempting  ts 
estimate  real  wages,  we  have  to  consider  all  the  various  dis> 
comforts  involved  in  the  "  quantity  of  bbour '.'  as  well  as  all  tlK 
conveniences  which  the  nominal  Ivages  will  purchaae  and  all  the 
supplements  in  kind. 

Id  a  systematic  treatment  of  the  wages  quetUon  it  wosld 
be  natuial  to  fxamine  next  the  causes  which  determine  tbe 
general  rate  of  wagca  in  any  country  at  any  time.  ^^,^ 
Thb  b  a  problem  to  which  economists  have  given  Ztti 
much  attention,  and  b  one  of  great  coapAexity.    It  v^m 
b  difficult,  when  we  consider  tbe  immense  variety  ^'^«| 
of  "  occupations  "  in  any  dvilixed  country  and  the  ^^^S* 
constant  changes  which  are  taking  phce,  even  to  form 
an  adequate  conception  of  the  general  rate  of  wages.    Theie  are 
thousands  of  occupations  of  various  kands»  and  at  first  sigbt  U 
may  seem  impossible  to  determine,  in  a  manner  suffideni^ 
accurate  for  any  useful  purpose,  an  average  or  general  rstc  « 
wages,  especially  if  we  attempt  to  take  real  and  not  >BcreIy 
nominal  wages.    At  the  same  tirne^  in  estimating  the  process  d 
the  working<da«es,  cr  in  comparing  their  relative  positioos  » 
different  countries,  it  isi  necessary  to  use  thb  coRceptiofi  of  & 
general  rate  of  wages  in  a  practical  manner.    The  dUBcoUi^ 
presented  ate  of  the  same  kind  as  those  met  with  in  the  deter* 
minatioo'of  the  value  of  money  or  the  general  level  of  pn^ 
and  may  be  overcome  to  some  extent  by  the. fame  methods. 
An  "  index  number  "  may  he  formed  by  taking  various  kinds  <n 
labour  9m  fair  samples,  aad  the  nomhial  wages  thus  obtained  may 
be  corrected  by  a  coosi<teKatlon  of  the  elements  in  the  real  ««f^ 
to  which  they  correspond*    Care  must  be  taken,  however,  th^ 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  bbour  taken  at  different  times  »jd6 
plaon  are  the  same,  just  as  in  the  tase  of  oommodltfes  sixmst 
precautions  are  necessary.    Practically,  for  example,  errors  ait 
coostaotly  made  by  taking  the  rate  of  wages  for  a  short  tioic 
(say  an  hour),  and  tl^o,  without  regaod  to  regularity  of  employ' 
ment,  constructing  the  annual  rate  on  thb  baab;  and  agvO' 
insuflSdent  attention  b  paid  to  Adam  Smith's  pithy  caution  tow 
"  there  may  be  more  labour  in  an  hour's  haid  work  than  in  l^ 
hours' easy  bumcs4."    ^ttt>Wfver(Mfficullita»ybetPObtt» 


WAGES 


2Zt 


•n  aocunte  xaeatne  of  the  geanal  nto  of  mges  for  piftcUctI 
pucposes,  tbeie  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  Ibe  value  and  aeceaaity 
of  the  Gonception  in  economic  theoiy.    For,  as  soon  as  it  is 
assumed  that  industrial  competition  is  the  pdndpal  eoooomic 
force  in  the  distribution  ol  the  wealth  of  a  communitj^— and  this 
is  in  reality  the  fundamental  assumption  of  modem  economic 
science, — a  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  the  most  general 
causes  which  affect  all  wa^ies  and  the  particular  causes  which 
lead  to  differences  of  wages  in  different  employments.    In  other 
words,  the  actual  rate  of  wages  obtained  in  any  particular  occu- 
pation depends  partly  on  causes  affecting  that  group  compared 
with  others,  and  partly  on  tbe  general  conditions  which  determine 
the  relations  between  labour,  capital  and  production  over  the 
whole  area  in  whic^  the  industrial  competition  is  effective. 
(See  A.  L.  Bowley's  Wages  in  Uu  United  Kingflam  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century  (1900),  §  3,  for  an  account  of  the  meaning  and  use  of  the 
average  wage.) 
Thus  the  theory  of  the  wages  question  consists  of  two  parts,  or 
9ves  the  answers  to  two  questions:  (1)  What  are  the 
•  causes  which  determine  the  general  rate  of  wages? 
(2)  Why  are  wages  in  some  occupations  and  at  some 
times  and  places  above  or  below  this  general  rate  ? 
With  regard  to  the  ffrst  question,  Adam  Smith,  as  in  almost 
every  important  economic  thcoiy,  ^ves  an  answer  which  com- 
bines two  views  which  were  subsequently  differentiated  into 
antagonism.    '*  The  produce  of  labour  constitutes  the  natural 
recompense  or  wages  of  labour,"  is  the  opening  sentence  of  hi^ 
chapter  on  wages.    But  then  he  goes  on  to  say  that  "this  original 
state  of  things,  in  which  the  labourer  enjoyed  the  whole  produce 
of  his  own  labour,  could  not  last  beyond  the  first  introducticm 
of  the  appropriation  of  land  and  the  accumdation  of  stoclu" 
And  he  thus  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  **  the  demand  for 
those  who  live  by  wages,  it  Is  evident,  cannot  increase  but  in 
proportion  to  the  increase  of  iht  funds  which  are  destined  to  the 
payment  of  wages."    This  is  the  germ  of  the  celebrated  wages- 
fund  theoiy  which  was  carried  to  an  extreme  by  J.  S.  Mill  and 
others;  and,  although  MiD  abandoned  the  theory  some  time 
before  his  death,  he  was  unable  to  eradicate  it  from  his  systematic 
treatise  and  to  reduce  it  to  its  proper  dimensions.    It  is  im- 
portant to  observe  that  in  the  hands  of  Mill  this  theory  was  by  no 
means,  as  was  afterwards  maintained  by  Elliot  Caimes,  a  mere 
statement  of  the  problem  to  be  solved.    According  to  Dtimes 
{Leading  Principles  of  Potilical  Economy^  bk.  ii.),  the  wages-fund 
Uieory,  as  given  in  Mill's  Prindpks  (bk.  u.  ch.  xL  S  >)>  embraces 
the  following  statements:  (x)  the  wages-fund  is  a  general  term 
tued  to  express  the  aggregate  of  aU  wages  at  any  given  time  in 
possession  of  the  labouring  population;  (2)  the  average  wage 
depends  on  the  proportion  of  this  fund  to  the  number  of  people; 
(3)  the  amount  of  the  fund  is  determined  by  the  amount  of 
general  wealth  applied  to  the  direa  purchase  of  labour.    These 
propositions  Caimes  easily  reduces  to  mere  verbal  statements, 
and  he  then  states  that  the  real  difficulty  is  to  determine  the 
causes  which  govern  the  demand  and  supply  of  labour.    But  the 
most  si^iiidal  glance,  as  well  as  the  most  careful  survey,  will 
convince  the  reader  of  Mill's  chapters  on  wages  that  he  regarded 
the  theory  not  as  the  statement  but  as  the  solution  of  the  problem. 
For  be  applies  It  directly  to  the  explanation  of  movements  m 
wages,  to  the.  criticism  of  popular  remedies  for  low  wages,  and 
to  the  discovery  of  what  he  considers  to  be  legitimate  and  possible 
remedies.    In  fact,  it  was  prindpally  on  account  of  the  apptica* 
tion  of  the  theoiy  to  concrete  facts  that  it  aroused  so  much 
opposition,  which  would  have  been  impossible  if  it  had  been  a 
mere  statement  of  the  problem. 

The  wages-fund  theory  as  a  real  attempt  to  solve  the  wages 
qiMstion  may  be  fesolved  Into  three  propositions,  which  are  vciy 
different  f roo  the  verbal  truisms  of  Caimes.  ( 1 )  In  any  country 
at  any  time  there  is  a  determinate  amount  of  capital  uncon- 
ditionally destined  for  the  payment  of  labour  This  is  the  wages- 
fund.  (2)  There  is  also  a  determinate  number  of  labourers  who 
iiftust  work  independently  of  the  rate  of  wage»~-that  is,  whether 
the  rate  is  high  or  low.  (j>  The  wages-fund  Is  distributed 
amongst  the  laboiiiws  solely  by  means  of  conpetitioB,  masters 


dwaptthn  irifh  OBdeaather  foi  hbonr,  mbA  labouicni  with  one 
another  lor  woski  ABd  thus  the  avenge  ntc  of  wages  depends 
on  the  proportion  between  «age-a4>ital  and  poj^ilation.  It 
fckUows  then^  acoordiog  to  this  view,  that  waees  can  on^  rise 
either  owing  to  ea  iociease  of  cef»tal  or  a  diminution  of  popu- 
lation, and  this  accounts  for  the  exaggerated  importance  attached 
by  Mill  to  the  Matthusaan  theeiry  of  population.  It  also  follows 
from  the  theory  that  any  reitttint  of  competition  in  one  direction 
can  only  cause  a  rise  of  wagn  by  *  ooireqKmding  fall  in  another 
quarter,  and  in  this  form  it  was  the  argument  most  frequently 
urged  against  the  action  of  tntde  unions.  It  is  worth  noting,  as 
showing  the  vital  connexion  of  the  theory  with  Mill's  principles, 
that  it  is  practically  the  foundation  of  his  propositions  on  capital 
in  his  first  book,  and  is  also  the  basis  of  the  exposition  in  his  fourth 
book  of  the  effects  of  the  progress  of  society  on  the  condition  of 
the  working-classes. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  that,  in  economics  as  in  other 
sciences,  what  eventually  asMimm  the  form  of  the  development 
of  or  supplement  to  an  old  theoiy  at  first  appears  as  if  in  direct 
antagonism  to  it,  and  there  is  reason  to  think  that  the  criticism 
of  the  wagesifund  theoiy  was  carried  to  an  extreme,  and  that  the 
essential  elements  of  truth  which  it  contains  were  overiooked. 
In  many  respects  the  theory  may  be  regarded  as  a  good  first 
approximation  to  the  complete  solution  of  the  problem.  The 
plan  favoured  by  some  modem  economists  of  regarding  wages 
simply  as  the  price  of  labour  determined  as  in  the  case  of  othtf 
prices  simply  by  demand  and  supply,  though  of  advantage  from 
some  points  of  view,  is  apt  to  lead  to  a  maladjustment  of  emption 
in  other  directions.  The  supply  of  labour,  for  example,  is  in 
many  ways  on  a  different  footing  from  the  supply  of  commodities. 
The  causes  which  the  wages-fund  theory  emphasises  too  ex- 
clusively are  after  all  verae  causae,  and  must  always  be  taken  into 
account.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  for  example,  that  under  tertain 
conditions  a  rapid  increase  in  the  labouring  population  may 
cause  wages  to  fall,  just  as  a  rapid  decline  may  make  (hem  rise. 
The  most  striking  example  of  a  great  improvement  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  labouring  classes  in  English  economic  history  is 
found  immediately  after  the  occurrence  of  the  Black  Death  in 
the  middle  of  the  14th  century.  The  sudden  and  extensive 
thinning  of  the  ranks  of  labour  was  manifestly  the  principal 
cause  oi  the  great  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the 
survivors. 

Again,  as  regards  the  amount  of  capital  competing  for  labour, 
the  reality  of  the  cause  admits  of  no  dispute,  at  any  rate  in  any 
modem  society.  The  force  of  this  element  is  perhaps  best  seen 
by  taking  a  particular  case  and  assuming  that  the  general  wages- 
fund  of  Uie  countiy  is  divided  into  a  number  of  smaller  wages- 
funds.  T^e,  for  example,  the  wages  of  domestic  servants 
when  the  payment  of  wages  is  made  simply  for  the  service, 
rendered.  We  may  fairly  assise  that  the  richer  classes  of  the 
community  practically  put  aside  so  much  of  their  revenue  for 
the  payment  of  the  wages  of  their  servants.  The  aggregate  of 
these  sums  is  the  domestic  wages-fund.  Now,  if  owing  to  any 
cause  the  amount  available  for  this  purpose  falls  off,  whilst  the 
number  of  those  seeking  that  class  of  employment  remains  the 
same,  the  natural  result  would  be  a  fall  in  wages.  It  may  of  course 
happen  In  this  as  In  other  cases  that  the  result  is  not  so  much  a 
direct  fall  in  the  rate  of  wages  as  a  diminution  of  employment — 
but  even  in  this  case,  If  people  employ  fewer  servants,  they  must 
do  more  work.  Again,  If  we  were  to  seek  for  the  reason  why  the 
wages  of  govemesses  are  so  low,  the  essence  of  the  answer  would 
be  found  in  the  excessive  supply  of  (hat  kind  of  labour  compared 
with  the  funds  destined  for  its  support.  And  similarly  through 
the  whole  range  of  employments  In  which  the  labour  is  employed 
in  perishable  services  and  not  in  material  products,  (he  wages- 
fund  theory  brings  into  prominence  the  pnncipal  causes  governing 
the  rate  of  wages,  namely,  the  number  of  people  competing,  the 
amount  of  the  fund  competed  for,  and  the  effectiveness  of  the 
competition.  This  view  also  is  in  harmony  with  (he  general 
principles  of  demand  and  supply.  If  we  regard  labour  as  a 
commodity  and  wages  as  the  price  paid  for  it,  then  we  may  say 
that  the  price  will  be  so  adjusted  that  the  quantity  demanded 


«32 


WAGES 


will  be  made  eqnftl  to  the  quantity  offend  at  that  price.—ilie 
agency  by  which  the  equation  it  reached  being  competition. 

But  when  we  turn  to  other  facta  for  the  verification  of  the 
theory  we  easily  discover  apparent  if  not  real  contradictions. 
The  case  of  Ireland  after  the  potato  famine  affords  an  instance 
of  a  rapidly  declining  population  without  any  corresponding 
rise  in  wages,  whilst  in  new  countries  we  often  find  a  very  rapid 
increase  of  population  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  wages. 
In  a  similar  manner  we  find  that  the  capital  of  a  country  may 
increase  rapidly  without  wages  rising  in  proportion — as,  for 
example,  seems  to  have  been  the  case  in  En^nd  after  the  great 
mechanical  improvements  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  up  to 
the  repeal  of  the  Com  Laws— whilst  in  new  countries  where 
wages  are  the  highest  there  arc  generally  complaints  of  the  scarcity 
of  capital.  But  perhaps  the  most  striking  conflict  of  the  theory 
with  facts  is  found  in  the  periodical  inflations  and  depressions  of 
trade.  After  a  commercial  crisis,  when  the  shock  is  over  and  the 
necessary  liquidation  has  taken  place,  we  generally  find  that 
there  i^  a  period  during  which  there  is  a  glut  of  capital  and  yet 
wages  arc  low.  The  abundance  of  capital  is  shown  by  the  low 
rate  of  interest  and  the  diflicuity  of  obtaining  remunerative 
investments.  Accordingly  this  apparent  failure  of  the  theory, 
at  least  partially,  makes  it  necessary  to  examine  the  propositions 
into  which  it  was  resolved  more  carefully,  in  order  to  discover, 
in  the  classical  economic  phraseology,  the  *'  disturbing  causes." 
As  regards  the  first  of  these  propositions — that  there  is  always  a 
certain  amount  of  capital  destined  for  the  employment  of  labour 
-"it  is  plain  that  this  destination  is  not  really  unconditional. 
In  a  modem  society  whether  or  not  a  capitalist  will  supply 
capital  to  labour  depends  on  the  rate  of  profit  expected,  and  this 
again  depends  proximately  on  the  course  of  prices.  But  the 
theory  as  stated  can  only  consider  profits  and  prices  as  acting 
in  an  indirect  roundabout  manner  upon  wages.  If  profits  are 
high  then  more  capital  can  be  accumulated  and  there  is  a  larger 
wages-fund,  and  if  prices  are  high  there  may  be  some  stimulus 
to  trade,  but  the  effect  on  real  wages  is  considered  to  be  very 
small  In  fact  Mill  writes  it  down  as  a  popular  delusion  that 
high  prices  make  high  wages.  And  if  the  high  prices  are  due 
purely  to  currency  causes  the  criticism  is  In  the  main  correct, 
and  in  some  cases,  as  was  shown  above,  high  prices  may  mean 
real  low  wages.  If.  however,  we  turn  to  the  great  classes  of 
employments  In  which  the  labour  is  embodied  in  a  material 
product,  we  find  on  examination  that  wages  vary  with  prices 
in  a  real  and  not  merely  in  an  illusory  sense.  Suppose,  for 
example,  that,  owing  to  a  great  increase  in  the  foreign  demand 
for  British  produce,  a  rise  tn  prices  takes  place,  there  will  be  a 
corresponding  rise  m  nominal  wages,  and  in  all  probability  a  rise 
In  real  wages  Such  was  undoubtedly  the  case  in  Great  Britain 
on  the  conclusion  of  the  Franco-German  War. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  prices  fal^and  profits  are  low,  there  will 
so  far  be  a  tendency  to  contract  the  employment  of  labour. 
At  the  same  time,  however,  to  some  extent  the  capital  is  applied 
uncondiiionally— in  other  words,  without  obtaining  what  is 
considered  adequate  remuneration,  or  even  at  a  positive  loss. 
The  existence  of  a  certain  amount  of  fixed  capital  practically 
implies  the  Constant  employment  of  a  certain  amount  of 
labour. 

Nor  is  the  second  proposition  perfectly  tme,  namely,  that  there 
are  always  a  certain  number  of  labourers  who  must  work  inde- 
pendently of  the  rate  of  wages.  For  the  returns  of  pauperism 
and  other  statistics  show  that  there  is  always  a  proportion  of 
"  floating  '*  labour  sometimes  employed  and  sometimes  not. 
Again,  although,  as  Adam  Smith  says,  man  is  of  all  luggage  the 
most  diflicult  to  be  transported,  still  labour  as  well  as  capital 
may  be  attracted  to  foreign  fields.  The  constant  succession  of 
strikes  resorted  to  in  order  to  prevent  a  fall  in  wages  shows  that 
in  practice  the  labourers  do  not  at  once  accept  the  "natural" 
market  rate.  Still,  on  the  whole,  this  second  proposition  is  a 
much  more  adequate  expression  of  the  tmth  thai)  the  first;  for 
labour  cannot  afford  to  lie  idle  or  to  emigrate  so  easily  as  capital. 

The  third  proposition,  that  the  wages-fund  is  distributed  solely 
by  competition,  is  also  found  to  conflict  with  facts.    Competition 


may  be  held  to  imply  in  its  positive  meaning  that  every  indi- 
vidual strives  to  attain  his  own  economic  interests  regardlea 
of  the  interests  of  others.    But  in  some  cases  this  end  may  be 
attained  most  effectively  by  mefns  of  combination,  as,   for 
eiample,  when  a  number  of  people  combine  to  create  a  practical 
monopoly.    Again,  the  end  may  be  attained  by  leaving  the 
control  to  government,  or  by  <rf)e3ring  the  unwritten  rules  of 
long-estaUished   custom.    But    these   methods   of   satisfying 
economic  inteiests  are  opposed  to  competition  in  the  usual  sense 
of  the  term,  and  certainly  as  used  in  reference  to  labour.     Thus 
on  the  negative  nde  competition  implies  that  the  economic 
interests  of  the  penons  concerned  are  attained  neither  by 
combination,  nor  by  law,  nor  by  custom.    Again,  it  is  also 
assimned.  in  making  competition  the  principal  distributing  force 
of  the  national  income,  that  every  person  knows  what  his  real 
interests  are,  and  that  there  is  periect  mobility  of  labour  both 
from  employment  to  employment  and  from  place  to  place. 
Without  these  assumptions  the  wages-fund  would  not  be  evenly 
distributed  according  to  the  quantity  of  labour.    It  is.  however, 
obvious  that,  even  in  the  present  industrial  system,  coi^petitioa 
is  modified  considerably  by  these  disturbing  agencies;   and  id 
fact  the  tendency  seems  to  be  more  and  more  for  combinatioos 
of  masters  on  one  side  and  of  men  on  Jlhe  other  t^  take  tbe  place 
of  the  competition  of  individuals. 

The  attempted  verification  of  the  wages-fund  theory  ferd; 
to  so  many  important  modifications  that  it  is  not  surpnsBg 
to  find  that  in  recent  times  the  tendency  has  been  to 
reject  it  altogether.  And  thus  we  arrive  at  the  develop- 
ment of  Adam  Smii  h*s  introductory  statement .  namely, 
that  the  produce  of  labour  constitutes  the  natural 
recompense  or  wages  of  labour.  Tbe  most  important 
omission  of  the  wages-fund  theory  is  that  it  fails  to  take  account 
of  the  quantity  produced  and  of  the  price  obtained  for  the  pro- 
duct. If  we  bring  m  these  elements,  we  find  that  there  are 
several  other  causes  to  be  considered  besides  capital,  population 
and  competition.  There  are.  for  example,  the  various  factors  in 
the  efiiciency  of  labour  and  capital,  in  the  organization  of  industry, 
and  in  the  general  condition  of  trade.  To  some  extent  these 
elements  may  be  introduced  into  the  old  theory,  but  in  reality 
the  point  of  view  is  quite  different.  This  is  made  abundantly 
clear  by  considering  Mill's  treatment  of  the  remedies  for  low 
wages.  His  main  contention  is  that  population  must  be  rigidly 
restrained  in  order  that  the  average  rate  of  wages  may  be  kept 
up.  But,  as  several  American  economists  have  pointed  out,  ia 
new  countries  especially  every  increase  in  the  number  of  labourers 
may  be  accompanied  by  a  more  than  proportionate  increase  in 
the  produce  and  thus  in  the  wages  of  labour.  Again,  the  older 
view  was  that  capital  must  be  first  accumulated  in  order  after- 
wards to  be  divided  up  into  wages,  as  if  apparently  agriculture 
was  the  normal  type  of  industry,  and  the  workers  must  have  a 
store  to  hve  on  until  the  new  crop  was  grown  and  secured. 
But  the  "  produce  "  theory  of  wages  considers  that  wages  are 
paid  continuously  out  of  a  continuous  product,  although  in  some 
cases  they  may  be  advanced  out  of  capital  or  accumulated  stores. 
According  to  this  view  wages  are  paid  out  of  the  annual  pioduce 
of  the  land,  capital  and  labour,  and  not  out  of  the  savings  of 
previous  years.  There  is  a  danger,  however,  of  pushing  this 
theory  to  an  untenable  extieme,  and  overlooking  altogether  the 
function  of  capital  in  determining  wages;  and  the  true  solution 
seems  to  be  found  in  a  combination  of  the  "  produce  "  theory  with 
the  **  fund  "  theory. 

An  industrial  society  may  be  regarded,  in  the  first  pbce,  as  a 
great  productive  machine  turning  out  a  vast  variety  of  products 
for  the  cpnsumption  of  the  members  of  the  society.  The 
distribution  of  these  products,  so  far  as  it  is  not  modified  by 
other  social  and  moral  conditions,  depends  upon  the  principle  of 
**  reciprocal  demand  "  In  a  preliminary  rough  classification  we 
may  make  three  groups— the  owners  of  land  and  natural  agents, 
tbe  owners  of  capital  or  reserved  products  and  instruments,  and 
the  owners  of  labour,  "fo  obtain  the  produce  requisite  even 
for  the  necessary  wants<of  the  community  a  combinatbn  of  these 
three  groups  must  take  place,  and  the  relative  reward  obtained 


WAGES 


233 


^  eadi  will  vuy  in  general  Aooording  to  tiM  demendi  of  tlie 
oChcrt  for  its  services.  Thus,  if  capital,  both  fixed  and  drculaling, 
b  scanty,  whilst  labour  and  land  are  both  abundant,  the  reward 
of  capital  will  be  bi|^  rdatively  to  rent  and  wages.  This  is  well 
fllostrated  in  the  high  rate  of  profits  obtained  in  early  societies. 
According  to  this  view  of  the  question  the  aggregate  amount 
paid  in  wages  depends  partly  on  the  general  productiveness  of 
all  the  productive  agents  and  partly  on  the  leUtive  power  of 
the  labourers  as  compared  with  the  owners  of  land  and  capital 
(the  amount  taken  by  government  and  individuals  for  taxes, 
charity,  &c.,  being  omitted).  Under  a  system  of  perfect  industrial 
competition  the  general  rate  of  wages  would  be  so  adjusted  that 
the  denumd  for  labour  would  be  just  equal  to  the  sui^y  at 
that  rate.  (Compare  Marshall's  Principles  of  Economics,  bk.  vL 
ch.  ii.) 

If  aU  labour  and  capital  were  perfectly  imiform  it  would  not 
be  necessary  to  cany  the  analysis  further,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
instead  of  two  great  groups  of  labourers  and  capitalists, 
we  have  a  multitude  of  subdivisions  all  under  the  in- 
fluence of  reciprocal  demand.  Every  subgroup  tries  to 
obtain  as  much  as  possible  of  the  general  product,  which  is 
practically  always  measured  in  money.  The  determination  of 
relative  wages  depends  on  the  constitution  of  these  groups  and 
their  relations  to  one  another. .  Under  any  given  social  conditions 
there  must  be  differences  of  wages  in  different  employments, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  permanent  until  some  change  occurs  in 
the  conditions;  in  other  words,  certain  differences  of  wages  are 
stable  or  normal,  whilst  others  depend  simply  on  temporary 
fluctuations  in  demand  and  supply.  A  celebrated  chapter  in  the 
Wealth  of  Nations  (bk.  i.  ch.  x.)  is  still  the  best  basis  for  the 
Investigation  of  these  normal  differences— which,  as  stated  above, 
is  the  second  principal  problem  of  the  wages  question.  First  of 
all,  a  broad  distinctioi  may  be  drawn  between  the  natural  and 
artificial  causes  of  difference,  or,  in  Adam  Smith's  phraseology, 
between  those  due  to  the  nature  of  the  employments  and  those 
due  to  the  policy  of  Europe.  In  the  former  division 
we  have  (i)  the  agreeablcness  or  disagreeableness  of 
the  empIo>'ment,  illustrated  by  two  classical  examples 
— "  honour  makes  a  great  part  of  the  reward  of  all 
honourable  professions,"  and  "  the  most  detestable  of  all  env 
ployments — ^that  of  public  executioner — ^is,  in  proportion  to  the 
work  done,  better  paid  than  any  common  trade  whatever." 
There  is,  however,  much  truth  in  Mill's  criticism,  that  in  Inany 
cases  the  worst  paid  of  all  employments  are  at  the  same  time  the 
most  disagreeable,  simply  because  those  engaged  in  them  have 
practically  no  other  choice.  (2)  The  easiness  and  cheapness  or 
the  reverse  of  learning  the  business.  This  factor  operates  in  two 
ways.  A  difficult  business  implies  to  some  extent  peculiar  natural 
qualifications,  and  it  also  mvolves  the  command  of  a  certain 
amount  of  capital  to  subsist  on  during  the  process  of  learning, 
and  thus  in  both  respects  the  natural  supply  of  labour  is  limited. 
(3)  l^e  constancy  or  inconstancy  in  the  employment — a  point 
already  noticed  under  real  wages.  (4)  The  great  or  small  trust 
reposed  in  the  workmen,  an  important  consideration  in  all  the 
bigher  grades  of  labour,  e.g.  bankers,  lawyers,  doctors,  &c. 
(5)  The  chance  of  success  or  the  reverse.  Here  it  is  to  be  observed 
that,  owing  to  the  hopefuhuss  of  human  nature  and  its  influence 
on  the  gambling  spirit,  the  chance  of  success  is  generally  over- 
estimated, and  therefore  that  the  wages  in  employments  where 
the  chance  of  success  is  really  small  are  lower  than  they  ought  to 
be.  The  most  striking  instance  is  furnished  by  the  labour  in  gold 
mines,  diamond  fields,  and  the  like,  and  the  same  cause  also 
operates  in  many  of  the  professions. 

All  these  causes  of  differences  of  wages  in  different  en^loy- 
menta  may  be  explained  by  showing  the  way  in  which  they 
operate  on  the  demand  and  supply  of  labour  in  the  particuLaur 
group.  If  the  "  net  advantages,"  to  adopt  Marshall's  phrase- 
ology, of  any  group  are  relatively  high,  then  Ubour  will  be 
directly  attracted  to  that  group,  and  the  children  bom  in  it  vill 
be  brought  op  to  the  same  occupation,  and  thus  in  both  ways  the 
supply  of  labour  will  be  increased.  But  the  "  net  advantages  '* 
embrace  the  conditions  just  enumerated.    Again,  U  tha  other 


membiM  of  the  eonunu&ity  require  certain  forms  of  labour  to  a 
greater  ettent,  there  is  an  increase  in  the  demand  and  a  rise  fn 
their  price. 

In  addition  to  tliese  so-celled  natural  causes  of  diiefence, 
there  ate  those  arising  from  law,  custom,  or  other  eo-odkd 
artifidai  causes.    They  may  be  ctessified  under  four 
headings.     (1)  Certain  causes  artificially  restrain  in- 
dustrial competition  by  limiting  the  number  of  any 
particular  group.    Up  to  the  dose  of  the  18th  century, 
and  In  many  instances  to  a  much  later  date,  the  r^pilations  of 
gilds  and  corpomtions  limited  the  numbers  in  eadi  trade  (d. 
Brentano,  CiUs  and  Trade  Unions),    This  they  did  by  making  a 
bng  jq^renticeship  compulsory  on  those  wishing  to  learn  the 
craft,  by  restricting  the  number  of  apprentices  to  be  taken  by 
any  master,  by  eauurting  certain  qualifications  as  to  birth  or 
wodth,  by  imposing  heavy  entrance  fees,  dther  in  money  or  in 
the  shape  of  a  useless  but  expensive  masterpiece.    Some  of  these 
regulations  were  originally  passed  in  the  interests  of  the  general 
public  and  of  those  employed  in  the  craft,  but  in  the  course  of 
time  their  effect  was,  as  is  slated  by  Adam  Smith,  simp^  to 
unduly  restrain  competition.    The  history  of  the  craft*gilds  is 
full  oC  instructive  examples  of  the  prindples  governing  wages. 
No  doubt  the  regulations  tended  to  raise  wages  above  the  natural 
rate,  but  as  a  natural  cMisequence  industry  migrated  to  places 
where  the  oppressive  regulntimu  did  not  exist.    In  the  time  of  the 
Tudots  the  <tocay  of  many  towns  during  a  period  of  rapid  national 
progress  was  largely  due  to  those  "  fraternities  In  evil,"  as  Bacon 
called  the  gilds.    At  present  one  of  the  best  examples  of  the 
survival  of  this  H)edes  of  artificial  restriction  is  the  limitation  of 
the  number  of  teachers  qualifying  for  degrees  in  certain  univer- 
sities,   (a)  In  some  emf^yments,  however,  law  and  custom  tend 
unduly  to  increase  the  amount  of  competition.    This  was  to  a 
great  extent  the  case  in  the  church  and  the  scholastic  professions 
owing  to  the  large  amount  of  charitable  education.    Adam 
Smith  points  out  that  even  in  his  day  a  curate  was  "  passing  rich 
OB  iorty  pounds  a  year,"  whilst  many  only  obtained  £20— bdow 
the  wages  earned  by  a  journeyman  shoemaker.    In  the  same  way 
state^dded  education  of  a  commerdal  and  technical  kind  may 
result  in  lowering  the  rates  (tdativdy)  of  the  educated  business 
classes.    It  is  said  that  one  reason  why  the  Germans  replace 
Enj^ishmen  in  many  branches  is  that,  having  obtained  their 
•ducatxm  at  a  low  rate,  there  are  more  of  them  quafified,  and 
consequently  they  accept  lower  wages.    The  customary  idea 
that  the  position  of  a  derfc  is  more  genteel  than  that  of  an  artisan 
accounts  largely  for  the  excessive  competition  in  the  former  class, 
especially  now  that  education  is  practically  universaL    (5)  In 
some  cases  law  and  custom  may  impede  or  promote  the  drcula' 
tion  of  labour.    At  the  time  Adam  Smith  wrote  the  laws  ol 
settlement  ^ittt  still  in  full  operation.  "  There  is  not  a  man  o{ 
forty  who  has  not  feh  most  crudly  oppressed  by  this  ill-contiived 
law  oC  ssttkment."    Differences  in  wages  in  different  parts  of 
the  same  country  and  in  different  occupations  are  still  largdy 
due  to  Impcdimcirts  in  the  way  of  the  movement  of  labour, 
which  might  be  removed  or  lessened  by.  the  government  making 
provisions  for  migration  or  emigration.    (4)  On  many  ooca^ons 
in  the  past  the  law  often  directly  interfered  to  regulate  wagjpf. 
The  Statute  of  Labouren,  paiised  immediately  after  the  filack 
Death,  was  an  attempt  in  this  direction,  but  It  appears  to  ba^ 
f  afled,  according  to  the  investigations  of  Thorold  Rogers.    The 
same  writer,  however,  ascriba  to  the  cdebrated  Statute  of 
Apprentices  (5th  of  Elisabeth)  the  degradation  of  the  En|^ 
labourer  for  nearly  three  centuries  {Agrietdture  and  Prices^ 
voL  v.).    This,  he  asserts,  was  due  to  the  wages  bdng  fixed  by 
the  justices  of  the  peace.    It  is.  however,  worth  noting  that 
Brentano,  who  is  equally  sympathetic  with  the  daims  of  labour, 
asserts  that  so  long  as  tUs  statute  was  actually  enforced,  or  the 
customs  founded  upon  it  were  observed,  the  condition  of  the 
labourers  was  prosperous,  and  that  the  degradation  only  began 
when  the  statute  fell  mto  disuse  (Origin  of  CUds  and  Trade 
Unions    For  a  full  account  of  the  effect  of  the  Sutute  of 
Apprentices  see  W.  Cunningham's  Crowlk  of  Bug^  Jnituirp 
and  weMeMvs,  vol*  h.^ 


»u 


WAGES 


SoDieUiiiiS  miist  be  said  «s  to  the  poiRer  ^  the  sute  to  Mguiate 
As  far  as  any  direct  regulation  is  concerned,  it  seems  U> 
be  only  pos^ble  within  narrow  limits.  The  state  might 
of  course  institute  certain  coo^dcx  slidiag*«cales  for 
different  classes  of  labour  and  maJce  themcompulsoEy, 
but  this  would  rather  be  an  official  declaration  of  the 
naUual  market  rate  than  a  direct  regulation.  Any  rate  which 
the  state  of  trade  and  prices  would  not  bear  could  not  be  en- 
forced: masters  could  not  be  compelled  to  work  at  a  kMs  or  to 
keep  their  capital  employed  when  it  might  be  more  advantage- 
ously transf  enred  to  another  place  or  occupation.  Thuy  the  legal 
rate  could  not  exceed  to  any  considerable  extent  the  mariLet  rate. 
Nor,  on  the  other  hand,  could  a  lower  rate  in  general  be  enforced, 
especially  when  the  labourers  have  the  right  of  combination  and 
possess  powerful  organizations.  And  even  i^Mirt  from  thia  the 
competition  of  capitalisu  for  labour  would  tend  to  nise  wages 
above  the  legal  rate,  and  evasion  would  be  extremely  easy. 

The  best  illustration  of  the  failure  to  raise  the  rate  of  ^ages 
directly  by  authority  is  found  in  the  English  poor  law  system 
^^_  between  1796  and  XS34.  "  In  the  former  year  (1796) 
Jjjjj^"'  the  decisively  fatal  step  of  legaliajxig  out-relief  to  the 
mtigB»  able-bodied,  and  in  aid  of  vages,  was  taken,"  aod  "  in 
February  1834  was  published  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable  and  startling  document  to  bo  found  in  the  whole 
range  of  English,  perhaps  indeed  of  all  social  history  "  (Fowle's 
Pifor  Law).  The  essence  of  the  system  waa  in  the  justices 
determining  a  natural  rate  of  wages,  regard  being  paid  to  the 
price  of  necessaries  and  the  size  of  the  labourer's  fainily,  and  an 
amount  was  given  from  the  rates  sufficient  to  make  up  the  wages 
received  to  this  natural  leveL  Hie  method  of  administration 
was  certainly  bad,  but  the  best  administcatioii  possible  could 
only  have  kept  the  system  in  existence  a  few  years  longer.  In 
one  parish  the  poor-rate  had  swallowed  up  the  whole  value  of  the 
Und,  which  was  going  out  of  cultivation,  a  fact  which  has  an 
obvious  bearing  on  land  nationalization  as  a  remedy  for  low  wages. 
The  labourers  became  careless,  inefficient  and  improvident. 
Those  who  were  in  regular  receipt  of  relief  were  often  better  off 
(in  money)  than  independent  labourers.  But  the  most  important 
consequence  was  the^  the  real  wages  obtained  were,  in  spite  of 
the  relief,  lower  than  otherwise  they  would  have  been,  and  a 
striking  proof  waa  given  that  wages  axa  paid  out  of  the  produce 
of  labour.  The  Report  of  the  Poor  Law  Commissioners  (1834) 
states  emphatically  (p.  48)  that "  the  severest  sufferers  are  those 
for  whose  benefit  the  system  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
and  to  be  perpetuated,  the  labouaers  and  their  families."  The 
indqiendent  labourers  suffered  directly  through  the  unfair 
competition  of  the  pauper  labour,  but,  as  one  of  the-sub-reporters 
Stated,  in  every  district  the  general  condition  of  the  independent 
labourer  was  strikingly  distinguishable  from  that  of  the  pauper 
and  superior  to  it,  though  the  independent  labourers  were 
commonly  maintained  upon  less  mo^cy.  In  New  Zealand  and 
Australia  in  recent  years  a  great  extension  has  been  made  of 
the  principle  of  state  intervention  in  the  regulation  of  wages. 

But,  although  the  direct  intervention  of  the  state,  with  the 
view  of  raising  the  nominal  rates  of  wages,  is,  aooordsng  to  theory 
and  experience,  of  doubtful  advantage,  still,  when  we 
consider  real  wages  in  the  evident  sense  of  the  teen, 
there  seems  to  b«  an  almost  indefinite  scope  for  state 
interference.  The  effect  of  the  Factory  Acts  and 
«mflar  legislation  has  been  undoubtedly  to  raise  the  real  wages 
of  the  working-classes  as  a  whole,  although  at  first  the  same  argu- 
ments were  used  in  opposition  to  these  proposals  as  in  the  case 
of  direct  relief  from  the  poor-rates.  But  there  is  a  vital  difference 
in  the  two  cases,  because  in  the  former  the  tendency  is  to  increase 
whilst  in  the  latter  it  is  to  diminish  the  energy  and  self-reliance 
of  the  workers.  An  caccellent  summary  of  the  results  of  th^s 
species  of  industrial  legislation  i»  givtn  by  John  Motley  (Life  of 
CobikH,  vol.  i.  p.  303).*— 

"  We  have  tO'day  a  complete,  minute,  and  voluminous  code  for 
the  protection  of  labour;  buildings  must  be  kept  pure  of  effluvia; 
dangerous  nuchmer>[  must  be  fenced ;  children  and  young  persons 
nuist  not  dcaa  it  while  in  motion;  their  hours  are  not  only  limited 
but  fixed ;  continuous  employment  must  not  exceed  a  given  number 


of  houfs,  vBiyiaff  with  the  trade  bdt  picscribed  by  the  law  In  nt 

cases:  a  statutable  number  of  holidays  is  imposed ;  the  ciuldm 
must  go  to  school,  and  the  employer  must  have  every  week  a  certi- 
ficate to  that  effect ;  if  an  accident  happens  notice  must  be  sent 
to  the  proper  authorities;  •pccial  pcovuions  are  made  for  bake- 
houses, for  lace-making.  forcoUienes,  aad  for  a  whole  achcdule 
of  other  special  ^callings;  for  the  due  enforcement  and  vii^ilaat 
supervision  of  this  immense  host  of  minute  prescriptions  there  is 
an  immense  host  of  inspectors,  certifying  surgeons,  and  other 
authorities  whose  business  it  is  to '  speed  suid  post  o'er  land  and 
ocean '  on  sullen  guardianship  of  every  kind  01  labour,  from  that 
of  the  woman  who  plaits  straw  at  her  cottage  door  to  the  miner 
who  descends  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth  and  the  ««^«»«frT  who 
conveys  the  fruits  and  materials  of  univenal  Industry  to  and  fxo 
between  the  remotest  parts  of  the  globe.'* 

The  analysb  previously  given  of  real  wages  shows  that  logically 
all  these  improvements  in  the  conditions  of  labour,  by  Hiiwwi^iii.^^ 
the  "  quantity  of  labour  "  mvolved  in  work,  axe  equivalent  to  a 
real  rise  in  wages.    Experience  has  also  shown  that  the  state 
may  advantagrausly  interfere  in  regulating  the  methods  of 
paying  wages.    A  curious  poem,  written  about  the    time  ef 
Edward  IV.,  on  Ens^nd's  commercial  policy  {Political  Soxp 
and  Poemst  Rolls  Series,  ii.  282),  shows  that  even  in  the 
X5th  century  the  "  truck  "  system  was  in  full  operation,  to  the 
disadvantage  of  the  labourers.    The  cloth-makers,  in  particular, 
compelled  the  workers  to  take  half  of  their  wages  in  merxdiandse 
which  they  estimated  at  higher  than  its  real  value.    The  writer 
proposes  that  the  "  wyrk  folk  be  paid  m  good  mon£,"  and  (b/i 
sufficient  ordinance  be  passed  for  the  purpose,  and  a  hiw  ibOs 
effect  was  enacted  in  the  4th  year  of  Edward  IV.    The  Tk^ 
Acts  have  since  been  much  further  extended.    Again,  the  k^ 
lation  directed  against  the  adulteration  of  all  kinds  of  ^ocds, 
which  also  finds  its  prototypes  in  the  middle  aj^,  is  in  its  effects 
equivalent  to  a  rise  in  real  wages.* 

The  power  of  trade  unions  in  regulating  wages  is  in  most 
respects  analogous  in  principle  to  that  of  legislation  just  noticed. 
Nominal  wages  can  only  be  affected  within  compara- 
tively narrow  limits,  depending  on  the  condition  of 
trade  and  the  state  of  prices,  whilst  in  many  cases  a  f^ 
rise  in  the  rate  in  some  trades  or  places  can  only  be 
accomplished  by  a  corresponding  depression  elsewhere.  At  the 
same  time,  however,  it  can  hardly  be  questioned  that  through 
the  unions  nominal  wages  have  on  the  whole  risen  at  the  expense 
of  profit»>-that  is  to  say,  that  combinations  of  labourers  can 
make  better  bargains  than  individuals.  But  the  debatable 
margin  which  may  make  either  extra  profits  or  extra  wages  is 
itself  small,  and  the  principal  direct  effect  of  trade  unions  is  to 
make  wages  fluctuate  with  prices,  a  rise  at  one  time  being  cam* 
pensated  by  a  fall  at  another.  The  unions  can,  however,  look 
after  the  interests  of  thdr  members  in  many  ways  which  improve 
their  general  condition  or  raise  the  real  rate  of  wages,  and  when 
nomiiuil  wages  have  attained  a  natural  maximum,  and  some 
method  of  arbitration  or  sliding-scale  is  in  force,  this  indirect 
action  seems  the  principal  function  of  trade  unions.  The  effects 
of  industrial  partnership  (cf .  Sedley  Taylor's  Profit  Sharing)  and 
of  produaive  cooperation  (cf .  Holyoake's  History  of  Cooperation) 
are  small  in  amount  (compared  with  the  total  industry  of  any 
country)  thou^  excellent  in  kind,  and  there  seem  to  be  no  signs 
of  the  decay  of  the  entrepreneur  system. 

The  industrial  revolution  which  took  place  about  the  end  of  the 
x8th  century,  involving  radical  changes  in  production,  destroy^ 
the  old  relations  between  capital  and  labour,  and  per- 
haps  the  most  interesting  part  of  the  history  of  wages  is  Jjjjf^ 
that  covered  by  the  19th  dentury.  For  fifty  years  alter  asv^m. 
the  introductk>n  of  production  on  a  large  scale,  the 
condition  of  the  working-classes  was  on  the  whole  deplorable,  but 
great  progress  has  since  been  made.  The  principal  results  may 
be  summed  up  under  the  effects  of  machinery  on  wages — taking 
both  words  in  their  widest  sense.  Machinery  affects  the  condition 
of  the  working-classes  in  many  ways.  The  most  obvious  mode  is 
the  direct  substitution  of  machinery  for  labour.  It  is  dear  that 
any  sudden  and  extensive  adoption  of  labour-saving  machinery 

■I  ■  — ^^M^»^— ^.».       ..I.      Mil.  I  II 

*  On  this  subject  compare  Jevons,  TV  State  in  Rdatiom  to  Labonr, 
new  edition  by  F.  A.  Hirst. 


WAGGA-WAGOA— WAGNER,  R. 


«3S 


oiay,  Igr  thiofptbg  the  bbouicn  out  of  em|»loyinent,  lower  the 
rate  of  wages,  and  it  is  easy  to  undenund  how  riots  arose 
repeatedly  owing  to  this  cause.    But  as  a  rule  the  effect  of  labour- 
saviDg  machinery  in  diminishing  employment  has  been  greatly 
exaggerated,  because  two  important  practical  considerations 
have  been  overlooked.    In  the  first  place,  any  radical  change 
made  in  the  methods  of  production  will  be  ovly  gradually  and 
continuously  adopted  throughout  the  industrial  worid;  and  In 
the  second  phu:e  these  radical  changes,  these  discontinaous  leaps, 
tend  to  give  place  to  advances  by  small  incremenU  of  mmiiioH^ 
We  have  an  instance  of  a  great  radical  chango  m  the  steam-engine. 
Watt's  patent  for  "  a  method  of  lessening  "  the  consamptioii  of 
steam  and  fuel  in  fiie-eogines  was  published  on  January  5, 1769, 
and  the  movement  for  utilizing  steam-power  stiU  found  room  for 
extension  for  a  century  or  more  afterwards.    The  history  of  the 
power-loom  again  shows  that  the  adoption  of  an  invtetion  is 
comparatively  slow.    In  1813  there  were  not  more  than  3400 
power-bx>ms  at  work  in  England.    In  tSao  they  increased  to 
24,150.    In  1853  there  were  loo^ooo,  but  the  curious  thing  is 
that  during  th^  time  the  number  of  hand-looms  had  actually 
inereased  to  some  extent  (Porter's  Pr$gress  of  the  NalioHf  p.  186). 
Tlie  power-loom  also  illustrates  the  ^adual  continuous  growth 
of  improvements.    This  is  deariy  shown  by  Porter.    A  very 
good  hand«weaver,  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  of  age,  could 
weave  two  pieces  of  shirting  per  week.    In  1823  a  steam-loom 
weaver,  about  fifteen  years  of  age,  attending  two  looms,  coirid 
weave  liine  similar  pieces  In  a  week.    In  1826  a  steam-loom 
weaver,  about  fifteen,  attending  to  four  looms,  could  weave 
twelve  similar  ineces  a  week.    In  1833  a  steam-loom  weaver, 
from  fifteen  to  twenty,  assisted  by  a  g^rl  of  twelve,  attending  to 
four  looms,  could  weave  eighteen  pieces.    This  is  only  one  ex- 
ample, for,  as  Porter  remarks,  it  would  fill  many  large  volumes 
to  describe  the  numerous  inventions  which  during  the  19th 
century  imparted  facility  to  manuifacturing  processes,  and  in 
every  case  we  find  a  continuity  in  the  improvements*    This  two- 
fold progressive  character  of  invention  operates  in  favour  of 
the  labourer—in  the  first  place,  because  in  most  cases  the 
hicreased  cheapness  of  the  commodity  consequent  on  the  use 
of  machinery  causes  a  corresponding  extension  of  the  market 
and  the  amount  produced,  and  thus  there  may  be  no  actual 
diminution  of  employment  even  temporarily;  and  secondly,  if 
the  improvement  takes  pUice  slowly,  there  is  time  for  the  absotp* 
tion  of  the  redundant  labour  in  other  employments.    It  hi  quite 
dear  that  on  balance  the  great  increase  In  poptdation  in  the  tgth 
century  was  largely  caused,  or  rather  rendered  possible,  by  the 
increased  use  of  labour-saving  machinery.    The  way  in  which 
the  working-dasaes  were  at  first  injured  by  the  aidoption  <rf 
machinery  was  not  so  much  by  a  diminution  in  the  number  of 
hands  required  as  by  a  diange  in  the  nature  of  the  empl<^rment. 
Skilled  labour  of  a  certain  kind  lost  its  peculiar  value,  and  children 
and  women  were  able  to  do  work  formerly  only  done  by  men* 
But  the  principal  evils  resulted  from  the  wretched  conditioRS 
under  wMch,  before  the  factory  le^latlon,  the  work  was  pei«* 
formed;  and  there  is  good  reason  to  believe' that  a  deterioration 
of  the  type  of  labourer,  both  moral  and  physical,  was  effected* 
It  is,  however,  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  on  the  wh(rfe  the  use  Of 
machinery  tends  to  dispense  with  skill.     On  the  contrary, 
everything  goes  to  prove  that  under  the  present  system  <^  pro- 
ji^^,,„     duction  on  a  large  sc^lc  there  is  on  the  whole  far 
•f  <A*         more  skill  required  than  formerly-^a  fact  well  brought 
out  by  Sir  Robert  Ciffen  in  his  essay  on  the  progress 
of -.the  worklng-dasses  (Essays  on  Pitumce,  vtd.  ii. 
p.  365),  and  expressed  by  the  official  reports  on  wdges  in  different 
countries.  0-  S.  N.) 

WAflGA-WAOOA,  a  town  of  Wynyard  county.  New  South 
Wales,  Australia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Murrumbidgee, 
309  m.  by  rail  W.S.W.  of  Sydney  and  367  m.  N.E.  of  Melbourne. 
Pop.  (1901)  SI  14-  ^e  Murrumbidgee  is  here  spanned  by  a  steel 
viaduct,  the  approaches  of  which  are  formed  by  heavy  embank- 
ments. Wagga- Wagga  has  a  school  of  art  with  a  library  attached, 
a  fine  convent  picturesquely  situated  on  Mount  -Erin,  a  good 
lacecouise  and  agricultdtal  ihow-grvoods.    There  is  a  cunatder- 


abfe  amount  of  Mid-mining  in  the  district,  which,  however,  Is 
chiefly  pastoral,  although  cereals,  tobacco  and  wine  are  produced 
in  considerable  quantities. 

WAGNER,  ADOLF  (1835-  ),  German  economist,  was  bom 
at  Erkngen  on  the  25th  of  March  1855.  Educated  at  G(Vttingen 
and  Heidelberg,  he  was  professor  of  political  sdence  at  Dorpat 
and  Freiburg,  and  after  1870  at  Berlin.  A  prolific  writer  on 
economic  (Koblems,  he  brought  out  in  his  study  of  the  subject 
the  close  relation  which  necessarily  exists  between  economics 
and  jurisprudence.  He  ranks  without  doubt  as  one  of  the  most 
eminent  German  economists  and  a  distinguished  leader  of  the 
historical  sduM^.  His  leanings  towards  Christian  socialism 
made  him  one  of  those  to  whom  the  appellation  ci  **  Katheder- 
Socialisten"  or  "socialists  of  the  (professional)  chair"  was 
applied,  and  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Ytrtin  JUr  Social' 
fUUik,  In  1871  he  undertook,  in  conjunction  with  Professor 
E.  Nasse  (1829-1890),  a  new  edition  of  Rau's  Lekrhuck  itr 
politischen  Okotumie,  and  his  own  special  contributions,  the 
CruttdUgung  and  Finammssensekafl,  afterwards  published  separ- 
ately, are  probably  his  most  important  works.  He  approachea 
economic  studies  from  the  point  of  view  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
jus  naturae  on  which  the  physiocrats  reared  their  economic 
structure,  has  lost  its  hold  on  belief,  and  that  the  old  a  priori 
and  absolute  conceptions  of  personal  freedom  and  property  have 
given  way  with  it.  He  lays  down  that  the  economic  position 
of  the  individual,  instead  of  depending  merely  on  so-called 
natural  rights  or  even  on  his  natural  powers,  is  conditioned  by 
the  contemporary  juristic  system,  which  is  itself  an  historical 
products  These  conceptions,  therefore,  of  freedom  and  property, 
half  economic,  half  juristic,  require  a  fresh  examiiuition. 
Wagner  accordingly  investigates,  before  anything  else,  the 
conditions  of  the  economic  life  <rf  the  community,  and  in  sub* 
ordination  to  this,  determines  the  sphere  of  the  economic  freedom 
of  the  individual.  Among  his  worlu  are  BeitrSge  tur  Lehre  von 
den  Banken  (1857),  System  dcr  deutscJuu  Zettdbankgcseizgebung 
(s87o<-i873)  and  Affor-  nni  Induskiestaat  (1902). 

His  brother,  Heuiann  WAONm  (1840-  ),  a  distfaigulshed 
geographer,  joined  the  Geographical  Institute  of  Justus  Perthes 
in  1868,  and  was  editor  of  the  statistical  section  of  the  Golhaer 
Almanack  up  to  1876.  In  1872  he  founded  Die  Bevdlkerung  der 
Erde,  a  critical  review  of  area-  and  population,  and  hi  r88o  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  geography  at  Gdttingen.  He  was 
editor  of  the  Geograpkisches  Jakrlmch  from  x88o  to  1908.  Hi* 
publicatiostt  indude  Lekrbtick  der  Geograpkie  (7th  ed.,  1903)  and 
iietkodiscker  SckuiaUas  (12th  ed.,  1907). 

WAOHBR,  RUDOLPH  (X805-X864),  German  anatomist  and 
physiologist,  was  bom  on  the  30th  of  June  1805  at  Bayreuth^ 
where  his  father  was  a  professor  in  the  gymnasium.  He  began 
the  study  of  medicine  at  Erlangen  in  1822,  and  finished  ha* 
curriculum  In  1826  at  Wttrzburg,  where  he  had  attached  himself 
mostly  to  J.  I..  Schdolein  in  medidne  and  to  K.  F.  Heusinger  in 
comparative  anatomy.  Aided  by  a  public  sUpendimm,  he  spenti 
a  year  or  more  studying  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  under  the 
friendly  eye  of  Cuvier,  and  in  making  zoological  discoveries  at 
Cagliari  and  other  places  on  the  Mediterranean.  On  his  return 
he  set  up  in  medical  practice  at  Augsburg,  whither  his  father  iM4 
been  transferred;  but  in  a  few  months  he  found  an  opening  for 
an  academical  career,  on  bdng  appointed  prosector  at  Erlangen, 
In  1832  he  became  full  professor  of  soology  and  comparative 
anatomy  there,  and  held  that  office  until  1840,  when  he  was 
called  to  suceeed  J.  F.  Blumenbach  at  G^ttingfea.  At  the  Hano» 
verian  university  he  remained  till  his  death,  being  much  occupied 
with  adininistrative  work  as  pro-rector  for  a  number  of  years, 
and  for  neariy  the  whole  of  his  residence  troubled  by  ilt-healtb 
(phthisis).  In  rd6o  he  gave  over  the  physiological  part  of  his 
teaching  to  a  new  chair,  tetaining  the  toological,  with  which 
his  career  had  begun.  While  at  Fruikf  urt,  on  his  way  to  examine 
the  Neanderthal  skull  at  Bonn,  he  was  struck  with  paralysis, 
and  died  at  GOttingen  afew  months  later  on  the  x3thof  May  1864. 

Wagner's  activity  as  a  writer  and  worker  was  enormous,  and  his 
ranee  extensive,  most  of  his  hard  work  having  been  done  at  Eriangeu 
wfaSe  Us  health  was  good.    Hb  graduation  thesis  was  .0)1  th* 


»S6 


WAGNER 


•mlstioaft  #ub)eet  of  **  the  hittaricttl  devdopment  of  cpMnuc  md 

cont^ious  diseases  all  over  the  world,  with  the  lawsof  their  dinusion," 
which  showed  the  influence  of  SchOnlein.  His  first  treatise  waa 
Dte  NatureesckichU  des  Menschen  (in  9  vols..  KefHfR'en,  1831). 
Frequent  joorneya  to  the  Mediterranean,  the  Adriatic  and  the 
North  Sea  gave  him  abundant  materials  for  research  oninvertebiBte 
anatomy  and  physiolo^i  which  he  communicated  first  to  the 
Munich  acadcnsy  of  saences,  and  republished  inhis  Beitrdge  — 

add 

the    SUDJCCl    01    am  vJHiir     v4wa»rviH^    mt^r  wfrgtKt*tfvni»^m  #«H«Mvn«iv| 

Leipxig),  which  recommended  itself  to  studenu  by  its  clear  and 
concise  style.  A  new  edition  of  it  appeared  in  18^3  under  the  title 
of  L^buch  der  Zootomie,  of  which  only  the  vertebrate  section  was 
corrected  by  himself.  The  precision  of  Ins  earlier  work  b  evidenced 
by  his  iikrom^ic  MtasunrnfiUs  of  tke  &eiMntary  ParU  ^  Mam 
and  Animals  (Leipzig,  1834).  His  zoological  labours  roav  be  said 
to  conclude  with  the  atlas  Icones  tootomicae  (Leipzig,  I841).  In 
1835  he  communicated  to  the  Munich  academy  of  sciences  his 
researches  on  the  physiology  of  generation  and  development,  in- 
duding  the  famous  discovery  of  tne  germinal  vesicle  of  the  human 
ovum.  These  were  republisncd  under  the  title  Prodrmnus  kisioriat 
generalionis  kominis  aique  animalium  (Leipzig,  I8t6).  As  in 
zoology,  his  original  researches  in  physiology  were  followed  by  a 
students'  text>book,  Lekrbuek  der  sbeoieUtn  Pkystaiepe  (Leii»ig, 
4B38).  which  soon  reached  a  third  edition,  and  was  translated  into 
French  and  English.  This  was  su|M>lemenccd  by  an  atlas,  Icones 
tkysiolopcae  (Leipzig.  I839).  To  the  same  period  bdongs  a  very 
interestmg  but  now  little  known  work  on  medicine  proper,  of  a 
historical  and  pathetic  scope,  Grundrhs  dtr  EncyUo^ddi*  und 
Mtlkodoiopt  d4r  medkmtschtn  Wissensckaftqn  mack  gjuckicktlicker 
Ansickt  (brlangen.  1838),  which  was  translated  into  Danish.  About 
tne  same  time  he  worked  at  a  translation  of  ].  C.  Prichard's  Natural 
History  of  Man,  and  edited  various  writings  of  S.  T.  SOmmcrring, 
with  a  biography  of  that  anatomist  (1844),  which  he  himself  fancied 
nioat  .of  all  his  writings.  I  n  1 843.  after  his  removal  to  GOttingea,  he 
liegan  his  great  Hanawdrterbuch  der  Pkysioleiie,  mil  Ricksickt  auf 
pkysiohtiseke  Patkologie,  and  brought  out  the  fifth  (supplementary) 
volume  in  1852:  the  only  contributions  of  his  own  in  it  were  on  the 
sympathetic  nerve,  nervc^ngtia  and  nerve-endings,  and  he 
modestly  discUimed  all  merit  except  as  being  the  organizer.  While 
resident  in  Italy  for  his  health  from  1845 101847.  he  occupied  himself 
with  rcsearclics  on  the  electrical  organ  of  the  torpedo  and  on  nervous 
organization  generally;  these  he  published  in  1853-1854  {Neuroio' 
giscke  UntersuckuMgem,  Gdctingen),  and  therewith  nis  phynological 
period  may  be  said  to  end.  His  next  period  was  stormy  and  con* 
troversiaL  He  entered  the  lists  boldly  against  the  materialism  of 
"  Stoff  und  Kraft,"  and  avowed  himself  a  Christian  believer,  where- 
upon hft  lost  the  countenance  of  a  number  of  his  old  friends  and 
pupils,  and  was  unfeelingly  told  that  le  was  suffering  Irom  an 
'*  atrophy  of  the  brain."  His  quarrd  with  the  materiausts  began 
with  his  oration  at  the  Gfittinaen  meeting  of  the  Naturforscber- 
Versammlung  in  185^,  on  "MenschenschGpfungund  Seelensubstanz." 
This  was  followed  by  a  series  of  "Physiological  Letters"  in  the 
Attgemein*  Zeituntt  by  un  essay  on  "  Clauben  und  Wissen,"  andl)y 
the  most  important  piece  of  this  series,  "  Der  Kampf  um  die  Seele 
(Gfittingen.  1857).     Having  come  to  the  consiaenation  of  these 

Ehilosophical  problenu  late  in  life,  he  was  at  some  disadvantage; 
ut  he  endeavoured  to  join  as  he  b«A  could  in  the  current  of  con* 
temporary  German  thought.  He  had  an  exact  knowledge  of  daasical 
Germaa  writings*  more  especially  of  Goethe's,  and  of  the  Utersture 
Qonnectcd  with  him.  In  what  may  be  called  his  fourth  and  last 
period,  Wagner  became  anthropologist  and  archaeologist,  occupied 
nimscif  wttn  the  cabinet  of  skulls  in  tne  Gdttingen  museum  collected 
by  Bludienbach  and  with  the  excavation  01  prehistoric  remainsj 
eorrespDndcd  actively  with  the  anthropological  societies  of  Paris  and 
London,  and  organized,  in  co-operation  with  the  veteran  K.  E.  voi^ 
Baer,  a  successful  congress  of  anthropologists  at  GSttingen  in  i86t. 
His  last  writings  were  memoirs  on  the  convolutions  of  the  human 
brain,  on  the  weight  of  brains,  and  on  the  brains  of  idiots  (i86(^ 
l86a). 

See  memoir  by  his  eldest  ton  in  the  CWingtr  ttUkrU  Anuigen, 
"Nachrichtcn"  for  1864. 

WAGNBR,  WILHBUf  RICHARD  (1813-1883),  German 
dramatic  composcTi  poet  and  essay- writer,  was  born  at  Leipzig 
^  the  aand  of  May  181  j.  In  1832  he  wassent  to  the  Kieuzschule 
at  Dresden,  where  be  did  so  well  that,  four  years  later,  he  trans- 
lated the  fint  twelve  books  of  the  Odyssty  for  amusement.  In 
1828  he  was  removed  to  the  Nioolaischule  at  Leipiig,  where  he 
was  less  succcssfuL  His  first  music  master  was  Gottlieb  MttUer, 
who  thought  him  self-willed  and  eccentric;  and  his  first  pro* 
ductlon  as  a  composer  was  an  overture,  performed  at  the  Leipzig 
ibtttre  in  1830.  In  that  year  he  matriculated  at  the  university, 
and  took  lessons  in  composition  from  Theodor  Weinlig,  cantor  at 
'^c  Tlu>masschide.  A  symphony  was  produced  at  the  Gewand- 
haus  fionceiu  in  i83j,aod  in  the  fpUowing  year  he  was  appointed  I 


oondiictor of  theopcta at  Magdebwf*  tb*  om.%  wKsmprsitstf^ 
and  Wagner's  life  at  this  period  was  veiy  uiwcvucCL  He  bid 
composed  an  opera  called  IMs  Fem  adapted  by  himself  inia 
Gocai'a  La  Donm  Strpenkt  and  ametbef,  Dt  LkbtsHrhOt 
founded  on  Shakespeare's  Umnm  /ar  Meaaur;  but  only  Du 
Liebeswerbot  obtained  a  single  performance  In  1836. 

In  that  year  Wagner  married  Wilhelmina  Planer,  an  actzcai 
at  the  theatre  at  ILQnigsbeKt*  He  had  accepted  an  engsgement 
there  as  conductor;  but,  the  lessee  becoming  bankrupt,  the 
scheme  was  abandoned  in  favour  of  a  better  appoiotment  at 
Riga.  Accepting  this*  he  reifiained  actively  employed  until 
1839,  when  he  made  his  first  visit  to  Paris,  taking  with  him  an 
unfiidshed  open  based  on  Bulwer  Lytton's  Xiaui^  and,  like  his 
earlier  attempts,  on  his  own  libretto.  The  venture  proved  most 
unfortunate.  Wagner  failed  lo  gain  a  footii^  and  lUcnsii 
destined  for  the  Grand  Opera,  was  r^ected.  Ho  completed  it, 
however,  and  ia  184^  it  was  produced  at  Dresden,  wWe,  mth 
Madame  Schrooder  I>tvrient  and  Herr  Tichatschek  in  the  principal 
parts,  it  achieved  a  success  which  went  far  to  make  hin  famous. 

But  though  in  Riaui  Wagner  had  shown  energy  and  ambitioa, 
that  work  was  far  from  representing  bis  preconceived  ideal 
This  he  now  endeavoured  to  embody  in  DerfiU^aide  Hail^dv, 
for  which  he  designed  a  libretto  qnite  independent  of  any  otixr 
treatment  of  the  legend.  The  piece  was  warmly  received  at 
Dresden  on  the  and  of  January  1843;  but  its  success  wub; 
no  means  eqtisl  to  that  of  Riemu  Spohr,  however,  proop^ 
discovered  its  merits,  and  produced  it  at  Caseel  some  DKSih 
later,  with  very  favourable  results. 

On  the  and  of  February  1843  Wagner  was  fwmally  installed 
as  Hofkapellmeister  at  the  Dresden  theatre,  and  he  soon  set  to 
work  on  a  new  opera.  He  chose  the  legend  of  Taiuihfiuseii 
«>llecting  his  materials  from  the  ancient  TannhSuuT'Liedt  the 
Volksbuck,  Tieck's  poetical  EnHklung,  Hoffmann's  story  of  Dff 
Sdnimkrug,  and  the  medieval  poem  on  Dtr  Wat1burg)rUt' 
Thli  last-named  legend  introduces  the  incidental  poem  of 
"  Loherangrin,"  and  so  led  Wagner  to  the  study  of  Wolfram 
von  Eschcnbach's  Panital  and  TUurtit  with  great  results  later 
on.  But  for  the  present  he  confined  hiroscU  to  the  subject  in 
handi  and  on  the  xpth  of  October  X845  ^  produced  bb  Titm- 
k&user,  with  Schroeder  Devrient,  Johanna  Wagner,*  Tichatscbd 
snd  Milterwurzer  in  the  principal  parts.  Notwithstanding  this 
powerful  cast,  the  success  of  the  new  work  was  not  brilliaiit,  foe 
it  carried  still  further  the  principles  embodied  in  Der  jlicgtnii 
HoUdnder,  and  the  time  was  not  ripe  for  them.  But  Wagner 
bokily  fought  for  them,  and  might  have  prevailed  earlier  had  be 
not  taken  part  in  the  political  agitations  of  1849,  after  which  hia 
position  in  Dresden  became  imlenable.  In  fact,  after  the  5>ght 
of  the  king  and  the  subsequent  suppression  of  the  riots,  a  warrant 
was  issued  for  his  arrest;  and  he  had  barely  time  to  escape  to 
Weimar,  where  Lisst  was  at  that  moment  engaged  in  preparing 
Tanahduur  for  performance,  before  the  storm  burst  upon  him 
with  alarmmg  violence.  In  all  haste  Liszt  proaired  a  passport 
and  escorted  his  guest  as  far  as  Eisenach.  Wagiter  fled  to  Fs"^ 
and  th<^ce  to  ZiUich,  where  he  lived  in  almost  unbroken  retire- 
ment until  the  autumn  of  1859.  During  this  period  most  of  his 
prose  works — ^including  Oper  und  Drama,  Oher  das  DingicfC*% 
Das  Judentum  tis  der  Musik — were  given  to  the  world. 

The  medieval  studiea  which  Wagner  had  begun  for  his  work  st 
the  libretto  of  Tannkausv  bore  rich  fruit  in  his  nest  opera 
Lokensjrin^  in  winch  he  also  devebped  his  principles  on  a  Inrg^' 
scale  and  with  a  riper  technique  than  hitherto.  He  had  com* 
plctcd  the  work  before  he  flod  from  Dresden,  but  could  not  gat 
it  produced.  But  he  took  the  score  with  him  to  Paris,  and,  s| 
he  himself  tells  us,  "  when  ill,  miserable  and  despairing,  I  ^ 
brooding  over  my  fate,  my  eye  fdlon  the  score  of  my  Lohengnni 
which  I  had  totally  forgotten.  Suddenly  I  felt  something  liw 
compassion  that  the  music  should  never  sound  from  oQ  tM 
death-pale  paper.  Two  words  I  wrote  to  Liszt;  his  answer 
was  the  news  that  prcparatioiis  were  being  made  for  the  pcrforn^ 
ance  of  the  work,  on  the  grandest  scale  that  the  limited  wcaw 
of  Weimar  would  permit.  Everything  that  care  and  accessoiw 
^  The  composer's  niece. 


W^0N£S(r 


2^7 


UiBt  sftfr  vriml  WW  wtntcd  ai  oi»ce,  and  did  it.  Sucoets  wa$  his 
r«w«fd^a»dl  with  this  iucces»  he  now  approaches  me,  saying 
**  See»  we  buvp  come  thn»  lav;  now  create  us  a  new  work,  that 
WBoiaygolonher/'. 

L^ntri*  was,  in  fact*  produced  at  Weimar  under  Liszt's 
directioQ  on  the  28tb  of  August  1S50U  It  was  a  severe  trial  to 
Wagiwr  not  lo  hear  his  own  work,  but  be  knew  that  it  was  ia 
good  ha&ds,aiid  he  wsponded  to  Liszt*s  appeal  Dor  a  i|ew  creation 
by^atjfdying  iht MMungetUicd  and  gradually  shaping  it  into  a 
g^nUoletiali^.  At  Uiis  lime  also  he  first  hegu)  to  lay  out 
the  plan  ol  Tristan  wtd  IsoUh,  and  to  think  over  the  possibiliiies 
of  Parsijiat,  ■  , 

During  his  exile  Wagnet  matttr«4  bis  plans  and  perfected  his 
rowical  style;  but  it  was  bol  until  sosm  considerable,  time  aflcc 
his  ifetoro  that  anyoCthe  works  he  (hen  aiediuted  were  placed 
upon  the  stage.  In  1855  ^  accepted  an  invitalJ0i\  to  London, 
wbqit  he  €oa4tttitcd  the  oe^certs  ol  the  Philhai^iomc  Society 
with  great  stt^eess.  In  t&si  he.  completed  the  libretto  of  Trutw 
und  IsMetit  VtAioe,  adopting  the  Celtic  legend  modified  by 
GflttCried  of  Strttbui^'s  teedieval  version.  But  the  music  wea 
delagpod  until  Che  sttange  jnadenl  of  a  message  from  the  emperor 
of  Bnudl  eocoumged  Wagner  to  complete  it  in  iSjo.  In  that 
year  Whg&er  visit^'  Purls  Ut  the  thtlrd  time;  and  after  much 
negotiatioBy  in  which  he  was  BOhly.flMppQCted  by  the  Prince- 
aadPdnoeBaMettefikich,  raiuito«sar  was  excepted  at  the  Grand 
Opera.  lifogDtficeiit  peepantkMis  were  made;  it  was. rehearsed 
164  times,  14  times  with  the  fuU  orchcstia;  and  the  sceneryand 
dresses  were. placed  entirely  under  the  composer's  direction. 
Mbre  than  iS^oeo  was  expended  upon  the  venture;  and  the  work 
vBitt  perfonrnd  for  the  finit  time  in  the  French  language  and  wRh 
the  new  Venusherg  music  on  the  jjth  of  Maich  186 1«  But,  for , 
poJitkal  reasons,  a  powerful  clique  was  determined  to  suppress 
Wagner.  A  scandaloua  riot  was.  inaugurated  by  the  members 
of  the  Parisian  Jockey  Chib,  who  interrupted  the  performance 
with  howls  and  dogrwUstles;  and  after  the  third  representation 
the  opera  was-  wiyuiiavn.  Wagner  was  brekeB-lwaited.  But 
the  Princess  MettesQich  eontituied  to  befriend  him,  and  by  i86x 
she  had  obulned  a  paRloii.^hispolttiadoffe4oes,  with  permia^ 
aioa  to  settle  in  any  part  of  Qeimaay^  except  Saxlmyr  Even  this 
rostriction  was  removed  in  iSfi*. 

.Wagner  iio#  settled  for  a  tbne  in  Vieiuia,  whete  2fw(a#  ami 
l3pU4  was  accepted,  bui  abandoned  after  flftsf-soven  leheactals, 
through  the  incompetence  of  the  tenor.  lAkmgrm  was,  hoirever, 
piDduotd  on  the  ijith  o£  May  x86i,  when  Wagner  bieard  it  for 
the  fifst  tnae.  His  circumstances  were  now  extremely  straitened; 
it  was  the  darkness  before  dawn.  In  18^3  he  published  the 
liteetto  of  Dar  Ring  it$*Nib«hmgtn,  King  Ludwig  of  Bavaria 
was  much  atruek  with  it,  and  in  1864  invited  Wagner,  who  was 
then  at  Stuttgart,  to- come  to  Munich  and  finish  his  work  there. 
Wdgner  accepted  wifth.rftpiiAe.  The  king  gave  hhn  an  annual 
grant  of  iaoogaideii<£iaoK'Oonsiderably  enlarging  it  before  the 
end  of  the  year,  and  plating  a  comfortable  house  in  the  outskirts 
of  the  city  at -his  disposal.  The  master  expressed  hisjratitude 
ia  a'^Hifldlgmigsroafsch."*  In  the  autumn  he  was  formally 
commissioned  to  proceed. with  the  tetralogy  and  to  furnish 
proposals  for  the  huildiilg  of  a  theatre  and  the  foundation  of 
a  Bavarian  imisic  sdioel.  Alt  promAwd  well,  but  00  sooner  did 
his  position  seinn  aasuredrthan  a  mtseiabla  court  intrigue  was 
fanned  against  hiita.  His  political  imtidaetions  at  Dresden  were 
made  tho  excuse  for  bitter  ptcsecutions:  acandahnongen  made 
his  fciendship  with  the  |]I»faled  king  a  danger  to  both;  and 
Wagner  waa  obliged  to  relfft  to  Triebscheo  itear  iMoeme  for  the 
next  six  years. 

On  the  xoth  of  Juae  1865  at  Mnakh,  Triatoft  uni  Isolde  mi* 
produced  for  the  first  time,  with  Herr  and  Fsaft  Schnorr  in  the 
prfaidpal  pasta.  Diit  Mtiakrsingfit  ten  ^^mA^ri,  first  sketched 
in  1S45,  was  completed  hi  2867  and  first  performed  at  Munich 
under  the  d^rcctfon  of  Haflls  v«n  BOfow  on  the  stat  of  Juna  s868. 
The  story,  though  an^rif^alone,  is  founded  on  the  character 
of  Haas  Snchs,  the  poet^heamafcer  of  Nuremberg.  The  success 
'  of%ba«pein#aa.wE|[gi«9t;biAthnpindttclUonoi'Jthe.2tBlKbinth 


tetialogy  ns  a  whola  sti^  innained  impfactif(4>liet  though  Das  -. 
Rkeingeld  and  Die  WeUtUrfi  ytesc  performed*  the  one  on  the 
22nd  of  September  1869  anftlhe  other  oa  the  36Lh  of  June  1870, 
The  scheme  for  building  a  new  theatre  at  Munich  having  been, 
abandoned,  there  was  no  opera-house  in  Qenoiany  fit  for  so 
colossal  a  work*  A  project  was  therefore  started  for  the  erection 
of  a. suitable  bualding  at  Bayreuth  iq.v.).  Wagner  laid  the* first 
stone  of  this  in  187a,  and  the  edifice  was  completed,  after  almost 
insuperable  difficulties,  in  1876. ' 

After  this  Wagner  resided  permanently  at  Bayreuth,  in  a  house 
earned  Wahnfried,  in  the  garden  of  which  he  built  his  tomb. 
His  fiiBt  wife„  f  lom  whom  he  had  parted  since  x86i ,  died  in  1865 ; 
and  in  1870  he  was  united  to  Lisst's  daughter  Cosima,  who  had  . 
prevfously  been  the  wife  of  von  Biifow.   Meantime  Der  Ring  des 
NiMungcH  was  rapidly  approaching  completfon,  and  on  the  13th 
of  August  1876  the  introductory  portion^  Dia  RAeingold,  waa 
performed  at  Bayreuth  for  the  fimt  time  as  part  of  the  great 
whole,  followed  on  the  14th  by  Die^WalkUre^  on  the  ]6lh  by 
Siegfried  and  On  the  1 7th  by  GdUerddmmerung.  The  performance,  -. 
difKcted  Jl>y  Hans  Bichtcr,  excited  extraoirdinaiy  attentfon;  but . 
the  expenses  were  enormous,  and  burdened  the  management  wit!   . 
a  debt  ol  £79ocy   A  smiU  portion  of  this  was  mised  (at  great 
risk)  by  pedfomiancea  at  the  Albert  Hall  in  London,  conducted  . 
by.  Wagner  and  Richter,  in  1877.    The  remainder  was  met  by 
the  profits  upon  performances  of  the  tetralogy  at  Munich. 

Wagner's  next  and  last  wOrk  was  Parsifal,  based  upon  tho 
legend  of  the  Holy  Grail,  as  set  forth,  not  in  the  legend- of  the 
MarU  d* Arthur^  but  in  the  venions  of  Chrestien  de  Troyes  and 
Wolfram  von  £schenbach  .and  other  less-known  works.  The 
libretto  was  complete  before  his  visit  to  London  in  1877.  The 
music  was  begun  in  the  following  year,  and  completed  at  Palermo 
oa  the  X3th  of  Jantiary  t882*  The  fimt  sixteen  performances  ^ 
took  pUoeat  Bayreuth,  in  July  and  August  1882,  under  Wagner's 
own  directing,  and  fully  realised  all  expectatfons. 

Unhappily  the  exertion  of  directing  so  many  consecutive 
petfomumces  seems  to  have  been  too  nwch  for  the  veteran 
master's  strength»  for  towards  the  close  of  x88a  his  heakh 
be0sn  to  <lecline  rapidly.  He  spent  the  autumn  at  Venice,  and 
was ivett  enough  on  Christmas £ve  to  conduct  hisearly  symphony 
(composed  in  x8i3a>  at  a  padvate  performance  given  at  the  Liceo 
Macoello.  But  late  in  the  afternoon  of  the  X5th  of  February 
1885  his  ixieiuls  were  shocked  by  his  sudden  death  from  heart- 
^ailuse* 

Wagner  was  buried  at  Wahnfried  in  the  tomb  he  had  himself 
prepared,  onthr  tSth  of  February;  and  a  few  days  afterwarda 
King- Ludwig  rode  to  BayMuth  afoae,  and  at  dead  of  night,  to 
pay  his  hat  tribute  U>  the  master  of  his  world  of  dreams. 

(W.S.R.;D.F.T.) 

In  the  artidea  on  iduaic  and  Optau,  Wagner's  task  ia  musio 
drama  is  described,  sind  it  remnins  here  to  discuss  his  progress.  * 
in  the  operas  themselves.   This  progress  has  perhaps  no  parallel  > 
in  ahy  art,  and  oeitainly  none^in  music^  for  even  Beethoven's 
progress  was  purely  an  increase  in  range  and  power.  .  Beethoven, 
we  know,  lost  sympathy  with  his  eady  works  as  he  grew  older; 
but  that  Was  because  Us  later  works  abeerbod  his  interest,  not 
because  his  enrly  works  misrepresented  his  ideals.    Wagner'a 
eadier  works  have  too  long  been  treated  as  if  they  represented  > 
the  pure  and  healthy  chiklhood  of  his  later  ideal;  as  ii  Loiking^m .. 
stofld  to  Fanifal  as  Haydn>  Mosart  and  eariy  Beethoyen  stand 
to  Beethoven's  last  quartetSw  But  WagneV  never  thus  represented 
the  childhood  of  an  ideal,  though  he  attained  the  manhood  of 
the  most  oompcehensive  ideal  yet  known  in  art.    To  change  the 
metaphor-^e  ideal  was  always  in  sight,  and  Warner  never 
swerved  from  his  path  towards  it;  but  that  patb  began  in  a  > 
blaze  of  garish  false  lights,  and  it  had  become  very  tortuous 
before  the  light  of  day  prevailed.   Beethoven  was  trained  in  ihc 
greatest  and  most  advanced  muskal  tradition  of  his  time.   For 
all  his  Wagnerian  impatieoce,  his^  progress  was  no  struggle  from 
out  of  a  squalid  environment;  on  the  contrary,  one  of  his  latest 
discoveries  was  the  greatness  of  his  master  Haydn.     Now  ' 
Wagner's  excellent  teacher  WeinUg  did  certainly,  as  Wagner  ' 
hinuelf  testifies,  teach  him  more  of  good  music  than  Beeth»ve^ 

3a 


■-^-^ 


239 


WAGNER 


Haydn  and  Mosart  oonM  1iav«  seen  in  their  youth;  for  he 
showed  him  Beethoven.  But  this  would  not  help  Wagner  to 
feel  that  contemporary  music  was  really  a  great  art;  Indeed  it 
could  only  show  him  that  he  was  growing  up  In  a  pseudo-classical 
time,  in  which  the  approval  of  persons  of  "  good  taste  "  was 
seldom  directed  to  things  of  vital  promise.  Again,  he  began 
with  far  greater  facility  in  literature  than  in  music,  if  only 
because  a  play  can  be  copied  ten  times  faster  than  a  fuU  score. 
Wagner  was  always  an  omnivoroua  reader,  and  books  were  then, 
as  now,  both  cheaper  than  music  and  easier  to  read.  Moreover, 
the  higher  problems  of  rhythmic  movement  in  the  classical 
sonata  forms  are  far  beyond  the  scope  of  academic  teaching, 
which  is  compelled  tor  be  contented  with  a  practical  plausibility 
of  musical  design;  and  the  instrumental  music  which  was  con- 
sidered the  highest  style  of  art  in  tSjo  was  as  far  beyond  Wagner's 
early  command  of  such  pbusibility  as  it  was  obviously  already 
becoming  a  mere  academic  game.  Lastly,  the  rules  of  that  game 
were  useless  on  the  stage,  and  Wagner  soon  found  in  Meyerbeer 
a  master  <rf  grand  opwa  who  was  daaaling  the  world  by  means 
whldi  merely  disgusted  the  more  serious  academic  musicians 
of  the  day. . 

In  Ritmi  Wagner  would  already  have  been  Meyerbeer^  rival, 
t>ut  that  his  sincerity,  and  his  initial  lack  of  that  musical  savair 
/aire  which  is  prior  to  the  individual  handling  of  ideas,  put 
him  at  a  disadvantage.  Though  Meyerbeer  wrote  much  that  is 
intrinsically  more  dull  and  vulgar  than  the  overture  to  Rienn, 
he  never  combined  such  serious  efforts  mth  a  technique  so  like 
that  of  a  military  bandmaster.  The  step  from  lUerui  to  Der 
fiiegende  HoUdnder  Is  without  parallel  in  the  history  of  music, 
and  would  be  inexplicable  if  Rietai  contained.nothing  good  and 
if  Der  fiUgmde  HcUSndet  did  not  contain  many  reminiscences 
of  the  dedine  of  Italian  opera;  but  it  is  noticeable  that  in  this 
case  the  lapses  into  vulgar  music  have  a  distinct  dramatic  value. 
Though  Wagner  cannot  as  yet  be  confidently  credited  with  a 
satiric  intention  in  his  bathos,  the  hct  remains  that  all  the 
Rossinian  passages  are  associated  with  the  character  of  Daland, 
so  as  to  express  his  vulgar  delight  at  the  prospect  of  finding  a 
ridi  son-in-law  in  the  mysterious  Dutch  seaman.  Meanwhile  the 
rest  of  the  work  (except  in  the  prettHy  scored  '*  Spinning  Song," 
and  other  harmless  and  vigorous  tunes)  has  more  affinity  with 
Wagner's  mature  style  than  the  bulk  of  its  much  more  ambitious 
suecessotf,  Tannkduter  and  Lokengrin,  The  wonderful  overture 
is  more  highly  organized  and  less  unequal  than  that  of  Tcnn^ 
kStuer;  and  idthough  Wagner  uses  less  LeU-mO^  than  Weber 
(see  Opeka,  ad  fin,)  and  divides  the  piece  into  "  numbers  " 
of  classical  siae,  the  effect  is  so  continuous  that  the  divisions 
could  hardly  be  guessed  by  ear.  Moreover,  the  woilc  was 
intended  to  be-  in  one  act,  and  is  now  so  performed  at 
Bayreuth;  and,  although  it  is  very  long  for  a  ono^urt  opera, 
this  is  certainly  the  only  form  which  does  justi(x  to  Wagner's 
conception.^ 

Spohr's  appreciation  of  Derfiiegende  BoUSndtr  is  a  remarkable 
point  in  musical  history;  and  his  criticism  that  Wagner's  style 
(in  TannlOuser)  **  lacked  rounded  periods  "  shows  the  best  effect 
of  that  style  on  a  well-disposed  contemporary  mind.  Of  course, 
from  Wagner's  mature  point  of  view  his  eariy  style  b  far  too 
much  cut  Jip  by  periods  and  full  closes;  and  its  prophetic  traits 
are  so  inooQ^>arably  more  striking  than  its  resemblance  to  any 
earlier  art  that  we  often  feel  t^t  only  the  full  closes  stand 
between  it  and  the  true  Wagner.  But  Spohr  would  feel  Wagner's 
works  to  be  an  advance  upon  contemporary  romantic  opera 
rather  than  a  foreshadowing  of  an  unknown  future.  When  we 
listen  to  the  free  declamation  of  the  singers  at  the  outset  of  Der 
fii$tfitid€  HeUimder-'^  declamation  wUch  is  accompanied^  by 

*  The  fubtoquent  divuion  into  three  acts,  as  given  in  all  the 
published  editions,  has  been  effected  in  the  crudest  way  by  inserting 
a  full  close  in  the  orchestral  interiudes  at  the  chances  of  scene,  and 
then  beginning  the  next  scene  by  taking  up  the  Interiudes  again. 
The  true  veraon  can  be  raoovcred  from  the  published  score  as 
follows:  In  act  I  skip  fnMn  the  last  bar  but  four  to  the  41st  bar 
of  the  introduction  to  the  snd  act;  and  at  the  end  of  the  snd  act 
sUp  from  thelastbarbutfivetotheSthbaroftbc  entr'acte  to  the 


an  occhesCfM  tnd  thematic teiture as farnBkivi^  ftom  that  4 
mere  recitative  as  it  is  from  the  forms  of  the  classical  aria.— ^4ha 
repetition  of  a  whole  sentence  In  order  to  form  a  firm  musical 
dose  has  almost  as  quaint  a  ring  as  a  Shakespearean  rhymed  tag 
would  have  in  a  prose  drama  of  Ibsen.   To  Spohr  the  frequency  of 
these  incidents  must  have  produced  the  impression  that  Wagner 
was  perpetually  beginning  arias  and  breaking  them  off  at  once. 
With  all  its  defecU,  DerJUegende  HeUSnder  is  the  roost  masteriy 
and  the  least  ungual  of  Wagner's  early  works.    As  drama  it 
stood  immeasurably  above  any  opera  since  Chembini's  Medtt, 
As  a  complete  fusion  between  dramatic  and  musical  movement, 
its  very  crudities  point  to  its  Immense  advance  towards  the 
solution  of  the  problem,  prc^wunded  chaotically  at  the  beginn^ 
of  the  17th  century  by  Montevefde,  and  solved  in  a  simple  fom 
by  Cluck.    And  as  the  twofold  musical  and  dramatic  achieve- 
ment of  one  mind,  it  already  places  Wagner  beyond  pairallel  is 
the  history  oi  art. 

Tannhduser  Is  on  a  grander  scale,  but  Its  musical  executioiiii 
disappointing.   The  weakest  passages  in  Derjliegend^  HclUnd^ 
are  not  so  hdpless  as  the  original  recitatives  of  Venus  in  the  6xa 
act ;  or  Tannhiuser's  song,  which  was  too  far  involved  in  the  whole 
scheme  to  be  ousted  by  the  mature  **  New  Venuabcrg  maac" 
with  which  Wagner  fifteen  yean  later  got  rid  both  ^  the  ead 
of  the  overture  and  what  he  called  his  *'  Falaifr-Roynl  "  Vema 
It  is  really  very  difliodt  to  understand  Schumann's  impxasioB 
that  the  musical  technique  of  Tannkduser  shows  a  renviiMr 
improvement.   Not  until  the  third  act  does  the  great  ¥ia^ 
arbitrate  in  the  struggle  between  amatcurishncssand  thcaatnd&ty 
in  the  music,  though  at  all  points  his  epoch-making  atagccnk 
asserts  itsdf  with  a  force  that  tempts  us  to  treat  the  whole  wxk 
as  if  it  were  on  the  Wagnerian  plane  of  Tannhiuser's  aocooat  d 
his  pilgrinuige  in  the  third  act.    But  the  history  of  mid-i^h- 
century  muJc  is  unintelligible  until  we  fisoe  the  fact  that,  srixa 
the  anti- Wagnerian  storm  was  already  at  its  height,  Wagntf  ass 
still  fighting  for  the  recognition  of  music  which  was  moat  defioke 
just  where  it  realized  with  ultra-Meyerbeeriin  briUiaaice  all  that 
Wagner  had  already  begun  to  detesL    No  contemporary,  un- 
aided by  personal  knowledge,  could  be  expected  to  trust  ia 
Wagner's  purity  of  ideal  on  the  strength  of  TannJUluser,  whicA 
actually  achieved  popularity  by  such  coarse  methods  of  cKaaai 
as  the  revivalisiic  end  of  the  overture,  by  sudi  maudlin  pathos 
as  O  du  mein  holder  Abendstem,  and  by  the  amiably  childid} 
grand-open  skill  with  which  haU  the  action  is  adiievcd  by 
processions  and  a  considerable  fraction  of  the  music  is  repre- 
sented by  huifares.    These  features  cstaUished  the  wovk  in  s 
position  which  it  will  always  maintain  by  Its  unprecedented 
dramatic  qualities  and  by  the  glory  reflected  from  Wagner's 
later  achievements;  but  we  shall  not  appreciate  the  marvd  ef 
its  nobler  features  if  we  continue  at  this  time  of  day  to  regard 
the  bulk  of  the  music  as -worthy  of  a  great  composer. 

After  even  the  finest  things  in  ToimUmserf  the  Ycnpid  to 
Lohengrin  comes  as  a  revelation,  with  Its  quiet  aolenmity  and 
breadth  of  design,  its  ethereal  purity  of  tone-cokwr,  and  its 
complete  emancipation  from  earlier  (^Mtratic  forms.    The  sus- 
pense and  climax  in  the  fint  act  is  so  intense,  and  the'  whole 
drama  is  so  well  designed,  that  we  must  have  a  very  vivid  idea 
of  the  later  Wagner  before  we.  can  see  how  far  the  quality  of 
musical  thought  stiU  falls  short  of  his  ideals.  .  Hie  elaborate 
choral  writing  sometimes  rises  to  almost  Hellenic  xegkma  of 
dramatic  art;,  and  there  is  no  crudeness  in  the  passages  that 
carry  on  the  story  quietly  in  reaction  from  the  riimatee-~a 
test  far  too  severe  for  Tannktwer  and  rather  severe  for  evca 
the  mature,  works  of  Glack  and  Weber.    The  ordiestntian  is 
already  almdst  classically  Wagnerian;  though  there  lemaltts 
an  excessive  amount  of  tiemofo,  besides  a  few  lapses  into  conk 
violence,  as  in  the  ydplngs  which  accompany  Ortrod'a  mge 
in  the  ni^t-scene  in  the  second  act.  3ut  the  mere  tooe^aloiin 
of  that  scene  are  cnou^  to  make  a  casual  Katcner  iraagme  that 
he  is  dealing  with  the  true  Wagner:  the  variety  of  tone  never 
fails,  and  depends  on  no  immoderate  panphemaUa;  for,  far^ 
reaching  as  are  the  renHs'  of  the  systematic  hiciease  of  the 
claasicBl  wtw*.  ed  windiinitniiasnts  to  anmna  of  thna^  this  It 


WAGNER 


^Sq 


wvmy  tmtdim  iffom  cbimpue^  lo  the  liaoaiuic  '*  tttn.  Mtnc- 
tiont "  of  every  new  production  of  Meyerbeer's. 

But  thtte  is  another  side  to  the  picture.  With  the  grotring 
certainty  of  touch  astiffness  of  movement  appears  which  gradually 
disturbs  the  listener  who  can  ^sppreciate  freedom^  whether  in 
the  classical  forms  which  Wagner  has  now  abolished,  or  in  the 
majcstie  flow  of  Wagner's  later  style.  Full,  doses  and  repeated 
wntfnf*f  no  longer  confuse  the  issue,  but  in  their  absence  we 
begin  to  notice  the  incessant  squareness  of  the  ostensibly  free 
rhythms.  The  immense  amount  of  pageantry,  though  (as  in 
TaiHiAdNKf )  good  in  dramatic  motive  and  executed  with  splendid 
8tage-aaft,coesiar  to  stultify  Wagner's  already  vigorous  attitude 
of  protest  against  giaikd-opera  methods;  by  way  of  preparaUon 
for  the  ethereallb^  poetic  end  he  gives  us  a  disinfected  present 
f  ram  Meyerbeer  at  the  beginmng  of  the  kst  scene,  where  mounted 
trumpeters  career  nnind  the  stage  ut  full  blast  for  thiee  long 
minutes;  and  the  pi«elttde  to  the  third  act  is  an  outburst  of 
sheer  gratuitous  vu^pirity.  Again,  the  anti-Wagnerians  were 
entirely  justified  in  penetrating  below  the  splendidly  simple 
and  original  occheslnlion  of  the  night-scene  betweoi  Ortrud 
and  TeUamund,  and  pointing  out  bow  feebly  its  music  drifts 
among  a  dosen  vague  keys  by  means  of  the  diminished  7th; 
a  device' which  teachers  luive  tried  to  weed  out  of  every  high- 
flown  exercise  aioce  that  otiose  chord  was  first  discovered  in 
Ibe  17th  century.  The  matiue  Wagner  would  not  have  carried 
out  twenty  bars  in  hb  flattest  scenes  with  so  little  musical  in- 
vention*  We  stuist  not  toiget  that  these  boyish  demerits  belong 
lo  the  work  of  a  man  of  thiity-ftve  whose  claims  and  aspirations 
idready  pmported  to  dwarf  the  wh^  record  of  the  classics. 
And  the  defects  are  in  aU  respects  commonplace;  they  have  no 
resembiaace  to  that  unoanny  discoiOofort  whkh  often  warns 
the  wise  critic  that  be  is  dealing  with  an  immortaL 

The  crowning  complication  in  the  effect  of  Dtr  Jliegende 
HoiUlntUr,  Tannkihtatr  and  Lohengrin  on  the  mnsicid  thought 
of  the  spth  century  was  that  the  unprecedented  fusion  of  their 
musical  with  their  <faamatic  contents  revealed  some  of  the  meaning 
of  lerioua  mnaic  to  ears  that  had  been  deaf  to  the  classics. 
Wagnerism  was  henceforth  proclaimed  out  of  the  mouths  of 
ba)>es  and  sucklings;  learned  nmsidans  felt  that  it  had  an 
unfair  advAntage;  and  by  the  time  Wagner's  popularity  began 
t*  thrive  as  a  persecuted  heicay  he  kad  left  it  in  the  lurch. 

Wagner  had  hardly  finished  the  score  iA*LohmffrH  before 
he  was  at  week  upon  the  poem  of  Dtr  Ring  des  Nibdungcn. 
And  with  this  he  suddenly  became  a  mature  artist.  On  a  super- 
ficial view*  this  is  a  paradox,  for  there  arte  many  more  violations 
of  pcobtdbAity  and  much  graver  faults  of  structure  in  the  later 
works  than  in  the  earlier.  Every  critic  oould  recognize  the 
strwctural.  merits  of  the  earlier  plays,  for  their  operatic -con- 
ventsonaUties  and  abruptness  of  motive  axe  always  intelligible 
as  stags  devices.  Jealousy  mi^t  prompt  a  doubt  whether 
these  plays  were  within  the  scope  of  "legitimate"  music; 
but  they  -were  obviously  stories  of  exceptional  musical  and 
remwitic  beauty,  presented  with  literary  resources  unpitoccdented 
in  op<iatic  libretti.  Now  the  later  dramas  are  often  notoriously 
awkward  and  nedundant;  while  the  removal  of  those  convenient 
eperatk  devices  whkh  symbolize  situations  instead  of  devdoping 
them,  does  not  readily  appear  to  be  compensated  for  by  any 
superior  artistic  resource^  But  there  is  a  higher  point  of  view 
than  thai  of  story-telfing.  In  the  development  of  characters  and 
feteUectual  ideas  Wagner's  later  works  show  a  power  before  which 
his  eadier  stagbcraft  shrinks  into  insignificance.  It  would  not 
have  saflked  even  to  indicate  his  later  ideas.  To  handle  these 
So  sucoesalnny  that  we  can  discriminate  defects  from  qualities 
at  allr  is  proof  of  the  technique  of  a  master,  even  though  the 
faolts  extend  to  whole-  eateries  of  literature  The  faults 
make  analysis  exceptioaally  difficult,. for  they  are  no  longer 
commonplace;  hsdeed,  the  gravest  dangers  of  modem  Wagnerism 
arise  f|om  the  fact  that  there  is  hardly  any  .non«nrosical  aspect 
in  whfch  Wagner^  lat^  work  is  not  important  enough  to  produce 
a  school  of  essentially  aon-nrosical  oltics  who  have  no  notion 
how  far  Wagner's  mature  music  tmnacends  the  rest  of  his  thought, 
oftSB  it  IJMS  whevs  his  phikaophy  falla.    Thna  the 


prominent  school  of  crfitidsm  which  4ppcatsed  "Wagner  in  the 
19th  century  by  his  approximation  to  Darwin  and  Herbcit 
Spencer,  appraises  him  in  the  aoth  by  his  approximation  to 
Bernard  Shaw;  with  the  absurd  result  that  G9Uerd4inmerung 
is  ruled  out  as  a  reactionary  failure.  It  is  true  that  its  only 
obnceivable  moral  is  flatly  the  <^po6ite  of  that  "  redemptioi^ 
by  love '.'  which  Wagner  strenuously  preaches  in  a  passage  at 
the  end  which  remained  onset  because  he  conudered  it  already 
expressed  by  the  music.  Indeed,  though  Wagner's  later  treat- 
ment of  love  is  perhaps  the  main  source  of  his  present  popularity 
it  seldom  rises  to  his  loftiest  regions  except  where  it  is  thwarted. 
The  love  that  is  disguised  in  the  deadly  feud  between  Isolde 
and  Tristan,  before  the  drinking  of  the  fatal  potion,  rises  even 
above  the  music;  the  love-duet  in  the  second  act  depends  for 
its  greatness  on  its  introduction,  before  the  kvcrs  have  met, 
and  its  wonderful  slow  movement  (shortly  before  the  catastrophe) 
where  they  are  almost  silent  and  leave  everything  to  the  n>usic: 
the  intervening  twenty  minutes  is  an  exhausting  stoim  in  which 
the  words  are  the  sophisticated  rhetoric  of  a  i^th-centuiy  novel 
of  passion,  translated  into  terribly  turfi^d  verse  and  set  to  music 
that  is  more  interesting  ss  an  intellectual  ferment  than  effective 
as  a  re|»esentation  of  emotions  which  previous  dramatists 
have  wisdy  left  to  the  imagination.)  But  so  long  as  we  treat 
Wagner  like  a  prose  philosopher,  a  librettist,  a  poet,  a  mere 
musiciaut  or  anything  short  of  the  complex  and  many-sided 
artist  he  really  is,  we  shall  find  insuperable  obstacles  to  under- 
standing or  enjoying  his  works.  A  true  work  of  art  is  inconq>ar- 
ably  greater  than  the  sum  of  its  ideas;  apart  from  the  fact  that, 
if  its  ideas  are  innumerable  and  various,  "ptoat  philosophers 
are  apt  to  oompbin  that  it  harf  none.  koA  every  additional 
idea  that  does  not  merely  derange  an  art  enlarges  it  as  it  were 
by  a  new  dimension  in  space.  Wagner  added  all  the  arts  to 
each  other,  and  in  one  of  them  he  attained  so  consummate 
a  rosstery  that  we  csn  coiffidently  turn  to  it  when  his  wordA 
and  doctrines  fail  us.  Even  when  we  treat  him  merely  as  a 
dramatist  our  enjoyment  of  his  later  works  gains  enormously 
if  we  take  them  as  organic  wholes,  and  not  as  mere  plots  dressed 
lip  in  verse  and  action.  It  maltteis  little  that  Parnfal  requires 
two  nameless  attendant  diaracters  in  a  long  opoiing  scene, 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  tdling  the  antecedents  of  the  story, 
itiien  a  situation  is  thereby  revealed  which  for  subtlety  snd  power 
has  hardly' a  parallel  since  Greek  tragedy^  The  vast  myth  of 
the  Ring  is  related  in  full  several  times  in  each  of  the  three  mahi 
dramas,  with  ruthless  disregard  for  the  otherwise  magnificent 
dramatic  effect  of  the  whole;  hosts  of  original  dramatic  and 
ethical  ideas,  with  which  Wagner's  brain  was  even  more  fertile 
than  his  votuminous  prose  irorks  would  indicate,  assert  them- 
selves at  all  points,  only  to  be  thwarted  by  repeated  attempts 
to  allegorize  the  phflosophy  of  Schopenhauer;  aU  efforts  to  read 
a-  consistent  scheme,  ethical  or  philosophica],  into  the  result 
are  doomed  to  failure;  but  all  this  matters  little,  so  long  ss  we 
have  Wagner's  unfsiling  later  resources  in  those  big^  dramatic 
verities  which  present  to  us  emotions  and  actions,  human  and 
divine,  as  things  essentially  complex  and  conflicting^  inevitable 
as  natural  laws,  incalculable  as  natural  ^enomena. 

Wagner's  choice  of  subjects  had  from  the  outset  shown  an 
imagination  far  above  that  of  any  eariier  librettist;  yet  he  bad 
begun  with  stories  which  could  attnct  ordinary  minds,  as  he 
dismally  realized  when  the  libretto  of  D»  JIuigendt  HottOnder 
so  pleased  the  Parisian  wire-pullers  that  it  was  promptly  set  to 
music  by  one  of  their  friends.  But  with  Der  Ring  des  kibdungen 
Wagner  devoted  himself  to  a  story  whkih  any  ordinary  drematfst 
would  find  as  unwiebly  as,  for  instance,  most  of  Shakespeare^ 
subjects;  a  story  in  which  ordinary  canons  of  taste  and  prob- 
ability were  violated  as  they  are  in  real  life  and  in  great  art. 
Wagner's  first  InspSratlon  was  for  an  opera  (Siegfried's  Tod, 
projected  in  1848)  on  the  death  of  Germany's  mythkal  hero; 
but  he  found  that  the  stoiy  needed  a  preliminary  drama  to 
convey  its  antecedents.  This  preliminary  drama  soon  proved 
to  need  another  to  explain  it,  which  again  finally  needed  a  short 
intvodnctory  drama.  Thus  the  plan  of  the  Ring  was  sketdied 
ip  reverie  order;  audit  hasbeso  rtmaiiad  that  CutwdUmmontng 


240 


WAGNM 


«!iow»  traoM  «f  Um  laet  tlurt  WagMr IimI  Wfttii  lib  aclieiM  in  the 
days  when  French  grand  opera,  with  itt  baJlels  and  p«geantiy, 
•till  tnfluencttl  him.  There  is  little  doubt  that  some  redundant 
narratives  in  the  Ring  were  of  earlier  conception  than  the  four 
compkte  dramas,  and  that  their  survival  is  due  partly  to  Wagner's 
natural  afEection  for  work  on  which  he  had  spent  pains,  and  partly 
to  a  dim  notion  that  (like  Browning's  method  in  The  Ring  and 
lk«  Book)  they  might  serve  to  reveal  the  story  afresh  in  the  light 
of  each  character.  Be  this  as  it  may,  we  may  confidently  date 
the  purification  of  Wagner's  music  at  the  moment  when  he  set 
■to  work  on  a  story  which  carried  him  finally  away  from  that 
workl  of  stereotyped  operatic  passions  into  which  he  had  already 
breathed  so  much  dfeturbing  life. 

The  disturbing  life  already  appears  in  DerflUgende  HoUdnder, 
at  the  point  where  Senta's  father  enters  with  the  Dutchman, 
and  Senta  (who  is  already  In  an  advanced  state  oiSckuOrmerH 
over  the  legend  of  the  Flying  Dutchman)  stands  rooted  to  the 
spot,  comparing  the  living  Dutchman  with  hb  portrait  which 
bangsover  the  door.  The  conflict  between  her  paaidonatefasdnar 
tion  and  her  di^ust  at  her  father's  vulgarity  is  finely  icaUzcd 
both  in  music  and  drama;  but,  if  we  are  able  to  appreciate  it, 
then  the  operatic  convention  by  which  Senta  avows  her  passion 
becomes  crude.  Ethical  and  operatic  points  of  view  are  similarly 
confused  when  it  is  asserted  that  the  Ffying  Dutchman  can  be 
saved  by  a  faithful  woman,  though  it  i^pears  from  the  relations 
between  Senta  and  Erik  that  so  long  as  the  woman  is  faithful 
to  the  Dutchman  it  does  not  matter  that  she  Jilts  some  one  e|se. 
Erik  would  not.  have  been  a  sufficiently  pathetic  operatic  tenor 
if  his  claim  on  Senta  had  been  less  complete.  In  Tannlaustr 
and  Ldken^m  Wagner's  intellectual  power  develops  far  more 
rapidly  m  the  drama  than  in  the  music.  The  SUngorkriegf  with 
its  disastrous  conffict  between  the  sincere  but  unnatuml  asceticism 
of  the  orthodox  Minnesingers  and  the  irxeptessible  human  passion 
of  Tannh&user,  is  s  conception  the  vitality  of  which  would 
reduce  TannhSnser's  repentance  to  the  level  of  RcbertU  DiabU, 
were  it  not  that  the  music  of  the  Sdngerkrieg  has  no  structural 
power,  and  little  distinction  beyond  a  certain  poetic  value  in  the 
tones  of  violas  which  had  long  ago  been  fully  exploited  by 
Mozart  and  M6hul»  while  the  music  of  Tannh&oser's  pilgrimage 
ranks  with  the  Vonpid  to  Lohmgrm  as  a  wonderful  fcKcshadow* 
ing  of  Wagner's  mature  style.  Again,  the  appeal  to  "  God's 
judgment "  in  the  trial  by  battle  in  Lohengrin  is  a  subject  <A 
which  no  eadier  librettist  could  have  made  mote  than  a  plausible 
'mess— ^hich  is  the  best  that  can  be  said  for  the  music  as  music 
But  as  dramatist  Wagnec  compels  our  resptet  for  the  power  that 
without  gloss  or  tpcAogy  brings  before  us  the  king,  a  model  of 
loyal  fair-mindedness  and  goodnnature,  acquiescing  in  Td« 
ramund's  mcMUtrous  claim  to  accuse  l^sa  without  evidence, 
simply  because  it  is  a  hard  and  self-evident  fact  that  the  persons 
of  the  drama  live  in  an  age  in  which  such  claims  seemed  reason* 
able.  Telramund,  agafai,  is  no  ordinary  operatic  villain;  there 
is  genuine  tragedy  in  Ue  moral  ruin;  and  even  the  melodramatic 
Ortrud  is  a  much  more  lifo-Uke  intriganie  than  mi^t  be  Inferred 
from  Wagner's  hyperbolical  stage-directions,  which  almost 
always  show  his  manner  at  its  worst. 

In  Lokemgrin  we  take  leave  of  the  early  munc  that  obscured 
Wftgner's  ideals,  and  in  the  Ring  we  come  to  the  music  which 
transcends  all  other  aspects  of  Wagncrism.  Had  Wagner  been 
a  man  of  more  urbane  literary  intellect  he  might  have  been  less 
ambitious  of 'expressing  a  world*phiiosophy  fa  music-drama; 
and  it  is  Just  conceivable  that  the  result  might  have  been  a  less 
intemittent  dramatic  movement  in  his  later  works,  and  a  balance 
«f  ethical  ideas  at  once  more  subtle  and  more  orthodox.  But 
it  is  much  more  likely  that  Wagner  would  then  have  found  his 
artistic  difficulties  too  formidable  to  let  the  ideas  descend  to  us 
<rom  Walhalla  and  the  Hall  of  the  Great  at  aU.  More  than  a 
modicum  of  rusticity  is  needed  as  a  protection  to  a  man  who 
attempts  such  colowal  reforms.  Th^  necessity  had  its  conse* 
iqaences  in  the  disquieting  inequalities  of  Wagner's  early  work, 
and  the  undeniable  egotism  that  embittered  his  fiery  nature 
tbfoughout  his  IHe;  while  the  cu(-and-dried  system  of  .culture 
«f  lalar  WagDAckn  diyyiifship  has  revenged  him  in  a  speciaUy 


sacerdotfti  type  of  tfa^tloa,  -wlildi  hialLes  pyagtsw  c«Hi  ill  tk 
study  of  his  works  impossible  except  through  revoH.  Such  ait 
the  penalties  exacted  by  the  ireny  of  fate,  for  the  wodd'i 
persecution  of  its  presets. 

Genuinely  dramatic  music,  even  if  It  seem  as  purely  musical 
as  Mosart's,  must  always  be  approached  through  its  drama;  and 
Wagner's  masterpieces  demand  that  we  sliaU  nse  this  approacli; 
but,  as  with  Moeart,  we  must  not  sto|>  on  tbo  threshd^  Witk 
Mozart  there  is  no  temptation  to  do  so.    Bnt  with  Wagner,  jost 
as  there  are  people  who  have  never  tried  to  foUow  a  sonau  bet 
who  have  been  awakened  by  his  music><lramas  to  a  sense  of  the 
possibilities  of  serious  music,  so  there  are  lovera  of  music  vfas 
avow  that  they  owe  to  Wagner  their  appsedation  of  poetiy. 
But  people  whose  love  of  litereture  is  moie  independent  find  it 
hard  to  take  Wagner's  poetry  and  prase  seriously,  unless  tli^ 
have  already  measured  him^  by  his  music.    He  effected  no  rrien 
in  literature;  his  meticulous  adherence  to  the  archaic  alllterslioB 
of  the  NibdwigenUod  is  not  aUied  with  any  tense  of  besutf  ii 
verbal  aotmd  or  vene-rhythm;  and  his .  ways  of  expicaiif 
emotion  in  huiguage  consist  chiefly  in  ike  p^ng-up  of  sq» 
Utives.    Yet  he  was  too  full  of  dramatic  In^ration  to  Roaii 
perpetually  victimized  by  the  (Mmscientioos  afiTectations  of  ih 
amateur  author;  and,  w4iere  dramatic  situation  are  nee  «sif 
poetical  but  (as  in  the  first  act  of  Die  WalkUrt  aind  the  WtU^dn 
scene  in  Siegfried)  too  elemental  for  strained  language,  Vip^ 
is  often  supremely  eloquent  simply  because  he  has  no  sos* 
to  try  to  write  poetry.   Sometimes,  too»  when  a  great  dvi^ 
climax  has  given  place  to  a  lyriod  antielinuui,  ittnapnx^ 
moods,  subtleties  of  emotion  and  crowning  musical  -thoo^ 
press  in  upon  Wagner's  mind  with  a  doaencsa  that  detenniBa 
every  word;  and  thus  not  only  is  the  whsle  thifd  act  of  Tftrti^ 
as  Wagner  said'  when  he  was  workmg  at  it;  of  "  ovcmhdauil 
tragic  power,"  but  Isolde's  dying  utterances  (which  oocui7  the 
last  five  minutes  and  are,  of  course,  totally  without  actioo  « 
dramatic  tension)  were  not  nnlike  fine  poetiy  even  before  tht 
music  was  written.   But,  as  a  rule,  Wagnier's  poetic  dictkm  nnrt 
simply  be  tolerated  by  the  critic  who  would  submit  hlmsdf  M 
Wagner's  idea&'. 

If  we  wish  to  know  what  Wagndr  aamos^  we  mtist  figbt  etf 
way  through  his  drama  to  his  music;  and  we  must  not  eq>cd 
to  find  that  each  phrase  in  the  mouth  of  the  actor  oonc^Modi 
word  for  note  with  the  musle. '  That  sort  c^cotiespondesce 
Wagner  leaves  ta  his  imitators;  and  his  viewa  on  "  Ldt-motii' 
hunting,"  as  expressed  in  his  prose  writings  and  conveisstioD, 
are  contemptuously  tolerant.  We  shall  indeed  find  that  Ui 
orchestra  interprets  the  dramatic  situations  wUcfa  his  p(Mt<T 
roughly  outlines.  But  we  shall  sllso  find  that,  even  if  we  oouU 
conceive  the  poetry  to  be  a  perfect  expfcfesisQ  of  all  that  0»  b* 
given  in  worcb  and  actions,  the  Offchestra  will  OEpscfls  something 
greater;  it  will  not  run  paraUel  with  the  poetry;,  the  iMttrnm 
system  will  not  be  a  collection  of  labels;  the  mndical  espresaoo 
of  singer  and  orchestra  Drill  not  be  a  zperehcigfatened  resource  ci 
dramatic  declamation.  All  that  kmd  of  .pre-estaUiriied  banao^r 
Waipier  left  behind  him  the  moment  he  deserttel  the  heroes  tin 
villains  of  romantic  opera  for  the  vuionsry  and  true  tragedy  «■ 
gods  and  demi-gods,.  giants  and  gnomes,  with  beauty,  aobibtl 
and  love  in  the  wrong,  and  the  locoe^  of  deatiniction  and  ha» 
set  free  by  blind  justice.  . 

Let  us  iUustrate  Wagner's  mature  use  d  JjctHnoHf  by  the  those 
which  happens  to  be  aisonafiid  with  Albecich^  xiag.  ^^  ^ 
that  this  theme  is  commonly  caUed  the  "  Ring-motif  "  is  a  9^''^ 
instance  of  what' Wagner  hiis  had  to  endnsoi  Iram  his  ^^"'^ 
Important  as  the  ring  is  thioui^boUt  the  tetralogy,  Wa^er  wouM 
no  more  think  of  associating  a  theme  with  it  for  iu  own  sake 
than  he  w6uld  think  of  associating  a  theme  with  Wotan's  hat* 
Why  should  a  Ring^motU  be  ttansfoitncd  into -the  theme  r^ 
senting  WalhaUa?  Areweto^UBSsthat  the  ci6n»erio»  ^  '^^ 
is  that  Wotan  had  evcntuilly  to  pay  Jar  Walhalla  by  the  naS' 
But  if  Fe  attend  to  the  dicumstaacea  under  irhich  Ihis  then* 
arises*  its  puiport  and  development  become  deep  aad  >i*^^ 
The  Rhine^huightere  have  been  teasing  the  Nibefamg  "Alb^ 
aa4  are  tejoidiig  i^.tha  Jigh|  of  the  Bhias^ld  which 


WAGNER 


±41 


•  te  «0|^  of  «  fock  as  the  sun  stftkcs  it  thiou^b  thk  witter.  Alberich 
does  not  think  much  of  the  gold  if  its  only  use  is  for  these  vater- 
childNn's  games.  But  one  of  the  Rhine^aughtors  tells  him  that 
"  he  who  could  make  the  gold  into  a  ring  would  become  roaster 
of  the  world,"  and  to  these  words  the  so-called  Ring-motif  is 
first  sung  (see  Melody,  Example  11).  The  Rhine-daughter  sings 
it  in  a  childlike,  indolently  graceful  way  which  well  expresses 
the  kind  of  toy  the  ring  or  the  world  itself  would  be  to  her. 
One  of  her  sisters  bids  her  be  careful,  but  they,  reassure  them- 
selves with  the  thought  that  the  Rhine-gold  is  safe,  since  no  one 
can  win  it  who  does  not  renoimce  love.  Alberich  broods  over 
what  he  hears,  aiui  already  the  theme  changes  its  character  as 
he  thinks  of  such  mastery  of  the  world  as  he  might  gain  by  it 
(Melody,  Ex.  12).  He  curses  love  and  grasps  the  gold.  The 
theme  of  world-mastery  grows  dark  with  the  darkness  of  the 
Nibetung's  mind.  The  waters  of  the  Rhine  change  into  black 
mists  which  grow  grey  and  thin,  while  the  now  sinister  theme 
becomes  softer  and  smoother.  Then  it  breaks  gently  forth  in  a 
noble,  swinging  rhythm  and  massively  soft  brazen  tones,  as 
Wotan  awakes  on  a  mountain  height  and  gazes  upon  Walhalla, 
his  newly  finished  palace  which  he  has  bid  the  giants  build,  so 
that  from  it  he  may  rule  the  world  (Melody,  Ex.  13).  The  theme 
thus  shows  no  trivial  connexion  with  a  stage-property,  mechanic- 
ally important  in  the  pk)t;  but  it  represents  the  desire  for 
power,  and  what  that  desire  means  to  each  diffeFeiit  type  of  mind. 
The  gods,  as  the  giants  plaintively  admit,  "  rule  by  beauty**; 
hence  the'*  Walhalla-motif."  What  it  becomes  in  the  mind  of 
the  Nibelung  is  grimW  evident  when  Alberich  uses  his  ring  in 
Nibelhelm.  The  Rhine-daughters*  exultant  cry  of  "  Rhine-gold  " 
is  there  tortured  in  an  extremely  remote  modulation  at  the  end 
«f  a  very  ^nister  transformation  of  the  theme;  and  the  orchestra- 
tion, with  its  lurid  but  smotheied  braes  instruments,  its  penetrat- 
ing low  reed  tones  and  its  weird  drum-roH  beaten  on  a  suspended 
cymbal,  is  more  awe-inspiring  than  anything  dreamed  of  by  the 
cleverest  of  those  composers  who  do  not  create  inteUectttol  causes 
for  their  effects. 

A  famous  and  typictfl  instance  of  Wagner's  use  of  Leilmotif  in 
tragic  irony  is  the  passage  where  Hagen  gives  Siegfried  friendly 
welcome,  to  the  melody  of  the  curse  which  Alberich  pronounced 
on  the  ring  and  all  who  approached  it.  The  more  subtle  examples 
are  inexhaustible  in  variety  and  resource;  and  perhaps  the 
climax  of  subtlety  is  the  almost  entire  absence  of  Leitmotif  itithe 
first  scene  of  the  third  act  of  GSUerdSmmervng,  when  Siegfried 
throws  away  his  last  chance  of  averting  his  doom.  The  Rhine- 
daughters  appear  to  him,  and  ask  him  to  give  them  the  ring  that 
Is  on  his  finger.  Siegfried  refuses.  They  laugh  at  his  stinginess 
•and  disappear.  Siegfried  is  piqued,  and  calls  them  back  to  offer 
them  the  ring.  Unfortunately  they  tell,  him  of  its  curse,  and 
prophesy  death  to  him  if  he  keeps  it.  This  arouses  his  spirit  of 
contradiction;  and  he  tells  them  that  they  might  have  won 
it  from  him  by  coaxing,  but  never  by  threats,  and  that  he  values 
his  life  no  more  than  the  stone  he  tosses  away  as  he  speaks  to 
them.  In  spite  of  the  necessary  allusions  to  the  ominous  theme 
of  the  curse,  which  would  give  any  less  great  composer  ample 
excuse  for  succumbing  to  the  listener's  sense  of  impending  doom, 
Wagner's  music  speaks  to  us  through  the  child-minds  of  the 
Rhine-daughters  and  terrifies  us  with  the  ruthless  calm  of  Nature. 

Almost  as  subtle,  and  much  more  directly  impressive,  is  the 
pathos  of  the  death  of  Siegfried,-  which  is  heightened  by  an  un- 
precedented appeal  to  a  sense  of  musical  form  on  the  scale  of 
the  entire  tetralogy.  Siegfried's  whole  character  and  career  Is, 
indeed,  annihilated  in  the  clumsy  progress  towards  this' con- 
summation; but  Shakespeare  might  have  condoned  worse  plots 
for  the  sake  of  so  noble  a  result;  and  indeed  Wagner's  awkward- 
ness arisen  mainly  from  fear  of  committing  oversights.  Hagen, 
the  Nibelung's  son,  has  managed  to  make  Siegfried  unwittingly 
drink  a  love-potion  with  Gutrune,  which  causes  him  to  foiiget  his 
own  bride,  Brfinnhilde.  Siegfried  is  then  persuaded  to  transform 
Inmself  by  his  magic  Tamhelm  into  the  likeness  of  his  host, 
Gutrune's  brother  Gunther,  in  order  to  bring  Brilnnhilde  (whose 
name  is  now  quite  new  io  him)  from  her  fire-encircled  rock,  so 
tliat  Gunther  may  have  her  for  his  bride  and  Siegfried  may  wed 


Ootnihe.  Tlds  is  achieved;  and  Brflanhikfe%  hoirot  and  b»< 
wilderment  at  meeting  Siegfried  again  as  a  stranger  in  his  own 
shape  creates  a  sitMtion  which  Siegfried  cannot  uadentand, 
and  which  Hagen  pri^ends  to  construe  as  damning  evidenoe  that 
Siegfried  lias  betrayed  Gunther's  honour  as  well  as  BrOnnhilde's. 
Hagen,  Gunther  and  Brilnnhilde  therefore  agree  that  Siegfried 
must  die.  In  order  to  spare  Gutrune's  feelings  it  is  arrsmged 
that  his  death  shall  appear  as  an  accklent  in  a  hunting  party. 
While  the  hunthig  party  is  resting  Siegfried  tells  stories  of  Ua 
boyhood,  thus  recalling  the  antecedents  of  this  drama  with  a 
charming  freshness  and  sense  of  dramatic  and  musical  repose. 
When  he  comes  to  the  point  where  his  memory  has  been  clouded 
by  Hagen's  spells,  Hagen  restores  his  memory  with  another 
magic  potion.  Si^ried  calmly  continues  to  teU  how  he  found 
Br(fainhild6  asleep  on  the  fie^  mountain.  Hagen  affects  to 
construe  this  as  a  confession  of  guilt,  and  slays  him  as  if  in 
righteous  wrath.  The  dying  Sie^ried  calls  on  Brilnnhilde  to 
awaken,  and  asks  **  Who  hath  locked  thee  again  in  sleep?" 
Ho  believes  that  he  is  once  more  with  BrtfainhUde  on  the  Val* 
kyries'  mountain  height;  and  the  harmonies  of  her  awakening 
move  in  untroubled  splendour  till  the  light  of  life  fades  with  the 
light  of  day  and  the  slain  hero  is  carried  to  the  Gibichung's  hall 
through  the  moonlit  mists,  while  tho  music  of  love  and  death 
tells  in  terrible  triumph  more  of  his  story  than  he  ever  knew. 

The  bare  conception  of  such  art  as  this  shows  how  perfect  is 
the  unity  between  the  different  elements  in  Wagner's  later  musio* 
drama.  If  the  music  of  Tfislan  is  mofe  polyphonic  than  that  of 
Lohmgrin^  it  is  because  it  b  hardly  figurative  to  call  its  drama 
polyphonic  also.  Compare  the  mere  fairy-tale  mystery  of 
Lohengrin's  command  that  Elsa  shall  never  ask  to  know  his 
name,  with  the  profound  fatalism  of  Isolde's  love-potbn.  Apart 
from  the  gain  in  tragic  force  resulting  from  Wagner's  masterly 
development  of  the  character  of  Brangaene,  the  raw  material 
of  the  story  was  already  suggestive  of  that  astounding  combina- 
tion of  the  contrasted  themes  of  love  and  death,  the  musical 
execution  of  which  involves  a  harmonic  range  almost  as  far 
beyond  that  of  its  own  day  as  the  ordinary  haimonic  range  of 
the  19th  century  is  beyond  that  of  the  tfith.  In  his  next  work, 
Die  MeiUersingcTy  Wagner  ingeniously  made  poetry  and  drama 
out  of  an  explicit  manifesto  to  musical  critics,  and  proved  the 
depth  of  his  music  by  developing  its  everyday  resottrces  and  so 
lowing  that  its  vitality  docs  not  depend  on  tiiat  extreme 
emotional  force  that  makes  Tristan  nnd  Isolde  almost  unbearably 
poignant.  Few  things  uure  finer  in  music  or  literature  than  the 
end  of  the  second  act  of  Die  Meistersingert  from  the  point  where 
Sachs's  apprentice  begins  the  riot,  to  the  moment  when  the 
watchman,  frightened  at  the  silence  of  the  moonlit  streets  so 
soon  after  he  has  heard  all  that  noise,  announces  eleven  o'clock 
and  bids  the  folk  pray  for  protection  against  evil  spirits,  while 
the  orchestra  tells  us  of  the  dreams  of  Wdther  and  Eva  and  ends 
by  putting  poetry  even  into  the  pedantic  ineptitudes  of  the 
malicious  Beckmesser.  Die  Meiskrsinger  is  perhaps  Wagner's 
most  nearly  perfect  work  of  art;  and  it  is  a  striking  proof  of  its 
purity  and  greatness  that,  while  the  whole  work  is  in  the  happiest 
comic  vein,  no  one  ever  thinks  of  it  as  in  any  way  slighter  than 
Wagner's  tragic  works.  The  overwhelming  love-tragedy  of 
TristaH  und  Isolde  is  hardly  less  perfect,  though  the  simplicity 
of  its  action  exposes  its  longueurs  to  greater  notoriety  than  those 
which  may  be  found  in  Die  Mei^ersiuger, 

These  two  works  interrupted  the  execution  of  the  Ring  and 
formed  the  stepping^ones  to  Parsifd,  a  work  which  may 
perltaps  be  said  to  marie  a  further  advance  In  that  subtlety  <^ 
poetic  conception  which,  as  we  have  seen,  gave  the  determining 
Impulse  to  Wagner's  true  musical  style.  Hut  in  raiiuc  he  had 
no  more  to  learn,  and  Parsifal^  w^e  the  most  solemn  and 
concentrated  of  all  Wagner's  dramas,  is  musically  not  always 
ttnsoggestfve  of  old  age.  Its  harmonic  style  is,  except  in  the 
GraU-  music,  even  more  abstruse  than  in  Tristan*,  and  the 
intense  quiet  of  the  action  b  far  removed  from  the  forces  which 
In  that  tumultuous  tragedy  carry  the  listener  through  every 
diiflcohy.  Again,  while  the  Eucharistic  features  In  Parsifal 
attract  some  listeneis,  the  material  effect  of  tbeir' presentation 


242 


WAGNER 


on  the  stBge  haa  been  known  to  npA  otkeia  who  are  beyond 
suspuaoQ  of  prejudice.  But  the  greatness  of  the  art  is,  like  its 
subject,  worlds  away  from  material  impressions;  and  a  wide 
consensus  regards  Wagner's  last  work  as  his  loftiest,  both  in 
music  and  poetry.  Certainly  no  poet  would  venture  to  despise 
Wagner's  imaginative  conception  of  Kundry.  In  his  letters  to 
his  friend  Mathilde  Wesendonck,  it  appears  that  while  he  was 
composing  Tristan  he  ahready  had  the  inspiration  of  working 
out  .the  identification  oi  Kuiulry,  the  messenger  of  the  Grail, 
with  the  temptress  who,  under  the  spdl  of  Klingsor,  seduces  the 
knt^ts  of  the  GraQ;  and  he  had,  moreover,  thought  out  the 
impressively  obscure  suggestion  that  she  was  Uerodias,  con- 
demned like  the  wandering  Jew  to  live  till  the  Saviour's  second 
coming.  The  quiet  expression  of  these  startling  ideas  is  more 
remarkable  than  their  adoption;  for  smaller  artists  live  on 
still  more  startling  ideas;  but  most  remarkable  of  all  is  the 
presentation  of  Parsifal,  both  in  his  foolishness  and  in  the  widsom 
which  comes  to  him  through  pity.  The  chief  excuse  for  doubting 
whether  Wagner's  last  work  is  really  his  greatest  is  that  most 
of  its  dramatic  subtleties  are  beyond  musical  expression,  since 
they  do  not  lead  to  definite  conflicts  and  blendings  of  emotion. 
Where  the  orchestra  shows  that  Parsifal  is  becoming  half-con- 
s^Iious  of  his  quest  while  Kundiy  is  beguiling  him  with  memories 
of  his  mother, — and  also  during  the  two  changes  of  scene  to  the 
Hall  of  the  Grail,  where  the  orchestra  mingles  the  agony  of 
Amfortas  and  the  sorrow  of  the  knights  with  the  tolling  of  the 
great  bells, — the  polyphony  is  almost  as  dramatic  as  in  Tristan; 
while  the  prelutk  and  the  Charfrtitagstauher  are  among  the 
clearest  examples  of  the  sublime  since  Beethoven.  But  dse- 
where  there  are  few  passages  in  which  the  extremely  recondite 
harmonic  style  can  be  with  certainty  traced  to  anything  but 
habit.  This  style  originated,  indeed,  m  a  long  experience  of  the 
profouodest  dramatic  impulses;  but  as  a  habit  it  does  not  seem, 
h'ke  the  greatest  things  in  art,  the  one  inevitable  treatment  of 
the  matter  in  hand.  But,  whatever  our  doubts,  we  may  safely 
regard  Parsifal  as  a  work  which,  like  Beethoven's  last  fugues, 
invites  attadc  rather  from  those  critics  who  demand  what  flatters 
their  own  vanity  than  from  those  who  wish  to  be  inspired  by 
what  they  could  never  have  foreseen  for  themselves. 

In  Wagner's  harmonic  style  we  encounter  the  entire  problem 
of  modem  musical  texture..  Wagner  effected  vast  changes  in 
almost  eveiy  branch  of  his  all-embracing  art,  from  theatre- 
building  and  stage-lighting  to  the  musical  declamation  of  words. 
Most  of  his  reforms  have  since  been  intelligently  carried  out  as 
normal  principles  in  more  arts  than  one;  but,  shocking  as  the 
statement  may  seem  to  2otb-century  orthodoxy,  Wagnerian 
harmony  is  a  universe  as  yet  unexplored,  except  by  the  few 
composers  who  are  so  independent  of  its  bewildering  effect  on 
the  generation  that  grew  up  with  it,  that  they  can  use  Wagner's 
resources  as  discreetly  as  he  used  them  himself.  The  last  two 
examples  at  the  end  of  the  article  on  Harmony  show  almost  all 
that  is  new  in  Wagner's  harmonic  principles.  The  peculiar  art 
therein  is  that  while  the  discords  owe  their  intelligibility  and 
softness  to  the  smooth  melo4ic  lines  by  which  in  "  resolving  " 
ihey  prove  themselves  but  transient  rainbow-hues  on  or  below 
the  surface,  they  owe  their  strangeness  to  the  intense  vividness 
with  which  at  the  moment  of  impact  they  suggest  a  mysteriously 
remote  foreign  key.  Wagner's  orthodox  contemporaries  regarded 
such  mixtures  of  key  as  sheer  nonsense;  and  it  would  seem  that 
the  rank  and  file  of  his  imitators  agree  with  that  view,  since  they 
cither  plagiarize  Wagner's  actual  piogresaians  or  else  produce 
such  mixtures  with  no  vividness  of  key-«olour  and  little  attempt 
to  follow  those  melodic  trains  of  thought  by  which  Wagner 
makes  sense  of  them.  There  is  far  more  of  truly  Wagnerian 
harmony  to  be  found  before  his  time  than  since.  It  was  so  early 
recognized  as  charaaeristic  of  Chopin  that  a  magnificent  example 
may  be  seen  at  the  end  of  Schumann's  little  tone-portrait  of 
him  in  the  Camaval:  a  very  advanced  Wagnerian  passage  on 
another  principle  constitutes  the  bulk  of  the  development  in  the 
first  movement  of  Beethoven's  sonata  Les  Adi€ux;  while  even 
in  the  "  Golden  Age  "  of  music,  and  within  the  limits  of  pure 
diatonic  concord,  the  unexpectedness  of  many  of  Palestrina's 


chords  is  hanUy  less  WagQerian  than  the  perfect  iwoothoirw  «f 

the  radodic  lines  which  combine  to  produce  them. 

Wagnerian  harmony  is,  then,  neither  a  side-issue  nor  a  progreas 
per  sallmmt  but  a  leading  current  in  the  stream  of  musical  evolu- 
tion.   That  stream  is  sure  sooner  or  later  to  carry  with  it  every 
reality  that  has  been  reached  by  8id4^-issues  and  leaps;  and  of 
such  things  we  have  important  cases  in  the  works  o£  Strauss  and 
Debussy.    Strauss  makes  a  steadily  increasing  use  of  avowedly 
irrational  discords,  in  order  to  produce  an  emotionally  apt 
physical  sensation.   Debussy  has  this  in  common  with  Stiaoss, 
that  he  too  regards  harmonies  as  pure  physical  sensations;  but 
he  difiers  from  Strauss  firstly  in  systematically  refusing  to  r^ard 
them  as  anything  else,  and  secondly  in  his  extreme  sensibttiiy 
to  harshness.    We  have  seen  (in  the  articles  on  Harmoky  and 
Music)  how  harmonic  music  originated  in  just  this  habit  of 
regarding  combinations  of  aound  as  mere  sensations,  and  how 
for  centuries  the  habit  opposed  itself  to  the  intellectual  principles 
of  contrapuntal  harmony.    These  iotellectual  principles  are,  of 
course,  not  without  their  own  ground  in  physical  sensatioB; 
but  it  is  evident  that  Debussy  appeals  beyond  them  to  a  more 
primitive  instinct;  and  on  it  he  bases  an  almost    perfectly 
coherent  system  of  which  the  laws  are,  like  those  of  x  ath-ccntufy 
music,  precisely  the  opposite  of  these  of  classical  baimofly. 
The  only  iUogical  point  in  his  system  is  that  the  bou&ty  of  kii 
dreamUke  chords  depends  not  only  on  his  artful  choice  of  a  tisbn 
that  minimizes  their  harshness,  but  also  on  the  fftct  tha  tky 
enter  the  ear  with  the  meaning  they  have  acquired  thra^ 
centuries  of  harmonic  evolution  on  dassical  lines.    There  is  & 
special  pleasure  in  the  subsidence  of  that  meaning  benealli  % 
soothing  sensation;  but  a  system  based  thereon  cannot  be 
universaL   Its  phenomena  are,  however,  perfectly  real,  and  can 
be  observed  wherever  artistic  conditions  make  the  tone  of  a 
mass  of  harmony  more  important  than  the  interior  threads  ef 
its  texture.    This  is  of  constant  occurrence  in  classical  pianoforte 
music,  in  which  thick  chords  are  subjected  to -polyphonic  lavs 
only  in  their  top  and  bottom  notes,  while  the  inner  notes  makes 
solid  mass  of  sound  in  which  numerous  consecutive  fifths  and 
octaves  are  not  only  harmless  but  essential  to  the  balance  of  tone. 
In  Debussy's  art  the  top  and  bottom  are  also  involved  in  \i» 
antipolyphonic  bws  of  such  masses  of  sound,  thus  making  these 
laws  paramoimt. 

The  irrational  discords  of  Strauss  are  also  real  phenomena  in 
musical  aesthetics.  They  are  an  extension  of  the  principle  oa 
which  gongs  and  cymbals  and  all  instruments  without  notes  of 
determinate  pitch  are  employed  in  otherwise  polyphonic  music 

But  it  is  important  to  realize  that  both  these  types  of  modeza 
harmony  are  radically  non-Wagnerian.    Haydn  uses  a  '  true 
Straussian  discord  in  The  Seasons,  in  order  to  imitate  the  chirping 
of  a  cricket;  but  the  harshest  realism  in  C^tterddmrnentug  (the 
discord  {M'oduced  by  the  horns  of  Hagen  and  his  churls  in  the 
mustering-scene  in  the  second  act)  has  a  harmonic  logic  which 
would  have  convinced  Corelli.  And  of  Debussy's  antipolyphonic 
art  there  is  less  in  Wagner  than  in  Beethoven.   The  i»esent  in- 
fluence of  Wagnerian  harmony  is,  then,  somewhat  indefinite, 
since  the  most  important  n*al  phenomena  of  later  music  indicaie 
a  revolt  both  from  it  and  from  earlier  flassical  methods.   It  has 
had,  however,  a  marked  effect  on  weaker  musical  individualities. 
Musical  public  opinion  now  puts  an  extraordinary  pressure  on 
the  young  composer,  urging  him  at  all  costs  to  abandon  "  out- 
of-date  "  styles  however  stimulating  they  may  be  to  his  invention. 
It  is  no  cxaggemtion  to  say  that  a  parallel  condition  in  literature 
would  be  produced  by  a  strong  public  opinion  to  the  effect  that 
any  English  style  was  hopelessly  out  of  date  unless  it  consisted 
exclusively  of  the  most  difficult  types  of  phrase  to  be  found  in 
the  works  of  Browning  and  Meredith.     The  brilliant  success  of 
Humperdinck's  HUnsel  und  GreUif  in  which  Wagnerian  technique 
is  applied  to  the  diatonic  style  of  nursery  songs  with  a  humorous 
accuracy  undreamed*  of  by  Wagner's  imitators,  points  a  moral 
which  would  have  charmed  Wagner  himself;   but  until  the 
revival  of  some  rudiments  of  musical  common  sense  becomes 
wide^read,  there  is  little  prospea  of  the  influent  of  Wagner's 
harmonic  style  being  productive  of  anything  bettei;  than  aonsepst. 


I 

w 


WAGON— WAGRAM 


243 


Tbe  very  fenie  of  dramatic  fitness  has  temporariljr  vanished 
from  public  musical  opinion,  together  -with  the  sense  of  musical 
form,  in  consequence  of  another  prevalent  habit,  that  of  present- 
ing shapeless  extracts  from  Wagner's  operas  as  orchestral  pieces 
Without  voices  or  textbooks  or  any  hint  that  such  adjuncU  are 
desirable.  But  this  vandalism,  which  Wagner  condoned  with  a 
very  bad  grace,  now  happily  begins  to  give  way  to  the  practice 
of  presenting  long  scenes  or  entire  acts,  with  the  singers«  on 
the  concert-platform.  This  has  the  merit  of  bringing  the  real 
Wagner  to  ears  which  may  have  no  other  means  of  hearing 
him,  and  it  fosters  no  delusion  as  to  what  is  missing  in  such  a 
presentation.  Tbe  guidance  of  Hans  Richter  has  given  us  a 
sure  bulwark  against  the  misrepresentation  of  Wagner;  and  so 
there  is  hope  that  Wagner  may  yet  be  saved  from  such  an 
oblivion  in  fetish-worship  as  has  lost  Handel  to  us  for  so  long. 
As  with  Shakespeare  and  Beethoven,  the  day  will  never  come 
when  we  can  measure  the  influence  of  so  vast  a  mind  upon  the 
history  of  art.  Smaller  artists  can  make  history;  the  greatest 
absorb  it  into  that  daylight  wUch  is  its  final  cause. 

List  op  Wagner's  Works 

The  following  are  Wagner's  operas  and  music-dramat,  apart 
from  the  unpublished  Die  Hochaeil  (three  numbers  only).  Die  fcen, 
and  Das  Luoetaerbot  {Das  LUbesoerbot  was  disinterred  in  1910). 

l.RUmi.  der  tetxie  dtr  Tri^nen:  grosse  tragische  Open  $  acts 
(1839-1840). 

2.  Dtr  fitesptdt  HcUdnder:  romatUische  Operi  i  act.  afterwards 
cut  into  3  (1841). 

3.  Tatmhauser  mid  dtr  Sdntpkrieg  auj  Warlburg:  romantiuhe 
Oper;  3  acts  (libretto,  1843;  aiusic,  1844-1845;  new  Venusberg 
rousic,  1860-1861). 

4.  Lokenpin:  romantiuhe  Optr;  3  acts  (Kbrctto,  1845:  music. 
1846-1848).   This  is  the  last  work  Wagner  calls  by  the  title  of  Opera. 

5.  Das  Rhtingdd,  prologue  in  4  scenes  to  Der  Ring  des  Ntbdungen; 
tin  Bnkntntestspid  (poem  written  last  of  the  series,  which  was  begun 
ia  1848  and  finished  in  i8xi-i8u:  music,  1853-1854). 

6.  Die  Walkure:  der  Ring  its  Ifibelungen,  erster  Tag;  3  acts 
(score  finished.  1856). 

7.  Tristan  und  Isolde;  3  acts  (poem  written  in  1857;  music, 
ig57->i85o). 

8.  Siegfried:  der  Ring  des  Nibelungen,  tweiter  Tag;  3  acts,  the  Unt 
two  nearly  finished  before  Tristan,  the  rest  between  1865  and  1869. 

9.  Die  Meisterstnger  von  NUrnberg;  3  acts  (sketch  of  play,  1845; 
poem.  1861-1862;  music,  1863-1867). 

10.  CdUerddmmertmg:  der  Rinr  des  Nibdungen,  dritter  Tai^, 
iotroducdon  and  3-acu  {Siegfried^s  Tod  already  sketched  dramati- 
cally in  1848;  muuc,  1870-1874). 

tl.Parstfal:  tin  BUknenvxtkftslspiel  (a  solemn  stage  festival 
pby),  3  acts  (poem,  1876-1877;  muac,  1877-1882,  Charjrtitags- 
wanotr  aheady  sketched  in  18^7). 

As  seg«rda  other  compositions,  the  early  unpublished  works  in- 
clude a  symphony,  a  cantata,  some  incidental  music  to  a  pantomime, 
and  several  overtures,  four  of  which  have  recently  been  discovered 
and  produced.  The  important  small  published  works  are  Eint 
Fanst  Oeerhtrt  (1839-18^0;  rewritten,  185$);  the  Siegfried  IdyUe 
bui  exouiaite  serenade  for  small  orchestra  on  themes  from  the 
finale  oi  Siegfried,  written  as  a  surprise  for  Frau  Wagner  in  1870); 
the  Kaisermarsck  (1871).  the  Huldtgungsmarsch  (1864)  for  military 
band  (the  scoring  of  the  concort-version  finished  by  Raff);  Finf 
GedicHAs  (1862),- a  set  of  loogs  containing  two  studies  for  Tristan; 
and  tbe  euljr  quasi-oratorio  scene  for  male-voice  chorus  and  full 
orcheatra.  Das  Liebeamakl  der  A  pastel  (184^).  Wagner's  retouching 
of  GIuck's  Ipkigenie  tn  Aulide  and  his  edition  of  Palestrina's  Siabat 
Mater  demand  mention  as  important  services  to  music,  by  no  means 
to  be  classified  (as  in  some  catalogues)  with  the  hack-work  with 
which  be  kept  off  starwation  in  Paris. 

The  collected  literary  Works  of  Wagner  in  German  fill  ten  volumes, 
and  include  political  speeches,  sketches  for  dramas  that  did  not 
become  operas,  autobiog^phical  chapters,  aesthetic  musical 
treatises  and  polemics  of  vitnolie  violence.  Their  importance  will 
never  be  cmnpaiable  to  that  of  his  music ;  but,  just  as  the  reaction 
against  Ruskin's  ascendancy  as  an  art-critic  has  coincided  with  an 
increased  respect  for  his  ethical  and  sociological  thought,  so  the 
rebellious  forces  that  are  compelling  Wagnensm  to  grant  music  a 
constitution  coincide  with  a  growmg  admiiatkMi  of  his  general 
mental  powcra.  The  prose  works  have  been  translated  into  bnglish 
by  W.  A.  Ellis  (8  vols.,  1802-1^9).  The  translation  by  F.  Jameson 
(1807)  of  the  text  of  the  Ring  (first  published  in  the  pocket  edition 
of  the  full  scores)  is  the  most  wonderful  tour  de  foret  yet  achieved  in 
its  line.  A  careful  reading  of  the  score  to  this  Enghsh  text  reveals 
nota  imgle  false  emphasis  or  loss  of  rhetorical  point  in  the  lilting  of 
words  to  notes>  nor  a  single  extra  note  or  halt  in  the  rousic:  and 
wherever  the  language  seems  s'.ilted  or  absurd  the  original  will  be 
found  to  be  at  least  equally  so,  while  the  spirit  of  Wagner's  poetry 
la  faithfttOy  niaeted.    Such  work  deatrvea  mors  rscegnhloii  than 


it  is  ever  likely  to  get.'  Rapidly  as  the  standard  of  mudcal  transla- 
tions was  improving  before  this  work  appeared,  bo  one  could  have 
foreseen  what  has  now  been  abuml^ntly  verified,  that  the  Ring  can 
be  performed  in  English  without  any  appredable  k>«a  to  Wagner^art. 
Tbe  same  translator  has  also  published  a  close,  purely  literary  version. 

Literature. — ^The  Wagner  literature  is  too  enormous  to  be  dealt 
with  here.  The  standard  Dtography  is  that  of  (^lasenapp  (6  vols., 
of  which  five  appeared  between  »894  and  I909).  (Jf  readable 
English  books  we  may  dte  Ernest  Newman,  A  Study  of  Wagner 
CiC^);  U.  £.  Krehbiel.  Studies  in  tke  Wagfterian  Drama  (189O: 
Jessie  L.  Weston,  Leapnds  of  tke  Wagner  Dramas  O906).  The- 
Perfect  Wagnerite,  by  C.  Bernard  Shaw,  though  concerned  mainly 
with  the  social  philosophy  of  the  Ring,  gives  a  luminous  account  of 
Wagner's  mastery  of  musical^  movement.  The  highest  English 
authority  on  Wagner  is  his  friend  Daniueuther,  whose  article  in 
Grove's  Dictionary  is  classical. 

See  also  /IftiA,  Harmony,  iNSTRimBNTATiON,  Music,  Opera,  and 
OVBRTtJRB.  (D.F.T.) 

WAOON,  or  Waggon,  a  large  four-wheeled  vehicle  for  the 
carriage  of  heavy  loads,  and  drawn  by  two  or  more  horses. 
This  is  the  general  English  use  of  the  term,  where  it  is  more 
particularly  confined  to  the  large  vehicles  employed  in  the 
carrying  of  agricultural  produce.  It  is  also  used  of  the  uncovered 
heavy  rolling  stock  for  goods  on  railways.  In  America  the  term 
is  applied  also  to  lighter  vehicles,  such  as  are  used  for  express 
delivery,  police  work.  &c.,  and  to  various  forms  of  four-wheeled 
vehicles  used  for  driving,  to  which  the  English  term  "  cart " 
would  be  given.  The  word  **  wagon  "  appears  to  be  a  direct 
adaptation  of  Du.  IVagen  (cf.  Gcr.  Wagen,  Swcd.  Vagn,  &c.). 
Skeat  finds  the  earliest  use  of  the  word  in  Lord  Bcmer's  transla- 
tion  of  Froissart  (1523-1525),  so  that  it  is  by  no  means  an  early 
word.  The  O.E.  cognate  word  was  Vfcegri,  later  wcm,  by  dropping 
of  g  (cf.  regn,  ren,  rain),  modem  "  wain."  The  root  of  all  these 
cognate  words,  meaning  to  carry,  is  seen  in  Lat.  vekere.  The 
term  '*  wagon  "  or  "  waggon  "  is  applied  technically  in  book- 
binding to  a  frame  of  cane  used  for  trimming  the  edges  of  gold 
leaf.  In  architecture  a  '*  wagon-ceiling  "  is  a  boarded  roof  of 
the  Tudor  time,  either  of  semicircular  or  polygonal  section. 
It  is  boarded  with  thin  panels  of  oak  or  other  wood  ornamented 
with  mouldings  and  with  loops  at  the  intersections. 

WAG  RAM  (Deutsck-Wagrau),  a  village  of  Austria  situated 
in  the  plain  of  tbe  Marchfeld,  11}  m.  N.E.  of  Vienna.  It  gives 
its  name  to  the  battle  of  the  5th  and  6th  of  July  1809,  in  which 
the  French  army  under  Napoleon  defeated  the  Austrians  com- 
manded by  the  archduke  Charles.  On  the  failure  of  his  previous 
attempt  to  pass  his  whole  army  across  the  Danube  at  Aspem 
(see  Napoleonic  Campaigns  and  Aspern),  Napoleon  set  himself 
to  accumulate,  around  Vienna  and  the  island  of  Lobau,  not  only 
his  own  field  forces,  but  also  every  man,  horse  and  gun  available 
from  Italy  and  South  Germany  for  a  final  effort.  Every  detach- 
ment was  drawn  in  within  forty-eight  hours'  call,  his  rearward 
communications  being  practically  denuded  of  their  covering 
troops.  The  island  of  Lobau  itself  was  converted  practically  into 
a  fortress,  and  150  heavy  guns  were  mounted  on  its  banks  to 
command  the  Austrian  side  of  the  stream.  Giving  up,  in  face 
of  this  artillery,  the  direct  defence  of  the  river-side,  the  Austrians 
drew  up  in  a  great  arc  of  about  6  m.  radius  extending  from  the 
Bisamberg,  overlooking  tbe  Danube,  in  the  west,  to  Markgraf- 
neusiedl  on  the  east.  From  this  point  to  the  Danube  below  Lobau 
a  gap  was  left  for  the  deployment  of  the  archduke  Johann's 
army  from  Pressburg.  This  army,  however,  arrived  too  late. 
Their  total  front,  therefore,  was  about  12  m.  for  120,000  men^ 
which  by  a  forward  march  of  a  couple  of  hours  could  be  reduced 
to  about  6  m.—^ving  a  density  of  occupation  of  about  20,000 
men  to  the  mile. 

Meanwhile  Napoleon  reconstructed  the  bridge  over  the  main 
stream  (see  Aspern)  more  solidly,  protecting  it  by  palisades  of 
piles  and  floating  booms»  and  organised  an  armed  0otilla  to 
command  the  waterway.  Ob  the  island  itself  preparations  were 
made  to  throw  three  bridges  across  the  Lobau  arm  of  the  stream 
opposite  Akpern  and  Essling,  and  seven  more  on  the  right,  facing 
east  between  Gross  Enxcndorf  and  the  main  river. 

For  se\'eral  days  previous  to  tbe  great  battle  the  French  had 
sent  acroiaaniall  detachments,  and  hence  when,  on  the  afternoon 
of  the  4tli  of  Ju^/f  AA  advanced  guard  was  put  over  near  Cross 


244  "«' 

u  DOt  particular]} 
cmpenM-j  bowcvcr 
X  ibt  biltic,  and  und«  cow  ol  M: 
dctichmrnt  bis  pontonim  made  the  sewn  bridgej.  Long  beloH 
daylight  on  the  6l1i  Ibe  tiuopl  b^au  to  stream  acnw,  and  aboul 
qA.H.Ihe  three  coipi  dcslinnl  [or  the  finl  lioi  (Davoul,  Oudinol 
and  Maisfna)  bad  conpleied  tbcii  deployment  on  ■  Iront  ol 


almoU  to  AipttD,  and  Ut  i^bt,  IhOu^  iMnl  br  Btmaiknt. 
had  tailod  lo  recapuue  Aderklaa.  Iiom  vhitJi  Uw  Autlriaiu  had 
driven  hii  advanciKl  posts  atly  in  the  mocniiic.  Tbc  titualioa 
lot  Ibe  French  Uxdicd  vrry  aeriiHu,  fur  thtir  tmopa  verr  noi 
GgMingwjth  the  dash  and  iplill  af  fanner  yean.  Bui  Kapoltoi 
was  ■  master  In  the  psychology  tf  the  batlkefield,  and  knev  Ihil 
on  the  other  side  tilings  vere  mocb  theaamt  He  thecefortHU 
lien  klonc  lb*  whiJe  liu 
■agiganf 


e  {Etcsa'trci 


m  French  left)  byBtelltntee 

g  the  bM  ol  the 
siedlvith  their 
counter^ttach 
right  when  the 
I  of  Ihe  gnat 


Bome  6000  yds.  and  were  mavfn 
a«cond  line  [Eugene  and  Bemido 
and  (be  guatd).    Aboul  noon  t 
French  opening  outwards  lihe  a  Ian  10  0 
Davout  direct  on  MarltgraCneudcdl 
Hassjna  (tUghily  n[u3e ' 
on  SilaMobrunn. 

The  Anstrians  held  a  Btron^  porflii 
Kussbacb  from  Deutsch-Wagnm  to  Hirkgrafr 
IcTl,  whilst  their  right  was  held  ready  for 
Intended  to  roll  up  the  French  atlaek  Innn  kft 
proper  moment  should  come.  The  moveme 
FVenchmasscain  the  confined  space  were  sloWf  ana  the  BlIacK  on 
(he  line  of  the  Ruasbach  did  not  dedare  itself  [ill  S  r.u.;  the 
corps  did  not  attack  ^multaneousiy,  and  failed  altogether  10 
make  any  aerioua  impreulon  on  the  AuMiian  podtion.  Masa^na 
on  the  kit  was  scarcely  engaged, 

Bui,  hearing  of  the  auetess  of  bis  left  aring  on  Ibe  Ruabach, 
Ibe  archduke  determined  to  anticipate  tbe  French  ma  morning 
on  that  side,  and  four  corps  were  directed  upon  Manfna,  who 
had  bivouacked  bis  troopa  overnight  on  the  line  Leopoldsau- 
Stlssenbrunn- Aderklaa.  (he  latter,  a  strongly  built  vJiUge, 
forming,  as  it  wen,  ■  bridge-head  to  Ibe  paasages  of  the  Ruaibach 
at  Deutjrti-Wagram.  Another  corps  with  a  alrong  cavalry  force 
was  also  directed  to  pivot  round  Markgrafncusledl  and  Lo  attack 
Davout  on  his  rightion  this  Rank  also  the  arrival  of  theaiehdnke 
Johinn  was  eipccled  later  in  the  day. 

II  a  u,  Uaafna'*  kft  bad  beea  drivoi  back 


Davout  on  (t»  light  wu  to 

attKk  HaiksMfDeusiedl 

^ 

again.      Mwtn.    was    » 

mm    acunst    the    tnofs 

' 

to     advwtce     Tespccliicij 

c 

AdeiUaa,  wfailat  in  the  w 
which    iranld    thus   e;o 

between  them  mucbed  tbt 
Slh  corpa   (Maedoualdl  M 

/ 

battery    of    ich  guol  ud 

followed  by  the  gtiari  i*f 

reserve  cavalry. 

■ 

Macdonald      fonneJ  b 
of  one   battalion,   fourua 

- 

batlalioas    deployed  .1  "i 
pacea  distance  leading. -hiki 

/ 

fantiy  manhed  in  «*»■ 

' 

of  eectlona  on  dtber  liaL 
■nd  csLmlry  doMd  the  «"■ 

Theideaw.itoco»pele« 
the  weakest  to  go on,c»pi6 
ol  being  trampled  (0  i'lS' 
under  the  leet  of  the  loUow 
ing  tncn  and  boraea,  but  d. 

terror  caused  by  (be  Aa* 

-huge      gap.     through    lU 

proved 

enough   10 

counterael  evai  tbia    d«i«(t,  w" 

»m  in 

the   advan 

dmittcd  by 

Fnach  anthon  (Ardani  du  Picq) 

flheio 
were  ki 

■^j^fwr 

□  BcIuaUy  delivered  Ibe  attack,  .!>«>' 
ded,  but  34.000  evaded  (heir  dui; 

be  column  appeaiod  we  maaa  ol  dead 

^■g!"" 

eating,  te 

fible  In 

NeverthehsB,  Matdonald  reached  his  destinilion,  for  the  r"" 
had  Uterilly  tom  a  gap  in  the  opposing  liae,  ud  the  guards  and 

made  progiesj,  and,  learning  that  the  archduke  Jtdiann  c""'" 
not  be  counted  on  for  that  day,  tbe  archduke  Charles  isms 
□tden  for  a  retreat.  Tbe  whole  Auatdan  army  waa  gradutHf 
'  itill  anilable  lor  ■  renewsd  tOax- 


fotlowing 


I,  for  whi 
Jkejohan 


ipthelt 


<.  tbe  advancod  patiolt  of  I'll 


the'Craiile  Armb  seised' the  whole  right 
wing,  and  Napoleon  bad  tj>  confess  that  no  further  advance  w^ 
possible  with  these  men  lor  several  days.  , 

Berndi  (2**1  in.  KrU^'i  give,  tbe  foUowing  figarea,  FrenA 
i8.,joo  (including  .9,000  cavalry)  and  *jo  gona  engaged.  <* 
whom  3j,ooo  men  were  killed  and  wounded,  jooo  Iru™"* 
(i6%)lii|iuiaawliitailcaaada>loun»ercki«->   AuiUianfc 


WAGTAII;— WAIIXY 


■»+5 


ttB/ko  QmMhjg  i4iAaio  ttvtlry)  men  and  410  guns  enfi^ied; 
loates,  29,110  kilkd  and  wounded,  and  6740  missing  (20%); 
9  guns  and  one  colour  were  lost.  The  casualties  in  general  officers 
were  unusually  severe,  ax  French  and  15  AusUians  being  killed 
and  wounded. 

WAGTAIL  {Waisterd  and  Wagstyri,  isth  centuiy  Jid$  T. 
Wright,  Vol.  Vocabtihries,  u.  aat,  353;  UuagtaU,  Turner, 
i544>  P*  53)»  the  popular  name  for  .birds  of  the  subfamily. 
MifUtciUinae,  which,  together  with  the  Anlkincc  (see  FIPit), 
iorro  the  passerine  family  MotaciUidae, 

The  pied  wagtail  MotacUla  lugubris  is  a  common  and  generally 
distributed  species  in  the  British  Islands,  and  common  through- 
out northern  Europe  but  migrating  southwards  over  a  relatively 
narrow  range  in  winter.  The  white  wagtail,  M.  alba  of  Linnaeus, 
has  a  wide  raqge  in  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa,  visiting  England 
almost  yearly,  and  chiefly  diiTering  from  the  ordinary  British 
in  its  lighter'«oloured  tint»~the  cock  especially  having  a  dear 
grey  instead  of  a  black  back.  Three  other  species  oqair  in 
England,  but  the  subfamily  with  several  genera  and  very  many 
species  ranges  over  the  Old  Worid,  except  Australia  and  .Poly- 
nesia, whilst  the  Asiatic  spedes  reach  North- West  America. 

Wagtails  ore  generally  parti-coloured  birds,  frequenting 
streams  and  stagnant  water,  and  feeding  on  seeds,  insects, 
worms,  small  molluscs  and  crustaceans.  The  bill  is  thin  and 
elongated,  and  the  tail  is  very  long.  The  nests  are  made  of  moss, 
grass  and  roots,  with  a  lining  of  hair  and  feathers;  four  to  sit 
eggs  are  laid,  bluish  while  or  brown,  or  yellowish  with  spots  and 
markings. 

The  genus  Uotacilla  (an  exact  rendering  of  the  English 
"  wagtail,"  the  Dutch  KwiksiaaH,  the  Italian  Codatremola  and 
other  similar  words),  which,  as  originally  founded  by  Linnaeus, 
cpntained  nearly  all  the  "  soft-billed  "  birds  of  early  English 
.  ornithologists,  was  restricted  by  various  authors  ia  succession, 
,  following  the  example  set  by  Scopoli  in  1769,  until  none  but  the 
wagtails  remained  in  it.  (A.  N.) 

WAHHlBIS.  a  Mahommedan  sect,  the  followers  of  Ibn  'Abd 
ul-WahhAb,  who  instituted  a  great  reform  in  the  religion  of 
Islam  in  Arabia  in  the  i8th  century.  Mahommed  ibn  'Abd  ul- 
Wahhftb  was  bom  in  1691  (or  1703)  at  al*Hauta  of  the  Nejd  iq 
central  Arabia,  and  was  of  the  tribe  of  the  Bani  Tamlm.  He 
studied  literature  and  jurisprudence  of  the  Hanlfite  school. 
After  making  the  pilgrimage  with  his  father,  he  spent  some 
farther  Lime  in  the  study  of  law  at  Medina,  and  resided  for  a 
while  at  Isfahan,  whence  he  returned  to  the  Nejd  to  undertake 
the  work  of  a  teacher.  Aroused  by  his  studies  and  his  obser- 
vation of  the  luxury  in  dress  and  habits,  the  superstitious 
pilgrimages  to  shrines,  the  use  of  omens  and  the  worship  given 
to  Kf  ahomet  and  Mahommedan  saints  rather  than  to  Cod,  he 
began  a  mission  to  proclaim  the  simplicity  of  the  early  religion 
founded  on  the  Koran  and  Susuta  {i,e.  the  manner  of  life  of 
Mahomet).  His  mission  in  his  own  district  was  not  attended 
by  success,  and  for  long  he  wandered  with  his  family  through 
Arabia,  until  at  last  he  settled  in  Dara'Iyya,  or  Deraiya  (in  the 
Nejd),  where  he  succeeded  in  converting  the  greatest  notable, 
Mahommed  ibn  Sa'ud,  who  married  his  daugthcr,  and  so  became 
the  founder  of  an  hereditary  Wahhabite  dynasty.  This  gave  the 
.  jnissionary  the  opportunity  of  following  the  example  of  Mahomet 
himself  in  extending  his  religious  teaching  by  fofce.  His 
instructions  in  this  matter  were  strict.  AU  unbelievers  (i.e. 
Mufiiems  who  did  not  accept  his  teaching,  as  well  as  Giristians, 
&c)  were  to  be  put  to  death.  Immediate  entrance  into  Paradise 
was  promised  to  his  soldiers  who  fell  in  battle,  and  it  is  said  that 
.  each  soldier  was  provided  with  a  written  order  from  Ibn  *Abd 
ul-Wahh&b  to  the  gate-keeper  of  heaven  to  admit  him  forthwith. 
In  this  way  the  new  teaching  was  established  in  the  greater  part 
of  Arabia  until  its  power  was  broken  by  Mehemet  Ali  (see 
Arabia:  Hutory).  Ibn  *Abd  ul<Wahh&b  is  said  to  have  died  in 
X791. 

The  teaching  of  ul-Wahh&b  was  founded  on  that  of  Ibn 
Taimlyya  (1263-1338),  who  was  of  the  school  of  Ahmad  ibn 
Hanbal  (g,v.}.  Copies  of  some  of  Ibn  Taimiyya's  works  made 
by  ul-Wahhk$  are  now  extai^t  m  Europe,  and  show  a  dose 


study  «I  the  writer.  Ibn  Taimlyya,  although  a  ■  Hanbalite  by 
training,  refused  to  be  bound  by  any  of  the  four  schools,  and 
daimed  the  power  of  a  mujtakidf  t.e.  of  one  who  can  give  inde- 
pendent dedsions.  These  decisions  were  based  on  the  Koran, 
which,  like  Ibn  Hazm  (9.9.) »  he  accepted  in  a  literal  sense,  on 
the  Sunna  and  Qiyds  (analogy).  He  protested  strongly  against 
all  the  innovations  of  later  times,  and  denounced  as  idolatry  the 
yisiting  of  the  sacred  shrines  and  the  invocation  of  the  saints 
or  of  Mahomet  himself.  He  was  also  a  bitter  opponent  of  the 
Suflsof  his  day.  The  Wahh&bites  also  believe  in  the  literal  sense 
of  the  Koran  and  the  necessity  of  deducing  one's  duty  from 
it  apart  from  the  decisions  of  the  four  schools.  They  also  pointed 
-to  the  abuses  current  in  their  times  as  a  reason  for  rejecting  the 
doctrines  and  practices  founded  on  /^mJ*,  s.e.  .the  universal 
consent  of  the  believer  or  their  teachers  (see  Mahommeoan 
Reugzon).  They  forbid  the  pilgrimage  to  tombs  and  the  in- 
vocation of  saints.  The  severe  simph'dty  of  the  Wahhlbis  has 
been  remarked  by  travellers  in  central  Arabia.  They  attack  all 
luxury,  loose  administration  of  justice,  all  laxity  against  infidels, 
addiction  to  wine,  impurity  and  treachery.  Under  *Abd  ul- 
Azlz  they  instituted  a  form  of  Bedouin  (BedJawi)  commonwealth, 
insisting  on  the  observance  of  law,  the  payment  of  tribute, 
military  conscription  for  war  against  the  infidel,  internal  peace 
.and  the  rigid  kdministration  of  justice  in  courts  established  for 
the  purpose. 

It  is  dear  that  the  daim  of  the  Wahhftbb  to  have  returned 
to  the  earliest  .form  <rf  Islam  is  largely  justified;  Burckhardt 
(vol.  ii.p.  Z12)  says,  "The  only  difference  between  his  (i^.  ul- 
WahhAb's)  sect  and  orthodox  Turks,  however  improperly  so 
termed,  is  that  the  Wahabys  rigidly  follow  the  same  laws  which 
the  others  neglect  or  have  ceased  altogether  to  observe."  Even 
orthodox  doctors  of  Islam  have  confessed  that  in  Ibn  *Abd 
ul-Wahhib's  writings  there  is  nothing  but  what  they  themselves 
hold.  At  the  same  time  the  fact  that  so  many  of  his  followers 
were  rough  and  unthinking  Bedouins  has  led  tothcover-empha^s 
of  minor  points  of  practice,  so  that  they  often  appear  to  observers 
to  be  characterized  chiefly  by  a  strictness  (real  or  fdgned)  in  such 
matters  as  the  prohlblticn  of  silk  for  dress,  or  the  use  of  tobacco, 
or  of  the  rosary  in  prayer. 

BiBUOGRAPHV.— J.  L.  Burckhardt,  AVfef  on  the  Bedtmmt  and 
Wahabys  (s  vols.,  London.  I831);  A.  Chodxbo,  **Le  IMisme  dn 
Wahhflbis'^'  in  the  Jounud  aMa/ifw,  series  W,  vol.  xi.  pp.  168  ff; 
L  GoMziher  in  the  ZaUxkrifi  der  daUuhan  marienUiMdischtn 
Ceullukafi,  vol.  lii.  pp.  156*157  (189S);  D.  B.  Macdonald,  Muslim 
Theology  (London,  1903).  (G.  W.  T.) 

WAI,  a  town  in  Satara  district,  Bombay,  on  the  Kistna  rivM'. 
Pop.  (190X)  13,989.  It  is  a  place  of  Hindu  pilgtimage,  with  a 
large  Brahman  population,  the  river  being  lined  with  temples 
and  bathing  ghais.    In  the  neighbourhood  are  Buddhist  caves. 

WAIBLWQEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  WUrt- 
tcmberg,  in  the  centre  of  a  fruitful  vine-growing  district  on  the 
Rems,  10  m.  N.E.  from  Stuttgart  by  the  main  line  of  railway  to 
Nuremberg  via  Ndrdllngen  and  at  the  junction  of  a  branch  to 
Hcssenthal.  Pop.  (1005)  5997.  It  has  two  Evangeh'cal  churches, 
one  of  which  b  a  fine  Gothic  structure  of  the  x5th  century, 
restored  in  1866,  a  Roman  Catholic  church  and  a  modem  town 
hall.  Its  industries,  which  include  the  making  of  pottery  and 
silk  and  the  cultivation  of  fruit  and  vines,  are  considerable. 
Waiblingen  is  meolioned  in  the  9th  century,  when  It  had.  a 
palace  of  the  Carolingi'an  sovereigns.  Subsequently  it  belonged 
to  the  dukes  of  Franconia,  and  gave  a  surname  to  the  emperor 
Conrad  II.  It  was  in  this  way  that  the  Hohenstaufen  family, 
which  was  descended  in  the  female  line  from  Conrad,  received 
the  name  of  Waiblingen,  corrupted  by  the  Italians  Into  Ghibelline. 

WAILLY,  NOfiL  FRANQOIS  DE  (1724-1801),  French  gram- 
marian and  lexicographer,  was  bom  at  Amiens  on  the  31  si  of 
July  1734.  His  life  was  spent  In  l^aris,  where  for  many  years  he 
carried  on  a  school  which  was  extensively  patronized  by  foreigners 
who  wished  to  leam  French.  In  1754  be  published  Principts 
gfniraux  dela  langue  franQaise,fi\\\ch  revolutionized  the  teaching 
of  grammar  in  France.  The  book  was  adopted  as  a  textbook 
by  the  university  of  Paris  and  generally  used  throughout  France, 
an  abstract  of  it  being  prepared  for  primary  educational  purpoi^. 


24-6 


WAINEWRIGHT— .WAITS 


■ 


tn  1771  <1«  Wftflly  published  Hoyens  timfUs  et  raisonnSs  de 
diminuer  Us  imptrfeaions  de  notre  orthograpke,  in  which  he  advo- 
cated phonetic  epclHog.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute  from 
Its  foundation  (1795)^  and  took  ail  active  part  in  the  preparation 
of  the  Dtetumnaire  de  PAeadhrue,  His  works,  in  addition  to  those 
cited,  indiide  VOrthographe  des  dames  (1782)  and  Le  Niveau 
Vocabulain  frantois,  ou  ahrigi  du  dtdionnatre  de  PAcodtmie 
(1801)     He  died  in  Paris  on  Uie  7th  of  April  x8ox 

WAINBWRIGHT.  THOMAS  GRIFFITHS  (1794-1853)^  Engb'sh 
Journalist  and  subject-painter,  was  bom  at  Ouswick  in  October 
1794.  He  was  educated  by  his  distant  relative  Dr  Charles 
pumey,  and  served  as  an  orderly  officer  in  the  guatds,  «nd  as 
comet  In  a  yeomanry  regiment.  In  18 19  1m  entered  on  a  literaiy 
Bfe,  and  began  to  write  for  The  Literary  Pocket- Bock,  Black- 
woodTs  Magastne  and  The  PorHgn  Quarterly  Renew  He  is, 
however,  most  definitely  identified  with  The  London  iiagaxine, 
to  which,  from  1620  to  iSaj,  he  contributed  some  smart  but 
ffippant  art  and  other  criticisms,  under  the  signatures  of  **  Janus 
Weathercock,"  *  Egomet  Bonmot "  and  "  Heir  Vinkbooms." 
Pe  was  a  friend  of  Charles  Lamb — who  thought  well  of  his 
literary  productions,  and  In  a  letter  to  Bernard  Barton,  styles 
him  the  "  kind,  light-hearted  Wainewright  *'— and  of  the  other 
brilliant  contributors  to  the  journal.  He  also  practised  as  an 
artist,  designing  illustrations  to  Chamberlayne's  poems,  and  from 
i%2i  to  1825  exhibiting  in  the  Royal  Academy  figure  pictures, 
including  a  **  Romance  from  Undine,"  **  Paris  in  the  Chamber  of 
Helen  "  and  the  ^  Milkmaid's  Song."  Owing  to  his  exuavagant 
habits,  Wainewnght's  alTairs  became  deeply  involved.  In  1830 
he  insured  the  life  of  his  sister-in-law  in  various  offices  for  a 
sum  of  £18,000,  and  when  she  died,-  in  the  December  of  the  same 
year^  payment  was  refused  by  the  companies  on  the  ground  of 
misrepresentatiOiL  Wainewright  retired  to  France,  was  seized 
by  the  authorities -as  a  suspected  person,  and  imprisoned  for  six 
months.  He  had  in  his  possession  a  quantity  of  strychnine,  and 
It  was  afterwards  foimd  that  he  had  destroyed,  not  only  his 
aster-in-taw,  but  also  his  uncle,  his  mother-in-law  andli  Norfolk- 
shire  friend,  by  this  poison.  He  retiimed  to  London  In  X837,  but 
was  at  once  arrested  on  a  charge  of  for^ng,  thirteen  years  iMdfore, 
a  tcaasfer«f  stock,  and  was  sentenced  to  transportation  for  life. 
He  died  of  popleiy  la  Hobart  Town  hospital  in  1852. 

The  Essays  ami  Criticisms  of  Wainewright  were  published  fai  1880, 
with  an  account  of  his  life,  by  W.  Caiew  Haditt;  and  the  history 
of  his  crimes  raggestcd  to  Uicltens  hk  scory  of  HmUed  Down 
and  to  Bulwer  Lytton  hu  novel  of  Luce^ia,  Hit  penooality,  as 
artist  and  yoisoaer,  has  interested  latter-day  writeis,  notably  Oscar 
Wilde  in  "  PenT Pencil  and  Poi«>n  "(ForiniiUly  Review,  Jan.  1889), 
and  A.  G.  Allen,  m  T.  Seccombe's  Twdoe  Bad  Men  (1894). 

WAIHGANGA.  a  river  of  India,  flowing  through  the  Central 
Provinces  in  a  very  winding  course  of  about  360  m.  After 
joining  the  Wardha  the  united  stream,  known  as  the  Pranhita, 
ultimately  falls  into  the  Godavaii 

WAINSCOT,  properly  a  superior  quality  of  oak,  used  for  fine 
panel  work,  hence  such  panel-work  as  used  for  the  lining  or 
covering  of  the  interior  walls  of  an  apartment.  Hie  word  appears 
to  be  Dutch  and  came  into  use  in  English  In  the  x6th  century, 
and  occurs  in  lists  of  imported  timber.  The  Dutch  word  wagen- 
tchot,  adapted  in  Engliiah  as  vaynskoUf  neynskoU  (Haklu3rt, 
Voyages,  i.  173,  has  "  boords  called  waghenscct "),  was  applied  to 
the  best  kind  of  oak,  well-grained,  not  liable  to  warp  and*  free 
from  knots.  The  form  shows  that  it  was,  in  popular  etymology, 
formed  from  wageti  (»*.«.  wain,  wagon)  and  schot,  a  term  which 
has  a  large  number  of  meanings,  such  as  shot,  cast,  partition,  an 
enclosure  of  boards,  cf . "  sheet,"  and  was  applied  to  the  fine  wood 
panelling^  used  in  coach-buHdmg.  This  is,  however,  doubted, 
and  relations  have  been  suggested  with  Dutch  wug,  wall,  cognate 
with  O.  Eng.  woA,  wall,  or  with  M.  Dutch  wughe,  Ger.  Wage, 
w^ve,  the  reference  being  to  the  grain  of  the  wood  when  cut. 
The  term  "  wainscot "  is  sometimes  wrongly  applied  to  a  "  dado," 
the  lining,  whether  of  paper,  paint  or  wooden  panelling,  of  the 
lower  portion  of  the  walls  of  a  room.  A  "  dado  "  (Ital.  dado,  die, 
cube;  Lat.  datum,  something  given,  a  die  for  casting  lots;  cf. 
0.  Fr.  det,  mod.  di,  Eng. "  die  '•)  meant  originally  the  plane-faced 
cube  on  the  base  of  a  pedestal  between  the  mouIdiQgs  of  the  base 


and  the  oonuoe,  hence  the  flat  tarface  lietwgm  die  pitetl  ad 
the  cappmg  of  the  wooden  lining  of  the  tower  part  of  a  «4 
representing  a  continuous  podestaL 

WAIST,  the  middle  part  of  the  human  hoAy,  the  poctieo  iyiif 
between  the  ribs  and  the  hip-bones,  compriaiiig  the  conpressfiik 
parts  of  the  trunk    ThewoidisalsoappIkMitotlieoentnJpoftJba 
of  other  objects,  particulariy  to  the  narrO'ivesc  portion  of  msaol 
instruments  of  the  violin  type  and  to  the  centre  of  a  shq>  Tk 
word  appears  in  the  M   Eng  as  iMste,  "  ivaste  of  a  tosbsj^ 
myddel "  (Prompt,  part  c.  X440),  and  Is  developed  ftoa  (te 
O.  Cng.  wttsim,  growth,  the  "  waist "  being  the  part  wbeie  tte 
growth  of  a  man  is  shown  and  developed,  cf.  IceL  vWr,  nam, 
diape,  Dan.  vaext,  size,  growth,  &c.    It  is  thus  co  be  demetf 
from  the  O  Eng  weaxan^  to  grow,  wax. 

WAITB,  MORRISON  REHICR  (i8r6>i888),  Abkzicbd  jifliiti 
was  bom  at  Ljrme,  Connecticut,  on  the  29th  of  Novefflbff  liii 
the  son  of  Henry  Matson  Waite  (x787-x869),  itboynAfi^^ 
the  superior  court  and  associate  judgie  of  the  supreme  court  d 
Coimecricut  hi  X834-1854  and  chief  justice  of  the  ktteriniS^ 
1857-     He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1837,  and  soon  ademni} 
removed  to  Maumee  City,  Ohio,  where  he  studied  law  in  tkofio 
of  Samuel  L.  Young  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  '^J^^ 
X850  he  removed  to  Toledo,  and  he  soon  cane  to  be  tta^ea 
as  a  leader  of  the  state  bar    In  politics  he  was  first  a  ll^*^  >" 
later  a  Republican,  and  in  X840-X850  he  was  a  meober^^ 
state  senate.    In  X87X,  with  William  M.  Evarts  oi  ^ 
Cnshing,  he  represented  the  United  States  as  counsdbi^'* 
"  AUbama  "  Tribunal  at  Geneva,  and  in  1874  he  fRsdedow 
the  Ohio  constitutional  convention.    In  the  same  fU^^ 
appointed  by  President  U.  S.  Grant  to  succeed  Judje  SbiW» 
P.  Chase  as  chief-justice  of  the  United  States  SuproM  Cc^ 
and  he  held  this  position  until  his  death  at  Washington  Da^ 
on  the  23rd  of  March  x888.   In  the  cases  which  grew  oot oW 
Civil  War  and  Reconstmction,  and  espedaUy  in  those  w 
involved  the  interprcution  of  the  Thirteenth,  Fourteenth  iw 
Fifteenth  amendments,  he  sympathized  with  the  general  ten*Jfl 
of  the  coiirt  to  restrirt  the  further  extension  of  the  powcnc* « 
Federal  govemment.    He  concurred  with  the  majority  to  tv 
Head  Money  Cases  (X884),  the  Ku-Klux  Case  (United  Sm^- 
Harris,  1882),  the  Civil  Rights  Cases  (X883)  and  the  ^'*J'' 
Greenman  (legal  tender)  Case  (1883).    Among  his  own  tt» 
important  decisions  were  those  in  the  Enforcement  Act  Cass 
(x87s),  the  Sinking  Fund  Case  (r878),  the  Raihfoad  Comims»« 
Cases  (x886)  and  the  Telephone  Cases  (X887). 

WAITHMAH,  ROBERT  (X764-X833),  Lord  Mayor  of  Lon*«i 
was  bom  at  Wrexham  in  1764.  After  being  employed  for  «i« 
time  ui  a  London  linen  draper's,  he  opened,  about  X786,  a  <^^ 
shop  of  his  own,  and  made  a  considerable  fortune.  In  ^^^^ 
was  retumed  to  parliament,  as  a  liberal,  for  the  dty  of  ^^"'^ 
He  lost  his  seat  at  the  election  of  X820,  but  regained  it  in  x^ 
and  retained  it  till  his  death,  taking  part  vigorously  in  the  ptO*' 
mentary  debates,  and  strenuously  supporting  reform-  In  w*3 
he  was  Lord  Kayor  of  London.  Waithman  died  in  ^fP°^ 
on  the  6th  of  February  1833.  An  obelisk  erected  by  his  fri»» 
in  Ludgate  Circus,  London,  adjoining  the  site  of  hk  first  ^ 
commemorates  his  memory.  , 

WAITS  (A.S.  wacan,  to  "wake"  or  "watch,"},  ^^  ^ 
sbgers  and  itinerant  musicians  who  parade  the  streets  at  vgw 
at  Christmas  time.  The  earKest  waits  (those  of  the  i^thft^ 
xsth  centuries)  were  simply  watchmen  who  aovnded  hona 
or  even  played  a  tune  on  a  flute  or  flageolet  to  mark  the  hcu^ 
This  appears  to  have  been  known  as  "  piphig  the  ^*^^'  I? 
black  book  of  the  royal  household  expenses  of  Edvwo/J^ 
under  date  1478,  provides  for  "  a  wayte,  that  nygMcly  ftj" 
Mychelmas  to  Shreve  Thoisdaye  pipe  the  watch  within  tw 
courte  fowere  tjrmes;  in  the  somere  nightes  three  tymes  »»J 
maketh  bon  gayte  at  every  chambre  doare  and  offyce»  ^  ** 
as  for  feare  of  pyckeres  and  pilfers.*'  Elaborate  orders  ■« " 
his  housing  occur.  Thus,  he  was  to  eat  in  the  hsD  wit*  ^ 
minstrels  and  was  to  sup  off  half  a  loaf  ahd  half  a  galkm  ^J\ 
During  his  actual  attendance  at  court  he  was  to  receive  ft)urper« 
halfpenny  a  day  or  less  in  the  discretion  of  the  stewanl «  ^ 


WAITZ,  G.— WAKE,  W. 


«47 


houaBli^  Ho  h$d  »  fiveiy  ^V8&  kim  and  during  illnen  an 
extra  allowaooe  of  food.  Baides  "  piping  the  watch  "  and 
guarding  tha  palac*  against  thieves  and  fire»  this  wait  had  to 
attend  at  the  installation  of  kni^ts  of  the  Bath.  London  and 
•U  the  chief  boxougbs  had  their  corpontion  waits  certainly 
from  the  early  i6th  century,  for  in  the  privy  purse  accounts 
of  Heniy  VIII.  occurs  (1533)  the  entry  "  Item,  the  XI  daye 
(of  October)  paied  to  the  waytes  of  Canterbery  in  rewarde  .  .  • 
vijs.  vjd."  In  1583  Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester,  writes  to  the 
corporation  of  London  asking  that  a  servant  of  his  should  be 
achnitted  to  the  dty  waits.  These  borough  waits  appear,  how- 
tver,  to  have  been  more  nearly  akin  to  the  medieval  troubadours 
or  minstrels  who  idayed  to  kings  and  nobles  at  and  after  the 
evening  meaL  The  duties  of  the  London  waits,  which  included 
playing  before  the  mayor  during  his  annual  progress  through 
the  streets  and  at  dty  dinners,  seem  to  have  b^  typical  of 
all  i6th-  and  17th-century  dty  waits.  The  London  waits  had 
a  special  uaifonn  of  blue  gowns  with  red  sleeves  and  caps,  and 
wore  a  silver  collar  or  chain  roimd  the  neck.  In  the  zSth  and 
early  igth  centuxy  the  ordinary  street  watchmen  appear  to  have 
arrogated  to  themsdves  the  night  to  serenade  housdtolders 
at  Christmas  time,  calling  round  on  Boxing  Day  to  receive  a 
gratuity  far  their  tunefulness  as  well  as  their  watchfulness. 
When  in  1S39  didr  place  as  guardians  of  the  dty's  safety  was 
taken  by  police^  it  was  left  for  private  individuals  to  keep  up  the 
custom. 

WAITZ,  GIORia  (i8xj-i886),  German  historian,  was  bom 
at  Flensburg,  in  the  duchy  of  Schlcswig,  on  the  9th  of  October 
1815.  He  was  educated  at  the  Flen&buig  gymnasium  and  the 
univexsitiefi  of  Kiel  and  Berlin.  The  influence  of  Kanke  early 
diverted  him  from  his  original  puipose  of  studying  law,  and  while 
itill  a  student  he  began  that  series  of  researches  in  German 
medieval  history  which  was  to  be  hip  life's  work.  On  graduating 
at  Berlin  In  August  1836,  Waits  went  to  Hanover  to  assist  Ferta 
In  the  great  national  work  of  publishing  the  Mamtmenta  Cer- 
maniat  kUtoricai  and  the  enexgy  and  learning  he  displayed 
la  that  position  won  him  a  summons  to  the  chair  of  histoiy 
pi  Kid  ua  1841.  The  young  professor  soon  began  to  take  an 
Interest  in  politics,  and  in  1846  entered  the  provincial  diet  as 
lepreftntative  cf  his  university.  His  Ifanings  were  strongly 
German,  ao  that  he  be^:ame  somewhat  obnoxious  to  the  Danish 
fovcmment,  a  fact  which  made  an  invitation  in  1847  to  become 
professor  of  histoiy  at  G<^ttingen  peculiariy  acceptable.  The 
political  events  of  1848-1849^  however,  delayed  his  appearance 
in  his  new  chair.  When  the  German  party  in  the  northern 
duchies  rose  against  the  Danish  government,  Waitx  hastened 
to  place  himself  at  the  service  of  the  provisional  govemmenL 
He  was  sent  to  Berlin  to  represent  the  interests  of  the  duchies 
there,  and  dnriog  his  absence  he  was  elected  by  Kid  as  a  ddegate 
to  the  national  parliament  at  Frankfort.  Waits  was  an  adherent 
of  the  party  who  were  eager  to  bring  about  a  uni<»i  of  the  German 
itates  under  a  German  emperor;  and  when  the  king  of  Prussia 
decUned  the  imperial  crown  the  professor  withdrew  from  the 
Maembly  in  disappointment,  and  ended  his  acUve  share  in  public 
life.  In  the  autumn  of  1849  Waitz  began  his  lectures  at  GSttingcn. 
His  style  of  speaking  was  dry  and  uninteresting;  but  the  matter 
of  his  lectures  .was  so  practical  and  his  teaching  so  sound  that 
students  were  attracted  in  crowds  to  his  kcture'joom,  and  the 
ftpvtatiOQ  of  the  G^ttSngen  historical  school  spread  far  and  wide. 
At  the  same  time  Waits's  pen  was  not  idle,  and  his  industry  is 
to  be  traced  hi  the  list  of  his  works  and  in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  different  historical  sodctica  to  which  he  bdonged.  In  1875 
WaiU  removed  to  Berlin  to  succeed  Pertx  as  prindpal  editor 
of  the  2iwiiment«  Cermaniae  historka.  In  spite  of  advaadng 
years  the  new  editor  threw  himself  into  the  work  with  all  his 
ionner  vigour,  and  took  journeys  to  England,  Franco  and  Italy 
to  collate  works  preserved  in  these  countries.  He  died  at  Berlin 
on  the  34th  of  May  1886.  He  was  twice  married— in  1843  to  a 
daughter  of  Scfaclling  the  philosopher,  and  in  1858  to  a  daughter 
of  General  von  Hartmann. 

WaiU  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  chief  disdple  of  Ranke, 
wwgh  periMpt  in  geneisAl  chancmiitact  and  awittal  attitude 


be  has  more  affinity  with  .Perts  orDahlmann.  His  special 
domain  was  medieval  Gennan  history,  and  he  rardy  travelled 
borond  it. 

Waiu's  chid;Rrork8,  apart  from  his  contributions  to  the  Ifonumenta, 
Mn:— Deutsche  Verfassimgsgesckickte  (8  vda.,  IGd.  1844-1978; 
snd  «d..  s  vols,  oaly,  1865-1870);  ScUetmig-Hoisieiau  Gesekukte 
(a  vob.,  GOttingea.  1851-1854;  the  3rd  vol.  was  never  publidied); 
iMeck  ttnter  JUrgtu  WuUenwever  und  die  europiiscke  folttik  (3  vols,  c 
BetUn,i9ss-'iSsS);aLndGrundtagederPotitik  (Kid,  1863).  Among 
hb  smaller  worn,  whfch,  however,  indfcate  the  line  of  his  researahes, 
•io  the  ((Mowingt—JoMfOcher  dee  detOscfiem  Reicks unter Heinrick  /.- 
(Beriin,  i8$7.  Sfd cd.,  1885): Cket del Leben tmd die Lekre des  V{fila 
(Hanover,  18^;  Da$  aUe  Jiecki  der  saliscken  Franken  (Kiel,  1846)} 
and  Deutsche  Xaiser  vefi  Karl  dem  Crossen  lis  MaximUiau  (Berlin, 
1 87^).  In  conjunction  with  other  scholarB  Waits  took  a  Icadtne  part 
in  the  publication  of  the  F»sektmg*n  aar  deutscheu  CcsclnckJe 
(Munich,  1862  era.),  and  hi  the  NordeiUntjtiche  SiudieHi  published  in 
the  PreceedingM  of  the  Schleswig-Holstcm  Historical  Socwty  (Kid, 
1844-1851).  A  Bibliogrqpkische  Obersicht  aber  Wait^s  Werhe  was 
published  by  E.  Steindorffat  GAttingen  in  i886< 

<X>ituary  notices  of  Waitt  are  to  be  found  in  the  HistoHsehe 
Zeituhrifl,  new  series,  vd.  xz.;  in  the  publications  for  1886  of  the 
Berlin  Akademio  der  Wisacnschaften.  the  Ckyttingcn  (ksdlschaft 
der  Wissensdiaften,  and  the  Hansischo*  Gcschichtsvcrdn:  La  the 
Bislorisches  Jahrbuck  der  COrres  Ceseilschaji,  voL  viii.;  ana  in  the 
Rente  kislorique,  voL  xxxL 

WAnZ»  THEODOR  (i8ax-i864),  German  psychok>gist  and 
anthropofegist,  wss  bom  at  Gotha  on  the  r  7th  of  March  i8ar. 
Educated  at  Leipzig  and  Jena,  he  made  philosophy,  phiIok>gy 
and  mathematics  his  chief  studies,  and  in  1848  he  was  appointed 
profeteor  of  philosophy  in  the  muversity  of  Maxbnrg.  He  was 
a  severe  critic  of  the  philosophy  of  Flchte,  Schefling  and  Hegel, 
and  considered  psychok>gy  to  be  the  basis  of  all  philoaopfay. 
His  researches  txoui^t  him  into  touch  with  anthropology,  and 
be  will  be  best  remembered  by  his  monumental  woric  in.  da 
vdumes,  Die  A  tUkr»pologi4  der  NatwvHker,  He  died  on  the  sist 
of  May  Z864  at  Marburg: 

In  addition  to  his  Anlkrop<degte,  the  first  four  volumes  of  whfch 


and  a  critical  edition  of  the  Organon  ofAriOotle  (1844). 

WAKE,  THOMAS  (x297-r349),  English  baron,  bdonged  to 
a  Lincolnshire  famQy  which  had  lands  also  in  Cumberland, 
being  the  son  of  John  Wake  (d.  Z300),  who  was  summoned  to 
parliament  as  a  baron  in  1295,  and  the  grandson  of  Baldwin 
Wake  (d.  zs8a),  both  barons  and  warriors  of  repute.  Among 
Thomas  Wake's  guardians  were  Piers  Gaveston  and  Henry,  ean 
of  Lincohi,  whose  daughter  Blanche  (d.  1357)  he  married  before 
13x7.  This  lady  was  the  niece  of  Thomas,  earl  of  Lancaster, 
and  her  husband  was  thus  attached  to  the  Lancastrian  party, 
but  he  did  not  follow  Earl  Thomas  In  the  proceedings  which 
led  to  his  death  in  133s.  Hating  the  favourites  of  Edward  H. 
Wake  joined  (^een  Isabella  in  t336  and  was  a  member  of  the 
small  council  which  advised  the  young  khig,  Edward  HI.;  soon, 
however,  he  broke  away  from  the  queen  and  her  ally,  Roger 
Mortimer,  and  in  conjunction  with  his  father-in-law,  now  earl 
of  Lancaster,  he  joined  the  malcontent  harons.  He  was  possibly 
implicated  in  the  plot  which  cost  his  brother-in-law,  Edmund, 
carl  of  Kent,  his  life  in  1330,  and  he  fled  to  France,  returning 
to  England  after  the  overthrow  of  Isabdla  and  Mortimer. 
Edward  IH.  made  him  governor  of  the  Channel  Islands  and  he 
assisted  Edward  Bruce  to  invade  Scotland,  being  afterwards 
sent  on  an  errand  to  France.  In  X341  he  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  the  king  and  was  imprisoned,  but  he  had  been  restored  and 
had  been  employed  in  Brittany  and  elsewhere  when  he  died 
childless  on  the  31st  of  May  1349.  His  estates  passed  to  his 
sister  Margaret  (d.  1349)1  widow  of  Edmund,  earl  of  Kent^ 
and  her  son  John  (d.  1353),  and  later  to  the  Holand  family. 
Wake  establidwd  a  house  for  the  Austin  canons  at  Newton  near 
Hull;  this  was  afterwards  transferred  to  Haltemprice  In  the 
same  ndghbourhood. 

WAKB,  WILLIAM  (1657-1737),  English  archbishop,  was  bom 
at  Blandford,  Dorset,  on  the  26th  of  January  1657,  and  educated 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  took  orders,  and  in  r682  went  to 
Paris  as  chaplain  to  the  ambassador  Richard  Graham,  Viscount 
Pttstan  {iti^it^^.  Hers  he  became  acquainted  trith  many  of 


248 


WAKE— WAKEFIELD,  E.  G. 


the  savants  of  the  ca^rftal,  and  was  mudi  intetested  In  FVendi 
derical  affairs.  He  also  collated  some  Paris  manuscripts  of  the 
Greek  Testament  for  John  Fell,  bishop  of  Oxford.  He  retomed 
to  England  in  1685;  in  1688  he  became  preacher  B.t  Gray's  Inn, 
and  in  2689  be  received  a  canonry  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
In  1693  he  was  aj^inted  rector  of  St  James's,  Westminster. 
Tea  years  later  he  became  dean  of  Exeter,  and  in  1705  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  T.inroln.  He  was  translated  to  the  see 
of  Canterbury  in  r  7 16  on  the  death  of  Thomas  Teniaon.  During 
17x8  he  negotiated  with  leading  French.churchmen  about  a  pro- 
jected union  of  the  Galilean  and  English  churches  to  resist  the 
claims  ot  Rome  (see  J.  H.  Lupton,  Archbishop  Wake  and  the 
Project  of  Union,  1896).  In  dealing  with  nonconformity  be  was 
tolerant,  and  even  advocated  a  revision  of  the  Prayer  Book  if 
that  would  allay  the  scruples  of  dissenters.  His  writings  are 
numerous,  the  duef  being  his  State  of  the  Church  oni  CUr0  of 
England . . .  historicaUy  deduced  (London,  1703).  He  died  at 
Lambeth  on  the  34th  of  January  1730/7. 

Sir  Isaac  Wake  (c.  1580-X633).  the  diplomatlrt,  was  a  kinsman  of 
the  archbtshc^  He  comm^iced  his  diplomatic  career  in  Venice, 
and  then  he  represented  his  county  for  sixteen  years  at  Turing  he 
was  knighted  in  1 619,  and  after  being  sent  on  varioas  special  missions 
by  James  I.  be  was  Britidi  ambassador  in  Paris  from  t6y>  dntil  his 
death  fai  June  1632.  Amon^  Sir  Isaac's  writings  is  Rex  pkUomctUt 
a  fkscription  of  the  entertainment  of  James  I.  at  Oxford  in  1605; 
this  was  published  in  1607  and  bu  often  been  reprinted. 

WAKE  (A.S.  Wacom,  to  *'  wake  "  01  '*  watch  **),  a  term  now 
restricted  to  the  Irish  custom  of  an  all-night  "  waking  "  or 
watdung  round  a  corpse  before  burial,  but  anciently  used  in  the 
Vfider  sense  of  a  vigil  kept  as  an  aniiual  church  celebration  in 
commemorat&m  of  the  completion  or  dedication  of  the  parish 
church.  This  strictly  religious  wake  consisted  in  Ka  att-night 
service  of  prayer  and  meditation  in  the  church.  These  services, 
popiilariy  known  as  "  wakes,"  were  of&dally  termed  VigtKae 
by  the  church,  and  appear  to  have  eristed  from  the  earliest  days 
of  Anglo-Saxon  Chibtlanity. ,  Tents  and  booths  were  set  up  in 
the  churchyard  before  the  dawn  whidi  heralded  in  a  day  devoted 
to  feasting,  dandng  and  sports,  each  parish  keeping  the  morrow 
of  its  vigil  as  a  holiday.  Wakes  soon  degenerated  into  fairs; 
people  from  ndghbouring  parishes  journeyed  over  to  join  in 
the  merry-making,  and  as  early  as  Edgar's  reign.  (958-975)  the 
revelry  and  druiiJcenness  had  become  a  scandal.  The  vigUiae 
usually  fell  on  Sundays  or  saints*  day&,  those  being  the  days 
oftenest  chosen  for  church  dedications,  ajid  thus  the  abuse  was 
the  more  scandalous.  In  r445  Henry  VI.  attempted  to  suppress 
markets  and  fairs  on  Sundays  and  holy  days.  In  1536  an  Act 
of  Convocation  ordered  that  the  yearly  "  wake  "  shouLd  be  held 
in  every  parish  on  the  same  day,  viz.  the  first  Sunday  in  October, 
but  this  regulation  was  disregarded.  Wakes  are  ^^edally  men- 
tioned in  the  Book  of  Sports  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  among  the 
feasts  which  should  be  observed. 

Side  by  side  with  these  church  wakes  there  esdsted  from  the 
earliest  times  the  custom  of  "  waking  "  a  corpse..  The  custom, 
as  far  as  England  was  concerned,  seems  to  have  been  older  than 
Christianity,  and  to  have  been  at  first  essentially  Celtic.  Doubt- 
less it  had  a  superstitious  origin,  the  fear  of  evil  spirits  hurting 
or  even  removing  the  body,  aided  perhaps  by  the  practical 
desire  to  keep  away  rats  and  other  vermin.  The  Anglo-Saxons 
called  the  custom  lich-wake  or  like-wake  (A.S.  lie,  a  corpse). 
With  the  introduction  of  Christianity  the  offering  of  prayer  was 
added  to  the  mere  vigil,  which  until  then  had  been  characterized 
by  formal  mourning  chants  and  recitals  of  the  life  story  of  the 
dead.  As  a  rule  the  corpse,  with  a  plate  of  salt  on  its  breast,  was 
placed  under  the  table,  on  whldi  was  liquor  for  the  watchers. 
These  private  wakes  soon  tended  to  become  drinking  orgies,  and 
during  tho  reign  of  Edward  III.  the  provincial  synod  held  in 
London  proclaimed  by  its  loth  canon  the  object  of  wakes  to  be 
the  offering  of  prayer  for  the  dead,  and  ordered  that  in  future 
none  but  near  rehitives  and  friends  of  the  decMsed  should  attend. 
The  penalty  for  disobedience  was  excommuiucation.  With  the 
Rdormation  and  the  consequent  disuse  of  prayers  for  the  dead 
the  custom  of  "  waking  **  in  En^nd  beaune  obsolete  and  died 
W^  *  3fiay  oottHtriet  andpeoploa  haivb  bMi  fond  to  tevfa 


custom  equivalent  to  "waldng,**  which,  howtvgi,   must  be 
distinguished  from  the  funeral  ^*asts  pure  and  dmpls. 

For  detailed  accounts  of  Irish  wakes  see  Brand's  AnHomUies  of 
Great  Britain  (W.  C.  Haslitt's edition,  1905)  under  "  Irish  WakcB." 


WAKBFIELD,     EDWARD     OIBBOlf     (1796-1869),     British 
colonial  statesman,  was  'bom  in  London  on  the  soth  of  March 
1796,  of  an  originally  Quaker  family.  His  father,  Edward  Wake- 
field (1774-1854),  author  of  /refdiuf,  StaHstical  and   PoUiicd 
(1813),  was  a  surveyor  and  land  agent  in  extensive  practice;  hii 
grandmother,  Prisdlla  Wakefield  (1751-1832),  was  a  popular 
author  for  the  young,  and  one  of  the  introducers  of  Savings  banks. 
Wakefield  was  for  a  short  time  at  Westminster  School,  azkd  vis 
brought  up  to  his  father's  profession,  which  he  lelinqiiisbed  oa 
occasion  of  his  elopement  at  the  age  of  twenty  with  Miss  Fattier 
the  orphan  daughter  of  an  Indian  dvil  servant.  The  young  lady** 
relatives  ultimately  became  reconciled  to  the  matdi,  and  pi^ 
cured  himan  appoii^tment  as  attach€  to  the  British  Icgatka  sx 
Turin.    He  resigned  this  post  in  i8so,  upon  the  death  of  hii 
wife,  to  whom  he  was  fondly  attached,  and,  thougli  laakn^ 
some  efforts  to  connect  himself  with  journalism,  speirt  the  jesn 
immediately  succeeding  in  idleness,  residing  for  the  moat  psit  is 
Paria    In  i8a6  he  appeared  before  the  public  as  the  hem  of  s 
most  extraordinary  adventure,  the  abduction  of  Mis  £Da 
Turner,  daughter  of  William  Turner,  of  Shrigley  Bark,  ChrsbiR 
Miss  Turner  was  decoyed  from  school  by  means  of  a  fotigetfirtttr, 
and  made  to  believe  that  she  could  only  save  her  faths  fna 
ruin  by  marrying  Wakefield,  whom  she  accordingly  acooaspisBi 
to  Gretna  Green.    This  time  the  famdy  refused  to  condone  lis 
proceedings;  he  was  tried  with  his  confederates  at  Lancsticr 
as^zes,  March  1827,  convicted,  and  sentenced  to  three  jtei 
imprisonment  in  Newgate.    The  marriage,  which  had  not  beta 
consummated,  was  dksolved  by  a  spedal  act  of  parliafflcfiL 
A  disgrace  whidi  would  have  blasted  the  career  of  most  nxs 
maide  Wakefield  a  practical  statesman  and  a  benefactor  to  hii 
country.   Meditating,  it  is  probable,  emigration  upon  his  release, 
he  turned  his  attention  while  in  prison  to  colonial  subjects^ 
and  acutely  detected  the  main  causes  of  the  slow  progress  ef 
the  Austn^n  cdoides  in  the  enormous  size  of  the  landed 
estates,  the  reckless  manner  in  whkh  land  was  given  away,  the 
absence  of  all  systematic  effort  'at  colonization,  and  the  oonse 
quent  discouragement  of  immigratioti  and  dearth  of  labour.  He 
proposed  to  remedy  this  state  of  things  by  the  sale  of  land  ia 
small  quantities  at  a  sufficient  price,  and  the  emplojrment  of  the 
proceeds  as  a  fund  for  promoting  immigration.  These  views  were 
expressed  with  extraondinary  vigour  afld  incisiveness  hi  his  Lttta 
from  Sydney  (1829),  published  while  he  was  stiH  in  prison,  but 
composed  with  such  graphic  power  that  it  has  been  continually 
quoted  as  if  written  on  the  spot.    After  his  rdsaie  Wakeiidd 
seemed  •  disposed  for  a  while  to  turn  his  attention  to  sodal 
questions  at  home,  and  produced  a  tract  on  the  PunishnufU  ef 
Deaihj  with  a  terribly  graphic  picture  of  the  comlemned  cermoa 
in  Newgate,  and  another  on  incendiarism  In  the  rural  districts, 
with  an  equally  powerful  exhibition  of  the  degraded  oonditkm 
of  the  agricultural  labourer.   He  soon,  however,  became  entirely 
engrossed  with  colonial  affairs,  and,  having  impressed  John 
Stuart  Mill,  Colonel  Torrens  and  other  leading  eoaaomasts  with 
the  vahie  of  his  ideas,  became  a  leading  though  not  a  con^Mcuois 
manager  of  the  South  Australian  Company,  by  which  the  colony 
of  South  Australia  was  ultimately  founded.  In  1833  hepublistot 
anonymously  En^nd  and  America,  ti  work  primarily  intended 
to  develop  his  own  colonial  theory,  which  is  done  in  the  appendOc 
entitled  '*  Ihe  Art  of  Colonization."    The  body  Of  the  woifc, 
however,  is  firuitful  in  sembial  kleas,  thou^  some  statements 
may  be  rash  and  some  conclusions  extravagant.  It  contains  the 
distinct  proposal  that  the  transport  of  letters  riiould  be  wholly 
gratuitous— the   precursor   of   subsequent   lefotm-Huid    tte 
prophecy  that,  under  given  circumstances,  '*the  Americaia 
wouki  raise  cheaper  com  than  has  ever  been  rahed.*^   In  1836 
Wakefidd  puUished  the  first  volume  of  an  edition  of  Adam 
Smith,  which  he  did  not  complete.    In  T837  the  New  Zealand 
Assoclat^n  was  eStaUidied,  and   he  became  its  managing 
€freiAor.>  $ea#calyr  bowevntf,  was  this  |nat  uxkataktm  iai^ 


WAKtFIBtD,  C;~WAKEr:iELD 


249 


ConuotMQ^  when  hc^aogepttd  tbt  pott  of  private  aecretuy  to 
Wd  DorhAmoB  the  Utter'i  •ppoiotroent  es  special  commissioner 
to  Canada.    The  Durfaain  Report,  the  charur  of  oonslitutional 
govenunent  in  thecoloaies,  though  drawn  up  by  Charles  BuUer, 
embodied  |he  ideas  of  Wakefield,  and  the  latter  was  the  means 
of  iu  being  given  prematurely  to  the  public  through  Tht  Timet, 
^  pnvent  Us  being  tampered  with  by  the  govenment.    He 
ficted  in  the  same  spirit  a  few  months  later,  when  (about  July 
<339)i  undentandiog  that  the  authorities  intended  to  prevent 
the  despaUb  of  emigrants  to  New  Zealand,  he  hurried  them 
off  on  hia  own  responsibility,  thus  compelling  the  government  to 
annex  the  country  just  in  time  to  anticipate  a  similar  step  on  the 
liart  of  Fradoft.   Fbr  teveral  years  Wakefield  continued  to  direct 
the  New  Zealand  Company,  fighting  its  battles  with  the  cokmial 
office  and  the  missionary  interest,  and  secretly  faisplring  and 
gutdmg  many  parliamentary  tommittees  on  cokmial  sttbjects, 
especially  on  the  abolition  of  transportation.   The  company  was 
by  no  means  a  financial  success,  and  many  of  its  proceedings 
were  wholly  unscrupulous  and  indefensible;  its  great  object, 
however,  was  attahied,  and  New  inland  became  the  Britain  of 
the  south.    Ih  1846  Wakefieki,  exhausted  with  labour,  was 
struck  dotvn  by  apoplexy,  and  spent  more  than  a  year  in  com- 
plete retirement,  writing  durhig  his  gradual  recovery  his  Art  of 
Coionitation.    The  management  of  the  company  had  meanwhile 
po^  into  the  hands  of  others,  whose  sole  object  was  to  settle 
accounts  with  the  government,  and  wind  up  the  undertaking. 
Wakefield  seceded,  and  joined  Lord  Lyttelton  and  John  Robert 
Codley  In  establishing  the  Canterbury  settlement  as  a  Church  of 
England  colony.   A  ^ntion  of  his  correspondence  on  this  subject 
was  published  by  his  son  as  Tke  Founders  of  CatUerbury  (Chnst- 
chorch,  1868).    As  usual  with  him,  however,  he  failed  to  retain 
the  confidence  of  his  coadjutors  to  the  end.    In  1853,  after  the 
grant  of  a  constitution  to  New  Zealand,  he  took  up  his  residence 
In  the  colony,  and  immediately  began  to  act  a  leading  part  in 
colonnil  politics.    In  1854  he  appeared  in  the  first  New  Zetland 
parliament  as  extxa-oflidal  adviser  of  the  acting  governor,  a 
position  which  exdted  great  jealousy,  and  aa  the  mover  of  a 
tesolutiott  demanding  the  appointment  of  a  responsible  ministry.  • 
It  was  carried  unanimously,  but  difiicnlties,  wliidi  win  be  found 
detailed  in  W.  Swainson*8  Ne»  ZetdoMd  ami  Us  Cohnkation  (ch. 
i«),  prevented  its  being  made  effective  untii  after  the  mover's 
letirement  from  political  life.     In  December  1854,  after  a 
fSitiguing  address  to  a  public  meeting,  foUowed  by  pnatonged  ex- 
posure to  8  south-east  gale,  hfs  constitution  enthdy  broke  down. 
He  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement,  dying  at  Wellington 
on  the  i6th  of  May  1862. .  His  only  son,  Edward  Jemingham 
Wakefield  (1820-1879),  was  a  New  Zealand  politician.  Three 
of  Wakefield's  brothers  weie  Also  interested  in  New  Zealand. 
After  serving  in  the  Spanish  army  William  Hayward  Wakefieki 
(1803-1848)  emigrated  to  New  Zealand  in  ,1839.   As  an  agent  of 
the  New  2>aland  Land  Company  he  was  engaged  in  purchasing 
enormous  tracts  of  land  from  die  natives,  but  the  company's 
title  to  the  greater  part  of  thb  was  Uter  declared  mvab'd.    He 
remained  in  New  Zealand  until  his  death  on  the  19th  of  September 
1848.    Arthur  Wakefield  (1799-1843),  who  was  associated  with 
his  brother  in  these  transactions  about  land,  was  killed  during  a 
fight  with  some  natives  at  Wairau  on  the  17th  of  June  1843-  'Hie 
third  brother  was  Felix  Wakefield  (i 807-1 875) i  »n  engineer. 

Wakefield  was  a  man  of  large  views  and  lofty  aims,  and  in 
private  Ufe  displa>'ed  the  warmth  of  heart  which  commonly 
accompanies  these  quaUties.  His  main  defect  was  unscrupulous- 
ness:  he  hesitated  at  nothing  necessary  to  accomplish  an  object, 
and  the  conviction  of  his  unt  rust  worthiness  gradually  alienated 
his  associates,  and  left  him  politically  powerless.  Excluded  from 
parliament  by  the  fatal  error  of  his  youth,  he  was  compelled  to 
resort  to  indirect  means  of  working  out  his  plans  by  influencing 
public  men.  But  for  a  tendency  to  paradox,  his  intellectual 
powers  were  of  the  highest  order,  and  as  a  master  of  nervous 
idiomatic  Engh'sh  he  is  second  to  Cobbett  alone.  After  every 
deduction  it  remains  true  that  no  contemporary  showed  equal 
genius  as  a  colonial  sutesman,  or  in  this  department  rendered 
equal  service  to  his  country. 


For  an  {mpartial  examination  of  the  Wakefield  ostein,  see  Len^* 
Bttutieu.  Do  la  colonisoium  eires  Us  peuplu  moiemes  (Ard  ed.  pp. 
563-575  and  696-700).  See  also  R.  Gamett'e  lAfo  of  WoMim 
(189»)>  (R-  <*) 

WAKBFIBD.  eitBBRT  (i756*»8oi>,  Engfish  dassical  scholia 
and  politician,  was  bom  at  Nottingham  on  the  32nd  of  February 
1756..  He  was  educated  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge  (fellow, 
1776).  In  1778  he  took  orders,  but  in  the  following  year  qidtted 
the  church  and  accepted  the  post  of  classical  tutor  at  the  Non- 
conformist academy  at  Warrington,  which  he  held  till  the  dto- 
fiolation  of  the  establishoMnt  in  1783.  After  leaving  Warriagtoir, 
he  took  private  pupils  at  Nottingham  and  other  plaees,  and 
also  occupied  himself  with  Uterafy  wiork.  Hit  most  itoiportani 
production  at  thla  period  was  the  first  part  of  the  Silbsa  criUea, 
the  design  of  which  waa  the  "  ilhistmtion  of  the  Scriptures  by 
light  bofrtwed  from  the  philology  of  Greece  and  Rome."  In 
1790  he  was  appointed  professor  of  classics  at  the  newly-founded 
Unitarian  college  at  Hackney,  but  his  proposed  reforms  and  his 
objection  to  religious  obsen^uicet  led  to  unpleasantness  and  to 
his  resignation  in  the  following  year.  Ftom  this  time  he  sup- 
ported faimtolf  by  his  pen.  His  edition  of  LuertUus,  a  work 
of  hi|^  pretensions  and  little  solid  performance,  appeared  in 
1796-1799,  and  gained  for  the  editor  a  very  exaggerated  reputa- 
tion (see  hfunro's  £«ef«tNM,  L  pp.  19,  so).  His  lightrhearted 
criticism  of  Person's  editk>n  of  the  Hecuba  was  avenged  by  tfafe 
hitter's  famous  toast:  "  Gilbert  Wakefieki;  what's  Hecuba  to 
him  or  he  to  Hecttba  ?  "  About  this  time  Wakefield,  who  bated 
Pitt  and  oondemned  war  as  utteriy  unchristian,  abandoned 
literature  for  political  and  religious  controversy.  After  assailing 
with  equal  bitterness  writers  so  entirely  ^;>posed  as  William 
Wilberforoe  and  Thomas  Paine,  in  January  1798  he  "empbyed 
a  few  hours  "  in  drawing  np  a  reply  to  Bishop  Waitson's  Address 
to  tho  Puple  of  Great  Britain,  written  m  defence  of  Pitt  and  the 
war  and  the  new  "  tax  upon  income.'*  He  was  charged  with 
having  pubhsfaed  a  seditious  libel,  eonvicted  in  ^te  of  an 
eloquent  defence,  and  imprisoned  for  two  years  in  Dorchester 
gaol.  A  considerable  sum  of  naoney  was  subscribed  by  the 
public,  sufficient  to  provide  for  his  famiiy  i^ion  his  death,  whioh 
took  place  on  the  9th  of  September  i8ox.  While  in  prison  he 
conesponded  on  chssintl  snbjeota  with  Charies  James  Fox»  tJie 
latteia  bdng  suheeqnenthr  published. 

See  the  tecond  edition  of  hia  Memoirs  (1804).  The  firat  volume  is 
autobiogmphical;  the  «econd,  compiled  by  J.  T.  Rutt  and  A. 
Walncwngnt,  .includes  several  estimate*  of  his  character  and  ppi"- 
formances  from  various  acurce*.  the  most  remarlcable  being  one 
by  Dt  Parr;,  see  alK»  CentltnusCs  Ida^eaime  (September  180U; 
Henry  Crabb  Robinson's  Diary  (3rd  cd.,  ^872);  John  Aikio  ip 
Aikin  s  General  Biography  (1799-1815). 

WAKBFUBU),  a  city  and  municipal  and  parGamentaiy 
borough  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire*  England,  175I  m. 
N.N.W.  from  London.  Pop.  (1901)  4ir4i3.  It  is  served  by  the 
Great  Northern,  Midland  and  Great  Central  railways  (Westgate 
station),  and  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  and  North-Eastern 
railways  (Kirkgate  station),  the  Great  Northern  Company  using 
both  stations.  It  Ces  on  the  river  Caldcr,  mainly  on  the  north 
bank,  in  a  pleasant  undulating  country,  towards  the  eastern 
outskirts  of  the  great  industrial  district  of  the  West  Riding. 
The  river  is  crossed  by  a  fine  bridge  of  eight  arches  on  which 
stands  the  chapel  of  St  Mary,  a  beautiful  struaure  50  ft.  long 
by  35  wide,  of  the  richest  Decorated  character.  Its  endowment 
is  attributed  to  Edward  IV.,  in  memory  of  his  father  Richard, 
duke  of  York,  who  fell  at  the  battle  of  Wakefield  (1460).  It  was 
completely  restored  in  1847.  In  1888  the  bishopric  of  Wakefield 
was  formed,  almost  entirely  from  that  of  Ripon,  having  been 
sanctioned  in  1878.  The  diocese  includes  about  one-seventh  of 
the  parishes  of  Yorkshire,  and  also  covers  a  very  small  portion  of 
Lancashire.  The  cathedral  churdi  of  Afl  Saints  occupies  a  very 
ancient  site,  but  only  slight  traces  of  buildings  previous  to  the 

14th  century  can  be  seen.   In  the  early  part  of  that  century  the 
church  was  almost  rebuilt,  and  was  consecrated  by  Archbishop 

William  de  Melton  in  1339.   Further  great  alterations  took  place 
in  the  isth  century,  and  the  general  effect  of  the  building  as  it 

stands  is  Perpendicular.    The  church  consists  of  a  clerestoried 

nave  and  chdr,  with  a  wcatem  tower;  the  eastward  extension 


*50 


WAKEFIELD— WAKLEY 


of  the  dioir,  the  construction  of  the  retrochoir  and  other  works 
were  undertaken  in  1900  and  consecrated  in  1905  as  a  memorial 
to  Dr  Walsham  How,  the  first  bishop.  During  restoration  of  the 
spire  (the  height  of  which  is  247  ft-)  in  1905,  records  of  previous 
work  upon  it  were  discovered  in  a  scaled  recq>tacle  in  the 
weather-vane.  Among  the  principal  public  buildings  are  the 
town  haU  (1880),  in  the  French  Renaiaance  style;  the  county 
hall  (1898),  ahandsome  structure  with  octagonal  tower  and  dome 
over  the  principal  entrsoce;  the  large  com  exchange  (1837, 
cntorged  1862),  including  a  conccrt-rcKHn;  the  market  house, 
the  sessions  house,  the  county  offices  (1896)  and  the  prison  for 
the  West  Riding;  the  mechanics'  institution  with  large  library, 
church  institute  and  libcaiy,  and  the  fine  art  institution.  A 
free  library  was  founded  in  2905,  and  a  sUtue  of  Queen  Victoria 
unveiled  in  the  Bull  Ring  at  the  same  time.  Benevolent 
institutions  include  the  Clayton  hospital  (1879),  on  the  pavilion 
system,  and  the  West  Riding  pauper  lunatic  asylum  with 
its  branches.  The  Elisabethan  grammar  school,  founded  in 
1593,  is  the  principal  educational  establishment.  Among 
several  picturesque  old  houses  remaining,  that  known  as  the 
Six  CUnmeys,  an  Elizabethan  structure,  is  the  most  striking. 

Fonnerly  Wakefield  was  the  great  emporium  of  the  doth  manu- 
facture in  Yorkshire,  but  in  the  19th  century  it  was  superseded  in 
thisrespect  by  Leeds.  Foreign  weavers  oi  doth  were  established 
at  Wakefidd  by  Henry  VII.;  and  Ldand,  writing  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII.,  states  that  its  **  whole  profit  standeth  by  coarse 
drapery."  During  the  x8th  century  it  became  noted  for  the 
manufacture  of  worsted  yam  and  woollen  stuffs.  Although  its 
manufacturing  importance  is  now  small  in  comparison  with  that 
of  several  other  Yorkshire  towns,  it  possesses  mills  for  spinnleg 
worsted  and  carpet  yams,  coco-iiut  fibre  and  China  grass.  It 
hn  also  rag^crushing  miUs,  chemical  works,  soap-works  and 
hon-works;  and  there  are  a  number  of  collieries  in  the  ndgb- 
bouriiood.  Wakefidd  is  the  chief  agriculturd  town  in  the  West 
Riding,  and  has  one  of  the  largest  com  markets  in  the  north  of 
Eng^d.  It  possesses  agricultural  implement  and  machine 
works,  grain  and  flour  mills,  malt-works  and  breweries.  A  large 
trade  in  grain  is  carried  on  by  means  of  the  Calder,  and  the 
building  of  boats  for  inland  navigation  is  a  considerable  industry. 
There  are  extensive  market-gardens  in  the  neighbourhood.  In 
the  vidnity  of  Wakefidd  is  Walton  Hall,  the  residence  of  the 
famous  naturalist  Charies  Waterton  (1782-1865).  The  parlia- 
mentary borough  returns  one  member.  The  munidpal  borough 
is  under  a  mayor,  9  aldermen  and  37  councillors.    Area,  4060 


In  the  rdgn  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  Wakefidd  (Wackefeid) 
was  the  chief  place  in  a  large  district  belonging  to  the  king  and 
was  still  a  T03ral  nnuior  in  1086.  Shortly  afterwards  it  was  granted 
to  William,  Earl  Warenne,  and  his  hdrs,  under  whom  it  formed 
an  extensive  baronial  liberty,  extending  to  the  confines  of 
Lancashire  and  Cheshire.  It  remained  with  the  Warenne  family 
until  the  r4th  century,  when  John  Warenne,  ea/1  of  Warenne  and 
Surrey,  having  no  legitimate  hdr,  settled  it  on  his  mistress, 
Maud  de  Keirford  and  her  two  sons.  They,  however,  pre- 
deceased him,  and  after  Maud's  death  in  1360  the  manor  feU  to 
the  crown.  Charies  I.  granted  it  to  Henry,  eari  of  Holland,  and 
after  passing  through  the  hands  of  Sir  Gervase  Clifton  and  Sir 
Christopher  Clapham,  it  was  pu^hased  about  1700  by  the  duke 
of  Leeds,  ancestor  of  the  present  duke,  who  is  now  lord  of  the 
manor.  In  x  203-1 304  William  Earl  Warenne  received  a  grant 
of  a  fair  at  Wakefidd  on  the  vigil,  day  and  morrow  of  All  Saints* 
day.  As  early  as  r  231  the  town  seems  to  have  had  some  form  of 
burghal  organization,  since  in  that  year  a  burgage  there  is 
mentioned  in  a  fine.  In  133 1 ,  at  the  request  of  John  de  Warenne, 
earl  of  Surrey,  the  king  granted  the  "  good  men"  ^f  the  town 
pavage  there  for  three  years,  and  in  the  same  year  the  earl 
obtained  a  grant  of  another  fair  there  on  the  vigil,  day  and 
morrow  of  St  Oswald.  There  is  no  other  indication  of  a  borough. 
The  battle  of  Wakefield  was  fought  in  X460  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Calder  just  outside  the  town. 

Ldand  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  town  in  the  x6th 
cmttvxy,  and  while  showing  that  the  manufacture  of  dothing 


was  the  chief  industry,  says  tho  that  W«k«lield  It  "a  very  qdk 
market  town  and  meatly  brge,  well  served  of  flesh  and  fish  both 
from  sea  and  by  rivets ...  so  that  all  vitnile  b  very  good  tad 
chepe  (here.  A  right  honest  man  shall  fare  wvU  for  sd.  a  meiL 
. .  There  be  plenti  of  se  coal  in  the  quarters  about  Wakefidd" 
The  com  market,  hdd  on  Fridays,  is  of  remote  origin.  A  cattk 
market  b  also  held  on  alternate  Wednesdays  under  charter  d 
X765.  The  town  was  enfranchised  in  r833,  and  was  incorporated 
in  1848  under  the  title  of  the  mayor,  aldermen  and  counciUon 
of  the  borough  of  Wakefidd.  Before  this  date  it  was  under  the 
superintendence  of  a  constable  appointed  by  the  steward  d  ibe 
lord  of  the  manor. 

See  Vietcria  Couniy  History,  YorkAin;  W.  S.  Bankii  Hutary^l 
Wakefidd  (1871);  E.  Paffwns.  History  ^  Letds,  fife  (1834):  <. 
T^yXat,  History  cf  Wakefidd  (ii»tii. 

WAKEFIEU),  a  township  of  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts, 
U.S. A.,  about  xo  m.  N.  of  Boston.    Pop.  (1890)  69S2;  (iqoo) 
9390,  of  whom  3347  were  fordgn-bom;  (2910,  census)  ii.40(. 
Wakefidd  is  served  by  three  branches  of  the  Boston  &  Maioe 
railway  and  by  electric  interurban  railway  to  neighbouring  tovn 
and  dlies.    It  contains  the  outlying  villages  ol  Greenvood, 
Montrose  and  Boyntonville;  and,  larger  than  these,  Wakc6eU, 
near  the  centre  of  the  township.   In  this  village  is  the  town  ha% 
the  gift  of  Cyrus  Wakefidd  (x8xx-x873),  and  the  Beebe  Ton 
Library,  founded  in  1856  as  the  Public  Library  of  South  Vna&sft 
and  later  renamed  in  honour  of  Ludus  Beebe,  a  generous  i/tio^ 
The  town  park  (about  35  acres),  shaded  by  some  fine  oRtiaii 
extends  to  the  S.  shore  of  Lake  Quannapowitt  aixd  contiia^ 
soldiers'  monument;  and  in  the*  S.  part  of  the  township  tit 
Crystal  Lake  and  Hart's  Hill  (30  acres),  a  public  park,   b  ^ 
township  is  the  Wakefield  Home  for  A^ed   Women,  and  » 
Y.M.C.A.  building.    Manufacturing  is  the  princapal  indusUT; 
and  among  the  manufactures  are  rattan  goods,  bosiery,  stoves 
and  furnaces,  boots  and  shoes,  and  pianos.    The  ^ue  of  the 
factory  products  increased  from  $2,647,130  in  1900  to  $4^807,7^' 
in  X905, or  8x '6  %.    The  townslup  owns  and  operates  the  dectiic 
lighting  and  gas  plants  and  the  water-works. 

Within  the  present  limits  of  Wakefidd  the  first  settlenest 
was  made,  in  1639,  in  that  part  of  the  old  township  of  Lyns 
which  in  1644  was  incorporated  as  Reading.  In  x8 x  a  the  southern 
or  "  Old  Parish  "  of  Reading,  which  was  strongly  Democratic' 
RepuUican  while  the  other  two  parishes  were  strongly  Fedcrslistt 
was  set  apart  and  incorporated  as  the  town  of  South  Readin9> 
In  x868  the  present  name  was  adopted  in  honour  of  Cyxut 
Wakefidd,  who  established  the  rattan  works  here.  A  portioo 
of  Stoneham  was  annexed  to  Wakefidd  in  1889. 

Sec  C.  W  Eaton. "  Wakefidd,"  in  S.  A.  Drake's  Bistory  </  UiddU^ 
sex  County  (Boston,  1880). 

WAKKERSTROOM,  a  town  and  district  of  t>VK  TransvasL 
The  district  occupies  part  of  the  S.E.  of  the  Transvaal,  bdng 
bounded  S.  by  the  Orange  Free  State  and  Natal.  The  frontier 
line  is  in  part  the  crest  of  the  Drakensberg.  The  town  of  Wakker- 
stroom,  pop.  (1904)  1402,  lies  18  m.  E.  of  Volksrust  and  4  o^-.^* 
of  the  Natal  frontier.  It  is  built  on  the  high  vdd,  at  an  elevatioo 
of  5900  ft.,  and  possesses  a  bracing  climate.  The  neighbouring 
hilh  rise  over  7000  ft.  The  plain  on  which  the  town  stands  is 
drained  by  the  Slang  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Buffalo  affluent 
of  the  Tugela.  The  district,  a  fertile  agricultural  region,  was 
organized  as  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  Transvaal  in  1859  ^y 
President  M.  W.  Pretorius,  and  after  his  Christian  names  the 
town  was  called  Marthinus-Wessd-Stroom,  an  unwieldy  desig- 
nation dropped  in  favour  of  Wakkerstroom.  During  the  war  of 
x88o-8x  the  town  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Boers. 
In  1903  a  small  portion  of  the  district  was  annexed  to  Natal 

WAKLEY,  THOMAS  (1795-1863),  English  medical  and  social 
reformer,  was  born  in  Devonshire,  and  was  early  apprenticed  to 
a  Taunton  apothecary.  He  then  went  to  London  and  qualified 
as  a  surgeon,  setting  up  in  practice  in  Regent  Street,  and  marryinl 
(1820)  Miss  Goodchild,  whose  father  was  a  merchant  and  s 
governor  of  St  Thomas's  Hospital  All  through  his  career  Wakley 
proved  to  be  a  man  of  aggressive  personality,  and  his  experiences 
in  this  respect  had  a  sensational  beginning.  In  August  1820  a 
gang  of  men  who.  had  some  grievance  against  him  burnt  down  h» 


WAIACHIA— WALCH 


hoiMB  and  levcidy  wooaded  him  In  t.  anideniui  uHult.   The 
■holt  iSiit  vu  obwure.  and  Wikley  wu  cvn  uap«icd, 
JuAily,  ^  uuinf  &rc  u>  hii  hmae  tuETudl;  but  he  vitu  bis 

He  bcame  i  liiend  ol  Willuuu  CobUtt, 
ha  Kks  in  lynpsUiy.  In  iSij  he  (Uned  Ike  veU-knovD  medical 
■ttkly  paper,  Uw  Lamet,  and  began  i  inia  oi  atUck*  < 
jobbery  in  vogue  auortg  tbe  pnciiiioners  of  the  day,  *bi 
M^uitomed  to  treat  the  medjcd  protesaion  $s  a  cloM  bonnigh- 
In  oppouiioa  to  tbe  hoapiul  docton  he  imiated  on  |nibli>bing 
icpons  ol  Ibeii  lectuies  mid  opouig  vuioui  malpnctico,  and 
he  had  lo  fight  a  nuiabei  ol  lawniu,  •rhich,  however,  only 
Increuad  hit  inauaice.  Ha  atlaclLed  the  whole 
Um  Bcyal  College  oi  Surgeona,  and  obtained  ao  miHh  Mppoit 
Icoin  among  the  gen«nl  body  o!  Ihe  profestiaii,  DOW  couied  to  a 
KnM  at  the  abuiea  he  eipoted,  that  in  1S17  a  petition  lo'parHa- 
wnt  reaulJed  ia  a  rctum  being  ordered  ol  the  public  money 
granted  to  it.  Hut  rclorm  in  the  college  wai  bIov,  and  WaUay 
now  let  hinuelf  Id  rouae  Ihe  Uouae  ol  Conuooa)  trom  wilhia. 
He  became  a  radical  candidate  loi  puliiment,  and  in  iSjj  wu 
nlumed  for  Finabury,  relainiiig  hit  icat  till  1S51.     In  ttu: 

Bcnt  he  Rcuied  in  1S34 — he  wai  indeiali«able  m  uphglding  the 
inlemu  of  the  working  daues  and  advocating  humanit 
lelornB,  «i  well  aa  in  purauing  hi*  caaipaign  against  mc 
reatrictiona  and  abuaca;  and  he  made  the  Lo/tai  not  01 
profenlonal  organ  but  a  powcrlul  rnpne  of  aocud  reform. 


in  the  [amUy. 


»  ^  Timuu  WnUty 


>{  May 
ahip  ol  the  Lamcet  rcmun 

£«  Saraud  Squin  S«i 
(1B97). 

WlUCBUt  01  WAtucBU,  a  lotmer  piindpallty  ol  aouth' 
eastern  Europe,  omsiiiiiting,  aller  iia  union  with  Uoldavia  on 
the  glh  ol  November  1K59,  a  paitof  Rumania  (;,>.}. 

WIUPRID'  STHABO  (or  Sinbui,  i.i.  "squint-eyed") 
(d.  S4b),  German  monk  and  theologiciJ  writer,  wa*  bun  about 
(08  in  Sviabin.  Hewaieducatedat  the  monastery  of  Reicbcnau, 
■ear  ConstBDce,  whrre  be  had  for  hit  leacbcn  Taito  and  Wetim, 
to  4ho«e  visiona  he  devotes  one  ol  hia  poems-  Then  he  went  on 
(0  Fulda,  where  he  studied  tor  aome  lime  under  Hrabanui  Mauiui 
bejore  returning  to  Reichenaa.  ol  whidi  monastery  he  was  rnade 
abbot  in  IjS.  TheR  is  a  story— baaed,  however,  on  no  good 
tvidence—lhat  Walaliid  devoted  himBclI  >o  doxlyto  leuenaa 
to  neglect  LheduLiesolhiaoffice,  owing  to  which  he  was  expelled 
Inm  his  houH;  but,  Inm  his  own  venea,  it  seems  that  the  real 
cauK  of  his  flii^  to  Spires  wa*  that,  nutwiihsianding  the  fact 
that  he  had  been  tutor  to  Charles  the  Bald,  he  espoused  the  side 
oi.his  elder  brother  Lothaii  on  the  death  ol  Louis  the  Pious  in 
840.  He  wga,  however,  restored  to  hia  monulay  In  S41,  and 
died  00  the  iSth  of  August  &t9,on  an  embassy  l«  hij  former 
pupil.  His  epitaph  was  written  by  Hrabanut  Maurus,  whose 
elcgiaa  pnbe  him  loc  being  tbe  faithful  guaidiaa  of  his 
nooaaiery- 

Walafrid  Slrabo's  works  are  ibeolagica),  htwoiical  and  poetkat. 
Of  hit  Ihoohigical  woiks  tbe  most  famous  is  the  neat  oiegetini 
compOation  which,  under  the  name  of  Claia  unluurai  or  the  Omo, 
Rmained  Tor  some  500  yean  the  moa  widetprtad  and  impoRant 
juarcy  of  ndlevarblbjfeal  Kiem.  nd  even  survived  tie  Re- 
tbnnalloB.sBsiiic  into  numenmedilioiia  as  lata  as  th*  17th  ctntwy 
(n  aUk  /&Mn  A  la  FnnH,  I.  v.  p^  59  *-)-  11m  oldest  hno" 
ci^,  in  four  folio  volumes,  ef  which  the  date  and  origin  are  un- 
iinairn.  but  which  Is  certainly  almost  entirely  Wali^'i  work, 
IJvti  m  his  method.  In  tbe  middle  at  the  pages  h  the  Lalbi  ten 
■4  Ihe  Bible;  la  Ihe  xainis  arc  Ihe  "  glDHea.''^caniistiag  of  avny 
lull  celhctiea  of  patristic  Aserpta  in  lUaaitarion  and  esptanalion 


»«o  sod  Sia  and  dedba 

»>  cbaptm  with  eRln^anicai  uiagei,  c 

MU.  pttum.  tuptHm  and  the  Holy  C 

hi  intnKtna  iato  Us  nptuMioiB  tbe  cu,  ,.„.  ,^, 

far  the  things  be  b  tmalmg  of,  with  tbe  apology  ih 


mand  ol"  Father  "  AdalDuus.  and  hand  upon  the  pnse  nai 
ol  tleto,  abbot  of  Reichenau'  {ton  806  to  Sa.    It  u  dcdinred  to 
Wniin's  broilier  GrirnaM.   At  tha  dme  be  ■em  it  to  Grimald 
Walalrid  had.  ai  be  hinweU  will  ua.  hardly  passed  his  eighteenth 

a>  it  i>  not  lawful  for  a  monk  to  hide  anything  from  bis  abbot,'' 

■-  'sit  he  may  be  beaten  with  de^nTd  ttripei.    In  thii  curiooa 

•n  Wettin  law  Charlea  the  Great  sullcrinv  punBtorlal  lonura 

"-=-• = -V  name  of  the  nJeralliried  lota  001 


foim  Ihe  initial  letters  of  the  passage  deeliiu  with  this  subject. 
Many  of  Walafrid's  other  poeins  am.  orinclmS,  short  addresses  to 
klngi  and  qaems  (Lothatr,  Chailo.  Unia.  Pippin,  Judith,  Ac.) 
infTio  bMs  {EjnlMnl.  Cifaaakl,  Hiatuiiii  Mauius.  tatio,  Ebbo. 
an:hbiihapoiitiima.Dngo.biahapof Meta.&c.).  Htamosfamoua 
poem  is  tbe  iTsrliilu,  didiaued  to  CrimahL  It  ta  an  account  it  a 
lillle  garden  that  be  used  lo  lend  with  hii  own  hinds,  and  is  largdy 
made  up  of  descriptions  of  the  various  herbs  he  grows  ibera  and 
tbeii  medicinBl  and  other  usee.  Sate  holds  the  plaee  of  hcnsour; 
ibcn  conei  nis^  the  antidot*  of  poisona:  and  so  on  through  mrlriiis. 
feonel,  liCei,  popinn,  and  many  other  pbnlfc  to  wind  up  irith  the 
rose.  "  which  in  vinue  and  cent  mrpasee*  all  other  befta,  and  may 
righdy  be  ulled  tbe  flower  of  flowen."  TIk  cut<o<is  poem  A 
Imapm  Tthici  takes  Ihe  fmn  of  a  diaJo(ue:  it  was  inqiind  by  m 
•ouanrian  uatue  of  Tbeodoiic  tha  Gnat  which  stood  in  fmn  of 
Charlemagne's  palige  at  Aia.|a<:iupeUc 

For  a  1nh[i«raphy  of  Walafrid's  hislorical  wotIlv  and  ol  writloga 
dtoling  with  Ihcm,  m  Potlhaw,  BiUfslliaa  Wll.  mnf,  sen  (Brrlinl 
~    W>iifrid'BworkaarepublishedinM«tK's/>>lra- 


n  Henog-Hauck,  AaA 
u  theoto^n, 
.    He  lUidiad 


anicle  by  Eiljard  Reus  and  a1' Ihiuck  "in 
fwyUcpiJJil  [Leipiig,  >9oB),  n.  790, 

1IALCH,  JDHAm  OEORO  (ie«3-i77 
was  bom  en  the  17th  of  Juii«.  1693  ai 
fatba,  Georg  Walch,  waa  general  (uperiotendent. 
at  Lapaig  and  Jena,  unongsl  hii  teachen  being  J.  f 
(1667-1719),  whose  only  daughler  he  married.  He  published  lo 
171S  a  worl^  Uiitoria  crilUa  laliimt  lintmu,  which  soon  came 
into  wide  use.  Two  yean  later  be  betame  prolessor  eitia- 
ordinarius  of  pbikaophy  at  Jena.  In  1719  he  waa  appointed 
prolessor  oidioaiius  of  rhetoric,  In  1721  ol  poetry,  and  in  1734 
prolessor  eitraordinadus  of  theology.  In  171S  he  became 
professor  otdinarius  of  thtokigy,  and  in  17  Jo  professor  primaiiut. 
Hi3  Ibeolo^cal  poaition  was  that  ol  a  very  Toodeiare  orthodoxy, 
which  had  been  Influenced  grcslly  by  the  philosophy  and 
controveniei  of  the  Dciilic  period.  His  univeisily  Itcturea 
and  published  works  ranged  over  the  wide  fields  ol  church 
history  in  its  various  branchea,  paniculaily  the  liletature  and 
the  contraversiei  of  the  church,  dognmtia,  etUca  tod  pastoial 
Ihealog;^.   He  died  on  the  13th  oljanuiiy  1775. 

or  his  works  the  most  vahiable  were  BOIItlUcs  Ikcltiica  <I7S7- 
IKf):  BmaOeca  paMuica  (1770,  new  ed.  1834]:  his  edition  -■ 
LutWs  works  loll  vols.  (1740-170)1  HisbrsKlKiwI  Ik  '-' 
EMrUiau  n  As  rUififiBt  »aliltnlfi$,  wifcts  tomiirtkk  1.— _  _. 
o^nlimiciai  Kitae  BUiloii^ni  Is  vdi..  173}  1-):  <he  eompanion 
work  10  thta.  KiwIiUiiiii  in  dii  StUticnsilrtSlilicUa  lUr  timed. 
Imlk  Kirch  <i7]o-i739).  and  PUIaupliinta  Lsitoi  (I7i«,  ith 
ed.  I77S).  His  life,  wiih  a  complete  lid  of  ha  writings  which 
annand  10 187.  Lrtm  xW  Cteraiilfr  dci  Kiritevilb  /Tc.  Ifaiot, 
waa  published  anonymously  by  his  soi  '-"■■'"'''■'*--  * 

Cf.  Wnhthn  Can.  P™''"'— '■■-'■-  "" 


■dfJMsgiithf 


His  son,  Jos 


1    El-VST    Iioi 


id  also  ns 


-1778),   1 


Tisihe- 


a  law  addition!,  and  divided  Ehihard'a  rila 


252 


WALdOtt— WALDECK-PYRMONT 


Bvangdislen^  and  In  2750  was  appointed  professor  extraordi- 
nanus  of  theology.  Five  years  later  be  became  professor 
ordinarius  of  logic  and  metaphysics;  in  1759  he  eichanged  this 
for  a  professorship  of  rhetoric  and  poetry.  Amongst  other 
theological  works  he  published  Dissertationes  in  Acta  Apostohrum 
(1756-1761);  AtUiquUates  symbdicae  (177a);  and  alter  his  death 
appeared  (Mfsenaiiones  in  MaUkaenm  ex  Craedt  inscripiiottilms 
<X779).  He  also  published  a  periodical  Der  Nahnrforseker  (i??^* 
1778),  and  during  the  yean  1749-1756  took  an  active  part  in 
editing  the  ZcHungen  wm  gMrten  SacJUn, 

See  article  in  AUaenuins  deulscU  BiopMux  also  LAenS" 
^sckkhU  /.  £.  /.  WM  (}ta»,  i8te).  and  jT  d.  Meusel's  Ltxikon 
der  versUiebtneu  leutxken  SchrifiskUer,  voL  xiv. 

Another  son,  Csustian  Wilbelu  Franz  (1726-1784),  was 
educated  at  Jena  under  his  fathers  direction,  and  as  early  as 
i74S'i747  lectured  in  the  university  in  blanches  cl  exegesis, 
philoaophy  and  history.  He  then  travelled  with  bis  brother, 
J.  E.  I.  Walch,  for  a  year  in  Holland,  France,  Switzerland  and 
Italy.  On  his  return  he  was  in  1750  made  professor  extra- 
ordinariiis  of  philosophy  in  Jena,  but  in  1753  he  accepted  an 
invitation  to  become  professor  ordinarius  at  Gdttingen.  Here  in 
1754  he  became  professor  extraordinarius  of  theology,  and  three 
years  later  received  an  ordinary  professorship.  He  lectured  on 
dogmatics,  church  history,  ethio,  polemics,  natural  theology, 
symbolics,  the  epistles  of  Paul,  Christian  antiquities,  historical 
theological  h'terature,  ecdesiastical  law  and  the  fathers,  and  took 
an  active  interest  in  the  work  of  the  GdUinger  SocieUU  der  Wissen' 
icha/Un,  In  1766  he  was  appointed  professor  primarius.  His 
permanent  place  amongst  learned  theologians  rests  on  his  works 
on  church  history.  Semler  was  much  his  superior  in  originality 
and  boldness,  and  Mosheim  in  clearness,  method  and  elegance. 
But  to  hts  wide,  deep  and  accurate  learning,  to  his  conscientious 
and  impartial  examination  of  the  facts  and  the  authorities  at 
first  hand,  and  to  "  his  exact  quotation  of  the  sources  and  works 
illustrating  them,  and  careful  discussion  of  the  most  minute 
details,"  all  succeeding  historians  arc  indebted.  His  method  is 
critical  and  pragmatic,  "  pursuing  everywhere  the  exact  facta 
and  the  supposed  causes  of  the  outward  changes  of  history," 
leaving  wholly  out  of  sight  the  deeper  moving  principles  and 
ideas  which  influence  its  course.   He  died  on  the  zoth  of  March 

1784. 

His  principal  woHt  was  Ms  Entwl$rf  einer  vMstHndi§en  Ristorie 
der  Ketureient  SpaUunfm^  mud  RditumsitreiHiheitin,  bis  auf  die 
ZtU  dtt  Reformatitn  (il  vols.,  Leipng.  I76a-I765)>  Of  his  other 
valuable  works  may  be  mentioned  tieuhichte  der  evangdisck-ltUkeri- 
xhen  Religion,  als  ein  Bevxis,  dau  tie  die  wakre  set  ((753),  Enhntrf 
•  einer  voUstindigen  Hittorie  der  r6miuhen  Pdpste  (1756,  3nd  cd. 
I7j58:  Eng.  tfftns.  1759),  Entwurf  einer  vothtSndimm  Histerie  der 
Airchetnersammimngen  {17S9).  GrUndsdtm  der  Kirchengeukickle  des 
Neuen  TeslametUs  (1761,  aod  ed.  1773.  3rd  ed.  1792X  Biblietktca 
symboUca  vetus  (1770),  KrUische  Vntersiukung  vom  Gebrauch  der 
krUigen  Schrijt  vnter  den  aUen  Christen  (1779).  occasioned  by  the 
controversy  between  G.  E.  Lesdng  and  J.  m.  Goeae,  and  to  which 
Lesciog  b^n  aa  elaborate  reply  just  before  his  death. 

Chi  C  W.  F.  Wakh  as  historian  see  F.  Baur,  Bpochen  der  kirch- 
lichen  Geschichtsschreibtmg  (1852),  p.  14.5  sq.,  and  Dogmengeichichtet 
p.  38  sq.  (1867,  3rd  ed.):  W.  Cass,  Geschickte  der  protesUintiseken 
Dopnattk,  iil.  p.  267  aq. :  j:  G.  Meueel,  Lexicott  verstorhener  teutschen 
SchriftsteUer,  vol.  xiv.  For  his  life,  see  the  article  in  the  AUgfinuine 
.deutsche  Biographic 

A  third  son,  Kakl  Fkieosich  (1734-2799),  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  law,  and  became  professor  of  law  at  Jena  in  2759. 
His  most  important  works  were  ItUroductio  in  conlrtnersias  juris 
civilis  recenticris  (Jena,  1771)  and  GesckichU  der  in  Deulscklattd 
gdlenden  Reckte  (Jena,  1780).   He  died  on  the  20th  of  July  1799. 

WALCOTT,  CHARLES  DOOUTTLE  (1850-  ),  American 
geologist,  was  born  at  the  village  of  New  York  Mills,  New  York^ 
on  the  31st  of  March  1850.  He  received  a  school  education  at 
Utica.  In  1876  he  was  appointed  assistant  on  the  New  York 
State  Survey,  and  in  1879  assistant  geologist  on  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey;  in  1888  he  became  one  of  the  palae- 
ontologists in  charge  of  the  invertebrata,  in  1893  chief  palse- 
•ontologist,  and  in  1894  director  of  the  Geological  Survey.  In 
1907  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
As  president  of  the  Geological  Society  of  Washington  he 
delivered  in  1894  an  important  address  on  The  United  States 


Ctological  Survey.  He  added  largely  to  contemportry  lost- 
ledge  of  the  fauna  of  the  Older  Palaeoaoic  rocks  of  Nortii 
America,  especially  with'  reference  to  the  crastaces  and 
brachiopoda;  he  dealt  also  with  questkmt  of  ancient  phjrsbl 
geography  and  with  mountain  structure. 

Hk  more  impoitant  works  include  **  Patafoacolngy  of  the  Eoicfa 
digt^t" -  -    -  -  ...   - 

America 

Cambrian 

(Uon.  C/.5L  Geei.  Survey,  1898)^ 

WALOBCK-PYRMONT,   a  prindpaUty  of  Germany  lodi 
constituent  state  of  the  German  empire,  eanristiag  of  (*o 
seimrate  portions  lying  abont  30  m.  apart,  viz.  the  cousty  d 
Walde<^,  embedded  in  Pras^an  territory  between  the  proviaca 
of  Westphalia  and  Hesse-Nassau,  and  the  principality  of  ^• 
moot,   farther  to    the    north,    between    Lippe,    Bnmsvid, 
Westphalia  and  Hanover.    WaJdeck  comprises  an  area  of  40T 
sq.  m.,  covered  for  the  most  part  with  hills,  which  culmioaie  b 
the  Hegekopf  (2775  ft.).   The  centre  is  occupied  by  the  ph««i 
of  Corbach.   The  diief  rivets  are  the  Eder  and  the  Diemel,  Mb 
of  whicli  eventually  find  their  way  Into  the  Weser.   Pynooai, 
only  26  sq.  m.  in  extent,  is  also  mountainotn.    The  Enuner. 
also  belonging  to  the  Weser  system,  is  its  chief  stnan-  7^ 
united  area  is  thus  433  sq.  m.,  or  about  half  the  size  of  Cambnd^ 
shire  in  England,  and  the  united  population  in  1905  was  ^  '^> 
showing  a  density  of  138  to  the  square  mile.    The  pcipdii'<^^ 
almost  wholly  Protestant.   In  consequence  of  the  comjint^ 
high  elevation  of  the  country — the  lowest  part  beii«!i>>^ 
above  the  sea-level— the  dimate  is  on  the  whole  indtvA^ 
Agriculture  and  cattle-rearing  are  the  main  resources  of  t)>'^ 
habitants  In  both  parts  of  the  principality,  botthe  soilimo^ 
very  fertile.    Only  57%  of  the  area  is  occupied  by  arabkW 
and  pasture;  forests,  one-tenth  of  which  are  oonlferoas,  occupy 
j8%.    Oats  is  the  princtparcrop,  but  tye,  potatoes  and  fl« »" 
also  grown  in  eonsiderable  quantities.    Fruit  Is  also  culthiKa 
in  the  prindpaUty.    Iron  mines,  slate  and  stone  quarries  an 
worked  at  various  points,  and,  with  livestock,  poultry,  wool  ^ 
timber  form  the  chief  exports.    A  few  insignifioant  manufactun 
are  carried  <»  in  some  at  the  little  towns,  but  both  tn^  ^ 
mannfactures  are  much  retarded  by  the  comparative  isoUti* 
of  the  country  from  railways.    Wildungen,  hi  the  extreme  sow 
of  Waldeck,  is  the  termmus  of  a  branch  line  from  Wabcrv.  aw 
a  light  railway  runs  from  Warburg  to  Marburg;  Pyrmooi  s 
intersected  by  the  trunk  line  nmningf  rom  Cologne,viaPtderboni 
to  Bnmswick  and  Berlin. 

The  capital  and  the  residence  of  the  prince  is  Afolsen  (p^ 
sSxr  in  1905)  in  Waldeck;  twelve  smaller  townships  and  abo« 
one  hundred  villages  are  akto  situated  in  the  county.  The  oal!v' 
town  in  Pyrmont  is  Bad  Pyrmont,  with  about  1500  inhabitants 
a  highly  fashionable  watering-place  with  chalybeate  and  sabpe 
springs.  The  annual  number  of  visitors  is  about  23.00a  J*"' 
dungen  is  also  a  spa  of  repute.  The  inhabitants  to  the  nortbOi 
the  Eder  are  of  Saxon  stock,  to  the  south  of  Franconia^ 
difference  which  is  distinctly  marked  in  dialect,  cofltnffl**  ** 
manners.  .. 

Waldeck-Pyrmont    has   one   vote   In    the  federal   cfi^^ 
(Bundcsrat)  and  one  in  the  Reichstag.     The  consliiutj^ 
dating  from  1852,  is  a  reactionary  modification  of  one  cameo 
in  1849,  which  had  been  a  considerable  advance  npon  ^ 
granted  in  t8i6.     The  Landtag  of  one  chamber  consisW  " 
fifteen  members,  three  of  whom  represent  Piymont,  ^^^^f° 
indirectly  for  three  years.    In  the  event  of  the  male  line  of  i 
present  ruling  family  becoming  extinct,  the  female  h'ne  ^ 
succeed  in  Waldeck,  but  Pyrmont  wiU  fall  to  Prussia.   In  ijflw 
of  a  treaty  conduded  in  1867  for  ten  years,  renewed  in  '^77  '*|'. 
similar  period,  and  continued  in  1887  with  the  proviso  that 
should  be  terminable  on  two  years'  notice,  the  ^"*'™***,*kj 
the  entire  government  of  Waldeck-Pyrmont  are  rasnsgc"  "V 
Prussia,  the  Utile  country  having  found  itself  unable  to  ^^^^^ 
unassisted  the  military  and  other  burdens  involved  by  its  ^^^y^ 
the  North  German  Confederation  of  1867-187 1  and  subscquc"^ 
as  a  constituent  state  of  the  German  empire.    The  ^^^ 
ment  is  conducted  in  the  wiroe  of  the  .prince  by  s  Pr^*^''*^ 


WAivDECKr^ROUSSEAU 


^SS 


•*'.  Ludefdirector,''  wbflc  tht  iUte  officUb  Ube  tht  oatk  of 
jilegiazicetothekiDgof  Pnissia.  The  prince  oC^aUJbckxesflrvcs 
Jus  whoie  rights  as  head  of  the  church,  and  alao  the  right  of 
grantmg  pardoosi  and  in  ^citam  circumstances  may  firrritr  a 
veto  on  proposals  to  alter  or  enact  Uws*  Education  and  sinular 
matters  are  thus  all  conducted  on  the  Prussian  modd;  a  previous 
convention  had  already  handed  over  military  affairs  to  Prussia* 
The  budget  for  1910  showed  a  revenue  of  £57/>po  and  a  like 
expenditure.  The  public  debt  was  £79,710,  paying  interest  at 
3i%*  The  prince  is  supported  by  the  ioconve  dMrived  fnom 
crown  lands.  As  regards  the  administration  ot  ji)stioe»  Waldeck 
«nd  Pyrmont  belong  to  the  districts  of  Casael  and  Hanover 
respectivdy. 

The  princes  of  Waldeck-PymMynt  are  descendants  of  the 
counts  of  Schwalenberg,  the  earliest  of  whom-  known  to  history 
.wal  one  Widukind  (d.  1 137).  His  son  Vplkwin  (d.  1 1 79)  acquired 
by  marriage  the  county  of  Wak]cck,andlus  line  was  divided  into 
two  branches,  Waldeck  and  Landau,  in  1397,  In  1438  the  land- 
pave  of  Hesse  obtained  rights  of  suzeminty  over  WaMeck,  and 
the  claims  arising  frpm  this  action  were  not  finally  di^ioBed  of 
until  184),  when  it  was  decided  that  the  rights  of  Hessfs  over 
Waldeck  had  ceased  with  the  dissolution  nf  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire.  The  Landau  branch  of  the  family  became  eictinct  in 
'M95,  and  in  1631  Waldeck  inherited  the  poufity  of  Pyrmont, 
which  had  originally  belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  Schwaknberg 
family.  For  a  few  years  Waldeck  was  divided  into  Wildungen 
and  Eisenberg,  but  in  1693,  when  the  WUdungen  branch  died 
out  with  Oeorge  Frederick,  the  imperial  fiddrmarshal,  the  whole 
principality  was  united  under  the  rule  of  Christian  Loiiis  of 
Eisenbeig.  From  &6o»  the  land  haa  beat  undivided  with  the 
exception  of  a  brief  period  from  1605  to  x&ia,  when  Waldeck 
luid  pyrmont  wefe  ruled  by  two  biDthen.  Frederick  Anthony 
Ulrich  (d.  1728),  who  succeeded  his  father.  Christian  Louis,  in 
1706,  was  made  a  pdnceof  the  empire  in  1713.  Jn  1807  Waldeck 
joined  the  coiilederatlon  of  the  Rhine,  and  in  1815  entered  the' 
German  confederation.  Ita  fimt  constitution  was  granted  in 
t8ft6  by  Prince  GeMge  11.  (d.  384s)*  Prinot  Fr«deckk  <b.  1865) 
succeeded  his  father,  George  Victor  (183 1*1893)  •  as  ruler  on  the 
xath  of  May  x893.  The  noat  important  fact  in  the  recent  history 
<rf  the  prfndpaUty  is  its  oofineziott  with  Pruisia,  to  which 
reference  has  already  beta  made. 

See  Cmtxe,  Gaekichit  wmd  BtKkrtiJmmg  d$s  FOrskntwmt  WoUuk 
(Anrfsen.  1850);  L&we.  HamaUkunds  •mi  WMtck  CAfoUeo^^  1887): 
J.  C.  C.  Hodmcister,  Histonsck'tenealotisches  Haudlnuk  ubcr  aus 
Crajen  vnd  FUrsten  von  Waldeck  seit  1228  (Cas'scl,  1883) ;  Bftttchcr. 
Das  SUuUsrtckt  drs  Furiteniums  WtJdeck  (Freibuiig.  ¥884);  A« 
Wagner,  Die  Ciackickle  WaUeckt  mud  Pyrmonts  (Wildunttn.  »888). 
And  theC€S€ki€ktsU4tt0r,fur  Wal4tfk  tmd  JPyrmmi  (McngeringbauMn. 
1901.  fol.). 

'    WAlOICXrROUSaBAU*   FIIRRB   VASIB  RBNft  ERHBBT 

(1846-7^04),  French  staitesman,  was  bdA  at  Nantes  on  the  atid 
of  December  1846.  His  father,  Ren<  Vakico>Rou3fleau  (1809- 
1882),  a  barrister  at  Nantes  and  a  leader  of  the  kycaPreinibhcan 
party,  figured  in  the  levdhitkn  of  1848  as  one  joi  the  deptolies 
tetunied  to  the  ConatitnentAsK^Uy  for  Loire  Imf^rienre.  With 
Jules  SiuKMi,  Louis  Blanc  sad  othns  he  sat  <»!  Urn  tMmotiBsion 
appointed  to  inqidre  Into  the  labour  question,  sssking  msBy  han^ 
portant'proptaate,  «ne  of  Hhick,  fsr  thi  establishment  of  naUonal 
banks,  was  partially  realized  hi  i8g0.  After  the  ekctaon  of 'Loilis 
Napoleoii  t<»  the  presidency  he  rt turned  to  his  practice  at  the  har, 
and  for  some  time  after  the  coup  d'itat  was  in  hiding  to  escape 
anest.  HeGaiilebbcktopoliiacalhfein.thecriiissC  t87s»  when 
he  became  vutyoi  of  Kaiites  in  Auguqt  and  pioclaimed  the  third 
republic  there  on  the  4th  ol  September*  He  shortly  afterwards 
cesigned  municipal  ofice  in  conaequenfie  of  differences  with  his 
colleagues  on  the  education  questioii* 

The  son  was  A  deBcate  diiUl  whole  defective  eyesight  forbade 
.  him  the  use  of  booka»  amd  his  early  education  was  therefore 

•  cntkdy  oral    He  studied  bw  at  Poiticss  and  hi  Paris,  whcie  he 

•  toofc  hJM  hsenliste  in  Janusry  ia6»,  His  father's  lecoid  euuied 
>his  reception  in  hi^  repuUican  ciicles*    Jules  Gr^vy  sImk} 

^Kmmriof  him  at  the  Parisian  bar,  and  he  was  a  regular  visitor 
M«hel|oqBcgo&SUmislaaDulsttis.sadQiJults>SiflBSiw    Allst 


sis  months  of  wvting  for  briefs  hi  Paris,  be  decided  to  return 
home  and  to  join  the  bar  of  St  Nazaire,  where  he  mecribed  his 
name  early  in  187a  In  September  he  became,  in  spite  of  his 
3nMith,  secretary  to  the  municipal  commission  temporarily 
appointed  to  carry  on  the  town  business.  He  organized  the 
National  Defence  at  St  Nasaire,  and  himself  marched  out  witb 
the  contingent,  though  no  part  of  the  force  saw  active  service 
owing  to  lack  of  ammunition,  their  private  store  having  been 
commandeered  by  the  state.  In  1873  he  removed  to  the  bar  of 
Rennes,  and  six  years  later  was  returned  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  In  his  electoral  programme  he  had  stated  that  he 
yfMS  prq>ared  to  respect  all  liberties  except  those  of  conspiracy 
Against  the  institutions  of  the  country  and  of  educating  the  young 
in  hatred  of  the  modern  social  order.  In  the  Chamber  he  sup- 
ported the  policy  of  Gambetta.  The  Waldeck-Rousseau  famUy 
was  strictly  Catholic  in  spite  of  its  republican  principles;  never- 
theless Waldeck-Rousaeau  sui^;N>rted  the  anti-deric^  education 
law  BubfAitted  by  Jules  Ferry  ss  minister  of  education  in  the 
Waddington  cabinet.  He  further  voted  for  the  abrogation  of  the 
law  of  xSi4  forbidding  work  on  Sundays  and  fite  days,  for 
cosapulsoity  service  of  one  year  for  seminarists  and  for  the  re- 
estahUdunent  of  divorce.  He  made  his  reputation  in  the  Chamber 
by  a  report  which  he  drew  vp  in  1680  on  behalf  of  the  committee 
ai^ointed  to  inquire  into  the  French  judicial  system.  But  then 
as  later  be  was  chiefly  occupied  with  the  rdations  between  capital 
and  labour.  He  had  a  large  share  in  1884  in  securing  the  recog- 
nition of  trade  unions.  In  x  881  he  became  minister  of  the 
interior  in  Gambctta's  grand  minisUre,  and  he  held  the  saro^e 
port/olio  in  the  Jules  Feny  cabinet  of  X883-1885,  when  he  gave 
proof  of  great  administrative  powers.  He  sought  to  put  down 
the.system  by  which  civil  posts  were  obtained  through  the  local 
deputy,  and  he  made  it  dear  that  the  central  authority  could  not 
be  defied  by  \ocaX.  officials.  He  had  begim  to  practise  at  the  Paris 
bar  hi  x886,  and  in  1889  be  did  not  seek  re-election  to  the 
Chamber,  but  devoted  himself  to  his  legal  work.  The  most 
famoos  ol  the  many  noteworthy  cases  in  which  his  cold  and 
penetrating  intellect  and  his  power  of  clear  expoeitioa  were 
retained  was  the  defence  of  M.  de  Lesseps  in  1893.  In  1894  he 
returned  to  political  life  as  senator  for  the  department  of  the 
Love,  and  next  year  atood  for  the  presidency  of  the  republic 
againat  Ftiix  Fauxe  and  Henri  Brisson,  being  supported  by  the 
Conservatives^  who  were  poon  to  be  his  bitter  enemies-  He 
received  184  votes,  but  retired  hef ore  the  second  ballot  to  allow 
Fauxe  to  leceive  an  absolute  majority.  During  the  political 
asiarchy  of  the  next  few  years  he  was  recognised  by  the  moderate 
republicans  as  the  successor  oi  Jules  Ferry  and  Gambetta,  and 
at  the  crisis  of  1899  on  the  fall  of  the  Dupuy  cabinet  he  was 
asked  by  President  Loubet  to  form  agovemment.  After  an  initial 
failure  ne  succeeded  m  forming  a  coalition  cabinet  which  indudcd 
such  widely  different  politicians  as  M.  Milleraad  and  General  de 
Galliffet.  He  himself  returned  to  his  former  post  at  the  mmistry 
of  the  interior,  and  set  to  work  to  quell  the  discontent  with 
which  the  country  was  seething,  to  put  an  end  to  the  various 
agitations  which  under  specious  pretences  were  directed  against 
republican  institutions,  and  to  restore  independence  to  the  judicial 
authority.  His  appeal  to  all  republicans  to  sink,  their  differences 
before  the  common  peril  met.  with  some  degree  of  success,  and 
enabled  the  government  to  leave  the  second  court-martial  of 
Captahk  preyfus  at  RenAes  an  absolutely  free  hand,  and  then 
to  compromise  the  affair  by  granting  a  pardon  to  Dreyfus. 
Waldeck-Rousseau  won  a  gnesl  personal  success  u|  October  by 
his  successful  intervention  in  the  strikes  at  Le  Creusot.  V.'ixh 
the  condemnation  in  January  1900  of  Paul  D^roulede  and  hi> 
monarchist  and  nationalist  followers  by  the  High  Court  the  worst 
of  the  danger  was  past,  and  Waldeck-Rousseau  kept  order  jn 
Paris  without  having  recourse  to  irritating  displays  of  force. 
The  Senate  was  staunch  in  support  of  M«  Waldeck-Rousseau. 
axui  in  the  Chamber  he  displayed  remarkable  astuteness  Jn 
wfaming  support  from  various  groups.  The  Amnesty  BUI,  passed 
9D  X9th  December,  chiefly  through  his  unwearied  advocacy, 
went  far  to  smooth  down  the  acerbity  of  the  preceding  yean. 
WiU  tbi  obioGt  9€  aidfaiA  the  ivfauUy  9f  wvwiPKoducing^  and  ol 


254- 


WALDEGRAVE  FAMILY— WALDENBURG 


^discooraging  the  consmnption  of  spirits  and  other  drleterious 
liquors,  the  government  passed  a  bQl  suppressing  the  octroi 
duties  on  the  three  '*  hygienic  "  drinJcs — wine,  dder  and  beer. 
The  act  came  into  force  at  the  beginning  of  190Z.  But  the  most 
important  measure  of  his  later  admiiustration  was  the  Associa- 
tions Bill  of  tgot.  Like  many  of  his  predecessors,  he  was  con- 
vinced that  the  stability  of  the  republic  demanded  some  restraint 
on  the  intrigues  of  the  wealthy  reKgious  bodies.  All  previous 
attempts  in  this  direction  had  faifed.  In  Us  speech  in  the 
Chamber  M.  Waideck-Rousseau  recalled  the  fact  that  he  had 
endeavoured  to  pass  an  Assodalions  Bill  in  1882,  and  again  in 
1883.  He  declared  that  the  reltgious  associations  were  now 
being  subjected  for  the  first  time  to  the  regulatidna  common  to 
all  others,  and  that  the  object  of  the  bill  was  to  ensure  the 
supremacy  of  the  dvii  power.  The  rojralist  Uas  pven  to  the 
pupils  in  the  reli^ous  seminaries  was  undoubtedly  a  principal 
cause  of  the  passing  of  this  bill;  and  the  government  further 
took  strong  measures  to  secure  the  presence  of  officers  of  un- 
doubted fidelity  to  the  republic  in  the  higher  positions  on  the 
ttaff.  His  speeches  on  the  religious  question  were  puUished  in 
1  gox  under  the  title  of  Associations  et  conirSfoiUmSf  fdlowing  a 
volume  of  speeches  on  Questions  soeUles  (1900).  As  the  genend 
dection  of  1903  approached  all  sections  of  the  (Disposition  united 
their  efforts,  and  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau's  name  served  us  a 
battie-cry  for  one  side,  and  on  the  other  as  a  target  for  the 
foulest  abuse.  The  result  was  a  dedave  victory  for  republican 
stability.  With  the  defeat  of  the  machinations  against  the 
republic  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  considered  his  task  ended,  and 
on  the  5rd  of  June  1902  he  resigned  office,  having  proved  himself 
the  "  strongest  personality  in  French  politics  since  the  death  of 
Gambetta. "  He  emergnl  from  his  retirement  to  protest  in  the 
Senate  against  the  construction  put  on  his*  Associations  Bill  by 
M.  Combes,  who  refused  in  mass  the  appHcations  of  the  teaching 
and  preaching  congregations  for  official  recognition.  His  health 
had  long  been  failing  when  he  died  on  the  xoth  of  August  1904. 

His  spoechet  were  published  as  Discturs  pariemeutaires  (1880): 
Pottr  la  rl^ubiiquc,  iSS^-ipoj  {1904).  edited  by  H.  Lcyret:  L'Etat 
0t  la  libtrti  ilw)  V  ano  his  Plaidoj/ers  (1906.  &c.)  were  edited  by 
H.  Barboux.  Bee  also  H.  Lcyret.  Woideck'Roussea%  el  la  froisihne 
ripuhlique  (1908).  and  the  article  Francs:  History, 

WALDBORAVB,  the  name  of  an  English  family,  taken  from 
its  early  residence,  Walgrave  in  Northamptonshire.  Its  founder 
was  Sis  Ricbasd  Wald^csave,  or  Walgsavc,  whowas  member 
of  parliament  for  Lincolnshire  In  1335;  his  son.  Sir  Richard 
Waldegrave  (d.  1402),  was  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  in 
1403.  One  of  Sir  Richard's  descendants  was  Sir  Edward  WaMe- 
grave  {c.  151 7-1561)  of  Borky,  Esses,  who  was  imprisoned 
during  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  for  his  loyalty  to  the  princess, 
afterwards  Queen  Mary.  By  Mary  he  was  knighted,  and  he 
received  from  her  the  manor  of  Chewton  in  Somerset,  now  the 
residence  Of  Eari  Waldegrave.  He  was  a  member  of  parliament 
and  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster.  After  Mary's  decease 
he  suffered  a  reverse  of  forttme,  and  he  was  a  prisoner  in  the 
Tower  of  London  when  he  died  on  the  ist  of  Sieptember  is6x. 
Sir  Edward's  descendant,  another  Sir  Edward  Waldegrave,  was 
created  a  baronet  hi  1643  ^or  his  services  to  Charies  I.;  and  his 
descendant.  Sir  Henry  Waldegrave,  Bart.  (1660-1689),  was 
created  Baron  Waldegrave  of  Chewtoo  in  t686.  Sir  Henry 
married  Henrietta  (d.  1730),  daughter  of  King  James  U.  and 
Arabella  Churchill,  and  their  son  was  James,  ist  Earl  Waldegrave 
(1684-1 74X). 

Educated  in  France,  James  Waldegrave  soon  crossed  over  to 
England,  and  under  (Seorge  I.  he  declared  himself  a  Protestant 
and  took  his  scat  as  Baron  Waldegrave  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
Having  become  friendly  with  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  he  was  sent 
to  Paris  as  ambassador  extraordinary  in  1795,  and  from  1727 
to  1730  he  was  British  ambassador  at  >^enna.  In  1729  he  was 
created  Viscount  Oiewton  and  Earl  Waldegrave,  and  in  1730 
he  succeeded  Sir  Horatio  Walpole  as  ambassador  in  Paris,  filling 
this  post  during  ten  very  difficult  years.  He  died  on  the  tithof 
April  174/.  Much  of  his  diplomatic  correspondence  it  in  the 
British  Museum. 

flition  Javm,  the  snd  eail  (17 13-1763),  was poh^wdiiaMWt 


intimate  friend  of  George  IL,  and  was  for  a  dme  governor  of 
Itis  grandson,  the  future  king  George  in.  He  was  very  mudi  is 
evidence  during  the  critical  yetfi  i7S5'*i7S7>  when  the  Jdnf 
employed  hhn  to  negotiate  in  turn  with  Newcastle^  Devonshire. 
Pitt  and  Pos  about  the  formation  <tf  a  ministry.  Eventoally,  in 
consequence  of  a  deadlock,  Waldegrave  himself  was  first  lord  of 
the  treasury  for  five  days  in  Jnne  1757.  He  died  on  the  iSth  of 
April  1763,  leaving  some  valuable  and  interesting  Mcnuin, 
which  were  published  in  i8ai. 

His  brother  John,  the  3rd  earf  (1718-1784),  wts  a  soldier,  iHm> 
distinguished  himself  espedally  at  the  battle  of  Mindn  ud 
became  a  general  in  1772.  He  was  a  member  of  paritament  fran 
r747  to  1763.  His  younger  son,  William  WaJdegrave  {t^^' 
1825),  entered  the  British  navy  in  1766,  and  after  many  yfnd 
service  was  third  in  command  at  the  battle  of  Cape  St  Vinmt 
in  1797.  In  z8oo  he  was  created  an  Irish  peer  as  Baron  ^' 
stock,  and  in  i8o»  he  became  an  admlnl.  Ifis  son,  Gcorgr 
Granville,  2nd  Baron  Radstock  (i786-r857),  followed  in  Ui 
father's  footsteps,  and  was  made  a  vice^dnihral  In  1851-  b 
i8s7  his  son,  Granville  Augustus  William  (b.  1853),  became  jrf 
Baion  Radstock. 

GcosGE,  4th  Earl  Waldegrave  (1751*1789),.  the  eldest  w  «f 
the  3rd  eari,  was  a  soldier  and  a  member  of  pariiunent  S> 
sons,  George  (1784-1794)  and  Jobh  Jaiobs  (r78s-i83»j).  «* 
the  sth  and  6th  earls.  Ini  797  the  6th  eari  inherited  from  9fpa 
Walpole  his  famous  residence,  Strawberry  HUl,  Twidco^ 
but  his  son,  Geosgb  Edward,  the  7th  earl  (iSf6-i846),  ^ 
obliged  in  1843  to  sell  the  valuable  treasures  collected  thet 
His  %rife,  Frances,  Countess  Waldegrave  (1821-1879),  adaa^ta 
of  the  singer  John  Braham,  was  a  prominent  figure  in  sodctf- 
He  was  her.  second  husband,  and  after  his  death  she  nanie^ 
George  Granville  Vernon  Harcourt  of  Nunehsm  Fsfk.  Osi^ 
shire,  and  later  Chichester  Fortescue,  Baron  Carlingford. 

The  7th  eari  was  succeeded  by  his  uncle  William  (iftSriZs^, 
a  son  of  the  4th  earl,  and  fai  1859  William's  grandaon,  WitUAi 
Frederick  (b.  1851),  became  the  9th  earl. 

WALDBN,  Room  (d.  1406),  English  prelate,  wu  a  nsn  of 
obscure  birth,  little  or  nothing,  pioieover,  bdng  known  d  ^ 
eariy  years.  He  had  some  conncxiott  with  the  Channel  Isltsds, 
and  resided  for  some  time  in  Jersey;  ahd  he  held  livings '» 
Yorkshire  and  in  Leicestershire  before  lie  became  aschdeacoa  <> 
Winchester  in  1387.  His  days,  however,  were  by  no  totos 
fully  occupied  with  his  ecclesiastical  duties,  and  in  1387  also  bt 
was  appointed  treasurer  of  Calais,  holding  about  the  same  tiiM 
other  positions  in  this  neighbourhood.  In  1395,  after  haviof 
served  Richard  II.  as  secitetary,  Walden  became  treasurer « 
England,  adding  the  deanery  of  York  to  Ips  numerous  other 
benefices.  In  1397  he  was  chosen  archbishop  of  C^terbury  u) 
succession  to  Thomas  Arundel,  who  had  just  been  banished  from 
the  realm^  but  he  lost  this  position  when  the  new  king  Henry  IV. 
restored  Arundel  in  1399,  and  after  a  short  impcisonDent  be 
passed  info  xetiremeot,  being,  as  he  himself  says,  "  in  tb6  ditft 
and  under  feet  of  men. "  In  140$*  through  Arundel's  influeixti 
he  was  elected  bishop  of  London,  and  be  died  at  Much  Hadbav 
in  Hertfordshire  <on  the  6th  of  January  1406.  An  Bislon» 
Mutidi,  the  maauscript  of  which  is  in  the  British  Museum,  tf 
sometimes  regarded  as  the  work  of  Wahkn;  but  this  v** 
doubtless  written  by  an  earhcr  writer. 

See  J.  H.  Wyiie.  History  of  Bnifand  trndtr  Bottry  IV,  vol.  iS- 
C1896). 

WALDBNBURO,  a  town  of  Gtrmamff  in  the  Prassaan  prmnBOj 
of  Silesia,  39  m.  S.W.  of  BMslau  by  the  Kne  to  Hirschberg  *» 
GOrlits  Pop.  (1905)  16,435.  It  contalAs  a  handsoine  town  M 
three  Protestant  and  two  Roman  Catholic  chmches.  WabKA- 
burg  lies  in  the  centre  of  the  productive  coal  district  of  <De 
Waldenburget  Oebirge,  a  branch  of  the  Sudetic  chsiii>  a^d  i^ 
Inhabitants  are  hnrgely  occupied  hi  the  mining  industry.  Ain^ 
other  Industrial  esubUabments  aro  a  Utge  porodain  and  ^"'^7'' 
ware  factory,  eRtensive  fireday  works,  ginsworka  ^^^"ij!^ 
painting  establishmeat;  there  are  also  muserous  flaR-iph'P''j? 
and  Unen-factorics  ia  the  ndgfcbouriMod.  Adjoiiiinf  the  t«^ 
«i  the  Mttth  ia  U»  vittafa  «f  atmwMubmu  pop>  <'^' 


WALDENSB8 


*55 


47SS»irftbaiftttM«iadtoaecohlBfaMs.  WtldesbuiibectaM 
a  tovn  ia  1446. 

WALDWSn.  The  Waldensian  vaUoys  lie  to  the  lOttUnwHt 
ol  Tuiin,  in  the.  direction  of  Monte  Viso,  but  include  no  hick 
or  fnowy  Dountains,  whik  tiie  gleas  themeelvcs  an  (with  one 
or  two  esceptioniO  Idrtile  and  wdi  wooded.  The  principbl  town 
near  the  vallcr^  is  Pinerolo  (Pipierol).  Juet  to  its  eouth-west 
there  opens  the  chief  Waldennan  valley,  the  VU  PeUice»  watered 
by  the  itrean  of  that  name*  but  sometimes  called  ineccuzately 
the  Lusema  valley,  Lusema  being  simply  a  villlfe  opposiie 
the  capital,  Torre  Pellico}  near  Torre  Pdlice  the  side  gfev  of 
Angrogna  and  Rom  join  the  iPcUice  vall^.  To  the  wuth-wcat 
of  Pinerolo,  vp  the  Cbisone  valley»  there  opeas  at  Pdnea  AKgen- 
tina  the  valley  of  St  Martin,  another  important  WaMoiaiatt 
vaUey,  which  is  watered  by  the  Germaaasca  tobenC,  and  at 
Perrero  jpliu  bto  two  branches,  of  which  the  Pnli  glen  is  far 
more  fertile  than  that  of  Maasello,  the  latter  being  the  wildest 
and  most  savage  ef  all  the  Waldenslan  vaUeya. 

The  name  Waldenses  was  given  to  the  memhem  of  an  heretical 
Christian  sect  whkh  arose  in  the  south  of  France  about  1170. 
The  h»toiy  of  the  sects  of  the  middle  ages  is  obscure,  because 
the  earliest  accounts  of  them  cone  from  those  who  were  ooa- 
oened  in  their  suppression,  and  wese  theKfioee  eage^  to  lay 
upon  each  of  them  the  worst  enormities  which  could  be  attxi« 
bated  to  any.  In  later  times  the  apdbgists  of  each  sect  seveiaed 
the  process,  and  deand  that  in  which  they  were  interested  at 
the  expense  of  others.  In  early  times  these  sectaiiee  prodnoed 
little  llteraturo  of  their  own;  when  they  produced  a  Utecature 
at  the  beginning  of  the  xstb  century  they  attempted  to  daim 
for  it  a  much  eaiiier  origin.  Hence  there  is  confuaon  on  every 
side;  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  various  sects  and 
to  determine  their  eaoct  Opinions  or  the  droomstanccs  under 
which  they  came  into  being.  The  polemical  conception  which  has 
done  nadi  to  peipetuate  this  confusion  is  that  of  the  historical 
continuity  of  Protestantism  from  the  earliest  times.  According 
to  this  view  the  church  was  pure  and  uncomipt  till  the  time 
of  Constaatine,  wbm  Pope  Sylvester  gained  the  first  temporal 
possession  for  the  papacy,  and  so  began  the  system  of  a  rich, 
powerful  and  worldly  church,  with  Rome  for  its  capital  Against 
this  secularized  church  a  body  ol  witnesses  silently  protested; 
they  were  always  persecuted  but  always  survived,  till  in  the 
15th  century  a  desperate  attempt  was  made  by  Innocent  III. 
to  root  thefli  out  from  their  stronghold  in  southern  France. 
Bersoaition  gave  new  vitality  to  their  doctrines,  which  passed 
on  to  Wydifie  and  Hoss,  and  through  these  leaders  produced 
the  Reformation  in  Germany  and  England. 

This  view  rests  upon  a  series  of  suppositions,  and  is  entirely 
unhistorical.  So  far  as  can  be  discovered  the  heretical  sects 
of  the  middle  ages  rested  npon  a  system  of  Manichaeism  aMch 
was  imported  into  Europe  from  the  East  (see  MAmcHAKlsif). 
The  Manichaean  syatem  of  duaBsm,  with  its  severe  asceticism, 
and  its  individualism,  which  eariy  passed  into  antinomianism, 
was  attractive  to  many  mindi  in  the  awakening  of  the  itth 
century.  Its  presence  in  Europe  can  be  traced  m  Bulgaria  soon 
after  its  conversion  in  862,'  where  the  struggle  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches  for  the  new  converts  opened  a 
way  for  the  more  hardy  ^peculations  of  a  system  ^fridch  had 
never  entirely  disappeared,  and  fpund  a  home  amongst  the 
Paulidans  {q.v.)  in  Armenia.  The  name  of  Cathari  (see  Cathaks)  , 
taken  by  the  adherents  of  this  new  teaching,  sufficiently  riiows 
the  Oriental  origin  of  their  opinions,  which  spread  from  Bulgaria 
amongst  the  Slavs,  and  followed  the  routes  of  commerce  into- 
central  Europe.  The  eariiest  record  of  thehr  presence  there  is 
the  condemnation  of  ten  canonsof  Orleans  as  Manichees  in  loar, 
and  soon  after  this  we  find  complaints  of  the  prevalence  of 
heresy  in  northern  Italy  and  in  Geimany.  The  stron^olds  of 
these  heretical  opinions  were  the  great  towns,  the  centres  of 
dvilinttott,  because  there  the  growing  sentiment  of  municipal 
independenee,  and  the  rise  of  a  burgher  dass  through  oommeroe, 
created  a  si^t  of  criticism  which  was  dissatisfied  with  the 
yoMfy  Uvea  of  the  dergy  and  thdr  undue  faifhience  in  afiaba. 

•' « Schmidt.  Wstoin  dts  Cathares,  I  7. 


Th*  system  oi  CafTiarimi  reeegdsed^Cwb  dusHof  adherent^ 
crtitnies  and  pirfteti.  The  perfecli  only  weie  admitted  to  lis 
esoteric  doctrines  and  to  its  supentitioua  praclloes.  To  the 
ordinary  men  it  iiwiinf  d  to  be  a  nfonning  agency,  Inaisting  on  a 
high  nmial  staadasd,  and  ophnlding  the  wotds  of  So^ure 
agaiaat  tiie  tradirions  of  an  overgrown  and  worldly  chndi.  Its 
popular  aim  and  iu  rationalistic  method  made  men  overlook 
iu  real  contents,  wMch  were  not  put  deady  before  than.  It 
may  be  said  generally  that  Cathaiism'  formed  the  abiding 
liachfmnnd  of  medieval  heresy.  Its  duallstic  s^sftfui  and  iu 
antipodal  psindplcs  were  know«  only  to  a  few,  but  its  «nti> 
ccclmiartlrsl  organizBilon  fotmed  a  petraantnt  nudens  round 
urihich  gathered  a  great  deal  of  piolitleal  and  ecdesmstical  dis- 
cooteuL  When  this  discement  took  any  independent  f  om  of 
ezpressfon,  zeal,  which  was  not  always  aecompanled'  by  dia- 
cntion,  brought  the  movnment  Into  oollision  with  the  eederi- 
astical  antfaorkics,  by  wiwm  ft  was  condemned  'as  heretical. 
When  once  It  was  hi  oonBlct  with  authority  it  was  drhren  to 
strengthen  its  basis  by  a  more  pronounced  hostility  against  the 
system  o<  the  church,  and  generally  ended  by  borvowhig  some- 
thing ftom  Catharism.  The  result  was  that  in  the  beginning 
of  the  13th  century  there  was  a  tendency  to  dass  all  bodies  of 
heretks  together:  partly  their  opinions  had  cteksced;  partly 
they  were  asMimed  to  be  IdenticaL 

Most  of  these  sects  wine  stamped  out  before  the  period  of  the 
ndddlie  ages  came  to  a  dose.  Tlie  Waldenses,  m&der  thetr  more 
modem  n&me  of  the  Vcudols,  have  survived  to  the  present 
day  In  the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  and  have  been  regarded  as  at 
once  the  most  andent  and  the  most  evangeKeal  of  the  medieval 
sects.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means  easy  to  determine  thdr 
origmd  tenets,  as  In  the  rjth  and  r4th  centuries  they  were  a 
bddy  of  Obscure  and  unlettered  peasants,  hiding  themselves 
in  a. corner,  whfle  in  the  16th  century  they  were  absorbed  into 
the  general  movement  of  the  Reformation.  As  regards  their 
antiquity,  the  attempts  to  daim  for  them  an  earlier  origin  than 
the  end  <rf  the  i3th  century  can  no  longer  be  sustained.  They 
rested  upon  the  supposed  antiquity  of  a  body  of  Waldeiisian 
literature,  Which  modem  criticism  has  shown  to  have  been 
tampered  with.  The  most  important  of  these  documents,  a 
poem  in  Provencal,  "  La  NoUa  Leyczon,"  contahis  two  lines 
which  daimed  for  it  the  date  of  i  ^oo^— 

Ben  ha  mil  e  cent  anez  cothptl  entlerament 
Que  fo  scripts  1'  om,  car  sen  al  derier  temp. 

But  it  was  pointed  out*  that  in  the  oldest  MS.  existing  in  the 
Cambridge  university  library  the  figure  4  had  been  hnpcifectly 
erased  bdore  the  word  "  cent,"  a  (Hscovery  which  harmonized 
with  the  results  of  a  criticism  of  the  contents  of  the  poem  itself. 
This  dlscoveiy  did  away  with  the'  ingenious  attempts  to  account 
for  the  name  of  Waldenses  from  some  other  source  than  from 
the  historical  fotmder  of  the  sect,  Peter  Waldo  or  Valdez.  To 
get  rid  of  Waldo,  whose  date  was  known,  the  name  Waldenses 
or  Vallenses  was  derived  from  Vallis,  because  they  dwelt  in  the 
valleys,  or  from  a  supposed  Provencal  word  Vaudes,  which 
meant  a  sorcerer. 

Putting  these  views  a»de  as  unsubstantial,  we  wiB  conrider 
the  relation  of  the  Waldenses  as  they  appear  in  actual  history 
wHh  the  sects  which  preceded  them.  Already  in  the  9th  century 
there  were  several  protests  against  the  rigidity  and  want  oi 
spirituality  of  a  purely  sacerdotal  church,  llius  Berengar  of 
Tours  (999-1088)  upheld  the  symbolic  character  of  the  Eucharist 
and  the  superiority  of  the  Bible  over  tradition.  The  Paterines 
in  Milan  (1045)  raised  a  protest  against  simony  and  other  abuses 
of  the  clergy,  and  Pope  Gregory  VII.  did  not  hesitate  to  enlist 
their  Puritanism  on  the  side  of  the  papacy  and  make  them  his 
allies  in  imposing  derical  celibacy.  In  xtxo  an  apostate  monk 
hi  Zeeland,  TancheUn,  carried  their  views  still  farther,  and 
asserted  that  the  sacraments  were  only  valid  through  the  merits, 
and  sanctity  of  the  ministers.  In  France,  at  Embrun,  Peter  de 
Bniys  founded  a  sect  known  as  Petrobmsians,  who  denied  infant 
baptism,  the  need  of  conseaated  churches,  transubstantiation, 

«Bradshaw,  In  Tmtuutums  of  Comhri4»Anti<mmiim  Soqitl9 
(1843}.  The  text  edited  t^  Mootet,  4to  (t«6/). 


i856 


WALDBMSB8 


piBd  mttset  for  tl*  dctct  A  ioDower  of  Ut,  &  mook,  Hairy, 
Ipave  the  name  to  anoUiar  body  kaown  as  Heniidans,  who 
ceatred  in  Toun.  The  teachers  oC  these  new  apiiii0na  vane  men 
of  high  character  and  holy  lives,  who  in  spite  a<  pcnecotkm 
waodbred  from  place  to  p&aoe,  and  made  many  oonvcrta  from 
those  who  were  distadsfied  at  the  want  of  clerical  disriplme 


which  followed  upon  the  atnigfie  for  temporal  anpicmacy  into 
Vhich  the  cefocmiog  projects.  o{  Gregory  VII.  had  carried  the 
church. 

^  It  was  at  ihh  time  (1x70)  that  a  rich  BMrcfaant  ai  Lyom, 
Peter  Waldo,  S(4d  his  goods  and  gave  them  to  the  poor;  then 
he  want  forth  as  a  preadber  of  volttntary  poverty  His  followers, 
the  Waldenses,  or  poor  men  of  Lyons*  were  moved  by  a  religioiis 
feeling  which  could  find  no  sstisfactfaMi  within  the  actual  qntem 
of  the  church,  as  th^r  saw  it  before  them.  like  St  Fkands, 
Waldo  adopted  a  life  of  poverty  that  he  mii^  be  free  to  preach, 
but  with  this  difference  that  the  WaUkoses  preached  the  doctrine 
of  Christ  while  the  Franciscans  pieached  the  person  a<  Christ, 
Waldo  reformed  tffhing  while  Francb  kindled  love;  hence 
the  one  awakened  antagonisms  which  the  other  escsped.  For 
Waldo  had  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  made  into 
Provencal,  and  his  preachers  not  only  stirred  up  men  to  mom 
holy  h'ves  but  explained  the  Scriptures  at  their  will.  Such  an 
interference  with  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  led  to  difficulties. 
Pope  Alexander  IIL,  who  had  approved  of  the  poverty  ol  the 
Waldeosiansy  prohibited  them  from  preaching  vrithout  the  per- 
mission of  the  bishops  (1179).  Waldo  answered  that  he  must 
obey  God  rather  than  man.  The  res«dl  of  this  dtiohedience  was 
excommunication  by  Lucius  HI.  in  1184*  Thus  a  reforming 
movement  became  heresy  through  disobedience  to  authority, 
and  after  being  condemned  embarked  on  a  course  of  polemical 
investigation  how  to  justify  its  own  position.  Some  were  re- 
admitted into  the  Catholic  Church,  and  one,  Dnrandus  de  Osca 
(1210),  attempted  to  found  an  order  of  Paupercs  Catholici, 
which  was  the  forerunner  of  the  order  of  St  Dominic.  Many 
were  swept  away  in  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses  iq.v.). 
Others  made  an  appeal  to  Innocent  III.,  protesting  their  ortho- 
doxy. Their  appeal  was  not  successful,  for  they  were  formally 
condemned  by  the  Lateran  council  of  12x5. 

The  earliest  definite  account  given  of  the  Waldensian  opinion 
b  that  of  the  inquisitor  Sacconi  about  X250.'  He  divides  them 
into  two  classes:  those  north  of  the  Alps  and  those  of  Lombardy. 
The  first  dass  hold  (z)  that  oaths  are  forbidden  by  the  gospd, 

(2)  that  capital  punishment  is  not  allowed  to  the  civil  power, 

(3)  that  any  Uyman  may  consecrate  the  sacrament  of  the  altar, 
and  (4)  that  the  Roman  Church  is  not  the  Church  of  Christ. 
The  Lombard  sect  went  farther  in  (3)  and  (4),  holding  that  no 
one  in  mortal  sin  could  consecrate  the  sacrament,  and  that  the 
Roman  Church  was  the  scarlet  woman  of  the  Apocalypse,  whose 
precepts  ought  not  to  be  obeyed,  e^jcdally  those  appointing 
fast-days.  This  account  sufficiently  shows  the  difference  of  the 
Waldcnses  from  the  Cathari:  they  were  opposed  to  asceticism, 
and  had  no  official  priesthood;  at  the  same  time  their 
objection  to  oaths  and  to  capital  punishment  are  closely 
related  to  the  principles  of  the  Cathari.  Their  other  opinions 
were  forced  upon  them  by  their  conflict  with  the  authority  of 
the  Church.  When  forbidden  to  preach  without  the  permission 
of  the  bishop,  they  were  driven  to  assert  the  right  of  all  to  preach, 
without  distinction  of  age  or  sex.  This  led  to  the  further  step  of 
setting  up  personal  merit  rather  than  ecclesiastical  ordination 
as  the  ground  of  the  priestly  office.  From  this  followed  again 
the  conclusiofu  that  obedience  was  not  due  to  an  unworthy  priest, 
and  that  his  ministrations  were  invalid. 

These  opinions  were  subversive  of  the  system  of  the  medieval 
church,  and  were  naturally  view^  with  great  disfavour  by  its 
officials;  but  it  cannot  fairhr  be  said  that  they  have  much  in 
common  with  the  opinions  of  the  Reformers  of  the  i6th  century. 
The  medievaf  church  set  forth  Christ  as  present  in  the  orderly 
community  of  the  faithful;  Protestantism  aimed  at  setting  the 
individual  in  immediate  communion  with  Christ,  m^thout  the 
mechanical  intervention  of  the  officers  of  the  community;  the 

"^  tyAxgutti,  CtB9tii»j^ikimm  d$  nsvii  mmbutt  i.  50,  Ae. 


WaUeoas  mcRly  let  ionwtd  a  new  vtttcflM  off  the  ordeiff 
arrangement  of  the  church,  according  to  which  each  member 
was  to  sit  in  judgment  00  the  wotkt  of  the  ministen,  and  conse- 
quently OB  the  validity  of  their  ministerial  acts.  It  was  a  rode 
way  of  expressing  a  dodrs  for  a  more  spiritiial  community.  The 
eailkst  known  document  proceeding  from  the  Waldensians  is  an 
aooount  of  a  conference  held  at  Bcrguno  in  1218  between  the 
Ukrmmontane  and  the  Lombard  divisionB,  in  whidi  the  Lon- 
bards  showed  a  greater  opposition  to  the  recognised  priesthood 
than  <Ud  their  northern  brethren.*. 

As  these  opinions  became  more  prMumnoed  persecution  beome 
mote  sevefe,  and  the  breach  between  the  Waldenses  and  ihe 
cbnxch  widened  The  Waldenses  withdtvw  altogether  from  ihe 
ministrations  of  the  church,  and  chose  ministers  for  themsehcs 
whose  merits  were  recognized  by  the  body  of  the  faithful. 
Election  took  the  place  of  ordination,  but  even  h&t  the  Lom- 
bards showed  thear  difference  from  the  Ultiamontancs,  and 
recognized  only  two  orden,  like  the  Cathari,  whfle  the  sortlxn 
body  kept  the  old  three  orders  of  bishops,  priests  and  deacoos. 
Gradually  the  separation  from  the  church  became  more  complete' 
the  sacraments  were  regarded  as  merely  symbolical;  the  pnciti 
berame  helpers  of  the  failhfnl;  ceremonies  disappeared;  u^ 
a  new  religions  society  arose  equally  unlike  the  medievsl  chad 
and  the  Protestantism  of  the  i6th  century. 

The  spread  of  these  heretical  sects  led  to  reiolnte  attesi«<' 
their  suppeession.    The  crusade  against  the  AlbigensisM(^ 
destroy  piuspeious  cities  and  hand  over  lands  from  a  1mcA0» 
lord  to  one  who  was  obedient  to  the  church;  but  ft  couM  xA 
get  rid  of  heresy.    The  revival  ni  preaching,  whkh  was  the  ^ 
of  the  order  of  St  Dominic,  did  more  to  combat  h«rcsy,  ttptoi^ 
where  its  persassions  were  enforced  by  law.    The  work  of  is* 
quisition  into  cases  of  heresy  prooMded  slowly  in  the  hswh" 
the  bishops,  who  were  too  bttsy  with  other  matteit  to  find  0«v 
time  for  sitting  in  judgment  on  theological  points  abont  wWa 
they  were  imperfectly  infonned.    The  greatest  Mow  stn» 
aigainst  heresy  was*  the  transference  of  the  duty  of  inquiry  into 
heresy  from  the  bishops  to  Dominican  inquisitors.    The  tto^ 
power,  which  shared  in  the  proceeds  of  the  confiscation  of  tboe 
who  were  found  guilty  of  heresy,  was  ready  to  help  in  ^^"^ 
out  the  judgments  of  the  q>hritual  coorts.    Eveiywheit,  *^ 
espedslly  in  the  district  round  TouhHise,  heretics  were  kceuir 
prosecuted,  and  before  the  continued  seal  of  persecotioa  tie 
Waldenses  slowly  disappeared  from  the  chief  centres  of  popubtJ* 
andtookrefugeintheretired  valleys  of  the  Alps.    There,  is  tl* 
recesses  of  Piedmont,  where  the  streams  of  the  Pelice,  the  Ao- 
grogne,  the  Clusone  and  others  cleave  the  fides  of  the  Alpe  j"^ 
valieya  which  converge  at  Susa,  a  settlement  of  the  Waldeasiios 
was  made  who  gave  their  name  to  these  valleys  of  the  VsadflH> 
In  the  more  accessible  regions   north  .andsovth  here^  *"* 
expoied  to  a  steady  process  of  pemecation,  anad  tended  to  vm^ii 
shiftmg  forms.    Among  the  vdleys  h  was  less  easily  icsched. 
and  retained  its  old  otganiaation  and  Jts  old  contents.   I^^^'^ 
settlemeau  of  heretics  dispesed  throughout  Italy  and  ^^3*?^ 
looked  to  thevsUeys  aa  a  pbKX  of  refuge^  and  tacitly  '^csv^ 
them  aa  the  centre  of  their  faith.    At  limes  atlcmpts  were  td»» 
to  suppress  the  sect  ol  the  Vnudois,  but  the  nature  of  the  ooontiT 
which  they  iahabiled,  thck  obscurity  and  their  isolation  w»» 
the  difficulties  of  their  suppresskm  greater  than  the  *<^^f*|['f^ 
to  be  gained  from  iL    Howevei;  in  3487  Innocent  VIII-  issued  < 
bull  for  their  extemiinatioai  and  Alberto  de'  Capitanei,  area* 
deacon  of  Cremona,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  crvauM  tP^ 
them.    Atucked  in  Dauphinf  and  Piedmont  at  the  same  t^ 
the  Vaudois  were  hard  pressed;  but  luckily  their  enemitt  ^ 
endrded  by  a  fo^  when  marching  vpoo  their  chief  refuge  loj^ 
valley  cf  the  Angrqgne,  and  were  f^ulsed  with  grc*^  '^r 
After  this  Charles  U.,  duke  of  Piedmont,  uiteriered  to  save  o» 
territories  from  further  confusion,  and  ptomised  ^^^^^ 
peace.    They  were,  however,  aorely  reduoed  by  the  '^vfj^ 
which  had  been  made  opon  them,  and  lest  their  aDdeBl«|'|V^^ 
independence.    Wheq  the  Lutheian  AdvBSMnt  begin  "^^ 
rea^y  to  lympathise  with  itr  and  ultimately  to  adapt  thef^ 
*  PtcgSK.  B$itr4$i  war  Giukkikdtr  If«Ub<^* 


WALDET^ES 


S57 


bdMitotlM^of  theTbiAgFrattitaiitUtt.  Almdjr  thMe  vera 
icattcnd  bodies  of  WddeiiMs  in  Gtmuay  who  had  influenoed, 
•nd  altcfwards  jo^«d,  the  Hwsttct  and  the  Bohcinian  Brethren. 

The  Ust  step  in  the  developmebt  of  the  Wakimsian  body  wm 
taken  in  1530,  when  tivo  deputies  of  the  Vaudois  in  Dauphin^ 
and  Piovence,  Geor0BB  Morel  and  Pienc  Matioa,  were  sent  to 
confer  with  the-Gcnnan  and  Swiss  Refbnnecs.  A  ktter  addraaed 
to  OeookMnpadtas*  gives  an  aoooimt  of  their  piactioes  and 
beliefs  at  that  time,  and  shows  us  a  simple  and  nnlettered 
eommnnity,  which  was  the  sarvival  of  an  attempt  to  fonn  an 
esoteric  j^igious  sodety  within  the  medieval  dMBch.  It  would 
Appear  that  iu  membeis  received  the  sacraments  of  baptism 
and  the  holy  communion  ffom  the  regidar  priesthood,  at  all 
events  sometimes,  but  maintained  a  disdpline  of  their  own  and 
held  services  fof  their  own  edification.  Their  ministers  were 
called  barboy  a  Proven^  word  meaning  catidr.  They  were 
chosen  from  among  labouring  men,  who  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
five  might  ask  the  t^dy  of  ministets  to  be  admitted  as  candidates. 
If  their  character  was  appreved  they  were  taught  durhig  the 
winter  monthi,  when  work  was  slack,  for  a  space  of  three  or 
fiour  years;  after  that  they  were  sent  for  two  yean  to  serve  as 
menial  assistants  at  a  nunnery  for  women,  whith  curiously  enough 
existed  m  a  recess  of  the  valleys.  Then  they  were  ndmitted  to 
ofl»:e,  after  receiving  the  communion,  by  the  imposition  (^  hands 
«f  all  mfaustets  present.  They  went  out  to  preach  t^  by  two, 
dod  the  junior  was  bound  absolutely  to  obey  the  senior.  Clerical 
celibacy  was  their  rule,  but  they  admit  that  it  created  graw 
disoiders.  The  ministers  received  food  and  clothing  from  the 
contributions  of  the  peoj^,  but  also  worked  with  their  hands; 
the  result  of  this  was  that  they  were  very  ignorant,  and  also 
were  grasping  after  bequests  from  the  dying.  The  aflaiisof  the 
church  were  managed  fay  a  general  synod  held  every  year. 
The  duties  of  the  barbae  Were  to  visit  all  within  their  district 
once  a  year,  hear  their  oonfessionsi  advise  and  admonish  them; 
in  all  services  the  two  mialsten  sat  aide  by  side,  and  one  opoke 
after  the  other.  la  pomt  of  doctrine  they  acknowledged  the 
seven  sacraments,  but  gave  them  a  symbdical  meaning;  they 
prayed  to  the  Virgin  and  saints,  and  admitted  auricular  con- 
f«8sion»  but  they  denied  purgatory  and  the  laciilice  ot  the  mas, 
and  did  not  observe  fasts  or  festivals.  After  giving  this  account 
of  themselves  they  ask  for  information  about  sevoal  pointa  in  a 
way  which  shows  the  exigencies  ol  a  rode  and  isolated  society, 
and  finally  they  say  that  they  have  been  much  disturbed  by  the 
Vutberan  teaching  ■  about  freewill  and  predestination,  for  they 
had  held  that  men  did  good  works  through  natural  virtue 
stimulated  by  God's  grace,  and  they  thought  of  predestination  in 
no  other  way  than  as  a  part  of  God's  foreknowledge. 

Oecolampadius  gave  them  further  instruction,  especially 
emphasizing  the  wrongfulness  of  their  outward  submission  to 
the  ordinances  of  the  church:  "  God,"  he  said,  "is  a  jealous 
Cod,  and  does  not  permit  His  elect  to  put  themselves  under  the 
yoke  of  Antichrist."  The  result  of  this  intercourse  was  an  alliance 
between  the  V^audois  and  the  Swiss  and  German  Reformers. 
A  synod  was  hdd  in  1533  at  Chanforans  in  the  valley  of  the 
Angrogne,  where  a  new  coniesskm  ol  faith  was  adopted,  which 
recognized  the  doctrine  of  election,  assimilated  the  practices  of 
the  Vaudois  to  those  of  the  Swiss  congregations,  renounced  for 
the  future  all  recognition  of  the  Roman  communion,  and  estab- 
lished their  own  worship  no  longer  as  secret  meetings  oi  a 
faithful  few  but  as  public  assemblies  for  the  glory  of  God. 

Thus  the  Vaudois  ceased  to  be  relics  of  the  past,  and  became 
absorbed  in-  the  general  movement  of  Protestantism.  This  was 
not,  however,  a  source  of  quiet  or  security.  In  France  and  Italy 
alike  they  were  marked  out  as  special  objects  of  persecution. 
Slid  the  Vaudois  church  has  many  records  of  9iartyrdom.  The 
most  severe  trial  to  which  the  Vaudois  of  Piedmont  were  sub- 
jected occurred  in  1655.  1^^  Congregation  dc  Propaganda  Fide 
established,  in  1650^  a  local  coxmdl  m  Turin,  which  exercised  a 
powerful  influence  on  Duke  Charles  Emmanuel  II.,  who  ordered 
that  the  Vaudois  should  be  reduced  within  the  limits  of  their 
VKxent  territory.  Fanaticism  took  advantage  of  this  order; 
,     .    .    >Scultctus,i4iiiHi^,  11.994,  Ac.  ^    . 


and  Ml  amy,*eoapo8ed  pattty  of  French  tMops  of  Louis  XIV , 
partly  of  Irish  soldiers  who  had  fled  before  CtomWeB,  entered  thtf 
Vaudois  valleys  and  spread  destruction  on  euery  side.  They 
treated  the  people  with  honibie  barbarity,  so  that  the  conscience 
of  Eurape  was  aroused,  and  England  under  Cromwell  called  on 
the  Protestant  powers  to  join  in  remonstrance  to  the  duke  of 
Savoy  and  the  French  king>  The  pea  of  Miltoa  was  employed 
for  this  puipose,  and  his  famous  sonnet  Is  but  the  condensation 
of  his  sute  papers.  Sir  Samuel  Moiiand  was  sent  on  a  speeiat 
misslen  to  Turin,  and  to  him  were  confided  by  the  Vaudol» 
leadefs  copies  of  their  relfgious  books>  which  be  brouaht.  beck 
to  England/  and  ultimate^  gave  to  the  university  library  at 
Cambridge.  Large  sums  of  money  were  contributed  in  En^nd 
and  elsewhere,  and  were  sent  to  the  sollering  Vaudois. 

By  this  demonstration  of  epfnloir  peace  was  made  for  a 
time  between  the  VaudoiB  and  their  perMCUtare^  but  it  was  a 
treacherous  peace,  and  left  the  Vaudois  with  a  hostile  garrison 
established  among  theea.  Their  worsUp  was  prohibited,  and 
their  chief  pastor,  Legef,  was  obliged  to  flee,  and  in  his  erile  at 
Leiden  wrote  his  HiHoHre  ginirale  des  (glises  taudoises  (1684). 
The  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  1685  began  a  new  period 
of  perrecution,  which  aimed  at  entire  extermination.  This  waa 
found  so  difficult  that  the  remnant  of  the  Vaudois,  to  the  number 
of  26oo^,were  at  last  allowed  to  withdraw  to  Geneva.  But  the 
love  of  IheiT  native  valleys-  was  strong  among  the  exiles,  and  in 
16S9  one  of  their  paston,  Henri  Arnaud,  led  a  band  of  800  meis 
to  the  reconquest  of  their  country.  His  first  attempts  i&gainst 
the  French  were  successful;  and  the  rupture  between  Victor 
Amadeus«  duke  of  Savoy,  and  Louis  XIV.  brought  a  sudden, 
change  of  fortune  to  the  Vaudois.  They  were  recognised  oner 
more  as  citixens  of  Savoy,  and  in  the  war  against  France  which 
broke  out  in  1696  the  Vaudois  regiment  did  good  service  for  its 
duke.  The  peace  of  Utrecht  saw  the  greater  part  of  the  French 
territory  occupied  by  the  Vaudois  annexed  to  Savoy,  and, 
though  there  were  frequent  threateningi  of  persecution,  the 
idea  of  toleration  slowly  prevailed  in  the  policy  of  the  house  of 
Savoy.  The  Vaudois,  who  had  undergone  all  these  vicissitudes, ' 
were  naturally  reduced  to  poverty,  and  their  ministem  were 
partially  maintained  by  a  subsidy  from  En^and,  which  was 
granted  by  Queen  Anne.  The  18th  century,  however,  %a8  atime 
of  religious  decadence  even  amoag  the  Alpine  valleys,  and  the 
outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  saw  the  Vaudois  made  sub- 
jects of  France.  This  led  to  a  loss  of  the  English  subsidy,  and 
they  applied  to  Ni^wleon  for  an  equivalent.  This  was  granted,' 
and  their  church  was  (Vganised  by  the  state.  On  the  rcsioratiou 
of  the. house  of  Savoy  in  z8x6  English  influence  was  used  oa 
behalf  of  the  Vaudds,  who  received  a  liksited  toleration.  Front 
that  time  onwards  the  Vaudois  became  the  objects  of  much 
interest  in  Protestant  countries.  Lsurge  sinns  of  money  were 
ooUected  to  build  hospitals  and  churches  among  their  valleys* 
and  they  w«ere  looked  upon  as  the  possible  centre  of  a  Protestant 
chutch  in  Italy.  Especially  from  England  did  they  receive 
sympathy  and  hdp.  An  English  clergyman,  Dr  Gilly,  visited 
the  valleys  in  1823,  and  by  his  writings  on  the  Vaudois  church- 
attracted  oonsiderabfe  attention,  so  that  he  was  enabled  to  build 
a  college  at  La  Tone.  Moreover,  Dr  GiUy's  book  {A  Visit 
to  the  Valleys  of  Piedmont},  chancing  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  an 
officer  who  had  lost  his  leg  at  Waterloo,  Colonel  Beckwith, 
suggested  an  object  f<Nr  the  energies  of  one  who  was  loth  at  the 
age  of  twenty-sis  to  sink  into  enforced  idleness.  Beckwith 
visited  the  vall^s,  and  was  painfully  struck  by  the  squalor  and 
ignorance  of  a  people  who  bad  bo  glorious  a  past.  He  settled' 
among  then,  and  for  thirty-five  years  dew>ted  himself  to  pro- 
mote their  welfare.  Doling  this  period  he  established  no  fewer 
than  lao  schods;  moreover  he  brought  back  the  Italian  language 
which  had  been  dbplaoed  by  the  French  in  the  services  of  the 
Vaud<HS  church,  and  in  1849  built  a  church  for  thorn  in  Turin. 
He  lived  in  La  Tone  till  his  death  in  x^z,  and  the  name  of  the 
Eni^tish  benefactor  is  still  revered  by  the  simple  folk  of  the 
vdleysi  (M.  C.) 

The*  par^Qt  church  in  the  vaHeys  is  ecclesiastically  governed 
by  a  pourt  f or  ii^^na^i  %fiai|S  pallfd  the  "  Table,;;  after  the  oUl 


85^ 


WALDERSEE— WALES 


stoae  Ubfe  round  which  the  aiicieiit  barbas  used  to  sit,  «n4  a 
misaiQii  board,  with  an  annual  iynod  to  which  both  the  home  |tnd 
miasion  boarcb  are  subjea.  The  total  population  of  the  Wal- 
densian  valleys  (for  they  also  contain  Roman  Catholics  in  no 
small  number)  amounts  to  about  ao,ooo  all  told.  In  1900  there 
were  16  parishes,  with  18  pasteuzs  and  aa  temples,  and  also  9 
Sunday  schools  (3017  children)  and  194  day  schools  (with  4«iS 
children);  the  fuU  members  (».«.  com^nunicants)  of  the  Wal- 
densian  faith  amounted  to  12,695.  There  were,  besides,  branches 
at  Turin  (i  temple,  t  pasteurs  and  750  members),  in  other  parts 
of  Italy,  including  Sicily  (46  temples  and  as  many  pasteurs,  while 
the  number  of  members  was  5613,  of  day  scholars  3704*  and  of 
Sunday  school  scholars  3707).  It  is  also  reckoned  that  in 
Uruguay  and  the  Argentine  Republic  there  are  about  6000 
Waldensians;  of  these  1253  were  in  1900  full  members,'  while 
the  day  scholars  numbered  364  and  the  Sunday  school  children 
670W 

The  literature  on  the  tnbjcct  of  the  Waldonsian  and  other  sects  is 
copious*  For  their  rise  the  moat  important  authorities  are  to  be 
found  in  Moncta,  Adversus  Catkaros  el  Waidtnsgs;  D'Argcntr^, 
QiUectio  judkioruMi  de  turns  erroribus*,  Alanus.  Adversus  haereiicos; 
D'Achcry,  SpkiUgia,  vol.  L;  Crctscr,  Opera,  vol.  x.;  Limbonch, 
Histofia  Incuisitiomis,  at  the  end  of  which  is  Uie  Uber  se$Uemtiarum 
of  the  Inquieitbn  of  Toulouse  from  I307>I322.  Of  modem  books 
may  be  mentioned  Schmidt,  Histoire  aes  Caiharesi  Hahn,  CeschkliJe 
der  neumankh&ischen  Kelur;  Dieckhoff,  Die  Waldenser  im  Mittel- 
oiler :  Preirer.  Beitrdge  tur  Cesckichte  der  WaJdesier^  Cantd,  Gli 
Bretki  im  Italun  Comba,  Stcria  detta  Ei/orma  •»  Italia,  and  Hislmre 
des  Vaudois  d' J  talis;  Tucco,  L'Eressa  net  medio  evo;  Montet, 
Histoire  littirairt  des  Vaudois;  Lea,  History  of  the  Inquisition  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  Amongst  books  dcallnc;  with  the  more  modem 
history  of  the  Vaudois  specially  aie  L&er,  Histoire  des  iglises 
tuudotses;  Arnaud,  Histoire  de  la  rentr&  des  Vaudoisi  Perrin, 
Histoire  des  Vaudois;  Monastier,  Histoire  de  VMiso  vaudoise; 
Muston,  L'Xsrael  des  Alpes;  Gilly.  Excursion  to  the  VaUeys  of  Pied- 
numt,  and  Researches  on  the  Waldensians;  Todd,  The  Waliensian 
Manuscripts;  Melia,  OritiH,  Peruculion  and  Doctrines  of  the 
Waldensians;  Jules  Chevalier,  Mhnoires  $ur  les  hirisies  en  Deatpkind 
aoaml  le  X  VI*  sikcle,  accompagfth  de  documents  inidils  sur  les  sorciers 
et  les  Vaudois  (Valence,  1890) ;  J.  A.  Cbabrand.  Vaudois  et  Protestants 

des     A-  '        '  -         •-      -     'r- i--       -o-'^v-     "       "-  — 

artkrle 

W. 

4th  December  1^89, 

WALDBRSEB.  ALFRED*  Count  (i83»-i904),  Prussian 
general  field  marshal,  came  of  a  soldier  family.  Entering  the 
Guard  Artillery  of  the  Prussian  army  in  1850,  he  soon  attracted 
the  f ayouraUe  notice  of  his  official  supcriois,  and  he  made  his 
first  campaign  (that  of  1866)  as  aide-decamp  to  General  of 
Artillery  Prince  Charles  of  Prussia,  with  whom  he  was  present  at 
KOniggrtltx.  In  the  coiurse  of  thb  campaign  Count  Waldersce 
WIS  promoted  major  .and  placed  on  the  general  staff,  and  after 
the  conclusion  of  peace  he  served  on  the  staff  of  the  X.  Army 
Corps  (newly  formed  from  the  conquered  kingdom  of  Hanover). 
In  January  1870  he  became  mih'tan^  attach^  at  Paris  and  aide- 
de-camp  to  King  William.  In  the  Franco-German  War  Lieut.- 
Colonel  Count  Waldcrsee,  on  account  of  both  his  admitted 
miliuiy  talents  and  his  recent  experience  of  the  enemy's  army, 
proved  a  most  useful  assistant  to  the  ''  supreme  War-Lord." 
He  was  present  at  the  great  battles  around  Metz,  in. which  he 
played  more  than  an  orderly  officer's  part,  and  in  the  war  against 
the  republic  he  was  specially  sent  to  the  staff  of  the  grand  duke 
of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  who  was  operating  against  Chaney's 
army  on  the  Loir.  The  grand  duke  was  a  good  soldier,  but  not 
a  brilliant  strategist,  and  the  fortunate  outcome  of  the  western 
campaign  was  largely  due  to  his  adviser.  At  the  end  of  the  war 
Waldcrsee  received  the  First  Class  of  the  Iron  Cross,  and  was 
entrusted  with  the  exceedingly  delicate  and  difficult  post  of 
German  representative  at  Paris,  in  which  his  tact  and  courtesy 
men  very  marked.  At  the  end  of  1871  Waldcrsee  took  over  the 
command  of  the  13th  Uhlans  at  Hanover,  and  two  yean  later 
he  became  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  Hanoverian  army  corps,  in 
which  he  had  served  before  1870.  In  i88t  he  became  Moltke's 
principal  assistant  on  the  great  general  staff  at  Berlin,  and  for 
seven  years  was  intimately  connected  with  the  great  field 
marslial's  work,  so  that,  when  Moltke  retired  in  1888,  WaMersee's 
appointment  to  succeed  him  was  a  fotefooe  conduskML   Three 


years  later  the  chief  ol  Out  jsncirrt  atalT  wnft  aenl  to 
the  IX.  Coips  at  Altona,  an  appointment  which  was  interpreted 
as  indicating  that  his  cloae  and  intimate  friendship  with  Bis- 
marck had  made  him,  at  this  tine  of  the  chaaceUoc's  difn^Fifff#l, 
a  persona  n^  grata  to  the  young  cnpevor.  In  1898,  however, 
he  was  appointed  inspector-general  of  the  UL  "Adny  la* 
spection  "  at  Hanover,  the  order  being  aocoaipanied  by  tbe 
most  eulogistic  expressions  of  the  kaiser's  goodwiU.  On  tk 
despatch  of  European  traopa  to  quell  tbe  Boxer  asurrection  is 
China  in  1900,  it  was  agreed  that  Count  Waldcrsee  shouU  have 
the  supreme  command  of  the  joint  forces^  The  prcpacatioM  for 
his  d^rture  fvoni  Germany  caused  a  good  deal  of  satiriol 
comment  on  what  was  known  as  the  "  Waldeiaee  Xstmmil "  or 
"  theatricals."  He  arrived  at  the  front,  however,  too  laie  to 
direct  his  troops  in  the  fighting  bef ora  Peking;  At  the  end  of  tlic 
war  he  returned  to  Europe.  Hie  resumed  at  Hanover  hii  dutia 
of  inspector«feneral,  whidi  he  perfocmed  ulmost  to  his  death, 
which  took  place  on  the  sth  of  March  i$o4. 

WAUM),  SAMUEL  LOVBTT  (X783-X861),  American  artist, 
was  bom  in  Windham,  Connecticut,  on  the  6th  of  April  i?^^ 
He  had  a  studio  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina.   In  1806  he  vest 
to  London,  when  he  painted  portraits  lor  acme  years  «i(h 
stKcess.    In  1809  he  returned  to  New  Yock>  and  was  a  <»• 
sptcuous  figuro  in  the  dty's  art  life  until  his  death  there  00  de 
x6th  of  February  1861.   He  became  an  associate  of  the  Hnixd 
Academy  in  r847.   Among  his  works  are  a  series  of  poitniu^ 
the  early  mayors  of  New  York,  now  in,the  New  York  City  H4 
a  portrait  of  Peter  Remsen,  in  possession  of  the  New  Y«k 
Historical  Society,  and  two  portraits  of  John  TrumbulL 

WALBNSSB,  also  caUed  the  Laze  ov  Walemstadt,  a  S«i» 
lake  between  the  basins  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Linth  (LimnuOf 
lying  S.E.  of  the  Lake  of  Zilrich.  It  is  formed  by  the  Sees  ri\tr 
(descending  from  the  Wcisstanncn  glen),  which  once  certaioly 
sent  iu  waters  to  the  Rhine,  but  now  enters  the  lake  at  its 
eastern  end.  Near  its  western  end  the  Linth  has  been  diverted 
through  the  Escher  canal  (completed  in  181 1)  into  tbe  UU 
from  which  it  soon  again  issues  in  order,  by  means  of  the  1«^ 
canal  (completed  in  18 16),  to  flow  into  the  Lake  of  Ztlrick 
The  Walensee  has  an  area  of  $  sq.  m.,  is  about  9  m.  in  length, 
1}  m.  wide  and  495  ft.  deep,  while  its  surface  is  Z388  ft.  above 
sea-leveL  It  forms  part  of  the  Canton  of  St  Gall,  save  i|  sq.  bl 
towards  its  west  end,  which  are  in  that  of  GUrus.  It  Ua  in  a 
deep  trench  between  two  comparatively  lofty  ranges  of  mooo- 
tains,  to  that  Its  scenery  is  more  gloomy  than  is  usual  with 
Swiss  lakes.  On  the  north  shore  there  Is  but  a  single  village  of 
any  siee  (Quinten),  while  above  it  rise  the  cliffs  of  the  seveo- 
peaked  range  of  the  Kuifilrsten  (7576  ft.),  at  the  west  end  of 
which  the  village  of  Amden  nestles  in  a  hollow  high  above  tbe 
lake.  On  the  south  side  the  hills  rise  less  steeply  from  the  shore 
(on  which  are  MOhlehom  and  Murg)  towards  the  fine  terrace  of 
the  Kerenzenbcrg,  on  which  are  the  frequented  summer  resorts 
of  Obstalden  and  Filzbach,  backed  on  the  south  by  the  singularly 
imposing  crags  of  the  MUrtschenstock  (801 »  ft.).  The  snwU 
towns  of  Weesen  and  Walenstadt  are  situated  rc^KCtively  at 
the  western  and  the  eastern  extremities  of  the  lake,  a  railway 
along  the  south  shore  of  which  connects  them  with  each  other 
(ix  m.).  Since  the  construction  of  this  line  no  steamers  ply  ob 
thchke.  (W.A.B.C.) 

WAU8  (Cymru,  Owalia,  Camhn'a),  a  Prindpalily  ocaipy^-i 
the  extreme  middle-west  of  the  southern  part  of  the  island  of 
Great  Britain,  bounded  E.  by  the  English  counties  of  C^*^^ 
Shropshire,  Herefordshire  and  Monmouthshire;  S.  by  the 
Bristol  Channel;  W.  by  St  George's  Channel;  and  N.  by  the 
Irish  Sea.  .  (For  map  see  Enoland,  V.)  Its  area  is  74^  *^."J 
Its  greatest  length  from  N.  to  S.  (from  the  Point  of  Air  in  Fiiw 
to  Barry  Idand  on  the  Glamorgan  coast)  is  136  m.,  ^'^^j,*? 
breadth  varies  from  92  m.  (from  St  Davids  Head  to  the  EnpoB 
border  beyond  Crickhowell)  to  37  m.  (the  distance  hetwe^ 
Aberystwyth  and  the  Shropshire  boundary  at  Oun  Forew/- 
Its  total  circuit  Is  about  540  m.,  of  which  396  consist  of  »«*• 
line.  The  principal  headlands  are  Great  Ormes  H^  " 
Carnarvonshire;  Btaich-y-Pwfl,   the  jnost  westerly  p««>*  * 


WALES 


259 


CuMnftm^liin;  St  Davids  Read,  the  most  westerly  point  <A 
South  Wales;  Worms  Head,  the  western  extremity  of  Gower; 
and  Lavernock  Point  to  the  W.  of  Cardiff.  The  principal  islands 
are  Holy  Island,  off  the  W.  coast  of  Anglesca;  Bardsey  (Ynys 
Enlli),  near  Braich-y-Pwll;  and  the  islands  ol  Ramsey,  Graas- 
holm,  Skomer,  Skokholm  and  Caldy  (Ynys  Fyr)  off  the  Peknbroke* 
shire  coast.  The  chief  inlets  are  the  mouth  of  the  Dee,  dividing 
Flint  from  Cheshire;  the  Menai  Straits,  sq>arating  Ang^esra 
from  the  mainland;  Carnarvon  Bay;  Cardigan  Bay,  stretching 
from  Braich-y-PwU  to  St  Davids  Head;  St  Brides  Bay; 
Milford  Haven;  Carmarthen  Bay;  and  Swansea  Bay. 

In  common  parlance  a*  well  at  (or  judicial  purposes  of  cticttits, 
the  Principality  b  divided  into  North  Wales  and  South  Wales,  each 
of  wfakh  consists  of  six  counties. 


North  WdUu 

.  Aoglesea  (Ynys  F8n)   . 
CarMrvon  (Sir  Arfon) . 
DeohMh  (Str  Dinbych).      .       . 
FUntCSirFflint)   .... 
Merioneth  (Sir  Felitonydd). 
Montgomery  (Str  DrefaMwyn)  . 

Pefwiation 
(1901). 

176,630 

361,156 

4M.499 

*64.744 
437,810 

510.111 

126^883 

129^943 
81,700 

49.149 
54.901 

South  Woks. 

Brecon  or  Brecknock  (Sir  Fry- 

chelniog) 

Cardigan  (Sir  Aberteifi)      .       . 
Canaartheo  (Sir  Gaaif ynUtn)    . 
Glamorpn  (Sir  Foraanwg)  . 
Pembroke  (Sfr  Beniro) . 
Radnor  (Sir  Faesyfed)  . 

Acreage. 

Populatk>a 
(f90i>. 

475.224 

518.863 

395.151 
301,164 

59.907 

60.240 

"35.328 

23.281 

Mountains, — Almost  the  whole  surface  o(  Wales  is  mounts  tno— 
or  undulating.  The  roost  important  hill  system  is  that  of  the  Ninth 
Wiales  moantains,  coveriiw  the  county  of  Carnarvon  and  parts  of 
Merioneth  and  Denbigh,  wherein  the  SnovMonian  range  reaches  the 
hckbt  of  3571  ft.  in  Sciowdon  itself ;  of  3484  ft.  in  Camcdd  Uywelyn: 
and  of  3436  ft.  in  C^amedd  Dafydd.    South  of  this  system,  and 

'  separated  from  it  by  the  upper  valley  of  the  Dee,  the  Berwyn  range 
eatends  from  N.E.  to  SlE.,  and  is  Itself  adjacent  to  Aran-fawddy 
(aM  ft.),  the  highest  point  in  the  Cader  Idris  group.  The  system  of 
Mia«Waues  or  I%«ys  stretches  from  Cardigan  Bay  to  the  En^tsh 
border,  and  contains  Plinlmuuon  (24^2  iL)  in  north  CutUgan; 
Drygam  Favr  (21  is  ft.)  in  north  BrBcon;  and.  Radnor  Forest 
(2163  ft.)  in  mid'Kadnor.  From  Plinlimmoa  a  range  of  hills  nms  in 
a  south^westeriy  direction  towaids  St  Davids,  terminating  in  the 
Preaelly  range  of  north  Peabroke(i76o  ft)  and  dividing  toe  broad 
valleys  of  the  Teifi  and  Towy.  The  three  combined  ranges  of  the 
Black  Mountaiaa  the  Brecknock  Beacons  and  the  Black  Forest 
awesp  across  south  Brecon  from  W.  to  E^,  the  chief  elevations  being 
the  Carmarthen  Van  (263s  ft.),  the  Brecon  Beacon  (286a  ft.)  and 
Peinygader  fawr  (a66o  ft.^  near  the  English  border. 

Ldhis  and  Risers. 
(Llangorse 
in  the  ofiountainous 
is  Bala  Lake,  or  Llyn  Tegid,  in  Merkmethslure,  4  m.  long  and  about 
■I  m.  wki«i  But  the  great  reservoir  known  as  Lake  Vymwy,  whkh 
sappUes  Uverpool  with  water,  is  equal  in  size  to  BaUl;  and  the 
chain  of  four  artificial  lakes  constructed  by  the  Birmingham  oor> 

.  poration  in  the  valleys  of  the  Elan  and  Oaerwen  covert  a  large  area 
10  west  Radnorshire.  The  kmnst  river  in  Wales  as  the  Severn 
(180  j&),  in  Welsh  Hafrenr  which  rises  in  Plinlimroon,  and  takes  a 

:  north-easteriy  direction  through  Montgomeryshire  before  reaching 
the  English  border.  The  Wye  (130  m.)'also  rises  in  PlinKmmon, 
and  forms  for  some  30  m.  the  boundary  between  the  counties  of 
Radnor  and  Brecon  before  encountering  English  soil  near  Hay. 
The  Usk  (56  m.)  flows  through  Breconshire.  and  joins  the  Bristol 
Channel  at  Newport  m  Monmouthshire.  The  Dee  (70  m.)  traverses 
Bala  Lake,  and  drains  parts  of  the  counties  of  Merioneth,  Denbigh 
and  Flint.  The  Towv  (68  m.)  flows  through  Carmarthenshire, 
entering  Carmarthen  Bay  at  Lianstephan;  the  Teifi  (50  m.)  rises 
near  Tregaron  and  (alb  into  Cardigan  Bav  bek>w  the  town  of  Cardi- 

Sn.  The  Taff  (40  m.),  rising  amongst  the  Brecon  Beaoonai  enters 
e  Bristol  Channel  at  Cardiff.  Other  rivers  are  the  Dovey  (30  nk), 
falHi^  into  Cardigan  Bay  at  Aberdovey;  the  T&f  (2$  m.),  entering 
Carn»rthen  Bay  at  Laughame;  and  the  broad  navigable  Conway 
(34  m.),  dividing  the  counties  of  (uirnarvon  and  Denbigh. 

Wthk    Plac9-Names.-^Thc    place-names    throughout    the 
MM^^y  nay  be  said  to  group  themielvet  roughly  Into  four 


divisions:  (L)  Pore  and  unaltered  Celtic  names;  (il.)  Corrupted 
6r  abbreviated  Celtic  names;  (iii.)  English  names;  (iv.)  Scan- 
dinavian and  foreign  names.  To  the  first  division  belong  the 
vast  majority  of  pfauce-names  throughout  the  whole  of  Wales 
and  Monmouthshire.  Except  in  some  districts  of  the  Marches 
and  in  certain  tracts  lying  along  the  South  Wales  coast,  neariy  all 
parishes,  viUages;  hamlets,  farms,  houses,  woods,  fields,  streams 
and  valleys  possess  native  appellations,  which  in  most  cases  are 
descriptive  of  natural  situation,  e.g.  Nantyffin,  (he  boundary 
brook;  Aberportk,  mouth  of  the  hartx>ur;  Talyboni,  end  of  the 
bridge;  Tre^yrkhOt  foot  of  the  hill;  Dyfryn,  a  valley,  &c. 
Other  pJace-names  imply  a  personal  connexion  in  addition  to 
natural  features,  e.g.  NaniygSf,  the  blacksmith's  brook;  Trejecca, 
the  house  of  Rebecca;  Lhoym  Madoe,  Madoc's  grove;  Pa$U- 
soenm,  the  Saxons'  glen,  Ac.  An  historical  origin  is  frequently 
commemorated,  notab]|y  in  the  many  foundations  of  the  Celtic 
missionaries  of  the  5th,  6th  and  7th  centuries,  wherein  the  word 
ttan  (church)  precedes  a  proper  name;  thus  every  Uonddaoi 
recaUs  the  early  labours  of.Dewi  Sant  (St  David);  every  Uan- 
deito,  those  of  St  Teilo;  and  such  names  as  Llandwdno^  Uanafan, ' 
Llanbadom  and  the  like  commemorate  SS.  Tudno,  Alan, 
Padam,  &c  To  the  second  division — those  placo-names  which 
have  been  corrupted  by  English  usage — belong  most  of  the  older 
historic  towns,  In  striking  contrast  with  the  rural  villages  and 
parishes,  which  in  nearly  all  cases  have  retained  unaltered  their 
original  Celtic  names.  Anglicized  in  spelling  and  even  to  some 
extent  changed  in  sound  are  Carmarthen  (Oierfyrddin);  Pern- 
brohe  (Penfco);  Kidwetty  (Cydweli);  Cardiff  (Caerdydd); 
Llandovery  (Lhhymddyfn);'wh5ltLam^rt  In  Welsh  Llanbedr- 
pont-Stephan,  affocds  an  cxanmle  of  a  Celtic  place-name  both 
Anglicized  and  abbreviated.  In  not  a  few  instances  modem, 
Enc^ish  nomenclature  has  supplanted  the  old  Wekh  plaee< 
names  in  popular  usage,  although  the  town's  original  appellation 
is  retained  in  Welsh  literature  and  conversation,  e.g.  Bolykead 
is  Caergybi  (fort  of  Cyhi,  a  Celtic  missionary  of  the  6th  century); 
PresleigH  is  Llanandras  (church  of  St  Andrew,  or  Andras); 
St  Asaph  is  Llanelwy;  the  English  name  commemorating-  the 
reputed  founder  of  the  see,  and  the  Welsh  name  recalling  the 
church's  original  foundation  on  the  banks  of  the  El  wy.  Cardigan, 
in  Welsh  Aberteifi,  from  its  situation  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Teifi,  and  Brecon,  in  Welsh  Abcrhonddu,  from  its  site  near  the 
confluence  of  the  tJsk  and  Honddu,  are  examples  of  corrupted 
Welsh  names  in  common  use^-Cercdigion,  Brychanr— which 
possess  in  addition  pure  Celtic  forms.  In  the  third  division, 
EngUsh  place-names  are  tderably  frequent  everywhere  and  pre- 
dominate in  the  Marches  and  on  the  South  Wales  coast.  Even  in 
so  thoroughly  Welsh  a  county  as  Cardiganshire,  English  place- 
names  are  often  to  be  encountered,  e.g.  New  Quay,  High  Mead, 
Oakford,  &c.;  but  many  of  such  names  are  of  modem  invention, 
dating  ddefly  from  the  x8th  and  XQth  centuries.  Of  the  many 
English  names  occurring  in  south  Pembroke  and  south  Glamor- 
gan, some  are  exact  or  fanciful  translations  of  the  original  Welsh, 
e.g,  Cowhridge  (Pontyfon)  and  tMdchurch  (Eglwys  Llwyd), others 
are  of  direct  external  origin,  as  BIshopstone,  Flemingstone, 
Butter  Hill,  Briton  Feny,  Maaselfield,  &c.  Names  derived 
straight  from  an  An^o-Norman  source  are  rare;  Beaupr^, 
Beaumaris,  Beaufort,  Fleur>de-Lis,  Roche,  may  be  dted  as  ex- 
amples of  such.  Scandinavian  influence  can  easily  be  traced 
at  various  points  of  the  coast-line,  but  particularly  In  south 
Pembrokeshire,  wherein  occur  such  place-names  as  Caldy,  Tenby, 
Goodwick,  Dale,  Skokholm,  Hakin  and  Milford  Haven.  Speci- 
mens of  Latinized  names  in  connexion  with  ecdesisstlcal  founda- 
tions are  preserved  in  Strata  Florida  and  Valle  Cruds  Abbeys. 
Hybrid  place-names  are  occasionally  to  be  met  with  in  the 
colonized  portions  of  Wales,  as  in  Gelliswick  <a  combination 
of  the  Celtic  gdli,  a  haael  grove,  and  the  Norse  wkk,  a  haven), 
and  in  FletherhiU,  where  the  English  sufiix  hill  is  practically  a 
translati(m  of  the  Cddc  prefix.  A  striking  peculiarity  of  the 
Prindpality  is  the  prevalence  of  Scriptural  place-names;  a 
drcumstance  due  undoubtedly  to  the  popular  religious  mow* 
ments  of  the  19th  century.  Not  only  are  such  flames  as  Horeb, 
Zion,  Penud,  Siloh»  ftc,  bestowed  on  Nonconformist  diapett, 


36o 


WAtBS 


but  these  BibKcal  tenns  faftve  likewise  been  «ppHed  to  their  suf* 
rounding  houses,  and  in  not  a  £ew  iDstances  to  growing  towns 
and  villages.  A  notable  exampie  of  this  curious  nomenclature 
occurs  in  Bethesda,  Carnarvonshire,  where  the  .name  ol  the 
Congregational  chapel  ercacd  eaj-ly  in  the  X9th  century  has 
altogether  supplanted  the  original  Celtic  pbce-name  of  CiUoden. 
But  although  English  and  foreign  place-names  are  faidy  numer- 
ous throughout  Wales,  yet  the  vast  majority  remain  Celtic  either 
in  a  pure  or  iu  a  corrupted  form,  so  that  some  knowledge  of  the 
Celtic  language  is  essential  I9  interpret  their  meaning. 

A  small  glossary  of  Bomt  of  the  more^xwUBon  compoAei^t  words  is 
appended  below.  . 

A  ber,  the  mouth  or  estuary  of  a  river — Aberystwyth,  Abetgwiii. 

Ach,  water — Clydach,  Clarach. 

Afon,  A  river— a  word  whieh  mains  its  prtnultiue  roeanine  in 
Wales,  whilst  it  has  become  a  proper  name  la  England— GUoafois 
Manorafon. 

BeltiDS,  a  corrupt  form  of  the  English  "  bead-house,  or  possibly 
Of  the  Latin  "  beatus  "*— Bettw»-y-coed,  Bettws  Han. 

BlaeK,  the  top-^Blaendyffnrn,  Bkaeocwm. 
■  Botf,  bouse  or  abode— Bodiultn,  Halod.  ; 

Bron,  the  human  breast»  hence  breast  of  hill — Brongest,  Cil- 
bronnau. 

Bryn^  a  hifl — Brynmawr,  Penbiyn. 

Bwtck^  a  cap^-Bwlchbychan,  Tanybwich. 

Cm,  a  field — Caeglas,  Tynycae 

Caer,  a  fortress  or  fortiBod  carop;;— Caerlieon,  Caersws. 

Capti,  a  corrupt  form  of  the  Latin  "  capcila  **  applied  to  chapcts, 
ancient  and  recent — Capcl  Dewi,  Capcl-isaaf,  Parc-y-capel. 

Csm,  a  cairn  or  heap  of  stones — Mod-trigarn. 

CarnHdt  a  tumulus-— Carnedd  Llywclyn. 

Ctjn^  a  ridge— Ce(n-M ably,  Ce(n>y-bedd. 

Ci/,  a  retreat,  said  to  be  akin  to  the  Ooidclic  kU — Ciliau-Aeron, 
Qlcennin. 

Cmne,  a  knoll  or.mound — Cnwcglas  (Anglicized  into  Knucklas,  in 
Radnonhire).    ' 

0x4,  a  wood-~Coedmawr,  Penycocd. 

Craig,  a  rock  or  crtig — Pcn-y-graig. 

CrUg,  aheap  or  barrow — Crflg  Mawr,  Trichrflg. 
'  Cvm,  a  low  valley,  Anglicixcd  mto  "  coomb  ''---Cwm  Gwendraeth, 
BUenewm. 

i>M,  a  fortified  hill,  hence  Dinai,  a  fortified  town— Dincfawr.  Pen 
Dinas. 

Z>of,  a  meadow — Dolwilym,  Dolau. 

Vvn,  Dwjr,  water — Clyndwrdu,  the  patrimony  of  the  celebrated 
Owen  Glendower,  of  which  his  Anglicized  name  is  a  corruption. 

B^Jwyf,  a  corruption  of  the  Latin  ^'ecdesaa."  a  church— Elglwyswrw, 
Tanyreglwys. 

CcXU,  in  North  Wales  a  steep  slope;  In  $ou;th  Wales  a  hanging 
Wood—Galltyfyrddin,  Pcnyrallt. 

Gdii^  a  trove— GcTlideg,  Perigclly  Forest. 

doMf  a  Dank-^hnymdr»  GUuidkifan. 

Clyn,  a  glen  or  narrow  valley— Glyncothi,  Tyglyn. 

IJaH%  a  sacred  enclosure,  hence  a  church— a  most  interesting  and 
important  Celtic  prefix — Llandcilo,  Llansaint.     . 

Uuk,  a  stone — Llcchryd,  Trcllech. 
'  Lhoyn,  a  grove-^enllwyn,  Llwynvbr&n. 

LiySi  a  court  or  palace — Henllys,  Uysowen. 
.  MaeSt  open  land,  or  battleficld-rMaesyfcd  (the  Welsh  name  f^r 
Radnorshire),  Maesllwch. 

Jtfof/,  bald,  hence  a  bare  hitl-top— Moelfre. 

Mdr,  the  sea— BrynmOr,  Glanymdr. 

Mynydd,  mountam— »Llan(ynydd,  Mynydd  DO. 

Nant,  a  ravine,  hence  also  a  brook — Nantgwyllt,'  Nannau,  Nant- 
garcdig. 

Pant,  a  glen  or  hollow — ^Pantycelyn,  Bfaenpant. 
-  Pare,  an  enclosed  field — Parc-y-Marw,  Ptnparc. 

P«fi.  a  summit — Penmaenmawr.  Penoiark. 

Pont,  a  bridge,  a  corruption  of  the  Latin  "  pons"-*  Pont- 
hirwcn,  Talybont. 

Porth,  a  gate  or  harbour — perhaps  a  corrupt  form  of  the  Latin 
"  porta  "— Abcrporth,  Pump  Porth  ("  the  Five  Gates  "). 

Hhiw,  ascent  or  slope — Troedvrbiw,  Rhiwlas. 

Rhos,  a  moor — Rhosilvn,  Tyr  hoa. 

Rhyd,  a  ford — Rhydyfuwch,  Glanrhyd. 

Sam,  a  causeway,  generally  descriptive  of  the  old  Roman  paved 
«)ad»— Talsam,  Sarnau,  Sarn  Badrig. 

rw,  an  end,  also  head — ^Taliaria,  Talyllyn. 

Trejf,  a  homestead,  henoc  cantref,  a  hundred- Hcndref,  Cantref-y- 
gwaclod. 

Trocd,  a  base  — ^Trocd-y-bryn. 

Ty,  a  house,  a  cottage — ^Tynewydd,  Mynachty. 

Wy,  or  ftey,  an  obsolete  Celtic  word  for  water,  preserved  in  the 
sanies  of  many  Wddi  riven— Elwy,  Gwili,  Wye  or  Gwy. 

Ynyt,  an  island,  w  hill  in  tho  midst  of  a  bog— Ynys  Enlli  (the 
Welsh  name  for  Bardsey  Ulaads).  Ynyshir,  Clynrynys. 

Yt^yUy,  tpiu,  a  corrupt  form  of  the  Latin  "  hospitium,"  often 


used  of  the  ^est-bousf  oC  an  al^bey^Ywytty  Ysivyth»  Tafsm 
Spite. 

Ystrad,  a  neadtfir  or  fldi  towland— Yscrad  Mynach.  Llanfihannl 
Yatnd. 

PopuUttim.-^Tht  total  population  of  tlie  twelve  counties 
of  the  Principality  was:     1,360,513  (1881),  1,519,035  (1891), 
1 ,7  20,600  ( 1901 ).  These  figures  prove  a  steady  upward  tendency, 
but  the  increase  itself  is  confined  entirely  to  the  industrial 
districts  of  the  Principality,  and  in  a  specLil  decree  to  Glamorgan- 
shire;  while    the   agricultural  counties,    such  as  Pembroke, 
Merioneth,   Cardigan  or  Montgomery,  present  a  continuous 
though  slight  decrease  owing  to  local  emigration  to  the  centres 
of  industry.    The  whole  population  o^  Wales  in  Tudor,  Stuart 
and  early  Georgian  times  can  scarcely  have  exceeded  500,000 
souls,  and  was  probably  less.    But  with  the  systematic  develop- 
ment of  4he  vast  mineral  resources  of  the  South  Wales  coalficU, 
the  population  of  Glamorganshire  has  Increased  at  a  more  rapid 
rate  than  that  of  any  other  county  of  the  United  Kingdom,  so 
that  at  present  this  county  contains  about  half  the  populattoo 
of  all  Wales.  .  It  will  be  noted,  therefore,  that  th*  vast  massof  \it 
inhabitants  of  Wales  are  settled  in  the  industrial  area  viiidi 
covers  the  northern  districts  of  Glamorganshire  and  the  souib- 
eastem  comer  of  Carmarthenshire;  whilst  central  Wales,  cos- 
prising  the  four  counties  of  Cardigan,  Radnor,  Merioneth  idi 
Montgomery,  forms  the  least  populous  portion  of  the  Princip*te/- 
The  following  towns  had  each  in  1901  a  population  exat<H 
10,000:    CardifT,    Ystradyfbdwg,    Swansea,    Merthyr   1)^ 
Aberdare,  Pontypridd,  Llanelly,  Ogmore  and  Garw,  Pembrokti 
Caerphilly,   Maesteg,   Wrexham,   Penarth,   Neath,   Feslini* 
Bangor,  Holyhead,  Carmarthen.     Onfy  four  towns  ip  North 
Wales  are  included  in  these  eighteen,  and  the  combined  popult* 
tions  of  these  four — ^Wrexham   (14,966),   Fcstiniog  (iii43$)« 
Bangor  (11,269)  and  Holyhead  (10,079)— fall  fs^r  bek>w  thstof 
Merthyr  Tjrdfil  (69,228),  the  fottrth  largest  town  in  Glamorpa* 
shire. 

InduslrUi. — ^The  chief  mineral  product  of  the  PriAcipatity  isce^> 
of  which  the  output  amounts  to  over  23,000,000  tons  aoauaiiy' 
The  great  South  Wales  ooalficld,  one  of  the  larfi^  in  the  kingdoniu 
covers  the  greater  pan  of  Monmouthshire  and  GlamoiKaDshire;  tK 
■vuth -eastern  corner  of  Carmarthenshire,  and  a  smaU  portion  «< 
south  Pemb.  >kcshire,  and  thequalUy  of  its  cod  is  espeoialiy  ^^^ 
(or  smelting  purposes  and  for  use  m  steamships.  The  supply  ^j" 
limestone  and  ironstone  in  Glamorganshire  is  said  to  be  prs^"^ 
unlimited.  About  400.000  tons  of  pg  inm  are  produced  ycarlVf  '^ 
some  of  the  largest  iroaoworks  in  the  world  are  situated  at  Merwyf 
Tydfil  and  Dowlais.  Copper,  tin  and'  lead  woiIcb  are  everyvnflre 
numerous  in  the  busy  vaneys  of  north  Glamorgan  ind  in  theneigS' 
bouffaoods  of  Swansea,  Neath,  Caidiff  and  Llanelly.  In  North 
Wales,  Wrexham,  Ruaboa  and  Chirk  aro  centres  of  coal-aninisK  >"* 
dustry.  There  arc  valuable  copper  motes  in  An|^MCB>  and  KSd 
mines  in  Flint  and  in  north  Cardiganshire,  whieh  aJso  yield  a  cvrtsifl 
deposit  of  silver  ore.  Gold  has  been  discovered  and  worked,  thoogs 
only  to  a  smaU  extent,  in  .Merionethshire  and  CarmartbensbiR. 
Slate  quarries  are  ve.y  numerous  throughout  the  Principality,  tM 
finest  quality  of  slate  being  obtained  in  the  ne^hbourhood  of  J3sn^o< 
and  Qvnarvon,  where  the  Penrhyn  and  Bethesda  quarries  gnt 
employment  to  many  thousands  of  workmen. 

By  far  the  larefer  portion  of  Wales  is  purely  agriealtural  in  char* 
actec,  and  much  of  the  valley  land  is  particularly  fertile,  not'Wy 
the  Vale  of  Glamorgan,  the  Vale  of  Clwyd  and  the  valleys  01  t^ 
Towy,  the  Teifi,  the  Usk  and  the  Wye.  which  have  long  been  ce^ 
bested  for  their  rich  pastures.  The  hoMings  throughout  Wales  stt 
for  the  most  part  smalfer  in  extent  than  the  average  farms  of  E'*Sl*1^ 
Stock-raising  is  generally  preferred  to  the  ^growing  of  cereals,  ai» 
in  western  Wales  the  oat  crops-  exceed  fai  siae  those  of  wheat  *^ 
barley.  The  extensive  tracts  of  unenclosed  and  Often  untmpro^<>'^ 
land,  which  still  cover  a  large  area  in  the  Principality,  especially  >" 
the  five  counties  of  Cardigan,  Radnor,  Brecon,  Motttgotncry  »n° 
Merioneth,  support  numerous  fkxks  of  the  small  'mountahi  sbj^p. 
the  flesh  of  which  supplies  the  highly  prised  Wel&  mutton.  |°! 
wool  of  the  sheep  is  manufactured  into  flannel  at  numberless  '*'^*J"J! 
in  the  various  country  towns,  and  the  supply  meets  an  •""?",*- 
local  demand.    The  upland  tracts  also  afford  good  pastoraae  wt 


ponies.       .  ..*.  va»».^  v..    ».».~-  r-  .^j. 

varieties  of  race,  the  Hereford  breed  prevailing  in  the  eas^"^ 
counties,  and  Shorthorns  and  the  black  Castlemartins  In  the  s«uj 
western  parts.    The  groat  herds  of  goats,  which  in  i«ediew«"5jg 
subsisted  on  the  Welsh  hills,  have  entirety  disappeaftd  f**^  ^^ 
general  adoption  of  the  sheep-farming  industry. 


WiiLE6 


i6i 


TM  Jeepfea  fiiheriM  on  tlie  toufVwtttcrti  coatts  are  of  some 
jmportaoce:  the  Mumfalea.  Tenby  and  Milfofd  Haven  beine  the 
chief  oenues  of  this  industry  Lobsten  and  crabs  are  caught  in 
Cardigan  Bay,  and  oysters  are  found  at  various  points  of  the  Pem- 
brokediire  coast.  The  large  rivers  produce  salmon,  which  are 
usually  sent  to  the  great  towns  for  sale.  The  Wye,  the  Usk,  the  Dce^ 
the  Dovey,  the  Teifi,  the  Towy  and  most  of  the  Welsh  rivers  and 
ukca  are  frequented  by  anglers  for  salmon  and  trout. 

Communications. — ^Tne  two  principal  railways  serving  the  Princi- 
pality are  the  London  ft  North-Wcstem,  which  passes  along  the 
North  Wales  coost'line  by  way  of  Conway  and  Bangor,  eroeses  the 
Meoai  Strait  and  has  h;s  tenninus  at  Holyhead ;  ana  t^  Great 
Western,  whk:h  traverses  South.  Wales  b^  way  of  Cardiff,  Landore, 
Llanelly  and  Carmarthen,  and  has  its  princi^I  terminal  station  at 
Fishguard  Harbour.  The  lines  of  the  Cambrran  railway  serve  North 
and  Mid-Wales,  and  branches  of  the  London  &  North* Wetctm  and 
the  Midland  penetrate  into  South  Wales  as  far  as  Swaaaea*  A  net- 
work of  lines  connects  the  great  industrial  districu  of  Gtamorganshin 
with  the  main  line  of  the  Great  Western  railway.  There  are  sVeam- 
flhip  services  between  Holyhead  and  Dublin  in  connexion  with  the 
tmna  of  tha  London  &  North- Western  railways  and  an  infpoitant 
traffic  for  dairy  producer  livchstock  aad  paasei^ci*  between  Fish- 
guard and  Rosslare  on  the  Irish  coast  was  opened  in  1906  in  ooo* 
nexion  with  the  Great  Western  railway.  There  is  also  a  boat  service 
between  Holyhead  and  Grecnore  on  the  Ulster  coast.  Steamboats 
likewise  ply  between  Milfoid,  Tenby,  Swansea  and  Cardiff  and 
Bristol}  also  between  Swansea  and  Catdiff  and  Dublin;  and  there 
ia  a  regular  service  between  Swansea  and  Ilfracombe.  The  principal 
canals  are  the  Swansea,  the  Neath,  the  Aberdare  &  Claniorgan, 
and  the  Brecon  ft  Abergavenny,  all  worked  in  conmation  with  the 
iadttstiial  districta  of  north  Glainoifandiirew 

Co9tmmeta.^ln  aH  acts  of  parBameiit  Wales  is  Iniruiably 
ineloded  under  the  term  of "  England  and  Wales,"  and  whenever 
an  act,  or  any  section  of  an  act,  is  intended  to  apply  to  the 
Principality  alone,  then  Wales  is  always  coupled  with  Monmouth- 
shire. The  extinction  of  the  Welsh  Court  of  Great  Sessions  in 
1830  served  to  remove  the  last  relic  of  separate  jurisdiction  in 
Wales  itself,  but  in  x88x  special  legislation  was  once  more 
inaugurated  by  the  Welsh  Sunday  Closing  Act  (46  Victoria), 
forbiddtng^  the  sale  of  spirituous  Uquors  by  all  inn-keepers  on 
Sundays  fo  any  but  bona  fide  travellers  throughout  Wales  and 
Monmouthshire.  A  separate  act  on  behalf  of  Welsh  education 
was  likewise  passed  in  18S9,  when  the  Welsh  Intermediate  Educa? 
tfon  Act  made  specnl  provision  for  intermediate  and  tedndcal 
education  throughout  the  Principality  and  Monmouthshire. 
Except  for  the  administration  of  these  two  special  acts,  the 
system  of  government  In  Wales  is  identical  in  every  respect  with 
that  of  England  (see  England  and  UNTm>  Kincdou).  Koyal 
commissions  dealing  with  questions  pecuHar  to  Wales  have 
been  issued  from  time  to  ^ime,  notably  of  recent  years,  in  the 
Welsh  Land  Tenure  Commission  of  1893,  and  the  Weldi  Church 
Commission  of  1906  (see  History). 

J?«/tji0n.— Ecclesiastically,  the  whole  of  Wales  lies  within 
the  province  of  Canterbu^.  The  four  Welsh  sees,  however, 
ektend  beyond  the  borders  of  the  twelve  counties,  for  they 
include  the  whole  <^  Monmouthshire  and  some  portions  of  the 
English  border  shiies;  on  the  other  hand,  the  sees  of  Hereford 
and  Chester  encroach  upon  the  existing  Webh  counties.  The 
diocese  of  St  Davids  (Tyddewi),  the  largest,  oldest  and  poorest 
of  the  four  Cambrian  sees,  consists  of  the  counties  of  Pembroke, 
Carmarthen  and  Cardigan,  almost  the  whole  of  Brecon,  the 
greater  part  Of  Radnor,  and  west  Glamorgan  with  Swansea  and 
Gower.  The  cathedrd  church  of  St  Davids  is  ntuated  near 
tlie  remote  headland  of  St  Davids  in  Pembrokeshire,  but  the 
episcopal  residencjb  has  been  fixed  ever  since  the  Reformation 
at  Abergwili  near  Carmarthen,  the  most  centrs^  spot  in  this 
vast  diocese.  The  see  of  Llandaff  comprises  Monmouthshire, 
all  Glamorganshire  as  far  west  as  the  Tawe,  and  some  parishes 
in  Brecon  and  Hereford.  The  diocese  of  Bangor  consists  of  the 
counties  of  Anglesea,  Carnarvon  and  large  portions  of 'Merioneth 
and  Montgomery.  The  dioce?e  of  St  Asai^  (Llanelwy)  consists 
of  the  county  of  Denbigh,  nearly  the  whole  of  Flint,  with 
portk>ns  of  Montgomery,  Merioneth  and  Shropshire. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  dissent  has  been 
airongly  represented  In  the  Principality,  the  combined  numbers 
df  the  various  Nonconformist  bodies  far  outstripping  the  ad- 
heronts  of  tha  Church.  Universally  accepted  statistics  as  to 
IIml  various  fdigkNv  bodiei  it  has  bee*  found  impossible  to 


obtain,  but  the  Report  (19x0)  Of  the  Webh  Oiurch  Commission 
stated  that,  exclusive  of  Roman  Catholics,  there  were  743,361 
communicants  or  fully  admitted  members  of  some  denomination, 
of  whom  x93,o8x  were  Churchmen  and  550,280  Nonconformists. 
The  gentry  and  landowners  are  aQ,  broadly  speaking,  members 
of  the  established  Church,  but  it  is  impossible  to  name  any 
other  dass  of  society  as  belonging  definitely  cither  to  "  Chxirch  ** 
or  "  Chapel."  According  to  the  above  Report,  the  three  most 
powerful  dissenting  bodies  in  Wales  are  the  Congregationalists 
or  Independents,  whose  members  number  175,147  throughout 
Wales  and  Monmouthshire;  the  Calvinistic  Methodists— a  direa 
offshoot  of  the  Churdi  ^nce  the  schism  of  18x1 — with  a  mem- 
bership of  170,617;  and  the  Baptists,  X43,83S  Wesleyan  and 
Presbyterian  chapeb  ate  likewise  numerous,  and  the  Unitarian 
or  Socinlan  body  has-  long  been  powerful  In  the  valley  of  the 
Teifi.  Nearly  every  existing  sect  is  represented  hi  Wales,  in- 
cluding Swedenborgians  and  Moravians.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  has  many  folk>wers  amongst  the  labouring  population  of 
Irish  descent  in  the  industrial  districts.  The  diocese  of  Newport 
(known  till  t896as  NeM'portandMenevia)  consists  of  the  counties 
of  Monmouth,  Glamorgan  and  Hereford;  whilst  the  remaining 
eleven  counties  were  in  X895  formed  into  the  Vicariate  of  Wales, 
which  in  1898  was  erected  into  a  diocese  under  a  bishop  with 
the  title  of  Menevia.  Since  the  expulsion  of  the  religious  orders 
from  France  in  1903  several  communities  of  French  monks  and 
nuns  have  taken  up  their  abode  in  the  Principality. 

Hilary. — ^At  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion  of  Britain; 
55  B.C.,  four  distinct  dominant  tribes,  or  families,  are  enumerated 
west  of  the  Severn,  vi2.  the  Decangi,  owning  the  island  of 
Anglesea  (Ynys  Fdn)  and  the  Snowdonian  district;  the  Or- 
dovices,  inhabiting  the  modem  counties  of  Denbigh,  Flint  and 
Montgomery;  the  Dimetae,  in  the  counties'  of  Cardigan,  Car- 
marthen and  Pembroke;  and  the  Silurcs,  occup3ring  the  counties 
of  Glamorgan,  Brecknock,  Radnor  and  Monmouth.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  existing  four  Welsh  sees  of  Bangor, 
St  Asaph,  St  Davids  and  Llandaff  correspond  in  the  main  with 
the  Emits  of  these  four  tribal  divisions.  On  the  advance  oi 
Ostorius  into  western  Britain,  he  met  with  considerable  resist- 
ance from  Caractacus  (Caradog),  king  of  the  Silures,  but  after 
some  encounters  this  prince  was  eventually  captured  and  sent 
in  chains  to  Rome.  The  partial  conquest  by  Ostorius  was 
completed  under  Julius  Frontinus  by  the  year  78,  after  which 
the  Romans  set  to  woHl  in  order  to  pacify  and  develop  their 
nev^ly  annexed  territory.  At  this  period  the  copper  mines  of 
Mona  or  Anglesea,  the  silver  mines  rtear  Pfinllmmon  and  the  gold 
mines  rn  the  valley  of  the  Cothl  in  Carmarthenshire  were  ex- 
ploited and  worked  with  some  success  by  the  conquerors.  In 
spite  of  the  mountainous  and  boggy  character  of  the  country, 
roads  were  now  constructed  in  all  directions.  0|  these  the  most 
important  are  the  military  road  leading  S,  from  Deva  (Chester) 
bywayofUriconiura  (Wroxeter)  andCobannium  (Abergavenny) 
to  Isca  Silurum  (Caericonron-Usk)  and  Vcnta  Silurum  (Cacr- 
went);  another  from  Deva  to  Conovium  (Conway),  whence  a 
road,  the  Sam  Helen,  extended  due  S.  to  Carmarthen  <Mari- 
dunum),  by  way  of  Loventium  (Pont  LUnio),  which  was  also 
connected  with  Gobannium;  from  Maridunum  a  road  led  £. 
throu^  the  modem  county  of  Glamorgan  by  way  of  Leucarum 
(Lou$hor)  and  Nidum  (Neath)  to  Venta  Silurum.  With  the 
accession  of  Constantme,  Chtistianity  was  Introduced  by  the 
Romans  Into  the  parts  of  Wales  already  colonized,  and  the 
efforts  of  the  Roman  priests  were  later  supplemented  during 
the' 5th,  6th  and  7tfi  centuries  by  the  devoted  labours  of  Celtic 
missionaries,  of  whom  nearly  fiv6  hundred  luimcs  still  remain 
on  record.  Foretaiost  in  the  work  of  preaching  and  educating 
were  SS.  David,  Teilo,  Illtyd  and  Cadoc  in  Dyfed,  Morganwg, 
Gwent  and  Brychelniog,  comprising  South  Wales;  Cynllo,  Afan 
and  Padam  In  Ceredigion  and  Maesyfed,  or  Mid-Wales;  and 
Deiniol,  Dunawd,  Beuno,  Kentigcm  and  Asaph  in  North  WaleSr 
To  this  period  succeeding  the  fall  of  the  Roman  power  is  alsd 
ascrfbed  the  foundation  of  the  tnany  great  Celtic  monasteries,  of 
which  Bangor-Iscoed  on  the  Dee,  Bardsey  Island,  Llancarvan 
and  Liantwit  Major  hi  the  Vale  of  Glatnoi^,  Caetkon<on-Usi^ 


Z^2 


WALES 


mod  St  Davids  are  mmQopt  tlie  nMt  cdebnied  in  early 
Welsh  ecclesiastical  annals.  With  the  withdrawal  of  the  Roman 
legions,  the  recognized  poyrtn  of  the  Dux  BritanniaruM,  the 
Roman  official  who  governed  the  upper  province  of  Britain, 
were  in  the  sth  century  ««umed  by  the  Celtic  prince  Cuneddf 
under  the  title  of  Gwledig  (the  Supreme),  who  fixed  his  court 
and  residence  at  Deganwy,  near  the  modem  Uandudno.  During 
the  6th  century  the  battle  of.Deorham  gained  by  the  West 
Saxons  in  577  cut  off  commuaication  with  Cornwall,  and  in 
613  the  great  battle  of  Chester»  won  by  King  Ethelfrith,  pre- 
vented the  descendants  ol  Cunedda  from  ever  again  asserting 
their  sovereignty  Over  Strathdyde;  the  joint  effect,  therefore, 
of  these  two  important  Saxon  victories  was  to  isolate  Wales 
and  at  the  same  time  to  put  an  end  to  aU  pretensions  of  its 
rulers  as  the  inheritors  of  the  ancient  political  daims  of  the 
Roman  governors  of  the  northern  province  of  Britain.  The  Sth 
century  saw  a  further  curtailment  ol  the  Welsh  territories  under 
Offa,  king  of  Merda,  who  annexed  Shrewsbury  (Amwythig).  and 
Hereford  (Henfordd)  with  their  surrounding  districts^  and 
construaed  the  artificial  boundaiy  known  as  Offa's  Dyke  running 
due  N.  and  S.  from  the  mouth  of  the  Dee  to  that  of  the  Wye. 
It  was  during  these  disastrous  Mercian  wars. that  there  first 
appeared  on  the  Welsh  coasts  the  Norse  and  Danish  pisates, 
who  harried  and  burnt  the.  small  towns  and  flourishing 
monasteries  on  the  shores  of  Cardigsn  Bay  and  the  Bristol 
Channel  In  the  9th  century,  however,  the  Welsh,  attacked  by 
land  and  sea,  by  Saxons  and  by  Danes,  at  len^h  obtained  a 
prince  capable  of  bringing  the  turbulent  chieftains  of  his  count  cy 
into  obedience,  and  of  opposing  the  two  sets  of  invadeis.  of  his 
realm.  This  was  Rhodri  Mawr,  or  Roderick  the  Great,  a  name 
always  cherished  in  Cymric  annals.  Like  Alfred  of  Wessex, 
Rhodri  also  built  a  fleet  in  order  to  protect  Anglesea,  *'  the 
mother  of  Wales,"  so  called  on  account  of  its  extensive  corn- 
fields idiich  supplied  barren  Gwynedd  with  provisions.  In  877 
Rhodrii  after  many  vicissitudes,  was  slain  in  battle,  and  his 
dominions  of  Gwynedd  (North  Wales),  Deheubarth  (South 
Wales)  and  Powys  (Mid  Wales)  were  divided  amongst  his  three 
sons,  Anarawd,  Cadell  and  Mervyn.  Consolidation  of  Cambro- 
British  territory  was  found  impossible;  there  was  no  settled 
capital;  and  the  three  princes  fixed  their  courts  respectivdy 
at  Aberffraw  in  An(^esea,  at  Dynevor  (Dinefawr)  near  Uandilo 
in  Deheubarth,  and  at  Mathrafal  in  Powys. .  Howel,  son  of 
Cadell,  commonly  known  as.Howd  Dda  the  Good,  is  ever 
cdebrated  in  WeUh  hutory  as  the  framer,  or  rather  the  codtfier, 
of  the  aadent  laws  of  his  country,  which  were  promulgated  to 
the  people  at  his  hunting  lodge,  Ty  Gwyn  ar  Tftf,  near  the 
modern  Whitland.  In  Howcl's  code  the  prince  of  Gwynedd 
with  his  court  at  Aberffraw  is  recognized  as  the  leading  monarch 
in  Wales;  next  to  him  ranks  the  prince  of  Deheubarth,  and 
third  in  estimation  is  the  prince  of  Powys.  The  laws  of  Howd 
Dda  throw  a  flood  of  Interesting  Ugfat  upon  the  andent  customs 
and  ideas  of  early  medieval  Wales,  but  as  their  standard  of 
justice  is  founded  on  a  tribal  and  not  a  territorial  system  of 
sodety,  it  is  easy  to  understand  the  antipathy  with  which  the 
Normans  subsequently  came  to  rq;ard  this  famous  code.  The 
dissensions  of  the  turbulent  princes  of.  Gwynedd,  Powys  and 
Deheubarth,  and  of  their  no  less  quarrelsome  chieftains,  now 
rent  the  country,  which  was  continually  also  a  pr^  to  Saxon 
incursions  by  land  and  to  Scandinavian  attacks  by  sea.  Some 
degree  of  peace  was,  however,  given  to  the  distracted  country 
during  the  reign  of  Llewelyn  ap  Seiasyllt,  the  husband  of  Ang- 
harad,  faeireas  of  Gwynedd,  who  at  length  secu/ed  the  over- 
lordship  or  sovereignty  of  all  Wales,  and  reigned  till  1033.  His 
son,  Griffith  ap  Uewdyn,  who,  after  having  been  driven  into 
exile,  recovered  his  father's  realm  in  the  battle  of  Pencader, 
Carmarthenshire,  in  1041,  lor  many  years  waged  a  war  of 
varying  success  against  Hsrokl,  earl  of  Wesaex,  but  in  X062  he 
was  trMcherously  slain,  and  Harold  placed  Wales  under  the  old 
king's  half-brothers,  Bleddyn  and  Rhiwallon. 

With  the  advent  of  the  Normans,  William  the  Conqueror,  with 
the  object  of  placing  a  firm  feudal  barrier  between  W^es  and  the 
«trldom  of  Merda,  erected  three  palatine  counties  along  the 


Cymric  frontier.  Thus  Hugli  the  WcJf  wis.  pteoad  im  Ckmk 
(Caer),  Jtoger  de  Montgomery  at  Shrewsbury  and  William  Fits- 
Osbem  at  Hereford.   In  1081  William  himself  visited  the  Prind. 
pality,  and  even  penetrated  as  far  west  as  St  Davids.   But  ilie 
most  important  result  of  this  first  Norman  invasion  was  to  be 
found  in  the  marvellous  and  rapid  success  of  Robert  Fits-Hamon, 
earl  of  Gloucester,  who,  accompanied  by  &  number  of  knightly 
adventurers,  quickly  overran  South  Wales,  and  erected  a  chiun  of 
castles  stretching  from  the  Wye  to  Milfocd  Haven.    The  rich 
low-lying  lands  of  Morganwg  and  Gwent  were  thus  firmly 
occupied,  nor  were  they  ever  permanently  recovered  by  the 
Welsh  princes;  and  such  natives  as  remained  were  kept  ia 
subjectioh  by  the  almost  impregnable  fortreasca  of  stone  erected 
at  Caerphilly,   Cardiff,  Cowbridge,  Neath,  Kidwelly  and  other 
places.    The  important  castles  of  Caritnarthen  and  Pembroke 
were  likewise  built  at  this  period.    At  the  accession  of  Williaa 
Rufus  the  domain  of  Gwynedd  had  been  redbocd  to  Aiigic«a 
and  the  Snowdonian  district;  and  that  of  South  Wales,  or 
Deheubarth,  to  the  lands  contained  in  the  basins  of  the  rivers  To«y 
and  Teifi,  known  as  Ystrad  Tywi  and  Ceredigion.    Grifiih  ap 
Cynaa,  of  the  royal  house  of  Gwynedd,  who  had  been  first  so 
edle  in  Ireland,  and  later  a  prfeoner  at  Chester,  once  isoie 
returned  to  his  native  land,  and  defied  the  Norman  barons  m'tli 
success,  whilst  Henry  L  yainly  endeavoured  to  make  hUiic9e 
and  follower,  Owen  of  Powys,  ruling  prince  in  Walesb .  MtUMhk 
the  house  of  Dynevor  once  more  rose  to  some  degsee  of  ff 
under  Griffith  1^  Rhys,  whose  father,  Rhys  ap  Tudor,  hadVa 
slain  in  1093.    The  confused  reigu  of  Stephen  was  luiiv^ 
favourable  to  the  development  of  Cymric  liberty,  and  with  sv(^ 
strong  princes  as  Owen,  son  of  Griffith  ap  Cynan,  heir  to  tbe 
throne  of  Gwynedd,  and  with  Griffith  ap  Rhys  ruling  at  Dynevur, 
the  prospects  of  the  Cymry  grew  brighter.   In  x  136  the  army  <^ 
Griffith  ap  Rhys  met  with  a  large  £ngUsh  force  near  CardigaAi 
composed  of  the  denizens  of  the  South  Wales  castles  and  of  i^ 
hateid  Flemish  colonists,  who  had  been  latdy  planted  by  Heoiy  !• 
in  Dyfed.   A  fierce  engagement  took  place  wherein  tlMi  Nonnso 
and  Flemish  troops  were  utterly  routed,  and  the  victorioos 
Cymxy  slew  thousands  of  their  fugitives  at  the  fords  of  the  Teifi 
dose  to  the  town  of  Cardigan.    The  following  year  (1137)  »'' 
the  deaths  of  the  two  powerful  princes,  Griffith  ap  Cynan, "  the 
sovereign  and  protector  and  peacemaker  of  all  Wales,"  snd 
Griffith  ap  Rhys, "  the  light  and  the  strength  and  the  gentleness 
of  the  men  of  the  south."     With  the  accession  of  Heniy  II- 
peace  was  made  with  Owen  of  Gwynedd,  the  successor  of  Gri&O^ 
ap  C3man,-and  with  Rhys  ap  Griffith  of  South  Wales.    In  2169 
Owen  Gwynedd  died  and  was  buried  in  Bangor  cathedral  after 
a  reign  of  33  years,  wherein  he  had  successfully  defended  his  ovn 
realm  and  had  done  n^uch  to  bring  about  that  union  of  all  Wales 
which  his  grandson  was  destined  to  complete.    On  the  other 
hand,  "  The  Lord  Rhys,"  as  he  is  usuaUy  termed,  did  homage 
to  Henry  11.  at  Pembroke  in  1x71,  and  waa  appointed  the  royal 
justiciar  of  all  South  Wales.   At  the  castle  of  Cardigan  in  1 17^1 
Prince  Rhys  held  a  historic  bardic  entertainment,  or  eUUddfod, 
wherein  the  poets  and  harpists  of  Gwynedd  and  Deheubarth 
omtended  in  amicable  rivalry.   This  enlightened  prince  died  in 
XX96,  and  as  at  his  death  the  house  of  Dynevor  ceased  to  be  of 
any  further  political  importance,  the  overlordship  of  all  Wales 
became  vested  indisputably  in  the  house  of  Gwynedd,  which 
from  this  point  onwards  may  be  considered  as  representing  in 
itsdf  alone  the  independent  principality  of  Wales.    The  prince 
of  Gwynedd  henceforth  considered  himself  as  a  sovereign, 
independent,  but  owing  a  personal  allegiance  to  the  king  «i 
England,  and  it  was  to  obtain  a  recognition  of  his  righu  as  such 
that  Llewelyn  ap  lorwerth,  V  the  Great,"  consistently  strove 
under  three  EngUsh  kings,  and. though  his  resources  were  smaU, 
it  seemed  for  a  time  as  though  he  might  be  able  by  uniting  hii 
countrymen  to  ph^e  the  recognised  autonomy  of  Gwynedd  00 
a  firm  and  enduring  basis.  By  first  connecting  himself  with  Joha 
through  his  marriage  with  the  English  king's  daughter  Joaq,  by 
straining  every  nerve  to  repress  dissensions  and  enforce  obediesce 
amongst  the  Welsh  chieftains,  and  later  by  allying  himself  with 
the  English  barons  against  bis  suserain,  this  prince  during.* 


Wal£6 


363 


KfgB  of  44  yttn  wts  eiMbted  to  give  &  eondderableftmoont  of 
peace  and  prosperity  to  his  country,  irhich  he  persistently  bought 
to  rale  as  an  independent  sovereign,  although  acknowledging  a 
personal  vassalage  to  the  king  of  England. 

The  dose  of  the  12th  century  saw  the  final  and  complete 
•Ubjtetion  of  the  ancient  Cambro-British  Church  to  the  supre- 
macy tf  Canterbury.  As  part  of  the  Roman  Upper  Province  of 
Britain,  Wales  ttrould  naturally  have  fallen  under  the  primacy 
of  York,  but  the  Welsh  sees  had  continued  practically  inde- 
pendent of  oUtsidle  contnrf  during  Saxon  times.  The  bishops 
of  St  Davids  had  from  time  to  time  claimed  metropolitan  rights 
over  4lie  remainmg  sees,  but  in  1115  St  Ansehne's  appohitment 
of  the  monk  Bernard  (d.  1147)  to  St  Davids,  in  spite  of  the 
oppottition  of  the  native  clergy,  deimitely  mariced  the  end  of 
fornber  Welsh  ecclesiastical  independence.  In  1188  Archbishop 
Bald  win  with  a  distinguished  train,  whilst  preaching  the  Third 
Cru&ade,  made  an  itinerary  of  the  Welsh  sees  and  vbited  the  four 
cathedral  churches,  thereby  formally  asserting  the  supremacy 
of  Canterbury  throughout  aJl  Wales.  But  in  1x99  the  cdebrated 
Gerald  de  Barri  (Giraldus  Cambrensis),  archdeacon  of  Brecon  and 
a  member  of  the  famous  Norman  baronial  house  of  de  Barri,  and 
also  throu^  his  grandmother  Neata  a  great-grandson  of  Prince 
Rhys  ap  Tudor  of  Deheubanh,  was  elected  bishop  by  the  chapter 
of  St  Davids.  This  enthusiastic  priest  at  once  began  to  re-assert 
the  ancient  metropolitan  claims  of  the  historic  Welsh  see,  and 
between  the  years  1199-1203  paid  three  visits  to  Rome  in  otdtr 
to  obtain  the  support  of  Pope  Innocent  IIL  against  John  and 
Archbishop  Hubert,  who  firmly  refused  to  recognize  Gerald's 
late  election.  Innocent  was  inclined  to  temporize,  whilst  the 
Welsh  chieftains,  and  especially  Gwenwynwyn  of  Powys,  loudly 
applauded  Gerald's  action,  but  Llewelyn  ap  lorwerth  himself 
prudently  held  aloof  from  the'  controversy.  Finally,  in  1203, 
Gerald  was  compelled  to  make  complete  submission  to  the  king 
and  archbishop  at  Westminster,  and  henceforth  Canterbury 
remained  in  undisputed  possession  of  the  Wdsh  sees,  a  circum- 
stance that  undoubted^  tended  towards  the  later  union  of  the 
two  countries. 

In  2238  Llewelyn,  growing  aged  and  faifirm,  summoned  all  his 
vassals  to  a  conference  at  the  famous  Cistercian  abbey  of  Strata 
Florida,  whereat  David,  his  son  by  the  Princess  Joan  of  England, 
was  adinowledged  his  heir  by  all  present.  Two  years  later 
Llewelyn,  the  ablest  and  most  successftil  of  aj^  the  WdfAi  princes, 
expired  and  was  burled  in  the  monastery  of  his  own  foundation 
at  Aberconway.  He  was  succeeded  by  David  II.,  at  whose  death 
without  children  in  1246  the  sovereignty  of  Gwynedd,  and  con- 
sequently of  Wales,  reverted  to  his  three  nephews,  sons  of  hfo 
half-brother  Griffith,  who  had  perished  in  1244  whilst  trying  to 
escape  from  the  Tower  of  London,  where  Henry  III.  was  holding 
him  as  hostage  for  the  good  behaviour  of  Prince  David.  Of 
Griffith's  three  sons,  Owen,  Llewelyn  and  David,  the  most 
popular  and  influential  was  undoubtedly  Llewelyn,  whose  deeds 
and  qualities  were  celebrated  in  extravagant  terms  by  the  bards 
of  his  oAvn  day,  and  whose  evil  fate  has  ever  been  a  favourite 
theme  of  Welsh  poets.  Though  to  this,  the  last  prince  of  Wales, 
polifical  sagacity  and  a  firm  desire  for  peace  have  often  been 
ascribed,  it  must  be  admitted  that  be  showed  himself  both 
turbulent  and  rash  at  a  time  when  the  most  cautious  diplomacy 
on  his  part  was  essential  for  his  country's  existence.  For 
Edward,  Henry  Ilt/s  son  and  heir,  who  had  been  created  earl  of 
Chester  by  his  father  and  put  in  possession  of  all  the  royal 
claims  in  Wales,  was  generally  credited  with  a  strong  determin- 
ation to  crash  for  ever  Welsh  independcnce.should  &  fittbig  oppor- 
tunity to  do  so  present  itself.  Nevertheless,  the  hostile  policy 
of  Llewdyn,  who  had  closely  associated  himself  with  the  cause 
of  Simon  de  Montfort  and  the  barons,  was  at  first  successful. 
For  after  the  battle  of  Evesham  a  treaty  was  concluded  between 
the  En^lsh  king  and  the  Welsh  prince  at  Montgomery,  whereby 
the  tatter  was  confirmed  in  his  principality  of  Gwynedd  and  was 
permitted  to  receive  the  homage  of  ail  the  Welsh  barons,  save 
that  of  the  head  of  the  house  of  Dynevor,  which  the  king  reserved 
to  himself;  whilst  the  four  fertile  cantrefs  of  Pcrfcddwlad,  lying 
tetweea  Gwynedd  and  the  earfalom  of  Chester,  were  granted  to 


the  prince,  tlewelyn  waf  ,  howev^,  foolish  enough  to  lose  the 
results  of  thb  very  favourable  treaty  by  intriguing  with. the  de 
Montfort  family,  and  in  1273  he  bc^me  betrothed  to  Eleanor 
de  Montfort,  the  old  Earl's  only  daughter,  a  piece  of  political 
folly  whidi  may  possibly  in  some  degree  account  for  Edward's 
harsh  treatment  of  the  Wdsh  prince.  In  1274  Llewelyn  refused 
to  attend  at  Edward's  coronation,  although  the  Scottish  king 
was  present.  In  1276  Edward  entered  Wales  from  Chester,  and 
after  a  short  campaign  brought  his  obstinate  vassal  to  submit 
to  the  ignominious  treaty  of  Conway,  whereby  Llewelyn  lost 
almost  all  the  benefits  conferred  on  him  by  the  compact  of 
Montgomery  ten  years  before.  Llewelyn,  utterly  humbled,  now 
behaved  with  such  prudence  that  Edward  at  last  sanctioned  his 
marriage  with  Eleanor  de  Montfort  (although  such  an  alliance 
must  originally  have  been  highly  distasteful  to  the  English  king), 
and  the  ceremony  was  performed  with  much  pomp  in  Worcester 
Cathedral  in  1278.  In  1281  discontent  with  the  king  and  lag 
system  of  justice  had  agam  become  rife  in  Wales,  ai^  at  thh 
point  the  treacherous  Prince  David,  who  had  hitherto  supported 
the  king  against  his  own  brother,  was  the  first  to  proclaim  a 
national  revcrft.  On  Palm  Sunday  1282,  in  a  time  of  peace, 
DaVid  suddenly  attacked  and  burnt  Hawarden  Castle,  whereupon 
all  Wales  was  up  in  arms.  Edward,  greatly  angered  and  now 
bent  on  putting  an  end  for  ever  to  the  independence  of  the 
Principality,  hastened  inttf  Wales;  but  whilst  the  king  was 
campaigning  in  Gwynedd,  Prince  Llewelyn  himself  was  slain 
in  an  obscure  skirmish  on  the  nth  of  December  1282  at  Cefn-y- 
bedd,  near  Builth  on  the  Wye,  whither  he  had  gone  to  rouse  the 
people  of  Brycheiniog.  Llewelyn's  head  was  brought  to  Edward 
at  COnway  Castle,  who  ordered  h  to  be  exhibited  in  the  capital, 
surrounded  by  a  wreath  of  ivy,  in  mocking  aUusion  to  an  ancient 
Cymric  prophecy  concerning  a  Welsh  prince  being  crowned  in 
London.  His  body  is  said,  on  doubtful  authority,  to  have  been 
buried  honourably  by  the  monks  of  Abbey  Cwm  Hir,  near 
Rhayader.  Llewelyn's  brother,  now  David  III.,  designated  by 
the  English  "  the  last  survivor  of  that'  race  of  traitors,"  for  a 
few  months  defied  the  English  forces  amongst  the  fastnesses  of 
Snowdon,  but  ere  long  he  was  captured,  tried  as  a  disloyal  En^idi 
baron  by  a  parliament  at  Shrewsbury,  and  finally  executed  under 
circumstances  of  great  barbarity  on  the  3rd  of  October  1283. 
With  David's  capture  practically  all  serious  Welsh  resistance  to 
the  Bnglish  arms  ceased,  if  we  except  the  unsuccessful  attempt 
made  to  rouse  the  crushed  nation  in  1293  by  Llewdyn's  natural 
son,  Madoc,  who  ended  Us  days  as  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower  of 
London. 

Having  suppressed  the  independence  of  Wales,  Edward  now 
took  steps  to  keep  Gwynedd  itself  in  permanent  subjection  by 
building  the  castles  of  Conway,  Carnarvon,  Cricdeth  and 
Harlech  within  the  ancient  patrimony  of  the  princes  of  North 
Wales,  whose  legitimate  race  was  now  extinct  save  for  Llewelyn's 
daughter  GwenUian,  who  had  entered  the  convent  of  Sempring- 
ham.  In  April  1284  Queen  Eleanor,  who  had  meanwhile  joined 
her  husband  in  Wales,  gave  birth  to  a  son  in  the  newly  built 
castle  of  Carnarvon,  and  this  infant  the  victorious  king,  half 
in  earnest  and  half  in  jest,  presented  to  the  Welsh  people  for  a 
prince  who  could  speiatk  no  word  of  English.  On  the  7th  of 
February  1301,  Edward  of  Carnarvon  was  formally  cmted 
"  prince  of  WaJes  "  by  his  father,  and  henceforward  the  title 
and  honours  of  Prince  of  Wales  became  associated  with  tht 
recognized  bar  of  the  English  crown. 

By  the  Statute,  or  rather  Ordinance  of  Rhuddlan,  promulgated 
in  r384,  many  important  dianges  were  effected  in  the  dvil 
administration  of  Wales.  Glamorgan  and  the  county  palatine 
of  Pembroke  had  hitherto  been  the  only  portions  of  the  country 
subject  to  English  shire  law,  but  now  Edward  parceDed  out  the 
ancient  territory  of  the  princes  of  Gwynedd  and  of  Deheubarth 
into  six  new  counties,  with  sheriffs,  coroners  and  bauliffs.  Thus 
Anglesea,  Carnarvon,  Merioneth  and  Flint  were  erected  in  North 
Wales;  whilst  out  of  the  districts  of  Ystrad  Tywi  and  Ceredigion 
m  South  Wales,  the  old  dominions  of  the  house  of  Dynevor,  the 
comities  of  Carmarthen  and  Cardigan  were  formed.  The  oM 
Welsh  land  tenure  by  gavelkind  was,  however,  still  permitted 


a^ 


ViAhBS 


ta  lemaia  In  Cdice  $moopt  the  aativw'ol  AD  Wakt,  wbOtt  it  wm 
Itencefocth  Arranged  to  admiiustcr  justice  In  tlie  eisbt  counties 
by  special  royal  judges,  and  in  the  Marches  by  the  officers 
appointed  by  the  various  lords-marchers  according  to  the  terms 
of  their  tenure.  Another  distingiushiog  mark  of  fdnard's  policy 
towards  Wales  is  to  be  found  in  the  cofflmerdal  and  administra- 
tive powers  given  to  the  fortified  towns,  inhabited  solely  by  people 
of  Eioglish  birth  and  fay  Welshmen  who  acquiesced  in  English 
rule.  Municipal  charters  and  market  privileges  were  now  granted 
to  such  towns  as  Cardi£f,  Carmarthen,  Builth,  Cardigan,  Mont- 
gomery, Aberystwith,  Newborough,  &c.,  and  this  wise  policy 
was  continued  under  Edward  II.  and  Edward  UL  Many  of  the 
turbulent  Welsh  warriors  having  now  become  mercenaries  on  the 
continent  or  else  cnljsted  under  the  EngUsh  king,  and  the  whole 
of  the  land  west  of  Severn  at  last  enjoying  internal  peace,  the 
commercial  resources  of  Wales  were  developed  in  a  manner  that 
had  hitherto  not  been  possible.  Coal,  copper,  timber,  iron,  and 
eq;>ccially  wool,  were  exported  from  the  Principality,  and  by  the 
Sututc  Staple  of  1353  Carmarthen  was  declared  the  sole  staple 
for  the  whole  Welsh  wool  trade,  every  bale  of  wool  having  first 
to  be  sealed  or  "  cocketed  "  at  this  important  town,  which  during 
the  X4th  century  may  almost  be  accounted  as  the  EngUsh 
capital  of  the  Principality,  so  greatly  was  it  favoured  by  the 
Plantagenet  monarchs.  A  natural  result  of  this  partial  treatment 
of  the  towns  by  the  king  and  his  vassals  was  that  the  English 
tongue  and  also  EngUsh  customs  became  prevalent  if  not  universal 
in  all  the  towns  of  Wales,  whilst  the  rural  districts  remained 
strongly  Cymric  in  character,  language  aiKl  sympathy. 

After  more  than  a  century  of  enforced  repose  in  the  land  and 
of  prosperity  in  the  towns,  all  Wales  was  suddenly  convulsed  by 
a  wide-spread  revolt  against  the  English  crown,  which  reads  more 
Cke  a  tale  of  romance  than  a  piece  of  sane  history.  The  deposi- 
tion of  Richard  XL  and  the  usurpation  of  Henry  IV.,  combined 
with  the  jealousy  of  the  rural  inhabitants  of  Wales  against  the 
4>rivileged  dwellers  of  the  towns,  seem  to  have  rendered  the 
/Country  ripe  for  rebeUion.  Upon  this  troubled  scene  now 
appeared  Owen  Glendower  (Owain  Olyndwfrdwy;  died  ?  14x5),  a 
descendant  of  the  former  princes  of  Powys4uxd  a  favourite  courtier 
of  the  late  Ring  Richard,  smarting  under  the  effect  of  personal 
wrongs  received  from  Henry  of  Lancaster.  With  a  success  and 
;qKcd  that  contemporary  writers  deemed  miraculous,  Owen 
stirred  up  his  coimtrymen  against  the  king,  and  by  their  aid 
succeeded  in  destroying  castle  after  castle,  and  burning  town 
after  town  throughout  the  whole  length  and  breadth  of  the  land 
between  the  years  1401  and  1406.  In  1402  he  routed  the  forces 
of  the  Mortimers  at  Biyn  Clas  near  Knighton  in  Maesyfcd,  wbtre 
be  captured  Sir  Edmund  Mortimer,  the  uncle  and  guardian  of  the 
legitimate  heir  to  the  EngUsh  throne,  the  young  carl  of  March. 
The  aims  of  Owen  were  described  by  himself  in  a  letter  addressed 
to  Charles  VL,  king  of  France,  who  had  hastened  to  acknowledge 
the  upstart  as  Prince  of  Wales  and  had  sent  12,000  troops  on  his 
behalf  to  Milford  Haven.  In  this  letter  Owen,  who  was  holding 
bis  court  in  Llanbadarn  near  Aberystwith,  demands  his  own 
Acknowledgment  as  sovereign  of  Wales;  the  calUng  of  a  free 
Welsh  parUaroent  on  the  EngUsh  model;  the  independence  of 
the  Welsh  Church  from  the  control  of  Canterbury;  and  the 
founding  of  national  coUcges  in  Wales  itselL  An  assembly  of 
Welsh  nobles  was  actually  summoned  to  meet  in  2406  at  Machyn- 
lleth in  an  andent  building  stUl  standing  and  known  to  this  day 
as  "  Owen  Glendower's  ParUament  House."  In  vain  did  Henry 
and  his  lords-marchers  endeavour  to  suippress  the  rcbeUion,  and 
to  capture,  by  fair  means  or  foul,  the  person  of  Glendower 
himself;  the  princely  adventurer  seemed  to  bear  a  charmed 
existence,  and  for  a  few  years  Owen  was  praaicaUy  master  of  aU 
Wales.  Nevertheless,  his  rule  and  power  gradually  decUned,  and 
by  the  year  1408  Owen  himself  had  disappeared  as  suddenly  and 
mysteriously  as  he  had  arisen,  and  the  land  once  more  fell  into 
undisputed  possession  of  the  king  and  his  chosen  vassals.  For 
Owen's  brilliant  but  brief  career  and  ruthless  treatment  of 
English  settlers  and  Anglophil  Welshmen,  his  countrymen  had 
■ot  uanaturaUy  to  pay  a  heavy  penalty  in  the  severe  statutes 
^bicb  the  aflrighted  parUaments  of  Henry  IV.  framed  for  tbe 


prottctMn  of  the  XagUsb  dwcBen  fa  Wafef  and  ihm  bonltf 

coiwties,  and  which  were  not  repealed  mail  the  dsjpa  «f  the 
Tudors.    Of  the  part  played  by  the  Cymry  during  the  wan  of 
the  Roses  it  is  needless  to  tpeak,  since  the  period  fooDS  a  pan  of 
English  rather  than  of  Welsh  history.  The  Yorkist  factio<i 
seems  to  have  been  strongest  in  the  eastern  portioa  d  the 
Principality,  where  the  Mortiaieis  were  all-powerful,  but  later 
the  close  connexion  of  the  house  of  Lancaster  with  Owen  Tudor, 
a  gentleman  of  Anglesea  (beheaded  in  1461)  who  bad  married 
Catherine  of  France,  widow  ol  Henry-  V.,  did  nucb  ta  invite 
Welsh  S3rmpathy  on  behalf  of  the  claims  of  Henry  Tiidoc  his 
grandson,  who  claimed  the  English  throne  by  right  of  bis  grand- 
mother.   Through  the  instrumentaUty  of  the  cdebraicd  Sir 
Rhys  ap  Thomas  (MSi-rs^?))  the  wealthiest  and    the  most 
powerful  personage  in  South  Wales,  Henry  Tudor,  earl  of  Rich- 
mond, on  his  landing  at  Milford  Haven  in  X485  found  the  Welsh 
ready  to  rise  in  his  behalf  against  the  usurper  Richard  III.    With 
an  army  largely  composed  of  Sir  Rhys's  adherents,  Henry  was 
enabled  to  ^ice  Richard  IIL  at  Bosworth,  and  consequently  to 
obtain  the  crown  of  EngUnd.    Thus  did  a  Welshnuui  revenge 
the  ignominious  deaths  of  Prince  Llewelyn  and  Prince  David  by 
becoming  two  centuries  later  king  of  England  and  prince  df 
Wales. 

With  the  Tudor  dynasty  firmly  seated  on  the  throne,  a  number 
of  constitutional  changes  intended  to  pkce  Welsh  subjects  oa  t 
complete  social  and  political  equaUty  with  Englishmen  haytiobe 
recorded.  The  aU-inqwrtant  Act  of  Union  1 536  (27  Henxy  VUI), 
converted  the  whole  of  the  Marches  of  Wales  into  shire  gnxai, 
and  created  five  new  counties:  Denbigbt  Montgomery,  Radfioe, 
Brecknock,  or  Brecon  and  Monmouth.    At  the  same  time  tk 
remaining  lordships  were  added  to  the  EngUsh  border  counties 
of  Gloucester,  Shropshire  and  Hereford,  and  also  to  the  existiog 
Welsh  shires  of  Cardigan,  Carmarthen,  Glamorgan  and  Pembroke, 
aU  of  which  found  their  boundari<£s  considerably  enlarged  under 
this  statute.    Clause  26  of  the  same  act  Ukewise  enacted  that  the 
X2  Welsh  counties  should  return  34  members  to  the  English 
parliament:  one  for  each  county,  one  for  the  boroughs  in  each 
county  (except  Merioneth),  and  one  for  the  town  and  county  of 
Haverfordwest.    It  is  probable  that  Welsh  members  attended 
the  parliaments  of  1536  and  1 539,  and  certain  it  is  that  ihey  were 
present  at  the  parliament  of  1541  and  every  parliament  subse* 
quently  held.    This  act  of  union  was  followed  in  1542  by  an 
"  Act  for  certain  OixUnanccs  in  the  King's  Majesty's  Doxninion 
and   Principality  of  Wales "  (34  &  35  Henry  VIU.),  which 
placed  the  court  of  the  president  and  councU  of  Wales  and  Che 
Marches  on  a  legal  footing.  This  court,  with  a  jurisdiction  some- 
what similar  to  that  of  the  Star  Chamber,  had  originally  been 
called  into  being  under  Edward  IV.  with  the -object  of  suppressing 
private  feuds  and  other  iUegaUties  amongst  the  lords-marchers 
and  their  retainers.    This  council  of  Wales,  the  headquarters  c»f 
which  had  been  fixed  at  Ludlow,,  undoubtedly  did  gcod  service 
on  behalf  of  law  and  order  under  such  capable  presidents  aa 
Bishop  Rowland  Lee  and  William  Herbert,  earl  of  Pembroke; 
but  it  had  long  ceased  to  be  of  any  practical  use,  and  had  in 
fact  become  an  engine  of  oppression  by  the  time  of  the  Common- 
wealth, although  it  was  hot  definitely  abolished  tiU  the  revolution 
of  x688.  The  act  of  1542  also  enacted  that  courts  of  justice  under 
the  name  of  "  The  King's  Great  Sessions  in  Wales  "  should  sit 
twice  a  year  in  every  one  of  the  counties  of  Wales,  except  Mon- 
mouth, which  was  thus  formaUy  declared  an  English  shire. 
For  this  purpose  four  circuity,  two  for  North  and  two  for  South 
Wales,  eich  circuit  containing  a  convenient  group  of  three 
counties,  were  c/eatcd;  whilst  justices  of  the  peace  and  cmslhdet 
rotulorum  for  each  shire  were  Ukewise  appointed.    At  the  same 
time  all  ancient  Welsh  laws  and  customs,  which  were  at  variance 
with  the  recognized  law  of  England,  were  now  declared  illegftl,  and 
Cymric  land  tenure  by  gavelkind,  which  had  been  respected 
bv  Edward  L,  was  expressly  abolished  and  its  place  takea  by 
the  ordinary  practice  6f  primogcnitura   It  was  also  particularly 
stated  that  all  legal  procedure  must  henceforth  be  conducted  in 
the  English  tongue,  an  arrangement  which  fell  very  heavily  on 
)>OQr  monoglot  Welshmen  and  appears  aa  cfpedal^  baoh  9a4 


WALES 


^ 


BBgnddlit  CBtctintBt  when  coining  hain  n  aovtieign  who  was 
huntelf  a  Itiuune  Wdtbmaa  by  birth.  Under  tbe  system  of  the 
Ofoai  SeiBloAs  justict  was  administeted  throughout  the  twelve 
fiouittks  td  Wales  kit  naatly  throe  hundred  years,  and  it  was 
liol  aAtil  tSsd  that  this  s)ntem  of  jurisdiction  was  abolished 
(aot  Without  soifto  ptoitesi  ffom  Welsh  mcmbefs  at  WeBttninacer)^ 
hnd  the  existing  North  and  South  Wales  drcnits  were  brosght 
into  being. 

With  the  peaceful  absorption  of  the  Prmdpality  Into  the 
feaim  of  the  Tudor  sovtsreigns,  the  subsequent  course  of  Welsh 
history  assumes  mainly  a  religious  and  educational  chaxacter. 
The  influence  of  the  Renatssaace  seems  to  have  been  lardy  in 
peneuating  into  Waksr  itself,  nor  did  the  nometous  ecclesiastical 
changes  during  the  period  of 'the  Reformation  cause  any  marked 
signs  cither  of  resentment  ck  approval  amongst  the  mass  of  the 
Wiclsh  people,  although  some  of  the  ancient  Catholic  costonis 
lingered  on  obstinately.    As  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  Vlil. 
there  were,  however,  to  be  found  at  court  and  ia  the  aniversities 
h  number  of  aident  and  taleated  young  Welshmen,  adherents 
mostly  of  tiie  reforming  party  in  Church  and  State,  who  were 
destined  to  brin|^  about  a  brilliant  literary  revival  In  their  native 
land  during  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James  L    Of  thb  dis* 
tinguished  band  the  most  memorable  names  art  these  of  Bishop 
Richard  IXavics  (c.  1501^1581)  and  of  WUUam  Salesbuty,  the 
aquire«sdioIarof  Llanrwst  (c.  t530-«.  x6ao)  in  Denbighshire,  who 
b  commonly  credited  with  the  honour  of  having  produced  the 
first  printed  >booh  in  the  Welsh  lingtisy,  a  smell  volume  of  pro- 
verbs pnblished  in  Londoa  about  the  yesr  x  545.    With  the  access 
fuon  of  EUzabeth  a  novel  and  vigorous  ecclesitttical  policy  on 
iLTuly  national  lines  was  now  inaugurated  in  Wales  itsdf ,  chiefly 
through  the  instrumentality  of  Richard  Davies,    nominated 
bishop  of  St  Asaph  in  1 5  59  and  traiislated  thence  to  St  Davids  in 
1561,'  who  was  mainly  responsible  for  the  act  of  parliament  of 
11563,  coiAmaiMling  tl»  tnshops  of  St  Davids,  IJandaff,  Baagor, 
St  Asaph  and  Heicfocd  to 'prepare  with  all  speed  for  public  use 
Welsh  transIatioBS  of  the  Scr^ituies  and  the  Book  of  Commoii 
Prayer*    Of  the  five  prelates  thus  named,  Davies  aloae  was 
competent  to  tndertake  the  task,  and  for  assistance  in  the 
5rork  of  translation  he  called  upon  hboM  friend  and  former  ndgb* 
hour,  WiUiam  Salesbuiy,  who  Uke  the  bishop  was  an  excellent 
Greek  and  Hebrew  scholar.    The  pair  labouced  with  siach 
diligence  that  before  the  close  of  the  year  1567  the  requirdd 
tianslations  of  the  Liturgy  and  the  New  Testament  Were  pub- 
lished in  London;  the  former  being  the  exclusive  work  of  the 
bishop,  wliilst  the  latter  was  principally  the  product  of  Salesbury's 
pen;  aklidv^  somo.pi»rtions  of  it  were  contributed  by  Bidiop 
Davies  and  by  Thomas  Huet,  or  Hewett^  preccntof  of  St  DaVidi 
(d..  X 59r).    Having  acoompVdbed  so  much  ih  so  smalls aspace of 
time,  the  two  friends  were  aest  engaged  (Upon  a  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament*  but  owinf^  to  a  qwacreli  tlmxaase  of  vdiich 
remains  obscure,  this  interesting  literary  partnership  was  bnMigfai 
lb  atti  abrupt:  coding  about  1570.  '  The  honoiir  ol  piiasenting  his 
ccAittUymea .  Dritfa' a  complcie  Welsh  vetsBonof'tfae  Bible*  waA 
BBserved  for  WiUtam- Moigaik  (e,  xS47«^t6a4),  vicac  of  Liaor- 
hayader,  n  Denbigfashire,  todalterwards bidiop'saoeesaively  of 
iUadafE'Aid  6f  St  Asaph.    For  cig^  years  Moigan  wasbiaied 
svi&h  hb:  Self-imposed  task,  beiog  greatli!  encduikged  thereto 
^y  Anhbisbop  WhitgUt,  by  Bishop  WUUam  Hi«hcs  (dl  160a)  of 
St  Asl^,.a]id^by  other  leading  digmtaiies  of  thd  Cfanrah  both  in 
England  atid  in  Walea<    In  December  1588  the  tet  coiagilete 
Wdsh  BiUe,  commonly  kaoWa  as  *'  Bishop  MorganV  BibbtTf 
was  iiwMd  from  the  royal  prefeaat: Weatmmstar  wider  the patxoi^ 
a^  of •  qaeen  and  primate,  about  800  copies  bdng^  Supplied  Sor 
distribtttam  amon^it  thri  parish  churches  of  Wakk    This  famous 
fdUhpfinctpt  oix}^  Welsh  Bible,  first  snd  foremost  of  Welsh 
classics.  was-fuillMr  suppbrnented  under  James  L  by  the 
Authorised  VersloiH  piodueed  by  Richard  Fany  (!r96o«t6a3), 
bishOfPot  St  Aiaph,  with  the  help  of  Dr  JdhnOiaivles  of  Bfdlwyd 
(i$7o-i4i4),  the  first  great  Welsh  ledoograpfaer.    At  the  ter* 
C^ileMry  e£"Biihop  Morgan's  Bible"  in  s888  a  notfonal  move- 
>Mnt  dippraoafcioB  «sa  set  o^foot  amongst  Welshmen  of  all 
ilffgritrtUiffiM  hfltii  at  Ambft  and^ioadr  twth  the.  rsault  that 


a  menmriii  cross  was  erected  m  thecathedralxldae  U  St  Aaaph 
in  order  to  pcipetuate  the  names  and  national  services  Of  the 
eigbtrfeadiog  Welsh  translators  of^the  Scriptures ^—Bishopt 
I>avies,  Moegan  and  Party;  William  Salesbuiy;  Thomas  Huet; 
Dr  Davieaof  Mallwyd;  Arcbdcaton  Edmund  Prys  (x54x-f6HK 
author  of  a  popular  Welsh  metrical  venion  of  tlM  Psalter;  aad 
Gabriel  Ooodman,  dean  of  Westminster  (x 528^x601),  a  nhtive 
of  RutUn,  who  gsouly  assisted  Bishop  Morgan  in  his  task.  Two 
drcumstilncca  attending  the  productfon  of  these  Welsh  transta^ 
tloasshould  be  noted:— (1)  That  the  leaders  of  this  remarkable 
xtUgious,  literary  aiid  educational  revival  within  the  Principality 
wen  chlefiy  natives  of  Nortb  Watea,  wbero  for  many  years  Si 
AsBph  was  regarded  as  the  chief  centm  of  Cambro-Britlsh 
intellectual  life;  and  (a)  that  all  theso  importsat  works  in  the 
Wdsh  tongue  wero  published  of  necestity  in  London,  owixi^ 
to  the  absence^  of  an  acknowledged  capital,  or  any  central 
dty  of  hnportaiice  Itt  Wales  itself.  \ 

It  would  be  wiil^nlgh  impossible  to  ekaggerate  the  services 
rendered  to  the  ancient  British  tongue,  ind  consequently  to 
the  nattonal  spirit  of  Wales,  by  these  Elisabethan  and  Jacobeari 
translations,  issued  in  1567,  1588  and  x6so,  which  wero  abM 
definitely  to  fix*  the  standard  of  classical  Welsh^  and  to  embod^ 
the  contending  dialects  of  Gwynedd,  Dyfed  and  Gwent  for  an 
time  In  one  liteiavy  storehouse.  Bat  for  this  sudden  revival 
of  Cymric  litcraliire  under  the  patronage  of  Elisabeth  (for  th^ 
obtaining  of  which  Wales  must  ever  owe  a  deep  debt  of  gmtitud^ 
to  Bish^  Richard  Davies,  "  her  second  St  Dscvld  "),  there  ID 
«very  reason  fo  bidieve  that  the  ancient  tenguage  of  the  Prindl 
pallty  must  elllker.have  drifted  into  a  number  of  corrupt  dialectsj 
as  k  then  showed  symptoms  of  doing,  or  else  have' tended  td 
ultimate  exrinction,  much  ss  the  Cornish  tongue  jperished  hi 
the  t7th  century. 

The  growth  of  Puritanism  in  Wales  was  neither  stiong  not 
ipeedy^  although  the  year  x$S8,  which  witnessed  the  appear- 
ance of  Bishop  Morgan's  Bible,  also  gave  b^th  to  tw<6  fierce 
aj^ieab  to^  the  parttamciit>'  urging  a  drastic  Puxkanical  policy 
Id  WsleSr  from  the  pen  of  the  celebrated  }ohii  Feoxy,  a  native 
ol  Brocknockshiro  (1559-1 593).  Far  moi«  infitteatlal  fhail 
Penxy  amongst  the  Welsh  weare  Rh^  'Pridiard  (?  X579-X644V. 
the  famous  victir  of  Uandovery/*  Carmarthenshire^  and  WilUani 
Wroth  (d*  164^)^  vector  of  Llanfeehea,  Mobtnonthsliiro.  Of 
these  two  Puritan  divtnes,  Vicar  Prkhard,  who  was  esseflCialiy 
oithodoc  In  his  behaviour,  forma  an  iuterestuig  cMin^ctlri^ 
Unk  between  the  learoed  Elitafaethan  translatortt  of  ihift  Bible 
and  fbe  great  revlv^ts  of  the  t8th  century,  and  his  moMt 
rhynite  in  the  vemaodar,  collected  and  printed  after  his  deatli 
under  the  title  of  Tk6  WeMmituit  CoMdtt  (Ganwyll  y  Cymry>| 
still  retain  some  degree  of  popularity  amongst  his  countiymeni 
Although  a  strong  opponent  Of  Laud's  and  Chartes*s  eccle&i< 
satieal  policy,  Prkhard  lived  ^nmolesfed,  and  e^n  rose  to  be 
ehaaceHor  of  St  Davids;  but  the  Indiscreet  Wioth,  *'  the  fouiidet 
aisd  lather  of  nonconfoMty  ift  Wates,**  being  suspended  M 
t6$9  by  Bisbo|y  Murray  of  llsmUff,  founded  a  smsU  oominuntff 
of  Independeau  at  IJsafscJMW,  whkfa  Is  tbus  commonly  s^ 
oouflitcd  the  first  Nbnoonformlst  chapel  In  Wales.  During  thd 
yeais  prior  to  the  Great  RebelUbii,  however,  in  spite  ^f  thk 
preaching  and  writings  of  Vicar  Prkhud,  Wr6th' ind'otliei^l 
the  vast  mass  of  Welshmen  of  afl  classes  remahidd  frilfhdly'  to 
the  H^  Church  policy  of  Laud  and  staunch  suppenm  of  tM 
tisg^  prerogative.  Nor  were  the  e£Cects  of  the  greht  litemrji 
revival  in  Elizabeth's  reign  by  any  means  eriiAUsted,  fdr  h€ 
thk  time  Wales  undoufitedly  poiSMssd  •  large  number  of  native 
divlaea  that  were  at  once  active  parish  priest*  and  «ft6eDenf 
seholaia,  many  of  whom  had  been  educated  at  Jesus  CoDeg^,' 
Oxford,  Che  Welsh  eollege  endowed  by  Dr  Hugh  Vtkt  (d.  xs74> 
snd  founded  under  Elisabeth's  patronage  in  1573.  So  striking 
was  the  devotion  shown  throuj^out  the  Prindpslity  to  the  kMgj 
who  fought  his  last  disastrous  canipaign  In  the  friendly  count!i|^ 
of  Wales  and  the  Marches,  that  on  the  final  victory -of  th^ 
parliament  there  was  passed  witUn  a  month  of  Charles's  executfori 

*  Sometimes  known  as  vicar  of  UandiAgat.  h^  cbutch.  beii}|.  Ul 
'  ^***  iwriih  -  •    -•;  r".-.  .w_  -I..  4..T-« 


akb 


WALES 


la  1649  (pfirhtpt  M  a  tpecUt  AMaion  of  pniiiihmtnt)  an 
*'  Act  for  Uie  better  Prapesatioa  and  Pieiicliing  of  the  Gospel 
In  WaleB,"  by  the  terms  of  which  a  packed  body  of  seventy 
commiasionen  was  presented  with  poweis  that  were  practicaUy 
ttidinited  to  deal  with  all  matteia  ecclesiastical  in  Wales.  To 
assist  these  oomnussioiiers  in  their  task  of  inquiry  and  eject- 
ment, a  body  of  twenty-five  "  Apptovers "  was  ULewiae  con- 
stitdted,  with  the  object  of  seteirting  ithiennt  preachers  to 
rrpUtce  the  dismissed  incumbents;  and  amongst  the  Approvers 
are  oonspictious  the  names  of  Walter  Cradock  (d.  1659),  a  sus- 
pended curate  of  St  Mary's,  Cardiff*  and  a  follower  of  Wroth's^ 
and  of  Vavasor  Powell  (161 7-1670),  an  honest  but  injudicious 
aealot.  Some  530  out  of  a  possible  total  of  520  incumbents 
were  now  ejected  in  South  Wales  and  Monmouthshire,  and 
there  is  eveiy  reason  to  suppose  that  the  beneficed  deigy  of 
North  Wafes  sufeied  equally  under  the  new  system..  The 
greed  and  tyranny  of  several  of  the  commissioners,  and  the 
bigotry  sod  mismanagement  of  well-meaning  fanatics  such  as 
Cradock  and  Powell,  soon'  wrought  dire  confusion  throughout 
the  whole  Principality,  so  that  a  monster  petition,  signed  alike 
by  moderate  Puritans  and  by  High  Churchmen,  was  prepared 
for  presentation  to  parliament  in  1659  by~  Colonel  Edward' 
Freeman,  attorney-general  for  South  Wales.  Despite  the  fierce 
efforts  of  Vavasor  Powell  and  his  brother  itinerant  preachers  to 
thwart  the  reception  of  this  South  Wales  petition  at  Westminster, 
Colonel  Freeman  wa$  able  to  urge  the  claims  of  the  petitioners, 
or  **  Anti-Propagators  "  as  they  were  termed,  at  the  bar  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  openly  dedaring  that  by  the  late  policy 
of  ejectment  and  destruction  "  the  light  of  the  Gospel  ws^ 
almost  extinguished  in  Wales."  A  new  comnussbn  was  now 
appointed  to  inquire  into  alleged  abuses  in  Wales,  and  the 
existing  evidence  dearly  shows  how  harsh  and  unfair  was  the 
treatment  mMcd  out  to  the  dtfgy  under  the  act  of  1649,  and  also 
how  utterly  subversive  of  all  ancient  custom  and-  established 
order  were  the  reforms  suggested  by  the  onnmissioners  and 
approvers.  At  the  Restoration  all  the  ejected  clergy  who  sur- 
vived were  reinstated  in  their  old  benefices  under  the  Act  of 
Uniformity  of  i66a,  whilst  certain  Puritan  incumbents  were  in 
thdr  turn  dismissed  for  refusing  to  comply  with  various  re* 
quirements  of  that  act.  Amongst  these '  Stephen*  Hughes  of 
Carmarthen  (1623-1688),  a.  devoted  foUower  of  Vicar  Prichard 
and  an  editor  of  his  works,  was  ejected  from  the  living  of  Mydrim 
in  Caxmartbenahire,  whereby  the  valuable  services  of  this  eminent 
divine  were  lost  to  the  Church  and  gained  by  the  Nonconformists, 
who  bad  increased  considerably  in  numbers  since  the  Civil  Wars. 
The  old  ecclesiastical  policy  of  Elisabeth;  which  had  hitherto 
borne  such  good  fruit  in  Wales,  was  now  gradually  relaxed  under 
the  later  Stuarts'  and  definitely  abandoned  under  Anne,  during 
whose  reign  only  Englishmen  were  appointed  to  the  vacant 
Welsh  sees.  From  1 70a  to  1870,  a  period  of  nearly  x  70  years,  no 
Welsh-speaking  native,  bishop  was  nominated  (with  the  solitary 
exception  of  John  Wynne,  consecrated  to  St  Asaph  in  1715), 
and  it  is  needless  to  point  out  that  this  selfish  and  unjust  policy 
was  largely  responsible  for  the  neglect  and  misnile  which  disk 
tinguished  the  latter  half  of  the  i8th  and  the  early  part  of  the 
19th  centuries.  The  Church,  which  had  so  long  played  a 
prominent  and  valuable  part  in  the  moral  and  literary  education 
of  the  Welsh  peo|4e,  was  now  gradually  forced  out  of  touch  with 
Che  nation  through  the  actk>n  of  alien  and  unsympathetic  Whig 
pcelaCes  in  Wales  itself,  which  still  xonained  nuOnly  High 
Churqh  and  Jaoobite  in  feeling. 

All  writen  agree  in  stating  that  the  masa  of  the  Welsh 
peopla  a^  the  close  of  the  t7th  century  were  illiterate,  and  many 
divines  of  Cymric  nationality  charge  their  countrymen  also  with 
■nmoraliiy  and  religious  apathy.  English  was  little  spoken  or 
understood  amongst*  the  peasant  population,  and  there  was  a 
great  dearth  of  Welsh  educational  works.  Some  efforts  to  remedy 
this  dark  condition  of  things  had  already  been  made  by  Thomas 
Gouge,  with  the  assistance  of  Stephen  Hughes,  and  also  by  the 
ne^y  founded  "  Sodety  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Know- 
ledge"; but  it  was  Grimth  Jones  (1683-1761),  rector  of  Uand- 
HO'WMr  in  south  Xiarmarihenshire,  who  was  dntined  to  become 


tbo  tme  pioMtr  oi  Wbu  odnaanMi, 
Early  in  the  reign  of  George  I.  this  eyodlfnt,  man,  whose  name 
and  memory  wii  ever  be  tveaanred  so  kng  aa  thtt  Welsh  tengai 
anrvivcs,  bc^an  a  syntem  of  catednang  itt  the  vernacular  aowngit 
the  children  and  adults  of  his  own  parish.     With  the  cordisi 
help  of  Sir  John  Philippsfd.  1736)  ol  Picton  Gaatle,  the  head 
of  an  undent  family  in  Dyfed^  and  of  Mia  Biid^et  Beiraa  of 
Laughame  (d.  Z779),  who  is  still  affectionately  lemembend  in 
Wales  as  the  donor  of ''  Madam  Sevan's  Charity,"  Griffiih  Jones 
was  enabled  to  extend  his  scheme  of  adncating  the  people 
throughout  South  Wales,  where  numerous  **  drculating  charity 
schools,"  aa  they  wtere  called,  were  set  up  in  many  parishes  with 
the  approval  of  their  incumbenta..   The  resnlu  obtained  by  the 
growth  of  theae  schools  wcse  speedy  and  succeasfid  beyond  the 
wildest  hopes  of  thdr  founder.    This  educational  system,  in- 
vented by  Griffith  Jonca  and  supported  by  the  pane  of  Mn 
Sevan,  in  1760  numbered  sis  achods,  with  a  total  number  of 
8687  oonteniporary  achohus;  and  by  the  data  of  Jones's  deatli 
in  X761  it  has  been  proved  that  over  150,000  Welsh  persons  of 
every  age  and  of  dther  sex,meaity  a  third  of  the  whole  popolattoo 
of  Wales  at  that  time,  were  taught  to  read  the  Scdptures  io 
thdr  own  language  by  means  of  these  schools.     With  this  nedf 
acquired  ability  to  read  the  Bible  in  their  own  tongue,  the  nasy 
persons  so  taught  were  not  slow  to  express  a  general  demand  itf 
Cymric  literature,  which  was  met  by  a  supply  from  local  preaf 
in  the  small  country  towns;  the  marvellous  success  of  the  VtIA 
circulating  charity  schools  caused  in  fact  the  birth  of  the  Vd^ 
vernacular  press.    In  spite,  however,  of  the  marked  lmprov» 
ment  in  the  conditions  and  behavwur  of  the  Welsh  people,  oviig 
to  thb  strictly  orthodox  revival  within  the  pale  of  the  Chuicht 
Griffith  Jones  and  his  system  of  education  were  regarded  wi(k 
indifference  by  the  English  prelates  in  Wales,  who  offered  no 
prderment  and  gave  little  encouragement  to  the  founds  oi 
the  drculating  schools.    Meanwhile  the  writings  and  peisonsi 
example  of  the  piooa  rector  of  Llanddowror  were  atirring  other 
Welshmen  in  the  work  of  revival,  chief  amongst  them  being 
Howell  Harris  of  Trevecca  (X711-X773),  a  hyman  of  briUisnt 
abilities  but  erratic  temperament;  and  Danid  Rowland  (1713' 
X790),  curate  of  Uangdtho  in  Mid-Cardiganshire,  who  became 
m  time  the  most  doquent  and  poptdar  preachor  throughout  all 
Wales.    Two  other  clergymen,  who  figure  prominently  in  the 
Methodist  movement,  and  whose  influence  has  proved  lastingi 
were  Peter  Williams  of  Carmarthen  (X723-X796),  the  Welsh 
Bible  commentator,  and  William  Williams  of  Pantycdyn  (x7ir 
X79x),  the  odebnted  Webh  hymn-writer.    Incidentally,  it  wiD 
be  noticed  that  this  important  Methodist  revival  had  its  origin 
and  found  its  diief  supporters  and  exponents  in  a  restricted 
corner  of  South  Wales,  of  which  Carmarthen  waa  the  centre,  lA 
curious  contrast  with  the  literary  movement  in   Elixabetfa't 
rdgn,  which  waa  hugely  confined  to  the  district  round  St 
Ateph. 

During  the  lifetime  of  Griffith  Jones  the  course  of  Welsh 
Methodiim  had  run  in  orthodox  channels  and  had  been  gsnerally 
supported  by  the  Wdsh  clergy  and  gentry;  but  after  Ua  death 
the  tendency  to  exceed  the  hounds  of  conventsoaal  Church 
disdpiine  grew  so  marked  aa  to  excite  the  alarm  bf  the  English 
bishops  hi  Wales.    Meverthdeis,  the  bulk  of  the  MethodiM 
continued  to  attend  the  services  of  the  Church,  and  to  receivt 
the  sacraments  from  regidarly  ordained  parish  priests,  although 
a  schism  was  becoming  inevitable.    Towards  the  dose  of  the 
x8th  century  the  Methodist  revival  spread  to  North  Wales 
under  the  influence  of  the  celebrated  Thomas  Charles,  eamaioaly 
called  Charles  of  Bala  (x75s-*xS24),  formerly  curate  of  Uany 
mowddwy  and  the  founder  of  Welsh  Sunday  schools.    So  strained 
had  the  relations  between  the  English  rulers  of  the  Chuith  and 
the  Methodists  themadvcs  now  grown,  that  in  x8xi  the  loog^ 
expected  schism  took  place,  much  to  the  regret  of  Charles  oi 
Bala  himself,  who  had  ever  been  a  devoted  disdple  of  Griffith 
Jones.    The  great  bulk  of  the  farmmg  and  labouring  membe^ 
of  the  Church  now  definitely  abandoned  thdr  *^  Aadeat  Mother, 
to  whom,  however,  the  Wdsh  gentry  still  adhered.    The  Gnat 
Schism  of  x&ii  xnarka  in  fact  tha  inwesL  noiai  aaL-wfalah^dMi^ 


WALES 


S67 


iortWM  of  tht  wee  poweiful  tnd  popvJtu  Church  In  Wftles  had 
tmk;— 4n  x8xi  there  were  only  Engfish-speaking  prelates  to  be 
found,  whilst  the  abuses  of  non-residence,  plursdilies  and  even 
nepotism  were  rampant  everywhere.  As  instances  of  this  clerical 
oomtption  then  prevailing  in  Wales,  mention  may  be  made  of 
the  cases  of  Richard  Watson  (d.  18x6),  the  non-resident  bishop 
o|  Llanda£f,  who  rarely  visited  his  diocese  during  an  episcopate 
of  thirty  years;  and  of  another  English  divine  who  held  the 
deanery,  the  chancellorship  and  nine  livings  in  a  North  Welsh 
see,  his  curatea-in-charge  being  paid  out  of  Queen  Anne's  Bounty, 
a  fund  expressly  intended  for  the  benefit  of  impoverished  livings. 
An  honourable  exception  to  the  Indolent  and  rapacious  divines 
of.  this  stamp  was  Thomas  Burgess  (bishop  of  St  Davids),  to 
whose  exertions  is  mainly  due  the  foundation  of  St  David's 
College  at  Lampeter  In  1822,  an  Institution  erected  to  provide 
a  better  and  cheaper  education  for  intending  Welsh  clergymen^ 
llie  foundation  of  Lampeter  College  was  one  of  the  earliest  signs 
of  a  new  era  of  revived  vigour  and  better  government  within  the 
Church,  although  it  was  not  till  1870  that,  by  Mr  Gladstone's 
appointment  of  Dr  Joshua  Hughes  to  the  see  of  St  Asaph,  the 
special  claims  of  the  Welsh  Church  were  officially  recc^ized, 
and  the  old  Elizabethan  policy  was  one  more  reverted  to  after 
a  lapse  of  nearly  two  hundred  years.  After  1870  Welsh  ecclesi- 
astical appointments  were  made  in  a  more  truly  national  spirit, 
and  this  official  acknowledgment  of  the  peculiar  duties  and  claims 
of  the  Church  in  Wales  largely  helped  to  win  back  no  small 
amount  of  the  strength  and  popularity  that  had  been  lost  during 
Georgian  times. 

With  U^  old  national  Church  enthraOed  by  English  political 
pedates,  and  consequently  hindered  fnom  ministering  to  the 
special  needs  of  the  people,  the  progress  of  dissent  throughout  the 
Principality  was  naturally  rapid.  Although  primary  education 
was  largely  supplied  by  the  many  Church  schools  in  all  parts 
of  Wsles,  y«t  it  waa  in  the  three  most  important  denomina* 
tIons~the  CongregationaUsts,  the  Baptisu  and  the  Calvinistic 
Methodists  (that  new-bom  sect  of  which  the  Church  herself 
was  the  unwilling  parent) — that  almost  aU  Welsh  spiritual 
devdopment  was  to  be  found  during  the  first  half  of  the  XQtb 
century.  Thus  between  the  year  181 1  (the  date  of  the  Methodist 
secession)  and  18^  (the  year  of  the  ^reat  Reform  BiD),  the 
number  of  dissenting  chapels  had  risen  from  945  to  1438:  a 
truly  marvelbua  iacaease  even  allowing  for  the  speedy  growth 
of  population,  since  efveiy  chapel  so  built  bad  of  necessity  to  be 
well  attended  In  order  to  render  it  self-suppoitlng.  From  this 
religious  guidance  of  the  people  by  the  well-organised  forces  of 
dissent,  it  was  but  a  step  to  political  ascendancy,  and  aa  the 
various  constitutidnal  changes  ftom  the  Reform  Bill  onward 
began  to  lower  the  elective  franchise,  and  thus  to  throw  more 
and  more  power  into  the  hands  of  the  working  classes,  that 
spirit  of  radicalism,  which  Is  peculiarly  associated  with  political 
dissent,  began  to  assert  itself  powerfully  throughout  the  country. 
As  early  as  the  reign  of  William  IV.  there  appeared  the  weekly 
XiM^  of  Wales  (Amsctau  Cymry),  founded  and  edited  by  the 
able  William  Rees,  who  may  be  styled  the  father  of  the  Welsh 
political  press;  and  the  success  of  Rees's  venture  was  so  marked 
that  other  journals,  arranged  to  suit  the  special  tenets  of  each 
sect,  speedily  q;>rang  into  existence.  In  the  year  1870 — a  date 
that -for  many  reasons  marks  the  inning  <^  an  important  era 
in  modem  Welsh  history — the  dissenting  bodies  of  Wales  were 
supporting  two  quarterly,  sixteen  monthly  and  ten  weekly 
papers,  all  published  in  the  vernacular  and  all  read  largely  by 
peasants,  colliers  and  artisans.  With  so  powerful  a  press  behind 
it,  it  is  no  wonder  that  Welsh  political  dissent  was  largely 
responsible  for  the  changed  attitude  of  the  Imperial  government 
in  its  treatment  of  the  Principality— as  evinced  In  the  Sunday 
Cleaing  Act  of  i88x,  a  measure  which  was  veiy  dear  to  the  strong 
temperance  party  in  Wales,  and  in  the  Welsh  Intermediale 
Education  Act,  granted  by  Lord  Salisbury's  government  In 
1889.  It  was  certainly  owing  to  the  pressure  of  Welsh  political 
disKUt  that  Lord  Rosebery's  cabmet  Issued  the  Wekh  Land 
Tenure  0»mmIssion  In  1^3— an  Inquiry  which  did  much  to 
twwwBitc  the  Welsh  t<|wcearchy  from  a  number .  of  vafue 


charges  of  extortion  and  sectarian  oppreision;  and  that  Sir 
H.  Campbell-Bannerman's  cabinet  appointed  the  Welsh  Church 
Commission  (21st  June  1906).  This  Commission  was  authorized 
to  "  inquire  into  the  origin,  nature,  amount  and  application  of 
the  temporalities,  endowments  and  other  properties  of  the 
Church  of  England  in  Wales  and  Monmouthshire;  and  into  the 
provision  made  and  the  work  done  by  the  Churches  of  all  de- 
nominations in  Wales  and  Monmouthshire  for  the  spiritual 
welfare  of  the  people,  and  the  extent  to  which  the  people  avail 
themselves  of  such  provision."  The  Report  and  Memoranda 
of  the  Commission  were  published  on  the  2nd  of  December 
igxa 

Mention  must  be  ttade  of  the  Rebecca  riots  in  1843-1844  la 
South  Wales,  wherein  many  toll  gates  were  destroyed  by  mobs 
of  countrymen  dressed  in  female  garb,  "  as  the  daughters  of 
Rebecca  about  to  possess  the  gates  of  their  enemies  ";  and  the 
Anti-Tithe  agiution  of  1 885-1886— largely  traceable  to  the 
inBammatory  language  used  concerning  clerical  tithe  by  certain 
organs  of  the  vernacular  press— which  led  to  some  disorderly 
scenes  between  distraining  parties  of  police  and  crowds  of  excited 
peasants  in  the  more  remote  rural  districts.  There  have  been 
occasional  strikes  accompanied  by  acts  of  lawlessness  in  the 
industrial  and  mining  districts  of  Glamorganshire,  and  also 
amongst  the  workmen  employed  in  the  quarries  of  Gwynedd. 

The  University  College  of  Wales  was  founded  at  Aberystwyth 
In  1872;  that  of  South  Wales  at  Cardiff  in  1883;  and  of  North 
Wales  at  Bangor  in  1884.  In  1889  the  system  of  intermediate 
schools,  arranged  to  form  an  educational  link  between  the  primaiy 
schools  and  the  colleges,  was  Inaugurated.  In  November  1893 
the  University  of  Wales  was  incorporated  by  rpyal  charter,  with 
Lord  Aberdare  (d.  1895)  as  its  first  chancellor.  All  the  religious 
bodies,  including  the  Church,  have  been  extremely  active  in 
educational  and  pastoral  work;  whilst  the  pecuKar  religious 
movement  known  as  a  revival  (Diwygjad)  has  occurred  from  time 
to  time  throughout  the  Principality,  notably  in  the  years  1859 
and  1904, 

But  the  most  remarkable  phenomenon  in  modem  Wales  has 
been  the  evident  growth  of.  a  strong  national  sentiment,  the 
evolution  of  a  new  Webh  Renaissance,  which  demanded  special 
recognition  of  the  Principality's  claims  by  the  Imperial  parlia* 
ment.  This  revived  spirit  of  nationalism  was  by  outsiders  some- 
times associated,  quite  erroneously,  with  the  aims  and  actions 
of  the  Welsh  parliamentary  party,  the  spokesmen  of  political 
dissent  in  Wales;  yet  in  reaUty  this  sentiment  was  shared  equally 
by  the  clergy  of  the  Established  Church,  and  hy  a  large  number 
of  the  kity  within  its  fold.  Nor  Is  the  question  of  the  vernacular 
itself  of  necessity  bound  up  with  this  new  movement,  for  Wales 
is  essentially  a  bi-Iingual  countcy,  wherein  every  educated 
Cymro  speaks  and  writes  English  with  ease,  and  where  also  large 
towns  and  whole  districts — such  as  Cardiff,  south  Monmouth, 
the  Vale  of  Glamorgan,  Cower,  south  Glamorgan,  south  Pem- 
broke, east  Flint,  Radnorshire  and  Brcconshire — remain  practi- 
cally monoglot  English-speaking.  Nor  are  the  Welsh  landowners 
and  gentry  devoid  of  this  new  spirit  of  nationalism,  and  although 
some  generations  ago  they  ceased  as  a  body  to  speak  the  native 
tongue,  they  hav^ shown  a  strong  disposition  to  study  once  mor^ 
the  ancient  language  and  literature  of  their  country.  It  is  tru^ 
that  a  Young  Wales  party  has  arisen,  which  seeks  to  narrow  this 
movement  to  the  exdu^on  of  English  ideas  and  influences;  and 
it  is  alK>  true  that  there  is  a  party  which  is  abnormally  suspicious 
of  and  hostile  to  this  Welsh  Renaissance;  but  inHhe  main  it  is 
correct  to  say  that  the  bulk  of  the  Welsh  nation  remains  content 
to  assert  its  views  and  requirements  in  a  reasonable  manner. 
How  wide-spread  and  enthusiastic  is  this  tme  ^irit  of  national 
ism  amongst  all  classes  and  sects  of  Welsh  society  to-day  may 
be  observed  at  the  great  meetings  of  the  National  Eisteddfod, 
which  is  held  on  alternate  years  in  North  and  South  Wales  at 
some  important  centre,  and  at  which  the  immense  crowds  col 
lected  and  the  interest  displayed  make  a  deep  impression  on  th4 
Ang^o-Saxon  or  foreign  visitors.  The  sincere,  If  somewhat 
narrow-minded  religious  feelings;  the  devotion  manifested  by 
an  cUmes  towards  the  land  of  their  fathers;  the  extraordinaiy 


26S 


WAtES 


vitality  of  the  Cambio-British  tongue — ihtat  are  the  main  char- 
acteristics of  modem  Wales,  and  they  seem  to  verify  the  terms 
of  Talicsin's  ancient  prophecy  concerning  the  eaiiy  dwellers  of 
Cwalia: — 

*'  Their  Lord  they  shall  praise; 
Their  Tongue  they  shall  keep; 
Their  Land  they  shall  lose 

Except  WUd  Walcsu"  (H.  M.  V.) 

Wdsh  UUraiun.—Tht  Welsh  language  possesses  an  ex- 
tensive literature,  ranging  from  the  9th  century  to  the  present 
day.  A  detailed  accotmt  of  it  will  be  found  in  the  artide  Celt: 
Celtic  LUcrattire,  |  iv. 

Welsh  £tffi|Ma|c:— Welsh,  the  Celtic  language  spoken  by  the 
ancient  Britons  (see  Celt:  Language),  is  the  domestic  tongue 
of  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Principality.  With 
(he  final  destruction  of  Welsh  independence  under  Edward  I. 
the  Cambro-British  language,  in  spite  of  the  disappearance  of  a 
iSourt,  continued  to  be  spoken  by  Welshmen  of  all  classes  residing 
west  of  Severn,  and  the  X4th  and  15th  centuries  arc  remarkable 
for  producing  some  of  the  finest  Welsh  bards  and  historians. 
With  the  um'on  of  Wales  with  England  by  the  Act  of  37  Hcniy 
VIII.  (1536)  the  subsequent  administration  of  all  law  and  justice 
in  the  English  tongue  throughout  the  Principality  threatened  for 
a  time  the  andcnt  language  of  the  people  with  practical  extinct- 
lion.  From  such  a  fate  it  was  largely  preserved  by  the  various 
translations  of  the  Scriptures,  undertaken  at  the  command  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  and  performed  by  a  number  of  native  scholars 
and  divines,  amongst  whom  appear  prominent  the  names  of 
Bishops  Davies,  Moigan  and  Parzy,  and  of  William  Salisbury 
of  Llanrwst.  Although  the  assertion  of  the  celebrated  Rhys 
Prichard  of  Llandovery  that  in  his  time  (r.  1630)  only  x%  of  the 
people  of  Wales  could  read  the  native  language  is  probably  an 
exaggeration,  yet  the  number  of  persons  who  could  read  and 
write  Welsh  must  have  been  extremely  small  outside  the  ranks 
bf  the  dergy.  During  the  eariier  half  of  the  X7th  century  the 
number  of  Welsh  Bibles  distributed  throughout  the  Principality 
could  hardly  have  exceeded  8000  in  all,  and  except  the  Bible 
there  was  scarcely  any  Weldi  work  of  importance  in  drctilation. 
The  system  of  the  Welsh  drculating  charity  schools,  set  up 
by  Griffith  Jones,  rector  of  Llanddowror,  in  the  iSth  century, 
undoubtedly  gave  an  immense  impetus  to  the  spread  of  popular 
education  in  Wales,  for  it  has  been  stated  on  good  authority  that 
about  one-third  of  the  total  population  was  taught  to  read  and 
write  Welsh  by  means  of  this  system.  As  a  result  of  Criffith 
Jones's  efforts  there  quickly  arose  a  vigorous  demand  for  Welsh 
books  of  a  pious  and  educational  character,  which  waslargely 
Supplied  by  local  Welsh  printing-presses.  The  enthusiastic 
course  of  the  Methodist  movement  under  Howell  Harris,  Danid 
Rowland  and  William  Williams;  the  establishment  of  Welsh 
Sunday  Schools;  the  founding  of  the  Bible  Sodety  under 
Thomas  Charics  of  Bala;  and  the  revival  eariy  in  the  19th 
centuiy  of  the  Eisteddfodau  (the  ancient  bardic  contests  of  music, 
poetry  and  learning),  have  all  contributed  to  extend  the  use  of 
the  Welsh  language  and  to  strengthen  its  hold  as  a  popular 
medium  of  education  throughout  the  Prindpality.  In  1841 
the  Welsh-speaking  population  was  computed  at  67%  of  the 
total,  and  in  1893  Welsh  was  understood  or  spoken  by  over 
60%  of  the  inhabitants  in  the  twdve  Wdsh  counties  with  the 
exception  of  the  following  districts,  wherein  English  is  the  pre- 
vailing or  the  sole  language  employed: — viz.  nearly  the  vhole  of 
Radnorshire;  east  Flint,  induding  the"  ndghbouring  districts 
of  Ruabon  and  Wrexham  In  Denbighshire;  east  Brecknock; 
cast  Montgomery;  south  Pembroke,  with  the  adjoining  district 
pf  Laughame  in  Carmarthenshire;  and  the  districts  of  Gower, 
Vale  of  Glamorgan  and  Cardiff  in  south  GlamorgaiL*  In  Mon- 
mouth, the  eastern  portion  of  the  county  is  purely  English- 
speaking,  and  in  the  weitetn  districts  Englidi  also  prevails 
p.  E.  Southall,  Linguistic  Map  o(  Wales). 

Before  t  radng  the  history  of  Welsh  sounds,  ft  will  be  convenient 
t<ygive  the  values  of  the  letters  In  the,  modem  alphabet:— 

Tenues :p\l\t{wm Eng.  k). 
•  Mediae:  b;  d;  g  (-Eag.  hard  g). 


Voiceless  spirants:  f  ttf  fk  (-ft»g.  /);  ik  f-Eng.  Il  ta 
///fcifc) ;  cA(  >  Scottish  ck  in  lock). 

Voiced  spirants:  /  (-Eng.  t);  dd  (-Eng.  tM  in  tAis);  the 
guttural  voiced  spirant  (7)  disappeared  early  in  Welsh. 

Voicdess  nasals:  mk;nk;  ngh. 

Voiced  nasals:  m\n\ng. 

Voiceless  liquids:  U  (unilateral  voioeleai  /);  rk  (voiceleai  r). 

Voiced  liquids:  /;  r. 

Sibilant:  s  (Welsh  haa  no  s). 

Aspirate:  A. 

Semi-vowels:  t  ("^Eng.  y  in  yanrf);  w  («Eng.  «). 

The  sounds  of  /  and  d  are  more  dental  than  in  Eng^sh,  thou^ 
they  vary;  the  voiced  spirants  are  very  soft;  the  volcdtts 
nasals  are  aspirated,  thus  nk  is  similar  to.  Enf.  nk  In  itik^\ 
r  is  trilled  as  in  Itab'an. 

Vowels:  a,e,i,o  have  the  same  values  as  in  Italian;  »  «s  a 
vowel -north  Eng.  00  in  book  or  Italian  «;  y  Has  two  sounds^ 
(i)  the  dear  sound  resembUng  the  Eng.  i  in  bit,  but  pronounced 
farther  back;  (a)  the  obscure  sound -Eng.  Hn.  fir\  u  in  M«L 
Welsh  had  the  sound  of  French  w,  but  now  haa  the  dear  sound  of 
y  described  above,  which  is  similat  to  the  ear,  and  has  the  sane 
pilch. 

The  Weld)  language  belongs  to  the  Celtic  branch  of  the  Ar)U 
or  Indo-European  family  of  laoguagcs.    Primitive  Cdtlc  split  U{xtf 
already  shown,  into  two  dialects,  re|>re8ented  in  modem  tiioef  If 
two  groups  of  langnaget— (i)  the  Goiddie  group,  comprisiiis  iiiA 
Scottish.  Gadic  and  Maax.    (2)  The  Bryiktmic  or  Brittomc  *  pnitk 


•upphinted  in  France  by  Latin,  had  ^,  as  in  feBor-riium,  **UMh 
wheeled  car,"  and  b  thus  allied  to  the  Brythonic  gtoup;  but  it  i> 
believed  that  remains  of  a  continental  Cdtio  qu-  dialect  MPP^ 
in  such  names  as  Sequent,  and  in  some  (cccntly  discovered  injcri^ 
tions.  The  sounds  of  parent  Aryan  appeared  in  Prfmitrve  Cdot 
with  the  following  modifications  ^--^  disappeand,  tktis  Aryan  *pderi 
which  gave  Latin  pa/er,  Eng.  fa|Arr.  cave  m  liiah  atkir;  conespoe^ 
ing  to  Eng.  Aoor,  we  have  Insh  Idr*  Welsh  Uawr.  The  velar  tcnunflk 
when  labiaUzcd,  became  ^m,  without  labialization  became  k;  tM 
velar  media  g  became  b  or  g.  The  aspirated  mediae  M,  dk,  gk,  fb 
were  treated  at  unacpimted  A,  d^  g,  g;  probably  also  the  me  aspv* 
ated  tcnaes  fdl  together  with  the  unaspiinsea.  The  #ther  AiyeA 
conGonan|s  seem  genccaUy  to  have  remained.  Aryan  d.  I,  fi  i cmaioed, 
Aryan  *  became  f,  as  in  Irish  /ir,  Welsh  aetr.  "  true,  cognate  with 
Latin  v9r-us.  Aryan  d  became  A,  as  In  Irtsh  lor,  co^ate  wnh  AdeIo- 
Saxon  fldf,  Eng.  jlcor.  The  abort  vowela  teauimtd,  cacepc  thaf 
Arvan  a  became  a»  as  ia  the  other  European  hrandiea. 

In  Brythonic,  |>rimitive  Cdtic  qu  became  ^,  as  above  note^ 
Probably  also  Celtic  U  was  advancing  or  had  advanced  to  a  forward 
position,  for  it  appear*  In  Welsh  as  I,  as  in  dtn,"'  stronghold,"  inm 
Cekic  *datt-on,  co^te  with  Enr.  ttmm,  while  Latin  u,  borrowed  in 
the  Brythonic  period,  gives  11  with  iu  Welsh  aownd  above  described^ 
as  in  mir,  "  wall,"  fror  Latin  mur-us. 

The  Aryan  system  of  inflexion  was  preserved  in  Celtic,  as  fnaV 
be  seen  In  Stowes's  restoration  of  Cdtic  declension  {Trans.  PkiieL 
Soc:,  *k88«-i886,  pp.  97-aoi);  ami  Brythonie  was  pcofanbly  as 
highly  inflected  as  Latin.  The  development  oC  Brythonic  into 
Wclsn  is  analogous  to  that  of  Latin  into  Frcndi.  Unfortunatciyt 
the  extant  remains  of  Brythonic  are  scanty;  but  in  the  RomaS 
period  it  borrowed  a  large  number  of  Latin  words,  whidi,  as  w^ 
Know  their  original  forms,  and  as  they  andcrwenc  the  anrne  modi* 
fications  as  other  words  in  the  language,  enatkle  us  to  trace  th* 
phonetic  changes  by  which  Brythonic  becaume  Welsh. 

These  changes  are  briefly  as  follows: — 

I.  Lois  of  Syllables.— Th^  last  syllabic  of  every  wwd  of  more  tnas 
one  syllable  was  dromied;  thus  Latin  lermUt'-'Ui  gives  in  WeW 
terfyn:  the  name  Sabrtn-^*  " Severn "  became  N<ifrfn.  The  losi 
extends  to  the  stcm^ending  of  the  first  demont  of  a  compound,  thus 
the  personal  name  idaglo-c&nos  became  Maelgwn;  and  generally 
to  unaccented  syllables,  thus  episcopus  became  *epxop,  wheurs 
esgob;  trtHtidt-em  gives  Irindod.  The  accusative  is  often  the  as(f 
fepiCKnted  in  Wdsh;  but  we  have  also  the  nominative,  ami 
aometiroes  both,  as  in  civmd  from  civtl^i,  and  dwdod  from  dvOAl-^x 
now  two  words,  not  two  cases  of  the  same  woru,  Aryan  declension 
naturally  disappeared  with  the  loss  of  final  syllables.  ^. 

a.  Consonant  OkdNfM.— (i)  Between  two  vowels,  or  a  vo«" 
and  a  Isqnldr  the  seven  amsonaats  pt  I.  «.  b,  (f.  g.  m.  become  re* 
spectivdy  b^  4,  g,  f,  dd,  •»  /,  where  "-"  represents  the  lost  voiced 
spirant  y.     Examples;  Latin  cupjdus  gave  cybydd;  Tacitus  s^ 

>The  Breton*  call  thdr  languaae  Ametn*;  the  Wdsh  U 
sometimes  call  Welsh  Brylkaneg:  Doth  forms  imply  an  or 
*BriUonica.  ^ 

'The  t  was  short:  5bMm  wodd  have-glven  JH\friif\n  WAw  " 


WALES 


269 


rkvyf.  This  change  is  called  the  *' soft  mutation."  U)  A(tcr  nasals 
p.  I,  «.  ^1  4.  c  became  fcspectavely  mht  nk,  mk,  m^  n,  ng;  thus 
tmpier(Uorgavtymkeraspdr,9it»damb^os  (evidently  a  Brythonicaswoll 
»s  a  Gauhsh  word)  @ve  amaeth  (m.  though  etymologically  double, 
IS  written"slngle).  Th»  change  is  called  the  "  nasal  mutation." 
(3)  PP*  tf<  ^  became  respectively  ph  orff,  tk,  ck}  thus  pectotum  gave 
pechavjdt  later  p«cW;  and  BnUOHet  gave  Brytkon.  This  change 
u  called  the  "  spirant  mutation."  The  tcnub  becomes  a  spirant 
also  after  r  or  /,  as  m  corff  from  corpus^  and  Eifin  from  AlMnus, 
bot  tt  gives  Ut  or  U.  The  combinations  act,  ect,  oct,  uci  gave  aetk,  vtk, 
9€tA,  wylk,  icspectivety;  as  m  daetk,  "  wnc,"  from  Lat.  doctus, 
Jffrurytk  irom/ructus.  (4)  Onnnal  s  between  vowds  (but  not  Latm 
sf  became  k,  and  disappeared;  initially  it  generally  api)ears  as  h, 
as  in  kaUriy  "  salt."  sometimes  as  i.  as  in  saUk.  **  seven."  Initial 
I  and  f  became  U  and  rk,  as  seen  m  examples  in  (1)  above,  but 
between  voweb  they  leniaaned.  Similarly  inkial  •  became  fw,  as 
In  p»Ui^  from  Latm  vinMin,  cemaiiting  between  vowefe,  though  now 
wnttcn  «.  as  in  awed  from  dntoJL 

Atonsonant  occurring  medially  is,  generally  speaking,  invariable 
In  the  orcsent  language;  thus  the  p and  d  of  atpCdus  are  b  and  dd  m 
eybydd^  but  with  the  initial  consonant  the  case  is  diff«rMit.  In  one 
combination  the  initial  may  remain,  thus  *cinos  cuptdus  ^ve  tMl 
cybydd, "  one  miser  ,  in  another  combination  it  may  have  originally 
stood  between  vowels,  and  so  is  mutated,  as  m  *dud  cuptdd,  whitn 
gave  dau  tybydd,  **  two  misers^*'  Thus  arose  the  system  of  **  initial 
mutation  an  initial  consonant  may  fstain  its  original  form,  or 
may  uadergio  any  of  the  changes  t6  which  it  is  autQcct.  The  names 
given  above  to  these  changes  are  those  by  which  they  are  known 
when  they  occur  initially  the  unchanged  form  bqing  called  the 
•'  radical  The  hqtndi  faarid  r  were  brought  into  the  system,  the 
initial  forms  U  ana  rh  being  regarded  as  "  radical."  The  imtal 
oiotatioos.  then,  are  as  follows,-— 


Radical 

P 

I 

e 

b 

d 

I 

M 

a 

rk 

Soft 

b 

d 

i 

f 

dd 

^ 

f 

I 

f 

Nasal 

mk 

nk 

ngA 

m 

n 

«« 

No  change. 

Spirant 

^ 

tk 

ek 

No  change. 

No  change. 

The  initial  mutation  of  any  wor^  depends  upon  its  position  ta 
the  sentence,  and  is  determined  by  a  graminatjcal  rule  which  can 
ordinarily  be  traced  to  a  generalization  of  the  original  phonetic 
condiiiona.  Thus  the  second  element  of  a  compound  word^  even 
though  written  and  aecenied  as  a  separate  word,  has  a  soft  mttial, 
because  in  Brythonic  the  first  element  of  a  compound  generally 
ended  in  a  vowel,  as  in  the  name  Mai^-amos,  The  more  important 
rules  for  initial  mutation  are  the  following .  the  soft  mutation  occurs 
fit  a  feminine  singular  noun  after  the'  article,  thus  y  fam^  **  the 
mother  **  (racttcal  mmm);  In  an  adjective  foUowing  n  feminine 
singular  noun,  as  in  mam  ddf^,  '^  a  good  toother  "  (ia,  "  flood  '*) ;  in 
a  noun  following  a  positive  adjective,  as  '^Jkin  dd^  old  man," 
because'*^'    ^  *"^  '-'"-  -• 


noun  after  a  simple  prepositions  .in  k  vtth  after  the  relative  n. 
The  nasal  mutation  occurs  after  ^,  '*  my,"  and  ms,  "  in  ";  thus 
fymkfH,  "  my  head  "  {pat,  "  head '^),  yn  Nkalpirth,  *'  at  Talearth." 
The  splmnt  mutation  occurs  after  a,  "  and,"  "  with,"  H,  "^her  "; 
thus  0.  ^Ara.  "  and  a  bead,"  ei  ffkm,  **  her  head." 
3,  Vomd  ClMMgef.^1)  Long  4.  whether  from  Aryan  d  or  0  or 

{rom  Latin  d,  becomes  ov  in  monosyllables,  as  in  6raiM,  "  facother  " 
rom  *br<Uer;  In  the  penult  it  is  0,  as  in  broder,  "  brotheas,"  in  tho 
taltima  aw,  later  0,  as  in  peekawd,  now  peeked,  horn  peccdtum.  Long 
•»  whether  from  Aryan  I  or  I,  or  from  Latin  1,  remains  as  4,  see  ex- 
nniplef  above.  Latin  i  was  ideptified  with  a  native  diphthong  cs, 
ana  becomes  ^v,  as  in  rkwyf  from  rimus.  Latin  9  and  0  appear  as 
It;  see  examples  above.  A  long  vowel  when  unaccented  counts 
short,  thus  pecedtSrem  treated  as  *peccdt^em,  gave  peckadur.  (2) 
Short  4.  i,  0  remain;  short  I  became  y\  and  s  became  y  (with  ita 
«bfcure  sound)  In  the  penult,  remaining  in  the  ultima,  though  now 
wnttcn  w.  But  short  vowels  have  been  affected  by  vowels  10  sue* 
deeding  sytlabtes.  These  "affections"  of  vowels  are  as  follows :- 
(«)'  i-flSeetion,  caused  by  «*  in  a  lost  termination:  d  becomes  ai  or 
•s.  and  i*  i,  i  became  y,  more  rarely  otf  or  si.  Thus  *hard6S  gave 
jkMU,  but  pL  *6erA  gave  Mhid;  episeopt  mm  c^pfr,  "  bishops." 
This  change  is  also  cauied  by  -4,  as  in  urtar  "  thief,  from  litri. 
Xfi)  A-afTection, caused  by  a  In  a  lost  ending:  f  becomes  e  (instead  of 
9):  i  becomes  0.  Thus  deltas  gave  ctu^;  ctdAmna  gave  cdcfH. 
MrtS  Piaiultiinatenireetioni  f  of  v  fin  the  ultima  cnuaee  several  changes 
in  thq  peMilt.  neerfk '« «Rlcr,"^0«*«. "  to  bid  ";  tatr, "  cmrpentcr." 
nt  $e%ni  catr, "  Sort,  *  fA.  uyryd4'  (3)  In  the  modern  lai^uage  other 
vowel  changes  occur  by  a  change  of  position;  thus  ai,  au,  aw  in  the 
tthima  become  ei,  en,  o  respectively  fn  the  penult,  as  rfatf ,  "  leaves," 
dnUtk,  "  loaf  ":  totrf.  **  eun,"  iMiJof.  '*  sunny  ";  hniwd,  "  brother." 
^.  ^ddrr  or  htadj^  The  laet  is  an  old  interchange  of  aounds.  and 
orobably  the  others  are  older  than  thwr  first  appearance  in  rnftiag 
\;t5th  century)  suggests.' 
xxviu  5* 


Afc^dtnu.'^t\'S^  has  a  definite  article  yt,  **the,'*   which 
becomes  >  after  a  vowel,  and  y  before  a  consonant  unless  already 
reduced  to  V.    Thus  yr  oen,  "  the  lamb,"  iV  /y,  "  into  the  house. 
yny  ty^  "  in  the  house." 

The  noun  has  two  numbers,  and  two  genders,  masculine  and 
feminine.  A  plural  noun  is  formed  from  the  singular  by  t-affcction: 
thus  bardi,  "  bard,"  pi.  btudd,  ffon,  "  stick,"  phffyn;  or  by  adding 
a  termination  as  ffenestr,  "  window."  pL  ffeneUrt,  with  any  conse- 
auent  vowel  change,  as  ^rawd,  ''brother,"  pL  brodyr,  polad, 
'country,"  pi.  twUdydd.  The  terminations  chiefly  used  are  -au, 
-ton,  -on,  -f,  -yda,  -cedd.  These  are  old  stem  endings  left  after  the 
loss  of  the  original  -es,  -thus  lalrO  gives  ^<fr.  UUrone^  gives  Uadroni 
the  forms  having  dd  represent  |  stems,  |  becoming  dd  in  certain 
positions. 

f n  some  cases  the  singular  Is  formed  from  the  plural  by  the  ad- 
dition of  'yn  otren;  thus  sir,  "  stars,"  seren,  "  star." 

Pemimnir  names  of  Ii\'ing  things  are  formed  from  the  masculine 
by  the  addition  of  -4S,  as  orentHj  ''^king,"  breninues,  "  queen  ";  tUw, 
"  lion,"  liewes,  "  lioness."  It  is  difficult  to  lay  down  rules  for  the 
determination  of  the  ffcnder  of  names  of  inanimate  objects. 

AdjectixTS  are  inflected  for  number  and  gender.  Plural  ad* 
jectivcs  are  formed  from  the  singular  by  <-aifcction  or  bv  adding 
the  termination  -um  or  -an ,  thus  kardd,  "  beautiful,"  pf.  hetrda; 
^as,  '•  blue,"  pi.  ^Utnon. 

Adjectives  having  y  or  v  are  made  feminine  by  o-afTection.  due 
to  the  lost  feminine  ending  -a,  thus  gfvys,  "  white."  fern,  gioen; 
Irwm,  "  heavy."  fcm.  from. 

The  adjective  has /our  degrees  01  comparison — positive,  equative.' 
comparauve,  superlative,  as^Mn,  "  clean,"  ttaned,  "  as  clean  (as).', 
llanack,  "cleaner,"  ^anaf,  "cleanest."  A  few  adjectives  are 
compared  irregularly 

The  personal  pronouns  aret  dmple  sing.  i.  mi,  3.  /i,  3.  masc.  r/, 
fem.  Ai;  pL  i.  ni,  2  ckwt,  3.  kwy,  kwynt,  reduplicated,  mx/t,  I/A, 
&c;  conjunctive,  mttinau,  titkau,  &c  Prefixed  genitive;  smg. 
I  fy,  "  my,"  a.  dy,  3  4,  ei',  pi.  i  yn,  «»,  2  yck,  euk,  3.  eu.  Infixed 
genitive  and  accusative:  sine.  i.  'm,  2  'ik,  3.  '«;  pi.  i.  *n,  2.  *cki 
3.  'h.    Affixed:  sing.  i.  i,  2,  dt,  3.  ef,  &c.,  Ukc  the  simple  forms. 

The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  hwn,  "  this,"  Jkimmv,  "  that,** 
fern.  kon.  konno,  pi.  Ayii,  kynny. 

The  relative  pronouns  are  nominative  and  accusative  a,  oblique 
cases  ydd,  yr,  y.  The  expressions  yr  kwn,  y  neb,  "  the  one,"  are 
mistaken  for  relatives  by  the  old  grammarians;  the  true  imtive 
follows .  yr  kwn  a  «  "  the  one  who. 

The  interT<Mzative  pronouns  are  substantival  pwy  ?>•"  who  ?" 
adjectival  par  Substantival  "what?"  Is  expressed  by  pa  bethf 
**  what  thing  ?  "  or  shortly  beth  ? 

The  verb  nas  four  tenses  in  the  ifidlcatlvc.  one  in  the  subjunctive, 
and  one  in  the  imperative.  The  old  passive  voice  has  bcsDome  an 
impersonal  active,  each  tense  having  one  form  oidy.  The  regular 
vemAini/,  "  I  love,"  is  ooojugatod  thas>— 

Indicative — Pres.  (and  fut.)  sing.  1.  caraj,  2.  cert,  3.  cdr;  pi.  i.^ 
carwn,  a.  cerwck,  3.  carant;  impers.  certr.  Imperfect  sing.  I. 
Mrwn,  2.  carU,  3.  tarai;  pL  1.  earem,  2.  eareck,  3.  cerynt,  earml^ 
impers.  csrttf.  Aorist  sing.  i.  e«r«sr,  a.  ceraiU,  3.  tar9dd\  pL 
X.  earasom.  2.  carasock,  3.  carasanl;  impera.  carwyd.  pluperfeci; 
sing.  1.  carastm,  2,  carasit,  3.  carasai;  pL  i.  carascm,  2.  caraseck^ 
3.  caresynt,  -asent;  impers.  carend. 

Subjunctive^Pres.  sing.  i.  carwyf,  2.  ceryck,  3.  raro;  pi.  f .  carom, 
a.  caroek,  ^  earmU',  impers.  carer, 

Iropcrativfr-'Pres.  sing.  3*  cdr,  3.  cared;  pi.  i.  carwn,  3.  cerwck, 
3.  carent;  impers.  carer. 

Verbal  noun,  cam,  **  to  lo\'e."  Verbal  adjectives,  caredig,  **  loved," 
evadwy, "  lovable." 

As  in  other  languages  the  verb  "  to  be  "  and  its  compounds  are 
irregular;  the  number  of  other  irrcgolar  verbs  ia  comparatively 
small. 

Prepositions  also  are  '*  conjugated  **  in  Welsh,  their  objects,  If 

pronominal,  being  expressed  by  endings.    Thus  ar,  "  on,    amaf, 

'  on  me,"  amat,  "  on  thee,"  amo,  "  on  tnm,"  ami,  "  on  her," 

om^m,  "onus,"  ariMKii,"  on  you,"  emynl,  "on  them."    Thei 


conjugation  has  for  endings  -of,  -ot,  -ddo,  -ddi;  -om,  -ocH,  -ddyiU;  the 
third  -yf,  -yt,  -ddo,  -ddi;  -ym,  -yck,  -ddynt. 

The  negative  adverbs  are  fif,  nid,  conjunctive  na,  nod.  Inter- 
ronstive  particles:  o,ai.    Affirmative  particles:  yr,fe. 

The  commoner  conjunctions  are  a,  M, "  and  ";  mii,ailkr,*'  but  "; 
0,  OS,  "  if  ";  poll,  "  when  ";  tra,  "  whUe." 

Syntax.-^Pi  qualifying  adjective  follows  Its  noun,  and  agrees 
with  it  in  gender  and  generally  in  number.  It  may.  however.* 
precede  its  noun,  and  a  compared  adiective  generally  does  so. 

In  a  simple  sentence  tho  usual  order  of  words  is  the  followii^:^^. 
verb,  subject,  object,  adverb;  as  prynodd  Dafydd  lyfr  yno,  "  David 
bought  a  book  there."  The  verb  may  be  preceded  by  an  affirmative^- 
a  negative,  or  an  interrogative  particle. 

When  a  noun  cones  first,  it  is  followed  by  a  relative  pronoutH  thw; 
Dafydd  a  brynadd  lyfr  yna,  whfch  really  nieane  "  (it  is)  David  wha 
bought  a  Ixwk  there."  and  is  never  used  in  an)r  other  sense  in  th^ 
spoken  bnguage,  though  in  literary  Welsh  it  is  used  rhetorically 
forMthe  ehnple  statement  which  is  property  expressed  by  put- 
ting the  mrb  first.  In  negatlvt  aad  llitanligetlve  eentfeiAce  cMtf 
rhetorical  use  does  not  occur. 


27® 


WALEWSKI— WALKER,  F.  A. 


vnb'ai^U'DBliiufDmt.    '■  Will  David  com*  ?    V™."    lithe 
nrb  a  »ori«  the  mnnrtr  ii  ia  tat  all  vtrb^    Iti  nejativi  aotwera 

Bc^lwe'illii!*!!  «  Sa^a  iitmTi^"  It  it  fend  whs  will 

A  nbtivc  pronoun  inimiiluldy  pn™l«  hi  vert  aod  on  only 

"  iTSnOavid  1*0  liught  it."  :P.  y-  »i/i.  ■■  (it  li)  ihm  lh». 


'W 


'l£ty<M> 


t  agree  with  iu  lubject 


ia>  1  Hfiona]  fiuluig,  th 


boUy  HiKGieMn]; 
itiachan,  An  /*- 

■•  riralliflaSB 
L  Iftdi  CnaHuir 
HlturialWiUk 
'Md  EniUii-Wtia 

mbiUY  fRxa  t& 
Sana  ta  the  »rljr 


*(Leit 


Tli! 


J.) 

WALBWtKI.   ALEXAMDBE   FLOBIU   lOSEPB   COLOMHA, 

Coirre  (igTO-iB68),  Freocb  politician  and  iplonialiil,  waa  bora 
■t  Walcwiu  near  W*na>r  on  the  4lh  ol  May  iSio,  tbe  un  of 
NipoksD  I,  and  fail  miitrea  Muie,  CounteB  Walewilu.  At 
founecn  WalewiU  Tcfuied  to  enter  the  Rusuan  aiiny,  cKlpiiig 
to  London  and  thence  to  Paris,  where  the  French  sovenunent 
rcfuied  hii  eitiuUlion  u  the  Ruuiao  luIbDnlio.  Lous  Philippe 
lent  him  to  Poland  in  iSjo,  and  be  *u  then  entnsted  by  Iha 
leuknof  lbel>ali<li  revolution  with  a  mission  In  London.  Alter 
the  fall  ol  Warsaw  he  took  out  lectos  ol  cilunliulion  In  Ftance 
and  entered  the  French  army,  iedn«  some  letviM  in  Atferia. 
In  i8]7  he  reugne^  his  ronuniuiim  and  began  to  write  for  the 
itigt  and  lor  tbe  preai.  He  is  laid  10  bive  tnUiborated  with 
the  elder  Dumas  ia  UadtrntiseOt  it  Bdit-Idt,  and  a  cotafAy  of 
hii,  L£aU  Ju  nundi,  was  produced  at  the  Thtttre  Fran(ais  in 
1S4C.  In  that  year  his  paper.  Lt  Uttaf  ia  ekawira,  waa 
taken  over  by  llilen,  who  sent  him  on  a  mi3u»  to  Efypt,  and 
under  the  Guizot  ministTy  ha  wa>  sent  to  Buenos  Airei  to 
00-aperate  with  the  Britiib  miuiiter  Lord  Howden  (Sir  J. 
Carailoc).  Tbeacosiionof  LoulaNapolconto thetuptntiepowia 
in  Fnnce  fuaxantced  his  career.  He  waa  lent  *>  envoy  eitra- 
ordlnary  to  Florence,  to  Ni^ls  and  then  to  Lond«n,  where  he 
announced  the  coaf  i'Uai  to  Palmenton  (f.i,)-  In  iSj;  Walewiki 
aucceeded  Drouyn  de  Uiuya  as  r»iwi*>**  of  ford^  aflairi,  and 
■cted  11  French  plenipotentiaiy  at  the  Congreea  of  Paris  next 
jrear.  When  be  left  tbe  Foreign  Office  in  i860  it  waa  to  become 
minitter  of  lUle,  an  office  which  he  held  until  1863.  Senator 
from  itil  to  1S65,  be  entered  the  Cotpe  Ugiilitii  in  iS^s,  and 
wii  InslaDed,  by  the  emperoi'i  interest,  al  pmldCDt  of  the 
Chamber,  A  revolt  againit  his  authority  two  ycui  later  Knt 
Um  bach  to  the  Senate.     Ha  died  at  Stniaburg  on  the  i7ih  of 


ibcraf  tte  Academy  <f  Fine  Am  uJ****!  <!«■«<  Sm 
L<«k>a  ol  Hoaoui 

VALFUH  BAT,  ■  harboar  el  Sootb-WlM  Africa  wHb  a 
coisl-line  of  »  m.  Icrminited  southward  by  Pdican  Paiat  la 
11*  54'  S.,  It'  17'  E.  It  beloDO  to  Great  BHtais,  tosetbci  with 
a  strip  of  Icmtoty  extending  ij  n.  •lone  tta  coait  10a  th  ol 
Petican  PouU.  and  with  ■  depth  htland  Itom  10  to  ij  m.  The 
total  area  Es  430  iq.  m.  Eicept  leaward  Walfish  Bay  ii  ni- 
lounded  by  German  Soulb-Welt  Africa.  The  nonhcra  bouuiaiy 
it  tbe  Swakop  river,  cut  and  icaiLh  there  an  nanHiaal  fmotien. 
~  oast  distnci,  compewd  of  Band  dUBei,  Is  socceeded  hy  a 
,11  Dovered  in  part  with  spane  vegetation.  Tlic  riva 
1,  usually  dry,  has  its  mouth  m  ibeba) — abich  forma  tbe 
harbour  along  a  coaat-Une  of  wcr  looo  oi  The  hiibour  ia 
kd  with  a  piei  100  yda.  king  and  is  ule  hi  all  veathen. 
_.  _l  formerly  frequented  by  whaling  vessels  (hence  lis  name). 
Tbe  town  has  a  small  trade  with  the  Hcreroa  ol  the  adjoiniis 
Cennan  iKotedonUe.  A  tramway,  11  m.  long,  nitt  inlaiid  to 
Rooiknp  on  tbe  Girmin  fiantier     Pop.  (1904),  997,  inchidn( 

WaUah  Bay  forms  a  detached  poition  of  the  Cape  prwuu* 
(rflbe  Union  ol  South  Africa.  Itw>Ipi«liimedBritidtttiit«j 
on  the  nth  of  hlarch  iS; 8,  and  was  annexed  lo  CapeCoinyia 
the  7th  of  August  laSi  (lee  AniCA,  |  j)  The  delimjiitica  il 
the  uutbera  frontier  was  in  i«ag  referred  to  the  kinc  ol  %iw 
aivbitntor  between  fiieat  Britain  and  Germany 

WALKBB,  FBAHCU  AHASA  {1S40-1S97),  Amerioia  iilita 
and  utwonUit,  waa  bom  In  Boston,  Uasachmetis,  on  tbe  uid 
Jsly  1B40.  His  latlier,  Anu»  Walkei  (ij«ri87s),  mi  ihi 
a  diiUnguiibed  ecooomls.  who,  retiring  fratn  commenial  Be 
in  iS«o,  lectured  on  political  economy  in  Obeilhi  CoScfe  fna 
1S41  to  1B48,  wu  examiner  in  the  same  subject  at  Harvard  fna 
iSji  to  iS6a,  and  lecturer  at  Amhent  frotn  ig»  to  1E69.  Hem 
1  delegate  to  the  tnt  inleinationa]  peace  eongraa  in  LondOB 
lf[4j,  and  in  iS^g  to  the  peace  congres  In  ^rra.  He  was 
secretary  of  fttate  of  I^laisachusetts  from  1851  to  1853  aad 
a  cepreaentative  in  Congress  1862*1863.  ^^  prindpai  work, 
TU  Siitna  tj  Wtallk,  attained  great  popnlarity  aa  a  '"1>-r4 
Frands  Walker  giaduated  at  Ambcnt  CoUcge  in  i86e,  itDditd 
law,  and  fought  in  the  Northern  army  during  the  whole  ol  the 

Ibat  of  brevet  brigadier-geBoral  of  volunteen — awarded  Inm  at 
the  request  ol  General  Wtnheld  S.  Hancock.  As  a  soMier  be 
excdied  in  analysis  of  the  position  and  strength  of  tbe  enemy. 
In  1S61  he  was  captured  and  detained  for  a  time  in  the  lauwia 
Libby  Prison,  Richmond.  After  the  war  he  beoiM  editorial 
writer  on  the  SpriogGeU  (UaauchuKltiJ  Jtt^nU Join,  al»l  in  iMf 

supeiintcDdent  of  the  ninth  andtnilhceniuMs(lho>eof  1870  aad 


ollnd 


IBJJ 


to  his  death  his  work  was  educatloeal,  Gtit  aa  professor  (tflT3~ 
iSSi)  of  political  economy  in  tbe  SbefGeld  Scienli£c  School  at 
Yale,  and  then  as  president  of  the  MaauchusctU  Institute  ol 
Technology,  Boston.  While  Hipccntendecrt  ci  tbe  eenws  be 
iBcratsed  the  ic<^  and  accuracy  of  the  records;  and  at  the 
IiBiltute  of  Technology  he  enhu:ged  tbe  resources  and  nmnben 
of  the  inititulion,  which  had  303  itudenti  when  he  ununcd  ihi 
presidency  and  1108  al  hi*  death.  In  otbei  fidda  be  imUDoted 
common-scbool  education  (eqmnlly  In  mamnt  InUg^,  the 
Boston  park  syitem,  and  the  work  of  the  puUic  Hbraiy,  and  toot 

and  other  public  qi 
responsibaity.  As 
of  the  Indians,  Tkt  W^ta  QiuiHvii  (1S7S),  "onty  (ii;t),  loirf 
d»d_tuSAii(i3S3)  and  geneni  political  economy  (iSi3  and  18&4), 
besides  producing  monographa  on  the  life  ol  General  Hancock 
{1S84)  and  the  history  of  hii  own  Siami  ArKiy  Cirf  (i«86). 
As  an  ecODOmiat,  from  the  time  of  the  sppeannce  of  his  boci 
on  the  subject,  be  so  eHectively  combated  tbe  old  theory  of  the 
"  wage-fund  "  as  to  lead  lo  its  atMndomnent  or  taaterial  raodifita- 
tion  by  American  atndenta;  while  ia  his  writing  «  finance 
bMi  it7l  to  the  end  of  Ui  ife,  be  advocated  ioteiutioad 


WALKER,  F.— WALKER,  G. 


271 


Unetilllntt,  iHtliout,  bo#evcr,  seeking  to  jiotffy  anjr  one  n&tion 
{n  the  attempt  to  maintain  parity  between  gold  and  silver.  A 
collection  of  posthumously  published  Discussions,  in  EduaUion 
(1899)  was  made,  up  ol  essays  and  addresses  prepared  after  his 
taking  the  presidency  of  the  Institute  of  Technology:  their 
most  noteworthy  argument  is  that  chemistry,  physics  and  the 
other  sciences  promote  a  more  exact  and  more  serviceable  mental 
training  than  metaphysics  or  rhetoric  Walker's  general  tendency 
was  towards  a  ratkmal  conservatisnu  On  the  question  of  rent 
he  called  himself  a  "Klcardian  of  the  Ricardians."  To  his 
Wages  Question  is  due  in  great  part  the  conception  formed  by 
En^ish  students  of  the  place  and  functions  of  tlie  empfoyer  in 
modem  industrial  economics.  A  remarkable  feature  of  his 
writings  is  his  treatment  of  economic  tendencies  net  aa  mere 
abstractions,  but  as  facts  making  for  the  happiness  or  misery 
of  Eving  men.  General  Walker  died  in  Boston  on  the  5th  4rf 
Jannary  1897. 

WAIKBK.  FBKDBRIGK  rxS40-x875)i  EngliBh  subject  punter, 
the  son  of  a  designer  of  jewelry,  was  born  in  liarylebone,  London, 
on  the  34th  of  May  1840.    Wben  very  young  he  begui  to  dratw 
from  the  antique  fai  the  British  Museum,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen 
be  was  placed  in  the  office  of  an  architect  named  Bakes.    The 
occupation  pityved  uncongenial;  attheend  ol  cif^teen  months 
he  resumed  his  work  from  the  Elgin  marbles  at  the  British 
Museum,  and  attended  Leigh's  life  school  in  Newman  Street. 
In  March  1858  he  was  admitted  a  stndent  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
But  his  study  in  the  academy  schoob  was  disconnected,  and 
ceased  before  he  reached  the  life  dais,  as  he  was  amaons  to 
begin  earning  his  own  living.    As  a  means  to  this  end,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  designing  for  the  wood-«ngravers,  and  worked 
three  cbtys  a  week  for  about  two  years  in  the  studio  of  J.  W.  > 
Whymper,  under  whose  tuition  he  quickly  mastered  the  tech* 
nicalities  of  drawing  on  wood.    His  earnest  book  illustrations 
appeared  in  i860  in  Ones  a  Wetk^  a  periodical  to  which  he  was 
a  prolific  contributor,  as  also  to  the  ComhUl  MagoMine,  where 
his  admirable  designs  appeared  to  the  works  of  Thackeray  and 
those  of  his  daughter.    These  woodcuts,  especially  his  Ohistxa^ 
tions  to  Thackeray's  Admntnifet  of  PhiHp  and  Dmis  Jhnal,  axe 
among  the  most  minted  and  artistic  works  of  their  class,  and 
entitle  Walker  to  rank  with  MiHais  at  the  very  head  of  the 
draughtsmen  who  have  dealt  with  scenes  ct  cmitemponuy  life. 
Indeed,  by  his  contributions  to  Once  a  Week  alone  he  made  an 
immediate  reputation  as  an  artist  of  rare  accomplishment,  and 
although  ha  was  associated  on  that  periodical  with  such  men  as 
MiHais,  Holman  Hunt,  Leech,  Sandys,  Charles  Keene,  Tennicl, 
and  Du  Manner,  he  more  than  held  his  own  against  all  oom> 
petitors.    In  the  intervals  of  work  as  a  book  illustrator  he 
practised  painting  in  water-coloun,  his  subjects  bemg  frequently 
more  con^ei^d  and  refined  repetitions  in  colour  of  his  black- 
and-white  designs.    Among  the  more  notaUe  of  his  productions 
in  water-colour  are  "  Spring,"  "  A  Fishmonger's  Shop,"  "  The 
Ferry,"  and  **  Philip  in  Church,"  which  gained  a  medal  in  the 
Paris  International  Exhibition  of  1867.    He  was  elected  an 
associate  of  the  Society  of  Painteia  in  Water  Colours  in  1864 
and  a  fuH  member  in  x866;<and  in  1871  he  became  an  associate 
of  the  Royal  Aoklemy.    In  this  same  year  he  was  made  an 
honomry  member  of  the  Belgian  Society  of  Painters  in  Water 
Cok>urs.    His  first  oil  pi^tare,  **  The  Lost  Path,"  was  exhibited 
in  the  Royal  Academy  in  1865,  where  it  was  followed  in  1867 
by  "  The  Bathers,"  one  of  the  artist^  finest  works,  in.  1868  by 
'*  The  Vagrants,"  now  in  the  National  Qallexy  of  British  Art,  in 
X869  by  ^  The  Old  Gate,"  and  in  1870  by  '*The  Fkmgh/'  a 
powerftil  and  impressive  xendering  of  ruddy  evening  li^t,  of 
which  the  landscape  was  studied  in  Soaerset.    In  ii37x  he  ex- 
hibited his  tragic  life-sized  figure  of  "  A  Female  Piisoner  at  the 
Bar,"  a  subject  which  now  exbts  only  in  a  finished  oil  study, 
tot  the  painter  afterwards  effaced  the  head,  with  which  he  was 
dtealisftKl^  bat  was  prevented  by  death  from  again  completing 
the  picture.    The  bst   of  Ms  fuUy  toocessful   woxla   was 
**  A  Harbour  of  Refuge,"  shown  hi  1871  (also  in  the  National 
OaOery  of  British  Art);  for  -  The  Right  of  Way,"  exhibited  hi 
1S75,  heaas  evUent  dgna  al  the  axtist's  falling  strength.  ^.Ha 


had  saffeced  indeed  for  some  ytaxs  from  a  consumptive  tendahqr; 
in  1868  he  made  a  sea  voyage,  for  his  health's  sake,  to  Venio^ 
where  he  stayed  with  Orchardson  and  Bixket  Fostet,  and  at  the 
end  of  1873  he  went  for  a  while  to  Algiexs  with  J.  W.  North,  in 
the  hope  that  he  might  derive  benefit  from  a  change  of  dimaift 
But,  returning  in  the  bitter  English  spring,  he  was  again  pro^ 
txated;  and  on  the  5th  ol  Jane  1875  he  died  of  coasun^ption  at 
St  FtUan's,  Perthshire. 

The  works  of  Frederick  Walker  axe  thoroughly  oxigxnal  and 
individual,  both  in  the  quality  of  their  cokwr  and  ****fH'iiifl  and 
in  their  view  of  nature  and  humanity.  His  colour,  espeda^y  in 
hb  water-colours,  is  distinctivci  poweriul  and  f idl  of  deUcatt 
grsdations.  He  had  an  admirable  sense  of  design,  and  the 
figures  of  his  peasants  at  their  daily  toil  show  a  grace  siid  sweep- 
.ing  laigeoeas  oi  line  in  which  can  be  plainly  traced  the  effect 
piodaced  upon  his  taste  by  his  early  study  of  the  antique;  at 
the  same  time  the  sentiment  of  his  subjects  is  unfailingly 
reimed  and  poetic  His  vigour  of  design  may  be  seen  in  his 
poster  for  Wilkie  Collins's  Tke  Woman  in  Whits,  now  in  the 

Nsitiooal  Gallenr  of  British  Art 

See  Life  and  UUors  of  Frederick  Walker,  AJtA.,  by  John  George 
Marks  (1896),  a  full  biography  of  a  personal  rather  than  a  critical 
kind.  Frederick  Walker  and  kis  Works,  by  Qaude  PhUlips  (i897)» 
should  be  oof^ulted  as  an  excellent  critical  supplement  to  the  larger 
volume.  See  also  Essays  on  Art,  by  J.  Comyns  Carr,  which  includes 
a  judidous  essay  on  Walker. 

WALKBR,  0BORGB  {c  x6x8'i69o),  hero  of  the  siege  of 
Londondcrxy,  was  the  son  of  George  Walker,  rector  of  Kiknore 
and  chanc^or  of  Armaf^  (d.  1677),  and  of  Ursula,  daughter  of 
Sir  John  Stanhope  of  Mdwood,  and  is  said  to  have  been  born 
in  16x8  in  Tytoat.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  University, 
and  appointed  to  the  livings  of  Lessen  and  Desertlyn,  in  the 
diocese  of  Armagh,  near  Londonderry,  in  1669.  In  X674  he 
obtained  that  of  Donaghmoie,  which  he  held  with  Lessen.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  in  Ireland  towards  the  dose  of 
x688.  Walker,  though  in  Holy  Orders  and  advanced  in  years, 
raised  a  regiment  and  endeavoured  to  concert  measures  with 
Robert  Lundy,  the  acting  governor  of  Londonderry,  for  the 
defence  of  Dungannon.  But  Lundy,  after  having  sent  some 
troops  to  his  support,  ordered  their  withdrawal  and  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  place  on  the  Z4th  of  March  X689.  On  the  X7th  of 
Mardi  Walker  mardied  with  his  men  to  Strabane,  and  subse- 
quently was  ordered  by  Lundy  to  move  to  Rash  and  then  to 
St  Johnstown,  5  m.  from  Londonderty.  On  theapproaeh  of  the 
enemy  (April  xjth)  Walker  rode  hastily  to  Londonderry  to 
inform  Lundy,  but  was  uxiable  to  convince  him  of  his  danger. 
He  retuxned  to  his  men  at  Lifford,  where,  cm  the  X4th,  he  tooh 
part  in  a  brush  irith  the  enemy,  afterwards  following  the  retreat 
of  the  army  to  Londondcny.  The  town  was  in  great  confusion, 
and  Walker  found  the  gates  shut  against  him  and  his  regiment. 
He  was  forced  to  pass  the  xdght  outside,  and  only  entered  the 
next  day  "  with  much  difficulty  and  some  violence  upon  the 
Centiy."  Immediatdy  on  his  arrival  he  urged  Lundy  to  take 
the  field  and  refused  the  demand  to  disband  his  own  soldiers. 
On  the  X  7th  of  April  Lundy  determined  to  give  up  the  town  to 
James,  and  called  a  council  from  which  Walker  and  others  were 
espedally  exduded;  but  the  next  day  the  king  and  his  troops, 
who  had  advanced  to  recdve  the  surrender,  were  fired  upon 
from  the  walls  contrary  to  Lundy's  orders,  and  the  arrival  of 
Captain  Adam  Murray  with  a  troop  of  horse  saved  the  situation. 
Lundy  was  deprived  of  all  power,  and  was  allowed  to  escape  in 
disguise  from  the  town.  On  the  X9th  of  April  Walker  and  Baker 
were  chosen  joint-governors.  Walker  commanded  fifteen  com- 
panies, amounting  to  900  men,  and  to  him  was  also  entrusted 
the  siqjervision  of  the  commissariat.  He  showed  great  energy, 
courage  and  resource  throufl^iout  the  sfegOy  and  led  several 
successful  sallies.  Meanwhile  his  duties  as  a  dergyman  were 
not  neglected.  The  Nonconformists  were  allowed  the  use  of 
the  cathedra]  on  Sunday  afternoons,  but  in  the  morning  Walker 
preached.  Those  few  of  his  sermons  which  xemain,thoughsimple 
in  thdr  language,  arc  eh>quent  and  inspiring.  Meanwhile  he  had 
to  contend  with  j^ousies  and  suspidons  within  the  town;  but 
he  succeeded  in  dispelling  all  misgivings  and  in  reaffirming  his 


WALKER,  H.  O.— WALKER,  O. 


mdfc  whh  Ibe  pnfcsn.    At  the 

liMed  ISO  d>y«,  tha  town  wu  u 

U  lafth,  OB  Uw  jetk  d  July,  Wilker  piMifaal  the  kM  of  tb« 

■miMiD*  by  which  Iw  hid  bdpnl  to  iatpiK  'at  d(f  efkce.    An 


Ai  Kgud*  the  iSDenl  cmnB  of  the  mr  the  inponanae  ot  ths 
mccesaful  Tcnituice  at  LoDdondcny  cu  biidlr  be  cuggcntcd. 
It  wu  the  fint  open  met  of  boMility  In  Inknd  t^att  Junn, 
■nd  Itac  disuier  to  hi)  urma  ngt  only  enbwnned  hb  cunpeign 
In  JitlAnd  but  pfeVEDtcd  the  expedition*  to  Scoilind  ind 
Engluid,  tod  Wiikers  ihue  in  it  wu  tbimdully  retogliitiL 
He  uiled  for  Scottand  ind  Eoglud  on  the  qlh  of  Aumt,  and 
«u  evnyuhne  welnmed  ariUi  Immenie  public  frtfhrnlenn, 
On  the  a^lh  of  Augiut  he  wb«  gnaaoily  received  at  Hampton 
Coon  by  WiUIam  and  Haiy,  before  whom  he  had  witl)  good  lense 
(cfnied  to  appear  in  Ui  mUltaty  rKtt„i^^  and  dehvered  to  them 
(he  petition  tiom  LoadoDdeny.  WUUaai  pcc«a(ed  him  with 
I9000,  put  ol  irtiich  he  (Kicin  to  have  pven  to  the  widow  ol 
Baker,  hla  fdlow-govemor,  who  died  during  the  A^o,  Shortly 
after  wai  da  Jw  waa  nominated  bishop  of  Londonderry,  but  aa 
Biahop  H<^tJn}.  whom  it  was  deteiminfd  ID  remove,  enly  died 
Hun  weeki  before  WUker,  the  latter  waa  never  coniecialed. 
Walker  succeeded  in  oblainln;  a  gzant  of  £1 300  for  Londonderry 
from  the  dly  companiea,  and  on  the  iGth  of  November  his 
peiition  to  Che  Houae  of  Coincunu  for  nUel  ioc  the  widowi, 
vrphans,  ckiBy  and  diucnLing  miniBten  wa*  read,  and  Ibe  king 
waa  aiked  to  distribute  £10,000  among  them  (House  of  Csmmoni 
Jouinala,  vol,  i.  p,  iCS).  On  the  following  day  Walker  waa  called 
in,  received  the  thanka  of  the  Houae,  and  nude  a  short  and 
dignified  reply  On  the  8th  of  October  be  had  been  granted  the 
d^RC  ol  D.D«  at  Cambridge  in  his  abaencc.  and  on  his  return 
Inoney  to  Inland  be  received  the  same  diploma  at  Oxford 
(Feb.  1690).  Walker  met  Willinra  od  his  arrival  in  lidad  00 
(he  uth  of  June  1690  at  Belfut,  and  foliowed  his  army.  He 
•as  present  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  on  the  Itt  of  Jnly,  but  in 
what  (apsdly,  whether  ai  spectator,  11  combatant  or  as  minister 
to  tend  the  wounded,  is  uncertain.^  He  was  shot  through  the 
body  at  the  passage  of  iho  river,  a«ording  to  one  acconnt,  while 
ho  was  going  to  the  aid  ot  the  wounded  Schoaberg  (G.  Stoiy, 
A  True  .  ,  .  HisUty  if  On  Afairi  in  Inlatd,  p.  Si),  and  died 
almost  Inunedfately.  His  remains,  or  what  were  luppooed  to  be 
nidi,  were  afterwords  transferred  from  the  holtleheLi  and  buiicd 
In  his  ova  church  at  Danaghmore,  where  a  monument  and 
inscriptiffli  were  placed  to  hia  memory.  A  more  conspicuous 
memorial  waa  erecied  in  Londonderry  itself. 

Walker  married  Isabella  Maxwell  ot  Fhinebrogue,  and  left 
■everal  sons,  four  ol  whom  during  his  lifetime  were  In  the  king^s 


'hit  pamphlet,  i 


publiihed  A  T, 
Ealed  (o  (he 
tranilated  la 
received  by  " 


5,'-l.W 


egotintcal  •elf-eansciauBneHi  and  both  this  tract  and  liis  subi 
qeeM  VwtfdsHn  [I6to)  ate  neatly  lupFTior.  in  their  difnity  ai 
totrikK.  10  the  punpUeu  cl  his  epponcnta.  His  character  w 
procf  aniast  the  pceils  which  ^ttead  a  sudden  ru 


especially  abaned  by  tc 


■ovne  fijedal  ctmunaad,"  and  ajtala,  vol.  1,  p.  4. 

idonderry,  lud  a  regimenl  of  fool  given  him_,     bj 
:o  be  no  olhcial  recocd  of  his  having  reegved  i 


al  ha  eoDtaaperaiiB.    Tbae  sdna  aln  to*  n 

indvpendeot  evideacc  to  permit  any  dnulx  whi 
greatness  of  Walker's  terviccs.    Burnet,  In  a  pe — . 
not  indudcd  in  his  pubUshrd  history  pfshapa  b*c*u« 


towa;  he  wa*  but  a  maa  of  mdinary  pans,  but  they  *m  auited  ut 
Us  work,  for  he  did  wonders  In  this  «eie^  (Hitlelan  MBS-.  6s*4  A 
MlkpiintedbyH,  C.  Foxcioft.  Snpplement  to  Bumet'e  tf luT  ^ 
ail  Oin  TiMSit.  igol,  p.  jii). 


h  Walker's  seimoDS,  .v> 


i  <iSai-  },  Amnican  aitiM, 
wa*  Dom  at  Doatso,  fii,t»sK>imWf».  oa  the  Ltlh  of  Uay  ilo 
He  was  a  patii  of  htat  Bonnat,  Pant,  and  painted  the  ficon  aid 

occasional  pottiaits,  but  later  devoted  h™*^!*  almoK  r^insyrly 
to  mural  decoiatioiL  Bit  paJuliny  irmbolidnc  lytk:  poetiy, 
for  the  Congrtstionil  Ltbiacy,  Wathhtclooi  tod  hit  dcaRattaB 
for  the  Appelate  Court  Hovw,  New  Yorli;  Bowiikwt  CoUe^ 
Mainei  the  enlarged  State  Hoioe,  Bonon;  the  Court  Hoa^ 
Newark,  New  Jemey,  and  the  Capitol  at  Saint  hnl,  "'inr*?", 
are  among  his  most  important  woriii.  He  became  a  iMiiibcr  of 
the  National  Acsdooy  «f  Desjgn,  New  Yoik,  la  i9aa. 

VALKBR,  HO&ATIO  (1S5S-  ).  American  aititt,  was  tm 
at  Liatcrwel,  Ontario,  CanadaionthaiithoIMayiBsa.  Ha 
he  waa  a  child  his  kmily  Mtilod  at  Sodiealer,  New  X-A. 

of  animate,  the  Cgnre  and  landKape.  His  pidmea,  princicali 
of  CanadiaB  peaaanL  lite  and  scfsies,  ^bow  the  ■'fliiriMT  fit 
.Troyon  and  Millet,  mainly  in  ihair  keling  fcr  laiieneta  nt  oiB- 
posiiton.  In  solidity  of  painting  Hid  In  the  cbeice  ol  theme. 
He  becsine  a  member  of  the  National  Acaden^  of  Design,  New 
York,  hi  iSqii  of  the  American WaUr  Color  SodBtjr  and  of  the 
Royal  Institute  of  Fainlei*  in  Water  Csloon,  Laadon.  He 
received  a  medal  and  a  diploma  at  Chicago,  1803;  and  medals  at 
BuSalar  19D1;  Cbideston,  1901;  and  St  Louis,  1904.  In  lElt 
he  won  the  Evans  pd»  of  tlta  AmaaiEan  Watv  Color  Society, 
New  York. 

VALKEB.  JOHN  (173^-1807),  English  actor,  philiik«U 
and  Jeiicogn^heT,  was  bom  at  Cotoiy  Hatch,  UidiHesez,  on 
Eke  iBth  of  March  17^3'  Eariy  in  life  he  becane  an  actor,  hit 
Lhealiical  engagements  including  cne  with  Gairick  at  Druiy  l^uK, 
aad  a  long  season  In  DublkL  Id  1768  he  left  the  llacc  Aftd 
some  eipcciencB  in  conducting  a  kIboI  at  Keniiagion  he  com- 
meaced  10  teach  elocatii>n,  and  in  Ihia  tmiad  hia  ptinipal 
empbymcnt  for  the  rest  of  his  llf&  In  1775  he  published  hia 
Rkyming  DiOionary,  which  achieved  a  great  sucerM  and  hat 
been  Tcpeatedly  teprinlcd,  and  in  179I  his  Crilual  ftounscMt 
/>icfH7aary,  which  achieved  an  even  greater  reputation,  and  haa 
ruh  Into  some  forty  editions.  He  was  the  friend  of  Xbeleactiric 
literary  men  of  hia  time.  Including  Johnson  aid  BuAt.  He  died 
in  London  on  the  iX  of  August  i&^.     . 

WALKES,  OBADiAH  (iei«-i6*o).  maaUi  si  Uaiveoily 
College,  Oxford,  was  bom  at  DaificU  OSB  Bamricy,  Y«ikihiTa, 
and  was  educated  at  Univvniiy  College,  Otford.  btcomiog  • 
fcUow  and  tutor  of  this  sodely  sad  *  -  -  -  ' 
In  July  iM  the  ac  ' 


teaching,  studying  uid  ttavdling^  R 

iionilon  a!  r66o,  and  begiiming  a  few  yean  am  w  lam  m 

leading  part  in  the  wotk  of  Untv^Ry  Callsge.    &l  June  1676 

he  was  elected  to  the  headship  of  this  fotiaitotinn,  and  In  thia 

capacity  be  coBected  money  (or  aotne  febuildloc,  Mtd  fonraided 

the  preparation  of  a  Latin  edition  of  Sir  John  Spehnan'a  L^  if 

Alfred  Oa  Cral,  publidwd  by  the  college.    lUs  mi  (tc  timo 

o!  HCas  Oates  and  the  pcipith  phxa,  and  aom*  of  Walker'* 

^     made  him  suspect;  however,  no  serious  stepa  wen 

taken  agauisi  hhn.  although  Oifotd  bodkaeOert  were  lobiddea 

■ell  his  book,  Tit  ttutfii  e{  nr  Seiietir  Jumi  CkriU  It  *Mi>- 

luf,  and  he  remained  a  PrOtaaLant,  in  name  at  lotM.  until  thA 

tesstanof  JamaU.  SooBalw:tUacventb«cuMianBris* 


WALKER,  R.-^'WALKER,  T. 


«73 


« l^omaa  Catholic,  And  he  advised  the  new  king  with  regard  to 
tffain  m  Oxford,  being  part^  responsible  for  the  tactless  conduct 
of  James  in  forcing  a  quarrel  with  the  fellows  of  Magdalen  College. 
Mass  ^vas  said  in  his  residence,  and  later  a  chapel  was  opened 
In  the  college  for  the  worship  of  the  Roman  Church;  he  and 
Others  received  a  royal  licence  to  abtent  themselves  from  the 
services  of  the  Englisb  Church,  and  he  obtained  another  to  super- 
vise the  printing  of  Roman  Catholic  books.  In  spite  of  growing 
onpopularity  he  remained  loyal  to  James,  and  when  the  king 
fled  front  England  Walker  left  Oxford,  doubtless  ialendmg  to 
Join  his  master  abroad.  But  in  December  x688  he  was  arrested 
^t  Sittingbourne  and  was  imprisoned;  then,  having  lost  his 
loastcr^p,  he  was  charged  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Commops 
with  changing  his  religion  and  with  other  offences.  Early  in  x6t)o 
he  was  released  from  his  confinement,  and  after  subsisting  for 
some  yean  largely  on  the  charity  of  his  friend  and  former  pupil, 
Dr  John  RadclifTe,  he  died  on  the  21st  of  J^anuary  1699. 

Walker's  jprincipal  writinga  are:  Of  education,  specially  of  yount 
geniUmen  (Oxford,  1673.  and  six  other  editions);  Ars  fahonis  aa 
mmUm  nwHimaUum  libri  trts  (Oxford.  1673);  and  Cttek  and  Roman 
History  iilustrattd  by  Coins  and  Medau  (London,  1692). 

WALKER,  ROBERT  (d.  c.  L658),  Britbh  painter,  was  a 
contemporary  and  to  a  slight  extent  a  follower  of  Van  Dyck. 
The  date  of  his  birth  a  uncertain,  and  no  details  are  known  of 
his  early  life.  Although  influenced  by  Van  Dyck's  art,  he  bad 
siill  a  considerable  degree  of  individuality  and  developed  a  sound 
^yle  of  his  own  which  was  more  severe  and  restrained  than  that 
of  the  greater  master.  His  greatest  vogue  was  at  the  time  of  the 
Commonwealth,  for  in  addition  to  several  portraits  of  Cromwell 
be  painted  other  portraits  of  Lambert,  Ireton,  Fleetwood,  and 
many  more  members  of  the  Parliamentarian  party.  In  1652  ho 
was  given  rooms  in  Arundel  House  in  the  Strand,  I^ndon, 
where  he  resided  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  died  either  in  1658 
or  in  1660,  the  authority  for  the  earlier  date  being  an  inscription 
on  8,^  engraved  portrait  by  Lombart.  His  work  had  much 
merit;  it  was  vigorous  and  showed  sound  study  of  character. 
Severai  of  his  paintings,  among  them  the  portrait  of  Willianf 
Failherne  the  elder,  are  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery,  and 
there  are  others  of  notable  importance  at  Hampton  Court  and 
in  the  University  Galleries  at  Oxford.  One  of  his  portraits  of 
Cromwell  is  in  the  Pitti  Palace,  where  it  is  ascribed  to  Lcly; 
it  wa^  bought  in  the  artist's  lifetime,  but  after  the  Protector's 
death,  by  the  grand  duke  Ferdinand  II.  of  Tuscany.  Another 
is  at  Warwick  Castle. 

Walker  painted  also  Robert  Cromwell  and  his  wife  Elizabeth 
Steward,  parents  of  the  Protector.  7be  portrait  of  the  latter, 
attended  by  a  page  who  is  fastertipK  his  sasn  at  the  waist  (now  in 
rh«  National  Portrait  Gallery,  transferred  from  the  Brhish  Museum, 
n>  Which  tt  was  bequeathed  by  Sir  Robert  Rick,  Bart.,  descendant 
of  Cromwell's  friead,  Nathaniel  Rich)  was  called  by  Walpote  "  Crom- 
well and  Lambert  " ;  but  it  is  now  certain  that  the  page  represents 
Cromwcirs  son  Richard.  Elizabeth  Cromwell,  afterwards  Mrs 
Claypole,  the  Protector's  daughter,  also  sat  to  him.  -As  no  complete 
account  of  Walker's  work  is  in  existence  (that  of  Walpole  bein^  very 
wiomfAftti  while  Cunningham  pasKs  him  over  entirely),  it  may  be 
added  that  the  artist  twice  painted  Tohn  Evelyn,  in  diRercnt  sues, 
as  well  as  Bradshaw,  John  Hampden,  Colonel  Thomas  Sanders, 
Comet  Joyce,  and  Speaker  Lenthall,  as  well  as  Sir  WtlKam  and 
Lady  Waller,  Mrs  Thomas  Knight,  and  Geocral  George  Monk, 
diike  of  Albemarle,  and  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  (engraved  by  Faithorne). 
A -portrait  of  Secretary  Thurlow,  which  was  in  the  I/)rd  Northwick 
Collection,  was  attributed  to  him.  As  Walker  was  in  the  catnp  of 
the  Pariiamentarians  and  Dobson  was  the  court  painter  at  Oxford, 
lew  aristocratic  persons  sat  to  the  former.  Exceptions  ore  Mary 
Caoel.  duchess  of  Beaufort  (engraved  by  J.  Nutting).  Aubrey,  last 
oari  ci  Oxford,  and  James  Graham,  marpuess  of  Montrose; even 
a  portrait  of  Charles  i.  in  armour,  with  tus  hand  on  his  helmet,  is 
anedited  to  Walker.  Two  versions,  of  a  Kke  slae.  of  his  own  portrait 
eidst,  one  at  the  National  Portrait  Gallery  and  the  other  at  Oxfotd, 
engraved  by  Peter  Lombart.  and  again,  laterf  by  T.  Chambers- 
The  CromweU  in  the  Scottish  National  Portrait  Gallery  is  a  copy. 
Walker's  copy  of  Titian's  famous  "  Venus  at  her  Toilet,'*  highly 
esteemed  by  Chartes  L,  is  considered  a  work  of  great  merit. 

WALKER.  ROBERT  JAMES  (1801-1869),  American  poUtrcal 
leader  and  economist,  was  bom  in  Northumberiand,  Pennsylvania, 
on  the  23rd  ofTuly  tSoi.  He  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  m  18x9  and  practised  law  in  Pituburg  from  iZii 
to  iSi6,  wbea  he  xtmoved  to  Misdssijppl.   Though  Uving  la  k 


slave  state  he  watf  consistently  oppoMd  to  davety,  but  be 
favoured  gradual  rather  than  imoMcUate  etaaandpation,  and  in 
1838  he  freed  his  own  slaves.  He  became  promine&t,  politicatfy^ 
during  the  nullification  excitement  of  1832*1^3,  aa  &  vigorous 
opponent  of  nullification,  and  from  1836  to  1845  he  sat  in  th« 
United  States  Senate  as  a  Unionist  Demociat.  Being  an  ardenl 
expansionist,  he  voted  lor  the  seoognition  of  the  tndependenoe 
of  Texas  in  1B37  and  for  the  joint  annexation  resolution  of  1845, 
and  advocated  the  nomination  and  ekctlon  of  James  K«  Polk  in 

1844.  He  was  secretary  of  the  treasury  throughout  the  Polk 
administration  (1845-1849)  and  was  generally  recognixed  a&  the 
most  inHueatial  nieihber  of  the  tabinet.  He  financed  the  war 
^ith  Mexico  and  drafted  the  bill  (1849)  for  the  establishment  of 
the  department  ol  the  intertor,  but  his  gieatest  work  was  the 
preparation  of  the  famous  treasury  report  of  the  3rd  of  Pecember 

1845.  Although  inferior  in  ititellectual  quality  to  ^exander 

HattiUon's  Report  en  Manufaclures,  presenting  the  case  against 

free  trade,  it  is  regarded  as  the  most  powerful  attack  i^pon  the 

protection  system  which  has  eycr  been  made  in  an  Ajoerican 

state  paper.    The  "  Walker  Tariff  "  of  1846  was  based  upon  iu 

prindples  and  was  ut  fact  largely  the  secretary's  own  work« 

Walker  at  first  opposed  the  Compromise  of  1850,  but  was  won 

over  later  by  the  arguments  oC  Stei^en  A.  Douglas.    He  was 

appointed  territorial  governor  of  Kansas  in  the  spring  of  1857 

by  President  Buchaiun,  but  in  November  of  the  same  yeaf 

resigned  in  dbgust,  owing  to  his  opposition  to  the  Lecomptoa 

Constitution.    He  did  not^  however,  break  with  his  party 

immediately,  and  favoured  the  so-called   English  Bill    (see 

Kansas)  ;  in  fact  it  was  partly  due  to  his  influence  that  a  sufficient 

number  of  anli-Lecompton  Democrats  were  induced  to  vote  iot 

that  measure  to  secure  its  passage.    He  adhered  to  the  Union 

caAise  during  the  Civil  War  and  in  1863- 1864  as  financial  agent 

of  the  United  States  did  much  to  create  confidence  In  Europe  in 

the  financial  resources  of  the  United  States,  and  was  instrumental 

in  securing  a  loan  of  $3SO|Ooo,ooo  in  Germany.    He  practised 

law  in  Washington,  D.C.,  from  1864  until  his  death  there  on  the 

nth  <^  November  1869.    Both  during  and  after  the  Civil  War 

he  was  a  eontrU>utor  to  the  Continental  Monthly,  which  for  4 

short  time  he  also,  with  James  R.  GUmore,  conducted. 

For  the  UriA  report  see  F.  W.  Taussig.  State  Papers  and  Speeches 
on  the  Tariff  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1892), 

WAIXER,  SEARS  COOK  (1805-1853),  American  astronomeri 
was  bom  at  Wilmington,  Massachusetts,. on  the  aSih  of  Marcb 
1805.  Graduating  at  Harvard  in  £825,  he  was  a  teacher  till  c8$5y 
\icas  an  actuary  in  1835-18451  and  then  beoakne  assistant  a*'th» 
Washington  observatory.  In  1847  he  took  charge  of  the  kmgi* 
tude  department  of  the  United  Slates  Coast'  Sttnrey»  where  he 
was  among  the  first  to  nuike  use  of  the  electric  telegraph  lor  tho 
puiix>9e  of  determining  the  diflference  of  longitude  between  two 
stations,  and  he  introduced  the  method  of  registering  transit 
observations  electrically  by  jneaoa  of  a  chronograph.  He  aJaa 
investigated  the  orbit  of  the  newly  disoowertd  planet  Neptuhe. 
He  died  near  Cincinnati  on  the  sotb  of  January  1853^.  His 
brother  Timothy  (1802-1856)  vas  a  leader  of  tlia  Ohio  bw. 

See  Memoirsi  of  Iks  R^.  Atlr.  Soc  toL  xxiii. 

WALKER,  THOMAS  (i784«-i830),  English  poliee  magi8tfate» 
best  known  as  author  of  Tkf  Original,  was  bom  on  the  loth  of 
October  1784  at  Chaiiton-^ure^Hairdyr  n«<ur  Manchester,  when 
hia  father  was  a  piospefous  cotton  merchant  and  an  active  Whig 
politidan.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge  and  called  to  the  bar» 
and  after  devoting  some  yean  nudidy  to  the  study  of  the  Pooe 
Law  was  made  police  magistrate  in  Lambeth  in  1839.  In  1835 
he  started  his  weekly  publication  The  Oripnal,  ctmtaining  hie 
reflections  on  various  social  subjects  andespecially  on  eating  and 
drinking;  and  it  is  in  the  history  of  gastronomy,  and  the  art 
of  dining,  that  this  curious  and  amusing  work  is  famous.  The 
weekly  numbers  continued  for  six  months,  and  subsequently 
were  republished,  after  Walker's  death  on  the  20th  of  January 
1836,  in  an  American  selection  (1837),  in  editions  by  W.  B. 
Jcrrold  (with  memoir)  (1874),  W.  A.  Gi^y  (1875),  ^^^  Henry 
Morley  (1887),  and  in  another  selection  of  Sir  Heniy  Cole' 
>("  PeSx  Summeriey*'),  called  Xf/^o^  Cz88x). 


»7+ 


WACSn.     WnUUt     (>Bt4-iS6o). 
idvcntum,  wu  bora  in  Nashville,  TasHMe.  oo 
Sill  oC  Uay  1814.    Allcr  (ndiuljng  Iran  ibe  uni 

(Uyof  Ni^villeiDiSjS.hciliuIial  Uw,  wuidnil 
to  thebar,  andmbsequcnlly  ipaitaycarin  tlv>tu!y 
of  medicine  it  Ediabuish  ud  Hridfiboi.  He  pnc- 
tiied  medicine  la  1  few  montht  in  PbibdeMiii  and 
then  nmovcd  to  New  OHeans.  where  he  engaged  in 
Joumalim,  la  1S50  he  mignlAl  la  CalifomiB  and 
engii«cdlniiewipaprtworkaI  Sin  Fnnciico  and  Uler 
tt  MaryiviUe.  where  be-iiu  practised  law.  On  the 
ISIh  ol  Oclotttt  iSjJ  he  uiled  [torn  San  FranoKa 
with  t  filibuslering  fonx  Ear  the  conquest  at 
Meklcan  lerrilory.  He  landed  in  Lower  Caliioraia, 
and  OB  (he  18th  ol  January  18:4  he  peoclaimed 
Ihii  and  the  neighbouring  State  of  Sonora  an  iBoepenoeni 
Tlpublic.  Staivalian  and  Meiian  attacks  led  to  tbe  abaodoa- 
nent  of  thb  enterprise,  and  Walker  resumed  his  jounuiiilic 
work  in  Califomii.  On  the  4lh  ol  Uiy  iSsJ,  with  6liy' 
•ii  foUawen,  Walker  again  sailed  from  Sun  FmnciMn, 
Ihb  time  (or  Nicaragua,  where  he  had  been  Innted  by 
one  of  the  belltgetf  ni  Factions  to  came  to  iu  aid.  In  October 
Walker  seiud  a  steamer  on  Lake  Nicaragua  belonging  u  Ihe 
AccesBoryl^ansit  Companyiacorpotationof  Americans  engaged 
Iq  Innsporting  freight  and  pasiengcn  acroia  tbe  isthmus, 
aibd  was  (bus  enabled  to  surprise  and  capture  Granada,  the 
cai^Uland  (he  stronghold  of  his  opponents,  and  to  make  himself 
master  of  Nicaiagui.  Peace  wit  then  made;  Palrido  Rivas. 
who  bad  been  neutral,  was  made  proviiiDiial  president,  and 
Walker  secured  tbe  real  power  as  commander  of  the  troopa. 
Al  this  lime  two  oRjdnls  ol  the  Transit  Company  deletmined  to 
*M  Walker  a>  their  tool  to  get  control  of  [bat  corporation,  then 
dominated  by  Cornelius  Vundecbilt,  and  they  advanced  him 
funds  and  tiaasporled  his  recruits  iirun  the  United  States  free 
•(  charge.  Id  return  for  these  favours.  Walker  seised  the 
properly  of  the  company,  on  the  preleit  al  a  viijalian  of  its 
charter,  and  turned  over  Iti  equipment  10  Ihe  men  who  had 
befriended  him.  On  the  solh  of  May  1856  the  new  government 
was  formally  recognized  at  Washington  by  President  Piaix, 
«nd  OB  the  Jrd  of  June  the  Detnoclatic  national  convention 
eipmsed  iu  sympathy  with  the  efforts  being  made  to  "re- 
pnerate  "  Nicaragua.  In  June  Walker  *at  cha$en  president 
•I  Ificaragua,  and  on  (he  ajnd  of  Seplember.  from  alleged 
•conomlc  necesalty,  and  also  to  gain  the  sympathy  and  support 
gf  tbe  slave  states  In  \merlca,  he  repealed  the  kws  prohibiting 

Walker  managed  lo  maintain  himself  ognlntl  a  coah'tion  of 
Centnl  Ainerian  states,  led  by  CoMa  Rica,  which  was  aided  and 
abetted  by  agent*  of  Cornelius  Vanderbili.  untD  Ihe  ist  of  May 
itSj,  when,  lo  avoid  capture  by  the  natives,  he  suirendewd  to 
Commander  Charles  Heuiy  Davis,  of  the  United  Stales  navy, 
and  returned  to  the  United  Staiea.  In  November  185;  he  tailed 
from  Mohile  with  another  expedition,  but  soon  after  landing  at 
Punta  Arenas  he  was  arrested  by  Commodore  Hiram  Paulding 
of  the  American  navy,  and  was  compelled  to  tWum  to  the 
United  Stales  as  a  paroled  prisoner.  On  his  urival  he  was 
■deaaed  fay  order  of  President  Buchanan.  After  several  tm- 
NccessfHl  attempts  la  letum  to  Central  America,  Walker  finally 
MJIed  from  Mobile  in  August  i860  and  landed  ia  Honduras. 
Here  he  wai  taken  prisona  by  Captain  Salmon,  of  the  British 
Mvy,  aid  waa  surrendered  to  the  Honduran  authoHtiea,  by 
whom  be  waf  tried  and  condemned  to  be  shot.    He  wa*  ececuted 


IK,  W.- 

-WALL,  R 

Diaance. 

Nan«. 

I^nw. 

Date. 

Ptow.             1 

h..inia..ee. 

Onile 

tqafi 

fUth 

J.  W,  [S™(Jmr» 

u    Ml 

1906 

S.anka 

IU3 

■  «0) 

B 

.W,  Raby       .      . 

a  10 

l8ti 

L 

.W-R,hy       .      . 

;ss 

ISBJ 

L 

.  W,  Raby     .     . 

IM] 

i.  PcTkifll         .       . 

»   M   sr 

l»7I 

l*OS 

100   .. 

17     »J     SJ 

iW 

^ 

'*" 

See  Walker*!  own  nanuive.  acnnte  u  ta  cMaih,  TV  Wir  in 
WlcmfiH  (Mofaile.  IBOO);  William  V.  Weill.  Wmlttyi  Eipi^ilint  It 
Nicanim  (New  y«k.  1  §56) ;  Charles  William  Doubleilay.  Simiiii. 
«K(I  df  Lit  "  FUibHiIrr  "War  in  Nkaraiya  (New  Vork,  18S6].  and 
1am«fc(FreyRa<:he.rJk(Sl<»ye/Ib''il>»usur!(LondDn.i8ai).ievivd 
■od  reprinted  at  fiyiHyi  tif  War  (BoMon,  1^1).  <W.  O.  S.) 

VALKIHa  RACES,  a  form  of  athletic  ^lorts,  either  on  load 
«  track.  Road  walking  is  tbe  older  form  of  the  sport.  The 
ncefdi  IU  tbe  chief  walking  disUnces  were  as  fallows  in  isie.-— 


The  record  diuaece  walked  in  1  hour  was  8  in.  yn  yds.  by  ik 
Engliih  amateui  d.  E.  Lamer  in  140$;  in  i  houn.  jo  m.  1  igo  ida 
byanoihrr  Enili-hamarour.  I.  Butiw.  in  1905^10  14  houis,  iji  a. 
Jtktl  yda.  by  TI  E.  Hammond  in  190S. 

About  Ihe  year  1S75  there  *«»  a  ttvival  of  interai  in  pio- 
fessional  walking,  which  took  the  form  ol  "  gD.as-yoii.pIeisi  ■ 
illy  sill.     Tbcjc 


may  be  classed  ai  walkin 

.  for,  allhoug 

allowed,  it  was  seldom  pn 

ictised.  e 

al  a  time,  for  tbe  purpose 

;ing  it  to  keep  nitlit  ike 
nilej.  A"  fair  gait  "iionein  which  one  foot  louchea  the  pooi 
before  the  other  leaves  ii,  only  one  leg  being  bent  in  Meuuc 
namely,  that  which  is  being  put  forward. 

WALL.  RICHARD  (i6«4-t77g),  diplomatist  and.  miiuHer  k 
tbe  Spanish  service,  belonged  to  a  family  settled  fu  Waieilori. 
At  he  waa  a  Roman  Caihotic  he  was  dcbirrrd  fnnn  pubSc 
servin  at  home,  and  like  many  of  his  countrymen  he  sought  bit 
fortune  in  Spun.  He  served,  probably  as  a  aoldier  in  one  4 
the  Irish  regiments  of  the  Spanish  army,  during  Ihe  eipediliw 
to  Sidly  In  1718,  and  was  present  al  the  sea  light  off  Cspe 
Passan.  During  Ihe  following  years  he  continued  10  be  eia- 
ployed  as  an  ofScer,  but  in  171J  be  was  appointed  aecrelaiy  l« 
the  duke  of  Liria.  un  of  the  duke  of  Berwick,  and  ^ni* 
ambasador  al  St  Petersburg.  Wall's  knowledge  of  languages, 
hit  adaplabOity.  his  quick  Irish  wil  and  ready  self..crH)fidncc 
nude  him  a  great  favourite,  not  only  with  the  duke  ol  Liria, 
but  with  other  Spanish  aulhorilies.  Spain  was  at  that  line 
much  dependent  on  the  ability  of  foreigners,  and  for  a  man  of 
Walt's  parts  and  character  there  were  ample  openings  for  aa 
imporUnt  and  inleresling  career.  The  climate  of  Si  Pelersbuti 
seems  to  have  been  loo  much  for  him,  and  he  soon  remioed  to 
military  service  in  Italy.  It  is  said  that  when  he  was  presented 
to  the  duke  of  Montcmar,  tbe  Spanish  general,  and  was  asked 
who  he  was,  he  replied,  "  Tbe  most  important  person  in  tbe 
army  after  your  eicellency,  for  you  are  the  head  ol  the  terpeni, 
0  Don  Jost  PaliOo, 


ther 


n  the  tail. 
:  capable  1 


;t  of  King  Phili) 


.1  br 


Spanish  America— a  ve  . 
confidence  towards  a  man  of  foreign  origin.  He  is  alM  said  to 
have  laid  a  plan  lor  retaking  Januica  liom  Ibe  English.  Ia 
1747  he  was  employed  in  the  negotiations  for  the  peace  of  Ajt- 
la-ChapeDe,  and  in  T748  waa  named  minister  in  London.  In 
England  he  made  himself  very  popular-  Though  an  carlo 
through  tbe  operation  of  the  Penal  Laws,  and  though  be  proved 
loyal  Id  hij  adopted  caiuitry,  he  was  a  constant  parti*Bn  of  an 
English  alliance.  Hit  views  recommended  him  to  the  favour 
of  King  Ferdinand  VI.  [1746-1 7  J9),  whoK  policy  was  resolutely 
peaceful.  In  17S>  WaU  waa  recalled  from  LondoD  to  astitt  in 
completing  a  treaty  of  commerce  wilh  England,  which  waa  then 
b«ng  negotiated  in  Madrid.  Wall  now  became  the  candidau 
of  Ibe  English  party  in  the  Spanjib  court  for  tbe  pott  olUlnislet 
of  Foreign  Affaira,  in  opposition  to  the  leadei  of  tbe  French 
larquit  de  la  Enscoada.  He  obtained  the  plan 
in  17S4  he  had  a  large  share  in  driving  Ensenada 
He  retained  his  position  till  1764.  The  dei(tatchei 
isb    Biru'tter,  Sir,  Bcnjamla  Kecne,  aad  ol  hit 


WALL— WALLACE*  A,  R. 


*75 


r,  Lord  Bristol,  contain  many  references  to  Wall.  They 
are  creditable  to  him.  Though  a  constant  partisan  of  peace  and 
good  relations  with  England,  Wall  was  firm  in  asserting  the 
rights  of  the  government  he  served.  During  the  early  stages  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-1763)  he  Insisted  on  claiming 
compensation  for  the  excesses  of  English  privateers  in  Spanish 
waters.  He  frequently  complained  to  the  English  ministers  of 
the  difficulties  which  the  violence  of  these  adventurers  put  In 
his  way.  As  a  foreigner  he  was  suspected  of  undue  favour  to 
England,  and  was  the  object  of  incessant  attacks  by  the  French 
party.  The  new  king,  Charles  III.  (1759-1788),  cbnthiued 
Wall  in  office.  When  war  was  declared  by  Spain  in  1761  the 
minister  carried  out  the  policy  of  the  kingi  but  he  confessed  to 
the  English  ambassador,  Lord  Bristol,  that  he  saw  the  failure 
of  his  efforts  to  preserve  peace  with  grief.  The  close  relations 
of  Charles  III.  with  the  French  branch  of  the  House  of  Bourbon 
made  Wall's  position  as  foreign  minister  very  trying.  Yet  the 
king,  who  detested  changing  his  ministers,  refused  all  his  re- 
quests to  be  allowed  to  retire,  till  Wall  extorted  leave  in  1764 
by  elaborately  affecting  a  disease  of  the  eyes  which  was  In  fact 
imaginary.  The  king  gave  him  handsome  allowances,  and  a 
grant  for  life  of  the  crown  land  known  as  the  Soto  dc  Roma, 
near  Granada^  which  was  afterwards  conferred  on  Godoy,  and 
finally  given  to  the  duke  of  Wellington.  Wall  lived  almoU 
wholly  at  or  near  Granada,  exercising  a  plentiful  hospitality  to 
an  visitors,  and  particularly  to  English  travellers,  till  his  death 
in  1778.  He  left  the  reputation  of  an  able  minister  and  a  very 
witty  talker. 

A  full  account  wW  be  found  in  volume  iv.  of  Coxe's  Memoirs  of 
tk*  KinfS  of  Spain  of  tke  House  of  50Mr6oii  (London,  1815).  Further 
details  of  hit  eariy  career  can  be  gathered  from  the  Diario  dd  viq/f 
a  Moscoma.  1727-17x0^  of  the  duke  of  Liria  (vol.  xciit.  of  the  X)ocu>' 
menlos  tuidiios  parala  hiUoria  de  EspaHa),  (Madrid.  i843,et  scq.). 

WALL  (0.  Eng.  weal,  weall^  Mid.  Eng.  waf,  toaUe,  adapted  from 
Lat.  vallum,  rampart;  the  original  0.  Eng.  word  for  a  wall  was 
wdg  or  wdh),  a  solid  structure  of  stone,  brick  or  other  material, 
used  as  a  defensive,  protecting,  enclosing  or  dividing  fence, 
or  as  the  enclosing  and  supporting  sides  of  a  building,  house  or 
room.  The  Roman  vallum  was  an  earth  rampart  with  stakes 
or  palisades  (vallus,  stake;  Gr.  IJiKn,  nail)  and  the  Old  English 
word  was  particularly  applied  to  such  earth  walls;  for  the 
remains  of  the  Roman  walls  in  Britain  see  Britain.  The  word, 
however,  was  also  applied  to  stone  defensive  walls,  for  which 
the  latin  word  was  murus.  The  history  of  the  wall  as  a  means 
of  defence  will  be  found  in  the  article  FoanncATiON  and 
SlECECRAFT,  the  architectural  and  constructional  side  under 
the  headings  Arcbitecture,  Masonry  and  Brickwork.  In 
anatomy  and  zoology  the  term  "  waQ,"  and  also  the  Latin 
term  paries,  is  used  for  an  investing  or  enclosing  structure,  as 
ia  "  cell-walls,"  walls  of  the  abdomen,  &c.  In  the  days  when 
footpaths  were  narrow  and  ill-paved  or  non-existent  in  \he 
streets  of  towns  and  when  the  gutters  were  often  overflowing 
with  water  and  filth,  the  side  nearest  to  the  wall  of  the  bordering 
houses  was  safest  and  cleanest,  and  hence  to  walk  on  that  side 
was  a  privilege,  hence  the  expressions  "  to  take  "  or  "  to  give 
the  wall.**  The  term  "  wall -rib  *'  is  given  in  architecture  to  a 
half-rib  bedded  in  the  wall,  to  carry  the  web  or  shell  of  the  vault. 
In  Roman  and  in  early  Romanesque  work  the  web  was  laid  on 
the  top  of  the  stone  courses  of  the  wall,  which  had  been  cut  to 
the  arched  form,  but  as  this  was  often  irregularly  d<me,  and 
as  sometimes  the  conrses  had  stmk  owing  to  the  drying  of  the 
nortar.  it  was  found  better  to  provide  an  independent  rib  to 
carry  the  web;  half  of  this  rib  was  sunk  in  the  wall  and  the 
other  half  moulded  like  the  transverse  and  diagonal  ribs,  so  that 
if  the  wall  sank,  or  if  it  had  to  be  taken  down  from  any  cause, 
the  vault  woiild  still  retain  its  position. 

The  word  "  wall  eye  "  or  "  wall-eyed  "  is  applied  to  a  con- 
dition of  the  eye,  particularly  of  a  horse,  in  which  thei«  is  a 
large  amount  ol  white  showing  or  there  is  absence  of  colour  in 
V  ^^*  <^  ^l^re  is  leucoma  of  the  cornea.  It  is  also  applied  to 
the  white  staring  eyes  of  certain  fishes.  The  word  has  no  con- 
nexion with  "  wall "  as  above,  but  is  from  the  Icelandic  wff- 
*y^9  Wff,  a  beta,  ity  ia  the  eye,  and  eyp,  eyed. 


WALLABY,  a  native  name,  used  In  literature  for  any  member 
of  a  section  of  the  zoological  genus  Macropus,  with  naked  muffl^ 
irequenting  forests  and  dense  scrubs.  With  respect  to  their  size 
they  are  distinguished  as  large  wallabies  and  small  wallabies, 
some  of  the  latter  being  no  bigger  than  a  rabbit.  From  the 
localities  in  which  they  are  found  they  are  also  called  brush 
kangaroos.     See  Kangaroo. 

WALUCB;  ALFRED  RUS8BL  (1833-  ),  British  natural- 
ist, was  born  at  Usk,  in  Monmouthshire,  on  the  8th  of  January 
1833.  After  leaving  school  he  assisted  an  elder  brother  in  his 
work  as  a  land  surveyor  and  architect,  visiting  various  parts  of 
England  and  Wales.  Living  in  South  Wales,  about  1840  he  began 
to  take  an  interest  in  botany,  and  began  the  formation  of  a 
herbariunk  In  1847  he  took  his  first  journey  out  ol  En^^and, 
spending  a  week  in  Paris  with  his  brother  and  sister.  In  1844- 
1845,  while  An  English  master  in  the  Collegiate  School  at  Leicester, 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  H.  W.  Bates,  through  whose  in- 
fluence he  became  a  beetle  collector,  and  with  whom  he  started 
in  1848  on  an  expedition  to  the  Amazon.  In  about  a  year  the 
two  naturalists  separated,  and  each  wrote  an  account  of  his 
travels  and  observations.  Wallace's  Travds  on  ike  Amazon  and 
Rio  Negro  was  published  in  1853,  a  year  in  which  he  went  for  a 
fortnight'a  walking  tour  in  Switzerland  with  an  old  school-fellow. 
On  his  voyage  home  from  South  America  the  ship  was  burnt  and 
all  his  collections  lost,  except  those  which  he  had  despatched 
beforehand.  After  spending  a  year  and  a  half  in  England, 
during  which  time,  besides  his  book  on  the  Amazon,  he  published 
a  small  volume  on  the  Palm  Trees  of  ik€Amazon,he  started  for 
the  Malay  Archipelago,  exploring,  observing  and  collecting  from 
1854  to  1862.  He  visited  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  Celebes,  the 
Moluccas,  Timor,  New  Guinea  and  the  Aru  and  K6  Islands.  His 
deeply  interesting  narrative.  Tie  Malay  Archipelago,  appeared 
in  1869,  and  he  also  published  many  important  papers  through 
the  London  scientific  societies.  The  chief  parts  of  his  vast  insect 
collections  became  the  property  of  the  Late  W.  W.  Saunders^ 
but  subsequently  some  of  the  most  important  groups  passed  into 
the  Hope  Collection  of  the  university  of  Oxford  and  the  British 
Museum.  He  discovered  that  the  Malay  Archipelago  was  divided 
into  a  western  group  of  ishmds,  which  in  their  zoological  affinities 
are  Oriental,  and  an  eastern,  which  are  Australian.  The  Oriental 
Borneo  and  Bali  are  respectively  divided  from  Celebes  and 
Lombok  by  a  narrow  belt  of  sea  known  as  "  Wallace's  Line," 
on  the  opposite  sides  o(  which  the  indigenous  mammalia  are  as 
widely  divergent  as  in  any  two  parts  of  the  world.  Wallace 
became  convinced  of  the  truth  of  evolution,  and  originated  the 
tbeoiy  of  natural  selection  during  these  travels.  In  February 
1855,  staying  at  Sarawak,  in  Borneo,  he  wrote  an  essay  "  On  the 
Law  which  has  regulated  the  Introduction  of  New  Species"' 
.{Ann.  and  Mag.  NaL,  HisU,  1855,  p.  184).  He  states  the  law 
as  foIk>ws;  "  Every  ^>edea  has  come  into  existence  coincident 
both  in  time  and  space  with  a  pre-existing  closely  allied 
species."  He  justly  claims  that  such  a  law  connected  and 
explained  a  vast  number  of  independent  facts.  It  was,  in 
fact,  a  cautious  statement  of  a  belief  in  evolution,  and  for  three 
years  from  the  time  that  he  wrote  the  essay  he  tells  us  that 
"  the  question  of  how  changes  of  species  could  have  been  brought 
about  was  rarely  out  of  my  mind."  Finally,  in  February  1858, 
when  he  was  lying  muffled  in  blankets  in  the  cold  fit  of  a  severe 
attack  of  intermittent  fever  at  Temate,  in  the  Moluccas,  he  began 
to  think  of  Malthus's  Essay  on  Population,  and,  to  use  his  own 
words, "  there  suddenly  flatbed  upon  me  the  idea  of  the  survival 
of  the  fittest."  The  theory  was  thought  out  during  the  rest  of  the 
ague  fit,  drafted  the  same  evening,  written  out  in  full  in  the  two 
succeeding  evenings,  and  sent  to  Darwin  by  the  next  posL  Dar- 
win in  England  at  once  recognized  his  own  theory  in  the  manu- 
script essay  sent  by  the  young  and  almost  unknown  naturalist 
in  the  tropics,  then  a  stranger  to  him.  "  I  never  saw  a  more 
striking  coincidence,"  he  wrote  to  Lyell  on  the  very  day,  00  the 
18th  of  June,  when  he  received  the  paper:  "  if  Wallace  had 
my  MS.  sketch  written  out  in  184a,  he  could  not  have  made  a 
better  short  abstracti  Even  his  terms  now  stand  as  heads 
of  my  chapters."    Under    the  advice  of    Sir  Charles  Lyell 


ii^ 


WAtLAdB,  L. 


and  Sir  Joteph  Hooker,  the  essay  was  read,  together  with  an 
abstract  of  Darwin's  own  views,  as  a  joint  paper  at  the  Linnean 
Society  on  the  ist  of  July  1858.  The  title  of  Wallace's  section 
waa  "  On  the  Tendency  of  Varieties  to  depart  indefinitely  from 
the  Original  Type."  The  "  struggle  for  existence,*'  the  rate  of 
multiplication  of  animals,  and  the  dependence  of  their  average 
numbers  upon  food  supply  are  very  clearly  demonstrated,  and 
the  following  conclusion  was  reached:  "Those  that  prolong  their 
existence  can  only  be  the  most  perfect  in  health  and  vigour;  . . . 
the  wfsakest  and  least  perfectly  organized  must  always  succumb." 
The  difference  between  Lamarck's  theory  and  natural  selection 
is  very  dearly  pointed  out,  **  The  powerful  retractile  talons  of 
the  falcon  and  the  cat  tribes  have  not  been  produced  or  increased 
by  the  volition  of  those  animals;  but  among  the  different  varieties 
which  occurred  in  the  earlier  and  less  highly  organized  forms  of 
these  groups,  those  always  survive^  longed  which  had  the  greattst 
facilities  for  Sevang  their  prey.  Neither  did  the  ^raffe  acquire  its 
long  neck  by  desiring  to  reach  the  foliage  of  more  lofty  shrubs, 
and  constantly  stretching  its  neck  for  the  purpose,  but  because 
any  varieties  which  occurred  among  its  antitypes  with  a  longer 
neck  than  usual  at  once  secured  a  fresh  range  of  pasture  ever  the 
same  gjround  as  their  sharter-neched  companions^  and  on  the  first 
scarcity  of  food  were  thereby  enaiied  to  outlive  them."  With  such 
dear  statements  as  these  in  the  paper  of  the  tst  of  July  1858,  it 
is  remarkable  that  even  well-known  naturalists  diotild  have 
failed  to  comprehend  the  difference  between  Lamarck's  and  the 
Darwin-Wallace  theory.  Wallace  also  alluded  to  the  resemblance 
of  animals,  and  more  especially  of  insects,  to  their  surroundings, 
and  points  out  that  "  those  races  having  colours  best  adapted  to 
concealment  from  their  enemies  would  inevitably  survive  the 
longest."  In  1871  Wallace's  two  essays,  written  at  Sarawak 
and  Temate,  were  published  with  others  as  a  volume,  Contribu- 
tions to  the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection,  Probably,  next  to  the 
Origin  of  Species,  no  single  work  has  done  so  much  to  promote 
dear  understanding  of  natural  sdection  and  confidence  in  its 
truth;  for  in  addition  to  these  two  historic  essays,  there  are 
others  in  which  the  new  theory  is  applied  (o  the  Interpretation 
of  certain  classes  of  fads.  Thus  one  treats  of  **  Mhnicry  **  in 
animals,  another  on  *'  Instinct,"  another  on  *'  Birds*  Nests." 
Each  of  these  served  as  an  example  of  what  might  be  achieved 
in  the  light  of  the  new  doctrine,  which,  taught  in  this  way  and  in 
an  admirably  lucid  style,  was  easily  absorbed  by  many  who  found 
the  more  complete  exposition  in  the  Origin  very  hard  to  absorb. 
In  this  work,  and  in  many  of  his  subsequent  publications,  Wallace 
dlffen  from  Darwin  on  certain  points.  Thus  the  two  concluding 
essays  contend  that  man  has  not,  like  the  other  animab,  been 
produced  by  the  unaided  operation  of  natural  selection,  but  that 
other  forces  have  also  been  in  operation.  We  here  see  the  In- 
fluence of  his  convictions  on  the  subject  of  ''spiritualism." 
More  recently  he  expressed  his  dissatisfaction  with  the  hypothesis 
of  "  sexoal  selection  "  by  which  Darwin  sou^t  to  explain  the 
conspicuous  characters  which  are  displayed  during  the  courtship 
of  animals.  The  expression  of  his  opinion  on  both  these  points 
of  divergence  from  Darwin  will  be  found  in  Darwinism  (1889),  a 
most  valuable  and  ludd  exposition  of  natural  selection,  as  suited 
to  the  later  period  at  which  It  appeared  as  the  Essays  were  to  the 
ealicr.  Darwin  died  some  years  before  the  controversy  upon  the 
possibility  of  the  hercditar>'  transmission  of  acquired  characters 
arose  over  the  writings  of  Wetsmann,  but  Wallace  has  fredy 
accepted  the  general  results  of  the  German  zoologist's  teaching, 
and  in  Darwinism  has  presented  a  complete  theory  of  the  causes  of 
evolution  unmixed  with  any  trace  of  Lamarck's  use  or  disuse  of 
inheritance,  or  Buffon's  hereditary  effect  of  the  direct  Influence 
lA  surroundings.  Tropical  Naiurg  and  other  Essays  appeared  In 
1S78,  since  republished  combined  with  the  187  r  Essays,  of  which 
it  formed  the  natural  continuation.  One  of  the  greatest  of  his 
publications  was  the  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals 
C1876),  a  monumental  work,  which  every  student  will  main- 
tain fully  justifies  its  author's  hope  that  it  may  bear  "  a  similar 
Illation  to  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  chapters  of  the  Origin 
Cjf  Species  as  Mr  Darwin's  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domesti- 
cation bean  to  the  first."    Island  Life,  which  may  be  regarded 


as  a  valuable  supplement  to  the  last-named  work«  appeared  tn 
1880. 

Turning  to  his  other  writings,  Walfatce  published  Miracles 
and  Modern  Spiritualism  in  1881.    Here  is  given  an  account 
of  the  reasons  which  induced  him  to  accept  bdiefs  which  are 
shared  by  so  small  a  proportion  of  scientific  men.    These  reasons 
are  purely  experimental,  and  in  no  way  connected  with  Christi- 
anity, for  he  bad  long  before  given  up  all  belief  in  revealed 
religion.   .In  1882  he  published  Land  Nationalization,  in  which 
he  argued  the  necessity  of  state  ownership  of  land,  a  principle 
which  he  had  originated  long  before  the  appearance  of  Henry 
George's  work.    In  Forty-five   Years  of  Registration  Siotistics 
(1885}  he  maintained  that  vaccination  Is  useless  and  dangerous. 
Wallace  also  published  an  account  of  what  he  hdd  to  be  the 
greatest  discoveries  as  well  as  the  failures  of  the  19th  century. 
The  Wonderful  Century  (1899).    His  later  works  include  Studies, 
Scientific  and  Social  (1900),  Man's  Place  in  the.  Universe  (1903) 
and  his  Autobiography  (1905).    Possessed  of  a  bold  and  Intensely 
original  mind,  his  activities  radiated  in  many  directions,  ap- 
parently rather  attracted  than  repelled  by  the  unpopularity  cf 
a  subject.    A  non-theological  Alhanasius  contra  mamdum,  he 
has  the  truest  missionary  spirit,  an  intense  faith  which  wotikf 
seek  to  move  the  mountains  of  apathy  and  active  oppo^tioo. 
Whatever  may  be  the  future  history  of  his  other  views,  he  *iB 
always  be  remembered  as  an  originator  of  a  principle  vxa 
illuminating  than  any  which  has  appeared  since  the  dxf^d. 
Newton,  as  one  of  its  two  discoverers  whose  scientific  rivali) 
was  only  the  beginning  of  a  warm  and  unbroken  friendship. 

Wallace  was  married  in  1866  to  the  eldest  daughter  ol  the 
botanist,  Mr  WilUam  Mitten,  of  Hurstpierpoint,  Sussex,  lo 
1871  he  built  a  house  at  Grays,  Essex,  in  an  old  chalk-ptt,  and 
after  living  there  four  years,  moved  successively  to  Dorking 
(two  years)  and  Croydon  (three  years).  In  1880  he  built  a 
cottage  at  Codalming  near  the  Charterhouse  school,  and  grew 
nearly,  1000  species  of  plants  in  the  garden  which  he  made.  In 
1889  he  moved  to  Dorsetshire.  After  his  return  to  England  in 
1862  Wallace  visited  the  continent,  especially  Switzerland,  for 
rest  and  change  (1866,  1896)  and  the  study  of  botany  and 
glacial  phenomena  (August  1895).  ^^  &^so  visited  Spa,  in 
Belgium,  about  1870,  and  in  October  1887  went  for  a  lecturing 
tour  in  the  United  States.  He  delivered  a  course  of  six  Lo\«reIl 
lectures  in  Boston,  and  visited  New  York,  New  Haven,  Baki- 
more,  &c.,  spending  the  winter  at  Washington.  The  following 
March  he  went  to  Canada  and  Niagara,  and  then  made  his 
■way  westwards.  He  saw  the  Vosemile  Valley,  the  Big  Trees, 
and  botanized  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  at  Gray's  Peak. 
In  July  he  returned  to  Liverpool  by  way  of  Chicago  and  the 
St  I^wrence. 

TJie  first  Darwin  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  was  awarded 
to  'A.  R.  Wallace  in  1890,  and  he  had  received  the  Koyal  medal 
in  ^868.  A  pension  was  awarded  him  by  Mr  Gladstone  at  the 
beginning  of  1881.  He  received  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from 
Oxford  in  1889,  and  of  LL.D.  from  the  university  of  Dublin  In 
1882.  He  was  president  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  London 
in  1870-1871. 

Apart  from  Wallace's  own  Aulobioyapiy,  a  good  deal  of  u&eful 
information  is  given  rn  the  biographical  mtrodaction  to  Wallace's 
Narrative  of  Travels  on  the  Amaaon  and  Rio  Negro  by  the  editor,  Mr 
G.  T.  Bettany. 

WALLACE,  LEWI9  (Lew]  (1827-1905),  American  soldier  and 
author,  was  bom  at  Brookvllle,  Indiana,  on  the  loth  of  April 
1837,  and  received  an  academic  education.  He  abandoned 
temporarily  the  study  of  law  in  Indianapolis  to  recruit  a  com* 
pany  of  volunteers  (of  which  he  was  made  second  lieutenant) 
for  the  Mexican  War,  and  served  in  1846-1847  in  the  First 
Indiana  Battery.  He  returned  to  the  law,  but  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  War  became  colonel  of  the  Eleventh  Indiana 
Infantry,  served  in  the  West  Virginia  campaign,  and  on  the  3rd 
of  ^September  i86i  was  appointed  brigadier-general.  After  the 
cap'.ure  of  Fort  Donclson  (February  16,  1862)  he  was  promoted 
to  major-general  (March  2r,  1862),  was  engaged  at  Shiloh 
(April  7,  1862),  and  afterwards  commanded  the  Ciffadi  Corps 


WALLACE^'  SIR  R,-*J^fiLLfyCBt  §1^  WILLIAM 


j2-7^ 


mUh  beadquvten-  at  Baltimore.  By  deUyiog  ihe  Cpnf edcxate , 
general  J.  A.  Early  at  Monocacy  (July  9, 1864)  he  saved  Washing- 
ion  {rom  almost  certain  capture.  General  Wallace  served  as 
president  of  .the  court  of  inquiry  (November  1862)  which  in- 
vestigated the  conduct  of  Gene^  P.  C.  Buell,  and  of  the  court 
which  in  1865  tritti  and  condemned  Henry  Wirz,  commander 
of  the  Confederate  prison  at  Andersonville,  Ga.  He  was  also  a 
member  of  the  court  which  tried  the  alleged  conspirators  against 
President  Lincoh.  He  resigned  from  the  army  in  1865  to 
return  to  the  bar.  He  served  as  governor  of  New  Mexico  Terri- 
tory (1378-1881)  and  as  minister  to  Turkey  (15^1-1885).  Though 
exceedingly  popular  as  a  lecturer,  his  literary  reputation  rests 
upon  three  historical  romances:  The  Fair  (fod  (1873),  a  story 
of  the  conquest  of  Mexico;  Ben  Hur  (1880),  a  tale  of  the  coming 
of  Christ,  which  was  translated  into  several  languages  and 
dramatized;  and  The  Prince  of  India  (1893),  dealing  with  the 
Wandering  Jew  and  the  Byzantine  empire. 

WAUACE,  SIR  RICHARP,  Bart.  (1818-1890),  English 
art  collector  and  philanthropist,  ,was  bom  in  London  on  the 
a6tb  of  July  18x8.  According  to  Sir  Waiter  Armstrong  (see 
DicL  of  National  Biograpkyt  art.  "  Wallace  *'),  be  was  a  natural 
son  of  Maria,  marchioness  of  Hertford  (wife  of  the  third  marquesa) , 
under  whose  auspices  the  boy  was  educated,  mainly  at  Paris; 
but  it  was  generally  supposed  in  his  lifetime  that  he  was  a  son 
«f  tha  fourth  marquesa  (hia  elder  by  only  .eighteen,  yean),  and 
therefote  her  grandson.*  At  Paris  he  was  well  known  in  society, 
and  became  an  assiduous  collector  of  all  sorts  of  valuable  c^s 
S'afl,  but  In  1857  these  were  sold  and  Wallace  devoted  himself 
to  asusting  the  fourth  marquess,  who  left  I^ndon  to  reside 
entirely  in  Paris,  to  acquire  a  magnifiocpt  collection  of  the 
.finest  ex^ples  ol  painting,  armour,  furn^ure  and  brU-d-brac. 
In  1870  the  marque3S  of  Hertford  died  unmarried,  bequeathing 
to  Wallace  an  enormous  property,  including  Hertford  House 
and  its  contents,  the  house  in  Paris,  and  large  Irish  esutes. 
Pending  the  reopening  of  Hertford  House,  which  had  been  shut 
up  since  the  marquess  had  gone  to  live  in  Paris,  Wallace  sent  some 
of  the  Bnest  of  his  pictures  and  other  treasures  to  the  Bethnal 
Green  Museum  for  exhibition;  they  were  then  transferred  to 
Hertford  House,  which  had  been  largely  transformed  in  order 
to  roxJye  them.  In  187 1  he  waacreated  a  baronet  for  his  services 
.during  the  siege  of  Paris,  when  he  equipped  several  ambulances, 
.founded  the  Hertford  British  hospital,  an<;l, spent  money  lavishly 
in  relief.  This  muni&cence  fndeared  18' r  Richard  Wallace  to 
the  French  people.  From  1873  to  1885  he  had  a  scat  in  parlia- 
ment for  Lisburn,  but  he  lived  mostly  in  Paris,  where,  in  the 
Rue  la&tU  and  in  his  villa  in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  he  dwelt 
among  art  treasures  not  inferior  to  thofe  at  Hertfofd  House. 
In  1^78  be  was  made  one  of  the  British  commissioners  at  the 
Paris  Exhibition,-  and  he  was  also  a  trustee  of  the  National 
Gallery  and  a  governor  of  the  National  Gallery  of  Ireland.  He 
•  <Uod  in  Psiis  on  the  aoth  of  July  i8qo.  He  hod  married  m  187  x 
tito  daughter  ol  a  French  officer,  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  who, 
Kowerer ,  died  Ui  1887;  and  Lady  WUlace,  who  died  in  1897, 
bequeathed  hb  great  art  collection  to  the  British  nation.  It  is 
BOW  hoiked  in  Hertford  Hou&e»  Manchester  Square,  which  was 
aoqudrni  and  adapted  by  the  government  for  the  purpose. 

WJILLACB.  81R  WILUAM  (r.  1 970^1305) «  the  popular 
.national  liero  of  Scotland,  b  believed  to  have  been  the  second  son 
of  Sir  Malcolm  WaUace  of  Elderslie  and  Auchinbothie*  in  Ren- 
frewsh^ce.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  not  certainly  ascertained, 
but  is  usually  given  as  X37a  The  only  authority  for  the  events 
of  his  early  life  b  the  metrical  history  of  Blind  Harry.  That 
authority  cannot  be  implicitly  relied  on,  though  we  need  not 
conclude  that  the  minstrel  invented  the  stories  he  relates.  He 
Kved  about  two  centuries  later  than  Wallace,  during  which  a 
contidetable  body  of  legend  had  probably  gathered  round  the 
name,  and  these  popular  **  gestis  "  he  incorporates  in  hb  narra- 
tive. At  the  same  time  be  professes  to  follow  as  hb  '*  autour  " 
an  account  that  had  been  written  in  Latin  by  John  Blair,  the 
personal  friend  and  chaplain  of  Wallace  himself.  As  Blair*s 
account  has  perished,  we  cannot  tell  how  far  the  minstrel  has 
laithfuBy  followed  hb  authority,  but  ^me  comparatively  recent 


discoveries  have  confirmed  the  truth  of  portions  of  the  narrative 
which  had  previously  been  doubted.  At  best,  however,  ih 
authority  must  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  except  when  it  b 
confirmed  by  other  and  more  trustworthy  evidence. 

Only  for  a  period  of  less  than  two  years  in  hb  life — from  thib 
beginning  of  the  insurrection  in  1297  to  the  battle  of  Falkirk^ 
does  Wallace  come  before  us  in  the  clearest  hbtorical  light. 
With  the  exception  of  one  or  two  gtio^ses  of  him  that  we  obtaiti 
from  authentic  historical  documents,  the  recorded  events  of  his 
later  as  of  hb  earlier  life  rest  on  no  qiore  certain  authority  ihafi 
that  of  Blind  Harry. 

In  hb  boyhood,  according  to  the  usual  accounts,  he  resided 
for  some  time  at  Dunipace,  in  Stirlingshire,  with  an  uncle,  who 
is  styled  '*  parson  "  of  the  place.  By  this  uncle  h^  was  partially 
educated,  and  from  him  he  Imbibed  an  enthusiastic  love  of 
liberty.  Hb  education  was  continued  at  Dundee,  where  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  John  Blair.  On  account  of  an  incident  that 
happened  at  Dundee — hb  slaughter  of  a  young  EngUshman 
named  Selby,  for  an  insult  offered  to  him — he  b  said  to  have 
been  outlaMt^Kl,  and  so  driven  into  rebellion  against  the  English. 
Betaking  himself  to  the  wilds  of  the  country,  he  gradually 
gathered  round  him  a  body  of  desperate  men  whom  he  led  in 
various  attacks  upon  the  English.  In  consequence  of  the  success 
of  these  early  enterprises  hb  following  largely  increased,  several 
of  the  more  patriotic  nobles — including  the  steward  of  Scotland, 
Sir  Andrew  Moray,  Sir  John  de  Graham,  Douglas  the  Hardy, 
Wishart,  bishop  of  Glasgow,  and  pthers — having  joined  him. 
His  insurrection  now  became  more  open  and  pronounced,  and 
his  enterprises  of  greater  importance.  An  attack  was  made 
upon  the  Englbh  justiciar,  Ormsby,  who  was  holding  hb  court  at 
Scone.  The  justiciar  himself  escaped,  but  many  of  hb  followers 
were  captured  or  slain.  The  burning  of  the  Bams  of  Ayr,  the 
quarters  of  Englbh  soldiers,  in  revenge  for  the  treacherous 
slaughter  of  his  uncle.  Sir  Ronald  Crawford,  and  other  Scottish 
noblemen,  followed,  Tlie  success  of  these  exploits  induced  the 
Englbh  king  to  take  measures  for  staying  the  insurrection.  A 
large  army,  under  tlie  command  of  Sir  Henry  Percy  and  Sir 
Robert  CUiford,  was  sent  against  the  insurgents,  and  came  up 
with  them  at  Irvine.  Dissensions  broke  out  among  the  Scottbn 
leaders,  and  all  Wallace's  titled  friends  left  him  and  made  sub- 
mbsion  to  Edward,  except  the  ever  faithful  Sir  Andrew  ^toray. 
The  treaty  of  Irvine,  by  which  these  Scottish  nobles  agreed  to 
acknowledge  Edward  as  their  sovereign  lord,  b  printed  ih 
Rymer's  Feeder  a.  It  b  dated  the  9th  of  July  1297,  and  Is  thjB 
first  public  document  in  which  the  name  of  Sir  William  Wallace 
occurs.  Wallace  retired  to  the  north,  and  although  deserted  by 
the  barons  was  soon  at  the  head  of  a  large  army.  The  vigour 
and  success  of  hb  operations  was- such  that  in  a  short  time  he 
succeeded  in  recovering  almost  all  the  fortresses  held  by  the 
English  to  the  north  of  the  Forth.  He  had  begun  the  siege  of 
Dundee  when  he  received  information  that  an  English  army,  led 
by  the  earl  of  Suney  and  Cressingham  the  treasurer,  was  on  ita 
march  northward.  Leaving  the  citizens  of  Dundee  to  continue 
the  siege  of  the  castle,  he  made  a  rapid  march  to  Stirling.  En- 
camping in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Abbey  Craig — on  whidi 
now  stands  the  national  monument  to  his  memory — he  watched 
the  passage  of  the  Forth.  After  an  unsuccessful  at  t  cmpt  t  o  bring 
Wallace  to  terms,  the  Englbh  commander,  on  the  morning  of 
the  xith  of  September  1297,  began  to  cross  the  bridge.  When 
about  one  half  of  hb  army  had  crossed,  and  while  they  were  still 
ia  disorder,  they  were  attacked  with  such  fury  by  Wallace,  thtft 
almost  all — Cressingham  among  the  number — were  slain,  or 
driven  into  the  river  and  drowned.  Those  on  the  south  «de  of 
the  river  were  seized  with  panic  and  fled  tumultuously,  having 
first  set  fire  to  the  bridge.  The  Scots,  however,  crossed  by  a  ford, 
and  continued  the  pursuit  of  the  enemy  as  far  as  Berwick.  Sir 
Andrew  Moray  fell  in  this  battle.  The  results  of  it  were  Im- 
portant. The  English  were  everywhere  driven  from  Scotland. 
To  increase  the  alarm  of  the  English,  as  well  as  to  relieve  the 
famine  which  then  prevailed,  Wallace  organized  a  great  raid  Into 
the  nortR  of  England,  in  the  course  of  which  he  devastated  the 
coufttxy  to  the  gates  of  Newcastle.  On  Uk  return  he  was  elected 


27* 


WALLACE,  W.— WALLACiE,  W.  V. 


guardian  of  iht  lungdon^.  In  this  office  be  set  himself  to  re* 
organize  the  army  and  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  the  country. 
His  measures  were  marked  by  much  wisdom  and  vigour,  and  for 
a  short  time  succeeded  in  securing  order,  even  in  the  face  of  the 
jealousy  and  opposition  of  the  nobles.  Edward  was  in  Flanders 
when  the  news  of  this  successful  revolt  reached  him.  He  hastened 
home,  and  at  the  head  of  a  great  army  entered  Scotland  in  July 
1298.  Wallace  was  obliged  to  adopt  the  only  plan  of  campaign 
wUch  could  give  any  hope  of  success.  He  dowly  retired  before 
the  English  monardi,  driving  off  all  supplies  and  wasting  the 
country.  Hie  DQbfes  as  usual  for  the  most  part  deserted  his 
standacd.  Those  that  remained  thwarted  his  councils  by  their 
jealousies.  His  plan,  however,  came.very  near  being  successful. 
Edward,  compelled  by  famine,  had  alrouly  given  orders  for  a 
retreat  when  he  received  information  of  Wallace's  position  and 
intentions.  The  army,  then  at  Kirkliston^  was  immediately  set 
in  motion,  and  next  morning  (July  23,*  z  298)  Wallace  was 
brought  to  battle  in  the  vicinity  of  Falkirk..  After  an  obstinate 
fight  the  Scots  were  overpowered  and  defeated  with  great  loss. 
Among  the  slain  was  Sir  John  de  Graham,  the  bosom  friend  of 
Wallace,  whose  death,  as  Blind  Harry  tells,  threw  the  hero  into 
a  frenzy  of  rage  and  grief.  The  account  of  hb  distress  is  one  of 
•the  finest  and  most  touching  passages  in  the  poem.  With  the 
remains  of  bis  army  Wallace  found  refuge  for  the  night  in  the 
Torwood— known  to  him  from  his  boyish  life  at  Dunipace.  He 
then  retreated  to  the  north,  burning  the  town  and  castle  of 
Stirling  on  his  way.  He  resigned  the  office  of  guardian,  and 
betook  himself  again  to  a  wandering  life  and  a  desultory  and 
predatory  warfare  against  the  English.  At  this  point  his  history 
again  b^mes  obscure.  .  He  is  known  to  have  paid  a  visit  to 
France,  with  the  purpose  of  obtxuning  aid  for  his  country  from 
the  French  king.  This  visit  is  narrated  with  many  untrustworthy 
details  by  Blind  Harry;  but  the  fact  is  established  by  other 
and  indisputable  evidence.  When  in  the  winter  of  1303-1304 
Edward  received  the  submission  of  the  Scottish  nobles,  Wallace 
was  expressly  excepted  from  all  terms.  And  after  the  capture 
of  Stirling  Castle  and  Sir  William  Oliphant,  and  the  submission 
of  Sir  Simon  Fraser,  he  was  left  alone,  biit  resolute  as  ever  in 
refusing  allegiance  to  the  English  king.  A  price  was  set  upon 
hb  head,  and  the  English  governors  and  captains  in  Scotland  had 
orders  to  use  every  means  for  his  capture.  On  the  5th  of  August 
1305  he  was  taken — as  is  generally  alleged,  through  treachery — 
at  Robroyston,  near  Glasgow,  by  Sir  John  Menteith,  carried  to 
the  castle  of  Dumbarton,  and  thence  conveyed  in  fetters  and 
strongly  guarded  to  London.  He  reached  London  on  the  22nd 
of  August,  and  next  day  was  taken  to  Westminster  Hall,  where 
he  was  impeached  as  a  traito^  by  Sir  Peter  Mallorie,  the  king's 
justice.  To  the  accusation  Wallace  made  the  simple  reply  that 
be  could  not  hi  a  traitor  to  the  king  of  England,  for  he  never 
was  his  subject,  and  never  swore  fealty  to  him.  He  was  found 
guilty  and  condemned  to  death.  The  sentence  was  executed  the 
lame  day  with  circumstances  of  unusual  cruelty. 

The  cause  of  national  independence  was  not  lost  with  the  life  of 
Wallace.  Notwithstanding  the  cruelty  and  indignity  amid  which 
it  terminated,  that  life  was  not  a  failure.  It  has  been  an  inspira- 
tion to  his  countrymen  ever  since.  The  popular  ideas  regarding 
his  stature,  strength,  bodily  prowess  and  undaunted  courage  are 
confirmed  by  the  writers  nearest  his  own  time— Wyntoun  and 
Fordun.  And  indeed  no  man  could  in  that  age  have  secured  the 
personal  ascendancy  which  he  did  without  the  possession  of  these 
qualiUes.  The  little  we  know  of  his  statesmanship  during  the 
short  period  he  was  in  power  gives  proof  of  politioal  wisdom. 
His  patriotism  was  conspicuous  and  dismterested.  He  was  well 
skilled  in  the  modes  of  warfare  that  suited  the  country  and  the 
times.  That  he  failed  in  freeing  his  country  from  the  yoke  of 
England  was  due  chiefly  to  the  jeabusy  with  which  he  was 
regarded  by  the  men  of  rank  and  power.  But  he  had  a  nobler 
success  in  inspiring  his  countrymen  with  a  spirit  which  made  their 
tiltimate  conquest  impossible. 

For  btbUooaphy  see  the  article  in  the  Dkt.  Nai.  Bin.  The 
principal  modem  Uvea  are  Jamca  Moir's  (18I6),  and  A.  F.  MuriKm's 
Ui9S).  (A.  F.  H.) 


WAIUCB.  WILUAM  (1768-1843),  ScoCtidi  mathematidu. 
was  bom  on  the  23rd  of  September  1768  at  Dysart  in  Fifeshire, 
where  he  received  his  school  educatiocu     In  1784  his  fsmOy 
removed  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  himself  was  set  to  \aixn  the 
trade  of  a  bookbinder;  but  his  taile  for  mathemalia  had 
already  developed  itself,  and  he  made  tuch  use  of  his  leisun 
hours  that  before  the  completion  of  his  apprenticeship  he  had 
made  considerable  acquirements  in  geometry,    algebra  aod 
astronomy.    He  was  further  assisted  in  his  studies  by  John 
Robison  (1739-1S05)  and  John  Playfatr,  to  whoa  his  abilitia 
had  become  known.   After  various  changes  of  sltxiatlon,  dicuted 
mainly  by  a  desii«  to  gain  time  f<>r  study,  he  became  assistant 
teacher  of  matheiftatics  in  the  academy  of  Perth  in  1794,  and 
this  post  he  exchanged  in  1803  for  a  mathematical  mastenh^ 
in  the  Royal  Milltaiy  College  at  Great  Marlow  (aftenrards  it 
Sandhurst).   In  1S19  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  John  Leslie  in  the 
chair  of  mathematics  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  1838,  when  cofflpeSed 
by  Ul-health  to  retire,  he  received  a  government  pension  for  life. 
He  died  in  Edinburgh  on  the  28th  of  April  1845. 

In  his  earHcr  years  Wallace  was  an  occasional  contributor  to 
Leyboume's  UatkemHical  tUpont^ry  and  the  GWiUImmn's  J/«A^ 
matical  Companicm.    Between  1801  and  1810  he  oontributed  aitidbi 
on  "  Algebra."  "  Coiuc  Sections."  "  Trigonometry/"  and  lewnj 
othen  in  mathematical  and  physical  science  to  the  fourth  cditiMa 
the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica^  and  some  of  theK  were  rttxudk 
subsequent  cditiona  from  the  fifth  to  the  cigi^  inclusive.  Ik  ^ 
also  the  author  of  tlw  prindpal  mathematiosl  axticles  ia  theE^ 
htrgk  Encyclopaediat  edited  by  David  Brewster  (1808-1830)-  » 
also  contnuuted  many  important  papers  to  the  Transaciimui^ 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburch. 

See  T^ansacHoms  0/  iht  Roy,  AsL  So€»,  1844. 

WAIXACB,  WILUAM  (1844^x897),  Scottish  phOosopher,  «s 
bom  at  Dipar-Fife  on  the  tith  of  May  1844,  the  son  of  a  boos* 
builder.  Between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and  twenty-two  he  «« 
educated  at  St  Andrews,  whence  he  proceeded  as  an  exhibitioDff 
in  1864  to  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  took  a  first  class  is 
Moderations,  and  in  Lit.  Hum.  (1867),  was  Gaisford  prisemaniB 
1867  (Greek  prose)  and  Craven  Scholai*  in  i^.  Three  yesB 
later  he  was  appointed  fellow,  and  in  2871  librarian,  of  Mertoo 
College.  In  2882  he  was  elected  Whyte's  professor  of  nwnl 
philosophy  in  succession  to  T.  H.  Green,  and  retained  the  positioB 
until  his  death.  He  died  on  the  18th  of  Febrtiaxy  1897  from  the 
effects  of  a  bicyde  accident  near  Oxford.  His  manner  was  sool^ 
what  brusque  and  sarcastic,  and  on  this  account,  in  his  under- 
graduate days  at  BalSUI,  he  was  known  as  "  The  Dorian."  Bat 
he  was  greatly  respected  both  a^  a  man  and  as  a  lectmtr.  Hif 
philosophical  works  are  almost  entirely  devote  to  .German,  sod 
especially  to  Hegelhm,  doctrines,  which  he  expounded  sod 
criticized  with  great  deamess  and  Uterary  skill.  In  dealing  ^^ 
Hegel  he  was,  unh'ke  many  other  writers,  successfol  ill  express- 
ing himself  in  a  ludd  literary  manner,  withcixt  artificial  snd 
incomprehensible  terminology. 

His  principal  worics  were  Tht  Ugic  ofHtd  (1873).  wbkh  eontslw 
a  transbtion  of  the  BncyUapddie  with  an  iatroductkMi,  a  seoood 
edition  of  which,  with  a  volume  entitled  Prs/l^tfmcsa,  appeared  "* 
1892;  Epicureanism.  (1880);  Kant,  (Blackwood's  Phuowffi'S*' 
Classics.  1882);  Life  of  Arthur  Schopenhauer  (18^};  HeftTs  rhu»- 
iopky  ef  Mind  (translated  from  the  BncyUoPddte,  with  five  inti«- 
ductory  essays);  Ltctunt  and  Sssmys  on  Nalmtl  TUtlnfJ^, 
Ethics,  being  a  selection  irom  his  papers  edited  with  a  bioc>>P"^ 
mtroduction  by  Edward  Caird.  He  wrote  several  important 
articles  for  the  9th  edition  of  the  Bncy.  Brit.,  which,  with  some  i*- 
vision,  have  been  repeated  in  the' present  work. 

WALUCB,  VIUIAM  VtNCENT  (1814-1865),  British  com- 
poser, was  bom  at  Waterford,  Ireland,  his  father,  of  Scottish 
family,  bdng  a  regimental  bandmaster.  Vincent  Wallace  lesnit 
as  a  boy  to  play  several  instruments,  and  became  a  leading 
violinist  in  Dublin.  But  in  1835  he  married  and  went  off  to 
Australia,  sheep  farming.  A  concert  in  Sydney  revived  his 
musical  passion;  and  having  separated  from  his  wife,  he  begsn 
a  roving  career,  which  had  many  romantic  episodes,  in  Australia, 
the  South  Seas,  India  and  South  America.  He  returned  to 
London  in  1845  and  made  various  appearances  as  apiso^^' 
and  hi  November  of  that  year  his  opera  Uaritana  was  p«r* 
formed  at  Drury  Lane  with  great  success.  This  was  foUoww 
by  UaHida  of  Hungary  (1847),  L^Unt  (i860),  Th4  AmbcrWUa 


WALLACaC— WALL-COVERINGS 


«79 


(iMi),  Lne»  Tritimfk  (1869)  and  TJu  Des^i  FUmer  (1865). 
He  «bo  published  a  number  of  compositiona  for  the  inano,  ftc. 
Vincent  Wallace  was  a  cultivated  man  and  an  accomplished 
musician,  whose  Maritana  still  holds  the  stage,  and  whose  work 
as  an  English  operatic  composer,  at  a  period  by  no  means 
«acouiaging  to  English  music,  has  a  distinct  historical  value. 
like  Balfe,  he  was  bom  an  Irishman,  and  his  repuution  as  one 
of  the  few  composers  known  beyond  the  British  Isles  at  that 
time  is  naturally  coupled  with  Balfe's.  But  he  was  a  finer  artist 
and  a  more  original  musician.  In  later  years  be  became  almost 
blind ;  and  he  died  in  poor  circumstances  on  the  lath  of  October 
1865,  leaving  a  widow  and  two  children. 

WAIXACK.  JAMBS  WILLIAM  {c  t794-x864),  Anglo- 
Amuerican  actor  and  .manager,  was  born  in  London,  his  parents 
being  actors.  He  made  his  first  stage  appearance  atDrury 
Lane  in  1807.  After  three  years  in  Dublin  he  was  again  at 
Drury  Lane  until  ht  went  to  America  In  1818.  He  settled  In 
New  York  permanently  in  1852,  the  first  Wallack's  theatre  being 
an  old  one  renamed  at  the  corner  of  Broome  Street  and  Broad- 
way. The  second,  at  r3th  Street  and  Broadway,  he  built  him- 
self. Wallack  was  an  actor  of  the  old  school  Thackeray  praises 
bis  Shylock,  Joseph  Jefferson  his  Don  Caesar  de  Ba^a.  He 
married  the  daughter  (d.  1851)  of  John  Henry  Johnstone  (1749" 
r828),  a  popular  tenor  and  stage  Irishman.  Their  son,  John 
Lester  Wallace  (1820-1888),  was  born  in  New  York  on  the 
xst  of  January  xSaa  At  one  time  in  the  English  army,  then  on 
the  Dublin  and  London  stage,  he  made  his  fint  stage  appearance 
in  New  York  in  1847  under  the  name  of  John  Lester  as  Sir  Charles. 
Coldstream,  in  Boudcault's  adaptation  of  Used  Up.  He  was 
manager,  uang  the  name  WalUck,  of  the  second  Wallack's 
theatre  from  i86l,  and  in  1883  he  opened  the  third  at  30th 
Street  and  Broadway.  His  greatest  successes  were  as  Charles 
Surface,  as  Benedick,  and  especially  as  Elliot  Grey  in  his  own 
play  RostdaU,  and  similar  li^t  comedy  and  romantic  parts,  for 
whkh  his  fascinating  manners  and  handsome  person  well  fitted 
him.  He  married  a  sister  (d.  1909)  of  Sir  John  MiOais.  He  wrote 
his  own  MemoHes  of  Fifty  Years. 

WALLAROO,. a  sea4)ort  of  Daly  county.  South  Australia, 
situated  in  Wallaroo  Bay,  on  the  Spencer  Gulf,  223  m.  by  rail 
N.  W.  by  N.  of  Adelaide.  It  is  connected  by  laO  with  the  cele> 
brated  Wallaroo  copper  mines  (near  Kadina,  at  a  distance  of 
6  m*  from  the  port).  At  Wallaroo  Bay  are  the  taxgest  saielting 
works  in  the  state,  ranking  among  the  largest  in  the  world. 
GeU,  sOver  and  concentrated  ores  are  received  from  other 
liarts  of  the  continent  and  from  Tasmania  for  smdting  at  these 
works,  which  have  ample  facilities  for  shipment.  Popuktion  of 
Unm  (1901)  39M;  of  town  and  mines,  ^866. 

WALLABEYt  an  urban  distxict  in  the  Winal  pariiamentary 
divisioa  of  Cheshire,  England,  2  m.  N.W.  of  Birkenhead,  of 
which  it  forms  a  suburb.  Pop.  (1901)  53i579*  The  former 
marshy  estuary  called  Walhisey  Pool  is  occupied  by  the  Great 
Float,  forming  an  immense  dock  (see  Bzskbnhead).  The  church 
of  St  Hilary,  to.  which  is  assigned  a  foundation  m  the  xoth 
century,  was  rebuilt  in  the  x8th  century,  with  the  exception  oC 
the  tower  bearing  the  date  1536.  It  was  gutted  by  fire  in  1857, 
and  the  whole  was  again  rebuilt  in  the  Early  English  style. 
On  the  shore  of  the  Irish  Sea  is  Leasowe  Castle,  once  known  as 
Mock-Beggar  Hall,  and  supposed  to  have  been  erected  by  the 
carls  of  Derby  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  in  order  to  witness  the 
horse-races  held  here.  Under  Wallasey  Pool  are  remains  of  a 
submerged  forest,  in  which  various  animal  skeletons  have  been 
found. 

At  the  0»nquest  Wallasey  formed  part  of  the  possessions  of 
Robert  de  Rhuddlan,  and  on  his  decease  became  ptft  of  the  fee  of 
Halton.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  it  had  a  small  port,  to  which 
there  bebnged  three  barques  and  fourteen  men.  In  1668  the 
manor  wa»  possessed  by  the  eai!  of  Derby,  but  various  parts  after* 
wards  became  alienated.  For  a  considerabletime  the  horse-races 
held  on  what  was  then  a  common  had  considerable  reputation, 
but  they  were  discontinued  In  1760.  At  these  races  the  duke  of 
Monmouth,  son  of  Charles  II.,  once  rode  hb  own  hone  and  woo 
iMplite. 


WALLA  WALLA,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  WaUa  Walla 
county,  Washington,  U.S.A.,  in  the  S.E.  part  of  the  state,  on 
Mill  Creek,  about  300  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Spokane.  Pop.  (1880) 
3588;  (1890)  4709;  (1900)  xo,o49,  of  whom  X53a  were  foreign- 
bom;  (xQXo  census)  ■Z9>364-  Walla  Walla  is  served  by  the 
Northern  Fadfic  and  the  Oregon  Railroad  &  Navigation  Co.'s 
(Union  Padfic)  railways,  and  by  an  interurban  dectric  line. 
In  the  dty  are  a  state  penitentiary,  Fort  WaBa  Walla  (a  U.S. 
caval]^  post),  a  Federal  Laiui  Office,  a  Young  Men's  Christian 
AssodatioQ  building,  a  Carnegie  hbiary,  the  State  Odd  Fellows' 
Home,  and  the  Stubblefidd  Home  for  Widows  and  Orphans. 
Sessions  of  Federal  District  and  Circuit  courts  are  held  here. 
Walla  WaBa  is  the  seat  of  Whitman  College  (chartered,  1859; 
opened,  z866;  xechartered,  1883),  originally  Congregational,  but 
now  non-sectarian,  which  .was  founded  by  the  Rev.  Cushing 
Edls  and  was  named  in  honour  of  Marcus  l/^^tman,  and  indudct 
a  college,  a  conservatory  of  music  and  a  preparatory  academy, 
and  occupies  a  campus  oi  30  acres;  and  of  Walla  WaUa  College 
(Adventist).  Here  are  also  St  Paul's  Schocd  (Protestant  Episco- 
pal) for  girls,  and  St  Vincent's  Academy  for  girls  and  De  La  Salle 
Academy  for  boys  (both  Roman  Catholic).  The  dty  is  situated 
in  a  farming  (espedsUy  wheat-growing),  stock-raising  and  fruit- 
growing region,  is  a  distributing  centre  for  the  adjacent  territory 
in  Washington,  Oregon  and  Idaho,  and  has  a  large  wholesale 
business.  Among  its  manufactures  axe  fiour  and  grist-mill 
products,  agricultural  implonents,  lumber,  foundry  and  machine- 
shop  prcducts,  leather  and  malted  Kquors.  The  value  of  the 
factory  product  in  X90S  was  Ixy485,79x,  54-x%  more  than  in 
1900.  The  munidpallty  owns  its  waterworks.  In  X836  the 
famous  missionary,  Marcus  Whitman,  establidied  at  Waillatpn, 
about  s  m.  W.  of  the  present  Walla  WaUa,  a  mission  of  the 
American  Board  (Congregational),  whidi  in  1847  was  broken  up 
by  an  Indian  attack,  Whitman,  his  wife  and  twdve  olhexa 
being  massacred,  and  the  other  residents  being  carried  off  aa 
prisoners.  In  1857  Fort  Walla  Walla  was  built  by  the  United 
Slates  government  on  the  site  of  the  present  dty,  and  about  It 
a  settlement  grew  up  In  X857-X858.  Walla  WaUa  was  laid  out 
and  organized  as  a  town,  and  became  the  county  seat  in  1859: 
in  x863  it  -was  chartered  as  a  dty.  The  name  "  WaUa  Walla  *^ 
is  said  to  be  a  Nez  Perc€  Indian  term  meaning  "  a  rapid  stream." 

See  W.  D.  Lyman,  An  rttusirakd  History  aJWaUa  WaUa  County, 
suae  of  Washington  {1901).  '  '* 

WALL^VERINGS.  The  praaent  article  deals  with  thia 
subject  (see  Mubal  Decoration  for  art  and  archaeology)  from 
the  practical  point  of  view  In  conneidon  with  house-furnishing. 
In  selecting  a  waU-covering,  the  chief  factors  to  be  borne  in  mind 
are  the  conditions  of  the  room,  via.  the  use  to  whidi  it  Is^o  be  put, 
and  its  lighting,  aspect  and  outlook. 

Marble  i»one  of  the  moet  beautiful  materials  that  can  be  chosen  for 
covering  a  wall.  The  variety  of  its  natural  maridngt  and  cok>ur 
gives  a  wide  choice  that  enables  It  to  be  employed  in  practKaUy 
any  acheme  of  colouring  and  for  rooms  of  any  aspect  and 


of  any  detMsiption.  The  working  up  off  the  roaible  is  done  ^f** 
mostly  by  machinery ;  the  saws  used  are  flat  striiM  of  steel  Tf^_ 
let  in  the  frame  of  a  machine  and  worked  to  and  fro,  sand  ■■'* 
and  water  being  constantly  supplied  to  assist  in  the  work  of  cutting. 
Mouldii^  are  worked  to  the  desired  profile  by  rapidly  revolving 
carborundum  wheels,  and  are  afterwards  polished  by  hand.  Marble 
waU-alabbii^  needs  very  careful  fixing,  and  should  be  well  supported 
by  a  sufRdent  number  of  cramps  at  a  little  distance  from  tne  wall, 
miving  a  space  of  about  half  an  inch  at  the  back  of  the  slab.  Non- 
rusting  cramps  should  be  used,  such  as  those  made  of  copoer  or 
bronze;  A  cement  made  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  marble  dust  mixed  in 
the  proportion  of  two  parts  to  one  should  be  used  for  fixing,  as  pure 
plaster,  espedally  if  new,  is  liable  to  sweU  and  cause  the  marble  to 
ciaclc  J/arossand5ettfim(sareimiUtionmarMes  and  are  described 
to  PLASTBawoaa. 

Well-destgned  and  properiv  executed  mosaic  is  a  very  beautiful 
decorative  medium,  and  rann  amonr  the  most  permanent  as  well 
as  most  pleasing  waU-coverinKS.  Witn  ^ass SMssst  great  ^__,.. 
ranges  both  of  ooloar  and  of  tcxtust  01  surface  can  be  ^"*"^ 
obtained,  different  methods  of  preparing  the  glass  giving  a  brfllknl 
gmnular  or  quite  dvtt  surface  as  desired  to  suh  the  parttcuUr 
poshion  of  the  woric  MarhU  mosaie  Is  used  more  for  floora  and 
pavings  than  for  venieal  surfaces.  Most  mosaic  Is  now  put  together 
M  the  studio  and  pasted  uppa  sheets  of  tou^  paper  to  whidi  the 

a  has  pnvioasly  been  iransferwJ.   The  whole  sectioa  can  thus 
dad  on  the  pr^ared  wall-sutfaoe  with  the  least  amovat  el 


88o 


WALLEMSfTEIN,  A.  E. 


CfouUe  and  tridiodt  any  duwcr  cl  Itt  «nliiff.  Wfccn  Che  ctmeitt  lias 
properly  set.  the  paper  is  waaned  off  from  the  face  of  the  work. 

Much  improvement  has  been  e£fcctcd  in  the  design  and  manu' 
facture  of  wall-tiles.  Especially  has  the  design  of  tiles  reached  a  very 
•^  high  Icvd  of  excellence,  and  as  a  material  which  combines 

'*"*  the  qualities  of  being  hard  in  wear,  duiablc,  damp-resist- 

ing and  easily  irashable,  with  beauty  of  design,  colouring  and  surface, 
tihng  may  perhaps  be  placed  next  in  order  of  merit  as  a  wallcovering 
to  mosaic.  A  thin^  opaque  glass  material,  manufactured  under 
various  trade  names,  is  now  much  used,  especially  for  tiling  existing 
walls.  It  has  all  the  sanitary  qualities  of  tiles,  but  is  perhaps 
aooiewhat  more  fragile  and  liable  to  be  damaged  under  hard  wear. 
It  is  made  in  opal  and  other  colours  and  b  usually  fixed  with  a 
special  cement  or  mastic  which  allows  for  slight  movements  of- 
expansion  and  contraction.  The  thickness  of  the  material  varies 
with  difltermt  makers  from  i  to  |  in. 

Metal  sheeting,  though  somewhat  inartistic  in  appearance,  is  useful 
where  a  durable,  waterproof  and  sanitary  wall  i>rotoction  is  needed, 
^^,,  and  is  therefore  often  used  for  sculleries,  wash-houses  and 
fr*",  lavatories.  Thin  sheets  of  zinc  with  slightly  embossed 
'^""^  patterns  and  enamelled  tn  colours  can  be  hun^  upon  the 
wall  with  a  oomposidon  of  white  lead  (one  part)  and  whiting  (two 
pans)  mixed  to  a  thick  paste  with  varnish  or  gold  siae.  Sheets 
of  iron  or  steel  can  be  more  elaborately  embossed  and  fixed  to 
the  wall  with  nails  or  screws:  they  are  cither  previously  enamelled 
or  are  painted  after  being  fixed.  They  are  used  more  for  ceilings  than 
for  wall<coverings,  but  are  adapted  (or  use  in  either  position. 

Tapestry  of  good  design  and  workmanship  is  a  really  beautiful 
wall-covermg.  It  is  usually  hung  upon  frames  fitted  to  the  wall, 
-.  ^  and  may  either  cover  the  entire  wall  surface  or  be  fixed 
f^^f"}^  in  fhe  form  of  panels,  frictes,  dados  or  fillings.  It  is  not 
at  all  a  sanitary  covering,  for  it  harbouri  a  very  large  Quantity  of 
dust  and  dirt.  The  same  remark  apj^tes,  but  perhaps  in  a  less  depee, 
to  brocades  of  silk  and  damask.  These  materials  are  of  a  delicate 
nature  and  become  easily  soiled  by  the  fumes  of  gas  or  oil  lamps. 
Substitutes  for  these  materials  on  stout  pAper  and  on  cotton  are  made 
with  a  prepared  back  to  facilitate  pasting  and  hanging,  and  are  a  very 
good  imitation  of  the  better  material. 

A  coarse  canvas,  specially  prepared  with  a  smooth  back  forpasting, 
and  stained  in  several  plain  colours,  can  now  be  purchased.  Ifaving 
a  rough  surface  it  naturally  hoMs  the  dust,  but  this  can  easily  be 
brushed  off  withoot  damaging  the  material.  It  is  a  pleasing  wall- 
fovering,  which  will  stand  hard  wear,  and  it  forms  a  good  back- 
ground for  pictures  and  furniture. 

The  term  '*  waJl-ftaper  embraces  a  very  large  variety  of  materials 
of  many  kinds,  designs  and  qualities,  ranging  from  the  cheapest 
!».  M,  machine-printed  papers  of  the  most  Himsy  description  and 

j^mgf^  often  hideous  design,  to  the  Japanese  and  similar  leather 
'^^"*  papers,  skilfully  modelled  in  relief  and  richly  decorated  in 
gold  ana  colours^  The  desisn  of  the  paper,  of  whatever  description 
h  may  be,  should  preferably  be  of  a  conventional  pattern,  unob* 
trusive  and  restful  to  the  eye,  and  presenting  no  strong  contrasts  of 
eobur.  The  wall  must  be  treated  as  a  background,  consj^ing  of  a 
plane  surface,  and  no  attempt  made  to  introdact  a  pfctoriat  clement 
into  the  decoration.  The  wall  surfacCf  regarded  from  the  paper- 
banger's  point  of  view,  is  often  divided  into  three  sections,  the  dado 
or  base,  the  field  or  fiUing,  and  the  friese  at  the  top  immediately 
beneath  the  cornice.  This  subdivision  is  not  always  adhered  to,  and 
a  wall  may  be  papered  uniformly  all  over  its  surface,  or  may  consist 
of  dado  and  filling  without  the  f rieae,  or  firieae  and  filling  without  the 
dado.  The  diviakui  between  the  sections  is  usually  formed,  in  the 
case  of  the  fricae  and  filling,  with  a  wood  picture  rail,  and  between  the 
filling  and  dado  with  a  moulded  dado  or  chair  laiL 

Wall-papers  may  be  printed  either  in  distemper  noloun  or  oil 
colours,  and  the  patterns  upon  them  are  printed  either  by  hand  or 
by  machine.  There  are  also  self-catoured  napers  which  have'different 
kinds  of  surface  finish,  and  with  some  ot  these  a  pattern  is  formed 
by  contrasting  a  smooth  with  a  tough  or  graAolated  surface  or  vice 
vcrta.  Typical  of  such  papers  are  the  intrain  papers,  which  have  the 
colour  penetrating  throli^  their  substance.  Plain  filling  papers  are 
citen  used,  in  conjunction  with  a  boldly  designed  and  strongly 
coloured  fnexe  of  considoable  depth.  The  dado  is  either  of  simUar 
plain  paper  or  of  an  unobtrusive  pattern.  Often  the  filling  is  taken 
flown  to,the  skirting  without  the  intervention  of  a  dado  nil.  Papers 
printed  in  oU  colours  can  be  sized  and  varnished,  and  when  treated 
m  thtt  way  can  be  washed  repeatedly  and  are  very  durable.  This 
treatment  gives  an  unnleasant  gbscd  surface  to  the  wad,  but  in 
spite  of  this  it  is  often  adopted  for  bathrooms,  kitchens  and  in  simitar 
positiona  because  it  is  ccoitomkal. 

•  The  best  papers  are  printed  from  blocks  manipulated  by  hand. 
The  pattern,  or  aa  nuch  of  it  as  is  to  be  printca  in  one  colour,  is 
carved  upon  a  pear-wood  board,  email  aadfadscste  members  being* 
lepresented  by  stript  aad  dMs  of  copper  inserted  in  the  blocl^ 
With  la^  btocks  a  treadle  and  pulley  arrangement  gives  the  work- 
mao  assMtanoe  in  applying  and  removing  the  pattern,  which  is  fiiat 
(kI  wttb  oolour  by  being  pressed  on  a  felt  UaAket  soaked  in  pigment 
and  then  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  paper  to  be  decorated.  One 
bat  u  appliBd  at  a  time,  and  this  when  dry  is  folkmed  by  others 
tcoes«ry  to  complete  thexlesign.  This  drying  of  the  previous  coloitr 
sharpness  of  outline  and  accuracy  oi  ookwr.    Designs  are 


sometimes  worked  on  the  paper  with  skncM  piMtms  cut  oat  of  rfae 
sheets.  These  are  bid  upoa  the  paper  and  thick  oolour  applied 
through  the  perforations  with  a  stiff  brush. 

The  cheaper  wall-papers  ore  printed  by  machinery.  The  pmpar  ia 
made  to  travel  round  a  large  drum  around  which  are  grouped  the 
printing  cylinders,  each  with  its  separate  inking  roller  to  supply  the 
special  oolonr  for  its  use.  On  each  of  the  wooden  pffntiac  toilers  is 
set  copper  "  type,"  representing  as  much  of  the  pattern  aa  is  to  be 
printed  in  one  colour.  It  is  a  difficult  and  tedious  matter  to  get  att 
the  rollers  to  work  together  to  form  one  pnfect  pattern,  ana  when 
printing  in  several  colours  it  may  taltt  a  skilled  workman  a  week  or 
more  to  "  set  "  his  machine,  a  very  laiga  quantity  of  pmptr  I 
spoilt  during  the  process. 

The  colours  used  for  hand-printed  work,  whether  applied 

blocks  or  stencil  plates,  are  much  thicker  in  copsistedcy  than  those 
for  machine  work.  One  advantage  of  hand-worked  paper  is  the 
comparative  ease  with  which  a  paper  can  be  matcbad  even  after  it 
has  gone  out  of  stock.  At  a  slight  extra  cost  the  nuinufactater  w9l 
print  a  few  pieces  for  his  customer  from  the  blocks  he  haa  letained. 
with  machine<priatcd  paper  this,  from  a  jpractica]  point  of  view, 
is  impossible,  for  it  would  necessitate  the  printer^  going  thioi^  the 
long  and  costly  pnxxss  of  "  setting  '*  the  machine. 

WaU-napcrs  are  soU  in  loBs  called  "  pieces.*'    In  Ei^land  tk 
standard  sm  for  a  piece  of  paper  is  I3  yda  long  and  21  in.  wide. 
The  printed  surface  is  only  20  in.  in  width,  as  a  margin  of  half  aa  iaeh 
is  left  on  each  edge.    One  or  both  of  these  plain  margins  must  be 
removed  prior  to  hanging.    French  wall-paptrs  are  9  yds.  long  sad 
18  in.  wide  and  only  contain  40I  mi.  ft.  compaied  with  63  ft.  is  « 
piece  of  English  paper.    To  ascertain  the  number  of  piecea  leqond 
lor  a  room  take  the  superficies  in  feet  of  the  surface  to  be  wrend 
(deduction  being  made  for  the  doors,  windows,  &c.)  and  dlvidt>rte. 
This  givca  the  net  amount  reouired;  an  allowance  of  about  «e- 
seventh  most  be  added  to  alkvw  tor  waste  in  matching  patterns  asdd 
odd  lengths.    If  French  papen  are  to  be  used  the  diviuon  aliouldte 
^8  instead  of  60,  these  figures  reprnenting  in  fiet  the  area  of  tbe 
printed  surface  in  each  roll.    The  surface  of  the  wall  should  bcfott 
papering  be  carefully  prepared  so  as  to  be  quite  smooth  and  rmilar. 
If  the  wall  has  been  Mevionsly  papered  it  should  be  strippeo,  aad 
any  irregularities  filled  in  with  stcqpping.  To  remove  vamidied  paper 
use  hot  water  to  which  borax  haa  been  added  in  the  proportioos  of 
2  oz.  to  each  pint  of  water.   I  n  selectirffi  a  paper  for  a  newly  plaLstercd 
wall  thecdlour  chosen  should  be  capabw  01  withstanding  the  bleaching 
actk>n  of  the  lime  in  the  plaster.   Greens,  blues  and  pmks  eapecially 
are  affected  in  this  manner.   For  heavy  papers  glue  paste  should  he 
used.    Papering  which  has  become  dirty  may  oe  effectually  cleaned 
with  new  bread  or  stiff  doueh;  when  gently  rubbed  over  the  surface 
in  one  direction  this  speedily  removes  the  dirt.    When  the  wall  is 
damp,  tinfoil,  pitch-coated  paper  or  Willesden  waterproofed  paper 
is  used  behind  the  paper  to  prevent  the  paper  from  becoming  daxnased 
by  t|ie  wet.  (J.  Bi3 


WAUEmTBDI'     (propezly       Waustein), 
WBMZEL  KU8EBIU8  VON*   duke  of  FriedUnd,   Sagtn  and 
Mecklenbufg   (1585-16I34),    Gennan   aoldier  and   ttatcsnui, 
was  bom  of  a  noble  bnt  by  &o  means  wealthy  or  influential 
fam^  at  Henrmanic,  Bohemia,  on  the  istb  of  September  1583. 
His  parents  were  Lutherans,  and  in  eaify  youth  he  attended  the 
school  of  tha  Brothers  of  the  Coounoa  Lile  at  KoadiunilMt^ 
After  the  death  of  his  patents  he  was  senC  by  his  iinele,  Slawata. 
to  the  Jestift  college  of  nobles  at  Olmttta,  after  which  he  pio- 
fesaed,  but  hardly  accepted,  the  Roman  CathoUc  faith.    In. 
1599  he  went  to* the  university  of  AUdorf,  which  he  had  Co  Icai^ 
in  consequence  of  some  boyish  lollies.   Afterwards  he  studied  at 
Bologna  and  Padua,  and  visited  many  places  in  southein.  and 
western  Europe.    Wlnle  in  Padua  he.  gave  much  attention  to 
aerology,  and  during  the  test  of  bis  life  he  never  wavtted  in 
the  conviction  that  he  might  trust  to  the  stars  for  indicatioas  at 
to  his  destiny.    For  some  time  Waiienstein  served  in  the  army 
of  the  emperor  Rudolph  U.  in  Hiingaiy,  which  was  tommandcd 
by  a  methodical  professional  soldiicr,  Gioxgio  Basta.   His  prrspnal 
gallantry  at  the  siege  of  Gian  won  tot  him.  a  company 'without 
purchase.   In  1606  he  returned  to  Bohemia,  and  soon  afterwards 
he  manied  aa  eideriy  widow,  Luccetia  NJkonie  von  Landedc, 
whose  great  estates  in  Moravia  he  inherited  after  her  death  in 
1614.    His  new  wealth  enabled  him  to  offer  two  hundred  boCM» 
splendidly  e<iuipped,  to  the  archduke  Ferdinand  for  his  War  with 
Venloe  in  161 7.    Waiienstein  commanded  them  in  person,  and 
from  that  time  he  enjoyed  both  favour  at  court  and  popularity 
in.  the  army.    His  wealth  and  influence  were  further  inciaaBed 
by  his  msfriage  with  Isabella  Katharina,  dau^ter  of  Count 
Harrach,  a  confidential  adviper  pf  the  cn4>croT  Matthias 

In  the  disturbances  which  broke  out  in  Bohemia  in  1618  and 
proved  to  be  the  be^nning  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  advanoca 


WALLfiMSTfitN,  A.  £. 


281 


iwre  fluide  to  Walleiksttln  by  the  Rvoltitlonary  party,  but  he 
preferred  to  assodate  himself  with  the  impenal  cause,  and  he 
carried  off  the  treasure-chest  of  the  Moravian  estates  to  Vienna, 
part  of  its  contents  being  given  him  for  the  equipment  of  a  regi- 
ment of  cuirassiers.  At  the  head  of  this  regiment  Wallenstein 
won  great  distinction  under  Buquoy  in  the  war  against  Mansfdd. 
He  was  not  present  at  the  battle  of  the  Weisser  Berg,  but  he  did 
brtliiant  service  as  second-in-oommand  of  the  army  which  opposed 
Gabriel  Bethlen  in  Moravia,  and  recovered  his  estates  whidi  the 
nationalists  had  seued.  The  battle  of  the  Weisser  Berg  pfaic6d 
Bohemia  at  the  mercy  of  the  emperor  FenlinAnd»  and  Wallenstein 
tamed  the  prevailing  confusion  to' his  own  advantage.  He 
secured  the  great  estates  belonging  to  his  mother's  family,  and 
the  emperor  sold  to  him  on  easy  terms  vast  tracts  of  eonfntated 
lands.  His  possessions  he  was  allowed  to  form  int6  a  territory 
called  Friedhnd,  and  he  was  raised  in  1629  to  the  rank  of  an 
imperial  count  palatine,  in  162$  to  that  of  a  prince.  In  1623 
be  was  made  duke  of  Ftiedland  Meantime  he  fooght  with 
skill  and  succe»  against  Gabriel  Bethlen,  and  so  enhanced  hb 
reputation  at  the  dark  moment  when  Vienna  was  in  peril  and  the 
emperor's  general  fiuquoy  dead  on  the  lield  of  battle.  At  this 
stage  in  his  life  the  enigma  of  his  personality  is  complicated  by 
(he  fact  that  he  was  not  only  the  cold,  detached  visicHUiry  with 
vast  ambitions  and  dreams,  but  also  the  model  ruler  of  his 
principality  In  everyday  matters  of  admintstration  he  displayed 
vigour  and  foresight  He  not  only  placed  the  admimstration  of 
justice  on  a  6rm  basis  and  founded  schools,  but  by  many  wise 
measures  developed  agriculture  and  mining  and  manufactunng 
industries.  At  the  same  time  he  enlisted  in  the  service  of  hn 
ambition  and  his  authority  a'pomp  and  refinement  m  his  court 
which  contrasted  forcibly  with  the  way  of  life  of  the  smaller 
established  rulers. 

When  the  war  against  the  Bohemians  had  become  a  wide- 
spread conflagration,  Ferdinand  found  be  had  no  forces  to  oppose 
tb  the  Danes  and  the  Northern  Protestants  other  than  the  Army 
of  the  League,  which  was  not  his,  but  the  powerful  and  inde- 
pendent Maximilian's,  instrument  Wallenstein  saw  his  oppor- 
tunity and  eariy  in  1626  he  offered  to  raise  not  a  regiment  or  two, 
but  a  whole  army  for  the  imperial  service  After  some  negotia- 
tions the  offer  was  accepted,  the  undeistanding  being  that  the 
troops  were  to  be  mainuined  at  the  cost  of  the  countries  they 
might  occupy.  WaHenstein's  popalahty  soon  brought  great 
numbers  of  recruits  to  his  standard.  He  soon  found  himself 
at  the  head  of  30,000  (not  long  afterwards  of  50,000)  men.  The 
campaigns  of  this  army  in  1625, 1626  and  1627,  against  MansfekJ, 
the  Northern  Protestants  and  Gabriel  BeihleA,  are  described 
Under  TmiTY  Years'  Wax, 

Having  established  peace  in  Hungary,  WaDenstefn  proceeded, 
in  1637,  to  dear  Silesia  of  some  remnants  of  Mansfdd's  afmy, 
and  at  this  time  he  bought  from  the  emperor  the  duchy  of  Sagan, 
his  outlay  in  the  conduct  of  the  war  being  taken  into  account  in 
the  conclusion  of  the  bargain.  He  then  Joined  TiUy  in  the 
strug^e  with  Christian  IV.,  and  afterwards  took  possession  of  the 
duchy  of  Mecklenburg,  which  was  granted  to  him  in  reward  for  his 
services,  the  hereditary  dukes  being  displaced  on  the  grofmd  that 
they  had  helped  the  Danish  king.  He  failed  to  capture  Stralsund, 
which  he  besieged  for  several  months  in  1628.  This  important 
reverse  caused  him  bitter  disappointment,  for  he  had  hoped 
that'  by  obtaining  free  access  to  the  Baltic  he  might  be  able  to 
makfc  the  emperor  as  supreme  at  sea  as  he  seemed  to  be  on  land 
It  was  a  part  of  Wallenstein's  scheme  of  German  unity  that  he 
Should  obtain  possession  of  the  Hanseatic  towns,  and  through 
them  destroy  or  at  least  defy  the  naval  powor  of  the  Scandinaivian 
kingdom,  the  Netherlands  and  England.  This  plan  wasToro- 
^tdy  frustrated  by  the  resistance  of  Strakond,  and  even 
more  by  the  emperor's  *'  Edict  of  Restitution  "  that  not  only 
rallied  agidnst  him  all  the  Protestants  but  breught  in  a  great 
soldier  and  a  model  army,  Custavns  and  the  Swedes. 

At  the  same  time  the  victory  of  the  principles  of  the  League 
Involved  the  faH  of  Wallenstein's  infhience.  By  his  ambit  Ions,  his 
liigh  dreams  of  unity  and  the  Incessant  etactions  of  his  army,  he 
bad  made  f«r  himself  a  host  of  anmnin.  Hswwre0bit«dtobavo 


spoken  of  the  arrogance  of  the  pnnces.  and  it  appeared  probable 
that  he  would  try  lo  bnng  them.  Catholics  and  Protestants 
alike,  into  rigid  subjection  to  the  crown.  Again  and  again 
the  emperor  was  advised  to  dismiss  him.  Ferdinand  was  very 
unwilling  to  part  with  one  who  had  served  him  so  well;  but  the 
demand  was  pressed  so  urgently  in  1630  that  he  had  no  alter- 
native, and  in  September  of  that  year  envoys  were  sent  to 
Wallenstein  to  announce  his  removal.  Had  the  emperor  declined 
to  take  this  course,  the  princes  would  probably  have  combined 
against  him,  and  the  result  would  have  been  a  civil  war  even 
more  serious  than  that  which  had  already  brought  so  many 
disasters  upon  the  countty.  Wallenstein  perfectly  understood 
this,  and  he  therefore  accepted  the  emperor's  decision  calmly, 
gave  over  his  army  to  TQly,  and  retired  to  Gitschin,  the  capital 
of  his  duchy  of  Fnedland.  There,  and  at  his  palace  in  Prague, 
he  lived  in  an  atmosphere  of  mysterious  magnificence,  the  rumours 
of  which  penetrated  all  Germany.  The  enigma  of  his  projects 
was  intensified,  and  the  princes  who  had  secured  his  disgrace 
became  more  suspicious  tluui  ever.  But  ere  long  the  emperor  was 
forced  by  evients  to  call  him  into  the  fidd  again. 

Shortly  before  the  dismissal  of  Wallenstein,  Gustavus  Adolphus 
had  landed  in  Germany,  and  it  soon  became  obvious  that  he  was 
far  more  formidable  than  the  enemies  with  whom  the  emperor 
had  yet  had  to  contend.  Tilly  was  defeated  at  Breitenfdd  and  on 
the  Lech,  where  he  received  a  mortal  wound,  and  Gustavus 
advanced  to  Munich,  wlule  Bohemia  was  occupied  by  his  allies 
the  Saxons.  The  emperor  entreated  Wallenstein  to  come  once 
more  to  his  aid.  Wallenstein  at  first  declined;  he  had,  indeed, 
been  secretly  negotiating  with  Gustavus  Adolphus,  in  the  hope 
of  destroying  the  League  and  its  projects  and  of  building  his 
new  Germany  without  French  assistance.  However,  he  accepted 
Ferdinand's  offers,  and  in  the  spring  of  1632  he  raised  a  fredl 
army  as  strong  as  the  first  within  a  few  weeks  and  took  the  fidd. 
This  army  was  placed  abaolutdy  under  his  control,  so  that  ho 
assumed  the  position  of  an  independent  prince  rather  than  of  a 
snbject.  His  first  aim  Was  to  drive  the  Saxons  from  Bohemia— 
an  object  which  he  accom]:rfished  without  serious  diflkulty. 
Then  he  advanced  agtfiast  Gustavus  Adolphus,  whom  he  opposed 
near  Nuremberg  and  after  the  battle  of  the  Alte  Veste  dislodged^ 
In  November  came  the  great  battle  of  LiKaen  (^.v.)»  in  which 
the  impenalista  wiefo  ddfeated,  but  Gutavus  Adolphos  wag 
kilted. 

To  the  dismay  of  Ferdinand,  WaOenstdn  aotde  &<»  use  «f  feba 
opportunity  provided  for  him  by  the  death  of  the  Swedish  king, 
but  withdrew  to  winter  quarters  in  Bohemia.  In  the  campaign 
of  1633  much  astonishment  was  caused  by  his  apparent  unwflling- 
ness  to  attack  the  enemy.  He  was  in  fact  preparing  to  desert  LJ^ 
emperor.  In  the  war  against  the  Saxons  he  had  offered  them  as 
terms  of  peace  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  Religious  toleration 
and  the  destruction  of  the  separatist  regime,  as  well  as  not 
inooasiiiieffable  aggrandisements  for  his  own  power,  formed  hia 
programme,  so  far  as  historiana  llave  bean  able  to  seoonstruct  it, 
and  becoming  convinced  from  Ferdinand's  obstinacy  that  the 
Edict  would  never  be  rescinded,  be  began  to  prepare  to  "  foroa 
a  just  peace  on  the  emperor  in  the  interests  of  united  Germany." 
With  this  object  he  entered  into-  Dcgotiati(»s  with  Saxony, 
Brandenburg,  Sweden  and  France.  He  had  vast  and  vague 
schemes  for  the  reorganization  of  the  entire  constitutional  system 
of  the  empire,  and  he  himself  was  to  have  supreme  authority 
in  determining  the  political  destinies  of  his  country.  But  as  the 
mere  commander  of  mercenaries  he  was  trusted  by  no  one,  and 
[  could  only  play  the  part  of  Cassandra  to  the  end. 

Irritated  by  the  distrust  exdted  by  his  proposals,  and  anxious 
to  make  his  power  felt,  he  at  last  assumed  the  offensive  against 
the  Swedes  and  Saxons,  winning  Hs  last  victory  at  Steinau  on 
the  Oder  in  October.  He  then  resumed  the  negotiations.  In 
December  be  retired  wfth  his  amy  to  Bohemia,  fixing  his  head- 
quarters at  Pilsen.  It  had  soon  been  suspected  m  Vienna  thai 
Wallenstdn  was  playing  a  double  part,  and  the  empeior,  cH^ 
couraged  by  the  Spaniards  at  his  court,  anxiously  sought  for 
means  of  getting  rid  of  him.  Wallenstdn  was  well  awhre  of' the 
formed  aydast  baa,  but  dlspkyed  UtUe  energy  la  bli 


i92 


WALLER,  EDMUND 


ttteiipts  to  thwart  them.  This  was  due  in  part,  no  doubt,  to  ill- 
health,  in  part  to  the  fact  that  he  trusted  to  the  aasuraoces  of  his 
astrologer,  Battista  Seni.  He  also  felt  confident  that  when  the 
time  came  for  his  army  to  decide  between  him  and  the  emperor 
the  decision  would  be  in  his  own  favour 

His  pnncipal  officers  assembled  around  him  at  a  banquet  on 
the  1 2th  January  z6j4,  when  he  submitted  to  them  a  declaratx>a 
to  the  effect  that  they  would  remain  true  to  him.  This  declara- 
tion they  signed.  More  than  a  month  later  a  second  paper  was 
signed;  but  on  this  occasion  the  officers'  expression  of  loyalty  to 
their  general  was  associated  with  an  equally  emphatic  expression 
of  loyalty  to  their  emperor.  By  this  time  Wallenstein  had  learned 
that  he  must  act  warily.  On  the  34th  of  January  the  emperor 
had  signed  a  secret  patent  removing  him  from  his  command, 
and  imperial  agents  had  been  labouring  to  undermine  Wallen- 
stein's  influence.  On  the  7th  two  of  his  officers,  Piccolomini  and 
Aldringcr,  had  intended  to  seize  him  at  Pilaen,  but  finding  the 
troops  there  loyal  to  their  general,  they  had  kept  quiet  But 
a  patent  charging  Wallenstein  and  two  of  his  officers  with  high 
treason,  and  naming  the  generals  who  were  to  assume  the  supreme 
command  of  the  army,  was  sigped  on  the  i8th  of  Febniaiy,  and 
published  in  Prague. 

When  Wallenstein  heard  of  the  publicatioD  of  this  patent 
and  of  the  refusal  of  the  garrison  of  Prague  to  take  his  orders, 
be  realized  the  full  extent  of  his  danger,  and  on  the  33rd  of 
February,  accompanied  by  his  most  intimate  friends,  and 
guarded  by  about  1000  men,  he  went  from  Pilsen  to  Eger,  hoping 
to  meet  the  Swedes  under  Duke  Bembard,  who,  at  last  convinced 
of  his  uncerity,  were  marching  to  join  him.  After  the  arrival  of 
the  party  at  B^er,  Colonel  Gordon,  the  commandant,  and 
Colonels  Butler  and  Leslie  agreed  to  rid  the  emperor  of  his 
enemy.  On  the  evening  of  the  3sth  of  February  Wallenstein'% 
sunxHters  lUo,  KinsLy,  Teizky  and  Neumann  were  received  at 
a  banquet  by  the  three  colonels,  and  then  murdered.  Butler, 
Captain  Devereux  and  a  numbikr  of  soldiers  hurried  to  the 
bouse  where  Wallenstein  was  staying,  and  broke  into  his  room. 
He  was  instantly  killed  by  a  thrust  of  Devereux's  partisan. 
Wallenstein  was  buried  at  Gitschin,  but  in  173a  the  remains  were 
removed  to  the  castle  chapel  of  MOnchengriits. 

No  direct  orders  for  the  murder  had  beoi  issued,  but  it  was  well 
understood  that  tidings  of  his  death  would  be  welcome  at  court. 
The  murderers  were  handsomdy  rewarded,  and  their  deed  was 
commended  as  an  act  of  justice. 

Wallenstein  was  tall,  thin  and  pale,  with  ceddtsh  hair,  and  eyes 
of  remarkable  brilliancy.  He  was  oT  a  proud  and  imperious  temper, 
and  was  seldom  seen  to  laugh.  He  worked  hard  and  silentl)r.  In 
times  of  supreme  difficulty  lie  listened  carefully  to  the  advice  of 
Us  counaeUore.  but  the  final  docisbn  was  always  his  own,  and  he 
careJy  revealed  his  thoughts  until  the  moment  for  action  arrived. 
Few  geneials  have  surpaned  him  in  the  power  of  ouickly  organizing 
great  masses  of  men  and  of  inspiring  them  with  confidence  and 
enthusiasm.  But  it  b  as  a  statesman  that  WaBenstcin  is  immortal. 
However  much  or  little  motives  of  peraonal  aggrandisement  in- 
fluenced his  schemes  and  his  conduct,  "  Germany  turns  ever  to 
Wallenstein  as  she  turns  to  no  other  amongst  the  leaders  of  the 
Thirty  Yean'  War. . . .  Such  faithfulness  is  not*  without  reason. . . . 
WaHoutein's  wBdest  schemes,  impossible  of  execution  by  military 
vkdence,  were  always  built  upon  the  foundation  of  German  unity. 
In  the  way  in  whkh  he  walked  that  unity  was  doubtless  unobtain- 
able. .  .  .  But  during  the  long  drearv  years  of  confusion  whk;h 
were  to  follow  it  was  something  to  think  of  the  last  supremely  able 
man  whose  life  had  been  spent  in  battling  against  the  great  evils 
of  the  land,  against  the  spirit  of  religious  mtolemnce  and  the  spirit 
of  division." 

See  Ffirrter,  Albncht  von  WaUensUin  (1834);  Aretin.  WaUauUin 
08^6);  Helbig,  WaUenstein  und  Amim^  16J2-1634  (1850).  and 
Katstr  Ferdinand  und  der  Henot  von  PneSand,  r(^-rtfJ4  (i~ 


rg  ■—■■■■■»'■■   \»*»««*/ I  **•   TWO  a-msaMi,  %<iictipw.  fp—    rw  wwpw  itmwma   \^u  vu., 

187a);   Ginddy.    GeKkkkte  des  dreissiti&krittn  Kriets    (1869); 
J.  MitcheU,  WalUnsteim  (1840);  S.  R.  Gardner,  Hirfy  Yedrs'  Ww: 


WALLER,  BDHVIID  (1606-1687),  English  poet,  was  the 
ddest  son  of  Robert  Waller  of  CokshiU  (then  in  Herts,  now  in 
Bwfkinghamshire)  and  Anne  Hampden,  his  wife.  He  was  first 
cousin  to  the  celebrated  patriot  John  Hampden.  He  was  born 
oa  the  gth  of  March  1606,  and  fa«ptised  in  the  parish  diurch  ol 
AflMfiham.    Early  hi  his  childheod  his.  father  Mid  >»s  house 


at  ColcshiU  and  migimted  u»  BeacMsfiakL    Of  Waller's  eady 
education  all  we  know  is  his  own  acoouDi  that  be  **  was  brad 
under  several  ill,  dull  and  ignorant  schoolmastfrs,  till  he  went  to 
Mr  Dobson  at  Wickham,  who  was  a  good  schoolmaster  and  had 
been  an  Eton  scholar  "    His  father  died  in  z6i6,  and  the  futoce 
poet's  mother,  a  lady  of  rare  force  of  chanacter,  sent  bun  u>  £toa 
and  to  Cambndge.    He  was  admitted  a.  feUow-coromooer  of 
King's  Collie  on  the  asnd  of  March  x6aow    He  left  without  a 
degree,  and  it  is  believed  that  in  X621,  at  the  age  of  only  n'zteeo, 
he  sat  as  member  for  Agmondeaham  (Amersham)  in  the  last 
parliament  of  James  1    Clarendon  says  that  Waller  was  "  nuncd 
in  parliaments."    In  that  of  1624  he  represented  Ilchcater,  sod 
in  the  first  of  Charles  I.  Chipping  Wycombe.    The  first  act  by 
which  Waller  distinguished  himadf,  however,  was  htssurrcptitiois 
marnage  with  a  wealthy  ward  of  the  Court  of  Aldermen,  in  1631. 
He  was  brought  before  the  Star  Chamber  for  this  offence,  aad 
lieaviiy  fined     But  his  own  fortune  was  large,  and  all  hb  life 
Waller  was  a  wealthy  man.    After  t>earing  him  a  son  and  i 
daughter  at  Beaconsfield,  Mrs  Waller  died  in  1634.    It  was  abooi 
this  time  that  the  poet  was  elected  into  Falkland's  '*  Qub." 

It  IS  supposed  that  about  1635  he  met  Lady  Diwothy  Si'da?, 
eldest  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  who  was  then  eigfauca 
years  of  age  He  formed  a  romantic  passion  for  this  giri,  vkoa 
he  celebrated  under  the  name  of  Sacharissa.  She  T^tctei 
bun,  and  mamed  Lord  Spencer  in  1639.  Disappointmetf^AS 
said,  rendered  Waller  for  a  time  insane,  but  this  may  «d^ 
doubted  He  wrote,  at  all  events,  a  long,  graceful  and  emiseBd; 
sober  letter  o,n  the  occasion  of  the  wedding  to  the  bride's  sista- 
In  1640  Waller  was  once  more  M.P.  for  Amersham,  and  foait 
certain  speeches  which  attracted  wide  attention;  later,  in  tbe 
hong  Parliament,  he  rq>resented  St  Ives.  Waller  had  IntheSfo 
supported  the  party  of  Pym,  but  he  riow  jeft  him  for  the  group 
of  Falkland  and  Hyde.  His  qteeches  were  much  admired,  asd 
were  separately  pnnted;  tlu^  are  academic  eatemsfs  voy 
carefully  prepared.  Clarendon  says  that  Waller  spoke  '*  upon  aO 
occasions  with  great  sharpness  and  freedom."  An  eztraordiaaiy 
and  obscure  con^iracy  against  Parliament,  in  favour  oi  the  kiaft 
which  is  known  as  "  Waller's  Plot,"  occupied  the  sfHing  of  1643* 
but  on  the  30th  of  May  he  and  his  friends  were  anroted.  hi 
the'lerror  of  discovery.  Waller  wa^  accused  of  displaying  a  veiy 
mean  poltrooneiy,  sad  of  confessing  **  whatever  he  had.  said, 
heard,  thought  or  seen,  and  all  that  he  knew  .  .  or  suspected 
of  others."  He  certainly  cut  a  poor  figure  by  the  ade  of  those  of 
his  companions  who  died  for  their  opinions.  Waller  was  calkd 
before  the  bar  of  the  House  in  July,  and  made  an  abject  speech 
of  recantation.  Hb  life  was  sputd  and  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower,  whence,  on  paying  a  fine  of  £10,000,  he  was  released  sod 
banished  the  realm  in  November  1643.  He  married  a  second  wife. 
Mary  Braoey  of  Thame,  and  went  over  to  Calais,  afterwards 
taking  up  bis  residrace  at  Rouen.  In  1645  the  Poems  of  Waller 
were  first  published  in  London,  in  three  different  editions;  thoe 
has  been  much  discussion  of  the  order  and  respective  authority  of 
these  issues,  but  nothing  is  decidedly  known.  Many  of  the  lyrics 
were  already  set  to  music  by  Heniy  Lawes.  In  1646  Waller 
travelled  with  Evelyn  in  Switzerland  and  Italy.  During  tbe 
worst  period  of  the  exile  Waller  managed  to  "  keep  a  table 
for  the  Royalists  in  Paris,  although'  in  order  to  do  so  be  was 
obliged  to  sell  his  wife's  jewels.  At  the  dose  of  1651  the  House 
of  Ciunmons  revoked  Waller's  sentence  of  banishment,  and  be 
was  allowed  to  return  to  Beaconsfield,  where  he  lived  very 
quietly  until  the  Restoration. 

In  i6s5  he  published  A  Panegyric  to  my  Lord  ProUctor,  ^d 
was  made  a  Commissioner  for  Trade  a  month  or  two  later,  oc 
followed  this  up,  in  1660,  by  a  poem  To  tiu  Kingt  upo*  ^ 
Majesty's  Happy  Return.  Being  challenged  by  Charles  IL  to 
ezplaia  why  this  latter  piece  was  inferior  to  the  eulogy  of  Crowj 
wdl,  the  poet  smartly  replied,  "  Sir,  we  poets  never  succeed 
so  well  in  writing  truth  as  in  fiction."  He  entered  the  House  of 
(Commons  again  in  1661,  as  M.P.  for  Hastings^  and  Burnet  ha' 
recorded  that  for  the  next  quarter  of  a  century  "  it  was  no  Ho>>^ 
if  Waller  was  not  there."  His  sympathies  were  toleraat  •<" 
kindly,  tod  be  constantly  defended  the  NoncoBfonoistk   ^ 


WALLER,  LEWIS— WALLER,  Sift  WILLIAM 


283 


lamous  speech  of  WsDer*!  was:  "  Let  ot  look  to  our  Govern- 
mcKt,  fleet  and  trade,  'lis  the  best  advice  the  oldest  Parliament 
man  among  you  can  give  you,  and  so  God  Mess  you."  After 
the  death  of  his  second  wife,  in  1677,  Waller  retired  to  hb  hoiise> 
called  Hall  Bam  at  BeaconsfieM,  and  though  he  returned  to 
London,  he  became  more  and  more  attached  to  the  retirement  of 
his  woods,  "  where,  "  he  said,  **  he  found  the  trees  as  bare  and 
withered  as  himself."  In  1661  he  had  published  his  poem. 
Si  James*  Park;  in  1664  he  had  collected  his  poetical  works; 
in  1666  appeared  his  tnstmOkms  l6  a  Faitaer\  and  in  1685  his 
'Dhine  Poems.  The  final  collection  of  his  woria  is  dated  1666, 
but  there  were  further  posthumous  additions  made  in  i6go. 
Waller  bought  a  cottage  at  Coleshill,  where  he  was  bom,  meaning 
to  die  there;  *'a  stag,'*  he  said,  "  when  he  Is  hunted,  and  near 
spent,  always  returns  home."  He  actually  died,  however,  at 
Hall  Bam,  with  his  children  and  his  grandchildren  about  him, 
on  (he  rrst  of  October  1687,  and  was  buried  in  woollen  (in  ^'te 
of  his  expressed  wish),  in  the  churchyard  of  Beaconsfietd. 

Waller's  lyrics  were  at  one  time  admired  to  excess,  but 
with  the  exception  of  "  Go,  lovely  Rose "  and  one  or  two 
others,  they  have  greatly  k«t  their  charm.  He  was  almost 
destitute  of  imaginative  invention,  and  his  fancy  was  plain  and 
trite.  But  he  resolutely  placed  himself  in  the  forefront  of 
reaction  against  the  violence  and  "  conceit  "  into  which  the 
baser  kind  of  English  poetry  was  descending.  A  great  deal  of 
discussion,  some  of  it  absurdly  violent  in  tone,  has  been  expended 
on  the  question  how  far  Waller  was  or  was  not  the  pioneer  in 
introducing  the  classical  couplet  into  English  verse.  It  is,  of 
course,  obvious  that  Waller  could  not  "introduce"  what  had 
been  invented,  and  admirably  exemplified,  by  Chaucer.  But 
those  who  have  pointed  to  smooth  distichs  employed  by  poets 
earlier  than  Waller  have  not  given  sufficient  attention  to  the  fact 
(exaggerated,  doubtless,  by  critics  arguing  in  the  opposite  camp) 
that  it  was  he  who  earliest  made  writing  in  the  serried  couplet 
the  habit  and  the  fashion.  Waller  was  writing  in  the  regular 
heroic  measure,  afterwards  carried  to  so  high  a  perfection 
by  Dryden  and  Pope,  as  early  as  1623  (if  not,  as  has  been 
supposed,  even  in  1621)- 

The  only  critical  edition  of  Walter's  Poetical  Works  b  that  edited, 
with  a  careful  biography,  by  G.  Thorn-  Drury.  in  1895.  (E.  G.) 

WALLER,  LEWIS  (i860-  ),  English  actor,  was  bora  in 
Spain,  his  father  being  a  civil  engineer.  He  first  appeared  on 
the  London  stage  in  1883,  at  Toole's,  and  for  some  years  added 
to  his  reputation  as  a  capable  actor  in  London  and  the  provinces. 
He  came  more  particularly  to  the  front  by  a  fine  performance  aa 
Buckingham  in  The  Three  Musketeers  under  Mr  Beerbohm  Tree's 
management  at  His  Majesty's  in  189$,  and  soon  afterwards 
organized  a  company  of  his  own,  first  at  the  Haymarkei  and 
afterwards  at  the  Shaftesbury,  Imperial,  Apollo  and  other 
theatres.  His  fine  voice  and  vigorous  acting  were  well  suited 
in  bis  memorable  production  of  Henry  K.,  and  he  had  a  great 
success  with  Monsieur  Beaucaire  and  similar  plays.  His  wife, 
Mrs  Lewis  Waller  (Florence  West),  also  became  well  known  as 
a  powerful  and  accomplished  actress. 

WALLER.  SIR  WILLIAM  <e.  1597-1668),  EngUah  soWier, 
was  the  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Waller,  lieutenant  of  Dover,  and  was 
bom  about  1597  He  was  educated  at  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford, 
and  served  in  the  Venetian  army  and  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 
He  was  knighted  in  1622  after  taking  part  in  Vere's  expedition 
to  the  Palatinate  Little  is  known  tA  his  life  up  to  1640,  when 
he  became  member  of  parliament  for  An(k>ver  Being  a  strict 
Presbyterian  by  religion,  and  a  member  of  the  opposition  in 
politics,  he  naturally  threw  himself  with  the  greatest  ardour  into 
the  cause  of  the  parliament  when  the  Civil  War  broke  out  in  1642 
He  was  at  once  made  a  colonel,  and  conducted  to  a  speedy  aad 
successful  issue  the  siege  of  Portsmouth  in  September;  and 
later  ia  the  year  captured  Famham,  Winchester  and  other 
places  in  the  south-west  At  the  begianing  of  1643  WaUer  was 
auide  a  major-general  and  placed  in  charge  of  operations  in  the 
region  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol  (see  Gkbat  Rebellion),  and 
he  concluded  Ma  first  campaign  with  a  victory  at  Higfinam  and 
the  capture  of  Hereford.   He  was  then  called  upon  to  oppose  the 


advance  el  Sir  Ralph  Hopton  and  the  Royalist  western  army, 
and  though  more  or  less  defeated  in  the  hard-fought  battle  of 
Lansdown  (near  Bath)  he  shut  up  the  enemy  in  Devizes.  How- 
ever, Hopton  and  a  rdieving  force  from  Oxford  inflicted  a  crush- 
ing defeat  upon  Waller's  army  at  Roundway  Down.  Hopton 
was  Waller's  mtimate  personal  friend,  and  some  correspondence 
paved  between  the  op|x>sing  generals,  a  quotation  from  which 
(Gardiner,  ChU  War,  L  168)  is  given  as  illustrative  of  "  the 
temper  in  which  the  nobler  spirits  on  either  side  had  entered 
on  the  war."  "  That  great  God,"  wrote  Waller,  "  who  is  the 
eeaicher  of  my  heart  knows  with  what  a  sad  sense  I  go  upon  this 
servloe,  and  with  what  a  perfect  hatred  I  detest  this  war  without 
an  enemy;  but  I  look  upon  it  as  sent  from  God  .  .  .  God.  .  . 
in  Ms  good  time  send  us  the  blessing  of  peace  and  in  the  meantime 
assist  us  to  receive  it !  We  are  both  upon  the  stage  and  must 
act  such  parts  as  are  assigned  us  in  this  tragedy,  let  us  do  It  in 
a  way  of  honour  and  without  personal  animosities." 

The  destruction  of  his  army  at  Roundway  scarcely  aflfected 
Waller's  military  reputation,  many  reproaching  Essex,  the 
commander-in-chief,  for  allowing  the  Oxford  royalists  to  turn 
against  Walter.  The  Londoners,  who  had  called  him  "  William 
thp  Conqueror,"  recognized  his  skill  and  energy  so  far  as  willingly 
to  raise  a  new  army  for  him  in  London  and  the  soulh-easlern 
counties.  But  from  this  point  Waller's  career  is  one  of  gradual 
disillusionment.  His  new  forces  were  distinctively  local,  and. 
like  other  local  troops  on  both  sides,  resented  long  marches  and 
hard  work  far  from  their  own  counties.  Only  at  moments  of 
imminent  danger  could  they  be  trusted  to  do  their  duty.  At 
ordinary  times,  e,g.  at  the  first  siege  of  Basing  House,  they 
mutinied  in  face  of  the  enemy,  deserted  and  even  marched  home 
in  formed  bodies  under  their  own  o£Eicers,  and  their  gallantry 
at  critical  nKMnents,  such  as  the  surprise  of  Alton  in  December 
1643  and  the  recapture  of  Arundel  in  January  1644.  but  partially 
redeemed  their  general  bad  conduct.  Waller  himself,  a  general 
of  the  highest  skill,—"  the  best  shifter  and  chooser  of  ground  " 
on  either  side, — was,  like  Turenne,  at  his  best  at  the  head  of  a 
small  and  highly-disciph'ned  regular  army.  Only  a  Cond£  or  a 
Cromwell  could  have  enforced  discipline  and  soldierly  spirit'  in 
such  men,  ill-dad  and  ui4>aid  as  they  were,  and  the  only  military 
quality  lacking  to  Waller  was  precisely  this  supreme  personal 
magnetism.  In  these  drcumstances  affairs  went  from  bad  to 
worse.  Though  successful  in  st<^ping  Hopton 's  second  advance 
at  Cheriion  (March  1644),  he  was  defeated  by  Charles  I.  in  the  war 
of  manoeuvre  which  ended  with  the  action  of  Cropredy  Bridge 
(June),  and  in  the  second  battle  of  Newbury  in  October  ^s 
tactical  success  at  the  village  of  Speen  led  to  nothing.  His  last 
expeditions  were  made  into  the  west  for  the  relief  of  Taunton, 
a|ul  in  these  he  had  Cromwell  as  his  lieutenant-general.  By  this 
time  the  confusion  in  all  the  armed  forces  o|  the  parliament  had 
reached  such  a  height  that  reforms  were  at  last  taken  in  hand. 
The  original  suggestion  of  the  celebrated  "  New  Model "  army 
came  from  Waller,  who  wrote  to  the  Committee  of  Both  King- 
doms (July  2,  1644)  to  the  effect  that  *'  an  army  compounded 
of  these  men  will  never  go  through  with  your  service,  and  till 
you  have  an  army  merely  your  own  that  you  may  command, 
it  is  in  a  manner  impossible  to  do  anything  of  impcvtancc." 
Simultaneously  with  the  New  Model  came  the  Self- Denying 
Ordinance,  which  required  aU  members  of  parliament  to  lay  down 
their  military  commands.  Waller  did  so  ghdly^the  more  as  he 
had  already  requested  to  be  relieved — and  hte  active  military 
career  cane  to  an  end.  But  the  events  of  1643-1644  had  done 
more  than  embitter  him.  They  had  combined  with  his  Pres- 
byteriaaisni  to  make  him  intolerant  of  all  that  he  conceived 
to  be  licence  in  church,  state  or  army,  and  after  he  ceased  to 
ciercise  command  himself  he  was  constantly  engaged,  in  and 
out  of  parliament,  fa  opposing  the  Independents  and  the  army 
politicians,  and  supporting  the  cause  of  his  own  religious  system, 
aad  later  that  of  the  Presbyterian-Royalist  ^position  to  the 
Comoioowcalth  and  Protectorate  regime.  He  was  several  times 
imprisoned  between  164ft  and  1659.  In  the  latter  yeax  he  was 
active  in  promoting  the  final  negotiations  for  the  restonxion  of 
Charles  U  aad  reappeared  in  the  House  of  Commons.    He  sat 


2&4 


WALLINGFOftD— WALUS,  J; 


? 


.ia  the  Convention  Parliament,  but  loon  zctiied  fnoi^  political 
■  lifek  and  he  died  on  the  19th  of  September  1668. 

See  Wood's  Athenae  Oxonunses,  ed.  Bliss,  iii.  812:  and  two  partial 
autobtoeraphies,  *'  Recollections  by  Ceneral  Sir  William  ^aXVtr  " 
(printed  in  Th*  Poetry  of  An$ia  MotUda,  1788),  and  VindicaHon  of 
Iho  CkaracUTt  Ac  (1797)- 

Sir  William  Waller's  cousin,  Su  Habouss  Wallee  (£.  1604- 
1666)  was  also  a  parliamentarian  of  note.  Knighted  by  Chacles 
I.  in  1629,  he  gained  militafy  experience  in  serving  aainsi  the 
rebels  in  Ireland;  then  from  1645  to  the  oonclosioa  oTthe  Civil 
War  he  was  in  England  commanding  a  rcffment  in  the  new 
model  army.  He  was  Colonel  Pride's  chief  aawstsnt  when  the 
latter  "  purged  "  the  House  of  Commons  in  1648,  and  he  was 
one  of  the  king's  judges  and  one  of  those  who  signed  the  •death 
warrant.  Dunng  the  neat  few  yeaxa  Waller  secved  in  IreUad, 
finally  returning  to  England  in  1660.  After  the  restoration  he 
fled  to  France,  but  soon  surrendered  himself  to  the  authorities 
as  a  regicide,  his  life  being  H>ared  owing  to  the  Efforts  of  his 
friends.    He  was,  however,  kept  in  prison  and  was  still  a  captive 

when  he  died. 

See  M.  Noble.  Lives  of  the  Sepcidet  (1798). 

WALUNQFORD,  a  township  of  ]^ew  Haven  county,  Con- 
necticut, U.S.A.,  S.W.  of  the  ceatre  of  the  state,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Quinnipiac  river.  It  contains  the  villages  of  East  Walling- 
ford,  Tracy  and  Yalesville,  and  the  borough  of  Wallingford. 
Pop.  of  the  township  (1900)  9001,  (1910)  11,155;  of  tbebosough 
(1900)  6737, of  whom  i79(S  were  foreign-bom  and  21  were  negroes, 
(19 10)  8690.  Area  of  the  township,  about  38  sq.  m.  The 
borough  is  x2  m.  N.E.  of  Ne^  Haven,  on  a  hill  about  i|  m  long, 
and  is  served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railway 
(which  has  stations  also  at  East  Wallingford  and  Yalesville)  and 
by  an  interurban  electric  line  connecting  \irith  Meriden  and  New 
Haven.  The  borough  has  a  public  library  (1881),  a  Masonic 
Home,  the  Gaylord  Farm  Sanatorium  of  the  New  Haven  County 
Anti-Tuberculosis  Assodation,  the  Phelps  School  (for  girls)  and 
the  C!hoate  School  <x896,  for  boys).  Among  the  manufactures 
of  the  borough  are  sterling  rilver  articles,  plated  and  britannia 
ware,  brass  ware,  rubber  goods,  cutlery  and  edge  tools.  The 
township  of  Wallingford  was  settled  in  1670.  At  a  meeting  held 
in  January  1766,  in  protest  against  the  Stamp  Act,  it  was 
dedared,  that  "  Whereas  It  appears  from  ancient  Records  and 
other  Memorials  of  Incontestible  Validity  that  our  Ancestors 
with  a  great  Sum  Purchased  said  township,  with  great  Peril 
possessed  and  Defended  the  Same,  we  are  Bom  free  (having 
never  been  in  bondage  to  any),  an  inheritance  of  Inestimable 
Value.^  uid  a  penalty  of  aos.  was  imposed  upon  any  one  who 
should  hxtroduce  or  use  stamped  paper  or  parchment.  During 
the  War  of  Independence  patriotic  sentiment  here  was  strong 
•  and  Loyalists  were  sometimes  exiled  to  Wallingford,  where  they 
could  have  no  effective  influence.  The  borough  of  Wallingford 
was  hioorporated  in  1853  and  re-inoorporated  in  x868.  From 
'i8st  to  f88o  there  was  a  communistic  settlement,  a  branch  of 
the  Oneida  Community,  here;  its  property  was  bought  by  the 
Masonic  Order  and  made  into  the  Masonic  Home. 

See  C  H.  S.  Dayh'^  History  of  WaUiniford  (Meriden.  1670). 

WALUMGPORD,  a  market  town  and  municipal  borough  in  the 
Abingdon  parliamentery  division  of  Berkshire,  England,  51  m. 
W  by  N .  of  London  by  the  Great  Westem  railway.  Pep.  ( 1901 ) 
2808.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  in  the  flat  valley  of  the  Thames, 
•on  the  west  (right)  bank.  The  railway  station  is  the  terminus 
of  a  branch  line  from  Ch<dsey.  Of  the  churchesonly St  Leonard's, 
Detaining  some  Norman  work  and  rebuilt  approidmatdy  on  its 
original  plan,  with  an  eastern  apse,  is  of  interest.  The  ancient 
castle  has  left  only  its  mound  and  earthworks,  and  other  works 
may  be  traced  surrounding  the  town  on  the  landward  side.  The 
town  hall  raised  on  arches,  dates  from  1670.  Thci  large  gi^mmar 
school  was  founded  in  1659.  The  trade  of  the  townisprindpally 
agricultural,  and  malting  is  carried  on.  The  borough  is  under 
a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and  1 2  coundllois.    Area,  380  acres. 

The  site  of  Wallrngfocd  {Wartngeford,  Walynford,  Walyngforth) 
was  occupied  by  a  Romano>British  settlement,  thoagh  the  im- 
posing earthworks  are  of  uncertam  date — they  may  be  of  post- 
Roman  British  ori^n.    WaUingford  was  a  fortified  town  before 


the  Conquest,  aod,  tbough  btinied  by  Smtyik  ^  1^06^ 
the  largnt  and  most  important  borough  in.  Berkshire  sa  the 
of  the  Domesday  Survey,    The  new  castle  was  so  extcneive  that 
eight  houses  had  been  demolished  to  make  room  for  it;  the 
market  was  already  in  ezistenoe,  and  perhaps  also  the  gild 
merchant,  which  in  a  charter  of  Henry  IX.  is  said  to  date  back 
to  the  reign  of  the  Confeseor,    In  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  the  be- 
ginning of  decay  is  marked  by  the  inability  of  the  town  '*  thxov^ 
poverty"  to  pay  its  aid*    It  is  said  to  have  suffered  greatly  fraaa 
the  Black  DMth,  and  its  decline  waa  accelerated  by  the  buildiiis, 
in  the  early  xsth  century,  of  two  bridges  near  AtNagdon,  which 
diverted  the  main  road  between  London  and  Gloucester  frooi 
Wallingford.    Periodical  reductions  in  the  fee  farm  show  the 
gradual  impoverishment  of  the  town,  and  in  1636  its  assessment 
for  ship-money  was  only  £20,  while  that  of  Reading  was  -£220. 
Wallingford  was  a  royal  borough  held  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IIL 
by  Richard,  king  of  the  Romans.    Edward  UL  granted  the  fee 
farm  to  the  BlacV.  Prince  and  his  successors  in  the  duchy  ol 
C>>mwall.    The  earliest  charters  were  given  by  Henry  I.  and 
Henry  II.,  the  latter  confirming  the  andent  privileges  of  the 
borough,  which  were  to  be  hdd  as  the  dt  izens  of  Winchester  held 
theirs,  and  granting  to  the  burgesses  freedom  from  toll  througk- 
out  his  domiiuons.    These  charters  were  confirmed  and  enlarged 
by  Henry  HI.  in  1267  and  by  Philip  and  Mary  in  x  557-1558. 
In  1648.  the  corporation  consisted  of  a  mayor,  three  aUnrncn, 
a  chamberlain  and  sixteen  burgesses.    This  constitution  ^eaa 
remodelled  in  1650  by  a  charter  from  Cromwell,  but  the  governing 
charter  until  the  passing  of  the  Municipal  Corporati<ms  Act  si 
1835  was  that  given  by  Charles  II.  in  1663,  incorporating  tie 
town  under,  the  style  of  a  mayor,  recorder,  town  derk,  six 
aldermen,  two  burgesses,  a  chamberlain  and  dghteen  asustanls 
of  the  better  sort  of  the  inhabitants.    In  1571  Elizabeth  issued 
letters  patent  empowering  the  burgesses  of  Wallingford  to  uie 
toll  of  all  carts  passing  over  their  bridge,  in  order  to  provide  to 
its  repair  and  maintenance.    Wallingford  sent  two  members  lo 
parliament  from  1295  to  1832,  and  one  from  1832  to  1885,  when 
its  representation  was  merged  in  that  of  the  county:  before  1832 
the  franchise  was  vested  in  the  inhabitants  i>sying  scot  and  lot. 
The  empress  Maud  took  refuge  at  Wallingford  after  her  escape 
from  Oxford  (^tle  (i  142),  ana  here  peace  was  made  between  her 
and  Stephen  (1153).    -Wallingford  Castle  was  one  of  t  he  last  fort- 
resses to  hold  out  for  Charles  I.,  and  during  the  Commonwealth 
It  was  demolished  by  order  of  the  govemmenk    In  1 205  the  king 
commanded  the  sheriff  of  Oxford  to  cause  a  fur  to  be  held  at 
Wallingford  at  Whilsun  for  four  days,  to  he  continued  for  three 
years.    In  x  2  27  Swynconibe  fair  was  transferred  from  the  feast  of 
St  Botolph  to  the  feast  of  St  Mark  in  order  not  to  interfere  with 
Wallingford  fair.    Fai  rs  on  the  days  of  St  Nicholas  and  of  St  John 
the  Baptist  were  granted  by  Henry  VII.  in  1500,  and  the  charter 
of  1663  provided  for  two  markets  and  four  annual  fairs.     All  the 
latter  have  fallen  into  disuse  except  the  Michaelmas  fair,  which  is 
prinapally  for  hiring  servants.    During  the  1 8th  century  the  town 
was  fairly  prosperous  and  had  a  good  trade  in  grain  and  malt. 

See  VkUna  County  History,  Berks;  T.  K.  Hedges,  Tke  History 
of  WaUingford  (London,  1881). 

WALLB,  JOHN  ^161^x703),  English  mathematician, 
logician  and  grammarian,  was  bom  on  the  23rd  of  November 
x6x6  at  Ashford,  in  Rent,  of  which  parish  his  father,  Rev.  John 
Wallis  (x567>x622),  was  indumbent.  After  being  at  school  at 
AsbfMd,  Tenterd'en  and  Felsted,  and  being  instructed  in  Latin, 
Greek  and  Hebrew,  he  was  in  1632  sent  to  Emmanud  College, 
Cambridge,  and  afterwards  was  chosen  fellow  of  (Juecns*  CoDege. 
Having  been  admitted  to  holy  orders,  he  leK  the  university  in 
X64X  to  act  aschaplain  to  Sir  William  Darley,  and  in  the  following 
year  accepted  a  similar  appointment  from  the  widow  of  Sir 
lioratio  Vere.  It  was  about  this  period  that  he  displayed 
Surprising  talents  in  deciphering  the  imercepted  letters  and 
papers  of  the  RoyaUsts.  His  adherence  lo  the  parliamentary 
party  was  in  1643  rewarded  by  the  living  of  St  Gabriel,  Fen- 
church  Stre^,  London.  In  1644  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
scribes  or  secretaries  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westminster. 
During  the  same  year  he  married  Susanna  GTyde,  and  thus 


WALLIS  ARCHIPELAGO— WALLON 


285 


bh  MiwiUkn^vt  the  dteth  of  his  mother  had  left 
btm  in  possesion  of  a  handsome  fortune.  In  1645  he  attended 
thew'  sdeotific  meetings  which  led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Royal  Society.  When  the  Independenu  obtained  the  saperiority 
WaU&  adhered  to  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant.  The 
living  of  St  Gabriel  he  exchanged  for  that  of  St  Maitm,  Iion- 
menger  Lane;  and,  as  reaor  of  that  parish,  he  in  1648  sub- 

.  scribed  the-  Remonstrance  against  putting  Charles  I.  to  death. 
NotwitlKianding  this  act  of  opposition,  he  was  in  June  1649 

-  appointed  Savilian  pcofesMK  of  geometiy  at  Oxford.  In  1654 
he  there' took  the  degree  of  D.D.,  and  four  yean  later  succeeded 
Gersrd  Langbaine  (1609-1658)  as  keeper  of  the  archives.  After 
tile  restoration  he  was  named  one  of  the  lung's  chaplains  in 
ordinary.  While  complying  with  the  terms  of  the  Act  of  Uni- 
forwiity,  Wallis  seems  always  to  have  retained  moderate  and 

'  rational  notions  of  ecclesiastical  polity.  ^  He  died  at  Oxford  on 
the  28ch  of  October  170^. 

The  works  of  Wallis  are  numerous,  and,  rdate  to'  a  .muUiplicity 
of  subjects.  His  InstUulio  logictu,  published  in  1687,  was  very 
'  popular,  and  in  his  Grammatica  linguae  Andicanae  we  find  indica- 
i  tione  of  an  acute  and  philosophic  intellect.  The  mathcmatk^al  works 
are  published,  nine  of  them  in  a  smalt  410  volume  (Chcford,  1657) 
and  a  complete  collection  in  three  thkk  folio  volumes  (Oxford^ 
I<^3->^)'     The   third   vo^mc   includes,   however,  some   theo- 

*  logical  treatises,  and  the  first  part  of  it  is  occupied  wiih  editbns  of 
tveatiscs  on  harmonScsand  other  works  of  GrceK  geomcteri,  some  of 

.  them  first  editions  from  tlie  MSS.,  and  in  general  with  Latin  versions 
and  notes  (Ptolemy,  Pocphyrius,  Bricanius,  Archimedes.  Eutociusf, 
Aristarchus  and  Pappus).    The  second  and  third  volumes  include 

*  also  his  correspondence  with  his  content porarlcs;  and  there  is  a  tract 
on  trisenometry  by  Caswell.  Excluding  all  these,  the  mathe> 
nnttical  works  contained  in  the  first  and  second  volumes  occupy 
about  1800  pages.  The  titles  in  the  order  adopted,  but  with  date 
of  publbatMn,  are  as  follows:  "  Oratk>  inauguralis,"  on  his 
appointment  (1649)  as  Savilian  professor  (1657);  "  Mathesls  uni*- 
vcrsalts,  seu  opus  arithmeticttm  phitolo^e  et  mathematKc  trads- 
turn,  arithmeticam  numerosam  et  apecnsam  aliaqae  continens* 
((6157);  "  Adversus  Meibomuim,  at  proportionibus  diak)gus '* 
(1657);  "  De  sectionibus  oonicb  nova  methodo  cxpositis  "  (1633); 

Arithmetica    infinitorum.    sive    nova    mefhodus    inquircndi    is 

*  curvilineorum  quadraturam  aliaque  dtfRcilbra  math<»eos  proc 
btemata  "  <i65«);  "  Ectipsis  Solaris  obwnrvatio  Oxonii  habita  a" 
Aug.^  16M."  ((055)1  "Tractatus  duo,  pr)or  de  cycloide,  posterior 
de  ciasoiac  et  de  curvarum  turn  linearum  d0(v0w  turn  supers 
ficicrum  rXariwiiw"  (1659):  **  Mcchanica,  sive  de  motu  trSctatut 
geomctricus "  (three  parts,  1669-1670-1671);  '*  Cte  algebra 
tractatus  historieus  et  pnctkus,  c^usdem  originem  et  progressua 
varios  oetendens  "  (English,  1685);  "  De  combinationibus  auema- 
tionibus  et  partibus  aliquotis  tractatus "  (English,  1685)  "  De 
sectionfbus  angularibus  tractatus "  (Ei^lish,  (685) ;  *'  De  angulo 

'  contactils  et  semictrcufi  tractatus"  (1656);  '*£jusdcm  tractatus 
defenaio  "  J168O;  **  De  postulato  quinto,  et  uuinta  definitkMie, 
liOiSk   disceptatm  eeometrica"    (r 


lib.    VL    EuclidiSk   disceputk^   geoinetrica"    (?    l66j):   "cuno- 


gravttatione 

acstu  maris  hypodiesis  nova  "  (1666-1669). 

The  Arithmdica  injlmiiomm  Rlatts  chiefly  to  the  quadmtuie  of 
■  curves  by  the  so<alled  method  of  indivisibles  established  by  Bona* 
Ventura  C!^valieri  in  1629  (see  Infikitesimal  Calculus).  He 
extended  the  "  law  off  continuity  *'  as  stated  by  Johannes  Kepler; 
regarded  the  denomioatDrs  of  tractions  as  powore  with  negative 
oxponenis:  and  deduced  from  the  quadrature  of  the  parabola  y  "r*, 
where  m  is  a  positive  integer,  the  area  01  thecurves  when  m  is  nc^tive 
or  rractlonal.    He  attempted  the  quadrature  of  the  circle  by  inter- 

?>Iation,  and  arrived  at  the  remarkable  expression  known  as  wallis' s 
Juorem  (sea  Cikclb,  SQOaaiNC  of).  In  the  same  work  Wallis 
obtained  an  «4>re«bn  for  the  lenp^th  of  the  element  of  a  curve,  whkh 
xeduced  the  problem  of  rectification  to  that  of  quadrature. 

The  Juathesis  tmmer«a/tr,  a  more  elementary  work,  contains 
copious  dissertations  on  fundamental  points  of  algebra,  arithmetic 
and  geometry,  and  critical  remarks^ 

The  De  eigibm  InUaha  conuina  (cba|>ten  Ixvi.-lxix.)  the  idcn 

of  tlie  interpretatkm  of  imaginary  qaantities  in  geometry.    This 

is  given  somewhat  as  follows:  the  distance  represented  by  the 

Square  root  of  a  negative  quantity  cannot  be  measured  in  the  line 

backwards  or  forwards,  but  can  be  measured  in  the  same  plane 

.  above  the  line^or  (as  appcnra  elsewhere)  at  right  angles  to  the  line 

either  in  the  pUne,  or  in  the  plane  at  right  angles  thereto.    Con* 

•>  skivered  aa  a  history  of  algebra,  this  work  is  strongly  objected  to  by 

,  jcan  Eticnne  Montucia  on  the  ground  of  its  unfairness  as  against  the 

'  ]-cari)r  Italian  algebra'ists  and  also  Franciscus  Vieta  and  Ren£  Descartes 

'  and  in  favour  5i  Harriot ;  but  Augustus  Oe  Morgan,  while  admitting 

this.  Mtr  butes  to  it  conridetabk  merit.   The  symbol  for  infinity,  «•, 

ivas  invented  by  him. 


The  two  treatiBeB  on  the  cychrid  and  on  the  idhsbM,  Ac.,  and  fhe 
Meckanica  contain  n^ny  results  which  were  then  new  and  valuable. 
The  latter  work  contains  elaborate  investigations  in  reganl  to  the 
centte  of  gravity,  and  it  is  remarkable  also  for  the  employment  of 
the  principle  of  virtual  velocities. 

Among  the  letters  in  volume  iiL,  we  have  one  to  the  editor  of 
the  Acta  JUei^ica,  giving  the  decipherment  of  two  letters  in  aocaet 
characters.  The 'cabers  are  different,  but  on  the  fame  principle: 
the  characters  in  each  arc  either  single  digits  or  combinations  of 
two  or  three  digits,  standing  some  of  them  for  tettefv,  others  for 
syllables  or  words, — the  number  of  distinct  characteis  whkrh  had 
to  be  deciphered  being  thus  very  considenible. 

For  the  prolonged  conflict  between  Hobbes  and  Wallis,  ace  UonsES, 
Thomas. 

VTALUS  ARCHIPELAGO,  Uvea,  or  Uea,  a  group  of  islands 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  N.E.  of  Fiji,  about  13*  S.,  176''  W.,*  with 
a  Und  area  of  40  sq.  m.,  belonging  to  France.  It  was  placed 
under  the  French  protectorate  on  the  5th  of  April  1887,  and 
connected  for  admiaistralive  purposes  with  New  (TaledoBia 
by  decree  of  the  27th  of  November  1888.  There  is  a  French 
Resident  in  the  islands,  which  are  connected  by  a  regular  service 
with  Noumea,  New  Caledonia.  The  principal  islands  are  Uvea, 
of  volcanic  formation  and  surrounded  with. coral,  and  Nukua^ea. 
The  islands  were  discovered  by  Samuel  Watlis  in  1767,  and,  it 
was  a  missionary.  Father  Bataillon,  who  in  1837  first  brought 
the  influence  of  France  to  bear  00  the  natives.  These,  about 
4  SCO  in  number,  are  of  Polynesian  race,  gentle  and  industrious. 
The  trade  of  the  islands  is  mainly  with  Samoa,  whence  cottons 
and  iron  goods  are  imported,  and  to  which  copra  and  roots  are 
exported.  The  Home  Islands  (Fotuna  and  Alofa),  S.W.  of  the 
Wallis  IsUinds,  were  discovered  by  Jacob  Lemaire  and  Wilkm 
Cornells  Schouten  in  16 16,  and  placed  under  the  French  pro- 
tectorate by  decree  of  the  i6th  of  February  1888.  They  have 
1 500  Inhabitants. 

WALLOK.  HENRI  ALEXANDRE  (1812-1904),  French 
historian  and  statesman,  was  bom  at  Valenciennes  on  the  a3rd 
of  December  181  a.  Devoting  himself  to  a  literary  career,  he 
became  in  1840  professor  at  the  £cole  Normale  Sup^ricure  under 
the  patronage  of  Ggizot,  whom  he  succeeded  as  professor  at  the 
Facidl6  desLettres in  1846.  Ui^  works  on  slavery  in  the  French 
colonies  (1847)  and  on  slavery  Sa  antiquity  (1848;  new  edition 
in  3  vols.,  1870)  led  to  his  being  placed,  after  the  Kevolution 
of  (848,  on  a  commission  for  the  regulation  of  labour  in  the 
French  colonial  possessions,  and  In  November  1849  he  was 
elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly  by  the  department  of  the 
Nord.  He  resigned  in  1850,  disapproving  of  the  meSsure  for 
the  restriction  of  the  suffrage  adopted  by  the  majority  In  tbe 
same  year  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academic  des  In- 
scriptions, of  which  he  became  perpetual  secretary  in  1873. 
Under  the  empire  he  withdrew  altogether  from  political  life, 
and  occupied  himself  entirely  with  his  duties  as  a  professor  of 
history  and  with  historical  writings,  the  most  original  of  which 
is  a  biography,  Richard  II,  ipisode  de  la  ritalili  de  la  France 
et  de  I'Angleterre  (2  vols.,  1864).  Although  remaining  a  re- 
publican, he  exhibited  decided  clerical  leanings  in  bis  Jeanne 
d'Are  (a  vols.,  i860;  and  cd.,  1875);  La  Vie  de  Notre  Seigneur 
Jisus  (i865)-^a  reply  to  the  Vie  deJfsusoXE. Renan;  and 5aiffl 
Louis  el  son  temps  (1871;  4th  ed.,  1892),  which  still  ranks  am6ng 
hagiographical  works.  Returning  to  politics  after  the  Franco- 
German  War,  Wallon  was  re-elected  by  the  department  of  the 
Nord  in  1871,  took  an  active  part  in  the  proceedings  of  the 
Assembly,  and  finally  Immortalised  himscU  by  carrying  his 
proposition  for  the  establishment  of  the  Republic  with  a  presi- 
dent  elected  for  seven  years,  and  then  eligible  for'^e-elcction, 
which,  after  violent  debates,  was  adopted  by  the  Assembly 
on  the  30th  of  January  1875.  **  Ma  proposition,"  he  declared, 
"  nc  prodamc  pas  la  R^publique,  elle  la  fait."  ,Upon  the  defini- 
tive establishment  of  the  Republic,  Wallon  became  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction,  and  effected  many  useful  reforms,  but  his 
views  were  too  conservative  for  the  majority  of  the  Assembly, 
and  he  retired  In  May  1876.  He  had  been  chosen  a  life  senator 
In  December  1875.  Returning  to  his  historical  studies,  WaHbn 
produced  four  works  of  great  Importance,  though  less,  from 
his  part  in  them  as  author  than  from  the  documents  which, 
accompanied  them:  LaTtrreur  (1873)^  Hisloin  du  trtbunol 


;i86 


WALLOONS 


ritoliUumHaire  ie  Ports  caee  te  jwtnud  de  us  acUs  (6  vols., 
1880-1883);  La  Ritoiutwn  du  jt  mat  et  U  fidiralisme  en  179 j 
(2  vob.,  1886);  Les  RiprisentatOs  du  peufU  em  missum  et  la 
justice  rivolutionnaire  dans  Us  dipartemetUs  (5  vob.,  1880-1890). 
Besides  Ibeae  h»  published  a  number  ol  articles  in  the  Journal 
des  savants;  for  many  yeairs  he  wrote  the  history  of  the  Aca- 
d6mie  des  Inscriptions  in  the  collection  at  Memoirs  of  this 
Academy,  and  he  composed  obituary  notices  of  his  colleagues, 
which  wefe  inserted  in  the  BuUdin.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the 
13th  of  November  1904. 

WALL0OM8  {Wailonst  from  a  common  Teut.  word  meaning 
*'  foreign,"  cf.  Ger.  welsch,  Du.  waalsck,  Eng.  Wtlsk),  a  people 
akin  to  the  French,  but  forming  a  separate  branch  of  the  Romance 
race,  inhabiting  the  Belgian  provinces  of  Hainaut,  Namur, 
Li^ge,  parts  of  Luxemburg  and  southern  Brabant,  parts  of  the 
French  departments  of  Nord  and  Ardennes,  and  a  few  villages 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Malmedy  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  The 
Walloons  arc  descended  from  the  ancient  Gallic  Belgi,  with  an 
admixture  of  Roman  elements.  They  are  in  general  charac> 
terized  by  greater  vivacity  and  adaptability  than  ibcir  Flemish 
neighbours,  while  they  excel  their  French  neighbours  in  en- 
durance and  industry.  Their  numbers  are  reckoned  in  Belgium 
at  between  3,000,000  and  3,000,000.  The  Walloon  dialect  is 
a  distinct  branch  of  the  Romance  languages,  with  some  ad- 
mixture of  Flemish  and  Low  German.  It  was  used  as  a  literary 
language  until  the  15th  century,  when  it  began  to  be  assimilated 
to  French,  by  which  it  was  ultimately  superseded. . 

Grandgagnage,  De  Corigine  des  H^oZ/cmj  (Liegei  1852).  Vocabulaire 

des  noms  "  ~     ^        '  "" 

waUoHne 

Did,  dei       ,  ,, 

Reckerches  surPethnologisdelaBelgique  (Brussels,  1872);  Demarteau. 

Le  Ftamand,  U  WaUon.  Sfc.  (Liege,  1889):  M..Wilmotte.  Le  WaUon, 

Histoire  et  littirature  (Brussels,  1893);  Monseur,  Le  Folklore  valtou 

(Bruseeto,  189a).  [X-l 

• .  ^-  -—  '   • 

Walloon  LiTESATtrBX. — In  ^  medieval   times '  various  local 

documents  in  prose  and  verse  were  written  by  inhabitants  of 
Li(ge  and  its  diocese  in  a  dialect  of  French  which  contained  many 
Walloon  words  and  phrases.  It  is  supposed  that  as  early  as  th^ 
1 3th  century  the  idiom  of  the  people  may  have  been  used  in 
songs  which  are  now  lost,  unless  echoes  of  them  are  preserved  in 
the  curious  NoHs,  partly  in  French,  partly  in  patois,  which  were 
orally  collected  by  M.  Doutrepont  and  published  in  1888.  Several 
Flemish  works  in  old  French,  containing  WaUoon  expressions, 
and  in  particular  the  so-called  Pohne  moral  of  the  13th  century, 
have  been  claimed  as  precursors  of  a  local  literature)  but  they 
are  really  to  be  considered  as  composed  in  French  with  a  certain 
admixture  of  Li^eois  phrases.  The  earliest  existing  specimen  of 
pure  Walloon  literature  is  the  Ode  in  praise  of  Li^ge,  dated  1630, 
and  attributed  to  Mathias  Navaeus;  this  was  first  printed  in 
1857.  in  the  transactions  o(  the  Sod^ti  Li6geoise.  Except  a  few 
very  flat  popular  songs,  there  is  nothing  more  until  the  end  of 
the  17th  century,  when  we  find  Lis  AiuKS  di  Tongue  (The  Waters 
of  Tongres),  an  amusing  lyrical  satire  on  the  pretensions  of  that' 
town  to  be  considered  a  Roman  spa.  Fifty  years  later  the 
opem'ng  of  a  popular  theatre  at  Li£ge  led  to  the  creation  of  a 
class  of  farces,  written  in  Walloon;  of  these  Li  Voigfi  di  Ckaud* 
fonlaine  (The  Journey  U>  Chaudfontaine)  (1757).  by  Jean  NoSl 
Hamal,  has  considerable  humour  and  vigour  in  its  rhymed 
dialogue.  Other  successful  comedies  were  Li  Piesse  di  HoiUe  sH 
^ou,  Li  Ligeois  igagi,  and,  above  all.  Lis  Hypocondcs,  the 
h'veUest  specimen  of  old  Walloon  literature  which  has  survived. 
This  diverting  farce  describes  the  adventures  of  a  party  of  mock- 
invalids,  who  pursue  a  series  of  intrigues  at  a  spa.  This  class  of 
dramatic  literature  dosed  with  Li  Malignant  in  1789.  In  these 
early  songs  and  plays  the  Walloon  humour  is.  displayed  with 
great  crudity;  anything  like  sentiment  orjekvated  feeling  is 
unknown.  ^ 

The  Revolution  of  1789  inspired  numerous  Ligeois 'patriots 
with  popular  songs;  of  these  pasquiyes,  as  they  are  styled, 
Albin  Body  collected  more  than  350,  but  Ihey  are  almost  entirely 
devoid  of  literary  merit.  Under  their  new  government,  Li^ge 
and  Mamur  aUoiv«(iJhe. national  patois  to  withdraw  into  the 


background,  Mid  it  was  not  unOI  tlis  middle  of  iht  I4t%  ceoftwy 

that  WaUoon  Utecature  began  seriously  to  be  culiivated.  Its oaly 
expression,  for  a  long  time,  was  in  lyrical  poetry  in  the  form  o( 
satires  and  the  buroofous  songs*  caUed  pasfuiycs  and  uimigHoes. 
The  earliest  of  the  modem  WaUoon  writers  was  Charles  Nicolas 
Simonon  (i774-i847)t  who  celebrated  in  Li  C&pariy  the  aodenl 
dock-tower  of  the  cathedral  of  St  Lambert,  an  nbjecl  of  revcreiice 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Li^.  His  poems  were  collected  in  1845. 
Henri  Joseph  Forir  (1784-1863)  was  the  first  president  of  the 
Soci£t<  Li^geoise,  and  one  ol  the  piotagonista  of  WaUoon  litera- 
ture. He  published  a  valuable  dicUonaiy  of  the  patois.  The 
Car£  C.  £.  E.  Du  Vivier  de  Streel  (1799-1863)  was  the  author  o( 
Li  Panlalen  frame  (The  Ton  Trowsen),  a  pasqmiya  which  still 
enjoys  an  eoormpus  popuhtfity  among  the  WaUoon  populatioo. 
The  first  WaUoon  writer  of  high  merit,  however,  was  NiooJts 
Defrecheuz  (1835-1874),  who  is  the  most  dtsliAgttished  poet 
whom  the  patois  has  hitherto  produced.  His  LeyifHK'  pienf 
(Let  me  cry),  when  it  appeared  in  1854,  made  a  wide  sensatioo, 
and  was  the  earUest  expression  of  what  is  serious  and  tender  in 
the  Walloon  nature.  His  Ckansons  wallonnes  appeared  in  iS6a 
Defrecheux  stands  almost  alone  among  the  Walloon  poets  ai 
an  artist  and  not  meiely  an  improvisatofe.  His  poetical  wxb 
were  posthumously  odUected  in  1877. 

For  many  years,  In  spite  of  the  efTorts  of  such  schohn  n 
MM.  Alphonse  Le  Roy  and  H.  Gaidoz,  a  taste  for  WsUom 
Uterature  remained  strictly  drcnnacribed,  and  was  limited  /•' 
small  drcle  of  enthusiasts  in  Li£ge  and  Namur.  In  x 873  a  litdST 
club  was  formed,  entitled  the  Caveau  Li^geols,  and  thisga^' 
very  great  stimulus  to  the  cultivation  of  the  WaUoon  Ieitca> 
The  national  drama>  which  had  been  entirdy  neglected  for  not 
than  a  century,  once  more  was  called  Into  existeftoe  through  ikt 
exertions  of  the  theatrical  dub,  caUed  Les  Wallons.  Tbe 
comedies  of  A.  M.  J.  Oelcbef  (b.  1835)  were  acted  with  success* 
and  led  the  way  for  the  most  important  patois  dramatist  that 
Li£ge  has  produced,  £douard  Remouchampd  <b.  1836),  who  is 
the  author  of  Tdtt  VPerriqftt  (1884),  perhaps  the  most  eoter* 
taining  farce  in  WaUoon,  and  certainly  the  most  popular.  Renaoo' 
champs  was  for  thirty  years  a  proUfic  writer  of  sliort  pieces  ftf 
the  stage,  sentimental  and  fardcal.  After  the  suceess  of  tbjs 
play,  according  to  an  enthusiastic  chronicler,  "  the  writers  » 
Wallonia  became  legion."  Their  style,  however,  was  not  greatly 
varied,  and  they  have  mainly  confined  themselves  to  aong^ 
satirical  lampoons  and  farCes.  The  founder  of  the  Sod<l| 
Liigeoise  was  J.  F.  E.  BaiUeux  (181 7-1860),  to  whom  the  revival 
of  an  interest  in.early  WaUoon  literature  is  mainly  due;  in  con- 
junction with  J.  V.  F.  J.  Dehin  (1809-1871)  he  published  » 
translation  of  Lafontaine  into  patois.  Among  writers^  of  to< 
younger  generation,  special  credit  must  be  given  to  Henri  Sin«>B 
(b.  X856),  for  his  humoristic  tales  and  sketches;  to  Jub'en  Delait' 
(b.  x868),  for  his  amusing  lyrics;  and  to  Zephir  Henin  (b.  1866)1 
for  his  prose;  prose  bdng  much  rarer  than  verse  in  WaUoon. 
It  would  be  pos:ible  to  add  very  largely  to  this  Ust,  but  the  most 
notable  names  have  been  mentioned.  A  certain  monotonous 
fluency  is  the  fault  of  WaUoon  Uterature,  which  repents  iti  effects 
too  constantly,  and  is  confined  within  too  narrow  Umits.  A  Yew 
writers,  among  whom  Isidore  Dory  (b.  1833)  is  prominent,  bav* 
endeavoured  to  enlarge' the  scope  of  the  patois  writers,  but  their 
suggestions  have  met  with  Utile  response.-  When  the  WaUoon 
writer  desires  to  impart  serious  information  or  deep  feeUng*  he 
resorts  to  the  use  of  French.  The  pfisquiye,  which  is  thc^  charj 
acteristic  form  of  Walloon  verse,  is  a  kind  of  semi-comic  and 
extremely  familiar  lyric,  humorous  and  extravagant,  a  survival 
of  the  influence  M  B^ranger  on  Uste  three-quarters  of  a  ^^^ 
ago;  the  facility  with  which  these  songs  are  composed  » 
betrayed  by  the  enormous  number  of  them  which  exist  w 
Li6ge  and  Namur.  The  difficulties  of  WaUoon  Uteiatuie  a|« 
increased  by  the  unfixed  dwracter  of  its  phonetic  and  often 

extravagant  orthography.  „^,^^ 

Authorities.— H .  (5aidoa,  La  SocOaiifteoi^delittfraimtwiBe^ 
(Li*ge,  1890);  Alphonse  Le  Roy,  LiUirature  wUMtne  (Bt"*?? 
1875);  Charles  Defrecheux,  Joseph  Defrecheux  et  Chartes  Gotlnj| 
Anlkologte  des  poiles  vaUans  (Li^,  1895);  Maurice  Wilmotg'v'^ 


K^dtfoff  (BniMels,  1694). 


cE.a^ 


WALLOP,  SIR  H.~WALMER 


zSf 


•  "trillttOi;  iniflUIET  (c  1540-19^),  EngKrii  sUtenian,  wu 
C!ie  eldest  eon  of  Sir  OUver  WtXU^  (d.  i  s66)»  of  Farieigh  WeUop, 
Hampekire.  HtTing  inherited  tlie  eslaUs  of  lib  father  and  of 
his  ande,  Sir  John  Waitop  (q.v.),  he  was  luughted  in  1569  aad 
was  chosen  member  of  parUament  for  Sovthampton  in  157a. 
Hb  connexion  with  Ireland,  where  the  quarter  part  of  hb  public 
life  was  paued,  began  in  1579,  when  he  was  appomted  vice- 
tieasurer  of  that  country;  ihb  position  was  a  very  thaaidess 
and  difficult  one,  and  Wallop  appears  to  have  undertaken  it 
very  unwillingly.  However,  he  reached  Dublm  and  was  soon 
immersed  in  the  troubles  caused  by  the  rebellion  of  Gerald 
Fitzgerald,  earl  of  Desmond,  finding,  in  hb  own  words,  it  was 
"  easier  to  tdk  at  home  of  Irish  wars  than  to  be  in  them."  In 
July  i$8s  he  and  Adam  Loftus,  archbishop  of  Dublin,  were 
appointed  fords  Justices,  and  they  were  responsible  for  the 
government  of  Ireland  for  just  two  years,  after  which  they  were 
succeeded  by  Sir  John  Perrot.  Sir  Henry  continued  to  fill  tlie 
office  of  vice-treasurer,  and  at  Enniseorthy,  where  he  had  secured 
a  lease  of  bnds,  he  set  up  a  colony  of  Englishmen  and  opened  up 
a  trade  with  Madeira.  As  a  member  of  the  Irish  council  he 
quarrelled  with  Perrot,  and  then  from  1589  to  1595  he  was  in 
England,  entertaining  the  queen  at  Farleigh  Wallop  in  r59i. 
Having  returned  to  Ireland  he  was  sent  to  Dundalk  to  attempt 
to  make  peace  with  Hugh  O'Neill,  earl  of  Tyrone,  but  thb 
proved  a  vain  errand.  At  length,  after  many  entreaties,  he  was 
allowed  to  resign  the  treasurecship,  but  before  he  could  arrange 
to  leave  Ireland  he  died  on  the  14th  of  April  1599. 
f  Wallop's  eldest  son,  Sh*  Henry  Wallop  ( 1 56&-164 3) ,  who  acted 
as  his  father's  deputy  in  Ireland,  left  an  only  son,  Robert  WaUop 
(1601-1667).  A  member  of  parliament  for  nearly  forty  years, 
and  a  si^porter  of  the  parliamentary  party,  Robert  was  one  of 
the  judges  of  Charles  I.,  although  he  did  not  sign  the  death 
warrant.  He  was  active  under  the  Commonwealth,  being  a 
member  of  nearly  all  the  councils  of  stated  At  the  restoration 
he  was  deprived  of  his  estates  and  was  imprisoned,  and  he  died 
in  the  Tower  of  London  on  the  19th  of  November  1667.  Robert's 
son  Henry  (d.  1673)  was  the  grandfather  of  John  Wallop,  tst 
eari  of  Portsmouth. 

WALLOP,  SIR  JOHN  (c.  1490-1551),  English  soldier  and 
diplomatist,  belonged  to  an  old  Hampshire  family.  Adopting 
the  profession  of  arms,  he  commanded  ships  which  took  part  in 
the  war  between  England  and  France  in  1513  and  15 14;  later 
he  served  the  king  of  Portugal  against  the  Idoors,  and  then  he 
fought  for  his  own  sovereign  in  Ireland  and  in  France.  In 
1526  Wallop  began  his  diplomatic  career,  being  sent  on  an  errand 
to  Germany  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  from  1532  to  i54r  he  passed 
much  of  his  time  in  Paris  and  elsewhere  in  France  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  English  king-  He  filled  several  other  public 
petitions.  Including  that  of  lieutetiant  of  Calais,  before  January 
1 54 1,  when  he  was  suddenly  arrested  oft  a  charge  of  treason;  his 
offence,  however,  was  not  serious  and  in  the  same  year  he  was 
made  captain  of  Giilnes.  In  1543  he  led  a  small  force  to  help  the 
emperor  Charies  V.  in  his  invasion  of  France,  and  he  remained 
at  hb  post  at  Gulnes  until  hb  death  there  on  the  13th  of  July 

1551. 
WALLQVIST,  OLAP   (1755-1800),   Swedish  statesman   and 

ecclesiastic,  was  ordained  In  1 776,  became  doctor  of  philosophy  in 
1779,  court  preacher  to  Queen  Louisa  Ulrica  in  1780,  and  bishop 
of  VextS  In  1787.  He  attracted  the  attention  of  Gustavus  III. 
by  his  eloquent  preaching  at  the  fashionable  St  Clara  church 
at  Stockholm.  Gustavus  at  once  took  the  young  priest  by  the 
hand,  appointed  him,  at  twenty-five,  one  of  his  chaplains;  made 
him  a  canon  before  he  was  thirty  and  a  bbhop  at  thirty-two, 
and  finally  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  newly  appointed  com- 
mission for  reforming  the  ecclesiastical  administration  of  the 
counlr>'.  Thus  at  thirty-four  Wallqvist  had  nothing  more  to 
hope  for  but  the  primacy,  which  would  infallibly  have  been  his 
also  had  the  archbishop  died  during  the  king's  lifetime.  Wall- 
qvist was,  however,  much  more  of  a  politician  than  a  churchman. 
Hb  knowledge  of  human  nature,  inexhaustible  energy,  dauntless 
self-confidence  and  dipbmatic  finesse  made  him  indispensable 
to  Giwtsvtts  III.    His  seductive  manners  loo  often  won  over 


those  ndiom  hb  commandfi^  etoqnenoe  falfed  to  convince.  Htt 
political  career  began  during  the  mutinous  riksdcg  of  1786,  when 
he  came  boldly  forward  as  one  of  the  loyalbt  leaders.  But  it 
was  at  the  stormy  rik^g  of  1789  that  W^qvist  put  forth  all  hb 
powers.  Theretinmentol  the  timid  primate  left  him  without  an 
equal  in  the  Estate  of  Qeigy*  and  it  was  vtiy  largely  due  to  hb 
co-operation  that  the  king  was  able  to  carry  through  the  famous 
**  Act  of  Unity  and  Security  "  which  converted  Sweden  from  a 
constitutional  into  a  semi-absolute  monarchy.  Nevertheless, 
even  the  combative  Wallqvbt  was  amMlled  when  on  the  i6th  of 
Felmaaiy  1789  the  king  privatdy  informed  him  that  he  meant 
on  the  following  day  soundly  to  trounce  the  Estate  of  Nobles  in 
the  piesenoe  of  the  three  other  estates  and  bend  them  to  hb 
royal  wilL  A  friend  of  compromise,  Mke  moat  of  the  men  of  hb 
cloth,  Wallqviat  dissuaded  all  revolutionaiy  expedients  at  the 
outset,  thoni^  when  the  khig  proved  immovable  the  Ushop 
materiaily  smoothed  the  way  befoea  him.  At  thb  memorable 
riktiag  Wallqvbt  exhibited,  moreover,  finandal  ability  of  the 
highest  order,  and,  as  president  of  the  ecclesiastical  commission, 
assisted  to  equilibrate  the  budget  and  find  the  funds  necessary 
for  resuming  the  war  with  Russia.  During  the  brief  Hksiut 
of  1792,  as  a  member  of  the  secret  committee,  Wallqvbt  was 
at  the  ^ery  centre  of  affairs  and  rendered  the  king  essential 
services.  Indeed  it  may  be  safely  said  that  Gustavus  UI., 
during  the  last  six  yeara  of  hb  rdgn,  maiiUy  depended  upon 
Wallqvist  and  hb  clerical  colleague,  Carl  Guistaf  Nordin  (9.9.), 
who  were  patriotic  enough  to  subordinate  even  their  private 
enmity  to  the  royal  service.  During  the  Reuterholm  (g.s.) 
administration,  Wallqvbt,  Uke  the  rest  of  the  Gustaviana, 
was  kept  remote  from  court.  In  1800  he  waa  recalled  to  the 
political  arena.  But  hb  old  rivalry  with  Nordin  was  resumed  at 
the  same  time,  and  when  the  latter  defeated  a  motion  of  the 
bishop's  in  the  Estate  of  Clergy,  at  the  diet  of  Norrkdping, 
Wallqvbt  from  sheer  vexation  had  a  strdie  of  apoplexy  and 
died  the  same  day  (30th  of  April  1800). 

As  bishop  of  Vexitt,  Wallqvist  was  remarkable  for  hb  extra- 
ordinary administrative  ability.  He  did  much  for  education  and 
for  the  poorer  clergy,  and  endowed  the  library  of  the  gymnayium 
with  6000  volumes.  As  an  author  also  he  wais  more  than  db- 
tinguished.  Hb  Bedesiastica  Scmiiug^  testify  to  fab  skill  and 
diligence  as  a  collector  of  MSS.,  while  hb  Mitmen  ock  Brtf,  ed: 
E.  V.  M<mtan  (Stockholm,  1878),  bone  of  the  nmst  trustworthy 
and  circumstantial  documents  relating  to  the  Oustavian  era  of 
Swedish  history. 

See  R.  N.  Bain,  Gustaims  III.  ani  kis  Cmtlemporafies  (London, 
1895.  vol.  ii.):  0.  Wattqtists  Sjdlfiafrafiska  anUckuiitiar  (Upsab. 
1850):  and  J.  Rocengrcn,  Om  O.  WuifoiU  sA$9m  Buk»p  oeh  EUna 


(VexiO,  1901). 


(R-N.B.) 


WALLSBNII,  a  municipal  norough  in  the  Tyneside  parlia- 
mentary division  of  Northumberland,  Eni^d,  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Tyite,  3!  m.  E.N.E.  of  Newcastle  by  a  branch  of  the 
North-Eastern  railway.  Pop.  (1891)  11,257;  (1901)  30,918. 
The  church  of  St  Peter  dates  from  1 809.  There  are  remains  of  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Cross  in  transitional  Norman  style.  At  ati 
early  period  Wallsend  was  famous  for  its  coal,  but  the  name  has 
now  a  general  apph'cation  to  coal  that  does  not  go  throu^  a  sieve 
with  meshes  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  sise.  The  colliery,  which 
was  opened  in  1807,  has  frequently  been  the  scene  of  dreadful 
accidents,  notably  on  the  33rd  of  October  1821,  when  s«  lives 
were  lost.  There  are  ship  and  boat  buildmg  yards,  engineering 
works,  lead  and  copper  smelting  woiks,  cement  works  and  brick 
and  tile  works.  In  the  river  are  two  pontoon  docks  and  an 
immense  dry  dock.  Wallsend  waa  incorporated  in  1901,  and  the 
corporation  consbts  of  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  x8  councillors. 
Area,  1202  acres. 

Wallsend  derives  Its  modem  name  from  its  position  at  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  Roman  Hadrian's  Wall;  and  there  was  a 
Roman  fort  here.  It  had  a  quay,  of  which  remains  have  been 
discovered,  and  possessed  a  magaxine  of  com  and  other  pro- 
visions for  the  supply  of  the  stations  in  the  interior. 

VALmH,  a  wateriM-place,  and  member  of  the  Cinque  Poet 
of  Sandwich,  in  the  St  Augustine's  pariiameMavy  dlvisioa  of 


«88 


watmisleyu-walpole;  h; 


Kthi ,  Eagluid,  2  Hi.  S.  of  DtH,  on  the  South-Eastem  ft  CSiatlwm 
railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901)  5248.  Lower  Waimer, 
the  portion  most  frequented  by  visitors,  extends  northward 
along  the  coast^  so  as  to  be  contiguous  with  Deal.  Upper  Waimer 
El  a  short  tdistanco  inland,  and  below  it  Walmcr  Castle  lies  close 
to  the  sea.  •  This  was  a  blockhouse  built  for  coast  defence  by 
Henry  VIII.,  but  became  the  official  xesidenoe  of  the  Lords 
Warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  and  was  in  oonsequcncenBuch  altered 
from  its  bri^nal  condition.  It  ceased  to'be  the  official  residence 
itt  1905,  when  the  prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  George  V.)  was 
appointed  Lord  Wardep,  and  the  public  was  given  access  to 
those  rooms  which  possess  historical  associations  with  former 
iMlders  of  the  office,  such  as  the  duke  of  WellingCon,  who  died 
here  in  i8j3,  William  Pitt  and  othen. .  Klngsdown,  i  m.  south, 
is  a  decayed  member  of  the  Cinque  Port  of  Dover. 

WALMMLBY,  THOMAS  ATTVOOD  (1814- 1856)^  English 
musician,  was  bom  in  London,  his  father  Thomas  Forbes  Wal« 
misley  (1783-1866)  being  a  well-known  organist  and  composer  of 
church  music  and  glees.  Thomas  Attwnxxl  (9.9.)  was  his  god- 
father, and  the  boy  was  educated  in  music  under  their  tuition. 
He  became  organist  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1833,  and 
there  he  soon  became  pvominent  by  his  anthems  and  other 
compositions.  He  not  only  took  the  degrees  of  Mus^ac  and 
MU8.D0C.,  but  also  graduated  at  Jesns  College  as  B.A.  and  M.A. 
In  1836  he  was  made  professor  of  music.  His  CaUieiral  Music 
was  edited  after  his  death  by  his  father. 

WAiNUT  {Jtiglans)^  a  botanical  genus  of  about  ten  species 
(nat.  Old,  JuglaHdaceoe)t  natives  of  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
northern  hemisphere,  extending  into  Mexico,  the  West  Indies 
and  tropical  South  America.  They  axe  all  trees,  usually  of  large 
^ze,  with  alternate  stalked,  unequally  pinnate  leaves,  and 
aboanding  in  an  aromatic  resinous  juice.  Ttie  scan  left  by  the 
fallen  leaves  are^unusually  large  and  prominent.  The  buds 
are  not  unlike  those  of  the  ash;  and  it  frequently  happens  that 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  inAcM  of  one,  several  buds  may  be 
formed.  The  utility  of  this  is  seen  in  seasons  when  the  shoot 
produced  from  the  first  bud  is  killed  by  frost;  then  one  of  the 
supplementary  buds  starts'  into  growlli,  and  thus  replaces  the 
injured  shoot.  The  flowers  are  umsexukl  and  monoecious,  the 
numerous  males  borne  m  thick  catkins  proceeding  from  the  side 
of  last  year's  shoot.  The  female  flOWers  are  solitary  or  few  in 
number,  and  borne  on  short  terminal  spikes  of  thd  present 
season*s  growth.  la  the  male  flower  the  receptacle  is  **  Con> 
crescent  '**  or  inscparate  from  the  bract  in  whose  axil  it  originates. 
The  receptacle  is,  in  consequence,  extended  more  or  less  horizon- 
tally so  that  the  flowers  appear  to  be  placed  on  the  upper  surface 
of  horizontally  spreading  stalks.  The  perianth  consists  of  five 
or  six  oblong  greenish  lobes,  within  which  is  found  a  tuft,  con- 
sisting of  a  large  number  of  stamens,  each  of  whkh  has  a,  very 
diort  filament  and  an  oblong  two-lobed  anther  bursting  longi- 
tudinally, and  surmounted  by  an  oblong  lobe,  which  is  the  pro- 
jecting end  of  the  connective.  There  is  usually  no  trace  of  ovary 
in  the  male  flowers,  though  by  exception  one  m^y  occasionally 
•be  formed. 

The  female  flower  consists  of  a  cup-like  receptacle,  inseparate 
from  the  ovary,  and  bearing  at  its  upper  part  a  bract  and  two 
bracteoles.  From  the  margin  springs  a  perianth  of  four  short 
lobes.'  The  one-celled  ovary  is  immersed  within  the  recep- 
tacular  tube,  and  is*  surmounted  by  a  short  style  with  two 
short  ribbon-like  stigmatic  branches^  The  solitary  ovule  springs 
erect  from  the  base  of  the  ovarian  cavity.  The  fruit  is  a  kind  of 
drupe,  the  fleshy  husk  of  which  is  the  dilated  rcceptacular  tube, 
wh9c  the  two-valved  stone  represents  the  two  carpels.  The 
solitary  seed  has  no  perfoperm  or  albumen,  but  has  two  large 
and  curiously  crumpled  cotyledons  concealing  the  plumule, 
the  leaves  of  which,  even  at  this  early  stage,  show  traces  of 
pinnae. 

The  spedcs  best  known  is  /.  refia,  the  common  walnut,  a 
native  of  the  mountains  of  Greece,  of  Armenia,  of  Afghanistan 
and  the  north-west  HimaUyas.  Traces  of  the  former  existence 
of  this  or  Of  a  very  closely  allied  species  are  found  t»  the  Ptet- 
.Tcrtiary  deposiis  of  Provence  and  el^ewhese,  living  the  former 


snich  wider  oAoukm  of  the-  speefes.^  %t  IkOpmRAcav  1^ 
tree  is  largely  cuhivalediaroost  temperate  countries  for  the  sakc^ 
of  iu  timber  or  Cer  iu  edible  Mit*,  The  timber  is  specially 
valued  for  futnitore  and  cabinet  work  aod  fee  gunstocks,  (ihet 
beauty  of  ita  merkwige  rendering :it  desirable  for  the  first^nanedr 
purpose,  while  its  aUtngth  and  elasticity  fit  it  for  \he  second. 
The  leaves  and  husk  el  tkt  fruit  are  leainous  and  astringent, 
and  are  sometimes  used  medicinally  as  urell  as  for  dyeing  pur- 
poses. A  Spirihu  Nmis  Jn^cndia  is  given  as  an  antispasmodic. 
It  doubtless  owes  its  properties  to  the  akohol  which  it  contains. 
Sugar  is  also  pRpared  from  the  sap  in  a  similar  maaner  to  that 
obtained  from  the  roa^eu  The  young  fruits  are  used  lor  pick- 
ling. When  ripe  the  seeds  are  much. esteemed  as  a  delicacy, 
while  m  pFaace  much  oil  of  fine  quality  is  extracted  fram  thcoi 
by  pressure.  There  are  several  varieties  in  cultivation,  varying 
in  the  degree  of  haadihood,  time  of  ripening,  thickneaa  of  shell, 
sise  and  other  particulars.  In  the  dimate  of  Great  Britain  a 
late  variety  is  preferable,  as  securing  the  young  shoots  agaiwt 
injury  fram  frost,  to  which  otherwise  they  are  very  subj<xL 
The  kernel  of  the  laigerfniited  variety  is  of  very  indiflereiit 
quality,  but  its  large  shells  are  made  use  of  by  the  French  a 
trinket  cases. 

The  walnut  ta  mcntiooed  in  the  earliest  British  botanical  wciiine% 
and  b  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Romans.    It  |n>»s 
well,  and  ripens  its  fruit  in  ihe  southern  and  midland  couotm  d 
England ;  but  large  trees  may  be  seen  as  far  north  as  Ross-shirt  a 
sheltered  phices.    The  tree. succeeds  in  deep,  aandy  or  cakHcoui 
loams,  and  in  stiff  loams  nesting  on  a  gravelly  bottom.    It  reqana 
free  eyposure  to  air  and  lisht.    It  b  propagated  by  seeds,  end  oc* 
casional^  by  budding,  jB;raiting  or  inarching  for  the  perpetual ios  d 
special  varieties.   Seedlings  should  be  prote^cd  from  frost  dttringthe 
first  winter.    The  trees  farm  their  beads  naturally,  and  therefore 
little  pruning  is  required,  it  being  merely  necessary^  to  cut* off  stno: 
glijig  ^rowtM,  and  to  prevent  the  branches  from  interlacing.   Tbc 
best  time  for  performing  this  is  in  the  autumn,  just  after  the  fall  cl 
the  leaf.    Plants  raised  Trom  the  seed  seldom  become  productive  til 
they  are  txi^nty  years  old.    The  fruit  is  produced  at  the  extremities 
of  the  shoots  of  the  preceding  year;  and  thereforei  in  gathering  the 
crop,  care  should  be  taken, not  to  injure  the  young  wood.    In  some 
parts  of  England  the  trees  are  thrashed  with  rods  or  poles  to  obtua 
the  nnts,  but  thfs  is  not  a  commendable  mode  of  collecting  them. 

Among  the  American  species  J.  nt^ra.'the  black  walnut,  is  cspecr 
ally  noteworthy  as  a  very  handsome  tree,  whose  timber  is  of  gseat 
value  lor  furniture  purfnscs,  but  which  is  now  becoming  scarce.  Is 
Britain  it  forms  a  magnificent  tree.  The  white  walnut  or  butternut. 
J.  cinerea,  b  a  smaller  tree,  though  it  sometimes  reaches  loo  fi.  is 
height ;  its  inner  bark  yields  an  extractive,  jmglandi;  given  as  as 
hepatic  stimubnt  and  cathartic  in  doses  of  2-5  grains. 

Qoscly  allied  to  the  walnut^,  and  sometimes  confounded  with 
them,  arc  the  hickories.  -     . 

WALPOLE.  HORATIO  or 'Horace  (1717-1797)*  English 
politician  and  man  of  letters,  4th  carl  of  Orford--a  title  to 
which  he  only  succeeded  at  the  end  of  his  U£c«  and  by  which 
he  is  little  known — was  bom  in  Arlington  Street,  I«ondon,  on 
the  34th  of  September  1717.  He  was  the  youngest  of  the  five 
children  of  the  1st  eari  of  Orford  (Sir  Kobcrl  Walpole)  by 
Catherine  Shorter,  but  by  some  of  the  scandal-mongers  of  a 
later  age,  Carr,  Lord  Hervcy,  half-brother  of  John,  Lord  Horvey, 
afterwards  second  earl  of  Brislo),  has  been  called  his  falhcr- 
If  this  rumour  be  correct,  no  such  suspicion  ever  entered  into 
the  mind  of  Horace  Walpole.  To  his-  mother  he  erected  a 
monument,  with  an  inscription  couched  in  terms  of  sincere 
afiection,  in  the  chapel  of  Henry  VII.  in  Westminster  Abbeyr 
^nd  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  his  public  life  his  sarcasms 
never  spared  the  Newcastlesand  the  Hardwickcs,  who  had  shown, 
as  he  thought,  lukewarmncss  in  support  of  his  fathcr*s  ministry. 
On  the  26th  of  April  1727  he  wras  sent  to  Eton,  where  he  formed 
what  was  known  as  the  "  Quadruple  Alliance  **  with  Thomas 
Gray,  Richard  West  and  Thomas  Ashton,  and  became  very 
intimate  with  Henry  Seymour  Conway,  George  Augustus 
Selwyn  and  the  two  Montagus,  and  in  1735  matriculated  at 
King's  College,  Cambridge.  Two  years  (1739-1741)  were  spent 
in  Oray's  company  in  the  recqgnixed  grand  tour  of  Fjance  and 
Italy.  They  stopped  a  few  weeks  in  Paris,  and  lingered  for 
three  months  at  Rheims.  on  the  pretence  of  learning  the  French 
language.  Henry  Seymour  Conway,  whose  mother  was  a  siater 
of  La4y  Walpole,  shared  their  sodet^Jn  t]^  French  city.     The 


WALPOLE,  H. 


28^ 


Mli«r  t«r6  dwttUbbni  of  this  Uttle  cirde  natt  firoceeded  to  Florence, 
wfacra  Walpole  rated  for  more  tKan  a  ye&r  in  the  villa  of  Horace 
Mann,  the-  British  envoy^extraofditaary  for  forty-sit  years  to 
the  court  of  Tuscany.  Mann's  family  had  kmg  heen  on  terms 
of  the  ckMest  intimacy  -with  his  guests,  and  they  continued 
correspondents  until  1786.  As  they  never  met  again,  their 
friendship,  unlike  most  of  Walpole's  attachments,  remained 
tinbrok^.  After  a  short  visit  to  Rome  (March-June  1740), 
and  after  a  further  sojourn  at  Florence,  Walpole  and  Gray 
parted  in  resentment  at  Reggio.  Walpole  in  after  years  took 
the'btame  of  this  quarrel  on  himself,  and  it  is  generally  befieved 
that  it  arose  from  his  laying  too  much  stress  on  his  superiority 
in  position.  In  1744  the  two  friends  were  nominally  reconciled, 
but  the  breach  was  not  cemented. 

Walpole  came  back  to  England  on  tlie  1 2th  of  September 
1741.  He  had  been  retumedf  to  parliament  on  the  14th  of  May 
X74t  for  the  Cornish  borough  of  Ckllington,  over  which  his 
elder  brother,  through  his  marriage  with  the  heiress  of  the 
RoOes,  exercised  supreme  infiueince.  He  represented  three 
constituencies  in  succession,  Callington  1741-1754,  the  family 
borough  of  Castle  Rising  from  1754  to  1757,  and  the  more 
important  constituency  of  King's  Lynn,  for  which  his  father 
had  long  sat  in  parliament,  from  the  latter  date  until  1768.  In 
that  year  he  retired,  probably  because  his  success  In  political 
life  had  not  equalled  his  expectations,  but  he  continued  until 
the  end  of  his  days  to  f<A\ow  and  to  chronicle  the  acts  and  the 
speeches  of  both  houses  of  pariiament.  Through  his  father's 
Ini^uence  he  had  obtained  three  lucrative  sinecures  in  the  ex- 
chequer, and  for  many  years  (1745-1784)  he  enjoyed  a  share, 
estimated  at  about  £1500  a  year,  of  a  second  family  perquisite, 
the  coUectorship  of  customs.  These  resources,  with  a  house  in 
Arlington  Street,  which  was  left  to  him  by  his  father,  enabled 
him,  a  badielor  all  his  days,  to  gratify  his  tastes.  He  acquired 
in  1747  the  lease  and  in  the  next  year  purchased  the  reversion 
of  the  charmingly  situated  villa  of  Strawberry  HUl,  near  Twicken- 
ham, on  the  banks  of  the  Thames.  Sbc  yeats  later  he  began  a 
series  of  alterations  In  the  Gothic  style,  not  completed  for  nearly 
a  quarter  of  a  century  later,  under  which  the  original  cottage 
became  transformed  into  a  building  without  parallel  in  Europe. 
On  the  35tb  of  June  1757  he  established  a  printing-press  there, 
which  he  called  **  Ofhcina  Aibuteana,"  and  many  of  the  first 
editions  of  Ms  own  works  were  struck  off  iriihin  its  walls. 
Through  Walpole's  influence  Dodsley  published  in  1753  the 
dever,  if  ecrentric,  designs  of  Rkhard  Bentley  (the  youngest 
child  of  the  great  scholar,  and  for  some  time  a  ^0!^^  of  HonuJe 
Walpole)  for  the  poems  of  Gray.  The  first  work  printed  at 
Strawberry  Hill  was  two  odes  of  Gray  (8tlr  of  Aagttst  1757), 
and  among  the  reprints  were  the  Life  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cha^my, 
Memoirs  of  Grammmi,  Hentzner's  Jowmey  into  England,  and 
Lord  Whitworth's  Account  of  RitsHa.  The  rooms  of  this  whimsi- 
cal e^ce  were  crowded  with  curiosities  of  every  description, 
and  the  house  and  its  contents  were  shown,  by  tidcets  to  admit 
four  persons,  between  17  and  3  from  May  to  October,  but  only 
one  party  was  admitted  on  each  day,  and  the  owner,  although 
enaiUoured  of  notoriety,  slnynlated  discontent  at  this  limited 
intrusion  into  his  privacy.  Walpole  paid  several  visits  to  Paris, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Madame  du  Deffand  (q.v,) 
in  1765,  and  they  corresponded  until  her  death  in  1780.  His 
nephew,  the  reckless  3rd  earl,  died  on  the  5th  of  December  1791, 
and  Horace  succeeded  to  the  peerage^  but  he  ne^  took  his 
place  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  sometimes  signed  his  name  as 
"  the  uncle  of  the  late  e«ri  of  Orford."  All  his  life  long  he  was  a 
victim  of  the  gout,  but  he  lived  to  extreme  old  age,  and  died 
unmarried,  in  Berkeley  Square,  London/ to  whldi  be  had  re- 
moved in  OeCober  1779,  on  the  snd  of  March  1797.  He  was 
buried  prryatdy  at  Houghton.  The  family  esUte  descended 
to  the  eari  of  Chohnoodeley,  whose  ancestor  had  married  Horace 
Walpole's  younger  sster.  AB  Walpole's  printed  booka  and 
manuscr^s  were  left  to  Robert  Berry  (d.  t^th  of  May  1817) 
and  his  two  daughters,  Mary  (1763-18.52)  and  Agnes  (1764- 
!&$*)•  And  Mary  Ba^iy  edited  the  |ve  volumes  of  Walpole's 
works  which  were  published  in  1798^  Their  frieoddup  had  bean 


very  dear  to  the  dedfidng  days  of  Walpole,  who,  It  has  eveft 
been  sakl,  wished  to  marry  Mary  Berry.  By  his  wUI  each  of  the 
ladies  obtained  a  pecuniary  legacy  of  £4000,  and  for  their  lives 
the  house  and  garden,  formeriy  the  abode  of  his  friend  Kitty 
Ctive,  which  adjofaied  Strawberry  Hill.  Strawberry  Hill  went 
to  Bfrs  Anne  Darner,  daughter  of  his  Ufdong  friend  General 
Conway,  for  her  life,  but  it  was  entailed  on  his  tdece  the  countess 
dowager  of  Waldegrave  «nd  her  heirs.  The  collections  iA  Straw- 
bdrry  Hill,  which  he  had  spent  nearly  fifty  years  in  amassing, 
were  dispersed  under  the  hammer  of  George  Robins  in  1844. 
They  are  described  hi  a  catalogue  of  thaic  date,  and  in  a  series 
of  articles  in  the  Centieman's  Magiaine  for  that  year. 

The  pen  was  ever  in  Horace  Walpole's  hands,  and  his  entive 
compositions  would  fill  many  volumes.  His  two  works  o{ 
imagination,  the  romance  of  the  Coitfe  ofOtranto  (1764)  and  the 
tragedy  of  the  UysUrious  Mother  (1768),  are  now  aU  but  fof^ 
gotten.  The  Castle  ofOtranIo,  purporting  to  be  a  story  translated 
by  William  Marshal,  gent.,  from  the  original  Italian  of  Onuphrfo 
MureTto,  canon  of  the  church  of  St  Nicholas  at  Otranto,  wat 
often  reprinted  in  England,  and  was  translated  into  both  French 
and  Italian.  By  Sir  Walter  Scott  it  was  lauded  to  the  skies  fo^ 
its  power  in  raising  the  passions  of  fear  and  pity,  but  froa 
Haziitt  it  met  with  mtense  condemnation;  its  real  importance, 
however,  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  started  the  romantic  revivaL 
The  Mysterious  Mother^  a  tragedy  too  horrible  for  representation 
on  any  stage,  was  never  intended  for  performance  in  public,  anA 
only  fifty  copies  of  it  were  printed  at  Strawberry  Hill.  By 
Byron,  who,  like  Horace  Walpole,  affected  extreme  liberaUsm, 
and  like  him  never  forgot  that  be  was  bom  within  the  pufplc, 
this  tragedy  was  proiMunced  "  of  the  highest  order."  Several  of 
Walpole's  antiquarian  works  merit  high  praise.  The  volume  of 
Historic  Doubts  on  the  Life  and  Reign  of  King  Richard  the  Third 
(1760),  one  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  rehalMlltate  a  charact* 
previously  stamped  with  infamy,  showed  acuteness  and  research. 
These  doubts  provoked  several  answers,  which  are  criticised  Ih 
a  supplement  edited  by  Dr  £.  C.  Hawtrey  for  the  Philobibloii 
Society  (1854).  A  work  of  more  lasting  reputation,  which  h4i 
retahted  its  vitality  for  more  than  a  century,  is  entitled  Anecdotes 
of  Painting  in  England,  with  some  Account  of  the  Prine^ 
Artists;  coUeded  by  George  Vertue,  and  mm  digested  and  fiubldUud 
from  Ms  original  manuscripts  by  Horace  W^pete  (4  vols.,  176*^ 
1771).  Its  value  to  art  students  and  to  admirenof  bk)grapbicil 
literature  demanded  its  frequent  reproduction,  and  it  was  re- 
edited  wfth  additions  by  the  Rev.  James  Dallaway  In  five* 
volumes  (1826-1898),  and  then  again  was  revised  and  edited  by 
R.  N.  Womum  in  1849.  A  cognate  volume,  also  based  on  the 
materials  of  Vertue,  is  entitled  the  Catahgue  of  Bngranrs  Bom 
dnd  Resident  in  England  (1763),  whlch»  like  its  more  famous 
predecessor,  often  passed  through  the  press.  On  the  Catalogue 
of  Royal  and  Noble  Authors  of  England  (1758)  Walpole  tpctii 
many  hours  of  toilsome  research.  The  best  edition  is  th^t 
which  appeared  in  five  volumes,  in  1806,  under  the  competent 
editorship  of  Thomas  Park,  who  carefully  verified  and  diligently 
augmented  the  labours  of  the  original  author.  As  &  senator 
himsdf ,  or  as  a  private  person  following  at  a  distance  thecorabats 
of  St  Stephen's,  Walpole  recorded  in  a  diary  the  chief  inddeats 
in  English  politics.  For  twenty-seven  years  he  studie4i  a  silent 
spectator  for  the  most  part,  the  characters  of  the  chief  penooages 
who  trod  the  stage  of  politics,  and  when  he  quitted  the  scene  he 
retained  the  acquaintance  of  many  of  the  chief  actors.  If  be  was 
sometimes  prejudiced,  he  rardy  dbtorted  the  acts  of  those  whom 
he  didiked;  and  his  prejudices,  which  He  on  the  suriace,  were 
mainly  against  those  whom  he  considered  traitoni  to  his  father 
These  diaries  extend  from  17^  to  1783,  and  cover  a  period  of 
momentous  importanoe  in  the  annals  of  the  national  histoiy. 
The  Memoirs  of  the  Last  Ten  Years  of  the  Reign  of  Georgp  IL  was 
e<fited  by  Lord  Hollsnd  (1846);  its  successor,  Memoin  of  ^e 
Reign  of  King  George  111.^  was  published  under  tht^  editorial 
care  of  Sir  Doiis  Le  Marchant  (4  vols.,  1845) »  and  recited  in 
1894  by  Mr  G.  F.  Russell  Barker;  the  last  volumes  of  the  series, 
JosBm4  of  the  Rdgn  of  Geargfi  IIL  from  tyfi  h  J7S3,  were 
edited  ii4 HhttUftted  by  J<ihB  Dttan  (a  vok,  xft^^r^A:  wv* 


iqo 


WALPOLE,  SIR  S.— WALPURGIS 


edited  w(th  ut  Inttodiictlob  by  A.  F.  Steu^rt  (London.  1909)  • 
To  ibeso  works  should  be  added  the  JUmtmsuHces  (2  vols., 
1819),  which  Walpole  wrote  in  1788  Cor  the  gratification  o(  the 
Misses  Berry.  These  labours  woiUd  in  themselves  have  rendered 
the  nane  of  Horace  Walpole  famous  for  all  time,  but  bis  de- 
Ushtful  Letters  are  the  crowning  glory  of  his  life.  His  cerre* 
spondents  were  numerous  and  widespread,  but  the  chief  of  them 
were  William  Cole  (1714-1782),  the  clerical  antiquary  of  Milton; 
Robert  Jephson,  the  dramatist;  William  Mason,  the  poet:  Lord 
Hertford  doling  his  embassy  in  Paris;  the  countess  of  Ossory; 
Locd  Haccourt;  Georse  Montagu,  his  friend  at  Eton;  Henry 
Seymour  Conway  (1721-1795)  and  Sir  Horace  Mann.  With 
most  of  these  friends  he  quaneUed,  but  the  friendship  of  the 
last  two,  in  the  former  case  through  genuine  liking,  and  in  the 
latter  through  his  fortunate  absence  from  England,  was  never 
interrupted.  The  Letters  were  published  at  different  dates,  but 
Ihe  standard  collection  is  that  by  Mrs  Paget  To3mbee  (1903- 
1905),  and  to  it  should  be  added  the  volumes  of  the  letters 
addressed  to  Walpole  by.  tus  old  friend  Madame  du  DeiTand 
<4  vok.,  x8xo).  Dr  Doran's  publication,  Mann  and  Manners  at 
ikt  Court  of  Ftorenu  (1876),  is  founded  on  the  epistles  sent  in 
Cptum  to  Wa^le  by  the  envoy-extnundinary.  Other  works 
relating  to  him  are  Horace  Walpole  and  his  World  t  by  L.  B 
Seeley  (1884);  Horace  Walpole^  a  memoir  by  Austin  Dobson 
(1890  and  1893);  Horace  Walpole  and  the  Strawberry  Hill  Press, 
by  M.  A.  Havens  (1901).  Walpole  has  been  called  "  the  best 
ktteT'Writer  in  the  English  language  ";  and  few  indeed  are  the 
names  which  can  compare  with  his.  In  these  compositions  his 
very  foibles  are  penned  for  our  amusement,  and  his  love  of  trifles 
— for,  in  the  words  of  another  Horace,  he  was  ever  "  nesdo  quid 
meditans  nuganim  et  totus  in  iUis  "—ministers  to  our  instruction. 
^To  these  iiiends  he  comiAunicated  every  fashionable  scandal, 
leveiy  social  event,  and  the  details  of  every  political  struggle  in 
Dn^jsh  life.  The  politicians  and  the  courtiers  of  his  day  were 
more  akin  to  his  chnacter  than  were  the  chief  authors  of  his  age, 
and  the  weakness  of  hb  intellectual  perceptions  stands  out  most 
prominently  in  his  estimates  of  such  writers  as  Johnson  and 
Goldsmith,  Gibbon  and  Hume.  On  many  occasions  he  displayed 
great  liberality  of  disposition,  and  he  bitterly  deplored  for  the 
rest  of  his  days  his  neglect  of  the  unhappy  Chatterton.  Chatter- 
ton  wrote  to  Walpole  in  1769,  sending  some  prose  and  verse 
fragments  and  offering  to  place  information  on  English  art  in 
Walpole's  hands.  Encouraged  by  a  kindly  reply,  Chatterton 
appealed  for  help.  Walpole  made  inquiries  and  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  he  was  an  imposter.  He  finally  roturaed  the 
manuscripts  in  his  possession,  uid  took  no  notice  of  subsequent 
letters  from  Chatterton. 

Abundant  information  about  Hon^ce  Walpole  will  be  found  in  the 
Memeirsc4  him  and  of  his  contemporaries  edited  by  Eliot  Warburton 
(1S51),  J.  H.  Jeaae's  George  Sdiwyn  and  his  Conlemboraries  (4  vols.. 


(W.  P.  C4 

WALPOLE,  SIR  8PBNCBR  (1839-1907),  English  historian  and 
d\al  servant,  was  bom  on  the  6th  of  February  1839.  He  came 
of  the  yoanger  braoch  of  the  family  of  the  famous  Whig  prime 
minister,  being  descended  from  his  brother,  the  ist  lord  Walpole 
of  Wolterton.  He  was  the  son  of  the  hitter's  great-gmndson, 
the  Right  Bon.  Spencer  Horatio  Walpole  (1807-1898),  thrice 
home  secretary  under  Lord  Derby,  and  through  his  mother  vras 
grandson  of  Spencer  Perceval,  the  Tory  prime  minister  who  was 
fflUrdeNd  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  educated  at  Eton, 
and  from  1858  to  1867  was  a  deik  in  the  War  Office,  then  be- 
comingan  inspector  of  fisheries.  In  x88a  he  was  made  Ueutenant- 
govetnor  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  from  1893  to  1899  he  was 
ieci«taxy  to  the  Post  Office.  In  1898  he  was  created  K.C.B. 
Althoogh'  wen  known  as  a  most  efficient  public  servant,  and  m 
private  life  as  the  most  amiable  of  men.  Sir  Spencer  Walpole's 
real  title  to  remembrance  is  as  an  historian.  His  family  con- 
neadons  gave  him  a  natural  bent  to  the  study  of  public  affairs, 
and  their  ndngUng  of  Whig  and  Tory  hi  politics  contributed,  no 
doobi,  to  tittt  quality  of  jndidoos  baLulefr-Hiidining»  however. 


to  the  WUfTttf  moderate  Ub«al  ii»  wMch,  tefsthttwithUi 
sanity  and  accuracy,  is  so  chancierisUc  iA  his  writings.  Hit 
principal  work,  the  History  oj  Entlandjrom  181$  (1878-1886), 
in  six  volumes,  was  carried  down  lo  1858,  and  was  continued 
in  his  History  oj  Twenty-Fite  Years  (1904).  Among  bis  ether 
publications  come  his  lives  of  Spencer  Perceval  (1894)  and  Loni 
John  Russell  (1889),  and  a  volume  of  valuable  Studies  in  Bis- 
graphy  (1906);  and  he  wrote  the  section  of  the  aitide  Ekgusi 
History,  dealing  in  detail  with  the  idgn  of  Queen  Victoria,  lor 
the  Encyclopaedia  Britannka.   He  died  on  the  7  ih  of  July  i907' 

WALPOLE  OF  WOLTERTOM,  HORATIO,  xst  Babon  (s67»- 
1757)1  English  diplomatist,  was  a  son  of  Robert  Walpole  of 
Houghton,  Norfolk^  and  a  younger  brother  of  th^  great  Sr 
Robert  Walpole.  The  Walpoics  owned  Und  in  Norfolk  in  the 
X2th  cchtury  and  took  their  name  from  Walpole,  a  village  in  the 
county.  An  early  member  of  the  family  was  Ralph  de  Walpole, 
bishop  of  Norwich  from  1288  to  (299,  and  bishop  of  Ely  (zoo 
1 2Q9  until  his  death  on  the  3oth  of  March  1302.  Among  its  Uler 
members  were  three  brothers,  Edward  (1560-1637),  Richard 
(1564-1607)  and  Michael  {ls^o-c.  1624),  all  members  o{  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  Another  Jesuit  in  the  family  was  Heoiy 
Walpole  (1558-1 595).  who  wrote  An  Epitaph  of  the  life  and  daik 
oj  the  most  famous  clerh  and  virtuous  priest  Edmund  Camfiss. 
After  an  adventurous  and  courageous  career  in  the  service  d 
the  order,  he  was  arrested  on  landing  in  En^and,  was  tottund 
and  then  put  to  death  on  the  17th  of  April  1595.* 

Bom  at  Houghton  on  the  8th  of  December  1678  andeduouA 
at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  Horatio  Walpole  becaa* 
a  fellow  of  King's  and  entered  parliajnent  in  2702,  reauiniBt 
a  member  for  fifty-four  jwars.    In  17x5,  when  his  brother,  Sir 
Robert,  became  fint  lord  of  the  treasu^,  he  was  made  secreiarT 
to  the  treasury,  and  in  x  716,  having  already  had  some  experiena 
of  the  kind,  he  went  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  llie  Hague.    He 
left  office  with  his  brother  in  17x7,  but  he  was  soon  in  haroeii 
again,  becoming  secretary  to  the  lord-lieutenant  of  Irelaixl  >& 
X720  and  secretary  to  the  treasury  a  second  time  in  X721.  1> 
1722  he  was  again  at  The  Hague,  and  in  1723  he  went  to  Pani» 
where  in  the  following  year  he  was  ai^uited  envoy  extraonUoaiy 
and  minister  plenipotentiary.    He  got  on  intimate  terms  with 
Fleury  and  seconded  his  brother  in  his  efforts  to  maintain  inff^ 
relatkms  with  France;  he  represented  Great  Britain  at  the 
congress  of  Soissons  and  hdped  to  condude  the  treaty  of  Seville 
(November  X729).    He  left  Paris  in  1730  and  in  X734.wentto 
represent  his  country  at  The  Hague,  where  he  remained  until 
X740,  using  all  his  influence  in  the  cause  of  European  peace. 
After  the  fall  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole  in  1 742  Horatio  defended  bis 
conduct  in  the  House  of  Commons  and  also  in  a  pamphlet,  The 
Interest  of  Great  Britain  steadily  pursued.    Later  he  wrote  tf 
Apology,  dealing  with  his  own  conduct  from  1715  to  X739,  and  so 
A  nswer  to  the  latter  part  of  Lord  Bolinghrohe's  letters  on  the  stndy  of 
history  (printed  x  763) .   In  1 756  he  was  created  Baron  Walpole  of 
WolterUA,  this  being  his  Norfolk  seat,  and  he  died  on  the  5th  of 
February  1757.    His  ddest  son,  H9ratio,.the  and  baron  (i?^^ 
X809),  was  created  earl  of  Orford  in  1806,  and  one  of  his  sons 
was  Major-General  George  Walpole  (j  75&'X835),  under-secretary 
for  foreign  affairs  in  x8o6. 

See  W.  Coke,  Memoirs  of  Horatio,  Lord  Walpole  (zpd  ed.,  1808): 
the  same  writer,  Memoirs  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole  (1816);  and  Chanel, 
comte  de  Baillon,  Lord  WtUpole  d  la  cour  de  France  (1867). 

WALPUROIS  (Walpusga  or  Walburoa),*  ST  (d.  c  l^)* 
English  missionary  to  Germany,  was  bom  in  Sussex  at  the 
beginning  of  the  8th  oentnvy.  She  was  the  sister  of  Willibald. 
the  first  bishop  of  EichsUUt  fai  Bavaria,  and  Wunnibald,  first 
abbot  of  Hddenheim.  Her  father,  Richard,  is  thought  to  have 
been  a  son  of  Hlothere,  9th  king  of  Kent;  her  mother,  Winna 
or  Wuna,  a  sister  of  St  Boniface.  At  the  instance  of  Boniface 
and  Willibald  she  went  about  750  with  some  other  nuns  to  found 

>  The  Letters  of  Henry  Walpole,  S.J.,  from  the  original  nanoscript* 
at  Stonyhurst  Collie,  were  edited  by  the  Rev.  Aujpwtus  J^sopp  >« 
private  circulation  (1873).  See  the  Rev.  A.  Joasopp,  One  CenereM* 
of  a  Norfolk  HousehSyi).  ,    _^ 

>  French  forms  of  the  name  are  Coalboufg,  Falbouig.  VanDOOii 
and  Avougottig. 


WALRAS— WALRUS 


■  111  Clnaay.  Htr  fint  isttkinnit  «b  u 
I  lbs  diooH  of  Ulini,  wd  Ivo  years  lller  (754) 
ibe  beans  abboa  of  the  Beocdictiae  nmuiav  al  Kddcnbriu  in 
IbadiocaeolEichiUilt.  Oa  Ibe  ikalh  ol  WusoibaM  in  360  iho 
VKMHlMl  Um  is  bi*  cbaifB  ■>«•  ntainins  tbe  tupeiiDtcDdcncs 
of  hotk  biMSta  UDtil  ker  dtath.  Her  nUct  mn  (ranilaled  <a 
EichMUt.  irtwn  iha  ma  kid  in  ■  IwUaw  rack,  tram  »hkb 
axudcd  akiadoibitiimiiMiuisil  attowaids  known  u  Waipurgii 
oB,  ud  ngudnl  ai  d  nincoloia  ttbacj  agaioat  diieaae.  It 
if  Kill  aid  to  omit  ba  tbe  aaint'i  bodca  (eapaaallr  from 
Octsbcr  10  Febiuai]^  aad  «aa  chaatn  b;  Cardlial  Newman  aa 
u  eunfils  of  a  cRdtUe  mirtda^  Tba  cave  bcnme  a  plan  ol 
pUpiBaaa.andafinccAnicliWMboillovBUiFipoI. .  Wi^Hiifla 
la  nuBmaoonttd  M  nuiow  tiDci,,but  prindpajly  on  tbe  ut  of 
Uay,  itr  dajr  taking  tbc  place  ni  an  eariicr  bcathm  fatival 
whkli  WH  cbanctctinl  bj  lailoo*  ritoa  maikins  tbe  bcxiiming 


Erbenb^. ^ ^_.,      

unturum,  vol.  Ili.  Fcbnary  15.  On  WiTpunu,  WiUibiJd  ind 
WitnniMd  h  C.  P.  Brawne,  Bn^itt  tf  Crciikrm  and  *fi  Cm- 
MauBD  (LcodDO,  1910),  viL 

WAlUa.  Mian  BWUT  IJoM  (iSm-ivio).  Fnncb 
ecOBMaitt,  <Ma  botn  at  fimnu  fa  1834.  Fram  i86a  to  iBtt 
be  edited  »  iMun*)  talM  U  TrnaU,  to  which  be  cosUibuted 
puny  valuaUB- Bodnlopcal  articles    In  iSfobe  waa  ^pointed 


UedMn 


apatw! 


le  41b  ol 


Ittained  until  hb 

Jansary  1410,     Walna  it  b«>t  knc 

Ui  VDcka  in  diatingiAkfBg  Cbeory  and  pnctLcc.     Hb  most 
faportant  weriil  an  £Um€wli  StamomU  ^cHlii/iit  f>at  (1874- 

Of  bk  laany  valuabk  papert  cwilribdted  10  variout  pcFiodKab  a 
(ood  bibliuini'hy  will  be  [ound  in  tbe  Did.  Pti.  Ea*.  iiU  6M- 
See  bicciaphical  nolice  m  EnnoHic  Javyiai  (March.  Igro)  \y 
Vnfndo  Pareto.  lih  luerawr  in  the  chair  ol  political  economy  n 

WUJIIM.  or  Mtnsi  (OMonu  rsnuni),  a  lai^  naiine 
pianinial  allied  to  tbe  »la.  repRwrliig  a  family  by  litdF. 
^1m  fonoer  wved  it  a  nwdi&r^ion  of  tbe  ScandinaviA4  uUrdJi 
or  teifni  ("wbak-bone"),  tbe  laltec  an  adaptation  ol  the 

(ram  ID  to  11  iLlrDtn  tbe  HUM  to  tbe  end  ol  ibe  (hcit  tail,  mil  is 
a  \iisjt  bulky  aninal,  eapecially  thick  about  the  ibouldc 
Tbe  bead  la  rauaded.  the  eyes  are  nther  xoall,  and  then  are 
enema]  can.    Tbe  muule  is  shoii  asd  braad.idlh,  oDeichii 
a  graup  ol  (till,  briuly  whUkeia,  wbirb  becooie  atouier  i 
aborter  in  old  animala.    Tbe  tail  icajctly  prajects  beyond  1 
skin.     The  fore-limbs  ire  free  only  from  Ihe  eltww;  the  fo 
ffipper  is  bnad,  flat  and  webbed,  the  five  dljilt  bd*g  o(  neaily 
Bjaal  loDglb.  bat  (he  Grit  slightly  the  longest.     Each  digit  hu 
a  sauH  fiartened  nail,  situated  on  the  buer  aurface  al  a  ccin- 
ilderable  distance- from  the  end.    Tbe  hind-limbs  ate  enclosed 
in  tbe  skin  ol  the  body,  almost  to  tlie  heeL    The  ftee  ponioc 
wlwd  etpanded  is  iBn-shiped.  the  tm  outer  toes  (first  and  Bllh) 
bring  tbe  longest,  especially  the  Utlcr.     Flaps  of  skin  prajecl 
conudnably  beyond  tbe  bonca  of  the  toel.    Tbc  nails  of  the  Gisl 
and  filth  toes  ire  minute  and  ftatiened;  those  of  ibe  second, 
third  and  fourth  elongued.  lub-comprwed  and  poiated.    TTit 
soles  of  both  fore  and  hind  led  are  bare,  rough  and  wony.    Thi 
surface  of  Iheakia  generally  U covered  with  short,  n^prenedbair 
of  a  light  yello wish-brown  colour,  which,  on  Ike  under  parts  of 
tbe  body  and  base  of  '     "*  "        --        ■  -     ■    '       ....■_... 


In  old  a 


k  the  b 


amy. 


Ihe  rough  Hie  attd  pugnacious  habits  of  Ihe  animal  In  the  1 
*ith  which  It  Is  usually  covered.    It  if  everywhett  moie  oc 
mlBkled,  especially  over  tbe  shouldera,  where  II  It  thrown  Into 
deep  and  heavy  lolds. 
On*  dI  tba  HMat  Mriktal  chuactaWin  e(  tlM  wabus  ii  the 


pair  of  tuika  which 
upper  jaw,  sometlc 
In  tbe  [emale  Iliey 

not  vsble.  Thcae  1 
AU  the 
much  alike 

of  Ibelcclbarelostr 
Btato  conceided  bet 
of  defence, 


ooly  fond  aeSt 
one  part  of  thrii 


descotd  almost  dinetlj'  domwatda  bwai  (be 

ittaining  a  length  of  lo  in.  or  more. 

A  long  or  sometimes  longer  than  in  the 

In  tbe  young  of  Uk  bist  year  (bey  an 

tusks  correqnod  to  (be  canine  teetb  of  olbcr 

other  teelh,  including  the  lower  camnes,  are 

imple  and  one-cooted,  and  with  crowns, 

leacing  (a  a  flat  or  concave  lurfars.    Many 

riy,  or  romain  through  life  in  a  rudimentary 

Uh  the  guiu.    The  tusks  aie  lonnidaUe 

lUt  tbeir  principal  nsc  seems  to  bo  Bcraping 

md  and  shingle  for  tbo  molluscs  and  cnit- 

walns  feeds.    They  are  said  tbo  (0  aid  in 

algcs  of  Ice  OQ  which  so  much 

leM  gregacioua  in  their  haluts,  being  met 
herds  of  various  sizes.  Tbeyaie 
3  large  masBes  of  floating  ice,  and 
<ifra  sea)  and,  Ibougb  oflen  tnoving  Erom 
idinft^iaiuid  to  asoihet,  have  no  regular 
young  are  bom  between  April  and  June, 


Tbe  Allanlic  Waliui  (OJoluiniu  roimarni). 
uanslly  but  one  at  a  tine,  sever  note  thin  ti*a.  Ttieir  stnmg 
aSectlon  for  (keir  young,  and  their  gympaihy  foe  each  atk«  hi 
danger,  have  been  noticed  by  all  who  have  had  the  opportnpJtjr  of 
obtnving  them  in  their  hannta.  When  toe  Is  wounded  tbe 
whole  herd  usually  join  in  defence.  Akbough  barmlesa  and  in- 
oAensive  whea  not  mdested,  they  eihibit  considerable  Genenu 
when  attacked,  using  their  luiks  with  tremendous  eSeet  either 

at  a  greal  distance,  is  described  by  Dr  Kane  aa  "  something 
between  Ibe  moi^ng  of  a  cow  and  the  deepest  baying  of  a  maitlH, 
very  round  and  full,  with  Its  hark  or  detached  nolv  repeated 

The  principal  food  ol  the  walrus  consists  of  bivalve  moUuso. 
(Specially  Jfya  Inmiala  and  Smimea  rafaH,  two  specie)  very 
abtindant  In  (he  Arciic  legions,  which  it  diga  up  from  ibe  msd 
of  (he  sea  by 


Bthesh 


bbylh 


of  lis  grinding  iee(h  and  tongue,  and  swallows  only  the  sod  puts 

Gihet  and  ilirimps.     FortloRs  of  various  kinds  of  seaweed  have 
been  lonnd  in  its  stomach,  but  whether  swallowed  intenlionaHy 
or  not  Is  doubtful. 
The  commercial  products  of  Ihe  walrus  are  ill  oil,  hide  (used 

ropeil  and  tuiki.  The  Ivory  of  the  latter  is,  hoirever,  inleifot 
in  quslily  to  that  of  the  ele;^in(.  Its  flesh  loms  an  Important 
article  of  food  to  the  Eskimo  and  Chukchi.  Of  the  coast  tribes 
ol  Ihe  last-named  people  tbe  walrus.Conned  the  chief  meam  ol 


'sg^z 


WALSALL— WALSH,  PETER 


Wilruseft  ut  cobfined  to  tbe  nortbero  circumpolar  regions, 
extending  apparently  as  far  north  as  explorers  have  penetrated. 
On  the  Atlantic  coast  of  America  the  Atlantic  species  was 
met  irith  in  the  i6th  century  as  low  as  the  southern  coast  of 
Nova  Scotia,  and  in  the  last  century  was  common  in  the  Gulf 
of  St  Lawrence  and  on  the  shores  of  Labrador.  It  still  inhabits 
the  coast  round  Hudson's  Bay,  Davis  Strait  and  Greenland, 
where,  however,  its  numbers  are  decreasing.  It  is  not  found  on 
the  Arctic  coast  of  America  between  the  ^th  and  x  sfttb  meridians. 
In  Europe,  occasional  stragglets  have  reached  the  British  Isles^ 
and  it  was  formerly  abundant  on  the  coasts  of  Finmark.  It  is 
rare  in  Iceland,  but  Spiubergen,  Novaia  Zemblia  and  the  western 
part  Off  the  north  coast  of  Sibc^  are  constant  places  of  resort. 
The  North  Pacific,  including  both  sides  of  Bering  Strait,  northern 
Kamchatka,  Alaska  and  the  Pribyloff  Islands  aie  also  the 
haunts  of  numerous  walruses,  which  are  isolated  from  those 
of  the  North  Atlantic  by  long  stretches  of  coast  in  Siberia  and 
North  America  wheie  they  do  not  occur.  The  Pacific  walrus 
appears  to  be  as  large  as,  if  not  huger  than,  that  of  the  Atlantic; 
its  tusks  are  longer-  and  more  dender,  and  curved  inwaads;  and 
the.whiskeiB  arc  smaller,  and  the  muule  relatively  deqjer  and 
broader.  These  and  certain  other  differences  have  led  to  its 
being  considered  specifically  distinct,  under  the  name  of  Odo' 
baenus  obesus.  Its  habits  appear  to  be  similar  to  those  of  th^ 
Atlantic  form.  Though  formerly  found  in  immense  herds,  it  is 
becoming  scarce,  as  the  methods  of  destruction  used  by  American 
whalers  are  more  certain  than  those  of  the  Chukchi,  to  whom 
the  walrus  long  afforded  the  principal  means  of  subsistence. 

Fossil  remains  of  walruses  and  closely  allied  animals  have  been 
found  in  the  United  States,  and  in  England,  Belgium  and  France^ 
in  deposits  of  late  Tertiary  age.  (W.  H.  F.;  R.  L.*) 

WALSALL,  a  market  town  and  municipal,  county  and  parlia,- 
mentary  borough  of  Staffordshire,  England,  on  the  northern 
edge  of  the  Black  Cotmtry,  and  on  a  tributary  stream  of  the  Tame. 
Pop.  (1891)  71,789;  (1901)  86,430.  It  is  laoi  m.  N.W.  from 
London  by  the  London  &  North-Westem  railway,  on  which 
system  it  is  a  centre  of  several  branches,  and  is  served  by  the 
Birmingham-Wolverhampton  branch  of  the  Midland  railway  and 
by  canals.  The  town,  though  of  ancient  foundation,  is  modern 
in  appearance.  The  central  part  stands  high  on  a  ridge  at 
the  northward  termination  of  which  is  tfie  diurch  of  St 
Matthew,  dating  in  part  from  the  isth  century,  but  almost 
.  whf^y  rdl)uilt.  The  council  house  and  town  haU  was  completed 
in  1905;  there  are  two  theatres,  a  free  library  and  museum, 
and  an  institute  of  science  and  art.  Recreation  groimds  include 
a  picturesque  arboretum,  Reed*8  Wood  and  Palpey  Park. 
Queen  Mary's  Schools  are  a  foundation  of  1554;  here  arc  be- 
lieved to  have  been  educated  John  Hough  (1651-1743),  the  presi- 
dent of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  whom  James II.  sought  to  eject 
from  office,  afterwaxds  bishop  of  Oxfotd,  Lichfield,  and  Worce- 
ster; and  John,  Lord  Somets  (1651-1716),  Lord  Keeper  and 
Lord  Chancellor  of  England.  There  are  large  charities,  and 
WalsaU  was  the  scene  of  the  charitable  work  of  Sister  Dora  (Miss 
Pattison)  whom  a  statue  commemorates.  Coal,  limestone  and 
ironstone  are  mined  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  most  important 
products  are  saddlery  and  leather-wOrk,  hones'  bits  and  all 
metal  harness  fittings;  there  are  iron  and  brass  foundries,  and 
Jocks,  keys,  bolts  and  other  hardware  are  made,  both  in  Walsall 
and  at  Bloxwich,  a  large  industrial  suburb.  Three  annual  fairs 
are  held.  The  parliamentary  borough  returns  one  member. 
The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor.  8  aldermen  and  34  councillors. 
Area,  7480  acres. 

Walsall  (WaUskalts,  WalskaU,  Walsakr)  U  included  in  the  list 
of  lands  given  in  996  to  the  church  of  Wolverhampton «  which, 
however,  did  not  retain  it  long.  It  was  granted  by  Henry  II. 
to  Herbert  Ruffus,  and  Henry  III.  confirmed  it  to  his  grandson 
(1237).  Later  the  manor  passed  to  the  Bassets  and  the  Beau- 
champs,  and  Warwick  the  King-maker  held  it  in  right  of  his  wife. 
Henry  VIIL  granted  it  (1538)  to  Dudley,  afterwards  duke  of 
Northumberland.  William  Ruffus  in  the  reign  of  John  granted 
to  the  burgesses,  in  consideration  of  a  fine  of  1 2  marks  silver  and 
d  a  rent  of  lad.  for  every  burgage,  all  services^  customs  and 


secular  demands  belonging  to  him  aad  his  hein,  ettept- 
Henry  IV.  ooafinned  to  the  buiigesaes  a  grant  of  freedom  from 
toll  OB  the  ground  that  WalsaU  was  ancient  demene  of  the 
Crown.  A  mayor  and  twenty-four  brethren  who  fotmad  the 
council  of  the  borough  are  mentioiked  in  1440,  but  the  eaittest 
charter  of  hxeorporation  is  that  of  Charles  I.  (x6s7),  oonfirmed 
in  i66x,  incorporating  it  under  the  title  of  ''the  Mayor  and 
Commonalty  of  the  Boroogh  and  Foreign  of  WdmU**:  under 
the  act  of  1835  the  town  was  governed  by  a  mayor,  «s  aldermen 
and  eighteen  town  coundllon.  It  was  hoc  nepreiented  in  parUa^ 
ment  till  1833.  Walsall  had  a  merchant  gild  in  1390;  in  the 
X7th  century  it  was  already  known  for  its  manufactme  of  Inn 
goods  and  nail-making. '  lia  the  rSth  century  the  staple  iMfaMtry 
was  the  making  of  chapesahd  shoe-buckles,  and  the  town  ■offered 
when  the  latter  went  out  of  fashion.  Two  fairs,  ott  Miffhadnfaw 
day  and  September  21,  were  granted  in  1399.  The  Tkiesday 
market,  which  is  still  held,  aiid  two  fain  on  O^ober  28  and  May  6, 
were  granted  in  1417  to  Richard  Beauchamp,  eail  of  Waiwicfc. 

See  Vidoria  Cpunty  IHaory,  SiBford;  E.  L»  Glew,  Hial^ry  1/  Ac 

Borough  and  Foreign  of  WalsaU  (1856)1 

KTALSH,  JOdN  BENtlT  (i8t<^i888),  Englfsh  writer  on  iport 
under  the  pseudonym  of  **  Stonehenge,"  was  bom  at  Hackney, 
London,  on  the  2ist  of  Oaober  1810.    He  was  educated  at 
private  schools,  and  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  in  1844.    For  several  years  he  ioDowtd  Us  prafcssion 
of  surgeon,  but  gradually  abandoned  it  on  account  of  the  soocess 
of  his  works  on  the  subject  of  qrart.    He  reasovcd  fcom  the 
country  to  London  in  1852,  and  the  f<^wing  year  brought  out 
his  first  important  bode,  The  Grtykmmi  (3rd  ed^  1875),  n  coH^ 
tk>n  of  papers  originally  contributed  to  **  Bell's  Life«"    In  18156 
appeared  his  Manual  of  British  RMrai  Sports,  wiiich  enjoyied 
many  editions.    During  the  same  year  ho  joined  tke  atafi  of  the 
Field,  and  became  its  editor  at  the  cloae  of  1857.    Among  his 
nimierous  books  published  under  the  name  of "  Stondieage  "aire 
The  Shotgun  and  Sporlini  Rifie  (1859),  The  Dog  in  HtaUh  and 
Disease  (1859;  4^  «d.  1887),  The  Horse  in  the  Stable  and  in  the 
Field  (i86t;  X3th  ed.  2890),  Dogs  of  the  British  Istes  {iMj; 
3rd  ed.  1885),  The  Modern  Sportsman's  Gun  and  Rifle  (1883- 
1884).    WhUe  editor  of  The  Field  Walsh  instituted  *  series  of 
trials  of  guns,  rifles  and  sporting  powdere  extebdins  ovet.a  period 
of  mariy  years,  which  greatly  tended  to  the  developmoit  of 
sporting  firearms;  and  his  influence  upon  all  branches  of  sport 
was  stimulating  and  beneficial.    He  died  at  Putney  on  the  tath 
of  February  1888. 

WALSH.  PBTBR  (Valesius)  (c.  1618-1688),  Irish  poliOdan 
and  controvcrBialiBt,  was  bom  at  Mooretown,  oo»  Kildate,  and 
studied  at  Louvain,  where  he  joined  the  Franciscans  and  acquix^ 
Jansenist  sytnpathies.  In  1646  he  went  to  Kilkenny*  then  in 
thehandsof  the  rebel  '*  Confederate  Catholics,"  and,  in  <if>po9iti»n 
to  the  papal  nuncio  Rinuccini,  urged^  and  in  1649  Mped  to 
secure,  peace  with  the  viceroy  Ormonde.  Persocuted  from -this 
time  by  the  irreconcilable  supporters  of  the  papal  claiois,  and 
even  in  danger  of  death,  after  Cromwell's  coo<|uesi  of  Izebad 
ho  lived  obscurely  in  London  and  abroad.  Oa  the  rettoratipn 
he  urged  his  patron  Ormonde  to  support  the  Irish  Roman 
Catholics  as  the  natural  friends  of  royalty  against  the  Mctaiks, 
and  endeavoured  to  mitigate  their  lot  and  efface,  tho  imprcssien 
made  by  thoir  successive  rebellions  by  a  loyal  reoionStraate^o 
Charles  II.,  boldly  repudiating  papal  infallibility  andinterferen^ 
in  public  affairs,  and  affirming  imdividod  allegianca  to  the  crown- 
For  esght  ycara  he  canvassed  for  signatures  to.  thia  address,  but 
in  spite  of  considerable  support  the  strenuous  oppasition  of  tb« 
Jesuits  and  Dominicans  deterred  the  deigy  and  nearly  wtvcked 
the  scheme.  From  1669  until  bis  death  he  lived  in  London, 
much  respected  for  his  honesty,  loyalty  and.  leanung.  f^x- 
communtcatcd  by  the  Franciscan  chaptc9r*general  in  1670,  ho 
remained  a  devout  adherent  of  his  church,  although  he  majfi- 
tained  friendly  relations  with  the  Ao^aaas,  accepting  their 
orders  and  attending  their  churches.  He  made  a  full  subniissifon 
to  Rome  before  his  death,  though  the  fact  has  beea  questioned. 
He  wrote  (167  2-1 684)  a  series  of  controversial  latters  ^^iyytf 
Pope  GMfory  yU.V.d90lme)of  p|pii  sapremacy  i9w  pn^cct*. 


WALSH,  WHiLlAMi— WALSINOHAM,  SIR  FRANCIS        295 


t  toiuminoos  ITistory  of  Ike  Rem&Hilfan^  (1674);  If  Acmcte 
(1683),  a  irortbless  histoiy  of  Ifebnd;  In  1M6  «  reply  to  the 
Papery  of  Thomas  B»rl6w  (t6o>-''t69i),  bbhop  of  Lkieolii;  afid 
other  works.  In  cbese  trritings  be  censislcntly  upheld  the 
doctrine  of  chtTl  liberty  against  the  pretienSMins  of  the  papacy. 
See  &  R.  GaitNiier.  MisUfff  oftiu  Oimt  OM  Wan  G.  Burnet. 


HiUory9fkU  nm  Twus,  L  i9i;T.Ci(Mte.  Uf«  ^  OmonU  (new  ed. 
1851);  //wl.  JVtf^  Btog,  lix. 

WAUH.  WILUAM  (1663-X70S),  English  poet  and  critic,  son 
of  Joseph  Walsh  of  Abberley,  Worcesteishire,  was  bom  in  1663. 
He  entered  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  as  a  gentleman  commoner 
in  1678.  Leaving  the  university  without  a  degree,  he  settled 
in  bis  native  county,  and  was. returned  M.P.  for  Worcester  in 
1698,  Z701  and  2702.  In  1705  he  sat  for  Richmond,  Yorkshire. 
On  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne  he  was  made  "gentleman  of  the 
boise,"  a  post  which  he  held  till  his  death,  noted  by  Narcissus 
Luttrell  on  the  18th  of  March  X708.  He  wrote  a  Dialogue  con- 
cerning Womai^  being  a  Defence  of  Ihe  Sex  (1691),  addressed  to 
"  Eugenia  *';  and  Letters  and  Poems,  Amorous  and  Gallant 
(preface  dated  2692,  printed  in  Jonson's  Miscellany^  1716,  and 
separately,  1 736) ;  love  lyrics  designed,  says  the  author,  to  impart 
to  the  world  "  the  faithfui  image  of  an  amorous  heart.'*  It  is 
not  as  a  poet,  however,  but  as  the  friend  and  correspondent  of 
Pope  that  Walsh  is  lemembcrcd.  Pope's  Pastorals  were  sub- 
mitted for  his  criticism  by  Wycherley  in  1705,  and  Walsh  then 
entered  on  a  direct  correspondence  with  the  young  poet.  The 
letUrs  are  printed  in  Pope's  Works  (ed.  Elwin  and  Courthope, 
VL  49-6o).  Pope,  who  visited  him  at  Abberley  in  1707,  set 
great  value  upon  his  opinion.  "  Mr  Walsh  used  to  tell  me,"  he 
■ays,  "  that  there  was  one  way  left  of  excelling;  for  though  we 
bad  several  great  poets,  we  never  had  any  one  great  poet  that 
was  correct,  and  he  desired  me  to  make  that  my  study  and  my 
Sim."  Tlie  excessive  eulogy  acooided  both  by  Diyden  and 
Pope  to  Walsh  must  be  accounted  for  partly  on  the  ground  ol 
peisonal  friendship.  The  life  of  Virgil  prefixed  to  Dryden's 
tianslation,  and  a  **  Preface  to  the  Pastorals  with  a  short  defence 
of  Virgil,  against  some  of  the  reflections  of  Monsieur  Fontenella," 
both  ascribed  at  one  time  to  Walsb,  were  the  work  of  Dr  Knightly 
Cbetwood  (z6so<-x72o>.  In  1704  Walsh  collaborated  with  Sir 
Mn  Vanbnigh  and  WiQiam  Congreve  in  Monsieur  de  Pour" 
utugnae,  or  Squire  Tretooby^  an  adaptation  of  Moliire's  farce. 

Walsh's  Poenu  are  incluited  in  Anderson's  and  other  collections  of 
the  British  poets.  See  ?*A«  Lives  of  iht  Poets,  vol.  iU.  pp.  151  et  s^., 
published  1753  as  by  Thcophilus  Cibber. 

VALSINOHAM,  SIR  FRAXaS  (e.  1530-1590),  English 
statesman,  was  the  only  son  of  William  Wakingham,  common 
•ergeant  of  London  (d.  March  2534),  by  his  wife  Joyce,  daughter 
of  Sir  Edmund  Denny  of  Chcshunt.  Hie  famfly  is  assumed  to 
have  sprung  from  \VaIsingham  in  Norfolk,  but  the  earliest 
authentic  traces  of  it  are  found  in  London  in  the  first  half  of  the 
15th  century;  and  it  was  one  of  the  numerous  familfes  which, 
having  accumtilated  wealth  in  the  city,  plafoted  themselves 
out  as  landed  gentry  and  provided  the  Tudor  monarchy  with 
its  justices  of  the  peace  and  main  support.  To  this  connexion 
may  also  be  attributed  much  of  the  induence  which  London 
exerted  over  English  policy  in  the  x6th  century,  Snr  Francis's 
KTeat-great-great-granafather,  Alan,  was  a  cordwainer  of  Grace- 
church  Street;  Alan's  son  Thomas,  a  vintner,  purchased  Scad- 
bury  in  Chiidehurst,  and  Thomas's  great-grandson  William 
bought  Foot's  Cray,  where  FiBndft  may  have  been  bom.  His 
uacle  Sir  Edmund  was  lieutenant  of  the  Tower,  and  his  mother 
^  related  to  Sir  Anthony  Denny,  a  member  of  Henry  VIII. 's 
privy  council  who  attended  him  on  his  dcath*bed. 

Francis  matricubted  as  a  fdlow-comnroner  of  King^b  College, 
Cambridge,  ol  which  Sir  John  Cheke  was  provost,  in  November 
1548;  and  be  continued  studying  there  amid  strongly  Protest- 
snt  influences  until  Michaelmas  1550,  when  he  appears,  after 
the  fashkm  of  the  time,  to  have  gone  abroad  to  complete  his 
education  (StAhlin,  p.  79).  Returning  in  1552  he  was  admitted 
St  Gray's  Inn  on  January  aS,  1553,  but  Edward  VI. 's  death  sbc 
Mmths  hter  induced  him  to  resume  his  foreign  travda.  Id 
'555-1556  he  was  at  Padua,  where  he  was  admitted  a  '*,con- 
fSlkxm  "  in  the  faculty  of  tawt.    Returning  to  England  after 


'  Elbaf»eth'B  aoottsiMi  he  wis  elected  M.F.  for  Bftibitfjr'td  hat 
4nt  parliament,  which  sat  from  Jaauaty  to  May  1559.    Us 
married  la  January  1562  Anne,  daughter  of  Geofge  Barnes^ 
Lord  Mayor  of  London  and  wklow  of  Alesaader  CarieiU,  whose 
aon-hi-law  Christopher  Hoddesdon  was  ckaely  associated  with 
maritime  and  comracndsl  enterprise.    He  was  dected  to  lepre* 
sent  Lyme  Regis  in  EUzabetb'to  second  parliament  of  1563  as. 
well  as  for  Banbury,  and  preferred  to  sit  for  the  focmer  bonni^h. . 
He  may  havb  owed  his  electton  to  Cecil's  faifluence,  for  to  Cecil . 
he  subsequently  attributed  his  rise  to  power;  but  his  brathatr- 
in'4aw  Sir  Walter  Mildmay  was  wett  known  at  oonrt  andia  i  ^' 
became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.    In  that  year  Walsinglisffi , 
married  a  second  time.  Us  first  wife  having  died  in  rs64;  his 
second  was  also  a  irldow,  Ursula,  dau^ter  of  Henry  St  Barbc 
and  widow  of  Sir  Rkbatd  Worsley  of  Appuldorcombe,  captain 
of  the  Me  of  Wight.    Her  sister  Edith  married  Robert  Beale, 
afterwards  the  chief  of  Walsingham's  bencfamcn.   By  his  second 
wife  Walsingham  had  a  daughter  who  married  firstty  Sir  PfnOp 
Skiney,  secondly  Robert  Deverens,  second  essl  of  Fssn,-afad 
thirdly  Rfehard  de  Buigh,  eari  of  Clanricarde 

Walsingham's  eariicst  extant  commnnlcatkmB  with  (bo 
government  date  from  1567;  and  in  that  and  the  following  two< 
yean  he  was  supplying  Cecil  with  inlormatkm  about  the  move* 
ments  of  foreign  spiM  fai  London.  The  Spanish  ambasMdot 
in  Paris  declared  in  1570  that  he  had  been  for  two  yean  engaged 
hi  collecting  contributwns  from  EngK^  diuvches  for  the  assistp 
aace  of  the  Huguenots  in  France;  and  he  drew  «p  a  memorial 
depicting  the  dangen  of  Mary  Stnait's  presence  in  England  and 
of  the  project  for  her  marriage  with  Noffolk.  RidoM,  the 
conspirator,  was  committed  to  his  custody  in  October  1^69, 
and  se^ms  to  have  deluded  Walsingham  as  to  his  intentions; 
but  there  is  inadequate  evidence  for  the  statement  (Diet,  Nai. 
Blog.)  that  Walsingham  was  already  organirbig  the  scciei 
police  of  London.  In  the  summer  of  1 570  he  was,  in  spite  of  his 
protestalfons,  designated  to  succeed  Norris  ss  ambassador  at 
Paris.  La  Mothe  Fteelon,  the  French  ambassador  hi  England, 
wrote  that  he  was  thou^t  a  very  aUe  man,  devoted  to  ths 
new  religion,  and  very  much  hi  Cecil's  secrets.  CttSk  had  in-. 
1569  triumphed  over  the  conservative  and  aristocratic  party 
in  the  council ;  and  Walsingham  was  the  ablest  of  the  new  men 
v/hom  he  brought  to  the  front  to  give  play  to  the  new  foices- 
which  were  to  carve  out  Enghind'fe  career. 

An  essential  element  in  the  new  policy  was  the  tubstltntfon 
of  an  alliance  with  France  for  the  old  Borgundiui  frlend^dp. 
The  afiahr  of  San  Juan  de  Uhia  and  the  seisure  of  thcSpanhh 
treasure-ships  in  1 568  had  been  omens  of  the  inevitable  conflict 
with  Spain;  Ridolfi's  pk>t  and  Philip  II.'B  approaches  to  Mary 
Stuart  indKated  the  lines  upon  which  the  Strugs^  would  be 
f might;  and  it  was  Walsbigham's  business  to  reooncile  ihe 
Huguenots  With  the  French  government,  and  upon  this  Teconcilia<^ 
tion  to  base  an  Anglo-French  alliance  which  nii^t  lead  to  a 
grand  attack  on  Spain,  to  the  liberation  of  the  Netheriands,  to 
the  destroctfon  of  Spain's  monopoly  in  the  New  World,  and  to 
making  Protestantism  the  dominant  force  In  Europe.  Walslng^ 
ham  threw  himself  heart  and  soul  into  the  movement.  He  was 
the  anxious  fanatic  of  Elizabeth's  advisers ;  he  lacked  the 
patience  of  Burghley  and  the  C3mical  coolness  of  Sisabeth.'  His 
devotion  to  Protestantism  made  him  feverishly  vUve  to  the 
perils  which  threatened  the  Reformation;  and  he  took  an* 
alarmcst  view  of  every  sttuatfon.  Ever  dreading  a  blow,  he  was 
always  eager  to  strike  the  first;  and  alive  to  the  perfls  of  peace^ 
he  was  blind  to  the  dangers  of  war.  He  supplied  the  momentuai 
which  was  necessaty  to  counteract  the  cautk>n  of  Burghley  and 
Elizabeth ;  but  it  was  probably  fortimate  that  hb  headstrong 
counsels  were  generally  overruled  by  the  drcomspection  of  hil 
sovereign.  He  would  have  plunged  England  into  war  with 
Spain  in  1572,  when  the  risks  would  have  been  faifinitdy  greater 
than  In  1588,  and  when  the  Huguenot  hifluence  over  the  French 
government,  on  which  he  relied  for  support,  would  probably 
have  broken  m  his  hands.  His  dear-cut,  strenuous  policy  oif 
open  hostilities  has  always  had  its  admirers;  but  It  is  diflk^ 

^  to  see  how  England  oouhl  have  secured  from  it  mow 


«9+ 


WALSINGHAKC,  SIR  FRANCIS 


actually  did  from  EKsabeth's  more  Fabian  tactkf.  W«r» 
dcebred  before  fingland  had  gained  the  naval  ezperienoe  and 
mmh  of  the  next  fifteen  yeacs.  and  before  Spain  had  been 
weakened  by  the  straggle  in  the  Netherlands.and  the  depreda- 
tions of  the  sea*nnrecs,  would  have  been  a  deq>ente  expedient; 
fnd  the  ideis  that  any  action  on  Elizabeth's  part  ooiild  have 
made  France  Huguenot,  or  prevented  the  disruption  of  the 
Netherlands,  may  be  dismissed  as  the  idle  dreams  of  Protestant 
enthusiasts. 

Walsingham,  however,  was  an  accomplished  diplomatist, 
and  he  reserved  these  truculent  opinions  for  the  ears  of  bis  own 
government,  incurring  frequeot  rebukes  from  Eliaabeth.  In  his 
professional  capacity,  his  altitude  was  oorrea  enough;  and, 
indeed,  his  anxiety  for  the  French  alliance  and  for  the  marriage 
between  Elizabeth  and  Anjou  led  him  to  suggest  concesfiiotts  to 
Anjou's  Catholic  susceptibilities  which  came  strangely  from  so 
staunch  a  Puritan.  Elizabeth  did  not  mean  to  mairy,  and 
although  a  defensive  alliance  was  concluded  between  England 
and  Fxance  in  April  157s,  the  French  government  perceived 
that  public  opinion  in  France  would  not  tolerate  an  open  breach 
with  Spain  in  Protestant  interests.  Coligny's  success  in  captivat- 
ing the  mind  of  Charles  IX.  infuriated  Catherine  de  Midicis, 
and  the  prospect  of  France  being  dragged  at  the  heels  of  the 
Huguenots  infuriated  the  CathoUa.  The  result  was  Catherine's 
altempt  on  Coligny's  life  and  then  the  massacre  of  St  Barthob- 
mew,  which  placed  Walsingham's  person  in  jeopardy  and 
ruined  for  the  time  all  hopes  of  the  realization  of  his  policy  of 
active  French  and  English  oo-opcration. 

He  was  recalled  in  April  1573,  but  the  queen  recognised  that 
the  failure  had  been  due  to  no  fault  of  his,  and  ei^t  months 
later  he  was  admitted  to  the  privy  council  and  made  joint 
secretary  of  state  with  Sir  Thomas  Smith.  He  held  this  office 
JMtttly  or  solely  until  his  death;  in  1577  when  Smith  died, 
Dr  Thomas  Wilson  was  associated  with  Walsingham;  after 
Wilson's  death  in  1581  Walsingham  was  sole  secretary  until 
July  1586,  when  Davison  began  his  brief  and  ill-teted  seven 
months'  tenure  of  the  ofiioe.  After  Davison's  disgrace  in  February 
SS87  Wabingham  remained  sole  secretary,  though  Wolley  as- 
sisted him  as  Latin  secretary  from  158810  159a  He  was  also 
returned  to  parliament  at  a  by-election  in  1576  as  knight  of  the 
shire  for  Surr^  in  succession  to  Charles  Howard,  who  had  become 
Lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  and  he  was  re-elected  for  Surrey 
in  1584, 1586  and  1588.  He  was  knighted  on  December  i,  1577, 
and  made  chancellor  of  the  order  of  the  Garter  on  April  aa,  1578. 

Asaecretaiy,  Walsingham  could  pursue  no  independent  policy; 
he  was  satbfer  In  the  position  of  permanent  under-searetary  of  the 
oomblned  home  and  fore^  departments,  and  he  had  to  work 
under  the  dircctton  of  the  council,  and  particularly  of  Burghlcy 
and  the  queen.  He  continued  to  urge  the  necessity  of  more 
vigorous  intervention  on  behalf  of  the  Protestants  abroad, 
though  now  his  clients  were  the  Dutch  rather  than  the  Huguenots. 
In  June  1578  he  was  s^nt  with  Lord  Cobham  to  the  Netherlands, 
msLily  to  glean  reliable  information  on  the  complicated  situation. 
He  had  interviews  with  the  prince  of  Orange,  with  Casimir  who 
was  there  in  the  interests  of  Protestant  Germsuiy,  with  Anjou 
who  came  in  his  own  interuts  or  in  those  of  France,  and  with 
Don  John,  who  nominally  governed  the  country  in  Philip's  name; 
the  story  that  he  instigated  a  plot  to  kidnap  or  murder  Don  John 
la  without  foundation.  His  letters  betray  discontent  with  Eliza- 
beth's reluctance  to  assist  the  States;  he  could  not  understand 
her  antipathy  to  rebellious  subjects,  and  he  returned  in  October, 
having  accomplished  little. 

In  August!  581  he  was  sent  on  a  second  and  briefer  mission  to 
Paris.  Its  object  was  to  secure  a  solid  Anglo*Frcnch  alliance 
against  Spain  without  the  condition  upon  which  Henry  III. 
inalBted,  namely  a  marriage  between  Elizabeth  and  Anjou. 
The  French  government  would  not  yield,  and  Walsingham  came 
bMk,  to  be  followed  by  Anjou  who  sought  in  personal  interviews 
to  everoome  ElizabeUi's  objections  to  matrimony.  He,  too, 
was  unaucotaaful;  and  a  few  months  later  he  was  dismissed  with 
atme  En^ish  money  and  ostensible  assurances  of  support. 
Bvt  waatfar  Elisabeth  countcnnined  his  plans;  unlike  Walsing- 


ham,  she  would  aooner  haw  seen  Philip  nmalo  maiter  of  thi 
Netherlands  than  sec  them  fall  into  the  hands  of  France.  Hit 
Anal  embassy  was  to  the  court  of  James  YI.  in  1 583,  and  here  his 
vehement  and  suspicious  Protestantism  led  him  astmy  and 
provoked  him  into  counterworking  thft  dasigoa  of  his  own 
govemment.  He  was  coovinoed  that  Jamrs  was  aa  hostile  to 
Eliaabeth  as  Maiy  benelf ,  and  failed  to  pcivcivc  that  he  wasu 
inimical  to  popery  as  he  was  to  presbyterianism.  EUzabeth  tnd 
Burghley  were  inclined  to  try  an  alliance  with  the  Scottish  king, 
and  the  event  justified  their  policy,  which  Walsingham  did  his 
best  to  frustrate,  although  deserted  on  this  occasion  by  his  duef 
regular  supporter,  Leicester. 

For  the  test  of  his  life  Wabingham.was  mainly  occupied  in 
detecting  and  frtistrating  the  various  plots  formed  against 
Elizabeth's  life;  and  herein  he  achieved  a  success  denied  bin 
in  bis  foreign  policy.    He  raised  the  English  system  of  secret 
intelligence  to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency     At  one  time  he  is 
said  to  have  had  in  his  pay  fifty-three  agents  at  foreign  couns, 
besides  eighteen  persons  whose  functions  were  even  more  obscure. 
Some  of  them  were  double  spies,  sold  to  both  parties,  whose  ml 
sentiments  are  still  conjectural;  but  Walsingham  was  noit 
successful  in  seducing  Catholic  spies  than  his  antagonists  wen 
in  seducing  Protestant  spies,  and  most  of  hts  fnformatbn  ctne 
from  Catholics  who  betrayed  one  another    In  his  office  in  Loodoo 
men  were  trained  in  the  arts  of  deciphering  oorrespondaicr, 
feigning  handwriting,  and  of  breaking  and  repairing  seals  'uhk^ 
a  way  as  to  avoid  detection.    His  spies  were  naturally  doifatM 
characters,  because  the  profession  does  not  attract  honest  ao; 
morality  of  methods  can  no  more  be  expected  from  coonitf' 
plotters  than  from  plotters;  and  the  prevalence  <rf  poUtical  oc 
religious  assassination  made  counterplot  a  necessity  in  tie 
interests  of  the  state. 

The  most  famous  of  the  plots  frustrated  1^  Walsingham  v*> 
Anthony  Babington's,  which  he  detected  in  1586.  Of  the  guilt 
of  the  main  conspirators  there  is  no  doubt,  but  the  complicity  of 
Mary  Stuart  has  been  hotly  disputed.  Walsingham  bad  long 
been  convinced,  like  parliament  and  the  majority  <rf  Englidiai^* 
of  the  necessity  of  removing  Mary;  but  it  was  only  the  discoveiy 
of  Babington's  plot  that  enabled  him  to  bring  pressure  enough 
to  bear  upon  Elizabeth  to  ensure  Mary's  execution.  This  dr 
cumstance  has  naturally  led  to  the  theory  that  he  concocted, 
if  not  the  plot,  at  least  the  proofs  of  Mary's  connivance.  Uo* 
doubtedly  he  facilitated  her  self-incrimination,  but  of  her  active 
encouragement  of  the  plot  then  can  be  little  doubt  after  the 
publication  of  her  letters  to  Mendoza,  in  which  she  excuses  her 
complicity  on  the  plea  that  nO  other  means  were  left  to  secure  her 
liberation.  Considering  the  part  he  played  in  this  transaction, 
Walsingham  was  fortunate  to  escape  the  fate  which  the  qaeco 
with  calculated  indignation  inflicted  upon  Davison. 

Walsingham  died  deeply  in  debt  on  April  6, 1590.  Since  iS79 
he  had  lived  mainly  at  Bam  Elms,  Barnes,  maintainlog  ^ 
adequate  establishment;  but  his  salary  did  tfot  cover  bis 
expenses,  he  was  burdened  with  his  son-in-law  Sir  PhlUp  Sidney  s 
debts,  and  he  obtained  few  of  those  perquisites  which  Elizabeib 
lavished  on  her  favourites.  "He  had  little  of  the  courtier  about 
him;  his  sombre  temperament  and  directness  of  speech  irritated 
the  queen,  and  it  says  something  for  both  of  them  that  be 
retained  her  confidence  and  his  office  until  the  end  of  his  life. 

Dr  Kari  StAhUn's  elaborate  and  tdiolady  ^t>  Francis  Walsiniia^ 
nud  seint  Zeit  (Hddelbcig.  vol.  i.  1908)  auperoedcs  aU  previou" 
accounts  of  Walsingham  so  far  as  it  goes  (1573) ;  Dr  Stahtin  nasaw 
dealt  with  the  eariy  history  of  the  family  in  his  Die  WaUin^am  »» 
zur  MitU  des  16.  JakrktmierU  (Hekklfaerg,  1905).  Vast  n»>aes« 
Walsingham's  correspondence  axe  preservd  in  the  Record  Office  aj>° 
the  Bntish  Museum:  acme  have  been  epitomiwd  in  the  l?^^ 
Calendar  (as  far  as  158a) ;  and  his  correspondence  durinch»Vin 
embassies  to  France  was  published  in  exUnso  by  Sir  Dudley l^iO^ 
1655  under  the  title  TTu  CompUat  Ambassador,  possibly*  as  has  i>c^ 


the  Statesman  and  the  Courtier  is  erroneous;  the  book  is  jeaHytfc* 
translation  of  a  French  treatise  by  one  Edward  WalsifWiai"  TTr. 
flourished  c.  1641-1659.  See  also  Webb.  MUlcr  and.  wckff^^ 
History  ot  CkislAurst  (1899)  and  DitL  Nat,  Biog,  Ux-  ^^'^ 


WALSINGHAM,  THOMAS—WALTER,  JOHN 


MrGosyw»R«Ml.i*ko«diMdtteBcy4mi>it^i(' j-    — 

1909),  nlfliting  to  Mary's  trial,  was  aa  1910  eoga^  on  an  eiaoorate 
Itfe  M  Walaiasham.  pah  of  which  the  present  writer  was  able  to  see 
in  MS.  (A.  F.  P.) 

WAUniOBAV.  THOMAS  (d.  c.  U's).  En^ish  chronicler, 
WIS  probably  educated  at  the  abbey  of  St  Albans  and  at  Oxford. 
He  became  a  monk  at  St  Albans,  where  he  appears  to  have 
passed  the  whole  of  his  monastic  life  except  the  six  yean  between 
1394  and  X400  during  which  he  was  prior  of  another  Benedictine 
house  at  Wymondham,  Norfolk.  At  St  Albans  he  was  in  chaise 
of  the  scnptorium,  or  writing  room,  and  he  died  about  1422. 
Walsingham's  most  important  work  is  his  Historia  Angfkana, 
a  valuable  piece  of  work  covering  the  period  between  1272  and 
1423. .  Some  authorities  hold  that  Walsingliam  himself  only 
wrote  the  section  between  1377  and  1392,  but  this  view  is  con- 
troverted by  James  Gairdocr  in  his  Early  ckroruclers  of  Europe 

(1879).  .  .       , 

The  HiU^ria,  which  from  the  beginning  to  1377  is  laigelv  a  com- 
pilation from  earlier  chroniclers,  was  published  by  Matthew  Parker  in 
1574  as  Hisloria  Angluu  breris.  For  the  "  Rolls  **  series  it  has  been 
^ited  in  two  volumes  by  H.  T.  Riley  (i863>i864).  Covering  some  of 
the  same  cnwind  Walsingbam  wrote  a  Chronicon  Ang^ioei  this  deals 


Neustriae.  ThtCesla  is  a  history  of  the  abbots  of  Sc  Albans  from  the 
foandatmn  of  t  he  abbey  to  1381 .  The  original  work  of  WaMngham 
ia  the  period  between  1308  and  1381,  the  cariier  part  being  merclv  a 
oompilaibn ;  it  has  been  edited  for  the  "  Rolls  "  scries  by  H  T  Riley 
(1867-1869).  The  ypwfi^ma  jHirports  to  be  a  history  of  the  dukes  of 
Normandv,  but  it  also  contains  some  English  history  and  its  value 
ia  aot  grut.  Conpilcd  about  1419.  it  was  dedicated  10  Henry  V. 
und  was  written  to  justify  this  king's  invasion  of  France.  U  was  first 
published  by  Matthew  Parker  in  1574.  and  has  been  edited  for  the 
^  Rolls  "  series  by  H.  T.  Riley  (1876).  Another  history  of  England  by 
Walsingham  dealing  with  the  period  between  1372  and  1393  is  in 
Bunuseript  in  the  British  Museum.  This  agrees  in  many  parttculam 
with  tJie  CkroHtcon  Anf^iae.  but  it  is  much  less  hostile  to  John  of 
Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster.  Walsingham  is  the  main  authority  for  the 
history  of  England  during  the  reigns  of  Richard  II.,  Henry  IV.  and 
Henry  V.,  including  the  nsinc  under  Wat  Tyler  in  1381.  He  shows 
considerable  animus  against  John  Wycliffe  and  the  JuoUarda. 

WALTER,  HOBBRT  (d.  1205).  chief  justiciar  of  England  and 
ftKhbishop  of  Cantefbury,  was  e  relative  of  Ranulf  de  OhinviU, 
the  great  justiciar  of  Henry  11.,  and  rose  under  the  eye  of  his 
kinsman  to  an  important  posit  km  in  the  Curia  Regis.  In  1x84 
and  In  rt8s  he  appears  as  a  baron  of  the  exchequer  He  was 
empk>yed,  sometimes  as  a  negotiator,  sometimes  as  a  justice, 
sometimes  as  a  royal  secretary.  He  received  no  clerical  pfp< 
motk>n  from  Henry  II.,  but  Richard  I.  appointed  him  bishop  of 
Salisbury,  and  by  Richard's  command  he  went  with  the  third 
crusade  to  the  Holy  Land.  He  gained  the  respect  of  all  the 
crusaders,  and  acted  as  Richard's  principal  agent  in  all  negotia^ 
tions  with  Saladin.  being  c^ven  a  phce  in  the  first  band  of  pUgrims 
that  entered  Jerusalem.  He  led  the  English  army  back  to 
England  after  Richard's  departure  from  Palestine,  but  in 
Sicily  he  heard  of  the  king's  captivity,  and  hurried  to  join  him  in 
Germany.  In  1 193  he  returned  to  England  to  raise  the  king's 
ransom.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  elected  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury and  made  justiciar.  He  was  very  successful  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  kingdom,  and  after  Richard's  last  visit  be  was  practic- 
ally the  ruler  of  England.  He  had  no  light  task  to  keep  pace 
with  the  king's  constant  demand  for  money.  He  was  compelled 
to  work  the  administrative  machinery  to  its  uimosi,  and  indeed 
to  invent  new  methods  of  extortion-  To  pay  for  Richard's 
ransom,  he  had  already  been  compelled  to  tax  personal  property, 
the  first  instance  of  such  taxation  for  secular  purposes.  The 
main  feature  of  all  his  measures  was  the  novel  and  extended  use 
of  rcpresentatkm  and  election  for  all  the  purposes  of  government. 
His  chief  measures  are  contained  in  his  instruction  to  the  itinerant 
justices  of  f  194  and  1198.  in  his  ordinance  of  1195  for  the  con- 
servatk>n  of  the  peace,  and  in  his  scheme  of  11 98  for  the  assess- 
ment of  the  carucage.  The  justices  of  T194  were  to  order  the 
election  of  four  coroners  by  the  suiton  of  each  county  court. 
These  new  oflficen  were  to  "  keep.'*  i.e.  to  register,  the  pleas  of 
the  crown,  an  important  duty  hitherto  left  to  the  sheriff,  The 
Juries,  both  for  answering  the  questions  asked  by  the  judges  attd 


29$ 

for  tiying  cMes  under  the  gnnd  ttsMe^  weie  to  be  dMscnby* 
oommktce  <A  four  knights»  also  dected  by  the  suitors  of  each 
eouaty  cooit  for  that  putpoee.  In  1195  Hubert  iaitted*aa 
oidinanee  by  which  four  knights  were  to  be  appointed  io  eveiy 
hundred  to  act  as  guardians  of  the  peace,  and  Ivom  this  huoibla 
be^aning  evcntnally  waa -evolved  the  office  of  justice  of  the 
peaoe.  His  rdiance  upon  the  knights,  or  middk-dass  land*- 
owners,  who  now  for  the  first  time  appear  in  the  political  for»> 
gfound,  is  all  the  mose  mtensting  benuse  it  is  this  class  who^ 
either  as  oMmbeiB  of  partiament  or  justicca  of  the  peace;,  weie  to 
have  the  effecttve  rule  of  Knghmd  in  their  hands  lor  so  many 
centuries.  In  1x98,  to  satisfy  the  kini^s  demand  for  moan^y, 
Hubert  demanded  a  carucage  or  pkmgh^taz  of  five  sbillings  o» 
cveo^  ptoogh4aad  (catucate)  under  caltivation.  This  was  the 
old  tax,  the  Daaageld,  in  a  new  and  heavier  form  and  there 
was  great  difficulty  in  levymg  it.  To  make  it  easier,  the  justiciar 
oidcariBd  the  assessment  to  be  made  by  a  sworn  jury  in  eveiy 
huadsed,  and  one  may  leasonafaly  conjecture  that  these  jurors 
werealso  elected.  Besides  these  important  coaatitutional  changes 
Hubert  negotiated  a  peace  with  Scotland  in  ii95>  and  In  1197 
another  with  the  Welsh.  But  Richard  had  groim  dissatisfied 
with  him,  for  the  carucage  had  not  been  a  success,  and  Hubort 
had  faOed  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  Great  Council  when 
its  members  jwfused  to  equip  a  foice  of  knights  to  serve  abroad. 
In  1198  Hubert,  wbo  had  inherited  fiom  hb  predeceasois  in  the 
primacy  a  fierce  qiuurel  with  the  Canterbury  monks,  gave  these 
enemies  aa  oppoitunity  of  complaining  to  the  .pope,  for  in 
arresting  the  London  demagogue,  William  Ftta  Osbcrt,  he  had 
committed  an  act  of  sacrilege  in  Bow  Church,  which  bdonged 
to  the  monks.  The  pope  asked  Rkhard  to  free  Hubert  from  all 
secular  duties,  and  he  did  so,  Uuia  making  the  demand  an  excuae 
for  dismissing  Hubert  from  the  justidaiBhip.  On  the  a7th  of 
May  1199  Hubert  crowned  John,  making  a  qieech  in  which  thtf 
old  theory  of  election  by  the  peo^e  waa  entindated  for  the  last 
time.  He  also  took  the  office  of  chancellor  and  cheerfully  worthed 
under  Geoffrey  Fits  Peter,  one  of  bis  former  subordinates.  In 
190I  be  went  on  a  diplomatic  mttsk>n  to  Philip  Augustus  9f 
Prance,  and  ia  laos  he  rttunsed  to  England  to  keep  the  kingdom 
in  peace  while  John  was  losing  his  continental  possessions.  In 
rro5  he  died.  Hubert  was  an  ingenious,  original  and  induatiious 
public  servant,  but  he  was  grasping  and  perhaps  disbonesL 

See  W.  Stubbs.  ConstiMhmai  Jlislorj,  vol.  i.  (189^:  Miss  K. 
Noraate's  Bttgfand  tindtr  the  AngjeHn  Kings,  vol.  ii.  (1887):  W. 
Stubba.  preface  to  vol.  iv.  of  Roger  of  Hoveden'a  Ckronids  ("  RoUa " 
series,  1 868-1 871). 


WALTER,  JORV  (ly^S/^rSta),  founder  of  Tkt 
newspaper,  London,  was  bom  in  1 732/9*  piobably  m  London, 
and  from  the  death  of  his  father,  Richard  Walter  (about  1755/6), 
until  1781  waa  engaged  In  a  prosperous  busmeia  as  a  coal 
merchant.  He  played  a  leading  port  in  eatabBshing  a  Coal 
Exchange  hi  London;  but  shortly  after  1781,  when  he  began  to 
occupy  himsdf  solely  as  an  undttwdter  and  Became  a  member 
of  Lloyd's,  be  over-speculated  and  failed.  In  178a  he  bought 
fiom  one  Henry  Johnson  a  patent  for  a  new  method  of  printing 
from  "  logotypes  "  (i.e.  founts  of  words  or  portwns  of  weeds, 
instead  of  letters),  and  made  some  improvements  in  it.  In  1784 
he  acquired  an  old  printing  office  In  Blackfriam,  which  formed 
the  nucleus  of  the  Printing-house  Square  of  a  later  date^  and 
established  there  his  "  Logographic  Office."  At  first  he  ooly 
undertook  the  printing  of  books,  but  on  xst  Jannaxy  1785 
he  started  a  small  newspaper  called  TMt  DaUy  VniwersalJtegi^, 
which  on  reaching  its  94otb  number  on  ist  January  1788  waa 
renamed  The  Times.  The  prfaithig  business  devekiped  and 
prospered,  but  the  newspaper  at  first  had'a  somewhat  chequered 
career.  In  X789  Mr  Walter  wos  tried  for  a  fibel  in  it  00  the 
dttke  of  York,  and  was  sentenced  to  a  fine  of  £50,  a  year's 
imprisonment  in  Newgate,  to  stand  in  the  pilkny  for  an  hour 
and  to  give  surety  for  good  behaviour  for  seven  years;  and  lor 
further  libels  the  fine  was  increased  by  £too,  and  the  imprison- 
ment by  a  second  year.  On  9th  March  1791,  however,  he  wns 
liberated  and  pardoned.  In  1799  he  wis  again  convieted  lor 
a  technical  libel,  this  time  on  Lord  Cowper.     He  had  then 


99^ 


WALTER,  LUCY 


«p  tke  maiuigemeat  of  the  bosinaB  to  hb  eldest  iob,  Wfllkm, 
And  had  (1795)  retired  to  Teddington,  whtn  he  died,  i6th 
November  xSx2.  In  1759  he  had  married  Frances  Landen 
(died  X798),  by  whom  he  had  six  children.  William  Walter  very 
ioon  gave  up  the  dutiea  he  undertook  in  1795,  and  in  1S03 
transferred  the  sole  msnsgemcnl  ot  the  businesa  to  his  younger 
brother,  John. 

John  Waltkr  (2)  (i776-r&|.7),  who  really  established  the 
great  newspaper  of  which  his  father  had  sown  the  seed,  was  bom 
on  the  ajid  of  February  1776,  and  was  educated  at  Merchant 
Taylors'  School  and  Trinity  College,  Oxford.  About  X798  he  was 
associated  with  his  dder  brother  in  the  management  of  his 
father's  business,  and  in  X803  becasne  not  only  sole  manager  but 
also  editor  of  Tkt  Times.  The  second  John  Walter  was  a  very 
remarkable  man,  the  details  of  whose  practice  would  be  extremely 
interesting  if  we  could  recover  them.  But  the  conditions  of 
newspaper  work  at  that  time,  together  with  the  natural  reticence 
of  one  bom  to  do,  not  to  talk  about  doing,  drew  over  his  <^ra- 
tions  a  veil  of  secrecy  which  there  are  now  no  means  of  penetrat- 
ing. His  greatness  must  be  measured  by  the  work  he  did.  He 
found  The  Times  one  of  a  number  of  unconsidered  journals  whoae 
opinions  counted  for  little,  and  whose  intelligence  lagged  far 
behind  oflScial  reports,  the  accuracy  of  which  they  had  no 
independent  means  of  diecking.  He  found  it  unregarded  by  the 
great  except  when  a  stringent  law  of  libel  enabled  them  to 
faiflict  vindictive  punishment  in  the  pillory  and  in  prison  for  what 
In  our  days  is  ordinary  political  criticism.  He  left  at  in  1847  a 
great  organ  of  public  opinion,  deferred  to  and  even  feared 
throughout  Europe,  consulted  and  courted  by  cabinet  ministers 
at  borne,  and  in  intimate  relations  with  the  best  sources  of  inde- 
pendent information  in  every  European  capital  The  man  who, 
alone  among  contemporaries  of  older  staniding  and  with  better 
opportunities,  raised  a  struggling  newspaper  to  a  position  such 
as  no  other  journal  has  ever  attained  or  is  likely  to  attain  in 
future,  needs  no  further  attestation  of  his  exceptional  ability 
and  character.  Hie  secret  of  an  achievement  of  that  unique 
kind  is  incommunicable.  Yet  we  may  note  some  at  least  of  the 
elements  of  John  Walter's  monumental  success.  From  bis 
father  he  inherited  a  feariess  and  perhaps  slightly  aggressive 
independence,  to  which  he  joined  a  steady  and  tireless  energy 
and  a  concentration  of  purpose  which  are  less  con^icuous  in  his 
father's  career.  He  had  been  associated  with  his  brother  in  the 
management  of  the  paper  for  five  years  before  he  took  entire 
control  and  became  his  own  editor  in  1803.  In  the  same  year 
be  signalized  the  new  spirit  of  the  direction  by  his  opposition  to 
Pitt,  which  cost  him  the  withdrawal  of  government  adverlise- 
.  nents  and  the  loss  of  his  appointment  as  printer  to  the  Customs, 
besides  exposing  him  to  the  not  too  scrupulous  hostility  of  the 
official  world.  These  were  undoubtedly  serious  discouragements 
in  the  circtunstances  of  that  day.  In  John  Walter's  way  of 
meeting  them  we  find  a  principle  upon  which  he  consistently 
acted  through  life,  and  which  goes  far  to  explain  his  success. 
He  never  allowed  himself  to  be  diverted  from  the  pursuit  of  a 
great  though  distant  object  by  any  petty  calculation  of  immediate 
gain  or  loss.  He  had  set  himself  to  build  up  a  journal  which  all 
the  world  should  recognize  as  ihdepcndent  of  government  favour, 
and  which  governments  themselves  should  be  compelled  to 
respect  and  reckon  with.  He  was  not  going  to  barter  that 
splendid  inheritance  for  to-day's  mess  of  pottage,  so  he  let  the 
government  do  its  worst  and  held  on  his  way.  At  times  the  way 
must  have  been  hard  and  the  anxiety  great,  but  great  also  was 
the  reward.  For  the  pubUc  in  ever-widening  circles  received 
assurance,  in  an  age  of  oonsiderable  literary  and  political  senolity, 
of  a  man  who  could  not  be  bought,  and  a  newspaper  that  could 
.be  neither  hoodwinked  oor  terrorized.  His  determination  to' 
avoid  even  the  ^>pearance  of  being  amenable  to  influence  was 
'forcibly  illustrated  when  the  king  of  Portugal  sent  him,  through 
the  Portuguese  ambassador,  a  service  of  gold  plate.  It  was  a 
princely  gift,  and  a  flattering  testimony  to  the  European  reputa- 
tion and  authority  of  his  newspaper.  Mr  Walter  promptly 
retfoned  it,  courteously  recognising  the  honourable  motives  of  the 
giver*  but  stating  that  to  accept  the  gift  would  place  him  under 


c  sense  of  obligation  faicompatiUe  with  the  periect  IbdepMKlnee 
of  thought  and  action  which  he  desired  to  maintain.  It  was  the 
same  jealous  regard  for  the  complete  independence  of  Tke  Timn 
that  led  him  to  insist,  as  he  did  with  remariLable  success,  upon  the 
strict  anonymity  of  the  able  men  whom  he  selected  with  the  eye 
of  a  general  to  act  as  his  coadjutors.  From  about  1810  he 
delegated  to  others  editorial  supervision  (first  to  Sir  John 
Stoddart,  then  to  Thomas  Barnes,  and  in  184X  to  J.  T.  DeUne), 
though  never  the  supreme  direction  of  policy.  Their  influence 
was  essentially  due  to  the  fact  that  they  had  a  great  newspaper 
behind  them,  and  behind  the  great  newspaper  was  the  remarkable 
man  who  made  it,  and  never  ceased  from  giving  It  inspiratkm 
and  direction.  To  unassailable  independence,  inflexible  integrity 
and  sure  sagacity  he  added  complete  business  knowledge  of 
details,  a  sound  judgment  of  men  and  things,  and  untiring  energy 
in  the  pursuit  of  excellence  in  literary  quality,  in  typography  (see 
Printing),  in  mechanical  appliances,  and  in  the  organizatioo 
for  the  coUectiou  of  news,  lliese  are  the  things  that  went  to  the 
making  of  The  Times,  and  the  measure  of  the  greatness  of  the 
second  John  Walter  is  that  he  supplied  them  alL  In  1833  Mf 
Walter,  who  had  purchased  an  esUte  called  Bear  Wood,  is 
Berkshire  (where  his  son  afterwards  built  the  present  boose), 
was  elected  to  Parliament  for  that  county,  and  retained  bis  sett 
till  Z837.  In  184X  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Nottiar 
ham,  but  was  unseated  next  year  on  petition.  He  was  tvic 
married,  and  by  his  second  w^e,  Mary  Smythe,  had  a  (u^- 
He  died  in  London  on  the  28th  of  July  1847. 

John  Walter  (3)  (1818-1894),  his  eldest  son,  was  bon|^ 
Printing-house  Square  in  x8i8,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  U" 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  being  called  to  the  bar  in  1847-  ^ 
leaving  Oxford  he.  took  part  in  the  business  management  of  lb 
Timest  and  on  his  father's  death  became  sole  manager,  thoap 
he  devolved  part  of  the  work  on  Mr  Mowbray  Morris.    He«tf 
a  man  of  scholarly  tastes  and  serious  religious  vicv.'S,  and  his 
conscientious  character  had  a  marked  influence  on  the  tone  of 
the  paper.    It  was  under  him  that  the  successive  improvements 
in  the  printing  machinery,  begun  by  his  father  in  i8i4t  &t  ^ 
reached  the  stage  of  the  "  Walter  Press  **  in  1869,  the  pioa^r 
of  modem  newspi^ser  printing-presses.    In  1847  h*^  was  elected 
to  Parliament  for  Nottingham  as.  a  moderate  Liberal,  and  «*» 
re*elected  in  1852  and  in  1857.    In  1859  he  was  returned  for 
Berkshire,  and  though  defeated  in  1865,  was  again  elected  la 
z868,  and  held  the  scat  till  he  retired  in  1885.    He  died  on  the 
5rd  of  November  1894.    He  was  twice  married,  first  in  1843  to 
Emily  Frances  Court  (d.  1858),  and  secondly  in  1861  to  Flora 
Macnabb.    His  ddest  son  by  the  first  marriage,  John,  w 
accidentally  drowned  at  Bear  Wood  in  1870;  and  he  was 
succeeded  by  Mr  Arthur  Fraser  Walter  (1846-19 10),  his  second 
son  by  the  first  marriage.    Mr  A.  F>  Waller  remained  chief 
proprietor  of  Tke  Times  till  190S,  when  it  was  converted  into  a 
company.    He  then  became  chairman  of  the  board  of  directors, 
and  on  his  death  was  succeeded  in  this  position  by  his  son  John. 

See  Newspapers:  Modem  London  Newspapers  (Tlu  Tims),fot 
the  history  of  the  paper.  (H.  Cii.) 

WALTER,  LUCY  (c.  1630-1658),  mistress  of  the  English  king 
Charles  11.  and  reputed  mother  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth  (?-^)< 
is  believed  to  have  been  born  in  1630,  or  a  little  later,  at  Roch 
Castle,  near  Haverfordwest.  The  Walters  were  a  Welsh  family 
of  good  standing,  who  declared  for  the  king  during  the  Civil  War* 
Roch  Castle  having  been  captured  and  burned  by  the  parlia> 
mentary  forces  in  1644,  Lucy  Walter  found  shelter  first  i^ 
London  and  then  at  the  Hague.  There,  in  1648,  she  met  the 
future  kingi  possibly  renewing  an  earlier  acquaintance.  There 
is  little  reason  for  believing  the  story  that  she  was  his  firsl 
mistress;  it  is  certain  that  he  was  not  her  first  lover.  The 
intimacy  between  him  and  this  "  brown,  beautiful,  bold  but 
insipid  creature,"  as  John  Evelyn  calls  her»  who  chose  to  be 
known  as  Mrs  Barlow  (Barlo)  lasted  with  intervals  till  the 
autumn  of  1651,  and  Charles  claimed  the  paternity  of  a  child 
bom  in  1649,  whom  he  subsequently  created  duke  of  Monmouth. 
A  daughter,  Mary  (b.  i6sx>,  of  whom  the  reputed  father  was 
Heniy  Bemiet»  earl  of  Ailixiffton»  married  William  Sarsfield, 


k 


WALTER  OF  CX}VENTRY~-WALTHAM  ABBEY 


297 


bmluf  oC*.PttUfek  Satsfidd,  catl  of  Locul  On  tba  termliMtlon 
ftf  her  cotmtadbn  with  Cfaaiies  11^  Lucy  Wfther  abandoned  henelf 
|o  a  Uf e  oi  promiaciaous  immorality,  which  resulted  in  her 
premature  death,  at  Paris,  in  1658.    Her  name  is  often  wrongly 

jwriUcn  Waltea  or  Waten. 

k  See  Steiamann^  AUkorP  Memoirs  {1869),  |»p.  77  tcq.  and  Addenda 
(1880):  J.  S.  Oorke,  Ufe  qf  James  II.  Cx  vela,  1816);  Clarendon 
'State  Papers,  vol.  iii.  (Oxford,  X869-1876};  and  John  Evelyn,  X^iory, 
edited  by  W.  Bray  (1890).  *  ** 

WALTER  OF  OOVBNTRV  (fl.  1290),  Englblk  monk  and 
rbronlder,  who  was  apparently  connected  with  a  religious  house 
tn  the  province  of  York,  is  known  to  us  only  through  the  historical 
compilation  which  bears  his  name,  the  MemoriaU  fratris  Walteri 
de  Coventria.  The  word  MemoriaU  is  usually  taken  to  mean 
**  commonplace  book."  Some  critics  interpret  it  in  the  sense 
of  "  a  souvenir,"  and  argue  that  Walter  was  not  the  author  but 
inercly  the  donor  of  the  book;  but  the  weight  of  authority  is 
against  this  view.  The  author  of  the  MemoriaU  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  I. ,  and  mentions  the  homage  done  to  Edward 
as  overlord  of  Scotland  (1391).  Since  the  main  narrative 
extends  only  to  1225,  the  MemoriaU  is  emphatically  a  second- 
hand production.  But  for  the  years  1201-1225  it  b  a  faithful 
transcript  of  a  contemporary  chrom'de,  the  work  of  a  Barnwell 
canon.  A  complete  text  of  the  Barnwell  work  Is  preserved  in 
the  College  of  Anns  (Heralds'  College,  MS.  10)  but  has  never  yet 
been  printed,  though  it  was  collated  by  Bishop  Stubbs  for  his 
edition  of  the  Memoriale.  The  Barnwell  annalist,  living  in 
Cambridgeshire,  was  ^cll  situated  to  observe  the  events  of  the 
barons'  war,  and  h  our  most  valuable  authority  for  that  import- 
ant crisis.  He  is  less  hostile  to  John  than  are  Ralph  of  Coggeshall, 
Koger  of  Wendover  and  Matthew  Paris.  He  praises  the  king's 
management  of  the  Welsh  and  Scotch  wars;  he  is  critical  in  his 
attitude  towards  the  pope  and  the  English  opposition ;  he 
regards  the  submission  of  John  to  Rome  as  a  skilful  stroke 
of  policy,  although  he  notes  the  fkct  that  some  men  called  it 
A  humiliation.  The  constitutional  agitation  of  1215  does  not 
arouse  his  enthusiasm;  he  passes  curtly  over  the  Runnymede 
conference,  bardy  mentions  Magna  Carta,  and  blames  the 
barona  for  the  resumption  of  war.  It  may  be  from  timidity  that 
the  annalist  avoids  attacking  John,  but  it  is  more  probable  that 
the  middle  dasses,  whom  he  represents,  regarded  the  designs  of 
the  feudal  baronage  ^th  suspicion. 

»  See  W.  Stubbs'a  edition  of  Walter  Of  Coventry  ("  Rolls  "  aeries, 
8  vob.,  1872^1873);  R.  PauU,  in  GescMchU  von  Bnfiand  (Hamburg, 
j853).iU.87^.  (aw.  CD.) 

WALTBRSHAUSBir,  WOL90ANO  SARTORmS.  Bason  von 
^1809-1876);  Gennan  geologist,  was  bom  at  Gdttfngen,  on  the 
X7th  of  December  1809,  and  educated  at  the  vnivexsity  in  that 
dty.  Tlwre  he  devot^  his  attention  to  physical  and  natural 
•dcncet  and  in  pactiarisr  to  mineralogy.  Durirfg  a  tour  in  2834- 
1B35  he  carried  out  a.  series  of  magnetic  observations  In  various 
|HBta  of  Enrope^  He  then  gave  Ids  attention  to  an  ezhaostive 
invatlgation  oC  Etna,  and  cnnfed  on  the  woik  with  some  inter- 
niptiona  until  1843.  1^  cbief  result  of  tUs  undertaking  was  his 
great  AUasderAhaiiB^Mi) ,  in  which  he  distinguished  tfaelava 
atSBuna  foraoBd  during  the  later  otnturiei.  After  bia  return  from 
fitna  be  "visited  Iceland,  and  aabseqiMiitly  published  PhysUck- 
feogf^apkistke  SUta  ton  IsUnd  (1847)^  ^^  ^^  vtdhanistken 
Getteim  {mSicHien  md  JiUnd  (1853),  and  GtoUfisckir  Ali»  von 
/afflfii  (i853>.  Meanwhile  he  was  appointed  pfofcsBor  of  miner- 
alogy, and  geolagy  at  GMtingea,  and  hdd  this  poet  for  about 
thhty  Tiaa,  until  his  death,  la  s866  ht  puhli^bed  an  important 
SMiy  entitted  Rechercka  sur  lis  cUmais  dt  tipoqut  aehteUe  et  des 
ipoium  MBienMef ;  in  thic  he  expiMsed  bb  belief  that  the  Glacial 
pietj^wasdue  to  dian^es  in  the  configuration  of  the  earth^s 
Mzfiuib   He  died  at<G4ttin0Ri  en  the  x6th  of  October  1876% 

WAUVAMt  a  dty  of  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts, 
TJ.^.A.»  on  both  banks  of  the  Charles  river>  about  10  m.  W.  of 
Boston.  Pbp.  (1890)  28,707;  (1900)  23,481,  of  whom  ^5 
meit  foitign-bom;  (19x0  cenaus)  27,834.  Waltham  is  served 
by  the  Boston  &  Maine  raOway,  and  by  electric  interurban  lines 
coBJDecting  with  Beaton,  Lowdl*  Lexington,  Watertown  and 
^ewtou   Il^iaaltnateioaAaeikfroC nigged hiilariunglmn the- 


rtver.  Ptotpect  HiQ  (482  ft.)  commands  a  magnSficent  view.  A 
tract  of  xoo  acres,  comprising  this  hUl  and  an  adjoining  elevation, 
has  been  set  aside  as  a  public  park  by  the  dty;  and  there  are 
four  pla^pounds  (total  area,  62I  acres)  and,  in  the  centre  of  the 
dty,  a  large  common.  In  Waltham  are  some  43  acres  of  the 
Beaver  Brook  Reservation  and  40  acres  of  the  Charles  River 
ReservatioB  of  the  MettopoKtan  park  system;  in  the  former  are 
the  famous  "Waverley  Oaka."  The  Gore  Mansion,  erected 
towards  the  dose  of  the  x8th  century  by  Christopher  Gore 
(X758-1829),  a  prominent  lawyer  and  Federalist  leader,  governor 
of  Massachusetts  in  t8o9>i8ro,  and  a  member  of  the  United 
Stales  Senate  in  x8t4-'x8x7,  is  a  statdy  country  house  surrounded 
by  extensive  grouiub  in  which  are  fine  old  oaks  and  dms. 
Above  the  dty  the  Charles  river  is  famous  as  a  canoeing  ground, 
and  there  is  an  aimual  canoe  carnival  between  Waltham  and 
Riverside,  one  of  the  most  popular  resorts  in  the  ndghbourhood 
of  Boston.  The  dty  has  a  good  public  library  (about  35,000 
volumes  in  19x0).  Its  (Hindpal  buildings  are  a  state  armoury, 
and  the  First  Parish  (Unitarian),  Christ  (Protestant  Episcopal), 
the  Swedenborgian,  the  First  Baptist  and  Beth  Eden  (Baptist) 
chttTches.  Waltham  is  the  seat  of  the  Massachusetta  School 
for  the  Feeble-minded  (established  in  Boston  in  1848),  the  first 
institution  of  its  sort  in  the  country,  and  of  the  Waltham  Train- 
ing School  for  Nurses  (1885),  the  first  school  to  undertake  the 
training  of  nurses  iift "  day  nursing  "  (outsde  of  hospital  wards) 
on  the  present  plan,  of  the  Convent  of  Notre  Dame  and  the  Notre 
Dame  Normal  Thuning  School  (Roman  Catholic),  of  the  New 
Church  School  (New  Jcrtisalem  Church),  of  two  business  schools, 
and  the  Waltham  Horological  School  (1870),  a  school  for  practical 
watchnaaking  and  repairing;  here  also  are  the  Waltham  Hospital 
(x88s),  the  Baby  Hospital  (xQo^)  nnd  the  Lcland  Home  (1879) 
for  aged  women.  In  1905  the  dtyVi  factory  product  was  valued 
at  $7,149,697  (2t*4%  more  then  in  1900).  The  largest  single 
establishment  was  that  of  the  American  Waltham  Watch 
Company,  which  has  here  the  largest  watch  factory  in  the  world, 
with  an  annual  production  of  about  a  million  watches.  Watch 
and  dock  materials  were  valued  at  $123,885  in  1905.  In  1905 
oottoB  goods  were  second  in  valne  to  watches;  and  third  were 
foundry  and  machine-shop  products  ($516,067).  Other  products 
are  automobiles,  wagoni  and  carriages,  bicycles,  canoes,  organs 
and  enamelled  work. 

The  fivst  white  settlement  waa  made  about  1640  and  in  1691 
became  the  Middle  Precinct  of  Watertown.  In  1 738  the  township 
of  Waltham  was  separatdy  organized.  At  various  times  it  was 
increased  in  area,  part  of  Cambridge  bdng  added  fax  1755  and 
pan  of  Newton  in  X849.  In  1859  one  of  its  predncts  was  set  off 
to  fbrm  part  of  the  new  township  of  Belmoht.  In  1 884  Waltham 
was  chartered  as  a  dty.  The  fint  power  mill  for  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  doth  in  the  United  States  was  established  here  in  X814 
as  an  ejqMsiment  by  the  company  which  built  the  mills  and  the 
dty  of  Lowell.  Waltham  became  an  important  manufacturing 
dty  hi  the  decade  before  the  American 'QvQ  War,  when  the 
ccMupany  which  in  1853  made  the  first  American  machine- 
made  watches  moved  hither  from  Roxbury  and  established  the 
Waltham  watch  industry.  This  watch  company,  before  the 
establishment  of  the  U.S.  Observatory  at  Washington  and  the 
transmission  thence  of  true  time  throughout  the  country  by 
dectri£  telegraph,  had  an  elaborate  observatory  for  testing  and 
setting  its  watches. 

WAITHAK  ABBBT,  or  Waltham  HotT  Cross,  a  mailet 
town  in  the  Epping  parliamentary  division  of  Essex,  England, 
on  the  Lea,  and  on  the  Cambridge  branch  of  the  Great  Eastern 
railway,  13  m.  N.  by  E.  from  London.  Pop.  of  urban  district  Of 
Waltham  Holy  Cross  (1901)  6549.  The  neighbouring  county  of 
the  Lea  valley  is  flat  and  unlovely,  but  to  the  E.  and  N.E.  low 
hilb  rise  hi  the  direction  of  Hainault  and  Epping  Forests.  Ot 
the  former  magnificent  cruciform  abbey  church  the  onVportfoA 
of  importance  now  remaining  is  the  nave,  forming  the  present 
parish  church,  the  two  easternmost  bays  bdng  converted  Into 
the  chancel.  It  is  a  very  fine  soedmen  of  ornate  Nonuair. 
Only  the-  western  eupports  of  the  ancient  tower  now  ren^& 
A  tower  ooire^pondii^  with  the  present  sixe  of  the  chuidi  wtk 


agS 


WALTHAMSTOW— WALTHAltlUS 


erected  ia  1556  and  rcstoced  in  1798..  On  the  toulh  side  of  ihe 
church  is  a  lady  chapel  dating  from  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Edward  II.  or  the  beginning  of  that  of  Edward  III.,  containing 
some  good  Decorated  work,  with  a  crypt  below.  Of  the  monastic 
buildings  there  remain  oxily  a  bridge  and  gateway  and  other 
slight  fragments.  Bishop  Hall  became  curate  of  Waltbam  in 
1613,  and  Thomas  Fuller  was  curate  from  1648  to  1658.  At 
Waltham  Cross*  about  x  m.  W.  of  Waltbam  tn  Hertfccdshire, 
is  the  beautiful  cross  erected  (1291-1294)  by  Edwacd  I.  at  one 
of  the  resting-pUces  of  the  corpse  of  Queen  Eleanor  on  its  way 
to  burial  in  Westminster  Abbey.  It  is  of  Caen  stone  and  is 
supposed  to  have  been  deigned  by  Pietro  Cavallini,  a  Roman 
sculptor.  It  is  heugonal  in  plan  and  conasts  of  tturee  stages, 
decreasing  towards  the  top,  which  is  finidied  by  a  docketed 
spirelet  and  cross.  The  lower  stage  is  divided  into  compartments 
enclosing  the  arms  of  England,  Castile  and  l.eon,  and  Ponthien. 
Its  restoration  has  not  been  wholly  satisfactory.  The  royal  gun- 
powder factory  is  in  the  immediate  vicinity;  government  works 
were  built  in  1890  at  Quinton  Hill,  |  m.  W.  of  the  town,  for 
the  manufacture  of  cordite;  and  the  town  possesses  gun-cotton 
and  percussion-cap  factories,  flour-miUs,  malt  kilns  and  breweries. 
Watercresses  are  largely  grown  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  there 
are  extensive  market  gardens  and  nurseries. 

The  town  probably  grew  up  round  the  church,  which  was  built 
early  in  the  nth  century  to  contain  a  portion  of  the  true  cross. 
The  manor  was  held  by  the  abbot  and  convent  of  the  Holy  Cross 
from  the  reign  ol  Henry  I.  to  that  of  Henry  VIII.  The  town  was 
never  more  than  a  market  town  until  1894.  In  1845  a  Local 
board  of  twelve  members  was  formed  to  govern  it;  in  1894, 
under  the  Local  Government  Act,  it  was  brought  under  an  urban 
district  coundL  The  market  of  Waltham  was  granted  to  the 
abbey  by  Richard  I.  and  confirmed  in  1227  by  Henry  III.,  who 
also  conceded  two  fairs  in  1251:  one  for  ten  days  following  the 
Invention  of  the  Holy  Cross,  the  other  on  the  vigil  of  the  Exalta- 
tion of  the  Cross  anid  for  seven  days  after.  The  charter  from 
which  the  present  market  appears  to  be  derived  was  granted  by 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  1560,  and  gave  a  Tuesday  market  for  miscel- 
laneous stock.  The  fairs  have  died  oat,  although  as  late  as  1 792 
they  were  held  on  the  14th  of  May  and. the  25th  and  26th  of 
September.  The  fisheries  in  the  river  Lea  appear  in  records 
from  1086  onwards.  At  the  end  of  the  17th  century  a  fulling 
mill  is  mentioned,  and  by  the  year  1721  three  powder  mills  were 
in  existence. 

WALTHAMSTOW,  a  suburb  oC  London  in  the  Walthaoi9tow 
parliamentary  division  of  Essex,  England,  a  short  distance  E. 
of  the  river  Lea,  with  several  stations  on  a  branch  of  the  Great 
Eastern  railway,  6  m.  N.  of  Liverpool  Street  station.  Pop.  of 
urban  district  (1891)  4^)346;  (1901)  95,i3x>  It  is  sheltered  on 
the  north  and  east  by  low  hills  formeriy  included  in  i^ing 
Forest.  The  church  of  St  Mary  existed  at  a  very  early  period, 
but  the  present  building,  chiefly  of  bri^^r^nss  erected  in  1535 
by  Robert  Thome,  a  merchant,  and  Sirlieoxge  Monoux,  lord 
mayor  of  London,  and  has  underggogr  frequent  alteration. 
Besides  other  old  brasses  it  contains  in  the  north  aisle  the 
effigies  in  brass  of  Sir  George  Monoux  (d.  1543)  and  Anne  his  wife. 
There  are  a  number  of  educational  institutions,  including  a  school 
of  art;  Forest  School,  founded  in  1834  in  connexion  with 
King's  College,  now  ranks  as  one  of  the  well-known  English 
public  schools.    Brewing  is  extensively  carried  on. 

In  the  reign  of  Edwaid  the  Confessor  Walthamatofw  bdooged 
10  Waltheof ,  son  of  Siward,  earl  of  Northumberland,  who  married 
Judith,  niece  of  William  the  Conqueror,  who  betrayed  him  to  his 
death  in  1075.  'Hie  estate  subsequently  passed  in  1309  to  Guy 
de  Beaucluunp,  earl  of  Warwick,  and  on  the  attainder  of  Eari 
Thomas  in  1396  reverted  to  the  crown.  Afterwards  it  came 
into  the  possesion  of  Edmund  Beaufort,  duke  of  Somerset;  from 
the  Somersets  it  passed  to  Sir  Geo^e  Rodney,  and  in  1639  came 
to  the  Maynard  family.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  birthplace 
41  Gcoiie  Gascoigne  the  poet  (d.  1577).  Sir  William  Batten, 
copiffiissioner  of  the  navy  (d.  1667),  the  friend  of  Pepys,  had  his 
Mat  at  Walthamstow,  and  was   frequently  visited  here  by 


WAUTKABIIM,  a  Latin  poem  foandad  on  Oemua  poprfi? 
tradition,  relates  the  cxploiu  of  the  weA  Gothic  hero  Walter  «f 
Aquitaine.  Our  knowledge  of  the  author,  Ekkehard,  a  nonk 
of  St  Gall,  Is  due  to  a  later  Ekkehard,  known  as  Ekkehard  IV. 
(d.  1060),  who  gives  some  account  of  him  in  the  Casus  SamU 
Colli  (cap.  80).  The  poem  was  written  by  Ekkefaaid,  genexaDy 
distinguished  as  Ekkehard  I„  for  his  master  Gcraldus  ia  hk 
schooldays,  probably  therefore  not  later  than  920,  since  he  wm 
probably  no  k>nger  young  when  he  became  deacon  (in  charge  of 
ten  monks)  in  957.  He  died  in  973.  Wdtharius  was  dedicated 
by  Geraldus  to  Erchanbald,  bishop  of  Strassburg  (fl.  965-991), 
but  MSS.  of  it  were  in  circulation  before  that  time.  Ekkehard  IV. 
stated  that  he  corrected  the  Latin  of  the  poem,  the  Germanisigs 
of  which  offended  his  patron  Aribo,  archbbhop  of  Mainz.  The 
poem  was  probably  hased  on  epic  songs  now  lost,  so  that  if  the 
author  was  still  in  his  teens  when  he  wrote  it  be  must  bsve 
possessed  considerable  and  precocious  i>owera. 

Walter  was  the  son  of  Alphere,  ruler  of  Aquitaine,  which  int&e 
5th  century,  when  the  legend  developed,  was  a  province  of  the  vest 
Gothic  Spanish  kingdom.    When  Attila  invaded  the  west  tie 
western  princes  are  represented  as  making  no  rcsisUnce.   Tlief 
purchased  peace  by  offering  tribute  and  hostages.    King  GibicK 
here  described  as  a  Prankish  king,  gave  Hagen  as  a  hosU|e 
(of  Trojan  race,  but  not,  as  in  the  Ntbelungenlied,  a  kinsman  d 
the  royal  house)  in  place  of  his  infant  son  Guntber;  the  B<^ 
gundian  king  Heririh,  his  daughter  Hiltegund;  and  ^phmiii 
son  Waller.    Hagen  and  Walter  became  brotheis  in  vbs 
fighting  at  the  head  of  AttUa's  armies,  while  Hiltegund  was  pi 
in  charge  of  the  queen's  treasure.    Presently  Guntber  succeeded 
hi$  father  and  refused  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Huns,  wheieupos 
Hagen  fled  from  Attila's  court.    Walter  and  Hiltegund,  who  ba4 
been  betrothed  in  childhood,  also  made  good  their  escape  durioga 
drunken  feast  of  the  Huns,  taking  with  them  a  great  treasure. 
The  story  of  their  flight  forms  one  of  the  most  charming  pictuio 
of  old  German  story.    They  were  recognized  at  Worms,  hovevtfi 
where  the  treasure  excited  the  cupidity  of  Gunther.,   Takiot 
with  him  twelve  knights,  among  them  the  reluctant  Hagen, 
he  pursued  them,  and  overtook  them  at  the  Wasgcnstein  in  tbe 
Vosges  mountains.    Walter  engaged  the  Kibelungen  knights 
one  at  a  time,  until  all  were  slain  but  Hagen,  who  held  aloof 
from  the  battle,  and  was  only  persuaded  by  Gunther  to  attack  bis 
comrade  in  arms  on  the  second  day.    He  hired  Walter  from  the 
strong  position  of  the  day  before,  and  both  Gunther  and  Hagen 
attacked  at  once.    All  three  were  incapacitated,  but  their  woiffldi 
were  bound  up  by  Hiltegund  and.they  separated  friends- 

The  essential  part  of  this  atory'is  the  series  of  si n^  combats. 
The  occasional  incoherences  of  the  tale  make  it  probable  that 
many  changes  have  been  introduced  in  the  legend.  The  Tktdras 
Saga  (chaps.  241-244)  makes  the  story  nore  probable  by  repi^ 
senting  the  pursuers  as  Huns.  There  is  reason  to  believe  thai 
Hagen  was  origmally  the  father  of  Hiltegund,  and  that  the  tate 
was  a  variant  of  the  saga  of  Hild  as  told  in  the  Skaldskap»^ 
Hild,  daughter  of  King  Hdgni,  was  carried  off  by  Hedinn,  son  of 
Hjarrandi  (A.S.  Heorrcnda).  The  fight  betwctn  the  fi»^^ 
lather  and  lover  only  ceased  at  sundown,  to  be  te&ewed  on  the 
morrow,  since  each  evening  HiU  raised  the  dead  by  her  incant*^ 
tions.  This  is  obviously  a  form  of  the  old  myth  «f  the  daily 
recurring  struggle  between  light  and  datknessr  The  songs  sung 
by  Hiltegund  in  Waltharius  during  her-  night  watches  ««» 
probably  incantations,  a  view  strengthened  by  ths  fact  ^^*°/ 
P<^ish  version  the  glance  of  Hdgunda  is  said  to  have  iaspired  tat 
combatants  with  new  strength.  Hiltegund  has  retained  BOtJjJ^ 
of  Hild's  fierceness,  hot  the  fragment  of  die  AngIo*Saxon  ^'^^ 
shows  more  of  the  original  spiriL  In  WaUkarius  Biltc^ 
advises  WaUer  to  fly;  in  Waidert  she  urges  him  to  the  combat. 

Bibliography.— l»W/*ariM  was  first  edited  by  Fischer  (Leif^ 
1780).  Later  »nd  more  cricfcal  editfona  afe  by  Jacob  Grifflna  1^ 
CtdkhU  des  Miitelalters  (0«cUngen.  1838):  R.  Peiper  (Btrho*  l£^* 
V.  Scheffel  and  A.  Holder  (Stuttgart.  i«74):  th***  .•f/i%5t 
translations  by  F.Linnifi;(Paderborn.  1M5),  and  H,  Althof  («-<MJfg 
i896>.  Sec  also  Scheffrfa  novel  of  Eckihard  (Stutt«rt.  >W7J- Jr% 
A.S.  fragments  of  WaUert  were  firei  ediwd  by  C.  btephent  (i*^' 
aftttWMds  by  R.  .Walker  in.  MiiL  dm  mK§eL$idu.  Mt^  <<^  ** 


WALTHEOF—WALTHER  VON  DER  VOGELWEIDE        299 


CuNir  lUth  Iv  F.  HpfthMMn  ia  GHUboris  mgihUas  Arstkrifi 

(vol.  v.,  1S99),  with  autotype  reproductions  of  the  two  leaves  which 

have  been  preserved.    See  also  A.  Ebert,  AMi^  Cesck.  der  JM.  des 

MUldalUn  im  Abendhnde  (^cipct;.  1874-1887);  R.  Koesd.  Geuk. 

der  defttuka  LUitaitar  his  dim  Ausiougfi  det  Milldalten  (yd,  L ,  pt.  tt., 

Straaahufg,  I 

(Baltimore,  x 

1905).    With  fKoZ/Aoftiu  compare 

Brand  "  and  "  Eritnton  "  (F.  J.  Child's  Eng^h  and  ScottiA  Pdpular 

/Miaiis,L88a6q.). 

WALTHEQP  (d«  1076),  earl  of  Notthiifflbrk»  was  a  son  of  Earl 
Siwardof  Nortfavmbcia)  and,  although  he  was  probabtyedncsted 
for  a  monastic  Hie,  becune  earl  of  Huatingdon  and  Northampton 
about  1065.  After  the  batik  of  Hastings  he  submitted  to  WilUaai 
the  Conquoror;  1>iit  when  the  Danes  invaded  the  north  of 
Eni^nd  in  1069  he  joined  them  and  took  part  in  the  attack  on 
Yock»  only,  however,. to  make  a  fresh  submission  after  their 
departure  in  1070W  Thai,  icstozed  to  his  earldom,  he  married 
William's  niece,  Judith,  and  la  1071  "was  appointed  cad  of 
Nortiiumbria.  In  1075  Waltheof  joined  the  coaafAtacy  against 
the  king  arranged  by  the  earb  of  Notiblk  and  Herolmd;  but  soon 
repenting  of  bis  action  he  confessed  his  guilt  to  Aichbishop 
Lanfcanc,  and  then  to  William,  wbo  was  in  Normandy.  Ris 
turning  to  TjiglawH  with  William  he  was  anested,  and  after  being 
brought  twice  before  the  king's  court  was  sentenced  to  death. 
On  the  3iat  of  May  1076  he  was  beheaded  on  St  Giles's  Hill, 
near  Wincfaeater.  Weak  and  unreliable  in  character,  Widtheof , 
like  his  father,  ia  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  immense  bodily 
strength.  Devout  and  charitable,  he  was  regarded  by  the  Eng^'ah 
as  a  martyr,  and  mii^des  were  said  to  have  been  worked  at  his 
tomb  St  Crowland.  The  earl  left  three  dsMghtecs,  the  eldest 
of  whom,  Matilda,  brought  the  earldom  of  Hvntingdon  to  her 
second  husband,  David  I.,  king  of  Scotland.  One  of  Waltheof 's 
grandsons  was  Waltheof  (d.  1x59),  abbot  of  Melrose. 

See  E.  A.  Freedtan,  Tkt  NmwoM  CmgMi/,  vols.  ii»,  iii.  and  iv. 
(1670-1876). 

WALTfiER,  BERNRARD  (i43o-r5a|),  German  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1430.  He  was  a  man  of  large  means, 
which  he  devoted  to  scientific  pursuits.  When  Regiomontanus 
(f.9.)  settled  at  Nuienbeig  in  1471,  Walther  built  for  their 
common  use  an  observatory  at  which  in  1484  docks  driven  by 
weights  were  first  used  in  astronomical  determinatfons.  He 
further  brought  into  prominence  the  effects  of  refraction  in  alter- 
ing the  apparent  places  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  substituted 
Venus  for  the  moon  as  a  connecting-link  between  observations  of 
the  son  and  stars.  WaHher  established  a  printing-press,  from 
which  some  of  the  escrllest  edlttons  of  astronomical  works  were 
issued.  His  obeefVations,  begun  in  r475  and  continued  until  his 
death  in  May  1504,  were  published  by  J.  SchOner  fai  T544,  and  by 
W.  Soell  in  z<^  8,  as  an  appendix  to  his  Ohsenaihnes  Hassiaceae. 

See  J.  0.  Doppdmayr,  Hist.  NaehrkU  ton  den  nUmbergischen 
iiaihemaikitt  P.  n  <I73K>>;  G.  A.  Will,  IMrnhergisches  Gdehrttn- 


Lexihm,  yii.  381  (1806):  J.  F. 

«46;  J.  S.  BaUly.  Uist.d€Vai 

JUformtUion  der  Stemkundfit  . 

Niricae  basis  asfrcnomico  (1719) ;  f.  F.  Weidler,  Hist.  astrotKmiae, 

p.  3»;  A.  G.  Kistder,  OeScbkkte  dtr  Matkemaiik,  it.  324;  Mii- 

UiiuHitn  des  VerrnnsJUr  Cesck.  der  Skadi  Niimberg,  viL  837  <i888) 

(H.  Peu):  R.  WoU,  Cesck  der  Astr.  p.  92,  &c. 

WALTHER  VON  DER  VOGELWEIDE  (c.  1170-^.  1330),  the 
most  celebrated  of  medieval  German  lyric  poets.  For  all  his 
fame,  Walther's  name  is  not  found  in  contemporary  records, 
with  the  exception  of  a  solitary  mention  in  the  travelling  ac- 
counts of  Bishop  Wolfger  of  Passau— "  Wallhero  canton  de 
Vogelweide  pro  pellicio V. solidos  longos" — "To  Walther  the 
singer  of  the  Vogclwdde  £ve  shillings  to  buy  a  fur  coat,"  and 
the  main  sources  of  information  about  him  are  his  own  poems 
and  occasional  references  by  contemporary  Minnesingers.  It  is 
clear  from  the  title  Mr  {Hut,  Sir)  these  give  him,  that  he  was 
of  noble  birth;  but  it  is  equally  dear  from  his  name  Vogelweide 
(Lat.  amriumt  a  gathering  place  or  preserve  of  birds)  that  he 
bdonged  not  to  the  higher  nobility,  who  took  their  titles  from 
castles  or  villages,  but  to  the  nobility  of  service  {DUmtadel), 
humble  retamers  of  the  great  lords,  who  in  wealth  and  position 
were  little  removed  from  noB-«oble  frss  cultivatois.    For  • 


long  tfane  the  place  of  his  biHh  was  a  matter  of  dispiite,  until 
Professor  Frans  Pfeifi^er  established  beyond  reasonable  doubt 
that  he  was  born  in  the  Wipthal  in  Tirol,  where,  not  far  from 
the  little  town  of  Stersing  on  the,£isak,  a  wood^-called  the 
Vorder-  und  Hintervogelweide— preserves  at  least  the  name 
of  his  vanished  home.  This  origin  would  account  for  what  is 
known  of  Walther's  eady  life. .  Tirol  was  at  this  time  the  hmne 
of  several  noted  Minnesingers;  and  the  court  of  Vienna,  under 
the  enlightened  duke  Frederidt  I.  of  the  house  of  Babenberg, 
had  become  a  centra  of  poetry  and  art.  Here  it  was  that  thfi 
young  poet  karaed  his  craft  under  the  renowned  master  Reinmar 
the  Old,  whose  death  bs  afterwards  lamented  in  two  of  his  most 
beautiful  lyrics;  and  in  the  open  handed  dvd^e  he  found  his 
first  patron.  This  happy  period  of  his  life,  during  which  he  pro- 
duced the  most  charming  and  spontaneous  of  his  feve-lyrics, 
came  to  an  end  with  the  death  of  Duke  Frederick  in  1198. 
Henceforwani  Walther  was  a  wanderer  from  court  to  court, 
singing  for  his  hxlging  and  his  bread,  and  ever  hoping  that  some 
patron  would  arise  to  save  him  from  this  "  juggler's  life  "  (gougel' 
fuore)  and  the  shame  of  ever  playing  the  guest.  For  material 
success  in  this  profession  he  was  hardily  calculated.  His  criti- 
cism of  men  and  manners  was  scathing;  and  even  when  this 
(lid  not  touch  his  princely  patrons,  their  underlings  often  took 
measures  to  rid  themselves  of  so  uncomfortable  a  censor.  Thus 
he  was  forced  to  leave  the  court  of  the  generous  duke  Bemhard 
of  Carinthia  ii2oi^i2$6)i  after  an  experience  of  the  tumultuous 
household  of  the  landgr&ve  of  Thnringia  he  warns  those  who 
have  weak  ears  to  give  it  a  wide  berth;  and  after  thcee  years 
at  the  court  of  Dietrich  L  of  Meissen  (reigned  1195-1221)  he 
complains  that  be  had  received  for  his  services  neither  money 
nor  praise.  Walther  was,  in  fact,  a  man  of  strong  views;  and 
it  is  this  which  gives  him  his  main  significance  in  history,  as 
distinguished  from  his  place  in  literature.  From  the  moment 
when  the  death  of  the  emperor  Henry  Vi.  (1197)  opened  the 
fateful  stniggle  between  empire  and  papaqr,  Walther  threw 
himself  ardently  into  theftayon  the  side  of  German  independ- 
ence and  unity.  Though  his  religious  poems  suffidently  prove 
the  sincerity  of  his  Catholicism,  he  remained  to  the  end  of  his 
days  oi^)osed  to  the  extreme  claims  of  the  popes,  whom  he 
attacks  with  a  bitterness  which  can  only  be  justified  by  the 
strength  of  his  patriotic  feefings.  Hh  political  poems  begin 
with  an  appeal  to  Germany,  written  in  1198  at  Vienna,  against 
the  disruptive  ambitions  of  the  princes: — 

"  Crown  Philip  with  the  Kaiser's  crawn 
And  bid  th«n  vex  thy  peace  00  more." 

He  was  present,  on  the  8th  of  September,  at  Philip's  coronatwn 
at  Mainz,  and  supported  him  till  his  victory  was  assured.  After 
Philip's  murder  in  1309,  he  "said  and  sang**  in  support  of 
Otto  of  Brunswick  against  the  papal  candidate  Frederick  of 
SUufen;  and  only  when  Otto's  usefulness  to  Germany  had 
been  shattered  by  the  battle  of  Bouvines  (1312)  did  he  turn 
to  the  rising  star  of  Firederick  ll.,  now  the  sole  representative 
of  German  majesty  against  pope  and  princes.  From  the  new 
emperor  his  genius  and  his  zeal  for  the  empire  at  last  recdved 
recognition;  and  a  small  fief  in  Franconia  was  bestowed  upon 
him,  which,  though  he  complained  that  its  value  was  little,  gave 
him  the  home  and  the  fixed  position  he  had  so  long  desired. 
That  Froderick  gave  him  an  even  more  signal  mark  of  his  favour 
by  making  him  the  tutor  of  his  son  Henry  VII.,  is  more  than 
doubtful.  The  fact,  in  itself  highly  improbable,  rests  only  upon 
the  eWdence  of  a  single  poerti,  which  is  capable  of  another 
inteipretation.  Wahher's  restless  spirit  did  not  suffer  him  to 
remain  long  on  his  new  pr^rty.  In  1317  we  find  him  once 
more  at  Vienna,  and  again  in  1S19  after  the  return  of  Duke 
Leopold  VI.  from  the  crusade.  About  1334  he  seems  to  have 
settled  on  his  fief  near  WQrzburg.  He  was  active  in  urging  the 
Geiman  princes  to  take  part  in  the  crusade  of  tsaS,  Mid  may 
have  accompanied  the  crusading  army  at  least  as  far  as  hi 
native  Tirol  In  a  beautiful  and  pathetic  poem  he  paints  the 
change  that  had  come  over  the  scenes  of  his  childhood  and  macfe 
his  life  seem  a  thiug  dreamed.  He  died  about  1330,  and  was 
buried  at  WOrzburg,  after  leaving  directions,  acmfding  to  Uw 


^p^ 


WALTON,iE— WALTON;  IZAAK 


r    1 


7 


siokri  tbftt  tbe  Unb  irare  to  be  fed  at  bb  tomb  daOy.  Tlie 
ofigUttl  gravestone  with  its  Latin  inscription  bas  diaiifmed; 
hot  in  t843  &  new  monument  was  erected  over  tlie  spot.  There 
is  tho  a  fine  statue  of  the  poet  at  Bozen,  unveiled  in  iSn* 

HiBtDrkally  intetesting  as  Waltfaer's  political  verses  are, 
their  merit  has  been  not  a  little  exaggerated  by  modem  German 
critics,  who  saw  their  own  imperial  aspirations  and  anti-papal 
prtjaScet  Teflected  in  this  patriotic  pioet  of  'the  middle  ages. 
Of  more  lasting  value  are  the  beautiful  lyrics,  mainly  dealing 
with  love,  whi(A  led  his  contemporaries  to  haU  him  as  their 
master  in  song  {misers  tamges  mdsUr),  He  is  of  course  unequal. 
At  bis  worst  he  does'not  risie  above  the  tiresome  con  ventionaBties 
of  hh  school.  At  Us  best  he  shows  a  spontaneity,  a  oharm  and 
a  facility  which  his  rivals  bought  in  vain  to  emulate.  His  earlier 
lyrics  are  full  of  the  joy  of  life,  of  feeling  for  nature  and  of  the 
gkiry  of  love;  Greatly  daring,  he  even  rescues  love  from  the 
convention  which  had  made  it  the  prerogative  ol  the  nobly 
bom,  contrasts  the  titles  "  woman  "  {wtp)  and  *'  lady  "  (froiwc) 
to  the  disadvantage  of  the  latter,  and  pats  the  most  beautiful 
of  his  lyrics— LTfi/tfr  der  /iiMf«n--iiiU>  the  mouth  of  a  simple 
gid.  ^A  certain  seriousness,  which  is  apparent,  under  tbe  joyous- 
nets  of  his  earlier  work,  grew  on  lum  with  years.  Reli^ous  and 
didactic  poems  become  more  frequent;  and  his  verses  in  praise 
of  love  turn  at  times  to  a  protest  against  the  laxer  standards 
of  an  age  demoralized  by  political  unrest.  Throughout  his 
attitude  is  healthy  and  sane.  He  preaches  the  crusade;  but 
at  the  some  time  he  suggesu  the  virtue  of  toUiation,  pointing  out 
that  in  tbe  worship  of  God 

"  Christians,  Jews  and  heathen  all  agree.** 

He  fulminates  against  "  false  love  ";  but  ^urs  scorn  on  those 

who  maintain  that  "  love  is  sin.''    In  an  age  of  monastic  ideals 

and  loose  morality  there  was  nothing  commonplace  in  the  simple 

lines  in  which  he  sums  up  the  inspiring  principle  of  chivalry  at 

its  best:— 

'*  Swer  guotcs  wfbes  Hebe  b&t 
Der  schaint  rich  iedef  raissetit.*'  * 

Altogether  Watther's  poems  ^ve  -us  the  picture  not  only  of  a 

great  artistip  genius,  but  of  a  strenuous,  pasrionate,  very  human 

and  very  lovable  character. 

The  CedicJile  were  edited  by  Kari  t^bmann  (1837).  This  edition 
of  tbe  great  ecfaoiar  was  re-edited  by  M.  Haupt  (3rd  ed.,  1853). 

WaUktrw. "■         

and  notes 
stt  d.  Gedic 

(Quedlinburg,  1 844).  There  arc  translations  into  modern  German  by 
BTObermann  (1886),  and  into  English  verse  SeUcted  poems  of  Walter 
vender  Vogtboiidsby  W,  Alison  PntUips,  with  introducrion and  notes 
(London,  1896).  The  poem  VnUr  der  Linden,  not  included  in  the 
latter,  was  freclv  translated  by  T.  L.  Becldoes  (Works,  1890),  more 
closely  by  W.  A.  Phillips  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  tor  fnly  1896 
(cexxxiii.  p.  70).  Lebem  «.  Dickten  Wallker^s  von  der  VogOmeide,  by 
Wilhelm  Wiinianns  (Bonn,  1882),  is  a  valuable  critical  study^  of 
the  poet's  life  and  works.  (W.  A.  P.) 

WALTON,  BRIAN  (1600-1661),  English  divine  and  scholar, 
was  born  at  Seymour,  in  the  district  of  Cleveland,  Yorkshire,  in 
i6oa  Ue  went  to  Cambridge  as  a  sizar  of  Magdalene  OoUege  in 
1616,  migrated  to  Fcterhouse  in  i6k8,  was  bachelor  in  1619 
and  master  of  arts  in  1623.  After  holding  a  scho(4  mastership 
and  two  curacies,  he  was  made  rector  of  St  Martin's  Orgar 
In  London  in  x6a8,  where  he  took  a  leading  part  kx  the 
contest  between  the  London  dergy  and  the  citizens  about  the 
cUy  tithes,  and  compiled  a  treatise  on  the  subject,  which  is 
printed  in  Brewster's  CoUecUmea  (1752).  His  conduct  ia  this 
matter  displayed  his  ability,  but  his  zeal  for  the  ezacti<m  of 
ecclesiastical  dues  was  remembered  in  1641  in  the  articles 
bnnight  against  him  in  parliament,  which  appear  to  have  led 
to  Vb/t  sequestration  of  his  very  considerable  preferments.*  He 
waf  also  charged  with  Popish  practices,  but  on  frivolous  grounds, 
and  with  aQMXsing,  the  nembers  o£  parliament  foe  the  city. 

> "  He  who  has  the  love  of  a  good  woman 
Is  ashamed  of  every  misdeed.  " 
'  He  was  from  Tanuary  1635-1636  rector  of  Sandon,  in  Essex, 
where  his  first  wife,  Anne  CUxton,  is  buried.    He  appears  to  have 
also  been  a  prebendary  of  St  P.-iuI'S(_and  for  a  very  short  time  he  had 
held  the  leetoty  of  St  Giles  in  tbe  Fields. 


In  t^t  ^  was  ordered  Intd  cuMody  at  a'Mnqueiit;  ttftfre^fier 

be  took  refuge  In  Oxford,  and  ultimately  returned  to  London 
to  the  house  of  William  Fuller  (x58o?-i659),  dean  of  Ely, 
whose  daughter  Jane  was  hit  second  wife.  In  tUs  letixemetii 
he  gave  himself  to  Oriental  studies  aad  carried  through  bis  great 
work,  a  Polyglot  Bible  wcddi  should  be  completer^  cheaper  and 
provided  with  a  better  critical  apparatus  than  any  previous 
work  of  the  kind  (see  Polyglot)  .  The  proposals  for  the  PolysbA 
appeared  bt  x65a,  and  tbe  boob  itMf  caaie  pot  tt  lit  gfcat 
foUoa  in  1657,  having  been  priniiag  Ise  five  yenl.  Nine  lan- 
guages eve  used:  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Samaritan,  Syiiac,  Aiafatc, 
Persian,  Etbiopic,  Greek  aai  Latin.  Amoag  faia  coUabonXons 
were  James  Vssbcr,  John  Ligfatfoot  and  Edwaxd  Pooocke, 
Edmund  CasteU,  Afanbam  WheeSbcke  and  Patrick  Yoang. 
Thomas  Hyda  and  Thomas  GneawcL  The  great  imdettakmg 
was  supported  by  liberal  subMnptianSt  and  Walton's  political 
opinions  did  not  deprive  him  of  tbe  help  <xf  the  C(»iinoxn»eaitb; 
the  paper  used  was  freed  fion  duty,  and  tbe  interest  oC  Cran 
well  in  tbe  Work  was  aduiowledged  Sn  the  original  preface^  part 
of  which  was  afterwards  cancdled  to  make  way  lor  more  loyal 
expressions  towards  that  restored  monarchy  under  jtbicb 
Oriental  studies  in  £i{^aiid  imme&tely  begia  to  languish. 
To  Walton  himself,  however,  the  Refdrmation  biougbt  no  dis- 
appointment. He  was  conseomted  bishop  of  Chester  in  December 
1660.  In  the  fbUowiag  spring  he  was  one  of  the  oonuniananes 
at  the  Savoy  Conference,  but  took  little  port  in  the  bnritkesa,  Ib 
the  autumn  of  1661  he  paid  a  short  visit  to  bis  <^eir^^^  tad 
returning  to  London  be  died  era  the  s^tb  of  November. 

However  mueb  Walton  was  indebted  to  his  helpera,  thc'Pici^'gkt 
Bible  is  a  great  ^Kunument.of  industry  and  of  capacity  for  directuic 
a  vast  undertaking,  and  lh»J*ralegome»a  <separatcly  reprinted  by 
Dathe,  1777,  and  Dy  Francis  Wranghan,  i8a§)  show  judgment  as 
well  as  learning.  The  same  qualities  appear  in  Walton's  Consideraior 
Considend  (1659),  a  reply  to  the  CenstderaHmucf  John  Owen,  who 
thought  that  the  accumulation  of  material  for  the  revision  ef  tbe 
received  text  tended  to  atheism.  Amongi  Walton's  woria  must  also 
be  mentioned  an  Tnlrodw'tio  ad  tiectionem  tinguarum  orientatium 
(1654;  and  ed.,  1655),  meant  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  iSolyglot 

See  Henry  J.  Todd,  Memoirs  0/  the  Life  ami  WrUtngs  of  Walton 
(London,  iSal),  in  a  vols.,  of  which  the  aecoad  contains  a  reprint 
of  Walton's  answer  to  Owen. 

WALTON.  IZAAk  (1593-1683),  English  writer,  author  ol 
The  CompUal  Angler,  was  bom  at  Stafford  on  the  9th  <^  August 
1593;  the  register  of  bis  baptism  gives  bjs  father's,  name  as 
Jervis,  and  nothing  more  is  known  of  his  parentage.  He  settled 
in  London  as  an  ironnionger,  and  at  first  bad  one  of  the  small 
^Pfi»  i\  ft*  by  5  ft.,  in  the  upper  storey  ef  Gresbam's  Royal 
Buise  or  Exchange  in  G>mhiJl.  In  1614  he  bad  a  shop  in  Fleet 
Street,  two  doors  west  of  Chancery  Lane,  Here^  in  the  paxiah. 
of  St  Dunstan's,  he  gained  the  friendship  of  Dr  John  Doiisne,' 
then  vicar  of  that  church.  His  first  wife,  married  in  December 
1626,  was  Rachel  Floud,  a  gveat-gxeat-niece  of  Archbeshop 
Cranmer.  She  died  in  1640.  He  married  again  soon  after,  bis 
second  wife  being  Anne  Ken— the  pastoral  "  Kcnna  "  of  7*Ae 
Angler's  Wish — step-sister  of  Thotnas  Ken,  afterwards  bishop 
of  Bath  and  Wells.  After  the  Royalist  defeat  at  Marstoa  Moor, 
he  retired,  from  business.  He  had  bought  some  land  near  hk 
birthplace,  Stafford,  and  he  went  to  live  there;  but,  accorcfing  to 
Wood,  spent  most  of  his  time  *'  in  the  families  of  the  eminent 
clergymen  df  Englahd,  of  whom  he  was  nmcb  bdoved  *';  and 
in  1650  he  was  again  living  in  ClerkenwelL  lA  1653  cane  ovt 
the  first  edition  of  his  famous  book,  The  CdmfktU  Angjkr.  Hb 
second  wife  died  in  1662,  and  was  buried  in  Worfcestef  cathedral 
church,  where  there  is  a  monument  to  her  memory.  '  One  of  his 
daughters  married  Dr  Hawkins,  a  prebendary  ci  Winchester. 
The  last  forty  years  of  his  long  life  seem  t<»  have  beefi  spent  in 
ideal  leisure  and  occupation,  the  o9d  man  travelling  here  and 
there,  visiting  his  '*  eminent  clergymen  "  and  other  brethren  of 
the  angle,  compiling  the  biographies  of  congenial  spirits,  and 
collecting  here  a  little  and  there  a  little  for  the  enlargement  of 
his  famous  treatise.  After  1663  he  found  a  home  at  Famham 
Castle  with  George  Morlcy,  bishop  of  Winchester,  to  whom  he 
dedicated  his  Life  of  George  Herbert  and  also  that  of  Richard 
Hooker;  and  from  time  to  time  he  visited  Chalks  Cotton  in 


WALTON-LErDALE— WALTZING  MOUSE 


301 


6ahiiig bousaoa  tbe Dove.  H«  died io his  daugbtor's  Imdat 
El  Winchester  on  the  isth  oC  December  i683»  and  was  buried 
ia  the  cathedraL  It  is  characteristic  of  his  kindly  nature  thai 
he  left  his  property  at  Shalford  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor  of  his 
native  town. 

Walton  hooked  a  much  bigger  fish  than  be  angled  for  when.he 
offered  his  quaint  treatise,  The  C^mpUat  Angfer,  to  the  public. 
There  is  hardly  a  nime  in  English  literature,  even  of  the  fiikt 
rank,  whose  immortality  is  more  secure,  or  whose  personality  is 
the  subject  of  a  more  devoted  cult.    Not  only  is  he  the  soar 
votes  of  a  considerable  sect  in  the  reli^on  df  recreation,  but 
multitudes  who  have  never  put  a  worm  on  a  hook — even  on  a 
fly-hook— have  been  caught  and  securely  held  by  his  picture 
of  the  delights  of  tbe  gentle  craft  and  his  easy  lemttrely  transcript 
of  his  own  simple,  peaceable,  lovable  and  amustog  character. 
The  Compleut  Angjior  was  published  in  1653,  but  Walton  con- 
tinued to  add  to  its  completeness  in  bis  leisurely  way  for  a 
quarter  of  a  century.    It  was  dedicated  to  John  Offley,  his  most 
honoured  friend.    There  was  a  second  editidh  in  1655,  a  third 
in  1661  (identical  with  that  of  1664),  a  fourth  in  1668  and  a  fifth 
in  1676.    In  this  last  edition  the  thirteen  du^iters  of  the  original 
have  grown  to  twenty-one,  and  a  second  part  was  added  by  bia 
loving  friend  and  brother  angler  Charles  Cotton,  who  took  up 
"  Venator "  where  Walton  had  left  him  and  completed  hiis 
instruction  in  fly-fishing  and  the  making  of  flics.    Walton  did 
not  profess  to  be  an  tiapnt  with  the  fly;  the  fly-fishing  in  his 
first  edition  waa  contributed  by  Thomas  Barker,  a  retirad  cook 
and  humorist,  who  produced  a  treatise  of  his  own  in  1659;  bui 
in  the  use  of  the  live  worm,  the  grasshopper  and  the  frog  "  Pis- 
cator  "  himself  ooiUd  qwak  as  a  master.    The  famous  passage 
about  the  frog— often  misquoted  about  the  worm — **  use  him  as 
though  you  loved  him,  that  is,  harm  him  as  little  as  you  may 
possibly,  that  he  may  live  the  longer  "—appears  in  the  original 
edition.    The  additions  made  as  the  work  ffrew  were  not  merely 
to  the  technical  part;  happy  quotations,  new  turns  of  phrase, 
songs,  poems  and  anecdotes  were  inUoduoed  as  if  the  leisurely 
author,  who  wrote  it  as  a  recreation,  had  kept  it  constantly  in 
his  mind  and  talked  it  over  point  by  point  with  his  numerous 
brethren.    There  were  originally  onfy  two  interlocutors  in  the 
opening  scene,  "  Piscator  **  and  "  Viator  ";  but  in  the  second 
edition*  as  if  in  answer  to  an  objection  that  "  Piscator  "  had  it 
too  much  in.  his  own  way  in  praise  of  angling,  he  introduced  the 
falconer,  "  Auceps,"  changed  "  Viator  "  into  "  Venator  "  and 
made  the  new  companions  eadi  dilate  on  the  joya  of  his  favourite 

sport.  * 

Although  Th9  C9mpk4i$  Angfer  waa  not  Walton's  first  literary 
work,  his  leiaurdy  labours  as  a  biogr^>her  seem  to  have  grown 
out  of  his  devotion  to  ang^ng.  It  was  probably  as  an  angler  that 
he  mads  the  acquaintance  of  .Sir  Henry  Wottoo,  but  it  is  clear 
that  Walton  had  more  than  a  love  of  fishing  and  a  humorous 
temper  to  recommend  him  to  the  friendship  of  the  accomi^isbed 
ambassador.  At  any  rate,  Wotton,  who  had  intended  to  write 
the  life  of  John  Donne,  and  had  already  corresponded  with 
Walton  on  the  subject,  left  the  task  to  him.  Walton  had  already 
contributed  an  Elegy  to  the  1633  edition  of  Donne's  poems, 
and  he  completed  and  published  the  life,  much  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  moat  learned  critics,  in  1640,  Sir  Henry  Wotton 
dying  in  1639,  Walton  nndntook  his  life  also;  it  was  fim'shed  in 
1643  and  published  In  165 1.  His  life  of  Hooker  was  published 
in  i66a,  that  of  George  Herbert  in  1670  and  that  of  Bishop 
Sanderson  in  1678.  All  these  subjects  were  endeared  to  the 
biographer  by  a  certain  gentleness  of  disposition  and  cheerful 
piety;  three  of  them  at  least— ^Donne,  Wotton  and  Herbert- 
were  anglers.  Their  livetf  were  evidently  written  with  lovinc 
pains,  in  the  same  leburely  fashion  ss  his  AngUi^,  and  like  it 
are  of  value  leu  as  exact  knowledge  than  as  harmonious  and 
complete  pictures  of  character.  Walton  also  rendered  affection- 
ate service  to  the  memory  of  his  friends  Sir  John  Skeffington 
and  John  Chalkhill,  editing  with  prefatory  notices  Skeffington's 
H<r«  of  Lorem^  in  x^S>  f^^  Chalkfaill's  Thealma  and  Ckarckus  a 
few  months  before  his  own  death  in  1683.  His  poems  snd  prose 
fcacmenta  were  collected  in  1878  undtr  the  title  of  WqUomama, 


The  best-known  old  edition  of  the  AnAr  )s  J.  Majer^s  (iad  «d«, 
182A},  The<book  was  edited  by  AndrewXang  in  1896,  and  various 
moaem  editions  have  appeared.  The  standaid  bioeraphy  is  that  by 
Sir  Harris  Nicolas,  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  the  A  nper  (i  836).  There 
are  notices  alio,  with  additional  scraps  of  fact,  annejoed  to  two 
AnMrican  editkitis,  Bethune's  (1847)  and  Dowliog's  <i857).  An 
edition  of  Walton's  Xiots,  by  G.  Sampson,  appeared  in  1903.  See  aim 
luukk  WalUm  and  kis  Friends,  by  S.  Martin  (1903). 

WALTOH-LE-DAtK,  an  urban  distria  in  the  Darwen  parlia- 
mentary division  of  Lancashire,  En^and,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
Ribble,  tmmediatdy  above  Preston.  Pop.  (1901)  11,371.  The 
church  of  St  Leonard,  situated  on  an  eminence  to  the  east  of  the 
town,  was  originally  erected  in  the  irth  century.  The  earliest 
portions  of  the  present  building  are  the  Peipendicular  chancel 
and  tower,  the  nave  having  been  rebuilt  in  1798,  while  the 
transepts  were  erected  in  z8i6.  There  are  a  number  of  interest-' 
ing  old  brasses  and  monuments.  Cotton-spinning  is  carried  on, 
and  there  are  market-gardens  in  the  vicinity.  Roman  remains 
have  beoi  found  here,  and  there  was  perhaps  a  roadside  post 
on  the  site.  The  manor  of  Walton  was  grsnted  by  Heniy  de 
Lacy  about  1130  to  Robert  Banastre.  It  afterwards  passed  by 
marriage  to  the  Langtons,  and  about  1599  to  the  Hoghtons  of 
Hoghton.  Walton  was  the  principal  scene  of  the  great  battle 
of  Preston,  fought  on  the  17th  of  August  1648  between  Crom* 
well  and  the  duke  of  Hamilton.  In  170X  the  duke  of  Norfolk, 
the  earl  of  Derwentwater  and  other  Jacobites  incorporated  the 
town  by  the  style  of  the  "  mayor  and  ooiporaUon  of  the  ancient 
borough  of  Walton.,"  In  1715  the  psssage  of  the  Ribble  was 
bravely  defended  against  the  Jacobites  by  Parson  Woods  and 
his  parishioners  of  Atherton  {q.t.). 

WALTOV-ON-THAMBS,  an  urban  distria  hi  the  Epsom 
parliamentary  division  of  Sunrey,  England,  pleasantly  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  17  m.  W.S.W.  from  London 
by  the  London  &  South-Westem  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  10,329. 
The  church  of  St  Mary  has  late  Norman  portions,  and  contains 
numerous  memorials,  including  examples  of  the  work  of  Cbsntrey 
and  Roubiliac  A  verse  inscribed  upon  a  pillar  is  reputed  to 
be  Queen  ^tzabeth's  profession  of  faith  as  regards  transubstantia- 
tion.  The  queen  was  a  frequent  resident  at  Henry  VIIL's  palace 
of  Oatlands  Park,  which  was  destroyed  during  the  dvil  wars 
of  the  17th  century.  Tbe  property  subsequently  passed  through 
various  hands,  and  the  park  is  reduced  in  extent  by  the  modem 
gkowth  of  villas  surroimding  it.  It  contains,  however,  a  remark- 
able grotto  bu^t  of  mineral  and  stalacritic  lock,  shdls  and  other 
similar  material,  by  one  of  the  earls  of  Lincoln  when  owner. 
Ashley  Park,  a  Tudor  mansion  (in  the  main  modemLsed), 
attributed  to  Cardinal  Wolsey,  was  at  times  the  residence  of 
Cromwell;  while  John  Bradshaw,  who,  as  lord  president  of  tbe 
court,  sentenced  Charles  I.  to  death,  occupied  the  old  manor 
house  of  Walton.  Walton  is  a  favoiuite  resort  of  angers  and 
boating  parties. 

WALTON-ON-THE-NAZB  (or  Walton-lx-Soken),  a  watering- 
place  in  the  Harwich  parliamentary  division  of  Essex,  England, 
the  terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  Great  Eastern  railway  from 
Colchester,  7x|  m.  E.N.E.  from  London.  Pop.  of  urban  district 
(1901)  3014.  This  portion  of  the  coast  has  suffered  from  en- 
croachment of  the  sea,  and  a  part  of  the  old  village  of  Walton« 
with  the  church,  was  engulfed  towards  the  end  of  the  x8th 
century.  A  prebendary  stall  at  St  Paid's  Cathedrsl,  London, 
was  endowed  with  the  lands  thus  consumed  (praebeitda 
consumpia  per  mare).  On  the  £.  side  of  the  town  b  tbe  <H)en 
North  Sea,  with  a  fine  stretch  of  sand  and  shingle,  affording  good 
bathing.  To  the  west  is  an  irregular  inlet  studded  with  low 
islands,  known  as  Hanford  Water.  The  Naxe  is  a  promontory 
3  ra.  N.  by  £.  of  the  town,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Walton  an 
low  cliffs  exhibiting  the  fossiliferous  red  crag  formation.  The 
church  of  All  Saints  is  a  brick  building  dating  mainly  froill 
1804.  Walton  has  a  public  hall,  several  hotels  and  a  small 
theatre;  and  hron  foundries  and  brick  works.  Services  of 
passenger  steamers  in  connexion  with  Harwich,  Clacton-oiu 
Sea,  and  London  are  maintained  in  the  summer. 

WALTZING  MOUSE  (or  Japanese  Waltzing  Motoe),  0 
pied  race  of  the  house  mouae  lUia  mmtctAus),  or  one  of  its  allies. 


302 


WALWORTH— WANAMAKBR 


origuttUy  bred  in  China,  and  known  in  Japan  as  the  Nankin 
mouse.  Tbe  habit  of  these  mice  of  q)inning  round  and  round 
after  their  tails  is  highly  developed,  and  continually  wercised. 
In  Japan,  where  there  were  originaUy  two  breeds,  a  grey  and 
a  white,  these  mice  are  kept  in  cages  on  account  of  their  dandng 
propensities.  The  dancing  was  at  one  time  supposed  to  be  due 
to  a  disease  of  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear;  but  Dr  K.  Kishi,  in  a 
paper  in  the  Zeitsci^t  JUr  wisanuekafAidu  Zoologu  (vol. 
uL  pt.  3),  condudes  that  it  is  the  effect  ol  confinement  for 
untied  centuries  in  small  cages. 

WALWaaTH.SIR  WILLIAM  (d.  i385),lord  mayor  of  London, 
belonged  to  a  good  Durham  family.  He  was  appfcnticed  to 
John  Lovekyn,  a  member  of  the  Fishmongers'  Gild,  and 
succeeded  his  master  as  alderman  of  Bridge  ward  in  1368,  beoMn- 
ing  sheriff  in  1370  and  lord  mayor  in  1374.  He  b  said  to  have 
suppressed  usury  in  the  city  during  his  term  of  office  as  mayor. 
His  name  frequently  figures  as  advancing  loans  to  the  king, 
and  he  supported  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster,  in  the 
dty,  where  there  wss  a  strong  opposition  to  the  king's  uncle. 
His  most  famous  ezplMt  was  his  encounter  with  Wat  Tyler  in 
1381,  during  his  second  term  of  office  as  lord  mayw.  In  June 
of  that  year,  when  Tyler  and  his  followers  entered  south  London, 
Walworth  defended  Ixmdon  Bridge  against  them;  he  was 
with  Richard  IX.  when  he  met  the  insurgents  at  Smithiield, 
and  assisted  in  slaying  their  leader  (see  Tylbr,  Wat),  after- 
wards raising  the  dty  bodyguard  in  the  king's  defence;  for 
which  service  he  was  rewarded  by  knighthood  and  a  pension. 
Sk  subsequently  served  on  two  commissions  to  restore  the 
peace  in  the  county  of  Kent.  He  died  in  1385,  and  was  buried 
in  the  churdi  of  St  Michad,  Crooked  Lane,  of  which  he  was  a 
considerable  benefactor.  Sir  William  Walworth  was  the  most 
distinguished  member  of  the  Fishmongers'  Gild,  and  he  invariably 
figured  in  the  pageants  prepared  by  them  when  one  of  their 
members  attained  the  mayoralty.  He  became  a  favourite 
hero  in  popufar  tales,  and  appeared  in  Richard  Johnson's 


Sine  Worthies  4/  London' ul  xsoa. 
See  WUIiam  Hert>ert,  The  His 


w«^  .,».».«  ,.«»»..  M^  history.,,  of  St  Michael,  Croohoi 
Lane,  London  ...  f  1831);  W.  and  R.  Woodcock,  Lives  of  lilustrious 
Lord  Mayors  (1816);  an  account  of  Wat  Tyler's  rebellion  in  a  frag- 
mentaiy  chronicle  printed  by  G.  H.  Trevdyan  in  the  Bn^ish 
Historical  Reoiew  Only  1898). 

WAMPUM,  or  Wamfitm-Pkaox  (Amer.  Ind.  wamfomt 
"white";  ^cof,  " bead "),  the  shell-money  of  the  North 
American  Indians.  It  consisted  of  beads  made  from  shells,  and, 
unlike  the  cowry-money  of  India  and  Africa  (which  was  the 
shell  in  its  natural  state),  required  a  oonsiderablo  measure  of 
skill  in  its  manufacture.  Wampum  was  of  two  colours,  dark 
purple  and  white,  of  cylindrical  form,  averaging  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  in  length,  and  about  half  that  in  diameter.  Its  colour 
detonmined  its  value.  The  term  wampum  or  wampum-peage 
was  apparently  applied  to  the  beads  only  when  strung  or  woven 
together.  They  were  ground  as  smooth  as  glass  and  were 
strung  together  by  a  hole  drilled  through  the  centre.  Dark 
wampum,  which  was  made  from  a  "  hard  shell "  dam  {Venns 
mereenaria),  popularly  called  quahang  or  quahog,  a  corruption 
of  the  IndJan  name,  was  the  most  valuable.  White  wampum 
was  made  from  the  shell  of  whelks,  dther  from  the  common 
whdk  {Buednum  nndatnm),  or  from  that  of  Pynda  eanaUadata 
and  Pynda  earica.  Wampum  was  enqiloycd  most  in  New 
Eng^d,  but  it  was  common  dMwfaere.  By  the  Dntch  settlers 
of  New  York  it  was  called  seawast  or  ieewand,  and  roenohe  in 
Virginia,  and  perhaps  farther  south,  for  shdl-money  wss  also 
known  in  the  Carolinas,  but  whether  the  roenoked  tht  Virginian 
Indians  was  made  from  the  same  spedesof  shell  as  wampum 
is  not  dear.  Cylindrical  shell-beads  dmikir  to  the  wampum  of 
the  Atkqtic  coast  Indians  were  made  to  some  eictent  by  the 
Indians  of  the  west  coast.  This  was  manufactured  from  the 
UytUus  ealifomianns,  a  mussd  which  abounds  there. 

In  the  trading  between  whites  and  Indians,  wampum  sa  com- 
pletdy  took  the  pface  of  ordinary  coin  that  its  value  was  fixed 
by  lepd  enactment,  three  to  a  penny  and  five  shillings  a  fathom. 
Tlie  fathom  was  the  name  for  a  count,  and  the  number  of  sheila 
vailed  ^coofding  to  the  accepted  standard  of  eiciuiagA.    Thug 


where  tfx  wtaqNun  went  to  the  penny,  the  fathom  eonristed  of 

360  beads;  but  where  four  made  a  penny,  as  under  the  Masu- 

drasetu  standard  of  1640,  then  the  fathom  counted  240.   The 

beads  wereat  first  worth  more  than  five  shillings  per  fathom,  the 

price  at  which  they  passed  current  in  1643.    A  few  years  b^ore 

the  fathom  had  been  worth  nine  or  ten  shHlingt     ConnectiCBt 

leodved  wampum  for  taxes  in  1637  at  four  a  penny.    In  1640 

MassachusetU  adopted  the  Connecticut  standard,  **  white  to 

pass  at  four  and  bleuse  at  two  a  penny."    There  was  no  restnc- 

tion  on  the  manufacture  of  wampum,  and  it  was  made  by  the 

whites  as  well  as  the  Indfans.    The  market  was  soon  flooded 

with  caidessly  made  and  inferior  wampum,  but  it  contiaued  to 

bedrculatcd  in  the  remote  districts  of  New  England  through  the 

17th  century,  and  even  into  the  beginning  of  the  18th.    It  vas 

current  with  aflver  in  Connecticut  in  1704. 

Wampum  was  also  used  for  personal  adornment,  and  bdts 

were  made  by  embroidering  wampum  upon  strips  of  dccnb'o. 

These  bdts  or  scarves  were  symbob  of  authority  and  power 

and  were  surrendeAd  on  defeat  in  battle.    Wampum  also  served 

a  mnemonic  use  as  a  tribal  history  or  record.    "  The  belts  thit 

pass  from  one  nation  to  another  in  all  treaties,  dcdarations  and 

important  transactions  are  very  carefully  preserved  in  the  dtfefe* 

cabins,  and  serve  not  only  as  a  kind  of  record  or  history  Ixt 

as  a  public  treasury.    According  to  the  Indian  conceptioo,  ttee 

bdts  could  tell  by  means  of  an  interpreter  the  exact  ruk,  fi9- 

vision  or  transaaion  talked  into  them  at  the  time  and  of  «^ 

they  were  the  exclusive  record.    A  strand  of  wampum,  cobsubk 

of  purple  and  white  shell-beads  or  a  belt  woven  with  figures teaiA 

by  beads  of  different  cohmrs,  operated  on  the  prindj^e  of  asnc^* 

ing  a  particular  fact  with  a  particular  string  or  figure,  thus  gi^ 

a  serial  arrangement  to  the  facts  as  well  as  fiddity  to  the  menwnr- 

These  strands  and  bdts  were  the  only  visible  records  of  the 

Iroquois,  but  they  required  the  trained  interpreteis  who  cooU 

draw  frmn  thehr  strings  and  figures  the  acts  and  fatcatiofi 

locked  up  in  thdr  remembrance"  (Major  Rogers,  Aceotui  tj 

North  Ameriatj  London,  1765). 

See  Holmes,  **  Art  in  Shdl  of  the  Ancient  Amerleaos  **  in  Atae^ 
Feport  of  Bnmu  of  Etkmoloiy,  WashiMtton,fort88i>'MS8i;  W..B. 
Weeden,  Indian  Money  as  a  Factor  in  New  En^and  CtmUs^ 
(Baltimore,  1884).;  E.  Ingendl.  "Wampum  and  its  History, 
in  American  Natnralist,  vol.  xviL  (1883):  Horatio  Hale.  "On  the 
Origin  and  Nature  of  Wampum,"  in  American  Nainralist,  vol.  xva- 
(1M4):  C.  L.  Norton.  "The  Last  Wampum  Coinage,"  in  Aourtceo 
Magqaine  for  Match  1888. 

WANA,  a  valley  and  frontier  outpost  of  WadiisUn  in  the 
North-West  Frontier  Province  of  Indfa.  It  lies  to  the  wesf  of  the 
Mahsud  country,  and  to  the  north  of  the  Gomal  river,  and  is  in- 
habited by  the  Wadri  tribe.  Lying  on  the  borderof  Afghanisun, 
it  is  conveniently  placed  for  dominating  Wariristan  on  the  north 
and  the  Gomal  Pass  on  the  south,  and  occupies  very  much  ibe 
same  strategic  podtion  as  the-Zhob  valley  holds  in  Baluchbuo. 
It  forms  the  end  of  the  chain  of  outposu  extending  from  Qattti 
to  Waxhisun,  and  can  be  supported  dther  from  India  by  the 
Gomal  Pass  or  from  (Juetto  by  the  Zhob  valley.  In  i894>  ^^ 
the  Indo-Afghan  boundary  commission  was  delimitiog  the 
Wadri  border,  the  Mahsud  Wadris,  thinking  their  Independence 
to  be  threatened,  made  a  night  attack  on  the  camp  of  the  corn- 
mission  at  Wana.  The  result  was  the  Wazirisun  Expedition  of 
the  same  year,  and  the  occupation  of  Wana  by  British  troops< 
On  the  formation  of  the  Noith-West  Frontier  Province  in  i^^ 
h  was  deddcd  to  replace  the  tioops  by  militfa,  and  Wsna  «a^ 
handed  over  to  them  In  1904.    It  is  now  the  headquarters  of  the 

politiosl  agency  of  Southern  WaskislaiL 

WANAMAKSR.  JOHN  (1838-  ),  American  merehsnt, 
was  bom,  of  Palatine-Huguenot  stock.  In  Philadelphfa,  Penn- 
sylvania, on  the  r  ith  of  July  1838.  He  attended  a  public  school 
in  that  dty  until  he  was  fbucteen,  then  became  an  errand  boy  for  a 
book  store,  and  was  a  retail  dothlng  salesman  from  1856  ^^ 
i86t,  when  he  established  with  Nathan  Brown  (who  afterwsM 
became  his  brother^in4aw)  the  dothing  house  of  Waoam**^ 
k  Blown,  in  Fhiladdphfa,  the  pattneraUp  continuing  fr 
the  death  of  Brown  in  1868.  In  1869  Wanamakcr  founded  tne 
boost  of  John  Wiaaaakcr  ft  Compnoy;  and  in  1875  bought  u» 


WANDERU— WANGARA 


303 


fbuttsrirtnk  Railioad  OMipABy's  ficigbt  depot  at  TMrteeiith 
and  Market  streets,  and  in  the  following  year  opened  it  as  a 
dry  goods  and  clotfaing  store,  sabsequentl^  much  enlarged.  In 
September  1896  he  acquired  from  Hilton,  Hughes  k  Company 
the  former  New  York  store  of  A.  T.  Stewart,  and  therufter 
greatly  enlarged  it  and  added  a  new  bufldlng;  this,  and  the 
Philadelphia  store,  are  among  the  largest  diriment  stores 
in  the  United  States.  Mr  Wainmaker  was  postmaster-general  in 
Piesida&t  Benjamin  Harrison's  cabinet  in  1889-1893,  and 
bnmght  about  the  establishment  of  post-offices  on  ocean-going 
vessels.  He  early  id«itified  himself  with  leligbus  work  in  Phihi- 
ddphia;  was  the  fiist  paid  secretary,  in  z&S7-i86Xi  of  that 
city's  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  of  which  he  was 
preddent  in  X870-X883,  and  in  1858  founded,  and  thereafter 
served  as  superintendent  of,  the  Bethany  (Presbyterian)  Sunday 
Sdiool,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  movement  which  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  United 
States  Christian  Commission  in  1861. 

WANDERU  (Wanderoo),  the  native  name  for  the  spedes 
of  kngur  monkeys  (Semnofiikecus)  inhabiting,  the  island  of 
Ceylon;  but  in  India  commonly  misapplied  to  the  lion-tailed 
macaque,  Maeacus  sUenus  (see  Puhates). 

WANOESFORD,  CHRISTOPHER  (x59»'i64o),  lord  deputy  of 
Ireland,  was  the  son  of  Sir  George  Wandesford  (1573-16x2)  of 
Kirklington,  Yorkshire,  and  was  bom  on  the  24th  of  September 
1592.  Educated  at  Clare  College,  Cambridge,  he  entered  patlia- 
ment  m  1621,  and  his  xise  to  importance  was  due  primarily  to 
his  friendship  with  Sir  Thonua  Wentworth,  afterwards  earl  of 
Strafford.  Although  at  first  hostile  to  Charles  I.,  this  being 
evidenced  by  the  active  part  he  took  in  the  Impeachment  of 
Buckingham,  Wandesford  soon  became  a  royalist  partisan,  aitd 
in  1633  he  accompanied  Wentworth  to  Ireland,  where  he  was 
already  master  of  the  rolls.  His  services  to  his  chief  were  fully 
recognized  by  the  latter,  whom  in  1640  he  succeeded  as  lord 
deputy,  but  he  had  only  just  begun  to  strugg^  with  the  diffi- 
cuUies  of  his  new  positioD  when  he  died  on  the  3rd  of  December 
1640. 

His  son  Christopher  (X628-X687),  created  a  baronet  in  1662, 
was  the  father  of  Sir  Christopher  Wandesfozd  (d.  1707),  who  was 
created  an  Irish  peer  as  Viscount  Castlecomer  in  1 707,  Castlecomer 
in  Kilkenny  having  been  acquired  by  his  grandfather  when  in 
Ireland.  Christopher,  the  2nd  viscount  (d.  x  7 19),  was  secretary^ 
at-war  in  i7X7-'i7x3.  In  1758  John,  sth  viscount,  was  created 
Earl  Wandesford,  but  his  titles  became  eatina  when  he  died  in 

January  1784- 

For  Wandcsford's  life  see  Thomas  Comber,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and 
Death  ef  the  Lord  Deputy  Wandesford  (Cambridge,  1778};  T.  D. 
Whitaker,  History  of  Richmondskire,  vol.  ii.  (1823);  and  the  Auto- 
biogra^^  of  his  daughter,  Alice  Thqmton,  edited  t^  Chailes  Jackson 
for  the  ^rteea  Society  (Durham,  1875). 

WANDIWASH,  a  town  in  the  North  Arobt  district  of  Madras, 
India.  Pop.  (1901)  5971.  ItisiK>tableasthesceneofthevictoxy 
of  Sir  Eyre  Coote  in  1760^  the  most  important  ever  won  by  the 
British  over  the  French  in  India. 

WAND8BBK>  a  town  of  (Sermany,  m'the  IVussian  provixice  ol 
Schleswig-Holstem,  practically  forming  a  populous  suburb  of 
Hamburg,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  raOway  and  an 
electric  tramway.  Pop.  (1905)  3x,s63.  It  is  best  known  as  the 
place  of  residence  of  the  poet  Jcdumn  Heinrich  Voss  and  of 
Matthias  Claudius,  who  here  issued  (X77X-X775)  the  Wandsbecher 
Beteu,  There  is  a  monument  to  Claudius  in  the  town.  lu  leading 
manufactures  are  spirits,  tobacco,  beer,  leather  and  confectionery; 
other  industries  are  machine  building  aitd  gardening. 

WAHDSWORTH,  a  south-western  metropolitan  borough  of 
London,  England,  bounded  N.  by  the  river  Thames  and  Batter- 
sea,  and  E.  by  Lamoeth,  and  extending  S.  and  W.  to  the  boundary 
of  the  county  of  London.  Pop.  (xgox)  932,034.  The  name, 
which  occurs  in  Domesday,  indicates  the  position  of  the  village 
on  the  river  Wandle,  a  small  tributary  of  the  Thames.  Wands- 
worth is  the  largest  in  area  of  the  metropolitan  boroughs,  in- 
cluding the  districts  of  Putney  by  the  river,  part  of  Ctapham 
in  the  north-east,  Streatham  in  the  south-east,  Balham  and 
Upper  and  Lower  Tooting  in  the  centre  and  south.    These  are 


nudnly  residential  districts,  and  the  borough  b  not  thickly 
populated.  Towards  the  west,  along  the  Upper  Richnoond  and 
Kingston  roads,  there  is  considerable  open  country,  undulatuig 
and  wen  wooded.  It  b  to  a  great  extent  preserved  in  the  public 
grounds  of  Putney  Heath,  whidi  adj<Hii8  Wimbledon  Common, 
outside  the  borough,  on  the  xiorth;  and  Richmond  Park  and 
Barnes  Common,  parts  of  which  are  !n  the  borough.  Other 
puMic  grounds  are  parts  of  Wandswoith  Common  (193  acres) 
and  Clapham  Conmion,  both  extending  into  Battersea,  Tooting 
Bee  (x47  acres)  and  Streatham  Common  (66  acres),  and  Wands- 
worth I^rk  b(Mrdering  the  Thames.  The  borough  is  connected 
with  Fulham  across  the  Thames  by  Wandsworth  and  Putney 
bridges.  The  annual  Oxford  and  Cambridge  boat-race  starts 
from  above  Putney  Bridge,  finishing  at  Mortlake;  and  the 
dub-houses  of  the  principal  rowing  clubs  of  London  are  situated 
on  the  Putney  shore.  Putney  Heath  was  formerly  notorious 
as  a  resort  of  highwaymen  and  dudlists.  Among  the  institu- 
tions of  Wandsworth  are  the  Royal  Hospital  for  Incurables, 
Putney;  the  Fountain  and  the  Grove  fever  hospitiJs,  Lower 
Tooting;  the  Clapham  School  of  Art,  Wandsworth  Techxiical 
Institute;  the  Roman  Catholic  Training  College  for  Women, 
West  Hill;  and  Wandsworth  Prison,  Heathfield  Road.  The 
parliamentary  borough  of  Wandsworth  returns  one  member, 
but  the  munidpai  borough  also  indudes  part  of  the  Clai^iam 
division  of  the  parliamentary  borough  of  Battersea  and  Cla]>> 
ham,  and  part  of  the  Wimbledon  dlvidon  of  Surrey.  The 
borough  council  consbts  of  a  mayor,  xo  aldermen  and  60  council- 
lors.   Area,  9x29*7  acres. 

WANOANUI,  the  prindpal  port  on  the  west  coast  of  North 
Island,  New  Zealand,  in  the  Waitotara  county,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Wanganiu  river,  134  m.  by  rail  N.  of  Wdlington.  Pop. 
(X906)  8x75.  'Hie  town  is  laid  out  in  rectangular  blocks  at  the 
foot  of  low  hiUs,  from  the  summit  of  which  (as  in  Queen's 
Gardens)  a  splendid  panorama  b  seen,  including  the  snow-clad 
Mount  Ruapehu  to  the  north-east.  The  river  bar  obstructs 
navigation,  the  depth  not  exceeding  14  ft.,  so  that  large  vesseb 
must  lie  outside.  The  dbtrict  b  agricultural  and  pastoral,  and 
Wool  and  grain  are  exported,  as  well  as  meat  and  dairy  produce, 
for  which  there  are  large  refrigerating  works.  The  Wanganui 
Collegiate  School  (Church  of  England)  b  one  of  the  largest 
boarding  schools  in  Australasia.  The  district  was  the  scene  of 
conflicts  with  the  natives  in  1847,  1864  and  1868,  and  in  the 
beautiful  Moutoa  gardens  a  monument  commemorates  the 
battle  of  that  name  (May  14th,  X864).  The  settlement  was 
founded  in  1842. 

WANOARA,  the  Hausa  name  for  the  Mandingo  (^.v.),  a  people 
of  West  Africa;  usedialso  as  the  name  of  districts  in  the  western 
and  central  Sudan.  The  Wangara  are  also  known  as  Wan- 
garawa,  Wongara,  Ungara,  Wankor6  and  Wakore.  According 
to  Idrisi  (writing  in  the  X2th  century),  the  Wangara  country 
was  renowned  for  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  gold 
whic^  it  produces.  The  country  formed  an  island  about 
300  m.  long  by  X  50  in  breadth,  which  the  Nile  {i.e.  Niger)  sur- 
rounded on  an  sides  and  at  aU  seasons.  This  description  corre- 
sponds fairly  accuratdy  with  the  tract  of  country  between  the 
Niger  and  its  tributary  the  Bani.  Idrisi's  account  of  the  annual 
inundation  of  the  bnd  by  the  rising  of  the  Niger  agrees  with 
the*  facts.  He  states  that  on  the  faU  of  the  waters  natives  from 
aH  parts  of  the  Sudan  assembled  to  gather  the  gold  which  the 
subsiding  waters  left  behind.  In  the  dosing  years  of  the  i8th 
and  the  opening  years  of  the  X9th  century  the  discoveries  of 
Homemann,  Mungo  Park  and  others  revived  the  stories  of 
Wangara  and  its  richness  in  gold.  Geographers  of  that  period 
{e.g.  Major  RenneU)  shifted  the  Wangara  country  far  to  the  east 
and  confused  Idrisi's  description  with  accounts  which  probably 
rderred  to  Lake  Chad.  GraduaUy,  however,  as  knowledge 
increased,  the  Wangara  territory  was  again  moved  westward, 
and  was  located  within  the  Niger  bend.  The  name  has  now 
practically  disappeared  from  the  maps  save  that  a  town  in  the 
hinterland  of  Dahomey  b  named  Wangara  (FVench  spelHng 
Ouangara).  Idrisi's  account  as  to  the  richness  in  gold  of  the 
upper  Niger  regions  has  basb  in  fact;  though  the  gold  Inou^ 


304 


WANGARATTA— WAQIDf 


an  cosaidttmble  ijiumtitiM  to  the  European  trading  tuUoni 
on  the  Gambia  and  Senegal  in  the  i6th,  lyth  and  z8th  centuries 
appears  to  hnye  come  largely  from  Bambulu 

WANGABATTA.  a  town  of  Victoria,  Australia,  in  the  counties 
of  Moira,  Delatite  and  Bogong,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ovens 
and  King  riveis,  145)  m.  by  rail  N.£.  of  Melbourne.  Pop. 
(1901)  26a I.  It  is  a  prosperous  little  town  in  an  agricultural 
district  and  is  the  see  of  an  AngKran  bishop.  It  has  numerous 
industries,  indudmg  flour-milling,  tAnnJng,  fellmongery,  brewing, 
coach-buiiding,  bacon-curing,  and  bicycle  and  butter  making. 
Important  stock  sales  are  held  fortnightly,  and  there  is  an  annual 
agricultural  exhibition. 

WAN8TBAD,  an  urban  district  in  the  Romford  parliamentary 
division  ol  Enez,  England,  forming  a  residential  suburb  of 
^ndon,  on  a  branch  of  the  Groat  Eastern,  railway,  8  m.  N.E. 
of  Liverpool  Street  station.  Pop.  (1901)  9x79*  Wanstcad 
Park,  184  acres  in  extent,  was  opened  in  1882.  Northward 
extend  the  broken  fragments  of  Epping  Forest.  Wanstcad 
Flats,  adjoining  the  Park,  form  another  open  ground.  At 
Lake  House  T^mas  Hood  wrote  the  novel  Tyiney  Hail.  M 
Snaresbrook  in  the  parish  of  Wanstead  are  the  Infant  Orphan 
Asylum,  founded  in  1827,  and  the  Royal  Merchant  Seamen's 
Orphan  Asylum,  establbhed  in  London  in  18x7  and  refounded 
here  in  1861.  In  Snaresbrook  is  Eagle  Pond  or  Lake,  xo|  acres 
in  extent 

Wanstead  is  mentioned  in  Domesday,  and  the  name  is  con* 
sidered  by  some  to  be  derived  from  Woden's  stead  or  place, 
indicating  a  spot  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Woden.  It  be* 
longed  before  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor  to  the  monks 
of  St  Peter's,  Westminster,  and  afterwards  to  the  bishop  of 
London,  of  whom  it  was  held  at  the  time  of  the  Domesday 
Survey  by  Ralph  Fits  Brien.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  crown,  and  in  1549  it  was 
bestowed  by  Edward  VI.  on  Lord  Rich,  whose  son  sold  it  in 
1577  to  Robert  Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester.  The  original  manor 
house  was  rebuilt  by  Lord  Chancellor  Rich,  who  was  here  visited 
by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1561,  and  for  her  entertainment  Sir 
Philip  Sidney  wrote  a  dramatic  intedude  which  was  played 
before  the  queen  at  Wanstead  garden,  and  is  printed  at  the 
end  of  the  Arcadia.  Sir  Richard  Child,  afterwards  earl  of 
Tyiney,  built  the  splendid  mansion  of  Wanstead  House  in 
17 IS  (demolished  in  1822),  in  which  the  prince  of  Cond^and 
others  of  the  Bourbon  family  resided  during  the  reign  of  the 
£rst  NapoleoiL 

WAMTAGB,  a  market  town  in  the  Abingdon  parliamentary 
division  of  Berkshire,  England.  Pop.  of  urban  diistrict  (1901), 
3766.  It  lies  in  the  richly  wooded  Vale  of  White  Horse,  in  a 
hollow  at  the  foot  of  the  steep  hills  which  border  the  Vale  on 
the  south,  2  m.  S.  of  Wantage  Road  station  on  the  Great  Western 
railway,  with  which  a  steam  tramway  cozmects  it.  The  church  of 
St  Peter  and  St  Paul  is  cruciform,  and  as  a  whole  Perpendicular 
in  appearance,  but  retains  a  nave  arcade  and  ornate  tower-arches 
of  the  Early  English  period.  The  font  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the 
same  style;  and  there  is  beautiful  woodwork  in  the  chanceL 
An  altar-tomb  in  alabaster  of  1361,  and  a  fine  brass  of  14x4, 
commemorate  members  of  the  family  of  Fitzwarren.  There  are 
ether  brasses  of  the  15th  and  x6th  centuries.  The  neighbouring 
building  of  the  granmiar  school  preserves  a  Norman  door  from 
another  church,  which  formerly  stood  in  the  same  churchyard 
with  St  Peter's.  In  the  broad  market-place  is  a  great  statue 
of  King  Alfred,  executed  by  Count  Gleichen  and  unveiled  in 
1877 ;  for  Wantage  is  famous  as  the  birthplace  of  the  king  in 
849.  The  town  has  a  large  agriaUtural  trade  and  ironworks. 

The  title  of  Baron  Wantage  of  Lockinge  was  taken  in  188*5 
by  Sir  Robert  Loyd-Lindsay  (b.  1832)  on  his  elevation  to  the 
peerage.  He  was  the  son  of  General  James  Lindsay  of  Balcarres, 
but  took  the  additional  surname  of  Loyd  in  1858  on  marrying 
the  heiress  of  Lord  Ovcrstone,  the  banker;  he  fought  with 
his  regiment  the  Scots  Fusilier  Guards  in  the  Crimea  and  won 
the  V.C.,  retiring  as  lieutenant-colonel.  He  was  M.P.  for  Berks 
from  1865  to  1885,  and  was  financial  secretary  to  the  War  Office 
in  1877-1880.    The  title  became  extinct  at  his  death  in  190a 


WAPENSHAW  (M.E.  for  "  we^MO-abow '^,  a  pcriodksl 
muster  or  review  of  troops  formerly  held  in  every  district  in 
Scotland,  the  object  having  been  to  satisfy  the  miliiary  chiefs 
that  the  arms  of  iheir  retainers  were  in  good  condition.  Scott's 
Old  Martalily  give&  a  description  of  one.  The  name  is  still 
given  to  rifle  meetinga  held  annually  at  Aberdeen  and  other 
places  in  Scotland* 

WAPBNTAKB,  anciently  the  principal  administrative  diviaoa 
of  the  counties  of  York,  Lincoln,  Leicester,  Nottingham,  Derby 
and  Rutland,  corresponding  to  the  hundred  in  the  southen 
counties  of  EngUnd.    In  many  cases,  however,  ancient  wapen- 
takes are  now  called  hundreds.    North  of  the  Tlses,  Sadbeig  in 
Durham  is  the  only  district  which  was  called  a  wapentake,  and 
the  rest  of  the  ancient  administrative  divisiona  ol  the  three 
northern  counties  were  called  wards.    The  word  wapentake 
seems  to  have  been  first  applied  to  the  periodical  meetings  of  the 
magnates  of  a  district;  and,  if  we  may  believe  iht  i2th  century 
compilation  known  as  the  Legu  Edwariit  it  took  its  name  froa 
the  custom  in  accordance  with  which  they  Uyuched  the  apcar 
of  their  newly-appointed  magistrate  with  their  own  spears  and 
so  confirmed  his  appointment.    Probably  it  was  also  usual  /or 
them  to  signify  their  approval  of  a  proposal  by  the  clash  of  their 
arms,  as  was  the  practice  among  the  Scandinavian  peoples. 
Wapentakes  are  not  found  outside  the  parts  of  England  vfaici 
were  settled  by  the  Danes.     They  varied  in  size  in  difierst 
counties;  those  of  Yorkshire,  for  instance,  being  veryvnd 
larger  than  those  of  Lincolnshire.    As  a  general  rule  each  «>p(^ 
take  had  its  own  court,  which  had  the  same  jurisdiction  as  tbe 
hundred  courts  of  the  southern  counties.  In  some  cases,  bowevtf, 
a  group  of  wapentakes  had  a  single  court.    It  should  be  notico^ 
thaf  the  court  was  styled  waptntagium  simply,  and  not  ati* 
wapentapi. 

bee  Sir  Henry  Ellts,  Central  ItUroduclicn  to  Domesday  Booh\ 
W.  W.  Skeat.  Eiymological  English  Dictionary;  W.  Stubbs,  CmM*- 
iional  History;  and  H.  M.  Chadwick,  Studies  om  An^SexM 
iMstituHoHS  (1905).  (G.  J.  T.) 

WAPFBRS,  BGIDB  CHARLBS  0USTAVB»  Baion  (iSor 
X874),  Belgian  painter,  was  bom  at  Antwerp  on  the  23rd  <^ 
August  X803.  After  studying  at  the  Antwerp  Aoufemy  be  went 
to  Paris  in  1826.  The  Romantic  movement  was  then  astir  is 
France,  and  in  that  vehement  struggle  towards  a  new  ideal  arttsls 
and  political  men  were  thrown  together.  Wappers  vss  the 
first  Belgian  artist  to  take  advantage  of  this  state  of  affaiis,  snd 
his  first  exhibited  pictme,  **  The  Devotion  of  the  Burgonaster 
of  Leiden,"  appearing  at  tbe  appropriate  moment,  hid  a  msr* 
vellous  success  in  the  Brussels  Salon  of  1830.  The  pictoei 
although  political,  was  in  fact  a  remarkable  work,  which  revolu- 
tionized the  taste  of  Flemish  painters.  Wappers  was  invited 
to  the  court  of  Brussels,  and  was  favoured  with  commissions. 
In  X832  the  city  of  Antwerp  appointed  him  pntfessor  of  paintingi 
and  his  triumph  was  complete  when  he  exhftited  at  tbe  Antwerp 
Salon  of  X834  his  masterpiece,  "  An  Episode  of  the  Belgi^* 
Revoltttion  of  1830'*  (Brussdh  Gallery).  He  was  subsequently 
appointed  painter  to  the  king  of  the  Belgians,  and  at  the  death 
of  Matthieu  van  Brie  he  was  made  dbector  of  the  AntwffP 
Academy.  Of  his  very  numerous  works  we  may  name  "  Cbrtt 
Entombed,"  "  Charles  I.  taUng  leave  of  his  ChOdren,"  "  Chsrlei 
IX.,"  "  CamCena,"  "  Peter  the  Great  at  Saaidam,"  and  **  Boc 
cacdoat  the  Court  off  Joanna  of  Naples."  Louis  Philips  gs^ 
him  a  commission  to  paint  a  large  picture  for  tbe  gallery  » 
Versailles, "  The  Defence  of  Rhodes  by  the  Knights  of  St  John  0^ 
Jerusalem,"  a  work  finished  in  1844,  when  he  received  from  the 
king  of  the  Belgians  the  title  of  baion.  After  retiring  from  i» 
post  of  director  of  the  Antwerp  Academy,  he  settled  in  i853  ^ 

Paris,  where  he  died  on  the  6tfa  of  December  1874.  .   j^ 

See  J.  flu  Jardin.  L'Art/Umapd;  Camille  Lemoonicr,  ff*f*^!^" 
beaux  arts  en  Belnque;  E.  This,  "  Notkie  sur  Gusuve  VfAppeth 
A  nnuaire  de  racaOimie  royate  de  Bdgique  (1884).  . 

WAqIDI  [Aba  'AbdaUah  Mahommed  ibn  *tJmar  ul-WAqi^J 
(747-823),  Arabian  historian,  was  bom  at  Medina,  where  w 
became  a  corn-dealer  but  was  compelled  tc  flee  from  his  ^'^  . j. 
(owing  largely  to  his  generosity)  to  Bagdad.  Here  the  BarnM^'^ 
vizier  Ya^yib.KhAlid  (see  Babm£Cxo£s)  gave  him  means  •»" 


WAR 


305 


made  Hfm  cadi  in  the  western  district  of  the  city.  In  819  he 
was  transferred  to  Rosafa  (Rusafa)  on  the  east  side.  His  greatest 
work  is  the  Kitdb  ul-Maghdsi,  or  history  of  Mahomet*s  campaigns. 

The  fint  thind  of  the  KUab  td^MaghOat  (one  leaf  missing)  was 
published  by  A.  von  Kremer  from  a  Damascus  MS.  (Calcutta,  1856). 
Spreiuer  in  his  Leben  Uuhammad^s  used  a  Bntish  Museum  MS. 
containing  the  first  half,  all  but  one  leaf  J  Wellhausen  published 
an  abridged  German  translation  from  another  Bntish  Museum  MS. 
under  the  title  Muhammad  in  M«dtna  (Berhn,  1882). 

Ascribed  to  W3qidt,  but  probably  written  at  the  time  of  the 
Crusades  to  incite  the  Moslems  against  the  Christians,  are  several 
works  on  the  conquests  of  Islam.  One  of  the  best  known  is  the  Fidub 
usk-Shdm,  edited  by  W.  Nassau  Lees  (Calcutta,  1 854-1 862,  Cairo. 
186s).    M.  J.  de  Goeje.  in  his  Mimotres  sur  ta  conqtUU  de  la  Syne 

SAiden,  1900).  holds  that  this  woric  is  founded  on  that  of  Abu 
udhaifa  ul-BukhSri,  which  in  turn  is  an  edition  of  the  real  WiqidL 
See  AsABiA.  Ltteratwe,  section  "  History."  (G.  W.  T.) 

WAR  (0  Eng.  wrre,  Fr  guerrv^  of  Teutonic  origin;  cf.  O  H  G. 

wtnan,  to  confound),  the  armed  conflict  of  states,  in  which  each 

seeks  to  impose  its  will  iqx>n  the  other  by  force.    War  is  the 

opposite  of  Peace  (^.s ),  and  is  the  subject  of  the  military  art. 

In  separate  sections  below  the  general  principles  of  the  art  of 

war  arc  discussed,  and  the  laws  which  have  gradually  become 

accepted  among  dviUzed  pec^Ies  for  the  regulation  of  its  con- 

dit^ns.    The  details  concerning  the  history  of  individual  wars, 

and  the  varioua  weapons  and  instruments  of  war,  are  given  in 

separate  articles. 

See  Armt.  Navy,  CoNScairriON.  St  katbcv.  Tactics,  Infamtrt, 
Cavalry,  Artiuxry.  Emgikbers,  Fortification,  Coast  Db- 
FBNCB,  Officers,  Staff,  Guards.  Supply  and  Transport.  Uni- 
forms, Arms  and  Armour,  Gun.  Riflb.  Pistol,  Sworo,  Lancb, 
Ordnancb,  Machine  Guns,  Submarine  Mines,  Torpedo,  &c. 
The  important  wan  are  dealt  with  under  the  names  commonly  given 
to  them;  eg,  American  Civil  War,  American  War  of  Inde- 
pendescb,  American  War  of  1813,  Crimean  War,  Dutch  Wars. 
Franco-German  War,  French  Revolutionary  Wars,  Great 
Rebellion.  Greek  War  of  Indbpbnoencb,  Italian  Wars, 
Napoleonic  Campaigns,  Peloponnbsian  War,  Peninsular  War, 
Punic  Wars,  Russo  Japanese  War,  Russo-Turkisd  Wars, 
Sbrvo-Bulgarian  War,  Seven  Weeks'  War,  Seven  Years* 
Wa  r,  Spanisr-Amertcan  War,  Spanish  Succession  War.  Thirty 
Years'  War.  Important  campaigns  and  battles  are  also  separately 
treated  (e.f.  Waterloo,  Trafalgar,  Subnanooah  Valley,  Wil- 

DBRNBSS,  MBTZ,  &C.). 

I.  General  Pbinciples 

It  is  not  easy  to  determine  whether  industrial  progress,  improved 
organization,  the  spread  of  education  or  mechanical  inventions 
have  wrought  the  greater  change  in  the  military  art. 
War  is  first  and  foremost  a  matter  of  movement;  and 
as  such  it  has  been  considerably  afifected  by  the  multi- 
plication of  good  roads,  the  introduction  of  steam  transport,  and 
by  the  ease  with  which  draught  animals  can  be  collected.  In 
the  second  place,  war  is  a  matter  of  supply;  and  the  large  area 
of  cultivation,  the  increase  of  live-stock,  the  vast  trade  in  pro- 
visions, pouring  the  food-stulTs  of  one  continent  into  another, 
have  done  much  to  lighten  the  inevitable  difficulties  of  a  cam- 
paign. In  the  third  place,  war  is  a  matter  of  destruction;  and 
while  the  weapons  of  armies  have  become  more  perfect  and  more 
durable,  the  modem  substitutes  for  gunpowder  have  added 
largely  to  their  destructive  capacity.  Fourthly,  war  is  not 
merely  a  blind  stru^e  between  mobs  of  individuals,  without 
guidance  or  coherence,  but  a  conflict  of  well-organized  masses, 
moving  with  a  view  to  intelligent  co-operation,  acting  under  the 
impulse  of  a  single  will  and  directed  against  a  definite  objective. 
These  masses,  however,  are  seldom  so  closely  concentrated  that 
the  impulse  which  sets  them  In  motion  can  be  promptly  and  easily 
communicated  to  each,  nor  can  the  right  objective  be  selected 
without  some  knowledge  of  the  enemy's  strengdi  and  dispositions. 
Means  of  intercommunication,  therefore,  as  well  as  methods  of 
observation,  are  of  great  importance;  and  with  the  telegraph, 
the  telephone,  visual  signalliDg,  balloons,  airships  and  improved 
field-glasses,  the  armies  of  to-day,  so  far  as  regards  the  mainten- 
ance of  connexion  between  different  bodies  of  troops,  and  the 
diffusion,  if  not  the  acquiring,  of  information,  are  at  a  great 
advantage  compared  with  those  of  the  middle  of  the  igth  century. 
War,  then,  in  some  respects  has  been  made  much  simpler. 
Armies  are  easier  to  move,  to  feed  and  to  manoeuvre.    But  In 


other  respecti  tliis  very  aisiplicity  has  niade  the  tonduct  of  a 
campiugn  more  difficult.  Not  cmly  is  the  weapon  winded  by 
the  general  leas  clumsy  and  more  deadly  than  heretofore,  less 
fragile  and  better  balanced,  but  it  acts  with  greater  rapidity 
and  has  a  fax  wider  scope.  In  a  strong  and  skilful  hand  it  may 
be  irresistible;  in  the  grasp  of  a  novice  it  is  worse  than  useless. 
In  former  times,  when  war  was  a  much  slower  process,  and  armiea 
were  less  highly  trained,  mistakes  at  the  outset  were  not  neces- 
sarily fataL  Under  modem  conditions,  the  inexperienced  com- 
mander will  not  be  granted  time  in  which  to  correct  his  deficiencies 
and  give  himself  and  his  troops  the  needful  practice.  The  idea 
of  forging  generals  and  soldiers  under  the  hammer  of  war  dis^ 
appeared  with  the  advent  of  "  the  nation  in  arms."  Military 
organization  has  become  a  science,  studied  both  by  statesmen 
and  soldiers.  The  lessons  of  history  have  not  been  neglected. 
Previous  to  1S70,  in  one  kingdom  only  was  it  recognized  that 
intellect  and  education  play  a  more  prominent  part  in  war 
than  stamina  and  courage.  Taught  by  the  disasters  of  x8o6, 
Prussia  set  herself  to  dLaoover  the  surest  means  of  escaping 
humiliation  for  the  future.  The  shrewdest  of  ha  sons  undertook 
the  task.  The  nature  of  war  was  analysed  until  the  secrets  of 
success  and  failure  were  laid  bare;  and  on  these  investigations  a 
system  of  organization  and  of  training  was  built  up  «hich,  not 
only  from  a  militaiy,  but  from  a  political,  and  even  an  economical 
pomt  of  view,  is  the  most  striking  product  of  the  19th  century. 
The  keynote  of  this  system  is  that  the  best  brains  in  tlinr  state 
shall  be  at  the  service  of  the  war  lord.  None,  therefore,  but 
th<^ugfaly  competent  soldiers  are  entrusted  with  the  responsi' 
bility  of  command;  and  the  education  of  the  officer  is  as 
thorough,  as  systematic  and  as  uniform  as  the  education  of  the 
lawyer,  the  diplomatist  and  the  doctor.  In  all  ages  the  power 
of  intellect  has  asserted  itself  in  war.  It  was  not  courage  and 
experience  only  that  made  Hannibal,  Alexander  and  Caesar 
the  greatest  names  of  antiquity.  Napoleon,  Wellington  and  the 
Archduke  Charles  were  certainly  the  best-educated  soldiers  of 
their  time;  while  Lee,  Jackson  and  Sherman  probably  knew 
more  of  war,  before  they  made  It,  than  any  one  else  in  the  United 
States.  But  it  was  not  until  1866  and  rSyo  that  the  preponderat- 
ing influence  of  the  trained  mind  was  made  manifest.  Other 
wars  had  shown  the  value  of  an  educated  general,  these  showed 
the  value  of  an  educated  army.  It  is  true  that  Moltke,  in  mentsl 
power  and  in  knowledge,  was  in  no  wise  inferior  to  the  great 
captains  who  preceded  him;  but  the  remarkable  point  of  his 
campaigns  is  that  so  many  capable  generals  had  never  before 
been  gathered  together  under  one  flag.  No  campaigns  have  been 
submitted  to  such  searching  criticism.  Never  have  mistakes 
been  more  sedulously  sou^t  for  or  more  frankly  exposed. 
And  yet,  compared  with  the  mistakes  of  other  campaigns,  even 
with  that  of  1815,  where  hardly  a  superior  officer  on  either  side 
had  not  seen  more  battles  than  Moltke  and  his  comrades  bad 
seen  field-days,  they  were  astonishingly  few.  It  is  not  to  be 
denied  that  the  foes  of  Prussia  were  hardly  worthy  of  her  steel. 
Yet  it  may  be  doubted  whether  either  Austria  or  France  ever  put 
two  finer  armies  into  the  field  than  the  army  of  Bohemia  in  1866 
and  the  army  of  the  Rhine  in  1870.  Even  their  generals  of 
divisions  and  brigades  had  more  actual  experience  than  those 
who  led  the  German  army  corps.  Compared  with  the  German 
rank  and  file,  a  great  part  of  their  non-commissioned  officers 
and  men  were  veterans,  and  veterans  who  had  seen  much  service. 
Their  chief  officers  were  practically  familiar  with  the  methods 
of  moving,  supplying  and  manccuvring  large  masses  of  troops; 
their  mardials  were  vaUant  and  successful  soldiers.  And  yet 
the  history  of  modem  warfare  records  no  defeats  so  swift  and 
so  complete  as  those  of  KOniggrStz  and  Sedan.  The  great  host 
of  Austria  was  shattered  to  fragments  in  seven  weeks;  the  French 
Imperial  army  was  destroyed  in  seven  weeks  and  three  days; 
and  to  all  intent  and  purpose  the  resistance  they  had  offered 
was  not  much  more  effective  than  that  of  a  respectable  militia. 
But  both  the  Austrian  and  the  French  armies  were  organized 
and  trained  under  the  old  system.  Courage,  experience  and 
professional  pride  they  possessed  in  abundance.  Man  for  man, 
in  all  virile  qualities,  neither  officers  nor  men  were  inftrior  to 


3o6 


WAR 


(GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 


their  fo«.  But  one  tUng  their  genecib  kcked,  and.  that  was 
education  for  irar.  Strategy  was  almost  a  sealed  book  to  them; 
organiaition  a  matter  of  secondaxy  importanoe.  It  ma  no  part 
of  their  duty,  they  declared,  to  train  the  judgment  of  their 
subordinates;  they  were  soldiers,  and  not  pedagogues.  Know- 
ledge of  foreign  armies  and  their  methods  they  considered  oselesa; 
and  of  war  prepared  and  conducted  on  "  business  principles  " 
they  had  never  even  dreamt 

The  popular  idea  that  war  is  a  mere  matter  of  brute  force, 
redeemed  only  by  valour  and  dwripltne,  is  responstUe  for  a 
greater  evil  than  the  complacency  of  the  amateur. 
It  blinds  both  the  people  and  its  representatives  to 
their  bounden  duties.  War  is  something  more  than  a 
mere  outgrowth  of  politics.  It  is  a  political  act,  initiated  and 
ootttroUed  by  the  government,  and  it  is  an  act  of  which  the  issues 
are  far  more  momentous  than  any  other.  No  branch  of  political 
adence  requires  more  careful  study.  It  is  not  pretended  that  if 
military  history  were  thoroughly  studied  all  statesmen  would 
become  Moltkes,  or  that  every  dtiaen  would  be  competent  to 
set  squadrons  in  the  field.  War  is  above  all  a  practical  art,  and 
the  ai^Iication  of  theory  to  practice  is  not  to  be  taught  at  a 
university  or  to  be  leanied  by  those  who-  have  never  rubbed 
shoulders  with  the  men  in  the  ranks.  But  if  war  were  more 
generally  and  more  thoroughly  studied,  the  importance'  of 
organization,  of  training,  of  education  and  of  readiness  nould  be 
more  generally  ai^redated;  abuses  would  no  longer  be  regarded 
with  laay  tolerance;  efl&dency  would  be  something  more  than  a 
political  catchword,  and  soldiers  would  be  given  ample  <q)por- 
tunities  of  becoming  masters  of  every  detail  of  their  profession. 
Nor  is  this  all.  A  nation  that  understood  something  about  war 
would  hardly  suffer  the  fantastic  tricks  which  have  been  played 
so  often  by  the  best-meaning  statesmen.  And  sutesmen  them- 
selves would  realize  that  when  war  is  afoot  their  interference 
is  worse  than  useless;  that  preparation  for  ddaux,  whether 
by  the  multiplication  of  roads,  the  construction  of  railways, 
of  arsenals,  dockyards,  fortresses,  is  not  the  smallest  of  their 
duties;  and  lastly,  that  so  far  as  possible  diplomacy  and  strategy 
should  keq>  step.  Each  one  of  these  b  of  far  greater  importance 
than  in  the  past.  In  the  wars  of  the  x8th  century,  English 
cabinets  and  Dutch  dq>uttes  could  direct  strategical  operations 
without  bringing  ruin  on  their  rc^>ective  countries.  The  armies 
of  Austria  in  1792-1795.  controlled  as  they  were  by  the  Aulic 
Councils,  were  more  formidable  in  the  field  than  those  of  the 
French  Republic.  In  the  campaigns  of  1854  and  1859  the  plans 
of  Newcastle  and  Napoleon  IIL  worked  out  (0  a  successful 
issue;  and  if  Lincoln  and  SUnton,  his  SccreUry  of  War,  im- 
perilled the  Union  in  1862,  they  saw  the  downfall  of  the  Southern 
Confedera<7  in  1865.  But  in  every  case  amateur  was  pitted 
against  amateur.  The  Dutch  dq>uties  were  hardly  less  incapable 
of  planning  or  approving  a  sound  plan  of  campaign  than  Louis 
XIV.  The  Aulic  Council  was  not  more  of  a  marplot  than  the 
Committee  of  Public  Safety.  Newcastle  was  not  a  worse  st  rategist 
than  the  tsar  Nicholas  I.  Napoleon  III.  and  his  advisers  were 
quite  a  match  for  the  courtier  generals  at  Vienna;  while  Lincoln 
and  Stanton  were  not  much  more  ignorant  than  Jefferson  Davis. 
The  amateur,  however,  can  no  longer  expect  the  good  fortune 
to  be  pitted  against  foes  of  a  capacity  no  higher  than  his  own. 
The  operations  of  Continental  armies  will  be  directed  by  soldiers 
of  experience  whose  training  for  war  has  been  incessant,  and  who 
will  have  at  their  command  troops  in  the  highest  state  of  efficiency 
and  preparation.  It  is  not  difficult  to  imagine,  under  such 
conditions,  with  what  condign  punishment  mistakes  will  be 
visited.  Napoleon  III.  in  1859  committed  as  many  blunders 
as  he  did  in  1870.  But  the  Austrians  had  no  Moltke  to  direct 
them;  their  army  corps  were  commanded  by  men  who  knew 
less  of  generalship  than  a  Prussian  major,  and  their  armament 
was  inferior.  Had  they  been  the  Austrians  of  to-day,  it  is 
probable  that  the  French  and  the  allies  would  have  been  utterly 
defeated.  And  to  come  to  more  recent  campaigns,  while 
American  officers  have  not  hesitated  to  declare  that  if  the 
Spaniards  at  Santiago  had  been  Germans  or  French,  the  invasion 
would  have  ended  in  disastrous  failure,  it  is  impossiUe  to  doubt 


that  had  the  Boersof  Z899  PMMuad  a  stail  oC  tnuaed  atrateprts, 
they  would  have  shaken  the  British  Empire  to  its  foundaiioak 
The  true  test  of  direction  of  war  ia  the  number  of  mistakn 
If  th^  were  numerous,  although  the  enemy  may  not  have 
been  skilful  enough  to  take  advantage  of  them,  the  ootkmk 
for  the  future  under  the  same  direction,  but  against  a  more 
practised  enemy,  is  anything  but  bright. 

As  regards  preparation  for  defence,  history  supplies  »  with 
numerous  illustrations.     The  most  conspicuous,  perhaps,  is 
the   elaborate  series   of  fortifications  which    were     ^ 
constructed  by  Vauban  for  the  defence  of  France;     r![?" 
and  there  can  be  no  question  that  Louis  XIV.,  in    ^mmk 
erecting  thb  mighty  barrier  against  invasion,  gave 
proof  of  statesmanlike  foreught  of  no  mean  ordir.    An  instaace 
less  familiar,  perhaps,  but  even  more  creditable  to  the  bnin 
which  conceived  it,  was  Wellington's  preparation  of  Portugal  in 
1809-X811.   Not  only  did  the  impregnaUe  atronghold  of  Torres 
Vedras,  covering  Lisbon,  and  securing  for  the  aea-power  an  open 
door  to  the  continent  of  Europe,  rise  as  if  by  ntiagic  from  tiie 
earth,  but  the  whole  theatre  of  war  was  so  d«dt  with  that  ths 
defending  army  could  operate  wherever  opportunity  vu^ 
offer.     No  less  than  twenty  supply  depots  were  estsbfisM 
on  different  h'nes  of  the  advance.    Fortifications  protected  tk 
prindpal  magazines.   Bridges  were  restored  and  roads  impcovei 
Waterways  were  opened  up,  and  flotillas  organized;  and  tkv 
auxiliary  bases  were  formed  on  the  shores  of  the  AdutK. 
Again,  the  famous  "  quadrilaterals  "  of  Lombardy  and  Ro*^ 
have  more  than  fulfilled  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  oa- 
structed;  and  both  Austria  and  Turkey  owe  much  to  tk 
fortresses  which  so  long  protected  their  vulnerable  poinis.  ^ 
Nor  has  the  neglect  of  preparation  failed  to  exert  a  po^ol 
effect.    Moltke  has  told  us  that  the  railway  ^rstein  of  Genrony 
before  1870  had  been  devebped  without  regard  to  stratepol 
considerations.    Yet  the  fact  remains  that  it  was  far  better 
adapted  both  for  offence  and  defence  than  those  of  Austria  aad 
France;  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  can  hardly  be  denied  that  the 
unprovided  state  of  the  great  French  fortresses  exercised  ao 
evil  influence  on  French  strategy.    Both  Metz  and  Straashuit 
were  so  far  from  forming  strong  pivots  of  manoeuvres,  and  tkns 
aiding  the  operations  of  the  field  armies,  that  they  requiicd 
those  armies  for  their  protection;  and  the  retreat  on  Mets, 
which  removed  Bazaine's  army  from  the  direct  road  to  Pans 
and  placed  it  out  of  touch  with  its  supports,  was  mainly  due  to 
the  unfinished  outworks  and  deficient  armament  of  the  viixia 
city.    Since  1870  it  has  been  recognized  that  preparatioa  of  the 
theatre  of  war  ia  one  of  the  first  duties  of  a  government.  Evesy 
frontier  of  continental  Europe  is  covered  by  a  chain  of  entrenched 
camps.    The  great  arsenals  are  amply  fortified  and  stroni^y 
garrisoned.    Strategy  has  as  much  to  say  to  new  railways  as 
trade;  and  the  lines  of  communication,  whether  by  water  or 
by  land,  are  adequately  protected  from  aill  hostile  enterprises- 

We  now  come  to  the  importance  of  close  concert  between 
strategy  and  diplomacy.  On  the  continent  of  Europe  they  can 
easily  keep  pace,  for  the  theatre  of  war  is  always  cotttn 
within  easy  reach.  But  when  the  ocean  intervenes  beivtta_ 
betwef^n  two  hostile  states  it  is  undoubtedly  difficult  ^|^ 
to  time  an  ultimatum  so  that  a  suffident  armed  force 
shall  be  at  hand  to  enforce  it,  and  it  has  been  said 
in  high  places  that  it  is  practicoUy  impossible.  The  expedition 
to  Copenhagen  in  1807,  when  the  British  ultimatum  was  p^^ 
sented  by  an  army  of  27,000  men  carried  on  300  transports, 
would  appear  to  traverse  this  statement.  But  at  the  beginning 
of  the  20th  century  an  army  and  a  fleet  of  such  nuignitude  coal 
neither  be  assembled  nor  despatched  without  the  whole  woitfl 
being  cognizant.  It  is  thus  perfectly  "true  that  an  appre«aw 
period  of  time  must  elapse  between  the  breaking  off  of  negotia- 
tions and  the  appearance  on  the  scene  of  an  invading  arn»^ 
Events  may  march  so  fast  that  the  statesman's  ^*'"* '"Jarful 
forced  before  the  army  has  embarked.  But  because  a  V^^^ 
blow  cannot  at  once  be  struck,  it  by  no  means  '^'*'*' tJ  ^a 
delivery  or  the  receipt  of  an  ultimatum  should  at  once  V^^^^ 
dangerous  situation._Dewey*s  brilliant  victory  at  Mann*  **» 


k 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES) 


WAR 


307 


the  greater  part  of  its  effect  because  the  United  States  Govern* 
meat  was  unable  to  follow  up  the  blow  by  landing  a  sa£5dent 
force.  Eiactly  the  same  thing  occuired  in  Egypt  in  1882.  The 
only  results  of  the  bombardment  of  Alexapdria  were  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  dty»  the  massacre  of  thi  Christian  inhabitants,  the 
encouragement  of  the  rebds,  who,  when  the  ships  drew  off, 
came  to  the  n&tuni  oonduaioa  that  Great  Britain  was  powerieas 
on  land.  Again,  m  1899  the  invading  Boers  foimd  the  frontiers 
unfortified  and  their  march  opposed  by  an  madequate  force. 
It  is  essential,  then,  that  when  hostilities  across  the  sea  are  to 
be  apprehended,  the  most  careful  precautions  should  be  taken 
to  ward  off  the  chance  of  an  initial  disaster.  And  such  pre- 
cautions are  always  possible.  It  is  hardly  concnvable,  for 
instance,  that  a  great  maritime  power,  with  Cyprus  as  a  fiau 
d*(umeSf  could  not  have  placed  aough  transports  behind  the 
fleet  to  hold  a  sufbcient  garrison  for  Alexandria,  and  thus  have 
saved  the  dty  from  destruction.  Nor  in  the  case  of  a  distant 
piDvince  being  threatened  is  there  the  smallest  reason  that  the 
garrison  of  the  province  should  be  exposed  to  the  ride  of  a 
reverse  before  it  is  rdnforoed.  It  may  even  be  necessary  to 
abandon  territory.  It  will  certainly  be  necessary  to  construct 
strong  places,  to  secure  the  lines  of  communication,  to  establish 
ample  magazines,  to  organize  k>cal  forces,  to  assemble  a  fleet  of 
transports,  and  to  keep  a  large  body  of  troops  ready  to  embark 
at  a  moment's  notice.  But  there  is  no  reason,  except  expense, 
that  all  this  should  not  be  done  directly  it  bcooroes  dear  that 
war  is  probable,  and  that  it  should  not  be  done  without  attract- 
ing public  attention.  In  this  way  strategy  may  easily  keep  pace 
with  diplomacy;  and  all  that  is  wanted  is  the  exercise  of  ordinary 
foredght,  a  careful  study  of  the  theatre  of  war,  a  knowledge  of 
the  enemy's  resources  and  a  resolute  determination,  despite 
some  temporary  inconvenience  and  the  outcry  of  a  thoughtless 
public,  to  give  the  enemy  no  chance  of  daiming  first  blood.  The 
Franco-German  War  supplies  a  striking  example.  Moltke's 
original  intention  was  to  assemble  the  German  armies  on  the 
western  frontier.  The  French,  he  thought,  inferior  in  numbers 
and  but  half  prepared,  would  probably  assemble  as  far  back  as 
the  Moselle.  But,  as  so  often  happens  in  war,  the  enemy  did 
what  he  was  least  expected  to  do.  Hastily  leaving  their  garri- 
sons, the  French  regiments  rushed  forward  to  the  Saar.  The 
excitement  in  Germany  was  great;  and  even  soldiers  of  repute, 
although  the  mobilization  of  the  army  was  stiH  unfinished, 
demanded  that  such  troops  as  were  avaUable  should  be  hurried 
forward  to  protect  the  ridi  provinces  which  lie  between  the  Saar 
and  Rhine.  But  the  chief  of  the  staff  became  as  deaf  as  he  was 
silent.  Not  a  single  company  was  despatched  to  rdnforce  the 
slender  garrisons  of  the  frontier  towns;  and  those  garrisons 
were  ordered  to  rethe,  destroying  railways  and  removing  rolling- 
stock,  directly  the  enemy  should  cn>»  the  boundary.  Moltke's 
foresight  had  embraced  every  possible  contingency.  The 
action  of  the  French,  improbable  as  it  was  deemed,  had  still 
been  provided  against;  and,  in  accordance  with  time-tables 
drawn  up  long  beforehand,  the  German  army  was  disentrained 
on  the  Rhine  instead  of  on  the  Saar.  Ninety  miles  of  German 
territory  were  thus  laid  open  to  the  enemy;  but  the  temporary 
surrender  of  the  border  provinces,  in  the  opinion  of  the  great 
strategist,  was  a  very  minor  evil  compared  with  the  disasters, 
miliury  and  pc^tical,  that  would  have  resulted  from  an  attempt 
to  hold  them. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  observe  that  no  dvilian  minister, 
however  deeply  he  mi^t  have  studied  the  art  of  war,  could 
be  expected  to  solve  for  himself  the  strategic  problems 
Di^lff  which  come  before  him.  In  default  of  practical 
knowledge,  it  would  be  as  unpossible  lor  him  to 
dedde  where  garrisons  diould  be  stationed,  what 
fortifications  were  necessary,  what  roads  should  be  construaed, 
oY  how  the  lines  of  communication  should  be  protected,  as  to 
frame  a  plan  of  campaign  for  the  invasion  of  a  hostile  state.  His 
foresight,  his  prevision  of  the  acddents  inevitable  in  war,  would 
necessarily  be  far  inferior  to  those  of  men  who  had  spent  thdr 
fives  in  applying  strategical  prindples  to  concrete  cases;  and 
it  is  exceedingly  unlikdy  that  be  would  be  as  prolific  of 


Strategical  expedients  as  those  fkasiUar  with  thcfr  employneBt. 
Neverthdess,  a  minuter  of  war  cannot  divest  •himsdf  of  Us 
responsibility  for  the  conduct  of  military  operations.  In  the 
first  place,  he  is  directly  responsible  that  plains  of  campaign  to 
meet  every  possible  contingency  are  worked  out  in  time  of  peace. 
In  the  seamd  place,  he  is  directly  reqMnsible  that  xhe  advice 
on  which  he  acts  should  be  the  hat  procurable.  It  is  essentis], 
therefor^  that  he  should  be  capable  of  forming  an  independent 
opinion  on  the  merits  of  the  military  projects  wlndi  may  be 
submitted  to  him,  and  also  on  the  merits  of  those  who  have  to 
exectttethem.  Pitt  knew  enough  of  war  and  men  to  select  Wolfe 
for  the  command  in  Canada.  Canning  and  Castleresgh,  in  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  the  king,  sent  WelUngton,  one  of  the  youngest 
of  the  lieutenant-generals,  to  hold  Portugal  against  the  French. 
The  French  Directory  had  suffident  sense  to  accept  Napoleon's 
project  for  the  campaign  of  Italy  in  1796.  In  the  thin)  place, 
strategy  cannot  move  altogether  untrammelled  by  politics  and 
finance.  But  political  and  financial  considerations  may  not 
present  themselves  in  quite  the  same  light  to  the  soldier  as  to  the 
statesman,  and  the  hitter  Is  bound  to  make  certain  that  they  have 
recdved  due  attenticHi.  If,  however,  nuxiifications  are  necessary, 
they  should  be  made  before  the  plan  of  campaign  is  finally 
approved;  and  in  any  case  the  purely  military  considerations 
should  be  most  carefully  weighed.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  an  unfavourable  political  dtuaticm  is  best  redeemed  by  a 
decisive  victory,  while  a  reverse  will  do  more  to  shake  confidence 
in  the  Government  than  even  the  temporary  surrender  of  some 
portion  of  the  national  domains.  "  Be  sure  before  striking  " 
and  Rumler  pour  mieux  sauter  are  both  admirable  maxims; 
but  thdr  practical  application  requires  a  thorough  appredation 
of  the  true  principles  of  war,  and  a  very  large  degree  of  moral 
courage,  both  in  the  solder  who  suggests  and  in  the  statesman 
who  approves.  If,  however,  the  soldier  and  the  statesman  are 
supported  by  an  enlightened  public,  sufiSdently  acquainted  with 
war  to  realize  that  patience  is  to  be  preferred  to  predpitati<m, 
that  retreat,  though  inglorious,  is  not  necessarily  humiliating, 
thdr  task  is  very  considerably  lightened.  Nothing  is  more 
significant  than  a  comparison  between  the  Paris  press  in  1870 
and  the  American  Confederate  press  in  1864.  lu  the  one  case, 
even  after  the  disastrous  resdlts  of  the  fibrst  encounters  had 
proved  the  superior  strength  and  readiness  of  the  enemy,  the 
French  peof^e,  with  all  the  heat  of  presumptuous  ignorance, 
cried  out  for  more  battles,  for  an  immediate  offensive,  for  a 
desperate  ddence  of  the  frontier  provinces.  So  fierce  was  thdr 
damour  that  both  the  generals  and  the  government  hesitated, 
until  it  was  too  late,  to  advise  the  retreat  of  Bazainc's  army; 
and  when  that  army  had  been  cut  off  at  Mets,  the  pressure 
of  public  o|Hnion  was  so  great  that  the  last  reserve  of  France  was 
despatched  to  Sedan  on  one  of  the  maddest  enterprises  ever 
undertaken  by  a  dvHized  state.  In  1864,  on  the  other  hand, 
while  Lee  in  \^rginia  and  Johnstcm  in  the  west  were  retreating 
from  position  to  position,  and  the  huge  hosts  of  the  Union  were 
gradually  converging  on  the  very  heart  of  the  Confederacy,  the 
Southern  press,  aware  that  every  backward  step  made  the 
Federal  task  more  difficult,  had  nothing  but  praise  for  the 
caution  which  controlled  the  movements  of  their  armies.  But 
the  Southern  press,  in  three  crowded  years  of  conflict,  had  learned 
something  of  war.  In  1866  and  1870  the  German  press  was  so 
carefully  muzzled  that  even  had  there  been  occasiop  it  could 
have  done  nothing  to  prejudice  public  opim'on.  Thus  both  the 
soverdgn  and  the  generals  were  backed  l^  the  popular  support 
that  they  so  richly  merited;  but  it  may  be  remarked  that  the 
relations  between  the  army  and  the  government  were  char- 
acterized by  a  harmony  which  has  been  seldom  seen.  The  old 
king,  in  his  dual  capadty  as  head  of  the  state  and  commander- 
in-chief,  had  the  last  word  to  say,  not  only  in  the  sdection  of 
the  superior  officers,  but  in  approving  every  important  operation. 
With  an  adviser  like  Moltke  at  his  elbow,  it  might  appear  that 
these  were  mere  matters  of  form.  Moltke,  however,  assures  us 
that  the  king  was  by  no  means  a  figurehead.  Although  most 
careful  not  to  assert  his  authority  in  a  way  that  would  embarrass 
his  chid  of  sti^,  and  always  ready  to  yidd  bis  own  judgment 


3o8 


WAR 


(GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 


MormI 


to  flovnd  wuom,  he  expnned,  nevcrthelMi,  a  perfectly  inde- 
pendent opinion  on  every  propoeal  placed  beion  him,  end  on 
very  many  occasions  made  most  veeCul  anggeationa.  And  at 
the  aame  time,  while  systematially  rrfraining  from  all  inter* 
fcrence  after  military  operationa  had  once  begun,  he  never 
permitted  military  conaderatioos  to  override  the  demands  of 
policy.  In  1866,  when  it  was  manifestly  of  the  first  importance, 
from  a  military  point  of  view,  that  the  Pnisian  anny  ahoiild  be 
concentrated  in  a  position  which  would  enaUe  it  to  cross  the 
border  immediately  war  was  declared,  the  political  situation  was 
so  strained  that  it  was  even  more  important  to  prevent  the 
enemy  from  setting  foot  at  any  single  point  on  Prussian  territory. 
The  army,  in  consequence,  was  dispmed  instead  of  being  con< 
cent  rated,  and  the  ultimate  offensive  became  a  difficult  and 
hanrdous  operation.  It  is  true  that  the  king  was  an  able  and 
experienced  soldier.  Nevertheless,  the  wise  restraint  he  displayed 
In  the  course  of  two  great  campaigns,  as  well  as  the  skill  with 
which  he  adjusted  cond3icting  factors,  are  an  admirable  ezamj^e 
of  judicious  statesmanship. 

The  duration  of  a  campaign  is  brgdy  affected  by  the  deadly 
properticfl  of  modem  firearms.  It  is  true  that  Uie  losses  in 
battle  are  relatively  less  that  in  the  days  of  Brown 
Bess  and  the  smooth-bore  cannon,  and  almost  in- 
significant  when  compared  with  the  fearful  ramagr 
wrought  by  sword  and  spear.  The  reason  is  simple, 
A  battlefield  in  the  old  days,  except  at  close  quarters,  was  a 
comparatively  safe  locality,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  troops 
engaged  were  seldom  exfMcA  for  a  long  time  together  to  a  hot 
and  continuous  fire.  To-day  death  has  a  far  wider  range,  and 
the  strain  on  the  nerves  is  consequently  far  more  severe.  De- 
moralization, therefore,  sets  in  at  an  earlier  period,  and  it  is 
more  complete.  When  troops  once  realixe  their  inferiority,  they 
can  no  longer  be  depended  on.  It  is  not  the  losses  they  have 
actually  suffered,  but  those  that  they  expect  to  suffer,  that  affect 
them.  Unless  discipline  and  national  spirit  are  of  superior 
quality,  unless  the  soldier  is  animated  by  something  higher  than 
the  mere  habit  of  mechanical  obedience,  panic,  shirking  and 
wholesale  surrender  will  be  the  ordinary  features  of  a  campaign. 
These  phenomena  made  themselves  apparent,  though  in  a  less 
degree,  as  long  ago  as  the  American  Civil  War,  when  the  weapon 
of  the  infantry  was  the  muzzle-loading  rifle,  firing  at  most  two 
rounds  a  minute,  and  when  the  projectiles  of  the  artiQcry  were 
hardly  more  destructive  than  Uie  stone  shot  of  Mons  Meg. 
With  the  magazine  rifle,  marhine  guns,  shrapnel  and  high 
explosives  they  have  become  more  pronounced  than  even  at 
Vionville  or  Plevna.  "The  retreat  of  the  38th  (Prussian) 
Brigade,"  writes  Captain  Hoenig,  an  eye-witness  of  the  former 
battle,  "  forms  the  most  awful  drama  of  the  great  war.  It  had 
k»t  53%  of  its  strength,  and  the  proportion  of  killed  to  woimded 
was  as  3  to  4.  Strong  men  collapsed  inanimate.  ...  I  saw 
men  cry  like  children,  others  fcU  prone  without  a  sound;  in 
most  the  need  of  water  thrust  forth  all  other  instincts;  the  body 
demanded  its  rights.  '  Water,  water,'  was  the  only  intelligible 
cry  that  broke  from  those  moving  phantoms.  The  enemy's 
lead  poured  like  bail  upon  the  wretched  remnant  of  the  brigade, 
yet  they  moved  only  slowly  to  the  rear,  their  heads  bent  in  utter 
weariness;  their  features  distorted  under  the  thick  dust  that 
had  gathered  on  faces  dripping  with  sweat.  The  strain  was 
beyond  endurance.  The  soldier  was  no  longer  a  receptive  being; 
he  was  oblivious  of  everything,  great  or  smaU.  His  comrades 
or  his  superiors  he  no  longer  recognized;  and  yet  he  was  the 
same  man  who  but  a  short  time  before  had  marched  across  the 
battlefield  shouting  his  marching  chorus.  A  few  active  squadrons, 
and  not  a  man  would  have  escaped  1  Only  he  who  had  seen  men 
in  such  circumstances,  and  observed  their  bearing,  knows  the 
dreadful  imprint  that  their  features  leave  upon  the  memory. 
Madness  is  there,  the  madness  that  arises  from  bodily  exhaustion 
combined  with  the  most  abject  terror.  .  .  .  I  do  not  shrink,** 
he  adds,  ''from  confessing  that  the  fire  of  Mars-la-Tour  affected 
my  nerves  for  months." 

If  such  are  the  results  of  ill-success,  a  whole  army  nught 
be  reduced  to  the  condition  of  the  38th  Brigade  in  the  first 


month  of  the  caapifvi,  and  it  b  (hnt  perfectly  dear  that  lone 
small  mistake  fai  conduct,  some  trifling  deficiency  In  preparation, 
an  ill-ooBcdved  order  or  a  few  hours*  delay  in  |»ingiBg  op  a 
reinforcement  may  have  the  most  terrible  oooseqaeoces. 

The  importance,  nay  the  neoesaity,  that  the  people,  as  a 
governing  body,  abould  keep  as  watchful  an  eye  on  its  armed 
forces  and  the  national  defenos  as  on  diplomacy  or  leglsUtion 
is  fuUy  realized  naturally  cnou^,  only  by  those  nations  vhoie 
instincts  of  self>preservati<»,  by  reason  of  the  oonfiguntioo  of 
their  frontien  or  their  political  sttuatioa,  are  strongly  developed. 
Yet  even  to  maritime  empires,  to  Great  Britain  or  indeed  to  the 
United  States,  an  efficient  anny  is  of  the  first  necessity.  ^^^^ 
Their  land  frontiers  are  vulnoable.   They  may  have  ^SSuJr 
to  deal  with  rebellion,  and  a  navy  Is  not  all-powerful,  *•«•. 
even  for  the  defence  of  coasts  and  commerce.    It 
can  protect,  but   it  cannot  destroy.     Without  the  help  of 
an  army,  it  can  neither  complete  the  ruin  of  the  eneny'i 
fleet  nor  prevent  iu  resuadution.    Without  the  hdp  of  SA 
army  it  can  hardly  force  a  hostile  power  to  ask  for  terns. 
Exhaustion  is  the  <^ject  of  its  warfare;  hut  exhaustioD,  ooka 
accelerated  by  crushing  blows,  is  an  exceedin^y  slow  process 
In  the  spring  of  1861  the  blockade  was  established  in  Americu 
waters  along  the  coasts  ai  the  Southern  Confederacy,  »bA 
maintained  with  increasing  stringency  from  month  to  mootk 
Yet  it  was  not  till  the  spring  of  1865  that  the  colours  ^tk 
Union  floated  from  the  capitol  of  Richmond,  and  it  was  theiflV 
which  pbced  them  there;     A  state,  then,  which  should  nh 
on  naval  strength  sJone,  covld  look  forward  to  no  other  thai 
a  protraaed  war,  and  a  protracted  war  between  two  pA 
powers  is  antagonistic  to  the  interests  of  the  dvilized  vo^i 
With  the  nations  armed  to  the  teeth,  and  dominated  to  a  gmttf 
or  smaller  extent  by  a  militant  spirit;  with  commerce  u^ 
finance  dependent  for  health  and  seciuity  on  universal  pcac<' 
fordgn  intervention  is  a  mere  question  of  time.    Nor  would 
public  opinion,  either  In  Great  Britain  or  America,  be  coot^l 
with  a  purdy  defensive  policy,  even  if  such  policy  were  practic* 
able.    Putting  aside  the  tedium  and  the  dangera  of  an  iDtennio* 
able  campaign,  the  national  pride  would  never  be  brought  to 
confess  that  it  was  incapable  of  the  same  resolute  effort  as  mudi 
smaller  communities.    "  An  army,  and  a  strong  army,"  would 
be  the  general  cry.   Nor  would  sudi  an  army  be  difficult  to  create. 
Enormous  numbers  would  not  be  needed.    An  army  supported 
by  an  invindble  navy  possesses  a  strength  which  is  out  of  &Q 
proportion  to  its  size.    Even  to  those  who  rely  on  the  big  bat- 
talions and  huge  fortresses,  the  amphibious  power  of  a  grn^ 
maritime  state,  if  intelligently  directed,  may  be  a  most  formidable 
menace;  while  to  the  state  itself  it  Is  an  extraordinary  security' 
The  history  of  Great  Britain  is  one  long  illustration.    Captaia 
Mahan  points  out  that  there  are  always  dominant  positioDS, 
outside  the  frontiers  of  a  maritime  %tate,  which,  in  the  interests 
of  conunerce,  as  well  as  of  supremacy  at  sea,  should  never  be 
allowed  to  pass  into  the  possessirji  of  a  powerful  neighbour. 
Great  Britain,  always  dependent  for  her  prosperity  on  narrow 
seas,  has  long  been  familiar  with  the  importance  of  the  pouUons 
that  command  these  waterways.    In  one  respect  at  least  bef 
policy  has  been  consistent.    She  has  spared  no  tRort  to  secu^ 
such  positions  for  herself,  or,  if  that  has  been  impracticable, 
at  least  to  draw  their  teeth.    Gibraltar,  Malta,  St  Luda,  Adcs> 
^Sypt*  Cyprus  are  conspicuous  instances;  but  above  all  stands 
Antwerp.    In  perhaps  the  most  original  passage  of  AlisoDi> 
monumental  work  the  constant  influence  of  Antwerp  on  ibe 
destinies  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  vividly  portrayed.    *'  Nature 
has  framed  the  Schddt  to  be  the  rival  of  the  Thames.    ^*^ 
throuah  a  country  excdliog  even  the  midland  counties  of  England 
in  wealth  and  resources,  adjoining  dties  equal  to  any  in  Europ^ 
in  arts  and  commerce;  the  artery  at  once  of  Flanders  and 
Holland,  of  Brabant  and  Luxemburg,  it  is  fitted  to  be  thj 
great  organ  of  communication  between  the  fertile  fields  ^^ 
rich  manufacturing  towns  of  the  Low  Countries  and  otbcr 
marititne  states  of  the  world.**  Antwerp,  moreover,  the  *cy 
of  the  great  estuary,  is  eminently  adapted  for  the  establish ijicn 
of  a  vast  naval  arsenal,  such  as  it  became  under  PhUip  '^ 


OBNBRAU  PIUNCIPLESI 


WAR 


309 


tt 


Spain  and  again  under  tiie  fint  Napoleon.  "  It  is  the  point,' 
continues  the  histotrian, "  froEb  which  in  every  age  the  independ- 
ence of  these  kingdoms  has  been  seriously  menaced.  Seioible 
of  her  clanger,  it  had  been  the  fixed  policy  of  Great  Britain 
for  centuries  to  prevent  this  formidable  outwork  from  falling 
into  the  hands  of  her  enemies,  and  the  best  days  ol  her  histoiy 
are  chiefly  occupied  with  the  struggle  to  ward  of!  such  a  disaster.'^ 
In  ascr&ing,  however,  every  great  war  in  which  Great  Britain 
has  be^n  engaged  to  this  cause  alone  he  has  gone  too  far.  The 
security  of  India  has  been  a  motive  of  equal  strength.  Never- 
theless, it  was  to  protect  Antwerp  from  the  French  that  Charles 
II.  sided  with  the  Dutch  in  1670;  that  Anne  declared  war  on 
Louis  XIV.  in  1704;  that  Chatham  supported  Prussia  in  1742; 
that  Pitt,  fifty  years  later,  took  .up  arms  against  the  Revolution. 
The  trophies  of  the  British  army  in  the  great  war  with  France 
were  characteristic  of  the  amphibious  power.  The  troops  took- 
1^^^^  more  iMittleships  than  colours,  and  almost  as  many 
AEctoflto/  naval  arsenals  as  land  fortresses.  Many  were  the 
uMrmiamd  bk)ws  they  struck  at  the  maritime  strength  of  France 
"UJJJ^J^^  and  her  allies;  but  had  the  expedition  whidi  landed 
oparauMc  ^^  ^y^  j^  ^  Walcheren  in  1809  been  as  vigorously 

conducted  as  it  was  wisely  conceived,  it  would  have  hit  NaiMleon 
far  harder  than  even  the  seizure  of  the  Danish  fleet  at  Copen- 
hagen. The  great  dockyard  that  the  empoor  had  constructed 
on  the  Scheldt  held  the  nucleus  of  a  powerful  fleeL  Ei^t-  line- 
of-battle  ships  and  ten  frigates  lay  in  mid-channeL-  Twenty 
vessels  of  different  classes  were  on  the  sli^,  and  in  the  magasines 
and  storehouses  had  been  accumulated  sufficient  material  to 
equip  all  these  and  twenty  more.  The  destruction  of  Antwerp — 
and  for  a  full  week  it  was  at  Lord  Chatham's  mercjr — ^would 
have  (reed  scores  of  British  frigates  to  protect  British  commerce; 
Wellington,  in  his  great  campaign  of  1813,  could  not  have  had 
to  complain  that,  for  the  first  time,  the  communication  by  sea 
of  a  British  army  was  insecure;  the  Americans,  in  the  war 
which  broke  out  in  x8xa,  would  have  been  more  vigorously 
opposed;  and  Napoleon,  who,  while  Antwerp  was  his,  never 
altogether  abandoned  hope  of  overmastering  Great  Britain  on 
her  own  element,  might,  on  his  own  confession,  have  relinquished 
the  useless  struggle  'With  the  great  sea  power.  The  expedition 
failed,  and  failed  disastrously.  But  for  all  that,  fulfilling  as 
it  did  the  great  maxim -that  the  naval  strength  of  the  enemy 
should  be  the  first  objective  of  the  forces  of  the  maritime  power, 
both  by  land  and  sea,  it  was  a  strategical  stroke  of  the  highest 
order. 

The  predominant  part  played  by  the  army  under  Wellington 
in  Spain  and  Belgium  has  tended  to  obscure  the  principle  that 
governed  its  employment  ia  the  war  of  1 793-181 5.  The  army, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  country,  was  first  and  foremost  the  auxiliary 
of  the  fie^t;  and  only  when  the  naval  strength  of  the  enemy 
had  been  destroyed  was  it  used  in  the  ordinary  manner,  i.e, 
in  the  invasion  of  the  hostile  territory  and  in  lending  aid  to  the 
forces  of  confederate  powers.  Events  proved  that  these  principles 
were  absolutely  sound.  It  was  not  in  the  narrow  seas  alone  that 
the  army  rendered  good  service  to  the  navy.  Depriving  France 
of  her  colonies,  occupying  her  ports  in  foreign  waters,  ousting 
her  from  commanding  posts  along  the  trade  routes,  it  contributed 
not  only  to  her  exhaustion,  but  to  the  protection  of  British 
commerce  and  to  the  permanent  establishment  of  maritime 
supremagr.  Few  of  these  operations  are  of  sufficient  magnitude 
to  lUtract  much  notice  from  the  ordinary  historian,  yet  it  is 
impossible  to  overrate  their  effect.  To  the  possession  of  the 
dominant  positions  that  were  captured  by  the  army.  Great 
Britain,  in  no  small  degree,  is  indebted  for  the  present  security  of 
her  vast  dominions.  The  keynote  of  the  fierce  struggle  with  the 
French  Empire  was  the  possession  of  India.  Before  he  became 
First  Consul,  Napoleon  had  realized  that  India  was  the  throne 
of  Asia;  that  whoever  should  sit  on  that  throne,  master  of  the 
commerce  of  the  East,  of  the  richest  and  most  natural  market 
for  the  products  of  the  West,  and  of  the  hardiest  and  most  en- 
lightened nations  of  the  golden  hemisphere,  would  be  master 
of  more  than  half  the  gjobe.  But  his  prescience  was  not  surer 
than  the  instinct  of  the  British  people.    Vague  and  shadowy 


indeed  were  their  dreams  of  empire,  yet  the  presentiment  of 
future  greatness,  based  on  the  foothold  they  had  already  gained 
in  Hindustan,  seems  always  to  have  contrdled  the  national 
policy.  They  knew  as  well  as  Napoleon  that  Malta  and  Egypt, 
to  use  his  own  phrase,  were  merely  the  outworks  of  their  strong- 
hold in  the  East;  and  that  if  those  outworks  fell  into  the  hands 
of  France,  a  great  army  of  warlike  Mahonunedans,  led  by  French 
generals,  stiffened  by  a  French  army  corps,  and  gathering 
impetus  from  the  accession  of  every  tribe  it  passed  through, 
might  march  unopposed  across  the  Indus.  So,  from  first  to  last, 
the  least  threat  against  Egypt  and  Malta  sufficed  to  awaken 
their  apprehensions;  and  in  their  knowledge  that  India  was  the 
ultimate  objective  of  all  his  schemes  is  to  be  found  the  explanation 
of  the  stubbornness  with  which  they  fought  Napoleon.  It  is  not 
to  be  denied  that  in  thwarting  the  ambition  of  their  mighty 
rival,  or  perhaps  in  furthering  their  own,  the  navy  was  the  chief 
instrument;  but  in  thrusting  the  French  from  Egypt,  in  adding 
Ceylon,  Mauritius  and  Cape  Colony  to  the  outworks,  the  army, 
small  as  it  was  then,  compared  with  the  great  hosts  of  the 
Continent,  did  mudi  both  for  the  making  and  the  security  of  the 
British  Empire. 

But  the  scope  of  the  military  operations  of  a  maritime  state 
is  by  no  means  limited  to  the  capture  of  colonies,  naval  arsenals 
and  coaling-stations.  Timely  diversions,  by  attracting  a  large 
portion  of  the  enemy's  fighthig  strength  on  the  mainland,  may 
give  valuable  aid  to  the  armies  of  an  ally.  The  Peninsular  War 
is  a  conspicuous  example.  According  to  Napoleon,  the  necessity 
of  maintaining  Ids  grip  on  Spain  deprived  him  of  180,000  good 
soldiers  during  the  disastrous  campaign  of  1813;  and  those 
soldiers,  who  would  have  made  Dresidoi  a  dedsive  instead  of  a 
barren  victory,  were  held  fast  by  Wellington.  Again,  it  was  the 
news  of  Vittoria  that  made  it  useless  for  the  emperor  to  propose 
terms  of  peace,  and  so  escape  from  the  coils  that  strangled  him 
at  Leiioig. 

Nor  is  the  reinforeeme.nt  supplied  by  a  small  army  based  upon 
the  sea  to  be  despised.  In  1793  a  British  contingent  under  the 
duke  of  York  formed  part  of  the  allied  forces  which,  had  the 
Britfeh  govenunent  forborne  to  interfere,  would  in  all  probability 
have  captured  Paris.  Tweiity^two  years  Liter,  under  wiser 
audioes,  another  contingent,  although  numbering  no  more  than 
30/)oo  men,  took  a  dedsive  part  in  the  war  of  natimis,  and  the 
blunders  of  the  older  generation  were  more  than  repaired  at 
Waterloo.  Nevertheless,  ^e  strength  of  the  amphibious  pviter 
has  been  -more  effectively  displayed  than  in  the  campaign  of 
181 5.  Intervention  at  the  most  critical  period  of  a  war  has 
produced  greater  results  than  the  provision  of  a  contingent  at 
the  outset.  In  1781  the  disembarkation  of  a  French  army  at 
Yorktown,  Virginia,  rendered  certain  the  independence  of  the 
United  States;  and  in  1878,  when  the  Russian  invaders  were 
already  in  si^t  of  Constantinople,  tlw  arrival  of  the  British 
fleet  in  the  Dardanelles,  following  the  mobilization  of  an  ex- 
peditionary force,  at  once  arrested  thdr  further  progress.  Had 
the  British  Cabinet  of  1807  realized  the  preponderating  strength 
which  even  a  small  army,  if  rightly  used,  draws  from  the  com- 
mand of  the  sea,  the  campaign  of  Eylau  would  In  all  probability 
have  been  as  disastrous  to  Napoleon  as  that  of  Leipzig.  The 
presence  of  so,ooo  men  at  the  great  battle  would  have  surdy 
turned  the  scale  in  favour  of  the  allies.  Yet,  although  the  men 
were  available,  although  a  few  months  later  37,000  were  assembled 
in  the  Baltic  for  the  coerrion  of  Denmark,  his  Majesty's  ministers, 
forgetful  of  Marlborough's  glories,  were  so  imbued  with  the  Idea 
that  the  British  army  was  too  insignificant  to  take  part  in  a 
Continental  war,  that  the  opportunity  was  let  slip.  It  is  a 
suffidcntly  remarkable  faa  that  the  successive  governments 
of  that  era,  although  they  realized  very  deariy  that  the  first 
duty  of  the  army  was  to  support  the  operations  and  complete 
the  triumph  of  the  navy,  never  seemed  to  have  grasped  the 
prindplcs  which  should  have  controlled  its  use  when  the  com- 
mand of  the  sea  had  been  attained.  The  march  of  the  Allies  on 
Paris  in  1793  was  brought  to  a-  standstill  because  the  British 
Cabinet  considered  that  the  contingent  would  be  better  cm 
ployed  in  besieging  Dunkirk.   After  the  failure  of  the  expedition 


3IO 


WAR 


iGBNEiuu.  noMcmxs 


under  Sir  J<»hn  Moere  to  adueve  the  imposaible,  and  in  con- 
junction with  the  Spaniards  drive  the  French  from  the  Peninsula, 
the  ministry  abandoned  all  idea  oC  intervention  on  the  main 
theatre,  although,  as  we  have  sera,  had  sudi  intervention  been 
well  timed,  it  might  easily  have  changed  the  current  oi  events. 
It  is  true  that  when  the  main  theatre  is  occupied  by  huge  armies, 
as  was  the  case  during  the  whole  of  the  Napoleonic  conflict,  the 
value  oi  a  comparatively  small  force,  however  sudden  its  appear- 
ance, is  by  no  means  easily  realized.  For  instance,  it  would  seem 
at  first  sight  that  a  British  contingent  oC  100,000  men  would  be 
almost  lost  amid  the  millions  that  would  take  part  in  the  decisive 
conflicts  of  a  European  war.  It  is  remembered,  however,  that 
with  enormous  masses  of  men  the  difiiculties  of  supply  are  very 
great.  Steam  has  done  much  to  lighten  them,  and  the  numbers 
at  the  point  of  collision  will  be  far  greater  than  it  was  possible 
to  assemble  in  the  days  of  Napcdeon.  Nevertheless,  the  lines  of 
communication,  especially  railways,  will  require  more  men  to 
guard  them  than  heretofore,  for  they  are  far  more  vulnerable. 
The  longer,  therefore,  the  lines  of  communication,  the  smaller 
the  numbers  on  the  field  of  battk.  Moreover,  the  great  hosu  of 
the  Continent,  not  only  for  convenience  of  supply,  but  for  con- 
venience of  manoeuvre,  will  deploy  several  armies  on  a  broad 
front.  At  some  one  point,  then,  a  reinforcement  of  even  one  or 
two  army  corps  might  turn  the  scale. 

The  objections,  however,  to  intervention  of  thi^  character 
are  numerous.  Between  allied  armies,  espedally  if  one  is  far 
larger  than  the  other,  there  is  certain  to  be  friction, 
^' ffiS"  ^  ^^  ^^^  ^"^^  ^  Crimea;  and  the  question  of 
mrmMMu  supply  is  not  easily  settled.  If,  however,  the  decisive 
point  is  near  the  coast,  as  in  the  campaign  of  Eyiiau, 
the  army  of  the  maritime  power,  possessing  its  own  base,  can 
render  effective  aid  without  embarrassment  either  to  itself 
or  its  ally.  But,  under  all  other  conditions,  independent  opera- 
tions of  a  secondary  nature  are  distinctly  to  be  preferred.  Such 
was  clearly  the  opinion  of  the  British  ministries  during  the 
war  with  France.  They  recognized  that  by  giving  vitality 
and  backbone  to  popular  risings  even  a  small  army  might  create 
usefiU  diversions.  But  their  idea  of  a  diversion  was  a  series 
of  isolated  efforts,  made  at  far-distant  points;  and  even  so  late 
as  iSrj  they  were  oblivious  of  the  self-evident  facts  that  for  a 
diversion  to  be  really  effective  it  must  be  made  in  such  strength 
as  to  constitute  a  serious  threat,  and  that  it  should  be  directed 
against  sonte  vital  point.  Fortunately  for  Europe,  Wellington 
foresaw  that  the  permanent  occupation  of  Portugal,  and  the 
presence  of  a  British  army  in  dose  proximity  to  the  southern 
frontier  of  France,  would  be  a  menace  which  it  would  be  im- 
possible for  Napoleon  to  disregard.  Yet  with  what  difficulty 
he  induced  the  government  to  adopt  his  views,  and  how  luke- 
warm was  their  support,  is  exposed  in  the  many  volumes  of  his 
despatches.  In  all  history  there  are  few  more  glaring  instances 
of  incompetent  statesmanship  than  the  proposal  of  the  cabinet 
of  18 13,  at  the  moment  Wdlington  was  contemplating  the 
campaign  that  was  to  expd  the  French  from  Spain,  and  was 
asking  for  more  men,  more  money  and  more  material,  to  detach 
a  large  f<Mxe  in  the  vague  hope  of  exciting  a  revolution  in  southern 
Italy.  Whether  the  improvement  in  communications,  as  well 
as  the  increase  in  the  size  of  armies,  have  not  greatly  weakened 
the  value  of  diversions  on  the  mahiland,  it  is  difficult  to  say. 
Railways  may  enable  the  defendier  to  concentrate  his  forces 
so  rapidly  that  even  the  landing  may  be  opposed,  and  with  the 
enormous  numbers  at  his  command  he  may  wdl  be  able  tq 
spare  a  considerable  force  from  the  main  theatre.  It  is  possible 
to  conceive  that  a  small  army,  even  if  it  completed  its  embarka- 
tion, might  find  itself  shut  up  in  an  entrenched  position  by  a 
force  little  larger  than  itself.  .If,  however,  the  diversion  were 
made  at  a  crisis  of  the  campaign,  the  sudden  appearance  of  a 
new  army  might  be  decisive  of  the  war.  Otherwise,  the  army 
would  probably  do  more  good  if  it  refrained  from  landing  and 
confined  itself  to  threats.  So  long  as  it  was  hidden  by  the 
horizon,  it  would  te  invested  with  the  terrors  of  the  unknown. 
The  enemy's  knowledge  that  at  any  moment  a  well-equipped 
force,  supported  by  a  powerful  fleet,  might  suddenly  descend 


upon  somt  proii^enMia  port  of  inpoctant  ancnal,  wmdd  oompd 
him  to  maintain  large  garrisons  along  the  whole  aeaboard. 
llie  strength  of  these  gaxrisooa,  in  al  probability,  wouM  be 
much  larger  in  the  aggregate  than  the  force  whkh  menaced 
them,  and  the  latter  would  thus  exercise  a  far  greater  disintegrat- 
ing effect  on  the  enemy's  armed  strength  than  by  adding  a  few 
thousand  men  to  the  hosts  of  its  ally.   On  theatres  of  war  which 
are  only  thinly  populated  or  half  dvilized,  a  descent  from  the 
sea  might  ea^y  produce  a  complete  change  in  the  situatioD. 
The  occupation  of  Plevna,  in  dose  proximity  to  the  Russian 
line  of  communications  and  to  the  single  bridge  across  the  Danube, 
brought  the  Russian  advance  through  Bulgaria  to  a  sudden  stop, 
and  relieved  all  pressure  on  Turkey  pioper.     The  deadlock 
which  ensued  is  suggestive.    Let  us  suppose  that  the  invaders' 
line  of  communications  had  been  a  railway,  and  Plevna  situated 
near  the  coasL    Supplied  from  the  sea,  with  unlimited  faciiitia 
for  reinforcement,  Osman's  ring  of  earthworks    would  have 
been  absolutely  impregnable;  and  had  the  ring  been  pushed 
so  far  inland  as  to  secure  scope  for  offensive  action,  the  Russians, 
in  all  human  probability,  would  never  have  croased  the  Balkans. 
It  is  perfectly  possible,  then,  that  if  an  army  lands  within  reach 
of  a  precarious  line  of  communications  it  may  compd  the  enemy, 
although  far  superior  in  numbers,  to  renounce  all  enterprises 
against  distant  points. 

Railways  in  war  are  good  servants,  but  bad  masten.  b 
some. respects  they  are  far  superior  to  a  network  of  highnndi 
Two  trains  will  supply  the  daily  needs  of  100,000  men 
several  hundred  miles  distant  from  their  baise.  But  '^"'^ 
the  road-bed  is  easily  destroyed;  the  convoy  system  is  impracli^ 
able,  and  the  regular  course  of  traflk  is  susceptible  to  the  sb'ghtest 
threat.  So,  when  railways  become  the  prindpal  factors,  is 
when  an  army  finds  itself  dependent  on  a  long  and  exposed  liMi 
a  powerful  aggressive  combination  becomes  a  matter  of  the 
utmost  difficulty.  The  whole  attention  of  the  commander  wifl 
be  given  to  the  security  of  his  supplies,  and  even  if  he  is  not 
thrown  on  the  defensive  by  the  enemy's  activity,  his  liberty 
of  action  will  be  exceedingly  drcumseribed.  The  rdative  values 
of  the  different  kinds  of  communications  have  a  most  important 
bearing  on  the  art  of  war.  A  great  waterway,  such  as  the  Nile, 
the  Mississippi,  the  Danube  or  the  Ganges,  is  safer  and  surer 
than  a  railway.  But  railways  ant  far  more  numerous  than 
navigabk;  rivers,  and  a  series  of  paralld  lines  Is  thus  a  betttf 
means  of  supplying  a  large  army.  But  neither  railways 
nor  waterways  as  lines  of  supply  or  of  operation  are  ^^Jtlr* 
to  be  compared  with  the  sea.  Before  the  war  of  1870,  ipenthA 
for  instance,  a  study  of  the  French  railway  system 
enabled  Moltke  to  forecast, "with  absolute  accuracy,  the  direction 
of  Napoleon's  advance,  the  distribution  of  his  forces,  and  the 
extent  of  front  that  they  would  occupy.  In  a  war,  therefore, 
between  two  Continental  powers,  the  staff  otk  dther  side  would 
have  no  difiicuhy  in  determining  the  line  of  attack;  the  locality 
for  concentration  would  be  at  once  made  clear;  and  as  the 
carrying  capacity  of  all  railways  is  well  known,  the  numbers 
that  would  be  encountered  at  any  one  point  along  the  front 
might  be  easily  calculated.  But  if  the  enemy's  army,  supported 
by  a  powerful  fleet,  were  to  advance  across  blue  water,  the  case 
WQuId  be  very  different.  Its  movements  would  he  veiled  in  the 
most  complete  secrecy.  It  would  be  impossible  to  do  more  than 
guess  at  itsobjeaive.  It  mi^t  strike  at  any  point  akiDg 
hundreds  of  miles  of  coast,  or  it  might  shift  from  one  point  to 
another,  perhaps  far  distant,  in  absolute  security;  it  could 
bewilder  the  enemy  with  fdnts,  and  cause  him  to  disperse  his 
forces  over  the  whole  seaboard.  Surprise  and  freedom  01 
movement  are  pre-eminently  the  we^K>ns  of  the  povvr  that 
commands  the  sea.  Witness  the  War  of  Secession. .  McClellan, 
in  1862,  by  the  adroit  transfer  of  iio,ooo  mkn  down  the  reached 
of  Chesapeake  to  the  Virginia  Peninsula^  had  Richmond  at  his 
mercy.  Grant  in  1864,  by  continually  changing  his  line  of 
commuirication  from  one  river  to  another,  made  more  process 
m  a  month  than  his  predecessors  had  done  in  two  years.  Sn^' 
man's  great  march  across  Georgia  would  have  been  ''"P^^jSS 
had  not  a  Federal  fleet  been  ready  to  recdve  him  when  he  ntoatQ 


OBNEKAL  PMMCIPLE^ 

tbo  Allmtk;  and,  Ikou^wnt  tka  w,  t 


a  dccwivt  «ff on. 

The  pawn  of  itrikiDg  like  "  >  bolt  from  Ibt  blue ' 
voy  snalot  vilue  in  mr.     Sutptiu  ■» 
tinon  *]1  tlic  grand  Hntival  (ombinationi  at  the  put,  u 
it  irlll  be  of  tboH  to  come.    The  fint  tbonghl  utd  tbe  lut  of  the 

great  gsncnl  i>  to  ontirit  hia  ulvmeiy,  mod  to  itrike 
t^^f,^  nbereheialeuteipcctsd.  And  Ibe  meuuna  he  ulopu 
ftwr.       to  accompliih '  hii  pun>c«e  ue  not  euily  divtnnl. 

What  •oMiet  in  Enrope  inlidpual  MailboTougli'i 
Much  la  the  Duubc  ud  Bkohooi  Gdd?  What  other  brain 
beiida*  Napohoii'i  dreamt  of  Ibe  puaage  cd  (be  Alps  brioic 
Mlta^i  Wu  there  ■  lingle  gCDCnl  oi  Praaua  hdore  Jena 
who  lonnw  that  tbe  French  wduM  march  north  iTom  ibc 
Bavuiu  (roDlier,  uncovering  the  roada  to  the  Rhine,  and  riaking 
vtleT'dcMnKtion  in  caae  of  defefttP  Who  believed,  in  the  euly 
JuDCcf  tSij,  that  an  uny  130,000  Mnwg  would  dare  to  invade 
■  country  defended  by  [wo  amtei  that  miMeied  loceibs  over 
aoo/)00  unbeaten  aoidieis?  To  what  Federal  aoldier  did  it 
occur,  on  the  morobg  of  ChanctliorBville,  that  Lee,  confronted 
by  fo,Doo  Nonhenien,  wovU  detach  the  half  oi  hia  own  small 
force  of  je,ooo  to  attack  hia  enemy  in  Bank  and  rear?  The 
very  courae  which  appeared  to  ordinary  mindi  »  beut  by 
difficultiea  and  dangers  as  to  be  ouliide  the  pole  of  pnclical 
strategy  ha*,  over  and  over  i^in,  btui  thai  which  led  lodeduve 
victory;  and  if  there  1*  one  lesson  lOOn  vllitabla  than  another 
aa  re^rdi  national  defence,  it  is  that  prepanlion  cannot  i>e 
too  daiefu]  or  precautions  overdone.  Ovcrwh^ming  numben, 
adequately  trained,  commanded  and  equipped,  an  the  only 

ance,  either  by  land  or  sea,  ova  all  possible  hosLile  comlnna- 
tioni,  is  unattainable,  and  in  default  tbe  only  sound  poUcy 
is  to  take  timely  and  ample  pncautionl  s^ost  all  enttiprisea 
which  an  even  remotely  possible.  There  is  nothing  more  to  be 
dreaded  in  war  than  the  combined  laboan  of  a  thoroughly 
weH'trained  genenl  staff,  elcept  the  inldlect  and  audadty  of  a 
great  atrategiat-    The  ordinary  mind,  even  if  it  does 

aomi^.  Ing  gnat  difficulties;  and  any  operation  which 
invdves  both  vast  dangers  and  vast  diSculIict  it 
scoffs  at  aa  chimerical.  The  heaven-bom  BtrategiH,  on  the 
other  band,  "  takes  no  counael  of  his  feaiB."  Knowing  that 
success  ia  addom  to  be  won  without  incurring  risks,  be  is  always 
greatly  daring;  and  by  the  skill  wilh  which  be  ovenomes  aD 
obstacles,  and  even  uses  them,  ss  Hannibal  and  Napoleon  did 
the  Alps,  and  as  some  great  captain  ol  tbe  (ulure  may  use  the 
sea,  to  further  bis  purpose  and  aurpnsc  his  adversary,  he  ahowa 
bis  superiority  to  the  common  herd.  It  ia  repeated  ad  namitam 
that  in  cDnae<iuence  of  tbe  vastly  improved  means  of  transmitting 
(nfotmalion.  aurprisa  on  a  large  scale  Is  no  longer  to  be  ffiued. 
It  ia  to  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  means  ol  concentrating 
troopaand  ships  are  far  speedier  than  of  old;  that  fahe  informa- 
tion can  be  far  more  readUy  dlitribuied;  and  also,  that  II  there 
Is  one  thing  more  certain  than  another,  it  la  ihat  the  great 
atrategiit,  surprise  being  aiiU  the  most  deadly  of  all  weapona, 
will  devote  the  whole  force  of  his  inteUect  to  Iho  prohlan  of 
bringing  it  abouL 

Nor  is  il  to  be  disguised  that  amphibtoui  power  h  a  far  more 
icnible  weapon  than  even  in  the  days  when  it  dushed  Napoleon. 
Commerce  has  Increased  by  leaps  and  bounds,  and  it  i>  no  longer 
confined  within  letHloikl  linnl*.  The  aneriei  vital  to  the 
eiislence  ol  dvilhed  communities  slreicb  over  every  ocean. 
Slates  which  in  iBoo  rated  Iheir  mariilmc  traffic  at  a  few  hundred 
thoDSand  pounds  sterling,  value  It  now  at  many  milUonc 
Otbelt.  whose  flap,  hfty  yean  ago,  weft  almost  onknown  on 
the  high  seas,  posses  to-day  great  Heels  of  merchant  men; 
and  those  who  fifty  years  ago  were  aelf-depcndent.  rely  in  great 
part,  tor  the  imJBleniBce  ol  ibdr  pnisperlly,  on  tL^  i( ' 


with  distant  continents.  There  la  no  grtat  power,  and  few  imall 
onei,  to  whom  the  loss  of  lis  sea-borne  trade  would  be  other  than 
a  moat  deadly  bfajw;  and  there  is  no  great  power  chat  ia  not  fat 
more  vulnerable  than  when  Great  Britain,  sn^faanded,  bdd 
her  own  against  a  European  coahtion.  Coloniea,  romuierciiil 
pons,  dockyards,  coaliog-ststions '  are  so  many  hottages  to 

year,  as  commercial  rivalry  grows  more  acute,  they  become 
mon  intimately  bound  up  with  tbe  piDspedty  and  prestige 
of  their  mothct-countriea.  And  to  what  end?  To  enst  as 
pledge*  of  peace,  au^icta  t4llttii  acn'.  or  10  fall  an  easy 
prey  to  the  pawn  that  i*  auprema  at  sea  and  can  strike  hard 
on  land? 

Even  the  baMot  and  biUat  diacwsion  of  tbe  vast  sabiect 
of  wai  would  be  incomplete  without  aome  reference  to  the 
telativB  merits  ol  professional  and  nnpiofeagional  vat^ar 
•tddien.  Voluntaiy  service  still  holds  its  ground  In  tbe  H^air*- 
Aoi^o-Suan  slates;  and  both  the  United  Kingdom  J]™' 
and  America  will  have  to  a  great  extent  to  rely,  in  *™^'" 
cue  of  oonflicts  which  tax  all  tbeii  rcaoona,  on  ttoopa  who 
liavs  udtber  the  pnctico  nor  the  discipline  of  tlietr  standing 
aimlet.  What  will  be  tbe  value  of  these  amatenra  nben  pilled 
against  regulars?  Putting  the  question  of  mural  aside,  aa 
leading  us  too  far  sJield,  it  is  clear  that  tbe  individual  amateur 
mutt  depend  upon  his  training.  If.  like  the  nuf«ity  of  the 
Boers,  he  is  a  good  shot,  a  good  scoot,  a  good  skinniaher  asd.  if 
oounled,  a  good  honeman  and  borsemaster,  be  is  undeniably 
a  moat  uwfnl  aoldiiir.  Bnt  whethB-  amateun  «  maut,  that  ta, 
when  organiied  into  battalions  and  biigades,  are  thoroughly 
trutlwotthy,  dciiends  on  tbe  qnalily  of  thdr  officers.  With  good 
officers,  and  a  certain  amount  of  previous  training,  there  ia  no 
reason  why  bodies  of  infantry,  artillery  or  mounted  infantry, 
conqnsed  eniuely  of  unprofesdonal  soldien,  should  not  do 
eicellenc  scnica  in  tbe  field-  White  they  ue  likely  to  fail  ■  in 
diKcipliDe;  and  it  would  tppeai  that- at  tbe  beginning  of  a 
campaign  they  are  more  liatjeto  panic,  leasreanlate  in  attack, 
less  enduring  under  heavy  loases  and  peat  hardafaipa,  and  much 

this  is  inevlLable;  and  it  has  a  most  important  bearing  on  tbe 
value  of  tbe  citizen  soldier,  for  tbe  beginning  of  a  campaign  is 
a  most  critical  phase.  In  abort,  troops  who  are  only  half-tinned 
or  have  been  hastily  raked- may  be  a  positive  danger  to  tbesrmy 
to  which  they  belong;  and  the  abeller  of  stout  eartbwoifc*  is 
the  only  place  for  them.  Yet  tbe  presence  of  a  cBTialn  muubcf 
'  '  '  tog  men  in  the  ranks  may  niake  all  the 
ly  case,  it  is  probable  that  baltalionB  com- 
nal  iddioa,  the  Iree  dtiien*  of  a  free  and 
little  if  BI  all  Inferior,  as  fighting  nnlta,  to 
baltaliou  composed  of  CMtaoipta.  But  it  la  to  be  underaiood 
that  tbe  men  poaacsa  the  qualificationa  referred  to  above,  ihat 
tbeofficera  are  accustomed  to  command  and  have  a  good  practical 
knowledge  of  tbeirdutltab  the  field.  A  mob,  however  paiiiDtic, 
carrying  snuU- bore  liflci  it  nomoreUkely  to  bold  ita  own  to-day 
against  well-led  icgukn  than  did  the  mob  cairying  pikca  and 
flint-locks  In  the  pstl.  A  small  body  of  resolute  dviluna,  well- 
arwied  and  Ikillul  markamen,  might  easily  on  their  own  gniund 
defeat  the  same  number  of  trained  si^leti,  especially  if  the 
latter  were  badly  led-  But  In  a  war  of  maHes,  the  power  of 
combination,  cf  rapid  and  oidetfy  movMient,  and  of  tactical 
maBmaviittg  ia  bonad  M  IdL  tC-F.K.H.) 


lplniifWar,seeC.v.Clsuse. 
Dewed.  1906I :  C  V.  Binder)- 
If  O^ll  Ardent  da  Pieq. 
via  aii  Pilititt;  G.  k  Bon, 
A>  rUnaUai ;  F.  K.  Mande, 
6l,.2aU  im  Kriiff  Uialiukal 
i-Jxune  d-Are:  C.  W.  C. 
tr  Ktit%sinumuti^n ;  v.  der 

E.  CallweU.  itiiilaif  Oprr^ 
H.  Cofemb,  Niaiil  VarSan: 

I  A«fl«-Scm-:  "    ' 

<r  BtiFiluy.  Ac 


J 


312 


WAR 


ILAWSOF  WAR 


n.  Laws  or  Was 


The  law  of  war,  in  strict  usage,  does  not  apply  to  all  armed 
conflicts,  but  only  to  such  conflicts  as,  by  the  usage  of  states, 
a^^gf  constitute  war.  War  exists  when  the  organized  armed 
«•  4Mto-  forces  of  one  state  are  opposed  to  the  organised  armed 
gaM^  forces  of  another  state.  War  also  -exists  within  the 
*]'*'^  bounds  of  a  single  state  when  organized  armed  forces, 
of  sufficient  power  to  make  the  issue  doubtful,  place 
themselves  in  opposition  to  the  armed  forces  of  the  existing 
government.  If  the  disaffected  forces  are  in  a  sUte  of  flagrant 
inferiority  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  existing  govern- 
ment there  is  not  a  state  of  war  but  of  rebellion.  The  combatanU 
in  dvil  war  are  entitled  to  treatment  in  accordance  with  the  law 
of  war.  Rebels,  asoatlaws,  have  no  rights.  In  the  South  African 
campaign  (X899-X903)  the  question  arose  whether  the  manifest 
inferiority  of  the  Boer  forces,  the  possession  by  the  British  forces 
of  the  seats  of  government,  and  their  practical  occupation  of  the 
whole  country,  did  not  put  an  end  to  the  sUte  of  war  and  con- 
stitute the  Boer  fighting  forces  rebels  against  a  new  existing 
government  which  had  proclaimed  annexation  of  the  oonqueicd 
sUtes.  The  action  of  the  British  commanders  is  a  precedent  in 
favour  of  the  view  that  the  fighting  forces  of  an  invaded  state  axe 
entitled  to  belligerent  rights,  though  in  a  state  of  hopeless  In- 
feriority, so  bug  as  they  remain  in  the  field  in  organized  bands. 
In  this,  as  in  many  cases  which  have  formed  international 
usage,  the  danger  of  reprisals  more  than  the  logic  of  principles  has 
dictated  a  different  line  of  conduct  from  that  which  the  strict 
principles  of  law  suggested.  A  somewhat  similar,  but  more 
complicated  situation,  arose  out  of  the  cession  by  Spain  to  the 
United  States  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  ntsurgents  being  in 
possession  of  them  at  the  time,  Spain  ceded  what  she  did  not  in 
fact  possess.  Thus  it  has  been  contended  that  the  positicm  of  the 
insurgents  became  that  of  belligerents  defending  their  country 
against  conquest  by  invading  forces. 

Wars  have  been  classed  in  different  ways~-wars  of  intervention, 
wars  of  conquest,  wars  of  def»ice,  wars  of  independence,  just 
wars,  unjust  wars,  and  so  on;  but  the  law  of  war 
taS^ttL  APP^^  ^^  them  all  without  <Ustinction.  States  da 
not  at  as  judges  over  each  other,  but  treat  war,  subject 
to  thdr  own  interest,  as  a  fact.  Interest,  however,  with  the 
increasing  development  of  international  relations  u  becoming 
a  more  important  factor  in  the  determination  of  the  attitude  of 
the  neutral  onlooker  (see  NEUTftAury). 

In  the  Chino-Japanese  War  (1894-95)  the  Japanese  had 
to  decide  whether  the  Chinese  were  entitled  to  treatment  under 
the  European  law  of  war.  Japan  had  acceded  to  the 
JJJJjJJ^  Geneva  Convention  (see  bebw)  in  1886,  and  to  the 
ptopkn.  Declaration  of  Paris  (see  below)  in  1887.  China  was  a 
party  to  neither,  and  observed  the  provisions  of  neither. 
Japan,  nevertheless,  as  related  by  her  learned  judicial  advisers, 
Professors  Ariga  and  Takahashi,  observed  towardi  the  Chinese 
forces,  combatant  and  non-combatant,  all  the  rules  of  European 
International  Law  without  resorting  to  the  reprisals  to  which 
Chinese  barbarities  provoked  her. 

The  position  of  neutral  governments  towards  insurgent 
forces  is  always  a  deUcate  ont.  If  they  are  not  recognised  as 
Htotnt  belligerents  by  the  state  against  which  they  are 
p—mam  arrayed,  the  sute  in  question  theoretically  accepts 
^taw'^ata  *^P<^*^^'^»^y  '^or  the  conftquences  of  thedr  acu  in 

'^''*'  '  respect  of  neutral  states.  A  neutral  state  may  be 
satisfied  with  this  responsibility,  or  it  may  recognize  the  bel- 
ligerent character  of  the  insurgents.  If,  however,  it  does  not, 
the  insurgent  forces  cannot  exercise  rights  of  war  against 
neutral  property  without  exposing  themselves  to  treatment  as 
outlaws  and  pirates.  A  case  of  such  treatment  occurred  in 
September  1902  in  connexion  with  a  then  pending  revolution 
.in  Haytf.  A  German  cruiser,  the  "Panther,"  treated  an 
ihsurgent  gunboat,  the  "  Cr*te-a-PIcrrot,"  as  a  pirate  vessel,' 
and  sank  her  for  having  stopped  and  confiscated  arms  and 
ammunition  found  among  the  cargo  of  the  German  steamer 
•  The  Times  (9th  September  I9«>' 


**  Matkoouuuiift "  on  the  grmmd  that  they  were  contxmband 
destined  for  the  armed  forces  of  the  existing  Haytian  sovem* 
ment.  The  "  Cr€te-4pPienot "  had  for  some  yeais  fonned  part 
of  the  Haytian  navy,  and  was  commanded  by  Admiral  Killick, 
who  had  been  an  admiral  <rf  that  navy.  There  had  been  no 
recognition  of  the  belligerency  of  the  insurgents.  No  state  seems 
to  have  made  any  observations  on  the  inddcnt,  which  may  be 
taken  to  be  in  accordance  with  current  international  usage. 

A  wdl-known.  instance  of  a  neutral  government  recognizing 
insurgent  forces  as  beUigerent,  In  s{ttte  of  the  denial  oC  that 
character  to  them  by  the  state  against  vriiidi  Uiey  flMHUbx«> 
are  carrying  on  hostilities,  occoRed  in  the  North  mfarina 
American  Qvil  War.  The  right  asserted  by  Great  •^^ 
Briuin  to  recognise  the  belligerency  6L  the  Con- 
federate forces  was  based  on  the  omtentkm  that  British 
mercial  interests  were  very  largely  affected  by  the  hkwkade  of 
the  Southern  ports.  It  is  agreed,  however,  among  jurists  that, 
where  the  interests  of  neighbouring  states  are  not  affected,  the 
lecognitloo  of  an  insurgent's  belligerency  is  needless  interfezcnce;' 

The  raoognition  of  bdligerency  does  not  entail  recognition 
ol  the  belligerent  as  a  sovereign  state.    It  goes  no  farther 
than  its  iomicdiate  purpose.    The  belligerent  armies 
are  lawful  combatants,  not  bandits.    Supplies  taken 
from  invaded  territory  are  requisitions,  not  robbery. 
The  belligetent  ships  of  war  are  lawf id  crulsefs,  not 
pimtes;  sad  their  captures,  made   in  accordance      "^^ 
with  maritime  law,  are  good  piise;  and  their  blockades,  i 
effectual,  must  be  respected  by  neutrals.    But  this  does  not 
suffice    to   invest    the    belligerent    with    the   attributes  of 
independent  sovereignty  for  such  objects  as  negotiation  of 
treaties,  and  the  accrediting  of  diplomatic  and  consular  agents. 
This  was  the  attitude  of  Gteat  Britafai  and  France  towards  the 
Confederates  in  the  American  Civil  War. 

The  position  of  a  vassal  state  or  a  colony  canying  on  focign 
war  without  the  consmt  of  the  suzerain  or  parent  state  might 
involve  still  more  complicated  issues.* 

Civilized  warfare,  the  textbooks  tell  us,  Is  confined,  as  far 
as  possible,  to  disablement  of  the  armed  forces  of  the  enemy; 
otherwise  war  would  continue  till  one  of  the  parties 
was  exterminated.  '' It  is  with  good  reason/' obeeivcs  tl^Snam^ 
Vattel,  "  that  this  practice  has  grown  Into  a  custom*  cMBus. 
with  the  nations  <^  Europe,  at  least  with  those  that 
keep  up  regular  standing  armies  or  bodies  of  militia.  The  tioopa 
alone  carry  on  war,  while  the  rest  of  the  nation  remain  in  peace  " 
{Law  of  Nations f  iii.  336).   Modem  notions  of  patriotism  do  not, 
however,  view  this  total  and  unconditional  abstentioD  of  the 

*  It  is  also  aereed  that,  as  the  existence  of  betligeiency  impcnee 
burdens  and  liabilities  upon  neutral  subjects,  a  state  encaged  in  civil 
war  has  no  right,  in  endeavouring  to  effect  its  wariike  objects,  to  em- 
ploy measures  against  foreign  vessels,  which,  though  sanctioned  in 
time  of  p^ce,  are  not  recognized  in  time  of  war.  In  other  words,  it 
cannot  enjoy  at  one  and  the  same  moment  the  rights  of  both  peace 
and  war.  Thus,  in  1861,  when  the  goyeniment  of  New  Granada, 
during  a  civil  war,  announced  that  certain  ports  would  be  closed,  not 
by  blockade,  but  by  order.  Lord  John  Russell  said  that  "it  m^s 
perfectly  competent  to  the  government  of  a  country  in  a  state  of 
tranauiflity  to  say  which  ports  should  be  open  to  trade,  and  which 
should  be  dosed;  but  in  the  event  of  insurrection,  or  civil  war  in 
that  country,  it  was  not  competent  for  hs  government  to  close  ports 
whidi  were  de  facto  in  the  hands  of  the  insurfjents;  and  that  such 
a  proceeding  would  be  an  invasion  of  international  law  relating  to 
blockade  "  {Hansardt  dxili.,  1846).  Subsequently  the  government 
of  the  United  States  proposed  to  adopt  the  same  measure  against 
the  ports  of  the  Southern  States,  upon  which  Lord  John  KusceU 
wrote  to  Lord  Lyons  that  "  Her  Majesty's  government  entirely 
concur  with  the  French  government  in  the  opinion  that  a  decree 
dosing  the  Southern  ports  would  be  entirely  illegal,  and  would  be  an 
evasion  of  that  recognized  maxim  of  the  law  of  nations  that  the  ports 
of  a  belHserent  can  only  Ge  closed  by  an  effective  blockade  "  {Slak 
Papers.  North  America,  No.  i,  i8da).  In  ndther  case  was  the  order 
carried  out.  When  in  1885  the  President  of  Colombia,  during  the 
existence  of  dvIl  war.  declared  several  ports  to  be  closed  without 
institutinfT  a  blockade.  Mr  T.  F.  Bayard,  Secretary  of  State  of  the 
United  States,  in  a  despatch  of  34th  April  of  that  year,  fully 
acknowledged  the  prinaple  of  this  contention  by  refusing  to 
acknowledae  the  closure. 

'  In  the  Servo-Bulgarian  War  of  1885  the  Sultan,  though  suseiatn 
of  Bulgaria,  was  unmoved  by  the  Invasion  of  hit  vassal's  dominions. 


UW5  0P  WiOtl 


WAR 


313 


dvilian  populatioa  as  «iv  loiifef  fMMibfe.  TliQr  bave  found, 
to  aome  extent,  expression  in  the  following  Articles  of  the 
Hague  War-Regulations. — 

*'  Art.  I.  The  lawa,  r^ts  and  duties  of  war  apoly  not  onlv  to 
an  arm/t  but  abo  to  militM  and  volunteer  corps  f  ulnUing  the  f<4low- 
ing  conditions:  (a)  To  be  commanded  by  a  penon  responsible  for 
his  subordinates;  (6)  to  have  a  fixed  distinctive  emolem  recog> 
Disable  at  a  distance;  (c)  to  carr^r  arms  openly;  and  (<f)  to  .conduct 
their  opemtions  in  aooordance  with  the  laws  and  customs  of  war. 
In  countries  wheie  militia  or  volunteer  corps  constitute  the  army, 
or  form  part  of  it,  they  are  included  under  the  denomination '  army. 

"  Art.  a.  The  population  of  a  territory  not  under  occupation,  who, 
on  the  enemy's  approach,  spontaneously  take  up  arms  to  resist  the 
invading  tro^  without  having  had  time  to  organise  themselves  in 
accordance  with  Article  l,  shall  be  rq;arded  as  belligerent  if  they 
carry  arms  openly t  and  if  they  respect  the  laws  and  customs  of  war."  ^ 

The  only  altcmtion  made  by  the  revised  Convention  of  Nov. 
37th,  1907,  as  oompaied  with  tliat  of  1899  is  the  inserticm  hi 
Art.  a  of  the  words  in  italics* 

By  these  provisions,  incignlar  oombatants  whom  both  the 
government  of  the  United  States  in  the  American  Civil  War 
and  the  German  government  in  the  Franco-Gennaa  War  refused 
to  rsgard  as  legitimate  beUigerents»  are  now  inade  li^aUy  so.* 

\  The  preamble  of  the  Convention  refen  specially  to  Articles  f  and 
a  in  the  fallowing  terms:  **  In  the  view  Of  the  nigh  Contracting 
Parties,  these  provisions,  the  drafting  of  which  has  been  inspired  by 
the  desire  to  diminish  the  evils  of  war  so  far  as  railitaiv  necessities 
permit,  are  destined  to  serve  as  general  rules  of  conduct  for  bel- 
ligerents in  their  relations  with  each  other  and  with  populations; 

"  It  has  not,  however,  been  possible  tp  agree  forthwith  on  provi- 
sions embracing  all  the  circumstances  which  occur  in  practice; 

"  On  the  other  hand,  it  could  not  be  intended  by  the  High  Con- 
tracting Parties  that  the  cases  not  provided  for  should,  for  want  of  a 
written  provision,  be  left  to  the  arbitrary  judgment  of  the  military 
commanders; 

"  Until  a  more  comolete  code  of  the  laws  of  war  is  issued,  the  High 
Contracting  Parties  think  it  expedient  to  declare  that  in  cases  not 
included  in  the  Regulations  adopted  by  them,  populations  and 
belligerents  remain  under  the  protection  and  empire  of  the  principles 
of  international  law,  as  they  roult  from  the  usages  established  among 
civilized  nations,  from  the  laws  of  humanity,  and  the  requirements  01 
the  public  conscience; 

"  They  declare  that  it  is  in  this  sense  especially  that  Articles  i  and 
a  of  the  regulations  adopted  must  be  understooo." 

*The  iiutructions  for  the  government  of  armies  of  the  United 
States  in  the  field,  issued  in  1863,  provided:— 

"  Men  or  squads  of  men  who  commit  hostilities,  whether  by  Eghtiiw 
or  inroads  for  destruction  or  plunder,  or  by  raids  of  any  kino, 
without  commission,  without  being  part  and  portion  of  the 
organised  hostile  army,  and  without  sharing  continuously  in 
the  war,  but  who  do  so  with  intermitting  returns  to  their 
homes  and  avocation,  or  with  the  occasional  assumption  of  the 
semblance  of  peaceful  pursuits,  divestins  themselves  of  the 
character  or  appearance  of  soldiers — such  men  or  squads  of 
men  are  not  puolic  enemies,  and  therefore,  if  captuzed,  are  not 
entitled  to  the  privily  of  prisoners  of  war,  but  shall  be 
treated  summarily  as  highway  robbera  or  pirates." 
Germany  seven  years  later  Alined  to  recognize  the  n^Iar  bands 
of  Jrancs-ttreurs  unless  each  individual  member  of  them  had  been 
personallv  called put  by,  legal  autn<mty,  and  wore  a  uniform  or  badge, 
irremovable  and  sui&cicnt  to  distinguish  him  at  a  distance.    The 
older  publicists  were,  on  the  whole,  strongly  opposed  to  the  l^aliza- 
tion  of  irreEuUr  troops.    Hallock  settles  thiB  question  in  a  summary 
way  by  calling  those  who  engage  in  partisan  warfare,  robbeis  and 
murderers,  and  declaring  that  when  captured  they  are  to  be  treated 
as  criminals  {InUruaUonal  Lawx  chap.  xvtiL  s.  8).,   It  is  easy  to 
understand  the  unfavourable  opinion  of  partisan  bands  usually  ex- 
pressed by  the  military  authorities  when  the  enormous  power  for 
damage  of  modern  arms  is  considered.    At  the  Brussels  Conference 
of  1874,  the  representatives  of  the  great  military  Powers  of  the 
Continent  naturally  desired  to  keep  spontaneous  movements  within 
the  narrowest  possible  bounds,  while  the  dele^tes  from  the  secondary 
states,  who  have  to  rely  for  thdr  defence  chiefly  upon  the  patriotism 
of  thar  people,  endeavoured  to  widen  the  right  of  rssistanoc  to  an 
invader.    Finally  the  Conference  adopted  the  provisions  which  were 
later  formally  recc^nized  at  the  Hague  Conference  (see  British  Slate 
Papers  Miscellaneous,  No.  x,  1875,  pp.  353-^57).    It  is  noteworthy 
that  both  at  the  Brussels  and  the  Hague  Conferences  the  British 
delegate  ranged  himself  on  the  side  c^  the  smaller  states  in  favour  of 
the  recognition  of  guerrilla  bands.  At  the  Hague  Conference  Sir  John 
Ardagh  gave  notice  of  his  intention  to  propose  an  additional  Article, 
to  the  enect  that  -nothing  in  the  Reguutions  should  "  be  considered 
as  tending  to  diminisfa  or  suppress  the  right  whidi  belonn  to  the 
population  of  an  invaded  country  patriotically  to  oppose  the  most 
energetic  resistance  by  every  legitimate  means."   The  upshot  of  this 
sotics  was  to  cause  the  insertion  at  a  proviso  in  the  preamble  of  the 


Connected  with  the  position  of  private  persons  in  time  of 
war  is  that  of  their  property  in  invaded  territory,  a  subject 
which  has  often  been  misunderstood.  Assertions  ^^^^q^ 
as  to  its  immunity  from  capture  in  wsifare  on  land  pr^ertr 
have  been  made  which  are  historically  maccurate  jji**** 
and  are  not  borne  out  by  contemporary  usage.  No  •■"••v* 
doubt  contemporary  usage  is  an  improvement  on  older  usage. 
An  invading  army,  before  the  practice  of  war  became  more 
refined,  lived  by  foragmg  and  pillage  in  the  invaded  country; 
pillage,  in  fact,  being  one  of  the  inducements  held  out  to  the 
adventurers  who  formed  part  of  the  fighting  forces  either  as 
officers  or  as  common  soldiers,  and  this  continued  down  to 
comparatively  recent  times.  Attenuations  followed  from  the 
rise  of  standing  and  regular  armies,  and  the  consequent  more 
marked  distinction  between  soldier  and  dvilian.  They  have  now 
taken  the  form  of  systematic  requisitions  and  contributions, 
the  cdhfinhig  of  the  rig^t  of  levying  these  to  generals  and  com- 
manders-in-chief, the  institution  of  quittances  or  bills  drawn  by 
the  belligerent  invader  on  the  invaded  power  and  handed  in 
payment  to  the  private  persons  whose  movable  belongings 
have  been  appropriated  or  used,  and  of  war  Indemnities.  Tliese 
are  methods  of  lessening  the  hardships  of  war  as  regards  the 
private  property  on  land  of  the  subjects  of  belligerent  states. 
Their  object  and  effect  have  by  no  means  been  to  arrive  at 
immumty,  but  to  develop  an  organized  system  by  which  damage 
and  losses  to  individuals,  whom  the  fortune  of  war  has  brought 
into  immediate  contact  with  the  enemy,  are  spread  over  the 
whole  community.  Tliere  is  thus  no  immunity  of  private 
property  in  warfare  on  land,  and  the  Hague  War-Regulations, 
far  from  declaring  the  contrary,  have  ratified  the  right  of  ap- 
proptUtion  of  pri-v^te  property  in  the*  following  Article: — 

"  Neither  requisitions  in  kind  nor  services  can  be  demanded 
from  communes  or  inhabitants  except  for  the  necessities  of  the  army 
of  occupation.  They  must  be  in  proportion  to  the  resources  of  the 
country,  and  of  such  a  nature  as  not  to  involve  the  population  io 
the  obligation  of  taking  part  in  military  operations  against  their 
country. 

*'  These  requidtions  and  services  shall  only  be  demanded  on  the 
authority  of  the  Commander  in  the  locality  occupied. 

"  The  contributions  in  kind  shall,  as  far  as  possible,  be  paid  for 
in  ready  money;  if  not,  their  receipt  shall  be  acknowledged  and  the 
payment  of  the  amounts  due  shall  be  made  as  soon  as  possible  *' 
(Article  5S). 

In  another  Artide  pcovisioD,  moreover,  is  made  for  the  utilisa- 
tion of  pTopertv  in  kind  bdonging  to  private  penons: — 

"  An  army  01  occupation  can  only  take  possession  of  the  cash, 
funds  and  property  liable  to  requisition  belonging  strictly  to  the 
state,  depots  of  arms,  means  of  transport,  stores  and  supplies, 
and.  generally,  all  movable  property  of  the  state  which  may  be 
used  for  military  operations. 

"  All  apf^fianoes,  whether  on  land,  at  sea,  or  in  tlic  air  adapted  for 
the  transmission  of  news,  or  for  the  transport  of  persons  or  things, 
exclusive  of  cases  governed  by  naval  law,  depots  of  arms,  and  aener- 
ally,  all  kinds  of  ammunition  of  war,  may  be  seized,  even  if  they 
belong  to  private  individuals,  but  must  be  restored  and  compensation 
fixed  when  peace  i»  made." 

Utnisable  neutral  roUing'Stock  Is  not  excepted,  Article  19 
of  the  Convention  on  the  rights  and  duties  of  neutral  powers 
and  persons  in  war  on  land  only  providing  that— 

"  The  plant  of  railways  coming  from  neutral  states,  whedier  the 
property  of  those  statak  or  of  companies,  or  of  private  persons,  and 
recognizable  as  such,  snail  be  sent  back  as  soon  as  possible  to  the 
country  of  origin." 

£ncmy  property  .at  sea  is  subject  to  different  roles  from 
those  which  govern  it  on  land.  It  is  liable  to  capture  and 
confiscation  whexcver  found  'on  the  high  seas  or  in 
enemy  waters.  The  United  States  has  made  strenuous 
efforts  to  get  this  rule  of  maritime  warfare  altered, 
and  Immunity  from  capture  accq>ted  as  the  law  of 
the  sea.  It  has  even  made  this  a  condition  of  Its  ncression  to 
the  Declaration  of  Paris  (see  Neuiiuuty).  But  thus  far  other 
powers  have  shown  no  disposition  to  agree  to  any  alteration. 
At  the  Hague  Conferences  the  United  States  raised  the  question 
again,  biit  thus  far  all  that  has  been  done  has  been  to  ratify 
Convention  denying  the  right  of  military  commanders  to  act  axoord- 
ing  to  their  own  aroitrary  iudgtnent  {JParliomentaty  Papers,  No.  i, 
1899.  C.  9534)- 


with  private  propaty  it  m.  Ken  then  i 
leUing  the  live  ilock,  ai  the  bedding,  oi  ibe  lood.  oc  ihe  uteiuili 
of  the  private  citiieo.  It  ship  ud  cargo  «re  Gugituml,  it  asty 
be  hiTd  upoD  the  merchuii,  but  luch  oiptiuea  do  ODI  diiKily 
deprive  him  ol  the  Deccsuies  of  lift.  Yet,  Asin  the<sMof  wu 
OQ  Ijuul,  iti  hardihipa  have  been  itteaiuted,  tnd  pro^rot  lui 
been  nude  by  dcvelopiof  a  moie  Eyitematic  procedure  ol  capture 
o(  private  pnpen;  at  wa.  Thui  eiemption  iiom  captun  ii 
now  allowed  by  belligemU  to  enemy  meidiaiit  ahipa  which, 
al  the  outhteak  eS  itar,  an  oa  the  way  to  one  ol  iheir  pon>, 
and  they  alio  allow  enemy  meKhanlmen  in  Iheii  porlt  at  ilt 
outbreak  a  certain  time  10  leave  them.  ThU  iaconfirmedby 
the  Ha^e  Convention  ol  iqo?  on  the  il^tui  of  enemy  ihipa 
on  the  outbreak  of  hoetilitiea.  A  Kmewhat.iimilar  praftice 
edstft  at  rcgarda  punuit  of  tneicbaat  ships  wbkh  happen  to  be 
in  ■  neulnl  pon  at  the  tame  Lime  with  an  enemy  cniiier.  Undei 
the  Hague  Convention  ol  1907  napecting  the  Hahtl  and  duliet 
of  neutnl  powen  in  naval  war  (ArL  16],  thii^  too,  if  conftmed. 
Last^,  there  hu  frown  up,  on  grouitda  umilar  to  thoae  which 
have  led  to  the  mdulcence  shown  to  private  property  on  land, 
a  DOW  (enenlly  ncogoiaii  immunity  from  capture  oi'amall 
vessels  edgiied  in  Ibe  coast  fisheries,  provided  they  are  in  no 
wbe  made  to  serve  the  puiposes  ol  «ar,  which  also  hai  been 
duly  confirmed  in  the  Hague  Conventions  of  tqc;  by  Art.  3  of 
the  convention  relative  to  certain  restrictions  on  the  eaercue 
ol  the  right  of  capture  in  maritime  war.  This  has  all  been  done 
with  the  object  ol  making  the  opetalions  ol  war  systematic,  aad 
enabling  the  private  citizen  to  caiimate  tiii  risks  and  take  the 
naccaury  precautions  to  avoid  capture,  and  of  restricting  acts 
of  war  to  the  purpose  of  bringing  it  to  a  speedy  conclusioa. 

We  have  seen  that  the  only  Immunity  of  private  property  yet 
known  to  the  bws  of  wu  is  a  limited  ooe  at  sea.    War,  by  ita 
very  nature,  stems  to  prevent  the  growth  of  any  such  immunity. 
Tlw  tendency  in  war  on  Und  has  been  id  tprewl  its  eflecta  over 
the  whole  community,  to  keep  a  faithful  rKOrd  on  both  ride*  of 
all  conhscationa,  appropriations  and  services  enforced  against 
private  dtizens;  beyond  this,  protection  baa  Dot  yet  been 
eitended.    There  is  good  reason  lor  this.    The  object  ol  each 
belligerent  being  to  break  the  enemy's  power  and  force  him  to  sue 
for  peace,  it  may  not  be  ^n'^g?'  to  d^eat  him  In  the  open  field; 
it  may  be  neceaaary  to  prevoit  him  from  repairing  his  losi  both 
in  men  and  in  tlie  munitions  of  wit.    This  may  imply  crippling 
Ids  material  roaurces,  trade  and  manufactures.    It  has  been 
aintended  that  "  to  capture  at  sea  raw  matenali  used  in  the 
maDufiduring  industry  of  a  bdhgerent  state,  or  products  on 
sale  of  whicb  iu  proaperily,  and  therefore  ita  taxable  »nn 
depend,  Is  neceoirily  one  ol  the  objects,  and  one  of  the  It 
cniel,  which  the  belligerents  pursue.    To  capture  the  merch 
vetida  which  cany  Ibcae  goods,  and  eves  to  keep  the  seai 
oarlgatlng  them  piitoun,  k  10  pievat  tiie  empkiyi>»itc(the 
•hjpt  by  tba  enoDy  as  tranipocta  or  cruiatra,  ami  the  np^ring 

In  the  official  navy." ' 

The  quation  of  reform  of  the  fHt^^g  practice  would  naturally 
be  viewed  Id  different  coontrles  acionfing  to  their  mpective 
inleresla.  The  United  Sutes  hai  obviously  an  intenst  bi  the 
eieraptlon  of  its  merchant  vtsacb  and  cugOM  from  cs^tne, 
small  oSdal  navy  bring  lufficieat  for  the  asaettknt  ot  its  atoend- 
ancy  on  the  American  continent.  It  inay  aba  be  piesamed  to  be 
b  the  hitoeat  of  Italy,  who.  In  a  treaty  with  the  United  States 
in  JA71,  provided  for  mutual  recogrdtion  of  tlie  exemption. 

In  tbe  Austro-Frusiian  war  of  1S66  the  princ^le  of  invii^bility 
was  adhered  to  by  both  parties.    Germany  proclaimed  the 
principle  in  rSTo,  but  af  Icrwardi  abandoned  il. 

There  is  a  strong  movement  in  Great  Britain  In  favour  0 

"  ununity.   Whether  it  may  uw  ha  expedient 
ucb  immunity  is  an  open  question.    ''  '~ 

■  Barclay,  "  Proposed  Immunity  of  Private  Piopeny  at  5i 
^ataoR  1^  Eaeasy."  Lrw  QiiarUrly  Knitm  Uaauaiy  ijin). 


(LAWS  OF  WAR 

.  tkal  Mttnut  coosidaatiMis  tmnld 
I  war  with  the  Uoittd  Suiea  from  iboac  which 
would  arise  in  a  war  with  France  or  Getinany.  tn  tbe  «*c  of 
the  United  States  it  might  be  in  the  inlercat  ofboih  putiea  to 
localiie  the  operations  of  wai,  and  to  int  criere  as  tittle  at  poaatblc, 
perhaps  for  the  joint  eiclusioD  of  ueulnt  vessels,  with  the  traffic 
across  the  Allan  lie.  In  thecsMof  awii  wiIhFruKeor  Cennany, 
Great  Britain  might  cooaida  that  the  cloalng  of  the  high  Bern  to 
all  traffic  by  the  oierdiantmcn  of  the  .enemy  would  be  very  much 
in  bet  own  interiat. 

Tbe  convene  subject  of  the  treatment  of  subjects  of  the  one 
belligerent  who  remain  in  the  connuy  ot  tbe  other  bcUigeTcnt «»«~ 
was  not  dealt  with  at  tha  Hagoe.   British  practice  in    _ 
[his  matter  has  always  been  indolcait.  the  proteclioD       -j^, 

on  British  soil  dating  back  to  Hajpa.Carta  (a.  4S),  and    ff— 
this  is  itill  the  law  ol  En^and.    Tbe  [oactice  en  tha   jj^jj^ 

to  which  ao  doubt,  hi  tha  event  of  tha  invasion  oi  Great  Britain. 
British  pnclke  would  also  bavt  to  adqit  itidf. 

Tbe  Hagite  Wac-Reguktioiit  deal  fn%  with  ilw  ticUBMOt  of 
prisoners,  and  though  they  add  ootbing  to  existing 
practice,  such  treatment  ia  do  longer  In  the  discretion  ^^|^ 
of  tbengnatoiy  Poweia,but  iskondingon  them.   They 
provide  aa  foDowi: — 

Dj 1 —  („  ,i„  power  of  llie  hoslik  goi  - 

individusls  or  corps  who  rapt  me 
/  treated.    All  tbeir  personal  b^ 
eicM  arms,  horses  ana  military  papers,  remain  their  prapen) 
(ArSdeO.    Pi^tanert  of  war  may  be  interned  inatDwn.Tatta. 


riibHtysn  psmte  iJuSd^" 

.mbehwlp 

govemment,  fbfidlshu..^ 
can  be  brought  before  the  lui 
An    interesting   proviuoi 
individuals  who,  following  1 


Ewapanr  e 

ton,  fall  In' 


LAWSOP  WARI 


WAR 


3»S 


OBKtiiktfo  fvqm  thft  ttOlUiy  ntiioiitici  of  the  aimy  they  woe 


iMif 


A  new  departiise  is  made  by  dauset  providing  lor  tha 
iutitutioa  of  a  bureau  for  iBfonnation  relative  to  prisoners  of 
war.  TUs  is  to  be  created  at  the  oommencement  of 
hMtilities,  in  each  of  the  belligerent  states  and,  when 
necessary,  in  the  neutral  countries  on  whose  territory 
belligerents  have  been  received.  It  is  intended  to 
answer  all  inquiries  about  prisoners  of  war,  and  is  to  be  furnished 
by  the  various  services  concerned  with  all  the  necessary  informa- 
tkm  to  enable  it  to  keep  an  individual  return  for  eadi  prisoner 
oi  war.  It  is  to  be  kept  informed  of  internments  and  changes, 
liberations  on  parole,  evasions,  admissions  into  hospital,  deaths, 
&C.  It  is  also  the  duty  of  the  bureau  to  receive  and  collect 
iJl  objects  of  perMMud  use,  valuables,  letters,  be.,  found  on 
the  battleSelds  or  kit  by  piisonms  who  have  died  in  hospital  or 
ambulance,  and  to  tiansmit  them  to  those  interested.  Letters, 
money  orders  and  valuables,  as  well  as  postal  parcels  destined 
for  the  prisoners  of  war  or  dopatched  by  them,  are  to  be  free  of 
all  postal  duties  both  in  the  oountries  of  ocipn  and  destination, 
as  well  as  in  those  thtf  pass  throu^.  Gifts  and  relief  in  kind 
for  prisoners  of  war  are  to  be  admitted  free  of  all  duties  of 
entry)  as  well  as  of  payments  for  carriage  by  the  government 
railways. 

Furthermore,  relief  societies  for  prfsoners  of  war,  regularly  con- 
stituted with  the  object  of  diaiity,  are  to  reeeive  every  fsidlity, 
within  the  bounds  ol  military  requirements  and 
administrative  regulations,  for  the  effective  accom- 
plishment of  their  task.  Del^atcs  of  these  societies 
are  to  be  admitted  to  the  places  of  internment  for  the  distribution 
of  relief,  as  also  to  the  halting-places  of  repatriated  prisoners,  *'  if 
furnished  with  a  personal  permit  by  the  military  authoritlo,  and 
on  giving  an  engagement  fai  writing  to  oom^y  vnth  all  their 
regulations  for  order  and  poHoe." 

The  obUgatfons  of  belligerents  with  regard  to  sick  and  wounded 
in  war  on  land  are  now  governed  by  the  Geneva  Convention  of 
July  6th,  1906.  By  this  Convention  ambulances  and 
military  ho^itals,  their  medical  and  administrative 
staff  and  chi^ains  are  "  respected  and  protected  under 
all  circumstances,"  and  the  use  of  a  uniform  Ha^g  and  arm-badge 
bearing  a  red  cross  are  required  as  a  distinguishing  marie  of  their 
character.  A  Convention,  accepted  at  the  Peace  Conferences, 
has  now  adapted  the  principles  of  the  Geneva  Convention  to 
maritime  warfare.   This  new  Convention  provides  that — 

Military  hospital-ships,  that  is  to  say,  ships  coostnictcd  or 
sssigned  by  states  specially  and  solely  for  the  purpose  of  assist- 
ing the  wounded,  sick  or  shipwrecked,  and  the  names  of  whidi 
have  been  communicated  to  the  bcUinfent  powers  at  the  com- 
flMsaeaient  or  during  the  course  of  hostifitics,  and  in  any  case  before 
they  are  employed,  are  to  be  lespected  and  cannot  he  captufed  while 
hostilities  last. 

As  regards  hospital-ships  equipped  wholly  or  In  part  at  the  cost 
of  privam  individuals  or  ofliciaUy  recognised  relief  societies,  they 
likewise  are  to  be  respected  and  exempt  from  capture,  ncxividcd  thie 
belligerent  or  neutral  power  to  which  they  belong  shall  have  given 
them  an  official  commission  and  notified  their  names  to  the  hostile 

Kwer  at  the  commencement  of  or  during  hostilities,  and  in  any  case 
Fore  they  ut  employed. 

The  bclligereots  nave  the  right  to  control  and  visit  them;  they 
can  refuse  to  help  them,  oider  them  off;  make  them  take  a  certain 
course,^  and  put  a  commissioner  on  board ;  they  can  even  detain 
them,  if  important  circumstances  require  it. 

The  reUgiouB,  medical  or  hospital  staff  of  any  capturad  ship  is 
inviolable,  and  its  members  cannot  be  made  prisoneis  of  war. 

Lastly,  neutral  merchantmen,  yachts  or  vessds,  having,  or  taking 
on  board,  sick,  wounded  or  shipwrecked  of  the  belligerents,  cannot 
be  captured  for  so  doing. 

The  followittg  prohibitions  are  also  placed  by  the  Hague 
Regulations  on  the  means  of  injuring  the  enemy: — 

To  employ  poison  or  poisoned  arms. 

To  kill  or  wound  treacherously  individuals  bdonging  to 
*     the  hostile  natioa  or  army. 
'^'  To  kill  or  wound  an  enemy  who,  having  bkl  down  arms 

or  having  no  longer  means  of  defence,  has  surrendered  at 
discretion. 
To  dedsre  that  no  quarter  will  be  i^veo. 


To  employ  arms^  piojectflei  or  amtssisl  of  •  nature,  to  cause 
superfluous  mjury. 

To  make  Impcopsr  use'  of  a  flag  of  truce,  the  national  flag  or 
military  ens^n*  and  the  enemy's  uniform,  as  well  as  the  distinctive 
badges  of  the  Geneva  Convention. 

To  destroy  or  seize  the  enemy's  property,  unless  such  destruction 
or  seizure  be  imperatively  demanded  t^  the  necessities  of  war; 
to  attack  or  bombard  towns,  villages,  habitations  or 
buildinn  wfaidi  are  not  defended. 

To  pubge  a  town  or  place,  even  when  taken  by  assault. 

Ruses  of  war  and  the  employment  of  methods  necessary  to  obtain 
information  about  the  enemy  and  the  country,  on  the  contrary,  are 
considered  allowable. 

A  spy  is  one  who,  acting  clandestinely,  or  on  false  pretences, 
obtains,  or  seeks  to  obtain,  imoimation  in  the  zone  of  operstidns  of 
a  belligcfient,  with  the  intention  of  communicating  it  to  -^^ 
the  hostile  party  (the  Hague  War-Regulatwns,  Art.  29).  ^^*'* 
Thus,  sokliers  not  in  disguise  who  have  penetrated  into  the  sone  of 
operations  of  a  hostile  army  to  obtain  iniorroation  are  not  conriderod 
spies.  Simibriy,  the  following  are  not  considered  s|Hes:  soMterB  or 
aviliaas,  carrying  out  their  nussion  openly,  charfed  with  the  delivery 
of  despatches  destined  either  for  their  own  army  or  for  that  of  thie 
enemy.  To  this  dase  belong  likewise  individuals  sent  in  balloons  to 
deliver  despatches,  and  generally  to  maintain  communication  be- 
tween the  various  parts  of  an  army  or  a  territory  (ifr.).  A  spy  taken 
in  the  act  cannot  be  punished  without  previous  trial,  and  a  spy  who, 
after  rejoining  the  army  to  which  he  bdongs,  is  subsequently  captured 
by  the  enemy,  is  a  prisoner  of  war,  and  not  punishable  for  his  previous 
acts  of  espionage.^ 

In  sieges  ana  bombardments  aB  necessary  steps  are  to  be  taken  to 
spare  as  far  as  posdble  buildings  devoted  to  religion,  art,  science 
and  charity,  hoi^Mtals  and  places  where  the  sick  and  wounded  are 
collected,  proviwd  they  are  not  used  at  the  same  time  for  military 

gurposes;  out  the  besieged  are  to  indicate  these  buildings  or  places 
y  some  particubu"  and  visible  signs  and  notify  them  to  the  assauants. 

A  new  Convention  respecting  bombardments  by  naval  forces 
was  adopted  by  the  Hague  Conference  of  1907,  forbidding  the 
bombardment  of  undefended  "  ports,  towns,  villages,  dwdlings 
or  buildings,"  unless  after  a  formal  summons  the  load  authorities 
decline  to  comply  with  requisitions  for  provisions  or  supplies 
necessary  for  the  immediate  use  of  the  naval  force  before  the 
place  in  question.  But  they  may  not  be  bombarded  on  account 
of  failure  to  pay  money  contributions.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
prohibition  does  not  apply  to  military  works,  depots  of  arms, 
&c,  or  ships  of  war  in  a  harbour. 

Another  new  Convoition  adopted  at  the  Hague  in  1907  dealt 
with  the  laying  of  automatic  submarine  contact  mines.  Its  main 
provisions  are  as  follows: — 

It  is  forbidden: 

I.  To  lay  unanchored  automatic  contact  mmes,  except  when  they 
are  so  constructed  as  to  become  harmless  one  hour  at  most  after  the 
person  who  laid  them  ceases  to  control  them; 

s.  To  lay  andiored  automatic  contact  mines  which  do  not  become 
harmless  as  soon  as  they  have  broken  loose  from  their  moorings; 

3.  To  use  torpedoes  which  do  not  become  harmless  when  they  have 
missed  their  mark  (Art.  i). 

It  is  forbidden  to  lay  automatic  contact  mines  off  the  coast  and 
poets  of  the  enemy,  with  the  sole  object  of  Intercepting  commerdal 
.shipping  (Art.  a). 

When  anchored  automatic  contact  mines  are  emptoyed,  every 
possible  precaution  must  be  taken  for  the  security  <m  peaceful 
shipping. 

Tne  Delligerettts  undertake  to  do  thdr  utmost  to  render  these 
mines  hannieBS  withhi  a  limited  time,  and,  shouM  they  cease  to  be 
under  surveillance,  to  notify  the  danger  sooes  as  soon  as  military 
exigencies  permit,  by  a  notice  addressed  to  shipowners,  which  roust 
also  be  communicated  to  the  Governments  through  the  diploiiSStic 
channel.     (Art.  3.)  ,  .        *  .  . 

Neutral  Powera  which  lay  automatic  contact  mines  off  thew  coasts 
must  observe  the  same  rules  and  take  the  same  precautions  as  am 
imposed  on  belligerents.  .     .        .  .- 

The  neutral  Power  must  inform  shipowners,  by  a  notice  issued  in 
advance,  where  automatic  contact  mines  have  been  laid.  This 
notke  must  be  communicated  at  once  to  the  Governments  through 
the  diplomatic  channel.    (Art.  4.)  ... 

At  the  dose  of  the  war  the  Contrscting  Powere  undertake  to  do 
their  utmost  to  remove  the  mines  which  they  have  laid,  each  Power 
removing  its  own  mines.  .... 

As  i^fds  anchored  automatk  contact  mines  laid  by  one  of  the 
belligerents  off  the  coast  of  the  other,  their  position  must  be  nodfied 
to  the  other  party  by  the  Power  which  bud  them,  and  each  Power 
must  proceed  with  the  least  possible  delay  to  remove  the  mines  in  Its 
own  waters.  (Art.  5O 


See.  ss  to  ffags  ef  Trmce,  Art.  32  of  the  Hague  Regulatiooa. 


3i6 


WARANGAL— WARBECK,  PERKIN 


V»n9i 


The  Cofltncdnf  Powen  irirfch  do  not  at  ptfaeat  own  rnfeoted 
mines  of  the  pattern  contemplated  in  the  present  Convention,  «nd 
which,  oonsequently,  could  not  at  present  cany  out  the  rales  laid 
down  m  i^tides  i  and  a,  undertake  to  convert  the  maikritl  of  their 
mines  as  soon  as  possibte  so  as  to  bring  it  into  conformity  with  the 
foregoing  requirements.    (ArL  6.) 

Texritoiy  is  considered  as  ocaipied  when  It  isactually  under 
the  authority  of  the  hostile  army.  The  authority  having  passed 
^i- 1-  ji  ^.  into  the  hands  of  the  occupant,  the  latter  takes  all 
Mmo/  possible  Steps  to  re-establish  public  order  and  safety. 
Compulsion  of  the  population  of  occupied  territory  to 
take  part  in  military  operations  against  thdr  own 
eountiy,  or  even  give  information  req>ecting  the  army  of  the  other 
belligerent  and  pressure  to  take  the  oath  to  the  hostile  power  are 
prohibited.  Private  property  miEst  be  respected,  save  m  case 
of  military  necessity  (Arts.  46  and  53).  The  property  of  religious, 
charitable  and  educational  institutions,  and  of  art  and  science^ 
even  when  state  property,  are  assimilated  to  private  property, 
and  all  seizure  of,  and  dintruction  or  intentional  damage  done 
to  such  institutions,  to  historical  monuments,  works  of  art 
or  science  is  prohibited  (Art.  56). 

Practice  as  regards  declarations  of  war  has  hitherto  varied. 
The  Franco-Priissian  War  of  1870  was  preceded  by  a  deliberate 
declaration.  In  the  war  between  Japan  and  China 
there  was  no  declaration.  (See  Ariga,  La  Guerre 
sinthjaponaiset  Paris,  1896).  The  delivery  of  an 
ultimatum  specifying  those  terms,  the  compliance  with 
which  is  demanded  within  a  specified  time,  is  practically  a 
conditional  declaration  of  war  which  becomes  absolute  in  case 
of  non-compliance.  Thus  the  note  communicated  by  the 
United  States  to  Spain  on  20th  April  1898  demanded 
the  "  immediate  withdrawal  of  all  the  land  and  sea 
forces  from  Cuba,"  and  gave  Spain  three  dajrs  to 
accept  these  terms.  On  the  evening  of  32nd  April  the  United 
States  seized  several  Spanish  vessels,  and  hostilities  were  thus 
opened.  In  the  case  of  the  Transvaal  War,  the  declaration  also 
took  the  form  of  an  ultimatum.  A  special  Hague  convention 
adopted  at  the  Conference  of  1907  now  provides  that  hostilities 
"  must  not  commence  without  previous  and  explicit  warning  in 
the  form  of  a  reasoned  declaration  of  war  or  of  an  ultimatum 
with  conditional  declaration  of  war."  It  also  provides  that  the 
existence  of  a  state  of  war  must  be  notified  to  the  neutral  powers 
and  shall  not  Uke  effect  in  regard  to  them  until  after  the  receipt 
of  the  notification  which  may  be  given  by  telegraph.  Most  of 
the  good  effect  of  the  provision,  however,  is  negatived  by  the 
qualification  that  neutral  powers  cannot  rely  on  the  absence  of 
notification  if  it  is  clearly  established  that  they  were  in  fact  aware 
of  the  existence  of  a  state  of  war. 

Too  much  confidence  must  not  be  placed  fai  regulations  con- 
cerning the  conduct  of  war.  Military  necessity,  the  heat  of 
action,  the  violence  of  the  feelings  which  come  into 
tero/w.P^y  will  always  at  times  defeat  the  most  skUfuU/- 
'combined  rules  diplomacy  can  devise.  Still,  such 
rules  are  a  sign  of  conditions  of  pubUc  opinion  which  serve  as  a 
restraint  upon  the  commission  of  barbarities  among  dvilized 
peoples,  llie  European  operations  in  China  consequent  on  the 
**  Boxer  "  rising  showed  how  distance  from  European  critidsm 
tends  to  loosen  that  restraint.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  signifi- 
cant that  both  the  United  States  and  Spain,  who  were  not  parlies 
to  the  Dedaratum  of  Paris,  found  themselves,  in  a  war  confined 
to  them,  under  the  necessity  of  observing  provisions  which  the 
majority  of  dvilized  states  have  agreed  to  respect.        (T.  Ba.) 

WARANGAL,  an  andent  town  of  India,  in  the  Nizam's 
Dominkms  or  Hyderabad  state,  86  m.  N.E.  of  Hyderabad  dty. 
It  was  the  capital  of  a  Hindu  kingdom  in  the  12th  century,  but 
little  remains  to  denote  its  former  grandeur  except  a  fort  and 
four  gateways  of  a  temple  of  Siva.  Warangal  has  i^ven  its  name 
to  a  district  and  a  division  of  the  state. 

WARA8D1N  (Hungarian,  Varasd;  Croatian,  Varaidin),  a  royal 
free  town  of  Hungary,  and  capital  of  the  county  of  Warasdin, 
in  Croatia-SIavonia ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Drave,  63  m.  by 
sail  N.N.E.  of  Agram.  Pop.  (1900)  12,930.  Warasdin  is  the 
teat  of  A  district  court,  and  possesses  an  old  castle,  a  cathedral 


and  several  dmrdies,  mnnatfrtkt  aod  ifchioll.   b 

brisk  trade  in  timber,  wine,  fruit,  tobacoo,  spirits, 

and  silk.   Coal  is  also  mined  in  the  Wamsdii 

cdebrated  sulphur  baths  of  Constantins-Bad  off  Tflplitx*  knows 

to  the  Romans  as  Thermae  ComOaiUianae,  lie  about  10  m.  S. 

WARBECK,  FERiOM  (c.  1474-^499),  peetender  to  the  throns 
of  England,  was  the  son  of  Jeliaa  da  Werbccqoe,  b  poor  burgess 
of  Toomay  in  Flanders  and  of  his  wife  KAtheifaie  dc  Faro. 
The  exact  date  of  his  birth  is  onknowii,  but  as  he  repveaeoted 
himsdi  as  having  been  nine  years  old  in  1483,  it  must  have  taken 
place  in,  or  dose  on,  1474.   His  confession  made  at  the  end  of 
his  life  was  an  account  of  his  early  yean  which  is  to  soaie  estcot 
supported  by  other  testimony.  The  nMnesof  his  father  and  otlicr 
relations  whom  he  mentions  have  been  found  in  the  municipal 
xccocds  of  Toamay,  and  the  official  description  of  them  agrees 
with  his  statements.    Aooording  to  this  veEHcin,  which  may  be 
accepted  as  substantially  true,  be  was  haoaght  up  at  AAtwtip 
by  a  cousuk  Jefaan  Stienbedn,  aiid  served  a  succession  of  cm> 
ployecs  as  a  boy  servant.  HewaaforatimewithanEnglishmaa 
jolm  Strewe  al  Middleburc,  and  thm  acoompfluiied   Lady 
Brampton,  the  wife  of  an  esikd  partissn  of  the  hooae  of  York, 
to  PortugaL    He  was  for  a  yeax  employed  by  a  Portuguese 
knight  whom  he  described  as  having  only  one  ^e,  and  whoa 
he  names  Vacs  de  Cogna  (Vaa  da  Cunha  ?).    In  1491  he  was  si 
Cork  as  the  servant  of  a  Breton  silk  merchant  Present  (Jiem 
Jean)  Meno.  Ireland  was  strongly  attached  to  the  house  of  ¥«i. 
and  was  full  of  intrigue  against  Kmg  Henry  VII.    Perkin  s&)^ 
that  the  people  seeing  him  dressed  in  the  silks  of  his  mastet 
took  him  for  a  person  of  distinction,  and  insisted  that  he  must 
be  either  the  son  of  George,  duke  of  Clarence,  or  a  bastard  d 
Richard  IIL    He  was  more  or  less  encouraged  by  the  eaih  d 
Desmond  and  Kildare.   The  facts  are  ill  recorded,  but  it  is  safe 
to  presume  that  intriguers  who  wished  to  disturb  the  govemment 
of  Henry  VII.  took  advantage  <^  a  popular  ddusion,  and  made 
use  of  the  lad  as  a  tool.  At  this  time  he  spoke  English  badly .  By 
X492  he  had  become  sufiidently  notorious  to  attract  the  atteotioa 
of  King  Henry's  govemment  and  of  foreign  sovereigns.      He 
was  in  that  year  summoned  to  Flanders  by  Margaret,  the  widowed 
duchess  of  Burgundy,  and  sister  of  Edward  IV.,  who  was  the 
main  support  of  the  Yorkist  exiles,  and  who  was  the  enemy  of 
Henry  VII.  few  family  reasons  and  for  personal  reasons  also, 
for  she  widied  to  extort  from  him  the  payment  of  the  balance  ol 
her  dowry.  She  found  the  impostor  useful  as  a  means  of  injuring 
the  king  of  England.    Several  Eufopean  sovereigns  were  moved 
to  help  him  by  the  same  kind  of  reason.    The  suppositions  that 
he  was  the  son  of  Clarence  or  of  Richard  III.  were  discarded  in 
favour  of  the  more  useful  hypothesis  that  he  was  Richard,  duke 
of  York,  the  younger  of  the  two  sons  of  Edward  IV.,  murdered  in 
the  Tower.   Charles  VIII.,  king  of  France,  the  counsdlon  of  the 
youthful  duke  of  Burgundy,  the  duke's  father  Maximilian,  king  of 
the  Romans,  and  James  IV.  of  Scotland,  none  of  whom  can  have 
been  really  decdved,  took  up  his  cause  more  or  less  actively.   He 
was  entertained  in  France,  and  was  taken  by  Maximilian  to 
attend  the  funeral  of  the  emperor  Frederick  III.  in  1493.    At 
Vienna  he  was  treated  as  the  lawful  king  of  England.    He  was 
naturally  the  cause  of  considerable  anxiety  to  the  English  govern- 
ment, which  was  well  acquainted  with  his  real  history,  and  made 
attempts  to  get  him  seized.  His  protectors  entered  into  negotia- 
tions  which  in  fact  turned  on  the  question  whether  more  was  to 
be  gained  by  supporting  him,  or  by  giving  him  up.   An  appeal 
to  Isabella,  queen  of  Castile,  met  with  no  response.    In  July 
X495  he  was  provided  with  a  few  ships  and  men  by  MaximiUan, 
now  emperor,  and  he  appeared  on  the  coast  of  KenL   No  move- 
ment in  his  favour  took  place.   A  few  of  his  followers  who  landed 
were  cut  off,  and  he  went  on  to  Ireland  to  join  the  earl  of  Desmond 
in  Munster.  After  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Waterford  in  August, 
he  fled  to  Scotland.    Here  King  James  IV.  showed  him  favour, 
and  arranged  a  marriage  for  him  with  Catherine  Gordon,  daughter 
of  the  earl  of  Huntly.    He  was  hdped  to  make  a  short  foroad 
into  Northumberland,  but  the  intervention  of  the  Spanish 
govemment   brou^t  about   a  peace  between  England  and 
Scotland.    In  1497  Perkin  was  sent  on  his  travels  again  with 


WARBLER— WARBURTON,  B.  E.  G. 


two  or  dnw  anaB  ^aeh,  uid  Accompanied  by  his  wife,  who 
had  bone  him  one  or  two  children.  After  some  obscure  advcn- 
tuns  is  Ireland,  he  landed  at  Whitesand  Bay,  near  the  Land's 
End,  OB  the  7th  of  September,  and  was  joined  by  a  crowd  of  the 
country  people,  who  had  been  recently  in  revolt  against  excessive 
taxation.  He  advanced  to  Exeter,  but  was  unable  to  master 
the  town.  On  the  approach  of  the  royal  tnxq;s  he  deserted  his 
foUowen,  and  ran  for  refuge  to  the  sanctuary  of  Beauiieu  in 
Hampshire.  He  then  surrendered.  His  wife  was  kindly  treated 
and  placed  in  the  household  of  Henry's  queen  Elizabeth.  Perkin 
was  compelled  to  make  two  ignominious  public  confessions  at 
Westminster,  and  in  Cheapside  on  the  15th  and  x  9th  of  June 
X498.  On  the  33rd  of  November  1499  he  was  hanged  on  a  charge 
of  endeavouring  to  escape  from  the  Tower  with  the  imprisoned 
e^rl  oi  Warwick. 

See  James  Gaiidner.  Richard  tht  TUfd,  ami  Om  SUry  tf  Ptrkin 
Warbeck  (Cambridge,  1898). 

WARBLEBt  in  ornithology,  the  name  bestowed  in  1773  by 

T.  Pennant  {Genera  ^  Birds,  p.  35)  on  the  birds  removed,  in 

1769,  by  J.  A.  Soopoli  from  the  Linnaean  fgenus  Motacilla  (cf. 

Wagtail)  to  one  founded  and  called  by  him  ^yMo^-the  last 

being  a  word  employed  by  several  of  Uie  older  wiitex*  in  an 

indefinite  way—that  is  to  say,  on  all  the  species  of  MMadlia 

which  were  not  wagtails.    "  Warbler  "  has.  long  been  used  by 

English  technical  writers  as  the  equivalent  of  S^ida,  and  ia  now 

applied  to  all  membcrsof  the  sub-fsmily Sylviinae  of  thethiushes 

(9.9.),  aod  in  the  combination  "American  warblers"  to  the 

distinct   passerine  family   Mnlotiltidae.     The  true  warblers 

iSylviinae)  are  generally  smaller  than  the  true  thrushes  Tmdkuu 

(see  T&RDSHEs),  widi,  for  the  most  part,  a  weak  and  slender 

bilL    They  seldom  fly  kr,  except  when  migrating,  but  frequent 

undergrowth  and  herbage,  living  on  insects,  larvae  and  fruit. 

The  song  is  unusually  clear  and  very  sweet,  with  frequently 

a  metailk  sound,  as  in  the  grasshopper  warbler.    The  neat  is 

usually  cup-shaped  and  well  lined,  and  from  three  to  six  eggs 

(twelve  in  Xtgnlus),  osually  spotted,  are  hud. 

The  true  warblers  are  chiefly  Old  World,  vistting  the  aouthem  Old 
World  in  winter,  but  jnembers  o(  the  sub-famuy  occur  in  New 
Zealand.  Polynesia  and  Panama.  Amongst  the  commonest  in 
Englana  is  the  well-known  sedge-bird  or  aedge-warUer,  Acrocephalvs 
schotnobaenm$t  whose' chattering  song  resounds  in  suminer>time  from 
almost  every  wet  ditch  in  mo^  parts  of  Britain.  As  is  the  case  with 
so  many  of  its  allies,  the  skulking  habits  of  the  bird  cause  it  to  be  far 
more  often  heard  than  seen ;  but,  with  a  little  patience,  it  may  be 
lieneratly  observed  flitting  about  the  uppermost  twigs  of  the  bushes 
It  frec|uents,  and  its  mottled  back  and  the  yellowish«white  streak 
over  its  eye  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  its  ally  the  reed-wren  or  reed- 
warbler,  A.  strepemst  which  is  clad  in  a  wholly  roouseHKilourcd  suit. 
But  this  last  can  also  be  recognized  by  its  ditterent  song^  and  com- 

Cratively  seldom  does  it  stray  from  the  recd-beds  which  are  its 
raurite  haunts.  In  them  generally  it  builds  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  nests,  made  of  the  seed-branches  of  the  reed  and  long 
grass,  wound  horuontally  round  and  round  so  as  to  include  in  its 
substance  the  living  stems  of  three  or  four  reeds,  between  which  it  is 
suspended  at  a  convenient  height  above  the  water,  and  the  structure 
is  so  deep  that  the  eg^  do  not  roll  out  when  its  props  are  shaken  by 
the  wind.  Of  very  similar  habits  is  the  reed-thrush  or  great  reea- 
warbler,  A.  arunainauus,  a  loud-voiced  species,  abundant  on  the 
Continent  but  very  rarely  straying  to  England.  Much  interest  also 
attaches  to  the  species  niown  as  Savi's  warbler,  Locustdia  /tufffi«> 
eides,  which  was  only  recognised  as  a  constant  inhabitant  of  the 
Pen  district  of  Englaod  a  few  years  before  its  haunts  were  destroyed 
by  drainage.  The  last  example  known  to  have  been  obtained  in  this 
country  was  killed  in  l8s6.  The  nest  of  this  species  is  peculiar, 
placed  on  the  ground  and  formed  of  the  blades  ofa  species  mCl^fceria 
so  skilfully  eritwined  as  to  be  a  very  permanent  structure,  and  it  is  a 
curious  fact  that  its  nests  were  well  Idiown  to  the  sedge-cutters  of  the 
dbtrict  which  it  roost  frequented,  as  those  of  a  bird  with  which  they 
were  unacquainted,  long  before '  the  builder  was  recognized  by 
naturalists.'  In  coloration  the  bird  somewhat  resembles  a  nightingale 
(whence  its  specific  iiame)^  and  its  song  differa  fi«na  that  oif  any  of 
those  before  mentkmcdi  betng  a  long  smooth  trill  pitched  higher  but 
posaeasing  more  tone  than  that  of  the  grasshopDer-warbler  LoctuUUa 
uaeoius — which  isa  widely-distributedspccies  throughout  the  British 
Ides,  not  only  limited  to  marshy  ntes,  but  affecting  also  dry  soils, 
faihabiting  indifferently  many  kinds  of  places  where  there  is  tangled 
and  thick  herbage,  heather  or  brushwood.  In  those  parts  of  England 
where  it  was  formerly  most  abundant  it  was  known  as  the  rcelcr  or 
reel-bird,  from  its  song  resembling  the  whirring  noise  of  the  reel  at 
one  time  used  by  the  spinners  of  wool.  The  precise  determination  of 
this  bird-Hhe  grasshopper  lark,  as  it  was  kmg  catted  in  books,  though 


317 

Its  notes  if  once  heard  can  never  be  mistaken  for  those  of  a  grass- 
hopi^r  or  cricket,  and  it  has  no  affinity  to  the  larks— as  an  English 
species  is  due  to  the  discernment  of  Gilbert  White  in  176&  In  its 
habits  it  is  one  of  the  most  retiring  of  birds,  keeping  in  the  closest 
shelter,  so  that  it  may  be  within  a  very  short  distance  of  an  eager 
naturalist  without  his  being  able  to  see  it — the  olive-colour,  streaked 
with  dark  brown,  of  its  upper  plumase  helping  to  make  it  invisible. 
The^  nest  is  very  artfully  concealed  in  the  thickest  herbage.  The 
foreign  forms  of  aquatic  warblere  are  far  too  numerous  to  be  here 
mentioned. 

The  membere  of  the  tyiMcal  genus  5yMa.  which  includes  some 
of  the  sweetest  singers,  are  treated  of  under  Wuitetrroat;  and 
the  willow-  and  wood-wrens  under  Wren.  The  Australian  genus 
Malwust  to  which  bdong  the  birds  known  as  "  superb  warblers," 
not  inaptly  so  named,  since  in  beauty  they  surpass  any  others  of 
their  presumed  allies,  is  now  placed  in  with  the  Old  Worid  fly- 
catchm  in  the  family  Musicapidae.  Part  of  the  plumage  of  the  cocfcs 
in  breeding-dress  is  generally  some  shade  of  intense  olue.  and  is  so 
glossy  as  to  resemble  enamel,  while  black,  white,  chestnut  or  scarlet, 
as  well  as  ^reen  and  lilac,  are  also  present  in  one  species  or  another, 
so  as  to  heighten  the  effect.  But,  as  already  stated,  there  are  system- 
atists  who  would  raise  this  gjenus,  which  contains  some  i^  sjsecies. 
to  the  rank  of  a  distinct  family,  though  on  what  grounds  it  is  hard 
to  say. 

The  tnrds  known  as  *'  American  warblers,"  forming  what  is  now 
recognised  as  a  distinct  family,  Mniotilttdae,  remain  for  considera- 
tion. They  possess  but  nine  instead  of  ten  primaries,  and  are 
peculiar  to  the  New  Worid.  More  than  130  species  have  been 
described,  and  these  have  been  grouped  in  20  genera  or  more,  of 
which  membera  of  all  but  three  are  at  least  summer-visitants  10 
North  America.  As  a  whole  th<^  are  much  more  brightly  coloured 
than  the  Sylviinae,  for,  though  tfie  particular  genus  itniatilta  (from 
which  the  familjr  takes  its  name)  is  one  of  the  most  abnormal — its 
colours  being  plain  black  and  white,  and  its  habits  rather  resembling 
those  of  a  Tree-creeper  (q.v.) — in  other  groups  chestnut,  bluish-g;rcy 
and  green  appear,  the  last  varying  from  an  olive  to  a  saffron  tint, 
and  m  some  groups  the  yellow  predominates  to  an  extent  that  has 
gained  for  its  wearers,  belonging  to  the  genus  Dendroeca,  the  name  of 

golden  "  warblers.  In  the  genus  Setopkaga,  the  members  of  which 
deserve  to  be  called  "  fly-catching  "  warblers,  the  plumage  of  the 
males  at  Ica^t  presents  yellow,  orange,  scarlet  or  crimson. 

The  Mnlotiltidae  contain  forms  exhibiting  quite  as  many  diverse 
modes  of  life  as  do  the  Sylviinae.  Some  are  exclusively  aquatic  in 
their  predilections,  othera  affect  dry  soils,  brushwood,  forests  and 
so  on.    Almost  all  the  genera  are  e8s<;ntialW  migratory,  but  a  large 

Sroportion  of  the  species  of  Dendroeca,  Setopiagfl,  and  especially 
asileuterus,  seem  never  to  leave  their  Neotropical  home;  while 
the  genera  Leucopeaa,  Terdristis  and  MicroUgia,  comprising  in  all 
but  5  species,  are  peculiar  to  the  Antilles.  The  rest  are  for  the 
most  part  natives  of  North  America,  where  a  few  attain  a  very  high 
latitude,^  penetrating  in  summer  even  beyond  the  Araic  Cirele,  and 
thence  migrate  southward  at  the  end  of  summer  or  in  the  fall  df  the 
year,  some  reaching  Peru  and  Brazil,  but  a  few,  as,  for  instance, 
Parula  piiiayumi  and  GeoUdypis  velaia,  seem  to  be  resident  in  the 
country  last  named.  (A.  N.) 

WARBURTON,  BARTHOLOKEW  BLLIOTT  GE0R6B  (1810- 
1852),  usually  known  as  Eliot  Warburton,  British  traveller  and 
novelist,  was  bom  in  1810  near  TuUamore,  Ireland.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  called  to  the 
Irish  bar  in  1837.  He  contracted  lasting  friendships  with 
Monckton  Milnes  (Lord  Houghton)  and  A.  W.  Kinglake,  and 
gave  up  his  practice  as  a  barrister  for  travel  and  literature.  He 
made  a  hit  with  his  first  book,  The  Crescent  and  the  Cross,  It  was 
an  account  of  his  travels  in  1843  in  Turkey,  Syria,  Palestine  and 
Egypt,  and  fairly  divided  public  attention  with  Kinglakc's 
JScthen,  which  appeared  in  the  same  year,  1844.  Interest  was 
centred  in  the  East  at  the  time,  and  Warburton  had  popular 
sympathy  with  him  in  his  eloquent  advocacy  of  the  annexation 
of  ^Sypt;  but,  apart  from  this  consideration,  the  spirited 
narrative  of  his  adventures  and  the  picturesque  sketches  of 
Eastern  life  and  character  were  more  than  sufficient  to  justify 
the  success  of  the  book.  His  most  substantial  work  was  a 
Memoir  of  Prince  Rupert  and  the  Cavaliers  (1849),  enriched  with 
original  documents,  and  written  with  eloquent  partiality  for  the 
subject  This  was  followed  in  1850  by  Reginald  Hastings^  a 
novel,  the  scenes  of  which  were  laid  in  the  same  period  of  dvil 
war,  and,  in  1851,  by  another  historical  novel,  Darien,  or  The 
Merchant  Prince.  He  was  sent  by  the  Atlantic  and  Padfic 
Junction  Company  to  explore  the  isthmus  of  Darien  and  to 
negotiate  a  treaty  with  the  Indian  tribes.    He  sailed  on  this 

*  Seven  species  have  been  recorded  as  wandering  to  Greenland,  and 
one,  Dendroeca  vtrens,  is  said  to  have  occurred  in  Europe  (rtam^ 
maunia,  1858,  p.  425). 


3i8       WARBURTON,  COLONEL  SIR  R.— WARBURTON,  W. 


misBioD  in  the  "  Amaaon,"  which  perished  by  6ie  with  neariy 
aU  on  board  on  the  4th  of  January  185  a. 

His  brother.  Major  George  Warburton  (x8x6-x^57),  wrote 
Bochdaga,  or  England  in  the  New  World  (1846),  and  The  Conquest 
0/ Canada  (i&^q). 

WARBURTON.  COLONEL  SIR  ROBERT  (1842-1899),  Anglo- 
Indian  soldier  and  administrator,  was  the  son  of  an  artillery 
officer  who  had  been  taken  prisoner  at  Kabul  in  1842,  and 
escap«l  through  the  good  offices  of  an  Afghan  princess.  He 
married  this  lady,  and  she  transmitted  to  their  son  that  power  of 
exercising  influence  over  the  tribes  of  the  north-west  frontier 
which  stood  bim  in  good  stead  during  his  long  service  in  India. 
Warburton  entered  the  Royal  Artillery  in  1861,  took  part  in  the 
Abyssinian  War  of  1867-68,  and  then  joined  the  Bengal  Staff 
Corps.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  expedition  against  the 
Utman  Khel  in  1878  and  in  the  Afghan  War  of  1878-80.  Very 
soon  after  the  British  government  had  made  permanent  arrange^ 
ments  for  keeping  open  the  Khyber  Pass,  Warburton  was 
appointed  to  take  charge  of  it  as  political  officer.  This  post  he 
held,  discharging  its  duties  with  conspicuous  ability,  between 
1879  and  1882  with  intervals  of  other  duty,  and  continuously 
from  1882  until  1890.  He  turned  the  rude  levies  which  formed 
the  Khyber  Rifles  into  a  fine  corps,  ready  to  serve  the  Indian 
government  wherever  they  might  be  required.  He  made  the 
road  safe,  kept  the  Afridis  friendly,  and  won  the  thanks  of  the 
Punjab  government,  expressed  in  a  q>edal  order  upon  his  retire- 
ment, for  his  good  work.  When  the  Afridis  began  to  cause 
anxiety  in  1897,  Colonel  Warburton  was  asked  by  tbe  govern- 
ment of  India  if  he  would  assist  in  quieting  the  exdlcment 
amongst  them.  He  declared  himself  ready  to  do  so,  but  in  the 
meantime  the  trouble  had  come  to  a  head.  Colonel  Warburton 
took  part  in  the  campaign  which  followed;  at  its  dose  his* active 
career  ended.  He  occupied  his  leisure  in  retirement  by  writing 
his  memoirsi  EigfiUen  Years  in  the  Kkyber  (1900).  He  died  at 
Kensington  on  the  2and  of  April  1899. 

WARBURTON.  WILUAH  (1698-1779),  Enc^  critic  and 
divine,  bishop  of  Gloucester,*  was  bom  at  Newark  on  the  a4th  of 
December  1698.  His  father  belonged  to  an  old  Chieshire  family 
and  was  town  derk  of  Newark.  William  was  educated  at 
Oakham  and  Newark  grammar  schools,  and  in  1714  he  was 
articled  to  Mr  Kirke,  attorney  at  East  Markham,  in  Nottingham- 
shire. After  serving  his  time  he  returned  to  Newarii  with  the 
intention  of  practising  as  a- solicitor;  but,  having  given  some 
time  to  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek,  he  left  the  law  and  was 
ordained  deacon  by  the  archbishop  of  York  in  1723,  and  in  1727 
xecdved  priest^s  orders  from  the  bishop  of  London.  He  had 
occupied  the  interval  in  various  literary  labours,  the  most 
important  being  the  notes  he  contributed  to  Theobald's  edition 
of  Shakespeare,  and  an*  anonymous  share  in  a  pamphlet  on  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,  The  Legal  Judicature  in 
Chancery  stated  (1727).  This  was  an  answer  to  another  anony- 
mous pamphlet,  written  by  Philip  Yorke,  afterwards  Lord  Chan- 
cellor Hardwicke,  who  replied  in  an  enlarged  edition  (1728)  of 
his  original  Discourse  of  the  Judicial  Authority  .  .  ,  of  Master 
of  the  Rolls.  Warburton  now  received  from  Sir  Robert  Sutton 
the  small  living  of  Greasley,  in  Nottinghamshire,  exchanged  next 
year  for  that  of  Brant  Broughton,  Lincolnshire.  He  held  in 
addition,  from  1730,  tbe  living  of  Frisby  in  Lincolnshire.  In 
1728  he  was  made  an  honorary  M.A.  of  Cambridge.  At  Brant 
Broughton  for  eighteen  years  he  spent  his  time  in  study,  the  first 
result  of  which  was  his  treatise  on  the  Alliance  between  Church 
and  State  (1736).  The  book  brought  Warburton  into  favour  at 
court,  and  he  probably  only  missed  immediate  preferment  by 
the  death  of  Queen  Caroline.  His  next  and  best-known  work, 
Divine  Legation  of  Moses  demonstrated  on  the  Principles  of  a 
Religious  Deist  (  2  vols.,  1737-1741),  preserves  his  name  as  the 
author  of  the  most  daring  and  ingenious  of  theological  paradoxes. 
The  deists  had  made  the  absence  of  any  inculcatjon  of  the 
doctrine  of  a  future  life  an  objection  to  the  <h'vine  authority  of  the 
Mosaic  writings.  Warburton  boldly  admittni  the  fact  and  turned 
it  against  the  adversary  by  maintaining  that  no  merely  human 
legislator  would  have  omitted  such  a  sanction  of  morality.   The 


author**  eitnoidhMuy  power,  lurni^  and 
acknowledged  on  all  handt*  dMugh  he  eadtod  ceMUe  and 
suspidon  by  his  tendemeis  to  the  alleged  heraiiet  e(  Coajrea 
Middleton.  The  book  aroused  much  controvert.  In«p«aqiUet 
of  "  Remarks  "  (1742)1  he  replied  to  Joha  Tiliard,  tad  Remark 
on  Several  Occasional  ^(;/KedMiM(i  744^1 745)  was  as  answer  to 
Akenside,  Conyers  Middleton  (who  had  up  to  this  time  been  his 
friend),  Richard  Pococke,  Nicholas  Mann,  Richaid  Qny^  Heaiy 
Stebbing  and  other  of  his  critics.  As  be  characterised  hta 
opponents  in  general  as  the  "  pestilent  heed  ol  libertine  scribblecs 
with  which  the  island  is  overrun,"  it  is  no  matter  of  mprise  thst 
the  book  made  him  many  bitter  enemies. 

Either  in  quest  of  paradox,  or  actually  unable  to  recognize  tbe 
real  tendencies  of  Pope's  Essay  on  Man,  he  entered  upon  iti 
defence  against  the  Examen  of  Jean  Pierre  de  Crousax,  in  a  sefia 
of  artides  (1738^1759)  contributed  to  The  Works  of  ike  Leaned. 
Whether  Pope  had  really  understood  the  tendency  of  his  owb 
work  has  always  been  doubtful,  but  there  is  no  question  that  be 
was  glad  of  an  apologist,  and  that  Warburton's  fern  d'afrit 
in  the  long  run  did  more  for  his  forttmes  than  all  his  erudition. 
It  occasioned  a  sincere  friendship  between  hiaa  aad  Pope,  viwa 
he  persuaded  to  add  a  fourth  book  to  tbe  Dtmciad^  and  ca* 
couraged  to  substitute  Cibber  for  Theobald  as  the  heio  of  tte 
poem  in  the  editi<»i  of  1743  published  under  the  editoisii4>  of 
Warburton.     Pope   bequeathed  him  the  copyri^t  vsi  tie 
editorship  of  his  works,  and  contributed  even  more  to  bis  adoio- 
ment  by  introducing  him  to  Murray,  afterwards  Lord  Mansbi^ 
who  obtamed  for  him  in  1746  ^e  preacherafaip  of  Lincoh^ 
Inn,  and  to  Ralph  Allen,  who,  says  Johnson,  "  gave  hin  ^ 
niece  and  his  estate,  and,  by  consequence,  a  biahopric."  The 
marriage  took  place  in  1745,  and  ftom  that  time  Warborttf 
resided  prindpally  at  his  father-in-law's  estate  at  Prior  Park,iB 
Gloucestershire,  which  he  inherited  on  Allen's  death  in  17^ 
In  1747  appeared  his  edition  of  ShakeBpeaie,  into  which,  as  he 
expressed  it,  Pope's  eadier  edition  was  melted  down.    He  bad 
previously  entrusted  notes  and  emendations  on  ShaheqMre  to 
Sir  Thomas  Hanmer,  whose  unauthorised  use  of  them  led  to  a 
heated  controverqr.    As  early  as  1727  Warburton  had  con^ 
sponded  with  Theobald  on  Shakespeanean  subjects.    He  do* 
accused  him  ol  stealing  his  idees  and  denied  his  critical  ability. 
Theobald's  superiority  to  Warbuitoo  as  a  Shakespearean  critie 
has  long  since  been  acknowledged.    Warburton  was  further 
kept  busy  by  the  attacks  on  his  Disine  Legation  from  all  quarteiSi 
by  a  dispute  with  Bolingbroke  respectuig  Pope's  behavJour  ia 
the  affair  of  Bolingbroke's  Patriot  King,  by  his  edition  of  Pope's 
works  (1751)  and  by  a  vindication  in  X750  of  the  alleged  miracu' 
lous  interruption  of  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem 
undertaken  by  Julian,  in  answer  to  Qmyeis  Middleton.    War- 
burton's  manner  of  dealing  with  opponents  was  both  insolent 
and  rancorous,  but  it  did  him  no  disservice.    He  became  pie- 
bendary  of  Gloucester  in  1753,  chaplain  to  the  king  in  i754f 
prebendary  of  Durham  in  1755,  dean  of  Bristol  in  i757f  ^^  ^ 
1 759  bishop  of  Gloucester.   He  continued  to  write  so  long  as  tbe 
infirmities  of  age  allowed,  collecting  and  publishing  his  sermon^ 
and  toiling  to  complete  the  Divine  Legation,  further  fragments  of 
which  were  published  with  his  posthumous  Works.    He  wrote  a 
defence  of  revealed  leUgion  in  his  Viev  ef  Lsrd  Batingbrokfs 
Philosophy  (1754),  and  Hume's  Natural  History  of  Rdigutn 
called  forth  some  Remarks ..."  by  a  gentleman  of  Cambridge 
from  Warburton,  in  whidt  his  friend  and  biographer,  Richs^ 
Hurd,  had  a  share  (1757).    He  made  in  176a  a  v^rous  attack 
on  Methodism  under  the  title  of  The  Doctrine  of  Grace.   He  also 
engaged  in  a  keen  controversy  with  Robert  Lowth,  afterwards 
bishop  of  London,  on  the  book  of  Job,  in  which  Lowth  brougw 
home  charges  of  lack  of  scholarship  and  of  insolence  that  ^^'""^^f: 
of  no  denial.    His  last  important  act  was  to  found  in  '7^.    f 
Warburtonian  lecture  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  "to  prove  the  truth ol 
revealed  rdigion  .  .  .  from  the  completion  of  the  prophea^'sw 
the  Old  and  New  Testaaient  which  reUte  to  the  Christian  ChurcAr 
espedally  to  the  apostacy  of  Papal  Rome."  He  died  at  Gloaccsttf 
on  the  7th  of  June  1779.    Warburton  was  imdoubtedly  *  P^ 
man,  but  his  aateUect,  oMiiied  by  wiUolaeas  aad  the  pM>i<^ '^ 


WARD,  A.  W.— WARD,  E.  S.  P. 


3»9 


fMiradw,  «f ecttd  no  remit  in  any  degree  adeqaate  to  its  power. 
He  i»aa  a  warm  and  constant  friend,  and  gaVe  many  proofs  of 
gratitude  t»  fait  benefactoxs. 

Wart)artM*a  worin  wen  edSced  (7  vob.,  itM)  by  Biihop  Hurd 
with  a  biogxaphical  preface,  and  the  corfenponaence  between  the  two 
friends— an  important  contriburioa  to  the  literary  history  of  the 
period — Wat  edited  by  Dr  Parr  in  1808.  Warburton's  life  was  also 
wiittenfiy  John  StSby  Watson  in  186^,  and  Mark  Rfittison  made  him 
the  mbject  of  an  essay  in  1889C  See  abo  I.  D'lsrseU,  Quands  of 
Amtkors  (1814);  and  esoeciaUy  John  Nichols.  lAterary  An€cd9ks 
(1812-181^),  voL  v.,  ana  lUustratioru  (1S17-1858),  vol.  ii.,  for  his 
corrcsponaenoe  with  William  Stukeley.  reter  des  Maizeauz,  Thomas 
Birch,  JoAin  Jortin  and  Lewis  Theobald. 

WARD,  ADOLPHUS  WILUAM  (1837-  ),  Englbh  historian 
and  man  of  fetters,  was  bom  at  Hampstead,  London,  on  the 
3nd  of  December  1837,  and  was  educated  in  Germany  and  at 
the  university  of  Cambridge.  In  x866  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  history  and  EngUdi  literature  in  Owens  College,  Man- 
Chester,  and  was  principal  from  x8go  to  1897,  when  he  retired. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  foundation  of  Victoria  University, 
of  which  he  was  vice-chancdlor  from  1886  to  1890  and  from  1894 
to  1896.  In  1897  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  Manchester  was 
conferred  upon  Idm,  and  in  1900  he  was  elected  master  of  Peter- 
house,  Cambridge.  His  most  important  work  is  his  standard 
History  »f  Bn^isk  Dramatic  Literature  to  the  Age  of  Queen  Anne 
(1875),  re-edfted  after  a  thorough  revision  in  three  volumes  in 
1899.  He  also  wrote  The  House  of  Anuria  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  (1869),  Great  Britain  and  Hanover  (1899),  The  Eledress 
Sophia  and  the  Hanop&ian  Succession  (1903);  be  edited  Crabbe's 
Poems  (2  vols.,  1903-1906)  and  Pope's  Poetical  Works  (1869); 
he  wrote  the  volumes  on  Chaucer  and  Dickens  in  the  "  Englidi 
Men  of  Letters  •"  series,  translated  Curtius's  History  of  Greece 
(5  vols.,  1868-1873);  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Cambridge 
Modem  History,  and  with  A.  R.  Waller  edited  the  Cambridge 
History  of  English  Literature  (1907,  Bit.).  For  the  9th  edition  of 
the  Ency.  BHt.  he  wrote  the  article  Dkama,  and  biographies 
of  Ben  Jonson  and  other  dramatists;  and  he  became  an  important 
contributor  to  the  present  work. 

WARD,  ARTBMUS,  the  pen-name  of  Charles  Farrar  Browne 
(1834-1867),  American  humorous  writer,  was  born  in  Waterford, 
Maine.  He  began  life  as  a  compositor  and  became  an  occasional 
contri{>utor  to  the  daOy  and  weekly  journals.  In  1858  he 
published  in  the  Cleveland  Plain  Dealer  the  first  of  the  "Artemus 
Ward  **  series,  which  attained  great  popularity  both  In  America 
and  England.  His  separate  publications  were:  Artemus 
Ward:  his  Book  G*few  York,  x86a);  Artemus  Ward:  kis 
Travels  (New  Yoik,  1865);  Artemus  Ward  among  the  Fenians 
(1865);.  Betsey  Jane  Ward:  hur  Book  of  Goaks  (New  York, 
t866),  generally  attributed  to  him;  Artemus  Ward  in  London, 
and  otlur  Papers  (New  York,  1867).  Artemus  Ward's  Lecture 
at  the  Egyptian  Hall  .  .  .  and  other  Relics  of  the  Humourist 
(London,  1869),  edited  by  T.  W.  Robertson  and  J.  C.  Hottcn, 
was  published  posthumously  (New  York,  1869).  His  wit  largely 
relied  on  the  drollery  of  strange  spelling.  In  i860  he  became 
editor  of  Vanity  Fair,  a  humorous  New  Yoric  weekly,  which  proved 
a  failure.  About  the  same  time  he  began  to  appear  as  a  lecturer, 
and  his  eccentric  humour  attracted  large  audiences.  In  1866 
he  visited  England,  where  he  became  exceedingly  popular  both 
as  a  lecturer  and  as  a  contributor  to  Punch.  In  the  spring  of 
the  following  year  his  health  gave  way,  and  he  died  of  consump- 
tion at  Southampton  on  the  6th  of  March  1867. 

His  Complete  Worlts,  with  memoir  by  E.  P.  Hinnton ,  were  published 
in  London  m  the  same  year,  and  Sonamches  at  New  York  in  1870. 

WARD.  EDWARD  MAITHEW  (1816-1879),  English  historical 
and  genre  pointer,  was  bom  at  Pimlico,  London,  in  1816.  Among 
his  eariy  boyish  efforts  in  art  was  a  series  of  clever  illustrations 
to  the  Rejected  Addresses  of  his  uncles  Horace  and  James  Smith, 
which  was  followed  soon  afterwards  by  designs  to  some  of  the 
papers  of  Washington  Irving.  In  1830  he  gained  the  silver 
palette  of  the  Society  of  Arts;  and  in  1835,  aided  by  Wilkie 
and  Chantrey,  he  entered  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
having  in  the  previous  year  contributed  to  its  exhibition  his 
portrait  of  Mr  O.  Smith,  the  comedian,  in  his  character  of  Don 
Qoisote.   In  i8j6  be  went  to  Rome,  where  in  1833  he  gained  a 


silver  medal  from  the  Academy  of  St  Luke  for  his  "  Cimabue  and 
Giotto,'*  which  in  the  following  year  was  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy.  The  young  artist  now  turned  his  thoughts  to  f reaco- 
painting,  which  he  studied  under  Cornelius  at  Munich.  In 
1 843  he  forwarded  bis"  Boadicea  Animating  the  Britons  previous 
to  the  Last  Battle  against  the  Romans  "  to  the  competition  for 
the  decoration  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament — a  work  upon  which 
he  was  afterwards  engaged,  having  in  1853  been  directed  by  the 
fine  art  commissioners  to  execute  eight  subjects  in  the  corridor 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  success  of  his  "  Dr  Johnson 
in  Lord  Chesterfield's  Ante-Room " — now  in  the  National 
Gallery,  along  with  the  "  Disgrace  of  Lord  Clarendon  "  (the 
smaller  picture)  (1846),  the  "  South  Sea  Bubble  "  (1847),  and 
"  James  II.  Receiving  the  News  of  the  Landing  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange  "  (1850) — seciu^  his  election  as  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1847,  and  in  2855  he  gained  full  academic  honours. 
Among  the  more  important  of  his  other  works  may  be  named 
"  Charlotte  Corday  Led  to  Execution  "  (185a),  the  "  Last  Sleep 
of  Argyll  *'  (1854),  the  "  Emperor  of  the  French  Receiving  the 
Order  of  the  Garter  "  (1859),  painted  for  the  queen,  the  "  Ante- 
Chamber  at  Whitehall  during  the  Dying  Moments  of  Charles 
II."  (1861),  "  Dr  Johnson's  First  Interview  with  John  Wilkes  " 
(1865),  and  the  "  Royal  Family  of  France  in  the  Temple," 
painted  in  1851,  and  usually  considered  the  artist's  masterpiece. 
He  died  at  Windsor,  on  the  15th  of  January  1879.  In  1848  he 
had  married  Henrietta  Ward  (b.  1832),  who,  herself  an  admirable 
artist,  was  a  granddaughter  of  James  Ward,  R.A.  (i  769-1859), 
the  distmguished  animal  painter.  Their  son,  Leslie  Ward  (b. 
1851),  became  well  known  as  "  Spy  "  of  Vanity  Fair  (from  1873 
to  Z909),  and  later  of  the  World,  with  his  character  portraits  of 
contemporary  celebrities. 

WARD^EUZABETH  STUART  PHBLP8  (1844-191O1  American 
author  and  philanthropist,  was  bom  in  Boston,  Massachusetts, 
on  the  31st  of  August  1844.  She  was  the  granddaughter  of  the 
Rev.  Moses  Stuart,  and  the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Austin  Phelps 
(1820-1890)  who  became  a  professor  in  the  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  in  1848,  and  EUsabeth  Stuart  Phelpt  (181 5-1852), 
who  wrote  Sunmyside  (i&Si),  a  popular  book  in  iu  day,  and 
other  works.  In  1848  she  removed  with  her  parents  to  Andover, 
where  she  attended  private  schools.  When  she  was  in  her  teens 
she  wrote  short  stories  for  the  Youth's  Companion,  The  Atlantic 
Monthly  and  Harper's  Magaskie,  She  wrote  many  juveniles, 
espedaUy  Simday-School  books,  such  as  the  Tiny  and  the  Gypsy 
series.  In  1868  a|^>eared  in  The  Atlantic  Monthly  her  ^ort 
stoiy.  The  Tenth  of  January,  a  narrative  of  the  falling  and  burning 
of  a  cotton-mill  at  Lawrence,  Mass.,  in  x86o.  In  the  same  year 
appeared  The  Gates  Ajar  (xS68),  her  first  novel,  a  realistic  study 
of  life,  after  death,  which  was  widely  read  and  was  translated 
into  several  European  languages.  Her  Beyond  the  Gates  (1883), 
The  Gates  Between  (1887)  and  Within  the  Gates  (1902)  are  in  the 
same  vein.  She  was  actively  interested  in  charitable  work, 
in  the  advancement  of  women  and  in  temperance  reform* 
In  x888  she  married  Herbert  Dickinson  Ward  (b.  1861),  son  of 

the  Rev.  WiUiam  Hayes  Ward. 

Among  Mrs  Ward's  books,  in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned, 
are:  Men,  Women  and  Ghosts  (i860);  The  TroUy  Book  (1869), 
juvenile;  Hedged  in  (1870):  The  Silent  Partner  (187O:  TroUy's 
Wedding  Tow  and  Story  Booh  (1873),  iuvenife ;  What  to  Wear  (1873), 
essays;  Poetic  Studies  (1875).  poems;  The  Story  of  Avis  (1877). 
Sealed  Orders,  and  Other  Stories  (1879):  Fnends:  a  Duet  (1881); 
Doctor  Zay  (1882);  Sones  of  the  Silent  World,  and  Other  Poems 
(1884):  Old  Maids,  and  Burtfars  in  Paradise  (1885);  The  Madonna 
of  the  Tubs  (1886T,  a  short  story;  Jaeh  the  Fisherman  (1887),  a 
Gloucester  tragedy:  The  Struul*  for  /mworteWy  <i889),  essays; 
Fourteen  to  One,  and  Other  Stones  C1891);  Austin  PM^s:  a  Memoir 
(1891);  Donald  Mart 
best-known  novels; 
from  a  Ufe  (1896); 


Vs  Part  (1908).  in  collaboratkm  with  her  husband,  she  wrote  two 
novels  founded  on  Biblical  scenes  and  cfaaraaers.  The  Master  of  the 
Magjeiane  (1890),  and  Come  Forth  (i 890).  Among  Mr  Ward  »  books 
are  TV  Hew  Senior  at  Andover  C1800);  The  RfJ^^^-^^^^^l 
President,  andOther  Short  Stories  (1891) ;  The  Captom  of  the  Ktttnmnk 


320 

(i89a);  A  Dash  to  th€  PoU  (1895):  The  While  Crown,  and  Olhor 
Stories  (1894);  The  Burglar  toko  moved  Paradise  (1897):  and  The 
Light  of  the  World  (1901). 

WARD,  JAMES  (i 769-1859),  English  animal  painter  and 
engraver,  was  bom  in  Thames  Street,  London,  on  the  23rd  of 
October  1769.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  was  bound  apprentice 
with  J.  Raphael  Smith,  but  he  received  little  attention  and 
learnt  nothing  from  this  engraver.  He  was  afterwards  in- 
structed for  over  seven  years  by  his  elder  brother,  William  Ward, 
and  he  engraved  many  admirable  plates,  among  which  his 
**  Mrs  Billington,"  after  Reynolds,  occupies  a  very  high  place. 
He  presented  a  complete  set  of  his  engravings,  in  their  various 
states,  numbering  three  hundred  impressions,  to  the  British 
Museum.  While  still  a  youth  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
George  Morland,  who  afterwards  married  his  sister;  and  the 
example  of  this  artist's  works  induced  him  to  attempt  painting. 
His  early  productions  were  rustic  subjects,  in  the  manner  of 
Morland,  which  were  frequently  sold  as  the  work  of  the  more 
celebrated  painter.  His  "  Bull-Bait,"  an  animated  composition, 
introducing  many  figures,  attracted  much  attention  in  the 
Royal  Academy  of  1797.  A  commission  from  Sir  John  Sinclair, 
president  of  the  new  agricultural  society,  to  paint  an  Aldemcy 
cow,  led  to  much  similar  work,  and  turned  Ward's  attention  to 
aniinal-painting,  a  department  in  which  he  achieved  his  highest 
artistic  successes.  His  "  Landscape  with  Cattle,"  acquired  for 
the  National  Gallery  at  a  cost  of  £1500,  was  painted  in  1820- 
1822  at  the  suggestion  of  West,  in  emukition  of  the  "  Bull  of 
Paul  Potter "  at  the  Hague.  His  "  Boa  Serpent  Seizing  a 
Horse  "  was  executed  in  1822,  and  his  admirable  "  Grey  Horse," 
shown  in  the  Old  Masters'  Exhibition  of  1879,  dates  from  1828. 
Ward  also  produced  portraits,  and  many  landscapes  like  the 
"  Gordale  Scar  "  and  the  "  Harlech  Castle  "  in  the  National 
Gallery.  Sometimes  he  turned  aside  into  the  less  fruitful  paths 
of  allegory,  as  in  his  unsuccessful  "  Pool  of  Bethesda  "  (18x8), 
and  "  Triumph  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  "  (x8i8).  He  was  a 
frequent  contributor  to  the  Royal  Academy  and  the  British 
Institution,  and  in  184 1  he  collected  one  hundred  and  forty 
examples  of  his  art,  and  exhibited  them  in  his  house  in  Newman 
Street.  He  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1807,  and  a  full  member  in  x8ii,and  died  at  Cheshunt  on  the 
23rd  of  November  1859. 

Ward  compiled  an  autobiography,  of  which  an  abstract  was 
published  in  the  Art  Journal  in  1849. 

WARD,  JAMES  (1843-  ),  English  psychologist  and  meU- 
phyaidan,  was  bom  at  Hull  on  the  27th  of  January  1843.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Liverpool  Institute,  at  Berlin  and  GOttingen, 
and  at  Trinity  College.  Cambridge;  he  also  worked  in  the  physo> 
logical  laboratory  at  Leipzig.  He  studied  originally  for  the 
Congregational  ministry,  and  for  a  year  was  minister  of  Emmanuel 
Church,  Cambridge.  Subsequently  he  devoted  himself  to 
psychological  research,  became  fellow  of  hfs  college  in  1875  and 
university  professor  of  mental  philosophy  in  1897.  He  was 
Gifford  lecturer  at  Aberdeen  in  1895-18971  "d  at  St  Andrews 
in  1908-1 9 10.  His  work  shows  the  influence  of  Leibniu  and 
Lotze,  as  well  as  of  the  biological  theory  of  evolution.  His 
psychology  marks  the  definite  break  with  the  sensationalism  of 
the  English  school;  experience  is  interpreted  as  a  continuum 
into  which  distinctions  are  gradually  introduced  by  the  action 
of  selective  attention ;  the  implication  of  the  subject  in  experience 
is  emphasized;  and  the  operation  in  development  of  subjective, 
as  well  as  natural,  selection  is  maintained.  In  his  metaphysical 
work  the  analysis  of  scientific  concepts  leads  to  a  criticism  of 
naturalism  and  of  dualism,  and  to  a  view  of  reality  as  a  unity 
which  implies  both  subjective  and  objective  factors.  This  view 
is  further  worked  out,  through  critidsm  of  pluralism  and  as  a 
iheistic  interpretation  of  the  world,  in  his  St  Andrews  Gifford 

Lectures  (the  Realm  of  Ends). 

Beside  the  article  "  Psychology  "  in  the  Enty.  BriL  (9th.  loth  and 
tith  ed.)  he  has  published  Naturalism  and  Agnosticism  (1899.  3'^ 
ed.  1907 )t  besides  numerous  artidet  in  the  Journal  qf  Physielogyt 
Mind,  and  the  British  Journal  of  Psychology. 

WARD.  JOHN  QUINCT  ADAMS  (1830-19x0),  American 
Kidptor,  was  bora  in  Urbuna,  Ob«o,  on  Um  ayUi  of  June  1830. 


WARD,  J.— WARD,  M.  A. 


His  education  was  received  in  the  viUife  idiooli.  He  ludied 
under  Henry  K.  Brown,  of  New  York*  in  1850-1837*  aad  by 
i86z,  when  be  opened  a  studio  in  New  Yock,  he  bad  CBBCUted 
buata  of  Joahua  R;  Giddinga,  Atoaader  H.  Stephens,  aad  Hannibal 
HafaiUn,  prepared  the  fint  tketdi  for  the  "Indian  Hunter,** 
and  made  studies  among  the  Indians  themselves  for  the  work. 
In  1863  he  became  a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design 
(New  York),  and  he  waa  iu  president  in  187 9-1875.  Among  his 
best-known  statues  are  the  **  Indian  Hunter,**  finished  in  1864 
(Central  Park,  New  York);  Washington,  heroic  sixe  (on  the 
steps  of  the  U.S.  Sub-Treasuiy,  Wall  Street,  New  York);  Henry 
Ward  Beecher  (Brooklyn);  an  equestrian  statue  oi  General 
George  H.  Thomas  (Washington);  Israel  Putnam  (Hartford); 
and  the  seated  statue  of  Horace  Greeley,  the  founder  of  the  New 
York  Tribunet  in  front  of  the  office  of  that  newspaper.  In  1896 
he  was  elected  president  of  the  newly  organised  Natitmal  Sculp- 
ture Society  (New  York).  Unlike  hia  feOow-oountiyman.  W.  W. 
Story,  he  acquired  hia  training,  hia  inspiration  and  hia  themes 
from  his  own  oovntxy.    He  died  in  New  Yock  on  the  zst  of 

May  zpia    

WARD,   LBRBR   PRAMK  (1841-       ),  Ameckan  geologist 
and  sociologist,  wsis  bom  in  JoUet,  Slinofa,  on  the  z8th  of  June 
1841.    He  graduated  at  C^umhian  (now  George  Waahingtoo) 
University  in  1869  and  from  the  law  sdiool  of  the  same  univexsitx 
in  1871,  hia  education  having  been  delayed  by  h^  service  ia  the 
Union  army  during  the  Gvil  War.     In  186^-1872  be  vik 
employed  in  the  United  States  Treasuiy  Department,  •»& 
became  assistant  geok>giat  in  x88s  and  geok^t  in  z888  to  tJ^ 
U.S.  Geological  Surv^.    In  1884-1886  he  waa  prafenaor  of 
botany  in  (Columbian  University.    He  wrote  mudk  on  paleo- 
botany, including  A  Sketch  of  PalechotoMy  (1885),  The  CeograpH- 
col  Distribution  of  PossU  PUmts  (1888)  and  The  Stains  of  lh$ 
Uesoaoic  Floras  of  the  United  States  (1905).   He  is  better  known, 
however,  for  his  work  in  sociology,  in  which,  modifying  Herbert 
Spencer  and  refuting  the  Spencerian  individualism,  he  iwrallelfd 
social  with  psychological  and  physical  phenomena.    His  more 
important  woriu  are:  Dynamic  Sociology  (1885,  and  ed.  1897), 
Psychic  Factors  of  Civilization  (1897),  Outlines  of  Sociology  (1898), 
Sociology  and  Economics  (1899),  Pure  Sociology  (1903),  and, 
with  J.  Q.  Dealy,  Text-Booh  of  Sociology  (1905). 

See  an  appreciation  by  L.  Gunplowicz,  in  Die  Zeit  (Vienna,  soih 
Aug.  1904) ;  reprinted  in  English  m  vol.  x.  of  The  American  Journal 
of  Sociology. 

WARD,  MARY  AUGUSTA  [Mss  Huuphsy  Ward]  (1851- 
),  British  novelist,  was  b<»n  on  the  11th  of  June  1851  at 
Hobart,  Tasmania,  where  her  father,  Thomas  Arnold  (1824- 
1900),  was  then  an  inspector  of  schools.  Thomas  Arnold  was  a 
son  of  Arnold  of  Rugby,  and  a  brother  of  the  poet  Matthew 
Arnold.  As  a  scholar  of  University  College,  Oxford,  at  the 
crisis  of  the  Oxford  Movement,  he  had  begun  life  as  a  Liberal 
of  the  school  of  Jowett,  Stanley  and  Clough,  In  1856  he  became 
a  Roman  Catholic,  relinquished  his  inspectorship  of  schook  in 
Tasmania,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  English  h'terature 
at  Dublin,  thence  following  Newman  to  Birmingham,  where 
he  published  hu  Manual  of  En^ish  Literature,  After  a  brief 
period  of  imrest  he  reverted  to  the  Engb'sh  Church,  and  went  to 
Oxford,  where  be  lived  twenty  years,  editing  Th6  Sdect  Worhs 
of  WycHfand  Beowulf  for  the  Clarendon  Press,  Henry  of  Hunting' 
don  and  Symeon  of  Durham  for  the  "  Rolls  "  scries,  and,  with 
W.  E.  Addis,  the  Catholic  Dictionary.  In  1877  he  reverted  once 
more  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Churdi,  and  was  appointed  fellow 
of  the  new  Royal  University  of  Ireland,  dying  in  Dublin  on  the 
1 3th  of  November  1900.  His  daughter  waa  brought  up  mainly 
at  Oxford,  and  her  early  associations  with  a  life  of  scholarship 
and  religious  conflict  are  deeply  marked  in  her  own  later  literary 
career.  She  was  brought  into  close  connexion  during  this  period 
with  Edward  Hartopp  Cradock,  who  was  principal  of  Brasenose 
CoUege  from  1853  till  his  death  in  1886,  and  some  of  whose 
characteristics  went  to  the  portrait  of  the  "  Squire  "  in  Xoberi 
Elsmere.  In  1872  she  married  Thomas  Humph'ry  Ward  (b. 
1845),  then  fellow  and  tutor  of  Brasenose,  and  one  of  the  authors 
of  the  O:^ord  Spectator.    Mr  Humphry  Ward,  a  son  of  the 


WARD,  S.— WARD,  W.  G. 


321 


Rev.  Reniy  Ward,  Vicar  of  St  StfnibM,  King's  Square.  London, 
E.C»  remained  at  Oxford  till  1880,  and  then  went  to  London 
to  Uke  up  Uterary  yrotk;  with  the  help  of  the  chief  critics  of 
the  day  he  brought  out  the  important  selections  of  English 
verse  called  The  English  Pods  (4  vols..  i83o-i8Si).  He  joined 
the  staff  of  Tke  Times  and  wrote  much  for  that  paper,  beconung 
its  principal  art  critic  He  also  published  Humphry  SandwUh, 
<  Memoir  (1884);  and  he  edited  Men  of  the  Reign  (1885).  Eng^ 
AH  in  the  PublU  CaUeries  of  London  (x886),  Men  of  the  Time 
(1887),  and,  with  the  help  of  Matthew  Arnold.  Huxley,  Lord 
Wolseley,  H.  S.  Maine  and  others,  The  Reign  ofQueen  Victoria: 
a  Survey  of  Fifty  Years  of  Progress  (1887). 

Mrs  Humphry  Ward  at  first  devoted  herself  to  Spanish  litersr 
ture,  and  contributed  articles  on  Spanish  subjects  to  the  Diction- 
^y  of  Christian  Biography,  edited  by  Dr  William  Smith  and  I>r 
Henry  Wace.  She  wrote  also  for  MacmiUan^s  Magatine,  In 
x88i  she  published  her  first  book,  MiUy  and  OUy,  a  child's  story 
illustrated  by  Lady  (then  Mrs)  Alma-Tadema.  This  was  foBowed 
in  1884  by  a  more  ambitious,  though  slight,  study  of  modem 
life.  Miss  Bretherton,  the  story  of  an  actress.  In  1885  Mrs  Ward 
published  an  admirable  translation  of  the  Journal  of  the  Swiss 
philosopher  Amiel,  with  a  critical  introduction,  which  showed 
her  delicate  appreciation  of  the  subtleties  of  speculative  thought. 
It  was  no  bad  preparation  for  her  next  book,  which  was  to  make 
her  famous.  In  February  x888  appeared  Robert  Blsmere,  a 
powerful  novel,  tracing  the  mental  evolutwn  of  an  English 
clergyman,  of  high  character  and  conscience  and  of  intellectual 
leanings,  constrained  to  surrender  his  own  orthodoxy  to  the 
mfluence  of  the  "  higher  criticism."  The  character  cA  Ebmere 
owed  much  to  reminiscences  both  of  T.  H.  Green,  the  philosopher, 
and  of  J.  R.  Green,  the  historian.  Largely  in  consequence  of 
a  review  by  W.  £.  Gladstone  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (May 
x888,  "  Robert  Elsmere  a'hd  the  Battle  of  Belief  "),  the  book 
became  the  talk  of  the  civilized  world.  It  ran  in  five  months 
through  seven  editions  in  three-volume  form,  and  the  cheap 
American  editions  had  an  enormous  sale.  It  was  translated 
into  several  European  languages,  and  was  the  subject  of  articles 
in  learned  foreign  reviews.  Robert  Elsmere  is  in  itsdf  a  fine 
story,  notably  in  its  picture  of  the  emotional  conflict  between 
Elsmere  and  his  wife,  whose  over-narrow  orthodoxy  brings 
her  religious  faith  and  their  mutual  love  to  a  terrible  impasse\ 
but  it  was  the  detailed  discussion  of  the  "higher  criticism" 
of  the  day,  and  its  infiuenceon  Christian  belief,  rather  than  its 
power  as  a  piece  of  dramatic  fiction,  that  gave  the  book  its 
exceptional  vogue.  It  started,  as  no  academic  work  could  have 
done,  a  popular  discussion  on  historic  and  essential  Christianity. 
In  i8go  Mrs  Ward  took  a  prominent  part  in  founding  Univer> 
sity  Hall,  an  "  Elsmerian  "  settlement  for  working  and  teaching 
among  the  poor.  Her  next  novel,  Datid  Criete,  was  published 
in  1892.  In  MarceUa  (1894),  tod  its  sequel  Sir  George  Tressady 
(1896),  she  broke  new  ground  in  the  novd  of  modem  politics 
and  socialism,  the  fruit  of  observation  and  reflection  at  Univer- 
sity Hall.  In  1895  had  appeared  the  short  tragedy,  the  Story 
of  Bessie  Costrdl.  Mrs  Ward's  next  long  novel,  Hdbeeh  of 
Bannisdale  (1898),  treated  of  the  dash  between  the  ■ascetic 
ideal  of  Roman  Catholicism  and  modern  life.  The  element  of 
Catholic  and  humanistic  ideals  entered  also  into  Eleanor  (1900), 
b  which,  however,  the  author  relied  less  on  the  interest  of  a 
thesis  and  more  on  the  ordinary  arts  of  the  novelist.  Eleanor 
was  dramatized  and  played  at  the  Court  Theatre  in  1902.  In 
Lady  Rose's  Daughter  (1903) — dramatized  as  Agatha  in  1905 — 
and  The  Marriage  of  William  Ashe  (1905),  modem  tales  founded 
on  the  stories  respectively  of  Mile  de  Lcspinasse  and  Lady 
Caroline  Lamb,  she  relied  entirely  and  with  success  upon 
social  portraiture.  Later  novels  were  Fewwich's  Career  (1906), 
Diana  Mallory  (1908),  Daphne  (1909)  and  Canadian  Born 
(19x0). 

Mrs  Ward's  eminence  among  latter-day  woihen-novelists 
arises  from  her  high  conception  of  the  art  of  fiction  and  her 
strong  grasp  of  intellectual  and  social  problems,  her  descriptive 
power  (finely  shown  in  the  first  part  of  Robert  Elsmere)  and 
her  command  of  a  )9road  and  vigorous  prose  ttyh.    But  her 


activities  were  not  confined  to  Ihetature.  Slw  was  the  oiiginator 
in  England  of  the  Vacation  Sdioob,  whicfa  have  done  much  to 
educate  the  poorest  chiidre&  of  the  community  upon  rational 
lines.  She  also  took  a  leading  part  in  the  movement  for  op- 
posing the  grant  of  the  pariiamentary  suffrage  to  women,  whilst 
encouraging  thefr  active  paitfaapation  in  the  work  of  local 
government.  She  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Women's 
National  Anti-Sof&age  League  In  X908,  and  both  spoke  and 
wrote  repeatedly  in  support  of  its  tenets. 

See  for  bibliography  up  to  Tune  X904,  EfifKsft  IBusiraied  Magatine, 
voL  nod.  (N.SJ  pp^  294.800^99.  (|i.  Ck.) 

WARD,  8BTH  (X617-X689),  English  bidtop^  was  bora  in  Hert- 
fordshire, and  educated  at  Sidney  Susses  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  became  fellow  in  164a  1^  X643  he  was  chosen  univep- 
sity  mathematical  lecturer,  but  he  was  deprived  of  his  fdlowship 
next  year  for  opposing  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant.  In 
1649  he  became  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford,  and 
gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  theory  of  planetary  motion, 
propounded  in  the  works  entitled  In  Ismadis  BuUialdi  astnh 
nomiae  phtiolaicae  fundamenta  inquisUio  bretis  (Oxford, 
1653),  and  Astronomia  geometHca  (London,  1656).  About  thte 
time  he  was  engaged  in  a  philosophical  cimtroversy  with  Thomas 
Hobbes.  He  was  one  of  the  original  members  of  the  Royal 
Society.  In  1659  he  was  appointeid  master  of  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  but  not  having  the  statutory  qualifications  he  resigned 
in  x66o.  Charles  II.  appointed  him  to  the  livings  of  St  Lawrence 
Jewry  in  London,  and  Uplowman,  Devonshire,  in  z66x.  Ho 
also  became  dean  of  Exeter  (x66x)  and  rector  of  Breock,  Corn- 
wall (X662).  In  the  latter  year  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Exeter,  and  in  X667  he^was  translated  to  the  see  of  Salisbury. 
The  oflke  of  chancellor  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter  was  conferred 
on  him  in  1671.  In  his  diocese  he  showed  great  severity  to 
nonconformists,  and  rigidly  enforced  the  act  prohibiting  con- 
venticles. He  spent  a  great  deal  of  money  on  the  restoration  of 
the  cathedrals  of  Worcester  and  Salisbury.  He  died  at  Knighta- 
bridgeon  the  6th  of  January  1688/X689. 

WARD,  WILUAH  (i766>x826),  English  tfeszothit-engraver, 
an  elder  brother  of  James  Ward  {q.9.),  was  bom  in  London  ia 
1766.  He  was  the  most  distinguished  pupO  of  J.  Raphad  Smith, 
and  executed  a  great  part  of  many  of  the  plates  which  bear  the 
name  of  that  excellent  engraver.  In  1795  he  began  to  exhibit  in 
the  Royal  Academy,  of  which  in  X814  he  was  elected  an  associate 
engraver.  He  also  held  the  appointment  of  meazotint-engraver 
to  the  prince  regmt  and  the  duke  of  York.  He  executed  six 
plates  after  Reynolds,  engraved  many  of  the  works  of  his  brother* 
in-law,  George  Morland,  and  his  mezzotints  after  Andrew  Geddes, 
which  include  the  full-lengths  of  Sir  David  Wilkie  and  of  Patrick 
Brydone,  are  of  great  merit%  His  engravings  are  full  of  artistic 
spirit,  and  show  fine  feeUng  for  colour;  and  they  are  excellently 
tender  and  expressve  in  thdr  rendering  of  flesh.  He  died  in 
London  on  the  xst  of  December  1 8  26. 

WARD,  WILUAM  GEORGB  (x8xa-x882),  English  Roman 
Catholic  theologian,  was  bom  on  the  azst  of  Mar^  t8x3.  His 
career  is  extremely  interesting  as  illustrating  the  devriopoBcnt  of 
religious  opinion  at  a  remarkable  crisis  in  the  history  of  EngM 
religious  thought.  Ward  is  described  by  his  son  and  biographer  as 
somewhat  unequally  pfted  by  nature.  For  pure  mathomaitics 
he  had  a  special  ^t — almost  a  passion.  For  history,  applied 
mathematics— for  anything,  in  fact,  9ut8ide  the  exact  sciences — 
he  felt  something  approaching  to  contempt.  He  was  endowed 
with  a  strong  sense  of  humour  and  a  love  of  paradox  carried  to 
an  extreme.  He  went  up  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  X830, 
but  his  father's  subsequent  pecuniary  embarrassments  compelled 
him  in  X833  to  try  for  a  scholarship  at  Lincoln  College,  which 
he  succeeded  in  obtaining.  Hia  examination  for  mathematical 
honours  exhibited  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  his  character  aiul 
mental  powexs.  Four  out  o|  his  five  papers  on  applied  mathe- 
matics were  sent  up  absolut^y  blank.  Honours,  however,  were 
not  riefused  him,  and  in  1834  he  obtained  an  open  fellowship  at 
BallioL  In  the  previous  year  the  Tractariaa  movement  had 
commenced,  and  Ward's  rdatioos  with  that  movement  were  as 
original  as  the  icst  of  his  life.    He  was  atlcacted  to  it  liy  faiR 


322 


WARD— WARDLAW,  LADY 


hatred  of  wodeniiaa  and  vfait  he  cdkd  "  rapectabOity  "  in 
any  afaape*-na  cfaacacteriitic  of  whidh  aome  amwiiing  ioataaoes  have 
been  handed  down.  He  waa  repeUed  from  it  by  the  oonoeption 
he  had  formed  of  the  character  o{  Newman,  whom  he  regarded  aa 
a  mere  antiquary.  When,  however,  he  was  at  length  perwadcd 
by  a  f  dead  to  go  and  hear  Newman  preach,  he  at  once  became 
a  disciple.  But  he  had,  aa  Newman  afterwards  said  of  him, 
**  struck  into  the  movement  at  an  angle."  He  had  no  taste  for 
historical  investigations.  He  treated  the  question  at  issue  as  one 
ol  pure  I09C,  and  disliking  the  Reformers,  the  eight  of  private 
judgment  which  Protestants  claimed,  and  the  somewhat  prosaic 
uniformity  of  the  English  Church,  he  flung  himself  into  a  general 
campaign  against  Protestantism  in  general  and  the  Anglican  form 
of  it  in  particular.  He  nevertheless  took  deacon's  ordets  in 
iSj8  and  priest's  orders  in  1840. 

In  1839  Ward  became  the  editor  of  the  British  Critic^  the  organ 
of  the  Trtctarian  party,  and  he  excited  suspicion  among  the 
adherents  of  the  Tractarifms  themselves  by  his  violent  denuncia- 
tions of  the  Church  to  which  he  still  belonged.  In  1841  he  urged 
the  piiA>lication  of  the  celebrated  "  Tract  XC,"  and  wrote  in 
defence  of  it.  From  that  period  Ward  and  his  associates  worked 
undisguisedly  for  unkw  with  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  in  1844 
he  published  his  Ideal  of  a  Christian  Ckurckf  in  which  he  openly 
contended  that  the  only  hope  for  the  Church  of  En^nd  lay  in 
submission  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  This  publication  brought 
to  a  height  the  storm  which  had  long  been  gathering.  The 
university  of  Oxford  was  invited,  on  the  K3th  of  February  1845* 
to  condemn  **  Tract  XC,"  to  censure  the  Ideal,  and  to  degrade 
Ward  from  his  degrees.  The  two  latter  propositions  were  carried 
and  "  Tract  XC."  only  escaped  censure  by  the  non  .placet  of 
the  proctors,  Guillemard  and  Church.  The  condemnation 
precipitated  an  exodus  to  Rome.  Ward  left  the  Church  of 
England  in  September  1845,  ui<l  ^^^  followed  by  many  others, 
including  Newman  himself.  After  his  reception  into  the  Church 
of  Rome,  Ward  gave  himself  up  to  ethics,  metaphysics  and 
moral  pUlosophy.  He  wrote  arti^es  on  free  will,  the  philosophy 
of  theism,  on  sdenoe,  prayer  and  miracles  for  the  DuNiu  Review. 
He  also  dealt  with  the  condemnation  otPope  Honorius,  carried  on 
a  controversial  correspondence  with  John  Stuart  Mill,  and  took 
n  leading  part  in  the  discussions  of  the  Metaphysical  Society, 
founded  by  Mr  James  Knowles,  of  which  Tennyson,  Huxley  and 
Martineau  were  also  prominent  members.  He  was  a  veh^nent 
opponent  of  Liberal  Catholicism.  In  i85r  he  was  made  professor 
of  moral  philosophy  at  St  Edmund's  College,  Ware,  and  was 
advanced  to  the  chair  of  dogmatic  theology  in  1852.  In  1868  he 
became  editor  of  the  Dublin  Review.  He  gave  a  vigorous  support 
to  the  promulgation  of  the  dogma  of  Papal  Infallibility  in  3870W 
After  his  admissicm  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  he  had, 
rather  to  the  dismay  of  his  friends,  entered  the  married  state, 
and  for  a  time  had  to  struggle  with  poverty.  But  his  circum- 
stances afterwards  improved.  He  died  on  the  6th  of  July 
i88a.  (J.  J.  L.*) 

See  William  George  Ward  and  (he  Oxford  Movement  (1880):  and 
WHUmm  Georit  Ward  and  the  Catholic  Reoiaal  (1893),  by  his  aon. 
WiUrid  PhiUp  Ward  (b.  1856).  who  has  ako  wriucn  the  Life  and 
Times  of  Cardinal  Wiseman;  and  Ten  Personal  Studies  (1908). 

WARD,  that  which  guards  or  watches  and  that  which  Is 
guarded  or  watched.  The  word  is  a  doublet  of  **  guard,'^  which 
was  adapted  from  the  French  comparatively  late  intd  Engti^. 
Both  are  to  be  referred  .to  the  Teutonic  root  war-,  to  protect, 
defend,  cf.  "wary,"  "warn,"  "beware,"  O.  Eng,, ward,  Ger. 
wartent  &c.,  and  the  English,  "guardian,"  "garrison,"  ftc 
The  prmdpal  applications  of  the  term  are,  Ifi  architecture,  to 
the  inner  courts  of  a  fortified  place;  at  Windsor  Castle  they  are 
called  the  upper  and  lower  wards  (see  Bazley,  Castle);  to  a 
ridge  of  metal  inside  a  lock  blocking  the  passage  of  any  key 
whkh  has  not  a  corresponding  slot  into  which  the  ridge  fits, 
the  slot  in  the  key  being  also  called  "  ward  "  (see  Locks). 
Another  brsnch  of  meaning  b  to  be  found  in  the  use  of  the  word 
for  a  divisk>n  into  which  a  borough  is  divided  for  the  purpose 
of  election  of  ooundUors,  or  a  parish  for  election  of  guardians> 
&  «M  «lie  the  lerm  used  as  equivalent  to  "  hundred  "  in 


Nortfaumbcdand  and  Ciuriberiaad.  To  this  bnadi  b^mgi  tk 
use  for  the  various  large  or  small  separate  rooms  in  ^  ho^iltal, 
asylum,  Ac.,  where  patients  an  received  and  treated.  The 
moat  general  meaning  of  the  word  is  for  a  minor  or  perMo 
who  Is  under  a  guardianship  (see  Imtant,  MautuOB  and  Romah 
Law). 

WARDEN,  a  ciwtodtsn,  defender,  guardian  (see  Guauun, 
a  word  with  which  it  is  et3rmok)gicBlly  id^tical).  The  word  i» 
frequently  employed  in  the  ordinary  sense  ol  a  watcfamsa 
or  guardian,  but  more  usually  in  England  in  the  aense  of  a  chief 
or  head  official.  The  lords  wardens  erf  the  marches,  for  exampk, 
were  powerful  nobles  appointed  to  guard  ihe  borders  of  Scotland 
and  of  Wales;  they  held  their  lanids  per  baroniam,  the  kiog't 
writ  not  running  against  them,  and  they  had  extensive  righu  of 
administrating  justice.  The  chief  officer  of  the  andent  sua* 
naries  of  Cornwall  has  the  title  of  lord  warden  (see  Stannabzes), 
as  has  also  the  governor  of  Dover  Castle  (see  Cotque  Pobts). 
Warden. was  until  1870  the  alternative  title  of  the  master  of  tie 
mint,  and  "  warden  of  the  standards  "  the  title  of  the  bead  of 
the  Standards  office  (see  Stamdasds).  The  prindiMd  or  head  of 
several  of  the  colleges  of  Oxford  University  la  also  terned 
warden. 

WARDHA.  a  town  and  distzkt  of  British  India*  in  the  Na|p« 
division  of  the  Central  Provinces,  which  take  their  name  froa 
the  Wardha  river.  The  town  is  situated  49  nu  S.W.  of  ^sfft 
by  rail.  Pop^  (1901)  9879.  It  was  laid  out  in  1866,  stadT 
after  the  district  was  first  constituted.  It  Is  an  impoiuiL 
centre  of  the  cotton  trade. 

The  DiSTBiCT  OT  Wasdha  has  an  area  of  2428  aq.  m.  It  ii 
hilly  in  the  north,  and  intersected  by  spurs  from  the  Satpun 
range.  The  central  portion  includes  the  three  peaks  of  Makgios 
(1736  fL),  Nandgam  (1874  ft.),  and  Jaitgarh  (3086  ft.).  Fron 
this  cluster  of  hiUs  numerous  small  streams  lead  to  the  Wardha 
river  00  the  one  side,  while  on  the  other  the  Dham,  Bor,  and 
Asoda  flow  down  the  length  of  the  district  in  a  south-eastcrij 
direction.  The  Wardha,  and  its  affluent  the  Wanna,  are  the 
only  rivers  of  any  importance.  To  the  south  the  couatiy 
spreads  out  in  an  undulating  plain,  intersected  by  watercouise^ 
and  broken  here  and  there  by  isolated  hills  rising  abruptly  froo 
the  surface.  In  general  the  lowlands  are  well  wooded.  Leopards, 
hyenas,  wolves,  jackals  and  wild  hog  abound  in  the  district; 
other  animals  found  are  the  spotted  deer,  nilgai  and  antelope. 
The  district  is  subject  to  great  variations  of  climate,  and  tbr 
rainfall  at  Wardha  town  averages  41  in.  In  1901  the  populatioo 
was  385,103,  showing  a  decrease  of  4%  in  the  deoule.  The 
principal  crops  are  cotton,  millet,  wheat  and  oil-seeds.  This 
region  supplies  the  cotton  known  in  the  market  as  Hinganghat 
There  are  cotton-mills  at  Hinganghat  and  Palgaon,  and  manj 
factories  for  ginning  and  pressing  cotton.  The  district  is  traversed 
by  the  Nagpur  Une  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  railway* 
A  branch  runs  from  Wardha  town  past  Hingan^t  to  the 
Warora  coal-field  in  the  district  of  Chanda.  The  history  of 
Wardha  forms  part  of  that  of  Nagpur  district,  from  whid>  it 
was  separated  in  1862  for  administrative  purposes. 

See  Wardha  District  Gautteer  (Allahabad,  1906). 

WARDLAW.  EUZABEIH,  Lady  (i677-r737),  reputed 
author  of  Hardyknuie,  second  daughter  of  Sir  Charies  HaUcet, 
was  bom  in  Aprfl  1677.  She  married  in  1696  Sir  Henry  Wardla't 
Bart.,  of  Pitreavie.  The  ballad  of  Hardyknntef  published  in 
r7x9  as  an  old  poem,  was  supposed  to  have  been  discov^ 
by  her  in  a  vault  at  Dunfermline,  btit  no  MS.  was  ever  produo^; 
and  In  the  1767  edition  of  Percy's  Rdigues  the  poem  was  ascribed 
to  her.  The  beautiful  ballad  of  Sir  Patrick  Spens  (F.  J.  Child, 
En^ish  and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads,  ii.  17)  has  been  abo 
asserted  to  be  her  work,  one. of  the  supporters  of  the  tfaeoiy 
being  Robert  Chambers  {Rtmarhs  on  Scottish  Ballads,  1^59)' 
The  level  of  accomplishment  in  Hardyhntde,  however,  gives  oe 
reason  for  suppooing  that  Lady  Wardlaw  was  capable  of  produdnf 
Sir  PaMch  Spens. 

See  Norval  Oyne,  The  Romanlu  Scottuh  Ballads  and  theUdJ, 
Wardlam  Heresy  (1859).  and  J.  H.  Watkins.  £sf/y  Scottish  Bellsdt 
(Glaagow,  18^). 


WARDLAW,  H.— WAREHAM 


383 


WARHiAWt  BaiBT  (d.  1440),  Scottish  pnbte,  irw  a  son 
el  Sir  Andrew  Wardlaw  and  a  nephew  of  Walter  Wardlaw 
(d.  1390),  bifhop  of  Glasgow,  who  is  aaid  to  have  been  made 
a  ctidinal  by  the  anti-pope  Qement  VII.  in  1381.  E<}ncated 
at  the  univerttties  of  Oxfoid  and  of  Pans,  Henry  Waidlaw 
returned  to  Scotland  about  1385,  and  owing  to  hb  influential 
connexions  received  many  benefices  in  the  Cbuitfa.  Het  passed 
some  time  at  Avignon,  and  it  was  whilst  he  was  residing  at  the 
papal  court  that  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  St  Andrews,  being 
consecrated  in  1403.  Returning  to  Scotland  he  acted  as  tutor 
to  the  future  king,  James  I.,  and  finished  the  wDik  of  restoring 
his  cathedraL  Then  having  helped  to  bring  about  the  release 
of  James  from  his  captivity  in  Eng^nd,  he  crowned  this  king 
in  May  1434,  and  afterwards  acted  as  one  of  his  princ^ial  .ad- 
visers. He  appears  to  have  been  an  excellent  bishop,  although 
he  tried  to  suppress  the  teaching  of  John  Wydiffe  by  burning 
its  advocates.  He  died  on  the  6th  of  April  1440.  Wanilaw's 
chief  title  to  fame  is  the  fact  that  he  was  the  founder  of  the 
university  of  St  Andrews,  the  first  Scottish  university.  He 
issued  the  charter  of  foundation  in  February  14k  x,  and  the 
privileges  of  the  new  seat  of  learning  were  confirmed  by  a  bull  of 
Pope  Benedict  XIII.,  dated  the  sSth  of  August  1413.  The 
university  was  to  be  "  an  impregnable  rampart  of  doctors  and 
masters  to  resist  heresy." 

wardrobe;  a  portable  upright  cupboard  for  storing  dothes. 
The  earUest  wardrobe  was  a  chest,  and  it  was  not  until  some 
degree  of  luxury  was  attained  in  regal  palaces-  and  the  castles 
of  powerful  noUes  that  separate  accomnoodatlon  was  provided 
for  the  sumptuous  apparel  of  the  great.  The  name  of  wardrobe 
was  then  given  to  a  room  in  which  the  wall-space  was  filled  with 
cupboards  and  lockers—the  drawer  is  a  comparatively  modem 
invention.  From  these  cupboards  and  k>ckers  the  modem 
wardrobe,  with  its  hanging  spaces,  sliding  shelves  and  dnwers, 
was  slowly  evolved.  In  its  movable  form  as  an  oak  ^  banging 
cupboard  "  it  dates  back  to  the  early  1 7th  oentuiy.  For  probid>ly 
a  hundred  years  such  pieces,  massive  and  cumbrous  in  form, 
but  often  with  weU^carved  fronts,  were  made  in  fair  numbers; 
then  the  gradual  diminution  in  the  use  of  oak  for  cabinet-making 
l»rodttced  a  change  of  fashion.  Walnut  succeeded  oak  as  the 
favourite  naaterial  for  furniture,  but  han^^ng  wardrobes  in  walnut 
appear  to  have  been  made  very  rarely,  although  dothes  presses, 
with  drawers  and  sliding  trays,  were  frequent.  During  a  large 
portion  of  the  i8th  century  the  tainx>y  .(^.v.)  was  much  used 
for  storing  clothes.  Towards  its  end,  however,  the  wardrobe 
began  to  devdop  into  its  raod6m  form,  with  a  hanging  cup- 
board at  eadi  side,  a  press  in  the  upper  part  of  the  centnd 
portion  and  drawers  bdow.  As  a  rule  it  was  oi  mahogany, 
but  so  soon  as  satinwood  and  otiier  hitherto  scarce  finely 
grained  foreign  woods  began  to  be  obtainable  in  oonaderable 
quantities,  many  ehiborately  and  even  magnificently  inlaid 
wardrobes  were  made.  Where  Cbii^ndale  and  his  school 
bsd  carved,  Sheraton  and  Hcpplewhite  and  their  contemporaries 
obtained  their  effects  by  the  artistic  employment  of  deftly 
contrasted  and  highly  polished  woods.  The  first  'step  in  the 
evohirion  of  the  wardrobe  wss  taken  when  the  central  doors, 
which  had  hitherto  endosed  merely  the  upper  part,  were  carried 
to  the  floor,  covering  the  drawers  as  well  as  the  sliding  shelves, 
and  were  fitted  with  mirrors. 

WARD-ROOM  (i^.  the  room  of  the  guard),  the  cabin  occupied 
by  the  commissioned  ofiicers,  except  the  captain,  in  a  man-of- 
war.  In  the  wooden,  line^f-battle  ships  it  was  abovfe  the  gun- 
foom. 

WARE,  a  market  town  in  the  Hertford  parlismentaiy  division 
of  Hertloffdshire,  England,  on  the  river  Lot,  ss  m.  N.  of  London 
by  ft  branch  of  the  Great  Eastern  railway.  Pop.  of  urban 
<ttitrict  (1901)  5573.  The  church  of  St  Mary  is  a  crudform 
Decorated  and  Perpendicular  building  of  flint  and  stone,  con-> 
risting  of  chancel  (built,  it  is  supposed,  by  Lady  Margaret 
Beaufort,  countess  of  Richmond,  and  mother  of  Henry  VII.), 
lady  chapel  to  the  south  (c.  1380),  nave  of  five  bays  of  the  time 
of  Richard  11.,  transepts,  aisles,  south  porch  and  embatlled 
towvr  of  th«  lime  of  Edward  III.    There  is  an  daborste 


Pespendlculsr  font.  The  modem  mansion  of  The  Priory,  to  the 
^est  of  the  town,  occupies  the  site  of  a  priory  of  the  order  of 
St  Frands,  founded,  according  to  Dugdale,  by  Hu^  de  Giant- 
maisnil,  lord  of  Ware.  A  portion  of  the  origin*!  building  is 
inconxuated  in  the  modem  ooe.  Among  pu^c  buildings  are 
the  com  exchange  and  the  town»hall,  which  indudes  a  literary 
institute  and  Ubrary.  The  famous  '^Grest  Bed  of  Ware," 
referred  to  in  Shakespeare's  Twdftk  Nigklt  which  form«rly  was 
at  the  Saracen's  Head  in  Ware,  has  been  removed  to  Rye  House, 
a  m.  distant,  the  scene  of  the  Rye  ^^oose  plot  of  1683  against 
Charles  II.  The  town  possesses  breweries  and  brick-fields, 
and  there  is  a  large  trade  in  malt,  assisted  by  the  navigation  of 
the  Lea  to  London.  Near  tho  village  of  Great  Amwell  (x  m. 
S.E.)  are  the  sources  of  the  New  River,  formed  in  1606-1612  to 
supply  London  with  water;  and  on  a  small  idand  hi  the  stream 
stands  a  monument  to  Sir  Hugh  Myddleton,  throu^  whose 
exertions  UUs  work  wascarried  cut. 

WARE,  a  towndiip  of  Hampshire,  county,  Massachusetts, 
U.S.A.,  traversed  by  the  Ware  river,  and  about  25  m.  E.N.E.  of 
Springfiehl.  Pop.  (x88o)  4817,  (1890)  7329,  (1900)  8263,  of 
whom  3263  were  foreign-bom,  (19x0  census)  S774.  Area 
39*3  sq.  m.  The  township  is  served  by  the  Boston  ft  Albany  and 
Boston  &  Maine  railways,  and  bsF-.two  interurban  electric  lines. 
Its  average  devation  is  about  SSO  h.  above  sea-level.  There 
is  a  public  library  (14,225  volumes  in  19x0).  In  1905  the  value 
of  the  factory  products  was  $3,783,696,  23*2%  more  than  in 
X900.  Among  the  manufactures  are  cotton  and  wodlen  goods, 
and  boots  and  shoes.  The  township  owns  and  operates  its 
waterworks.  Because  of  its  hard  and  mugh  soil,  Ware  was  not 
settled  as  early  ta  the  surmunding  townships,  the  first  per- 
manent settlement  bdng  made  in  X73a  It  was  incorporated 
m  X742  as  a  prednct,  in  176X  as  a  district  (formed  from  parts 
<rf  Brookfield,  Palmer  and  Western,  now  Warren,  and  certain 
common  lands),  and  in  1775  as  a  separate  township.  In  X823 
additfcms  were  made  from  Brookfield  and  Western. 

WARBKAH,  a  market  town  and  .munidpal  borough  in  the 
eastern  parliamentary  divisfon  of  Dorsetshire,  England,  i2i|  m. 
S.W.  by  W.  from  London  by  the  London  ft  South-Westem 
railway.  Pop.  (X90'r)  2003.  It  lies  between  the  rivers  Froihe 
and  Piddle,  x|  m.  above  thdr  outflow  into  Poole  harbour.  The 
town  is  of  high  antiquity,  and  is  partially  surrounded  by  earth- 
works probably  of  British  construction.  The  church  of  St  Mary 
contains  a  diapd  dedicated  to  St  Edward,  commemorating 
that  Edward  who  was  murdered  at  Corfe  Castle  in  this  ndgfa- 
bourhood,  whose  body  lay  here  before  its  removal  to  Shaftes- 
bury. It  also  possesses  a  lemarkable  Norman  font  of  lead.  Two 
other  ancient  churches  remain,  but  are  not  used  for -worship. 
There  are  ruins  of  a  priory  dedicated  to  SS.  Mary,  Peter  and 
Ethelwold,  and  the  site  of  the  old  castle  may  be  traced.  The 
town  and  neighbourhood  have  been  long  noted  for  thdr  lime 
and  oement,  and  large  quantities  of  potters',  pipe,  fire  and  other 
kinds  of  day  are  sent  to  Staffordshire  and  to  foreign  countries. 
The  borough  is  under  a  mayor,  4  aldermen,  and  X2  councillors. 
Area  251  acres. 

Owing  to  its  situation  as  a  key  of  Putbeck,  the  site  of  Ware- 
ham  (Werhamf  Worfiam)  has  been  occupied  from  early  times. 
The  earthworks,  of  British  origin,  were  modified  in  almost  every 
successive  age.  That  Wareham  was  a  pre-Saxon  town  is  evident 
from  Asser's  statement  that  its  British  name  was  Dumgueir. 
The  early  chronider^  declare  that  St  Aldhelm  founded  a  church 
near  Wareham  about  701,  and  perhaps  the  priory,  which  is 
mentioned  as  existing  in  876,  when  the  Danes  retired  from 
Cambridge  to  a  strong  position  in  this  fort.  Thdr  occupation 
was  not  lengthy.  Having  made  terms  with  Alfred,  they  broke 
the  conditions  and  returned  to  Cambridge.  In  the  following 
year  they  were  again  at  Wareham,  which  they  made  their 
headquarters.  Beorhtric,  the  immediate  predecessor  of  Ecgbert, 
was  buried  here.  Further  incursions  made  by  the  Danes  in  098 
and  in  1015  under  Canute  probably  resulted  in  the  destruction 
of  the  priory,  on  the  site  of  which  a  later  house  was  founded 
hi  the  X  2th  century  as  a  oell-of  the  Norman  abbey  of  Lysa,  and 
in  the  decayed  condition  of  Wareham  in  xo86,  when  toi3  bouses 


3*4 


WARENNfi,  EARLS— WAR  GAME 


were  nilned  or  naate,  the  lenilt  of  jmsfortune,  poverty  and  fiie. 
The  early  castle,  which  existed  before  io86»  was  important 
during  the  dvil  wars  of  Stephen's  reign;  in  1243  Robot,  eari 
of  Gloucester,  on  his  depcuture  for  France,  committed  it  to  his 
son's  charge.  Stqahcn,  however,  suipriaed  and  took  it,  but  it 
surrendered  to  the  earl  in  the  same  >'ear  on  the  king's  refusal 
to  send  it  aid.  John  forti6ed  it  against  Louis  of  France  in  1226, 
and  during  the  dvil  wars  it  was  the  scene  of  mudi  fighting, 
bdng  stonned  by  the  parliamentaiy  forces  in  1644.  Wareham 
was  accounted  a  borough  in  Domesday  Book,  and  the  burgesses 
in  X  X 76  paid  so  marks  for  a  default.  In  x  x8o-x  x8x  they  rendered 
account  of  5  marks  for  erecting  a  gild  without  licence.  The 
fee-farm  of  the  borough  was  obtained  in  X2xx,  on  a  fine  of  xoo 
marks.  The  constitution  of  Wareham  underwent  a  change 
during  the  yean  X326-X338,  when  the  governing  body  of  the 
bailiffs  and  commonalty  were  replaced  by  the  mayor  and  baih'ffs. 
In  X587  Elizabeth  granted  certain  piivileges  to  Wareham,  but 
it  was  not  incoxporated  until  1703,  when  the  existing  fain  for 
April  6  and  August  33  were  granted.  The  port  was  important 
throughout  the  middle  ages,  and  was  required  to  funish  four 
ships  for  the  French  war  in  X334.  Guisiderable  trade  was 
carried  on  with  France  and  Spain,  doth,  Furbeck  stone  and, 
later,  day  being  largely  exported. 

WARENNB,  EARI8.  The  Warcnnes  derived  thdr  surname 
from  the  river  of  Giurenne  or  Varemne  and  the  little  town  of  the 
same  name  near  Arques  in  Nonnandy.  William  de  Wareime, 
who  crossed  with  William  I.  in  xo66,  was  a  distant  cousin  of  the 
Conqueror,  his  grandmother  having  been  the  sister  of  Gunnora, 
wife  of  Richard  L  of  Normandy.  De  Warenne  recdved  as  his 
share  of  English  spoil  some  300  manors  in  Yorkshire,  Norfolk, 
Surrey  and  Sussex,  induding  Lewes  CastleJ  He  was  wounded 
at  the  siege  of  Fevensey  and  died  in  X0S9,  a  year  after  he  had 
recdved  the  title  of  earl  of  Surrey.  Both  he  and  his  successors 
were  more  commonly  styled  Earl  Warenne  than  earl  of  Surrey. 
His  wife  Gundrada,  described  on  her  monument  as  stirps  ducum,^ 
aK>ears  to  have  been  a  sister  of  Gharbod,  earl  of  Chester. 

Thdr  son  William,  2nd  eari  (c.  X071-1138),  was  a  suitor  for 
the  hand  of  Matilda  of  Scotland,  afterwards  queen  of  Heniy  I. 
He  was  temporarily  deprived  of  his  earidom  in  xiox  for  his 
sui^rt  of  Robert,  duke  of  Noxmandy,  but  he  commanded  at 
the  battle  of  Tcnchebrai  (xio6),  and  was  governor  of  Rouen  in 
X135.  He  carried  off  Elizabeth  of  Vermaixdois,  granddaughter 
of  Heniy  I.  of  France,  and  wife  of  Robert,  count  of  Meulan,  and 
married  her  in  1 1 18  after  her  husband's  death. 

William  de  Waienhe,  3rd  earl  (d.  XX48),  was,  with  his  half- 
brother,  Robert  de  Beaumont,  early  of  Ldcester,  present  at  the 
battle  of  Lincoln,  where  his  fUght  early  in  the  day  contributed 
to  Stephen's  ddeat.  He  remained  faithful  to  the  queen  during 
Stephen's  imprisonment,  and  in  1x46  he  took  the  cross,  and  was 
killed  near  Laodicea  in  January  2x48. 

His  daughter  and  hdreSs,  Isabd,  married  in  X153  William  de 
Blois,  second  son  of  King  Stephen  and  Matilda  of  Boulogne,  and 
in  1x63  Hamclin  Plantagenet,  natural  son  of  Geoffrey,  count  of 
Anjou.  Both  Isabel's  husbands  appear  to  have  borne  the  title 
of  Eari  Warenne.  Eari  Hamelin  was  one  of  those  who  at  the 
council  of  Northampton  denounced  Becket  as  a  traitor;  he 
remained  faithful  to  his  half-brother,  Henry  II.,  during  the  trouble 
with  the  king's  sons,  and  in  Richard  I.'s  absence  on  the  crusade 
he  supported  the  government  against  the  intrigues  of  Prince  John. 

William  de  Warcime  (d.  X240),  son  of  Isabd  and  Hamelin,  who 
succeeded  to  the  earldom  in  1202,  enjoyed  the  spedal  confidence 
of  King  John.  In  X2X2,  when  a  general  rebellion  was  appre- 
hended, John  committed  to  him  the  custody  of  the  northern 
shires;  and  he  remained  faithful  to  his  master  throughout  the 
troubles  which  preceded  the  signing  of  the  Charter.  In  x  2x6,  as 
the  king's  situation  became  desperate,  the  eari  repented  of  his 
loyalty,  and,  shortly  bdore  the  death  of  John,  made  terms  with 
Prince  Louis.  He  returned,  however,  to  his  lawful  allegiance  im- 
mediatdy  upon  the  accession  of  Henry  lU.,  and  was,  during  his 
minority,  a  loyal  supporter  of  the  crown.  He  disliked,  however, 

,  *  See  R.  E.  Chester  Watson.  '*  Gundrada.**  in  the  Jtd.  eftJuArth, 
Imstn  xU.  p.  108. 


the  rayal  favourites  who  came  into  power  after  1927,  and  used  bia 
mflucnoe  to  protect  Hubert  de  Burgh  when  the  latter  had  been 
removed  from  office  by  their  efforts  (2232).  Warenne's  relations 
with  the  king  became  strained  in  course  of  time.  In  1238  he 
was  evidently  -regarded  as  a  leader  of  the  baroiUal  oppoaitioii, 
for  the  great  council  appointed  him  as  one  of  the  treasureis  who 
were  to  prevent  the  king  frcnn  squandering  the  subsidy  voted  in 
that  year.  His  son  John  de  Warenne  {c.  x  232-1304)  succeeded 
in  2240,  and  at  a  later  date  bore  the  style  of  eari  of  Surrey  and 
Sussex.  In  the  battle  of  Lewes  (2264)  he  fought  under  Prince 
Edward,  and  on  the  ddeat  of  the  royal  army  fled  with  the  queen 
to  Fxanoe.  His  estates  were  coruscated  but  were  subsequendy 
restored.  He  served  in  Edward  I.'s  Wdsh  campaigns,  and  took 
a  still  more  prominent  part  in  Scottish  affairs,  being  the  king's 
lieutenant  in  Scothwd  in  1 296-2  297.  In  September  1297  he 
advanced  to  Stirling,  aiui,  giving  way  to  the  clamour  of  his 
soldiers,  was  ddeated  by  William  Wallace  on  the  i2tfa.  He 
invaded  Scotland  eariy  the  next  year  with  a  fresh  army,  and, 
joining  Edward  in  the  second  expedition  ot  that  year,  conunanded 
the  rear  at  Falkirk 

By  his  first  wife,  Alice  of  Lusigrun,  half-sister  of  Henry  IH., 
Earl  Warenne  had  three  diildren — Alice,  who  married  Heniy 
Percy,  father  of  the  rst  baton  Perqr;  Isabdla,  who  married 
John  Baliol,  afterwards  king  of  Scots;  and  Wilham,  who  pre- 
deceased his  father,  leaving  a  son  John. 

John  de  Warerme  (1286-1347)  succeeded  his  grandfather  is 
2304,  and  was  knighted  along  with  the  prince  of  Wales  in  130^ 
two  days  after  his  nuuriage  with  the  prince's  niece,  Joanna, 
daughter  of  Eleanor  of  England,  coimtess  of  Bar.  From  that 
time  onwards  he  was  much  engaged  in  the  Scottish  wars,  ia 
which  he  had  a  personal  interest,  since  John  Baltol  was  his  cousin 
and  at  one  time  his  ward.  As  there  were  no  diildren  of  his 
marriage,  his  nephew,  Richard  Fitzalan  H.,  eari  of  Arundd 
(c.  X3o7'-x376),  became  heir  to  his  estates  and  the  earldom  of 
Surrey.  His  northern  estates  reverted  to  the  crown,  and  the 
southern  estates  hdd  by  Joanna  of  Bar  during  her  lifetime 
passed  to  Fitzalan.  The  Warrens  of  PoyntOn,  barons  of  Stock- 
port, desceoded  from  one  of  Eari  Warerme's  illegitimate  sons  by 
Isabdla  de  Holland.  Earl  Warenne  had  recdved  from  Edward 
Baliol  the  Scottish  earidom  of  Stratheazn,  but  seems  never  to 
have  established  effective  possession. 

See  G.  E.  C(okayne).  Comflets  Peerage^  vol.  viL  (X896);  and  John 
Watson.  Memoirs  of  the  Ancunt  EarU  oj  Warrem  or  Smrrty  Ca  vols., 
Warrington,  1782). 

WAR  aAME,  or  Cn  its  German  fonn)  Ksiegsfxei^  a  sdentific 
game,  played  by  representing  the  positions  and  movenKnts 
of  troops  on  a  map.  Kriegspid  is,  as  the  ruune  Indicates,  of 
German  origin.  A  form  of  it,  invented  by  Marshal  Kdth,  and 
called  Kriegspschachsspiel  (War  Chess),  was  in  vogue  in  the 
x8th  century.  In  its. present  form  it  was  invented  by  von 
Reisswitz  (x  794-1827),  a  Prussian  officer,  in  X824.  As  a  game 
it  quickly  beaime  fashionable  at  the  German  courts,  and  as  a 
means  of  instruction  it  was  promptly  introduced  into  the  Prussian 
army,  whence  it  has  spread  to  all  the  armies  of  the  worid.  The 
idea  of  it  has  been  applied  also  to  naval  warfare  in  recent  tlmes^ 
the  most  usual  form  ci  naval  war  game  bdng  that  designed  by 
F.  T.  Jane  about  2898. 

In  Uie  military'  game  the  positions  of  tro(^  are  maAed  on 
mapa>  movements  are  made  under  regulations  and  tbo  ivhole 
or  portions  of  past  campaigns  can  be  reproduced  in  outline  of 
fair  accuracy,  or  more  usually  hypothetical  msnceuvmi  may 
be  formulated  for  study  and  instruction.  The  materials  required 
are  at  least  three  copies  of  the  same  map,  drawn  to  aoEft  scaile 
as  may  be  suitable  to  the  magnitude  of  the  operations  to  be 
represented.  If  the  scheme  is  ohe  for  small  numben  d  troops, 
maps  of  large  scale  are  essential,  as  small  features  of^  the 
ground  largely  influence  the  action  of  small  bodies,  and  it  is  onhjr 
on  large-scale  maps  that  the  real  influence  of  small  featum  can 
readily  be  appreciated.  Conversdy,  with  large  bodies,  maps 
on  a  diminished  scale  are  oonvem'ent.  A  great  amount  of  detail 
is  necessary  in  all  maps  drawn  for  military  purpoeea;  hel^ts^ 
losds^  biiiidingg,  yater-cowsea^  fences  and  the  naliifD  ol  tha 


WARGLA— WARHAM 


J«5 


gRMind,  an  enter  Into  the  queition  of  thefeasibiUty  or  tlie  reveiae 
of  military  operations  i  and  where  the  map  is  the  actual  field 
of  manoeuvre,  the  features  of  the  natural  field  must  be  adequately 
supplied.  Blocks,  cut  or  moulded  to  scale,  represent  the  different 
units  of  the  combatants;  and  are  colouxed  (generally  red  and 
blue)  to  distinguish  the  opposing  forces.  Some  pairs  of  dividers 
and  a  few  measures  of  the  same  scale  as  the  maps  employed 
complete  the  material  outfit.  Printed  regulations  for  the  conduct 
of  kriegspiel  are  of  small  value;  and  although  rules  have  been 
drafted  at  yarious  times  and  in  many  languages,  th^  have 
generally  been  allowed  to  lapse,  practice  having  proved  that  the 
decision  of  a  competent  umpire  is  of  more  value,  as  to  the  sound- 
ness or  unsoundness  of  a  military  manceuvre,  than  a  code  of 
regulations  which  inevitably  lack  elasticity. 

The  usual  course  of  procedure  varies  but  little  hi  the  different 
ocnintries  in  which  the  system  has  been  empbyed.  The  central 
map  screened  from  the  view  of  the  combatants  is  used  by  the 
umpire,  who  places  on  it  the  forces  of  both  sides;  copies  are  on 
either  hand  behind  screens  or  in  adjoining  rocmu,  and  on  them 
representative  blocks  are  placed  in  positions  which  agree  with  the 
Information  possessed  by  each  respective  commander.  A  scheme  is 
formulated  such  as  may  occur  in  war,  and  a  "  General  Idea  "  or 
** Narrative"  is  the  common  property  of  both  sides,  This  contains 
those  items  of  common  knowledge  which  would  be  in  the  possession 
of  either  commander  in  the  field.  The  General  Idea  is  supp^mented 
by  "  special  ideas,"  issued  one  to  each  of  the  combatants,  supplying 
the  information  which  a  commander  might  reasonably  be  expected 
to  have  of  the  details  of  his  own  force.  A  third  senes  of  instnic- 
tbns  b  issued,  entitled  "  Orders,"  which  define  to  each  commander 
the  object  to  be  attained ;  and  on  receipt  of  these  he  is  required  to 
draft  specific  orders,  such  as,  in  manoeuvre  or  in  war,  would  be 
considered  necessary  for  issue  to  field  units  in  the  assumed  circum- 
stances. Then  the  game  begins.  The  units  of  artillery,  cavalry, 
infantry -or  train- wagons  advance  or  retreat  at  a  rate  approxi- 
roately  regulated  to  their  normal  pace  Information  gained  by 
advancing  patrols  is  brought  at  realistic  speed  to  its  destination  ^  and 
no  alteration  in  the  ordered  movements  of  a  unit  is  allowed,  till  ex- 
piration of  the  calculated  time  for  the  transmission  of  the  intelligence 
and  for  the  issue  of  fresh  orders.  So  the  exercise  progresses,  each 
movement  is  marked,  and  periodbally  the  blocks  on  the  three  maps 
are  placed  as  they  would  be  at  a  simultaneous  moment.  Smaller 
units  yield  to  laiiger  ones  of  the  enemy;  equal  forces,  if  unassisted 
by  superiority  of  podtion, "  contain  "one  another,  and  are  practically 
neutralized  tiU  reinforoements  arrive  and  equilibrium  b  overthrown. 

The  decisions  of  the  umpire  are  all-important,  and  it  is  he  who 
makes  or  mars  the  value  of  the  instruction.  Some  axioms  must  be 
universally  accepted  for  the  guidance  both  of  himself  and  of  the 
players.  A  force  arrayed  wittun  effective  range  on  the  flank  of  an 
equal  and  hostile  force  has  the  better  position  of  the  two.  Artillery 
in  position  with  an  unimpeded  glads  is  a  terrible  task  for  a  frontal 
attack.  Cavalry,  as  such,  is  ineffective  in  woodlands,  marches  or 
a  country  broken  up  by  cross  hedges  or  wire  fencing.  Infantry  in 
masses  is  an  ideal  taiget  for  efficient  artillery,  and  in  scattered 
bodies  affords  of>portunities  for  attack  bv  well-handled  cavalry. 
The  jnst  applicauon  of  the  ideas  contained  in  these  few  sentences 
to  the  varying  stages  of  a  combat  is  no  mean  task  for  a  cultured 
soklier. 

One  of  many  difficulties  encountered  in  war  is  the  lack  of  accurate 
faiformation.  Any  one  man's  view  of  details  sprttd  over  large  areas 
d  country  is  extrem^  limited;  and  even  with  the  greatest  pre* 
cautions  against  unreality,  a  commander's  information  ts  vastly  more 
accurate  over  the  extended  units  of  hb  mimk  force  at  kriegspiel  than 
when  the  forces  so  represented  are  men,  horses  and  machines. 
Wf^iped  in  dust  or  In  smoke,  and  partially  obscured  by  accidents  of 
the  ground  too  insignificant  for  reproduction  on  the  map.  Yet 
whilst  accepting  a  certain  unreality  in  kriegspiel,  and  to  a  less  dtgnt 
in  field  manoeuvres,  both  byone  and  the  other  military  training  and 
education  are  furthered.  The  framing  of  orders  foUows  identical 
lines  at  kri^spid,  at  manoeuvres  or  In  war<  The  movement  of 
troops  in  mimic  warfare  should  be  brought  to  harmonise  as  far  as 
possible  with  reality.  Up  to  a  point  thb  b  relativdy  easy,  and 
depends  chiefly  on  the  quality  of  the  umpiring.  But  directly  the 
ckMe  contact  of  hnportant  bodies  of  troops  b  lepresented  on  paper, 
imagination,  not  realbm,  governs  the  results.  Even  thb,  however, 
can  be  tempered,  as  rKards  the  larger  problems  of  the  tactfeal 
grouping  of  forces,  by  the  wisdom  and  experience  of  the  umpire. 
It  b  true  that  military  history  teems  with  tactical  events  that  no 
map  can  reproduce  and  no  seer  could  have  prophesied.  But  the 
greater  an  officer's  famUbrity  with  military  libtory,  the  mort  likdy 
be  b  tQ  provide  the  margin  of  safety  against  such  inckloits  in  his 
dbppsitions,  and  thus  kriejsspid,  even  in  the  domain  of  general 
tactics,  b  of  invaluable  assistance  as  a  means  of  applying  sound 
principles,  learned  in  other  ways,  to  concrete 


WABGLA.  a  town  in  the  Algerian  Sahara,  175  m.  SW  of 
Biskra  on  the  caravan  route  to  the  Niger  countries,  and  a  startin§- 


point  for  the  exploration  of  the  southern  patt  Of  tbfe  Saliara. 
Pop.  (1906)  3579,  the  majority  of  mixed  Berber  and  negro  hlood 
The  town  is  walled  and  b  entered  by  six  gateways,  which  are 
fortified.  The  French  fort,  barracks,  hospital  and  other  buildings 
are  south  of  the  native  town.  Wargla  lies  in  an  oasb  contaialng 
many  palm  trees.  It  claims  to  be  the  oldest  town  in  the  Sahara, 
and  was  for  a  lon|;  time  self-governing,  but  eventually  placed 
itself  under  the  protection  of  the  sultan  of  Morocco.  The  niltan, 
however,  had  ceased  to  have  any  powo*  in  the  town  some  time 
previous  to  the  French  occupation.  Wargla  was  first  occi4>ied 
for  the  French  in  1853  by  native  allies,  but  it  was  not  until  1872 
that  the  authority  of  France  was  definitely  established.  The 
importance  of  the  town  as  a  trans-Saharan  trade  centre  has 
greatly  declined  since  the  suppression  of  slave-trading  by  the 
FrencL  The  oasis  in  which  Wargla  b  situated  contains  two  or 
three  other  small  fortified  ksurs  or  villagesi  the  largest  and  most 
picturesqae  being  Ruissat.  The  total  population  of  the  oasis 
b  about  X  3,000. 

WARHAM.  WILUAM  (c  1450-1532),  archbishop  of  Canter- 
buxy,  belonged  to  a  Hampshire  family,  and  was  educated  at 
Winchester  and  New  Collegei  Oxford,  afterwards  practising  and 
teaching  law  both  in  London  and  Oicford.  Later  he  took  holy 
orders,  held  two  livings,  and  became  master  of  the  roUs  in  1494, 
while  Henry  VIL  found  him  a  useful  and  clever  diplomatist. 
He  helped  to  arrange  the  marriage  between  Henry's  son,  Arthur, 
and  Catherine  of  Aragpn;  he  went  to  Scotland  with  Richard 
Foxe,  then  bishop  of  Durham,  in  1497}  and  he  was  partly 
responsible  for  several  commercial  and  other  treaties  with 
Flanders,  Burgundy  and  the  German  king,  Maximilian  L  In 
Z502  Warham  was  consecrated  bishop  of  London  and  became 
keeper  of  the  great  seal,  but  hb  tenure  of  both  these  offices  was 
short,  as  in  1504  he  became  lord  chancellor  and*  archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  In  1509  the  archbishop  married  and  then  crowned 
Henry  VIII.  and  Catherine  of  Aragon,  but  gradually  withdrawing 
into  the  background  he  resigned  the  office  of  lord  chancellor  In 
1515,  and  was  succeeded  by  Wolsey,  whom  he  had  consecrated 
as  bishop  of  Lincohi  in  the  previous  year.  Thb  resignation  was 
possibly  due  to  hb  dislike  of  Henry's  foreign  policy.  He  was 
preset  at  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  in  1520,  and  assisted 
Wolsey  as  assessor  during  the  secret  inquiry  into  the  validity  of 
Henry's  marriage  with  Catherine  in  1527.  Throughout  the 
divorce  proceedings  Warham's  position  was  cssenUally  that  of 
an  old  and  weary  man.  He  was  named  as  one  of  the  ootmseUors 
to  assbt  the  queen,  but,  fearing  to  incur  the  king's  dbpleasure 
and  using  hb  favourite  phrase  ira  printipis  mors  tsi,  he  gave  her 
very  little  help;  and  he  signed  the  letter  to  Clement  VU.  which 
urged  the  pope  to  assent  to  Henry's  wbh.  Afterwards  it  was 
proposed  that  the  archbishop  himself  should  try  the  case,  but  this 
suggestion  came  to  nothing;  He  presided  over  the  Convocation 
of  153Z  when  the  clergy  of  the  province  of  Canterbury  voted 
£100,000  to  the  king  in  order  to  avoid  the  penalties  of  praemunire, 
and  accepted  Henxy  as  supreme  head  of  the  church  with  the 
saving  clause  '*  so  far  as  the  law  of  Christ  allows.'*  In  hb  con- 
cluding years,  however,  the  archbishop  showed  rather  more 
independence.  In  Februaiy  153a  he  protested  against  all  acts 
concerning  the  church  passed  by  the  parliament  which  met  in 
X529,  but  thb  did  not  prevent  the  important  proceedings  which 
aeciued  the  complete  submission  of  the  church  to  the  state  later 
in  the  same  year.  Against  thb  further  compliance  with  Henry'a 
wishes  Warham  drew  up  a  protest;  he  likened  the  action  of  Hcniy 
Vin.  to  that  of  Henry  IL,  and  urged  Magna  Carta  in  defence 
of  the  liberties  of  the  church.  He  died  on  the  sand  of  August 
X  53  2  and  was  buried  in  Canterbury  cathedral.  Warham,  who  was 
chancellor  of  Oxford  University  from  X506  until  his  death,  was 
munificent  in  hb  public,  and  moderate  in  hb  private  life.  As 
archbishop  he  seems  to  have  been  somewhat  arbitrary,  and  his 
action  led  to  a  serious  quarrd  with  Bishop  Foxe  of  Winchester 
and  others  in  15x2. 

See  W  F.  Hook.  Ltoes  ofihe  A  rckbuhops  of  Canterburj  (i860'i 876) ; 
J   Gairdner  in  Did.  Nai.  Btog.,  vol.  fix.  (1899).  and  The  Enptsh 


"Cknrdk  in  the  i6lh  Century  {C902).  J    S   Brewer.  Reipt  0/  Henry 
_V1II.  OM4):  a»l  A.  F.  PbUaid*  Oemry  YJIL  (1905) 


3*6 


WARKWORTH— WARNER,  O.  L. 


VABKWOBTB.  a  tmafl  town  In  the  Wtnsbeck  parliamoitaiy 
liivisioB  of  Northumberland,  ^ni^and,  3  a  m.  N.  of  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne  by  the  Nonh-Eastem  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  71a. 
It  is  IxantifuUy  situated  in  a  hollow  of  the  river  Coquet,  x|  m. 
above  its  mouth,  where  on  the  S.  bank  b  Amble,  an  urban 
dtstnct  (pop.  4428),  with  a  harbour.  An  andent  bridge  of  two 
arches  crosses  the  river,  with  a  fortified  gateway  on  the  road 
mounting  to  the  castle,  the  «te  ot  which  is  surrounded  on  three 
rides  by  the  rivor.  Of  this  Norman  strm^iold  there  are  fine 
remains,  inclqding  walls,  a  gateway,  and  hall,  while  the  re- 
mainder, including  the  Lien  tower  and  the  keep,  is  of  the  x3th 
and  X4th  centuries.  Roger  Fits-Richard  held  the  manor  and 
probably  built  the  earliest  pakts  of  the  castle  in  the  rognr  of 
Houy  IL  The  lordihip  came  to  the  Perries  hi  Edward  III 's 
niga  and  b  still  held  by  tlMir  descendants  the  dukes  of  North- 
umberiand,  though  it  passed  from  them  temporarily  after  the 
capture  of  the  castle  by  Henry  IV.  in  1405,  and  agsm  <m  the 
fall  of  the  house  of  Lancaster.  The  foundadon  of  Warkworth 
church  is  attributed  to  Ceolwulf,  king  of  Northumbria  (e  736), 
who  subsequently  became  a  m<»ik.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  massacre 
by  a  Scottish  force  sent  by  William  the  Lion  in  x  x  74.  The  church 
is  principally  of  Norman  and  Peipendicular  work,  but  remains 
of  the  Saxon  biiilding  have  been  discovered.  In  the  vicinity 
are  remains  oi  a  Benedictine  priory  of  the  X3th  century.  By  the 
side  of  the  Coquet  above  the  csstle  is  the  Hermitage  of  Wark- 
woxth.  This  remarkable  relic  consists  of  an  outer  portion  built 
of  stone,  and  an  ixmer  portion  hewn  from  the  steep  rock  above 
the  river.  This  inner  part  comprises  a  chapd  and  a  smaller 
chambtf,  both  having  altars.  There  is  an  sltar-tomb  with  a 
femsle  eflB|^  in  the  chapeL  From  the  window  between  the 
inner  chamber  and  the  diapd,  and  from  other  details,  the  date 
of  the  woriL  m^  be  placed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  X4th  centuiy, 
the  characteristics  being  late  Decorated.  The  traditional  Story 
of  the  origin  of  the  hermitage,  attributing  It  to  one  of  the 
Bertrams  of  Bothal  Castle  in  this  county,  is  told  in  Bishop 
Percy's  ballad  The  Hermit  4if  Warkworth  (1771).  At  Amble  are 
ruins  of  a  nuMutftic  toll-house,  where  a  tax  was  levied  on  shipping; 
and  Coquet  Island,  i  m.  off  the  mouth  of  the  river,  was  a 
monastic  resort  from  the  earliest  times,  like  the  Fame  and  Holy 
Islands  farther  north.  The  harbour  at  Amble  has  an  export 
trade  in  ooal  and  bricks,  coal  and  fireclay  being  extensively 
worked  in  the  neighbourlK)od,  and  an  import  trade  in  timber. 

WARLOCK,  a  wizard,  sorcerer  or  magician  (see  Maoic).  The 
word  in  O.  &ig.  is  wAHofa^  literally  "a  liar  against  the  truth," 
from  mir,  truth,  cognate  with  Lat.  vtrum  (cf.  Ger.  woAr),  and 
loga,  liar,  from  Uogon^  to  He  (cf.  Ger.  lUgen).  It  was  thus  used 
with  the  meaning  of  a  traitor,  deceiver,  a  breaker,  of  a  truce. 
In  M.  Eng.  It  is  found  as  a  name  for  the  devH  {worhgke)^  the  arch 
liar  and  deceiver.  The  use  of  the  word  for  a  sorcerer  or  wlsard, 
one  whose  magic  powen  are  gained  by  his  league  with  the  devO, 
seems  to  be  a  northern  English  or  Scottish  use. 

WARHINBTRR,  a  market  town  in  the  Westbury  pariia- 
mentary  division  of  Wiltshire,  England,  100}  ra.  W.  by  S.  of  Lon- 
don by  the  Great  Western  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  dotrict  (1901) 
SS47  Its  white  stone  houses  form  a  long  curve  between  the 
uplands  of  SaBsbury  Plain,wfaich  sweep  away  towards  the  north 
and  east,  and  the  tract  of  park  and  meadow  land  lying  south  and 
west.  The  crodform  church  of  St  Denys  has  a  X4th-century 
south  porch  and  tower.  St  Lawrence's  chapel,  a  chantry  built 
under  Edward  I.,  was  bought  by  the  townsfolk  at  the  Reforma- 
tion. Warminster  has  also  a  free  school  established  in  X707,  a 
mimionary  college,  a  training  home  for  lady  missionaries  and 
a  teformatory  for  boys*  Beiides  a  sflk  mill,  malthouses  apd 
engineering  and  agrictdtural  hnplement  worics,  Uiere  is  a  brisk 
ftade  in  farm  produce. 

Warminster  a|^>ean  in  Domesday,  and  was  a  royal  manor 
wlKMe  tenant  was  bound  to  provide,  when  requhed,  a  night's 
lodging  for  the  king  and  his  retinue.  This  privilege  was  enforced 
by  George  m.  when  he  visited  Loosest.  The  meeting  of  roads 
from  Bgtk,  Frome,  Shaftesbury  and  Salisbury  made  Wamunster 
a  busy  onarhing  centre  Eastward,  within  2  m.,  there  are  two 
great   British  camps:  Battleabuiyb  almioat  impre^iable  save 


on  the  north,  where  its  entrendimentt  tie  double;  and  Scimtch- 
bury,  a  line  of  outworics  endrcUng  an  area  of  some  40  acres, 
with  three  entrances  and  a  dtadd  in  the  midst  Bairowa  are 
numerous.  Longleat,  a  seat  of  the  marquesses  of  Bath,  lies  5  m. 
S.E.,  surrounded  by  its  deer  park,  crossed  from  N.  to  S.  by  a  looy 
and  narrow  mere.  The  house  i^  one  of  the  largest  and  nsost 
beautiful  examples  in  the  county,  dating  from  the  dose  of  the 
x6th  century.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  "  leat "  or  conduit 
which  conveyed  water  from  Homingsham,  about  x  m.  south,  to 
supply  the  mil]  and  Austin  priory  founded  here  bte  in  the 
X3th  century  The  monastic  estates  passed  at  the  Dissohxtioa  to 
the  Thynne  family,  who  built  Longleat.  Sir  Chrbtopher  Wren 
added  oertidn  staircases  and  a  doorway.  In  1670  the  owner 
was  the  celebrated  Thomas  Thynne  satirised  m  Dryden's 
Absahm  and  Ackilopkd,  and  Bbhop  Ken  found  a  home  at 
Longleat  for  twenty  years  after  the  loss  of  his  bishopric. 

WARNER,     CHARLES    DUDLEY    (1829- xgoo),    Ameticaa 
essayist  and  novelist,  waa  bom  of  Puritan  anoestiy,  in  plainfield, 
MaMachusetts,  on  the  xath  of  September  1829.   From  his  sxth 
to  his  fourteenth  year  he  lived  in  Charlemont,  Mass.,  the  scene 
of  the  experiences  pictured  in  his  delightful  study  of  childhood. 
Being  a  Boy  (1877).    He  removed  thence  to  Caaeno'via,  New 
York,  and  in  x8sx  graduated  from  Hamilton  Cdlege,  ntt^tftn, 
N  Y.    He  worked  with  a  surveying  party  in  Missouri;  studied 
law  at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania;  practised  in  Chioi|9 
(1856-1860);  was  assistant  editor  (x86o)  and  editor  (z8tfr- 
X867)  of  Tke  Hartford  Press,  and  after  The  Press  was  naosed 
into  Tke  Hartford  Courant,  was  co-editor  with  Joseph  R.  Hawky; 
in  1884  he  joined  the  editorial  staff  of  Harper's  Magantti^  for 
which  he  conducted  "  The  Editor's  Drawer  "  until  J899,  when 
he  took  chaige  of  **  The  Editor's  Study."   He  died  hi  Hartfbid 
on  the  3oth  of  October  1900.    He  travelled  widely,  lectured 
frequently,  and  was  actively  interested  in  prison  reform,  dty 
park  supervision  and  other  movements  for  the  public  good. 
He  was  the  first  president  of  the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and 
Letters,  and,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  was  praident  of  the 
American  Social  Sdence  Association.    He  fint  attracted  atten- 
tion by  the  reflective  sketches  entitled  liy  Summer  in  a  Gtrdem 
(1870;  first  published  in  Tke  Hartford  Courant),  popular  for 
their  abounding  and  refined  humour  and  mellow  personal  duutti, 
their  wholesome  love  of  out-door  things,  thdr  suggestive  commeBt 
on  life  and  affairs,  and  thdr  delicatdy  fimshed  style,  qualities 
that  suggest  the  work  of  Wasldngton  Irving.    Among  his  othtf 
works  are  Saunterings  (descriptions  of  travel  In  eastern  Europe^ 
X87O  and  Back-Log  Studies  (X872);  Baddeck,  and  Tkat-Sert  ef 
Thing (1874),  travels  in  Nova  Scotia  and  elsewhere;  My  Wtttter 
on  tke  Nile  (1876);  In  tke  Levant  (1876);  In  tke  Wilderness 
(1878);  A  Roundabout  Journey,  in  Europe  (1885);  On  Horseback, 
in  the  Southern  Sutcs  (1888);  Studies  in  the  South  and  Wast, 
with  Comments  on  Canada  (1889);  Our  Italy,  southern  Califonna 
(t89i),  Tke  Relation  of  Literature  to  Life  (X896);  Tke  PeafU 
for  Whom  Shakespeare  Wrote  (1897);  and  Faskions  in  Literature 
( 1 902).   He  also  edited  "  The  American  Men  of  Letten  "  series, 
to  which  he  contributed  an  excdlent  biography  of  Waskingtou 
Irving  (1881),  and  edited  a  large  **  Ubraxy  of  the  WoiM*^  Best 
Literature."    His  other  works  indude  hb  graceful  essays.  As 
We  Were  Saying  (iSgi)  and  As  We  Go  (1893);  and  his  noveb» 
The  Gilded  Age  (in  ooUaboration  with  Mark  T^irain,  1873); 
Tkeir  Pilgnmage  (x886);  A  UtOe  Journey  in  tke  World  (X889); 
Tke  Golden  House  (1894) ;  and  Tkat  Fortune  (1889). 

See  the  biographical  sketch  hy  T.  R.  Lounabury  in  the  CamfUte 
Writings  (15  vols.,  Hartford,  1904)  of  Warner. 

WARNER,  OUK  LEVI  (x844-x896)>  American  scdptor,  was 
bom  at  West  Suffidd,  Connecticut,  on  the  9th  of  April  1844. 
In  turn  an  artkan  and  a  tdegraph  operator,  by  1869  he  had 
earned  enouj^  money  to  support  him  through  a  course  of  study 
in  Paris  under  Jouffroy  and  Carpeaux.  He  was  in  France  when 
the  Repubb'c  was  prodalmed  In  1870  and  enlisted  in  the  Foxdgn 
Legion,  resuming  his  studies  at  the  termination  of  the  dege. 
In  187s  he  removed  to  New  York,  where,  however,  he  met  with 
little  success;  he  then  went  to  his  fother^  farm  in  Vermont* 
and  worked  for  manulactnitn  of  sflver  and  plated  wait  uwcD 


WARNER,  S.— WARRANT 


327 


as  makcn  of  mantel  onaments.  He  attracted  the  attentkm  of 
Daniel  Cottier,  of  the  Cottier  Art  Galleries  of  New  York,  where 
Warner's  work  was  exhibited,  and  some  commissions  gradually 
secured  for  him  recognition.  They  were  folbwed  by  busts  of 
Mden  Weir,  the  artist,  and  of  Maud  Morgan,  the  musician; 
some  decorations  for  the  Long  Island  Historical  Society;  statues 
of  Governor  Buckingham  at  the  Sute  Capitol,  Hartford,  Conn.; 
WiUiam  Lloyd  Garrison  and  General  Charles  Devens,  at  Boston; 
reliefs  of  several  striking  North  American  Indian  types,  a 
fountain  for  Portland,  Oregon,  and  the  designs  for  the  bronze 
doors,  "Tradition"  and  "Writing,"  of  the  Congressional 
Library  at  Washington,  of  which  he  lived  to  complete  only  the 
former,  which  contains  the  beautiful  figures  of  "  Imagination  " 
and  "  Memory."  Warner  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  Z4th 
of  August  1896.  He  was  one  of  the  five  charter  members  of  the 
Society  of  American  Artists  (1877),  and  in  1889  became  an 
academician,  National  Academy  of  Design,  New  York.  One  of 
his  best-known  works  is  a  "  Diana."  He  designed  the  souvenir 
silver  half-doUar  piece  for  the  Columbia  Fair  at  Chicago,  in  1893, 
making  also  some  colossal  heads  of  great  artists  for  the  art  palace, 
and  busts  of  Governors  Clinton  and  Flower,  of  New  York  State. 

WARNER,  SEtH  (i743->i784)«  American  Revolutiooary 
soldier,  was  bom  in  Roxbury,  Connectirat,  on  the  17th  of  May 
X743.  He  removed  with  hU  father  to  the  "  New  Hampshire 
Grants"  in  1763,  and  became  prominent  among  the  ymmg  men 
who  forcibly  resisted  New  York's  claim  to  the  territory  (see 
Vermont).  At  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  Independence,  he 
led  the  detachment  of  "  Green  Mountain  Boys  "  which  captured 
Crown  Point  {q.v.)  on  the  nth  of  May  1775,  and  took  part  in  the 
unsuccessful  expedition  against  Quebec  later  in  t  be  year  In  July 
1776  he  became  colonel  in  the  Continental  Army,  and  served 
throughout  the  war.  He  retired  in  1782,  and  returned  to 
Roxbury,  where  he  died  in  1784. 

See  Dantd  Chipman.  Life  (Burlington.  Vt.,  1858). 

WARHER,  WILUAM  (i558?-i6o9),  EngUsh  poet,  was 
bom  in  London  about  1558.  He  was  educated  at  Magdalen 
I^U,  Oxford,  but  leU  the  university  without  taking  a  degree 
He  practised  in  London  as  an  attorney,  and  gained  a  great 
reputation  among  his  contemporaries  as  a  poet.  His  chief 
work  is  a  long  poem  in  fourteen-syllabled  verse,  entitled  Album's 
Engfand  (1586),  and  dedicated  to  Henry  Carey,  ist  Baton 
Hiffisdon.  His  history  of  lus  country  begins  with  Noah,  and  Is 
brought  down  to  Warner's  own  time.  The  chronicle  is  by  no 
means  continuous,  and  is  varied  by  fictitious  episodes,  the  best 
known  of  which  is  the  idyll  in  the  fourth  book  of  the  loves 
of  Argentille,  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Deira,  and  the  Danish 
prince,  Curan.  Here  Warner's  ^rople  art  shows  itself  at  its  best. 
His  book,  perhaps  on  account  of  its  patriotic  subject,  was  very 
popiUar,  but  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  Francis  Meres  came 
to  rank  him  with  Spenser  as  the  chief  heroical  poeu  of  the  day, 
and  to  institute  a  comparison  between  him  and  Euripides. 
Warner  died  suddenly  at  Amwell  in  Hertfordshire  on  the  9th 

of  March  1609. 

His  other  works  are  Pan  his  Syrinx,  or  Fife,  Compoct  ef  Seven 
lUedes  (1585),  a  collection  of  proee  tales;  ancf  «  translation  of  the 
Menaechmi  of  Plautus  (1595).  Albion's  Engfand  consisted  ori|inally 
of  four  "  books,"  but  the  number  was  increased  in  successive  issues, 
and  a  posthumous  edition  (i6ia)  contains  sixteen  books.  It  was 
reprinted  (1810)  in  Alexander  Chalmers's  English  Peels. 

WARNSOORF,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  Austria,  124  m.  N.E.  of 
Prague  by  rail  Pop.  (1900)  21,150.  Warasdorf  was  formed 
in  X870  by  uniting  seven  separate  village  communities,  and  is 
now  one  of  the  largest  towns  in  Bohemia.  It  is  a  great  industrial 
centre,  especially  for  textiles. 

WARORA*  a  town  of  British  India,  in  Chanda  district  of 
the  Central  Provinces,  on  a  branch  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula 
railway.  Pop.  (1901)  xo,626.  Warora  gives  its  name  to  a 
coalfield,  which  was  worked  by  the  government  from  187 1  to 
1906;  a  fire-clay  industry  under  the  same  management  also 
raised  fire-clay  for  bricks  and  tiles.  The  ginning  and  pressing 
of  cotton  is  an  important  industry. 

WARRANT  (Med.  Lat.  warantum;  0.  Fr.  garant,  worani, 
dnived  from  O.H.G.  root  represented  in  modem  German  by 


geititkren),  fai  English  law,  an  authority  in  writing  empowering 
a  person  to  do  an  act  or  to  execute  an  office.  The  procedure 
known  as  quo  warranto  (g.v.)  is  used  to  determine  the  nght 
to  hold  certain  kinds  of  public  office.  The  term  '*  warrant " 
occurs  very  early  in  constitutional  documents;  it  is  found  in  the 
Assise  of  Ckrendon  and  the  Assize  of  the  Forest,  both  in  the 
reign  oi  Henry  II.,  but  in  neither  case  in  its  modem  meaning. 
The  original  meaning  seems  to  have  been  more  akin  to  guarantee 
(q.9.)t  warranty  or  security;  and  to  scnne  extent  the  term 
impUes  somethhig  in  the  nature  oi  a  guarantee  or  representation 
by  the  person  issuing  the  warrant  thai  the  person  who  acts  on 
it  can  do  so  without  mcuning  a^y  legal  penalty  The  term  is 
applied  to  a  great  variety  of  doctunents  of  very  different  kinds, 
which  may  be  classified  as  (i)  executive  or  administrative,  (2) 
judicial  or  quasi-Judicial  and  (3)  financial  or  commercial. 

1  Executtoe  and  Admtnutratioe. — ^While  the  royal  prerogative  was 
insufficiently  defined  and  limited,  a  great  many  executive  acts  wrre 
authorized  dv  royal  warrant  (per  spectale  mandatum  regis),  whirh 
now  either  depend  on  statute  or  are  dealt  with  by  dcpanments 
of  state  without  the  need  of  recourae  to  the  personal  authority  of 
the  sovereign.  Under  present  constitutional  practice  royal  warrants 
are  as  a  general  rule  counteragned  by  a  member  of  the  cabinet  or 
other  responsible  officer  of  state.  By  an  act  of  1435  (18  Hen.  V! 
c.  1)  letters  patent  under  the  great  seal  must  bear  the  date  of  the 
royal  warrant  delivered  to  the  chancellor  for  their  issue  This  act 
stul  applies  to  all  patents,  except  for  inventions.  The  form  and 
countersignature  of  warrants  for  affixing  the  great  seal  is  regulated 
by  the  Great  Seal  Act  1 884.  Pardon,  which  was  granted  for  centuries 
onlybyletterspatent  under  the  great  seal,  has  nnce  1827  in  England 
and  1838  in  Ireland  been  giantM  in  case  of  felony  by  warrant  under 
the  royal  sign  manual  countersigned  by  a  secRtaiy  of  state  (7  &  8 
Gea  (V  c.  x8,  s.  13,  9  Gea  IV.  c.  54*  *>  )3)  Tiie  prerogative  of 
the  crown  with  reference  to  the  control  01  the  navy  and  army  b 
largely  exercised  by  tlie  issue  of  warrants.  In  1871  the  purchase  of 
commissions  in  the  army  was  abolished  by  royal  warrant,  said  to 
have  been  authorized  by  statute  (49  Geo.  111.  c  ia6),  but  afterwards 
confinned  by  parliament  (34  &  35  vict.  c.  86).  Under  existing  legis- 
lation for  the  government  m  the  military  forces  of  the  crown  royal 
warrants  are  used  to  form  army  corps,  to  deal  with  certain  details 
as  to  pay  and  regimental  debts,  and  with  the  militia  and  reserve 
forces.  The  convocation  of  naval  courts-martial  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  judge-advocate  and  provost-marshal  at  such  court  is  by 
wamnt  of  the  Admiralty^  or  of  the  officer  on  foreign  or  detached 
service  who  by  his  oommisston  is  entitled  to  convene  such  a  court 
(see  Naval  Discipline  Act  1866,  n,  58;  Army  Act  i8f(i,  s.  179). 
A  general  court-martial  for  the  army  is  constituted  by  royal  wamnt 
or  convened  by  an  officer  authorised  to  convene  such  court,  or  hia 
lawful  delegate  (Army  Act  1881.  s.  48).  Appointments  to  certain 
offices  under  the  crown  are  made  by  warrant  of  the  king  or  of  the 
appropriate  department  of  state.  In  the  navy  and  arm^f  the 
omcers  called  warrant  officersare  so  styled  because  they  are  appointed 
by  warrant  and  do  not  bold  commissions.  In  1602  the  censorship  of 
the  stage  was  committed  to  the  poet  Daniel  by  royal  warrant  (see 
Theatre),  and  certain  tradesmen  to  the  court  are  described  as 
"  warrant  holders,"  because  of  the  mode  of  their  appointment. 
Abuses  of  claims  to  this  distinction  are  punishable  (Merchandise 
Marks  Act  1887,  s.  20^  Patents  Act  1883,  s.  107).  Warrants  under 
the  royal  sign  manual  are  subject  to  a  ten-shilling  stamp  duty 
(Stamp  Act  1891).  The  issue  of  warrants  under  the  hand  of  a 
secretary  of  state,  so  far  as  they  affect  personal  liberty,  depends 
in  every  case  on  statute,  e.g.  as  to  the  surrender  of  fugitive  criminals 
(Extradition),  or  the  deportation  of  undearable aliens  (see  Auen), 
or  the  bringing  up  prisoners  as  witnesses  in  courts  of  justice.  The 
right  of  a  secretary  of  state  or  the  lord-licutcnant  in  Ireland  by 
express  warrant  in  writing  to  detain  or  open  lettera  in  the  post 
ofnce  was  recognized  by  oraers  in  council  and  proclamations  in  the 
17th  century  and  by  various  post  office  acts,  and  is  retained  in  the 
Post  Office  Act  1836  (s.  25).  The  right  wax  challenged,  but  was 
finally  established  hy  the  repents  of  committees  of  ooth  Houses 
appointed  in  1844  on  a  complaint  by  Mazzini  and  others  that  Sir 
fames  Graham,  then  home  secretary,  had  opened  their  letters. 
It  was  exercised  as  recently  as  1881  over  the  letten  of  persona 
suspected  of  treasonable  correspondence  in  Ireland.  The  warrant 
of  a  law  officer  of  the  crown  for  sealing  letters  patent  forinventions 
(necessary  under  the  old  patent  law)  has  been  superseded  by  other 
procedure  since  the  Patents  Act  1883. 

2  Judicial  and  Quasi-Judicial  Warrants.— Vnltn  a  statute 
otherwise  provides  a  judicial  warrant  must  be  in  writing  under  the 
seal,  if  any,  of  the  court,  or  under  the  hand  and  (or)  seal  of  the 
functiona'rywho  grants  it.  Committal  for  breach  of  pnvilege  of  the 
House  of  Commons  is  by  warrant  of  the  Speaker.  During  the  Tudor 
and  Stuart  reigns  frequent  attempts  ffere  made  by  the  crown  and 
gteat  officers  of  state  to  interfere  with  personal  liberty,  especially 
at  to  offences  of  state.  The  legality  of  these  prooeedinjp  was 
challenged  by  the  judges  in  Elizabeth's  reign.  On  the  abolition  of 
the  Star  Chamber  ft  was  enacted  <« ^  Car.  1.  c.  10)  that  if  any  perwm 


328 


WARRANT  OF  ATTORNEY 


be  impriioned  by  warrant  of  the  king  in  peraon,  of  the  council 
board,  or  any  of  the  privy  council,  he  is  entitled  to  a  writ  oC  habeas 
corpus,  and  the  courts  may  examine  into  the  legality  of  the  cause  of 
detention.  This  enactment, and  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  1679.  put 
an  end  to  the  interference  of  the  executive  with  matters  bebngtng 
to  the  judicature:  but  until  1763  there  survived  a  practice  by 
which  a  secretary  of  state  issued  warrants  to  arrest  individuab  for 
state  offences,  and  to  search  or  seize  the  books  and  papers  of  the 
accused.  The  latter  practice  was  examined  and  declared  illegal  in 
Che  famous  case  of  Eniick  v.  Carringfon  (19  How.  St.  Tr.  1030). 
All  privy  councillors  are  included  in  the  commission  of  the  peace 
for  every  county.  The  council  itself  is  said  to  have  power  to  issue 
warrants  of  arrest  for  hieh  treason,  but  the  power,  if  it  exists, 
is  in  abeyance  in  England.  The  special  powers  given  to  the  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1881  (44  &  4S  Vict.  c.  5)  expired  in  1906. 
As  4  result  of  the  gradual  restriction  of  the  royal  prerogative,  the 
term  warrant  has  come  in  modern  times  oftenest  to  be  used  of 
documents  issuing  from  courts  of  justice.  Few  documents  issuing 
from  the  superior  courts  are  called  warrants.  In  those  courts  writs 
and  orders  are  more  generally  used.  In  courts  of  record  whkh  try 
indiaments  a  "  bench  warrant "  is  sometimes  used  for  the  arrest  of 
an  absent  defendant,  but  the  word  warrant  has  for  judicial  purposes 
become  most  closely  associated  with  the  jurisdiction  of  justices  of 
the  peace.  As  a  general  rule  no  one  can  be  arrested  without  wanant. 
To  this  rule  there  are  certain  exceptions  either  at  conunon  law  or 
by  statute.  At  common  law  a  justice  of  the  peace,  a  sheriff,  a 
coroner,  a  constable  and  even  a  private  person,  may  arrest  any  one 
without  warrant  for  a  treason,  felony  or  breach  of  the  peace  com- 
mitted, or  attempted  to  be  committed,  in  his  presence.  A  constable 
(whether  a  constable  at  common  Uw  or  a  police  constable  appointed 
under  the  Police  Acts)  may  arrest  a  person  indkted  for  felony;  a 
constable  or  a  private  person  may  arrest  on  reasonable  suspicbn 
that  he  who  is  arrested  has  committed  a  felony.  But  in  the  latter 
case  he  does  so  at  his  peril,  for  he  most  prove  (what  the  constable 
need  not)  that  there  has  been  an  actual  commission  of  the  crime 
by  some  one,  as  well  as  a  reasonable  ground  for  suM)ccting  the 
particular  penon.  What  is  a  reasonable  ground  it  is  of  course  im- 
possible to  define,  but,  in  the  case  of  a  constable,  a  chaise  by  aperson 
not  manifestly  unworthy  of  credit  is  genenlly  regarded  as  sufficient. 
An  accused  person  who  nas  been  bailed  may  be  arrested  by  his  bail, 
and  the  police  may  assist  in  the  arrest.  In  neither  case  is  a  warrant 
necessary.  Nor  is  it  necessary  for  the  apprehension  of  one  against 
whom  the  hue  and  cry  is  raised.  The  kuur  cannot  arrest  in  person 
or  by  veihai  command,  as  no  action  would  ue  against  him  for  wrong- 
ful arrest.  Statutory  powers  of  arrest  without  warrant  are  given  to 
both  oon^bles  andpnvate  persons  by  many  statutes,  «.g.  the  Night 
Poaching  Act  1828,  certain  of  the  Criminal  Xaw  Consolidation  Acts 
of  1861,  the  Prevention  of  Crime  Act  1871  and  PoIkc  Acts.  In 
those  cases  in  which  arrest  without  wanant  is  illegal  or  is  found 
inexpedient,  information  in  writing  o^  on  oath  is  laid  before  a  justice 
of  the  peace  setting  forth  the  nature  of  the  offence  charged  and  to 
some  extent  the  nature  of  the  evidence  implicating  the  accused; 
and  upon  this  information,  if  sufficient  in  the  opinion  of  the  justice 
a{>plled  to,  he  Issues  his  warrant  for  the  arrest  of  the  person  in- 
criminated. The  wanant,  if  issued  by  a  competent  court  as  to  a 
matter  over  which  it  has  jurisdictbn,  oecomes  a  judicial  authority 
to  the  person  who  executes  it,  and  resistance  to  «uch  a  warrant  is  a 
criminal  offence.  The  possession  of  a  i^al  wanant  by  a  peace  officer 
on  arrest  is  of  great  importance  in  determining  whether  a  person 
resisting  apprehension  is  justified  or  not  in  his  resistance  Should 
the  ofltoer  attempt  to  apprehend  him  on  a  warrant  manifestly 
illegal  on  its  face,  or  without  a  warrant  in  a  case  where  a  warrant  is 
necessary,  and  be  killed  in  the  attempt,  the  killing  would  prol»bly  be 
held  to  be  manslauzhter  and  not  murder.    Before  bringing,  an  action 

Sainst  constables  tor  allesed  illegal  arrest  under  a  justKe^s  warrant 
e  complainant  must  apply  for  theperuaaland  a  copy  of  the  warrant 
(24  Geo.  11.  c.  44,  8.  6;  Pollock,  Torts,  6th  ed.,  117^.  Entry  upon 
the  land  or  seizure  of  propeny  cannot  as  a  rule  be  justified  except 
under  judicial  warrant.  The  only  common  law  warrant  of  this  kind 
M  the  seardi  warrant,  which  may  be  granted  for  the  purpose  of 
searching  for  stolen  goods.  Special  powers  for  issuing  such  warrants 
are  given  by  the  Armv,  Merchant  Shipping,  Customs,  Pawnbrokers 
and  Stamp  Acts,  and  for  the  discovery  of  explosives  or  appliances 
for  coining  and  forgery.  The  Criminal  Law  Amendment  Act  1885 
allows  the  issue  of  search  warrants  where  it  is  suspected  that  a 
female  is  unlawfully  detained  for  immoral  purposes.  Execution  of 
the  decisions  of  a  court  of  summary  jurisdiction  is  secured  by  warrants, 
part  of  the  process  of  the  court,  such  as  warrants  of  distress  or 
commitment.  A  warrant  may  also  issue  for  the  apprdiension  of  a 
witness  whose  attendance  cannot  be  otherwise  assured.  The  forms 
of  warrants  used  by  justices  in  indictable  cascsare  scheduled  tothe 
Indicuble  Offences  Act  1848.  Those  used  for  summary  jurisdk:tion 
are  contained  in  the  Summary  Jurisdictbn  Rules  of  l88iS. 

As  a  general  rule,  warrants  must  be  executed  within  the  local 
jurisdiction  of  the  officer  who  issued  them.  Warrants,  ftc.*  issued 
by  a  judge  of  the  High  Court  run  through  England,  in  criminal  as 
well  as  in  dvil  cases:  and  the  same  rule  applies  as  to  courts  having 
banlcruptcy  jurisdiction.  The  warrants  ot  justices  of  the  petfoe  can 
be  executed  on  fresh  pursuit  within  7  m.  of  the  boundary  of  the 
jurisdKtkw,  and  if  property  backed  by  a  local  justioe  or  officer  ia 


any  other  part  of  the  BrUish  islands  (see  SumiAST  }uusBicTiasi). 
There  is  also  a  special  provision  as  to  executing  warrants  in  the  border 
counties  of  England  and  Scotland.  Under  the  Extradition  Acts 
and  Fugitive  Offenders  Act  1881  provision  is  made  for  the  issue  ct 
warrants  in  aid  of  foreign  and  colonial  justice,  but  the  foreign  and 
colonial  wanants  have  no  force  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  word  "  warrant  "  is  used  as  to  a  few  judicial  or  quasi-judicial 
matters  of  civil  concern.  e.(.  warrant  to  anest  a  ship  in  an  admiralty 
action  »r  rem:  and  in  the  county  courts  warrants  to  the  bailiffs  of 
the  court  are  used  where  in  the  High  Coun  a  writ  to  the  sheriff 
would  be  issued,  e.t.  for  attachment,  execution,  possession  and  de- 
livery (sec  County  Court  Rules,  1003,  scheduled  forms).  A  m-arrant 
of  distress  for  rent  issued  by  a  tandk>rd  to  a  bailiff  is  aometin-.es 
described  as  a  private  warrant,  but  it  is  in  reality  a  peculiar  quasi- 
judicial  remedy  derived  from  feudal  relations  between  lord  and 
vassal.  Arrest  in  civil  or  quasi-civil  proceedings  is  in  certain  cava 
effected  under  wanant,  e.g.  where  a  bankrupt  fails  to  obey  orders 
of  the  court  for  his  attendance  (Bankruptcy  Aa  1883,  s.  35).  and  in 
certain  cases  where  justices  have  summary  jurisdiction. 

Financial  and  Commercial. — Payment  out  of  the  treasury  b 
generally  made  upon  wanant.  Treasury  warrants  are  regulated  by 
many  of  the  acts  dealing  with  the  national  debt. 

Payment  of  dividends  by  trading  corporations  and  companies  is 
generally  made  by  means  of  dividend  wanants.    Mercantile  warrants 
are  instruments  giving  a  right  to  the  delivery  of  goods.  gcneralJy 
those  deposited  at  a  dock  or  warehouse,  and  by  mercantile  custom 
regarded  as  documents  of  title  to  the  goods  to  which  they  reUte: 
Tlvey  have  been  recognised  by  the  legislature,  enxcially  in  the 
Factora  Acts.    Thus  the  interpretatk>n  clause  of  the  Factors  Act 
1889  includes  under  the  head  of  documents  of  title,  dock  wanaurs 
and  warrants  for  the  delivery  of  goods,  and  a  fuller  definition  isgHcs 
by  s.  I II  of  the  Stamp  Act  1891.  which  imposes  on  such  docuaets 
a  stamp  duty  of  3d.    Warrants  of  attorney  are  instruments  autkne* 
in|(  an  attorneyto  appear  for  the  principal  in  an  actk>n  and  to  cnsest 
to  judgment.  They  must  now  be  attested  by  a  solicitor  and  regisusc<i 
in  the  Bill  of  Sale  Office  under  the  Debtors  Aa  1869.   They  are  nov 
little  used.    The  forgery  of  any  warrant  of  this  kind  or  of  aey 
endorsement  or  assignment  thereof  is  punishable  under  the  Forgcxy 
Act  1861. 

Scotland. — By  an.  xxiv.  of  the  Anidcs  of  Unioi\  royal  wanants 
were  to  continue  to  be  kept  as  before  the  union.  The  Secretary 
for  Scotland  Act  1885  enabled  the  crown  bv  royal  wanant  to  appoint 
the  secretary  to  be  vice-president  of  the  Scotch  Education  Depart- 
ment. The  lord  advocate's  warrant  runs  throughout  the  whole 
of  Scotland.  Warrants  issued  by  courts  qf  summary  jurisdiction 
agree  in  the  main  with  those  in  use  in  England,  though  their  names 
are  not  the  same  (see  Summary  Jurisdiction).  There  are  numerous 
statutory  provisions  as  to  warrants  of  other  kinds.  By  the  Debtors 
(Scotland)  Act  1838  (1  &  2  Vict.  c.  1 14)  wanants  for  dingence.  and  to 
charge  the  debtor  under  pain  of  imprisonment,  may  be  inserted  in 
an  extract  of  decree;  and  in  a  summons  concluding  for  payment  of 
money  a  warrant  to  arrest  the  movables,-  4ebts  and  money  of  the 
defender  may  be  included.  By  the  Court  of  Session  Act  1868  (3 1  &  3a 
Vict.  c.  100)  a  warrant  of  inhibition  may  be  inserted  in  the  will  of 
a  summons.  A  crown  writ  is  a  warrant  for  infeftment  (31  ^  33 
Vict.  c.  101).  The  same  act  gives  forms  of  warrants  of  registration. 
The  procedure  of  the  sherin  court  in  its  civil  jurisdiction  as  to 
warrants  of  citation  is  regulated  by  the  Sheriff  Courts  (Scotland)  Act 
1907  (7  Edw.  VI 1.  c.  ^  I ).  The  practice  as  to  warrants  of  citation  and 
commitment  in  the  High  Court  of  Justiciary  and  the  sheriff  court 
in  its  criminal  jurisdiction  now  depends  cniefly  on  the  Criminal 
Procedure  Act  1887  (50  &  51  Vict.  c.  ^5).  The  meditatio  J^tae 
warrant  is  a  judicial  warrant  on  which  imprisonment  may  follow 
until  the  debtor  give  cautio  judicio  sisti.  It  corresponds  to  some 
extent  to  the  writ  ne  exeat  regno  of  English  practice,  but  it  may  be 
issued  by  a  sheriff  (1  &  a  Vict.  c.  119,  s.  25).    Another  kind  of 

t'udicial  warrant  is  a  border  warrant  for  anesting  a  debtor  on  the 
Sngtidi  side  of  the  border.  The  warrant  of  attorney  is  not  known 
in  Scotland,  its  place  being  taken  by  the  clause  of  registration, 
which  is  not  avoided  by  the  death  of  the  person  giving  it. 

United  States. — By  the  constitutions  of  the  united  States  and 
of  almost  aU  the  states,  warrants  are  not  to  issue  but  upon  probable 
cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing 
the  place  to  be  searched  and  the  persons  or  thing  to  be  seized.  These 
provisions  have  been  held  not  to  mean  that  there  shall  be  no  arrest 
without  warrant,  but  to  confine  the  right  of  anest  to  circumstances 
similar  to  those  which  justify  it  in  English  law.  TheccmstitutiooB 
of  some  sutes  forbid  general  wamnts.  \  warrant  is  generally 
necessary  for  the  payment  of  money  out  of  the  United  States  or  a 

sute  treasury.  (W.  F.  C.) 

WARRAKT  OP  ATTORNET.  A  warrant  of  attorney  to  coofess 
judgment  is  a  security  for  money  (now  practically  obsolete)  in 
the  form  of  an  authority  to  a  solicitor  named  by  a  creditor, 
empowering  him  to  sign  judgment  in  an  action  against  the 
debtor  for  the  sum  due,  with  a  defeasance,  or  clause  that  the 
warrant  shall  not  be  put  into  force  in  case  of  due  payment  of 
the  money  secured.  It  was  often  used  as  a  collateral  security, 
dtber'for  the  piiyment  of  aa  annuity  or  with  mortgages,  is. 


WARRANT-OFFICER— WARREN,  G.  K. 


329 


order  chat  the  mortsafce,  by  entering  up  Judgment,  might  obtain 
priority  in  the  administration  of  the  assets  of  the  mortgagor. 
The  Debtors  Act  1869  contained  various  provisions  for  making 
known  to  the  debtor  the  extent  of  the  liability  incurred  by  htm, 
among  others  that  the  warrant  must  be  executed  in  the  presence 
of  a  solicitor  named  by  the  debtor,  and  that  it  and  the  defeasance 
must  be  written  on  the  same  paper.  A  warrant  of  attorney 
must  be  duly  stamped,  generally  as  a  mortgage  (q.v.),  and  must 
be  registered  as  a  judgment  m  the  central  office  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  

WARRAHT-OPFICBR,  m  the  British  navy,  the  name  given 
to  officers  who  rank  next  to  those  who  hold  commissions,  being 
appointed  by  warrant.  They  include  the  master,  purser,  surgeon, 
gunner,  boatswain  and  carpenter,  the  first  three  being  of  "  ward* 
room  rank,''  t.e.  messing  with  the  lieutepants.  In  the  military 
forces  a  warrant-officer  is  appointed  by  a  secretary  of  state's 
warrant,  and  ranks  below  the  commissioned  officers  and  above 
the  non-commissioned  officers.  A  warrant-officer  often  holds 
an  honorary  commission. 

WARRANTY,  etymdogicaDy,  another  form  of  Gdakanteb 
iq.v.).  It  Is  used,  however,  in  a  rather  different  sense.  The 
sense  common  to  both  words  is  that  of  a  collateral  contract, 
under  which  responsibility  for  an  act  is  incurred,  and  for  the 
breach  of  which  an  action  for  damages  lies.  Warranty  generally 
expresses  the  responsibility  of  the  person  domg  the  act,  guarantee 
the  responsibility  of  some  ot  her  person  on  his  behalf.  A  warranty 
may  be  defined,  in  the  words  of  Lord  Ablnger,  as  "  an  express 
or  implied  statement  of  something  which  the  party  undertakes 
shall  be  part  of  the  contract,  and,  though  part  -of  the  contract, 
collateral  to  the  express  object  of  it "  {Chanter  v.  Hopkins,  1838, 
4  M.  &  W.  404).  It  differs  from  a  condition  in  that  a  condition 
forms  the  basis  of  the  contract  and  a  breach  of  it  discharges 
from  the  contract,  and  from  a  representation  in  that  the  latter 
does  not  affect  the  contract  unless  made  a  part  of  it  expressly, 
or  by  implication  as  in  contracts  of  insurance  and  other  contracts 
uberrimai  fidei,  or  unless  it  be  fraudulent.  These  distinctions 
are  not  always  accurately  maintained.  Thus  in  the  Real  Property 
Act  1845,  S  4,  condition  seems  to  be  us^d  for  warranty. 

Warranty  as  it  affected  the  law  of  real  property  was,  before  the 
passing  of  the  Real  Property  Limitation  Act  1833  and  the  Fines 
and  Recoveries  Act  1833,  a  matter  of  the  highest  imixxtanoe.  A 
warranty  In  a  conveyance  was  a  covenant  realanncxra  to  an  estate 
of  frechokl,  and  either  c»pre«cd  in  a  clause  of  warranty  or  tmpKcd 
in  cases  where  a  feudal  relation  might  exist  between  feoffor  and 
feoffee.  The  warranty,  as  describco  by  Littleton^  I  697,  was  an 
outgrowth  of  feudalism,  and  something  very  like  it  is  to  be  found 
in  oe  LAer  F$udonun.  At  the  time  oiGlairvill  the  heir  was  bound 
to  warrant  the  reaaonable  donations  of  his  ancestor.  Warranty  was 
one  of  the  elements  in  Bracton's  definition  of  homage,  786,  juris 
vinculum  quo  quis  astringitur  ad  warrantixandum  defendcndum  et 
acquietandum  tenentem  sunm  in  seisina  versus  omnes."  For  an 
cxpnss  warranty  the  word  wamniuo  or  wairant  was  necessary. 
Tm  WDid  "give"  imj^ied  a  warran^,  as  dkl  an  exchange  and 
certain  lands  of  partition.  In  order  to  bind  heirs  a  clause  of  warranty 
was  re()uired.  This  was  either  lineal,  collateral  or  commencing  by 
disseinn.  The  differences  between  the  three  kinds  were  very 
technical,  and  depended  on  abstruse  and  obsolete  learning.  They 
are  treated  at  grnt  length  in  old  works  on  realproperty,  especially 
Coke  upon  Littleton  by  Butler,  364^.  The  feoffor  or  his  heirs  were 
bound  by  voucher  to  warranty  or  judgment  in  a  writ  of  warrantia 
ckarlae  to  yield  other  lands  to  the  feoffee  in  case  of  the  evkrtion  of  the 
latter.    Vouching  to  warranty  was  a  part  of  the  old  fictitious  pro- 


oeedian  in  a  common  recovery  in  use  for  the  purpose  of  barring  an 
entail  before  the  Fines  and  Recoveries  Act.  Warranty  of  this  nature. 
as  tar  as  it  relates  to  the  conveyance  of  real  esute,  though  not 
actually  abolished  hi  all  possible  cases,  is  now  superseded  by  cove- 
nants for  thle.  The  more  usual  of  these  are  now  by  the  Conveyanc- 
ing Act  1881  deemed  to  be  implied  in  conveyances.  For  the  implied 
warranties  of  title  and  quality  see  Salb  or  Goods.  Vouching  to 
warranty  was  at  one  thne  fanportant  In  the  law  of  personality  as 
weU  as  of  reality.  The  procedure  is  fully  described  in  Glanvill. 
The  right  of  ealling  on  the  hokler  of  kist  or  stolen  gooda  to  vouch 
to  warrsaty  (sMArctaie},  •'.#.  to  give  up  the  name  of  the  person 
from  whom  he  received  them,  under  pain  of  forfeiture,  was  often 
granted  under  the  name  of  theam  as  a  local  franchise.  Warranty, 
as  It  exists  at  present  In  the  law  of  peraonaltty.  is  either  express  or 
im(»Ucd.  There  is  no  general  role  as  to  what  constitutes  a  warranty. 
It  M  not  naosasary  that  an  cxpiess  warranty^  should  be  in  writing, 
the  law  being  that  every  affirmation  at  the  time  of  sale  of  personal 
chattels  Is  a  warranty,  provided  that  it  appcan  to  have  been  so 


Intended.  The  principal  cases  of  implied  wananty  occur  in  the 
contracts  of  sale  and  insurance.  There  is  also  an  implied  warranty 
in  other  kinds  of  contract,  e.g.  of  seaworthiness  by  the  shipowner  in 
a  contract  between  him  and  a  charterer  for  the  hire  of  a  ship.  In 
all  cases  of  implied  warranty  the  warranty  may  be  excluded  by  the 
special  terms  of  the  contract.  For  breach  of  warranty  an  action 
may  be  brought  directly,  or  the  breach  may  be  used  as'ground  lor 
a  counter  claim  or  for  reduction  of  damages,  but  the  breach  will  not 
in  the  case  of  a  warranty  proper  entitle  the  person  suffering  by  it  to 
a  rescission  of  the  contract.  Thus  in  a  sale  the  property  passes 
although  the  warranty  be  broken.  In  some  cases  warranties  on  sale 
are  the  subject  of  statutory  enactments,  as  the  Merchandise  Marks 
Acts  and  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts.  In  some  other  acts, 
such  as  the  Bills  of  Exchange  Act  1882,  the  term  warranty  does  not 
occur,  but  thepractical  effect  is  the  same. 

Scotland. — The  term  corresponding  to  warranty  in  the  law  ol 
heritable  property  b  "  warrandice."  Warranty,  strictly  speaking, 
seems  confined  to  movables.  Wiarrandice  appcare  early  in  Scots 
law,  the  heir  by  Regiam  MajestaUm  being  bound  to  warrant  the 
reasonable  donations  of  his  ancestor.  Warrandice  in  the  existing 
law  is  either  real  or  personal.  Real  warrandice  is  that  whereby 
warrandice  lands  are  made  over,  as  indemnity  for  those  conveyed, 
to  assure  the  person  to  whom  they  were  conveyed  from  low  by  the 
appearance  01  a  superwr  title.  Real  warrandice  is  implied  in  ex- 
cambion.  Its  effect  is  that  the  excambcr,  in  case  of  eviction,  may 
recover  possession  of  his  original  lands.  This  is  not  in  accordance 
with  the  English  law  in  exchange.  Personal  warrandice  is  either 
express  or  implied.  There  is  an  implied  warrandice  in  every  onerous 
deed,  and  an  absolute  warrandice  presumes  an  onerous  consideration. 
Express  warrandice  is  either  simple,  against  the  future  acts  of  the 
vendor,  from  fact  and  deed,  against  acts  whether  past  or  future,  or 
absolute,  or  against  all  deadly,  that  is,  on  any  ground  existing  before 
the  sale.  A  dause  of  warrandkre  is  the  Scottish  equivaleot  of  the 
English  covenants  for  title.  By  the  Titles  to  Land  Consolidatioo 
(Scotland)  Amendment  Act  1869  a  clause  of  warrandice  in  the  form 
given  in  the  schedule  to  the  act  imports  absolute  warrandice  as  regards 
the  lands  and  the  title-deeds  thereof,  and  warrandice  from  fact  and 
deed  as  regards  the  rents. 

United  Stales. — ^Warranty  in  conveyances  of  real  estate  is  expressly 
abolished  by  statute  in  many  states.  In  some  states  warranty 
is  implied  od  the  transfer  and  indorsement  of  negotiable  instru- 
ments. (J.  W.) 

WARREir»  GOUVSRMEUR  KEHBLB  (1830-1882),  American 
soldier,  was  born  at  Coldspring,  New  York,  on  the  8th  of  January 
1830,  and  entered  West  Point  in  1846,  graduating  in  1850.  He 
was  assigned  to  the  engineen,  and  for  several  yeara  was  employed 
in  survey  work  in  the  West,  where  he  took  part  in  some  expedi- 
tions against  the  Indians.  In  1859  he  was  made  assistant 
instructor  in  mathematics  at  We^t  Point.  But  two  yean  later, 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  the  scientific  subaltern  was 
made  lieutenant-colonel  of  volunteere  and  posted  to  the  newly 
raised  sth  New  York  Voltmteer  Infantry.  He  was  ftilly  equd 
to  the  task,  for  his  regiment  was  very  soon  brought  into  a  state 
of  mariced  efficiency.  In  August  he  was  promoted  colonel. 
He  commanded  a  brigade  of  the  V.  corps  at  Gaines's  Mill,  Second 
Bull  Run  and  Antietam,  and  was  shortly  afterwards  promoted 
brigadier-general  of  Volunteers.  During  the  Fredericksburg 
campaign  he  was  on  the  engineer  staff  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac,  but  after  Chancelloraville  he  was  appointed  chief 
of  engineen  in  that  army,  and  in  that  capacity  rendered  bri)llant 
services  at  Gettysburg  {q.v.) ,  his  reward  being  promotion  to  major* 
general  U.S.V.  and  the  brevet  of  colonel  in  the  regular  army. 
When  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  reorganized  in  the  spring 
of  1864  Warren  returned  to  the  V.  corps  as  its  commander. 

His  services  in  the  Wilderness  (q.v.)  and  Peteraburg  (q.v.) 
campaigns  proved  his  fitness  for  this  large  and  responsible 
command,  but  his  naturally  lively  imagination  and  the 
engineer's  inbred  habit  of  caution  combined  to  make  him  a 
brilliant  but  somewhat  unsafe  subordinate.  He  would  have 
become  one  of  the  great  chiefs  of  staff  of  history,  or  even  a 
successful  army  commander,  but  he  sometimes  fdled  where  a 
less  highly  gifted  man  would  have  succeeded.  He  was  at  his 
best  when  the  military  situation  depended  on  his  exercising 
his  initiative,  as  on  the  fint  day  in  the  Wilderness,  in  whidi  hb 
action  saved  the  army,  at  his  wont  when,  as  on  the  loth  of  May 
before  Spottsylvania,  he  was  ordered  to  attempt  the  impossible. 
On  the  latter  occasion  both  Grant  and  Meaide  threatened  to 
relieve  him  of  his  command,  and  Humphreys,  the  chief,  of  staff 
of  the  army,  was  actually  sent  to  control  the  movements  of  the 
V.  cocpa.    SimHar  iaddenu  took  place  in  the  later  itaget  of 


330 


WARREN,  SIR  J.  B.— WARREN,  S. 


the  ounpaign,  ftod  at  last,  at  the  critical  moment  preceding  the 
battle  of  Five  Forks,  Sheridan,  who  was  in  charge  of  the  opera- 
tions,  was  authorized  by  Grant  to  relieve  Warren  of  his  command 
if  he  thought  fit.  The  thoughtful  Warren  and  the  eager,  violent 
Sheridan  were  ill-matched.  At  the  outset  the  V.  corps,  being 
no  longer  composed  of  the  solid  troops  of  1862  and  1863,  fell 
into  confusion,  which  Warren  exerted  himself  to  remedy,  and 
in  the  event  the  battle  was  an  important  Union  victory.  But 
after  it  had  ended  Sheridan  sent  for  Warren  and,  with  no  attempt 
to  soften  the  blow,  relieved  him  of  his  command.  A  court  of 
inquiry  was  subsequently  held,  which  entirely  exonerated 
Warren  from  the  reckless  charges  of  apathy,  almost  of  cowardice, 
which  Sheridan  brought  against  him.  Shortly  after  Five  Forks 
Warren  resigned  his  volunteer  commission,  and  received  the 
brevet  of  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army.  After  the 
war  he  was  employed,  in  the  substantive  rank  of  major  (1879 
lieutenant-colonel)  of  engineers,  in  survey  work  and  harbour 
improvements.  General  Warren  died  on  the  8th  of  August 
1882  at  Newport,  R.I.  A  statue  to  his  memory  was  erected  at 
Kound  Top,  on  the  field  of  Gett>rsburg,.on  the  sixth  anniversary 
of  his  death. 

WARREN,  SIR  JOHN  BORLASE,  Bart.  (1753-1822),  English 
admiral,  was  bom  at  Stapleford,  Nottinghamshire,  on  the  2nd 
of  September  1753,  being  the  son  and  heir  of  John  Borlase 
Warren  (d.  1775)  of  Stapleford  and  Little  Marlow.  He  was 
educated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1771  entered 
the  navy  as  an  able  seaman;  in  1774  he  became  member  of 
parliament  for  Marlow;  and  in  1775  he  was  created  a  baronet, 
the  baronetcy  held  by  his  ancestors,  the  Borlases,  having  become 
extinct  in  1689.  His  career  as  a  seaman  really  began  in  1777, 
and  two  years  later  he  obtained  command  of  a  ship.  In  April 
1794,  in  charge  of  a  squadron  of  frigates,  Warren  captured 
three  French  frigates,  and  in  similar  ways  he  did  excellent 
service  for  some,  time  in  protecting  British  trade.  In  1796 
he  is  said  to  have  captured  or  destroyed  220  vessels.  Perhaps 
his  best  deed  in  the  service  was  the  defeat  in  October  1798  of  a 
French  fleet,  carrying  5000  men,  which  it  was  intended  to  land  in 
Ireland,  a  plan  which  he  completely  frustrated.  In  1802  he  was 
sent  to  St  Petersburg  as  ambassador  extraordinary,  but  he  did 
not  forsake  the  sea,  and  in  1806  he  captured  a  large  French  war- 
ship, the  "  Marengo."  He  became  an  admiral  in  1810,  and  was 
commander-in-chief  on  the  North  American  station  in  1813- 
1814.  He  died  on  the  27th  of  February  1822.  His  two  sons 
predeceased  their  father,  and  his  daughter  and  heiress,  Frances 
Maria  (1784-1837),  married  George  Charles  Venables-Vemon, 
4th  Lord  Vernon  (i 779-1835).  Their  son  was  George  John 
Warren  Vernon,  sth  Lord  Vernon  (1803-1866). 

WARREN,  JOSEPH  (1741-1775))  American  politician,  was 
born  at  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  on  the  nth  of  June  1741. 
He  graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1759,  taught  in  a  school 
at  Roxbury  in  1760-1761,.  studied  medicine,  and  began  to 
practise  in  Boston  in  1764.  The  Stamp  Act  agitation  aroused 
his  interest  in  public  .questions.  He  soon  became  associated 
with  Samuel  Adams,  John  Adams  and  Josiah  Quincy,  Jr.,  as  a 
leader  of  the  popular  party,  and  contributed  articles  and  letters 
to  the  Boston  CatclU  over  the  signature  "  True  Patriot."  The 
efforts  of  Samuel  Adams  to  secure  the  appointment  of  committees 
of  correspondence  met  with  his  hearty  support,  and  he  and 
Adams  were  the  two  leading  members  of,  the  first  Boston  com- 
mittee of  correspondence,  chosen  in  1772.  As  chairman  of  a 
committee  appointed  for  the  purpose,  he  drafted  the  famous 
"Suffolk  Resolves,"  which  were  unanimously  adopted  by  a 
convention  at  Milton  (q.v.)  on  the  9th  of  September  1 774.  .  These 
"  resolves  "  urged  forcible  opposition  to  Great  Britain  if  it  should 
prove  to  be^  necessary,  pledged  submission  to  such  measures 
as  the  Continental  Congress  might  recommend,  and  favoured 
the  calling  of  a  provincial  congress.  Warren  was  a  member 
of  the  first  three  provincial  congresses  (1774-1775),  president 
of  the  third,  and  an  active  member  of  the  committee  of  public 
safety.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  fighting  on  the  J9th 
of  April,  was  appointed  m^jor-general  of  the  Massachusetts 
Uoopa,  next  io  Fanjt  tp  Aztcoias  Ward,  on  the  14th  of  June 


1775;  ^uid  tbrea  days  later,  befbie  bit  cooniiskA.  was  nuMie  out. 
he  took  part  as  a  volunteer,  under  the  orders  of  Putnam  aaa 
Prescott,  in  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  (Breed's  Hill),  where  hw 
was  killed.  Next  to  the  Adamses,  Warren  was  the  most  in- 
fluential leader  of  the  extreme  Whig  faction  in  Massachusetts. 
His  tragic  death  strengthened  their  zeal  for  the  popular  cause 
and  helped  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  acceptance  <^  the  Dedarn- 
lion  of  Independence.  Warren's  spcKhts  are  typical  examples 
of  the  old  style  of  American  political  eloquence.  His  best- 
known  orations  were  those  delivered  in  Old  South  Church  on 
the  second  and  fifth  anniversaries  (177s  and  X775)  of  the  "  Boston 
Massacre." 

The  standard  biosraphy  is  Richard  Frothingham's  Zdfe  amd  Times 

0/ Joseph  Warren  (Boston,  1865). 

WARREN.  MERCY  (1728-1814),  American  writer,  sister  oC 
James  Otis  (q.v.),  was  born  at  Barnstable,  Mass.,  and  in  1754 
married  James  Warren  (17  26-1808)  of  Plymouth  Mass.,  a  college 
friend  of  her  brother.  Her  literary  inclinations  were  fostered 
by  both  these  men,  and  she  began  early  to  write  poems  and 
prose  essays.  As  member  of  the  Massachusetts  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives (1766-1774)  and  its  spt^ker  (1776^x777  and 
1 787-1 788),  member  (1774  and  1775)  and  president  (1775) 
of  the  Provincial  Congress,  and.  paymaster-general  in  1775, 
James  Warren  took  a  leading  part  in  the  events  of  the  American 
revolutionary  period,  and  his  wife  followed  its  progress  witi 
keen  interest.  Her  gifts  of  satire  were  utilized  in  her  politiol 
dramas.  The  Adulator  (1773)  and  The  Croup  (1775);  and  Joha 
Adams,  whose  wife  Abigail  was  Mercy  Warren's  close  friend, 
encouraged  her  to  further  efforts.  Her  tragedies,  "  The  Sack  oC 
Rome  "  and  "  The  Ladies  of  Castile,"  were  included  in  her  Poems, 
Dramatic  and  Miuellaneous  (x  790) ,  dedicated  to  General  W^ashing- 
ton.  Apart  from  their  historical  Interest  among  the  beginnings 
0/  American  literature,  Mercy  Warren's  poems  have  no  permanent 
value.  In  1805  she  published  a  History  of  the  American  JZesofs- 
/ion,  which  was  coloured  by  somewhat  outspoken  personal 
criticism  and  was  bitterly  resented  by  John  Adams  (see  his 
correspondence,  published  by  the  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society,  1878).  James  Warren  died  in  x8o8,  and  his  wife  followed 
him  on  the  X9th  of  October  X814. 

See  Elizabeth  F.  EUet.  Women  0/  Ike  Rentution  (1856:  new  ed., 
1900) :  an  article  by  Annie  Russell  Mart>le  ia  the  New  EM^amd  Mof 
auue  (April  1903):  Alice  Brown,  Mercy  Wvrm  (New  York.  1896). 

WARREN,  HINTON  (1850-1907),  American  classical  scholw, 
was  born  at  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Idand,  on  the  29th  of  January 
1850,  a  descendant  of  Richard  Warren,  who  sailed  in  the  "  May- 
flower "  in  x62a  He  was  educated  at  Tults  College  and  sub* 
sequently  at  Yale.  After  three  years  as  a  schoolmaster,  he  wei^t 
to  Germany  to  complete  his  studies  in  comparative  philology 
and  especially  in  Latin  language  and  literature.  Having  taken 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  pMlosophy  at  Strassburg  in  X879,  he 
returned  to  the  United  States  as  Latin  professor  at  J<^i» 
Hopkins  University.  In  1899  he  was  appointed  Latin  professor 
at  Harvard.  His  life-work  was  a  new  edition  of  Terence,  which, 
however,  he  left  unfinished  at  his  death.  He  was  director  of 
the  American  School  of  Classical  Studies  in  Rome  (xSQT^iggg), 
and  president  of  the  American  Philological  Association  (X898). 
Among  his  publications  are:  "  Enclitic  Ne  in  Early  Latin  " 
(Strassburg  dissert,  reprinted  in  Asner.  Joum.  of  Pkild.^  x88x)-; 
On  Latin  Glossaries,  with  especial  reference  to  the  Codex  Stngat' 
lensis  (St  Gall  Glossary)  (Cambridge,  U.S.A.,  X885);  The  Stele 
Inscription  in  the  Roman  Forum  (Amcr.  Journ.  of  PhiM.,  vclL 
xxviii.  No.  3,  and  separately  in  1908).  He  <!Ued  on  the  26tk 
of  November  1907. 

See  Harvard  Afagaiine  (Jan.  1908)  and  W.  M.  Lindsay  In  Oossiial 
Renew  (Feb.  1908}. 

WARREN,  SAMUEL  (1807-1877),  English  lawyer  and  author, 
son  of  Dr  Samuel  Warren,  rector  of  All  Souls',  Anooats,  Man- 
chester, was  bom  near  Wrexham  in  Denbighshire  on  the  S3Td 
of  May  X807.  The  elder  Samuel  Warren  (178X-X862)  became  s 
Wesleyan  minister^  but  was  expelled  by  Conference  hi  X835  on 
account  of  his  attitude  towards  proposals  for  the  estsMishment 
of  a  theological  training  college  at  Manchd^ter,    He  formed  s 


WARREN,  W.— WARRENSBURG 


33< 


utodstion,  tlieineinberft  of  which  were  nicfciuiined  Wnra> 
ites,  and  this  developed  into  the  United  Methodiit  Fkee  Chuichet. 
Warren  himself  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  Engfaukd.  His  son* 
the  yomcer  Samuel  Waxren,  studied  medicine  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  but  abandoned  this  to  study  for  the  English  bar. 
He  entered  the  Inner  Temple  in  1828,  and  was  aucoessful  in 
his.  profession.  He  took  silk  in  1851,  was  mode  recorder  of  Hull 
in  rSss,  represented  Mi^ttioist  in  parliament  for  three  3reais 
(1856^1859)  and  was  rewarded  in  1859  with  a  mastershq>  in 
lunacy.  He  had  already  written  a  good  deal  on  the  subject  of 
insanity  in  its  legal  aspects,  and  he  was  always  a  determined 
opponMt  of  the  rising  school  of  medical  alienists  who  were 
more  and  more  in  favour  of  Tedudng  certain  forms  of  crime  to  a 
state  of  mental  abefratlon  which  should  not  be  punished  outside 
of  asyhims.  Meantime  he  had  made  much  more  brilliant  success 
in  fiction.  Very  early  in  his  career  he  had  began  to*write  for 
Blackwatd.  His  Passages  from  ike  Diary  of  a  Late  Physician 
were  published  in  that  magazine  between  August  X830  and 
August  1837,  and  appeared  in  collected  form  in  1838.  These 
realistic  short  stories,  with  a  somewhat  morbid  interest  shielded 
under  a  moral  purpoee,  were  extremely  popular.  Warren's 
brief  experience  as  a  medical  student  thus  stood  him  in  good 
stead.  But  his  great  success  was  Ten  Tkausanda  Year^  which 
ran  in  Blackwood  from  October  1839  to  August  1841,  and  was 
published  separately  immediately  on  its  conchision.  Critics 
complained  of  the  coarse  workmanship,  the  banality  of  the 
moralizing,  the  cnideness  of  the  pathos,  the  farcical  extravagance 
of  the  humour;  but  meantime  the  work  proved  one  of  the  most 
popular  noveb  of  the  century.  Of  the  higher  qualities  of  imagina- 
tion  and  passion  Warren  was  destitute,  but  his  sketches  of 
character,  especially  farcical  character— Tittlebat  Titmouse, 
Oily  Gammon,  Mr  Quicksilver  (an  open  caricature  of  Lord 
Brougham) — are  bdd  and  strong,  forcibly  imprinted  on  the 
memory,  and  the  interest  of  the  story  is  made  to  run  with  a 
powerful  current  For  sevenl  years  Warren  was  known  as  the 
author  of  Ten  Thousand  a  Year^  and  many  tales  were  told  of 
his  open  pride  In  the  achievement.  In  r847  he  made  another 
venture,  but  Norn  and  Then  was  not  a  success.  The  Lily  and  Ike 
Bee^  a  squib  on  the  Crystal  Palace,  pubRshed  in  1857,  though  it 
had  the  honour  of  translation  into  Italian,  was  a  signal  failnre. 
A  pessimistic  dissertation  on  The  Inldkdual  and  Moral  Deodop- 
ment  of  the  Age,  published  in  r8s3,  also  fell  flat,  and  thenceforth 
Warren,  after  publishing  his  WorksT  Crilieal  and  Imagtnalive, 
in  four  volumes  in  r854,  retired  on  his  laurds.  He  died  in 
London  on  the  29th  of  July  1877. 

Warren  alto  wrote  several  legal  -works  of  repute-^lntroduction  to 
Law  Studies  (1835),  Bxlracis  from  Btackstone  (1837).  Manual  of 
Parliameniary  Law  (1852}. 

-  WARRBIf,  WILLIAM  (]8r2-r888),  American  actor,  was  bom 
in  Philadelphia  on  the  17th  of  November  r8i2,  the  son  of  an 
English  actor  (1767*1832)  of  the  same  name.  His  first  stage 
appearance  was  made  there  as  Young  Norval  in  Home's  Douglas 
in  1832.  A  dozen  years  of  wandering  theatrical  b'fe  followed, 
giving  him  a  wide  experience  in  every  kind  of  part,  the  last  few 
in  comedy  in  a  company  headed  by  his  brother-in-law,  J.  B.  Rice. 
In  1846  he  made  his  first  appearance  in  Boston  as  Sir  Lucius 
OTrigger  in  The  Rivals  at  the  Howard  Athenaeum,  and  in  the 
next  season  he  became'  a  member  of  the  Boston  Museum,  in 
which  stock  company  he  remained  for  thirty-five  years.  Here 
he  held  his  "  Golden  Jubilee  "  on  the  28th  of  October  2882. 
He  died  on  the  21st  of  September  1888. 

WARREN,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Trumbull  county, 
Ohio,  U.S.A.,  fai  the  N.R.  part  of  the  state,  on  the  Mahoning  dvcr, 
about  $0  m.  S.E.  of  Cleveland,  and  14  m.  N.W.  of  Youngslown. 
Pop.  (1890)3973,(1900)8529(1161  foreign-bom);  (r9io)'ii,o8r. 
Warren  is  served  by  the  Eric,  the  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Balti- 
more &  Ohio  railways.  The  city  has  a  public  fibrary  and  a 
hospital.  The  surrounding  country  is  devoted  to  farming, 
dairymg  and  coal  and  iron  mitiing.  The  total  value  of  the 
factory  products  In  1905  was  $2,414,379.  The  first  permanent 
white  settlement  on  the  site  of  Warren  (then  owned  by  Connecti- 
cut) wo*  made  in  1799  by  settlers  firom  Washington  county, 


Pamsylvaoia.  Wonen.was  named  in  honour  of  a  surveyor— 
Moset  Wonen,  of  New  Lyme,  Connecticut— empk>yed  by  the 
Coontcticut  Land  Company,  which  sokl  the  land  to  the  first 
settkcB.  The  county  was  named  in  honour  of  Governor  Jonathan 
Thimbttll  of  Connecticut.  Warren  was  chartered  as  a  dty  in 
1834.  For  several  yean  before  September  1909  Warren  waa 
the  national  headquarters  of  the  National  American  Woman's 
Sufeage  Association* 

See  History  of  Trumbull  and  Mahoning  Counties  (2  vols..  Cleveland, 
Ohk>.  188a),  and  U.  T.  Upfoa,  History  of  TrumhuU  County  (Chkogo, 
1909). 

WARREN,  a  oorough  and  th?  county-seat  of  Warren  county, 
Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Allegheny  river  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Conewango  river>  about  35  m.  N.E.  of  Titua- 
ville.  Pop.  (x88o)  2810;  (1890)  433a;  (1900)  8043,  of  whom 
1529  were  fordgn-boin;  (1910  oensosK  "i08o.  The  foreign 
element  is  largely  Swedish,  Danish  and  Slavish.  Warren  ia 
served  by  the  Permsylvania  and  the  Dunkirk,  Allegheny  Valley 
ft  Pittsburg  railways,  and  by  electric  railway  to  Jamestown, 
New  York.  Among  the  public  buildings  and  institutions  are 
the  county  court  house,  a  state  hospital  for  the  insane  (established 
r873),  a  Y.M.CA.  building  and  a  state  armoury.  Wanen  is 
situated  at  the  southern  foot  of  a  high  ^eer  ridge,  in  a  region 
rich  in  oil  and  natural  gas;  the  borough  ships  and  refines  ml, 
and  has  various  manufactures.  The  total  value  of  its  factory 
product  in  1905  was  $5,976,905  (62-4%  more  than  in  1900), 
of  which  $3,038,894  was  the  value  of  refined  oil  and  $1,220,165 
the  value  of  foundry  and  machine-shop  products.  The  borough 
owns  and  operates  the  water-works  and  the  electric  lighting  plant. 
The  town  site  of  Warren  was  laid  out  by  commissioners  appointed 
by  Governor  Thomas  Mifflin  in  1795,  and  Warren  was  incorpor- 
ated as  a  borough  in  1832;  it  was  named  in  honour  of  Joseph 
Warren,  the  American  patriot.  Ih  1895  part  of  Glade  township 
was  annexed. 

See  J.  S  Schenck  and  W.  S  Rann,  History  ef  Warren  Cmtnty, 
Pennsyhania  (Syracuse,  N.Y.,  1887). 

WARREN,  properly  an  old  term  of  the  English  forest  fatw, 
derived  from  the  0.  Fr.  toarenne,  taremu,  garenne  (med.  Lat 
varennat  warir^  to  guard,  cf.  "  ward  ")»  and  applied  to  one  of 
the  three  lesser  franchises,  together  with  "  chase  "  and  "  parii," 
included  under  the  highest  franchise,  the  "  forest,"  and  ranking 
last  in  order  of  importance.  The  "  beasts  of  warren  "  were  the 
hare,  the  coney  (».e.  rabbit),  the  pheasant  and  the  partridge. 
The  word  thus  became  used  of  a  piece  of  ground  preserved  for 
these  beasts  of  warren.  It  is  now  applied  loosely  to  any  piece 
of  ground,  whether  preserved  or  not,  where  rabbits  breed  (see 
Forest  Laws). 

WARRENPOINT,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of  county 
Down,  Ireland,  the  terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  Great  Northern 
railway,  by  which  it  is  50)  m.  S.S.W.  of  Belfast.  Pop.  (1901) 
181 7.  It  Ues  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  beautiful  Carlingford 
Lough;  behind  it  rise  the  Moume  Mountains,  while  across  the 
lough  are  the  Carlingford  Hills,  with  Slieve  Gullion.  These 
hills  afford  shelter  from  indement  winds,  and  give  Warrenpoint 
and  other  neighbouring  watering-places  on  the  lough  a  dimate 
which  renders  them  as  popular  in  winter  as  in  summer.  There 
is  a  quay  here  where  large  vessels  can  discharge,  and  agricultural 
produce  is  exported.  The  shores  of  the  lough  are  studded  with 
country  seats  lying  picturesquely  on  the  well-wooded  hill  slopes; 
and  nearly  3  m.  E.  of  Warrenpoint  (connected  by  tramway) 
is  Rosstrevor,  one  of  the  most  noted  watering-places  in  Ireland, 
charmingly  situated  in  a  position  open  to  the  sea,  but  enclosed 
on  the  north  and  east. 

WARRENSBURG,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Johnson 
county,  Missouri,  U.S.A.,  on  a  hilly  site  near  the  Bkckwater 
Fork  of  the  La  Mine  river,  in  the  west  central  part  of  the  state, 
about  65  m.  S.E.  of  Kansas  City.  Pop.  (1890)  4706;  (1900) 
4724.  including  556  negroes  and  127  foreign-bom;  (1910)  4689. 
It  is  served  by  the  Missouri  Pacific  railway.  The  dty  is  the  seat 
of  a  state  normal  school  (opened  in  1872),  and  among  the  pro> 
minent  buildings  are  the  court  house  and  the  railway  station, 
both  built  of  local  sandstone.    Pertle  Springs,  about  x|m.  S., 


33« 


WARRINGTON— WARRISTON,  LORD 


b  a  summer  resort.  Warrensborg  b  a  aliipping  and  supply 
point  for  a  rich  farming  region.  In  ihe  immediate  vidnity 
there  are  extensive  quarries  of  a  blue  sandstone,  one  of  the  best 
building  stones  of  the  state.  Warrensburg  was  made  the  county- 
seat  in  1836.  lu  settlement  dates  from  a  little  earlier.  The 
present  city  is  not  on  the  site  of  the  original  settlement,  but 
b  near  it;  the  old  town  was  abandoned  in  1857,  when  the  railway 
passed  by  it.  During  the  Civil  War  Warrensburg  was  a  Union 
post. 

WARRINOTON,  a  market  town  and  municipal,  county  and 
parliamentary  borough  of  Lancashire,  England,  on  the  river 
Mersey,  midway  between  Manchester  and  Liverpool,  and  182 
m.  N.W.  by  N.  from  London  by  the  London  &  North-Western 
railway.  Pop.  (1891)  53,288;  (1901)  64,242.  It  has  extensive 
local  connexions  by  way  of  the  Cheshire  lines.  The  church  of 
St  Elphin  b  a  fine  cruciform  building  with  lofty  central  tower 
and  spire.  The  style  is  Decorated,  but  restoration  has  been 
heavy.  A  much  earlier  church  formerly  occupied  the  site,  and 
of  thb  the  crypt  remains  beneath  the  cxbting  chancel.  The  town 
hall,  a  classical  building  of  the  i8th  century,  was  formerly  a 
residence,  and  was  purchased  by  the  corpcxation  in  1872,  while 
the  park  in  which  it  stands  was  devoted  to  puUic  use.  The 
other  chief  buildings  are  the  museum  and  free  library,  with 
technical  institute  and  the  market  halL  The  educational 
institutions  include  a  free  grammar  school,  founded  by  one  of 
the  Boteler  family  in  1526,  and  a  blue-coat  school  (1665).  A 
few;  half -timbered  houses  of  the  X7th  century  remain  in  the 
streets.  A  wide  system  of  electric  tramways  and  district  light 
raUways  b  maintained  by  the  borough.  Warrington  and  the 
neighbourhood  are  an  important  centre  of  the  tanning  industry. 
There  are  also  iron  bar,  hoop  and  wire  works,  tool,  soap,  glass 
and  chemical  works,  foundries  and  cotton  mills.  Considerable 
agri^tural  markets  and  fairs  are  held.  The  parliamentary 
borough  (1832),  returning  one  member,  extends  into  Cheshire. 
The  town  was  incorporated  in  1847,  and  the  corporation  consists 
of  a  mayor,  9  aldermen  and  27  coiuidllors.    Area  3058  acres. 

Warrington  (otherwise  Walintune,  Werinton,  Werington) 
b  snpposed  to  be  of  Britbh  origin,  and  the  great  Roman  road 
from  Chester  to  the  north  passed  through  it.  There  was  a 
Romano-British  village— perhaps  also  a  military  post— at 
Wilderspool.  It  b  mentioned  in  Domesday  Book  as  the  bead 
of  a  hundred.  After  the  Conquest  it  became  one  of  the  possessions 
of  Roger  de  Poictou.  In  Henry  I.'s  reign  a  barony  was  formed 
for  Pain  de  Vilars,  of  which  Warrington  was  the  head  and  to 
which  it  gave  the  name,  and  from  that  family  both  manor  and 
barony  passed  to  the  Botelers  or  Butlers,  who  first  established 
their  residence  on  the  mote  hill  and  before  1280  built  Bcwsey 
\n  Burton  wood.  The  Bullers  held  both  barony  and  manor  till 
1386,  when  the  barony  lapsed  and  the  manor  passed  after  some 
vicissitudes  to  the  Irelands  of  Bewsey,  then  to  the  Booths  and 
In  1769  to  the  Blackburns.  In  1255  William  Ic  Boteler  obtained 
a  charter  from  Henry  IIL  for  an  annual  fair  to  last  three  days 
from  ihe  eve  of  St  Thomas  the  Martyr  (18th  July).  In  1277 
Edward  I.  granted  a  charter  for  a  weekly  market  on  Friday 
and  an  annual  fair  of  eight  days  beginning  on  the  eve  of  St 
Andrew  (30th  Nov.)*  and  in  1285  another  charter  changing  the 
market  day  from  Friday  to  Wednesday  and  extending  the  summer 
fair  to  eight  days.  The  market  and  fairs  had,  however,  existed 
before  the  granting  of  those  charters.  Blome  in  1673  speaks 
of  Warrington  market  as  an  important  one  "  for  linen  cloth, 
com,  cattle,  provUions  and  fish,  being  much  resorted  to  by  the 
Webhmen,"  and  in  1730  Defoe  says  the  market  was  especially 
famous  for  "  a  sort  of  table  linen  called  Huk-a-back  or  Huk-a- 
buk."  The  fairsare  still  held,  as  well  as  the  Wednesday  chartered 
market,  besides  a  Saturday  market  which  b  probably  customary. 
In  the  i8th  and  early  19th  centuries  the  chief  industries  were 
huckabacks  and  coarse  cloths,  canvas,  fustians,  pins,  glass, 
sugar-refining  and  copper.  During  the  Civil  War  the  inhabitants 
embraced  the  royalist  cause  and  the  earl  of  Derby  occupied  the 
town  and  made  it  for  some  time  hb  headquarters  in  order  to  secure 
the  passage  of  the  Mersey.  In  April  1643  the  parliamentary 
forces  attacked  it,  but  had  to  raise  the  siege,  as  Lord  Derby 


began  to  set  the  town  on  fire.    Lofd-Derby  le^t  Colonel  EdwanI 
Norrb  in  command  and  ia-May  the  piriismmtsrisni  acain 
attacked  the  town,  which. was  forced  to  surrender  after  m.  sue 
days'  siege  owing  to  lack  of  provisions.    In  1648,  after  the  nyalnt 
defeat  at  Winwick  by  Cromwell,  part  of  the  royal  forces  under 
General  Baillie  rallied  at  Warrington,  hoping  to  effect  the  r**T*gr 
of  the  bridge,  but  failed,  and  the  general  with  4doo  men  capitu- 
lated.   In  August  1659  Sir  Geotge  Booth,  kid  of  the  manor, 
was  defeated  at  Winnington,  and  part  of  hb  forces  sumndested 
at  Warrington  to  the  parliamentary  garrison.    During   tKe 
Rebellion  ol  1745,  on  the  approach  of  Prince  Charles  Edward 
fipm  Manchester,  the  bridge  was  cut  down  and  the  few  stiagileim 
who  ventured  that  way  seiaed.    A  borough  was  created  by 
William  le  Boteler  about  1230  by  a  charter  which  has  not  h«ak 
preserved;    but  its  growing  strength  slarmfd  the  lord  wlio 
contrived  to  repress  it  before  1300,  and  for  over  500  years 
Warrington  waa  governed  by  the  lord's  manor  coiuL    A  diartcr 
of  incorporation  was  granted  in  1847.    By  the  Reform  Act  of 
183  a  the  town  returns  one  member  to  parliament.    The  duucfa 
dedicated  to  St  Elpbin  b  mentioned  in  Domesday  Book,  and 
waa  in  early  times  head  of  the  andent  deanery  of  Warrington. 
There  was  a  friary  of  Augustine  or  Hermit  Friars  here  founikd 
apparently  about  128a 

WARRISTOV.  ARCHIRAIO  JOHMSTON.  LOBD  (i6ii-x66j). 
Scottish  judge  and  statesman,  son  of  James  Johnstone  (d.  x6i7l» 
a  merchant  burgess  of  Edinburgh,  was  baptized  on  tbe  aSth  d 
March  1611,  educated  at  Glasgow,  and  passed  advocate  at  the 
Scottish  bar  in  1633.    He  first  came  into  public  notice  in  i637» 
during  the  attempt  of  Charles  I.  to  force  the  English  liturgy 
upon  Scotland,  when  as  the  chief  adviser  of  the  Covenanting 
l<»ders  he  drew  up  their  remonstrances.    On  the  28tb  <^  Februaxy 
1638,  in  reply  to  a  royal  proclamation,  he  read  to  an  enoimooa 
multitude  assembled  in  Greyfriars  churchyard  at  Edinburgh 
and  in  presence  of  the  heralds,  a  strong  protesution,  and  together 
with  Alexander  Henderson  waa  a  principal  author  of  the  National 
Covenant  of  1638,  drawing  up  himself  the  second  part,  which 
consisted  in  a  recapitulation  of  all  the  acts  of  parliament  con- 
demning "  popery  **  and  asserting  the  liberties  of  the  Scottish 
church.    He  was  appointed  clerk  to  the  Ubles,  and  also  clerk 
and  afterwards  procurator  or  counsel  to  the  general  assembly 
held  at  Glasgow  the  same  year,  when  he  was  the  means  of  restor- 
ing several  missing  volumes  of  records.    In  June  1639  he  took 
part  in  the  negotiations  leading  to  the  treaty  of  Berwick,  when 
his  firm  attitude  was  extremely  dbpleasing  to  the  king.    He 
urged  Charles  to  refrain  from  annulling  the  acts  of  the  assembly 
since  this  would  restrict  all  future  assemblies,  to  which  Charl^ 
replied  "  that  the  devil  himself  could  not  make  a  more  uncharit* 
able  construction  or  give  a  more  bitter  expression,"  and  oa 
Johnston's  continuing  his  speech  ordered  him  to  be  silent  and 
declared  he  would  speak  to  more  reasonable  men.*    In  August  he 
read  a  paper  before  the  Scottish  parliament,  strongly  condemning 
its  prorogation.    In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed  to  atteiul 
the  general  of  the  army  and  the  committee,  and  on  the  23Td  of 
June,  when  the  Scottish  forces  were  preparing  to  invade  England, 
he  wrote  to  Lord  Savile  asking  for  definite  support  from  the 
leading  opposition  peers  in  En^Luid  and  their  acceptance  of  the 
National  Covenant,  which  drew  from  tbe  other  side  at  first  nothing 
but  vague  assurances  and  subsequently  the  engagement  forged 
by  Lord  Savile  with  the  signatures  of  the  peers.    In  October 
he  was  a  commissioner  for  iu:gotiating  the  treaty  of  Ripon  and 
went  to  London.    He  continued  after  the  peace  to  urge  the 
punishment  of  the  incendiaries,  and  especially  of  Traquair, 
and  in  a  private  interview  with  the  king  strongly  opposed  the 
proposed  act  of  general  oblivion.   On  the  king's  arrival  in  Scotland 
in  1 64 1  he  led  the  opposition  on  the  important  constitutional 
point  of  the  control  of  state  appointments,  supporting  the 
claims  of  the  parliament  by  an  appeal  to  the  state  records,  which 
he  had  succeeded  in  fecovcring. 

In  September  Johnston  received  public  thanks  for  his  services 
from  the  Scottbh  parh'ament,  and,  in  accordance  with  the  policy 
of  conciliation  then  pursued  for  a  short  time  by  the  king,  was 
^Johnston's  **  Diary  "  in  SctUitk  ffisk  Soc.  PubL,  xxvl  84. 


WARRNAMBOOL 


333 


appoiated  on  the  13U1  of  November  1641  a  lord  of  session,  with 
the  titie  of  Lord  Wairiston  (a  name  derived  from  an  estate 
purchased  by  him  near  Edinburgh  in  16136),  was  knighted,  and 
was  given  a  pension  of  £200  a  year.  The  same  month  he  was 
appointed  a  commissioner  at  Westminster  by  the  parliament 
for  settling  the  affairs  of  Scotland.  He  was  a  chief  agent  in 
concluding  the  treaty  with  the  English  parliament  in  the  autumn 
of  1643,  and  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  committee  of  both 
kingdoms  in  London  whkh  directed  the  military  <^)erations,  and 
in  this  capacity  went  on  several  missions  to  the  parliamentary 
generals.  He  took  his  seat  early  in  1644  in  the  Assembly  of 
Divines,  to  which  he  had  been  nominated,  and  vehemently 
opposed  measures  tolerating  independency  or  giving  powers  to 
laymen  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Tht  articles  of  the  unsuccessful 
treaty  of  Uzbridge  were,  for  the  most  part,  drawn  up  by  him 
the  same  year.  Besides  his  public  duties  in  England  he  sat  in 
the  Scottish  parliament  for  the  county  of  Edinburgh  from  1643 
till  1647,  was  speaker  of  the  barons,  and  served  on  various 
committees.  After  the  final  defeat  of  Charles,  when  he  had 
surrendered  himself  to  the  Scots,  Johnston  was  made  in  October 
1646  king's  advocate,  and  the  same  year  was  voted  £3000  by 
the  estates  for  his  services.  He  continued  to  oppose  unwise 
concessions  to  Charles,  and  strongly  disapproved  of  the  *'  engage- 
ment '*  concluded  in  1648  by  the  predominant  party  with  Charles 
at  Carisbrookc,  which,  while  securing  little  for  Presbyterianism, 
committed  the  Scots  to  hostilities  with  the  followers  of  CromwelL 
He  now  became  the  leader  of  the  "  remonstrants,"  the  party 
opposed  to  the  "  engagement,'*  and  during  the  ascendancy  of 
the  engagers  retired  to  Cantyre  as  the  guest  of  Argyll.  He 
returned  again  after  the  Whiggamore  Raid,^  met  CromweU  at 
Edinburgh  in  October  after  the  defeat  of  the  engagers  at  Preston, 
and  in  conjunction  with  Argyll  promoted  the  act  of  Classes, 
passed  on  the  23rd -of  January  1649,  disqualifying  the  royalists. 
The  good  relations  now  formed  with  Cromwell,  however,  were 
soon  broken  off  by  the  king's  execution,  and  Johnston  was 
present  officially  at  the  proclamation  of  Charles  II.  as  king  at 
Edinburgh,  on  the  5th  of  February  1649.  On  the  toth  of  March 
he  was  appointed  lord  clerk  register.  In  May  he  pronounced 
the  vmdictive  sentence  on  Montrose,  and  he  is  said  to  have 
witnessed  with  Argyll  the  vietim  being  driawn  to  the  place  of 
execution.  He  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Dunbar  (3rd  of 
September  1650)  as  a  member  of  the  committee  of  estates, 
to  which  body  is  ascribed  the  responsibility  for  Leslie's  fatal 
abandonment  of  his  position  on  Doon  Hill.  After  the  defeat 
he  urged  the  removal  of  David  Leslie,  afterwards  Lord  Newark, 
from  the  comnwnd,  and  on  the  21st  of  September  delivered  a 
violent  speech  in  Charles's  presence,  attributing  ail  the  late 
misfortunes  to  the  Stuarts  and  to  their  opposition  to  the 
Reformation. 

His  first  object  in  life  being  the  defence  of  Presbyterianism, 
Johnston  could  join  neither  of  the  two  great  parties,  and  now 
committed  himself  to  the  faction  of  the  remonstrants  who 
desired  to  exclude  the  king ,  in  opposition  to  the  rcsolutioners  who 
accepted  Charles.  The  latter  for  some  time  maintained  their 
superiority  in  the  kingdom,  Johnston  being  reduced  to  poverty 
and  neglect.  In  the  autumn  of  1656  Johnston  went  to  London 
as  representative  of  the  remonstrants;  and  soon  afterwards, 
on  tlie  9lh  of  July  1657,  he  was  restored  by  Cromwell  to  his 
ofEtct  of  lord  clerk  register,  and  on  the  3rd  of  November  was 
appointed  a  commissioner  for  the  administration  of  justice 
in  Scotland,  henceforth  remaining  a  member  of  the  government 
till  the  Restoration.  In  January  165S  be  was  included  by 
Cromwell  in  his  new  House  of  Lords,  and  sat  also  in  the  upper 
chamber  in  Richard  CromweH's  parliament.  On  the  latter's 
abdication  and  the  restoration  of  the  Rump,  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  council  of  state,  and  continued  in  the  administra- 

*  This  was  the  name  given  to  a  suocessrol  raid  on  Edinburgh  by 
a  band  of  Argyll's  partisans  gathered  mainly  from  the*  wast  of 
Scotland.  It  took  place  in  September  1648.  just  after  the  defeat  of 
Hamilton  at  Preston.  The  term  Whigsamore  is  nid  to  be  derived 
from  Whiggam,  a  word  used  by  the  ploughmen  in  the  west  of  Scotland 
to  encourage  their  horses.  See  S.  R.  Gardiner,  Gnat  Cml  War, 
vol.  UL  (i^r). 
XXVlll'6A 


tion  as  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety,  maintaining 
consistently  his  attitude  against  religious  toleration.  At  the 
Restoration  he  was  singled  out  for  punishment.  He  avoided 
capture,  escaping  to  Holland  and  thence  to  Germany,  and  was 
condemned  to  death  in  his  absence  on  the  13th  of  May  1661. 
In  1663,  having  ventured  into  France,  he  was  discovered  at 
Rouen,  and  with  the  consent  of  Louis  XIV.  was  btought  over 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  of  London.  In  June  he  was  taken 
to  Edinburgh  and  confined  in  the  Tolbooth.  He  was  hanged 
on  the  22nd  of  July  at  the  Market  Cross,  Edinburgh,  the  scene 
of  many  of  his  triumphs,  and  a  few  yards  from  his  own  house 
in  High  Street,  which  stood  on  the  east  side  of  what  is  now  known 
as  Warriston's  Close.  His  head  was  exposed  on  the  Nctherbow 
and  afterwards  buried  with  bis  body  in  Greyfriars  churchyard. 

Johnston  was  a  man  of  great  energy,  industry  and  ability, 
and  the  successful  defence  of  their  religion  by  the  Scots  was 
probably  owing  to  him  more  than  to  any  other  man.  He  is 
described  by  bis  contemporary  Robert  Baillic  as  "  one  of  the 
most  faithful  and  diligent  and  able  servants  that  our  church 
and  kingdom  has  had  all  the  tymes  of  our  troubles."'  He  was 
learned  in  the  Scottish  law,  eloquent  and  deeply  religious.  His 
passionate  devotion  to  the  cause  of  the  Scottish  church  amounted 
almost  to  fanaticism.  According  to  the  History  by  his  nephew 
Bishop  Burnet,  "he  looked  on  the  Covenant  as  the  setting 
Christ  on  his  throne."  He  had  by  nature  no  republican  leanings; 
"all  the  Royalists  in  Scotland,"  writes  Baillie  as  late  as  1646, 
"  could  not  have  pleaded  so  n}uch  for  the  crown  and  the  king's 
just  power  as  the  chancellor  and  Warriston  did  for  many  days 
together."  When,  however,  Presbyterianism  was  attacked 
and  menaced  by  the  sovereign,  he  desired,  like  Pym,  to  restrict 
the  royal  prerogative  by  a  parliamentary  constitution,  and 
endeavoured  to  found  his  arguments  on  law  and  ancient  pre- 
cedents. His  acceptance  of  office  imder  Cromwell  hardly 
deserves  the  severe  censure  it  has  received.  He  stood  nearer 
both  in  politics  and  religion  to  Cromwell  than  to  the  royalists, 
and  was  able  in  office  to  serve  usefully  the  slate  and  the  church, 
but  his  own  scrupulous  conscience  caused  him  to  condemn 
in  htt  dying  speech,  as  a  betrayal  of  the  cause  of  Presbyterianism, 
an  act  which  he  regarded  as  a  moral  fault  committed  in  order 
to  provide  for  his  numerous  family,  and  the  remembrance  of 
which  disturbed  his  last  hours.  Johnston  was  wanting  in  iact 
and  in  cpnsideration  for  his  opponents,  confessing  himself  that 
his  "  natural  temper  (or  rather  distemper)  hath  been  hasty 
and  passionate."  He  was  hated  by  Charles  I.,  whose  statecraft 
was  vanquished  by  bis  inflexible  purpose,  and  by  Charles  II., 
whom  he  rebuked  for  his  dissolute  conduct;  but  he  was  beloved 
by  Baillie,  associated  in  private  friendship  and  public  life  with 
Argyll,  and  lamented  by  the  nation  whose  cause  he  had 
championed. 

He  had  a  largfs  family,  the  most  famous  of  his  sons  being  James 
Johnston  (1655-1737),  called  "  secretary  Johnston."  Having 
taken  refuge  in  Holland  after  his  father's  execution,  Johnston 
crossed  over  to  England  in  the  interests  of  William  of  Orange 
just  before  the  revolution  of  1688.  In  1692  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  secretaries  for  Scotland,  but  he  .was  dismissed 
from  office  in  1696.  Under  Anne,  however,  he  began  again 
to  take  part  in  public  affairs,  and  was  made  brd  clerk  register. 
Johnston's  later  )rears  were  passed  mainly  at  his  residence,' 
Orleans  House,  Twickenham,  and  he  died  at  Bath  in  May  1 737. 

See  W.  Morisott,  Johnson  ej  WarrisUm  (1901). 

WARRNAIIBOOU  a  seaport  of  Villiers  county^  Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia, 166  Di.  by  rail  W.S.W.  of  Melbourne.  Pop.  (1901)  6410. 
The  town  lies  on  an  einincnce,  on  the  shores  of  Warmambool  Bay, 
in  a  rich  pastoral  and  agricultural  district.  Race  meetings  are 
held  here,  and  the  steeplechase  course  is  considered  the  finest  in 
the  colony.  Warmambool  has  a  fine  port  with  a  viaduct  and 
breakwater  pier  2400  ft.  in  length,  and  a  jetty  S60  ft.  in  length, 
on  to  which  the  railway  runs.  Large  quantities  of  dairy  produce, 
wool  and  live  stock  are  exported;  and  tlicre  are  a  number  of 
flourishing  industries  in  the  town,  including  brewing,  flour- 
milling,  tanning  and  boot  and  biscuit  manufacturing.  Sandstone 
*'  Baillie^  JjfUma  otid  Jwmoh,  (Bannatyne  Qub,  1841). 


33+  WARSAW 

4bou*dilBtlKdiilrinuidi9eils«ivd)Fqii»Tied.    ThctanD 

WARSAW,  ■   Kovernninit  ol   Rusiui  Poland,  ocmpying 
unow  iLrip  ol  iBiut  »el  of  ibe  lower  Bug  ind  wot  ol  the  VmuU 
from  its  couflueoce  with  [he  Bug  to  the  Pnusuo  frontier. 
a  bounded  by  (he  Pc^h  governments  of  PhKk  end  I'tHnxa 
Ihe  N.,  Siedke  on  the  E.,  md  Kadom,  Pioltkow  «>«1  Kal 
on  the  S.    Are)  jAossq.  m.;  eslinated  pop.  (1906)  1,769,000 
occupies  (he  great  plain  gf  centisl  Poland,  and  ii  low  and  lUt, 
with  only  1  (ei>  hilli  in  (he  south,  sild  along  (he  coun 
Vislul*  in  the  north-west,  urhere  the  (emces  on  (he  1 
defend  by  s(eep  slopes  to  thenver.   Tnrible  inunda(i< 
devastate  the  region  adjicent  to  (he  confluence  of  the 
with  (he  Narew  and  Bug,  and  Riinhei  gather  in  (he  1 
grounds.     The  wil,   which   consists  chiefly  of  bouJd 
licuilrine  clays,  and  sandy  fluvialile  deposits,  is  not  puliculatly 
fenile.    The  fovemmeni  is  divided  Into  thirteen  districts,  the 
chief  towns  of  which  are  Warsaw,  Bhiiue,  Gostynin.  Grojec, 
Kutno,  Lowici.    Neuawa,   Novo-Mlnsk,   Plonsk,   Radiymin, 
SLicrtuewice,  Sochaczew  and  Wkichlvek.    In  spite  ol  Ibc  un- 
ferlile  soil,  agriculture  is  prosecuted  with  comiderv-bk  succesA. 
Stanuficturing  industries  have  also  greitty  developed. 

WARSAW  (Polish  Warstami,  Ger.  tVarsckiH,  Fr.   Kanosfe), 
Ihe  capi(al  of  Poland  and  chief  town  ol  the  government  of 
Warsaw.     IC  is  beiulifully  situated  00  the  left  bank  of  (be 
il  E.  o(  Beriin,  and  645  m.  S.W.  of  St 


^(etiburg,     ItWH. 
which  It  descend 


vetheri^ 


by  steep  slopes,  lea 
oase.  iiKSUDurboEPrsBson  the  right  baoh  of  the  Vistula, 
re  450  10  660  yds.  broad,  is  connected  with  Warsaw  by  (wo 
idges^the  railway  bridge  which  passes  close  under  (he  guns 
(he  Alexander  ci(ade1  to  the  north,  and  the  Aleiander  bridge 
i66  ft.  long;  built  in  1865  at  a  cost  ol  (fin,  ' 
the  (own.     With  its  large  population,  its  1 

entlGc  societies,  its  palaces  and  numerous  placa  of  amsie- 


if  them 


Df  thi 


uitedin 


with  tl 


the  chief  stronghold  for  the  defence  of  PoUnd; 
del  has  been  much  improved,  and  the  bridlge 
is  defended  by  a  strong  fort,  SUwicki. 
[lie  plain,  on  a  great  navigable  river,  below  ita 
le  Pilica       


ce  with  ihe  Narew  and  Bug,  which 
tap  a  wide  region  in  the  east,  Warsaw  became  in  medieval  times 
(he  chief  cntrep6t  for  the  (rade  of  (bose  fenile  and  populous 
valleys  with  western  Europe.  Owing  to  its  podtion  in  the 
leriilory  of  Maaovia,  which  was  neither  Poli^  nor  LithitaaiaD, 
and.  so  to  say,  remained  neutral  between  the  two  rival  powers 
which  constituted  the  united  kingdom,  it  beome  the  capital  of 
both,  KOtt  secured  advantages  over  (he  purely  Polish  Cracow 
and  the  Lithuanian  ViUia-  And  now,  connected  as  it  Is  by  lUi 
trunk  lineswith  Vienna,  Kiev  aodsouth-wstetn  Russia.  Moscow, 
St  Petersburg,  Daniigand  Berlin,  it  is  one  ol  the  most  important 
commercial  cities  of  eastern  Europe,  The  soulh-westsm  railway 
conneHs  it  with  Lodi,  the  Manchester  ol  Poland,  and  with  Ihe 
productive  mineral  region  of  I^olrkow  and  Kielce,  wblcbsupply 
its  steadily  growing  manufactures  with  coal  and  iron,  so  that 
Warsaw  and  its  neighbourhood  have  become  a  centre  for  all  kinds 


The  ir 


large  quantities  of  rails.    The  machi 
Ind   find  the  high 


ce  of  land  a  great 
kufactuiesof  plated 


of  southern    Russia 
obslacleintbeway  o 
silver,  carriages,  boots  and  shoes  (an: 
millinery,  hosiery,  gloves,  tobacco,  su) 

chiefly  owing  to  the  skill  ol  (be  worke 

(he  goods  ei]unKta(c3  above,  bu(  tb< 

trade  in  com.  leather  and  coal,  and  its  ti 

have   a    great    repuutlon    throughout  wtKcn   Kuwa.    Tbe 

wholeub  deportalioDS  of   Wamw  u«iMS>  allct  iIm  Polish. 


L  Trade  is  principally  in 
dly  is  also  a  centre  for 
ol  and  hops) 


resources.    Tbe  popular  i 
from  i6[,ao8  '      " 


of  ITM,  i>li  >nd  tSi]  CDBCidcnbtir  cfaMkai,  bw 
napped,  the  industrial  piufRss  of  the  (own.  TW 
itom-huusa  all  tsuod  Poland,  and  (be  Kusaiaa  rule, 
les  agaioai  the  piogreia  ol  Poluh  science,  lechnotocy 
"  many  obstacles  to  Ihe  developRiciiI  of  its  natural 


7O.000  in  1S72  and  436.7; 


ihiepiscspal  seeof  the  Gniek  Orthodoa 
I,  and  tile  headquarters  ol  tlu  v.. 


d  Roman  Catholic 

I.  and  XV.  Amy  Coips. 

Tlie  Mreeti  of  Warsaw  are  adorned  with  mii 
rtly  palacei  nhiblting  Ihc  Polirii  noMUiy's  lovi 
urcha  and  catlwdtals,and| 


Ise  public  |ardrns  and  sr 


but  ckwiTin  rSjI."*!!*' 


s  ■lliith.daii  inniiuiioii?^ 
and  the  hu^oTKal  and  agricultur 
known,  but  were  H^ipr^Kd  ain 


the  L^iienkl  sanleni,  which  were  laid  odi 
d  of  the  ViiruU  by  Kuie  StaniUaus  Ponii- 
ul  iliady  alleya.  artificial  pondt.  an  cIhio 
inied  by^ccunni,  several  imriTTdl 


__.,._  bv  Sis 

jppoflte)  arHl  Ladialaua  IV..  a. 

SuniikusFvniatowski.  Atprt— ,. 

general  of  (he  province*  on  ihe  ViuuU  "  (u-  Poland),  atvd  by  ih  _ 
military  authorities.  Most  of  its  pictures  and  other  art  tteasons 
have  been  removed  to  St  Pelenbuiy  and  Mdksw.  Foar  Ban 
thoiou|lifaies  radiate  Inm  il;  one,  the  KakewAie  Pnedmient, 
the  best  atreei  in  Waraw,  runs  KHithward.  It  k  continued  by  ibc 
the  Ufudowslc*  Aleji  avenue,  which  leads  10  Ihe 
"—'— building!  are  found  in  and  near  these 
.nne  ,([4541,  vdiich  bdonnd  fomierly 

'iSrih^  nmunmi  (iS9»r™(K 
■nei  li79»-iSS5)i 11" Aleiinder  Nev.Vi 

reck  Church,  builr  in  island  followinB 

aun  Square  in  the  Bysamine  style,  with  livegilded 

letached  campanile,  ijS  f[.  high:  clwe  beside  it  the 

altee.  once  Ihe  nsidcnce  d  ibe  Poliih  kings  but  no* 

.J  ............  ,  ofSnj;  (lie  Lutheran  chureh, 

.,. ...,  - — -  conspicuous  bi  Warsaw;  a  monu- 

:o  (he  Polish  genenli  who  held  with  Russia  in  ttyt 
therefore  shot  tnr  tbor  cowigstriots,  reesovcd  to  the 
iQuare  m  IM  !  the  bviUiags  of  the  Art  Asociation. 
iSfg-looa;  the  univeniiy  (tee  above);  thechurrh  of  the 
Mt  ;J6Sl-l6o6),  wilh  the  heart  and  raonumtnl  of  the 
F.  F.  Chopin:  a  monument  (1830)  to  Ihe  Htiononier 
nicus  (1473-IM3):  the  jialacei  o(  the  families  ZaDwyiki 

irmonid  Soci«y  (l89»-iO01);  and  the  church  ot  Sl^ej- 

,_ilt  in  iSi6  and  •plendidly  restored  in  iS^r.    The  tljai- 

dowska  iUcJa  avenue,  planted  with  Ume-trces  and  bordered  iswh 
cafta  and  places  of  amusement,  is  (he  Ounns  Ely(«es  of  Warsaw. 
Il  leads  to  the  Laiieaki  park  aod  ta  Ihe  Bdvedrre  palace  (iSii). 
Dier  residence  of  Ihe  governor-general ,  and  farther  wesi 

.-  ..LDWski  parade  gnnimC  which  is  sumunded  onrhe  mirh 

and  west  by  Ihe  manufacturing  dialriet-    Another  principal 


isSaai 
Uniahed  in  1799.' 


(his  parade  trDaad,  or 


1  to  (his  paiade 
in  bofrsdis.    Th 


Saaoa 

:n  are  ibe 


WARSAW—WART 


335 


boraed  la  1863.  but  icfiailt  in  1870:  the  mall  Pod  Blacha  paUoe. 
DOW  occupied  by  a  chancery:  the  theatre  (1813):  the  old  mint; 
the  beautiful  Reformed  church  (i  88a);  the  Orthodox  Greek  cathedral 
of  the  Trinity,  rebuilt  in  1837:  the  Krastnaki  palace  (1693).  humed 
in  1783  but  rebuflt;  the  place  of  meetins  of  the  Polish  dieu,  now 
the  Supreme  Court;  the  church  of  the  Transfiffaiation.  a  thank- 
offering  by  John  Sobiedd  for  his  victory  of  1683,  and  OMitaininf 
his  heart  and  that  of  Stanialaua  Pomatowdri;  and  Kvcial  palaoet 
aregrouped  in  or  near  Senator*'  Street  and  Miodowa  Street. 

lo  the  west  Senators'  ^reet  is  continued  by  ElectlMB'  Street, 
where  is  the  very  elegant  chuich  (1849)  of  St  Charles  Borromeo, 
and  the  Chkxina  Street  leading  to  the  suburb  of  Wofai,  with  a  large 
fidd  where  the  kinn  of  Poland  used  to  be  elected.  In  Leshno  Street, 
whkh  branches  on  from  Scnatore'  Street,  are  the  Zefauna  Brama, 
or  Iron  Gate;  in  the  market-place  the  bazaar,  the  ancnal  and  the 
Wietopolski  barracks. 

To  the  north  of  Sigismund  Square  Is  the  old  town  Stare  Miasto 
—the  Jewish  quarter,  and  farther  north  etill  the  Alexander  citadel. 
The  okl  town  very  much  recalls  old  Germany  by  its  narrow  streets 
and  antique  buiklings^  the  cathedral  of  St  John,  the  moAt  ancient 
rch  in  Warsaw,  havmg  bi 


church  i 


;  been  built  in  the  13th  century  and  restored 


In  the  f  7th.  The  dtadel.  erected  in  i83»-i8m  as  a  punishment  for 
the  insurrection  of  1831,  is  of  the  old  type,  with  six  forta  too  ckise  to 
the  walls  of  the  fortress  to  be  useful  in  modern  warfare. 

The  suburb  of  PMga,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vistula,  b  poorly 
built  and  often  flootted;  bat  the  bloody  assaults  which  led*  to  its 
capture  in  1^94  by  the  Russians  under  Suvarov,  and  in  1831  by 
Plukevich,  give  it  a  name  in  history. 

In  the  outskirts  of  Warsaw  are  various  more  or  less  noteworthy 
viUas,  palaces  and  battlehdda.  Willaaow,  the  palace  of  John 
Sobieski,  afterwards  belon^ng  to  Count  X.  Branicid,  was  partly 
built  in  1678-1604  byr  Turkish  prisoners  in  a  fine  Italian  style,  and 
is  now  renowned  for  its  historical  relics,  portraits  and  pktures.  It 
is  situated  to  the  south  of  Warsaw,  together  with  the  pretty  pilgrim- 
age chnrdi  of  Csemiakow,  built  by  Prince  Stanisbus  LubomiraJci  in 
1691.  and  many  other  fine  villas  (Morysinek,  Natolin,  Kiolikamia, 
which  also  has  a  picture  callery,  Wterzbno  and  Mokotow).  Mary- 
fflont,  an  old  country  resiaence  of  the  wife  of  John  Sobicsld.  and  the 
Kaskada,  much  visited  by  the  inhabitants  of  Warsaw,  in  the  north, 
the  Saska  Kerapa  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vistula,  aim)  the  castle 
of  Jablona  down  the  Vistula  are  amoiw  others  that  deserve  mention. 
The  castle  and  forest  of  Bielany  (4f  ro.  N.),  on  the  bank  of  the 
Vistula,  are  a  popular  holiday  resort  m  the  spring 

Among  the  battlefields  in  the  neighbourhood  w  that  of  GrocAow 
where  the  Polish  creopa  were  defeated  tn  1831,  and  Wawer  in  the 
same  quarter  (E.  of  P)raga)»  where  Prince  Joseph  Poniatowski 
defeated  the  Austrians  in  the  war  of  1809;  at  Maciejowice,  50  m. 
up  the  Vistula,  Kosduszko  was  wounded  and  talccn  by  the  Russians 
in  1794:  and  20  m.  down  the  river  stands  the  fortress  of  Modlin, 
No^ 


History. — The  history  of  Waisaw  from  the  i6th  century 
onwards  is  intimately  connected  with  that  of  Poland.  The 
precise  date  of  the  foundation  of  the  town  is  not  known;  but 
it  is  supposed  that  Cooradp  duke  of  llasovia,  erected  a  castle 
onthepfeseatsiteofWanawascarlyastbeQthcentury.  Casimir 
the  Just  is  supposed  to  have  fortified  it  in  the  11th  century,  but 
Warsaw  is  not  mentioned  in  annals  before  1934.  Until  1526  it 
was  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Masovia,  but  when  their 
dynasty  became  extinct  it  was  anneied  to  Poland.  When 
Poland  and  ILithuania  were  united,  Warsvw  was  chosen  as  the 
royak  residence.  Sigismund  Augustus  (Wasa)  made  it  (1550) 
the  real  capital  of  POhmd,  and  from  1572  onwards  the  election 
of  the  kings  of  Poland  tpok  place  on  the  field  of  Wola,  on  the  W. 
outskirts  of  the  city.  From  the  1 7th  centuiy  possession  of  it  was 
continually  disputed  between  the  Swedes,  the  Russians,  the 
BrandenbuTgefs  and  the  Atkstrians»  Chark»  GusUvus  of -Sweden 
took  it  in  1655  and  kept  it  lor  a  year;  the  Poles  retook 
it  in  July  1656,  but  lost  it  again  almost, fanmediately.  Augustus 
II.  and  Augustus  III.  did  much  for  its  embellishment,  but  it 
had  nluch  to  suffer  during  the  war  with  Charles  XU-.  tA  Sweden, 
who  captured  it  in  1702;  but  in  the  foUowing  year  peace  was 
made,  and  it  became  free  again.  The  disorders  which  followed 
upon  the  death  ol  Augustus  III.  in  1763  opened  a  field  for 
Russian  intrigue,  and  in  1764  the  Russians  took  possession  of 
the  town  and  secured  the  election  of  Stanislaus  Poniatowski, 
which  led  in  1773  to  the  first,  partition  of  Poland.  In  November 
1794  the  Russians  took  it  again,  after  the  bloody  assault  on 
Prsga,  but  next  year,  in  the  third  partition  of  Poland,  Warsaw 
was  given  to  Prussia.  In  November  1806  the  town  was  occupied 
by  the  troops  of  Napoleon,  and  after  the  peace  of'  lllsit  (1807) 
was  made  the  capital  of  th^  .iudependent  duchy  of  Warsaw; 


but  the  Austrians  seised  it  on  the  axst  of  April  1809,  and  kept 
possession  of  it  till  the  2nd  Sf  June,  when  it  once  more  became 
independent.  The  Russians  finally  took  ifcon  the  8th  ol  Febniary 
1813.  On  the  39th  of  November  1830,  Warsaw  gave  the  signal 
lor  the  unsuccessful  insurrection  which  lasted  nearly  one  year; 
the  dty  was  capttued  after  great  bloodshed  by  Paskevich,  on 
the  7th  of  September  1831.  Deportations  on  a  large  scale, 
executions,  and  confiscation  of  the  domains  of  the  nobility 
followed,  and  until  1856  Warsaw  remained  under  severe  military 
rule.  In  t869  a  series  of  demonstrations  began  to  be  made  in 
Warsaw  in  favour  of  the  independence  of  Poland,  and  after 
a  bloody  repression  a  general  insurrection  followed  in  January 
1863,  the  Russians  remaining,  however,  masters  of  the  situation. 
Executions,  banishment  to  the  convict  prisons  of  Siberia,  and 
confiscation  of  estates  followed.  Dqwrtation  to  Siberia  and  the 
interior  of  Russia  was  carried  out  on  an  unheard-of  scale. 
Scientific  societies  and  high  schools  were  closed;  monasteries 
and  nunneries  were  emptied.  Hundreds  of  Russian  officials 
were  called  in  to  fill  the  administrative  posts,  and  to  teach  in  the 
schools  and  the  umvecnty;  the  Russian  language  was  made 
obligatory  in  all  official  acts,  in  all  legal  proceedings,  and  even, 
to  a  gieat  extent,  in  trade.  The  very  name  of  Poland  was 
expunged  from  official  writings,  and,  while  the  old  institu- 
tions were  abolished,  the  Russian  tribuaab  and  administra- 
iivt  institutlonB  were  introduced.  The  serfs  were  liberated. 
Much  rioting  and  lawless  bloodshed  took  phure  in  the  dty  in 
X905-1906.  (P.  A.  K.;  J.  T.  Be.) 

WARSAW,  a  dty  and  the  oouaty-seat  of  Koadusko  county, 
Indiana,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Tippecanoe  river,  about  no  m.  E.  of  Chi> 
cago.  Fop.  (1890)3547;  (1900)  3987,  Including  lo?  fordgn-bom; 
(1910)  4430.  Warsaw  ia  served  by  the  Pittsburg,  Fort  Wayne 
&  Chicago  (Pennsylvania  system)  and  the  Cleveland,  Cindnnati, 
Chicago  &  St  Louis  railwasrs.  «nd  by  interurban  electric  lines. 
It  is  picturesquely  situated  in  the  hike  country  of  Indiana  on 
Cenur,  Pike  and  Winona  bikes.  Immediately  £.  ol  the  dty, 
on  Winona  (formerly  Eagle)  Lake,  which  is  about  2  by  3  m.  and 
has  an  average  depth  of  30  ft.,  is  Winona  (formerly  Spring 
Foontain)  Park  (incorporated  1895  krgdy  by  Presbyterians), 
which  primarily  aims  to  combine  the  advantages  of  Northfield, 
Massachusetts,  and  Chautauqua,  New  York.  There  is  excellent 
boating  and  bathing  here,  and  there  are  mineral  springs  in  the 
Park,  where  in  the  summer  there  are  a  Chautauqua  course  lasting 
for  six  weeks,  a  normal  school,  a  Bible  school,  a  Bible  conference, 
a  school  of  missions,  an  International  Training  School  for  Stmday 
School  Workers,  a  confeicnoe  of  temperance  wotkers  and  nature 
study  and  other  regubv  summer  school  oourscs;  and  in  other 
months  of  the  year  courses  are  given  here  by  the  Winona  Normal 
School  and  Agrjadtural  Institute,  Winona  Academy  (for  boys) 
and  Wmona  Conservmtioty  of  Music,  and  t  he  Winona  Park  School 
for  Young  WComen,  The  control  of  the  Park  is  inter-denomi- 
national~^he  Winont  Federated  Church  was  organised  in  1905. 
Under  practically  the  ssbk  control  Is  the  Winona  Technical 
Institute  In  IndiaoapoKs.  The  surrounding  country  is  devoted 
to  farming  and  stock  raising.  Warsaw  was  first  platted  in  1836, 
and  became  a  dty  m  1875. 

WART  (Lat.  verrMca),  a  papillaiy  excrescence  of  the  skin,  or 
mucous  membrane.  The  ordinary  flat  warts  of  the  skin  occur 
mostly  upon  the  hands  of  diildren  itad  young  persons;  a  long 
pendulous  variety  occuis  about  the  chin  or  neck  of  delicate 
children,  and  on  the  scalp  in  adults.  Warts  are  apt  to  come  out 
in  numbers  at  a  time;  a  crop  of  them  suddenly  appears,  to 
daappear  after  a  time  with  equal  suddenness.  Hence  the  sup- 
posed efficacy  of  charms.  A  single  wart  will  sometimes  remain 
when  the  general  eruption  has  vanished.  The  liability  of  crops 
of  warts  runs  m  families.  In  alter  Hie  a  wart  on  the  bands  or 
fingers  is  usually  brought  on  by  some  irritation,  often  repeated, 
even  if  it  be  slight.  Warts  often  occur  on  the  wrists  and  knuckles 
of  sUuigbter-house  men  and  of  those  much  occupied  with  ana- 
tomical dissection ;  they  are  often  of  tuberculous  origin  (butchera* 
warts).  Chimney-sweps  and  workers  in  coal-tar,  petroleum, 
&c.,  are  subject  to  warts,  which  often  become  cancerous.  Warts 
occur  singly  hi  later  life  on  the  nose  or  lips  or  other  parts  ol  the 


J36 


WARTBURG,  THE—WARTON,  J. 


fsce,  sometimes  oit  the  tongue;  they  are  very  apt  to  become 
malignant.  Towards  old  age  broad  and  flattened  patches  of 
warts  of  a  greasy  conastence  and  brownish  colour  <rften  occur 
on  the  back  and  shoulders.  They  also  are  im>t  to  become 
malignant.  Indeed,  warts  occurring  on  the  lip  or  tongue,  or  on 
any  part  of  the  body  of  a  person. advanced  in  life,  should  be 
suspected  of  malignant  associations  and  dealt  with  accordin^y. 
Venereal  warts  occur  as  the  result  of  gononhoeal  irritation  or 
syphilitic  infection. 

A  wart  consisu  of  a  delicate  framework  of  Uood-vesMls  sup- 
ported by  fibrous  tissue,  with  a  covering  of  epidermic  scales. 
When  the  wart  is  young,  the  surface  is  roonded;  as  it  gets 
nibbed  it  is  deft  into  projecting  points.  The  blood-vessels, 
whose  outgrowth  from  the  surface  really  makes  the  wart,  may  be 
in  a  cluster  of  parallel  loops,  as  in  the  common  sessile  wart,  or 
the  vessels  may  branch  from  a  sinj^  stem,  making  the  long, 
pendulous  warts  of  the  chin  and  neck.  The  same  kinds  of  warts 
also  occur  on  mucous  surfaces.  It  is  owing  to  its  vascularity 
that  a  wart  is  liable  to  come  back  after  being  shaved  off;  the 
vessels  are  cut  down  to  the  level  of  the  skin,  but  the  blood  is 
still  forced  mto  the  stem,  and  the  branches  are  thrown  out  beyond 
the  surface  as  before.  This  faa  has  a  bearing  on  the  treatment 
of  warts,  if  they  are  snipped  off,  the  bkxxl-vessds  of  the  stem 
should  be  destroyed  at  the  same  time  by  a  hot  wire  or  some  other 
caustic,  or  made  to  shrivel  by  an  astringent.  The  same  end  is 
served  by  a  gradually  tightening  ligature  (sudi  as  a  thread  of 
elastic)  round  the  base  of  the  wart.  Glacial  acetic  or  carbolic 
add  may  be  applied  on  the  end  of  a  g^aas  rod,  or  by  a  camel-hair 
brush,  care  being  taken  not  to  tovvch  the  adjoining  skin.  A 
solution  of  perchloride  of  iron  is  also  effective  in  the  same  way. 
Nitrate  of  silver  is  objectionable,  owing  to  the  black  stains  left 
by  it.  A  simple  domestic  remedy,  often  effectual,  is  the  astringent 
and  acrid  juice  of  the  common  stonecrop  {Sedum  acre)  nibbed 
into  the  wart,  time  after  time,  from  the  freshly  gathered  herb. 
The  result  of  these  various  applications  is  that  the  wart  loses  its 
firmness,  shrivels  up,  and  falls  off.  Malignant  and  tuberculous 
warts  should  be  removed  by  the  scalpel  or  sharp  spoon,  their 
bases,  if  thought  advisable,  being  treated  by  pure  carbolic  acid. 

A  peculiar  form  of  wait,  known  as  verrugast  occurs  endemically- 
in  the  Andes,  ft  is  bdieved  to  have  been  one  of  the  causes  of 
the  excessive  mortality  from  haemorrhages  of  the  skin  amon^  the 
troops  of  Pizarro.  Attention  was  callol  to  it  by  Dr  Archibald 
Smith  in  1843;  in  1874,  during  the  making  of  the  Trans* Andean 
laiJway,  it  caused  considerable  loss  of  life  among  English  navvies 
and  engineers.  (E»  O.*) 

WARTBURO,  THB,  a  castle  near  Eisenach  in  the  grsad-duchy 
of  Saxe-Wdmar.  It  is  magnificently  situated  on  the  top  of  a 
precipitous  hill,  and  is  reinarkable  not  only  for  its  historical 
assodations  but  as  containing  one  of  the  few  well-preserved 
Romanesque  palaces  in  existence.  The  original  castlcr  of  which 
some  parts — including  a  portion  of  the  above-mentioned  palace 
(Laadgrafenbaus)-~still  exist,  was  built  by  the  landgrave  Louis 
"  the  Springer  **  (d.  tiaj),  and  from  his  time  until.  1440  it  re- 
mained the  scat  of  the  Thuringlan  laadgravea.  Under  the 
landgnave  Hermann  I.,  the  Wartburg  was  the  home  of  a  boister- 
ous court  to  which  minstrels  and  "  wandering  folk "  of  all 
descriptions  streamed;^  and  it  was  here  that  in  1207  took  place 
the  minstrels'  contest  {Sdngtrkriti^  immortalised  in  Wagner's 
TannMuser,  Some  years  later  it  became  the  home  of  the 
saintly  Elizabeth  of  Hungary  {qa.)  on  her  marriage  to  Louis  the 
Saint  (d.  1237),  to  whom  she  was  betiiDthed  in  xaii  at  the  age  of 
four.^  It  was  to  the  Wartburg,  too,  that  on  the  4th  of  May  r  531  * 
Luther  was  brought  for  safety  at  the  instance  of  Frederick  the 
Wise,  elector  of  Saxony,  and  it  was  during  his  ten  months' 
residence  here  (under  the  incognito  of  Junker  Jflcg)  that  he 
completed  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament. 

From  this  time  the  castle  was  allowed  gradually  to  decay. 
It  was  restored  in  the  x8th  century  in  the  questionable  taste  of 

<  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide  (ed.  F.  PTdffer  f88o.  Na  99)  and 
Wolfram  von  Ecchenbacn  (Parrivsl  vt.  536  and  WiUekalm  41^.  a6) 
both  refer  to  the  noise  and  constant  crush  of  crowds  passing  mand 
out  at  the  Wartburg  "  nicfat  and  day." 

*  Wagner,  with  a  poet^  licence,  lias  placed  the  54af«rAri^ during 
Elisabeth's  rendence  at  the  Wartburg. 


the  period;  but  its  present  magnificence  ft  owes  to  the  (nad- 
duke  Charies  Alexander  of  Saxe-Wdmar,  with  whom  at  certain 
sessons  of  the  year  it  was  a  favourite  residence. 

The  most  interesting  part  of  the  castle  is  the  Romanesque  Lsm^ 
gnStnknaa,  This,  besides  a  chapd,  contains  two  magntfioent  hals 
known  as  the  Sdnftrsaal  (hall  of  the  minatrela) — in  which  Wasaer 
lays  one  act  of  his  opera  and  the  Falmol  (festival  hail),  llie 
Sdngersaal  is  dcooratca  with  a  fine  fresco,  reproenting  the  nunstreb' 
contest,  .by  Morita  von  Schwind,  who  also  executed  the  freaooes  in 
other  parts  of  the  buiJdittg  iliustmting  the  legends  of  St  Elisabeth  and 
of  the  foundiiiK  of  the  castle  by  Louis  the  Spriiyer.  The  Asfssof 
has  frescoes  illustrating  the  tnumphs  of  Christianity,  by  Wdcer.. 
In  the  buildings  of  the  outer  court  of  the  castle  is  the  room  onoe 
occupied  by  Luther,  containing  a  much  mutilated  four-post  bed 
and  other  relics  of  the  reformer.  The  famous  blot  caused  by  Luther's 
burling  his  ink-pot  at  the  devil  has  long  since  become  a  mesw  hole  in 
the  wall,  owiiifl^  it  is  said— to  the  passion  of  American  tourists  for 
"  souvenirs." 

The  annouty  (Rjixtkammer)  contains  a  fine  collection  of  armoVi 
induding  suits  formerly  bdonging  to  Henryll.  of  France,  the  dectar 
Frederick  the  Wise  and  Pope  Julius  II.  The  erc^t  watch-tower  of 
the  castle  comnaods  a  magniiicent  view  of  the  Thuringian  kmnt 
on  the  one  side  and  the  plain  on  the  other. 

WARTHB  (Polish,  Warta),  a  river  of  Poland  and  Germany, 
and  the  chief  affluent  of  the  Oder.    It  rises  on  the  north  dope 
of  the  Carpathian  Mountdns  N.W.  of  Cracow,  flows  north  as&r 
as  Radomisk,  then  west,  then  north  again  past  Sieraxlz,  until  it 
reaches  K(^  where  it  again  turns  west,  crosses  the  ItoBtierinle 
the  Prussian  province  of  Posen,  where  it  takes  a  ttonheHy 
cUrection  past  the  town  of  Posen.  Then  once  more  bending  vtst, 
it  flows  past  Schwerin  and  Landsberg  and  enters  the  Oder  tm 
the  right  at  Ciistrin.    Its  total  length  is  445  m.  of  which  215  an 
in  Pohmd  and  330  in  Prusda;  it  is  navigable  up  to  Renin  m 
West  Poland,  a  distance  of  265  m.  Its  banks  are  mostly  low  and 
.flat,  its  lower  course  espedally  running  through  drained  and 
oiltivated  marshes.   It  is  connected  with  the  Vistula  through  its 
tributary  the  Netse  and  the  Brombetg  canaL    The  area  of  its 
drainage  basin  b  17,400  sq.  m. 

WART-^00.  the  designation  of  certam  hideous  African  wild 
swine  (see  Swime),  characterized  by  the  presence  of  huqgc  warty 
protuberances  on  the  face,  the  la^  dse  of  the  tusks  in  both 
sexes,  e^>edally  the  upper  pair,  which  are  larger  and  stouter 
than  the  lower  ones  and  are  not  worn  at  thdr  summits,  and  the 
complexity  and  great  size  of  the  last  pair  of  mdar  teeth  in  each 
jaw.  The  adults  have  frequently  do  teeth  except  those  just 
mentioned,  and  neariy  bare  skins;  and  the  young  are  uniformly 
coloured.  Two  neariy  allied  spedes  are  recognised,  namely, 
the  southern  Pkacochoents  adhio^cus^  which  formerly  ranged 
as  far  south  as  the  Cape,  and  the  northern  P.  afrkanus^  which 
extends  to  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia,  where  it  has  been  found  at 
a  high  elevation.  In  South  and  East  Africa  wftrt-hogs  frequent 
more  or  less  open  country,  near  water,  and  dwell  in  holes,  generally 
those  of  the  aard-vark.  In  Abysdnia,  on  the  other  hand,  they 
spend  the  day  among  bushes,  or  in  ravines,  feeding  at  night. 

WARTOW,  JOSEPH  (r733-i8od),  English  critic  and  poet, 
eldest  son  of  Thomas  Warton  (see  below),  was  baptised  at  Duns- 
fold,  Sunty,  on  the  33nd  of  April  1733,  and  entered  Winchester 
school  on  the  foundatioir  in  1735.  William  Cdlbis  was  slready 
there,  and  the  two  formed  a  friendship  whidt  was  maintained 
through  thdr  Oxford  career.  They  read  Milton  aod  Spenser 
together,  and  wrote  verses,  which,  published  in  the  Genttiman** 
itttgninet  attracted  the  attention  of  Dr  Johnson.  Warton  went 
to  Orid  College,  Oxford,  in  1740,  and  took  his  BA.  degree  in 
1744.  He  took  holy  orders,  and  during  his  father's  lifetime 
acted  as  his  curate  at  Badngstoke.  He-  then  weitt  to  Chdsea, 
London;  but  eventually  returned  to  Badngstoko.  He  married, 
became  rector  of  Hl^ndade  (1749),  of  Tunwotth  (1754);  in  r755 
he  was  appointed  a  master  in  Winchester  school,  and  headmaster 
in  1766.  He  was  not  a  successful  schoolmaster,  and  when  the 
boys  mutinied  against  him  for  the  third  time  he  wisdy  resigned 
hispodtion  (1793). 

His  leisure  was  devoted  to  fiterature.  Warton  was  far  from 
having  the  genius  fA  Collins,  but  they  were  at  one  in  their  im- 
patience under  the  prevailing  taste  for  morsl  and  ethical  poetry. 
Whoever  wishes  to  understand  how  eariy  the  reaction  against 
Ftope*s  style  began  should  read  Waiton^  TAe  ArfAMtoA 


WARTON,  T.— WARWICK,  EARLS  OF 


«r  Tie  Lover  tf  Haturt,  and  remember  that  it  wat  pfinted 
in  1744,  the  year  of  Pope's  death.  "  As  he  is  convinced/*  he 
wrote  in  the  preface  (1746)  to  his  Od$s  on  Several  Subjects, "  that 
the  fashion  of  moralizing  in  verse  has  been  carried  too  far,  and 
as  he  looks  upon  invention  and  imagination  to  be  the  chief 
faculties  of  a  poet,  so  he  will  be  happy  if  the  following  odes  may 
be  looked  upon  as  an  attempt  to  bring  back  poetry  into  its  right 
channel."  He  published  an  edition  (1753)  in  Latin  and  English 
of  Virgil.  Thb  contained  Christopher  Pitt's  version  of  the 
Aeneid,  his  own  rendering  of  the  Bdogues  and  Georgics  in  the 
heroic  measure,  and  essays  by  Warburton  and  others.  Warton 
himself  appended  essays  on  epic  and  didactic  poetry,  a  life  of 
Virgil  and  notes.  He  made  the  acquaintance  of  Dr  Johnson, 
and  wrote  papers  on  Shakespeare  and  Homer  hi  The  Adventurer; 
and  in  1757  he  published  the  first  part  of  an  Essay  on  the  Genius 
and  Writings  of  Pope,  an  essay  regarded  at  the  time  as  revolu- 
tionary, by  Johnson  at  least,  because'  it  put  Pope  hi  the  second 
rank  to  Shakespeare,  Spenser  and  Milton,  on  the  ground  that 
moral  and  ethical  poetry,  however  excellent,  is  an  inferior  species. 
He  held  his  own  against  Johnson  in  the  Literary  Club;  and  after 
enduring  many  jests  about  the  promised  second  part  of  the  essay 
and  the  delay  in  its  appearance,  published  it  at  last,  retractfaig 
nothing,  m  r7S2.  Warton's  edition  of  Pope  was  published  In 
1 797-  An  edition  of  Dryden,  for  which  he  had  collected  materials, 
was  completed  and  published  by  his  son  fai  181 1.  Warton  was 
a  prebendary  of  St  Paul's  and  of  Winchester  Cathedrals,  and  held 
the  livings  of  Upham  and  of  Wickham,  Hampshire,  where  he 
died  on  the  23rd  of  February  x8oo. 

See  Biozra^hical  Memoirs  of  the  Late  Rev.  Joseph  Warton,  by  John 
Wooll  (v^.  1.,  1806,  no  more  published). 

WARTON,  THOMAS  (c.  1688-1745),  English  author,  professor 
of  poetry  at  Oxford,  son  of  Anthony  Warton,  was  bom  at  Godal- 
ming  about  x688.  He  was  educated  at  Hart  Hall  and  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford.  He  was  satirized  for  his  incompetence  as 
professor  of  poetry  by  Nicholas  Amhurst  in  Terrae  filius  as 
*-  squinting  Tom  of  Maudlin."  He  was  vicar  of  Basmgstoke, 
Hampshire,  and  master  of  the  grammar-school  of  the  town, 
where  he  had  among  his  pupils  Gilbert  White,  the  naturalist. 
He  received  further  preferments  in  the  churdi,  and  died  at 
Basingstoke  on  the  loth  of  September  1745.  He  published 
nothing  during  his  lifetime,  but  after  his  death  his  son  Joseph 
published  some  of  his  poetry  under  the  title  of  Poems  on  Several 
Occasions  (1748). 

WARTON.  THOMAS  (1728-1790),  English  poet-laureate  and 
historian  of  poetry,  younger  son  of  Thomas  Warton  (see  above), 
was  born  at  Basingstolce  on  the  9th  of  January  1728.  He  was 
stUI  more  precocious  as  a  poet  than  his  brother— translated  one 
of  Martial's  epigrams  at  nine,  and  wrote  The  Pleasures  of  Melan^ 
choly  at  seventeen— and  he  showed  exactly  the  same  bent, 
Milton  and  Spenser  being  hb  favourite  poets,  though  he  "  did 
not  fail  to  cultivate  his  mind  with  the  soft  thrillings  of  the  tragic 
muse  "  of  Shakespeare. 

In  a  poem  written  fn  1745  he  shows  the  delight  fai  Gothic 
churches  and  ruined  castles  which  mspired  so  much  of  lus  subse- 
quent work  hi  romantic  revival.  Most  of  Warton's  poetry, 
humorous  and  serious — and  the  humorous  mock  heroic  was 
better  within  his  powers  than  serious  verse — was  written  before 
the  age  of  twenty-three,  when  he  took  his  M.A.  degree  and 
became  a  fellow  of  his  college  (Trinity,  Oxford).  He  did  not 
altogether  abandon  verse;  his  sonnets,  especially,  which  are  the 
best  of  his  poems,  were  written  later.  But  his  main  energies 
were  given  to  omnivorous  poetical  reading  and  criticism.  He 
was  the  first  to  turn  to  literary  acount  U^  medieval  treasures 
of  the  Bodleian  Library.  It  was  through  him,  in  fact,  that  the 
medieval  spirit  which  always  lingered  in  Oxford  first  began  to 
stir  after  its  long  inaction,  and  to  daim  an  influence  in  the  modem 
world.  Warton,  like  his  brother,  entered  the  church,  and  held 
one  after  another,  various  livings,  but  he  did  not  marrv.  He 
gave  little  attention  to  his  clerical  duties,  and  Oxford  always 
remained  his  home.  In  1749  he  published  an  heroic  poem  in 
praise  of  Oxford,  The  Triumph  of  Isis.  He  was  a  very  easy 
and  convivial  as  well  as  a  very  learned  don,  with  a  taste  fbr 


337 

pothouses  and  crowds  as  weU  as  dim  aisles  and  romances  In 
manuscript  and  black  letter.  The  first  proof  that  he  gave  of 
his  extraonlinarily  wide  scholarship  was  in  his  Observations  on  the 
Poetry  of  Spenser  (1754).  Three  years  later  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  poetry,  and  held  the  office  for  ten  years,  sending 
round,  according  to  the  9tory,  at  the  beginning  of  term  to  inquire 
whether  anybody  wished  him  to  lecture.  The  first  volume  of 
his  monumental  work.  The  History  of  English  Poetry,  appeared 
twenty  years  later,  hi  1774,  the  second  volume  in  1778,  and  the 
third  in  1 78 1.  A  work  of  such  enormous  labour  and  research 
could  proceed  but  slowly^  and  it  was  no  wonder  that  Warton 
flagged  in  the  execution  of  it,  and  stopped  to  refresh  himself 
with  annoUting  (1785)  the  minor  poems  of  Milton,  pouring  out 
in  this  delightfiil  work  the  accumulated  suggestions  of  forty 
years. 

In  1785  he  became  Camden  professor  of  history,  and  was 
made  poet-laureate  In  the  same  year.  Among  his  minor  works 
were  an  edition  of  Theocritus,  a  selection  of  Latin  and  Greek 
inscriptions,  the  humorous  O^rford  Companion  to  the  Guide  and 
Guide  to  the  Companion  (176a);  The  Oxford  Sausage  (1764);  an 
edition  of  Theocritus  (1770);  lives  of  Sir  Thomas  Pope  and 
Ralph  Bathurst,  college  benefactors;  a  History  of  the  Antiquities 
of  Kiddington  Parish,  of  which  he  held  the  living  (1781);  and 
an  Inquiry  into  the  Authenticity  of  the  Poems  attributed  to  Thomas 
Rowley  (1783).  Hb  busy  and  convivial  life  was  ended  by  a 
paralytic  stroke  in  May  1 790. 

Warton's  poems  were  first  collected  in  1777,  and  he  was  engaged 
at  the  time  of  his  death  on  a  corrected  edition,  which  appeared  in 
1791,  with  a  memoir  by  his  friend  and  admirer,  Richard  Mant. 
They  were  edited  in  1822  for  the  BriUsk  Poets,  by  &  W.  Sjneer. 

The  History  of  English  Poetry  from  ike  close  of  Ike  iJth  to  the  Com" 
mencement  of  the  iSth  Century,  to  tokick  are  prefixed  two  Dissertations: 
I.  On  tke  Origin  of  Romantic  Fiction  in  Europe;  IL  On  tke  Introduc- 
tion of  Learning  tnto  England  (1774-1781)  was  only  brought  down 
to  the  doae  of  the  16th  century.  It  was  criticisea  by  J.  Ritson  ia 
1783  in  A  Familiar  Letter  to  the  Author.  A  new  edition  came  out 
in  1824,  with  an  elaborate  introduction  by  the  editor,  Richard  Price, 
who  added  to  the  text  comments  and  emendations  from  Joseph 
Ritson,  Francis  Douce,  George  Ashby,  Thomas  Park  and  himself. 
Another  editk>n  of  this,  stated  to  be  ''further  improved  by  thfc 
porrtc^iotts  and  additions  of  several  eminent  antiqunrics,"  appeared 
in  i8io.  In  1871  the  book  was  subjected  to  a  radical  revision  by 
Mr  w.  C.  Hazlitt.  He  cut  out  passages  in  which  Warton  had  been 
led  into  ^roes  errors  by  misreading  his  authorities  or  relying  on  false 
iofomuKtion,  and  supplied  within  brackets  information  on  authora 
or  w<vks  omitted.  Warton's  matter^  which  was  somewhat  acattercd„ 
although  he  worked  on  a  chronological  plan,  was  in  some  cases  re- 
arranged and  the  mass  of  profuse  and  often  contradictory  notes 
was  cut  down,  although  new  information  was  added  by  the  editor 
and  his  associates.  Sir  Frederick  Madden,  Thomas  Wright,  W.  Aldis 
Wright,  W.  W.  Skeat.  Richard  Morris  and  F.  J.  FunuvaU.  When 
all  criticbm  has  been  allowed  for  the  inaccuracies  of  Warton's  work, 
and  the  unsatisfactory  nature  of  his  general  plan,  the  fact  remains 
that  his  book  is  still  indispensable  to  the  stucfent  of  English  poetry. 
Moreover,  much  that  may  seem  oommonplace  in  his  criticism  was 
entirely  fresh  and  even  revolutionaiy  in  his  own  day.  Warton 
directed  the  attention  of  readers  to  carl)^  English  literature,  and,  in 
view  of  the  want  of  texts,  rendered  inestimable  service  by  transcrib* 
ing  large  extracts  from  early  writers.  Of  the  poets  of  the  l6th 
oeiftury  he  was  an  extremely  sympathetic  critic  and  has  not  been 
supeneded. 

See  "  T.  Warton  and  Machyn's  Diary,"  by  H.  E.  D.  Blakiston  in 
the  English  Historical  Review  (April  18196)  for  illustrations  of  his 
inaccurate  methods. 

WARWICK,  EARLS  OP.  John  Rous  (e.  1411-^491),  the 
historian  of  the  earls  of  Warwick,  gives  an  account  of  them  from 
Brutus  their  founder  through  many  mythical  ancestors,  among 
whom  is  the  Guy  of  romance,  "rhe  rst  earl  of  Warwidk  was 
Henry  de  Newburgh  (d.  1123),  lord  of  Newbourg  in  Normandy 
and  son  of  Roger  de  Beaumont.  He  became  constable  of 
Warwick  (^tle  in  xo68,  and,  though  there  is  no  proof  that  he 
actually  came  over  with  the  Conqueror,  his  elder  brother  Robert 
de  Beaumont,  comte  de  Meulan,  fought  at  Hastings.  He 
apparently  spent  most  of  his  time  in  Normandy,  and  was  a 
baron  of  the  Norman  exchequer.  He  was  created  earl  of  Warwick 
early  In  the  reign  of  WilUam  IT  receiving  a  grant  of  the  great 
estates  of  the  Saxon,  Thurkill  of  Arden,  in  Warwickshire.  He 
was  attached  throughout  his  life  to  Henry  I.,  and  both  the 
Beaumont  brothers  were  faithful  to  the  king  at  the  time  of  the 


338 


WARWICK,  SIR  P. 


coDtpincy  of  the  Norman  nobla  in  i  xoz.  By  his  wife  Maifuet, 
dau^ter  of  Geoffrey  IL,  oouBt  of  Percfae,  be  had  five  aoos  and 
two  dau^ten.  He  died  on  the  20th  of  June  1133,  and  was 
buried  in  the  Nonnan  abbey  of  PrfauZt  near  Pont-Audemer, 
a  family  foundation  of  which  he  and  his  brother  were  patrons. 
At  Warwick  he  founded  the  priory  of  the  Austin  Canons,  and 
endowed  the  church  of  St  Mary. 

Of  his  sons  Rofer  de  Newburigfa  became  and  earl  of  Warwick 
and  died  in  1x53;  Rotrou  (d.  1x39)  became  archbishop  of 
Rouen;  and  Robert,  seneschsl  and  justiciar  of  Normandy, 
died  in  1x85  in  the  abbey  of  Bec»  of  wUch  he  was  a  benefactor. 
The  and  earl  was  followed  by  his  two  sons  in  succession,  William 
(d.  1184)  and  Waleran  (d.  1204).  Henry  de  Newbuxxfa,  sth 
eari  of  Warwick  (1192-1339),  took  the  royal  side  in  the  dvil 
wars  of  the  reigns  of  John  and  Henry  m.  The  6th  eari,  Thomas 
de  Newburgh  (c.  13x3-1397),  left  no  heiit,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  sater  Margaret,  countess  of  Wanridc  in  her  own  right, 
who  was  twice  married,  but  left  no  heirs.  Her  second  husband, 
John  du  Plessis,  assuined  the  title  of  eari  of  Warwick  in  17451 
and  in  x  350  received  a  grant  of  his  wife's  lands  for  h'fe.  He  was 
succeeded  in  1363  by  Countess  Margaret's  cousin  and  heir, 
Sir  WilUam  Mauduit  (X340-X268),  8th  eari  of  Warwick. 
Mauduit's  sister  and  heiress,  Isabel  de  Beaucfaamp,  had  appalrently 
adopted  the  religious  life  at  the  time  of  her  brother's  death,  and 
her  son  William  de  Beauchamp  became  9th  earl  of  Warwick. 

His  son  Guy  de  Beaucfaamp,  xoth  earl  of  Warwick  (xajS- 
I3XS)»  received  grants  of  huid  in  Scotland  for  his  services  at 
Falkirk,  and  in  Z30X  was  one  of  the  agnatories  of  the  letter 
to  the  pope  denying  the  papal  right  to  interiexe  in  Scottish 
affairs.  He  was  with  Edward  I.  at  the  time  of  his  death,  and 
b  said  to  have  been  warned  by  him  against  Piers  Gaveston. 
He  was  one  of  the  k»ds  ordainers  of  13x0,  and  was  concerned 
in  the  capture  of  Gavestcm,  thou^  he  declined  to  countenance 
his  execution.  He  died  pn  the  loth  of  August  X31S.  His  son, 
Thomas  de  Beaucfaamp,  xith  eari  (x3X3~X369),  was  marshal  of 
England  in  X344,  and  of  the  Eni^ish  army  in  France  in  1346. 
He  fought  at  Crecy  and  Poitiers,  and  was  one  of  the  orij^nal 
kni^ts  of  the  Garter. 

Tliomas  de  Beauchamp,  12th  eari  (c.  I345~i40x),  was  about 
twenty-four  years  oM  when  he  succeeded  his  father.  He  served 
on  the  lords'  committee  of  reform  in  the  Good  Parliament  in 
1376,  and  again  in  1377,  and  was  a  member  of  the  commission  of 
inquiry  in  1379.  Appointed  governor  to  Richard  II.  in  Februaiy 
X381,  he  joined  the  nobles  who  sought  to  impose  their  authority 
on  the  king,  and  was  one  of  the  lords  appellant  in  1388.  After  the 
overthrow  of  his  party  in  X389  Warwick  lived  in  retirement, 
but  although  he  had  for  the  moment  escaped  Richard's  vengeance 
he  was  not  forgiven.  Being  invited  with  Gloucester  and 
Arundel  to  a  banquet  at  court  on  the  xoth  of  July  1397  he  alone 
of  the  three  was  imprudent  enough  to  obey  the  summons.  He 
was  immediately  arrested  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  of  London, 
in  that  part  of  the  fortress  since  known  as  the  Beauchamp  Tower. 
Warwick  made  a  full  confessi<m  in  parliament;  his  honours 
were  forfeited  and  he  himself  banished.  He  was  again  in  the 
Tower  in  1398,  but  was  liberated  and  restored  to  his  honours 
on  the  accosion  of  Henry  IV.  His  son  Richard  Beauchamp, 
13th  earl  of  Warwick,  is  separately  noticed. 

Henry,  14th  earl  of  Warwick  (k433-I445)»  Eul  Richard's 
son,  a  descendant,  through  his  mother  Constance  le  Despenser, 
of  Edmund,  duke  of  York,  fifth  son  of  Edward  III.,  received  a 
patent  making  him  premier  earl  in  1444.  A  year  later  he  was 
created  duke  of  Warwick  with  precedence  next  after  the  duke  of 
Norfolk,  a  rank  disputed  by  the  duke  of  Buckingham.  The 
assertion  that  he  was  crowxted  king  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  seems  to 
have  no  foundation  in  fact.  The  X4th  earl,  whose  honours  were  pro- 
bably due  to  his  father's  services,  died  in  his  twenty-second  year, 
leaving  a  daughter  Anne,  who  died  in  X449.  On  her  death  the 
earldom  lapsed  to  the  crown.  The  estates  passed  to  Sir  Richard 
Neville  (see  Warwick,  Richard  Neville,  earl  oQ,  in  right  of 
his  wife  Anne,  sister  of  Henry  Beauchamp,  duke  of  Warwick. 
He  and  his  wife  were  created  eari  and  countess  of  Warwick 
each  for  life  in  1450.  with  remainder  to  Anite's  heirs,  and,  these 


faffing,  to  Maiganc,  ownteiK  of  ShicwiUly;  talf-siitcT  off  tlie 
countess  Anne.  After  the  death  of  her  husband,  the  Kinginaker, 
at  Bamet  in  X471,  the  rights  of  the  countess,  beircsa  of  ibe 
Beauchamp  estates,  were  set  aside  "  as  if  the  sdd  countcs  were 
nowe  naturally  dede  *'  (act  of  13  Edward  IV.  1473)  in  favour  of 
her  daughters,  Isabel,  wife  of  (jeorge,  duke  of  Clarence,  and 
Anne,  who,  after  the  murder  of  her  first  husband  Edward 
prince  of  Wales  in  1471,  married  Richard,  duke  of  Gloucester, 
afterwards  Richard  IIL  Their  mother  was  allowed  to  icsuoie 
her  estates  in  1487,  but  only  to  settle  them  .on  the  down.  She 
was  succeeded  in  1493  ^  the  earidom  by  her  grandson  Edward 
Plantagenet,  i8th  earl  of  Warwick  (1475-1499),  son  of  the  duke 
of  Clarence,  and  therefore  the  Yorkist  heir  to  the  crown.  He 
was  imprisoned  in  X484,  his  sole  offence  being  his  birth,  and 
was  executed  in  X499  on  a  charge  of  conspira^  with  his  feIlow<» 
prisoner,  Perkin  Warbeck.  He  was  the  last  representative  of 
the  male  line  of  the  Plantagencts.  His  honours  were  forfeited, 
and  his  estates  passed  to  his  sister  Margaret,  countess  of  Salisbury 
in  her  own  ri|^t,  the  unfortunate  lady  who  was  executed  ia 
154X. 

The  next  bearer  of  the  title  was  John  Dudley,  ViaconDt 
lisle,  afterwards  duke  of  Northumberland  (g.v.),  who  was  created 
earl  of  Warwick  in  1 547,  on  account  of  bis  descent  from  Margaret, 
countess  of  Shrewsbury,  daughter  of   Richard   Beauchaoip, 
earl  of  Warwick.    The  earldom  became  extinct  with  his  mo 
John  Dudley,  30th  earl  of  Warwick  {c.  1S28-X554),  wbovts 
condemned  to  death  for  having  signed  the  letters  patent  makioi 
his  sister-in-law,  Lady  Jane  Grey,  heir  apparent.     He  vss 
released  from  prison  in  October  x  554,  but  died  in  the  same  montL 
His  brother,  Ambrose  Dudley  (c.  1528-1590),  who  fou^t  at 
St  (^uentin  in  1557,  secured  the  reversal  of  the  attainder  of 
himself  and  his  brother  consequent  on  the  attempt  to  plac^ 
Lady  Jane  Grey  on  the  throne,  and  in  X561  was  created  Baxoa 
Lisle  an*d  earl  of  Warwick.  He  was  in  high  favour  with  Eliaabeth, 
as  was  his  third  wife  Anne,  daughter  of  Francis  Russell,  2nd 
eari  of  Bedford.    His  brother  Robert,  earl  of  Leicester,  having 
predeceased  him  his  honours  became  extina  on  his  death 
in  X59a 

The  earldom  was  revived  in  1618  In  favour  of  Robert  Rl^, 
3rd  Baron  Rich  (c,  x  560-1619),  grandson  of  Lord  Chancellor  Rich, 
who  died  shortly  after  his  elevation.  Hb  wife  Penelope,  Lady 
Rich,  is  separately  noticed.  He  was  succeeded  in  16 19  by  his 
eldest  son  Robert  Rich,  2nd  or  23rd  earl  of  Warwick  iq.9.),  whose 
two  sons  Robert  (16XX-1659)  and  Charles  (X619-1673)  succeeded 
him  in  the  earldom  and  died  leaving  no  male  issue.  The  5th  or 
26th  earl  of  Warwick  was  their  cousin  Robert  Rich  (1630-X675), 
eldest  son  of  Henry,  ist  carl  of  Holland.  His  grandson,  the  7th 
or  28th  earl,  left  no  issue,  and  the  title  became  extiiuit  on  the 
death,  on  the  X5th  of  ScpteiAber  1759,  of  his  kinsman  Edward 
Rich,  8th  or  29th  earl.  It  was  revived  two  months  later,  when 
Francis  Greville,  Baron  Brooke  of  Beauchamps  Court  (1719- 
i773)>  wfao  faad  in  1746  been  created  Earl  Brooke  of  Warwick 
Castle,  became  earl  of  Warwick.  GreviUe  was  descended  from 
Robert  GreviUc,  the  2nd  baron,  who  was  killed  at  Lichfield 
during  the  civil  war  and  he  represented  a  cadet  branch  of  the 
Beauchamp  family.  His  son  George  (1746-1816)  became  the 
2nd  earl  of  this  line,  and  the  earldom  has  remained  with  his 
descendants,  Francis  Richard  (b.  1853)  becoming  the  5th  earl 
in  1893.  His  wife,  Frances  Evelyn,  countess  of  Warwick, 
daughter  of  Colonel  the  Hon.  C.  H.  Maynard  (d.  1865),  inherited 
the  estates  of  her  grandfather,  Henry  Maynard,  5th  and  last 
Viscount  Maynard  (x 788-1865).  She  became  well  known  in 
society,  and  later  for  her  interest  in  social  questions. 

WARWICK,  SIR  PHILIP  (1609-1683),  EngUsh  writer  and 
poUtidan,  was  the  son  of  Thomas  Warwick,  or  Warrick,  a 
musician,  and  was  bom  in  Westminster  on  the  24lh  of  December 
1609.  Educated  at  Eton,  he  travelled  abroad  for  some  time  and 
in  1636  became  secretary  to  the  lord  high  treasurer,  William 
Juxon;  later  he  was  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament,  being 
one  of  those  who  voted  against  the  attainder  of  Strafford  and  who 
followed  Charles  I.  to  Oxford.  He  fought  at  Edgehill  and  was 
one  of  the  king's  secretaries  during  the  negotiations  with  the 


WARWICK,  £ARLS  OF 


339 


pirHament  at  Hampton  Conit,  and  aliodnribg  thocoat  Newpoit» 
Charles  tpcaking  very  higUy  of  hb  services  just  before  hu 
execution.  Remaining  in  En^and,  Warwick  was  passively  loyal 
to  Charles  II.  during  the  Commonwealth  and  enjoyed  the  con- 
fidence of  the  royalist  leaders.  In  s66o  the  king  nads  him  a 
knight,  and  in  i66i  he  became  a  member  of  parliament  and 
secretacy  to  another  lord  treasurer,  Thomas  Wriothesleyf  eail 
of  Southampton,  retaining  this  post  until  the  tnasuiy  was  put 
into  commission  on  Southampton's  death  in  May  1667.  He 
died  on  the  15th  of  January  X685.  Warwick's  only  son*  the 
younger  Philip  Warwick  (d.  1683),  was  envoy  to  Sweden 
in  1680. 

Warwick  is  chiefly  known  for  his  UtHtoirs  0$  ^  reipm 
Charles  /.,  with  a  eoniinuation  to  iJu  happy  nstanroHon 
CharUs  II.,  written  between  1675  and  1677  and  poblished  in 
in  1701. 

WARWICK,  RICHARD  RRAOCHAHF.  Rail  or  (1382-1439), 
son  of  Thomas*  Beauchamp,  was  bom  at  Salwarp  in  Worcester- 
shire on  the  s8th  of  January  138s,  and  succeeded  hb  fiither  in 
X401.    He  had  some  service  iir  the  Welsh  War,  foui^t  on  the 
king's  ade  at  the  battle  <rf  Shrewsbury  on  the  sand  of  July  1403, 
and  at  the  riege  of  Aberystwith  in  1407.   In  1408  he  started  on 
a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  i^ting  on  Ids  way  Paris  and 
Rome,  and  fighting  victoriously  in  a  tournament  wiUi  Pandolfo 
Malatesta  at  Verona.  From  Venice  be  to<A  ship  to  JafEa,  whence 
he  went  to  Jerusalem,  and  set  up  hu  arms  in  the  temple.   On 
his  return  be  travelled  through  liUiuania,  Prussia  and  Germany, 
and  reached  England  in  1410.   Two  years  later  he  was  fighting 
in  command  at  Calais.    Up  to  thb  time  Warwick's  career  had 
been  that  of  the  typical  knight  errant.    During  the  reign  of 
Henry  V.  his  chief  employment  was  as  a  trusted  oounsdlor  and 
diplomatist.    He  was  an  ambassador  to  France  hi  September 
14x3,  and  the  chief  En^ish  envoy  to  the  coronation  of  Sigismund 
at  Abc'la-Chapelle,  and  to  the  council  of  Constance  in  the  autvmm 
of  X414.    During  the  campaign  of  Agincourt  he  was  captain  of 
Calais,  where  in  April  14x6  he  received  Sigismund  with  such 
courtly  magnificence  as  to  earn  from  him  the  title  of  the  **  Father 
of  Courtesy."    In  the  campaigns  of  14X7-X8  Warwidc  took  a 
prominent  part,  reducing  Domfront  and  Caudebec.    Th«i  he 
joined  the  king  before  Rouen,  and  fax  October  14x8  had  charge 
of  the  negotiations  with  the  dauphin  and  with  Burgundy.    Next 
year  he  was  again  the  chief  English  spokesman  in  the  conference 
at  Meidan,  and  afterwards  was  Henry's  representative  in  arrange 
ing  the  treaty  of  TVoyes.   At  (he  sieges  of  Mehm  in  1420,  and  of 
Mantes  in  X43i~33  he  held  hi^  command.    Warwick's  sage 
experience  made  it  natural  that  Henry  V.ahould  on  his  death-bed 
appoint  him  to  be  his  son's  governor.   For  some  years  to  come 
he  was  engaged  chiefly  as  a  member  of  the  council  in  Englsiid. 
In  1428  he  received  formal  charge  of  the  little  king's  education. 
He  took  Henry  to  FVance  in  1430,  and  whilst  at  Ronen  had  the 
superintendence  of  the  trial  of  Joan  of  Arc.   In  143 x  he  defeated 
Pothon  de  XainthiiUes  at  Savignies.    Next  year  he  returned  to 
England.    The  king's  minority  came  nominally  to  an  end  in 
U37'    Warwick  was  theA  not  unnaturally  chosen  to  succeed 
Richard  of  York  in  the  government  of  Normandy.    He  accepted 
loyally  a  service  "  full  far  from  the  ease  of  my  years,"  and  went 
down  to  Portsmouth  in  August,  but  was  long  detdned  by  bad 
weather,  "seven  times  shipped  or  ever  he  might  pass  the. sea," 
and  only  reached  Honflcur  on  the  8th  of  November.    In  Nor- 
mandy he  ruled  with  vigour  for  eighteen  months,  and  died  at  his 
post  on  the  30th  of  April  X439.    Hb  body  was  brought  home 
and  buried  at  Warwick.   His  tomb  in  St  Mary's  church  is  one  of 
the  most  splendid  spechnensof  English  art  in  the  x  5th  Century. 
Warwick  married  (i)  Elizabeth  Berkeley,  (3)  IsabeBa  Despenser. 
By  his  second  wife  he  left  an  only  son  Henry,  afterwards  duke  of 
Warwick,  who  died  in  1445,  and  a  daughter  Anne,  who  as  her 
brother's  sister  of  the  whole  blood  brought  the  title  and  chief 
share  of  the  estates  to  her  husband  Richard  Neville,  the  king- 
maker.   By  his  first  wife  he  had  three  daughters,  of  whom  the 
eldest,  Margaret,  married  John  Talbot,  earl  of  Shrewsbury. 

Bibliographt.— John  Rous  (d.  1491)  wrote  a  life  of  Warwick, 
niustrated  with  over  fifty  drawiags,  now  st  the- British  Museum 
(Coctvi  M&  juMiis  £.  hr^  Tbqrimve  been  npradoDed  In  Scntt's 


Uammf  and  Ctutomsi  new  edidon  by  Mr  EoMry  Walker,  with 
notes  by^Lofd  DiUon  and  Mr  W.  St  John  Hope.  More  authonutive 
material  must  be  sought  in  strictly  contemporary  chronidcs.  and 
espedaUy  in  the  Vtto  HemneiguintiaMcxibtd  toElmham.  Monstrelet; 
Chnmties  «/  Landom  (ed.  C.  L.  Kingaford)  and  J.  Stevenion.  UtUrs, 
Sfc  tUustrai»M cf  tkt Ba^iMh  Warstn  Prance ("  Rolls "  series).  For 
modem  accounts  consult  J.  H.  Wyite,  Henry  IV.;  C.  L.  Kingsfoid, 
Henry  V, ;  and  Sir  James  Ramsay,  Lancaster  and  York.    (C.  L.  K.) 

WARWICK*  RICHARO   XEVIU^   Eau   ov   (x438-i47x)» 
called  "  the  king-maker,"  was  eldest  son  of  Richard  Neville^ 
earl  of  Salisbury,  by  Alice,  only  daughter  and  heiress  of  Thomas, 
the  last  Montacute  sail  of  Salisbury.   He  was  bom  on  the  sand 
of  November  1438,  and  whilst  still  a  boy  betrothed  to  Anne, 
daughter  d  Richard  Beauchamp,  earl  of  Warwick.    When  her 
brother's  daughter  died  in  1449,  Anne,  as  only  sister  of  the  irhole 
Uood,  brou^t  her  husband  the  title  and  chief  share  d  the 
Warwick  estates.    Richard  NevOle  thus  became  the  premier 
earl,  and  both  in  power  and  position  excelled  his  father.  Richard, 
duke  of  York,  was  his  unde>  so  idien  York  beoune  protector 
in  1453,  and  SaUsbuxy  was  made' chancellor,  it  was  natural  that 
Wanirick  should  be  one  of  the  coundL    After  the  king's  recoveiy 
m  1455  Warwick  and  his  father  took  up  arms  in  York's  support. 
Their  victoiy  at  St  Albans  on  the  22nd  of  May  was  due  to  the 
fierce  energy  with  which  Warwick  assaulted  and  broke  the 
Lancastrian  centre.  He  was  rewarded  with  the  important  office 
of  captain  of  Calais;  to  his  portion  there  he  owed  his  strengUi 
during  the  next  five  years.   Even  whcan  York  was  displaced  at 
home,  Warwick  retained  his  post,  and  in  1457  was  also  made 
admiraL    He  was  present  in  February  141^  at  the  professed 
reconciliation  of  the  two  parties  in  a  loveday  at  St  Paul's,  London. 
During  the  previous  year  he  had  done  some  good  fighting  on  the 
march  of  Calais  by  land,  and  kept  the  sea  with  vigour;  now  on 
his  return  he  distbguished  himself  in  a  great  fight  with  Spanish 
ships  off  CaUds  on  ih»  38th  of  May,  and  in  the  autumn  by  captur- 
ing a  German  salt-fleet  on  iU  way  to  Lttbeck.    These  exploits 
brought  him  a  prestige  and  popularity  that  were  distasteful  to 
the  home  govemmenL    Moreover,  England  was  at  war  neither 
with  Castile  nor  with  the  Hanse.  Warwick's  action  may  possibly 
have  formed  part  of  some  Yorkist  design  for  frustrating  the 
foreign  policy  of  their  rivab.    At  all  events  there  was  pretext 
enpugh  lor  recalling  him  to  nuke  his  defence.    Whilst  he  was 
at  the  court  at  Westminster  a  brawl  occurred  between  his  re- 
tainers  and  some  d  the  royal  household.    Warwick  himself 
escaped  with  difficulty,  and  went  back  to  Cabiis,  alleging  that 
his  life  had  been  deliberately  attempted.   When  in  the  following 
year  a  renewal  of  the  war  was' imminent,  Warwick  crossed  over 
to  EngUnd  with  his  trained  soldiers  fxom  Calais  under  Sir 
.Andrew  l^oilope.    But  at  Ludh>w  on  the  xsth  of  October 
Trollope  and  his  men  deserted,  and  left  the  Yorkists  helpless. 
Warwick,  with  his  father,  his  cousin  the  young  Edward  of  York, 
and  only  three,  followers,  made  his  way  to  Barnstaple.    There 
they  hired  a  little  fishing  vesseL    The  masUr  pleaded  that  he 
did  not  know  the  Channel,  but  Warwick  resourcefully  took 
command  and  himself  steered  a  successful  course  to  CahJs.   He 
arrived  just  in  time  to  antidpato  the  duke  of  Somerset,  whom 
the  Lancastrians  had  sent  to  supersede  him.   During  the  winter 
Warwick  held  Calais  against  Somerset,  and  sent  out  a  fleet  which 
seiaed  Sandwich  and  captured  Lord  Rivers.    In  the  spring  he 
went  to  Ireland  to  concert  plans  with  Richard  of  York.   On  his 
return  voyage  he  cncountexed  a  superior  Laiua»trian  fleet  in  the 
ChaimeL   But  Exeter,  the  rival  commander,  could  not  trust  his 
CBews  and  dared  ikot  fight. 

From  Cahus  Warwick,  Salisbury  and  Edward  of  York  crossed 
to  Sandwich  on  the  36th  of  June.  A  few  days  Uter  they  entered 
London,  whence  Warwickat  once  marched  north.  On  the  loth 
of  July  he  routed  the  Lancastrians  at  Northampton,  and  took 
the  king  prisoner.  For  the  order  to  spare  the  commons  and  slay 
the  lords  Warwick  was  responsible,  as  also  for  some  later  execu- 
tions at  London.  Yet  when  Richard  of  York  was  disposed  to 
claim  the  crown,  it  was,  according  to  Waurin,  Warw\dc  who 
dedded  the  discussion  in  favour  of  a  compromise,  perhaps  from 
loyalty  to  Henry,  or  perhaps  from  the  wish  not  to  change  a  weak 
•overeipi  foe  a  strong.  Warwick  was  in  charge  of  London  at  the 


340 


WARWICK,  2ND  EARL  OF— WARWICK 


tjme  when  RicBatd  and  Salisbuzy  were  defeated  and  slain  at 
Wakefield.  The  Lancastrians  wpn  a  second  victory  at  St  Albans 
on  the  17th  of  February  2461,  possibly  through  lack  of  general- 
ship on  Warwick's  part.  But  in  his  plans  to  retrieve  the  disaster 
Warwick  showed  ^11  and  decision.  He  met  Edward  of  York 
in  Oxfordshire,  brought  him  in  triumph  to  London,  had  him 
proclaimed  king,  and  within  a  month  of  his  defeat  at  St  Albans 
was  marching  north  in  pursuit  of  the  Lancastrians.  The  good 
generak^  which  won  the  victory  of  Towton  may  have  been 
doe  to  Edward  rather  than  to  Warwick,  but  the  new  king  was 
of  the  creation  of  the  powerful  earl,  who  now  had  his  reward. 
For  four  years  the  government  was  centred  undisputedly  in 
tlie  hands  of  Wftrwkk  and  his  friends.  The  energy  of  his  brother 
John,  Lord  Montagu,  frustrated  the  various  attempts  of  the 
Lancastrians  in  the  north.  In  another  sphere  Warwick  himself 
was  determining  the  Unes  of  English  policy  on  the  basis  of  an 
alliance  with  France.  The  power  of  the  Nevilles  seemed  to  be 
competed  by  the  promotion  of  George,  the  third  brother,  to  be 
ptrchbishop  of  York.  The  first  check  came  with  the  announce- 
ment in  September  1464.  of  the  king's  secret  marriage  to  Elizabeth 
Woodville.  This  was  particularly  distasteful  to  Warwick,  who 
bad  but  just  pledged  Edward  to  a  French  match.  For  the  time, 
however,  there  was  no  open  breach.  The  trouble  began  in  1466, 
when  Edward  first  made  Rivers,  the  queen's  father,  treasurer, 
and  afterwards  threw  obstacles  in  the  way  of  an  intended 
marriage  between  Warwick's  daughter  Isabel  and  George  of 
Chirence,  his  own  next  brother.  Still  in  May  1467  Warwick 
went  again,  with  the  king's  assent  to  conclude  a  treaty  with 
France.  He  returned  to  find  that  in  his  absence  Edward,  under 
Woodville's  influence,  had  committed  himself  definitely  to  the 
Burgundian  alliance.  Warwick  retired  in  dudgeon  to  his  estates, 
and  began  to  plot  in  secret  for  his  revenge.  In  the  summer  of 
1469  he  went  over  to  Calais,  where  Isabel  and  Clarence  were 
married  without  the  king's  knowledge.  Meantime  lie  had  stirred 
up  the  rebdlion  of  Robin  of  Redesdale  in  Yorkshire;  and  when 
Edward  was  drawn  north  Warwick  invaded  England  in  arms. 
The  king,  outmarched  and  outnumbered,  had  to  yield  himself 
prisoner,  whilst  Rivers  and  his  son  John  were  executed.  Warwick 
was  apparently  content  with  the  overthrow  of  the  Woodvilies, 
and  believed  that  he  had  secured  Edward's  submission.  In 
March  r47o  a  rebellion  in  Lincolnshire  gave  Edward  an  oppor- 
timity  to  gather  an  army  of  his  own.  When  the  king  alleged 
that  he  had  found  proof  of  Warwick's  complicity,  the  earl,  taken 
by  surprise,  fled  with  Clarence  to  France.  There,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  Louis  XL,  he  was  with  some  difficulty 
reconciled  to  Margaret  of  Anjou,  and  agreed  to  marry  his  second 
daughter  to  her  son.  In  September  Warwick  and  Clarence,  with 
the  Lancastrian  lords,  landed  at  Dartmouth.  Edward  in  his 
turn  had  to  fly  oversea,  and  .for  six  months  Warwick  ruled 
England  aS'lteutenant  for  Henry  VI.,  who  was  restored  from  his 
prison  in  the  Tower  to  a  nominal  throne.  But  the  Lancastrian 
restoration  was  unwelcome  to  Clarence,  who  began  to  intrigue 
with  his  brother.  When  in  March  1471  Edward  landed  at 
Ravenspur,  Clarence  found  an  opportunity  to  join  him.  Warwick 
was  completely  outgcneralled,  and  at  Bamet  on  the  X4th  of 
April  was  defeated  and  slain. 

Warwick  has  been  made  famous, by  Lytton  as  "  The  Last  of 
the  Barons."  The  title  suits  him  as  a  great  feudal  lord,  who  was 
a  good  fighter  but  a  poor  general,  who  had  more  sympathy  with 
rhe  old  order  than  with  the  new  culture.  But  he  was  more  than 
this.  He  had  some  of  the  qualities  of  a  strong  ruler,  and  the 
power  to  command  popubrity.  He  was  a  skilled  diplomatist 
and  an  adroit  poh'tictan.  These  qualities,  with  his  position  as 
the  head  of  a  great  family,  the  chief  representative  of  Beauchamp, 
Dcspenser,  Montacute  and  Neville,  made  him  during  ten  years 
"  the  king-maker." 

Warwick's  only  children  were  his  two  daughters.   Aftne,  the 

younger,  was  married  after  his  death  to  Richard  of  Gloucester, 

the  future  Richard  III.    Their  husbands  shared  his  inheritance 

and  quarrelled  over  its  division. 

BtBLTOGP^rHV. — Warwick  of  course  fills  a  great  place  in  con- 
terapwarv  authoritiesi  for  a  note  on  the  chief  of  them 


under  EowaroIV.  Pot  moden  authorities  me  especiaJly  C  W. 
Oman's  brilliant  but  cnthuaiasUc  Worvnck  Uu  Kttu^Maker,  Sir 
Jamea  Ramsay  s  LancatUr  and  York,  and  Stubbs'a  tousHtuHoual 
History,    .  (CL-K.) 

WARWICK,  SIR  ROBERT  RICH,  911D  Easl  Or  (1587-1658). 
colonial  administrator  and  admiral,  was  the  eldest  son  ni  Robert 
Rich,  earl  of  Warwick  (see  above)  and  his  wife  Penelope  Rich 
iq.v,),  and  succeeded  to  the  title  in  1619.    Eariy  interested  in 
cok>nial  ventures,  he  joined  the  Bermudas,  Guhica,  New  England 
and  Virginia  companies.     Hb  enterprises  involved    him  in 
disputes  with  the  East  India  Company  (161 7)  and  witJi  tke 
Virginia  Company,  which  in  1624  was  suppressed  througih  hit 
action.    In  1627  he  commanded  an  unsuccessful  privmteciing 
expedition  against  the  Spaniards.    His  Puritan  conncxioiis  and 
sympathies,  while  gradually  estranging  him  from  the  court,  pro- 
moted his  association  with  the  New  England  colonics.    In  z6s8 
he  indirectly  procured  the  patent  for  the  Massachusetts  colooy, 
and  in  1631  he  granted  the  "  Saybrook  "  patent  in  Connectioit. 
Compelled  the  same  year  to  resign  the  presidency  of  the  New 
England  Company,  he  continued  to  manage  the  Bermudas  and 
Providence  Companies,  the  Utter  of  which,  founded  in  1630, 
administered  Old  Providence  on  the  Mosquito  coast.     Meao- 
while  in  En^nd  Warwick  opposed  the  forced  loan  of  1626,  the 
payment  of  ship-money  and  Laud's  church  policy,  and  witli  ha 
brother  the  first  lord  Holland  (y.v.)  came  to  be  recognized  as  cae 
of  the  heads  of  the  Puritans.    In  March  1642  the  ComraoBviB 
spite  of  the  king's  veto,  appointed  him  admiral  of  the  fieet,i&& 
in  July  he  gained  the  whole  navy  for  the  parliament.    He  raised 
forces  in  Norfolk  and  Essex  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  and  ss 
lord  high  admiral  (1643-164$)  he  did  good  service  in  intercepting 
the  king's  ships  and  relieving  threatened  ports.    In  1643  ^  *** 
appointed  head  of  a  commission  for  ihe  government  of  the 
colonies,  which  the  next  year  incorporated  Providence  Planta- 
tions, afterwards  Rhode  Island,  and  in  this  capacity  he  exerted 
himself  to  secure  religious  liberty.     Reappointed    lord  high 
admiral  in  May  1648,  in  the  vain  hope  that  his  influence  with  the 
sailors  would  win  back  the  nine  ships  which  had  revolted  to  the 
king,  he  collected  a  new  fleet  and  blockaded  them  at  Helvoetshiya. 
Dismissed  from  oflice  on  the  aboh'tion  of  the  House  of  Lords  is 
1649,  he  retired  from  public  life,  but  was  intimately  associated 
with  Cromwell,  whose  daughter  Frances  married  his  grandson 
and  heir  Robert  Rich  in  1657.    He  died  on  the  19th  of  April 
1658.  The  su^icions  cast  by  his  enemies  on  his  religious  sincerity 
and  political  fidelity  appear  to  be  baseless. 

WARWICK,  a  town  of  Merivale  county,  Queensland,  Australia, 
169  m.  by  rail  S.W.  of  Brisbane.  Pop.  (1901)  3836.  It  lies  on  the 
bank  of  the  river  Contadamine,  in  the  heart  of  one  of  the  best 
agricultural  districts  in  Queensland,  and  is  perhaps  the  most 
attractive  inland  town  in  the  colony.  It  is  well  laid  out  with 
many  substantial  public  and  private  buildings,  and  has  two  large 
parks,  besides  smaller  recreation  grounds.  The  district  is  famous 
for  its  vineyards,  and  quantities  of  excellent  wine  are  made; 
wheat  and  maize  are  the  principal  crops,  but  tobacco,  oats  and 
lucerne  are  largely  grown.  Coal  is  found  near  the  town,  as  are 
also  marble,  good  building  stone  and  brick  clay. 

WARWICK,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough,  and  the 
county  town  of  Warwickshire,  England;  finely  situated  on 
the  river  Avon,  the  Warwick  &  Napton  and  Birmingham 
canals,  98  m.  N.W.  from  London.  Pop.  (1901)  11,889.  It  is 
served  by  the  Great  Western  and  the  London  &  North- 
western railways.  The  parliamentary  borough  was  united  with 
that  of  Leamington  in  iSSs,  and  returns  one  member.  Leaming- 
ton lies  2  m.  E.,  and  the  towns  are  united  by  the  suburb  of  New 
Milvcrton. 

The  magnificent  castle  of  the  earls  of  Warwick  stands  in 
a  commanding  and  picturesque  position  on  a  rocky  eminence 
above  the  river.  Its  walls,  enclosing  a  lovely  lawn  and 
gardens,  are  flanked  by  towers,  of  which  Caesar*s  tower,  147  ft. 
high,  the  Gateway  tower  and  Guy's  lower  are  the  chief,  dating 
from  the  r4th  century.  The  residential  portion  lies  on  the  river 
side.  Excepting  a  few  traces  of  earlier  work,  its  appearance 
is  that  df  «.|iriacely  BHiniion  of  the  17th  century.    Titers  is 


WARWICK— WARWICKSHIRE 


34-* 


*  UtofotoM  eoHcctini  of  pfetaiw.  Tbe  Crest  Hall  and  other 
apannenta  tuffered  from  fire  In  187 1 ,  but  were  restored.  A  vase 
of  marble  attributed  to  the  4th  century  b.c.  is  preserved  here;  it 
was  discovered  near  Hadrian's  Villa  at  Tivoli  in  Italy.  Bebw 
the  castle  the  Avon,  with  thickly  wooded  banks,  affords  one  of  the 
moat  eiquiaite  reaches  of  river  scenery  hi  England.  The  church 
of  St  Mary  is  principally,  as  it  stands,  a  rebuilding  oC  the  time 
of  Queen  Anne,  after  a  fire  in  1694.  It  appears  from  Domesday 
that  a  chufch  existed  before  the  Conquest.  It  was  made  collegiate 
by  Roger  de  Newbuigh,  the  sec(»d  Ncmnan  earl,  in  1123.  At 
the  DisMAlution  Henry  VIXI.  granted  the  foundation  to  the 
bursesses  of  the  town.  The  Beauchamp  Chapel  survived  the 
fire;  it  is  a  beautiful  example  of  Perpendicular  work,  founded 
by  the  will  of  Earl  Richard  Beauchamp,  and  buflt  between 
1445  and  1464.  The  fine  tomb  of  the  earl  stands  hi  the  centre. 
There  are  only  scanty  traces  of  the  old  town  walls,  but  the  east 
and  west  gates  remain,  rendered  picturesque  by  chapeb  built 
above  them.  The  priory  of  St  Sepulchre  was  founded  by  Heniy 
de  Newburgh  and  completed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  on  the  site 
of  an  ancient  church,  for  a  society  of  canons  tegular.  It  is  now 
a  private  residence.  Leicester  Ho^Mtal,  established  by  R(3ibert 
Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester,  is  a  picturesque  example  of  half-timber 
building.  It  was  originally  used  as  the  hall  of  the  united  gilds 
of  the  Holy  Trinity,  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  St  George  the 
Martyr.  The  earl  of  Leicester,  by  an  act  of  incorporation  ob- 
tained in  X571,  founded  the  hos|Mtal  for  the  reception  of  twelve 
poor  men  possessing  not  more  than  £5  §  year,  and  a  master. 
The  first  master,  appointed  by  the  earl  himself,  was  the  famous 
Puritan,  Thontas  Oirtwright,  St  John's  Hospital,  a  foondation  of 
the  time  of  Henry  II.,  is  represented  by  a  beautiful  Jacobean 
mansion.  There  are  numerous  charities  in  the  tqwn,  the  principal 
being  those  of  Heiuy  VIIL,  Sir  Thomaa  White  and  Thomas 
Oken.  The  first  is  devoted  to  ecclesiastical  and  municipal 
stipends  and  to  the  King's  School.  By  the  charity  of  Sir  Thomas 
White,  the  sum  of  £100  is  lent,  without  interest,  to  young  trades- 
men for  a  period  of  nine  years.  The  Kingi's  S^ool,  an  important 
foundation  for  boys,  dates  from  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor. It  occupies  modem  bufldings.  Upon  the  same  foundation 
are  the  high  school  for  girls  and  the  King's  middlesdiooL  Among 
public  buildings  are  a  ahire  hall,  free  library  and  museum. 
Industries  include  gelatine-  and  brick-making,  and  there  are 
ironworks*  The  parliamentary  borough  returns  one  member. 
Area,  5615  acres. 

A  famous  site  in  the  vidnity  of  Warwick  is  Guy's  Cliffe,  where 
a  modem  mansion,  embodsring  andent  remains,  crowns  the 
predpitous  rocky  bank  of  the  Avon.  Here  was  the  hermitage 
of  the  first  Guy,  eari  of  Warwick.  BlacUow  Hill  in  the  vidnity 
was  the  scene  of  the  execution  of  Pien  Gaveston,  the  favourite 
courtier  of  Edward  II.,  in  131a. 

Warwick  {Wanne,  Warretnd,  Wcmwyk)  is  said  to  have 
been  a  Roman  station,  and  was  later  fortified  by  iEthelflted, 
the  lady  of  Merda,  against  the  Danes.  At  the  time  of  the 
Domesday  Survey,  Warwick  was  a  royal  borough,  containing 
261  houses,  of  which  rjo  were  in  the  king's  hands,  while  19 
belonged  to  burgesses  who  enjoyed  all  the  privileges  they  had 
had  m  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  The  Conqueror  granted 
the  borough  to  Henry  of  Newburfl^,  who  was  created  earl  of 
Warwick,  and  in  all  probability  built  the  castle  on  the  site 
of  ifUhelfland's  fortification.  Tkt  Beancfaampa,  sucoemors  of 
Henry  of  Newburgh  as  earls  of  Warwick,  held  the  borough 
of  the  king  in  chief.  Although  the  borough  owed  its  early 
Importance  to  the  csstk  of  the  earls  of  Warwick  as  well  »a  to  its 
position,  and  received  a  grant  of  a  fair  from  John,  e«rl  of  Warwick, 
in  ia6x,  it  seems  to  have  developed  independently  of  them,  apd 
recdved  no  charter  until  it  was  incorporated  under  the  title  pf 
the  burgesses  of  Warwick  in  1546  after  it  Sad  come  Into  the 
king's  hands  by  the  attainder  of  Edward,  earl  of  Warwick, 
itt  1499.  Other  charters  were  granted  In  1553,  1665.  1684  and 
1694,  of  which  that  of  1553  allowed  the  appointment  of  assistant 
burgesses,  though  this  was  discontinued  in  2698  because  threugh 
their  means  a  candidate  for  the  borough  was  elected  who  was  not 
■npported  by  the  rrcorder  and  aldermen.    The  charter  of  1694 


conferred  the  title  of  "  Mayor,  Aldermen  and  Burgesses  "  on 
the  corporation,  and  appointed  the  offices  of  the  borough. 
The  mayor,  aldermen  and  assistant  burgesses  were  to  assemble 
yearly  at  Michaelmas,  and  in  the  presence  of  all  the  burgesses 
nominate  two  aldermen,  who  should  elect  the  new  ma>x)r  and 
other  offkere.  A  mayor  refusing  office  was  to  be  fined  £20.  an 
alderman  £10  and  an  assistant  burgess  £5.  In  1882  the  borough 
was  divided  into  three  wards,  and  the  corporation  consists  of  a 
mayor,  6  aldcrmen*and  18  town  councillors.  Warwick  returned 
two  members  to  parliament  from  1295,  but  In  1885  the  number 
was  reduced  to  one.  In  addition  to  the  fair  granted  by  the  earl 
to  the  burgesses  in  X26r,  he  himself  held  by  prescriptive  right  a 
yearly  fair  in  August  and  a  market  every  Wednesday.  Another 
fair  was  granted  in  1290,  and  in  1413  the  fair  held  at  Michaelmas 
was  changed  to  the* feast  of  St  Bartholomew.  Fairs  are  now  held 
on  the  X2th  of  October  and  on  the  Monday  before  St  Thomas's 
day.  A  market  is  held  every  Saturday,  the  first  charter  for  this 
being  granted  in  1545.  A  gaol  is  mentioned  here  as  early  as 
1 300  in  a  pipe  roll  of  that  year. 

WARWICK,  a  township  of  Kent  county,  Rhode  Island,  U.S.A., 
about  s  m.  S.  of  Providence,  on  the  W.  side  of  Narragansett  Bay 
(here  called  Providence  river)  and  croesed  by  the  Pawtuxet  river, 
which  is  in  its  lower  ooune  a  part  of  the  township's  northern 
boundary.  Pop.  (1890)  17,761;  (1900)  21,3x6,  of  whom  7792 
were  foreign-bom;  (19x0  census)  26,629.  The  township  is 
crossed  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railway, 
and  electric  lines  serve  most  of  its  twenty-seven  rather  scattered 
villages.  The  larger  villages  are:  on  the  river,  Pontiac,  Natick, 
River  Point  (at  the  junction  of  the  two  upper  branches  of  the 
Pawtuxet),  Phooiix,  Centreville  and  Crompton;  on  Green widi 
Bay,  Apponaug  and  Warwick;  and  on  Providence  river, 
Shawomet,  Wanrick  Neck,  Oakland  Beach,  Buttonwoods, 
Conimicut  and  Long  Meadow,  which  are  summer  resorts.  Water 
power  is  provided  by  the  Pawtuxet  river,  and  much  ootton  and 
some  woollen  and  print  goods  are  manufactured.  The  value  of 
the  factory  product  in  190s  was  $7,051,971  (i7<i%  more  than 
in  i90o)<t  of  the  total,  nine-tenths  was  the  value  of  textile 
products.  Warwick,  originally  called  Shawomet  (Shawmut), 
its  Indian  name,  was  settled  in  1643  hy  Samuel  Gorton  (q.v.) 
and  a  few  followers.  Gorton  quarrelled  with  the  Indians,  was 
carried  off  to  Boston,  was  tried  there  for  heresy,  was  convicted, 
and  was  imprisoned;  was  released  with  orders  to  leave  the 
ookMiy  in  March  1644,  went  to  England,  and  under  the  patronage 
of  the  eari  of  Warwick  returned  to  his  settlement  in  1648  and 
renamed  it  m  honour  of  the  earL  In  1647  the  settlement  entered 
into  a  union  with  Providence,  Newport  and  Portsmouth  under 
the  Warwick  (or  Williams)  charter  of  1644,  but  during  1651' 
1654  WarwidL  and  Providence  were  temporarily  separated  from 
the  other  two  towns.  Warwick  was  the  birthplace  of  General 
Nathanael  Greene. 

WARWICKSHIRE,  a  midland  county  of  England,  bounded  N. 
by  Staffordshire,  E.  by  Ldcestershire  and  Northamptonshire, 
S.  by  Oxfordshire  and  Gloucestershire,  and  W.  by  Worcestershire. 
The  area  is  903'3  sq.  m.  The  river  Avon,  watering  a  rich  valley 
on  a  line  from  N.E.  to  S.W.,  divides  the  county  into  two  unequal 
parts.  The  greater,  lying  to  the  N.W.,  drains  prindpaOy  to  the 
Trent  through  the  rivers  Cole,  Blythe,  Rea,  Anker  and  minor 
streams.  Between  these  valleys,  and  dividing  the  ^stem  from 
that  of  the  Avon,  the  land  rises  in  gentle  unduhitions,  and  is  of 
plateau-like  character,  generally  between  400  and  600  ft.  in  eleva- 
tion. There  are  considerable  tracts  of  this  nature  on  the  western 
boundary,  both  north  and  south  of  Birmingham,  on  the  eastern 
TxMmdary  north  of  Rugby,  and  in  the  centre  between  the  Blythe. 
the  Anker  and  the  Avon.  From  thJa  side  the  Avon  receives  the 
Swift,  the  Sowe  and  the  Abe.  The  northern  district  was 
disthiguished  by  Camden  as  the  Wopdiand,  as  (^)po6ed  to  the 
southern  or  Feldon,  "  a  pUun  champain."  The  northern  wood- 
land embraced  the  andent  forest  of  Arden  (q.v.)  and  it  is  this 
district  which  gave  to  the  county  the  common  epithets  oC 
"  woody  "  or  "  leafy." '  The  Feldon  or  south-eastern  district 
is  almost  wholly  in  the  Avon  valley.  From  this  side  iha 
Avon  receives  the  Leaan  the  Itchco  and  the  Stovr.    Along  the 


344 


WASHBURN,  C.  C— WASHINGTON,  GEORG£ 


King  Jobs  In  1216  sbortly  before  bis  death.  Pusiog  oyer 
the  Cron  Keys  Wash,  near  Sutton  Bxidipe,  his  bs^gage^ind 
taneasure  wagons  were  engulfed  and  be  himself  barely  esci4>ed 
withUle. 

WASHBURN,  CADWALLADBR  COLDBM  (iSxfr-xSSa), 
American  soldier  and  politician,  was  bom  at  Uvermore,  Maine, 
on  the  92nd  of  April  x8i8.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  i]^i842, 
and  removed  to  Mineral  Point,  Wisconsin,  where  he  pxactiscd 
law,  speculated  in  land  and  fngagrd  in  banking.  He  became 
prominent  in  the  Republican  party,  and  was  a  member  (i8ss~ 
1861)  of  the  U.S.  House  of  Representatives,  of  which  his  brother 
Israel  (1813-1883)  was  a  member  from  Maine  in  i85i-*i86i;  his 
brother  sSihu  Benjamin  (see  bdk»w)  changed  the  spelling 
of  the  family  surname  to  Washbuxne.'  At  the  beginning  of 
the  Civil  War  he  became  colonel  of  the  Second  Wisconsin 
Cavalry,  was  promoted  to  brigadier-general  on  the  x6th  of 
July  x86a  and  to  major-general  on  the  agth  of  November  i96a, 
and  aasfeted  in  the  capture  of  Vicksburg  (4th  July  1863),  after 
which  he  served  in  Texas  and  West  Tennessee.  Resigning  from 
the  army  in  1865,  he  became  extensively  interested  in  flour-milling 
and  lumbering  in  Wisconsin.  From  1867  to  187  x  he  waa  again 
a  member  of  the  U.S.  House  of  Representatives,  and  subsequently 
served  one  term  (187  2-1874)  as  governor  of  Wisconsin. 

WASHBURN,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Bayfield  county, 
Wisconsin,  U^.A.,  about  52  m.  £.  of  Superior,  Wis.,  and  about 
6  m.  N.  of  Ashland,  on  Chequamegon  Bay,  an  arm  of  Lake 
Superior.  Pop.  (xgio)  3830.  ,  Washburn  is  served  by  the 
Northern  Pacific  and  the  Chicago  &  North-Western  nulways, 
and  by  several  lines  of  lake  steamships.  The  city  is  finely 
situated  on  high  land  above  the  bay,  and  is  a  popular  summer 
resort,  being  especially  well  known  for  its  boating  and  fishing. 
It  h^  a  Carnegie  library.  Among  its  manufactures  are  staves, 
shini^es,  lumbCT,  wooden  ware  and  bricks.  There  is  a  powder 
and  dynamite  pkmt  in  the  vidnity.  In  the  dty  there  are  abo 
grain  elevators  and  large  coal  dodu,  and  in  the  nd^bourhood 
are  valuable  stone  quarries.  In  1659  Radisson  and  Groselllicrs 
touched  here  on  their  trip  along  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior. 
In  1665  Father  Claude  Allouez,  the  Jesuit,  established  on  the 
shore*of  the  bay,  a  short  distance  south  of  the  present  dty,  the 
first  French  mission  in  Wisconsin,  which  he  named  "  La  Pointe 
du  Saint  £^>rit,"  and  which  in  1669  was  placed  in  charge  of 
Father  Jacques  Marquette.  The  place  was  visited  by  Du  Luth 
in  1 681-1683,  and  here  in  1693  Le  Sueur,  a  fur  trader,  built  a 
stockaded  post.  In  1 7 1 8  a  fort  was  erected  and  a  French  garrison 
placed  in  it.  About  1830-1821  a  trading  post  of  the  American 
Fur  Company  was  established  in  the  ndghbourhood.  The 
present  dty,  named  in  honour  of  Governor  C.  C.  Washburn, 
dates  from  about  1879,  but  its  growth  was  slow  until  after  1888. 
It  was  chartered  as  a  dty  in  1904. 

WASHBURNB,  BLIHU  BENJAMIN  (18x6-1887),  Amoican 
statesman,  bom  in  Livermore,  Maine,  on  the  23rd  of  September 
1816.  He  was  one  of  seven  brothers,  of  whom  four  sat  in  Congress 
from  as  many  different  states.  He  received  a  common  school 
education,  graduated  at  the  Harvard  Law  School  in  X839, 
and  was  soon  afterwards  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1840  he 
removed  to  Galena,  Illinois.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1852,  where,  first  as  a  Whig  and  afterwards  as  a  Republican, 
he  represented  his  district  continuously  until  1869,  taking  a 
prominent  pait  in  debate,  and  earning  the  name  "  watch<^og 
of  the  TVeainoy  "  by  his  consistent  and  vigorous  opposition  to 
extravagant  and  unwise  appropriations.  He  contributed  much 
to  aid  General  Grant  during  the  Civil  War,  and  the  latter  on 
becoming  President  made  Washbume  secretary  of  state.  On 
account  of  ill-health,  however,  he  served  otdy  twelve  days, 
and  was  then  appointed  minister  to  France,  where  during  the 
Franco- Prussian  War  and  the  Commune  he  won  much  distinction 
as  protector  of  German  and  other  foreign  dtizens  in  Paris.  He 
was  the  only  foreign  minister  who  remained  at  his  post  during 
tlw  Commune.  In  1877  he  retired  from  public  Ufe,  and  died  in 
Chicago,  ID.,  on  the  22nd  of  October  1887.  He  published 
fUtoUtctlRhof  a  Minister  l^  Pranu  (2  vols.,  1887),  and  edited 
Tim  Edwwdt  Papers  (1884). 


WASBOfOTON*    BOOKER    TAUAFSBRO    (e.  1859-  K 

American  negro  teacher  and  reformer,  was  bom  on  a.plantatioo 
near  Hale's  Ford,  Franklin  oounty,  Virginia.    Soon  after  the 
Civil  War  he  went  to  Maiden,  West  Virginia,  where  he  worked 
in  a  salt  furnace  and  then  in  a  coal  mine.    He  obtained  aa 
elementary  education  at  night  school,  and  worked  as  a  house 
servant  in  a  family  where  his  ambition  for  knowledge  was 
encouraged.  In  1872  "  by  walking,  iM^ging  rides  both  in  wagona 
and  in  the  cars  **  he  travelled  500  m.  to  the  Hampton  (\1xginia) 
Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute,  where  he  remained  three 
years,  working  as  janitor  lor  his  board  and  education,  and 
graduated  in  X875.    For  two  years  he  taught  at  Maiden,  West 
Virginia,  and  studied  for  dgfat  months  (1878-1879)  at  the  Way- 
land  Seminary  in  Washington,  D.C.    In  1879  he  h<yamc  in- 
struotor  at  the  Hampton  Institute,  where  he  trained  about 
seventy-five  American  Indians  with  whom    General   S.    C 
Armstrong  was  carrying  on  an  educational  experiment,  and 
he  developed  the  ni^t  school,  which  became  one  of  the  most 
important  features  cl  the  institution.    In  x88x  he  was  appointed 
oiganizer  and  prindpal  of  a  negro  normal  school  at  Tuak^ee, 
Alabama  (f.v.),  for  which  the  state  legislature  had  made  an  annual 
appropriation  of  $3000.    Opened  in  July  188 1  in  a  little  shanty 
and  diurch,  the  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute 
became,  under  Washington's  presidency,  the  foremost  ezpozKBi 
of  industrial  education  for  the  negro.  To  promote  its  interests 
and   to  establish   better   understanding  between  whites  ax^ 
blacks,  Washington  delivered  many  addresses  throughout  the 
United  States,  notably  a  speech  in  1895  at  the  opening  of  the 
Atlanta  Cotton  States  and  International  Exposilioiu    In  1900 
at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  he  organized  the  National  Kegro 
Business  League.    Harvard  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary 
degree  of  A.M.  in  1896,  and  Dartmouth  that  of  LL.D.  in  190X. 

Among  his  publications  are  a  remarldble  autobiography.  Vp 
from  SUuery  (J901),  The  Future  of  the  American  ffe^ro  (1899), 
Smoini  andReapitu  (1900),  Character  BuiUine  (1902^  W(»kmg  wtik 
the  Hands  (1904).  Tuskegee  and  its  Peofde  (1905).  PutHng  the  mosf  ml* 
Life  (1906),  Life  of  Frederick  Douglass  (1907),  The  Negyo  m  Business 
(1907)  and  The  Story  of  the  Negro  (1909). 

WASHINGTON,  BU8HR0D  (1762-1839)1  American  jurist, 
nephew  of  George  Washington,  was  bom  in  Westmoreland 
county,  Virginia,  on  the  15th  of  Jime  1762.  He  graduated  in 
X  778  at  the  College  of  William  and  Mary,  where  he  was  an  original 
member  of  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society;  was  a  member  of  a 
volunteer  cavalry  troop  in  1780;  studied  hiw  in  Philadelphia 
in  X781,  and  began  practice  in  his  native  cotmty.  He  served  in 
the  House  of  Ddegates  in  X787,  and  in  the  following  year  sa( 
in  the  convention  which  ratified  for  Virginia  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution. After  living  in  Alexandria  for  a  short  time  he  removed 
to  Richmond  and  in  1798  was  appointed  an  assodate  justice 
of  the  United  States  Supreme  Comt  by  President  John  Adams. 
Ho  was  George  Washington's  literary  executor,  and  supervised 
the  preparation  of  John  Marshall's  Life  of  Washington  (5  vols., 
X804-1807) ;  and  on  Mrs  Washington's  death  in  1802  he  inherited 
Mount  Vernon  and  a  part  of  the  estate.  He  died  in  Philaddphia 
on  the  26th  of  November  1829. 

WASHINGTON,  GEORGB  (1732-1 799),  the  first  president 
of  the  United  States,  was  bom  at  Bridges  Creek,  Westmordand 
county,  Virginia,  on  the  22nd  (Old  Style  zith)  of  February 
1732.  The  genealogical  researches  of  Mr  Henry  E.  Waters 
seem  to  have  established  the  connexion  of  the  family  with  the 
Washingtons  of  Sulgrave,  Northamptonshire,  England.  The 
brothers  John  and  Lawrence  Washington  appear  in  Virginia 
in  1658.  John  took  up  land  at  Bridges  Creek,  became  a  member 
of  the  House  of  Burgesses  in  1666,  and  died  in  1676.  His  eldest 
son,  Lawrence,  married  Mildred  Warner,  by  whom  he  had  three 
children— John,  Augustine  (i 694-1 743)  and  MOdred.  Augustine 
Washington  married  twice.  By  the  first  marriage,  with  Jane 
Butler,  there  were  four  children,  two  of  whom,  Lawrence  and 
Augiistine,  grew  to  manhood.  By  the  sec6nd  marriage,  in  1730, 
with  Mary  Ball,  descendant  of  a  family  which  migrated  to 
Vir^nla  in  1657,  there  were  six  children— George,  Betty,  Samuel, 
John,  Charles  and  Mildred.  Upon  the  death  of  the  father. 
Lawrence  inherited  the  estate  at  Hunting  Crceki  on  the  Potomac. 


WASHINGTON,  GfiORO£ 


HS 


blec  known  as  Mount  Vernon,  and  Geoige  the  esti^te  on  the 
Rappahannock,  nearly  opposite  Fredericksbuxg,  where  his 
father  usually  lived. 

01  Washington's  early  life  little  is  known,  probably  because 
there  was  little  unusual  to  telL  The  story  ot  the  hatchet  and 
the  cherry-tree,  and  similar  tales,  nre  undoubtedly  apocryphal, 
having  been  coined  by  Washington's  most  popular  biographer, 
Maaon  Weems  (d.  iSis).^  There  is  nothing  to  show  that  the 
boy's  life  was  markedly  different  from  that  common  to  Virginia 
families  in  easy  circumstances;  plantation  affairs,  hunting, 
fishing,  and  a  little  reading  making  up  its  substance.  From  1 735 
to  1739  he  lived  at  what  is  now  called  Mount  Vernon,  and  after- 
wards at  the  estate  on  the  Rappahannock.  His  education  was 
only  elementary  and  very  defective,  except  in  mathematics, 
in  which  he  was  largely  self-taught;  and  although  at  his  death 
he  left  a  considerable  library,  he  was  never  an  assiduous  reader. 
Although  he  had  throughout  his  life  a  good  deal  of  official  contact 
with  the  French,  he  never  mastered  their  language.  Some 
careful  reading  of  good  books  there  must  have  been,  however^ 
for  in  spile  of  pervading  illiteracy,  common  in  that  age,  in  matters 
of  grammar  and  spelling,  he  acquired  a  dignilied  and  effective 
English  style.  The  texts  of  his  writings,  as  published  by  Jared 
Sparks,  have  been  so  "  edited  "  in  these  respects  as  to  destroy 
their  value  as  evidence;  but  the  edition  of  Mr  Wwthington  C. 
Ford  restores  the  original  texts.  Washington  left  school  in  the 
autumn  of  1747,  and  from  this  lime  we  begin  to  know  something 
of  his  life. .  He  was  then  at  Mount  Vernon  with  his  half-brother 
Lawrence,  who  was  also  his  guardian.  Lawrence  was  a  son-in-law 
of  William  Fairfax,  proprietor  of  the  neighbouring  plantation  of 
Belvoir,  and  agent  for  ihe  extensive  Fairfax  lands  in  the  colony. 
Lawrence  had  served  with  Fairfax  at  Cartagena,  and  had  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Admiral  Edward  Vernon,  from  whom  Mount 
Vernon  was  named.  The  stoiy  that  a  commission  as  midshipman 
was  obtained  for  George  through  the  good  offices  of  the  admiral, 
but  that  the  opposition  of  the  boy's  mother  put  an  end  to  the 
scheme,  seems  to  lack  proof.  In  1748,  however,  through  the 
in6uence  of  Thomas,  Lord  Fairfax,  the  bead  of  the  family,  who 
had  come  to  America  to  live,  Washington,  then  only  sixteen  years 
of  age,  was  appointed  surveyor  of  the  Fairfax  property;  and  an 
appointment  as  public  surveyor  soon  followed,  llie  next  three 
years  were  spent  in  this  service,  most  of  the  time  on  the  frontier. 
He  always  retained  a  disposition  to  speculate  in  western  lands, 
the  ultimate  value  of  which  he  early  appreciated;  many  of  his 
later  investments  of  this  character  are  treated  in  C.  W.  Butter- 
field's  WasAingfon-Crawford  LetUrs  (1877).  He  seems,  too,  to 
have  impressed  others  already  with  his  force  of  mind  and  char- 
acter. In  1 751  he  accompanied  his  half-brother  Lawrence,  who 
was  stricken  with  consumption,  to  the  West  Indies,  where  he 
had  an  attack  of  small-pox  which  left  him  marked  for  life. 
Lawrence  died  in  the  foUowing  year,  making  George  executor 
under  the  will  and  residuary  heir  of  Mount  Vernon;  and  the 
latter  estate  became  his  in  176 r. 

In  October  1753,  on  the  eve  of  the  last  French  and  Indian  war, 
Washington  was  chosen  by  Governor  Robert  Dinwiddle  as  the 
agent  to  warn  the  French  away  from  their  new  posts  on  the 
Ohio,  in  western  Pennsylvania.  He  accomplished  the  winter 
journey  safely,  though  with  considerable  danger  and  hardship; 
and  shortly  after  his  return  was  appdnted  lieutenant-colonel  of 
a  Virginia  regiment,  under  Colonel  Joshua  Fry.  In  April  1754 
he  set  out  with  two  companies  for  the  Ohio,  defeated  (38th  May) 
a  force  of  French  and  Indians  at  Great  Bleadows  (in  the  present 
Fayette  county,  Pennsylvania),  but  at  Fort  Necessity  in  this 
vicinity  was  forced  to  capitulate  <3rd  July),  though  only  after  a 
vigorous  defence.  For  his  services  he  received  the  thanks  of 
the  House  of  Burgesses.  When  General  Edward  Braddock 
arrived  in  Virginia  in  Fcbniaiy  1755,  Washington  wrote  him  a 
diplomatically  worded  letter,  and  was  presently  made  a  member 

'  Weems  wasa  Protestant  Episcopal  clergyman,  who  first  published 
a  brief  biography  of  Washington  in  1800,  and  later  (1806)  consider* 
ably  expanded  it  and  introduced  various  apocryphal  anecdotes. 
The  biography,  though  worthless,  had  an  immense  circulation,  and 
is  to  a  oonsideicable  degree  respoasible  for  the  traditional  conceptioD 
of  WaaUacfioo. 


oTthe  staff,  with  the  rank  of  coloneL  His  personal  relations  wiih 
Braddock  were  friendly  throughout,  and  in  the  calamitous  defeat 
he  showed  for  the  first  time  that  fiery  energy  which  always  lay 
hidden  beneath  his  calm  and  unruffled  exterior.  He  ranged  the 
whole  fidd  on  horseback,  making  himself  the  most  conspicuous 
target  lor  Indian  bullets,  and,  in  spite  of  what  he  called  the 
"  dastardly  behaviour  "  of  the  regular  troops,  saved  the  expedi- 
tion from  annihilation,  and  brought  the  remnant  of  his  Virginians 
out  of  action  in  fair  order.  In  spite  of  his  reckless  exposure, 
he  was  one  of  the  few  unwounded  officers.  In  August,  after  his 
return,  he  was  commissioned  commander  of  the  Virginia  forceSj 
being  then  twenty-three  years  old.  For  alx^ut  two  years  his  task 
was  that  of  "  defending  a  frontier  of  more  than  350  m.  with 
700  men,"  a  task  rendered  the  more  difficult  by -the  insub-* 
ordination  and  irregular  service  of  his  soldiers,  and  by  irritating 
controversies  over  official  precedence.  To  settle  the  latter 
question  he  made  a  journey  to  Boston,  in  1756,  to  confer  with 
Governor  William  Shirley.  In  the  winter  of  1757  his  health 
broke  down,  but  in  the  next  year  he  had  the  pleasure  of  com- 
manding the  advance  guard  of  the  expedition  under  General 
John  Forbes  which  occupied  Fort  Duqucsne  and  renamed  it 
Fort  Pitt.  (Sec  Pittsburc:  History.)  At  the  end  of  the  year 
he  resigned  his  commission,  the  war  in  Virginia  being  at  an  end, 
and  in  January  1759  married  Martha  Dandridge  (1732-1802), 
widow  of  Daniel  Parke  Cuslis. 

For  the  next  fifteen  years  Washington's  life  at  Mouilt  Vernon, 
where  he  made  his  home  after  his  marriage,  was  that  of  a  typical 
Virginia  planter  of  the  more  prosperous  sort,  a  consistent  member 
and  vestryman  of  the  Established  (Episcopal)  Church,  a  large 
slave-holder,  a  strict  but  considerate  master,  and  a  widely 
trusted  man  of  affairs.  His  extraordinary  escape  in  Braddock 'a 
defeat  had  led  a  colonial  preacher  to  declare  in  a  sermon  his 
belief  that  the  young  man  had  been  preserved  to  be  "  the 
saviour  of  his  country  ";  but  if  there  was  any  such  impression 
it  soon  died  away,  and  Washington  gave  hb  associates  no  reason 
to  consider  him  a  man  of  uncommon  endowments.  His  marriago 
brought  him  an  increase  of  about  $xoo,ooo  in  his  property,  m&k* 
ing  Mm  one  of  the^  richest  men  m  the  colonics;  and  he  was  ablo 
to  develop  his  plantation  and  enlarge  its  extent.  His  attitude^ 
towards  slavery  has  been  much  discussed,  but  it  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  different  from  that  of  many  other  planters  of  that 
day:  he  did  not  think  highly  of  the  system,  but  had  no  invincible 
repugnance  to  it,  and  saw  no  way  of  getting  rid  of  it.  In  his 
treatment  of  slaves  he  was  exacting,  but  not  harsh,  and  was 
averse  to  selling  them  save  in  case  of  necessity.  His  diaries  show 
a  minutely  methodical  conduct  of  business,  generous  indulgenco 
in  hunting,  comparatively  little  reading  and  a  wide  acquaintance 
with  the  leading  men  of  the  colom'es,  but  no  marked  indications  o{ 
what  is  usually  considered  to  be  "  greatness."  As  in  the  case  of 
Lincoln,  he  was  educated  into  greatness  by  the  increasing  weight 
of  his  responsibilities  and  the  manner  in  which  he  met  them.' 
Like  others  of  the  dominant  planter  doss  in  Virginia,  he  was 
repeatedly  elected  to  the  House  of  Burgesses,  but  the  business 
which  came  before  the  colonial  assembly  was  for  some  years  of 
only  local  importance,  and  he  is  not  known  to  have  made  any 
set  speeches  in  the  House,  or  to  have  said  anything  beyond  a  state- 
ment of  his  opinion  and  the  reasons  for  it.  He  was  present  on 
the  sgth  of  May  1765,  when  Patrick  Henry  introduced  his  famous 
resolutions  against  the  Stamp  Act.  That  he  thought  a  great  deal 
on  public  questions,  and  took  full  advantage  of  his  legislative 
experience  as  a  means  of  political  education,  is  shown  by  his 
letter  of  the  5th  of  April  1769  to  his  neighbotir,  George  Mason, 
communicating  the  Philadelphia  non-importation  rcsolutionsa 
which  had  just  reached  him.  In  this  he  considers  briefly  th« 
best  means  of  peaceable  resistance  to  the  policy  of  the  ministry, 
but  even  at  that  early  date  faces  frankly  and  fully  the  probable 
final  necessity  of  reusting  by  force,  and  endorses  it,  though  only 
an  a  last  resort.  In  May  following,  when  the  House  of  Burgesses 
was  dissolved,  he  was  amoqg  the  members  who  met  at  the 
Raleigh  tavern  and  adopted  a  non-importation  agreement;  and 
he  himself  kept  the  agreement  when  others  did  not.  Though 
oa  Iriffidiy  tenos  with  Covemor  Norboii(^Bcckelcy,  Baioo 


3+6 


WASHINGTON,  GEORGE 


Botetourt  and  his  succcMOr,  John  Htany,  cmI  of  DunniOM,  he 
Beverthefett  tobk  a  prominent  part,  though  without  epeech- 
making,  in  the  stmnlM  of  the  Assembly  against  Dunmoie, 
and  his  position  was  always  a  radical  one.  As  the  breach 
widened,  he  even  opposed  petitions  to  the  Ung  and  parliament, 
on  the  ground  that  the  daims  to  taxation  and  control  had  been 
put  forward  by  the  ministiy  on  the  basis  of  right,  not  of  ex- 
pediency, that  the  ministry  could  not  abandon  the  claim  of 
right  and  the  colonies  could  not  admit  it,  and  that  petitions 
must  be,  as  they  already  had  been,  rejected.  "Shall  wc," 
he  writes  m  a  letter,  "  after  this  whine  and  cry  for  relief?  " 

On  the  sth  of  August  1774  the  Virginia  convention  appofaited 
Washington  as  one  of  seven  delegates  to  the  first  Continental 
Congkess,  which  met  at  Philadelphia  on  the  5th  of  September, 
and  with  this  appointment  his  national  career,  which  was  to 
continue  with  but  two  brief  intervals  until  his  death,  begins. 
His  letters  during  his  service  in  Congress  show  that  he  had  fully 
grasped  the  questions  at  issue,  that  he  was  under  no  delusions 
as  to  the  outcome  of  the  struggle  over  taxation,  and  that  he 
expected  war.  *'  More  blood  will  be  spilled  on  this  occasion,"  he 
wrote,  "if  the  ministry  are  detcrmmed  to  push  matteis  to 
extremity,  than  hbtory  has  ever  yet  furnished  instances  of  in 
the  annals  of  North  America."  His  associates  in  Congress  at 
once  recognized  his  military  ability,  and  although  he  was  not  a 
member  of  any  of  the  committees  of  the  Congress,  he  seems  to 
have  aided  materially  in  securing  the  endorsement  by  Congress 
ci  the  Suffolk  county,  Massachusetts,  resolves  (see  Milton, 
Mass.)  looking  towards  organized  resistance.  On  the  adjourn- 
ment of  the  Congress  he  returned  to  Virginia,  where  he  con- 
tinued to  be  active,  as  a  member  of  the  House  of  Burgesses, 
in  urging  on  the  organization,  equipment  and  training  of  troops, 
and  even  undertook  in  person  to  drill  volunteers.  His  attitude 
towards  the  mother  country  at  this  time,  however,  must  not 
be  misunderstood.  Much  as  he  expected  war,  he  was  not  yet 
ready  to  declare  in  favour  of  independence,  and  he  did  not 
ally  himself  with  th?  party  of  independence  until  the  course 
of  events  made  the  adoption  of  any  other  course  impossible. 
In  March  1775  he  was  appointed  a  delegate  from  Virginia  to 
the  second  Continental  Congress,  where  he  served  on  committees 
for  fortifying  New  York,  collecting  ammunition,  raising  money 
and  formulating  army  rules.  It  seems  to  have  been  generally 
understood  that,  in  case  of  war,  Virginia  would  expect  him  to 
act  as  her  commander-in-chief,  and  it  was  noticed  that,  in  the 
second  Congress,  he  was  the  only  member  who  habitually  appeared 
In  uniform.  History,  however,  was  to  settle  the  matter  on 
broader  lines.  The  two  most  powerful  colonies  were  Virginia 
and  Massachusetts.  The  war  began  in  Massachusetts,  troops 
from  New  England  flocking  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Boston 
almost  spontaneously;  but  the  resistance,  if  it  was  to  be  effective, 
must  have  the  support  of  the  colonies  to  the  southward,  and 
the  Virginia  colonel  who  was  serving  on  all  the  militaiy  com- 
mittees of  Congress,  and  whose  experience  in  the  Braddock 
campaign  had  made  his  name  favourably  known  in  EngUnd, 
was  the  obvious  as  well  as  the  politic  choice.  When  Coiigress, 
after  the  fights  at  Lexington  and  Concord,  resolved  that  the 
ooloi^es  ought  to  be  put  in  a  position  of  defence,  the  first  practical 
step  was  the  unanimous  selection  (June  15),  on  motion  of  John 
Adams  of  Massachusetts,  of  Washington  as  commander-in-chief 
of  the  armed  forces  of  the  United  Colonies.  Refusing  any  salary 
and  asking  only  the  reimbursement  of  his  expenses,  he  accepted 
the  position,  asking  "  every  gentleman  in  the  room,"  however, 
to  remember  his  declaration  tha*  lie  did  not  believe  himself  to 
be  equal  to  the  command,  and  that  he  accepted  itonlyasa'duty 
made  imperative  by  the  unanimity  of  the  calL  He  reiterated 
this  belief  in  private  letters  even  to  his  wife;  and  there  seems 
to  be  no  doubt  that,  to  the  day  of  his  death,  he  was  the  most 
determined  sceptic  as  to  his  fitness  for  the  positions  to  which  he 
was  successively  called.  He  was  commissioned  on  the  17th  of 
June  1775,  set  out  at  once  for  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  on  the  3rd 
of  July  tock  command  of  the  levies  t^re  assembled  for  action 
agsinst  the  British  garrison  in  Boston.  The  battle  of  Bunker 
HiD  had  already  Xaktn  place,  newt  of  k  itachiiig  him  on  the  way 


Botftk  Uata  the  foBdwfn^  Match,  WasUngtoo's  #otk  mam  to 
bring  about  soma  sembUnct  of  military  organ! tatki  aad 
disdi^me,  to  collect  ammunition  and  militaiy  stores,  to  oone- 
ipond  with  CongresB  and  the  colonial  authorities,  to  guide 
military  operations  in  widely  separate  parts  of  the  country, 
to  create  a  militaiy  system  for  a  people  entirely  onaccnstooMd 
to  such  a  thing  and  impatient  aiMl  suspicioua  under  it,  and  to 
bead  the  course  of  events  steadily  tomds  driving  the  Biitiah 
out  of  Boston.  He  planned  the  expeditions  against  Csnada 
under  Richard  Montgomery  and  Benedict  ArMld,  and  sent 
out  privateers  to  harass  Britidi  commerce.  It  is  not  easy  to  see 
how  Washington  survived  the  year  1775;  the  colonial  poverty, 
the  exasperating  annoyances,  the  outspoken  criticism  of  thoae 
who  demanded  active  operations,  the  personal  and  party  dis- 
sensions in  Congress,  the  selfishness  or  stupidity  which  cropped 
out  again  and  again  among  some  ^f  the  most  patriotic  of  lus 
coadjutors  were  enough  to  have  broken  down  most  men.  Tbey 
com^ted  his  training.  The  change  in  this  one  winter  is  vciy 
evident.  If  he  was  not  a  great  man  when  he  went  to  Cambridge, 
he  was  both  a  general  and  a  statesman  in  the  fullest  sense  when  he 
drove  the  British  out  of  Boston  in  March  1776.  From  that  time 
until  his  death  he  was  admittedly  the  foremost  man  of  the 
continent. 

The  military  operations  of  the  remainder  of  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence are  described  elsewhere  (see  Amekican  Wai  or 
Independence).  Washington's  retreat  through  New  Jcner* 
the  manner  in  which  he  turned  and  struck  his  pursuers  at  Trentea 
and  Princeton,  and  then  established  himself  at  Morristown,  so  as 
to  make  the  way  to  Philadelphia  impassable;  the  vigour  with 
which  he  handled  his  army  at  the  Brandywine  and  Germantowa; 
the  persbtence  with  which  he  held  the  strategic  position  of  Valley 
Forge  through  the  dreadful  winter  of  1777-1778,  in  spite  of  the 
misery  of  his  men,  the  clamours  of  the  people  and  the  impotence 
and  meddling  of  the  fugitive  Congressr-all  went  to  show  that  the 
fibre  of  hte  public  character  had  been  hardened  to  its  permanent 
quality.  *'  These  are  the  times  that  try  men's  souls,"  wrote 
Thomas  Paine  at  the  begirming  of  1776,  and  the  words  had  added 
meaning  in  each  year  that  followed;  but  Washington  had  no 
need  to  fear  the  test.  The  spirit  which  culminated  in  the  treason 
of  Benedict  Amdd  was  a  serious  addition  to  his  burdens;  for 
what  Arnold  did  others  were  almost  ready  to  do.  Many  of  the 
American  oflScers,  too,  had  taken  offence  at  the  close  personal 
frien<fehip  which  had  Sprung  up  between  the  marquis  de  La 
Fayette  and  Washington,  .and  at  the  diplomatic  deference  which 
the  commander-in-chief  felt  compelled  to  show  to  other  foreign 
oflScers.  Some  of  the  foreign  volimteers  were  eventually  dis- 
missed politely  by  Congress,  on  the  ground  that  suitable  empiloy* 
ment  could  not  be  found  for  them.  The  name  of  one  of  them, 
Thomas  Conway,  an  Irish  soldier  of  fortune  from  the  French 
service,  is  attached  to  what  is  called  "  Conway's  Cabal,"  a  scheme 
for  superseding  Washington  by  General  Horatio  Gates,  who  in 
October  1777  succeeded  in  forcing  Burgoyne  to  capitulate  at 
Saratoga,  and  who  had  been  persbtent  in  his  depreciation  of  the 
commander-in-chief  and  in  intrigues  with  members  of  Congress. 
A  number  of  officers,  as  well  as  of  men  in  dvU  life,  ittrt  mixed  up 
in  the  plot,  while  the  methods  employed  were  the  lowest  forms 
of  anonymous  slander;  but  at  the  first  breath  of  exposure 
every  one  concerned  hurried  to  cover  up  his  part  In  it,  leaving 
Conway  to  shoulder  both  the  responsibility  and  the  disgrace. 
The  treaty  of  alliance  of  1778  with  France,  following  the  sur- 
render of  Burgoyne,  put  an  end  to  all  such  plans.  It  was  absurd 
to  expect  foreign  nations  to  deal  with  a  second-rate  man  as 
commander-in-chief  while  Washington  was  In  the  fidd,  and  he 
seems  to  have  had  no  further  trouble  of  this  kind.  The  prompt 
and  vigorous  pursuit  of  Sir  Henry  CKnton  across  New  Jersey 
towards  New  York,  and  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  In  which  the 
plan  of  battle  was  thwarted  by  Charies  Lee«  another  foreign 
recruit  of  popular  reputation,  dosed  the  ndKtary  record  of 
Washington,  so  far  as  active  campaigning  was  concerned,  until 
the  end  of  the  war.  The  Britidi  confined  thefar  opcratioiis  to 
other  parts  of  the  continent,  and  Washington,  alive,  as  ever  to 
the  importance  of  keeping  up  connexion  with  New  Englbnd, 


WASHINGTON,  GEORGE 


3+7 


devoted  bimelf  to  waldung  the  Btitieh  id  and  about  New  York 
City.  It  was  in  every  way  fittijig,  hoover,  that  he  who  had  been 
the  mainspring  of  the  war  from  the  beginning,  and  had  borne  far 
more  than  his  share  of  its  burdens  and  disoHiragements,  should 
end  it  with  the  campaign  of  Yorktowni  conceived  by  himself, 
and  the  surrender  of  Comwallis  (October  1781).  Although  peace 
was  not  concluded  until  September  1783,  there  was  no  more 
important  fighting.  Washington  retained  his  commission  until 
the  23rd  of  December  1763,  when,  in  a  memorable  scene,  he 
letumed  it  to  Congress^  then  in  session  at  Annapohs,  Md., 
and  retired  to  Mount  Vernon.  His  eipcnscai  during  the  war, 
including  secret  service  money,  aggregated  about  ffi^/xso;  in 
addition  he  expended  a  considerable  amount  from  his  private 
fortune,  for  which  he  made  no  claim  to  idmbursement. 

By  this  time  the  popular  canohiaation  of  Washington  had 
fairly  begun.    He  occupied  a  position  in  American  public  life 
and  in  the  American  politioaJ  system  which  no  man  could 
possibly  hold  again.    He  may  be  said  to  have  become  a  political 
element  quite  apArt  from  the  Union,  or  the  states,  ot  the  people 
of  either.    In  a  country  in  which  newopapem  had  at  best  only 
a  locsl  circulation,  and  where  commuaic&tkm  was  still  slow  and 
difficult,  the  knowledge  that  Washington  iavoored  anything 
superseded,  with  veiy  many  men,  both  argument  and  the  necessity 
of  information.    His  constant  oonespondeoce  with  the  govenots 
of  the  states  gave  him  a  quasi-patonal  attitude  towards  govern- 
ment in  gouoal.    On  relinquishing  his  command,  for  example, 
he  was  able  to  do  what  bo  other  man  could  have  done  with 
either  propriety  or  safety:  he  addneased  a  ctrcukr  letter  to  the 
govenion,  potntiag  out  changes  in  the  exiting  form  of  govern- 
ment which  he  believed  to  be  necessary,  and  urpng  "  an  in- 
dissoluUe  union  of  the  states  under  one  federal  head,"  "  a 
regard  to  public  justice/'  the  adoption  of  a  suitable  military 
cstabfahment  lor  a  time  of  peace,  and  the  making  of  "'those 
mutual  GODcessions  which  are  requisite  to  the  general  prosperity." 
His  icfosal  to  accept  a  salary,  either  as  commander-iiMrhief 
CHT  as  presideBt,  mi^t  have  been  taken  as  affectation  or  im^ 
pwtineace  in  any  one  dse;  it  seemed  natural  and  proper  enough 
in  the  case  o£  Washington,,  but  it  was  his  peculiar  privilege. 
It  is  even  possible  that  he  mi^t  have  had  a  crown,  had  he 
been  willing  to  accept  it.    The  army,  at  the  end  of  the  war, 
was  jnstly  dissatisfied  with  its  treatment.    The  officers  were 
called  to  meet  at  Newburgh,  and  it  was  the  avowed  purpose 
of  the  leaders  ol  the  movemenl  to  march  the  army  westward, 
appropriate  vacant  public  lahds'as  part  compensation  for  arrears 
of  pay,  leave  Congress  to  negotiate  for  peace  without  an  army, 
and  "  mock  at  their  calamity  and  laugh  when  .their  fesr  cometh." 
Less  publkly  avowed  was  the  purpose  to  make  their  commander- 
in-chief  king,  if  he  could  be  persuaded  to  aid  in  establishing  a 
momuchy.    Washington  pat  a  summary  step  to  the  whole  pro- 
ceeding. A  letter  written  to  him  by  Colonel  Lewis  Niook,  on  be- 
half of  this  coterie,  detailed  the  weakness  of  a  republican  form  of 
government  as  they  had  experienced  it,  their  desire  for  "  mixed 
government,"  with  him  at  its  head,  and  their  belief  that  "  the 
title  of  king  "  would  be  objectionable  to  but  few  and  of  material 
advantage  to  the  country.    His  reply  was  peremptory  and 
indignant.    In  plain  terms  he  stated  his  abhoi^ce  of  the 
proposal;  be  was  at  a  loss  to  conceive  what  part  of  his  conduct 
could  have  encouraged  their  address;  they  could  not  have 
found  **  a  person  to  whom  tbei^  sdiemes  were  more  disagree- 
able ";  and  he  charged  them,  *'  if  you  have  any  regard  for  your- 
self or  posterity,  or  respect  for  me,  to  banish  these  thoughts 
from  your  mindK  and  never  communicate,  as  from  yourself 
or  any  oite  else,  a  sentiment  of  the  like  nature.*'    His  ii^uence, 
and  his  alone,  secured  the  quiet  disbanding  <rf  the  discontented 
army.    That  influence  was  as  powerful  after  he  had  retired  to 
Mount  Vernon  as  before  the  resignation  of  his  conun&nd.    The 
Society  of  the  Cincinnati,  an  organization  composed  of  officers 
of  the  late  war,  chose  him  as  its  first  president;  but  he  insisted 
that  the  Society  should  abandon  its  plan  of  hereditary  member- 
ship, and  ehanxe  other  features  of  the  organization  against  which 
there  had  been  public  clamom-.    When  the  legislature  of  Virgmia 
gave  him  r50  shares  of  stock  in  companies  formed  for  the 


improvement  of  the  Potomac  and  James  nvets,  and  he  was 
unable  to  refuse  them  lest  his  action  should  be  misinterpreted, 
he  extricated  himself  by  giving  them  to  educational  institutions. 
His  voltuninous  corre^ondenoe  shows  his  continued  ooncon 
for  a  standing  army  and  the  immediate  poesesdon  of  the  western 
military  posts,  and  his  interest  in  the  development  of  the 
western  territory.  From  public  men  in  all  ports  of  the  country 
he  received  such  a  store  of  suggestions  as  came  to  no  other  man, 
digested  it,  and  was  eiudilcd  by  means  of  it  to  speak  with  what 
seemed  infallible  wisdom.  In  the  midst  of  a  burden  of  letter- 
writing,  the  minute  details  in  his  diaries  of  tree-planting  and 
rotation  of  crops,  and  his  increasing  reading  on  the  political 
side  of  history,  he  found  time  to  entertain  a  stream  of  visitors 
from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  from  abroad.  Among 
these,  in  March  1785,  were  the  commissioners  from  Virginia  and 
Maryland,  who  met  at  Alexandria  (f.v.)  to  form  a  commercial 
code  for  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  Potomac,  and  made  an  oppor- 
tunity to  visit  Mount  Vernon.  From  that  moment  the  current 
of  events,  leading  into  the  ArmapoUs  Convention  (see  Anna- 
V01I8,  Md.)  of  1786  and  the  Fedoal  Convention  of  the  follow- 
ing year,  shows  Washington's  close  supervision  at  every  pdnt. 

When  the  Federal  Convention  met  at  Philadelphia  in  May 
r787  to  frame  the  present  constitution,  Washington  was  present 
as  a  ddegate  from  Virginia,  though  much  against  his  will;  and 
a  unanimous  vote  at  once  made  him  the  ixcsiding  officer.  Natur- 
ally, therefore,  he  did  not  participate  in  debate;  and  he  seems 
to  have  qMHen  but  once,  and  then  to  favour  an  amendment 
reducing  from  40,000  to  30,000  the  minimum  population  required 
as  a  ba^  of  representation  in  the  House.  Ilio  mere  sujggestion, 
coming  from  him,  was  sufficient,  and  the  change  was  at  once 
agreed  ta  He  approved  the  constitution  which  was  decided 
upon,  believing,  as  he  said,  "that  it  was  the  best  constitution 
which  could  be  obtained  at  that  epoch,  and  that  tUs  or  a  dissolu- 
tion awdts  our  choice,  and  is  the  only  alternative."  As  president 
of  the  convention  he  signed  the  constitution,  and  kept  tbe'papeis 
of  the  oonvoition  until  the  ad<^tion  of  the  new  government, 
when  they  were  deposited  in  the  Department  of  State.  All  his 
vast  influence  was  given  to  secure  the  ratification  of  the  new 
instrument,  and  his  influence  was  probably  decisive.  When 
enough  states  had  ratified  to  assure  the  success  of  the  new 
government,  and  the  time  came  to  elect  a  president,  there  wu 
no  hesitation.  The  office  of  president  had  been  "  cut  to  fit  the 
measure  of  George  Washington,"  and  no  one  thought  of  any 
other  person  in  connexion  with  it. .  The  unanimous  vote  of  the 
electors  made  him  the  first  president  of  the  United  States; 
their  unanimous  vote  elected  him  for  a  second  time  in  2799- 
1793;  and  even  alter  he  had  positively  refused  to  serve  for  a 
third  term,  two  dectors  voted  for  him  in  1796-r  797.  The  public 
evokts  of  his  presidency  are  pven  elsewhere  (yee  Umhed  States, 
i  Hishry).  WhSe  the  success  of  the  new  government  was  the  work 
of  many  men  and  many  causes,  one  cannot  rcdst  the  conviction 
tiiat  the  factor  of  chief  importance  was  the  esdstence,  at  the  head 
oftheexecutivedepartment,  of  such  a  character  as  Washington. 
It  was  he  who  gave  to  official  intercourse  formal  dignity  and 
distinction.  It  was  he  who  secured  for  the  president  the  power 
of  removal  from  office  without  the  intervention  ci  the  Senate. 
His  support  <^  Hamilton's  financial  plans  not  only  insured  a 
speedy  restoration  of  public  credit,  but  also,  and  even  more 
important,  gave  the  new  government  constitutional  ground  on 
which  to  stand;  whfle  his  firmness  in  dealing  with  the  "  Whisky 
Insurrection  "  taught  a  much-needed  and  wholesome  lesson  of 
respect  for  the  Federal  power.  His  official  visits  to  New  Engia  nd 
in  1789,  to  Rhode  Island  in  1790  and  to  the  South  in  1791 
enabled  him  to  test  public  opinion  at  the  same  time  that  they 
Increased  popular  interest  in  the  national  government.  Himself 
not  a  political  partisan,  he  held  the  two  natural  parties  apart, 
and  prevented  party  contest,  until  the  government  had  become 
too  firmly  established  to  be  ^aken  by  them.  Perhaps  the  final 
result  would  not  in  any  case  have  failed,  even  had  "  blood  and 
iron  "  been  necessary  to  bring  it  about;  but  the  quiet  attainment 
of  the  result  was  due  to  the  personality  of  Washington,  as  well 
as  to  the  poliUcal  sense  of  tlie  American  people. 


3+8 


WASHINGTON,  GEORGE 


It  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  suppose,  however,  that  the 
infhic&ce  of  the  president  was  fairly  appreciated  during  his 
term  of  office,  or  that  he  himself  was  uniformly  respected. 
WasiungtoQ  seems  never  to  have  understood  fuUy  either  the 
nature,  the  significance,  or  the  inevitable  necessity  of  party 
government  in  a  repubUc.  Instead,  he  attempted  to  balance 
party  against  party,  selected  representatives  of  opposing  political 
views  to  serve  in  his  first  cabinet,  and  sought  in  that  way  to 
neutralize  the  effects  of  parties.  The  consequence  was  that 
the  two  leading  members  of  the  cabinet,  Alexander  Hamilton 
and  Thomas  Jefferson,  exponent^  for  the  most  part  of  diametric- 
ally  opposite  political  doctrines,  soon  occupied  the  position,  to 
use  the  words  of  one  of  than,  of  "  two  game-cocks  in  a  pit." 
The  unconscious  drift  of  Washington's  mind  waa  toward  the 
Federalist  party;  his  letters  to  La  Fayette  and  to  Patrick  Henry, 
in  December  1798  and  January  1799,  make  that  evident  even 
without  the  record  of  his  earlier  career  aa  president.  It  is  in- 
conceivable that,  to  a  man  with  his  type  of  mind  and  his  extra^ 
ordinary  experience,  the  practical  sagacity,  farsightedness  and 
aggressive  courage  of  the  Federalists  should  not  have  seemed 
to  embody  the  best  political  wisdom,  however  little  he  may  have 
been  disposed  to  ally  himself  with  any  party  group  or  subscribe 
to  any  comprehensive  creed.  Accordingly,  when  the  Democratic- 
Republican  party  came  to  be  formed,  about  1793,  it  was  not  to 
be  expected  tliat  its  leaders  would  long  submit  with  patience  to 
the  continual  interposition  of  Washington's  name  and  influence 
between  themselves  and  their  opponents;  but  they  maintained 
a  calm  exterior.  Some  of  their  followers  were  less  discreet. 
The  president's  proclamation  of  neutrality,  in  the  war  between 
England  and  France,  excited  them  to  anger;  his  support  of 
Jay's  tceaty  with  Great  Britain  roused  them  to  fury.  His 
firmness  in  thwarting  the  activities  of  Edmond  Charies  Edouard 
Genet,  minister  from  France,  alicmated  the  partisans  of  France; 
his  suppression  of  the  "  Whisky  Insurrection  "  aroused  in  some 
the  fear  of  a  military  dcspotisnu  Forged  letters,  purporting 
to  show  his  desire  to  abandon  the  revolutionary  struggle,  were 
published;  he  was  accused  of  drawing  more  than  his  ^ary; 
his  manners  were  ridiculed  aa  "aping  monarchy";  hints  of 
the  propriety  of  a  guillotine  for  his  benc^t  began  to  appear; 
he  was  spoken  of  as  the  "  stepfather  of  his  countr>'."  The  brutal 
attacks,  exceeding  in  virulence  anything  that  would  be  tolerated 
to-day,  embittered  his  presidency,  especially  during  his  second 
term:  in  1793  he  is  reported  to  have  dedared,  in  a  cabinet 
meeting,  tliat  "  he  would  rather  be  in  his  grave  than  in  his 
present  situation,"  and  that  "  he  had  never  repented  but  once 
the  having  slipped  the  moment  of  resigning  his  office,  and  that 
was  every  moment  since,"  The  most  unpleasant  portions  of 
Jefferson'^  Anas  are  those  in  which,  with  an  air  of  psychological 
dissection,  he  details  the  storms  of  passion  into  which  thepresidcnt 
was  driven  by  the*  newspaper  attacks  upon  him.  There  is  no 
reason  to  believe,  however,  that  these  attacks  represented  the 
feeling  of  any  save  a  small  minority  of  the  pc^ticians;  the  people 
never  wavered  in  their  devotion  to  the  president,  and  his  election 
would  have  been  unanimous  in  1796,  as  in  1792  and  1789,  had 
be  been  willing  to  serve. 

He  retired  from  the  presidency  in  1797,*  and  returned  to  Mount 
Vernon,  his  journey  thither  being  marked  by  popular  demon- 
strations of  affection  and  esteem.  At  Mount  Vernon,  which  had 
suffered  from  neglect  during  his  absence,  he  resumed  the  planta- 
tion life  which  he  bved,  the  society  of  his  family,  and  the  care 
of  his  slaves.  He  had  resolved  some  time  before  never  to  obtain 
another  slave,  and  "  wished  from  his  soul "  that  Virginia  could 
be  persuaded  to  abolish  slavery;  "  it  might  prevent  much  future 
mischief  ";  but  the  unprecedented  profitableness  of  the  cotton 
industry,  under  the  impetus  of  the  recently  invented  cotton 
gin,  had  already  begun  to  change  public  sentiment  regarding 
slavery,  and  Washington  was  too  old  to  attempt  further  innova- 
tions. Visitors  continued  to  flock  to  him,  and  his  correspondence, 
as  always,  took  a  wide  range.  In  x  798  he  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  provisional  army  raised  in  anticipation  of  war  with 

*■  He  had  previously,  under  date  of  the  17th  of  September  1796, 
issued  a  nouble  "  Farewell  Addrew  *'  to  the  American  people. 


France,  and  was  fretted  almost  beyond  endnranceby  the  quarrds 
of  Federalist  politicians  over  the  distribution  of  commissions. 
In  the  midst  of  these  military  preparations  he  was  struck  down 
by  sudden  illness,  which  lasted  but  for  a  day,  and  died  at  Mount 
Vernon  on  the  X4th  of  December  1799.  His  disorder  was  an 
oodematous  affection  of  the  wind-pipe,  contracted  by  exposure 
during  a  long  ride  in  a  snowstorm,  and  aggravated  by  neglect 
and  by  such  contemporary  remedies  as  bleeding,  gardes  of 
"  mohuses,  vinegar  and  butter  "  and  "  vinegar  and  sage  tea,*' 
whkh  **  almost  suffocated  him,"  and  a  blister  of  cantharides 
on  the  throat.  He  died  as  simply  as  he  had  lived ;  his  last  words 
were  only  business  directions,  affectionate  remembrances  to 
rehitivcs,  and  repeated  apok)gies  to  the  physicians  and  attendants 
for  the  trouble  he  was  giving  them.  Just  before  he  died,  says 
his  secretary,  Tobias  Lear,  he  felt  his  own  pulse;  his  countenance 
changed;  the  attending  phytidan  phuxd  his  hands  ov^  the 
eyes  of  the  dying  man,  *'  and  he  expired  without  a  struggle  or 
a  si|^."  The  third  of  the  series  of  resolutions  introduced  in 
the  House  of  Representatives  five  days  after  his  death,  by  John 
Marshall  of  Virginia,  later  chief-justice  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
states  exactly,  if  somewhat  rhetorically,  the  position  of  Washing- 
tioa  in  American  history:  "  first  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first 
in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen."*  His  will  contained  a  pro- 
vision freeing  hb  slaves,  and  a  request  that  no  oration  be  pro- 
nounced at  his  foneral.  His  remains  rest  in  the  family  vault 
at  Mount  Venum  (9.9.),  whidi  since  i860  has  been  held  byaa 
association,  practically  as  national  property. 

All  contemporary  accounts  agree  that  Washington  was  ol 
imposing  presence.  He  measured  just  6  ft.  when  prepared  for 
burial;  but  his  height  in  his  prime,  as  given  in  his  orders  for 
clothes  from  London,  was  3  in.  more.  La  Fayette  says 
that  his  hands  were  "  the  largest  he  ever  saw  on  a  man.** 
Custis  says  that  his  complexion  was  "fair,  but  considerably 
florid."  His  weight  was  about  220  lb.  Evidently  it  was  his 
extraordinary  dignity  and  poise,  forbidding  even  the  suggestion 
of  familiarity,  quite  as  much  as  his  stature,  that  impressed  those 
who  knew  him.  The  various  and  widely-differing  portraits  of 
him  find  exhaustive  treatment  in  the  seventh  volume  of  Justin 
Wiusor's  Narratm  and  Critical  History  0/'  America.  Winsor 
thinks  that  **  the  favourite  profile  has  been  onquestionably 
Houdon's,  with  Gilbert  Stuart's  canvas  for  the  full  fbce,  and 
probably  John  Trumbull's  for  the  figure."  Stuart's  face,  hoiRnever 
with  its  calm  and  benign  expression,  has  fixed  the  popular 
notion  of  Washington. 

Washington  was  childless:  the  people  of  his  time  said  he 
was  the  father  only  of  his  country.  CoUateral  branches  of  the 
family  have  given  the  Leo,  the  Custises,  and  other  families  a 
claim  to  an  infusion  of  the  blood. 

BiBtiOGRAraY.— A  complete  bIbliogTaphy  of  books  rdatifig  to 
Washington  u-ould  be  very  voluminous.  The  best  edition  of  his 
Wrilinas  is  that  of  W.  C.  Ford  (14  vols.,  New  York,  1889-1893). 
Sparks's  edition  (12  vols.,  Boston,  1837)  has  in  the  main  been  super- 
scded,  though  it  contains  some  papers  not  included  by  Ford,  and  the 
Life,  which  comprises  vol.-  L,  still  has  value,  j.  D.  Richardson's 
Messaeu  and  Papers  of  llu  Presidents  (vol.  i.,  Washington,  1896) 
collects  the  preadcntial  messages  and  proclamations,  with  a  few 
omissions.  A  descriptive  Ust  of  biographies  and  biographical 
sketches  ts  given  in  W.  S  Baker's  Bibfiotheca  Waskingtoniana 
(Philadelphia,  1880).  The  most  important  lives  are  those  of  John 
Marxhall  (PhiUdclpbia,  1804-1807),  David  Ramsay  (New  York, 
1807),  Washington  Irving  (New  York.  l855-i8S9}>  E.  E-  Hale  (New 
York,  1888),  H.  C.  Lodge  (Boston,  1880;  rev.  cd.,  1898),  B.  T. 
Thayer  (New  York,  1894)  and  Woodrow  Wilson  (New  York,  1897). 
Valuable  for  their  presentation  of  difTering  aspects  of  Washington  s 
career  are:  W.  S.  Baker's  Itiuerery  of  WaskinKtM  (Philadelpbia, 
1892),  H.  B.  Carrington's  WashtngfM  the  Soldier  (New  York.  1899), 


dclphia  1857).  The  larger  comprehensive  histories  of  the  United 
States  by  Bancroft,  Hildrcth,  Winsor.  McMa.ster,  Von  Hoist,  Schouler 
and  Avery,  the  biojEraphies  in  the  "  American  Statesmen  "  scries, 
and  Hart  s  "  American  Nation  "  series,  are  indUpensable.  There 
is  an  interesting  attempt  to  make  a  composite  portrait  of  Washington 
in  Seienu  (De^rober  11, 1885).  (W.MacD.*) 

*ThJ8  characterization  original  cd  with  Henry  Lee« 


WASHINGTON 


n^ 


IrAnOMfCMI,  a  dtjr  and  the  ctplul  of  the  United  States 
off  America,  coterminous  with  the  District  of  Columbia,  on  the 
north-east  bank  of  the  Potomac  river  at  the  head  of  tide  and 
navigation,  40  m.  S.W.  of  Baltimore,  135  m.  S.  W.  of  Philadelphia, 
and  sas  m.  S.W.  of  New  York.  Area,  60  sq.  m.  (exclusive  of 
10  iq.  m.  of  water  surface).  Pop.  (1890)  230,392;  (1900) 
278,718,  of  whom  JO,xi9  were  foreign-bom  and  87,186  were 
negroes;  (19x0)  331,069.  The  dty  proper  oovers  only  about 
xo  sq.  m.  lying  between  the  Anacostia  river  and  Rock  Creek, 
and  rising  from  the  low  bank  of  the  Potomac,  which  is  here 
nearly  x  m.  wide;  above  are  encircling  hills  and  a  broken 
plateau,  which  xise  to  a  maximum  height  of  420  ft.  and  contain 
the  former  city  of  Georgetown,  the  villages  of  Anaoostia, 
Brightwood,    Tennallytown,  and  other  suburban  (Sstricts. 

Streets  and  Parks. — ^The  original  plan  of  the  city,  which  was 
prepared  by  Major  Pierre  Charles  L'Enfant  (x 755^x825),  under 
the  supervision  of  President  Washington  and  Tliomas  Jefferson,' 
was  a  masterpiece  in  landscape  architecture  and  innhe  main 
it  has  been  preserved.  Besides  streets  running  east  and  west, 
which  are  named  by  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  streets 
running  north  and  south,  which  an  numbered,  there  an  avenues 
named  for  various  states,  which  radiate  from  two  fod^-the 
Capitol  and  the  White  Rouse — or  traverse  the  dty  without  any 
fixed  plan.  North  and  south  of  the  Capitol  they  are  numbered; 
east  and  west  from  it  streets  are  fettered,  but  streets  an  dis- 
tinguished by  annexing  to  the  name  or  letter  th^  name  of  the 
quarter:  N.W.,  S.W.,  N.E.  or  S.E.— the  dty  is  divided  Into 
these  four  parts  by  North  Capitol,  East  Capitol  and  South 
Capitol  streets,  which  intersect  at  the  Capit<^  The  width  of  the 
avenues  is  from  120  to  160  ft.  and  the  width  of  the  streets  from 
80  to  x  20  ft.  More  than  one-half  the  area  of  the  dty  is  comprised 
in  its  streets,  avenues  and  public  parks.  Among  the  prindpal 
lesidence  streets  are  Massachusetts,  especially  between  Dupont 
and  Sheridan  drcles,  New  Hampshire,  Connecticut  and  Vermont 
Avenues  and  x6th  Street,  all  in  the  N.W.  quarter  of  the  dty. 
The  prindpal  business  streets  are  Pennsylvania  Avenue  (e^>eci> 
ally  between  the  Capitol  and  the  White  House)  and  7th,  9th,  X4th 
and  F  streets.  Stieets  and  avenues  for  the  most  p«rt  are  paved 
with  a  smooth  asphalt  pavement,  and  many  of  them  have 
two  and  occasionally  four  rows  of  overarching  shade  trees  and 
private  lawns  on  either  side.  At  neariy  every  inlencctk>n  of  two 
avenues  is  a  circle  or  square  in  which  is  the  statue  of  some  notabfe 
American  whose  name  the  square  bears.  At  the  intersectioo 
of  a  street  with  an  avenue  there  is  usually  the  reservation  of  a 
small  triangular  grass  plot  at  least.  In  L'Enfant 's  plan  a  park 
or  mall  was  to  extend  from  the  Capitol  to  the  White  House. 
Instead  of  this  the  mall  extends  from  the  Capitol  to  Washington 
Monument,  which  stands  near  the  intersection  of  lines  west  from 
the  Capitol  and  south  from  the  White  House-  In  1901 ,  how^rer, 
a  commission  (Daniel  Hudson  Bumham,  C.  F.  McIUm,  Augustus 
St  Gaudens  and  F.  L.  Olmsted,  Jr.)  was  appointed  by  authority 
of  the  United  States  Senate  to  prepare  plans  for  the  beautifi- 
catlon  of  the  dty  and  this  body,  seeking  in  the  main  to  return  to 
L'Enfant 's  plan,  has  submitted  a  design  for  a  park-like  treatment 
of  the  entire  district  between  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland 
avenues  from  the  Capitol  to  the  White  House  and  between  lower 
New  York  Avenue  and  the  Potomac,  with  an  elm-shaded  mall 
300  ft.  wide  bisecting  the  park  from  the  Capitol  to  the  Monument, 
with  a  group  of  offidal  and  scientific  buildings  fronting  the  mall 
on  either  side,  with  a  group  of  munidpal  buildings  between  the 
mall  and  Ptcnnsylvania  Avenue,  and  with  a  Lincoln  memorial 
on  the  bank  of  the  Potomac.  Potomac  Park  (740  acres),  a 
portion  of  which  is  embraced  in  this  design,  has  ahready  been 
reclaimed  from  the  Potomac  river.  On  Rock  Creek,  above 
Georgetown,  is  the  National  Zoological  Parii  (under  the  control 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution),  embradng  rjo  acres  In  a  pictu- 
resque site.    North  of  this  and  extending  to  flie  boundary  of  the 

>  The  actual  surveying  and  laying^out  of  the  city  was  done  by 
Andrew  Ellicott  (i7M-i820).acivtlengineer.  who  had  been  employed 
in  many  boundary  aispuie^,  who  b^mc  surveyor-fenenl  of  the 
United  States  in  1792.  and  from  1812  until  his  death  was  proTeflsor 
of  mathematics  at  the  United  States  MitiUry  Academy  at  West 
Point. 


District,  and  including  both  banks  of  Rock  Creek,  with  its  wild 
and  picturesque  beauty,  is  a  tract  of  1600  acres,  known  as  Rock 
Creek  Park. 

Climate. — ^The  climate  of  Washington  is  characterized  by  Rreat 
humidity,  long-continued  and  spmewhat  oppressive  heat  m  summer, 
and  mild  winters.  During  a  period  of  thirty-three  years  ending 
December  1903  the  mean  winter  tempeiature  (Deccmbci.  January 
and  February)  was  35*  F.  and  the  mean  summer  temperature  (June. 
July  and  August)  75**;  the  mean  of  the  winter  mmima  was  27^ 
ana  the  mean  of  the  summer  nuudma  85*  Extremes  ranged,  how* 
ever,  from  an  absolute  maximum  of  ioa®  to  an  absolute  minimum 
of  715*'  There  is  an  average  annual  precipitation  of  43*1  in., 
which  is  quite  evenly  diitribj^ied  throughout  the  year  Auhough 
snowstorms  are  infrequent  and  S|^w  never  lies  long  on  the  grouiKi. 
the  average  fall  of  snow  for  the  year  amounts  to  32*5  in. 

BmUdimgs.-^n  a  digniiied  landscape  setting  on  the  brow  of  a  hill 
that  IB  itself  nearly  100  it.  above  the  Potomac  stands  the  Capitol ' 
^built  1793-1827;  architect.  William  Thornton  (d.  1627).  super- 
intendent of  the  Patent  Office,  whose  designs  were  modi6e<J  by 
B.  H.  Latrobe  and  Charles  Bulfinch.  wings  and  dome  added  1851- 
1865).     It  consists  of  a  central  building  of  Virginia  sandstone. 

Cunted  white,  and  two  wings  of  white  Massachusetts  marble  Its 
ngth  is  751  ft.,  and  its  breadth  nanges  in  different  parts  from  isi 
to  ^34  ft.  The  main  building  is  surmounted  with  an  fron  dome, 
designed  by  Thomas  Ustic  Walter,  which  rises  to  a  height  of  2684  li . 
and  on  the  dome  is  a  statue  of  Liberty  (1863.  10)  ft  high)  by 
Thomas  Crawford.  TheCapitd  faces  east,  andon  this  adc  isa  richly 
sculptured  '  ix>rtico  with  Corinthian  columns  loading  to  the  rotunda 
under  the  dome,  a  sculptured  Corinthian  portico  leading  to  the 
Seiute  Chamber  in  the  north  wing,  and  a  plain  Connthian  portjco 
leading  to  the  Hall  of  Representatives  in  the  south  wing,  tncre  is 
also  a  portico  at  each  end  and  on  the  west  side  ol  each  wing     The 


(1613).  by  John 
'  rom   Delft 


William  Henry  Powell ;  "  Baptism  of  Pocahontas  ,...„... 
Gadsby  Chapman;  "Embarkation  ol  the  Pilcnms  from 
Haven  "  (1620).  by  Robert  Walter  Weir.  "  Signing  the  [>eclaraiion 
of  Independence'*  (1776),  by  John  Trumbull;  "Surrender  ol 
Bufgoyne  at  Saratoga  **  (I777J.  by  Trumbull.  "  Surrender  of  Corn, 
wallis  at  Yorkto«'n"  (1781).  by  Trumbull,  and  "Washington 
resigning  his  Commiasbn  at  Annapolis"  (1783).  by  Trumbull 
Between  the  rotunda  and  the  Hall  of  Kcpresentatives  is  the  National 
Hall  of  Statuary  (fornncrly  the  Hall  ci  flepresentatives).  in  mhich 
each  state  in  thie  Union  may  erect  statues  of  two  "  of  her  chosen 
sons  ".  and  between  the  rotunda  and  the  Senate  Chamber  is  the 
room  of  the  Supreme  Court,  whkh  until  1859  was  the  Senate 
Chamber* 

The  Executive  Manaion,  more  commonly  called  the  White  House, 
the  official  residence  of  the  president,  is  a  two-storey  budding  ol 
Virginia  freestone,  painted  white  since  1814  to  hide  the  marks  of 
fire— «nly  the  walls  were  left  standing  after  the  capture  of  the  aty 
by  the  British  in  that  year  It  is  170  ft  long  and  86  ft  deep  It  ts 
simple  but  dignified ;  the  prindpal  exterior  ornaments  are  an  Ionic 
portico  and  a  balustrade  The  White  House  was  built  in  1792-1799 
irom  designs  by  James  Hoban,  who  ck>sely  followed  the  plans  of  the 
seats  of  the  dukes  of  Leinster,  near  Diililtn,  and  in  1 902- 1903.  when 
new  executive  offices  and  a  cabinet  room  WTre  built  and  w^ere  con* 
netted  with  the  White  House  by  «n  esplanade,  manv  of  the  original 
features  of  Hoban's  plan  were  restored  East  of  the  White  m>ui« 
and  obstructing  the  view  from  it  to  the  Capitol  stands  the  oldest  of 
the  departnnental  buildings,  the  Treasury  Building  (architect. 
Robert  Mills  (I78i-i85«).  then  U.S  architect),  an  imposing  edifice 
mainly  of  granite,  510  ft.  bug  and  280  ft.  wide,  on  the  east  front 
is  a  ojlonnade  of  thirty-eight  Ionic  columns,  and  on  each  of  the 
other  three  sides  is  an  Ionic  portico  On  the  opposite  side  of  the 
White  House  is  a  massive  granite  buildirig  of  tne  State,  War  and 
Navy  Departments,  567  ft.  long  and  342  ft.  wide  The  Library  of 
Congress  (1S89-1897;  cost,  exclusive  of  site,  over  $6,000,000). 
south-east  of  the  Capitol,  was  designed  by  Smithmeycr  &  Fell, 
and  the  designs  were  modified  by  Edward  I^earcc  Casey  (b  1864), 
the  architect :  it  is  in  the  Italian  Renaissance  style,  is  340  by  470  ft  . 
and  encloses  four  courts  and  a  central  rotunda  surmounted  by  a  flaf 
black  copper  dome,  with  gilded  panels  and  a  lantern.  The  exterior 
walls  are  of  white  New  Hampsntre  granite,  and  the  walls  of  the 

*  See  Glenn  Brown.  The  Htstory  oj  the  Umted  StaUs  CapUot  (2  vols., 
1900-1903). 

*The  allegorical  decoratiomi  here  are  by  Persico  and  Horatio 
Greenou^h:  those  on  the  Senate  portico  are  by  Thomas  Crawford, 
who  designed  the  bronae  doors  at  the  entrances  to  the  Senate  and 
House  wings.  At  the  east  door  of  the  rotunda  is  the  bronae  doer 
(1858:  modelled  by  Randolph  Rogers)  At  the  west  entrance  are 
elaborate  bronae  doors  (lOio)  by  Louts  Amateis  (b   1855). 

*  Connected  with  the  Capitol  by  subways.  lmme<li.uoly  S  E.  and 
N  E  of  the  Capitol  respectively,  are  the  marbW*  office  buildings 
(19OJB)  of  the  House  of  Kcpresentatives  and  of  the  Senate  The 
Capitol  is  connected  by  subways  with  the  Library  of  Congress  also. 


3  so 


WASHINGTON 


Ulterior  courts  ut  of  Ifoiybnd  gmoite  and  white  caemcUed  bricks 
There  are  numerous  sculptural  adornments  without  and  there  U 
elabdrate  interior  decoration  with  paintings,  sculpture,  coloured 
marbles  and  gilding.^  Two  squares  north  of  the  Senate  office* 
building  is  the  Union  Railway  Station  (1908;  543  by  760  ft.;  cost, 
14,000,000).  desisned  by  Danid  Hudson  Burnham.  consisting  ol  a 
main  building  of  white  granite  (from  Bethel,  Vermont)  and  two 
wings,  and  lacing  a  beautiful  plaza.  On  Pennsylvania  Avenue, 
neilrly  midway  between  the  Ca|>itol  and  the  White  House,  is  the 
nine-storey  Post  Office  (1899;  with  a  tower  ^00  ft.  high),  housing 
the  Unttea  Sutes  Pbst  Ofiioe  Department  and  the  City  Post  Office. 
A  few  squares  north-west  ol  it  are  the  General  Land  Office,  the 
headquarters  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior  (commonly  called 
Che  Ritent  Office),  with  Dwic  portico;  the  Pension  Office,  in  whidi 
the  Inaosuration  Ball  is  held  on  the  evening  of  each  president's 
taking  ofAce:  the  Government  Printing  Office  (twelve  stoteys^  one 
of  the  few  tall  office-buildings  in  the  city) :  the  City  Hall,  or  District 
Court  House;  and  the  District  Building  (1908).  another'building  of 
the  local  government.  On  the  heights  north  of  (kor^etown  is  the 
United  States  Naval  Observatory,  one  of  the  best -equipped  institu- 
tions of  the  kind ;  from  it  Washington  time  is  telegraphed  daily  to 
all  parts  or  the  United  States.  Near  Rock  Creek,  west  of  Cieorge- 
town,  is  the  Signal  Office  and  headquarters  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau.  In  the  Mall  are  the  building  M  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  the  Smithsonian  Institutmn  (qs.),  the  National 
Museum  (1910),  the  Army  Medical  Museum  and  the  Bureau  of 
Fisheries,  and  here  a  buikling  for  the  Department  of  Justice  is  to 
be  erected.  Facine  the  Mall  on  the  south  is  the  home  of  the  Bureau 
of  Engraving  and  Printing,  in  whkh  the  UnKed  States  paper  money 
and  postage  stamps  are  made.  Not  far  from  the  White  House  is  the 
Corcoran  (jallery  of  Art  (1894-1897:  architect,  Ernest  Flaeg),  of 
white  Oorgia  nurfole  in  a  Neo-Grecian  style,  housing  a  collection 
of  paintings  (especially  American  portraits)  and  statuary;  the 
gallery  was  founded  and  endowed  in  1869  by  William  Wilson  Cor- 
coran (1798*1888)  "  for  the  perpetual  esublishment  and  encourage- 
ment of  the  Fine  Arts."  The  Public  Library,  a  gift  of  Andrew 
Csmegie.  is  a  white  marble.building  in  the  Mount  Vernon  Square, 
at  the  intersection  of  Massachusetts  and  New  York  avenues.  A 
prominent  building,  erected  with  money  given  plainly  by  Mr 
Carnegie,  is  that  of  the  l^n-American  Union  (rormciiy  Bureau  of 
American  Republics)  The  old  Ford's  Theatre,  in  which  President 
Lincoln  was  assassinated,  is  on  Tenth  Street  N.W  between  E  and 
F  The  house  in  which  Lincoln  died  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
street,  and  contains  relics  of  Lincoln  collected  by  O.  H.  Oldroyd. 

JI/0f(um«if<i.-~Foremost  among  the  city's  many  monuments  is 
that  erected  to  the  memory  of  Ceorge  Washington.  It  is  a  plain 
obelisk  of  whhe  Maryland  marble,  %$  ft.  square  at  the  base  and 
555  ft.  in  height;  it  was  begun  in  r848,  but  the  work  was  abandoned 
in  1855-1877,  but  was  completed  in  iSai  at  a  cost  of  $1,300,000* 
Among  sUtuea  of  Wadiington  aie  the  half-nude  seated  figure  (1843) 
by  Grcenough  inthe Smithsonian  Institution,  and  an  equestrian  statue 
(i860)  of  Washington  at  the  Battle  of  Princeton  by  Clark  Mills  ia 
Washington  Circle.  Among  the  other  prominent  statues  are: 
the  equestrian  statue  (1908)  of  General  Phuip  Sheridan  in  Sheridan 
Circle,  by  Gutxon  Borelum ;  an  equestrian  statue  of  General  Sherman 
near  the  Treasury  Building,  by  Carl  Rohl-Smtth:  a  statue  of 
Frederick  the  Great  (by  T.  Uphues;  presented  to  the  United  Sutes 
by  Empen>r  William  II.  of  Germany)  in  front  of  the  Army  War 
College  at  the  mouth  of  the  Anacostia  river;  a  statue  of  General 
Nathanael  Greene  (by  H.  K.  Brown)  in  Stanton  Square;  sutucs 
of  Oneral  Winfield  Scott  in  Scott  Square  (by  H.  K  Brown)  and  in 
the  grounds  of  the  Soldiera'  Home  (by  Launt  Thompson);  a  statue 
oif  Rttr-Admiral  S.  F  Du  Pont  in  Dupont  Circle  (by  Launt  Thomp- 


son); of  Rear-Admual  IXG.  Farragut  (by  Vinnie  Ream   Hoxie); 

'  _s  ft   Thomas  (by  I   Q.  A. 

Wanf),  erected  by  the  Society  of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland ; 


an  equestrian  statue  of  (jcneral  George  ft    Thomas 


*'A  bronze  fountain,  "  The  Court  of  Neptune."  in  front  of  the 
Library,  is  by  Hinton  Perry-  Granite  portrait  busts  of  great  authora 
occupy  niches  in  windows  near  the  entrance;  these  arc  by  J.  S. 
Han  Icy,  Herbert  Adams  and  F.  W.  RuckstuhU  The  all^ncal 
figures  over  the  entrance  are  by  Bela  L.  Pratt.  There  are  fine  bronze 
doora  by  Olin  Warner  and  Frederick  Macroonnics.  Among  the 
mural  paintings  are  series  by  John  W.  Alexander,  Kenyon  Cox, 
E.  H.  Bbshfield.  Henry  Oliver  Walker  (b.  1843),  Walter  McEwen. 
Elihu  Vedder,  Charles  Sprague  Pcarce  (b.  1851),  Edward  Simmons 
(b.  1853),  (George  Willoughby  Maynard  (b.  1843),  Robert  Reid 
(b.  18&).  George  R.  Barse,  fr.  (b.  1861).  W.  A.  Mackay.  F.  W. 
Benson  (b.  1863),  Walter  ShirUr  (b.  1838),  Gari  MekJiere  (b.  i860). 
W.  De  L.  Dpdge  (b.  1867)  and  others. 

*  The  site  b  said  to  have  been  cboseo  by  Washington  himself— > 
Congress  had  planned  a  marble  monument  in  1783.  In  1833  the 
Wasnington  National  Monument  Society  was  formed  and  a  popular 
subjcription  was  ukcn.  The  obelisk  was  designed  by  Robert  Mills, 
whose  original  plan  included  a  "  Pantheon  lOO  ft.  high  with  a 
colonnade  and  a  colossal  statue  of  Washington.  After  1877  the  work 
was  carried  on  by  an  appropriation  made  by  Congress.  See  Frederick 
L.  Harvey.  History  of  tk$  Washtm^lo»  McnumnU  and  tkt  Natton^ 
MomnmeiU  Soci€ty  (Washington,  1903). 


oaeoi  vieuuiarvMonv  >>•  nvcvienn,  vf  rmicncK  ■■■CBmMHcs,ain 
statues  of  Lincoln,*  by  Scott  Flannery  and  (ia  Laaoobi  Park)  by 
Thomas  Ball,  of  Joseph  Henry  (by  W.  W  Stoiv)  in  the  grounds  ol 
the  Smithsonian  Institution.* of  John  Marshall  (by  Story)  on  the 
west  terrace  of  the  Capitol,  of  General  Andrew  Jackson  (bjr  ClaHt 
Mills)  and.  in  Lafayetu  Square,  of  the  Marquia  de  Lafayette  (by 
Fakuifbeand  Merci<),of  the  Corote  de  Rochambcau  (by  F.  Haoisri 
anaof  Baron  von  Steuben  (1910).  In  Pennsylvania  Avenue,  at  the 
foot  of  Capitol  Hill,  is  a  Monument  of  Peace  (by  Franklin  SimiDom) 
in  memory  of  oflioers,  seamen  and  marines  of  the  U.S.  Navy  kiUed 
intheCivUWar. 

Cfmdtries. — On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Potomac,  in  Yifnaii.aad 
adjoining  Fort  Myer,  a  military  post  (named  in  honour  ol  GmnA 
Albert  James  Myer  (1837-1880),  who  introduced  in  1870  a  system 
of  meteorological  obeervatkms  at  army  posts)  with  reaervatioD  of 
186  acres,  is  Ariington,  a  National  Ceroetery  (of  4o6>33  acres),  ia 
which  lie  buried  ai.io6tekiiere  killed  in  the  CivU  War  andin  tbew 
with  Spain;  among  the  distinguished  officen  buried  here  are 
General  Philip  Heniy  Sheridan,  Admiral  David  Dixon  Porter, 
Gencfol  Joseph  Wheeler  and  General  Henry  W.  Lawton;  there  bs 
Spanish  War  Monument;  the  grounds  are  noted  for  their  satiinl 
beauty,  and  oa  the  brow  of  a  hill  commanding  «  naniificcnt  view 
of  the  city  is  Arlington  House  (1803),  the  residence  of  George  Waih- 
ington  Parke  Custis  (1781-1857),  grandson  of  Martha  Washingtta, 
and  aftemrards  of  (jeneral  Robert  £.  Lee,  Custis's  son-in-lasr;  tbe 
esute  was  seised  by  Federal  troops  eai^  in  the  Chril  War.  and  ms 
bought  by  the  United  Sutes  in  1864;  there  was  «  miliury  homitsi 
here  throughout  the  Ovil  War.  Adjoining  the  srouods  ol  tbe 
Soldiers'  Home  (3  m.  N.  of  the  Capitol)  isa  National  Military  Cemetery 
containing  the  graves  of  733o  soldiera.  On  the  bank  of  the  Anaoottii 
river,  east  of  the  Capitol,  ia  the  Congressional  Cemetery  oantaisiaf 
the  graves  of  many  membere  of  Compress.  North  off  Georaetoes  ■ 
Oak  Hill  Cemetery,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Soldiera'  Home  air 
Rock  Creek,  Glenwood,  Harmony,  Prospect  Hilland  St  Mary's  Ce•^ 
teries.  A  crematorium  was  completed  in  1909,  and  crenutioB 
instead  of  tntenaent  haa  since  been  txqged  by  the  District  can* 
missionera. 

Chartiies,  £fc. — ^The  National  Soldiera'  Home  (1851),  founded  by 
Cieneral  Winfield  Scott,  comprises  five  buildings,  with  accomnods* 
tions  for  800  retired  or  disabled  soldiera,  and  513  acres  of  beaittHd 
grounds  The  charitable  and  correctional  iastitutiotts  of  the 
District  of  Columbia  are  the  following  government  institutions, under 
the  control  of  the  United  States  or  of  the  District  of  Columbis: 
Frccdmen's  Hospital  (1863),  United  States  Naval  Ho^ttal  (1S66}, 
an  Insane  Asylum  on  the  S.  side  of  the  Anacostia  river,  the  District 
of  Columbtt  Industrial  Home  School  (1879),  a  Municipal  Lodniif 
House  (1893),  a  Soldiera'  and  Saibrs*  Temporary  Home  (tWh 
Workhouse,  Reform  School  for  Boys,  Reform  School  for  Girls  aad 
Industrial  Home  School  (1873).  Among  many  private  institutioas 
are  the  Washington  City  (>rphan  Asylum  ((815);  Lutheraa  Eye* 
Ear  and  Throat  infirmary  (1889);  Episcopal  Eye,  Ear  and  Throst 


Children's  Hospital  (1871):  Washington  Hospiul  for  Foundling 
(1887);  <3iildren'8  Temporary  Home  (1899;  for  ncsrocs);  • 
German  Orphati  Asylum  (1879);  Washington  Home  for  incuiablcs 
(1889):  Home  for  tne  Aged  (1871):  the  National  Lutheran  Hoine 
(rSoo);  the  Methodist  Home  (1890)  and  Baptist  Home  (1880). 
A  '^non-support  law,"  which  went  into  effect  in  1906.  eiucts  that  a 
man  who  reiuscs  to  provide  for  his  family  when  able  to  do  so  diaO 
be  committed  to  the  workhouse  for  hard  labour,  and  that  fifty  c«it« 
a  day  rihall  be  paid  to  his  family.  A  Juvenile  Court  and  a  Board  ol 
Children's  Guardians  have  extensive  jurisdiction  over  dependent 
and  delinquent  children,  and  a  general  supervision  of  ail  charities 
aad  corrections  is  vested  in  a  Board  of  Charities,  consisting  of  five 
membere  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  United  States. 

EductUwn. — WashinjQon  is  one  of  the  leading  educational  centrtf 
of  the  United  States.  The  public  school  system,  under  the  contin 
<A  a  Board  of  Education  of  six  men  and  three  women  appointed  by 
the  supreme  court  judges  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  embraces 
kindergartens,  primiary  schools,  ^mmar  schools,  hirii  schools,  a 
business  high  school,  manual  training  schools,  norfnal  schools  and 
night  schools.  The  schools  are  open  nine  months  in  the  year,  and 
allchiklren  between  eight  and  fourteen  ycara  of  age  are  required  to 
attend  some  poblic  private  or  parochial  school  during  these  moatbs 
unless  excused  because  of  some  i^ysical  or  menul  disability.  GcorfC 
Washington  Univereity,  in  the  vkinity  of  the  White  House,  is  a  nM* 
sectarian  institution  (opened  in  t83i  under  the  auspices  of  toe 
Baptist  Oneral  Convention  as  "The  Colombian  College  in}^ 
District  of  Columbia":  endowed  by  W  W.  Corcoran  in  i<7j;' 
organized  as  the  Columbian  Univcnity  in  1873,  organiied  under  it* 
present  name*  in  1904).  and  comprises  Columbian  Colkge  of  Arts 

*A  Lincoln  memorial  is  to  be  erected  on  the  Mall  W  of  ^ 
Washington  monument. 

*  The  name  was  changed  when  the  offer  of  the  George  Waahingto* 
Memorial  Assocution  to  build  a  $500^000  memorial  buikiing  *** 
accepted. 


WASHINGTON 


35> 


and  SoeoOM  with  a  graduate  department  (1893),  a  CoUe^e  of  the 
Political  Sciences  (1907),  Washington  College  of  Engineering, 
divisions  of  architecture  and  education  (1907),  a  Uepartment  of  Law 
(first  organiMd  in  1826;  closed  in  1827:  reorganized  in  1865).  a 
Department  of  Medicine  (1831 ;  since  1866  in  a  building  given  by 
W.  W.  Corcoran),  with  fleveral  afhliated  hospitals,  a  I^partment 
of  Dentistry  (1887),  the  National  CoUece  of  rtiarmacyfunitcd  with 
the  university  in  1906),  and  a  College  of  veterinary  Medicine  (1908). 
In  1909  this  University  had  185  instructors  and  1520  students. 
Georgetowo  University  is  in  Georgetown  (9.*.)*  The  Catholic 
University  of  America  (incorporated  J887;  opened  iSte).  wita 
building  near  the  Soldiers'  Home,  stands  at  the  head  01  Roman 
Cathohc  schools  in  America.  Although  designed  ewecially  for 
advanced  theological  studies,  it  comprises  a  School  01^  the  ^cred 
Sciences,  a  School  of  Philosophy,  a  School  of  Letters,  a  Schoc^  of 
Physical  Sciences,  a  Schofrf  of  Biological  Sciences,  a  School  of  Social 
Sciences,  a  School  of  Jurisprudence,  a  School  of  Law  and  a  School  of 
Technological  Sciences,  in  1909  its  faculty  numbered  42  and  its 
students  225.  A  Franciscan  convent,  Dominican.  Paulist  and 
Marist  bouses,  and  Trinity  Collc^  for  girls  are  afhiiated  with  the 
Catholic  University.  The  Amencan  University  (charteied  i893>, 
under  Methodist  Episcopal  control,  desiraed  to  bear  a  relation  to 
the  Protestant  churches  similar  to  that  of  the  Catholic  University 
to  the  Catholic  Church,  with  a  campus  of  94  acres  at  the  north-west 
end  of  the  city,  in  iQio  had  not  been  opened  to  students.  Howard 
University  (1867).  lor  the  higher  educatioa  of  negroes,  is  situated 
south-west  of  the  Soldiers'  Home,  it  was  named  in  honour  of 
General  Oliver  Otis  Howard,  one  of  its  founders  and  (in  1869-1873) 
its  president;  it  has  a  small  endowment,  and  is  supported  by 
Congressionalappropriations  which  are  administered  by  trie  Secietary 
of  the  Interior;  it  comprises  an  academy,  a  college  of  arts  and 
sciences,  a  teachers'  college,  a  school  of  theology,  a  school  of  law.  a 
school  of  medicine,  a  pharmaceutic  college,  a  dental  college,  a  school 
of  manual  arts  and  applied  sciences,  and  a  commercial  college,  m 
19m  it  had  121  instructors  and  1253  students. 

The  Ccdumbia  Institution  for  theDof  and  Dumb  (see  Deap  and 
Dumb),  on  Kendall  Green,  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  city,  is 
composed  of  Kendall  school  (a  secondary  school)  and  of  (>al1audct 
College  (called  in  1S64-1893  the  National  Deaf  Mate  CoHege.  the 
present  name  is  in  honour  of  Dr  T  H.  Gallaudet).  it  was  the  first 
institDtion  to  give  coll^iate  courses  to  the  deaf,  and  it  has  received 
Congressional  appropriations,  though  it  is  a  private  foundation. 
Washington  has  also  several  academics,  semmaries  and  small 
colleges:  araone  the  latter  are  St  John's  College  (Roman  Catholic, 
1870)  and  Wasfiington  Christian  College  (non-sectanan,  1902).  The 
Washington  College  of  Law  (1896)  is  an  evening  school  especially 
for  women.  A  School  of  Art  is  maintained  in  the  Corcoran  C»allery 
of  Art. 

The  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington,  founded  by  Andrew 
Carnegie  in  1902  and  endowed  by  him  with  822,000,000  (810,000.000 
in  1902:  ti2/300jooo  later),  is  designed  "to  encourage  in  the 
broadest  and  most  liberal  manner,  investigation,  research  and 
discovery,  and  the  application  of  knowledge  to  the  improvement  of 
mankind;  and  in  particular  to  conduct,  endow  and  assist  investiga- 
tion in  any  department  of  science,  literature  or  art,  and  to  this  end 
to  co-operate  with  governments,  universities,  college*,  technical 
•choob,  learned  societies  and  individuals;  to  appoint  committees 
of  experts  to  direct  special  lines  of  research ;  to  publish  and  distribute 
documents;  and  to  conduct  lectures,  hold  meetings  and  acquire 
and  maintain  a  library.  "  It  is  under  the  control  of  a  board  of 
twenty-four  trustees,  vacancies  in  which  are  filled  by  the  remaining 
iDemoerB.  In  1908  ten  departments  had  been  organised  *  Botanical 
Research,  with  a  "  desert  laboratory  "  (1903)  at  Tucson,  Arizona; 
Economics  and  Soctolwy  (1904):  Experimental  Evolution,  with  a 
station  (1904)  at  Cold  Spring  Harbor.  New  York  (see  Huntinqton. 
N  Y  \i  Geophrysical  Research,  with  a  laboratory  (1006-1907)  at 
Washington — investigations  have  been  carried  on  by  the  US. 
Geological  Survey  and  at  McGill  University,  Toronto;  Historical 
Research  (1903);  Marine  Biology,  with  a  laboratory  (1904)  at 
Tortugas,  Florida.  Meridian  Astrometryi  (1906.  work  is  carried  on 
^specially  at  Dudley  Observatory,  Albany.  New  York) .  Research 
in  Nutrition,  with  a  laboratory  (1906)  at  Boston.  Massachusetts — 
tnvesti^tions  (since  1004)  had  been  earned  on  at  Yale  and  Weslcyan 
oniversittes;  Solar  Physics,  with  observatoiy  (1905)  on  Mount 
Wilson,  California,  and  workshops  at  Pasadena.  Cahfomia.  and 
Terrestrial  Magnetism  (1903;  hcadquartera  in  Washington) ;  the 
ini^ttution  had  assisted  Luther  Burbank  in  his  horticultural  experi- 
ments since  1905.  and  had  pubhshed  the  Index  iiedtcus  since  1903; 
and  it  makes  occasional  ^nts  for  minor  research  and  tentative 
investiirations. 

The  learned  socicties.of  Washington  are  to  a  larfe  degree  mora 
national  than  local  in  thdr  c^racter;  among  tnem  are:  the 
Washington  Academy  of  Sciences  (1898).  a  "  federal  head  "  of  most 
of  the  societies  mentioned  below;  the  Amhropologtcal  Society 
ffounded  1879;  incorporated  1887),  which  has  puUi&hed  Trausathons 
(1879  sqq.,  with  the  coKiperation  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution) 
and  The  American  ArUkropologut  (1888-1898:  since  1808  published 
by  the  American  Antuppolo^cal  Association),  the  National 
Geographic  Society  (i8ra),  which,  since  1903  has  occupied  the' 
HaMMffd  MenMriaii  Buildiag,  wWb  aenl  scieMific  capacfitions  to 


Alaska,  Mont  Pel^  and  La  Sooffri^re,  and  whldi  publishes  the  No' 
ticnat  Ctograpkk  liaiOMuu  (1888  aqq.},  National  Geogrufkir  Monographs 
(1895)  and  various  speoal  maps;  the  Philosophical  Society  of 
Washington  (1871:  incorporated  1901).  devoted  especially  to 
mathematical  and  physical  sciences;  the  Biokwical  Society  (1880). 
which  publishes  Proeeedtu^s  (1880  sqq.);  the  Bounical  Society  of 
Washington  (1901);  the  Ccolosical  Society  of  Washington  (1893); 
the  Entomological  Society  of  Washington  (1884),  which  publishes 
Proceedings  (1884  sq<i.);  the  Chemical  Society  (1884);  the  Records 
of  the  Past  Exploration  Society  (1901),  which  publishes  Records  of 
the  Past  (1902  sqq.);  the  Southern  History  Association  (1896), 
which  issues  PiMtcattons  (1897  sqq):  the  Society  for  Philosophical 
Inquiry  (1893),  which  publishes  Memoirs  (1893  sqq.);  the  Society 


of  American  Forcstere'(i90o),  which  publishes  Proceedtnts  (1905 
saq.) :  and  the  Cosmos  Club.  The  libraries  and  scientific  collections 
01  the  Federal  government  and  its  various  bureaus  and  institutions 
afford  exceptional  opportunities  for  students  and  inve»tigators  (see 
Libraries;  |  Umted  Stairs)  The  Library  of  Congress  contains 
more  than  1,800.000  volumes  and  100.000  manuscripts,  and  large 
collections  of  maps  and  pieces  of  music.  In  the  library  of  the 
State  Department  are  70.000  volumes  of  documents.  The  library 
of  the  Surgeon-General's  Office  contains  200,000  volumes,  and  is  the 
largest  medical  library  in  the  world.  Besidics  these  there  is  a  vast 
amount  of  matcnal  in  the  collections  of  the  Bureau  of  Education, 
the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the  National 
Museum,  the  House  of  Representatives,  the  Patent  Office,  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  the  Botanic  Gardens,  the  Bureau  of 
Fisheries,  the  Naval  Observatory,  the  Geological  Survey  and  the 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey.  The  Public  Library,  containing  about 
1 10,000  volumes,  is  a  circulating  library. 

Cammaa i^a/i0a5. — ^Sevcn  railways  enter  the  city :  the  Philadelphia. 
Baltimore  9i  Washington  division  of  the  Pennsylvania  System,  the 
Baltimore  &  Ohio,  the  Southern,  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio,  the  Wash- 
ington, Baltimore  A  Annapolis,  the  Washington  Southern  and  the 
Washington,  Alexandria  &  Mt  Vernon.  Steamboats  ply  daily  from 
the  foot  of  Seventh  Street  to  Akxandria,  Mt  Vernon,  Old  Point 
Comfort  and  Norfolk,  and  at  Old  Point  Comfort  there  is  connexion 
with  boats  for  New  York.  There  is  also  an  hourly  ferry  service  to 
Alexandria,  and  at  irregular  intervals  there  are  boats  direct  to  Bahi- 
roore.  Philadelphia,  New  York  and  Boston.  The  street  reilwaya. 
underground  trolley  in  the  urban  district  and  overhead  trolley  in 
the  suburbs,  connect  at  several  points  with  interurban  railways  in 
Maryland  and  Virginia. 

jHduslnes.-^The  city's  manufactures  and  commerce  are  of  little 
importance  in  proportion  to  its  population.  Only  government 
manufactures  and  manufactures  for  local  consumption  are  at  all 
large  In  190$  the  government's  printing  and  publiithing  cost 
85.999996.  lis  ordnance  and  ordnance  stores  (in  the  Navy  Yard 
on  the  hank  of  the  Anacostia  nvcr).  85.331.459;  and  its  engraving 
and  plate  printing.  83.499.517  The  total  value  of  the  products  ^ 
all  the  factories  in  the  District  which  were  operated  under  private 
ownership  amounted  to  818.359.159.  and  $9,575,971.  or  52%  ol 
this  was  the  value  of  printing  and  publishing,  oread  and  other 
bakery  products,  gas  and  malt  liquore. 

Government. — Washington  is  the  seat  of  the  Federal  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  and  as  such  is  not  scif-ruled,  but 
governed  by  the  Federal  Congress.  The  city  was  chartered  in 
1802,  with  a  mayor  appointed  annually  by  the  president  of  the 
United  States  and  an  elective  council  of  two  chambers.  The 
mayor  was  elected  by  the  council  from  181 2  to  1820,  and  by  the 
people  (biennially)  from  1820  to  1871.  In  187 1  the  Federal 
Congress  repealed  the  charters  of  WasJiington  and  Georgetown 
and  established  a  new  government  for  the  entire  District,  con* 
sisting  of  a  governor,  a  secretary,  a  board  of  public  works,  a 
board  of  health  and  a  counal  appointed  by  the  president  with 
the  concurrence  of  the  Senate,  and  a  House  of  Delegates  and  a 
delegate  to  the  National  House  of  Representatives  elected  by 
the  people.  In  1874  Congress  substituted  a  government  by  three 
commissioners  appointed  by  the  president  with  the  concurrence 
of  the  Senate,  and  in  1878  the  government  by  commissioners  was 
made  permanent.  Two  of  the  commissioners  must  be  residents 
of  the  District,  and  the  third  commissioner  must  bt  an  officer  d 
the  Corps  of  Engineers  of  the  Umted  States  Army.  The  people 
of  the  District  have  no  voice  in  its  government,  have  no  repre- 
sentation in  Congress  and  do  not  vote  for  the  president  of  the 
United  States.  The  District  commissioners  are  the  chief  execu- 
tive officers.  Congress  and  the  commissioners  legislate  for  the 
District;  the  president,  the  commissioners  and  the  suprennc 
court  of  the  District  appoint  the  administrative  officers  and 
boards,  and  the  president  appoints  the  judges  of  the  District 
courts,  viz.  a  court  of  appeals*  a  supreme  court,  a  municipal 
court,  a  police  court,  a  probate  coiift  and  a  juvenile  court 
One-half  the  w^penses  of  the  fovemmcot  of  Washuigtoa  is 


352 


WASHINGTON 


by  the  District  of  Columbia  and  one-half  by  the  United  States, 
llic  revenue  of  the  District,  which  is  derived  from  a  property 
tax  and  from  various  licences,  is  paid  into  the  United  States 
Treasury;  appropriations,  always  specific  and  baaed  on  estimates 
prepared  by  the  commissioners,  are  made  only  by  Congress; 
and  all  accounts  are  audited  by  the  Treasury  Department. 
The  government  owns  the  waterworks,  by  which  an  abundant 
supply  of  water  is  taken  from  the  Potomac  at  the  Great  Falls, 
conducted  for  12  m.  through  an  aqueduct  9  ft.  in  diameter  and 

filtered  through  a  sand  filtration  plant. 

The  government  of  the  Dbtrict  has  been  uiuformlv  excellent, 
and  the  law*  therefor  have  been  modem  in  their  tendency  The 
employment  of  children  under  fourteen  years  of  age  in  any  laaory, 
workshop,  mercantile  establishment,  store,  business  office,  telegraph 
or  telephone  office,  restaurant,  hotel,  apartment  house,  club,  theatre, 
bootblack  stand,  or  in  the  distribution  or  transmission  of  merchandise 
or  messages  is  forbidden,  except  that  a  child  between  twelve  and 
fourteen  years  of  age  may  witri  the  permission  of  the  judge  of  the 
juvenile  court  be  employed  at  an  occupation  not  oangcrous  or 
injurious  to  his  health  or  morals  if  necessary  for  his  support  or  for 
the  assistance  of  a  disabled,  ill  or  invalid  parent,  a  younger  brother 
or  sister,  or  a  widowed  mother  No  child  under  fourteen  years  of 
age  may  be  employed  m  any  work  whatever  before  six  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  after  seven  o'clock  in  the  evenii^,  or  during  the  hours 
when  the  public  schools  are  in  session. 

17»/ary  —During  the  War  of  Independence  Philadelphia  was 
the  principal  seat  of  the  Continental  Congress,  but  it  was  driven 
thence  in  1784  by  mutinous  soldiers,  and  for  the  succeeding 
seven  years  the  discussion  of  a  permanent  site  for  the  national 
capital  was  characterized  by  sectional  jealousy,  and  there  was 
a  strong  sentiment  against  choosing  a  state  capital  or  a  large 
city  lest  it  should  interiere  with  the  Federal  government.  The 
Constitution,  drafted  in  1787,  authorized  Congress  "  to  exercise 
exclusive  legisbtion  m  all  cases  whatsoever,  over  such  district 
(not  exceeding  10  sq.  m.)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular 
states,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States."  Virginia  and  Maryland  promised 
such  a  cession;  President  Washington  was  known  to  be  in  favour 
of  a  site  on  the  Potomac,  and  in  July  1790  Alexander  Hamilton, 
in  return  for  Thomas  JcfTcrson's  assistance  in  passing  the  bill 
for  the  assumption  of  the  state  war  debts  by  the  Federal  govern- 
ment, helped  Jefferson  to  pass  a  bill  for  establishing  the  capital 
on  the  Potomac,  by  which  the  president  was  authorized  to  select 
a  site  anywhere  along  the  Potomac  between  the  Eastern  Branch 
(Anacostia)  and  the  Conococheague  river,  a  distance  of  about 
80  m  ,  and  to  appoint  three  commissioners  who  under  his  direc- 
tion shotild  make  the  necessary  surveys  and  provide  accom- 
modations for  the  reception  of  Congress  in  iSoow  The  com- 
missioners-^Thomas  Johnson  (i  733-1819)  and  Daniel  Carroll 
( 1 756-1839)  of  Maryland  and  Dr  David  Stuart  of  Virginia- 
gave  the  dty  its  name;  Major  L'Enfant  drew  its  plan,  and 
Andrew  Ellicott  laid  it  out.  When,  in  1800,  the  government 
was  removed  to  Washington  it  was  *'  a  backwoods  settlement  in 
the  wilderness  ";  as  a  dty  it  existed  prindpally  on  paper,  and 
the  magnificence  of  the  design  only  served  to  emphasize  the 
poverty  of  the  execution.  Ooe  wing  of  the  Capitol  and  the 
President's  House  were  nearly  completed,  but  much  of  the  land 
surrounding  the  Capitol  was  a  marsh;  there  were  no  streets 
worthy  of  the  name,  the  roads  were  very  bad,  and  the  members 
of  Congress  were  obliged  to  lodge  in  Georgetown.  For  many 
years  such  characterizations  as  "  Wilderness  City"  "  Capital 
of  Miserable  Huts,"  "  City  of  StreeU  without  Houses,"  "  City 
of  Magnificent  Distances  "  and  '*  A  Mudhole  almost  Equal  to 
the  Great  Serbonian  Bog"  were  common.  Resolutions  were 
frequently  offered  by  some  disgusted  member  of  Congress  for 
the  removal  of  the  capital.  In  1814,  during  the  second  war  with 
Great  Britain,  the  British,  after  defeating  on  the  a4th  of  Angus! 
an  American  force  at  Bladensburg,  Prince  George  county, 
Maryland,  about  6  m.  N.E.  of  Washington,  occupied  the  dty 
and  burned  the  Capitol,  the  President's  House,  some  of  the 
public  offices,  and  the  Navy  Yard.  In  the  following  year  when 
a  bill  appropriating  $500,000  for  rebuilding  was  before  Congress 
it  met  with  formidable  opposition  from  the  *'  capital  movers." 
Tlie  question  of  removal  was  again  to  the  front  when,  in  1846, 
the  Virginia  portion  of  the  District  was  retroceded  to  thntsute 


in  reaponae  10  the  appeal  of  Aknndria,  which  had  anllered  f  rocn 

the  neglect  of  Congress.  The  lethargy  of  the  nation  toward 
its  capital  suddenly  vanished  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
At  the  close  of  the  first  day's  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter 
(April  13th,  1861)  Leroy  P.  Walker  (1817-1884),  the  Cbnfederate 
Secretary  of  War,  boasted  that  before  the  ist  of  May  the  Con- 
federate flag  would  float  over  the  Capitol.  The  North,  alarmed 
^t  the  threat,  speedily  transformed  Washington  into  a  great 
military  post  and  protected  it  on  all  sides  with  strong  earthworks. 
Throughout  the  war  it  was  the  centre  of  the  mifa'tary  opcratioas 
of  the  North,  here  the  armies  were  officered  and  marshaled,  from 
here  they  marched  on  thdr  campaigns  against  the  South,  here 
was  the  laigest  depot  of  military  supplies,  and  here  were  great 
hospitab  for  the  care  of  the  wounded.  Although  several  times 
threatened  by  the  South,  Washington  was  never  really  in  danger 
except  in  July  1864  when  General  Jubal  A.  Early  advanced 
against  it  with  13,000  veterans,  defeated  General  Lew  Wallace 
with  about  3500  men  at  Monocacy  Bridge  on  the  6th,  and  on 
the  nth  appeared  before  the  fortifications,  which  were  at 
the  time  defended  by  only  a  few  thousand  raw  troops;  the 
city  was  saved  by  the  timely  arrival  of  some  of  Grant's  veterans. 
In  the  dty,  on  the  23rd  and  34th  of  May  1865,  PresJdcot 
Andrew  Johnson  reviewed  the  returning  soldiers  of  the  Uiiioa 
Army. 

The  population  of  Washington  incieosed  from    61,121  t» 
109,199  or  78-6%  in  the  decade  from  x86o  to  1870,  and  tht 
stirring  effects  of  the  Civil  War  were  far-reaching.    The  dt/i>^ 
been  founded  on  too  elaborate  and  extensive  a  plan  to  be  kit 
to  the  initiative  and  unaided  reaonroes  of  its  dtiiena.    But  nadct 
the  new  form  of  government  which  was  instituted  in  1871  a 
wonderful   transformation  was  begun  under  the  direction  of 
Alexander  R.  Sbepherd(i835*i902),  the  governor  of  the  District 
and  president  of  the  board  of  public  works.    Temporary  finaadd 
embarrassment  followed,  but  when  the  Federal  govcrmneot  had 
taken  upon  itself  half  the  burden  and  established  the  economic 
administration  of  the  commissioners,  the  problem  of  beautifying 
the  nation's  capital  was  solved. 

BiBLiOGaAPHV.><<:.  B.Todd,  The  Story  tfWaskimilon.tiuIiatieml 
CapUal  (New  York.  1889):  R.  R.  Wilson,  WaskingUm,  the  Capital 
CUy  (3  vols..  Philadelphia,  iQOi):  C.  H.  Forbes-Lindsay,  Waskmiion, 
the  City  and  the  Seat  of  Gaeernmenl  (Philadelphia.  1906);  F  A. 
Vandcrlip.  "  The  NaUon's  Capital,"  in  L.  P.  Powell's  Htstone  Tamu 
ef  the  Southern  States  (New  York,  1900);  William  V.  Cox,  i«0»> 
igoOt  Celebration  of  the  looth  Ammoersary  of  the  Establishment  of  the 
Seat  of  Government  in  the  District  ef  Odumbia  (Washington,  1901): 
J.  A.  Porter,  The  Citv  of  Washtnitem^  its  Origin  and  Admimutnlion, 
m  Johns  Hopkins  iTnivenity  Studies,  voL  iii.  (Baltimore,  188s): 
C.  Howard,  Washington  as  a  Center  of  Learning  (Washington,  1904): 
TindaN,  Ortgm  and  Cooernment  of  the  District  of  Columbia  (ibkL, 
1903);  A.  R.  SpofTord,  The  Fonndtng  of  Washington  CUv  (Baltimom 
1881):  and  Glenn  Brown,  Papers  on  Improvement  of  Wastmutem 
CUy  (Washington,  1901). 

WASHIHOTOH,  a  dty  and  county-seat  of  Daviess  coooty, 
Indiana,  U.S.A.,  about  50  m.  N.E.  of  EvansviUe.  Pop.  (1890) 
6064,  (1900)  8551,  of  whom  391  were  foreign  bom  and  255 
negroes,  (1910  census)  11404-  It  is  served  by  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio  South  Western  (which  has  repair  shops  here)  and  the 
EvansviUe  &  Indianapolis  railways.  The  city  haa  a  public 
library  and  a  dty  park  of  45  acres.  It  is  the  shipping  point  of 
the  surrotmding  farming,  stock-raising  and  coal-mining  region, 
and  there  are  deposits  of  kaolin  and  fireclay  in  the  vicinity. 
The  total  value  oi  the  factory  produa  in  1905  was  $1,166,749 
(48*6%  more  than  in  1900).  The  munidpality  owns  and 
operates  the  electric  lighting  pkmt.  Washington  was  settled  in 
x8i6  and  chartered  as  a  dty  in  187a 

WASHINGTON  (or  Washxncton  Coitkt  House),  a  dty  and 
the  county-seat  of  Fayette  county,  Ohio,  U.S.A.,  on  Paint 
Creek,  35  m.  S.E.  of  Springfield.  Pop.  (t88o)  3798,  (1890)  5743, 
(1900)  5751  (708  negroes);  (1910)  7277.  It  is  served  by  the 
Baltimore  &  Ohio,  the  Cincinnati  &  Muskingum  Valley  (Penn* 
aylvania  Lhies),  the  Detroit,  Toledo  &  Ixontoo,  and  the  Cincin- 
nati, Hamilton  k  Dayton  railways.  It  is  in  a  rich  farming  and 
stock  and  pouhry-raising  region,  has  a  large  poultiy-packing 
house  and  various  manufactures.  Washington,  or  Washington 
Court  Home  as  it  is  oiten  csUed  %»  distinguish  it  fiun  Ihi 


WASHINGTON 


KB  of  WnUofUn  >■  GuentK]'  oHinty,  Ohio,  ir 


uchin 


city  in 


iSSS. 


ilildoi: 


WUHIMQTOir,  1  borough  tnd  the  county-wtlt  of  WuhinctOD 
CDUDty,  FBUuylvuiii,  U.S.A.,  about  is  m.  S.W.  of  Piiuburg 
uid  about  y>  ci.  N.E.  of  WbHling,  Wnt  VLcgtnia,  on  Charticn 
Creek.  Pop.  (1900)  7670,  of  whom  465  were  foreign  bora  and 
984.  were  negroes;  (i«to)  iS,7;£.  Wuhinglon  ii  lervetl  by  the 
main  line  of  the  Ballinore  &  Ohio,  tbe  Chanieti  Valley  branch 
ol  tbc  PiUitHiix,  Cindnnui,  Chicago  &  St  Loob  (Pennsylvania 
>y>teni)  and  the  Waynsburg  &  Washington  nUways  and  a 
connecting  line  lot  freight  lervice,  and  by  eleclcic  taanay  to 
Pittsbutg.  Among  its  public  buildings  and  institutions  aie  the 
county  court'houK  (in  which  are  the  rooms  of  the  Washington 
Coiinly  HiitoricaJ  Society),  the  Federal  building,  two  bosinlah, 
*  Y.M.C.A.  building  and  a  public  libniiy.  It  it  the  leaE  of 
Wuhington  and  Jeflenon  College,  of  Washington  Seminaiy 
(i8}6)  foe  girls  snd  ol  a  Khool  of  business.  Washington  and 
Jeffenon  College  wu  incoiporalcd,  in  iS«s,  by  (he  consolidalion 
of  two  rival  inttitulions,  Waihingtan  Academy  and  JeHerson 
College.  WaahingtoB  Acjukmy  (incoiporated  in  1787  and  en- 
dowed by  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania),  which  was  opened 
in  1789,  was  inco^ponted  as  Washington  College  in  iSo«,  and 
in  1851  became  a  tynodical  college  ol  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
under  Ihe  direction  of  Ihe  synod  of  Wheeling.  JeHenon  College, 
""■"■"■■  "  oulgTowthof  CanonaburgAcadt         " " 


n.  from  Wasl 


n  1816  ui 


corpoi 


at  Washini. 

mathematics  and  one  ol  biology  were  established  wivh  ■ 
mcnl  Id  140.000,  Ihe  gift  of  Dt  Francii  J,  LeMoyne 
chain  of  (jreek  and  of  Latin  were  endowed  by  the  R 
Beitly  with  *6a,ooo.  In  1009-1010  Washington  and 
"  "         "   duding  Washington  1     '  '  ~  '      ' 


lustiui 


I,  about 


endowment  of  t6jo,DO 


Washington 


Iron  tubing  and  [upe,  tin  plate.  Ucel,  Itc  The  site  was  port  of 
>  tract  bought  in  1771  by  David  Hoge  and  waa  known  at  first 
as  Catfiih  camp  after  an  Indian  chief,  Tingooqus  or  Catfish. 
It  was  platted  in  October  ijSi  and  called  Bissettown  is  honour 
of  Richard  Bauett  (d.  iSij),  a  member  of  the  Federal  consiitu. 
lional  convcnlioD  of  1787  and  of  the  United  States  Senate  in 
■  78v-i7oj,uidgDveTnorof  Delawarein  1708-1801.  ThevilUge 
was  rtplalled  Gx  November  1784  and  renamed  in  honour  of 
Genetal  Washington,  to  wboin  *  large  part  of  tbe  vie  had 
belonged.  The  eatiy  setilen  were  chiefly  Scotch-Irish.  At 
first  a  part  of  Strabane  township,  one  of  the  origins]  thirteen 
townihips  of  Washington  county,  in  February  I78«  Washington 
was  inade  ■  lepuste  dectioD  district:  it  was  incorporated 
as  a  town  in  iSio;  was  dwnered  as  a  borough  and  enlarged 
in  1B51,  and  [U  limit*  were  eiteuded  in  1854  and  iSj;.  Since 
1000  there  have  been  added  to  the  borough  North  and  South 
Washington  and  the  industriU  suburb  of  Tylerdale,  East  and 
West  Waahioglon,  although  piacliciUly  one  with  the  borough, 
nruaining  under  separate  tdminisirition.  The  locitbn  of 
Waahingion  on  the  old  "  Natioiul  Road  "  gave  It  importance 
before  tbe  advent  of  railways.  At  Ihe  Lefkfoyru  crematory 
established  here  by  Dr  Fraadt  Juliiu  LeMoyne,'  on  tbe  6ih 
of  December  1876.  took  place  the  first  public  cremation  in  the 
United  States;  the  body  burned  was  that  of  Baion  Joseph 
Henry  Louis  de  Palm  (1809-1876),  a  Bavarian  nobleman  who 
>uid  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  i8«i  aod  had  bceo  active 
in  the  Tbeoophical  Sodety  in  New  York. 


See  Boyd  CnimciiK  (ed.). 
PcinrAuHH  (Philadelphia,  tl 
of  WaiUnflini  CmiiUf  from  it 


If  Ihe  United 


Til  HittcTf  0/  IVmlmitle'i  Cnnly. 

183);  and  Alfred  Creigh,  7*(  Hiilerj 

-,      --  , ■  ^ FirU  Stuitmttil  III  lit  PriH-t  Tim 

[Harrisburg.  1871). 

VASHINOTOH,  the  m 

Staieii  of  America.     It  li__  , ,^   ^ „   ... 

«ndbelweenlongitudeaii6°  jj'andiJ4*48'W.  On  the  N.  it  is 
bounded  by  Brilisfa  Columbii,  along  the  49th  parallel  as  far  W.  as 
(he  middle  ol  the  Stnh  of  Georgia  and  then  down  tbe  middle  of 
(his  strait  *nd  Haro  Stnil,  and  along  the  middle  of  thechuad 
the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  which  separate  it  from  Vaocouver 
Island;  on  the  £.  tbe  south  portion  of  ill  bouod^ry  is  (he  Snake 
river,  which  separates  jt  from  Idaho,  but  from  (he  rfmduence  of 
the  Snake  and  aearwaiei  rivers  (a  little  W.  of  117°)  the  E. 
Washinilon 


i.  the  Colun 


with  the  46ih  parallel  of  N.  latitude 
the  S.  boundary  line  between  Waal 
46th  paralleli  on  Ihe  W.  ( 


t   fmi 


the  higher  elet 
Lrecbldeepby  mlleyl.    Along  the 

..  , -. ite.  but  they  rike  nonhHwrfin  thi 

lijo  ft.   The  Olympics  meet  th( 


.cific  Coai 
hrielHi, 


in  Che  E.  and  (he  ayjnpic  Mouns 


Mouic 

Hubur'andVilia^ 


iD  regular  channel  was  blacked  with 

%.  HiFcially  by  IheSoaV-  -' -"  ■-  --■"■ 

wo/lhenateiiMCiipi 

elention  exceeding  3000  f(.;  an  appnnnHlely   R^ual  area  has  I 
nunmum  elevation  leM  than  yjo  ft.  and  the  mean  elevation  of  ibi 

Obanofan  Highlanda.  the  Columbia  plain,  the  E.  slope  of  Ihi 

'-  Moirnuini  and  the  S.  portion  ol  the  Pugrt  SourKl  Ba^i 

1  by  (he  Columbia  and  i»  tribularieL     Thu  large  nvc 

ri.n*  (ttw,  hf   *o  si.  forfni  the  greater  poftion  oi  iis  S 
the  Padbc  Oc**ii.    The  Saakc  (I> 


CaHdeM 


cenml  pui)  u 
priBdul  tribuG 
Dudi  of  the  3i 

Souod  B^in  ■■ 
ClKlulii  riw,  < 

Pii>«  Souod  E 
Into  Ihs  Pu^  : 

ih^JudeMuu. 


_..»»  -_,_.  ,.,^ -> .«„  ^  which  [i  Lake  ChfUnon  thcE. 

■loipe  in  Chelin  countr-  Thu  n  imriy  6a  m.  in  knfth,  and  iram 
I  to  4  m.  vide.  M  Ok  uprrr  end  it  i>  ibaul  iioo  (t.  deep,  but  It  ii 
•kallow  at  the  lovn  end  wbcnt  the  water  i>  heU  bacli  by  a  nwniiul 
dan.  aod  wlieR  only  i\  m.  Imn  On  Columlu  rivet  it  i>  about 
mt  ft.  above  the  kvcTtif  the  rivef.  TTiere  are  alw  teveral  alkali 
Uea  or  diaind  alkali  lahei  in  the  couUti  on  Ihc  Columbia  plateau. 
Aniw.— Many  ipKia  ol  wild  animali  Mill  inhabit  the  Rate,  but 
tbe  number  of  each  apecic*  haa  been  much  reduced-  The  caribou, 
nooae.  ontdopei  mountain  ibeep,  beaver,  otier  and  mink  amcarcb 

Md T]*itrM>c are Ibe priodpal came binb.  TbeaHe-hcnucomiBoq 
M  the  Colunbli  pUn.   The  JapaDeK  phcaaau  and  th*  Calilbniia 

Amani  olher  game  binb  an  prairie-dBckeiu.  duchi,  laa*,  imn. 
brant,  andhill  cnae  and  Hiipe.  The  aiicckkd  innit,  oKIdi  aboindi 
In  nurly  an  o(  the  DuHiDlain  BtRaiaa  and  lakea,  ia  tM  prlndpal  tame 
Ml.  Other  [nibwalei  61I1  an  the  percli,  Uack  baia,  [lilEe.  pickerel 
and  white  Ui.  There  an  laiie  quanlitie*  of  ■!««»  bi  the 
■mh-  rnLimh^a  river,  in  Gnv'a  aod  WiDcpa  haiboura,  and  In 
ay'a  and  WUua  harboura 
nuukri,  amah,  nerrln*  and 
.    For  all  the  more  deSiable 


.  „ __lw  tbe 

ra.-.-The  pLiHt  Sound  Bawi  and  the  aelghbotiring  ilopca  of 
.—  Jaiade  >nd  Olympic  Mouncaina  an  noted  (or  their  fotcata. 
QouatiH  mainly  of  fiani  Douglaa  hr  or  Oregon  pine  {PttuJeltitta 
Ptm^cmt,  but  cantaurini  alao  aome  cedar,  apruie  and  hemlock. 
m  taullec  Tepnacntatlon  of  a  tew  other  apeoa  and  a  denie  under- 
fiDwth.  New  tbe  Pacific  Coaat  tbt  lorena  conuil  principaUy  of 
Eendock.cadarandSllkafpnKE.  At  an  elevation  oC  about  jooo  ft. 
Ol  the  W.  *>pe  d1  the  CaBada  the  fed  fir  cenis  to  be  (he  duminant 
tiee.  and  betncn  Ihia  elevatien  and  the  r«lon  tt  perpetual  inoir, 
on  a  few  of  Ihe  hiiibeit  peak*,  rnK  a  aucceadoa  of  fonat  looea  con- 

.__,_,«*  ,..  r3. -.^  ^  ,oj  y^taw  Gr.  wMte  Gr 

-te  ^ne,  Engeimann  ipruco  and 
„,„-_,—.  — jlelir,  Mertena  hemlock.  Atuba 
I!  (4]  whitei^iatk  pine,  Pnlton  hemlock,  alplna 
larch  and  cneeinnc  junintf .    Dedduoua  tnca  and  ihruba  an  r^ire- 
WBted  In  weateniWariiingtofi  by  comparatively  email  Dumben  dI 
•aaple.  aUer.  oalc  cottonnod,  wiUow,  ub.  aipea,  bireb,  datnud, 
•umadi,  IkorDapplt,  wild  <teiry.  chokecberry,  ddar.  hucUebnry. 
UuebeiyJ  btacbbeny,  ranbeny,  Eooeaberry  and  nape.    Tbt  £. 
dope  of  tiie  Candea  andmoK  oftbc  OhuKHm  Hfthland*  an 
dnbed  with  Itebt  brcata  enatlm  diiefiy  oTVelkiw  pin.  •-■■' 
coataioiiu  alio  lloiKia)     fir,     cedar,  larck  umanck  and  a  v 
anall  anwuni  of  oa£    Id  the  eaMen  part  of  the  Okanogan  Hi... 
landa  thw  ia  aome  waattfn  white  |mk,  and  ben,  too.  larch  ia 
■oat  abundant.   The  Colombia  plain  ia  tor  the  moat  part  tieelea 
and,  eacepl  when  iitigatcd.  (lowe  principally  buncb-ftaaa  or.  In  It* 
■ec  and  non  arid  patta.  ingcbruih.     In  the  lon«  reaiona  ol 
.....     .....  ^  underbrtub  ia  light,  but  gnaaea  ana  a  great 

jita  abound. 

D   Waahlnfton.   wbcn  the  ocean   greatly 

id  molit.   EaKem 


L 


aomenflona  in  thia  part  oE  tbo  itate  an  vieited  hy 

«nteae,and  aatbewindtfiom  the  ocean  loeeraoit  of  1 

in  pawif  over  the  Caacadea,  tbe  dbnan  ia  either  dry  or  arid  accord- 
Urn  to  ewvation.    Along  the  cooac  tbe  temperatun  it  nrely  -^^— 

?  F,  or  below  to*  F.i  the  mean  temperatun  f«  Jnly  ia 

«0*.  for  January  40*.  and  for  tbe  entbe  year  so*-   In  the  Fhjget 
Sound  Baiin  an  occaJBonal  cold  eait  wind  durina  a  dry  petiod  in 
winter  cauH  tbe  tempcniuie  Id  lall  bebw  zero.    At  Cantmlia.  in 
the.  Cbchalii  Valley,  the  temperatun  hai  tuen  aa  high  a> 
But  the  mean  tempcmture  lor  January  \t  J**  in  tbe  NT  poiti 

•nd  6s'  In  the  (OUth;  and  for  the  entire  year  il  i>l6°  In  the 
and  53'  in  the  aouth.    During  A^\  and  October  the  lempen 


WASHINGTON 

laat    Wad 
■aita    ani 


On 


lull  linlhiijirj  llillilpitmalniiaknaaliinT^^iailiin 
to  a  nngc  irom  40*  to  110*.  and  during  January  iron 
.    Ilowever,  the  climate  1. 10  drym  eatlern  Wa^ncii 


r.     In  the  amith-ainm 


tboae  ncD^ded 
.and  the 


■ummcri  ait  hot.    The  rainfall  on  tbe  W.  ■lope 
Cout  range  and  Cascade  Mountain*  la  from  6a  to 

and  in  the  Puiet  Sound  Bann  It  la  from  is  to  _ 

kaR  on  the  n!e.  or  leewaid  aide  of  Ihe  Oymtia.  About  three. 
luunhs  dI  the  tain  in  weuem  Washiaaton  falli  durii^  the  wm 
■cavn  from  November  to  April  incluiive.  On  Ihe  Okanocao  Hiah- 
bnda.  on  the  eanem  fooihiUa  of  the  Caicade  Maunuina.,cm^ 

which  oompri^a  ^  £.  ban 


ihlngton  the  Columbia  1 
alicin.  when  the  la'-'-' 

ncarti*.    Ther 
.  in  a  lai^  port 

^t1Sw«"o™ 

"the  Yakima  a 


d  ponion  of  riiie  Coiumbj 
™.™iea.iheanaua'-'-'-"— ' 

nr  flowa  Ihnugh  a 


of  low 


Ulh-W. 


lonaUy  bkiw  with 

II  In  June  or  jLly.    Light  hailiiomii 

SeUii—'nt  uila  ol  wotem  WuMnglon  a«  chieily  gtadal.  (hew 
of  eanem  Waihington  chiefly  vokanic     In  the  kiw  tidewiM 

diitrict  of  the  Puget  Scnind  Basin  an  eiceptioully  pmlucliM  ■>! 
kaalxenmadebythembilunof livernhandaeasand.  Innunona 
depiwioiB.  aome  of  which  may  have  been  the  beds  of  laka  forvd 
by  beaver  dama.  ibe  loil  ia  deep  and  largely  of  vnetablE  forniatiia. 
In  the  valleya  o{  rivera  which  have  ovnflowed  their  banlca  aad  oa 
levd  bench  landi  there  ii  conndcraUe  sill  and  vcgeuble  loam 
miied  with  glacial  clay;  but  on  the  hillq  and  ridges  of  veatera 
Waatuncton  Ihe  scdl  it  almost  wbally  a  glacial  deposit  eonwstin 

K'ndpslly  of  liay  but  usually  containing  some  sand  and  nav^ 
the  Coliimbii  jilatcau  Ihe  sail  11  pnncipiUy  vokanic  adi  aad 
dccomprwed  lava;  it  ia  almcnt  wholly  volcanic  ash  in  the  more  arid 
■ectiona,  but  elsewhere  more  dccorrrjosed  la  va  or  other  imeous  roclct 

of  the  Caac^o  and  on  the 
KjJisrtsi.— Washi  ngton'a 


(1,431.603  (i — ,^     .... 

rprtiU, — In  1907  theeRimated  area  of  atanding  timber  io  Waih- 
ington waa   ll.;»  iq.  m.  beaklea  (hU  inclnded  In  nai ' 
naervet.    The  (ontt  itmvy  an  ioduded  in  len  nat 
named  the  Chdaih  Columbia.  Colvilk.  ICanikan.  Olynpic  Rj 
Snoqualmie,  WashiPEion.  Wanaha  and  Wenatchee,  the  CMaa 
tbe  hrgctt,  with  an  ana  tf  i.49i,Soo  acrea.   Theaj 
tbeae  parks  (all  of  which  were  opened  in  1907  aad  i< 
aq.m..oraboutlbn»«leventhaoitbetc«alaic*of  II 

/rrifrUioii.— The  princiisl  Federal  irriaation  under 
wen  known  as  tbe  -'Okan«an  DfDiect ' 


Iparta. 

IU30-7 


long  and  amall  later 
the  Salmoii  t^--     '■ 

irdgetlon  of  1 

ifS^ffSaS 

WaAii^on  waa  exccedineTy  rapid  aft 
in  ^904  waa  sS,7Sa.oca  butbela.  valuai  1 
9.89M1B  busbda,  lahied  at  t4,jiiooo:  hul 
valued  at  (4.601,0001  rye,  S4.000  butbcia, 
Indian  com.  417A00  buihels.  valued  at  tjs 
wheat-produdiig  region  is  the  nouth-caKtt 
Western  Waihinitna  has  laije  hay  crops:  i 
Stan  much  allal^  ia  grown,  endaliy  in  Ya 
Wa^inglon  pat  an  ralsad  for  iDrage. 
Vegetable  crops  an  suone^ully  grown  in  Id 

"■  ^ a-S': 


long,  the  water  being  rakcn 
The  Yakima  project  involve 

of  the  agncultunl  leKHjrr 


»M.I7! 


IS.      Apple«ravinB  and  lb 
d  npidh'.    Smair  f rulta  ai 


'mohcities  on  the  bog  lands  na 
Uve-t(ocL  and  dairy  pcoduc 


•S'S 


d 


WASHINGTON 


355 


•pkahaisl  mihli  of  WMUngWi,  but  iht  nkiog  of  ih»«itock  on 
nmges  b  lest  commoo  than  wfaao  large  herds  graied  bee  on  govern- 
ment laadB.  Dairying,  aa  dSitmct  ffom  gmang,  has  aiiich  increased 
in  importance  in  leoebc  yean. 

Afincra/j.'^The  minend  wealth  of  Washington  is  Urge,  but  its 
resources  liave  been  enly  stighdy^  developed,  and  had  nwdly  b^un 
before  the. first  decade  of  the  Mth  century:  in  1902  the  total  value 
of  all  mineral  products  was  $5,393,659;  in  1907  it  was  $ir,6i7,7o6 
and  in  1908  $11,610,334. 

The  coal  deposits  of  Washthgton  are  the  only  important  ones  in 
the  Pacific  states,  and  in  Washington  only,  of  the  Pacific  stttes,  b 
there  any  coking  coal.  In  tlie  Cowlits  VUley  an  inferior  coal  was 
found  in  1848.  The  first  important  coal-mining  was  near  Bellingham 
Bay,  in  Whatcom  county,  where  ooal  was  discovered  in  1853  and 
where  5374  tons  #eie  mined  in  i860.  Between  1850  and  i860  coal 
was  found  on  the  Stilaguamish  river  (Snohomish  countv)  and  on  the 
Black  river  (near  Seattle)  and  in  1863  at  Gilman  (Iving  county): 
but  it  was  not  until  between  1880  and  1885,  when  the  Cntn  river 
field  in  King  county  and  the  Roslyn  mines  in  Kittitas  county  were 
opened,  that  oomroerriat  production  became  important:  the  output 
was  3.024,9^3  tons  (valued  at  $6,690,413)  in  I9c£b,  when  nearly  one- 
half  (1414,031  tons!  of  the  total  was  from  Kittitas  county  and  most 
of  the  remainder  from  the  connties  of  King  (931.643  tons)  and 
Pierce  (551,678  tons).  There  are  large  deposits  of  gladal  and 
residual  clays  and  clay  shales  throughout  the  state. 

Serpentine  marble  with  seamed  markings  has  been  found  in 
Adams  and  Stevens  counties.  Gmnite  is  found  about  Puget  Sound 
and  in  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  the  state;  it  is  brgely  used  in 
riprap  or  rough  foundations.  Sandstone  is  found  especially  in  the 
K.W.  in  Whatcom  and  San  Juan  counties;  it  u  used  for  paving 
blocks.  Limestone  also  is  found  most  plentifully  in  the  north  and 
north>we9tem  parts  of  the  state. 

Gold,  silver,  copper,  lead  and  a  little  iron  (almost  entirely  brown 
ore)  are  the  principal  ores  of  commercial  importance  found  in 
Washington.  The  total  value  of  gold,  silver,  copper  and  lead  in 
IQ08  was  $378,816  (gold  $342,234,  silver  $47,076.  copper  $41,188, 
lead  $48,318).  The  lanest  output  of  each  of  these  ores  in  IQ08 
was  in  Stevens  county;  reny.  King  and  Okanogan  counties  ranked 
next  in  the  output  of  gold;  Okanogan  and  Ferry  counties  in  the 
output  of  sHver;  Okanogan  in  the  output  of  copper;  and  King  in 
the  output  of  lead.  About  nine-tenths  of  the  gold  was  got  from 
dry  or  siliceous  ores  and  about  8  %  from  placer  mines;  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  silver  from  dry  or  siliceous  ores»  about  two-ninths  from 
copper  ores,  and  most  of  the  other  ninth  from  lead  ores.  The  only 
lead  ore  is  galena.  The  cooper  b  mostly^  a  copper  glance  passing 
into  chalcopyrite;  it  b  found  in  fissure  veins  with  granite.  A  small 
(]uantity  of  zinc  (7  tons  in  1906)  is  occasionally  produced'.  Tungsten 
is  found  as  wolframite  in  Stevens  county  near  I>eer  Trail  and  Bissell, 
in  Okanogan  a>unty  near  Loomis,  in  Whatcom  county  near  the  inter- 
national boundary,  and  (with  some  ocheelite)  ar  Silver  Hill,  near 
Spokane.  Nickel  has  been  found  near  Keller  in  Ferry  county,  and 
molybdenum  near  Davenport,  Lincoln  county.  There  b  chromite 
in  the  bbck  sands  of  the  sea-coast  and  the  banks  of  the  lareer  rivers. 
Antimony  deposits  were  first  worked  in  1906.    Arsenic  is  found. 

Manufactures. — ^There  was  remarkable  growth  in  the  manufactur- 
ing industries  d  Washington  between  1880  and  1905.  due  primarily 
to  the  extraordinary  development  of  its  lumber  incfustry.  In  1870 
the  value  of  lumber  products  was  $1 .30^,585.  and  the  Territory  ranked 
thirty>firat  among  the  states  and  territories  in  thb  industry,  and  in 
1880  the  value  of  the  product  was  $1,7^,743;  by  1905  the  value 
had  increased  to  $49,X73,5I3,  and  Wa5ning;ton  now  ranked  first. 
The  manufacture  of  planing  mill  products,  including  sashes,  doors 
and  blinds,  was  an  important  industry,  the  products  being  valued 
in  1905  at  $5,173,433. 

Next  in  coinmerdal  importance  to  lumber  and  timber  products 
are  flour  and  grist  mill  products,  valued  in  1905  at  $14,663,613. 
Other  important  manufactures  are:  sbughtering  and  meat  packing 
(wholesale),  $6,951,709  in  1905;  malt  Ikiuors,  $4,471,777;  and 
foundry  and  macUne  shop  products.  $3;86a,379. 

rransporiation  and  CMnmeree.— Puget  Sound  has  formed  a 
natural  terminus  for  several  tranacontinental  railways,  the  cities  of 
Seattle  and  Tacoma  on  its  shores  affording  outlets  to  the  commerce 
of  the  Pacific  for  the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Great  Northern  and  the 
Chicago.  Milwaukee  &  Puget  Sound  transcontinental  lines,  which 
enter  these  citiea  with  their  own  tracks.  The  Union  Pacific  and  the 
Canadian  Pacific  reach  Seattle  over  the  tracks  of  other  roads.  The 
Nonhem  Pacific  and  the  Great  Northern  enter  the  state  near  the 
middle  of  its  eastern  boundary  at  Spokane,  which  b  a  centre  for 
practically  all  the  railway  lines  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state. 
The  Nort  ncm  Pacific,  the  first  of  the  transcontinental  roads  to  touch 
the  Pacific  north  of  San  Francbco.  reaches  Seattle  with  a  wide 
sweep  to  the  south,  crossing  the  Columbia  river  abo'ot  where^it  is 
entered  by  the  Yakima  and  ascendine  the  valley  of  the  btter  to 
the  Cascade  Mountains.  The  Great  rforthem,  running  west  from 
Spokane,  crosses  the  state  in  nearly  a  straight  line,  and  between  this 
road  and  the  Northern  Pacific,  and  paralleling  the  Great  Northern, 
Rins  the  recently  constructed  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Puget  Sound, 
the  westward  extension  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St  niik  The 
Northern  Pacific  sends  a  branch  line  south  from  Tacoma  panjlel 


with  theconsK  to  Ponland  on  the  Columbia  river,  where  it  meets  the 
Southern  Pacific  and  the  Oregon  Railroad  &  Navigation  Cooopany's 
line  <a  subsidiary  of  the  Union  Pacific),  thus  afioraiag  communica- 
tion southwards,  and  up  the  valley  of  the  Columbia  to  the  east. 
Entering  the  southeast  corner  of  the  state,  the  Ornon  Railroad  St 
Navigation  Company  extends  a  line  northwards  to  Spokane,  and  a 
iMBncn  of  the  Great  Northern,  leaving  the  main  line  at  thb  city, 
runs  north-westward  into  British  Columbia.  The  Spokane,  Portland 
&  Seattle  railway  connects  the  three  cities  named  by  way  of  the 
Columbia  Valley:  and  the  Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  sends  a  line 
cnstwaid  Into  Idaho  to  the  Coeur  d'Alene  country  and  another 
through  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  state  into  Nevada.  In  1880 
the  railway  mileage  was  389  m.;  in  1890.  3013*05  m.;  in  1900^ 
3888*44  m*  t  and  on  \he  ist  of  January  1900, 4i80'33  m. 

Seattle  and  Tacoma  are  among  the  tour  leading  ports  of  the 
United  States  on  the  Pacific.  Other  harbours  on  Puget  Sound  of 
commercial  importance  are  Olympia,  Everett  and  BeUingluuB. 
Port  Townsend  b  the  port  of  entry  for  Pu^t  Sound.  Gray's 
Harbour,  on  the  western  coast,  b  of  importance  m  lumber  traffic 

FopulctUn.— The  population  in  i860  was  11,594;  in  1870, 
33*955;  in  1880,  75>i<6;  in  1890,  349>390»  an  increase  within 
the  decade  of  365-1%;  in  1900,  518,103,  an  increase  of  about 
45%.  In  19x0,  according  to  the  U.S.  census  returns,  the  total 
population  of  the  state  ttached  1,141,990.  Q(  the  total  popula- 
tion in  1900,  394,179  were  native  whites,  11x^364  or  ai>5%  wen 
foreign-bom,  to,  139  (of  whom  3 531  were  not  taxed)  were  Indians, 
5617  were  Japanese,  3639  were  Chinese,  and  3514  were  negroes. 
The  Indians  on  reservations  in  1909  were  chiefly  those  on  Colville 
Reservation  (1.297,000  acres  unallotted),  in  the  N.E.  part  of  the 
state,  and  the  Yakima  Reservation  (837,753  acres  unallotted), 
in  the  S.  part;  they  belonged  to  many  small  tribes  chiefly  of 
the  Salishan.  Athapascan,  Chinookan  and  Shahaptian  stocks. 
Of  the  foreign-bom,  18,385  were  English-Canadians,  16,686 
Germans,  12,737  Swedes,  10,481  natives  of  England,  9891 
Norwe^ans  ai^  7262  Irish.  Of  the  total  population  341,388 
were  of  foreign  parentage  (f.e.  either  one  or  both  parents  were 
foreign-bora),  and  of  those  having  both  parents  of  a  given 
nationality  34,490  were  of  German,  19^359  <^  Swedish,  17,456 
,of  Irish,  x6,959  of  Norwegian  and  16,835  of  English  parentage. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  1906  had  more  members  than 
any  other  religious  denomination,  74,981  out  of  the  total  of  - 
191,976  in  all  denominations;  there  were  31,700  Methodists, 
13,464  Lutherans,  11,316  Baptbts,  10,628  Disciples  of  Christ, 
10,025  Congregationalbts  and  6780  Protestant  Episcopalians. 

dnernment. — Washington  b  governed  under  its  original 
constitution,  which  was  adopted  on  the  ist  of  October  1889.  An 
amendment  may  be  proposed  by  either  branch  of  the  legislature; 
if  approved  by  two-thirds  of  the  members  elected  to  each  branch 
and  subsequently,  at  the  next  general  election,  by  a  majority 
ot  the  people  who  vote  on  the  question  it  becomes  a  part  of  the 
constitution.  Five  amendments  have  been  adopted:  one  in 
1894,  one  in  1896,  one  in  1900,  one  in  1904,  and  one  in  1910^ 
Suffrage  b  conferred  upon  all  adult  citizens  of  the 
United  States  (including  women,  191  o)  who  have  lived  in  the 
state  one  year,  in  the  county  ninety  days,  and  in  the  city, 
town,  ward  or  precinct  thirty  days  immediately  preceding  the 
election,  and  are  able  to  read  and  speak  the  English  language; 
Indians  who  are  not  taxed,  idiots,  insane  persons  and  convicts 
are  debarred.  General  elections  axe  held  biennially,  in  even- 
numbered  years,  <m  -the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday 
in  November,  and  candidates,  except  those  for  the  supreme 
court  bench  and  a  few  local  offices,  are  nominated  at  a  direct 
primary  election,  held  the  second  Tuesday  in  September. 

The  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  secretary  of  state,  treasurer, 
auditor,  attorney-general,  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and 
commissioner  of  public  lands  are  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years; 
and  each  new  administration  begins  on  the  second  Monday  in 
January.  The  governor's  salary  is  |6ooo  a  year,  which  is  the 
maximum  allowed  by  the  constitution. 

The  legishture  conistsof  a  Slenateand  a  House  of  Representatives, 
and  the  constitution  provides  that  the  number  of  representatives 
shall  not  be  less  than  sixty-three  nor  more  than  nfoety-nine,  and 
the  number  of  senators  not  more  than  one-half  nor  less  than  one- 
third  the  number  of  representatives.  Senators  are  elected  by 
single  districts  for  a  term  of  four  years,  a  ponion  retiring  every  two 
years;  representatives  are  eW^ed.  one.  two  or  three  from  a  district, 
for  a  term  of  two  years.  Regobr  sesnons  of  the  legidature  are  heU 
biennially,  In  odd-numbered  years,  and  begin  on  the  second  Monday 


356 


WASHINGTON 


in  Jannary.  Any  bill  or  any  hem  or  itenu  of  any  bill  wKkh  tun 
paued  both  homes  may  be  vetoed  by  the  governor,  and  to  override 
a  veto  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  members  present  in  each  house  is 
required.  No  law  other  than  appropriation  bills  can  go  into  effect 
until  ninety  days  after  the  adjournment  of  the  legislature,  except  in 
case  of  an  emeigcncy.  by  a  vote  in  each  house  of  two-thirds  of  all  its 
members.  The  members  of  the  l^^ture  are  paid  $s  for  each  day's 
attendance  during  the  session,  besides  an  allowance  for  tnvelhag 
expenses. 

Justice  is  administered  principally  by  a  supreme  court,  superior 
courts  and  justices  of  the  peace.  ^  The  supreme  court  ooosists  of 
nine  judges  elected  for  a  term  of  six  years,  one  of  tho^  whose  term 
next  expires  being  chosen  chief  justice,  and  is  divided  into  two 
departments.  The  presence  of  at  least  three  judges  in^  each 
department  is  required,  and  the  concurrence  of  at  least  three  judges 
u  necessary  to  a  decision.  In  case  of  a  disagreement  the  case  may 
be  heard  again  in  the  same  department,  transferred  to  the  other 
department,  or  to  the  court  en  banc»  The  chief  justice  or  any  four 
of  his  associates  may  at  any  time  convene  the  court  em  tone,  and 
if  so  convened  at  least  five  of  the  judges  must  be  present,  and  the 
concurrence  of  at  least  five  is  necessary  to  a  decision.  The  supreme 
court  has  original  jurisdiction  in  hatieas  corpus,  ^  varrante  and 
mandamm  pnxeedings  a^inst  all  state  officers;  and  it  has  appellate 
jurisdiction  except  in  civil  actions  for  the  recovery  of  money  or 
personal  property,  in  which  the  original  amount  in  controversy 
does  not  exceed  $300,  and  which  at  the  same  time  do  not  involve 
the  Icffaiity  of  a  tax,  impost,  assessment,  toll  or  municipal  fine,  or 
the  validity  of  a  statute.  Judges  of  the  superior  courts  (one  or  more 
for  each  county,  or  one  for  two  or  more  counties  jointly)  are  elected 
for  a  term  of  four  years.  They  have  original  jurisdiction  in  all 
cases  in  equity,  in  allcases  at  law  which  involve  the  title  or  possession 
of  real  property,  or  the  legality  of  a  tax,  impost,  assessment,  toll  or 
municipal  fine,  and  in  all  other  cases  at  law  in  which  the  aosouat 
in  controversy  is  $iooor  more,  in  nearly  all  criminal  cases,  in  matters 
of  probate,  in  proceedings  for  divorce,  and  in  various  other  cases; 
ana  they  have  appellate  jurisdiction  of  cases  originallv  tried  before 
a  justice  of  the  peace  or  other  inferior  courts  where  the  amount  in 
controversy  is  more  than  $20.  Justices  of  the  peace,  one  or  more 
in  each  election  precinct,  afe  elected  for  a  term  of  two  years.  They 
have  jurisdiction  of  various  civil  actions  in  which  the  amount  in 
controversy  is  less  than  f  100,  and  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the 
superior  courts  in  all  cases  of  misdemeanours,  but  punishment  by  a 
justice  of  the  peace  is  limited  in  cities  of  the  first  class  to  a  fine  of 
|soo,  or  imprisonment  for  six  months,  and  elsewhere  to  a  fine  of 
>ioo  or  imprisonment  for  thirty  days. 

Local  Government, — The  government  of  each  county  is  vested 
principally  in  a  board  of  three  commissioners  elected  by  a  county 
at  large,  some  for  two  and  some  for  four  years.  The  other 
county  officers  are  a  clerk,  a  treasurer,  an  auditor,  an  assessor,  an 
attorney,  an  engineer,  a  sheriff,  a  coroner  and  a  superintendent  of 
public  schools,  each  elected  for  a  term  of  two  y^rs.  Township 
organization  is  in  force  only  when  adopted  by  a  particular  county  at 
a  county  election ;  in  1910  Only  one  county  (Spoitane)  had  the  town* 
ship  organization.  Each  township  is  governed  by  the  electors 
a»semblc<l  annually  (the  first  Tuesday  in  March)  in  town  meeting 
and  by  three  supervisors,  a  clerk,  a  treasurer,  an  assessor,  a  justice 
of  the  peace  ana  a  constable,  and  an  overseer  of  highways  for  each 
road  district,  all  elected  at  the  town  meeting,  justice  of  the  peace 
and  a  constable  for  a  term  of  two  years,  the  other  officers  for  a  term 
of  one  year;  each  overseer  of  highways  is  chosen  by  the  electors  of 
hb  district.  Municipalities  arc  incorporated  under  general.. laws, 
and  cities  arc  dividra  into  three  classes,  the  first  class  including 
those  having  a  population  of  20,000  dt  more,  the  second  class  those 
having  a  population  between  10,000  and  20.000,  the  third  class  thosr 
having  a  population  between  1500  and  10,000.  When  a  community 
has  a  population  between  300  and  1500  within  an  area  of  1  sq.  m., 
it  may  be  incorporated  as  a  town.  A  city  of  the  first  class  is  per- 
mitted to  frame  its  own  charter,  but  its  general  powers  are  prescnbed 
by  statute.  A  city  of  the  second  class  must  elect  a  mayor  and  twelve 
councilmen,  and  its  mayor  must  appoint  a  police  judge,  an  attorney, 
a  street  commissioner  and  a  chief  of  police.  A  city  of  the  third  class 
must  elect  a  mayor,  seven  councilmen,  a  treasurer,  a  health  officer, 
a  rltrk  and  an  attorney,  and  its  mayor  must  apoint  a  marshal, 
a  police  justice  and  as  many  policemen  as  the  council  provides 
lor.  An  incorporated  town  must  elect  a  mayor,  five  councilmen 
and  a  treasurer,  and  its  mayor  must  appoint  a  marshal  and  a  clerk. 

MiiceUaneous  Laws. — Either  husband  or  wife  may  hold,  manage 
and  dispose  of  his  or  her  separate  property  independent  of  the  other, 
but  pro|>erty  which  thev  hold  in  common  is  under  the  management 
and  control  of  the  husband  except  that  he  cannot  devise  by  will 
more  than  one-half  of  the  community  real  or  personal  property,  or 
convey,  mortgage  or  encumber  any  of  the  community  real  estate 
unless  his  wife  joins  him.  When  either  husband  or  wife  dies  intestate 
one-third  of  the  separate  real  estate  of  the  deceased  goes  to  the  sur- 
vivor if  there  are  two  or  more  children,  one-half  of  it  if  there  is  only 
one  child,  the  whole  of  it  if  there  are  no  children,  no  issue  of  children, 
and  no  father,  motiier,  brother  or  sister.  One-half  of  the  community 
property  goes  to  the  survivor  in  any  case,  and  the  whole  of  it  if  there 
i»  no  will  and  neither  children  nor  tae  issue  of  children.   Where  there 


b  no  will  oae^tf  of  the  i«sidM  ol  the  atpan to  l 
to  the  survivor  if  there  are  time,  and  the  vdiolt  of  it  if  there  af«  no 
bsueu  A  law  enacted  in  1900  forbids  a  ■aarriaga  in  which  cither  of 
the  parties  b  a  oommon  drunkard,  iMbituar  crimiaal,  cpQeptic, 
imbecile;  feeble-minded  person,  idkiC  or  insaaa  person,  a  person  who 
has  been  anlcted  with  hereditafy  ioeanity,  a  penoa  who  is  afflicted 
withpulmooary  tubefculoeis  in  iu  advanced  scagca,  or  a  pcnon  who 
Is  afflicted  witn  any  oontagioiia  vcoenal  diweic,  unless  the  woman 


is  at  least  forty-five  years  of  age.  A  pblntiff  moat  reside 
in  the  state  one  year  Mfere  fiiqg  mi  apcdicatioa  tor  a  divorce. 
Neither  party  b  permitted  to  anairy  a  third  party  until  six  months 
after  the  divorae  has  beea  obtained.  Washington  has  a  state  board 
consisting  of  three  nenUwn  a|»poiBted  by  the  lovcraor  to  confer  wii  h 
commiasKMiets  from  other  states  upon  such  mattcn  as  marriage 
and  divorce,  insolvency,  descent  aod  diatributioa  of  property, 
the  execution  and  probate  of  wills,  for  the  purpose  of  promoting 
uniformity  of  legislation  respecting  them.  A  nomcstead  to  the  value 
of  $1000  which  b  owned  and  occupied  by  the  head  of  a  family  is 
exempt  from  attachment  or  forced  sale  except  for  ddyts  secured  by 
BKohanics',  bbourers',  materialmea  s  or  vendors*  liens  upon  the 
pCemises.  If  the  owner  b  a  married  man  the  homestead  nay  be 
selected  from  the  community  property  but  not  the  wife'a  aepaiate 

J  property  without  her  consent,  aao  when  it  has  been  selected,  even  if 
rom  the  hud>and's  separate  property,  it  cannot  be  encumbered  or 
conveyed  without  the  wife's  consent.    Personal  pn^ierty  b  exempt 
from  executiM  or  attachment  as  follows:  all  wearing  apparel  of 
every  person  and  family;  private  libraries  to  the  value  of  #500;  all 
family  pictures;  household  goods  to  the  value  of  $500;  certab 
domestic  animals  or  ^250  worth  of  other  propoty  chosen  instead: 
firearms  kept  for  the  use  of  a  pcnon  or  family;  certain  articks 
(within  specified  values)  necessary  to  tlie  occupations  c^  famen^ 
physicbns,  and  other  professional  men^  teamsters,  Ughtermea,  &c^ 
and  the  proceeds  of  all  life  and  accident  insurance.   By  a  Uw  enacted 
in  1909  the  licensing  of  the  sale  of  intoxic^ing  liquors,  other  than  lot 
medical  purposes  by  druggists  and  pharmacists,  u  left  to  the  opuoa 
of  counties  and  cities. 


Charities,  £rc.~The  state  diaritable  a^d  penal  institnttoaa  1 

of  the  Western  Washington  Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Fort  Staila- 
coom,  the  Eastern  Washington  Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Medical 
Lake,  the  State  School  for  the  Deaf  and  the  State  School  for  t  he  Blind 
at  Vancouver,  the  State  Institution  for  Feeble-minded  near  Medical 
Lake,  the  Washington  SoMiers'  Home  and  SoMiera'  Colony  at 
Orting,  the  Veterans'  Home  at  Port  Orchard,  the  State  Penitentiary 
at  Walb  Walb,  the  State  Reformatory  at  Monroe  and  the  State 
Training  School  at  Chehalb.  All  of  these  institutmns  are  under  the 
management  of  a  bi-partisan  Sute  Board  of  Control  which  connsu 
of  three  members  appointed  by  the  governor  for  a  term  of  six  years, 
one  every  two  years,  and  also  removable  by  the  governor  in  his  dis- 
cretion. Each  member  receives  a  sabryof  ^joooayear.  The  same 
board  together  with  the  superintendent  of  the  penitentbry  constitute 
a  prison  board.  The  State  Training  School  is  for  th«  reformatory 
training  of  children  between  eight  and  eighteen  yeare  of  age  who  have 
been  found  guilty  of  any  crime  other  than  murder,  mansbughier  or 
highway  robbery,  or  who  for  some  other  cause  have  been  committed 
to  it  by  a  court  of  competent  jurisdiction. 

EductUion.-^The  public  school  system  b  administered  by  a  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  a  state  board  of  edacati», 
regents  or  trustees  of  higher  Institutions  of  learning,  a  superintended 
of  the  common  schoob  and  a  board  of  education  in  each  oonmy, 
and  a  board  of  directors  in  each  school  district.  The  state  supcr< 
intendent  b  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  state  board 
of  education  consists  of  the  state  superintendent,  the  president 
of  the  University  of  Washington,  the  president  of  the  State 
Colleee  of  Washington,  the  pnncipal  of  one  of  the  atate  normal 
schools  chosen  biennially  by  the  principab  of  the  state  normal 
schools,  and  three  other  members  appointed  bienniaUy  by  the 
governor,  one  of  whom  'must  be  a  superintendent  of  a  district 
of  the  first  class,  one  a  county  superintendent  and  one  a  principal 
of  a  high  school.  Thb  body  very  brgely  detenatncs  the  course  of 
study  in  the  elementary  schools,  high  schools,  normal  school  and  the 
normal  departments  of  the  University  and  the  State  College,  approves 
the  requirements  for  entrance  to  the  University  and  the  Sutc  College, 
and  prepares  the  Questions  for  the  examination  of  teachers.  Each 
county  supcrintenaent  b  elected  for  a  term  of  two  years.  The 
county  board  of  education  consists  of  the  county  superintendent  and 
four  other  members  appointed  by  him  for  a  term  of  two  yeara;  one 
of  its  principal  duties  is  to  adopt  the  text-books  for  schools  in 
districts  in  which  there  b  no  four-year  accredited  high  school. 
In  a  school  district  which  maintains  a  four-year  accredited 
high  school  there  b  a  text-book  .commission  consisting  of  the  city 
superintendent  or  the  principal  of  the  high  school,  two  members 
of  the  board  of  directors  designated  by  the  board,  and  two  teachers 
appointed  by  the  board.  All  children  between  eight  and  fifteen 
years  of  age,  and  all  between  fifteen  and  sixteen  years  of  age 
who  arc  not  reguUHy  employed  in  some  useful  or  remunerative 
occupation,  must  attend  the  public 'fechool  all  the  time  it  is  in  sesaoo 
or  a  private  school  for  the  same  time  unless  excused  by  the  city  or 
the  county  superintendent  because  ofn^Mital  or  physical  disabilitv 
or  because  of  proficiency  in  the  l^HtflShcs  uu^ht  in  the  first  dght 


WASHINGTON 


357 


ghdm.  WaAlQgtMlMtfHiMiltten^ittilKkoobzoMmtCbeBnr, 

onemt  Bdlingham,  andooeat  EOeMbunt,  and  aadi  of  them  i*  ander 
the  manageroent  of  a  board  of  three  tnutees  appointed  by  the 
covemor  with  the  conctm^ce  of  Che  Senate  for  a  term  of  six  yean, 
one  every  turo  yeaim.  The  Sute  College  of  WuMngton  (1890)  at 
Pullman,  for  favtnictioB  in  agrieultare,  mcchaniral  arts  and  natiual 
sciences,  includes  an  agriculttlral  coUm,  an  experiment  station  and 
a  school  of  science.  The  University  oTWashington  (i86a)  at  Seattle 
embraces  a  college  of  jibeial  arts,  a  college  of  engineering  and  schools 
of  law.  pharmaoy,  mines  and  forestry,  whitman  College  (Congien* 
tional,  1866)  at  Walla  WalU.  Gonxasa  College  (Roman  Catho&e, 
1887)  at  Spokane,  Whitworth  College  (Presbyterian,  1890)  at  Taooma 
and  the  University  of  Puaet  Sound  (Methodist  Episcopal.  1903)  at 
Tacoma  are  institutions  oihigher  leaniing  maintained  and  controlled 
by  their  respective  denominations. 

F«fiafie«.~The  revenue  for  state,  coiraty  and  monicipa]  pui'posea 
is  derived  principally  from  a  general  property  tax,  a  privilege  tax 
levied  on  the  gross  receipts  of  actress  companies  and  private 
car  companies,  an  inheriunce  tax  and  lioence  fees  for  the  sale 
of  intoxicating  liquork  Real  property  fe  assessed  biennially: 
personal  property,  annually.  For  the  two  years  ending  the  1st  of 
October  1908  the  total  receipts  into  the  state  treasury  amounted 
to  ^io,8S4t98i'43  and  the  total  disbursements  amounted  to 
^11, 053,375- 13.'  The  net  sUte  debt  on  the  ist  of  October  1908 
amounted  to  $967>576'38. 

Histery.-^Tht  earty  exploration  of  the  western  ooaat  of  Nonh 
America  grew  out  of  the  search  for  a  supposed  paftage,  some- 
times called  the  *'  Strait  of  Anian  "  between  the  Padfic  and  tha 
Atlantic.  In  Pitrckas  his  PUgrimnus  (1695)  was  published  the 
story  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  a  Greek  manner  whose  real  name  was 
Apostolos  Valerianoa,  who  claimed  to  have  discovered  the 
passage  and  to  have  sailed  in  it  more  than  twentydays.  Though 
the  story  was  a  fabrication,  the  strait  south  of  Vancouver  Island 
was  given  hb  name.  An  account  of  the  various  Spanish  and 
English  explorers  has  already  been  ^ven  under  Ossgon  and  need 
not  be  repeated  at  length  here. 

In  1787  a  company  of  Boston  meichants  sent  two  vessels, 

the  "  Columbia  "  and  the  "  Washington  "  under  John  Kendrick 

and  R<^rt  Gray  (1755-1806)  to  investigate  the  possibility 

of  establishing  trading  posts.    They  readied  Nootka  Sound  in 

September  1788,  and  in  July  1789  Captain  Gray  in  the 

"  Columbia  "  began  the  homeward  voyage  by  way  of  China.' 

Captain  Kendricl  remained,  erected  a  fort  on  Nootka  Sound, 

demonstrated  that  Vancouver  was  an  iriand  and  in  1 791  purchased 

from  the  Indians  large  tracts  of  land  between  4/*  and  51*  N. 

Int.  for   his  employers.    On  the  homeward  voyage  he  was 

acddentafly  killed  and  his  vessel  was  lost.    Meanwhile  Captain 

Gray  in  September  1790  sailed  from  Boston  on  a  second  voyage. 

During  the  winter  of  I79i>i793  he  buOt  another  fort  on  Nootka 

Sound  and  mounted  four  cannon  from  the  ship.    With  the  coming 

of  spring  he  sailed  southward,  determined  to  settle  definitely 

the  existence  of  the  great  river,  which  he  had  vamly  attempted 

to   enter   the  previous  summer.'  Captain  (Seorge  Vancouver 

ItysS-iygS),  m  charge  of  a  British  exploring  expedition  then 

engaged  in  mapping  the  coast  (1792-1794),  was  sceptical  of 

the  existence  of  the  river,  but  Captain  Gray,  undiscouraged, 

persisted  in  the  search  and  on  the  nth  of  May  179*  anchored 

in  the  river  which  he  named  Columbia  in  honour  of  his  ship. 

The  later  claim  of  the  United  States  to  all  the  territory  drained 

by  the/river  was  based  chiefly  upon  this  discovery  by  Captain 

Gray,  who  had  succeeded  where  Spanish  and  Britbh  had  failed. 

The  territory  became  known  as  Oregon  iq-v.). 

The  first  white  man  certainly  known  to  have  approached 
the  regfon  from  the  east  was  Alexander  Mackenzie  of  the  North- 
west Fur  Company,  who  reached  the  coast  at  about  lat.  5»* 
In  July  1793*  ^ith  the  purdiase  of  Louisiana  (30th  April  1803) 
the  United  States  gained  a  clear  title  to  the  land  between  thr 
Mississippi  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  as  far  north  as  49*  and, 
because  of  contiguity,  a  shadowy  claim  to  the  region  west  of 
the  mountains.  In  1819  Spain  s|MKificaUy  renounced  any  ddm 
she  might  have  to  the  coast  north  of  43**  strengthening  thereby 
the  position  of  the  United  Sutes.  Just  before  the  purchase 
ojf  Louisiana,  Praddent  Jefferson  had  recommended  to  Congress 
(iSih  January  1803)  the  sending  of  an  expedition  to  explore  the 
headwaters  of  the  Missouri,  cross  the  Rockies  and  follow  the 
ttTfimf  to  tbe  Padlic.    In  accordance  with  the  leoomaendation 


Meriwether  Lewis  (f  a)  and  WiDiam  dark,  b«th  oi&oen  of  th$ 
United  States  Army,  with  a  consideiabb  party  left  St  Lonit 
on  the  14th  of  May  1804,  ascended  the  Miwouri  to  the  head* 
wateis,  crassed  the  Rockies  and,  following  the  Columbia  river, 
leached  the  ocean  in  November  1805.  The  return  journey 
over  nearly  the  same  mute  was  begun  on  the  asrd  of  March 
1806,  and  on  the  S3rd  of  September  they  reached  St  Louis. 

The  story  of  the  struggle  of  the  rival  British  and  American 
companies  to  oontiol  the  fur  trade,  with  the  final  dominance 
of  the  Hudson's  bay  Company  has  been  told  under  OaaooM  and 
need  not  be  repeated.  Since  the  country  was  considered  to  be 
of  little  value  the  question  of  boundaries  was  not  pressed  dthei 
by  Gictat  Britain  or  the  United  Sutes  after  the  War  of  i8x:r» 
and  by  a  treaty  oonduded  on  the  20th  of  October  x8i8  it  was 
agreed  that  "  any  country  that  may  be  daimed  by  dther  party 
on  the  nortlbwest  coost  of  North  America,  westward  of  the 
Stony  (Rodgr)  Mountains  shall  be  free  and  open  for  the  term  of 
ten  years  from  the  date  of  the  signature  of  the  present  conventioil 
to  the  vessels,  dtisens  and  subjects  of  the  two  powers."  On 
the  6th  of  August  1827  the  convention  was  continued  in  force 
indeinitdy  with  the  proviso  that  either  party  might  abrogate 
the  agreement  on  twelve  months'  notice.  Meanwhile  Russia 
(17th  April  1824)  agreed  to  make  no  settlement  south  of  54**  4(/ 
and  the  United  States  agreed  to  make  none  north  of  that  line* 
In  February  1825  QnU  Bgtain  and  Russia  made  a  similar 
agreement.  This  left  only  Great  Britain  and  the  United  3tatei 
as  the  contestants  for  that  territory  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
between  4a*  and  54*  40^,  which  by  this  time  was  commonly 
known  as  the  Oregon  country.  American  settlers  in  oooslderabk 
numbers  soon  b^;an  to  enter  the  region  south  of  the  CSohimbia 
river,  and  in  1841,  and  again  in  1843,  these  settlers  attempted 
to  form  a  provisional  govcnmenL  A  fimdamental  code  was 
adopted  in  1845  and  a  provisional  government  was  established, 
to  endure  imtil  "  the  United  States  of  America  extend  thdr 
jurisdiction  over  us."  North  of  the  river,  the  Hudson's  Bay. 
Company  discouraged  settlement,  believing  that  the  final  detert 
minion  of  the  boundary  controversy  would  make  that  stream 
the  dividing  Une.  Though  there  were  a  few  mission  stations  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  present  state  of  Washington  (see  Whitman, 
Mascus),  the  first  permanent  American  settlement  north  of 
the  Cohunbia  was  made  in  1845  <m  the  Des  Chutes  river,  at  the 
head  of  Puget  Sound  at  the  present  Tumwater.  Othos  soon 
fdUowed  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  chid  factor  of  the  Hadaon'a 
Bay  Company,  Dr  John  M'Loughiin,  and  these  permaaent 
settlers  finally  carried  the  day. 

Interest  in  the  Oregon  country  developed  with  the  increase 
of  settlers  and  of  knowledge  and  a  demand  for  the  settlonent 
of  the  boundary  dispute  arose.  The  report  of  Captain  Charles 
Wilkes,  who  visited  the  coast  in  1841-1843  in  charge  of  the 
United  States  exploring  expedition  helped  to  excite  this  interest. 
In  the  presidential  campaign  of  1844  one  of  the  Democratic 
demands  was  "  Fifty-four  forty  or  fight."  By  a  treaty  negotiated 
by  James  Buchanan,  on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  and 
Richard  Pakenham,  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  and  ratified 
on  the  17th  of  Joly  1846,  the  boundary  was  fixed  at  49^  to  the 
middle  of  the  channd  separating  the  continent  from  Vancouver 
Island  and  thence  "  souUierly  through  the  middle  of  the  said 
channd  and  of  Fuca's  Straits  to  the  Padfic  Ocean."  A  dispute 
later  arose  over  this  water-line.  The  act  establishing  a  territorial 
government  for  Oregon  was  approved  on  the  X4th  of  August 
1848,  and  the  first  governor,  Joseph  Lane  (i8ox-x88x),  assumed 
the  government  on  the  3rd  of  March  X849.  Following  the  in- 
crease of  population  north  of  the  Columbia,  the  territory  was 
divided,  and  Washington  Territory  was  established  on  the  and 
of  March  1853,  with  the  river  as  the  southern  boundary  to  the 
point  where  it  is  intenected  by  the  forty-sixth  parallel,  and 
thence  along  that  paraild  to  tlie  summit  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
thereby  induding  portions  of  the  present  states  of  Idaho  and 
Montana.  The  first  governor.  Major  Isaac  I.  Stevens,  of  the 
United  States  Army,  took  charge  on  the  a9lh  of  Septembei 
Z853,  and  a  census  indicated  a  population  of  3965,  of  whom  x6Sa 
were'  voters.    Olympia  was  chosen  as  the  temperary  seat  of 


35» 


WA8HSTANI>— WASP 


to  lud  and  to  mirey  i  route  for  t 
nifiny,  which  v»t  laa  to  bccoiH  iLe  Nortbon  Ftd&e.  Tba 
lodluii,  lUnned  by  tbe  nfid  srowtb  of  ths  vbile  populUioB, 
itlamptcd  todaiiay  iboattencl  ■MllaixmU  ud  the  wuukiiiic 
pnqiecton  far  pjd,  which  bad  been  discovanl  In  ascm 
Waeiungton  in  1855.  Between  iSjs  tad  tSS9,  ifld  muj  ihup 
conteati,  tbe  Indluu  were  puttuUy  nibdiXfL 

Shortly  alter  1846,  the  Biitiih  bcgu  to  utat  tbu  ibe  Rottiio 
Sttiit  tnd  not  Hkn>  Stnit  (u  Ibe  Ametioui*  held)  wu  ths 
channel  HfAnting  the  mamUnd  ud  Venconver  Isbnd.  tbu 

prindpi]  "It  nit  Condict  of  wtboiity  utae,  ud  hi  iSjq  Sui 
jun  wu  occupied  by  U.S.  troopa  cnnmudcd  by  Captaiii 
George  £.  Pickett  (iSij-iSts),  ud  for  a  time  hcalOitici  leemed 
Imfkunnrnwit  By  agreement  joint  occupation  followed  untQt  by 
th*  Treaty  ef  Waahincton  (May  S,  1871)1  the  qgeUlon  was 
left  to  tbe  Gennao  emperor,  who  decided  (October  11,  1871)  In 
ftTOur  ot  Um  United  Statei,  Meanwhile  Oregon  vu  adnillled 
u  a  Mate  (F^raaTy  14,  i8jg)  with  the  pieient  bounduiei,  and 
the  remnant  of  the  tenltoiy.  including  poitioni  of  what  an 
sow  Idaho  ud  Wyoming,  was  «ided  to  WiL$hingtan,  The 
diicoveiy  of  gold  fai  thi)  region,  howevei,  brought  tuch  a  niih  of 
pi^Hilation  that  the  Temtmy  of  Idaho  wu  Kt  off  (March  3,  iS6j) 
and  Waihington  wu  teduud  to  ita  present  limits.  R;^>id  growth 
In  population  and  wealth  led  to  agitation  for  natehood,  and  a 
constitution  waa  adopted  in  1878,  but  Congresi  declined  to  pou 
tn  enabliog  act.  The  development  of  Alaska  and  the  completion 
of  the  Northern  Pid&c  Raihoad  to  the  mut  (1SS3)  tinught  a 
great  increaae  Id  population.  A  large  nuipber  of  Qunoo  anlis 
who  bad  been  introduced  to  constnict  the  railway  congregated 
bl  the  toiTU  on  the  completion  of  the  woih,  and  in  1SS5  Kiious 
anti-ChiiMae  riota  led  to  the  declaration  of  martial  law  by 
the  governor  ud  to  the  uae  of  United  State*  tn»p».  Finally 
the  long-dedred  adnusion  to  statehood  was  granted  by  Con- 
Bea  (February  11,  1989]  and  President  Benjamin  Harrison 
U'ovenibCT  11, 1S89)  formally  announced  the  admisson  complete. 
Since  admittian  the  piogress  of  the  state  has  continued  with 
increasing  rapidity.  The  Alaska-Yukon  Exposition,  dengned 
to  ohibit  the  rcHurcet  of  western  America,  held  at  Seattle 
June-October  igog,  wai  a  complete  success.  In  politics  the 
ftate  has  been  Republican  in  national  elections,  eicept  in  iSc>6, 
when  It  was  carried  by  a  fusion  of  Democrats  and  Populists 
A  Populist  wai  elected  governor  and  wu  re-elected  in  1900. 
CovaiMOi 


i.  J.  S.  Tumey  (actiBc) 
Wi-PlckeriiH-Tr 
Geone  E.  Cole  .  . 
E.I.Smith(actini)     . 


iBS3-i«ST 


•  la  piw  of  T,  R.  ttogen,  < 
•Okdi«(btiHchi«D». 


■tan  CialoEaisDtwy-: 
3unture  Rtininf  u  th* 
:  O,  L.  Waller.  ZrHouiM 

lir  3i>Mj]>  «< /mcatiM 
tlJ£.  GMlogical  Survey, 

■dun  see  R.  A.  BalUnBCr 
W*Mm0t%  nUd^  I9ra). 
•wd  din  bjKila,  &a 
■8S6-I  tW).W«^iiilrm. 
•  V««».v-.,l^off3 
,  Londln,  1707  ;  Elwoad 
lSM)i  aHlE-iMany, 
the  bibliagraphiea  uoda 


and  is  itill  Bomecimet  described 
as  1  "  waahband  stand."  Us  direct,  but  remote,  ancesttn  wu 
the  monastic  lawio,  range  of  basins  of  stone,  lead  or  marble 
fed  from  a  dslem.  They  were  usually  of  plimilive  ccejception 
and  a  tiough  common  to  all  wu  probably  more  frequent  thai 
■Bpente  basin*.  Very  occoHonalty  they  wen  of  broiue  adorned 
with  enuneU  and  lilazooed  with  heraldry.  Very  tlmiUr  usage* 
obtained  in  castles  and  palaces,  £ied  lavatories  being  con- 
structod  in  the  thickness  o[  the  walls  lor  tbe  use  of  ilidr  aoa 
important  residents.  Tbess  anuigemeiita  were  ohvual)' 
intended  only  for  the  Bumnaiy  ablutions  which,  untif  a  toy  lait 
dale,  sufficed  to  even  the  tjgb-bom.  By  degrees  the  iiiutt 
became  portaUe,  and  a  "  basm  frame "  is  mentioned  u  taily 
as  the  middle  of  the  1 7th  century.  Examples  of  earlier  date  ihtt 
the  third  or  iourth  decade  of  the  jSth  century  arc,  however, 
virtually  unknown.  Thenceforward,  until  about  the  end  of  thai 
century,  this  piece  of.  bimitute  was  usually  literally  a  "  aland." 
li  was  supported  upon  a  tripod;  a  diculu  oii£ce  In  the  tip 
received  the  baiin,  and  upaller  one*  were  provided  for  a  snap 
dish  ud  a  water-bottle.  Sometime*  a  stand  for  the  water-jog 
when  the  biiia  was  in  uie  was  provided  below,  ud  vciy  com- 
monly there  was  a  drawer,  sometime*  even  two  drawers,  below 
the  basin,  (jrcat  numbers  of  these  stands  were  made  to  6t  into 
comets,  ud  a  "  comer  wash-stand  "  is  still  one  of  the  commonest 
objects  in  an  old  fumituie  sht^.  Chippendale  designed  such 
standi  In  so  elaborate  lococo  fuliiOD,  &s  well  as  in  simpler  form. 
As  the  iSih  century  drew  to  itsckiec  the  custom  of  using  the  sane 
apartment  as  reception  room  by  day  ud  sleeping  room  by  niKfat 
produceda  demand  for  what  was  called  "  harlequin  fumiture  "-— 
pieces  which  were  contrived  a  double  or  triple  debt  to  pay. 

made,  and  fitted  with  minon  and  sometime* 
laenccs  and  drawers  for  clothca.  SheratOB 
iahing  ingenuity  in  devising  a  type  of  furniture 
y  judge  by  the  large  number  of  eiunples  stUI 
ve  become  highly  popular-  With  theb^nning  ■ 
[paoBon  of  ideals  of  persoaal 
in  size  and  ImportAnce.  It 
acquitsd  the  form  of  an  oblong  wooden  table  provided,  like 
its  sDullEr  predeceisois,  with  odlices  for  bitiot  and  fitted  with  ■ 
tuoad  shell-like  stretcher  upon  which  the  jugt  wne  placed  when 
they  were  removed  from  the  basins.  Am  pie  space  was  provided 
forsoap-disbes  ud  water-boltlea.  These  tables  were  single  or 
double,  for  the  use  of  one  or  two  persons.  The  washstsnd,  aa 
we  IctiOw  it  in  the  aoth  century,  took  ita  £nal  form  when  the 
woadfn  tvp  wu  replaced  by  marble,  UBpietced,  the  ba£n*  beinf 
placed  upoa  the  slab,  which,  in  the  be^nning  almost  invariably 
white,  is  DOT  often  of  red  or  other  wum-tinled  marble. 

WASP  (IM.  Ki^«),  the  csmmon  name  for  a  well-knowm 
sort  of  sijggiag  iDSect.  The  eider  Hymenopiera  is  divided  tnto 
two  sub-orders,  the  Symphyta  and  the  ApoctlU.  The  laltet 
ii  subdivided  into  tfveal  tectiona,  one  of  which,  the  VeqKndea, 
includes  all  che^true  wsqisj  in  addition  to  the  ruby  vupa  and 


dreaeins  tables  were 


uy  of  th 


10  Lhiee  '"■"'IJai— 1'>  tt 


D  Diploplm)  an  Id 


WASP 


ningi,  which  M 


3)  tha  WmmUk,'  *bMi  Mgtttier  axnpifw 
It  sptcia.  Tfaey  ire  chmctcri^  by  ibc[r 
reicnl  in  both  sues  ud  eJs}  in  the  nudiSed 
IcDiBla  DC  worlEen,  btiiig  )Dn«iludiDalty  folded  when  U  ml, 
except  !a  the  Uiuridu.  The  Bnteonu  ere  nttulty  elbowH, 
and  coBUio  twelve  or  thirteen  joinls;  b  some  rasM  ihey  are 
.eUvitt  A  pail  <i[  noiched  fwpled  eyts  »ie  present,  and  three 
cmdli  in  the  lop  of  Uie  hcid.  The  mouth-puti  are  airangcd  for 
tucking,  but  Lave  not  reached  Hut  degree  ol  perfection  found 
kmongJt  tlie  beei.  Hence  wupi  cannot  obtain  the  lugary 
■ecRtioD  (ron  deeply-sealed  nectaries,  and  their  vbils  to  flowcrt 
■re  confned  10  suiji  ai  are  ■ballon'  or  widely  opeoedi  they 
puticularly  frequent  the  UmbellUerae.  The  raanllae  in 
elangaled,  and  compresaed,  the  majillary  palp  lu-jointcd-  The 
UbiuntEftpFDlongedcentrally  into  a  "tongue,"  which  ia  glandular 
■t  the  Ilp^  the  pitaglo^^ae  ate  linear.  The  Labia]  pelp  hal  three 
or  four  jointa.  The  pn>tbot«jr  is  ovaJ,  artd  its  aidea  are  prolonged 
backward  to  (he  haae  of  the  winga.  The  fore  wing  has  two  or 
three  lubmaiglna!  eel's.  He  Icga  are  not  provided  wilh  any 
tdiptalioDS  for  cnllecliog  pollen.  The  abdomen  is  sometimes 
pedunculate,  in  SHond  <sppi<eat1y  lint)  segment  being  drawn . 
onl  intoa  Loag  uaJh,  which  eomiccts  ll  with  the  gUirunb,  made  up 
of  the  thorax  and  the  first  abdominal  segment.  The  queens  tad 
the  mvken  are  armed  with  a  powerful  sting.  The  usual  colour 
of  these  insects  ts  black,  relieved  to  a  greats  or  ka  d^ree  by 
■pc«B  and  patches  of  yetiow  or  buff. 

The  Dlptoplen  may  be  subdivided  into  two  groups  b  accord- 
ance with  the  habits  of  life  of  the  inucu  compiuing  the  aectieu. 
One  of  the  groups  bchtdei  the  family  Vespidae,  which  is  com' 
posed  of  todal  wasps,  and  includes  the  bnmcl  IVapacroiin)  and 
the  mmtnoB  wisp  (V.Bjfiorij).  The  olher  group  conUins  two 
■mailer  families,  the  Eumeaidae  and  Ibe  Mssaridae,  the  memben 
ol  which  are  soUlai^  m  their  mode  of  life. 


.— lna 


.inal  a.._ 

I  ariri  rwHve  In  Ihe 


1  habits  tin  inenlm 


segments  ar 


ibcrs  of  this  faniiiy 


riinlly  approumaje  very  cksely  to  bees  in 

Eaiih  feouUei  tnd  werkara.  The  litto-  an  Icnula  In  which  ihe 
ovsiy  nmaiiie  nndevelopcdi  Ihey  Ksemble  Ihe  perfect  (enule  la 

P.  Marchal  thai  lel'arlineol  distinction  between  queen  ud  worker 
cannot  always  be  drawn.  UnHke  the  hive  bees',  the  waqn'  com. 
muoky  is  annual,  exinlag  toe  one  aunmer  only.  Moet  of  the 
BKmbers  die  at  the  awoadi  of  auuunn,  but  a  f*w  fsrasles  which 
have  been  fertilind  hibemale  through  the  wioCb,  ihdtCRd  uadcr 
stones  or  in  hollow  tie™.  In  theipdngsnd  with  the  returning  •aim 
weather  the  iHnale  rcgaina  her  activity  and  emeijes  from  her  hiding. 

fS^  and  esubWihig  a  neJ'nrfHiy.  Tbe'eww)a''-vp  (1^ 
ruliarii)  uswUyielccusomebutrDworboleuithetiwuid,  whicbitf 
too  siiuUl,  she  may  eobtve  Into  a  chamber  suitable  for  htf  porpoae. 
She  then  Mghis  to  build  the  nest.  This  Is  conalmcted  of  small  fibres 
oC  old  wood,  which  the  wasp  gnsws,  (ad  ksiads,  alien  mbed  with 
the  (ecndoa  from  the  salivary  ghndi,  fano  a  sort  of  padar^tcht 
Dolp.  Some  of  thia  V  formEd  into  a  hanging  pillar  attached  10  the 
tvoTof  tha  cavln',  awl  In  the  lower  free  end  of  thii  Ihm  shallow 
cnp-UkaceUsareliBBg,   Ineaehof iheseaneggiiUM.  TbefaoDdim 

M  the  grubs  appear  fram  the  finl-laid  tap  tha  has  in  additioa  to 
tend  and  feed  them.    The  development  wAhin  the  tu  iali««  «"«« 

nt  eruba  ar*  apodal,  thicker  in  the  middle  than  at  either  end: 
ihe  mandibles  bear  Ihiee  teeth;  the  maidllae  and  labium  are  repre- 
anted  by  flcahy  tiAerdes.  The  bodr.eHlaiiiiwaf  lbs  bead,  eauMis 
of  tbineen  ■egaienta.  wUch  bear  lilemi  tubercles  aad  spiracles. 
Tha  larva  ha*  no  anua  The  larvae  are  suspended  with  the  head 
downwuda  In  the  cells,  and  require  a  good  deal  of  attention,  being 
(sd  by  dteir  medier  upon  laseets  which  ara  wdl  chewed  before  they 
an  gfren  te  Uia  larvae,  or  upon  boner.  At  the  aaaie  tisH  the  mother 
k  eSan^C  •■>d  deepealag  the  cells  in  which  they  live,  building  new 
calls,  and  layirg  more  eggs,  which  are  usually  suspended  la  the  tame 
angin  of  each  ccIL 

Afttf  abotrta  fortnl|ht  the  grabs  cease  to  feed,  and,  formtngasilky 
CDver  ta  thA  peUs.  become  pupafc  Thisflu>e»m>t  stsge  bits  about 
tha  days,  at  tha  trnd  of  wha;h  pjwiodthi*  otaer^  aa  Ihs  imago  or 
osfect  iasect.  The  lilW  oovermg  of  the  cell  is  mind  or.  convei 
onwudai  and  to  Isave  the  cell  the  iaiecl  titlier  pushes  it  out,  whea 


... ,_,_rltKli,suchasold 

_  .— . .isused.   Thecombsareamngedbofiloiltal^ieach 

ontains  a  single  layer  of  eella  opening  downwarda.  The  second 
eaib  II  suqiendod  from  the  Int  by  a  number  of  hiiuing  pillats  which 
_i..:w. •-—'—-'iinion_of  three  cells.   The  space  between 


■■"PJl 


nt  to  allaw  the  wans  to  cross  each  olher. 
ncular  hi  outline,  and  bciose  In  da  for  the 
after  which  Ihey  begin  to  decrease;  the 
ivgblymadc  coating  ODmisting  of  seversi 

ilil  it  lorms  a  roughly  ^heiicil  esveriu  lor 
aay  support  to  the  combs,  which  are  inde- 
Ft  fncreuca  in  aiac,  the  covering  needs  to  be 
ea  and  ncoiutnrcinl,  its  inner  layer  being 
ire  enlarged    The  covering  is  pierced  by 


5-sn,! 


L   Tbece 


broods  of  workers    The 


devsAupad  ma  of 

developmenl;  these  see  usuaMy  kept  apart  fram  one  snniher  aiid 
Iron  thoK  of  the  workers.  The  maleimay  bediEiingulihed  bylbeta' 
longer  aatRuuB,  by  the  more  elongated  outline  of  thor  body,  and  by 


aodety  beglni  to  brak  n[ 


At  the  approach  of 

die.sfttBwitUilafewhoinB.  The'wMhan  kave  the  neat,  carrying 
with  them  aay  grvba  that  remain  hi  the  cells,  and  both  soon  peiiih. 
ThaaealscmlnlydesMed.  The  ftitiliied  femsles.  it  has  been  seen. 


Es  whilsi  Hying  high  in  the . 


Bent,  are  ckaiiadtageihEir  as  ground  ^ 
•nipa.  They  build  tbair  nesu  in 
burrows  lu  the  uiound.  but  thia  ia 
not  an  invariibn  rule;  they  may 
be  diaiinguUbed  from  the  tree  waiLJa 
by  (hsir  shorter  cheeks  snd  usually 
by  the  fiitt  joint  in  the  antennae 


bjellow 


han'^D 


^.  lyhestna.  furtacua  and 


_- t  abdomen.  They 

n  wasp,  and  appair  to  be 
if  En^d.     TTirir  neas 

hollow  trees  or  deserted  out-housca.   Thdr  cemmunltiea  are  imaller 

The  hornet,  where  it  occun  in  any  number,  does  a  considenbl* 
amount  of  damage  tO  forrat  trees,  by  gnawiiig  the  bark  off  the 

by  kreping  down  Ihe  numbers  of  Ales  and  other  insects.  It  catches 
these  in  brge  numbers,  killing  them  with  its  iawi  and  not  wilh  its 
■ting.  It  then  lean  off  Ihe  legs  and  wings,  and  bears  the  body  back 
to  its  neil  as  loud  for  Ihe  larvae.  Wsipsalaoact  to  some  encnt  as 
flower  fertlliiere,  but  in  this  respect  they  canoot  mmpare  with  bees; 
they  visit  (ewer  Bowers,  snd  bavt  no  adiptuiona  on  their  limbs  lee 
carrying  off  Ibe  pollen. 


Tbe(eni» 


inxldi     ScgH  <* 


1.  diithbuled  all  over  ilut  wxld.    Soafl  ti  the  larnK  ud 
ftinfit  comfl  from  own  Am-     V-  mandariit*  <rf  CGiu  ukd 
Japan,  ud  V.  HHfitfoa  ol  ibt  Eul  ladiea  and  Nepal,  meanrc 

CrgKC.  &Ey|il  and   Ibc 

The  Duly  Dtha  hdib 

(cmkI     in      EunKK     u 
PaliiU.  which  MM  la 


than  111  Vn^     Ead 
tier  tt  nib  In  ibc  f  ma 

I  ^a  il^le  Malk.    ThH 


biaHC  pland.   The  whole  ni»i 
peiulenl  fiom  bouglu  t>f  trees. 


lenglh.  cloficly  AptAied  u  Ibe  branch  of  a  In 


>le  nsi  La  builr  of  coarse  malcrial,  chiefly 
:  here  in  only  ar>e  opcninf ,  at  the  lower  end- 
n  lenui.  ClariiTtia.  nulla  a  Uufh  nai. 


c  horizontal  J    the    opcr 


•Li;^'^"'^ 


PlO.  J.— PalitMi  Htidis  aad  Bat. 

,  it  alio  pendent,  but  the 
[  from  the  eilerHor  i(  at  >h 
^ry  to  ariolber  it  alto  lateral. 


ofSouIh  America,  . 
~er.  Internally  the 
piiillel  with  the  e, 


. .  .  .ind  In  Brvi) 
mblo  thai  of  the  conunoa 
nbi  are  arrBnged  mncmlrl- 
rna]  covering  which  atforda 

inillla,'  the  Eunienidae  ud 
Ihcir  n^lury  mode  of  life: 
<  workeri  being  found, 
e^  with  three  aubmar^nal 

'■'»;■ ""■" 


Ja  retpect  approacfaii^  tJie  Fouem. 
imma  fgarcWM  ia  Ibe  only  Britbh  apeda  of  Ihii  pnui.  T 
.1*  ii  1 1"-  Iwic.  the  DUb  aoaewhat  ahaner.    The  ibdomn 
•end  with  the  ibmi  by  a  lone  peddBda.   The  coloiir  i>  lilai 


food-aupply  aloied  ap  la  1 

_  CBtarpillan  and  other  u - _ 

which  law  bca  paiahiad  by  lb*  paienl  nm  "'^*',i:.' 

■tiivnc  (hcru  ifarough  the  cefl^Hal  ganaiioot  Eirwn«™in«. 
whoi  the  brvi  o(  lA  Sanuaci  rtaata  rrom  iIk  egg  it  ini  up* 
thaa  and  dtvoin*  them. 

The  lesiB  Oiymmi  eonialia  a  vay  kne  Dumbo'  et  ipcciii. 
IMiiui  in  ail  parla  oi  the  vortd.  The  monlen  of  thb  Hdiri  vt 
aliout  (be  (lie  of  a  Ay,  and  Ihey  diSa  tmm  faauaii  ii^iiif  1 
•evile  abdomen.  Soma  tt  the  ipccla  conalnict  tbdt  cdli  in  Bad- 
beapa,  Hnipgibm  with  acrlutinated  iraim  of  and:  ethenliviiB 
cantiM  d(  tita  Unhd  whli  ibe  ane  material.  whJkt  otben  twU 
IhctrBedaijIniiid.  LiheieiiKiif  ibgipedeaef  SaHaaB,llier>« 
up  paralyied  Lepidopuroui  and  Chiyaoneleoua  iatva  u  lal  Ik 

^Fa^'^J^an^.^^^The  nembcri  of^  the  thW  ia^  ^ 


Duket  gaideDera  ud  fniit  frowen.  Diuinf  thit  tint  <i  1^ 
Ihey  live  tliooit  oclusvely  upoo  tha  iwect  Jukai  of  i^  ("'''i 
occaaionally  cairyinf  off  viall  partldca  of  the  Deah.  M  ^ 
ume  line  Ihey  have  not  entirely  loM  ibeir  caniivaroui  Uiis. 
for  thoy  frH(ucntly  Ulack  the  meat  In  bntchs'i  i^Vh  M 
rendo  cwtipeDntion  by  luUiiig  ud  canying  ofl  to  icoJ  thdi 
gniha  conaidenble  niunbcn  o(  blow-ffio.  Vufa  alio  peifno 
an  Imporlanl  lervice  in  ketfini  dawn  tba  numba*  (rf  "W" 
piDan.    The  larvae  are  aT       '       '    '     ' 


10  (lu  yonnf .  Dorlnc  i 
brood*  that  vpeai  live  I 
and  thii  forma  tka  atapls 
(ooi  of  the  ■eant  i>aIIKM 
(trtni^oul  Cbcfa-  '■Mb 


iimllr.   On  the 

«(lKThuM),  tkekmiaf  oC  fio.  j^ Jfawrli  KiffM^ 

qiiMa-«a«    la    eaiiy  ,  ,. 

mdac  pniUlily  meant  that  Ibe  tocmatioa  d  *>'<*'  *^  t; 
production  of  a  loduy  lAoae  mctnbtn  m  cwnMd  W 
thousBndi  b  in  each  caH  prevented. 

Tie  number  of  waspa  ia  kept  down  by  nnmeroB*  raemia 
The  moM  eSeclive  of  ihew  live  in  the  nati  and  devour*» 
lariHi  otDODi  tbnm  are  two  tptdea  of  beetle.  SMpif*'^ 
fandow  and  Libli  KnarU.  Two  >pede>  of  /t*iio««j 
and  a  tpeda  of  AnOamyia,  also  infest  the  nefli  ol  ms(*  •" 
piey  upon  Ilie  grub*.  The  brvae  ol  the  vrpW  Hi"  •»""-; 
found  in  the  aeala  of  both  waipt  and  beea.  are  now  l"™™™^ 
be lavenieti  rather  tha«parmjilea.  In  Ihe  troiBCaaoajW^ 
arc  altuked  by  fuofl,  llic  hy^iac  oL-i^dch  piouuat  h"™* 


y 


■ffbuj^^Hi^ii 


WASSAIL^WASTE 


361 


the  MgnBenUof  Uie  abdomen,  and  g$te  the  wasp  a  voy  eflrar 
ordinary  appearaace. 

BiBLiocBAFUY. — La  addition  to  vaxioqa  systematic  monoin 
enumerated  at  tJbe  end  of  the  article  on  Hymenopteiat  reference 
may  be  made  to  De  Saussure  {ifonopaphu  des  guHfes  sociales, 
Geneve,  1853-185S).  P.  Marchal  {Artk.  Zod.  Exp,  Gm.  M,  iv.. 
1806),  C.  Iftnet  iMem,  Soc»  Z09I,  FraMC4»  viiL,  1895)  and  O.  HJUtter 

itfaturcU  bUUnry  of  Cornnum  Animals,  ch.  v.,  Cambridge,  I0<^). 

f  A  P  ^  • »     Vl  f  \ 

WASSAIL  (O.  Eng.  was  Ml, "  be  whole/* "  be  wcU'")/primarily 
the  ancient  form  of ' '  toasting,"  the  term  being  applied  later  to  the 
Christmas  feasting  and  revelries  and  particularly  to  the  bowl  of 
spiced  ale  or  wine  which  was  a  feature  of  the  medieval  Chrbtmas. 
One  of  the  earliest  references  to  the  wassail-bowl  in  English 
history  is  in  the  description  of  the  reception  of  King  Vortigern 
by  Hengist,  when  Rowena  "came  into  the  king's  presence, 
with  a  cup  of  gold  filled  with  wine  in  her  band^  and  making  a 
low  reverence  unto  the  king  said,  '  Waes  had  Uaford  Cyning,' 
which  is '  Be  of  health.  Lord  King/  "  In  a  collection  ot ordinances 
for  the  regulations  of  the  royal  household  in  Henry  VH/s 
retgn,  the  steward  oif  TwelftH  Night  was  to  cry  **  wasssul " 
three  times  on  entering  with  the  bowl,  the  royal  chaplain  respond- 
ing with  a  song.  Wassailing  was  as  much  a  custom  in  the 
monasteries  as  in  laymen's  houses,  the  bowl  being  known  as 
poculum  Caritatis.  What  was  popularly  known  as  wassailing 
was  the  custom  of  trimming  with  ribbons  and  sprigs  of  rosemary 
a  bowl  which  was  carried  round  the  streets  by  young  girls 
singing  carols  at  Christmas  and  the  New  Year.  Tills  ancient 
custom  still  survives  here  and  there,  especially  in  Yorkshire, 
where  the  bowl  is  known  as  "the  vessel  cup,'*  and  is  made 
of  holly  and  evergreens,  inside  which  are  placed  one  or  two  dolls 
trimmed  with  ribbons.  This  cup  is  borne  on  a  stick  by  children 
who  go  from  house  to  house  singing  Christmas  carols.  In 
Devonshire  and  elsewhere  it  was  the  custom  to  wassail  the 
orchards  on  Christmas  and  New  Year's  eve.  Pitchers  of  ale  or 
cider  were  poured  over  the  roots  of  the  trees  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  a  jhyming  toa^t  to  their  healths. 

WASTE  (O.  Fr.  wdsi,  guast,  gast,  gaste\  lot.  vasius,  vast, 
desolate),  a  term  used  in  English  law  in  several  senses,  of  which 
four  are  the  most  important,  (i)  "  Waste  of  a  manor  "  is  that 
part  of  a  manor  subject  to  rights  of  common,  as  distinguished 
from  the  lord's  demesne  (see  Couhons,  Manor).  (2)  "  Year, 
day,  and  waste  "  was  a  part  of  the  royal  prerogative,  acknowledged 
by  a  statute  of  Edward  11.,  De  Pratrogativa  Regis.  The  khig 
had  the  profits  of  freehold  lands  of  those  attainted  of  felony  and 
petit  treason,  and  of  fugitives  for  a  year  aiwl  a  day  with  a  right 
of  committing  waste  in  sense  (3)  thereon.  After  the  expirr.tion 
of  a  year  and  a  day  the  lands  returned  to  the  lord  of  the  fee. 
This  species  of  waste  was  abolished  by  the  Corruption  of  Blood 
Act  1814  (see  Felony,  Treason).  (3)  The  most  usual  significa- 
tion of  the  word  is  "  any  unauthorized  act  of  a  tenant,  for  a 
freehold  estate  not  of  ii^Jieritance,  or  for  any  lesser  intierest, 
which  substantially  alters  the  permanent  character  of  the  thing 
demised  (i.)  by  diminishing  its  value,  (ii.)  by  increasing  the 
burden  on  it,  (ill.)  by  impairing  the  evidence  of  title  and  thereby 
injuring  the  "  inheritance  "  {West  Ham  Charily  Board  v.  East 
London  W.W.,  xgoo,  i  Ch.  624,  637;  cL  Pollock,  Law  of  Torts, 
7th  ed.,  345). 

Waste  in  Knae  (3)  is  either  wlunkuy  or  permissive.  Voluntary 
Waste  18  by  act  of  commission,  as  by  pullmg  down  a  house,  wrongfully 
removing  fixtures  (q.v.),  cutting  down  timber  trees,  i.e.  oak,  ash,  elm, 
twenty  years  tM,  and  such  other  trees,  e^g.  beech,  as  by  special 
citetom  are  counted  timber,  in  the  district,  opening  new  quames  or 
laiDM  (but  not  continuing  the  working  of  existing  ones),  or  doing 
•pything  which  may — for  this  is  the  modem  test — alter  the  nature 
Ai  1?^  ^"*"8»  demised,  such  as  conversion  of  arable  into  meadow  land. 
Although  an  act  may  technically  be  waste,  it  will  not  as  a  rule 


l?2L*L  Ch.  253,  263).  In  the  case  of  "  timber  estates  "  upon  which 
JfC^  of  i^rious  kinds  are  cultivated  solely  for  their  produce  and  the 
IT*!!!  8?ain«d  from  their  periodical  felling  and  catting,  the  timber 
w  not  considered  as  part  of  the  inheritance  but  as  the  annual  fruits 


leases  tor  thepreaerlbed  terms  **  for  any  purpose  whatever,  whether 
lavolvins  waste  or  not^'  Permissnm  waste  is  by  act  of  omiauoo, 
«ttch  as  alloving  buildings  to  fall  out  oLiepair.  A  '^  fermor  " — a  teni| 
which  here  includes  "  alTwho  held  by  lease  for  life  or  lives,  or  for  yearn 
by  deed  or  without  deed  "  by  the  statute  of  Marlborough  {isoyy* 
may  not  commit  waste  without  licence  in  writing  (nun  the  reversloaer. 
In  case  a  tenant  for  lifeDr  for  any  smaller  interest  holds  (as  is  oftea 
the  case  by  the  tenns  of  a  wiU  or  settlement)  "  without  in  peachment 
of  waste  '  (sauHs  HnpeadmeiU  de  mul,  i.«.  without  liabthty  to  have 
Us  waste  challeiqsea  or  impeached),  his  eights  are  oonaden^y 
greater,  and  he  may  use  the  profits  saloa  rerum  substantia  (to  use  the 
laaguage  of  Roman  law,  from  which  the  English  law  of -waste  is  in 
gTMit  measure  derived).  For  iastanoe,  he  may  cut  timber  in  a 
husband-like  manner  and  open  mines;  but. he  may  not  commit 
what  is  called  e^nitnbU  waste,  that  is,  pull  down  or  deface  the 
mansion  or  destnr^  timber  planted  or  left  for  ornament  or  shelter 
{WeU-Bkm4«U  v.  Wclsehy,  1904, 2  Ch.  664).  Actaof  equiuble  waste 
were,  before  1875.  not  oogniaa^lo  in  courts  of  common  law,  but  by 
the  I  udicaturo  Act  1873,  a.  ^  (3),  in  the  absence  of  special  provisions 
to  tikat  effect  an  estate  for  hfe  without  impeachment  of  waste  does 
not  confer  upon  the  tenant  for  life  any  legal  right  to  commit  equitable 
waste.  A  copy-holder  may  not  commit  waste  unless  allowed  to  do 
w  by  the  custom  of  the  manor.  The  penalty  for  waste  is  forfeiture 
of  the  copyhold;  GaibraUh  v.  Poynten,  1905.  2  K.B.  258  (see  Copy- 
hold). The  AgrkfUlturai  HokUngs  Acts  i^  and  1906,  by  reason 
of  their  provisions  giving  compensation  for  unprovement,  as  regards 
the  hokhngs  to  which  t&y  amdy,  override  some  of  the  old  common 
law  doctrines  as  to  waste.  The  act  of  ipoo  provides  (s.  2  [3])  that 
where  a  tenant,  who  claims  compensation  for  improvements,  has 
wrongfully  been  guilty  of  waste,  either  voluntary  or  permissive,  the 
landlord  shall  be  entitled  to  set  off  the  sums  due  to  htm  in  respect 
of  such  waste,  and  to  have  them  assessed  by  arbitratiott  in  manner 
provided  by  the  acts  of  1900  and  1906.  Under  the  act  of  1906  the 
tenant  is  permitted  to  divegard  the  terms  of  his  tenancy  as  to  the 
mode  of  cn^ping.  on  arable  land,  but  if  he  exercises  his  statutory 
freedom  of  ooppu^  in  such  a  manner  as  to  iajure  or  deteriorate  ius 
hoUing,  the  landlord  ia  entitled  to  recover  damages  for  auch  injury. 
&c.  (s.  a). 

Remedies  for  Waste. — Various  remedies  for  waste  have  been  given 
to  the  reversioner  at  different  periods  in  the  history  of  English  law. 
At  common  law  only  sin^  damages  seem  to  have  been  recoverable. 
This  was  altered  by  the  le^iislature,  and  for  scMne  oenturies  waste 
was  a  criminal  or  t^uasi-criminal  offence.  Magna  Carta  enacted  that 
a  guardian  committing  waste  of  the  lancb  in  his  cortody  shoald 
make  amends  and  lose  his  office.  The  statute  of  Marlborouui  (1267) 
made  a  *'  fermor  "  (as  above  defined)  oomnuttlng  waste  uable  to 

S'evous  amercement  as  well  as  to  damans,  and  followed  Magna 
ru  ia  forbidding  waste  by  a  guardian.  The  rtatule  of  Gloucester 
(1278)  enacted  that  a  writ  of  waste  might  be  granted  against  a 
tenant  for  life  or  years  or  in  courtesy  or  dower,  and  on  being  attainted 
of  waste  the  tenant  was  to  forfeit  the  land  wasted  and  to  pay  tfarioe 
the  amount  of  the  waste.  This  statute  was  repealed  by  the  Civil 
Procedure  Acts  Repeal  Act  1879. ,  In  addition  to  the  wnt  of  waste 
the  writ  of  estrepement  (said  to  be  a  corruption  of  exsHrpamentum, 
and  to  be  connected  with  the  French  estrepier,  to  lame)  lay  to  prevent 
injury  to  an  estate  to  which  the  title  was  disputed.  This  writ  has 
lone  been  obsolete.  Numerous  other  statutes  dealt  with  remedies 
for  waste.  The  writ  of  wa^te  was  superseded  at  common  k»w  by 
the  **  mixed  action  "  of  waste  (Itself  abolished  by  the  Real  Property 
Limitation  Act  'l833)j^nd  by  the  action  of  trespass  on  the  case  (see 
ToRT^  Trespass).  The  court  of  chancery  also  intervened  by  in- 
iunction  to  restrain  equitable  waste.  At  present  proceedings  may 
•be  taken  either  by  action  for  damages,  or  by  application  for  an 
injunction,  or  by  both  combined,  and  either  in  the  king's  bench  or 
in  the  chancery  divisions.  By  the  Judicature  Act  1873,  s.  25  (8), 
the  old  jurisdiction  to  grant  injunctions  to  prevent  threatened  waste 
is  considerably  enkirged.  The  Rules  (rf  tne  Supreme  Court,  Ord. 
zvL  r.  37,  enable  a  representative  action  to  be  bronght  for  the 
prevention  of  waste.  In  order  to  obtain  damages  or  an  iajunctlon, 
substantial  injury  or  danger  of  it  must  be  proved.  In  England  only 
the  high  court  (unless  by  agreement  of  the  parties)  has  jurisdiction 
in  questions  of  waste,  but  inl  reland,  where  the  law  of  waste  is  similar 
to  bnglish  law,  county  courts  and  oourts  of  summary  turiadiction 
have  coordinate  authority  to  a  limited  extent  (cf.  Land  Act  1860^ 

ss.  35-39)- 

The  law  of  waste  as  it  affects  ecdedastical  benefices  will  be  found 
under  Dilapidations. 

U)"  Wa^te  of  assets  "  or  "  devastavit "  is  a  squandering  and  mis- 
appncatton  of  the  estate  and  effects  of  a  deceased  person  by  his 
executors  or  administrators,  for  which  they  are  answerable  out  Of 
their  own  pockets  as  far  as  they  have  or  might  have  had  assets  of 
the  deceased  (see  Executors  and  Administrators).  Executors 
and  administrators  may  now  be  sued  in  the  county  court  for  waste 
of  assets  (County  Courts  Act  1888,  s.  95). 

Scotland. — In  Scots  law  **  waste  "  is  not  .used  as  a  technical  term, 
but  the  respective  rights  of  6ar  and  life-renter  are  much  the  same  as 
in  England.  As  a  genera!  rule,  a  life-renter  has  no  right  to  cut 
timber,  even  though  planted  by  himself.  An  exception  is  admitted 
in  the  case  of  coppice  wood,  which  is  cut  at  regular  intervals  and 
allowed  to  grow  again  from  the  roots.   Grown  timber  is  also  available 


36a 


ts  Uw  lifo-mUBr  for  A*  pnpM*  of  taftac  D  lli*«M>w  or  niafataf 
biiililiiift,  EWon  mildiic  mm  ol  miun  umAb  Uk  aoilc  puipimi, 
tba  lUc-nata  iluuM  giv.  .oiiu  u>  (1h  fiw.  He  la  ■!»  ndlltd 
•A  rk»  h«nc&(  of  ofdiwy  windLallL  EnnanUauy  wiDdfalla  ■** 
la  [mwa  timber-    liTt-nflten  by  "*  CDaMhudoo  "  <t 


uwuu  BV  in  louovoq.  ana  m  ma 
doa  OB  the  li»  ol  tlv  Engliili  Sell 

Act  (No.  IV.  at  iWi)  and  ila  amo 

the  IlibUitiM  ol  kmtt  lor  wue.  o 
of  tbe  kug  or  by  local  laaee. 
kivbif  aoikr  Kmdu  or  Mali 
nalily  <lepeu]  in  the  nuln  uf 

'    UmiM  ^stti.— "  In  ibc  Unit 

mv  oC  udjjw  ftod  inproving  the  land'^deuinf 
ennpte— wBch  in  Enitand,  or  cvoi  in  tbe  Eutera . 
■uiii^wut*"(l'oUack  T-Mi.7lktid..w).  Thui 
Carotin,  Vcmoni  ud  Tenn^ee  luve  deviated  i 
tenant  [ram  Eiwliah  rulea.  while  MaMKhiuetia  haa  i 
WiUimt  Cms,  St.  "  Watte,"  ixv.  i»o,  Ametian  no 
■tataa,  M-  Midaeaota.  Owon  and  Waihinglob  (ib 
— Tn  of  vaate  ia  R(iilateirbv  — — — 
m^t^—Ttit  Fieach  CMI 


pedaOv  intbt 


' — 'ractuuy  may 
«^h*  •aamofe  oil 


Csdt  pnyida  (art.  » 
.     _   ,  althouifa  bo 

Btm.  Lam  af  WojU:  Paitrtli 
Scota   lav:    Enldnr 


,  art.  59]).  AnaLoDoua 
^  H^land  {f.n.  gll). 
I  Ccnaan  Civil  Code, 


AuiHoairna.— Engliah  Uw:  a 
Lam  ti  toKiiori  aitiTtmMl  Foa 
WoodlaU,  Lam  e}  Laa^srd  oM 
Pritidida  (Cdinburili].     liiib  law:  Nolan 
rttoHnt  O  Ml  Lam  0/  Lamila^  and  TnuaU 
Wylie,  JuSiatmt  AcU  (DuMia}.     Anwrica 
S>teL  (Boaton  and  London).     Indian  law;  bnepncm  ana  nrovn. 
tndiam  TrniSn  ^  FfspBtj  Aa  iSU.  (h.'*l-  R.) 

WATCH  (La  O.  Eng.  mrtca,  a  keeping  guard  or  watching, 
Itom  tMOBH.  (o  guard, ntcb.iHcaii,  to  wake),  a  portaUc  lime- 
l^ece.  Tlite  b  tbe  moii  common  meaning  of  the  word  in  iti 
nibataatival  form,  and  is  Ihe  tubject  of  the  proent  article.  Hie 
w«d,  by  detivatioiiitDeiuulhatwhichkeepawatchlulorwikdul 
obiervBtian  or  Utmtion  OTCr  anything,  and  hence  i>  used  of  a 
pcnon  or  number  of  persona  whose  duty  it  ij  to  ptotrct  anyijiing 
by  vigOance,  a  guard  or  aentiy;  it  i>  thuj  the  term  toe  the  body 
of  penoni  who  pauolled  tlie  ttceeta,  called  the  boun,  lad 
fvHonned  the  duties  of  the  modem  polio.  The  application  of 
the  term  to  a  period  of  time  is  due  to  the  military  division  of 
the  oighl  by  the  Greeks  and  Romajis  Into  "  walchct "  (^Xoinl, 
t^u<),  natlud  by  the  change  of  tentiM*;  ijmilaily,  on  ihip- 
board,  lime  is  alio  ivckoned  by  "  watche*,"  and  tlw  crew  it 
divided  into  two  ponfons,  the  slarboaid  and  port  watcbet, 
taking  duly  allemately,'  llie  tiantferaux  oI  the  woid  to  (hat 
which  mark*  the  changing  bouis  is  easy. 

'  In  Ihe  Briliah     _,....__ 

the  morning  ntcE.    Tbe  I 
lour  walch^  two  of  four  ' 


7  the  twelve  boun  of  Ihe  aight  ai 


the 


to  midday,  midday  to  lour 

.    ...~.~  .....»....-,..»■.■ 'V-.  >vaixanij  tutoeight-  Thcae 

the  '  dug  waichet,"  and  thair  puipoae  ■•  to  change  tbe  turn  of 
■wlchet  evenr  twenly.four  boun.  to  that  the  men  who  watch 
eight  fa  midnJDhl  on  one  night,  thaH  vatch  from  midnight  litJ 
LoAiheneit.  The  "watch  bill  "iattieliato'lbenieaappdnled 

by  tn  twur-glaat,  every  half- hour;  Iheuuibeiai  Ibt  hail-hiwt 


Uw  (MOAioa  if  pcmM*  dMflBoet  d< 


Germany     Tbi^  wen 

originally  am. 

dl  dodia  with  nainspriagi 

enclosed  'in  bous;  aoi 

netimeathey 

w.™  of  a  riobular  fona 

and  were  often  called 

th.  |»cket  .bey  wore 

fmnntlyb 

ng  from  the  irdk.   Hit 

difficulty  with  these  euly  watches  w 

as  the  inequalhy  of  tnio 

remedy  this  was  provided 

by  a  conttivance 

caUed!he.l.ck.ft«d, 

which  wu  UiUe  more 

than  «  ion  of  rude 

aiailia-yspHng.  The 

problem    was  .olved 

about  Lhe  years. s.s- 

1540  by  the  invention 

of  the  fusee.    By  llu. 

contrivance  Ihe  main- 

spring is  made  10  turn 

a  barrel  on  which  is 

wound    «     piece    dk 

alter  iart  of  the  16th 

century  was  trplaced 

by  a  chain.    The  other  enil  of  the  cntgut  band  It  woutdqii* 

becomes  wciker  the  leverage  on  the  aiia  ol  the  i(M  nKRA 
and  thus  gives  a  ttrooget  impulse  10  the  woiki  (£«.  i). 

In  etrly  watches  Ihe  (scapement  wat  the  tame  la  fa«"I 
clacks,  namely,  i  crown  wheel  and  pallets  with  a  balaKe  a&H 
in  imill  wcighlj..  Such  an  eicapement  was,  of  couiM,  WJ 
Impcrfca,  for  since  the  angular  force  acting  on  tlie  btltIKe  (M 
raiy  with  the  displacement,  the  time  of  osdlUtiOD  n~~ 


h  the  ! 


rswilb  e 


niofllK 


driving  force.  An  immense  Improvement  wnt  therefoie  tJKiei 
when  the  hair-^iing  was  added  10  the  balance,  whiA  v^ 
repbced  by  a  wheel.  This  WIS  done  about  (be  end  of  tke  1;" 
century.  During  Ihe  i8th  century  »  aeries  of  esapenmiU  «•< 
Invented  to  replace  the  old  crown  wheel,  ending  in  the_  i*™* 
meter  escapement,  and  though  great  improvements  b  detd 
have  lince  been  made,  yel  the  watch,  even  as  it  b  to-day,  msjH 
called  an  iSih-cenlury  invention,  . 

The  watches  ol  the  16th  century  were  Qsoally  endtsed  o 
cases  omomented  with  the  beautiful  art  of  that  pcHod.  Some- 
limes  the  case  was  fashioned  like  a  skull,  and  Ihe  watches  "ere 
made  In  Ihe  lorm  of  octagonal  jewels,  croitea,  puriet,  little  boot* 
dogs,  sea-shells,  (re.,  In  ahnost  every  instance  bdag  finely  «»■ 
gravid.  (Jueen  EUiibelh  was  very  fond  of  receiving  pinenH- 
and,  as  the  was  also  fond  of  docks,  a  number  of  tbe  |iil*  P"" 
tented  (0  her  took  tbe  form  of  jcwetled  watches. 

The  man  to  whom  watch-miking  owes  perhaps  nWl  "* 
Thomas  Tomplon  (1639-1713),  who  fnvenled  (be  £nt  d«ad-li« 
cKapement  for  watches  (Sg.i).  It  conusled  of  a  balaace-vlw 
roouated  on  an  aiis  of  seml-cj^indrical  form 
with  a  notch  In  il,  and  a  projecting  ilud.  '&--'~~t 
When  the  teeth  of  the  tcape  whed  came  <i,Mr~?j\ 
against  Ihe  cylindrical  part  of  the  uit  (bey  '/  V  ^' 
were  held  from  going  forward,  but  when  (he  Fic.  J- 
moilon  of  Ihe  axis  waa  revnsed,  the  teeth  .  . 

slipped  past  tbe  notch  and  tlruck  the  pfojeclion,  th'^'?; 
tn  imptitae,  Thb  escapement  wai  tftetwaris  ^f^^-'Z 
George  Giiham  (rt7J-t7Si)  into  the  horitonlal  qlmiinw 
esctfcmcnt  and  iota  tbe  weU-knowa  dead.bcat  cutpenKH  m 

^'"^  _il* 

The  development  of  eacapemenls  In  the  iSlb  cenlury  g™" 


k  with  the  ct 


■nd  i  A.H.  ia  lii  bells.   Tbe  bell  wat  alto  utcd  to  iodicale  tu  ^ 

a(  a  thip  in  a  fog.    A  vcHd  on  the  Harboard  tack  tnUed  tKj^ 

ve..don.lbe.p.re«!*b«adruiB.    The. -..di^gu-J^iii^ 


WATCH 


363 


hnpreved  watdies.  But  a  defect  ttOl  remalnedy  lamify, 
the  ioflaence  of  temperature  iipcm  the  hair-^ring  of  the  balance- 
wheel.  Many  attempts  were  made  to  provide  a  remedy,  John 
Kairison  proposed  a  curb,  so  arranged  that  alterations  of  tempei»- 
tiire  caused  unequal  e]q>ansion  in  two  pieces  of  metal,  and  thus 
actuated  an  arm  which  moved  and  mechanically  altered  the  length 
of  the  hair-springi  thus  compensating  the  effect  of  its  altered 
elasticity.  But  the  best  solution  of  the  problem  was  ultimate^ 
proposed  by  Pierre  le  Roy  (17x7-1785)  and  perfected  by  Thomas 
Earnshaw  (1749-X839).  This  was  to  diminish  the  inertia  of  the 
balanoe-whed  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  temperature,  by 
means  of  the  unequal  ejqiansion  of  the  metals  composing  the  rim.* 
I  Invention  in  watches  was  greatly  stimulated  by  the  need  of  a 
good  timepiece  for  finding  longitudes  at  sea,  and  many  successive 
rewards  were  offered  ^  the  govemmait  for  watches  which 
would  keep  accurate  time  and  yet  be  able  to  bear  the  rocking 
motion  of  a  ship.  The  difficulty  ended  by  the  invention  of  the 
chronometer,  which  was  so  perfected  towards  the  early  part  of 
the  19th  century  as  to  have  even  now  undergone  but  little  change 
of  form.  In  fact  the  only  great  triumph  of  later  years  has  been 
the  invention  of  watch-making  machinery,  whereby  the  price 
a  so  lowered  that  an  excellent  watch  (in  a  brass  case)  can  now 
be  purchased  for  about  £2  and  a  really  accurate  time-keeper  for 
about  £tS. 

A  modem  watch  consists  of  a  case  and  framework  containing 
the  four  essential  parts  of  every  timepiece,  namely,  a  mainspring 
and  apparatus  for  winding  it  up,  a  train  ol  wheels  with  hands  and 
a  face,  an  escapement  and  a  balance-wheel  and  hair-spring.  We 
Shan  describe  these  in  order. 

Tht  Mainspring. — As  has  been  add,  the  mainspring  of  an  old* 
fashioned  watch  was  provided  with  adrum  and  fusee  so  as  to  equalize 
its  action  on  the  train.  An  arrangement  was  provided  to  prevent 
overwinding,  consbting  of  a  hook  which  when  the  chain  was  nearly 
wound  up  was  pushed  aside  so  as  to  engage  a  pin,  and  thus  prevent 
further  winding  (see  fig.  i).  Another  arrangement  for  watchei 
without  a  fusee,  called  a  Geneva  stop,  consists  of  a  wheel  with  one 
tooth  affixed  to  the  barrel  arbour,  working  into  another  with  only 
four  or  five  teeth.  This  aUows  the  barrel  arfodur  only  to  be  turned 
round  four  or  five  times. 

The  "  going-barrel.  '*"  which  is  fitted  to  most  modem  watches,  con- 
tains no  Tusee,  but  the  spnng  is  delicately  made  to  diminish  in  size 
from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  it  is  wound  up  for  only  a  few  turns, 
so  that  the  force  derived  from  it  does  not  vary  very  substantially. 
The  unevenness  of  drive  a  in  modern  watches  sought  to  be  counter- 
acted bv  the  construction  of  the  escapement  and  balance-wheel. 

Watches  used  formeriy  to  be  wound  with  a  separate  key.  They 
are  now  wound  bv  a  key  permanently  fixed  to  the  case.  The  de- 
pression of  a  small  knob  gears  the  winding  key  with  the  hands  so  as 
to  enable  them  to  be  set.  With  this  contrivance  watches  are  well 
protected  against  the  entry  of  dust  and  damp. 

W<Uch  Escapements. — ^The  escapements  that  have  come  into 
practical  use  are — (i)  the  old  vertical  escapement,  now  disused;  (a) 
the  Uver,  very  much  the  most  common  in  English  watches;  (3)  the 
hortMontal  or  cylinder,  which  u  equally  common  in  foreign  watches, 
though  it  was  of  English  invention;  (4)  the  duplex^  which  used  to  be 
more  in  fashion  for  first-rate  watches  than  it  u  now;  and  (5)  the 
detached  or  chronometer  escapement,  so  called  because  it  is  always 
used  in  marine  chronometers. 

The  vertical  escapement  is  simply  the  original  clock  escapement 
adapted  to  the  position  of  the  wheels,  in  a  watch  and  the  balance, 

in  the  manner  exhibited  in  fig.  3.^  As  It 
requires  considerable  thickness  in  the 
watch,  is  inferior  in  eoiiig  to  all.  the  others 
and  ia  no  cheaper  than  the  level  escape- 
ment can  now  be  made,  it  has  gone  out  ot 
use. 
The  lever  escapement,  as  it  is  now  univer* 
Fig.  3.  sally  made,  was  l»x>ught  into  use  late  in  the 

l8tn  century  by  Thomas  Mudge.  Fig.  4 
shows  its  action.  The  position  of  the  lever  with  referenceto  thepallets 
is  immaterial  in  principle,  and  b  only  a  question  of  convenience  in 
the  arrangement;  but  it  b  generally  such  as  We  have  given  it« 
The  .principle  b  the  same  as  in  the  dead-beat  elock  escapement, 
with  the  aovantaee  that  there  b  no  friction  on  the  dead  faces  of  the 
pallets  beyond  what  is  necessary  for  locking.  The  reason  why  thb 
friction  cannot  be  avoided  with  a  pendulum  is  that  its  arc  of  vibratbn 
b  so  small  that  the  requisite  depth  of  intersection  cannot  be  got 
between  the  two  circles  described  by  the  end  S  of  the  lever  and  any 
pin  in  the  pendulum  which  would.work  into  it;  whereas,  in  a  watch, 
the  pin  P,  which  is  set  in  a  cylinder  on  the  verge  of  the  babnce,  does 
not  generally  slip  out  of  the  nick  in  the  end  of  the  lever  until-  the 
balance  has  got  15*  past  its  middle  positkm.  The  pallets  are  under- 
cut a  little,  as  it  b  called,  is,  the  dead  faces  are  so  sloped  as  to 


Fio.  4., 


FIC.5. 


glee  a  HtCls  reeoll  the  wrong  wiy,  or  dtghtly  to  resist  the  unlocfcing. 
because  otherwise  there  wouM  be  a  risk  that  a  shake  of  the  watdi 
wouM  let  a  tooth  escape  while  the  pin  b  die- 
engaged  from  the  lever.  There  b  abo  a  further 
provision  added  for  safety.  In  the  cylinder 
whkh  carries  the  impulse  pin  P  there  b  a 
notch  just  in  front  of  P,  into  which  the  other 
pin  S  on  the'  lever  fits  as  they  pass;  but  when 
the  notch  has  got  past  the  cylinder  it  would 
prevent  the  lever  from  returmng,  because  the 
safety-pin  S  cannot  pass  except  through  the 
notch,  which  b  onljr  in  the  position  for  letting  it 
pass  at  the  same  time  that  the  impuhe-pin  b 
engaged  in  the  lever.  The  pallets  in  a  lever 
escapement  (except  bad  andf  cheap  ones)  are 
always  jewdled,  and  the  scape-whed  b  of  brass. 
The  staff  of  the  lever  also  nas  jewelled  pivot- 
holes  in  expensive  watches,  and  the  scape-wheel  has  iir  all  good 
ones.  The  holes  for  the  balance-pivots  are  now  always  jewdled. 
The  scape-Whed  in  thb  and  moet  of  the  watch  escapements  generally 
beats  five  times  In  a  second,  in  large  chronometers  four  times;  f  nd 
the  whed  next  to  the  scape-whed  carries  the  seconds-hand. 

Fig.  S  a  *  plan  of  the  horAontal  or  cylinder  escapement,  cutting- 
through  the  cylinder,  which  b  on  the  verge  of  the  babnce,  at  the 
levd  of  the  tops  of  the  teeth  of  the  escape- wheel ;  for  the  triangular 

Eieces  A,  B  are  not  flat  projections  in  the  same  plane  as  the  teeth, 
ut  are  raised  on  short  stems  above  the  plane  of  the  whed ;  and  still 
more-  of  the  cylinder  than  the  portion 
shown  at  ACD  b  cut  away  where  the 
wheel  itself  has  to  pass.  The  author  of 
thb  escapement  was  G.  Graham,  and  it 
resembles  hb  dead  escapements  in  clocks 
in  principle  more  than  the  lever  escape- 
ment does,  thou^  much  less  in  appear- 
ance, because  in  Uus  escapement  there  b 
the  dead  friction  of  the  teeth  against  the 
cylinder,  first  oh  the  outside,  as  here  repre- 
sented, and  then  on  the  inside,  as  shown 
by  the  dotted  lines,  during  the  whole 
yibration  of  the  balance,  exa;pt  that  portion  which  betongs  to  the 
Impulse.  The  impulse  b  given  by  the  oblique  outside  edges  Aa.  Bfr 
of  the  teeth  against  the  edges  A.  D  of  the  cylinder  altematdy.  The 
portion  of  the  cylinder  which  b  cut  away  at  the  point  of  action  b 
about  30*  less  than  the  semirircle.  The  cylinder  itself  is  made  either 
of  steel  or  ruby,  and.  from  the  small  quantity  of  it  which  b  left  at 
the  levd  of  the  whed,  it  b  very  deUcate;  and  probably  thb  has  been 
the  main  reason  why,  although  it  b  an  English  invention,  it  has  been 
most  entirely  abandoned  by  the  Englbh  watchmakers  in  favour  of  the 
lever,  which  was  originally  a  French  invention,  though  very  much 
improved  by  Mudge,  for  before  his  invention  the  lever  had  a  rack  or 
portion  of  a  toothed  whed  on  its  end,  working  into  a  pinion  on  the 
balance  verge,  and  conseauently  it  was  affected  by  the  dead  friction, 
and  that  of  this  whed  and  pinion  besides.  This  used  to  be  called  the 
rack  lever,  and  Mudge's  the  detached  lever:  but,  the  rack  lever  being 
now  quite  obsolete,  the  word  "  detached  has  become  confined  to 
the  chronometer,  to  which  it  is  more  appropriate,  as  will  be  seen 
presently.  The  Swiss  watches  have  almost  universally  the  horizontal 
escapement.  It  b  found  that-*for  some  reason  which  b  lipparently 
unknown,  as  the  rule  certainly  does  not  hold  in  cases  seemingly 
analogous^-a  sted  scape-wheel  acts  better  in  thb  escapement  than 
a  brass  one,  although  In  some  other  cases  steel  upon  sted,  or  even 
upon  a  ruby,  very  soon  throws  off  a  film  of  rust,  unless  they  are  kept 
well  oiled,  while  brass  and  sted,  or  stone,  will  act  with  scarcely  any 
oil  at  all,  ahd  in  some  cases  irith  none, 

^  The  duplex  escapement  (fig.  6)  b  probably  so  called  because  there 
IS  a  double  set  of  teeth  in  the  scape-wheel — ^the  long  ones  (like  those 
of  the  lever  escapement  in  shape)  for 
locking  only,  and  short  ones  (or  rather 
upright  pins  on  the  rim  of  the  wheel)  for 
giving  the  impulse  to  the  pallet  P  on  the 
vetge  of  the  oalance.  It  b  a  single-beat 
escapement;  ijc.  the  balance  only  recdves 
the  impulse  one  way,  or  at  every  alter- 
nate beat,  as  in  the  chronometer  escajpe- 
ment.^  When  the  balance  b  turning  in  the 
directbn  marked  by  the  arrow,  andarrives 
at  the  position  in  which  the  dotted  tooth 
b  has  its  point  against  the  triangular  notch 
V,  the  tooth  endslips  into  the  notch,  and, 
as  the  verge  turns  farther  round^  the  tooth 
goes  on  with  it  till  at  last  it  escapes 
when  the  tooth  has  got  into  the  position 
A;  and  by  that  time  the  long  tooth  or 
paJlet  which  projects  from  the  verge  has 

moved  froro^  to  P,  and  just  come  tnfront  of  the  i>in  T,  a-hich  stands 
on  the  rim  ot  the  scape-whed.  and  which  now  begins  to  push  against 
P,  and  so  gives  the  impulse  until  it  also  escapes  when  It  has  arrived 
at  t;  and  the  whed  b  then  stoiqied  by  the  next  tooth  B  having  got 
into  the  position  b,  with  its  point  resting  against  the  verge.and  there 
b  dead  friction  between  them,  and  this  niction  b  lessened  by  the 


Fig.  6b 


36+  WA 

Ammo*  o(  Ae  poioM  ol4a  lonf  tMA  boa  AaeiMn  ol  lb*  ■(«» 
.wfaHl.   A*t>i*balMC*tutubKk,ih«iilek  VfOHputtbieniri' 
tba  tooth  5.  ond  IB  codioqucAa  of  hj  mhIIiw  it  pMiM  irilbout 
mfaly  iflcetiat  (be  nnioa  ol  ikc  np>-whail,  Ihovfii  <i(  couiv  it 
doa  produce  ■  vny  lUilit  ihake  in  punnt    It  ia  cvSenl  IhU.  i[  it 
jliil  mot  (BIO.  the  tooth  ■  ....... 

Iht  ob)«tii»  to  tliii 


back  far  enough  to  cany  the  nfek  Vput  the  toolb  eiid,  it  willUop 
■ItocFther,  u  II  will  koc  Mid  nun  ol  u>  vibnlion  tbg  psR  linw  Irom 
mxivini  DO  impulie.  The  periomuoce  o{  thia  enpemail,  when 
wtI]  maw,  and  its  ladepeodence  of  oil.  are  nearly  equal  to  thoee  of 

nfficlnitly  good  for  all  but  an  ronomi^l  purpoM,  for  which  chrono- 
mctcn  aiv  umf.  and  thtry  are  cheaper  bolh  to  puke  end  to  mud 
than  dupla  ones,  the  maoufactuR  of  dupIcK  watchra  baa  alnust 

Tbe  dirofujiuter  or  detached  cacapcnwnt  ia  alwwii  at  £j^^  7  id  the 
fond  lo  which  It  waa  brought  by  ^anuhaw,  and  ia  wHkh  it 


remaldcdev , 

ofl  which  the  inpulac ' 


th.Ibeve 


cr  that  the  f 


bl^dupleacacaponent),  jaiUHrgcoerallyBDl  inn  ladJal  cfinicti 

■Bdcrcul,  liltt  tbe  acape-whecl  teeth.  Tb;  eaily  hiSoiy  of  e«a) 
Bent*  on  thia  principle  doea  oot  lecm  to  be  very  dear.  They  app< 
to  have  orii^nated  m  Frann;  but  there  u  no  doubt  that  they  wi 
con^enbly  bnprovcd  by  the  fint  Arnold  Gi>hn)^  who  died  in  17c 
Eaniihaw*a  walcbea,  however,  GCnemlly  bent  hia  in  Iriala. 
■     -      -  -'  i  irnall  looih  or  cam  V.  on  the  verp  of  Ih 

'  unlDckin|  the  detent  DTTrom  th; .  . 

oo  the  pallet  P,  whkE,  in  good 


a  tn  the  beat  dmniMnetera  1  iiid 


That  h  al»  thecaae  In  the  Icvct  1 

CKa^emem  ia  ^vcn  obliquely,  ana  consequently 

of  fnctioa;  and,  bcwlca,  tb«  acapc-whed  only  tc 

thTDu^  tin  Interrmtfon  of  the  lown  vbkh  liaa , 

ownravoUandottbelnpulKplB.  lie iDddBg-pallot ' 
*  Btllc  for  aaftty,  uid  !■  bIw  ■  Jem  in  the  bcM  chmnonK 

the  purine  v™!  >•  awany  oTiold.    Id  tbt  du$lnc  and 

etcapement*,  the  lliidacodb*  action  oltbedificnntpattarequltea 
gnat  can,  ue.  tbs  sdjuitini  (hem  » that  each  may  be  ready  10  "' 
ciacily  at  the  tight  time:  and  It  b  curioua  that  the  amngnn 
which  would  be  eeometriolly  correct,  or  tuitabic  for  a  ■very  lU  _ 
HHition  Id  the  balanu.  win  not.do  tor  Ibercal  motion.  If  thepallR  P 
atthemonKntof  iinlockine  (as  it  hu  been  drawn,  brcali 

diflance  bcfoR  l3ie  tooth  could  catch  it.  because  In  (he  duplet 
escapement  the  acape-wbcd  ii  then  only  BKning  alor/ly.  and  m  the 
detached  it  la  not  nuvinE  at  all.  and  haa  to  atait  from  rest.  The 
pallet  P  i(  therefoR.  [a  Tact,  act  a  little  fanher  back,  so  that  it 
Biay  arrive  at  the  tooth  A  just  at  the  time  when  A  ia  ready  for  it. 
without  wastii^  time  and  force  la  lunninji  after  it.  The  detached 
«acapeinent  baa  alao  been  made  on  the  duplen  j^n  of  havin?  loi 
lt«k  Io»  the  iockine  and  abort  onei  ot  pina  nearer  tbe  lentn?  fcr  t) 
impuheibut  tbeadvantBgei  do  not  appcarto  be  wort'  - 
lional  trouble,  and  the.  force  nqulicd  for  unhxking  a  .-i^  r^..-^^., 
dbiunisbed  by  the  arrangenient ,  ai  the  epring  D  must  in  any  case  lie 

in  ^ich  the  srright  of  the  detent  hclpa  to  unlock  it. 
An  eaopHncnl  ailed  the  Utrr  Arvnatuter  haa  been  several  timea 
linvmtcd,  which  inpliea  that  it  haa  never  come  into  general  use- 
■ ' i--—.!-  tI  ,he  lever  aa  to  the  Inckingand  ihecTironomeier 


Tlie  necnaity  for  Ihia  latn  amount  of  compenaatl^  haviat  ar 
from  tbe  variation  of  tbe  elactlcity  ol  the  apring,  the  £n[  attdi 
at  CDtiectini  it  weie  l>y  acting  on  the  spring  Ilsetl  in  the  mai 
of  a  comiDOB  rmilatDr.  Harrison^  compensntiod  coasiated  1 
compound  bar  ofbiaaa  and  ated  aoMered  togetho. 


esoo'y  inter* 
a  of  the  rim 
ic  fint  person  to  prvotiae  Ihia  method 
[o  have  Hen  either  lliomaa  Eamahaw  ' 

ipenBtion  can  only  be  done 

by  shi/ling  the  weighta. 


WATCH 


365 


dM  knowa  retolts  of  pnviout  experience  with  simOar  balances; 
jid  many  watches  are  sold  with  compensation  balances  which  have 
never  been  trkd  or  adjusted,  and  sometimes  with  a  mere  sham 
compensation  balance,  not  even  cut  through. 

Seco$kdiary  Compnuotint. — When  chronometera  had  been  brought 
to  great  perfection  it  was  perceive^  that  there  was  a  reriduary  error, 
which  was  due  to  changes  of  temperature,  but  which  no  adjustment 
of  the  compensation  would  correct.  The  cause  of  the  secondary 
error  is  that  as  the  temperature  rises  the  elasticity  of  the  spring 
decieBsea,  and  therefore  its  aooeleratins  foree  upon  the  balance- 
wheel  diminishes.    Hence  the  watch  tends  to  go  slower. 

In  order  to  compensate  this  the  split  rim  ot  the  balance-wheel  is 
made  with  the  more  expansible  metal  on  the  outside,  and  therefore 
tends  to  curl  inwards  with  increase  of  temperature,  thus  diminishing 
tiM  moment  of  inertia  of  the  wheeL  Now  the  rate  of  error  caused 
by  the  increase  of  temperature  of  the  spring  varies  approiimately  with 
the  temperature  according  to  a  certain  law,  but  the  rate  of  correction 
due  to  tne  diminution  of  the  moment  of  inertia  caused  by  the  change 
of  form  of  the  rim  of  the  wheel  does  not  alter  proportionally,  but 
aooording  to  a  more  complex  law  of  its  own,  varying  more  rapidly 
with  cold  than  with  heat,  so  that  if  the  rate  of  the  chronometer  is 
correct,  say,  at  30**  F.  and  also  at  90*  F.,  it  will  gain  at  all  intermediate 
temperatures,  the  spring  being  thus  under-corrected  for  high  tempera- 
tures and  over-corrected  for  low.  Attempts  have  been  made  by 
alterations  of  shape  of  the  balance-wheel  to  harmonize  the  progress 
of  the  error  with  the  progress  of  tbo  ooinsction,  but  not  with  wiy 
conspicuous  success. 

We  shall  give  a  short  description  of  the  principal  classes  of  in- 
ventions for  this  purpose.  The  first  disclosed  was  that  of  J.  S. 
Eiffe  (sometimes  attributed  to  Robert  Molyneux),  which  was  com- 
municated to  the  astronomer-royal  in  1835.  In  one  of  several 
methods  proposed  by  him  a  compensation^ curb  was  used;  and 
though,  for  the  reasons  given  before,  this  will  not  answer  for  the 
primary  compensation,  it  may  for  the  secondary,  where  the  motion 
required  is  very  much  smaller.  In  another  the  primary  compensation 
bar,  or  a  screw  in  it,  was  made  to  reach  a  spring  set  within  it  with  a 
small  weight  attached  at  some  mean  temperature,  and,  as  it  bent 
farther  in,  it  carried  this  secondary  compensation  weight  along  with 
it.  The  obvious  objection  to  this  is  that  it  u  discontinuous;  but  the 
whole  motion  is  so  small,  not  more  than  the  thickness  of  a  piece  of 
paper,  that  this  and  other  compensations  on  the  same  principle 
appear  to  have  been  on  some  occasions  quite  successful. 

Another  kirge  class  of  balances,  all  more  or  less  alike,  xdx^  be 
represented  by  E.  J.  Dent*s,  which  came  next  in  order  of  time. 
He  described  sevenu  forms  of  his  invention ;  the  folloi^'ing  descrip- 
tion apidies  to  the  one  he  thought  the  best.  In^fig.  9  the  flat  cross- 
bar rr  is  itself  a  compensation  bar  which  bends 
upwards  under  increased  heat;  so  that,  if 
the  weights  v,  v  were  merely  set  upon  up- 
right stems  rising  from  the  ends  of  the  cross- 
bar, they  would  approach  the  axis  when  that 
bar  bends  upwarcu.  But,  instead  ^  of  the 
stems  rising  from  the  crossbar,  they  rise  from 
the  two  secondary  compensation  pieces  «/m,  in 
the  form  of  staples,  which  are  set  on  the 
crossbar;  and,  as  these  secondary  -pieces 
themselves  also  bend  upwards,  they  make 
the  weights  approach  the  axis  more  rapidly 
as  the  heat  increases:'  and  by  ^  proper 
adjustment  of  the  height  of  the  weights  on 
the  stems  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  balance  can  be  made  to 
vary  in  the  proper  ratio  to  the  variation  of  the  intensity  of  the 
spring.  The  cylindrical  qmng  stands  above  the  otMsbar  and 
between  the  staples. 

Fig.  10  represents  E.  T.  Loeeby's  mercurial  compensation  balance. 
Besides  the  w«4Khts  D,  D,  set  near  the  end  of  the  primary  compen- 
sation bars  Bp  6,  there  are  small  bent  tubes  FE,  FE  with  mercury 
in  them,  like  a  thermometer,  the  bulbs  being  at  F,  F.  As  the  heat 
increases,  not  only  do  the  primary  weights  u,  D  and  the  bulbs  F.  F 

approach  the  centre  of  the  balance, 
but  some  of  the  mercury  is  driven 
along  the  tube,  thus  carryins  some 
more  of  the  wright  towards  the 
centre,  at  a  ratio  increasing  more 
rapidly  than  the  temperature.  The 
r^i  tuoes  are  sealed  at  fhe  thin  end, 
LJ  with  a  Uttle  air  Included.  The 
action  b  here  cqiially  continuous 
with  Dent's,  and  the  adjustments 
for  primary  and  secondary  com- 
pensation are  apnarently  more  in- 
dependent of  each  other;  and  this 
modification  of  Lc  Roy's  use  of 
mercury  for  compensatra  balances 
(which  does  not  appear  to  have 
1)  is  certainly  veiy  elegant  and  ingenious.  Nevertheless  an 
analysb  of  the  Grcenwicfi  lists  for  seven  years  of  Loseby's  trials 
proved  that  the  advantaee  of  this  method  over  the  others  was  more 
wooretical  than  practical;  Dent's  compensatkm  was  the  most  suc- 
SMNttl  of  alt  in  thrae  yean  out  of  the  sevcni  and  LoMby's  in  only  one. 
XXVitt  7 


Fig.  9* 


Fio.  low 


Loseby's  method  has  never  been  adopted  by  any  other  chronometer- 
maker,  a^creas  the  principles  both  of  Eilfe  s  and  of  Dent's  methods 
have  been  adopted  by  several  o|her  makers. 

A  few  chronometers  h«ve  been  made  with  glass  balance-springs, 
which  have  the  advantage  of  requirine  very  bttle  primary^  and  no 
secondary  compensation,  on  account  en  the  very  small  variation  in 
their  elasticity,  compared  with  springs  of  steel  or  any  other  metal. 

One  of  the  most  important  and  interesting  attempts  to  correct  the 
temperature  errors  of  a  hair-spring  by  a  series  of  corresponding 
temperature  changes  in  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  balance-wheel 
has  been  made  by  means  of  the. use  of  the  nickel-steel  compouml 
called  invar,  which,  on  account  of  its  very  small  coefficient  of  ex- 
pannon,  has  been  of  groat  use  for  pendulum  rods.  In  a  memoir 
published  in  1904  at  Geneva,  Dr  Charles  Guillaume,  the  inventor  of 
mvar.  shows  that  in  order  to  get  a  true  secondary  compensation 
what  is.  wanted  is  a  material  having  the  property  of  causing  the 
curve  of  the  rim  of  the  whed  to  change  at  an  increasing  rate  as 
compared  with  chan|;es  in  the  temperature.  Thb  is  found  in  those 
specimens  of  invar  m  which  the  second  coefficient  of  expannon  is 
negative,  «.«.  which  are  less  dilatable  at  hiahcr  temperatures  than 
at  lower  ones.  It  b  satisCactory  to  add  that  such  balance-wheels 
have  been  tried  successfully  on  cnronometers,  and  notably  in  a  deck 
watch  by  Paul  Ditisheim  ot  Neuchfttel,  who  has  made  a  chronometer 
with  a  tourbiUon  escapement  and  an  invar  balance-wheel,  which 
holds  the  highest  recoia  ever  obtained  by  a  watch  of  its  class. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  order  that  a  watch  may  keep  good  time  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  bahmoe-whcel  and  hair-spring  must  be 
exactly  in  the  axis;  for  if  this  were  not  the  case,  then  the  wheel 
would  act  partly  like  a  pendulum,  so  that  the  time  would  vaiy 
according  as  the  watch  was  placed  in  different  positions.  It  is 
exceedingly  difficult  to  adjust^  a  watch  so  that  these  "  position 
errore"  are  eliminated.  Accordingly  it  has  been  proposed  to 
neutralize  their  effect  by  n|ountin|^  the  balance-wheel  and  hair- 
spring upon  a  revolving  cama^  which  shall  slowly  rotate,  so  that 
in  succession  every  possible  position  of  the  balance-wheel  and  spring 
is  aasumdB,  and  thus  errors  are  averaged  and  mutually  destroy  one 
another.  This  is  called  the  tourbillon  escapement.  Ihere  are 
several  forms  of  it,  and  watches  fitted  with  it  often  keep  excellent 
time. 

Stop  watches  or  chrono^phs  are  of  several  kinds.  In  the  usual 
and  simplest  form  there  is  a  centre  seconds  hand  which  normally 
remains  at  rest,  but  which,  when  the  winding  handle  is  pressed  in, 
is  linked  on  to  the  train  of  the  watch  and  begins  to  count  seconds, 
usually  by  fifths.  A  second  pressure  arrests  its  path,  enabling 
the  tune  to  be  taken  since  the  start.  A  third  pressure  almost 
instantaneously  brings  the  seconds  hand  back  to  xero,  thu  result 
being  effected  by  means  of  a  heart-shaped  cam  which,  when  a  lever 
presses  on  it  instantaneously,  flies  round  to  aero  positibn.  The 
number  of  complete  revolutions  of  the  seconds  hand,  iji.  minutes,  ia 
recorded  on  a  separate  diaL 

Calendar  work  on  watches  is,  of  cotme,  fatal  to  jgieat  accuracy  of- 
time-keeping,  and  is  very  complicated.  A  watch  is  made  to  record 
days  of  the  week  and  month,  and  to  take  account  of  leap  years 
usually  by  the  aid  of  star-wheels  with  suitable  panls  ano  stops. 
The  type  of  this  mechanism  is  to  be  found  in  the  calendar  motion  of 
an  ordinary  grandfather's  clock. 

Watches  luavo  abo  been  made  containing  entail  musical  b<nes  and 
arranged  with  performing  figures  on  the  dmlSb  Repeatere  are  striking' 
watches  which  can  be  made  at  will  to  strike  the  hours  and  either  the 
quarters  or  the  minutes,  by  pressing  a  handte  which  winds  up  a 
striking  tticchanbm.  They  were  mudi  in  vogue  as  a  means  of  dis- 
covering the  time  in  the  dark  before  the  invention  of  ladfer  matches, 
when  to  obtain  a  light  by  means  of  flint  and  steel  was  a  troublesome 
affair. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  urill  be  seen  that  for  many  years  the 
form  of  escapements  and  balance-whecb  has  not  greatly  akercd. 
The  great  iraprovementa  which  modem  scicace  hM  been  able  to 
effect  in  watches  are  chiefly  in  the  use  of  new  metals  and  in  the 
employment  of  machinery,  which,  though  they  have  altered  the 
form  but  little,  have  effected  an  enormous  revolution  in  the  price. 
The  cases  of  modem  watches  are  made  sometimes  of  steel,  artificially 
blackened,  sometimes  of  compounds  of  aluminium  and  copper, 
known  as  aluminium  gold.  Silver  b  at  present  being  less  employed 
than  formerly.  The  nair-sprin^s  are  often  of  paliacuum  in  order  to 
render  the  watch  non-magnctizable.  An  ordinary  watch,  if  the 
wearer  goes  near  a  dynamo,  will  probably  become  magnetized  and 
quite  useless  for  time-keeping.  (Jne  of  the  simplest  cures  for  thb 
accident  b  to  twirl  it  rapidly  round  whik)  retreating  from  the  dynamo 
and  to  continue  the  motion  till  at  a  considerable  distance.  The  use 
of  invar  has  been  already  notked. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate,  still  more  to  describe,  the 
vast  number  of  modem  machines  that  have  been  invented  for 
making  watches.  It  may  be  said  briefly  that  every  part,  including 
the  toothed  wheels,  b  stamped  out  of  metal.  The  stamped  pieces 
are  then  finUhed  by  cuttera  and  with  milling  machinery.  Each 
machine  as- a  rule  only  does  one  operation,  so  that  a  factory  will 
contain  many  hundreds  of  different  sorts  of  machines.  The  modern 
watchmaker  therefore  is  not  so  much  of  a  craftaman  as  an  engineer. 
The  effect  of  making  all  the  parts  of  a  watch  by  machinery  is  that 
I  each  b  interchangeabbi  so  that  one  part  will  fit  any  watch.    It  b 


SM 


WATER 


iK>t  an  •uv  thing  to  wcuic  tbis  fttult,  for  as  the  OMchines  are  used 
the  cutting  edges  wear  down  and  requiie  regrindinf  and  feaetting. 
Hence  a  tool  U  not  allowed  to  nuke  more  than  a  given  quantity  of 
parts  without  being  examined  and  readjusted,  and  from  time  to 
time  the  pieces  being  put  out  are  tested  with  callipen.  The  parts 
thus  made  are  put  in  groups  and  sorted  into  boxes,  which  are  then 
given  over  to  the  watch-adjusten,  who  put  the  parts  together  and 
make  the  watch  go.  The  work  of  adjustment  for  common  watches 
is  a  simple  matter.  But  expert  adjusters  select  their  pieces,  measure 
them  and  correct  errors  with  their  tools.  The  finest  watches  are  thus 
brgely  machine-made,  but  handtfintshed.  The  prejudice  against 
machine-made  watches  has  been  very  strong  in  England,  but  is 
dying  out — not,  unfortunately,  before  much  of  the  trade  has  been 
lost.  A  flouridiing  watch  industry  exists  in  Switaerland  in  the 
ndghbourbood  of  NeuchAteL  A  watch  in  a  stamped  sted  case  can 
now  be  made  for  about  five  shillings.  There  is  no  reason  why  in 
such  a  neighbourhood  as  Birmingham  the  English  watch  industry 
sboukl  not  revive. 

The  use  of  jewelled  bearings  for  watch  pivots  was  introduced  fay 
Nicholas  Faeio  about  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century.  Diamonds 
and  sapphires  are  usually  empk>yed  and  pierced  either  by  diamond 
drills  or  by  drills  covered  with  diamond  dust.  Rubies  are  not  a 
very  favourite  stone  for  jewels,  but  as  they  and  sapphires  can  now 
be  made  artificially  for  about  two  shillings  a  carat  the  difiicuity  of 
obtaining  material  for  watch  jewelling  has  nearly  disappeared. 

Watches  have  also  been  fitted  with  machtnerjr  whereby  electric 
contacts  are  made  by  them  at  intervals,  so  that  if  wires ^are  led  to 
and  away  from  them,  they  can  be  made  to  give  electric  signals  and 
thus  mark  dots  at  tegular  intervals  on  a  moving  strip  of  paper. 

As  in  the  case  of  docks,  the  accuracy  of  gqkog  of  a  watch  is  esti* 
mated  by  observation  of  the  variations  of  its  mean  daily  rate.  This 
is  oflkially  done  at  Kew  Observatory,  near  Richmond,  and  also  for 
admiralty  purposes  at  Greenwich.  At  Richmond  watches  are  divided 
into  two  cLasKs,  A  and  B.  For  an  A  certificate  the  trials  last  for 
forty-five  days,  and  include  tests  in  temperatures  varying  from  40^ 
to  90*  F.,  gomg  in  every  position  with  dial  vertical,  face  up  and  face 
down.  The  average  daily  defarturc  from  the  mean  daily  rate,  that 
is  the  average  error  due  to  irregular  departures  from  the  average 
going  rate,  must  not  exceed  2  seconds  a  day  except  where  due  to 
position,  when  it  may  amount  to  5  seconds.  The  errors  should  not 
increase  more  than  0*3  seconds  a  day  for  each  i  *  F.  The  trial  for  the 
B  certiJka^e  is  somewhat  similar  but  less  severe.  Chronometen 
are  put  through  trials  lasting  S5  days,  and  their  average  error 
from  mean  rate  is  expected  not  to  exceed  0*5  seconds  per  diem. 
The  fees  for  these  tests  are  various  sums  from  two  guineas  down- 
Wards.  In  estimating  the  time-keeping  qualities  of  a  watch  or  dock, 
the  error  of  rate  is  of  no  consequence.  It  is  simply  due  to  the  time- 
keeper gmng  too  fast  or  too  slow,  and  this  can  easily  be  corrected. 
What  b  wanted  for  a  good  watch  is  that  the  rate,  whatever  it  is, 
shall  be  constant.  The  daily  error  is  of  no  account  provided  it  is  a 
uniform  daily  erri>r  and  not  an  irregular  one.  Hence  the  object  of 
the  trials  is  to  determine  not  merely  the  daily  rate  but  the  variations 
of  the  daily  rate,  and  on  the  smaUncss  of  these  the  value  of  the  watch 
as  a  time-keeper  depeaads.  (G.;  H.  H.C.) 

WATER.  Strictly  speaking,  water  is  the  oxide  of  hydrogen 
which  it  usually  suted  to  have  the  formula  HtO  (see  below), 
but  in  popular  use  the  term  is  applied  to  a  great  variety  of 
different  substances,  all  of  which  agree,  however,  in  being  the 
water  of  the  chemist  modified  differently  in  the  several  varieties 
by  the  nature  or  proportion  of  impurities.  In  all  ordinary 
waters,  such  as  are  used  for  primary  purposes,  the  impurities 
amount  to  very  little  by  weight — ^as  a  rule  to  less  than  i^th  of  i  %. 

Of  all  natural  stores  of  water  the  ocean  is  by  far  the  most 
abundant,  and  from  it  all  other  water  may  be  said  to  be  derived. 
From  the  surface  of  the  ocean  a  continuous  stream  of  vapour 
is  rising  up  into  the  atmosphere  to  be  recondensed  in  colder 
regions  and  predpitated  as  rain,  snow  or  slect,  &c  Some  i^ths 
of  these  predpitates  of  course  return  directly  to  the  ocean; 
the  rest,  falling  on  hmd,  collects  into  pools,  lakes,  rivers,  &c., 
or  dse  penetrates  into  the  earth,  perhaps  to  reappear  as  springs 
or  wells.  As  all  the  saline  components  of  the  ocean  are  non- 
volatile, rain  water,  in  its  natural  state^  can  be  contaminated 
only  with  the  ordinary  atmospheric  gases — oxygen,  nitrogen 
and  caibon  dioxide.  Rain  water  also  contains  perceptible  traces 
of  ammonia,  combined  as  a  rule,  at  least  partly,  with  the  nitric 
add,  which  is  produced  wherever  an  electric  discharge  pervades 
the  atmosphere. 

Lcke  waters,  as  a  class,  are  relatively  pure,  especially  if  the 
mountain  slopes  over  which  the  rain  collects  into  a  lake  are 
relatively  free  of  soluble  copiponents.  For  example,  the  water 
of  Loch  Katrine  (Scotland)  b  almost  chemically  pure,  apart 
from  small,  but  perceptible,  traces  of  richly  carboniferous  matter 


taken  up  from  the  peat  of  the  surrounding  hiHs,  and  wrfaicfa 
impart  to  it  a  faint  brownish  hue,  while  really  pure  water  is 
blue  when  viewed  through  a  considerable  thickness. 

JUwer  water  varies  very  much  In  composition  even  in  the 
same  bed,  as  a  river  in  the  course  of  its  journey  towards  the 
ocean  passes  from  one  kind  of  earth  to  others;  while,  compared 
with  spring  waters,  relatively  poor  hi  dissolved  salts,  rivers 
are  liable  to  be  contaminated  with  more  or  less  of  suspended 
matter. 

Spring  waters,  having  been  filtered  through  more  or  lea 
considerable  strata  of  earth,  are,  as  a  class,  clear  of  suspended, 
but  rich  in  dissolved,  mineral  and  organic  matter,  and  may  also 
contain  gases  in  solution.    Of  <Nrdinarily  occurring  minerals 
only  a  few  are  perceptibly  soluble  in  water,  and  of  these  caldum 
carbonate  and  sulphate  and  common  s&lt  are  most  widdy 
diffused.    Common  salt,  however,  in  its  natural  occurrence, 
is  very  mudi  localized;   and  so  it  comes  that  spring  and  well 
waters  are  contaminated  chiefly  with  caldum  carbonate  and 
sulphate.    Of  these  two  salts,  however,  the  former  is  hdd  in 
solution  only  by  the  carbonic  add  of  the  water,  as  caldum 
bicarbonate.    But  a  carbonate-of-lime  water,  if  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere,  even  at  ordinary  temperatures,  loses  its  carbonic 
add,  and  the  calcium  carbonate  is  precipitated.    The  stalactites 
(jj.v.)  which  adorn  the  roofs  and  sides  of  certain  caverns  are 
produced  in  this  manner.    Many  waters  are  valuable  medidnal 
agents  owing  to  their  contained  gases  and  salts  (see  Mwrjux 
WatersJ. 

In  addition  to  its  natural  components,  water  is  liable  to  be  coqp 
taminatcd  through  accidental  influxes  of  foreign  matter.    Thus, 
for  instance,  all  the  Scottish  Highland  lochs  are  brown  through 
the  presence  in  them  of  dissolved  peaty  matter.     Rivers  flowing 
through,  or  wells  sunk  in,  populous  districts  may  be  containinaiea 
with  excrementitious  matter,  discharges  from  industrial  establish* 
ments,  &c.   The  presence  of  especially  nitrogenous  organic  matter  is 
a  serious  source  of  danger,  inasmuch  as    such  matter  forms  the 
natural  food  or  soil  for  the  do'clopmcnt  of  micro-organisms,  includ- 
ine  those  kinds  of  bacteria  which  are  now  supposed  to  propa«te 
infectious  diseases.    Happily  nature  has  provided  a  remedyrTbe 
nitrogenous  organic  matter  dissolved  in  (say)  a  river  speedily  suffers 
disintegration  by  the  action  of  certain  kinds  of  bacteria,  with  forma, 
tion  of  ammonia  and  other  (harmless)  products ;  and  the  ammonia, 
again,  m  no  sooner  formed  than,  by  the  conjoint  action  ol  other 
bacteria  and  atmospheric  oxygen,  it  passes  first  into  (salts  of)  nitrous 
and  then  nitric  acid.    A  water  which  contains  combined  nitrogen  in 
the  form  of  nitrates  only  is,  as  a  rule,  safe  organically;  if  nitrites  are 
present  it  becomes  liable  to  suspicion;  the  presence  of  ammonia  is  a 
worse  symptom ;  and  if  actual  nitrogenous  organic  matter  is  found 
in  more  than  microscopic  traces  the  water  is  possibly  (not  necessarily) 
a  dangerous  water  to  drink. 

All  waters,  unless  very  impure,  become  safe  by  boiling,  which 
process  kills  any  bacteria  or  germs  that  may  be  present. 

Of  the  ordinary  saline  components  of  waters,  soluble  magnesium 
and  calcium  salts  are  the  only  ones  which  are  objectionable  sanitarily 
if  present  in  relatively  large  proportion.  Calcium  carbonate  is 
harmless;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  notion  that  the  presence  of 
this  component  adds  to  the  value  of  a  water  as  a  drinking  water  is  a 
mistake.  The  farinaceous  part  of  food  alone  is  sufficient  to  supply 
all  the  lirae^the  body  needs;  besides,  it  is  questionable  whether  lime 
introduced  in  any  other  form  than  that  of  phosphate  is  available  for 
the  formation  of,  for  instance,  bone  tissue. 

The  fitness  of  a  water  for  washing  is  determined  by  its  d<»ree  of 
softness.  A  water  which  contains  lime  or  magnesia  salts  oecom* 
poses  soap  with  formation  of  insoluble  lime  or  mag^nesia  salts  of  the 
fatty  acids  of  the  soap  used.  So  much  of  the  soap  is  simply  wasted ; 
only  the  surplus  can  effect  any  detergent  action.  Several  methods 
for  determining  the  hardness  of  a  water  have  been  devised.  The 
most  exact  method  is  to  determine  the  lime  and  magnesia  gravi- 
metrically  or  by  alkalimetry;  or  by  Clark's  soap  test,  but  this 
process  frequently  gives  inaccurate  results.  In  this  method,  which, 
however,  is  largely  used,  a  measured  volume  of  the  water  is  placed 
in  a  stoppered  bottle,  and  a  standard  solution  of  soap  is  then  dropped 
in  from  a  graduated  vessel,  until  the  mixture,  by  addition  of  the  fast 
drop  of  soap,  has  acquired  the  property  of  throwing  up  a  peculiar 
kind  of  creamy  froth  when  violently  shaken,  which  shows  that  all  the 
soap-destroying  cofnponents  have  been  precipitated.  The  volume  of 
soap  required  measures  the  hardness  of  the  water.  The  soap-solution 
is  referred  to  a  standard  by  means  of  a  water  of  a  known  degree  of 
hardness  pre^red  from  a  known  weight  of  carbonate  of  lime  by 
converting  it  into  neutral  chkxide  of  catcium,  dissolving  this  in  water 
and  diluting  to  a  certain  volume.  The  hardness  is  variously  ex* 
pressed.  On  Clark's  scale  it  is  the  grains  of  caldum  carbonate  per 
galk>n  of  70,000  grains:  in  Germany  the  parts  of  lime  per  100,000 
of  water,  and  in  r  rsnce  the  parts  01  caldum  carbonate  per  100,000. 


WATEIUBOATMAN— WATERBURY 


imple  moleeulr,  HK),  which  he  alli  hydfane 


367 


prpcurrd  in  any  quantity,  b  Uirf 
■viaw  u  ■  BUAjiuaiu  in  icinrncF  in  netn^Dgy  4nd  in  the  qwnrila- 
live  iMlnilion  of  ph™cal  propenie*.  Thui  ■  "  fallon  "  it  defined 
*«  the  volume  al  61'  F.  nt  a  quantity  of  mter  vhcne  uncatitcied 
nam,  u  <teleniuned  by  wciidiinc  in  air  o(  jo-in.  pteuure  jnd  61°  F 
ol  UmpentuTTp  11  equal  10  lo  lb  avoirdupn*.    Tlw  hiln^iamme  in 


SS 


"t^^-c'.s-.r.nT. 


■trictly  fpeaking,  a  liiffber  temperalufe  tlun  100*  C..  but  the 
Fprmce  it  very  trifling.  SpeciAc  heatj  arc  customarily  mciAurnl 
that  ol  water,  which  la  talm  aa  —  t.   AH  other  apecilic  hois  of 

he  lemperatcchara 

.perty  i^  waler.   A 


la  pintly  t 


yolunn  of  ice  fuK  into  only  10  vc^mca  of  -«i«i  «  v  ^..« 
Kc-waicr  produced,  when  brouchr  up  gradually  10  Idgher  ani 
temrvfarures.  acain  exhibin  the  very  ejueptiortat  pnjpeity 
conlracls  bei-«n  o"  and  «*  C.  (by  about  njp  ol^n  volu 
then  ciplandi  again  hy  more  and  more  per  ncjTte  ol  inc 
lenipcFa(urT,»01Tiaf  Ibevohinwai  100* C,k  1^043  limea  thai 


(  ihe  timi  of  Boyle) 


Boyle,  however,  tooi<  this  naa  to  be  ordinary  air  conraminaltf 
lalfknimable   Hinkma  oil>.     Th^   view   was   held   by   all  ch' 

properly  purilitd.  La  free  of  amell  and  cortalanl  in  in  piop 

point  of  dilTcrcnce  beine  that  the  gaa  when  klndtrd  in  air 
with  fivoluiion  of  muchlieat  and  formation  of  water-  Cave 
however,  did  not  lati^fv  himself  with  merely  proving  ihi 
c^alitalivrly:  he  determined  the  quaniitative  relaliDni.  and 
thai  It  laka  very  nearty  low  votanwa  of  air  to  bum  4J3  vo 
?  hydrogen  "  oaa;  but  1000  volume*  of  air,  aoain,  accord 
Cavcndi>hr«>nuin  aio  voluma  of  o>y§en;  holi^.  very  n 

3  volume*  of  hydiT^^n  take  up  T  valume  of  orygen  to  bt ^ 

water.  Thia  Imporrani  riiseovwy  waa  only  con6rined  by  tlie  Hit>- 
•*5<nnt  nperimenti  of  Humboldt  aiKl  CayLuHC.  which  were  n 
laore  compeiBnl  than  Cavendiih'i  to  prove  that  the  luiplua  of  , 
*"<"  I^J  voluma  ilBtead  of  410J  of  hydroEen  watan  obxr^ationa 
ejror.  More  recent  work.  i.f.  of  Mo*y,  Loducand  Scott,  hat  jhowi 
t£l  the  ralio  It  not  enactty  i-I,  The  (imvimctttc  compodlion  wa 
ntermined  by  BeneKoi  and  Dalom.  and  lanr  by  DuMM  b; 
5Vr5t  j™*  hydnfea  ovar  red-hot  topper  oiide.  Ii  hat  alio  beei 
^''Ir'ninedbyievtfalalhervariaiiontandmeihodilswHvoaocEN) 
_ni(nKilnularwaihlof1iqiiidw3icrhaaatiracled  much  attention 
iariJ.  *".P"™'«dlonii  ago  that  itj  high  bailing  point,  refractix 
irr".'".?  "her  pnipenie*  were  not  coHHCent  with  the  aiaial 
(ILn.  ^'  CnncoacmeaturemeiinledialheprobableformuL 
l*«^wiUn  iheluf&  leuion  leads  to.  (H.Ojr  The  quesiioi 
*"  Mm  cawdtied  1^  H.  E.  Armstront,  who  (agitata  that  th 


"•jBti^,  leiembluig  in  tlnielure  the  polymelhylenea  or  puaSiu. 

WATER-BOATMAH.  an  aquatic  bemlpierous  iniect  of  Ibi 
family  Naltmtcliiai,  of  which  the  beit  tnown  species  {f/olaiuils 
tlauca)  Ii  a  pronunent  feature  in  Iha  pond-life  ol  Great  Britain. 
The  techoicd  name,  IfMBnicU,  meaning  "back-swimmer" 
atludea  lo  the  habit  of  the  isutct  of  swimming  ujjaide  dovn,  lb* 
body  being  propelled  through  the  water  by  powerful  Ui^ko 
of  the  hind  legs,  luhici  are  fringed  with  hair  and,  wheaal  ml,  art 
extended  laterally  hke  ■  pair  of  (culls  in  a  boat.  Ai  is  the  caM 
with  other  water-bugs,  ibii  iruett  is  predaceoio  and  feeda  npan 
aquatic  grubs  ot  worms.  The  body  is  richly  supplied  with  long 
hairs,  which  serve  lo  entangle  bubbles  of  aii  lor  puiposea  ol 
respiration-    Theeggaare  laid  in  the  stems  of  water  plants. 

WATERBUCX  (WasiolKt},  the  name  of  a  targe  South  African 
antelope  {Coiiu  tUifsiprymys)   belonging  to  the  subfamily 
Cmiapriiur,  chirscteiiied  by  the  white  elliptic*!  ring  on  the 
buttocks,  and  the 
gerteral       reddish 
grey  colour  o<  the 
king    and    coane 
hair.     Tbey    have 
~  I        fringed 

and  tufled 

Ulli;     Iht    bucki 

lyrste  and  heavily 
'nged  boms,  but  t 


the  sing-Aig  or 
defacn  vateriiuck 
(C.     d,]t«,).      ■ 

es,      wilbout 

'hite  ring  on 

the  buttocks,  and 
represenled  by  several  loo)  no 
whOe  a  second  is  freyidi.  Both 
deer-  The  Bmsllcr  mttnben  of 
tdnsively  African)  ate  geaoally  1 
WATEBBURT, 


uid  one  of 
It,  U.S.A-,s 


It 


oe  of  which  is  loiy  red 
aes  equal  in  dit  tht  red 
genu*  Cabul  (which  is 
1  kobe.  (See  AvtblofE-) 
the  cDDDIy-seala  of  New 


Haven  county,  Connectici 

the  township  of  Wawrhar^ „ 

mtral  part  of  Ihe  lUie,  about  jj  m-  S.W.  ol  Hartford.  Pop. 
,ic)Oo)  SM30,  ot  whom  is,i6S  were  foieipi-botn  (s866  being 
Jtkti,  1007  Italian,  1777  Fnncb  Canadian,  1165  Russian,  iiqj 
French,  and  938  English) ;  [itgiocensna]  73,1)1.  Area  sQsq.  m. 
Waterbury  Is  served  1^  the  New  York,  New  Haven  k 
"  irtlord  railway,  and  is  connected  by  electric  Bnei  with  Hew 
iven,  Bridgeport,  Thomasion,  Woodbury  and  WatettowB. 
has  four  public  park*  (the  Green,  Chase,  Hamillon  nnd 
ForeMl.  wUh  ■  10I0I  acreage  of  So  seres,  and  a  Soldieis'  and 
SsibHt'  Monument ,  designed  by  George  E.  Bitaell.  The  nott  im- 
portani  public  buildings  are  the  Federal  bidldiog,  Ike  county 

house,  a  state  armoury,  the  Sila«  Brouwn  I^Uic  Libraiy 

(1870.  with  an  endowment  of  tn<>,oeoand  with  ei,saovolume» 
In  Tgio1,theOddFeIlaw*Temple,iy.M-C.A.  building  and  the 
Buckingham  Music  Hsll  {too?);  and  among  the  charilsble  icl- 
stiiulionasre  the  Souihmayd  Home  (1898)  for  aged  women,  the 
Waterbury  hoipitil  (iSv)  ("d  the  St  Mary's  boapfla!  (iqoS). 
In  the  city  are  the  Si  Msr^ircl's  Diocesan  School  for  Cirla 
(Protestant  Episcopal,  1875I,  the  Waterbury  Industrial  School 
aiid  the  Academy  of  Noire  Dame  (1868).  Tbcte  ii  good  water 
power  here  from  the  Tlangatuck  river  and  iis  tributaries  Mad 
river  and  Great  Brook.  In  1005  Waterbury  nnktd  third  among 
Ike  minifKli»i(«  dliw«l  Connaclicul  (bdof  nupaacri  only  kgr 


368 


WATER-DEER— WATERFORD 


Bridgeport  and  New  Haven),  with  a  huAoty  product  valued  at 
^33t3<^7>359  (<^'7  %  more  than  in  1900).  The  most  important  manu- 
factures are  rolled  brass  and  copper  (value  in  1905,  $12,599,736, 
or  34*3  %  oC  the  total  for  the  United  States),  bxass^ware  (value  in 
1905,  $7,387,228,  or  43*3%  of  the  total  for  the  United  States), 
ck)cks  and  watches — over  a  million  watches  are  made  here  each 
year— and  stamped  ware  (value  in  1905,  $1,037,666).  The 
manufacture  of  brasa-ware  originated  here  in  iSoa  with  the 
making  of  brass  buttons;  iron  buttons  covered  with  silver 
were  first  made  here  about  1760,  block  tin  and  pewter  buttons 
about  1800,  bone  and  ivory  buttons  about  181 2,  sheet  brass  in 
183O1  and  pins  and  plated  metals  for  daguerreotypes  in  1842. 
Old-fashioned  tall  wooden  docks  were  made  in  Waterbuiy  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  i8th  century,  and  cheap  watches  were  first  made 
here  in  1879,  these  were  long  distinctive  of  Waterbury,  and  were 
often  called  "  Waterbury  watches."  The  manufacture  of  doth 
dates  from  1814,  and  broaddoth  was  first  made  here  in  1833. 
The  dty  has  a  large  wholesale  trade  and  is  a  shipping  point  for 
dairy  products.  The  munidpality  owns  and  operates  the  water- 
works. 

The  township  of  Waterbury  Was  incorporated  in  x686,  having 
been  since  its  settlement  in  1677  a  part  of  Farmington  township 
known  as  Mattatuck.  The  dty  of  Waterbury  was  first  chartered 
in  1853.  The  city  and  the  township  were  consolidated  in  1901. 
City  dections  are  hdd  biennially  and  the  mayor,  dty  clerk, 
treasurer,  comptroller,  dty  sheriff  and  aldermen  hold  ofiice  for 
two  years.  With  the  consent  of  the  Board  of  Aldermen  the 
mayor  appoints  five  electors  who  with  the  mayor  constitute  a 
department  of  public  works;  appoints  three  electors  who  with 
the  mayor,  comptroller,  and  president  of  the  Board  of  Aldermen 
constitute  a  department  of  finance;  appoints  five  dectors  who 
with  the  mayor  constitute  a  department  of  public  safety;  and 
appoints  five  electors  who  constitute  a  department  of  public 
health.  In  1902  there  was  a  destructive  fire  in  the  business 
district  of  the  dty,  and  during  a  strike  of  street  railway  employees 
in  1903  state  troops  were  called  out  to  maintain  order. 

WATBR-DBER,  a  small  member  of  the  deer-tribe  from 
northern  China  differing  from  all  other  Cenidae  except  the  musk- 
deer  (with  which  it  has  no  affinity)  by  the  absence  of  antlers 
in  both  sexes.  To  compensate  for  this  deficiency,  the  bucks 
are  armed  with  long  sabre-like  upper  tusks  (see  Deer).  The 
spcdes  typifies  a  genus,  and  is  known  as  Hydrelaphus  (or  Hydro* 
poles)  inertnis;  but  a  second  form  has  been  described  from 
Hankow  under  the  name  of  H,  kreyenbergi,  although  further 
evidence  as  to  its  daim  ,to  distinction  is  required.  Water-deer 
frequent  the  ndghbourhood  of  the  large  Chinese  rivers  where 
they  crouch  amid  the  reeds  and  grass  in  fiach  a  manner  as  to  be 
invisible,  eren  when  not  completely  concealed  by  the  covert. 
When  running,  they  arch  thdr  backs  and  scurry  away  in  a  series 
of  short  leaps.  In  captivity  as  many  as  three  have  been  produced 
at  a  birth. 

This  is  one  of  the  few  deer  in  which  there  are  ^ands  ndther 
<m  the  hock  nor  on  the  skin  covering  the  cannon-bone.  These 
glands  probably  enable  deer  to  ascertain  the  whereabouts  of 
thdr  fellows  by  the  scent  they  leave  on  the  ground  and  herbage. 
The  sub-aquatic  habits  of  the  present  i^>edes  probably  render 
tuch  a  function  impossible,  hence  the  absence  of  the  glands. 
The  tail  is  represented  by  a  mere  stump.  (R.  L.*) 

WATERFALL,  a  point  in  the  course  of  a  stream  or  river  where 
the  water  descends  perpendicularly  6r  neaily  so.  Even  a  very 
small  stream  of  water  falling  ifrom  any  considerable  height 
is  a  striking  object  in  scenery.  Sudi  falls,  of  small  volume 
though  often  of  immense  depth,  are  common,  for  a  small  stream 
has  not  the  power  to  erode  a  steady^  slope,  and  thus  at  any  con- 
siderable inegukrity  of  levd  in  its'  course  it  forms  a  fall.  In 
many  mountainous  districts  a  stream  may  descend  into  the  valley 
of  the  larger  river  to  which  it  is  tributary  by  way  of  a  fall,  its 
own  valley  having  been  eroded  more  sk>wly  and  less  deeply 
than  the  main  valley.  Mecham'cal  considerations  apart,  the 
usual  cause  of  the  occurrence  of  a  waterfall  is  a  sudden  change 
in  geological  structure.  For  example,  if  there  be  three  horizontal 
itrata,  ao  laid  down  that  a  hard  stratum  occurs  between  two 


soft  ones,  a  river  will  be  able  to  grade  its  course  through  the 
upper  or  lower  soft  strata,  but  not  at  the  same  rate  through  the 
intermediate  hard  stratum,  over  a  ledge  of  which  it  will  con- 
sequently  fall.  The  same  will  occur  if  the  course  of  the  river  has 
been  interrupted  by  a  hard  barrier,  such  as  an  intrusive  dyke  of 
basalt,  or  by  j^cial  or  other  deposits.  Where  a  river  falls  over 
an  escarpment  of  hard  rock  overlying  softer  strata,  it  powerfully 
erodes  the  soft  rock  at  the  base  of  the  faU  and  may  undermine 
the  hard  rock  above  so  that  this  is  broken  away.  In  this  way 
the  river  gradually  cuts  back  the  point  of  fallf^'and  a  gorge  is 
left  bdow  the  f alL  The  classic  example  of  this  process  is  provided 
by  the  most  famous  falls  in  the  world — Niagara. 

WATBR-FLEAt  a  name  given  by  the  earlier  microscopists 
(Swammerdam,  1669)  to  certain  minute  aquatic  Crustacea  of 
the  order  Cladocera,  but  often  applied  also  to  other  mcxnbeis 
of  the  division  Entomostraca  (9.V.).  Ihe  Cladocera  are  abundant 
everywhere  in  fresh  water.  One  of  the  commonest  spedes, 
Daphma  pidex,  found  m  ponds  and  ditches,  is  less  than  one- 
tenth  of  an  inth  in  length  and  has  the  body  endosed  in  a  trans- 
parent bivalved  shell.  The  ^ute 
head,  projecting  in  front  of 
the  shell,  bears  a  pair  of 
branched  feathery  antennae 
which  are  the  chief  swim< 
ming  organs  and  propd  the 
animal,  in  a  succession  of 
rapid  bounds,  through  the 
water.  There  is  a  sin^e 
large  Uack  eye.  In  the 
living  animal  five  pairs  of 
leaf-like  limbs  acting  as 
gills  can  be  observed  in 
constant  motion  between 
the  valves  of  the  shell,  and 
the  pulsating  heart  may  be 

seen  near  the  dorsal  surface,     T^ifker  ud  RannD't  TttiBMk  ^  UJtp, 
a    little    way    behind    the  by  pwaiwon  of  M»cinaua  &  c©. 
head.      The     body     ends  Daphnia  (after  Claus). 

behind  in  a  kind  of  tail  «'^-  '-  «nt«nnule.  d.gL    Digc«tiv-e 

with  a  double- curved  daw  Jf  "SS.""     /.       S±".1w 
which    can    be    protruded  br.p.    Brood  •  feet, 

from  the  shell.    The  female  pouch,     ht.      Heart. 

carries  the  eggs  in  a  brood-  ^       Eye.  sh.gL  ShcU-gland. 

chamber  between  the  back 

of  the  body  and  the  shdl  until  hatching  takes  [Jace.  Through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  year  only  females  occur  and 
the  eggs  develop  "  parthenogenetically,"  without  fertiliza- 
tion. When  the  small  males  appear,  generally  in  the 
autumn,  fertilized  "  winter  "  or  "  resting  eggs  "  are  produced 
which  arc  cast  adrift  in  a  case  of  "  ephippium  "  formed  by  a 
specially  modified  part  of  the  shell.  These  resting  eggs  enable 
the  race  to  survive  the  cold  of  winter  or  the  drying  up  of  the  water. 
For  a  fuller  account  of  the  Cladocera  and  of  other  organisms 
whkh  sometimes  share  with  them  the  name  of  "  water-fleas."  see 
the  article  Entouostraca.  (W.  T.  Ca.) 

WATERFORD,  a  county  of  Ireland  in  the  province  of  Munster, 
bounded  £.  by  Waterford  Harbour,  separating  it  from  Wexford, 
N.  by  Kilkenny  and  by  Tipperaiy,  W.  by  Cork,  and  S.  by  the 
Atlantic.  The  area  is  458,108  acres,  or  about  716  sq.  m.  The 
coast  line  is  in  some  parts  bold  and  rocky,  and  is  indented 
by  numerous  bays  and  inlets,  the  prindpal  being  Waterford 
Harbour;  Tramore  Bay,  with  picturesque  cliffs  and  some 
extensive  caves,  land  noted  for  its  shipwrecks,  on  account  of  the 
rocky  character  of  its  bed;  Dungarvan  Harbour,  much  fre- 
quented for  refuge  m  stormy  weather;  and  Youghal  Harbour, 
partly  separating  county  Waterford  from  county  Cork.  The 
surface  of  the  county  is  tb  a  large  extent  mountainous,  providing 
beautiful  inland  scenety,  espedally  towards  the  west  and  north- 
west. The  Kuockmcaldown  Mountains,  which  attain  a  height 
of  2609  ft.,  form  the  northern  boundaiy  with  Tipperaiy.  A 
wide  extent  of  country  between  Clonmd  and  Dungarvan  it 
occupied  by  the  two  ranges  of  the  Comeragfa  and  MonaviIIag^ 


WATERFORD 


369 


MounUint,  vetcfaing  a  height  of  9504  ft.  To  the  south  of  Dun- 
garvan  thece  is  a  lower  but  very  rugged  range,  called  the  Drum 
Uilla.  The  south-easlem  division  of  the  county  is  for  the  nuMt 
part  Jevd.  Though  Waterford  benefits  in  its  communications 
by  the  important  rivers  in  its  vicinity,  the  only  huge  river  it 
can  properly  claim  as  belonging  to  it  is  the  Biackwatcr.  This 
river  is  famous  for  aahnon  fishing,  and,  particularly  in  the  stretch 
Wtween  Cappoquin  and  Lismore,  flows  between  high,  well- 
wooded  banks,  contrasting  beautifully  with  the  background  of 
mountains.  It  enters  the  county  east  of  Fenpoy,  and  flows 
tasfward  to  Cappoquin,  the  head  of  navigation,  where  H  turns 
abruptly  southward,  to  fall  into  the  sea  at  Youghal  Harbour. 
Waterford  Harbour  may  be  called  the  estuary  of  three  important 
rivers,  the  Suir,  the  Nore  and  the  Barrow,  but  neither  of  the 
two  last  touches  the  county.  The  Suir  reaches  it  about  8  m. 
from  Cfonmel,  and  thence  forms  its  northern  boundary  with 
Tfpperary  and  Kilkenny.  It  is  navigable  to  Clonmei,  but  the 
traffic  lies  mainly  on  the  left  bank,  outside  the  county. 

Gtol9gy.^''The  Knockxnealdown  Mountains  sre  an  anticline  of 
Old  Red  Sandstone,  cut  away  at  the  eastern  end  to  expose  Silurian 
strata,  which  are  associated  with  an  extensive  series  of  volcanic  and 
intrusivQ  rocks,  often  crushed  by  earth-movement.  The  impressive 
scarp  formed  by  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  conglomerate  above  this 
bwer  ground  is  called  the  Comeragfa  Mountains.  The  moraine- 
dammeid  cirque  of  Lough  Cbumshin^aun  lies  in  these,  with  a  precipice 
1000  ft.  in  height.  The  unconformity  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  on 
the  greenish  and  yellowish  Silurian  .snales  is  excellently  seen  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Suir  at  Waterford.  Carboniferous  Limestone  is 
found  in  the  floor  of  the  synclinals  on  either  side  of  the  great  anticline, 
that  n.  in  the  Suir  valley  on  the  north,  and  in  the  green  and  richly- 
wooded  hollow  of  the  Biackwatcr  on  the  south.  Rapidly  repeated 
anticlinal  and  synclinal  folds  continue  this  structure  across  the 
country  between  Dungarvan  and  You^haL  Rich  copper-mines  were 
worked,  mainly  in  the  19th  century,  m  the  Silurian  area  near  Bon- 
mahon.  and  the  region  remains  full  of  mineral  promise. 

/icdiulrser.— The  land  is  genecally  better  adapted  for  pasturage 
than  for  tillage,  although  there  are  considerable  tracts  01  rich  soil 
in  the  south-eastern  districts.  The  proportion  of  tillage  to  pasture 
is,  however,  roughly  as  X  to  3},  though  the  acreage  under  the  principal 
crops  of  oats,  potatoes  and  turnips  is  on  the  whole  fairly  mamtaincd. 
The  numbers  of  cattle,  sheep  and  poultry  increasesteadily,and  pigs 
are  extensively  reared.  The  woollen  manufacture,  except  ifor  home 
use.  is  practically  extinct,  but  the  cotton  manufacture  is  still  of  some 
importance.  Tnere  are  also  breweries,  distilleries  and  a  large 
number  of  flotir>mills.  The  valuable  deep  sea  and  coast  fisheries 
have  distinct  headquarters  at  Waterford,  and  the  noted  salmon 
fisheries  of  the  Suir  and  Qbckwater  have  theirs  at  Waterford  and 
Lismore  respectively.  Railway  communication  is  provided  by  the 
Waterford,  Dungarvan',  Lismore  and  Co.  Cork  branch  of  the  Great 
Southern  and  Western  railway,  traversing  the  county  from  E.  to  W. ; 
and  by  the  Walerfoid  and  Tramore  railway,  while  the  city  of  Water- 
ford is  appmached  by  lines  of  the  fitst-named  ccmipany  from  the  N. 
(from  0ubUn)  and  W.  ((rom  Limerick). 

PopulctUn  4nd  AiministratU*. — ^The  population  (95,70a  In 
1891;  87,187  in  190X)  decreases  at  a  rate  about  equal  to  the 
average  of  the  Irish  counties,  and  emigration  is  considerable. 
Nearly  95%  of  the  total  are  Roman  Catholics,  and  about  74% 
constitute  the  rural  population.  The  chief  towns  are  the  city 
of  Waterford  (pop.  26,769),  Dungarvan  (4850),  and  Lismore 
(1583);  Portlaw  and  Tramore,  and  Cappoquin  are  lesser  towns. 
The  county  is  divided  into  eight  baronies.  Down  to  the  Union 
fn  x8oo  the  county  returned  two  members,  and  the  boroughs 
of  Dungarvan,  Lismore  and  Tallow  two  each.  Thereafter,  and 
before  the  Redistribution  Act  of  1885,  the  county  returned  two 
members,  the  borough  of  Waterford  two.  and  Dungarvan  one. 
The  county  now  returns  two  members,  for  the  east  and  west 
divisions  respectively,  while  the  county  of  the  dty  of  Waterford 
returns  one  member.  Assises  are  held  at  Waterford,  and  quarter 
•essions  at  Lismore,  Dungarvan,  and  Waterford.  The  county 
is  mainly  in  the  Protestant  diocese  of  Ossoiy,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  diocese  of  Waterford  and  Lismoie. 

History  and  Antiquttiesj^Xn  the  9th  century  the  Danes  landed 
bi  the  district,  and  afterwards  made  a  permanent  settlement. 
Waterford  was  one  of  the  twelve  counties  into  which  King  John 
Is  suted  to  have  divided  that  part  of  Ireland  which  he  nominally 
annexed  to  the  English  crown.  On  account  of  t  he  convenience  of 
the  dty  as  a  landing  place,  many  subsequent  expeditions  passed 
Uwotti^  the  county,  directed  against  disaffected  or  tebelHous 


tribes.  In  1444  the  greater  part  of  it  was  gmted  to  James, 
eari  of  Desmond,  and  in  1447  it  was  bestowed  on  John  Talbot, 
earl  of  Shrewsbuiy,  whb  was  created  eari  of  Waterford.  The 
county  suffered  severely  during  the  Desmond  rebellion,  in  the 
reign  of  Elisabeth,  as  well  as  in  the  rebellion  of  1641  and  during 
the  Cromwellian  period.  There  are  in  the  county  a  considerable 
number  of  barrows,  duns,  cromlechs  and  similar  relics. of  the 
ancient  Inhabitants.  At  Ardmore,  overiooking  the  sea  from 
Ram  Head,  there  is  a  roimd  tower  95  ft.  in  height,  and  near  it 
a  huge  reth  and  a  huge  nimiber  of  circular  entrenchments. 
Among  the  old  castles  special  mention  may  be  made  of  Lismore, 
originally  erected  in  X185,  but  now  in  great  part  comparatively 
modem.  The  chief  ecclesiastical  renains  are  those  of  the  chancel 
and  nave  of  the  cathedral  of  Ardnoore,  where  a  monastery  and 
oratory  were  foimded  by  St  Declan  in  the  7th  century.  The  see 
of  Ardmore  was  abolished  in  the  12th  century.  Here  are  also 
remains  of  a  church  and  oratory,  and  a  holy  well.  Mention  should 
be  made  of  the  existing  monastery  of  Mount  Mellerayt  a  convent 
of  Trappists  founded  near  Cappoquin  in  1830,  on  the  expulsion 
of  the  foreign  members  of  this  order  from  France.  Schools, 
both  free  and  boarding,  are  maintained;  and  there  is  a  branch 
of  the  order  at  Roscrea  (Co.  Tipperary) . 

WATERFORD,  a  dty,  county  of  a  dty,  parilamentary 
borough,  seaport,  aiid  the  chief  town  of  Co;  Waterford, 
Ireland.  Pop.  (1901)  26,769.  It  is  finely  situatisd  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Suir  4  m.  'above  its  junction  with  the  Barrow,  at 
the  head  of  the  tidal  estuary  called  Waterford  Harbour,  xii  m. 
S.S.W.  from  Dublin  by  the  Great  Southern  and  Western  railway. 
This  is  the  prindpal  railway  serving  the  dty,  having  lines  from 
Dublin  and  from  the  north-west,  besides  the  trunk  line  between 
Rosslare,  Waterford  and  Cork.  Waterford  is  also,  however, 
the  terminus  of  the  Dublin  and  South-Eastem  line  from  Dublin 
via  New  Ross,  and  for  the  Waterford  and  Tramore  line,  serving 
the  seaside  resort  of  Tramore,  7  m.  S.  The  Suir  is  crossed  by 
a  wooden  bridge  of  thirty-nine  arches,  and  83  a  ft.  long,  con- 
necting Waterford  with  the  suburb  of  Ferrybank.  The  dty  is 
built  chiefly  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  occupying  for  the  most 
part  )ow  and  level  ground  except  at  its  western  extremity, 
and  excepting  the  quay  and  the  Mall,  which  connects  with  tbq 
southern  end  of  the  quay,  its  internal  appearance  is  hardly  of  a 
pieoe  with  the  beaaty  of  its  environs.  The  modem  Protestant 
cathedral  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  generally  called  Christ  Church, 
a  pkin  structure  with  a  lofty  spire,  occupies  the  site  of  the 
church  bollt  by  the  Danes  in  1096,  in  the  MalL  Near  it  are  the 
episcopal  palace  and  deanery.  There  is  a  handsome  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral,  and  the  training  seminary  for  priests  called 
St  John's  College  deserves  notice.  The  principal  aecuUr  buildings 
are  the  town-hall,  the  county  and  dty  courts  and  prisons,  the 
custom-house  and  the  barracks.  At  the  extremity  of  the  quay 
is  a  large  drcular  tower,  called  Reginald's  Tower,  forming  at 
one  time  a  portion  of  the  dty  walls,  and  occupying  the  site  of 
the  tower  built  by  Reginald  the  Dane  in  X003.  Near  the  summit 
one  of  the  balls  shot  from  the  cannon- of  Cromwell  while  besieging 
the  city  is  still  embedded  in  the  wall.  Other  remains  of  the 
fortification^,  consisting  of  towers  and  bastions,  are  to  be  seen 
as  in  the  Tramore  railway  sidings  and  in  Castle  Street.  There 
are  a  numbw  of  hospitals  and  similar  benevolent  institutions, 
toduding  the  leper  bouse  funded  in  the  reign  of  King  John, 
now  used  practically  as  an  infirmary.  The  town  possesses 
breweries,  ttlt-houses,  foundries  and  flour  mills;  and  there  is 
a  hirge  export  trade  In  cattle,  sheep  and  pigs,  and  in  agricultural 
produce.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  extensive  salmon  and  sea 
fisheries.  Waterford  is  second  in  importance  to  Cork  among 
the  ports  of  the  south  coast  of  Ireland.  There  b  regular  com- 
munication by  steamer  with  Cork,  with  Dublin  and  Belfast, 
with  Fishguard,  Glasgow,  Liverpool,  Bristd,  Plymouth,  South- 
ampti>n,  London  and  other  ports.  Local  steamers  ply  to  Dun- 
cannon,  New  Ross  and  other  places  on  the  neighbouring  estuaries. 

Waterford  Harbour  is  a  winding  and  well-sheltered  bay  formed 
by  the  estuary  of  the  river  Suir,  and  afterwards  by  the  joint 
estuary  of  the  Nore  and  Barrow.  Its  length  to  the  sea  is  about 
IS  m.    Its  entmnoe  is  3  m.  wide,  and  is  lighted  by  a  fixed  light 


ilp 


WATERFORD— WATERHOUSE,  J.  W 


on  the  andent  donjon  of  Hook  Tofwer  (139  ft.  hi  height)  ud 
othen.  The  quay,  at  which  there  »  a  depth  of  93  ft.  of  water 
at  low  tide,  was  enlarged  in  1705  by  the  removal  of  the  dty  waUs, 
and  is  about  li  m.  in  length.  At  Ferrybank,  on  the  Kilkenny 
side  of  the  river,  there  is  a  shipbuilding  yard  with  patent  sUp 
and  graving  dock.  By  the  Suir  there  is  navigation  for  baizes 
to  Qonmel,  and  for  sailidg  vessels  to  Carrick-on-Suir;  by  the 
Barrow  for  sailing  vessels  to  New  Ross  and  thence  for  barges 
to  Athy,  and  so  to  Dublin  by  a  branch  of  the  Grand  Canal;  and 
by  the  Nore  for  barges  to  Inistioge.  The  shores  of  the  harbour 
axe  picturesque  and  well-wooded,  studded  with  country  residences 
and  waterside  viUagea,  of  which  Passage  and  Duncannon  are 
popular  resorts  of  the  citizens  of  Waterford. 

Anciently  Waterford  was  called  Cuathua^groiUtf  the  haven  of 
the  sun.  By  early  writers  it  was  named  Menapia.  It  is  supposed 
to  have  existed  in  very  eariy  times,  but  first  acquired  importance 
under  the  Danes,  of  whom  it  remained  one  of  the  principal 
strongholds  until  its  capture  by  Strongbow  in  1171.  On  the 
i8th  of  October  X172  Henry  II.  landed  near  Waterfoid,  and  he 
here  received  the  hostages  of  the  people  of  Munster.  It  became 
a  cathedral  city  in  1096.  The  Protestant  dioceses  of  Cashel, 
Emly,  Waterford  and  Lismore  were  united  in  1833.  Prince 
John,  aitowards  king  of  England,  who  had  boenL  dedaied  lord 
of  Ireland  inr  1 177,  landed  at  Waterford  in  1 185.  After  ascending 
the  English  throne  he  granted  it  a  fairin  1204,  and  in  xao6  a 
charter  of  incorporation.  He  landed  at  Waterford  in  x2xo»  in 
order  to  establish  within  his  nominal  territories  in  Ireland  a 
most  distinct  form  of  government.  The  dty  received  a  new 
charter  from  Henry  III.  in  x  232.  Richard  II.  hmdei  at  Waterford 
in  October  1394  and  again  in  X399.  In  1447  it  was  granted  by 
Henry  VL  to  John  Talbot,  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  who  was  created 
«irl  of  Waterford.  In  X497  it  successfully  resisted  an  attempt 
of  Perkin  Waxbeck  to  capture  it,  in  recognition  of  which  it 
received  various  privileges  from  Henry  VIL,  who  gave  it  the 
title  of  urbs  iniacta.  In  1603,  after  the  accession  of  James  I. 
to  the  English  cxowo,  the  dty,  akmg  with  Cork,  took  a  prominent 
part  in  opposition  to  the  government  and  to  the  Protestant 
rdigion,  but  on  the  approach  of  Mountjoy  it  formally  submitted. 
From  this  time,  however,  the  magistrates  whom  it  elected  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy,  and,  as  by  its  chartar  it  possessed 
tha  right  to  refuse  admission  to  the  king's  judges,  and  therefore 
to  disease  with  the  right  of  holding  assizes,  a  rule  was  obtained 
.in  the  Irish  chancery  for  the  seizure  of  its  charter,  which  was 
carried  into  effect  In  x6i8.    In  1619  an  attempt  was  made  to 

.  induce  Bristol  merchants  to  settle  in  the  dty  and  undertake 
its  government,  but  no  one  would  respond  to  the  invitation, 
and  in  1626  the  charter  was  restored.  The  dty  was  oosuccessf  ally 
attacked  by  Cromwell  in  1649,  but  surrendered  to  Ireton  on  the 
xoth.of  August  1650.  After  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  James  II. 
embarked  at  it  for  France  Ouly  1690).  Shortly  afterwards  it 
surrendered  to  William,  who  sailed  frcMs  it  to  England.  It 
sent  two  members  to  parliament  from  1374  to  i885»  when  the 
number  was  reduced  to  one.  In  1898  it  was  constituted  one  of 
the  six  county  boroughs  having  separate  county  coundls. 

WATERFORD,  a  village  of  Saratoga  county,  Mew  York, 
U.&A.,  (m  the  W.  bank  of  the  Hudson  river,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Mohawk  river,  and  about  10  m.  N.  of  Albany.  Pop.  (1900) 
3x46,  of  whom  474  were  foreign-bom^  (1905)  3134;  (1910) 
3245-    Wateriord  is  served  by  the  Ddaware  it  Hudson  rait- 

.  way,  and  is  at  the  junction  of  the  Erie  and  the  Champlain 
divisions  of  the  great  barge  canal  connecting  Lake  Erie  and  Lake 
Champlain.  There  was  a  settlement  here  probably  as  early  as 
1630^  and  Waterford  was  laid  out  in  1784,  and  was  incoiporattid 
as  a  village  in  1794. 

WATBRHQUS^  ALFRED  (1830-1905),  English  architect, 
was  born  at  Liverpool  on  the  19th  of  July  1839,  and  passed  his 
professional  pupilage  under  Richard  Lane  in  Manchester.  His 
earliest  commissions  were  of  a  domestic  nature,  but  his  position 
as  a  designer  of  public  buildings  was  assured  as  eariy  as  1859  hy 
success  in  the  open  competition  for  the  Manchester  assize  courts. 

•  This  work  marked  him  not  only  as  an  adept  in  the  planning  of  a 
complicated  building  on  a  large  scale,  but  also  as  a  champion  of 


the  Gothic  cause.    Nine  years  later,  fax  1868,  another  competitioQ 
secuDcd  for  Waterhouse  the  execution  of  the  Manchester  tows* 
hall,  where  he  was  able  to  show  a  firmer  and  perhaps  more  orifjinil 
handling  of  the  Gothic  manner.    The  same  year  brought  him  the 
rebuilding  of  part  of  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  not  his  first  uoi* 
versity  woric,  for  BalUol,  Oxford,  bad  been  put  into  his  hands 
in  1867.    At  Caius,  out  of  deference  to  the  Renaissance  treat* 
ment  of  the  older  parts  of  the  college,  the  Gothic  dement  vas 
intentionally  mingled  with  classic  dietail,  while  Ballid  aad 
Pembtoke,  Cambridge,  which  followed  in  187X,  may  be  looked 
upon  as  typical  specimens  of  the  style  of  his  mid  career— Gothic 
tradition  (European  rather  than  British)  tempered  1^  indiriduil 
taste  and  by  adaptation  to  modem  needs.    Girton  CoUegfe, 
Cambridge,  a  building  of  simpler  type,  dates  orighially  bom  the 
same  poiod  (1870),  but  has  been  periodically  enlaiKcd  by  further 
buildings.    Two  important  domestic  works  were  undeitakea  la 
X870  and  1871  respectively — Eaton  Hall  for  the  duke,  then 
marquis,  of  Westminster,  and  Heythrop  HaU,  Oxfwdshire,  the 
latter,  a  restoration,  being  of  a  fairly  strict  classic  type.    Iwene 
Minster  for  Lord  Wolverton  was  begun  in  1877.    In  1865  Water- 
house  had  removed  his  practice  from  Manchester  to  Loados, 
and  he  was  one  of  the  architects  selected  to  compete  fortheRojal 
Courts  of  Justice.    He  received  from  the  govenunent,  without 
competition,  the  commission  to  build  the  Natural  History 
Museum,  South  Kensington,  a  design  which  maiks  an  tpoA  k 
the  modern  use  of  tcrra-cotta,    TTje  new  University  CJiA-* 
Gothic  design — was  undertaken  in  1866,  to  be  folloved  neady 
twenty  years  later  by  the  National  Liberal  Club,  a  study  ia 
Renaissance  composition.    Wateihouse's  series  of  woiks  id 
Victoria  University,  of  which  he  was  made  LL.D.  in  189S1  ^ 
from  1870,.  when  he  was  first  engaged  on  Owens  0>Uege,  Man- 
chester.   Yorkshire  College^  Leeds,  was  begun  in  X878;  aad 
Liverpool  University  College  in  X885.    St  Paul's  School,  HanuDcr- 
smith,  was  begun  in  1881,  and  in  the  same  year  the  Centrd 
Technical  College  in  Exhibition  Road,  London.    Waterhouse'^ 
chief  remaining  works  in  London  are  the  new  Prudential  Assur- 
ance Company's  offices  in  Holbom;  the  new  University  Colle^ 
Hospital;  the  National  Provincial  Bank,  Piccadilly,  i89>;  ^^ 
Surveyors*  Institution,   Great  George  Street,    X896;  and  the 
Jeimer  Institute  of  Preventive  Medicine,   Chelsea,   1895.    F* 
the  Prudential  Company  he  designed  many  provindal  braodi 
offices,  while  for  the  National  Provincial  Bank  he  also  designed 
premises  at  Manchester.     The  Liverpool  lnfinnar>'  is  Water- 
house's  largest  hospital;  and  St.  Mary's  Hospital,  Manchester, 
the  Alexandra  Ho^ital,  Rhy),  and  extensive  additions  at  the 
general  hospital,  Nottingham,  also  engaged  him.    Among  worto 
not  already  mentioned  are  the  SalFord  gaol;    St  Mai^ret's 
School,  Buab^y;  the  Metropole  Hotel,  Brighton;   Hove  tovn- 
hall;  AUoa  town-hall;     St  Elizabeth's  church,  Reddish;  the 
Weigh  House- chapd,  Mayfiair;  and  Hutton  HiUli  Yorks.   H« 
died  on  the  asnd  of  August,  X905. 

Waterhouse  became  a  felloe  of  the  R<wid  Institute  of  Brittsij 
Architocu  in  1861,  and  president  from  1888  to  1891.  He  obtainw 
a  grand  prix  tor  architecture  at  the  Psltk  Exposition  of  1867.  a«w 
a  "  Rappd  •'  in  1878.  In  the  same  ytar  he,  rwdvcd  the  Ro)« 
gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  and  wm 
made  an  associate  of  the  Roypl  Academy,  of  which  body  he  hecanic 
a  full  member  in  1885  and  tr'^asurer  in- 1898.  He  became  a  "f^"^ 
of  the  academies  of  Vienna  (1860),  Brussels  (1886),  Antwerp  (»*^7ji 
Milan  (1888)  and  Berlin  (1 889),  and  a  corrfsponding  member  tf 
the  Invthut  dc  France  (1803).  Aficr  1886  he  was  constantly  caUefl 
UDon  to  act  as  asacaaor  m  architectural  comoptitions.  and  wa^.* 


served  as  architectural  member  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  the 
propoacd  enlargement  of  Westminster  Abbey  as  a  place  of  bunaL 
From  1891  to  igoow  when  he  retired,  fats  work  was  conducted  » 
partnership  with  his  son,  Paul  Waterhouse. 

WATS&HOUSR,  JOHN  WILUAM  (1847-  )»  ^'^ 
painter,  was  the  son  of  an  artist,  by  whom  he  was  naialy  ^f**"f* 
As  a  figure^painter  he  shows  in  bis  woik  awch  imasinft^f* 
power  aad  a  very  perMnal  atyle,  and  his  pictures  arc  for  "* 
most  part  iUosimtions  of  dassic  myths  treated  with  attractiv^ 
fantasy.  An  able  draughtsman  and  a  fine  coloudst,  he  mus^  ^a 
Fsaked  among  the  bast  aitifU  of  the  British  acfaooL   Ha  *** 


WATER-iULY—WATERLOO  CAMPAIGN 


J7> 


dected  «i  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in.  1885  and  acade- 
Dician  in  1895.  Four  of  hb  pointinss, "  Consulting  die  Oracle/' 
*'  St  Eulalia,"  "  The  Lady  of  Sbalott "  and  "  The  Magic  Ciide/' 
are  in  the  Natbnal  Galleiy  of  British  Art. 
.  See  "  J.  W.  Watcrhoiue  and  his  Work,"  by  A.  I.  BaMry.  Sl9idio, 
"vol.  iv^ 

WATER-ULV*  a  name  somewhat  vaguely  given  to  almost 
any  floating  plant  with  conspicuous  flowers,  but  applying  more 
especially  to  the  species  oiN:^Mphaea,Nuphar,  and  other  members 
of  the  order  Nymphaeaceae.  These  are  aquatic  plants  with 
thick  fleshy  rootstocks  or  tubers  embedded  in  the  mud,  and 
throwing  up  to  the  surface  circular  shield -like  leaves,  and  leafless 
flower-fitalks,  each  terminated  by  a  single  flower, .  often  of 
great  beauty,  and  consisting  of  four  or  five  sepals,  and  numer- 
ous petals  gradually  passing  into  the  very  numerous  stamens 
without  any  definite  line  of  demarcatbn  between  them.  The 
ovary  consists  of  numerous  carpels  united  together  and  free, 
or  more  or  less  embedded  in  the  top  of  the  flower-stalk.  The 
ovary  has  many  cavities  with  a  large  number  of  ovules  attached 
to  its  walls,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  flat  stigma  of  many  radiating 
rows  as  in  a  poppy.  The  fruit  is  berry-like,  and  the  seeds  are 
remarkable  for  having  their  embryo  surrounded  by  an  endosperm 
as  well  as  by  a  perisperm.  The  anatomical  construction  of  these 
plants  presents  many  peculiarities  which  have  given  rise  to 
discussion  as  to  the  allocation  of  the  order  among  the  dicotyledons 
or  among  the  monocotyledons,  the  general  balance  of  opinion 
being  in  favour  of  the  former  view.  The  Icaf-sLalks  and  flower- 
stalks  are  traversed  by  longitudinal  air-passages,  whose  dis- 
po«tion  varies  in  different  species.  The  species  of  Nympkaea 
are  found  in  every  quarter  of  the  ^obe.  Their  flowers  range 
from  white  to  rose-coloured;  yellow  and  blue.  Some  expand  in 
the  evening  only,  others  close  soon  after  noon.  Nyntpkaea  alba 
(CasUUia  alba)  is  common  in  some  parts  of  Britain,  as- is  also  the 
vellow  Hu^har  luteum  INvmMkaea  iutf<i)  The  aeeds  <M^d  the 
rhizomes  contain  an  abundance  of  starch,  which  renders  them 
serviceable  in  some  places  for  food. 

Of  recent  years  great  strides  have  been  made  in  the  ctilture  of 
new  varieties  of  water-Lih'es  in  the  open  air.  Many  beautiful 
Nympkaea  hybrids  have  been  raised  between  the  tender  and 
hardy  varieties  of  different  colours,  and  there  are  now  in  com- 
merce lovely  forms  having  not  only  white,  but  also  yellow,  rose, 
pink  and  carmine  flowers.  In  many  gardens  open-air  tanks 
have  been  fitted  up  with  hot-water  pipes  running  through  them 
to  keep  the  water  sufficiently  warm  in  severe  weather.  The 
open-air  water-lily  tank  in  the  Royal  gardens,  Kew,  is  one  of  the 
latest  and  most  up-to-date  in  construction.  These  coloured 
hybrids  were  originated  by  M.  Latour  MaiJiac,  of  Temple-sur-Lot, 
France,  some  of  the  most  favoured  varieties  being  oiriif  a,  ckroma- 


•weet-Kentcd  flowers; /ova,  yellow,  and  spkaerecarpa,  rpscHarmine. 
Amongst  the  tender  or  hothouse  Nymphaeas  the  foUowinK  are  most 
noted:  hiando^  white;  devoniensts,  scarlet  (a  hybrid  between 
N.  Lotus  and  N.  rubra) ;  edulis,  white:  ettgans,  yellowish  white  and 
purple;  gigantea,  blue;  kewensis,  rose^armine  (a  hybrid  between 
N.  iewmiensis  and  N.  Lotus);  Lotus,  red.  white;  pubescmr,  white; 
saUifolia,  bright  blue;  skUaia,  blue,  with  several  varieties;  and 
StuftevantU  a  pale-rose  hybrid. 

Under  the  general  head  of  water-lily  are  included  the  lotus  of 
Esypt,  Nympkaea  Lotus,  an<lthc  sacred  lotus  of  India  and  China, 
Naumtium  speciosum,  formerly  a  native  of  the  Nile,  as  shown  by 
Egyptian  sculptures  and  other  evidence,  bot  no  longw  found  in 
mt.  river.  Tne  gigantic  Victoria  regia,  with  leaves  0  to  7  ft  in 
diameter  and  flowers  8  to  16  in.  across,  also  belongs, to  this  group. 
It  grows  in  the  backvraters  of  the  Amazon,  often  covering  the  surface 
for  males;  the  seeds  are  eaten  under  the  name  water  maize. 

WATERLOO,  a  city  and  the  oounty-seat  of  Bhtck  Hawl 
county,  Iowa,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Cedar  river,  about  90  m.  W.  of 
Dubuc^ue  and  about  375  m.  W.  of  Chica^.  Fop.  (1890)  6674; 
(1900)  13,580,  of  whom  T334  were  foreign-bom;  (1910  census) 
26,695.  It  ia  aeived  by  the  Illinois  Central  (which  has  large 
construction  and  repair  shops  here),  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
&.  Pacific,  the  Chicago  Great  Western,  and  the  Waterloo,  Cedar 
Falts  &  northern  (from  Cedar  Pslls  to  Samner)  railways.  '  Hie 
tity  has  several  publk  parks,  a  public  libnixy  (^879)  with  tmo 


buildings,  a  Y Jf  .C  A  huUiAg,  and  a  goodimblie  fcbool  syiten» 
including  k  nanaal  training  schooL  There  js  a  Chautauqoa 
park.  The  liver  here  is  700  to  900  fL  wide;  its  dear  water  |k>ws- 
Oirter  a  limestone  bed  through  a  rather  evenly  sloping  yallfy 
in  the  middle  of  the  city  with  enough  laU  to  lumi^  vaJuable 
water  power.  Tht  value  of  the  factory  product  in  1905  was. 
$4,693.88&  The  dty  is  situated  in  a  rich  agricultural,  dahrykig 
and  pouItry-ESisinf  region,  and  is  aa  important  shipping  point. 
Waterloo  was  first  settled  about  18461  was  hiid  out  ia  z854» 
first  chartered  as  a  dty  an  1868^  and  became  a  dty  of  the  first 
class  in  1905. 

WATBRLDO    CAMPAIGN,   IftUk    On    February    37,  18x5, 
Napoleon  set  sail  from  Elba  with  his  force  of  1000  men  and 
4  guns,  determined  to  reconquer  the  throne  of  France.    On 
March  x  he  landed  near  CanaeSi  and  proceeded  at  once  to  march 
on  Paris^     He  deliberatdy  chose  the  difficult  route  over  the 
French  Alps  because  he  recognized  that  his  <^ponents  would 
neither  expect  him  by  this  route  nor  be  able  to  concert  combinar 
operations  in  time  to  thwart  him.    Events  proved  the  wisdom 
""of  his  choice.    His  advance  to  Paris  was  a  series  of  triumphs, 
his  power  waaing  with  every  league  he  covered,  and  when  he 
reached  Paris  the  Bourlmns  had  fled.     But  he  had  soon  to  turn . 
his  attention  to  war     His  sudden  return,  far  from  widening 
the  breaches  between  the  alhes,  had  fused  them  indissolubly 
together,  and  the  four  powers  bound  themsehres  to  put  150,000 
men  apiece  under  arms  and  to  maintain  them  in  the  fidd  until 
Napoleon  had  been  utteriy  crushed.   So,  from  the  first,  France 
was  faced  with  another  war  against  an  affrighted  and  infuriated 
Europe,  a  war  in  which  the  big  battalions  would  be  on  the  aide 
of  the  Seventh  Coalition;    and  to  oppose  their  vast  armies 
Napoleon  only  bad  in  March  the  x  50,000  men  he  had  taken  over 
from  Louis  XVIII.  when  the  Bourbon  hurriedly  quitted  the 
throne.    Of  this  force  the  emperor  could  have  drawn  together 
some  50,^00  men  within  ten  days  and  struck  stralglit  at  the 
small  allied  forces  that  were  in  Belgium  at  the  moment.    But: 
he  wisely  refrained  from  taking  the  immediate  offensive.    SuchI 
an  act' would  luve  proved  that  he  desired,  nay  Tvovoked  a  war;| 
and  further,  the  engagement  el  such  small  forces  could  lead  tot 
no  decisive  results,    Napoleon  therefore  stayed  his  band  and 
proceeded  to  hastenforward  the  organization,  almost  the  creation 
of  an  army,  with  which  he  could  confront  the  coalition.    Mean- 
while be  sought  to  detach  Great  Britain  and  Austria  from  the 
alliance.    But  he  did  not  permit  his  political  enterprise  i^  si^y; 
his  military  preparations;  and,  by  constant  attention 
to  the  minutest  details,  by  June  x  he  had  got  together  JSiST'*' 
an  army  of  360,000  for  the  defence  (rf  France,  one  half  t£tm* 
of  whidi  was  available  for  field  service.    In  this  army  .   ' 

was  comprised  his  whole  meant  of  defence;  for  he  had  no  alUes. 
On  his  return  from  Elba  it  is  true  that  Murat,  the  king  of  Naples, 
took  his  side;  but  recklessly  opening  an  offensive  campaign,! 
Murat  was  beaten  at  Tekntino  (May  s-j),  and  he  fOund  himself 
compelled  to  fly  in  disguise  to  France,  where  the  emperor  niussd 
him  an  audSence  or  empk>yment.  Herein  Napoleon  wronged 
France,  for  he  deprived  her  of  the  most  brilliant  cavalry  soldier 
of  the  period.  Shorn  thus  of  his  single  ally,  the  emperor  realized; 
that  the  whole  eastern  land-frontier  of  France  was  open  V» 
invadon,  from  the  North  Sea  to  the  Mediterranean.  By  the' 
end  of  May  he  had  placed  his  forces  as  follows  to  protect  his 
>empi|e.  * 

D'ErIon*8  I.  Corps  cantoned  between  Lille  and  Valenciennes: 

ReHle's  II.  Corps  cantoned  between  Valenciennes  and  Avesaes^ 

Vandamoie's  III.  Corps  cantoned  around  RocroL 

Gerard's  IV,  Corps  cantoned  at  Metz. 

Lobau's  VI.  Corps  cantoned  at  Laon. 

Grouchy's  Cayalry  Reserve  at  Guise. 

Marshal  Mort^  with  the  Imperial  Guard  at  Paris. 

Rapp  with  the  V.  Corps  (20,000)  near  Strassburg. 

18,500  more  troops  under  Suchet,  Brane  and  Lecourbe 
guarded  the  S.E.  ft^tler  from  Basel  to  Nice,  and  covered  Lyobs;- 
8000  men  under  Clausel  and  Decaen  guarded  the  Pyrenca». 
frontier;  whilst  Lamarque  led  xo,ooo  men  into  La  Vendfe  to 
qnitt  the  hisumction  lirthat  quarter.  *  Inr  t8x^  Napoleon  ■^wb' 
aot  supported  by  a  united  and  unanimous  France;  the  country 


372 


WATERLOO  CAMPAIGN 


was  weakened  by  internal  dineniiont  at  the  very  moment 
when  it  was  needful  to  put  every  man  in  line  to  meet  the  rising 
tide  of  invasion  surging  against  the  long  curving  eastern  frontier. 
Napoleon  now  pondered  over  his  plan  of  campaign.  In 
Belgium,  across  an  almost  open  frontier,  lay  an  ever4|icreaaing 
force  of  Anglo-Dutch  and  Prussian  troops  under  Wellington 
and  BlQcher.  The  Rhine  frontier  was  threatened  by  Schwarzen- 
berg's  Austrians  (110,000);  Barclay  de  Tolly's  Russians  (150,000) 
were  slowly  coming  up;  and  another  Austrian  force  menaced 
the  S.E.  frontier  of  France.  The  allies  determined  that  they 
would  wage  a  war  without  risks,  and  they  were  particularly 
anxious  to  avoid  the  risk  of  defeat  in  detail  It  was  accordingly 
arranged  that  Wellington  and  BlQcher  should  await  in  Belgium 
the  arrival  of  the  Austrian  and  Russian  masses  on  the  Rhine, 
about  July  i,  before  the  general  invasion  of  France  was  begun. 
Thereafter,  whatever  befell,  the  allied  armies  would  resolutely 
press  forward  towards  Paris,  affording  each  other  mutual  support, 
and  with  the  tremendous  weight  of  troops  at  their  disposal 
thrust  back  Napoleon  upon  his  capital,  force  him  to  fight  in 
front  of  it,  and  drive  him  when  defeated  within  its  works.  The 
end  would  then  be  in  sight.  Thus  they  had  planned  the  campaign, 
but  Napoleon  forestalled  them.  In  fact,  the  threatening  danger 
forced  his  hand  and  compelled  him  to  strike  before  he  had 
collected  a  sufficient  army  for  his  defensive  needs.  Consequently 
be  determined  to  advance  swiftly  and  secretly  against  Wellington 
and  BlQcher,  whose  forces,  as  Napoleon  knew,  were  dispersed 
over  the  country  of  their  unenthusiastic  ally.  Thus  he  designed 
to  crush  a  part  of  the  coalition  before  the  Russians  and  Austrians 
poured  over  the  eastern  frontier.  Once  Wellington  and  BlQcher 
were  destroyed  he  would  move  southwards  and  meet  the  other 
allies  on  the  Rhine.  He  might  thus  compensate  for  his  numerical 
inferiority  by  superior  mobility  and  superior  leadership. 


His  informatton  showed  that  Wellington  held  the  wiestem 
half  of  Belgium  from  the  BrusseJs*Charleroi  road  to  the  Scheldt, 
that  his  base  of  operations  was  Ostend,  and  that  his 
headquarters  were  at  Brussels.  BlUcher,  baaed  on 
the  Rhine  at  Coblentz,  held  the  eastern  half  from  the' 
Brusscls-Charleroi  road  to  the  Meuse,  and  had  his  headquarters 
at  Namur.  The  emperor  was  convinced  that  nothing  could  be 
gained  by  invading  Belgium  from  the  S.E.  or  W.;  such  a  stroke 
would  surely  drive  the  allies  together,  and  that  was  never 
Napoleon's  custom.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  struck  straight 
at  Charleroi — the  allied  junction  point — he  would  drive  the 
"  Arm£e  du  Nord  "  like  an  armoured  wedge  between  the  allies, 
if  only  he  caught  them  un5uspicious  and  unready.  Forced 
asunder  at  the  outset,  each  would  (in  all  probability)  fall  back 
along  his  own  line  of  communication,  and  the  gap  thus  made 
between  the  allies  would  enable  the  emperor  to  m^noruvre 
between  them  and  defeat  them  in  turn.  To  gain  the  best  chance 
of  success  he  would  have  to  concentrate  his  whole  army  almost 
within  gunshot  of  the  centre  of  the  enemies'  outposts  without 
attracting  their  attention;  otherwise  he  would  find  the  allies 
concentrated  and  waiting  for  him. 

WelUngion  and  BlUcher  were  disposed  as  follows  in  the  early 
days  of  June  (Map  I.).    The  Anglo-Dutch  army  of  93,000 
with  headquarters  at  Brussels  were  cantoned:  I.  Corps  (Prince 
of  Orange),  jo,7oo,  headquarters  Braine-le-Comte,  disposed  in 
the  area  £nghien-Gcnappe-Mons;  II.  Corps  (Lord  HiU),  27,300, 
headquarters    Ath,  distributed    in  the  area  Ath-Oudenudt- 
Ghent;   reserve  cavalry  (Lord  Uxbridge)  9900,  in  the  valley  U 
the  Dendre  river,  between  Gramroont  and  Ninove;  the  reserve 
(under  Wellington  himself)  25,500,  lay  around  Brussels.    The 
frontier  in  front  of  Leuze  and  Binche  was  watched  by  the  Dutch* 
Belgian  light  cavalry. 


Th^ 1 

WATERLOO  CAMPAIGN.iSis' 
Theatre  j>f  Operations  in  Bclgriuin 


ftUrl. 


WATERLOO  CAMPAKSfi? 


373 


BUkbei^ft  PraidMi  amgr  oi  Ttd,ooo  neo,  witH  he«4qiiMteiB 
jil  Nftmur,  was  distributed  as  follows: — 

I.  Gor^  (Zictcn),  30,800,  cantoned  alongthe  Sambre,  beadquartcra 
Charleroi,  and  covering  the  area  Fontaine  rEvfique-Fleurus-Moustier. 

II.  Corps  (PGch  I.).  3I1O00,  headquarters  at  Namar,  lay  in  the  area 
Namur-Hannut-Huy. 

III.  Corps  (Thidemann).  23,900,  in  the  bend  of  the  river  Meua^ 
headquarters  Cincy,  and  disposed  in  the  area  Dinant-Huy-Ciney. 

IV.  Corps  (BCklow),  30,300,  with  headquarters  at  Li^e,  around 
that  place. 

The  frontier  in  front  of  Binche^  Charleroi  and  Dinant  was 
watched  by  the  Prussian  outposts. 

Thus  the  allied  front  extended  for  nearly  go  m.  acroos  Belgiumt 
and  the  mean  depth  of  their  cantonments  was  30  m.  To  con- 
centrate the  whole  army  on  either  flank  would  take  six  days, 
and  on  the  commcm  centre,  about  Charleroi,  tkree  dayt. 

The  alUea  had  foreseen  the  veiy  masioeavTe  that  Napoleon 
designed  to  put  into  ezeGuti(Mi|  and  Bad  decided  that  il  an 
attempt  were  made  to  break  their  centre  they  would  concentrate 
forwards  and  on  their  inner  flanks,  the  Anglo-Butch  army 
forming  up  at  Gossclies  and  the  Prussians  at  Fleuroa.  Here 
they  would  be  in  contact,  &nd  ready  to  act  united  against 
Kapoleon  with  a  numerical  superiority  of  two  to  one.  The 
necessary  three  days'  warning  of  the  Frendi  .oonoentration  they 
Celt  certain  they  would  obtain,  for  Napoleon's  troops  were  at  this 
juncture  distributed  over  an  area  (Lille-Metz-Paris)  of  275  m. 
by  xoo  m. ;  and  to  concentrate  the  French  army  unknown  to,  and 
unobserved  by,  the  allies,  within  striking  distance  and  before  they 
had  moved  a  man  to  meet  the  onrush  of  the  foe,  was  unthinkable. 
But,  as  in  xSoo^  it  was  the  unthinkable  that  happened. 

It  will  be  seen  that  Blucher  coveted  Fleurus,  his  concentration 
point,  by  Zieten's  oorps,  in  the  hope  of  being  able  to  collect  his 
army  round  Fleurus  in  Uie  time  that  Zieten  would  secure  for  him 
by  a  yielding  fight.  Wellington  on  the  other  hand  was  fkr  less 
satisfactorily  placed;  for  in  advance  of  Gosselics  he  had  placed 
only  a  cavalry  screen,  which  would  naturally  be  too  weak  to  gain 
him  the  requisite  time  to  mast  thane.  Hence  his  ability  to 
concentrate  hung  on  the  mere  good  luck  ctf  obtainfng  timely 
information  of  Napoleon's  plans,  which  in  fact  he  failed  to  obtam. 
But  the  two  tracts  of  country  covered  by  the  allies  difieied 
vastly  in  configuration.  Blucher's  left  was  pkotected  by  the 
diffiatlt  country  of  the  Ardennes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  duke's 
whole  section  lay  close  to  an  open  frontier  across  which  ran  no 
fewer  than  four  great  roads,  uid  the  duke  considered  that  Ins 
position  "  required,  for  its  protection,  a  system  of  occupation 
quite  different  from  that  adopted  by  the  Prussian  army."  He 
naturally  relied  on  his  secret  service  to  warn  him  in  such  time 
as  would  enable  him  to  mass  and  meet  the  foe.  His  reserve 
was  well  fdaced  to  move  rapidly  and  promptly  in  ai^  direcdon 
and  give  support  wherever  required. 

The  emperor  made  his  final  preparations  with  the  utmost 
secrecy.  The.  Army  of  the  NorUi  was  to  concentrate  in  three 
fracUons^around  Solre,  Beaumont  and  PhilippeviUo— asdose  to 
Charleroi  as  was  practicable;  and  he  arranged  to  screen  the 
initial  movements  of  the  troops  as  much  as  possible,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  allies  from  discovering  in  time  that  their  centre 
was  aimed  at.  He  directed  that  the  movements  of  the  troops 
when  they  drew  near  the  allied  outposts  should  be  covered 
as  far  as  possible  by  accidents  of  ground,  for  there  was  Ao  great 
natural  screen  to  cover  his  strategical  concentration 

G£rard  and  the  IV  Corps  from  Mets,having  thelongestdistance 

to  gi^  started  first  (on  June  6),  and  soon  the- who^  army  was 

f)^        .  in  motion  for  the  selected  points  of  concentration, 

Frvflcft       every  effort  being  made  to  hide  the  movements  of  the 

^M^^      troops.    On  June  xi  Napoleon  himself  left  Paris  for 

trauoa.      ^  front,  and  by  June  X4  he  had  achieved  almost 

.  the  impossible  itself,  for  there,  at  Solre,  Beaumont  and  Philippe- 

>ville,  lay  his  mass  of  men»  134,000  strong,  concentrated  under 

-his  hand  without  rousing  the  enem/s  suspicions,  and  ready 

to  march  across  the  frontier  at  dawn.    Far  different  were  things 

on  the  other  side  of  the  Sambre.    The  allies  were  stUl  resting 

.in  fancied -seeurity^  dispersed  throughout  widely  distant  canton- 

-ments;  for  nothing  but  vague  nmiours  had  reached  them,  and 

.  they  hud  .not.  moved  a  man  to  meet  the  enemy 


The  opposing  armies  were  ol  vny  different  quality.  Welling- 
ton's was  a  collection  of  many  nationalities;-  the  kernel  being 
composed  of  his  trusty  and  tenacious  British  and  King's  Gcrmlui 
Legion  troops,  numbering  only  43»ooo  men.  Of  the  remainder 
many  were  far  from  enthusiastic  in  the  cause  for  which  they  had 
perforce  to  take  up  amtt,  and  mi|^t  prove  a  source  of  weakness 
shocdd  victory  incline  to  the  Frendi  eagles.  BlOcher's  amy 
was  undoubted^  more  homogeneous,  and  though  it  is  doubtful 
if  he  possessed  any  troops  of  the  same  quality  as  Wellington's 
best,  on  the  other  hand  he  had  no  specially  weak  elonents. 
.  Napoleon  was  at  the  head  of  a  veteran 'army  ik  Frenchmen, 
who  worshinied  their  leader  and  were  willing  to  die  for  France 
if  necessity  demanded.  But  there  were  lines  of  wadcneas,  too, 
in  his  army.  He  had  left  Marshal  Davout  behind  in  Paris,  and 
Muxat  in  disgrace;  Suchet  was  far  off  on  the  eastern  frontier, 
and  Clausel  was  in  the  south  of  France.  The  political  reasons 
for  these  arrangements  nu^  have  been  cogent,  but  they  injured 
France  at  the  very  outset  Msjshal  Soult  was  appointed  chief 
of  the  staff,  a  post  for  which  he  possessed  very  few  qualifications; 
and,  when  the  campsign  began,  command  of  the  left  and  right 
wings  had  perforce  to  be  given  to  the  only  two  marshals  available, 
Ney  and  Grouchy,  who  did  not  possess  the  ability  or  strategk 
skiH  necesasry  for  such  positions.  Again,  the  army  was  morally 
weakened  by  a  haunting  dread  of  treason,  aod  some  of  the 
chiefs,  Ney  fat  example,  took  the  field  with  disturbing  visions 
of  the  consequences  of  their  late  betrayal  of  the  Bourbon  cause, 
in  case  of  Napoleon's  defeaL  Finally,  the  army  was  too  small 
for  its  object.  Herein  Napoleon  showed  that  he  was  no  longer 
the  Napoleon  of  Austerlitz;  for  he  left  locked  up  in  far-distant 
secondary  theatres  no  less  than  56,500  men»  <^  whom  he  could 
have  collected  some  30,000  to  36,000  for  the  decisive  rampaipi 
in  Belgiim.  Had  he  made  in  X815  the  wise  distribution  of  his 
soldiers  in  the  theatre  of  war  which  he  made  in  his  former 
immortal  campaii^r  he  would  have,  concentrated  155,00010 
x6o^ooo  of  his  available  f<»ce  opposite  to  Charieroi  on  June  14, 
and  the  issue  of  the  campaign  would  hardly  have  been  in  doubt. 
But  he  failed  to  do  so,  and  by  taking  the  field  with  such,  inferior 
numbers  he  left  too  mudi  to  Fortune. 

For  his  advance  into  Belgium  in  1815  Napoleon  divided  his 
anny  into  tufO  wings  and  a  reserve.  As  the  foe  wouldlieaway 
to  his  right  and  left  ^nt  after  he  had  posed  theSandxre,  one  wing 
would  be  pushed  up  towards  Wellington  and  another  towards 
Blttcher;  whilst  the  mass  of  the  reserve  would  be  centrallbr 
placed  so  as  to  strike  on  either  side,  as  soon  as  a  foroe  of  the 
enemy  worth  destroying  was  encountered  and  gripped  To 
this  end  he  had,  on  the  14th,  massed  his  left  wjng  (Reilla  and 
D'Erlon)  around  Solre,  and  his  right  wing  (G&nrd)  atThilippa- 
viUe^  whilst  the  centxal  mass  (Vandamme,  Lobau,  the  Guard 
and  the  Cavalry  Reserve)  lay  around  Beaumont. 

The  ordert  fioc  the  French  advance  next  day,  among  the 
finest  ever  issued,  directed  that  the  army  should  march  at  dawn 
and  move  to  the  Sambre  at  Marcfaienne  and  Charleroi  By 
evening  it  was  expected  that  the  whole  would  have  crossed  tte 
Sambre,  and  would  bivouac  between  the  sundered  allies. 

But  at  the  very  outset  delays  oocuxxcd.  Owing  to  an  acddeii| 
that  befell  the  single  orderly  despatched  with  orders  for  WUh 
damme,  the  III.  Corps  remained  without  other  defii^te 
orders  than  those  issued  on  June  13,  warning  them  to 
be  feady  to  move  at  $  a.ic1  The  corps  therefore 
stood  fast  on  the  morning  of  June  15,  awaiting  further 
instructions.  This  was  the.  more  unfortunate 
damme  was  destined  to  lead  the  advance  on  Charleroi  by 
the  centre  road.  But  the  emperor  regarded  it  merely  as  "  an 
unfortunate  accident,"  nothing  more,  and  the  advance  in  two 
wings  and  a  reserve  continued,  undisturbed  by  such  occurrences. 

G£rard,  too,  was  late  in  starting,  for  his  corps  had  not  been 
fully  concentrated  overnight.  2Ueten's  outposts  on  the  ri^t 
bank  of  the  Sambre  gained  still  further  time,  for  they  fought 
stubbornly  to  retard  the  French  advance  on  Marchienne  and 
CharleroL  But  Zieten  declined,  and  very  wise^,  to  fight  on  the 
right  bank,  and  he  made  the  most  of  the  screen  afforded  by  Uie 
little  river.    He  had  to  delay  'the  French  advance  for  S4  hours 


as   Van- 


^74 


WATBRLOO  CAMPAIGN 


snd  glire  tliM  for  BHkter's  eoftoemntloh,  «t  tfte  Mme  time' 

•letaining  Us  own  freedom  of  maaoeuvro,  and  this  in  spite  of 

•the  great  length  of  tiie  summer  day,  the  short  dislanoe  that  he 

hy  in  front  of  Fleurus,  the  tremendous  numerical  superiority 

•of  the  French  and  Napoleon's  penmnal  presence  at  their  head. 

When  the  French  left  wing  and  centre  reached  the  Sambre 
frfidges,  at  Marchienne  and  Charleroi,  they  found  them  held  and 
strongly  barricaded,  and  the  cavaJiy  were  powerless  to  foree  the 
passage.  It  was  nearing  noon  when  the  emperor  reached  the 
front  with  the  Young  Guard,  whom  he  had  personally  hurried 
forward.  He  immediately  took  action,  and  under  his  direction 
the  bridge  at  Charleroi  was  stormed  shortly  after  noon.  Almost 
at  the  same  time  Rcille  forced  the  passage  at  Maiduenne. 
Instead  of  drawing  his  corps  together  and  retreating  m  matse 
up  the  Fleurus  road,  Zieten  wisely  withdrew  on  two  roads,  using 
those  to  Quatre  Bras  and  Fleurus.  The  defenders  of  Marchienne 
*Med  the  former,  while  the  brigade  which  had  held  Charleroi 
!A  back  by  the  Utter.  The  emperor  at  once  began  the  advance 
Jong  both  the  roads.  The  left  wing  was  dii«cted  to  push  up 
'the  GoSs«ties-Quatre  Bras  road,  and  Pajal*s  cavalry  followed 
the  Prussians  who  retired  along  the  Gilly-Fleurus  road.  The 
tmperor  took  post  at  Charleroi  About  3  p.ic.  Marshal  Ney  joined 
tlw  army,  was  given  the  command  of  the  left  wing,  and  ordered  to 
drive  the  Prussians  out  of  Goaselies,  and  dear  the  road  northward 
of  that  place.  Ney  took  over  his  command  just  When  the  attack 
•on  Gossdias  was  impending.  Hie  Prussians  were  driven  from 
the  town,  but  they  managed  to  effect  a  roundabout  retreat  to 
Ligny,  where  they  ralUed.  Ney  pushed  on  his  advance  up  the 
Brussels  road.  When  he  had  left  for  the  front,  the  emperor 
proceeded  with  Grouchy  lo  reconnoitre  the  Prussian  position  at 
OiUy,  and  handing  over  the  command  of  the  right  wing  to  the 
fflanhal,  whom  he  ordered  to  capture  Gilly,  Napoleon  returned 
to  Charleroi,  to  hasten  the  passage  of  the  French  army  across 
'Ihe  Sambre  and  mass  it  in  the  gap  between  the  allies.  But  the 
bead  of  Vandamme's  corps  had  by  this  time  crossed  the  river, 
kbd  the  emperor  ordered  it  to  assist  Grouchy. 

What  meanwhile  were  the  allies  doing?  There  is  no  doubt 
that,  surprised  by  the  suddenness  of  the  French  advance,  they 
•  were  cau^t  unprepared.  But  on  the  1 5th  the  critical  nature  of 
the  situation  dawned  on  them,  and  naturally  on  BMcher  first,  as 
'Us  headquarters  were  nearer  to  the  frontier  than  Wellington's, 
and  Bhlcher  had  had  previous  cxperienre  of  Napoleon's  powers. 
As  roon  as  the  Prussian  marshal  got  the  first  real  warning  of 
linmincnt  danger,  he  ordered  <in  accordance  with  tl^e  pro- 
flSranged  plan)  an  immedioto  concentmtion  of  his  army  on  his 
inner  flank  at  Sombreffe.  Unfortunately  for  him  the  firet  orders 
lent  to  Billow  by  Gneisenau,  chief  of  the  staff,  at  midni|^t 
June  Z4>i5,  were  written  in  so  stOted  and  hasy  a  style  that  Billow 
did  not  consider  any  espedat  display  of  energy  was  requirod. 
Rcnce  the  IV  Corps  was  neutralised  until  after  the  i6th.  The 
other  tw<a  corps  commanders  (Pirch  I.  and  Tludemann)  received 
•dearer  orders,  and  acted  promptly  enough.  They  concentrated 
'tbdr  scattered  men  and  hastened  to  march  to  the  appomted 
rendezvous.  By  nightfall  Pirch  I.  had  bivouacked  the  U  Corps 
'it  Mazy,  only  4  m.  short 'of  Sombreffe,  and  Thielemann  and 
the  HL  Corps  had  readied  Namnr,  within  easy  distance  of  the 
Ligny  battldicld.  Bhkher  wisdy  shifted  his  own  headquarters 
tv  Sombreffe  on  the  afternoon  of  the  isth. 

Wdlington's  position  at  nightfall  was  very  different,  and  can 

hardly  bo  termed  safe  or  oven  satisfactory.    Definite  news  of 

the  French  advance  only  reached  Brussels  abdut  5  ».ic  on  the 

15th;  and  even  then  the  duke  was  by  no  means  certain  of  the 

direction  of  Napoleon's  main  stroke.    Hence  the  first  orders  be 

Issued  were  for  Ids  divisions  to  concentrate  at  their  respcctiw 

alarm-posts,  intending  later  to  send  them  further  orders  when 

the  situation  had  somewhat  deared  up.    For  whatever  reasons, 

Wdlington  thought  Napoleon  would  attempt  to  turn  his  right 

'and  cut  Ms  line  of  communications.     Had  Napoleon  attempted 

'  this  be  wottl^  (if  successful)  have  driven  th» Anglo-Dutch  army 

back  upon  the  Prussians,  instead  of  separating  the  allies,  as  he 

-actually  tried  to  do4ind  very  neariy  succeeded  in  doii^.    Falling 

to  appreciate  this  fully,  WelUngtonottittad  toontor  an  Immediate 


coaceottition  on  his  tetf  (left)  fiairic  u  Blocker  liad  done,  nad 

the  danger  of  Blticher's  position  was  thus  enormously  increased. 

Curiously  enough,  the  allies  do  not  appear  to  have  decided 
upon  the  course  to  be  taken  in  case  they  were  surprised,  as  they 
virtually  were,  and  their  system  of  interoonununicatjfcm — if 
system  it  can  be  called—^was  most  imperfect.  They  ougiht-to 
have  arranged  loyally.and  promptly  to  let  each  other  luiow  every 
move  it  was  proposed  to  make  and  the  reasons  for  moving,  for 
thus  only  could  concerted  action  be  ensured  when  oonf  ranted 
with  Napoleon,  "  in  whose  presence  it  was  to  little  safe  to  nnke 

.  a  false  movement.* 

Wellington's  subordinates  at  the  critical  point,  however,  acted 
with  admirable  boldness.    Prince  Bernard,  in.  commuid  of  a 
brigade  at  (Quatre  Bns  and  Frasnes,  recognising  the  pressing 
danger  that  threatened  on  the  Brusseb  road,  retained  his  position 
there  to  check  the  Fkcnch  advance,  mstead  of  drawing  off 
westwards  and  nwi  suing  with  the  rest  of  his  divisk>n  at  Ntvellcs; 
and  in  this  action  he  was  firmly  supported  by  his  immediate 
superiors.    It  was  due  to  their  presence  of  mind  that  Wellington 
maintained  his  hold  on  the  important  strategical  point  of  Quatre 
Bras  on  Jtuie  1 5  and  16.   Consequently,  as  Ney's  wing  advnntod 
northward  from  Gosselies  along  the  Brussels  road,  it  came  vpon  an 
advanced  detachment  of  this  force  at  Frasnes.    The  detachment 
was  qulddy  forced  to  reUre  on  its  supporu  at  the  onas^nad^ 
but  here  Prince  Bernard  firmly  held  his  position;    and  by 
his  skilful  use  of  cover  and  the  bigjh  standing  com  he  prevented 
the  French  gauging  the  weakness  of  the  small  force  that  barred 
their  way.     The  day  was  now  drawing  to  a  ckMe,  and  Ney 
decided  wisely  ikot  to  push  his  advance  any  farther.    He  was  la 
front  of  a  force  of  unknown  strength  which  appeared  resolved 
to  stand  its  ground,  his  men  were  tired,  and  the  cannon-thunder 
to  his  right  rear  proclaimed  deariy  that  Giouchy  had  not 
made  much  headway  on  the  Fleurus  road.    To  push  on  farther 
might  isolate  the  left  wing  among  a  host  of  alUcs.    He  therefore 
baited  his  command,  and,  later,  made  a  report  to  the  empem 

Mioaawhile  two  long  hours  had  been  wasted  on  the  rigjst  whilst 
Grouchy  and  Vandamme  deliberated  ever  thdr  plan  of  action  in 
front  of  the  Prussian  brigade  at  Gilly,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
emperor  himself  again  reached  the  front,  about  5.30  p.ic.,  that 
\igour  replaced  indecision.  There  was  a  brief  bombardment, 
and  then  Vandamme's  corps  was  scsit  forward  With  the  bayonet 
to  drive  out  the  foe.  The  shpdc  was  too  great,  the  Pruanans 
gave  way  immediately  and  were  chased  back  into  the  woods  by 
cavalry  Grouchy  now  poshed  on  towards  Fleurus,  which  was 
still  held  by  Blttcher's  troops,  and  there  the  advance  came  to  a 
lu^t,  as  the  light  was  failing  and  the  tnx^  eihausted. 

Thus,  thanks  to  Zieten's  fine  delajrmg  actkm,  Blficfaer  by 
nigbtfaU  on  June  15  had  secured  most  of  the  ground  requisite 
for  his  pre-arranged  concentration,  for  one  corps  was  in  position, 
and  two  others  werr  at  hand.  Billow's  corps  was  unavailahk 
for  the  reason  already  given,  but  of  thiv^act  BlOcher  was  stiB 
necessarily  ignorant.  Wdlington,  owing  to  bis  origmal  disposi- 
tions and  the  slowness  of  his  concentration,  had  only  retained 
a  grip  on  Quatre  Bras  thanks  to  the  boldness  of  his  subordinates 
on  the  ipot  His  other  troops  were  assembling.  I  Corps, 
Nivdles,  Brahic-le-C6mte  and  Enghien,  U  Corps,  Ath,  Gra»- 
mont  and  Sottcghem,  htfavy  cavalry  at  N!nove{  Reserve  at 
Brussels  During  the  ni|^t  of  the  i  sth  orders  weresent  for  the 
divisions  to  move  eastwards  towards  Nivelles,  and  at  d^wn  the 
RestTve  marched  for  Mt.  S.  Jean.  Thus  Wellington  did  not 
even  yet  realize  the  full  significance  of  the  emperor's  opening 
moves. 

But  if  the  intelltgenoe  which  the  dvike  rightly  relied  on  had 
come  to  hand  on  the  rsth,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  he  would 
have  effected  a  mora  expeditious  concentration  on  his  inner  fiank. 
His  trusted  inteDigcnre  officer,  Cdond  Colquhovn  Grant,  was  at 
this  time  in  France,  and  it  had  been  arranged  that  his  reports 
should  be  reodvcd  at  the  duke's  outposts  by  Genenl  DQnbctg, 
for  transmission  to  the  duke.  On  June  15  Grant  wrote  tq 
Wdlington  stating  that  the  French  were  advancing,  and  that 
French  ofiioerB  spoke  frcdy  about  a  dedsive  action  bdng  fought 
within  threedays.     Bnt  DBmbeng,  anofatjagtaliiinwlf  the  ri#tt 


WATERLOO  CAMPAIGM 


•ns 


01  fldcctiDg  the  repoftfl  wfaicfa  were  worth  forwardh^,  sent  it 
backf  saying  that,  so  far  from  convincing  him  that  the  emperor 
was  advancing  to  give  battle,  it  assured  him  of  the  contrary. 
Owing  to  this  officer's  presumptuous  folly  Grant's  information 
only  reached  the  diLke  on  June  x8,  too  late  to  be  of  use. 

The  Army  of  the  North  on  this  night  was  disposed  as  follows: 
—The  left  wing  stretched  from  Fxasnes  back^o  the  Sambre  at 
Marchienne  and  Thuin.  Reille's  corps  was  to  the  front  and  was 
covered  by  the  light  cavalry  of  the  Guard  and  PiriTs  lanoers. 
Ney's  headquarters  were  at  Gosselies;  one  division  (Girard's) 
was  at  Wangenies  and  acted  as  a  link  between  the  two  wings. 
The  right  wing,  under  Grouchy,  had  come  to  a  halt  in  fsont  of 
Fleurus.  It  was  covered  by  Pajol's  and  Ezelmans*  cavalry  corps. 
Vandamme's  was  the  leading  infantry  corps,  and  it  bivouacked 
with  its  head  at  Winage.  Gerard's  corps  (with  which  was 
Kellermann^  cuirassier  corps)  baited  astride  the  Sambre  at 
Chatelet.  Gerard's  advance  had  been  delayed  owing  to  the 
commander  of  his  leading  divurfon  deserting  with  his  staff  to 
the  Prussians.  Consequently  the  IV.  Coips  had  notassbtcd 
at  all  in'  the  passage  of  the  river;  though  had  it  only  been 
present,  it  would  have  been  magnificent^  placed  to  co-operate 
with  Grouchy  in  the  action  of  Gilly.  Thus  each  of  these 
strategical  coverhig  forces  was  itse|f  proteacd  by  zh.  adequate 
tactical  advanced  guard,  to  perform  the  service  of  local  pro- 
tection. The  centre  (or  reserve)  was  meanwhile  disposed  as 
follows:  The  Guard  was  halted  between  GiJly  and  Chorlerol; 
the  emperor's  headquarters  being  at  the  lattet  place.  Milhaud's 
Cuirassier  corps  and  Lobau's  (VI.)  corps  were  south  of  the  Sambre, 
between  Charleroi  and  Jamioulz.  In  this  particular  the  execu- 
tion on  June  15  fell  short  of  the  original  conception,  for  at  night- 
fall about  oAe-third  of  the  French  army  was  still  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  iSver.  This,  however,  signified  little^  for  the  emperor 
still  occupied  a  dominant  strategical  position. 

Napoleon  had  now  perfected  his  arrangements  for  the  invasion 
of  Belgium,  and  his  army  was  organized  definitely  in  two  wings 
and  a  reserve;  the  latter  being  so  placed  that  it  could  be  broo^ 
"  into  action  on  either  wing  as  circumstances  dictated."  .As 
circumstances  dictated,  either  wing  would  fasten  upon  one  of  the 
allied  armies  and  detain  it  until  the  reserve  had  timib  to  coifae 
op  and  complete  its  destruction;  the  other  wing  meantime  de- 
Caintng  the  other  allied  army  and  pieventing  its  commander 
'kom  coming  to  his  colleague's  assistance.  The  emperor  was  not 
in  poaseasion  of  the  Namur^NiveUcs  road.  The  aiUes  woe  thus 
afforded  an  opportunity  of  committing  the  very  blunder  which 
Napoleon  longed  for,  namely  to  attempt  a  risky  forward  oon« 
eentsation.  His  dispositions  on  the  night  of  the  I5ti»*i6th  were 
skilfully  calculated  t6  encoUrage  the  allies  to  mass  at  Quatre 
Bras  and  Sombreffe,  and  his  covering  force  were  pushed  suffi- 
ciently forward — to  Frasnes  and  Fleunis-rrto  grip  whichever  ally 
adventured  bis  army  first.  At  nightfall  the  Army  of  the  North 
by  concentrated  "  in  a  square  whose  sides  raeaavred  la  m.  each; 
and  it  could  with  equal  facility  swing  aganst  the  Prussians  ov 
tbe  Aaglo-Dutcb,  and  was  alrttdy  placed  between  them." 

Early  on  the  morning  of  June  16  Prince  Bernard  was  icfnforoed 
at  Quatre  Bras  by  the  rest  of  his  division  (Perponcher's);  and 
Wellington's  other  troops  were  now  all  on  the  march  eastward 
except  the  reserve,  who  wen  heading  southwards  and  halted 
at  the  croas-Doad  of  Mt.  S.  Jean  until  the  duke  had  resolved  that 
their  obfective  should  be  Quatre  Bras.  They  then  ouirched  in 
that  direction.  BKLcher  meanwhile  was  making  his  arrangements 
to  hold  a  position  to  the  south  of  the  Namur-Nivcllea  road  and 
(biia  maintain  uninterrupted  communication  with  WeUington  at 
Qaatre  Bras.  In  this  way  he  would  keep  open  the  Namur  road, 
and  also  that  from  Gembioux  for  Billow's  anival. 

Napoleon  spent  the  early  morning  in  dosing  up  hb  army,  and 
writing  what  proved  to  be  the  most  important  letter  of  the 
campaign  to  Ney  (Charleroi,  about  8  am.):  "  I  have  adopted  as 
the  gensnl  principle  for  this  campaign  to  divide  my  army  into 
two  wings  and  a  reserve. . . .  The  Guard  will  form  the  reserve, 
and  I  shall  bring  it  into  action  on  either  wing  just  as  circumr 
staaoes  dictate.  . . ,  According  to  circumstances  I  shall  weaken 
to  atrengthoi  my  icterve. ..."  Here,  in  its  sinplnt 


form,  is  the  principle  that  undeiHes  NapOlcou'ft  stnitegy  in  18  x  5. 
Only  on  the  wing  on  which  the  reserve  is  brought  into  action 
will  a  decisive  result  be  aimed  at  The  other  is  to  be  used  ez- 
cbisively  to  neutralize  the  other  enemy,  by  holding  him  at  bay. 

Ni4>oleon's  original  plan  for  the  i6th  was  based  on  the  assump- 
tion that  the  aUies,  who  had  been  caught  napping,  would 
not  attempt  a  risky  forward  concentration;  and  he  intended 
therefore  to  push  an  advanced  guard  as  far  as  Gembioux,  for  the 
purpose  of  feeling  for  and  warding  off  Blflchar.  To  assist  this 
operation  the  reserve  would  move  at  first  to  Fleunis  to  reinforce 
Grouchy,  should  be  need  assistance  in  driving  back  Blucher's 
troops;  but,  once  bt  possession  of  Sombreffe,  t^  emperor  would 
swing  the  reserve  westwards  and  join  Ney,  who,  it  was  supposed, 
wquld  have  in  the  meantime  masteredQuatre  Bras.  In  pursuance 
of  this  object  Ney,  to  whom  Kellermann  was  now  attached, 
was  to  mass  at  (Quatre  Bras  and  push  an  advanced  guard  6  m. 
northward  of  that  place,  with  a  connecting  division  at  Marbais 
to  link  him  with  Gnmcfay.  The  centre  and  left  wing  together 
would  then  make  a  night-mardi  to  Brussels.  The  allies  would 
thus  be  irremediably  aundeied,  and  all  that  remamed  would 
be  to  destroy  them  in  detail.  Napoleon  now  awaited  further 
information  from  his  wing  commanders  at  Charlaroi,  where  he 
massed  the  VI.  Corps  (Lobau),  to  save  it,  if  possible,  from  a 
harassing  countermarch,  as  it  appeared  likely,  that  it  would 
only  be  wanted  for  the  match  to  Brussels.  Ney  spent  the 
morning  fai  masting  his  two  corps,  and  in  reconnoitring  the 
enemy  at  Quatre  Bras,  who,  as  he  was.  informed,  bad  been  rein* 
forced.  But  up  tiU  noon  he  took  no  serious  step  to  capture  the 
cross-roads,  wUch  then  lay  at  hh  mercy;  Groudiy  meantime 
reported  from  Fleurus  that  Prussian  masses  weie  coming  yp 
from  Namur,  but  Napoleon  does  not  appear  to  have  attached 
much  importance  to  this  report.  He  was  still  at  Charleroi 
when,  between  9  and  xo.  a.m.,  lurther  news  readied  him  from 
the  left  that  considerable  hostile  forces  were  visible  at  Quatre 
Bras.  He  at  once  wrote  to  Ney  saying  that  these  could  only  be 
some  of  WeliiBgton's  troops,  and  that  Ney  was  to  concentrate 
hit  force  and  crush  what  was  in  front  of  him,  adding  that  he 
was  to  send  all  reports  to  Fleurus.  Then,  keeping  Lobau  pro- 
^dsiooABy  at  Chadesoi,  Napoleon  hastened  to  Fkums,  arrivhig 
about  XX.  He  found  that  Grouchy  had  made  little  ptogctn 
b^^ond  the  town.  As  he  surveyed  the  field  from  the  windmill 
nortK.oi  fleurus  it  atmdi  him  as  significant  that  BlUchci*^ 
tMops  were  disposed  paralld  to  the  Namur  road»  as  if  to 
cover  a  forward  concentration,  and  not  at  tight  an^es  to  ft« 
as  they  would  be  had  they  been  .covering  a  retreat.  Still, 
at  the  moment,  onhr  one  corps  was  showing.  Posdbly,  how4 
ever,  the  decisive  day  of  the  campaign  had  come.  By  the 
emperor's  arrangemeats  Vandammc,  G6card,  Pajol  and  Ezd- 
mans  woukl  be  avaikfale  after  d  p jl  to  attack  whatever  force 
BlOcher  might  command,  and  the  Guard  and  Milhaud  would 
be  at  hand  to  aa  as  reserve.  The  wonder  is  that  he  did 
not  now  order  Lobau  to  mcve  to  some  Intermediate  position, 
such  as  Wangenies,  where  he  would  be  available  for  dthes 
wing  as  dicumstanoos  dictated.  At  t  fji.  Napoleon  ordered 
Ney  to  Dsaster  Quatre  Bras,  and  added  that  the  emperor  would 
stuck  the  corps  which  he  saw  in  front  of  him.  Whidiever  wing 
succeeded  first  would  then  whed  inwards  and  help  the  other* 
Not  yet  had  Napoleon  grasped  the  full  significance  of  the  allied 
movements,  for  the  decisive  flank  had  not  yet  become  dear. 

BlQcher  had  already  determined  to  fight.  Meanwhile,  Welling* 
ton,  having  reached  Quatre  Bras  in  the  morning,  wrote  to  him 
to  concert  the  day's  operations;  then,  as  ail  waa  quiet  in  his 
front,  he  rode  over  to  meet  Blttchcr  at  Bxye.  The  two  ^chiefs, 
sozveyiag  the  French  army  in  thdr  front,  considered  that  no 
serious  force  was  in  £n>nt  of  Quatre  Bras,  and  Wellingten  temn»* 
ated  the  interview  with  the  conditional  promise  that  he  would 
bring  his  army  to  Blucher's  assistance  at  Liguy,  if  he  was  not 
attacked  himself.  Tlds  promise,  of  course,  was  never  fnlfiUed, 
for  Ney  eoployed  the  duke  all  day  at  Quatre  Bras;  and,  furthep* 
niore,  the  dake's  tardy  cencentntioa  made  it  quite  impossible  for 
himtahdpBUlcherdirectlyonthelignybattleiidd.  Onliisretuiii 
to  Quatm  Braahe  found  that  a  cdsit  had  akeady  faatn  seacbed. 


376 


WATERLOO  CAMPAIGN 


LIGNY   "^ 

and 
QUATRE  BRAS 


«>H'ry^ 


...«••  tW^iwf>>«w 


Map  II. 


Key  had  aUowed  the  valoable  houn  to  dip  ttniy  when  be 
codd  have  stomied  Qoatre  Bras  with  ease  «i]d  ensured  co- 
operation with  his  master.  Remembering  the  stiiprises 
that  the  battles  fai  Spain  had  provided  for  the  maishaJs 
opposed  to  the  duke,  he  massed  neatly  the  whole 
of  Reffle's  ooips  before  he  advanced.  The  prince  oi  Orange,  in 
command  at  Qoatre  Bras,  had  only  fsoo.  troops.  But  by 
boldly  scattering  his  force  and  by  maldng  use  of  the  Boasu  wood 
and  the  lanns,  he  covered  the  cross-roads  and  showed  a  firm 
front  to  the  veiy  superior  force  iriiich  Ney  commanded.  It 
was  then  a  p.if.  The  Dutch-Belgian  troops  to  the  east  of  the 
Brussek  highway  were  at  once  forced  back  by  the  mass  of  men 
moved  against  them,  and  it  looked  as  if  the  whole  defence 
Would  crumple  up.  But  about  3  p.]f.  timely  succour  reached 
the  field— Van  Merlen's  cavaby  from  NiveUes,  Piclon  and  the 
Sth  division  from  Brussels~and  Wellington  returned  and  took 
over  the  command.  Picton  at  once  stopped  the  victorious  French 
advance  to  the  east  of  the  xoad,  but  the  remaining  division 
0£r6ffle)  of  Rcille's  corps  now  reached  the  front  and  Ney  flung 
it  into  the  Bossu  wood  to  dear  that  {dace  and  keep  bis  left  flank 
free.  A  fierce  fight  now  broke  out  all  along  the  hne,  in  vdiich 
J£r6me  steadily  made  ground  in  the  Bossu  wood,  while  Picton 
showing  a  dauntless  front  maintained  his  position.  The  Bruns- 
wick contingent  now  reached  the  field,  but  their  duke  whilst 
leading  a  chaige  received  a  mortal  wound  and  the  attack  failed. 
It  was  nearly  4.r5  pjl  when  Ney  received  Napoleon's  2  p.if. 
order,  and  in  obecfienoe  to  it  he  made  another  attack,  in  which 
the  Bossu  wood  was  virtually  dearcd  of  its  defenders.  However, 
about  5  P.1C.  further  reinforcements  reached  Wellington,  Allen's 
(3rd)  division  coming  in  from  Nivdles.  Ney  now  realized  that 
he  could  only  capture  Quatre  Bras  with  D'Erbn's  helpb 

But  shortly  afterwards  (about  5.15)  he  heard  that  the  I. 
Corps,  without  hia  direct  order  or  knowledge,  had  mowd  east- 
W9idi  to  aMist  in  th«  battle  of  ligay.   Immediately  aftcnrud* 


(about  S'3o)  he  recdved  an  order  from  Napoleon  to  sdse  Qoatxb 
Bna  and  then  turn  eastwards  to  crush  Blflcher,  who  was  cauc^t 
at  ligny.  Napoleon  added,  **  Th^  fate  of  F^moe  is  in  your 
hands."  Ney's  duty  was  merdy  to  hold  Wellington  for  certain 
at  Quatre  Bras  and  aUow  D'Erlon  to  carry  out  the  movement 
which  must  ensure  a  decisive  result  at  Ugny,  in  accordance 
with  Napoleon's  plan  of  campaign:  In  any  case  D'Exlon  could 
not  come  back  in  time  to  give  him  effectual  hdp.  But  incai^ 
able  of  grasping  the  dtuation,  and  beside  himsdf  with  nge^ 
Ney  sent  imperative  orders  to  D'Erlon  to  return  at  once,  and 
fmOmediatdy  afterwards  he  ordered  KeUeimann  to  lead  fab  one 
available  cuirassier  brigade  and  break  through  Wellington's 
line.  The  charge  was  admirably  executed;  it  overthrew  one 
British  regiment  which  it  caught  In  line,  but  being  uosnp* 
ported  it  achieved  nothing  further  of  importance,  and  was 
beaten  back.  When  this  attempt  to  master  the  cross-roads 
had  ended  in  faUure,  Ney  recdved  a  verbal  message  from  tho 
emperor,  enjoining  him  that,  whatever  happened  at  Quatre 
Bras,  D'Erion  must  be  allowed  to  carry  out  the  movement  ondcred 
by  the  emperor.  The  bearer.  Major  Baudus,  knowing  the  im* 
portanoe  of  the  manoeuvre  which  the  I.  CbrpswaSwcanyingout, 
strove  to  induce  Ney  to  reconsider  D'Erlon's  reoll;  but  the 
marshal  refused  and  ended  the  discusdon  by  plunging  into  the 
fight.  Shortly  afterwards  (about  7  P.11.)  Wdlington  recdved 
further  reinforcements  (Cooke's  divbion  of  the  British  Guards)^ 
which  brought  his  force  up  to  33,000  against  Ney^s  22,000  men. 
The  duke  then  attacked  strenuously  all  along  the  line,  and 
before  darkness  stopped  the  fight  he  drove  back  the  French  to 
their  rooming  podtion  at  Frasnes.  The  losses  were  as  follows : 
An^o-Dutch  4700,  and  French  4300;  At  9  p.il,  when  the  battle 
was  lost  and  won,  D'Erion's  corps  arrived.-  It  had  already 
reached  the  edge  of  the  Ligny  battlefield  when  the  counter-order 
arrived,  and  conniving. that  he  was  still  under  Maxahal  Ney 
(^  the  officer  who  bw6  the  peodl-notediccittinc  Ney  to  dctacb 


WATERLOO  CAMPAIGN 


377 


D'EdoB,  hwl  on  his  own  initiative  onkred  the  I.  Cdtps  to  the 
eastwanl)  the  general  considered  he  ought  to  return  to  the  left 
wing,  and  leaving  one  division  at  Wagnelie  he  withdrew  his  force. 
The  incident  was  immeasurably  unfortunate  for  the  French. 
Had  the  I.  Corps  been  thrown  into  the  doubtful  struggle  at 
Quatre  Bras,  it  must  have  crushed  WeUingtmi;  had  it  been  used 
at  irigny  it  would  have  entailed  Blttcher's  annihilation.  But 
oscillating  between  the  two  fields,  it  took  part  in  neither.  When 
the  fighting  was  over,  at  lo  p.ic.,  Ney  wrote  a  short  and  some- 
what one-sided  account  of  the  action  to  Soult. 

On  the  other  flank  there  had  meanwhile  been  waged  the  bitterly 
fought  battle  of  ligny.  As  BlQcher's  dispositions  gradually 
g^^g^,  became  dearer  the  emperor  reahzed  that  the  first 
decisive  day  of  the  campaign  had  actually  oome,  and 
he  promptly,  made  arrangements  for  defeating  the  Prussian 
army  in  his  front.  Bldcher,  to  cover  the  Namur  road,  held  with 
the  L  Corps  the  villages  of  Brye,  St  Amand  and  Ligny,  whilst 
behind  his  centre  was  mi^^sed  the  IL  Corps,  and  on  his  left  was 
placed  the  III.  Corps.  Wellington  and  Bttlow  on  arrival  would 
act  as  general  reserve.  Bliicher's  army,  as  he  finally  diq;x)8ed  it, 
was  quite  visible  to  Napoleon  on  the  bare  open  slopes  which 
it  occupied  above  St  Amand  and  Ligny,  the  IL  Corps  being 
especiaUy  exposed.  The  emperor  decided  to  beardown  Bliicher's 
centre  and  right  with  the  corps  of  Vandamme  and  Gerard  and 
with  Girard's  division  which  he  had  drawn  into  his  operations, 
containing  the  Prussian  left  meanwhile  with  the  squadrons  of 
Pajol  and  Exelmans,  assisted  by  a  few  infantry.  The  Guard  and 
MUhaud  were  in  hand  at  Fleurus.  Further,  he  could  order  up 
Lobau,  and  direct  Ney  to  move  his  rearward  corps  across  and 
form  it  up  behind  BlQcher's  right.  When  the  battle  was  ripe,  he 
would  crush  the  Prussian  centre  and  right  between  the  Guaitl  and 
D'Erlon's  corps.  It  was  a  somewhat  complicated  manoeuvre; 
for  he  was  attempting  to  oujtflank  his  enemy  with  a  corps  that  he 
had  subordinated  to  Marshal  Ney.  Much  depended  on  whether 
Ney  would  grasp  the  full  purport  of  his  orders;  in  a  similar  case 
at  Bautaen  he  had  failed  to  do  so,  and  be  failed  as  bad^y  now. 
The  usual' Napoleonic  simplicity  was  wanting  at  Ligny,  and  he 
paid  in  full  for  the  want. 

It  was  just  after  2*30  p.ic.  when  Napoleon,  hearing  the  sound 
of  Ncy*s  cannon  to  the  westward  and  reaKaing  that  Wellington 
was  attacked  and  Jieutralized,  commenced  the  battle  at  I4gny. 
Bliicher's  force  was  numerically  very  superior.  The  Prus^ans 
numbered  a^ut  83,000  men  to  Napoleon's  7x, 000  •(including 
Lobau,  who  only  jcame  up  at  the  end  of  the  day).  A  fierce  fight 
was  soon  raging  for  the  villages.  Vandamme  and  Girard  attacked 
S.  Amand,  whilst  Gerard  attempted  to  storm  Ligny;  on  the 
right  Grouchy  hdd  Thielemann  in  play,  and  in  the  centre  near 
Fleurus  were  the  Guard  and  Milhaud  in  reserve,  dose  to  the 
emperor's  headquarters  on  the  mill.  At  3.2  5  P.H.,  when  the  battle 
was  in  full  swing,  Napoleon  wrote  in  dupltcaie  to  Ney,  saying, 
'*  The  fate  of  France  is  in  your  hands,"  and  ordibring  the  marshal 
to  master  Quatre  Bras  and  move  eastwards  to  assist  at  Ligny. 
Immediately  afterwards,  hearing  that  Ney  had  30,000  men  in 
front  of  him,  he  sent  the  "  pencil-note  "  by  General  La  B6doydre 
which  directed  Ney  to  detach  D'Erlon's  corps  to  Ligny.  This, 
as  we  know,  the  A.D.C.  in  a  fit  of  mistaken  seal  took  upon  himself 
to  do.  Hence  the  corps  appeared  too  soon,  and  in  the  wrong 
direction..  But  neither  order  made  it  suffidently  dear  to  Ney 
that  co-operation  at  Ligny  was  the  essential,  provided  that 
Wellington  was  held  fast  at  Quatre  Bras.  In  oth-'  words,  Ney 
had  merely  to  hold  Wdlington  with  part  of  the  French  left  wing 
all  day,  and  detach  the  reinainder  of  his  force  to  co-operate  In  the 
deathblow  at  Ligny.  This  is  dear  when  the  first  letter  to  Ney 
is  studied  with  the  orders,  as  it  was  meant  to  be;  but  Ney  in  tl^ 
heat  of  action  misread  the  later  instructions.  Meanwhile  the 
emperor  ordered  Lobau  to  bring  up  his  corps  at  once  to  Fleurus 
where  he  could  hardly  be  of  gteat  service,  whereas  had  he  been 
directed  to  move  on  Wagnd^e  he  might  have  co-operated  in  the 
last  struggle  far  more  effidently.  The  fight  for  the  villages 
continued  to  rage  fiercely  and  incessantly,  each  side  behaving  as  il 
its  mortal  foe  was  in  front.  The  villages  were  captured  and  re- 
captured, but  generally  the  French  hid  the  better  of  the  fighting. 


for  they  compelled  Blflcher  to  use  up  more  and  more  of  his 
reserves,  and  prevented  the  Prussians  from  breaking  through  .to 
the  southward  of  S.  Amand.  Eventually  the  fighting  became  so 
furious  that  the  troops  engaged  literally  mdted  away,  particu- 
larly at  Ligny,  and  the  emperor  was  finally  compelled  to  call 
on  his  reserve  to  replenish  the  troops  first  engaged.  But  hardly 
had  the  Young  and  Middle  Guard  marched  off  to  reinforce 
Vandamme  and  G&rard,  when  Vandamme  sent  word  that  a  hostile 
column,  over  30,000  strong,  was  threatening  the  French  left  (in 
reality  this  was  D'Erlon's  corps).  Vandamme's  exhausted  troopa 
were  unnerved  at  the  sight  of  this  fresh  foe,  and  an  indpient 
panic  was  only  quelled  by  turning  guns  on  the  fugitives.  It  was 
now  between  $.$0  and  6.  The  empercHr  conduded  that  this 
could  not  be  D'EHon,  because  he  had  arrived  too  soon  and  was 
marrhing  in  an  evidently  wrong  direction.  He -at  once  sent  an 
officer  to  reconnoitre.  Meanwhile  the  reinforcements  which  he 
had  despatched  were  most  opportune.  The  Prussians  had  seised 
the  opportunity  offered  by  the  slackening  x>f  the  French  attacks 
to  rally  and  deliver  a  counterstroke,  which  was  parried,  after 
achieving  a  small  measure  of  success,  by  the  bayonets  of  the 
Young  Guard.  It  was  about  6.30  before  Napoleon  learned  that 
the  unknown  force  was  actually  D'Erlon's,  and  somewhat  later 
he  heard  that  it  had  counter-marched  and  withdrawn  westwards. 
Repeated  orders  sent  to  the  commander  of  the  division  left  by 
D'Erion  failed  to  induce  him  to  engage  his  command  dedsivdy, 
and  thus  Napoleon  obtained  no  direct  co-operation  from  his 
left  wing  on  this,  the  first  decisive  day  of  the  campaign.  Thus 
relieved  about  his  left,  but  resilizing  that  D'Erion  had  returned 
to  Ney,  the  emperor  had  perforce  to  finish  the  battle  single* 
handed.  BlOcher  now  delivered  a  general  counterstroke  against 
Vandamme.  Massing  every  available  man  he  led  the  attack  in 
person;  but  he  vainly  attempted  to  make  ground  to  the  south 
of  S.  Amand;  the  exhausted  Prussians  were  overpowoed  by 
the  chasseurs  of  the  Guard  and  forced  to  retire  in  disorder. 
Napoleon's  opportunity  to  finish  the  "battle  had  come  at  last. 
He  oould  at  least  beat  Blflcher  and  render  the  Prussians  unfit 
for  any  serious  operation  except  retreat  on  June  17,  although 
he  could  no  longer  expect  to  destroy  the  Prussian  army.  Lobau'a 
corps,  too,  was  now  aniving  and  forming  up  on  the  heights  east  ol 
Fleurus.  The  artillery  of  the  (juard,  therefore,  came  into  action 
above  Ligny  to  prepare  BlUcher's  fcentre  for  assaulL  Some 
delay  was  occasioned  by  a  thunderstorm;  but,  as  this  passed 
over,  the  guns  opened  and  the  Old  IGuard  and  Milhaud*s  cuiraa* 
siers  proceeded  to  form  up  opposite  to  Ligny.  About  7.45  pj(. 
a  crashing  salvo  of  60  guns  gave  the  signal  for  a  combined  assault 
to  be  del{vered  by  G£nrd  and  the  Giurd,  with  Milhaud  moving 
on  thdr  right  flank.  BlUcher's  worn-out  soldiers  could  not 
withstand  the  tremendous  impact  of  Napoleon's  choicest  troops^ 
and  the  Prussian  centre  was  pierced  and  broken.  But  the  gallant 
old  marshal  still  had  some  fresh  squadrons  in  hand,  and  he 
promptly  launched  them  to  stem  the  French  advance.  While 
leading  one  of  the  charges  in  person  his  horse  was  shot  and  fell 
under  him,  but  he  was  rescued  and  borne  in  a  semi-consdout 
condition  from  the  fidd.  Without  doubt,  the  personal  risk  to 
which  BlUcher  exposed  himself  at  this  crisis  was  far  too  great; 
for  it  was  essential  that  the  command  of  the  Prussian  army 
should  remain  vested  in  a  chief  who  would  loyally  keep  in  touch 
and  act  entirely  m  concert  with  his  colleague.  In  this  way  only 
could  the  allies  hope  to  obtain  a  decisive  success  against  Napoleon. 
By  9  P.1C.  the  main  battle  was  over,  and  eveiyii'here  the  French 
pushed  resistlessly  forward.  Napoleon  was  master  of  Bliicher's 
battlefidd,  and  the  beaten  Prussians  had  retired  to  the  north  of 
the  Namtur-Nivdles  toad.  Under  the  circumstances,  the  late 
hour,  the  failing  light  and  the  lad:  of  information  as  to  events 
on  the  left  wing,  immediate  pursuit  was  out  of  the  question. 

The  execution  had  again  fallen  short  of  the  conception; 
Blflcher  though  beaten  was  not  destroyed,  nor  was  his  line  with 
Wdlington  cut.  If  the  Prussians  now  retired  northwards, 
paraUd  to  the  direction  which  Wdlington  would  follow  perforce 
on  the  morrow,  the  chance  of  00-operating  in  a  decisive  battle 
would  still  remain  to  the  allies;  and  Gneisenau's  order  issued 
by  moonlight,  directing  the  retreat  on  TillyandWavre,wcat 


378 


WATERLOO  CAMPAIGN 


fartoenratingtlieponbiHtyofsiidiooiiilitnedactioii.  However, 
Gneiaeiian  ms  veiy  remiss  in  not  immediately  reporting  this 
vital  move  and  the  necessity  for  it  to  tae  duke,  as  it  left  the 
An^b-Dutch  inner  flank  quite  eatposed.  Gneisenau  appaimtly 
selected  Wavre,  not  with,  the  intention  of  agsisting  his  ally,' 
but  r^her  to  reestablish  his  own  line  of  communication,  and 
the  presence  of  the  Prpssians  on  the  fidd  of  battle  of  Watedoo 
must  be  put  doVrn.  to  the  immortal  credit  of  Bliicfaer  and 
Grolmann,  his  quartermaster-generaL  Gneisenau  at  this  crisis 
in  the  affdrs  of  the  allies  does  not  sppeax  to  have  subordinated 
everything  to  cooperation  at  all  cost  with  Wellington,  and  he 
allowed  supply  considerations  and  the  reestablisbmaent  of  his 
oommunications  to  overweigh  the  paramount,  necessity  of  ar- 
ranging concerted  action  with  his  ally.  Probably  Wellington's 
failure  to  co-operate  at  Llgny  had  heightened  the  Prussian 
chief-of>staff's  unworthy  suspicions  of  the  good  faith  and 
soldierly  qualifications  of  the  British  marshal;  and  it  was  well  for 
the  allies  that  Blflcher  was  abb  to  resume  command  before 
Napoleon  had  time  to  profit  from  the  dissensions  that  would 
probably  have  arisen  had  Gneisenau  remained  in  controL  The 
casualties  in  the  hard-fought  battle  of  Ligny  were  very  heavy. 
The  Prussians  lost  about  x2,ooo  men  and  a  i  guns,  and  the  French 
8500;  in  Ligny  more  Uian  4000  dead  lay  on«an  axes  of  about 
400  sq.  3rds.,  and  in  one  of  the  hanUets  of  S.  Amand  there  lay, 
almoet  to  a  man,  the  gallant  Sand  of  the  line  (Girard's  division). 
So  ck»e  was  the  fighting  that  most  of  the  20,000  casualties  lay 
on  about  2  sq.  m.  c^  ground.    It  was  a  really  Napoleonic  battle. 

Despite  D'Erlon's  misadventure  the  emperor  had  the  game 
still  m  his  hands,  for  Ney's  failure  had  acf usJly  placed  the  Anglo* 
Dutch  army  m  a  precanous  position.  So  true  is  it  that  a  tactical 
failure  encountered  in  carrying  out  a  sound  strategical  plan 
matters  but  little.  Again  Napoleon's  plan  of  campaign  had 
succeeded.  The  emperor  havhsg  beaten  Blttcher,  the  latter 
must  fall  back  to  rally  and  re-form,  and  call  in  Btilow,  who  had 
only  reached  the  neighbourhood  of  Gembloux  on  June  x6; 
whilst  on  the  other  flank  Ney,  reinforced  by  D'Erlon's  fresh 
corps,  lay  in  front  of  WelUngton,  and  the  mmhal  could  fasten 
upon  the  Anglo-Dutch  army  and  hold  it  fast  during  the  early 
morning  of  June  17,  sufficiently  long  to  allow  the  en^ror  to 
dose  round  his  foe's  open  left  flank  and  deal  him  a  deathblow. 
But  it  was  elearly  essential  to  deal  with  Wdlington  on  the 
morrow,  ere  BlQcher  could  again  appear  on  the  scene.  Welling- 
ton was  by  no  means  so  well  acquainted  with  the  details  of  the 
Prussian  defeat  at  Ligny  as  he  ought  to  have  been.  It  is  true 
that,  before  leading  the  final  charge,  BlOcher  despatched  an 
8ide-de<»mp  to  his  colleague,  to  tell  him  that  he  was  forced  to 
retire;  but  this  officer  was  shot  and  the  message  remained 
undelivered.  To  send  a  message  of  such  vital  importance  by  a 
single  orderly  was  a  piece  of  bad  staff  work.  It  should  have 
been  sent  in  triplicate  at  least,  and  it  was  Gneisenau's  duty 
to  repeat  the  message  directly  he  assumed  tempoiary  command. 
Opposed  as  they  were  to  Napoleon,  Gneisenau's  neglect  involved 
tl^m  in  an  unnecessary  and  very  grave  risk. 

Napoleon  was  unwell,  and  consequently  was  not  in  the  saddle 
on  the  17th  as  early  as  he  would  otherwise  have  been.  In  ha 
j^^  jj^  absence  neither  Ney  nor  Soult  appears  to  have  made 
any  serious  arrangements  for  an  advance,  although 
every  minute  was  now  golden.  During  the  night  more  reinforce- 
ments arrived  for  Wellington,  and  on  the  morning  of  June  17 
the  duke  had  most  of  his  army  about  Quatre  Bras.  But  it  was 
34  hours  too  late,  for  Blttcher's  defeat  had  rendered  the  Anglo 
Dutch  position  untenable.  Early  in  the  morning  Wdlington 
(still  ignorant  of  the  exact  position  of  his  ally)  sent  out  an  officer, 
with  an  adequate  escort,  to  establish  touch  with  the  Prussians. 
This  staff  officer  discovered  and  reported  that  the  Prussians  were 
drawing  off  northwards  to  rally  at  Wavre;  and  about  9  A.if.  a 
Prussian  orderly  officer  arrived  from  Gneisenau  to  explain  the 
situation  and  l^m  Wellington's  plans.  The  duke  replied  that 
he  should  fall  back  on  Mt  S.  Jean,  and  would  accept  battle  there, 
in  a  selected  position  to  the  south  of  the  Forest  of  Soignes, 
provided  he  was  assured  of  the  support  of  one  of  Blttcher's 
corps.    Like  the  good  soldier  and  loyal  ally  fhat  he  was,  he  now 


subordinated  everything  to  the  one  cfpfisl  of 

so  as  to  remain  in  conununication  with  BlQdier.    It  was  a 

on  June  z8  before  he  received  the  answer  to  his  suggestion. 

Eariy  on  the  17th  the  Prussians  dxew  off  northwsrds  on  three 
roads,  Thielemann  covering  the  withdrawal  •and  moving  via 
Gembloux  to  join  hands  with  Billow.  The  French  cavah^  00 
the  right,  hearing  troops  in  motion  on  the  Namur  road,  dashed  in 
pursuit  down  the  turnpike  road  shortly  after  dawn,  caught  up  the 
fugitives  and  captured  them.  They  turned  out  to  be  stragglers; 
but  their  capture  for  a  time  helped  to  confirm  the  idea,  prevalent 
in  the  French  army,  that  BlUcher  was  drawing  off  towards  his 
base.  Some  dday  too  was  necessary  before  Napoleon  could 
finally  settle  on  his  plan  for  this  day.  The  situation  was  still 
obscure,  details  as  to  what  had  happoied  on  the  French  left  were 
wanting,  and  the  direction  of  Blttcher's  retreat  was  by  no  means 
certain.  Orders,  however,  were  sent  to  Ney,  about  8  a.h.,  to 
take  up  his  position  at  Quatre  Bras,  "wad  if  that  was  impossible 
he  was  to  rep(Ut  at  once  and  the  eiyperor  would  co-operate. 
Napoleon  dearly  meint  that  Ney  should  attack  whatever 
happened  to  be  in  his  front.  If  confronted  by  a  rear-guard 
he  would  drive  it  off  and  occupy  Quatre  Bras;  and  if  Wdlington 
was  still  there  the  marshal  would  promptly  engage  and  hold  fast 
the  Anglo-Dutch  army,  and  report  to  the  emperor.  Napoleon 
would  in  this  case  hasten  up  with  the  reserve  and  crush  Welling- 
ton. Wellington  in  fact  was  there;  but  Ney  did  nothing  what- 
ever td  retain  him,  and  the  duke  began  his  withdrawal  to  IfL  & 
Jean  about  10  am.  The  last  chance  of  bringing  about  a  decsve 
French  success  was  thus  allowed  to  sb'p  away. 

Meanwhile  Napoleon  paid  a  personal  visit  about  10  ajl  to 
the  Ligny  battlefield,  and  about  11  A.M.  be  came  to  a 
He  detennined  to  send  the  two  cavalry  corps  of  Pajol 
and  Exelmans,  and  the  corps  of  Vandamme  and 
Gerard,  with  Teste's  division  (VI.  Girps),  a  force  of 
33,000  men  and  iio  gims,  to  follow  the  Pruuians,  penetrate 
their  intentions  and  discover  if  they  meditated  uniting  with 
Wellington  in  front  of  Brussels.  As  Exelmans'  dragoons  had 
already  gained  touch  of  the  III.  Prussian  corps  at  Gembloux,  the 
emperor  directed  Marshal  Grouchy,  to  whom  he  handed  over  the 
command  of  this  force,  to  "  proceed  to  Gembloux."  This  ordet 
the  marshal  only  too  literally  obeyed.  After  an  inconceivably  alow 
and  wearisome  march,  in  one  badly  arranged  column  moving  on 
one  road,  he  only  reached  Gembloux  on  June  17,  and  halted  there 
for  the  night.  His  cavahy  gahied  contact  before  noon  with 
Thielemann's  corps,  which  was  resting  at  Gembloux,  but  the 
enemy  was  allowed  to  slip  away  and  contact  was  lost  for  want 
of  a  serious  effort  to  keep  it.  Grouchy  did  not  proceed  to  the 
front,  and  entirely  failed  to  appreciate  the  situarion  at  this 
critical  juncture.  Pressing  danger  could  only  exist  if  BlQcher 
had  gone  northwards,  and  northwards,  therefore,  In  the  Dyle 
valley,  he  diould  have  diligently  sought  for  traces  of  the  Prussian 
retreat.'  Had  Bhicher  gone  eastwards,  Grouchy,  holding  the 
Dyle,  could  euily  have  hdd  back  any  future  Prus^an  advance 
towards  Wellington.  Grouchy,  however,  went  to  Gembloux  as 
ordered.  By  nightfall  the  situation  was  all  In  favour  of  the 
allies;  for  Grouchy  was  now  actuaDy  outside  the  four  Prussian 
corps,  who  were  by  this  time  concentrated  astride  the  Dyle  at 
Wavre.  Their  retreat  having  been  unmolested,  the  Prussians 
were  ready  once  more  to  take  the  fiekl,  quite  twenty-four  boors 
before  Napoleon  deemed  it  possible  for  the  foe  defeated^at  Ligny. 

On  the  other  flank,  too,  things  had  gone  all  in  favour  pf  Welling- 
ton. Although  the  emperor  wrote  to  Ney  again  at  noon,  from 
Ligny,  that  troops  had  now  been  placed  in  position  at  Marfoais 
to  second  the  marshal's  attack  on  Quatre  Bras,  yet  N^  remained 
quiescent,  and  Wellington  effected  so  rapid  and  skilful  a  retreat 
that,  on  Napoleon's  arrival  at  the  head  of  his  supporting  corps, 

*  There  appears  to  be  no  reason  to  believe  that  Grouchy  pushed 
any  reconnaissances  to  the  northward  and  westward  of  Gentinnes  on 
June  17;  had  be  done  «o,  touch  with  Blttcher's  retiring  columns 
must  have  been  established,  and  the  direction  of  the  Prussian  retreat 
made  clear.  The  right  of  Mflhaud's  cuirassier  corps,  whilst  marching 
from  Maibais  to  Quatre  Bras,  saw  a  column  ol  Prussian  infantry 
retiring  towards  Wavre,  and  Milhaud  reported  this  fact  about  9  r.Jf. 
to  the  empeior,  who.  however,  attached  little  weight  to  it. 


WATfiRLXX)  CAMPAIGN 


3>9 


%t  Idund  oldyiSie  (Mkel  cavalry  sceeen  uuf  some  hone  utinay 
ttill  in  position.  Can  we  wonder  that  he  gave  vent  to  his  anger 
tfapoittott't  ^^  declared  that  Ney  had  ruined  France?  This  was 
punaH  •t  the-fstal  mistake  oi  the  campaign,  and  Fortune  turned 
^•^B^  BOW  against  her  former  favourite.  Although  the 
'*'*  smouldering  fires  of  his  old  eneiigy  flaiSied  out  onee 

more  and  Napoleon  began  a  rapid  pursuit  of  the  cavalry  screen, 
wluch  crumpled  up  and  decamped  as  he  advanced,  yet  all  his 
efforts  were  powerless  to  entangle  the  An^o-Dutcb  rearguard 
Co  such  an  extent  that  Wellington  must  turn  back  to  its  assist- 
ance. The  pursuit,  too,  was  carried  out  in  the  midst  of  a  tropical 
thunderstorm  whick  broke  at  the  roar  of  the  opening  cannonade, 
and  very  considerably  retarded  the  French  pursuit.  It  was 
not  until  the  light  was  failing  that  Napoleon  reached  the  heights 
of  RosBomme  opposite  to  Wellington's  position  and,  by  a  masterly 
reconnaissance  in  force,  compelled  the  duke  to  disclose  the  pres- 
ence of  practically  the  whole  An^o-Dutch  army.  The  French 
halted,  somewhat  loosened  by  pursuit,  between  Rossomme  and 
Genappe  and  spent  a  wretched  night  in  the  sodden  fidds. 

During  the  night  Wellington  received  the  reassuring  news 
that  BlUcher  would  bring  two  corps  certainly,  and  possibly  four, 
to  Waterloo,  and  determined  to  accept  battle.  Napdeon's  plan 
being  to  penetrate  between  the  allies  and  then  defeat  them 
successively,  the  left  was  really  the  threatened  ^ank  of  the 
Anglo-Dutch  army.  Yet  so  far  was  WeHington  from  divining 
Napoleon's  object  that  he  stationed  17,000  Ynen  (indodmg 
Colville's  British  division)  at  Hal  and  Tubize,  8  m.  away 
to  his  right,  to  repel  the  turning  movement  that  he  ground- 
lessly  anticipated  and  to  form  a  rallying  point  for  his  right  in 
case  his  centre  was  broken.  By  deliberately  depriving  himself 
of  this  detachment,  on  June  x8,  the  duke  ran  a  very  grave 
risk.  With  the  67,600  men  whom  he  had  in  hand,  however, 
he  took  up  a  truly  admirable  "  Wellingtonian  **  position  astride 
the  Nivelles-Brussels  and  Charieroi-Brussels  roads  which  meet  at 
j^g  ^  Mt  S.  Jean.  He  used  a  low  ridge  to  screen  his  main 
defensive  position,  exposing  comparatively  few  troops 
in  front  of  the  crest.  Of  his  X56  gims,  78  belonged  to  the  British 
artillery;  but  of  his  67,600  men  only  39,800  were  British  or 
King's  German  Legion  troops,  whereas  all  Napoleon's  were 
Frenchmen  and  veterans.  Wellington  occupied  Hougoumont 
in  strength,  chiefly  with  detachments  of  the  British  Guaids; 
and  he  also  placed  a  garrison  of  the  K.G.L.  in  La  Haye  Sainte, 
the  tactical  key  of  the  allied  position.  Both  these  farms  were 
strengthened;  but,  still  nervous  about  hb  right  flank,  the  duke 
occupied  Hougoumont  in  much  greater  force  than  La  Haye 
Sainte,  and  massed  the  bulk  of  his  troops  on  his  right.  The  main 
position  was  very  skilfully  taken  up,  and  care  was  taken  to 
distribute  the  troops  so  that  the  indi£ferent  and  immature  were 
closely  supported  by  tliose  who  were  "better  disciplined  and 
more  accustomed  to  war."  Owing  to  a  misconception,  one 
Dutch-Belgian  brigade  formed  up  in  front  of  the  ridge.  Full 
arrangements  were  made  for  BlQcher's  co-operation  through 
General  Miiffling,  the  Prussian  attach^  on  the  duke's  staff. 
The  duke  was  to  stand  fast  to  receive  the  attack,  whilst  the 
Prussians  should  close  round  Napoleon's  exposed  right  and 
support  Wellington's  left.  The  Prussians  were  thus  the  real 
general  reserve,  and  it  was  Wellington's  task  to  receive  Napoleon's 
attack  and  prepare  him  for  the  decisive  counter-stroke. 

BlQcher  loyally  kept  his  promise  to  his  ally;  but  the  execution 
left  much  to  be  desired.  He  did  not  start  his  corps  on  their 
westward  march  until  a  considerable  time  after  dawn,  and  then, 
owing  to  bad  staff  work,  the  rear  corps  of  all  (BUlow)  was  selected 
to  lead  the  march.  This  unnecessary  delay  was  aggravated 
further  by  a  fire  that  broke  out  in  Wavre  and  delayed  the  march. 
In  spite  of  his  hurts  the  old  marshal  was  in  the  saddle. 
.  Meanwhile  Napoleon  formed  his  army  for  the  attack  on 
Wellington's  position.  The  wet  state  of  the  ground  Qargely 
composed  of  corn-fields)  and  tho  scattered  bivouacs  of  the 
French  army  prevented  the  attack  from  being  made  at  6  a.m. 
as  Napoleon  had  desired.  It  was  therefore  put  off  first  of  all 
until  9  A.M.,  and  latdr  until  xi.30,  to  permit  the  sodden  ground 
to  dry  sufficiently  for  the  mounted  arms  to  manceuvre  fredy  and 


give  time  to  the  Fteach  srmy  to  dote  up.  During  the  Bight  the 
emperor  had  received  a  report  from  Marshal  Grouchy,  dated 
Gembloux,  yo  p.m.,  XTth,  which  stated  that  the  Prussians  were 
retiring  in  two  cotumns  towards  Wavre  and  Perwes.  Grouchy 
added  that  if  he  found  that  the  bulk  of  the  Prussians  were 
moving  on  Wavre  he  would  follow  than  and  separate  them  from 
Wellington.  But  a  glance  at  the  map  shows  tliat  this  wa# 
impossible.  By  following  the  Prussians  Grouchy,  who  had  take^ 
tip  a  position  outside  the  Prussian. left  flank,  would  inevitably 
drive  the  allies  together.  It  was  zo  a.i<.  when  the  emperor 
answered  this  letter,  and  he  directed  the  marshal  to  march  for 
Wavre,  thus  approaching  the  French  army  and  entering  the  zone 
of  the  main  operations.  The  underlying  idea  of  manceuvring  in 
two  wings  and  a  reserve  should  be  kept  in  ndnd  when  considering 
this  letter.  Its  meaning  will  then  dearly  be,  that  Grouchy  was  to 
endeavour  to  place  his  force  on  the  inner  Prussian  flank  and  hol4 
them  back  from  Waterloo.  But  this  is  just  what  the  despatch 
does  not  state  verbally  and  precisely,  and  accordingly  Grouch}^ 
like  Ney  on  the  z6th  and  17th,  rAisread  it. 

The  French  army  proceeded  to  form  up  In  an  imposing  array 
some  1300  yards  from  Wellington's  position,  and  if  some  mis- 
givings as  to  the  result  filled  the  minds  of  men  like  Soidt,  Reille 
and  Foy,  vdio  had  had  previous  experience  of  Wdlington  in 
the  fidd,  none  at  any  rate  dwelt  in  Napoleon's  mind.  The 
lateness  of  the  hour  at  which  the  attack  was  delivered,  and  the 
emperor's  determination  to  break  Wellington's  centre  instead 
of  outflanking  the  Anglo-Dutch  left  and  further  separating  the 
allies,  deprived  him  of  whatever  chance  he  still  possessed  of 
beating  Wellington  before  Blttcher  could  Intervene.  Napoleot 
dr^w  up  his  army  of  74iO0o  men  and  346  guns  in  three  lines, 
fully  in  view  of  the  allies.  In  the  first  line  were  the  corps  ol 
Reille  and  D'Erlon,  who  were  destined  to  attack  the  allied  line 
and  prepare  it  for  the  final  assault.  In  the  second  line  were 
Kdlermann's  cuirassiers,  the  incomplete  corps  of  Lobau,  the 
squadrons  of  Donoon  ami  Subervie,  and  Milhaud's  cuirassierSb 
In  the  third  line  was  the  Guard.  It  was  an  imposing  array  ol 
veteran  troops,  and  when  their  emperor  rode  alosig  the  lines  tlicy 
received,  him  with  eztxaerdinary  enthusiasm. 

The  battle  of  Waterloo  may  be  divided  into  five  phaief. 
About  XX.50  the  first  phase  opened  with  an  attack  by  one  cf 
Refllt's  divisions  on  Hongnnmont  This  was  a  mere, 
side-issue,  destined  to  <teiw  Wellington's  attention  JIS*** 
to  his  right,  and  in  this  it  failed.  About  noon,  how-  pUmt 
ever,  a  battery  of  80  French  guns  unlimbered  on  the 
long  spur  to  the'S.£.  of  La  Haye  Sainte,  to  prepare  the  duke^ 
centre  for  the  main  attack.  Here  the  form  of  the  ground  so 
skilfully  chosen  sheltered  the  defence  in  some  degree  from  the 
tempest  of  iron  that  now  beat  against  the  position.  After 
X  P.M.,  and  just  before  be  gave  orders  for  Ney  to  lead  the  main 
attack,  the  emperor  scanned  the  battlefidd,  and  on  his  right 
front  he  saw  a  dense  dark  dqud  emerging  from  the  woods  at 
Chapelle  Saint  Lambert.  It  was  soon  discovered  that  this 
was  Btilow's  corps .  marching  to  Wellington's  assistance.  A 
letter  was  now  awaiting  despatch  to  Grouchy,  and  to  it  was  added 
a  postscript  that  the  battle  was  raging  with  Wellington,  that 
BQlow's  corps  had  been  sighted  by  the  emperor,  and  that  the 
marshal  was  to  hasten  to  the  fidd  and*crush  BQlow.  This  order 
at  least  was  precise  and  clear,  but  it  was  sent  xa  hours  too  late, 
and  when  Grouchy  received  it  he  was  unable  to  carry  it  out. 
To  neutralize  Billow  when  necessity  arose,  the  emperor  no^ 
detached  Lobau  together  with  the  squadrons  of  Domon  and 
Subervie.  The  French  general,  however,  hardly  drew  out 
far  enough  from  the  French  ri^t;  otherwise  the  magnificcid 
resolution  he  displayed  and  the  admirable  obstinacy  with  which 
his  troops  fought  against  ever-increasing  odds  arc  worthy  of 
all  praise.  Thus  as  early  as  1.30  p.m.  the  Prussian  interven- 
tion deranged  the  symmetry  of  Napoleon's  battle-array. 

It  did  not  occur  to  the  emperor  that  ft  would  be  wise  to  bieak 
off  the  fight  now  and  seek  a  more  favourable  opportunity  qf 
beating  the  allies  in  detail.  He  was  still  determined  to  play 
the  game  out  to  the  bitter  end,  and  involve  Wellington  ami 
BiUow's  corps  in  a  common  ruin. 


38o 


WATERLOO  CAMPAIGN 


Map  III. 


Key  was  therefore  cMrdered  to  attack  Wellington's  centre  with 
D'Exk>a*s  corps.  Owing  to  a  misconception  the  columns  used 
for  advance  were  over-heavy  and  imwieldy,  and  the 
corps  failed  to  achieve  anything  of  importance.  As 
D'Erlon's  troops  advanced  the  Dutch-Belgian  brigade 
in  front  of  the  ridge,  which  had  been  subjected  to  an  overwhelm- 
ing fire  from  the  80  French  guns  at  close  range,  turned  about 
and  retired  in  disorder  through  the  main  position.  This,  however, 
was  the  solitary  success  secured  by  the  I.  corps;  for  the  left 
division  failed  to  storm  La  Haye  Sainte,  which  was  most  gallantly 
defended,  and  Picton's  division  met  the  remainder  of  D'Erlon's 
corps  face  to  face,  engaging  them  in  a  murderous  infantry 
duel  in  which  Picton  fell.  It  was  during  this  struggle  that  Lord 
Uxbridge  launched  two  of  his  cavalry  brigades  on  the  enemy; 
and  the  "  Union  brigade  "  catching  the  French  infantry  unawares 
rode  over  them,  broke  them  up,  and  drove  them  to  the  bottom 
of  the  slope  with  the  loss  of  two  eagles.  The  charge,  however, 
over-reached  itself,  and  the  British  cavalry,  crushed  by  fresh 
French  horsemen  hurled  on  them  by  the  emperor,  were  driven 
back  with  great  loss.  So  far  no  success  against  Wellington  had 
been  achieved,  and  BOlow  was  still  an  onlooker. 

Key  was  now  ordered  to  attack  La  Haye  Sainte  again,  but  the 
attack  failed.  A  furious  cannonade  raged,  and  the  Anglo-Dutch 
line  withdrew  slightly  to  gain  more  cover  from  the 
ridge.  Ney  misinterpreted  this  manoeuvre  and  led 
out,  about  4  7.11.,  Milhaud's  and  I«febvre-DesnouCttes' 
horsemen  (43  squadrons)  to  charge  the  allied  centre  between  the 
two  farms.  For  several  reasons,  the  cavalry  could  only  advance 
ai  a  trot.    As  the  horsemen  dosed  they  were  received  with 


rft*rf 


volleys  of  case  from  the  guns,  and  the  infantry  formed  into 
squares.  Against  the  squares  the  horsemen  were  powerless, 
and  failing  to  break  a  single  square,  they  were  finally  swept  off 
the  plateau  by  fresh  allied  horsemen.  Kellermann's  cuirassiers 
and  the  heavy  horse  of  the  Guard  (37  fresh  squadrons)  now 
advanced  to  support  the  baiUcd  caValry,  the  latter  falling  in  as 
supports.  The  whole  80  squadrons  resumed  the  attack,  but  with 
no  better  result.  The  cavalry  gradually  became  h(^>elessly 
entangled  among  the  squares  they  were  unable  to  break,  and 
at  last  they  were  driven  down  the  face  of  the  ridge  and  the  most 
dramatic  part  of  the  battle  came  to  an  end.  Had  these  great 
cavalry  attacks  been  closely  supported  by  Infantry,  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  they  must  have  achieved  their  object.  But 
they  were  not.  In  his  handling  of  the  three  arms  together. 
Napoleon  on  this  day  failed  to  do  justice  to  his  reputation. 

About  4.30  P.M.  BQlow  at  last  engaged.  Lobau's  men  were 
gradually  overpowered  and  forced  back  into  Pbncenoit,  the 
village  was  stormed,  and  the  Prussian  round  shot  reached 
the  main  road.  To  set  his  right  flank  free  the  emperor  called 
further  on  his  reserve,  and  sent  Duhesme  with  the  Young  Guard 
to  Lobau's  support.  Together,  these  troops  drove  Bulow  out 
of  Plancenoit,  and  forced  him  back  towards  the  Paris  wood. 
But  the  Prussians  had  not  yet  changed  the  fate  of  the  day. 

Napoleon  now  ordered  Ney  to  carry  La  Haye  Sainte  at  what- 
ever cost,  and  this  the  marshal  accomplished  with  the  wrecks 
of  D'Erion's  corps  soon  after  6  p.m.  The  garrison 
(King's  German  Legion)  had  run  out  of  rifle  amnnini- 
tion  and  the  French  bursting  in  seized  the  post.  This 
was  the  first  decided  advanUge  that  Napoleon  had  gafaied  during 


WATERLOO-WITH-SEAFORTH— WATERLOW 


381 


FKlh 


tiw  day.  Tie  key  of  the  duke's  position  was  now  in  Napoleon's 
hands,  Wellington's  centre  was  dangerously  shaken,  the  troops 
were  exhausted,  and  the  reserves  inadequate.  But  the  Iron  Duke 
faced  the  situation  unmoved.  Calmly  he  readjusted  his  line  and 
strengthened  the  torn  centre.  Happily  for  him,  Pirch  I.'s  and 
Zieten's  corps  were  now  at  hand.  Pirch  I.  moved  to  support 
Balow ;  together  they  regained  possession  of  Plancenoit,  and  once 
more  the  Charleroi  road  was  swept  by  Prussian  round  shot. 
Napoleon,  therefore,  had  to  free  his  right  flank  before  he  could 
make  use  of  Ney's  capture.  To  this  end  he  sent  two  battalions 
of  the  Old  Guaid  to  storm  Plancenoit.  The  veterans  did  the  work 
magnificently  with  the  bayonet,  ousted  the  Prussians  from  the 
place,  and  drove  them  back  600  yards  beyond  it.  But  Napoleon 
could  not  turn  now  on  Wellington.  Zieten  was  iast  coming 
up  on  the  duke's  left,  and  the  crisis  was  past.  Zieten's  advent 
permitted  the  two  fresh  cavalry  brigades  of  Vivian  and  Vandeleur 
on  the  duke's  extreme  left  to  be  moved  and  posted  behind  the 
depleted  centre.  The  value  of  this  reiMorcement  at  this  particular 
moment  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 

The  French  army  now  fiercdy  attacked  Wellington  all  along  the 
fine;  and  the  culminating  point  of  this  phase  was  reached  when 
Napoleon  sent  forward  the  Guard,  less  5  battalions, 
to  attack  Wellington's  centre.  Delivered  in  three 
€chek>ns,  these  fLoal  attacks  were  repulsed,  the  first 
^elon  by  Colin  Halkett's  British  Brigade^  a  Dutch-Belgian 
battery,  and  a  brigade  of  Chaser's  Dutch-Belgian  division; 
the  second  and  third  6chelons  by  the  Guards,  the  S^nd,  and  the 
Royssl  ArtiUexy.   Thus  ended  the  fifth  phase. 

As  the  Guard  recoiled  (about  8  p.ic.)  Zieten  pierced  the  north- 
east  comer  of  the  French  front,  and  their  whole  line  gave  way 
as  the  allies  rushed  forward  on  their  now  defenceless 
pr^.  Three  battalions  of  the  Guard  indeed  stood  their 
ground  for  some  time,  but  th^  were  finally  over- 
whelmed,  ^terwards,  amidst  the  ruins  of  their  army,  two 
battalions  of  the  xst  Grenadiers  of  the  Guard  defied  all  efforts  to 
break  them*  But,  with  the  exception  of  these  two  battalions,  the 
French  army  was  quickly  transformed  into  a  flying  rabble. 
Billow  and  Pirch  I.  now  finally  overpowered  Lobau,  once  more 
recaptured  Plancenoit,  and  sealed  the  doom  of  the  French  army. 
But  Lobau's  heroic  efforts  had  not  been  in.  vain;  they  had 
given  his  master  time  to  make  his  last  effort  against  Wellington; 
and  when  the  Guard  was  beaten  back  the  French  troops 
holding  Plancenoit  kept  &ee  the  Charleroi  road,  and  prevented 
the  Prussians  from  seizing  Napoleon's  line  of  retreat. 

When  Wellington  and  BlQcher  met  about  9.15  PJC.  at 
"Xa  Belle  Alliance,"  the  victorious  chiefs  arranged  that 
the  PnissiaDS  should  take  up  the  pursuit,  and  they  faithfully 
carried  out  the  agreement.  Pushing  on  through  the  night,  they 
drove  the  French  out  of  seven  successive  bivouacs  and  at  length 
drove  than  over  the  Sambre»  The  campaign  was  virtually 
at  an  end,  and  the  price  paid  was  great.  The  French  had  lost 
over  40,000  men  and  almost  all  their  artillery  on  June  18;  the 
Prussians  lost  7000,  and  Wellington  over  15,000  men.  So 
desperate  was  the  filiating  that  some  45,000  killed  and  wounded 
lay  on  an  area  of  roughly  3  sq.  m.  At  one  point  on  the  plateau 
"  the  27th  (Inniskillings)  were  lying  literally  dead  in  square  "; 
And  the  position  that  the  British  infantry  "held  was  plainly  marked 
by  the  red  Ime  of  dead  and  wounded  they  left  behmd  thein. 

A  few  words  may  now  be  bestowed  on  Marshal  Grouchy, 
commanding  the  right  wing.  The  marchi^l  wrongly  determined 
>g  on  the  i8th  to  continue  his  march  to  Wavze  in  a  single 
column,  and  he  determined,  still  more  wrongly,  to 
move  by  the  right  bank  of  the  Dyle.  Breaking  up 
from  bivouac  long  after  dawn,  he  marched  forward, 
via  Walhain.  Here  he  stopped  to  report  to  the  emperor  some 
intelligence  which  turned  out  to  be  false,  and  he  remained  for 
breakfast.  Hardly  had  he  finished  when  the  opening  roar  of 
the  cannonade  at  Waterloo  was  heard.  Grouchy  was  now  urged 
th  ^.«*"«'»^  especially  by  Gfirard,  to  march  to  the  sound  of 
toe  firing,  but  he  refused  to  take  their  advice,  and  pushed  on  to 
Wavre,  where  he  found  the  Prussians  (Thielemann's  corps  of 
xo,ooom«n)  holding  the  paaBageaacroM  the  Dyle.  Afieicefight 


u-n. 


(called  the  Action  of  Wavre)  began  about  4  p.v.,  in  which  the 
Prussians  were  for  long  victorious.  Instead  ci  concentrating 
his  force  noon  one  biiidge  ovtf  the  swampy  and  unfordable 
Dyle,  Oroucay  scattered  it  in  attacks  upon  several;  and  when 
the  emperor's  despatch  arrived,  saying  BlUow  was  in  sight,  the 
marshal  was  powerless  to  move  westward.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  day  Colonel  Vallin's  Hussars  stormed  the  Limale  bridge,  and 
a  large  part  of  Grouchy's  force  then  promptly  gained  the  left 
bank.  The  action  continued  till  about  1 1  p.m.,  when  it  died  out, 
to  recommence  shortly  after  dawn.  Thielemann  was  at  length 
overborne  by  sheer  weight  of  numbers,  and  towards  ix  A.M. 
he  was  forced  to  retire  towards  Louvain.  The  losses  were  con-' 
siderable,  about  3400  men  on  each  side. 

Grouchy's  victory  was  barren.  In  the  far  higher  duty  of  co- 
operation he  had  failed  miserably.  His  tactical  achievement 
could  avail  the  emperor  nothing,  and  it  eiposed  his  own  force 
to  considerable  danger.  Whilst  pondering  on  the  course  he  should 
follow,  the  marshal  received  the  news  of  the  awful  disaster  that 
had  overtaken  the  emperor  at  Waterloo.  In  a  flash  he  realized 
his  danger  and  made  prompt  anangements  to  b^in  his  retreat 
on  Namur,  the  only  line  to  France  that  was  then  available. 
This  retreat  he  carried  out  resolutely,  skilfully  and  rapidly, 
slipping  past  BlUcher  and  finally  bringing  his  force  to  Paris. 
But  the  Qipid  advance  of  the  allies  gave  France  no  time  to  rally. 
Napoleon  was  forced  to  abdicate,  and  finding  escape  was  impos- 
sible, he  surrendered  (on  July  14)  to  the  British — "  the  most 
powerful,  the  most  unwavering  and  the  most  generous  of  his  foes." 

The  causes  of  Napoleon's  failure  in  the  Waterloo  campaign  wera 
as  follows: — The  French  army  was  numerically  too  weak  for  the 

S'gftotic  task  it  undertook.  Napoleon  himself  was  no  longer  the 
apokon  of  Marengo  or  Austerlitz,  and  though  he  was  not  oroken 
down,  bis  physical  strength  was  certainly  impaired.  Ney  failed  to 
grasp  and  hold  Welltneton  on  the  critical  17th  June;  and  on  the 
17th  and  i8th  Grouchy's  feeble  and  false  manoeuvres  enabled 
Blttcher  to  march  and  loin  Wellington  at  Waterloo.  Napoleon's 
chance  of  success  was  oangerously  diminished,  if  not  utterly  de- 
stroyed; by  the  incompetence  of  the  two  marshals  whom  in  an  evil 
hour  he  selected  for  h^h  commands.  Another  dominant  influence  in 
shaping  the  course  of  events  was  the  kn^ty  cA  Bltkcher  to  his  ally, 
and  the  consequent  appearance  of  the  Prusoan  army  at  Waterloo.' 
Nor  must  we  overloolc  Wellington's  unswerving  determination  to 
co-operate  with  BIQcher  at  all  costs,  and  his  firmness  on  June  18; 
or  the  invincible  steadiness  shown  by  the  British  troops  and  those 
of  the  King's  German  Legion. 

Bibliography. — Some  of  the  principal  books  on  theeampaiKn  are: 
Colonel  Grouard,  Critique  de  181$  \  H.  Houssaye,  Waterloo;  Ceneral 
PoUio,  Waterloo  (1815);  Shaw-Kennedy,  Battle  of  Waterloo; 
Captain  W.  Sibome,  9tn  Foot,  History  0/  the  Waterloo  Campaign; 
Clausewitx,  Campagne  de  181S;  Colond  Charras,  Hi^toire  de  la 
Campagne  de  z8is,  Waterloo;  L.  Navez,  Les  Quatre  Bras,  Ligny, 
Waterloo  et  Wavre;  General  H.  T.  Sibome,  R.E.,  Waterloo  Letters: 
Colonel  Giesacy,' Waterloo  Lectures;  Wellington,  Despatches  and 
Memorandmn  on  the  Battle  of  Waterloo;  Correspondance  and  Com^ 
mentaires  di  Napoleon. 

In  this  arricfe  the  writer  has  been  eready  asnsted  by  the  advice 
and  suggestions  of  Lieut.-Col.  H.  W.  L.  Hime,  R.A.     (A.  F.  B.*) 

WATERLOO-WTTH-fiBAFORTH.  an  urban  district  ifi  the 
Bootle  and  Ormskiik  parliamentary  divisions  of  Lancashire, 
England,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey,  4  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Liverpocd. 
Pop.  (1891)  17,225;  (xQOi)  23,202.  On  account  of  its  facUities 
for  bathing,  firm  sands,  pleasant  scenery  and  nearness  to  Liver- 
pool, of  which  it  is  a  suburb,  it  is  qiuch  frecpjented  both  by 
visitors  and  by  residents. 

WATBRLOW,  SIR  ERNEST  ALBERT  (1850-  ),  English 
painter,  was  bom  in  London,  and  received  the  main  part  of  his 
art  education  in  the  Royal  Academy  schools,  where,  in  1873, 
he  gained  the  Turner  medal  for  landscape-painting.  He  was 
elected  associate  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Painters  in  Water-Colours 
in  1880,  member  in  1894,  and  president  in  1897;  associate  of 
the  Royal  Aaulemy  in  1890^  and  academician  in  19^;  and  he 
was  knighted  in  1902.  He  began  to  exhibit  in  287 2  and  has 
produced  a  considerable  number  of  admirable  landscapes,  in 
oil  and  water-colour,  handled  with  grace  and  distinction.  One 
of  his  pictares,  "  Galway  Gossips,^'  is  in  the  National  Gallery 
of  British  Art. 

See  Sir  E.  A,  WaterloUt  ILA.,  PJLW^.,  by  C.  ColUos  Baker  (4ri 
Jemnol  Qfiios,  1906). 


i«' 


WATER  MOTORS 


Wms  KDTOBK.    Tim  labject  of  bydniiKc 
«f  poiver   ifl   treated   generally  under   Font  TMASSaasaoK 
{^ydrotdic),  ud  tlie  picACDt  artick  ii  amfined  to  water  naolon. 

By^oidic  Lijts. — The  dlicct-arting  lilt  ii  pcrliapi  the  aunpleat 
of  all  machinca  uaug  preauire^water,  but  ai  the  height  of  the 
Mil  iDci«aaea,  oeitaln  pnblcma  b  ctnoliunion  beoHiK  caaedlntf  V 
difficult  lo  cope  with,  notably  those  due  to  the  great  increaie 
in  Iha  weight  and  diiplacemcnt  of  itbc  laul.  In  fact,  with  a 
smpte  ram  it  la  not  pooable  to  liFt  beyowl  a  certain  height 
with  a  pven  proaun  ajid  load.  It  bea>mes,  therefore,  necesary 
lo  balance  \a  some  way  the  varying  displacement  ol  the  lam 
if  ecx>nomy  1«  tobcMcuiHlin  the  working:  thia  ia  often  done  by 
the  use  of  coualer-weighta  attached  to  chains  travdling  over 
bead  ibeaves,  but  this  largely  destroys  (be  simplicity  and  safety 
of  the  direct-acting  lilt,  and  hence  some  foim  ol  hydimolic 


I,,  tbe  lil 


f  is  in  hydraulic 
t  above  I  be  otlier. 


rod.    Belowtbe  pistc- 


llft-ram  is  auEomatically  in  baluice. 
admitted  to  (he  anrmlar  apace  C 
above  the  lowtr  oi  the  two  iHlaiice 


FM.  t'—tlydniiUc 


3S 

In  HMher  lyKCB  of  brdiaulic  baluico' (Gg.  1)  the  fwn  A.has  an 
waier  i^aa  d^udunk  (unially  placed, safDcwhcR  in  the  n»r  of 


the  baiUInt),  the  hydraulic  pnou're'upni'it  jiist  baianca  ibt  weighc 
■rf  the  ran  and  cage.  Here  again,  wice  the  intennty  of  tbe  prcHute 
J*  A  bsconea  giratg  as  it  detcends  owiag  to  the  incwsed  head,  the 
(ppaient  iocresH  of  weight  ol  the  liTl^nm  a<  it  rises  n  auiomatiully 
balanced;  water  frooi  the  hith-prcHure  system  is  admitted  down 
the  kollow  nm  B  and  does  the  work  of  liftuw  the  live  load. 
Since  the  lamductiin  U  diep-levd  dediK  lailwav*  Id  Lendoa 


and  elsewhere,  hydnulK  p«saeagti  I 
street  kvel  tothc  '^^^•^  miU 

DirrO-oiiint  WoUr  If  gfsri.— Owi 
■  durable  motor  wilh  a  simple  and 

iticalJy  regulating  the  quantity  of  water  used 


the  motor,  not  much  advanci 
recently  made  In  the  use  of  water  mo 
wilh  itdprociiing  nnis  or  pistons.  P 
ably  the  moat  luccessful  one  has  bee 
lotiuy  en^ne  invented  bvMr  Arthur  Rig 

able  KitliDul  (he  quolion  of'thoc'k  or"5itai 

^l;fEi'^^n^^'^''i^r^ " 

rouies  above  the  point  O,  iiliich  is  the  ci 
of  the  main  crank',  OS  bang  Che  crank  le 
or  half  stroke  of  the  mgine,  any  vaiistio 
Its  length  will  vary  the  power  of  the  engiac 


ower  \i  desiied)  admits  or  exhausts  pressure- 

le  positioo  of  the  stud  S,  and  thus  change  Ih* 
roke  of  the  plungers  of  the  main  engiBcTFig.  4 
ivesanoutsldevleivolajo-II.P.  engine  capAle 
"  pressure  cf  no  lb  per  sq. 

u  -^Sm  the  diivbif 


IhetK 


infly*! 


the  righl'hand  end,  while  iT 

o'.'f ■ '-" 


a  front  of  the  flj 


duty  of  So%. 

Wata  Whidi.—Tbt  Pelton  water  * 
{Gg.  5)  has  proved  ■  most  lueccsslul  a 

having  bcfji  u 
Such  machine!  have  been  eiteosively  em- 
ployed  in   America,   and   have   also   lately 
been  used  b  Great  Britain,  itoiked  by  Ihe  '^'"".Li^t^i^^l™^ 
sure  ^atcT  supplied  in  large  towns.  "^ 

heel  carnes  a  senes  of  cup*  placed  at  ec|Iia1  dhtances  around 
imference.  A  jet  or  jets  of  water  inpingn  on  dv  cnu,  tha 
of  which  an  duped  in  suchawaythattheiaiadischugHt 
ID  ill  original  direction.  If  the  ImeHr  velocity  of  the  cu|tt 
urmnH  ia  V..  and  the  Linear  velocity  of  the  jet  is  V,.  thea 
relative  to  tbe  cup  IS  V|— Vi  leet  a  sscoiidi 


"te 


■  Thi>  mgiac  «aa  f i|lly  dasoilied  to  fiiigistsitu,  « 


WATER  MOTORS 


383 


•I  TO%  hm  bwB  abtsbad,  tad  vtaa  ■  dyaUM  ia  drina  din 
W  than  about  66  %  til  lb«  feydnulK  tdBgy  haa  been  Daavened 

Pihoa  wbecb  are  very  lenBtive  to  variadini  of  load,  and  odd- 
Mnbte  tnubte  w '     -  *  -  '—  ' -" ' 


^gneirfti 


drivfli  by  tun  buiaanlB]  

khafi;  wbed  wkinH  uodtf  a  nuni 
I  150  rtvoJutioOB,  aadi  lurbua  wiU 


pDwrr-  oil  a  Enat  itx 

u  tapped  oSTrom  tin , 

m.  above  the  hlU  and  brouilit  by  a  canal  to  t 


^^ 


of  Eorope"  in 

hu  been  itom 
jnachino  of  £ 
made,  and  git 


10.  <.— External  VWw  Ol  Rin'i  Wata>-En(!De.  1 
thry  were  aird  la  sencrate  electric  energy; 

■  been  DvoQiiDc,  andthey  bavc been  rendered  r 

■  for  me  with  hiKh  FaH*,  vhere  ordinaiy  lurt 
E  Id  manage  owing  to  the  nrcMive  need  at  w 

In  a  inaU  intaJLitiaii  in  (he  UniieJstatee  » 
16-iA.  pipe  a  dijtunct  of  iSoo  II,  and  supplieA  tin 
rWion  wheeU  each  18  in. 

a  iKad  of  1  to  ft.    The  toul 
and  ihouih  the  load 
L    cue,  the  riiHereiitial  t] 


TurbtHti. — Tht    tnrluBe 
haa  DOW  becmne  ooe   of 

tbe  moat  efficient  of  the 
prime  moveti  employed  by 


.  Unil 


lously  increased  of  recent  years. 
leal  ch^a^et  have  Ixcn  made  lq  tbe  deugn  of  lur- 
yean,  an  immenss  amount  of  skill  and  ingenuity 
a  in  peilectinj  and  impioviig  drtalli,  and  nich 
Tat  size  and  power  are  oow  constantly  being 
e  every  uiufaction  when  in  use. 
iitci  "  Inrinne,  thown  in  fig.  6.  the  Sow  !•  wbat  ii 
dt  ia.  it  ii  partly  a  radial  inward  and  panly  an  ajiial 
On  enternu;  tbe  traia-  Oowi  at  hnt  in  a  ndial 
hen  araduaJly,  aa  it  paiaa  thnnicb  tfie  wheel,  it 
iward  companent  arhicb  beoomei  mon  and  men 
feeiot  ThufMon  hu  publiabed  tbe  reiulu  of  a  teu 


le  other  drawing  have  been  ti 


fcAowJns  natiitia  of  lurmne  counnicu 

taiten  from  S<lnefvtTiidn  Bmaatvit  (looi), 

Plrii  Eahlbilion  of  1901  .-— 


■The  fcAowlu  I 
nt  taken  fnirn      ' 


Swltailand 
S.  which,  in 

Lhelr  reiculation  ehown 


Period. 

Number 
Turbines. 

Tdi^  H.P 

'^ 

IKS 

Total! 

1»(0 

400^7* 

li 

iUA 

637.6M 

type,  and  a  pair  were  mounted  on  each  verckal 

bB»  capable  ef  (irhil  out  JOOD  H.P.  with  a 

Each  pau- of  wheelft  is  built  [n  three  storey  a 

of  the  water  is  eontnlied  by  a  t^lindckal  ^tt  or  iluice.  1 

of  the  ibaTI  wdgh  about  152,000  lb.  a  ipecia] 


jSiii.  in  diameter) 


Fio.  6.—"  Herculei "  Tufbinfc 
dead  wei^t.  The  water  putes  from  the  penitock  through  the  guide 
blades  of  the  upper  wheel,  and  in  doing  to  aai  in  an  upwvd  directioft 
on  a  cover  of  the  upper  wheel,  which  thin  beoome^  aa  it  wei^ 
a  balance.piatDn.  The  total  upward  pressure  on  this  pwtMi  is  rait- 
fulated  to  be  equal  to  J90.0DO  Ih;  hence  the  shaft-^Kvin^  are 
prvtically  relieved  from  prusure  when  the  wheels  are  running. 

an  exceedmcly  efficient  turbine  on  a  low  fall  with  laive  quaittitiflB 
of  water.  At  SchaffhaBsen  two  of  them  with  a  (alt  ol  lat  (t.  *- 
viliiped  «o  RP..  whca  Ih*  c4dcr  turhines  only  gare  Mo  EP.,  the 


WATER-OPOSSUM— WATER  POLO 


•bout  140  tons.  Thm.u  »  remlaung  snangtroHil,  by  which  on 
half  cf  Ihe  ^uk^FauafH  caa  be  ihut  ofi  in  pain  from  the  watf 
sad  at  the  ume  tincvr  b  fnety  admitted  into  thew  unuwd  puaag 
bv  pipe*  which  pu(  ihrouKh  tlie  Uaget  ol  the  controIiinB  ihiiiii 
leu  of  a  turbine  of  thit  JoV'iaDviiig  type  ahowed  an  emcicncy 
8]  %  at  full  gut,  and  ode  o(  7S  %  iinai  half  of  the  m,aaeet  in  tl 
(uide-btadea  were  doaed  by  the  iBiitlen,  aa  deacribed  above. 


and'^n 


ly  6000  H.P.,  and  ior  quite 


e  may  be  deacribed.  The 
ilerfall  o(  113  10  lit  ft, 
Maurice.   Indiyteuou 


ID  produced  'a  taken  at 


uinBited  of  five  luibinea. 


Lramwaya  and  for  olhfr  power  purpoiiH. 

Adtkohiibi. — For  turilier  informatian  toncmingthr  conii 
follaidiiipapenandtextboolii:— /*'«.  7"'- **«*.£■(.  (iMa).[ 

o(  ncNt  lomn  ol  Ktli.V— £«fi«erjii|.  vol  livu.  pp.  gi,  118. 
"  Power  Smioa  at  Niagara  "-,  voL  InJL  pp.  jgi-Ttn,  "  Goi 
ini  of  Water  Whcela."— /■>«.  /ail.  Cml  Bat.,  vnf.  ijoavi.  p 
"McrKv  Railway  Ufia";  vol,  sciil  p.  S96,  '■  Eipcrimedt 
Jonval  and  CiranI  Turbine*  at  Alching  ''i  vol.  icvi.  p.  1S2,  " .., 
draiilio  Canal  Ulii";  toI.  dL  p.  tji,  "  Keswick  Waier-Power 
Electric  Suiion  ":  VDl.mii.  p.  iio. "  Hydraulic  Workiai  Niagaca  ": 
vol.  cmiii  p.  U7. "  A  la-MUeTiusnuuion  ol  Power  Centmled  by 
PeUon  WhedT';  vol.  nudii.  p.  S30.  "  The  Miob  W«er  Wicel "'; 
vol.  Giauv._p.  n\.  "The  Niagara   Power  Worlu";    vd.  aan. 
p.  404.  "The  RbeinMden  Power  Ttanimitson  Plant    ;  wl. cxIL 
p.  Ito,  ■'  Electric  TmruiriMion  Planu  in  Trontvaal."  p.  307,  "  Tur- 
k^^  vol.  exiii.  p.  4S1.  "  ElKirical  1  utallationi  at  UuHnue  ": 
vol,  cilv.  p.  431,  'Vater  Power  al  MaHcna";  vol,  cilvii,  p,  467. 
■'  Some  Urie  Turbine  [nnallaliDni,'— Wood,  Tiarf  d/  rurW«.; 
Bovry.  Ilydrauiiii;  BjOrling,  Hyiraidit  Mwiri;  Blaine,  Hydnrltc 
Mofjt'ntfy:  Bodmei,  kydytvlic  Wotori;  Dnwin.  ■' Water  Motor." 
(Lecture»onHydro-Mccliania,7«(.Cn:a£«r„iS8s).   (T,  H  B.) 

TATBB-OPOSSDK,  or  Yuxici  (CAiVowrtti  minimus),  the 
lingLc  rcprcKalative  of  tbe  gcDUj.    This  animal  ia  distinguished 
from  other  opoBumt  by  its  webbed  hind-ful,  non-tuberculaled 
Wiles,  and  peculiar  coloration.    Its  ground  colour  is  light  grey, 
wilb  lour  or  five  shaiply  ci^ntrasted  brown  bonds  pasung  acre 
it4  bead  and  bock,  giving  it  a  very  peculiar  mottled  «ppearanc 
(be  bead  and  body  toflnber  are  kbout  14  m.  kiog,  uid  the  t 
mtuaiea  t  GUle  more.    It  fa  almoat  wbolty  aqiuiUc  id  iti  babii 


Guatemala  to  aoutheni  Bladl. 

VATEB  null  »  gainc  which  hai  doiiE  much  to  idvutoe 
Bwimming  in  pofmUi  lavtHir  and  Ut  improve  tbe  ****^^*^  (4 
iwimmen.  It  b  played  eitber  b  4  bath  MOfMi  water,  the  tcami 
consisting  of  •eveo  a  aide.  The  field  of  [day  muat  not  aactd 
30  yds,  or  be  kaa  than  19  yds.  In  lenftb,  and  the  width  mutt  not 
be  mote  than  w  ydi.  The  ball  uied  muH  be  round  and  tuUj 
infiated,  and  must  not  measure  leas  than  iH,  Dor  nun  than  >B  in. 
in  drciunfereBce.  It  must  be  wateiproof.  wilb  ao  atiapped 
seams  outside,  and  IK>  grease  or  other  objectionable  aubataiicc 
placed  on  it.  Tbe  |«la  must  be  10  JL  in  widlb.  with  a  enaa  bar 
3  ft.  above  the  surface  when  the  water  ia  5  ft.  or  oim  in  deptb^ 
and  8  ft.  fn>m  the  bottom  when  tbe  water  1)  1e»  than  j  fL  m 
depth;  in  no  cue  muat  the  water  in  whkh  ■  game  b  played 
be  leta  than  3  IL  Goal  nets  are  used  fn  all  important  "■■'■-'m 
Tlie  duiation  of  a  match  is  sug^xeed  to  be  14  minutea,  acvoi 
miDuiH  each  way.  The  oEBciali  consist  ol  a  referee,  a  tim^- 
keepet  and  two  goal  acoren.  the  Gnt-named  oSdal  atartiiif 
the  some  by  throwing  the  ball  into  the  ontre  of  the  bath. 
A  goal  ii  tODRd  by  the  entice  ball  pearing  between  the  goal 
pcM*  and  nndcT  the  ccoae-bar. 

''^■r  ^yera  have  to  place  thecnariveab  a  line  with  their  taapi\.tita 
and  an  not  alloved  co  start  cwicmaing  to  tbe  ccp***  ^  *h* 
'"  '    word  "  Go  "  is  riven.   Tbey  ace  usually  d; 

haK-back.  >  badcs  and  a  ralkeeper,    to 

.A.,  jfi^im^  f^  place  01  ceDtiv.fovward,  aad  it 

"otfvSdctbB 


make  all  headway  poaaihle  so  aa  to 


ich  the  baSbdnn 


from  the  Hide  (eicepf  at  tiarting  or  natardag)  in  1 
ball  or  duck  an  opponent.  boMIag.  paUag  hack  or 

a  t  tbe  start  or  restart  to  get  a  good  purii  od, ^.....^  _v 

Ih  ■  goelkeelier  from  a  lice  Hinm  or  leludiv  to  play  tbe  hall 

at  imand  of  tbe  reteree  after  a  fold  or  tbe  ball  has  been  eat 

of  1  of  ;day.    Dribbliag  or  Hriklng  tbe  ball  ia  held  to  be  im 

hfl  CT  or  over  the  t^  vhea  actually  touching,  ia  bfjdiv; 

di  uplhebsthaMl  Ihrourii  thepoiUlapeniniiBUo.   Then 

is  :y  area,  4  yds.  froai  end  goal-poa(,  aad  tbe  ima^Dary  Una 

ac  bath  ia  aet  allowed  U>  be  paiaed  by  tbe  raqxctivc  nal- 

ki  therwiie  they  commit  a  fouL   Tbey  may  (taad  m  di  li  n1 

(h....  ,, .  touch  the  ball  with  both  hands  or  jump  from  tbe  bottom 

to  throw  the  ball  be>vcid  hau.<liBtaiic«-  If  they  do  so  the  oppoaiag 
side  is  awarded  a  free  throw  For  fouls  which  the  referee  couklBra 
to  have  been  commit  lod  wilfully  there  an  very  severe  penalttes.  aad 
those  niiliy  of  tbem  are  ordered  out  of  thewater  until  a  goal  has  been 
acored.  thus  lor  the  lime  bnng  crippling  tbe  side.  DcGbeiattty 
waiting  time,  starting  belon  the  word  "  Go."  taking  up  a  poaMm 
viihin  I  yds,  of  the  opponml's  gist,  changing  ponilDn  alter  the 
whlnle  has  blown  lora  free  throw  or  other  similiir  Hoppageof  play, 
or  deliberately  spliiliint  an  oeponenl  in  the  face.  lie  all  Md  to  be 


of  the  player  to  whom  the  f  1 

has  been  wilfully  fouled  will..,  , 

rivm  a  penalty  throw,  and  the  coosequ 
Is  often  won  b);  reason  ol  a. plays  ddl 

touch  another  player  before  _  , ,  _ 

'     Dt.     Any  player  throwing  the  hall 


Mlbcratelv  bnakini 


A  player  who 
a  cEiae  match 

_   ly  bnaking  ihe  rules 

IS  noiiy  aasauco.  In  ordinary  fouls  the  ball  must 
player  before  a  gCKd  can  be  scored,  but  in  penalty 
,r^     . 1..,^  .,, ;—  .1..  i„ii  fib  own 

player  sends  it  over  it  is  a  free  throw  for  the  goalkcrijer.   After  eacG 
goal  is  scored  the  players  return  Co  their  mpeceive  enda,  waiting 

ininiiiM*duriTiK  which  Ihry  Laii^ilic  water.  'fouIs,  hall-tiine  ud 
time  are  declared  by  whUllc.  apd  goili  by  bell, 

Tbe  game  miuirea  careful  practice  ol  smart  and  sdentiflcpasdng. 
aide  aod  bock-handed  rhmvs.  and  accurate  shooting.    Foe  IhM 

held  by  the  Leading  du 
for  shooting  at  0iaL 


WATER  RIGHTS 


385 


It  WIS  not  tmtQ  the  formatloii  of  the  London  Water  Polo 
Leaifue  in  1889  that  the  game  was  specially  catered  for,  but  a 
form  of  it  had  previously  been  known  and  played  in  several 
parts  oC  England  and  Scotland.  In  1870  the  old  London  Swim- 
ming Association,  the  forerunner  of  the  present  Amateur 
Swimming  Association,  appointed  a  committee  to  draw  up  rules 
for  a  game  of  "  Football  in  the  water,"*  but  no  report  uf  that 
committee  a(^)ears  to  have  been  presented.  In  1S76  aquatic 
handball  matches  were  played  in  the  sea  off  Bournemouth  by 
members  of  the  Bournemouth  Premier  Rowing  Club,  and  in  1877 
there  were  similar  matches  at  the  annual  competition  for  the 
Bon  Accord  Club  in  the  river  Dee,  and  a  year  prior  to  that 
some  rules  had  been  drawn  up  for  the  Aberdeen  Club.  The  game 
at  length  found  its  way  to  the  Midlands,  and  led  to  the  foundation 
of  the  Midland  Aquatic  Football  Association,  whose  rules  were 
somewhat  similar  to  those  in  vogue  in  America,  where  goals 
are  soored  by  placing  the  ball  in  a  marked-out  space  called 
"  goal."  In  1883  Birmingham  Leander  played  All  England  at 
Portsmouth;  in  188$  the  Amateur  Swimming  Association  took 
official  recognition  of  the  game,  and  in  1888  started  the  English 
championship,  this  being  won  the  first  year  by  Burton-on-Trent. 
Then  came  the  foundation  of  the  London  Water  Polo  League, 
through  whose  agency  county  asaociationa  came  into  being, 
inter-county  matches  were  played,  and  international  games 
arranged.  The  first  county  matches  were  played  in  1890,  and 
the  first  international  the  same  year,  the  game  being  between 
England  and  Scotland  at  Kensington  Baths  on  28th  July. 
En^and  was  beaten  by  four  goals  to  none,  but  the  outcome  of 
the  match  was  the  cementing  of  friendly  relations  between  the 
English  and  Scottish  associations,  and  the  gradual  spread  of 
the  game,  until  the  English,  Irish,  Scottish  and  Welsh  associa- 
tions joined  together  and  formed  an  international  board,  without 
whose  sanction  none  of  the  rules  of  the  game  can  now  be  altered. 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  met  for  the  first  time  in  1891,  and  since 
ihen  the  Blues'  committee  of  each  university  have  given 
swimming  and  water  polo  a  "  half  blue."  The  game  has  become 
popuUr  in  many  European  countries,  and  friendly  matches 
between  English  and  continental  clubs  are  frequently  played. 
It  has  also  extended  to  Egypt,  India  and  Australia,  in  which 
countries  the  British  rules  have  been  adopted. 

See  the  Amateur  Swimming  Association's  Handbook  for  roles  of 
the  game  and  instruccions  to  referees.        -  (W.  Uy.) 

WATER  RIGHTS.  By  the  hw  of  England  the  property  in 
the  bed  and  water  of  a  tidal  river,  as  high  as  the  tide  ebbs  and 
flows  at  a  medium  spring  tide,  is  presumed  to  be  in  the  crown 
or  as  a  franchise  in  a  grantee  of  the  crown,  such  as  the  lord  of 
a  manor,  or  a  district  council,  and  to  be  extra-parochial.  The 
bed  and  water  of  a  non- tidal  river  are  presumed  to  belong  to 
the  person  through  whose  land  it  flows,  or,  if  it  divide  two 
properties,  to  the  riparian  proprietors,  the  rights  of  each  extend- 
ing to  midstream  {ad  medium  JUum  aquae).  In  order  to  give 
riparian  rights,  the  river  must  (low  in  a  defined  channel,  or  at 
least  above  ground.  The  diminution  of  underground  water 
collected  by  percolation,  even  though  malicious,  docs  not  fflve 
a  cause  of  action  to  the  owner  of  the  land  in  which  it  collects. 
It  being  merely  damnum  sine  injuria,  though  he  is  entitled  to 
have  it  unpolluted  unless  a  right  of  pollution  be  gained  against 
him  by  prescription.  The  right  to  draw  water  from  another's 
well  is  an  easement,  not  a  proJU  d  prendre,  and  is  therefore 
claimable  by  custom.  As  a  general  rule  a  riparian  proprietor, 
whether  on  a  tidal  or  a  non-tidal  river,  has  full  rights  of  user 
of  his  property.  Most  of  the  statute  law  will  be  found  in  the 
Sea  Fisheries  Acts  1843  to  189 1,  and  the  Salmon  and  Freshwater 
Fiaheries  Acts  1861  to  1886.  In  certain  cases  the  rights  of  the 
riparian  proprietors  are  subject  to  the  intervening  rights  of  other 
persons.  These  rights  vary  according  as  the  river  is  navigable 
or  not,  or  tidal  or  not.  For  instance,  all  the  riparian  proprietors 
might  combine  to  divert  a  non -navigable  river,  though  one 
alone  could  not  do  so  as  against  the  others,  but  no  combination 
of  riparian  proprietors  could  defeat  the  right  of  the  public  to 
liave  a  navigable  river  maintained  undiverted.  We  shall  here 
ODnsider  shortly  the  rights  enjoyed  by.  and  the  limitations 


imposed  upon,  riparian  proprietors,  in  addition  to  those  falling 
under  the  head  of  fishery  or  navigation.  In  these  matters 
English  law  is  in  substantial  accordance  with  the  law  of  other 
countries,  most  of  the  rules  being  deduced  from  Roman  law. 
Perhaps  the  main  difference  is  that  running  water  is  in  Roman 
law  a  rej  communiSt  like  the  air  and  the  sea.  In  England, 
owing  to  the  greater  value  of  river  water  for  manufacturing 
and  other  purposes,  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  common  property, 
even  though  it  may  be  used  for  navigation.  The  effect  of  this 
difference  is  that  certain  rights,  public  in  Roman  law,  such  as 
mooring  and  unloading  cargo,  bathing,  drying  nets,  fishing  for 
oysters,  digging  for  sand,  towing,  &c.,  axe  only  acquirable  by 
prescription  or  custom  in  England.  By  Roman  law,  a  hut  might 
lawfully  be  built  on  the  shore  of  the  sea  or  of  a  tidal  river;  in 
England  such  a  building  would  be  a  mere  trespass.  Preaching 
on  the  foreshore  is  not  legal  unless  by  custom  or  prescription 
I  {Uandudno  Urban  Council  v.  Woods,  1899,  3  Ch.  705).  Nor 
j  may  a  fisherman  who  dredges  for  enters  appropriate  a  part  of 
I  the  foreshore  for  storing  them  {Truro  Corporation  v.  Rawe,  190a, 
I  a  VLB,  709). 

The  right  of  use*  of  the  water  of  a  natural  stream  cannot  be  better 
deitcribed  than  in  the  words  of  Lord  Kingsdown  in  1858:  "  By  the 
general  law  applicable  to  running  streams,  every  riparian  proprietor 
has  a  right  to  what  may  be  called  the  ordinary  use  of  water  tlowii^ 
past  his  land — for  instance,  to  th^  reasonable  use  of  the  water  for 
domestic  purposes  and  for  his  cattle,  and  this  without  regard  to  the 
effect  which  such  use  may  have  in  case  of  a  deficiency  upon  pro- 
^prietors  lower  down  the  stream.  But,  further,  he  has  a  right  to  the 
use  of  it  for  any  purpose,  or  what  may  be  deemed  the  extraordinary 
use  of  it,  provided  he  does  not  thereby  interfere  with  the  rights  of 
other  proprietors,  either  above  or  below  him.  Subiect  to  this  con- 
dition, he  may  dam  up  a  stream  for  the  purposes  01  a  mill,  or  divert 
the  water  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation.  But  be  has  no  right  to  inter- 
cept the  regular  now  of  the  stream,  if  he  thereby  interieres  with  the 
lawful  use  of  the  water  by  other  proprietors,  and  inflicts  upon  them 
a  sensible  injury  "  (Miner  v.  Cilmour,  12  Moore's  P.C.  Cases.  156). 
The  rights  of  riparian  proprietors  where  the  flow  of  water  is  artificial 
rest  on  a  different  principle.  As  the  artificial  stream  is  made  by  a 
person  for  bis  own  benefit,  any  right  of  another  person  as  a  riparian 
proprietor  does  not  arise  at  common  law,  as  in  tne  case  of  a  natural 
stream,  but  must  be  established  by  grant  or  prescription.  If  its 
origin  be  unknown  the  inference  appears  to  be  that  riparian  pro- 
prietors have  the  same  rights  as  if  the  stream  had  been  a  natural 
one  {Baily  v.  Clark,  1903, 1  Ch.  640).  The  rights  of  a  person  not  a 
riparian  proprietor  who  uses  land  abuttii^  on  a  river  or  stream  by 
the  licence  or  grant  of  the  riparian  proprietor  are  not  as  full  astbougn 
he  were  a  riparian  proprietor,  for  he  cannot  be  imposed  as  a  riparian 
proprietor  upon  the  other  proprietors  without  their  consent.  The 
effect  of  this  appears  to  be  that  be  is  not  entitled  to  sensibly  affect 
their  rights,  even  by  the  ordinary  as  distinguished  from  the  extra- 
ordinary use  of  the  water.  Even  a  riparian  proprietor  cannot  divert 
the  stream  to  a  place  outside  his  tenement  and  there  use  it  for  pur- 
poses unconnected  with  the  tenement  {McCartney  v.  Londonderry 
fir  LouA  Synlly  Rly.  Co.,  190a,  A.C.  301).  * 

The  limitations  to  which  the  right  of  the  riparian  proprietor  is 
subject  may  be  divided  into  those  existing  by  common  rignt,  those 
imposed  for  public  purposes,  and  those  established  against  him  by 
crown  grant  or  by  custom  or  prescription.  Under  the  first  head 
comes  the  public  nght  of  navigation,  of  anchorage  and  fishery  from 
boats  (in  tidal  waters),  and  of  taking  shell-fish  (and  probably  othcv 
fish  except  royal  fish)  on  the  shore  of  tidal  waters  as  far  as  any 
right  of  several  fishciy  does  not  intervene.  Under  the  second  head 
would  fall  the  right  of  eminent  domain  by  which  the  state  takes 
riparian  rig^hts  for  public  pur|)oses,  compensating  the  proprietor, 
the  restrictions  upon  the  sporting  rights  of  the  proprietor,  as  by 
acts  forbidding-the  taking  of  fish  m  doae  time,  and  the  Wild  Biros 
Protection  Acts,  and  the  restrictions  on  the  ground  of  public  health. 
as  by  the  Rivers  Pollution  Act  1876  and  the  regulations  of  port 
sanitary  authorities.  The  iurisdiction  of  the  state  over  rivers  in 
England  may  be  exercised  by  officers  of  the  crown,  as  by  commis- 
sioners of  sewers  or  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  under  the  Crown  Lands 
Act  1866.  A  bridge  is  erected  and  maintained  by  the  county 
authorities,  and  the  nparian  proprietor  must  bear  any  inconvenience 
resulting  from  it.  An  example  of  an  adverse  right  by  crown  grant 
is  a  ferry  or  a  port.  The  crown,  moreover,  as  the  guardian^oi  the 
realm,  has  jurisdiction  to  restrain  the  removal  of  the  foreshore,  the 
natural  barrier  of  the  sea,  by  its  owner  in  case  of  apprehended  danger 
to  the  coast.  The  rights  established  against  a  riparian  proprietor  oy 
private  persons  must  as  a  rule  be  based  on  proscription  or  custom, 
only  on  prescription  where  they  are  in  the  nature  of  profits  d  prendre. 
The  public  cannot  claim' such  rights  by  prescription,  stiH  less  by 
custom.  Among  such  rights  are  the  right  to  land,  to  discharge  cargo, 
to  tow  to  dry  nets,  to  beach  boats,  to  take  sand,  shingle  or  water,  to 
have  a  sea-wall  maintained,  to  pollute  the  water  (subject  to  the  RiTars 


386 


WATER-SCJORPION— WATERSPOUT 


Pollution  Act),  to  water  cactle,  &c  In  some  cases  the  validity  of 
local  riparian  Customs  has  been  recognized  by  the  legislature.  The 
right  to  enter  on  lands  adjoining  tidal  waters  for  the  purpose  of  watch- 
tog  for  and  landing  herrings,  pilchards  and  other  sea-fish  was  con- 
firmed to  the  fishermen  of  Somerset.  Devon  and  Cornwall  by  i  Jac.  I. 
c  23.  Digging  sand  on  the  shore  of  tidal  waters  for  use  as  manure 
on  the  landwas  granted  to  the  inhabitants  of  Devon  and  Cornwall  by 
7  jac.  I.  c  18.  The  public  right  of  taking  or  killing  rabbits  in  the  day- 
time on  any  sea  bank  or  river  bank  in  the  county  of  Lincoln,  so  far 
as  the  tide  excends,  or  within  one  furlong  of  such  bank,  was  preserved 
by  the  Lareeny  Act  1881.  It  should  be  noticed  that  rights  of  the 
public  may  be  subject  to  private  rights.  Where  the  river  is  navi- 
gable, although  the  right  01  navigation  is  common  to  the  subjects  of 
the  realm,  it  may  be  connected  with  a  right  to  exclusive  access  to 
riparian  laad,  the  invasion  (rf  which  may  form  the  grouad  for  legal 
proceedings  by  the  riparian  proprietor  (see  Lyon  v.  The  Fishmongfrs' 
Company,  1876,  I  A.C.  663).  There  is  no  common-bw  right  of 
support  by  subterranean  water.  A  grant  of  land  posses  all  watcr- 
' courses,  unless  reserved  to  the  grantor. 

A  freshwater  lake  appears  to  be  governed  by  the  same  law  as  a 
non-tidal  river,  surface  water  beine  Bars  solu  The  preponderance  of 
authority  is  in  favour  of  the  right  ofttie  riparian  proprietors  as  against 
the  crown.  Most  of  the  law  will  be  found  in  Drtstcw  v.  Cormtcan, 
1878.  3  A.C.  648. 

Unlawful  ana  malicious  injury  to  sea  and  river  banks,  towing  paths, 
sluices,  flood-gates,  mill-dams,  &c,  or  poisoning  fish,  is  a  crime 
under  the  Maifeious  Damage  Act  1861. 

Ferry  is  a  franchise  created  by  grant  or  prescription.  When 
created  it  is  a  highway  of  a  special  description,  a  monopoly  to  be 
used  only  for  the  public  advantage,  so  that  the  toll  levicxl  must  be 
reasonable.  The  grantee  may  have  an  action  or  an  injunction  for 
infringement  of  his  rights  by  competition  unless  the  infringement 
be  by  act  of  parliament.  In  Hopkins  v.  G.N.  Ry.  Co.,  1877.  3 
Q.B.D.  234  (followed  in  Dibden  v.  Sktrrow,  i^,  i  Ch.  437),  it  was 
held  that  the  owner  of  a  ferry  cannot  maintain  an  action  for  loss  of 
traffic  caused  by  a  new  bridge  or  ferry  made  to  provide  for  new  traffic. 
Many  ferries  are  now  regulated  by  local  acts. 

Weir,  the  gurges  of  Domesday,  the  kidellus  of  Magna  Carta,  as 
appurtenant  to  a  fishery,  is  a  nuisance  at  common  bw  unless  granted 
by  the  crown  before  1272.  From  the  ttymology  of  kidelius  the  weir 
was  probably  at  first  of  wicker,  later  of  timber  or  stone.  The  owner 
of  a  several  fishery  in  tidal  watera cannot  maintain  his  claim  to  a  weir 
unless  he  can  show  a  title  going  back  to  Magna  Carta.  In  private 
watera  he  must  claim  by  grant  or  prescription.  Numerous  fishery 
acts  from  25  Edw.  1 1 1,  st.  4,  c.  4  deal  with  weira,  especially  with  regard 
to  salmon  fishery.  An  interesting  case  is  Hanbury  v.  Jenkins,  1901 , 
2  Ch.  401,  where  it  was  held  that  a  grant  of  "  wean  "  in  the  Usk  by 
Henry  VIII.  in  1516  passed  the  bed  of  die  river  as  well  as  the  right 
of  fisniAg. 

kliU  may  be  erected  by  any  one,  subject  to  local  regulations  and 
to  his  detaming  the  water  no  longer  than  is  reasonably  necessary  for 
the  working  of  the  wheel.  But  if  a  dam  be  put  across  running  water, 
the  erection  of  it  can  only  be  justified  by  errant  or  prescription,  or  (in 
a  manor)  by  manorial  custom.  On  navigable  nven  it  must  have 
existed  before  137a.  The  owner  of  it  cannot  pea  up  the  water 
permanentty  so  as  to  make  a  pond  of  it. 

Batkin^.-^Tht  reported  cases  affect  only  sea-bathing,  but  Hall 
(p.  160)  IS  of  opinion  that  a  right  to  bathe  in  private  watera  may 
exist  by  prescriotton  or  custom.  There  b  no  common-bw  right  to 
bathe  in  the  sel  or  to  pbce  bathing-machines  on  the  shore.  Pre- 
scription or  custom  b  necessary  to  support  a  cbira,  whether  the  fore- 
shore Is  the  property  of  the  crown  or  of  a  private  owner  {Brincitman 
V.  Motley,  1904,  3  Ch.  313).  Bathing  In  the  sea  or  in  riven  b  now 
often  regubted  by  the  by-laws  of  a  local  authcmty. 

Scotland. — ^The  law  of  dcotlaad  is  in  general  accordance  with  that 
of  Engbnd.  One  of  the  principal  dinerences  b  that  in  Scotbnd. 
if  a  charter  state  that  the  sea  is  the  boundary  of  a  grant,  the 
foreshore  is  included  in  the  grant,  subject  to  the  burden  of  crown 
rights  for  public  purposes.  Persons  engaged  in  the  herring  fishery 
on  xh4  coast  of  Sc»tbnd  have,  by  1 1  Geo.  III.  c.  31.  the  right  to  use 
the  shore  for  100  yds.  from  high-water  mark  for  landing  and  drying 
nets,  erecting  huts  and  curing  fish.  By  the  Army  Act  1881,  s.  143. 
soldien  on  the  march  in  Scotland  pay  only  half  toll  at  ferries.  The 
tig^t  of  ferry  b  one  of  the  regalia  mmcra  acquirable  by  prescriptive 
possession  on  a  charter  of  barony.  Sea-«eens  are  private  property. 
The  right  to  tal^e  seaweed  from  another's  foreshore  may  be  prescribed 
as  a  servitude.  Interference  with  the  free  passage  of  salmon  by 
abstraction  d  water  to  artificial  channels  b  restrainable  by  interdict 
iPirie  v.  Earl  of  Kinlore,  1906,  AC.  478).  See  the  Salmon  Fbheries 
(Scotbnd)  Acts  1828  to  1868. 

In  Ireland  the  bw  is  in  eenent  accordance  with  that  of  Engbnd. 
la  R.  V.  Clinton,  I.R.  4  C.L.  6,  the  Irish  court  went  perhaps  beyond 
any  Englbh  precedent  in  holding  that  to  carry  away  driit  seaweed 
from  the  foreshore  b  not  brceny.  The  Rivers  Pollution  Act  1876 
was  re-enacted  for  Ireland  by  the  similar  act  of  1893. 

In  the  United  States  the  common  bw  of  Engbnd  was  originally 
the  bw,  the  state  succeeding  to  the  right  of  the  crown.  This  was 
no  doubt  sufficient  in  the  thirteen  original  states,  which  are  not 
traversed  by  nvers  of  the  bluest  si».  but  was  not  generally  followed 
vhca  it  became  obvious  thait  new  conditions,  unknown  in  Engbod, 


Jiad  arisen.    Accordingly  the  soil  of  navigaUe  rivvrs,  fredi  or  aalt; 

and  of  lakes,  is  vested  in  the  state,  which  has  power  to  rcgubte 
navigation  and  impose  tolls.  The  admiralty  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States  extends  to  all  public  navigable  nvers  and  lakes  where 
commerce  is  carried  on  between  different  states  or  with  foreign 
nations  {Genesee  Chief  v.  Ftttkugh,  li  Howard's  Rep.  443}.  And 
in  a  case  decided  in  1893  it  was  held  that  the  open  waters  of  the 
great  bkcs  are  "  high  seas  "  within  the  meaning  of  {  5346  of  the 
Revised  Statutes  (U.S.  v.  Rodger s,  130  U.S.  Rep.  249).  A  state 
may  establish  ferries  and  authorise  dams.  But  if  water  from  a 
fbm  overflow  a  public  highway,  an  indictabb  nuisance  b  caused. 
The  right  of  eminent  domain  b  exercised  to  a  greater  extent  than 
in  Engbnd  in  the  compulsory  acquisition  of  sites  for  mills  and  the 
construction  of  levees  or  embankments,  especblly  on  the  Mississipui. 
In  the  drier  country  of  the  west  and  in  the  mining  districts,  tne 
common  bw  as  to  irrigation  has  had  to  be  altered,  and  «'hat  was 
called  the  "  Arid  Region  Doctrine  "  was  gradually  established.  By 
it  the  first  user  of  water  has  a  right  by  priority  of  occupation  if  he 
give  notice  to  the  public  of  an  intention  to  appropriate,  provided 
that  he  be  competent  to  hold  bnd. 

AuTHORiTiBS.—Hairs  Essay  on  the  Rights  of  the  Crown  on  Ike  Seth 
Shore  (1830)  has  been  re-edited  in  1875  and  1888.  See  also  S.  A. 
and  H.  S.  Moore,  History  and  Law  of  Fisheries  (1903).  Among 
American  authorities  are  the  works  of  Angell,  Gould  and  Pomeroy, 
on  Waters  and  Watercourus,  Washburn  on  Easements,  Angiell  on 
the  Rig/it  of  Property  in  Tide  Waters,  Kirney  on  Irrigation  and  the 
Report  lo  the  Senate  on  Irrigation  (i 900).  (J .  W.) 

WATER*SCORPION,  an  aquatic  hemipteroua  insect  of  the 
family  Nepidae,  so  called  from  its  superficial  resemblance  to  a 
scorpion,  which  b  due  to  the  modification  of  the  l^s  of  the 
anterior  pair  for  prehension,  and  to  the  presence  of  a  toi^ 
slender  pcocess,  simulating  a  tail,  at  the  posterior  end  of  the 
abdomen.    The  common  British  species  {Nepa  cinerea)  Uvei 
in  ponds  and  stagnant  water,  and  feeds  upon  aquatic  animsl 
organbms  principally  of  the  insect  kind.    Respiration  in  the 
adult  b  effected  by  means  of  the  caudal  process,  which  consists 
of  a  pair  of  half-tubes  capable  of  being  locked  together  to  focta 
a  siphon  by  means  of  which  air  is  conducted  to  the  tncheae 
at  the  apex  of  the  abdomen  when  the  tip  of  the  tube  is  thrust 
above  the  surface  of  the  water.    la  immature  forms  the  siphon 
is  undeveloped  and  breathing  takes  place  through  six  pairs  of 
abdominal  spiracles.    The  ^gs,  bid  in  the  stems  of  plants, 
are  supplied  with  seven  fibmentous  processes  which  float  (ledy 
in  the  water. 

In  Nepa  the  body  b  broad  and  flat;  but  in  an  allied  water-bug. 
Ranatra,  which  contains  a  sinile  British  species  (R.  linearis),  it  u 
long  and  narrow,  while  the  tegs  are  very  denderand  elongate. 
Certain  exotic  racmben  of  this  group,  sometimes  erroneoteiy 
referred  to  the  Nepidae,  but  really  forming  a  special  family,  Beb* 
stomidae,  are  of  large  size,  a  South  American  species.  Belostoma 
grande,  reaching  a  bngth  of  between  4  and  5  in. 

WATERSHED,  in  physical  geography,  the  line  separating  the 
headstreatns  tribuidry  to  two  different  river-systems  or  basins. 
Alternative  terms  are  "  waier-parting  "  and  "  divide."  The 
crest  of  a  mountain  ridge  forms  the  most  clearly  marked  water- 
shed; in  a  pbin  country  of  gentle  slope  (e.g.  the  central  plain  of 
Irebnd)  the  watershed  is  often  difficult  to  trace,  as  the  head- 
waters of  two  different  river  systems  may  merge  in  marshes  or 
lakes  at  the  highest  levels.  In  a  mountainous  country,  where 
two  streams,  flowing  in  opposite  directions  but  having  their 
sources  adjacent,  are  both  gradually  eroding  or  cutting  back 
the  bnd  at  their  heads,  a  pass  is  formed.  In  such  cases,  where 
one  stream  erodes  faster  than  the  other,  the  stronger  may 
ultimately  "  behead  "  the  weaker,  and  "  capture  *'  some  of  its 
waters,  whose  flow  is  diverted  from  one  basin  to  another. 

WATERSPOUT,  a  local  vorticular  storm  occurring  over  a 
water-surface,  and  in  origin  and  form  similar  to  a  tornado  Ig.v.) 
over  the  bnd.  A  whirling,  funnel-shaped  cloud,  first  observed 
as  a  pendant  from  the  mass  of  storm-cloud  above,  seems  to 
grow  downwards,  tapering,  towards  the  water-surface,  which  is 
violently  agitated,  and  finally  (when  the  spout  is  fully  developed) 
appears  to  be  drawn  up  to  meet  the  cloud  from  above.  Tbb 
appearance  is  deceptive,  as  the  bulk  of  the  water  carried  along 
by  the  whirling  spout  b  condensed  from  the  atmosphere,  and, 
even  when  the  spout  b  formed  over  a  salt-water  surface,  b 
found  to  be  fresh.  Waterspouts  occur  most  frequently  over 
the  warm  seas  of  the  tropics,  but  they  are  not  confined  to  the 
'  warmer  itopicai  seasons,  or  even  to  low  btitudes. 


COLLECTIMO  AREAS! 


of  waler  h  dull  vr 


WATER  : 

rtide  is  confined  10  the  called  ion 


3«7 


higher  praponHn  III 

WiMa,  however 

flow  durinR  uid  be 


KKalkd  dry  wciihEr  flov. 
I   rewrvoir  U  emplaned  u>  equiliie   ( 
Fore  the  period  at  dry  weallter,  the  miiumLi 
■vailible  luy  be  inaasni  to  ( 
,  depending  upon  Ihe  cipscily  of 
ilatHiB  tolhemcufiowof  t^FMieamBupplyl 
■  tile  ftnt  eacntul  in  dclertnining  the  >h 
>r  tbis  pnniDK,  If  ihen  in  i 


linage  ai 


ntnl  basji 


the'-githeringgi 
irshed."    The  la 


be  formed  from  n 


though  origin»l]y  equivilcnl  to  the  German  Wasioicktidi — 
"  WAler-pirlinK  " — it  perhapi  leui  open  to  objection.  The 
mlet-parting  is  Ihe  line  bounding  such  in  irei  uid  lepirilisg 
it  (lom  other  walershcds.  The  banks  of  a  valercourse  or  tides 
of  1  villey  an  ditlinguiabedu  the  light  and  led  bank  topect  ively. 

The  surtace  of  the  oirtb  [i  nnty  impermeihlB.  ud  the 
UnictuK  of  the  rocki  largely  determines  the  direction  of  flow 

eviperated.    Hiss  Ihe  figure  ind  ue*  of  i  Hiri 
miy  not  be  coincideni  with  that  of    ' 


Irainige  «i  .  . 

ibiished  in  Bnliik  RaimfaU,  inililled  by  the 
A,  F.ft.S..  ind  now  uttied  on  by  Dr  H.  R. 
1  the  bands  of  those  wbo  hive  spent  yean 
It,  lhi>  mctbod  may  lead  lo  mosl  iocoriect 
obMnntions  ciisi  upon  the  diainigt  iiea 
monly  otily  Itom  a  (ingle  gauge,  ind  ihi> 
■ei  is  very  level,  miy  give  resulii  widfly 
nein  fiU  on  the  whole  uu.  UnquallGcd 
Ihe  past  hit  been  the  ciUM  oE 
estimated  nlilion  between  iilnfaU  end 


meablE  rocks  with  few  wuet-bearing  Astutet.  yield  in 
peiate  clinuiei.  (awards  Ihe  end  of  the  driew 
tfaerefoR  icdely   from   undeijtDuod.   betoecii   i  ttih   ind   a 
'    it  pet  letrnd  per  looo  wtes.     Through- 

■re  chieHy  tupplied  from  such  foirnaljons.  Ihi 
maleriiHy  chinge.  even  down  to  the  diy  of  Wi 
vbich  the  dbchsrge  Howl  from  i.ise.ooo  tcits.    B 


^inc  no  visible  sign  of  any  pecuUariiy.  Ihe  diKhiiir  leET  on  the 
SIM  of  September  iSu.  toone-thiny-Uthofacubic  Ion  per  second 

Eiscd  ihroiiEli  the  beds  and  jants  tf  mclis  lo  an  adioininf  vaOry 
TIE  a)  a  himr  level,  and  hid  both  uieiait  been  (iised  Ihr  avenge 
HuTd  probiblv  Wvt  been  considtrably  grcaler.  The  Thaniri  ii 
TediBneion.  fed  liigeiy  froncRtaceoitiuvH,  fell  durine  ten 
Seorember  iBoS  [the  arlilidil  abstrulioni  f er  the  supply  e<  I 
berngadJrf)toab™ione-H«hof  ■    ' 

^itchnrtr  hoi  occawonaily  (alieni  in  each  of  ni  otncr  eaiea.  lo  abe 
odfl^bftnof  aeubtefoot  pcrsccond per  imoacns-  Owing.howev 
b>  the  very  variable  pcrmcitqlity  ot  the  strata-  the  tributaries  at  1 
Thames,  when  separalely  gauwsl  in  dry  sea«oni.  yield  Ihe  mi 
divayent  retulll.    It  maj  be  liken  as  an  aiiom  thai  the  viriati 


Thus,  (or. 


he  supply  of  London 
.  incl  since  iMathr 


ofEoclaad. 

rhe'so-ealted  "  honT 


__n  values  inci 


I  venicii  plane  by  Ihe  prevailire  winds  blowing  from  A  towinl 
—aim  pauini  the  Meeptnnk  at  C  D — may  be  readily  understooi 
rcheaamplessnowtheimponanceof  placing  any  rain-gauge,  so  (fl 

possible,  upon  apUae  surface  of  (he  earth— horiunlnl.  or  i 
:lSned  thai,  if  productd.  espedalty  in  the  direction  of  pnviilin 
ndSt  it  srjll  cul  the  mdn  levels  of  the  area  whose  moan  lainTill  i 
tended  to  be  repceienied  by  that  laBge.  It  hat  been  commanl 
ited  that  rainlan  increasn  with  Iheahliude.  This  is  broadly  in> 
rain-cloud  raised  vertically  upwards  espindi.  eods  and  lands  1 


388 


WATER  SUPPLY 


their  conuiiKd  ••  the  ■Idmde  I ■mrt     BiH  ualil  Ike  ckindt  riee 

tbove  the  hill  there  u  an  obviout  ODumerveiLinE  Hodency  to  com- 
pcewon.  and  in  aicep  t1op«  ihii  may  reduce  or  entirely  pnvnH  pre- 
cipiuiion  until  the  nmaiit  li'ieiched.  when  >  [all  »[  pnuure  wJLh 
commotion  num  occur  Ver^  high  nountaia  ranga  uHially  conabt 
of  many  ridgef*  amoofl  which  rain-doudi  a/t  entapslni  in  ihrir 

ihc  main  range.  (hou|Ji  on  the  leeward  lidn  ti  (he  minor  ridge«  of 
which  i(  'a  fanned,  may  occur  to  to  large  an  eateni  that  belon  ihc 
tummil  ia  reached  the  cloode  are  ejchauaed  or  aaiiy  n.  and  n  ihu 
one  (be  total  precipitatioB  ia  Jeei  oa  (he  leeward  than  on  ihe  wind- 
waid  aide  of  (be  nuin  nnge:  bur  in  the  moderate  hei^hti  of  (he 
United  (Cingdom  it  more  commonly  happens  from  the  cauwi  ea- 
plained  that  predpi(a(»n  li  |Keven(ed  or  grrally  retarded  until  the 
Hmmll  of  Ihe  tidge  it  nvhed.  TbefoUanngcauicahocontribtitei 
to  (be  hKer  effect.  Imagine  eleven  raindiopa  A  to  K  to  fall  timul- 
taoeoudy  and  eqni-dittancly  from  ihehoriiontal  plane  AM.  Aitrong 
wind  it  urging  (he  drop*  from  left  (aright.  ThedTofnAand  Kmay 
be  readily  conceived  to  be  equally  diverted  by  the  wind,  and  lo  fall 
near  (he  topacf  the  Iwo  hillt  reapeclively.  Not  lo  drop  C,  for  dirccdy 
the  kUBunn  it  patted  the  wind  neeettarily  widerBoutverticaUyand. 
havjnn  a  greater  tpoce  to  GIU  lose*  I'^rm^ni  ■.^t.viru  rr  m>u  •^en 
eddy  liacEwaidi.  at  indicated  by  no 

lo  Ihe  Bight  oTthe  douda.  to  fit  3m 

behind.    Much  Ihe  tame  tendcnc  ipa 

between  B  and  E,  bu(  at  F  the  win  lelf 


"Ji 


lain  (ban  the  windoa 
igwindaaiefromihe. 

tt  geoeial  ilope  lowardi  the 


dial  lowaidilheeaMr 

orrangeofhilbgenerallvrecdveAinore  lain  (ban  the  windward  tide, 
Succetaive  abtiraction  of  raindropa  aa  the  rain-ckijdi  pau  over 

tbi<  ia  genenily  iniufficient  to  rcvcrte  the  locu  condiriont.  which 
(end  to  the  conlmry  effect  in  Individual  nngea.    The  nr^kcL  of 

va(enhed  areai  from  the  tall  obaffved  at  gaugen  in  puticvlar  p«rti 

In  the  iimplen  can  nl  a  iingle  mountain  valley  to  be  uted  for  the 
■iir^v  fif  >A  ImrvitinHin^  raervoir.  the  rainfall  ihotiki  be  known  at 
n  The  alia  of  the  vaDey,  of  which  one  ii  rtear 


righi-aod  telt-haod] 


vS£y 


!  dhection  at  Ihe  valley  tal  nr 


m  o<  Ihe  vaUcy  and 
— omofthcvi 


- ---" "-ongh  (heeeniralpurr.    Th( 

■a  oClbe  bouDding  hilla.    Tht 


ie  valley  genmNv  record  the  leaw  rainfall,  and  one  ot  thoie  on 


K  thouid  be  traced,  a: 


leiult  i(  obuined.  Ihc 

In  the  gauge  itielt.  ot  In  iia  iicaimeoi.  otnet  gauget  uouio  oe  uien  ro 
check  It.  TheeenIra]gaugeiauiefulforcorrectinEandfh«king (be 
othen.  but  in  tuck  a  perfectly  timple  cue  aa  the  xraight  valley 
-■- -■  ■ ■--  imilled  incalculallngtlie  reiold,  and  (l 


(heir  reaultt  win  on 
Ihe  vaUev.    Bui  lu. 


0  the  kical 

ibelaiL 

lie  Royal  Meu 


.    The 


work  d(  the  laic  M  r  JamoGliiiher.F.R.S..  of  ibe  laic  M  r  G. J .  Syr 
F.RS..  of  Ihe  Meleonk^l "- -*  -'  "■-  = — '  " '- 

nugea  in  diflercnl  pant  of  the  Unifeid  Kiugclom,  and  it  ia  genrrally, 
though  not  always,  found  (hat  the  mean  rainfall  overs  long  period 
nn  be  determined,  for  an  area  upon  which  (be  attua]  fall  ia  known 


yeart  in  the  kMig-ptriad  gJ 


of  Ihe  I 
thai  tha  nkniallt  of 


[COLLECTtNG  AREAS 
ihoaeofeiim. 


period  gaugea  which  are  to  tiiuaied  ildi  the  thon-pcrud  diatrict  hd 
bciH-ccn  (hem.  Where  auitably  placed  kmg-penod  vtun  eaiai, 
and  where  care  has  been  exercised  in  aacvnaminB  ihe  auQientidiy 

(hekjcal  gauges  may  be  ibua  carried  back  into  Ihe  kmg  perioda  widi 


would  appear  Erom  tlw 
place  the  total  lairdaD 
I  1  DC  1  %  of  the  tout 


Raialall  is  proverbuliy  uncei 

withiK  tt  %  of  the  mean  ot  JO  yean.     [(  la  equally  HtiriactQey  to 

diieit  consecutive  yt«n.  Thua  in  airy 
n  yoar  (not  at  an  individual  niige  but 
be  about  63%  a  the  Dean  £r  She  so 

Thai  in  the  two  drieai  conteculiye  years  win  be  about  ;s  %o(  IlH 

That  io  Ihe  three  drieatcoaaeculivE  yean  will  be  about  SoKoflltt 
That  in  Ibetourdiieitconieeutivc  yean  win  be  about  l]%a(lhe 
'eaiiariUtoabaut  Ss^itfdii 
an  will  be  about  S61%of(l* 


the  quealion  of  anpply,  but  ra 
which  du[  supply  i«  gives. 

Where  in  this  article  the  ton  "  enpoiuio 
it  is  (0  be  undeniDod  to  induik  alHOiptio 
Of  Ihe  loial  quaniiiy  of  t»in[aU  a  very  vaiiable  pto-  ', 
portion  ii  rapidly  absorbed  ot  n>«T(panied.     Thua    i^TT? 


!ar1y  impeiiDeable  1 


water  errapotated 


a  covered  wiih  paAlnia  and  moorland,  the 
ibtorbrd  by  vegetation  ia  front  13  to  i^ii 
I  in.,  or  from  lA  to  !•)%,  and  b  nculy 
about  6a  in.,  where  Ihc  proportion  of  kaa  it  tiwraMn  Iram  ti 
atsyi  TheSevemdownloWoitoUr.dnininf  i,is6.aooBfTCB 
if  generally  fiaiiet  land  lafgely  of  ibe  ■amc  UibokiKlcal  cbanciir, 
jave  in  the  dry  season  frem  Ihe  ill  ai  July  i&g?  to  Ibc  9Mb 
of  June  iggg  a  low  ol  i)'U  in.  upoa  a  niofall  of  1714  in.  ot 
about  66%',  Khile  In  Ibe  wet  Maun,  itt  ol  July  iK&>  to  the 
jnih  of  June  iSaj,  Ibe  lou  mi  ii-oq  In,  upon  a  rainfall  of 
4j  16  in.,  or  only  19%,  Upon  tbt  Tliama  baiin  down  to 
Teddin^on,  having  aa  area  of  >.is3,ooo  acrei,  Ibe  lou  in  ibe 
Iry  leatoB  from  the  iit  of  July  1S90  10  tbc  jiMh  of  June  lEfi 
«u  1J12  in.  out  of  a  tainlaU  of  ji»j  in.,  a  79%;  while  is 
be  wet  uiMO,  lit  of  July  liii  to  the  joih  of  June  ittg.  it  saa 

he  rainfall  b  lowet  and  ihe  evaporatioo  approkitnalcly  th* 
amc  at  upon  the  Thams  area,  to  that  the  poceatace  of  loat 
I  greater.  But  IhcH  art  mctely  broad  eiamples  and  average* 
if  many  iLiU  greater  vsrlationt  over  unalter  areai.  They  show 
generally  Ihal,  as  Ibe  ninlallincreaselon  any  given  area  evapora- 
ion  incieates,  bol  not  In  the  lame  propoition.  Again,  Ihe  loaa 
lom  a  ^ven  rtlnFall  depends  greatly  upon  Ibe  previoui  teuon. 
Vn  inch  falling  in  >  iingle  day  on  a  aaluraled  mountain  area 
vill  Dearly  all  reach  ihe  rivcia.  hut  if  i(  falls  during  u  drought 
ba  iMt  H  far  aa  tbi  p«^  of  Ihe  dmwhl 


OOLLGCTINO  ASEKQ 


WATER  SfOPPLY 


389 


b  eoncenwd.  In  such  a  case  most  of  the  water  is  absorbed  by 
the  few  upper  inches  of  soil,  only  to  be  re-evaporated  during  the 
next  few  days,  and  the  small  proportion  which  sial(s  into  the 
ground  probably  nsiies  in  springs  many  months  later.*  Thus 
the  actual  yidd  of  rainfall  to  the  streams  depends  largdy  upon 
the  mode  of  its  time-distribution,  and  without  a  knowledge 
of  this  it  is  impossible  to  anticipate  the  yield  of  a  particular 
lainfalL  In  estimating  the  evaporation  to  be  deducted  from 
the  rainfidl  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  flow  into  a 
reservoir,  it  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  loss  from  a 
constant  water  surface  is  nearly  one  and  a  half  times  as  great  as 
from  the  intermittently  saturated  land  surface*  Even  neglecting 
the  isolated  and  local  discharges  due  to  excessive  and  generally 
unrecorded  rainfall,  the  variation  in  the  discharge  of  all  streams, 
and  especially  of  mountain  streams,  is  very 'great..  We  have 
seen  that  the  avtsage  flow  from  mountain  areas  in  Great  Britain 
towards  the  end  of  a  dry  season  does  not  exceed  one-fifth  of  a 
cubic  foot  per  .second  per  \ooo  acres.  Adopting  this  general 
minimum  as  the  unit,  we  find  that  the  flow*from  such  areas  up 
to  about  5000  acres,  whose  mean  annual  rainfall  exceeds  50  in., 
may  be  expected  occasionally  to  reach  300  cub.  ft.,  or  1500  such 
units;  whUe  from  similar  areas  of  20,000  or  30,000  acres  yrith 
the  same  meaa  rainfall  the  diKharge  sometimes  reaches  1200  or 
1300  such  units.  It  is  well  to  compare  these  results  with  those 
obtained  from  much  larger  areas  but  with  lower  mean  rainfall. 
The  Thames  at  Teddington  has  been  continuously  gauged  by 
the  Thames  Conservators  since  1883,  and  the  Severn  at  Worcester 
by  the  writer,  on  behalf  of  the  corporation  of  Liverpool,  during 
the  10  years  1881  to  1890  inclusive.  The  highest  flood,  common 
to  the  two  periods,  was  that  which  occurred  in  the  middle  of 
February  1883.  On  that  occasion  the  Thames  records  gave  a 
discharge  of  7*6  cub.  ft.  per  second  per  1000  acres,  and  the 
Severn  records  a  discharge  of  8*6  cub.  ft.  per  second  i>er  1000 
acres,  or  38  and  43  respectively  of  the  above  units;  while  in 
February  1 881,. before  the  Thames  gauglngs  were  commenced, 
the  Severn  had  risen  to  47  of  such  units,  and  subsequently  in 
May  1886  rose  to  50  such  units,  though  the  Thames  about  the 
same  time  only  rose  to  13.  But  in  November  18^4  the  Thames 
rose  to  about  80  such  units,  and  old  records  on  the  Severn 
bridges  show  that  that  river  must  on  many  occasions  have  risen 
to  considerably  over  100  units.  In  both  these  cases  the  natural 
maximuifi  ^bscharge  is  somewhat  diminished  by  the  storage 
produced  by  artificial  canalization  of  the  rivers. 

These  illttstrations  of  the  enormous  variability  of  discharge 
serve  to  explain  what  is  popularly  so  little  understood,  namely, 
the  advantage  which  riparian  owners,  or  other  persons 
interested  in  a  given  stream,  may  derive  from  works 
constructed  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  diverting 
the  water  of  that  stream — it  may  be  to  a  totally 
different  watershed— for  the  purposes  of  a  town  supply.  Under 
modem  legisbtion  no  such  abstraction  of  water  is  usually 
allowed,  even  if  limited  to  times  of  flood,  except  on  condition 
of  an  augmentation  of  the  natural  dry-weather  flow,  and  this 
condition  at  once  involves  the  construction  of  a  reservoir*.  The 
water  supplied  to  the  stream  from  such  a  reservoir  is  known 
as  *'  compensation  water,"  and  is  generally  a  first  charge  upon 
the  works,  lliis  water  is  usually  given  as  a  continuous  and 
uniform  flow,  but  in  special  cases,  for  the  convenience  of  mill- 
<^wner8,  as  an  intermittent  one.*  In  the  manufacturing  districts 
of  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  it  generally  amounts  to  one-third 
of  the  whole  so-called  "  available  supply."  In  Wales  it  is  usually 
about  one-fourth,  and  elsewhere  still  less;  but  in  any  case  it 
amounts  to  many  times  the  above  unit  of  one-fifth  of  a  cubic 
foot  per  second  per  1000  acres.  Thus  the  benefit  to  the  fisheries 
and  to  the  riparian  owners  generally  is  beyond  all  question;  but 
thne  cost  to  the  water  authority  of  conferring  that  benefit  Is 
also  very  great — commonly  (according  to  the  proportion  of  the 
natural  flow  intended  to  be  renderied  uniform)  20  to  35%  of 

&  The  voluaie  of  conpeasation  water  is  usually  fisied  as  a  given 
fraction  of  the  so-called  ^'  available  supply  "  (which  by  a  convention 
that  has  served  its  purpose  well,  is  understood  to  be  the  average  flow 
«f  ^bt  stream  during  the  three  consecutive  driest  years). 


the  whole  expenditure  upon  the  reservoir  works.  Down  to  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century,  the  proportioning  of  the  size  of  a 
reservoir  to  its  work  was  a  very  rough  operation,  yhifi 
There  were  few  rainfall  statistics,  little  was  known  Mtrtmm 
of  the  total  loss  by  evaporation,  and  still  less  of  its  wira 
distribution  over  the  different  periods  of  dry  and 
wet  weather.  Certain  general  principles  have  since  been  laid 
down,  and  within  the  proper  limits  of  their  application  have 
proved  excellent  guides.  In  conformity  with  the  above-men- 
tioned convention  (by  which  compensation  water  is  determined 
as  a  certain  fraction  of  the  average  flow  during  the  three  driest 
consecutive  years)  the  available  supply  or  flow  from  a  given 
area  b  still  understood  to  be  the  average  annual  rainfall  during 
those  yeaJhS,  less  the  corresponding  evaporation  and  absorption 
by  vegetation.  But  this  is  evidently  only  the  case  when  the 
reservoir  impounding,  the  water  from  such  an  area  is  of  just 
suflicient  capacity  to  equalize  that  flow  without  possible  exhaus- 
tion in  any  one  of  the  three  summers.  If  the  reservoir  were 
larger  it  might  equalize  the  flow  of  the  four  or  more  driest 
consecutive  years,  which  would  be  somewhat  greater  than  that 
of  the  three;  if  smaller,  we  mi^t  only  be  able  to  count  upon 
the  average  of  the  flow  of  the  two  driest  consecutive  years,  and 
there  are  many  reservoirs  which  will  not  yield  continuously 
the  average 'flow  of  the  stream  even  in  the  single  driest  year. 
.With  further  experience  it  has  become  obvious  that  very  few 
reservoirs  are  capable  of  equalizing  the  full  flow  of  the  three 
consecutive  driest  years,  and  each  engineer,  in  estimating  the 
yield  of  such  reservoirs,  has  deducted  from  the  quantity  as<%r- 
taincd  on  the  assumption  that  they  do  so,  a  certain  quantity 
representing,  according  to  his  judgment,  the  overflow  which  in 
one  or  more  of  such  years  might  be  lost  from  the  reservoir. 
The  actual  .size  of  the  reservoir  which  would  certainly  yidd 
the  assumed  supply  throughout  the  driest  periods  has  therefore 
been  largely  a  matter  of  judgment.  Empirical  rules  have  grown 
up  assigning  to  each  district,  according  to  its  average  rainfall, 
a  particuhir  number  of  days'  supply,  independently  of  any  inflow, 
as  the  contents  of  the  reservoir  necessary  to  secure  a  given  yield 
throughout  the  driest  ieasons.  But  any  such  generalizations 
are  dangerous  and  have  frequently  led  to  disappointment  and 
sometimes  to  needless  expenditure.  The  exercise  of  sound 
judgment  in  such  matters  will  always  be  necessary,  but  it  is 
nevertheless  important  to  formulate,  so  far  as  possible,  the 
conditions  upon  which  that  judgment  should  be  based.  Thus 
in  order  to  determine  truly  the  continuously  available  discharge 
of  any  stream,  it  is  necessary  to  know  not  only  the  mean  flow 
of  the  stream,  as  represented  by  the  rainfall  less  the  evaporation, 
but  also  the  least  favourable  dittributk>n  of  that  flow  throughout 
any  year. 

The  most  trying  time-distributk>n  of  which  the  author  has  had 
experience  in  inc  United  Kinedom,  or  which  he  has  been  able  to 
discover  from  a  comparison  <^  rainfalls  upon  nearly  impermeable 
areas  eaeecding  1000  acres,  is  graphically  represented  by  the  thick 
irregular  line  in  the  left-hand  half  of  fig.  ^.  where  the  total  flow  for 
the  driest  year  measures  too  on  the  vertical  percentage  scale;  the 
horizontal  time  scale  being  divided  into  calendar  months. 

The  diagram  applies  to  ordinary  areas  suitable  for  reservoir  con- 
struction and  in  which  the  minimum  flow  of  the  stream  reaches  about 
one-fifth  of  a  cubic  foot  per  second  per  1000  acres.  Correspondingly, 
.the  straight  line  a  a  represents  uniformly  distributed  supply,  also 
cumubitively  recorded,  of  the  same  quantity  of  water  over  the  same 
period.  Rut,  apart  from  the  diurnal  fluctuations  of  consumption 
which  may  be  equalised  t>y  local  "  service  reservoirs."  uniform 
distribution  of  supply  throughout  twelve  months  is  rarely  what  we 
require;  and  to  represent  iwt  demand  in  most  towns  correctly,  we 
should  Increase  the  anj|;le  of  this  line  to  the  horizontal  during  the 
summer  and  diminish  it  during  the  winter  months,  as  indicate  by 
the  dotted  lines  b  h.  The  most  notable  features  of  this  particular 
diagram  are  as  follows:  Up  to  the  end  of  59  days  (to  the  28th  Febru- 
ary) the  rate  of  flow  is  shown,  by  the  greater  steepness  of  the  thick 
line,  to  be  greater  than  the  mean  for  the  year,  and  the  surplus 
water~about  11%  of  the  flow  during  the  year — must  be  stored: 
but  during  the  184  days  between  this  and  the  end  of  the  24^rd  day 
(^ist  August)  the  rate  of  flow  is  generally  below  the  mean,  while  from 
that  day  to  the  end  of  the  year  it  is  aeain  for  the  most  part  above  the 
mean.  Now,  in  order  that  a  reservoir  may  enable  the  varying  flow, 
represented  cumulatively  by  the  irregular  line,  to  be  discharged  in 
a  continuous  and  uniform  flow  to  satisfy  a  demand  represented 


390 


WATER  SUPPLY 


tOOUfCTINGAIUUIS 


cumtiJatively  by  tke  straight  line  a  «.  iu  c»|»city  must  be  such  UmU 
it  will  hold  not  onlY  the  1 1  %  surplus  of  the  same  year,  but  that,  on 
June  loth,  when  this  surplus  has  been  used  to  satisfy  the  demand,  it 
will  still  contain  the  water  e  ^^-19% — stored  from  a  previous  year; 
otherwise  between  June  loth  and  August  31st  the  reservoir  will  be 
empty  and  only  the  dry  weather  flow  of  the  stream  will  be  available 
for  supply.  In  short,  if  the  rcscr\'oir  is  to  equalize  the  whole  flow  of 
this  year,  it  must  have  a  capacity  equal  to  the  greatest  deficiency 
e  d  ik  the  cumulative  flow  below  the  cumulative  demand,  plus  the 
greatest  exoe98«/of  the  cuqwlative  flow  over  the  cumulative  demand. 
This  capacity  is  represented  by  the  height  of  the  line  a'o'  (drawn 
parallel  to  a  a  from  the  point  of  maximum  surplus/)  vertically  above 
the  point  of  greatest  dettdency  c,  and  equal,  on  the  vertical  scale,  to 
the  diSetence  between  the  height  c«48%  ftnd  f  *?<%  or  30%  of 
the  stream-flow  during  the  driest  year.  A  reservoir  oo  proportioned 
to  the  stream-flow  with  a  proper  addition  to  avoid  drawing  oflf  the 
bottom  water,  would  probably  be  safe  ii\  Great  Britain  in  any  year 


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Fio.  3. 

lor  a  uniCornt  demand  eoual  to  the  cumttlative  atream-flow;  or,  if  it 
lailod,  that  failure  would  be  of  very  thort  duratioa,  and  would 
probably  only  occur  once  in  ^  years. 

It  may  be  at  first  sight  objected  that  a  case  is  aasumed«fn  which 
there  is  no  overflow  betote  the  reservoir  begins  to  fall,  and  therefore 
no  such  loss  as  generally  occurs  from  that  cause.  This  is  true,  but  it 
is  only  so  because  we  have  made  our  reservoir  large  enough  to  contain 
in  addition  to  its  stock  of  19%,  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  all  the 
surplus  water  that  passes  during  the  earlier  monus  in  this  driest  year 
wit;h  iu  least  favourable  time^istribution  of  flow.  Enteiencc 
shows,  in  fact,-  that  if  a  different  distribution  of  the  assumed  rainfall 
occurs,  that  distribution  will  not  try  the  reservoir  more  severely  while 
the  hitherto  assumed  uniform  rate  of  demaiid  is  maintained.  But,  as 
above  stated,  the  time^stributioa  of  demand  is  never  quite  uniform. 
The  particular  drought  shown  on  the  diagraift  is  the  result  of  an 
exceptionally  earlv  deficiency  of  rainfall  which,  in  ooniunotion  with 
the  variation  of  oemand  shown  by  the  dotted  line  h  hi  is  the  most 
trying  condition.  The  reservoir  bnins  to  fall  at  the  end  of  February, 
and  continues  to  do  so  with  few  aad  short  exceptions  until  the  end  of 
August,  and  it  so  happens  that  about  the  end  of  August  this  dotted 
Uoe,  b  b  representing  actual  cumulative  demand,  crosses  the  straight 
line  a  a  of  uniform  demand,  so  that  the  excess  of  demand,  represented 
by  the  slope  from  June  to  September,  is  balanced  by  the  debciency  of 
demand,  represented  by  the  flatter  slope  in  the  first  Ave  months, 
except  as  regards  the  small  quantity  b  a  near  the  end  of  February, 
which*  not  havina  been  diawoofl  dunngjanuary  and  February,  must 
overflow  before  the  end  of  February.  To  avoid  this  loss  the  1 1  %  is 
ia  this  case  to  be  increased  by  the  small  quantity  b  «  determined  by 
ewamination  of  the  variatioA  of  the  actual  frooi  a  qonstant  demand. 


After  the  reserv<Mr  begins  to  fall-'-iA  diis  case  at  the  end  of  Febmasy 
— no  ordinary  change  in  the  variation  of  demand  can  affect  ^ne 
question,  subject  of  course  to  the  cumulative  demand  not  exceeding 
the  reservoir  yield  for  the  assumed  year  of  minimum  rainfaU.  In 
assuming  a  demand  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  below  the  meaa, 
resulting  in  an  overflow  equal  in  this  case  to  6  s  at  the  end  of  February 
and  increasing  our  reservoir  to  meet  it,  we  assume  also  that  some 
additional  suppljr  to  that  reservoir  beyond  the  II %  of  the  stream* 
flow  from  the  driest  year  can  be  obtained  from  the  previous  ynr. 
In  relation  to  this  supply  from  the  previous  year  the  most  tzving 
assumption  is  that  the  rainfall  of  that  year,  toother  with  that  of  the 
driest  year,  will  be  the  rainfall  of  the  two  dncst  consecutive  years. 
We  have  already  seen  that  while  the  rainfall  of  the  driest  of  50  years 
is  about  63%  of  the  mean,  that  of  the  driest  two  consecutive 
yean  is  about  75  %  of  the  mean.  It  folbws,  therefore,  that  the  year 
immediately  preoBding  the  driest  cannot  have  a  lainbll  less  than 
about  87  %  of  the  mean.    As  the  loss  by  evaporation  is  a  deduction 

lying  between  a  constant  figure  and  a 
direct  proportional  to  the  rainfall,  we 
should  err  on  Che  sale  side  in  assuming 
the  flow  in  the  seocmd  driest  year  to  be 
increased  proportionally  to  the  rainfall, 
or  by  the  difference  between  63  and  87 
equal  to  *4%  of  the  mean  of  50  years. 
This  24% 01  the  90  yeass'  mean  6ow  is 
38%  oi  the  driest  year's  flow  in  fig.  3. 
and  is  therefore  much  more  uian 
sufficient  to  ensiue  the  reservoir  begin> 
ning  the  driest  year  with  a  stock  cqml 
to  the  greatest  deflciency->-iQ%--«f 
the  cumulative  flow  of  thai  year  oeyoad 
the  cumulative  demand. 

But  in  determining  the  capacity  of 
reservoirs  intended  to  yield  a  supply 
of  water  equal  to  the  mean  flow  d 
two,  three  or  more  years,  the  error, 
though  on  the  safe  side,  caused  by 
assuming  the  evaporatioo  to  be  pro- 
portional to  the  rainfall,  is  too  great 
to  be  neglected.  The  cvaporaiion 
slightly  increases  as  the  rainfall  in" 
creases,  but  at  nothing  like  so  hi^ 
a  rate.  Having  determined  this 
evaporation  for  the  second  driest  con- 
secutivc  year  and  deducted  it  from 
the  rainfaU— which,  as  above  slated, 
cannot  be  less  than  87%  of  the  mean 
of  50  years — we  may,  as  shown  on 
fig.  3,  extend  our  cumulatii^e  diagram 
of  demand  and  flow  into  the  reservoir 
from  one  to  two  years. 

The  whole  diagram  shows,  by  the 
greater  gradient  of  the  unbroken 
straight  lines,  the  greater  demand 
which  can  be  satisfied  by  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  reservoir  to  the  extent  necessary  to  equalize  the  flow 
of  the  two  driest  consecutive  years.  The  new  capacity  fs  either 
ckoTcf  h't  whichever,  in  the  particular  case  under  investigation, 
is  the  greater.  In  the  illustration  the  c'  A'  is  a  little  greater, 
measuring  47 1  %  of  the  flow  of  the  driest  year.  In  the  same  way 
we  may  group  in  a  single  diagram  any  number  of  consecutive 
driest  years,  and  either  ascertain  the  reservoir  capacity  necessary 
for  a  given  uniform  yield  (represented  cumulatively  by  a  straight 
line  corresponding  with  aV,  but  drawn  over  all  the  years  instead 
of  one),  or  conversely,  having  set  up  a  vertical  from  the  most 
trying  point  in  the  line  of  cumulative  flow  {c  or  d  in  fig.  3 — 
representing,  in  percentage  of  the  total  annual  flow  of  the  driest 
year,  the  capacity  of  reservoir  which  it  may  be  convenient  to 
provide)  we  may  draw  a  straight  line  a'"  a"*  of  uniform  yield 
from  the  head  of  that  vertical  to  the  previous  point  of  maximum 
excess  of  cumulative  flow.  The  line  a'  a'  drawn  from  aero 
parallel  to  the  first  line,  produced  to  the  boundaries  of  the 
diagram,  will  cut  the  vertical  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  at  the 
percentage  of  the  driest  year's  flow  which  may  be  safely  drawn 
continuously  from  the  reservoir  throughout  the  two  years.  It 
is  to  be  observed  that  any  irregulanty  in  tlie  rate  «f  tupply 
from  the  reservoir  may  occur  between  the  critical  perio<is  of 
maximum  excess  of  cumulative  flow  and  maximum  deficicnty 


ooiiccnuo  AtMa  WATER  SUPPLY  J9I 


WATER  SUPPLY 


of  cuimiluiv*  lew  (/  «id  tnaptelhnif,  in  the  ent  jarHttftm) 
which  d«  nol  incrcsK  Ibc  iigRgile  camubiivr  'uppLy 
bctwRD  IbOK  poinu,  oi  cnust  Ibe  lim  of  cumiditivc  supply 
from  Ihe  Kwrvoic  to  cut  the  line  of  cumutativc  Bob  into  it. 

From  dugrami  conilructcd  upon  Ihae  pHncipls.  (he  general 
diagram  (Ag.  4)  bai  been  pTDduced.  ToiUfinmeiit  ufe,  aisumeihe 
cate  of  ■  mean  rainfatl  or  JO  in..  JigDred  in  the  right'hand  cdumn  at 
the  end  Ol  ■  curved  Iht^  and  <4  14  In.  of  a^porallon  and  abBorplion 


a  reservoir  la  conlaio,  fn  addiiion  to  buiom  water  not  to  be  uied. 
200,000  nlloBa  for  each  acre  of  the  watcnhcd  above  the  point  of 
inteReptiH  by  the  propoied  dam.  WeAiidoaiheM'l-handmlcaf 
vieM  lint  the  tiright  ofthe  ordinaH  diawn  m  the  so-Inch  mean  latn- 
faU  curve  fron  kxmioo  on  the  eapadty  eeale.  fi  1457  g^hnu  per  day 
per  acre;  and  the  uraiahl  radial  line,  which  cuta  the  point  of  inier- 
•ectlon  of  the  curved  line  and  the  c<»rdiiialea,  tella  ui  that  ihii 
retavoir  will  equalin  the  flow  of  the  two  drieat  couicutlve  yeaiL 
Sinilaily,  II  wa  with  u  cqualiie  Ae  low  ol  Jie  three  drieat  con- 
aecullveyeai4wechange  the  coKHtiinalea  to  the  radial  line  ^red  \ 
and  thui  find  thai  the  availatile  capacity  ol  the  reiervcjr  nuR  be 
276.000  galloni  per  acre,  and  that  in  con^deration  of  the  additional 
eipeiueotiiKhareuirvoirweiballincreaiethedaily  vieM  u  1611 
gaTroni  peracie.  In  ihe  amt  manner  it  wilt  be  found  tAat  by  meini 
of  a  rewnroir  havint  an  available  capacity  of  only  iiS.ooo  galloru 
per  acre  of  the  wainili(d.  R  may  with  the  Hmc  nlnfall  and  cvapoia- 


per  am 

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tV"^, 

,.:«!" 

T,sr 

:i„'.%i?„-'j5' 

<ji«(  Britain.  Throughout  Europe 
nearly  (he  ume  bw  a>  in  Crai  fi 
diilritulion  of  rainfall  in  a  iiniile  yi 


rlryine.     The 


[COLLECTIHC  AREAS 


ally  the  lalnyRaunii  entirely  abaeni  (ariiiiigle  ytw,  tho(^  the 

We  have  hltbetlo  dealt  only  with  the  collection  and  MoraEe 
of  that  ponion  of  the  ninlall  which  Clowi  over  the  luifact  el 
neariy  impermeable  areas.  Upon  lucb  aieaa  the  a^^t 
iou  by  peicolalion  into  the  ground,  not  retrieved  in  <■< 
(he  form  of  spring)  above  Ihe  point  ol  inlerteption  '*'Ji  ' 
may  be  neglected,  and  (be  only  loss  lo  the  stream  ■**" 
is  (hat  already  conaidered  of  rc-evipoiation  inio  the  air  and  ol 
abaorption  by  vefetatlon.  But  the  crust  ol  the  earth  variei 
from  aimou  romplela  icnpermeabilily  to  almost  conptete 
pctmeabilily.  Among  (he  ledinicnlaTy  rocks  we  have,  far 
example,  in  the  day  slates  o[  the  Silurian  foimatkma,  rocks 
no  iess  cracked  and  fiuured  than  olhers,  but  generally  quite 
impecmeable  by  reaion  of  Ihe  joints  being  packed  with  the  very 
line  day  lauliing  from  the  rubbing  oE  ilatc  upon  date  in  Ihe 
earth  movemenu  to  wfaidi  (be  cncki  are  due.  In  the  New  Red 
Sandstone,  Ihe  Greensasd  and  (be  upper  Chalk,  we  find  the 
opposite  eKRmet;  while  the  igneous  rorka  are  for  the  most 
part  only  permeable  in  virtue  of  the  open  Eiiaurea  they  contain. 
Wherever,  below  the  surface,  Ibere  are  porea  or  open  fiiauRa, 
water  derived  from  rainfall  is  (eiccpl  in  the  rare  casei  of  displace- 
ment by  gas)  found  at  levels  above  tbe  lea  determined  by  Ihe 

istance  of  solids  to  its  patsage  towards  some  neighbtMniiig 


1,  lake  I 


vel  is 


(he  level  of  satu 

allon.    The  posilionsol  springs  are  deter- 

est  the  gnand 

iow  Ihe  general  \t\ 

dofuturatlon.andfrequ 

enily  also  by  Ihe 

Iding  up  of  Ihal 

Yd  locally  by  comparali 

rt[y  impermeable 

mbined  with  a  fault  at  a 

■yndinal  fold  of 

he  mote  permeable  porllo 

n  inIo  an  under- 

oundbasmorcban 

nel  lying  within  comparUi 

™ly  impermeable 

undariea.    At  the 

lower  lips  or  at  Ihe  most 

Ihese  baaini  or  channels  such  ninfilt  as  does 

n'^flow'^ote^ 

ics  not,  whUe  |(1U  below  gtound  reach  the 

level  of  the  Kfc 

ues  as  spring!,  an 

is  (he  cause  of  the  conlin 

ed  flow  of  river. 

d  streams  during 

prolonged  droughts.    The 

average  volume 

dry  weather,  of  such  flow,  generally  reduceil 

10  terms  ol  the 

cubic  fool  per  B< 

as  the  '■  dry  weather  flow  "  and  in  volume  at  the  end  of  the  dry 
season  as  Ihe  "  eilreme  dry  weslher  flow," 

Perennial  springi  of  large  volume  rarely  occur  In   Great 
Britain  at  a  sufficient  height  to  afford  supplies  by  gravitation! 
hut  from  the  limestones  oi  Italy  and  many  oiher 
parti  of  the  world  very  considetable  ■    "  * 


Mlheiei 


.mping, 


ir  Ihe  supply  ol 


On  a 


vary  great  ly  In  (heir 


imall  u 


loiw 


and  therefore  tend  10  produce  overflow  from  underground  al 
some  points  above  the  valley  levels.  But  even  the  rural  populS' 
tions  have  generally  found  surface  springs  insufficiently  consianl 
lor  their  use  and  have  adopted  tbe  obvious  remedy  of  linking 
wells.     Hence,  Ihroughout  the  world  we  find  the  ihallov  vreB 

rarely  supplies  enough  water  for  more  than  a  few  houses,  and 
being  commonly  litualed  near  to  thoje  houses  Ihe  water  is  often 
seriously  polluted.  Deep  wclli  owe  (heir  compiradvt  Immunity 
fnm  pollulion  to  (he  ctrcumitancei  Ihal  the  larger  quantity 
oi  wa(er  yielded  renders  i(  wonh  while  to  pump  that  water  and 
convey  it  by  pipes  from  coraparaiivtly  unpolluted  areas;  and 
(hat  any  impuritlet  in  Ibe  water  must  have  paaaed  tfanagfa  • 


COUaCIBWS  AREAS 


WATER. SUPPLY 


393 


ooonderabfe  depth,  and  by  far  the  laiger  part  of  them  through 
a  gceat  length  of  filtering  materialt  and  must  have  taken  90 
long  a  time  to  oe&ch  the  well  that  their  oiganic  character  has 
disappeared."  The  principal  water-bearing  formations,  Utilised 
in  Cheat  Britain  by  means  of  deep  wells,  are  the  Chalk  and  the 
New  Red  Sandstone.  The  Upper  and  Middle  Chalk  are  perme- 
able almost  through  their  mass.  They  hold  water  like  a  sponge, 
but  part  with  it  imder  pressure  to  fissures  by  which  they  are 
intersected,  and,  Jn  tfie  case  of  the  Upper  Chalk,  to  ducts  following 
beds  of  flints.  A  well  sunk  m  these  formations  without  striking 
any  fissure  or  water-bearing  flint  bed,  receives  water  only  at 
a  very  slow  rate;  but  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  strikes  one  or 
more  of  the  natural  water-ways,  the  quantity  of  water  capable 
of  being  drawn  from  it  will  be  greatly  increased. 

It  is  a  notable  peculiarity  of  the  Upper  and  Middle  Chalk 
formations  that  bdow  their  present  valleys  the  underground 
water  passes  more  freely  than  elsewhere.  This  is  explained 
by  the  fact  that  the  Chalk  fissures  are  almost  invariably  roimded 
and  enlarged  by  the  erosion  of  carbonic  acid  carried  from  the 
surface  by  the  water  passing  through  them.  These  fissures 
take  the  place  of  the  streams  in  an  impermeable  area,  and  those 
beneath  the  valleys  must  obviously  be  called  upon  to  discbarge 
more  water  from  the  surface,  and  thtis  be  brought  in  contact 
with  more  carbonic  acid,  than  similar  fissures  dsewhere.  Hence 
the  best  position  for  a  well  in  the  Chalk  is  generally  that  over 
which,  if  the  strata  were  impermeable,  the  largest  quantity  of 
surface  water  would  flow.  The  Lower  Chalk  formation  is  for 
the  most  part  impermeable,  though  it  contains  many  ruptures 
and  dislocations  or  smashes,  in  the  interstices  of  which  large 
bodies  of  water,  received  from  the  Upper  and  Middle  Chalk, 
may  be  naturally  stored,  or  which  may  merely  form  passages 
for  water  derived  from  the  Upper  Chalk.  Thus  despite  the 
impermeability  Of  its  mass  brge  springs  are  occasionally  found 
to  issue  from  the  Lower  Chidk.  A  striking  example  is  that 
known  as  Lydden  Spout,  undor  Abbot's  Cliff,  near  Dover. 
In  practice  it  is  usual  in  dudk  formations  to  imitate  artificially 
the  action  of  such  underground  watercourses,  by  driving  from 
the  well  small  tunnels,  or  "  adits  "  as  they  are  called,  below  the 
water-level,  to  intercept  fissures  and  water-bearing  beds,  and 
thus  to  extend  the  collecting  area. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  Chalk  formations  as  a  source  of 
underground  water  supply  comes  the  Trias  or  New  Red  Sand- 
stone, consisting  in  Great  Britain  of  two  main  divisions,  the 
Keuper  above  and  the  Bunter  below.  With  the  exception 
of  the  Red  Marls  forming  the  upper  part  of  the  Keuper,  most 
of  the  New  Red  Sandstone  js  permeable,  and  some  partscontain, 
when  saturated,  even  more  water  than  solid  chalk;  but,  just 
as  in  the  case  of  the  chalk,  a  well  or  borehole  in  the  sandstone 
yidds  very  little  water  unless  it  strikes  a  fissure;  hence,  in  New 
Red  Sandstone,  also,  it  b  a  common  thing  to  form  underground 
chambers  w  adits  in  search  of  additional  fissures,  and  sometimes 
to  sink  many  vertical  boreholes  with  the  same  object  in  view. 

Aa  the  formation  approaches  the  condition  of  pure  sand,  the 
water-bearing  property  of  any  given  mass  increases,  but  the 
difficulty  of  drawing  water  from  it  without  admixture 
y^y  ^  of  sand  also  increases.  In  sand  below  water  there  are, 
of  course,  no  open  fissures,  and  even  if  adits  could  be 
usefully  employed,  the  cost  of  constructing  and  lining  them 
throu^  the  loose  sand  would  b«  prohibitive.  The  weU  itself 
must  be  lined;  and  its  3neld  is  therefore  confined  to  such  water 
as  can  be  drawn  through  the  sides  or  the  bottom  of  the  lining 
without  setting  up  a  sufi&dent  velocity  to  cause  any  sand  to 
flow  with  the  water.  Hence  it  arises  that,  in  sand  formations, 
only  shallow  wells  or  small  boreholes  are  commonly  found. 
Imaghie  for  a  moment  that  the  sand  grains  were  by  any  means 
rendered  immobile  without  change  in  the  permeability  of  their 
intecspaces;  we  could  then  dispense  with  the  iron  or  brickwork 
Unmg  of  the  weU;  but  as  there  would  still  be  no  cracks  or  fissures 
\o  extend  the  area  of  percolating  water  exposed  to  the  open 
Well,  the  yidd  ^uld  be  very  small.  Obviously,  it  must  be  very 
mudi  smaller  when  the  lining  necessary  to  hold  up  loose  sand 
b.uied.    Unoemeoted  brickwork,  or  perforated  ironwork*,  are 


the  usual  materials  cnployed  for  fining  the  wdl  and  hotding  up 
the  sand,  and  the  quamtity  of  water  drawn  is  kept  bdow  the 
comparativdy  small  quantity  necessary  to  produce  a  velocity, 
through  the  joints  or  orifices,  capable  of  disturbing  the  sand. 
The  rate  of  increase  of  vdocity  towards  any  isolated  aperture 
through  which  water  passes  into  the  side  of  a  well  sunk  in  a  deep 
bed  of  sand  is,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  that  aperture,  inversdy 
proportional  to  the  square  oi  the  distance  therefrom.  Thus,  the 
vdodty  across  a  little  hemisphere  of  sand  only  i  in.  nidlua 
covering  a  x-in.  orifice  in  the  lining  is  more  than  1000  times  the 
mean  velocity  of  the  same  water  approaching  the  orifice  radially 
when  16  in.  therefrom.  This  illustration  gives  some  idea  of  the 
enormous  increase  of  yidd  of  such  a  well,  if,  by  any 
means,  we  can  get  rid  of  the  frictional  sand,  even  from  jfH!^^ 
within  the  16  in.  radius.  We  cannot  do  this,  but  y^g/^ 
happily  the  grains  in  a  sand  formatSon  differ  very 
widely  in  diameter,  and  if,  from  the  interstices  between  the  larger 
grains  in  the  neighbourhood  of  an  orifice,  we  can  remove  the 
finer  grains,  the  resistance  to  flow  of  water  is  at  once  enormously 
reduced.  This  was  for  the  first  time  successfully  done  in  a  well* 
constructed  by  the  Biggleswade  Water  Board  in  1902,  and  now 
supplying  water  over  a  large  area  of  North  Bedfordshire.  This 
wdl,  xo  ft.  diameter,  was  sunk  through  about  xxo  ft.  of  surface 
soil,  glacial  drift  and  impermeable  gault  chiy  aiKl  thence  passed 
for  a  further  depth  of  70  ft.  into  the  Lower  Greensand  formation, 
the  outcrop  of  which,  emerging  on  the  south-eastnn  shore  of 
the  Wash,  passes  south-westwards,  and  in  Bedfordshire  attains 
a  thickness  exceeding  350  fL  The  formation  is  probably  mor« 
or  less  permeable  throughout;  it  consists  largely  of  loose  sand 
and  takes  the  general  south-easterly  dip4)f  British  strata.  The 
Biggleswade  n^'dlwas  sunk  by  processes  better  known  in  oonnexioD 
with  the  sinking  of  mine  shafts  and  foundations  of  bridges 
across  the  deep  sands  or  gravels  of  bays,  estuaria  and  great 
rivers.  Its  full  capadty  has  not  been  ascertained;  it  much 
exceeds  the  present  pumping  power,  and  is  probably  greater 
than  that  of  any  other  single  wdl  unassisted  by  adits  or  borehoks. 
This  result  is  mainly  due  to  the  reduction  of  frictional  resistancd 
to  the  passage  of  water  through  the  sand  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  well,  by  washing  out  the  finer  part  idea 
of  sand  and  leaving  only  the  coarser  particles.  For  this  purpose 
the  lower  45  ft.  of  the  cast-iron  cylinders  forming  the  wdl  was 
provided  with  about  660  small  orifices  lined  with,  gun-metal 
tubes  or  rings,  each  armed  with  numerous  thicknesaes  of  copper 
wire  gauze,  and  temporarily  dosed  witb  screwed  plugs.  On 
the  removal  of  any  plug,  this  wire  gauze  prevented  the  sand 
from  flowing  with  the  water  into  the  well;  but  while  the  finer 
particles  of  sand  remained  in,  the  n^ghbourhood  of  the  orifice» 
the  flow  of  water  through  the  contracted  area  was  very  smalL 
To  remove  this  obstruction  the  water  was  pumped  out  whtls 
the  plugs  kept  the  orifices  dosed.  A  flexible  pipe,  brought 
down  from  a  steam  boiler  above,  was  then  connected  v>ith  any 
opened  orifice.  This  pipe  was  provided,  dose  to  the  orifice* 
with  a  three-way  cock,  by  means  of  which  the  steam  might  bm 
first  discharged  into  the  sand,  and  the  current  between  the  cock 
and  the  wdl  then  suddenly  reversed  and  diverted  into  the  wdL 
The  effect  of  thus  alternately  fordng  high-pressure  steam  among 
the  sand,  and  of  discharging  high-pressure  water  contained  in 
the  sand  into  the  wdl,  b  to  break  vp  any  cohesion  of  the  sand^ 
and  to  allow  all  the  finer  particles  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
orifice  to  rush  out  with  the  water  through  the  wire  gauze  into 
the  well.  This  process,  in  effect,  leaves  Mch  orifice  surrounded 
by  a  honisphere  of  ooatse  sand  across  which  the  water  flows 
with  comparative  freedom  from  a  larger  hemisphere  where  thei 
corresponding  vdodty  is  very  slow,  and  where  the  presence 
of  finer  and  more  obstructive  particles  is  therdore  unimportant.] 
Many  orifices  through  which  water  at  first  only  dribbled  were  thua 
caused  to  discharge  water  with  great  force,  and  entirely  free  from' 
sand,  against  the  opposite  side  of  the  well,  while  the  general 
result  was  to  increase  the  inflow  of  water  many  times,  and  to 
entirely  prevent  the  intrusion  of  sand.  Where,  iMFwever,  a 
firm  rock  of  any  kind  is  encountered,  the  yidd  of  a  wdl  («nd«r 
a  given  head  of  water)  can  only  be  increased  by  colasfement 


39*  WATER 

wMer^llait  iiMnticMi  ttA  A*  (MreolKioB  irill  tacongipiiiiclliiiti' 
checkfd-  Kcnc*  Ihe  ejcCivnie  impontiKc  in  high  danu  with  cuy 
com  of  kMdlnf  Ibe  c[^  wdl  far  hum  riSic  htlm  mtci  pmourc  a 
bitHighl  igtiait  h.  IF  thli  b  done,  ihe  lirgcB  pnubte  qnaniicy  of 
Ay  vill  be  ilowly  byt  ninlr  foRed  into  any  qmce.  aAd,  bc^  pn- 
tveicd  Itom  aama^gt  it  will  be  umUe  ubeeqaemly  to  fHorb 
BUR  witer.   The  nrcDlition  will  iho  be  voy  iinall,  udihe  (iik 

to  ktep  it  moisl  Hbovc  ihe  fTDumf  level  when 

mablc  bill  to  pieveftl  uodue  ieEilemem  and 
diiionioo  they  mmi.  like  ihe  puddle,  be  well 
Tan*dlid«ted-  In  order  to  prevent  a  tendency  to 
■lip.  doe  ta  bidden  aodputialchanw  of  eetun- 
lioii.  the  outer  efDbuifcment  ^loukl  alwayi  be 
peraenblei  aad  wdi  drained  at  the  base  ncept 

cloiolo  the  puddle.  The  leit  permeat' '-'- 

-•—'■■  ■ — -dto  the  SniKT  p 

_ Jider  ihal, 

.  .,„ jif  li^iie  to  klip.   The  inner  Jope 

be  protccled  from  Ibe  aclloa  d  wavei  by 

to-tMtttd    hind'jatchinc/'  conutlnf  of  foughl;^ 


Ike  lud.    Thm  th«  |H 

horiuotjlly,  and  uldnuely  aisunei  tii«  Lonn  it  a  tbta  vertirvi 
■beet  traverJM;  the  puddle  wilt  oEmdi>(gnally  in  plan,  and  tuiving 
■  thicknot  wbiA  baa  vaiiad  in  diffetim  «aatn  (nim  a  lew  incbH  u  ■ 
covpli  of  IM  or  BoiK  of  alBOK  diui  mad  riug  to  an  abaoved 
beichio()aor^(t..*ndofllyaiiiaudiiiluiipw*nl(»wth  by  ihs 

The  Ktilement  at  Ibe  p^k  clay  above  tbe  eroded  portioa  aooa 


nier-tiiht, 

=n.    On  Ihe 

1_  the  partial  ar  lotal  failuie  of  imaUa 

duTi  ia  gennally  auppoacd.    Tbroutlioul  Gieat 

eanhisa  dania,  wMcb  can^ ult^'beB'llei] i and 
otbeca  which,  after  lemaiaioE  for  yean  Id  tbia 
condilint.  have  bccD  repairedT   Frocq  auch  caaci  ^^ 
and  Iheir  aurc«aful  nfmr  valuable  capeiieacc  of  *^ 
■he  cauas  of  laHun  may  be  derived. 

Moat  e(  ibeH  m»j  aie  perfectly  will  under- 
itood  by  cxpertbnced  enEineeia.  bat  initanca  of 

-     ■     ,    — i.vi.*«>>.i..>:»ii  of  recent  daw  are  alilL  

lentiontd.     The  baie 


Fio-B, 

iih.    A 

o  have  been  placed 


iropei^y  fonncd  dixharge  culver!  Ibrou^ 


'  a  piiildle  trench  i>  slttn  toui 
nek.  (lolnly  aonnd  in  itaeir.  b 
It  impeitAcniUb     The  Idb  v' 

_- I •-Ia»  Ihe  p_ 

f;bulifa[a(ivpa( 

alifhteat  ernioa  of  the  chy  above  it.  Ihal  movtment  atmnt  in- 
nriably Incnaiea.  TbefiBerpaitfeleiatclayinthellneoltheicJnt 
tit  washed  away,  while  the  aandy  patlicleg.  which  nearly  all  natural 
dayi  conuin,  nmain  behind  and  fonn  a  coMiantly  deepenirf 
peroua  vein  of  luHl  cnwac  the  baae  of  thi  puddle.    PaicolilkKi 


Fid.  7.— Earth  Embanbneni.  wlih  aBinc  toe  and  cci 
tbiWEh  Ihii  land  la  Ihua  added  10  the  orLiinal  leakaie.  Havlna 
paura  through  the  puddle  core  the  leaking  waiei  mnedinea  riieg  10 
the  iurfacc  of  Ibe  Bround.  produdng  a  vinbiy  lurbid  kprinf.  Aa 
eroaun  pncaedh  the  contraction  of  tlv  qiace  Irani  which  the  day 
it  waahed  aoiinuca,  chiefly  by  the  bokinf  down  of  tlv  clay  above 


neaHy  over  the  Icakan. 
impending  danger.  It  i 
wutevcr  through  the  t 
oC  Ihe  tiencb,  but  it  i>  a 
hamleaa  to  tba  work  al 
10  viilUe  ninta  at  the : 
puddle  wall  amaal  be  • 
or  tied  into  a  gmova 


i  ihunometima  ^va  itie  dm  waming  ol 
at  alwayi  povible  to  prevent  any  Icaloee 
ta  below  the  bottom  or  beyond  the  enda 
yi  powble  10  render  auch  lokage  entirely 


and  the  puddled  riay. 

of  Ihe  puddle  [or  tbe 


jnd  rock  free  fiam  waier-bearinf 

-_  :itonan  artificial  malerial  at  ODCC 

ipabie  of  eroalon.  intcrpoied  between  tbe  rock 


Obviouily.  Ik* 
junction  betwaen  the  puddle  end  ibe  concise  DUtbc 
have  been  made  at  a.ny  lower  levql. 

of  a  maia  of  puddled  clay  invaiiably  aellleB  into  • 
ileiu«  maae  when  weighted  aiih  the  clay  .. 
■bore.    If.  tberetore  one  pan  i>  bdd  Dft  [r^nuiM 

auoyieldinf  rock  for  examine,  while  an 
oimng  part  has  do  lupport  but  Ihe  clay  beneath 
II.  a  liacture— not  unlike  a  geologlcsl  hxb— «»» 
I«ailt.    Fig.  8  ii  a  pan  hmiiiudinal  te 
the  puddle  wall  of  an  earthen  snbi 
puddle  wall  a  croaaed  by  a  pedeatal  of 


WATER  SUPPLY 


WATER  SUPPLY 


WATER  SUPPLY 


The  mid-fiU«l  nuip  wcnl  iHcbo  in  vldlha  «■■  CouDd,  co  taniw 
out  the  puddK,  10  have  tenDlnUMl  near  tke  Ugbst  levd  to  wliicE 
the  w«Ecr  mi  aDcrvKl  lo  liie.  but  tut  to  have  WDriKd  donwaid*. 
Then  can  bs  lilth  doubt  thai  the  puddk  at  Ibe  right-hind  ufk  j 


rt  waa  ouiuHcativchr  Uttlt  fma  for 

tpairinc  thu  mxIi  tbe  ptrfccily  lalc 

fsm  dwwn  by  tha  dMtcd 


Fig.  9-— Overianiiiii  RmJc  UakaiK-  aeiKbly  watvtWit.'  Tha 
loaDO  tvight  br  £('  B  *tf^^  aln  u  the  enda  of  paUk  mlb 
wheiT  they  ohul  agaiiut  Aacp  Eacaa  ai  rock.     "  '  ""  *" 

■n  »  <ar  betow  the  i^rface  o(  the  puddle,    i 
in  al  the  puddk  from  the 


afaear^riE 


'"K 

votf  ia  charged,  for  the  «4tleaie«it  and  comrTiioii  oi 
le  10  be  oHnplcled,  lesion  widi  diaaMroua  mulli  may  oi 
othercavaLeahBceandfaikunhavcariieafrDinallowlBt  J 
t  rockbottornoTendof  apuddktteadi  taoverhaiif.atuil 
the  (Bvnlni  ol  (he  oiigbal  hariaoMal  puddle  la  aMtSnc  don 
licaud  In  ■  pnmmly  euaenltd  way  by  Ibe  tuivad  liaae. 
t  a  oonsidciable  diatonion  ollhe  clay,  leauUiiii  fmn  combined 
, —  ._.  . — n.  _ —   -■■- le  tub  ol  tbe  aiepa  tt  met  and 
ive  the  Uabeat  rbe  a^1lhen It  baa 
laiytBMTlna  el  —afciMa  «fc  ll» 

D  capaUa  g(  fa*|rfn(  cna  the  wound.    In 

■ucn  casee  ai  an  ihoini  In  figa.  I  and  9  Iba  (raivth  al  the  aand  vaia  b 
■Ht  vertical,  but  Inclined  lowanli  the  plwi*  of  maxlnnin  iheailBC 
MiBln.  ^o^ioDliMatMavMkplaMMliihanibecl^rtitbeT 
never  iwaiad  haid  a^lHt  ibe  ovubM^M  rack  er  baa  ■onally 
drawn  away  tbefcftom  in  Iba  piocan  of  enunt  tuwaeda  the  lomti 
^rt  to  the  left.  When  it  ia  Ganriderad  that  a  pullni  of  the  day, 
•nfident  to  allow  the  thlnneet  Ebn  of  water  id  pai^  may  atan  tbe 
focaiatien  of  a  vein  of  poioua  nnd  In  tb*  maaner  above  expWaed, 
h  will  be  nadily  iten  bow  (nat  muu  be  tbe  atleolion  to  detaib.  la 

._. _. .._i otind,  aad  below  the  wniei  Irvd  of  iha 

i.mii.1  •     -  -■ 


•ORBiuidiH  ar 
rockaboddal 


w  lilca  g[-  »  "■ 


if  no  coaeldeiablc  diflemxr  of  water-trnwire  bad  baen  aBowod 

buwwn  the  two  tidcaof  the  puddle  timch  in  6ti.8or9  until  Ihe  day 

_^  badceaaad  toaattta  dawB, 

^j  ^  it  la  ptobabk  Ih  - 

J^  EA  lalKMkea,  at  Bnt 


ddcctt  ariting  out  of  tbe  cuniStLod  «  figure 

J  wor^  upon  wliicb  the  puddk  -' ~-  "■--  - 

leU  la  often  MtrHn.   Tbe 

have  been  perftclly  DlWaaoiy,  b 


tra*darHndai 

RinddleJbelon 


397 

aad  feUni  b  of  Ac  day  ml,  an  In  tbe  other  caaei  dted.  Two 
iaauncea  niDbaUy  orifinatiB(  1b  lOBie  auch  cauae  aie  ibown  in  fc.  ii 
la  Iba  nialiv*  poahiona  in  which  tbey  were  found,  'and  carefully 

lani  at  which 

after  tbe  leakaL . __ 

ln(  wai44|rt-  high,  of  which  14  ft.  waa  above  the  original  rnwad 
•el,  and  ilia  im ■—• ^—•<-: .: ; 1-"- — 


<L  aa  tbe  puddle  waa  iiibimiiiI  ffna  a  oippled  leaervofridain. 


iliao(thapi>ddte.wi 
h*  Itfl  DBrhed  uTabo 

^USelife'oUbereKr 


LIB  poriiofl ,  owing  pnbaUy  to 
reaervolr  and  nduced  cooh 
iKh  wider  tbaa  briow.  Tbe  Uttle  vein 
1  ft.  deep,  ia  oitioua.  It  looki  Ula  Ibe 
rt  made  by  a  itlgfat  percolallon  during 
10  increaie  itielf  materially  by  efoioa. 


cobM  b«  danthipod  aaetpt  dadqjoiaati 

of  capital  that  haa  r^uhed  from  abortive  reaervoir  conitnictioa 
juUfiH  thii  UHice  of  defecta  which  can  alwiyi  be  avcdded.  and  an 
too  niten  the  diiRt  raaull.  not  of  dedga.  but  o(  tsnimoay  In  pi*- 
vidiug  during  the  aeculioa  of  Hrh  vorka,  and  enoally  below 
gmiid,  a  auSdcDey  a(  inuUigenl.  dpnieoccd  and  conKientiow 

In  Bnie  cast*,  ai.  for  cxainpleH  i^ien  a  bleli  earthen  embenhment 
cni-o.a.mie,aBdlbereiipfcnI '  '-  '-  ■'-'-"- 


id^. 


be  had,  it  Ii  deiirable 

or  pladorrn  of  nibble  Booenork, 

.  ..  -^ hriSil  o(  the  eaithen  portion  ii 

and  complete  dr^nue  Hcur^.  Bui  here  again  Bical  cara 
—  enrcEeed  in  tbe.caciclng  and  couulidalion  of  ine  itooee, 
.  wIU  olberwlK  crack  and  aettlc. 

with  many  other  ea^neeriag  worhi,  Iha  tandancy  to  tUfftia 
of  tbe  aiiba  of  tbe  vdley  or  of  >h*  rraarvur  embankment  iihU 
[ten  liveo  trouble,  and  haa  eomctinia  lad  to  Miioui  duaiUr, 


WATER  SUPPLY 


f  -7  ol  watet-  i!—*» 
oiictort  tbdf  *'~- 
oduion.  Masonry  d&m 
Jning  hiHioI  exceptional 
jre  is  wiitr,  H  such  ■  cUm 
upon  toudd  and  modemttW 
isbte  aC  iliding.  Auumlo* 
under  ill  o*n  wei^t  and  thg 
Into  fail  entirdy,  turn  over 
r  face  at  >oa»  hlgber  levd. 
til  watcr-pmsurc  alooe.  or 
Ard  pTOAUic  fnm  intnutve 
honiontal  plane.  AuDme 
■'ewMtr.    Ai 


r  hinng  the  leau  Kctjonal 
ivloustbat  theuiglesat  tb* 
4t  depend  upon  tbe  relatktt 


*atei,  ud  (m  a  len  deniitr 
Her  may  lie  npon  it.  For 
'  used  in  practice,  if  designed 
all  vertical  ^.leuurei  vhen 
tier  providid,  at  two-tlDidi 
toe,  the  least  sectional  ana 
water  lacc.  As  tbe  density 
Lt  of  a  maKiniy  dam  rami 
rk)  if  well  CMUtnided  vary 
,  the  deviation  o(  the  nta 
:  of  least  sertiaul  area  'u, 


-_^p-'  fp^'-^ui^""" «i.r,*ie  tH  masonry  wall  or  cofe  naa  Dec 

^'^^^''ffl  '^^^^  carried  up  betwee 
'%^^i*V«T[e«?hoiVS.tone.   Thi.  construclio 

"^■^^t^  •'*„^d\bt  Cioton  liver,  an  earthen  dam  wa 
~  ich  is  laid  t 


%"^: 


ently  fn  theii 


•«"•  7  Mdltlen  not  impermeable.  ReKrvmi  no.  4  01  .nc 
E^,S»>«»''*«'»I**^ta  i&Ss,  has  a  concrete  core  mU. 

2^  SkTlhlch  at  the  bottom  and  ♦  fu  UuA  at,  Ih.  t<v,  »d 
!;thrmfddteoftheTilleyii»riyi<»ft.inbelght.  At^x^a; 
Etervali  rf  ijo  ft. «  "ore  buttiesa  j  ft.  wide  and  i  ft:  IHA 
■EiiItaC0Dtinmly0Dllie«terade.  Ihit  th,=  «ork1m>been 
«,rfed  ai  auccesriul  ia  riown  by  the  iflcl  that  Reiervou  No.  6 
<?Tlie  Hoe  waterworks  was  wbaequenlly  coiotrucled  and 
completed  In  iBm  with  a  dmilar  core  waH.  There  «  no  lenoua 
.difficulty  m  u  cnnatrueting  walla  oC  thi.  kind  as  10  be  pracUcaUy 
water-tight  while  they  remain  unbiokr--  '-—  '"  '  - 

aettlement  of  the  earthen  embantmmU 
o(  satuTallon  thf  y  are  tmdoubttdly  lubject 
whicli  ;annol  be  calculated,  i 

pUalic  materialt  aie  much  _ . 

or  concreti  core  walla  have  been  geoeraUy  tonfined  to  peatioM 

bdow  ground.   Thai  pUced.no  >*»»■  ■'™»*  "* '=*°*"  """^ 


„  jatfonniy  with  the 

dii«h|  ii  preperty  iipte- 
■nted  by  the  noaceles 
iglil-«ngl«l,   ttjarjle,  ait, 

isttT'preanre  due  to  the ' 
(ill  d»th  d,  wliiie  the  ana 
Jt-^  !>  the  total   hori- 


am,   Merally   itated  .  in 
nbic  fet  o(  water,  actmg      ''^ 
t  oiK-thlrd  ica  d?pth  above 
hetaae.  Then  ^  it  the  reauhuit 


If  I  be  the  width  o(  the  haw,  and  »  tiie  dcnAy  ol  ih 
veifhl  o(  themaaomy  in  term,  ot  a  cubic  foot  ol  « 
■ctlnE  at  Ha  c»tn  ol  ravity  t-  ailoated  at  I*  fpooi 
and  the  moment  ol  ninuKe  to  avcnmuni  00  tlw  i 


WATER  SUPPLT 


M9 


-.  .WoBBoUth.  'Fat  •  dcmity  of  >-5  ibB  bue  muld  ibuc- 

ebe44-7%o(tbalHtabt. 

Vc  ten  Dov  to  coo^te  *hM  am  At  BSBHuy  hctun  a(  •ofety, 
tke  BD^  <>'  iWr  ipplidtdD^  la  tbe  fint  place,  it  la  ow  uI 

**      of  aoch  a  maioikrr  triaagle.   A  mbuinmii  chickoed  muar 

be  adopwdto  ghv  nbtUBst  to  tbc  upper  pan  I  aad  vben 

n  ia  not  ued  ■•  ■  •air  it  Bint  MCeiaarily  riw  nvnl  laat 

the  water,  and  oiy  la  (jthcr  emil  have  to  carry  •  mai-ny. 

tr,  cooaidenbit  mai*  is  requirvd  to  reduce  tbe  iotemal 

-iiind  by  chania  at  tanpantun.    la  ^' 

'  to  CMBM  tha  pnm,  at  avery  taini 

lin' vhich  win  p,yt  a  nSdent  facto 

Tha  uppv  part  ol  tbe  dam  haTinv  b 

^9*  condKioiB»  tbe  vbole  pncen  ufao 

'oQgb  when  certain  hypcthaea  ban  bi 

iboriout  ia  la  more  cbvloiiB  f«Tii, 

ihelnrerpanof  tb( 


mtertaceat.! 

, ^rtceat.   Th 

aigiUnff  maaonry  dama,  id  whi^ 
41  upon  the  figun  and  voibt  e(  n 
iiioni,  wbidi,  altboufh  not  quilt 


moditicaliana  «hicb  nMnt  mvwigi- 

kch  avauDiptioa  ia  that,  l[  the  dam  it 

— J  _  .enicil  preuine  will  (ntglwfini  local 

ncany  aidformly  from  face  to  face  *k>ne  any 

**--  -     0  Uls  tha  tiaiplest  tasa.  If  tta  {Si.  ij) 

iia  ainady  dBigned  for  the  fuper^tnictuie 


'ited..  Or 


Gntrt 


FlO.  13.— Factor  ti  Safety  Dtapani.  "'Oi* 

«f  tta  dwB,  md  1 1<>  c*nic  of  gravity,  tbe  ccntit  nf  prewnr  upon 
the  base  will  be  vertically  under  (,  that  it,  at  Ibe  centra  ti  the  ba«, 
and  Ihe  load  will  be  properly  iqweaented  by  the  iBcunde  Wtc,  of 
which  the  ares  repRKDti  Ihe  total  toad  and  tbe  uniform  Apth  of  itt 
uairorm  inleniily.  ActMahigh  partoflheflructurBtholnKnslvyol 
piHHire  will  ol  couiw  be  much  len  than  in  perminible  inlcnsily. 
If  now  we  auume  <hc  *a(cr  to  hive  ■  depth  i  ihovr  Ihe  bur,  the 

centre  at  (f/3  frnm  Ihe  base,  and  by  the  paraltctr^m  of  form, 
auumine  the  denjily  of  the  maionry  10  bt  ij.  ve  find  thai  Ihe 
renin  i/piKsurc  upon  Ihe  bucAc  ii  ihifled  fmm  thcceriliE  of  ihe 


B  ^.  bavii^  rti 


If  vertically  under  Ibe  point  at 


.uier  UK  f.  when  (he  ba«e  luut  be  vMeaed  antil  tha 
intnidty  of  pcvaqn  or  tbe  ccatn  of  prciaui^  aa  tbe 
a.  ia  brnufht  wMrin  tbe  preaciibed  limit.  Tba  naaHaM 
tbe  hand  ehovn  in  lig.  14. 
Jim  detemined  the  outer  profile  nndtf  the  cc 


ubiKtiena 


nceprtonal  valua,  leotlved  from  Maior  Tulloch,  fl.E, 
he  nmnlciiiality  of  Bombay,  a  nquot  to  ninikl(r  tba 
lly.  and  irith  i|»dal  lafnenca  lo  wy  high  danu,  wdi 
been  conitracted  bi  India.    Rankiiie  ptnitvl  out  that 

presnn  tangential  to  tba  alope  miglit  do  ao.    Tbua 


It  a  very  doubtJ^ -  , 

limit  rather  ih;in  ihal  of  Ihe  ver^< 


niiat  he  conildeied  wh«n 

J  r- — -_„„_.,    __. J  a  fwi  nam  important 

reaaan  vhy  Ihit  condition  uould  be  acridly  adbend  to  aa  ngarda 
the  inner  face.  Wa  have  hkhetta  comtdercd  oaly  the  tmimUl 
•tftrfB^Of  pKBUR  of  tbe  water:  but  if  Iron  origliially  defective 

conMniction,  or  from  Ihaabaeu  of  vertical  preiai '—  • '-^  -^ 

muonry  toward*  tbe  w«ttr  edge  of  any  betiual . 

he.  14,  water  in  mide)  beneath  that  part  of  Ibe  matoiry  more  n 
t&in  It  can  obtain  ccm*  ahmf  Ac,  or  InaiiyotberdiRcliaa  to 
the  outer  fare,  we  ahall  have  the  nplifllnr  and  ovenuming  pretiun 
due  to  Ihe  full  depth  ol  water  in  Ihe  renrvoir  over  Ibe  widih  a» added 
to  the  bcfrimntal  preMore.  in  which  <as«  all  our  previoH  rakularionB 
would  be  futile.  Tbe  condiiion,  therefore,  ihat  ibeie  iball  be  no 
HtBion  h  important  u  an  element  e(  deuga;  but  when  we  come  to 
coniinlction.  we  mun  be  caielul  aho  that  no  part  of  Ihe  wall  ihgU 
be  lea  permeable  than  Ihe  water  face.  In  fi;.  13  we  have  icen  that 
Ibe  varying  deplb  of  Ibe  area  ^k  appnmmately  reprcseitta  tbe 
varying  drilrlbullan  of  the  vertical  atma.  If ,  therefore,  the  cMtn 
of  that  became  10  far  removed  to  Ihe  right  aa  to  nake  J  colncldeBt 
with  b,  the  diagram  of  itreiMt  wouhl  become  the  IriAMile  ny,  and 
the  venical  preraure  at  l"     '  '  ..  -       .  .      .- 

cvidenlly  happen  when  tbe 


uetowslglnof 
-■  — "rtfa 


icome  the  iridtigleiTf',  and 
c  wnnlri  be  nil.   "Thia  will 


renlre  of  pressur-  _— .  ,  — - —  „  ,-_ 
ceniTe  of  figure  of  the  diirrram  ehall  be  ■ 
pmsure  cnn  onTy  be  fulnlTcd  by  atbn 
base  idJ'  Ihut  giving  a  nevatiye  pre«ii 
Henn  r<  lollowi  that  on  the  mumptir 


Ihe  right.  I 


miiidlc  third  of  the  width  of  Ihit 
be  prudent  cottne  of  taking  aa  the 


laoie,  3ID  f I.  of  waier.  or  naaily  *  toi 
ce  ijoil.  <A  -ater.ocabout  7  loni  pe 


v^s-^^^'^^.'-^^'^ 


5KX'iS^^_^; 


Slice"' 


,^„^,, ,,  .he iDodel dam.  The Buamuippnpcipa: 

inenled  by  the  dircctiont  and  thickncaacs  at  tbe  (wc 

necltDE  li''™  inuEually  at  right  ufllc*. 

«■  {iDdicucd  by  bniken  linn  en  the  diagram)  an 


middle  third  ef  the  acclloa.  ItiaimpanaiU 
num  value  of  the  leuiaa  at  the  Iw  Ua  in 
Sillrttan  aDP«ximately  at  43*  to  the  vtnitaii  but  at  pointe  low 
JS;?irtbr£u>d>li«i  thiateniioii,  while  Iw  in  mapitude.  bean. 
Snilnm harisHital.  Thbfeuuniiidianetbat  intheeventol 
a^lc  oecurriiw  at  ibe  nntmrn  lae.,it*  enenaiDn  would  lend 
tura  donniwuda  and  follow  a  direclioo  oe 

■fleet  the  etabilitv  ol  the  atnictun. 

Aa  a  matter  oC  bet,  the  rovndatioiu  of  moM 
ia  vertical  tranclw.  the  lower  put  only  bciDi  id  touaa  Piaienaii  u 
Chat  actual  aepiuBtian  nlmoal  cofreapDiidijig  with  the  hypothetical 


'Om  &M  Ditrtvi^  PaMi  in  Oa  SIMIily  tf  Maimiy  Dami. 
DiUH**  Coaipaiiy  Retearch  Memoir  (L«adaB,  1904). 
'bfiiHcrieftMey  nth,  1903)-       .   ,   „     . 


■t  then 


the  lower  part  of  TTip  Bection.     In  dams  of  m, . ..,., . 

(Tnund  end  coniidouble  depth  below  ground  there  ie,  moreover, 

due  either  to  the  downatram  loce  of  the  trench  againit  which  (he 
loundationt  are  built,  or  10  the  materials  ekcavalcd  and  properly 
embanked  agairul  that  face  above  the  Eround  level  or  10  boih- 

.to  a  retuniriB  wall  subject  to  the  pre^urc  dF  earth,  or  convendy, 

earih  will  allord,  beiauH  we  wikcly  nralect  the  important  bat  very 

ne^eiBrily  Rreng,  end^thii  acisei  mainiy  from  (he  UHimptiofl  (hat 
the  earth  it  merely  •  locwe  grainilM-  m»a>  wi(hout  any  meh  ad- 

aupponina  a  vertical  lace  o(  tvth'beoeaih  in  extended  boiiionul 
plant  kvd  whh  the  lop  of  the  wall,  we  ga 


nui^ 


WATER  SUPPLY 

RCSERVOm  EMPTY  RESCRVOIR   FULL 


401 


CLLlPtCf  or  tTHttt 


ON    MOmZONTAL     JOINTt. 


HORIZONTAL    mCtfVllCt  OM  VCRTICAL     JOINTt 


""■■"■■ 'iiiiiimiiiii iiinimiiii 


SHCAiiiN*       smestcs 


Fig.  16. — ^Showing  StresKt  at  base  of  model  dam  determined  e]q)erimeotaUy. 


where  P  18  the  horubntal  presnire  of  the  earth  againat  the  wall 
exerted  at  one-third  its  height,  v  the  weight  of  unit  volnme  of 
the  materul.  x  the  height  oTthe  wall,  and  ^  the  angle  of  repoae  of 
the  material.  That  the  pressure  so  nven  exceeds  the  maximum 
possible  pressure  we  do  not  doubt;  and,  .conversely,  if  .we  put 

p,    losfi.i  +Bin  ^ 
'^"  2    l-sin^- 

we  may  have  equal  confidence  that  P*  will  be  less  than  the  maximum 
pressure  which,  if  exerted  by  the  wall  against  the  earth,  will  be  borne 
without  disturbance.  But  like  every  pure  theory  the  principles  of 
conjugate  pressures  in  earth  may  lead  to  danger  if  not  applied  with 
due  consideration  for  the  angle  of  repose  of  the  material,  the  modi- 
fications brought  about  by  the  limited  width  of  artificial  embank- 
ments, the  possible  contraction  away  from  the  masonry,  of  clayey 
materiale  during  dry  weather  for  some  feet  in  depth  and  the  tendency 
of  .surface  waters  to  produce  scour  between  the  wall  and  the  em- 
bankment. Both  the  Neuadd  and  the  Fisher  Tarn  dams  are  latgely 
dependent  upon  the  support  of  earthen  embankments  with  much 
economy  and  with  perfectly  satisfactory  results. 

In  the  constniction  of  the  Vyrnwy  masoniy  dam  Portland 
cement  concrete^  was  used  in  the  joints.  When  more  than  sii 
months  old,  9  in.  cubes  of  this  material  never  failed  under 
oomprsisicm  below  ixx  tons  per  sq.  ft.  with  an  average  of  167 
tons;  and  the  mean  lesbtance  of  all  the  blocks  tested  between 
two  and  three  years  after  moulding  exceeded  2x5  tons  per  sq.  ft., 
while  Uocks  cut  from  the  concrete  of  the  dam  gave  from  x8x 
to  339  tons  per  sq.  ft.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  best  hydraulic 
lime,  or  volcanic  puzzuolana  and  lime,  if  properly  ground 
while  ^king,  and  otherwise  treated  in  the  best-known  manner, 
as  well  as  some  of  the  soKxlled  natural  (calcareous)  cements, 
will  yield  resulu  certainly  not  inferior  to  those  obtained  from 
Portland  cement.  The  only  objection  that  can  in  any  case  be 
urged  against  most  of  the  natvnd  products  is  that  a  longer  time 
is  required  for  induration;  but  in  the  case  of  masonry  dams 
sufficient  time  necessarily  passes  before  any  load,  beyond  that 
of  the  very  gradually  increasing  masonry,  is  brought  upon  the 
structure.  The  residt  of  using  property  treated  natural  limes 
is  not  to  be  judged  from  the  careless  manner  in  which  such 


limes  have  often  been  used  in  the  past.  Any  stone  of  which 
it  is  desuable  to  build  a  masonry  dam  would  certainly  possess 
an  avenge  strength  at  least  as  great  as  the  above  figures  for 
concrete;  the  day  slate  of  the  Lower  Silurian  formation,  used 
in  the  case  of  the  Vyrnwy  dam,  had  an  ultimate  crushing  strength 
of  from  700  to  xooo  tons  per  sq.  ft.  If,  therefore,  with  snch 
materials  the  worit  is  well  done,  and  is  not  subsequently  Ikble 
to  be  wasted  or  disintegrated  by  expansion  or  contraction  or 
other  actions  which  in  the  process  of  time  affect  all  exposed 
surfaces,  it  is  dear  that  x  5  to  so  tons  per  sq.  ft.  must  be  a  perfectly 
safe  load.  There  are  many  structures  at  present  in  existence 
bearing  considerably  greater  loads  than  this,  and  the  granite 
ashlar  masonry  of  at  least  one,  the  Bear  Valley  dam  in  California, 
is  subject  to  compressive  stresses,  reaching,  when  the  reservoir 
is  fuU,  at  least  40  to  50  tons  per  sq.  ft.,  while  certain  bri<^work 
linings  in  mining  shafts  are  subject  to  very  high  circumferential 
stresses,  due  to  known  water-pressures,  in  one  case  whidi 
has  been  investigated  this  circumferential  pressure  exceeds 
36  tons  per  sq.  ft.,  and  the  bridcwork,  which  is  iS  in.  thick  and 
to  ft.  internal  diameter,  is  pofectly  sound  and  water-tight. 
In  portions  of  the  structure  liable  to  important  changes  of 
pressure  from  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  water  and  subject  to  the 
additional  stresses  which  expansion  and  contraction  by  changes 
of  tempeiEture  and  of  moisture  ixKluce,  and  in  view  of  the  great 
difficulty  of  securing  that  the  average  modulus  of  dsstidty  in 
all  parts  of  the  structure  shall  be  approximatdy  the  same,  it  is 
probably  desirable  to  limit  the  calculated  load  upon  any  extetnal 
work,  even  of  the  best  kind,  to  15  or  ao  tons  per  sq.  ft.  It  is 
dear  that  the  material  upon  which  any  high  masonry  dam  is 
founded  must  also  have  a  krge  factor  of  safety  against  crushing 
under  the  greatest  load  that  the  dam  can  impose  upon  It,  and 
this  consideration  unfits  any  site  for  the  construction  of  a 
masonry  dam  where  sound  rock,  or  at  least  a  material  equal  in 
strength  to  the  strongest  shale,  cannot  be  had;  even  In  the  case 
of  such  a  material  as  shale  the  foundation  must  be  wdl  bdow. 
{ the  ground. 


♦01 


WATER  SUPPLY 


The  Ktiul  cODttructfa*  o(  wccorial  nuoniy  dami  hu 
vifinl  [iDm  llic  loughejl  nibble  maionty  te  uhUr  woik.  It 
g^gf^^  b  probable,  however,  that,  all  (hinss  coDiidercd. 
nndom  nibble  Ui  wbich  Ihc  Sittal  lida  of  each 
block  of  none  ia  drened  to  a  Fairly  uniEonn  aurricc,  so  Ihat  II 
ouy  be  bedded  aa  il  wen  in  a  tray  ol  monar,  lecuiea  the  nearat 
appniach  le  uniloim  rlaaikity.  Such  itoan  may  be  of  any 
■M  wbrKt  to  each  of  Item  a>vi*in(  only  •  snail  pioponion 
q(  Ibe  widlb  DJ  the  eiructure  (in  Ibe  Vymwy  dam  ihry  n  '  ' 
8  or  lo  loBi  eadi),  aitd  [be  Ipacei  between  them,  wbeie  larjc 
CDOiigb,  miut  be  umilai-ly  built  in  with  vnaller,  but  alwa 
Uitest  pouible,  uonea;  ipacn  too  amall  for  Ihil  tiea 
nnot  be  611td  and  ramined  with  concrele.  AU  Mono  mi 
betlen  down  bto  theii  bedi  until  Ibe  moitai  aquceui  ui 
the  joinli  annmd  Ibem.  The  Eacaa  ol  the  work  nuy  be  oC  aqumd 
nuaonry,  thoroughly  tied  Into  tbe  hearting;  but,  in  view  tJ  Iht 

^ce  masonry  should  not  be  councd.     Ccncnlly  speaking,  in 
M  ^cavn|[on5  for  the  foundations  spring  ore  met  with;  dme 


ally  i»  luppon  from  iho  mtm  e(  rtw  valley.    lu 

much  aiieniion  10  the  lubjecl  of  maioiiiy  d- —  -■ 
the  Earthwork  dam.  with  a  nil  a<  puddled 


J  the  rack 


omnecled  by  relief  drains  carried  to  viaibio  points  at  dn'back 
of  the  dam.  It  should  be  impossible,  in  short,  for  any  part  of  the 
rock  beneath  the  dam  to  become  chatjed  with  water  nnder 
Pleasure,  either  diirdly  from  the  water  in  the  reasvcir  or  from 


of  the  I 


of  the  w 


cured  by  bedding  the  s 


lo  the  wuer  fan  in  uxnewhat  liner  monai  man  loe  rest,  ana 
loinelimo  also  by  pbcing  padi  to  hll  the  jointi  (or  several 
incbci  from  the  water  face,  to  Ibat  the  moiiai  was  kept  away 
Inun  tluIaceaDdKaawi^Uhdduptoiuwark.  On  the  removal 
of  the  pads,  or  tfae  culling  out  of  the  face  of  the  mortar  where 
padl  were  not  used,  the  vacant  Joint  was  fiadually  Idled  with 
almost  dry  morlar,  a  baiumer  and  caulking  loo]  being  used  Id 
(MDiolldate  it.  By  thcu  means  practical  impennoabiliiy  wu 
•btaioed.  If  the  pons  of  the  water  face  are  Ihul  rendered 
«Itremdy  fine,  the  surface  water,  carrying  mote  or  loa  fine 
detiitts  and  oiganic  matter,  w!U  soon  dose  then  mtirely  and 
cniat  in  making  that  face  the  least  permeable  portion  of  the 

Bat  ■»  ore  in  constiuctioD  can  prEvent  the  comptadou  of 
tha  maa  aa  the  auperincunibnt  weight  coma  upon  it.  Any 
liven  yard  of  height  measured  during  construction,  oi  al  any 
time  altcc  coDttcuciion.  will  be  Ifss  than  a  yard  when  addittonal 
wdfht  baa  been  placed  upon  it;  hence  the  ends  of  such  dams 
phod  agwnst  rock  surfaces  must  move  with  rapect  lo  those 
aorfaca  when  the  aupeiincsmbent  load  coms  upon  them. 
This  action  is  obviously  much  ledoced  where  the  rock  tides 
ri  the  valley  rise  slowly;  but  in  cases  where  the  lodi  is  very 
Ueep,  the  safest  course  ia  to  face  the  facta,  and  not  to  depend  for 
walei-li^tneas  upon  the  rnmpnling  of  the  masonry  to  the  lock, 
but  rather  to  provide  a  vertical  key,  or  dowel  joint,  of  some 
material  like  asphalt,  which  will  always  remain  water-tight. 
So  fai  aa  the  writer  baa  been  able  to  observe  or  ascertain,  there 
bre  very  few  masonry  dams  in  Europe  nr  America  which  have 
not  been  cracked  transversely  in  their  highel  pani.  Tbey 
generally  leak  a  little  near  the  junction  with  the  rock,  and  at 
some  other  joints  in  intermediate  poaitions.  In  the  case  ot  the 
Neuadd  dam  this  difficulty  was  met  by  deliberately  omitting 
Ihe  mortar  in  tnuisverse  joints  at  regular  iniervaLs  nrar  the  top 
tl  the  dam,  except  just  at  thdr  faca,  whete  it  of  course  cradu 
hannlestly,  and  by  fiU'Tig  the  rest  with  asphalt.  Serious  move- 
BCBt  from  eipansian  and  contnctlon  does  not  uMially  enend 
to  leveb  which  are  kept  moderately  damp,  or  lo  tlw  grealer 
tnaas  c^  Ibe  dam.  many  feet  below  bigb-water  ieveL 

The  first  maaonTy  dam  of  importaocs  conKiKIed  in  Cmt  Britain 
waa  that  upon  the  river  Vymwy,  a  tribulan'  of  the  Severn,  in  oon- 
noion  with  the  UverpoDl  waier-nipply  (Plate  I.),     lis  height. 

carried  on  archea  at  an  iHevarion  e<  about' IB  ft.  higheT,  As  this 
daais^nut  iiSoft.  in  leagth  frum  rock  lo  rock,  il  rectins  pnctio- 


"  ^1  It  'abJ^I^irriw  tedT  aiid  Ihe  Crais'.ir-iill  Ga^ 
subject  lo  a  head  o(  133  ft.    The  iiiiir  dam  is  curved  in  oka,  iht 
radius  being  74a  ft.  and  (he  choid  of  the  arc  Jij  (1.    In  ibeDBwa 

Leicesler.  Naii'in^m  and  Sheflield.  aii  more  maaoiiiy  dsan  Ian 
nceixd  parliamentary  Hinction.  Of  these  the  huibal  b  Iht  Hit 
glee,  on  ihe  Ashop.  a  tributary  of  the  Derwent.  vbicb  will  Unpnial 
water  10  aboui  1  j6  ft.  above  the  river  bed,  tbe  length  Inxn  luk  10 

lion,  oiJ^ofi-hich.  Ih^Howden,  ■^be'loSifl.'in'iengihaKlrf 
impound  water  taa  depihol  lufl.abovelbe  liver  bed.  la  l*)r 
the  eacavaiion  was  begun  for  the  foundations  of  a  nuaomy  (fain 
scroia  the  Croton  river,  in  conoeikHi  with  Ihesupfdy  of  Newyvk, 


haLning  is  of  rubble  m 

1 


-J, 

Fic.  17.— ScclioD  of  Croton  Dam. 

tealber.  when  l^jrlland  cement  was  lubslituted  on  accoudt  of 

ibm  ii  tlK  nature  of  the  foundation  upon  which  ii  stands.  Far 
the  rock  Is  schist,  but  the  ereater  portion  limestone,  rimiiar 
^vlc^  qaalltles  to  the  CarbonHerous  limeMone  of  Gicai  Brio 
The  loHSI  part  of  the  surface  o<  this  nek  was  reached  after  txiai 
log  through  alluvial  deposita  to  a  depth  of  about  70  ft.,  but  o" 


lie  otlieit  lype  of  • 
lubieci  to  a  prt»ur" 
ii  only  about  m  l^ 
wide  at  the  water  level,  and  the  ikm  is  curved  is  plan  to  a  ladias  M 
ex  ft.  Moch  discDBslon  has  taken  pUce  as  to  the  utility  of  •wb 
~  alrody  refened  10  indicate 

bilicy  of  tefi^  arid  lafittradon  of  water  at  lbs  upnna'n  tsn-  I* 
narrow  rock  gocRS  enmnely  fntansting  and  complex  piwei"*-'*' 
lating  to  the  eooibincd  acllon  of  horiiootal  and  vertical  nreflesanA 
.nri  S.  ^n,,.n„i,  ^u.  it  is  evident  that  much  may  be  done  fcyj™^ 

'The  B»r'vall^'Sm',talif6nua,"fs  Ihe  «** 


I  ^^^•^^^•'▼T^PH^^P 


WATER  SUPPLY 


-4»3 


lU  h«^ht  from  the  rock  bed  w  64  ft.«  and  it  is  subject  dunng  floods 
to  a  h«ad  of  water  oot  much  less.  The  length  of  the  chord  of  the  arc 
acroas  the  valley  is  about  350  ft.  and  the  radius  335  ft.  The  dam  was 
begun  in  1S83,  with  a  base  ao  ft.  thick»  narrowing  to  13  ft.  at  a  beii^t 
of  16  ft.  The  cost  of  this  thickness  beina  remrded  as  too  great,  it 
was  abruptly  reduced  to  8  ft.  6  in.,  and  for  the  remaining  48  ft.  it 
waa  tapma  up  to  a  final  width  of  about  3  ft  The  masonry  is  de- 
acribed  by  Mr  Schuyler  aa  "  a  rough  uncut  granite  ashlar,  with  a 
heafftlng  of  rough  rubble  all  laid  an  cteieait  mortar  and  gravd." 
This  dam  has  been  in  satisfactory  use  since  i885>  and  the  slight 
filtration  through  the  masonry  which  oocunad  at  first  is  said  to  have 
alnao^  entirely  ceased. 

In  New  South  Wales  thirteen  thin  coikxete  darna.  dependent  upon 
horisontal  curvature  for  their  reststanca  to  water  pressure,  have 
been  constructed  in  narrow  gocge*  At  comparatively  small  cost  to 
impound  water  for  the  use  en  villages.  The  depth  of  water  varies 
from  18  ft.  to  76  ft.  and  five  of  them  have  cracked  verticaUy,  owing 
apparently  to  the  impossibility  of  the  base  of  the  dam  partaking  m 
the  dian^es  of  curvature  induced  by  dianges  of  temperature  and  of 
moisture  in  the  upper  parts.  It  is  stated,  howeveri  that  these  cracks 
ckMe  up  and  become  pracdcaOy  water-tight  as  the  water  rises. 

Something  has  been  said  01  the  failures  of  earthen  dams.  Many 
masonry  dams  have  also  failed,  but,  speaking  generally,  wa  know 
•     ^  less  of  the  causes  which  have  led  to  such  failures.    The 

rmmatnn  examination  of  one  cas^  howev«^  namely,  the  bursting 
tn  1895  of  the  Bouzey  dam,  near  Epinal,  in  Prance,  by  which  numy 
lives  were  lost,  has  brought  out  several  points  of  great  interest.  It 
is  probably  the  only  instance  in  which  a  masonry  dam  baa  slipped 
upon  its  foundations,  and  also  the  only  case  in  which  a  masonry 
dam  has  actually  overturned,  while  cunously  enough  there  is  everv 
probability  that  /he  two  circumstaaces  had  no  connexion  with  each 
other.  A  short  time  after  the  occurrence  of  the  catastrop4ie  the  dam 
was  visited  by  Dr  W.  C.  Unwin.  F.R.S.,  and  the  writer,  and  a  very 
careful  examination  of  the  work  was  made  by  them.  Someof  theblocks 
of  rubble  masonry  carried  down  the  stream  weighed  several  hundred 
.  tons.  The  original  section  o(  the  dam  is  shown  by  the  continuous 
thick  line  in  fig.  18,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  woric  was  subject 
to  a  pressure  of  only  about  65  ft.  of  water.   In  the  year  1 884  a  length 


Crs  after  this,  and  about  fifteen  yeara  after  tha  dam  vim  fiiM 
ught  into  use,  it  overturned  on  its  outer  edge,  at  about  the  level 
indicated  by  the  dotted  line  just  above  the  counterfort ;  and  there  is 
no  gnood  reason  to  attribute  to  the  movement  of  1884,  or  to  the 
vertical  cracks  it  caused,  any  influence  ia  the  ovctttmung  of  1895. 
Somcoftheworst  tctwaTioN 


cracks  were,  in- 
deed, entirely  be- 
yond the  portion 
overturned, 
which  consisted 
of  the  mass  570 
ft.  long  by  37 
ft.  in  depth,  and 
weigfaing  about 
a 0,000  tonSi 
shown  in  eleva- 
tion in  fig.  19. 
The  line  of  pres- 
sures as  generally 
given  tor  this 
dam  with  the 
reservoir  full,  on 
the  hypotiieais 
that  the  density 
of  the  masonry 
was  a  little  over 
3,  is  shown  by 
long  jBnd  short 
dots  in  fig.  18. 
Materials  actu- 
ally collected  from 


450^ J- —..-il 


PLAN 


Water  Face. 
Fig.  T9.'-E]evBtion  and  Plan  of  Bouaey  Dam. 

the  dam   indicate  that  the  meaa  density 


Fig.  18.— Section  of  Bouzey  Dam. 

of  aso  ft.  of  the  dam,  out  of  a  total  length  of  1706  ft.,  slipped  upon 
iu  ioundatioo  a<  soft  sandstone,  and  became  slightly  curved  in  plan 
as  shown  at  a,  b,  fig.  19,  the  maximum  movement  from  the  origimil 
straight  line  being  about  i  ft.  Further  sliding  on  the  base  was  pre- 
vented by  the  construction  of  the  cross-lined  portions  in  the  section 
(fiK.  i8>.  These  precautions  wen  perfectly  effective  in  securing  the 
niety  of  tha  dam  up  to  the  heimit  to  which  the  connteriort  was 
carried.  As  a  consequence  of  this  norizontal  bending  of  the  dam  the 
vertical  cracks  shown  in  fig.  19  appeared  and  were  repaired.    Eleven 

*  See  Pne,  InsL  C.E.  vol.  oom.  pp.  91-95. 


did  nc^  exceed  i*8^  when  dry  and  2*07  when  saturated,  which 
would  bring  the  hne  of  pressures  even  doaer  to  the  outer 
face  at  the  top  of  the  counterfort.  In  any  event  it  must  have 
approached  well  within  3i  ft.  of  the  outer  face,  and  waa 
neariy  five-sixths  than  two-thirds  of  the  width  of  the 
distant  from  the  water  face;  there  must,  therefore,  have 
ooosidemble  vertical  tension  at  the  water  face,  variously  com- 
puted according  to  the  density  assumed  at  from  it  to  if 
ton  per  square  foot.  This,  if  the  dam  had  been  thorooghfy 
well  constructed,  either  with  hydraulic' lime  or  Portmnd 
cement  mortar,  would  have  been  easily  bone.  -Tbe 
materials,  however,  were  ooor,  and  it  is  probable  that 
rupture  by  tension  in  a  roughly  horizontal  plane  took  place. 
Directly  this  occurred,  the  front  part  of  the  wall  waa  sub- 
ject to  an  additional  overturning  pressure  of  about  35  ft. 
of  water  actinfl^  upwards,  equivalent  to  about  a  ton  per 
square  foot,  which  would  certainly,  if  it  occurred  thrpugb- 
ottt  any  Gonaiderable  length  of  the  dam,  have  immediate 
overturned  it.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  dam  actually 
stood  for  about  fifteen  ywa.  Of  this  circumstance  them 
are  two  possible  explanations.  It  is  known  that  mom  or 
Imb  leakage  took  place  through  the  dam,  and  to  moderale 
tliis  the  water  face  was  from  time  to  time  coated  and 
repaired  with  cemeqt.  Any  cracks  were  thus,  no  doubt, 
temporarily  dosed;  and  as  the  structure  of  the  rest  of  the 
dam  waa  porous,  no  opportunity  was  mven  for  the  per- 
C(4ating  water  to  accumulate  in  tbe  noricontal  fisaurm 
to  anything  like  the  head  in  the  reservoir.  But  in 
reservoir  work  such  coatings  are  not  to  be  trusted,  and  a 
aing^  horizontal  crack  m^ht  admit  sufficient  water  to 
cauw  an  uplitt.  Then,  again,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
although  toe  fall  consequences  of  the  facts  described  mif ht 
arim  in  a  section  of  the  dam  i  ft.  thick  (if  that  section 
were  entirely  isolated),  they  could  not  arise  throughout  the 
length  unlem  the  adjoining  sections  were  subject  to  like 
ceoditions.  Any  horizontal  fissure  in  a. weak  place  would, 
in  the  nature  of  things,  strike  somewhere  a  stronger  place, 
and  the  final  failure  would  be  deferred.  Time  woukf  thcti 
beoomoaa  dement.  By  reason  of  the  consuntly  changing 
temperatures  and  the  frequent  filling  and  emptying  oithe 
reservoir,  expansion  and  contraction,  which  are  always  at 
work  tending  to  produce  relative  movements  wherever 
one  portion  of  a  structure  is  weaker  than  another,  muft 
have  assisted  the  water-pressure  in  the  extension  of  tke 
horizontal  cracks^  which,  growing  slowl)ji  during  the 
fifteen  years,  provided  at  last  the  area  required  to  enable 
the  intrusive  water  to  overbalance  the  little  remaining  stability  of 
the  dam. 

RssERVOntS 

From  very  andent  limea  in  India,  Ceylon  and  elsewhere, 
reservoirs  of  great  area,  bat  generally  of  small  depth,  have  been 
built  and  used  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation;  and  in  modern 
times,  especially  in  India  and  America,  comparatively  shallow 
restfvoiTS  have  been  oonstructed  of  much  greater  ana,  ami  in 
aomc  cases  of  greater  capacity,  than  any  in  the  Unitfd  Kingdom. 


4«M. 


WATER  SUPPLY 


Yet  the  hOly  puts  of  the  Ittt-muned  coontiy  are  Tkh  fat  magiii- 
ficent  sites  at  fuffident  altitudes  for  the  supply  of  any  parts  by 
gravitation,  and  capable,  if  properly  laid  out,  of  affording  a 
volnme  of  water,  throu^ioat  the  driest  seasons,  far  in  esceaa 
of  the  probable  drmand  for  a  long  future.  Many  of  the  great 
towns  had  already  secured  such  sites  within  moderate  distances, 
and  had  constructed  reservoin  of  considerable  siie,  when,  in 
zSjg,  x88o  and  1893  req>ectivcly,  Manchester,  Liverpool  and 
BimUn^iam  obtained  statutory  powers  to  dnw  water  from 
rehttively  great  distances,  vis.  from  Thtrlmere  in  Cumberland, 
in  the  case  of  Manchester;  from  the  river  Vymwy,  Montgomery- 
shire, a  tributary  of  the  Severn,  hi  the  case  of  Liverpool;  and 
from  the  riven  Elan  and  Qaerwen  in  Radnordiire,  tributaries 
of  the  Wye,  in  the  case  of  Birmingham.  Lake  Vymwy,  com- 
pleted in  1889,  includes  a  icsenroir  which  is  stiU  by  far  the 

lanest  in  Europe. 

This  rewrvoir  it  iitnated  fai  a  true  Glacial  hke-baan.  and  having 
therafoie  all  the  appeaanoe  of  a  natuial  hke,  is  oommonly  loown 
,_.  OS  Laka  Vyrnwy.    It  is  tos  ft.  abovo  the  aea.  has  ao 

****  area  of  i  lai  acres,  an  available  capacity  eirewmg  ia.000 

•>*■•'•     mlUmn  galbns.  and  a  length  of  nearly  5  m.    «•  poeltion 
in  North  Walea  it  ■hown  in  black  in  fig.  ao,  and  the  two  views  on 
Pbte  I.  ahow  respectively  the  portion  of  the  valley  visible  from  the 
dam  before  impounding  began,  and  the  same  portkmaaa  lake  on  the 
completion  of  the  work.    Before  the  valves  in  the  dam  me  ckMed. 
the  viOage  of  Lianwddyn,  the  parish  church,  and  many  farmsteads 
were  demolished.  The  church  was  rebuilt  outsKle  the  watershed,  and 
the  reaialns  from  the  old  churchyard  were  removed  to  a  new  cemetery 
adjoining  it.    The  fact  that  this  valley  b  a  post<Gladal  lake-basin 
was  attested  by  the  borings  and  escavatkMis  made  for  the  foooda- 
tkMis  of  the  dam.    The  trench  in  which  the  masonry  was  founded 
covered  an  area  lao  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  extendmg  for  1 172  ft. 
across  the  valley.     Its  site  had  been  determined  tiy  about  190 
borings,  probings  and  shafts,  which,  following  upon  the  indications 
afforded  by  the  rocks  above  ground,  proved  that  the  rock  bed  crossing 
the  valley  was  higher  at  this  point  than  elsewhere.  Here  then,  buried 
in  alluvium  at  a  depth  of  50  to  60  ft.  from  the  surface,  was  found  the 
rock  bar  of  the  ^ost-Gladal  lake;  at  points  farther  up  the  valley, 
IxMings  aeariy  100  ft.  deep  had  failed  to  readi  the  rock.  The  Gbdal 
striae,  and  the  disk)catea  rocks—moved  a  few  inches  or  feet  from 
their  places,  and  others,  at  greater  distances,  turned  over,  and 
beginning  to  assume  the  sub-angular  form  of  Glacial  boulders — were 
found  precisely  as  the  glacier,  receding  from  the  bu,  and  giving  place 
to  theandent  mke,  hacfleft  them,  covned  and  preserved  by  sand  and 
gravel  washed  from  the  terminal  morain.    Later  came  the  alluvial 
«dtlng-up.    Slowly,  but  surely,  the  deltas  of  the  tributary  streams 
advanced  into  the  lake,  floods  deporited  their  burdens  of  netritus  in 
the  deeper  places,  the  lake  shallowed  and  shrank  and  in  its  turn 
yidded  to  the  winding  river  of  an  alluvial  strath,  covered  with  peat. 
reeds  and  aiders,  and  still  liable  to  floods.    It  b  mterestang  to  record 
t^t  during  the  construction  of  the  works  the  implements  of  Neolithic 
man  were  found,  near  the  maigin  of  the  modem  bke,  below  the  peat, 
send  above  the  alluvial  clay  on  which  it  rested.   Several  of  the  reser- 
voir rites  in  Wales,  shown  by  shaded  lines  in  fig.  20,  are  in  all  prob- 
ability rimiho'  post-Glacial  bke^arins,  and  in  the  course  of  time 
some  of  them  may  contain  still  greater  reservoirs.    They  are  pro- 
vided with  well-proportioned  watersheds  and  rainfall,  and  bring 
neariy  all  more  than  500  ft.  above  the  sea,  may  be  made  available  for 
the  supply  of  pure  water  by  na^tation  to  any  part  of  England. 
In  16^  the  Corporation  of  ffirmingham  obtained  powers  for  the 
construction  of  su  reservoirs  on  the  riven  Elan  and  Gaerwen,  also 
shown  in  fig.  30,  but  the  rites  of  these  reservoin  are  kMis  narrow 
valleys,  not  bke-barins.    The  three  reservdn  on  the  Elan  were 
completed  in  1904.    Thrir  joint  capacity  b  11.320  miltkm  gaUons, 
and  this  will  be  increased  to  about  18,000  millions  when  the  remain- 
ing three  are  built. 

Of  natural  lakes  in  Great  Britain  raised  above  thdr  ordinarv  leveb 
that  the  upper  portions  may  be  utilised  as  reservoin.  Loch  Katrine 
suppMng  Glasgow  b  welt  known.  Whitehaven  is  rimilariy  supplied 
from  Ennerdale,  and  in  the  year  1894  Thirimere  in  Cumberbncf  was 
brought  into  use,  as  already  mentioned,  for  the  supply  of  Manchester. 
The  corporation  have  statutory  power  to  raise  the  lake  50  ft.,  at 
which  level  it  will  have  an  avaibble  capacity  of  about  8000  million 
pdlons;  to  secure  thb  a  masonry  tlam  has  been  constructed,  though 
the  lake  b  at  present  worked  at  a  tower  level. 

It  b  obvious  that  the  water  of  a  reservoir  must  never  be  albwed 
to  rise  above  a  certain  prescribed  height  at  which  the  works  will  be 
^  ^  perfectly  safe.  In  all  reservoin  impounding  the  natural 
cnjjju*«  g^^  ^  ^  stream,  thb  involves  the  use  of  an  overflow. 
Where  the  dam  b  of  masonry  it  may  be  used  as  a  weir;  but  where 
earthwork  b  employed,  the  overflow,  commonly  known  in  such  a 
case  as  the  "  bye-wash,"  should  be  an  entirely  independent  work, 
eonristing  of  a  low  weir  of  sufiicient  length  to  prevent  an  unsafe  rise 
of  the  water  level,  and  of  a  narrow  channel  capable  of  easily  canvins 
•way  any  water  that  passes  over  the  weir.  Theabasnoe  of  oneor both 
of  these  conditions  has  led  to  the  failure  of  many  dams. 


(MtinCATIQK 


atOerfsttn  the  United  Kbidsn. 

Where  the  contributory  drainage  araa  eaceeds  5«»  «»w.  ^  *• 
charge,  even  alk>wing  for  so-oJled  "  doud-bursts,"  rarely  or  sem 
eiteeds  the  rate  of  about  300  cub.  ft.  per  second  per  i<»>  teres  «r 
1500  times  the  minimum  dry  weather  flow,  taken  ss  one-Hth  ol  i 
cubic  foot;  and  if  we  provi«te  against  such  an  occ^ooal  disdair, 
with  a  posrible  maximum  of  400  cub.  ft.  at  mudi  more  (hmitt 
intervalsTa  proper  factor  of  safety  wiH  be  allowed.  But  whn  * 
reservoir  b  pU^  upon  a  smaller  area  the  conditions  afe  matenaly 
dianged.  The  rainfall  which  produces,  aa  the  avenge  ri  il  tk 
tributaries  in  the  biger  area,  300  cub.  ft.  per  second  per  1000  sacs, 
it  Bade  up  of  groups  of  rainfall  of  vcrv  varying  intensity,  USh 
upon  diiBTerent  portions  of  that  area,  so  tnat  upon  any  section  of  il^ 
Intensity  of  dbcharee  may  be  much  greater. 

The  hdght  to  which  the  water  Is  permitted  to  rise  above  tkeiB 
of  the  overflow  depends  upon  the  height  of  the  embankment  above 
that  levd  (in  the  united  Kingdom  commonly  6  or  7  ft.)i  ao<l  ^ 
again  should  be  governed  by  the  hdght  of  possible  waves,   la  opts 
places  that  hdeht  b  sddom  more  than  about  one  and  a  half  tioeitb 
square  root  01  the  "  fetch  '*  or  greatest  distance  in  nautical  niki 
from  which  the  wave  has  travdlm  to  the  point  in  question:  but  is 
narrow  reaches  or  bkes  it  b  relatlvdy  higher.    In  lengths  not  a- 
ceeding  about  2  m.,  twice  thb  height  nwy  be  reached,  giving  for  a 
2-mile^*  fetch  **  about  3I  ft.,  or  if  it.  above  the  mean  level  Aboie 
thb  again,  the  hdght  of  the  wave  should  be  allowed  for  "  vaah, 
makiiig  the  embankment  in  such  a  case  not  k»s  than  si  ft.  above  tk 
highest  water-levd.    If.  then,  we  determine  that  the  depth  of  om* 
flow  shall  not  exceed  if  ft.,  we  arrive  at  6f  ft.  as  sufficient  for  tk 
height  of  the  embankment  above  the  rill  of  the  overflow.   ObviouoT 
we  may  shorten  the  sill  at  the  cost  of  extra  hdght  of  embankment,  bat 
it  b  rarely  wise  to  do  so. 

The  overflow  rill  or  wdr  should  be  a  masonry  structure  of  rounded 
vertical  section  raised  a  foot  or  more  above  the  waste-water  coune, 
in  which  case  for  a  depth  of  li  ft.  it  will  discharge,  over  every  loot 
of  bngth,  about  6  cud.  ft.  per  second.  Thus,  it  the  drainage  tns 
exceeds  5000  acres,  and  we  provide  for  the  passage  of  300  cab.  ft 
per  second  per  1000  acres,  such  a  wdr  will  be  ^o  it.  long  for  every 
1000  acres.  Biit,  as  smaller  areas  are  approached,  the  excessi^'C  focal 
rainfalb  of  short  duration  must  be  provided  for,  and  beyond  tsese 
there  are  extraordinarily  heavy  diacnaigcs  generally  over  and  som 
before  any  exact  records  can  be  made;  hence  we  know  very  little 
of  them  beyond  the  bare  fact  that  from  1000  acres  the  discharge  nay 
rise  to  two  or  three  times  300  cub.  ft.  per  second  per  1000  acres.  Is 
the  writer's  experience  at  least  one  case  has  occurred  where,  from  • 
mountain  area  of  1300  acres,  the  rate  per  1000  was  for  a  short  tune 
certainly  not  less  than  1000  cub.  ft.  per  second.  Nothing  but  loog 
observation  and  experience  can  help  the  hychnauUc  engineer  to  jodfe 
of  the  configuration  of  the  ground  favourable  to  such  phenomeaa. 
It  b  only  necessary,  however,  to  provide  for  these  exceptionri  do- 
charges  during  very  short  periods,  so  tliat  the  rise  in  the  water-kw 
of  the  reservoir  may  be  taken  into  conrideration ;  but  subject  to  w 

Erovirion  must  be  made  at  the  bye-wash  for  preventing  such  a  flood, 
owever  rare,  from  fillii^  the  reservoir  to  a  dangerous  height. 
From  the  overflow  rill  the  bye-wash  channd  may  be  gradaaliy 
narrowed  as  the  crest  of  the  embankment  is  passed,  the  vater 
being  prevented  from  attaining  undue  vdodty  by  steps  of  hesTy 
masonry,  or,  where  the  gradient  b  not  very  steep,  by  irrcgubrly  act 
masonry. 

PusmcAnoN 
When  surface  waters  began  to  be  used  for  potable  puiposesi 
some  mode  of  arresting  suspended  matter,  whether  liring 
or  dead,  became  necessary.  In  many  cases  gauze 
strainers  were  at  first  employed,  and,  as  an  improve- 
ment upon  or  addition  to  these,  the  water  was  caused 
to  pass  through  a  bed  of  gravd  or  sand,  which,  like  the  gauiSt 
was  regarded  merely  as  a  strainer.  As  such  strainers  were 
further  improved,  by  sorting  the  sand  and  gravd,  and  usnig  the 
fine  sand  only  at  the  surface,  better  clarification  of  the  watff 
was  obtained;  but  chemical  analysis  indicated,  or  was  at  the 
time  thought  to  indicate,  that  that  improvement  was  practically 
confined  to  clarification,  as  the  dissolved  impurities  in  the  water 
were  certainly  very  little  changed.  Hence  such  filler  .beds,  ss 
they  were  even  then  called,  were  regarded  as  a  luxury  ^^f^ 
than  as  a  neoesrity,  and  it  was  never  suspected  that,  notwith- 
standing the  absence  of  chemical  improvement  in  the  water, 
changes  did  take  place  of  a  most  important  kind.  FoHowing 
upon  Dr  Koch's  discovery  of  a  method  of  isolating  bacteria,  and 
of  making  approximate  determinations  of  their  number  n 
any  volume  of  water,  a  most  remarkable  dimfaintJon  hi  the 
number  of  microbes  contained  in  sand-filtered  ^^^^^  TJ* 
observed;  and  it  is  now  well  known  that  when  •.  P*]^J2 
constructed  sand-filter  bed  is  in  iu  best  condition,  and  b  ^'"'J^ 
bk  the  best-known  manner,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  VDkxvm 


POMnQKnOMI 


WATER  SUPPLY 


405 


CftntiBg  m  Ui»  cnide  wtter  <riB  bt-  •wnmni.   The  ahmI,  wUch 

is  iKiminally  the  filter,  hat  iaterttiffi  ahont  thirty  times  es  wide 
as  the  largiest  dimensions  of  the  larger  microbes;  and  the  reason 
why  these,  and,  still  more,  why  oitanisms  which  were  individually 
invisible  tuider  any  magnifying  power,  and  could  only  be  detected 
as  odonies,  were  arrestix!,  was  not  understood.  In  process 
of  time  it  became  dear,  however,  that  the  worse  the  condition 
of  a  filter  bed,  in  the  then  general  acceptation  of  the  term, 
the  better  it  was  as  a  microbe  filter;  that  is  to  say,  it  was  not 
until  a  fine  film  of  mud  and  microbes  had  formed  upon  the 
surface  of  the  sand,  that  the  best  results  were  obtained. 

Even  yet  medical  science  has  not  determined  the  effect  upon 
the  human  system  of  water  highly  charged  with  bacteria  which 
are  not  known  to  be  individually  pathogenic  In  the  case  of 
the  bacilli  of  typhoid  and  cholera,  we  know  the  direct. effect; 
but  apart  altogether  from  the  presence  of  such  specific  poisons, 
polluted  water  is  undoubtedly  injurious.  Where,  therefore, 
there  is  animal  pollution  of  any  kind,  more  especially  where  there 
is  human  pollution,  generally  indicated  by  the  presence  of 
baciUus  coli  communis^  purification  is  of  supreme  importance, 
and  no  process  has  yet  been  devised  which,  except  at  extravagant 
cost,  super^es  for  public  suites  that  of  properly-conducted 
sand  filtration.  Yet  it  cannot  be  too  constantly  urged  that  such 
filtration  dq>ends  for  its  comparative  perfection  upon  the  surface 
film;  that  this  surface  film  is  not  present  when  the  filter  is  new, 
or  when  its  materials  have  been  recently  washed;  that  it  may  be, 
and  very  oftcip  is,  punctured  by  the  actual  working  of  the 
filters,  or  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  their  discharge;  and  that 
at  the  best  it  must  be  regarded  as  an  exceedingly  thin  line 
of  defence,  not  to  be  depended  upon  as  a  safeguard  against 
highly  polluted  waters,  if  a  purer  source  of  supply  can 
posaibly  be  found*  Such  filters  are  not,  and  in  the  nature  of 
thin^  cannot  be,  worked  with  the  predion  and  continuity 
of  a  laboiatory  txpakoeat. 

In  fig*  31  aiection  Is  shown  of  an  efficient  sand-filter  bed.  The  thick* 
neaa  01  aaod  is  3  ft.  6  in.   In  the  older  filters  it  was  usual  to  sapport 

this  sand  upon  small  gravel 


X 


^■t 


T 


J. 


T 


z 


I  .  I 


-lib^ 


ill 


r 


iNmvfu 


resting  upon  larger  gravel, 
and  so  on  until  the  material 
was  sufficiently  open  to  pass 
the  water  laterally  to  under- 
drains.  But  a  much  shal- 
lower and  certainly  not  less 
effident  filter  can  be  000- 
strua^  by  making  the 
under-drains  cover  the  whole 
bottom.  In  fig.  3i  the  sand 
rests  on  small  gravel  of 
such  degree  of  coarKncas 
that  the  whole  of  the  grains 
would  be  retained  on  a  sieve 
of  i-in.  mesh  and  rejected 
Imt  a  sieve  of  i-in.  mesh  in 
the  dear,  supported  upon  a 
yia.  thickness  of  bricks  laid 
dose  together,  and  constl- 
gffigio.  tuting  the  roof  of  the  under- 
•■"'*'■'*•  drains,  which  are  formed  by 
'Other  bricks  laid  on  thin 
a^halt.  upon  a  concrete 
FiO.  9t. — Sectk>n  of  Sand-Filter  Bed.   floor.    In  this  arrangement 

the  whole  of  the  materials 
may  be  readily  removed  for  cleansing.  In  the  best  filters  an 
automatic  arrangement  for  the  measurement  of  the  supply  to 
each  separate  filter,  and  for  the  rcsulatkm  of  the  quantity  within 
certain  umits,  is  adopted,  and  the  resistance  at  outflow  b  so 
arvaiwed  that  not  more  than 'a  certain  head  of  pressure,  about 
~  ft.,  can  under  any  drcumstances 'come  upon  the  surface  film, 
lile'a  depth  of  several  feet  of  water  is  maintained  over  the 
wnd.  It  i»  essential  that  during  the  working  of  the  filter  the 
wattf  should  be  so  supplied  that  it  will  not  disturb  the  surface  of 
the  eand.  When  a  filter  has  been  emptied,  and  ia  being  re<harKed. 
the  water  ahonld  be  mtioduced  from  a  naghbouring  filter,  and  should 
nasa  upwards  in  the  filter  to  be  charged,  until  the  surface  of  the  sand 
has  been  covered.  The  unfiitered  water  mav  then  be  allowed  to  flow 
Quietly  and  to  fill  the  space  above  the  sand  to  a  depth  of  2  ori  ft. 
It  woina  appear  to  be  impossible  with  any  water  that  requires  filtra- 
tion to  secure  that  the  first  filtrate  shall  be  satisfactory  if  filtration 
twsina  fann^diately  after  a  filter  is  charged:  and  if  the  highest 
fMltt  ai«  to  be  obtained,  either  the  unfiitered  water  must  be  per- 
mitted to  paaaextiesiely  slowly  over  the  surfaot  of  the  sand  without 


^1 


it*  or  to  ttipd  upffH  the  sand  until  the  surfare  film 
formed.  ~With  waters  giving  little  or  no  sediment,  which  are 
often  the  most  dangerous,  some  change,  as  by  the  first  method,  is 
necessary.  It  has  been  proposed,  on  the  other  hand,  to  allow  the 
filter  to  act  slowly  until  the  surface  film  b  formed,  and  to  discard  the 
first  effluent.  This  course  can  scarcely  fail  to  introduce  into  the  sand 
noany  bacteria,  which  may  be  washed  through  when  the  full  working 
of  the  filten  is  begun;  and  it  should  not,  therefore,  be  adopted  when 
the  source  of  the  supply  is  known  to  be  subject  to  human  poUutkn. 
The  time  for  the  formation  of  an  effident  surface  films  varies,  according 
to  the  quality  of  the  raw  water,  from  a  few  houra  to  a  few  days.  J  ud 
ing  from  the  best  observations  that  have  been  made  on  a  lar^  seal 
the  highest  rate  of  efiident  filtration  when  the  surface  film  is  in  goc 
condhion  is  about  4  in.  downwards  per  hour  of  the  water  contained 
above  the  sand,  equivalent  to  about  50  gallons  per  day  from  each 
square  foot  of  sand.  When  the  surface  film  has  once  been  formed, 
and  the  filter  has  begun  its  work,  it  should  continue  without  interrup- 
tion until  the  resistance  of  that  film  becomes  too  great  to  permit  of  tne 
necessary  quantity  of  water  being  passed.  That  period  will  vary,' 
accordingto  the  conditbn  of  the  water,  from  eight  or  ten  days  to  four 
weeks.  The  surface  film,  together  with  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  of 
sand,  is  then  carefully  scraped  off  and  stored  for  subsequent  washing 
and  use.  This  process  may  be  repeated  many  times  until  the  thick- 
ness <A  the  fine  sand  is  reduced  to  about  18  m.,  when  the  filter  bed 
should  be  restored  to  its  full  thkkness. 

A  latdy  discovered  effect  of  sand  filtration  is  a  matter  of  great 
importance  in  connexion  with  the  subject  of  aqu<M]ucts.  A  birown 
dimy  sediment,  having  the  ai^)earance  of  coffee  grounds  when 
placed  in  dear  water,  has  been  long  observed  in  pipes  conveying 
surface  watera  from  mountain  moonanda.  The  deposit  grows  on 
the  sides  of  the  pipes  and  accumulates  at  the  bottom,  and  cause* 
most  serious  obstruction  to  the  flow  of  water.  The  dherabts  and 
bflurteriokmsts  do  not  appear  to  have  finally  determined  the  true 
nature  and  origin  of  this  growth,  but  it  is  found  in  the  impounded 
waten,  and  passes  into  the  pipes,  where  It  rapidly  increases.  It  is 
checked  even  by  fine  copper  wire>gauze  strainers,  and  where  the 
water  passes  through  sand-filter  beds  in  the  course  of  an  aqueduct, 
the  growth,  thouKh  very  great  between  the  reservoir  and  the  filter 
beds,  is  almost  absent  between  the  filter  beds  and  the  town.  Even 
the  growth  of  the  well-known  nodular  Incrustations  in  iron  pipes  is 
much  reduced  by  sand  filtratk>n.  From  these  facts  it  is  clear  that, 
other  things  bdng  the  same,  the  best  position  for  the  strainen  and 
filter  beds  is  ss  close  as  possible  to  the  reservoir. 

Some  surface  watcre  dissolve  lead  when  bright,  but  cease  to  do  so 
when  the  lead  becomes  tarnished.  More  rarely  the  action  ia  con^ 
tlnuous,  and  the  water  after  bdng  passed  throtipi  lead  cisterns  and 
pipes  produces  lead  poisoning — so  called  "plumbisnL"  The  lia- 
oiiity  to  this  appean  to  be  entirely  removed  by  effident  sand 
filtration. 

Sand  filtration,  even  when  working  In  the  best  posrible  manner, 
falls  short  of  the  perfection  necessary  to  prevent  the  passage  01 
bacteria  which  mayr  multiply  after  the  filter  is  passed.  Small, 
however,  as  the  micro-organisms  are,  they  are  larger  than  the 
capillary  passages  in  some  materials  through  which  water  under 
pressure  may  be  caused  to  percolate.  It  b  theiefore  natural  that 
attempts  shouU  have  been  made  to  construct  filten  which,  while 
permitting  the  slow  percolation  of  water,  should  preclude  the 
passage  o7  bacteria  or  thdr  qwres.  In  the  laboratory  el  Rssteur 
probably  the  first  filter  which  successfully  acoomplished  tbb  object 
was  produced.  In  this  apparatus,  known  as  the  rasteur-Chambci^ 
bnd  fiher,  the  filtering  medium  b  biscuit  porcelain.  It  was  followed 
by  the  Berkefield  filter,  constructed  of  baked  infusorial  earth.  Both 
these  Altera  arrest  the  organbms  by  purely  mechanical  action,  and 
if  the  joints  are  water-ti^  and  they  receive  i>n>per  attention  and 
freguent  sterilization,  they  both  pve  satisfactory  results  on  a  small 
scats  for  domestic  purposes.  The  cost,  howevei^-^o  say  nothing  of 
the  uncertainty — where  br^  volumes  of  water  are  concerned,  much 
exceeds  the  cost  of  obtaining  initblly  safe  water.  Moreover,  if  a 
natural  water  b  so  Ibble  to  pathogenic  pollution  as  to  demand  nltra* 
tion  of  this  kind,  it  oueht  at  once  to  be  oiscarded  for  an  initially  pure 
supply;  not  necessari^'  pure  in  an  apparent  or  even  in  a  chenucal 
sense,  forwater  may  be  visibly  cok>ureo,  or  may  contain  considerable 
proportions  both  of  orsanic  and  inor^nic  impurity,  and  yet  betatte; 
less  and  free  from  pathogenic  pollution. 

There  are  several  materials  now  in  use  possessing  remarkable 
power  to  decolourize  clarify,  chemically  punfy  and  oxidtse  water; 
but  they  are  too  costly  for  use  in  connexion  with  public  water  supplies 
unless  a  rate  of  filtration  b  adopted  quite  inconristent  with  the 
formation  of  a  surface  film  capable  of  arresting  micro-organisms. 
This  fact  does  not  render  them  less' useful  when  applied  to  the  arts 
in  whidi  they  are  successfully  employed. 

Attempts  have  been  ^made,  by  adding  certain  coagulants  to  the 
water  to  be  filtered,  to  increase  the  power  of  sand  and  other  granu- 
br  materials  to  arrest  baeteria  when  passing  through  thens  «t  aiuch 
higher  velocities  than  are  po^ible  for  succcmful  filtration  by  meane 
of  the  surface  film  tepon  sand.  The  effect  is  to  produce  between  the 
sand  or  other  grains  a  glutinous  substance  whbh  does  the  woric  paik> 
formed  by  the  mud  and  microbes  upon  the  surface  of  the  sand  finer. 
Elsewhere  centrifugal  force,  acting  somewhat  after  its  manner  la  tfaa 
cream  separator,  has  been  called  u  aid. 


4o6 


WATER  SUPPLY 


(FmuncAmi 


The  sedimentation  tank  forms  a  vvy  important 
help  to  filtration.  In  the  case  of  river  watcts  liable 
to  turbidity  the  water  should  ahrays  be  passed 
through  such  tanks  before  being  placed  in  the  filters. 


They  form,  moreover,  additional  safeguuds  agahist  on^^ 
impurity.  Sedimentation  tanks  on  a  suffident  snle  may  t»^ 
the  purification  of  jthe  water  to  almost  any  deshcd  txunt 
This  is  shown  to  be  the  case  by  the  purity  of  tome  bke 


WATER  SUPPLY 


work>  mnd  the  uibuqucnl  I  ihc  condilion  ol  Ibe  mtcr  demand)  it,  snd  by  passing  tbe 
me  aaes  a  Knoui  mittir,  cSticnt  water  tliniu(il  und  fillcn  when  in  good  conilElion,  Ibe 
vcly  ptrlret  action  af  ]tia  number  at  microbn  is  found  to  be  reduced  b>  u  tnudi  ii  n 
:  luch  Unki.  hovever,  vhea  I  or  even  99%.    Thii^  when  attained,  a  undoubledly  ■  moM 


4o8 


WATER  SUPPLY 


tDtsntifttmoN 


important  leductioii  fn  the  duinoe  of  pathogenic  bacteria  passing 
into  the  filtered  water;  but  much  more  must  be  done  than  has 
hitherto  in  most  platts  been  done  to  ensure  the  constancy  of 
such  a  condition  before  it  can  be  assumed  to  represent  the 
degree  of  safety  attained.  No  public  supply  shoiUd  be  open 
to  any  such  doubt  as  ought  to,  or  may,  deter  people  from 
drinldng  the  water  without  previous  domestic  filtration  or 
boiling. 

DlSIBlBtTTION 

The  earliest  water  supplies  in  Great  Britain  were  generally 
distributed  at  low  pressure  by  wooden  pipes  or  stone  or  brick 
conduits.  For  special  purposes  the  Romans  introduced 
cast-lead  pipes,  but  they  were  regarded  as  luxuries, 
not  as  necessaries,  and  gave  way  to  che^>er.  conduits 
made,  as  pimip  barrels  had  long  been  made,  by  boring 
out  tree  trunks,  which  are  occasionally  dug  up  in  a  good  state  of 
preservaticm.  This  use  of  tree-trunks  as  pipes  is  still  common 
in  the  wooded  motmtain  districts  of  Europe.  Within  the  iptb 
century,  however,  cast  iron  became  general  in  the  case  of  large 
towns;  but  following  the  precedent  inseparable  from  the  use 
of  weaker  condmts,  the  water  was  still  delivered  under  very 
low  pressure,  rarely  more  than  sufficient  to  supply  taps  or  tanks 
near  the  level  of  the  ground,  and  graerally  for  only  a  short 
period  out  of  each  twenty-four  hours.  On  the  introduction 
of  the  Waterworia  Qauscs  Act  1847,  an  impetus  was  given 
to  high-pressure  supplies,  and  the  same  systems  of  distributing 
mains  were  frequently  em(^yed  for  the  purpose;  but  with 
few  exceptions  thie  water  continued  to  be  supplied  intermittently, 
and  dstems  or  tainks  were  necessary  tb  store  it  for  use  during 
the  periods  of  intermission.  Thus  it  happened  that  pipes  and 
Joints  intended  for  a  low-pressure  supply  were  subjected,  not 
only  to  hij^  pressure,  but  to  the  trying  ordeal  of  suddenly 
vaiying  pressures.  As  a  rule  sodi  pipes  were  not  renewed: 
the  feakage  was  enormous,  and  the  difficulty  was  met  by  the 
very  Inefficient  method  of  reducing  the  period  of  supply  still 
forther.  But  even  in  entirely  new-  distributing  S3rstems  the 
network  is  so  extensive,  and  the  number  of  joints  so  great,  that 
the  aggregate  leakage  is  always  considerable;  the  greatest 
loss  being  at  the  so-called  "  ferrules  "  connecting  the  mains  with 
the  house  "  commtmication  '*  or  "  servicx  "  fMpes,  in  the  lead 
pipes,  and  in  the  household  fittings.  But  a  hx  greater  evil 
than  mere  loss  of  water  and  inconvenience  soon  proved  to  be 
inseparable  from  intermittent  supply.  Imagine  a  hilly  town 
with  a  high-pressure  water  supply,  the  water  issuing  at  numerous 
points,  sometimes  only  in  exceedingly  small  veins,  from  the 
pipes  into  the  sub-soil.  In  the  ordinary  course  of  intermittent 
supply  or  for  the  purpose  of  repairs,  the  water  is  cut  ofif  at  some 
point  in  the  main  above  the  leakages;  but  this  does  not  prevent 
the  continuance  of  the  discharge  in  the  lower  part  of  the  town. 
In  the  upper  part  there  is  consequently  a  tendency  to  the 
formation  of  a  vacuum,  and  some  of  the  impure  sub-soil  water 
near  the  higher  leakages  is  sucked  into  the  mains,  to  be  mixed 
with  the  supply  when  next  turned  on.  We  are  indebted  to  the 
Local  Government  Board  for  having  traced  to  such  causes 
certain  epidemics  of  typhoid,  and  there  can  be  no  manner  of 
doubt  that  the  evfl  has  been  very  general.  It  is  therefore  of 
supreme  importance  that  the  pressure  should  be  constantly 
maintained,  and  to  that  end,  in  the  best-managed  waterworks 
the  supply  is  not  now  cut  off  even  for  the  purpose  of  connecting 
house-service  pipes,  an  apparatus  being  employed  by  which  this 
is  done  under  pressure.  Constant  pressure  being  granted, 
constant  leakage  is  inevitable,  and  being  constant  it  b  not 
tuiprittng  that  its  total  amount  often  exceeds  the  aggregate 
of  the  much  greater,  but  shorter,  draughts  of  water  taken  for 
various  faoosehtrfd  purposes.  There  is  therefore,  even  in  the 
best  cases,  a  wide  field  for  the  conservation  and  utilixaticn  of 
water  hitherto  entirely  wasted. 

Following  tipon  the  passing  of  the  Waterworks  Gauses  Act 
1847,  a  constant  supply  was  attempted  in  many  towns,  with 
the  result  in  some  cases  that,  owing  to  the  enormous  loss 
arising  from  the  prolongation  of  the  period  of  leakage  from 


a  fraction  of  an  hour  to  twenty-four  hours,  it  was  Impossible  to 
maintain  the  supply.  Accordingly,  in  some  places  large  sections 
of  the  mains  and  service  |Mpes  were  entirely  renewed, 
and  the  water  consiuners  were  put  to  great  expense  m 
changing  their  fittings  to  new  and  no  doubt  better 
types,  thou^  the  old  fittings  were  only  in  a  fraction  ci  the  cases 
actually  causing  leakage.  But  whether  or  not  such  stringent 
methods  were  adopted,  it  was  found  necessary  to  organise  a 
system  of  house-to-house  visitation  abd  constantly  recurring 
inspection.  In  Manchester  this  was  combined  with  a  most 
careful  exammation,  at  a  dep6t  of  the  Corporation,  of  all  fittings 
intended  to  be  used.  Searching  tests  were  api^ed  to  these 
fittings,  and  only  those  which  complied  in  every 
respect  with  the  prescribed  regulations  were  sUmped  ^rUSSi 
and  permitted  to  be  fixed  within  the  limits  of  the 
water  supply.  But  this  did  not  obviate  the  necesuty  for  house- 
to-house  inspection,  and  although  the  number  of  different  pmnts 
at  which  leakage  occurred  was  stOl  great,  it  was  always  small 
in  relation  to  the  number  of  houses  whidi  were  necessarily 
entered  by  the  inspector;  moreover,  when  the  best  had  been 
done  that  possibly  could  be  done  to  suppress  leakage  due  to 
domestic  fittings,  the  leakage  below  ground  in  the  mains,  ferrules 
and  service  pipes  still  remained,  and  was  often  very  great. 
It  was  dear,  therefore,  that  in  its  very  nature,  house-to-house 
visitation  was  both  wasteful  and  insufficient,  and  it  remained 
for  Liverpool  to  correct  the  difficulty  by  the  application,  in 
1873,  of  the  "  Differentiating  waste  water  meter,"  wlukh  has 
since  been  extensively  used  for  the  same  purpose  in  various 
countries.  One  such  instrument  wfls  placed  below  the  roadway 
upon  each  main  supplying  a  population  of  generally  between 
1000  and  2000  persons. 

Its  acUon  is  baaed  upon  the  followtng  considerations:  When 
water  is  pasring  through  a  main  and  aupplying  nothing  but  leaka^B 
the^  flow  of  that  water  is  necessarily  umform,  and  any  ioatnunent 
which  graphically  represents  that  flow  as  a  horizontal  line  convey* 
to  the  mind  a  full  conception  of  the  nature  of  the  flow,  and  if  by 
the  pontton  ci  that  line  between  the  bottom  and  the  top  01  a  diagram 
the  quantity  of  water  (in  gallons  per  hoar,  forexanipie)  iaiecordcd. 
we  have  a  full  statement,  not  only  of  the  rate  of  flow,  but  of  ita 
nature.  We  know,  in  short,  that  the  water  is  toot  being  usefully 
employed.  In  the  actual  instrument,  the  paper  diagram  ia  moonted 
u^n  a  drum  caused  by  clockwork  to  revolve  uniformly;  and  b  mkd 
with  vertical  hour  Hncs,  and  horizontal  quantity  Knes  lepieaentuig 

gallons  per  hour.  Thus,  while  nothing  but  leakage  occurs  the  unifonn 
orizontal  line  ia  continued.  If  now  a  tap  ia  opened  in  any  hoase . 
connected  with  the  main,  the  change  of  low  in  the  main  will  be 
represented  by  a  vertical  change  of  position  of  the  horizontal  line, 
and  when  the  tap  ia  turned  off  the  pencil  will  resume  ita  original 
vertical  position,  but  the  paper  will  have  moved  like  the  hands  oC  a 
clock  over  the  interval  during  which  the  tap  waa  left  open.  If.  on 
the  other  hand,  water  is  suddenly  drawn  off  from  a  cistern  supplied 
through  a  ball<ock.  the  flow  through  the  ball-cock  will  be  recorded, 
and  will  be  represented  by  a  sudden  rise  to  a  maximum.  foUowcd  by  a 

gradual  decrease  aa  the  ball  riaes  and  the  cistern  fills;  the  result 
eing  a  curve  having  its  asymptote  in  the  original  horizontal  line. 
Now,  all  the  uses  of  water,  of  whatever  kind  they  may  be.  produce 
some  such  iircgular  diagrams  as  these,  which  can  never  be  confused 
with  the  uniform  horizontal  line  of  leakage,  but  are  always  super- 
imposed upon  it.  It  is  this  leakage  line  that  the  waterworks  engineer 
uses  to  asceitain  the  truth  as  to  the  leakage  and  to  assist  him  in  its 
suppression.  In  well-equipped  waterworks  each  house  ser^ce  pipe 
is  controlled  by  a  stop-cock  accessible  from  the  footpath  to  tnc 
offidsQs  of  the  water  authority,  and  the  process  of  waste  detoction  by 
thia^  method  depends  upon  the  manipulation  of  such  stop«ocks  in 
conjunction  with  the  differentiating  meter.  Aa  an  cxamplie  of  one 
mode  of  applying  the  system,  siippose  that  a  night  inspector  begins 
work  at  1 1.30  p.m.  in  a  rertain  district  of  3000  persona,  the  meter  of 
which  records  at  the  time  a  uniform  flow  of  aooo  gallons  an  hour, 
showing  the  not  uncommon  rate  of  leakage  of  24  gallons  per  bead  per 
day.  The  inspector  proceeds  along  the  footpath  from  house  to  house, 
and  outside  each  house  he  closes  the  stop-cock,  tecording  opposite 
the  number  of  each  house  the  exact  time  of  each  such  operation. 
Having  arrived  at  the  end  of  the  distria  he  ratracea  bia  steps, 
reopens  the  whole  of  the  stop-cocks,  removes  the  meter  diagram, 
tarns  it  to  the  night  complaint  office,  and  enters  In  the  **  hight 
inspection  book  "  the  records  he  has  made.  The  next  morning -the 
diagiam  and  the  "  night  inspectron  book  "  are  in  the  hands  of  the 
day  inspector,  who  compares  them.  He  finds,  for  example,  from 
the  diagram  that  the  Initial  leakage  of  3000  gallons  an   nour  haa 


in  the  course  of  a  4I  hours'  night  inspection  fallen  to  400  gallons 
that  the  1600  gallooa  aft  hour  la  accounted  fcr  by 


an  hour,  and 


WATERS,  TERRITORIAL 


409 


Jitrinct  dfO|W  of  dnerent  sflMMttts  &ikI  st  diffcrciit  times. 
Each  oC  these  drops  is  located  by  the  time  and  place  records  in  the 
book  a^d  the  time  records  on  the  diagram  as  belonging  to  a  particular 
service  pipe;  so  that  out  of  possibly  300  premises  the  bulk  of  the 
leakage  has  beep  localized  in  or  just  outside  fifteen.  'To  each  of 
these  premises  be  goes  with  the  knowledge  that  a  portion  of  the  total 
leakage  of  2000  gaUona  an  hour  is  almost  certainly  there,  and  that 
it  must  be  found,  which  is  a  very  different  thing  from  visiting  three 
or  four  hundred  houses,  in  not  one  of  which  he  has  any  particular 
feoaon  to  expect  to  find  leakage.  Even  when  he  enters  a  house  with 
previoqs  knowledge  that  theice  is  leakage,  its  disoovenr  may  be 
difficult.  It  is  often  hidden,  sometimes  underground,  and  may  only 
be  brought  to  light  by  excavation.  In  these  cases,  without  some 
such  system  of  localizatton,  the  leakage  might  go  on  for  years  or 
for  ever.  There  are  many  and  obvious  variations  of  the  system. 
That  described  requires  a  diagram  revolving  once  in  a  few  hours, 
otherwise  the  time  scale  will  be  too. dose;  but  the  ordinary  diagram 
revolving  once  in  24  hours  is  often  used  quite  effectively  in  ni^t 
inspections  by  only  closing  those  stop-cock^  which. are  actual! v 
passinjK  water.  Thb  method  was  also  first  introduced  in  Liverpool. 
The  night  inspector  carries  with  him  a  stethoscope,  often  consisting 
merely  of  his  steel  turning-rod,  with  which  he  sounds  the  whole  <m 
the  outside  stoi><oclcB,  but  only  closes  those  through  which  the 
sound  of  water  is  heard.  An  experienced  man,  or  even  a  boy,  if 
selected  as  possessing  the  necessary  faculty  (which  b  sometimes 
very  strongly  marked),  can  detect  the  smallest  dribble  when  the  stop- 
cock is  so  Tar  closed  as  to  restrict  the  orifice.  Similar  examinations 
by  means  of  the  stop-valves  on  the  mains  are  also  made,  and  it  often 
happens  that  the  residual  leakage  (400  galk>ns  an  hour  in  the  last 
case)  recorded  on  the  diagram,  but  not  shut  off  by  the  house  stop- 
cocks, is  mentioned  by  the  inspector  as  an  "  outside  waste,"  and 
localized  as  having  been  heard  at  a  Btop<ock  and  traced  by  sounding 
.the  pavement  to  a  particular  position  under  a  particular  street. .  Au 
leakages  found  on  private  property  are  duly  notified  to  the  water 
tenant  in  the  usual  way,  and  subsequent  examinations  are  made 
to  ascertain  if  such  notices  have  been  attended  to.  If  this  work 
is  |>ropcr1y  organized,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  leaJcage  so  detected 
is  suppressed  within  a  month.  A  record  of  the  constantly  fluctuating 
so-cralled  "  nisht  readings  "  in  a  large  town  is  most  interesting  and 
inst  motive.  If,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  a  hundred  such  districts 
we  watch  the  result  of  leaving  them  alone,  a  gradual  growth  of 
lealcagf*  common  to  most  of  the  districts,  but  not  to  all,  is  observed, 
while  here  and  there  a  sudden  increase  occurs,  often  doubling  or 
trcb  ling  the  total  supply  to  the  district.  Upon  the  original  installa- 
tion of  the  system  in  any  town,  the  rate  of  leakage  and  consequent 
total  supply  to  the  different  districts  b  found  to  vary  greatly,  and 
in  some  districts  it  b  usually  many  times  as  great  per  head  as  in 
others.  An  obvious  and  fruitful  extension  of  the  method  is  to  employ 
the  inspectors  only  in  those  districts  which,  for  the  time  being, 
promise  the  most  useful  results. 

In  many  European  cities  the  supply  of  water,  even  for  domestic 
purposes,  b  given  through  ordioaqr  water  meters,  and  'paid  for, 
according  to  the  meter  record^  much  in  the  same  manner 
as  a  supply  of  gas  or  electricity.  By  the  adoption  of 
this  method  great  reductions  in  the  quantity  of  water 
used  and  wasted  ase  In  some  cases  effected,  and  the  water  tenant 
pays  for  the  leakage  or  waste  he  permits  to  take  place,  as  well  as 
lor  the  water  he  uses.  The  system,  however,  docs  not  assbt  in 
the  detection  of  the  leakage  which  inevitably  occurs  between  the 
•reservoir  and  the  consumer's  meter;  thus  the  whole  of  the  mains, 
joints  and  ferrules  connecting  the  service  pipes  with  the  mains, 
and  the  greater  parts  of  the  service  pipes,  are  still  exposed  to  leakage 
without  any  compensating  return  to  the  water  authority.  But  the 
worst  evil  of  the  system,  and  one  which  must  always  prevent  its 
introduction  into  the  United  Kingdom,  is  the  circumstance  that  it 
treats  water  as  an  article  of  commerce,  to  be  paid  for  according  to 
the  quantity  taken.^  In  the  organisation  of  the  best  muniapal 
water  undertakings  in  the  United  Kingdom  the  free  use  of  water 
b  encouraged,  and  it  is  only  the  leakage  or  occasional  improper 
employment  of  the  water  that  the  water  authority  seeks,  and  that 
SQCoessf  uUy,  to  suppress.  The  objecticm  to  the  insanitary  effect  of 
the  metes-payment  system  has,  in  some  places,  been  sought  to  be 
removed  by  providing  a  fixed  quantity  of  water,  assumed  to  be 
puffictcnt,  as  the  supply  for  a  fixed  minimum  payment,  and  by  using 
the  meter  records,  rimply  for  the  purpose  of  determining  what 
additional  payment,  if  any,  becomes  oue  from  the  water  tenant. 
Clearly,  if  the  excesses  are  {reonent,  the  limit  must  be  too  k>w; 
if  infrequent,  all  the  jphystcai  and  administrative  com|:4icatk>n 
involved  in  the  system  is  employed  to  very  little  purpose. 

The  qucition  of  the  distribution  of  water,  rightly  considered, 
resolves  itself  into  a  question  of  delivering  water  to  the  water 
tenant,  without  leakage  on  the  way,  and  of  secoring  that  the 
fittings  employed  by  the  water  tenant  shall  be  such  as  to  afford 
•n  ample  and  ready  supply  at  all  times  of  the  day  and  night 
without  leakage  and  without  any  unnecessary  facilities  for  waste. 
If  these  conditions  are  complied  with,  it  b  probable  that  the 
total  rate  of  supp^  will  not  ezoccd,  even  if  it  xcoches,  the  rate 


necessary  in  any  syttem,  not  being  an  oppressive  and  insanitary 
system,  by  which  the  water  is  paid  for  according  to  the  quantity 
used.  (G.  F.  D.) 

WATERS,  TBRRnORIAL.  In  international  law  **.  territorial 
waters"  are  the  bdt  of  sea  adjacent  to  their  shores  which 
states  respect  as  being  under  their  immediate  territorial  jiurisdic- 
tkm,  subject  only  to  a  right  of  "  inoffensive  **  passage  through 
them  by  vessels  of  all  nations.  As  to  the  breadth  of  the  belt 
and  the  exact  nature  ot  thb  inoffensive  right  of  passage,  however, 
there  b  stDi  mtich  controversy.  The  3-nnles'  limit  recognized 
and  practised  by  Great  Britain,  France  and  the  United  States 
seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the  cannon  range  of  the  period, 
when  it  was  adopted  os  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States, «.«.  towards  the  dose  of  the  i8th  century.  Bynkershoek, 
a  famous  Dutch  jurist,  whose  authority  at  one  time  was  almost 
as  great  in  England  as  in  hb  own  country,  in  a  dissertation  on 
the  Domink>n  of  the  Sea  (xyos),  had  devised  a  plausible  juridical 
theory  to  support  a  homogeneous  jurisdiction  over  environing 
waters  in  the  place  of  Uie  quite  arbitrary  claims  made  at  that 
time,  to  any  distance  seawards,  from  whole  seas  to  range  of  vision. 
Starting  from  tbe  fact  that  fortresses  can  give  effective  protection 
within  range  of  their  cannon,  and  that  in  practice  thb  effective 
protection  was  respected,  he  argued  that  the  respect  was  not 
due  to  the  reality  of  the  presence  of  cannon,  but  to  the  fact  that 
the  state  was  in  a  position  to  enforce  respect.  Thb  it  could  do 
from  any  point  along  its  shore.  Hence  hb  weU>known  doctrine: 
terrae  domnium  JiMUur,  IfH  finilur  armorum  vis.  The  doctrine 
satisfied  a  requirement  of  the  age  and  became  a  maxim  of  inter* 
national  law  throughout  northern  Europe,  both  for  the  protection 
of  shore  fisheries  and  for  the  assertion  of  the  immunity  of 
adjacent  waters  of  neutral  states  from  acts  of  war  between 
belligerent  states.  Germany  still  holds  in  principle  to  this 
varying  limit  of  -eonnon  range.  Norway  has  never  agreed  to 
the  3  m.,  maintaining  that  the  special  configuration  of  her 
coast  necessitates  tbe  exercise  of  jurisdiction  over  a  belt  of  4  m. 
Spam  bys  daim  to  jurisdiction  over  6  m.  from  her  shores.  The 
writers  and  specialbts  on  the  subject  are  quite' as  much  divided. 
A  Britbh  Fishery  Commission  in  1893  reported  that  "  the  present 
territorial  limit  of  3  m.  b  iasuffident,  and  that,  for  fishery 
purposes  alone,  this  liroit  should  be  extended,  provided  such 
extensiott  con  be  effected  upon  an  intematioiial  basis  and  with 
due  regard  to  the  rights  and  interests  of  all  nations."  The 
committee  recommended  that  '*a  proposition  on  these  lines 
should  be  submitted  to  an  intematinial  conference  of  the 
powers  who  bolder  on  the  North  Sea."  There  b  already  an 
international  convention,  dated  6th  May  1882,  between  Great 
Britain,  France,  Bdgium,  Holland,  Germany  and  Denmark, 
relating  to  the  regulation  of  the  fisheries  In  the  North  Sea,  which 
has  fixed  the  limit  of  territorial  waters  as  between  the  contracting 
parties  at  3  m.  measured  from  low- water  mark  and  fromastraight 
line  drawn  from  headland  to  headland  at  the  points  where  they 
are  10  m.  across.  In  the  British  Act  of  39th  June  1893,  giving 
effect  to  a  subsequent  ^onvtoti'on  (i6th  November  1887)  between 
the  same  parties  for  the  regulation  of  the  liquor  traffic  In  the 
North  Sea,  "  territorial  waters  "  are  declared  to  be  as  defined 
in  the  Territorial  Waters  Jurisdiction  Act  1678.  In  thb  Act  the 
definitionb  as  foUows:^ — 

The  territorial  waters  of  Her  Majesty's  dominions  in  reference  to 
the  sea  nie«n»  sueh  part  of  the  sea  adjacent  to  the  coast  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  or  the  coast  of  some  other  pait  of  Her  Majesty's 
cfeminions,  as  is  deemed  by  International  law  to  be  within  the 
territorial  sovereignty  of  Her  Majesty;  and  for  the  purpose  of  any 
offence  .dedarsd  by  thb  set  to  be  within  the  jarisdiction  of  the 
admiral,  any  part  of  the  open  sea  within  one  marine  league  of  tlie 
coast  Measured  from  low-water  mark  shall  be  deemed  to  be  open 
"^  within  the  territorial  waters  of  Her  Majesty's  dominions. 


This  definition  only  restricts  the  operation  of  the  3  m.  Unut 
to  offences  dealt  with  in  the  act,  aiui  doe^  not  deal  with  bays. 
The  act  of  1893  dedares  that  the  articles  of  the  convention 
"  shall  be  of  tlw  same  force  as  if  they  were  enacted  in  the  body 
of  the  act,"  but  thb  convention  gives  no  definition  of  territoruU 
waters. 

The  jurisdiction  exerdwd  in  Britbh  teciitorisl  watccs  under 


+19 


WATER-THYMB^WATERTON 


the  Tenitorial  Waters  Jurisdiction  Act  of  1&78*  is  asserted 
without  di^tincUoa  between  them  and  inland  waters.  "  All 
offences  "  committed  by  any  person,  whether  a  Britbh  subject 
or  not,  and  whether  or  not  committed  '*  on  board  or  by  means 
oC  a  foreign  ship,"  "  within  the  territorial  waters  of  Her  Majesty's 
dominions,"  are  made  punishable  under  it.  No  exception  is 
made  for  offences  committed  on  merely  passing  foreign  vessels, 
except  that  there  is  this  attenuation  in  their  case,  that  no 
prosecution  can  taJ^e  place  without  a  special  authorization  i^ven 
by  certain  high  officers  of  state.*  K  is  doubtful  whether  any 
Continental  state  woiUd  recogoice  so  complete  a  jurisdiction. 
The  subject  has  been  exhaustively  dealt  with  by  both  the 
Institute  of  International  Law  and  the  International  Law 
Association,  which,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  rapporteur  of  the 
two  committees,  decided, that  the  subjects  of  fisheries  and 
neutrality  should  be  dealt  with  separately.  The  following 
considerations  and  tulcs  were  adopted  in  1894  by  the  institute 
and  afterwards  by  the  association: — 

Whereas  there  is  no  reason  to  confound  in  a  nngfe  zone  the 
distance  necessary  for  the  exercise  of  sovereignty  and  protection 
of  coast  fisheries  and  the  distance  necessary  to  guarantee  the 
neutrality  of  non-belligerents  in  time  of  war;  Anq  whereas  the 
distance  most  commonly  adopted  of  3  m.  from  tow-water  mark 
has  been  recognised  as  Insuflfictent  for  the  protection  of  coast  fisheries ; 
And  whereas,  moreover,  this  distance  does  not  correspond  to  the 
real  range  of  cannon  placed  on  the  coast:  _The  following  dispositions 
are  adopted  >— - 

.  Art.  I.  The  state  has  the  right  of  sovereignty  over  a  belt  of  sea 
along  its  coast  subject  to  the  right  of  inoffensivie  passage  reserved 
in  article  5.   This  belt  is  called  territorial  waters  (pter  lerriloriale). 

Art.  U.  Territorial  waters  extend  for  6  sea  m.  (60  to  1  degree  of 
latitude)  from  low-water  mark  along  the  whole  extent  of  its  coasts. 

Art.  III.  For  bay^,  territorial  waters  follow  the  trend  of  the 
coast  except  that  it  is  measured  from  a  straight  line  drawn  across 
the  bay  from  the  tw«>  points  nearest  the  sea  where  the  opening  of 
the  bay  is  of  I3  marine  m.  in  width,  unless  a  greater  width  shall  have 
become  recognized  by  an  immemorial  usage. 

Art.  IV.  In  .case  of  war  the  adjacent  neutral  state  shall  have 
the  right  to  extend  by  its  declaration  of  neutrality  or  by  special 
notification  its  neutral  xone  from  6  m.  to  cannon  range  from  the 
coast. 

Art.  V.  All  ships,  without  distinction,  have  the  right  of  inoffen- 
sive passage  through  territorial  waters,  subject  to  the  belligerent 
right  to  regulate,  and  for  purposes  of  defence  to  bar,  the  f>assage 
through  the  said  waters  for  every  ship,  and  subject  to  the  itght  of 
neutrals  to  regulate  the  passage  through  the  lald  watei^  for  ships 
of  war  of  all  nationalities. 

Art.  VI.  Crimes  and  offences  committed  on  board  foreign  ships 
passing  through  territorial  waters  by  persons  on  board  such  ships, 
upon  persons  or  things  00  board  the  same  ships,  are,  as  such,  beyond 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  adjacent  state,  unless  they  involve  a  violation 
of  the  rights  or  interests  of  the  adjacent  state,  or  of  its  subjects  or 
citizens  not  forming  part  of  its  crew  or  its  ^ssengcrs. 

Art.  VII.  Ships  passing  through  territorial  w;^tera  must  conform 
to  the  special  rules  laid  down  by  the  adjacent  state,  in  the  interest 
and  for  the  security  of  navigation  and  for  the  police  of  the  sea. 

Art.  VIII.  Ships  of  all  nationalities,  by  the  simple  fact  of  being 
in  territorial  waters,  unless  merely  passing  through  them,  are  sub- 
ject to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  adjacent  state. 

The  adjacent  state  has  the  right  to  continue  upon  the  high  seas 
the  pursuit  of  a  ship  commenced  within  territorial  waters,  and  to 
arrest  and  try  it  for  an  offence  committed  within  the  limits  of  its 
waters.  In  case  of  capture  on  the  high  seas  the  fact  shall,  however, 
be  notified  without  delay  to  the  state  to  which  the  ship  belones. 
The  punuit  is  interrupted  from  the  moment  the  ship  enttts  the 
territorial  waters  of  its  own  state  or  of  a  third  power.  The  right  of 
pursuit  ceases  from  the  moment  the  ship  enters  a  port  either  o(  its 
own  country  or  of  a  third  power. 


'  This  act  was  paned  to  meet  what  was  thought  to  be  a  defect  in 
British  law,  the  decision  in  the  well-known  "  Franconia  '*  case  having 
been  that  territorial  waters  were  "out  of  the  realm,"  and  that 
criminal  jurisdiction  within  them  over  a  foreign  ship  oinild  be  exer- 
/dsed  only  in  virtue  of  an  act  of  parliament. 

'  Praowdings,^  says  S  3  of  the  act,  for  the  trial  and  punishment 
of  a  peraon  «ho  is  not  a  British  subject,  and  who  »  charged  with  any 
offence  as  is  declared  by  this  act  to  be  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
admiral,  shall  not  be  instituted  in  any  Court  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
except  with  the  consent  of  one  of  the  principal  Secretaries  of  State, 
and  on  his  certificate  that  the  institution  of  such  proceedings  is  in  his 
opinion  expedient,  and  shall  not  be  instituted  in  any  British  dominions 
outside  of  the  United  Kingdom  except  with  the  leave  of  the  governor 
of  the  part  of  the  dominions  In  which  such  proceedings  are  proposed 
to  be  instituted,  and  on  his  certificate  that  it  is  expedient  tnat  sudi 
praoeedaags  shouki  be  institutedi 


Art.IX.The!. 
to  them  is  reserved 

Art.  X.  The  provisions  of  the  preceding  articles  are  applicable 
to  straits  not  exceeding  12  m.  in  width,  with  the  following  modifica- 
tions and  eXcepdons: — 

(i)  Straits,  the  coast  of  which  belong  to  Afferent  powers, 
form  part  of  the  territorial  waters  of  the  adjacent  states,  their 
jurisdiction  respectively  extending  to  the  middle  line  of  the 
straits; 

(2)  Straits  whose  coasts  belong  to  the  same  state, 'and  which 
are  indispensable  for  maritime  eommunicaiion  between  two  or 
more  states  other  than  the  state  in  question,  form  part  of  the 
territorial  waters  of  the  said  state  whatever  the  proximity  of 
the  two  coasts  may  be; 

(3)  Straits  serving  as  a  passage  between  one  open  -aea  and 
another  can  never  be  cloaecf. 

Art.  XL  The  position  of  straits  already  rqulated  by  conventioiis 
or  special  usage  is  reserved. 

The  Dutch  government  in  1896  brdu^t  these  rules  to  the 
notice  of  the  leading  European  governments,  and  suggested 
the  desirability  of  concluding  an  international  convention  on 
the  subject.  The  only  government  which  was  unfavourable 
to  the  proposal  was  that  of  Great  Britain.  (See  as  to  the  Moray 
Firth  Fisheries  controversy.  North  Sea  Fisheries  Convention.) 

In  the  Hague  Convention  of  1907  respecting  the  rights  and 
duties  of  neutral  powers  in  naval  war,  the  existing  practice 
in  regard  to  territorial  waters  is  confirmed  (see  arts.  3,  3,  9, 10, 
13, 13  and  18},  but  no  definition  of  what  constitutes  the  distance 
of  these  waters  seawards  is  given.  This  question  is  among 
those  which  the  next  Hague  0>nfercnce  may  deal  with,  inasmuch 
as  for  purposes  of  neutrality  the  difficulties  conneaed  with 
fishery  questions  do  not  arise.' 

Authorities. — Sir  Thomas  Barclay,  ^estion  ie  la  mer  territeride 
(published  by  the  Association  Internationale  de  Ja  Marine,  Paris, 
1^2);  Idem,  as  rapporteur  on  the  subject  in  the  Annuaires  d* 
rinstitut  de  droit  international  for  18^3  and  1 894;  Idem,  Special  Re- 
port of  the  International  Law  Association  (replies  to  Questionnaire, 
1893),  and  Report  and  Discussion  (1895);  Idem,  Problems  oj  Inter- 
national  Practice  and  Diplomacy  (London,  1907),  pp.  109  et  seq.  See 
also  Coulson  and  Forbes,  Law  relating  to  Waters  (London,  1910), 
3rd  ed.,  pp.  5  et  seq.  (T.  Ba.) 

WATER-THYH B,  known  botanicaUy  as  Elodea  canadertM^  a 
small  submerged  water-weed,  native  of  North  America.  It 
was  introduced  into  Co.  Down,  Ireland,  about  1836,  ^nd 
appeared  in  England  in  1841,  spreading  through  the  country 
in  ponds,  ditches  and  streams,  which  were  often  choked  with 
its  rank  growth.  Blodea  is  a  member  of  the  monocdtyledoiiMB 
natural  order  Hydrocharidcae  {q.t.). 

WATERTON,  CHARLES  (1782-1865),  English  naturalist  and 
traveller,  was  born  at  Walton  Hall,  near  PoateCract,  YorkahiRi 
on  the  3rd  of  June  1781.    After  being  edocated  at  the  Roman 
Catholic  college  of  Stonyhurst,  and  tra\tUing  a  short  time  in 
Spain,  he  went  to  Demerara  to  manage  some  estates  belonging  to 
his  family.    He  continued  in  this  oocupatjon  for  about  eight 
years,  when  he  began  those  wanderings  upon  the  results  of  whidi 
his  fame  as  a  naturalist  principally  rests.    In  hb  ihrst  journey, 
which  began  in  181 2,  and  the  principal  object  of  which  was  to 
collect  the  poison  known  as  curare,  be  travelled  through  British 
Guiana  by  tha  Demerara  and  Esseqnibo  rivers  to  the  frontieis 
of  Brazil,  making  many  natural  history  collections  and  observa- 
tions by  the  way.    After  spending  some  time  i»  England  he 
returned  to  South  America  in  x8x6,  going  by  P^mambuGO  and 
Cayenne  tp  British  Guiana,  where  again  he  devoted  his  time 
to  the  most  varied  observations  in  natural  history.  For  the  tinrd 
time,  in  1820,  he  sailed  irom  England  for  Demerara,  and  again 
he  spent  his  time  in  similar  pursuits.    Another  sojourn  in  England 
of  about  three  years  was  followed  by  a  visit  to  the  Unhed  States 
in  1824;  and,  having  touched  at  several  of  the  West.Indta 
islands,  he  again  went  on  to  Demerara,  returning  to  England 
at  the  end  of  the  year.    In  1828  he  published  the  resoks  of  his 
four  journeys,  imder  the  title  of  Wanderings  iti  South  Anuria 
-MTonsistiDg  liurgely  of  a  ooUectioii  of  observations  on  the 

*  The  question  of  revising  the  limits  fixed  for  Territorial  Watefs 
in  the  Convention  of  1 88a- (see  above)  was  the  subject  of  ananimaliad 
discussion  at  the  conference  at  Hull  of  the  National  Sea  Fisheries 
'Protection  Association  in  1906,  when  a  resolution  was  adopted  in 
favour  of  maintaining  the  present  vmiles  limit  on  giounds  df 
1  expediency,-  which  deserve  senous  oonMdetatioM* 


WATERTOWN— WATERVULE 


♦K 


appeatsDiee,  chtntter  and  habits  of  many  of  the  anunab  to  be 
foand  in  Bdtish  GiUana.  Waterton  waa  a  keen  and  accnrate 
observer,  and  bis  descriptions  are  of  a  graphic  and  humorous 
charartwr,  rardy  to  be  found  in  works  on  natural  histoiy.  He 
married  in  r8a$,  and  from  that  time  lived  mostly  at  Walton  Hall, 
devoting  himself  to  the  improvement  of  his  estate,  to  country 
pcinuits»  and  to  natural  history  observations.  He  also  pttl>> 
lished  three  series  of  Essays  in  Natural  History  (rSjS,  r&44, 1857). 
He  died  at  Wahon  Hall  on  the  S7th  of  May  1865,  from  the  result 
ol  an  accident.  His  only  son,  Edmund  Waterton  (1830-1887), 
was  an  iantiquary,  who  paid  special  attention  to  rings;  some  of 
those  he  cnHected  are  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum. 

WATBRTOWNt  a  township  of  Middlesex  county,  Massachu- 
aetts,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Charles  river,  about  6  m.  W.  of  Boston. 
Pop.  (1890)  7073;  (1900)  9706,  of  whom  2885  were  foreign- 
bora  and  53  were  negroes;  (1910  census)  12,875.  Area, 
4*1  sq.  m.  Watertown  is  saved  by  the  Fitchburg  division  of 
the  Boston  8r  Maine  railway,  and  is  connected  with  Boston, 
Cambridge,  Newton  (immediately  adjacent  and  served  by  the 
Mew  YoriL,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railway)  and  neighbouring 
towns  by  electric  laQways.  It  is  a  residentisd  and  manufacturing 
suburb  of  Boston.  The  township  is  act  the  head  of  navigation 
on  the  Charles,  and  occupies  the  fertile  undubting  plains  along 
the  river  running  back  to  a  range  of  hills»  the  highest  of  which 
are  Whitney  Hill  (300  ft.)  and  Meethig  Hoose  HiU  (250  ft.). 
Within  the  township  are  several  noteworthy  examples  of  colonial 
nrdiitecture.  There  are  several  small  parks  and  8<|oares, 
including  Central  Square,  Beacon  Square,  about  whldi  the 
broiness  portion  of  the  township  is  centred,  and  Saltonstall 
Park,  in  which  is  a  monument  to  the  memoiy  of  Watertown's 
SoIdUers  who  died  in  the  Civil  War,  and  neat  which  are  the 
Town  House  and  the  ¥tet  Public  Library,  containing  a  valuable 
cottBction  of  60,000  books  and  pamphleCsand  historical  memorials. 
There  are  two  interesting  old  buryfng-grounds:  one  on  Grove 
Street,  near  the  Cambridge  line,  ftrst  used  in  1642,  contains  a 
monument  to  John  Coolidge,  killed  during  the  British  retreat 
from  Concord  and  Lexington  on  the  19th  of  April  1775;  the 
other  is  near  the  centre  of  the  village  about  the  former  site  of  the 
Pint  Parish  Church.  In  Coolidge'S  Tavern  (still  standing) 
Washington  was  entertained  on  his  New  England  tour  in  1789; 
and  in  a  house  recently  moved  from  Mt  Auburn  Street  to  Mardiall 
&reet  the  Committee  of  Safety  met  in  1775.  Within  the  town- 
ship are  mounds  and  earthworks  which  Professor  E.  N.  Hofsford 
thmight  were  the  remains  of  a  Norse  settlement  in  the  nth 
century,  and  which  indude  a  ^fcmidradar  amphitheatre  of  six 
tUffS  or  tectaoes  whkh  he  thoujsht  was  an  assembly  place,  and 
a  portion  of  a  stone  wall  or  dam.  The  Federal  government 
maintains  at  Watertown  one  of  its  principal  arsenals,  occupying 
grounds  of  about  too  acres  along  the  river.  Several  of  the 
original  fow  brick  boiMings,  built  between  fj8i6  and  1820,  still 
stand.    In'  1905  the  value  of  Watertown's  facloiy  products 

was$r5,524»^S« 
Watertown  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay 

settlements,'  having  been  begun  early  in  1630  by  a  group  of 

settlers  led  by  Sir  Richard  Saltonstall  and  the  Rev,  Ceorge 

PhilUpo.    The  first  buildings   were  upon  land  now  included 

within  the  limits  of  Cambridge.    For  the  first  quarter  century 

Watertown  ranked  next  to  Boston  in  popuhition  and  area. 

Since  then  its  limits  have  been  greatly  reduced.  Thr^e  portions 

have  been  added  to  Cambridge,  and  it  has  contriboteb  teniloiy 

to  form  the  new  townships  of  Weston  (1712))  Waltham  (1738), 

and  Belmont  (1859).    in   1632  the  residents  of  Watertown 

protested  against  being  compelled  to  pay  a  tax  for  the  erection 

of  a  stockade  fort  at  Cambridge;. this  was  the  first  protest  in 

America  against  taxation  without  representation  and  led  to  the 

establishment  of  representative  government   in  the  cc^ony. 

As  early  as  the  dose  of  the  17th  century  Watertown  was  the 

chief  horse  and  cattle  market  in  New  England  and  was  known 

for  its  fertile  gardens  and  fine  estates.    Here  about  1632  was 

erected  the  first  grist  mill  in  the  colony,  and  in  1662  one  of  the 

lltst  woollen  mills  hi  America  was  built  here.    In  the  Fh^ 

Chiodi,  the  site  of  which  is  maHced  by  a  monniiMBt, 


thfe  Pkovindal  Congress,  after  adjournment  from  Concord,  met 
from  April  to  July  1775;  the  Massachusetts  General  Court 
hdd  its  sessions  here  from  1775  to  1778,  and  the  Boston  town 
meetings  were  hdd  here  during  the  siege  of  Boston,  when  many 
of  the  well"known  Boston  Umilics  made  their  homes  in  the 
ne^hbourhood.  For  several  months  early  in  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence the  Committees  of  Safety  and  Correspondence  made 
Watertown  their  headquarters  and  it  was  from  here  that  General 
jMeph  Warren  set  out  for  Bunker  Hill.  In  183  2*1834  Theodore 
Parker  conducted  a  private- school  here  and  his  name  is  still 
preserved  in  the  Parker  School. 

See  S.  A.  Drake,  History  of  Middlesex  County  (2  vols.,  Boston, 
1880);  Convers  Francis,  A  BiUorical  Skeuh  of  Watertown  to  tka 
close  of  its  Second  Century  (Cambridge.  1830);  S.  F.  Whitney. 
Uistortcal  Sketch  ofWatertewn  (Boston.  1906);  and  "  Watertown,'* 
by  S.  F.  Whitney,  in  vol.  iii.  of  D.  Hamilton  Kurd's  History  of 
Middlesex  County  (Philadelphia,  1690).  The  Watertown  Records 
(4*vols.,  Watertown  and  Boston,  1894-1906)  have  been  published  by 
the  Historical  Society  of  Watertown  (organiied  in  1888  and  incoff^ 
porated  in  1891). 

WATKRTOWlf,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Jefferson  county. 
New  York,  U.S.A.,  73  m.  (by  rail)  N.  of  Syracuse,  on  the  Black 
river;  Pop.  (1890)  t4J25;  (1900)  31,696,  of  whom  51x9  were 
fordgn-bom  and  75  were  negroes;  (1910  census)  26,730.  Water- 
town  is  served  by  the  New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River 
railway.  The  dty  has  several  squares  and  public  parks,  one  of 
them,  City  Park,  having  an  area  of  about  300  acres.  Among 
the  public  buildings  and  institutbns  are  the  city  hall,  the  Federal 
building,  the  county  court  house,  a  state  armoury,  the  Flower 
Memorial  Library  (erected  as  a  memorial  to  Roswdl  P.  Flower, 
governor  of  New  York  in  1893-1895,  by  his  daughter,  Mrs  J.  B. 
Taylor)  with  ^5,514  vols,  in  1910,  the  Immaculate  Heart 
Academy  (Roman  Catholic),  the  Jefferson  County  Orphan 
Asylum  (1859),  the  St  Patrick^s  Oiphanage  (1897;  under  the 
Sisters  of  St  Joseph),  the  Henry  Keep  Home  (1879),  for  aged 
men  and  women,  St  Joachim's  Hospital  (1896;  under  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy),  and  the  House  of  the  Good  Samaritan  (1882). 
Watertown  is  situated  in  a  fertile  agricultural  and  dairying 
region,  of  which  it  is  a  distributing  centre,  and  it  ships  large 
quantities  of  farm  produce  and  dairy  products  (espedally  cheese). 
The  Black  river  furnishes  water-power  which  is  utilized  by 
manufacturing  establishments  of  diversified  chamcter.  In  1905 
the  dt/s  factory  product  was  valued  at  $8,371,6x8.  Watertown 
was  settled  during  the  late  years  of  the  x8tb  century.  It  became 
the  oounty-seat  in  1805,  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  18x6 
and  was  first  chartered  as  a  dty  in  1869. 

WATQlTOWIf,  a.  dty  of  Dodge  and  Jefferson  counties 
Wisconsin,  U.S.A.,  on  both  banks  of  the  Rock  river,  about  45  m. 
W.N.W.  of  Milwaukee.  Pop.  (1890)  8755;  (1900)  8437,  including 
2447 foreign*bom;  (1905,  state  census)  8623;  (1910) 8829.  Waters 
town  IS  served  by  the  Chicago  &  North- Western  and  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  &  St  Paul  railways,  and  by  an  intervrban  eiectiie 
line,  connecting  with  Milwaukee.  It  is  the  seat  of  North-western 
University  (1865;  Luthenn),  which,  includes  collegiate,  pre- 
paratory and  academic  departments,  and  had  in  1908-1909 
X  t  instructors  and  283  students^  and  of  the -Sacred  Heart  College 
(Roman  CathoUc,  opened  in  1872  and  chartered  in  1874),  undet 
the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross.  There  are  also  a  Carnegie 
library,  a  Lutheran  Home  for  the  Fecble-Minded,  and  a  Gty 
Hospital.  The  Rock  river  furnishes  water-power  which  h 
utilised  for  manufacturing.  The  value  of  the  factory  produotr 
in  1905  was  $2,065,487.  The  dty  is  situated  in  a  dairying  and 
farming  region.  The  Inunidpahty  owns  and  operates  its  water* 
works.  Watertown  was  founded  about  1836  by  settleis  who 
gave  it  the  name  of  thdr  former  home,  Watertown,  New  York. 
Afterwards  there  was  a  great  influx  of  Germans,  particulariy 
after  the  Revolution  of  1848,  among  them  being  Cart  Schurs, 
who  began  the  practice  of  law  here.  Germans  by  ^rth  or  descent 
still  constitute  a  majority  of  the  population.  Watertown  wat 
inCdrporeted  as  a  village  in  1849,,  and  was  chartered  as  a  dty 
in  x8'53.' 

WATKRVILLE;  a  dty  of  Kennebec  county,  Maine,  U.S.A., 
•B  the  Kennebec  Tiver,  191  m.'  above  Aogtxita.    Fop.  (rpM^ 


4" 


WATERVLIET—WATSON,  R. 


9477,  of  whom  9087  wevefoieigD-born;  (19x0  census)  uasI^*  ^^ 
is  served  by  the  Wiscasset,  WaterviUe  &  Farmington  raUway, 
and  two  lines  of  the  Maine  Central  railroad.  The  Hconic  FaDs 
in  the  river  afford  excellent  water-power,  which  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  &c.  In  Winslow  (pop. 
in  1910,  2709),  on  thf  opposite  side  of  the  river  and  connected 
by  bridges  with  Waterville,  are  large  paper  and  pulp  mills. 
WaterviUe  has  a  Carnegie  library  and  is  the  seat  of  Colby  College 
(Baptist),  which  was  incorporated  as  the  Maine  Literary  and 
Theological  Institution  in  18x3,  was  renamed  Waterville  College 
in  182X,  was  luimed  Colby  University  in  X867,  in.  honour  of 
Gardner  Colby  (1SX0-X879),  a  liberal  benefactor,  and  received  its 
present  name  in  1899.  Since  1871  women  have  been  admitted 
on  the  same  terms  as  men.  In  19x0  the  college  library  contained 
51,000  volumes.  WaterviUe  was  settled  about  the  middle  of 
jhe  x8th  century.  It  was  a  part  of  the  township  of  Winslow 
from  177  X  to  x8o2,  when  it  was  incorporated  as  a  separate  tovm- 
ship.    It  was  first  chartered  as  a  dty  in  1883.  , 

WATBRVUET,  a  city  of  Albany  county,  New  York,  U.S.A., 
on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Hudson  river  opposite  Troy  and  about 
S  m.  N.  of  Albany.  Pop.  (X890)  12,967;  (1900)  X4,32i>  of  whom 
2754  were  foreign-bom  and  59  were  negroes;  (1910  census) 
sSf^4«  Watervliet  is  served  by  the  Delaware  &  Hudson  railway 
and  by  steamboat  lines  on  the  Hudson  river,  and  is  connected 
with  Troy  by  bridges  and  ferries,  and  with  Albany,  Troy,  Cohoes 
and  Schenectady  by  electric  lines.  The  Erie  and  Champlain 
canals  have  their  terminals  a  short  distance  above  the  city. 
The  city  has  a  city  hall  and  a  public  library.  Watervliet  is 
sitWLted  in  a  good  farming  country,  but  is  chiefly  a  manufacturing 
place;  in  1905  its  factory  products  were  .valued  at  $1,884,802 
(35%  more  than  in  1900),  not  including  the  product  of  the 
United  States  Arsenal  (1807),  on  the  river,  an  important -manu- 
factory of  heavy  ordnance.  The  place  was  originally  called 
West  Tro/  and  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1836;  in  X897 
it  was  chartered  as  a  city  under  its  present  name;  at  the  same 
lime  the  township  of  Watervliet  in  which  it  was  situated  was 
divided  into  the  townships  of  Colonie  and  Green  Island.  .  In 
1776  the  first  settlement  of  Shakers  (q.v.)  in  America  was  made 
in  the  township  by  "  Mother  Ami "  Lee  and  her  followers,  who 
named  it  Niskayuna.    Here  "  Mother  Ann  "  died  and  is  buried. 

WATFORD,  a  market  town  in  the  Watford  parliamentary 
division  of  Hertfordshire,  England,  17^  m.  N.W.  of  London 
by  the  London  &  North-Westcrn  railway.  Pop.  of  urban 
district  (1891)  17,063;  (1901)  29,327.  It  lies  on  the  small  river 
Colne  in  a  pleasant  undulating  and  well  wooded  district.  The 
church  of  St  Mary,  with  embattled  tower  and  spire,  is  of  various 
dates,  and  contains  good  examples  of  monumental  work  of  the 
early  X7th  century;  and  in  the  churchyard  is  buried  Robert 
Ciutterbuck  (d.  183 1),  author  of  the  History  and  AiUiquUies 
of  the  County  of  Hertford.  There  are  several  modern  churches 
and  chapels.  Tlie  chief  building  within  the  town  is  the  Watford 
Public  Library  and  School  of  Art.  There  are  Urge  breweries, 
also  corn-mills,  malt-kibis  and  an  iron  foundry.  Bushey,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Colne,  lying  for  the  most  part  high  above  it, 
is  a  suburb,  chiefly  residential,  with  a  station  on  the  North- 
western line.  The  chuich  of  St  James,  extensively  restored 
by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  is  Early  English  in  iu  oldest  part,  the 
chancel.  Here  a  school  of  art  was  founded  by  Sir  Hubert  von 
Herkomer,  R.A.,  but  it  was  closed  in  1904,  and  subsequently 
levived  in  other  hands.  Other  institutions  are  the  Royal 
Caledonian  Asylum  and  the  London  Orphan  Asylum.  At 
Aldeikham,  a  m.  N.E.,  the  grammar  school  founded  in  X599  now 
nmks  as  one  of  the  minor  English  public  schools. 

WATKIN,  SIR  EDWARD  WILUAM.  xst  Bart.  (x8x9-i90i), 
Englbh  railway  manager,  was  born  in  Manchester  on  the  26th 
of  September  x8x9.  He  was  the  son  of  Absalom  Watkin,  a 
merchant  in  Manchester,  and  was  employed  in  his  father's 
Qounting^hovse,  ultimately  becoming  a  partner;  but  in  1845 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Trent  Valley  railway,  which 
was  soon  afterwards  absorbed  by  the  London  &  North- Western 
Ompsny.  He  next  joined  the  Manchester  8c  Sheffield  Com- 
pimjh  of  wMch  he  became  general  raanagrr  and  then  yhsirmawt 


subsequently  combbing'  with  -  thd  dutlet  thus  entailed  thft* 
chairmanship  of  the  South-Easterx)  (1867)  and  of  the  Metropotttan 
(1872).  His  connexion  with  these  three  raiiwiayswas  maintamed 
to  within  a  short  time  of  bis  death,  and  they  tcxmed  the  matmsl 
of  one  of  his  most  ambitious  schemes— the  establishment  of 
a  through  route  under  one  management  from  Dover  to  Man- 
chester and  the  north.  This  was  the  end  he  had  in  view  in  fais' 
successful  fight  for  the  extension  of  the  Manchester,  Sheffidd 
&  Lincdnshhe  railway  (now  the  Great  Central)  to  London; 
and  his  persbtent  advocacy  of  the  Chaimd  tunnel  (9.9.)  between 
Dover  and  Calais  was  really  a  further  development  of  the  same 
idea,  for  its  construction  would  have  enabled  through  trains* 
to  be  run  from  Paris  to  Lancashire  and  Scotland,  via  the  East 
London  (of  which  also  he  was  for  a  time  chairman)  and  the 
Metropolitan^  The  latter  scheme,  however,  failed  to  obtain  the 
necessary  public  and  political  support.  Other  projects  had  even 
less  success.  His  plans  for  a  tunnd  between  Scotland  and 
Ireland  under  the  North  Channel,  and  for  a  ship  canal  across 
Ireland  from  Galway  to  Dublin,  did  not  come  to  anything; 
while  the  great  tower  at  Wembley  Park  (near  Harrow),  intend«l 
to  surpass  the  Eiffel  Tower  at  Paris,  stopped  at  an  early  stage. 
It  was  in  the  realms  of  railway  politics  that  Watkiii  showed  to^ 
best  advantage;  for  the  routine  work  of  administration  pure 
and  simple  he  had  no  aptitude.  He  entered  parliament  as  a 
Liberal,  and  after  representing  Stockport  from  1864  to  1868,  sat 
as  member  for  Hythe  for  twenty-one  years  from  X874,  becoming 
a  Liberal-Unionist  at  the  time  of  the  Home  Rule  split,  and 
subsequently  acting  as  a  "  free  Jance."  In  1868  he  received  a 
knighthood,  and  in  x88o  he  was  created  a  baronet.  His  death 
occurred  at  Northenden,  Cheshire,  on  the  X3th  of  April  X901. 

WATKINS,  a  village  and  the  county-seat  i>f  Schuyler  county* 
New  York,  U.S.A.,  at  the  head  (south  end)  of  SeoecaLake,about 
22  m.  N.N.W.  of  Eknira.  Pop.  (X890)  2604;  (1900)  2945; 
(1905)  2957;  (19x0)  28x7.  Watkins  is  served  by  the  New  Yoric 
^Central  &  Hudson  River,  the  Northern  Central  (Pennsylvania) 
and  the  Lehigh  Valley  railways,  by  an  electric  line  to  £bm*m 
and  by  a  steamer  line  on  the  lake.  There  are  mineral  springs, 
whose  waters,  notably  those  of  an  iodo-bromated  brine  ^nngi 
are  used  in  bath  treatment  for  rheumatism,  gout,  heart*. kidney 
and  liver  diseases,  &c.  Partly  within  the  village  limits  is  Watkins 
Glen,  a  narrow  winding  goige  about  2  m.  long,  With  walls  snd 
precipices  from  100  to  joo  ft.  high,  through  which  flows  a  smsil 
stream,  forming  many  fallsi  cascades  and  pools.  The  Gkn 
property,  about  103  acres,  wa)  opened  as  an  excursion  resort 
in  X863,  and  in  1906  wifs  made  a  free  state  itsefvation  or  psik 
and  was  placed  in  the  custody  of  the  American  Scenic  snd 
Historic  Preservation  Sodety.  About  3  m.  S.E-  is  Havana 
Glen,  about  x|  m.  long.  The  first  settlement  here  was  made 
in  X788,  and  Watkins  was  incorporated  as  a  viUagff  in  1849. 

WATUNO  STREET,  the  Eaily  English  name  for  the  great 
road  made  by  the  Romans  from  London  past  St  Albans  (Roman 
Verulamium)  to  Wroxeter  (Roman  Viroconium)  ncarShrcwsbunj 
and  used  by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  fust  as  a  great  part  of  it  is  used 
to-day.  According  to  early  documents  the  name  was  at  first 
Wsdinga  (or  Wsetlinga)  strct;  its  derivation  is  unknown* 
but  an  English  persomil  name  may  lie  behind  it.  After  the 
Conquest  the  road  was  included  in  the  list  of  four  Royal  Roads 
which  the  Norman  lawyers  recorded  or  invented  (see  Ebmin« 
Stkeet).  Later  still,  in  the  Elisabethan  period  and  after  it. 
the  name  Watling  Street  seems  to  have  been  applied  by  anu- 
quaries  to  many  Roman  or  reputed  R<Hnan  roads  ia  vanous 
parts  of  Britain,  and  English  map-makers  and  inferior  wnte» 
on  Roman  roads  still  perpetuate  the  fictionst  InparticuUr, 
the  Roman  "  North  Road "  which  ran  from  York  througli 
Corbridge  and  over  Cheviot  to  Newstead  near  Melrose,  and  thence 
to  the  Wall  of  Pius,  and  which  has  largely  been  in  use  ever  sln<» 
Roman  times,  is  now  not  unfrequently  called  Watling  ^^.^.' 
though  there  is  no  old  authority  for  it  and  throughout  the  "{J**^ 
ages  the  section  of  the  road  between  the  Tyne  and  the  *J>^ 
was  called  Dcrc  Street.  (F«  J- *^''  .^ 

WATSON,  RICHARD  (1737-18x6),  English  di  vine,  wsaboro  »n 
AufUM  t7i7  at  Heversbaa  in  Weatmoriaad.    ^  ^'^^'^ 


WATSON,  T. 


413 


VfaoobBasten  acut  him  to  Trinity  CoQegQ*  Gunbiidice*  wlwee 
be  was  elected  a  feUow  in  176a  About  the  same  time  be  had 
the  offer  of  the  post  of  chaplain  to  the  ^toiy  at  Beoooofen,  in 
the  Straits  Settlements.  "  You  are  too  good>"  said  the  master 
«f  Tnnity, ''  to  die  of  drinluog  punch  in  the  torrid  A>ne  ";  and 
Watson,  instead  of  becoming,  as  he  had  flattered  hiroseH,  a  great 
orientalist,  remained  at  home  to  be  elected  professor  oi  chemastiy, 
a  science  of  which  he  did  not  at  the  time  possess  the  simplest 
rudiments.  **  I  buried  myself,"  he  says, "  in  mylaboratory,  and 
in  fourteen  months  read  a  course  of  fhrmical  lectures  tp  a  very 
full  audience."  r  One  of  his  discoveries  led  to  the  Uack-balb 
thermometer.  Not  the  least  of  his  services  was  to  procure  an 
endowment  for  the  chair,  which  served  as  a  precedent  in  similar 
instances.  In  1771  he  wasappointed  regius  professor  of  divinity, 
bttC  did  not  entirely  renounce  the  study  of  chemistry.  In  1768 
he  bad  published  InstUuticnes  metaUurgkae,  intended  to  give 
a  scientific  form  to  cfaembtry  by  d^<isting  facts  estabh^ed 
by  experiment  into  a  connected  series  of  propositions.  In  1781 
he  followed  this  up  with  an  introductory  manual  of  Chemical 
Essays.  In  z  776  he  answered  Gibbon's  chapters  on  Christianity, 
and  had  the  honour  of  being  one  of  the  only  two  o{^nents 
whom  Gibbon  treated  with  respect.  The  same  year  he  offended 
the  court  by  a  Whig  sermon,  but  in  1779  became  archdeacon 
of  Ely.  He  had  always  opposed  the  American  War,  and  on  the 
accession  of  Lord  Shelburne  to  power  in  1782  was  made  bishop 
of  Llandaff,  being  permitted  to  retain  his  other  preferments  on 
account  of  the  poverty  of  the  see.  Shelburne  expected  great 
service  from  him  as  a  pamphleteer,  but  Watson  proved  from 
the  ministerial  point  of  view  a  most  impracticable  prelate.  He 
immediately  brought  forward  a  scheme  for  improving  the  condi- 
tion of  the  poorer  clergy  by  equalising  the  incomes  of  the  bishops, 
the  reception  of  which  at  the  time  may  be  imagined,  though  it 
was  substantially  the  same  as  that  carried  into  effect  by  Lord 
Melbourne's  government  fifty  years  later.  Watson  now  found 
that  he  possessed  no  influenoe  with  the  minister,  and  that  he  had 
destroyed  his  chance  of  the  great  object  of  his  ambition,  promo- 
tioTk  to  a  better  diocese.  Neglecting  both  his  see  and  his  professor- 
ship, to  which  latter  he  appointed  a  deputy  described  as  highly 
incompetent,  he  withdrew  to  Calgarth  Park,  in  his  native  county, 
where  he  occupied  himself  in  forming  plantations  atld  in  the 
improvement  of  agriculture.  Me  also  frequently  came  forward 
as  a  preacher  and  as  a  speaker  in  the  House  of  Lordso  His 
advico  to  the  government  in  1787  is  said  to  have  saved  the 
country  £zoo,ooo  a  year  in  gunpowder.  In  1796  he  publi^ed, 
in  answer  to  Thomas  Paine,  an  Apology  for  Ute  Bibkf  perhaps 
the  best  known  of  his  numerous  writings.  Watson  continued  to 
exert  his  pen  with  vigour,  and  in  general  to  good  purpose, 
denouncing  the  slave  trade,  advocating  the  union  with  Ireland, 
and  offering  financial  suggestions  to  Pitt,  who  seems  to  have 
frequently  consulted  him.  In  1798  his  Address  to  the  People 
of  Great  Britain,  enforcing  resistance  to  French  arms  and  French 
principles,  ran  through  fourteen  editions,  but  estranged  him 
from  many  old  friends,  who  accused  him,  probably  with  injustice, 
of  aiming  to  make  his  pea(»  with  the  government.  Though 
queruk>us  because  of  his  non-preferment,  De  Quincey  tells  us 
that  "  his  lordship  was  a  joyous,  jovial,  and  cordial  host."  He 
died  on  the  and  of  July  x8t6,  hiiving  occupied  his  latter  years 
In.  the  composition  and  revision  of  an  autobiography  (published 
in  18x7),  which,  with  aH  its  egotism  and  partiality,  is  a  valuable 
work,  and  the  diief  authority  for  his  life. 

WATSON,  THOMAS  (c.  xs^T"! 592)1  English  lyrical  poet,  was 
born  in  London,  probably  in  1557.  He  proceeded  to  Oxford, 
and  while  quite  a  young  man  enjoyed  a  oertam  repatatk>n,  even 
abroad,  as  a  Latin  poet  His  De  remedio  amoHs,  which  was 
perhaps  his  earliest  important  composition,  is  k)5t,  and  so  is 
his  "  piece  ffl  work  written  in  the  commei^ation  of  women-kind," 
which  was  also  in  Latin  verse.  He  came  back  to  London  and 
t»eCaoae  a  law^udent.  The  earliest  publication  by  Watson 
whidi  has  survived  is  a  Latin  version  of  the  Antigone  of  Sophocles, 
issued  in  1 581.  It  is  dedicated  to  Philip  Howard,  earl  of  Arundel, 
who  was  perhaps  the  patron  of  the  poet,  who  seems  to  have  spent 
pari  ol  this  year  in  Paris.    Next  year  Watson  appears  for 


the  fint  time,  aa  an  Eng^sh  poet  in  some  versed  pnfittd  to  Whet* 
stone's  HeptamenUf  and  also  in  a  far  more  important  guiae, 
as  the  author  of  the  ^EicaminnBia  or  Passionate  Centurie  ofLne. 
This  is  a  ooUectidn  or  qyde  of  xoo  pieces,  in  the  manner  of 
Petrarch,  celebrating  the  sufferings  of  a  lover  and  his  long 
farewell  to  love.  The  tedmical  peculiarity  of  these  interesting 
poems  is  that,  althouf^  they  appear  and  profess  to  be  sonnets, 
thor  are  really  written  in  trif^  sets  of  common  six-Hne  stanza, 
and  therefore  have  eighteen  lines  each.  It  seems  likely  that 
Watson,  who  courted  comparison  with  Petrarch,  seriously 
desired  to  recommend  this  form  to  future  sonneteers;  but  in 
this  he  had  no  unitalors.^  Among  those  who  were  at  this  time 
the  friends  of  Watson  we  note  Matthew  Royden  and  George 
Peele.  In  1585  he  published  a  Latin  translation  ofTasso's 
pastoral  play  of  Antinta,  and  his  version  was  afterwards  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Abraham  Fraunn  (1587).  Watson  was 
now,  as  the  testimony  pf  Nashe  and  others  prove,  regarded  as 
the  best  Latin  poet  oif  England.  In  1590  he  published,  in 
English  and  Latin  verse,  his  MdihoeuSj  an  elegy  on  the  death 
of  Sir  Francis  Walslngham,  and  a  collection  of  Italian  Madrigals, 
put  into  English  by  Watson  and  set  to  muac  by  Byrd.  Of  the 
remainder  of  Watson's  career  nothing  is  known,  save  that  on  the 
36th  of  September  1592  he  was  buried  in  the  church  of  St 
Bartholomew  the  Less,  and  that  in  the  following  year  his  latest 
and  best  Ixx^,  The  Tears  of  Fancte^  or  Late  Disdained  (1593), 
was  posthumously  published.  This  is  a  collection  of  sixty 
sonnets,  regular  in  form,  so  far  at  least  as  to  have  fourteen  lines 
each.  Spenser  is  supposed  to  have  alluded  to  the  untimely  death 
of  Watson  in  Colin  Clout's  Coma  Borne  AgMn,  when  he  says^^ 

"  Amyntas  quite  is  gone  and  lies  full  low. 
Having  his  Amarylib  left  to  moan." 

He  is  mentioned  by  Meres  in  company  with  Shakespeare,  Peele 
and  Marlowe  among  "  the  best  for  tragedie,"  but  no  dramatic 
work  of  his  except  the  translations  above  mentioned  has  come 
down  to  us.  It  is  certain  that  this  poet  enjoyed  a  great  reputa* 
tion  in  his  lifetime,  and  that  he  was  not  without  a  direct  influence 
upon  the  youth  of  Shakespeare.  He  was  the  first,  after  the 
original  experiment  made  by  Wyat  and  Surrey,  to  introduce 
the  pure  imitation  of  Pctrareh  into  English  poetry.  He  was  well 
read  in  Italian,  French  and  Greek  literature.  Watson  died  young,' 
and  he  had  not  escaped  from  a  certain  languor  and  insipidi^ 
which  prevent  hn  graceful  verses  from  producing  theirfull  effect. 
This  demerit  is  less  obvious  in  his  bter  than  in  his  torlllBr  pieces, 
and  with  the  development  of  the  age,  Watson,  whose  ton^ 
temporaries  regarded  him  as  a  poet  of  true  excellence,  would  prob- 
'ably  have  gained  power  and  music.  As  it  is,  he  has  the  honour  of 
being  one  of  tHe  direct  forerunners  of  Shakespeare  (in  Venus  and 
Adonis  and  in  the  Sonnets),  and  of  being  the  leader  In  the.  long 
procession  of  Elizabethan  sonnet-cycle  writers.  (E.  G.) 

The  Enctisk  works  of  Wation,  excepting  the  madrigals,  were  first 
collected  by  Edward  Arber  in  187a  Thomas  Watson's  "  Italian 
MadrtMls  Eng^ifked"  (1590)  were  reprinted  (cd.  F.  J.  Carpenter) 
from  the  Journal  of  Cermanie  Phiklogy  (vol.  ii.,  No.  3,  p.  337}  with 
the  original  Italian,  in  1899.  See  alsoMr  Sidney  Lce^  Introauction 
(pp.  xxxii.-xli.)  to  Elizaheihan  Sonnets  in  the  new  edition  (1904)  of 
An  Engttsh  Gamer. 

>  Speaking  of  the  UecatompiUhia,  Mr  Sidney  Lee  says:  "  Watson 
deprecates  all  claim  to  originality.  To  each  poem  he  prefixes  a 
prose  introduction  in  which  he  frankly  indicates,  usually  with 
ample  quotations,  the  French.  Italian  or  classical  poem  which  was 
the  source  of  his  inspiration  iEUsabethan  Sonnets^  p.  xxviiL).  In 
a  footnote  (p.  xxxix.)  he  adds:  "  Eight  of  Watsons  somiets  aie, 
according  to  bis  own  account,  renderings  from  Petrarch;  twelve 
are  .from  Seranno  dell*  Aquila  (1466-1500);  four  each  come  from 
Strozza,  the  Ferrarese  poet,  and  from  Ronsard;  three  from  the 
Italian  poet,  Agnolo  Firenzuoki  (1493-1548);  two  each  from  the 
French  poet,  £lienne  ForcadeU  known  as  Forcatulus  (I5t4?-i573)i 
the  Italian  Giiolamo  Parabosco  (fl.  1548),  and  Aeneas  Sylvius; 
while  many  are  based  on  passages  from  such  authors  as  (among  the 
Greeks)  Sophoclcs.Thcocritus,  Apollonius  of  Rhodes  ^author  of  the 

3»ic  Artonautiea);  or  (amonfir  the  Latins),  Virgil,  Tibullus.  Ovid, 
oiace,  Propertius,  Seneca,  PUny,  Lucan,  Martial  and  Valerius 
Flaccus;  or  (among  the  modern  Italians)  Angelo  Poliziano  (1454- 
1494)  and  Baptista  Mantuanus  (1448-1516);  or  (among  other 
modem  Frenchmen)  Gervasius  Sepinus  of  Saumnr,  wnter  of  eclogues 
after  the  manner  of  Vtigil  and  Mantf 


414 


WATSON,  W.—WATT 


WAIMUf,  WHXIAM  {e.  1559-16C0),  EnfiMah  conspirator,  was 
a  native  of  the  notth  of  EngLand,  and  was  bom  probably  on  the 
tyrd  of  April  X5S9>  In  1586  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic  priest 
in  France,  and  during  the  concluding  years  of  Elizabeth's  reign 
.  he  paid  several  visits  to  England;  he  was  imprisoned  and 
tortured  more  than  once.  He  became  prominent  as  a  champion 
of  the  secular  priests  in  their  dispute  with  the  Jesuits,  and  in 
1601  some  writings  by  him  on  this  question  appeared  which  were 
answered  by  Robert  Parsons.  When  Elizabeth  died,  Watson 
hastened  to  Scotland  to  assure  James  I.  of  the  loyalty  of  his 
party,  and  to  forestall  the  Jesuits,  who  were  suspected  of  intrigu- 
ing with  Spain.  The  new  king  did  not,  however,  as  was  hoped, 
cease  to  exact  the  necessary  fines;  and  the  general  dissattsfaction 
felt  by  the  Roman  Catholics  gave  rise  to  the  **  Bye  plot,"  or 
"  Watson's  plot,"  in  which  connexion  this  priest's  name  is  best 
known,  and  to  its  sequel  the  Main  or  Cobham's,  ploL  Watson 
discussed  the  grievances  of  his  co-religionists  with  another  priest, 
William  Clark,  with  Sir  Griffin  Markham  and  Anthony  Copley, 
and  with  a  disa|HH)inted  Protestant  courtier,  George  Brooke; 
they  took  another  Protestant,  Thomas,  15th  Lord  Grey  de  Wilton, 
into  their  confidence,  and  following  many  Scottish  precedents 
it  was  arranged  that  James  should  be  surprised  and  seized,*  while 
they  talked  loudly  about  capturing  the  Tower  of  London,  con- 
verting the  king  to  Romanism,  and  making  Watson  lord  keeper. 
One  or  two  of  the  conspirators  drew  back;  but  Watson  and  his 
remaining  colleagues  arranged  to  assemble  at  Greenwich  on  the 
34th  of  June  1605,  and  under  the  pretence  of  presenting  a 
petition  to  carry  out  their  object.  The  plot  was  a  complete 
failure;  Henry  G&mct  and  other  Jesuits  betrayed  it  to  the 
authorities,  and  its  principal  authors  Were  seized,  Watson  being 
captured  in  August  at  Hay  on  the  Welsh  border.  They  were 
tried  at  Winchester  and  found  guilty;  Watson  and  Clark  were 
executed  on  the  Qth  of  December  1603,  and  Brooke  suffered  the 
-same  fate  a  week  later.  Grey  and  Markham  wererepneved. 
Before  the  executions  took  place,  however,  the  failure  of  the 
Bye  plot  had  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  Main  plot  Brooke's 
share  in  the  earlier  scheme  caused  suspicion  to  fall  upon  his 
brother  Henry  Brooke,  Lord  Cobham,  the  ally  and  brother<in-law 
of  Sir  Robert  Cecil,  aft^wards  earl  of  Salisbury.  Cobham 
appears  to  have  been  in  communication  with  Spain  about  the 
possibility  of  killing  "  the  king  and  his  cubs  "  and  of  placing 
Lady  Arabella  Stuart  on  the  throne.  He  was  seized,  tried  and 
condemned  to  death,  but  although  led  out  to  the  scalTold  he 
was  not  executed.  It  was  on  suspicion  of  being  associated  with 
Cobham  in  this  matter  that  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  arrested  and 
Uied. 

See  the  documents  printed  by  T.  G.  Law  in  The  Arckpriest  contro- 
Persy  (1896-1^8);  the  same  writer's  Jesuits  and  Secuhrs  (1889), 
and:  S.  R.  Gardiner,  History  of  England,  vol.  i.  (1905). 

WATSOV,  WIUIAM  (1858-  ),  English  poet,  was  bom  on 
the  and  of  August  1858  at  Burley-in-Wharfedale,  Yorkshire, 
and  was  brought  up  at  Liverpool,  whither  his  father  moved  for 
business.  In  1880  he  published  his  first  book  The  Princess  Quest, 
a  poem  showing  the  influence  of  Keats  and  Tennyson,  but  giving 
little  indication  of  the  author's  mature  style.  It  attracted  no 
attention  until  it  was  republished  in  1893  after  Mr  Watson  had 
made  a  name  by  other  work.  In  1884  appeared  Epigrams  of 
Art,  Life  and  Nature,  a  remarkable  little  volume,  which  already 
showed  the  change  to  Mr  Watson's  characteristic  restraint  and 
concision  of  manner.  But  it  passed  unnoted.  Recognition  came 
with  the  publication  of  Wordsworth's  Grave  in  1890;  and  fame 
with  the  publication  of  the  second  edition  in  1891,  and  the 
appearance  in  the  Fortnightly  Review,  August  1 891,  of  an  article 
by  Grant  Allen  entitled  "  A  New  Poet."  Wordsumrlh's  Grave, 
which  marked  a  reversion  from  the  current  Tennysonian  and 
Swinbumlan  fashion  to  the  meditative  note  of  Matthew  Arnold, 
exhibited  in  full  maturity  Mr  Watson's  poetical  qualities;  his 
stately  diction,  his  fastidious  taste,  his  epigrammatic  turn,  his 
restramed  yet  eloquent  utterance,  his  remarkable  gift  of  literary 
criticism  in  poetic  form.  Besides  Wordsuwrth^s  Grave  the 
volume  contained  Ver  tenebrosum  (originally  published  in  the 
National  Review  for  June  1885},  a  series  of  political  sonnets 


Indicathig  a  fervour  of  political  oonvictioB  which  was  later  t6 
find  still  more  impassioned  expression;  also  a  selection  with 
additions  from  the  Epigrams  of  1884,  and  among  other  miscellane< 
ous  pieces  his  tribute  to  Arnold,  **  In  Tjileham  Churchyard." 
During  the  years  x890'x892  he  contributed  articles  to  the 
National  Review,  Spectator,  Illustrated  London  News,  Academy, 
Boohman  and  AtaUmta,  which  were  collected  and  lepublistied  in 
1893  as  Excursions  in  Criticism*  In  1893  he  also  published 
Lacrymae  Musaram,  the  poem  which  gave  the  title  to  the  volume 
being  a  fine  elegy  on  the  death  of  Tennyson;  and  it  included  the 
poem  on  **  Shelley's  Centenary  "  (both  of  these  printed  privately 
in  1892),  and  "  The  Dream  of  Man,"  the  earliest  of  his  philcH 
sophical  poems.  The  same  year,  too,  saw  the  publication  of 
The  Eloping  Angds,  a  serio-comic  trifle  of  small  merit,  dedicated 
to  Grant  Allen.  During  this  year  Mr  Gladstone  bestowed 
on  him  the  Civil  List  pension  of  £300  available  on  the  death  of 
Tennyson.  In  1894  foUowed  Odes  and  Other  Poems,  and  in 
1895  The  Father  of  the  Forest,  which  contained  also  the  fine 
"  Hymn  to  the  Sea  "  in  EngUsh  elegiacs  (originally  cont^buted 
to  the  YeUow  Book),  "  The  Tomb  of  Burns,"  and  "  Apokm," 
a  piece  of  candid  and  just  self-criticism.  The  volume  contained 
also  a  sonnet  "  To  the  Turk  m  Armenia,"  a  prelude  to  the  series 
of  sonnets  about  Armenia  contributed  to  the  Westminslef 
Gasetie  and  republished  in  a  brochure  called  The  Purple  East  in 
X896.  These  sonnets  were  republished  with  revision  and  con* 
siderablc  additions,  and  a  preface  by  the  bishop  of  Hereford, 
in  The  Year  of  Shame  in  1897.  Whatever  view  was  taken  of  the 
poet's  incursion  into  politics,  no  one  doubted  hb  passionate 
sincerity,  or  the  excellence  of  the  poetical  rhetoric  it  inspired. 
In  1898  were  published  his  Collcded  PoemstLud  a  volume  of  new 
poetry  The  Hope  of  the  World,  which  opened  with  his  three  chief 
philosophical  poems,  the  title  piece,  ^*  The  Unknown  God,"  and 
*'  Ode  in  May."  In  ^902  he  printed  privately  30  copies  of  New 
Poems,  and  published  his  "Ode  on  the  Coronation  of  King 
Edward  VII.,"  a  favourable  specimen  of  its  class;  and  in  1903 
be«des  a  volume  of  Selected  Poems  a  collection  of  poems  contxi« 
buted  to  various  periodicals  and  aUed  For  England:  Poems 
WriUcn  During  Estrangement,  a  poetical  defence  of  his  impugned 
patriotism  during  the  Boer  War.  In  1909  i4>peai€d  an  unportant 
volume  of  New  Poems. 

Mr  Watson's  poetfy  faUs  chiefly  mto  the  dasses  above  in- 
dicated-critical, philosophical  and  political — ^to  which  may  be 
added  a  further  dass  of  Horatian  epistles  to  his  friends.  Thb 
classification  indicates  the  hig^  character  and  also  the  limitations 
of  his  poetry.  It  is  contemplative,  not  dramatic,  and  only 
occasionally  lyrical  in  impulse.  In  spite  of  the  poet's  plea  in 
his  "  Apologia  "  that  there  is  an  ardour  and  a  fire  other  than 
that  of  Eros  or  Aphrodite,  ardour  and  fire  are  not  conspicuons 
qualities  of  his  verse.  Except  in  his  political  verse  there  is  more 
thought  than  passion.  Bearing  trace  enough  of  the  influence  oC 
the  romantic  epoch,  his  poetry  recalls  the  earlier  rlaiwlml  period 
in  its  epigrammatic  phra«ng  and  Latinised  diction.  By  the 
distinction  and  clarity  of  his  style  and  the  dignity  oi  his  move- 
ment William  Watson  stands  in  the  true  Hwffffiml  traditionoC  great 
English  verse,  in  a  generation  rather  given  over  to  lawkauieas 
and  experiment. 

See  olso  section  on  William  Watson  in  Poets  tjfthe  Younger  Generic 
tion,  by  William  Archer  (1902);  and  for  biblionaphy  up  toAi«. 
1903.  Engfish  Illustrated  Magasim,  voL  xxix.  (N.S.},  pp.  549  and 

548.  •  cw-pTj.) 

WATT,  JAMBS  (1736-18x9),  Scottish  engineer,  the  inventor  of 
the  modem  condensing  steam-engine,  was  bom  at  Greenock 
on  the  X9th  of  January  X736.  His  father  was  a  small  merchant 
there,  who  lost  his  trade  and  fortune  by  unsuccessful  «peculation, 
and  James  was  early  thrown  on  his  own  resources.  Having  a 
taste  for  mechanics  he  made  his  way  to  London,  at  the  age  of 
nineteen,  to  leara  the  business  of  a  philosophical-instnune&t 
maker,  and  became  ai^reoticed  to  one  John  Morgan,  in  whose 
service  he  remained  for  twelve  months.  From  a  cli^  he  had 
been  extremely  delicate,  and  the  hard  work  and  frtigal  living  of 
his  London  pupilage  taxed  his  strength  so  severely  that  he  was 
forced  at  the  end  of  a  year  to  seejk  rest  at  hona,  aot*  however. 


WATT 


4«5 


until  he  had  cuned  «  fair  knoirledge  of  the  tnule  and  heoopie 
handy  in  the  use  of  tools.  Befoce  going  to  London  he  had  made 
the  acquaintance  of  aome  of  the  professors  in  Glasgow  college, 
and  on  his  return  to  Scotland  in  1756  he  soni^t  them  out  and 
obtained  work  in  repairing  astronomka)  instruments.  He  next 
tried  to  establish  himself  as  an  instrument  maker  in  Glasgow, 
but  the  city  ^Ids  would  not  recognize  a  craftsman  who  had  not 
served  the  full  term  of  common  apprenticeship,  and  Wait  was 
forbidden  to  open  shop  in  the  burgh.  The  ooUq^e,  however,  took 
him  under  Its  protection,  and  in  1757  he  wascstabliahed  in  ita 
precincts  with  the  title  of  mathematical-instrument  maker  to  the 
university. 

Before  many  months  Joseph  Black,  the  dscoverer  of  latent 
heat,  then  lectUEer  on  cheotistry,  and  John  Robison,  then  tk 
student,  afterwards  professor  of  natural  phikaoi^y  at  Edinbuii^, 
became  his  intimate  friends,  and  with  them  he  often  discussed  the 
possibility  of  improving  the  steam-engine,  of  which  at  that  time 
Thomas  Newcomen's  was  the  most  advanced  type.  The  engine 
was  then  applied  only  to  pumping  watcf-**«hiefly  in  the  drainage 
of  mines;  and  it  was  so  dumsyand  wasteful  of  fnel  as  to  be 
but  little  used.  Some  early  experiments  of  Watt  in  1761  or  1761 
led  to  no  positive  result,  but  in  1764  lus  attention  was  seriously 
drawn  to  the  matter  by  having  a  model  of  Newcomen's  engine, 
which  formed  part  of  the  college  cc^ction  of  sdentific  apparatus, 
given  him  to  repair.  Having  put  the  model  in  oider,  he  was  at 
once  struck  with  its  enormous  consumption  of  steam,  and  .set 
himself  to  examine  the  cause  of  this  and  to  find  a  remedy. 

In  Newcomcn's  engine  the  (^lindcr  stood  vertically  under  one 
end  of  the  main  lever  or  "  beam  '*  and  was  open  -at  the  top. 
Steam,  at  a  pressure  scarcely  greater  than  that  of  the  atmosphere, 
was  admitted  to  the  under  side;  this  allowed  the  piston  to  -be 
puUed  up  by  a  counterpoise  at  the  other  end  of  the  beam. 
Communication  with  the  boiler  was  then  shut  off,  and  the  steam 
in  the  cylinder  was  condensed  by  injecting  a  jet  ol  ctM  water 
from  a  cisterfk  above.  The  pressure  of  the  air  on  the  top  of  the 
fHston  then  drove  it  down,  raising  the  counterpoise  and  doing 
work.  The  injection  water  and  condensed  steam  which  had 
gathered  In  the  cylinder  were  drained'  out  by  a  pipe  leading 
down  into  a  welll 

Watt  at  once  noticed  that  the  alternate  heating  and  cooling 
of  the  cylinder  in  Newcomen's  engine  made  it  work  with  tedious 
slowness  and  excessive  consumption  of  steam.  When  steam 
was  admitted  at  the  beginning  of  each  stroke,  it  found  the  metal 
of  the  cylinder  and  piston  chilled  by  contact  with  the  condensed 
steam  and  cold  injection  water  of  the  previous  stroke,  and  it 
was  not  unto  mudi  steam  had  been  condensed  in  heating  the 
chilled  surfaces  that 'the  cylinder  was  able  to  fill  and  the  piston 
to  rise. '  His  first  attempt  at  a  remedy  was  to  use  for  the  material 
of  the  cylinder  a  substance  that  would  take  m  and  give  out  heat' 
ilowly.  Wood  was  tried,  but  it  made  matters  only  a  little 
better,  and  did  not  promise  to  be  durable.  Watt  observed  that 
the  evil  was  intensified  whenever,  for  the  sake  of  making  a  good 
vacuum  under  the  piston,  a  specially  large  quantity  of  injection 
water  was  supplied. 

He  then  entered  on  a  sdentific  examination  of  the  properties 
o{  steam,  studying  by  experiment  the  relation  of  its  density 
and  pressure  to  the  temperature,  and  conduded  that  two 
conditions  were  essential  to  the  economic  use*  of  steam  in  a 
condensing  steam-engine.  One  was  that  the  temperature  of 
the  condensed  steam  should  be  as  low  as  possible,  100'"  F.  or 
lower,  otherwise  the  vacuum  would  not  be  good;  the  other 
was,  to  quote  his  own  words, "  that  the  cylinder  should  be  always 
as  hot  as  the  steam  which  entered  it.'*  In  Newoomen's  engine 
these  two  conditions  were  incompatible,  and  it  was  not  for  some 
months  that  Watt  saw  a  means  of  reconciling  them.  Early  in 
S765,  while  walking  on  a  Sundsvy  afternoon  in  Glasgow  Green, 
the  idea  flashed  upon  him  that,  if  the  steam  were  condensed 
in  a  vessel  distinct  from  the  cylinder,  it  would  be  practicable 
to  make  the  temperature  of  condensatum  low,  and  still  keep 
the  cylinder  hot.  Let  this  separate  vessd  be  kept  cold,  either 
by  injecting  cold  water  or  by  letting  it  stream  over  the  outside, 
and  let  a  vacuum  be  maintained  in  the  vessd     Then,  whenever 


cottmonlcatfoff  was  made  between  it  and  the  cyKader,*  steam 
would  pass  over  from  the  cylinder  and  be  condensed^  the  pressure 
in  the  cylinder  would  be  as  low  as  the  pressure  in  the  condenser, 
but  the  temperature  of  the  metal  of  die  cylinder  would  remain 
high,  since  no  injection  water  need  touch  it.  Without  delay 
Watt  put  this  idea  to  the  test,  and  found  that  the  separate  con- 
denser did  act  as  he  had  antidpated.  To  maintain  the  vacuum 
in  it  he  added  another  new  oigan,  namdy,  the  alr*pump,  the 
function  of  which  is  to  remove  the  condensed  steam  and  water 
of  injection  along  with  any  air  that  gathers  in  the  condensei. 

To  further  his  object  of  keeping  the  cylinder  as  hot  as  the 
steam  that  entered  it,  Watt  supplemented  his  great  invention 
of  the  separate  condenser  by  several  less  notable  but  still  import- 
ant improvements.  In  Newcomen's  engine  a  layer  of  water 
over  the  piston  had  been  used  to  keep  it  steam-tight;  Watt 
substituted  a  tighter  packing  lubricated  by  ofl.  In  Newcomen's 
enpne  the  upper  end  of  the  cylinder  was  open  to  the  air;  Watt 
covered  It  in,  leading  the  piston-rod  through  a  steam-tight 
stuffing  box  in  the  cover,  and  allowed  steam  Instead  of  air  to 
press  on  the  top  of  the  piston.  In  Newcomen's  en^e  the 
cylinder-had  no  dothing  to  reduce  loss  of  heat  by  radiation  and 
conduction  from  its  outer  surface;  Watt  not  only  cased  it  in 
non-conducting  material,  such  as  wood,  but  introduced  a  steam- 
jacket,  or  layer  <d  steam,  between  the  cylinder  proper  and  an 
outer  shelL  _ 

All  these  features  were  specified  in  his  first  patent  (see  Stsaic- 
Encinb),  which,  however,  was  not  obtained  till  January  1769, 
neariy  four  years  after  the  Inventions  it  covers  had  been  made. 
In  the  interval  Watt  had  been  striving  to  demonstrate  the  merits 
of  his  engine  by  trial  on  a  large  scale.  His  earliest  eqxriments 
left  him  in  debt,  and,  finding  that  his  own  means  were  quite 
insofikient  to  allow  him  to  continue  them,  he  ^Igieed  that  Dr 
John  Roebuck,  founder  of  the  Carron  ironworks,  should  take 
two-thirds  of  the  profits  of  the  invention  in  consideration  of 
his  bearing  the  c(»t.  An  engine  was  then  erected  at  Kinneil, 
near  Linlithgow,  where  Roebuck  lived,  and  this  gave  Watt  the 
.opportunity  of  facing  many  difficulties  in  details  of  construction. 
But  the  experiments  made  aitow  progress,  for  Roebadc's  affairs 
became  embarrassed,  and  Watt's  attention  was  engaged  by  other 
work.  He  had  taken  to  surveying,  and  was  f  a^t  guning  reputa* 
tion  as  a  dvU  engineer.  In  1767  he  was  employed  to  make  a 
survey  for  a  Forth  and  Clyde  canair— a  scheme  which  failed  to 
secure  parliamentary  saactipn.  This  was  followed  during  the 
next  six  years  by  surveys  for  a  canal  at  Monkland,  for  another 
through  the  valley  U  Strathmore  from  Perth  to  Forfar,  and 
for  others  akng  the  lines  afterwards  followed  by  the  Crinan  and 
Caledonian  canals.  He  prepared  plans  for  the  harbours  of  Ayr, 
Port-Glasgow  and  Greenock,  for  deepening  the  Clyde,  and  for 
building  a  bridge  over  it  at  Hamilton.  In  the  course  of  this 
work  he  hivented  a  simple  micrometer  for  measuring  distances, 
consisting  of  a  pair  of  horizontal  hairs  pUMxd  in  the  focus  of  a 
telescope,  through  which  sights  were  taken  to  a  .fixed  and 
movable  target  <m  a  rod  held  upright  at  the  place  whose  distance 
from  the  observer  was  to  be  determined.  The  micrometer  was 
varied  in  a  number  of  ways;  and  another  fruit  oi  his  ingenuity 
about  the  same  time  was  a  machine  to  facilitate  drawing  in 
perspective. 

Meanwhile  the  engme  had  not  been  wholly  neglected.  Wat^ 
had  secured  his  patent;  the  KinneU  trials  had  given  him  a 
store  of  valuable  experience;  Roebuck  had  failed,  but  another 
partner  was  ready  to  take  his  place.  In  1768  Watt  had  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Matthew  Boulton,  a  man  of  energy  and 
capital,  who  owned  the  Soho  engineering  works  at  Birmingham.' 
Boulton  agreed  to  take  Roebuck's  share  in  the  invention,  and 
to  join  Watt  in  applying  to  parliament  for  an  act  to  prolong  the 
term  of  the  patent.  Tlie  application  was  successful.  In  1775 
an  act  was  passed  continuing  the  patent  for  twenty-five  year^' 
By  this  time  the  inventor  had  abandoned  his  dvH  engineering 
work  and  had  settled  in  Birmingham,  where  the  manufacture 
of  steam-engines  was  begun  by  the  firm  of  Boulton  It,  Watt. 
The  partnership  was  a  Angularly  happy  one.  Boulton  had  the 
good  sense  to  leave  the  work  of  inventing  to  Watt,  in  whose 


4.16 


WATT 


guiius  he  had  the  fullest  faith;  on  the  other  hand,  his  substantial 
means,  his  enterprise,  resolution  and  business  capacity  supplied 
what  was  wanting  to  bring  the  invention  to  commercial  success. 

During  the  next  ten  years  we  find  Watt  assiduously  engaged 
in  devdoping  and  introducing  the  engine.  Its  first  and  for  a 
lime  its  only  application  was  in  pumping;  it  was  at  once  put 
to  this  use  in  the  mines  of  Cornwall,  where  Watt  was  now 
frequently  engaged  in  superintending  the  erection  of  engines. 
Further  inventions  were  required  to  fit  it  for  other  uses,  and 
these  followed  in  quick  succession.  Watt's  second  steam-engine 
patent  is  dated  1781.  It  describes  five  different  methods  of 
converting  the  reciprocating  motion  of  the  piston  into  motion 
of  rotation,  so  as  to  adapt  the  engine  for  driving  ordinary 
machinery.  The  simplest  way  of  doing  this,  and  the  means  now 
universally  followed,  is  by  a  crank  and  fly-wheel;  this  had 
occurred  to  Watt,  but  had  meanwhile  been  patented  by  another, 
and  hence  he  devised  the  "  sun  and  planet  wheels  "  and  other 
equivalent  contrivances.  A  third  patent,  in  1783,  contained 
two  new  invwtions  of  the  first  importance.  Up  to  this  time  the 
engine  had  been  single-acting;  Watt  now  made  it  double-acting; 
thai  is  to  say,  both  ends  of  the  cylinder,  instead  of  only  one, 
were  alternately  put  in  communication  with  the  boiler  and  the 
condenser.  Up  to  this  time  also  the  steam  had  been  admitted 
from  the  boiler  throughout  thd  whole  stroke  of  the  piston; 
Watt  now  introduced  the  system  of  expansive  working,  in  which 
the  admission  valve  is  closed  after  a  portion  only  of  the  str<Ae 
is  performed,  and  the  steam  enclosed  in  the  cylinder  is  then 
aUowed  to  expand  during  the  remainder  of  the  stroke,  doing 
additional  work  upon  the  piston  without  making  any  fiuiher 
demand  upon  the  boiler  until  the  next  stroke  requires  a  fresh 
admisuon  of  steam.  He  calculated  that,  as  the  piston  advanced 
after  admission  had  ceased,  the  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the 
Qrlinder  would  fall  in  the  same  pro];x>rtion  as  its  v<Jume  increased 
-*^  law  which,  although  not  strictly  true,  does  accord  very 
closely  with  the  actual  behaviour  of  steam  expanding  in  the 
cylinder  of  an  engine.  Recognizing  that  this  would  cause  a 
gradual  reduction  of  the  force  with  which  the  piston  puUcd  or 
pushed  against  the  beam.  Watt  devised  a  number  of  contrivances 
for  equalizing  the  effort  throughout  the  stroke.  He  found, 
however,  that  the  inertia  of  the  pump-rods  in  his  mine  engines, 
and  the  fly-wheel  in  his  rotative  engines,  served  to  compensate 
for  the  inequality  of  thrust 'sufficiently  to  make  these  con- 
trivances unnecessary.  His  fourth  patent,  taken  out  in  17841 
describes  the  well-known  ''parallel  motion,"  an  arrangement 
of  links  by  which  the  top  of  the  piston-rod  is  connected  to  the 
beam  so  that  it  may  either  pull  or  push,  and  is  at  the  same  time 
guided  to  move  in  a  sensibly  straight  line.  "  I  have  started  a 
new  hare,"  he  writes  to  Boulton  in  June  of  that  year; "  I  have 
got  a  glimpse  of  a  method  of  causing  a  piston-rod  to  move  up 
and  down  perpendicularly  by  only  fixing  it  to  a  piece  of  iron  upon 
the  beam,  without  chains  or  perpendicular  guides  or  untowardly 
frictions,  arch-heads,  or  other  pieces  of  clumsiness.  I  think  it 
a  very  probable  thing  to  succeed,  and  one  of  the  most  ingenious 
ample  pieces  of  mechanism  I  have  contrived." 

A  still  later  invention  was  the  throttle-valve  and  centrifugal 
governor,  by  which  the  speed  of  rotative  engines  was  automatic- 
ally controlled.  One  more  item  in  the  list  of  Watt's  contributions 
to  the  development  of  the  steam-engine  is  too  important  to  be 
passed  without  mention:  the  indicator,  which  draws  a  diagram 
of  the  relation  of  the  steam's  pressure  to  its  volume  as  the  stroke 
proceeds,  was  first  used  by  Boulton  &  Watt  to  measure  the 
work  done  by  their  engines,  and  so  to  give  a  basis  on  which  the 
charges  levied  from  their  customers  were  adjusted.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  exaggerate  the  part  which  this  simple  little  instru- 
ment has  played  in  the  evolution  of  the  steam-engine.  The 
eminently  philosophic  notion  of  an  indicator  diagram  is  funda- 
mental in  the  theory  of  thermodynamics;  the  instrument 
itself  is  to  the  steam  engineer  what  the  stethoscope  is  to  the 
physician,  and  more,  for  with  it  he  not  only  diagnoses  the  ailments 
of  a  faulty  machine,  whether  in  one  or  another  of  its  organs, 
but  gauges  its  power  in  health. 

The  commercial  success  of  the  engine  was  not  long  in  being 


establidied.    By  1783  all  but  one  ol  the  Newoonen  pumptng* 
engines  in  Cornwall  had  been  displaced  by  Wait's.    The  mines 
were  then  far  from  thriving;  many  were  even  on  the  pobit  of 
being  abandoned  through  the  difficulty  of  dealing  with  large 
volumes  of  water;  and  Watt's  invention,  which  allowed  tlSs 
to  be  done  at  a  moderate  cost,  meant  for  many  of  them  a  new 
lease  of  life.    His  engine  used  no  more  than  a  fourth  of  the  fud 
that  &d  formerly  been  needed  to  do  the  same  work,  and  th« 
Soho  £rm  usually  claimed  by  way  of  royalty  a  sum  equivalent 
to  one-third  of  the  8aving'~4  sum  which  must  have  been  nearly 
equal  to  the  cost  of  the  fuel  actually  consumed.  Rival  mann* 
facturers  came   forward,   amongst   whom  Edward  Bull  and 
Jonathan  Carter  Homblower  are  the  most  conspicuous  names. 
They  varied  the  form  of  the  engine,  but  they  could  not  avoid 
infrinj^  Watt's  patent  by  the  use  of  a  separate  condenser. 
When  action  was  taken  against  them  on  that  ground,  they 
retaliated  by  disputing  the  validity  of  the  fundamental  patent 
of  1769.    In  the  case  of  BotdUm  £r  WaU  "v.  BuU  the  court 
was  divided  on  this  point,  but  in  an  action  against  Homblower 
the  patent-  was  definitely  affirmed  to  be  valid  by  a  unanimous 
finding  of  the  Court  of  King's  Bench.    This  was  in  1799,  only  a 
year  before  the  monopoly  expired,  but  the  decision  enabled 
the  firm  to  claim  a  large  sum  as  arrears  of  patent  dues.    In 
connexion  with  these  trials  Watt  himself,  as  well  as  his  early 
friends  Black  and  Robison,  drew  up  narratives  of  the  invention 
of  the  steam-engine,  which  are  of  much  interest  to  the  student 
of  its  history.* 

Before  Watt's  time  the  steam-ennoe  was  excluuvely  a  steam* 

Eump,  slow-working,  cumbrous  and  excessively  wasteful  of  fuel* 
[is  first  patent  made  it  quick  in  working,  powerful  and  efficient, 
but  still  only  as  a  steam-pump.  His  later  inventions  adapted  it 
to  drive  machinery  of  all  kinds^  and  left  it  virtually  what  it  is 
to-day,  save  in  three  respects.  In  respect  of  mechanical  anangement 
the  modern  engine  differs  from^  Watt's  chiefly  in  this,  that  the 
beam,  an  indisptcnsable  feature  in  the  early  pumping-engines,  and 
one  which  held  its  place  long  after  the  need  for  it  had  vanished, 
has  gradually  given  way  to  more  direct  modes  of  connecting  the 

Eiston  with  the  crank.    Another  difference  is  in  the  modem  use  of 
igh-pressure  steam.    It  is  rcmarkal^le  that  Watt,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  his  own  invention  of  expansive  working  must  have 
opened  his  eyes  to  the  advantage  of  high-pressure  steam,  declined 
to  admit  it  into  his  practice.    He  persisted  in  the  use  oif  pressures 
that  were  little  if  at  all  above  that  of  the  atrao^phere.    His  rivals 
in  Cornwall  were  not  so  squeamish.    Richa^  Trvivithick  ventuicd 
as  far  as  120  lb  on  the  square  inch,  and  a  curious  episode  in  the 
history  of  the  steam-engine  is  an  attempt  which  Boulton  &  Watt 
made  to  ha^'c  an  act  of  parliament  passed  forbidding  the  use  of  high 
pressure  on  the  ground  that  the  lives  of  the  pul^ic  were  endangerod. 
The  third  and  only  other  respect  in  which  a  great  improvement  has 
been  effected  is  in  the  introduction  of  compound  expansion.    Here, 
too,  one  cannot  but  regret  to  find  the  Soho  firm  hostile,  though  the 
necessity  of  defending  their  monopoly  makes  their  action  natural 
enough.    Hornblower  had  in  fact  stumbled  on  the  invention  of  the 
compound  engine,  but  as  his  machine  employed  Watt's  condenser 
it  was  suppressed,  to  be  revived  after  some  years  by  Arthur  WooU 
(1766-1837).    In  one  of  his  patents  (1784)  Watt  describes  a  steam 
locomotive,  but  he  never  prosecuted  this,  and  when  William  Mur- 
doch, his  chief  assistant  (famous  as  the  inventor  of  gas>lighting), 
made  experiments  on  the  same  lines,  Watt  gave  him  little  encourage- 
ment. ^The  notion  then  was  to  use  a  steam  carriage  on  ordinary 
roads;  its' use  on  railways  had  not  yet  been  thought  of.    When  that 
idea  took  form  later  in  the  last  years  of  Watt's  life,  the  old  roan 
refused  to  smile  upon  his  offspring;  it  is  even  said  that  he  put  a 
clause  in  the  lease  of  his  house  that  no  steam  carriage  should  on  any 
pretext  be  allowed  to  approach  it. 

On  the  expiry  in  1800  of  the  act  by  which  the  patent  of  1769 
had  been  extended,  Watt  gave  up  his  share  in  the  business  of 
engine-building  to  his  sons,  James,  who  carried  it  on  along  with 
a  son  of  Boulton  for  many  years,  and  Gregory,  who  died  in 
1804.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  quietly  spent  at  Mcathfidd 
Hall,  his  house  near  Birmingham,  where  he  devoted  his  time, 
with  scarcely  an  interruption,  to  mechanical  pursuits.  His 
last  work  was  the  invention  of  machines  for  copying  sculpture 

*  Another  narrative  of  the  utmost  Interest  was  written  by  Watt  in 
1814  in  the  form  of  a  footnote  to  Robison's  article  '*  Steam-Engine,'* 
from  the  fourth  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  BnUM^icOt  which  Watt 
revised  before  it  was  repnnrcd  in  the  collected  edition  c^  Robison's 
worica.   See  Robison's  MeckoMieal  Pkttosopkj,  vol.  iL 


WATTEAU 


417 


for  makiiig  redueed  oople$,  another  for  fiUng  faonniles 
by  neaits  of  a  U^t  8ti£F  frame,  irliich  carried  a  pointer  over  the 
siufaoe  of  the  ifork  whik  a  revolving  tool  fixed  to  the  frame 
aioQgBide  of  the  pointor  cat  a  coneipoadSng  torface  on  a  suit- 
able  block.  We  find  him  in  ooirespondenoe  with  Sir  Fhmda 
ChantrQr  about  this  machine  not  many  months  before  his  death, 
and  presenting-  copies  of  bvsts  to  his  friends  aa  the  worlc  "  of 
a  young  artist  just  entering  on  his  eighty*third  year."  His 
life  drew  to  a  tranquil  dose,  and  the  end  came  at  Heathfield 
on  the  i4)th  of  August  1819.  Ifis  remains  were  interred  in  the 
neighbouring  iMirish  church  of  Handsworth. 

Watt  was  twice  married — fiist  in  T763  to  his  cousin  Margaret 
Miller,  who  died  ten  years  later.  Of  four  children  bom  of  the 
marriage,  two  died  in  infancy;  another  was  James  (1769-1848), 
who  succeeded  his  father  in  business;  the  fourth  was  a  daughter 
who  lived  to  maturity,  but  died  early,  leaving  two  children. 
His  second  wife,  Anne  Macgregor,  whom  he  married  before 
settling  in  Birmingham  in  1775,  survived  him;  but  her  two 
children,  Gregory  and  a  daughter,  died  young. 

Some  of  watt's  minor  inventions  have  been  already  noticed. 
Another,  which  has  proved  of  great  pmctical  value,  was  the  letter- 
copying  press  for  copying  manuscript  by  using  a  glutinous  ink  and 
pressing  the  written  page  against  a  moisteneash^t  of  thin  paper. 
He  oatented  this  in  1780,  describing  both  a  roller  press,  the  use 
of  which  he  seems  to  have  preferred  m  copying  his  own  oonespond- 
ence,  and  also  the  fona  of  screw  piesa  now  found  in  every  merdunt's 
office. 

In  the  domain  of  pure  science  Watt  claims  recognition  not  only 
as  liavinflr  had  ideas  greatly  in  advance  of  his  age  regarding  what 
is  now  called  energy,  but  as  a  discoverer  of  the  composition  01  water. 
Writing  to  losepo  Priestley  in  April  1783,  with  reference  to  some 
of  Priestley  s  experiments,  he  suggests  the  theory  that  "  water  is 
composed  of  depniogisticated  air  and  phlogiston  deprived  of  part  of 
their  latent  or  elementary  heat."  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the 
exact  meaning  attached  to  these  antiquated  terms,  and  to  say  how 
far  Watt's  suggestion  anticipated  the  fuller  discovery  of  Cavendish. 
Watt's  views  were  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1783, 
Cavendish's  experiments  in  1784,  and  both  are  printed  in  the  same 
volume  of  the  PhiUsophical  Transactions. 

The  eariy  and  middle  part  of  Watt's  life  was  a  long  struggle  with 
poor  .health:  severe  headache  prostrated  him  for  days  at  a  time; 
but  as  he  ^w  old  his  constitution  seems  to  have  become  more 
robust.  His  disposition  was  despondent  and  shrinking;  he  speaks 
of  hlmadf,  but  evidently  with  unfair  severity,  as  '^indolent  to 
excess."  "  I  am  not  enterprising,"  he  writes;  "  1  would  rather  face 
a  loaded  cannon  than  settle  an  account  or  make  a  bargain ;  in  short, 
I  find  myself  out  of  my  sphere  when  I  have  anything  to  do  with 
mankind."  He  was  a  man  of  warm  friendships,  and  has  left  a 
personal  memorial  of  the  greatest  interest  in  his  numerous  letters. 
They  are  full  of  sagacity  aad  insight:  his  own  achievements  are 
toki  with  a  shrewd  but  extremely  mooiest  estimate  of  their  value,  and 
in  a  style  of  remarkable  terseness  and  lucidity,  lightened  here  and 
there  by  a  touch  of  dry  humour.^  In  his  old  a(|pe  Watt  is  doKribed 
by  his  contemporaries  as  a  man  richly  stored  with  the  most  various 
knowled^,  full  of  anecdote,  familiar  with  most  modern  languages 
and  their  literature,  a  great  talker.  Scott  speaks  of  "  the  alert, 
kind»  benevolent  old  man,  his  talents  and  fancy  overflowing  on  every 
subject,  with  his  attention  alive  to  every  one's  question,  his  informa- 
tion at  every  one's  command." 

See  J.  P.  Muirhead,  Origin  and  Propress  of  lh»  Mechanical  In- 
mntions  «/  Jomos  WaU  (3  vols.,  1854;  vols.  L  and  iL  contain  a 
memoir  and  Watt's  letters;  vol.  iii.  ^ives  a  reprint  of  hb  patent 
specifications  and  other  papers);  Muirhead,  Ltje  of  WaU  (1858), 
Smiles,  Lhes  of  Boulion  and  Watt;  Williamson,  Memorials  of  the 
Lintaia,  Sfc.,  of  Janus  WaU,  published  by  the  Watt  Club  (Greenock. 
1856) ;  Corrtspoudenos  of  tht  lata  Jamas  WaU  an  kis  Discoaery  of  the 
Theory  cf  the  Composition  of  Water,  edited  by  Muirhead  (1846); 
Cowper,  On  the  Inventions  of  James  Watt  and  bis  Models  preserved 
at  Handsworth  and  South  Kensington,"  Proc.  Inst.  Mech,  Eng. 
(1883) ;  artkle  *'  Watt  "  in  the  Encydopaedia  Britanniea  (6th  edition, 
1833).  by  James  Watt,  junior;  Robbon.  Mechantcal  PkUosophy, 
vol.  ii.  (182a)  (letters  and  notes  by  Watt  on  the  History  of  the  Steam- 
Engine).-  CJ*  A.  £.) 

WATTEAU,  ANTOINB  (1684-1731),  French  painter,  was 
born  in  Valenciennes,  of  humble  Flemish  origin.  Comte  de 
CayluSy  his  staunch  friend  of  later  years,  and  his  first  bk^rapher, 
refers  to  Watteau's  father  as  a  hard  man,  strongly  disinclined 
to  accede  to  his  son's  wish  to  become  a  painter;  but  other 
accounts  show  him  in  a  kinder  light— as  a  poor,  struggling 
man,  a  tiler  by  trade,  who  secured  for  his  son  the  best  possible 
education.  Certain  it  is  that  at  the  age  of  fourteen  Watteau 
fras  placed  with  Girin,  a  mediocre  vJenciennes  painter,  with 


whom  he  remafaied  until  1700.  It  is  to  be  assumed  that  he  learnt 
far  more  from  the  study  of  Ostade's  and  Teniers's  paintings  In 
his  native  town  than  from  his  fitst  master's  teaching.  Not 
only  in  subject-matter,  but  in  their  general  tonality,  his  earliest 
worics,  like  f  La  Vraie  Gaiet6,"  which  was  in  the  collection  of  Sir 
Chades  Tennant,  suggest  tUs  influence.  Girin  died  in  1703, 
and  Wattean,  almost  penniless,  went  to  Paris,  where  he  found 
employment  with  the  soeacipainter  M€tayer.  Things,  howevev; 
went  badly  with  his  new  master,  and  Watteau,  broken  down 
in  health  and  on  the  verge  of  starvation,  was  forced  to  work  in 
a  kind  of  factory  vihitte  devotional  pictures  were  turned  out  in 
wholesale  fashion.  Three  francs  a  week  and  meagre  food  were 
his  reward,  but  his  talent  soon  enabled  him  to  paint  the  St 
Nicolas,  the  copying  of  which  was  aUotted  to  him,  without  hav- 
ing  to  refer  to  the  original  Meanwhile  be  spent  his  rare  leisure 
hours  and  the  evenings  in  serious  study,  sketching  and  drawing 
his  impressions  of  types  and  scenes.  His  drawings  attracted 
the  attention  of  CUude  Gillot,  an  artist  imbued  with  the  spirit 
of  the  Renaissance,  who  after  having  successfully  tried  himself 
in  the  mythological  and  historical  genre,  was  just  at  that  time 
devoting  himself  to  the  characters  and  incidents  of  the  Italian 
comedy.  Gillot  took  Watteau  as  pupil  and  assistant,  but  the 
yotmg  man  made  such  rapid  progress  that  he  soon  equalled  and 
excelled  his  master,  ^ose  jealousy  led  to  a  quarrel,  as  a  result  of 
whkh  Watteau,  and  with  him  his  feUow-student  and  later  pupil, 
Lancret,  severed  his  connexion  with  Gillot  and  entered  about 

1708  the  studio  of  Claude  Audran,  a  famous  decorative  painter 
who  was  at  that  time  keeper  of  the  collections  at  the  Luxembourg 
Palace.  From  him  Watteau  acquired  his  knowledge  of  deooradve 
art  and  ornamental  design,  the  garland-like  composition  which 
he  applied  to  the  designing  of  screens,  fans  and  wall  panels. 
At  the  same  time  he  became  deeply  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
Rubens  and  Paolo  Veronese,  whose  works  he  had  daily  before 
him  at  the  palace;  and  he  continued  to  work  from  nature  and 
to  collect  material  for  his  formal  garden  backgrounds  among- 
the  fountains  and  statues  and  stately  avenues  of  the  Luxembourg 
gardens.  His  cbinoiseries  and  singeries  date  probably  from  the 
years  during  which  he  worked  with  Audran.  • 

Perhaps  as  a  recreation  from  the  routine  of  ornamental  design, 
Watteau  painted  at  this  time  "The  Departing  Regiment," 
the  first  picture  in  his  second  and  more  personal  manner,  in 
which  the  touch  reveals  the  influence  of  Rubens's  technique, 
and  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  camp  pictures.  He  showed  the 
painting  to  Audran,  who,  probably  afraid  of  losing  so  talented 
and  useful  an  assistant,  made  light  of  it,  and  advised  him  not 
to  waste  his  time  and  gifts  on  such  subjects.  Watteau,  suspicious 
of  his  master's  motives,  determined  to  leave  him,  advancing 
as  excuse  his  desire  to  return  to  Valenciennes.  He  found  a 
purchaser,  at  the  modest  price  of  60  livres,  in  Sirois,  the  father* 
in-law  of  his  later  friend  and  patron  Gersaint,  and  was  thus 
enabled  to  return  to  the  home  of  his  childhood.  In  Valenciennes 
he  painted  a  number  of  the  small  camp-pieces,  notably  the 
"  Camp'Fire,"  which  was  again  bought  by  Sirois,  the  price  (his 
time  being  raised  to  300  livres;  this  is  now  in  the  collection  of 
Mr  W.  A.  Coats  in  Glasgow.  Two  small  pictures  of  the  same 
type  are  at  the  Hermitage  in  St  Petersburg. 
.  Returning  to  Paris  after  a  comparatively  short  sojourn  at 
Valenciennes,  he  took  up  his  abode  with  Sirois,  and  competed  in 

1709  for  the  Prix  de  Rome.  He  only  obtained  the  second  prize^ 
and,  determined  to  go  to  Rome,  he  applied  for  a  aown  pension 
and  exhibited  the  two  military  pictures  which  he  had  sold  to 
Sirois,  in  a  place  where  they  were  bound  to  be  seen  by  the 
academicians.  There  they  attracted  the  attention  of  de  la  Fosse, 
who,  struck  by  the  race  gifts  displayed  in  these  works,  sent  for 
Watteau  and  dissuaded  him  from  going  to  Italy,  where  he  had 
nothing  to  learn.  It  was  to  a  great  extent  due  to  de  la  Fosse 
and  to  Rigaud  that  Watteau  was  made  an  associate  of  the 
Academy  in  17x9,  and  a  full  member  in  1717,  on  the  completion 
of  his  dipk>ma  picture,  "  The  Embarkment  for  Cythera,"  now 
at  the  Louvre.  A  later,  and  even  more  perfect,  version  of  the 
same  subject  is  in  the  possession  of  the  German  emperor.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  the  superb  portrait  of  R^ud  by  W«tteau 


4-18 


WATTENBACH— WATTERSON 


to  BCr  Hodgkios,  mi  painted  in  acknowfedgment  of 
Rigaud's  friendly  action. 

Watteau  now  went  to  live  with  Crozat,  the  greatest  private 
art  collector  of  his  time,  for  whom  he  painted  a  set  of  four 
decorative  panels  of  "  The  Seasons,"  one  of  which,  "  Summer/' 
ia  now  in  the  o^ection  of  Mr  lionel  Phillips.  Crcnat  left  at  Ids 
death  some  400  paintings  and  19,000  drawings  by  the  masters. 
It  is  easy  to  imagine  how  Watteau  rouned  among  these  treasures, 
•ad  became  more  and  more  familiar  with  Rub^  and  the  great 
Venetians.  In  17x9  or  1720  the  state  of  his  health  had  become 
•0  alarming  that  he  went  to  London  to  consult  the  famous  doctor 
Richard  Mead.  But  far  from  benefiting  by  the  journey,  he 
became  worse,  the  London  fog  and  smoke  proving  particularly 
pemidous  to  a  sufferer  from  consumption.  On  hk  return  to 
Paris  he  lived  for  six  months  with  his  friend  Gersaint,  for  whom 
be  pointed  in  eight  mornings  the  wonderful  signboard  depicting 
the  interior.of  an  art  dealer's  shop,  which  b  now — cut  into  two 
parta— 'in  the  collection  of  the  German  emperor.  His  health  made 
h  imperative  for  him  to  live  in  the  country,  and  in  1731  he  took 
up  his  abode  with  M.  le  Fdvre  at  Nogent.  During  all  this  time, 
as  though  he  knew  the  near  approach  of  the  end  and  wished  to 
make  the  best  of  his  time,  he  worked  with  f  cverisb  haste.  Among 
his  last  paintings  were  a  "  Crucifixion  "  for  the  cur6  of  Nogent, 
and  a  portrait  of  the  famous  Venetian  pastcllist  Rosalba  Carriera, 
who  at  the  same  time  painted  her  portrait  of  Watteau.  His 
restlessness  increased  with  the  progress  cf  his  disease;  he  wished 
to  retiun  to  Valenciennes,  but  the  long  journey  was  too  danger- 
ous; he  sent  for  his  pupil  Paler,  whom  he  had  dismissed  in  a  fit 
of  ill-temper,  and  whom  he  now  kept  by  his  side  for  a  month  to 
give  him  the  benefit  of  his  experience;  and  on  the  i8th  of  July 
1731  he  died  in  Gefsaint's  arms. 

Watteau's  position  in  French  art  is  one  of  unique  importance, 
for,  though  Flemish  by  descent,  he  was  more  French  in  his  art 
than  any  of  his  French  contemporaries.  He  became  the  founder 
—and  at  the  same  time  the  culmination — of  a  new  school  which 
marked  a  revolt  against  the  pompous  decaying  classicism  of  the 
Louis  XIV.  period.  The  vitality  of  his  art  was  due  to  the  rare 
combination  of  a  poet's  imagination  with  a  power  of  seizing 
reality.  In  his  treatment  of  the  landsca^  background  and  of 
the  atmo^heric  stirroundings  of  the  figures  can  be  found  the 
germs  of  impressionism.  All  the  later  theories  of  light  and  its 
effect  upon  the  objects  in  nature  are  foreshadowed  by  Watteau's 
fUes  ckampilres,  which  give  at  the  same  time  a  characteristic, 
though  highly  idealized,  picture  of  the  artificiality  of  the  life 
of  his  time.  He  is  the  mitiator  of  the  Louis  XV.  period,  but, 
except  in  a  few  rare  cases,  his  paintings  are  entirely  free  from  the 
licentiousness  of  his  followers  Lancret  and  Pater,  and  even  more 
of  Boucher  and  Fragonard.  During  the  Ust  years  of  his  life 
Watteau's  art  was  highly  esteemed  by  such  fine  judges  as  Sirois, 
Gefsaint,.the  comte  de  Caylus,  and  M.  de  Julienne,  the  last  of 
whom  had  a  whole  collection  of  the  master's  paintings  and 
sketches,  and  published  In  1735  the  Abrigi  de  laviede  Watteau, 
an  introduction  to  the  four  volumes  of  engravings  after  Watteau 
by  Cochin,  Thomassin,  Le  Bas,  Liotard  and  others.  From  the 
middle  of  the  x8th  century  to  about  1875,  when  Edmond  de 
Goncourt  published  his  Catalogue  raisannS  of  Watteau's  woilcs 
and  Caylus's  discourse  on  Watteau  ddivercd  at  the  Academy 
in  1748,  the  discovery  oi  which  is  also  due  to  the  brothers  de 
Goncourt,  Watteau  was  held  in  such  slight  esteem  that  the 
prices  realized  by  his  paintings  at  public  auction  rarely  exceeded 
£100.  Then  the  reaction  set  in,  and  in  1891  the  "  Occupation 
according  to  Age"  realized  5200  guineas  at  Christie's,  and 
**  Perfect  Harmony  "  3500  guineas.  At  the  Bourgeois  sale  at 
Cologne  in  1904  "  The  Village  Bnde  "  fetched  £5000. 

The  finest  collection  of  Watteau's  works  is  In  the  possession  of 
the  German  emperor,  who  owns  as  many  as  thirteen,  all  of 
the  best  period,  and  mostly  from  M.  de  Julienne's  collection. 
At  the  Kaiser  Fricdrich  museum  in  Berlin  are  two  scenes  from 
the  Italian  and  French  comedy  and  a  ftte  champHre.  In  the 
Wallace  Collection  are  nine  of  his  paintings,  among  them  "  Rustic 
Amusements,"  "  The  Return  from  the  Chase,"  "  Gilles  and  his 
FamOy/*  **Tbe  Music  Party,".**  A  Lady  at  ber.Toilet;'  and  I 


*'  Hariequin  and  Cdumbnie."  The  Louvre  onnit,  beridea  the 
diploma  picture,  the  "  Antiope,"  "  The  Assemblage  in  the  Park,'* 
"  Autumn,"  "  Indifference,"  "  U  Finette,"  "  Gilles,"  «  A  Re- 
unio^  "  and  "  The  False  Step,"  as  well  at  thirty-one  original 
drawings.  OUict  paintings  of  Importance  aie  at  the  Dresden, 
Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  St  Petersburg  and  ^^enna  galleries;  and 
a  number  oC  drawings  are  to  be  found  at  the  Bikiah  Museum 
and  the  Albertina  in  Vienna.  Of  the  few  portraits  known  to  have 
been  painted  by  Watteau,  one  is  in  the  coUectSoQ  of  the  bte  M. 
Groidt  in  Paris. 

• 

AuTBORiTiBS.— Since  the  renNcitatioa  of  Watteatt*s  fame  by  the 
de  Goocourts,  an  extensive  litenture  has  ^wa  around  hii  Hfe  and 
work.  The  basts  for  all  later  naeaich  is  fumiabed'by  Caylus's 
somewhat  academic  Life.  Gersaint's  Catahgite  raiseiimi  (Paris, 
1744),  and  Julienne's  AbregS.  For  Watteau's  chDdhood,  the  mo«t 
trustworthy  information  wiU  be  found  in  CelUer's  WaUeaUj  son 
enfanee,  ses  eortUemponins  (Valendennes,  1867).  Of  the  greatest 
importance  is  the  Catalogue  raisonni  de  Ventore  de  Watteau,  bv  £.  de 
Goncourt  (1 875),  and  the  essay  on  Watteau  by  the  brothers  de 
Goncourt  in  I? Art  du  XVJII' siide.  See  also  Watteau  by  Paul 
Mantz  (Paris,  iSoa);  "  Antoine  Watteau."  by  G.  Dargenty  {Lee 
Artistes  cU&res,  Paris,  1891);  Watteau,  by  Gabriel  Stoilles  (Paris. 
189a);  AuUrine  Watteau  by  Claude  Phillips  (London.  1895;  reprinted 
without  alterations  or  corrections  by  the  author.  f90|;) ;  and  Camille 
Mauclair^s  brilliant  mono^ph  Antoine  Watteau  (London,  1905). 
which  Is  of  exceptional  interest  as  a  physiological  study,  since 
the  author  establishes  the  connexion  between  Watteau's  art  and 
character  and  the  illness  to  which- he  succumbed  in  the  prime  of 
his  Ufe.  (P.G.K.) 

WAtTEHBACH,  WItHBUi  (18x^189711,  German  historian, 
was  bom  at  Ranzau  in  Holstein  on  the  sand  of  September  1819. 
He  studied  philology  at  the  universities  of  Bonn,  GStringeo 
and  Berlin,  and  in  1843  he  began  to  work  upon  the  Mouumenta 
Cermaniae  kistorica.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  archivist  at 
Breslau;  in  1862  he  became  professor  of  history  at  Hdddbeig; 
and  ten  years  later  professor  at  Berlin,  where  he  was  a  member 
of  the  directing  body  of  the  ISonumenta  and  a  member  of  the 
Academy.  He  died  at  Frankfort  on  the  31st  of  September  1897 
Wattenbach  was  distinguished  by  his  thorough  kno^edge  of  die 
chronicles  and*  other  original  documents  A  the  midd^  ages, 
and  his  most  valuable  work  was  done  in  this  field. 

His  principal  book.  Deutseklands  GeschiektsqueUen  im  UitteUier 
bis  tur  Mitte  des  13.  Jakrkunderts,  is  unrivalled  as  a  guide  to  the 
sources  of  the  history  of  Germany  in  the  middle  ages;  Uiis  was  firrt 
published  in  1858.  and  has  passed  through  several  editions.  Cqgaste 
works  are  his  Anleihmgeur  lateinischen  Paldograpkie  (Lcipag,  1869. 
and  again.1886);  and  Das  Sckrffiweseu  im  Mitlelalter  (Leiprig.  i87t> 
and  again  1896).  Wattenbach  also  wrote  BeitrSge  tur  Gesekkm 
der  christlicken  Kirche  in  Bdkmen  und  Mdhren  (Vienna.  1849)! 
Geschichte  des  rthniscken  PapsUums  (Berlin,  1876);  and  Anleituug 
zur  grieckischen  Paldograpkie  (Leipzig,  1867,  and  again  1895). 

WATTERSON,  HBNRT  (1840-  ),  American  jounalist, 
was  bom  in  Washington,  D.C.,  on  the  i6th  of  February  i84<^ 
His  father,  Harvey  McGee  Watterson  (1811-X89X),  was  a  jour** 
nalist  and  lawyer,  and  was  a  Democratic  representative  in  (in- 
gress in  x839'i843.  The  son  was  educated  by  private  tutors, 
and  between  1858  and  x86i  was  editor  of  the  Washington  Sta^ 
and  of  the  Democratic  Renew.  During  the  C^vil  War  he  served 
in  the  Confederate  army  as  aide-de-camp  to  General  Nathan  B. 
Forrest  and  to  C^neral  Leonidas  Polk  in  i86x'i863;  he  was 
editor  of  the  Chattanooga  Rebel  in  X863-X863,  and  was  chief  of 
scouts  in  General  Joseph  £.  Johnston's  army  in  1864.  xB 
X865-1867  he  was  an  editor  of  the  Republican  Banner,  at  Nash- 
ville, Tennessee,  and  in  X867-X868  was  editor  of  the  Joum» 
at  Louisville,  Kentucky.  In  x868,  with  W.  N.  Haldemaa,  M 
founded  and  became  e(fit<Mr  of  the  Louisville  Courier- J ovrnd, 
a  consolidadon  of  the  Courier  (1843),  the  Democrat  (1844)1 
and  the  Journal  (1830);  and  ft  soon  became  one  of  the  most 
influential  of  Southern  newspapers.  He  was  s  Democmtic 
representative  in  Congress  from  August  1876  to  March  x877i 
and  was  delegate  at  large  to  the  National  Democratic  Convenlions 
of  1876, 1880, 1884, 1888  and  189a,  serving  as  temporary  chairmw 
in  X876,  and  as  chairman  of  the  platform  committee  in  loW 
and  x888.  He  became  widely  known  as  a  lecturer  and  orator. 
Hfa  publications  inchide  History  of  the  Spanish- American  war 
(1899)  and  The  Compromises  of  Life  (1901). 


WATTIGNIES— WATTMETER 


4.19 


VATIWIUJHL  K  viOi^e  of  Fnnoe  si  m.  S^.E.  <rf  Maubcuge, 
ike  Keoe  o(  a  bfttde  in  tlie  FRBch  RevoluUoiuuy  Wan  {qj9.)j 
fought  on  the  x5tkr-i6Ui  October  1793.  The  Allied  anny,  chiefly 
AustrUos,  under  Cobnrg,  was  hinifging  Maobeoge,  and  the 
RevolutioDacy  army,  preparing  to  idlevc  it^  gathered  behind 
Avcsnea.  Cobuig  dispoaed  a  covering  force  o{  ai^ooo  astride  the 
Aveanea-Manbeuge  nad,  5000  on  the  right  with  their  flank  on 
Che  Sambre,  9000  In  the  centre,  on  a  ridge  in  an  ami^theatre  of 
woods,  and  6000  on  the  left,  chiefly  on  the  platcaa  of  Wattigniea. 
A  longhne  of  woodaenafaled  the  Republican  oonunander,  Jourdan, 
to  de[rfoy  unseen^  i4«ooo  men  were  to  attack  the  right,  x6,ooo 
were  seat  towards  Wattignies,  and  13^000  were  to  demonstrate 
in  the  ceniitt  till  the  othen  had  succeeded  and  then  to  attack. 
Meatntime  (though  this  part  of  the  ptogramme  miscarried)  the 
Maubeuge  gatrisoui  which  was  almost  as  strong  as  its  beuegeis, 
was  to  sally  out.  Even  without  the  Maubeuge  gaiTEon  Jourdan 
had  a  two-to^»e  superiority.  But  the  French  were  stiU  the 
undisciplined  enthusissts  of  Hondschoote.  Their  left  attack 
progrcued  so  long  as  it  could  use ''  dead  ground  "  in  the  valleys, 
but  when  the  Republicans  reached  the  gentler  slopes  above, 
the  voUeys  of  the  Austrian  regulars  crushed  their  swarms,  and 
the  Austrian  cavalry,  striking  them  in  flank,  rode  over  them. 
The  centre  attack,  ordered  by  Camot  on  the  assumption  that  all 
Was  well  on  the  flanks,  was  premature;  like  the  left,  it  pro- 
gressed while  the  slopes  were  sharp,  but  v^cn  the  Republicans 
arrived  on  the  crest  they  found  a  gentle  reverse  slope  before  them, 
at  the  foot  of  which  were  Cobuig's  best  troops.  Again  the  dis- 
ciplined volleys  and  a  well-timed  cavalry  charge  swept  back 
the  asaaikints.  The  French  right  reached,  but  could  not  hold. 
Wattignies.  But  these  reverses  were,  in  the  eyes  of  Carnot  and 
Jourdan,  mere  ^  mishaps.  Jourdan  wished  to  renew  the  left 
attack,  but  Camot,  the  engineer,  considered  the  Wattignies 
plateau  the  key  of  the  postion  and  his  opinion  prevailed.  In 
the  night  the  neariy  equal  partition  of  force,  which  was  largely 
responsible  for  the  future,  was  modified,  and  the  strength  of 
the  attack  massed  opposite  Wattignies.  Coburg  meanwhile 
strengthened  his  wings.  He  heard  that  Jourdan  had  been  re- 
inforced up  to  xoo^ooo.  But  he  called  up  few  fresh  battalions, 
and  put  into  line  only  23^000  men.  In  reality  Jourdan  had  not 
received  reinforcements,  and  the  effects  of  the  first  failure  almost 
fleutrafoed  the  superiMity  of  numbers  and  enthusiasm  over 
discipline  and  confidence.  But  at  last,  after  a  long  fight  had 
cHmmated  the  faint-hearted,  enough  brave  men  remained 
in  the  excited  crowds  hdd  together  by  Camot  and  Jourdan 
to  win  the  plateau.  Cobui^g  then  drew  oflF.  His  losses  were 
3500  out  of  23,000,  Jourdan's  3000  out  of  43,000. 

WATTLB  AND  DAB,  a  term  in  architecture  (Lat.  cratitius) 
applied  to  a  wall  made  with  upright  stakes  with  withes  twisted 
between  them  and  then  plastered  over.  It  is  probably  one  of 
the  oldest  systems  of  constraction;  the  Egyptians  employed 
the  stems  of  maize  for  the  upright  stakes;  these  were  secured 
together  with  withes  and  covered  over  with  mud,  the  upper 
portions  of  the  maise  stems  being  left  uncut  at  the  top,  to  in- 
crease the  height  of  the  enclosure;  and  these  are  thought  by 
Professor  Petrie  to  have  ^ven  th^  origin  for  the  cavetto  cornice 
of  the  temples,  the  torus  moulding  representing  the  heavier 
coil  of  withes  at  the  top  of  the  foice  waU.  Vitravius  (ii.  8) 
refers  to  It  as  behig  employed  in  Rome.  In  the  middle  ages  in 
England  it  was  employed  as  a  framework  for  clay  chimneys. 

WATniBTER,  an  instrument  for  the  measurement  of  electric 
power,  or  the  rate  of  supply  of  electric  eneigy  to  any  circuit. 
The  term  Is  generally  applied  to  describe  a  particular  form  of 
dectrodynamometcr,  consisting  of  a  fixed  ccril  of  wire  and  an 
embradng  or  neighbouring  onl  of  wire  suspended  so  as  to  be 
movable.  In  general  constraction  the  instrament  resembles 
a  Siemens  electrodynamometer  (see  Ampescveter).  The  fixed 
cdO  is  c&Ucd  the  current  coil,  and  the  movable  coil  is  called  the 
potential  coil,  and  each  of  these  coils  has  its  ends  brought  to 
separate  terminals  on  the  base  of  the  instrument.  The  prindple 
on  ^ich  the  instrument  works  is  as  follows:  Suppose  any 
circuit,  such  as  an  electric  motor,  lamp  or  transformer,  is  receiving 
tkctric  iurreot;  then  the  power  given  to  that  drcuit  reckoned 


in  watu  is  measured  by  the  product  of  the  corroit  flowCng  fhrou^ 
the  drcuit  m  amperes  and  the  potential  differeuce  of  the  ends  of 
that  drcuit  in  volts,  multiplied  by  a  certain  factor  called  the 
power  f aaor  in  those  cases  in  which  the  circuit  is  inductive  and 
the  current  alternating. 

Take  firrt  the  rimfdest  case  of  a  non-inductive  power-absorbing 
drcuit.  If  an  electro-dynamometer,  made  as  above  described,  has 
its  fixed  drcuit  connected  in  series  with  the  power-absorbing  circuit 
and  its  movable  coil  (wound  with  fine  wire)  connected  across  the 
terminals  of  the  power-absori>ing  drcuit,  then  a  current  will  flow 
through  the  fixed  coil  which  is  the  same  or  neariy  the  same  as  that 
through  the  power-«bsori>ing  circuit,  and  a  current  will  flow  through 
the  high  resistance  cofl  of  the  wattmeter  proportional  to  the  ^tential 
difference  at  the  terminals  of  the  power-absorbing  circuit.  The 
movable  coil  of  the  wattmeter  b  normally  suspended  so  that  its 
axis  is  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  fixed  coil  and  b  constrained  by 
the  torsion  of  a  spiral  spring.  When  the  currents  flow  through  the 
two  coib,  forces  are  brought  into  action  compelling  the  coib  to  set 
their  axes  in  the  same  direction,  and  these  forces  can  be  opposed  by 
another  torque  due  to  the  control  of  a  spiral  spring  regulated  by 
moving  a  torsion  head  on  the  instrument.  The  torque  reouired  to 
hold  the  coib  in  their  normal  position  b  proportional  to  the  mean 
value  of  the  product  of  the  currents  flowing  through  two  coib 
respectively,  or  to  the  mean  value  of  the  product  of  the  current  In 
the  power-absorbing  circuit  and  the  potential  difference  at  its  ends, 
that  b,  to  the  power  taken  ui>  by  the  circuit.  Hence  thb  power 
can  be  measured  by  the  torsion  which  must  be  applied  to  the 
movable  coil  of  the  wattmeter  to  hold  it  in  the  normal  position 
against  the  action  of  the  forces  tending  to  displace  it.  The 
wattmeter  can  therefore  be  calibrated  so  as  to  give  direct 
readmits  of  the  power  reckoned  in  watts,  taken  up  in  the  drcuit; 
hence  its  name,  wattmeter.  In  those  cases  in  which  the  power- 
absorbing  drcuit  b  inductive,  the  coil  of  the  wattmeter  connected 
across  the  terminals  of  the  power-absorbing  drcuit  must  hav« 
an  exceedingly  small  inductance,  ebe  a  considerable  correction 
may  become  necessary.  This  correcting  factor  has  the  follow- 
ing value.  If  Ts  stands  for  the  time-constant  of  the  movable 
circuit  of  the  wattmeter,  commonly  called  the  potentbl  coil,  the 
time  constant  bdng^  defined  as  the  ratio  of  the  mductance  to  the 
resbtance  of  that  circuit,  and  if  Tr  is  the  tlme<onstant  similarly 
defined  of  the  power-absorbing  circuit,  and  if  F  b  the  correcting 
factor,  and  p-2r  times  the  frequency  n,  then,^ 


I+/»»T,T, 

Hence  an  electrodynamic  wattmeter,  applied  to  measure  the electriod 
power  talwn  up  w  a  circuit  when  employing  alternating  currents, 
gives  absolutely  correct  readings  only  m  two  cases— *(i.)  when  tfa« 

Ktcntial  circuit  of  the  wattmeter  and  the  power-absorbing  circuit 
ve  negligible  inductances,  and  (it.)  when  the  same  two  circuits 
have  equal  rime-constants.  If  these  conditions  are  not  fulfilled, 
the  wattmeter  readings,  assuming  the  wattmeter  to  have  been 
calibrated  with  continuous  currents,  may  be  either  too  high  or  too 
low  when  alternating  currents  are  being  used. 

In  order  that  a  wattmeter  shall  be  suitable  for  the  measurement 
of  power  taken  up  in  an  inductive  drcuit  certain  conditions  of 
construction  must  be  fulfilled.  The  framework  and  case  <rf  the 
instrument  must  be  completely  noa-metaUic,  ebe  eddy  currents 
induced  in  the  supports  will  cause  dbturbing  forces  to  act  upon 
the  movable  coil.  Again  the  shunt  drcuit  must  have  practically 
zero  inductance  and  the  series  or  current  coQ  must  be  wound  or 
constructed  with  stranded  cop|>er  wire,  each  strand  being  silk 
covered,  to  prevent  the  production  of  eddy  currents  in  the  mass 
of  the  conductor.  Wattmetera  of  this  kind  have  been  devised  by 
J.  A.  Fleming,  Lord  Kelvin  and  W.  Duddell  and  Mather.  VV.  ^ 
Sumpner,  however,  has  devised  forms  of  wattmeter  of  the  dyna* 
moroeter  type  in  which  iron  cores  are  employed,  and  has  dehned 
the  conditions  under  which  these  instrumenu  are  available  for 
accurate  measurements.  See  "  New  Alternate  Current  Instruments," 
Jour.  Inst,  EUc.  Eng.,  41,  327  (1908). 

There  are  methods  of  measuring  electrical  power  by  means  of 
electrostatic  voltnieten,  or  of  quadrant  electrometers  adapted  for 
the  purpose,  which  when  so  ennployed  may  be  called  electrostatic 
wattmeters.  If  the  quadrants  of  an  electrometer  {q.y.)  are  con* 
nccted  to  the  ends  of  a  non-inductive  drcuit  in  series  with  the 
power-absorbing  drcuit,  and  if  the  needle  is  connected  to  the  end 
of  thb  last  drcuit  opposite  to  that  at  which  the  inductionless  n- 
sisunoe  b  connected,  then  the  deflexion  of  the  efectrometcr  ^ill  be 
proportional  to  the  power  taken  up  in  the  circuit,  since  it  is  pro- 
portional 10  the  mean  value  of  (A-B)  |C-i  (A-f-B)),  where  A  and 
B  are  the  potentials  of  the  quadrants  and  C  b  that  of  the  needle 
Thb  expression,  however,  measures  the  power  taken  up  in  the 
powersabsorbing  drcuit.  In  the  case  of  the  voltmeter  method  of 
measuring  power  devised  by  W.  E.  Ayrton  and  W.  E.  Sumpner  in 
1891,  an  electrostatic  voltmeter  is  employed  to  measure  the  fall  of 
potentbl  Vi  down  any  inductive  drcuit  in  which  it  is  desired  to 

>  For  the  proof  of  thb  formuk  see  J.  A.  Fleming,  Tht  AUerm4k 
Current  Transformer  in  Theory  and  Pra€tke,  I.  I68. 


WATTS,  A.  A.— WATTS,  G.  F. 

triunph thraush tlKMractioIKoBs."  miMtEM&tata 


by  5'.°^.'' 


;?'^;*j/. 


:  povvr  aliaorptioiT,  Aod  aln  (b«  vgJt-dnip  Vi  down  an 
™  togelher.  The  power  ib»rpiii>n  ii  then  givtn  by  lie 
(Vi'-Vi'-Vi'j/iR.     Fot  methodi  ojempJoyiiiB   llw 

"^       ■  '""""i.ytt^ltmelenl'"..!^.  /luj'si.  iS^. 
and  nuny  olher  melEiodt  of  empbyinf 


Haiiilmit  fsr  Ihi  EJauial 


49-414:  Id., "  Alienate  Cui lalojie) 

in  the  Method  of  Meaurlnf  Ponr."  FlaL  Mat.  (AiiRuU  iSgi); 
W.  E.  Aynon.  "  ElectroiiKUi  Methodi  of  Meuimng  AlicnuIinE 
Current  hnw,"  3mr%.  iHiL  Eia.  £■{.  (iSU).  17,  164:  T.  H. 
BUiknley. "  Further  Contrlbulioiu  to  DyiHnniiiietrv  or  Uw  Meuurc- 
meni  of  Power,"  Fhil.  Met.  (April  iSai);  G.  L  Addeobrooke. 
-The  ElectTcHtallc  Wattmeter  ind  itil^ibntioRaiidAdaplalion 
'.r  Folyphile  Mnliurrnierli."  Eltclriiiam  (1903),  SI,  Bill  W.  E. 


"   {J.  A."™ 


Worfcng,'"A».IiiJJ.  £(«.£«£.,  36, 421  li906). 

WATTS,  ALARIC  ALEXANDER  (i7«7-i«64),  English 
jounuliit  and  poet,  waa  the  aon  of  John  Mosley  WalU  and 
grandnn  of  William  Walta,  s  Leicester  physician  of  repute. 
After  leaving  school  he  nude  hii  living  for  a  shoniiine  by  teach- 
ing, and  in  iStS  joined  the  haB  of  the  Kea  UaMUy  UagavK 

LUtniy  Gautlt.     In  iBu  he  was  made  editor  of  the  Irati 
iHtelliiaua,  in  the  columni  of  which  he  wii  one  of  the  firal 

333  be  published  hi 

ifr,  of  which  he  also  became  1 
id  in  the  conduct  of  which  h( 
le  of  Uk  most  famoiu  m 


ID  Man 
which  h 


i>  edits 


e^gned  a  year  lj 


ot  Ihc  Uat 


1817  he  assisted  in  founding  the  Standard, 
tditoi  was  Slinky  Lea  Giflatd;  and  in  1833  he  ituled  Ibe 
Vmisi  Serriii  Gaialt,  whidi  he  edited  for  several  yeitt  Walls 
*as  alio  inleresled  in  a  number  of  provincial  Conservative 

bankrapl  in  1S50,  but  »u  iwsided  a  civil  lervice  peDiion  by 
Lord  Abcrdeoi  in  iS;*.  In  1S56  be  edited  the  fint  tdilicHi  of 
Un  <•!  U-  Timt.  Walls  died  hi  London  on  the  sib  of  ^lil 
1S64.  In  iS6y  a  collection  of  his  pocnu  wu  published  in  a 
volume  entitled  Tlii  lavid  and  ikt  Lyri. 

Sec  A.  A.  Watu,  AlarU  WUU  (2  voU.,  Loadoa,  1M4). 

WATTS,  OBOnOB  PRei>E8tCK<i8i7-iQO(),  English  painlei 
tnd  vtilpioT,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  23rd  of  Frbiuary  1S17, 
While  hardly  more  Ihan  a  boy  be  was  permitted  to  enter  the 


-Hn?;  but 


wax  confined  to  pei 
eiperimenl  and  endeavour,  guided  and  corrrcted  by  a  cop 
appeal  to  the  standard  of  ancient  Creek  sculpture.  Thci 
portiaiti  of  himself,  painted  in  1834;  of  Mr  James  V 
about  jSjs;  of  his  lather,  "  Little  Mist  Hopkins,"  and 
Richard  Jarvit,  painted  In  1836:  and  in  1837  he  was  already 
far  enough  advanced  to  be  an  eihibitor  at  the  Academy  with  a 
IHCture  of  "  The  Wounded  Meion  "  and  two  portraits.  His 
trst  exhibiteii  figure-subject,  "  CaTalifta,"  appeared  on  the 
Academy  walls  in  iSj^,  and  was  lollowed  in  1840  by  "  Isabella  e 
Lorenio,"in  iS4t  by  "  How  should  I  your  true  love  know?"  and 
in  1842  by  a  scene  from  Cymbclim  and  a  portrait  of  Mr*  lonidn. 
The  Royal  Commission  appointed  for  the  decoration  of  the  new 
Hoowt  of  Paiiiunent  offered  prius  in  1842  to  those  arlisti 
whose  rarloons  for  frescoes  should  be  adjudged  best  adapted  to 
Its  object,  and  at  thteihibitian  in  Westminster  Hall  next  year 
Watts  secured  a  priic  ol  £joa  for  a  desi(ii  of  "  Catactacu*  led 


artion  of  the  three  following  ye*D,  for  the  moat  part  b  Flonncc, 
here  be  enjoyed  the  patnoaga  aul  1"™™''  liieiidBUp  ol  Laid 
:ollaiid,  the  British  ambaaaadoa.  F<a  Um  ba  painted  a  pofUait 
[  Lady  HoUasd,  ohilnted.  in  1S4S,  and  in  hi*  ViUa  Canggi, 
rar  the  city,  a  fresco,  alter  b  ' ' 
L  that  mcditun,  fragmeo' 

id  Albert  Museum.    To  Lord  H  ... 

was  chiefly  due  that  in  1846  the  aitiit  took  paK  in  UMMfaet 
>mpetiiion,  the  third  cKjaniiHl  by  dw  Koyal  CoouaiMtoett, 
'  fortbtr  Hat  ol  prim  iorwgrti 
AUndiDdlii«M 
subjects  to  pirvent  the  tanding  of  tlw  Duet,  or  tlw  Sot  wtiI 
victory  of  the  English,"  whiti,  after  obuiuing  a  fint-dasi  piia 
of  ijoo  at  the  exhibition  in  WeUfdnster  Hall,  wu  puiduicd 
by  the  government,  and  han^inoae  ol  IhB  committee  rooms  <rf 
the  House  of  Commons.  It  lad,  momiTer,  ta  a  cowmlidnn  fM 
the  fresco  of  "  St  George  ovcnoBea  the  Dngon,"  which,  begun 
in  1S48  and  finished  in  iBsj.foims  patt  ol  the  decoralioct  ol 
tits  Hall  of  tiie  Facts  in  t^  Hotuei  of  Faritumnt.  Be  oDd 
proposed  to  adorn  gratuitoudjr  tke  interior  of  the  Gnat  Hil 
of  Euston  railway  station  with  a  soies  of  bcKoei  UhiMntiDg 
"  The  Progress  ol  the  Coamot,"  but  Ibe  oflei  vat  reiaaid.  A 
ainiilar  ptopositiiHi  made  thoitly  alttnratdt  to  tlte  Beochtit  «f 
lincoln's  Inn  was  received  in  a  leti  commercial  sfdiit,  and  waa 
followed  by  the  eiecutioa  of  the  fretm.  "  Juaticei  a  Uemkyde 
of  Lawgivers."  on  the  north  tid«  of  their  hall. 

While  this  Ittse  undertaking  was  still  in  progreta,  WatU  waa 
workiug  steadily  at  piciuret  and  portraits-     In  i^Q  the  first 
ol  the  great  allegorical  compcaitiona  which  form  Ih    ~"' 


:  of  the  u 


.      .    .  ■"Lile't 
It  of  the  vanity  ol  luuau 


elaborate  prese 
desires,  and  "  The  people  that  ,    .         _     .    . 

towards  the  growing  dawn.  In  1850  Ite  Sat  gave  public  ei- 
pietuan  to  his  inteiuc  longing  to  improve  tlie  cwuUlkm  of 
humanity  in  the  picture  of  "  The  Gixxi  Samaritui "  bendinfovEt 
the  wouoded  traveller,  this,  as  recorded  in  the  catalogue  of  the 
Royal  Audemy,  was  "  painted  as  an  eipresaion  of  Ibe  artist's 
admiration  and  respect  for  the  noble  philanthropy  of  Ihomit 
Wright,  of  Manchester,"  and  to  that  city  he  presented  lbs  wet 
In  1 856  Wat  tt  paid  a  visit  to  Lord  Holland  at  Palis,  where  he  nt 
then  ambassador,  and  Ihrottgh  him  made  the  acqtiaintante  ssd 
painted  the  portraita  of  Thiers,  Prince  Jeroote  Booaparle  snd 
other  famous  FrFnchnMn;  while  other  cdebrilies  who  hL  to  bin 
during  these  years  were  Guiiot  I1848), Colonel  RswIinson.C.B.. 
Sir  Henry  Taylor  and  Thomas  Wright  (1S51),  Laid  John 
Ruiiell  (iSsi).  Tennyson  (rS56,  and  again  in  iSjg),  Joka 
Luthn^  Motley  the  historian  (1S59),  the  dukt  of  Argyll  (lUo). 
Lord  Lawrence  and  Lord  Lyndhurst  (1S61),  Lord  Weialeydale 
(1S64),  Mr  Gladstone  (iSjS  and  iE6j),  Sir  William  Bowman  and 
Swinbume  (1S65),  Panlaij  (1866)  and  Dean  Stanley  and  Sr 
Joachim  in  1867  Notable  pictures  oi  the  tame  pciiod  tie 
"  Sir  Galahad  "  (i8<2),  "  Ariadne  in  Naios  "  (1863),  "  Time  and 
Oblivion  "  (1864}.  origmally  designed  lor  sculpture  to  be  canicd 


■Theti 


rs  materials  after  the  B 


In  qiitc  of  that  and  many  othii  avidencit  of  bis  inpoittaca, 
it  was  not  until  iSe?  that  Watta  was  elected  an  AitociaU  d 
the  Royal  Academy,  but  the  council  then  csnfaml  upon  hia 

year,  to  lull  Academidanship.  Thenceforward  be  continued  tD 
eihibit  each  year,  with  a  few  exceptions,  at  the  Acadeny,  evca 
after  his  retiremtnt  in  1896,  and  be  was  alM  a  frequeol  too- 
tributor  to  the  Grosvenor  Gallery,  and  subsequenlly  to  the  New 
Gallery,  at  which  last  a.special  eihibidon  of  his  works  was  heU 
in  the  winter  ol  1846-1847.  Though  be  travelled  abroad  tosMB* 
Client,  going  to  Asia  Minor  in  iS;7  with  the  eipcditioo  teat  to 
investigate  the  ruins  of  Halicamtssus.  and  visiting  in  later  ycta 
Italy,  Greece  tnd  Egypt,  the  greater  part  of  his  life  was  patted  la 
the  laboriouiKcIuiioo  of  hisstudio  either  at  Little  HoUand  HJUt^ 
Uelbury  Road,  Keiwinffon,  whue  be  tottkil  in  iSsg.  w  in  tte 


WATTS,  G.  P. 


4.St 


coonCiy  at  LimnenlsdJer  GomptoUf  Stifr^.  Apart  non  ms  art, 
his  life  was  huppify  uoevaitful;  the  sole  faicts  necessary  to  leoord 
bang  Ids  nardage  in  1886  with  Miss  Mary  Fraser->TytIer,  an 
eariy  unioii  with  Miss  EUea  Teny  having  been  disse^ed  many 
yean  beloie;  his  twice  receiving  (188$  and  1894),  but  respectfidly 
dedtning,  the  offer  of  a  tMronetcy;  and  his  inclusion  in  Jane 
iQos  in  the  newly  founded  Order  of  Merit.  Be  died  on  the  ist 
of  July  1904. 

The  wQiid  is  eMCpttonally  wdl  provided  with  opportunities  of 
judj^ng-of  the  qualities  of  G.  F.  Watts'*  art,  for  with  a  noble  flene* 
ronty  be  presented  to  his  country  a  representative  selection  Ot  the 
best  work  cA  his  long  life.  A  prominent  element  in  it,  and  one 
which  must  prove  of  the  greatest  value  to  posterity,  is  the  inesti- 
mable series  of  portraits  of  hb  distinguished  oontenporarfes,  a  series 
00  less  lemarkaUe  fpr  its  artistic  than  for  ils  histornal  interest.  A 
glance  through  the  list  of  bis  subjects  shows  the  breadth  of  his  sym- 
pathies and  his  superiority  to  creed  or  party.  Among  politicians  are 
the  duke  of  Devonshire  (1883).  Lords  Salisbury  (1884),  Sherbrooke 
1882).  Campbell  (»88a),  Cowper  (1877).  Ripon  (1896),  Dufferin 
1897)  and  Shaftesbury  (i88a),  Mr  GenOd  Balfour  (1809)  and  Mr 
bhn  Bums  (18^7);  poets — ^Tennyson,  Swinburne  (1884),  Browning 
1875),  Matthew  Arnold  (188I).  Rossetti  (1865.  and  subsequent 
replica)  and  William  Moms  (1870);  artist»--himself  (1864,  1880, 
and  eleven  others).  Lord  Leighton  (1871  and  1881),  Calderon  (1873), 
Prinsep  (187a).  Burne-Jones  (1870).  Millais  (1871),  Walter  Crane 
(1 891),  and  Alfred  Gilbert  (1896))  literature  is  represented  by  John 
Stuart  Mill  (exhibited  1874),  Carlyle  (1869),  George  MeredIthXi893), 
Max  Mailer  (1895)  and  Mr  Lecky  (1878) ;  music,  by  Sir  Chailes 
Hall^;  while  among  others  who  have  won  fame  m  diverse  jnths 
are  Lords  Napier  (1886)  and  Roberts  (1809),  General  Baden-Powell 


signmcant  from  an  artbtic  point  of  view  is  the  great  collection  of 
symbolical  pictures  in  the  Tate  Gallery  whk:b  forms  the  artist's 
mea«a|e  to  mankind.  Belwving  devoutly  in  the  high  mission  of 
didactic  art,  he  strove  ever  to  carry  out  his  part  of  it  faithfully. 
To  quote  his  own  words:  "  My  intention  has  not  been  so  much  to 
paint  pictmes  that  charm  the  eye,  as  to  suggest  great  thoughts  that 
wiU  appeal  to  the  iraagiaation  and  the  heart,  and  kindle  tuL  that  is 
best  and  noblest  in  humanity  ":  and  his  tenet  is  that  the  main  oB- 
ject  of  the  painter  should  be  demanding  noble  aspirations,  con- 
demning in  the  most  trenchant  manner  prevalent  vices,  and  warning 
in  deep  toms  against  lapaes  from  morals  and  duties." 

There  are'  not  wanting  critics  who  radically  (Uosenf  from  this  view 
of  the  proper  functions  of  art.  It  must  be  admitted  that  there  is 
force  in  their  objection  when  the  inner  meaning  of  a  picture  is  found 
to  be  exceedingly  obscure,  if  not  incomprehensible,  without  a  verbal 
explanation.  In  the  female  figure,  for  instance,  bending  blindfolded 
on  the  globe  suspended  ia  space  and  soanding  the  s(»e  remaining 
string  upon  her  lyre,  while  a  single  star  shines  in  the  blue  heavens, 
it  is  not  obvious  to  every  one  that  the  idea  of  "  Hope  "  (1885)  is 
suggested.  There  can  be  few,  nevertheless,  who  will  maintain  that 
his  aim  is  not  a  lofty  one:  and  the  stron^iest  evidence  of  the  artist's 
greatness^  to  those  who  acoept  his  doctnne,  b  the  fact  that  he  has 
not  only  striven  untiringjty  for  hb  own  ideals,  hot  has  very  often 
gloriously  attained  them.  Moreover,  in  so  doing  be  has  not  failed 
on  occasion  to  impart  to  hb  work  much  of  that  very  charm  which  b 
to  him  a  secondary  consideration,  or  to  exhibit  an  assured  and 
accomplished  mastery  of  the  technicad  achievement  which  b  to  some 
the  pnmary  object  and  oeential  triumph  of  painting.  It  wasi  in 
short,  the  rare  combination  of  supreme  handicraft  with  a  great 
imaginative  Intellect  which  secured  to  Watts  hb  undbputed  place 
in  the  public  estimation  of  his  day.  The  grandeur  and  dignity  ci  his 
style,  the  ease  and  purposef  ulness  of  his  brushwork,  the  richness  and 
harnwMoinnesB  of  hb  cok>uring*~qualltie8  iNutly  hb  own,  partly 
derived  from  his  study  of  Italian  masters  at  an  cany  and  imprnsion- 
able  age-'-are  acknowledged  even  by  those  to  whom  hb  elevated 
educational  intentions  are  a  matter  of  indifference,  if  not  of  absolute 
<fisapprobatkm;  while  aiany.  to  whom  hb  exceptional  artistic 
attatnnient  is  a  sealed  book,  have  gathered  courage  or  consolation 
from  the  grave  moral  purpose  and  deep  human  sympathy  of  hb 
teaching.  He  expresses  his  ideas  for  the  most  part  in  terms  of 
beauty,  an  idealised,  classical  beauty  of  form,  a  glowing,  Venetian 
beauty  of  colour,  thoi^h  hb  conviction  of  the  deadly  danger  of 
heapeo-op  riches,  which  he  vindicated  in  his  life  as  well  as  in  hb 
worK,  has,  in  such  cases  as  '*  The  Minotaur  "  (exhibited  in  1896), 
*' Mammon"  (1885)  and  'Monah'*  (1895),  where  the  unveiled 
vileness  of  Cruelty  and  Greed  is  fearieesly  depicted,  driven  him  to 
the  presentment  of  sheer  ugliness  or  brutality.  Far  oftener  a  vast, 
aD-embracfag  tenderness  inspires  his  work;  it  b  the  sorrow,  not 
the  sin,  that  atira  him.  Wnen  he  would  rebuke  the  thoughtless 
inhumanity  which  sacrifices  its  annual  hecatombs  <f  iimocent 
Urds  to  fashionable  vanity  and  grasping  commerce,  it  is  not  upon 
the  blood  and  cruelty  that  he  pwells,  but  the  pity  of  it  that  he 
typifies  in  "Dedication"  or  "The  Shuddering  Angd"  (1893) 
WMpiag  over  the  altar  sprsad  .with  Woman's  spoib. 

Vet  It  b  as  a  teacher  that  the  snbt  b  seen  at  hb  higbssti  he 


would  sooner  point  otit  the  tme  way  to  those  who  seek  It  than 
admoalsb  those  who  have.  wandereiL  He  never  wearies  of  em- 
phasuing  the  reality  of  the  pcrwer  tA  Love,  the  fallacy  underlying 
the  fear  of  Death.  To  the  early  masters  Death  wa9  a  bare  ana 
ghastly  skdeton,  above  aH  things  to  be  shunned;  to  Watts  it 
IS  a  grand,  impressive  figure,  awful  indeed  but  not  horrible,  irre- 
sistible but  not  ruthless,  a  bringer  of  rest  and  peace,  not  to  be 
rashly  sought  but  to  be  weleomed  when  the  inevitable  hour  shall 
strike.  "SictroHsUy  (itoa)  conveys  moet  completely,  perhaps.Watts's 
lesson  on  the  theme  of^death.  Stretched  on  a  bier  and  reverently 
sheeted  lies  a  corpse;  strewn  neglected  on  the  ground  lie  the  ermine 
robe  of  worldly  rank,  the  weapons  of  the  warrior,  the  lute  of  the 
musicbn,  the  book  of  human  learning,  the  palmer's  robe  of  late' 
repentance  and  the  roses  of  fleeting  i>lea9ure8;  the  laurel  crown 
remains  as  the  one  thing  worth  the  winning,  and  the  inscription 
"  What  I  spent  I  had;  what  I  saved  I  lost;  what  I  gave  1  have." 
points  the  moral.  Such  is  the  significance  of  the  still  more  masteriy 
^'  Court  of  Death  "  (finally  completed  1902  and  now  in  the  Tate 
Gallery).  To  the  same  early  masters  Love  was  usually  a  mere 
distributor  of  sensual  pleasures,  a  tricksy  spirit  instinct  with  iftalice 
and  bringing  more  harm  than  happiness  to  humanity,  though 
ndther  was  of  much  moment.  Watts  has  not  altoeether  ignored 
this  view,  and  in  *  Mischid  "  (^878)  has  portrayed  Man,  love-led, 
entangled  among  the  thorns  of  he  world ;  out,  in  the  main.  Love  to 
him  is  the  chief  guide  and  helper  of  mankind  along  the  barren »  rock- 
strewn  path  of  Ufe,  through  whom  alone  he  can  attain  the  higher 
leveb,  and  who  triumphs  in  the  end  over  Death  itself.  To  these 
views  on  the  all-importance  of  love  a  trilogy  of  pictures  in  the  Tate 
Gallery  gives  full  expression.  In  the  first,  "  Love  and  Life,"  ex- 
hibited in  1885,  a  replica  of  an  earlier  picture  in  the  Mctro- 
Eolitan  Museum,  New  York,  and  of  another  version  presented 
y  him  to  the  Luxembourg,  Paris,  Love,  a  figure  in  the  prime  of 
manhood,  leads  and  supports  the  slender,  clinging  nrl  who  ^mboUzes 
Life  up  to  the  craggy  mountain-top,  while  he  partly  shields  her  from 
the  blast  under  a  oroad  wing.  Of  this  he  himself  said,  "  Probably 
'  Love  and  Life '  best  portrays  my  message  to  the  age.    Life,  re-. 

E resented -by  the  female  figure,  never  could  have  reached  such 
eights  unless  protected  and  guided  by  Love";*  and  in  theprefatory 
note  to  the  exhibition  of  his  works  in  1896  he  wrote,  "  The  slight 
female  figure  b  an  emblem  of  the  fragile  quality  in  humanity,  at 
once  its  weakness  and  its  strength;  sensxbility,  aided  by  Love, 
sympathy,  tenderness,  self-sacrifice,  and  all  that  the  range  of  the 
term  implies,  humanity  ascends  the  rugged  path  from  brutality  to 
spirituahty."  The  limitations  of  earthly  love  are  shown  in  the 
second  "  Love  and  Death,"  one  version  of  which  was  exhibited  in 
1877  and  others  in  1896,  &c.  In  thb,  Love,  a  beautiful  boy,  striving 
vainly  to  bar  the  door  to  the  mighty  figure  of  Death,  is  thrust  back 
with  crushed  wings  powerless  to  stay  the  advance;  but  that  the 
defeat  is  merely  apparent  and  temporary  b  suggested  rather  than 
asserted  by  the  third  "  Love  Triumphant  (1898),  whore  Time,  with . 
broken  scythe,  and  Death  lie  prostrate,  while  the  same  youth,  with 
widespread  wings  and  face  and  arms  upraised  to  heaven,  stands 
between  them  on  tiptoe  as  if  preparing  to  soar  aloft.  Though  the 
purely  symbolical  is  the  most  abtinctive  side  of  Watts's  art,  it  u  by 
no  means  the  only  one.  He  has  drawn  Inspiration  largdy  from  botn 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  more  rarely  from  the  poets  and 
classical  myths;  still  more  rarely  he  has  treated  subjects  of  modem 
life,  though  even  in  these  he  has  not  abandoned  his  moral  purpose, 
but  has  sought  out  such  incidents^  whether  fictitious  or  historical, 
as  will  serve  him  in  conveying  some  lesson  or  monition.  The  three 
pictures  of  the  story  of  Eve  in  the  Tate  Gallery,  "  She  shall  be 
called  woman  "  (1892).  "  Eve  Tempted  "  and  "  Eve  Repentant  " 
(both  exhibited  in  1896),  and  "  The  Curse  of  Cain  "  (1872)  in  the 
Diploma  Gallery,  may  be  cited  as  examples  of  the  first;  '^For  he 


of  Unrewarded  Toil  "  (1890),  of  the  last  of  these.   Never  hashe  treated 
religion  from  a  sectarian  point  of  view. 

Watts  b  before  all  things  a  painter  with  a  grave  and  earnest 
purpose,  painting  because  that  form  of  exprcs«on  was  easier  to  him 
than  writing,  though  he  has  published  some  few  articles  and  pam- 

Ehlets,  chiefly  on  art  matters;  but  be,  too,  has  his  lighter  side,  and 
as  daintily  treated  the  humorously  fanciful  in  "  Good  luck  to  your 
fishing  "  (1889) :  "  The  habit  does  not  make  the  monk  "  (1889),  in 


while  in  "  Ex^erienfta  docet  B.C."  (1890),  a  primeval  wcfman  watching 
with  admiration,  not  unmixed  with  anxiety,  the  man  who  has  first 
swallowed  an  oyster,  he  condescends,  not  very  successfully,  to  the 
frankly  comic^  These  must  be  regarded,  however,  as  merely  the 
relaxations  oT  the  serious  mind  that  has  left  its  impress  even  on  the 
rebtively  few,  but  very  admirable,  landscapes  he  produced,  ia 
which,  as  for  instance  "  The  Carrara  Mountains  from  Pisa  "  (J88i), 
a  sober  dignity  of  treatment  is  conspicuous. 

Watts's  tecnmque  b  as  individual  as  hb  point  of  view.    It  is 
chiefly  remarkable  for  its  straightforwardness  and  simpltcity,  and 


G.  P.  WmUm,  ILA.»  by  Charles  T.  Bateinan. 


■* 


42a 


WATTS,  I.— WATTS-DUNTON 


tei  lack  of  any  atrainiiiff  after  |Mivdy  teehniaU  effects.  The  idea 
to  be  CKprcBMd  is  of  far  nigher  importance  to  him  than  the  aumner 
of  eapreasing  it.  The  sutement  of  it  should  be  a  matter  of  good, 
aound  workmanship,  not  of  artistic  agility  or  manual  dexterity. 
To  «iy  what  he  has  to  say  as  clearly  and  brieffy  as  may  be  is  hia 
aim,  and  when  be  has  achieved  the  cnect  he  desires,  the_  method  of 
his  doing  so  is  of  no  further  moment.  In  the  use  of  paint  as  paint, 
in  the  intrinsic  beauties  of  surface  and  handling,  he  would  seem  in 
his  l^er  years  to  take  no  delight.  Thus  in  parts  of  the  picture  the 
lough,  coarse  canvas  he  prefcn  may  be  so  tntnly  covered  that  every 
6bre  of  the  material  can  be  seen,  while  in  others  a  richly  modelled 
imjasto  loads  the  surface.  He  employs,  as  far  as  possible,  pure 
oofours  laid  on  in  direct  juxtaposition  or  broken  into  and  across' 
each  other,  not  blended  and  commingled  on  the  palette.  He  eschews 
all  daboratbn  of  detail  and.  except  in  portraiture,  works  carely 
from  the  living  model,  neglecting  minor  delicacies  of  form  or  passages 
of  local  colour,  conventionalising  to  a  standard  of  his  own  rather 
than  kleaUzing — a  process  not  always  unproductive  of  faults  of 
drawing  and  proportion,  as  in  the  figure  of  "  Faith  "  (1896^,  or  of 
mngulanties  of  tint,  as  in  the  curious  leaden  face  and  prismatic 
background  in  "  The  Dweller  in  the  Innermost  **  (1886).  He  avoids, 
as  a  rule,  the  use  of  definite  outline,  leaving  the  limits  of  his  forms 
to  melt  imperceptibly  into  the  background;  nor  does  texture 
interest  him  greatly,  and  a  uniform  ucsco-like  surface  is  apt  to 
represent  flesh  ana  foliage,  distance  and  foreground  alike.  He 
intends  deliberately  that  the  things  he  depicts,  oe  they  What  they 
may,  shall  be  symbols,  useful  for  their  meaning  alone,  and  he  makes 
no  attempt  at  conferring  on  them  an  accurate  actuality,  whi<;^  might 
distract  the  attention  from  the  paramount  idea.  That  this  reticence 
is  intentional  may  be  learned  from  an  examination  of ^his  earliest 
works,  in  which  the  accessories  are  rendered  with  a  precise,  if  some- 
times a  dry,  truthfulness  of  observation;  that  it  is  not  due  to 
carelessness  or  indifference  is  shown  by  the  inexhaustible  patience 
with  which  each  picture  has  been  executed.  His  earlier  pictures 
are  unsurpassed  in  the  art  of  England  for  fine  technical  qualttics  of 
colour  ana  delicacy  of  handling.  Though  working  unceasingly.  Watts 
never  hurded  the  completion  of  any  canvas.  Of  two  slightly  differing 
verMons  of  "  Fata  Morgana,"  boUi  begun  in  1847,  the  first  was  not 
finished  before  x8^0,  the  second  not  until  ten  years  later.    Even 


Death,"  exhibited  in  1877.  and  1883,  and  all  the  pictures  presented  to 
the  Tate  Gallery  in  1897,  were  nnore  or  less  retouched  when  hung 
there.  Furthermore,  he  painted  more  than  one  version  of  several  of 
his  favourite  subjects,  a  circumstance  which,  combined  with  the  fact 
that  he  rarely  added  the  year  to  his  signature  and  kept  no^record 
of  his  annual  production,  makes  the  task  of  precisely  dating  his 
pictures  for  the  most  part  impossible,  while  it  renders  any  attempt  to 
dispose  his  works  in  periods  untrustworthy  and  artificiail,  since  even 
the  growth  and  inevitable  decay  of  artistic  power  are  to  a  considerable 
extent  obscured. 

Founded  admittedly  on  the  Grecian  monuments,  there  is  a  sculp* 
turesque  rattier  than  pictorial  ouality  in  most  of  his  compositions, 
a  regulated  disposition  which,  though  imparting  often  a  certain  air 
of  unreality  and  detachment,  inspires  them  nevertheless  with  that 
noble  impressivencss  which  forms  their  most  conspicuous  character- 
istic. It  b  natural,  therefore,  that  in  sculpture  itself  he  should  also 
take  a  high  place.  A  taste  for  this  he  acquired  as  a  boy;  he  was  a 
constant  visitor  to  the  studio  of  Bchncs,  where  he  not  infrequently 
made  drawings  from  the  casts,  though  he  was  never  in  any  sense 
hb  pupil.  Among  his  works  in  this  branch  of  art  are  a  bust  of 
"  Clytje  "  (1868),  monumenu  to  the  marqub  of  Lothian,  Bbhop 
Lonsdale  and  Lord  Tennyson,  a  large  bronze  equestrian  statue  of 
'*  Hugo  Lupus  "  at  Eaton  HaU  (1884),  and  a  colossal  one  of  a  man 
on  horseback,  emblematical  of  "  Physical  Energy,"  originally  in- 
tended for  a  place  on  the  Embankment,  but  acstincd  to  stand 
among  the  Matoppo  Hills  as  an  enduring  evidence  of  the  artist's 
admiration  for  Cecil  Rhodes;  a  replica  has  been  placed  in  Kensington 
Gardens.  It  was  the  practical  idealism  of  Rhodes  that  appealed  to 
him,  and  in  this  quality  Watts  himself  was  by  no  means  lacking. 
Much  of  hb  time  and  attention  was  given  to  the  promotion  of  the 
Home  Arts  and  Industries  Association;  he  assisted  Mrs  Watts  with 
both  money  and  advice  in  the  foundingofan  art  pottery  at  Compton, 
and  in  the  building  at  the  same  place  of  a  highly  decorated  mortuary 
chapel,  pinied  out  almost  entirely  by  local  labour;  and  it  was 
entirely  due  tn  hb  initiative  that  the  erectu>n  in  Postmen's  Park, 
Aldengate  Street,  London,  of  Qiemorial  tablets  to  the  unsung  heroes 
of  everyday  life  was  begun. 

AuTBORiTiBS.— M.  H.  Spietmann,  "The  Works  of  Mr  0.  P. 
Watu,  R.A.,  with  a  Catalogue  of  hb  Pktures."  PaU  Mail  GauUt 
'*  Extra"  (1886):  Julb  Cartwright  (MrsAdy).  "  G.  F.  Watts, 
Royal  Academician,  His  Life  and  Work,"  Ari  Journal,  Extra 
Number  (1896);  W.  £.  T.  Britten,  "The  Work  of  Georee  Frederick 
Watts,  R.A.,  LL.D.,"  ArciUUctwal  Review  (1888  and  1889);  Cosmo 
Monkhouse,  British  Contemporary  Artists  (1889} ;  Charles  T.  Bate- 
naa,  G.  F,  Watts,  RJi.,  BelVs  Mtnbture  Series  of  Painters  (1901); 
'*  Mr  G.  F.  Watts.  R.A.,  Character  Sketch,"  Tkt  Reoiem  0/  Ranevn 
(JiiM  19W).  (M.  Ba.) 


WATTS*  IIAA€  (1674-X748K  EnglUi  theolbgiiii  ud  hynm 
writer,  flon  of  a  dothier,  vat  bom  at  Soothamptoa  on  the 
X  7th  of  July  1674*    The  father,  who  afterwards  had  a  boarding- 
school  at  Southan^pton,  also  mote  poetiy,  and  a  aumber  of  hb 
pieces  weie  included  by  nustake  in  voL  t  of  the  son's  PosthiMmis 
Works,    Isaac  Watts  )m  stated  to  have  begun  to  lean  Lstia 
when  only  in  his  fifth  year,  and  at  the  age  of  seven  or  eight  to 
have  composed  some  devotional  pieces  to  please  hb    owther. 
Hb  nonomfonnity  preduded  him  from  entering  either  of  the 
universities,  but  in  hb  stzteenth  year  he  went  to  study  at  the 
nonconfomust  academy  at  Stoke  Newington,  of  which  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Rowe,  minbter  of  tJbe  Independent  meeting  at  GirdkrB' 
Hall,  was  then  prcsidenL    On  leaving  the  academy  he  spent 
more  than  two  years  at  home,  and  began  to  write  his  hymns, 
but  in  the  autumn  of  1696  he  became  tutor  in  the  family  of  Sir 
John  Hartopp  at  Stoke  l^ewington,  where  he  probably  prqwred 
the  materials  of  his  two  educational  works— Z^giirA,  or  the  Ri^t 
Use  of  Ret^on  in  the  Enquiry  after  Truth  (1725),  and  The  Know- 
ledge of  the  Heavens  and  the  Earth  made  easy,  or  the  First  Principles 
of  Geography  and  Astronomy  Explained  (1726).    In  hb  twenty* 
fourth  year  Watts  was  chosen  assbtant  to  Dr  Isaac  Chauncy 
<i63a~x7X2),  pastor  of  the  Independent  congregation  in  Mark 
Lane,  London,  and  two  years  later  he  succeeded  as  sole  pastor. 
The  state  of  his  healthj  which  he  had  injured  by  overworic,  led 
to  the  appointment  of  an  assistant  in  1703.    In  1704  the  con- 
gregation removed  to  Pinner's  HaU,  and  in  1708  they  built  a  new 
meeting-house  in  Buiy  Street    In  171  a  Watts  was  attacked  by 
fever,  which  incapadtated  him  for  four  years  from  the  per- 
formance of  his  duties.  In  171  s  he  went  to  live  with  Sir  Thomas 
Abncy  of  Abney  Paric,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  hb  life, 
the  arrangement  beitig  continued  by  Lady  AbnQr  after  her 
husband's  death.    Watts  preached  only  occasionally,  devoting 
his  lebuie  chiefly  to  the  wilting  of  hymns  (see  Hymms),  the 
preparation  of  hb  sermons  for  publication,  and  the  eempositkm  ef 
theological  work.    In  X706  appeared  his  Horae  Lyricae,  of  which 
an  edition  with  memoir  by  Robert  Southey  forms  vol.  iz.  of 
Sacred  Classics  (1834);  in  1707  a  volume  of  Hyums;  in  1719 
The  Psalms  of  Daoid;  and  in  1720  Dirine  md  Moral  Sengs  for 
Children,   Hb  Psalms  are  free  paraphrases,  rather  than  metrical 
versions,  and  some  of  them  ("  O  Goid,  our  hdp  in  ages  past,"  for 
instance)  are  amongst  the  most  famous  hymns  in  the  lanpugb 
His  religbus  opinions  were  more  Ubersl  in  tone  than  wust 
that  time  common  in  the  community  to  which  he  bdonged;  his 
views  regarding  Sunday  recreation  and  labour  were  sotfcdy  ot 
puritaniod  strictness;  and  hb  Calvinism  was  modt6ed  by  hb 
rejection  of  the  doctrine  of  rq>rohatioa.    He  did  not  bold  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  necessary  to  salvation,  and  he  wrote 
several  works  on  the  sUbject  in  which  he  devdoped  views  not  far 
removed  from  Arianism.  He  died  on  the  asth  of  November  1 74^ 
and  was  buried  at  Bunhill  Fidds,  where  a  tombstone  was  erected 
to  his  memory  by  Sir  John  Hartopp  and  Lady  Abney.  A 
memorial  was  also  erected  to  him  in  Westminster  Abbc/i  And  a 
memorial  hall,  erected  in  hb  honour  at  Southsmpton,  was  opened 
in  X875. 

Among  the  theological  treatises  of  Watts,  in  additmo  to  vdumes 
of  sermonsL  are  Doctrine  cf  the  Trinity  <1722);  Discourses  on  the 
Love  of  God  and  its  Jnfiuenee  on  all  the  Passions  (i7ao);  Catechisms 
for  Children  and  Youth  (1730) :  Essays  towards  o  Pnof  of  a  Separate 
StaU  for  Souls  (1732);  Eaay  on  the  Fratiam  of  the  Will  (I73S): 
Essay  on  the  SirenMtand  Weahness  of  Human  Reason  (i737) :  Essay 
on  the  Ruin  and  Receoery  of  Mankind  (1740);  dory  if  Chrisi  as 
God-Man  Unveiled  (1746) ;  and  Useful  and  Important  QuesHens 
concerning  Jesus,  the  Son  ef  Cod  (1746).  He  was  also  the  author  «• 
a  variety  of  miscdianeous  tnatisea.  ilia  Posthumous  Works oippenred 
in  1 773t  and  a  further  inaulmeot  of  them  in  1 779^  The  Works  «f.^ . . 
Issac  Watts  {6  vols.),  edited  hv  Dr  Jennings  and  Dr  Doddridge,  with 
a  memoir  compiled  by  G.  Burder,  appearea  in  1810-181 1«  Hb 
poetical  works  were  included  in  Johnson's  Engfish^  Poets,  where 
they  were  accompanied  by  a  tJfe,  and  they  appear  ta  subsequent 
similar  collections.  See  abo  The  Life,  Times  and  Correspondenu  e§ 
Isaac  Watts  (1834)  by  Thomas  Miluer. 

WATTS-DURTOir,  WALTER  THEQDORB  (1832-  )f 
English  man  of  letters,  was  bom  at  St  Ives,  Huntingdon,  on 
the  12th  of  October  183a,  hb  family  surname  being  WattSi  to 
which  he  added  in  1697  his  mother's  name  of  Duntoo.    He  waa 


WAUGH,  B.— WAURIN 


originany  cdncated  ss  a  natonUst,  aiMl  mw  nttdi  of  the  Eait 
Anglian  gypsies,  of  whose  superstitions  and  folk-lore  he  made 
careful  study.    Abandoning  nattira!  history  for  the  law,  he 
qualified  as  a  solicitor  and  went  to  London,  where  he  practised 
for  some  years,  giving  his  spare  time  to  bis  chosen  pursuit  of 
literature.    He  contributed  regularly  to  the  Examiner  from  1874 
and  to  the  Athenaeum  from  1875  until  1898,  being  for  more  than 
twenty  years  the  principal  critic  of  poetry  in  the  latter  joumaL 
His  article  on  "  Poetry  "  in  the  ninth  edition  of  the  Bncy,  BriL 
(vol.  XIX.,  1885)  was  the  principal  expression  of  his  views  on 
the  first  principles  of  the  subject,  and  did  much  to  increase  his 
reputation,  which  was  maintained  by  other  articles  he  wrote  for 
the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  and  for  the  chief  p^odicab  and 
reviews.    Mr  Watts-Dunton  had  considerable  influence  as  the 
friend  of  many  of  the  leading  men  of  letters  of  hfe  time;  he 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  Tennyson,  and  contributed  an  appre- 
ciation of  him  to  the  authorized  biography.    He  was  in  later 
years  Rossetti*s  most  intimate  friend.     He  was  the  bosom 
friend  of  Swinburne  (g.p.),  who  shared  his  home  for  nearly  tMrty 
years  before  he  died  in  1909.   The  obituary  notices  and  apprecia- 
tions of  the  poets  of  the  time,  which  he  contributed  to  the 
Athenaeum  and  other  periodicals,  bore  testimony  to  his  sympathy, 
insight  and  critical  acumen.     It  was  not,  however,  until  2897 
that  he  published  a  volume  under  his  own  name,  this  being  his 
collection  of  poems  called  The  Coming  of  Love,  portions  of  which 
he  had  printed  in  periodicals  from  time  to  time.   In  the  following 
year  his  prose  romance  Aylwin  attained  immediate  success,  and 
ran  through  many  editions  in  the  course  of  a  few  months. 
Both  The  Coming  oj  Love  and  Aylwin  set  forth,  the  one  in  poetry, 
the  other  in  prose,  the  romantic  and  passionate  associations  of 
Romany  life»  and  maintain  the  traditions  of  Borrow,  whom  Mr 
Watts-Dunton  had  known  well  in  his  own  early  days.   Imagina- 
tive glamour  and  mysticism  are  theii  prominent  characteristics, 
and  the  novel  in  particular  has  had  its  shaxe  in  restoring  the 
charms  of  pure  romance  to  the  favour  of.  the  general  public. 
He  edited  George  Borrow's  Lavengro  (1893)  and  Romany  Rye 
(igoo);  in  1903  be  published  The  Renascence  of  Wonder ^  a 
treatise  00  the  romantic  movement;  and  his  Studies  of  Shake- 
speare  appeared  in  19x0.    But  it  was  not  only  in  his  published 
work  that  Mr  Watts-Dunton's  influence  on  the  literary  life  of 
his  time  was  potent.    His  long  and  intimate  association  with 
Rossetti  and  Swinburne  made  him,  no  doubt,  a  unique  figure 
in  the  world  of  Ictteis;  but  his  own  grasp  of  metrical  principle 
and  of  the  historic  perspective  of  the  glories  of  Englisii  poetry 
made  him,  among  the  younger  generation,  the  embodiment  of 
a  great  tndition  of  literary  criticism  which  could  never  cease 
to  command  respect.    In  1905  he  married.    His  life  has  been 
essentiafly  one  of  d^otion  to  fetter^  faithfully  and  disinter- 
estedly followed. 

WAUGH.  BENJAMIN  (1839*2908),  English  social  reformer, 
was  bom  at  Settle,  Yorkshire,  on  the  20th  of  February  1839. 
He  passed  the  early  years  of  his  life  in  business,  but  in  1865 
entered  the  congregational  ministry.  Settling  at  Greenwich 
be  threw  himself  with  ardour  into  the  work  of  social  reform, 
devoting  himself  especially  to  the  cause  of  the  children.  He 
served  oa  the  London  School  Board  from  1.870  to  1876.  In  XS84 
he  was  responsible  for  the  establishment  of  the  London  society  for 
the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  children,  which  four  years  later  was 
established  on  a  national  basis.  He  was  elected  its  honorary 
secretary,  and  it  was  laige^  owing  to  information  obtained  by 
him  that  the  Criminal  Law  Amendment  Act  of  1885  was  passed, 
while  by  his  personal  effort  he  secured  the  inseitioii  of  adaose  giving 
magistrates  power  to  take  the  evidence  of  children  too  young  to 
understand  the  nature  of.  an  oath.  In  1889  he  saw  the  work 
accomplished  by  his  society  (of  which  he  had  been  made  director 
the  same  year)  recognized  by  the  passing  of  an  act  for  the  pre- 
vention of  cruelty  to  children,  the  first  stepping-stone  to  the  act 
of  1908  (see  CHiLoasN,  J«AW  Rexatinc  to).  In  1895  a  charter  of 
Incorporation  was  conferred  on  the  society,  but  in  1897  it  was  the 
object  of  a  serious  attack  on  its  administration.  An  inquiry  was 
demanded  by  Waugh,  and  the  commiission  of  inquiry,  which 
i&duded  Lord  HerscheU  and  others,  completely  vindicated  the 


423 

society  and  its  direetar:  Waogh  had  given  op  pastotal  wotk 
in  Z887  to  devote  his  whole  time  to  the  society,  and  lie  retained 
his  post  as  director  until  1905,  when  the  state  of  his  health  com- 
pelled his  retirement.  He  remained  consulting  director  until  his 
death  at  Westchff,  near  Southend,  Essex,  on  the  irth  of 
March  1908.  Waugh  edited  the  Sunday  Magazine  from  1874 
to  X896,  but  he  had  otherwise  little  leisure  for  literazy  work. 
His  The  Gad  Cradle,  who  rocks  Ut  (1873)  was  a  plea  for  the 
abolition  of  juvenile  imprisonment. 

WAUGH,  EDWIN  (x8t7-x89o),  known  as  *'The  Lancashire 
Poet,"  was  bom  at  Rochdale,  on  the  39th  of  January  X817,  the 
son  ol  a  shoemaker.  For  several  years  he  earned  his  living  as 
a  journeyman  printer  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  In  1855 
he  published  his  first  book.  Sketches  of  Laneaskite  L^$  and 
Loealiiks,  following  this  up  with  reprinted  Poems  and  Songs 
(1859).  His  rendering  of  the  Lancashire  dialect  was  most  happy, 
and  his  rude  lyrics,  full  of  humour  and  pathos»  were  great 
favourites  with  his  coontrymexL  He  died  on  the  30th  of  April 
1890L 

See  Milner*s  Memoir  in  an  edition  of  Waugh'e  selected  works 
(1893*1893). 

WAVRBOANf  a  dty  and  the  eowity-seat  of  Lake  county, 
Illinois,  U.S.A.,  on  the  W.  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  about  36  m, 
N.  of  Chicago.  Pop.  (1890)  4915;  (xqoo)  94^,  ol  whom  3506 
were  fbreign-bom;  (1910  census)  16,069.  It  is  served  by  the 
Elgin,  Joliet  &  Eastern  (of  which  it  b  a  terminus)  and  the  Chicago 
&  North  Western  railways,  by  an  Interurban  dectric  Une,  and  bf 
lake  steamers.  In  z88o  the  United  States  government  uadeN 
took  the  formation  of  an  artificial  harbour  with  a  channel  13  ft. 
deep,  and  in  1907-1904  the  depth  was  increased  to  so  ft.  The 
main  portion  of  the  city  is  situated  about  100  ft  above  the  level 
of  the  lake.  There  are  a  number  of  pailcs  and  mineral  springi^ 
and  along  the  lake  front  a  fine  driveway,  Sheridan  Road.  The 
city  is  a  residential  suburb  of  Chicago.  The  principal  buildings 
are  the  Federal  building,  the  Court  House,  a  Carnegie  library, 
the  Masom'c  Temple  and  McAlister  Hospital  At  the'villags 
of  North  Chicago  (pop.  in  1920, 3306)^  about  3  m.  S.  of  WaukegaiH 
there  is  a  United  States  Naval  Training  Station.  Waukegan  is 
the  commercial  centre  of  an  agricultunl  and  dairying  region^ 
and  has  various  manufactures.  The  total  value  of  the  factoiy 
product  in  X905  was  $3,961, 513.  Waukegan  was  settled  about 
1835,  and  until  X849  was  known  as  Little  Fort,  which  is  supposed 
to  be  the  English  equivalent  of  the  Indian  name  Waukegan. 
It  became  the  county-seat  of  Lake  county  in  1841,  was  lft> 
Corporated  as  a  town  in  1849,  and  first  chartered  as  a  ci^in  1859. 

WAUKESHA,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Waukedia 
county,  Wisconsin,  U.S.A.,  about  19  m.  W.  of  Milwaukee  on  the 
Little  Fox  river.  Pop.  (1890)  63«x ;  (1900)  7419,  indnding  140$ 
fordgn-bom;  (1905  state  census)  6949;  (1910)  8740.  Waukesha 
is  served  by  the  Minneapolis,  St  Paul  &  Sault  Ste  Marie,  the 
Chicago  &  North- Western  and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St 
Paul  railways,  and  by  interurban  electric  railways  connecting 
it  with  Milwaukee,  Oconomowoc  and  Madison.  The  medidnal 
mineral  springs  (Bethesda,  White  Rock,  &c.)  are  widely  known. 
Among  the  public  buildings  are  the  county  court  house  and  the 
public  library.  Waukesha  is  the  seat  of  the  State  Industrial 
School  for  Boys  (established  as  a  house  of  refuge  in  x86o)  and  of 
Carroll  College  (Presbyterian,  co-educational,  1846).  Waukesha 
was  first  settled  in  1834,  was  named  Prairleville  in  1839,  was 
Incorporated  as  a  village  under  its  present  name  (said  to  be  a 
Pottawatomi  word  meaning  "  fox  ")  in  1859,  and  chartered  as 
a  dty  in  1896.  In  1851  the  first  railway  in  the  state  was  com- 
pleted between  Milwaukee  and  Waukesha,  but  the  village  re- 
mained only  a  fanning  commimity  until  the  exploitation  of  the 
mineral  springs  was  begun  about  1868.  About  1$  m.  S.  Of 
Waukesha,  near  Mukwonago  (pop.  in  1910, 61 S),-  in  1844-184$, 
there  was  an  unsuccessful  communistic  agriadtural  settl^ 
ment,  the  Utilitarian  Association,  composed  largely  of  Londoii 
mechanics  led  by  Campbell  Smith,  a  London  bookbinder. 

WAURIN  (or  Wavkin),  JEHAN  (or  Jean  de)  (d.  c  1474)1 
French  chronicler,  belonged  to  a  noble  family  of  ArtoSs,  and  wtt 
present  at  the  battle  of  Aglocourt.    Afterwards  be  fooglM  isr 


424 


WAUSAU— WAVE 


the  BuiguadlaiB  at  Veraeuil  and^laeiHien,  and  Uien  occupying 
ft  high  position  at  the  court  of  Philip  the  Good,  duke  of  Buxgundy, 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome  'n  1463.  Jehan  wrote,  or  rather 
compiled,  the  Recueil  des  croniques  d  onckiames  ivories  de  la 
Grant  Bntaig^  a  collection  of  the  souxces  of  English  history 
from  the  earliest  times  to  1471.  For  this  work  he  borrowed  from 
Ftoissart,  Monstrdet  and  others;  but  for  the  per^  between 
1444  and  147  X  the  Recueil  is  original  and  valuable,  although 
somewhat  untrustworthy  with  regsud  to  affairs  in  Eng^d  itselL 
From  the  beginning  to  688  and  again  from  1399  to  r47i  the  text 
has  been  edited  for  the  Rolls  Series  (5  vols.,  London,  1S64-1891), 
by  W.  and  E.  L.  C.  P.  Hardy,  who  have  also  translated  the  greater 
part  of  it  into  English.  The  section  from  1335  to  1471  has  been 
editsed  by  L.  M.  E.  Dupont  (Paris,  i858-i863>. 

WAUSAU,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  ol  Marathon  county, 
Wisconsin,  U.S.A.,  on  both  binks  <^  the  Wisconsin  xiver,  about 
185  m.  N.W.  ol  Milwaukee.  Pop.  (1890)  9253;  (1900)  12,354, 
of  whom  3747  ^ere  foreign-bom;  (1910  census)  16,560. 
There  is  a  large  German  dement  in  the  population,  and  two 
German  semi-weekly  newspapers  are  published  here.  Wausau 
is  served  by  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St  Paul  and  the  Chicago 
&  North<fWestem  railways.  The  city  is  built  for  the  most  part 
on  a  levd  plateau  above  the  river  and  extends  to  the  top  of  high 
blufis  on  either  side.  It  has  a  fine  city  hall,  a  Carnegie  library, 
the  Marathon  County  Court  House,  a  hospitsd,  built  by  the  Sisters 
of  the  Divine  Saviour,  and  a  Federal  Building.  In  Wausau 
are  a  U.S.  hind  office,  the  Marathon  County  Trainmg  School 
for  Teachers,  the  Marathon  County  School  of  Agricultiire  and 
•Domestic  Science,  and  a  County  Asylum  for  the  Chronic  Insane. 
Valuable  water-power  furnished  by  the  Big  Bull  Falls  of  the 
Wisconsin  (in  the  dty)  is  utilized  for  manufacturing,*  and  in 
19x0  water-power  sites  were  being  developed  on  the  Wisconsin 
fiver  immediately  above  and  bdow  the  city.  In  1905  the  factory 
products  were  valued  at  $4,644,457.  Wausau  had  its  origin  in 
a  logging-camp,  establisb«i  about  1838.  In  1840  a  saw-mill  was 
built  here,  and  in  1858  the  village  was  incoxi>orated  under  its 
present  name.  After  x89o,.  when  Wausau  was  chartered  as  a 
city,  its  growth  was  rapid. 

WAUTBR8,  EMILB  (1848-  ),  Bel£^  painter,  was  bom 
In  Brussels,  1848.  Successively  the  pupil  of  Portaels  and 
O^me,  he  produced  in  x868  "  The  Battle  of  Hastings:  the 
Finding  of  the  body  of  Harold  by  Edith,"  a  work  of  striking, 
precocious  talent.  A  joum^  was  made  to  Italy,  but  that  the 
study  of  the  old  masters  in  no  wise  affected  his  individuality 
was  proved  by  "  The  Great  Nave  of  St  Mark's  "  (purchased  by 
the  king  of  the  Belgians).  As  his  youth  disqualified  him  for  the 
medal  of  the  Brussels  Sialon,  which  otherwise  would  have  been 
his,  he  was  sent,  by  way  of  compensation,  by  the  minister  of  fine 
arts,  as  artist-delegate  to  Suez  for  the  opening  of  the  canal — 
a  visit  that  was  fruitful  later  on.  In  1870,  when  he  was  yet  only 
twenty-two  years  of  age,  Wauters  exhibited  his  grcat^  historic^ 
picture  of  "  Maxy  c/l  Burgtmdy  entreating  the  Sheriffs  of  Ghent 
to  pardon  the  Councillors  Hugonet  and  Humbercourt  "  (Li6ge 
Museum)  i^ch  created  a  veritable  furore,  an  impression  which 
was  confirmed  the  following  year  at  the  London  International 
Exhibition.  It  was  edips^  by  the  celebrated  "  Madness  of 
Hugo  van  der  Goes  "  (1872,  Brussels  MuseunO,  a  picture  whidi 
led  to  the  commission  for  the  two  large  worlu  decorating  the 
lions'  staircase  of  the  H6td  de  Vflle — "  Mary  of  Burgundy 
awearing  to  req;)ect  the  Communal  Rights  of  Brussels,  1477  " 
and  "  Tlie  Armed  Citizens  of  Brussels  denumding  the  Charta 
from  Duke  John  IV.  <tf  Brabant."  His  other  large  compositions 
comprise  "Sobieski  and  his  Staff  before  Besieged  Vienna" 
(Brussels  Museum)  and  the  harvest  of  a  journey  to  Spain  and 
TangierB,  "The  Great  Mosque,"  and  "Serpent  Charmers  of 
Sokko,"  and  a  souvenir  of  his  Egyptian  travd, "  Cairo,  from  the 
Bridge  of  Kasr-d-Nil "  (Antwerp  Museum).  His  vast  panorama 
— probably  the  noblest  and  most  artistic  work  of  this  daas  ever 
.produced--"  Cairo  and  the  Banks  of  the  Nile  "  (z88i),  380  ft. 
by  49  ft.,  executed  in  six  months,  was.  exhibited  with  extra- 
ordinary  success  in  Brussels,  Munich,  and  the  Hague.  Wauters 
.Is  equally  eminent  as  a  portraitist,  in  his  earliest  period  exhibiting, 
•as  ta  his  piaures,  sober  qualities  and  subtle  grip,  but  later  on 


developing  into  the  whole  range  of  a  biflliaat,  forceful  patette, 
and  then  into  brighter  and  more  delicate  colours,  encouraged 
thereto,  in  his  more  recent  work,  by  his  adoption  of  pastd  as 
a  medium  even  for  life-size  portraits,  mainly  of  ladies.  His 
portraits,  numbering  over  two  hundred,  indude  many  of  the 
greatest  names  in  Belgium,  France,  and  America  (Wauters  having 
for  some  years  made  Paris  his  chief  home).  Among  these  may 
be*  named  the  Baron  Goffinet,  the  Baroness  Goffinet,  Madame 
Soinz6e  (standing  at  a  piano),  Master  Somz£e  (on  horseback  by 
the  sea-shore),  the  Princess  Clementine  of  Belgium  (Brussels 
Museum),  Lady  Edward  Sassoon,  Baron  de  Bldchroder,  Princess 
de  Ligne,  Miss  Lorillard,  a  likeness  of  the  artist  in  the  Dresden 
Museum,and  M.  SchoUaert  (president  of  the  (Camber  of  Deputies) 
— the  last  named  an  amazing  example  of  portraiture,  instinct 
with  character  and  vitality.  The  vigour  of  his  male,  and  the 
grace  and  degance  of  his  female,  portraits  are  unsurpassable, 
the  resemblance  perfect  and  the  technical  execution  such  as  to 
place  the  artist  in  the  front  rank.  Between  1889  and  1900  the 
painter  contributed  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  London.  Few 
artists  have  recdved  such  a  succession  of  noteworthy  distinctions 
and  recognitions.  His  "  Hugo  van  der  Ck>es,"  the  work  of  a  youth 
of  twenty-four,  secured  the  grand  medal  of  the  Salon.  He  has 
been  awarded  no  fewer  than  six  "  medals  of  honour  "—at  Paris 
in  1878  and  1889;  Munich,  1879;  Antwerp,  1885;  Vienna, 
x3S8;  and  Berlin,  1883.  He  is  a  member  of  the  academy  of 
Belgium,  and  honorary  member  of  the  Vienna,  Berlin,  and 
Munich  academies,  and  corresponding  member  of  the  Institut 
de  France  and  of  that  of  Madrid.  He  has  received  the  order  of 
merit  of  Prussia,  toA,  is  Commander  of  the  order  of  Leopold, 
and  of  that  of  JSt  Michad  of  Bavaria,  officer  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour,  &c 


tedurai  Record  (1961).  (M.  U.  S.) 

WAVE.'  It  is  not  altogether  easy  to  frame  a  definition  which 
shall  be  predse  and  at  the  same  time  cover  the  various  physical 
phenomena  to  which  the  term  "  wave  "  is  commonly  ai^>lied. 
Speaking  generally,  we  niay  say  that  it  denotes  a  process  Id 
which  a  particular  state  is  continually  handed  on  without  change, 
or  with  only  gradual  change,  from  one  part  of  a  medium  to 
another.  The  most  familiar  instance  is  that  of  the  waves  whkfc 
are  observed  to  travd  over  the  surface  of  water  in  conseqvoicc 
of  a  local  disturbance;  but,  although  this  has  suggested  the 
name '  since  applied  to  all  analogous  i^enomena,  it  so  happen 
that  water-waves  are  far  from  sJbrding  the  rimplest  instanoe 
of  the  process  in  qaestion.  In  the  present  artide  the  prtodpil 
types  of  wave>motion  which  present  themselves  in  physics  are 
reviewed  in  the  order  of  their  complexity.  Only  the  leadhig 
features  are  as  a  rule  touched  upon,  the  reader  being  referred 
to  other  artides  for  such  devdopments  as  are  of  inteiat  mainly 
from  the  point  of  view  of  spedal  subjects.  The  theoiy  <M  wate^ 
waves,  on  the  other  hand,  will  be  treated  in  some  detail. 

f  I.  WotcPr^zatien  in  One  Dimenstok, 

The  dmplest  and  most  canly  apprehended  case  of  wave-mottoo 
is  that  of  the  transverse  vibrations  of  a  uniform  tense  string.  The 
axis  of  X  being  taken  along  the  length  of  the  string  in  its  undistuibed 
pontioR,  we  denote  by  v  the  tiaasvcne  ditpbocment  at  any  point 
This  is  aanmed  to  be  mfinitdy  small;  the  nsukant  btenl  force 
on  any  portion  of  the  string  is  then  equal  to  the  tendon  (P,  sajr) 
multiplied  by  the  total  curvature  of  that  portion,  and  theraore  tn 
the  case  of  an  dement  Sx  to  Pjr'Sx,  where  the  accents  denote  dif' 
ferentiations  with  respect  to  a.  Equating  tiiis  to  pfo^,  when  0  » 
the  line<leBsity.  we  have 

5-«^*.  • 0) 

where tf-V(P/»). (^)  _ 

>  The  word  "  wave,"  as  a  substantive,  is  late  in  English,  ooC 
occurring  till  the  Bibleof  1^1  (3keat,  Slym.  Dia,,  1910).  The  proper 
O.  Ens.  word  was  wov,  which  f)ecame  wawe  in  M.  ^ng. ;  it  is  cognate 
with  Ger.  Woget  and  is  allied  to  "  wag,"  to  move  from  side  to  side, 
and  18  to  be  referred  to  the  root  imA,  to  carry.  Lat.  adbBrv,  En^ 
"  wdffh,*'ftc  TheO.£ng.«vi>!oiiJM.&ig.in0se9s,tofluctuate.  to  waver 
in  mmd,  cf.  wa^frB,  restless,  is  cognate  with  M.H.C  wabden,  to 
move  to  and  fro,  cf.  Eng.  "  wabblt "  ci  which  the  ultimate  root  is 
aeon  ia  "  whifv*'  and  in    quaver.** 


WAVE 


Tb8  gmtnA  m  fcli  m  of  (i)  vn  ghroi  bjr  J.  It  IL  d'Aknbett  ia  I747: 

y-/(««-«)+F(cl+«) (3) 

whert  the  functioM /,  F  are  arbttiaiy.  The  first  term  is  unaltered 
b  value  when  x  vuiet  are  increased  by  equal  amounts;  hence  this 
term,  taken  by  itself,  represents  a  wave-fonn  which  is  propagated 
without  duuiKe  in  the  direction  of  v-positive  with  the  constant 
velocity  c.  The  second  term  represents  in  like  manner  a  wave^onn 
travellmg  with  the  same  velocity  in  the  direction  of  »>nesative; 
and  the  most  general  free  motion  of  the  string  comists  of  two  sodi 
wave-forms  superposed.  In  the  case  of  an  initial  disturbance  oqp* 
fined  to  a  finite  portion  of  an  unlimitnl  string,  the  motkm  fiuUy 
resolves  itself  into  two  waves  travdUing  undianged  in  opposilie 
directions.    In  these  separate  waves  we  have 

*-*p</. (4) 

as  appears  from  (^),  or  from  sunple  geometriod  oonsiderations.  It 
b  to  be  noticed,  m  this  as  in  au  analogous  cases,  that  the  wave- 
velocity  appears  as  the  square  root  of  the  ratio  of  two  quantities, 
one  of  which  represents  (in  a  gttiecalized  sense)  the  dastioty  of  the 
medium,  and  the  other  its  inertia. 

The  expressions  for  the  kinetic  and  potential  eneisics  of  any 
portion  oi  the  string  are 

T-.§/>/jfWr.  V.|P/yV»,     .    .    •     (5) 
where  the  integrations  extend  over  the  portion  conddered.    The 
relation  (4)  shows  that  in  a  singie  progressive  wave  the  total  energy 
is  half  Idaetic  and  half  poCeiitiaL 

When  apoint  of  the  string  (say  the  origm  O)  is  fixed,  the  solntioa 
takes  the  form 

y-/(«HrH(cl+*) (6) 

As  appDed  (for  instance)  to  the  portkm  of  the  string  to  the  left  of  O, 
this  mdicates  the  superposition  of  a  reflected  wave  represented  by 
the  second  term  on  the  direct  wave  represented  by  the  first.  The 
reflected  wave  has  the  same  amplitudes  at  corresponding  points  as 
the  incident  wave,  as  is  indeed  required  by  the  principle  of  energy, 
but  its  sisn  is  reversed. 

The  re&ectk>n  of  a  wave  at  the  junction  of  two  strings  of  unequal 
densities  a  p'  is  of  interest  on  account  of  the  optical  analogy.  If 
A,  B  be  the  ratios  of  the  amplitudes  in  the  reflected  and  transmitted 
waves,  respectively,  to  the  coiTCsponding  amplitudes  in  the  incident 
wave,  it  is  found  that 

A— 0^l)/C^+i),B-aM/(M+i),.     ,      .       (7) 
where  m  ■■  VCp'/p),  >•  the  ratio  of  the  wave-velodties.   This  is  on  the 
hypothesis  ot  an  abrupt  change  of  density;  if  the  transition  be 
gradual  there  may  be  uttle  or  no  reflection. 

The  theory  of  waves  of  longitudinal  vibratk>n  in  a  uniform  straight 
rod  follows  eiacdy  the  same  lines.  If  {  denote  the  displacement  of 
a  particle  whose  undistttrbed  position  is  x,  the  length  of  an  element 
of  the  central  line  ia  altered  from  &r  to  te4-<&  ana  the  elon^tion 
is  therefore  measured  by  (*.  The  tenaon  across  any  tection  is 
acoording^y  EmC'i  where  t»  is  the  sectional  Area,  and  E  denotes 
Younr's  modulus  for  the  material  of  the  rod  (see  Elasticxtt).  The 
rate  of  change  of  momentum  of  the  portion  indu«d  between  two 
consecutive  cro8»-sections  is  fttix.^,  where  p  now  stands  for  the 
volume-density.  Equating  this  to  the  difference  of  Uietensbnsoa 
these  sections  we  obtain 

e-c^{' («) 

«-V(E/p) (9) 

The  solution  and  the  interpretation  are  the  same  ai  In  the  case  of 
(t).  It  may  be  noted  that  in  an  iron  or  steel  rod  the  wave-velocity 
given  by  (9)  amounts  roughly  to  about  five  kilometres  per  second. 

The  theory  of  plane  ejastlc  waves  in  an  unlimited  medium,  whether 
fluid  or  solid,  leads  to  differential  equations  ol  exarctly  the  same  type. 
Thus  In  the  case  of  a  fluid  medium,  if  the  displacement  (  normal  to 
the  wave-fronts  be  a  function  of  t  and  x,  only,  the  equation  oS 
motion  of  a  thin  stratum  initially  bounded  by  the  planes  x  and 
«+to  ie 

'^-^ <■«> 

where  P  b  the  pressure,  and  p»  the  undisturbed  density.  If  P  de- 
pends only  on  the  density,  we  may  write,  for  small  disturbances, 

P^h+fts (u) 

where  s,  ■>  (p-f«)ps»  is  the  "  condensation,"  and  h  is  the  coefficient 
U  cubic  elastiqty.  ^  Since  s  — -ag/flx,  this  leads  to 

fS-l^ (") 

witii 

«-V(*/p) (13) 

The  latter  formula  gives  for  the  velod^  of  sound  in  water  a  value 
(about  1490  metres  per  second  at  15**  C;  which  is  in  good  agreement 
with  cHrect  observation.  In  the  case  of  a  gas,  if  we  neglect  variations 
01  temperature,  we  have  k»P%  by  B<^le's  Law,  4nd  therefore 
c  "  V  (^pO>  This  result,  which  is  due  substantially  to  Sv  1.  Newton, 
gives,  however,  a  value  considerably  below  the  true  vdodty  of 
sound.    The  discrepancy  was  explained  by  P.  &  Laplace  (about 


iao69).  The  HMpHiimiie  is  not  lerihr  constmt,  bat  risea  aad  Isfla 
as  the  gas  is  ahemately  comniessed  and  lareoed.  When  this  is 
aUowed  for  we  have  k^^ypt,  where  y  is  the  isatio  of  the  two  specific 
heats  of  the  gae^  aad  toerefoie  c«V(T|^Pi).  For  air,  7*i'4ii 
and  the  consequent  value  of  c  agiees  weU  with  the  best  direct  de- 


terminatiens  (33a 


per  second  at  o*  C). 


The  poteatialene^gy  of  a  system  of  sound  waves  is  ^kf  per  unit 
volume.  As  in  all  cases  of  propa^tion  in  one  dimension,  the 


energy  of  a  single  progressive  system  is  half  kinetic  and  half  potential. 
In  the  case  of  an  unlimited  isotropic  elastic  solid  medium  two 
types  of  plane  waves  are  posBible»  viz.  the  displacement  may  be 
normal  or  tangential  to  the  wave-fronts.  The  axis  of  x  beiog 
taken  in  the  direction  of  propagation,  then  in  the  case  odT  a  normu 
displacement  |  the  traction  normal  to  the  wave-front  is  (X+a^)d(/ax, 
where  X,  |i  are  the  elastic  constants  of  the  medium,  viz.  m  is  the 
"rigidity."  and  X-i^ii.  where  ik  b  the  cubic  elasticity.  Thb 
leads  to  the  equation 

{-«^'i     .      f      ....      (14) 
where 

•-y|(X+a^)/p|-Vf(*-H|M)/p).     .     .     (IS) 

The  wave-velocity  b  |;ieater  than  in  the  case  of  the  lonmtudinal 
vibrations  of  a  rod,  owing  to  the  lateral  yielding  which  takes  pbce 
in  the  latter  case.  In  the  case  of  a  dbpJacement  n  parallel  to  the 
axb  of  y,  and  therefore  tangential  to  the  wave-fronts,  we  have  a 
shearing  strain  9^/dx,  and  a  corresponding  shearing  stress  itd^ds. 
Thb  leads  to 


witii 


»-V(«^p).    . 


(16) 
(17) 


In  the  case  of  sted  (ik«l*84i .  10",  |i«8-i9.  lou,  p-:jr-849  C.G.S.) 
the  wave-vek>cities  a,  b  come  out  to  be  6*i  and  3-a  lolometres  per 
second,  respectively. 

If  the  medium  bie  crystalline  the  velocity  of  propagation  of  plane 
waves  will  depend  also  on  the  aspect  of  the  wav&'f  ront.  Fdr  any 
given  direction  of  the  wave>nonnal  there  are  in  •  the  most  general 
case  three  distinct  vdodtics  of  wavet^fopagation,  each  with  its 
own  direction  of  partide-vibration.  These  latter  directions  are 
perpendicular  to  each  other,  but  in  general  oblique  to  the  wave- 
front.  For  certain  types  of  crystalline  structure  tbe  results  simplify, 
but  it  b  unnecessary  to  eater  into  further  details,  as  the  matter  Is 
chiefly  of  interest  m  relation  to  the  now  abandoned  ebstioeolid 
theories  of  double-refractiorb  For  the  modem  electric  theory  of 
light  see  UoBT,  and  Elbcteig  Wavbs. 

Finally,  it  may  be  noticed  that  the  conditions  of  wav^propegation 
without  change  of  type  may  be  investigated  In  another  manner. 
If  we  impress  on  the  whole  medium  a  velocity  equal  and  opposite 
to  that  ot  the  wave  we  obtain  a  **  steady  "  or  "  sutioaary  "  aUte  m 

■  tofi 


Thus  in  the  case  of  the  vibratione  cf  an  laextensflile  string  we  may* 
in  the  first  instanre,  imagine  the  stiiMtp  run  through  a  fiited  smooth 
tube  having  the  form  01  the  wave.  The  velocity  c  being  constant 
there  b  no  tangential  acceleration,  and  the  tension  P  b  according^ 
nmform.  The  resultant  of  the  tensions  oq  the  two  ends  of  an 
dement  9s  b  Pftr/R,  in  the  direction  of  the  normal,  where  R  denotes 
the  racttns  of  curvatures  Thb  will  be  exactly  sufficient  to  produce 
the  normal  acoderation  c'/R  in  the  mass  pfc,  provided  t^^Pfp, 
Under  thb  condition  the  tube,  which  now  exerts  no  pressure  on  the 
string,  may  be  abolished,  and  we  have  a  free  stationary  wave  on  a 
moving  string.   Thb  argument  b  due  to  P.  G.  Tait. 

The  method  was  applied  to  the  case  01  air-waves  by  W.  J.  M. 
Ranldne  in '187a  When  a  gas  flows  steadily  through  a  straight 
tube  of  unit  section,  the  mass  m  which  crosses  any  section  in  unit 
time  must  be  the  same;  hence  if  «  be  the  vdocity  we  have 

pw^m, (18) 

Again,  the  mass  which  at  time  I  occupies  the  space  between  two 
fixed  sections  (which  we  will  dbtinguish  by  suffixes)  has  its  momen- 
tum increased  an  the  time  M  by  (Mnr-enti)  21,  whence 

Pr^^miug-Hiy,       ....         (19) 
Combined  with  (18)  thb  gives 

/^i+mVpi-^+ni"//*.  ....  (20) 
Hence  lor  absolutely  steady  rootbn  it  b  essential  that  the  ex- 
pression p-\-wftf  should  have  the  same  value  throughout  the  wave. 
Thb  condition  is  not  accuratdy  fulfilled  by  any  known  substance, 
whether  subject  to  the  "  isothermal "  or  "  adiabatic  "  condition; 
but  in  the  case  of  small  variations  of  pressure  and  density  the 
rdatkm  b  equtvaleat  to 

wfi^lMpidp, .(ai) 

and  thcrdore  by  (18),  If  c  denote  the  general  vdodty  of  the  current, 

tfmdp/dpmk/p,       ....       (aa) 

in  agreement  with  (13).  The  fact  that  the  oonditkNi  (30)  can  only 
be  satisfied  cpproxiinitely  shows  that  some  progresdve  change  of 
type  must  inevitably  take  place  in  sound-waves  of  finite  amplitude. 
TNs  question  has  been  examined  by  &  D.  Poisson  (1807),  Sir  G.  G. 
Stokes  (1848).  B.  Riemann  (1858);  &  Eamshaw  (1858),  W.  |.  M. 
Rankine  (1870),  Lofd  Rayleifl^  (1878)  and  othem    It  ipptM  that 


426 


WAVE 


oonoQimD  poftiow  of  tlM  tniv8  fun  owitiiioBiiy  od  lout 
lew  coodeiued,  the  tendency  beinf  apparently  tomrds  theDro> 
ducdon  of  a  duoontinuity.  KMnewhat  analogous  to  a  "  bore  in 
water-wave*.  Before  this  ctage  can  be  reached,  however,  diaapative 
foroea  (so  far  ignored),  euch  as  viBooetty  and  thermal  oondnction, 
come  into  play.  Injpractical  aooustica  tae  reaultt  are  also  modified 
by  the  dtminution  ol  amplitude  due  to  qiherical  dtveigenoe 
f  3.  WMe-Propagalum  iu  General. 

We  have  next  to  consider  the  processes  of  wave-propa^tion  in 
two  or  three  dtmcnnons.  The  nmplest  case  is  that  oi  air-waves. 
When  terms  of  the  second  order  in  the  velocities  are  nc^ectcd,  the 
dynamical  equations  are 

and  the  "  equation  of  continuity  "  (see  Htdromschanics)  is 


(1) 


!5+-(^+|+S)-o. 


If  we  write  p"*m(i+«)*  p^h+is,  these  nu^  be  written 


»ds    99 


-<^^.    37--< 


ST" — "dx*  di 
where  c  b  given  by  f  t  (13),  and 


9w        JU 


Ca) 


(3) 


(4) 


the  latter  eqqation  expressing  that  tlA  condensation  s  is  diminishing 
at  a  rate  equal  to  the  "  divei];ence  "  of  the  vector  (w,  v,  w)  (see 
Vector  Analysis).   Eliminating  «,  v,  v,  we  obtain 

j?-<V* (S) 

where   V*   sunds    for    Laplace's   operator  d*/3x'+d'/d/+^/d^ 
This,  the  general  equation  of  sound-waves,  appears  to  be  due  to 
L.  Euln*  (1759).    In  the  particular  case  where  the  disturbance  is 
symmetrical  with  respect  to  a  centre  O.  it  talces  the  simpler  form 


2^-«^». (0 


where  f  denotes  distance  from  0  It  u  easily  deduced  from  (i)  that 
in  the  case  of  a  medium  initially  at  rest  the  velocity  (a,  t,  w)  is  now 
wholly  radial   The  solution  of  (6)  is 


...fi^+Efettd. .   ...   (7) 


This  represents  two  spherical  waves  travdling  outwards  and  in- 
wards, respective,  wittt  the  velocity  c,  but  there  is  now  a  progressive 
change  of  amplitude.  Thus  in  the  case  of  the  diverging  wave  re- 
pRsrated  by  the  first  term,  the  condensation  in  any  particular  part 
of  dw  wave  continually  diminishes  as  i/r  as  the  wave  spreads.  The 
potential  eneiyy  per  unit  volume  (i  1  (5)]  varies  as  ^,  and  so 
diminishes  in  mverse  proportion  to  the  square  of  the  distance  from 
O.  It  may  be  shown  that  as  in  the  case  of  plane  waves  the  total 
cneny  of  a  diverging  (or  a  converging)  wave  is  half  potential  and 
halflanetic. 

The  solution  oi  the  general  equation  (5),  first  ^ven  by  S.  D. 
PoisBoo  in  1819,  expresses  the  value  of  s  at  any  given  pomt  P  at 
time  f,  in  terms  of  the  mean  values  of  «  and  1  at  the  instant  l«*o 
ov«r  a  spherical  surface  of  radius  ct  described  with  P  as  centre,  via. 

*-^//F(«)4.4[5i///W)4.],    .     .     <«) 

where  the  integrations  extend  over  the  surface  of  the  aforesaid  sphere, 
<£(#  is  the  solid  angle  subtended  at  P  by  an  element  of  its  surface, 
and/(c/),  F(c/}  respectively  denote  the  original  values  of  s  and  J  at 
the  position  of  the  clement.  Hence,  if  the  disturbance  be  originally 
confined  to  a  limited  region,  the  agitation  at  any  point  P  external 
to  this  i«gion  will  begin  after  a  time  ri/c  and  will  cease  after  a  time 
ri/c,  where  fi,  v^  are  the  least  and  greatest  distances  of  P  from  the 
boundary  of  the  re^on  in  question.  The  region  occupied  by  the 
disturbance  at  any  instant  I  is  therefore  delimited  by  the  envelope 
of  a  family  of  spheres  of  radius  ct  described  with  the  points  of  the 
oritnnal  boundary  as  centres. 

One  remarkable  point  about  waves  dlveiging  in  three  dtibenrions 
remains  to  be  noticed.  It  easily  appeare  from  (t)  that  the  value  of 
the  integral  fsdt  at  any  point  P.  taken  over  the  whole  rime  of  tranrit 
of  a  wave,  is  indepenocnt  of  the  pontion  of  P,  and  therefore  equal  to 
sens  as  is  seen  by  taking  P  at  an  infinite  distance  from  the  original 
seat  of  disturt>ance.  This  shows  that  a  divergiiu|  wave  necessarily 
contains  both  condensed  and  rarefied  portions.  11  initially  we  have 
■ero  velocity  everywhere,  but  a  uniform  condensation  s^  throughout 
a  spherical  space  of  radius  a,  it  is  found  that  we  have  ultimately 
a  oiverving  wave  in  the  form  of  a  spherical  shell  of  thickness  2a, 
and  that  the  value  of  s  within  this  shell  varies  from  iWr  at  the 
anterior  face  to  "istmlr  at  the  interior  face,  r  denoting  the  mean 
radius  of  the  sheO. 

The  process  of  wave-propantion  in  two  dimenrions  offers  some 
pecnliantics  which  are  exemplified  in  cylindrical  waves-  of  sound, 
m  waves  on  a  unifocn  tense  pUine  membnuie*  and  in  annular  waves 


of  watarofXnIitivdr) 

equation  of  motaoa  is  in  all  these  cases  of  the  fom 

S"*^''* <9) 

where  Vi'*4'/dx*+^d:^>  In  the  case  of  the  membrane  s  denotes 
the  displaceinent  normal  to  its  plane; 
in  the  application  to  watex-waves  it 
represents  the  elevation  of  the  siuf ace 
above  the  nndistiirbed  leveL  The  sol- 
ntion  of  (9),  even  in  the  case  of  sym- 
metry about  the  origin,  is  anafyticaUy 
much  less  simple  than  that  of  (6).  It 
appears  that  the  wave  due  to  a  tranrient 
local  disturbance,  even  of  the  simplest 
type,  is  now  not  sharply  defined  in  the 
rear,  as  it  is  in  the  front,  but  has  an 
indefinitely  prolonged  "tail."  This  is  Illus- 
trated by  the  annexed  figures  which 
represent  graphically  the  time-variations 
in  the  condensation  1  at  a  particular 
point,  as  a  wave  originating  in  a  local 
condensation  passes  over  this  point.  The 
curve  A  represents  (in  a  typical  case)  the  ^^ 
effect  of  a  plane  wave,  B  that  of  a 
cylindrical  wave,  and  C  that  of  a 
spherical  wave.  The  changes  of  type 
from  A  to  Band  from  B  to  Care  accounted  \\ 

for  by  the  incpcasing  degree  of  mobility  c>,^  - 1 

of  the  medium.  "°* '" 

The  equations  govemii^  the  displacements  «,  t,  «p  of  a  uaifocm 
isotropic  ebtftic  soud  mrdinm  are 


■(^+M)lt+M\^, 


^iriicn 
From 


'dx 

P^  -  (X  +|i)^  +MV%', 

^"dx'^'dy'^an 
we  derive  by  differentiation 


where 


and 


^-6*vHt  3" ftVv.  5^*6Vt» 


C.Y. 


9v 
•3? 


du     9ra 

Ss    ST 


ax" 


da 
"Sy* 


.      (10) 

(II) 
(w) 


(13) 

(14) 
(15) 


as  in  1 1.  It  appears  then  that  the  "  dilatation  "  A  and  the  *'  rou- 
tions  C  ifi  r  are  propagated  with  the  velocities  a,  ft,  respectively. 
By  formulae  analogous  to  (8)  we  can  cakuUte  the  values  ca  A,  (.  f .  f 
at  any  instant  in  terms  of  the  initial  conditions.  The  subsequent 
determination  of  ji,  v.  w  is  a  merely  analytical  problem  into  whidi 
we  do  not  enter;  it  is  clear,  however,  that  if  the  original  disturiMnce 
be  confined  to  a  limited  region  we  have  ultimately  two  concentric 
spherical  diverging  waves.  In  the  outer  one  of  these,  which  travda 
with  the  velocity  a,  the  rotations  {,  n^  f  vanish,  and  the  wave  is 
accordingly  described  as  "  irroutional."  or  "  condensational.'* 
In  the  inner  wave,  which  travels  with  the  smaller  velocity  fr,  the 
dilatation  A  vanishes,  and  the  wave  is  therefore  characterised  as 
"  equivoluminal "  or  *'  distortional."  In  the  former  wave  the 
directions  of  vibration  of  the  particles  tend  to  become  normal,  and 
in  the  latter  tangential,  to  the  wave-front,  as  in  the  case  of  plane 
elastic  waves  ((  I). 

The  problems  of  reflection  and  transmission  which  arise  when  a 
wave  encounters  the  boundary  of  an  clastic-solid  medium,  or  the 
interface  of  two  such  media,  are  of  interest  chiefly  in  relation  to  the 
older  theories  of  optics.  It  may.  however,  be  worth  while  to  remark 
that  an  irrotational  or  an  equivoluminal  wave  does  not  in  general 
give  rise  to  a  reflected  (or  transmitted)  wave  of  single  character; 
thus  an  equivoluminal  wave  gives  rise  to  an  irrotational  as  well  as 
an  equivoluminal  reflected  wave,  and  so  on. 

Finally,  in  a  limited  elastic  solid  we  may  also  have  systems  of 
waves  of  a  different  type.  These  travel  over  the  jwrface  with  a 
definite  vdodty  somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  equivolufluoal 
waves  above  referred  to;  thus  in  an  incompressible  solid  the  velocaty 
M  "9554^;  in  a  wild  such  that  X«fi  it  is  •9194^'  The  agitation  due 
to  these  waves  is  confined  to  the  immediate  ncighbouiiiood  <"  J^ 
surface,  diminishing  exponentially  with  increasing  depth.  The 
theory  of  these  soiiace  waves  was  given  by  Lord  Rayjeigh  in  1 885. 
In  the  modem  theory  of  earthquakes  three  phases  of  the  disturbanoe 


1  Figures  t,  a,  4,  6,  7  and  8  are  from  Professor  Horace  LamVi 
Bydrodynamtcs,  fay  permission  of  the  Cambridge  Univenity  Press. 


((■■atl«dl«ut(nmll>eii(%laua  neanlHl:  tk  faa 
■pofkdi  u  the  amvHl  of  coadnuadoiul  vavu,  the  HOD«d  to  i 
dutoftioiul  nm,  ■ud  tin:  ihiid  la  thu  irf  iba  Kiylci|A  *>v 

ELASTICHY). 

Tbe  theory  of  vavra  divef^ns  frDci  ft  cemn  bi  hn  unl 

ayslaiUju  medium  baa  been  mrsll^ud  with  a  view  lo  ofHical 
theUYby  C.  Gnes  (1B39).  A.  L.  Ciuchy  (l8ja},  E.  B.  Chriw<<fl 
(1A77)  end  Dthere.    Thi  turlmce  which  fcpfeaciilft  the  wavfr^nat 

coimUu  of  ihcee  iheeti,  tadi  ■<  which  ie jwopapiei)  -'*'-  ' 

ip«uJ  vdodty.  It  it  huillv  worth  while  to  utaa 
bprc  of  Che  iLi^ulanlia  of  uie  ewfice,  or  of  the  . 
wluch  occur  for  vttncnd  typet  of  cryttmlEne  wnunet/y, 
hu  iHt  much  of  ite  pbyiicAl  interat  dov  thM  tb 
thSQiy  of  U|ht  i>  ptacOaBy  ebiiiiiloaBl. 


(j.  WaUr-Watu.   TTmryif" lot"  WfO. 

Tlw  nmplat  type  of  waler-wftvee  ii  that  in  wbidi  the  not— 

^  triionlal,  and  thenfoTO  tarn  will  appear) 
paniciet  In  a  vertical  line.    The  '^"-" 


hu  iherrfoie  betn  propined  to  detignale  by  the  u 
attt  of  wave-mation,  whatever  tb&r  scale,  which 
choracteriBtic  property. 


ifl  diaivn  hofirontaHy,  aad  th 


:t  the  vetiical  accderation.  the 

lue  to  the  depth  bdow  tne  insununnL 

-.  ...- e,  and  the  noriamtal  prmurp-sradicr 

ill  therefore  be  indeoendent  of  V.   I1  folEowa  chat  ail  furtidi 
'-^ "-  '- - -' ~ -"-'--  -  Oi  wOl  rflai 


e*-!*- (6) 

Tie  Klnlion  ii  u  in  1 1,  and  repteKnla  two  mvit^yKme  tnvelllni 
with  tbi  conatant  velocity  V  tilt),  which  ia  that  which  would  be 
acqBifed  by  a  particle  [alfiat  iieely  through  ■  ^ncc  hjihI  to  ball 
the  depth. 

Two  dininct  anumptlou  have  been  made  in  the  foregoing 
[aveatigaCion-    The  meaaia^  of  these  la  moat  aaeily  uoderKood  11 

,-)Ico.i(<J-i).  .-fcotKef-.},  .     .     .     (7) 


.    fti. 

. 1  appV--"-  --•    -     ■'  ■ 

, jmptioEi,  which  neglcc .-,  «-..„..„.»».«,„  .„ 

formiiw  the  cquatvn  fij.  ividico  that  the  ratio  ^tk  of  the  aurface. 
elevadon  Do  the  depth  of  the  fluid  muat  be  (mail.  The  foimulae 
(7)  indicate  alto  that  in  a  prosra^ve  wave  a  particle  mow  forwaidi 
or  backward)  according  a>  Ihe  watei.iurlace  above  it  it  elevated  or 
depmged  relatively  to  the  neaa  IcveL    It  may  alio  be  proved  that 


the 


(or  tbe  Unetic  and  p( 


(B) 


the  thiDiy  of  "long"  water-waw 

aound,  f.|.  the  ratio  v/A  corrctpeiidt 

la  Ihi  one  of  Bir-wavea    The  theory 


cloae  cot  rcflpondenDE  bet* 
ind  thai  «  piarLe  wava 

bo  adapted,  with  1 


Ratleiita  to  1 

reflcctioii,  a 
appropriate  16  tbe  hx 
of  ampGtudei  tbe  c 


d  by  G. 

ihadiaan 


Cieen  (1B37)  and  b 


4«7 

BichaHcit 
lilxkTha 


^  lurfm  and  A  it  the  mi 
>  ill  nuthematicai  lii  , 
u  been  lariely  ued  to  dluitrat 


-riamical  theory  cf 


anl  aurrounding  the  earth,  the  diaturbing  action  of  the  moon, 
up^ied  ffoi  aimplidiy)  to '  -  ■ ' — ' ^■-  '-  -'-  -'— 


equatiois  UJ  and  (9. 

The  coefficient  in  the  former  of  thex  equation!  ia 
the  ratio  ^srirml^f^i/r.  which  hahnui  1/111.  H 
depth  of  at 


Ud^ 


of  tha  wave  travel  with  the  greater 
be  velocity  of  pnpagatioa  bcuig 

tti+h/t) 

Keoce  the  afopea  nil  become  eontmaallr  ■aeper 
■n  iront  aad  aHrt  gradual  Iwhind,  until  a  aiage  ii  reached  at  which 

the  vertical  aKdvuiaBBBO  loager  tirgli^itr.  and  the  theory 

Inwardi  in  SLillow  water  near  the  a£n.  "Tbt  theory  of  toreed 
periodic  wavea  of  fioita  Caa  dJUlnpriihril  (ivm  infimtely  •malt) 
amplitude  waa  alio  Hiigimd  by  Airy.  It  haa  an  appUoittoB  iq 
tidal  iheofv,  ia  cba  annlanation  of  "  overtidea  "  and  ''  compoflnd 
tide.  "  (kc  "hoK). 

14.  Siafau-Waaa. 
IK*  ia  the  moM  familiar  type  of  walB-^ravea,  bat  thi  theory  b 
not  altcaetber  elemeotarv.    We  will  luppoae  ia  tbe  &m  ioMaaet 
■  -  ■■ — ^->jatal  and  vertical 


lalMfy  the  equatiu 


iiin  make  b*l»y  .  . 

, and  boriroplai.    The 

■quare  of  the  velocity, 


jp+j^-0.    .     .     . 

the  bottom,  which  ia 


HeBCe,  if  the  origin  be  taken  in  the  undiaturbcd  surface,  we  nay 


428 


The  OKTapoadiac  valiw  of  ^ : 


<S  ila  tC-cfl. 


(S) 


wbwE  it  dauMi  the  de|K]i.  it  l>  la  (*«  euity  verifad  (bal  Ihu 
Htiiln  (I),  and  inako  a^/Bjt-o.'lor  7-—*.  and  Uul  itliiUlilbe 
preMure-cDiiditiOEi  0)  at  Ilie  Ene  suHace.  The  klAoulJc  madhion 
UJ  vill  iUh  be  Htiilied.  provided 


be  orbit,  boriAiatBl 
where  »  rcfen  to  the  mean  l*v*l 


IE  Ibe 
_..Kleii 

-     {« 

thr  putidr.   Tlie  ditBeaioH  a( 

indda  with  a 
,  of  the  nveh 
ibln  the  depth 


kfticAUy,  via  tie  Jonnula 


"Imblt 


-K. 


(■0) 

depth  *cnt  loGnitc.    Tlw  oiiiiti  of  the  putkla 
j^i.j.     i./i. ... ■■-- lBnd.l.i.inadenildy 


kinetic 

HrfK 

SS'I 


date  from  G.(^^(iSj9)a™f  Sir  C.B?*i[y{ie+s>. 


le  work  which  would  1 


llmdeg.  through  a  height  ja. 


mtehtal 

wo  liquid.  o(  diflt 

For  wavT-lengihi  which  ut  les  than  dovhk  the  depth  of  other 
bqidd  the  lomnila  (10)  i>  replaced  by 


ulea,  a  twoTold  ca 


,  /  are  the  denstlea  cf 

■^"ihe 
'  id  m  II 

Ire  vefy  tlow,  TUa 


!u; 


oQoVRWSt 

diatiirtiaiKe  whoie  initial  chariifii 


ItniTT  and  upper  fltiida  reapec- 
^velodlv  f  haa>  aa  the  rorraula 
itial  eocrsy  of  a  ^iveii  defonna- 
inished  by  the  preieiKC  of  ihe 
hilit  the  Inertia  i>  ilKceaard  in 
dendtiea  are  very  neaily  equal 
'.he  oscillations  of  the  CDrnmon 
obwrvcd  in  tiic  case  d  paraffin 


by  Foui 


it   proiMBaled 

the  naulliaE  wave-profile  will  unlbiiiany  aher  iu  ihape.  Tfie  caae 
ol  an  inttiallocal  impiilaa  haa  beea  atodied  in  deuil  by  S,  D.  PoinDn 
()«■»).  A.  Caiidiy  (181;)  and  othera.  At  any  nilHequent  inatant 
the  iuilacc  fa  occupied  on  either  lide  by  a  Rain  ol  timt  of  varying 
hci^t  and  leiwih,  Ihc  wa*»^ai«<h  incnaaing.  and  the  hoghi 
dimtniihinf,  wim  mcRaiing  diatancc  (a)  fioni  the  origin  of  the 
dittuibancs.  Tbt  kngcr  warn  mvd  Itater  Iban  (he  iborteT.  lo 
that  each  wave  ia  conttiualTy  bdag  dimwn  cut  in  length,  and  its 
velocity  of  prwafatloa  tbenfotc  canLnuaUy  incieaaea  aa  it  ad- 
vaocea-  If  we  nx  oar  attentlu  on  a  paninilaj'  polnr  ol  tbeiuifxi, 
the  level  then  will  riie  and  fall  vnb  iacieaainf  rapidity  and  in- 
creaiinf  amplitude.    Tbeie  atateneati  are  all  lavuli^  [n  PuiiDn'a 

"*"°^-5("g-"9 ■■■> 

which,  however,  ia  only  nlld  usder  the  condition  that  r  ii  large 
compared  with  it',  Thia  ahowi  moreover  that  the  occurnnce  tJ 
a  particular  wave-length  ]h  Za  condiiioned  by  the  rdation 

i-iv'S to) 

Tba  IwTgoiin  d=cripdon  appliB  in  the  Snt  jnatance  only  to  the 


wiMt) 


,  —  have  the  lUBe  etiir- 

, , _  _  the  coatbiBal  ffinimitian  ef  Ihc 

length  ci  the  wavea  amitted,  li  becomea  eoinparahle  wltb  or  imaHer 
than  1,  the  parte  of  tim  Anurtwice  whkh  are  due  to  tbe  vaiioua 
parta  of  the  band  wlU  no  lonfer  be  appmumatdv  In  Ibe  laiBe 
phaae.  and  we  have  a  caae  (<  ^ImsfeteiKe  "  Ib  tba  opDcal  aeaa. 
The  retult  ii  in  naemi  that  la  the  Enal  Matei  the  uubca  will  bi 
marked  by  a  tenia  of  groiipa  of  wavca  of  SninlibiBf  anpiitodl 
leparated  by  baada  ef  compantlvdy  anwoCb  water. 

The  tact  tbat  Ibe  wava-velodty  of  a  witiple-haTinonk  traia  *viM 
with  the  wave-leotth  hai  aa  aaalogy  In  optica,  hi  the  propagatiiia 
ol  Ught  ia  a  dbpenive  awdiora.  Id  both  cawa  we  have  a  coniiaat 
with  tbe  HBfitir  phenDBena  of  wava  on  a  tenie  Rrini  or  of  light- 
waveaHaaaw.and  theaollaaof  "  group-veiacity,"  aa  oiatinguialwd 
from  wave-vdodty,  comet  to  be  imponanl.  If  in  ihe  above  analyna 
ol  tbe  diaturbauce  due  to  a  local  impulse  we  denote  by  U  the  velocity 
with  which  the  locua  of  aav  parlicLiLir  wave-leiwihi  X  traveli,  we 
tee  from  (13)  thai  U-Je-.   The  nctual  fa-  "■-  -■■ '— -— ' 


reblively 


eeA  £nt  eaplidi 


the^fmit,  ^f.l  il.*f< 
Genenl  eiq^  nation 


-length  travda  fl^Tl 

;  ramaiked  by  J.  Scolt  ftTlSl  (18*4). 
,  gradually  dying  out  at  it  approachca 


have  been  'nivcn  by  Slokei,  Rayleigh.  and  olhen.  If  tlw  nve- 
length  X  bk!  legarded  at  a  function  of  x  and  t,  we  have 

^■l-Uj^-o (14) 

unce  X  doea  not  vary  in  the  nelEbbofidmd  iJ  a  geometrical  point 
iiavdUng  wiih  velocity  U,  thiiTieing  in  fact  the  definition  of  V. 
^gain,  if  we  imagiBe  a  aecoiu]  gBumetrioal  point  to  awva  wlib  tba 


he  aenwd  member  eapieating  the  rale  at  which  two  ctmiemthv 
rave-cmta  aie  tepaiating  from  one  aaother.  Comparins  (14]  and 
ij).  we  have 


(16) 


V-C-: 

be  coDitr^irted  with  X  at  abadtta  and  c  aa  ordinate, 
represented  by  the  intercept  made  by 

— .. Thit  it  iUuttraled 

by  the  anneaed  figure,  which  refert  to  tbe    , 

itercept   it  balf   tbe 


BTDUp-vriiKily 


tbe  curve  ia 
it  balf   tL_ 

..  ._ the  telatiaa 

ilready   remarked.     Tbe  pbvaica] 


iportance  of  tbe  motion  of  anup-veucity 
la  pointed  out  by  O.  Reynoldi  (1877),  who 
owed  tbat  the  rate  at  which  ener|y  u  dtq- 


In  thia  diffeienlatio... . 

to  be  regarded  at  tai:    htncc  1-c  and  therefore  OQ~((~)PO. 
W*  have  almtdv  ■*■  that  tba  wave-kngtb  at  P  &  aueh  tb& 

PO-Uh  wbit*  o  r- '—    -'^ 


fmpei  Ig  ■  WBve-v?lcjcily  *.  vit   \^2ti'l[.     The 
ihtTETDic  foHowed  by  a  train  of  wives  ol  ippmnL 


WAVE 


!  (infiniUh'  HUlll 
idih  cJ  the  tdiu 


The    iniKucd    t 


EDiDcnt  an  be  applied  ta  the  ate  <>(  finitn  ilqilh  (1), 


.    There 


r  the  veiodly  (  of  ihi  I 
~™lt  I 


lerated.  the  dlHuctaiK 
^1>  Hitint  that  Ibe  ii 

THiUa  IoIIdw  vheii  Ita 


II  terel  being  purely  local.     It  hardly  i 
vBiisaiion  applies  alv>  to  th«c»eof  a  iiai 

d^urbance  conauu  in  an  equality  of  the  poiiom.    in  poui  n^n  "^ 

cormponding  to  a  wave-vdocity  mtial  to  that  of  the  itreani. 

'    The  effect  <4  a  duturhancx  confined  ID  the  neichbourtiood  of  a 

*HtiE>tion»   of   Caachy  and    Pension    afready    referred    to.      TIkc 
imulaaoakgoua  lo  (I"'  ■- ■■■ '•' — '■ — 


_.__  _  . _  .     tntinkuUy  bdiif  Atarted  and  left  behind.    Sotr 

aperimentfl  on  tomedo  btuli  movins  in  t^lbw  baler  have  ind 
laled  a  (anini  bH  in  nii^lanct  due  to  the  abience  of  Innnem 
nvea  )utt  rabited  to.    For  Ibe  effect  of  lutface-tenaon  and  II 


The  lontoiofl  temlH  an  band  on  Iha  msui 
ani[diliHlfl  maylx  ImEcd  at  iafinirfly  anaU.    Vi 

invejtiratioda  have  been  nidi  in  whitl^tlili  renri ..  —  .. 

k«,  a&ndoned,  bul  «  are  far  (mm  po«wne  a  compltie  theory. 
"l  tystem  of  exact  eqontiona  ginnB  a  po«ible  type  of  wtve- 
:ion  on  deep  vater  iw  obtained  by  F.  J.  v.  Gentner  in  1801,  and 


tave-vclocily  ia 

xxvm  ( 


in  accunldy  citculu,  being  defined  by  1 
Ha-cfl.  »-»-t-V«H*(«-cO,  .  (1) 
n  pDiition  o(  (he  paftkk,  I^m/Xj  and  t 
'-VC(/*)-V(tf^M C) 


It  utiiek  la  indiKtal  of  co 


Im  Ian  that  (he  CDiuequenl  imioa  of  (he 
iHia  eieinenta  pAivta  to  be  "  rotational  "  (lee  HvPHOH£cHAr*lc&J» 
^pd  (hetefoR  not  uch  ai  could  be  generated  in  a  previouEly  quicscenc 
liquid  by  any  lyaten  of  tvaa  applied  to  (he  tiiiAce. 

Sir  G.  Stolcea.  in  a  leriei  of  pwen,  applied  himtelf  (a  Uu  detep 
■ninatiso  d  the  poaaible  "  imtatisnal "  wavcJonna  ol  Mia  hdgbt 
vhkh  tati^  (he  condiliont  <4  unifonn  propagation  witbout  chan^i 
of  (>^.   Tlie  equation  of  the  invAle.  in  the  caie  of  infinite  depth,  v 

y-acoaii(+lfci'ciHa*x4-|jKi'fo,)ti+.,T,     ,     tj) 
-  Ig  waye-vdocity  being  approilmately 

■wm*^\ K> 

Tlie  equalion  (1).  u  Fat  aa  n  ha' 
, ..-n  »ith  that  of  a  tiochoid  [fig.  7).   . 

DotUpc  ia  aharper  near 
I  andflaKer , 


SS™ 


hTokulatioM™'  iT^ichrlTdiSi)]  the  hetoht  ia 
jM-ae*enth  of  the  wave.lcnctb.  and  the  wave<veuo(y 


WlOfnlrkrr  (Lspiig 
Bnt.Aiicc.ltif.(l& 
nr  la  tbiorie  du  n 
(hteoe  dft  ondea,"  . 
"  M*l»l.  siir  la  ihft 
n«i7);SirG.B.Ai 


5f3"R 


D.PffHOn."M(llK^R 

ftti*i  paly).  T  (iSo;):  "  Mtei.  wi  la 
'and.  ny.dtan.  1  (]Bi6);  A.  Cauchy. 
nde>."  ilht.  it  Caiai.  roy.  irt  IC.  J 
t  and  Wavea."  Enntl.  Milnf.  (iS4S> 

mn  po«  nual  conveniently  aLLiHKM 


WAVELLITE— WAXWING 


miiwnl  uluiUy  ulung  tbe  focm  of  bemisphericiil  at  glabuUi 
ftgfrregata  with  ajt  iatenuJ  ndiiltd  sttucluK,  It  a  tran&IuccDt 
And  varia  in  colour  from  grey  or  while  to  gr«niih,y«llDwuh,  flic. 
The  hiidneu  ii  3),  and  the  ipedfic  gnvily  iji.  It  wu  first 
lound,  at  the  end  of  the  iSth  ccnluiy,  by  Dr  W.  WaveU  Hear 
Bunlllpte  in  DevonBhin.  There  it  lines  crevices  in  ■  black 
tlaly  rock,  II  hss  also  been  (ound  in  Ireland  (Tippeiiry  and 
Cork),  Arkinw,  flic.  (L.  J.  S.) 

WAVBRLT.  I  -village  of  Tioga  coonty,  N*w  Vort,  U.S.A., 
about  iS  m.  &.£.  of  Elmira,  on  Ihc  Cayula  Cre«k.  near  the 
Chemung  and  ibe  Susquehanna  rivers,  which  unite  levcral 
n>k*S.af  Ihevllbige.  Pop.  (iSqo)  411JI  Uvo)  4465,  of  whom 
105  ware  fortign-boin;  (190s)  491s;  (1910)  4!s5.  Ii  JJ  lervid 
by  the  Dcbwari,  Ljckawsniui  &  Western,  the  Erie  and  the 
Lehigli  Valley  railways.  With  South  Waveily  (pop.  in  1410 
ia&4]— Mpanled  from  Waverly  only  by  the  slate  line  and  really 

■  part  o(  the  village— Sayre,  and  Athens,  Penn«yly»ni«,  it  is 
connected  by  eleclriF  ralhvay  and  the  three  [ocm  practically 

with  Elnin.  The  village  is  a  railiiay  cent  re  □faome  importance, 
dlilributtt  coal  Irom  the  Wyoming  Valley  minrs,  and  ships 
Ihe  flaiiy  pcoducH  of  a  brge  fanning  districi  and  small  Iruils 
and  ganlen  product!.  Wiveily  wis  settled  about  i9o4  by 
settlers  from  Connecticut  ind  the  Hudson  River  VaUey,  and  was 
locoiporated  as  a  village  in  18^4. 

WAVRE.  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Brabant, 
14  m.  S.E,  of  Brussels.  Pop.  (11)04)  8517.  It  wm  on  this 
place  that  Grouchy  advanced  on  the  day  of  Waterloo,  giining 

■  useless  succtsi  here  over  a  Prussian  corps  while  the  fate  of 
the  campaign  was  being  dedded  elsewhere.  The  Prussians 
erected  here  a  fine  monument  by  Van  Oemberg  in  1859. 

WAX,  1  solid  fatty  substance  of  animal  and  vegelable  origin, 
'"   '  lo  the  find  Otis  and  fats.    From  these  it  Is  distinguished 


le  iicl  that 


re  glyceri. 


«  glycerin,  hut  is  a  combination  of  Iilty 
CMtam  solid  monatomic  alcohols  (see  Oils)  , 

WAX  FIGUIIBS.  Beeswax  is  possessed  of  propettie)  which 
render  it  a  most  convenient  medium  for  preparing  figures  and 
models,  cither  by  modrlUng  or  by  casting  in  moulds.  At  ordinary 
lemperalurei  it  can  be  cut  and  shaped  with  facility;  It  rnelts 
to  a  limpid  fluid  at  a  low  heal;  il  mius  with  any  colouring 
matter,  and  takes  surface  ilou  well;  and  its  ICKiure  and  con- 
sistency may  be  modified  by  the  addition  of  earthy  maiien  and 
oils  or  Ills.    When 


in  thin  1 


ct  tbe  fo 


for  modelling  have  been  ukcn  advantage  of  Irom 
lima.  Figures  in  wu  ol  their  deities  were  used 
rites  o(  Ihe  ancient  Egyptians,  and  deposited 
oHetingi  io  Ibeir  graves;  many  of  these  ate  now 
museums  That  the  Egyptians  also  modelled 
(earned  from  numerous  aUusions  in  early  literal 
the  Creeks  during  I  heir  best  art  period,  wai  figurei 
used  1)  dolls  for  children;  iLaluetles  of  deities  i 
lor  votwe  offerings  and  lor  religiout  cetemoaies,  an 
to  which  magical  pmpeniei  were  atiribuled  were 
iIm  people.  Wax  figures  and  models  held  a  still  ni< 
place  among  the  ancient  Romans.  The  mitk 
«M|tiWj}  of  ancestor!,  modelled  in   wax,  were 


one  o[  Ibe  privileri 
asions.    The  dosing 


the  middle  ages,  when  votive  olTeringi  of  wax  figures  were  made 
to  churches,  and  the  niemory  and  lineaments  of  monarchs  ind 
great  personages  were  ptraeived  by  means  of  wu  masts  as  in 
the  days  of  Roman  patricians.   In  thoe  ages  malice  and  tupersti- 


ndtieed  to  Ihe  person  repitaented;  and 
onlintied  till  the  171b  cenlury.  Indn 
urvives  in  Ihe  Highlands  of  ScolUnd,  w 
L  clay  model  of  an  enemy  was  found  in 


brought  this  figure  Irom  Italy.     Il  repres 


I  of  a 


.    It  hi 


been  > 


:s  Ihe  h 


been  assigned  to  Leonardo  da  Vim 
nd  to  Raphael,  but  all  that  can  be  said  is  that  it  probably 
ates  from  the  ItaUan  Renaissance.  In  1909  br  Bode,  Ihe 
irector  of  the  Kaiser  Friediich  Museum  at  Berlin,  purchased 
1  England,  for  (it  was  slaled)  i&»o.  1  lilc-siicd  half-ienglh 
:ma]e  figure  in  wax,  which  he  attributed  10  Leonardo  da  Vioci 
r  his  achooL  The  figure  was  shown  10  have  once  been  in  ibe 
osseuian  of  Richard  Cockle  Lucas  ti8oo-iS3j),  a  iculptoi 
nd  worker  in  ivory,  wax,  flic.  It  «■»>  claimed  that  Ihe  figure 
'aa  really  Lucas's  work  and  wis  a  reproduction  In  wax  ol  a 
icluie  of  "  Flora"  attributed  to  Leonardo  dl  Vinct,  now  in  tie 
ossestian  ol  (he  Atorrison  family  ai  BasOdon  Park,  near  Ptnl' 
aunie;ihisviewwas  repudiated  by  Dr  Bode,  hut  was genenUy 
ccepied  la  England  (see  Tit  Timet,  Oct,~Dec.  1909;  and 
arliculsriy  the  Burlington  Mttt^dne,  May.  June,  August,  rqco). 
ill  towards  the  close  of  the  iSth  century  modelling  o(  medallion 
ortnits  and  of  relief  groups,  the  latter  frequently  polychiomatic. 
u  in  consideiable  vogue  thnughoul  Eolope.  About  Ihe  end 
(  the  18th  cenlury  Fluman  executed  in  wax  many  porltaiis 
nd  other  relief  figures  which  Josiah  Wedgwood  translated 
110  pottery  for  bis  jasper  ware.    The  modelling  of  ihe  soft 


was  fini  p«ic 

i«d 

ai  Florence,  and  is  now  very  common.    Suc« 

part  of  a  show  at  Hamburg  in  1 711,  and  fmm 

that  time  wa 

ks,  on  a  plane  lower  than  art,  have  been 

popular  Bltn 

ction, 

,     These  exhibitions  coniiit  principally  ai 

mages  ol  his 

mask<  on  lay 

figu 

•a  in  which  lomclimes  mechanism  is  fitted 

10  give  motio 

he  figure.    Such  an  exhibition  ai  ip«-w*t 

otions  was  shown  in  Germany  early  in  Ihe 

is  described  by  Steele  in  Ihe  Talltr.    The 

m  wax-work  exhibition  is  that  ol  Madame 

in  London- 

WAX-THBB,  Wa 

ol  MyTiti,  especially  U.  aHjtra 
u'rce  of  vegetable  wax,    U.  Caie  is  the  native  Briiish  gale 


WAYCROSS— WAYLAND  THE  SMITH 


43' 


ulhe"Bilk4ul"  (PM(«.  Tra*sattinu,  iGS^.p.  it6i)— ilUenl 
rendrring  of    Ihe   Gennui   Stidftoikvans — or   "  cbattem  "— ' 
the  prefii  "  Geim»ii,"  "  BobemlBn  "  or  "  woczi "  btuig  oflm 
■lio  applitd.    Sriby'i  convenieni  nii™  hu  bqw  been  generally 
wkpled,  since  tbe  bird  a  readily  diatinguiihed  from  aliDoat  ■!] 
others  by  the  curious  eipuuion  of  ihe  shaft  of  ionie  of  its  vin^ 
lealhersat  the  lip  iDIDiSaJLe  thai  looki  like  scarlet  lelJing-i 
TbiJe  it!  occediDgly  silent  habit  maicea  the  name  "  chatle 
vboUy  bi^ipropriBte,  and  indeed  this  last  aroae  from  a 
Interptf  IHIion  of  the  specific  term  fsmt/w,  meaning  a  jay  {llom 
the  genera]  [esemblanrf  In  CDlour  of  tbe  two  birds),  and  not 
referring  to  any  gamilous  quality.    Tl  is  the  Ampdis  tamdus 
[tithologisti,  and  is  Che  t; 


theF 


\mt^iiae. 


wing  is  a  bltd  that  for  many  yean  eiclted  vast 
Ijiteiesi.  An  intgulir  wintet-vlaitant,  somelimej  in  couatlesi 
hordes,  to  the  whole  of  the  central  and  same  parta  of  southern 
Europe.  i(  waa  of  eld  time  looked  upon  as  the  harbinger  of  war, 
plague  or  death,  and,  nhile  ita  harmonioua  coloratioD  and  Ihe 
grafe  of  Its  fonn  were  attractive,  the  curiosity  with  which  i1« 
irregular  appearances  were  regarded  was  eiihaneed  by  the 
mystery  nbich  enshrouded  its  birthplace,  and  until  tbe  summer 
of  1S5S  defied  the  searching  of  any  explorer.  In  that  year, 
however,  all  doubt  was  dispelled  throtigh  Ihe  sticce«fiful  e^ch 
In  Lapland,  organized  by  John  WoUey,  as  brieay  deacribed  by 
him  to  the  Zoological  Society  {PrKodints.  i«57,  pp.  55.  jS. 
pi.  ci]iii.).>  In  1858  H.  E.  Dresser  found  a  srrsU  settlement  of 
the  species  on  an  island  in  the  Bailie  near  Ulelborg,  and  with  bis 
own  hands  took  a  nnl.  Il  Is  now  pretty  evident  that  Ihewai- 
•tog.  though  doubtless  breeding  yearly  in  some  parts  of  northern 
Europe,  b  as  Irregular  in  the  choice  of  its  summei-quarten  at  in 
that  of  iu  winier-reireat*.  Moreover,  the  species  eihibiis  the 
asine  irregular  habits  in  America.  It  has  been  found  in  Nebraska 
fa  "  miUwns,"  as  weU  as  breeding  on  the  Yukon  and  on  the 
Anderaim  river, 
brown  phimafjepa 


I  bird  with  in  full  tnnlte  en 


iTniiXM 


Lg  and  ccdif-bird  seem  to  live  chiefly  of 
-e  Tnarvehoualy  addicted  to  berries  dl 


fed.  for  there  li  some  rcuon  to  thinlc  that  this  varies  Brslly  frsm 
one  >;esr  to  another,  according  10  SBMon.    The  tacki  whicii  viiit 

WAYCROSS,  a  city  and  the  couniy-seil  oE  Ware  county, 
Georgia,  U.Sjl,,  about  <fi  m.  S.W.  of  Savannah  and  about  60  m. 
W.  of  Bruoswick.  Fop.  (iSSo)  6:S;  (iSoo)  nit.  dwo)  J019 
(iBpg  oegnxi);  [1910)  14^85.  Waycrossisservedby  theAtlaDia, 
fiimungbam  fit  AtlanLic,  and  ftie  Atlantic  Coast  Line  railways, 
several  branchea  oi  the  latter  intersecting  here.  In  [he  city  is 
Ihe  Bunn-BcU  Institute  (BaptUt,  iqienetl  m  igog).    There  are 


■ercial  centre  for  the  fan 
■d  Ihe  cotton,  sugar  cam 


;  products  [na- 


Ih*  waterworks,  the  water-supply  being  obtained  Iron  artesian 
wella.  Bei«e  tbe  passage  of  the  state  prohibition  bw  Waycross 
secured  virtual  prohibition  of  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquora  by 
requiring  a  huge  liquor  Ucense  fee  ((20,000  in  iSSj,  lan;eated 
Id  (30,000  in  iSni).  Waycross  was  settled  in  i8;o,  was  first  in- 
corporated m  1874  and  became  a  cily  in  1 909. 

>  A  fuller  account  of  hb  diKovery,  DIuitraled  by  HcwiUon  b 
gfven  in  7*1  /Wl  CiMl,  pp.  BJ-loS,  pi.  iv). 


VATUIID,  FBAHCIS  {tfgfr-iifii),  AmerlcMi  ednntloidtt, 
waa  bom  in  New  York  City  on  the  iilh  of  March  I7<]6.  His 
bther  was  an  EogUshnuD  of  the  same  name,  who  was  a  Baptist 
pastor.  Tbe  son  gnuJutted  at  Union  College  in  181J  and  studied 
medidns  in  Tny  and  in  New  York  City,  but  in  igi6  entered 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  where  he  waa  greatly  Influenced 

which  after  five  yean  as  pastor  of  the  Fint  Biptiil  Church  of 
Boston  be  ivttmied  in  iSaO  as  professor  of  natural  philosophy. 
In  iSif  he  became  president  of  Brown  University.  In  the 
Iwenty-dght  yean  of  his  administration  he  gradnally  built 
Dp  the  college,  improving  academic  discipline,  formed  a  library 
and  gave  sdenti^  studies  a  mora  prominent  place.  He  alw 
worked  [or  higher  educational  ideals  outalde  the  college,  wiitiog 
teit-booka  oa  eihki  and  econwnics,  and  promoting  the  free 
school  system  of  Rhode  I&iand  and  especially  (rSiS)  of  Pro- 
vidence. His  rtmjiUi  <?■  Ijke  Praaa  Collefialt  Syilem  in  Hi* 
Uiaiti  Slcla  (1841)  and  his  Scpirt  le  Uu  CurfariUwH  of  Brim 
Uintrtity  of  1850  painted  the  way  to  ednotiooal  reforms, 
particularly  the  introduction  of  Indust 


3nly  partially  adopted  in 


.   Her 


b  1S57-185B  WIS  pastor  oi  the  First 
Baptist  Church  of  Providence.  Hedicdonlhejolh  of  September 
iSfiS.    He  waa  an  early  advocate  of  the  temperance  and  ami- 

prison  and  Providence  county  jail."  pre^deat  of  tbe  Prison 
Dbcipline  Sodety,  and  active  in  prison  reform  and  load  charities. 


le  of  the  ' 


I  order 


Rebellion"  of  t84i 

and  was  call 

ed  "  the  first  dlizen  of  Rhode 

Island.-     Hi.  s>n 

Frands  (iS 

e-iqcHl  graduated  at  Browii 

in  i8*6,  and  studied  law  at  Han. 

■ard^  he  became  probate  Judg« 

in  Connecticut  in 

8«4,  "as  bcu 

enant-govemor  in  1860-1870. 

andiniBjibecame 

aptofesKirm 

■be  Yale  Uw  School,  of  which 

87 J  to  190J. 

B«des  several  vo 

9  and  addrcHB  and  the  volumes 

(  5t«a«  (iSjJ, 

««);  EUmrmi 

t 

ud   free-trader 

W 

¥^£il 

i 

~  ..,~.~,  ,.  .jIs..  New  York. 

r867)  bfh^  KnrF 

nHiiandiia 

nanU^nl  thesbacter<Ve<ch 

(Bo,<on.'.8,,)byJ 
Leader,  "lerics;  an 

ame<  O.  Murr 
an  article  by 

£.'a'D;;^;xrvofii"3 

the  Amirkan  Jo»rM 

trfEdmatiBM. 

VATLAHD  THE  SMITH  (Scand.  VHtiair,  Ger.  WUctiJ),  hem 

egend  of  Wa 

'land  probably  had  Us  home 

he  and  his  b 

other  Egill<  were  the  types  of 

the  skiUed  workma 

,  but  then:  ar 

abundant  local  traditions  of 

h  b-  Weslph 

ia  and  in  southern  Engbnd. 

His  story  is  told  ir 

one  of  Ihe 

Ideii  songs  of  tbe  Edda,  the 

VHumliirUbt,  and. 

with  consid 

rable  variations,  in  Ihe  prose 

piarrfjioiJiThidre 

■ssagel.whil 

ihcAnglo-SaionBcowiJ/and 

Dcw'j  iaMciK  cont 

it.    The  tale  of  WayUnd  falls 

naturaHy  into  two  p 

r  of  which  contains  obviously 

mythical  features. 

He  was  these 

nollhegianlsaUorWateaHl 

His  grandfalhrr  was  that  Viikinus.  king  of 
norwsy.  wno  tent  his  name  to  the  Vilkina-  or  JM6rrj(jra^. 
Three  broiheiaValundr.EgiU  and  Slagfihseized  tbe  swan-maidens 
Hla>gu>c,  Olrlin  and  Hervor,  who,  divested  □(  Iheic  feather 
dieoes.  stayed  with  them  seven  or  eight  years  aa  Lbeir  wive*. 
The  second  pan  of  the  slery  concerns  Valundr,  lord  ol  the  elves, 
cunniog  jmith,who,  after  learning  his  art  from  Mune,theB 
n  the  dwarfs,  rame  to  the  court  of  King  Nit>o>r,  and  there 
defeated  in  fight  the  smith  AmQias.  Viilundr's  sword,  Mlmung, 
he  won  this  victory,  was  one  ol  Ihr  famous  weapons 
epic  poetry.  In  tbe  Dietrich  cycle  it  descinded  to 
I  compelled  10  pfove  his  skill  as  an  archer-  by  flhoodng 
I  the  head  of  bb  ihree-yfOr-old  sonj  he  is  thus  lbs 
William  TdL 


432 


W*)4iiid'i  un  Wtlich,  uid  tn*  eimnin^y  ndungcd  by  HOdc- 
bnnd  for  a  cammonn  blade  bcfon  Witlich's  £gbt  nith  Dietrich. 
N^H,  inoidet  toBKuR  VCiluiidr'iaervkM.luiwd  him  by  cuilini 
the  ^Dm  oi  Ua  knets,  and  Ukd  HtaUishtd  him  in  a  amithy  on  a 
BCjgUioilrinf  island.  The  unith  avenged  ^J™*^'^  by  the  slaughter 
of  N^ln'a  two  una  and  the  rape  of  his  daughter  Bodvildi, 
Be  tlu  idued  ivay  on  wings  he  had  piepued.  The  Noiy  is 
tta  main  outlines  bears  a  ftttikin^  Tcaamblancc  to  the  myth  of 
Pfltiiahit  For  the  vengeance  of  VSlundr  (here  ia  a  very  dose 
in  the  medieval  versions  of  the  v( 


is  tale, 

which  made  Its  &nt  appeanoce  in  Eun^jeaa  literature  En  tfie 
Dl  tMiaUia  iOfcra,  Venice,  j  vols.,  isiS-ijig)  of  Jovianus 
Fontanus  (d.  1503),  ia  different,  for  the  Moorish  slave  costs  himself 
down  (lom  a  high  lower.  The  Aanm  of  the  Shakespearian  play 
of  Tilm  AndrBimtu  w&>  eventually  doived  from  llJi  wurce. 

Swotds  fashioned  by  Wayland  are  regular  propcrtiea  of 
medieval  romance.  King  Rhydderich  gave  one  to  Uerlin,  and 
Rimenluld  made  a  similar  giit  to  Chjjd  Horn.  English  local 
iradiiiim  placed  Wayland  Smith's  forge  in  a  cave  ckee  to  the 
While  Horse  in  Berkshire.  If  a  hone  to  be  shod,  or  any  bnilun 
toaH  were  left  with  a  aiiipenny  piece  at  the  entrance  of  the  cave 
the  tepaii^  would  presentEy  be  eiiecuted. 

The  earliest  eittnt  record  of  the  Wayland  legend  is  the  tepte- 
sentation  in  carved  ivory  on  a  casket  of  Northuoibriati  workman- 
ship of  a  date  not  later  than  the  beginning  of  the  SJi  century. 
The  fragments  of  this  casket,  known  as  the  Franks  casket,  came 


The  Franks  Cufcet. 


mAuvei 


LD  the  British 

Musewn  by  Sir  A.  W.  Franks,  who  had  botigbl  it  in  Paris  for  a 
dealer.  One  Cragmeol  bin  Florence.  Thelelt.handcompartnient 
of  the  front  of  the  casket  shows  Valtmdr  holding  with  a  pair  of 
tongs  the  skull  ol  one  of  Nf>oKs  children,  which  he  is  fuhioning 
hlo  a  goblet.  The  boy's  body  b'es  at  lus  feet.  Bodvildr  and  her 
attendant  also  appear,  and  Egill,  who  in  one  version  made 
Velundr't  wings,  is  depicted  in  the  act  of  catching  birds. 

■       -      -    -  ^  t6«-i74. 

ukd  iOttotd.  looiT; 
fen't  Tina  Amitmf 
G);  P.  Meunn,  DU 
.dpsg.  i»oy;  C.  B. 
rt*-'.^  SirWBJier 
B>^.°H.  Driichra^n 
Ciamndu  SikrtfUH 

VATME,  ANTHOHT  (1745-1796).  Ameiiian  soldier,  was  bom 
In  the  township  .of  Easttown,  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania, 
on  the  1st  of  January  1745,  of  a  Yorkshire  family.  As  a  boy 
kt  exhibited  a  marked  bent  toward  a  military  life.  He  w» 
(dvctted  In  Fbikdelphia,  and  was  a  sutveyor  ui  FenmylTaiila 


and  (1765)  In  Nova  Scotia,  when  he  was  aient  foi  a  proposed 
cohmy.  He  married  in  1766  and  pased  the  neil  few  years 
on  the  Chester  oounty  farm  inhcriLed  from  his  father,  holding 
some  punor  olhces  and  alter  1774  taking  an  active  part  upon 
vaiioiu  patriotic  commiLteet.  Having  leauited  and  organued 
the  Fourth  Pennsylvania  battaliun  of  Conlinental  iioopt,  he 
first  saw  active  service  at  its  head  in  Canada  during  the  retreat 
of  Benedict  Arnold  after  the  Quebec  campaign.  His  excellent 
behaviour  at  the  ikicmish  of  Three  Rivers  led  Philip  Schuyler 
to  place  him  for  some  months  m  command  ol  llcofldeioga. 
While  at  ihis  post,  on  the  list  of  Febtuary  1777,  he  was  com- 
missioned bii^dier-geiKTaL  In  April  Washington  ordered  him 
to  take  conunand  of  the  "  Pennsylvania  Line  "  at  UorriBtown, 
and  he  rendered  distinguished  service  at  Brandywine  and 
Germanlown,  and  by  his  coolness  and  coutage  at  Monmouth, 
of  Gem 


'    the 


Later 


i;7S.  1 


hia  bemg  luperaeded  by  St  Clair,  h 
',  in  the  command  of  the  regular  Pennsylvania  troops,  but 
Washington's  recommendation  he  organised  a  new  Light 
trv  com,  with  which  he  performed  the  EDOSl  danug 
War  of  Independence — the  recapture  ol  Stony 
idnight  attack  (ij-16  July  i;7«}  at  the  point  of 
the  bayonet.  This  well-planned  enterprise  aroused  the  grettist 
cnthusasm  throughout  the  couolry  and  won  tot  Wayne  the 
papular  soubriquet  "  Mad  Anthony."  Upon  the  disbanding  of 
the  Light  Infantry  corps,  Wayne,  again  in  command  of  the 
Pennsylvania  line,  rendered  efleclive  sovice  in  counteracting 
the  effect  of  Benedict  Arnold's  treason  and  of  the  mutiny  of 
the  Pennsylvania  troops.    In  i/Sr  he  was  uot  south  to  joia 

aid  Lafayette  against  Lord  Camwallis.  After  the  American 
success  at  Yorklown,  Wayne  served  with  such  marked  lucccss 
in  Ceorgiai  that  the  state  rewarded  him  with  a  laige  rice  planta- 
tion (which  proved  a  fiaandal  failure]  and  CongresA  breveted  him 
majoT-genenl.  In  1791  Washington  offered  him  the  conunand 
'  '    regular  army  with  the  ra:^  of  major-general  to  fight  the 


norlh-w 


Br  General  Joslah  Han 


insolent  by  th 

and  General  Arthur  St  i_iajr  in  1791,  ana  irmirectiy  to  compa 
the  British  to  yield  the  posts  they  held  on  the  American  side  ot 
the  lakes.  Wayne  spent  the  winter  of  1791-1793  in  tecruiiing 
his  troops  near  I^ttsburg  and  in  drilling  them  for  effective  service 
in  the  reorganized  army.  The  government  continued  its  efforts 
to  Induce  the  Indians  to  allow  white  settlements  beyond  the 
Ohio,  but  a  miaion  in  1793  ended  in  a  fulure.  Mmiwhile 
Wayne  had  transferred  his  troops toFortWsshingtan(CincinEiAtil, 
and  upon  learning  of  the  failure  of  the  negotiations,  advanced 
the  greater  part  of  his  forces  to  Ciecnville,  a  post  on  a  branch  of 
theCreat  Miami,  sbout  So  m,  north  a!  Cincinnati,  During  the 
winter  he  also  established  an  outpost  al  the  scene  of  St  Clsir's 
defeat.  The  Indians  attacked  this  post.  Fort  Recoveiy. 
in  June  1794,  but  wen  repulsed  with  considerable  slaughter. 
Late  in  July  Wayne's  legion  of  regulars,  numbering  about  »oo, 
was  reinforced  by  about  160D  Kentucky  mih'tia  imdcr  General 
Charles  Scott,  and  the  combined  forces  advanced  to  the  junction 
of  the  Auglaiie  and  Mauniee  rivers,  where  Fort  DeEance  w" 
conslnictcd.  Here  Wayne  mode  a  fmsl  effort  to  treat  with  the 
Indians,  and  upon  being  rebuffed,  moved  forward  and  encountered 
them  on  the  nth  of  August  in  the  battle  of  Fallen  .Timbers, 
fought  near  the  falls  af  the  Maumee,  and  a1m9St  under  the  wills 
ot  the  British  post  Fort  Miami.  This  decisive  deft«t,  supple- 
mented by  the  Treaty  ot  Greenville,  which  he  negotiated  »ilb 
The  Indians  on  the  ^rd  of  August  1795,  resulted  in  opening  the 
Nonh-w.  —      -        -  


rcorganii 


proposed  filibustering  expeditiops  from 
Ccntucky  against  the  Spanish  dominions,  and  also  took  the  lead 
n  occupying  the  lake  posts  deUvertd  up  by  the  British.  While 
ngiged  in  this  service  he  died  at  Erie,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  15th 
(Decemberi796,andwasinterred  there.  In  1S09  his  remains 
lere  removed  to  St  David's  Churchyard,  Radnor,  Pennsylvania. 


WAYNESBORO— WAYNFLETE 


433 


See  Charles  J.  Stall^  M^or-Ceiural  Anthony  Wayne  and  the 
Penmylvania  Ltne  (Philadclphia,.i893):  L  Munscll.  (ed.),  Wame's 
Orderly  Book  of  the  Northern  Army  at  FoH  Ticonderoga  and  Mount 
Independence  (Albany,  1859);  Boyer,.il  Journal  of  Wayne* s  Cam^ 
Paiffi  (Cinciniiad,  1866);  William  Clark.  A  Journal  cf  Major- 
General  Anthony  Waynes  Campaiff^  against  the  Shawnee  Indians 

SUSS,  owned  by  R.  C.  Ballard  Thruston) ;  ^I  P.  Johnston,  The 
ormint  of  Stony  Point  (New  York,  1900) ;  J.  R.  Speaxs,  Anthony 
lyayw.tNew  York,  1903). 

WAYNESBORO,  a  borough  of  Franklin  county,  Pennsylvania, 
U.S. A.,  near  Antietam  Creek,  about  14  m.  SX.  of  Chambers- 
burg,  and  about  65  m.  S.W.  of  Harrisburg.  Pop.  (XS90)  381 1; 
(1 900)  5396;  ( 1 9 1  o)  7 1 99.  Waynesboro  is  served  by  the  Cumber- 
land Valley  and  the  Western  Maryland  railways.  It  lies  at  the 
foot  of  the  South  Mountain,  and  under  the  borough  are  many 
caves  and  caverns.  A  s<;ttlement  was  made  here  about  X7S4; 
it  was  called  Mount  Vernon  for  twenty  years,  and  then  Wallace- 
town  (in  honour  of  an  early  settler)  until  the  close  of  the  War  of 
Independence,  when  it  was  named  Waynesborough  in  honour  of 
Geneial  Anthony  Wayne;  a  village  was  platted  in  1797;  its 
charter  as  a  borough,  granted  in  1818,  was  repealed  in  1824  but 
was  revived  in  1830,  the  spelling  being  dianged  to  "  Waynesboro." 

See  Benjamin  M.  Nead,  Waynesboro  (Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1900).. 

WAYNFLETE.  WILLIAM  (1395-1486),  English  lord  chancellor 
and  bishop  of  Winchester,  was  the  son  of  Richard  Pattene  or 
Patyn,  alias  Barbour,  of  Wainfleet,  Lincolnshire  (Magd.  Coll. 
Oxon.  Reg.  f.  84b),  whose  monumental  effigy,  formerly  in  the 
church.of  Wainfleet,  now  in  Magdalen  College  Chapel  at  Oxford, 
seems  to  be  in  the  dress  of  a  merchant.  His  mother  was  Margery, 
daughter  of  SirWilliam  Breretonof  that  ilk  in  Cheshire(Ormerod's 
Cheshire,  iii.  81).  Of  WaynAete's  education  it  b  only  possible 
to  assert  that  he  was  at  Oxford  University.  It  has  been  alleged 
that  he  was  a  Wykehamist,  a  scholar  at  Winchesta  College  and 
New  College,  Oxford.  But  unless  he  was,  as  is  improbable, 
the  "  Willelmus  Pattney,  de  eadem,  Sar.  Dioc.,"  admitted  in 
X403,  he  was  not  a  scholar  of  Winchester,  and  in  fuiy  case  was 
not  a  scholar  of  New  College.  Nor  was  he  a  commoner  in  college 
at  Winchester  or  at  New  College,  as  his  name  does  not  appear 
in  the  Hall  books,  or  lists  of  those  dining  in  hall,  at  either  college. 
That  he  was  a  day-boy  commoner  at  Winchester  is  possible, 
but  seems  unUkely.  He  was  never  claimed  in  his  lifetime  by 
either  college  as  one  of  its  alumni.  That  he  was  at  Oxford,  and 
probably  a  scholar  at  one  of  the  grammar  schools  there, 
before  passing  on  to  the  higher  faculties,  is  shown  by  a  letter 
of  the  chancellor  addressed  to  him  when  provost  of  Eton  (Ep. 
Acad.  Oxf.  Hist.  Soc.  i.  158)  which  speaks  of  the  university 
as  his  "  mother  who  brought  him  forth  into  the  light  of  knowledge 
and  nourished  him  with  the  alimony  of  all  the  sciences."  He 
is  probably  the  William  Barbour  who  was  ordained  acolyte  by 
Bishop  Fleming  of  Lincoln  on  the  axst  of  April  1420  and  sub- 
deacon  on  the  sist  of  January  1421;  and  as  "William  Barbour," 
otherwise  Waynflete  of  Spalding,  was  ordained  deacon  on  the 
i8th  of  March  1431,  and  priest  on  the  21st -of  January  1426, 
with  title  from  Spalding  Priory.  He  may  have  been  the  William 
Waynflete  Vho  was  admitted  a  scholar  of  the  King's  Hall, 
Cambridge,  on  the  6th  of  March  1428  (Exch:  Q.  R.  Bdle.  346, 
no.  31),  and  was  described  as  LL.B.  when  receiving  letters  of 
protectk>n  on  the  isth  of  July  1429  {Proc.  P.C.  iii.  347)  to  enable 
him  to  accompany  Robert  FitzHugh,  D.D.,'  warden  of  the  hall, 
on  an  embassy  to  Rome.  For  the  scholars  of  the  King's  Hall 
were  what  we  should  call  fellows,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  appoint- 
ment to  the  hall  on  the  3rd  of  April  1360  of  Nicholas  of  Drayton, 
B.C.L.,and  John  Kent,B.  A.,  instead  of  two  scholars  who  had  gone 
off  to  the  French  wars  without  the  warden's  leave  (Cal.  Close 
Rolls).  William  Waynflete,  presented  to  the  vicarage  of 
Skendleby,  Lines,  by  the  Priory  of  Bardney  (Lincoln,  Ep.  Reg. 
f,  34,  Chandler,  16),  on  the  14th  of  June  1430,  may  also  have  been 
our  Waynflete.  There  was,  however,  another  William  Waynflete, 
who  was  instituted  rector  of  Wroxhall,  Somerset,  on  the  17th  of 
May  1433  (Wells,  Ep.  Reg.  Stafford),  and  was  dead  when  his 
successor  was  appointed  on  the  i8th  of  November  1436  (Wells, 
Ep.  Reg.  Stillington).  A  successor  to  the  William  Waynflete 
9X  the  King's  Hail  was  admitted  on  the  3rd  of  April  1434. 


Meanwhile,  our  Waynflete  had  becxmie  headmaster  of  Winchester ; 
Mr  WiUtam  Wanneflete  being  paid  508.  as  Informator  scolarium, 
teacher  of  the  sdiolazs  of  tire  college,  for  the  quarter  beginning 
on  the  24th  of  June  1430  (Win.  CoU.  Bursars'  Roll  8-9  Hen.  VI.) 
and  so  oontinuoudy,  under  many  variants  of  spelling,  at  the  rate 
of  £10  a  year  until  Michaelmas  i44r  (K.C.H.,  Budcs,  ii.  154). 
He  .was  collated  by  Bishop  Beaufort  at  some  date  unascertainable 
(through  the  loas  of  the  and  volume  of  Beaufort's  Episcopal 
Register)  to  the  mastership  of  St  Mary -Magdalen's  Hospital, 
a  leper  hospital  on  St  GOes'  Hill,  just  outside  the  dty  of  Win- 
chester (Vet  Mon.  iii.  5)*  The  fii^t  recorded  headmaster  after 
the  founidation  of  the  college,  John  Melton,  had  been  presented 
by  Wykeham  to  the  mastership  of  this  hospital  in  1393  shortly 
before  his  retirement.  Its  emoluments,  amounting  to  £9,  X2S. 
a  year,  nearly  doubled  the  headmaster's  Income. 

Under  the  influence  of  Archbishop  Chicheley,  who  had  himself 
foimded  two  colleges  in  imitation  of  W>4ceham,  and  Thomas 
Bekynton,  king's  secretary  and  privy  seal,  and  other  Wyke- 
hamists, Henry  VI.,  on  the  nth  of  October  1440,  founded,  in 
imitation  of  Winchester  College,  **  a  college  in  the  parish  church 
of  Eton  by  Windsor  not  far  from  our  birthplace,"  called  the 
King's  College  of  the  Blessed  Mary  of  Eton  by  Windsor,  as  "  a 
sort  of  first-fruits  of  his  taking  the  government  on  himself." 
The  college  was  to  consist  of  a  provost,  xo  priests,  6  choristers; 
25  poor  and  needy  scholars,  25  almsmen  and  a  magister  infor- 
mator "  to  teach  gratis  the  scholars  and  all  others  coming  from 
any  part  of  England  to  leam  grammar."  Only  two  fellows, 
4  choristers,  a  scholars  and  a'almsmen  were  named  in  the  charter 
and  probably  were  only  colourably  members.  Waynflete  was 
not,  as  alleged  {Did.  Nat.  Biog.),  named  a  fellow.  On  the  slh 
of  March  Z440-X441,  the  king  endowed  the  college  out  of  alien 
priories  with  some  £500  a  year,  almost  exactly  the  amount  of 
the  original  endowment  of  Winchester.    On  the  31st  of  July 

1441  Henry  VI.  went  for  a  week-end  visit  to  Winchester  College 
to  see  the  school  for  himself.  Here  he  seems  to  have  been  so 
much  impressed  with  Waynflete,  that  at  Michaelmas,  1441, 
Waynflete  ceased  to  be  headmaster  of  Winchester.  In  October 
he  appears  dining  in  the  hall  there  as  a  guest,  and  at  Christmas 

1442  he  received  a  royal  livery,  five  yards  of  violet  cloth,  as 
provost  of  Etoii.  Though  reckoned  first  headmaster  of  Eton, 
there  is  no  definite  evidence  that  he  was.  The  school  building 
was  not  begun  till  May  1442  (K-Cfl".,  Bucks,  ii.  154).  William 
Westbury,  who  left  New  College,  "  transferring  himself  to  the 
king's  service,"  in  May  1442,  and  appears  in  the  first  extant 
Eton  Audit  Roll  ^444-1445  as  headmaster,  was  probably  such 
from  May  1442.  If  Waynflete  was  headmaster  from  October 
144 1  to  May  X442,  his  dutieis  must  have  been  little  more  tlian 
nominal.  As  provost,  Waynflete  procured  the  exemption  of 
the  college  from  archidiaconal  authority  on  the  2nd  of  May, 
and  made  the  contract  for  completion  of  the  carpenter's  work 
of  the  eastern  side  of  the  quadrangle  on  the  30th  of  November 
1443.  On  the  2ist  of  December  1443  he  was  sworn  to  the 
statutes  by  Bishop  Bekynton  and  the  earl  of  Suffolk,  the  king's 
commissioners,  and  himself  administered  the  oath  to  the  other 
members  of  the  foundation,  then  only  five  fellows  and  eleven 
schdlars  over  fifteen  yeare  of  age.  He  is  credited  with  having 
taken  half  the  scholars  and  fellows  of  Winchester  to  Eton  to 
start  the  school  there.  In  fact,  five  scholars  and  perhaps  one 
commoner  left  Winchester  for  Eton  in  X443,  probably  in  July, 
Just  before  the  election.  For  three  of  them  were  admitted 
scholars  of  King's  College,  Cambridge,  on  the  19th  of  July,  that 
college,  by  its  second  charter  of  the  loth  of  July  1443  having  been 
placed  in  the  same  relation  to  Etftn  that  New  College  bore  to 
Winchester;  i.e.  it  was  to  be  recruited  entirely  from  Eton. 
The  chief  part  of  Waynflete's  duties  as  provost  was  the  financing 
and  completion  of  the  buildings  and  establishment.  The  number 
of  scholars  wa%  largely  increased  by  an  election  of  25  new  ones 
on  the  26th  of  September  1444,  the  income  being  then  £946, 
of  which  the  king  contributed  £120  and  Waynflete  £18,  or  more 
than  half  his  stipend  of  £30  a  year.  The  full  number  of  70  scholars 
was  not  filled  up  till  Waynflete's  last  year  as  provost,  2446-1447 
(Eton  Audit  Roll).    So  greatly  did  Waynflete  ingratiate  himself 


434 


WAYNFLETE 


with  Heary  that  when  Beaufort,  bisbop  of  WindieBter,  Henry^ 
uncle,  died  ou  the  nth  of  April  1447,  the  same  day  Henry  wrote 
to  the  chapter  of  Winchester,  the  prior  and  monks  of  St  Swithin's 
cathedral,  to  elect  Waynflete  as  his  successcv.  On  the  12th  of 
April  lie  was  given  the  custody  of  the  temporalities,  on  the  isth 
of  April  he  was  elected,  and  on  the  loth  of  May  provided  to  the 
see  by  a  papal  buU.  On  the  13th  olJvAy  1447  be  was  consecrated 
in  Eton  church,  when  the  warden  and  fellows  and  others  of  his 
old  college  gave  him  a  horse  at  a  cost  of  £6, 13s.  4d.,  and  13s.  4d. 
to  the  boys.  Subsequent  visits  to  Winchester  inspired  Henry 
with  the  idea  of  rebuilding  Eton  church  on  cathedral  dimensions. 
Waynflete  was  assigned  as  the  principal  executor  of  his  "  wiM  " 
for  that  purpose,  and  if  there  waa  any  variance  between  the 
executors,  he  was  to  determiae.it.  From  144&  to  1450  £3336 
or  some  £100,000  of  our  money  was  spent  on  the  church,  of  which 
Waynflete  with  the  marquis  of  Suffolk  and  the  bishop  of  Salisbury 
contributed  £700  or  £21,000.  The  troubles  which  began  in  1450 
put  a  stop  to  the  work. 

Waynflete,  as  bishop,  lost  no  time  in  following  the  example  of 
Wykeham  and  his  royal  pation  in  beoeming  a  college  founder. 
On  the  6ih  of  May  144S  he  obtained  licence  in  mortmain  and  on 
the  20th  of  August  founded  at  Oxford  "  for  the  extirpation  of 
heresies  and  errors,  the  increase  of  the  clerical  order  and  the 
adornment  of  holy  mother  church,  a  perpetual  haU,  called 
Seint  Marie  Maudclcyn  Halle,  for  study  in  the  sciences  of  sacred 
theology  and  philosophy,"  to  consist  of  a  president  and  50 
schobrs.  Its  site  was  not  that  of  the  present  coU^e,  but  of 
two  earlier  halls  called  Boston  and  Hare,  where  the  new  schools 
now  are.  Thirteen  M.A.'s  and  seven  bachelors,  4)esides  the 
president,  John  Hornley,  B.D.,  were  named  in  the  charter.  The 
dedication  to  Mary  Magdalen  was  no  doubt  derived  from  the 
hospital  at  Winchester  of  which  the  founder  had  been  master. 
On  St  Wolstan's  Day,  the  [9th  of  January  1443-1449,  Waynflete 
was  enthroned  in  Winchester  cathedral  in  the  presence  of  the 
king;  and,  probably  partly  for  his  sake,  parliament  was  held 
there  in  June  and  July  1449,  when  the  king  frequently  attended 
the  college  chapel,  Waynflete  officiating  (Win.  Coll.  Reg.  Vet.). 
When  Jack  Cade's  rebellion  occurred  in  1450  Waynflete  was 
employed  with  Archbishop  Stafford,  the  chancellor,  to  negotiate 
with  the  rebels  at  St  Margaret's  church.  South wark,  close  to 
Winchester  House.  A  full  pardon  was  promised,  but  on  the 
ist  of  August  Waynflete  was  one  of  the  special  commissioners  to 
try  the  rebels.  On  the  7th  of  May  1451  Waynflete,  from  "  le 
peynted  chambre  "  in  his  manor  house  at  Southwark,  asserting 
that  his  bishopric  was  canonically  obtained  and  that  he  laboured 
under  no  disqualification,  but  feared  some  grievous  attempt 
against  himself  and  his  see,  appealed  to  the  protection  of  the  pope. 
It  is  suggested  (Dici.  Nat.  Biog.)  that  this  was  due  to  some 
disturbances  at  Winchester  (I^roc.  P.C,  vi.  108),  where  one  of 
Cade's  quarters  was  sent  after  his  execution.  But  it  is  more 
likely,  as  suggested  by  Richard  Chandler  (Life  of  Waynflete, 
xSii),  that  it  was  some  Yorkist  attack  on  him  in  progress  in 
the  papal  court,  to  meet  which  he  appointed  next  day  19  proctors 
to  act  for  hiuL  In  the  result  nothing  disturbed  his  peaceable 
possession  of  tl\e  see.  With  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  he 
received  Henry  VI.  on  a  pilgrimage  to  St  Thomas  k  Becket  on 
the  2nd  of  August  145X.  When  in  November  the  duke  of  York 
encamped  near  Dartford,  Waynflete  with  three  others  was  sent 
from  the  king's  camp  at  Blackheath  to  propose  terms,  which 
were  accepted.  Edward,  prince  of  Wales,  was  bom  on  the  13th 
bf  October  1453  and  bapt^ed  by  Waynflete  the  next  day.  This 
year  Waynflete  acquired  the  reversion  of  the  manor  of  Stanswick, 
Berks,  from  Lady  Danvers  (Chandler,  p.  87)  for  Magdalen  Hall. 
The  king  became  insane  in  1454.  On  the  death  of  the  chancellor, 
John  Kemp,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  during  the  sitting  of 
parliament,  prended  over  by  the  duke  of  York,  commissioners, 
headed  by  Waynflete,  were  sent  to  Henry,  to  ask  him  to  name 
a  new  chancellor,  apparently  intending  that  Wiynflcte  shoxild 
be  named.  But  no  answer  could  be  extracted  from  the  king, 
and  after  some  delay  Lord  Salisbury  took  the  seals.  During 
York's  regency,  both  before  and  after  the  battle  of  St  Albans, 
Waynflete  took  an  active  part  in  the  proceedings  of  the  privy 


ooundl.  With  a  view  to  an  ampler  site  for  his'college,  Waynflete 
obtained  on  the  5th  of  July  145^  a  grant  of  the  Hospital  of  St 
John  the  Baptist  outside  the  east  gate  at  Oxford  arid  on  the 
15th  of  July  licence  to  found  a  college  there.  Having  obtained 
a  papal  bull,  he  founded  it  by  deed  of  the  12th  of  June  1458, 
converting  the  hospital  into  a  college  with  a  president  and  six 
fellows,  to  which  college  two  days  later  Magdalen  Hall  surrendered 
itself  and  its  possessions,  its  members  being  incorporated  into 
"  the  New  College  of  St  Mary  Magdalen." 

Meanwhile  Waynflete  himself  had  been  advanced  to  the  highest 
office  in  the  state,  the  chancellorship,  the  scab  being  deHvered 
to  him  by  the  king  m  the  priory  of  Coventry  in  the  presence  of 
the  duke  of  York,  apparently  as  a  person  acceptable  to  both 
parties.    On  the  27th  of  October  1457  he  took  part  in  the  trial 
and  condemnation  for  heresy  of  Reginald   Pecock,   bishop  of 
Chichester,  who  had  been  opdained  subdeacon  and  deacon  on  the 
same  day  and  by  the  same  bishop  as  Waynflete  himself.    Only 
Pccock's  books  and  not  the  heretic  were  burnt.    As  the  heresy 
consisted  chiefly  in  defending  the  clergy  on  grounds  of  reason 
instead  of  authority,  the  proceeding  does  not  show  any  great 
enlightenment  on  Wajrnflcte's  part.     It  must  have  been  at 
this  time  that  an  addition  was  made  by  Waynflete  to  the  Eton 
college  statutes,  compelling  the  fcllou's  to  forswear  the  heresies 
of  John  Wydiffe  and  Pecock.    Waynflete  presided  as  chancellor 
;it  the  parliament  at  Coventry  in  November  1459,  which,  after 
the  Yorkist  catastrophe  at  Ludlow,  attainted  the  Yorkist  leaders. 
It  was  no  doubt  because  of  this  that,  three  days  before  the  Xorkist 
attack  at  Northampton,  he  delivered  the  great  seal  to  the  king 
in  his  tent  near  Delapre  abbey,  a  nunnery  by  Northampton, 
on  the  7th  of  July  1460  (Rot.  Cbus.  38  Hen.  VI.  m.  5  d).   It  was 
taken  with  Henry  and  handed  to  the  Yorkist,  Gcoi^  Neville, 
bishop  of  Exeter,  brother  of  the  kingmaker,  cari  of  Warwick,  in 
London  on  25th  July  following.    Whether,  as  alleged  by  some, 
Waynflete  fled  and  l^d  himself  during  the  period  covered  by  the 
battle  of  Wakefield  and  Edward's  fiist  parliament  in  146 1,  is 
very  dotd}tfuL    A  testimonial  to  his  fidelity  written  by  Henry 
to  the  pope  on  the  8th  of  November  1460  (Chandler,  346)  was 
written  while  Henry  was  in  Yorkist  hands.    The  fact  too  that 
complaints  laid  before  Edward  IV.  himself  in  August  1461 
of  wrongful  exaction  of  manorial  rights  from  the  tenants  of  the 
episc(^>al  manor  of  East  Meon,  Hants,  were  decided  in  the  bishop's 
favour  in  parliament  in  the  December  following  (Rot.  Pari.  v. 
475)  also  suggests  that  he  was  not  regarded  as  an  enemy  to  the 
Yorkists,  though  a  personal  favourite  of  Henry's.    A  general 
charter  of  confirmation  to  him  and  his  successors  of  the  property 
and  rights  of  the  bishopric  of  Winchester  on  the  ist  of  July  1462 
(Pat.  2  Ed.  IV.)  points  in  the  same  direction.   It  is  certain  that 
he  took  an  active  part  in  the  restoration  of  Eton  College,  which 
Edward  annexed  to  St  George's,  Windsor,  in  1463,  dei^viog 
it  of  a  large  part  of  its  possessions.    In  the  earliest  Audit  Rolls 
after  the  restoration  of  the  college  in  1467  there  are  many  entries 
of  visiu  of  Provost  Westbury  to  "the  lord  of  Winchester." 
which  in  January  146S-1469  were  for  **  b^inning  the  work  of  the 
church  "  "  and  providing  money  for  them."    Why  a  pardon  was 
granted  to  Wa>^ete  on  the  ist  of  February  1469  (Pat.  8  Ed. 
IV.  pt.  iiL  m.  16)  does  not  appear.   On  the  re&toration  of  Henry 
VI.  on  the  28th  of  September  1470  Waynflete  welcomed  him  on 
his  release  from  the  Tower,  which  necessitated  a  new  pardon, 
granted  a  month  after  Edward's  reinstatement  on  the  30lh  of 
May  X471  (PaL  ix.  Ed.  IV.  pat.  i.  m.  24),  and  a  loan  to  the  king 
of  2000  marks  (£1333,  6s.  8d.),  or  some  £40,000  of  our  money. 
In  the  years  1471-1472  to  1474  Waynflete  was  largely  engaged 
in  completing  the  church,  now  called  chapel,  at  Eton,  his  glaxier 
supplying  the  windows,  and  he  contracted  on  the  xsth  of  August 
1475  for  *^c  rood-loft  to  be  made  on  one  side  "  like  to  the  rode 
lofte  in  Bishop  Wykcham's  college  at  Winchester,"  and  on  the 
other  like  that  "  of  the  college  of  St  Thomas  of  Acres  m  London." 
In  1479  he  built  the  ante-chapel  at  the  west-end,  as  it  now  standSi 
of  stone  from  Headington,  Oxford. 

In  1474  Waynflete,  being  the  principal  executor  of  Sir  JoW 
Fastolf,  who  died  in  1459,  leaving  a  much-contested  will,  P*^ 
cured  the  conversion  of  his  bequest  for  a  collegiate  ^burch  of 


WAYZGOOSE— WAZIRISTAN 


435 


•even  priests  and  seven  nlmsmfn  at  Caistor,  Norfolk,  into  one  for 
seven  feUows  and  seven  poor  scholars  at  Magdalen.   In  the  same 
year  that  college  took  possession  of  the  alien  priory  of  Sele» 
Sussex,  the  proceedings  for  the  suppression  of  which  had  been 
going  on  since  1469.  The  new,  now  the  old,  building?  at  Magdalen 
were  begun  the  same  year,  the  foundation-itone  being  laid  in  the 
middle  of  the  high  altar  on  the  5th  of  May  1474  (Wood,  207). 
Licences  on  the  ist  of  July,  the  32nd  of  July  1477  and  the  12th  ol 
February  1479,  authorised  additions  to  the  endowment.   On  the 
sjid  of  August  1480,  the  college  being  completed,  the  great  west 
window  being  contmcted  to  be  made  after  the  fashion  of  that 
at  AU  Souls'  College,  a  new  president,  Richard  Mayhew,  fellow 
of  New  College,  was  installed  on  the  33rd  of  August  1480,  and 
statutes  were  promulgated.     The  foundation  is  commonly 
dated  from  this  year  and  not  from  1448,  when  Magdalen  Hall 
was  founded,  though  if  not  dated  from  1448  it  surely  dates  from 
1458,  wfaefi  that  hall  and  St  John's  Hospital  were  converted  into 
Magdalen  College.   Hie  statutes  were  for  the  most  part  a  replica 
ol  those  of  New  College,  members  of  which  were,  equally  with 
flsembers  of  Magdalen,  declared  to  be  eligible  for  the  presidency. 
Hiey  provided  for  a  head  and  70  scholars,  but  the  latter  were 
divided  mto  40  fellows  and  30  scholars  called  demies,  because 
their  commons  were  hall  those  of  the  fellows.    Magdalen  College 
School  was  established  at  the  gates  and  as  »  part  of  the  college, 
to  be,  like  Eton,  a  free  grammar  school,  free  of  tuition  fees  for  all 
Comers,  under  a  master  and  usher,  the  first  master  being  John 
Attkywyll,  a  married  man,  with  a  salary  of  £xo  a  3rear,  the  same 
as  at  Winchester  and  Eton.'  The  renewal  of  interest  in  classical 
fitenUure  was  shown  in  the  prohibition  of  the  study  of  sophistry 
by  any  scholar  under  the  age  of  eighteen,  unless  he  had  been 
pronounced   proiident   in   grammaticals.    On   the    32nd    of 
Septembo'  1481  Waynflete  recdved  Edward  IV.  in  state  at  the 
toUege,  wheie  be  passed  the  night,  and  in  July  1483  he  received 
Kichard  III.  there  in  even  greater  state,  when  Master  William 
Grocyn,  "  the  Gredan,"  a  fellow  of  New  College,  "  responded," 
ia  divinity.   In  1484  Waynflete  gave  the  collie  the  endowment 
for  a  free  grammar  school  at  his  name-phice,  Wainfieet,  sufficient 
to  produce  for  the  chantry-priest>schoolmaster  £10  a  year,  the 
same  salary  as  the  headmaster  of  Magdalen  School,  and  built 
the  school  which  still  exists  almost  untouched,  a  fine  brick  build- 
ing with  two  towers,  76  ft.  long  by  26  ft.  broad.    The  next  year 
saw  the  appropriauon  to  the  coUegeof  theAugustinian  Priory 
of  Selbome,  Hants. 

On  the  37th  of  April  i486,  Waynfiete,  like  Wykeham,  made 
his  will  at  their  favourite  manor.  South  or  Bishop's  Waitham. 
It  is  remarkable  Uiat  he  gives  the  same  pecuniary  bequests  to 
Winchester  and  New  CoU^es  as  to  his  own  college  of  Magdalen, 
but  the  latter  he  made  residuary  devisee  of  all  his  lands.  He 
died  on  the  nth  of  May  1486,  and  was  buried  in  the  chantry 
chapel  of  St  Mary  Magdalen  behind  the  high  altar  in  Winchester 
cathedral,  which  he  had  Greeted  in  his  lifetime.  The  effigy  on  it 
may  be  taken  to  Be  an  authentic  portrait.  (A.  F.  L.) 

WATZ6008B,  a  term  for  the  annual  dinner  and  outing  of 
printers  and  their  employ^.  The  derivation  oi  the  term  is 
doubitful.  It  may  be  a  misspelling  for  "  wasegoosc,"  from 
waie.  Mid.  Eng.  lor  "sheaf,"  thus  meaning  sheaf  or  harvest 
goose,  the  bird  that  was  fit  to  eat  at  harvest-time, the  "stubble- 
goose''  mentioned  by  Chaucer  in  "The  Cook's  Prologue." 
It  Is  more  probable  that  the  merry-making  which  has  become 
particutsirly  associated  with  the  printers'  trade  was  once  general, 
and  an  iinltation  of  the  grand  gbbsc-feast  annually  held  at  Wacs, 
In  Brabant,  at  Martinmas.  The  relations  of  England  and  HoUand 
were  formerly  very  dose,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  believe  that 
any  outing  or  yearly  banquet  might  have  grown  to  be  called 
colloquially  a  "  Waes-Goose."  It  is  difficult  to  expUiin  why  the 
tenn  should  have  only  survived  in  the  printing  trade,  thou£^  the 
English  printers  owed  much  to  their  Dutch  fellow-workers. 
Certainly  the  goose  has  long  ago  parted  company  with  the 
printers'  wayzgoose,  which  is  usually  held  in  July,  though  it 
has  no  fixed  season.  An  unlikely  suggestion  is  that  the  original 
wayzgoose  ^*as  a  feast  given  by  an  apprentice  to  his  comrades 
at  whkh  the  Urd  formed  the  staple  eatable. 


WAZtR*  or  ViziEK  (Arabic  iMt»r),  a  minister,  usually  the 
prindpal  minister  under  a  Mahommedan  ruler.  In  India  tbe 
nawab  of  Oudh  was  long  known  as  the  nawab  wazir,'the  title 
of  minister  to  the  Mogul  emperor  having  become  hereditary  in 
the  family. 

WAZIRAB AD,  a  town  of  British  India,  In  Gujranwala  district 
of  the  Punjab;  near  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Chenab,  62  m. 
N.  of  Lahore.  Pop.  (1901)  18,069.  It  is  an  important  railway 
junction.  The  main  Ihie  of  the  North-Wcstern  railway  hen 
crosses  the  Chenab  by  the  Alexandra  bridge,  opened  by  the 
prince  ol  Wales  in  1876.  The  branch  to  Sialkot  has  been  ex- 
tended to  Jammu  (51  m.);  another  branch  follows  the  line 
ol  the  Chenab  canal  towards  Multan.  Boat-building  and 
manufactures  of  steel  and  iron  are  carried  on. 

WAZIRISTAK*  a  section  of  the  mountain  tract  in' the  North- 
West  Frontier  Province  of  India,  lying  between  the  Tochi  river 
on  the  north  and  the  Gomal  river  on  the  south.  The  whole  of 
Waziristan  lies  within  the  British  sphere  of  influence,  the  boundary 
with  Afghanistan  having  been  demarcated  in  1894.  It  forms 
two  political  agendes,  but  only  a  portion,  consisting  of  the  Tochi 
valk^,  with  an  area  of  about  700  sq.  m.  and  a  population  (1903) 
of  24,670,  is  directly  administered.  Northern  Waziristan  has 
an  area  of  about  2310  sq.'m.,  and  southern  Waziristan  an  area 
of  about  2734  sq.  m. 

The  Tochi  and  the  Gomal  rivers  enclose  Waziristan,  their 
affluents  rising  to  the  west  of  that  country  in  the  upland  valleys 
of  Shawal  and  Birmal,  and  flowing  north  and  south  to  a  junction 
with  the  main  streams.  Between  the  two  rivers  stretches  the 
central  dominating  range  of  Waziristan  from  north-east  to  south- 
west, geologically  connected  with  the  great  limestone  ranges 
of  the  Suliman  hills  to  the  south,  and  dominated  by  the  great 
peaks  of  Shuidar  (Sheikh  Haidar)  and  Pirghal,  both  of  them 
between  x  1,000  and  12,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  hardly  inferior 
to  the  Khaisargarh  peak  of  the  Takht<i-Suliman.  From  these 
peaks  westwards  a  view  is  obtained  across  the  grass  slopes  and 
cedar  woods  of  Birmal  and  Shawal  (lying  thousands  of  feet 
bdow)  to  the  longi  serrated  ridges  of  the  central  watershed  which 
diuts  off  the  plains  of  Ghazni.  To  the  eastward  several  lines  of 
drainage  strike  away  for  the  Indus,  breaking  through  parallel 
folds  and  flexures  of  the  mountains,  of  which  the  conformation 
is  here  distinctly  observable,  although  not  so  marked  as  it  is 
south  of  the  Gomal.  These  Unes  of  drainage  are,  as  usual,  the 
main  avenues  of  aEHproaeb  to  the  interior  of  the  country.  They 
are  the  Khaisora  and  the  Shakdu  <m  the  north,  which,  uniting, 
join  the  Tochi  aoutb  of  Bannu,  and  the  Tank  Zam  (which  is  also 
called  Khaisor  near  Its  head)  on  the  south.  The  two  former  lead 
Irom  the  frontier  to  Rasmaik  and  Makin,  villages  o!  some  local 
importance,  situated  on  the  slopes  of  Shuidar;  and  the  latter 
leaids  to  Kaniguram,  the  Waziri  capital,  and  the  centre  of  a  con- 
siderable iron  tiade.  Kajoiguram  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Pirghal 
motmtain. 

Amongst  the  mountains  ol  Waziristan  there  is  much  fine 
scenery  and  a  delightful  climate.  Thick  forests  of  ilex  clothe 
many  of  the  spurs,  which  reach  down  to  the  grassy  deodar- 
covered  uplands  of  Birmal  on  the  west;  and  the  spreading  poplar 
attains  magnificent  dimensions  amongst  the  flats  and  plateaus 
of  the  eastern  slopes.  The  indigenous  trade  of  the  country 
Is^tnconsiderable,  although  Waziri  iron  is  much  esteemed.  The 
agricultural  products  are  poor,  and  the  general  appearance  of 
the  priest-rklden  people  is  significant  of  the  endurance  of 
many  hardships,  even  of  chronic  starvation.  The  most  notable 
product  of  the  country  is  the  Waziri  breed  of  horses  and  donkeys. 
The  latter  espedaUy  deserve  to  rank  as  the  best  of  their  kind 
on  the  Indian  frontier,  if  not  in  all  India. 

The  geological  formation  of  Waziristan  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  contiguous  frontier.  Recent  subaqueous  deposits  have  been 
disturbed  by  a  central  upheaval  of  limestone;  the  lower  hills  are 
soft  in  composition  and  easily  weather-worn,  the  slopes  arc  rounded, 
and  larfre  masses  of  detritus  have  collected  in  the  nullah  beds  and 
raised  their  level.  ^  Through  these  deposits  heavy  rain-floods  have 
forced  their  way  with  many  bends  and  curves  to  the  plains,  cndosing 
within  each  curve  a  "  warn  "  or  "  raf^hza,"  which  slopes  gradually 
to  the  hills  and  affords  the  only  available  space  for  irrigation  and 
agricultttrew    A  "  wan  '*  ia  a  gently  sloping  open  iipaoe.  geowalt^ 


436 


WAZZAN—WEALD,  THE 


nWed  but  slightly  abovt  the  river  lev«l.  A  "  ragliza  "  dilTeri  ffom 
a  "  w&m  "  in  being  on  a  hwhcr  kvd  and  often  b^nd  the  reach  of 
irrigation.  Pasture  is  found  abundantly  in  the  hills,  but  cultivation 
only  on  the  bonders  of  the  main  streams.  Passing  up  and  down  these 
mam  water-courses,  there  is  an  appearance  of  great  fertility  and 
wealth,  which  is  entirely  due  to  these  thriving  strips  of  venlure, 
their  restricted  and  narrow  limits  being  hardly  visibly  f nun  the  river 
beds.-  From  above,  when  viewed  from  the  flanking  ridges,  the  vast 
extent  of  hill  country,  neither  high,  nor  imposing,  nor  difficult  of 
access,  but  invariably  stomr  and  rou^h,  compares  strongly  with  the 
narrow  bands  of  enclosed  cultivation  winding  about  like  green 
ribbons,  and  marking  the  course  of  the  main  streams  from,  the  snow- 
covcrcd  peaks  to  the  plains.  The  physiography  of  Waairistan  is 
that  of  the  Kurram  to  the  north  radier  than  that  of  the  Suliman 
hills  to  the  south. 

The  Waziris  are  the  largest  tribe  on  the  frontier,  bat  thdr 
state  of  civilization  is  very  low.  They  are  a  race  of  robbers  and 
murderers,  and  the  Waziri  name  is  execxated-  even  by  the 
neighbouring  Mahommedan  tribes.  Mahommedans  from  a 
settled  district  often  regard  Waaiiis  as  utter  barbarians,  and 
seem  inclined  to  deny  their  title  to  belong  to  the  faith.  They 
have  been  described  as  being  *'  free-bom  and  murderous,  hot- 
headed and  light-hearted,  self-respecting  but  vain."  The  poverty 
of  their  country  and  the  effort  required  to  gain  a  subsistenoe  in 
it  have  made  the  Waziris  a  hardy  and  enduring  race.  Their 
physique  is  imcommonly  good,  and  thdugh  on  the  average  short 
of  stature,  some  eitremely  tiil  and  large  men  are  to  be  found 
amongst  them.  They  are  generally  deep-chested  and  compact 
of  build,  with  a  powerful  muscular  development  common  to 
the  whole  body,  and  not  confined  to  the  lower  limbs  as  is  the  case 
with  some  hill  tribes  of  the  Himalayas.  As  mountaineers  the 
Waziris  would  probably  hold  their  own  with  any  other  Pathan 
tribe  of  the  frontier. 

Except  in  a  few  of  the  highest  hills,  which  are  wdl-wooded, 
the  Waziri  country  is  a  mass  of  rock  and  stones,  bearing  a 
poor  growth  of  grass  and  thinly  sprinkled  with  dark  evergreen 
bushes;  progress  in  every  direction  except  on  devious  paths 
known  to  the  natives  is  obstructed  by  precipices  or  by  toilsome 
stony  ascents;  and  knowledge-  of  the  topography,  a  mere 
hbyrinth  of  intricate  ranges  and  valleys,  comes  only  as  the  result 
of  long  acquaintance.  Broken  ground  and  tortuous  ravines, 
by  making  crime  easy  and  precaution  against  attack  difficult, 
have  fostered  violence  among  the  people  and  developed  in  them 
an  extraordinary  faculty  of  prudence  and  alertness.  In  con- 
sequence of  his  isolation  the  Waziri  has  become  faidependent, 
self-reliant  and  democratic  in  sentiment  Through  the  in- 
accessibility of  his  own  country  to  lowhinders,  combined  with 
the  proximity  of  open  and  fertile  tracts  inhabited  by  races  of 
inferior  sUmina,  he  has  developed  hito.  a  confirmed  raider; 
and  the  passage  through  his  country  of  mountain  footpaths, 
connecting  India  with  Afghanistan,  has  made  hhn  by  frequent 
opportunity  a  hereditary  highwayman  as  weU.  The  women 
enjoy  more  freedom  than  amongst  most  Pathan  tribes,  and  are 
frequently  unfaithful.  The  ordinary  punishment  of  adultery 
is  to  put  the  woman  to  death,  and  to  cut  off  half  the  right  foot 
of  the  man.  Amongst  Waziris  also,  as  amongst  other  Pathans, 
the  blood-feud  is  a  national  institution. 

The  Waziris,  who  number  some  40,000  fighting  men  altogether, 
arc  divided  into  two  main  sections,  the  Darwesh  Khel  (30,000) 
and  the  Mahsuds  (8000) ,  with  two  smaller  sections.  The  Darwesh 
Khcl,  the  more  settled  and  civilized  of  the  two,  inhabit  the  lower 
hills  bordering  on  Kohat  and  B&nnu  districts,  and  the  ground 
I>'ing  on  both  sides  of  the  Kurram  river,  between  Thai  on  the 
north  and  the  Tochi  Valley  on  the  south.  The  Mahsdds,  who 
inhabit  the  tract  of  country  lying  between  the  Tochi  Valley  on 
the  north  and  the  Gomal  river  on  the  south,  have  earned  for 
themselves  an  evil  name  as  the  most  confirmed  raiders  on  the 
border;  but  they  are  a  plucky  race,  as  active  over  the  hills 
as  the  Af ridis,  and  next  to  them  the  best-armed  large  tribe  on 
the  frontier.  The  Mahsud  country,  especially  that  part  within 
reach  of  British  posts,  is  more  difficult  even  than  Tirah.  To 
the  south  and  east  it  is  girt  by  an  intricate  belt  of  uninhabited. 
generally  waterless  hills  and  ravines.  Ta  the  north  a  zone  of 
Oarwcab  Khtl  tcrritaiy»  not  k«  than  sa  m.  in  width,  biUy 


and  difficult,  separates  the  Jiahiuds  from  the  Todn.  Tba 
Tochi  Valley  is  inhshitcd  by  a  degruled  Pathan  tribe,  known 
as  Dauris,  who  have  voluntarily  placed  themselves  under 
British  protection  since  1895.  In  dealing  with  the  Mahsuds 
it  must  be  remembered  that  from  Wana  to  Twak,  from  Tank 
to  Bannu,  and  from  Bannu  to  Datta  Khel,  or  for  a  distance  of 
over  aoo  ih.,  British  territory  is  open  to  Mahsud  depredations. 
This  length  of  frontier  is  eqnal  to  the  whole  Thal-Kofaat-Pesha- 
war-Malakand  line,  covering  the  eight  or  ten  tribes  that  took 
part  in  the  frontier  risings  of  1897.  So  that  the  Mahsuds  should 
really  be  compared  with  the  whole  of  those  ten  tribes,  and  not 
with  any  single  one. 

British  expeditions  were  needed  against  various  sections  of 
the  Waziris  in  1859,  1859,  i860,  x88o,  x8di,  1894,  1897  and 
190a. 

The  success  of  Sir  Robert  Sandeman  in  t^iM"i"g  the  wild 
tribes  of  Baluchistan  had  led  to  a  similar  attempt  to  open  up 
Waziristan  to  British  civilization;  but  the  Pathan  is  much 
more  democratic  and  much  leu  subject  to  the  influence  of  his 
maliks  than  Is  the  Baludii  to  the  authority  of  his  chidb;  and 
the  policy  finally  brdte  down  in  1894,  when  the  Wasiiis  made 
a  lught  attack  upon  the  camp  of  the  British  Delimitation  Com- 
mission at  Wana.  The  Coriimission  had  been  appointed  to 
settle  the  boundary- with  the  Afghans,  and  the  Waziris  regarded 
it  as  the  final  threat  to  their  independence.  The  attack*  waa 
delivered  with  such  determination  that  the  tribesmen  penetrated 
into  the  centre  of  the  camp,  and  it  was  only  with  the  greatest 
difficulty  that  friend  could  be  distinguished  from  foe.  A  large 
force  of  IX  ,000  British  troops  subsequedtly  traversed  the  triUl 
country,  destroyed  their  towers  and  dictated  terms,  one  of  which 
was  that  the  Tochi  Valley  should  be  occupied  by  British  garrisons. 
But  still  there  was  trouble,  which  led  to  the  Tochi  expedition  of 
1897;  and,  in  spite  of  the  further  lessons  taught  the  Waziris 
in  two  expeditions  in  1902,  the  attempt  to  *'  Sandemanise " 
Waziristan  was  given  up  by  Lord  Curzon.  The  British  garrisons 
in  the  Tochi  and  Gomal  valleys  were  withdrawn,  and  two 
corps  of  tribal  militia,  from  1500  to  1500  strong,  were  gradually 
formed  to  replace  the  British  troops. 

See  Grammar  and  Vocabniary  of  WoMiri  Pashto.  1>y  J.  G.  Lorioier 
(Calcutta,  190a);  Paget  and  Mason's  Frontier  ExpedUumt  (1884)! 
Mahsud  Wasiri  Operations  (1902),  Blue>book. 

WAZZSN,  a  smaU  hillside  town,  60  m.  N.W.  by  N.  of  Fes, 
Morocco.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  with  the  country  round, 
and  manufactures  a  coarse  white  woollen  cloth  with  rough 
surface  from  which  the  hooded  cloaks  (called  jcUd^s)  are  made. 
Its  proudest  name  is  DIr  D'manah — House  of  Safety-*«s  it  is 
sanctuary  for  any  who  gain  its  limits,  on  account  of  the  tomb 
of  a  sainted  Idrisi  Sharif,  who  Uved  there  in  1727.  It  is  the  head; 
quarters  of  his  descendaints. 

WBALD,  THE,  a  district  in  the  south-east  of  England.  It 
includes  the  portions  of  Sussex,  Keiit  and  Surrey  which  are 
enclosed  between  the  North  and  South  Downs-*^  district  of 
Lower  Cretaceous  rocks  encircled  by  Upper  Oetaceous  billa. 
It  extends  from  Frensham  and  Pctersfidd  on  the  Hampshiro 
borders  to  the  English  Channel  between  Folkestone  and  Eaft- 
bourne.  With  the  exception  of  the  easternmost  part,  it  drains 
by  rivers  running  xM>nhward  and  southward  through  gaps  in  the 
Downs,  the  origin  of  which  is  considered  under  that  heading' 
The  Weald  was  formerly  covered  by  the  forest  of  Andredesleah 
or  AndredsweakI  ("  the  wood  or  forest  without  habitations  ")» 
which  was  120  m.  m  length  and  about  30  in  greatest  breadth. 
About  1660  the  total  area  under  forest  was  estimated  at  ovcf 
200,000  acres.  The  chief  remains  of  the  ancient  forests  are 
Ashdown,  St  Leonards  and  Tilgate,  and  the  nomenclature  ofteft 
indicates  the  former  extent  of  woodland,  as  in  the  case  of  HitfSt- 
pierpoint  {kwrst  meaning  wood),  MiUhurst,  Fernhurst,  ^*^^^ 
hurst,  Asbunt  and  many  others.  The  forests  were  intcrspeneo 
with  lagoons;  and  the  rainfall  heing  very  great  caused  mar^*^ 
but  it  abated  in  consequence  of  the  cutting  down  of  the  \ictM^ 
foresU  for  fuel  in  the  extensive  ironworks  that  formerly  t%isX^ 
in  the  district.  The  locality  best  preserving  the  ancient  char- 
acter of  the  Weald  is  the  hilly  distriot  is  the  catttxe»  forminC  * 


WEALDEN— WEALTH 


437 


picttmsqiie  broken  range  nuuiiDg  east  and  west  nnder  the  name 
of  the  Forest  Kidgea.  This  forms  the  main  water-parting  of  the 
Weald,  dividing  the  Vale  of  Sussex  from  the  Vale  of  Kent;  and 
was  dso  the  seat  of  the  iron  industry  which  was  prosecuted  by 
the  Romans  and  probably  eariier,  readied  its  highest  importance 
in  the  z6th  and  xyth  centuries,  and  was  maintained  even  till  the 
early  years  of  the  xQth  century.  The  Andredesleah  had  an  early 
histoiical  interest  as  forming  a  physical  barrier  which  kept  the 
South  Saxons  isolated  from  other  Saxon  kingdoms.  Descending 
from  over  sea  upon  the  coastal  district  of  Sussex,  to  which  they 
gave  name,  towards  the  dose  of  the  5th  century,  th^  peculated 
it  thickly,  and  maintained  indq)endence,  in  face  of  the  accretions 
of  the  West  Saxon  kingdom,  for  upwards  of  a  hundred  years. 

WEALDBN,  in  geology,  a  thick  series  of  estuarine  and  fresh* 
water  deposits  of  Lower  Cretaceous  age,  which  derives  its  name 
from  its  development  in  the  Weald  of  Kent  and.  Sussex.  In  the 
type  area  it  is  exposed  by  the  denudation  of  a  broad  anticlinal 
fold  from  which  the  higher  Cretaceous  beds  have  been  removed. 
The  Wealden  rocks  lie  in  the  central  part  of  this  antidine  b^ween 
the  escarpments  of  the  North  and  South  Downs;  they  extend 
eastwards  from  the  ndghbourhood  of  Haslemere  and  EUand 
Chapd  to  the  west  between  Pevensey  and  Hythe.  This  fonna- 
tion  is  divisible  into  two  portions,  the  Weald  Clay  above  and 
the  Hastings  Sands  below.  The  Weald  Clay  which  occupies  the 
ecntral,  upland  part  of  the  area  from  Hoisham  to  the  sea  coast 
consists  of  dark  brown  and  blue  days  and  shales,  occasionally 
mottled  in  t^e  ndghbourhood  of  sandy  lenticles,  which  together 
with  calcareous  sandstones^  shelly  Hmeatones  and  nodub&r  iron<> 
stones  take  a  subordinate  place  in  the  series.  About  Horsham 
the  Weald  Clay  is  rood  ft.  thick,  but  it  decreases  in  an  eastward 
direction;  at  Tunbridge  it  is  oiUy  600  ft.  Certain  subordinate 
beds  within  the-  Weald  Clay  have  recdved  distinctive  names. 
"  Horsham  stone  "  is  a  calcareous  flaggy  sandstone/  often  ripple 
madced,  usually  less  than  5  ft.  thick,  which  occurs  at  about  x2o  ft. 
above  the  base  of  the  Clay.  "  Sussex  marble  "  is  the  name  given 
to  more  than  one  of  the  high  limestone  beds  which  are  mainly 
coii^xMed  of  a  Urge  form  of  Pahtdina  (P.  Jluviorum) ;  some  of  the 
lower  limestone  layers  contain  a  small  tptdcA  (P.  stustxiauis). 
The  Sussex  marble  (proper)' occurs  about  100  fL  bdow  the  top 
of  the  days;  it  is  the  most  important  of  the  limestone  bands, 
and  its  thickneas  varies  from  6  ft.  to  2  in.;  it  is  known  also  as 
Bethersden  marble,  Petworth  marble,  Laughton  ston^  kc 
It  has  been  widdy  used  in  the  Weald  district  in  chnrch  architec- 
ture and  for  polled  mantdpieoeSb  The  ironstones  were 
iormexly  smdted  in  the  western  part  of  the  area. 

The  Hastings  Sands  are  divisible  faito  three  main  subdivUcns; 
the  Tunbridge  Wdls  Sand,  the  Wadhnrat  Qay  and  the  Asfadova 
Sand.  Like  the  overlying  Wcald  Clay  this  series  thickens  as  a  whole 
towairds  the  west.  In  the  west,  the  Tunbridge  Wdls  Sand  is  sepa- 
rated into  an  upper. and  lower  division  by  the  thickening  of  a  bed  of 
clay — the  Grinstead  Clay — which  in  the  east,  about  R>re,  &&,  is  quite 
thin;  at  Cuckfidd  a  second  day  bed  I5  ft.  thick  di>ades  the  upper 
division.  The  upper  beds  of  the  lower  Tunbridge  Wells  Sand  cause 
good  landscapes  around  West  Hoathly  and  near  East  Grinstead. 
The  Wadhurst  Clay  is  very  constant  in  character;  near  the  base  it 
frec^ently  contains  clay-ironstone,  which  in  former  times  was  the 
masn  source  of  supply  for  the  Wealden  iron  industry.  Much  of  the 
higher  portion  of  toe  Hastings  Sand  country  is  made  of  the  Ashdown 
Sands,  consisting  of  sand,  soft  sandstones-  and  subordinate  clay 
bends;  in  the  east,  however,  clay  is  strongly  developed  at  the  base 
of  this  group,  and  at  Fairlight  is  more  than  360  ft.  thick,  while  the 
sandy  portion  is  only  150  ft.  These  clays  with  sandy  layers  are 
known  as  the  Fairlight  Clays.  Beds  of  l^ite  are  found  m  these 
beds,  and  a  cakareous  sandstone,  called  THgate  stone,  occurs  near 
the  top  df  the  Ashdown  Sands  and  in  the  Wadhurst  Clay,  The  old 
town  of  Hastings  is  built  on  Ashdown  Sand,  but  St  Leonards  is 
mainly  on  Tunbridge  Wdls  Sand. 

Wealden  beds  occur  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Isle  of  \^ht  and 
tn  the  Isle  of  Purbeck  in  Dorv.tshire.  The  Wealden  antlcune  can 
be  traced  across  the  Channd  into  the  Bas  Boulonnais.  A  separtlte 
Wealden  area  escists  in  north  Germany  between  Brunswick  and 
Bentheim,  in  the  Ostervald  and  Teutoberger  Wald,  where  the 
Dcister  Sandstone  Ct50  ft.)  corresponds  to  the  Hastings  Sands  and 
She  W&Iderthon  (70-100  ft.)  to  the  Weald  Clay.  The  former  contains 
valuable  coal  beds,^  worked  in  the  ndghbourhood  of  Obcmkirchcn, 
&c.,  and  a  fi:ood  building  stone. 

The  fossils  of  the  Wealden  beds  comprise  freshwater  shdlfish, 
Unto,  Palmdhuh  MdoMOpsis^  Cyrtnai  and  estuarioe  and  marine 


forms  such  as  Ostrea,  Exmu  aod  Jfyfjbu.  An  Interesting  scries 
of  dinosaurs  and  pterodactyles  has  been  obtained  from  the  wealden 
of  England  and  the  conrinent  of  Eurppe,  of  which  Iguanodon  is  the 
best  known— a  large  number  of  almost  entire  skdctons  of  this  genus 
were  discovered  in  some  buried  Cretaceous  valleys  at  Bemissart  in 
Bdgium;  other  forms  are  Ueierosuchus,  Omilhocheinu,  Omithopsis, 
Cimdiosaurus  and  THanosaurus.  Among  the  plant  remains  are 
Ckara^  Bennettites,  EquisilHeSf  Fittcniat  Sageno^eris  and  Thuriies. 
The  fishes,  plants  and  reptiles  of  these  formations  possess  a  decidedly 
Jurassic  aspect,  and  for  this  reason  several  authorities  are  ui  favour 
of  retaining  the  Wealden  rocks  in  that  system,  and  the  dose  re> 
lationship  between  this  formation  and  the  underlying  Purbeckian, 
both  in  England  and  in  Germany,  tends  to  support  this  view. 

See  Cketacsous,  Nbocohzan,  Purbeckian;  also  W.  Topley. 
"  Geology  of  tiie  Weakl,"  Mm,  GeO.  sSurvey  (London,  1875). 

(J.  A.  H.) 

WEALTH*  etymologically  the  condition  of  wdl-bdng,  pros- 
perity in  its  widest  sense.  Tlie  word  does  not  appear  in  Old 
English,  but  is  a  Middle  English  formation,  vfdthe,  on  the  O.  £ng. 
vfda,  well-bemg,  from  tod,  wdl,  cognate  with  Dan.  vd,  Ger. 
wohl.  The  original  meaning  survives  in  the  Prayer  for  the  King*s 
Uqfesiy  of  the  English  Bock  of  Common  Prayer,  "  Grant  him  in 
health  and  wealth  long  to  live,"  and  in  ''commonwealth," 
».«.  good  of  the  body  pditic,  hence  applied  to  the  body  politic 
itself. 

In  economics,  wealth  is  most  commonly  defined  as  consisting 
of  all  useful  and  agreeable  things  which  possess  exchange  value, 
and  this  again  is  generally  regarded  as  coextensive  with  all 
desirable  things  except  those  which  do  not  involve  labour  or 
sacrifice  for  thdr  acquisition  in  the  quantity  desired.  On 
analysis  it  will  be  evident  that  this  definition  implies,  direcUy, 
preliminary  conceptions  of  utility  and  value,  and,  indirectiy,  of 
sacrifice  and  labour,  and  these  terms,  familiar  though  they  may 
appear,  are  by  no  means  simple  and  obvious  in  thdr  meaning. 
Utility,  for  the  purposes  of  economic  reasoning,  is  usually  held 
to  mean  the  capadty  to  satisfy  a  desire  or  serve  a  purpose 
(J.  S.  Mill),  and  in  this  sense  is  dearly  a  much  wider  term  than 
wealth.  Sunshine  and  fresh  air,  good  temper  and  pleasant 
manners,  and  all  the  infinite  variety  of  means  of  gratification, 
material  and  immaterial,  are  covered  by  utility  as  thus  defined. 
Wealth  is  thus  a  spedes  of  utility,  and  in  order  to  separate  it 
from  other  spedes  some  differentia  must  be  found.  This, 
according  to  the  general  definition,  is  exchange  value,  but  a  littie 
reflection  will  show  that  in  some  cases  it  is  necessary  rather  to 
contrast  value  witb  wealth.  "  Value,"  says  Ricardo,  expanding 
a  thought  of  Adam  Smith,  "  essentially  differs  from  riches,  for 
value  depends  npt  on  abundance  but  on  the  difficulty  or  facility  of 
production."  According  to  the  well-known  tabl^  ascribed  to 
Gregory  King  (Z64S-17Z2),  a  dcfidency  of  a  small  amoimt  in  the 
annual  supply  of  com  will  raise  its  value  far  more  than  in  pn^ 
portion;  but  it  would  be  paradoxical  to  argue  that  tliis  rise  in 
value  indicated  an  increase  in  an  important  item  of  national 
wealth.  Again,  as  the  mines  of  a  country  are  exhausted  and  its 
natural  resources  otherwise  impaured,  a  rise  in  the  v^lue  of  the 
remainder  may  take  place,  and  as  the  free  gifts  of  nature  are 
appropriated  they  become  valuable  for  exchange;  but  the 
country  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  so  much  the  wealthier  in  con- 
sequence. And  these  difficulties  are  rather  increased  than 
diminished  if  we  substitute  for  value  the  more  familiar  concrete 
term  "money-price" — for  the  contrast  between  the  quantity 
of  wealth  and  its  nominal  value  becomes  more  sharply  marked. 
Suppose,  for  example,  that  in  the  total  money  value  of  the 
national  inventory  a  dedine  were  observed  to  be  in  progress, 
whilst  at  the  same  time,  as  is  qiute  possible,  an  increase  was 
noticed  in  the  quantity  of  all  the  important  items  and  an 
improven\ent  in  thdr  quality,  it  would  be  in  accordance  with 
common  sense  to  say  that  the  wealth  of  the  country  was  in- 
creasing and  not  decreasing. 

So  great  axe  these  difficulties  that  some  economists  («.g. 
Ricardo)  have  proposed  to  take  utility  as  the  direct  measure  of 
wealth,  and,  as  H.  Sidgwick  has  pointed  out,  if  double  the 
quantity  meant  double  the  utility  this  would  be  an  easy  and 
natural  procedure.  But  even  to  the  same  individual  the  increase 
in  utility  is  by  no  means  simply  proportioned  to  the  increase  in 
quantity,  and  the  utility  of  d^erent  commodities  to  different 


+38 


WEAPON— WEASEL 


individuals^  and  a  fortiori  of  diSerent  amounts,  is  proveibiaL 
The  very  same  things  may  to  the  same  individual  be  productive  of 
more  utility  simply  owing  to  a  change  in  his  tastes  or  habits,  and 
a  different  distribution  of  the  very  same  things,  which  make 
up  the  wealth  of  a  nation,  might  indefinitely  change  the  quantity 
of  utility;  but  it  would  be  paradoxical  to  say  that  the  wealth  had 
increased  because  it  was  put  to  better  uses. 

We  thus  seem  thrown  back  on  value  as  the  essential 
characteristic,  allowance  being  made  for  any  change  in  the 
standard  of  value;  but  there  are  still  difficulties  to  be  overcome. 
Some  things  that  undoubtedly  possess  value  or  that  can  command 
a  price  are  inmiaterial,  e.g.  the  advice  of  a  lawyer  or  physician 
or  the  song  of  a  prima  donna,  and,  although  perhaps  the  skill 
of  a  workman  (in  any  grade  of  the  social  scale)  might  be  considered 
as  attached  to  the  man,  as  a  coal  mine  is  attached  to  a  place, 
it  is  more  in  accordance  with  popular  usage  to  consider  skill 
as  immaterial,  whilst  at  the  same  time  it  seems  equally  natural 
prima  fade  to  confine  the  term  wealth  to  material  things  in  the 
common  sense.  Again,  the  credit  system  of  a  country  is  a  product 
of  great  labour  and  sacrifice,  it  is  most  dosdy  connected  with  the 
production  of  its  material  wealth  in  the  narrowest  sense,  and  it 
certainly  commands  a  pecuniary  value,  and  yet  credit  is  more 
generally  held  to  be  a  representative  rather  than  a  part  of  wealth, 
owing  apparently  to  its  insubstantial  character.  Apart  from  the 
question  of  materiality  some  writers  have  insisted  on  relative 
permanence  and  possibility  of  accumulation  as  essential  attributes 
of  wealth,  and  luive  thus  still  further  narrowed  the  scope  of  the 
definition. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  on  many  grounds  desirable 
in  economics  to  use  terms  as  far  as  possible  in  their  popular 
acceptations;  but  this  nde  must  always  be  subordinate  to  the 
primary  object  in  view.  In  nearly  every  department  of  know- 
ledge in  which  popular  terms  have  been  retained  it  has  been  foxmd 
necessary  either  constantly  to  use  qualifying  adjectives  where 
the  context  is  not  a  sufficient  guide,  and  in  some  cases,  when 
analysis  discloses  very  different  elements,  to  make  a  selection. 
Sometimes  it  has  been  found  convenient  to  use  a  term  with 
some  variation  in  the  definition  according  to  the  branch  of  the 
subject  in  hand.'  Applying  these  rules  to  the  definition  of  wealth, 
perhaps  the  best  solution  is  that  which  is  generally  connected 
with  German  economists  {e.g.  Adolf  von  Held).  Wealth  consists 
of  utilities,  and  in  the  first  great  department  of  economics — 
the  consumption  of  wealth —  it  is  utility  with  which  we  are 
principally  concerned — the  idea  of  value,  for  example,  being 
overshadowed.  The  most  general  law  of  the  consumption  of 
wealth  is  that  successive  portions  of  any  stock  ffve  a  diminishing 
amount  of  utility  when  consumed.  Then  in  the  department 
of  the  production  of  wealth  the  most  important  characteristics 
are  the  labour  and  sacrifice  necessary  to  put  the  utilities  desired 
into  the  things  and  to  place  the  things  where  they  are  wanted. 
The  idea  of  value  is  again  secondary  and  subordinate.  We  can 
readily  see  the  part  played  by  nature,  laboiu*  and  capital  re- 
spectively in  the  production  of  any  commodity  without  con- 
sidering the  efecls  on  its  value  of  the  various  factors;  we  can 
understand  the  principles  of  division  of  labour  and  of  the 
relative  productiveness  of  large  and  small  industries  without 
entering  into  questions  of  value  except  in  the  most  general 
manner.  In  the  department  of  the  distribution  of  wealth  the 
fundamental  conception  is  the  right  of  appropriation;  and 
accordingly  J.  S.  Mill  very  properly  commences  this  part  of 
his  subject  by  an  account  of  the  relative  advantages  of  the 
socialutic  and  individual  systems  of  property.  It  is  quite 
possible  under  the  former  to  conceive  of  dl  the  distribution  being 
made  without  any  exchange  and  with  reference  simply  to  the 
wants  or  the  deserts  of  the  members  of  the  society.  Thus  it  is 
not  until  we  arrive  at  the  department  of  the  exchange  of  wealth 
that  the  characteristic  of  value  becomes  predominant,  although 
of  course  value  is  closely  connected  with  utility  and  labour  and 
sacrifice. 

^  On  the  uses  and  difficulties  of  definitions  in  political  economy 
compare  H.  Sidgwick's  Principles  of  PoiUical  Economy,  bk.  L  ch.  ii., 
and  J.  N.  Keynes's  Scope  and  Method  of  Political  Economy. 


Usually,  however,  it  will  be  found  that  in  most  caaas  feaything 
which  can  fairly  be  classed  as  wealth  in  one  departisent  is  also 
wealth  in  the  others,  and  thus  the  definition  is  ie«ched  that 
wealth  in  general  consists  of  all  "  coosumable  uUUtlet  which 
require  labour  for. their  production  and  can  be  appropriated 
and  exchanged."  It  only  remains  to  add  that  "  utilities  "  may 
be  divided  into  '*  inner  "  and  "  outer  "  (to  translate  the  German 
literally) — ^the  "hmer"  being  sudi  as  axe  simply  sources  of 
personal  gratification. t6  their  possessor,  e.g.  a  good  car  for 
music;  the  "  outer  "  utilities  again  may  be  divided  into  '*  free  '* 
and  **  economic,"  the  former,  as  a  rule,  e.g.  sunlight,  not  being 
the  result  of  labour  and  not  capable  of  appropriation  or  exchange, 
and  the  latter  as  a  rule  possessing  each  of  these  marks.  It 
is  these  "economic  utilities"  which  constitute  wealth  in  the 
specific  sense  of  the  term,  although  its  use  may  be  extended 
hy  analogy  to  include  almost  all  utilities. 

See  A.  Marshall,  Principles  of  Economics  (xoo?);  J.  B.  Clark, 
Philosophy  of  Wealth  (1886)  and  Distribution  of  WeaUh  (1899): 
W.  E.  lieara,  Plutoloty  (1864):  F.  A.  Walker,  Political  Economy 
(188S);  and  J.  S.  Kkholbon,  Principles  of  PolUieal  Economy 
(19035.  O.S.N.), 

WBAPOM  (0.  Eng.  wApen,  cf.  Du.  vapen.  Get.  Wappe,  also 
Wappen,  a  coat  of  arms,  heraldic  shield),  any  iustrument  of 
offence  or  defence,  more  usually  a  term  confined  to  offensive 
or  attacking  instruments.  The  general  sketch  oft  the  history 
and  devdopment  of  weapons  of  offence  and  defence  is  given 
under  Aucs  and  Asmous;  particular  weapons^  »re  treated 
under  such  heads  as  Haisebo,  La^ice,  Speak,  Swobd,  Gmf, 
Pistol,  Rifle,  Qsdmamcb  and  Machine^uns. 

WEAR,  a  river  of  Durban),  England,'  xisuig  in  the  Pemiine 
chain  near  the  Cumberland  border,  and  traversing  a  valley 
about  60  m.  in  length  to  the  North  Sea,  with  a  drainage  area 
of  458  sq.  m.  A  series  of  streams  draining  from  the  hills  between 
Kilihope  Law  and  Bumhope  Seat  (2453  ft.)  are  collected  at 
Wearhead,  up  to  which  point  the  valley  is  traversed  by  a  branch 
of  the  North-Eastem  ndlway.  Hence  eastward,  past  the  small 
towns  of  St  John's  Chapel  and  Stanhope,  and  as  far  as  that  of 
Wolsingham,  Weardale  is  narrow  and  ptctoresque,  afaaiply 
aligned  by  high-lying  moorland.  Below,  it  takes  a  south-easieriy 
bend  as  far  as  Bi^iop  Auckland,  then  turns  northward  and  north- 
eastward, the  course  of  the  river  becoming  extremely  sinuous. 
The  scenery  is  particularly  fine  where  the  river  sweeps  round  the 
bold  peninsula  which  beus  the  cathedral  and  castle  of  the  dty 
of  Durham.  The  valley  line  continues  northerly  until  Chester- 
le-Street  is  passed,  then  it  turns  north-east;  and  soon  the  river 
becomes  navigable,  carrying  a  great  traffic  in  coal,  and  having 
its  banks  lined  with  factories.  At  the  mouth  is  the  large  seaport 
of  Sunderland. 

WEASEL  {Puhrim  nivalis),  the  smallest  European  spedes 
of  the  group  of  mammals  of  which  the  polecat  and  stoat  are 
well-known  members  (see  CAxiiivoitA).  The  weasel  is  an  elegant 
little  animal,  with  elongated  slender  body,  bade  mudi  arched, 
head  small  and  flattened,  ears  short  and  rounded,  neck  long  u><i 
flexible,  limbs  short,  five  toes  on  each  foot,  all  with  sharp,  com- 
pressed, curved  claws,  tail  rather  short,  slender,  cylindrical,  and 
pointed  at  the  tip,  and  fur  short  and  dose.  The  upper-parts,  out- 
side of  limbs  and  tail,  arc  uniform  reddish  brown,  the  under-parts 
white.  In  cold  regions  the  weasd  turns  white  in  winter,  but  less 
regularly  and  only  at  a  lower  temperature  than  the  stoat  or 
ermine,  from  which  it  is  distinguished  by  its  smaller  sise  and 
the  absence  of  the  black  tail-tip.  The  length  of  the  head  and 
body  of  the  male  is  usually  about  8  in.,  that  of  the  tail  2}  iU'i 
the  female  is  smaller.  The  weasd  is  generally  distributed  through- 
out Europe  and  Northern  and  Central  Asia;  and  is  represented 
by  a  dosely  allied  animal  in  North  America.  It  po^esses  all 
the  active,  courageous  and  bloodthirsty  disposition  of  the  re^ 
of  the  genus,  but  its  diminutive  size  prevents  it  attacking  and 
destroying  any  but  the  smaller  mammals  and  birds.  Mice,  Tf^ 
water-rats  and  moles,  as  well  as  frogs,  constitute  its  prindpu 
food.  It  is  generally  found  on  or  near  the  surface  of  the  groiuia» 
but  it  can  not  only  pursue  its  prey  through  holes  and  crevictt 
of  rocks  and  under  dense  tangled  herbage,  but  follow  it  up  the 


WEATHER— WEAVER-BIRD 


*s"-™ 


The  WumI  (f  xtorHU  iiftuUr). 

i(  [usually  five)  young 


■n  He  mthti 


r  will  defend  her  young  w 
BSiUant,  and  hu  been  known  to  sacrifice  hi 
ion  desert-  licm.  (R.  L.*) 

(O.  Eng.  wcdtr;  the  w     '  '  "" 


Ungiuso;  cf.  Du.  Befer,  Dan.  ttir,  IceL  vitr,  and  Ger.  WclUr 
and  GonOS',  doim;  the  iw>t  is  k-  Co  blow,  from  which  is 
derived  "  wind  "),  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere -in  regard  to 
its  teinperature,  presence  or  absence  of  wind  or  cloud,  its  dry- 
tKss  or  humidity,  and  all  the  vuious  meteoiolagical  phenomena 
(see  Mbtiorolocv).  The  term  "  weathering  "  is  used  in  geology 
of  the  gisdual  action  of  the  weather  upon  rocks,  and  Is  also 
applied.  In  architecturt,  to  the  indiaa.tion  or  slope  outwards 
given  to  coniices,  string  CDunta  and  window  uUa,  to  throw  off 
tbB  rain. 

WUVER,  JAKES  BAIRD  USjj-  ),  AmericaD  lawyer 
■nd  political  leader,  was  bom  at  Dayton,  Ohio,  on  the  nth  of 
June  1833.  He  studied  law  at  Gndanali,  Ohio,  and  served  on 
the  Federal  aide  in  the  Civil  War,  becoming  eolonsl  in  November 
1S611  he  WIS  muslcnd  out  in  Hay  1S64,  and  in  March  iSiS; 
wu  breveted  brlgidier-geseral  of  volunteers.  He  was  district- 
attorney  for  the  second  Judid»l  Dulrtct  of  Iowa  in  1866-1870 

WHS  a  reprewntative  in  Congress  in  1S79-1SS1  4iid  io  1S8J-18S9, 
being  elettwl  by  a  Greenback-Dcmooitic  fusion.  In  18S0  he 
was  the  candidate  of  the  Greenback  pirty  for  prE»dent  and 
reoived  a  popular  vote  of  308,578;  and  in  1S4]  he  was  the 
candidate  of  the  People's  party,  and  received  13  electoral  votes 
and  a  popular  vote  of  1,041,011. 

WBAVER-BIRD.  the  name'  by  which  a  group  of  between 
loo  and  joo  spcdcs  are  now  usually  called,  Iiom  the  elaborately 
inlenroven  nests  that  many  of  them  build,  some  of  the  slnictura 
being  of  the  raoat  marvellous  kind.  By  the  older  syslematists 
such  of  these  birda  as  were  then  known  were  distributed  among 
the  genera  Orlaliu,  Lciia,  Emberiai  and  FringUlu;  and  it  was 
C.  L.  Cuvier  who  in  181J  first  brought  together  these  dissevered 
forma,  comprising  them  in  a  genus  Ploaui.  Since  his  time 
oihera  have  been  riiertcd  to  its  neighbourhood,  and  especially 

■FhM  bestowed  in  this  form  appannlly  by  J.  F.  Stephens  tn 
ISa6  (G-  Shaw's  Cm.  Zfthty.  xiv.  pt.  L  p.  34)!  but  In  17B1  J. 
Ijiihani  (Synnpiis.  1.  p.  439)  had  called  the  •'Trtupialt  du  Slntnl " 
al  Buffon  the  ''  weevcr  «i^e."  fncn  iu  habit  of  enlwining  Ihe  wires 
of  Ihe  cage  in  whicli  it  was  liept  vllh  such  vesei^ible  (ibtea  ai  it  nutd 
pt,  and  hem  in  17M  Gmclin  named  jl  Ormlia  Inw.  In  1S00 
F.  M.  Daudin  ufed  Ihe  term  -  Tinrtin  "  for  several  iperies  ol  the 
UnnHSn  «nus  I«™,  ond  this  vas  adopted  mme  years  later  by 
Cuviw  M  a*  eiiiriiialnt  of  hi>  Placras.  as  mnitiaiHid  in  the  tta. 


the  genua  VUmi  itith  It*  aliei,  M  >i  to  make  of  tbcm  a  sub- 
family f  Idcnmw,  sAkfa  in  1S47  was  raised  by  J.  Cabanis  to 
the  rank  of  a  family  Plcaidat — a  atep  ibe  propriety  of  which 
hai  ilBce  been  generally  admitted,  though  the  grounds  fortaking 
it  are  such  aa  could  not  be  held  valid  in  any  other  order  than 
that  of  Paatru.  The  Ploaidae  are  closely  leUted  to  the 
Frintiliidat  (lee  FihCh).  and  are  now  divided  into  two  sub- 
famih'es,  the  PkitrinM  and  YUuiiiat,  the  former  chie%  found 
in  Africa  and  itK  ialanda,  the  laltu  In  the  Ethiopian,  Australian 
and  Indian  regions. 

Perhaps  the  molt  typical  Fbceiiie  weaver-bird  ia  Bypkant- 
iirtas  cUcaUata,  an  African  spcdes,  and  it  is  to  the  Ethiopian 
Region  that  by  far  the  greatest  number  of  these  birds  belong, 
and  in  it  they  seem  to  attain  their  maximum  of  devdopment. 
Theyareallsmal],  with,  generally  speaking,  a  sparrow-like  build; 
butinrichnessof  colouring  the  males  of  some  are  very  conspicuous 
— glowing  in  crimson,  scarlet  or  gslden-ycllov,  set  off  by  jet- 
build  nests  that  are  not  very  remarkable,  except  in  being  almost 
invariably  domed — others  (such  aa  the  most  typical  Indian 
weaver-bird,  Ptaaus  laya)  fabricate  singular  structures'  of 
closely  and  uniformly  interwoven  tendrils  or  ^e  roots,  that 
often  hang  from  the  bough  of  a  tree  over  water,  and,  stalling 
with  a  solidly  wrought  rope,  open  out  into  a  globular  chamber, 
and  then  contract  into  a  tube  several  inchei  in  length,  through 
which  the  birds  effect  their  exit  and  entrance.  But  the  most 
wonduEuI  nests  of  all,  and  indeed  the  most  wonderful  built  by 
birds,  are  those  of  the  so-called  sociable  grosbeak,  PkilMacrus 
ixius,  of  Africa.    These  are  composed  wholly  of  grasj,  and  are 

said  to  have  been  found  in  one  of  these  aggregated  masses,  which 
usually  lake  Ihe  form  of  a  ^gsntic  mushroom,'  affording  a  home 
and  nursery  to  many  pairs  of  the  birds  which  have  been  at  Ihe 
trouble  of  building  il.  These  nesls.  however,  have  been  so  often 
described  and  figured  by  Soulh  Alrican  travellers  that-  there 
is  no  need  here  to  dilate  longer  on  their  maivcli.  It  may  be 
added  that  this  species  of  weaver-bird,  known  to  French  writers 
as  the  KlpMieain,  is  of  exceptionally  dull  plumage. 

The  group  of  widow-bird*,'  Viiuinai,  is  remarkable  tor  Ibe 
citraordinary  growth  of  tbe  taH-fealhers  in  the  males  at  the 
breeding-season.  In  the  largest  species,  Yidaa  (sometimsa 
called  Chaa)  frojM,  the  (Oct-bird,  which,  with  the  exception 
of  a  scarlet  and  buff  bar  on  the  upper  wing-coverts,  is  wholly 
black,  there  is  simply  a  great  elongation  of  the  rectrices;  but 
In  V.  paradisea  the  form  of  the  tail  is  quite  unique.  The  middle 
pair  of  feathers  have  the  webs  greatly  widened,  and  through 
the  twisting  of  the  shafts  their  inferior  surfaces  arc  vertically 

hair-like  filament.  The  next  pair  an;  produced  to  the  Icnfilh 
ol  about  a  foot — the  bird  not  being  so  big  as  a  sparron — and 
droop  gracefully  in  the  form  of  a  aickle.  But  this  b  not  all: 
each  has  attached  to  its  bue  a  hair-like  filament  of  the  same 
length  as  the  feather,  and  this  filament  originally  adhered  to 
and  ran  along  the  margin  ol  the  outer  web,  only  becoming 
detached  when  the  feather  Is  full  grown.'  In  another  species. 
V.  principalis,  the  middle  two  pair*  of  rectrices  are  equally 

the  inner,  so  that  when  the  margins  of  tic  two  pairs  are  applied 


le  diller  froi 


wilh  ils  I 
•It  ha 

this  Urd  Ihe  widow,  fr 
Birii.  i.  p.  86). 

'  This  curious  stnichi 
li-ilttU,  ill.  p.  II]).  anc 
Uuliny  (iBjO),  pp.  U  an 


It  by. 


ae  of  the  oiiot-Es  (qt.)  sfkI 
[tenajtoa  stocklnj  hu«i^V|P 


440  WCA 

•  MM  of  <^tader  b  farmtiL' n*  temilc*  of  an  tbe  widow-bint* 
difler  gmdy  in  Bppamtcc  from  the  nulo,  and  an  gcnenll]' 
dotbed  in  ■  plumage  of  mottled  browii. 

Unially  damd  with  ibe  ««tv«-binli  ii  a  van  inap  of  •Bia'l 
Ntd-ealing  foimt.  often  oiled  5BmiB«uiM.  but  lor  which  EilrcUiiuu 
.  woold  teoD  to  be  a  mDre  liiung  nicie.    Tbcw  coRiprehend  Ihe 

dawt^  Eat/Ma  mwiwAii,  autBcg-binl^rMuia  tucMlvu.  wu- 
bUU,  Pjl^  mitt*  ard  ftMHcgflira,  oittbraata,  Amaiaa  JuaaU. 
tlie  Jav*  apamHr.  JVivia  wjumbw  and  many  oUiec*.    Manv  of 


fX^" 


to  Afika  and  India,  and  H 


WUVIIIO.  Tlie  pracen  of  wvuvinK  conslits  In  bterladug, 
Bt  Tight  anglaj  two  or  mote  KTies  of  fleiible  nutcrialsr  of  which 
the  lon^iudiiiil  are  calkd  wxrp  vid  the  tinnsvene  weft. 
Weaving,  Iherefoie,  only  embraces  one  lecUon  of  the  teitile 
Industry,  tor  ielted,  plaited,  netted,  hosiery  and  lace  fabrics  lie 
outside  this  definition.  Feltins  CDD^ts  In  bringing  massel  of 
ln»e  fibres,  soch  as  wool  and  hair,  under  the  combined  influences 

locked, in  every  direction.  Plaited  fabrics  have  only  one  series 
of  threads  interlaced,  apd  those  at  other  than  right  angles. 
In  nets  all  threads  are  held  in  their  appointed  pbces  by  luiots, 
which  are  lied  wherever  one  thread  intersects  another.  Hosiery 
fabrics,  whether  made  from  orie  or  many  threads,  are  held  together 
by  intersecting  a  series  of  loops;  while  lace  fabrics  Are  formed 
by  passing  one  set  of  threads  between  and  round  small  groups 
of  a  second  set  of  threads.  Instead  of  moving  them  from  ude  to 
side.  Notwithstanding  the  foregoing  limitations,  woven  fabrics 
ate  varied  in  terturc  and  have  an  enormous  range  of  application. 
The  demands  made  by  prehistoric  man  for  fabrics  designed  for 
dotbing  and  shelter  were  tew  and  ^tnple,  and  these  were  fashioned 
by  inlcrlacing  strips  of  fibrous  material  and  grasses,  which  in 
their  natural  condition  were  long  enough  for  the  purpose  in 
hand.  But,  as  tu:  passed  from  a  stale  of  savagery  into  a  dvilized 
being,  his  needs  developed  with  his  culture,  and  those  needs  are 
still  Filending.    It  no  longer  suffices  to  minister  to  indivjdual 


o  be  ojiisldered. 


called  upon 
delicacy;  oi 


ndcd  far  beyond  the  limits  ol  colour,  and  diSetent 
tmployed  either  separately  or  conjointly,  together 
chemes  of  intethidng.  Eventually  the  weavetwas 
furnish  articles  possesshig  lustre,  soltnr 


le  atimgih  and  durability,  with 
a  snowy  whiteness,  or  with  elaborate 
In  told  countries  a  demand  arose  for  warm 
clothing,  and  In  hot  ones  for  cooler  materials;  while  cotomerce 
and  Industry  have  nquisitjoned  fabrics  that  vary  from  nocmal 
cfaaracteciatica  to  those  that  etceed  an  inch  in  thickness.  In 
order  to  meet  these  and  other  requirements  the  world  has  been 

wool,  hair,  fur,  leathers,  silk  and  the  pinna  fibre  have  king  been 
,  cotton,  flat,  heoip, 
■a  but  almost  equally 
ived.  Amongst  minerals  there  are 
iron,  glass  and  asbestos.  In  addition, 
le  plain,  gilt,  silvered  and  painted  con- 
,1  as  anihdal  fibres.    All  of  the  fore- 

iterials  it  is  not  surprising  that  woven 

lh«e  diUcrences  are  only  in  part  due  to  the  method  of  weaving. 
The  processes  of  bleaching  (i.e.),  raercttizing  (j.i.),  dyeing  (^.e.), 
priming  (see  Texihx  Pununc)  and  finishing  (i;,(.)  contribute 
Almost  as  much  to  the  character  and  eHect  of  the  resultant 
product  as  do  the  bcorporation  in  one  fabric  of  threads  spun  in 
diflerent  ways,  and  from  fibcej  of  different  oiitfn,  with  paper, 
metal,  beads  or  even  predous  slonea. 


procured. 

valuable  materials  are  derived 
gold,  silver,  copper,  brass,  iron, 
atrip!  of  paper,  or  skin,  in  the  pit 

going  may  be  used  atone 


.  aj)  iiom  pactuna  jc 


.     iciples,   I 

succeffiful.  For  fabrics  are  constantly  met  with  that  poses 
characietisiics  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  one  class,  hut  lack 
others  which  are  deemed  equally  typic»l.  Nevenhcless,  ante 
some  dassificarion  la  esteniial,  the  following  will  be  adopted, 
namely:  Group  r,  to  include  all  fabrics  made  bora  one  watp 
and  one  weft,  provided  both  sets  of  threads  remain  parallel  in 
the  finislbed  arride  and  an  intersected  to  give  the  requisite  leel 
and  appearance.  Group  i,  to  include  (a)  fabrics  constructed 
from  two  wai]»  and  one  weft,  or  two  welta  and  one  watp, 
as  in  those  that  are  backed,  reversible  and  figured  with  eiln 
material;  (t)  two  or  more  distinct  fabrics  built  simultaneously 
Irom  two  or  more  warps  and  wefts,  as  in  two,  three  and  other 
ply  cblhs;  (i)  fabrics  built  by  to  interaectlog  two  or  more 
warps  and  wefts  that  oiJy  one  teiture  results,  as  In  loom-niade 
tapcalties  and  figured  reppa.  Group  3,  to  include  fabrics  m  which 
a  portion  of  the  weft  or  warp  rises  vertically  from  the  ground- 
work of  a  finished  piece,  as  in  velveteens,  velvets,  plushes  tnd 
piled  carpets.  Greups  4,  to  embrace  all  fabria  in  which  one 
portion  of  the  warp  is  twisted  paitiaily,  or  wholly,  round  another 
portion,  as  in  gauics  and  lappet  doths.  Although  some  fabrics 
do  not  appear  to  fall  into  any  of  the  above  divisions,  and  in 
others  the  essential  features  ol  two  or  moie  groups  are  combined, 
yet  the  grouping  enumerated  above  is  suffiideutl;  inchuive  for 
purposes. 


The  fa 


I  included  i 


ii,byM 


a  dcfl^n.  plan  arid  two  at 

appearance  on  the  lac«, ' 
repps  and  cords.  A  plac 
is  jRown  at  Br.  I.  Cokn 
Fabrics,  and  its  simplest 

c»ily  productiona  of  the  I1 


ly.  as  in  ^.  T.  which  ■!»■■ 
.bib.    Su^  a  fabric  w«i1d. 


u  doth.  Fio.  3.— Repp  Clolh. 

be  Gobefios  and  other  celebrated  manuracloi 
n  importance  to  plain  cloth  cb  account  o(  ll 


warp  aiid  weft  tliieads  to  complete  the 

prepondcfales.  U  let*,  the  1 
and  Jttuji  bodk  tcroia  itlcr 


-.houlil .- 

■  than  «  dejreei,  u  in  fi»>,  j,  6:  if Jcet 
it  let*,  the  weft  preponoeraies.    Twil 


INDOSTRIAL  TECHNICOLOGV] 

KB  in  fi^  3,  4-    In  the  lattw  more  war] 


Fio.  J.— Four-ihie»d  I  TkiII.       rio.  4^-FQur-thnad  )  TwHL 

pkk  than  ADOths.  tbc  nbe  mar  vary  in  width  uld  ittud]  ansni^nt 
mjy  b«  iLilroduced  between  the  ribs,  a*  in  £^  5, 6  and  7.  when  the 

broken  up  inio  ^lagv,  ktfei^et,  snuane  and  otha  MMHCrlaL 
dnigiu;  ail  of  whkli  maybe  pfwluctd  by  reverainga  Ln  (ncdtagojiat 


44" 

Ktber  ^  thrtads 


Akiaeeweft;  B  back  wefl.  and  the 
he  latter  C.  D,  (re  bcnoth  both  Bar 


Ficj.— Upright  Tml 


of  iheHe<t.l>aBlhvfa 


.— Redialag  TVIU. 


directiona,  and  Hg.  11 
1  mm  Iia  in  one  p> 

ilkofthewaip,  andii 


need,  but  in  thew  fabrics  the  length  output  ol  loom  is  reduced  by 
leawn  of  the  wefts  being  Buperposed,    Warp-backed  fabricfl,  whether 

nf  a  k)Oi91»  for  every  weft  tliread  adda  to  the  clQlh  knetli,    RrversibU 


by  alkl^ng"^M 


I  Fio.  ij.— Wefi-bacfad 


Fia  7,— Fancy  Twill. 
ice  threads  and  pbcinf  it  doae 


S'l  together  lo 
s  of  the  othe 


I  upper  and  lower  tottures.  The  fabric  la  more  perfect  and  admiia 
>  of  cither  sinplCDrebbontepaCIenubelngwrouiht  upon  thesiiKaec. 
with  simple  ones  beveath.  as  in  piqu£g  and  matelaui^.  One  lemuiv 
may  be  constantly  above  the  other  and  connected  at  Ibc  Kivaiea 
only,  as  in  hose  (Jpeaand  pillow  ilipa;  or  at  uitcrvaU  a  thread  may 
paisfrom  one  textuie  Into  Ibeolhet.  In  which  event  buthiic  unileiL 
aaiomaiiystylcaoflnl-covcrsaiidveslbga.  If diflennily aikiiii«L 


— DiaDkHid.  Fig.  lO.'^Diaper- 

If  ihe  imervati  are  irregular  it  is  said  to  be  Imperfect, 


.—Weft  Revenible 


Br\}iadti  are  fkbrica  in  which  both  seta  of  threa 
they  may  be  taken  aa  typtcal  fii  all  one  warp  an 


Fabric. 
I    o">lyra'i^''u^^,  1 


, jsimullanfr 

in  belting  cloth.    There  may  be  from  one  to 

. —„  ,.  ._„  .raip  to  one  of  back,  and  the  wefting  may  ot 

•    oaay  not  cormpoDd  with  the  varpiog.   F%.  iC  ahom  the  fac*  aad 


443 

bukniw,  (III  <M 
ckKll  with  nna  thnadi 


.    The  circk*  in  llie  uppn  u 


their  figured  eB 


u  well  M  mitt  irbetber  inl«Iac«I  ' 

to  lorm  n  plain  lace,  or  trft  ftrndng  more 

Of  1«  lowly'     Evoy  writ  Ihind,  in 

:  piwni  (n>m  lelvate  to  eelvue.  a  ukm 

I  to  the  Hirfice  ohete  leqirired,  the  othtr 

portion*  bdng  bound  at  the  bock.    Some 

"*™-  ISrirbut,  however  numeroui  the  warp> 

end  wiAl  only  one  texture  !•  pcnlund.  When  u  eitn  witp  ol 
fine  nuteiial  i>  UKd  to  Innd  the  wefti  firmly  totether  a  plain  or  twill 
■nve  ihowl  on  both  ddei.     If  >  nnilc  warp  u  employed,  two  or 

■uifaH.  WheiT  waipa  do  uiiH  10  fomf  figure  it  rarely  fu^ni 
thai  more  [haci  three  can  be  Lued  withoul  overcrowdinE  the  reed. 

aBcUoq  oi  a  revcrBble  tapcAxy  in  four 
^^BOKa  coloure,  two  of  which  are  warpa  and  two 
■.!•-»  .■•••-v  wefta.  11  (ilhtf  warp  Of  weft  la  on  the 
'TaMJlllim  Jlil  "  iTIl  foifKr,  conopondine  threada  are  be- 
MJfrrw'iJsH  iMiVlwII  ncktfa.  TTie  bent  linea  repreeent  weft  and 
F10.17.— TapMry  with  the  circle,  warp.  K(arB(  tipfa  d\E 
Two    \ta™   ud    Two  Irom  plain  one.  m  having  thrraditj  01 

Welt..  •■ ■-' ' ■*  - 

ieveral  dille 


han  one.  thick  warp  Boated 
tbicx  and  ttuu  weft  alike;  or»  in  havini 
ntly  coloured  warn  from  which  a  fixed  nuoibcr  ol 
[ted  over  each  thgk  weft  (bread;    the  face  of  thi 
texture  u  toen  unilona,  and  the  figure  a  due  to  colour- 

Croiipi.  Filtd  FaMtt, — In  aO  method,  of  weaving  bilhertf 
dealt  with  the  warp  and  weft  thnoda  baw  been  laid  in  louptudina 
and  traiwrnc  paiiilld  linea.  In  piled  (abTk%  bowvvcr,  portions  ol 
Ihewefiorwarpanunieaverticalinriliaiu   If  tha  fonncr  then  an 

two  leriea  ol  weft  Ihmda,  one  beiDi  inletMctcd  wit^  ''- u 

fomafirmgroundtevtuR,  the  other  Ddncboand  into  "■ 

regular  interval.,  a.  in  the  dencn  r— " -~ 

fig- IS;    the  circle,  and  wave^  I 


ex  tepoimting  one  pcdat 


Flo.  18.— Velveteen.      {"■"  "^ 
llnirH  arc  produced  by  caixying  the 

Moo  the  face  variea  with  the  dittribii 
the  length  of  pile  la  detennined  by  Ih 

anitUe.— WbtB  efaenllle  i.  ukI 

i3y.  oneu7unii.h  the  chenille,  t 


fabric.'  ■  Chenilfi 


mr,.    Thi 

_ the  protruding  enda  i>f  weft 

and  form  -  — u_j._     .     - 


tiideraUc  inter 

.M!,Tf  ^a 


vaip,"  and  form  a  cyHndtr  of  pik.     1l 

chniUle  la  folded  bactwaid  and  forward  hi  a  aecond 
cokiun  m  thsr  appointed  placca  and  pile  projecu 
the  bb*^     ir  ^hliTnu  u  :«i».ri..i  i^Z^w^HJ *^^ . 


f  clienille  la  intendeil  fi 
neni  in  one  directio 

'trp-piki  Ftbrits  h 


of  warp  threada  I 


;  a>^  PiaiAci  ate  woven  ilDgle  and  double.    In  the  to 


h  crnmd  and  pik  warpa  are  lolerKcted  whh  the  we 
rali  o(  two  or  three  picka  the  pik  Ifaiad.  arc  lifted 
lich  ia  Bubaequeiuly  withdrawn:    jf  the  wire  a  fumiBnecj 
lUfeet  haouterexlreDiity.  In  wlthdnwingit  Ibepkrhfcadj 
but  if  the  wire  li  pointed  a  line  of  Idopa  remain.,  a.  in  tcrr^ 

3.  19  b  the  dengn.  and  two  lon^lndinal  Kctioni  of  a 
ret.    The  circki  at  A  are  weft  Ihreada.  and  the  bent 


a  pile  thread,  part  of  which  b 


™niljrpfiuit>~unHU  0 
iKpt  far  enough  aran  to 


lINDUSrRUL  TECHMICOLOCY 
It  B  the  cirdea  ate  repeated  to  ibow  bow  tha 


Ic  kiigth  of  pik.    Ai 


threads,  provided  thej;  arp  Buojn.-ifu  lu  biigni  icnuir  niraini      1 
Hlin.'brocaifc  ot  pile;    (i)  by  virying  the  nuinbeT'ol  thread,  thai 


«Sn"lff3" 


Ittfa  ntiHf  cDuiM  la  di(ptitn«  the  tBttia  at  a  pWn  sr 
liiiie  Ubric  with  linple  £cutb.    Tliii  ii  doH  by  dnwlns  ccmln 

~     ~JL  poBtion  and  Ihen  llfliiH  tbm 

3f  ovn  k  Ihicad  o(  weft  to  B*  tbem 

3e  in  the  iuhur;   sCtB  whkli  they 

3E  afc  itnond  ia  the  oppante~dire& 

3G  tion  tnd  lilted  over  the  MIowiPE 

3C  pick.    Th«  lutecial  between  one 

Jy  biodinf  pcdnt  and  Another  mij«t 

jL  Rant  iDSNly.  nnd  thli  limio  the 

JE  QicfuLiKa  «  bppet  fiiuring.    In 

j5  £(.  13,  the  ihKk  iinei  ibow  n 

^  lappet  epot  upon  n  ptain  textuie. 

^  NotwithitniHlnf    dlyene   «ru^ 

Fio.  ij.— UpptI  Fabric        ^'^ 
Ibc  man  elaborate  and  beautiful  i; 

Wmini  Uackiairy. 
The  longitudinal  threads  of  B  fabric  iR  ctDed  «iil>,  nine, 

wool,  fiuing  and  Iram.  A  loom  lor  inleraccling  IhcK  Kvenl 
Ihreidi  Diut  pim-ide  (or:  (i)  Shedding;  nunely,  raising  ud 
lowering  the  wiip  threads  in  ■  pirdetennined  stqunice  so  oi  to 
form  two  linci  between  which  Ihe  weft  may  be  passed.  (1) 
Picking,  01  placing  linci  of  well  betweeo  the  divided  wacp- 
(j)  Beat<ng-iip,  or  linking  each  «dl  thretd  ioto  iu  appcnnicd 
pcsliion  in  the  (ibric.  (4)  LetllBg-oH,  or  holding  the  waip  fense 
and  delivering  it  as  weaving  pioceeds.  (j)  Taking-up,  or  drawing 
away  the  doth  as  manuiacluied.  <6)  Templea,  loi  stretching 
lh»  fabric  widthwiie  in  order  to  prevent  tlie  edge  threadi«f  ■ 
warp  from  injuring  the  reed,  and  from  breaking.    Power  ^ms 

ud  in  addition:  (7)  A  weft-fork,  to  ilop  ■  loam  when  the 
weft  Ixcotnca  eihauited  or  breiki.  (8)  Mechaniimforitopping 
a  loom  when  (he  ibuttle  fails  to  teach  its  a[^!nted  boi.    (9) 

lo  bring  diSerent  coloun,  or  count!  of  weft,  into  uie  at  the 
piopcT  time.     (10)  In  aome  loonu  a  device  for  autamalkally 

is  requlsile.  (11)  If  a  weaver  has  lo  attend  lo  a  greater  Dumber 
of  looma  than  usual,-  a  device  lor  itopinng  a  toom  when  >  warp 

TMi  Barii-Leom.—Dvrliig  the  tTth  and  the  fint  ball  of  the  iSth 


Died  to  manufi 


chterlSi 


Kic,  14,— Diagram  ot  Hand-Lt 
nureDtivenlabricwentrniitarin 
■Mih  they  diSerrd  irrllly.     Prior 

I  been  applied  ro  rhc  hand. loom 


iais.allhouih 

rvenrion  had 
iuhMqwnlly 


an  laid  in  B«n  itepa  fanned  b  the 
colled  mnnd  this  baa.  and  weigh 
beiw  given  eB  loo  Iredy.    From  th 

eyeiol  (he  iheddinr  baraeH,  in  vain 
Bnally  they  are  attached  lo  a  clolh  re 

upon  wooden  laths  called  bIu(»,  ai 


paned  through  (see  Sutii 


de.  It  is  made  by  placing  ilnju  o[  flattened  wire 
■U  round  ribs  of  wool,  and  binding  the  whole  toeethcr  bv 
w  tarred  twine  between  the  wtrea  and  round  the  ribt.  Such 
u  placed  in  the  lower  ponion  ol  a  batten,  which  ia  luuicrHM 
1. „  Itamework  of  the  kom.    In  Iror-  -f  •' '  — ' 


otnioaite  lelvage,  t^  Kay  continned  the  projecting  batten  on  both 
ndes  of  the  warp  wpact,  and  coiutntcted  boxes  at  each  end.  Over 
each  box  he  nuonted  a  ndndle.  at>d  upon  it  a  driver,  or  picker- 
Banda  cwineclcd  both  picktit  to  a  ilick  which  the  weaver  held  in 
hb  t«bt  bald,  while  iKth  the  left  hand  he  controlled  the  batten. 
Thus:  ■  tieadle  (s  pneied  down  by  one  loot  to  lorm  a  ihed :  the 
batten  is  pushed  back  till  a  HifGcient  pociion  ol  the  ihed  ii  bRmghl 
in  Iront  of  the  reed,  and  the  depreoed  threads  lie  upon  the  ihuitle 
race;  a  dear  way  la  thus  provided  lor  the  shuttle-  A  quick  move- 
ment  ol  the  itkk  tightens  the  cord  attached  to  ■  picker  and  profecl) 
the  ihullle  from  one  boi  to  the  other.  The  batten  is  now  drawn 
lorward.  and  the  reed  beata  up  the  welt  left  by  the  shinlle.  A*  the 
'1e  la  depfCHed  to  fonn  anoi '  ''  ' 


Fit;.  16.— Section  pf  Plain  Wcfa  in  Procen  of  Weaving  on  the  LooB. 
a.  The  warp  beam.  i.  The  reed  in  position  lor  |dck> 

'     '"    '        -'   '     -hichthe  ing.  and  also  for  bealuigMip. 

itaiiung    /,    The  cloth  beam- 
be  provided.    By  Robert 


to  the  co4ourf ,  counts  or  ntaterials, 

lost  throuBh  changing  ibultlei  ^  ........  —  , — 

bones  conHit  ol  trays  lormed  in  tien  and  fitted 

iSt  ha" J.  fbe^y 


ihthe  foTThngtr  and  thun;'b  of  the 
needed  loin  line  with  the 


U  Dnm  Injm.— Large  iguied  effe 
aw  toDmi,-  where  the  warp  threads  v 

£e' lower  hkI  of  each  itring  a  dead 
:hed,  and  a  lew  inches  above  tka  hi 


TiiL    Tl»  driip  pmtd  thnufli  ■  dtillHJ 


oiSSnEly.""  ii,  ii 


pUUd  of  all  ttrinn  RquiPKl  to  riie  und  fi 


11  of  a  d«ti£D»  twdvT 


!'>j^rt^lng. 


attached  id  cadi  coni;  and  C  U 
th«  bottom  beard,  Ejicb  mckcord, 
alter  being  led  tbnxiib  a  pcr- 
loratcd  bottam  board  C.  and  over 
a  grooved  pulley,   wai  threaded 

vertical  cord  called  iKe  Biiu^^e*  and 

upoa  a  bar  risidly  fijvd  near  the 
ceilinE  ol  the  wcavinff  room^   Tho 

tached  to  a  bar  ^ced  i:ear  the 


EQverocd  warp  threeda  to  be  lifted 

(he  loops  were  bunched  tosctber. 
19y  pulb'ng  at  a  bunch  of  Ux^  the 

^'"■J^SiS^^h'™""*"'  Iraifd'^hfraT^w'S'atev; 
Sintilar  buncha  of  tsoH  wen 
lonDed  for  every  ihed  requifvd  for  one  repHt  of  a  de»ign»  and 
they  mn  pulled  io  auccCHion  by  the  drav-<>oy,  while  Ifae  weaver 
attended  to  the  batten  and  picking. 

applied  to  the  hand-loon^  but  it  it  not  the  work  of  one  nuni  it 
repreaenti  the  eRort*  of  Kvcial  invcntore  whose  laboun  extended 

place*  ot  the  feiniple.  the  loopa,  the  pjlliryi  and  Ibc  dcaw-boy  of  the 


^^^^iaL 


if  perlor; 


through  the  mFdiiim  of  pcrfor 

the  pulle;^  bojt  previously 

1  about  the  ycaciSoi  J. 


Jacquard  aod  operated  it 
}ul.twa<  attached  to  the 
.  maniiuiUle  it.  In  17« 
chine  Bouchon  I  land  of 
placed  thia  machine  where 

Jacquard  vai  called  upoa 


to  CQTiccI  the  defect!  of  i  ccnain  loom  bcloiieinD  to  the  nali.  ... 
iraaf  which  he  aaaened  that  he  could  produce  the  draired  effeets 

about  1804  he  discarded  the  ainpleud  air  but  afcwindieiof  the 
vertical  neck  cordi;  he  placed  Falcou'a  appaialut  imnediaiely 
over  the  centre  of  the  loom  aod  tevenlly  attached  (he  upper  pgnionB 
of  (he  neck  cordt  to  the  hnoka;  all  of  which  VnucanKui  had  piryi- 
ously  done.  He  then  oMforaied  each  face  of  a  gundraniular  Icanic — 
uiedby  Falcon  ID  guide  the  cards  to  the  dnw.boy,  and  ai  nee  known 
U  the  cylinder — and  invented  meana  whereby  the  cylinder  could  be 


cylinder  by  pts>  thai  aicac 

the  other,  aiid  both  hajida  wea 
In  a  Jac<]uard  machine  th 


ould  opem 


'trcalSe' 


E — one  of  which  I)  ahnwn  enlaroed  and  detached  at  thi 
:ded  withaloopandatoil€dcye:th( 


oit,  TheVraipEhl  end 
It  upon  t^  piaccdir 


latcnl  goKiBent,  aad  «1l  bdkal  tprlnei,  a.  eneloaed 
Inpinge  upon  the  k»pa  of  the  needlea  with  ruflicienl  f o 


with  one  foot.   Thiatn 


upward  movenienl  given  (o  tbe  Erifle  would  lift  all  the 
thereby  lU  the  warn  ttarsadi.  Only  certain  hooka,  hoi 
be  lif  t«l  with  the  crilfe,  and  tbe  (election  ii  made  by  a  qi 
block  of  wood,  1,  called  a  cyliadec,  and  cardi  which  are  ] 
it.    Thua,  eKh  face  ol  Ihc  ^ndar  hai  a  pccfofatiDn  op 


the  h^ds  ll  a 
b^g  tilted  w 


Eroni  the  needlea  tli 


;£f;; 


Yf  special  machinery  ftwn  a  pail 
red  into  a  chain  arid  paaHC  ovi 


lsirpiilTpo*\'i 


but  with  a  new  conibination  of  lifted  thrrada  for  each  can 
Jacquard  may  contain  from  too  to  I300  hooka  and  needka 

hoola,  needln,  Bprlngi,  cards,  the  cyKnder  and  acveral  othc^  | 
machines  have  a[so  been  specially  denned  for  effeciidg  eeoB 
in  the  manufacture  of  ccrLain  fabrics;  Dut  aUhonKh  some  ot 
devices  are  used  in  different  sections  tri  (he  industry,  the  aln^' 
Jscmiard  remains  unchanBcd,  except  in  its  details,  which  have 
modilied  to  give  neater  cenainty  of  action  to  'h^  mn-Ana 
The  most  far-reaching  changes  are  diieolly  due 

lohn  and  William  Cmssley.  and  others,  devised 


Allied  Barlow, 


lower  loon  is 
reaving.  Althi 

-—'  ■"■ ■----('.  ^SieBy 


a 

in  a^iUble^ma'nnn  lor  rach  a  mac"iiS''w'aSa^I'£dc"liBe.  of 
SiDCkpon,  perceived  these  ahortcomingt,  and  concluded  that,  by 
divi^onof  labour,  weaving  could  be  brought  into  line  with,  tbe  then 
recently  invented,  if^nning  machinery.  He,  therefore,  let  binuelJ 
the  task  of  aolviiv  the  problemi  invcJved,  and  by  inventing  the 
beam  warper,  the  drevuns  dung  macbitie.  tbe  shuttle  tongue,  and 
tbe  un  cop,  he  enabled  ine  power  loom  to  become  a  factor  in  tbe 
lextue  indmtiy.  The  term  preparation  embraces  winding,  warptiw, 
siiinf,  Yorkthite  dreating,  drawins-in.  la^isting  and  occasionally 

f  wtn  nunq  ai  ail.    Cops  and  ring  apoola 

cy,  togeiber  with  weft*  bleached  or  dyed 
turated  condition,  requitr  winding  upon 
able  siiea.  Pirn  winders  difler  arcaily  is 
ioHly  are  fumifihed  with  conical  shapen. 
ps.  or  of  cone  rollera  mounted  upon  atuds. 
ed  to  Bt  innde  a  shaper.  u  dipped  over  ■ 
asied.  either  vertically  or  horiionully. 
sal  end  of  Ibe  srnndle  being  Rattened  tn 
1  a  wharvT  which  it  driven  ^om  ■  cenlcal 
lathed  to  a  rotating  pirn,  aiid  a  vibrMing 


IVrfl  ICiadHf.— Wrft  yami  in 


J!m.'»h™"c 


recede  liom  the  shapec  until  the  pi 

by  •teit™.  Co"p  wTiSers  are  chTefli 
they  coil  upon  bare  spindles.  Bv  this 
cu  be  pUad  in  •  ihiUilg  tbwi  wben  p 


tMCaiNBRVl 


WEAVING 


445 


_    yam  from  oops,  ring  tpoob 

or  Baaiu.  dthor  to  w«fpen,bobbinsor  cfieeaes  (see  Cotton-Spimning 
Machimbrv).  Machines  for  this  puipose  are  ot  two  kiticb,  which 
are  knowa  respectively  as  spindle  and  drum.  In  the  former  each 
bobbin  is  placed  upon  a  vertical  spindle  and  rotated  by  frictiooal 
contact;  a  yarn  guider  meanwhile  rises  and  falls  far  enough  to  lay 
the  threads  in  even  coils  between  the  bobbin  flanges.  In  the  latter 
each  bobbin,  or  tube,  is  laid  upon  a  rotating  drum  and  a  thread 
cuide  -moves  laterally  to  and  fro;  slowly  for  a  bobbioi  but  quickly 
lor  a  tube. 

Warping.  -The  number  of  longitudinal  threads  in  a  web  vary 
according  to  their  closeness  and  its  breadth.  It  is  the  function  of  a 
warper  to  provide  a  sufficient  number  of  parallel  tnrcads  for  a  web, 
all  of  equal  length,  and  to  retain  their  parallelism.  Warpers  are  of 
three  types,  via.  milL  beam  and  sectional.  ^ 

Mill  warping  is  the  <ddest  type  now  in  extensive  use.  A  mUl 
warper  has  a  creel  in  which  from  50  to  upwards  of  300  bobbins  or 
cheeses,  are  supported  horizontally  upon  pegs,  and  the  mill  has  a 
vertical  axis  which  carries  three  wheels,  upon  whose  rims  vertical 
staves  are.  fixed  about  1  ft.  apart  to  form  a  reel,  from  5  to  upwards 
of  TO  yds.  in  circumference.  The  threads  from  the  creel  are  riireaded 
in  succession  through  leasing  needles,  then  passed  in  groups  of  four 
to  twenty  threads  between  runners,  and,  finally,  fastened  by  a  peg 
to  the  mUl  staves.  The  needles  are  mounted  alternately  in  two 
frames  which  may  be  moved  up  inclined  planes }  one  to  elevate 
odd  threads,  the  other  even  ones,  and  both  separations  thus  formed 
are  retained  upon  separate  pegs;  this  is  the  lease  which  enables 
a  weaver  to  readily  nx  the  position  of  a  broken  thread.  As  the 
min  rotates  the  threads  form  a  tape  about  i  in.  wide,  and  the  leasing 
apparatus  slides  down  a  post  to  coil  the  threads  spirally  upon  the 
reel.  When^the  full  length  of  warp  has  been  made  the  mill  is  stopped, 
a  half  beer  lease  is  picked  by  hand  from  the  divisions  formed  by  the 
runners,  and  also  retained  upon  pegs.  The  mill  next  reverses  its 
direction  of  rotation,  and  as  the  leasing  apparatus  ascends  the 
threads  are  folded  back  upon  themselves.  Hence,  if  a  reel  is  to  yds. 
in  circumference,  and  200  threads  are  in  use  to  make  a  warp  600  yds. 
long,  and  containing  2000  threads,  the  reel  will  make  30  revolutions 
(fioo-i'TO—M)  also  10  reversals,  for  at  each  reversal  200  additional 
threads  will  be  added  (3000  +200  *■  10).  When  a  warp  is  complete, 
strinss  are  passed  throfi^h  the  leases,  and  it  is  coiled  into  a  ball, 
loosely  Unked  into  a  chain,  or  dropped  into  a  sheet.  If  a  mill  has 
its  axis  horizontal  the  leasing  apjjacatus  must  slide  horizontally. 

Winding  on  Frame. — After  a  ball  warp  has  been  bleached,  dyed 
or  sized,  the  half  beers  are  laid  amongst  the  teeth  of  a  coarse  comb 
to  open  out  the  threads  to  the  necessary  breadth,  in  which  condition 
they  are  coiled  upon  a  loom  beam. 

Beam  warping  uT  the  system  most  extensively  used  in  the  cotton 
trade.  The  creels  for  these  machines  have  an  average  capacity  of 
about  600  bobbins,  and  are  often  V-shaped  in  plan.  In  each  leg  of 
the  V  the  bobbins  are  arranged  in  tieia  of  16  to  ao,  and  row  behind 
row.  Tha  threads  are  drawn  separately  between  the  dents  of  an 
adjustable  reed,  then  under  and  over  a  series  of  rollers;  from  here 
they  an  dropped  amongst  the  teeth  of  an  adjustable  comb  and  led 
down  to  a  warpers  beam,  which  rests  upon  the  surface  of  a  drum. 
As  the  drum  rotates  the  threads  are  drawn  from  the  bobbins  and 
wrapped  in  even  coils  upon  the  beam.  On  most  of  these  machines 
roecnanism  is  attached  for  arresting  motion  on  the  fracture  of  a. 
thread,  and  also  for  accurately  measuring  and  recording  the  lengths 
of  warp  made.  When  full,  a  warpers  beam  holds  thrnids  of  roudi 
neater  length  than  are  needed  for  any  warjp,  but  they  are  insufficient 
in  number.  Thus:  If  500  threads  are  m  use,  and  warps  of  the 
above-named  particulan  are  required,  four  similar  beams  must  be 
filled  (aooo-f-^04)  and  the  threads  from  all  are  subsequently 
united.  The  chief  parts  of  a  beam  warper  may  be  used  as  a  substitute 
for  a  mill  warper,  provided  that  mechanism  be  employed  to  contract 
the  threads  to  the  form  of  a  loose  rope  and  coil  them  into  a  cylindrical 
ball,  which  will  be  subsequently  treated  as  a  mill  warp.  Or,  one  of 
these  warpers  may  be  furnished  with  parts  which,  when  the  threads 
are  roped,  links  tKem  loosely  into  a  chain. 

Stcticnal  warping  is  chiotty  employed  for  coloured  threads  and  its 
outstanding  features  consist  ta  contracting  the  threads  to  forn)  a 
ribbon  of  from  3  in.  to  I3  in.  wide.  This  ribbon  is  coiled  upon  a 
block  placed  between  flanges,  and  when  completed  u  set  aside  until 
a  suflncient  number  of  similar  sections  have  been  made;  after 
which  they  are  slipped  upon  a  shaft  and  by  endlong  pressure  con- 
verted into  a  compact  mass*  All  the  threads  are  then  collected  and 
transferred  in  the  form  of  a  sheet  to  a  loom  beam; each  section 
contributing  its  own  width  to  that  of  the  warp.  ^  Sectional  warps 
are  also  made  upon  horizontal  mills  by  superposing  the  coils  of  a 
ribboil  of  yarn  upon  a  portion  of  the  staves.  When  the  first  section 
is  formed  a  second  is  wound  against  it,  and  the  operadon  continued 
until  all  the  sections  have  been  made;  after  which  the  yarn  is  run 
Upon  a  loom  beam. 

Yorkshire  dressing  is  used  to  make  striped  warps  from  balled 
warps  which  have  been  dyed  in  d^erent  colours.  The  operation  is 
as  follows:  The  requisite  number  of  threads  of  any  colour  is  split 
from  a  uniformly  dyed  ball  and  set  aside  until  warps  01  the  remaining 
ooloure  have  been  similarly  treated.  The  split  sections  from  the 
several  balls  collectively  contain  as  many  threads  as  are  needed  for 
a  warp,  but  those  threads  have  still  to  be  placed  in  their  proper 


MBquenoe.  This  k  done  by  drawing  them  in  grouiis  of  two  or  four 
between  the  dents  of  a  reed  to  a  predetermined  cotDur  scheme,  then 
all  are  attached,  to  a  loom  beam  which  is  supported  in  a  frame.  The 
beam  is  rotated  by  stepped  cones  and  gearing,  and  winds  the  threads 
upon  itself.  But  in  order  to  hold  the  threads  taut  they  are  passed 
between  we^^hted  roUen  and  deflected  by  bars  arranged  ladder* 
wise;  in  passing  from  one  part  of  the  macnine  to  another  they  are 
gradually  opened  oat  to  the  width  of  the  beam. 

Sisine. — In  cases  where  single  yarns  are  made  from  short  fibrous 
materiau,  smooth  surfaces  are  obtained  by  laying  the  outstanding 
ends  of  fibres  upon  the  thread,  and  faetemng  the  fibres  together  to 
impart  sufficient  strength-  to  resist  the  strains  of  weaving^.  This  ia 
accomfdished  either  by  coating  a  thread  or  by  saturating  tt  with  an 
adhesive  paste.  In  hand-loom  days  the  paste  was  appliedby  brushes 
to  sucoeasive  stretches  of  warp  wmle  in  a  loom.  But  with  the  advent 
of  mechanical  weaving  it  was  found  necessary  to  size  a  warp  before 
placiQK  it  in  a  loom.  Two  systems  were  evolved,  the  one  invented 
by  Wiuiam  Raddiffe  sizes,  dries  and  beams  a  warp  in  one  operetion. 
the  yam  is  made  to  pass  in  the  form  of  a  sheet  between  a  pair  of 
rolloB,  the  lower  one  being  partly  immersed  in  warm  stae.  In 
rotating  this  roller  carries  upon  its  surface  a  film  of  size  which  if 
deposits  upon  the  threads,  while,  by  preasiire,  the  upper  roller 
distributes  the  size  evenly.  Brushes  acting  automatically  smooth 
down  the  loose -fibres  and  comfrfcte  the  distribution  of  size.  As  the 
yarn  advances  it  is  separated  by  reeds  and  lease  rods,  so  that  {a 
passing  over  steam  chests  and  tans  the  moisture  contained  in  the 
threads  may  be  quickly  evaporated.  This  machine  is  a  duplex  one, 
for  the  warpen  beams  are  divided  into  two  setsand  placed  at  opposite 
ends  of  the  machine.  Both  halves  receive  similar  treatment  as  they 
move  to  the  centre,  where  the  loom  beam  is  placed. 

The  Ball  Warp  5u«r.— While  efforts  were  beine  made  to  perfect 
Radcliffe'e  dressing  machine  a  system  of  sizing  ball  warps  was  being 
gradually  evolved  and  this  system  is  still  largely  employed.'  The 
machine  consists  of  a  long.trough,  inside  which  a  series  of  rollen  are 
fitted,  either  in  one  horizontal  plane  or  alternately  in  two  horizontal 
|:daiies;  but  over  the  front  end  of  the  trough  a  pair  of  squeezing 
rollers  are  mounted.  The  trough  contains  size,  which  is  maintained 
at  a  boiling  temperature  and  in  sufficient  quantity  to  submerge  the 
rollers.  Two  warps,  in  the  form  of  loose  tapn,  may  be  simultaneously 
led  over,  under  and  between  the  rollers.  As  the  warps  advance  the 
threads  become  saturated  with  size,,  and  the  squeezing  roUere  press 
out  all  but  a  predeternuned  percentage,  the  latter  being  regulated  by 
varying  the  pressure  of  the  upper  rolUr  upon  the  lower  one.  If  more 
size  be  reauired  than  can  be  put  into- the  threads  during  one  passage 
through  tne  machine,  they  may  be  similarly  treated  a  second  time, 
Thw  process  does  not  lay  all  the  loose  fibres,  but  the  threads  remain 
elastic.  After  sizing,-  the  warps  are  passed  backward  and  forward, 
and  over  and  under,  a  set  of  steam-heated  cylinden  by  which  the 
moisture  contained  in  the  threads  is  evaporated ;  they  are  next  either 
rebelled,  or  wound  upon  a  loom  beam. 

Slasher  5mmc.^— For  sizing  cotton  yarns  Raddiffe's  dressing 
machine  has  to  a  large  extent  been  displaced  by  the  slasher,  but  In 
some  branches  of  the  textile  indnstry  it  is  still  retained  under  various 
modifications.  In  a  slasher  the  threads  from  a  number  of  ararping 
beams  are  first  combined  into  one  sheet,  then  plunged  into  a  trougn 
filled  with  siae  which  is  kept  at  a  bailing  temperature  by  perforated 
steam  pipes;  and  next  squeezed  between  two  pain  of.  rollers  mounted 
in  the  trou^.  The  under  surfaces  of  the  sinn^  rollereare  in  the  size*, 
bat  the  upper  squeezing  rollen  are  covered  with  flannel  and  rest  by 
gravitation  upon  the  lower  ones.  On  leaving  the  size  trough  the 
sheet  of  yam  almost  encircles  two  steam-heated  cylinden  whose 
diametera  are  respectively  about  6  ft.  and  4  ft. ;  these  quickly  expd 
moisture  from  tM  yam,  but  00  much  heat  is  generated  that  fane 
have  to  be  employed  to  throw  cool  air  amongi^  the  threads.  The 
yam  is  next  measured,  passed  above  and  below  rods  which  sqiarate 
threads  that  have  been  fastened  together  by  size,  smeared  with  piece 
marks,  and  coiled  upon  a  loom  beam  by  means  <x  a  slipping  friction 
gear.  The  last-named  is  employed  so  that  the  surtaoe  meed  of 
winding  shall  not  be  affected  by  the  increasing  diagieter  of  toe  loom 
beam.  By  means  of  mechanism  which  greatly  reduces  the  velocities 
of  the  moving  parts,  much  necessary  labour  may  be  performed 
without  actuuly  stopping  the  machine:  this  relieves  the  ^m  of 
strain,  and  gives  better  sizing,  yet  slashed  warps  are  less  elastic  than 
dressed,  or  balled  siaed  ones,  and  they  lack  the  smoothness  of  dressed 
warps. 

Hank  siting  b  diiefly,  but  not  exdusivdy,  employed  for  bleached 
and  coloured  yams.  Machines  for  doing  this  work  consist  of  a  tank 
which  contains  siae,  flanged  revolving  rollen  and  two  hooks.  One 
hook  u.made  to  rotate  a  definite  number  of  times  in  one  direction, 
then  an  equal  nuniber  the  reverse  way;  the  other  has  a  weight 
suspended  from  its  outer  end  and  can  be  made  to  slide  in  and  out. 
Size  in  the  tank  is  kept  at  the  required  temperature  by  steam  pipes, 
and  "  doles  "  of  hanks  are  suspended  from  the  rollers  with  about 
one- third  their  length  immersed  m  size.  As  the  hanks  rotate  all  paru 
of  the  yam  enter  the  nzc,  and  when  sufficiently  treated  they  are 
removed  from  the  rollen  to  the  hooks  where  they  are  twisted  to 
wring  out  excess,  and  foroe  in  required  size.  If' sufficient  size  has 
not  been  added  by  one  treatment,  when  untwisted,  the  wrung-oot 
hanks  are  passed  to  a  similar  machine  containing  paste  of  greater 
density  than  the  first  thereto  be  again  treated;  if  necessary  thw  may 


446 


WEAVING 


(MACHINERY 


be  followed  by  a  third  passage.  On  the  completion  of  sinng  the 
hanks  are  removed  cither  to  a  drying  stove  or  a  diying  machine.  If 
lo  the  former,  they  are  suspended  from  fixed,  horizontal  poles  in  a 
specially  heated  and  ventilated  chamber.  If  to  the  latter,  loose 
poles  containing  hanks  are  dropped  into  recesses  in  endless  chains, 
and  slowly  earned  throueh  a  large,  heated  and  ventilated  box,  being 
partially  rotated  the  while.  On  reaching  the  front  of  the  box  they 
are  removed,  brushed  and  made  up  into  bundles.  After  which  the 
yam  is  wound,  warped  and  transferred  to  a  loom  beam. 

DrawiiU'itt,  or  aUeritit^  is  the  operation  of  pasmng  warp  threads 
through  the  eyes  of  a  shedding  harness,  in  a  sequence  determined 
by  the  nature  of  the  pattern  to  be  produced,  and  the  order  of  lifting 
the  several  parts.  It  is  effected  by  passing  a  hook  throueh  each 
harness  eye  in  succession,  and  each  time  a  thread  is  placed  in  the 
hook  by  an  attendant,  it  is  drawn  into  an  eye  by  the  withdrawal  of  the 
hook. 

7\vMltnf  or  homing  consists  in  twisting,  between  the  finger  and 
thumb,  the  ends  of  a  new  warp  separately  upon  those  of  an  old  one, 
the  remains  of  which  are  still  in  the  eyes  of  the  8heddin|;  harness. 
The  twistod  portions  adhere  sufficiently  to  permit  of  all  being  drawn 
through  the  eyes  nmultaneously. 

The  Power  Loom.— Little  is  known  of  the  attempts  made  before  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century  to  control  all  parts  of  a  kx>m  from  one 
centre,  but  it  is  certain  the  practical  outcome  was  inconsiderable. 
In  the  year  1661,  a  loom  was  set  up  in  Danzig,  for  which  a  claim  was 
made  tnat  it  could  weave  four  or  six  webs  at  a  time  without  human 
aid,  and  be  worked  night  and  day;  this  was  (nrobably  a  ribbon  loom. 
In  order  to  prevent  such  a  macninc  from  injuring  the  poor  people, 
the  authorities  in  Poland  suppressed  it,  ana  privately  strangled  or 
drowned  the  inventor.  M.  de  Gennes,  a  French  naval  officer,  in 
1678  inventnl  a  machine  whose  chief  features  consisted  in  controlling 
the  healds  by  cams,  the  batten  bycams  and  springs  and  the  shuttle 
by  a  carrier.  From  1678  to  1745  little  of  importance  appeara  to 
have  been  done  for  the  mechanical  weaving  of  broaddoth.  But  in 
the  last-named  year  M.  Vaucanson  constructed  a  very  ingenious,  self- 
acting  loom,  on  which  the.  forerunner  of  the  Jacquard  machine  was 
mouifted;  he  also  adopted  de  Gennes's  shuttle  carrier.  All  eariy 
attempts  to  employ  mechanical  motive  power  for  weaving  failed, 
largely  because  inventore  did  not  realize  that  success  could  only  be 
reached  through  revolution.  Mechanical  preparing  and  spinning 
machinery  had  first  to  be  Invented,  steam  was  needed  for  motive 
power,  and  the  Industry  required  reorganization,  which  included  the 
abolition  of  home  labour  and  the  introduction  of  the  factory  system. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  the  18th  century  it  was  generally 
believed  that,  on  the  expiry  of  Arkwr^ht's  patents,  so  many  spinning 
mills  would  be  erected  as  to  render  it  impossible  to  consume  at  home 
the  jrarns  thus  produced,  and  to  export  them  would  destroy  the 
weaving  industry.  Manjr  manufacturera  also  maintained  it  to  be 
impossiole  to  devise  machinery  which  would  bring  the  production  of 
cloth  up  to  that  of  yarn.  It  was  as  a  protest  against  the  last-named 
assertions  that  Dr  Edmund  Cartwright,  a  der^prman  of  the  church 
of  England,  turned  his  attention  to  mechanical  weaving.  More 
fortunate  than  his  predecessors,  he  attacked  the  problem  after  much 
Initial  work  had  been  done,  especially  that  relating  to  mechanical 
spinning  and  the  factonr  system,  for  without  these  no  power  loom' 
could  succeed.  In  1785  Dr  Cartwright  patented  his  first  power  loom, 
but  it  proved  to  be  valueless.  In  the  following  year,  however,  he 
patented  another  loom  which  has  served  as  the  modd  for  later  in- 
ventora  to  work  upon.  He  was  conscious  that  for  a  mechanically 
driven  loom  to  become  a  commercial  success,  either  one  person 
would  have  to  attend  several  machines,  or  each  machine  must  have 
a  greater  productive  capacity  than  one  manually  controlled.  The 
thought  and  ingenuity  bestowed  by  Dr  Cartwright  upon  the  realiza- 
tion  of  his  ideal  were  remarkable.  He  added  parts  which  no  loom, 
whether  worked  manually  or  mechanically,  nad  previously  been 
provided  with,  namely,  a  positive  let-off  motion,  warp  and  weft  stop 
motions,  and  sizing  the  warp  while  the  loom  was  in  action.  With  this 
machine  he  commenced,  at  Doncaster,  to  manufacture  fabrics,  and 
by  so  doing  discovered  many  of  its  shortcomings,  and  these  he 
attempted  to  remedy:  by  introducing  a  crank  and  eccentrical 
wheels  to  actuate  the  batten  differentially;  by  improving  the 
picking  mechanism:  by  a  device  for  stopping  tne  loom  when  a 
shuttle  failed  to  enter  a  shuttle  box;  by  preventing  a  shuttle  from 
rebounding  when  in  a  box ;  and  by  stretching  the  cloth  with  temples 
that  acted  automatically.  In  1792  Dr  Cartwright  obtained  his  last 
patent  for  weaving  machinery ;  this  provided  the  loom  with  multiple 
shuttle  boxes  for  weaving  checks  and  cross  stripes.  But  all  his  efforts 
were  unavailing:  it  became  apparent  that  no  mechanism,  however 
perfect,  could  succeed  so  long  as  warfM  continued  to  be  sized  while  a 
loom  was  stationary.  His  plans  for  sizing  them  while  a  loom  was  in 
operation,  and  also  before  being  placea  in  a  l*om,  both  failed. 
Still,  provided  continuity  of  action  could  be  attained,  the  position 
of  the  power  loom  was  assuted.  and  means  for  the  attainment  of  this 
end  were  supplied  in  1803,  by  William  Radcliffe,  and  his  assistant 
Thomas  Johnson,  by  their  inventions  of  the  beam  warper,  and  the 
dressing  sizing  machine. 

For  upwards  of  thirty  years  the  power  loom  was  worked  under 
numerous  difficultie;:  the  mechanism  was  imperfect,  as  were  also 
organization,  and  the  preparatory  processes.  Textile  workers  were 
unused  to  automatic  machinery,  and  many  who  had  been  accustomed 


to  labour  in  their  own  homes  refused  emt^oyment  in  milts,  owine  to 
dislike  of  the  factory  system  and  the  long  houn  of  toil  which  it 
entailed,  that  spinners  and  manufacturers  were  compelled  to  procure 
assistants  from  workhouses;  this  rendered  mill  life  more  distasteful 
than  it  otherwise  would  have  been  to  hand  spinners  and  weavers. 
Their  resentment  led  them  to  destroy  machinery,  to  bum  down  mills, 
to  ill-use  mill  workers  and  to  blame  the  power  loom. for  the  distress 
oocaaoned  by  war  and  political  disturbances.  Yet  improvements  in 
every  branch  of  the  textile  industry  followed  each  other  in  quick 
successions,  and  the  loom  slowly  assumed  its  present  shape.  By 
using  iron  instead  of  wood  in  its  construction,  and  centring  the  batten, 
or  slay,  below  instead  of  above  the  warp  line,  the  power  loom  became 
more  compact  than  the  hand-loom. 

Motion  is  communicated  to  all  the  working  parts  from  a  main 
shaft  A  (fig.  38),  upon  which  two  cranks  are  bent  to  cause  the  slay 
B  to  oedllate;  by  toothed  wheels  this  shaft»  drives  a  second  shaft,  C, 
at  half  its  own  speed.  For  plain  weaving  four  tappets  are  fixed  upon 
the  second  shaft,  two,  D,  for  moving  the  shuttle  to  and  fro.  and  two 
others,  E,  for  movine  the  healds,  L,  up  and  down  through  the 
medium  of  treadles  M,  M.  For  other  schemes  of  weaving  shedding 
tappets  are  more  numerous,  and  are  either  loosely  mounted  upon 
the  second  shaft,  or  fixed  upon  a  separate  one.    In  either  event 


Fig,  28.— Vertical  Section  of  a  Power  Loom. 

they  are  driven  by  additional  gearing,  for  the  revolutions  of  the 
tapfwts  to  those  of  the  crank  shaft  must  be  as  one  is  to  the  number 
of  pkks  in  the  repeat  of  the  pattern  to  be  woven.  Also,  when  two 
or  more  shuttles  are  driven  successively  from  the  same  side  of  a 
loom,  if  the  picking  tappets  rotate  with  the  second  shaft,  those 
tappets  must  be  free  to  sikle  axiatly  in  order  to  keep  one  out  of 
action  80  long  as  the  other  is  required  to  act.  The  warp  beam  F 
is  often  put  under  the  control  of  chains  instead  of  ropes,  as  used  in 
hand  looms,  and  the  chains  are  attached  to  adjustably  weighted 
levers,  G,  whereby  the  effectiveness  of  the  weights  may  be  varied 
at  pleasure.  In  the  manufacture  of  heavy  fabrics,  however,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  deliver  the  warp  by  positive  gearing,  which  is  dther 
connected,  or  otherwise,  to  the  taking-up  motion.  The  cloth  ia 
drawn  forward  regularly  as  it  is  manufactured  by  passing  it  over 
the  rough  surface  of  a  roller,  I,  and  imparting  to  the  roller  an  tnter> 
mittent  motion  each  time  a  pick  of  wdt  is  beaten  home.  This 
motion  is  derived  from  the  osdilating  slay,  and  is  communicated 
through  a  train  of  wheels.  The  loom  is  stopped  when  the  weft 
fails  by  a  fork-and-grid  stop  motion,  which  depends  for  its  action 
on  the  lightly  balanced  prongs  of  a  fork,  N.  These  pronss  come  in 
contact  with  the  weft,  between  the  selvage  of  the  web  and  the 
shuttle  box  each  time  the  shuttle  is  shot  to  the  side  at  which  the 
apparatus  is  fixed.  If  the  prongs  meet  no  thread  they  are  not 
depressed,  and  bdng  unmoved  a  connexion  is  formed  with  a  vibrating 
lever.  I;  the  latter  draws  the  fork  forward,  and  with  it  a  second 
lever  <j,  by  which  the  loom  is  stopped.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
pronffs  are  tilted,  the  loom  continues  in  action.  If  more  than  one 
shuttle  is  used  it  may  be  necessary  to  feel  for  each,  instead  of  altematt 
threads  of  weft.  In  such  cases  a  fork  is  placed  beneath  the  centre 
of  the  rloth  and  lifted  above  a  moving  shuttle*  if  in  falling  it 
meets  with  weft  it  is  arrested,  and  the  loom  continues  in  motion, 
but  if  the  weft  b  ateent  the  proirgs  fall  far  enough  beneath  th« 


MACHINERY) 


WEAVING 


447 


•hutOe  cBoe  for  ft  ttop  to  «et  ttpim  a  lever  ftnd  bridjK  die  loon  to  « 
•uad.  To  prevent  a  complete  wreck  oi  the  warp  it  is  ewentiai  to 
arreet  the  loom  when  a  louttle  fails  to  reach  ita"&ppointed  box. 
For  this  purpose  there  are  two  devices,  which  are  known  respectively 
as  fast  and  foose  reed  stop  motions.  The  first  was  invented  in  1796 
by  Robert  Miller,  and  its  action  depoMla  upon  the  shuttle,  as  it 
enters  a  box,  raising  two  blades,  K,  whkh  if  tef t  down  woukl  strike 
against  stops,  and  so  disengaae  the  drivinK  sear.  The  aecond  was 
invented  in  1834  by  W.  H.  Hornby  and  Wuliam  Kenworthy;  it  is 
an  appliance  for  liberating  the  kiwer  part  of  a  reed  when  a  shuttle 
remains  in  the  warp,  thus  rdieving  it,  for  tha  time  beinc,  of  its 
function  of  beating  up  the  weft.  On  the  release  of  a  reed  uom  the 
motion  of  the  slay,  a  dagger  stops  the  loom.  Temples  must  keep  a 
fabric  distended  to  the  breadth  of  the  warp  in  the  reed,  and  be  self- 
adjusting.  This  is  usually  accomplished  by  small  rollers  whose 
surfaces  are  covered  with  fin«,  closely  set  points.  The  rolkm  are 
placed  near  the  selvages  of  a  web  which  is  prevented  from  contiactiag 
widtbwiae  by  being  drawn  tightly  over  thepotnts. 

Looms  are  varied  in  details  to  suit  different  kinds  of  work,  but  as 
a  rulfe  fabrics  figured  with  small  patterns  are  provided  with  healds 
for  abedding  aa  at  L,  while  those  with  large  paHtems  are  provkled 
with  the  Jacquard  and  its  harness.  Hcakla  may  be  operated  either 
by  tappets  jor  dobbies,  but  the  xange  of  usefulness  in  tappets  is 

CneraUy  reached  with  twelve  shafts  of  healds  and  with  patterns 
ving  sixteen  picks  to  a  repeat;  where  they  are  unsuitable  for 
heald  shedding  a  dobby  is  used.  A  dobby  may  reaemble,  in  con- 
struction and  action,  a  small  Jacquard;  if  so  the  selection  of  healds 
that  rise  and  fall  for  any  pkk  is  made  by  cards.  In  other  types  of 
dobbies  the  selection  is  frequently  made  by  tags,  into  which  pegs 
are  inserted  to  pattern  in  the  teme  manner  that  cards  are  perforated. 
By  actins  upon  levers  the  pegs  bring  corresponding  hooks  into  contact 
with  osculating  griffe  ban,  and  these  lift  the  reciuired  heald  shafts. 
Such  machines  are  made  single  and  double  acting,  and  some  have 
rollers  in  place  of  pegs  to  form  a  pattern.  When  multiple  shuttles 
are  requited  for  power  looms  one  of  two  types  is  selected,  namely, 
drop  or  rotating  boxes;  the  former  are  applicable  to  either  light 
or  heavy  k>oms,  but  the  latter  are  chiefly  confined  to  l^ht  looms. 
As  previoudy  suted,  Robert  Kay  Invented  drop  boxes  in  1760. 
but  they  were  not  successfully  applied  to  the  power  loom  until 
1845,  when  Squire  D»[gle  patented  a  simple  device  for  operating 
them  automatically.  Since  his  time  many  other  methods  have  been 
introduced,  the  most  successful  of  these  being  operated  indirectly 
from  the  shedding  motion.  Revolving  boxea  were  patented  in  18J3 
by  Luke  Smith.  They  consist  in  mounticig  a  series  of  shuttles  in 
cnambers  formed  in  the  periphery  of  a  cylinder,  and  in  moving  the 
cylinder  far  enough,  in  each  direction,  to  bring  the  required  ahuttle 
in  line  with  the  picker. 

Automatic  Weft  Supply. — ^Many  devices  have  been  added  to  power 
looihs  with  a  view  to  reduce  stoppages,  amongst  which  those  for 
the  automatic  supply  of  weft  are  probably  tliie  most  important.. 
These  efforts  orijpnated  with  Charles  Paricer,  who.  in  1840^  obtained 
the  first  patent,  but  no  marked  success  was  acoieved  until  1894, 
when  J.  H.  Northrop  patented  a  cop  changer.  By  his  plan  a 
cylindrical  hopper,  placed  over  one  shuttle  box,  is  charged  with 
eops  or  pirns.  At  the  instant  fresh  weft  becomes  necessary  the 
lowest  cop  in  the  hopper  is  pressed  into  a  shuttle  from  above,  the 
spent  one  is  pressed  out  from  beneath,  and  the  new  weft  is  led  into 
tne  shuttle  eye,  while  the  loom  u  moving  at  its  normal  speed.  The 
mechanism  is  controlled  by  the  weft  fork,  or  by  a  ieder  which  acte 
when  only  a  predeterminea  quantity  of  weft  remains  inside  a  shuttle. 
Many  inventions  are  designed  to  eject  an  empty  shuttle  and  intro- 
duce a  full  one;  others  change  a  cop,  but  differ  m  construction  and 
action  from  the  Northrop,  yet,  at  the  time  of  writing,  they  have  not 
been  ao  successful  as  the  last-named<  By  relieving  a.  weaver  of  the 
labour  of  withdrawing,  filling,  threading  and  inserting  shuttles  it 
was  seen  that  a  large  increase  misht  M  made  in  the  number  of 
looms  allotted  to  one  weaver,  provided  suitable  mechanism  could  be 
devised  for  stopping  a  loom  on  the  failure  of  a  warp  thread. 

Warp  Stopping  Motions  date  from  1786,  when  Dr  Cartwrig^t 
suspended  an  independent  detector  from  each  warp  thread  until 
a  fracture  occurred,  at  which  time  a  detector  fell  into  the  path  of  a 
vibrator  and  the  loom  was  arrested.  The  demand  for  waip  stop 
motions  was, however,  small  until  automatic  weft.supi)ly  mechanisms 
were  adopted.  The  majority  of  those  devices  now  in  use  are  con- 
structed upon  Dr  Cartwright's  lines,  but  aome  are  so  attached  to 
wire  healds  that,  at  one  position  in  every  shed,  an  unbroken  thread 
supports  both  heald  and  detector  until  a  thread  falls,  when  a  de- 
tector ia  engaged  by  a  vibrator,  and  the  driving  mechanism  is  dis- 
located*  In  other  warp  stop  motions  pairs  of  threKls  are  crossed 
between  th«  lease  rods,  and  a  wire  passed  between  them  is  held 
forward  by  the  crossed  threads  until  one  breaks;  the  wire  then 
springslndc,  makes  contact  with  a  metal  bar,  and  electro-mechanical 
eoanexions  stop  the  kxmi. 

SmaXhinra  Looms,— A  loom,  whkh  was  for  a  long  period  operated 
manually,  but  to  which  mechankal  power  could  be  applied,  was 
brought  into  use  more  than  a  century  before  Dr  Cartwright's  in- 
vention. H  was  known  as  the  Dutch  engine  looiyi,  and  was  designed 
to  weave  from  eight  to  upwards  of  forty  tapes  or  ribbons  simultane- 
ously. This  machine  may  be  regarded  as  a  scries  of  looms  mounted 
m  one  frame,  each  having  a  complete  set  of  ports,  and  as  the  first 


pnKtical  effort  to  oonaeet  And  «oiitnl  all  the  motloiia  of  weaving 
from  one  centre.  The  place  and  date  of  its  InventioQ  are  uncertain ; 
but  it  is  known  that  in  some  diatrictt  its  use  was  entirely  prohibited. 
in  others  it  was  strictly  limited,  and  that  it  was  worked  m  Holland 
about  1690.  In  England  the  first  patient  was  obtained  by  lohn  Kay 
and  John  Sndl,  in  1745,  for  additions  which  enabled  it  to  be  worked 
by  hand,  by  water,  or  other  force,  and  in  1760  John  Snell  appears 
to  have  added  the  draw  harness  for  weaving  flowered  nbbona.  In 
1765  a  factory  in  Manchester  waa  filled  wiui  ribbon  looms  isiiich 
were  eidier  invented  by  M.  Vaucanson,  or  Kay  and  Snell,  but  one 
weaver  could  only  att<md  to  one  machine.  Wnen  worked  by  hand 
it  was  known  as  the  bar  loom,  because  the  weaver  oscillated  biy  hand 
a  boriaootal  bar  that  set  in  motion  all  parts  of  the  machine.  -The 
shuttles  and  reeds  are  actuated  from  the  ootten,  the  former  originally 
by  pegs,  but  later  by  a  rack  and  pinion  artangement.  which  in  acthm 
shoot  the  shuttles  simultaneously  across  a  web,  to  the  right  and  left 
ahemately,  each  into  the  place  vacated  by  ito  next  ndriilxMir. 
One  small  warp  beam  is  required  for  each  web,  but  tappets,  dobfaies, 
or  laoquards  are  available  for  dividing  the  threads,  where  differ- 
ently coloured  wefts  are  needed  in  one  web  the  shuttles  are  mounted 
in  tiers  and  all  raised  or  lowered  at  once  to  bring  the  proper  cotour 
in  line  with  the  shed. 

In  Swiod  Weaving  similar  shuttles  are  added  to  the  fiattens  of 
broad  looms  In  orcfcr  to  diaper  small  figure  effecto,  in  different 
colours  or  materials,  over  the  surface  of  bread  webs. 

PiU  Weamng, — ^Looma  for  weaving  piled  fabrics  differ  in  certain 
important  respecte  from  those  empk^ed  for  ordinary  weaving: 
they  are  also  made  to  differ  fiitmi  eadi  other  to  suit  the  type  of 
fabric  to  be  manufactured,  as,  for  example,  double  and  single,  plain 
and  figured,  textures. 

In  DoubU  PiU  Looms  the  special  features  are  those  that  control  thtf 
pile  threads,  and  those  that  sever  the  vertical  lines  of  pile.  Two 
ground  warps  are  requisite,  and  unless  they  are  kept  a  uniform 
distance  apart  the  piled  effecte  will  be  irregular.  For  plain  goods 
the  pile  threads  are  wound  upon  two  or  more  beams,  and,  as  they 
move  from  web  to  web,- cloth-covered  rollers  deliver  them  in  fixed 
lenfiths.  Meanwhile,  a  shuttle  passes  twice  in  succession  through 
each  ground  warp,  and  the  pile  threads  in  moving  above  or  beneath 
the  wefts  are  bound  securely.  Both  fabrics  are  furnished  with 
takiiig'-uf>  roHcrs  which  draw  the  pieces  apart  and  so  stretch  the 
uniting  pile  in  front  of  a  knife,  which  severs  it,  thus  formii^  two 
pieces  at  once.  A  knife  may  consist  of  a  short  blade  that  merely 
moves  to  and  fro  across  the  webs,  or  of  a  diaJc  mounted  upon  a 
spindle,  whkh,  in  moving  from  ode  to  nde,  revolves:  in  either 
case  it.  is  automatically  sharpened.  But  if  a  knife  is  longer  than  the 
breadth  cA  a  fabric  it  receives  only  a  slight  lateral  movement,  and 
must  be  periodically  removed  for  sharpening.  In  plain  and  printed 
goods  healds  control  all  the  warps;  but  in  figured  goods,  other  tluin 
tiioee  made  from  printed  warps,  a  Jaoquardis  needed  to  lift,  axMl  a 
creel  to  hold,  the  pile  tiireads. 

,  Shtglo  Pile  Looms, — ^The  chief  feature  which  renders  most  ringle 
pile  looms  dissimilar  from  others,  is  the  mechanism  by  which  wires 
are  woven  upoh,  a^d  withdrawn  automatically  from,  a  ground 
texture;  Wires  are  of  two  kinds,  namely,  without  and  with  knives; 
the  former,  being  flattened  and  somewhat  pointed,  are  woven  above 
the  weft  of  a  ground  texture,  but  beneath  the  pile,  hence,  by  with- 
drawing them,  looped  pile  js  formed.  A  wire  terminating  in  a  knife 
with  a  doping  blade,  on  being  withdrawp.  cuts  the  pile  and  produces 
a  bnish-hke  suiface<  The  mechanism  for  operating  the  wires  is 
placed  at  one  end^of  a  loom  and  conrists  of  an  arm  which  moves  in 
and  out;  at  each  inward  movement  a  wire  is  inserted,  and  at  each 
outward  movement  one  is  withdrawn.  In  weaving  tttpitstry  carpets, 
and  certain  other  fabrics,  a  wire  and  a  shuttle  move  maultaneously, 
but  a  shuttle  passes  through  the  ground  warp,  a'hU^  a  wfae  passes 
beneath  the  pile.  After  several  wires  have  been  woven  upon  the 
ground  texture  the  one  first  inserted  Is  withdrawn  by  the  vibrating 
arm,  and  at  the  next  inward  movement  the  same  wire  enters  the 
warp  near  the  reed,  where  it  is  beaten  up  with  the  weft,  and,  from 
this  point,  the  operation  is  continuous.  Tapestry  carpets  require 
three  warps,  one  for  the  ground  texture,  a  second,  or  stuflBng  warp, 
to  give  bulk  and  elastiaty  to  the  tread,  and  a  third  to  form  the 
pile.  The  last  named  b  printed  upon  a  large  drum,  thread  by 
thread  to  the  colour  scheme  of  the  design,  then,  when  the  colours 
have  been  fi^wd,  and  the  threads  accurately  placed,  they  are  wound 
upon  a  beam,  and  all  the  warps  are  operated  by  healds.  For  figured 
velvets,  and  Brussels  and  Wilton  carpets,  the  pile  warp  beam  is 
replaced  1^  a  creel,  in  order  that  each  thread  of  pile  may  be  wound 
upon  a  boSbin  and  separately  tensioncd.  This  is  essential,  because, 
in  the  weaving  of  a  design,  it  is  probable  that  no  two  threads  of 
pile  will  be  required  in  eoual  lengths.  Creels  are  made  in  sections 
called  frames,  each  of  which  usually  carries  as  many  bobbins  as 
there  are  loops  of  pile  acrosa  a  web,  and  the  number  of  sections 
equal  the  number  of  colours.  In  weaving  these  fabrics  healds  are 
used  to  govern  the  ground  warp*  but  a  Jacquard  is  needed  for  the 
pile.  It  must  form  two  sheds,  the  lower  one  to  receive  a  shuttle, 
the  u))per  one  to  make  a  selection  of  threads  beneath  isiiich  the  wire 
is  to  pass. 

Terry  Loomr.— Looms  for  weaving  bcled  textures,  of  the  Turkish 
towel  type,  have  the  reed  placed  under  the  control  of  parts  that 
prevent  it  from  advancing  its  full  distance  for  two  picks  out  of  every 


t+» 


WEAVING 


Mfia  Hat  mfuttt  ant  Unc  a(  iaopt  Cniia  anadis.  Ac  luch  linci 
tlv  vcft  k  DDt  b«trD  hojiLp.  bui  ■  bmad  cnck  ii  Imined.  So  toon 
il  tlw«<3  tua  moves  thro iMtb  its  iHmDd  ipue  three  piclu  o4  wcfl 

put  of  the  ^l«  to  loop  Ljpvaid  the  renuindcr  dovanvd.     Tbe 
Wfwum  m  Avulable  loi  plaia  and  ItEurtd  dfcciL 
Gaisir  r«x(iiw  ut  uroveii  in  Iwms  bavint  ■  moditol  ibeddin^ 


a  KTUS  of  neediH  fixed  upright  in  lalha,  and 
IH  &  impve  cut  ui  IbFclmy,  in  front  cj  thr  nvrl.    Kuli  nMdlv 
a  tlimd  which  doe*  not  pu>  tbnKigh 
[helath««n.endloiic  movcinrnt  of  vaTyii 
cHet  for  eadi  pick,  tbdr  (hroda  are  Jud 


(T?W.  F.) 


It  for  ages  tbe 

or  figured  teMilea, 
wbeltacT  ol  fibia 
or  of  spun  tbieads, 
has  be«i  ptmcticaUy 
univcTul*  whiUt 
Ibe  essential  pobls 

have  b«a  almost 
uaifora  in  diusc- 
ter.  Ao  «uty  ai*cc 
in  ita development, 

to   tbat   yibeo   ibe 

spiniiiDg  of  Ihrtadi 

^had  been  [awated, 

is    KpicMntcd    bj 

(see  fig.  19)  UMd  by 
I   a  native  of  Suawak 

"  .•-..^'  i^'i. — r~^7~~r~zr~  .^  ^  '"  ""^  ■  '"'"i* 

«23liiir"  ■'  '  "  »™'*"  •*  with      liaedt      of 

Fio.  29.— Loom  frora  Sarairat.  grast     A»  iriU  to 

Ken,  tbe  shieda  of 

lor  the  waip  are  divided  into  groups  by  a  flat  sword-shapcd 

'"     ■     jfoMa).     Tie 


'ing  a  weft  of  gnisa  in  between 


well  into  the  waip;  this  method  of  pr 
,  usitatly  employed  by  Egyptian  and  Ct 
a  teilUea  of  beautiful  quality.     Fig.  ji 


compresses 


Fib.  }a.~Indian  Hill  TribnRun'i  tj»m. 
Hin  tribesman  maidng  with  spin  tbteids;  but  here  ire  Gtid 
the  loom  fitted  with  nidcty  instructed  hcadles,  by  which  the 
weaver  lilu  and  lowers  alicmaie  tinks  of  witp  ihieads  10  tbu 
he  may  throw  hia  ahultk^airied  wdt  acTow  and  between  Ihem. 
Beiida  tbe  bcidlea  there  ia  a  hanging  reed  or  comb,  and  between 


lARCHAEOLOCy  AND  iWt 

the  reeib  of  It  tbe  waip  threadi  are  pasted  and  tutentd  to  a 
roller  or  cylinder.  After  ibrawing  his  shuttle  once  or  twice 
backwards  and  forwards,  the  weaver  pulls  the  comb  towinli 
himself,  thereby  prcuifif  hia  weft  and  waip  together,  thu making 
the  textile  which  he  g 
gradually 

roller.   Thisadi 


«  of  the 


lievat  Loom,  fmn  a  Cut 


in  main  principles 
medieval  loom  of 


then      weaving      Into  ■ 

them  coloured  shuttle  B 

or  weft  ihreada,  simple  I 

textiles     with     stripes  M 

and  chequer  patterns     F 

could    be,    and    were,  by  ju.v  nu-—-,     n.^mt  ."  -^  — 

produced;  but  tettiles  **"""''■ 

of    comptex    poitertu    and    leituiei    necessitated    the   molt 

complicated    qqunius    that    belongs    to    ■    later    Mage   b 

the   evolution    of   the   loom.      Fig,    31    is   from    a    Chinnt 

drawing.  iUustratiog  the  drsciiption  ^ven  in  a  Chinese  book 

publltheil  in  iiio  on  the  ait  of  weaving  inliicate  designs. 

The  traditioni  and  records  of  such  figured  weavings  are  far 

older  than  the  dale  of  this  book.    As  spun  sUien  threads  were 

brought  into  use,  so  tbe  development  ol  looms  with  increaung 

numbcTs  of  headles  and  other  mechanical  fadliiies  lot  this 

sort  of  weaving  seeing  to  have  started.    But  as  far  back  as  rf90 

B.C.  the  Chinese  were  the  only  cultivator  of  silk,'  the  deUocy 

and  fineness  of  which  must  have  postulated  possibHitLes  id 


the  Chioftt  with  being  tb   _ _... 

figured  silks,  which  in  course  ol  time  other  natnns  (acquamtcil 
only  with  wool  and  flax  teUilcs)  >aw  with  wonder.  At  tin 
compuatively  modem  period  ol  joe  b.c,  Chinese  dexterity  in 
fine-figured  weaving  had  become  matured  and  was  apparently  in 
advance  of  any  other  cl'idwhcre.  Designswercbctngtrovenby  lb« 
C:hineic  of  the  earlier  Han  Dynasty  ao6  nc  as  elabonU  tInM 
■  E.  PariKt,  f/uletri  iilauru  (Parii.  1U1). 


ARCHAEOLOGY  AND  ABT]  WEA 

1*  thote  «i  tba  pRHnl  day,  vith  dngont.  phaaitrt,  mystkat 
Uid  lonni,  Bowen  and  fniiu.'  AE  tlui  lime  evtn  Egypt, 
Asaytu  or  Babylonii,  CiRa  sod  Roiik,  seem  to  luvi  btcn  only 
kai-Ding  of  lit  fact  that  thne  Has  luch  a  material  as  oik.* 
Thcic  shuHle-WHVing  bad  beta  and  was  then  conmned  wilb 
ipuD  wool  tad  an  and  pouibly  some  cotton,  whilst  the  oina- 
Dientatian  of  Iheii  teitila,  althougb  sparkling  on  ociasion  wilb 
golden  threads,  was  done  ipparently  not  by  shuttle-weaving  but 
by  either  cmbroiday  or  a  sort  at  compromise  between  darning 
and  weaving  (ram  which  tapestry  weaving  descended  (see 
Tapesikv).  The  range  of  Iheir  colours  was  limiled,  reds,  purples 
and  yellowi  being  the  chief;  and  Ibeif  rfiuttle-wiaving  was 
principally  concemed  with  plus  stuffs,  lod  hi  a  much  smaltec 
degiee  with  striped,  spotted  and  chequered  fabrics.  Rcnuins 
of  these,  wliethn  made  by  Egyptians  thousands  of  yeats  b^., 
by  Scandinavians  of  the  early  Branze  Age,  by  lake  dwellers, 
by  Aitect  or  Peruvians  long  before  the  Spjnish  ConquesI, 
display  tittle  ii  any  technical  diScrence  when  compaml  with 
those  woven  by  nomads  m  Asia,  bll  tribes  m  India  and  natives 


n  Central  Afric 


lof  s 


or  very  simple  erossuig  forms,  still  this  principle  ol 

IE  I  prominent  factor  in  more  intricate  designs  which  aresnultle' 

woven  in  bioad  looms  and  lengths  ol  stuS. 

Tbt  woM'a  apperent  indcblednea  to  the  Chinese  (or  knawledie 
of  fiiuTcd  shuttle-wcavinc  k«da  to  some  coiuideAiion  of  (heir  parTy 
eveflaiid  iBnimeTO  wacwards.  About  lOO  B,c.  during  the  Hen 
Dynany  ChineM  mde  had  eitendFd  beyond  inner  Ana  to  the 
fimlinei  of  the  GraecCKFtanhraD  em^re,  then  at  its  renith,  aod  the 
protecdon  M  the  route  by  which  the  Serei 

ifl  (uUy  recogniRd  as ""     ' 

emperor  oJ  China 


■.  _Seven' 


waBTioc  ot  RulTi  nth 
hitherto  obtained  by  the 
ducad  detailB  taken  not 
Kutptured,  embroideied  i 

liirAcd  back  (righli 


emperor  oJ  Chjna  lent 

liidr>^cythiaiis{    and  i-,^ — „ .„ 

..rot  as  Bactria  (adjaoent  to  the  GnecO'Parihia 
kuwiiw  traders,  and  imoniK  other  tUngi  undei 
jation  ol  silk.    Cbineie  wavuifs  had  for  some  tin 


UH-iSilJi 


by  the  Parthian  acXDunra  of  the  terion  ct 

EaHy  in  the  5rd  century  j^.n.  Heliogabalusls  reputed  to  have  been 
nofust  the  fint  ol  the  Roman  emperors  to  wear  gajoitTiCB  entirFlv 
silk  (hobsericum),  which,  if  figured  (as  is  nor  unlikely),  were 


•S-S!.^ 


Mike  fieiee  Parthian 


al  back  on 


„ land  putEing  to  lligbl  wildarLJirials  whom  be  puriuei  " — 

a  d«crip[kni  quite  apprDpriatc  iD.iuch  silk  weaving  as  that  in  H^  ^ 
A  number  of  kindred  pieces  have  been  recovered  of  late  years  trom 
Egyptian  burial-places  of  the  Roman  period.  The  Pcnians  ol  ike 
Sajuanian  d^-ndely  [yd  to  7th  ccnlury]  traded  in  eilki  with  Roniana 
and  Bysanlines ;  Krng  Cbosroes  (about  STo)  encouraged  tbe  trade, 
and  ornamental  weaving  seems  to  have  been  an  industry  o(  some 
standing  at  Bagdad  aru  other  towns  north,  cast  and  south,  r-i. 
Hanudan,  Kaivin  Kaihan,  Veid  Pssepolis.  Sa.  To  the  nonh- 
wac  o(  Persia  and  north  of  ^ria  lay  the  Byaantine  region  of  Anatolia 

oentury,  tbe  country  highly  cultivated  and  prosperous, ^and  justice 


<See  Ckr'niH  Art,  by  Stephen  W.  Buihell,  C.M.G.,  B.Sc,  M.C 
fl.xindoa.  I906>,  voL  iL  ILH; 

■  Aristotle  deecriba  the  ulk-worm  and  its  ccxmn.  Virgil-Martii 
and  late  Roman  wiitera  (including  Pliny)  throw  icarcely  more  ligh 
Upon  tbe  use  of  silken  stuSa  than  ibat  they  were  of  rarity  am 
greatly  prized  by  opulem  (bjmuia    Piopstius  (iQ  b.c.)  writes  c 

ulkenganriFnts  of  varied  liuuF."  and  of  Cynthia  that  "  perekanc 


in  Arabian  Silk." 


nfUiiiv 


/,  Sitjits  in  Iki  Biaory  and  A 


Between  the  m  and  6th  < 

aod  IIS  value  in  fine  weavini 

Creek  and  RomM"iMe  inC 


mtuties  A.D.,  then,  knowMte  of 
was  spreading  ittcK,  nor  oiuy  in 

lenced  Ilie'worlB^f 'coiSs''or " 


Fig.  33.— Syrian  or  Persian  Silk  Weaving  of  the  jth  Century, 
nativei  who  maintsinrd  4^  Egyptian  traditions  in  tecbaical  handt 
crafta    Of  peculiar  interest  in  this  conneidon  are  fragments  d  fiajt 
{yellow  an^brownj  woven  with  a  com^paiaiively  elaborate  tcxturv* 

ol  Roman  pavement  designs  (yd  century  u^  earlier),  the  basis  o( 
which  is  iDundels  linked  together.    StuS*  in  which  the  style  of 


Flo.  J4.— Syrian  and  Coptic  Flai  Weaving  of  the  5th  «  «fc 

attems,  though  coraparativefy  simple,  is  rather  more  Oriental,  U 
f  Has  and  woo],  and  the  official  robes  oC  Roman  consuls  seem  t 


•  In  jfio  by  ofder  ol  the  emperors  Valens  and  ValentbiMn  the 
jaldng  of  lemles  in  whichjold  and  silken  threads  wer»  inBoduted 

oriUh  lib.  X  tit  it,  lei  1).     In  the  5th  century  the  weaving  ol 
itknt  tunica  and  mantles  was  prohibited  (Codea  ■TheodcMsiis,  Mfc  m. 


WEAVING 


tARCHAEOUXJY  AND  ART 


>r  Alefvidria  or  olher  tcHm  hi  Lower 


r  toma  la  Lower  EtyM  u  wdl  u  tn  Syria,    fiyuncbc  Myks,  ihouili  oae 
K  devflapnicnt  al  limiUr  tttaving  ippcum  ta     (Moiiiih  ud  SanctDicJ  wea 


Fio.  3S.--Syriui  or  AnMoliin  91k  Waving  of  the  SUi  CEnluiy. 


wttb  Suiuon  ok]  the  Lior 


ch  u  have  been 
Kutdintheiovictor 
dUBolofv  froni  the 
— ^liviaa  of  tombe  and 
buriaJ  -  plam.      The 


recu  were  occuionally  intrDduced  into  I 
Tth  ud  tb*  tjth  cenluria  Byniitlne  i 
Ion,  uid  it  n  difficult  il  i»1  irnpcwblt 
WtMCa  time  of  Bama-Byaxaiac.  Pen 


P  Bnndly  making,  the 
i<<.c.  Imtn  about  the 
if  4ili  Ui  llw  7th  RDEuty) 

|j  Fenian     (Sauaiuanj 
poisjbly  AtfxandriaD 


>  Thk  virtually  >»  the  it 


f  dciign,  and  vor  produced  in  the  nuth  of  Spain  and  in  Sjdly 

F>I-  SS,  •"""  a  piece  o(  tarenict  witli  rmeateil  panlM  taia  of 
amBia  and  bom  (or  gladiatan?),  ii  prnbiblr  jtb-ccMury  Syrian  « 


el  Ibc  Chapel  of  St  U 


aaaEOLoait  and  ax.-ii 


■BJ  Sancenlc  M]f1a  o(  textile  panammmsd!  iml  I 


WEAVING 


(ARCHAfX>LOCY  AND  AKT 

seiibly  WBippUaUe  to  fluff  bncwlH.  Cuwmm 

tamUt.  riaai  tlie  ChiiwK  X^jb— also  fannde} 


Fic 

the  art  of  oniamenlal  v*avinr  in  tluB  vlyle  ioon  tJLandfd  into  tbx 
nuiTiIandn  and  fmm  Apulia  a  bifhop  of  5t  Evnul  in  Nonundy  ia 
mentioned  ai  having  obiaincd  a  numher  of  lillren  foods  in  ttw  121I1 
ceniunr.  Fiwn  the  ijth  centuiy  oninudi  Lwxa.  FkitcKX.  Milan, 
Genoa  and  Venice  b«:ame  impottant  centrafli  uiing  not  only  im- 
ported ailk,  but  also  Hucb  as  was  betnf  tbea  cultivated  [n  Ita^,  for 
(ericulture  had  become  an  Italian  indosHy  eariy  in  ibe'IJIh  century. 
Wandering  Saracenic  and  Byuntioe  weavetm  even  Wore  that  lime 
had  atraynl  or  been  talten  10  work  at  place*  In  Germany,  France  and 
firiiain,  but  (he  output  of  their  productiona  in  northern  countries 
was  atmofet  inlinite5imnl  aa  compared  with  tiiat  of  the  Jar  greater 

to  be  reaped  centuriea  later  oy  these  more  oorthcrly  Euiopcan 

To  the  influence  of  theae  earlv  sporadic  wsnnga  n  ieem  to  trace 
a  diatinctive  class  of  work,  which  was  done  by  inmatea  of  monasteriea 
and  convent!  as  well  as  by  devout  ladka.  In  Uttle  looms,  for  use  as 
•Tola,  maniples,  oTphreys  and  umilar  namir  bands.  A  rhyming 
chronicler  of  the  iiili  «ntuty  paraphrases  the  older  mord  by  Egin- 
hard  of  the  sidll  of  Charleougnc'a  daughters  in  sillc  weaving,  ouvier 
en  SDic  en  taalieles  "  or  amall  foom^    The  illustraliDna  in  hg.  39 

S've  varieties  of  tfcisclasa  of  •mtk  betneen  the  Tthiad  15th  cmniriei. 
r  which  Coloffiie  especially  aeeiris  to  have  becomfl  umous  in  the 
15th  century.  Venice  alao  made  worlt  of  coneapoiidlnc  oharvt^: 
and  tlie  designs  wereevidentlyfunnslwd  br Of  diiectly  adapted  froB 
the  compositions  of  such  artists  as  tfaoae  who  produced  the  notable 
Cemian  and  Venetian  voodculi  ol  the  ijlh  ccntuty  (Sf,  tfi)- 


t — Persian.   Syrian  i 


irith  ti^-n 


leitiles,  but  the  ewci  technical  m 

now  r^rded  as  a  sprcul  r^m  of  te 
depends  upon  contraatiD|  sheens  in 
of  silk  orlinen.  got  Its  name  from  1 
as  BemleUn  comes  fmm  Baldak.  > 
apparently  somewhat  earlier  word  ci 


I  of  gold,  which  quite  uanicended 
I  attalic  chKhs  of  the  aily  Roman 

imilt,  so  called  because  the  wefi 
iih  thread  erf  the  warp;  iomjii*. 

te  snifac*  of  the  stofl,  whether 


■  Sec  Jiwkisctaf,  Ac  by  Fraacniua  hIicM.  L  gj-M- 


Part  ot  (Jrphrey  will 
the  Virgin  and  ChiH(SieM 
weaving,  I4ij»i450). 

Kxncsbs.    Velvet  (Italian  ■eOnlf-'ahi 


arj,; 


MCHABOLOGY  AND  AETJ  WEAVING 

HitkBon  ud  Uacbtct  tatflx.    Fnquoitly  out  imeti  mitk  od-*     '"- 

pluuei  ludl  u  "  Bill  al  Biydn  "  (Brugo),  "  lilk  doim  "  [Im 
Dmwck).  "  >becti  of  nyncm  "  (RlKinuJ,  and  "  [uKhin  in  Apnilo 
(Nipla  fuxkn).  "^ 

Mviy  of  the  jDttfDjiig  jtuff*  irv  identifiable  by  textures  pecafiv  I 


than ;  Elila  la.  bowcvcr,  not  ao  u  ngarda  (beir ' 
'"  -■■ e  [requHiilir  inierrhuifisl,  the    - 


■ppeuinf  la  taliii  liimaih,  vrivcu  and  bcoads.  Thii  a  particu 
UAy  IbE  cue  wiili  ijth-  and  I4th<aitii[y  lulian  ituffa.  In  Ih 
pattern  el  that,  u  (mviouilr  Hiaated.  an  itra«  iiacei  id  Sm 
cenic  and  Bytantins  nwtiva,  inlerniingled  with  badtea.  hcnMi 
devicetr  human  finirHtUEla,  Eakcns,  boundi.  ikma,  harb,  boardi 
Itopardi)  raya  cl  Ji^htp  Pmancflque  pine  a>ne  and  cloud  tonot,  an 
cvtn  Chinoe  mynical  binb,  lyin  metrical  ly  dTstribuIed,  Hitbou 
Itamlnca.  u  a  ruk,  though  daboriCkine  of  the  ogival  liam?  dt  achon 

made  in  the  main  by  Lucchne  veavcn,  appear  to  have  been  trade 


eUevhcre.  ag  in  France  and  Flanden,  dur 
Ncvenhelai  tbe  northern  parta  et  Italy  wei 
producing  fine  typca  of  pattenied  teaijla  ui 


Fig.  41.— Damuk  and   Sncade  Silk  Fabiic     Italian  mum 

fictuce  Hi  the  isih  cmluiy. 

European  courti  and  noblfa:  and  if  Ihr  ait  leriouity  dwindled  Ii 

tbe  town  of  Luoa.  il  Itaiiriihtd  conEpiruouilv.  froiB  Ibe  end  ol  Ih 

Bologna,  Genoa,  riormci  anS  Milan.  Then^  was  notllino  simflai 
to  compete  with  It  in  Ffann,  Germany  or  Eneland.  The  idenlifica 
lion  of  il4  si^ndid  varictie*  ia  made  pouiLle  upon  relerring  Ic 
conleniporary  paintingK  by  Orcagna,  Cnwili,  Spincllo  Aielino  am 
later  Italian  masUn.  u  well  ai  to  IhoK  of  the  Flemish  School 
CbcTHt  Daiid,  Mabtut,  «c 

Of  •  ipecially  diMiocI  clau,  very  dignilied  hi  eRcct,  aie  patterni 
of  the  isth  century  based  upon  the  itpctllion  ol  conventiona 
paitaBpnally  constcucted  leaf  panels,  clearly  defined  in  outline,  ocl 

leavB  or  bloujma;  ihough  they  ven  moTC  richly  developed  it 

CauM  wtxe  fained,  thii  type  of  dcHoa  ii  also  woven  in  less  costlj 

kind  ia^ven  in  6g.  4J.  Repeated  lan^  leaf  fthapeA  can  jurt  tx 
detocted^in  it,  but  more  remarkable  are  the  buncbei  of  radiatins 


n  bauonal  IielUunt',  are  leafy  barm,  sir 
itei  and  other  daintily  depicted  plant  f< 

lie:  and  after'the  opening  ol  the  n 


into  many  of  the  Italian  pattema.  In  aome  of  them,  bowrwr,  an 
Ottoman  or  Anatolian  feefing  l>  appannl.  at  in  fig.  4J  fmm  ■  ifgfired 
■ilk  which  Ii  coniidered  10  have  been  made  in  Venice.  The  chlined 
doss  and  hirdi  in  this  dedgn  lecall  tbe  talher  more  formal  ones  in 
Locchetc  patterns  of  a  hundred  artd  fifrv  r«arm'earller.  wberaas  Iha 
ku(thy  acmtcd  leavet  and  doatated  Bower  Sevico  charged  with 


n  le[i  Frai 


reaJinic,  Sont  puKnu  wu  widnpmd.    Sou  iCler 
B_of  Ibt  Edki  d  Nants.  In  aiiwqueiin  o(  otilch 

mixed  nutvrUi* 

tMcane  ocnolia] 
JtalfieraiTiii 


Yorkihir 


f   at  SpJta 
I   ChMhlre,  _  _. 

Norfolk   and  chcwihtc 

Enatand,  as  wrll  » 

.   ..    3crniaBy  at  CitfeM, 

;  ElbnfcM,  fianDcn   and 

Wnstn. 
\       EoliRty  (fininn  Inn 


Fio-ft—I 
CpldTfirEad 


(1447- '  490}. 


fiom  paiaciagi  by  T^n 
LorcAicIto     o[      SiRU 


SFc    In  Ldonafdo  da     

, _  .. ,r_.,  .._     w  LouvR,  Ibe  bordtT  nf  Ibe 

lableclulh  ia  irtry  like  nuny  euniplH  o(  Ihil  r '  — ■'-  ■-  -"■- 

Vicuna  and  Albert  MuKum.  Soulh  Keniii 


KeiuinKIon.     Their  di' 

Yt1u1.11  luccYidcnldcrivationBof  dwe 
tw  and  LimhcK  lilka  and  brocades.    I 


briy  with  Perugia. 


lARCHAEOLOCY  a: 

y,  work  of  siuE 


it  was  ligliter  and  RuKr  in  toduic  and  ol 


Fic.  46. — luRaaSilk  Daimkor  Llnipas  of  late  iMh  CHIurjr, 

n'itb  pitiern  of  npeaud  Jeafy  Iocsl 
ilh  ird  or  yellow  lilk,  and  snbtraduy  was  sonKtimes  added  10  (bs 

The  most  Important  and  ptdbabty  t'lo  best  known  class  el  liter 
'rumentalljDonwnviiifi*  that  of  damask  household  napery»vhicb» 
I  a  rrfleclion  oC  saib  danuBk,  was  developed  in.  the  nax^gFowina 
•^nnt  of  Saiony,  Flandcn  and  Nudh  Fiance,  duiioa  the  lale  inE 
Lfty  l60t  century;  it  *aa  iben  me  and  ncquljed  for  use  oy 

.1. 1..1  The  nyle  of  desgn  in  the  better  of  the  Did 

kinihip  with  that  of  bold  istb-  and  i6(h' 


schools.    To* 


Fic,  4J.— Italian  Silk  Damask  or  Lampu.  si 


..,   je  Fkmithoi  . 

evieni  these  damaik  figure  subjects  rei. 

Cologne  and  Venetian  oiphreyt  for  copes  and  npparels  for  dal- 

puny  of  its  lesults  an  pmcrved  in  England.  A  napkin  vilh  the 
royal  shield  of  Henry  VJI..  the  supponen  within  the  oner 
suimoiinted  by  the  crown,  is  In  the  Vkloria  and  Alben  Musrua 
•rhen  it  is  odled  Fkoush.  On  the  other  hand  it  Ii  poulbly  IK 
imrk  of  FteniinfS  In  EnEland.  since  fmm  the  lime  ol  Edvsrd  I. 
and  for  a  hundnd  years  ■  cooNint  stream  of  cmicranls  paiied 
Iron  Flanden  toEngland."*  The  Victoria  and  Alben  Mukud 
contaiM  an  euly  iMh-centuiy  lableclaih  in  damask  linen  ol 
CctnUB  or  Flci^lsb  nunulacmre  with  varfou*  subjctij,  clucfly 
rdqEVHisaadBUHaliGideon  beins  shown  4s  a  kneeling  kiu^t.  1™ 
fleece  of  wool  on  the  nound  being  near  him.  while  fiom  aboyc  ihe 
dew  (iBs  on  It:  betow  CIdem  is  lie  Virsb.  Marv  and  the  uniccni. 
and  lown  dani  an  angel  wiib  snen  dogs'  heads  typilymf 
■  'tosmln  the  lenerinK-rlWci,  jpri,  clmriui,  4c. 


..bithelellerinK-ril 

:    In  anotiier  srhkb  was  probably  made  Ifk  £ 

I    by  Fkmlogs  durinE  the  second  half  of  the  

St  George  and  IhcDrason,  the  royal  arms  of  Queen  Ai 

Ihe  bodM  of  Queen  Anne  Boleyn  and  Queen  Elinbelh,  the 
crowned^udor  Koic.  and  n^peated  ponralls  of  Queen  Lluabeth. 
with  the  legend  btlow,  "  Cod  save  the  Queeoc."  T'hii  ipecinwn  n 
aUo  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.  A  hundrrd  yean  later 
Tn  date  i>  a  tablecloth  on  which  i>  a  view  of  old  St  foul's  (burnt 
in  t«*6).  while  above  and  below  occurs  the  wreathed  ihield  ol  the 
City  of  London.  AdifferentclaBof  linen,  with  the  design  doiie  in 
blue,  was  evidently.  Irora  the  inKirioIions  on  il.  the  work  of  a 
German  or  Fleming,  — 


Fleming,  and  probably  woven  in  Crnnany  ■!» 
we  Snd  the  wreathed  amu  of  the  City  nf  Uindi 
jndon,"  and  "  Geoise  der  II.  KOnig  in  Engribm! 


■    C,  H.  Evelyn  White  < 

'    Anligmarui,  second  teri 

■  S«  Rev.  C.  H.  E\ 

.    tttdm^  ^  Sttitti  of  At 


WEB— WEBER,  C.  VON 


re  toward*  the  dote 

bad  been  fr- 

.    Dunfefmli 


:   «itb  tb*  cariiiir   fttrtt.   I 


t  bad  been  csubluhcd  in 


•  ither 


of  it  It  Courml  ud  Liige  in  Bdgiuni,  in  SJlnU,  AuRiu  uid  ehe- 

LiTniATDiE.— Tbe(bUoiriii(BRtitluarafe»warli>aii  tfUvioB. 

derived:— J.  Bnon,  DMaiaiaia  ia  Ussmi  (t  virit.,  E^{>.  iis9- 
1S63},  mon  tr  let*  Mchaiol  ooly,  DJOtenHtn  du  v^wu  (Pwir, 
1791-1780).  iecfanic>l:Mkbe1FraDi:laque,JishKiti  Mr  limiiiicTH, 
LifaMaUtJi  ti  Vtmttittii^u  deseie,d*ottid*ari€nt  (a  vols,,  Paris, 
iSsi-|g;4),  ■  weU-Enowa  work  Cull  <^  enidllioBln  inprCt  of  the 
■rdufclafv  of  woven  Fabricfl,  Ih^  technicml  cbaracleriBtkt,  &c. ; 
hmn  Y«lei,   TaMmmm   anliiiimtm  ;  ok  Aainnil  <f  Iki^  /,rl  iif 


WSB  (a  word  conunDn  to  Teatonic  Ungusget,  d.  Du.  vxbbt, 
Dan.  ma,  Gn.  Ctsvie,  all  Irom  the  Teutonic  wobk—ta  weave), 
t^t  which  is  woven  (see  WiAViNc).  The  word  is  thui  applied 
to  anythins  resembUng  a  *reb  ol  dotb,  to  the  Kxiiium  of  the 
feather  ol  a  bird,  to  the  membnuic  which  cormects  the  toes 
D<  many  aquatic  birds  and  some  aquatic  mammals;  it  is  particu- 
laily  used  ol  the  "  cobweb,"  the  net  spun  by  the  apidei,  the 
(Hd  English  name  foi  which  was  itar-aptt.  1.1.  poi»n-head 
(dter,poison,an<lcs^^,  tultorhesd).     In  arc" 


a  Iberibsai 


o  the 


awley  In  Shropshire 
on  toe  lain  01  January  iiHO,  me  son  01  a  doctor.  While  still 
ft  boy^  saved  one  oi  hb  brolhera  from  drowning  in  the  Sevenii 
and,  while  serving  on  board  Ibc  tmining  ship  i 
again  distinguished  himself  by  saving  a  drt 
He  served  his  spprenticcship  in  the  But  India  and  China  tiade, 
shipped  as  second  mile  (or  several  ownets,  aTid  in  i87<,  was 
awaidcd  the  fiist  Stanhope  gold  medal  by  the  Royal  Humans 
Society  for  an  attempt  to  save  a  seaman  who  had  (alien  over- 
board from  the  Cunard  steamship  "  Russia."  In  1875  Captain 
W«bb  abandoned  a  sea-faring  life  and  became  a  pnfessional 
swimmer.  On  the  3rd  oj  July  he  swam  fmm  BlachwaU  Pier  to 
Gnvescnd.  a  distance  of  20  m.,  in  4}  hcurs,  a  record  which 
remiined  unbeaten  until  iSgg.  In  (lie  ume  year,  after  one 
onsutctisful  aitctnpi,  he  awam  the  Engli^  Channel,  on  the  34th 
of  August,  from  Dover  10  CaJaii  in  11}  hours.  For  the  ncit 
tew  yean  Webb  gave  perfoimincei  of  diving  and  awipuning 
at  ihe  Royal  Aquarium  in  London  and  elsewhere,  Cnjssmg 
to  America,  he  aLIempted,  on  the  34th  of  July  iSSj,  to  swim 
the  rapids  and  whirlpool  bdow  Niagaxa  Falla.  .  In  th^  attempt 
he  lost  his  UIe. 

WBBB.  BIDHET  <iSs9-  ),  EngUth  sodaliat  and  aathoi, 
was  bom  in  London  on  the  ijth  of  July  iSjq.  He  was  educated 
at  private  schooli  in  London  and  Switierluid,  al  the  Bu-kbcck 
Institute  anil  [he  City  of  London  College,     From  1S75  to  1S78 

by  open  competition  as  a  derh  in  ihe  War  Office  in  1S78,  became 

•See  LiinnimaslmuHiT  in  XVtI.  kwf  XVItl. 
£mil  KunKb  (Draden.  1891). 


45S 

d  tbenlonial 


nirvcyor  ai ' taxes  in'iSTih'WHl  in'iSSi  1 

office,  where  he  remained  until  1891.  In  1885  be  waa  called  to 
thebarat  Gny'Blnn.  Mr  Webb  wa*  one  of  the  early  merabtn 
ol  the  Fabian  Society,  coDtributhig  (0  fMan  Etsaji  iiiS)); 
and  be  beca(M  well-ksown  aa  •  tocialiu,  both  by  hla  ■peecha 
and  bli  writings.  He  entered  the  London  Coonty  Council  Id 
1S9)  al  mnnber  for  Deplford,  and  was  returned  at  the  bead 
of  the  poll  in  the  succcasive  elecllona  ol  1&95,  1B9S,  1901  and 
1904.  He  resigned  Irom  the  dva  service  in  ig^i  to  give  his  whole 
time  to  the  work  ol  the  Counca  (where  he  wu  chairman  of  the 
Technical  Educatioa  Board)  and  10  the  study  of  economics. 
Heaerved  from  1903  to  i5o6on  the  Royal  Coraniia«ion  on  Trade 
Union  Law  and  on  other  Important  commissions.  He  married 
la  1S9]  Miss  BeatHce  Fottcr,  heialf  a  wrller  on  economics  and 
sociology,  the  author  of  Tlu  Ce-iptnUitt  Mnentta  in  Greal 
Britain  (iSqi)  and  a  contributor  to  Charies  Booth's  L^i  end 
Labaiir  tf  liu  Pwfle  (iSqi-i^oj).  Hi*  most  impoitint  works 
are:  a  nnmber  at  Fabian  tracts;  Lcndim  Bdtualien  (1901); 
Tke  EifU  Hews  Day  <i«9i),  in  conjunction  with  Harold  Cox; 
and,  with  Mrs  Sidoey  Webb,  T<le  iJiifgry  s/  Tradt  Unumim 
(iSiw,  new  td.  190J),  Indiatrial  Democmy  (1897,  new  ed.  ii)Oj), 
PreblauofUtdarnlnilMilryliSqS),  Hiilory  0/ Lifiwr  trtmifiig 
(1903),  Eiitlisk  Lead  CnmnwHl  (1906).  Sc.  Mu  Webb  wax 
a  member  ol  Ihe  Royal  OimmissiDn  en  the  Pair  Law,  and  die 
and  her  husband  were  rrsponsible  for  the  Minority  Report 
(see  Foo>  Law)  and  for  starting  the  widespread  movement  in 

WBBB  OTY,  a   dty  ol  Jasper   county,"  Minoorl,  U.S,A;, 

in  the  S.W,  part  ol  the  slate,  aboot  160  m.  S.  of  Kaiues  City, 
Fop.  (1890)  5043;  (1900)  9J01,  of  whom  14S  were  foreign-born; 
{i9ioU.5.census)Ti,Bi7.  Il  is  served  by  the  Missouri  Facific 
and  Ihe  St  Louis  &  San  Francisco  raUway  systems,  and  is  the 
headquarteis  of  the  electric  interurhan  railway  connecting  witb 
Catlhage  and  Joplin,  Missouri,  Galena,  Kansas  and  other 
dties.  With  C:arterviUe  (pop.  1910,  4539).  "bich  adjoins  it  on 
the  E.,  it  forma  practically  one  city;  they  ate  among  the  most 
IS  and  pTutuctive  "camps"  b  the  rich  lead  and  one 
I  of  Kuth-westcm  Missouri,  and  Webb  City  owes  iu 
inddsttial  Importance  primarily  to  the  mining  and  ship[dng  of 
those  metals.  The  value  ol  the  factory  product  increased  from 
"...,JM  in  19™  to  *637,96S  in  1905,  Webb  City  was  laid  out 
and  incorporated  as  a  town  hi  187s.  and  hist  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1S76.  White  lead  was  discovered  here  in  1S73,  on  the 
firm  of  John  C.  Webb,  in  whose  honour  the  dty  is  named; 
and  systematic  mining  began  in  1877. 
WXBBB,  WILIUM  (fl.  ij86).  English  literary  critic,  was 
lucaled  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his 
degree  in  1571-1573.  He  was  tutor  to  Ihe  two  sons  of  Edward 
Sulyard  ol  Flemyngs.  Essei,  and  later  to  the  diildren  of  Henry 
Grey  of  Pirgo  in  the  same  counly,  A  letter  Irom  him  is  prefiied 
"  159J  edition  ol  Tancrrd  and  Cismnnda?  written  by  his 
,  Robert  Wihnot.  In  1566  he  published  A  Diiamr%e  af 
:A  Poetrie,  dedicated  to  his  patron,  Edward  Stilyard. 
Wcbbe  argued  that  the  dearth  ol  good  English  poetry  jince 
Chaucer^s  day  was  not  due  to  lack  ol  poetic  ability,  or  to  the 
;y  of  the  bnguage,  but  10  the  want  ol  a  proper  system  of 
prosody.  He  abuses  "  this  tinketiy  verse  which  we  call  ryme," 
'  harbarous  origin,  and  comments  on  the  works  of  his  con- 
traries, displaying  enthusiasm  for  Spenser's  S^pfuarda 
dor,  isA  admiration  lor  Fhaer's  translation  ol  Virgil. 
He  nrged  Ihe  adoption  ol  hexameters  and  Sapphics  for  English 
vetw,  and  pves  :  '  '  ' '  ..... 


The  DiuBuru  was  reprinted  in  J,  Hailewood'g  AnaiM  Critic^ 
iisayi  (iRir-rSr;),  by  E.  Atber  in  1S69,  and  in  Gregory  Smith's 

WBBBEt,  CUIL  MARU  PHIBDRICH  EBNnT  VOi  (17S6- 
816),  German  composer,  wa*  born  at  Eutln,  near  Lubeck.  on 
heiSthofI>eccmbcr  1786, ota  family  that  had  long  been  devoled 
oart.    Hiafalber.Banm  Fiani  Anton  von  Weber,  a  military 

'  The  original  play.  C«i!w«ifc  fff  Saimr.  was  by  five  authors-  and 
»as  produced  In  ihe  Queen's  pmtnca  at  the  Inner  Temple  in  ijU. 


4S(> 


WEBER,  C.  VON 


officer  in  the  service  of  the  palgrave  Karl  Theodor,  was  an 
excellent  violinist,  and  his  mother  once  sang  on  the  stage.  His 
coQsins,  Josepha,  Alo3rsia,  Constanze  and  Sophie,  daughters 
of  Franz  Anton's  brother  Frid<^,  attained  a  high  reputation 
as  vocalists.  The  great  composer,  Moaart,  after  having  been 
rejected  by  Aloysia,  married  Constanze,  and  thus  became 
Franz  Anton's  nephew  by  marriage.  Fridolin  played  the  violin 
nearly  as  well  as  his  brother;  and  the  whole  family  displayed 
exceptional  talent  for  music  Franz  Anton  von  Weber  was  a 
man  of  thriftless  habits  and  culpable  eccentricity.  Having  been 
wounded  at  Rosbach,  he  quitted  the  army,  and  in  1758  he  was 
appointed  financial  councillor  to  Clement  August,  elector  of 
Cologne,  who  for  nine  years  overlooked  his  incorrigible  neglect 
of  duty.  But  the  elector's  successor  dismissed  him  in  1768; 
and  for  many  years  after  this  he  lived  in  idleness  at  Hildesheim, 
squandering  the  property  of  his  wife,  Anna  dc'  Fumelti,  and 
doing  nothing  for  the  support  of  his  children  until  1778,  when  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  opera  at  Liibeck.  In  1779  the 
prince  bishop  of  Eutin  made  him  his  kapellmeister,  and  not 
long  afterwards  his  wife  died  of  a  broken  heart.  Five  years 
later  he  went  to  Vienna,  placed  two  of  his  sons  under  Michael 
Haydn,  and  in  17S5  married  the  young  Viennese  singer  Genovefa 
von  Brenner.  In  the  following  year  Carl  Maria  von  Weber  was 
bom— a  delicate  chUd,  afflicted  with  congenital  disease  of  the 
hip- joint. 

On  his  return  from  Vienna,  Franz  Anton,  finding  that  a  new 
kapellmeister  had  been  chosen  in  his  place,  accepted  the  humbler 
position  of  "  Stadt  Musikant."  This,  however,  be  soon  relin- 
quished; and  for  some  years  he  wan'Uered  from  town  to  town, 
giving  dramatic  periormanccs,  in  conjunction  with  the  children 
of  his  first  wife,  wherever  he  could  collect  an  audience.  The 
effect  of  this  restless  life  upon  the  little  Carl  Maria's  health  and 
education  was  deplorable;  but,  as  he  accompanied  his  father 
everywhere,  he  became  familiarized  with  the  stage  from  his 
earliest  infancy,  and  thus  gained  an  amount  of  dramatic  experience 
that  laid  the  foundation  of  his  future  greatness.  Franz  Anton 
hoped  to  see  him  develop  into  an  infant  prodigy,  like  his  cousin 
Mozart,  whose  marvellous  career  was  then  rapidly  approaching 
its  close.  In  furtherance  of  this  scheme,  the  child  was  taught 
to  sing  and  place' his  fingers  upon  the  pianoforte  almost  as  soon 
as  he  could  speak,  though  he  was  unable  to  walk  until  he  was 
four  years  old.  Happily  his  power  of  observation  and  aptitude 
for  general  learning  were  so  precocious  that  he  seems,  in  spite 
of  all  these  disadvantages,  to  have  instinctively  educated  him- 
self as  became  a  gentleman.  In  1798  Michael  Haydn  taught 
him  gratuitously  at  Salzburg.  In  the  March  of  that  year  his 
mother  died.  In  April  the  family  visited  Vienna,  removing 
in  the  autumn  to  Munich.  Here  the  child's  first  composition — 
«  set  of  "  Six  Fughettas"  — was  published,  with  a  pompous 
dedication  to  his  half-brother  Edmund;  and  here  also  he  took 
lessons  in  singing  and  in  composition.  Soon  afterwards  he  began 
to  play  8tx:cessfully  in  public,  and  his  father  compelled  him  to 
write  incessantly.  Among  the  compositions  of  this  period  were 
a  mass  and  an  opera — Die  Macht  dcr  Liebe  und  des  Weins — now 
destroyed.  A  set  of  "  Variations  for  the  Pianoforte,"  composed 
a  little  later,  was  lithographed  by  Carl  Maria  himself,  under  the 
guidance  of  Alois  Scncfcldcr,  the'  inventor  of  the  process,  in 
which  both  the  father  and  the  child  took  great  interesL 

In  1800  the  family  removed  to  Freiberg,  where  the  Ritter  von 
Steinsberg  gave  Carl  Maria  the  libretto  of  an  opera  called  Das 
Waldmddchen^  which  the  boy,  though  not  yet.  fourteen  years 
old,  at  once  set  to  music,  and  produced  in  November  at  the 
Freiburg  theatre.  The  performance  was  by  no  means  successful, 
and  the  composer  himself  was  accustomed  to  speak  of  the 
work  as  "  a  very  immature  production  "  ;  yet  it  was  afterwards 
reproduced  at  Chemnitz,  and  even  at  Vienna. 

Carl  Maria  returned  with  his  father  to  Salzburg  in  tSoi, 
resuming  his  studies  under  Michael  Haydn.  Here  he  composed 
bis  second  opera,  Peter  SchmoU  und  seine  Nachbam,  which  was 
unsuccessfully  produced  at  Nuremberg  in  1803.  In  that  year 
he  again  visited  Vienna,  where,  though  Joseph  Haydn  and 
Albrechtsberger  were  both  receiving  pupils,  his  father  preferred 


placing  him  under  Abt  Vogler.  Through  Vogler's  instrament' 
aUty  Carl  Maria  was  appointed  conductor  of  the  opera  at  Breslau, 
before  he  had  completed  his  eighteenth  year.  In  this  capacity 
he  greatly  enlarged  his  experience  of  the  stage,  so  that  he  ranks 
among  the  greatest  masters  of  stage-craft  in  musical  history; 
but  he  lived  a  sadly  irregular  life,  contracted  debts,  and  lost  his 
beautiful  voice  through  accidentally  drinking  an  acid  used  in 
lithography — a  mishap  which  nearly  cost  him  his  life.  These 
hindrances,  however,  did  not  prevent  him  from  beginning  a  new 
opera  calied  RUbesahl,  the  libretto  of  which  was  "romantic" 
to  the  last  degree,  and  Weber  worked  at  it  enthusiastically, 
bu^  it  was  never  completed,  and  little  of  it  has  been  preserved 
beyond  a  quintet  and  the  masterly  overture,  which,  re-written 
in  1811  under  the  title  of  Der  Beherrscker  derCeistert  now  ranks 
among  its  author's  finest  instrumental  compositions. 

Quitting  Breslau  in  1806,  Weber  removed  in  the  following 
year  to  Stuttgart,  where  he  had  been  offered  the  post  ci  private 
secretary  to  Duke  Ludwig,  brother  of  Frederick,  king  of 
WUrtcmberg.  The  appointment  was  a  disastrous  one.  The 
stipend  attached  to  it  was  insufficient  to  meet  the  twofold 
demands  of  the  young  man's  new  social  position  and  the  thrift- 
lessness  of  his  father,  who  was  entirely  dependent  upon  him  for 
support.  Court  life  at  Stuttgart  was  uncongenial  to  him,  though 
he  yielded  to  its  temptations.  The  king  hated  him  and  his 
practical  jokes.  He  fell  hopelessly  into  debt,  and,  worse  than  all, 
became  involved  in  a  fatal  intimacy  with  Margarethe  Lang, 
a  singer  at  the  opera.  Notwithstanding  these  distractions  he 
worked  hard,  and  in  1809  re-modelled  Das  Waldmddchen^  under 
the  title  of  Sylvana}  and  prepared  to  produce  it  at  the  court 
theatre.  But  a  dreadful  calamity  prevented  its  performance. 
Franz  Anton  had  misappropriated  a  large  sum  of  money  placed 
in  the  young  secretary's  hands  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  a 
mortgage  upon  one  of  the  duke's  estates.'  Both  father  and  son 
were  charged  with  embezzlement,  and,  on  the  9th  of  February 
1 8 10,  they  were  arrested  at  the  theatre,  during  a  rehearsal  of 
Sylvana^  and  thrown  by  the  king's  order  into  prison.  No  one 
doubted  Weber's  innocence,  but  after  a  summary  trial  he  and  his 
father  were  ordered  to  quit  the  country,  and  on  the  37th  of 
February  they  began  a  new  life  at  Mannheim. 

Having  provided  a  comfortable  home  for  his  father,  and  begun 
a  new  comic  opera,  in  one  act,  called  Abu  Hassatif  Weber  re- 
moved to  Darmstadt  in  order  to  be  near  his  old  master  Abt 
Vogler,  and  his  fellow-pupils  Meyerbeer  and  G&nsbacher. 
On  the  x6th  of  September  x8io,  he  reproduced  Sylvana  at 
Frankfort,  but  with  very  doubtful  success.  A  bu  Hassan  was  com- 
pleted at  Darmstadt  in  January  x8ix,  after  many  interruptions, 
one  of  which  (his  attraction  to  the  story  of  Der  FreiscUUxr-^^ 
below)  exercised  a  memorable  influence  upon  his  later  career. 

Weber  started  in  February  181  x  on  an  extended  artistic  tour, 
during  which  he  made  many  influential  friends,  and  on  the  4tb 
of  June  brought  out  Abu  Hassan  with  marked  success  at  Munich. 
His  father  died  at  Mannheim  in  181 2,  and  after  this  he  had  00 
settled  home,  until  in  18 13  his  wanderings  were  brought  to  ao 
end  by  the  unexpected  offer  of  an  appointment  as  kapellmeister 
at  Prague,  coupled  with  the  duty  of  entirely  remodelling  the 
performances  at  the  opera-house.  The  terms  were  so  liberal 
that  he  accepted  at  once,  engaged  a  new  company  of  performers, 
and  directed  them  with  uninterrupted  success  until  the  autumn 
of  181 6.  During  this  period  he  composed  no  new  operas,  but  be 
had  already  vrritten  much  of  his  best  pianoforte  music,  and  played 
it  with  never-failing  success,  while  the  disturbed  state  of  Europe 
inspired  him  with  some  of  the  finest  patriotic  melodies  in  exist- 
ence. First  among  these  stand  ten  songs  from  Kdmer's  L^ 
und  Scfmcrdl,  including  "  Vater,  ich  rufe  dich,"  and  "  W^J* 
wilde  Jagd  "  ;  and  in  no  respect  inferior  to  these  are  the  splendid 
choruses  in  his  cantata  Kampf  und  Sieg^  which  was  fint  V^' 
formed  at  Prague,  on  the  32nd  of  December  181 5. 

Weber  resigned  his  office  at  Prague  on  the  30th  of  September 

*  As  the  MS.  of  Das  Waldtnddchen  has  been  lost,  it  is  imvot^ 
now  to  determine  its  exact  relation  to  the  later  work. 

'  Spitta  gives  a  different  account  of  the  occurrence,  and  attribute 
the  robbery  to  a  servant. 


WEBER,  C.  VON 


457 


t8i6»  and  on  the  axst  of  Dccembor,  Fxedeiick  Augustus,  king  of 
Saxony,  appointed  him  kapellmeister  at  the  Gennan  opera  at 
Dresden.  The  ItaUan  operas  performed  at  the  court  theatre 
were  superintended  by  Morlacchi,  whose  jealous  and  intriguing 
disposition  gave  endless  trouble.  The  king»  however,  placed  the 
two  kapellmeisters  on  an  exact  equality  both  oC  title  and  salary, 
and  Weber  found  ample  oi^x>rtunity  for  the  exercise  of  his 
reinackable  power  of  organization  and  control,  lie  now  gave 
his  dose  attention  to  the  story  of  Der  PreisckOtz,  which  he  had 
previously  meditated  turning  into  an  opera,  and,  with  tfaie  assist- 
ance of  Friedrich  Kind,  he  produced  an  admirable  libretto,  under 
the  title  of  Des  Jdgers  Braut,  No  subject  could  have  been  better 
fitted  than  this  to  serve  as  a  vehicle  for  the  new  art-form  which, 
nnder  Weber's  skiUiil  management,  developed  into  the  type 
of  "romantic  opera."  He  had  dealt  with  the  supernatural  in 
RMbaaU,  and  in  Sylwma  with  the  pomp  and  .circumstance  of 
chivahy;  but  the  shadowy  impersonations  in  Rubaahl  are 
scarcely  less  human  than  the  heroine  who  invokes  them;  and 
the  music  of  Sylvtuta  might  easily  have  been  adapted  to  a  story 
of  the  loth  century.  But  Weber  now  knew  better  than  to  let 
the  fiend  in  Der  FreischUtz  sing;  with  three  soft  strokes  of  a 
drum  below  an  unchanging  dismal  chord  he  brings  him  straight 
to  us  -from  the  nether  world.  Every  note  in  EuryarUhe  breathes 
the  spirit  of  medieval  romance;  and  the  fairies  in  Oberan  have 
an  actuality  quite  distinct  from  the  tinsel  of  the  stage.  This  un- 
compromising reality,  even  in  face  of  the  unreal,  forms  the 
strongest  characteristic  of  the  pure  "romantic  school,^  as 
Weber  understood  and  created  it.  It  treats  its  wildest  subjects  in 
earnest,  and  without  a  doubt  as  to  the  reality  of  the  scenes 
it  ventures  to  depict,  or  the  truthfulness  of  (heir  dramatic 
interpretation. 

Weber  wrote  the  first  note  of  the  music  of  Der  PreisckiUz 
on  the  2nd  of  July — beginning  with  the  duet  which  opens  the 
second  act.  But  so  numerous  were  the  interruptions  caused 
by  Morlacchi's  intrigues,  the  insolence  of  unfriendly  courtiers, 
and  the  attacks  of  jealous  critics  that  nearly  three  years  elapsed 
before  the  piece  was  completed.  In  the  meantime  the  per- 
formances at  the  opera-house  were  no  less  successfully  remodelled 
at  Dresden  than  they  had  already  been  at  Prague,  though 
the  work  of  reformation  was  far  more  difficult;  for  the  new 
kapellmeister  was  surrounded  by  enemies  who  openly  subjected 
him  to  every  possible  annoyance,  and  even  the  king  himself 
was  at  one  time  strongly  prejudiced  against  him.  Happily, 
he  no  longer  stood  alone  in  the  world.  Having,  after  much 
difficulty,  broken  off  hb  liaisonvnth  MargaretheLand,  he  married 
the  singer  Carolina  Brandt,  a  noble-minded  woman  and  con-' 
tummate  artist,  who  was  well  able  to  repay  him  for  the  part  he 
had  long  played  in  her  mental  development.  The  new  opera 
was  completed  on  the  X3th  of  May  1820,  on  which  day  Weber 
wrote  the  last  note  of  the  overture — ^whlch  it  was  his  custom 
to  postpone  until  the  rest  of  the  music  was  finished.  There  is 
abundant  evidence  to  prove  that  he  was  well  satisfied  with  the 
result  of  his  labours;  but  he  gave  himself  no  rest.  He  had  engaged 
to  compose  the  music  to  Wolfif*s  Gipsy  drama,  Preciosa.  Two 
months  later  this  also  was  finished,  and  both  pieces  ready  for 
the  stage. 

In  consequence  of  the  unsatisfactory  state  of  affairs  at  Dresden, 
It  had  been  arranged  that  both  Preciosa  and  Der  FreischUtz — 
no  longer  known  by  its  original  title,  Des  J&gers  Braut — should 
be  produced  at  Berh'n.  In  February  1821  Sir  Julius  Benedict 
was  accepted  by  Weber  as  a  pupil;  and  to  his  pen  we  owe  a 
delightful  account  of  the  rehearsals  and  first  performance  of  his 
master's  chef -d* mare,  Preciosa  was  produced  with  great  success 
at  the  old  Berlin  opera-house  on  the  14th  of  June  1821.  On 
the  xSth  of  June,  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  the 
opening  of  the  new  ''  Schauspielhaus  "  was  celebrated  by  the 
production  of  Der  PreischUU.  Much  anxiety  was  caused  by 
unforeseen  difficulties  at  the  rehearsals;  yet,  so  calm  was  Weber's 
mind  that  he  devoted  his  leisure  time  to  the  composition  of  his 
ConceristUck  in  F  minor — one  of  his  finest  pianoforte  pieces. 
Until  the  last  moment  his  friends  were  anxious;  the  author  was 
not;  and  the  result  justified  his  confidence  in  his  own  powers. 


The  success  of  the  piece  was  triumphant.  Tlie  work  was  leceived 
with  equal  enthusiasm  at  Vienna  on  the  jrd  of  Octobo*,  and  at 
Dresden  on  the  26th  of  January  1823.  Yet  Weber's  podtioa 
as  kapellmeister  was  not  much  improved  by  his  success,  though^ 
in  order  to  remain  faithful  to  his  engagements,  be  had  refused 
tempting  offers  at  Bttlin  and  Cassel,  and,  at  the  last-named 
place,  had  installed  Ludwlg  Spohr  In  a  position  much  more 
advantageous  than  his  own. 

For  his  next  opera  Weber  accepted  a  libretto  based,  by  Frau 
Wilhelmine  von  Chezy,  on  the  story  of  EuryafUhc^  as  originally 
told  in  the  13th  century,  in  Gilbert  de  Montreuil's  Roman  de  la 
ViolelUt  and  repeated  with  alterations  in  the  Decanuroue,  in 
Shakeq)eare's  Cymbeline,  and  in  several  later  forms.  In  place 
of  the  ghostly  horrors  of  Der  PreisckUbt,  the  romantic  element 
was  here  supplied  by  the  chivalric  pomp  of  the  middle  agesL 
The  libretto  is  In  one  respect  superior  to  that  of  Der  FreischUtx, 
inasmuch  as  it  substitutes  elaborate  recitative  for  the  spoken 
dialogue  peculiar  to  the  Gennan  "  Schauspiel "  and  French 
"  op4ra  oomique. "  It  is,  in  fact,  a  "  grand  opera  "  in  every 
sense  of  the  words, — the  prototjrpe  of  the  "  music  drama  " 
perfected  fifty  years  later  by  Wagner.  The  overture — as  usual, 
written  last— presents  a  feature  that  has  never  been  imitated.' 
During  its  performance  the  curtain  temporarily  rises,  to  exhibit, 
in  a  laUeau  vivatU,  the  scene  in  the  sepulchral  vault  upon  which 
the  whole  story  turns.  This  direction  is  now  rarely  carried  out; 
but  Weber  himself  well  knew  how  much  the  interest  of  the  piece 
depended  on  it.  The  work  was  produced  at  the  K&mtnerthor 
theatre  in  Vienna,  on  the  S5th  of  October  1823,  and  received  with 
enthusiasm.  .   . 

Weber's  third  and  last  dramatic  masterpiece  was  an  English 
opera,  written  for  Covent  Garden  theatre,  upon  a  libretto 
adapted  by  Planch€  from  Wieland's  Oberon,  It  was  disfigured 
by  the  spoken  dialogue  abandoned  in  Euryanihe-,  but  in  musical 
beauty  it  is  quite  equal  to  it,  while  its  fairies  and  mermaids 
are  as  vividly  real  as  the  spectifes  in  Der  PreisckUU.  Though 
already  far  gone  in  consumption,  Weber  began  to  compose  the 
music  on  the  33rd  of  JaniUUy  1&25.  Charles  Kemble  had  offered 
him  £1000  for  the  work,  and  he  could  not  afford  to  rest.  He 
finished  the  overture  in  London,  at  the  house  of  Sir  George 
Smart,  soon  after  his  arrival,  in  March  1826;  and  on  the  12th 
of  April  the  work  was  produced  with  triumphant  success.  But 
it  cost  the  composer  his  life.  Wearied  out  with  rehearsals  and 
performances  of  the  opera,  and  concerts  at  which  he  was  received 
with  rapturous  applause,  he  grew  daily  perceptibly  weaker; 
and,  notwithstanding  the  care  of  his  kind  host.  Sir  George  Smart, 
and  his  family,  he  was  found  dead  in  his  bed  on  the  monung  of 
the  5th  of  June  1826.  For  eighteen  years  his  remains  rested  in 
a  temporary  grave  in  Moorfidds  chapel;  but  in  i^  they  were 
removed  and  placed  in  the  family  vanlt  at  Dresden,  Wagner 

making  an  ekxiuent  speech. 

Besides  his  three  great  dramafic  masterpieces  and  the  other 
works  already  mentioned,  Weber  wrote  two  masses,  two  svmphonies, 
eight  cantatas,  and  a  large  number  of  son^,  orchestral  and  pianoforte 
pieces,  and  music  of  other  kinds,  amounting  altogether  to  more  than 
250  compoeitiona.  (W.  S.  R.) 

Weber's  style  rises,  in  his  three  greatest  works,  to  heights 
which  show  his  kinship  with  the  great  chissics  and  the  great 
modems.  His  intellect  was  quick  and  clear;  but  yet  finer  was 
the  force  of  character  with  which  he  overcame  the  disadvantages 
of  his  feeble  health,  desultory  education  and  the  mistakes  of  his 
youth.  With  such  gifts  of  intellect  and  character,  every  moment 
of  his  short  life  was  precious  to  the  world;  and  it  is  impossible 
not  to  regret  the  placing  of  his  toining  in  the  hands  of  Abt 
Vogler.  Weber's  maater  waa  an  amidble  charktan,  whose 
weakness  as  a  teacher  was  thoroughly  exposed.  In  perfect 
innocence,  by'  his  two  illustrious  pupils.  Meyerbeer  wished 
to  be  famous  as  the  maker  of  a  new  epoch  in  opera*  Weber 
could  not  help  being  so  in  reality.  But  he  was  sadly  hampered 
by  his  master's  inability  to  teach  realities  instead  of  appearances; 
and  to  this  impedimoit  alone  must  we  assign  the  fact  that  his 
masterpieces  do  not  begin  earlier  m  his  o^reer.  With  extra- 
ordinary  rapidity  and  thoroughness  he  learnt  English  a  year 
before  his  death  Ib  ocdf*  to. compose  Oberon^  with  the  resuU 


458 


WEBER,  W.  E.— WEBER'S  LAW 


that  there  is  only  one  obvious  mistake  in  the  whole  work,  and 
the  general  correctness  of  declamation  is  higher  than  in  most 
of  his  German  works.  This  is  typical  of  Weber's  general  culture, 
mental  cneigy  and  determination;  points  in  which/as  in  many 
fraits  in  his  music,  he  strikln^y  resembles  Wagner.  But  all 
his  determination  could  not  quite  repair  the  defects  of  his  purely 
musical  training,  and  though  his  weaknesses  are  not  of  glaring 
e£fect  in  opera,  still  there  are  moments  when  even  the  stage 
cannot  explain  them  away.  Thus  the  6nale  of  Dtr  PreischiUz 
breaks  down  so  obviously  that  no  one  thinks  of  it  as  anything 
but  a  perfunctory  winding-up  of  the  story,  thdugh  it  really 
might  have  made  quite  a  fine  subject  for  musical  treatment.  In 
Euryanthe  Weber  attained  hts  full  power,  and  his  inspiration 
did  not  leave  him  in  the  lurch  where  this  work  needed  large 
musical  designs.  But  the  libretto  was  full  of  absurdities ;  especially 
in  the  last  act,  which  not  even  nine  cemodellings  under  Weber's 
direction  could  redeem.  Yet  It  is  easy  to  see  why  it  fascinated 
him,  for,  whatever  may  be  said  against  it  from  the  standpoints 
of  probability  and  literary  merit,  its  emotional  contrasts  are 
highly  musicsd.  Indeed  it  is  through  them  that  the  defects  invite 
critidsm. 

OberoH  is  spoilt  by  the  old  local  tradition  of  Englbh  opera 
according  to  which  its  libretto  admitted  of  no  music  during 
the  action  of  the  drama.  Thus  Weber  had  in  it  no  opportunity 
for  his  musical  stage-craft;  apart  from  the  fact  that  the  action 
itself  is  entirely  without  dramatic  motive  and  passion,  since 
the  characters  are  simply  shifted  from  Bordeaux  to  Bagdad 
whenever  Oberon  waves  his  wand. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  the  libretti  of 
Ewyanthe  and  Oh^on^  but  none  are  quite  successful,  for  Weber 
has  taken  a  great  artist's  pains  in  making  the  best  of  bad  material. 
All  that  can  be  said  against  Weber's  achievements  only  reveals 
the  more  emphatically  how  noble  and  how  complete  in  essentials 
was  his  success  and  his  claim  to  immortality.  His  pianoforte 
works,  while  showing  his  helplessness  in  purely  musical  form, 
more  than  bear  out  his  contemporary  reputation  as  a  very  great 
pianoforte  player.  They  have  a  pronounced  theatrical  tendency 
which,  in  the  case  of  such  pieces  of  gay  ronoanticism  as  the 
ImitaiioH  d  la  danse  and  the  ConcerlslUcky  is  amusing  and  by 
no  means  inartistic.  In  orchestration  Weber  is  one  of  the 
greatest  masters.  His  treatment  of  the  voice  is  bold  and 
interesting,  but  very  rash;  and  his  declamation  of  words 
is  often  incorrect.  His  influence  on  the  music  of  his  own  day 
is  comparable  to  hb  influence  on  posterity;  for  he  was  not  only 
a  most  efficient  director  but  a  very  persuasive  journalist;  and 
(in  spite  of  the  inexperience  that  made  him  disapprove  of 
Beethoven)  for  all  good  music  other  than  his  own  he  showed  a 
growing  enthusiasm  that  was  infectious.  (D.  F.  T.) 

WEBER,  WILHBLH  EDUARD  (1804-1891),  German  physicist, 
was  bom  at  Wittenberg  on  the  24th  of  October  1804,  and  was 
a  younger  brother  of  Ernst  Heinrich  Weber,  the  author  of  Weber's 
Law  (see  below).  He  studied  at  the  university  of  Halle,  where 
he  took  his  doctor's  degree  in  1826  and  became  extraordinary 
professor  of  physics  in  1828.  Three  years  later  he  removed  to 
Gdttingen  as  professor  of  physics,  and  remained  there  till  1837, 
when  he  was  one  of  the  seven  professors  who  were  expelled  from 
their  chairs  for  protesting  against  the  action  of  the  king  of 
Hanover  (duke  of  Cumberland)  in  suspending  the  constitution. 
A  period  of  retirement  followed  this  episode,  but  in  1843  he 
accepted  the  chair  of  physics  at  Leipzig,  and  six  years  later 
Yetumed  to  Ctdttingen,  where  he  died  on  the  a3rd  of  June  1891. 
Weber's  name  is  especially  known  for  his  work  on  electrical 
measurement.  Untd  his  time  there  was  no  established  system 
either  of  stating  or  measuring  electrical  quantities;  but  he  showed, 
as  his  colleague  K.  F.  Gauss  did  for  magnetic  quantities,  that 
tt  is  both  theoretiodly  and  practically  posable  to  define  them, 
not  merely  by  re^^ncc  to  other  arbitrary  quantities  of  the  same 
kind,  but  absolutely  in  terms  in  which  the  units  of  length, 
time,  iind  mass  are  alone  involved.  He  also  carried  on  extensive 
researches  in  the  theory  of  magnetism;  and  it  is  interesting  that 
in  connexion  with  fab  observatbns  in  terrestrial  magnetism  he 
not  oi^y  omploytd  aa  early  form  of  mirroi  galvanometer,  but 


also,  about  1833,  devised  a  system  of  electromagnetic  telegraphy, 
by  which  a  distance  of  some  9000  ft.  was  worked  over.  In 
conjunction  with  his  elder  brother  he  published  in  1825  a  well- 
known  treatise  on  waves,  Die  WelUnleltrt  auf  ExperimaOt 
gegrUndei;  and  in  1833  be  collaborated  with  his  younger  brother, 
the  physiologist  Eduard  Friedrich  Weber  (1806-1871),  in  an 
investigation  into  the  mechanism  of  walking. 

WEBER'S  LAW,  in  psychology,  the  name  given  to  a  principle 
first  enunciated  by  the  German  scientist,  Ernst  Heinrich  Weber 
(x79S~iS78),  who  became  professor  at  Ldpaig  (of  anatomy, 
1 8 18,  of  physiology,  1840).  He  was  specially  famous  for  his 
researches  into  aural  and  cutaneous  sensations.  His  law,  the 
purport  of  which  is  that  the  increase  of  stimulus  necessary  to 
produce  an  increase  of  sensation  in  any  sense  is  not  a  fixed 
quantity  but  depends  on  the  proportion  which  the  incresse 
bears  to  the  immediately  preceding  stimulus,  is  the  i»incipal 
generalization  of  that  branch  of  scientific  investigation  which 
has  come  to  be  known  as  psycho-physics  (g.v.)* 

According  to  Gustav  Fechner  (q.v.),  who  has  done  most  to  proiecute 
these  inquines  and  to  consolidate  them  under  a  separate  name, 
"  psycho-physics  is  an  exact  doctrine  of  the  relation  of  function  or 
dependence  between  bod]^  and  soul."  In  other  words,  it  is  through* 
out  an  attempt  to  submit  to  definite  measurement  the  relation  01 
phj^sical  stimuli  to  the  resulting  psychical  or  mental  facts,  and  fmtnt 
an  important  department  of  experimental  psychology.  It  deab  with 
the  quantitative  aspects  of  mental  facts — their  intensity  or  quantinr 
proper  and  their  duration.  Physical  science  enables  us,  at  least  in  the 
case  of  some  of  the  senses,  to  measure  with  accuracy  the  objective 
amount  of  the  stimulus,  and  introspection  enables  us  to  state  the 
nature  of  the  subjective  result.  Thus  we  are  able  to  aav  whether  a 
stimulus  produces  any  psychical  result,  and  can  fix  in  that  way  the 
minimum  sensibilt  or  "  threshold  of  consciousness  "  for  each  of  the 
senses.  In  like  manner  (though  with  less  accuracy,  owing  to  the  dis- 
turbing nature  of  the  conditions)  we  can  fix  the  sensational  maxi- 
mum,  or  upper  limit  ai  sensibility,  in  the  different  senses,  that  is  to 
say,  the  point  beyond  which  no  increase  of  stimulus  produces  any 
appreciable  increase  of  sensation.  We  thus  determine. as  Wundt  puts 
it,  the  limit-values  between  which  changes  of  intensity  in  the  stimulus 
are  accompanied  by  changes  in  sensation.  But  the  central  inquiry  01 
psycho-physics  remains  behind.  Between  the  quantitative  mini- 
mum and  the  quantitative  maximum  thus  fixed  can  we  discover  any 
definite  relation  between  changes  in  the  objective  intensity  of  ^J* 
stimuli  and  changes  in  the  intensity  of  the  sensations  as  estimated  by 
consciousness.  The  answer  of  psycho-physics  to  this  inquiry  >• 
given  in  the  generalization  variously  known  as  "  Weber  s  law, 

Fcchner's  law,"  or  the  "  psycho-physical  law,"  which  professes  to 
formulate  with  exactitude  the  relations  which  exist  between  change 
of  stimulus  and  change  of  sensation. 

As  we  have  no  means  of  subjectively  measuring  the  absolute 
intensity  of  our  sensations,  it  is  necessary  to  depend  upon  the  mental 
estimate  or  comparison  of  two  or  more  sensations.  Comparison 
enables  us  to  say  whether  they  arc  equal  in  intensity,  or  if  unequal 
which  is  the  greater  and  which  is  the  less.  But  as  thev  approach 
equality  in  this  respect  it  becomes  more  and  more,  difficult  to  detect 
the  difference.  By  a  series  of  experiments,  therefore,  it  will  M 
possible,  in  the  case  of  any  particular  individual,  to  determine  the 
least  observable  difference  in  intensity  between  two  sensations  of  any 
particular  sense.  This  least  observable  difference  is  called  njf 
Fechner  the  UnUnchiedssckweUe  or  "  difTerence-threshold,"  that  it 
to  say,  the  limit  of  the  discriminative  sensibility  of  the  sense  to 
question.  That  such  a  "  threshold,"  or  least  observable  difference* 
exists  is  plain  from  very  simple  examples.  Verv  small  increas^  may 
be  made  in  the  objective  amount  of  light,  sound  or  pressure — that  is. 
in  the  physical  stimuli  applied  to  these  senses — without  the  subject 
on  whom  the  experiment  is  made  detecting  any  change.  It  ta  further 
evident  that,  by  means  of  this  UnUrschiedsukweiU,  it  is  possible  to 
compare  the  discriminative  sensibility  of.  different  individuals,  or  01 
different  senses,  or  (as  in  the  case  of  the  skin)  of  different  parts  of  the 
same  sense  organ :  the  smaller  the  difference  observable  the  finer  the 
discriminative  sensibility.  Thus  the  discrimination  of  the  muscular 
sense  is  much  more  delicate  than  that  of  the  sense  of  touch  or  pressure, 
and  the  discriminative  sensibility  of  the  skin  and  the  retina  vanes 
very  much  according  to  the  parts  of  the  surface  affected.  Various 
methods  have  been  adopted  with  a  view  to  determine  these  mtnima 
of  discriminative  sensibility  with  an  approach  to  scientific  prenston. 
The  first  is  that  employed  by  Weber  himself,  and  has  been,  named 
the  method  of  just  observable  differences.  It  consists  either  in 
gradually  adding  to  a  given  stimulus  small  amounts  which  at  first 
cause  no  perceptible  difference  in  sensation  but  at  a  ceruin  point  do 
cause  a  difference  to  emerge  in  consciousness,  or,  vice  versa,  ingradu* 
ally  decreasing  the  amount  of  additional  stimulus,  till  the  difference 
originally  perceived  becomes  imperceptible.  By  taking  the  averoRC 
of  a  number  of  such  results,  the  minimum  may  be  determined  *>tn 
tolerable  accuracy.  The  second  method  is  called  by  Fechner  tne 
method  of  correct  and  incorrect  instances.    When  two  stimuli  sf* 


WEBSTER,  A.— WEBSTER,  D. 


mtt  aeuly  cqul  iht  Kbiect  vfll  oftn  lul  to  ncociBH  which  ii  Oit 
Kmfer.  nyiiiB  Hineliinei  that  A  is  Brnr^r,  lofnclimea  that  B  U 
frcaler.  When  in  a  large  number  at  tmli  the  ri^I  and  wrong 
ffuoBea  exactly  balance  one  BDoiher  we  nay  conclude  that  t}^ 
SiAcTtacd  between  (be  two  atimuU  ia  not  appreciable  by  the  Knae. 
On  the  other  Jujid.  aa  aoonaa  the  number  of  gurect  nieaeei  dehiutely 
eicndj  haU  of  tbe  total  nupbcr  oC  cnieai  it  may  1»  InfenBd  that 

iHlhiid  una  <int  employed  by  Iflerordt  The  Hard  method,  that  of 
antnn  CROra,  ia  wry  aindkr  to  Iba  ose  jiM  egJ»'—H.  ■!«  • 
■  ' imple)  II  laid . 


etiina  ilightly  tail 


be  u^aaked.  by  the  aid  of  ub' 

I  a  second  veight  exactly  equal 
1-nrvi  w^TdKi  aemetimea  lUantly 
it.    Whether  d»vc 
rhjch  depends  solely 


number  of  eiiicriiDenim  gives  us 
Kl  DiAy  tie  calculated  upon  to  m 


:  Tliis  marki  the  amount 
»  »»».».»  -»w  H.  j».  »^*-  *-*  .,-TGim-ibicalhDld  for  hin. 
This  method  wu  first  employed  by  Fechna  and  VoUunano.  The 
dltrennt  mcihods  wen  firti  named,  and  the  theory  at  their  applica- 
ikin  denjoped  by  Fechner  in  his  Elanenlt  drr  Pajctapkyiik  (tKo). 
A  nuiAbkoC  eiperimentil  varutiona  have  n'mx  been  deidsed 
by  Wundl  and  others,  but  they  arv  oU  reducible  to  (he  two 
'ypo  of  the  ■■  gradation  "  and  "  error  "  methods.  These  meibods 
have  been  chiefly  applied  to  deicrmine  Ihc  rcLition  of  the 
difference-threshold  to  the  abnltite  magnitude  of  ihe  stimuli 
employed.    For  a  vay  little  reflection  teUs  ns  thai  the  snallest 

■Kghl  differences  in  weight  when  the  weights  compared  are  heaw, 
[hough  we  should  be  perfectly  able  lo  make  the  diiliaciiaii  if  Ibe 
weights  compared  wen  both  light.  Oidinaiy  observation  would 
lead  us,  therefore,  to  the  coflcluslon  that  the  greater  the  intensity 


rorli  the  gt      . 
er  was  the  ftna  jailer  i 


ating  Ihe  law  which  hu  sii 
le  smallest  r ■""  -■-" 

of  the  precedlnc  sti 


It  absolutely  the  same, 
uins  Ihe  same  fraction 

_, r--— w ,  -,  -     B can  distinguish  16 oa. 

and  17  oa..  we  shall  be  able  IQ  distinguish  3Joa.aTid34or.,  but  not 
3J  ot-  vA^V-jl^tjA&^n  being  laeadi  case  1^  ot  ihc  prKeding 
stlmuliH.  This  liactioa  [suppoahig  it  to  be  the  diflcrence-threshold 
'aTseme)TemafosaconBlanl,  however  lighf  or  however 

^ ..JghlBcompared.    llie law  may  be  formulated  thus: — 

The.  diFlerence  between  any  two  slimuli  is  eipetienced  aa  of  equal 

T-    ..      j_  .L_ 1.^ .:_..|     ™T,,!«..     -I     lliMA     ai:<n„u 


eipresied  by  Fechner  In  ibe  fornt— The  acasaiHn  lucieaaes  as  the 
Lwarithmoflhe  stimulus. 

T-belawhaaboeo  variously  inlerptiled.  Fechnei  himself  designated 
it  the  paycbo-phvsicallaw^ndtieatcd  it  aslhe  fundamental  foiTTiula 
of  the  relation  between  body  and  mind,  rhus  assLEumg  to  it  an 
ontologiol  dignity  and  aicaificance-   But  in  (his  "  psyi^bO'phvsinl  " 

Wundt  interpreti  (helaw  in  a  purely  "psychoCogical"  seme,  making 
it  a  special  instance  of  the  general  law  ol  relativity  which  governs 

(he  abaolule  intensity  of  Ihe  stimulus!  fnta  atiraulua  is  known  in 
conadousnesi  only  tbroi«h  its  senslional  resultant.  Hence,  be 
argues,  we  can  oiuy  compare  one  psychical  state  with  another,  and 
oursiantLajd  of  measurement  js  therefore  necesHaiily  a  relative  one; 
It  depentl*  diiecdy  upon  the  preceding  stale  with  which  we  compare 
(be  pnaemt.  Others  i^.  G.  E.  Mailer)  have  attempted  to  give  the 


.^ Others  (e.g.G.E.MiUler)  hi.  _ 

f  a  purety  physical  or  "  phyuolo^cal  "  CJi 

Jding  with  Fechner  that  the  law  eipresH .-  .- 

eiween  the  material  and  the  spiritual  woild,  (hey  prefer 

be  hiain  and  the  resultant  menul  change  as  prima  far 
imple  proportion,  and  to  treat  Weber's  law  as  holding  bet 

---il    phyHcal  sti" .,1.1  Ih>  f,r,,\  art,ni,  nf  ihi-  iw-rv. 


10  this 

(o  (he  m 

tmipnniry  degree 

p"rl. 

dmulau 
ousscim 

ubiion 

on 

uired  ID 

prodw 

Weber 

law.  il 

J.  hoi 

IiKho-c 

Imposinile.  libnolpracIicableiolimiiiheBmDun 
with  Ibe  Mceiaaiy  euclilude.  and  Ihe  multt  are 
by  Ihe  long  continuance  of  the  physiolosical  ellecis. 
tidetatHias  apply  with  still  man  lens  to  the  oigenic 


nately 


459 

w  COBpkttly 

>rauDutieiy[iue  in  me  case  Dj  sight.  heaKna 

affords  the  giealeftt  fadliTies  for  measuring 
I  stlimdDB.  il  may  perhaps  be  inferred  that, 

.  disturbing  ettianeoirs  influences  at  worfc, 

u-j.v.k iij  „j[jj,  itude  and  ctrlainiy. 

^en  id  these  senses  in  which 
la*  balds  with  stringent 

nmnteiKtintbeiiidtife 

we  appniadi  the  upper  or  kiwer 

""pnbUslied   Bs"Det 


Cemsngedlhl.  in  Wagner's  Htmilitirlirtiali 
S46).  Fschner'i  £ls>ieiil>it>rj'jyc*iifilniil  {iSsoj 
rale  eaposilion  of  Ihe  wbole  subject.  He  replied 
■o  laler  works,  h  SaiScm  itr  Piyelufkysik  (1877) 
iauHpmpkU  icr  Psyclmfkyiii  (l8gl).  DclblFura 
|iii(l87J),eiiusiisfril>jvid(ls  hi  pjjda>pl^l<u 
rail  Jt  piyOtftyiipit  gMnfc  d  ip&iale  MSji. 
■'•  Zur  CrutvUtt^i  irr  Piyilapkyiik  {i8t«)  are 
ocuments;  and  the  lubject  is  luUy  treated  in 
-r  der  physMotiukeit  Piyckthfie  (ed.  looj-toot). 
lethode  d.  MJniinalladerungen."  ID  Fj^.  StSd. 

U'^^.S^tetl.^^.  Seea!boLadd'si>Z™»- 
(1BS7),  which  is  baaed  upon  Wundt  1  Meinong.  in 
...Mnpc,  ai.  (18^)!  Ziehen,  LeWoitn  in  ftyii*- 
■tegii  Qlh  ed.,  Jena,  1906):  E.  B.  T1(chencr.  Etf€ri- 

:; ,.  i.^ , ,.,._...  ..  Aiteaipl  u 

ineially  text- 


SvpXJ 


B  Ward's  ' 

jkiof  psychoioEy.e.f. C  F.  Sioiil's  UoKmiot  Psytl .. 

7  (following  hreinone):  James's  Pnacifjjj  4Piytl,^ey-  th.  IJ! 
Ipe's  OUIiHi  a/  PiyAtlcir.  pan  i.  chap.  I  and  3.  (A.^.  P.-P.} 
m.  ALEXAHDBn  (i;o;-i7E4),  Scottish  writer  and 

nbuilfa  in  1707.  Having  become  a  mjnislei  in  (he 
chuicfa  of  Scotland,  be  propounded  a  scheme  In  1741  lorprovid- 
pcnsioni  for  Ihe  ividowj  of  ministers.  Hie  tables  which  he 
w  up  liom  inlormalion  obialntd  from  elt  Ihe  piesbylcries 
of  Scotland  were  based  on  a  syslem  of  actusrUl  calculalion  Ihat 
supplied  a  precedent  followed  by  insurance  companies  In  modern 
'  IT  reckoning  avciagia  of  longevity.  In  1755  the  govem- 
immissionfd  Webster  to  obtoLn  data  for  the  first  census 
of  Scotland,  which  he  catiied  out  In  Ibe  same  year.  In  i;s] 
:Ipclcd  modcraiot  of  Ihe  Genetal  Assembly;  in  i;;i 
he  was  appointed  a  dean  of  the  Chapel  Royal  and  chaplain  10 
jcorge  III.  In  ScDiIandi  and  be  died  on  (he  ijth  ol  januaiy 
:78*- 


from  .837; 
Olymiric,  Princess' 


of  a  dancing  maaier.     First 
in  small  parta  at  Dniiy  Lane, 

IS  the  lessee  of  Ihe  Haymaikel 
w  Adelphi  theatre  (1859);  laler  Ihe 


il  Jan 


of  all  the  contemporary  playwrights  and 
many  of  the  best  actors,  who  owed  lh«T  oppoilunity  ol  success 
ID  him.  As  ■  chaiaclei  actor  he  was  unequalled  in  hil  day, 
especially  fn  such  pans  as  Triplet  in  Jfoiili  and  Faai,  Joey 
Ladle  in  No  Thanntkfare,  and  John  Peerybinitle  in  his  own 
diamitizaiion  of  TIa  CtiettI  an  Jit  Sarlli.  He  wrote,  tnnt. 
lated  or  adB[>1ed  nearly  a  hundred  plays.  Webster  took  hii 
foimal  faiewell  of  Ihe  ilage  in  1874,  and  he  died  on  the  3rd  ol 
July  18S1,  His  daughter,  Hairielle  Georeiana  (d,  1897),  was 
Ihe  lirsl  viit  of  Edward  Levy-Lawson,  isl  baron  Bumham; 
and  his  son,  W.  S.  Webster,  had  three  children— Beniam in 
Webster  (b.  i«64;  married  to  Misa  May  Whitby),  Annie  (Mrs 
A.  E.  George)  and  Unie  (Mo  Sydney  Brough>— all  sell  known 
on  the  London  stage,  and  funhei  connccled  with  it  in  each  case 
bym 


460 


WEBSTER,  D. 


18th  of  January  178a.  He  was  a  descendant  of  Tbomas  Webster, 
of  Scottish  ancestry,  who  settled  in  New  Hampshire  about  1636. 
His  father,  Ebeneter  Webster  (i  739-1806),  was  a  sturdy  fronticrs- 
man;  when,  in  1763,  he  built  his  log  cabin  in  the  town  of  Salis- 
buiy  there  was  no  habitation  between  him  and  Canada.  He 
was  a  member  of  Rogers'  Rangers  in  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
icrved  in  the  War  of  Independence,  was  for  several  years  a 
member  of  the  New  Hampshire  legislature,  was  a  delegate  to 
the  New  Hampshire  convention  which  ratified  the  Federal 
constitution,  and  was  a  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  for 
his  county.  Daniel  was  a. frail  but  clever  child,  and  his  family 
made  great  sacrifices  to  give  him  and  his  elder  brother  Ezekiel 
a  good  education.  He  attended  Phillips  Exeter  Academy 
about  nine  months  in  1794,  was  further  prepared  for  college 
by  Dr  Samuel  Wood,  the  minister  at  Boscawen,  and  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  i8oi.-  He  was  chosen  Fourth  of  July 
orator  in  Hanover,  the  college  town,  in  1800,  and  in  his  speech 
appears  the  substance  of  the  political  principles  for  the  develop- 
ment of  which  he  is  chiefly  famous.  After  graduation  he  began 
the  study  of  law  in  his  native  town.  When  in  the  following 
winter  money  had  to  be  earned  to  enable  Ezekiel  to  remain  in 
college,  Daftid  accepted  the  principalship  of  the  academy  at 
Fryeburga  Maine;  but  he  resumed  his  law  studies  in  the  foUow- 
ing  year,  and  in  1804,  with  Ezekicl's  assistance,  he  was  enabled 
to  go  to  Boston  and  conclude  his  studies  under  Christopher 
Gore  (1758-1827),  later  governor  of  Massachusetts  (1809-1810) 
and  a  U.S.  senator  (1813-1816).  Admitted  to  the  bar  in  Boston 
in  1805,  Webster  began  the  practice  of  law  at  Boscawen,  but  his 
father  died  a  year  later,  and  Webster  removed  in  the  autumn 
of  1807  to  Portsmouth,  then  one  of  the  leading  commercial 
dties  of  New  England.  Here  he  rose  rapidly  to  eminence  both 
at  the  bar  and  in  politics. 

{  His  political  career  began  in  earnest  at  the  opening  of  the  War 
of  181  a.  He  led  the  opix>sition  in  his  state  to  the  policy  of 
Madison's  administration,  was  elected  by  the  Federalists  a 
member  of  the  National  House  of  Representatives,  and  took 
his  seat  in  May  1813.  Henry  Clay,  the  speaker,  appointed  him 
a  member  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations,  of  which 
John  C.  Calhoun  was  chairman,  and  for  some  forty  years  these 
three  constituted-  a  great  triumvirate  in  American  politics. 
Webster  had  been  in  the  House  less  than  three  weeks  when  he 
greatly  embarrassed  the  administration  by  introdudng  a  set 
of  resolutions  asking  for  information  relating  to  the  immlKliate 
cause  of  the  war.  In  January  1814,  when  a  bill  to  encourage 
enlistments  was  before  the  House,  he  attacked  the  conduct  of 
the  war  in  his  first  great  ^>eech.  An  even  more  fordble  speech, 
ddivered  later  in  the  same  sosion,  in  support  of  a  bill  for  repeal- 
ing the  embargo  and  non-importation  acts,  marked  him  as  one 
of  the  foremost  men  in  Congress.  He  successfully  opposed  a 
bill  providing  for  what  would  have  been  practically  an  irredeem- 
able currency,  and  he  voted  against  the  bill  for  chartering  the 
second  United  States  bank,  although  it  provided  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  bank  notes  in  specie,  because  he  objected  to  permitting 
the  government  to  have  so  large  a  share  in  its  management. 
Webster  removed  to  Boston  in  June  x8i6.  This  cost  him  his 
teat  in  Congress  after  the  4th  of  March  1817,  and  for  the  next  six 
years  he  was  engaged  chiefly  in  the  practice  of  law  in  the  courts 
of  Massachusetts  and  before  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court. 

His  first  leading  case  before  the  Supreme  Court  was  the 
Dartmouth  College  Case.  In  181 5,  when  the  Dartmouth  board 
of  trustees  was  rent  by  factions,  the  majority,  who  were  Federal- 
ists and  COngFcgationalists,  removed  the  president,  John 
Whedock,  who  was  a  Presbyterian,  and  appointed  Francis 
Brown  in  his  place.  Wheelock  appealed  to  the  legislature  in 
the  following  year,  when  it  was  strongly  Republican,  and  that 
body  responded  by  passing  acta  which  virtually  repealed  the 
charter  received  from  George  III.,  created  a  state  university, 
placed  Wheelock  at  its  head,  and  transferred  to  it  the  property 
of  the  college.  The  case  came  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  New 
Hampshire  in  May  1817.  Jeremiah  Mason  (1768-1848),  a  lawyer 
of  the  fiist  rank,  Jeremiah  Smith  and  Webster  appeared  for 
tkm  calkii,  and  Aifood  that  these  acu  were  invalid  because 


they  were  not  within  the  general  scope  of  the  feg^ture's  poncf^ 
because  they  violated  provisions  of  the  slate  constitution  and 
because  they  violated  the  dause  of  the  Federal  Constitution 
which  prohibits  a  state  from  impairing  the  obli^tion  €A  contracti 
but  the  court  dedded  against  them.  On  the  last  point,  however, 
the  case  was  carried  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
and  there  Webster,  presenting  prindpally  argumtottf  of  his 
colleagues  at  the  state  trial  and  making  a  powerful  appeal  to 
the  emotions  of  the  court,  won  the  case  for  the  college  and  for 
himself  the  front  rank  at  the  American  bar.  The  result,  too, 
vindicating  as  it  did  the  supremacy  of  the  Constitution  ol  the 
United  States,  was  a  substantial  gain  for  that  nationalism  wUdi 
Webster  advocated  in  his  first  Fourth  of  July  oration  at  Hanover, 
and  the  promotion  of  which  was  for  the  remainder  of  his  career 
his  principal  service  to  his  country.  His  next  great  case  was  that 
of  M'CuUock  V.  Maryland  Maryland  had  »n^pow^  a  tax  upon 
the  Baltimore  branch  of  the  Baink  of  the  United  States;  The 
Maryland  Court  of  Appeals  sustained  the  validity  of  this  act. 
Webster,  supported  by  William  Pinkney  and  William  Wirt, 
argued  in  February  18x9,  (i)  that  the  power  to  establish  a  bank 
was  to  be  implied  from  the  genenil  power  given  to  Congress  to 
administer  the  financial  affairs  of  the  nation,  and  was  a  means 
of  administering  the  finances  which  was  appropriate  and  within 
the  discretion  of  Congress;  (a)  that "  the  power  to  tax  is  the  power 
to  destroy,"  and  that  a  state  had  not  the  constitutional  power 
to  impose  a  tax  upon  any  instrumentality  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States.  The  Supreme  Court  sustained  these  aigu- 
ments  and  the  act  of  Maryland  was  hdd  to  be  void.  Four  years 
later  (1823)  Webster  argued  the  case  of  Gibbons  v.  Ogden.  The 
state  of  New  York,  in  order  to  reward  the  enterprise  of  Robert 
R.  Livingston  and  the  inventive  genius  of  Robert  Eulton  in  the 
application  of  the  steam  engine  to  traffic  on  the  water,  had  given 
to  them  a  monopoly  of  all  transportation  by  steam  within  the 
waters  of  New  York.  The  highest  court  of  that  state  sustained 
the  validity  of  the  monopoly.  Gibbons,  who  had  begun  to  run 
a  steamboat  from  New  Jersey,  appealed  to  the  Supreme  Court. 
Webster  argued  that  the  Federal  Constitution  gave  to  Congress 
control  over  interstate  commerce,  and  that  aiiy  interference 
by  the  legislature  of  a  state  with  tills  commerce  was  unconstitu- 
tional and  void.  The  Supreme  Court  so  held;  its  opinion, 
written  by  Chief  Justice  Marshall,  being  little  else  than  a  recital 
of  Webster's  argument.  In  the  case  of  Ogden  v.  SaunderSt 
heard  in  1824  and  reheard  in  1827,  in  which  the  question  was  the 
validity  or  invalidity  of  the  insolvent  laws  of  the  several  states, 
Webster  argued  that  the  clause  prohibiting  a  state  from  impairing 
the  obligation  of  contracts  applied  to  future  as  well  as  to  past 
contracts,  but  the  court  dcddcd  against  him. 

Meanwhile  Webster  had  come  to  be  recognized  as  the  first 
American  orator.  His  oration  at  Plymouth,  on  the  22nd  of 
December  1820,  on  the  second  centennial  anniversary  of  thi 
landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  placed  him  in  this  rank.  No  man 
mastered  more  thoroughly  the  fundamental  prindples  of  govern- 
ment  and  the  currents  of  feeling  which  influence  the  destiny  01 
nations.  His  oration  in  1825  at  the  laying  of  the  corner  stone 
of  the  Bunker  Hill  monument  contained  perhaps  the  clearest 
statement  to  be  found  anywhere  of  the  principles  underlying 
the  American  War  of  Independence.  In  the  following  ye«J 
Webster  delivered  his  oration  in  commemoration  of  the  second 
and  third  presidents  of  the  United  States— John  Adams  and 
Thomas  Jefferson — who  died  on  the  4th  of  July  1826;  U^ 
particularly  remarkable  for  Adams's  imaginary  reply  in  the 
Continental  Congress  to  the  arguments  against  a  Declar^joa 
of  Independence,  beginning  with  the  familiar  quotation:  '*^*^ 
or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  gave  my  hand  and 
my '  heart  to  this  vole."  Webster's  physical  endowments  as 
an  orator  were  extraordinary.  Thomas  Carlyle  thus  descnbo 
him  as  he  appeared  in  London  in  1839. 

"  Not  many  days  ago  I  saw  at  breakfast  the  notablcst  of  yojjj 
notabilities.  Daniel  Webster.  He  is  a  magnificent  specimen.  »« 
might  say  to  all  the  worid,  '  This  is  our  Yankee  Englishman,  »u^ 
limbs  we  make  ih  Yankee  land ! '  As  a  logic  fencer,  or  pariiamenury 
Hercules,  one  would  bo  inclined  to  back  him  at  first  sight  V*^^^^ 
the  extant  world.  The  tanned  complexion,  that  Amocpbous  car"* 


WEBSTER,  D. 


461 


fiee;  the  ^IbII  black  eyes  nmkr  the  pncipice  of  brows,  like  dull 
•nthracite  furnaces,  needing  only  to  oe  bhwn',  the  mastiff  mouth 
accufately  dosed;  I  have  not  traced  so  much  of  siUnl  Btrserkir 
fOfe  that  I  remember  in  any  nuo." 

In  1830  Webster  took  an  important  part 'in  the  convention 
called  to  revise  the  constitution  of  Massachusetts,  his  arguments 
ia  favour  of  lenMmng  the  religious  test,  in  favour  of  retaining 
property  representation  in  the  Senate,  and  in  favour  M 
increasmg  the  independence  of  the  judiciary,  being  eapeciaUy 
notable.  He  was  a  member  of  the  National  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives from  1833  to  1827  and  of  the  Senate  from  1827  to 
1841.  Soon  after  returning  to  the  House  he  supported  in  a 
notable  speech  a  resolution  to  send  a  comndssioner  to  Greece, 
then  in  insunectioii.  t 

The  tarifi^ras  to  him  a  distasteful  subject,  and  he  was  governed 
in  his  attitude  toward  it  largely  by  the  wishes  of  the  majority 
of  Ilia  oonatituents.  He  opposed  the  tariff  bill  of  18x6  and  in 
1824,  and  he  repudiated  the  name  of  "  American  qrstem," 
daJSooed  by  Clay  for  his  system  of  protection.  When,  however, 
the  tariff  bill  of  1828,  which  was  stlU  more  protective,  came  up 
for  discussion,  Webster  had  ceased  to  oppose  protection;  but 
he  did  not  attempt  to  argue  in  fiavoor  of  it.  He  stated  that 
his  people,  after  giving  waniing  in  1834  that  th^  would  consider 
protection  the  policy  c^  the  Government,  had  gone  into  protected 
manufactures,  and  he  now  asked  that  that  policy  be  not  reversed 
to  tfafe  injury  of  his  constituents.  In  later  speeches,  too,  he 
defended  protection  rather  as  a  policy  under  which  industries 
had  been  called  into  being  than  as  advisable  if  the  stage  had  been 
clear  for  the  adoption  of  a  new  poliqr. 

The  tariff  of  1828  aroused  bitter  opposition  m  South  Caiolina, 
and  called  from  Vice-President  Calhoun  the  statemtot  of  the 
doctrine  of  nullification  which  was  adopted  by  the  South  Carolina 
legislature  at  the  dose  of  the  year  and  is  known  as  the  South 
Carolina  Exposition.  Senator  Robert  Y.  Hayne,  from  the  same 
state,  voiced  this  doctrine  in  the  Senate,  and  Webster^s  reply 
was  las  most  powerful  exposition  of  the  national  conception 
of  the  Union.  The  occasion  of  this  famous  Webster-Ibiyne 
debate  was  the  introduction  by  Senator  Samuel  A.  Foote  (1780- 
i846)of  Connecticut  of  a  resolution  of  inquiry  into  the  expediency 
of  restricting  the  sales  of  the  Western  knds.  This  was  on  the 
sgth  of  December  1829,  and  after  Senator  Benton  of  Missouri 
had  denounced  the  resolution  as  one  inspired  by  hatred  of  the 
East  for  the  West,  Hayne,  on  the  19th  of  January  1830,  made 
a  vigorous  attack  on  New  England,  and  dedared  his  opposition 
to  a  permanent  revenue  from  the  public  lands  or  any  other 
source  oli  the  ground  that  it  would  promote  corruption  and  the 
consolidation  of  the  government  and  **  be  fatal  to  the  sovereignty 
and  independence  of  the  states/'  Webster's  brief  reply  drew 
from  Hayne  a  second  speech,  in  which  he  entered  into  a  full 
exposition  of  the  doctrine  of  nulUfidition,  and  the  important 
part  of  Webster's  second  reply  to  Hayne  on  the  96th  and  37tfa 
of  January  is  a  mas^ly  reposition  of  the  Constitution  as  in 
his  opinion  it  had  come  to  be  after  a  development  of  more 
than  forty  years.  He  showed  the  revolutionary  and  unpractical 
character  of  any  doctrine  such  as  nulUficatiiw  iq.v.)  based  on  the 
assumption  that  the  general  government  was  the  agent  of  the 
state  legislatures.  It  placed  the  general  government,  he  said, 
in  the  absurd  portion  of  a  "  servant  of  four-and-twenty  masters, 
of  different  wflls  and  differenfpuiposes,  and  yet  bound  to  obey 
aO."  He  then  argued  at  length  that  the  correct  assiunption  was 
that  both  the  general  government  and  the  state  government 
were  "  all  dgents  of  the  same  supreme  power,  the  peofde,"  that 
the  people  had  established  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  and  that  in  the  Supreme  Court,  established  under  that 
Constitution,  was  vested  the  final  decision  on  all  constitutional 
questions.  Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  original  creation  of 
the  Constitution^  whether  by  the  states  or  by  the  people,  its 
development  under  the  influences  of  a  growing  nationalism 
was  a  strong  support  to  Webster's  argument,  and  no  other 
speech  so  strengthened  Union  sentiment  throughout  the  North; 
its  keynote  was  "  Liberty  and  Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and 
inseparable."   South  Carolina,  however,  inasted  that  its  doctrino 


was  sound,  and  in  November  1832  passed  an  orditoaiioe  dedaiing 
the  revenue  laws  of  the  United  States  null  and  void.  I*resident 
Jackson  responded  with  a  prodamation  denying  the  right  of 
nullification,  and  asked  Congress  for  authority  to  collect  the 
revenue  in  South  CUolini  by  force  if  necessaxy.  A  bill,  known 
as  the  Force  Bill,  was  introduced  in  the  Senate,  and  hi  the 
debate  upon  it  Webster  had  an  cnoountto  with  Calhoun.  His 
feply  t6  Qdhoun,  printed  as  **  The  Constitution  not  a  compact 
between  sovereign  States,"  is  one  of  his  closest  legal  aiguments, 
but  somewhat  overmatched  by  the  keen  logic  of  his  adversary. : 

Webster's  support  of  President  Jackson  in  the  South  purolbia 
trouble  helped  to  drive  Calhoun  into  an  alliance  with  Clay,  and 
Clay,  whose  plan  of  preserving  the  Union  was  by  compromise, 
came  forward  with  a  1^  for  greatly  reducing  the  turiff.  Webstei^ 
strongly  opposed  to  yielding  in  this  way,  made  a  vigorous  speech 
against  the  bill,  but  it  passed  and  South  Carolina  claimed  a 
victory.  In  the  same  year  (1833)  the  Whig  party  began  to  take 
definite  form  under  the  leadership  of  CUty,  in  opposition,  chiefly, 
to  President  Jackson's  bank  policy,  and  Webster  joined  the 
ranks  behind  Oay  with  an  aspiration  for  the  presidency.  He 
was  formally  nominated  for  that  ofiice  by  the  Massachusetts 
legislature  in  1835,  and  received  the  dectonl  vote  of  that  state, 
but  of  that  state  only.  Four  years  later  his  party  passed  him 
by  for  William  Henry  Harrison,  the  hero  of  Tippecanoe,  and 
Webster  refused  the  proffered  nomination  for  vice-president. 

President  Harrison  appointed  Webster  secretary  of  state  but 
died  one  month  after  taking  office.  John  Tyler,  who  succeeded 
to  the  presidency,  was  soon  "  read  out  of  his  party,"  and  al 
his  cabinet  except  Webster  resigned.  Webster  hesitated,  but 
after  consultation  with  a  ddegation  <rf  Massadiusetts  Whigs 
dedded  to  remain.  Although  he  was  severdy  criticised-  there 
were  good  reasons  for  his  dedson.  When  he  entered  office  the 
relations  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  were 
critical.  The  MXeod  case^  in  which  the  state  of  New  York 
insisted  on  tryuig  a  British  subject,  with  v^oae  trial  the  Fedora! 
govemmoit  had  no  power  to  interfere,  while  the  British  govern* 
ment  had  dedared  that  it  would  consider  conviction  and  execo* 
tion  a  casus  beUi;  the  exercise  of  the  hateful  right  ci  search  by 
British  vessels  on  the  coast  of  Africa;  the  Maine  boundary^ 
as  to  whidi  the  action  of  a  state  might  at  any  time  bring  the 
Federal  government  into  armed  collision  with  Great  Britain— 
all  these  at  once,  met  the  new  secretary,  and  he  fdt  that  he  had 
no  right  to  abandon  his  work  for  party  reasons.  With  the  special 
commissioner  from  Great  Britain,  Lord  Ashburton,  heconduded 
the  treaty  of  1842  known  as  the  Webstef-Adiburton  Treaty. 
Differences  arisingout  of  theM'Leod  case  were  adjusted  by  extend-^ 
ing  the  prindple  of  extradition.  The  question  of  the  suppressioti 
of  the  African  dave  trade,  with  which  was  connected  the  right 
of  search,  was  settled  by  an  agreement  that  each  nation  should 
keep  in  service  off  the  coast  of  Africa  a  squadron  carrying  not 
fewer  than  eighty  guns,  and  that  the  two  squadrons  should  act 
in  concert  when  necessary.  The  North-east  boundary  diq^Ute 
was  settled  by  a  compromise  which  allowed  Maine  alxjut  5500 
sq.  m.  less  than  she  had  claimed,  and  allowed  Great  Britain 
about  as  much  less  on  her  claim,  and  by  an  agreement  on  the 
part  of  the  government  of  the  United  States  to  pay  to  Maine 
and  Massachusetts  "  in  equal  moieties  "  the  sum  of  $300,000 
for  their  assent  (see  Maine). 

Immediatdy  after  the  treaty  had  been  conduded  the  Whigs 
insisted  that  Webster  should  leave  the  cabinet.  He  refused^ 
for  a  time,  to  be  driven,  but  because  of  their  continued  attacks^ 
together  with  his  ambition  to  become  president,  and  because 
Tyler  favoured  the  annexation  of  Texas  while  he  was  opposed 
to  it,  he  resigned  in  May  1843.  He  was  forgiven  by  his  party 
in  the  following  year,  but  not  until  the  opposition,  prov<^ed 
by  the  retention  of  his  podtion  under  Tyler,  had  ruined  whatever 

'  This  easel  grew  out  of  the  Canadian  rebellion  of  1837.  Alexander 
M'Leod  bosuted  in  November  1640  that  he  was  one  of  a  Canadian 
party  who,  on  the  29th  of  December  1837,  had  captured  and  burned 
a  small  American  steamboat,  the  "  Caroline,"  and  in  the  course  of 
the  attack  had  shot  Amos  Durfee.  The  Canadian  commander 
had  r^axded  the'*  CaxoUne "  as  bdng  in  the  aervice  of  the  insurgents 
and  had  asked  for  volnnteen  to  destroy  her  (see  Sswaap,  W.  H.)^ 


462 


WEBSTER,  J. 


duuKe  lie  might  have  h&d  in  th«t  year  of  receiving  the  presidential 
nomination.  In  June  1843,  on  the  occasion  of  the  comi^etion 
of  tlie  BunlLer  HIU  monument,  Webster  delivered  another  classic 
wation.  In  February  1844  he  argued  the  Girard  Will  Case 
before  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  StQ>hen  Girard  (9.0.) 
had  devised  and  bequeathed  the  residue  of  his  estate  for  the 
establishment  and  maintenanoe  of  Girard'CoUege,  in  which  no 
minister  of  the  Gospel  of  any  sect  or  denomination  whatever 
should  be  admitted.  The  suit  was  brought  to  break  the  will, 
and  Webster,  for  the  plamtilb,  after  stating  that  the  devise 
could  stand  only  on  condition  that  it  mi  a  charity,  axgucd 
that  it  was  not  a  charity  beoause  no  teaching  was  such  except 
Christian  teadiing.  He  made  an  eloquent  plea  for  Christianity, 
but  his  case  was  weak  in  law,  and  the  court  sustained  the  will. 

Webster  was  retumedto  the  Senate  in  1845.  He  opposed  the 
annexation  of  Texas  and  the  Mexican  War,  and  was,  as  before, 
the  recognized  spokesman  of  his  party.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
quarrel  of  the  North  and  the  South  over  the  oiganization  of  the 
territoiy  acquired  from  Mexico,  Calhoun  contended  that  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  extended  over  this  territory 
and  csxried  slavery  with  it,  but  Webster  denied  this  on  the 
ground  that  the  territory  was  the  property  of,  not  part  of,  the 
United  Sutes,  and  Webster's  view  prevailedi  The  yrhfAt  matter 
bad,  therefor^,  to  be  adjusted  by  Congress,  and  as  the  growing 
intensity  of  the  quarrel  revealed  the  depth  of  the  chasm  between 
the  sections.  Gay  came  forward  with  the  famous  Compromise  of 
1850,  and  Webstor's  last  great  speech—"  The  Constitution  and  the 
Union,"  or  as  it  is  more  commonly  known  "  The  Seventh  of  March 
Speech  " — ^was  in  support  of  this  Compromise.  It  was  a  noble 
effort  to  secure  a  lasting  settlement  of  the  slavery  question,  but 
he  was  bitteriy  denounced  throughout  the  north  as  a  renegade.  In 
July  1850  Webster  again  became  secretary  of  state,  in  the  cabinet 
of  President  Fillmore.  Perhaps  the  niost^  important  act  of  his 
second  term  was  obtaining  the  release  of  Kossuth  and  other  Hun- 
garian refugees  who  had  fled  to  Turkey,  and  whose  surrender  had 
been  demanded  by  the  Austrian  government.  He  died  at  his 
home  in  Marshfield,  Massachusetts,  on  the  24th  of  October  1852. 
Webster  was  twice  married—first  in  1808  to  Grace,  daughter 
of  Rev.  Elijah  Fletcher,  a  New  Hampshire  clergyman.  She  died 
in  1828,  leaving  two  sons,  Daniel  Fletcher,  killed  in  the  second 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  Edward,  a  major  in  the  United  States 
army » who  died  while  serving  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  a  daughter 
Julia,  who  married  Samuel  Appleton.  Webster's  second  wife  was 
Caroline  Le  Rcy>  daughter  of  Jacob  Le  R(>y,  a  New  York 
merchant.  He  was  mairied  to  her  in  1829  and  she  survived  him. 

The  universal  expression  of  respect  and  admiration  at  the  time 
of  Webster's  death  showed  that  he  had  retained  the  con^dence 
ol  his  people.  Never,  since  the  death  of  Washington,  had  there 
been  in  the  United  States  such  a  universal  expression  of  public 
soiTOw  and  bereavement.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the 
conviction  of  the  justice  of  their  cause  that  carried  the  northern 
states  successfully  throui^  the  Dvil  War  was  largely  due  to  the 
arguments  of  Webster.  He  had  convinced  the  majority  of  the 
people  that  the  government  created  by  the  Constitution  was  not 
a  league  or  confederacy,  hut  a  Union,  and  had  all  the  powers 
necessary  to  ita  maintenance  and  preservation.  He  had  con- 
vinced the  Supreme  Court,  and  established  the  principle  in 
American  jurisprudence,  that  whenever  a  power  is  grantied  by  a 
Constitution,  everything  that  is  fairly  and  reasonably  involved 
in  the  exercise  of  that  power  is  grantnl'also.  He  established  the 
freedom  of  the  instrumentaUtiea  of  the  national  government 
from  adverse  legislation  by  the  states;  freedom  of  commerce 
between  the  different  sUtes;  the  right  of  Congress  to  regulate 
the  entire  passenger  traffic  through  and  from  the  United  States, 
and  the  sacredness  of  public  franchises  from  legislative  assault. 
Tht  establishment  of  these  principles  was  essential  to  the  integrity 
and  permanence  of  the  American  Union. 

BiBuocRAPHY.— rft<  Works  of  Danid  WebsUr  C6  vols.,  Boston, 
185:)  contain  a  bioeraphical  memoir  hy  Edwaid  Everett;  G.  T. 
Curtis.  Life  of  Danul  WebsUr  (2  vols..  New  York.  1870)  is  the  most 
oumplete  biography,  but  it  is  written  wholly  from  an  admirer's 
point  of  view.  See  aiao  J.  W.  Mclntyre  (cd.)jWritings  and  Speeches 
^  Danid  WebsUr  (i&  voli..  Boston,  1903);  Fletcher  Webster  (ed.), 


Danid  Webster' t  Private  Correspondenu  (2  volt.,.Boeton,  l8s7)l  H.  C 
Lodge,  Danid  WebsUr  (Boston .  1899) ;  J.  B.  McMatter.  DamdWebsUi 
(New  York.  1902);  E.  P.  Wheeler.  Danid  WthsUr,  iia  Expomider 
of  the  Consiilutum  (New  York.  1905) :  S.  W.  McCaU.  Danid  WduUf 
(Boston,  1902);  and  Norman  Hapgood.  Danid  WebsUr  (Boston, 
1899).  (E.P.W.:X.) 

WEBSTER,  JOHH  (fl.  1602-1624),  English  dramatist,  was  a 
"Writer  for  the  stage  in  the  year  r6o2,  when  he  had  a  share  in  three 
plays  noted  by  Philip  Henslow,  and  he  published  in  1624  the 
dty  pageant  for  that  year,  "  invented  and  written  by  John 
Webber,  merchant-tailor."  In  the  same  year  a  tragedy  by 
Ford  and  -Webster,  A  laU  Murther  of  Uic  Sonn  upom  the  Mother, 
was  licensed  for  the  stage;  it  is  one  6f  the  numberless  treasures 
now  lost  to  us  through  the  carelessness  of  genius  or  the  malignity 
of  chance.  Beyond  the  period  included  between  these  two  dates 
there  are  no  traces  to  be  found  of  his  existence;  nor  is  anything 
known  of  it  with  any  certainty  during  that  period,  excq>t  that 
seven  plays  appeared  with  his  luune  on  the  title  page,  three  of 
them  only  the  work  of  his  unassisted  hand.  He  was  the  author 
of  certain  additions  to  Marston's  tragi-comedy  of  Tke  Uakonknl 
(1604);  these  probably  do  not  extend  beyond  the  induction,  a 
curious  and  vivacious  prelude  to  a  powerful  and  irregular  «ork 
of  somewhat  morbid  and  sardonic  genius.  Three  years  later,  in 
1607,  two  comedies  and  a  tragedy,  "  written  by  Thomas  Dekker 
and  Jfohn  Webster,"  were  given  to  the  press.  The  comedies  are 
lively  and  humorous,  full  of  movement  and  incident;  but  the 
beautiful  interlude  of  poetry  which  distinguishes  the  second 
scene  of  the  fourth  act  of  Watward  Hoi  is  unmislakab^  and 
unquestionably  the  work  of  Dekker;  while  the  compsnion 
comedy  of  Northward  Hoi  b  composed  throughout  of  home^tm 
and  coarse-giained  prose.  The  Famotu  History  of  Sir  Thomas 
Wyatt  is  apparently  a  most  awkward  and  injurious  abridgment 
of  an  historical  play  in  two  parts  on  a  pathetic  but  undramatic 
subject,  the  fate  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.  In  this  lost  play  of  Lady 
Jane  (noted  by  Henslow  in  1602)  Heywood,  Dekker,  Chettle  snd 
Smith  had  also  taken  part;  so  that  even  in  its  original  form  it 
can  hanUy  have  been  other  than  a  rough  piece  of  patchwork. 
There  are  some  touches  of  simple  eloquence  and  rude  dramatic 
ability  in  the  mangled  and  corrupt  residue  which  is  all  that 
survives  of  it;  but  on  the  whole  this  "  history  "  is  crude,  meagre, 
and  unimpressive.  In  16x2  John  Webster  stood  revealed  to  the 
then  somewhat  narrow  world  of  readers  as  a  tragic  poet  and 
dramatist  of  the  very  foremost  rank  in  the  very  Ughest  class. 
The  White  Devil,  also  known  as  VUtoria  Corombona^  is  a  tragedy 
based  on  events  then  comparatively  recent — on  a  chronicle 
of  crime  and  retribution  in  which  the  leading  circumstances 
were  altered  and  adapted  with  the  most  delicate  art  and  the  most 
consummate  judgment  from  the  incompleteness  of  incomposite 
reality  to  the  requisites  of  the  stage  of  Shakespeare.  By  him 
alone  among  Engliah  poets  have  the  finest  scenes  apd  passages  of 
this  tragedy  been  ever  surpassed  or  equalled  in  the  crowning 
qualities  of  tragic  or  dramatic  poetry — ^in  pathos  and  passion, 
in  subtlety  and  strength,  in  harmonious  variety  of  art  and 
infallible  fidelity  to  nature.  Eleven  years  had  elapsed  when  the 
twin  masterpiece  of  its  author— if  not  indeed  a  still  greater  or 
more  absolute  masterpiece — ^was  published  by  the  poet  who  had 
given  it  to  the  stage  seven  years  before.  The  Duchess  of  Malfy ' 
(an  Anglidxed  version  of  Amalfi,  conesponding  to  such  designa- 
tions as  Florence,  Venice  and  Naples)  was  probably  brought  on 
the  stage  about  the  time  of  the  death  of  Shakespeare;  it  was 
first  printed  in  the  memorable  year  which  witnessed  the  first 
publication  of  his  collected  plays.  This  tragedy  stands  out  among 
its  compeers  as  one  of  the  imperishable  and  ineradicable  land> 
marks  of  literature.  All  the  great  qualities  apparent  in  The  White 
Devil  reappear  in  The  Duchess  of  Malfy,  combined  with  a  yet  more 
perfect  execution,  and  utilized'  with  a  yet  more  consummate 

>  The  Whiu  Divd\    or.  The  Trantdy  of  Paula  Giordano  Vrsini, 

Duke  of  Brachiano,  with  the  Life  and  Dealh  of  VUtoria  Corombona, 

the  famous  Venetian  Curtisan  (1612).    Other  editions,  with  varying 

title-pages,  1631.  1665,  1672.  ^        _ 

*  ne  DuUhess  of  Malfey,  A  Tragedy.    As  U  was  approeedly  wdl 

acted  at  Btachf tiers  .  .  .  (1623).    The  plot  is  uken  from  a  novd 

I  by  BandeUo,  and  is  also  the  subject  of  a  tragedy  by  Cope  de  Vcgat 

I  £/  Mayor  Domo  de  la  duquessa  d  Amalfi. 


WEBSTER,  N.— WEBSTER,  T. 


4.63 


iLitl.    Ho  poet  liu  ever  m  bug  uid 

■t  LSeir  utmost  beiehl  *Dd  intensity  the  eipresed  emoucm  and 
tfeeiuutedeflecUolterTOiandpit]'.  Tlie titmsceadent imagiiiB- 
tioo  ukI  the  impoAaiooBd  ftympntby  nbkh  jospire  this  moat 
tngic  of  ill  tngedies  save  King  Uar  ire  fused  together  in  the 
fourth  act  into  s  crektion  which  has  hardly  been  eiidled  for 
unflagging  etierjy  of  impiESska  and  of  pathos  in  all  ths  diamatic 
01  poclk  litenlnre  oi  the  innld.  Its  wild  and  fearful  subliinity 
o(  iaveniion  is  not  more  exceptional  than  the  exquisite  justice 
sad  tcaderncss  and  subtlety  of  Its  eipiession.    Some  of  these 

ditkmed  tnigi-comedy  i^ich  was  printed  in  the  same  year;  but 
few  readers  will  care  to  lemember  much  more  of  Tin  Dail'i  Laa 
Oat  than  the  sdmi: 


(.654)  th 


W— ■  work  which  w 


ig  and  untieing  sight  of  Weiater'a  Ant  and  final. 
i>mmaicatar,CbatlHLamb.  Thir^-one  yearslater 
iBtragedyof^Jfi  


poetry  a: 


'Ofitj 


luthor 


le  have  uffifed  tc 


5  0fEt,g 


Its  Dest.  ^jevtn  years  alterwarda  an  unpnndpled 
It  bookseller  published,  under  the  tide  of  Tiai  Sea 
Ploya;  lis.  A  Cure  jet  a  Cuckold:  a  Cameiy.  Tke  Tktacini 
Wonder^  A  Comual  History,  As  if  AaA  been  tetrral  timer  acted 
wsfAfru/i^^^Bis,  twopliysoCwhiehheasigiiedtheauthOTship 
to  John  Webster  and  William  Rowley.  This  atliibution  may 
ct  may  not  be  accurate;  [he  former  plsy  Is  a  miiture  of  coarsely 
realistic  farce  and  gracefully  romantic  comedy.  An  elegy  on 
Henry,  prince  o(  Wales,and  a  lew  slight  occasional  verses,  com- 
pose the  rest  of  Webster's  remaining  extant  works; 

{Edward  RiiUips,  in  bis  Theatnm  ptttarum,  wrongly  attri- 
buted to  him  a  share  io  Tkt  Weakal  /oa  lo  lit  WaU.  The  play 
of  Caisi,  mentioned  by  Webster  himiclf  in  the  introduaion  to 
Tke  OnTi  Laa  Coit,  i»  lost.l 

Webster's  claims  to  »  pUce  among  tbe  chieE  writers  of  his 
oountry  were  ignored  for  upwards  of  two  centuries.  In  1B30 
the  Rev.  Alexander  Dyce  Ent  coUecled  and  edited  the  works 
of  a  poet  who  bad  found  his  first  adequate  recognition  twcmy- 

0  years  earlier  at  the  pious  and  fortunate  hands  of  Lamb. 


knowledge  d1 


lis  long  delay  in  the  paymf 


I  ol  a  debi 


a  fore- 


oe  distressed  the  mjod  of  the  man  who 
lias  given  us  Ihe  clue  to  his  nature  in  a  single  and  an  impeiishable 
•enlence— "  I  test  ailenl  in  my  own  woik."  (A.  C.  S.) 

-  See  Tin  IVorkiof  Jolm  Wehiltr;  mik  anu  Aecmait  eS  Ot  AnOur 
and  Hclti,  by  Alexander  Dyce  (new  ed.,  iSST)  i  Tkt  Dramalu  Werkt 
■f  Jirkn  Wtiiltr,  edited  by  WiUiani  Hailin  the  younger  (lesT); 
Tkt  But  Play  ef  WetiUrMHd  Timnmr,  edited  by  J.  A.  Synimids 
forthe"  Mermaid  "aeries ( iggg- 1903), I>e'iCniduiil(  .  .  (Onford, 
iSSs).  in  which  Webster's  Hpp«cd  share  in  A  Ciatju  a  Cuekeld  is 
presented  Beparatdy  by  S.  »ring-Ria:,  with  an  inlroduclion  by 
Edmund  Cease.  See  also  E.  Coisb  SevaauMk-Cenlury  Sludits 
UWi);  and  especially  aa  ohaiistivekKBtiK  by  E.  E.  Stoll,  Itkn 
Websur,  Tkt  Paiadt  if  kit  Wtrk  u  dUtrmittd  hj  hit  Itdalhas  u  Iki 
Drama  of  Sis  Day  JBoston,  Masuchusettl,  I905}.  Mr  Stoll's  account 

Sxp.  43]  shows  that  the  additional  blographtcal  sucgestions  made  by 
[  Sidney  Lee  In  hlsartlcle  In  Ihe  Dkt.  Mil.  BU[.  are  not  supported. 
WBSSTBR,  MOAH  (1758-1843),  Ameriom  lexirographer 
«nd' journalist,  was  bom  at  West  Hartford,  Connecticut,  on  the 
leiti  of  October  175S.  He  waades«nded  from  John  Webster 
of  Hkitford,  goventor  of  Connecticut  in  i6;6-i657.  and  on  his 
mother's  side  from  Govetnor  WilHam  Bradford  of  Plymoulh. 
He  entered  Yale  in  1774,  graduating  in  i;;S.  He  studied  bw, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  St  Hanford  in  iiSi.  In  17S2-17SJ 
be  taught  in  a  dasairal  school  at  Goshen,  New  Vork,  and  became 
convinced  of  Ihe  need  of  better  lexl  books  of  English.  In  1783- 
1785  he  published  at  Hartford  A  Grammalkal  IniHIuU  of  Ihe 
English  Lan[iiaii,  in  three  parts,  a  spclling-booli,  a  grammar  and 
a  reader.  This  was  the  pioneer  American  work  in  its  Gdd,  and  it 
■Don  found  a  place  in  most  of  the  schools  of  tbe  United  Slates. 
During  the  twenty  years  in  which  Webster  was  preparing  hia 
dictionary,  his  income  from  the  spelling-book,  though  Ihe  royalty 
was  less  than  a  cent  a  copy,  was  enough  10  support  his  family; 
and  before  r86r  the  sale  reached  ntore  than  a  million  copies  a 


yrai.  The  wide  use  of  lU*  book  amlributed  g«tly  to  uni- 
formity of  pronundaljon  in  the  United  States,  and,  with  hii 
dictionary,  secured  the  general  adoption  iji'  the  United  States  of 
a  simpler  system  of  spelling  than  that  current  in  England.  In 
178s  he  published  Sttlcies  oj  American  Policy,  in  which  he  argued 
for  a  constitutional  government  whose  authority  ahould  be  vested 
in  Congress.  This  he  F^arded  as  the  first  distinct  proposal 
for  a  United  Stales  Constitution,  and  when  in  l^&^  the  work  of 
the  commissioners  was  compleled  at  FhOzdelphla,  wboe  Webster 
was  then  living  as  superintendent  of  an  academy,  he  wrote  in 
behalf  of  the  consti  tution  an  ExamiHolioK  of  Ike  Ltading  Principles 
0/ Ike  Federal  CoHililulian.  In  1788  he  started  in  New  York  the 
American  Uagaant,  but  it  failed  at  the  end  of  a  year,  and  he 
resumed  the  practice  of  law  at  Hartford.  In  1793,  in  order  to 
support  Washmgton's  administration,  he  removed  to  New  York 
and  alabUsbcd  a  daily  paper,  the  Minern  (afterwards  the 
Commercial  AdHTtiitr),aad  laler  a  »«ni-weekly  paper,  the  HeroU 
(afterwards  the  Sen  York  Sfieilalor).  In  1798  he  removed  lo 
Xew  Haven.    He  served  in  the  Connecticut  House  of  Bepresen- 

1807  he  published  A  Pkilosopkical  and  Practical  Gramnar  of  tht 
En^isk  Language.  Id  l8o6  he  had  brought  out  A  CompendiovJ 
Dictionary  of  Ihe  Enifitk  Language,  and  in  180;  he  began  wott 
on  his  diclionary.  While  engaged  on  it  he  removed  in  1&11  to 
Amherst,  Massachusetts,  where  he  was  president  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees  of  Ihe  Academy  and  asustcd  in  founding  Amherst  Col- 
lege. He  wad  also  a  member  of  the  (General  Court  of  Massa- 
chusetts. In  iSiJ  he  returned  to  New  Haven,  and  the  next 
year  he  received  the  degree  of  IX.D.  from  Yale.  He  spent  a 
year(i8j4-i8is)  abroad,wi 


tyof  Cambridge,™ 


3  vnlun 


appeared  in  any  earlier  dictionary.  An  English  edition  soon 
fallowed.  In  1340  tiie  second  edition,  corrected  and  enlarged, 
came  out,  in  two  volumes.  He  completed  the  ravision  of  an 
appendix  a  few  days  before  bis  death,  which  occurred  in  New 
Haven  on  the  18th  of  May  1843. 

Chauo-'""™^-™^--"'- '"'■'■^"-"  =-'---  -^-'^-^    •- 


CSo^ri^li' 


Ihe  direction  of  Pi 


jr  Noah  P( 


lion,  the  latter  reviusn  appearing  with  the  title  oi  the 

Inlentalionol  Diclitnary  of  Ikt  Engltih  Langvagt.    The  latter  was 
ai  '    '  lb  a  Eunplcmcnl  of  15,000  words  and  phrased, 

ui  .f  William  Torrey  Harris,  who  edited  another 

re  '  the  title  ol  Ihe  Vea  Inlemalumal  Dictionary 

of  ^    Ii  has  freduently  been  abridged. 

iber  MHka  are  Dbitrlalions_  an  Ike  En^isk 

bi  "aw  Aiq'Jri^n  cities;  Bjfil™<i79o)i'^3 

R  (r794):  A  Brief  Hiilory  of  Epidemics  anif 

P,  \igS.  in  two  mis.;  Til  Riilit  of  Ifeura 

fl  t  (ilea) ;  Hisurical  Kolicis  ^Ikt  Origin  aw 

C  PdiliaU,  Literary,  i 

w'  he  Suppoied  Chani 

Vt  showing   long  an^   uicu   iwu,!.,,.     jic 

al_  , lor  John  Winihioo's  Jommai  in  i7»o.  and 

wrote  a  lliuorj  of  Ike  UnSti  SlaUs.  of  which  a  revised  edition  ap 

See  Memoir  of  Nook  Webster  by  his  son-in-law,  Profetior  Chaunccy 
•   -^ — '""■■'■    '-  the  quano  ediiions  of  the  Diclienary.  also  Koah 
by  Horaco  E-  Scudder,  in  "Ameilcaa  Men  ol 

(1773-1S44),  Brilish  geologist,  was  bom 
in  Ihe  Orkney  Isles  in  1773,  and  was  educated  at  Aberdeen.  He 
subsequently  went  to  London  aitd  studied  architecture,  the 
Royal  InsLltulion  in  Albemarie  Street  being  built  from  hii  desgn. 
In  1816  lie  was  appointed  house-secretary  and  curator  to  the 
Geolopcai  Society  of  Loudon,  and  for  many  years  he  mtdcred 
important  services  in  editing  and  illustrating  the  Transactions  of 
IhcSodety.  In  i84i-i84ihewasprofcs5orof  geology  in  Unlver- 
sily  College,  London.  He  was  dislinguished  lor  his  resentdie* 
on  Ihe  Tertiary  formations  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  where  he  recog- 
nised the  occurrence  of  bolh  fresh-water  and  marine  strata;  he 
continued  his  observations  on  the  mainlsnd  of  Hampshire,  and 


Webtler  ^yKi),  by 


464 


WEBSTER,  T.— WEDDERfiURN 


•abseqaently  in  I>oisetshix«,  where  he  described  the  Parbeck  and 
Portland  xocks.  To  him  Sir  Heniy  C.  Englefield  (lysz^xSaa) 
was  indebted  for  the  geological  descriptions  and  the  effective 
geological  views  and  sections  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  Dorset 
that  enriched  his  Descnption  of  the  Principal  PicUtresque  Beauties, 
AntiquiHes  and  Ceohgiiol  Phenomena  of  the  Isie  of  Wight  (1816). 
Hie  mineral  Websterite  was  named  after  him.  He  died  in 
London  on  the  ^th  of  December  1844. 

WBBSTBR.  THOMAS  (1800-1886),  EngHsh  figure  pamter,  was 
bom  at  Randagh  Street,  Pimlico,  London,  on  the  aoUi  of  March 
x8oo.  His  father  was  a  member  of  the  household  of  George  III.; 
and  the  son,  having  shown  an  aptitude  for  music,  became  a 
chorister  in  the  Ch^>d  Royal,  St  James's.  He,  however, 
developed  a  still  stronger  love  for  painting,  and  in  1821  he  was 
admitted  student  of  the  Royal  Academy,  to  whose  exhibition  he 
contributed,  in  1824,  portraits  of  "  Mrs  Robinson  and  Family." 
In  the  following  year  he  gained  the  first  medal  in  the  school  of 
painting.  Till  1879  he  continued  to  exhibit  in  the  Royal  Academy 
work  of  a  genial  and  gently  humorous  character,  dealing  com- 
monly with  subjects  of  familiar  incident,  and  e^}eda]ly  of  child 
life.  Many  of  these  were  exceedingly  pK>pular,  particolariy  his 
**  Punch  "  (1840),  which  procured  in  1841  his  election  as  A.R.A., 
followed  five  years  later  by.  full  membership.  He  became  an 
honorary  retired  academician  in  1877,  and  died  at  Cranbrook, 
Kent,  on  the  23rd  of  September  x886.  His  "  Going  into  School, 
or  the  Truant "  (1836),  and  his  "  Darnels  School "  (1845)  are 
in  the  National  Gallery,  and  five  of  his  works  are  in  the  South 
Kensington  Museum. 

WEBSTER,  a  township  of  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts, 
U.S.A.,  on  the  French  river,  about  16  m.  S.S.W.  of  Worcester. 
Pop.  (1890)  7031;  (1900)  8804,  of  whom  3562  were  foreign- 
bom;  (1910  census),  11,509.  Land  area  (1906),  12*19  sq.  m. 
Webster  is  served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  and 
the  Boston  &  Albany  railways,  and  by  interurban  electric  lines. 
In  the  township  is  Lake  Chaubunagungamaug,  a  beautiful  sheet 
of  water  about  2  sq.  m.  in  area.  The  manufacture  of  textiles 
and  of  boots  and  shoes  is  the  principal  industry;  the  total 
value  of  the  factory  product  in  1905  was  $5,867,769.  Webster 
was  founded  by  Samuel  Slater  (1768-1835),  who  in  18x2  built 
cotton-mills  and  in  1815-1816  began  the  manufacture  of  woollen 
doth.  The  township,  named  in  honour  of  Daniel  Webster,  was 
erected  in  1832  from  common  lands  and  from  parts  of  Dudley 
and  Oxford  townships,  which  before  the  cotton-miUs  were  built 
here  were  almost  uninhabited. 

See  Holmes  Ammidown,  Historical  Collections  (New  York,  1874), 
vol.  i.  pp.  461-524. 

WECKHERUN,  OEORG  RUDOLF  (1584-X653),  German 
poet,  was  bom  at  Stuttgart  on  the  15th  of  September  1584. 
After  studying  law  he  settled  at  Stuttgart,  and,  as  secretary  to 
the  Duke  Johann  Fricdrich  of  WUrttcmberg,  was  employed  on 
diplomatic  missions  to  Friince  and  England.  Between  1620 
and  X624  he  lived  in  England  in  the  service  of  the  Palatinate, 
and  seems  also  to  have  been  employed  by  the  English  govern- 
ment. In  1644  he  was  appointed  "  Secretary  for  Foreign 
Tongues  "  in  England,  a  position  in  which,  on  the  establishment 
of  the  Commonwealth,  he  was  followed  by  Milton.  He  died  in 
London  on  the  13th  of  February  1653.  Wcckherlin  was  the 
most  distinguished  of  the  circle  of  South  German  poeis  who 
prepared  the  way  for  the  Renaissance  movement  associated  in 
Germany  with  Martin  Opitz.  Two  volumes  of  his  Oden  und 
Gesdnge  appeared  in  x6i8  and  1619;  his  collected  GeisUiclie 
und  weltliche  Gedicbte  in  X64X.  His  models  were  the  poets 
of  the  French  Plilade,  and  with  his  psalms,  odes  and  sonnets 
he  broke  new  ground  for  the  German  lyric.  An  epic  poem  on 
the  death  of  Gustavus  Ado^hus,  in  alexandrines,  seems  to  have 
won  most  favour  with  his  contemporaries. 

Wockheriin's  Gedkhte  have  been  edited  by  H.  Fisdier  for  the 

Stullgarter Literarucher  VereiMyoH.  cxdx.-cc,  X894-1895).  Selections 
were  published  by  W  Mfiller  (1823)  and  K.  Gocdckc  (1873).  See 
also  C.  P.  Conz,  Narhrichlen  von  dcm  J^hcn  und  den  Schriften  Wechher- 
tins  (1803) ;  E.  Hdpfner,  G.  R.  Weckherlins  Oden  und  Gesanf^e  {186$) ; 
H.  F'vKhcTfBeitr&ge  sur  Literaturf^esckichie  Schvabens  (1891 ).  and  the 
Mune  author's  artide  io  the  AUgemeine  deutsche  Biographie  (1896). 


VEDDBRBmUl,  JAMES  <I495^'>533)>  ^KV  (1500-1556) 
and  ROBERT  (x5X(^-?x556),  Scottish  poets  and  religious  re- 
formers, were  natives  <rf  Dundee,  where  their  father  James 
Wedderi>um  was  a  pvoq>eK>tis  mefchant.  All  three  bxothets 
studied  at  St  Andrews  University.  James  Wedderbun,  who 
had  gone  to  St  Andrews  in  15x4,  was  for  a  time  in  Ftanoe  prepar- 
ing for  a  mercantile  career.  Chx  his  return  to  Dundee  m  15x4 
he  received  instructioa  in  the  Reformed  faith  from  Friar  Hewat, 
a  Dominican  monk.  He  composed  a  play  on  the  beheading 
of  St  John  the  Baptist,  and  another,  a  morality  satixisxng  dmrch 
abuses,  in  the  settixig  of  episodes  from  the  story  of  Dionysiai 
the  Tyrant,  both  of  which  were  performed  in  X540  in  the  play- 
field  of  Dundee.  Neither  of  these  nor  a  third  ascribed  to  hhn 
by  Calderwood,  the  historian,  are  extant.  A  chai^  ol  heresy 
wasbrou^t  against  him,  but  he  escaped  to  France,  and  established 
himself  as  a  merchant  at  Rouen  or  Dieppe,  wbwe  he  lived  vsf 
molested  until  his  death  in  X553,  althotigh  attempts  were  made 
by  the  Scottish  community  there  to  bring furtherchaxges against 
him. 

John  Wedderbum  graduated  M.A.  at  St  Andrews  in  1528. 
He  took  priests'  orders  and  appears  to  hsve  held  the  chaplaincy 
of  St  Matthews,  Dundee,  but  in  March  X539  he  was  accused  oi 
heresy,  apparently  for  having,  in  conjunction  with  his  brothers, 
written  some  anti-Catholic  ballads.  He  escaped  to  WittcnbexK, 
whexe  with  other  of  his  compatriots  he  received  the  teaching  ol 
the  German  reformers.  There  he  gained  an  acquaintance  with 
the  Lutheran  hymns,  which  he  turned  to  account  on  his  return 
to  Scotland.  The  death  of  James  V.  and  the  known  leanings 
of  the  regent,  the  eari  of  Arran,  to  reform,  encouraged  many 
exiles,  Wedderbum  among  them,  to  revisit  Scotland.  It  is 
probable  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  greater  portion  of  the 
Compendious  Book  of  Psalms  and  Spirifuai  Songs  which  contains 
a  large  number  of  h>'mns  from  the  German.  The  enoimoua 
influence  of  the  collection,  with  its  added  Gude  and  Godlie 
BallatiSf  on  Scottish  reform,  is  attested  by  the  penalties  enftded 
against  the  authors  and  printers  of  these  books.  John  Wedder- 
bum was  in  Dundee  as  late  as  X546,  when  he  was  obliged  to  flee 
to  England.  John  Johnston  in  his  Coronis  martyrum  says  he 
died  in  exile  in  x  5  56. 

Robert  Wedderbum,  who  gmduated  M.A.  in  1530,  was 
ordained  priest,  and  succeeded  his  imde  John  Barry  as  vicar  of 
Dundee;  but  before  he  came  into  actual  possession  he  also  was 
suspected  of  heresy,  and  was  compelled  to  flee  to  France  and 
Germany.  He  returned  to  Scotland  in  1546.  He  appears  to 
have  been  actual  vicar  of  Dundee  in  1552.  His  sons  were 
legitimized  in  January  X553. 

The  earliest  known  edition  of  the  Compendious  Book  of  Psalms  and 
Spiritual  Songs  (of  which  an  unique  copy  is  extant)  dates  back'to 
I56jr,  though  the  contents  were  probably  published  in  broad  sheets 
during  John  Wcddcrburn's  lifetime.  It  consists  of  a  calendar  and 
almanac,  a  catechism,  hymns,  many  of  them  translations  from  the 
German,  metrical  versions  of  the  Psalms,  and  a  collection  of  ballads 
and  satirical  poems  against  the  Catholic  church  and  clergy.  The 
separate  shares  of  the  Brothers  in  this  compilation  cannot  be  settled. 
but  Robert  is  said  to  have  edited  the  whole  and  added  thesectionoi 
"  gude  and  godlic  ballaiis."  Many  of  these  ballads  are  adapted  from 
secular  songs.  Editions  of  the  book  appeared  in  1578  (printed  by 
John  Ros),  in  1600  (by  Robert  Smith),  in  1621  (by  Andro  Hart); 
selections  were  published  by  Lord  Hailcs  (1765)  and  t^  Sibbald, 
(1802) ;  a  reprint  of  the  1621  volume  was  edited  by  Sir  J.  G.  Dalyell 
in  Scotish  Poems  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  (iSoi)^  and  of  the  1578 
volume  by  David  Laing  in  1868.  In  1897  Professor  A.  F.  Mitchell 
reprinted  the  1567  volume  (expurgated)  for  the  Scottish  Text  Society. 

"  Vedderburn's  "  Comiflainte  of  Scotlande  (1549)  hasbeen  variously 
assigned  to  Robert  Wccldcrbum,  to  Sir  David  Lyndsay  and  to  Sir 
James  Inglis,  uho  was  chaplain  of  the  Abbey  df  Cambuskenncth 
from  about  1508  to  1550.  It  is  a  prose  treatise  pleading  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  Scottish  alliance  with  France,  wrinen  by  a 
determined  enemy  of  England  and  of  the  English  party  in  Scotland. 
It  is  dedicated  to  Mary  of  Guise,  and  consists  of  the  "  Drcme  "  of 
Dame  Scotia  and  her  complaint  against  her  three  sons.  These  two 
sections  are  connected  by  a  "  Monologue  Rocreatif,"  in  which  the 
author  displays  his  general  knowledge  of  popular  songs,  dances  aiul 
tales,  of  astronomy,  natural  history  and  naval  matters.  Four  copies 
of  this  work  arc  extant,  but  in  none  is  the  title-page  preserved.  In 
the  Harlelan  catalogue  the  book  is  entered  as  Vedaerburn's  Comptainle 
of  Scoilande,  wyth  ane  Exortatione  to  the  thre  Estaits  to  be  vigilanto 
in  the  Veffens  of  their  Public  Veil  <I549)  iCatalopu  BibUothocM 


WEDDING— WEDGWOOD 


+65 


SM>iHH.ml.i.iw.Sj7i).  TUnUB.wUckhRmndmtkn 


nainuinM  by  Laaw  and  others,  U  k 
in  Hippon  t4  Cvdiiul  Beaton'*  doIh 
afgcnted  torai  of  LMiiiiad  Middls  S 
iha  teocuiEa  o(  lb*  Cmtftniiau  flmi 


sln^.t^ 


J ... i.TS.  apfHaiul  in  t»7'.    The  in 

duct  ion  to  tbe  latler  Kquins  icviiioB  in  the  light  d[  later  diKovi 
19  to  Ibe  ptacluiiBU  In  tlK  ten.  See  the  paper  bv  W.  A.  Nciln 
Tiki  ./gniHl  ^CnuMfc  Itifabn  (iv,).  tba  note  by  W.  A.  Cnir 
Tin  UtdmOairUHf-it  Lni^itl  and  Lilmlmn  (i.  i«7}.Crepicy 
Snlth'i  Sptcfmiiit  a  MiMU  Soli  (tqoi).  p.  13$  s  kii..  iniTibe 
anide  by  J.  T.  T.  Brown  in  tbe  Sallak  HuOHai  Rairm  Qiawuy 
1904)  ■ 

WEDDDn.  tbe  common  Wrai  (or  the  mwriage  ceremony. 
The  verb  "  (0  wed  "  fs  piopnly  to  engage  by  1  pIHge  (O.  Eng. 
wedj  n  ^edge^  v^S";  cf.  Lat.  tax,  eadis\  M.  Dutch  ^edde,  pledge, 
pawn;^ired.  tad,  bet,  lie).  The  (em  "wedJodi"  (O.  Eng. 
mdMe;  [rem  Ut,  a.  gift),  ujed  of  the  stale  of  marriage,  ot  tbe 
vowi  and  ucranieQl  of  marriage,  prefieily  means  a  gift  given 
■I  a  pledge;  d.  Cer.  Morgimpibt,  tbe  gift  to  tbe  bride  on  tbe 
motning  aflet  the  marriage. 

See  Mtamaiii  and  Fahili. 

WEDOB  [O.  Eng.  «ct,  a  mast  of  metal,  cognate  with  Dutch 
v>g,  n'O'.  Dan.  tettff.  &c. ;  in  Lith.  the  cognate  form  ouuide 
Taut,  is  found  in  yagii,  a  peg,  tpigot;  there  is  no  connexion 
with  "  weigfi,"  "  wei^t,"  which,  nuiit  be  referred  to  the  root 
Wfft,  to  lift,  cany,  draw,  cf.  Lit.  iciac,  whence  "  vehicle," 
&C.),  a  piece  of  wood  or  metal,  broad  and  thick  al  one  end,  and 
IncliDed  to  a  thin  edge  or  point  at  the  other,  used  as  a  means  Cor 
iplitting  wood,  rocks,  &c.,  of  keeping  I,wd  closely  preising  turfacH 
aput,  or  generally  for  exerting  pressure  in  a  ctmbncd  space. 
The  "  wedge  "  hai  umetimes  been  daised  as  one  ol  the  lin^ile 
mechanical  powen,  but.itji  properly  only  an  application  ol 
the  inclined  pUne. 

Id  meteorology,  the  term  ','  wedge  "  is  used  o(  ■  narrow  area 
of  high  pressure  between  two  adjacent  cyclonic  Qistem*.  which 
lakes  the  form  of  a  wedge  or  tongue,  aido  the  isobars  repreacnt- 
ing  it  on  a  weather.diart.  A  wedge  moves  akiog  between  the 
tear  of  a  retreating  <7dane  and  the  front  of  one  advancing,  and 
may  be  regarded  aa  a  projection  frem  an  anticyclooic  system 
lying  ID  one  lide  of  the  course  of  the  cyclonea.  As  the  crest  of 
Uk  Hedge  (i.<.  the  line  of  highest  pressure)  pisaea  over  any  point 
tbe  wind  there  changes  su<Idenly  from  one  direction  alintMit  to 
tbe  opposite,  while  the  clearing  weilherof  the  tetiesting  cyclone 
and  the  temporary  bne  weather  after  iti  passing  are  quickly 
sutcecded  by  a  break  indicating  the  approach  ol  the  following 
cyclone.  CauditiiHU  exactly  opposite  to  those  accompanying 
a  wedge  are  provided  by  a  "  V^haped  depreasi™." 
'  WBMWOOD,  JOSIAH  (1730-1795I,  tbe  most  distinguished 
of  Eo^iah  manulacturen  of  pottery,  came  of  a  family  many 
members  of  which  had  been  tKablished  as  potters  in  StaSord- 
shire  tbraugboui  the  17th  century  and  bad  ployed  a  notaUe 
pan  in  the  development  of  the  Infant  industry.  Dr  Thomas 
Wedgwood  of  Burslem  was  one  ol  the  bes(  of  the  eariy  lalt- 
Klaie  Dotlen.  losiah,  bom  in  i;jo,  was  tbe  youngest  child 
Wedgwood,  who  owned  a  irnaU  but  thriving 
0.  At  a  very  eariy  age  he  distinguished 
obaervatkn  and  iotercst  in  all  that 
was  curious  ana  beautiful.  Sood  after  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1739,  Josiah,  then  scarcely  ten  yean  of  age,  was  taken  away 
fnm  school  and  set  to  leem  the  art  of  "  throwing  "  clay,  i.e. 

became  extraorduiaiily  skiKnl. 

In  t7«  he  was  apprenticed  to  his  eldest  brother,  wbo  had 
ncctttled  to  the  management  of  his  fatber'i  pottery;  and  in 


pottery  ii 

himself  by  keen  pot 


1751,  dtortly  after  the  tenn  of  his  apprentiiieshlp  had  expired, 
he  became  manager  o(  a  small  pottery  at  Stoke-upon-Tmit, 
known  aa  Alder's  pottery,  at  a  very  moderate  salary.  WitUn 
a  year  or  two  he  became  Jimiar  partner  with  Thomas  Whieldoa 
of  Penton.  then  the  cleverest  niaster-patter  in  StallonUifre. 
Many  of  Whieldon's  appttnticca  aTteiwatdB  became  noted 
potters,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  Wedgwood  gained 
greatly  at  this  period  of  his  hfe  by  his  assodalion  with  Whieldoa. 
But  he  was  too  original  to  remain  bng  content  with  a  subordinats 
position,  and  the  potlery  business  was  developing  so  rapidly 
that  he  had  cyeiy.  inducement  to  commence  irotk  on  his  own 

In  17J9  be'leased  tbe  Ivy  House  pottery  hi  Buislem  from 
some  relatives,  and  like  a  sensible  man  he  continued  to  make 
only  such  potlery  as  was  being  made  al  the  period  by  his  fellow- 
mi  nufacturen.  Sali-f^aie  and  green  and  ydlow  glaie  seem  ts 
have  been  his  first  staple*.  In  1761  he  also  leased  the  Brick- 
House,  aUas  "  Bell  "  iioAs.  al  Burslem.  Tbe  fine  white  Engiiih 
earthenware  was  just  reaching  perfection,  and  Wedgwood  was 
BOffli  one  of  its  best-known  makeii.  He  was  most  active  and 
energetic  in  his  efforts,  not  only  for  the  improvement  of  Stafford- 
shire  pottery,  but  almost  equally  so  for  the  improvemenl  dl 
turnpike  roads,  tbe  cnnstraetion  o(  a  canal  (the  Trent  ft  Mersey) 
and  the  founding  'of  schools  and  chapels.  Almost  the  first  step 
In  his  public  career  outside  his  native  district  was  the  presenta- 
tion lA  a  service  of  his  improved  cjeam-odaured  eartbeswat« 
to  Queen  Charlotte  !n  1769.  The  new  ware  was  greatly 
ai^reciated,  and  Wedgwood  was  appointed  potter  to  the  queen 
and  afterwards  to  the  king.  He  gave  the  name  of  Queen's 
Ware  to  his  pivductions  of  this  dasa,  and  this  judicioui  nyal 

doubtedly  helped  Wedgwood  greatly.  Having  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  a  successful  business  in  his  admirable  domestic  pottery — 
the  best  the  world  had  ever  seen  up  10  that  time—he  tuiiicd 

iluasic  art— fostered  by  the  discovery  of  Pompeii  and  the  recovery 
of  Creek  painted  vases  from  the  andcnl  graves  in  Campania 
and  other  pans  of  Itilj^bdng  at  iU  hei^t  it  was  natural  that 
Wedgwood  should  turn  to  such  a  source  of  io^iralion.  Although 
ever}'  European  country  was  affected  by  this  neo-dassial 
revivil  it  may  he  claimed  that  EngUnd  absorbed  it  more  com- 
pletdy  than  any  other  country,  for  the  brothers  Adur  [the 
architects)  and  Josiah  Wedgwood  brought  it  Into  abaolute 
correspondence  with  modern  lasies  and  ideas.  Wedgwood  was 
particulariy  successful  in  this  diteelion,  for  his  "  dry  "  bodie*— 
some  of  which,  like  the  black  and  cane  bodies,  had  long  been 
known  in  the  district,  others,  such  as  the  famous  Jasper  bodies, 
which  he  Invented  alter  years  of  bborious  effort— lent  Ihemsdves 
particularly  well  to  the  reproduclioa  of  designs  based  on  the 
later  phases  of  Greek  art.  If  our  increased  appredatfon  and 
knowledge  of  Creek  and  Roman  art  makes  us  at  times  impatient 
with  the  mechanical  perfection  of  the  work^  ol  Wedgwood 


n  and  a  period  than  thi 


le  lau 


.  oi  a 


VLhfuUy  SI 


It  th( 


y  individual,  however 
Wedgwood's  credit  that  he 
.nd  origbial  potter  the  worid  bai  ever 
jgh  all  the  centuries,  of  whom  it  can 
'  ole  subsequent  course  of  pottery 
rd  by  his  skilL 


01  the  externals  of  his  life  a 
1I3  cousin,  Sarah  Wedgwood,  in  1764,  and  Ihey  had  a  numerous 
amily  ol  sons  and  daughters.  One  of  these  daughters  was  the 
nether  of  tbe  famous  naturalist  Charics  Darwin.  Some  time 
ifter  his  marriage  (viz.  1768) Jie  entered  into  a  partnership  witb 
Thomas  Benlley  ol  Liverpool,  a  tnon  of  considerable  taste  and 

argely  (o  the  London  nles.  In  17^  they  opened  splendid 
lew  works,  near  Hanley,  that  with  their  classic  leanings  they 
hrislened  "  Elruria."  They  continued  a  practice  of  Wedgwood's  in 
rmployiDgable  artists  toproduccdesigTiSH  and  the  most  famous  of 
these  was  John  Ftiiman,  whose  name  will  lor  ever  be  assodited 
with  the  firm's  productions. .  Benlley  died  in  17S0  and  Wedgwood 


466 


WEDMORE— WEEKS 


nmaiiied  sol«  owner  of  the  Etruria  works  until  1790,  when  he 
took  some  of  his  sons  and  a  nephew,  named  Byerley,  into  partner- 
ship. He  died  on  the  3rd  sA.  January  1795,  rich  in  honours  and 
in  friends,  for  besides  being  a  great  potter  he  was  a  man  of  high 
moral  worth,  and  was  associated  with  many  noted  men  of  his 
time,  amongst  whom  should  be  mentioned  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
Jos^h  Priestly  and  Erasmus  Darwin.  His  descendants  have 
carried  on  the  business  at  Etruria  to  this  day,  and  have  lately 
established  at  the  works  a  Wedgwood  museum  of  great  interest. 

SeeCsaAMics.  Fordcuilcdaccountsofhislifesce Eliza Metyeard, 
Life  of  Wedewood  (1865-1866)  Jewitt.  Life  of  Wedgwood  (1865); 
Rathbone.  Old  Wedgwood  (li93):  Church,  Josi^  Wedgwood: 
Master-Potter  (1894:  new  ed..  1903);  Burton,  History  and  Descrip- 
tion of  EttgUdt  BArtkenmare  and  Stoneware  (1904) ;  J.  C.  Wedgwood, 
A  History  of  tke  Wedpoood  lamUy  (1909).  (W.  B.*) 

WEDMORB,  FREDERICK  (1844-  ),  English  art  critic 
and  man  of  letters,  was  bom  at  Richmond  Hill,  Clifton,  on  the 
9th  of  July  1844,  the  eldest  son- of  Thomas  Wedmore  of  Druids 
3toke,  Stoke  Bishop.  His  family  were  Quakers,  and  he  was 
educated  at  a  Quakor  private  school  and  then  in  lAusanne 
and  Paris«  After  a  short  experience  of  journalism  in  Bristol 
he  came  to  London  in  1868,  and  began  to  write  for  the  SpeetaUfr, 
His  eafly  worlis  included  two  novels,  but  the  best  examples  of 
his  careful  and  artistic  prvse  az^  perhaps  to  be  found  in  his 
volumes  of  short  stories,  Pastorals  of  Pranu  (1877),  Retumciations 
(1893),  Orgeas  and  Miradou  (1896),  reprinted  in  1905  as  A 
Dream  of  Provence.  In  1900  he  published  another  novel,  The 
Collapse  of  tke  PenUenL  As  early  as  1878  he  had  begun  a  long 
connexion  with  the  London  Standard  as  art  critic.  He  began 
his  studies  on  etching  with  a  noteworthy  paper  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century  (1877*1878)  on  the  etchings  of  Charles  M&yon.  This 
was  followed  by  The  Four  Masters  of  Etching  (1883),  with 
original  etchings  by  Sir  F.  S.  Haden,  Jules  Ferdinand  Jacque- 
mart,  J.  M.  Whistler,  and  Alphonse  Legros;  Etching  in  England 
(1895);  an  English  edition  (1894)  of  £.  Michel's  RevU^andt;  and 
a  study  and  a  catalogue  of  Whistler*s  Etchings  (1899).  His 
other  works  include  Studies  in  English  Art  (2  vob.,  187(3^-1880), 
The  Masters  of  Genre  Painting  (1880),  English  Water  Colour 
(1902),  Turner  and  Ruskin  {  2  vols.,  X900). 

WBDNESBURT,  a  market  town  and  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  Staffordshire,  England,  in  the  Black  Country, 
121  m.  N.W.  from  London  by  the  London  &  North- Western 
railway,  and  on  the  northern  line  of  the  Great  Western.  Pop. 
(1901)  26,554.  An  overhead  electric  tramway  bonnects  with 
Walsall,  3^  m.  N.  The  town  is  ancient,  but  of  modern  growth 
and  appearance  as  an  industrial  centre.  The  church  of  St 
Bartholomew,  however,  is  a  fine  Perpendicular  building,  standing 
high.  It  is  traditionally  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  a  place 
of  the  worship  of  Woden  or  Odin,  and  the  name  of  the  town  to 
be  derived  from  this  god  through  the  form  Wbdensborough. 
A  church  was  built,  probably  in  the  nth  century,  and  from 
1301  to  1535  the  advowson,  tithes,  &c.,  belonged  to  the  abbot 
of  Halesowen.  The  present  church  was  several  times  restored 
in  the  i8th  and  X9th  centuries.  The  chief  public  buildings  are 
the  town  hall  (1872),  art  gallery  (1891),  and  free  library  (1878). 
Coal,  limestone  and  ironstone  are  mined.  A  special  kind  of 
coal,  giving  an  intense  heat,  is  largely  used  in  forges.  There  are 
great  iron  and  sted  works,  producing  every  kind  of  heavy  goods 
used  by  railway  and  engineering  works,  such  as  boiler  plates, 
rails,  axles,  tubes,  bolts  and  nuts.  Stoneware  potteries  are 
also  imi>ortant.  Similar  industries,  with  brick-making,  are 
practised  at  Darlaston,  an  urban  district  (pop.  15,395),  within 
the  parliamentary  borough.  Wedncsbury  returns  one  member 
to  parliament.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  4  aldermen, 
and  12  councillors.     Area,  2287  acres. 

Here  Ethelfleda, widow  of  iEthelred  of  Merda,  in  916  constructed 
a  castle.  The  place  is  not  mentioned  m  Domesday,  but  appears 
to  have  belonged  to  the  barony  of  Dudley.  After  the  Conquest 
it  became  a  demesne  of  the  crown,  and  it  was  bestowed  by  Henry 
II.  on  the  Heronvillcs.  It  received  parliamentary  representation 
in  1867,  and  became  a  municipal  borough  in  1886. 

WEED,  THURLOW  (1797- 1882),  American  journalist  and 
politician,  was  born  in  Cairo.  Greene  county.  New  York,  on  the 


15th  of  November  1797.  He  began  to  earn  his  own  living  at 
the  age  of  ei^t.  From  181  x  to  1818  he  worked  as  an  apprentice 
and  journeyman  printer  in  Onondaga  Hollow,  Utica,  Auburu, 
Cooperstown,  Albany  and  New  York  City.  His  first  independent 
enu»prises,  the  Republican  Agriculturist^  established  at  Norwich, 
N.Y.,  in  1818,  and  IheOnondaga  County  Rep%Mican, established  at 
ManUus,  N.Y.,  in  1821,  proving  unsuccessful,  he  became  edliot 
of  the  Rochester  Telegraph  in  1822.  Entering  pclitics  as  an 
opponent  of  the  Democratic  machine,  which  he  termed  the  Albany 
Regency,  Weed  was  in  1824  elected  to  the  Assembly  on  the 
John  Quincy  Adams  ticket,  serving  for  a  single  session  C1825). 
Two  years  later,  during  the  excitement  over  the  disappearance 
of  William  Morgan  (see  Anti-Masonic  Party),  he  retired  from 
the  Telegraph  and  threw  himself  with  enthusiasm  into  the 
attack  on  the  l^lasonic  order,  editing  for  a  time  the  Anti-Masonic 
Enquirer.  In  1830  he  established  and  became  editor  of  the 
Albany  Eeening  Journal^  which  he  controlled  for  thirty-five 
years.  Supporting  the  Whigs  and  later  the  Republicans, 
it  was  one  of  the  most  influential  anti-slavery  papers  in  the  north- 
east; and  Thurlow  Weed  himself  became  a  considerable  force 
in  politics.  In  1863  be  retired  from  the  Journal  and  settled 
in  New  York  Qty..  In  1867  he  assumed  editorial  control  of  the 
Commercial  Advertiser,  but  was  soon  compelled  to  resisn  on 
account  of  ill-health.  He  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  22nd  of 
November  1882. 

See  The  Life  of  Thurlow  Weed  (vol.  i..  Autobiography,  edited  by 
his  daughter,  Harriet  A.  Weed ;  vol.  ii.,  Memoir,  by  his  grandson, 
Thurlow  Weed  Barnes.  Boston  and  New  York.  1884).  The  Memoir  is 
especially  full  for  the  period  1856^1867. 

WEEHAWKEN,  a  township  of  Hudson  county.  New  Jersey, 
U.S. A.,  in  the  N.E.  part  of  the  state,  on  the  Hudson  river, 
adjoining  Hoboken  and  opposite  the  city  of  New  York.  Pop. 
(1890)  1943;  (1900)  5325;  (1910  census).  11,228.  It  is  served 
by  the  New  York,  Ontario  &  Western,  and  the  West  Shore 
railways  (being  a  terminus  of  the  latter),  and  by  suburban 
electric  lines,  and  is  connected  with  New  York  City  by  steam 
ferries.  The  township  consists  of  a  narrow  strip  of  land  along 
the  western  bank  of  the  Hudson,  and  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  Palisades.  The  extensive  water-front  is  Uned  with  whanres, 
some  of  which  can  accommodate  the  largest  ocean  steamers. 
On  a  ledge  below  the  crest  of  the  Palisades  is  the  famous  duelling 
ground,  where  New  York  citixens  and  others  once  settled  their 
quarrels.  Originally  a  part  of  Hoboken  and  North  Beigen, 
the  township  of  Weehawken  was  separately  incorporated  in  1859. 
Its  name  a  an  Indian  word  said  to  mean  "  maise  land." 

WEEK  (from  A.S.  wcu,  Germanic  *vik6n,  probably  ■>  change, 
turn),  the  name  given  to  periods  of  time,  varying  in  length  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  but  shorter  than  a  "  month."  The 
month  may  be  divided  in  two  ways:  a  fractional  part  may  be 
taken  (decad  or  pentad),  as  in  East  Africa  or  Ancient  Egypt 
(moon-week),  or  the  week  may  be  settled  without  regard  to  the 
length  of  the  month  (market-week,  &c.).  The  seven-day  week 
(see  Calemdas)  originated  in  West  Asia,  spread  to  Europe  and 
later  to  Nonh  Africa  (Mahommedan).  In  other  parts  of  Africa 
three,  four  (especially  in  the  Congo),  five,  six  and  eight  (double 
four)  day  weeks  are  found,  Aid  always  in  association  with  the 
market;  the  same  applies  to  the  three-day  week  of  the  Muyscas 
(S.  America),  the  four-day  week  of  the  Chibchas,  the  five-day 
week  of  Persia,  Malaysia,  Java,  Celebes,  New  Guinea  and  Mexico; 
in  andent  Scandinavia  a  five-day  period  was  in  use,  but  markets 
were  probably  unknown.  That  the  incurrence  of  the  market 
determined  the  length  of  the  week  seems  dear  from  the  Wajagga 
custom  of  naming  the  days  after  the  markets  they  visit,  as  weQ 
as  from  the  fact  that  on  the  Congo  the  word  for  week  b  the  same 
as  the  word  for  market.  Among  agricultural  tribes  in  Africa 
one  day  of  the  week,  which  varies  from  place  to  place,  is  often 
a  rest-da^,  visiting  the  market  bein^  the  only  work  allowed. 

Latch  m  Zts.fir  Sociahoissensehafi,  ix.  619  seq..  and  N.W.  Thomas 
in  Joum.  Comparative  Legislation,  xix.  90  seq.,  refer  to  the  week  in 
connexion  with  the  noarket.  (N.  W.  T.) 

WEEKS,  EDWIN  LORD  (1849-1903),^  American  artist,  was 
bom  at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1849.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Lion  Bonnat  and  of  J.  L.  Gir6me,  at  Paris.    He  made  many 


WEENIX— WEEVIL 


467 


voyift*  to  tlw  Eut,  ukI  was  diMiosuiihcd  u  a  paiatcr  oi 
onental  uenc*.  In  iAqs  he  mote  uid  iUustnicd  a  book  of 
travels,  Frtm  Uu  Black  Sra  Uroiifih  Poiia  and  India,  ud  l»o 
yeara  bier  he  pubLiihed  Efiiedts  of  Meuntaiiuerini.  He  dial 
on  (be  I71h  of  November  1Q03.  He  wa3  a  member  ol  Ok  Lcgjgn 
ol  Honour,  France,  an  officer  oI  Che  Order  of  5t  tlichael,  Germany, 
lod  a  member  of  the  Secession,  Munich. 

WEENIX,  JAN  BAFim  (1611-1660),  Dutch  painter,  the 
ton  of  an  architect,  wu  bom  in  Amsterdam,  and  iludied  Bril 
uader  Jan  Michcr,  then  at  Ulrechl  under  A.  Bloemaert,  and  at 
Arosterdam  under  Moijaert,  and  hnally,  betvc 


In  Ron 


>r  Pope  Innocent  and  Cardinal  Pamphili.    He  relumed  to  his 

the  gild   of  St    Luke   at   Utrecht,   where   he   died   in    1660. 

(ubj«cta  l>canf  landscapa  with  mina  and  Large  figures,' seaports, 
and.  later  in  life,  targe  ililllife  iHctures  ol  dead  game.  Now 
and  then  be  attempted  religious  genre,  one  of  the  rate  pieces 
ol  thia  kind  being  the  "  Jacob  and  Eian  "  at  the  Dreaden 
Gallery.  At  the  National  Gallery,  London,  is  a  "Hunt- 
ing Scene  "  by  the  master,  and  the  Glasgow  Gallery  has  a  char- 
aderisUc  painting  of  ruins.  Wccnii  is  represented  at  moat  of 
theimportant  continental  galleris,  notably  at  Munich,  Vienna, 
Berlin,  Amsterdam,  and  Si  Pcterabui:;.  His  chief  pupils  Kere 
his  son  Jan,  Berchem,  and  Hondecoeler. 
Mis  son,  Jam  Weemix  (1640-1714},  was  bom  at  Amsterdam 

166S.  Like  hii  father  he  devolrd  himsdf  to  a  variciy  ol  sub- 
jects, but  his  fame  Is  chiefly  due  to  hii  painting  of  dead  game 
and  of  huntini  tceaFs,  Indeed,  many  of  the  pictures  ol  this 
genre,  which  were  foimeily  asuibed  lo  the  elder  Weenii,  ate 
BOW  generally  coDSideied  to  be  the  irorki  of  bis  sod,  wbo  even  at 
ikie  ea^  age  o(  twenty  rivalled,  and  lubsequcntty  lurpasaed. 
Ills  fatbtr  in  breadth  of  handling  and  richness  of  colour.  At 
Amsterdam  be  wis  ftequenlly  emplo/cd  to  decorate  private 


itoundt  tbey  are  able  10  indict  upon  those  who  incautiously  handle 
tbcm.  They  belong  to  a  family  of  spiny-rayed  fishes  (Trj- 
ckinidai),  and  are  distinguished  by  a  long  low  body  with  two 
dorsal  Gas,  the  anterior  of  which  is  campoeed  ol  six  or  seven  spines 
only,  the  posterior  being  long  and  many-rayed;  their  anal 
resembles  In  form  and  composition  the  second  dorsal  fin.  The 
ventral  fins  arc  placed  in  advance  of  the  pectorals,  and  consist 
ol  a  spine  and  five  nys.  The  caudal  £a  baa  the  bind  margin  not 
eicised.  The  body  is  covered  with  very  small  scales,  sunk  in  and 
firmly  adherent  to  the  skin,  but  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  fl 
l>ony,  without  integument.  The  head,  like  the  body,  is  com- 
pressed, with  the  eyes  of  moderate  sice  and  placed  on  the  aide 
f  the  bead;  the  mouth  (i  wide,  oblique,  and  armed  with  band* 

Irilieh  coa^^Ti^.  llieGralec  \\^^  ITraLkinZ  itranTaml  the 
.euet  Wcever  [r.  tipfa);  the  former  u  iregurntly  found  of  a 

n,  whilst  the  lartvr  %nm  only  id  about  hall  thai  length,  and  has 


trfcturci  (or  the  Prince  Palatine  Jobann  Wilhebn't  castle  of 
Bensboj,  near  Cologne.  Some  of  these  pictures  are  Dow  at 
Munich  Gatlny.  Ue  died  at  Amsterdom  in  i;ii:.  Many  of 
his  best  works  are  to  be  found  in  English  private  collections, 
though  the  National  Callety  has  but  a  single  example,  a  painting 
of  dad  game  and  a  dog.  J>n  Wcenui  is  well  npresented  at 
the  gallerlej  of  Amsterdam,  The  Hague,  Haarlem,  Rotterdam, 
Berlin,  and  FaHi. 

WEEVKR.  JOHN  Unfi-tiii).  EngUsh  poet  and  antiquary,  a 
■ativc  of  Lancashire,  was  bom  in  tST*.  He  was  educated  at 
Queens'  College,  Cambridge,  where  be  resided  (or  about  four 
years  from  1 594,  but  be  took  no  degiee.  In  1  ;o9  be  publiihint 
Epipamma  i*  Mi  OUuf  Cnl  end  f/cwal  Failiim,  conuining 
a  lonnn  on  .Sbak^tspeaie,  and  epigtama  on  Samuel  Daniel. 
Michael  Drayton,  Ben  Jonson,  William  Warner  and  Christopher 
Middleton,  aU  ol  which  are  valuable  to  the  literary  historian. 
In  1601  be  published  Tin  Uirrar  r^  Uanyri  or  Tlu  Lile  and 
Diaikof  .  .  .  5i>yBibiCUininfe,whichhecallsinhiBprefa«ihe 
"  first  trcw  Oldcistte,"  perhaps  on  account  of  the  fact  that 
Shakespeare's  FnlstaS  first  appeared  as  Sir  John  Oldcaslle. 
In  the  fourth  staiua  oi  Lhii  king  poem,  In  which  Sir  John  is  his 
own  panegyrist,  occuia  a  nminiaceuce  of  Shake^ieare's  /iiKiu 
Caatr  which  serves  to  fix  the  date  of  the  play,  Aftec  travelling 
inFrance,  the  Low  Countries  andlialy.Wecvet  settled  in  Ocrken- 
■ell,  and  made  friends  among  the  chief  antiquaries  of  bis  time. 
The  result  of  enenslve  travels  in  his  own  counliy  appeared  in 
Aneata  Punirait  UeiiHmejUi  (1631),  now  valuable  on  account  of 
the  later  obliteration  of  the  inscriptions. 

The  Huth  Libcaiy  conuini  a  unique  copy  of  a  thumb-book  Apius 
IIn(16a«),Cantainingah>UaryDlClinn.  The  Uirrar  >/Varlyr]ha> 
beai  reprinted  for  the  Roaburghe  Qub  (1871}- 

WESVXR.    The  weeveta  (TrathSnui)  are  small  marine  lishes 


though  wceven,  eapociaUy  the  ki 

_  Lnautiousiy 

They  probably  mahfl  thair  enpa  on  pereoinif  tl 
pcnoD.  The  wounds  an  inAictad  by  tin  dorsal  and' 


?'.  '"">'3| 

by  bathers,  accidents  from  iteppipg  upon  then  an  much 

than  from  Lncuitiausly  kaoaun^  tben  after  captun. 

ape  on  pereoviif  tha  ^ifmacn  o(  a 

J  >_.  .■_  J 1  — ■  opmcularsiiinea, 

y  grooved,  and  the  poisonous  iuid  whidi  is 

I  isiecniIedbvHnar  glandsBl  Iheirbase,   The 

I.  and  great  numbers  of  the  larger  ipcciea  {F. 

'  lie  Pans  market.  On  the  poisonous  properties, 

.  «d  Wa(.  HM.,  vL  (1841),  p.  161 !  L  GrcHin. 

d«  I'abpand  A  mia  ika  Ut  ptistons  dtt  rtnf* 

I.  N.  ftrfcer.  Prx.  Zaal.  Sot.  (I»88I.  p^_3M[ 

.  ParU  (i*M),  p.is6;  A.  Briol.  C.JLaK.SKi., 

Jid  1197.  and  Iv.  {1903),  p.  613. 

WEEVIU  Anglo-Saxon  vijil,  a  term  now  commonly  appUed  to 

the  memben  of  a  grasp  of  Coleopieta  termed  the  Rbyncophon. 

This  group  is  cbaracterized  by  the  prolongation  of  the  bead  into 

a  lostrum  01  proboscis,  it  the  end  of  which  the  moutb.  witb 

its  appendages,  is  placed.    The  antennae  are  usually  elbowed, 

and  often  and  In  a  club-shaped  swellitig.     The  basal  portion 

of  the  antennae  Irequenlly  bes  in  a  deprcs^on        


ball-w 


.    Then 


c  appearance  ol 
th  appendages 


'endering  flight  impossibl 


BfUH 


white,  fleshy,  apodal  unibs,  with  a : 
side  ol  the  body;  the  brad  is  round,  and  beats  strong  jaws, 
and  sometimes  rudimentary  ocelli.  They  am  exclusively 
phytor^agous.  The  Rhyucophora  embrace  four  familia,— 
(1)  the  Curtnlionidae.ortrtieweevils,  (i)  the  Scolytldae,ot  bark- 
beetles,  (j)  the  Brent  hidae,  (4)  the  AntbHbidae, 

The  Curenlionidae  form  one  of  the  larKest  families  amonpt  tho 
"or  ol  species  described  eicecdina  ?o,ooo. 


■.Tiliy  bllol 


t  in  Gi«i 


ihirdti 


lin.  lew 


family  of  the  Cuici 
lily  from  one  anothi 


The  genera  Pk^Mi 

rfvriaJu,  it  another  linfulaily  beautl'  ' 

""  "'"■""'  "  ■"■    tpiuiB^  of  golden  BTecn.    Thi 


Thi 


■  tka  not  laavil,  ialamimt 


U  is  of  a  baovaiih  0 


468 


WEGSCHEIDER— WEIGHING  MACHINES 


being  livt-iinki  of  Ihe  b^ . 

'~  "liemaJe.  Tlie antennae i_ , 
Ji  longer  Ibin  Ihldi;  the 
jdih  un  lander  Ilua  1^='^ 
■  ■odKlbmM.    When 


,   .  .e,  Bm'iliiidi  il 

enierva  about  Aufiiat  all 

-,    neaily  ^^fi: 

4       In  an  uiwblrui 
-.  .  ^  by  tbdr  numben  and  iheir  powen  of 

rniiUt  and  attack 
Many  of  Uiem  dev 


in  thli  < 
■IvclKcked.   Oil 
[ke  bark  and  Ih 

Tbe  Brenthktae,  Anthxibjdae  ai 


1  &xTyti<lae  are 


or  toDtbed  in  (he  iniude.  BmckHS  piii  auBei  cniujderable  danuEe 
tA  pcBK ;  dnrifiB  the  iprioa  ibe  beetle  lay*  ita  eg^  \a  tbe  young  jxa, 
vhich  14  dcvouied  by  tbe  Wva  wbidi  batcbn  out  in  it. 

(A.E.S.;G.H,C.) 
WBOBCREID&R,  JUUUS  AUSUTT  LDDWIO  (1T71-1S49), 
German  theologian,  was  bom  at  KUbclingtn,  Brumwick,  on  tlbe 
IJth  of  September  1771,  Mudied  theology  at  UeJmSldt,  wtt 
tutor  in  a  Hamburg  family  1755-1805,  Rtptta\t  at  GOtiingen, 
pnfsioiollhfdagy  at  Ria trip  in  iIe)HC<  1806-1815),  and  at  Halls 
Irom  1K15.  la  i8io  he  (with  his  colleague  Wilhelm  Ceietiius) 
•ru  threatened  with  depotition  for  teadUng  niioDaliim,  and 
though  he  letained  his  office  he  lost  lus  inSuemx,  which  puaoi  to 
"  A.TholuckandJulJiuMullcT.   Uedicdon thei7(hoI Januaiy 


1849- 


iiysij) 


nDtrrJli, 


(1B06)-  anj  ItuHlmilma 
icti  W.  Sieiger'i  Krilili  ia 
k  (ISjo)  waiaiiply. 


n  nUaupkit  nfnierU 


WBIOHIKO  KACUIHBS.  Heehaxical  devices  for  detennininc 
weighti  or  comparing  the  mano  of  bodiea  may  be  dal- 
lied as  [11)  cquat-amied  balances,  lb)  unequal-aimed  balances, 
{()  spnng  balances  and  (i)  automatic  maduoca.  Equal-anoed 
balances  may  be  divided  into  (ij  scale-beama  or  balances  in 
which  the  icale-paiu  an  below  Ihe  beam;  (>)  coonler  machines 
and  balances  on  tbe  same  principle,  in  which  the  scale-pans  arc 
above  tbt  b«am.  Uae<pul-ainicd  balances  nuy  be  divided  into 
'a  sio^ sUdyaal; {a)  *"^"*"" formed 


Scale-beams  an  the  most  accurate  balances,  am)  the  nou 
generally  used.  When  conunicled  for  purposes  of  tittemc 
accuracy  ihey  will  tuni  with  the  one-millionth  pan  o(  the  load 
weighed,  though  lo  entuR  such  a  result  the  knife^dgei  and 
iheir  bearings  must  be  utiemely  hard  (either  hudened  siecl 
or  agaie)  and  worked  up  with  great  care.  The  beam  must  be 
provided  with  a  smalt  ball  ol  metal  which  on  be  screwed  up  and 
down  a  stem  on  the  top  of  the  beam  for  Ihe  purpose  of  atcurilely 
adjusting  the  position  ol  the  centre  of  giavity,  and  there  should 
be  1  small  adjustable  weight,  on  a  fine  snew  projecting  horizon- 
tally  horn  one  end  of  the  beam  for  tbe  purpose  of  accuraitly 
balancing  the  arms. 

The  iheorv  oflhe  •calc-bcam  iiiiMed  by  Wcisbach  in  hii  Uttisiiiil 
'!.  f'^.^'r^T  Md  Extinrcrint.  u  toUon  :-In  lig.  1  D  U  the  fulcnuB 


AC-BC-1 

the  balaiKC  froai~lhe  boriiontat-*.  the  weight  of  the  heamalsM 
-  G.  the  weiihl  on  one  side  -  P,  that  on  the  Diher  -  P+Z.  and  lastly 
the  WBght  of  each  ecale  whh  its  appunenanca— Q  Ihea 

the  length  of  llv  beam,  mdeI  de- 

,  .-crcaie;  alio,  that  atvavyb^aaa 

ive  than  a  liehr  one,  uid  that  the  sensiliv^ 

the  greater  the  weight  put  upon  tbeecaleL 

I  of  a  baUn«,Ihe  line  AB  joininf 

of  the  balance  nint 

is  made  ninmely 


:li  other. 


^.1.  ■n.^i  I-  ^-.^  .....M,^.    Finaify,  L 

1  thil  pnctkally  tan  *-2ilCi,  tbe . 

'' ■  ■- d  bv  the  bJaoct    Wettbadi 


ilCyiiibeim 


beam,  the  lime,  It 


This  shows  ibsi  the  t 


I1  must  be  fulfilled  by  a  ■caic-beam  in  pfopv 
rhe  beam  muit  take  up  a  boriionial  ponlioa 
ie  two  tcale>]Kns  are  equal,  from  nolhing  to 
hy  of  tbe  nKhine.  (i)  Tbe  beam  must  take 
d  eqidlibriuia  for  a  given  snail  difftren  a 

he  Inriagntal  after  il  has  eome  10  nst,  due  M 
of  weight  in  Ihe  scale-pans,  ihoukl  be  suchM 
a  for  which  the  balance  Is  intended,  fiaiiel 
inaiy  trade  balances  there  Is  always  a  poiat 
■u  and  chains  getting  interchanged,  ihcie 
That  the  beam  without  the  scale-pans  and 

'  baUncHi  and  hoiitonial;  (()  thai  iht  two 

scale-pans  with  iheir  chains  mtisi  be  of  equal  weight;  <rj  thai  (he 

ioining  the  end  kniTr  edges  must  be  evactl^f  bisected  by  a  lint  diawa 
perpendicuUr  to  it  from  the  lulcrum  kiufe-tdgc.  By  tesling  Iht 
beam  with  the  scale-pans  attached  and  equal  weighu  in  Ihe  pans, 
and  iiDIint  carefully  the  poaition  which  it  afcti  up;  and  then  inirr- 
changint  (he  scale-pans,  Ac,  and  again  notin^he  posjlioa  which 

of  emt;  and  if  afier  ■Itilijy  altering  or  adjuBing  Ihe  knift-edps 
and  Kale-pans  In  the  diictlion  indicalKl  by  thr  mpcrinicnl.  III* 
opoation  IS  repeated,  any  required  degree  of  accuracy  msy  be  po- 
taintd  by  lucnssive  aopnnimations.  ^Hie  chief  reunn  loc  twin 
balancea  with  weigha  in  ihe  icale-pBni  rather  than  with  UK  ale- 
pans  rmptv,  is  thai  the  habnce  might  he  unstable  with  Ihe  weights 
though  stable  without  ihem.  This  is  not  an 
and  arises  Irom  Ihe  tendency  00  the  part  of  r 
balanm  n  eitiemely  semillve  that  ibey  ai 
stability,    la  «■.  a  let  ABCD  b«  th«  b«a  < 


WEIGHING 

Mod  X,  Y  i)m  biitE-aI(»  DD 

xtcd  »  that  Z  a  ilithlly  bck 


t^LLuna  the  point  H  tEIT  it  nti  above  Z»  uid  ihe  lulanu»  benibing 
unmblc,  irill  turn  tiU  it  it  EiDuglil  up  by  a  itop  o(  Bme  kind. 

Fig'  3  repreteata  a  pFKision  balance  cooitnicted  to  weigh  with 
IT»i  accuracy.  The  bvam  it  o(  brooce  in  a  tingle  deep  caiiJAK. 
cored  out  in  the  middle  h  aa  to  aHow  (be  saddle  at  the  top  6t  the 
itand  to  past  ihroiwh  the  bram  and  afford  a  cwitinuoui  bearirw  for 
Ibp  fdkrjm  ItDilc-edRc-  Tbc  knile-cdBt  and  ita  beeripff  an  both  ol 
ilceL  or  uatc.  and  ine  bearing  ■uiface  ii  flat.  Tbe  end  1ini(e<cdKe? 
al40  are  of  tlccl  or  agate,  and  bave  cwitinuom  bearing  on  flat  itecl 
or  agate  lurfacet  at  Ibe  upper  part  of  the  uupeiuian  linln.  To 
rdieve  the  knife-edgea  f Eon  a«ar  when  tbe  balance  ia  not  bdng  lued 
a  tiiangular  frame  a  provided,  trtikh  ia  lifted  and  Towered  by  a  cam 
action  at  tht  bottom,  and  moves  vertically  in  guides  fixed  on  the 

tta  ends  are  Grat  received  by  ibe  projcdiiv  Hudi  on  each  side  of  the 
luipennon  Unix  and  the  iinpenuon  links  are  fifted  ofl  the  end 

noiion,  the  hoiieDntiiL  sTuda  at  Ihe  two  ends  of  the  beam  sic  I<H:«LV«i 
idlhelorfcaat  the  ends  ol  the  ending  frame,  and  by  them  the  fjlcruni 
of  the  beam  ii  lifted  off  Its  bearing.  To  keep  Ihe  beam  tiuty  in  its 
place,  vUck  la  wry  neceanry,  as  aD  the  bearings  are  Bat,  tbe  re- 


twmUfT.-fKViliUmt^ 


— PiTcisiDa  Balinci 


gear  by  tbt  diding  fnmr.  The  end  Icaileedges  sie  sdiiuted  and 
tighlly  iamiBCd  inio  euci  poiiiion  by  means  ol  wedte  jiiecis  and  set 
•crews,  and  the  beam  is  furnished  Hilh  delicate  adju^rino  weights  at 
It!  top.  The  piHltion  of  the  beam  with  nqiect  to  (be  Koiiuntal  la 
■hown  by  a  horlaonlal  poinler  (not  shown)  pnjectEng  Innn  one  end 
ol  ii,  vhieh  playa  past  a  acale,  eacb  dnwui  oF  whicb  conesninds 
ID  ibe  Alkor  )is<b  of  a  nain  acoordiaK  to  ibe  siia  and  dcbcacy 
of  tbe  Buchioa.  A  hcst-class  chemical  Eabnce  would  be  nude  In 
this  manner,  but  in  alt  plnces  where  there  ace  acids  and  ««> 

Mttack  and  corrode  sleel. 

Foe  tbe  weiEhiog  d  very  small  quaalitiei  *ilh  balances  ot  neat 
delicacy,  the  lollowini  nwlhod  is  adopted;— It  the  balance  be  in 

minute  dinerence  of  the  weights  in  the  (wo  icale-pang,  by  which  the 
beam  b  defleeled  from  tbe  boriiontal  by  a  very  tmalL  nngte  *,  it  can 
easily  be  shown  that  un  *. «  «,  varies  at  mXi  Therefore  the  anile 
of  deflection  whicb  would  be  produced  by  gniin  weight  hung  at  Ihe 
distance  f/ro  (for  example?  liom  Ibe  centre  is  the  tame  as  would  bc 
produced  by  ^th  of  n  grain  in  the  scale-pan  at  the  distance  I. 
Therefore  by  graduating  the  (op  of  the  beam  and  shifting  a  rider 
grain  wi^il  (ill  tbe  beam  is  heriionlsl.  it  is  easy  to  ascertain  the 

nrct>oniothe,t,thor,A,tb  pan  ols  grain  without  uiing  a  weight 

The  Etring  of  th; 

i«)ge.  ia  dnven  throuji „- 

ijint.   This  forms  (he  knife-edge. 
nt  two  projecting  ends  of  the  ( 


knlfe^gea  Is  of  greuE  Importnnce-    lu  ordi 


iTiSS: 


ja  miRht  be  eiLpected.  But 
»  would  render  this  arrange 
icb  tbc  movcmenl  is  large. 
ry  suitable  for  w^ghbridgei, 
very  small,  but  for  general 
es  appear  preferable. 


'i^^hu7aa  to'be'n 


■ought 


idd  shifting  tbe'weiglitt 


of  air  dliplaced  by  the  ' 
weight  of  air  dii[uaced 
time  of  weighing.  """" 
(akerL    For  this 

of  coune  (he  itmplest  way  c 


wilbout  opeoing  tbe  a 

.rite,  for  tbe  voUunes  of  equal  wd^tg  of 
difleieni,  and  (berefor*  the  quantity  of  ait 
c  diffeient,  and  (be  diffeience  of  tbe  welghlt 
two  weighu  must  be  aUowcd  for.  And  Ihe 
depends  upon  the  density  of  the  air  a(  Ibe 
...  . -lin^m^nsl  ,he 


■eight.  .'> 


i^i^jbtbii  iha 
1  be  com^elely 


relv,  ot 

oTibe 


even  to  mjunTain  a  constant  deflree  of  exhausUon,  by  reason  oi  II 
leakage  connected  wilb  (he  weigiiing  operationt,  and  ui  consequen 
weiglwy  i^»n»<  ii^WjBudi^lnJavoor.    Wbaln-u^  method 


bring 

They , 

"■'"""  rigidly  tied  toeetl 


imbered 

usually 

...  Jly  tied 


fastened  to  the  under  ndc  of  each  pan,  (he  lon-cr  end  of  which  & 
loosely  secured  by  a  horiiontal  stay  to  a  pin  in  the  middle  of  tbc 
frame.  In  using  ihew  mochinet  there  is  seldom  any  riuestion  of 
delcrmininD  the  weight  Id  any  great  nicely,  and  rapid  action  is 
gcncrsLly  DrhighiniportarKe,    Hence  they  arc  very  commonly  made 

fulcrum  knife-edges  lontr  (Kan  Ihc  lint  jmnln^  the  end  knife^ilgci. 
and  they  are  arranged  so  ihai  (he  benm  !s  horironial  when  the  slop 
of  (be  wtlghts.pan  h  hard  down  on  its  bearings.    This  ■mngemen 


+71 

Lhough  DM  fo 


WEIGHING  MACHINES 


pnaaait,jmitB» 


vdt  ackptvd  for  vdihEat  out  parc^  of  tflvk  of  ■  dcfifdte  velfbt, 

me  ftt»&je»  or  "  vibTBtinB.^'  bycoDnrucilnKiJicEn  W»hf 
iff-od^tv  above  the  line  3<^niiit  Ihv  end  kjiifft-edBt 


ofa[IvaiHrliclt_  For  with  unstable  baUllce^^ although  the  tnian« 

broiiEht  up  by  it!  BiDp,  yd  being  in  tllElpoiiliad.il  very  miicbgRBtn 
w(HeRf  than  (he  dinercnce  which  broiivhl  it  ibcie  viU  tie  lequired 
tn  lie  welEliu-pan  to  enable  il  lo  mount  asain.  tf  W  be  the  ivdcln 
in  each  ^n  vihn  iht  goodA-pan  oiinrnenceij  to  iioh» '  the  length  of 

tod  kniftHilgn.  and  i  the  an^  at  Ilie  (ulcRini  which  definn  the 
raive  of  away  of  the  beain.  it  can  canly  be  ihown  thai  »,  the  ad- 
dkiona]  weight  required  in  the  wei^rts-pui  lo  enable  (be  gnoda-pan 
IB  rtK  from  lit  atop,  b  given  by  the  eQuallaair-Win  ran  tf/L- 
■r  tantf.  So  thai  if,  for  eampl^  afiifaiiioiiaeriBaauchBitiachinv 
to  aacertabi  the  webpit  of  a  plecoif  Ihk  wUcE  lie  fitaca  in  the  Emd  I- 
|ian,  and  thereby  depreeiea  it  down  upon  ita  ad^  and  then  place* 
weight!  in  tlie  weights-pan  tin  tiie  gooda-pan  riicL  the  cunonieT  ia 
charged  for  more  than  ihe  real  weight  of  the  fiah.  Stcondly.  in  using 
them  out  of  level,  with  the  goodi  end  of  the  machine  lower  than  the 
milAia  ml.    It «  be  the  angle  of  till  of  the  machine,  and  the  other 


ft-  4.  u  emr  may  tie  cauied  by  placing  the  genii 


taige  flat  goods- pan.  aa  il 


tke  Ban,  aa  at  D  or  E.    tMi«  the  aynAsb  el  the  diagnm,  R 
I  be  San  that  th»  ritert  of  piadag  the  imght  W  at  E  inaead  ef 

u  addidoftai  weighl,  w,  at  F  luch  that 

■  -Wa{M^•-(-tu*)/l. 
c  condition  that  mun  edat  in  order  ilut  the  balance  may  wei^ 
lecily  ior  all  pcaitiona  of  tiK  weight  Wiiw-<,octanf-i<pi 

'poinu  A'^d  c'^Frem  the'eouatmi  for  «.  h  it  in'thlu 
larger  1  i>  tlie  a4DaIler  v  will  be.  TherrloiT  foi  the  bigtf 
'   ia  BotoonvoiiaH  lobavcibeicale-pani 


:ipie.whc. 


_      „_..  _...  (fig.  s).  tmauK  Ibt 

arrangemcnl  ii  very  common,  Aa  will  be  leatTiiy  undintood  Inm 
tiK  conHniclion  oi  tlie  nuchioea,  there  it  more  rrirtion  In  couciler 
machinet  than  in  icale-bcami.  The  "lentilivnicti "  errer  allcocd 
Iwthe  Board  of  Trade  for  counter  machincaigSvetlmau  great  u 

The  lonioii  balance  nude  by  tne  United  Siata  Tanion  BitatK* 
and  Scale  Company  of  New  Voik  ii  a  n»iniFr  marhine  nude  with- 

(imiliT  beams,  one  above  the  other,  which  are  coupled  logeiha 

right.    The  coupling  it  eflecied  by  fiimiy.cbm^g  (he  ends  U  ihe 

■prinE.  which  i)  lightly  stretched  muMllhe  casting  carryinc  (bt  pan. 
II  is  shown  in  the  cnil  view  is  fig.  6.  Al  (heir  middindiebcamiait 
similarly  clamped  upon  the  top  and  — 

bed-'p&le.   "^When  the  caHT'w 
holds  the  machine  ia  adjuded  I 


iif  Ihe  mveiling  pobe  with  very  great  accuiu^,  that  wiD  be 
B  IJttJe  unctjtainty  aa  to  the  rcuUng.  ajtd  tha^oft  ttedyaidl  art 
not  in  general  »  accumte  as  icale-beama.  When  aicfuIlT 
nicked  they  arc  well-adapted  far  weiring  out  definite  qaaniilia 
of  goodi,  lucb  at  I  Tb,  >  D),  &c.,  as  is  lucb  casci  IhCK  is  no 
queaiioii  of  ciiim«tioii.  Tbe  ordiuiry  way  ol  (uing  a  uedyanl  <> 
to  bring  It  into  a  horiaoBta]  position  by  Dieanl  of  moviblt 
weights,  and  to  infer  the  amount  of  Ihe  load  from  Ibe  postionsol 

on  the  long  uin.  and  to  infer  Ibc  amount  of  tbe  load  from  the 
pojiion  of  the  Meciystd.  The  rule  for  graduation  ia  wry  ample. 
The  limplest  form  ia  that  which  hat  a  ahigle  Iravtlling  poiie. 
The  more  elaborate  ones  are  made  dther  wiUi  *  henvy  travelling 
poise  (o  measure  the  bulk  of  the  lo«d  Kith  a  light  Ita  veiling  poiie 
for  the  remainder,  or  else  wilh  a  knife-edge  at  Ibe  end  of  the  sled- 
yard,  on  which  loose  weights  are  hung  to  incasuiT  the  bufk  of 
the  load,  the  remainder  being  measured  with  a  light  Iiavelltng 
pois^.  The  advantage  of  the  first  arrangement  It  that  the 
weights  OB  the  atedyatd  an  always  the  same,  and  incomixenciei 
of  indication  arc  avoided,  while  tti  tbe  second  irraogenieDt  the 
loose  weights  are  lighter  and  handier,  though  Ihey  must  be  vciy 

omBderable,  by  mson  ol  the  greol  leverage  thej  eiert. 

Steelvardi.  like  other  weighing  machines,  wm  be  "k 
or  "  vibralinf "  according  to  the  tnangemenl  al  (ha 


UNEQUALr%ARMEDl 


WEIGHING  MACHINES 


47* 


In  fig.  7  let  Z  be  the  fulcnim  knife^ge,  X  the  knife^ge  on  which 
the  load  R  is  hung,  and  H  the  centre  oif  gravity  (4  the  weights  to  the 
right  of  Z,  viz.  the  weight,  W,  of  the  steelyard  acting  at  its  centre 
ofgravity ;  G,  the  tFavclUng  poise ;  P,  acting  at  M ;  and  the  wci^ts, 
Q,  nung  on  the  knife-edge  at  V.  Then  if  Z  be  below  the  line  joining 
A  and  H,  the  steelyard  will  be  "  accelerating  " ;  i.e.  with  the  smallest 
excess  of  moment  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  fulcrum,  the  end  C  of 
the  steelyard  will  rise  with  accelerating  velocity  till  it  is  brought  up 
by  a  stop  of  some  sort:  and  with  the  smallest  excess  of  moment 
on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  fulcrum,  the  end  C  of  the  steelyard  will 
drop,  and  will  descend  with  accelerating  velocity  till  it  is  brought 
up  by  a  similar  stop.  If  Z  be  above  the  line  XH,  the  steelyard  is 
"  vibrating  ";«.«.  it  will  sway  or  vibrate  up  and  down,  ultimately 
coming  to  rest  in  its  position  of  equilibrium.  Steelyards,  again,  arc 
frec^uently  arranged  as  counter  machines,  having  a  scoop  or  pan 
resting  on  a  pair  of  knifenedges  at  the  short  end,  wnich  is  prevented 


a 


X 


M 


1j — 


t 

i 


w 
Fic.  7. 


I 


Q 


from  tipping  over  by  a  stay  arrangement  similar  to  that  of  other 
counter  madiines. 

Steelyards  are  largely  used  in  machines  for  the  autontatic  weighing 
out  of  granular  substances.  The  principle  is  as  follows:  The 
weighing  is  effected  by  a  steelyard  with  a  slidine  poise  which  is  set 
to  weigh  a  definite  weight  of  the  material,  say  I  lo.  A  pan  is  carried 
on  the  knife-edges  at  the  short  end,  and  is  kept  from  tipping  over  by 
stays.  A  packet  is  placed  on  the  pan  to  receive  the  mateiial  from 
the  shoot  of  a  hopper.  A  rod,  connected  at  its  lower  end  with  the 
steelyard,  carries  at  its  upoer  end  a  horizontal  dividing  knife,  which 
cuts  off  the  flow  from  the  snoot  when  the  steelyard  kicks.  When  the 
filled  packet  a  removed,  the  steelvard  resumes  its  original  position, 
and  the  filling  ^oes  on  automatically. 

The  automatic  personal  weighing  machine  found  at  most  railway 
stations  operates  by  means  of  a  steelyard  carrying  a  fixed  weight  on 
its  long  arm,  the  load  on  the  platform  being  inferred  from  the  position 
<rf  the  steelyard.    In  fig.  8  the  weight  on  tife  platform  is  transferred 

by  fevers  to  the  vertical 
steel  band,  A.  which  is 
wrapped  round  an  arbor 
on  tne  axle  of  the  disk- 
wheel,  B,  to  which  is 
rigidly  attached  the 
toothed  segment,  C.  The 
weight.  L>.  is  rigidly 
attached  to  the  axle  of  the 
wheel,  B,  and  the  counter- 
balance, E,  is  hung  from 
the  wheel,  B,  bv  means  of 
a  cord  wrappca  round  it. 
When  the  puU  of  the  band, 

A,  comes  upon  the  wheel, 

B,  it  revolves  throueh  a 
certain  angle  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  arrow  until  the 
three  forces,  viz.  the  pull  of 
A,  the  weight,  IX  and  the 
counterbalance,  £,  are  in 
equilibrium.  The  toothed 
segment,  C,  actuates  the 
pinion,  F,  which  carries 
the  finger,  G,  and  this 
finger  remains  fixed  in 
position  so  long  as  the 
person  is  standing  on  the 
platform.  If  now  a  small 
weight,  as  a  penny,  be 
pa»ed  through  the  sIot.'H, 
It  falls  into  the' small  box,  I, 
and  causes  the  lever,  J,  to 


Fig.  8. 


turn;  the  lever.  J,  which  turns  in  friction  wheels  at  K,  and  is 
counterbalanced  at  O,  carries  a  toothed  sesment.  L,  which 
actuates  a  small  pinion  on  the  same  axle  as  F,  and  is  free  to 
turn  on  that  axle  dv  a  sleeve.  This  small  pinion  carries  a  finger, 
M,  which  is  arranged  to  catch  against  the  finger,  G,  when  moved  up 
to  it.  Consequently  as  the  lever,  J,  turns,  the  finger,  M,  tevolves, 
and  b  stopped  when  it  reaches  G.  The  sleeve  of  the  pinion  which 
carries  M  also  carries  the  dial  finger,  and  if  the  dial  is  properly 
graduated  its  finger  will  indicate  the  weight.  The  box,  I.  has  a 
hipged  bottom  with  a  projecting  click  finger  whkh,  as  the  box  de- 
$attid%  plays  idly  over  the  staves  of  a  ladder  arc.  When  the  weight 
h  rembvea  from  the  |rfatfonn,  the  coHOterbalance.  E,  causes  the 


finger,  G,  to  run  back  to  Its  zero  position,  carrying  with  It  the  finger 
M,  and  causing  the  click  finger  of  the  box,  1,  to  trip  open  the  bottom 
of  the  box  and  let  the  pcnnv  fall  out.  The  lever,  J,  regains  its  zero 
position,  and  all  is  ready  for  another  weighing.  Since  so  small  a 
weight  as  a  fienny  has  to  move  the  lever,  J,  together  with  the  dial 
finger,  &c.,  it  is  evident  that  the  workmanship  must  be  good  and  the 
friction  kept  very  low  by  means  of  friction  wheels. 

Some  of  the  largest  and  most  accurate  steelyards  are  those  made 
for  testing  machines  for  tearing  and  crushing  samples  of  metals  and 
other  materials.  They  are  sometimes  made  with  a  sliding  poise 
weighing  1  ton,  which  has  a  run  of  200  in.. and  the  steelyard  can  exert 
a  pull  of  100  tons. 

Balances  are  frequently  used  as  counting  machines,  when  the 
articles  to  be  counted  are  all  of  the  same  weight  or  nearly  so,  and 
this  method  is  both  quick  and  accurate.  They  are  also  used  as  trade 
computing  machines,  as  in  the  case  of  the  machine  made  by  the 
Computing  Scale  Company.  Davton,  Ohio,  U.S.A.  In  this  machine 
the  goods  to  be  priced  are  placed  on  the  platform  of  a  small  platform 
machine  whose  steelyard  is  adjusted  to  balance  exactly  the  weight 
of  the  platform,  levers  and  connexions.  The  rod  which  transmits 
the  pull  of  the  long  body  lever  of  the  platform  machine  to  the  knife- 
edge  at  the  end  of  the  short  arm  of  the  steelyard  is  continued  up- 
wards, and  by  a  simple  mechanical  arrangement  transmits  to  an 
upper  steelyard  anv  additional  pull  of  the  long  body  lever  due  to  the 
weight  of  goods  placed  on  the  platform,  lliis  upper  steelyard  is 
arranged  as  in  fig  o,  where  A  is  the  point  where  the  pull  of  tne  long 
body  lever  due  to  tne  weight  of  the  goods  on  the  platform  comes  upon 
the  steelyard;  C  is  the  fufenun  of  the  steelyard,  which  with  the 
steelyard  can  be  slid  to  and  fro  on  the  frame  of  the  machine:  and  Q 


Fig.  9. 

is  a  poise  which  can  be  slid  along  the  upper  bar  of  the  steelyard. 
The  steelyard  is  exactly  in  balance  when  there  is  no  weight  on  the 
platform  and  Q  is  at  the  zero'  end  of  its  run,  at  O.    Suppose  that 

the  weight  of  the  goods  on  the  platform  is  (p)  lb,  and  that  -th 
of  this  weight  is  transriiitted  by  the  long  body  lever  to  the  point 
A,  so  that  ^  lb  is  the  pull  at  A.  Let  the  lower  bar  of  the  steel- 
yard be  graduated  in  equal  divisions  of  length,  J,  each  of.  which 
represents  one  penny,  so  that  the  distance  CA^qXd  represents 

q  pence.  Then  the  number  PXq  represents  the  total  value  of 
the  goods  on  the  platform.  If  Q  lb  be  the  weight  of  the  poise  Q. 
the  position  of  Q  when  the  steelyard  is  exactly  in  balance  ts 

given  by  the  equation  Jxj^-QXOQ,  or  OQ-pxiX;^*     W 

therefore  the  upper  bar  be  graduated  in  divisions,  each  of  which 

is  ^1  the  indication  of  the  poise  Q,  viz.  pXq  graduations,  gives 

correctly  the  value  of  the  goods.  Thus  to  ascertain  the  value  of 
goods  on  the  platform  of  unlcnown  weight  at  a  given  price  per  lb, 
It  is  onl^jT  rfecessary  to  slide  the  steelyard  till  tne  weight  acts  at 
■the  division  which  represents  the  price  per  lb,  and  then  to  move 
the  poise  Q  till  the  steelyard  is  m  balance;  the  number  of  the 
division  which  defines  the  position  of  the  poise  Q  will  indicate  the 
sum  to  be  paid  for  the  goods.  When  the  load  on  the  platfonn  is 
large»  so  that  the  value  of  the  goods  may  be  considerable,  it  is 
convenient  to  measure  the  larger  part  of  the  value  by  loose  weights 
which,  when  hung  at  the  end  01  the  steelyard,  represent  each  • 
certain  monejf  value,  and  the  balance  of  the  value  is  determined  by 
the  sliding  poise  Q. 

In  the  machines  commonly  used  to  weigh  loads  exceeding  a  cwt. 
the  power  is  applied  at  the  end  of  the  long  arm  of  the  steelyard  and 
multiplied  by  levers  from  100  to  500  times,  so  that  the  weights  used 
are  smalt  and  handy.  The  load  is  received  upon  four  knife-edges,  so 
that  on  the  average  each  knife-edge  receives  only  one-fourth  of  the 
load,  and,  as  will  he  seen,  it  is  immaterial  whether  the  load  is  received 
equally  by  the  four  knife«dges  or  not,  which  is  eseential  to  the  useful 
applicadon  of  these  machines. 

In  fig.  10  AB  is  the  steelyard.  The  platform  and  the  load  upon  it 
are  carried  on  four  knife-edges,  two  of  which,  Xt  and  9^  are  shown, 
and  the  load  is  transferred  to  the  steelyard  by  the  two  levers  shown, 
the  upper  one  CD  being  known  as  the  "  king  body,"  and  the  lower 
one  E¥  as  the  "  short  body."  If  t^xt'^vo^,  and  Sif -VO^,  then  the 
leverage  of  any  portron  of  the  load  applied  at  xt  will  be  the  same  aa 
the  leverage  01  any  part  of  the  load  applied  at  xt,  and  the  pressure 
produced  at  yi  will  be  the  same  for  equal  portions  of  the  h»dj  whether 
they  were  originally  applied  at  xi  or  xt.  Platfonn  machines,  like 
steelyards,  may  be  arranged  either  on  the  "  accderating  "  principle 
or  on  the  '*  vibrating  "  principle.    If  in  fig.  10  gi  be  Ihe  centre  d 


+7a  WEIGHING 

nivitv  of  thi  long  body  CD.  ind  Iti  be  (h>  centre  ol  travity  of  the 

no  luiifHOgei 
dya/cl»udklimlar1yU  the  point  ht 


air  Cb  lavoim  the  "  mtceleniion  "  priiKipIci 

tjiduiut  ui  "ucclcntint "  iteelyanL  aad  klimlarly  ^  ,.-.  . r^ 

bcibovelbeBaekMiBthecaKoTlheibonbodyEF.  Itthcksife- 
tdgEi  be  nlaceil  »  that  k  and  jli  in  bdov  the  lim  nn  ind  m 
TC^IeetivcIyj  tbe  arnnfeoKnt  will  bivosr  Ibe  "  vibruion '  piiiidplc. 


veipectivcfy»tbe  orrwiEenent  wUL  t^ 

maa  imiiteatoaa  with  end  ■mjh*     .    — ., — 

It  H  very  ivportint  Ui4t  nlatrnnii  nucbina  khouLd  be  Inily  level. 
WHb  acxefentiiv  muhuio  a  inuU  aoKHinl  of  tilt  in  uy  dinction 
covudsably  ■ffecla  the  accuracy  of  the  wdcbinE,  and  vboi  the 
•uunt  of  tilt  ia  coiniderablc  the  action  may  be  cbangEd,  aa  that  a 
■lachiae  which  waa  intended  to  act  aa  an  acceknlina  jnachiae  act* 
Dke  a  vibnting  one.  Iflbtatini  siBchina  ue  only  tCghtly  aflected 
by  bciPE  out  of  levct  in  cDrnpaTiBon  with  accekraluiK  machinea, 
■id iDtTii matter tbey have ailinincl advantage.  Whcna pUlIonn 

Inrendcd  Id  be  huno  at  the  end  of  the  (tcelyard  are  conecl  and 
CDiwKeat  ampng  ibcmieiveB.  a  good  and  on  inuhiiie,  whose 
capacity  ia  4  cwt',  ehcniM  not  ahowr  a  grisiler  error  than  4  ot  wheA 
luliyloadcd.    PLHfDrm  iiuchinMare.REhlly  aflKled  by  chan^ol 

tbe  lolWing  airangem^nt :  The  Kc^yaAl  i«  niavideA  viith  a  lam 
and  a  imall  tfa>^inK  pcoie.    Ea^h  of  ihr 

atrip  of  metal,  which  ia  graduated  and „ .., 

1;_  ..  .1. .1,^  atcolyard  ilaeU.    Theie  Itlilia 


ander  a  alrong  punching  lever  arran^  on  the  frame  of  the  nafhlne- 

franwbetweeo  the  punch  and  the  itripa.  When  ihr  ^iiea  have  been 
tdjuated  to  weigh  a  load  DH  the  platfoim  the  punch  lb  operated  t>y  a 
Hning  pull,  andihe  impretnon  of  the  raiud  ligurea  li  left  on  the  card. 
Tbin  the  weight  ia  recorded  without  reading  the  poHtiana  of  the 
pdao.  In  anotlKT  arTangement  the  lelf-rccordijig  put*  an  entirely 
■ndiMl]  Iri  the  travelling  poiie  itself. 

Fig-  II  diovw  the  ordiaary  arrangement  of  the  una  of  a  piat- 
ktn  mKhiDC.  but  there  are  many  typea  which  differ  irenlly  in 
detail  thon^  not  in  principle. 

'  Wliea  the  tottk  tn  be  weighed  are  very  heavy,  pxlable  weigh- 
Wdgea  or  piaLform  machinea  are  InarwJLvMrr  anH  ir  h  nwHurv 
ID  erect  the  weighbridge  on  a 

maSm  almtdy  deacribcd,  but  having  the  Imi  body  leva-  turned 
id  of  it  pnjecti  Gonaiderabty  twyond  the  tide 

_, ^ Bflg.  and  the  pillar  and  etcelyard  ybich  receive 

re  clear  of  ihe  wagon  on  the  platrorm.  In  nnotb^  arrang 
D  almilar  triangubr  levers  lake  bearine  on  oppnile  wdrs  • 
Dediate  lever  which  communiratH  tnelr  prenurea  (o  tl 
I  i  this  t*  a  very  sound  and  airnple  aTrargernent  for  ordinal 
ridgea.  Latily,  when  the  wriatibridge  ia  very  Lonl; — an 
tietrmea  made  40  It.  long,  and  are  arranged  to  weigh  u 

nadiiaea  end  to  end|  each  having  ita  lourhiiife4d£e«tDreceivetl 
load,  aid  the  two  Ioa(  bediealakeliaring  on  the  oppoaile  aideaefi. 
Intermediate  horiiontal  lever,  the  end  ol  which  ia  nonneeted  with  the 
MHywd.  When  aUUolly  made  they  are 

A  kaefiil  ap[>l>cation  o[  veighbridgea 

— '-' he  aepante  wbeeb  of  locomalivc  eaglBea,  ao  that  they 

-rf„  ^:_— •     =_  .u,  pufpoB  ,  number  of  aepar-" 

ire  erected,  ooe  lor  each  whe* 

™  in  enctly  the  nmc  hoTucH — 

n.  and  Che  premirm  iA  all 

h  by  ita  crwB  weijihbndae. 

idnnea  depending  l«  their 


d  the  weighbriche  ca 


■«>  be  Bnperly  •djntcd.  Fo 
■evhbridgea  ol  ainple  <— -■ — 
»t  eatiMjnth  thdr  n 

Ibewhcdiu 
Tfaneare 


fl  ainnltancouajy.  a_..  _  .._ 
Idnda  of  weighing  madnnea  d 
■tiooa  ef  levcrtt  and  arrange 
'h  art  DOal  platform  nadunei 


"'w^'" 


[UNEQUAL- ARM  EI> 


1  laaded  with  the  nnper 

alia  the ackhgr  baud 


-^    „.... «ei^  good.  a.  .ley  «* 

by  a  crane  r  the  lever  artsngemenl  laabown  mng.  "■  .^ 
lae  nailiine  ai  pecuhat  eaanniction.  well  adapted  f*!^  *^^ 
_,  - — vy  laadB.and  enlrcmoly  aimplaaad  compact,  whicb  don  n^ 
pivperly  come  under  any  of  the  beads  under  which  the_  "■"'^^ 
have  been  daasilied.  It  the  bydrosiaiic  weighing  machina.  >" 
machine  it  oaeKtucted  with  an  open  top  evRnder,  a  mrrup  a^ 
being  provided  by  which  it  may  be  luipeuded  tron  a  oaaa. 


SPRING  ftALflNCE^ 


WEIGHING  MACHINES 


eyiiader,  >nd 

could  prDlatlf  tc  rud  lo  about  |  %  ol  the  Iwd  mighed. 
Spring  Boianai 


ling  Lhe  mM 


ipinJst 


10  nrcd  of  lo«e  wcightK  EicepI 
■    Their  action  depends  upon 


ulhcf 


o  Lhe  weifihL  nhjcb  caubcs  it  iho  gradm 
U  v«y  ^mple.  The  ucuncy  ol  tpring  michinrs  depenib  upon 
the  acnntty  of  the  ipiingt  and  Ibc  workmuiship  of  the  machims. 
The  iprinifS  in  general  are  vciy  accural*  and  unifomi  in  their 
cileniion,  and  are  very  permanent  when  fairly  well  used;  but 
their  Indicalrons  are  apt  lo  vary  fnni  fatigue  of  the  spring  if 
ihey  are  kepi  (itended  by  a  »eight  for  *  long  time.  Their  in- 
dications alio  vary  wilh  the  lempcrature.  u  thai  for  good  worli 
It  It  adviuble  ihai  tpiiog  baUncn  ihould  be  Inqueniiy  checked 


of  reading  I) 


Fori 


qticnlly  the  loud,  ii 

■  UfuU  rack  and  pinion,  which  give  I 

dial'pJale,  but  the  regularity  and  con 


■  dial.'by  meamof 
1  to  a  finger  on  tiie 
sot  lhe  indications 

in  ot  the  nckwoik 


d  thcu  will  vary  with  the  w 


■hen  >  spiral  spring  is  eitended  by  a  weight  fl  has  a  trnden£y 
toturnalilllemundilsaxis.  ThcRlore  an  indei  pointer  attached 
to  the  bollom  of  (he  spring,  and  moving  past  i  scale  Kouid  lub 
•lightly  againu  the  case.  To  correct  Ihli  tendency  the  spring 
is  usually  made  half  with  lighl-faand  q>Iia1  and  half  with  left- 


The  entens'on  of  n  (rural  iprini »  riven  by  the  forniiiU: — 
Extemiun -W4>R'/Er'.  in  vhicli^-weiEhi  causing  HlenHon, 
in  ttw;  M  >  number  of  coiU:  R^radiuioEspanv,  from  centreof  coil 
ID  centre  of  wfie,  in  inch«;  r-ndiui  ol  wire  3  which  ibe  tpHng  ■• 
nacle.  in  inchei:  E -coeHicieDl  of  etisticity  of  win.  in  nHpenquaic 
incb.  Tlie  valuLOf  E  depends  upon'ibe  temperinf  of  the  wire  and 
will  vary  acconlinfty;  lor  the  sprfngi  of  trade  balances  E  will 
usually  be  about  lO.Joo.ooo.  For  Iheapplicalian  of  lhe  above  formula 

(urmuTa  may  be  relied  u»n.  Thus  in  ihecav  of  a  iprini  for  whirli 
thevalueidihequ«nIiti»nRW-;lb,ii-Ji,R--jorn.,r-'OiS 

andweak'Tpri^"forlVic"tlKVaru«Jlhe'(|uani;iia'weKW-lor!! 
■  -J3}.  K-'.t5  '«•,-.  r-ooS5  in,.  E-io.soo.ooo,  the  formula  gives 
»JS!r""  '"""'  '«"P«"™n'w.i  spoogiave 


AtUtmalU  Wti(ki>it  Uwiinci. 
During  ibe  kul  few  yeata  great  efforli  have  been  made  to 
eipedlte  lhe  operation  of  weighing  machines  by  the  inlioduetioo 
of  machinery,  more  or  [ess  complicated,  which  rendeia  the 
machines  to  a  great  ciicni  sell-acting.  The  object  aimed  at 
varies  very  mncL  with  different  machines.  Somelimea  lhe  object 
is  lo  WHgh  out  parcels  of  goods  in  great  numbers  of  the  same 
definite  weight.  Sometimes  the  object  is  lo  weigh  out  parrels 
of  goods,  of  unknown  weight,  as  |n  ordinary  retal  dealing, 
and  lo  givi  the  eiact  value  irf  each  pared  at  different  rales 
per  lb.  Sometimes  the  object  is  to  weigh  many  loads  in  succes- 
sion, the  bads  being  of  varying  weighl,  and  to  present  the  IMal 
weight  at  lhe  end  ot  a  day's  work;  Ihb  is  thecasc  with  machine* 
for  weighing  coal  and  other  minerals.  Of  course  the  introductioa 
of  automatic  mechanism  introduces  friction  and  other  compHca- 
tions,  and  it  is  dilTiculi  to  consiruci  automalic  machines  Ihat 
shall  be  as  accurate  in  their  weighing  as  lhe  simpler  weighing 
machines,  but  in  many  weighing  operations  a  moderate  degree 
of  accuracy  will  sufTice,  njid  qiccd  is  ol  great  importance.  It 
'  is  lo  meet  such  cases  Ihat  the  greater  number  of  auiomitic  weigh- 
ing machines  have  been  invented.  Some  examples  of  these 
machlocs  will  now  be  given. 

Autmalit  Qnnptlint  sprint  Wtiikinr  UiuUne  fcr  Bilaa  Pi^rlma 
(lis.  II}.— A  light  and  canf  ully  bBbncetTdiuin  with  iisaaii  horiionlal 
u  cnclowil  wiibin  a  cylindiical  aniar,  and  rolales  fieely  in  bearings 
fanned  la  lhe  ends  of  the  ciiing.  The  cavng  is  li>cd  in  luppons  on 
the  lopoff  strong  r"-«—  „.L:,k-i ? ii_i^./ 1.-__ 

pbrcd-    1  ne  pull 


:h  end  of  the  drum  c 


which  the  Boods  to  be  wvighcd 
I  Is  tiansmilted  to  a  hmk  which  hi 
hariionial  bar  below  the  drum  cai 

K  ipringi  lhe  i«iEhing  of  the  gooi 
•  vcrtic^  racki,  one  at  each  end  of 


inC^th'e'ea'^gS  ^5^''^Si^X"^^"°^' 
?}FnS?3        •^"■^^^^hf^?!^"" 

values  of  the  goodi  (o  be  read  rajridlj,  the  piston  of  a  glycerin 
hwk  of  the  hoiiuntal  bar  and  is  worked  by  it  in  the  glyceiii. 


474 

OnIte«.ur 

«llfHI0( 

«Dud.idR..nd 

Ulhedificrcn 

ht  wtie" 
MolTt, 

lb.    Tbi 

.l«.«>d 

»[ap<TB).>n 

n^.'^T^wcvhtoJ 

odniadupoi 

ur  filed  It 

Ihecui 

J^'ttrwhichu 

louilud 

"'l^f5S 

WEIGHING  MACHINES 

c  iKTiiaud  an  tHe  chut  by  the  nw 


oithc  BDod^cormpondi  n; 


n  weiRhinf,  the  eoo<U  ar 

■him  Iwe  fit.  I4I.  «nd  1 

of  a  ihon  vertical  Rxl.  ThcuppcrcndoilliiirodiaronMdini 
np,  and  ihb  loop  pulU  upon  a  knilc-edce  which  ii  fined  u> 
rt  lateral  arm  rlgidlv  attacbid  u  ■  venVal  dirli.  ud  ihudii 
ni  in  bearing  (ornied  in  Ihe  frame  of  the  mchine.  Theaa 
k  cairis  Ihe  indei  um.  whicli  ■  rl|iilly  liud  to  it  and  indkali 


thtre  is  a  vmicaL  ilot  ihro'fh  which  the  weight  ol  Ihc  goodi  can  be 
read  on  Ihe  dnim. 

AkUmUic   ComfnliMf   ICniUiif   tfociint  for  S/lail  Fupeui 
(fig.  14).— The  actioQ  of  the  .1  ack'ne  •hoon  in  fig.  11  dependi  uvun 


1  loidid 


with  (he  t 


n  fig.  11  dep 


m  of  which  CO 


..._  , Jiu.mnd  up  Id  16  lb  with  _.. 

befeadiLy  alif^iedanlatliepeiHtuhfrnTod.  ' 
vaUKt  an  amnged  on  a  vcnkal  chan.  the  1 
toward*  the  pivodng  centre  of  an  indei  arr 
the  weighinf  mEchaniun.    Thi  ~ 

occupied  by  the  acalea  for  the  ...   

4ih1  tht  Tnt  of  the  chart  h  occuped  by _.  _„ 

an:s  which  ihow  the  nume^  value*  of  the  gooda  for  a;  ratea  per  lb 
The  rv*M  per  lb  are  Inicnbcd  tn  the  indet  arm  at  poinli  corrr' 
•imidiiif  10  tbe  vahio  on  the  cooceniric  area  ul  ibe  chut,  tod  th< 


which  ia  actuted  by 
of  Ihe  ^oodi  in  lb  and  01., 


ng  Weighing  Machine. 

i>  led  upward!  and  wiapa  round  the  Hirface  of  a  didi  (o  which 
li  ii  ^rmly  Kciired.  Tliit  diik  rolalea  by  rocking  on  >  V»'^ 
knilc-edgn  who«  bearing,  are  rigidly  attached  to  thej""^- 
The  diib  caniej  a  weighted  braM  cylinder  rigidly  allachKl  "  «( 
.hich  ii  pulled  into  an  Dbliqiie  poslion  by  the  tteel  boitd.""^ 
equiUbrljm  ii  eiubllshcd.  And  the  disk  abo  ""l^'S^iSiS 
the  weight  and  price  up  to  i-B)  weight.  The  dirh'  alB  aijif*  * 
second  and  cormpondlDg  index  am  which  indicate!  Ihe  ~«r<<.°^ 
the  punhaier'a  aide  of  iIk  machine.  Al  the  bolloinol  the  v«>|"^ 
leg  from  the  tnodapan  there  Is  aho  a  proucling  iwce  ■''^P^X 
attached  lo  the  lop  of  a  venical  piHon  imTthe  p&on  0^  *'','™ 
ptayi  in  a  dairh-pot  of  glycerin  as  the  beam  twaye.  and  deaoea  I" 

rj"Ht^l^h'"urf«'iS  '^mJ^'  ft  i^h^i^iS^'^'^ 
op  S  aeiarat^packn.' by'"halId!"'A''ldii;  nu^bw  of  moveBtn" 


■CI  WEIGHING  MACHINES  45 

pCDviiM  lor,  and  lb*  machineiy  ■■  conpliutH,  k  that  I  u  placFd  Jn  iL:  Kighii-piii  at  Ihe  h^itn  and  !•  the  only  la 
nrnption  ol  Ihe  Klioa  nS  ihe  nschine  ii  ■>!  Ihii  vill  KsfhtuHd  with  Ihe  icacCiiK.  Tlie  plii  of  b«in>  ur  hung  cuiin 
"\.  .  ,  .  .  .  1  ,  .  '■)'  "diaiKl  hooki  from  knife-ttleei  in  the  lorltnl  end  3  «  .In 

I  fed  iota  ■  hopper,  which  h»  ■  large  openiiic  ■<  Ihe  beam.  whKh  i>  cinied  at  iu  fukruin  hy  the  [dp  pliie  o(  the  In 
d   tli»  opemns  i>  Riiirdy  doled  by  (wo  cyUBclncal  I  of  tbe  Duchinc   ThitbeamiihMvily  tounlerbal»nc«lat  in  luitl 


adapicd  lor  ivciifhjng 


(fig.  17)-'n"i'  machim  n 

iBhtT  The'siiear  ii  run  inTo  a  conitaflioppcr  and  li 


mrcl  wdfhi  of  Ihe  bag  ii  is  necessary  10 


■T'.; 


nioniftlrBllylsatM  in  naighl  lo  ilM  ol  the  wgai  in.ihi  ui  xhile 


4-76 


WEIGHING  MACHINES 


dK4-lb«cl(litliMngtl(I«d.    But 


a  Ihe  rider  weight  ii  lilud  off  cbe  end  of  the  bulum  by  i 


'A^^T^A'id^ 


Sdla!Mr"lcnr.* 


WaiMiiJui'Limg. 


grab.     The  hoppw  I) 
and  ii  pnvmlnJ  (ronl 

^dc.    Tht  kniic-cdKC* 


"'T^JV'I'TlS  arricd  bv  kni[ 

fulcra  io  torii 

irWrtgliiog         Ihe  Irniw  o(  ih 


Tin  divia  <^  cud  lall  Into  Ihc  hauler  with  ■  tmvy  ibock.  uid  in 
«der  to  nvt  tie  lini(i!*d(M  Ihtre  a  t  .tmnf  Ian  in  sell  Hie  til  the 
hopper  Mow  Ihe  knife^ge.  whick.  beTnit  [tie  chun  o(  cod  ia 
dropped  into  the  hopper,  ii  acted  gn  by  a  Krone  boraonul  Bilch- 
plite.  which  htava  ihc  hopper  off  thi  kai(e4<%e>  (ad  nlievs  Ib« 
lepra  Ihe  thock.    The  hcaving-«p  tt  the  fliuh-plnte  iKl  boppR  la 
etTected  by  a  cam  on  the  end  ul  ■  bdriiBiitil  ihalt  whkh  nita  akMi 
..._L— ......  bthind the bopper.   Theaitch-ijalertatiu 

•  cam,  and  a<  t^  other  end  w  abackkdlo  iha 

a  cnaTfc  oi  coai  if  dropped  into  the  hopper,  thi 
mivei  a  violent  jer^  from  the  ahackle  al  the  flitcl 

on  ihe  can  ibaft  into  far  with  a  wheel  on  a  V 


le  bdl^crapb 


Fig.  i8.— AutsMiatk  Cool  Weighing  MachiM. 


kmfo^cdga 


nvolve.  and  theliich-piala  i>  paduaily  kiwvted  liU  the . 

bearingi  of  the  hopper  aie  imCLvcd  on  the  l:nife4djfei  of  the  main 
meaHinng  levers,  and  the  load  Ea  then  weighed  by  the  levcraand  in* 
apring-baunee.  Shortly  after  thia  it  d«ie  the  mechaninn  at  the 
back  of  (he  hopper  autoiuiically  apan  ibc  doon  at  the  hMW  oi 
Ihe  hopper,  and  Ihc  real  ditipa  out.  The  mtaiion  ol  the  cam  ib^t 
cominuea  till  Ihe  cam  hu  again  hsvcd  op  the  flitth-pUw,  when  the 
pinion  on  the  cam  shall  t<  ihnwo  out  oC  gcnr  with  the  whcet  on  the 
counter  shaft,  and  (lie  cani  remains  tlFady  till  .mother  charge  uiio" 
tidjoppedintothchspperandtheiKIioaiirenewvl.  Thecoalwhcn 
dropped  out  of  c he  hopper  runs  down  a  thool  into  a  receplacle,  from 
whcDce  it  is  IKted  by  a  Jacob's  Udder  and  dislribulcd  to  the  bs>lcn. 
Ac,  <^  the  factory. 

Amltmaic  Cm)  Wtithht  Uatkint  (fig.  19).— TTifj  machine  ■• 
designed  10  weigh  and  total  up  the  weigh!  of  materiala  pHtd  cwtr 
••  during  a  anudciaUc  couree  of  operalkins.  The  tniclii  of  o"*; 
Te|i(acle*csn(aiahic(hc(aaI.&c..aRdiawn  upon  the  p1>l!«i~^ 


pmwiw  WuiB  BBctlv  onlnciik  with  tin 

«llt:  the  obj«cI  of  Uiii  ii  thxt  tlic  pmurc  nvy  not  ini 

iwt,v  of  xbc  iifclyard,  u^hirb  mgtt  depend  entirely  upor 

By  fiKAiH  of  a  pair  of  miue  wheeld  iiir  •mall  apur  whei.   

aCRWed  aiatt,  ^vbich  ruiu  aloiiff  the  middle  of  the  ttcciyutL 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

lulmna  kaUe-  i  dutch  with  ■  iKsft  is  the  nmt 


I  with  ■  Bimilar  ftprocJcet  wheel  vrhieh  is  keyed  on  the 

at  of  iht  left-luiid  pulJcy.   The  nithei  wheel  i>  ani 

wL  which  it  ths^rn  oa  the  diagram.    When  the  pois 

2enj  eoa.  and  there  ia  no  la 

down,  and  has  loelred  the  rgi 

k    Su>   ■    ■    ■     -' 


[hufl    k>ckrd»    tbc   wnKlHl 


rd.'TVllw 


wed  shaft  caniei  the  poLie  along  tbeeieelyard  lillei, 

iLshcd,  and  the  end  of  the  ftteelyard  dropa.    By  the  Ani  part 
-  pihenwvtmenio[lhepoiieu>iiddaalyUDt^»d,aiwillbe 
below,  and  Ihe  travel  of  Iht       '       ' 


a  suddaaly  uoi^i^t 
I  H'™1d^b^tli 

DDcion  of  the  polK  ia  jevcned  and  the  pobe  ig  ruQ  bade  t 


V  wekhed  conies  upon  the  puiForm,  the 
T  end  of  the  etcelyaid  met  and  unlocliv 

Iht  latcbct  wheel   Ihruufl)   Ihe  paut; 

the  iptocket  gcaiing  is  driven  by  the 

Ihe  lefi  band  amal!  pulley.    The  miln 
poise  il  earned  along  till  the  end  of  Ihe 

Lie  Coal  Weighing  Machine,  SrobJb''y  dfJJh  JS'n^e'ldi-h"^ 

lulley  and  iha  adjacent  apfockel  whed,  and  the  pulley  drivea  ihe 
-onaejiuenlly  the  motion  ol  Ihe  mitfc  wheels  u  reveracd  and  ihe 

he  datdi  which  cnnnKti  Ihe  pulley  and  the  tprocliet  whed,  aad 
he  machine  ia  then  rmty  for  Ihe  f>"""  '""■■      '^'""  ""~"  "■"""■ — 


lalic  LuEE^ife^Weiflhing  Machine 


It  load.    All  of  Ihii  : 


The  dniD-tuft  u 


dlpuli^  which  it 
jiU  pulln  [which 
be  n»ch.ne  by  a 
wayarunninf,  but 


id  Ilie  spTocIfet  BcaHni 
-^"'Milllhei 

H  the  wtlfbint  of 


■lopped,  and  iht , -j 

. load  comcivpon  the  pbtfo.. 

LHitaii_  Wiitki*t  UiaHiu  «!(,  JoV— Thit  nachli 


jiieyiand 


?i«f 


liIMM  at  laiiway  nationt. 

ed  Dv  KVera  acranttd  in  liu 


^^ 


d  by  Icvera  J 


Willi 


ava  two  boriiiinul  cylindni.  n 
to  which  '•*— '  '■—  '^ — '■'  -" — ^ 

f^thJv 


h  aic  kd  ri||hl  and  left 

they  are  firmly  allached.  The  diameter  o(  the  middle 
e  ^jindera  ia  greater  than  that  of  ihe  cnda.  and  the  bands 
rertial  rod  are  led  over  ihe  middle  part.  To  Hch  cylinder 
•  pair  of  similar  nickel  bands  m  led  downwards  Imm  ibe  top  of  a 
catting  whicb  it  bohed  lo  the  flame.  The  tower  enda  </ Iheae  bandi 
pais  nuad  the  under  aide  of  (he  end  poniont  of  Ihe  cylinden. 
wr^iplng  dote  round  tbcm^  and  are  firmly  atiarhed  to  ihctn.  To 
tbebolromof  each  cylinder  js  rigidly  ellached  a  heavy  »1jd  cylinder 
of  lead,  and  these  art  rhc  rcgulalors  of  the  poeilion  of  eqiEifibnimi 
of  Ihe  cylinden  when  they  mute  under  ibe  aclion  of  the  load. 


0  Ihe  cylinda 


■e  paiiA  of  bands  wl 


As  ihry 


■ponding  to  the  pull  of  the  verloS  rod.  By  tbc  (olling  of  the 
finders  up  Ihe  verilcal  bandt  fmm  the  raaling  Ihe  cyUiidert  an 
railed  vertically  through  a  apace  defined  by  the  potilion  of  tlie 
leaden  rcgdlaHua.  By  mcanB  of  auilable  and  timple  mechanism 
thia  verdcal  navemein  of  the  cylinders  wccfct  plunger  piilons  in  a 
pair  of  cylinders  which  contain  glycerin,  and  ihete  deaden  the 


..leiSlibi,  ._.. 

9  the  index  finger 

in  beeuty  r 


^. __...  nod  by  puseifcn 

"MiTHo'aJTiM.^ufius  '^^ch,  i/'lorS.  0/  Uocliiiiry  lud 
EagnRTiag  (loiidon,  t&jg);  Emeit  Biauer,  Dii  KmOrHliiiim  *t 
Waan  (Weimar,  1M7);  H.  I.  Chaney,  Oar  Wiiwkli  and  Uaimi 
(Londoa,  |S»):  Aiiy  on  "Wdghing  hiadihiea."  Prtc.  IiuL  C.E. 
voL  cvilL;  W.  K.  Blethers  on  "Wdghing  Madiinoy,"  rniiu.  5iir. 
Entiitoi,  vol.  for  iSiM.  (W.  At.] 

WEIGHTS  AMD  HEAEnKES.  Tliis  subject  miy  be  moN 
convenienlly  conaidned  imd«i>  three  aspecU— I.  Sdentific; 
IL  Hiuorlia];  ud  lU.  Camraeidal. 

I.  Until. — In  the  United  Kingdom  Iwd  lyucmg  of  nelghU 
and  m^aiura  are  nov  recogiiiaed — the  ImpetiaJ  and  tin  metric. 
The  lundamfnta]  units  of  then  Qistni*  ire — af  hngtb,  the 
yard  and  metre;  and  ol  mas,  the  pound  and  kilogram. 

The  legal  theory  of  tbe  British  ijitem  of  wrights  ind  meuurca 
i>— (i)  Ute  iludard  >aid,  wfth  all  llseal  dieaurti  and  tbeii 


478 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


(SGtENTinC 


squAKS  and  cubes  based  upon  that;  (6)  tbe  standard  pound 
of  7000  grains,  wiih  all  wei^^ts  based  upon  that,  with  the  troy 
pound  of  5760  graizis  for  trade  purposes;  (c)  the  standard 
gallon  (and  multiples  and  fractions  ot  it),  declared  to  contain 
10  tb  of  water  at  6a*  F.,  being  In  volume  277-274  cub.  in.,  which 
contain  each  252-724  grains  of  water  in  a  vacavm  at  62^  or 
252-458  grains  of  water  weighed  with  brass  weights  in  air  of 
62*  with  the  barometerat  30  in.  Of  the  metric  units  international 
definitions  have  been  stated  as  foUo^^— 

(a)  The  unit  of  volume  for  determinations  <^  a  high  degree  of 
accuracy  is  the  volume  occupied  by  the  maas  of  i  Idlonam  of  pure 
water  at  its  manraum  density  and  under  the  normaratnxMfmcric 
pressure;  thu  volume  is  called  litre. 

(6)  In  determinations  of  volume  which  do  not  admit  of  a  high 
degree  of  accuracy  the  cubic  decimetre  can  be  taken  as  equivalent 
to  the  litre;  and  in  these  determinations  expressions  of  volumes 
based  on  the  cube  of  the  unit  of  linear  measure  can  be  substituted 
for  expressions  based  on  the  litre  as  defined  above: 

ic)  The  kilogram  is  the  unit  of  mass;  it  is  equal  to  the  mass  of 
the  mtcmational  prototype  of  the  kilogram.' 

id)  The  term  "^weight "  denotes  a  magnitude  of  the  same  nature 
as  a  force;  the  weight  of  a'body  is  the  |)roduct  of  the  mass  of  the 
body  by  the  acceTeration  of  gravity;  in  particular,  the  lUMrmal 
weight  of  a  body  is  the  product  of  the  mass  of  the  body  by  the 
normal  acceleration  of  gravity.  The  number  adopted  for  the  value 
of  the  normal  acceleration  of  gravity  is  980-665  otn/secF. 

2.  Standards, — ^The  metre  {m^e-d-traUs)  is  represented  by 
the  distance  marked  by  two  fine  lines  on  an  irkUoKplatinum  bar 
,<l->o*  C.)  deposited  with  the  Standards  Department.  This 
metre  (m.)  is  the  only  unit  of  metric  extension  by  which  all  other 
inctric  measures  of  extension — whether  linear^  superficial  or. 
solid— «re  ascertained. 

The  kilogram  (kg.).b  represented  by  an  iridifr>platinum 
gtandard  weight,  of  cylindrical  form,  by  which  all  other  metric 
Weights,  and  all  measures  having  reference  to  metric  weight, 
|UPe  ascertained  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

From-  the  above  four  units  are  derived  all  other  trelgbts  and 
measures  (W.  and  M.)  of  the  two  systems. 
'  The  gallon  is  the  standard  measure  of  capacity  In  the  imperial 
^stem  as  well  for  liquids  as  for  dry  goods. 

In  the  United  Kingdom  the  metric  standard  of  capacity  is  the 

litre,  represented  (Order  in  Council,  19th  May- 1890)  by  the 

capacity  of  a  hollow  cyCndriod  brass  measure  whose  internal 

diameter  is  equal  to  one-haU  its  height,  and  which  at  o*  C, 

when  filled  to  the  brim,  contains  one  kg.  of  distiUcd  water  of 

the  teinperature  of  4^  C,  under  an  atmospheric  pressure  equal 

to  760  millimetres  at  o*  C.  at  sea-level  and  latitude  45*;  the 

weighing  being  made  in  air,  but  reduced  by  calculation  to  a 

vacuuttL   In  such  dcfiniliou'an  attempt  has  been  made  to  avoid 

former  confusion  of  expression  as  to  capacity,  cubic  measure, 

and  volume;  the  litre  being  recognized  as  a  measure  of  capacity 

holding  a  given  weight  of  water. 

For  the  equivalent  of  the  litre  in  terms  of  the  gallon,  see  below 
III.  Commerciak 

In  the  measurement  of  the  cubic  inch  it  has  been  found  that* 
the  specific  mass  of  the  cubic  inch  of  distilled  water  freed  from 
air,  and  weighed  in  air  against  brass  weights  (A«>8*i3),  at  the 
temperature  of  62*  F.,  and  under  an  atmospheric  pressure 
equal  to  30  in.  (at  32*  F.),  is  equal  to  252-297  grains  weight 
of  water  at  its  maximum  density  (4*  C).  Hence  a  cubic  foot  of 
water  would  weigh  62-281  lb  avoir.,  and  not  62'32x  lb  as  at 
present  legally  taken. 

For  the  specific  mass  of  the  cubic  decimetre  of  water  at  4^  C, 
under  an  atmospheric  pressure  equal  to  760  mm.,  Guillaume 
and  Chappuis  of  the  Comity  International  dcs  Poids  ct  Mesures 
at  Paris  (C.LP.M.)  have  obtained  0-9999707  kg.,'  which  has  been 
accepted  by  the  committee. 

The  two  standards,  the  cubic  Inch  and  the  cubic  decimetre, 

may  not  be  strictly  comparable  owing  to  a  difference  m  the 

normal  temperature  (Centigrade  and  Fahrenheit  scales)  of  the 

two  units  of  extension,  the  metre  and  the  yard. 

*  Trotsiime  Conference  CinlraU  des  Palds  d  Mesmru  (Paris.  1901}. 
Metric  Units  Com.  Roy.  Soc.  (1898). 


•  PhU.  TranM,  (1892);  and  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  (1895).  p.  I43> 

*  Proc.   Verb.  Com.  luttm.  des  Poids  ef  Mesures  (1900),  p^ 
Congris  International  dc  Physique  rtuni  4  Paris  en  190Q. 


84. 


For  the  weight  of  the  cubic  decimetre  of  water,  as  deduced  fram 
the  experiments  made  in  London  in  1896  as  to  the  weight  of  the 
cubic  inch  of  water,  D.  Mendel6eff  (Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  1895)  huobtainol 
the  folbwing  results,  which  have  been  adopted  in  legislative  enaa- 
ments  in  the  United  Kingdom  :— 


Temperature  on 
the  Hydrogen 
Thermometer 
Scale. 


C. 


Ill 

ao 


F. 


32 '-o 
39-2 

8-0 
•o 
68-0 


Weight  of  Water  im  memo. 


Of  a  Cubic 

Decimetre  in 

Grammes. 


999-716 

999-847 
998979 

998-715 
998082 


Of  a  Cubic 
Inch  in 
Grains. 


252-821 

252854 
252-635 
252*568 

25a-407 


Of  a  Cubic 
Inch  in  ^ 
Russian  Dolis. 


368-686 

368-734 
368-411 
368316 
368-083 


In  thb  no  account  b  taken  of  the  compressibility  of  water— that 
is  to  say,  it  is  supposed  that  the  water  is  under  a  pressure  of  one 
atmosphere.  '  The  weight  of  a  cubic  decimetre  of  water  re4chcs 
1000  grammes  under  a  pressure  of* four  atmospheres;  but  in  mcm. 
at  all  temperatures,  ths  weight  of  water  is  less  than  a  kilogram. 

3.  National  Standards.— ^z\.\oxa\  standards  of  length  are  not 
le^iOy  now  referred  to  natural  sundards  or  (o  physical  con- 


ri^ 


d 


of  bar. 


Section  at «  •'. 


h 


Fic.  1. — Present  Imperial  Standard  Yard,  1844. 

Toul  length  of  bronie  bar.  38  in.;  distance  a  a',  36  in.,  or  the 
imperial  yard;  a  a\  wells  sunk  to  the  mid-depth  of  the  bar,  at  the 
bottom  of  each  of  which  is  inserted  a  gold  stud,  having  the  defining 
line  of  the  yard  engraved  on  it. 

slants,*  but  it  has  been  shown  by  A.  A.  Michdson  that  a  standard 

of  length  nu'ght  be  restored,  if  necessary,  by  reference  to  the 

measurement  of  wave-lengths  of-Ught.   Preliminary  experiments 

have  given  results  correct  to   >'>o-5  micron,    and  it  appears 

probable  that  by  further  experi- 

ments,  results  correct  to   ''*x-om 

may  be  obtained.    That  is  to  say, 

the  metre  might  be  redetermined 

or  restored  aa  to  its  length  within 

one  ten-millionth  part,  by  reference 

to,  e.g.,  1553163-5  wave-lengths  of 

the  red  ray  of  the  spectrum  of  cad- 

mium,  in  air  at  15"  C.  and  760  mm. 

In  all  countries  the  national 
standards  of  weights  and  measures 
are  in  the  custody  of  the  state,  or 
of  some  authority  admim'stcring  the 
government  of  the  country.  The 
standards  of  the  British  Empire, 
so  far  as  they  relate  to  the  imperial 
and  metric  systems,  are  in  the 
custody  of  the  Board  of  Tirade. 
Scientific  research  is  not,  of  course, 
bound  by  official  standards. 

For  the  care  of  these  national 
standards  the  Standards  Department 
was  developed,  under  the  dircctran  of 
a  Royal  Commission  *  (of  whkh  the 


Fic.  2.— Imperial  Standard 
Pound.  1844. 

a  ixuyu*  v,uiiu..>3».u.t    v"'  "•""•  "«=    Plarinum    pound   avoirdu* 
late  Henry  Williams  Chisholm  was  a  pois,  of  cylindrical  form,  wiin 
leading  member),  to  conduct  all  com-  groove  at  n  for  lifting  *^ 
parisons  and  other  operatk>ns  with  weighL 
reference  to  weights  and  measures  in  1,    j       tl 

aid  of  scientific  research  or  oihcrwise,  which  it  may  be  the  a"*YJ3 
the  sute  to  undcrtoke.   Similar  standardising  offices  are  establuinen 

*  VaUur  du  mire,  A.  A.  Michelson  (Pans.  1894);  Units,  Everett, 
Illustratbns  of  C.G.S.  System;  Unites  et  £tatons,  Guillaume  (WJ 
1890);  Lupton's  Numerical  Tables,  1892;  Metric  Equivalent  L«"J 
1901;  Dictionary  of  Metric  Measures,  L.  Clark  (1891);  Claiewooa 
and  Shaw's  Physics  (lOOi). 

*  Report  Standards  Commissbn,  187OW 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

m).  Vrn&eS  "  P»rli«iiwiIUil 
ire  placed  it  Ibe  Rayil  Mini 
Loyil  ObH --'  '-   -■- 


The  U 


y  itudinlB 


3t  dry  ^ooda  b  the  biuhel  of 
1S14,  amUimni  g  impetial  gallons,  leprcBcnled  by  a  hoUow 
bnoai  c^adci  having  a  plane  hue,  its  isUnial  diameter  being 
double  lU  depth. 

The  impcriil  ttandanl  messure  of  capacity  i>  >  boliow  cyliadei 
(G^  S)  made  oT  brasa,  with  a  p^ane  baae,  ol  equal  hei^t  and 
diameter;  which  when  filled  to  the  brim,  as  dclciDUneit  by  a 
plane  ^aia  dak,  coDtaini  10  lb  weight  of  watcl  at  I-61*  F.B. 


AtKuttAirK  Praimi.  I 


^JStt 


,» ......  ,."S 

[  would  be  0-DOOO4S  ediil 


E?;?^ 


i    rhli   CD«t1y  al 


Metre,  iSOT. 
Iridir^platJnuinbdrcf  Ti 


Tben 


bar,  TheaaBdinti 

Mnib)  wu  wppleaief 
(he  deUvety  lo  Great 
IB  1B98,  rf  an  end  r 
mrfn  (mUrr^hmli]  all 

writedbylheC.I.P.M. 

panion  of  the  yard  * 


JSStiSi   w 
A.    The  turn   fjatinum    lo  ,      ,       .    . 

iir  engraved  10  i»  gnat  deriMly  (i-al-J 
lisoflliebar  the  slighlcsl  abraiion  will  make 
end  of  the    apptrciabfe  diflercncc  in  a  weigl 


--.rsf. 


:d  thi^ 


^"^i^  Tor  >inali  rtaadaS 
KU  pblinum  W-Il«i  »Dd 
linium  ta-2-6;)areuicd,and 
an  alloy  ol  palladiuni   (60%) 

.  ir  on^nary  atandania  of 
leigth  CuUlaume't  aUoy  (imr]  of 
oiiJaf  (ji-77,)  »«!  neel  (6«jK) 


only  O-0O00OO8  tor  |-c.' 

5'   Elalrkal  ^Jandor^.— Autboiilalive  itandai 
■>enti  for  the  measarement  of  elecliiciiy,  baud 
■■enlal  units  of  the  metric  lyRem,  have  been  placed 
Eleetrical  LBboraKny  irf  the  Board  of  Trade.*    TT 

r, .__        lTh*aund»nlairpe«,aBi 

(The  nandardwJt,  and 


Ihelun 


Reiin.no 


ing    (The  nandaid  ol 


Rappvn  d*  YarJ,  Dr  Benoit  (iSge). 
•  OciJki  Id  CouacH  <il94). 


o  aay  now  what  the 
le  tempentUR  then,  at  61°  F., 
coDpared  with 


'    F.,   0 


i6«T*   C,   of   t 


present  noinal  hydiogeu  Kale. 
For  metinla^tsl  putinte)  the 
C.l.P.U.  have  adopted  ai  a  Donnal 
thetmoDWlric  Kile  Ibe  Ceotigiade 
iciile  of  (he  hydrogea  theitnameier, 
having  for  fixed  poinl)  the  tempeta- 
tuie  of  pure  meltiog  ice  (0°)  and 
that  of  the  vapour  of  boiling  dis- 
tilled wBlet  (ioo°),  under  a  normal 
atmosphsic    proauie;    bydrogen 


tos.y,.t  W^-<-3isaiime 
normal  almoapbencprHiuK. 


Marek,  and  at  the  normal 
lenuty  followed  under  thi*  p 
sure.  The  value  oi  this  intensil 
equal  lo  thai  of  (he  force  of  gra' 
at  the  Bureau  International,  I 


Kikigiani,  1S97. 


Ibe  levd  of  the  Bunau). 

.  efficient  which  allows  for  theoretical 

reduction  to  the  lailiude  4S°  and  to  Ihe  level  of  the  wa.  The 
length  of  the  metre  b  Independent  of  the  thermometer  so  fM 
that  it  has  its  length  al  a  delinile  physicaJ  pruni,  the  temperature 
ol  melting  ice  (o"  C),  but  there  is  the  pncliiil  difficulty  that  lor 
ordinary  purposei  measuicmmts  cannot  be  always  carried  out 


The  Iniemational   Geodetic  Comraittei 
metre  aa  lh«r  unit  of  measurement.    In  ge 
the  dimensions  ol  the  irianglei  vary  with 
the  earth,  but  ihcae  variation 
are  vnaller  than  the  varialio 
las  than  10°  C.    Adopting  la 


have  adopted  tha 

li  the  temperature  of 
Le  re^on  of  Ibe  earth 


(PhyuLalisch  - 


Rdcb 


ulall)   e 


abliihi 


,    Fia.  s— Preiefll  Imi 
'  CaUon, -' 


■SS^' 


I  Standard 


under    Dr    W,  FiSrsli 

1 88  J,     which     undmilies 

researdieB    with  refeicnce 

to  physics  and  mechaiuf*, 

particulariy  ai  applied 

technical    industries.' 

England        a       National 

Physical   Laboratory 

CN.P.L.)  has  been  established,  based  on  the  German  InUilute, 

and    ba*   it*   principal   laboratory   at    Buihey    House,    near 

Hampton.    Middlesei.      Here    is    carried  out    the    work    of 

slandaidizing  measuring  inittumnls  ol  varioui  tort*  ii 


itr   MyiiUuclcii   Stickit 


1-1900). 


^»o 


by  nsnulutortn,  Ihe  -dcterndnation  of  ph]F«ifBl  ronstuiis 
■nd  Ibc  tHling  ol  miUriits,  Tlic  work  of  Ihc  Kew  Obscrva- 
1017}  at  (he  0\d  Deer  Park,  Richmond,  ha  ako  been  placed 
under  lb*  direction  o(  the  N.P.L.  (set  111.  CenimtreiaC).' 
The  C.I.P.M.  at  Paiii,  Ihe  Gnt  nutrological  inclEtutkn,  olio 
undertakes  verificatioiu  Eor  purely  Bdentlfic  puiposes.  A 
descriptive  list  of  Ihc  venfying  iiutniments  of  the  Slandardi 
Department,  London,  bu  been  publisbet).'  In  Ihe  meaiuieinent 
of  woollen  and  olhei  leilile  febrica,  u  to  quaUly,  drength. 
number  of  threads,  &c.,  there  eiiils  at  Bradford  a  voluntuy 
tlandardiiing  [nsliLuLioa  known  as  the  Conditioning  House 

cnended  lo  a  chemical  anslysii  of  (abria. 

8.  Aniitnt  Slaiuliudi  a]  En^ani  luid  SaUanJ. — A  "troy 
pound  "  and  a  new  standard  yard,  as  well  as  secondary  standards^ 
were  constructed  by  direction  of  puliament  in  i7jS-i;6i>,  and 
were  deposited  with  the  Clerk  of  Ibe  House  ol  Commons.  When 
the  Housca  of  FailiamenC  wen  burned  down  in  1834.  Ihe  pound 
was  lott  and  the  yard  was  injured.  It  may  here  be  mentioned 
that  Ihe  eipressian  "  impcHal "  first  occnn  in  the  Wcigblt  and 
Measures  Act  ol  1814.  'The  injured  standard  waa  then  kel 
^ht  of,  but  It  was  in  1891  brou^t  to  light  by  the  Clerk  oi  the 
Journila,  and  has  now  been  placed  in  the  lobby  of  the  residence 
«l  the  Ckrk  of  the  Bouse,  logelber  wilh  a  sundud  "  atone  " 
of  14  R>.> 

'  In  the  mcBsuremeni  of  liquids  ihe  okl  -wine  galkw"  (iji 
tub,  in.)  was  in  use  in  England  until  1B94,  when  the  present 
imperial  gallon  (Bg-  5)  was  legaliaed;  and  the  wine  galUMi  oJ 
ijoj  is  siiU  ccfened  to  ai  a  standard  in  the  United  Siaie*. 
Together  wilh  the  more  ancienl  ilandaid  qt  Henry  Vll.  and  of 
Queen  Eliiabclh,  this  standard  is  deposited  in  Ihe  jewel  Tower 
at  WBIminsler.    They  are  probably  of  the  Norman  period,  and 

re  kept  in  the  Py>  Chapel  at  Weslminsier,  now  in  the  custody 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


of  the  Com 


1601}  ibctc  are  al 


n  of  Woikt.    A  aketdi  o(  Ibeat  in 


Kded. 

tinned:     ..._   . 
Ale  niton  of  16 


lANCIEtn'  HtSTORIUL 


iard    waa   probetjly  700J  ^rajiu.) 
he  tAdai  cumpln  knowA  CHcnry 


F.C. 

7— The  Scots  Ch 

ppia 

lipy 

Waihi,  161 

71.),  gradually  modllied  u 

lil  fiwd  i 

■  B26.t 

7?.J74.0rIo 

f>«:* 

IfrirUi  aid  Urn 

■r«^Wii»rf.-Ot 

ep  needed  ip 

II.  Anaan  Hisioucai. 
Though Ho  line  can  be  drawn  between  anct 
netrology,  yet,  owhig  to  neglect,  and  panly  U 
■  '"    -'--'-,  gjp  of  mote  than  1     ' 


le  tonneii 

n  of  uniis>  of 

meaaute 

s  mostly 

uess-wotk. 

Hence,  e> 

cepiina(ewca.es.wes 

all  not  he 

re  consider 

of  the  middle 

ages.    A 

onsUnt 

flicuhyin 

Sludying 

ology  la 

Ihc  need 

of  dinm- 

guishing 

ht  absolute  1 

n  the  Kb 

oflhCDIT 

write,  has  woven  lheB.-olle» 

limes  Ihe 

enceofihi 

units  in  r, 

uestion,  being 

entirely 

n  assumption  a.  the 

Incheiter    BusM  of    Henry  VI].: 
Eliubcih:  C.  Ale  C^lon  of  Hei 


Fio.  6.— J 

LJnliihgaw  some  of  the  mlctcsUng  slandards  of  Scotland, 
the  Stirling  jug  or  Scots  pint,  1618;  the  choppin  or  half.pi 
>555  {f^S<  ?)'  I'la  Lanark  troy  and  tron  wci^is  of  ihe  sai 
periods  (tig.  B).'  ■ 
EifUik  KVtflUi  sail  Ifienni  ^Miileil.— The  yard 


^h,  to  the  aludy  of  waui-volumcs  and  wdibU, 

n  derivbig  linear  measures  therefrom;  V.  (2iicipa, 

B.  Standsid  Hundred-  *"  '*■*  conneilon  with  Arabic  and  Spanish  mearapo; 

f  Vll.i  D,  i)i<  old  Wine  J.    Brandis,    to    the    bads  of    Assyrian    stindaids; 

Uommsen,  to   coin   weigbU;   and    P.   BonokKli  U> 

Egyptian  units;  but  F.  Hullsch  is  mote  general,  andsppcan 

10  i^ve  a  more  equal  rcpcneniaiion  of  all  sides  than  do  olhs 


™  C'loil 


:iathello(43in. 


>.    Theya 
Cd  till  IC 


-   The  yard  of 


3S-4t}  In.    Suon  ni< 

woliibed  in  iji;-  hark.  |  pound-jboo  Eiiins.  lioy  pound  in 
me  tn  I4>s.  cuaUislied  ■•  monclary  pound  1527.  Troy  weight  was 
abaU>hed,Timlhei>lDl January  iS7rbylhe%ight>/ndMeaHir(t 
,Aa  IS;!.  wlUi  IbeeaetnUin  only  of  IheTmy  ounce,  ha  decimal  pans 
aad  mahlpln.  kgaliied  in  iS;<,  i6Vicl.c.  aa.iabeuKdf<ir  theulc 
.,j.»u.,^.jo,_..M«  "i.—uir and preefcusHone..  Merclianf) 
ill  eaeept  gold,  silver  and  medirines 
_i_i  1 i-dupois  In  130J.    Mer 


'    ■  Treasnry  Committee  on  National  Physical  Laboratory.  ParBa' 
mentiry  Piper,  i»9B. 

Deacrfptlvc  Lirt  of  Standards  and  Inittuimaita,  Pafikmenlary 
Paper.  lS41. 

■Rciun  on  Sunbrds  dcpoiited  in  House  ef  Connnom.  lu 
Novemhff  1891. 

•S.FiiheT.  Ttt  An  Jimnui.  Aurua  1900. 


■.n;  and  ihis ; 


inghls  than 


Jthes 


iais,  and  their 
The  usual  arnngemenl  by  coui 
in  favour  of  following  oul  each 
to  il  separately  for  every  local! 


lirine  (Galen)  and  cosmelics  (Deopalr. 
dymus).  clerk's  (ktllb's)  guides,  and  11 

authors  Ut-  Josephut).     Bui  all  such 


.    (illjWory.bolh 
c.{.  Ellas  of  Nbibis), 


il  emendation.   ThiK  anihon 


'  id  the  absente  of  Ih 
meamreand  ol  welsli 

nount  of  len^k  or  wei 


AKCXE^^^  historical] 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


481 


but  must  yield  more  and  more  to  the  mcreashig  evidence  of 
actual  'Weights  and  measures.  Besides  thls^  all  their  evidence 
is  but  approximate,  often  only  stating  quantities  to  a  half  or 
quarter  erf  the  amount,  aiid  seldom  nearer  than  5  or  xo%; 
hence  they  are  entirely  worthless  for  all  the  doser  questions  of 
the  approximation  or  original  identity  of  standards  in  different 
coontries;  and  it  is  just  in  this  line,  that  the  imagnstJon  of 
miters  has  led  them  into  the  greatest  speculations,  unchecked 
by  accurate  evidenoe  of  the  original  standards,  (a)  WeigfUs  and 
measmes  actutUly  remaining.  These  are  the  prime  sources,  and 
as  they  inaease  and  are  more  fully  studied,  so  the  subject  wiH 
be  deared  and  obtain  a  fixed  basis.  A  difficulty  has  been  in 
the  paudty  of  examples,  more  due  to  the  neglect  of  collectors 
than  the  rarity  of  specimens.  The  number  of  published  weighs 
did  not  extted  600  of  aU  standards  in  x88o;  but  the  collections 
from  Naucratis  (28),^  Defcnneh  (29)  and  Memphis  (44)  have 
nppMed  over  six  times  this  quantity,  and  of  an  earlier  age  than 
most  other  examples,  while  existing  coilections  have  been  more 
thoroughly  examined.  It  is  above  all  desirable  to  make  allow- 
ances  for  the  changes  which  weights  have  undergone;  and,  as 
this  has  only  been  done  for  the  above  Egyptian  collections  and 
that  of  the  British  Museum,  condusions  as  to  the  accurate 
vahies  of  different  standards  -will  here  be  drawn  from  these 
rather  than  continental  soiuces.  (3)  Objects  vkkh  have  been 
made  by  measure  or  taeigkt,  and  from  which  the  unit  of  construc- 
tion can  be  deduced.  Buildings  will  gencraDy  yield  up  their 
builder's  foot  or  cubit  when  examined  {Inductioe  Metrciogyj 
p.  9).  Vases  may  also  be  found  bearing  such  relations  to  one 
another  as  to  show  thdr  unit  of  volume.  And  coins  have  long 
been  recognized  as  one  of  the  great  sources  of  metrology — valu- 
able  for  their  wide  and  detaikd  range  of  information,  though 
most  unsatisfactory  on  account  of  the  omstant  temptation  to 
diminish  their  weight,  a  weakness  which  sddom  allows  us  to 
reckon  them  as  of  the  full  standard.  Another  defect  in  the 
evidence  of  coins  is  that,  when  one  variety  of  the  unit  of  weight 
was  once  fixed  on  for  the  coinage,  there  was  (barring  the  depreda- 
tion) no  departure  from  it,  because  of  the  need  of  a  fixed  value, 
and  hence  coins  do  not  show  the  range  and  character  of  the  real 
variations  of  units  as  do  buildings,  or  vases,  or  the  actual 
commercial  wdghts. «.  ^  .„  '  ^ 

PuNdPLS  OP  Study. — 17 Limits  of  Variation  in  Different 
Copies,  Places  and  TfWtf.-^Unfortunatdy,  so  very  little  is 
known  of  the  ages  of  weights  and  measores  that  this  datum — 
most  essential  in  omsidering  their  hi8tory-~has  been  scarcely 
considered.  In  measure,  Egyptians  of  Dynasty  IV.  at  Gizeh  on 
an  average  varied  i  In  350  between  diiflerent  buildings  (27). 
Buildings  at  Persepolis,  all  of  nearly  the  same  age,  vary  in  unit 
I  in  450  (26).  Including  a  greater  range  of  time  and  place,  the 
Roman  foot  in  Italy  varied  during  two  or  three  centuries  on  an 
average  t^tt  from  the  mean.  Covering  a  longer  time,  we  find  an 
average  variation  of  -^  in  the  Attic  foot  (26),  tH  ^^  ^^  English 
foot  (26),  rlir  in  the  English  itinerary  foot  (26).  Se  we  may  say 
that  an  average  variation  of  tVv  ^Y  toleration,  extending  to 
double  that  by  change  of  place  and  time,  4s  usual  in  andent 
measures.  In  weights  of  the  same  place  and  age  there  is  a  far 
wider  range;  at  Defenneh  (29),  within  a  century  probably,  the 
average  variation  of  different  units  is  /y,'  t^,  and  |(V>  ^^^  range 
being  just  the  same  as  in  all  times  and  places  taken  together. 
Even  in  a  set  of  weights  all  found  together,  the  average  variation 
is  only  reduced  to  |{^,  in  place  of  ^  (29).  Taking  a  wider  range 
of  place  and  time,  the  Roman  libra  has  an  average  variation  of 
^  in  the  examples  of  better  period  (48),  and  in  those  of  Byzantine 
age  ^  (44).  Altogether,  we  see  that  weights  have  descended 
from  original  varieties  with  so  little  Interoomparison  that  no 
rectification  of  their  values  has  been  made,  and  hence  there  is  as 
much  variety  in  any  one  place  and  time  as  in  all  together. 
Average  variation  may  be  said  to  range 'from  ■^U>->^ia  different 
units,  doubtless  greatly  due  to  defective  balances. 

3.  Rate  of  Variation. — ^Though  large  differences  may  exist,  the 
rate  of  general  variation  is  but  slow— excluding,  of  course,  all 
monetary  standards.  .'In  Egypt  the  cubit  lengthened  -j^  in 

^Thesc  figures  lefer  to  the  authorities  at.the  end  of  this  section.. 


some  thousandsof  years  (26,44)  Tte  leJEOian  mile  haslengthencd 
yiir  since  Roman  times  (2);  <<the  English  mile  lengthened 
about  Ts^  in  four  centuries  (81).  The  English  foot  has  not 
appreciably  varied  in  several  centuries  (26).^  Of  weights  there  are 
scarce  any  dated,  excepting  coins,  which  neariy  all  decrease; 
the  Attic  tetradrachm,  however,  increased  t^  in  three  centuries 
(28),  owing  probably  to  its  being  bdow  the  average  trade 
weight  to  begin  with.  >  Roughly  dividing  the  Roman  weights,' 
there  appears  a  decrease  of  ^  from  imperial  to  Byzantine  times 
(48).        -  ^  *       ^ 

3.  Tendency  of  Variation,— THas  isThoTthe  above  cases  of 
lengths^  to  an  increase  in  course  of  time,  f  The  Roman  foot  is 
also  probably  j^  larger  than  the  earlier  form  of  it,  and  the  later 
form  in  Britain  and  Africa  perhaps  another  ^^  larger  (26).  Prol>i 
ably  measures  tend  to  increase  and  weights  to  decrease  in  trans- 
mission from  time  to  time  or  place  to  place. 

4.  Details  of  Variation. — ^Having  noticed  variation  In  the  grosSf 
we  must  next  observe  its  details.  The  only  way  of  examining  thesar 
Is  by  drawing  curves  (28, 29) ,  representing  the  frequency  of  oocur^ 
rence  of  all  the  variations  of  a  unit;  for  instance,  in  the  Egyptian 
unit — ^the  kat— ix>unting  in  a  large  number  how  many  occur 
between  r4o  and  141  grainS)  i4r  and  149,  and  so  on;  sudi 
numbers  represented  by  curves  show  at  once  where  any  particular^ 
varieties  of  the  unit  lie  (see  Naukralis,  i.  83).  This  method  Is  only^ 
applicable  where  there  is  a  large  number  of  examples;  but  there 
is  no  other  way  of  studying  the  details.  The  results  from  such 
a  study — of  the  Egyptian  kat,  for  example — show  that  there  are' 
several  distinct  families  or  types  of  a  imit,  which  originated  in' 
early  times,  have  been  perpetuated  by  copying,  and  reappear 
alike  in  each  locality  (see  Tanis,  ii.  pi.  1.).  Hence  we  see  that  if 
one  unit  is  derived  from  another  it  may  be  possible,  by  the 
similarity  or  difference  of  the  forms  of  the  curves,  to  discern 
whether  it  was  derived  by  general  consent  and  recognition  from 
a  standard  m  the  same  condition  of  distribution  as  that  in  which 
we  know  it,  or  whether  it  was  derived  from  it  in  earlier  times 
before  it  became  so  varied,  or  by  some  one  action  forming  it  from 
an  individual  example  of  the  other  standard  without  any  varia-' 
tion  being  transmitted.  As  our  knowledge  of  the  age  and 
locality  of  weights  increases  these  criteria  in  curves  will  prove 
of  greater  value;  but  even  now  no  consideration  of  the 
connexion  of  different  units  should  be  made  without  a  grapMc 
representation  .  to.compare  ^ their,  rdativb  extent  jmd^nature 
of  variation,  l         _      , 

5.  Transfer  of  Units.— Tht  transfer  of  units  from  one  people 
to  another  takes  place  almost  always  by  trade.  Hence  the  valn^ 
of  such  evidence  in  pointing  out  the  andent  course  of  trade  and 
commercial  connexions  (17).  The  great  spread  of  the  Phoenician 
weight  on  the  Mediterranean,  of  the  Persian  in  Asia  Minor  and 
of  the  Assyrian  in  Egypt  are  evident  cases;  and  that  the  decimal 
weights  of  the  laws  of  Manu  (43)  are  deddedly  not  Assyrian  ot\ 
Persian,  but  on  exactly  the  Phoenician  standard,  is  a  curious 
evidence  of  trade  by  water  and  not  overland.  If,  as  seems 
probable,  units  of  length  may  be  traced  in  prehistoric  remains,' 
they  are  of  great  value;  at  Stonehenge,  for  instance,  the  earlier 
parts  are  laid  out  by  the  Phoenidan  foot,  and  the  later  by  the 
Pelasgo-Roman  foot  (26).  The  earlier  foot  is  continually  to  be 
traced  in  other  megalithic  remains,  whereas  the  later  ver>r 
sddom  occurs  (26).  This  bears  strongly  on  the  Phoenidan 
orig^  of  our  prehistoric  dvilization.  Again,  the  Belgic  foot  of 
the  Ttogri  is  the  basis  of  the  present  EngUsh  land  measures,^ 
which  we  thus  see  are  ndther  Roman  nor  British  in  origin,  but 
Belgic.  Generally  a  unit  is  transferred  from  a  higher  to  a  less 
dvilized  people;  but  the  near  resemblance  of  measures  in  different 
countries  should  always  be  corroborated  by  historical  considers; 
tions  of  a  probable  connexion  by  commerce  or  origin  (Head^- 
Historia  Numorum,  xxxvii.).  >  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
in  early  times  the  larger  values,  such  as  minae,  wmdd  be  tran» 
mitted  ^  commerce,  while  after  the  Introduction  of  coinage  the 
lesser  values  of, shekels  and  drachmae  would  be  the  units;  and 
this  needs  notice,  because  usually  a  borrowed  unit  waa  muUiplie<)l 
or  divided  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  borrowers,  and  strange 
modificatioDs  thus  arose 


*»' 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


(ANcnm  nsToncAL 


6.  Cataaitiu  s/  Un[llit,  Yclnmu  mi  VRfJUi.— Thii  ii  the 
DMA  difficult  hnnch  of  irifrtrdogy,  anisg  to  the  vaziety  of  cm- 
DczuHu  which  cu  be  uggstedi  ti>  the  vegue  infonzulion  yit 
hnve.eqwd&Uy  on  voluma,  thA  to  the  liathlily  of  wiilcn  to  mtiOD- 
aliie  connnioni  which  were  nevei  tatended.  To  iUuitnle  bow 
tas  it  i*  to  go  ulny  in  thii  Hne,  obacivc  the  tDoliniuJ  ttfenucc 
■a  modeni  hudbooki  to  the  cubic  loot  u  looo  oi.  □{  wu«;  il» 
Ibc  cuinc  ioch  is  very  nearly  ijo  (nim,  •rhile  the  gailoo  hu  ictu- 
4U]r  bten  bed  at  lo  lb  of  wileri  the  fit*!  two  are  certainly 
mere  coIncideDcei,  ai  may  very  piubably  be  the  last  alu,  and 
yet  Ibey  oflei  quite  ai  tempting  •  bue  for  Iheoiiiing  la  any 

tDqoted  *i  mon  than  coiaddenca  which  have  been  adopted, 
imleB  we  find  a  very  exact  csnceiifHi,  or  lome  positive  state- 
ment of  originatiOD.  i^The  idea  of  conoecting  volume  and  weight 
has  received  an  immeaK  impeiui  ibrciugh  the  metric  aysLem, 
bat  it  ia  rnt  very  piominent  in  andent  limes.*The  Egyptians 

water  (S),  but  lay  no  ^lecial  stress  on  it;  and  the  isct  that  there 
ia  i»  roeaauie  of  water  equal  la  a  direct  decimal  multiple  lA  the 
ireii^t'iiiiit,  except  very  high  In  the  sode,  doea  not  steni  as  ii 
Uw  vrJume  was  directly  bucd  upon  wci^t.  Again,  there  are 
aumy  theories  ollbeequivaleaa  of  difietent  cubic  cubitiof  waiet 
with  variouB  multiple)  of  taleau  (3, 8,  IS,  Ei,  S3) ;  hut  cDnaeiioa 
by  leaser  units  would  be  far  more  probable,  Ba  the  primaiy  use 
of  weights  is  not  to  weigh  large  cubical  vessels  cd  liquid,  but  rather 
Mull  porticms  al  preaoua  metals,  ,  The  Roman  araphon  being 

one  of  the  strongest  case*  of  aucb  relaiiaiii,  being  often  men- 
lloned  by  ancient  writers.  Yet  it  appears  to  be  only  an  a^iniii- 
mate  relation,  tuid  therefore  probably  accidental,  as  the  volume 
by  the  eiampla  is  too  large  to  agree  to  the  cube  of  the  length 
or  to  the  weight,  diOering  -f,,  or  sometunes  even  iV-'  i 

Another  idea  which  has  haunted  the  older  metrolo^sts, 
but  is  «ill  len  likely.  Is  the  connesDn  of  various  measina 
with  degrees  on  the  earth'a  suiiace.iTfac  lameness  of  the  GreelU 
In  angular  measurement  would  akme  show  that  they  could  not 
derive  itineraiy  measures  from  bng  and  accurately  determined 
distances  on  the  earth.i 

J.  Cnwerwiu  wilk  Crinaf. — FmrnTthe  7th  century  B.C. 
onward,  the  rdationa  of  units  of  weight  have  been  complicated 
by  Ibe  need  of  the-  interrelations  of  gdd,  silver  and  copper 
coinage;  and  various  standards  have  been  derived  theoretically 
from  others  Ihrou^  the  weight  of  one  metal  equal  in  value 
to  a  unit  of  another.  Tbil  this  toode  of  otiginatina  sUodaids 
was  greatly  promoted,  if  not  started,  by  the  use  of  coinage 
we  may  lae  by  the  rarity  of  the  Persian  silver. weight  (derived 

■Relative  lo-the  uncErtaia  conneuoii  of  length.' capacity  and 
'weight  U  the  inciEnt  metinlDiicil  lyitems  of  the  EaK,  Sit  Cbntla 
Wairei,  ILE.,  hai  oUained  by  deductive  aulyiia  a  new  cqulvilenl 
si  the  oririiul  cubit  IPaluMiH  Ezflaniliim  Fimd  Qi^Mly.  Aplil, 
July,  October  iSn).  He  ihowi  that  the  [englh  of  the  cubit  aroK 
tfaroiEgfa  the  weiiniB;  that  is  to  bsv,  the  oriEinal  cubit  of  tjtym  was 
bued^  the  diiblc  douMe-cub'it  of  waTei— ind  ImmthYs  the 
several  nations  bnnchcd  ofi  with  Ibdr  iDKurta  and  veijlKi.  For 
the  Itwth  of  the  buUding  cubil  Eu  C.  Wancn  hai  deduced  a  length 

Pytamid  cubit  of  ao-6ot5  in.  u  hitherto  found,    B^  uking  all  the 


ixota  the  Adrian  standard),  soon  after  tht  btrwlDctkin  aS. 
cnnage,  aa  shown  in  the  weights  of  Defaueh  (W}.  Tbs  relative 
value  of  gold  and  silver  (17,  31)  b  A*ia  I)  agreed  generally  to 
have  been  13)  to  i  in  the  early  agei  of  cunagei  at  Athens 
In  4}4  B.C.  it  waa  t4'i;  in  Matcdon,  jjo  B.C.,  ii|:ii  in 
Sicily,  400  B.C.,  15:1,  and  300  ilc.,  ia:i;'  in  Ita^ 
in  Est  century.  It,  waa  rr:r,  in  the  later  emjure  13-9^,  aad 
under  Juatinian  14-4:1.  Sihrci  stood  to  cBppei  in  Egypt  ti 
Bo:i  (Bnipch),  or  i»;i  (Rerillovt);  in  euly  Italy  and 
Sdlyaaiso;r<Mammaen).  or  110:1  (Sootao),  nnder  the  empire 
110:1,  and  undei  Justiniaa  100:1.  Tht  distinction  of  the  uae 
of  slandudi  for  trade  in  general,  or  [« silver  or  gold  in  particular, 
should  be  tuted.  The  early  obaervaoce  of  tbo  rdativi  value* 
may  be  interred  from  Num.  vIL  13,  14,  ^»re  silver  oferings 
are  13  and  7  limes  the  weight  of  the  gold,  or  of  equal  value  and 

one-h«H  value,  f _ 

S,  Lital  Ricalatitm  ef  ifntnrci,— Host  states  have  preserved 
official  Biandaidi,  usu^y  in  lenples  under  prieally  ostody, 

voluma  of  the  apet  waa  secured  in  the  drorana  of  Annbes  at 
Memphis  (35);  in  Athens,  besides  the  standard  weight,  twelvtf 
copies  for  public  comparison  were  kept  in  the  city;  alao  startdajd 
volume  measurea  in  seven]  places  (3);  at  Pompeii  thehloctwith 
sttDdard  volumes  cut  b  it  was  found  m  the  portico  of  tba 
forum  (S3);  otbcr  such  siandatds  are  known  in  Greek  dtici 
IGythium,  Panidum  and  TrajaDopoUs)  (11,  33);  at  Rome 
the  standards  were  kept  in  the  Capitol,  tad  wdghta  also  in  tba 
temple  of  Hercules  (3);  the  standard  cubit  of  the  NiUincter 
was  before  Constanline  in  the  Ser^>aeum,  but  waa  removed 
by  him  to  the  church  (3).  ^  In  England  the  Saxon  BtaadaidS 
were  kepi  at  Winchester  before  A.D.  gjo  and  cbpiu  were  i^pdly 
compared  and  stamped;  the  Normana  removed  them  to  West- 
minster to  the  custody  of  the  Idog's  chambertain*  at  tlie  ex- 
chequer; and  they  were  preserved  in  the  crypt  of  Edward 
the  Confessor,  while  remaining  royal  property  (8),  The  oldest 
English  standards  remaining  are  those  oi  Henry  VII,  Many 
weights  have  been  found  in  the  tenienos  of  Demeter  at 
Cnidus,  the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesua,  and  b  a  temple 
of  Aphrodite  at  Byblus^  (44) ;  and  the  making  oc  sah!  of 
weighu  may  have  been .  a  busmess  of  the  custodians  of  ths 
temple  standards. 

g.  Namei  ej  UhUi. — It  is  needful  toobserve  that  most  namisof 
measures  are  generic  and  not  ^ledfie,  and  cover  ■  great  variety  of 
units.    Thus  foot,  digit,  palm,  cubit,  stadiuca,  mile,  talent,  Bins, 

modius,  hhi  and  manyolheis  mean  nothing  exact  unfoaqnaliicil 
by  the  name  of  theit  country  or  dty.  Abo,  it  should  be  noted 
that  some  ethnic  quali&cationa  have  been  applied  to  difleieal 
systems,  and  such  names  aa  Babykmiao  and  Eubsie  are 
ambiguous;  the  nonnal  value'  of  a  standard  Will  iberefofi 
be  used  here  rather  than  its  name,  m  order  to  avoid  confusioiL 
unless  specific  names  ciist,  such  aa  kut  artd  iiten. 

All  quantities  slated  in  this  article  without  ^illlinl^"''''"^ 
names  are  in  British  units  of  bch,  cubic  inch  or  grain. 

SUitiarii  it  I«(M.— Most  ancient  nHnirra  have  been  derived 


ilrCWatr 


litfroi 


kn  body,  \fj  ascertaining  tbe  probable  1 ,, 

people  la  Egypt,  and  so  thereby  has  derived  a  standard  fioin  the 
Btalanofman.  The  human  bcK^  has  lumbbed  the  eartlctt  meatuie 
bw  Buy  taets  (K.  O.  Amold-ForHct,  TV  Omit  <  ""  Kiiepim. 
,U9l),aatbefoBt,  palm,  hand,  digit,  Mil.  pace,  elllafiH),  Ac  ll 
seems  prohable,  therefore,  that  a  royal  cubk  may  have  been  derived 
bom  some  kingly  stature,  and  its  length  peipetuated  in  the  andent 
baildlngs  of  Efrft,  aa  the  Great  Pyiamid,  to. 
Sobrthii1aMrreBewctappaaiatoainlmtlitopiiuonc4Backh(l) 


oethod,  that  oTobtalniBg  a  uait  of  length  Inr  didHdiii  It  Ihmueh 
.weights  and  cubic  in«aaun,jathB  than  by  dviviag. cubic  measure 


I  -/'S  in 


tsysttni 


in.— First  known  in  I>ynaity  IV.  in  Egypt, ; 


'n  Dya.  IV,  10 
ly  aurked  in 


ga 


thaHempUr 

iis~uoit  nearly  as  esHy  as  Esypl.   The  dividtd 

[  on  tbe  drawing  boaijs  of  -■-  - '  '^~'~ 

r)  are  oT  )  lO'^.  or 
li  -6u.a  fraclioa  of  tb 


iWCIBRT  HISrORICALl 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


483 


BaUdiogs  ta  Amjtia,  aad  Babylonia  ahow  ao-s  to  ao*6.  The  Baby- 
bniad  systeAi  was  •exagetunal,  thus  (18)-~ 

'tobca       S'44  *or6  114  f4J»  us^ow         44Ajeoo 

Asia  Minor  had  this  unit  in  early  time»— in  the  temple*  of  Ephesus 
lo>55,  SamoB  ao*63 ;  Hultsch  aJso  claims  Priene  ao*^,  and  tho  stadia 
of  Aphrodisias  aoHS7  and  Laodicea  20-94.  Ten  buudings  in  all  give 
J0«63  mean  (tS,  25) ;  but  in  Armenia  it  arose  to  2f>-j6  in  late  Roman 
times,  like  the  late  rise  in  Egypt  X25).  It  was  speoally  divided  into 
ith,  the  foot  of  fths  being  as  important  as  the  cubit. 
12*45  in.  '^'"  ^'^  especially  the  Greek  derivative  of  the  ao-63 
1^  cubit.    It  originated  in  Babybnia  as  the  foot  of  that 

l^^*'7>  system  (24),  in  accordance  with  the  sexary  system 
applied  to  the  early  decimal  division  of  the  cubit.  In  Greece  it  is 
the  most  usual  umt,  oocurrii^  in  t|ie  Propylaea  at  Athens  12*44, 
temple  at  Ae^na  13*40,  Miletus  12*51,  the  Olymi^c  course  I2*6a, 
Ac.  (18);  thirteen  buildings  giving  an  avers^  of  12*45,  mean 
variation  '06  (25),  ■•.i  of  20^5,  m.  var.  'lo. .  The  digit  ■>}  palacste, 
*i  foot  of  18*4;  then  the  system  is— 

fc^    J  li-cabk,      4"<»SBia ..-;• *"?"  f  gbdloo. 

^^    (10......; ^waam,       lo^pkuBoa,         6»  >  ■»■"""■■ 

ir4fa.  1«7  74*7    -         .IMS  ««45    .  74JO 

In  Etruria  it  probably  appears  in  tombs  as  12*45  (25);  perluips 

in  Roman  Britain;  and  m  medieval  England  as  12*47  (25). 

13*8  in     '^^  '00^  >>  scarcely  known  monumentally.    On  three 

2y      *    Egyptian  cubits  th«e  is  a  prominent  mark  at  the  19th 

SX20-7.  jig,^  ^  1^  |j^^  which  shows  the  existence  of  such  a 

measure  (33).    It  became  prominent  when  adopted  by  Philetaerus 

about  280 

had  been 

that  time  it  is  one  of  the  principal 
Ac.),  and  is  said  to  occur  in  the  temple  of  Augustus  at  Pergamum  as 
13*8  (18).  Fixed  by  the  Romans  at  16  digits  (13! -Roman  foot), 
or  its  cubit  at  if  Roman  feet,  it  was  legally  "■13*94  at  123  b.c. 
(42);  and  ?(  Philetaerean  staiidia  were -Roman  mile  (18).  The 
multiples  01  the  ao-63  cubit  are  in  late  times  generally  reckoned  in 
these  feet  of  }  cubit.  The  name  "  Babyk>nian  foot "  used  by 
Bdckh  (2)  is  only  a  theory  of  his,  from  which  to  derive  volumes  and 
weights;  and  no  evidence  for  this  name,  or  connexion  with  Babylon, 
is  to  be  found.  Much  has  been  written  (^,  3, 33)  on  supposed  cubits 
of  about  17-18  in.  derived  from  20*63 — mainly  in  enoeavouring  to 
get  a  basis  for  the  Greek  and  Roman  feet;  but  these  are  really  con- 
nected with  the  d%it  system,  and  the  monumental  or  literary 
•videqoe  for  such  a  division  of  20*63  will  not  bear  examination. 
17*30  l^c'e  is,  however,  lair  evidence  for  units  of  17*30  and 
svM%-*«  1-730  or  A  of  20*76  in  Persian  buildings  (25);  and  the 
I X20  70.  3gj^  J,  found  in  Asia  Minor  as  1 7*25  or  |  of  20*70.  On  the 
Egyptian  cubits  a  small  cubit  is  marked  as  about  17  in.,  which  may 
well  be  this  unit,  as  |  of  20*6  is  17*2 ;  and,  as  these  marks  are  placed 
btfore  the  23rd  digit  or  I7*0,  they  cannot  refer  to  6  palms,  or  27*7, 
which  is  the  24th  digit,  tJiough  they  are  usually  attributed  to  that 
(83).  ^  •^  *, 

We  now  turn  to  the  second  great  family  based  on  the  digiL 
This  has  been  so  usually  confounded  with  the  20*63  family,  owing 
to  the  iuxtaposition  oi  28  digits  with  that  cubit  in  Egypt,  that  it 
should  oe  observed  how  the  difficulty  of  their  incommensurability 
has  been  felt.  For  instance,  Lepsins  (3)  suniosed  two  primitive 
cubits  of  13*2  and  20*63,  to  account  for  28  digits  bein^  only  20*4 
when  free  from  the  cubit  of  20*63~Hhe  fine  3a  digits  being  in  some 
cases  made  shorter  on  the  cubits  to  agree  with  tne  true  digit  standard, 
while  the  remaining  4  are  lengthened  to  fill  up  to  20*6.  In  the 
•727  in  I^ynasties  IV.  and  VTin  Egypt  the  digit  b  found  in  tomb, 
sculptures  as  '727  ^7);  while  from  a  doaen  examples 


7*34  (25).  In  Syria  it  was  about  -"pS,  but  variable;  in  eastern 
Ana  Minor  more  like  the  Perrian,  being  -732  (25).  In  these  cases 
the  digit  itsdf .  or  decimal  multiples,  aeem  to  have  been  used. 

18'23  "^^  pre-Grcek  examples  of  this  cubit  in  Egypt,  men- 
^rv-  ^*x  tioned  by  Backh  (2),  give  18*23  ••  •  mean,  which  is 
25x729*  2$  digits  of  *729*,  and  has  norefaitioQ  to  the  20*6^  cubit. 
This  cutMt,  or  onejnearly  equal,  was  used  in  Judaea  in  the  times  of 
the  kings,  as  the  Siloam  inscription  names  a  distance  of  1758  ft.  as 
roundly  l3oo  cubits,  showing  a  cubit  of  about  17*6  in.  This  is  also 
evidently  the  Oljrmpic  cubit;  and,  in  pursuance  of  ihe  decimal 
multiple  of  the  dicit  found  in  Egypt  and  Persia,  the  cubit  of  25  digits 
was  }  of  the  orgula  of  too  digits,  the  series  beinf 


'799lach  It's  7*^ 


10*1 


79S 


lo-rtsdiou. 
719*. 


Then,  taking  f  of  the  cubit,  or  |  of  the  orguia,  as  a  foot,  the  Greeks 
arrived  at  their  foot  of  12-14;  t.hts,  though  very  well  known  in 
literature,  is  but  rarely  found,  and  then  generally  in  the  form  of 
the  cubit,  in  monumental  measures.  The  Parthenon  step,  cele- 
brated as  100  ft.  wide,  and  apparently  225  ft.  long,  gives  by  Stuart 
12- 137,  by  Penrose  12-165,  by  Paccard  12*148,  differences  due  to 
scale  and  not  to  slips  in  measuring.    Probably  12*16  b  the  nearest 


vdne.  There  are  but  few  butldiofi  wnought  oa  thb  foot  In  Asia 
Minor,  Greece  or  Roman  remains.  The  ureek  system,  however, 
adopted  thb  foot  as  a  basb  for  decimal  multiplication,  forming  ■ 


J- 


xa*i6 ' 


io«» 


iax'6 


■plrtbitM, 
iaz6 


which  stand  as  |th  of  the  other  decimal  series  based  on'  the  digit. 
Thb  b  the  agrarian  systeni,  in  oontiast  to  the  ocguia  system,  vmich 
was  the  itinerary  series  (33). ' 

.*  Then  a  further  modification  took  place,  to  avoid  the  inconveni- 
ence of  divkling  the  foot  in  i6i  digits,  and  a  new  digit  was  fonned 
— longer  than  any  value  of  the  okl  dtgit-^;;;of  ^  of  the  foot,  or  •760, 
so  that  the  aeries  ran  . 


•Bchas 


*f*»  (««....... -Msals, 


.*7«iach 


r6      7«V 


so* 


799 


7a«6. 


Thb  formation  of  the  Greek  system  (25)  b  only  an  infereoce  from 
the  facts  yet  known,  for  we  have  not  sufficient  information  to  prove 
it,  thoHgh  it  seems  much  the  simplest  and  most  likely  hbtory. 

I|.^  Seeing  the  good  reasons  for  thb  digit  having  been  ex- 
rA V  -ma  ported  to  the  West  from  Egypt — from  the  presence  of  ^e 
IOX-720.  ,8.2-  cubit  in  Egypt,  and  from  the  -729  digit  being  the 
doumal  base  oithe  Greek  long  measures— it  b  not  surfwitina  to  find 
it  in  use  in  Italy  as  a  digit,  and  multifJ^  by  16  as  a  foot.  Tiie  more 
so  as  the  half  of  thb  foot,  or  8  digits,  b  marked  off  as  a  measure  on 
the  Egyptian  cubit  rods  (33).  Though  Queipo  has  opposed  thb  con- 
nexion (not  noticing  the  Greek  link  of  the  digit),  he  agrees  that  it 
b  supported  by  the  Egyptbn  square  measure  of  the  plethron,  being 
equal  to  the  Roman  actus  (33).  The  foot  of  1 1*6  appears  probably 
first  in  the  prehbloric  ana  eariy^Greek  remains,  and  b  certainly 
found  in  Etrurian  tomb  dimensions  as  ii*m  (25).  DOrpfeld  con- 
siders thb  as  the  Attic  foot,  and  states  the  foot  of  the  Greek  metro- 
logical  relief  at  Oxford  as  11*65  (or  11  •61,  Hultsch).  Hence  we  see 
that  it  probably  passed  from  the  East  through  Greece  to  Etruria, 
and  thence  became  the  standard  foot  of  Rome;  there^  though 
divided  by  the  Italian  duodecimal  system  into  12  undae,  it  always 
maintained  its  original  16  digits,  which  are  found  marked  on  some 
of  the  foot-measures.  The  well-known  ratio  of  25:2a  between  the 
12*  16  foot  and  thb  we  see  to  have  arisen  through  one  being  i  of  100 
and  the  other  16  digits — 16}  :  16  being  as  25  :  2a,  the  legal  ratio. 
The  mean  of  a  dozen  foot-measures  (1;  gives  1 1*616  «h*oo6,  and  of 
long  lengths  and  buildings  ix*6o7'*i*oi.  In  Britain  and  Africa, 
however,  the  Romans  used  a  rather  longer  form  (25)  of  about  11*68, 
or  a  digit  of  •730.   Their  series  of  measures  was*—. 


also 


dIritaL'  4-l»i 
•jiSbKii  s 


pslmai,     4-Pc>.     5- 


90 


ii'6a 


$»■« 


iiSBStadhim,     8«Bi!lhis| 
ia6$  58,100 


itiic»-g66«^pei,      pslmfpa  u'Sa^SP^UU      caMtaiS7'4j"6p«laRJ. 


Either  from  its  Pdasgic  or  Etrurian  use  or  from  Romans,  thb  foot 
appears  to  have  come  into  prehistoric  remains,  as  the  cirde  of 
Stonehenge  (26)  is  100  ft.  of  11*68  across,  and  the  same  U  found 
in  one  or  two  other  cases.  11 -60  also  appears  as  the  foot  of  som^ 
medieval  Englbh  buildings  (25). 

We  now  pass  to  units  between  which  we  cannot  state  any  con- 
nexion. 


have  no  relation  to  the  sise  of  the  chamber  or  to  the  sculpture. 
They  must  therefore  have  been  marked  by  a  workman  uring  a  cubit 
of  25*13.  Apart  from  medieval  and  other  very  uncertain  data, 
such  as  the  Sabbath  day's  journey  being  2000  middling  paces  for 
2000  cubits,  it  appears  that  Josephus,  usin^  the  Greek  or  Roman 
cubit,  gives  half  as  many  more  to  each  dimensioit  of  the  temple 
than  does  the  Talmud;  this  shows  the  cubit  used  in  the  Talmud 
for  temple  measures  to  be  certainly  not  under  25  in.  Evidence  of 
the  early  period  b  given,  moreover,  by  the  statement  in  i  Kings 
(vii.  26)  that  the  brazen  sea  held  2000  baths;  the  bath  being  about 
2300  cub.  in.,  this  would  show  a  cubic  of  2^  in.  The  corrupt  text  in 
Cnronicles  of  3000  baths  would  need  a  still  longer  cubit ;  and,  if  a 
lesser  cubit  of  21*6  or  18  in.  be  taken,  the  result  for  the  size  of  the 
bath  would  be  impossibly  small.  For  other  Jewish  cubits  see  18*2 
and  21*6.  Oppert  (24)  concludes  from  inscnptions  that  thtrt  was 
in  Assyria  a  royal  cubit  of  }  the  U  cubit,  or  25*20;  and  four  monu- 
ments show  (25)  a  cubit  averacing  25*28.  For  Persia  Queipo  (33) 
relies  on,  and  develops,  an  Arab  statement  that  the  Arab  kashama 
cubit  was  the  royal  rereian,  thus  fixing  it  at  about  25  in.;  and  the 
Persian  guerze  at  present  is  25,  the  royal  guerze  being  1}  times  this^ 
or -s?!  in.  As  a  unit  of  1*013,  decimally  multiplieo,  is  most  com- 
monly to  be  deduced  from  the  ancient  Persian  buildings,  we  may 
take  25-34  as  tbe  nearest  approach  to  the  ancient  Persian  unit.  4 
21*6. — The  circuit  of  the  city  wall  of  Khorsabad  (24)  is  minutely 
stated  on  a  tablet  as  24,740  ft.  (U),  and  from  the  actual  size  the  U 
is  therefore  10-806  in.  Hence  the  recorded  series  of  measures  00  the 
Senkereh  tablet  are  valued  (Oppert)  a»^ 

'-  bmI    5»-<Wln»).  3-IT.  •-gMw.  «-«.  s-(«).  ••-■t  «o- 
■'™'     (60 —U. «•...,.. »tm} 


18  inch 


S« 


10*80 


*«4'8*  '  i»9*       M       J774        MMijto 


Other  units  are  the  raUum  or  1U»5*4.  and  cubit  ef  aU»ai*t^ 


+84 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


KANOBiiT  HisroRioa 


ai-4 


770i 


SISI.IM  ^tM» 


•1*4 


whkh  aie  not  ciaaied  in  thb  tiblet.'  In  Perria  (24)  the  aeries  on 
the  tame  base  was —  • 

vktsti, 
i»7incMS 

probably 

yavs,    6— aopuu     io«>vitasti;  cad  tuBa->|  axuiU;  abo  bSn-"a 
tSina  X-07  so7  i»-^        ai-4  4>-d 

The  values  here  given  are  from  aome  Persian  buildings  (25) ,  which 
indicate  21-4,  or  slightly  less;  Oppcrt's  value,  on  less  certain  data, 
is  2i'S2.  The  Egyptian  cubits  nave  an  arm  at  15  digits  or  about 
toj^i  marked  on  them,  which  seems  like  this  same  unit  (33). 

lliis  cubit  was  also  much  used  by  the  Jews  (33),  and  is  so  often 
referred  to  that  it  has  ccUpeed  the  35*1  cubit  in  most  writers.  The 
Gemara  names  3  Jewish  cubits  (2)  of  5,  6  and  7  palms;  and,  as 
Oppert  (24)  shows  that  25-2  was  reckoned  7  palms,  ai*6  being  6 
pedms,  we  may  reasonably  apply  this  scale  to  the  Gemara  list,  and 
read  it  as  x8,  21 '6  and  25-2  in.  There  is  also  a  great  amount  of 
medieval^nd  other  data  showing  this  cubit  of  21 '6  to  have  been 
familiar  to  the  Jews  after  thdr  captivity;  but  ^ere  is  no  evidence 
for  its  earlier  date,  as  there  b  for  the  2S-tn.  cubit  (from  the  biaien 

0< 


_a}  and  for  the  i8-in.  cubit  from  the  Siloam  inscription. 

From  Assyria  also  it  passed  into  Asia  Minor,  being  found  on  the 
city  standanl  of  Ushak  in  Phrygia  (33),  engraved  as  21*8,  divided 
into  the  Arayrian  foot  of  iO'8,  and  half  and  quarter,  5*4  and  2'7. 
Apparently  the  same  unit  is  found  (18)  at  Heraclea  in  Lucania, 
21-86;  ana,  as  the  general  foot  of  the  South  Italians,  or  Oscan  foot 
(18),  best  defined  by  the  100  feet  square  being  ^  of  the  jugcrum, 
and  therefore  » io«8o  or  half  of  2 1  '€0.  A  cubit  of  2 1  '5  seems  certainly 
to  be  indicated  in  prehbtoric  remains  in  Britain,  and  also  in  eariy 
Chrbtian  buildings  in  Ireland  (25). 

22*2. — Another  unit  not  far  different,  but  yet  distinct,  b  found 
apparently  in  Punic  remains  at  Carthage  (25),  about  11 -iS  (22-32), 
and  probably  also  in  Sardima  as  ii*07  (22-14),  where  it  would 
naturally  be  of  Punic  origin.  In  the  HauFsn  22*16  b  shown  by  a 
basalt  door  (British  Museum},  and  perhaps  elsewhere  in  Syria  (25). 
It  is  of  some  value  to  trace  this  measure,  since  it  b  indicated  by  some 
prehistoric  English  remains  as  22-4. 

20-0. — ^Thb  unit  may  be  that  ot  the  pre-Semitic  Mcsopotambns, 
as  it  b  found  at  the  early  temple  of  Muyayyir  (Ur) ;  and,  wath  a  few 
other  cases  (25),  it  averages  I9'97«  It  is  described  by  Oppert  (24), 
from  Utcrary  sources,  as  the  great  U  of  222  susi  or  39-96,  double  of 
19-98;  from  which  was  formed  a  reed  of  4  great  U  or  159-8.  The 
same  measure  dedmally  divided  b  also  indicated  by  buildings  in 
Asia  Minor  and  Syria  (25). 

'  19-2. — ^In  Persia  some  buildings  at  Persepolb  and  other  places 
(25)  are  constructed  on  a  foot  of  9-6,  or  cubit  of  19-2;  while  the 
modem  Persbn  arish  b  38-27  or  2X19*13.  The  same  is  fonnd 
very  clearly  in  Asia  Minor  (25),  averaging  19*3;  and  it  b  known  in 
liteiatuse  as  the  Pythk  foot  (18,  33)  of  9-75,  or  i  of  I9-S,  if  Cen* 
•orinus  b  rightly  understood.  It  may  be  shown  by'a  mark  (33)  on 
the  26th  digit  of  Sharpe's  Egyptbn  cubit- 19-2  in. 

13-3.— This  measure  does  not  seem  to  belong  to  very  early  times, 
and  it  may  probably  have  originated  in  Asia  Minor.  It  is  found 
there  as  13*35  in  buildings.  Hultsch  gives  it  rather  less,  at  13-1, 
as  the  "  small  Asiatic  foot.**  Thence  it  parsed  to  Greece,  where  it 
b  found  (25)  as  13-36.  In  Romano-Airican  remains  it  b  often 
found,  rather  higher,  or  13-45  averan  (25).  It  lasted  in  Asia 
apparently  till  the  building  of  the  paJace  at  Mashita  (a.d.  620), 
where  it  is  13-22,  according  to  the  rouj^h  measures^  we  have  (25). 
And  it  may  well  be  the  origin  of  the  diid'  Stambuli  of  26-6,  twice 
13-3.  Found  in  Asia  Minor  and  northern  Greece)  it  docs  not  appear 
unreasonable  to  connect  it,  as  Hultsch  does,  with  the  Belgic  foot 
of  the  Tungri,  which  was  le^lized  (or  perhaps  introduced)  by 
Drusus  when  governor,  as  i  longer  titan  the  Roman  foot,  or  13-07; 
thb  statement  was  evidently  an  approximation  by  an  increase  of,2 
digits,  BO  that  the  small  difference  from  13-3  b  not  worth  notice. 
Further,  the  pertica  was  12  ft.  of  18  digits,  ue.  Drusian  feet. 

Turning  now  to  EngUnd,  we  find  (25)  the  commonest  building 
foot  up  to  the  15th  century  averaged  13-22.  Here  we  sec  the  Belgic 
foot  passed  over  to  England,  and  we  can  fill  the  gap  to  a  considerable 
extent  from  the  itinerary  measures.  It  has  been  shown  (31)  that 
the  old  English  mile,  at  least  as  far  back  as  the  13th  century,  was 
oi  10  and  not  8  furlongs.  It  was  therefore  equal  to  79,200  In.,  and 
divided  decimally  into  10  furlongs  xoo  chains,  or  looo  fathoms. 
For  the  enstenoe  of  this  fathom  (half  the  Belgic  pertica)  we  have 
the  proof  oX  its  half,  or  yard,  necdine  to  be  suppre^ed  by  statute  (9) 
in  1439,  as  "  the  yard  and  full  hand,*'  or  about  40  in., — evidently 
the  yard  of  the  most  usual  old  English  foot  of  13-22,  which  would 
be  39-66.  We  c&n  restore  then  the  old  Englbh  system  of  long 
measure  from  the  buildings,  the  statute-prohibition,  the  surviving 
chain  and  furiong,  and  the  old  English  mile  shown  by  maps  and 
itaoeiarics,  thus : — . 

loot,    s-yvrd,    fUtbem,    so->chafli,    xo^furfong^    lo^mfle. 
ijaa        J9-M  70^  703  TM*  TOJM 

Such  a  regular  and  extensive  system  could  not  have  peen  put  into 
use  throughout  the  whole  country  suddenly  in  1250,  especially  as 
it  must  have  had  to  resist  the  legal  foot  now  in  use,  which  was 
enforced  (9)  as  early  as  050.  We  cannot  suppose  that  such  a  system 
•would  beinveated  and  b«»aie  eenecal  in  face  of  the  laws  enforcing 


die  12-111.  foot.  Therefore  it  must  be  datftd  some  time  bdore  th« 
loth  century,  and  this  brings  it  as  near  as  we  can  now  hope  to  the 
Belgic  foot,  which  lasted  certainly  to  the  Aid  or  4th  oeotary.  and 
b  eaactly  in  the  tine  <A  nitration  of  the  Bdgic  tribes  into  Britain. 
It  b  remarkable  how  near  tUs  eariy  decimal  system  of  Germany  and 
Britain  b  the  double  of  the  modem  dcdaoal  metric  systmi.  Had  it 
not  been  unhappily  driven  out  by  the  12'in.  foot,  and  repressed 
by  statutes  both  against  its  yard  and  mile^  we  shoold  need  but  a 
small  cbanse  to  place  our  measures  in  accord  with  the  metre. 

The  Game  leuga,  or  league,  b  a  different  unit,  being  1-59  British 
miles  by  the  very  concordant  itinerary  d  the  Bordeaux  pilgrim. 
This  appears  to  be  the  great  Celtic  measure,  as  opposed  to  the  old 
English,  or  C>eniianic,  nuie.  In  the  north-west  01  En^nd  and  in 
Wales  thb  mile  lasted  as  1-36  British  mibs  till  1500;  and  the  perch 
pf  those  parts  was  correspondingly  kmger  till  thia  century  (31). 
The  "  okl  London  mile  "  was  5000  ft.,  and  probaU>ly  this  was  the 
mile  which  was  modified  to  5280  ft.,  or  8  furlongs,  andso  became  the 
British  statute  mile. 

Standards  of  Arba. — We  cannot  here  describe  these  in  detail 
Usually  they  were  formed  in  each  country  6a  the  squares  of  the  long 
measures.    The  Greek  system  «a»-~ 

foot,        so^DBBpodes 

ss*-«mam,    4>plc«lM9o. 


96-^      S0SJ6S 


*5fi9 


top68 


■Maq-ft- 


The  Roman  system 

napeds,    s6-NdIna,'    4— actoi,     s-Joceram.' 

s— faendhiin,     xeo^ctntonB,    4«autiM. 

4M$acra  I-S4X  X94'I  •     49^4 

Standards  op  Volumb.— There  b  great  uncertainty  as  to  th)» 
exact  values  of  all  andent  standards  of  volume — the  only  precise 
data  being  those  resulting  from  the  theories  of  volumes  derived 
from  the  cubes  of  feet  and  cubits.  Such  theories,  as  we  have  noticed, 
are  extremely  likely  to  be  only  approximations  in  ancient  times, 
even  if  recognised  then;  and  our  data  are  quite  inadequate  for 
clearing  the  subject.  If  certain  equivalences  oetween  volumes  in 
different  countries  are  stated  here,  it  must  be  plainly  underetood 
that  they  are  only  known  to  be  approximate  results,  and  not  to 
give  a  certain  baas  for  any  theories  <^  derivation.  All  the  actusl 
monumental  data  that  we  have  are  alluded  to  here,  with  their 
amounts.  The  impossibility  of  safe  oonelataon  cf  units  seocsBtates 
a  division  by  countries. 

Egypt. — The.hon  was  the  usual  small  standard ;  by  8  vases  which 
have  contents  stated  in  hons  (8, 12,  20,  22, 33, 40)  the  mean  b  29*2 
cub.  in.  *  -d;  by  9  unmarked  pottery  measures  (30)  29*1  *'i6,  end 
divided  by  20;  by  18  vases,  supposed  moltipleB  of  hon  (1),  sa^i  *,*2. 
These  last  are  probably  only  rough,  and  we  may  taJee  29-2  cub.  ia 
*  '5.  Thb  was  reckoned  (6)  to  hold  5  utens  ofwater  (uten.-.  1470 
grains),  which  agrees  well  to  the  weight;  but  thb  was  probably  sn 
approximation,  and  not  derivative,  as  there  b  (14)  a  weight  cslled 
shet  of  4-70  or  4-^5  uten,  and  thb  was  perhaps  the  actual  weight  of  a 
hon.  The  variations  <^  hon  and  utea,  homager,  cover  one  another 
completely.  From  ratios  stated  before  Greek  times  (35)  the  series  of 
multiples  wa»— ^ 

10,    B*-1mb,  ,  4-"kiiiiD,     zo*»«pet  ( . ; i»«(7lMbu),  le^is. 

or  bcuA  {  4«"taais 
3-65  cob.  la."*  »9-»'      ti6't  xi6>  4^s  11,680      1x0^ 

CThd»n)  b  the  "  great  Thdban  measure." 

In  PtMcmuc  times  the  artaba  (232(6*),  modified  from  the  Pcniaa« 
was  genenl  in  Egypt,  a  working  equivalent  to  the  Attic  metretes^ 
value  2  apet  or  ^  tama;  medimnus—tama  or  2  artabas,  and  fracti<»s 
down  to  tH  artaba  (35).  In  Roman  times  the  artaba  remained 
(Didymus),  but  i  was  the  usual  unit  (name  unknown),  and  this 
lAitf  divided  down  to  ^  or  t^  artaba  (35) — thus  producing  by  ^ 
artaba  a  working  equivalent  to  the  xeelQs  and  sextarius  (35J.  Also 
a  new  Roman  artaba  (Didymus)  of  I540-  was  brought  in.    Beside 


Rev.  Eg.t  1 881,  for  data);  this  b  very  concordant,  but  it  n  very 
unlikely  for  3  to  be  introduced  in  an  Egyptbn  derivation,, and 

Srobably  therefore  only  a  working  equivalent.  The  other  ratio  <» 
Levillout  and  Hultsch,  320  hons">cubit*,  is  certainly  approximate. 
SyriOt  Palestine  and  Sabyl&nia,—iien  there  are  no  laonumentei 
data  known;  and  the  liteiary  information  does  not  distinguw  the 
closely  connected,  perhaps  identical,  units  of  these  bnds.  More- 
over, none  of  the  writers  are  before  the  Roman  period,  and  many 
relied  on  are  medieval  rabbis.  A  large  number  of  their  statements 
are  rough  (2,  18,  33),  being  based  on  the  working  equivalence  oi 
the  bath  or  cpha  with  the  Attic  metretes,  from  which  are  sometimes 
drawn  fractional  statements  which  seem  more  accurate  than  tncy  are. 
This,  however,  shows  the  bath  to  be  about  2500  cub.  in.  There  are 
two  better  data  (2)  of  Epiphanius  and  Theodorct— Attic  medimnus 
- 1 1  baths,  and  saton  (i  bath)  -  xf  modii ;  these  give  about  2240  and 
2260  cub.  in.  The  best  datum  b  m  Josephus  {AnL  iii.  15. 3)'^°^^ 
10  baths =41  Attic  or  31  Sidlbn  medimni,  for  which  it  »»2K'^*'* 
must  read  modii  (33);  hence  the  bath -2300  cub.  in.^  Thus  these 
three  different  reckonings  agree  closely,  but  all  equally  depend  on  toe 
Greek  and  Roman  sUndards,  which  are  not  well  fixed.  The  Jja  »*» 
modius  here  b  H>  o'  slightly  under  }.  of  the  bath,  and  so  probaDiy  9 


ANCIENT  HiSTORICALI 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


485 


Punic  variant  of  the  )  bath  or  saton  of  Phoenicia.  Cfne  dooe  datum, 
if  trustworthy,  would  be  log;  of  water  *AaByrian  mina  .*.  bath  about 
2300  cub.  in.  The  rabbinioil  statement  of  cub.  cubit  of  2 1  '5  holding 
tao  logs  puts  the  bath  at  about  2250  cub.  in.;  their  log-measure, 
holding  SIX  hen's  eggs,  shows  it  to  be  over  nthcr  than  under  thb 
amount;  but  their  reckoning  <^  bath  ■•  |  cubit  cubed  is  but  approxi- 
mate; by  21*5  it  is  1240,  by  25-1  it  is  1990  cubic  in.  The  earliest 
Hebrew  system  was — 

Ooff.      4-k«br,....^.....s*UB,  6'}.(Utb.or 


.««)      (    cph*    r  (orkof-Hlry. 

S^vabt.^      mS  ajo  183  1300  SS^ooo 

'Isiarte  (*'  tenth<deal ")  is  also  called  goroer.  The  log  and  kab  are 
not  found  till  the  later  writings:  but  the  ratio  d  hin  to  IssarAn  is 
practiGally  fixed  in  eariy  times  by  the  proportions  in  Num.  xv.  4-9. 
Kpiphanius  stating  great  hin  ■■  18  xestes,  and  holy  hin  ■19,  must  refer 
to  Syrian  xestes,  eauai  to  34  and  la  Roman ;  this  makes  holy  bin  as 
above,  and  great  nin  a  double  hin,  i.e.  seah  or  saton.  His  other 
statements  (m  saton  •  56  or  50  sextaria  remain  unexplained,  unless 
thb  be  an  error  for  bath  ""S^  or  50  Syr.  sext.  and  .*.  ■•2290  or  2560 
cub.  in.  The  wholesale  theory  oTRevillout  (35)  that  all  Hebrew  and 
Syrian  measures  were  doubled  1^  the  Ptolemaic  revision,  while 
retaining  the  same  names,  rests  endrcly  on  the  resemblance  of  the 
names  apet  and  epha,  and  of  k>g  to  the  Coptic  and  late  measure  lok. 
But  there  are  other  reasons  against  accepting  this^  besides  the  im- 
probability of  such  a  change. 

The  Phoenician  and  old  Carthaginian  system  was  (18)— 

las,  4~kab,  o->utoa.  lo^eona, 

jicub.in.  t»s  740  flt,MO 

valuiftg  them  by  31  Sicilian  "41  Attic  modii  (Josephus,  above). 
The  old  Syrian  system  was  (18) — 

eotvk.    i^^.tnta^    tS^ttbltlu orntao,    i|*caBitliao,    ««-bstk-«rtalia; 
tt  cab.  la.  41  740  1 1  to  fa*o 

also 

Siyr.  aotcs,      AS^maA,      i-metmcs  or  wtajba. 
41  iSso  3700 

The  later  or  Seleuddan  system  was  (18)-^ 

aotjrfe,         t»3rr.sala.      s»«-Sfr. 
•a  44 

the  Sjrrian  being  li  Roman  sextariL 
The  Babybnian  system  was  very  similar  (18)— 

31CDb.iB.       I3«  ipSp  S380  Siifco  USii8oo 

The  approximate  value  from  capitha>-2  Attic  choenices  (Xenophon) 
warrants  us  in  taking  the  achane  as  fixed  in  the  following  system, 
which  places  it  closely  in  accord  with  the  preceding. 
In  Pens  Hultach 


cspcCit. . 
U'4  cub.  im> 


.48  •sfUbt, 


SS70 


7»> 


the  absolute  values  bdn^  fixed  by  artaba^ST  Attic  choenices 
(Herod,  i.  192).  The  maris  of  the  Pontic  system  is  }  of  the  above, 
and  the  Macedonian  and  Naxian  maris  f^  of  the  Pontic  (18).  By 
the  theory  of  maris  «l  of  20-6*  it  is  I75S';  by  maris  ^aAnyrijCn 
talent,  1850,  in  place  of  1850  or  1980  statea  above;  hence  the  more 
likely  theory  of  weight,  rather  than  cubit,  connexion  is  nearer  to 
the  tacts. 

AegiiuUm  System.— Thh  is  so  called  from  accoidiog  with  the 
Aeginetan  weight  The  absolute  data  are  all  dependent  on  the  Attic 
and  Roman  systems,  as  there  are  no  monumental  data.  The  series  of 
names  is  the  same  as  in  the  Attic  system  (18).    The  values  are 

I  k  Xthe  Attic  (Athcnacus,  Theophrastus,  &c)  (2, 18),  or  more  closely 

II  to  12  times  t  of  Attic  Hence,  the  Attic  cotyle  beins  17*5  cub.  in., 
the  Aeginetan  is  about  25-7.  The  Boeotian  system  (18)  induded  the 
achane;  if  this-**  Persian,  then  cotyle  > 24*7.  Or,  separately  through 
the  Roman  system,  the  mnasis  of  Cyprus  (18)«>I70  sextan! ;  then 
the  cotyle™ 24-8.  By  the  theory  of  the  mctretes  being  1)  talents 
Acfcinetan,  the  cotyle  would  be  2:^-3  to  24*7  cub.  in.  by  the  actual 
weights,  which  have  tended  to  decrease.  Probably  then  25-0  is  the 
best  approximation.  By  the  theory  (18)  of  2  metretes  -■cube  of  the 
i8-6^  cubit  from  the  I2-45  foot,  the  cot>'le  would  be  about  25*4, 
within  '4;  but  then  such  a  cubit  is  unknown  among  measures,  and 
opt  likely  to  be  formed,  as  I2'4  is  i  of  20«6.  The  Aeginetan  system 
then  was — 

eotjde,      4-choaiis.  iiZ^ 
tfcDKin. 


too 


^^•.....~.bectcui.*"4^aMtMie5,    t|  )"* 
300      Soo  39e» 


4800 


This  was  the  system  of  Sparta,  of  Boeotia  (where  the  aporryma 
^4  choenices,  the  cophinus"6  choenices,  and  saites  or  saton  or 
»ecteus'e2  aporrymae,  while  50  medimni -> achane,  evidently 
Asiatic  connexions  throughout),  and  of  Cyprus  fwhere  2  chocs  •> 
C.yprian  medimnus,  of  which  5*"medimnus  of  Salamis,  of  which  2 
■■  mnasis  (18) 

.Attic  or  Usual  Greek  System, — The  absolute  value  of  this  system 
■  far  from  certain.  The  bat  data  are  three  stone  slabs,  each  with 
■J^cral  Btandaid  volumes  cut  in  them  (11, 18),  and  two  named  vases. 
The  value  of  the  cotyle  from  the  Naxian  slab  is  15*^1  (best,  others 
l4'<^l9-6);  from  a  vase  about  166;  from  the  Paniaum  slab  I7*i 
O^ar.  i6-2-i8'2);  from  a  Capuan  vase  1 7-8;  from  the  Ganus  slab 
'7'8  (var.  i7>-i8*)*   From  these  we  may  take  i7>S  as  a  fab  approxi- 


mation. It  is  supposed  that  the  Fanathenalc  vases  were  intended  as 
metrcftes;  this  would  show  a  cotyle  of  I4-a-i7*i.  The  theories  of 
connexion  give,  for  the  value  of  the  oo^Ie,  metretes  e Aeginetan 
talent,  .*.  I5*4~i6*6;  metres  t  of  I2*i6  cubed, .•.i6*6;  metretesa|{ 
of  I2*i6  cubed,  .•.  i6-8;  me(dimnus->3  Attic  talents,  hecteua»20 
minae,  choenixa2}  minae,  .•.  16*75;  metretes ^5  cub.  spithami 
(J  cubit«9-i2).  .•.  I7«5;  6  metretcs=2  ft.  of  12-45  cubed,  .*.  17-8 
cub.  in.  for  cotyle.  But  probably  as  good  theories  could  be  found  for 
any  other  amount;  and  certainly  the  facts  should  not  be  set  aside,  as 
almost  evetyauthor  has  done,  in  favour  of  some  one  of  half  a  dozen 
theories.     The  system  of  multiples  was  for  liquids— 

cyathoft.  li^oxybgphoB,      4*'0otyle,      sa->cboa9,      t2-"aicCrctcs, 

rpcab.  ia.  4*4  i7'S  *io  asao 

with  the  tetarton  (8-8),  2  ■■  cotyle,  2  » xestes  (35')f  introduced  from 

thie  Roman  system.    For  dry  measure — 

cjratbus,      6-ootyIe,        4»cboeaia,        8«>Iwctcui,        tf-mcdfmouiy 
r9cab.in.  17-$  70  ste  3360 

with  the  xestes,  and  amphoreus  (1680)  <-|  medimnus,  from  the 
Roman  system.  The  various  late  provincial  systems  of  division 
are  beyond  our  present  scope  (18). 

System  of  Cylkium. — A  system  differing  widely  both  in  Ji  nits  and 
names  from  the  preceding  is  found  on  the  standard  slab  of  Gythium 
in  the  southern  Peloponnesus  (Rev.  Arch.,  1872).  Writers  have 
unified  it  with  the  Attic,  but  it  is  decidedly  larecr  in  its  unit,  giving 
19.4  (var.  I9a-X9'8)  for  the  supposed  cotyle.    Its  system  ' 


sScub.Ia. 


4"' 


»i» 


4«dboaa, 
03a 


«7fl6 


And  with  this  tLgncB  a  pottery  cylindrical  vesed,  with  official  stamp 
on  it  (AHMOZION,  &c.),  and  naving  a  fine  black  line  traced  round 
the  inside,  near  the  top,  to  show  its  limit;  this  seems  to  be  probably 
very  accurate  and  contains  58*5  cub.  in.,  closely  agreeing  with  the 
cotyle  of  Gythium.  It  has  been  described  (Rev.  Arch,,  1872)  as  an 
Attic  choenix.  Gythium  being  the  southern  port  of  Greece,  it  soems 
not  too  far  to  connect  this  58  cub.  in.  with  the  double  of  the  Egyptian 
hon  »58*4,  as  it  is  different  from  evmr  other  Greek  system. 

Roman  System.— The  celebrated  F^umcstan  standard  congius  cf 
bronae  of  Vespasian,  "  mensurae  exactae  in  Capit<dio  P.  X.,  "  con- 
tains 2o6*7  cub.  in.  (2),  and  hence  the  ampnora  1654.  By  the 
sextarius  of  Dresden  (2)  the  amphora  is  1695;  by  the  congius  of 
Ste  Genevidve  (2)  1700  cub.  in.;  and  by  the  poiiderarium  measures 
at  Pompeii  (33)  1540  to  1840,  or  about  1620  for  a  mean.  So  the 
Famesian  congius,  or  about  1650,  may  best  be  adopted.  The 
system  for  liquid 


gBaitariua. 
8-6  cub.  fa. 


4>"aext«rhB, 

344 


6«caiigiu9, 
ao6 


4-'un>«, 
Sas 


a*  amphora, 
ttso 


for  dry  measure  16  sextani*"modius,  550  cub.  in.;  and  to  both 
systems  were  added  from  the  Attic  the  cyathus  (2*87),  acetabulum 
(4'3)  and  hemina  (17*2  cub.  in.).  The  Roman  theory  of  the  amphora 
being  the  cubic  foot  makes  it  1569  cub.  in.,  or  decidedly  less  than  the 
actual  measures;  the  other  theory  of  its  containing  80  librae  of 
water  would  make  it  1575  by  the  commercial  or  1605  by  the  monetary 
libra — again  too  k>w  for  the  measures.  Both  of  these  theories  there- 
fore are  rather  working  equivalents  than  original  derivations;  or  at 
kast  the  interrelation  was  allowed  to  become  far  from  exact 

Indian  and  Chinese  Systems.— <)n  the  andcnt  Indian  system  see 
Numismata  Orientalia,  new  ed.,  i.  24;  on  the  ancient  Chinese,  Nature, 
XXX.  565,  and  xxxv.  318. 

Standards  of  weight. —  For  these  we  have  far  more  complete 
data  than  for  volumes  or  even  lengths,  and  can  ascertain  in  many 
cases  the  nature  of  the  variations,  and  their  type  in  each  placo. 
The  main  series  on  which  we  shall  rely  here  arc  those — (i)  from 
Assyria  (38)  about  800  B.C.;  (2)  from  the  eastern  Delta  of  Egypt 
(29)  (Delenneh):  d)  from  western  Delta  (28)  (Naucratis);  (4)  from 
these  about  the  6th  century  B.C.,  and  therefore 


before  much  interference  from  the  decreasing  coin  standards:  (O 
from  Cnidus;  (6)  from  Athens;  (7)  from  Corfu;  and  (8)  from  Italy 
(British  Museum)  (44).  As  other oulections  arc  but  a  traction  of  the 
whole  of  these,  and  are  much  less  completely  examined^  little  jf  any 
good  would  be  done  by  including  them  in  the  combined  results, 
though  for  spedal  tVpes  or  inscriptions  they  will  be  mentioned. 

1^  grains. — ^The Egyptian  unit  was  the  Icat,  which  varied  between 
1^8  and  155  grains  (28,29).  There  were  several  families  or  varicf  ioi 
Within  thb  range,  at  least  in  the  Delta,  probably  five  or  six  in  all  (^9). 
The  original  places  and  dates  of  these  cannot  yet  be  fixed,  except  for 
the  lowest  type  of  138-140  grains;  this  bdonged  to  Heliopolis  (7),  as 
two  weights  (35)  inscribed  of  "  the  treasury  of  An  *'  show  139-9  ^"d 
140-4,  while  a  plain  one  from  there  gives  138-8;  the  variety  147-149 
may  belong  to  Hermopolis  (35),  a<xording  to  an  inscribed  weight 
The  names  of  the  kat  and  tema  are  fixed  by  being  found  on  weights, 
the  uten  by  inscriptions;  the  series  was — 


>4«8l) 


le-faS. 
146 


1460 


10*  tana. 

I4.600k 


The  tema  is  the  same  name  as  the  large  wheat  measure  (33),  which 
was  worth  30,000  to  19,000  grains  of  copper,  according  to  Ptolemafe 
receipts  and  aooounta  {Rev.  Eg.,  i88t,  150),  and  therefore  very 
likely  worth  10  utens  of  copper  in  earlier  times  when  metals  were 
scarcer.  The  kat  was  regularly  divided  into  to ;  but  another  division, 
for  the  sake  of  interrelation  with  another  system,  was  in  |  «nd1s 


486 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


(AKCIENT  HISTORICAL 


icarotly  found  except  in  the  eastern  Delta,  wbece  it  is  common 
j^):  uid  it  is  known  from  a  papyrus  (38)  to  be  a  Syrian  weight. 
The  uten  is  found  -4- 6  >  245,  in  Upper  Egypt  (rare)  (M).  Another 
division  Gn  a  papyrus)  (38)  is  a  silver  weight  of  ^  kat  -about  88^ 
perhaps  the  Babylonian  sielus  of  86.  The  uten  was  also  binarily 
divided  into  izSpeks  of  gold  in  Ethiopia;  this  may  refer  to  another 
standard  (see  129)  (33).  The  Ptolemaic  copper  coinage  b  on  two 
bases — the  uten,  binarily  dividedj  and  the  Ptolemaic  five  slickels 
(1050),  also  binarily  divided.  (Tliis  result  is  from  a  larger  number 
than  other  students  have  used,  and  study  by  diagrams.)  The  theory 
(3)  of  the  derivation  of  the  uten  from  j^  cubic  cubit  c^  water 
would  fix  it  at  1472.  which  is  accordant :  but  there  seems  no  authority 
either  in  volumes  or  weights  for  lakins  1500  utens.  Another  theory 
(3)  derives  the  uten  from  r^*  of  the  cubic  cubit  of  24  digits,  or  better 
t  of  30>63 ;  that,  however,  will  only  fit  the  very  lowest  variety  of  the 
uten,  while  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  existence  of  such  a  cubit. 
The  kat  is  not  unusual  in  Syria  (44),  and  among  the  haematite 
weights  of  Troy  (44)  are  nine  cLxamples,  average  144,  but  not  of  ex- 
treme  varieties. 
120  m. '  2S1I  ffra.  "^^  tT^t  Standard  of  Babylonia  became  the 
77TO^M  Joo-  P*'*"'  of  several  other  systems;  and  itself 
''^Ti-^5^*^'  and  its  derivatives  became  more  widely  spread 
405,wro.  ^^^^  ^jjy  other  standard.  It  was  known  in  two 
forma — one  system  (24)  of — 

um,      6o«ukhir,      6— ahekcl,      lo-ttoos,      6*ai«oeh,      fc«talcnt; 
'36  gm.  ax -5  119  iigo  9750  465.000 

and  the  other  system  double  of  this  in  each  stage  except  the  talent. 
These  two  systems  are  distinctly  named  on  the  weights,  anH  are 
known  now  as  the  light  and  heavy  Assyrian  systems  (19,  24).  ^  (It 
b  better  to  avoid  the  name  Babylonian,  as  it  has  other  meanings 
also.)  There  are  no  weights  dated  before  the  Assyrian  bronae  lion 
weiffhts  (9,  17.  19.  38)  of  the  nth  to  8th  centuries  B.C.  Thirteen 
of  this  class  average  I27'2  for  the  shekel;  9  haematite  barrel-shaped 
weights  (38)  give  I28-2;  16  stone  duck-wcights  (38).  I26«s.  A 
heavier  value  is  shown  by  the  precious  metals — the  gold  plates 
from  Khorsabad  (18)  giving  129,  and  the  gold  daric  coinage  (21, 35) 
of  Persia  129*2.  Nine  weigtits  from  Syria  (44)  average  t28>8.  This 
is  the  system  of  the  "  Babylonian  "  talent,  by  HcrodotusB70  minae 
Euboic,  by  Pollux" 70  minae  Attic,  by  Aelian  -72  minae  Attic,  and, 
therefore,  about  ^70.000  grains.  In  Egypt  this  is  found  largely  at 
Naucratis  (28,  29),  and  las  commonly  at  Defenndi  (29).  In  both 
places  the  distribution,  a  high  type  of  129  and  a  lower  of  127,  is  like 
die  monetary  and  trade  varieties  above  noticed;  while  a  smaller 
number  of  examples  are  found,  fewer  and  fewer,  down  to  118  grains. 
At  Memphis  (44)  the  shekel  is  scarcely  known,  and  a  i  mina  weight 
-  was  there  converted  into  another  standard  (of  200).  A  few  barrel 
weights  are  found  at  Kamak,  and  several  egg-shaped  shekel  weights 
at  Gebelen  (44) ;  also  two  cuboid  weights  from  there  (44)  of  i  and  10 
utens  are  marked  as  6  and  60,  which  can  hardly  refer  to  any  unit  but 
the  heavy  shekel,  giving  245.  Hultsch  refers  to  Egyptian  gold  rings 
of  Dynasty  XVI 1 1 .  of  1 25  grains.  That  this  unit  penetrated  far  to  the 
south  in  early  times  is  shown  by  the  tribute  of  Kush  (34)  in  Dynasty 
XVtll.;  this  is  of  801,  1443  and  23.741  kats,  orisand  27  manchs 
and  7|  talents  when  reduced  to  this  system.  And  the  later  Ethiopic 
gold  unit  of  the  pek  (7).  or  i||  of  the  uten,  was  I0'8  or  more,  and  may 
therefore  be  the  |  sikhir  or  obolos  of  2 1  '5.  But  the  fraction  rh>  or  a 
continued  binary  division  repeated  seven  times,  is  such  a  likely  mode 
of  rude  subdivision  that  little  stress  can  be  laid  on  this.  In  later 
times  in  Egypt  a  class  of  large  glass  scarabs  for  funerary  purposes 
seem  to  be  adiustcd  to  the  shekel  (30).  Whether  this  system  or  the 
Phoenician  of  22A  grains  was  that  of  the  Hebrews  is  uncertain. 
There  is  no  doubt  but  that  in  the  Maccabean  times  and  onward  218 
was  the  shekel;  but  the  use  of  the  word  darkemdn  by  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah,  and  the  probabilities  of  their  case,  point  to  the  darag- 
maneh,  ^  maneh  or  shekel  of  Assyria ;  and  the  mention  of  i  shekel 
by  Nehemiah  as  poll  tax  nearly  proves  that  the  129  and  not  218 
grains  is  intended,  as  218  is  not  divisible  by  3.  But  the  Maccabean 
use  of  218  may  have  been  a  reversion  to  the  older  shekel;  and  this  is 
strongly  shown  by  the  fraction  \  shekel  (1  Sam.  ix.  8),  the  continual 
mention  of  large  decimal  numbers  of  shekels  in  the  eariier  books, 
and  the  certain  fact  of  100  shekels  being  "mina.  This  would  all  be 
against  the  129  or  258  shekel,  and  for  the  218  or  224.  There  is. 
however,  one  good  datum  if  it  can  be  trusted :  300  talents  of  silver 
Cl  Kings  xviii.  14)  are  800  talents  on  Sennacherib's  cylinder  (34), 
while  the  30  talents  of  gold  is  the  same  in  both  accounts.  Eight 
hundred  talents  on  the  Assyrian  silver  standard  would  be  267 — or 
roundly  300-Halents  on  the  heavy  trade  or  gold  system,  which  is 
therefore  probably  the  Hebrew,  rrobabty  the  129  and  224  systems 
coexisted  in  the  country ;  but  on  the  whole  it  seems  more  likefy  that 
129  or  rather  258  grains  was  the  Hebrew  shekel  before  the  Ptofemaic 
times — especially  as  the  100  shekels  to  the  mina  is  paralleled  by  the 
following  Persian  system  (Hultsch) — 

-,.-.,--1  (  so-onfaft te*UleMo(|aU 

•■"*'l6o- nina te-Uknt  of  tndc. 

1*9  gn.  64S0  77SO  jAtjooo  469.000 

the  Hebrew  system  being 

■mh,         ae>-ahdtel.         100— naadl.         y>«Ulait. 
ta-gcn.  asftr  ai.8oo  774.000 

and,  con^dering  that  the  two  Hebrew  cubits  are  the  Babylonian  and 
Jffwiaa  units,  and  the  volumes  are  alM  Babylonian,  it  n  the  mors 


likely  that  the  weights  should  have  oome  with  these.  From  the 
east  this  unit  passed  to  Asia  Minor:  and  six  multiples  of  2  to  20 
shekels  (av.  127)  are  found  among  the  haematite  weights  of  Troy 
(44).  including  the  oldest  of  them.    On  the  Aegean  coast  it  often 

Phocaea  256- 
times  it  was  a 
Syria,  and  also  on  the  Euxine.  leaden  weights 
<^  Antioch  (3),  Callatia  and  Tomis  being  known  (38).  The  mean 
of  these  eastern  weights  is  7700  for  the  mina,  or  128.  But  the  leaden 
weights  of  the  west  (44)  from  Cbrfu^  &c..  average  7;;80,  or  126-^ ;  thii 
standard  was  kept  up  at  Cyzicus  in  trade  long  after  it  was  mt  in 
coinage.  At  Connth  the  unit  was  evidently  the  Assyrian  and  not  the 
Attic,  being  129*6  at  the  eariiest  (17)  (tliough  modified  to  double 
Attic,  or  133,  later)  and  being  -i-3.  and  not  into  2  drachms.  And  this 
agrees  with  the  mina  being  repeatedly  found  at  Corcyra^  and  with  the 
same  standard  passing  to  the  Italian  coin^e  (17)  similarm  weight,  and 
in  division  into  lr~'I*^  heaviest  coinages  (17)  down  to  400  B.c.  (Terina, 
Velia.  Sybaris,  Posidonia.  Metapontum,  Tarentura,  &c.)  being  none 
over  126,  while  later  on  many  were  adjusted  to  the  Attic,  and  rose  to 
134.  Six  disk  weights  from  (!arthage  (4A)  show  126.  It  is  usually  the 
case  that  a  unit  luts  later  in  trade  than  in  coinage:  and  the  |Momin> 
ence  of  this  standard  in  Italy  may  show  how  it  is  that  this  mina  (18 
undae«740o)  was  known  as  the  "  Italic  '*  in  the  days  of  Galen  and 
Dioecorides  (2). 
126  en    ^  variation  on  the  main  system  was  made  by  formiiK  a 

g.,^*  mina  of  50  shekels.  This  is  one  <^  the  Persian  series  (gold). 

^  and  the  \  of  the  Hebrew  series  noted  above.  But  it  is 
most  striking  when  it  is  found  in  the  mina  form  which  distinguishes 
it.  Eleven  weights  from  Syria  and  Cnidus  (44)  (of  the  oiHous 
type  with' two  breasts  on  a  rectangular  block)  show  a  mina  of  6250 
(125-0);  and  it  is  singular  that  this  class  is  exactly  like  weights 
of  tne  224  system  found  with  it.  but  yet  quite  distinct  in  standard. 
The  same  passed  into  Italy  and  Corfu  (44).  averaging  6000 — divided 
in  Italy  into  unciae  {^),  and  scripubte  (v^r)*  And  called  litra  (in 
Corfu?).  It  is  known  in  the  coinage  of  Hatria  (18)  as  6320.  And 
a  strange  division  of  the  shekel  in  10  (probably  therefore  oonnected 
with  this  decimal  mina)  is  shown  by  a  series  of  bronze  weights  (44) 
with  four  curved  sides  and  marked  with  circles  (British  Museum. 
place  unknown),  which  may  be  Romano^killic,  avenging  125 -4- 10. 
This  whole  class  seems  to  cling  to  sites  of  Phoenician  trade,  aad  to 
keep  clear  of  Greece  and  the  noith — perhaps  a  Phoenician  form  of  the 
190  system,  avoiding  the  sexagesimal  multiples. 

If  this  unit  have  any  connexion  with  the  kat,  !t  is  that  a  kat  of 
gold  is  worth  15  shekels  or  \  mina  of  rilver;  this  agrees  well  with 
the  range  of  both  units,  only  it  must  be  remembered  that  129  was 
used  as  gold  unit',  and  another  silver  unit  deduced  fit>m  it.  More 
likely  then  the  147  and  129  units  originated  independently  in  Egypt 
and  Babylonia. 

86  en  ^^^  *^9  grains  of  gold  was  adopted  an  equal  value 
^(Xq'  of  silver ■•I720,  on  the  proportion  of  1:13},  and  this 
B>«.A/^  ^""^  divided  in  10  >  172 — which  m'as  used  either  io 
510.000.  ^jj^  f^^j^^  ^j.  jj^  ^^ij^  ^  bestknown  as  the  sijjlus  (17). 

Such  a  proportion  is  indicated  in  Num.  vii.,  where  the  eokfspoon  of 
10  shekels  isoqual  in  value  to  the  bowl  of  130 shekels,  or  double  that  of 
70.  i,e.  the  silver  vessels  were  200  and  loo  sigli.  The  silver  plates  at 
khorsabad  (18)  we  find  to  be  80  sigli  of  8^-6.  The  Persian  eil\rt 
coinage  shows  about  86*o;  the  danak  was  f  of  this  or  287.  Xcno- 
phon  and  others  state  it  at  about  84.^  As  a  monetary  weight  it  seems 
to  have  spread,  perhaps  entirely,  in  consequence  of  the  Persian 
dominion;  it  varies  from  174'  downwards,  usually  167,  in  Aradus. 
Cilicia  and  on  to  the  Aeaean  coast,  in  Lydia  and  in  Macedonia  (17). 
The  silver  bars  found  at  Troy  averaging  2744,  or  |  mina  of  8232,  ha\;e 
been  attributed  to  this  unit  (17) ;  but  no  division  of  the  mina  in  i  u 
to  be  expected,  and  the  average  is  rather  low.  Two  haematite  wcighu 
from  Troy  (44)  show  86  and  87-2.  The  mean  from  leaden  weights 
of  Chios.  Tenedos  (44),  &c,  is  8430.  A  duck-weight  of  Camirus, 
probably  early,  gives  8480;  the  same  passed  on  to  Greece  and  Italy 
(17).  averaging  8610;  but  in  Italy  it  was  divided,  like  all  other  units, 
into  unciae  and  scripulae  (44).  ft  is  [)erhaps  found  in  Etrurian  coin* 
age  as  i/S'i  73  (17).  By  the  Romans  it  was  used  on  the  Danube  (18), 
two  weignts  of  the  first  legion  there  showing  8610;  and  this  is  the 
mina  of  20  unciae  (8400)  nanwd  by  Roman  writers.  The  system 
was— 

ebol.        4-'ti^ui,         loo^roina,        fc«  talent. 
14-jgn.  86  8600  st6joeo 

A  derivatk>n  from  this  was  the  |  of  172,  or  57*3,  the  so^lled 
Phocaean  drachma,  equal  in  silver  value  to  the  ^  of  the  gold  250 
grains.  It  was  used  at  Phocaea  as  58^  and  parsed  to  the  colonies 
of  Posidonia  and  Velia  as  59  or  1 18.  Toe  colony  of  Massilia  brought 
it  into  Gaul  as  58*2— 54*9. 

M*  ffM  That  this  unit  (commonly  called  Phoenician)  is  derived 
f  1  aS^  from  the  129  system  can  hardly^  be  doubted,  both  bcmg 
11'Jzj!i  so  intimately  associated  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  The 
,  wz.ww,  peiajij,^  is  358  : 229  :: 9:8;  but  the  enact  form  in  which 
the  descent  took  pbcc  is  not  settled:  ^  or  12^  of  gold  ^  '^^^^ 
57  of  silver  or  a  drachm,  J  of  230  (or  by  trade  weights  127  and  220}; 
otherwise,  deriving  it  from  the  silver  weight  of  80  already  formed, 
the  drachm  is  i  oTthe  suter,  172,  or  double  of  the  Persian  danak  oi 
287,  and  the  sacred  unit  of  Didyma  in  Ionia  was  this  h*'f""'^^5'!!i 
27  i  or  thirdly,  what  is  indicated  by  the  Lydian  coinage  (17).  80  « 


ANCIENT  HISTORICAL) 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


487 


gold  was  equal  to  1150  of  diver,  5  ihelEelB  or  A  mina.  Other  pro- 
posed deri  vations  from  the  kat  or  pek  arc  not  satisfactory.  In  actual 
use  this  unit  varied  greatly:  at  Naucratis  (29)  there  arc  groups  of  it 
at  231,  223  and  others  down  to  308 ;  this  is  the  earliest  form  in  which 
we  can  study  it,  and  the  corresponding  values  to  these  are  130  and 
136,  or  the  gold  and  trade  varieties  of  the  Babylonian,  while  the  lower 
tail  down  to  208  corresponds  to  the  shekel  down  to  1 18,  which  is  just 
what  is  found.  *  Hence  the  22i^  unit  seemb  to  have  been  formed  from 
the  139,  after  the  main  families  or  types  of  that  had  arisen.  It  is 
scarcer  at  Defennch  (29)  and  rare  at  Memphis  (44).  Under  the 
Ptolemies,  however,  tt  became  the  great  unit  of  Egypt,  and  is  very 
prominent  in  the  later  literature  m  consequence  (18,  35).  The 
average  of  coins  (21)  of  Ptolemy  I.  gives  3iO'6,  and  thence  they 
nadually  diminish  to  210,  the  average  (13)  of  thb  whole  series  <m 
Ptolemies  being  318.  The  "argenteos"  (as  RevtUout  transcribes  a 
•ign  in  the  papyri)  (35)  was  of  5  shekels,  or  1090;  it  arose  about  440 
B.C.,  and  became  after  160  B.C.  a  weight  unit  for  copper.  In  Syria,  as 
eariy  an  the  isth  century  B.C.,  the  tribute  of-.the  Kutennu,  of  Naha- 
iBtna,  Megiddo,  Anaukasa.  &c.  (34),  is  00  a  basis  of  454*484  kats,  or 
300  shekdn  (^  talent)  of  326  grains.  The  commonest  weight  at 
Troy  (44)  is  tne  shekel,  averaging  224.  In  coinage  it  is  one  of  the 
commonest  units  in  eariy  times;  from  Phoenicia,  round  the  coast 
to  Macedonia,  it  is  predominant  (17) ;  at  a  maximum  <^  230  (lalysus), 
it  is  in  Macedonia  224,  but  seldom  exceeds  220  elsewhere,  the  eariiest 
Lydian  of  the  7th  century  bdog  2 19,  and  the  general  average  of  coins 
SI 8.    The  system 


(1). 


8MdrachfB» 
56 


4-9hckcr, 
*>4 


S6oo 


lao^talcnL 

&J»fiOO 


From  the  Phoenician  coinage  it  was  adopted  for  the  Maccabean. 
It  is  needless  to  give  the  contmual  evidences  of  this  being  the  later 
Jewish  shekel,  both  from  coins  (max.  223)  and  writers  (2,  18,  33) ; 
the  ouestion  of  the  early  shekel  we  have  noticed  already  under  129. 
In  Phoenicia  and  Asia  Minor  the  mina  was  specially  made  in  the 
form  with  two  breasts  (44),  19  such  weights  averaging  5600  (»224) ; 
and  thence  it  passed  into  Greece,  more  in  a  double  value  of  11,200 
(«224).  From  Phoenicia  this  naturally  became  the  main  Punic 
unit;  a  bronze  weight  from  lot  (18).  marked  foo,  gives  a  drachma 
of  56  or  5^  (234-228) :  and  a  Punic  inscription  (18)  names  28  drachmae 
»25  Attic,  and  .•.  ^7  to  59  grains  (228-236);  while  a  probably  later 
series  of  8  marble  disks  from  Carthage  (44)  show  208,  but  vary  from 
19^  to  234.  In  Spain  it  was  236  to  216  in  different  series  (17),  and 
it  IS  a  ^question  whether  the  Massiliote  drachmae  of  58-55  arc  riot 
Phoenician  rather  than  Phocaic.  In  Italy  this  mina  became 
naturalized,  and  formed  the  "  Italic  mina  "  of  Hero,  Priscian,  &c.; 
also  its  double,  the  mina  of  26  undac  or  10,800,-150  shekels  of  216: 
the  average  of  42  weights  gives  5390  (■:2i^-6),  and  it  was  dividco 
both  into  100  drachmae,  and  also  in  the  Italic  mode  of  12  unciac  and 
288  scripulae  (44).  The  talent  was  of  120  minae  of  5400,  or  3000 
shekels,  shown  by  the  talent  from  Herculaneum,  TA,  660,000  and  by 
the  weight  inscribed  pondo  cxxv.  (t.«.  135  librae)  talemtum 
51CL0RVM.  iii.,  i.e.  talent  of  3000  shekels  (2)  (the  M  being  omitted; 
just  as  Epiphanius  describes  this  talent  as  125  librae,  or  0  ('-9) 
nomismata.  for  9000).  This  gives  the  same  approximate  ratio  96: 
100  to  the  libra  as  the  usual  drachma  reckoning.  The  Alcxandnan 
talent  of  Festus,  12,000  denarii,  is  the  same  talent  again.  It  is 
bclkivcd  that  this  mina  + 12  unciae  by  the  Romans  is  the  origin  of 
the  Arabic  rafl  of  12  Qkiyas,  or  ^500  erains  (33),  which  is  said  to 
have  been  sent  by  Harun  al-Rashiu  to  Charlemagne,  and  so  to  have 
originated  the  French  monetary  pound  of  5666  grains.  But,  as  this 
is  probably  the  same  as  the  English  monetary  pound,  or  tower 
pound  of  5400,  which  was  in  use  earlier  (see  Saxon  coins),  it  seems 
more  likelv  that  this  pound  (which  is  common  in  Roman  weights) 
was  dircctiv  inherited  from  the  Roman  civilization. 
aQ  __  Another  unit,  which  has  scarcely  been  recognized  in 
^1*^  metrology  hitherto,  is  prominent  in  the  weights  from 
J^qIL.  Egypt— some  50  weights  from  Naucratis  and  15  from 
^Kw.uuo.  Qcfcnneh  plainly  agreeing  on  this  and  on  no  other  basis. 
Its  value  varies  between  76*5  and  81-5 — mean  79  at  Naucratis  (29) 
or  81  at  Defcnneh  (29).  It  has  been  connected  theoretically  with  a 
binary  division  of  the  10  shekels  or  "  stone  "  of  the  Assyrian  systems 
(28),  1290-1-16  being  8o-6;  this  is  suggested  by  the  most  usual 
multiples  being  40  and  80  b2^  and  50  shekels  of  129:  it  is  thus  akin 
to  the  mina  of  50  shekels  previously  noticed.  The  tribute  of  the  Asi, 
Rutennu,  Khita,  Assaru.  &c.,  toThothmes  III.  (34),  though  in  un- 
even numbers  of  kats,  comes  out  in  round  thousands  of  units  when 
reduced  to  this  standard.  That  this  unit  is  quite  distinct  from  the 
Persian  86  grains  is  clear  in  the  Egyptian  weights,  which  maintain  a 
wide  gap  between  the  two  systems.  Next,  in  Syria  three  inscribed 
weights  of  Antioch  and  Bcrytus  (18)  show  a  mina  of  about  16,400, 
Or  300X82;  Then  at  Ab)raus,  or  more  probably  from  Babylonia, 
there  is  the  large  bronze  lion-weight,  stated  to  have  been  originally 
400.500  grains;  this  has  been  continually -f- 60  by  different  writers, 
regardless  of  the  fact  (Rev.  arch.,  1863.  30)  that  it  bears  the  humeral 
ioo;nhis  therefore  is  certainly  a  talent  of  100  minae  of  4005;  and 
as  the  mina  is  generally  50  shekels  in  Greek  systems  it  points  to  a 
weight  of  So'l.  Farther  west  the  same  unit  occurs  in  several  Greek 
wr>ights  (44)  which  show  a  miiu  of  7800  to  8310,  mean  8050  •t'  too  * 
*"  5-  Turning  to  coinage,  we  find  this  often,  but  usually  overlooked 
Hi>  a  degraded  form  of  the  Persian  86  grains  siglos.    But  the  eariiest 


cmnage  in  Cilkia,  before  the  general  Persian  coinage  (17)  about 
380  B.C.,  is  Tarsus,  i6d  grains;  Soli,  169,  i6t,  158;  NagMus,  158. 
161-1^3  later;  Issus.  166;  Mallus,  163-154 — all  of  which  can  only  bw 
straining  be  classed  as  Persian;  but  they  agree  to  this  stamiard, 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  was  used  in  Syria  in  eariier  tiroes  by  the 
Khita,  &c.  The  Milesian  or  "  native  "  system  of  Asia  Minor  (18)  b 
fixed  by  Hultsch  at  163  and  81 '6  grains — the  coins  of  Miletus  (17) 
showing  160,  80  and  39.  Coming  down  to  literary  evidence,  this  is 
abundant.  Bdckh  decides  that  the  "Alexandrian  drachma"  was 
f  of  the  Solonic  67,  or  >  80-5.  and  shows  that  it  was  not  Ptolemaic, 
or  Rhodian,  or  Aeginetan,  being  distinguished  from  these  in  in- 
scriptions (2).  Then  the  "  Alexandrian  mina  "  of  Dioscorides  and 
Galen  (2)  is  20  unciae -8250;  in  the  "  Analecta  "  (2)  it  is  150  or 
158  drachmae»8ioo.  Then  Attic:  Euboic  or  Aeginetan ::  i8:2jl 
In  the  mctrologists  (2),  and  the  Euboic  talent  "Tpoo '*  Alexandrian  "^ 
drachmae;  the  drachma  therefore  is  8o-o.  The  "Alexandrian" 
wood  talent:  Attic  talent :  :6:^  (Hero,  Didymus),  and.«.48o.ooa, 
which  is  60  minae  of  8000.  Pliny  states  the  Egyptian  talent  at 
80  librae  ■•396,000;  evidently  «>  the  Abydus  lion  talent,  whkrh 
is +100,  and  the  mina  is.*. ^960,  or  50X79-2.  The  largest  weight  is 
the  "wood"  talent  of  Syria  (18) »6  Roman  talents,  or  1,860,000, 
evidently  120  Antioch  minae  of  15,500  or  2X7750.  This  evidence 
is  too  distinct  to  be  set  aside;  and,  exactly  confirming  as  it  does 
the  E^ptian  weights  and  coin  weights,  and  agreeing  with  the  early 
Asiatic  tribute,  it  cannot  be  overlooked  in  future.  The  system  was 


dnduo, 
80  fn. 


taitatrr, 
t6o 


8000 


.  i 


se-talort. 


6e  -  Creek  takot 

480,000 


207  vra  te%  IQO  "^^^  system,  the  Aeginetan,  one  of  the  most  im- 
oSo*  portant  to  the  Creek  world,  has  been  thought  to 

<7o^o  ^  degradation  of  the  Phoenicbn  (17,  21).  sup- 

579,ouo.  posinK  220  grains  to  have  been  reduced  in  primitive 
Greek  usage  to  194.  But  we  arc  now  able  to  prove  that  it  was  an 
independent  system — (i)  by  its  not  ranging  usually  over  200  grains 
in  H^ypt  before  it  passed  to  preece;  (2)  by  its  earliest  example, 
perhaps  before  the  224  unit  existed,  not  beine  over  208 ;  and  (3)  by 
there  bNcing  no  intermediate  linking  on  of  tnb  to  the  Phoenician 
unit  in  the  large  number  of  Egyptian  weights,  nor  in  the  Ptolemaic 
coinage,  in  which  both  standards  arc  used.  The  first  example  (30) 
is  one  with  the  name  of  Amenhotcp  I.  (17th  century  B.C.)  marked  as 
"gold  5,"  which  is  ^X207'6.  Two  other  marked  weights  are  from 
Memphis  (44),  showing  201  -8  and  196-4,  and  another  Egyptian  191 -4. 
The  range  of  the  (34)  Naucratis  weights  is  186  to  190,  divided  in  two 
groups  averaging  190  and  196.  equal  to  the  Greek  monetary  and 
trade  varieties.  Ptolemy  I.  and  II.  also  struck  a  scries  of  coins  (^) 
averaging  199.  In  Syria  haematite  weights  are  found  (30)  averaging 
198-5,  divided  into  99-2,  49*6  and  24'8;  and  the  same  division 
is  shown  by  gold  rings  from  Egypt  (38)  of  24*9.  In  the  medical 
papyrus  (38)  a  weight  of  }  kat  is  used,  which  is  thought  to  be  Syrian; 
now  }  kat«>^2  to  101  grains,  or  just  this  weight  which  we  have 
found  in  Syria;  and  the  weights  of  )  and  }  kat  are  very  rare  in 
Egypt  except  at  Defenneh  (29),  on  the  Syrian  road,  where  they 
atound.  So  we  have  thus  a  weight  of  20J-191  in  Eg>pt  on  marked 
weights,  joining  therefore  completely  with  the  Aeginetan  unit  in 
Egypt  of  199  to  186,  and  coinage  <n  199,  and  strongly  connected 
with  Syria,  where  a  double  mina  of  Sidon  (18)  is  10460  or  50X 
209-2.  Probably  before  any  Greek  coinage  we  nnd  this  among  the 
haematite  weights  of  Troy  (44),  ranging  nom  208  to  193-2  (or  104- 
96*6),  «.«.  just  covering  the  range  from  the  earliest  Egyptian  down 
tO'the  early  Aeginetan  coinage.    Turning  now  to  the  early  coinage. 


we  see  the  fuller  weight  kept  up  (17)  at  Siamos  (302),  Miletus  (301), 
Calymna  (100,  50),  Methymna  and  Scepsis  (99,  49),*  Ionia  (197); 
while  the  coinage  of  Acgtna,  (17.  12),  which  oy  its  wide  diffusion 


made  this  unit  best  known,  though  a  lew  of  its  earliest  staters  go  up 
even  to  307,  yet  is  characteristically  on  the  lower  of  the  two  groups 
which  we  recognize  in  Egypt,  and  thus  started  what  has  been 
considered  the  standard  value  of  19^,  or  usually  190,  decreasinft 
afterwards  to  184.  In  later  times,  in  Asia,  however,  the  fulkv 
weight,  or  higher  Egyptian  group,  whkrh  we  have  just  noticed  in 
the  coinage,  was  kept  up  (17)  into  the  scries  of  cistophori  (196-191). 
as  in  the  Ptolemaic  series  of  199.  At  Athens  the  old  mina  was  fixed 
by  Solon  at  150  of  his  drachmae  (18)  or  9800  grains,  according  to  the 
earliest  drachmae,  showing  a  stater  of  196;  and  this  continncd  to 
be  the  trade  mina  in  Athens,  at  least  until  160  B.C.,  but  in  a  reduced 
form,  in  which  it  equalled  only  138  Attic  drachmae,  or  0300.  The 
Greek  mina  weights  show  (44),  on  an  average  of  37.9<i50  ('•stater  of 
193).  var>'ing  from  186  to  199.  In  the  Hellenic  coinage  it  varies 
(18)  from  a  maximum  of-  300  at  Pharae  to  193,  usual  full  weight] 
this  unit  occupied  (17)  all  central  Greece,  Peloponnesus  and  most  of 
the  islands.    The  system  was— 


obol, 
16  CIS. 


6«dfachiB, 
9* 


9*il«tcr, 
10* 


SO'iahs, 
0600 


fe-Ukot 
S7*.ooo 


*  That  this  unit  was  used  for  gold  in  Egypt,  one  thousand  years 
before  becoming  a  silver  coin  weight  in  Asia  Minor,  need  not  be 
dwelt  on,  when  we  see  in  the  coinage  of  Lydia  (17)  gold  pieces  and 
silver  on  the  same  standard,  which  was  expressly  formed  for  silver 
alon^.  I.e.  84  grains.  The  Attic  and  Assyrian  standards  were  used 
indifferently  for  either  gold  or  nfver. 


f88 

It  ■!»  pH«d  into  luly,  but 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

.  Ath«iu  ilowly  la 


lOMIMeRClAt 


in  H  smatler  multiple  d 
lun  wcigUti  (M)  bcirii 
iRercnIIv  iitribulnl)  il 
I  dn-ided  in  snciH  and 


ba  tbc  old  Etnii 

«S0P»-  tbebJfi 

not  aScct  tlie 
•imUariy  dii' 
valiH  wuch 


^nlly  d«ibt"llul>*'  R 
7hc  GRck  a-dghli  it  ii  iX^iJ. 


•^..  —n^- '  ~-  be  first  u  hand  for  the  o^paGC  ^ 

of  the  wbok dI  the  ovighttin  the  country:  the  Phc 

st^t  i>  bduw  the  trade  averiEe,  the  AxyiHa  it  abu 
__.:^i_  i_-i^™  1....  .L-  i> — >-->  ^i""»  it  above  theavi 


i  fTcocaucd 

X*™,  and 

°b    laSS 
■o  i'lily  ^1 


bwe'i, 
Gieek 


andard.    Rejecting  all  i 


T,a 


ivcran  («)oI about ,„-. , 

. . .-jnuima,  &c.)  averan  4857,  and   IG  later  Latin 

u»  (wlidiu.  Sc.)  >haw  4810.  The  coinate  itandanl.  however,  wa> 
almyi  higber  (IS);  the  oldctt  goU  ihgn  jojC.  the  Cairpanian 
Roman  JOS*,  the  coniular  gold  joii,  the  auieisoj/,  the  OwManiine 
•oUdi  50S3  and  the  JuKinian  gold  4996.  Thu^  though  it  fell  in 
■he  later  empire,  like  the  iiade  weight,  yet  it  Kii»alway>  above  that. 
Though  it  hu  no  exact  relation  to  the  congiui  or  amphora,  yet  it 
itcloKly-4977BraLnL  the  1^  of  thecubtcfootof  water.  If.however, 
the  weight  m  a  degraded  form,  and  ihe  foot  in  an  undegradnl  iorm, 
come  from  the  Eatt,  it  11  neediest  to  took  for  an  enact  lelaliofi  be- 
tkrPM  thm.  bvt  rather  for  a  mere  working  equivalent.  UIk  the 
o  the  cubit  foot  in  England.  Biickh  haa  remarked 
■  ■       ■^  ■  c  age— those  marked 


the  (teat  divei 

*■  Ad  Augusti  Temp  " 
pRicfect  Q.  Junius  Rui 
&^iith  Museum  (441  b. 


oSMS.lhoM 


the  pieater  weight 
beautifuT  let  at  mu' 


or  theKjtidus-4S9&  lor  the 


.r  ™^'^^__'*^ 
>.  Onnl.,  I8;i,  41), 


kenvier  form  of  ibc  119  ibekel,  incteued  lo  1^ 
by  Salon.    But  the  Egyptian  wjiihct  render  Ihu ; 


«'imlS 


...  _— -,  ...jll^ied  byV  and  60,  while  the  67  or  11 
Illy  XIS,  40.  ,50  »n^  wo.    Hence,  although  r>"  ■"■  "- 


s  true  value*:  the  (< 

TJi  the  eciile  of  Ihi 

ivuen.,  as  »«  have  ■ 

[o  ihekelt,  or 

drachnueithi 

nt  of  6000  Attic  diachmac.    S 


■  ijo  toll*  (65r69)- 

6;-3,  the  Aityrian  sK -.  - 

coinage  weight.  We  may  perhaps  sec  il 

»bly  formCKi  by  binarily  dividing  the 
k  had  *  talent  (Abydut  lion)  0)5000 
Idenical  with  the  ulent  of  teoo  Attic  — 
the  gofrain  ^ttem  wai  scagrsiinalty  divi 
wraa  4ftcrwanu  adopted  by  Solon.    Such 
lititory  of  it,  and  Ihii  is  in  esact  occofd  with  meiuu 

al  Mch  eyiteni.    In  Egypt  the  mean  value  at  Naui i.,,  _. 

t6-7.  while  at  Deiennth  09}  and  Memphia  (44)— probably  nih 
atjier— it  wat67-o.  Tbc  typcof  thegrDupincitiiotalikeinaifferei 
plaat.  ■bou.-ing  that  na  distinct  (amibei  Iiid  arisen  before  ll 
difluiion  a(  tbii  unit  in  Egypt:  but  the  usual  range  ia  6j*s  to  dg- 
Neit  it  i>  found  at  Troy  (44)  In  thnccusa.  allliigh  ejomples  1 

dlMociated  f  nm  the  Creek  Allic  unit,  and  yet  they  are  of  a  variel 
feB  [ai  removed  at  may  be  frouj^  lialf  ol  the  Astynan,  wfaicb  lan^ 
there  from  IJJ'S  to  1  Ji :  Ihui  the  diflenMsof  unit  between  Atsyru 
■ad  Altle  in  these  eartint  of  all  Greet  vetghta  n  very  strongly 
mnilLed.  At  Athens  a  low  variety  of  the  unit  was  adopted  [or  the 
coinage,  tnte  lo  the  object  of  Solon  In  tlepreciating  debts;  and  the 
Brsl  nnoaec  is  ol  only  Cji,  or  icarrcly  within  the  lange  of  the  trade 
wel(hlt  «»);  lliii  ■ecms  to  have  been  telt, 4i. r - 


.'etagc.  llgladuallyaupfiianledtbeAegiDetai 
laid  ui  Greece  and  Italy  as  the  power  fd  Athens  ntei  and  it 
adopted  by  Philip  and  Alcundcr  (IT)  [or  their  great  gold 
geaEi3iand6G-5.  ThistyttemisoftenkDowaaathc  Euboic," 
[loitsArly  UBeInEubaea,anditttliffuHonbylTadefrDfntheacfr 


iimini  now  to  its  usual  trade  values  in  Ciee«  (44).  the  mean  el 
3  ^ves  67  IS;  hut  Ihey  vary  more  than  the  Egyptian  eamptes. 
Lving  a  sub-vaiicty  both  above  and  below  the  main  body,  which 
lelf  eitactly  coincidea  with  the  Egyptian  weights.  The  greater 
LTt  o(  those  weights  which  bear  names  indicwte  a  mina  of  double 
c  usual  reckoning,  so  that  then  was  a  ligAt  ajid  a  heavy  eyslrni, 
mina  ol  the  drachma  and  a  mina  of  the  iiater.  as  in  the  Phoenician 
id  Assyrian  weights,  la  trade  both  Ihe  minae  wen  divided  in  |. 
t,  it  and  i.  regaidloa  of  the  drachmae.    Thii  unit  passed  also 


mid..; 


»  (17):  it 


(a  rtie  Atiic  (Here):  the  treaty  of  the  Romans  with 
aming  talenti  of  So  librae,  t.e.  mina  ol  16  uodaei  thai 
In  Eg^'pt.  ol  1;  UBdae,  probably  the  Bame  dimuiishtd:^ 

ie  middle  ana.  as  Jabarti  and  Ihe  "  kitib'a  guided 
ir  rati  mlscl  (of  Cairo)  ai  144  dirbema"6;6o. 
lES.— (1)  A.  Aurtt,  lUtlrdotit  ttyplunnr  (itSo):  (1)1 
Hc!,clct^,ke  U«™«*infKi.  (iBpS  (icncral):  0)  P.; 
ad  prlmiliHI  HinW  «ino  [1883);  (4)  J.  Brail% 
I-,  umd  Ccaida-Wttn  (1866;  (ipciially  AtsyiianJ:  (S) 
in  Zciu.  ai.  Sp.  (1870I  tEHa):  <e)  M.  F.  Chabos. 
1  mllriau  (1867)  (Egyptian  volumes):  (T)  Id.,  Ki- 
la  taiii,  maures.  a  aipsnaia  ia  asciti  Effplint; 
lir-l-trjpi.Strailu{iabj,o.',ii  1*70,0.  ua)  (Egyptisa 
m  K.^.  dilshalm,  WaMnt  md  ilaxrint  (1971) 
£m;lish  measures)  I  (to)  Id..  SiiUk  Rtf.  */  ranfn  4 
D  (Assyrian):  111)  A.  Dumonl,  UhiieM  a  Ttna 
'ii.i")  Ei.£nUr^.Z<«*r-.-t-,5fc_(.»75)  (f— ^-- 


(Gteek  volutnesj;  (111  EisenUir,  ZUtlti 
W.  Colfniscbell.  la  Sn.  i, 

14}  C.  W.  Goodwin.  In  Zlictr. 

IW,  in  "        ■  - 

"    ■  emt  ol  wiighi)!  IITJ  Id., 

ind  history  ol  aysten 

MarnlBril  (1882)   (essential  ... 

literarvandnH>mimcntallacts):(l«}Ledram,  ia  Xn.  ityt'- (^"'h 
p.  173  (Aiaytian);  (M)  Leemana.  Wnnrmrni  ttspunu  [iSjII 
(Egyptian  hon)  j  (II)  T.  Mommten.  RiiKirc  il  la  momit  «•"«: 
(if)  Id.,  Umumtmi  iitfrt  (Egyptian  weighti):  (21)  Sit  Isaac 
S{ewlDn,^I>|]nrM(iM  afn  On  SatrtiJMa  tlJM):  B4)  I.  (^P^ 


^ni:~(il)  W^  (iialfniscbell.  in  itn.  topL  (i^ij,  177  (Egyptian 
weight j)  i  {14}  C.  W.  Goodwin.  In  Zttilu.  it.  Sp.  (1873),  p.  16  UkDj 
mj  0.  V.  Had,  in  Nam.  Ckrai.  fills):  (IS)  Id.  jB^f.  I'l-  If 
Sawtm  (iBto)  (tyttema  o(  wiighi);  (IT)  Id.,  Hiilafii  miMivan 
,.=,..1  , il  fi : ;_u,,  ,^  iilrtory  of  pstems);  (11)  F. 


MaOiti  MarJoo  (1877)    pri  cnlative  rcsollsl;  (M) 

Id..  S/onikmu  {iSSo):  an  l  and  Trmpla  tj  OnA 

(illS3):(lB)  rd.,  tfani(rii»i,l.  (  l«,  lists,  and  curves oi 

weiglitsJ:(i9)ld.,7-niiii,iL(i8  ^utvej);  fM)ld,-(K». 

jBur.  (isaj),  410  (weights,  Egy  111  Id.,  free.  Xw-  St 

Erffn.  (1883-18^).  »M  (milej:  .*.  Brit.  Uu.  U  <f 

C«w,  Etjpl:  («)  Vazqua  Qu  r  hi  sriltaer  aXirinj; 

(ie»  General,  and  specially  ...^ ir   '■'>}.&'}■ '^ilj^, 

faH,  vc*.  i.,  ii..  vi.  (£iyptianliihuics.*c.);«i)E.  ReviUout.in 
Rrt.  if.  (iseo  (many  papers  on  Egyptianiteighta, measuiei. aad 
„:..,F,i,  c  V  o„'.^)?„,..  C*rS;.'^(l873)<Xrah^lfi^uJi 
m"ta.Me''roi1iirtori'it^nce"s(hSltaA 

.-HllBaiM.  C.  Soutio.aol«ufi««'!" 

(lull  of  afl^weSghia  published,  to  date)j^_(*»)  M 


riA'H'L™!!?!" 

('N)sibis.wIihnol«'(re 


3  pri-iilifi  (ieS4)  (derivation  cJ  unUs):  Ml 
d{.  Sp.  (iHTS):  (41)  L.  Stem.  In  Xn.  <!■  (■Ul)' 
{hta] :  (41)  P.  Tanitery,  Ra.  attk.  aE.  ^S^j^tI 


Sv,tfi 

171  (Egyptian  weights) ;'(«)  tf'Tannery, 
E.  Thomas.  NnrnilmW  crinHdrd.  pt.  i.  < 


on  cricaKilrd.  pt.  i.  (Indian  wightl):  m* 
rrial  ol  weighings  of  weights  of  Troy  jwpp"' 
in'sliindncss).Memphis.attheBritidi  M  uw<{n>< 


by  "  Board  of  Tr 
accuracy  of  tbe 


m.  ComiESnAi. 

laed  in  the  United 
e  standards."  by 

of  L«((*.— 100  (h 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


:h«i  yard  oE  j6  laclwi,  ).  I,  I,  ^  yin],  aiU,  inch,  tnd  dBodeci- 


489 


to  iVlloB.  qMrt?fH'n'.1ffHi 


.■iSi„ 


ApwJttcaw'  Uaium'p^ao  'fluid  pu™  to  t  '&■  m^  IC  BuM 

Amrdufini  »«>■*«.— cTml  (!ooT)?s6  lb  (1  c«.).  JB  lb.  n  n. 

tuone),  7.^,3,  1  lb;S.«.  a,  I,  lour«(gdiaras)!4,  J,  I,  Jdnim. 

rro^lViijSd.— The  ounce  (480  jr.)  and  Biultipla  and  dtdful 


lunuAL  10  Metu( 


,  -    4  MS9«3'  1- 

'}  -    o-4SJ59»4)  ^■ 

■i  -  31-10J5  uraminef. 

-  JSSa  milUlilm  (ml 

-  a-£iiij«nlililtaC 


LdiAdbriil^^AjULjJ 


Hi  til 


ra,.iSaaiSS^3[3 


—  0     —a    _ 


il  Metric  Tnde  Wc«ht(  and  Meuurc 


o-.'^^'i^u^j'' 


103,  0-01  (untiUtn) ;  o-nos,  iHiM,  O'l: 
»  O'lreJ-  s™,  «»■  '">■  SO.  ao,  10. 5.  a  cu' 
I   IdLagnniB;  500  to  1  pammr;  5  tc 


with  a  duplicate  wri»fii  of  "  I,") 

].  f^wHicnU. — The  metric  equivalents  oF  the  units  oi  the 
metric  syitem  in  teims  o[  tba  imperial  lysiem,  u  nokublcd 
in  1897,  an  is  foUowi:— ' 

>  litlrit  B^mOtnU.  KiDi'i  Mnten  (1898). 


y  \  C,  and  D,  ireifhti. 

ilk  galhriu  may  alio  tu  derived  al 


*T1ie  equivHlmt  of  (tie 
tollowj;— 

contained  in  tiK  gallon 

Tin  correction  for 'temperature,  6i*  F.,  ii  -00906  in.;  heiKe 
39-9091  inchea.  One  iiich-154  """■;  ■■"  3^-<^^*i:* 
-750»9876;  and  rS9-6?«76i'Xn)Oo57?-7*o-')7  mm.  P*  ■■  the 
Wright  of  (Hit  braM  weighti  {10  TbJ  A">fl'I43' 

e,  Ihcdoisiiylu-ooia  18738)  of  dry  air.  con  uininj  4  vol>.  of  carbons 
acid  in  la,oixivol!.:I-l6«!7'C.;B-rto-13?  mm.  of  mercury  at 
o',  bt.  4S*.  and  at  aea-lnTl.     Coefficient  of  eiponiHin  of^aM 

a'*6a*T.'(i6-667^''^)-»TOSMii.  ^,'lhe  dcHky  ol  the  brawai 
above.    10  tti-4'S3S9a4]  1^'  _. 

From  lh<  above  w  foUowa  thai  P-4-M07eS7  hg.  ThereCom- 
I  gallon-P/o-99886il-4S4«*3'  lin=- 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


The  rquivatents  of  the  RuKiia  wcighu  ind  Rieuuns,  in  tcrmi 
also  of  the  impeml  >Dd  metric  wiighls  snd  meaiuns,  were  re- 
cilculitcduiiSg;.)   The  [oUoiring  iK  the  leading  equivalenis: 


-0-4095 1 34' 


•o-mn*  yard, 
r    10  Khioffi 


1  IchRHItB  -8  tchetvei 


Decenary  local  in^rection  and  verilica- 

aken  by  irupecton  of   wcighLi  and 
nte<l  by  the  local  Aulhorities,  aa  the 


a  cen;fiC3le  of  qualilicalion,  and  for  I 
weiehls,    measurs   and   weighing   ij 


lu>  bHn  let  out  by  ihc  Board  of  Trade  Ipr 
Kngdmn,  and  aimilar  nuutini  □(  trior  a 

4^-j  grain  it  allDwed;  on  1  pint  pot.  4  fluid 
OB  I  bran  yard,  o-os  Inch  in  excoto  or  0-oj  Lnc 
it  allowed  lor  oidiniry  trade  puipoaeL 

6.  Ferdpt  Wii(hls  and  i/camrtt.— Throughout  ll 
Emtnre  [he  imperial  system  of  weights  and  measures 

In  Russia,  at  In  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  Unit 


the  ni 


onal  weight!  si 


i  li  J 


although  tl 

la  India  the  native  wcighti,  tic,  ancient  and  aibitnr; 
are  still  foUowcd.  In  1S89  the  British  yaid  waj  adopted  fo 
Ihe  whole  of  India  (Mcnsures  ol  Length  Act)  at  a  normal  teRineri 
ture  of  SJ*  F.  as  slondaidiied  to  the  imperial  yard  at  6 


n  1870  1 


linly  (. 


caDwa 


wcirTk  of  air  displaced  by  ihi 
ititude  s»*  3S'  6s'  (Calcut. 


rfe™i 


7.  Cuslamary  Weiglili  cml  Ueanrtl.— In  wme  diitricU  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  as  well  ai  in  provincial  dislricli  of  oiher 
counlries,  old  local  and  cuilomary  denominations  of  wnghts 
ud  measures  are  siUl  lound  to  be  in  use,  although  their  use 
may  have  been  prohibited  by  law.  So  powerful  la  cuMom 
with  the  people.' 

8.  tiii'itoioB.— In  everyday  ttansaclioni  with  reference  to 


wtighli  abd  [ 


,   the 


'  C.I.P.U.  Prati-terbtui  I.1B9J).  p.  IIS. 

ioiH.  Birmingham.  Glauov,  London,  MancI 
Seleci  Commiiin  (iSoi];  iftnlail!  Hi«ii 
l9>):  Rtpcm  H.M.  KeprcKBIaliva  Abroi 


(COMMERCliU, 

its.  For  initancS,  in  weiring  Iht 
n  now  required  to  provide  adequate 
atutes  have  al»  been  passed  to  pro- 
I  checlung  the  weighing  initrumenu 


n  the  ir 


ol  si 


which  In 


■ksbops.    The  Merchandise  Marl— „, 

makes  it  an  oRence  alio  la  apply  in  trade  a  false  desciiplioii, 

sold;  and  this  Act  appears  to  reach  oBences  Chat  the  Weighli 
and  Measurei  Acts  may  perhaps  not  reach. 

9.  PharmactMical  WcijiJj  and  Uasuta.—By  the  Medical 
Acl  of  rSsS,  and  the  Act  of  iSfii,  the  General  Council  of  Medical 
Education  and  Kegisira  lion  ol  the  United  Kingdom  are  Bulhoiiied 
lo  iisue  a  "  Phatmampoeia  "  with  relerence  to  the  weighls  and 
meuurcs  used  m  the  preparation  and  dispensing  of  drugs,  be. 
The  British  Pharmacopoeia  issued  by  the  Council  in  1898  makes 

lobeuaedbythcPhimicopoeiaof  1864.  Forall  phannaeeulical 
purposes,  however,  the  use  of  the  rnctric  system  alone  isemployed 
in  all  paragraphs  relating  to  analysis,  whether  gravlmetiic  or 
volumetric  For  meajures  ol  capacity  the  Pharmacopoeia 
: ..  ._.  '-iperiai  measuring  vessels  graduated  at  ihe 


The   n 


■   Phan 


ol  61°  F.    The  offida 
deiinedat4°C.,  as 


■ncrally  01 


.    .  of  capacity  and  volumetric  vessels 

graduated  at  ij'S  C,  or  60°  F.  Specific  gravity  bottles  are 
also  adjusted  al  60'  F.,  ihe  figures  indicating  specific  gravities 
being  quotients  obtained  by  dividing  in  each  instance  the  weight 
'  the  solid  ot  liquid  by  (he  weiglit  of  an  equal  bulk  of  wiler, 

th  uken  at  6o*  F.* 

10.  Gnitfts. — "  Gauges,"  as  underslDod  at  one  time,  included  only 

7K  utcdin  the  measurement  of  barrels,  casks.  Sc.  and  hnKC 

e  more  imponani  linear  gauget  arc.  however,  now  uKif,  adjiisHd 
same  fundamcnul  unit  of  meaiuic  ai  the  inch;  althoush  ia 

ind  of  merely  mimericnl  lizci.  havine  ao 


a  legal  u> 


'X^, 


mj/o  (o. 


lo^Jiach, 


si™:^Ti;; 

V^im^^t 

produciive  mmwrini 

ment,  whether 

used 

£rt^  ot  less  than  aa 

length,  eras. 

mast 

•wofJOleet 

length.  TheprobsUe 

and  cecentixit 

esot 

ima 

«rcwi  have  been  oiif 

-0- 

inch;  but  t 

t.t^^^.JJr'ii 

le  engineering  purpones  it  would  appear  to  be  desirable  10  pmduce 
Kcr-screwB  10  an  accuracy  of  >Ai  of  an  inch  to  the  foot  of  screw, 
a  10  serve  indirectly  lor  the  verificalton  of  "  guiding  icii«s 
general  use  in  woritshops.'  AttempU  in  this  direction  neie 
.Sinlly  made  by  Whitwonh,  Clement,  Donkin.  Rogers.  Bond  and 
!n,  but  we  stiU  need  a  higher  accuracy  in  screw-thread.. 
1.  £ifiiiafi«uf.— Ordinary  arithmeilciuoks  often  contain  nfei' 
B  tu  local  and  customary  weightt  and  measures  and  to  obtolric 
na  of  no  practical  use  to  children.  It  appears  to  be  dcsirahk, 
he  Committie  of  Council  on  Education  have  done,  to  mccplR 

metric.    The  Education  O^  ot  Regulations  for  1000  pctKiibei 
Ehat  thu  lables  of  weiKhts  and  measures  to  be  kamed  include  ihorf 

ily  which  are  in  ordinary  ase,  vij..  in  all  claases  or  lonot  above 

le  third  the  cables  of 

■{  length— mile,  furlong,  rod  or  pole,  chain,  yd..  It.  and  inch, 
tCspacity — quarter,  bushel,  pk.,  gall.,  qt.  end  pt. 

I  Cod.;  itanda^s  above  the  6fili,  In  addition  to  the  foregoing  the 

Mesof 


V.  nod,  pole,  yd.,  ft.  and  indi, 
d,  foot  and  inch. 

les  of  the  metric  ivMem,  and  la  1I 
ilormiiy  in  the  method  ^fe 


i«9i^Coal  Mines  Btfi'- 
Society.""- 


'  Markets  and  Fairs  (Cattle)  Acts  iBSi.  1 

lion  Act  1S87:  Fanorv  and  Workshop  Act 

'  Phsrinaiopoeia  [190I):  Calendar  Wiarr 

'  Order  in  Council.  I6th  Aurust  iSSl.  _  „_,: 

'  S,ilfmaHqu.  iet  vil  koth^ni.  Thury  (Geneva.  l87«-  ,  W'j'j^ 

Report  of  BritiaE  AHOCiation  on  Scitw-thrcadt,  190a. 


OOMHBRaAL) 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


491 


^ven  to  the  scholars  in  Standards  IV..  V..  VI.  and  VII.  Asa  prepara- 
tion for  this  it  is  stated  in  the  Code  that  it  will  be  useful  to  |[tv«  m 
Standard  III.  (arithmetic)  dementary  lessons  on  the  notation  of 
decimal  fractions.    (See  Autbmetic.) 

Table  of  the  Pritui^  Foreign  Weights  and  Measures  turn  in  tuc,  and 
oj  their  Equivalents  in  Imperial  or  in  Metric  Weights  and  Measures, 


Almude  .     .  Portugal  . 

Anoman  (Ammo-  Ceylon 

mam,  Amomam) 
Ara    ....     Italv  . 
Archin,  or  Ar-        Turkey    . 

shin 


Arehia    .     .     .     Bulgaria 


Archinc,  01 

Ar- 

Russia     .     . 

chinnc 

Ardeb     . 

•         • 

Egypt      .     . 

Are   .     . 

•         • 

•             •             •          ■ 

Area  .     . 

•         • 

Spain       .     . 

Arpent    . 

•         • 

France     .     .  1 
Canada    .     A 

Arroba    . 

a         • 

Portugal  .     . 
Spain 

Artaba  . 

•         • 

Persia      .     . 

Aune 

•         • 

Belgium  .     . 
France     . 

Barilo 

•         • 

Jersey      .     . 
Rome       .     . 

Bat,  or  Tical     . 

Siam  .     .     . 

Batman  . 

•         • 

Persia 
Turkey    .     . 

Behar     . 

Arabia     .     . 

Berri 

Turkey    .      . 

Boisaeau . 

Belgium  . 

Boutylka 

Russia     .     . 

Braga 

Portugal  .     . 

Braccio  . 

Spain       .     . 
Rome 

Brassc     , 

France     .     .' 

Braza 

Argentina 

Bu,  or  tsubo 

Japan      .     . 
ll.  States 

Bushel    . 

9         • 

Canada    .     ., 

Bunder  . 

•         • 

Netherlands. 

Cabot     • 

»         • 

Jersey      .     . 

Candy    . 

t         • 

Bombay  .     . 
Madras   .     . 

Cantar    . 

•         ■ 

Turkey    .     . 

Cantara  piccolo 

Italy  .     .     . 

Capicha  . 

•         • 

Persia      .     . 

Catty      . 

•         • 

China       .      . 
N.  Borneo    . 
Siam  . 

Cawnic   . 

•         • 

Madras   .     . 

Cental    , 

•         • 

U.  Statea 
Canada   .     . 

Centigramme    . 

a             •             •          « 

Centilitre 

•         • 

•             •             «          • 

Centimetre 

.■          • 

•             •             •          ■ 

Centimetre, 

cubic  (c.c.)  .       .     . 

Centimetre, 

square  .... 

Centner  . 

•          • 

Austria    . 
E)enmark 

« 

Switzerland  . 

Chain 

•          • 

Canada   .     . 

Chang    . 

•          » 

Cyprus    .     . 
China      .     . 
Siam  . 

Chapah  . 

•          • 

N.  Borneo    . 

Chee.  Sec  TahU. 

Chek       . 

•          ■ 

Hong  Kong  . 

Chcnica  . 

•          » 

PersiA      .     . 

Ch'ien    . 

•          ■ 

China 

Ch'ih      . 

•          • 

China'      .     . 

i6-8  litres. 

0-699  quarter  (dry  measure),  5*60 
bushels. 

I  metric  are.  1 19.6  sq.  yds. 

1  new  archin  (Law  1881)  •  I 
metre  (39*37  inches)  «>  10  par' 
maks  (decimetres)  *  100  kiiatv 
(centimetres),  1  mill  *  1000  ar* 
chins  (kilometre).  Pharoagh  s* 
10  mills.  Another  pharoagh  « 
2  hours'  journey. 

0-758  metre  (masons). 

0-680  metre  (tailors). 

28  inches,  or  0-7112  metre. 

5*447    bushels     (Customs).  5 

bushels  (old  measure). 
« 100  sq.  metres'- 1 19-6  sq.  yds. 
I  metric  are. 
Legal  arpent  was  equal  to  loo  sq. 

perches  051 -07     metric    ares. 

m  Quebec  "1 80  French  feet. 
14-68  to  15  kilogrammes. 
Mayor  »  3-55  gaHonSiOrl  cantara. 
1-809  bushel. 

Menor>i2-76  gallons  (liquids). 
I  metre.    Formerly  1*312  yard. 
1-885  metre  (1812). 
4  feet. 
12-834  ^Ilons. 


2^  grains. 
6}  lb  av. ; 


varies  locally, 
■■loocks. 
439*45  Ih  av.,  neariy. 
1-064  mile  (old  measure). 
15  litres. 

1*353  pint  (wine  bottle). 
2*22  metres. 

0-670  metre  (commercial). 
Braccio-d'ara«  29*528  Inches. 
5-328  feet. 
5-682  feet. 

3*0306  square  metres. 
2150*42     cubic     inches,     about 

0-969x4    imperial    bushel,      l 

bushel  oS  gallons  »  32  quarts  » 

64  pints. 
2-471  acres  (old  hectare). 
10  pots,  or  ^  gallons,  i  quart  3 

gills  impcnaf  measure. 
560  lb  av. 

493*7  lb  av.  ^ 

124*7  lb  av-  iP^  weight). 
74-771  lb  av. 
0-58  gallon. 
i|  lb  av.    See  Tad. 
i\  lb  av. 

2.-675  lb  av.,  or  ^,  hap. 
1*322  acre. 

100  lb  av.   (As  in  Great  Britain.) 

•iyii)  grm.- 0*1 54  grain, 
-too  litre- 0-07  gill. 
-0-394  inch  — Tih  in. 
—0-061  cubic  inch,  or  I  c.c. 
'0-155  square  inch. 
50  kilogrammes- 1 10*231  lb.  av. 
50  kilogra m mes  - 1 1 0*23 1  lb.-  av. 
50  kilogrammes- 110*231  lb. 
66  feet. 

0'33  P«c. 

10  ch  ih  - 1 1  ft.  9  inches  (Treaty). 

2-675  lb. 

1}  R)  av. 

14 1  inches. 
0-289  gallon. 
81  grains  (silver  weight). 
Varies  throughout  China  from  II 
to  15-8  inches.    For  Customs 
purposes  the  Treaty  ch'ih - 
'  14*1  inches,and5chih-ipu. 


Ch'ih 


Pfeking 


5^ 
V 


'"!w  public  works. 


Shanghai 


Chilogramme    . « 

Italy  .     .     . 

Chin  or  Catty  . 

China      .     . 

Ching     .     .     . 
Ch'ing    .     .     ♦ 

China      .     . 
China      .     . 

Chittack.     .     . 

Bengal     i     . 

Ch'ok     .     .     . 

Corea      .     . 

ChQo      .     .     . 

China      .     . 

Chupah 

Singapore     . 

Malacca  .     . 

Chupak  .     ,     . 

Straits  Settle- 

ments 

Collothun    .     . 

Persia      .     . 

C0S8  .... 

Bengal     .     . 

Covado  .     . 

Portugal .     . 

Covid,  or  Cubit 

Madras   .     . 

Bombay  .     . 

Siam  . 

Covido   .     .     . 

Arabia     .     . 

Covido  (Great) 

Cuartillo      .     . 

Spain      .     . 

Daktylon  (Royal)  Greece     .     . 

Daribah     .    . 

Egypt     .     . 

Decagramme  . 
Decalitre    . 

Decametre.      ...... 

D^iatina  .     . 

Russia     .     . 

Decigramme    . 
Dccintre     .     . 

»%'••• 

1 

Decimetre  . 

Decimetre,  cubic 

.     .     •     . 

Decimetre,  square      .     .     ^     . 

Denaro  .     .     . 

Rome      .     . 

Dcunam       .     . 

Turkey    .     . 

Diraa,  or  Drfla, 
or  Pic 

1  Egypt     -v    . 

Turkey    .     . 

Dirhem  .     ^    • 

Egypt     .     . 

Djerib    ... 

Turkey   ,    -. 

Dolia,  or  Dola  . 

Rusda     .     . 

Drachma     .     . 

Netherlands. 

Turkey    .     . 

Drachma  (Royal) 

Greece     ;     . 

(build. 


Dram.  See.  Oke, 
Ducat  .  .  . 
Duim.    4     .     . 

Eitner     •     •     • 

Erl  ■  .  ■  . 

Ett     .     .     .     . 
Ella  .... 
c.iie  ...     * 
Endaseh,  or 
HindAzi 

Faltcbe  .  .  . 
Fancga  ... 


Fass  .     . 
Feddan  . 


Fen  . 

Fjerdingfcar. 
Fod  . 

Foglietto      . 
Foot .     .     . 


— 12-4  statistics. 
— 12*6  architects. 
— 12*7  common. 

—  1 3' I  tribunal  of  mathematica. 
^  13*2  Board  of  Revenue. 

—  14*1  Customs. 

I  kilogramme. 

II  fibav.  (Treaty). 
121  sq.  feet  (Treaty). 
72,600  sq.  feet  (Treaty). 
5  tolas,  or  900  grains! 
7}  in.  (linear);  12I  in. 

ing). 
1815  sq.  feet  (Treaty). 
1  -66  tb  av.  of  water  at  62*  P.,  as  a 

measure  of  capacity. 
144  02.  av.  of  water. 
I  quart. 

1*809  gallon. 
1*136  metre. 
o*6o  metre. 
18  to  21  inches. 
18  inches. 
18  inches. 

18  inches  approximately. 
27  inches. 

1*16    litre    (dry);    0*504    litre 
liquid. 

I  centimetre. 

43-58  bushels  (Customs). 

— 10  grms.  —  5-64  drams  a  v. 

— 10  litres  -  2-2  gallons. 

— 10-936  yards. 

—2400  square  sagines— 2*7 

acres. 
-A  gnn.  - 1  ^A  grain. 

—  i^i  htre«o*i76  pint.  • 
—3-937  inches  =  o-i  metre. 
— 1000  C.C.  —61  -024  cub.  in. 

—  100  sq.  ccntm.— 15*5  sq.  in. 
18-17  grains  (old  weight). 
I  metnc  are. 

(  27  inches  usually. 
^21-^  inches  Nile  measure. 

27  inches  (old  measure  of  pike). 

I-761  dram  av.  (Customs). 

3-0884  grammes  (Cairo). 

I  hectare. 
( 0-686  grain. 
(  96  doll  - 1  zolotnick. 

3-906  grammes. 

154324  grains,        ^ 

I  gramme  (gold  weight). 
Ccmauntinople  —57-871  grains.   See  Ochi 


Vienna    .     . 
Netherlands. 

Austria    .     . 
Netherlands. 


IT^ 


Borneo 
Switacriand 
Egypt      . 


Moldavia 
Argentina 
Portugal . 
Spain 
Peru  .     . 

Germany 
Egypt     . 


China      > 
Denmark 
Denmark 
Norway  . 
Rome 
U.  States 
Canada   . 
Amsterdam 
South  Africa 
OMRheoith 


53*873  grains. 
I  centimetre. 

12-448  gallons. 

1  metre.     (Old  ell  -  27*08  inches). 

4  feet. 

I  yard. 

0-6561  yard. 

Usually  25  inches. 


'  I  hectare,  43  area»  33  centiaitft. 
3*773  bushels. 
55-364  litres. 

I  -526  bushel. 

I I  bushel. 

1*615  acre,  but  varies  locally. 

I  hectolitre. 

1*038  acre  (Masri).    Also  I<ia7 

acre  locally. 
1.266  acre  (old). 
5-83  grains  (silver  weight). 
o*95^  bushel. 
1-0297  ^oOi. 
0*3137  metre. 
0-8  pint. 
12  inches. 
French  foot -12*8  inchea. 

1 11-147  In.|^«„„^ 
12-356  in.  j 


49^ 

Fot  .     . 

Founte.  or  Funt 
•'    or  Livre 
Foute.  or  Pied  > 
Ftbsco    .     .     . 
Fuss  .... 


Galloa    .     ..    . 
Oaoung     .     . 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


Sweden   .     .    11-689111.   lofot-istAng.  t  ref 
»    •■lost&nger.   i  mil  B360  rcf . 
Russia     .    V    0-90283  tt)  av. 

Russia     .     .     I  English  foot. 
Argentina     -.     2|  litres. 
Vienna    .     »     13  mils  •1*037  foot. 
Switzerland       3i  fuss* i  metre.    ' 
See 


U.  States 
Canada 


Stab. 

8-33?9  lb  av. 
of  water  at  t.  39-8*  Fahr.    At 


.  (231  cubic  inches 
.  j     of  water  at  1. 1^ 
(     63**  Fahr.  ■sO'832$  impb  gallon. 
Straits  Settle-    32  gallons. 


•  ■ 


Gameiz 
Gin.  See  Kali. 
Gisla  .     . 

Go    .... 
Grain 
Gramme  (gr.)    . 


Gramm^  (Royal) 
Gramo    . 
Grano     . 

grao       .  . 

rein      .     .     . 
Guz,  or  Gudge  . 


ments 
N.  Borneo 

Russia     . 


Zanzibar . 
apan 
ussia     . 


Ri 


Greece     . 

Spain 

Rome 

Portugal  . 

Nctlicrlands 

India:  Bengal 
„    Bombay 
„   Madras . 

Persia      .     . 


144  oz.  av.  weight  of  water  as 

measure  of  capacity. 
0-3607  peck. 

Measure  of  360  fb  av.  of  rice. 

180-39  cubic  centimetres. 

0*960  grain  (apothecaries). 

•■  15-4323564  grains  av.  troy. 

BO-2572    drachm,  0*7716. 

f  scruple. 

-0-0WI5  oz.  troy. 

I  millimetre. 

I  gramme.    / 

0-757'  grain. 

0-768 grain;  also  measure 0*1 8 in. 

— 0-065  gramme. 

36  inches. 

27  inches. 

33  inches,  Government  Survey. 

The  guz,  gueza  or  zcr  varies  from 
24  to  4A  inches.  A  ^uz  of  40-95 
inches  (Guz,  Azerb4i)&n)ts  com- 
mon, (government  standard 
guz  a  36}  inches.  There  is  a 
^uz  for  retail  trade  of  35  inches. 
Arabia    •     .    25  inches  to  37  inches  (B«tfsorab). 

Hatli,  orMoo-    \  Bengal    .     .-  18  inches. 

K  lum,  or  Cubit  (  Bombay  .     .  18  inches,  or  cubit. 

Hectare      . «s  100  ares,  or  2-471  acres. 

Hectoeramme •  ioogrm.<-3>53  oz.  av. 

Hectolitre .  100  litres  a  2 -75  bushels. 

Hectometre b  109-36  yards. 

Hiyaka-me      .     .  Japan    .     .  5797*198  grains. 

Hiyak-kin  .     .     .  Japan    .     »  132)  Vb  av. 
Hoon.   See  TahU.                     ^  ^ 

Hu    .  .     China      .     .  I2|  gallons,  neariy. 

Immi      .     .     .    Switzerland       i*5litrelf 

Joch  .     TO*     Austria-Hun-     1*422  acfe. 

gary 

Kaima    .    r   '.    Sweden    .-    •    o*  <576  igallofw 
Kan  .     ':     Netherlands       i  litre. 

'  Hong  Kong        li  lb  av.\  

KanncorKanna    Germany      .     1  litre,  or  formerly  1*76^  pint. 
•  Sweden    .     .     0*576  pint. 

Kantar,  or  Can-     Egypt     .     ;    99*0492  lb  av.  •- 100  rotls  (Cua- 
taio  toms).     45    kilogrammes    of 

cotton.  44*5  kilogrammes  other 
produce. 
100  batman. 
3-8824  yards  (Customs). 

I  i  lb  av.  1 

Measure  of  6  lb  av.  of  rice. 

5-965  ft.,  I '81  metre. 

li  inch  measure  (old). 

3*09  grains  weight  (old) 

>  4*994  ^^'^t^  or  10-936  yards. 

40  incnes. 

I  centimetre. 

8  gallons. 

0-97  bushel. 

» 1000  grm.  *  2*2046223  lb  av. 

B  0*63 1  a  mile. 

o*6oi  kilogramme"  1*335  lb. 

«  2 '0740  yards. 

1*9685  vard. 

1*67  gallon. 

I  hectolitre.    Old  koilop->33-i6 

litra. 
.*- 30-7033  galls.  "4*9629  bushels. 
i|  Biav. 
148*97. Utsci« 


Karwar       .     , 

Kassabah     .     . 

Kati.  Catty  or 

'    Gin 

Keila,  or  Pishi 

Ken 

Ker&t     .     •     . 

Kette,  or  Chain 

Keu        .     .  1 
Khat  (New) 

Kile  .     .     .  |: 

Killow         '.  '. 

Kilogramme  ^ 

Kilometre    ;  * 

Km   .     .     .'  i 
Klafter  . 


KOddi     .     . 
Koilon  (Royal) . 

Koku  .  .  . 
Kon  '  .  .j  3 
KofB-tonde J  | 


Persia      .     ; 

Egypt  .  . 
S  China,  Straits 
\     Settlements 

Zanzibar .     . 

[apan  .  , 
lUrkey    .     . 


Ti 


Germany 
Siam  . 
Turkey    . 
Cyprus    : 
Turkey    . 


Japan.  China 
Austria    .    ' . 
Switzerland 
Arabia  . 

Greece     .     . 


Japan 
Corea 
.Norway.  >   jf. 


Kom-tondc . 
Korn-top  Maal 
Korrel 

Kotyle  (Royal) . 
Kouza  .     . 

Koyan  .  .  . 
Knna  ... 
Kung  .  .  . 
Kup  .... 
Kwan  or  Kuwan 
Kyat      .     .     . 

Lak*t      .    a    ; 

ust.  <  §  ;. 

Ukhl     ^    ^    * 

•  •  •  • 


Liang     -. 
Libbra    .     1     . 
Libra  . 

Libra  (Castilian^ 
Libra,  or  Arratei 
Line  or  Ligne  . 
Liniia 

Litra  (Royal)  . 
Litre  .  .  . 
Litre  (metric)  .• 
Litro.     .     ..    . 

Livre  (lb)    .    ,. 


Livre-poids  . 
Loth .     .     . 


Maase    .     .     . 

Maatze  .     .     . 
Mace   .... 

Mahud  . 
Maik  .     ^ 

Marc,  .or  Mark.. 


Marco    •     •     • 

( 

Mauiid_.     <   .• 


Megametre  (as* 

tronomy) 
Metre  (m.)  .     . 

Metre,  cubic 
Mette,  square  . 

Metro  . 


Metz.     . 
Micron  (jt) 
Miglio 
Miue 
Mil  or  Mill 


Mae.     .     , 

Mile  (postal) 
Milha  ,  . 
Mille 

Milligramme 
Millilitre. 
Millimetre 
Miscal  . 
Mkono  . 
Mna  .  . 
Momme. 
Morgen  . 


Sweden    .     . 
Norway  . 
Netherlands  . 
Greece     .     . 
Cyprus    . 
Straits  Setts . 
Bulgaria  . 
China      .     . 
Siam  .     •     . 
Japan      >     . 
Burma    !     . 

Bulgaria  .  . 
Netherlands . 
China  .  . 
Bulgaria  .  . 
China      .     . 


China 
Italy  .     . 
Argentina 
Spain,  Mexico 
Portugal 
Paris  . 
Russia 
Greece 
Cyprus . 

•  • 

Spain 
Italy  . 
Russia 

Belgium 
France     . 
Germany 

Switzerland 
Vienna    •     1 

Austria   .     . 
Switzerland 
Netherlands 
China      .     , 
N.  Borneo 
Arabia     .     . 
Burmah  . 
France    .     . 
Sweden    . 
Vienna    .'    . 
Portugal . 
Spain 
India      .    . 


U.  Sutes 
Great  Britain 


Spain 
lUly  .     . 
Austria   . 


Rome 

Netherlands 
Turkey    . 
Denmark 
France 
Germany 
Austria    , 
Portugal . 
France    . 


Persia 
East  Africa 
Greece 

apan 

~enmark. 
Norway  . 
Flrusiis   •. 


D 


ICOIIMERCIAL 

3*831  bushels. 
160  litres. 
1  decigramme. 
I  deciutre. 

9  quarts. 

5333*  tt>  *v. 

12-8  litres. 

78-96  inches  (Treaty), 

10  inches. 

8*38i  lb -3-75652  kilogrammes. 
100  kyats"  3-653  Ibav. 

.0*650  metre. 
30  hectolitres. 
5^3*  grains  (silver  weight). 
229-83  sq.  metres, 
about  I  mile*" 360  pu.    Varies 

with  len^;th  of  ch'ih. 
A  small  weight  0*583  grain, 
lioz.  i6Uang->i  chin  =  ii  Ibav. 
0-7477  tt>  av. 
I -0127  Ibav. 
1*014  Ih. 
I -012  Ibav. 
1^  point,  or  0*089  ii^^^- 
o-i  inch^    X  archine"28olisiias. 
I  litre  ">  too  roystra. 
2|  quarts. 
-1*7598  pint 

1 1  litre, 

0*90282  lb  av.^   Apoth.  livre* 

11-5204  oz.  troy. 
Kilogramme.       « 
0-489^  kilogramme.'^ 
New  loth  «>  I  decagramme.    Old 
»    loth,  nearly  )  oz.  av. 
15*625  grammes.   ' 
270*1  grains.    Posul  loth,  257 -3 
■    grains.       j^' 
1^245  quart.  ' 
3-64  ^llons. 
I  dealitre.  j 
58iffraina.  f 
931  lb  av.  ;\ 
2*04  tt)  av. 

3  maik  «  cubit » 19I  inches. 
0-3^48  kilogramme  (old  weight). 
0-4645  lb  av. 
433>*37  grains- 24  karato. 

—8  oncasB  239.5  grammes. 
3550;S4Krains. 
82-386  lb  av.,  Government. 
73}  lb  (old  bazaar). 
74*67  lb  av.,  factory. 
28  lb  nearly,  Bombay. 
25  lb  nearly,  Madras. 
37t0  44lb,  luggcrat. 
Local  maunds  vary  on  either  suw 

.  of  80  lb. 
1,000,000  metres. 

39*37  inches. 

39*3701 13  inches- 1  «>• ,   ^_. 
- 1000  c.d.  -35-315  cubk:  reel. 
— 100  square  decimetres*  10-704 
•   square  feet. 

[i  metre. 

I -691  bushel. 

^r^«  millimetre. 

0-025  niile. 

I  Kilometre. 

1000  archins  (new  mil)- 

4*68o  miles. 

I  Nautical  mile  « 1852  metrci. 

4*  7  Id  miles. , 

1*396  mile. 

1-949  Idlometre. 

■tA^  gramme -o-oi 5  gJ*"? 

"■tA»  "ire-  . 

-0-03^37  inch -1  As  *"• 

71  grams. 

45*72  centimetres. 

1 J  kilogramme- 1-17'  **•• 

tAs  J«wan. 


1 


0*631  Acre.- 


COMMERCIAL] 

Moo  . 


WfilGHtS  AND  MEASUkES 


493 


.     .     .    China      .     .    CMninoaly  8o6>69  «q.  yds.  Variea 

locally.  Shantnai>66ooag.ft. 
(Municipal  Council).  By  Cu»> 
toms  Treaty  —930-417  sq.  yds., 
baaed  on  ch'ih  of  14*1  inches. 

Mud  .     .     .     .     Netherlands   .  i  hectolitre. 

Mynagramnie «*io  kilogiaauoe8*"33'a46  Ibav. 


Ngoma 
Nm  . 

Obolos 
Ock  . 


Octavillo 
Oitavo  . 
Oke  .     . 


East  Africa 
Siam  . 

Oreect 
Turkey    . 


«    Spain 

.     .     Portugal  .  . 

.     .     Bulgaria  .  . 

Cyprus    .  . 

Egypt     .  . 


Once 

Oncia 

Onse 

Ounce 


Greece     .     . 
Turkey    .     . 

.     Portugal  .     . 

France 
,     Rome 
.     Netherlands  . 

U.  States 


Packen    .  Russia 

Pdlam6  (Royal)     Greece 
Palm  .     Holland  . 

Ptalroo    .     .     .     Portugal  . 

Spain 
Para  .     .     .     »     N.  Borneo 
Pa  rah  Ceylon 

Parasang.  Sec  /VsoAa. 
Parmak.  Sec  Archin. 
Paaeerea       .  Bengal 

P6  .  .  .  .  Portugal  . 
Pecheus  (Royal)  Greece  . 
Pecul  .     .     China 

Pcrche    .     .     .     France 

Canada    . 
Persakh.  or  Para*  Persia 


sang 
Pfuad    .     ,     . 


Germany 


Pnissia 
SwitAsrlaod  . 

Vienna    .     . 


Pharoagh.    See  Archin. 
Pic    .     ...     Cyprus    .     . 
Picul       .     .     .    Japan      .     . 
Straits    Settle 
ments.  Hong 
Kons  . 
North  Bomc9 


7 1  keilas. 
\l  inch. 

I  decigramme. 

Legal  ock  (1881) » too  drachntaa. 

New   batman  a  10  ocks,   and 

kantaraio    batmans    ock»i 

kilogramme. 
0*39  litre. 
1-7JO  litre. 

1*28  litre  ((or  liquids). 
.  1*383  kilogramme  (old). 
2|  n>.  av<.<-400  drams  (Cyprus). 
a'7Si    lb  av.   (Customs),  2-8os 

lb  (Alexandria). 
2 '80  lb*  1*383  kjlogranmie. 
1-33  litre. 
t'i5i8  pint.    3>834  lb  av.  (old 

weight). 
38-688  grammes. 
30-59  grammes  (old). ' 
436-165  grams. 

I  hectogramme.  loonaeawpood. 
Av.  ooncti*  437*5  grains. 

1083-382  Ibav. 
1  decimetre. 
I  decimetre. 
0'33  metre. 
8-346  inches. 
90  R»  av.     . 
5-59  pints. 


5  seers. 

S  metre  (old). 

I  metrewi-S43  oid  peeheuse 

I33i  W)  av. 

22  square  pieds  de  roi.   In  Quebec 

18  French  feet. 
Probably  3-88  miles* 6000  gus. 

-  16 unzen -33 loth?  ..j  _-^vfc* 
foitoi-«lbav.r«'*««'»^ 
Zoll.  pfund  (1872)  ••  500 grammes. 
Old  zoll.  lb  «•  i'ioa3  lb  av. 
500  grammes  pi  16  unzc. 
Apotn.  pf.  "375  grammes. 
Pfund  =»  560-06  grammes. 
Zoll.  pfund  (1871)  ••5oogrammes. 


2  feet. 


I 


133)  lb  av 


Pick!       .     .     . 

Greece     . 

China 

Pfa    .      .     .     . 

Rome      • 

Fic  de  BuiKos   . 

Spain 

Pied        ... 

Belgium  . 

Canada   . 

Pied  de  Roi.      . 

Paris  .     . 

Pike  .... 

Turkey    . 

Pint        .     4     . 

U.  States 

Pinte            «     . 

France     . 

Pipa        .     .     . 

Portugal  . 

Pipe  ....    Gibraltar.    « 
Pishi.     See  Keiia. 
Poidc  dc  Marc  .     France     .     • 
Poh^gada      .     .     Portugal  .     . 
Pond       .     .     .     Netherlands . 


Pot 


Denmark      , 
Switzerland  . 
Belgium  . 
Norway  •     . 


A  measure  of  180  lb  weighs  of 

water. 

0-648  metre. 

35  gallons  (dry  measure). 

1 1  •73  Inches. 

11*13  inches. 

1 1  -81  inches  •  10  pounces. 

12-79  Inches. 

0-3248  metre. 

See  Ifir'ca. 

0-8325  imperial  pint, 

0-931  litre. 

534  litrts  fOjwrto)^ 

430  litres  (Lisbon). 

500  litres  (ofliciaUy). 

105  to  136  galk>na. 

0-2448  idioms  onces. 

>7-'?^  millimetres. 

I    ialoframme.       Apodiecarics 

pond  s  375  grammes. 
1-7  pint -4  paegle. 
2-64  pints  or  1-5  Iftre. 
1)  litre  (dry),    i  litre  (Uqufcl) 
0-965  litv. 


^Vni  9 


Pouoe     .     .     .     France 
Russia 
Poud,  or  Pood  .     Russia     i 
Pound    .     .     .    U.  States 


Pu     .     . 
Puddee  . 


Russia 
Jersev 

China 
Madras 


Pulgada .     .     .    Spain 
Pund.     .     •     .     iJenmark 
Norway 
Sweden 


Suart 
uarto 

Quinul 


Qu 
Qu 


uintal  (metric) 
intaie      ;    . 


Ratd      .     .     . 
Rattel.  or  Rottle 

Kl      •      •      .      • 

Rode      .     .     . 

Roede 

Rotl.  or  Rottolo 


Rottol    . 
Rubbio  . 

Sag^ne    . 
Schcffel  . 

Schepel  . 
Schoppen 

Seer.  .     . 


Ceylon    .     . 
Persia     .     . 

Note.—}n  Ind 

Seidel     .     . 
Sen    -     .     . 
ocr    •     •     • 
Shaku     .     . 

f 

• 
• 
m 

considcrabl' 
Austria    .     . 
Siam  .     .     . 
India       .     . 
Japan      .     * 

Shcng     .     . 
Shih  .     .     . 
Sh6d       .     . 
Skaal-pund  . 

m 
■ 
• 
• 

China      .     . 
<  rfatna      .     . 
. apan      .     . 
Swedeif    .     . 
Norway  .     . 

Skeppe  . 
Skjcppe  .     .     . 
Stab  .... 
Sudron  (Royal) 
Stere  (metric)    . 
Stcro      .     .     . 
Streepe  .     .     . 
Stremroa     •     . 

Denmark 
Norway  .     . 
Germany 
Greece          • 
.... 
Itely  .     .     . 
Hottend  .    . 
Greece    •     « 

Strich     ,     . 
Striche    .     4 
Stunda   .    . 

• 
• 
■ 

Germany 
Switzerland  . 
Germany      . 

1*066  Inch  (old  measure). 

I  inch. 

o*oi6i33  ton  •-36  lb. 

Standard  troy  lb  >  5760  grains. 

Avoir,  lb  >7<>oo  grains. 
0*90282  tbav.(o-4095  kilogramme). 
7561    grains*"  16   oz.   Jersey— -f 

livre. 
70-5  inches— 5  chMh. 
2*8^  pints.     100  cubic  inches* 

C^yemment  puddee. 
0-927  inch. 

1-1023  lb  av.,  or  500  grammes 
0-4981  kilogramme. 
6560  grains.    Varies  locally. 
5500-5  grains  (apoth.). 

.See  Bushd. 

3*024  bushels. 

3*46  litres. 

100  libras  (Castilian)«ioi-4  lb. 

58*753  kilogrammes,  or  139)  feav. 

100  fibras.  or  101  -27  lb  av. 

—  100  kilogrammes  —  1 -968  cwt. 

I  metric  quintal. 

1*014  lb  av. 

I '02  lb  av..  nearly  (dry  measure). 

17-219  R)  av.  weight. 

2-440    miles    (itinerary;.    2-118 

miles  (natural). 
3-762  metres. 
I  dekametre. 
o-mo5  lb  av.  (Customs).  0-9805 

lb  av.  (Govt.). 
2*2o6  lb  great  rottolo. 
0-715  R)  Kss  rottolo. 
3-124  lb  great  rottolo;    Rottolo 

mina  — I  oka. 
3*513  pints  (old  measure). 
l*oi3  quarter  (dry  measure). 

7  feet. 

50  litres,  formeriy  14*56  metzen 

(Prussia). 
I  decalitre. 

I  litre,  formerly  O-ii  gallon. 
0-375  litre. 

118*615  square  yards  (*99i8  are). 
Government  seer— 3^  lb  av. 
Bengal,  80  tolas  weight  of  rice 

(heaped   measure),   about   60 

cubic  inches  (struck  measure). 
Southern    India— weight   of   24 

current  ruoees. 
Madras,  25  lb  neariy. 
Juggerat,    weight    of  -40   local 

rupees. 
BomtMy,  ol().8eer,  about  38  !b. 
Measure  of  1*86  pint. 
16  miscals,  or  1136  grains  weight 

(Sihr). 
a  the  seer,  like  the  maund,  varies 
considerably;  usually  40  seers  go  to  a  maund. 
0-6224  JP^"'- 
44-4  miles,  nearly. 
I  litre  (Indian  Law.  1871). 
0-30  metre,  also  9-18273  square 

decimetres;  also  18-039  cubic 

centimetres. 
l-8Mpint.  .     . 

160  Id. 
1-804  litre. 

435*076  grammes,  or  0-959  lb  av. 
0-4981   kilogramme,  or  officially 

t  kilogramme. 
17-39  litres. 
17*37  litres. 

I  metre,  or  3*1  old  fuss,  but  varied- 
I  kilometre. 
f  cubic  metre. 
I  metric  stere. 
I  miUiaietre. 
I    metric  are.  838*1  sou  axe 

peqheus  (Constantinople). 
I  millimetre. 
3i  strich  —  I  rtiillimetre. 
Old  itinerary  measure,  2*3  to  3*4 

2«. 


U.  States 

Rome 

Portugal 

Spain 

Portugal 

Argentina 

France 

Italy  . 

Persia 
Arabia 

Japan 


Denmark  .  . 
Netherlands  . 
Egypt      .     . 

Cairo.     .     . 

Alexandria 

Turkey  .  . 
Spain      .     . 

Russia  .  . 
Germany      . 

Netherlands . 
Germany 
Switzerland  . 


Japan 
India 


494 


WEIGHT-THROWING— WEI-HAJ-WEI 


Stunde 

Sviueilaad  . 

Sultchek 

.    Turkey    .     . 

Sang      .     . 

.    Corea      „     . 

•Tad 


9  ■ 


Taha 


ments 

Tam .     . 

Hong  Kong 

Tan  .     .     . 

.    China      . 

Tang 

.     .     Burma    . 

Tang-aun 
Tank      .     . 

.     .     China 

Bonbay  . 

Tcharka 

Russia 

Tchetverte  . 

Russia 

Teng 


Thanan 

Tobe 
Tola. 

Tomaad 
Ton  . 
Tfinde 


Tonne,  or  Millier 

Tonne  (metric) . 

Tonnelada  .     . 

Tonoa 

Tou  . 

Tovar 

T'sun 

Tu    . 


Vara 


4'Skik>metres.  Stunder-sstua- 
den.  or  24  kilometres. 

Cubic  measure  (1881)  whose  sides 
equal  a  parmak  (oedmetre). 

4  lb  a  v.,  neariy. 

Siam  .     .     .    9^6}  grains. 

Hong  Kong  .     1 1  oz.  av. 

China      .     .    Silver  weight,  1 1  os.  av. 

Japan      .     .     10  momme. 

(No  current  coin  of  the  tad.) 
Straits  Settle-     1 1  oz.  av.  - 10  chee  ->  100  hooa. 

I33ilb«v. 

"■  2^  gallons.  Also  133)  lb  weight. 

a  miles,  nearly. 

About  ih  miles  ■>  10  li. 

1 7 1\  grains,  or  72  tanks  "^q  pice. 

0-866  gin  •  0*2 1 8  pint. 

5'773  DU8heIs*8  tchetveriks,  or 
2-099  hectolitres. 

Burmese  measures  of  capacity  de- 
pend on  the  teng  or  basket. 
Officially  a  basket  is  22j8*2 
cubic  inches,  but  the  teng  varies 
locally: — 
Ak>'abM23  lb  of  rice. 
Bassein  *  51  lb  of  rice. 
Moulmein  '■48  lb  of  rice. 
Rangoon  "48  to  50  lb  of  rice^ 

1*5  pint. 

4-688  gallons, 

18-0301  litres -'3*9703  galls.  •• 
1-98  pecks. 

2-1315  yards. 

180  grains.  L^al  weight  of 
rupee. 

187-17  Ibav.  of  rice. 

2240  lb  av.,  also  a  net  tonof  2O00lb. 

131-392  litres  (liquid  measure). 

139-121  litres  (dry  measure). 


Burma 


Siam  . 
Siam  . 
Japan 

France 
India 

Arabia 
U.  States 
Denmark 


Vat  . 
Vedfo 


Verchok.  .  . 
Versta.orVerst. 
Vierkaoteroede . 
Viertd    .     •     . 

Vias  .     .     .     « 

vVa  .... 
Wigtj?  .  .  . 
Wiase     .     .     . 

Yard      .     .     . 


Zac   .... 
Zer(Persa).    See 
ZoU  .     .     .     . 


France 
Germany 

•        ■         « 

Portugal 

Greece 

China 

Bulgaria 

China 

China 


Peru  . 

Spain 

Argentina 

Portugal 

Holland 

Russia 

Bulgaria 

Russia 

RusMa 

Holland 

Denmark 

Switzerland  . 

Rangoon 

Slam  .  .  , 
Netherlands'. 
Netherlands . 

U.  States      • 
'  Mexico    .     . 

Netherlands . 
Girs. 
Switzerland  . 


'  1 1000  Idlogrammes. 


Zolotnik      .     .    Ruana  , 


1000  kilogrammes  "0^842  ton. 
793' 15  kilogrammca. 
20*526  cwt. 

18  pints  approximatdy. 
120-2  kiloflrammes. 
1-41  inch  ^reaty  measure). 
100-142  miles— 25  li,  based  on  the 
ch'ihof  14-1  inchd. 

33  inches. 

2-782  feet. 

2-841  feet. 

i-ii  metre. 

I  hectolitre. 

2-7056  jpdlona*lo  achtoffs,  or 

12-3  litres. 
12-8  htres. 
1*75  inch. 
p-66288  mile. 
I  metric  are. 
1*7  gallon. 
15  litres. 
3^  Ibav. 

80  inches. 
I  gramme. 
I  metric  steie 

36!nchea^ 

838  oentunetKa. 

I  hectdttre. 

3)  zoU-i  dedmetre.  Old  aoll 
nearly  one  inch.  (Sea  alao 
Pfimd.) 

65-8306  graina,  or  96  doli. 

(H.J.C) 


WBIOHT-THROWniO,  the  athletic  sport  of  hurling  heavy 
wdgbta  either  for  disunce  or  hdght.  Lifting  and  throwing 
wdghts  of  different  kinds  have  always  been  popular  in  Great 
Britain,  cqwdally  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  particuJariy  in  CSennany,  Switzerland  and  Austria- 
Hungaiy.    No  form  of  throwing  wdghu  it  Induded  in  the 


British  athletic  championship  programmt,  although  "putting 
the  ahot "  (f.».)  and  "  hammer-throwing  "  iq.v.)  are  recognize<l 
championahip  events.  In  America  throwing  the  56-Ib  weight 
for  dktanoe  bdongs  to  the  championship  programme.  It  was 
once  a  common  event  in  Great  Britain  at  ail  important  athletic 
meetinga,  the  ocdinaiy  slightly  com'cal  half-hundfedwdght 
hdng  used  and  thrown  by  the  ring  attached  to  the  top;  the 
ring,  however,  was  awkward  to  grip,  and  a  triangular  hancfle  was 
afterwarda  substituted.  In  America  the  56-lb  wdght  ta  a  ball 
of  iron  or  lead  with  a  triangular  or  pear-<Bh8ped  handle.  The 
weight  used  to  be  thrown  standing,  but  tanct  1888  it  has  been 
thrown  from  a  7-ft.  drcle  with  a  raised  edge,  like  that  used  for 
the  hammer  and  shot  in  America. 

In  throwing  the  athlete  stands  slightly  stooping,  with  Ms  feet 
about  18  in.  apart  and  grasping  the  handle  with  ooto  hands  opposite 
his  thighs.  Tne  weight  is  swung  round  and  back  past  the  ngnt  kg 
as  far  as  possible,  tata  up,  over  and  round  the  head,  as  In  the 
hammer-thRrw.  One  complete  swing  round  the  head  b  usadty 
enough,  as  too  much  momentum  is  apt  to  throw  the  athlete  off  his 
balance.  ■  The  wdg^t  b  then  swung  round  together  with  the  whole 
body  as  rapidly  as  possible,  as  in  nammer-throwing.  The  athlete 
works  himsdf  to  the  front  of  the  drcle  just  bdore  the  moment  of 
ddivery  and  begins  the  &nal  heave  with  bis  back  towards  the  direction 
in  which  he  wishes  to  throw  the  wdght.  This  heave  is  accomplished 
by  completing  the  final  spin  of  the  oody,  giving  the  legs,  back  and 
arms  a  vigorous  upward  movement  at  the  same  time,  and  /olioving 
the  wdght  through  with  the  uplifted  arms  as  it  Ittvts  the  hands, 
but  takm^  care  not  to  overstw  tne  dcde.  With  one  hand  a  smoother 
swing  can  be  made  but  nucn  less  power  ^plied.  In  thrpwiag  for 
hdght  the  athlete  stands  beside  the  nigh-jump  uprights  and  casts  the 
weight  over  the  cross-piece,  making  the  swing  and  spin  in  a  more 
vertical  direction  with  a  heave  up^rard  at  the  moment  of  ddivery. 
Throwing  for  hd^ht  and  with  one  hand  wcie  formerly  events  ia  the 
American  championship  programme,  but  have  been  discontinued. 
The  record  for  throwti^  the  s6-lb  we^ht  for  height  is  15  ft.  61  in., 
made  by  the  American- Irishman  J.  S.  Mitchdl.  The  record  for 
distance,  38  ft.  8  in.,  waa  made  in  J907  by  the  American-Irishman 
John  Flanagan.  In  throwing  weights  large  and  heavy  men  haw^an 
advantage  over  small,  brute  strength  odng  the  chid  requisite^ 
while  a  heavy  body  makes  a  better  fulcrum  while  revplving  than  a 
light  one. 

WD-HAI-mn,  a  British  naval  and  coaling  station,  on  the 
K.E.  coast  of  the  Shan-tung  peninsula,  China,  About  40  m.  E» 
of  the  treaty  port  of  Chirfu  and  115  m.  from  Port  Arthur.  It 
was  formerly  a  Chinese  naval  station  stnnigly  fortified,  but  was 
captured  by  the  Japanese  in  February  1895,  and  occupied  by  their 
troops  until  May  1898,  pending  the  payment  of  the  indemnity. 
Port  Arthur  having  in  the  spring  of  that  year  been  acquired  by 
the  Russian  government  under  a  lease  from  China,  a  Sfmilar 
lease  was  granted  of  Wel-hai-wd  to  the  British  government, 
and  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  Japanese  troops  the  British  fleet 
took  possession,  the  flag  being  hoisted  on  the  24th  oi  May  1898. 
No  period  was  fixed  for  the  termination  of  the  lease,  but  it  was 
stipulated  that  it  should  continue  so  long  as  Russia  continued 
to  hold  Port  Arthur.  The  lease  of  Port  Arthur  having  been 
ceded  to  Japan  in  September  1905,  the  British  lease  of  Wd-hai- 
wei  was  made  to  run  for  as  long  as  Japan  hdd  Bort  Arthur. 

The  harbour,  is  formed  by  an  iabtid  named  Lju-kung-tao 
running  east  and  west  across  the-  mouth  of  ,a  small  bay,  leaving 
an  entrance  at  each  end.  Towiarcb  the  mainland  the  water 
shoals,  and  the  best  anchorage  ia  under  the  lee  of  the  island 
The  native  dty  is  walled,  and  has  a  population  of  about  sooo. 
The  chief  port  is  named  Port  Edward;  it  has  good  anchorage 
with  a  depth  of  45  ft.  of  water.  The  leased  area  comprise% 
besides  thie  harbour  and  isbnd,  a  bdt  of  the  mainland,  10 
English  miles  wide,  skirting  the  whole  length  of'  the  bay.  The 
coast  line  of  the  bay  is  some  xo  m.,  and  the  area  thus  leased 
extends  to  285  sq.  m-  Witlua^lhis  area  Great  Britain  has  ezdu- 
sive  jurisdiction,  and  is  represented  by  a  commissioner  under 
the  colonial  office;  and  has,  besides,  the  right  to  erect  fortifica> 
tions,  station  troops  and  take  any  other  measures  necessary 
for  defensive  purposes  at  any  points  on  or  near  the  coast  in 
^lat  part  of  the  peninsula  east'of  x  si®  40'  E.  Within  that  toa^ 
which  covers  1505  sq.  m.,  Oilnese  admim'stration  is  not  interfered 
with,  but  no  troops  other  than  Chinese  and  British  are  allowed 
there.  The  territory  consists  of  rugged  hills  rising  to  1600  ft. 
and  well-cultivated  valkyi.    The  hills  also,  as  far  at  possibla, 


WEILBURG— WEIMAR 


495 


tte  UameeA  for  cuhiinttwn  and  in  tome  iiiitMicw  are  {dinted 
with  dwarf  pine  and  send)  oak.  It  contains  tone  510  Tilla^ee 
tad  a  population  of  alftont  150,000.  CKineee  war-vtsede  are 
at  liberty  to  use  the  anchonfe«  notwithstanding  the  lease; 
and  Chinese  jurisdiction  may  continue  to  be  exercised  within  the 
walled  dty  of  Wd-hai-wci;  so  far  as  not  inconsbtetit  with  military 
requirements.  Wei-hai'wei  was  made  the  headquarten  of  a 
native  Chinese  regiment  in  the  pay  of  Great  Britain,  and  organizeci 
and  led  by  British  officen;  but  this  regiment  was  disbanded  in 
Tgo2.  Wei-hai-wei  is  used  by  the  China  squadron  as  a  sanar 
torium  and  eicerdsmg  ground.  Its  excellent  diniate  attracts 
nikny  visitors.  Wei'hai-wei  being  a  fMe  port  no  duties  .of  any 
kind  are  collected  there.  The  import  trade  consists  of  timber, 
maize,  paper,  crockery,  sugar,  tobacco,  kerosene  oU,  &c.  Gold 
has  been  found  in  the  territory,  and  silver,  tin,  lead  and  iron 
are  said  to  exist.  In  each  of  the  years  igoj-igoQtheezpenditure 
exceeded  the  revenue  (about  $70,000  in  190^1910),  deficits 
being  made  good  by  grants  from  tte  fiiitish  pailiainent* 

WBIIAURO,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Hesse-Nassau,  pictuzcaquely  situated  on  the  Lahn,  Just  above 
the  confluence  of  the  Weil,  50  m.  N.£.  from  Coblenx  l^  the  rail- 
way to  Giessen.  Pop.  (1905)  3828.  The  old  town,  built  on  and 
around  a  rocky  hill  almost  encircled  by  the  river,  contains  a 
castle  of  the  16th  century,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  dukes 
of  Nassau- Weilburg,  and  later  of  the  grand-dukes  of  Luxemburg. 
It  has  an  Evangelical' and  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  the  forma, 
the  Stadtkiiche,  containing  the  burial  vaults  of  the  princes 
of  Nassau,  a  gymnasium  and  an  agricultural  college.  Its 
industries  inckide  wool-epinning,  mining,  tanrang  and  dyeing. 
In  the  neighbourhood  are  the  ruins  of  the  castles  of  Merenbcrg 
and  Freienfels.  Weilburg  was  in  the  iithcentiury  the  property 
of  the  bishops  of  Worms,  fnmi  whom  it  passed  to  the  houseof 
Nassau.  From  1355  to  1816  it  was  the  residence  of  the  princes 
of  Nassau- Weilbuig,  a  branch  of  this  house. 

See  C  C.  Spielmann,  FOhftr  &urek  Weitburr  und  Uwigdnmi 
(Weilburg.  1894) ;  and  (ks<kithU  der  Stadt  nn4  HtrrstMafi  Wmlburg 
(Weilburg*  1896). 

^WBIKAS,  a  dty  of  Germany,  the  capiUi  of  the  grand-duchy 
of  Saxe-Wcimar-Eisenach.  It  is  aitoatcd  in  a  fertile  valley  6n 
the  Ilni,  a  small  tributary  of  the  Saale,  50  m.  S.W.  of  Leipeig 
and  141  m.  S.W.  of  Berlm,  oh  the  main  line  of  tailway  to  Bebra 
and  Frankfort-on-Main,  and  at  the  junction  of  three  lines  to 
Jena,  Gera  and  Berka  and  Rastenbeig.  Pop.  (1885)  21,565, 
('905)  3ifi>i'  Wrimar  owes  its  importanoenot  to  any  industrial 
development,  which  the  grand<Klukes  discourage  within  the 
limits  of  thdr  R$udenz,  but  to  its  intimate  association,  with  the 
classical  period  of  German  lltcratme,  which  earned  for  it  the 
Utle  of  the  "  poets'  dty  "  and  **  the  German  Athens."  The 
golden  age  of  Weimar,  covered  by  the  reign  of  Charles  Augustus 
iq.v.)  from  1775  ^o  i&^S,  has  lot  a^  indelible  impress  on  the 
character  of  the  town. 

In  spfte  of  its  classical  associations  and  of  modem  improve 
ments,  Weimar  still  letains  much  of  its  medieval  chaiactcr. 
The  walls  survive,  indeed,  only  in  isolated  fiagments,  but  the 
aarrow  winding  streets  of  the  oMer  part  of  the  lo^m,  and  the 
market-place  sonoonded  by  houses  with  higii^pitched  gables 
Md  roofs  are  very  picturesque.  Of  the  churches  the  StodMrcfu 
(parish  church),  of  which  Herder  became  pastor  in  1776,  is  « 
(iothic  building  dating  from  about  1400,  but  much  altered  in 
detail  under  *'  classical  "  influences.  It  contains  the  tombs  of 
the  princes  of  the  house  Of  Sare- Weimar,  Including  those  of  the 
elector  John  Frederick  the  Magnanimous  and  his  wife,  and  of 
Duke  Bcmhard  of  Weimar,  a  hero  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 
The  altar-piece  is  a  triptych,  the  centre-piece  representing  the 
Crucifixion;  beside  the  cross  Luther  Is  represented,  with  the  open 
Bible  in  his  hand,  while  the  blood  from  the  pierced  side  of  the 
Saviour  pours  on  to  his  head.  The  picture  is  regarded  as  the 
masterpiece  of  Luca|  Cranach  iq.v.),  who  lived  for  a  time  at 
Weimar,  in  the  BrUck'sches  Haus on  the  market-place.  In  front 
oi  the  chnvch  is  a  statue  of  Herder,  whose  house  still  serves  as 
the  parsonage.  The  other  church,  the  Jckobs-  or  Hvfkircke 
(court  church)  is  also  andent;  its  disused  eho^hyard  contains 


the  graves  of  Lucas  Orinadi  and  Mtisaeus.  The  most  important 
building  in  Weimar,  is  the  palace,  a  huge  structure  forming  three 
sides  of  a  quadrangle,  erected  (i  789-1803)  under  the  super- 
intendencft  ol  Goethe,  on  the  ute  of  one  bwned  down  in  i774< 
A  remnant  of  the  old  palace,  with  a  tower,  survives.  The  interior 
is  very  fine,  and  in  one  of  the  wings  is  a  series  of  rooms  dedicated 
to  the  poets  (joethe,  Schiller,  Herder  and  Wieland,  with  appro- 
priate mural  paintings.  Of  more  interest,  however,  is  the  house 
in  which  Goethe  himself  lived  from  1782  to  183s.  It  was  built 
by  the  duke  as  a  surprise  present  for  the  poet  on  his  return  from 
his  Italian  tour,  and  was  regatded  at  the  time  as  a  palace  of  art 
and  luxury.  It  has  therefore  a  douMe  Interest,  as  the  home  of 
the  poet,  and  as  a  complete  example  of  a  (jerman  noUeman's 
house  at  the  harming  of  the  19th  century,  the  furniture  aiui 
fittings  (in  (k>ethe's  study  and  bedroom  down  to  the  smallest 
details)  remaining  as  they  were  when  the  poet  diedi  Thehousa 
n  built  round  a  quadraii£^e,  in  which  is  the  coach-house  with 
(joethe's  coach,  and  has  a  -beautiful,  old-fa^oned  garden. 
The  interior,  apart  from  the  sdentific  and  ait  coUeetions  noode  by 
Goethe,  b  mainly  remarkable  for  the  extreme  simplidty  of  its 
furnishing.  The  Goethe-SchUier  Museum,  as  it  is  now  calledi 
stands  isolated,  the  adjoining  houses  having  been  pulled  down 
to  avoid  risk  of  ^. 

Of  more  pathetic  interest  is  the  SchUkrhams^  in  the  Schiller- 
skasse^  containing  the  humble  rooms  in  which  Schiller  lived  and 
died.  The  atmosphere  of  the  whole  town  u,  indeed,  dominated 
by  the  memory  of  Goethe  and  Schiller',  whose  bronze  statues,  by 
RJetschel,  grouped  on  one  pedestal  (unveOed  in  1857)  stand  in- 
front  of  t^  theatre.  The  theatre,  built  under  (Soethe's  super- 
tntendence  hi  2825,  ntemorable  hi  the  history  of  aH  not  only  for 
its  associations  with  the  golden  age  of  German  drama,  but  as 
having  witnessed  the  first  performances  of  many  of  Wagner's 
operas  and  other  notable  stage  pieces,  was  pulled  down  and 
replaced  by  a  new  building  in  1907.  The  most  beautiful  monu- 
ment of  Goethe's  genitis  in  the  town  is,  however,  the  park,  laid 
out  in  the  informal  "  English  **  style,  without  enclosure  of  any 
kind.  Of  Goethe's  dasric  "  conceits  "  which  it  contains,  the  stone 
altar  round  which  a  serpent  climbs  to  eat  the  votive  bread  upon 
it,  inscribed  to  the  "  genius  hujus  lod,"  is  the  most  famous. 
Just  outside  the  borders  of  the  park,  beyond  the  Ilm,  is  the 
"  garden  house,"  a  simple  wooden  cottage  with  a'  high-pitched 
roof,  hi  which  Goethe  used  to  pass  the  greater  ftart  of  the  summer. 
Finally,  hi  the  Cemetery  is  the  grand  ducal  family  vault,  in  which 
Goethe  and  Schiller  also  He,  side  by  side. 

<  Wieland,  who  came  to  Wrimar  la  1772  as  the  duke's  tutor,  is  also 
commemorated  by  a  statue  (1857),  and  his  house  is  indicated  by  a 
tablet.  The  town  has  be^  embellished  by  several  other  statues, 
IncIudiiH^  those  of  Charies  Augustus  (1875);  Lucas  Cranach  (t886;; 
Marie  Setbach  (i8d^);  the  composer  Hummel  (18^5)' and  Franf 
Lisxt  (1904)'  •  Amortg  the  other  prominent  buildings  in  Weimar  are 
the  Cr&nei  ScUou  (i8tb  century),  containing  a  library  of  200,000 
volumes  and  a  valuable  collection  of  portraits,  busts  and  litemry 
and  other  curiosities;  the  old  ducal  dower-house.  {Withtmspataif)\ 
the  museum,  built  in  i863ri868  in  .the  Eenaissance  style  with  some 
old  roasters  and  i^rellcr's  famous  mural  painting  illustrating  the 
Odysuy.  In  1806  the  Goethe-Schiller  Arcniv,  an  imposing  buuding 
on  the  wooded  height  above  the  Ilm,  containing  MbS.  by  Goethe, 
Schiller.  Herder,  Wteland,  Immermann,  Frita  Reuter,  MOrike.'Otto 
Ludwig  and  others,  was  opened.  Weimar  potseises  also  archaeo 
logical,  ethnographical  and  natural  science  odlectiens  and  the 
Liact  Museum  (in  the  gaixiener's  house  in  the  park,  for  many  years 
the  musician's  heme).  Among  the  educational  establishments  are 
a  gymnasium,  and  Reatsehule,  the  Sopkienstifl  (a  taree  school  for 
girts  of  the  better  class,  founded  by  the  arand-ducMss  Scehta), 
the  grand-ducal  school  of  art,  geoemphical  institutes,  a  technical 
school,  commercial  school,  music  school,  teachers'  seminaries,  and 
deaf  and-dnmb  and  blind  asylums.  An  English  church  was  opened 
in  ift^.  There  are  a  few  industries,  printing,  tanning  and  doih- 
weaving. 

Various  points  in  the  environs  of  Weimar  arcalso  interesting  from 
their  associations.    A  brood  a^wnue  of  chestnuts,  about  2  m.  in 

length,  leads  southwards  from  the  town  to  the  grand-ducal  chAteau 

-      ^^^■^^____^^_-^..^.^_^^ 

*  To  be  strictly  accurate,  they  thus  remained  until  the  death  of 
Goethe's  last  descendant  in  1884.  The  house,  which  had  been  left 
to  the  grand-duke  for  the  nation,  was  then  found  to  be  so  stniauraUy 
rotten  that  the  interior  had  to  be  largely  reconstructed.  Everything 
was.  however,  replaced  in  the  exaa  position  it  had  pcevioaaly 
occupied. 


49^ 


WEINHEIM— WEIR 


of  Belvedere,  ia  tli6  gtrdem  of  wUch  the  ope^-air  theatre,  used  in 
Goethe's  day,  still  exists.  To  the  north-east,  at  about  the  same 
distance  from  the  town,  are  the  tiny  chlteau  and  park  of  Tiefurt, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Ilm,  the  scene  m  many  pastoral  court  revels  in 
the  past.  To  the  aoftb-west  is  the  Ettersbcrg,  with  the  Etteraburg, 
a  chfttesu  which  was  another  favourite  resort  of  Charles  Augustus 
and  his  friends.. .. 

The  history  of  Weimar,  apart  from  its  aasodation  with  Charles 
Augustus  and  his  court,  is  of  little  general  interest.  The  town 
is  said  to  have  existed  so  early  as  the  9th  century.  Till  1x40  it 
belonged  to  the  counts  of  Orlamttnde;  it  then  fell  to  Albert  the 
Bear  and  the  descendants  of  his  second  son.  In  1247  Otto  III. 
founded  a  separate  Weimar  line  of  counts.  In  1345  it  became 
a  fief  of  the  landgraves  of  Thuiingia,  to  whom  it  escheated  in 
1385  with  the  extinction  of  the  Une  of  Otto  III.  At  the  partition 
of  Saxony  in  1485  Weimar,  with.  Thuringia,  fell  to  the  elder, 
Ernestine,  brandi  of  the  Saxon  house  of  Wettin,  and  has  been  the 
continuous  residence  of  the  senior  branch  of  the  dukes  of  this 
Une  since  1572.  Under  Charles  Augustus  Weimar  became  a 
centre  of  Liberalism  as  well  as  of  art.  It  had  previously  narrowly 
tacapcd  absorption  by  Napoleon,  who  passed  through  the  town 
during  the  pursuit  of  the  Prussians  after  the  battle  of  Jena 
in  x8o6,  and  was  only  dissuaded  from  abolishing  the  duchy  by 
the  tact  and  courage  of  the  duchess  Louisa. 

The  traditions  of  Charles  Augustus  were  well  maintained  by 
his  grandson,  the  grand-duke  Charles  Alexander  (iSi^zgox), 
whose  statue  now  stands  in  the  Karlsplatz.  The  grand-duk<^'s 
connexion  with  the  courts  of  Russia  and  Holland — his  mQther 
was  a  Russian  grand-duchess  and  bis  wife,  Sophia  Louisa  (1824- 
1897),  a  princess  of  the  Netherlands — tended  to  give  the  Weimar 
society  a  cosmopolitan  character,  and  the  grand-duke  devoted 
himself  laigely  to  encouraging  men  of  intellect,  whether  Germans 
or  foreigners,  who  came  to  visit  or  to  settle  in  the  town.  The  art 
school,  founded  by  him  in  X848,  has  had  a  .notable  series  of 
eminent  painters  among  its  professors,  including  Prellcr,  Bdcklin, 
Kalckreuth,  Max.  Sdmiidt,  Pauwels,  Hcumann,  Verlat  and 
Th^dy.  Under  the  patronage  of  Charles  Alexander,  also, 
Weimar  became  a  famous  musical  centre,  principally  owing 
to  the  presence  of  Franz  Liszt,  who  from  1848  to  z886  made 
Weimar  his  prindpal  place  of  revidence.  Other  notable  con- 
ductors of  the  Weimar  theatre  orchestra  were  Eduard  Lassen 
and  Richard  Strauss. 

See  Schdll,  W^mar^s  MerkwardigkeiUu  tinU  undjeta  (Weimar; 
1857);  Springer,  Weimar's  klassische  StalUn  (bcrlin.  1868); 
Ruland,  Die  Schdtu  des  Goethe  National- Museutiu  in  Weimar 
(Weimar  and  Leipzig,  1887);  Frencke,  Weimar  und  UmfebuHfen 
(3rd  cd^  Weimar,  1900);  Kuhn,  Weimar  in  Wart  und  BUdUtb  ed., 
ieaa,  1905). 

.  WEINHEIM,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grsnd-duchy  of  Baden, 
pleasantly  situated  on  the  Bcrgstrasse  at  the  foot  of  the  Odenwald, 
II  m.  N.  of  Heidelberg  by  the  railway  to  Frankfort-on-Main. 
Top.  (1905)  12,560.  It  is  stiU  in  part  surrounded  by  the  ruins 
of  its  ancient  walls.  Ihe  Gothic  town  ball;  the  ruins  of  the 
castle  of  Windeck  and  the  modem  castle  of  the  counts  of  Berck« 
heim;  the  house  of  the  Teutonic  Order;  and  three  churches  are 
Ihe  principal  buildings.  The  town  has  various  manufactures, 
notably  leather,  machinery  and  soap,  and  cultivates  fruit  and 
wine.  It  is  a  favourite  climatic  health  resort  and  a  great  tourist 
centre  for  excursions  in  the  Odenwald  range.  Wcinheim  is 
mentioned  in  chronicles  as  early  as  the  8th  century,  when  it  was 
a  £ef  of  the  abbey  of  Lorsch,  and  it  was  fortified  in  the  '14th 
century.  In  the  Thirty  Years'  War  it  wa^  several  times  taken 
and  plundered,  and  its  fortifications  dismantled. 

See  Hbgewald.  Der  Luftkurorl  Weiuheim  an  der  Bergslrasse  (Wein' 
hcim.  1895};  Ackermann,  Fuhrer  dutch  Weinheim  und  Umgiebunf 
(Weinheim,  189O;  and  Zinkgr&f,  Bilder  aus  der  Cesckichte  der 
Sladi  Weinheim  CWcinheim,  1904). 

WBINSBERQ,  a  smaU  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of 
WQrttemberg,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Sulm,  5  m.  £.  from 
Heilbronn  by  the  railway  to  Crailsheim.  Pop.  (1905)  3097.  It 
has  an  ancient  Romanesque  church,  a  monument,  to  the  re* 
former  Oecolampadius  (9.9.),  and  a  school  of  viticulture,  which 
is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants.  On  the  Schlossberg 
above  the  town  ue  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Weibertreu^  and  at 


its  foot  is  the  house  once  inhahitad  by  Juttians  Kcntr  (f .».), 
with  a  public  garden  and  a  monuacnt  to  the  poet. 

The  German  king  Conrad  III.  defeated  Count  Welf  VI.  U 
Bavaria  near  Weinsbeig  in  December  iX40i,  and  took  the  town, 
which  later  became  a  free  imperial  city.  In  1331  it  joined  the 
league  of  the  Swabian  dties,  but  was  taken  by  the  nobles  In 
1440  and  sold  to  the  elector  pahitine,  thus  losing  its  liberties. 
It  was  burnt  in  xsts  as  a  punishment  for  the  atrocities  com- 
mitted by  the  revolted  peasants.  The  famous  legend  of  Weiber- 
treu  ("  women's  faithfubess  "),  immortalized  in  a  ballad  ^ 
Chanriaso,  is  connected  with  the  siege  of  x  140^  although  the  stoiy 
is  told  of  other  places^  It  is  said  that  Coniad  IIL  alhmed  the 
women  to  leave  the  town  with  whatever  they  could  carry,  where- 
upon they  came  out  with  their  husbands  on  their  badis. 

See  Bcrnhcim, "  Die  Sage  von  den  trcuen  Wcibernzu  Weinsberg  " 
(in  the  Forschungen  tur  deutschen  Cesckichte.  vol.  xv.,  GAttineen, 
1875);  Merk.  Ceschtchte  der  Stadt  Weinsberg  nnd  ikrer  Burg  Wetber- 
treu  (Heilbronn,  1880). 

WEIR,  ROBERT  WALTER  (i  803-1889),  American  portrait 
and  historica]  pamter,  was  bom  at  New  RocheUe,  New  York, 
on  the  x8th  of  June  1803.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Jarvis,  was  elected 
to  the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1829,  and  was  teacher  of 
drawing  at  the  United  States  Militaiy  Academy  at  West  Point 
in  x834'x846,  and  professor  of  drawing  there  in  1846-1876. 
He  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  xst  of  May  1889.  Among  his 
better-known  works  are:  "  The  Embarkation  of  the  Pilgrims  " 
(in  the  rotunda  of  the  United  States  Capitol  tft  Washington,  D.C.); 
'*  Landing  of  Hendrik  Hudson  "; "  Evening  of  the  Cnicifixk)n"; 
"  Columbus  before  the  Council  of  Salamanca  ";  '*  Our  Lojd  on 
the  Mount  of  Olives  "; "  Viigil  and  Dante  crossing  the  Styx,"  and 
several  portraits,  now  at  West  PdnC,  and  **  Peace  and  War  "  in 
the  Chapel  there. 

His  son,  John  Fekcvson  Wbik  (b.  1841),  painter  and  sculptor, 
became  a  Member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1866, 
and  was  made  director  of  the  Yale  Univeiaity  Art  School  in  1868. 
Another  son,  JinxaM  Aldsn  Weir  (b.  1852),  studied  under  his 
father,  and  under  J.  L.  G6r6me,  and  became  a  distinguished 
portrait,  figure  and  landscape  painter.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists  in  1877,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  (x886)  and  of  the 
T^n  American  Painters,  New  Yodt. 

WEIR  (from  O.  Eng.  wr,  a  daan;  cognate  wHh  werian,  to 
defend,  guard;  cf.  Ger.  Wekr,  defence),  a  barrier  plated  acmss 
rivers  to  raise  the  water-level  iot  catching  fish,  for  mills,  for 
navigation  or  for  irrigation,  the  discharge  of  the  river  tsking 
place  over  the  crest  or  throu^  opem'ngs  made  for  the  purpose. 
Rough  weirs,  formed  of  stakes  and  twigB»  were  erected  across 
En^sh  riven  in  Saxon  times  for  holding  up  the  water  and 
catching  fish,  and  fish*tnps,  with  iron-wire  meshes  and  eel 
baskets,  are  still  used  sometimes  at  weirs,  Welrs  are  esacntisli 
for  raising  the  head  of  water  for  water-wheda  at  mills»  and  for 
diverting  some  of  the  flow  of  a  river  into  irrigation  cansls; 
but  they  have  received  their  greatest  and  most  varied  extension 
in  the  canalization  of  riven  for  navigation.  There  are  three 
distinct  chsses  of  weirs,  namely,  solid  wein,  draw-door  weir9» 
including  regiilating  shiices  for- irrigation,  and  movable  wein, 
which-  retain  the  water  above  them  for  navigation  during  the 
bw  stage  of  the  river,  and  can  be  lowered  or  removed  so  as  to 
leave  the  channel  quite  open  in  flood-time. 

Solid  HVtri.-— The  simplest  form  of  weir  is  a  solid,  watertight  dam 
of  firm  earthwork  or  rubble  stone,  faced  with  stone  pitcfainK.  with 
cribs  filled  with  rubble,  with  fascine  mattresses  weighted  with  stone, 
or  with  masonry,  and  protected  from  undermining  t>)r  sheet  p«)iR|r 
or  one  or  more  rows  ojf  well  foundations.  These  weirs,  if  ^^^]t. 
constructed,  poawss  the  advantages  of  simplicity,  *((^'*8*\,^ 
durability,  and  require  no  superintendence.  They,  however.  Woes 
up  the  river  channel  to  the  extent  of  their  height,  and  conseauenuy 
raise  the  flood-level  above  them.  This  serious  defect  of  sdid  wein, 
where  the  riparian  lands  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  inundatioas,  can 
be  slightly  mitigated  by  keeping  down  the  Crest  of  the  weir  some- 
what below  the  required  level,  and  then  raisina  the  »^*«^  *]'**,  *[ 
the  k)w  stage  of  the  river  by  placing  a  row  of  punks  aloiy  the  t<'P 
of  the  weir.  ,      ,^ 

Waste  weirs  resemble  otdinary  solid  wein  in  providing  >oc^"* 
sarphis  diacharge  froma  rewrvoir  of  an  impounded  river  or  aaountaw 
OMW  their  csast;  but  in  ceaUty  they  fom  part  of  a  nasooiy 


— Lifting-Eatfl  War  and  FdU-brklge  mt  RkbincHid,  Sumy. 

1  can  be  nivd  or  lowenn!  a<  d»ra1  tmm  ■  toDl-bridKe. 

,igtiiienl  hu  been  provided  At  wvenL  wnn  on  the  Thanm, 

to  aflon]  cDDtrol  el  the  Bood  ifiichaii^  ud  nduce  Ibe  nlEnl  tA  Ihe 
inundaiioni;  the  braen  of  thew  cmnpcwu  wein  on  that  river  b 
at  the  tidil  limit  at  TedtEiiEton,  wbere  the  twa  eentnl  bayt.  whb  ■ 
total  Icneth  of  747)  ft.,  are  clovd  1^  thirty-five  dfav<doon  iF'"-' 
between  ima  frames  flupportin^  a  Eotrt-bridKe,  from  wbicli  tbc4 
re  raised  by  a  winch.'  Ordinaiy  draw-doon,  iKdiTiff  in  in 


d^alu 'b«      ^'°-  4-~N«edIe  Wdr,  Rivar  Ualdaa. 
The  needle  vdr,  »  CbIIkI  from  the  lonx,  ilender  uBiv 
!d,a>f>jUU_>n  Fm«,  _had  the  merit  of  liniificity 


I  dctridc  on  a  barfe  hftin^  them  by  their  ring*  whilA  a  man  on  Ih4 
DOt-bridse.  laldng  hokl  of  the  eye  B1  ibe  top^  arraiLflet  them  in 
xinitiDn  chiee  toeeiher.  The  weir  ii  apcmrd  by  joininE  ll^e  needkf 
>f  each  ba^  ijy  a  chain  paned  tbrouGh  tbe  eyca  ^t  the  top  and  a 


H  ...bmeiwl- 
loeether  than 
the  apron,  cb 

(St-  6)  po«ei 
dLminiibed  in 


Drdiikary  irama  plaoed 
p^...,,  .^ne  another  when  Invem 
lie  UuiH  wir  lie  clear  ol  (acl 


h  IS  auit^n  Ibi 


Tally  been  ureei 


BEiinit  fiamei  iawitni 
Tn^Miir  to 


+»» 


S^l        down  Ivcc  q 

2lSr  fi"*  Adopted  ._. 

^^          dilkml  condtiiuu  (fie.  7).    .»... 
ffDfB  Ibe  bottDoi  td  the  overbead  bfidee,  lod  ,  .- 
the  button  ■b«  the  wcii  ■■  in  opcntion.  the 
tlH  (nma  bang  dcacd  below  tb .-—.>— 


knt  pMOKd  In 

4  AhinDle  Had  tnvel:  but  it  wm 
in  OB  itie  lower  SciiK  under  quite 


,r -,j.  the  openinfi  bctwrrn 

walerJevet  by  roUing-uip  cuituru 
■diu  pwwle,  vUch  trt  lowered  or  nlied  by  ■  Irftvenmg  winch 
„-a1  by  ■  Hull  loot-bridcv  Eormrd  by  hinged  bncket*  tx  the 
Bicfc  vf  am  Inma,  and  iituatrd  *  little  above  the  klcbeu  flood' 
MnL    Tbo  wvir  b  opened  by  leiDoving  tbe  klidiag  puieH  or  nlUaf 


Wdr  irilli  Rolliac-ap  CuRiio.  Port  Villei,  Lower 


Fig.  ;.— Suipeoded  Franie  Weir,  PoiCh  Rivet  Seba 

Tbe  EArliett  form  of  ihuttcr  w«r,  iuiown  u  n  br«r-trai: 

dHadin  Che  United  Slatei  in  iSIS.nnd  nibieqixnlly  tnOB 


siar. 


;,™™onel 

f"^""-- 

Tt  Qa4  Canali.  p.  tjiand  pUtc  iv.  fig*  IS- 


Tclatd'. 


iven  in  France.  Beigiuir 


ipencd  or  partially  opened  un 
he  upper  Seine  about  Ibe  miilt 


xuUe  ol  pnsHiR.  boine  by  an  inm  trcitle  at  tbe  back  o(  each 

r.  irldch  la  binged  to  the  anAM  of  tbe  weir,  and  Hipponed 

when  raised  by  an  iron  wop  leating  afainat  an  iron  ihoe  laitened 
oa  the  apron  (&|-  g).  The  weir  ia  opened  by  releaainf  the  irod 
pro«  tram  their  thoea,  either  by  a  lidewaya  pull  <d  a  InppinB  bar 
wiin  projecting  teeth  laid  on  tbe  apioci  and  worked  from  the  bank. 


x-by  pulling  the  prop — -^-^ 

in  Ef.  9.    The  weir  ia  raised  again  by  pullinji  up  tl 

Irom  a  loot-bridge  on  movable  Iraniea.  together  withtheir  treillet 
and  tbe  prop*  which  are  replaced  in  their  shoes.  The  discfaarge  at 
'"it  wcir  whilst  it  ia  raised  la  elFected  either  by  partially  tipping 
Hne  of  tbe  shutters  by  chains  from  a  fool-bridge,  «  by  t^xidng 
ulIcrAy  valw  iviernbling  small  shutters  in  the  upper  panels  01 


"■JloTids,  t^  f 


Tbe  drum  vein  elected  acToaa  sballow,  regulating  passea  OD  the 
liver  Marne  in  1657-]^  comprise  a  senea  of  upper  and  under 
wroughi-iron  paddles,  which  can  make  a  quarter  of  a         ^^^ 

arcir-   The  flirai^i,  upper  paddles  form  ibc  weir,  and  can 

be  raised  against  the  scram  by  making  Ibe  water  from  tbe  upper 

pool  preu  upon  tbe  uppca*  faces  of  tbe  slighlly  larger  losrer  paddka* 


Fio.  9.— Shutter  Weir  with  Pooc-bcidge,  Port  1 1' Anglais,  Uppet 

crooked  for  tbe  purpose,  causing  chem  10  revolw  in  a  quadrant  of  a 
cytinckr  under  the  sill,  known  as  Ibe  drum;  and  chey  can  be  readily 
lowered  by  cuccing  off  Ihe  flow  from  die  upper  pool  and  puiting 
Che  drum  in  communication  with  Ihe  lower  pool,  which  conncjuona 

paddln  in  any  intermcdiale  posllioabelvcen  vertical  and  horiioncal 
llig.  to).  Tlie  merits  o(  Ihia  wdr  id  being  easily  nised  against  a 
stnmg  current  and  in  aUowiog  of  the  perfect  reflation  of  the 
discharve.  are  unforttiri^ely,  pnder  ordinary  conditions,  moieihaa 
counterbalanced  by  the  nrcesuty  of  carrying  the  dram  Md  in 

'" "»S 


•i>r«;/i>".C,E..vat,c 


p.U»andplatcvi.,£|.  )■ 


WIISMJWN— WEIS8BNBUR0 


■dofUd  fa(  ckwna  the  timbn'  pum  aloiicul*  the  imdit 
pbnd  acTDB  the  M^d,  with  a  ting]?  upp«r  pacldle  39J  h.  lor 

•bout  tha  Hme  lime  (or  dnjn^  iba  iHvJEHbte  jxb  of  ■  war ,_ 

Ib«  Spnc  (I  Cbulocte&biKi.  with  u  upuB'  iwldli  ul  ll.  kmc  ud 
9I  It.  bi(h  (S[.  10). 

A  peculiar  and  cheaper  rorm  of  drum  weir  h«»  been  CDQttr 
■crot*  ten  bayi each  75  fr.  wide  on  the  OM^nver  near  lt«confli 

■diinfd  iuidc  t^  iron  framing  knd  rwalvini  on  mn  mm  laid  atofc 
tbc  cnu  ol  tbe  lolid  put  of  ih«  weir,  iu  into  ■  dnim  at  lh>  baiS 


Fic  ID— DnunWdi  QnilMleabwi,  Rivtt  Spm. 
lined  wilhi^nbgg  bvHclndHKof  9l(.  The w(ir» niM4  bv 
•dnittinE  water  (ron  the  upper  pool  isto  a  wcdn^haptd  ipacc  left 
bektw  the  sector  when  it  U  lowered  in  the  dmm.  which  by  it*  preuure 
lift*  the  Mctot  oot  oI  the  dnim,  lonninc  m  hairier.  J  le.  Mth.  dnuiii 
each  bay  at  (h«  ww.  Pnniiiao  h»  alM  baea  made  lor  Rnderin* 
the  aictiir  biwyaot  by  fsiciBgiur  iolo  il,  ■>  that  it  can  be  nliej 
*hca  the  head  oT  water  ie  iuuBicient  to  lilt  It  by  the  preuure  ol  the 

i>  very  baportant  lo  bo  aUe  to  dow  ■  wtii  ol  nudenle  bel(hi 
■ninil  a  •iront  current  and  to  ngulaie  with  eaa*  asd  pncisoo  Ibf 
duchjust  pan  a  weir.  Q..  F.  V.-HJ 

WBISMAHN,  Anann  (1834-  ),  Otnaa  bjologist,  mm 
bom  at  Frankfort-OD-Main,  on  the  lyib  ol  January  i8}4,  aii4 
Wutlied  medicine  in  Giltiingen.  After  ipending  three  yeui 
in  Koalock,  be  viiited  succeuively  Vienna  (iSjS),  Italy  (1S59) 
and  Paiit  (iS^),  and  Irom  1S61  to  ig6i  b«  acted  a*  i»ival* 
[Jiyaidaii  lo  the  archdulte  Stephen  of  Aiiitria  at  Schauinbuii 
Palace.  In  iA6j  he  went  to  CieeBco  lodevoto  himself  to  biological 
Btudy  under  Leuckait,  And  in  i£66  ho  was  appointed  eitra- 
oidiziary  profeasor  of  aeoLogy  at  Freiburg,  Liecoining  ordinaiy 
profcaaoi  a  few  yean  latet.  His  eaiUer  work  was  largely  con- 
cerned with  purely  loologjcal  investigations,  one  ol  hii  earliest 
worka  dealing  with  the  devclapmcDl  ot  tlia  Diptcia.  hlicro- 
Bcopical  work,  however,  became  impossible  to  him  owing  to 
impaired  eyesight,  and  he  turned  his  attention  to  wider  problems 
of  biological  inquiry.  Between  iSU  and  1876  he  publiihed  a 
lerlea  ot  papers  in  which  he  attached  the  question  ol  the  vari- 
ability of  organisms;  IhcK  were  published  in  an  £nglibh  trans- 
lation by  R.  Mctdola  in  iSS],  under  Ihe  title  Sludiei  in  Ikt 
Tkuriti  0/  Disitnt.  Darwin  himself  CDnlrilmling  a  preface  in 
which  the  impotlance  of  the  naluie  aiul  cause  of  variabiDty  in 
individuals  was  eniphasiicd.  Weismann's  name,  however,  is 
best  iuiDWD  a*  the  author  of  the  gcrmplasm  theory  of  heredity, 
with  iia  accompanying  denial  of  the  transmission  of  acquired 
characters— a  theory  which  on  its  publication  met  with  consider- 
able oppotition.especialty  in  England,  ftom  oithodoi  Darwinism, 
A  series  ot  essays  in  which  this  theory  is  expressed  was  collected 
and  published  in  an  English  tiansbllon  (Essays  upon  Hcrcdily 
aid  Kindred  Bialftiiol  ProbUms,  voL  i.  1880.  vol.  ii.  iSqi). 
Weisnunn  published  many  other  works  ^cvoted  lo  the  ejtposition 
of  bis  biologicBl  views,  among  them  being  Dii  Dautr  da  Lthni; 
YtrtrtuMf,  Emtttil  dcs  Lcbens;  Dit  KmlimiVU  da  Ktim- 
tiotmt*  all  Cnadlan  ciner  Tharit  ia  Vaabun;  Das  Ktim- 


1853, 


i,  BERHHASD  (1817-  ),  German  Floltstanl  New 
nt  scholar,  was  bom  it  Eilnigsberg  on  the  loth  of  June 
Alter  studying  theology  at  SSnigsberg,  Hallt  and 
L_   t  ___(  lordinarius  at    Kenigsbefg 


superior 


itotialcc 


ndllor. 


Ano^wnenl 
in  Great  Britain  and 


of  the  Tubingen  School,  he  published  a 
works,  which  are  weU  known  to  students 

He  edited  and  rerlxd  iiatAtit  (the  9th  ed..  1897),  U'"!' «'  tnk 
(the9Ih  ed,.  1901).  Jtia  <the  9th  ed.,  ion),  gtmau  (iheqth  ed.. 
i«99)-the£fi^(uliniiuM]riia4  J'i^(the7^ed.,  ma).HitMm 
([he  «th  ed.,  1807J,  the  Bftilla  if  Jelm  (the  61b  ed.,  1900).  Hl> 
other  worki  include:  Lrkbuik  dtr  NWuclIni  n»A>itI  dil  Ntua 
TeilamaOz  (|968.  Olh  ed.,  1003;  Eng.  trans..  IM]1,  Dia  UiBt 
Jrn  (leSa,  «th  ed,,  I9a>;  Ene.  tiani.,  iBtl),  LllPituJt  dlt  Eis. 
leitntlt  i*  ias  Nent  Tiilamna  TlBM;  jit)  ed..  1S97;  Eng.  Irani. 
iSUJ,  Ou  V«s  T-iUMflX:  BwHlOicltr  TtO  (1  vda.  lou),  and 
Dit  Qndltn  ill  ijduiHiucliwni  [I907).  Ua  was  alk>  lix  leviM 
of  commentaiia  on  I)K  New  Tenament  ia  Che  aeries  of  H.  A.  W. 

WSUtB.  CRRmtAII  BBRUm  (i8oi-iSe«),  German 
Protestant  religious  philosopher,  was  bom  at  Leipzig  on  the 
lothof  August  1801.  He  studied  at  Leipzig,  and  at  first  belonjed 
to  (he  Hegelian  school  of  philosophy.  In  course  of  time,  how- 
ever, his  ideas  apprgilmaiing  to  those  of  Schelling  in  his  later 
yeais,  he  elaborated  nth  L  H.  v.  Fichte  a  new  speculative 
theism,  and  bHime  an  opponent  of  Hegel's pantheisllcidalisiii. 
In  his  addresses  on  the  future  of  the  Protestant  Church  (Rtdtn 
Ubtr  dii  Zukunfl  drr  ctantaistkni  Kircie,  1S49I,  he  finds  tbC 

Falbet,  the  Son  of  Man  and  the  Ungdom  of  Heaven,  In  hi* 
work  on  philosophical  dogmatics  IPkilnsephlsclu  Dacmalik 
Oder  Pkiltsefiic  da  CMrislcnlums,  j  vols,  18J5-1S61)  he  seeki, 
by  idealiaing  all  the  Chrialian  dogmas,  to  reduce  thein  to  natural 
postulates  of  reason  or  conscience.     He  died  on  the  iglh  of 


■v^'xlif  CdkcnaMrt 
Imiitiimiml    '  '    '     ' 


woriis  Include:  Bfc  lire  itr  GilOtit  (iSjj),  Dit , 


d(r    U*slertlielilinl  da    maiicliiiilien 

•mm  (1>|4),  BaetUm  tm  itr  AwlmMKoa  (1(36),  Pit 

,-iiBkt  GaaueVt,  bilistk  wid  fUliMiuk  UaAtiui  (1  vula, 

iB^,  and  Ptydulctit  und  UmMrtliiUdUUkri  (edited  by  R. 
SeydeL  l8te).  See  O.  Plleiderer.  DmlofmeM  1/  JTuelaiw  (1S90I; 
and  cf.  R,  Inrdd.  Oriit.  Htm.  Wtissi  (1B66),  and  JUifte  laj 
ICiueaiciki/t  (18*7). 

wmmBintS,  a  town  of  Cennany,  fn  (he  Imperial  pravlntc 
of  Alsace-Lomlne,  dislrict  of  Lower  Alsace,  on  (he  Lauler, 
at  the  loot  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Vosgcs  Moantalns,  41  m, 
N,E,  of  Strassburg  by  the  railwiy  Basei-Stiassburg-Mannhelin. 
Pop,  (i«oo)  »946.    The  beautiful  Roman  Catbotlc  abbey  church 


3,  Peter 


d  Paul,  <1 


Ti  the  13th  CI 


t  of  paper,  1 


ealso  ei 


>urg  grew 


id  hops  and  wj 


Dagobeit  II.  and  I 

Otfrid,  who  was  a 

Old  High  Germ 


sme  the  seat  of  a  famous  school.  Here 
Hive  ol  the  district,  completed  {c.  S68) 
Gospel  book  (see  GEBHaN  Litebatuke). 
n  oecamc  a  tree  imperial  city  in  1305,  It  has  been  the 
two  memorable  billies.  The  famous  "Wcissenburg 
inkling  of  I'nircnched  works  erected  by  Villara  in  1706 
atone  Ihc  Lauler,  and  having  a  ttngih  of  I)  ra.,  were  stoimed  in 
October  1793  by  the  Pmsslans  and  Saions  under  lite  Austrian 
The  Allies  were  In  their  turn  dispouessed 
by  Pichegiu  in  December  and  forced  lo  retreat  behind  the  Rhine. 
~  ■■  i,  as  well  aj  the  forii/icaitona  of  Weissenburg,  are 
itled.  On  Ihe  4(h  of  August  1870  the  Germans  under 
prince  ol  Prussia,  afterwards  the  emperor  Frederick, 
gained  the  first  victory  of  (he  war  over  a  Fiencb  torps  (part  of 
the  army  commanded  by  MacMihon)  under  General  Douay, 
who  was  killed  early  in  the  engagement. 


500 


WEISSENBURG-AM-SAND— WELDING 


The  fiauM  Wefaaenburg  oocuts  In  three  other  plaqn;  th«  town 
of  WcuMabucfE>ani-^nd  in  Bavaria  (4[*vO>  a  Swim  invalid  resort 
in  the  Niedcrsimmental,  above  Lake  Tnun.  with  sulphate  of  lime 
springs, .beneficial  for  bronchial  affections;  also  a  Hungarian  comitat 
(Magyar  Fej^&r),  with  Stuhlweiasenbuig  as  capital. 

WBISSENBUR6-AH-SAND,  a  town  of  Germaay,  in  the 
Bavarian  district  of  Middle  Franconia,  situated  in  a  pleasant 
and  fertile  country  at  the  western  foot  of  the  Franconian  Jura, 
1500  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  s$  m.  by  rail  S.W.  of  Nuremberg 
by  the  railway  to  Munich.  Pop.  (1905)  6709.  It  is  still  sur- 
rounded by  old  walls  and  towers,  and  has  two  Gothic  churches 
and  a  GotMc  town-hall.  The  town  has  a  mineral  spring,  connected 
with  which  is  a  bathing  establishment.  A  Roman  castle  has 
recently  been  discovered,  and  there  is  a  collection  of  antiquities 
in  the  modern  school  The  old  fortalice  of  WiUzburg  (2060  ft.) 
overlooks  the  town.  Gold  and  salver  fringe,  bricks,  cement 
wares,  beer  and  doth  are  manufactured.  Welssenburg  dates 
from  the  8th  century,  and  in  the  X4th  was  made  a  free  imperial 

town.    It  passed  to  Bavaria  in  1806. 

Sec  C.  Meyer,  Chronik  dtr  Stadl  Wtissenburg  in  Bayem  (Munich, 
1904);  and  Fabricius,  D<u  KasteU  Weissenburg  (Heidelberg,  1906). 

fiTEISSENFELS,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Pnissian  province 
of  Saxony,  situated  on  the  Saale  20  m.  S.W.  of  Leipzig  and  19  m. 
S.  of  Halle  by  the  main  line  to  Bcbra  and  Frankfort-on-Main. 
Pop.  (1905)  30,894.  It  contains  three  churches,  a  spacious 
market-place  and  various  educational  and  benevolent  institu- 
tions. The  former  palace,  called  the  Augustusburg,  built  in 
x664~x69o,  lies  on  an  eminence  near  the  town;  this  spacious 
edifice  is  now  used  as  a  military  schooL  Weisscnfels  manu- 
factures machinery,  ironware,  paper  and  other  goods,  and  has 
an  electrical  power-house.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  large 
deposits  of  sandstone  and  lignite.  Weissenfcb  is  a  place  of 
considerable  antiquity,  and  from  1656  till  1746  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  small  duchy  of  Saxe-Weisscniels,  a  branch  of  the  electoral 
house  of  Saxony,  founded  by.  Augustus,  second  son  of  the  elector 
John  (jeorge  L  The  body  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  was  embalmed 
at  Weisscnfels  after  the  battle  of  LOtzcn. 

See  Sturm.  Chronik  der  Stadl  Weisscnfels  (Weisscnfels,  1846);  and 
Gerhaidt,  GesckichU  der  Stadt  Weissenfels  (Weisscnfels,  1907). 

WEIZSXCKER*  KARL  (1822-1899),  Ckrman  Protestant 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Oehriagen  near  Heilbronn  in  WUrttem- 
berg,  on  the  1 1  th  of  December  18  2  2.  After  studying  at  Tubingen 
and  Berlin,  he  became  PrivatdoieiU  at  Tubingen  in  1847  and 
eventually  (1861)  professor  of  ecclesiastical  and  dogmatic 
fabtory.  From  1856  to  18^8  he  helped  to  edit  the  JahrbUcher 
fUr  deutsche  Theologic;  and  his  elaborate  studies  Untersuckungen 
liber  die  evangelische  Geschichte,  ikre  Quellen  und  den  Gong  ikrer 
Entwicklnng  (1864)  and  Das  apostoliscke  ZeUaiter  der  ekristl. 
Kircke  (z886,  2nd  od.  1893;  EngL  trans.  1894-1895)  made 
him  widely  known  and  respected.  He  died  on  the  13th  of 
August  1899.  His  son,  Karl  von  WeizsScker  (b.  2853),  was 
appointed  in  1900  Kt^tusminister  for  Wiirttemberg. 

Wcizs3cker's  other  works  include  Zw  KrUik  des  Barnabas- 
briefs  (1863)  and  Ferdinand  Christian  Baur  (1892).  Cf.  Hegler, 
Znr  Erinnerung  an  Karl  Weissdcker  (1900). 

WEKERtB,  SAinOR  [Alexandek]  (1848-  ),  Hungarian 
statesman,  was  born  on  the  14th  of  November  1848  at  M66r, 
in  the  comitat  of  Stuhlwcissenburg.  After  studying  law  at  the 
imiversity  of  Budapest  he  graduated  doctor  juris.  He  then 
entered  the  government  service,  and  after  a  period  of  probation 
was  appointed  to  a  post  in  the  ministry  of  finance.  He  still, 
however,  continued  an  academic  career  by  lecturing  on  political 
economy  at  the  university.  In  1886  Wekcrlc  was  elected  to 
the  House  of  Deputies,  became  in  the  same  year  financial 
secretary  of  state,  and  in  1889  succeeded  Tisza  as  minister  of 
finance.  He  immediately  addressed  Mmself  to  the  task  of 
improving  the  financial  position  of  the  country,  carried  out 
the  conversion  of  the  State  loans,  and  succeeded,  for  the  first 
time  in  the  history  of  the  Hungarian  budget,  in  avoiding  a  deficit. 
In  November  1892  Wckerie  succeeded  Count  Szap&ry  as  premier, 
though  still  retaining  the  portfolio  of  finance.  At  the  head 
Of  a  strong  government  he  was  enabled,  in  spite  of  a  powerful 
opposition  of  Catholics  and  Magnate9,to  cany  in  1894  the  Civil 
Marriage  Bill    The  continued  opposition  of  the  clerical  party, 


however,  brought  about  his  resignation  on  the  22nd  of  December 
1894,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Banffy.  On  the  xst  of  January 
X897  he  was  appointed  president  of  tl»B  newly  created  judici^ 
commission  at  Budi4>e8t,  and  for  the  next  few  years  held  aloof 
from  politics,  even  under  the  ex-lex  government  of  Fej^rv&ry. 
On  the  reconciliation  of  the  king-emperor  with  the  coalition 
he  was  therefore  selected  as  the  most  suitable  man  to  lead  the 
new  government,  and  on  the  8th  of  April  X906  tras  appointed 
prime  minister,  taking  at  the  same  time  the  portfolio  of  finance. 
He  resigned  the  promienhip  on  the  27th  of  April  2909,  but  was 
not  finally  relieved  of  his  office  until  the  formation  of  the  Khuen- 
Hed6rv4ry  cabinet  on  the  17th  of  January  X910. 

WBLCKER,  FRIBDRICH  GOTTUEB  (X784-X868),  German 
philologist  and  archaeologbt,  was  bom  at  GrUnberg  in  the 
grand  duchy  of  Hesse.  Having  studied  ckssical  philology  at 
the  university  of  Giessen,  he  was  appointed  (X803)  master  in 
the  hi£^  school,  an  office  which  he  combined  with  that  of  lecturer 
at  the  university.  In  x8o6  he  journeyed  to  Italy,  and  was  for 
more  than  a  year  private  tutor  at  Rome  in  the  faniily  of  Wilhelm 
von  Humboldt,  who  became  his  friend  and  correspondent. 
Welcker  returned  to  Glesscn  in  x8o8,  and  resuming  his  school- 
teaching  and  univexsitylectures  wasin  the  following  year  appointed 
the  first  professor  of  Greek  literature  and  archaeology  at  that  or 
any  German  university.  After  serving  as  a  volunteer  in  the 
campaign  of  1814  he  went  to  Copenhagen  to  edit  the  posthumous 
papers  of  the  Danish  archaeologist  (jeorg  Zol^  (X755-1809), 
and  published  his  biography,  ZoBgas  Leben  (Stutt.  18x9).  His 
liberalism  in  politics  having  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the 
university  authorities  of  Giessen,  he  exchanged  that  university 
for  GGttingcn  in  1816,  and  three  years  later  received  a  chair 
at  the  new  university  of  Bonn,  where  he  established  the  art 
museum  and  the  library,  of  which  he  became  the  first  librarian. 
In  X84X-1843  he  travelled  in  Greece  and  Italy  (cf.  his  Ta^ebucht 
Berlin,  2865),  retired  from  the  Ubrarianship  in  X854,  and  in 
x86x  from  his  professorship,  but  continued  to  reside  at  Bonn  until 
his  death.  Welcker  was  a  pioneer  in  the  field  of  archaeology, 
and  was  one  of  the  first  to  insist,  in  opposition  to  the  narrow 
methods  of  the  older  Hellenists,  on  the  necessity  of  co^>rdinating 
the  study  of  Greek  art  and  religion  with  philology. 
'Besides  early  work  on  Aristophanes,  Pindar,  and  Sappho, 
whose  diaracter  he  vindicated,  he  edited  j^cman  (181 5), 
Hipponax  (xSx?),  Theognis  (1826)  and  the  Theogony  of  Hesiod 
(1865),  and  published  a  Sylloge  epigrammatmn  Graeconem  (Bodb, 
1828).  His  Criechische  GdUerlekre  (3  vols.,  Gfittingen,  1857-1862) 
may  be  regarded  as  the  first  scientific  treatise  on  Greek  religioo. 
Among  his  works  on  Greek  literature  the  chief  are  Die  Asekj' 
ieische  Trilogie  (1824, 6),  Der  epische  Zyklus  oder  die  Homeriscktn 
Gedickte  (2  vols.  X835,  49),  Die  grieckiscken  TrcgHdieH  mH 
RSeksickt  aufden  episcken  Zyklus  geordnet  (3  vols.,  x839-i84i)- 
His  editions  and  biography  of  Zo^a,  his  Zeilsekrift  far  GesckichU 
und  Auslegung  der  alien  Kunsl  (Ckjttingen,  18x7,  8)  and  his 
Alte  DenknUUer  (5  vols.,  x84<^x864)  contain  his  views  on  ancient 
art. 

See  Kekul6,  Das  Leben  F,  C.  Welckers  (Leipzig,  x88o):  W.  vob 
Bumboldls  Briefe  an  WeUker  (cd.  R.  Haym,  Bcriin.  1859):  J.  E. 
Sandys,  History  of  Classical  Scholarskip  (vol.  iiL,  pp.  216,  7,  Cam- 
bridge.  1908). 

WELDING  {i.e.  the  action  01  the  verb  "  to  weld  "  the  same 
word  as  "  to  well,"  to  boil  or  spring  up,  the  history  of  the  word 
being  to  boil,  to  heat  to  a  high  degree,  to  beat  heated  iron; 
according  to  Skeat,  who  points  out  that  in  Swedish  the  compound 
verb  uppvSila  means  to  boil,  the  simple  valla  is  only  used  in  the 
sense  of  welding),  the  process  of  uniting  metallic  surfaces  by 
pressure  exercised  when  they  are  in  a  semi-fused  condition. 
It  differs  therefore  from  brazing  and  soldering,  in  which  cold 
surfaces  arc  united  by  the  interposition  of  a  fu^  metallic 
cementing  material  The  conditions  in  which  welding  is  a 
suitable  process  to  adopt  are  stated  in  the  artide  Fobcinc. 
The  technique  of  the  work  will  be  considered  here. 

The  conditions  for  successful  welding  may  be  summed  up  as 
dean  metallic  surfaces  in  contact,  a  suitable  temperature  and 
rapid  dosing  of  the  joint.  All  the  variations  in  the  forms  of 
welds  are  either  due  to  differences  in  shapes  of  tnaterial,  or  to 


WELDING 


501 


the  pnctke  of  diffeicnt  crahsaien.  The  typkaX  wdd  b  the 
scarf.  If,  for  instance,  a  bar  has  to  be  united  to  another  bar 
or  to  an  eye,  the  joint  is  made  diagonally  (scarfed)  because  that 
gives  a  longer  surface  in  contact  than  a  weld  at  right  angles 
(a  butt  weld),  and  beduiae  the  banuner  csn  be  brought  into 
pUy  better.  Abutting  faces  for  a  scarfed  joint  arc  made  adigfitly 
convex;  the  object  is  to  force  out  any  scale  or  dirt  which  might 
otherwise  become  entangled  in  the  joint  at  liie  moment  bf  dosing 
and  which  would  impair  its  union.  The  ends  are  upset  (enlaiged) 
previous  to  welding,  in  order  to  give  ati  excess  of  metal  that 
will  permit  of  slight  corrections  being  effected  around  the  joint 
C*  swaging  **)  without  reducing  the  diameter  betow  that  of  the 
remainder  of  the  bar.  These  principles  are  seen  in  other  joints 
of  diverse  types,  in  the  butt,  the  vee  and  their  modifications. 
Joint  faces  must  be  clean,  both  chemically,  i.e.  free  from  oxides, 
and  mechanically,  re.  free  from  dust  and  dirt,  else  they  will, 
not  unite.  The  first  condition  is  fulfilled  by  the  use  of  a  fluxing 
agent,  the  second  by  ordinary  precautions.  The  fhix  produces 
with  the  oxide  a  fluid  slag  which  is  squeescd  out  at  the  instant 
of  making  the  weld.  The  commonest  fluxes  are  sand,  used 
chiefly  with  wrought  iron,  and  borax,  used  with  steel;  they  are 
dusted  over  the  joint  faces  both  while  in  the  fire  and  on  the 
anvil.  Mechanical  cleanliness  a  ensured  by  heating  the  ends 
in  a  clean  hollow  fire  previously  prepared,  and  in-  brushing  off 
any  adherent  particles  of  fuel  before  dosing  the  weld.  The 
scarf,  the  butt  and  the  vee  occur  in  various  modlficatipns  in 
ail  kinds  of  forgings,  but  the  principles  and  precautions  to  be 
observed  are  identical  in  all.  But  in  work  involving  the  use 
of  rolled  sections,  as  angles,  tecs,  channels  and  joists,  important 
diiferences  occur,  because  the  awkwardness  of  the  shapes  to 
be  welded  involves  cutting  and  bending  and  the  insertion  of 
separate  welding  pieces  ('* gluts")*  Wdds  are  seldom  made 
lengthwise  in  rolled  sections,  nor  at  right  angles,  because  union 
is  effected  in  such  cases  by  means  of  riveted  joints.  But  welding 
is  essential  in  all  bending  of  sections  done  at  sharp  angles  or 
to  curves  of  small  radius.  It  is  necessary,  because  a  broad 
flange  cannot  be  bent  sharply;  if  the  attempt  be  made  when 
it  is  on  an  outer  curve  it  is  either  ruptured  or  much  attenuated, 
while  on  an  inner  curve  it  is  crimipled  up.  The  plater's  smith 
therefore  cuts  the  flanges  in  both  cases,  and  then  bends  and 
welds  them.  If  it  is  on  an  inner  curve,  the  joint  is  a  lap  weld; 
if  it  is  on  on  outer  one,  a  fresh  piece  or  glut  is  welded  in.  Gluts 
of  rectangular  section  are  used  for  cylindrical  objects  and  rings 
of  various  sections.  The  edges  to  be  united  may  or  may  not 
be  scarfed,  and  the  gluts,  which  are  plain  bars,  are  welded 
against  the  edges,  all  bdng  brouj^t  to  a  welding  heat  in  separate 
furnaces.  The  furnace  tubes  of  boilers  and  the  cross  tubes 
are  welded  in  this  way,  sometimes  by  hand,  but  often  with  a 
power  hammer,-  as  also  are  all  rings  of  angle  and  other  sections 
on  the  vertical  web. 

The  temperature  for  welding  is  very  important  It  must 
be  high  enough  to  render  the  surfaces  in.  contact  pasty,  but  must 
not  be  in  excess,  else  the  metal  wiU  become  badly  oxidized 
(burnt)  and  will  not  adhere.  Iron  can  be  raised  to  a  temperature 
at  which  minute  globules  melt  and  fall  off,  but  sted  must  not  be 
heated  neariy  so  much,  and  a  moderate  white  heat  must  not 
be  exceeded.  Wdds  in  steel  are  not  so  trustworthy  nor  so  readily 
made  as  those  in  iron. 

Tktrmit  Wddint.—Tlx  afiinity  of  finely  powdered  aluminium 
for  metallic  oxides,  sulphides,  chlorides,  &c,  may  be  utilized  to 
effect  a  reduction  of  metals  with  which  oxygen,  sulphur  or 
chlorine  combine.  C.  Vaulin  in  1894  found  that  when  aluminium 
in  a  findy  divided  state  was  mixed  with  such  compounds  and 
ignited,  an  exceedingly  high  temperature,  about  3000*  C,  was 
devdoped  by  the  rapid  oxidation  of  the  aluminium.  He  found 
that  metals  which  are  ordinarily  regarded  as  infusible  were  readily 
reduced,  and  in  a  very  high  degree  of  purity.  These  facts  were 
tmned  to  practical  account  by  Dr  H.  Goldscfamidt,  who  first 
welded  two  iron  bars  by  means  of  molten  iron  produced  by  the 
process,  to  which  the  name  of  *'  thermit  "^  is  now  commonly 
applied.  The  method  has  also  beea  applied  to  the  produqtioix 
^  pure  metals  for  alloying  purposes,  ps  of  ohiMnium  free  froni 


carbon,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  chrome  sted,  of  pure  man< 
ganese  for  manganese  steel,  of  molybdenum,  ferro-vanadium, 
ferro-titanium  and  others  used  la  the  manufacture  of  high  speed 


•Ai9 


Ttiermit  as  a  welding  a^nt  Is  produced  by  mMng  Iron  oxides  with 
finely  granulated  aluminium,  in  a  special  crucible  lined  with  mag* 
nena.  On  ignition,  the  chemical  reactions  proceed  so  rapidly  that 
the  contents  wottid  be  lost  over  the  edges  unless  the  crucible  were 
ctcKwd  with  a  cover.  The  result  of  the  reaction  is  that  two  layers  are 
produced,  the  bottom  one  of  pure  iron,  the  top  one  of  oxide  of 
alumina  or  corundum.  If  the  contents  are  poured  over  the  ed^, 
the  slag  follows  first,  and  is  followed  by  the  metal.  But  in  welding 
the  metal  b  poured  first  through  the  bottom  upon  the  joint.  It  3 
practicatly  pure  wrought  iron  in  a  molten  state,  at  3000*  C.  or 
5400*  F.  The  heat  is  so  intense  that  it  is  possible  thus  to  bum  a 
clean  hole  through  a  i  in.  wrought  iron  plate.  The  joints  are  pre« 
panpd  by  abuttinz  them,  and  provision  is  made  with  clamps  to  grip 
and  retain  tfrem  In  correct  positions.  Often,  but  not  always,  the 
part  to  be  welded  is  enclosed  in  a  mould,  into  which  the  thermit  is 
tapped  from  the  crucible.  The  applications  of  thermit  weldine  are 
numerous.  A  wide  field  is  that  of  tramway  rails,  of  which  Targe 
mtmbers  haw  been  successfully  wdded.  Steel  girders  have  been 
welded,  as  also  have  broken  and  faulty  steel  and  iron  castings, 
broken  shafts,  broken  stcrnposts  (for  which  crudblcs  6  ft.  in  height 
wKh  a  capacity  of  7  cwt.  have  been  constructed),  and  wrought  iron 
pipes.  Another  apptloatton  is  to  render  sted  ingots  sound,  by 
introducing  thermit  in  a  block  on  an  iron  rod  into  the  mould,  which 
'  prevents  or  greatly  lessens  (he  amount  of  piping  in  the  head,  due  to 
shrinkage  and  occiuaon  of  gases.  (J.  G.  H.) 

Electric  Welding. — In  ^ctric  welding  and  metal  working  the 
heat  may  be  communicated  to  the  metal  by  an  electric  arc, 
or  by  mesns  of  the  electric  resbtatice  of  the  metaT,  as 
in  the  Thomson  process.  Arc  vddlng  Is  the  older 
procedure,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  first  made  use 
of  by  de  Meritens  in  z88i  kxc  uniUng  the  parts  of  storagp-battery 
plates.  Hie  work -piece  was  placed  upon  a  support  or  table,  and 
connected  with  the  positive  pole  of  a  source  of  current  capable  of 
maintaining  an  dectric  arc.  The  other  pde  was  a  carbon  rod 
directed  by  the  hand  of  the  operator  so  as  first  to  make  contact 
with  the  work'piece,  and  then  to  effect  the  proper  separation 
to  maintain  the  arc.  The  heat  of  the  arc  was  partly  communl- 
catcd  to  the  work  and  partly  dissipated  in  the  hot  gases  escaping 
into  the  surrounding  air.  The  result  was  a  fusion'of  the  metallie 
lead  of  the  storage-battery  {rfate  wlUch  united  rarious  parts  of 
the  plate.  The  process  was  somewhat  similar  to  the  operation  of 
lead-burning  by  the  hydrogen  and  air  blowpipe,  as  used  in  the 
formation  of  joints  in  chemical  tanks  made  of  sdieet-lead.  The 
method  of  de  Meritens  has  been  modified  by  Bemardos  and 
Olszewski,  ^avienoff,  Coffin  and  others. 

In  the  Bemardos  and  Olszewski  process  the  work  is  made 
the  negative  pole  of  a  direct  cui^nt  circuit,  and  an  sic  is  drawn 
between  thisaad  a  carbon  rod,  to  which  a  handle  is  attached  for 
manipulating.  As  this  rod  is  the  positive  terminal,  partidei 
of  carbon  may  be  introduced  as  a  constituent  of  the  metal  taking 
part  in  the  opemtion,  making  it  hard  and  brittle,  and  causing 
cracks  in  the  joint  or  filling;  the  metal  may,  in  fact,  become 
very  bard  and  unworkable.  The  Slavienoff  modificatioa  of  the 
arc'wddipg  process  consists  in  the  employment  of  a  metal 
dectrode  in  place  of  the  carbon  rod.  The  metal  decttude 
gradually  melts,  and  fumishes  fused  drops  of  metal  for  the 
filling  of  vacant  spaces  in  castings,  or  for  forming  a  joint  between 
two  parts  or  pieces. 

In  arc  welding,  with  n  current  sonrce  at  practically  constant 
potential,  a  choking  resistance  jn  series  with  the  hcatine  arc  is 
needed  to  secure  stability  in  the  arc  current,  as  in  electric  arc  lighting 
from  constant  potential  lines.  Little  effecrivc  work  can  be  done  by 
the  Bemardos  and  Olszewski  method  with  currents  much  below  156 
amperes  in  the  arc,  and  the  value  in  some  cases  ranges*  above  500 
ampereSk  The  potential  must  be  such  that  an  arc  of  2  to  x  in.  in 
length  is  steadily  maintained.  This  may  demand  a  total '  01  atx>ut 
tSO  volts  for  the  arc  and  the  choking  resistance  together.  In  the 
^avienoff  arc  the  potentbl  required  will  be  naturally  somewhat 
lowier  than  when  a  carbon  electrode  is  used,  and  the  currenr  strength 
will  be,  on  the  other  hand,  considerably  greater,  reaching,  it  appears, 
in  certain  cases,  more  than  4000  amperes.  In  some  recent  applica- 
tions of  the  arc  process  the  polarity  of  the  work-piece  and  tne  arc* 
contTdline  dectrode  has,  it  is  understood,  been  reversed,  the  worlc 
being  ma^  the  positive  pole  and  the  movable  electrode  the  negative. 
More  heat  energy  is  thus  delivered  to  the  work  for  a  given  total  of 
electric  energy  expended. 


_..   . dfof  heaEjiu  [ofJuitcaCy  1Tie«d«Hof  iroi 

vekkd  by  pnaurE  vuJ  hamineHng.    Ie  1u«  b«n  found  applkablf 
In  tpcdw  caf«  to  the  EIILu  of  Selective  tpau  In  Ixon  («itmB>.  bv 


IwinE  mm  blow-Wa 
added  fnduaUIri  vd 


added  nadiiaUl]',  wid  Bidud  iau  union  with  ihe  body  of 
by  tlulKnt  olthc  *rc    Similvly,  >  nun  or  [ea  a>mpl 


■Si™.., 

ki  with  bk  cyt 


tffectcd  by  fuury  idditionAl  met 
opcntioiv  to  whicli  ibc  An;  prnn 
lihu  limited,  and  dcpendi  lu  n  ki 
by  the  openlDT.  who  BwanriJy  < 
flW  tlie  gbrt  flf  the  br^  u^  Uimcv  \»  >!>»,«  ■ 
l>  carried  on  Ii  lu^.  the  iniiuiiit  vapDim  whidi 
•trtam  add  la  the  difficulty.  Stieax  dnughu  of 
tUiUrb  Ibe  ait  muU  alu  be  avoiiML  Thoe  bcc 
relative  ibwne*  of  ibe  «Drk  and  the  uAccnuntj 
kwe  tended  to  nsrin  the  agvlicatioa  of  uc  m; 
MsRovir,  niNh  bai^eneiiy  x  diwipatcd  in  tb 
paiKfl  into  tlie  vr,  while,  owing  to  the  time  rrqui 
the  mcuU  underroint  treainient  loae*  nuch  heat  b 
(be  method  requii^  little  special  machinery.  Thi 
Uken  fmm  eikliiit  electni:1i|;htiiiB  and  power  dr 

ticclmde  with  a  vjitable  handle  for  Ita  manipuUl 
tteadyioft  mistana,  and  toeen  of  dark  glaia  fi 

*Ti  iBh  Weida- 


'  ra^iaiioo-    Yet 


veUing.   The  I 
while  conn<ne< 


re  netbodiL  bu  been  propoHd  : 


a  ntefallar  11  plirnnd  inioandecirDly 

ibe  AMtive  pair  at  a  lii^ing  or  other 

poumial  if  lODto  igo  wlu.    The  pOMtivi 


hubUeaaridng fion iL  Theinn>ei>cden<Jo(ihebarn{>idlyb<_._. 
and  may  even  meh  under  the  liqukl  of  the  buh.  ii  it  probable 
that  an  arc  foma  between  Ihe  •ucfan  of  tbe  metal  and  thcadjiceni 
Hqiid  layer,  the  tnteiue  beat  of  which  i>  ia  pan  coniiniiniated  to 

-* •  -nd  ia  pin  Ion  is  tbc  •olulioii,  causnE  iheteby  a  rapid 

H  batiL   Thii  aiiifular  aclioa  appcan  lo  have  been  Diat 


biatiic  of  the  batti.   Thii  •iiaiiiai  aci 
piade  Icnown  by  Hobo  and  LaErangi 


:.^idi 


km  ii  largely 

Tbe  pmcMi  of  EJihu  TbonHon  fim  brought  to  public  mtlce 
b  tSSfi,  baa  maa  Ibat  lime  been  applied  anDmetrially  oD  a 
^^  large  scale  to  rariom  utetal-vridlng  operatiobs.    Tbe 

?^'jj^""  mclal  pieces  Lobe  united  are  hddtnmaasivFclatnps  and 
pTBied  tofetber  In  firm  contact;  and  a  cnrrent  fs 
made  to  travene  the  proposed  joint,  brin^g  it  to  the  welding 
temperature.  The  union  Is  eSccted  by  forcing  Ihe  pieces  together 
nechtnicsUy.  The  chnntcteifttic  feature  ol  Ihe  procns  is  the 
lul  tb>t  Ihe  beat  is  (iven  out  In  Ihe  body  of  the  meial. 

The  voll^e  does  not  UBuafly  exceed  Iwo  or  three,  though  it 


The  vollue 

piccea  Id  bt  JomeO 


txz 


With  allematuig  cunenti,  alao.  the  eflectivenex  of  (he 
dily  diminiahei^  on  account  of  tbc  inductive  drop  in  die 
ley  Hc  of  any  conndciable  length.  The  carrying  of  the 
irrcnta  over  a  diuance  of  levenl  I«t  may.  in  fact,  lead 
IsHci.  TheK  diSicuIiici  are  overcome  in  the  Tbomaon 
aaformer,  which  reeemblct  the  itefxlowB  tranafomera 
cctric  lighting  diitributioa  by  alternating  currenia,  with 
^._  .!._.. I indajy  coil  or  condt" *"""■"  ' ' 


liataotoi 


opper  wire  uman^  turn..    Th< 
'  endoHd.  ii  provided  with  tbi 


thrndiaa  both  primaiy 

m"  w  th^  i^ne  cUm 
■  are  variously  modlAed  ti 


/  cnnvenienl  value,  provided  tht  , 

adapted  thereto,  but  usually  300  vol  re  il  emplo] 
is  about  60  c)'cicL     IruHnuch  aa  orUy  ine 


jSS5 


jfo 'e3  ti 

iied..  T> 

delivered  and  appean  as  hm. 
leat  in  the  iranlormaiiDn  arpd 


;  a<  energy  it  cIokI>;  lncaliied.    The  chief 
le  eledrv  energy  11  delivered 


lorm  ium  (K  jfiHunr «  vk  mnaj.  ana  me  Dme  in  wnicn  a  j«ni 
to  be  made;  but  it  rarely  CKeeds  the  thichnen  cr  diameter  of  tl 
i^cca.  except  with  metab  of  high  heal  conductlviiy  such  oa  coppe 
When  the  plecei  are  in  place  ibe  cutienl  i>  turned  into  the  prnui 

mure  eftea  nadially.  Switdiei  and  reeulaling  device*  in  Iji 
primary  cimiii  permit  complete  and  delkate  control.  At  lean  or 
ollheelampa,  D  (fig.  t),  Ii  movable  ihiDugh  aliniitcd  rsngetowan: 
and  from  the  other,  and  it  thiu  rhe  meanx  of  ererting  prenuie  fr 
(oitinc  Ibe  aaflened  nelal  into  cnmf4ete  union.  In  lane  wnrk  tli 
hydiaulie  cylinder  and  piston,  under  wntbl 


II  obiedioBtblc,  and 


by  hiing  or  gnnding.  or  be 
hammered  down  while  the 

is  allowed  to  remain.    Lap  weld 
found  (D  be  totUactory  for  rr 

round  ban  in  abutment  brJore' ,, — „. - 

4t  B  they  ore  reprete nted  aa  havbig  been  ioincd  by  an  electnc  buti 
weld;  wilh  the  slight  upset  or  burr  al  the  (wnl.    Before  the  inirv 

platinum,  gold  And  iron,  were  regaided  aa  wektable;  now  nearly 
all  meialsand  allays  may  be  r^rilijy  jetfied-  &uch  combiaaiiacaas 
tin  and  lead,  copper  and  brass,  biasa  and  iron,  iron  and  nickd.  bia^ 
and  German  silver,  dver  and  copper,  copper  and  ploiinum.  Iron  and 
Gnman  silver,  lin  and  linc.  line  and  cadmium.  Ac.  ireeasilyniadel 
even  brittle  cryMalline  melals  Hh*  bitmulh  and  anlimony  i«ay 
be  weUed,  as  well  at  dilFeienl  melali  and  alloyt  whose  fusing  tr 
ufiening  temperatures  do  not  differ  too  widely. 


tUkS'lnj 


cnapHibed  *t  ■  Imnr  Hnpenlun.  Ihic 
r  I II I  ^11  baling.  While  the  picoi  ir 
HapentuR  may  niK  the  spedic  mitti 
t  current  requind  will  be  kteeoed  per  un 
er  band  tbe  flowing  pcffection  of  coota 
aaaf  the  coAdiKIini  area  at  tbc  Joint,  coi 
h  tende  to  tbe  Ibctok  of  cuimt.     V 


«eWer. 


lybefor 


ti»  another  valuable  effect  Id  property  distribntiiv  the  hratinc 
over  the  v4iole  eection  of  the  johiE.  Aity'peetion  whtch  may'"  '" 
1l>e  moment  at  a  kiwer  temperaiure  dan  Dcber  portLmA  viU 
Brilv  bave  a  lower  relative  reiuance,  and  marc  cunrnt  i 
diverted  to  it.  Tbii  aclioa  rapidly  brlMt  any 
equality  of  lenperaliin  irith  the  mt.  It  ai» 
bnting  of  the  interior  portioiia  which  are  not  loting  heal  by  ladiiiioa 
and  coDvecIion.  The  nacH  of  the  electric  procna  in  weUini 
3t  formerly  regarded  at  veldablc  u  probably 


o  prevent! 
-■— ■lealb 

ibk  L  ,. 

oF  [4aiticiEy  and  luubilitv  (ban  with  the  farac  Arc  or  blowpipe. 
The  mechamdl  prciMirt  may  be  nuionulicjlly  applied  anJ  the 


ta  ibii  cauie.  and  abo  to 


:kl.    In 


work  19  thui  rapidly  and  accuralcly  doK.      . ._  _. 

tepfMcntcd  in  fe.  3  haa  a  capacity  of  nearly  1000  wclda  per  day. 
TliepreMureicjuirfd  is  tubjeciioconiidcrable  variation:  tliemoit 

■eceaary  proaaiv.   WiUi  copper  the  force  may  be  about  too  pound* 


and  a&a.  tDgelher  with  moH  of  Ihc  mcu)  which  1;  rendered  plastic 
by  the  heal.    The  iliongett  electric  welds  air  those  eftected  by  (his 

" '    "  'rtrra  ihe  joinl,  in  conictiuencc  ol  heavy  rvcmurv  quickly 

the  linK  d  anpletiDa  oj  the  weld.    The  unhammered 

itlcnpli  as  the  anneaUd  imlal'^orfhc  ^^'ihc'bl^ti 


'X: 


I  the  weld  is  Ml  0. 


I^a  been  annisalcd  by  hfHtiw.  Hammering  or  foFiinglbe  joint  while 
the  metal  coob.  in  tnc  case  rJ  malleable  metals  such  as  iron  or  copwri 
wdl  UHuUy  greatly  toughen  the  metal,  aad  it  should  be  morted  lo 
Imrtiitly  effected  by  pbcing  the  wcM.  while  nil]  hot.  between  dies 

ai  in  drop-locgint. 
The  amount  of  electric  encray  necenary  for  vtldmg  by  the 

conductivity,  their  hent  conductivity,  fuiibility,  the  shape  tr{  the 

*E™*  iwulls  obtained  in  tlie  working  of  iflw.  brass  and  copper, 
■jhe  liginM  an  of  cniTse  oalYapproicirnaic,  and  ivler  to  one  oondiEion 

rapidly  the  work  it  done,  the  h-ss,  as  a  rule,  is  [he  total  eneijy 
r^juiiedi  but  the  rate  of  output  olthe  plant  must  be  iinTMsed  with 
incteaie  ol  speed,  and  this  involvea  a  laijtr  plani.  Ike  consequent 


503 

in  b*  vuldpa^  by  tbe  time,  the 
y  nqiilred  for  iSacinit  aectiona  o( 
t  sectaofl  of  the  diflermt  metals,  b 

'™^--- rapldj  than  the 


..  ,K^?Si 

relding  couki  be  made  the  nme  lor  various  icctHiiB,  h  Is  probable 
liat  the  enein  required  would  be  more  nearly  in  direct  praportion 
i  the  area  qf  section  lor  any  nvcn  metal.  This  relation  would 
owever,  oaly  bold  approdmately.  as  there  ic  a  gltatec  i^tlvc  losa 
E  heat  by  radiation  and  convecUon  inio  the  air  fmn  the  pieces  of 


I'm  oMi  smi. 

Sectioo.Sq  In. 

a^'oVweldeT.' 

^,. 

Wart-seconds. 

Bjt» 

3So,soo 

J5  ;   ;    : 

•is. 

^j 

iS™ 

b™,. 

« 

IK 

i:i':  : 

J6fl» 

!i 

iS 

C^Pt^. 

4M00 

in.  ■  ; 

3*-S«> 

CHSfloo 

It  the  piocesa  is  applicable  to  piece 


work  u  completed  Iw  drawi: 

-'--'—  • '  •-■  bendir 

of  Ibe 

through  the  fiill 


r , , ,.^.  through  d>.^ 

^.  -  ring  formed  by  bending  a  short  bar  into  a  circle  affords  an 

exceUeH  niiiKnitlon  of  Ibe  characHr  of  the  cumnti  employed  in 

Not  withstanding  Ibe  comparatively  free 

f  ibc  bent  bar,  Ihe 


I  anHmd  the  ring  thn.-^ -.  .. .  .... 

ent  beats  Ibe  abutted  eodl  to  the  welding  lemperature.     In 
way  waggon  and  carriage  wheel  tyres,  humess  nngs,  pail  and 

ess  is  alio  largely  BppUed  to  the  vridiiw  a  iron  and  topper 
.  .%  used  lor  electric  lines  and  coaductors.  oT  steel  aide^  tyres  and 
mcul  frames  used  in  cairiagc  work,  and  of  such  parts  of  blcydn  as 
pedals,  crank  hangen.  itat  posts,  torKs,  and  itsel  tubing  for  the 
Inmea.  Tbe  heat,  whether  it  beutfliicdin  wtldingorbnBna.isao 
tharp^r  locaKied  that  at   '  ....... 


^ipriog 


im  the  maid  or  Mint.   E^inscan  be  accurately  formfd 

___,  ._  .-.Dnc4  pieces  or  (0  caiiditiDnB  of 
impnctkaDie  with  the  ordinary  forge  dir  or 

Id  nibber  tyres  of  vehicles.    The  proiimity  of  the 

E  rubier  back  iitm  ihe  pnipeacd  jsini  and  sailing 
by  Ihe  electric  welding  clamps,  the  union  is  rapidly 
.   When  the  rubber  «l  the  tyrr  is  released,  it  cavers 


504 


WELDON— WELL 


the  joint.  res^Ining  TtB  comptete  Torm.   Special  manafactures  have 
in  some  cases  arisen  based  upon  the  use  of  electric  welding. 

The  welding  clamps,  and  the  mechanical  devices  connected  with 
them,  vary  widely  in  accordance  with  the  work  they  have  to  do.  A 
machine  for  formmg  metal  wheels  b  so  constructed  that  the  hubs  are 
made  in  two  sections,  which  when  brought  together  in  the  welder 
are  caused  to  embrace  the  radiating  iron  or  steel  spokes  of  the  wheel. 
The  two  sections  are  then  welded,  and  hold  the  spokes  in  solid  union 
with  themselves.  Another  machine,  desired  for  the  manufacture 
of  wire  fcnces.makcs  several  welds  automatically  and  simultaneously 
Galvanized  iron  wires  are  fed  into  the  machine  from  itcls  in  several 
parallel  lin^  about  a  foot  apart,  and  at  intervals  are  crossed  at 
right  angles  by  wire  sections  cut  automatically  from  another  reel 
01  wire.  As  the  wire  passes,  electric  welds  are  lormcd  between  the 
transverse  and  the  parallel  lines.  The  machine  delivers  a  continuous 
web  of  wire  fencing,  which  u  wound  upon  a  drum  and  removed  from 
time  to  time  in  large  rolls.  In  the  United  States,  street  railway 
rails  are  welded  into  a  continuous  metal  structure.  A  huge  welding 
transformer  b  suspended  upon  a  crane,  which  b  borne  upon  a  car 
arranged  to  run  upon  the  track  as  it  is  laid.  The  joint  between  the 
ends  of  two  contiguous  rails  is  made  by  welding  lateral  strap  pieces, 
covering  the  joint  at  each  side  and  taking  the  place  6i  the  ordinary 
fish-plates  and  bolts.  The  exertion  of  a  greatly  increased  pressure 
at  the  finish  of  the  welding  seems  to  be  dtxidediy  favourable  to  the 
permanence  and  strength  of  the  joints.  When  properly  made,  the 
joint  b  strong  enough  to  resist  the  strains  of  extension  and  com* 
pression  during  temperature  changes.  For  electric  railways  the 
welded  joint  obviates  all  necessity  for  "  bonding  "  the  rails  together 
with  cppper  wires  to  convert  them  into  continuous  lines  of  return 
conductors  for  the  railway  current.  In  railway  welding  the  source 
of  energy  is  usually  a  current  delivered  from  the  trolley  line  itself  to 
a  rotary  converter  mounted  on  the  welding  car,  whereby  an  alter* 
nating  current  b  obtained  for  feeding  the  pnmary  circuit  of  the  weld- 
ing transformer.  Power  from  a  oistant  station  is  thus  made  to 
produce  the  heat  required  for  track  welding,  and  at  exactly  the  place 
where  it  is  to  be  utilized.  In  this  instance  the  work  is  stationary 
while  the  welding  apparatus  is  moved  from  one  joint  to  the  next. 
Welding  transformers  arc  sometimes  used  to  heat  metal  for  annealing, 
for  forging,  bending,  or  shaping,  for  tempering,  or  for  hard  soldering. 
Under  special  conditions  they  are  well  adapted  to  these  purposes, 
on  account  of  the  perfect  control  of  the  heating  or  energy  deliver)', 
and  the  rapidity^  and  cleanliness  of  the  operation. 

Divested  of  its  welding  clamps,  the  welding  transformer  has 
found  a  unique  application  in  the  armour-annealing  process  cf 
Armnmi^.  ^™P'  ^Y  mcaus  of  which  spotis  or  lines  are  locally  annealed 
^f""**  in  hard-faced  ship's  armour,  so  that  it  can  be  drilled  or 
'■~V|-^  cut  as  desired.  Before  the  introduction  of  this  process, 
munmmiMug,  j^  ^^  practically  impossible  to  render  any  portion  of  the 
hardened  face  of  such  armour  workable  by  cutting  tools  without 
detriment  to  the  hardness  of  the  rest.  A  very  heavy  electric  current 
is  passed  through  the  spot  or  area  which  it  is  desired  to  soften,  so 
that,  notwithstanding  the  rapid  conduction  of  heat  into  the  body 
of  the  plate,  the  metal  is  brought  to  a  low  red  heat.  In  order  that 
the  spot  shall  not  reharden,  it  is  nhquisite  that  the  rate  of  cooling 
shall  be  slower  than  when  the  heating  current  is  cut  off  suddenly, 
the  current  therefore  undergoes  gradual  diminution,  under  control 
d  the  operator.  The  wddinE  transformer  has  for  its  secondary 
terminals  simply  two  copper  blocks  fixed  in  position,  and  mounted 
at  a  distance  of  an  inch  or  more  apart.  Tncse  are  placed  firmly 
against  the  face  of  the  armour  plate,  with  the  spot  to  be  annealed 
bridsing  the  contacts,  or  situated  between  them.  As  in  track 
welcnng,  the  transformer  is  made  movable,  so  tlut  it  can  be  brought 
into  aify  position  desired.  When  the  annealing  is  to  be  done  along 
a  line,  the  secondary  terminals,  with  the  transformer,  are  slowly 
and  steadily  slid  over  the  face  of  the  plate,  new  portions  of  the  plate 
being  thus  continually  brought  between  the  terminals,  while  those 
which  had  reached  tnc  proper  heat  are  slowly  removed  from  the 
termlaaU  and  cool  gradually.  (£.  T.) 

WELDON,  WALTER  (i83>-i88s),  Englbh  technical  chemist, 
was  bom  at  Loughborough  on  the  31st  of  October  1832.  In 
1854  be  began  to  work  as  a  joumalbt  in  London  in  connexion 
with  the  Dm/ .  which  was  afterwards  incorporated  in  the  Morning 
Star^  and  !n  i860  he  started  a  monthly  magazine,  Weldon's 
Register  of  Pacts  and  Ouurrences  relating  to  Literature,  the 
Sciences  md  the  Arts^  which  was  discontinued  after  about  three 
years'  existence.  Though  he  was  withoat  practical  knowledge 
of  the  science.  Wcldon  turned  to  industrial  chembtry,  and  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years  took  out  the  patents  which  led  to  his 
**  manganese-regeneration  *'  process  (see  Chlokzne).  Thb  was 
put  into  operation  about  iSiSg.  and  by  1875  it  was  being  used 
by  almost  every  chlorine  manufacturer  of  importance  throughout 
Europe.  He  continued  to  work  at  the  production  of  chlorine 
in  connexion  with  the  procenes  of  alkali-manufacture  (9.9.)*  and 
became  a  leading  authority  on  the  subject,  but  none  of  his  later 
pmposab^not  even  the  Weldon-Pechmey  magnesia  process. 


which  was  established  on  a  conunercf  a!  scale  only  a  yecr  or  two 
before  his  death — met  with  equal  success.  He  died  at  Burstow, 
Surrey,  on  the  20th  of  September  1885.  He  professed  Sweden- 
borgian  principles  and  was  a  believer  in  spiritualbm. 

Hb  son,  Walter  Frank  Raphael  Weldon  (1860-1906),  was 
appointed  in  1899  Linacre  professor  of  comparative  anatomy 
at  Oxford. 

WELF  or  GUEIPH,  a  princely  family  of  Germany,  descended 
from  Count  Warin  of  Altorf  (8th  century),  whose  son  Isenbrand 
b  said  to  have  named  bb  family  Welfen,  i.e.  whelps.  From  his 
son  Well  I.  (d.  824)  were  descended  the  kings  of  Upper  Burguindy 
and  the  elder  German  line  of  Welf.  Welf  IIL  (d.  1055)  obtained 
the  duchy  of  Cartnthia  and  the  March  of  Verona.  With  him 
the  elder  line  became  extinct,  but  hb  grandson  in  the  female 
line,  Welf  IV.  (as  duke,  Welf  I.),  foundoJ  the  younger  line,  and 
became  duke  of  Bavaria  in  107a  Henry  the  Black  (d.  11 26),  by 
hb  marriage  with  a  daughter  of  Magnus,  duke  of  Saxony,  ob- 
tained half  of  the  tatter's  hereditary  possessions,  including 
Lfineburg,  and  his  son  Henry  the  Proud  {q.v.)  inherited  by 
marriage  the  emperor  Lothalr's  lands  in  Brimswick,  &c.,  and 
received  the  duchy  of  Saxony.  The  power  which  the  family 
thus  acquired,  and  the  consequent  rivalry  with  the  house  of 
Hohenstaufen,  occasioned  the  strife  of  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines 
{q.v.)  in  Italy.  Henry  the  Lion  lost  the  duchies  of  Bavaria  and 
Saxony  by  his  rebellion  in  1180,  and  Welf  VI.  (d.  1191)  left  hb 
hereditary  lands  in  Swabia  and  hb  Italian  possessions  to  the 
emperor  Henry  VT.  Thus,  although  one  of  the  Welfs  reigned  as 
the  emperor  Otto  IV.,  there  remained  to  the  family  nothing  but 
the  lands  inherited  from  the  emperor  Lothair,  which  were  made 
into  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  in  1 235.  Of  the  many  branches 
of  the  house  of  Brimswick  that  of  Wolfenbiiitel  became  extinct 
in  1884,  and  that  of  Ltineburg  received  the  electoral  dignityof 
Hanover  in  1692,  and  founded  the  Hanoverian  dynasty  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  in  17 14.  For  its  further  hbtory  sec 
Hanover.    The  Hanoverian  legitimists  in  the  German  Reichs* 

tag  are  known  as  Welfen. 

See  Sir  A.  Halliday.  History  cf  tke  Home  of  Cuetph (1621) ',Ti.  D. 
Lloyd,  Origin  of  tke  Uuelphs\  F.  schmidt.  Die  AnfiMgfiaes  vtlJUchen 
CescUechts  (Hanover.  1900). 

WELHAVEN,  JOHANN  SEBASHAN  CAHMERMEYER  (1807- 
XB73),  Norwegian  poet  and  critic,  was  bom  at  Bergen,  the  son 
of  a  pastor,  in  1807.  He  first  studied  theology,  but  from  1828 
onwards  devoted  himself  to  literature.  In  1840  he  became 
reader  and  subsequently  professor  of  philosophy  at  Christiania, 
and  delivered  a  series  of  impressive  lectures  on  literary  subjects. 
In  1836  he  vbited  France  and  Germany;  and  in  1858  he  went 
to  Italy  to  study  archaeology.  His  influence  was  extended  by 
his  appointment  as  director  of  the  Society  of  Ails.  He  died  at 
Christiania  on  the  21st  of  October  1873.  Welhaveo  made  his 
name  as  the  representative  of  conservatbm  in  Norwegian  litera- 
ture. In  a  violent  attack  on  Wergeiand's  poetry  he  opposed 
the  theories  of  the  extreme  nationalists.  He  desired  to  see 
Norwegian  culture  brought  into  line  with  that  of  other  Eurc^an 
countries,  and  he  himself  followed  the  romantic  tradition,  being, 
most  closely  influenced  by  J.  L.  Heiberg.  He  represented  clear- 
ness and  moderation  against  the  extravagances  of  Wergeland. 
He  gave  an  admirable  practical  exposition  of  his  aesthetic  creed 
in  the  sonnet  cycle  Norges  Daemring  (1834).  He  published 
a  volume  of  Digle  in  1839;  and  in  1845  Nyere  Digte.  The  collec- 
tions of  old  Norse  poetry  made  by  Asbj($m8en  and  Moeinfluenced 
his  talent,  and  he  first  showed  hb  full  powers  as  a  poet  in  Jiycre 
Diglte.  Hb  descriptive  poetry  b  admirable,  but  hb  best  work 
was  inspired  by  hb  poems  on  old  Norse  subjects,  in  which  he 
gives  himself  imreservedly  to  patriotic  enthusiasm.  Other  poems 
followed  in  1848,  x8$i  and  1859. 

His  critical  work  includes  Ewald  ot  de  norske  Digtere  (1863),  On 
LudwigHolberf  (1854).  Welhaven's  Samlede  Skrifler  were  published 
in  8  vols,  at  Copenhagen  (1867-1869]. 

WEIX*  the  name  given  to  an  artificial  boring  in  the  earth 
through  which  water  can  be  obtained.  Two  classes  may  be 
distinguished:  shallow  or  orcUnary  wells,  sunk  through  a  per- 
meable stratum  until  an  impermeable  stratum  is  reached;  and 
deep  and  Artesian  wells  (^.*.),  the  latter  named  from  Artois 


ta  Frsnn,«Udi  «n  imk  tUMa^  u  ImpcniMibk  ftnlom  dovn 
into  &  walcT-btwing  BdUum  which  oveiik*  in  imperfneaUe 
Uruum.  Obviouilyoidiiury  wells  can  lupftlyiimcrvaycbeapty, 
but,  sion  impiuitki  Nidily  reach  tbcm,  (bere  u  gmt  luk  of 
ccolaminMica.  Tbe  nnx  does  nol  ipply  to  deep  welts,  luch 
water  bciog  uoelly  free  fron  oiguk  impmitiei.  In  ordbiuy 
vdls,  isd  in  deep  wdb,  Ibe  wmlcr  reqaim  pumping  to  (he  nit- 
face;  in  artesian  velk,  on  the  other  huid,  Ibo  vater  uraoUy 
■pouts  up  to  a  gieala  « ten  hei^  above  it 

The  SHOnduy  and  Tertiary  geologkal  Conudoai,  audt  ae  thoae 
undemntta  Loiidaa  and  Fani,  olles  awmt  the  appeamca  of 
immeiuo  bulni,  Um  boundaiy  or  rim  of  the  baiia  bavins  baea  loiaMd 
by  an  upheaval  of  the  nibjuxnl  lUata.  In  thoo  (onDatiam  it  often 
happens  that  a  paroua  MratDin  k  inchided  between  two  impermnble 
liven  of  day.  is  a>  to  fmi  a  Hat  conn  U  tube,  eontbiuiiui  fnnn 
nda  tD  tide  of  tic  valley,  the  outcnp  on  the  ■unundinc  hilli 
Iscmini  the  mouth  «f  the  tuba.  The  rain  hltBina  down  thiouih  the 
porous  taycr  to  the  bottom  of  the  bada  foma  tboe  a  nbtenanean 
pool,  which  urith  the  Gquid  or  aenii-Kqukl  eoluina  pnanna  upon  It 
cDonitiittaa  ion  of  hu«  aatuial  hydroitatic  hellinn.  ttuobvlooi 
that,  that  wbea  a  hole  i  hored  down  thnnijh  dtc  npptr  tnipenieable 
layer  to  the  auiface  rf  tbe  lake,  the  water  will  I*  bincd  up  by  ihla 
proaure  to  a  hriilit  above  the  lurface  of  the  valley  gnaier  oi  Ina 
■crording  to  the  ttevation  of  tbe  level  In  the  feeding  column,  ibiu 

la  t£e  Tcjtiajy  formatwia,  the  poroui  layen 
in  tbe  Seeondary,  and  oooiequently  tbe  occutAi 
lakea  it  not  on  10  grand  a  scale:  but  tbexe  beii 
alternation  of  (hcte  Kandy  beds,  we  6nd  ■  jn-oiii 


VXLL 

ft-by  Mui:ti  Ilj7.    ItalsuTdc 


ot  K>  thick  ai 
underground 

^orlE™, 


It  does  not  lollaw  that  all  the  eitenliaU  fot  on  oneaian  well  are 
present,  though  two  impermeable  itrala  with  a  porous  one  between 
may  crop  out  round  a  bailB.  There  must  iho  be  cmftiiirily  of  the 
peatncabla  bed  for  the  uidntetrupted  paiiafe  of  tbe  water,  and  no 
bnsch  in  either  of  tbe  ixaHnkig  layen  by  vludi  the  water  ni^ 
escape.  It  hu  octaiionally  ha^ieoed  that  on  deepeaing  the  bore, 
with  tlic  hope  of  Increailog  tbe  flow  of  water,  it  has  ceased  alio- 
gether,  donbtlen  tfHii  Ibe  lower  confining  layer  being  picnxd,  and 
the  water  ahowx)  to  eacapa  by  another  outlet.  The  iubtefnnran 
V  ol  •«">  oaeat,  Bad  of  the  natun  of  a  channel 


rather  than  of  a  bnid  it , „„  . 

^Hng  is  no  suarantee  that  soother  will  be  found  by  oierely 
to  (he  sane  depth  In  ha  ne^lhbniilwod.    F^uha  also  have  an 


the  «a 


a*, 


V,  which  Id  many  en 
iworaditi.   TMm 


^npartsup[«edby  the'Chalk,  wh , 

...  Red.    Tbe  theoretical  determination  gf  (he  eiistence  of 

artesiao  condltiona  can  be  aziived  at  only  by  a  thuoogh  acquaint- 
once  with  tbe  geology  of  -  the  diatifct.  Althnu^  mter  tram  dei^ 
wells  is  fcee  fnun  ofunic  matter,  it  usually  containa  salts  sudi  aa 

ing  and  certain  lUanuTacturing  purposes  although  it  is  fit  for  drinking. 

The  mecianical  ajrliances  employed  la  boring  tor  water  are 
practically  the  iimc  as  In  boring  for  petroleum  (jJ.).  The 
nppei  pan  of  a  deep  well  may  be  of  Stick,  the  continuation 
being  Ikied  with  steel  pipes,  oi,  bcttei,it  may  be  lined  with  metal 
tor  iu  entire  length. 

One  of  the  mon  remarkable  arte^an  wells  Is  at  Crendle.  near 
Paris.  The  operation  of  boring  extended  Irom  1834  to  1B41 ;  after  a 
depth  of  I'M  ft'  had  been  reached  (Mxy  IBjT).  ■  length  of  370  ft. 
oi  the  boring  rode  brol»  and  fell  to  the  botloei  of  the  hole,  and 
nearly  fifteen  months'  constant  labour  was  required  to  pick  it  up 
again,  IDiscoLiraged  by  (he  delay,  the  Frei^ch  govcmnient  was  to 
haveabandoned  the  project  after  a  depth  of  1500  ft.  had  been  reached 
without  any  sstUfactDry  reanlt;  bnt  Ango  nrevailad  on  (hem  to 
pnaecute  (he  w«fc,  oad  on  addi^nal  depth  of  about  300  ft.  proved 
the  correclness  of  Ango's  theory.  On  the  afilh  February  ie4(,  at 
n  depth  of  1708  ft.,  the  boring  rods  suddenly  ihnk  a  few  yards,  and 
withm  a  few  hours  a  vast  column  of  water  spouted  up  at  the  rale  of 
60D  gallons  per  minute,  and  at  a  temperatm*  of  Dtariy  fo^  F. 
I^kir  so  (bis  no  arteilan  boring  had  reaehcd  even  (ooo  ft. ;  aiul  that 
of  Crenelle  was  the  deepeat  eneciited  (ill  the  completion  (■  itb  August 
itfa)  of  (he  lalt-ipring  at  ICisdiuen,  in  Bavaria,  which  throw*  up  a 
column  of  water  to  the  height  oT  5B  ft-  fraoi  a  depth  ot  1878I  fl. 
'   "    '  '  thit  ifitinc  is  that  the  projecting 

..iBisara,  bhi  to  that  of  carboidc  add 

., of  the  maom  wkh  the  magnerian 

about  16S0  ft.  down.   Modi 


—  ,  .- ^„. to  exoed  these  Arteslar 

■derably,  and  at  a  greatly  diminished  cost.   Thei 

Pads,  which  l>  (applied  freia  the  one  water-bearing _ 

{hat  el  Cronelfc.  iw  bored  by  Kind  in  a  very  ibori  time,  having 


Passy, 

-  -me.  ha._ 
depth  «1  173a 


•ia'ss 


Iho«  ol  Grendle  and  Paw.  the  following  may  be  menliDurd.  A 
gigantic  bore,  s  ft-  7  in.  in  diameter,  was  begun  in  Janu^irv  1B66  at 
La  Chapelle.  and  by  November  (869  had  reulied  a  depth  of  181 1  ft., 
the  intention  being  to  Rtend  it  to  a  depth  of  »MOl(.  A  bore  of 
ig  m.  diameter  was  carried  down  to  a  depth  of  1J70  ft.  in  about 
two  and  a  half  years  f  1864-1867),  for  the  purpov  of  obtaining  a 
water-supply  fot  the  sugar  tcBnery  of  Say  in  f^ri!,;  and  the  una 
engineer  *bo  nccnled  thia  work  (Dtu)  bene  i-  '"^  —  — ^,. 
boring  of  the  huge  diameter  of  6|  ft.  at  the  pa 


CaOla 

300  to  400  ft.  in  depth,  and  fiom  a  to  Si 
bore-hole. 

The  Tertiary  chalk  strata  over  which  London 
ridillnl  with  artcnan  borings  for  the  ■>>'•  '^  '" 
of  the  large  London  factorir 
"■  ^ly  artedaa  wr" ""  '" 


Many  of  tbe       _  _. 

•uppued  by  artedas  weUa  over  m  It.  deep.  At  Menon  in  Sumn 
at  Biifhtoii,  at  Southampton,  alfalong  the  east  coast  of  Uncolnshin 
and  ID  the  low  district  between  (he  chalk  wolds  near  Louth  and  tb 
«7,.v  — _,n  borings  have  long  been  known,  and  go  by  the  nam 
unong  the  people  ol  the  district.  The  general  level  t 
ler  rSea  In  the  London  district  has  been  very  sensibi' 


ehicbthew 

osrerad  by  ine  ivmei 

nade;  and  In  several 


of  the  artc^n  bonnes  m  England  approach  the  depths 

■  -a  the  Continent  and  in  Amenea-   tbe  average  depth  of 

'bearing  stntum  arDtind  Paris  Is  sit  timea  that  of  the 

alk  beds;  and  in  eomepartsofGernany  and  of  America, 

been  sunk  (q  even  double  the  depth  of  the  Parisian  wells 

=  and  Paxiy-    In  Chicago  there  are  several  wells  mon 

ft.  deep;  and  at  West  Chicago  in  I>upage  county, 

TeisoDe3i>8lft.deep.   Inlherityof  St  Louis,  Mwiiri, 

1  wtesnn  well  38«(  It.  deep,  yiekKng  a  lew  gallos*  iri 

r  (temperature,  lOJ*  F.>  a  nunutc:  botfng  was  stopped  in 

^.  1S6S.     Among  the  deepest  borings  m  (he  worid  or: 

a  Putnam  Height.,  Windham  cmn(ft£onneclicu(,  6004  ft. 


o  It.  deep  and  6 


Lawienoa'cotiBty.  Aktlama. 

._ djamcter.  yleldinf  gna,  oil  and  salt  water; 

:  4300  f( !  at  Sperenberg  m  m.  from  Berlin,  sank 

of  obtaining  a  supply  of  nxk  aaltr-th«  salt  depo4t 


o^ta£,^ 
bed  the  depth 
Ft.  deep,  whl^ 


here  is  wo; 

The  following  are  some  of  the  other  most  Imp 
dnUngs  that  have  been  made.    Ac  Louisville,  Kent 

Bummer  of  i8;S;  it  yields  ^  gallons  a  minute  a 
rises  170  ft.  high.  A  C:harl»ton,  South  Carolina, 
well  lojo  It.  deep  and  4  in.  in  diameter,  yicUioi 

K lions  a  minute ;  iHS  three  more  ea^  exceeding  iq 
iSs8  a  well  St  Neusalweri^oear  Minden,  hatTra 
of  sifs  f t.  At  Bourne,  Lincolnshire,  there  ii  a  well  t|< 

yi^  overhaU  a  million  gallons  of  water  per  day,  if., ......,, 

sufficient  to  supiJy  the  town  and  lorce  the  water  to  the  tope  of  tbe 
highest  bouss.  There  is  one  in  Phlkdclpbla  (Mount  Vernon  and 
minute.    There  are  several  deep  wells  in  South  Dakou:  in  ^rdeen 

reapectivdy.  per  minute.  Two  aneMan  wells  at  Creydon  sJppW 
DiiQioaiplkinsof  water)>eTday:aDd  Brighton  draws  over  a  million 
nllons  Irom  artesian  sinkings.  There  is  a  well  at  Bages.  near 
Perpignan,  which  gives  J30  grillons  per  minule;  and  one  at  Toun, 
which  jetiaTnut  6  ft.above  ground,  and  givesi37  gallons  per  minute. 
The  boring  of  wclla  in  the  great  desert  of  Eshsra  is  a  very  ancient 

artesiaB  wells-  The  avenge  depth  oC  tbe«  is  from  160  to  300  ftn 
and  tbe  epper  strata  have  only  to  be  [Merced  to  ^vq  a  constant 
stream.  Wiih  their  primitive  methods  ol  boring,  the  Arabs  oftea 
labour  for  years  before  they  reach  the  wiihcd-for  pool;  and  with 
only  palm  wood  as  a  canng.  they  have  great  diiliculty  in  Ivcplng 
the  boro-hole  from  closing  up  by  tbe  drifting  a(  the  sand,  ani  they 
lequin  to  scour  them  out  penodicaliy.  Since  1858  on  ■.H.*^*'TTft 
number  of  periorationi  have  be^n  made  by  French  cngineera,  aod 
"'■-  '— "---ig  effect  upon  the  sandy  desert  plains  has  alieady  made 


dloppoient-   The  unportBDce  of 


hospitaU.  dFc..  Bt 


ibly  the  t 

alleia»3'_  

St  thnr  havaaesanuaeoBrtt, 
of  W*  F-,  that  si  St  Louit 


5o6 


WELLES— WELUESLEY,  MARQUESS 


one  cX  7V^4  F.  that  of  Louuville  761*  F..  and  tliat  of  Chaikttoa 
87  F.  The  average  rate  of  increaie  of  temperature  is  1*  for  a 
descent  of  from  40  to  55  ft.  In  WQrttemberg  the  water  of  artesian 
wells  is  emploved  to  maintain  in  large  manufactories  a  constant 
temperature  of  47*  when  it  is  freezing  outside.  Artesian  waters 
have  also  been  employed  to  reduce  the  extreme  variations  of 
temperature  in  Fsh-ponds. 

WELLES,  GIDEON  (1802-1878),  American  political  leader, 
was  born  at  Glastonbury,  Connecticut,  on  the  ist  of  July  1802. 
He  studied  for  a  time  at  Norwich  University,  Vermont,  but  did 
not  graduate.  From  1826  to  1837  he  edited  the  Hartford  Times, 
making  it  the  official  organ  of  the  Jacksonian  Democracy  in  south- 
em  New  England.  He  served  in  the  state  House  of  Representatives 
in  1827, 1829-30, 1832  and  1834-35,  was  sUte  comptroller  in  1835 
and  1842-43,  was  postmaster  at  Hartford  in  183 5-4^1  and  was 
chief  of  the  bureau  of  provisions  and  dothlng  In  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment at  Washington  in  1846-1849.  Leaving  the  Democratic 
party  on  the  Kansas-Nebraska  issue,  be  assist^  in  the  formation 
of  the  Republican  party  in  Connecticut,  and  was  its  candidate  for 
governor  in  1856;  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Republican  national 
conventions  of  1 856  and  1 860.  On  the  inauguration  of  President 
Lincoln  in  x86x  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  navy,  a  position 
which  he  held  until  the  close  of  President  Andrew  Johnson's 
administration  in  1869.  Although  deficient  in  tedmical  training, 
he  handled  with  great  skill  the  difficult  problems  which  were 
presented  by  the  Civil  War.  The  number  of  naval  ships  was 
increased  between  z86i  and  1865  from  90  to  670,  the  officers 
Irom  1300  to  6700,  the  seamen  from  7500  to  sitSoo,  and  the 
annual  expenditure  from  $12,000,000  to  $123,000,000;  important 
changes  were  made  in  the  art  of  naval  construction,  and  the 
blockade  of  the  Confederate  ports  was  effectively  maintained. 
Welles  su[^rted  President  Johnson  in  his  quarrel  with  Congress, 
took  part  in  the  Liberal  Republican  movement  of  1872,  and 
returning  to  the  Democratic  party,  warmly  advocated  the 
election  of  Samuel  J.  Tildcn  in  1876.  He  died  at  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  on  the  xxth  of  February  1878. 

In  1874  WeUes  published  Lincctn  and  Seward,  in  which  he  refutes 
the  charge  that  Seward  dominated  the  Administration  during  the 
Civil  War.  His  Diary,  which  appeared  in  the  AUanltc  Monthly 
(X909>i9Xi),  is  extremely  valuable  for  the  study  of  the  Civil  War 
and  Reconstruction.  See  also  Albert  Welles,  History  of  the  WeUes 
Family  (New  York.  1876). 

WEIXE8LET.  RICHARD  COLLET  WESLEY  (or  Weliesley), 
Marquess  (1760-1842),  eldest  son  of  the  ist  earl  of  Momington, 
an  Irish  peer,  and  brother  of  the  famous  duke  of  Wellington, 
was  bom  on  the  30th  of  June  1760.  He  was  sent  to  Eton, 
where  he  was  distingubhed  as  a  classical  scholar,  and  to  Christ 
Chitfch,  Oxford.  By  his  father's  death  in  1781- he  became  eari 
of  Momington,  taking  his  seat  in  the  Irish  House  of  Peers.  In 
1784  he  entered  the  English  House  of  Commons  as  member  for 
BeeraJston.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  appointed  a  lord  of  the 
treasury  by  Pitt.  In  1793  he  became  a  member  of  the  board 
of  control  over  Indian  stairs;  and,  although  he  was  best 
known  by  his  speeches  in  defence  of  Pitt's  foreign  policy,  he 
was  gaining  the  acquaintance  with  Oriental  affairs  which  made 
his  rule  over  India  so  effective  from  the  moment  when,  in  1797, 
he  accepted  the  office  of  govemor-generaL  Weliesley  seems  to 
have  caught  Pitt's  hrge  political  spirit  during  his  intercourse 
with  him  from  1793  to  1797.  That  both  had  consciously  formed 
the  design  of  acquiring  a  great  empire  in  India  to  compensate  for 
the  loss  ol  the  American  colonics  is  not  proved;  but  the  rivalry 
with  France,  which  in  Europe  placed  England  at  the  head  oif 
CMUtion  after  coalition  against  the  French  republic  and  empire, 
made  Wdlesley's  rule  in  India  an  epoch  of  enormous  and  rapid 
extension  of  English  power.  Clive  won  and  Warren  Hastings 
consolidated  the  British  ascendancy  in  India,  but  Wdlesley 
extended  it  into  an  empire.  On  the  voyage  outwards  he  formed 
the  design  of  annihilating  French  influence  in  the  Deccan.  Soon 
after  his  landing,  in  April  1798,  he  learnt  that  an  alliance  was 
being  negotiated  between  Tippoo  Sultan  and  the  French  repnbUe. 
Weliesley  resolved  to  antidpate  the  action  of  the  enemy,  and 
ordered  preparations  for  war.  The  first  step  was  to  effect  the 
disbaadment  of  the  French  troops  entertained  by  the  Nisam 
•i  Hydw^ad.    The  invasiMi  of  Myaove  followed  hi  February 


1799,  and  the  ciinptigB  was  bravgfh't  to  a  npkl  doie  by  the 
capture  of  Seringapatam.  In  1805  the  restoration  of  the  pesbwa 
proved  the  prelude  to  the  Mahratta  war  against  Sindhta  and  the 
raja  of  Berar.  The  result  of  these  wars  and  of  the  treaties 
which  followed  them  was  that  French  influence  in  India  was 
extinguished,  that  forty  millions  of  population  and  ten  millions 
of  revenue  were  added  to  the  British  dorainioDS,  and  that  the 
powers  of  the  Mahr;^tta  and  all  other  princes  were  so  reduced  that 
England  became  the  really  dominant  authority  over  all  India. 
He  found  the  East  India  (Company  a  trading  body,  he  left  it 
an  imperial  power.  He  was  an  excellent  administrator,  and  sought 
to  provide,  by  the  foundation  of  the  college  of  Fort  William, 
for  the  training  of  a  class  of  men  adequate  to  the  great  work  of 
governing  India.  In  connexion  with  this  ooU^e  he  established 
the  govemor-general's  office,  to  which  civilians  who  had  shown 
talent  at  the  college  were  transferred,  in  order  that  they 
might  Icam  something  of  the  highest  statesmanship  in  the 
immediate  service  of  their  chief.  A  free-trader,  like  Pitt,  he 
endeavoured  to  remove  some  of  the  restrictions  on  the  trade 
between  England  and  India.  Both  the  commercial  policy  of 
Weliesley  and  his  educational  projects  brought  him  into  hostility 
with  the  court  of  directors,  and  he  more  than  once  tendered  his 
resignation,  which,  however,  public  necessities  led  him  to  post- 
pone till  the  autumn  of  1805.  He  reached  England  just  in  time 
to  see  Pitt  before  his  death.  He  had  been  created  an  English 
peer  in  1797,  and  in  X799  an  Irish  marquess. 

On  the  fsJl  oi  the  ooalition  ministry  in  1807  Weliesley  was 
invited  by  George  UI.  to  join  the  duke  of  Portland's  cabmet, 
but  he  declined,  pending  the  discussion  in  parliament  of  certain 
charges  brought  against  him  in  respect  of  his  Indian  administra- 
tion. Resolutions  condemning  him  for  the  abuse  of  power 
were  moved  in  both  the  Lords  and  Commons,  but  defeated  by 
large  majorities.  In  1809  Weliesley  was  appointed  ambassador 
to  Spab.  He  knded  at  (^adiz  just  after  the  battle  of  Talavcra, 
and  endeavoured,  but  without  success^  to  bring  the  Spanish 
government  into  effective  eo-operation  with  his  brother,  who, 
through  the  failure  of  his  allies,  had  been  compelled  to  retreat 
into  Portugal.  A  few  months  later,  after  the  duel  between 
Canning  and  CasUereag^  and  the  resignation  of  both,  Welledey 
accepted  the  post  of  foreign  secretary  in  Perceval's  cabinet. 
He  held  this  office  untfl  February  18x2,  when  he  retired,  partly 
from  dissatisfaction  at  the  inadequate  support  given  to  Wellington 
by  the  ministry,  but  also  because  he  had  become  convin^  that 
the  question  of  (^Uholic  emancipation  could  no  longer  be  kept 
in  the  background.  From  early  life  Weliesley  had,  unlike  his 
brother,  been  an  advocate  of  Catholic  emancipation,'  and  with 
the  daim  of  the  Irish  Catholics  to  justice  he  henceforward 
identified  himself.  On  Perceval's  assassination  he  refused  to 
join  Lord  Liverpool's  administration,  and  he  remained  out  of 
office  till  i8ai,  critidzjng  with  severity  the  proceedings  of  the 
congress  of  Vienna  and  the  European  settlement  of  1814,  which, 
while  it  reduced  France  to  its  andent  limits,  left  to  the  other  great 
powers  the  territory  that  they  had  acquired  by  the  partition  of 
Poland  and  the  destruction  of  Venice.  He  was  one  of  the  peers 
who  signed  the  protest  against  the  enactment  of  the  Com 
Laws  in  18x5.  In  i8ax  he  was  appointed  lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland.  Catholic  emandpation  had  now  become  an  open 
question  In  the  cabinet,  and  Wellealey's  acceptance  of  the  vice- 
royalty  was  believed  in  Ixdaad  to  hmld  the  immediate  settle- 
ment of  the  Catholic  claims.  The  Oruge  faction  was  incensed 
by  the  firmness  with  which  their  excesses  were  now  repressed, 
and  Weliesley  was  on  one  occasion  mobbed  and  insulted.  But 
the  hope  of  the  Catholics  still  remained  vnfvlfilled.  Lord 
Liverpool  died  without  having  grap^^ted  with  the  {nroblem. 
Caxming  in  turn  passed  away;  and  on  the  assumption  of  office 
by  Wellington,  who  was  opposed  to  Catholic  emandpation,  his 
brother  resigned  the  lord-lieutenancy.  He  had,  however,  the 
•atisfactlon  of  seeing  the  Catholic  claims  settled  in  the  next  year 
by  the  very  statesmen  who  had  declared  against  them.  Is  1833 
be  resumed  the  office  of  lord-lieutenant  under  Earl  Grey,  bat 
the  ministry  soon  fell,  and,  with  one  short  exception,  Wdiesley 
did  not  further  take  part  in  official  life.     He  died  on  the 


WELLESL^V— WELLINGTON,  isr  DUKE  OF 


26tli  of  September  ZS43.  Heh&d  no  successorfn  tbe  marqtdsate, 
but  the  earldom  of  Mornington  and  minor  honours  devolved  on 
his  brother  William,  Lord  Maryboroxigh,  on  the  failure  of  whose 
issue  in  1863  they  feU  to  the  2nd  duke  of  WeUington. 

See  Montgomery  Martin,  Despatches  qf  the  Marquess  WeOesUj 
(1840);  W.  M.  Torrens,  Tkt  Marvaest  Wettedsy  (1880):  W.  H. 
Huttoa.X«n<  WeUaky  ("  Riikr» of  India "  leriei,  l89t3>:ania  a 
MalUww,  WelUsUy  C'^Sutesmea"  eeries,  1895).    ^^ 

WBLUSLEY,  a  townahip  of  Norfolk  counly,  Mttiadittsetts, 
U.S.A.,  14  m.  S.W.  of  Boston.    Pop.  (1890)  3600,  (xgoo)  so7a> 
of  wfaam  X306  were  foreisn-born  and  17  were  negroes,  (1910 
census)   5413.    Ana,   io>4  sq.  n.    WeUealey  is  served  by 
the  Boston  &  Albany  xaflway,  and  is  connected  with  Natidt 
(3  nu  W*>,  Newton,  Needham,  Boston  and  Woctestcr  by  electtie 
lines.    The  noith-casteni  boundary  of  the  townsh^  is  the  Charles 
river,  which  divides  it  from  the  dty  of  Newton.    The  surface 
of  the  township  is  hilly  and  abnndsntly  wooded,  with  many 
small  streams  and  lakes;  the  two  principal  ^nllages  are  Wellesk^ 
Hilb  and  WeUeslqr,  and  smaller  village  are  Weilesley  Falls, 
Weliealey  Farms  and  WeUesley  Fells.     The  highest  point  is 
MaagasHiU  (4x6 ft.) ,  near  WeUaley  Hills viUage.  In  thenorthem 
part  of  Weilesley  and  extcndmg  into  Weston  is  a  hoge  forest 
tract  known  as  "  The  Hundreds."    Within  the  township  are 
parts  of  two  of  the  reservations  of  the  Metropolitan  Park  system, 
66*07  acres  of  the  Charles  river  reservation,  and  4*58  acres  of 
Hendork  Goige.    Hunnewell  Park  is  the  fonner  home  of  Dr 
W.  T.  O.  Morton,  who  discovered  the  aaaesthetic  properties  of 
sulphuric  ether*    West  of  Wcttestey  viUage,  among  the  hiUs,  lie 
Morses  Fond  and  Lake  Waban,  on  which  are  beantiful  Italiui 
gardens  and  (on  the  north  side)  the  buihUngs  and  extensive 
grounds  (350  acres)  .of  WeUesley  College  (undenominational, 
1875)  for  women,  which  was  established  by  Henry  Towle  0«raot 
(r839-i88r),  a  proodnent  Boston  lawyer.    In  1910  the  oollege 
had  150  instructors  and  13x9  stndents.    The  library  (6s,abo 
volumes  in  1910)  was  endowed  by  Eben  N.  Horsfbrd,  the  diendst 
and  ethnologist;  It  contains  a  library  of  Ameikan  lingiiistka 
collected  by  Major  J.  W.  Powell  and  Mr  Horsford,  ttid  the 
Frances  Pearson  Plimpton  library  of  eoily  ItaUan  litemtnre. 
There  are  about  30  buildings,  of  which  twelve  ore  residential 
halls  or  cottages.  Instruction  is  in  dassical,  literary  and  scientific 
branches,  and  the  degrees  of  A.B.  and  A.M.  are  awarded 

Weilesley  was  settled  about  1640,  being  then  withhitheliinits 
of  Dedham.  When  the  Cbwnship  of  Needham  was  set  otf  from 
Dcdham  in  r7i  t  ,  WeUesley  was  included  within  the  new  territory, 
and  in  1774  was  organised  as  the  west  parish  of  Needham  or 
West  Needham.    Ih  x88x  it  was  fpcoiporated  under  its  present 

name. 

See  J.  B.  FIsfce  hi  D.  H.  Hunt's  J^iiftvy  cf  tfcffrik  County  (Bostoa, 
1884). 

WBLLHAUSBN.aQUUS(x844r  ),  Oennaa  bibUcal  scholar 
and  Orientalist,  waa  bom  at  HsjmIb  on  the  Wescr,  Westphalia, 
on  the  s9th  of  May  x844*  Having  studied  theology  at  the 
university  of  Gdttingen  under  Heioiich  Ewald,  he  established 
hhnself  there  hi  187008  privat-docent  for  Old  Testament  histoiy. 
|n  1873  he  was  appomied  profea«>r  ordiAUiM  of  theology  in 
GreifswakL  Hesigning  in  1882  owing  to  consdentAous  scruples^ 
he  becane  professor  eztraordiaariua  of  oriental  langimgns  in  the 
faculty'  of  philology  at  Halle,  was  elected  professor  ordhiarius 
at  Mnboig  hk  1885,  and  was  transferred  to  G^ttingen  in  1892. 
Wellhanoen  made  Ids  iBaie  famous  by  his  critical  investigataons 
into  Old  Testament  history  andthe  oompositionof  theHexatench, 
the  uncoBipTomisittg  scientific  attitude  he  adopted  in  testing  its 
|>roblems  bringfaig  him  into  antagonism  with  the  older  sdiool  of 
biblical  faiterpreten.  The  best  known  of  his  works  are  De 
tentihMS  ei  famUns  Jndatis  (GAttmgen,  1870);  Der  TaU  der 
BUchtt  Samnelit  Mnttrsuckt  (Gdttingen,  1871);  DU  PkarisBer 
wid  SaddvcSer  (Greifswald,  1874);  FroUgomena  mtr  GackkhU 
Israds  (Berfin,  x88s;  Eng.  trans.,  1885;  5th  German  edition, 
1899;  first  publiBhed  in  1878  ss  Cmekukte  israds)\  Mukammed 
in  Medina  (Berfin,  1882);  Di9  K&mposUian  des  HexaUuekt  und 
der  hiitoHseken  Backer dtt  AUen  Tttlamenh  (1889, 3td  ed.  1899); 
fsradUiscke  mnd  jilSUckf  Cetd^ldde  (1894,  4th  ed.    r9bf); 


507 

sein  Stun  (X902);  Sktaen  und  VorarUiten  (1884-1899);  and 
nei^  and  revised  editions  of  F.  Bleek's  EitdeUunt  in  das  AUe 
Testament  (4-6,  1878-1893).  In  1906  appeared  Die  ckrisUiche 
Religion,  mil  EinscUuss  der  israeliiisch-judischen  Rdipon,  in  col- 
laboration with  A.  JtUicher,  A.  Hamack  and  others.  He  also 
did  useful  and  interesting  work  as  a  New  Testament  commentator. 
He  published  Das  Etangelium  Mard,  Ubersetzl  und  erkUtrt  in 
X903,  Das  EBangdium  Matthdi  and  Das  Evangdium  Lucae  10 
X904,  and  BtnleUtttu  in  die  drei  ersten  Evangelien  m  igos. 

WELLINGBOROUGH,  a  market  town  in  the  eastern  parlia- 
mentary division  of  Northamptonshire,  England,  63!  m.  N.N.W. 
from  London  by  the  Midland  railway;  served  idso  by  the  London 
&  North-Wcstem  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901),  18,41 2. 
It  lies  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill  near  Uie  junction  of  the  Ise  with 
the  Nene,  in  a  pleasant  well-wooded  district.  The  church  of  St 
Luke  is  a  beautiful  building  with  Norman  and  Early  English 
portions,  but  is  mainly  Decorated,  with  a  western  tower  and 
spire.  The  grammar-schools,  founded  in  1594  and  endowed 
with  the  revenues  of  a  suppressed  gild,  hidude  a  school  of  the 
second  and  a  school  of  the  third  grade,  the  former  a  building  of 
red  brick  in  the  Renaissance  style  erected  in  x88o,  and  the  latter 
an  old  Elisabethan  structure.  Another  educational  endowment 
is  Freeman's  school,  founded  by  John  Freeman  in  X711.  There 
are  also  several  charities.  The  prindpal  public  buikling  is 
the  com  exchange.  The  town  is  of  some  importance  as  a  centre 
of  agricultural  trade;  but  the  staple  industiy  is  in  leather.  A 
great  impulse  to  the  prosperity  of  the  town  was  given  by  the 
introduction  of  the  boot  and  shoe  trade,  especially  the  manu- 
facture of  uppers.  Smelting,  brewing  and  Iron-founding  are  also 
carried  on,  as  well  as  the  manufacture  of  portable  steam-engines, 
and  iron  ore  is  raised  in  the  vicinity. 

In  948  Edred  gave  the  church  at  Wellingborough  to  Crowland 
Abbey,  and  the  grant  was  confirmed  by  King  Edgar  in  966. 
In  the  rdgn  of  Edward  H.  the  abbot  was  lord  in  full.  The  town 
received  the  grant  of  a  market  in  1 201.  It  was  formerly  famed 
for  the  chalybeate  springs  to  which  it  owes  its  name,  and  in  1621 
was  visited  by  Charles  I.  and  his  queen,  who  resided  m  tents 
during  4  whole  season  while  taking  the  waters.  It  was  after 
iu  almost  total  destruction  by  fire  in  1738  that  the  town  was 
built  on  its  present  site  on  the  hill. 

WELLINGTON,  ARTHUR  WELLESLE7,  xst  Duke  Of  (1769- 
X852),  was  the  fourth  son  of  Garrett  (1735-1 781)  Welle^ey  or 
Wesley,  2nd  baron  and  xst  earl  of  Mornington,  now  remem- 
bered only  as  a  musician.  He  was  descended  from  the  family 
of  Colley  or  Cowley,  which  had  been  settled  in  Ireland  for  two 
centuries.  The  duke's  grandfather,  Richard  CoUey,  xst  Baron 
Mornington  (d.  1758),  assumed  the  name  of  Wesley  on  succeeding 
to  the  estates  of  Garrett  Wesley,  a  distant  relative  of  the  famous 
divine.  In  Wellington's  early  letters  the  family  name  is  spelt 
Wesley;  the  change  to  Weilesley  seems  to  have  been  made 
about  X790.  Arthur  (bom  in  Ireland  in<x7690  was  sent  to 
Eton,  and  subsequently  to  a  military  college  at  Angers.  He 
entered  the  army  as  ensign  in  the  73rd  Highlanders  in  X787, 
passed  rapidly  through  the  lower  ranks  (in  five  different  regi- 
ments), became  major  of  the  33rd  (now  duke  of  WelUngton't 
West  Riding),  and  purchased  the  lieutenant-colonelcy  of  that 
regiment  in  1793  ^"^  money  advanced  to  him  by  his  eldest 
bio(ber.  But  in  all  these  chuiges  he  did  little  regimental  duty, 
for  he  was  aide-de-camp  to  the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  for 
practically  the  whole  of  these  years.  Before  reaching  full  age 
he  was  returned  to  the  Irish  parliament  by  the  family  borough 
of  Tdnu  Little  is  kn9wn  of  his  history  during  these  years; 
but  neither  in  boyhood  nor  in  youth  does  he  appear  to  have  made 
any  mark  among  his  contemporaries. 

His  first  experience  of  active  service  was  in  the  campaign  of 
X794-X795,  when  the  British  force  under  the  duke  of  York  was 
driven  out  of  Holland  by  Pichegiu.  In  1 796  he  was  sent  with  his 
regiment  to  India,  being  pnMnoted  colonel  by  brevet  about  the 
time.    It  was  thus  as  a  commanding  officer  that  he  leamt 


tef  grobifckm  Bndttshmu  (1897);  i>o$  orobUcki  Reiek  und  1  are  uncertain. 


*At  24  Upper  Merrion  Street,  Dublin,  or  at  Dungan  Caitle, 
Meath,  on  the  29tb  of  April  or  00  let  May;  bat  both  pieoteaddatt 


5o8 


WELLINGTON,  ut  DUKB  OF 


for  the  first  time  the  details  orregimentsl  duty.  He  mastered 
them  thoroughly,  gained  a  minute  acquaintance  with  every 
detail  of  the  soldier's  life,  learned  the  precise  amount  of  food 
required  for  every  mouth,  the  exact  weight  that  could  be  carried, 
the  distances  that  could  be  traversed  without  -exhaustion,  the 
whole  body  of  conditions  in  short  which  govern  the  military 
activity  of  man  and  beast.  It  was  to  the  completeness  of  his 
practical  knowledge  that  Wellington  ascribed  in  great  part  his 
later  success.  It  is  probable,  moreover,  that  he  at  this  time  made 
a  serious  study  of  the  science  and  history  of  war.  His  formal 
training  at  Angers  was  altogether  too  sUght  to  account  for  his 
great  technical  knowledge;  no  record,  however,  exists  of  the 
stages  by  which  this  was  acquired  except  that  as  soon  as  he 
landed  in  India  he  began  to  devote  fixed  hours  to  study,  giving 
up  cards  and  the  vioUn.  This  study  was  directed  chiefly  to  the 
political  situation  of  India,  and  when  on  his  advice  h^  eldest 
brother.  Lord  Momington,  afterwards  Marquess  Wellesley, 
accepted  the  governor-generalship  of  India,  he  became  his 
trusted  though  unofficial  adviser.  In  the  war  with  Tippoo  Saib 
the  33rd  was  attached  to  the  Nizam's  contingent,  and  Colonel 
Well^ey  commanded  this  division  in  the  army  of  General  (Lord) 
Harris.  Though  his  military  services  in  this  short  campaign 
were  not  of  a  striking  character,  he  was  appointed  by  his  brother 
to  the  supreme  military  and  political  command  in  ^lysore,  in 
spite  of  the  claims  of  his  senior,  Sir  David  Baird. 

His  great  faculties  now  for  the  first  time  found  opportunity 
for  their  exercise.  In  the  settlement  and  administration  of 
the  conquered  territory  he  rapidly  acquired  the  habits  and 
experience  of  a  statesman,  while  his  military  operations  against 
Doondiah,  a  robber  chief,  were  conducted  with  extraordinary 
energy  and  success,  Doondiah  being  killed  and  his  army  scattered. 
More  important,  however,  than  the  military  side  of  these  opera- 
tions was  their  political  character.  A\^en  pressed  in  Mysore, 
Doondiah  moved  into  Mahratta  territory,  wlyther  Wellesley 
followed  him.  Here,  negotiating  and  bargaining  with  the 
Mahratta  chiefs,  Wellesley  acquired  a  knowledge  of  their  affairs 
and  an  influence  over  them  such  as  no  other  Englishman  possessed. 
Simple  and  honourable  himself,  he  was  shrewd  and  penetrating 
in  his  judgment  of  Orientals;  and,  unlike  his  great  predecessor 
Clive,  he  rigidly  adhered  to  the  rule  of  good  faith  in  his  own 
actions,  however  depraved  and  however  exasperating  the 
conduct  of  those  with  whom  he  had  to  deal.  The  result  of 
Wellesley's  singular  personal  ascendancy  among  the  Mahrattas 
came  into  full  view  when  the  Mahratta  War  broke  out.  In  the 
meantime,  however,  his  Indian  career  seemed  Hkdy  to  be 
sacrificed  to  the  calls  of  warfare  in  another  quarter.  Wellesley 
was  ordered  in  December  x8oo  to  take  command  of  a  body  of 
troops  a>llected  for  foreign  service  at  Trincomalee,  in  Ceylon. 
It  was  at  first  intended  that  these  troops  should  act  against 
Java  or  Mauritius;  their  destination  was,  however,  altered  to 
Egypt,  with  a  view  to  co-operation  with  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby's 
expedition,  and  Baird  was  placed  in  command.  Though  deeply 
mortified  at  the  loss  of  the  command,  Wellesley  in  his  devotion 
to  duty  moved  the  troops  on  his  own  responsibility  from  Trinco- 
malee to  Bombay,  from  the  conviction  that,  if  they  were  to  be 
of  any  use  in  Egypt,  It  was  absolutely  necessary  that  they  should 
provision  at  Bombay  with<)iul  delay.  But  at  Bombay  Wellesley 
was  attacked  by  fever,  and  prevented  from  gdng  on.  The 
troop-ship  in  which  he  was  to  have  sailed  went  down  with  all  on 
board. 

He  returned  in  May  1801  to  Mysore,  where  he  remained  Until 
the  Mahratta  War  broke  out.  Tht  power  of  the  Peshwa,  nomin- 
ally supreme  in  the  Mahratta  territory,  had  been  overthrown 
by  his  rivals  Holkar  and  others,  and  he  had  himself  fled.  The 
Indian  government  undertook  to  restore  his  authority.  Welles- 
ley, now  a  major-general,  was  placed  in  command  of  a  diviuon  of 
the  army  charged  with  this  task.  Starting  from  Seringa]iatam, 
he  crossed  the  frontier  on  March  xa,  1803,  and  moved  through 
the  southern  Mahratta  territory  on  Poona.  The  march  was 
one  unbroken  success,  thanks  to  Wdlestey's  forethought  and 
Itfadty  in  dealing  with  the  physical  conditions  and  his  personal 
tad  diplomatic  asoeiidaiiQr  amoog  the  chief  uin»  of  the  district. 


No  hand  'was  calsed  agjainst  Urn,  and  »  march  of  600  m.  wm 
conducted  without  even  a  skirmish.  Wellesley  had  intended 
to  reach  Poona  on  the  23rd  of  ApriL  On  the  night  of  the  i8th 
he  heard  that  a  rival  of  the  Peshwa  intended  to  bum  the  city. 
At  once  WellesI^  pressed  on  with  the  cavalry  and  an  infantry 
battalion  in  light  order,  and  after  a  forced  march  of  32  hours 
entered  Poona  on  the  aftcmoon  ol  the  aoth,  in  time  to  save  the 
city.  The  Peshwa  was' now  restored,  and  entered  into  various 
mlEtaiy  obligatiooa  with  WeUeslev,  which  he  very  impnfectly 
fulfiUed. 

In  the  meantime  Sindhia  and  Holkar,  with  the  raja  of  Bersr, 
maintained  a  doubtful  but  threatening  aspect  farther  north. 
It  was  uncertain  whether  or  not  a  confederacy  of  the  northern 
Mahrattas  had  been  fonned  against  the  British  government. 
In  these  critical  circumstances  WeUesiey  was  charged  with  "  the 
general  direction  and  control  of  nilitaiy  and  political  affairs  in 
the  territories  of  the  Nisam,  the  Peshwa  and  tlw  Mahratta  slates 
and  duels."  Armed  with  these  powers,  he  required  Sindhia,  as 
a  proof  of  good  faith,  to  withdraw  Co  the  north  of  the  Nerbudda. 
Sindiua  not  d<Mng  so,  war  was  declared  on  thft  6th  of  August 
xSoj.  Wellesley  marched  northwards,  captured  Ahmadnegar 
on  the  ixth,  crossed  the  Godavery  ten  days  later,  and  moved 
against  the  combined  forces  of  Sindhia  and  the  raja  of  Berar. 
Colond  Stevenson  was  meanwhile  approaching  with  a  second 
division  from  the  east»  and  it  was  intended  that  the  two  should 
unite.  On  the  33rd  of  September  Wellesley  supposed  himself 
to  be  still  some  miles  from  the  enemy;  he  suddenly  found  that 
the  entire  forces  of  Sindhia  and  the  raja  of  Bferar  were  dose  in 
front  of  him  at  Assaye.  Weighing  the  dangers  of  delay,  of 
retreat,  and  of  an  attack  with  his  single  division  of  4500  men, 
supported  only  by  5000  native  levies  of  doubtful  quality,  Welles- 
ley convinced  himself  that  an  immediate  attack,  though  against 
greatly  superior  forces  (30,000  IxHrse,  10,000  European-jbilled 
infantry  and  xoo  wdl-scrved  guns)  in  a  strong  position,  was  the 
wisest  course.  He  threw  himself  upon  the  Mahratu  boat,  and, 
canyiag  out  a  bold  manoeuvre  under  an  intense  fire,  Oltimatdy 
gained  a  complete  victory  though  with  the  loss  of  2500  men  out 
of  a  total  probably  not  much  exceeding  700a  In  comparison 
with  the  battle  of  Assaye,  all  fighting  that  had  hitherto  taken 
I^ace  in  India  was  chUd'a  play.  Wdlesley  himself  had  two 
horses  killed  under  him.  Uniting  with  Stevenson's  division,  the 
conqueror  fdlowed  up  the  pursuit,  and  brought  the  war  to  a 
dose  by  a  second  victory  at  Argaum  on  the  29th  of  November, 
and  the  storming  of  Gawilgfaur  on  the  xsth  of  December.  The 
treaties  with  Sindhia  and  the  raja  of  Berar,  which  marked  the 
downfall  of  the  Mahratta  power,  were  n^otiated  and  signed  by 
Wellesley  (who  was  made  K.B.  in  Sept.  1804)  in  the  course 
of  the  foUowing  month.  .  Not  yet  thirty-five  years  oldr  he  had 
proved  himsdf  a  master  in  the  sphere  of  Indian  statesmanship 
and  diplomacy  as  on  the  field  of  battle.  Had  Ms  career  ended 
at  this  time,  his  Indian  despatches  alone  would  have  proved 
him  to  have  been  one  of  the  wisest  and  strongest  heads  that  have 
ever  served  EngUnd  in  the  East. 

His  ambitions  now  led  him  back  to  Europe,  and  in  the  spring 
of  1805  he  quitted  India.  On  hjaretum  home  he  was  immediatdy 
sent  on  the  abortive  expedition  to  Hanover.  In  1806  he  was 
elected  M.P.  for  Rye,  in  order  to  defend  his  brother,  the  governor- 
general,  fax  the  House,  and  in  the  following  3rear  he  was  Irish 
secretary  for  a  few  months.  He  was  then  employed  in  the 
expedition  against  Copenhagen,  in  which  he  defeated  the  Danes 
in  the  action  of  Kjoge  (29th  Oct.).  In  x8o8,  however,  began 
the  war  (see  Pendisulak  Wab)  in  which  his  military  renown  wss 
fully  established.  In  April  he  was  promoted  lieutenant-gencrsl 
and  placed  in  command  of  a  division  of  the  troops  destined  to 
operate  against  the  French  in  Spain  or  Portugal  The  conduct 
of  events  is  narrated  in  a  separate  article,  and  need  only  be 
summarized  here.  Finding  that  the  junta  of  Corxmna  wished 
for  no  foreign  soldiery,  he  followed  his  alternative  instructions 
to  act  against  Junot  at  Lisbon.  He  Unded  at'Mohdego  Bay  in 
the  first  week  of  August,  and  moved  southwards,  driving  in 
the  enemy  at  RoUca  on  the  17th  of  August.  On  the  aist  the 
battle  of  Vimeiro  was  fought  and  won.  •  In  the  midst  of  this 


WELUNGTON,  jst  DUKB  OF 


509 


cngigtaieiit,  liowewer,  9r  Barry  Biinird  Juded,  and  took  over 
the  comnuHid.  Bunard  was  in  turn  sapevseded  by  Sir  Hew 
DalrymplQ,  and  the  campaign  ended  witJi  the  ooovenUon  of 
Cintra,  whicb  provided  for  tlie  evacuation  of  Poirtugal  by  the 
Freacb,  but  gave  Junot's  troops  a  free  iKtum  to  France.  So 
grexa  was  the  public  displeasare  in  England  at  the  escape  ol  the 
cneiny  that  a  court  of  inquiry  was  h^d.  After  the  battle  of 
Corunna,  WcUesley,  who  bad  in  the  meantime  resumed  bis 
duties  as  Irisb  secretary,  returned  to  the  PeniosuU  as  chief  in 
com  maud.  He  drove  the  French  out  of  Oporto  by  a  singulariy 
bold  and  fortunate  attack,  and  then  prepaitd  to  march  against 
Madrid  by  the  valley  of  the  Tagus.  He  bad  the  support  of  a 
Spanish  army  under  General  Cuesta;  but  his  movements  were 
delayed  by  the  neglect  of  the  Spanish  ggvemment,  and  Soult 
was  able  to  collect  a  large  force  for  the  purpose  of  falling  upon 
the  English  Ime  of  communication.  WeUesley,  unconscious  of 
Soult 's  presence  in  force  on  his  flank,  advanced  against  Madrid, 
and  defeated  his  immediate  opponent,  King  Joseph,  at  Talaveia 
de  la  Reina  (9.*.)  on  the  S7th'38th  of  July.  The  victory  of  Tala> 
vera,  however,  brought  prestige  but  nothing  else.  Within  the 
next  few  days  Soult's  approach  on  the  line  of  oommtmication 
was  discovered,  and  Welles!^,  disgusted  with  his  Spooush  allies, 
had  no  chcttoe  but  to  withdraw  mto  Portugal  and  there  stand 
upon  the  defensive. 

A  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Viscount  Wellington  and  Baron 
Douro,  was  conferred  upon  him  for  TaJavera.  He  was  also  made 
marshalrgeneral  of  the  Portuguese  army  and  a  Spanish  captain- 
gcneraL  But  his  conduct  after  the  battle  was  sharply  criticized 
in  England,  and  its  negative  results  were  used  as  a  weapon 
against  the  ministry.  Even  on  the  defensive,  Wellington's  task 
was  eaccedbgly  difficult.  Austria  having  made  peace.  Napoleon 
was  at  liberty  to  threw  heavy  forces  into  the  Peninsuk.  Welling- 
ton, foreseeing  thai  Portugal  would  now  be  invaded  by  a  very 
powerful  army,  began  the  fortification  of  the  celebrated  lines  of 
Torres  Vedras  (see  FoifincATXON).  The  £i^;Ush  army  wintered 
about  Almeida.  As  summer  approadied  Wcllmgton's  anticipa- 
tions were  realized.  Masafoa  moved  against  Portugal  with  an 
army  of  70,000  men.  WelUngton,  unable  to  save  Gudad  Rodrigo, 
retreated  down  the  valley  of  the  Mondego,  devastating  the 
country,  and  at  length  halted  at  Busaco  and  gave  battle.  The 
Frencb  attack  was  repelled,  but  other  roads  were  open  to  the 
bivader,  and  Wellington  continued  his  retreat.  Massfina  followed, 
but  Uras  checked  completely  in  frmt  of  the  lines.  He  sought  in 
vain  for  an  unprotected  pomt.  It  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty 
that  he  could  keep  his  army  from  starving..  At  length,  when  the 
country  was  exhausted,  be  fell  back  to  Santarcm,  where,  Welling- 
ton being  still  too  weak  to  attack,  he  nuuntained  himself  during 
the  winter.  But  in  the  spring  of  181 1  Wellington  received 
rcinforcementa  and  moved  fwward.  Mass6na  retreated,  de> 
vaatating  the  country  to  check  the  pursuit,  but  on  several 
occasions  his  rearguard  was  deeply  engaged,  and  such  were  the 
anffeiii^  of  hb  army,  boUi  in  the  invasion  and  in  the  retreat, 
that  the  French,  when  they  re-entered  Spain,  had  lost  50,000  men. 
Public  opinion*  hi  Engtond,  lately  so  hostile,  now  became  con- 
fident, «k1  Wellington,  whose  rewards  for  Talavcra.  bad  been 
opposed  in  both  Houses,  began  to  gain  extraordinary  popuUmty. 

In  the  meantime  Soult,  who  was  besieging  Cadh&,  bad  moved 
to  support  Mnsafata.  But  after  capturing  Badajoz,  Soult  learnt 
tb.t  Maasfoa  «as  in  retreat,  and  also  that  his  own  forces  at 
Cadiz  bad  been  beaten.  He  in  consequence  returned  to  the 
■Nitk.  Wellington,  freed  from  pressure  on  this  side,  and  believing 
Mawfaat  t»  be  thorvngbly  disabled,  considered  that  the  time 
had  come  for  itn  advance  into  Spain.  The  fortresses  of  Almeida, 
Qudbd  Rodrigo  and  Badajos  barred  the  roads.  Almeida  was 
besieged^  and  Wellington  was  prepaihig  to  attack  Badajos  when 
Maaafina  again  took  the  fidd,  and  marched  to  the  relief  of 
Almeida.  The  battle  of  Fuentes  d'Onoro  followed,  in  which 
Wellington  was  only  able  to  extricate  the  army  from  a  dangerous 
predicament  which  "  if  Boney  had  been  there  "  would  have  been 
a  disaster.  The  garrison  of  Almeida  too  escaped,  after  blowing 
vp  part  of  the  fortress.  In  the  south,  in  sfnie  of  the  hard-won 
victwy  of  Albuero,  the  English  attack  on  Badajos  hod  to  be 


given  up.  The  same  misfortune  attended  a  fresh  stNike  agunst 
Ciudad  Rodrigo,  and  at  the  end  of  a  campaign  faa.  which  he  had 
used  all  his  skill  and  care  to  compensate  for  inferior  numbciii, 
be  withdrew  behind  the  Coa.  He  had  meanwhUe  been  given  the 
local  rank  of  general  and  had  also  recdved  the  Portuguese  title 
of  Conde  de  VimeiiOb 

Wellington  had  from  the  fimt  seen  that,  whatever  number  of 
men  Napoleon  might  send  against  him,  it  was  impossible,  owing 
to  the  poverty  of  the  country,  that  any  great  mass  of  troops 
could  kmg  be  held  together,  and  that  the  French,  used  to  '*  makhtg 
war  support  war,"  would  fare  worse  bi  such  conditions  than  his 
own  troops  with  their  organised  supply  service.  It  was  so  at  the 
end  of  181 1.  Soult  had  to  move  southwards  to  five,  and  the 
English  were  again  more  than  a  match  for  the  enemy  in  frdkit  of 
them.  Wellington  resumed  the  offensive,  and  on  the  19th  of 
January  xSis  Ciudad  Rodrigo  was  taken  by  storm.  Agahi, 
suddenly  altering  the  centre  of  gravity,  Wellington  invested 
Badajoa  in  the  ndddle  of  March.  It  was  necessary  at  whatever 
cost  to  anticipate  the  arrival  of  Soult  with  a  relieving  army, 
and  on  the  6th  of  April  Wellington  oidered  the  assault.  The 
fearful  slaughter  which  took  place  before  the  British  were 
raastes  of  the  defences  caused  Wellington  to  be  charged  with 
indifference  to  loss,  but  a  postponement  of  the  attack  is'ould 
merely  have  resulted  in  more  battles  against  Soult.  Of  all 
generals  Wellington  was  the  last  to  waste  a  single  trdncd  man, 
and  the  sight  of  the  breaches  of  Badajoz  after  the  storm  for  a 
moment  unnerved  even  his  iron  sternness. 

The  advance  from  Ciudad  Rodrigo  into  Spain  was  now  bcguii. 
Marmont,  who  had  succeeded  Massdna,  fell  back  to  the  Douro, 
but  there  turned  upon  his  assailant,  and,  by  superior  swiftness, 
threatened  to  cut  the  English  off  from  Portugal.  Wellington 
retreated  as  far  as  Salamanca  {q.v.),  and  there  extricated  htmscli 
from  his  peril  by  a  most  brilliant  victory  (July  2«).  The  French 
fell  back  on  Burgos.  Instead  of  immediately  following  them, 
Wellington  thought  it  wise  to  advance  upon  the  Spanish  capital. 
King  Joseph  retired,  and  the  English  entered  Madrid  in  triumph. 
The  political  effect  was  great,  but  the  dday  gave  the  French 
northern  army  time  to  rally.  '*  The  vigorous  following  of  a  beaten 
enemy  was  not  a  prominent  characteristic  of  Lord  Wellington^ 
warfare,"  as  Napier  says.  Burgos  offered  an  obstinate  defence. 
Moreover,  Soult,  raismg  the  siege  of  Cadiz,  and  gathering  other 
forces  to  his  own,  pressed  on  towards  Madrid.  Wellington  was 
compelled  once  more  to  retire  into  Portugal.  The  effect  of 
the  campaign  was,  however,  that  the  southern  provinces  were, 
finally  cleared  of  the  invader.  During  this  retreat  he  announced 
in  general  orders  that  the  demoralization  and  misconduct 
of  the  British  army  surpassed  anything  that  he  bad  ever 
witnessed.  Such  wholesale  criticism  was.bittcriy  resented,  but 
mdced  throughout  his  career  Wdlington,  cold  and  punctilious, 
never  secured  to  himself  the  affections  of  ofBcers  and  men  as 
Marlborough  or  Napoleon  did.  He  subjugated  his  army  and  gave 
it  brilliant  victories,  but  he  inspired  few  disdples  except  the 
members  of  his  own  staff.  To  the  end  of  his  life  his  relations 
with  the  principal  generals  who  served  under  him  were  by  no 
means  intimate. 

Wellington  had  been  made  an  earl  after  the  fall  of  Ciudad 
Rodrigo,  and  the  Spanish  government  created  hhn  duke  of 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  about  the  same  time.  For  Salamanca  his 
reward  was  a  marquessate,  and  a  grant  of  £100,000  for  the 
purchase  of  an  estate.  He  was  also  made  Duque  da  Victoria  by 
the  Portuguese  regency,  and  before  the  opening  of  the  campaign 
of  1813,  which  was  to  crown  Ms  work,  he  was  given  both  the 
Garter  and  the  Golden  Fleece. 

He  was  now  invested  with  the  supreme  command  of  the  Spanish 
armies.  He  visited  Cadiz  in  December  t8i2,  and  offered  counsels 
of  moderation  to  the  democratic  assembly,  which  were  not 
followed.  During  the  succeeding  months  he  was  occupied  with 
plans  and  preparations,  and  at  length,  in  May  1813,  the  hour 
for  his  finsl  and  victorious  advance  arrived.  The  Rus»an  dis- 
asters had  conrpeOed  Napoleon  to  withdraw  some  of  Ms  best 
troops  from  the  Peninsula.  Against  a  weakened  and  discouraged 
adversary  Wellington  took  the  fidd  with  greatly  increased 


5IO 


WELLINGTON,  ist  DUKE  OF 


Bumbot  and  wiUi  the  utmost  oonfideoce.  The  advioce  o!  the 
allied  army  was  ineajstible.  Posilioa  after  poaitioa  was  evacu- 
ated by  the  French,  until  WellingtoUt  driving  eveiything  before 
him,  caJme  up  with  the  retreating  enemy  at  Vittoria  (f.9.)i  and 
won  an  overwhelming  victwy  (June  aist).  Soult'a  combats  in 
the  Pyrenees,  and  the  desperate  resistance  of  St  Sebastian, 
prolonged  the  struggle  through  the  autumn,  and  coat  the  English 
thousands  of  men.  But  at  length  the  frontier  was  passed,  and 
Soult  forced  back  into  his  entrenched  camp  at  Bayonne.  Both 
armies  now  rested  for  some  weeks,  during  which  interval  Welling- 
ton gained  the  confidence  of  the  inhabitants  by  his  unsparing 
repression  of  marauding,  his  business-like  payment  for  supplies, 
and  the  excellent  disdpliae  which  he  maintained.  In  Fdbruary 
x8x4  the  advance  was  rmewcd.  The  Adour  was  crossed,  and 
Soult  was  defeated  at  Orthes.  At  Toulouse,  after  the  allies  had 
entered  Paris,  but  before  the  abdication  of  Napoleon  had  become 
known,  the  last  battle  of  the  war  was  fought.  Peace  being 
proclaimed,  Wellington  took  leave  of  his  army  at  Bordeaux, 
and  returned  to  England,  where  he  was  received  with  extra- 
ordinary honours,  created  duke  of  Wellington,  and  awarded  a 
fresh  grant  of  £400,000. 

After  the  treaty  of  Paris  (May  30)  Wellington  was  appointed 
British  ambassador  at  the  French  capitaL  During  the  autumn 
and  winter  of  18x4  he  witnessed  and  reported  the  mistakes  of 
the  restored  Bourbon  dynasty,  and  warned  his  government  of 
the  growing  danger  from  conspiracies  and  from  the  army,  which 
was  visibly  bostUe  to  the  Bourbons.  His  insight,  however,  did 
not  extend  beyond  the  circumstances  immediately  before  and 
around  him,  and  he  failed  to  realize  that  the  great  mass  of  the 
French  nation  was  still  with  Napoleon  at  heart.  He  remained  in 
Fsance  until  Februaiy  18x5,  when  he  took  Lord  Castlcreagh*s 
place  at  the  congress  of  Vioina.  All  the  great  questions  of  the 
congress  bad  already  been  settled,  and  Wellington's  difdomatic 
work  here  was  not  of  importance.  His  imperfect  acquaintance 
with  French  feeling  was  strikingly  {Hioved  in  the  de^>atch  vhich 
he  sent  home  on  learning  of  Napoleon's  escape  from  Elba.  ''  He 
has  acted,"  he  wrote,  **  upon  false  or  no  information,  and  the  king 
(Louis  X\n[.II.)  will  destroy  him  without  difikulty  and  in  a  short 
time."  Almost  before  Wellington's  unfortunate  prediction  could 
reach  London,  Louis  had  fled,  and  France  was  at  Napoleon's  feet. 
The  ban  of  the  congress,  however,  went  out  against  the  common 
enemy,  and  the  presence  of  Wellington  at  Vienna  enabled  the 
allies  at  once  to  decide  upon  their  {dans  for  the  campaign.  To 
Wellington  and  BlQcher  were  committed  the  invasion  of  France 
from  the  north,  while  the  Russians  and  Austrians  entered  it  from 
the  east.  Wellington,  with  the  English  troops  and  their  Dutch, 
German  and  Belgian  allies,  took  lus  post  in  the  Netherlands, 
guarding  the  country  west  of  the  Charleroi  road.  Bliichcr,  with 
the  Prussians,  lay  between  Charieroi,  Namur  and  Li6ge.  In 
the  meantime  Napoleon  had  outstripped  the  preparations  of  his 
adversaries.  By  the  13th  of  June  he  had  concentrated  his  main 
army  on  the  northern  frontier,  and  on  the  14th  crossed  the 
Sambre.  The  four  days'  campaign  that  followed,  and  the  crown- 
ing victory  of  the  i8th  of  June,  are  described  in  the  article 
Watekxxx)  Campaign.  Wellington's  reward  was  a  fresh  grant 
of.  {200,000  from  parliament,  the  title  of  prince  of  Waterloo  and 
great  estates  from  the  king  of  Holland,  and  the  order  of  the 
Saittt-Esprit  from  Louis  XVIU. 

Not  only  the  prestige  of  his  victories,  but  the  chance  drcum- 
stances  of  the  moment,  now  ihade  WelHniKton  the  most  influential 
personality  in  Europe.  The  emperors  of  Russia  and  Austiia 
were  still  far  away  at  the  time  of  Napoleon's  second  abdication, 
and  it  was  with  Wellington  that  the  commissioners  of  the 
provisional  govcminent  opened  negotiations  preliminary  to  the 
surrender  of  Paris.  The  duke  well  knew  the  peril  of  delaying 
the  decision  as  to  the  government  oi  France.  The  emperor 
Alexander  was  hostile  to  Louis  XVIU.  and  the  Bourbons 
generally;  the  emperor  Francis  might  have  been  tempted  to 
support  the  cause  of  Napoleon's  son  and  his  own  grandson,  who 
had  been  proclaimed  .in  Paris  as  Napoleon  II.;  and  if  the 
rcstoratjoQ  of  Louis — which  Wdlington  believed  would  akme 
festore  permanent  pea^«  to  France  vyi  tQ  ^urope--wM  to  b* 


effected,  the  allies  must  be  cenfreiited  bn  their  airival  fai  Plifi 
with  the  arcompUshed  faa.  He  settled  the  affair  In  his  usual 
downright  manner,  telling  the  commlssionen  bluntly  that  they 
must  take  back  thnr  legitimate  king,  and  refusing— perhaps 
with  more  questionable  wisdom — ^to  allo^  the  retention  of  the 
ttkoloar  flag,  which  to  hhn  was  a  "  symbol  of  rebelUon."  At  the 
same  time  the  oppositkni  of  the  most  influential  meadxr  ef  the 
commission  and  the  most  powerful  man  in  France,  Fouchf, 
was  overcome  by  his  appointment,  on  WdUngton's  suggestion, 
as  minister  of  police.  The  result  was  that  when  the  emperor 
Alexander  arrived  hi  Paris  he  found  Louis  XVIII.  already  in 
possession,  and  the  problem  before  the  alUes  was  merely  how  to 
keep  him  there. 

In  the  solutkm  of  thb  problem  the  common  sense  of  Wdlington 
and  of  Castlereagh,  with  whom  the  duke  woilied  throughout  in 
complete  harmony,  played  a  determining  part;  H  was  mainly 
owmg  to  their  influence  th|t  Fnnct  escaped  the  dismemberment 
for  which  the  German  powers  danwnired,  and  whkh  was  ad- 
vocated for  a  whfle  by  Lord  Liverpool  and  the  majority  of  the 
British  cabinet.  Wellington  realised  the  supreme  necessity,  in 
the  interests  not  only  of  Frmnoe  but  oi  Europe,  of  confirming 
snd  maintaining  the  prestige  of  the  restored  monarchyi  which 
such  a  dismembermeia  would  have  IrretrlevaMy  damaged.  It 
was  this  conviction  that  inspired  his  whole  attitude  towards 
French  affairs.  If  he  imwillin^y  refused  to  intervene  In  favour 
of  Marshal  Ney,  it  was  because  he  believed  that  so  conspicuous 
an  example  of  treason  could  not  safely  be  allowed  to  go  un- 
punished. If  he  bore  In  sflcnce  the  odium  that  f^  upon  him 
owing  to  the  bieak-op  of  the  coilection  of  the  Louvre,  it  was 
because  he  knew  that  it  would  be  fata!  to  allow  it  to  be  known 
that  the  first  initiative  in  the  matter  had  come  from  the  king 
In  the  same  spirit  he  carried  out  the  imraease  and  mique  trust 
imposed  upon  him  by  the  aDies  when  they  placed  him  in  com- 
mand fif  the  international  army  by  which  Flrance  was  to  be 
occupied,  under  the  terms  of  the  second  peace  of  Paris,  for  five 
years.  By  the  terms  of  bis  commissfaNi  he  was  empowered  to 
act,  in  case  of  emergency,  without  waiting  Isr  orden;  he  was, 
moreover,  to  be  kept  informed  by  the  French  cabinet  of  the 
whole  pourse  of  business.  His  power  was  immense,  and  it  was 
wdl  and  wisely  used.  If  he  had  no  qriApathy  with  revolutionary 
disturbers  of  the  peace,  he  had  even  less  with  the  fatuous  extra* 
vagances  of  the  comte  d'Artob  and  his  xeactionaTy  entourage, 
and  his  influence  was  thrown  into  the  scale  of  the  modexate 
constitutiMud  policy  of  which  Richelieu  and  Decases  were  the 
most  conspicuous  eiq>onents.  The  administrative-  duties  coo* 
nected  with  the  army  of  occupation  would  alone  have  taxed  to 
the  uttermost  the  powers  of  an  ordinary  man.*  Besides  this, 
his  work  included  the  reconstruction  of  the  military  frontier 
of  the  Netherhinds,  and  the  conduct  of  the  finsnrial  negotiations 
with  Messrs  Baring,  by  which  the  French  government  was  able 
to  pay  off  the  indemnities  due  from  it,  and  thus  render  it  pomible 
for  the  powers  to  reduce  the  period  of  armed  occupation  from 
five  years'  to  three.  He  was  consulted,  moreover,  in  all  matters 
of  international  importance,  notably  the  afiiairs  of  the  Spanish 
colonics,  m'  which  he  associated  himself  with  Castlereagh  in 
prosing  those  views  which  were  aftccwaids  carried  into  effect 
by  George  Canning. 

The  length  of  time  during  whidi  France  was  to  be  occupied 
by  the  alUea  practicaUy  depiauied  upon  Wellington's  judgment 
On  the  loth  of  Deoembec  x8z6  FoaM  dl  Borgo  wiou  to  the  duke 
cttdosfaig  a.memonmdum  in  wUch  the  emperor  Alexander  of 
Russia  suggested  a  reduction  in  the  army  of  occupation:  *'  no 
mere  question  of  finance,  but  one  of  general  policy,  based  on 
reason,  equity  and  a  seven  morality  ";  at  the  same  time  hs 
left  the  question  of  its  postponement  entirely  to  Wellington.    To 

■Isolated  fortreeaes  were  still  holding  out  for  Napoleon  in 
ScfUeinber  1815.  *.g.  Longwy.  which  surrendered  on  the  9(Mh. 
Much  trouble  was  caused  by  the  behaviour  of  aome  of  the  .alUcd 
troops,  notably  the  Pru«sians.  Detailed  reports  of  the  condition  of 
the  country  for  the  first  months  of  the  occupation  are  contained  in 
the  BvUatns  de  la  comspondanee  de  flntiriew,  copies  of  whick  aiv 
preserved  in  the  Foreign  Office  laoovda  <F.O.  Cra|ws,  f$m 
CotiitfM^  Au^uatt  &c,  l8i$)» 


WELLINGTON,  ist  DUKE  OF 


5" 


IVieOington  the  proposal  seemed  premature;  lie  would  prefer  to 
wait  tiU  "  the  assembly  had  published  its  conduct  by  its  acts  "; 
tot  if  the  new  chambers  were  to  prove  as  intractable  as  the 
dissolved  Ckambn  inirowabte,  the  monarchy  would  not  be  able 
to  dispense  with  Its  foreign  tutors.  To  Castlereagh  he  wrote 
(December  ii,  1816)  that  although  he  believed  that  the  common 
people  of  the  departments  occupied,*'  partictdarty  those  occupied 
by  us,"  were  delighted  to  have  the  troops  and  the  money  spent 
among  them,  among  the  official  and  middle  classes  the  feeling 
was  very  different.  In  view  of  the  weakness  of  the  king's 
governm-  nt,  to  reduce  the  army  would  be  to  expose  the  exdtable 
dements  of  the  population  to  the  temptation  of  attacking  it. 
"  Suppose  I  or  my  officers  were  forced  to  take  milltaiy  action. 
Suppose  this  were  to  happen  in  the  Prussian  cantonments.  The 
whole  Prussian  army  would  be  put  in  motion,  and  all  Europe 
would  resound  with  the  alarm  of  the  danger  tobe  i^rehended 
from  the  Jacobins  in  France."  * 

The  events  of  the  next  few  months  considerably  modified  his 
opinions  in  this  matter.  The  new  chambers  proved  their  trust- 
worthy quality  by  passing  the  budget,  and  the  army  of  occupa- 
tion was  reduced  by  30,000  men.  Wellington  now  pressed  for  the 
total  evacuation  of  France,  pointing  out  that  popular  irritation 
had. grown  to  such  a  pitch  that,  if  the  occupation  were  to  be 
prolonged,  he  must  concentrate  the  army  between  the  Schddt 
and  the  Meuse,  as  the  forces,  stretched  in  a  thin  Cue  across  France, 
were  no  longer  safe  in  the  event  of  a  popular  rising.  But  such  a 
concentration  would  in  itself  be  attended  with  great  risk,  as  the 
detachments  might  be  destroyed  piecemeal  bdore  they  could 
combine.  These  representations  determined  the  allies  to  make 
the  immediate  evacuation  of  France  the  principal  subject  of 
discussion  at  the  congress  which  it  was  arranged  to  hold  at  Aix- 
la-Chapellc  in  the  autunm  of  x8i8.  Here  Wellington  supported 
the  proposal  for  the  immediate  evacuation  of  France,  and  it  was 
owing  to  his  common-sense  criticism  that  the  proposal  of  Prussia, 
supported  by  the  emperor  Alexander  and  Mettcmich,  to  establish 
an  **  army  of  observation  "  at  Brussels,  was  nipped  in  the  bud. 
The  conduct  of  the  final  arrangements  with  Messrs  Baring  and 
Hope,  which  made  a  definitive  financial  settlement  between 
France  and  the  allies  possible,  was  left  entirely  to  him. 

On  Wellington's  first  entry  into  Paris  he  had  been  recdved 
with  popular  enthusiasm,'  but  he  had  soon  become  intensely 
unpopular.  He  was  held  responsible  not  only  for  the  occupation 
Itself,  but  for  every  untoward  incident  to  which  It  gave  rise; 
even  BlQcher's  attempt  to  blow  up  the  Pont  de  J&ia,  which  he 
had  prevented,  was  laid'  to  his  charge.  His  characteristically 
British  temperament  was  wholly  unsympathetic  to  the  French, 
whose  sensibility  was  irritated  by  his  cold  and  slightly  con- 
temptuous justice.  Two  attempts  were  made  to  assassinate  him.* 
After  the  second  the  prince  regent  commanded  him  to  leave. 
Paris  and  proceed  to  the  headquarters  at  Cambrai.*  For  the 
firat  time  the  duke  disobeyed  orders;  the  case,  he  wrote,  was 
one  in  which  he  was  "  principally  and  personally  concerned," 
and  he  alone  was  in  a  position  to  judge  what  line  of  action  he 
ought  to  pursue.*  His  work  in  Paris,  however,  was  now  finished, 
and  on  the  jolh  of  October,  in  a  final "  order  of  the  day,"  he  took 
leave  of  the  international  troopa  under  his  command.  On  the 
23rd  of  October,  while  still  at  Aix,  he  bad  received  an  offer  from 
Lord  Liverpool  of  the  office  of  master-general  of  the  ordnance, 
with  a  scat  in  the  cabinet.  He  accepted,  though  with  some 
rductance.  and  only  on  condition  that  he  should  be  at  liberty,  in 
the  event  of  the  Tories  going  into  opposition,  to  take  any  line 
be  might  think  proper. 

For  the  next  three  yean  "  the  Duke  "  was  little  before  the 
world.  He  su|^x>rted  the  repressive  policy  of  Liverpool's  cabinet , 
and  organised  the  military  forces  held  ready  in  case  of  a  Radical 
rising.    It  was  his  influence  with  George  IV.  that  led  to  the 

>  F.  O.  CoHtinetU;  Paris:  WeUingfan  (No^  3a). 

'  See  the  interesting  letter  of  Lord  Castlereagh  to  Lord  Liverpool 
preserved  in  the  Foreign  Office  Records  {Congress;  Paris;  Viscount 
Castlercagk,  July  7-ao.  iSts).  dated  July  8,  1815. 

*  Maxwdl.  Life,  It.  114  n. 
*Siippl.  Despatehes,  »i.  32^ 

*  Suppl.  DeqMttchcs,  ii.  335. 


readmittance  of  Canning  to  the'  cdblnet  after  the  affafr  of  the 
royal  divorce  had  been  settled.  It  was  only  in  1822,  however,  that 
the  tragic  death  of  his  friend  Londonderry  (Castlereagh)  brought 
him  once  more  into  intematiottal  prominence.  Londonderry  had 
been  on  the  eve  of  starting  for  the  conference  at  Vienna,  and  the 
instructions  which  he  had  drawn  up  for  his  own  guidance  were 
banded  over  by  Canning,  the  new  foreign  secretary,  to  Wellington, 
who  proceeded  in  September  to  ^enna,  and  thence  in  October  to 
Verona,  whither  the  conference  had  been  adjourned.  Welling- 
ton's official  part  |it  the  congress  is  outlined  dsewherfe  (see 
Vekona.  Conckess  or).  Unofficially,  he  pointed  out  to  the 
French  plenipotentiaries,  aigtung  from  Napoleon's  experience, 
the  extreme  danger  of  an  invasion  of  Spain,  but  at  the  same  time 
explained,  for  the  benefit  of  the  duke  of  Angoultoie,  the  best  way 
to  conduct  a  campaign  in  the  Peninsula. 

Wellington's  intimate  association  for  several  years  with  the 
sovereigns  and  statesmen  of  the  Grand  Alliance,  and  his  ex- 
perience of  the  evils  which  the  Alliance  existed  to  hold  in  check, 
naturally  led  him  to  dislike  Canning's  aggressive  attitude  towards 
the  autocratic  powers,  and  to  view  with  Some  apprehension  hb 
determination  to  break  with  the  European  concert.  He  realized, 
however,  that  in  the  matter  of  Spain  and  the  Spanish  colonies 
the  British  government  had  no  dioice,  and  in  this  question  he 
was  in  complete  harmony  with  Canning.  This  was  also  at  first 
the  case  in  respect  to  the  policy  to  be  ptirsued  in  the  Eastern 
Question  raised  by  the  war  iA  Gredc  independence.  Both 
Canning  and  Wellington  were  anxious  to  preserve  the  integrity 
of  Turkey,  and  therefore  to  prevent  any  isolated  intervention  of 
Rusaa;  and  Wellington  seemed  to  Canning  the  most  suitable 
instrument  for  tfie  purpose  of  securing  an  arrangement  between 
Great  Britain  and  Russia  on  the  Greek  question,  through  whidi 
it  was  hoped  to  assure  peace  in  the  East.  In  February  1826, 
accordingly,  the  duke  was  sent  to  -St  Pctersbtng,.  ostensibly  to 
congratulate  the  emperor  Nicholas  I.  on  his  accesaon,  but  more 
espedally — to  use  Wellington's  own  words — *'  to  faiduce  the 
emperor  of  Russia  to  put  himself  in  our  hands."  *  In  this  object 
he  signally  failed.  He  was,  indeed,  reodvcd  in  St  Petersburg 
with  all  honour;  but  as  a  diplomatist  the  "  Iron  Duke  " — whom 
Nicholas,  writing  to  his  brother  Constantine,  described  as  "  old 
and  broken  (caifO"~~vss  no  match  for  the  "  Iron  Tsar."  As 
for  the  Greeks,  the  emperor  said  bluntly  that  he  took  no  interest 
in  **  ces  tnessiturs"  whom  he  regarded  as  "  rebels  ";  his  own 
particular  quarrd  with  Ttirkey,  arising  out  of  the  non-fulfilment 
of  the  treaty  of  Bucharest,  was  the  concern  of  Russia  alone; 
the  ultimatum  to  Turkey  had,  indeed,  been  prepared  before 
Wellington's  arrival,  and  was  de^>atched  during  hu  visit.  Under 
stress  of  the  imminence  of  the  peril,  which  Nicholaii  was  at  no 
pains  to  conceal,  the  duke  was  driven  from  concession  to  con- 
cession, until  at  last  the  ts&r,  having  gained  all  he  wanted, 
condescended  to  come  to  an  arrangement  with  Great  Britain 
in  the  Greek  question.  On  the  4th  of  April  was  signed  the 
Protocol  of  St  Petersburg,  an  instrument  which — as  events  were 
to  prove — fettered  the  free  initiative  not  of  Russia,  but  of  Great 
Britain  (see  Turkey:  History;  Greece:  History).^ 

After  the  death  of  the  duke  of  York  on  the  5th  of  December 
1826  the  post  of  commander-in-chief  was  conferred  upon  Welling- 
ton. His  rdations  with  Canning  had,  however,  become  increas- 
ingly strained,  and  when,  in  consequence  of  Lord  Liverpool's 
illness,  Canning  in  April  1827  was  called  to  the  head  of  the 
administration,  the  duke  refused  to  ser\'e  under  him.  On  the 
day  after  the  resignation  of  his  scat  In  the.  cabinet  he  also  resigned 
his  offices  of  master  of  the  ordnance  and  commander-in-chid, 
giving  as  his  reason  "  the  tone  and  temper  of  Mr  Canning's 
letters,"  though  it  is  difficult  to  see  in  these  lettera  any  adequate 
reason  for  such  a  course  (see  Maxwell's  Life,  !i.  199).  The 
effect  of  his  withdrawal  was  momentous  in  its  bearing  upon 
Eastern  affairs.  Canning,  freed  from  Wellington's  restraint, 
carried  his  intervention  on  behalf  of  Greece  a  step  farther,  and 

•  Memorandum  to  Canning  of  January  26,  1826  (Wett.  Dtsh,  iii.) 

'  An  interesting  account  of  Welhngton  s  negotiations  in  St  Petem* 
burg,  baaed  on  unpoblished  documents  in  the  Russian  archive^  is 
given  in  T.  Schieroann's  CtscktckuRsuslaatds  unter  Nikolaus  1.  (Beriin, 
1906),  ii.  IJ6-138. 


5 '4 


WELLS,  D.  A.— WELLS 


Wdb  ifcat  to  reside  «t  Maxaeflla,  where  lie  hdd  a  proreMotul 
chair.    He  died  on  the  lythof  February  1879. 

From  IL  H.  Home,  the  author  of  Oriam,  the  pment  miter 
received  the  foUowinf  account  of  the  personal  appearance  of 
Wdb  in  youth.  He  was  short  and  sturdy,  with  dark  red  hair, 
a  —IIP*"**'  oomplejdon,  and  bright  Uue  eyes;  he  used  to  call 
himself  **  the  cub/'  in  reference  to  the  habitoai  roughness  of  his 
■lanneiB,  which  he  was  able  to  resolve  at  will  into  the  most 
Caking  sweetness  and  good-humour.  Wells's  wife  who  had  been 
a  Miss  Emily  Jane  Hill,  died  in  1874.  Their  son,  after  his 
father's  death,  achieved  a  notoriety  which  was  unpoetical, 
althou^  lecocded  in  popular  song,  for  he  was  the  once-famous 
**  man  who  broke  the  beiiik  at  Monte  Carlo." 

The  famous  Joseph  and  his  Brethren,  concerning  whidi  critldsm 
has  recovered  Its  self  •possession,  is  an  overgrown  specimen 
of  the  pseu(k>- Jacobean  drama  in  verse  whidi  was  popular 
in  idtrarpoetical  drdes  between  1820  and  183a  Its  merits  are 
those  of  rich  versification,  a  rather  florid  and  voluble  eloquence 
and  a  subtle  trick  of  reserve,  akin  to  that  displayed  by  Webster 
and  Cyril  Toumenr  in  moments  of  impassioned  dialogue.  Swin- 
burne has  said  that  there  are  lines  in  Wells  '*  which  mi|^t  mor( 
naturally  be  mistaken,  even  by  an  ejpert,  for  the  wori;  of  the 
young  Shakespeate,  than  any  to  be  gathered  elsewhere  in  the 
fields  of  English  poetry."  This  may  be  the  case,  but  even 
the  youngest  Shakespeare  would  have  avoided  the  dulness  of 
subject-matter  and  the  slowness  of  evolution  which  impede 
the  raider's  progress  through  this  wholly  undramatic  play. 
Jaupk  and  his  Brethrm,  in  fact,  although  it  has  been  covered 
with  eulogy  by  the  most  illustrious  enthusiasts,  is  less  a  poem 

than  an  odd  poetical  curiosity. 

In  1909  a  reprint  was  publiMed  of  Josefk  end  kit  Brethren^  with 
Swinburne's  essay,  and  reminiscences  by  T.  Watts-Dunton.  (E.  G.) 

WBLL8,  DAVID  A1EB8  (1828-1898),  American  economist, 
was  bom  in  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  on  the  17th  of  June  x8a8. 
He  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  18471  was  cm  the  editorial 
staff  of  the  Springfield  Republican  m  1848,  and  at  that  time 
invent^l  a  machine  for  folding  newspapers  and  book-sheets. 
He  then  removed  to  Cambridge,  graduated  at  the  Lawrence 
Scientific  School  in  1851,  and  published  in  1850-1865  with  George 
Bliss  (1793-1873)  an  Annud  of  Scientific  Discovery.  In  x866  he 
patented  a  process  for  preparing  textile  fabrics.  His  essay  on  the 
national  debt,  Ow  Burden  and  Our  Strength  (1864),  secured  him 
the  appointment  in  1865  as  chairman  of  the  national  revenue 
commission,  which  laid  the  basis  of  sdentific  taxation  in  the 
ifnited  States.  In  1866-1870  he  was  q>edal  commlsuoner  of 
revenue  and  published  important  annual  reports;  during  these 
years  he  became  an  advocate  of  free  trade,  and  he  argued  that 
the  natural  resources  of  the  United  States  must  lead  to  industrial 
supremacy  without  the  artificial  as^tance  of  a  protective  tariff 
which  must  produce  an  uneven  development  industrially.  The 
cre9M*on  of  a  Federal  Bureau  of  Statistics,  in  the  Dq>artment 
of  the  Treasury  was  largely  due  to  Wells's  influence.  In  1871 
he  was  chairman  of  the  New  York  State  Commis^on  on  lood 
taxation  which  urged  the  abolition  of  personal  taxes,  except  of 
moneyed  corporations,  and  the  levy  of  a  tax  on  the  rental  value 
of  dwellingi  to  be  paid  bv  the  occupant;  and  in  1878  he  reported 
on  New  Yoik  canal  toUa.  In  1877  be  was  president  of  the 
American  Social  Sdence  Asaodatioo.  He  died  in  Norwich, 
Connecticut,  on  the  5th  of  November  1898. 

He  ecfited  many  sdentific  text-books,  and  wrote  T%e  Creed  cf  the 
Fru  Trader  (1875),  Robineon  Crusm^s  Money  (1878),  0»  MerehanI 
Marine  (1883),  The  Primer  of  Tar^Referm{j98Ah  Praetical  Economies 
(1885), rrinciplesef  Taxaiionii8»Si,Secml Economic  Changes  (1889). 

WUU,  HERBIBT  OIOMB  (k866-  ),  English  novelist 
was  bom  at  Bromley,  Kent,  on  the  aist  of  September  1866,  the 
•on  of  Joseph  Wdb,  a  profcssioaal  cricketer  He  was  educated 
at  MidQiurst  giammar  school  and  at  the  Royal  CoUege  of  Science, 
where  he  was  trained  m  physics,  chemistry,  astsonony,  geology 
and  biology.  He  graduated  B.Sc.  of  London  Univcfsity  in  1888 
with  first<htts  honours,  taught  sdence  in  a  private  school,  and 
aubsequently  did  private  roaching.  In  1893  he  began  to  write  for 
the  PaU  Mall  CaaeUe,  of  which  he  was  dramatie  critic  in  x89S* 
He  aim  wrote  Sac  Mairne  and  the  Saimda^  Smiam,   Alter  the 


success  of  his  fantastic  stoiy  The  Time  Machine  (1895)  ^  8&ve 
his  time  chiefly  to  the  writing  of  romances,  in  which  the  newest 
sdentific  and  technical  discoveries  were  used  to  advance  his 
views  on  politics  and  soddogy.  But  he  did  not  confine  himself 
to  fiction.  His  AtUidpdHons  (1902)  showed  his  real  gift  for 
sodological  speculation.  Be^nning  with  a  ch;q>ter  on  the 
means  of  locomotion  in  the  20th  century,  it  went  on  to  discuss 
war,  the  conflict  of  langnsgw,  faith,  morals,  the  dimination  of 
the  unfit,  and  other  generiJ  topics,  with  remarkable  acuteness 
and  constructive  ability.  In  The  Discovery  of  the  Future  {it^oi). 
Mankind  in  the  Mahing  (1903),  A  Modem  Utopia  (1905)  and 
New  Worlds  for  OU  (1906)  his  socialistic  theories  were  further 
developed.  As  a  novelist,  meanwhOe,  he  had  taken  a  very  high 
place.  Some  eaitter  stories,  such  as  The  Wheds  of  Chana 
(1896)  and  Looe  and  Mr  Lewisham  (1900),  had  proved  hb  talent 
for  drawing  character,  and  pure  phantasies  like  The  War  of  the 
Worlds  (1898)  his  abundant  invention;  but  Kipps  (1905)  and 
Teno-Bungay  (1909)  showed  a  great  advance  in  artistic  power. 
The  list  of  his  works  of  fiction  includes  The  Stolen  Bacillus  and 
other  Stories  (1895),  The  Wonderful  Visit  (189$),  The  lAand 
of  Doctor  Moreau  (1896),  The  PlaUner  Story  and  Others  (1897), 
When  the  Sleeper  Wakes  (1899),  The  First  Men  in  the  Moon  (1901), 
The  Pood  of  the  Gods  (1904),  In  the  Days  of4he  Cornel  (1906), 
The  War  in  the  Air  (1908),  Anne  Veronica  (1909),  The  History 
of  Mr  Polly  (1910).  

WBLLf,  SOL.  THOMAS  SPBHCBH,  xsT  Bast.  (181 8-1897), 
En^ish  surgeon,  was  bom  at  St  Albans  on  the  3rd  of  February 
18 1 8,  and  received  his  medical  education  in  Leeds,  Dublin  and 
St  Thomas's  Hospital,  London  (M.R.C.S.  1841).  From  1841  to 
1848  be  served  as  a  surgeon  in  the  navy,  and  in  184B  he  went  to 
Paris  to  study  pathology.  In  1853  he  settled  in  London,  and 
took  up  ophthalmic  surgery,  interrupting  his  work  to  go  out  to  the 
East  in  the  Crimean  War.  In  1854  he  became  surgeon  to  the 
Samaritan  Frpe  Hospital  for  Women  and  Children,  London. 
His  reputation  in  surgery  had  obtained  for  him  in  1844  the  fellow- 
ship of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  and  he  subsequently  be- 
came a  member  of  conncfl,  Hunterian  professor  of  surgery  and 
pathology  (1878),  President  (1882)  and  Hunterian  Orator  (1883). 
In  1883  he  was  made  a  baronet.  His  name  is  best  known  fai  con- 
nexion with  his  succesBf  ul  revival  of  the  operation  of  ovariotomy, 
which  had  fallen  into  disrepute  owing  to  the  excesdve  mortality 
attending  it;  and  in  his  skilfid  hands,  assisted  by  modern 
surgical  methods,  the  operation  lost  almost  all  its  danger.  His 
book  on  Diseases  of  the  Ooaries  was  published  in  1865.  Sir 
Spencer  Wells  married  in  1853  Miss  Elisabeth  Wri|^t,  and 
had  a  son  and  daughters.  He  died  on  the  31st  of  January 
1897.  His  esute  at  Golder's  Hill,  Hempstead,  was  sold 
after  his  death  to  the  London  Connty  Conndl  and  converted 
into  a  public  park. 

WBLLf,  a  dty,  munidpal  borough  and  market  town  in  the 
Wells  parliamentary  division  of  Somerset,  En^and,  so  m.  S. 
of  Bristol,  on  the  Great  Western  and  Somerset  ft  Dorset 
railways.  Pop.  (1901)  4849.  It  is  a  quiet,  <dd-fashioned  place, 
lying  in  a  hollow  under  the  Mendip  HIUs,  iriiosc  spurs  rise  on  all 
sides  like  islands.  The  dty  js  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
some  springs  called  St  Andrew's  Wells,  which  during  the  middle 
ages  were  thought  to  have  valuable  curative  properties.  During 
Saxon  times  Wells  was  one  of  the  most  important  towns  ct 
Wessex,  and  in  905  it  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  by  King 
Edward  the  Elder.  About  the  year  1091-1092  Bishop  John  de 
Villula  removed  the  see  to  Bath;  and  for  some  years  Wells 
ceased  to  be  an  episcopal  dty.  After  many  struggles  between  the 
secular  clergy  of  WeUs  and  the  regulars  of  Bath,  it  was  finally 
arranged  in  1139  that  the  bishop  should  take  the  title  of  **  bishop 
of  Bath  and  Wells,"  and  should  for  the  future  be  elected  by 
delegates  appointed  partly  by  the  monks  of  Bath  and  partly  by 
the  canons  of  Wells.  The  foundation  attached  to  the  cathedral 
church  of  Wells  consisted  of  a  college  of  secular  canons  of  St 
Augustine,  governed  by  a  dean,  sub^ean,  chaacellor  and  other 
officials.  The  diocese  covers  the  greater  part  of  Somerset.  The 
importance  of  the  dty  is  almost  wholly  ecdesiasticsl;  and  the 
theoiegicai  college  ia  one  of  the  meat  Impoftaat  in  Bagland. 


WELLSTON— WELS 


515 


Wdb  it  goveratd  by  »  mayor,  4.  aldcRttn  uid  19  ooundnon. 
Area  730  acies. 

The  cathedral,  one  of  the  most  magoificciit  of  all  the  secular 

churches  of  England,  was  executed  piindpally  by  Bishops 

Reginald  Fita^Jccelyn  (xzyx-xxgx),  Savaricus  (xxga-xsos)  and 

Jocetyn  (1 8o6«z  343).    According  to  the  usual  medieval  ptactaoe, 

the  eastern  part  ol  the  church  was  begun  first,  and  the  choir  was 

consecrated  for  use  long  before  the  completion  of  the  nave,  the 

western  part  of  which,  with  the  magnificent  scries  of  sutues  on 

the  facade,  is  commonly  attributed  to  Bishop  Jocelyn.    With  him 

was  associated  a  fanaous  architect  in  Ellas  de  Dcxham,  who  waa 

Us  steward  ini236,  and  died  in  z  34s.    The  upper  half  of  the  two 

western  towers  has  never  been  built.    The  noble  central  tower, 

160  ft.  high,  was  built  early  in  the  X4th  century;  the  beautiful 

octagonal  chapter-house  on  the  north  side,  and  the  bdy  chapel 

at  the  extreme  east,  were  the  next  important  additions  in  the 

same  century.    The  whole  church  is  covered  with  stone  groining 

of  various  dates,  from  the  Early  English  of  the  choir  to  the  fan 

▼aulting  of  the  central  tower«    Its  plan  consists  of  a  nave  (x6x  ft. 

in  length  and  8a  in  breadth)  and  aisles,  with  two  short  transits, 

each  with  a  western  sisle  and  two  eastern  chapeb.    Thechoirand 

its  aisles  are  of  unusual  length  (xcs  ft.)»  *od  behind  the  high 

altar  are  two  smaller  transepts,  be^md  which  is  the  vexy  ridi 

Decorated  lady  chapel,  witli  an  eastern  semi-octagonal  apse. 

On  the  north  of  the  choir  is  the  octagonal  chapter-house,  the 

vaulting  of  which  springs  from  a  slender  central  shaft;  as  the 

church  belonged  to  secular  clergy,  it  was  not  necessary  to  place  it 

in  its  usual  position  by  the  cloister.    Hie  cloister,  160  by  150  fL, 

extends  along  the  whde  southern  wall  of  the  nave^    The  extreme 

length  of  the  ehurch  from  east  to  west  is  383  ft.    The  oak  stalls 

and  bishop's  throne  in  the  choir  are  magnificent  examples  of  z^th- 

century  woodwork,  still  weU  preserved. 

The  glory  of  the  chuxch,  and  that  wfaidi  maloes  It  nalqae  among 
the  many  cplendid  buiidings  of  medieval  England,  is  the  woadeifiJ 
■erks  of  iiculptured  figures  which  decorate  the  exterior  of  the  west 
front.  The  whole  oT  the  facade,  X50  ft.  wide,  including  the  two 
western  towen,  is  cotnpletelV  covered  with  this  magnificent  series; 
there  are  nine  tiers  of  siiyjie  figures  under  canopies,  over  600  la 
number,  raostiv  Urge  life  suee,  with  some  as  much  as  8  ft.  in  height, 
and  other  smaller  statues;  these  represent  angds,  saints,  prophets, 
kings  and  queens  ci  the  Saxon,  Norman  and  Flantagenet  dynasties, 
anobishops  and  others  who  had  been  benefactors  to  the  see.   There 


are  also  forty-dght  reliefs  with  subjects  from  Bible  history,  and 
immense  representations  of  the  Last  Jtidgment  and  the  Resurrection, 
the  latter  alone  containing  about  150  figures^  The  whole  com- 
position is  devised  so  as  to  present  a  comprehensive  scheme  of 
theolo^  and  history,  evidently  thought  out  with  much  care  and 
ingenuity.  As  works  of  art,  these  statues  and  reliefs  are  of  high 
merit;  the  faces  are  noble  in  type,  the  folds  of  the  draneiy  very 
gracefully  treated  with  true  scul^tuiesoue  simplicity,  and  the  pose 
of  the  fieures  remarkable  for  dignity.  A  great  variety  of  hands  and 
much  oiversity  of  workmanship  can  be  traced  in  this  mass  of 
sculpture,  but  in  very  few  cases  does  the  work  fall  conspicuously 
bdow  the  general  level  of  excellence.  ' 

The  interior  of  the  central  tower  presents  an  interesting  rxample 
of  the  skilful  way  in  which  the  medieval  builders  could  turn  an 
unexpected  constructional  necessity  into  a  beautiful  architectural 
feature.  While  it  was  being  built  the  four  piers  of  the  great  tower 
arches  showed  signs  of  failure,  and,  therefore,  in  order  to  strengthen 
them,  a  second  lower  arch  was  built  below  each  main  arch  of  the 
tower;  and  on  this  a  third  Inverted  arch  was  added.  Thus  the 
piers  received  a  steady  support  along  their  whole  height  from  top 
to  bottom,  and  yet  the  openingof  each  archway  was  blocked  up  in 
the  smallest  possible  degree.  The  contrasting  lines  of  these  three 
adiacent  arches  on  each  side  of  the  tower  have  a  very  striking  and 
graceful  effect:  nothing  similar  exists  elsewhere. 

On  the  south  side  of  the  cathedral  stands  the  tnshop's  palace,  a 
moated  building,  originally  built  in  the  form  of  a  quadrangle  by 
Bbbop  Jocelyn,  and  surrounded  by  a  loftv  circuit  wall.  The  hall  and 
chapel  are  beautiful  structures,  mostly  of  the  14th  century. 

The  vicars'  college  was  a  secular  foundation  for  two  principals 
and  twelve  vicars;  fine  remains  of  this,  dating  from  the  i^th  century, 
and  other  residences  of  the  deigy  stand  within  and  near  tne  cathedral 
dose;  some  of  these  are  among  the  most  beautiful  examples  of 
medieval  domestic  architecture  in  England. 

The  church  of  St  Cuthbert  is  one  of  the  finest  of  the  many  fine 
parochial  churches  in  Somersetshire,  with  a  noble  tower  and  spire 
at  the  west  end.  It  was  originally  an  Eariy  English  crudform 
building,  but  th#  central  tower  fell  in  during  the  i6tn  oentwy,  and 
the  whole  building  was  much  altetxid  daring  the  PerpcndicuUr  perkxi. 
Thn^gh  amck  damaged,  a  very  aatertattag  rersdosyxisrs  hehmd  the 


Mgb  altar:  it  consists  of  a  **  Jesse  tree  **  sadptwed  in  rdief,  eieeted 
in  1470.  Another  beautiful  reredoe  was  dhcovered  in  1848,  Mmn 
in  the  |4aster  on  the  east  wall  of  the  bdy  chapel,  whkh  is  on  the 
north  sKle. 

Theie  was  «  Raman  settlement  at  Wells  iTkeondumum, 
Ponliculi,  TidingtoH^  WeUiae,  Welle),  this  site  bdng  chosen  00 
account  of  the  springs  from  whick  the  town  takes  its  name, 
and  the  Roman  road  to  Cheddar  passed  throogh  WeOs.  King 
Ine  founded  a  zeUgkMs  bouse  there  in  704,  and  it  became  an 
episcopal  see  ni  91a  To  this  latter  event  the  subsequent  growth 
of  Wdla  is  due.  There  is  evidence  that  WeSs  had  beoomt 
a  borough  owned  by  the  bishopa  of  Wells  b«Core  1x60,  and  in  that 
year  Bishop  Robert  granted  the  first  charter,  which  eaeinpted 
his  burgesses  from  certain  toBs.  Other  charters  granted  by 
Bishop  Reginald  before  u8o  and  by  Bishop  Savaric  abovt  isoi 
gave  the  burgesses  of  WeOs  the  light  to  jurisdictkni  in  their  own 
disputes.  Ttoe  chartera  were  oonfirmed  by  John  in  laoi,  bf 
Edward  I.  in  xxgo,  by  Edward  UL  with  the  grant  of  newprivil^M 
In  i334(  X34<»  1343  and  X345t  ^Y  Richard  U.  in  1577,  by  Henry 
IV.  in  1399  and  by  Henry  VI.  in  1434.  Wells  obtained  charteia 
of  incorpomtion  in  1589, 1683, 1688  and  1835.  It  was  repiesented 
in  parliament  from  1 295  to  1868.  Fairs  on  March  j,  October  14 
and  November  30  were  granted  before  tx6o,  and  In  laoi  fain 
on  May  9,  November  25  and  June  25  were  added.  They  wers 
important  in  the  middle  ages  for  the  sale  of  doth  made  in  the 
town,  but  the  fairs  whiek  axe  now  held  on  the  first  Tuesdays  in 
January,  Miqr,  July,  November  and  December  are  noted  for  the 
sale  of  cheese.  The  market  days  for  the  Mle  of  cattle  and  provi- 
sions are  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays.  Silk-making,  stocking- 
making  and  Roving  replaced  the  doth  trade  in  WeOs,  but  have 
now  given  place  to  brush-making,  com  and  paper  miUing»  which 
began  early  in  the  X9th  century. 

See  VuUfria  CMttUy  History,  Smerset;  Thomas  Sard,  Zedarei 
o»  Wells  (1880). 

WBIX8T0II,  a  dty  of  Jackson  county,  Ohio,  U.S.A.,  about 
30  m.  SE.  of  Chillicothe.  Pop.  (x88o)  95a;  (X890)  4377; 
(1900)  8o45|  of  whom  31  x  were  foreign-bom;  (19x0  census) 
6875.  Land  area  (1906)1 6*62  sq.  m.  Wellston  is  served  by 
the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  South-weatem,  the  Hocking  Valley,  the 
Cindnnati,  Hamilton  &  Dayton,  and  the  Detroit,  Toledo  &  Iron- 
ton  railways,  and  is  connected  by  an  electric  line  with  Jackson 
(pop.  in  X910, 5468),  the  county-seat,about  10  na.  S.W.  Immedi- 
ately N.  of  the  dty  ia  Lake  Alma  Park.  Weston  is  situated  in  a 
OMd  and  iron  mining  countxy;  among  the  dty*s  manufactures 
are  iron  and  cement,  and  in  X905  the  value  of  the  factory  product 
wsa  $1,384,295,  4X'4%  more  than  in  1900.  The  munidpality 
owns  and  operates  its  water^werks  and  iUelectric  lighting  plant. 
Wellston  (named  in  honour  of  Harvey  Welb,  its  founder)  was 
settled  in  1871,  and  was  chattered  as  a  dty  in  2876. 

WBLUVILLB,  a  dty  of  Columbiana  county,  Ofak),  U.S.A^ 
about  35  m.  S.  of  Youngstown,  on  the  Ohio  river.  Pop.  (1890) 
5347;  (1900)  6x46  (475  behig  foreign-bom  and  113  ne^raes); 
(1910)  7769.  Wellsville  is  served  by  the  Peonsylvania  railway, 
and  by  an  laAerurban  electric  line  cotmectii^  with  Rodiester, 
Pa.,  and  SleubenviUe,  Ohk».  It  is  in  a  region  wUch  has  rich 
deposits  of  cosi,  imtunl  gas,  oil  and  day;  and  there  axe  varioua 
manufactures.  The  nei^bourhood  was  first  settled  in  1795 
Ivy  one  James  Clark  of  Washington  county,  Pennsylvania,  who 
botii^t  a  tract  of  304  acres  here  and  who  transferred  it  a  year 
afterwards  to  his  son*in-<law,  William  Wells,  In  whose  honour  the 
settlement  was  named  in  1820  when  it  was  platted.  From  x83a 
to  r852  Wellsville  was  an  important  shipping  point  on  the  Ohio, 
with  daily  steamboats  to  PKuburg;  it  was  incorporated  aa  n 
village  in  1848,  and  waa  chartered  as  n  dty  in  1890. 

WBLB,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  Upper  Austria,  17  m.  S.S.W. 
of  Lina  by  nil.  Fop.  (1900)  r2,x87.  It  is  situated  on  the  river 
Tkaun  and  possesses  an  interesting  parish  church,  in  Gothic 
style,  rebuilt  in  the  xsth  century,  but  the  oldest  part  supposed  to 
date  from  the  9th  century.  The  town  draws  a  supply  of  natural 
gas,  used  for  lighting,  heat  and  motive  power,  from  deep  arte^an 
borings  first  made  in  189X.  It  has  an  important  trade  in  com, 
timber,  horned  cattle,  pigs  and  hones,  fowls,  dairy  produce  and 
lard;  and  considerable  manufactures,   indudfaig   machinery. 


SI" 


WfiN-CHOW-FU— WENLOCK 


bcedoDindvilbttUiantbat&ylnBobnttU;  tnd>rtntlicdalb 
of  the  Gcnoan  king  Rupert  in  i<io  tppan  la  have  eniertilacd 
hops  of  Rcovering  hli  fonou  Ihioae.  Abuidoiuiis  tliit  Idea, 
however,  he  voted  foi'tlie  dectlon  ot  Sigismund  in  1411,  but 
tlipidatcd  that  be  tbould  ceuia  the  title  of  lung  of  the  Romuu. 
Hit  coDdudinf  yean  were  disiuTlxd  by  the  troLblei  which  arose 
Ii  Bohemia  ovr  the  death  of  John  Hus«,  and  which  the  Tacilial- 
lng_kiDf  did  nothing  to  check  nntil  compeUed  by  Sigiunund. 
In  the  midst  of  these  distuibanccs  he  died  at  Prague  on  the  i6th 
of  August  i4Tg.  Hb  second  wife  was  Si^hla,  dauglitet  of  John, 
dukeofBavaria-MiuiichibuIlwHiiiocluLlten.  WeDcealaniwu 
■  capable  and  ediuated  man,  but  was  lacking  In  ppseverapcemd 
tnduitry.  He  neglected  business  lor  pleasure  and  was  much 
addicted  to  drunkeiuw.  Re  favoured  the  t^*rMwijj  of  Hubs, 
probably  on  palit[<al  ground*,  but  eaetdsed  Mny  little  inllnencc 


Bl^ 

f^: 

alBbi 

k,  Dai 

in,). 

bthe 

ofCheh- 

«  of  the  five  POM  opened  by 

heChifu 

kiang,  ChinL, _  .  , ,.-.-..  -^ 

omventiontoforelgntiBde.liluatidtsB'i'N.,  lio'ji'  E.)  oniiM 
■mth  bank  of  tbe  river  Cow,  about  30  m.  from  the  sea.  The 
popuUtioo  It  tstimated  at  80,000.  flie  Mt  is  said  to  have 
been  chosen  by  Kwo  P'oh  {A.D.  17^-314),  a  celehntcd  antiquary 
wborecogniiedintbe  adjacent  monnlainpesksa  correqwadence 
with  the  stars  in  the  conslellstion  of  the  Gml  Bear,  froni  wtucb 
drcumstance  the  town  was  first  known  ■*  the  Tow  or  Great  Bear 
tily.  Subsequently  the  anjearanc*  in  its  victnity  of  a  white 
deer  carrying  a  flowtr  in  iti  mouth  waa  deemed  »  favourable 
•n  omen  as  to  mote  than  justify  the  diange  of  its  name  to  Luh 
or  Deer  city.  Iti  present  name,  wfiitb  sgnifiea  tbe  "  mild 
district,"  and  b  correctly  descriptive  ol  the  climate,  thou^  not  of 
the  iababiiants,  was  given  to  it  during  the  Ming  d/narty  (13**- 
1644).  Tbewalh,  which  were  built  in  the  lOth  cmtory,  are  about 
4  m.  in  drcumfennce,  3;  ft,  in  height,  and  11  fl.  hmad  at  Ibe 
(op.  The  erects  are  paved  with  brick  and  are  wide,  straight  and 
dean.  The  gates,  aeven  hi  number,  were  erected  in  1598. 
Wta-chow  ll  about  Is6o  m.  S.S.E.  by  road  from  Peking  and 
«oo  in.  E.S.E.  of  Hankow.  Tbe  British  consul  and  the  customs 
outdoor  ataff  occupy  foreign<built  houses  on  Conquest  Idand, 
idiich  lies  abreast  of  tbe  cily.  Tbe  neighbourhood  [5  hiHy  aAd 
pretty,  while  oppoute  the  nonb^wesl  gale  Conquest  Idand 
forms  a  fJcturesque  object.  The  Island  □.  howrver,  more 
beautiful  than  healthy.  The  port,  whidi  was  opened  to  fbttfgn 
trade  In  iSj6,  has  not  Juslihed  Ibe  expectations  which  were 
(otiaed  of  it  as  a  commerdal  centre,  azid  In  iqoS  the  direct 
foreign  trade  was  valued  at  £19,000  only. 

Then  is  no  foreign  Kltlemenl  at  Wtn-chow,  and  the  fottigii 
tendents  are  mainly  ofBdals  and  miwionsrics.  The  tea  trade  of 
Whi-chow.Fu,  formerly  important,  has  declined  owing  to  care- 
less cultivation,  A  conjidetable  native  eiport  trade  in  wood, 
charmil,  bamboo,  medicines,  paper  umbrelUa,  oranges,  otler 
akins  and  tobacco  leaf  is  carried  «i.  The  imports  are  chiefly 
cotton  yam  and  piece  goods,  kerosene  oil,  ptln^-lesi  fans,  aniline 


Bretbim  of  the  Swotd,  afterwards  {from  iijjf  of  Ibe  granl- 
mtater  of  the  Teutonic  Knight*.  In  iSTT  tbe  garrison  blew  it 
«  falling  mla-the  band*  of  Ivan  Ibe  Tcnible 


of  Russia.    It  was  rebuilt,  but  ha*  bt 


ii  Tuinaaincea  fire  In 


by  tbe  Metropolitan  and  ibe  Orcat  Cenlnl  jofal  ttlhr^.    hp. 

(i«ei}  loifi.  It  it  picturesquely  situated  in  a  iballow  defile 
of  the  Chlllera  Hilb,  towards  their  western  fact  Wendoverit 
aqmettownofoDgtealactivity.  ItichurchofSl  MuylimiiBly 
Decorated,  and  1  few  old  homes  remain. 

Wcndover  (.Wcndmrt,  Wa-uUvri,  Wcmltmn)  ii  on  tbe  Upper 
Icknield  Way,  which  was  probably  an  Ancient  British  toad,  and 
virioui  Iracet  of  a  British  settkineiit  have  been  found  b  the 
town  and  neighbourhood.  In  108;  the  king  beld  tbe  manor  of 
Wendover,  and  therefbn  It  belonged  to  the  andcnl  demooe 
of  the  crown.  There  is  no  trace  of  any  iDcorporaiion  of  the  town. 
Two  bUTgeeset  were  summmed  to  the  pariiaments  of  1300,  rjoj 
and  rjog.  but  no  further  tetnras  were  made  until  1615.  In  iSjs 
Wendovir  lost  its  rigbt  of  leparate  representation.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  John  Hampden  and  Edtnund  Burke  both  lepte- 
sented  the  borough.  In  1464  Edward  IV.  coofirmed  to  Ml 
tenants  snd  the  reBdcnts  within  the  borou^  tbe  market  that 
they  had  always  held  every  Hiursdey  For  a  ibott  period  (be 
day  was  dianged  to  Tuesday,  but  the  market  wsa  given  up 
before  lS38.  Hugh  de  Gumay  held  a  fair  in  Wcndover  on  the 
eve,  feait  and  morrow  of  St  Jc^  tbe  Baptist,  granted  him  ii 
1114.  Another  lair  was  granted  to  Jrdn  de  Molyns  in  ij47-im< 
on  tbe  eve,  feait  and  motrov  of  St  Bamabas,  hut  in  1464  Edwud 
IV.  granted  two  fairs  to  his  lenaott  and  retidenU  in  the  boroiigb, 
to  be  beld  on  the  vigils,  feast*  and  monows  of  Si  Matthew 
and  of  SS.nulip  and  James.  Tliese  fairs  have  been  b<M  vilkout 
interruption  till  the  present  day,  their  dates  being  October  s 
and  Uay  1.3. 

TCMW,  the  name  aiqilied  by  the  Gennau  to  tbe  Glava  ({.>.) 
whenrer  they  aunelncontact  with  them.  IlisTww  usid  for  the 
Slovena  {{.>.),  for  the  Ceitntniied  Polabs  (g.r.)  hi  eaiiem 
Hanover,  and  especially  for  tbe  LunlUu  Wends  or  Sotbt  (f.a). 
It  is  first  found  in  Pliny  {Vriudat)  and  in  Euglidi  b  Bitd  bj 
Alfred. 

WEXIIT,  RANI  HIHRKU  (185;^  },  German  PiotettanI 
theologian,  waa  bom  In  Hamburg  on  the  igth  of  June  iSsj* 
After  studying  theology  at  Leipzig,  CiMtlngen  and  Tubingen,  he 
iKcame  in  iSS;  professor  ordinarius  of  lytteouilic  tbcolofy  st 
Heiddberg,  and  in  rSgj  was  called  to  Jen*.  His  work  on  tbe 
leaching  ol  Jesus  (Die  LeMri  Jia,  iSKd-iSQs;  E^.  tnnt. 
of  second  part,  1S99)  made  hhn  widely  known.  He  also  ediled 
several  editions  (5th  to  8th,  1S80-1S0S)  of  the  Ctmmailtrj  f 
litAcatflArAftiUaiaB.  A.'W.tStyti'tiaia.  In  Uay  1904 
he  delivered  two  addrotet  in  London  on  "  The  Idea  and  Reaiily 
of  Revelation,  and  Typical  Forms  of  Chiiatianity,"  **  the 
£i»i  HaU  Ltlwa  (published,  1904). 

His  work)  Include:  Dii  cintaicht  Uift  m  rfcr  nuiudUiftn 
VsUiBmnitnlitil  <I»a]|.  Der  Bijtkmntilmtis  Kr  *U  Wairlml  In 
CkriiUntiuia  (1997),  aid  Dai  JtiainiaiHupl^m  (19001  Eif. 
trana.,  1901). 

WBMLOCIE.  a  rnnmdpal  borough  in  the  Ludlow  tad  WcUmgtoa 
pariianHDtary  diviuona  of  Shropshire,  Eiigtand,  crlending  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  Severn.  Pop.  (i^i)  15,866.  llindudti 
the  martlet  towns  of  BUMUIV,  Uadeliv  and  Mdcb  Wekioci 
(T.i).  ThspsTishofhladeleylndudes  the  small  lowu  of  Iron- 
bridge  and  Coalport,  with  part  ol  Coalbiooeedaix  (f.i.).  Tbs 
district  Is  in  part  agrknlluial,  hut  contalna  limestone  quarriOt 
some  coal-mines  and  Iron-works.  The  borough  is  under  a  mayoti 
8  aldermen  and  34  councillors.    Area,  2i,6^J  aoK. 

Wentocfc  IWanlxlit)  la  said  to  be  of  pre-Koman  oriffn,  bNt 
owed  its  early  impoitance  to  the  nunnery  founded  i.  6Sobf 
St  MUhutg,  daughter  of  Uerewald,  kmg  of  Uetda.  This  was 
destroyed  by  the  Dane*  but  refoundcd  aa  a  priory  by  Eai) 
Leofik  in  lot;.  It  was  a^ln  daetted  after  the  Conquer  untB 
RnfetdeHootgoincryfoBwIedahoiBCoftheChuiiacixderoB  it! 
site.  The  town  was  a  borough  bypreicription,  and  its  privileges 
began  with  the  grants  made  to  the  prioiy  and  ill  tenants.  It 
«t*  looorpotated  undsr  the  name  of  "  Baihfi,  Burgeaa  uA 
Comnofialcy  "by  EdwaidlV,  in  14SB  at  the  request  ol  Sir  John 
Wenlock.  Kl.,  and  "  in  consideration  of  the  laudable  scrrica 
which  the  men  of  the  town  performed  in  assisting  the  Uu  to 
of  Che  CTOwb,"  and  ^  chaitcf  »■  amfioasd  ta 


WENtOCK  GROUP— W^NSLEYDALE,  BARO^I 


519 


x547byHttixyTin.andl]ii63xbyCharksI.  ThelMuUfftrAsto 
be  chokea  annually  by  the  burgesses,  but  his  dection  seems  to 
have  d^>ended  entirely  upon  the  lord  of  the  manor,  and,  after  a 
«>ntest  in  xSai  between  Lord  Forester  and  Sir  W.  W.  Wynne, 
the  lord  of  the  manor  at  that  date,  was  nominated  by  eaich  of 
them  alternately.  In  the  report  of  i8^(|  the  borough  is  said  to 
consist  of  seventeen  parishes  and  to  be  unfit  for  corporate  govenl> 
ment.  By  the  charter  of  Edward  IV.  the  town  obtained,  the 
right  of  sending  two  members  to  parliament,  but  was  disfranchised 
in  1885.  The  fixst  grant  of  a  market  and  fair  is  dated  z 227,  when 
the  prior  of  Wenlock  obtained  licence  to  hold  a  fair  on  the  vigU, 
day  and  morrow  of  the  Nativity  of  St  John  the  Baptist,  and 
a  market  every  Monday.  The  incorporation  charter  of  1468 
granted  these  to  the  burgesses,  who  continue  to  hold  them. 

See  ViOaria  County  History:  Shropshire^  John  Kandall,  JtamdaWs 
Tourists'  Gttido  to  Wenlock  (1S7O;  "Borough  of  Wenlock,"  The 
Salopian  and  West  Midland  MontUy  IttustraUd  Journal,  March,  April, 
November,  December,  1877,  April  and  October,  1878,  March,  1879 
(1877-1879). 

WSmjOCK  GROUP  (Wenlockian),  hi  geology,  the  middle 
series  of  strata  in  the  Silurian  (Upper  Silurian)  of  Great  Britain. 
This  group  in  the  typical  area  in  the  Welsh  border  counties 
contains  the  following  formations:  Wenlock  or  Dudley  lime- 
stone, 90-300  ft.;  Wenlock  shale,  up  to  1900  ft.;  Woolhope  or 
Barr  Kmestone  and  shale,  150  ft. 

The  Woolhope  beds  consist  mainly  of  shales  whldi  are  generally 
calcareous  ana  pass  frequently  into  irregular  nodular  and  lenticulair 
limeatone.  In  the  Malvcm  Hills  there  is  much  shale  at  the  base, 
and  in  places  the  limestone  may  be  absent.  These  beds  are  best 
developed  in  Herefordshire;  they  appear  also  at  May  Hill  in 
GtoucesterBhire  and  in  Radnorshire.  Common  fossils  are  Pkacops 
eaiidatuSf  BncrinMrus  pnuetatust  Orthis  caUignsmma,  Alrypa  reli' 
cularis,  Ortkoceras  OHnnlaiiun. 

The  Wenlock  Shales  are  Mle  or  dark-arey  shales  which  extend 
through  Cx)albrookdale  in  Shropshire,  through  Radnorshire  into 
Carmarthenshire.    They  appear  arain  southward  in  the  Silurian 

¥  Itches  in  Gloucestershire,  Herefordshire  and  Monmouthshire, 
hey  thicken  from  the  south  northward.  The  fossils  are  .on  the 
whole  closely  similar  to  those  in  the  limestones  above  with  the 
natural  difference  that  corals  are  comparatively  rare  in  the  shales, 
while  graptolites  are  abundant.  Six  graptolice  zones  have  been 
recognized  by  Miss  G.  L.  Elles  in  this  formation. 

The  Wenlock  limesUme  occnrs  eitber  me  a  series  of  thin  limestones 
with  (hin  shales  or  as  thick  massive  beds;  it  is  sometimes  hard  and 
crystalline  and  sometimes  soft,  earthy  or  concretionary.  It  is 
typically  developed  in  Wenlock  Edge,  where  it  forms  a  striking 
feature  for  some  20  m.  It  app^rs  voy  wril  exposed  in  a  sharp 
anticline  at  Dudley,  whence  it  is  sometimes  called  the  **  Dudley 
limestone";  it  occurs  also  at  Aymestry,  X.udlow,  Woolhope,  May 
Hill.  Usk  and  Malvern.  The  fossils  include  corals  in  ^eat  variety 
[Halysites  catentdaris,  FavosUes  aspera,  Heliolites  tnterstinctus), 
crinoids  {Crolalocrinus,  Marsupiocrinns,  Perieehocrinns),  of t^n  very 
beautiful  specimens,  and  tritobites  ICalymene  BlumenbackH,  the 
"  Dudley  locust,"  Phacops  caudatns,  Illaenus  {Bumbastes)barriensis, 
Homolonatus  delpkinoupnalus).  Merostomatous  crustaceans  make 
their  first  appearance  heniEurypterus  punc'tatus,  Hernias  fis  k(&ridus). 
Brachiopods  are  abundant  (Airypa  tttie^Jaris^  Spirifer  flicatUis, 
Rktnchonella  auMo^i,  OHhiSt  LeUaena^  Pentamems)\  lameUibraodis 
include  the  eenera  Avictda,  Cardiola,  Crammysw,  Murchisonia, 
Bellerophon,  Omphaloirochus  are  common  gasteropod  genera.  Conu- 
laria  Sawerbyi  is  by  no  means  rare,  and  there  are  several  common 
GCphalopod  genera  {Orthoceras,  Phragmoceras.  Trochoceras). 

The  gfeater  part  ci  the  known  SSurian  uuina  of  Britain  temes 
from  Wenlock  rocks;  J.  Davidson  and  G.  Maw  obtained  no  fewer 
than  25,000  specimens  of  brachiopods  from  7  tons  of  the  shale. 
Not  only  are  there  many  different  gencp  and  species  but  individually 
eertain  forms  are  very  numerous.  '  The  thtee  princi|)al  aonu 
graptolites  are,  from  anove downwards :.AIi9iM^|)fitt  testis,  CyrtO' 
graptiis  Unnarssoni,  Cyrtognptus  Murdlmoni, 

When  traced  northward  into  Denbighshire  and  Merionethshire 
the  rocks  change  their  character  and  become  more  slaty  or  arenace- 
ous; they  are  represented  in  this  area  by  the  *'  Moe!  Fcma  Slates," 
the  "  Pen-y-glog  Grit,"  and  "  Pen-y-gk>ff  Slates,"  all  of  which  bcbng 
to  the  lower  part  of  a  great  series  (^000  ft.)  of  slates  and  grits  known 
as  the  "  Denbighshire  Grits."  Similar  deposits  occur  on  thia  horizon 
still  farther  north,  in  the  Lake  district,  where  the  Wenlock  rocks 
are  represented  by  the  "  Brathay  Flags  "  (lower  part  of  the  Coniston 
Flags  series),  ana  in  southern  Scotland,  where  thdr  plaoe  is  taken 
by  the  variable  "  Riccarton  beds  "  of  Kirkcudbright  Shore,  Domfriea- 
snire,  Riccarton  and  the  Cheviots;  by  greywackes  and  shales  in 
Lanarkshire;  by  mudstones,  shales  and  grits  in  the  Pentland  Hills, 
and  in  the  Ghvan  area  by  the  "  Blair  "  and  "  Straitoa  beds."  In 
Ireland  the  "  Ferrir^rs  Cove  beds."  a  thick  series  of  shales,  slates 
and  sandstones  with  lavas  and  tuffs  in  the  Dinfl^  jnjMnootory;  the 


"  Mweebea  beds  and  others  in  Tippenury  and  Mayo  are  of  Wenlock 
age.  Lime  and  flagstones  are  the  most  Important  economic  products 
of  the  British  Wenlock  rocks. 

See  the  article  Silubian,  and  for  recent  papers.  Geological  Litera* 
tttre,  GeoL  Soc.,  London,  annual,  and  the  Q,j,  Geek  Soc,,  London* 

CJ.  A.  H.) 

WSNMSRBERO,  OUNNAR  (18x7-1901),  Swedish  poet, 
musician  and  politician,  was  bom  at  LidkiSpingf  of  which  plaoe 
his  father  was  parish  priest,  on  the  and  of  October  18x7.  He 
passed  through  the  public  school  of  Skara,  axul  in  his  twentieth 
year  became  a  student  at  Cpeala.  He  was  remarkable  from  the 
fifst,  handsome  in  face  and  tall  in  figure,  with  a  finely  trained 
singing  voice,  and  biilliaat  in  wit  and  conversation.  From  the 
outset  of  hi&  career  he  was  accepted  in  the  inner  dxde  of  xnen  of 
light  and  leading  for  which  the  university  was  at  that  time 
famous.  In  1843  he  became  a  member  of  the  musical  dub  who 
called  themselves  **  The  Juvenilis,"  and  for  their  meetings  were 
written  the  trios  and  duets,  music  and  words,  which  Wennerbeig 
began  to  publish  in  1846.  In  the  following  year  appeared  the 
earliest  numbers  of  ClwUame  (or  "  The  Boys  "),  thirty  duets  for 
baritone  and  bass,  which  continued  to  be  issued  from  1847  to 
185a  The  success  of  these' remarkable  productions,  master- 
pieces in  two  arts,  was  overwhelming:  they  pnsented  an 
epitome  of  all  that  was  most  unique  and  most  attractive  in  the 
curious  uxiiversity  life  of  Sweden.  In  the  second  volume  of  his 
collected  works  Wenncrberg  gave,  long  afterwards,  a  veiy 
interesting  account  of  the  inception  and  histoxy  of  these  cele* 
brated  duets.  His  great  persooial  popularity,  as  the  rq>resenta- 
tive  Swedish  student,  did  not  prevent  hin,  however,  fnom 
pursuing  his  studies,  and  he  became  an  authority  ofi  Spinoza. 
Jn  1850  he  first  travelled  through  Sweden,  singing  and  reciting  in 
public,  and  his  tour  was  a  long  popular  triumph.  In  i860  he 
published  his  collected  trios,  as  The  Three,  In  1865,  at  the 
particular  wish  of  the  king,  Charles  XV..  Wennerberg  entered 
official  life  in  the  department  of  elementary  educatioiL  He 
succeeded  Fahlcrantz'  in  z866  as  one  of  the  et^teen  of  the 
Swedish  Academy,  and  in  X870.  became  minister  for  education 
{EkklesiasUkminisier)  in  the  Adlercreuts  govenunent,  upon  the 
fall  of  whicn  in  X875  he  retired  f6r  a  time  into  private  life.  He 
was,  however,  made  kwd-Iieutenant  in  the  province  of  Exonoberg, 
and  shortly  afterwards  was  elected  to  represent  it  in  the  Diet. 
His  active  parh'amentary  life  continued  until  he  was  nearly 
eighty  years  of  age.  In  xSSx  and  1885  he  issued  his  collected 
works,  mainly  in  verse.  In  1893  he  was  elected  to  the  upper 
house.  He  preserved  his  superb  appearance  in  advanced  dd 
age,  and  he  died,  after  a  very  short  illness,  on  the  34th  of  August 
xQox,  at  the  royal  castle  of  LcckO,  where  he  was  visiting  his 
brother-in-law,  Count  Axel  Rudenschdld.  His  wife,  the  Countess 
Hedvig  Cronstedt,  whom  ho>inarried  in  1852,  died  in  1900. 
Wennerberg  was  a  most  remarkaible  type  of  the  lyrical,  ardent 
Swedish  aristocrat,  full  of  the  joy  of  life  and  the  beauty  of  it. 
In  the  long  roll  of  his  eighty-four  years  there  was  scarcely  a 
crumpled  rose-leaf.  His  poems,  to  which  their  musical  accom- 
paniment Is  almost  essentia],  have  not  oeased,  in  half  a 
century,  to  be  universally  pleasing  to  Swedish  ears;  outside 
Sweden  it  would  be  difficult  to  make  their  peculiarly  local 
charm  intelligible.  (E.G.) 

WENSI£YDAI&  JAKES  PARKE,  Bakon  (178^-1868), 
English  judge,  was  bom  near  Liverpool  on  the  aand  of  March 
Z782.  He  was  educated  at  Macclesfield  grammar  school  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  had  a  brilliant  career  at  the 
univetsity,  winning  the  Clra,ven  schokuship»  Sir  William  Browne's 
gold  medal,  and  being  fifth  wrangler  and  senior  chancellor's 
medallist  in  dassica.  Called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  he 
rapidly  acquired  an  excellent  common  kw  practice  and  in  X838 
was  raised  to  the  king's  bench,  while  still  of  the  junior  bar.  In 
Z834  he  was  transferred  from  the  kuig's  bench  to  the  court  of 
exchequer,  where  for  some  twenty  years  he  exerdaed  considerable 
ia6uence.  The  changes  introduced  by  the  Common  Law 
Procedure  Acts  of  1854*  iSsS  proved  too  ranch  for  his  legal 
conservatism  and  he  resigned  in  December  of  the  Utter  year. 
The  government,  anxious  to  have  his  services  as  a  law  lord  in  the 
Hoiine  of  tordSf  pKo^oeed  tp  confer  on  him  a  life  peerage,  but  this 


520 


WENSLEYDALE— WENTWORTH  (FAMILY) 


•was  opposed  by  the  House  of  Lords  (see  Peerage),  and  he  was 
eventually  created  a  peer  with  the  usual  remainder  (i856>.  He 
died  at  his  residence,  Ampthill  Park,  Bedfordshire,  on  the  95th 
of  Februaty  1868,  and  having  outlived  his  three  sons,  the  title 
became  extinct. 

,  WBN8LETDALB,  the  name  given  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
valley  of  the  river  Ure  in  the  North  Riding,  Yorkshire,  England. 
It  is  celebrated  equally  for  its  picturesque  scenery  and  for  the 
numercus  points  of  historical  and  other  interest  within  it.  The 
ITre  rises  near  the  border  of  Yorkshire  and  Westmorland,  in 
the  uplands  of  the  Pennine  Chain.  Its  course  is  generally 
easterly  as  long  as  it  ts  confined  by  these  uplands,  but  on  de- 
bouching upon  the  central  plain  of  Yorkshire  it  takes  a  south* 
easteriy  turn,  and  flows  past  Ripon  and  Boroughbridgc  to  form, 
by  its  union  with  the  Swale,  the  Hver  Ouse,  which  drains  to  the 
Humber.  The  name  Wensleydale  is  derived  from  the  village 
of  Wensley,  some  25  m.  from  the  source  of  the  river,  and  is 
primarily  applied  to  a  section  of  the  valley  extending  10  m. 
upstrfeam  from  that  point,  but  is  generally  taken  to  embrace 
the  whole  valley  from  its  source  to  a  point  near  Jervaulx  abbey, 
a  distance  of  nearly  40  m.,  bdow  which  the  valley  widens  out 
upon  the  plain.  The  dale  is  traversed  by  a  branch  of  the  N(»th- 
Eastem  railway  from  Northallerton. 

As  far  up  as  Hawes,  the  dale  presents  a  series  of  landscapes 
in  which  the  broken  limestone  crags  of  the  valley-walls  and  the 
high-lying  moors  beyond  them  contrast  finely  with  the  rich  land 
at  the  foot  of  the  hills.  Beyond  Hawes,  towards  the  source, 
the  valley  soon  becomes  wide,  bare  and  shallow,  less  rich  in 
contrast,  but  wilder.  On  both  sides  throughout  the  dale  numer- 
ous narrow  tributary  vales  open  out.  Small  wateifalls  are 
numerous.  The  chief  are  A3rsgarth  Force,  on  the  main  stream. 
Mill  Gill  Force  on  a  tributary  near  Askrigg,  and  Hardraw  Scaur 
beyond  Hawes,  the  finest  of  all,  which  shoots  forth  over  a 
projecting  ledge  of  limestone  so  as  to  leave  a  clear  passage 
behind  it.  The  surrounding  cliffs  complete  a  fine  picture.  The 
small  river  Bain,  joining  the  Ure  near  Askrigg,  forms  a  pretty 
lake  called  Semerer  or  Semmer  Water,  }  m.  in  length. 

Following  the  valley  upward,  the  points  of  chief  interest  apart 
from  the  scenery  are  these.  Jervaulx  Abbey  wan  founded  in  1 156 
by  Cisterctana  from  Byland,  who  had  previoudy  settled  near  Askrigg. 
The  remains  are  mainly  tcansitional  Norman  and  Early  English,  and 
are  not  extensive.  Ot  the  great  church  hardly  any  fragments  rise 
above  s^round-level,  but  the  chapter-house,  refectory  and  cloisters 
remain  in  part,  and  the  ivy-clad  ruins  stand  in  a  beautiful  Atttng  of 
woodland.  Above  the  small  town  of  Middleham,  where  there  are 
lar^e  training  stables,  rises  the  Norman  keep  of  Robert  Fitz-Ranulpb, 
which^  passed  to  the  Nevills,  being  held  by  the  "  King-maker." 
Warwick.  The  subsidiary  building  date  down  to  the  14th  century. 
In  Cover  Dale  near  Middleham  is  the  ruined  lYemonstratensian 
abbey  of  Covbrhah,  founded  here  in  the  13th  century  and  retaining 
a  gatehouse  and  other  portions  of  Decorated  date.  Farther  up 
Wensleydale  Bolton  Castle  stands  high  on  the  north  side.  This 
was  the  stronghold  of  the  Scropes,  founded  by  Richard  I.'s  chan- 
cellor of  that  name.  Its  walls,  tour  comer-towers  and  fine  poation 
•till  give  it  an  appearance  of  great  ttiength. 

WENTWORTH,  the  name  of  an  English  family  distinguished 
in  the  parliamentary  history  of  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries. 
The  Wentworths  traced  descent  from  William  Wentworth 
(d.  130S)  of  Wentworth  Woodhouse,  in  Yorkshire,  who  was 
the  ancestor  of  no  fewer  than  eight  distinct  lines  of  the  family, 
two  main  branches  of  which  were  settled  in  the  X4th  century 
at  Wentworth  Woodhouse  and  North  Elmshall  respecUvely. 
From  the  ddef,  or  Wentworth  Woodhouse  branch,  were 
descended  Thomas  Wentworth  the  celebrated  earl  of  Strafford 
(^.9.),  and  through  him  the  Watson-Wentworths,  marquesses 
of  Rockingham  in  the  i8th  century,  and  the  earls  FiuWiUiam 
of  the  present  day.  To  the  younger  branch  belonged  Roger 
Wentworth  (d.  1452),  great  •great-grandson  of  the  above- 
mentioned  William.  Roger,  who  was  a  son  of  John  Wentworth 
<fl.  1413)  of  North  Elmshall,  Yorkshire,  acquired  the  manor 
of  Nettlestead  in  Suffolk  in  right  of  his  wife,  a  grand-daughter 
of  Robert,  Baioo  Tibetot,  in  whose  lands  this  manor  had  been 
tnchided,  amd  who  died  leaving  an  only  daughter  in  1379. 
Roger's  son  Heniy  (d.  1483)  was  twice  married;  by  his  fint 
wife  he  was  the  ancestor  of  the  Wentwocths  ef  Gosfidd,  Emcs; 


by  his  second  of  the  Wentworths  of  Lilfingatooe  LovcB,  Bnddiii^ 
hamshiie.'  Another  of  Roger  Wentworth's  sons.  Sir  Philip 
Wentworth,  was  the  grandfather  of  Maigery,  wife  of  Sir  John 
Seymour,  mother  of  the  Protector  Somerset  and  of  Heniy  VUI.'t 
wife  Jane  Seymour,  and  grandmother  of  Ring  Edward  VL 
Maiger/s  brother  Sir  Robert  Wentworth  (d.  1528)  married  a 
daughter  of  Sir  James  Terrell,  the  reputed  murdoerof  Edward  V. 
and  his  brother  in  the  Tower;  and  Sir  Robot's  son  by  this 
marriage,  Thomas  Wentworth  (zsox-xssi),  was  summoned  to 
parliament  by  writ  in  1539  as  Baron  Wentworth  of  Nettlestead. 
He  was  one  of  the  peers  who  signed  the  letter  to  the  pope  in 
favour  of  Henry  VIII.'s  divorce  from  Catherine  of  Aragon,  and 
was  one  of  the  judges-  of  Anne  Boleyn.  He  was  lord  chamber- 
lain to  Edward  VI.,  and  died  in  1551  leaving  sixteen  children. 
'  Tbomas  Wentworth,  2nd  Baron  Wentworth  of  Nettlestead 
(tS2S'-isS4),  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  above-mentioned  ist 
baron.  He  served  with  distinction  under  his  relative  the  Pro- 
tector Somerset  at  the  battle  of  Pinkie  in  1547;  but  in  1551  be 
was  one  of  the  peers  who  condemned  Somerset  to  death  on  a 
charge  of  felony.  He  was  a  trusted  counsellor  of  Queen  Mary, 
who  appointed  him  deputy  of  Calais.  Wentworth  was  the 
last  Englishman  to  hold  this  post,  for  on  the  7U1  of  Januaiy 

1558  he  was  compelled  to  surrender  Calais  to  the  French,  his 
representations  as  to  the  defenceless  condition  of  the  fortress 
having  been  disregarded  by  the  English  Coundl  some  years 
earlier.  Wentworth  himself  remained  in  France  as  a  prisoncf 
of  war  for  more  than  a  year,  and  on  his  return  to  En^and  in 

1 559  be  was  sent  to  the  Tower  for  having  surrendered  Calais; 
but  he  was  acquitted  of  treason.  He  died  on  the  X3th  of  Januaty 
1584.  His  dde^  son  William  married  a  dau^ter  of  Ix»d 
Burghley,  but  predeceased  his  father,  whose  peerage  consequently 
passed  to  his  second  son  Henry  (1558-1593),  who  was  one  d  the 
judges  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  at  Fothcringay  in  1586. 

Thomas  Wentworth,  xst  eari  of  Qevcland  (1591-1667), 
was  the  eldest  son-  of  Henry,  whom  he  succeeded  as  4th  Baron 
Wentworth  of  Nettlestead  in  1593.  In  1614  he  inherited  from 
an  aunt  the  estate  of  Toddington  in  Bedfordshire,  till  then  Che 
property  of  the  Cheyney  family,  and  hoe  he  made  his  piindpal 
residence.  In  x6a6  he  was  created  eari  of  Cleveland,  and  in 
the  following  year  he  served  under  Buckingham  fn  the  expedi- 
tion to  La  Rochclk.  Adhering  to  the  king's  cause  in  the  parlia- 
mentary troubles,  he  attended  his  kfnRp>nn  Strafford  at  his 
execution,  and  afterwards  was  a  general  on  the  royalist  side 
in  the  Civil  War  until  he  was  uken  prisoner  at  the  second 
battle  of  Newbury.  Cleveland  commanded  a  cavalry  r^ment 
at  Worcester  in  1651,  when  he  was  again  taken  prisoner,  and 
he  remained  in  the  Tower  till  X656.  He  died  on  the  25th  of 
March  1667.  His  eariy  extravagance  and  the  fortunes  of  war 
had  greatly  reduced  his  estates,  and  Nettlestead  was  sold  in 
1643.  Cleveland  was  described  by  Clarendon  as  "  a  man  of 
signal  courage  and  an  excellent  officer";  his  cavalry  charge 
at  Cropredy  Bridge  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  incidents  in 
the  Civil  War,  and  it  was  by  his  bravery  and  presence  of  mind 
that  Charles  It.  was  enabled  to  escape  from  Worcester.  At  his 
death  the  earidom  of  Cleveland  became  extinct.  He  outlived 
his  son  Thomas  (i6i3-r645),  who  was  called  up  to  the  House  of 
Lords  in  his  father's  lifetime  as  Baron  Wentworth,  and  whose 
di^ughter  HenrieUa  Maria  became  Baroness  Wentwoxth  In  her 
own  rig^t  on  her  grandfather's  death.  This  lady,  who  was 
the  duke  of  Monmouth's  mistress,  died  unmarried  in  1686. 
The  barony  of  Wentworth  then  reverted  to  Cleveland's  daughter 
Aime,  who  married  the  and  Lord  Lovelace,  from  whom  it 
passed  to  her  grand-daughter  Martha  (d.  1745),  wife  of  Sir 
Henry  Johnson,  and  afterwards  to  a  descendant  of  Anne's 
daughter  Margaret,  Edward  Noel,  who  was  created  Viscount 
Wentworth  of  Wellesborough  in  1762.  The  visoountcy  became 
extina.  at  his  death,  and  the  barony  again  passed  through  the 
female  line  in  the  person  of  Noel's  daughter  Judith  to  the 
hitter's  daughter  Anne  Isabella,  who  married  Lord  Byron  the 

1  In  the  x6th  century  Lillingstone  Lovdl  was  in  Oxfordshire,  that 
portion  of  the  county  being  surrounded  by  Buckinghannhine.  with 
which  it  was  afterwards  inoorpoiated. 


WENTWORTH,  W.  C— WENZEL 


poet;  and  from  ber  to  Byron^s  dau^ter  Augusta  Ada,  whose 
husband  was  in  1838  cieated  earl  of  Lovelace.  The  barony  of 
Wentworth  was  thereafter  held  by  the  descendants  of  this 
nobleman  In  conjunction  with  the  earldom  of  Lovelace. 

Paul  Wentworth  (1533-1593)1  a  prominent  member  <rf 
pariiament  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  was  a  member  of  the 
Lillingstone  Lovetl  branch  of  the  family  (see  above).  His  father 
Sir  ^Nicholas  Wentworth  (d.  1557)  was  chief  porter  of  Calais. 
Paul  Wentworth  was  of  puritan  sympathies,  and  he  first  came 
Into  notice  by  the  freedom  with  which  in  1566  he  criticized 
Elizabeth's  prohibition  of  discussion  In  parliament  on  the 
question  of  her  successor.  Paid,  who  was  probably  the  atithor 
ojf  the  famous  puritan  devotional  Ixx^  The  Miscellanies  or 
Regestrie  and  Metkodicatt  Directcrie  of  Oriums  (London,  16x5), 
died  in  1 593.  He  became  possessed  of  Bumham  Abbey  throu^ 
his  wife,  to  whose  fint  husband,  William  Tyldesley,  it  had  been 
granted  at  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII. 

Petek  Wentworth  (1530-1596)  was  the  elder  brother  of 
the  above-mentioned  Paul,  and  like  his  brother  was  a  prominent 
puritan  leader  in  parliament,  which  he  first  entered  as  member 
for  Barnstaple  in  1571.  He  took  a  firm  attitude  in  support 
of  the  liberties  of  parliament  against  encroachments  of  the  royal 
prerogative,  on  which  subject  he  delivered  a  memorable  speech 
on  the  8lh  of  February  1576,  for  which  after  examination  by 
the  Star  Chamber  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower.  In  February 
1587  Sir  Anthony  COpe  (x 548-16x4)  presented  to  the  Speaker 
a  bill  abrogating  the  existing  ecclesiastical  law,  together  with 
a  puritan  revision  of  the  Prayer  Book,  and  Wentworth  supported 
iiiin  by  brinj^g  forward  certain  articles  touching  the  liberties 
of  the  House  of  Commons;  Cope  and  Wentworth  were  both 
committed  to  the  Tower  for  interference  with  the  queen's  eccled- 
astica^prerogatlve.  In  X593  Wentworth  again  suffered  imprison- 
ment for  presenting  a  petition  on  the  subject  of  the  succession 
to  the  Crown;  and  it  is  probaUe  that  he  did  not  regain  his 
freedom,  for  he  died  in  the  Tower  on  the  xoth  of  November  1596. 
While  in  the  Tower  he  wrote  A  Pithie  Exhortation  to  her  Majesty 
for  establishing  her  Successor  to  the  Crown,  a  famous  treatise 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum.  Peter  Wentworth  was  twice 
married;  his  first  wife,  by  whom  he  had  no  diQdren,  was  a 
cousin  of  Catherine  Parr,  and  his  second  a  mster  of  Sir  Francis 
Walsingham,  Elizabeth's  secretary  of  state.  His  third  son, 
Thomas  Wentworth  (c.  1 568-1623),  was  an  ardent  and  some- 
times a  violent  opponent  of  royal  prerogative  in  parliament, 
of  which  he  became  a  member  in  1604,  continuing  to  represent 
the  dty  of  Oxford  from  that  year  until  his  death.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1594  and  became  recorder  of  Oxford  in  1607. 
Another  son,  Walter  Wentworth,  was  also  a  member  of  parlia- 
ment. 

Snt  Peter  Wentworth  (x  592-1*75)  ^w»  «  grandson  of 
Peter  Wentworth,  being  the  son  of  Peter's  eldest  son  I<ncholas, 
from  whom  he  inherited  the  manor  of  Lillingstone  Lovell. 
As  dieriff  of  Oxfordshire  In  1634  he  was  charged  with  the  duty 
of  collecting  the  le\^  of  ship-money,  in  whidi  he  encountered 
popular  opposition.  He  was  member  for  Tamworth  In  the  Long 
Parliament,  but  refused  to  act  as  a  commissioner  for  the  trial 
of  Charles  I.  He  was  a  member  of  the  councfl  of  state  during 
the  Commonwealth;  but  was  denounced  for  immorality  by 
CromweQ  In  April  1653,  and  his  speech  In  reply  was  mtemipted 
by  Cromwdl'k  fotdble  expulsion  of  the  Commons.  Sir  Peter, 
who  was  a  friend  of  Milton,  died  on  the  xst  of  December  1675, 
having  never  been  married.  By  his  will  he  left  a  legacy  to 
Milton,  and  considerable  estates  to  his  grand-nephew  Fisher 
Duke,  who  took  the  name  of  Wentworth;  and  this  name  was 
borne  by  his  descendants  until  dropped  hi  the  x8th  century  by 
Wentworth  Dilke  Wentworth,  great-grandfather  of  Sir  Charles 
Wentworth  Dilke  (q.v.). 

See  W.  L.  Rutton,  Three  Branches  of  the  FamUy  (^'Wentworth  cf 
tfetOestead  (London,  1891);  JoMph  Foster,  Pe^p^s  of  the  CoMUy 
FamiHee  ef  Yorkshire  (J  vol*..  London,  1874);  Cbarto  Wrurthedey. 
Ckre^UeiaqfE»tfamddurimM»heJUiins«f»lMTjuhrs,tjUt^byW^ 
Hanultoo  (a.  vok..  LoSpp.  1875-1877);  Bulstrode  Whitelock^ 
Memorials  of  the  Emfish  Affairs:  Charles  I,  to  the  lUstoratton 
(London,  1712);  John  Strypc,  Annals  of  the  Rfformatton  (7  vols., 


521 

Oxford,  1834):  Mark  Noble,  Lives  of  fke  BnjHsh  Regicides  (7  vola, 
London,  1798)  containing  a  memoir  of  Sir  Pbter  Wentworth;  Loid 
Clarendon,  History  of  the  RebeUion  (7  vols..  Oxford,  1839),  and 
Calendar  of  the  Clarendon  State  Papers:  S.  R.  Gardiner,  History  of 
England  from  the  Accession  of  James  I.  to  the  Outbreak  of  the  Civtl 
War  (10  vols..  London,  1883-1884),  and  History  of  the  Great  Civil 
War,  i642-i6dQ  (3  vols.,  London.  1886-1891);  J.  A.  Froude, 
History  of  England  (is  vols.,  London,  1856^1870);  G.  E.  C,  Com- 
plete  Peerage,  voL  vtii.  (London,  1898).  See  also  articles  "  Went- 
worth "  by  A.  F.  Pollard,  C.  H.  Firth  and  Sir  C.  W.  Dilke,  in  Diet, 
NaL  Biog,  (London,  1 899).  (R.  J.  M .} 

WENTWORTH,  WILLIAM  CHARLES  (1793- 1872},  the 
"Australian  patriot,"  who  claimed  descent  from  the  great 
Strafford,  but  apparently  without  sufficient  reason,  was  born 
in  1793  in  Norfolk  Island,  the  penal  settlement  of  New  South 
Wales,  where  his  father  D'Arcy  Wentworth,  an  Irish  gentleman 
of  Roscommon  family,  who  had  emigrated  in  1790  and  later 
became  a  prominent  official,  was  then  government  surgeon. 
The  son  was  educated  in  England,  but  he  spent  the  interval 
between  his  schooling  at  Greenwich  and  his  matriculation  (18 16) 
at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  in  Australia,  and  early  attracted 
the  attention  of  Governor  Macquarie  by  some  adventurous 
exploration  in  the  Blue  Mountains.  In  18 19  he  published  in 
London  a  work  on  Australasia  in  two  volumes,  and  in  1823 
he  only  just  missed  the  chancellor's  medal  at  Cambridge  (won 
by  W.  M.  Praed)  with  a  stirring  poem  on  the  same  subject. 
Having  been  called  to  the  bar,  he  returned  to  Sydney,  and  soon 
obtained  a  fine  practice.  With  a  fellow  barrister,  Wardell,  he 
started  a  newspaper,  the  Australian^  in  X824,  to  advocate  the 
cause  of  self-government  and  to  champion  the  "  emancipists  " — 
the  incoming  class  of  ex-convicts,  now  freed  and  prospering — 
against  the  **  exclusivists  "  — the  officials  and  the  more  aristo- 
cratic settlers.  With  Wardell,  Dr  William  Bland  and  others, 
he  formed  the  "  Patriotic  Association,"  and  carried  on  a  deter- 
mined agitation  both  in  Australia  and  in  England,  where  they 
found  able  supporters.  The  earlier  object  of  their  attack  was 
the  governor,  Sir  Ralph  Darling,  who  was  recalled  in  1831  in 
consequence,  though  he  was  acquitted  by  a  select  committee 
of  the  House  of  Commons  of  the  charges  brought  against  him 
by  Wentworth  in  connexion  with  his  severe  punishment  of  two 
soldiers,  Sudds  and  Thompson,  who  had  perpetrated  a  robbery 
in  order  to  obtain  their  discharge  (a  favourite  dodge  at  the 
time),  and  one  of  whom,  Sudds, had  died.  Wentworth  continued, 
under  the  succeeding  governor.  Sir  Richard  Bourke,  who  was 
guided  by  him,  and  Sir  George  Gipps,  with  whom  he  had  constant 
differences,  to  cxerdse  a  poweriul  influence;  and  in  x842^  when 
the  Constitution  Act  was  passed,  it  was  generally  recognized  as 
mainly  his  work.  He  beoime  a  member  of  the  first  legislative 
council'and  led  the  "squatter  party."  He  was  the  founder  of 
the  university  of  Sydney  (X85  2) ,  where  his  son  afterwards  founded 
bursaries  in  his  honour;  and  he  led  the  movement  resulting  in 
the  new  constitution  for  the  colony  (1854),  subsequently  (x86i) 
becoming  president  of  the  new  legislative  council.  But  things 
had  meanwhile  moved  fast  in  the  colony,  and  Wentworth 's 
old  supremacy  had  waned,  since  Robert  Lowe  (afterwards  Lord 
Sherbrooke)  and  others  had  come  into  prominence  in  the  political 
arena.  He  had  done  his  work  for  colonial  autonomy,  and  was 
becoming  an  old  man,  somewhat  out  of  touch  with  the  new 
generation.  For  some  years  before  x86x  he  stayed  chiefly  in 
England,  where  in  X857  he  founded  the  "  General  Association  for 
the  Australian  Cok>mes,"  with  the  object  of  obtaining  from  the 
government  a  federal  assembly  for  the  whole  of  Australia; 
and  in  x86a  he  definitely  settled  in  England,  dying  on  the  soth 
of  March  1873.  His  body  was  taken  to  Sydney  and  accorded 
a  public  funeral  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  the  New  South  Wales 
legislature. 

WENZEL,  KARL  PRIEDRICH  (1740-1793),  German  xnetaT- 
lurgist,  was  bom  at  Dresden  in  1740.  Disliking  his  father^ 
trade  of  bookbbiding,  for  which  he  was  intended,  he  left  home 
in  1755,  and  after  taking  lessons  m  surgery  and  cbemi$txy  at 
Amsterdam,  became  ft  ship's  surgeon  in  the  Dutch  service.  In 
T766,  tired  of  sea-life,  he  went  to  study  chemistry  at  Lelpag, 
and  afteifwards  devoted  himself  to  metallurgy  zxA  assaying  at 
his  native  place  with  such  success  that  in  1780  be  wasappoinlCTl 


522 


WEPENER— WERGILD 


chemist  to  the  Fttiberg  (otindries  by  the  elector  oi  Saxony. 
tn  1785  he  became  assessor  to  the  superintending  board  of  the 
foundries,  and  in  1 786  chemist  to  the  porcelain  works  at  Meissen. 
He  died  at  Freiberg  on  the  a6th  of  February  1793. 

In  consequence  of  the  quantitative  analjrtes  he  performed  of  a 
lai^  number  of  aalta,  he  has  been  credited  with  the  discovery  of  the 
bw of  neutralization  (Vorlesung^  aber  die cktmiscke  Verwandtscfu^ 
dor  Kdrptr,  I777)<  But  this  attribution  rests  on  a  mistake  first 
made  l)y  J*  L  Deraclius  and  copied  by  subsequent  writers,  and 
Wencel^  published  work  (as  ^intcd  out  by  G.  H.  Hess  in  184O) 
does  not  warrant  the  conclusion  that  he  realized  the  existence  of 
any  law  of  invariaUc  and  reciprocal  proportions  in  the  combinations 
of  adds  and  bases. 

.WBPENEB,  a  town  of  the  Orange  Free  State,  83  m.  by  rail 
S.E.  of  Bloemfontem,  and  2  m.  W.  of  the  Basuto  border.  Pop. 
(1904)  1366,  of  whom  82a  were  whites.  It  lies  in  a  rich  grain 
district,  and  3  m.  north  by  the  Caledon  river  are  large  flour  mills. 
The  town,  named  after  the  leader  of  the  Boers  in  their  war  with 
the  Basuto  chief  Moshesh  in  1865,  was  founded  in  x88$.  In 
April  Z900  it  was  successfully  defended  against  the  Boers  imder 
Christiaan  de  Wet  by  a  Cape  force  of  Irr^ulars  commanded 
by  Colonel  E.  H.  Dalgety. 

WERDAU,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony, 
on  the  Pleisse,  in  the  industrial  district  of  Zwickau,  and  40  m.  S. 
of  Leipzig.  Pop.  (1905)  19,473.  Its  chief  industries  are  cotton 
and  wool-spinning  and  the  weaving  of  doth,  but  machinery  of 
various  kinds,  paper  and  a  few  other  a^tides  are  also  manu; 
factured.  In  addition  to  the  usual  schools,  Werdau  contains  a 
weaving-school.  The  town  is  mentioned  as  early  as  1304  and 
in  X398  it  was  purchased  by  the  margrave  of  Meissen,  who 
afterwards  became  elector  of  Saxony. 

See  Stichard,  Chronik  der  Fabrikstadt  Werdau  (2nd  ed.,  Werdau, 
1865). 

WERDBH,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  Rhine  province, 

on  the  river  Ruhr,  6  m.  by  rail  S.  of  Essen.    Pop.  (1905)  11,029. 

It  has  an  interesting  Roman  Catholic  church  which  belonged  to 

the  Benedictine  abbey  founded  about  800  by  St  Ludger,  whose 

stone  coffin  is  preserved  in  the  crypt.    The  abbey  buildings 

are  used  as  a  prison.    The  manufacture  of  doth,  woollens, 

shoes  and  paper,  dyeing,  tanning,  brewing  and  distilling  are  the 

prindpal  industries.    In  the  neighbourhood  are  stone  quarries 

and  coal  mines.    Werden  grew  up  around  the  Benedictine  abbey, 

which  was  dissolved  in  1802.    The  Codex  Argenteus  of  XJl£las,  now 

in  the  imiversity  library  at  Upsala,  was  discovered  here  in  the 

16th  century. 

See  FlOgee,  Ckrcnih  der  Stadt  Waden  (DOssddorf,  1887) ;  and 
Fikrer  durch  Werden  (Werden,  1887).  - 

WBRDER,  KARL  WILHELM  FRIEDRICH  AUQUST  LEO- 
POLD, Count  von  (1808-1887),  Prussian  general,  entered  the 
Prussian  Gardes  du  Corps  in  1825,  transferring  the  following  year 
into  the  Guard  Infantry,  with  which  he  served  for  many  years  as 
a  subaltern.  In  1839  he  was  appointed  an  instructor  in  the 
Cadet  Corps,  and  later  he  was  employed  in.  the  topographical 
bureau  of  the  Great  General  Staff.  In  1842-1843  he  took  part  in 
the  Russian  operations  in  the  Caucasus,  and  on  his  return  to 
Germany  in  2846,  was  i^ced,  as  a  captain,  on  the  staff.  In 
1 848  he  married.  Regimental  and  staff  duty  altcrnatdy  occupied 
him  until  1863,  when  he  was  made  major-general,  and  given  the 
command  of  a  brigade  of  Guard  Infantry.  In  the  Austrian  War 
of  1866  von  Werder  greatly  distinguished  himself  at  Gitschin 
(Ji£in)  and  K5niggrltz  at  the  head  of  the  3rd  division.  He 
returned  home  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  and  the  order 
^our  le  fiUrile.  In  1870,  at  first  employed  with  the  3rd  Army 
Headquarters  and  in  command  of  the  WUrttemberg  and  Baden 
forces,  he  was  after  the  battle  of  Worth  entrusted  with  the 
operations  against  Strassburg,  which  he  captured  after  a  long 
and  famous  siege.  Promoted  general  of  infantry,  and  assigned 
to  command  the  new  XIV th  Army  Corps,  he  defeated  the  French 
at  Dijon  and  at  Nuits,  and,  when  Bourbaki's  army  moved  forward 
to  rdieve  6dfort.  turned  upon  him  and  fought  the  desperate 
action  of  Villersexcl,  which  enabled  him  to  cover  the  Germans 
besieging  Belfort.  On  the  15th,'  16th  and  17th  of  January  1871, 
von  Werder  with  greatly  inferior  forces  succeeded  in  holding  his 


'  own  on  the  Usaine  against  all  B0iirt»kl*»effMts  totcsdiBdfort, 
a  victory  which  aroused  great  enthusiasm  in  southern  Germany. 
After  the  war  von  Werder  commanded  the  Baden  forces,  now 
called  the  XlVth  Army  Corps,  until  he  letired  in  1879.  On  his 
retirement  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  count.  He  died  m 
1887  at  Grtissow  in  Pomerania.  The 30th  (4th  Rhenish)  Infantry 
regiment  bears  his  name,  and  there  ia  a  statue  of  von  Werder 
at  Freiburg  in  the  Breisgau. 
See  von  Conrady,  Ltifen  des  Graf  en  A,  von  Werder  (Berlin,  1889). 

WERGELAND.  HEHRJK  ARHOLD  (1808-X84S)*  Norwegian 
poet  and  prose  writer,  was  bora  at  Christiansand  on  the  17th  of 
June  1 808.  He  was  the  ddest  son  of  Professor  Nikolai  Wefffcland 
(1780-1848),  who  had  been  a  member  of  the  <»nstitudonal 
assembly  which  proclaimed  the  independence  of  Norway  in 
1814  at  Eidsvold.  Nikolai  was  hiokself  pastor  of  Eidsvold,  and 
the  poet  was  thus  brought  up  in  the  very  holy  of  holies  of  Nor- 
wegian patriotism.  He  entered  the  university  of  Christiania 
in  1825  to  study  for  the  church,  and  was  soon  the  leader  of  a  band 
of  enthusiastic  young  men  who  desired  to  revive  in  Norway 
the  spirit  and  independence  of  the  old  vikings.  His  earliest 
efforts  in  literature  were  wild  and  formless.  He  was  full  <A 
imagination,  but  without  taste  or  luiowledge.  He  published 
poetical  farces  under  the  pseudonym  of  "Siful  Sifadda"; 
these  were  followed  in  1828  by  an  unsuccessful  tragedy;  and 
in  1829  by  a  volume  of  lyrical  and  patriotic  poems,  DigUtJSnU 
Ring,  which  attracted  the  liveliest  attention  to  Us  name.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-one  he  became  a  power  in  literature,  and  bis, 
enthusiastic  preadiing  of  the  doctrines  of  the  revolution  of  July 
made  him  a  force  in  politics  also.  Meanwhile  he  was  tireless 
in  his  efforts  to  advance  the  national  cause.  He  established 
popular  libraries,  and  tried  to  alleviate  the  wtde^iead  poverty 
of  the  Norwegian  peasantry.  He  preached  the  simple  life, 
denounced  foreign  luxuries,  and  set  an  examplft  by  wearing 
Norwegian  homespun.  But  his  niuierous  and  varied  writings 
were  coldly  received  by  the  critics,  and  a  monster  q>ic,  Skabdsen, 
iiennesket  og  Messias  (Creation,  Man  and  Mes^ah),  1830, 
showed  no  improvement  in  style.  It  was  remodelled  in  1845  as 
iiennesket.  From  1831  to  1835  Wezgeland  was  submitted  to 
severe  satirical  attacks  from  J.  S.  le  Welhaven  and  others,  and 
his  style  improved  in  every  respect.  His  nationalist  political 
propaganda  lacked  knowledge  and  system.  His  partisans  were 
alienated  by  his  inconsistent  admiration  for  King  Carl  Johan, 
by  his  unpopular  advocacy  of  the  Jewish  cause,  and  by  the' 
extravagance  of  his  methods  generally.  His  popularity  waned 
as  his  poetry  improved,  and  in  1840  he  found  Itself  a  really 
great  lyric  poet,  but  an  exile  from  political  influence.  In  that 
year  he  became  keeper  of  the  royal  archives.  He  died  on  the 
X2th  of  July  1845.  In  1908  a  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory 
by  his  compatriots  at  Fargo,  North  Dakota.  His  Jan  van 
Huysums  Blomsierstykkc  (1840),  Svalen  (1841),  Jdden  <x842)> 
JOdinden  (1844)  and  Den  Engdshc  Lods  (1844),  form  a  series  of 
narrative  poems  in  short  lyrical  metres  which  remain  the  most 
interesting  and  important  of  their  kind  in  Norwegian  literature. 
He  was  less  successful  in  other  branches  of  letters;  in  the  drama 
neither  his  CampheUerne  (1837),  Veneiianeme  (1843),  not  Sdka- 
deUerne  (1848),  achieved  any  lasting  success;  while  his  daborate 
contribution  to  political  history,  Norga  KonstUutions  Bistorie 
(1841-1843),  is  forgotten.  The  poems  of  his  later  years  indudc 
many  lyrics  of  great  beauty,  which  are  among  the  permanent 

treasures  of  Norwegian  poetry.  .   . 

Wer«eland*8  Samiede  Skrijter  (o  vols.,  Christiania,  iS^lJS?) 
were  edited  by  H.  Lassen,  the  author  of  Henrik  Wergdani  og  tans 
Samtid  (1866),  and  the  editor  of  his  Brem  (1867).  See  also 
H.  Schwanenflagel,  Henrik  Wergehnd  (Copenhagen.  1877):,*^ 
J.  G.  Kraft,  Norsk  ForJaUer-Lsxikon  (Christiania,  1857)*  fo^  *- 
detailed  bibliography. 

WERGILD,  Wergelo  or  Wer,  the  Anglo-Saxon  terms  for  the 
fine  paid  by,  e.g.  a  murderer  to  the  relatives  of  the  dccea^ 
in  proportion  to  the  rank  of  the  latter.  The  voer  was  part  of  the 
early  Teutonic  and  Cdtic  customary  law,  and  represented  the 
substitution  of  compensation  for  personal  retaliation,  i*^^|^ 
from  the  rise  in  authority  of  the  power  of  the'comistimty  as  sudi* 
(See  Criuxnal  Law;  Homicide;  and  Teutonic  PEOPtzsO 


WERMELSKIRCHEN—WERNER 


5^3 


f,  t  tdWii  of  Geramy,  in  the  Prasiaa 
Kkfaw  province,  situated  4  m.  S. W.  from  Lcuiep  by  lail  and  at  the 
jttbctioaofaliiietoReinscbeid.  Pop.  (1900)  xs,469>  Itoontainft 
•■&  Evaufdical  and  a  Roman  Catholic  diurdi  and  a  Latin  school 
Wemebkirchen  ia  the  centre  of  many  thriving  industriea,  ciiief 
■tnong  whkh  are  the  mannfacture  of  silks,  cotton  and  silk 
ribbons,  plush,  tobacco  and  steel  goods. 

WBRVUIID,  an  ancestor  of  the  Mercian  royal  famOy,  a  son 
of  WihtlJeg  and  father  of  Offa.  He  appears  to  have  reigned  in 
Angel,  and  his  story  is  preserved  by  certain  Danish  historians, 
especially  Saxo  Grammaticus.  Actording  to  these  traditions,  his 
leign  tvas  long  and  happy^  though  its  prosperity  was  eventually 
mund  by  the  raids  of  a  warlike  king  named  AUiislus,  who  slew 
Frowinua,  the  governor  of  Schleswig,  in  battle.  Frowinus's 
death  was  avenged  by  his  two  sons,  Keto  and  Wigo,  but  their 
conduct  in  fighting  together  against  a  single  man  was  thought 
to  form  a  national  disgrace,  which  was  only  obliten^ed  by 
the  subsequent  singje  combat  of  OSa.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  Athislus,  though  called  king  of  the  Swedea  by  Saxo,  was 
really  identical  with  the  Kadgils,  lord  of  the  Myrgingas,  men- 
tioned in  Widsith.  As  Eadgib  was  a  contemporary  of  Ermanaric 
(Eormenric),  who  died  about  370,  his  date  would  agree  with  the 
indication  given  by  the  genealogies  which  place  Wermund  nine 
generations  above  Penda.  Frowmtts  and  Wigo  are  doubtless  to 
be  identified  with  the  Freawine  and  Wig  who  figure  among  the 

ancestors  of  the  kings  of  Wcssex. 

For  the  story  of  the  agneasion  against  Wermund  in  his  later 
years,  told  by  the  Daniehlmtorians  and  also  by  the  Vilae  duorutn 
dffarum,  ace  Offa;  also  Saxo  Grammaticus,  Cesta  Donontm,  edited 
bjyr  A.  Holder,  pp.  105  AT.  (Sttassbure,  1886) ;  Vita*  duorum  Offarum 
ffn  Wats'*  edition  of  Matthew  Paris,  London,  1640).  See  also  H.  M. 
Chadwicfc,  Origi*  cf  &€  Eiigfisk  Nation  (Cambridge,  1907).  . 

WBRJIER,  AMTOM  ALBZAHDBR  VOM  (iS45-  ),  German 
painter,  wss  bom  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  on  the  9th  of  May 
1845.  He  fiist  studied  painting  at  the  Berlin  Academy,  pursued 
his  studies  at  Catlsruhe,  and,  having  woo  a  travelling  scholanhip 
upon  the  exhibition  of  his  early  works,  he  visited  Paris  in  1867, 
and  afterwards  Italy,  where  he  remained  for  some  time.  On  his 
return  he  received  several  state  commissions,  and  on  the  out; 
break  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War  in  1870  he  was  sent  with  the 
Aaff  of  the  third  corps  d'arm€e,  and  stayed  in  France  till  the 
close  of  the  campaign.  In  1873  he  was  appointed  professor  at 
the  Berlin  Academy,  of  which  he  afterwaitls  became  director. 
Among  his  more  important  works  must  be  named  "  The  Capituk- 
tion  <rf  Sedan,"  "Proclamation  of  the  German  Empire  at 
Versailles,"  "  Moltke  before  Paris,"  "  Moltke  at  Versailles," 
**  The  Meeting  of  Bfamarck  and  Napoleon  III.,"  "  Christ  and 
.the  Tribute  Money,"  "  William  I.  visiting  the  Tombs,"  "  The 
Congress  of  Berlin;"  and  some  decorations  executed  in  mosaic 
for  the  Triumphal  Arch  at  Beriin.  Von  Werner's  work  b  chiefly 
interesting  for  the  historic  value  of  his  pictures  of  the  events  of 
the  Franco-German  War. 

See  Kunst  fir  Atte^  vol.  i. :  Knackfuss.  KinsUef^Afonagrapkieen, 
Nag. 

WBRMBR.  ABRAHAH  GOTTLOB  (r750-t8i7),  father  <X  Ger- 
man geology,  was  born  m  Upper  Lusatta,  Saxoi^,  on  the  25th 
of  September  r75o.  The  family  to  which  he  belonged  had  been 
engaged  for  several  hundred  years  in  mining  pursuits.  His 
father  was  inspector  of  Count  Solm's  iron-works  at  Wehrau  and 
Lorzendorf,  and '  from  young  Werner's  infancy  cultivated  in 
him  a  taste  for  minerals  and  rocks.  The  boy  showed  early 
promise  of  distinction.  He  began  to  collect  specimens  of  stones, 
and  one  of  his  favourite  employments  was  to  pore  over  the 
pages  of  a  dictionary  of  mining.  At  the  age  of  nine  he  was  sent 
to  school  at  Bunzlau  in  Silesia,  where  he  remained  until  1764, 
when  he  joined  his  father  at  Wehrau  with  the  idea  of  ultimately 
succeeding  him  in  the  post  of  inspector.  When  nineteen  year? 
of  age  (1769)  he  Journeyed  to  Freiberg,  where  he  attracted  the 
notice  of  the  officials,  who  invited  him  to  attend  the  mining 
sdiool  established  two  years  previously.  This  was  the  turning 
point  in  Werner's  career.  He  soon  detinguished  himself  by  his 
industry  and  by  the  huge  amount  of  practical  knowledge  of 
which  he  acquired,    fo  1771  he  repaired  to  the 


univenity  of  Leipxig  and  went  through  the  usual  curriculum  of 
study,  paying  attention  at  first  dbaitity  to  the  subject  of  law, 
but  continuing  to  devote  himself  with  great  ardour  to  minera- 
logical  pursuits.  While  still  a  student  he  wrote  his  first  wMk 
on  the  external  characters  of  minerals.  Von  den  Sussaikkem 
Kemateicken  dtt  Ppssilien  (1774),  which  at  once  gave  him  a 
name  among  the  mineralogists  of  the  day.  In  1775  he  was 
appointed  inspector  in  the  mining  school  and  teacher  of 
mineralogy  at  Freiberg.  To  the  development  of  that  school 
and  to  the  cultivation  of  mineralogy  and  gec^osy  he  thence- 
forth,  for  about  forty  years,  devoted  the  whole  of  his  active  and 
indefatigable  industry.  From  a  mere  provincial  institution  the 
Freiberg  academy  under  his  care  rose  to  be  one  of  the  preat 
centres  of  sdentific  light  in  Europe,  to  which  students  from  all 
parts  of  the  worid  flocked  to  listen  to  his  eloquent  teaching. 
He  wrote  but  little,  and  though  he  elaborated  a  complete  system 
of  geognosy  and  mineralogy  he  never  could  be  induced  to  puUish 
it.  From  the  notes  of  his  pupils,  however,  the  general  purport 
of  his  teaching  was  well  known,  and  it  widely  influenced  the 
science  of  his  time.  He  died  at  Freiberg  on  the  30th  of  June 
1817. 

One  of  the  distinguishing  features  of  Werner's  teaching  was  the 
care  with  which  he  taught  fithology  and  the  succession  of  geological 
formation;  a  subject  to  which  be  applied  the  name  geognosy.  Hia 
views  on  a  definite  geological  succession  were  inspired  1^  the  works 
of  J.  G.  Lehmann  and  G.  C.  Fuchse!  (1722-1773J.  He  showed  that 
the  rocks  of  the  earth  are  not  disposed  at  random,  but  follow  each 
other  in  a  certain  definite  order.  Unfortunately  he  had  never 
enlarged  his  experience  by^  travel,  and  the  sequence  of  rock^masses 
whicli  he  had  recognized  in  Saxony  was  believed  by  him  to  be  of 
universal  application  (see  his  Kune  Klassifikalion  UHd  BesckreibuH^ 
der  verschtedinen  Cebirgsatlen,  1 787).  He  taueht  that  the  rocks  were 
the  predpttates  of  a  primeval  ocean,  and  loilowcd  each  other  in 
successive  deposits  of  world-wide  extent.  Volcanoes  were  regarded 
by  him  as  abnormal  phenomena,  probably  due  to  the  combustion 
of  subterranean  beds  of  coal.  Basalt  and  similar  rocks,  which  even 
then  were  recognized  by  other  otMerven  as  of  igneous  origin,  were 
believed  by  him  to  be  water-formed  accumulations  of  uie  same 
ancient  ocean.  Hence  arose  one  of  the  great  historical  controversies 
of  geology.  Werner's  followers  preached  the  doctrine  of  the  aqueous 
origin  (H  rocks,  and  were  known  as  Nefitunists;  their  opponents, 
who  recognized  the  important  part  taken  in  the  conatructton  of  the 
earth's  crust  by  subterranean  heat,  were  styled  Vulcanists.  R. 
Jameson,  the  roost  distinguished  of  his  British  pupils,  was  for  many 
years  an  ardent  teacher  of  the  Wcmcrian  doctrines.  Though  much 
of  Werner's  theoretical  work  was  erroneous,  science  is  indebted  to 
him  for  so  clearly  demonstrating  the  chronological  succession  of 
rocks,  for  the  enthusiastic  teal  which  he  infused  into  his  pupih, 
and  for  the  impulse  which  he  thereby  gave  to  the  study  of  geolopfy. 

See  S.  G.  Frisch,  Lebetubeschreibun^  A.  C.  Werners  (Leipzig,  1825); 
Cuvier,  £loge  de  Werner;  Lyell,  PrtneipUs  of  Geology;  and  Sir  A. 
Geikie,  Founders  of  Geology  (1897;  and  ed.,  1906). 

WERNER,  FRIEDRICH  LUDWIG  ZACH  ARIAS  {l^6»- 
1833),  German  poet,  dramatist  and  preacher,  was  bom  on  the 
1 8th  of  November  1768  at  KSnigsberg  in  Prussia.  From  his 
mother,  who  died  a  religious  maniac,  Werner  inherited  a  weak 
and  unbalanced  nature,  which  his  education  did  nothing  to 
correct.  At  the  univerrity  of  his  native  place  he  studied  law-, 
but  Rousseau  and  Rousseau's  German  disciples  were  the  in* 
fluences  that  shaped  his  view  of  life.  For  years  he  oscillated 
violently  between  aspirations  towards  the  state  of  nature, 
which  betrayed  him  into  a  series  of  rash  and  unhappy  marriages, 
and  a  sentimental  admiration — in  common  with  so  many  of 
the  Romanticists— for  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  which 
ended  in  181 1  in  his  conversion.  Werner's  talent  was  early 
recognized  and  obtained  for  him,  in  spite  of  his  character,  a 
small  government  post  at  Warsaw,  which  he  exchanged  after- 
wards for  one  at  Berlin.  In  the  course  of  his  travels,  and  by 
correspondence,  he  got  into  touch  with  many  of  the  men  most 
eminent  in  literature  at  the  time;  and  succeeded  in  having 
his  phiys  put  on  the  stage,  where  they  met  with  much  success. 
In  1814  he  was  ordained  priest,  and,  exchanging  the  pen  for  the 
pulpit,  became  a  popular  preacher  at  Vienna,  where,  during 
the  famous  congress  of  1 81 4,  his  eloquent  but  fanatical  sermons 
were  listened  to  by  crowded  congregations.  He  died  at  Vienna 
on  the  17th  of  January  1823. 

Werner  was  the  only  dramatist  of  the  Romantic  movement 


SH 


WfiRNIGERODE— WERWOLF 


Vfao — thanks  to  the  influence  of  Schiller — was  able  to  sub- 
orcUnate  his  exuberant  inagioation  to  the  practical  needs  oC 
the  stage.  His  first  tragedy »  IHe  Sdhne  des  Tals  (i  803-1 804), 
Is  in  two  parts,  and  it  was  followed  by  Das  Kreuz  on  dor  Osisce 
(i8o6).  More  imp<fftant  is  the  Reformation  drama  Martin 
liOker^  od€r  die  WeUte  def  Krajt  (tSo?),  which,  after  his  con> 
version  to  Catholicism,  Werner  recanted  in  a  poem  Wcihe  der 
Unkrafl  (1813).  His  powerful  one>act  tragedy,  Der  vierund^ 
twanzigste  Febrwtr  (181 5,  but  performed  1810),  was  the  first 
of  the  90-called  "  fate  tragedies."  AUila  (1808),  Wanda  (1810) 
and  Die  MutUr  der   Makkabder  (1820)  show  a  falling-oil  in 

Werner's  poweis. 

Z..  Waller's  Tlieater  was  first  collected  (without  the  author's 
consent)  in  6  vols.  (1816-1818);  Ausgctvdklte  Schriflen  (15  vols., 
1840-1841),  with  a  biography  by  K.  J.  SchQtz.  Sec  also  J.  E. 
Hitzig,  Lebaisakriss  F.  L.  Z.  Werners  (1833);  H.  Dflntzcr.  Zwi 
Uekekrte  (1873);  J.  Minor,  Die  Schieksalstrafddie  in  ihren  Haupi' 
vertreiern  (1883)  and  the  same  author's  volume.  Pas  SckicksaUdrama 
(in  Kiirschncrs  Deutsche  Nationalliteralur,  toI.  151,  1884);  F. 
Poppenbcrg,  Zackaria^  Werner  (1893). 

WERMIGERODE,  a  town  oi  Germany,  in  the  province  of 
Prussian  Saxony,  13  m.  by  rail  S.W.  of  Halberstadt,  picturesquely 
situated  on  the  Holzemmc,  on  the  north  slopes  of  the  Harz 
Mountains.  Pop.  (1905)  13,137.  It  contains  several  interesting 
Gothic  buildings,  including  a  fine  town  hall  with  a  timber  fagtde 
of.  1498.  Some  of  the  quaint  old  houses  which  have  escaped 
the  numerous  fires  that  have  visited  the  town  are  elaborately 
adorned  with<  wood-carving.  The  gymnasium,  occupying  a 
modem  Gothic  building,  is  the  successor  of  an  ancient  grammar- 
school,'  which  existed  until  1825.  Brandy,  cigars  and  dye- 
stuffs  are  among  the  manufactures  of  Ihe  place.  Above  the 
town  rises  the  chateau  of  the  prince  of  Slolberg-Wcmigcrode. 
A  paviUon  in  the  park  contains  the  library  of  117,000  volmnes, 
the  chief  feature  in  which  is  the  collection  of  over  3000  Bibles 
and  over  5000  volumes  of  hymnology.  Wernigerode  is  the  chief 
town  of  the  county  {Crafsckafi)  of  Stolberg- Wernigerode,  which 
has  an  extent  of  Z07  sq.  m.,  and  includes  the  Brock^n  within 
its  limits. 

The  coimts  of  Wernigerode,  who  can  be  traced  back  to  the 
early  12th  century,  were  successively  vassals  of  the  margraves 
of  Brandenbwg  (ia6S),  and  the  archbishops  of  Magdeburg 
(1381).  On  the  extinction  of  the  family  in  1429  the  county 
fell  to  the  counts  of  Stolberg,  who  founded  the  Stoll^erg- 
Wernigerode  branch  in  1645.  The  latter  surrendered  its  military 
and  fiscal  independence  to  Prussia  in  1714,  but  retained  some 
of  its  sovereign  rights  till  1876.    The  counts  were  raised  to 

princely  rank  in  i8qo. 

Sec  FSrstemann,  Die  Grdfiich-Stolbergische  BibliotheJt  in  Wernige- 
rode (Nordhauscn.  1866),  and  G.  Sommcr,  Die  Crafschaft  Werni- 
gerifde  (HaUe,  X883). 

WEBTH  [Weert],  JOHANN.  Count  von  (c.  1595-1652), 
German  general  of  cavalry  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  was  bom 
between  1590  and  1600  at  BUttgen  in  the  duchy  of  Jtilich.  His 
parents  belonged  to  the  numerous  class  of  the  lesser  nobility, 
and  at  an  early  age  he  left  home  to  follow  the  career  of  a  soldier 
of  fortune  in  the  Walloon  cavalry  of  the  Spanish  service  In 
^622,  at  the  taking  of  Jiilich,  he  won  promotion  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant.  He  served  as  a  colonel  of  cavalry  in  the  Bavarian 
army  in  1630.  He  obtained  the  command  of  a  regiment,  both 
titular  and  effective,  in  1632,  and  in  1633  and  1634  laid  the 
foundations  of  his  reputation  as  a  swift  and  terrible  leader  of 
cavalry  forays.  His  services  were  even  more  conspicuous  in  the 
great  pitched  battle  of  Ndrdlingen  (1634),  after  which  the  emperor 
made  him  a  Freikcrr  of  the  Empire,  9.nd  the  elector  of  Bavaria 
gavp  him  the  rank  of  lieutenant  ficld-mar^al.  About  this  time  he 
armed  his  regiment  with  the  musket  as  well  as  the  sword.  In 
1635  and  1636  his  forays  extended  into  Lorraine  and  Luxemburg, 
after  which  he  projected  an  expedition  into  the  heart  of  Franco. 
Starling  in  July  1636,  from  the  country  of  the  lower  Mcusc,  hf 
raided  far  and  wide,  and  even  urged  the  cardinal  infante,  who 
commanded  in  chief,  to  "  plant  the  double  eagle  on  the  Louvre." 
Though  this  was  not  attempted,  Werth's  horsemen  appeared 
at  St  Denis  before  the  uprising  of  the  French  national  spirit  in 
lh«  shape  of  an  army  of  fifty  thousand  men,  at  Coii\pi£gne  forced 


the  invaders  t»  retire  whence  tbqr  hftd  OOOV.    TtM 

of  this  raid  lasted  long,  and  the  nameof  '*  Jean  de  Wert "  figuktl 

in  folk-songs  and  serves  as  a  bogey  to  quiet  unruly  chUdzea.    Is: 

1637  Werth  was  once  more  in  the  Rhine  vaUey,  destroying 

convoys,  relieving  besieged  towns  and  suiprisbig  the  cnem/n 

camps.    In  February  1638  he  defeated  the  Weimar  troops  in. 

an  engagement  at  Rheinfdden,  but  shortly  afterwards  was  made. 

prisoner  by  Bemhaid  of  Saxe-Weimai.    His  hopsa  of  being 

exchanged  for  the  Swedish  marshal  Horn  were  disappointed*. 

(or  Bemhard  had  to  ddiver  up  his  captive  to  the  French.    The 

terrible  Jean  de  Wert  was  brought  to  Paris,  amidst  great  rejoio> 

ings  from  the  country  people.    He  was  lionised  by  the  society 

of  the  capital,. visited  in  prison  by  high  ladies,  who  marveUed 

at  his  powers  of  drinking  and  his  devotion  to  tobacco.    So  light 

was  his  captivity  that  hie  said  that  nothing  boimd  him  but  his 

word  of  honour.    However,  be  looked  forward  with  anxiety 

for  his  release,  which  was  delayed  until  March  1643  because  the 

imperial  govomment  feared  to  see  Horn  at  the  head  of  the 

Swedish  army  and  would  not  allow  an  exchange. 

When  at  last  he  reappeared  in  the  field  it  was  as  general  of 

cavalry  in  the  imperial  and  Bavarian  and  Cologne  services^ 

His  first  campaign  against  the  French  marshal  Gu^briant  was 

uneventful,  but  his  second  (1643)  in  which  Count  Mercy  was  his 

commander-in-chief,  ended  with  the  victoiy  of  Ttittlingen,  a 

surprise  on  a  large  scale,  in  which  Werth  naturally  played  the 

leading  part.    In  1644  he  was  in  the  lower  Rhine  country,  but 

he  returned  to  Mercy's  headquarters  in  time  to  take  a  brilliant 

share  in  the  battle  of  Freiburg.    Iii  the  foUowine  year  his 

resolution  and  bravery,  and  also  his  uncontrolled  rashness, 

played  the  most  conspicuous  part  in  deciding  the  day  at  the 

second  battle  of  Nordlingen.    Merey  was  kiUed  in  this  action, 

and  W^rth  succeeded  to  the  oommand  of  the  defeated  army, 

but  he  was  soon  uiperaeded  by  Field-marshal  Geleen.    Johann 

von  Werth  was  disappointed,  but  remained  thoroughly  loyal 

to  his  soldierly  code  of  honour,  and  found  an  outlet  for  his  anger 

in  renewed  military  activity.    In  1647  differences  arose  between 

the  elector  and  the  emperor  as  to  the  allegiance  due  from  the 

Bavarian  troops,  in  which,  after  Long  hesitation,  Werth,  fearing 

that  the  cause  of  the  Empire  and  of  the  Catholic  religion  would 

be  ruined  if  the  elector  resumed  control  of  the  troops,  attempted 

to  take  his  men  over  the  Austrian  border.    But  they  refusal  to 

follow,  and  escaping  with  great  difficulty  from  the  elector's 

vengeance  Werth  found  a  refuge  in  Austria.    The  emperor  was 

grateful  for  his  conduct  in  this  affair,  ordered  the  elector  to 

rescind  his  ban,  and  made  Werth  a  count.    The  last  campaign 

of  the  war  (1648)  was  uneventful,  and  shortly  after  its  dose 

he  retired  to  live  on  the  estates  which  he  had  bought  in  the  course 

of  his  career,  and  on  one  of  these,  Bienatek.  near  K&niggr&tz, 

he  died  on  the  r6th  of  January  xfist. 

See  Lives  by  F.  W.  Barthold  (Beriin.  l8a^),  W.  von  Jaako  (Vienaa, 
1874),  F.  Tcicher  (Augsburg,  1877). 

.WERWOLF  (from  A.S.  wer;  d.  LaL  vir,  man;,  and  wolf; 
or,  according  to  a  later  suggestion,  from  O.H.G.  weri,  wear, 
t^.  wearer  of  the  woU-skin)g  a  man  t9Rf^ld•naed  temporarily 
or  permanently  into  a  wolf.  The  belief  in  the  potssibility  <^ 
such  a  change  is  a  special  phase  of  the  general  doctrine  of  lycan- 
thropy  (9.V.).  In  the  Euni^pean  history  of  this  singular  belief, 
wolf  transformations  appear  as  by  far  the  most  prominent  and 
most  frequently  recurring  instances  of  alleged  metamorphosis, 
and  C(MisequentIy  in  most  European  languages  the  terms  expres- 
sive of  the  belief  have  a  apodal  reference  to  the  wolf.  Ex- 
amples of  this  are  found  in  the  Gr,  XuK^punrog,  Russian 
volkodldk,  Eng.  "  werwolf,"  Ger.  ytdhrwolj,  Fr  loup-garou.  More 
general  terms  {e.g.  Lat„  vcrsipcllisi  Russ.,  dboroien\  O.  Norse, 
h^mrammft  Eng.  "tumsicin,".  ''turncoat")  are  sufficiently 
numerous  to  furnish  some  evidence  that  the  ckiss  of  aniroaU 
into  which  metamorphosis  was  pos^blc  was  not  viewed  as  a 
restricted  one.  But  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Europe  the 
werwolf  is  preferred;  there  are  old  traditions  of  his  existence  in 
England,  in  W:^lesand  ii^'ircland;  in  .southern  France,  Germany, 
Lithuania,  Bulgaria.  Servi4,  Bohemia,  Poland  and  Russia  he 
W9  hardly.be  proqcuncfd  extina  nowj  in  Denmark,  Sweden, 


WBRWOLP 


52s 


Wot-way  and  Icdand  the  bear  oompeteft  wkfa  the  wolf  for  pro- 
eminence. 

In  Greek  mythology  the  story  of  Lycaon  supplies  the  most 
familiar  instance  of  the  werwolf.  According  to  one  form  of  it 
Lycaon,  was  transformed  into  a  wolf  as  a  mult  of  eating  humaa 
flesh;  one  of  those  who  were  present  at  periodical  sacrifice  on 
Mount  Lycaon  was  said  to  suffer  a  similar  fate.  Fliny«  quoting 
Eu&nthes,  tells  os  (Hist.  N<U.  -viS.  aa)  that  a  man  «f  the  family 
of  Antaeus  was  selected  by  lot  and  brouj^t  to  a  lake  in  Arcadia, 
where  be  hung  his  cfethlng  on  an  ash  and  swam  across.  This 
resulted  in  bis  being  transformed  into  a  wolf,  and  he  wandered 
in  this  sbape  nine  years.  Then,  if  he  bad  attacked  no  human 
being,  he  was  at  liaerty  to  swim  back  and  vesame  his  former 
shape.  Probably  the  two  stories  are  identical,  thou^  we  hear 
nothing  of  participation  in  the  Lycaean  sacrifice  by  the  descend- 
ant  of  Antaeus.  Herodotus  (hr.  105)  tells  us' that  the  Neuri, 
a  tribe  of  eastern  Europe,  were  annually  tnniflformed  for  a  few 
da3rs,  and  Virgil  (Ed.  vnL  9ft)  is  famifiar  with  transformation  of 
hnman  beings  into  wolves. 

There  are  women,  so  the  Armenian  bdief  runs,  who  in  con* 
sequence  of  deadly  sins  are  condemned  to  pass  seven  yean  in  the 
form  of  a  woll  A  spirit  comes  to  such  a  woman  and  brings 
her  a  wolf's  skin.  He  orders  her  to  put  it  on,  and  no  sooner  has 
she  done  this  than  the  most  frightful  wolfish  cravings  make  their 
appearance  and  soon  get  the  upper  hand.  Her  ^tter  nature 
conquered,  she  makes  a  meal  of  her  own  chfldren,  one  by  one, 
then  of  her  relatives'  children  according  to  the  degree  of  relation- 
ship, and  finally  the  children  of  strangers  begin  to  fall  a  prey  to 
her.  She  wanders  forth  only  at  night,  and  doors  and  locks 
spring  open  at  her  approach.  When  morning  draws  near  she 
returns  to  human  form  and  removes  her  wolf  skin.  In  these 
cases  the  transformation  was  involuntary  or  virtually  so.  But 
side  by  side  with  this  belief  in  involuntary  metamorphosis,  we 
find  the  belief  that  human  beings  can  change  themselves  into 
animals  at  will  and  then  resume  their  own  form. 

The  expedients  supposed  to  be  adopted  for  effecting  change  of 
shape  may  here  be  noticed.  One  of  the  simplest  apparently  was  the 
removal  of  clothing,  and  in  particular  of  a  girdle  of  human  skin,  or 
the  putting  on  of  such  a  girdle — more  commonly  the  putting  on  of 
a  girdle  of  the  skin  of  the  animal  whose  form  was  to  be  assumed. 
This  last  device  is  doubtless  a  substitute  for  the  assumption  of 
an  entire  animal  skin,  which  also  is  frequently  found.  In  other 
cases  the  body  is  rubbed  with  a  magic  salve.  Tb  drink  water 
out  of  the  footprint  of  the  animal  in  question,  to  partake  of  its 
brains,  to  drink  of  certain  enchanted  streams,  were  also  con-' 
sidered  effectual  modes  of  accomplishing  metamorphosis.  Olaus 
Magnus  says  that  the  Livonian  werwolves  were  initiated  by 
draining  a  cup  of  beer  specially  prepared,  and  repeating  a  set 
formula.  Ralston  in  bis  S<mgs  of  the  Russian  Peopk  gives  the 
form  of  incantation  still  faniUiar  in  Russia.  Various  expedients 
also  existed  for  removing  the  beast-ahape.  The  simplest  was 
the  act  of  the  enchanter  (operating  cither  on  himsdf  or  on  a 
victim);  another  was  the  removal  of  the  animal  girdle.  To 
kneel  in  one  spot  for  a  hundred  years,  to  be  reproached  with 
being  a  werwolf,  to  be  saluted  with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  or 
addressed  tHHce  by  baptismal  name,  to  be  struck  three  blows 
on  the  forehead  with  a  knife,  or  to  have  at  least  three  drops  of 
blood  drawn  were  also  effectual  cures.  In  other  cases  the 
transformation  was  supposed  to  be  accomplished  by  Satanic 
agency  voluntarily  submitted  to,  and  that  for  the  most  loathsome 
ends,  in  particular  for  the  gratification  of  a  craving  for  human 
flesh.  "  The  werwolves^"  writes  Richard  Verstegan  {ResUtulion 
of  Decayed  ItUeUigemej  i6s8) , "  are  ceruyne  sorcerers,  who  having 
annoynted  their  bodies  with  an  o3mtment  which  they  make  by 
the  instinct  of  the  devm,  and  putting  on  a  certayne  Inchaunted 
girdle,  doe  not  <mely  unto  the  view  of  others  seeme  as  wolves, 
but  to  their  owne  thinking  have  both  the  shape  and  nature  of 
wolves,  80  long  as  they  weare  the  said  girdle.  And  they  do 
dispose  themselves  as  very  wolves,  in  wourrying  and  killing,  and 
BMMt  of  humane  creatures."  Such  were  the  views  about  ^can- 
thrapy  cirrKnt  throughout  the  continent  of  Europe  when 
Verstegan  wrote.  •  fVance  In  particular  seems  to  hv'e  been 
XX  vm  9* 


infested  with  werwolres  dttriag  the  r6(li  century,  and  the 
consequent  trials  were  very  numerous.  In  some  of  the  cases— 
e.g.  those  of  the  GandiUon  family  in  the  Juia,  the  tailor  of 
Ch&lons  and  Roulct  in  Angers,  all  occurring  in  the  year  1598, 
— ^there  was  dear  evidence  against  the  accused  of  murder  and 
cannibalism,  but  none  of  association  with  wolves;  in  other 
cases,  as  that  of  GiUes  Garnier  in  Ddle  in  1573,  there  was  clear 
evidtmce  against  some  wolf,  but  none  against  the  accused; 
in  an  the  cases,  with  hardly  an  exception,  there  was  that  extra- 
ordinary readiness  in  the  accused  to  confess  and  even  to  give 
circumstantial  details  of  the  metamorphosis,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  inexplicable  concomitants  of  medieval  witchcraft.  Yet, 
while  this  lycanthropy  fever,  both  of  suspectors  and  of  suspected, 
was  at  its  hei^t,  it  was  decided  in.  the  case  of  jean  Grcnier 
at  Bordeaux,  in  1603,  that  lycanthropy  was  nothing  more  than 
an  insane  delusion.  From  this  time  the  loup-garou  gradually 
ceased  to  be  regarded  as  a  dangerous  heretic,  and  fell  back  into 
his  pre-Christianic  position  of  being  simply  a  "  man-wolf-fiend," 
as  which  he  still  survives  among  the  French  peasantry.  In 
Prussia,  Livonia  and  Lithuania,  according  to  the  bishops  Claus 
Magnus  and  Majolus,  the  werwolves  were  in  the  i6th  century 
far  more  destructive  than  **  true  and  natural  wolves,"  and  their 
heterodoxy  appear?  from  the  assertion  that  they  formed  "  an 
accursed  college  "  of  those  *'  desirous  of  innovations  contrary  to 
the  divine  law."  In  England,  however,  where  at  the  beginning 
of  the  i7tb  century  the  punishment  of  witchcraft  was  stiU 
zealously  prosecuted  by  James  I.,  the  wolf  had  been  so  long 
extinct  that  that  pious  monarch  was  himseK  able  {Demonologie, 
lib.  IH.)  to  regard  "  warwoolfes  "  as  victims  of  delusion  induced 
by  "  a  natural!  superabundance  of  melancholie."  Only  small 
creatures,  such  as  the  cat,  the  hare  and  the  weasel,  remained  for 
the  malignant  sorcerer  to  transform  himself  into;  but  he  was 
firmly  believed  to  avaO  himself  of  these  agencies.  Belief  in 
witch-animals  still  survives  among  the  uneducated  dasses  in 
parts  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  werwolves  of  the  Christian  dispensation  were  not,  however, 
all  heretics,  all  vidously  disposed  towards  mankind.  **  According 
to  Baronius,  In  the  year  617,  a  number  of  wolves  presented 
themselves  at  a  monastery,  and  tore  in  pieces  several  friars 
who  entertained  heretical  opinions.  The  wolves  sent  by  God 
tore  the  sacrilegious  thieves  of  the  army  of  Francesco  Maria, 
duke  of  Urbino,  who  had  come  to  sack  the  treasure  of  the  holy 
house  of  Loreto.  A  wolf  guarded  and  defended  from  the  wild 
beasts  the  head  of  St  Edmund  the  martyr,  king  of  England. 
St  Oddo,  abbot  of  Ouny,  assailed  in  a  pilgrimage  by  foxes, 
;was  delivered  and  escorted  by  a  wolf"  (A.  dc  Gubematis, 
Zoological  Hyfkology^  1873,  vol.  li.  p.  145).  Many  of  the  wer- 
wolves were  most  innocent  and  God-fearingpersons,  who  suffered 
through  the  witchcraft  of  others,  or  simply  from  an  unhappy 
fate,  and  who  as  wolves  behaved  in  a  truly  touching  fashion, 
fawning  upon  and  protecting  their  benefactors.  Of  this  sort 
were  the  "  Bisdaveret"  in  Marie  de  France's  poem  (r.  xMo), 
the  hero  of  **  William  and  the  Were- wolf  "  (translated  from 
French  into  English  about  1350),  and  the  numerous  princes 
and  princesses,  knights  and  ladies,  who  appear  temporarily 
in  boist  form  in  the  Mdrchen.  of  the  Axyan  nations  generally. 
Nay,  the  power  of  transforming  others  into  wild  beasts  was 
attributed  not  only  to  malignant  aorcereis,  but  aiso  to  ChiistJan 
saints.  "  Omnes  angdi,  boni  et  mali,  ex  virtme  natnrali  hahent 
potestateni  tnnsmutandi  corpora  nostra,"  was  the  dictum  of 
St  Thomas  Aquinas.  St  Fatridc  transformed  Vereticus,  kii^g  of 
Wales,  into  a  wolf;  and  St  Natalis  cuned  an  illustrious  Irish 
family,  with  the  result  that  each  meodiar  of  it  was  doomed  to' 
be  a  wolf  for  seven  years.  In  other  talcs  the  divine  agency  ia 
still  more  direct,  while  in  Russia,  again,  men  are  supposed  to 
become  werwolves  through  incurring  the  wrath  of  the  deviL 

LtTBKA'njRB.'— In  the  numerous  medieval  works  directed  to  the 
study  of  floroery  and  witchcraft,  the  coatemporaneoua  phaseu  of 
lycanthropy  occupy  a  prominent  place.  In  addition  to  the  autbora 
who  have  oeeo  already  mentioned,  the  following  mav  be  named 
as  giving  special  attention  to  this  subject:  WIer,  t/e  praesti^iis 
daemonum  (Amsterdam,  1563);  Bodln,  Dkm&nomanie  dej  sorcteri 
(Paris,  1580);  BogMt,  DiKOUfS  dee  eorciers  (Lyons,  and  ed.  1608); 


S25 


WESEL,  J.  R.  VON— WESER 


_ , .  .  . ii  •■■■(  <Pufa,  ■I6l3)| 

Pidliii^at  (funliMi  datmmumi.'  (Piriv  Itljj;  mc  iIh  Cluvil, 
SaMKumiu  IruiMptaliii,  fof  Uu  EnflUi  equivilenli  of  lycu' 
thnpir.  Tctatiaa  laldy  eoofiasl  la  lyuMluiiiiy  air  Tin  bbib  <b 
Dedievil  Bad  ia  BBdmi  diMt:  but  a  few  «rv  wril  bwn.  H^  for 

'  Boaiqutlal  ud  NyuvU,  Dt 

c  (bo  UubuKlicr,  Vi^  £.  K 


(Parii,  I6is).  S«  (bo  Ltabatcha.  Vb^  £•  If ck>d<ff  {»,_.. 
Grimm.  Daltclu  Uylkiltpi,  i.  iL  and  iiL:  HirU,  Dir  Winmlf 
(Sninprt.  lS6l)i  Biriii(  Could,  Ttu  Boat  tf  ITn-nbu  (London, 
1M51.  AIb  At  biblBfnphv  to  LTCAHmon.  and  Aadnc,  MJlao- 
vafUidit  PmUdn,  in  •trie*,  6a-lo:  Tylor,  I'timilmt  Cuilmrt,  L; 
P.  ScbiUot,  Tradilitiu  it  la  HanU-Bmatm.  i.  18a. 

(N.  W.  T.i  J.  F.  M-L.) 
VXIEI,  JOBAin  KDCHUT  VOH  [d.  14S1).  Gcnnia 
tlieo]o(Ui),itubi>m>tObtiweielGUly  inthc  ijUiccatuty.  lie 
Mjpan  10  have  been  one  of  the  leaden  of  tlie  fiumuuit  movt- 
menl  in  GeimaDy.  and  (a  have  bad  •ottv  intacoune  and  lyin- 
paltay  with  tbe  leaden  irf  Ibe  Hunto  in  fiofaemia.  Erfuit 
waa  in  hia  day  the  beadquanen  of  a  humatiiim  which  waa 
baUi  devout  and  oppoacd  to  the  realist  metapbyaic  and  the 
Thomiit  theology  Bhich  pcevuled  in  the  uuivenitiei  of  Cologne 
and  Heiddbeig.  Wead  was  one  of  the  profeaiaii  at  Erfuil 
between  144s  and  14:6,  ud  wu  vice-rector  in  i4St.  In  14G0 
be  wa*  appointed  preacher  at  Majna.  in  1461  at  Wotmi,  and 
Id  1479,  wben  an  old  and  ma-out  man,  he  waa  biou^t  before 
the  Dominican  inquiiiior  Geibud  Eltea  of  Cdogne.  The  chaijea 
broufht  againat  him  took  a  theological  turn,  though  they  wen 
probably  prompted  by  dialiLe  of  hia  pbiloaapfaical  viewi.  Tbty 
were  chiedy  baaed  on  a  treatise,  Di  indxltmlHl,  which  he  had 
composed  while  at  Erfurt  twenty-five  yeara  before-  He  had 
alao  written  De  polalait  eaiesajtka.  He  died  under  acntance  cJ 
itupriaonpient  for  life  in  the  Auguatinian  convent  m  Maina  in  1481. 
I  It  ia  (OmeRbat  difficult  to  determme  the  exact  Ibeobgical 
poeitioa  of  WeieL  .VUniann  claims  him  aa  a  "  reformer  before 
the  Reforuutlon,"  but,  while  be  maXerrd  the  formal  principle 
of  PriHeataBiiim,  that  aciipture  ii  the  sole  rule  of  faith,  It  ia 

doctrioei  of  grace  whidi  Uy  at  tbe  baib  of  Refomatioa  theology. 
He  held  that  Chriit  ia  men'i  rigbUoutueM  in  K  far  aa  they  are 
guided  by  the  Holy  Gbost.  and  tbe  love  tomida  God  li  abed 
abroad  U  their  hearts,  which  dearly  ihowa.  that  be  held  tbr 
iMdieval  idea  that  juiiificaiion  ia  an  habitual  grace  implanied 
In  men  by  the  gradous  act  of  God.  He  aeema,  however,  to  have 
IVDteitM  againat  certain  medieval  eccleaiastical  Ideaa  vhirh 
be  held  to  he  exoeacencea  erroneously  grafted  on  Chriitian 
faith  and  practice.  He  objected  to  the  wbola  ayatem  of  indulg- 
ences; he  denied  the  iofolhbility  of  the  church,  on  the  ground 

be  inaiittd  that  papal  authority  could  be  upheld  only  when  the 
pope  remained  true  to  tbe  evangel;  and  he  beU  tlAt  a  ihaip 
distinction  ougbt  to  be  drawn  betweoi  irrtriinfinl  aentedcea 
and  punishmenti,  and  tbe  Judgmcnta  of  God. 

The  beat  aocDuot  of  Wsd  [•  ta  be  fouod  la  iC  UIhuBB'aX|/anHn 
iAa  Ikt  Mamalint.  His  tract  on  Atd^Mwai  k  publidied  U 
Walch'a  UMimaUa  Mtiii  .4in,  voL  L.  while  a  repoR  of  his  trial 
■•  ^ven  in  Ottula  Cratius'a  Audnfui  rmiai  ixfiliitiamm  il 
futtenStnim  fed,  by  Browne,  London,  1690).  and  d'ArgentfC's 
cSUclit  JmdJamm  it  itetii  trnnimt  (Ptnt,  lyit).  Sae  abo  Olio 
Clemea'a  an.  In  Henog-Hauck's  HttdtrntyUtfim^  ft-  Tlmliit 
ami  Kinit  (3rd  td.,  Leipiig,  igog),  aii.  117. 
'  WEIEk  a  foctroi  town  of  fjetmauy,  in  tbe  riii«liii  pnrtice 
ol  Westphalia  at  the  onflumcs  nl  Ibe  Khine  and  the  Uppe, 
46  m.  S  W.  of  Mtlnatei  and  3]  m,  N.W.  of  Dmsbuig.  Po[>.(itoj) 
1J>'J7  l*i%  Protestanta),  taduding  a  conaidtrable  guitoen. 
neie  ia  a  junction  of  five  railway  lines,  and  tht  Rhine  ii  cnaed 
by  a  large  raflway  bridge  and  by  a  bddgn  of  beati.  Hie  Inner 
Kne  of  fortlficMlaiia  waa  raied  in  iSgo,  and  tlw  definahe  waifc* 
DOW  eoBilst  only  of  the  citadel  and  tbiee  dstadicd  forti,  one  of 
which.  Fart  BUcbtr,  Mrvei  ai  a  tdrJe^aiil  on  tbe  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine.  Wesel  containtaame  qiuini  old  bouses,  and  a  town 
hall,  dating  frem  r]9A,  with  an  elabonte  facade,  and  containing 
a  valuable  coUenlon  of  old  iQvcT  [date.  The  large  Protestant 
diurcfa  of  St  Wnilbrord  has  a  choir,  built  r4i4-iji«,  which  fi 
one  a[  Ibe  noblest  Gothic  slructurea  on  the  Lower  Rhine,  and  a 
WMkn  nav*  (iWi-vA).    Hm  hUthMn  cfanidi  dttea  fram 


l$t4,  by  Iba  Dntdi  in  itig,  b/  ik  • 
tbe  Stvea  Yean'  War,  aad  in  sBaj,  u 
|»I4.  A  noouBinit  MiCrfdaaba  lowr 
Fetdinand  von  SchiU's  officen  wbo  « 
■     i809a)lertl  ■ 


i4i9-i4Ty-  The  two  KooHB  CbUmOc  Omtket,  ttt  tMK 
DOW  tbe  eomroandant'a  bouse  (built  in  I4r7),  iIm  Berliner  Tee— 
Beriin  gate — (buHt  in  1711  and  nccally  natnnd),  tin  Lower- 


ft  (0. 


Ol  oeptcnwcr  1009  aitcr.uKir  imsDanHui  aua^H  at  aumBuno. 
We*d  I*  offartiwiaHy  qrakca  of  as  Unlerwead,  to  diallDguiih 
It   from  Oberweri,   a  uiall    town   m   the  RUae,   aben 


■r,  CbxMl  <r  5MA  Wml  (Waael,  lUlt,  aaa 

.«».»£.-..Li.  ^v-vh  (Brcslau,  iBU) 

Winra,  Lat.    Yinrpi),  One 

formed  by  the  union  af  the 

1,  in  the  Fruatlan  ptovince  ol 

generauy  norm  and  entering  tbe  North  Sea 

n,  between  Jade  Bay  and  the  etluaiy  of  the 

I  ia  t;e  m.  from  MDnden,  but  the  winding 

— . is  370  m.  long;  if  the  measutemeni  be  made 

m  tlie  aoutte  of  the  Wem,  in  the  TMringcr  Wald,  ihe  total 

ream  ii  440  m.    At  MDnden  the  river  nirfatt  ii 

ea-level:  the  most  rapid  fall  in  ita  course  is  be 

I'esiphaUa.     Neatly  the  entile 

it  alio  touclie*  part  of 


leogth  of  tt,,.  ~ 

380  ft.  above  It      .      . 

Kariihafen  and  Uind 
w,^.;  of  the  Weser  lies  in  .,u^.,  ^-^  .-  -^  . 
Bruniwich  and  Lippe,  and  after  flowing  thtough  Brcioco  eiiMiiu> 
sty  separating  Ibe  duchy  of  Oldenburj  from  the 
'ince  of  Hanover.     Between  MOnden  and  Mindcn 
valley  flanked  by  irregular 
'    rdsvald,  Sollingei  Wald, 


«.„  iisjointed  mngea  of  hills  (Ranli 

Wcser  Hills,  &c.)i  but  after  it  emerges  irom  incse  mouatains 
by  tbe  narrow  pisa  adled  the  "Porta  Westfalica,"  near 
Mindcn,  Its  batiks  become  fiat  and  uninteresting.  The  breadth 
of  the  river  varies  from  no  yds.  at  IdUoden  to  no  yds.  at 
Mindcn,  ijo  yds.  at  Bremen,  il  m.  at  EliSelb  arid  7)  n.  at  Eta 
atrance  into  the  >ea. 
The  WesB  on  the 


Bremen,  il 

c  whole  Is  shallow,  and  naviotlon 
iipled  by  drouiM.  Until  1S04  thi 
limum  derith  of  little  over  fl  ft.t 


rt  waa  ERathr  isihaiictd. 
faraiMtadcn.  AryBon 
ic  Weicr  wilh  that  of  the 


'fbutariesoa  the  rigbt  an  tae  Aiier.  vrumnic, 
le.  and  on  (he  lef t  ibr  IXcad,  Nethe,  Bdibh. 
k  TbeWcmawlFBldaaiabsthnavlBUe 
orm  (ha  Waei,  the  Fulda  being  caaaEicd 
;  town  of  Fulda  Cor  a  distance  of  17I  n.;  IN> 
and  Ilunte  are  also  nsvlgable.    BckM.tl 


The  navigation  nl  the  Waer  waa  long  hampered  by  the  varioua 
and  vexatious  elauns  and  rlglita  of  the  dKrerent  rules  through 
«1»«  (armories  h  nn.  Bciloie  1M6  (he  faun  atiean,  iwlodbig 
ihi  Wetta  aad  the  Fulda.-cfcanged  ha  ndel  as  Im  than  Ibbt^^ 

eitabliihing  a  &ed  loll  and  a  uniform  system  of  msnanment ;  this 
WIS  lunher  Improved  !n  iM  and  iMji  and  when  Piunia  took 
pouenion  of  Hanover  and  Hess^Nssisu  In  l»«6Ua  iMrf  dlOcnltiia 
fa  the  wi*  e(  onnaittag  thi  tivrr«ada  dirappancd.  The  pruiJgal 
im  anil  wSHrS^Bi^m.    Oiimiwla^  V^kiTh  lem 


WESLEY  (FAMILY)— WESLEY,  JOHN 


^,Hmn 


n.RinHlii.VlDtbD.Mindcn,S(alitiuu.NlHibun, 


Whct  nvc  luffii  to  a  dcpvtinent  in  tht  aboil-Livnl  kintdaa  €i 
WotplulLi :  ihn  dike  town  wu  O-ubiflck. 

WESLEY  (PAMILT).  Tin  Woksf  funilr  ipnBi  fmB  Wcbwc, 
oeu-  Wdb  in  Soineract.  Tbdi  pcdigne  hu  b«  traced  back 
to  Guy,  wbom  AlfaebUn  mub  1  thus  about  938.  One  btucb 
ot  tbe  lunily  Htllcd  in  Irduid.  Sir  Hnbeit  WeUlcy  of  Wot- 
Idgh,  Devon,  muiied  Elizibetb  WcUedey  oi  Diagnn  In  Iidud. 
Tfacir  tbird  ion,  Birtbolonicw,  nudicd  botb  iMdidne  uid  tbto- 
iogy  It  Oiford,  and,  in  1619,  mBnied  the  dsugbter  oi  Sli  Heory 
Collcy  of  Kildue.  In  1660  be  held  the  leclcria  of  Cttbtnton 
and  Chumouth  In  Donct  vakcd  il  £]j,  is.  pear  umom.  He 
«ai  ejected  in  1663  tad  guDed  hb  living  u  a  doctof.  He  wu 
boHed  It  Lyme  Rc^  on  Febniuy  151b,  1670. 

Hit  wm,  John  Westlev,  fnndfalbu  of  tba  founds  of 

Oxford,  where  be  became  profident  In  Orienlal  [anfuaga  and 
von  the  special  regard  of  John  Oven,  then  vicc-chanceUor. 
CromvcU*!  Tiien  approved  bim  a*  miniitcr  of  Winterbont- 
Whitchurch,  Dorut,  in  1658,  The  foUovinc  year  be  married 
tbe  daughter  of  Jobo  While,  Cbe  patriarch  ol  Dorcbcaler.  In 
1661  be  WBi  committed  to  pilioD  for  refilling  to  oaa  the  Boob 
of  QHnmon  Prayer.  HIa  candour  and  aeal  made  a  deep  ijn- 
prcHlon  on  Gllbeit  Ironiide  tbe  elder,  Biihop  of  Briltol,  witb 
vbom  he  had  anintcrviev.  He  vaseicctedin  lUl  afid  beeatne 
■  Nonconlormiil  pastor  at  Poole.  He  died  in  ifrlS;  bit  vidov 
turvived  him  for  31  yeaia.  One  of  hit  toni,  Uittbrv,  becaoe 
ft  sjigeDD  in  LoDdoD.  wbet«  he  dial  in  17J;. 

Anothtc  ton.  Suktel,  wu  [rained  in  LoodoD  f«  the  Noocon- 
fonnitt  Biiniitry,  but  changed  hit  vlewi,  tod,  in  Augott  16S3, 
entered  Euiu  College,  Oilord.  la  a  titai.  He  droiqied  the 
"  t  "  in  hit  Duge  and  returned  10  vhat  be  laid  vat  the  original 
ipelUng,  Wesky.  In  ifiSgbewaaixdalned  and  married  Suaanna, 
yoODgetl  daughter  of  Dr  Samuel  Anneiley,  vicar  of  St  Gilea, 
Ciipplegate,  and  otphev  of  the  ia(  earl  ol  Angleaea.  Anncaley 
gave  up  bis  living  in  i6A>  and  fonned  a  congiecalion  in  Little 
St  Helen's,  Blshop^le,  vben  be  wai  boDOured  u  tbe  St  Paul 
of  the  Nonconformlsls.  Samuel  Woley  vag  appoinled  rector 
d(  South  Ormsby  ta  1691,  and  moved  to  Epworlh  in  1(9;,  He 
had  nineteen  children,  ol  whom  dfht  died  in  infancy.  Hit 
lawleat  ptrishioneia  could  ml  endure  bis  faithful  preaching, 
and  in  1705  be  wu  confined  In  UocDln  Cutle  for  a  small  debt. 
Two-thiids  ol  hit  panonige  wu  destroyed  by  fire  in  i;oi  uid 
<n  1769  it  wu  burnt  to  the  ground.  He  managed  to  rebuild  the 
rectory,  but  bit  roourcei  vere  >o  heavQy  itraioed  that  tbiiteen 
years  later  it  vu  only  half  lumitbed.  Stnuid  Woky  wu  a 
busy  author.  At  Oxford  in  lASs  he  vrote  a  volume  of  poems 
bearing  tbe  atraitge  lille  Uatt'*'-  He  vinte  a  Ujt  ef  Ckritt 
w  veise  (169J),  Tht  HiUvrf  vf  Ikt  OU  nrJ  Hew  TaUm4<U  in 
Vera  (iTot?),  a  noble  l^tUr  It  a  Ctfoft,  full  of  itrong  lente  and , 
ripe  experience,  and  Dultrlclmu  tn  Uk  Book  ej  Jii  (1735)- 
He  died  at  Epvorib  in  1735.  Suaanna  Wesley  died  at  tbe 
Foundery,  London,  in  lU^  and  wu  buried  in  Bunhili  Fields. 

Their  eldest  son,  SauDiL  Wesiet  (i6go-i7jq),  vu  bon  in 
London,  entered  Westmlnitet'  School  in  1704,  became  a  Qoeca's 
■cbolar  in  1707  and  in  1711  vat  up  to  Christ  Church,  Oiford. 
He  returned  to  Weitminsler  u  bead  uihei,  took  orders  and 
enjoyed  the  iniimatc  (riendth^  of  Bishop  Atteibuiy,  Harley 
earl  of  Oiford,  Addison,  Svilt  and  Prior.  He  beranw  head- 
muter  of  BlundeU't  School  at  Tiveclon  in  1731  and  died  (here 
on  the  6Ih  of  November  1739.  He  vat  a  finitbed,  clataical 
•cholat,  a  poet  and  a  devout  man,  but  be  wu  never  reconciled 
to  the  Methodism  of  his  brothen.  Hii  poemi,  pablisbed  In 
1736,  reached  a  lecond  edition  in  1743,  and  *nre  rtprinted  with 
navpocmi,  notes  and  a  LiSi  by  W.  Nichola,  in  1S6). 

CoiKLES  Wesley  (1707-1788)  wat  ihe  eighieenlb  child  of 
lbs  Rectc«  ol  Epwoitb,  and  vu  saved  from  Ihe  fire  ol  1709 
by  his  nurse.  He  entered  Weatmuister  School  in  <]i6,  became 
a  King's  Scholar  and  vu  captain  of  tbe  school  iq  1715.  He 
■Wt*  a  plucky  boy,  and  von  (be  life-long  friendship  of  the  future 
•ad  of  Haaafield  by  bghting  batiks  on  bit  beball.     GatrtI 


Wcd«y  al  Irdand  viihed  to  adopt  hk  y«uag  kiumtii,  bnl 
Ihit  ofla  «u  declined  and  the  eiUtcs  veic  left  to  Richard 
Colky  DO  condition  thai  he  tttumcd  the  name  Wcaley.  The 
di^  of  Wellington  wu  Coiley'a  itaidson,  and  appears  in  the 
Army  list  lor  i«oo  aa  Ihe  Hon.  Arthur  Wesley.  Cbariet  Weilqr 
wu  ehctnl  to  Christ  Churdi  in  1716,  John  had  bccsme  fcUov 
of  Lincstai  (he  previoua  March.  Charles  hMt  his  hnt  tvdve 
months  at  Oiford  in  "  divernant,"  but  whibt  John  vu  acting 
u  their  fatber'i  curate,  bis  brother  "  avoke  out  of  his  lethargy." 
He  ptnuaded  two  or  three  other  itndents  to  go  with  him  to  tbe 
weekly  sacnment.  Thitledayounggenltenuinof  Christ  Church 
to  eicltlm:  "  Here  Is  a  aev  tet  of  Uetboditis  sprung  up." 
The  name  quickly  ^iread  Ihrough  the  univenity  and  Oilard 
Methodbm  began  iu  course.  In  1735  Charles  Wesley  wu 
ordained  and  went  with  hit  brother  to  Georgia  u  tecrelary  to 
ColoDtl,  allervards  Genoal,  Oglethorpe,  tbe  Govenur.  IIk 
vork  pioved  uncongenial,  and  after  enduring  many  baidaliipa 
bit  health  failed  and  he  left  Frederica  for  England  on  July  tbe 
jiStb,  1J36.  He  hoped  to  return,  bnt  In  February  1738  John 
Wctley  came  home,  and  Cbarln  found  that  hit  state  of  health 
made  It  necessary  to  resign  bis  tecretaiythip.  After  kit  evan- 
gelical  conversion  on  Whit  Sunday  (May  >iit,  1738),  he  becuw 
the  poet  of  the  Evangelical  RfvivaL  He  vrote  about  6500 
hymns.  ITiey  vary  greatly  in  merii,  hut  Canon  Overton  bdd 
bim,  taking  quantity  and  quality  Into  contideratlaD,  to  he 
"  the  great  hymn-vriter  of  all  agea."  Their  eariy  volumes  of 
poetry  bear  the  names  of  both  brothers,  hut  It  It  generally 
■■!■■"*■'  that  tbe  origuial  hymu  vere  by  Cbarin  and  the 
translation!  by  John  Wesley.  Poetry  vu  Uke  anolher  tense 
to  Charles,  and  be  wu  busy  writing  verse  from  hit  convertion 
up  to  his  death-bed  when  be  dictated  lo  bis  vife  his  last  lines, 
"  In  tge  and  feeUeneis  tilreme."  For  tome  yean  lie  took 
a  full  tbatt  in  the  haidshipt  and  perils  ol  the  Methodist  itiner. 
ancy,  and  vat  often  a  remarkably  powerful  preacher.  Alter 
hit  marriage  in  1749  hit  vork  vu  cldefly  confined  to  Bristol, 
where  he  then  lived,  and  LondorL  He  moved  to  London  in 
1771  and  died  in  Maryleboneon  Matdithc  t9tb,  17SS.  He  vu 
strong  opposed  to  hi)  biolber't  oitlinationt,  and  refused  lo 
be  burled  at  City  Kosd,  because  the  ground  there  vu  uncon- 
sccrated.  He  vu  buried  in  the  gnv^ird  of  Marykbone  (M 
Church,  but  this  a^^Kars  to  have  bccD  unconaecrated  alto- 

Chartcs  Wesley  married  Sarah  Gwyime,  daughter  of  a  Welsfa 
magistrate  living  at  Garth,  00  April  £th,  1749.  She  died  in 
18]]  at  the  age  of  nlnety^ii.  Five  of  their  cbadrcn  died  u 
iaianu  tnd  are  buried  iji  St  James's  Churchyard,  Brittol,  Their 
mrviving  daughter  Saab,  vho  vu  engaged  In  literary  WMk, 
died  nanarried  in  181S.  Charles  Wesley,  Junr.  (1759-1834) 
vu  organitt  of  St  George'i,  Hanover  Squait.  He  pubUtbed 
Sii  Ctnartat  jtr  lie  Orfda  and  Batp  in  177S-  He  alto  died 
unmanied.  Samuel,  Ihe  younger  brother  (1766-183;),  vuevea 
more  gifted  than  Charles  as  an  organist  and  composer;  he 
vu  also  a  lecturer  on  musical  subjecta.  Tvo  vA  his  tont  vere 
Or  Wealey,  sub-dean  of  tbe  Chapel  Royri,  and  Dr  Samuel 
Setustlan    Wealey    (181D-1S76),  the    tamoni    conqxocr  and 

0  -  —  tthcdiaL 

ume  of  Chartt*  Wesky'i  sennont  nth 
n  lJvabyThoniuJaclwiii(lS4l)  and  John 

1  id  Letters  with  Notes  by  Thomas  }aaaaa 
I  .^  ''736-1739)  with  additional  malin 

mJ  CiaAi  Wtdtj  (13  voIl.  1S6S); 


UuOroM  by  I.  Telferd  flq 
'Bfcy  Family  (i8»i);I>ove»i 
flyjl83»;C.J.Slevenfoii,  J 
};  'Tyerman's  1^  lai  Tuw 


jioolih 


Adair 


.  .  3-i79i)>  fJiglitli  divine,  sru  bom  at 
Epvorth  Krctory  on  the  i7tb  of  Jnne  (O.S.)  1703.  He  vu 
the  fifteenth  child  of  Samnel  and  Susanna  Weriey  (sec  Wolet 
Faiulv).  His  mother's  training  laid  (he  foundation  of  hit 
character,  and  under  her  instruction  the  children  made  remark- 
able progress.  On  February  9,  170Q,  the  rectory  wu  bdnit 
down,  and  (be  ciiildren  had  a  narrow  escape.  On  (he  duhe 
of  Buckingham's  nomination,  Woley  vas  for  tl<  yenri  a  pupO 
at  CharierhouK.     In  June  1710  be  vent  up  to  Chiitl  Church, 


S'i 


WESLEY,  JOHN 


Oifanl,  irith  u  unnnl  allcnnmce  i^  £40  u  ■  ChirlaltadM 
flcboUr.  HIi  heotih  wu  poor  and  be  faund  it  hud  Ui  k«p 
out  of  debt,  but  he  nude  gooct  ui«  of  hla  opportonitkB^  A 
tcbeme  of  tfudy  whkh  be  drew  up  for  171a  vitli  1  litne-tabk 
foi  each  d«y  of  the  week  is  atill  to  be  Ken  in  his  euliest  tUuy, 
wbicli  becAine  the  property  of  Ur  George  Staoipe  of  Gmt 
GriTDeby.  The  dlery  runs  from  April  5,  17151  to  Fcbrusty  19, 
1737,  A  friend  describes  Wesley  nt  this  time  ■■  "b  youDE 
fellow  of  Ibe  finest  cloMial  tAste,  sad  the  most  liberal  Htid  nvnly 
smiinienLs."  He  wu  "  gay  snd  qiiightly,  witb  ■  tuili  iOt  wit 
and  humoDT." 

The  standard  ediikni  of  Waky'i  /anul  (1909)  bu  fumiibed 
much  oew  material  (or  this  psiod  ol  V/aky't  life,  tba  Ket. 
N.  Cumock  having  uoravtlled  tbe  difficult  dphet  lad  tbortband 
In  tthidi  Wesley's  eariy  disiics  wen  kept.  He  nsdied  tbe 
condutiai)  that  the  rdigfcnii  friend  wbo  directed  Wesley's 
attention  la  the  writings  of  Thomas  i  Kempb  ind  Jettmy 
Taylor,  in  r795,  was  Miss  Betty  Kirkbam,  whose  father  waa 
lector  of  Stanton  in  Cloucestcrshire.  Up  to  thb  time  Wesley 
sayi  he  had  no  notion  of  mward  holiocsa,  but  went  OD  "  habllu- 
ally  and  (or  the  moat  part  very  conlcntcdly  la  10010  or  atha 
knomi  tin,  indeed  with  loine  inlermisiion  and  short  Urog^ea 
especially  befon  and  after  Holy  Commonion,"  which  he  was 
oUiged  to  alleod  three  timet  a  year.  On  the  ijth  of  September 
179;  he  was  ordained  deacon,  and  on  the  17th  of  Manb  1716 
WDi  elected  [ellow  of  Lincoln.  His  private  dluic*,  seven  of 
which  ore  io  the  hands  of  Mr  Bouell  J.  CMniaa  of  Norvid), 
conlun  monthly  ttvievs  of  Wesley's  reading.  It  covered  a 
wide  range,  and  be  nude  careful  notes  and  abstmcls  of  it.  He 
generally  took  breakfast  or  tea.  with  some  congeqlol  friend  and 
ddighted  10  diseuu  the  deepest  subJECIA.  At  the  coffee  house 
be  saw  the  Sptdatcr  and  orbcr  pehodlcala.  He  loved  riding 
and  walking,  was  an  npest  swimmer  and  cajoyed  a  pme  at 

He  prearbed  fiequcnlly  in  The  diurches  near  Oxfnd  In  the 
months  succeeding  his  ordination,  and  In  April  1736  be  ohtaiiMid 
leave  Imm  his  college  to  act  osjiis  father's  curate.  Tlie  new 
matenal  bi  the  Jimniai  describes  the  simple  matiei  of  hSi  Hfe. 
He  rtod  plays,  attended  the  village  fairs,  shot  plover*  In  the 
fndand,  and  enjoyed  a  dance  witb  hia  liters.  In  October 
he  relumed  to  Oiford,  where  he  was  appobited  Greek  lecturer 
and  iDOdeialDr  of  the  classes.  He  gained  conaidenble  rcputa- 
tion  in  tbe  disputation  (or  his  maaier's  degree  in  February  1737. 
He'  was  now  free  to  follow  bis  own  course  of  studies  and  b^an 
to  lose  his  love  for  company,  unless  it  were  with  those  who 
were  drawn  like  blmsetf  to  religloD.  Tn  August  be  returned  to 
Liocniathirc,  whoe  he  aseisled  his  fither  till  November  171Q. 
During  those  Vno  yean  he  paid  tbite  vinu  to  Uie  nniveriity. 
In  the  summer  of  1710  be  was  up  for  two  monlln.  Almost 
cveiy  evening  found  him  with  the  tittle  society  iridcb  had 
gathered  round  Charlea. 

Wlicn  he  came  into  re*5ence  hi  November  be  was  recognised  as 

the  lather  of  the  Holy  Club.    It  met  at  bat  on  Sunday ■ — 

-■- "is  *"  P™^  "  Wedey'i ■— 


■y  read  the  Greek  TtsL 


t  and  like  datucs; 


rl  a  great  impits^n  on  Weitey,  and  ob  Us  advice  ihe 
«  tulnr  began  to  rtod  myitii:  auUnn.  but  ic  taw  that  their 


believeiill' 


Clayton,  ai 


Woley  hidnot  J 


that  all  to  whua  [ 

mat^  of  them  needed  no  r^ 

11A,  laylag  a  deeper  foondadoD 

^    :itwBiraDly£»ttle:andH> 

tb*  Uood  of  tiH  covensBt. 

,„  -  - Isith  in  Christ.  1  saw  non 

(nut  of  mjF  pcMcfiing.   Looliij  hack  on  these  days  in  1777,  Wesley 

he  Tdininn  al  the  Bible.  o(  the  Prinulim 
Chmb  of  Epgtsiid :  a>  they 

— ^ ,^-r_-d  and  primitive  DlaathsDsi^' 

_..)nal  church  upon  eaitb."  The  numbet  o(  Oiford  Medio- 
at  small  and  priibaUy  never  eicecdinc  twennr-ive.  Jeha 
1.  afterwards  ch«BlaiB  of  the  C^lepate  Chnich  ol  MandKSttr, 
■luiiauiatdistRncHi^CfaBRlBmB:  James  Hsvev,  auiboe  ol 
UidilotiDiu  siieiii  Ike  Ttmbi,  and  Tkaut  tat  AtJH^;  Benjanla 
Inghan,  who  became  tbe  Yorkihlia  evangelist;  andThoniat  Bmugb- 
ton,  afteiwardt  tecretiry  of  tbe  S.P.C.K..  wen  membcn  of  the  Hahr 
Clot),  and  George  Whitefield  Joined  h  on  tbe  eve  o(  tbe  Wetkytf 
dcpartuic  Icr  Georgia. 

Wesley's  fathet  died  oit  April  15,  1735,  and  In  the  foUowlDg 
October  Jirim  and  Charles  took  ship  for  Ceoigia,  with  Baijsmln 
Ingham  and  Chailes  Ddamotte.  John  was  tent  out  tqi  tbe 
Sadety  (or  the  Propagation  of  Ihe  Cospd,  and  hoped  10  laboot 
as  a  missionary  among  the  Indians,  but  though  be  had  many 
interesting  conversaticRU  witb  thera  the  miasion  was  found 
to  be  Impi&clicable.  Tbe  cabin  of  the  "  Sinunotids  "  became  t 
study  lor  the  four  Melbodists.  The  calm  cunfidenca  of  Uufe 
Moravian  lEllow.pa38eDgert  amid  the  Atlantic  stonna  con* 
vinctd  Wesley  thai  he  did  not  poiseBS  tbe  faith  whidi  cMi 
out  fear.  Closer  acquaintance  with  these  Gennan  friends  k 
Savannah  deeponed  the  Imiwession.  Woley  needed  help,  (it 
be  was  beset  by  difficulties.  Mrs  Hawkins  and  Mrs  Wdik 
poisoned  Ihe  mind  of  Colonel  Oglethorpe  against  the  bnlbeis 
for  a  time.  Wesley's  attachment  to  Miaa  Hf^ey  also  led  U 
niucb  pain  and  dIiapp<dncmeDi.  All  this  fs  now  seen  mon 
dearly  in  the  itandard  edition  of  the  jBunul.  Weiley  was  > 
sliS  High  Churchman,  who  scrupulously  followed  eveiy  deltl 
o(  the  rubiica.  He  insisted  on  baptising  children  li^  tiine 
immersion,  and  refused  tiie  Communion  to  a  idous  GcnhBD 
because  be  bad  not  been  baptized  by  a 
eplscopally  ordained.  At  the  same  lime  be  « 
"  introducing  Into  the  church  and  savlc«  at  thi 
portions  ol  psalms  and  hymns  not  inspecud  o 
by  any  proper  judlcalun."  The  list  of  grievancea  presented 
by  Woley't  cnemiea  10  the  Grand  Juiy  at  Savannah  givs 
ibundani  evidence  o(  bis  unwearying  labours  for  his  flock.  Tbe 
foundatioD  of  bis  future  work  sa  the  fsiha  d(  Hethodbl  hymaody 
oas  laid  In  Georgia.  His  first  ColiaHtH  ij  Pialmt  and  Hymm 
(Charieslown,  t737)  tontains  five  of  bis  incoupar^e  Irusls- 
tions  (rem  the  German,  and  on  Us  telum  to  England  he  pub- 
lished another  CeHalien  in  IT3S,  with  five  more  translatiODi 
from  the  Gennan  and  one  from  tbe  Spanish.  In  April  1716 
Wedey  Conned  a  little  ladely  of  thirty  or  forty  of  tbe  -teriina 
menibeis  of  his  congrcgitieB.  H>  calls  tht*  the  second  rise  cf 
Melhoditm,  (he  first  bdng  at  Oiford  la  Novcnbei  1719.  Tbe 
{Dmpuiy  fn  Savannah  mel  Bveo'  Wednesday  evening  "  in  oid> 
lot  free  CODvenalion,  begun  and  ended  with  ttnghig  ud  prayer.' 
A  select  ccnnpany  of  these  met  at  the  panontge  on  SuMay 
afternoons.  In  1781  he  writes,"  lonnot  bat  obacrn  that  tboe 
were  the  first  mdimtnls  of  the  Uathodlst  todetiea." 

tn  the  presence  of  such  facta  m  can  underslaiid  tlia  dgnUcanc* 
of  the  mission  to  Geor^  Wesley  put  down  many  severe 
thmgs  against  himself  cm  the  Rtum  voyage,  and  he  ■■•  after- 
wudt  that  even  then  be  had  tbe  fUth  of  a  tervmt  tboogli  nrt 
tbu  of  a  ton.  In  London  he  met  Feter  BOhkr  who  had  been 
ordained  by  Snzcndoif  for  work  fa  Carolina.  By  BfUat 
Wesley  was  convbwBd  that  be  tailed  -  that  taftb  wbeidiy  akw 
we  are  savvd."  On  Wednesday,  itif  u,  I73S>  be  w«t  to  a 
BOdety  mccdng  In  Aldengate  Strsst  wfana  Lather't  JS^* 
Iflkt  Etbtle  It  lilt  Rtmam  ynt  fasiniread.    "AbsalaquoW 


jsla  who  had  b( 


ynSLEY,  JOHN 


before  nine,  while  be  was  describfog  ttie  change  which  God 
works  in  the  heart  through  fahb  in  Christ,  I  felt  my  heart 
strangely,  warmed.  I  felt  I  did  trust  in  Christ,  Christ  alone, 
for  salvation;  and  an  assurance  was  given  me  that  he  had 
taken  away  my  sins,  even  mine,  and  saved  me  from  the  law 
of  sin  and  death."  Mr  Lecky  points  out  the  significance  of  that 
event.  *'  It  is  scarcely  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  scene 
which  took  place  at  that  humble  meeting  in  Aldersgate  Street 
forms  an  epoch  in  English  history.  The  conviction  which  then 
flashed  upon  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  most  active  intellects 
fai  England  is  the  true  source  of  EngUsh  Methodism  "  {History 
of  England  in  Eighteenth  Century,  ii.  558). 
:  Wesley  spent  some  time  during  the  summer  of  1738  In  vidting 
the  Moravian  settlement  at  Hermhuth  and  returned  to  London 
on  September  x6, 1738,  with  his  ^th  greatly  strengthened.  He 
preached  in  all  the  churches  that  were  open  to  him,  spoke  in ' 
many  religious  societies,  visited  Newgate  and  the  Oxford  prisons. 
On  New  Year's  Day,  1739,  the  W^eys,  Whitefidd  and  other 
friends  had  a  Love  Feast  at  Fetter  Lane.  In  February  White- 
field  went  to  Bristol,  where  his  popularity  was  unbounded. 
When  the  churches  were  closed  against  hfm  he  spoke  to  the 
Kingswood  colliers  in  the  open  air,*  and  after  six  memorable 
weeks  wrote  urging  Wesley  to  come  and  take  up  the  work. 
Wesley  was  in  his  friend's  congregation  on  April  i,  but  says, 
"  I  could  scarcely  reconcile  myself  to  this  strange  way^of  preach- 
ing in  the  fields  . . .  having  been  all  my  life  (till  very  lately)  so 
tenacious  of  every  point  relating  to  decency  and  order,  that  I 
should  have  thought  the  saving  of  souls  almost  a  sin,  if  it  had 
not  been  done  in  a  church."  Next  day  Wesley  followed  WWte- 
field's  example.  His  fears  and  prejudices  mdted  away  as  he 
discerned  that  this  was  the  very  method  needed  for  reaching 
the  multitudes  living  in  almost  heathen  darkness.  He  already 
had  the  means  of  shepherding  those  who  were  impressed  by  the 
preadiing.  On  the  xst  of  May  1738  he  wrote  in  his  journal: 
**  This  evening  our  little  sodety  b^n,  which  afterwards  met 
in  Fetter  Lane."  Among  its  "  fundamental  rules  "  we  find  a 
provision  for  dividing  the  sodety  into  bands  of  five  or  ten 
persons  who  spoke  freely  and  plsdnly  to  each  other  as  to  the 
"  real  state  "  of  thdr  hearts.  The  bands  united  in  a  conference 
every  Wednesday  evening.  The  sodety  first  met  at  James 
Button's  shop, "  The  Bible  and  Sun,"  WHd  Street,  west  of  Temple 
Bar.  About  the  35th  of  September  it  moved  to  Fetter  Lane. 
Wesley  describes  this  as  the  third  beginning  of  Methodism. 
After  the  field  preaching  began  Converts  multiplied.  They 
found  an  the  world  against  them,  and  Wesley  advised  them  to 
strengthen  one  another  and  talk  together  as  often  as  they  conld. 
When  he  tried  to  visit  them  at  their  homes  he  found  Uie  task 
beyond  him,  and  therefore  invited  them  to  meet  him  on  Thursday 
evenings.  This  meeting  was  hdd  in  the  end  of  1739  at  the 
Foundery  hi  Moorfidds  which  Wesley  had  just  secured  as  a 
preaching  place.  Grave  disorders  had  arisen  in  the  sodety  at 
Fetter  Lane,  and  on  the  asth  of  July  1740  Wesley  withdrew 
from  it.  About  35  men  and  48  women  also  Idt  and  cast  in  thdr 
lot  with  the  sodety  at  the  Foundery.  The  centenary  of  Method- 
ism was  kept  in  1839,  a  hundred  years  alter  the  sodety  first  met 
at  the  Foundeiy. 

Wesley's  headquarters  at  Bristol  wen  in  the  Horse  Fair, 
where  a  room  was  built  in  May  1739  for  two  rdigious  sodeties 
which  had  been  accustomed  to  meet  in  Nicholas  Street  and 
Baldwin  Street.  To  meet  the  cost  of  this  Captain  Fox  suggested 
that  each  member  should  give  a  penny  per  week.  When  it 
was  urged  that  some  were  too  poor  to  do  this,  he  replied, "  Then 
put  deven  of  the  poorest  with  me;  and  if  they  can  give  anything, 
weQ:  I  will  call  on  them  weekly,  and  if  they  can  give  nothing 
1  win  give  for  tliem  as  weU  as  for  myself."  Others  foQowed 
his  example  and  were  caHed  leaders,  a  name  pven  as  eariy  as 
the  5th  of  November  1738  to  those  who  had  charge  of  the  bands 
hi  London.  Wesley  saw  that  here  was  the  very  means  hd 
needed  to  watch  over  his  fiock.  The  leaders  thus  became  a 
body  of  lay  pastors.  Those  under  their  care  formed  a  class. 
It  proved  more  convenient  to  meet  together  and  this  gave 
<^p(ntiznity  for  tdigions  oonversatiott  and  ptasrer.    As  the 


529 

sodety  bcreased  Wesley  found  it  needed  "  sUD  greater  care  to 
separate  the  precious  from  the  vile."  He  therefore  arranged  to 
meet  the  classes  himself  eveiy  quarter  and  gave  a  ticket  **  under 
his  own  hand  "  to  every  one  "  whose  seriousness  and  good 
conversation  "  he  foimd  no  reason  to  doubL  The  ticket  furnished 
an  easy  means  for  guarding  the  meetings  of  the  sodety  against 
intrusion.  "Bands"  were  formed  for  those  who  wish«i  for 
closer  communion.  Love^feasts  for  fcUowship  and  testimony 
were  also  introduced,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  primitive 
church.  Watcbnights  were  due  to  the  suggestion  of  a  Khigswood 
collier  in  174a  Wesley  issued  the  rules  of  the  united  sodeties 
in  February  1743.  Those  who  wished  to  enter  the  sodety  must 
have  "  a  desire  to  flee  from  the  wrath  to  come,  to  be  saved  from 
their  sins."  When  admitted  they  were  to  give  evidence  of  their 
dcdre  for  salvation  "  by  doing  no  harm;  by  doing  good  of  every 
possible  sort;  by  attending  upon  aU  the  means  of  grace."  It 
was  expected  that  all  who  could  do  so  would  contribute  the 
penny  a  week  suggested  in  Bristol,  and  give  a  shiUing  at  the 
renewal  of  their  quarteriy  ticket.  W^ey  had  at  first  to  take 
charge  of  the  contributions,  but  as  they  grew  larger  he  appointed 
stewards  to  receive  the  money,  to  pay  debts,  and  to  relieve  the 
needy.  The  memorable  arrangement  in  Bristol  was  made  a 
few  wedcs  before  Wesley's  field  of  labour  was  extended  to  the 
north  of  England  in  May  1743.  Ho  found  Newcastle  ripe  for  his 
message.  English  Christianity  seemed  to  have  no  power  to 
uplift  the  people.  Dram-drinking  was  spreading  like  an  epidemic. 
Freethinkers*  dubs  flourished.  *'  The  old  rclipon,"  Lecky  says, 
"seemed  everywhere  loosening  round  the  minds  of  men,  and 
indeed  it  had  often  no  great  influence  even  on  its  defenders." 
Some  of  the  clergy  in  country  parishes  were  devoted  workers, 
but  spedal  seal  was  resented  or  discouraged. 

The  doctrine  of  election  had  led  to  a  separation  between 
Whitefidd  and  the  Wesleys  in  1741.  Wesley  believed  that  the 
grace  of  God  could  transform  every  Hfe  that  received  it.  He 
preached  the  doctrine  of  consdous  acceptance  with  God  and 
daily  growth  in  hohness.  Victory  over  sin  was  the  goal  which 
he  set  before  aU  his  people.  He  made  his  appeal  to  the  conscience 
in  the  dearest  language,  with  the  most  cogent  argument,  and 
with  aU  the  wdght  of  personal  conviction.  Hearers  like  John 
Nelson  felt  as  thou^  every  word  was  aimed  at  themselves. 
No  preacher  of  the  century  had  this  mastery  over  his  audience. 
His  teaching  may  be  described  as  Evangeliol  Arminianism  and 
its  standards  are  his  own  foul:  volumes  of  sermons  and  his  Notes 
on  the  Nem  Testament. 

^  Up  tin  1743  Wesle3r's  work  was  chiefly  confined  to  London 
uid  Bristol,  with  the  adjacent  towns  and  vfflages  or  the  places 
which  lay  between  them.  On  his  way  to  Newcastle  that  year 
Wesley  visited  Birstal,  where  John  Nelson,  the  stone-mason,  had 
already  been  woxUng.  On  his  return  he  held  memorable 
services  in  the  churchyard  at  Epworth.  Methodism  this  year 
spread  out  from  Birstal  into  the  West  Riding.  Sodeties  were 
also  formed  in  Somerset,  WHts,  Gloucestershire,  Leicester, 
Warwickshire,  Nottinghamshire  aind  the  south  of  Yorkshire. 
In  the  summer  Chafes  Wesley  visited  Wednesbury,  Leeds  and 
Newcastle.  Next  year  he  took  ComwaU  by  storm.  The  work 
in  London  was  prospering.  In  1743  Wesley  secured  a  west-end 
centre  at  West  Street,  Seven  Dials,  which  for  fifty  years  had  a 
wonderful  history.  In  August  1747  Wesley  paid  ms  first  visit 
to  Irdaod,  where  he  had  such  success  Uiat  he  gave  more  than 
six  years  of  his  life  to  the  country  and  crossed  the  Irish  Channel 
forty-two  times.  Ireland  has  its  own  conference  presided  over 
by  a  ddegate  from  the  British  conference.  Wesley's  first  visit 
to  Scotland  was  in  x7$z.    He  paid  twenty-two  visits,  which 

stirred  up  aU  the  Scottish  churches. 

Sudi  extension  ct  his  fidd  would  have  been  {mpoeslble  had  not 
Wedey  been  hdped  by  a  heme  band  of  pceadusm.  Wedey  aays; 
"  Joiq)h  numphreys  was  the  first  lay  preacher  that  asdsted  me  ia 
England,  in  tte  year  1738."  That  was  probably  hdp  in  the  Fetter 
Lane  Sodety.  for  Wesley  then  had  no  preachuig  place  of  his  own. 


John  Cennicic,  the  hjrmn-writer  and  adioolmaater  at  Kingswood. 
oeiaD  to  neadi  there  in  1739.  Thosnaa  Maxwdl»  wlio  was  left  to 
meet  and  piav  with  the  members  at  the  Foundeiy  duriag  the 


abacra  of  tne  Wcdm,  began  to  preach.  Wcaley  humed  to  L^ondon 
to  dicbk  this  iitagaiarKy,  not  his  mother  urged  him  to  hear  Maxwdl 


530 


WESLEY,  8.— WESLEY,  S.  & 


for  himaelf,  and  he  aoon  saw  that  nidi  asdstaiioe  was  of  the  highcff 
value.  The  atttoMogfa|riiiea  oC  these  early  Methodist  preachers  are 
amoQK  the  daarics  of  die  Evanfelical  RevivaL  As  the  work  ad- 
vanced  Wesley  held  a  coofeKnce  at  the  Foundcry  in  1744.  Besides 
himself  and  his  brother,  four  other  derBymen  were  present  and  four 
'*  lay  brethren."  It  was  agreed  that  *^iay  aanstants  *'  were  allow- 
able, but  only  in  cases  of  necessitY.  This  necessity  grew  more  urgent 
every  year  as  MetbAdism  exteooed.  One  of  the  pieachers  in  eadi 
circuit  was  the  "  aasist^t."  who  had  general  oversight  of  the  work, 
the  others  were  "  hdpers."  The  conference  became  an  annual 
gathering  of  Wesley's  preachers.  In  the  early  conversations  doctrine 
took  a  prominent  jplace,  but  as  Methodism  spread  the  oversight  of 
its  growing  oiganuation  occupied  more  time  and  more  attention. 
In  rebruaxy  178^  Wesley's  deed,  of  declaration  gave  the  oonference 
a  Ittal  constitution.  He  named  one  hundred  preachers  who  after 
his  death  were  to  meet  onoe  a  year,  fill  up  vacaades  in  their  number, 
appoint  a  prendent  and  secretary,  sution  the  preachers,  admit 
proper  penons  into  the  ministry,  and  take  geneial  oversight  of  the 
societies.  In  October  1768,  a  Methotfist  chapel  was  opened  in  New 
York.'  At  the  conference  of  1769  two  preachers,  Richard  Boardman 
and  Joseph  PUmoor,  volunteered  to  go  out  to  take  charge  of  the 
work.  In  1771,  Francis  Asburyj  the  Wesley  of  America,  crossed  the 
Atlantic  Methodism  grew  rapidly,  and  it  became  essential  to  pro- 
vide its  people  with  the  sacraments.  In  September  1784  Wesley 
ordained  nis  clerical  hdper,  Dr  Coke,  superintendent  (or  bishop),  and 
instructed  him  to  ordain  Asbuiy  as  hb  colleague.  Richard  Whatcoat 
and  Thomas  Vasey  were  ordained  by  Wesley,  G>ke  And  Creightpn 
to  administer  the  sacraments  in  America.  Wesley  had  reached  the 
condusion  in  1746  that  bishops  and  presbyters  were  essentially  of 
one  order  (*e  Mbtuodism,  sect.  "  United  Sutes  "), 

He  told  his  brother  in  1785:  "  I  finnly  believe  tluLt  I  am  a 
scriptural  Mamtm  as  much  as  any  man  in  England  or  in  Europe; 
lor  the  uninterrupted  succession  I  know  to  be  a  fable,  which  no 
man  ever  did  or  can  prove."  Other  ordinations  for  the  admini- 
stration of  the  sacraments  in  Scotland,  the  colonies  and  England 
followed.  The  interests  of  his  work  stood  first  with  Wesley. 
He  did  everything  that  strong  words  against  separati<m  could 
do  to  bind  his  sodeties  to  the  Church  of  England;  be  also  did 
everything  that  legal  documents  and  ordinations  could  do  to 
secure  the  permanence  of  that  great  work  for  which  God  had 
raised  him  up.  In  the  words  of  Canon  Overton  and  Rev.  F.  H. 
Rdton  (Hiti,  of  Eng,  Ck.  1714-1800):  "  It  is  purdy  a  modem 
notion  that  the  Wedeyan  movement  ever  was,  or  ever  was  in- 
tended to  be,  except  by  Wesley,  a  church  movement."  Despite 
his  strong  sayings*  it  was  Wesley  who  broke  the  links  to  the 
churdi,  for,  as  Lord  Mansfidd  put  it, "  ordination  is  separation." 

Wedey's  account  of  his  itineraiuy  is  given  in  his  famous 
Journal,  of  which  the  first  part  aiqieared  about  1 739.  Mr  Birrell 
has  called  it  "  the  most  amazing  record  of  human  exertion  ever 
penned  by  man."  It  is  certainly  Wesley's  most  picturesque 
biography  and  the  most  vivid  account  of  the  evangelical  revival 
that  we  possess.  The  rapid  devdopment  of  his  work  made  a 
tremendous  strain  upon  Wesley's  powers.  He  generally  travelled 
about  5000  m.  a  year  and  preached  fifteen  sermons  a  week. 
He  had  constant  encounters  with  the  mob,  but  his  tact  and 
courage  never  failed.  His  rule  was  always  to  look  a  mob  in  the 
face.  Many  delicious  stories  are  told  of  his  presence  of  mind 
and  the  skilful  appeals  which  he  made  to  the  better  feeling  ol 
the  crowd. 

Wesley's  writings  did  much  to  open  the  e3res  of  candid  men 
to  hb  motives  and  hb  methods.  Beddes  the  incomparable 
Journalt  hb  Appeals  to  Men  of  Rtason  and  Religion  also  pro- 
duced an  extraordinary  e0ect  in  allaying  prejudice  and  winning 
respect.  He  constantly  sought  to  educate  hb  own  people. 
No  man  in  the  x8th  century  did  so  much  to  create  a  taste  for 
good  reading  and  to  supply  it  with  books  at  the  lowest  prices. 
Sir  Leslie  Stephen  pays  high  praise  to  Wedey's  writingSy  which 
went  "  straight  to  the  mark  without  one  superfluous  flourish." 
As  a  social  reformer  Wedey  was  far  in  advance  of  hb  time. 
He  provided  work  for  the  deserving  poor,  supplied  them  with 
clothes  and  food  in  seasons  of  special  distress.  The  profits  on 
hb  dieap  books  enabled  him  to  pve  away  as  much  as  £1400  a 
year.  He  established  a  lending  stock  to  help  struggling  businest 
men  and  did  much  to  relieve  debtors  who  bad  been  thrown  into 
prison.  He  opened  dispensaries  in  London  and  Bibtol  and  was 
keenly  intere^ed  in  medidae. 

Wesley's  supreme  gift  was  Us  genius  for  organization.    Bewas 


by  no  means  ignorant  of  this.    "Iknow  this  b  the  pecniiar  talent 

which  God  has  given  me."  Wesley's  special  power  lay  in  hb 
quickness  to  avail  himself  of  drcumstanoea  and  of  the  suggestiona 
made  by  those  about  him.  The  class-meeting,  the  love-feast, 
the  watch-night,  the  covenant  -service,  leaders,  stewards,  lay 
preachers,  all  were  the  fruit  of  thb  readiness  to  avail  himself 
of  suggestions  made  by  men  or  events.  Wesley  skilfully  wove 
these  into  hb  system,  and  kept  the  whole  machinery  moving 
harmonioudy.  He  in^ired  hb  preachers  and  hb  people  with 
hb  own  spirit  and  made  everything  subordinate  to  hb  over- 
mastering purpose,  the  spread  of  scriptural  holiness  throughout 
the  land. 

In  1 751  Wedey  married  Mary  Vazeille,  a  widow,  but  the  union 
was  unfortunate  and  she  finally  left  him.  John  Fletcher,  the 
vicar  of  Madeley,  to  whom  Wesley  had  turned  as  a  poBuble 
successor,  died  in  1785.  He  had  gone  to  Wedey's  hdp  at  West 
Street  after  hb  ordination  at  Whitehall  in  1757  and  had  been  one 
of  hb  chief  allies  ever  since.  He  was  bdoved  by  all  the  preachers, 
and  hb  Checks  to  Antinomiattism  show  that  he  was  a  courteoua 
controversialbt.  Chades  Wesley  died  three  years  after  Fletcher. 
During  the  last  three  years  of  hb  life  John  Wesley  reaped  the 
harvest  he  had  sown.  HoncMirs  were  lavbhed  upon  him.  Hit 
people  hailed  every  appearance  among  them  with  deli|(ht,  and 
hb  vidts  to  various  parts  of  the  country  were  public  holidays. 
Hb  interest  in  everything  about  him  continued  tmabated.  He 
had  a  wealth  of  happy  stories  which  made  him  the  most  delightful 
of  companions  in  the  homes  of  hb  people.  Robert  Southey  never 
forgot  how  Wesley  kissed  hb  little  sbter  and  put  hb  hand  on  hu 
heiui  and  blened  him.  Alexander  Knox  says,  "  So  fine  an  old 
man  I  never  saw  I  The  hairiness  of  hb  mind  beamed  forth  in 
hb  countenance.  Every  look  showed  how  fully  he  enjoyed 
'  The  gay  remembrance  of  a  life  well  q>ent.'  Wherever  Wedey 
went,  he  diflused  a  portion  of  hb  own  fdidty."  He  preached  his 
last  sermon  in  Mr  Bdson's  house  at  Leatherhead  on  Wednesday, 
the  23rd  of  Februaiy  x  791 ;  wrote  next  day  hb  last  letter  to  Wilb«r- 
force,  urging  him  to  carry  on  his  crusade  against  the  slave  fade; 
and  died  in  hb  house  at  Gty  Road  on  the  and  of  March  1791, 
in  hb  eighty-eighth  year.  He  was  buried  on  the  9th  of  March 
in  the  graveyard  behind  City  Road  chapeL  Hb  kmg  life  enabled 
him  to  perfect  the  organization  of  Methodism  and  to  inquire  hb 
preachers  and  people  with  hb  own  ideab,  while  he  had  con- 
quered oppodtion  by  unwearying  patience  and  by  dose  adherence 
to  the  prindples  which  he  sought  to  teach. 

See  also  Mbthodism.  and  the  artides  on  the  separate  Methodist 
bodies;  see  also  Wesley  Family.  (J.  T.*) 

WESLEY,  SAMUEL  (1766-1857),  English  mudcal  composer, 
son  of  Charles  Wedey  (see  above),  was  bom  at  Bristol  on  the 
24th  of  February  1766,  and  developed  so  precodous  a  talent 
for  mudc  that  at  three  years  old  he  played  the  organ  and  at 
eight  composed  an  oratorio  entitled  Ruih^  fact  which  b  duly 
chronided  on  a  curious  portrait,  painted  in  1774,  and  afterwards 
engraved,  wherdn  he  b  represented  in  the  childish  costume 
of  the  period.  Though  suffering  for  many  years  from  an*acci- 
dental  injury  to  the  brain,  Wesley  was  long  regarded  as  the  moat 
brilliant  organbt  and  the  most  accomplished  extempore  fugue- 
player  in  England.  He  may  indeed  be  regarded  as  the  father  of 
modem  organ-ph^ring/  for  he  it  was  who,  aided  by  hb  friends 
Benjamin  Jacob  and  C.  T.  Horn,  first  introduced  the  works  of 
Sebastian  Bach  to  English  organists,  not  only  by  hb  superb 
playing,  but  by  editing  with  Horn,  in  x8xo,  the  first  copy  of 
Das  wokltemperirte  Clavier  ever  printed  in  England.  Woley'a 
last  performance  took  place  on  the  x  2th  of  September  1837  at 
Christ  Church,  Newgate  Street,  London,  where,  after  hearing  the 
wonderful  performances  of  Mendelssohn,  he  was  himself  induced 
to  play  an  extempore  fugue.  He  died  on  the  xxth  of  October 
1837,  leaving  a  vast  number  of  MS.  and  printed  compodtions. 

Hb  brother  Charles  (x 757-181 5)  was  also  an  accom- 
plished organbt,  and  still  more  famous  was  hb  son,  ^amud 
Sebastian  (g.t.).  

WESUBY,,  SAMUEL  SEBASTIAN  (x8xo-x876),  Englbh  com- 
poser and  organbt,  natural  son  oi  Samud.  Wed^,  the  eminent 
composer,  was  bora  in  Landon  on  the  14th  of  August  iSxa    He 


WESLEYAN  M£THCH>IST  CHURCH 


S3X 


was  one  of  the  C3iilifaeii  of  the  Chapel  Ro/bI  frmi  1819,  held 
vaxiouf  cumnportaxit  posts  as  organist  from  the  age  of  fifteen, 
and  in  1832  was  appointed  to  Hereford  Cathedral.  His  career 
as  acomposer  began  with hissplendid  anthem,  *'  The  Wfldemess/' 
iriiich  was  ptobaUy  written  for  the  opening  of  the  Hereford  organ 
in  that  year.  In  1834  it  fell  to  Um  to  conduct  the  Festival  of  the 
Three  Choiis,  and  in  the  following  year  be  resigned  Hereford 
for  Eieter  Cathedral;  and  during  the  next  atz  years  his  name 
became  grai&ally  more  and  more  widely  known.  In  1849 
Dr  Hooky  afterwards  (kan  of  Chichester,  offered  him  a  large 
salary  to  become  organist  of  Leeds  parish  church,  and  at  Leeds 
much  of  his  finest  work  as  a  composer  was  done.  In  1849  be 
quitted  tips  post  for  Winchester,  In  order  to  secure  educational 
advantages  for  his  sons.  He  was  at  Winchester  tmtil  1865, 
when  he  ofieosd  himself  aa  a  candidaU  for  Gloucester  Cathedral, 
the  last  of  fab  many  posts.  He  again  conducted  the  Three  Choim 
Festivals  of  1865, 1868, 1871  and  1874.  A  dvil  list  pension  of 
£100  a  year  was  conferred  on  him  in  1873;  he  died  at  Gloucester 
on  the  19th  of  April  1876,  and  was  buried  at  £zeter. 

Like  Ins  father  he  waan  very  eceentric  man,  but  his  compositions 
■how  powers  that  are  fbood  in  very  few  Engli^miea  of  his  date.  If 
the  list  of  his  eompositions  is  smaller  than  that  of  hia  father's,  it 
must  be  mnenibei«i  that  his  aathems*.  in  which  is  contained  his 
best  work,  are  far  more  important  and  mora  extensive  than  most 
comporitJons  so  ealled;  in  many  of  them  the  whole  anthem  is  no 
kynger  sung,  but  even  the  selections  from  them  make  up  anthems  of 
ordinary  length.  They  aife  masterly  in  design,  fine  in  inspintion 
and  exprtssion,  and  noble  in  chamcter.  His  "  BLesMd  be  the  God 
and  Father.  "^  The  WOdemess, "  already  mrmioanrl. "  Ascribe  unto 
the  Lord,  **  '*  O  Lord,  Thou  art  mv  Cod.  "  and  many  othcn^  are 
masterpieces  in  thdr  way,  and  in  all  of  these;  as  in  the  service  m  E, 
publiahed  with  a  rather  trenchant  preface  in  1845,  there  is  a  happy 
combination  of  the  modem  resomrcs  of  hanoony  with  the  digmned 
cathedral  stytej  a  combination  which  naturally  alarmed  the  orthodoa 
party  of  his  tmie. 

WESLE71H  HETHOnST  CHURCH*  one  of  the  chief  branches 
of  Methodism  (^.r.).  On  the  day  of  John  Wesley's  death  the 
preachers  in  London  sent  a  btief  note  to  those  stationed  in  the 
country:  "  Dear  Brother,  The  mehmcholy  period  we  have  so 
long  dreaded  is  now  arrived.  Our  aged  and  honoured  Father, 
Mr  Wie^ey,  is  no  morel  He  was  taken  to  Paradise  this  morning. 
In  a  g^k>rions  manner,  after  a  sirknwa  of  five  days^  We  have 
not  time  to  say  more  at  present  relative  to  his  Demise.  Only 
what  respects  out  future  Oeconomy.  This  injunction  he  laid 
upon  us,  and  all  our  Brethren  on  his  death-bed,  That  we  each 
continue  in  our  respective  Station  till  the  time  appointed  for  the 
next  Conference  at  Manchester.  We  have,  thoefbre,  no  doubt 
but  you  will,  with  us,  readily  comply  with  his  Dsrtng  ftequest. 
The  more  so,  aa  thia  is  consonant  with  the  determination  of  the 
Conference  held  at  Bristol  when  he  was  supposed  to  be  near 
death  there,  and  confirmed  in  succeeding  CbnJEerenoea." 

In  1790  there  were  294  preachers  and  71,668  members  in 
Great  Britain,  19  missionaries  and  5300  members  on  the  mission 
stations;  198  preachers  and  43f36$  members  in  the  United 
States.  The  6th  of  April  was  kept  aa  «  day  of  fasting  and 
prayer,  and  the  xst  of  July  was  thus  set  apart  in  order  to  seek 
divine  guidance  for  the  approaching  conference.  The  crisis 
was  serious.  The  large  proportion  of  Wesley's  members  had  been 
gathered  by  the  labours  of  himself  and  his  helpers.  They  had 
been  taught  to  observe  the  sacraments  and  naturally  desired 
that  provision  should  be  made  for  their  administration  in  their 
own  chapels.  Some  felt  that  they  could  not  go  to  the  Lord's 
Table  where  the  clergyman  was  a  worldly  man;  others  went, 
but  with  much  fear  and  doubt  The  Church  party  was  in- 
fluential and  resolute  to  maintain  close  relations  trith  the 
Church  of  England.  Their  object  was  to  prevent  Methodism 
becoming  independent.  There  was  also  a  small  bat  determined 
party  that  leaned  to  dissent.  The  struggle  between  these  con- 
flicting tendencies  soon  began.  On  the  30th  of  March  1791 
nine  preaciien  sent  out  the  famous  Halifax  circular  making 
suggestions  as  to  the  choice  of  president  and  other  matters  that 
must  come  before  the  conference.  The  first  signature  to  this 
circular  was  that  of  William  Thompson  who  was  afterwards 
elected  as  the  first  president.  On  the  4th  of  May  eighteen  lay- 
at  H«0  and  eniMnd  tiMir  cwvictiMi  that  the  uaefia- 


nssB  of  Methodism  wbuld  be  peoaoted  by  its  ceatimipd  oob- 
neadott  with  the  Church  of  England.  They  would  not  consent  to 
the  adminfstzatien  of  the  ssnamrntt  by  .the  preachen  in  Hull, 
nor  to  Methodist  preaching  at  the  time  when  aervioes  wen  held 
in  church.  A  trendhant  reply  to  this  ciiciilar  was  prepaind  by 
Alexander  Oham  (q^.),  one  of  the  yoimfer  Methodist  rrrinrhcn 
The  conference  met  in  Mancfaeitcr  on  the  s6th  of  Joly  1791. 
A  letter  from  Wealcy  (dated  Cheater,  April  7*  1785)  was  read, 
beseeching  the  membem  of  the  Legal  Conference  not  to  use  thdr 
powers  ior  aeliish  ends  but  to  be  absolntely  in^Mitial  in  stntioB- 
mr  the-preadKD,  selecting  boys  for  education  at  Xjnfnrood 
School,  and  disnoaing  of  mnnririanai  funds.    The  oonfeienoe 


at  once  leaolved  that  all  privilofcs  oonfened  by  Wesl^s  Poll 
Deed  ahoold  be  ncoorded  to  every  preacher  in  full  oonnenoni 
lb  anpply  the  lack  of  Wesley's  snpervisiQn  the  dicuits  wen 
now  groqwd  together  in  distdcts.  At  first  the  preachers  of 
the  dktrict  elected  their  own  rhairman,  but  they  were  aftei^ 
wards  appointed  by  the /oonfecenoe.  Regulations  as  to  its 
bwiiroes  were  tssaed  in  1819.  As  to  the  sannmsnts  and  the 
relations  of  Methodam  to  the  Chvdi  of  Fnghnd  the  dedsioo 
was: "  Wo  engage  to  foBow  atcklly  the  plan  which  Mr  Weal^ 
left  OS."  TUa  was  amfajgnoua  arid  was  intecpreted  variously. 
Some  held  that  It  kocbade  the  adminntrntien  of  the  aaoaments 
except  where  they  wen  absady  penaitted;  othon  maintained 
that  it  left  Methodism  free  to  foUow  the  ieadings  «f  Ffeovidenoe 
as  Wnl^  had  always  done.  Daring  the  year  the  diflknilfiea 
el  the  aituatloo  beame  more  apparent.  Wealcy  had  given 
the  sacnunent  to  the  oecietieB  wlMn  he'viBited  thsni  and  thia 
privilege  was  giently  aoBsaed.  The  wwfrrfiuT  of  1792  waa  so 
much  peipleaed  that  it  resorted  to  the  casting  of  ktBi  The 
decision  was  thus  reached  that  the  sacraments  shonkl  net  be 
administered  that  year.  Thia  was  really  ahelvinff  the  question, 
hut  it  gave  time  foropinion  toi^pen,  nndin  179}  it  was  resolved 


by  a  Urge  majotity  thnt  **  the  aodetieashoaki  have  the ; 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  where  they  unanhnoosly  desmed  It.**  In 
1794,  this  privilege  was  dcfinitdy  granted  to  nine^three 
sodetiee.  The  feeling  hi  Bristol  was  very  strong.  The  trustees 
of  Broadmcnd,  who  were  oppoaed  to  the  ndminfurratinn  of  the 
sacrament  by  the  preachers,  fiochode  Henry  Moose  to  occupy 
that  pidplt*  Needy  the  whole  society  thereupon  withdrew 
to  Portland ChapeL  The  conference  of  1795  had  todeal  with 
this  controversy.  It  prepared  s  "  Pbn  of  Pacification  "  which 
was  approved  by  the  conference  and  by  an  aasenhly  of  trustees, 
and  was  welcomed  by  thesodeties.  The Lord'sSupper,baptiim, 
the  burial  of  the  dead  and  service  in  chnrdk  houn  were  not  to 
be  conducted  by  the  preachen  unksa  a  majority  of  the  trastees, 
stewards  and  leaders  oS  any  chapel  approved,  and  aaannd  the 
conference  tihat  no  separation  was  likely  to  ensue.  The  coasait 
of  conferenM  had  to  be  given  before  any  change  was  msde. 

In  1796,  Alexander  Kilham,  who  refused  to  abstain  from 
agitation  for  further  reform,  and  acnispd  hia  brethren  of  priest- 
craft, was  expelled  from  their  ranks  and  the  Kew  Cotmexidi 
was  formed  with  5000  memben  (see  Methodist  New  Con- 
nexion). The  conference  of  1797  set  itself  to  remove  any 
ground  for  distrust  among  the  societies  and  to  enlist  thmr 
hearty  support  in  all  branches  of  the  woric  Annual  accounts 
were  to  be  published  of  varioua  funds.  The  Curcuit  Quarterly 
Meeting  had  to  i4>prove  the  arrangementa  for  the  support  of 
the  preachers.  The  preachers  had  long  been  accustomed  to 
consult  the  leader^  meetings  of  their  societies,  but  It  was  now 
clearly  decided  that  stewards  and  leaders  should  be  appointed 
in  connexion  with  the  leaden'  meeting,  and  certain  ii|^ts  were 
granted  Co  that  meethtg  as  to  the  sdmiwion  snd  expulsion  of 
members.  Lookl  preachen  had  to  be  accepted  by  the  local 
preachers'  meeting,  and  the  powen  of  trustees  of  chapels  were 
considerably  extended.  The  oonatitution  of  Methodism  thus 
practically  took  the  shape  which  it  retahied  tUl  the  admisBion 
of  lay  representatives  to  conference  in  1878.  No  period  in  the 
history  of  Methodism  was  more  critical  than  this,  and  in  none 
was  the  prudence  and  good  sense  of  its  leaden  mow  conspicuous. 
Advance  was  quietly  made  along  the  lines  now  fadd  down.  The 
preachen  had  agreed  in  1793  ^^  *^  distinction  between  thole 


532 


WESLEYAN  METHODIST  CHURCH 


trbom  Wcdey  had  oidaiiied  and  thdr  biethien  tbotild  ceue. 
Ih  the  mlnrotes  of  conference  for  z8i8  "  Rev."  appeait  before 
the  name*  of  preodien  who  were  members  of  the  Miwionary 
Committee.  Jabes  Banting  {q.v.),  who  had  become  the  ao* 
knowledfed  kader  of  the  oonferenoe,  wished  to  have  its  young 
ministers  set  apart  by  the  imposition  of  bands,  but  this  scriptural 
custom  was  not  introduced  till  1836. 

'  MeanwhUe,  Methodism  was  growing  into  a  great  missumary 
drarch.  Its  work  in  the  West  Indiis  waa  finnly  establidied 
in  Wesley's  lifetime.  In  X786  eleven  hundred  negroes  were 
membera  of  the  society  in  Antigua.  The  burden  of  superin« 
tending  these  missions  and  providing  funds  for  their  support 
tested  on  Dt  Coke,  who  took  his  place  as  the  missionary  bishop 
of  Methodism.  In  18x3  he  prevailed  on  the  conference  to 
sanction  a  mission  to  Ceykm.  He'ssHed  with  six  TninnoBaries 
on  the  30th  of  December,  but  died  in  the  loUowing  May  in  the 
Indian  Ocean.  To  meet  these  new  responsihiiitirs  a  biandi 
Missionaiy  Society  had  been  formed  in  Leeds  in  October  1813, 
and  others  soon  q>rang  up  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
The  Centenary  of  the  Missionary  Society  falls  in  1913,  but 
Methodii*  Missions  really  date  from  1786  when  Dr  Coke  landed 
at  Antigua.  The  area  of  operations  grsduid^  extended. 
Missions  werebegun  in  Madras,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in 
Australia,  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  Two  missionaries 
were  sent  to  the  Friendly  Islands  in  r836,  and  in  1835  a  misnoin 
was  undertaken  among  the  mmiihah  of  Fijif  whkb  spread  and 
deepened  till  the  whole  group  of  islands  was  transfonned.  The 
work  in  Ouna  begstf  in  1831;  the  Bikrma  mission  was  estab- 
lished in  1887.  The  npkl  progress  of  the  Tkansvaal  and  Swazi- 
land missions  has  been  almost  embatraasiag.  The  Missionary 
Jubilee  in  1863-1868  srielded  £179,000  foi  the  work  abroad. 
As  the  growth  of  the  missions  permitted  oonferences  have  been 
formed  in  various  countries.  Upper  Canada  had  its  conference 
in  1834,  Fiance  in  1852,  Australia  in  X855,  South  A^ca  in  1883. 
The  missionary  revival  which  marked  the  Nottingham  Con- 
ference of  X906  ({uickeDed  the  interest  at  home  and  abroad 
and  the  Foreign  Field  (monthly)  is  prominent  among  missionary 
periodicals.  The  Women's  Auxiliary,  founded  in  1858,  kept 
its  Jubilee  in  1908.  It  supports  schools  and  medical  mimions, 
homes  and  orphanages.  In  1828  the  erection  of  an  organ  in 
Branswick  Chapel,  Leeds,  led  to  a  vident  agitation  and  a  small 
body  of  "  Protestant  Methodists  "  wss  formed.  A  more  formid- 
able division  was  led  by  Dr  Wsrren,  a  preacher  of  ability  and 
influence,  who  was  disappointed  because  no  place  was  found 
for  him  in  the  newiy-lormed  Theologies  Institution.  He  txied 
to  awaken  general  opposition  to  the  Institution  scheme,  and 
being  sagpetkdiBd  from  his  office  as  superintendent  by  a  special 
district  meeting,  appealed  to  the  law  courts,  whidi  sustained 
the  actioa  of  the  district  meeting.  He  was  expelled  from  the 
conference  and  joined  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Association  in 
1836,  but  shortly  afterwards  becune  a  deigyman  in  Manchester. 
In  his  first  conference  in  1744  Wesley  asked,  "  Can  we  have  a 
seminary  for  labourers?"  The  answer  was!  "If  God  spare 
us  to  another  Conference."  Next  year  the  subjea  was  broached 
with  the  reply:  "  Not  tiU  God  give  us  a  proper  tutor."  The 
idea  was  not  realized  in  his  lifetime,  but  Wesley  did  evexythiog 
in  his  power  to  train  his  preachers.  He  gathered  them  together 
and  rnd  with  them  as  he  had  done  with  his  pupils  at  Oxford; 
he  urged  them  .to  spend  at  least  five  hours  a  day  in  reading 
the  best  books.  He  made  this  challenge,  **  I  will  give  each  of 
you,  as  frst  as  you  will  read  them,  books  to  the  value  of  £5."  In 
1834  Hoxtoai  Academy  was  taken  as  a  training  place  for  ministers; 
and  in  1839  thestudeixts  moved  to  Abney  Howe,  Stoke  Newing- 
Coo.  Didsbury  College  was  opened  in  1849,  Richmond  in  1843. 
Headiagley  was  added  in  1868,  Handsworth  in  i88r. 

The  Centenary  of  Methodism  was  odcbiated  in  1839  and  £S2i,939 
was  raised  as  a  thank-offering:  £71,609  was  devoted  to  the  colleges 
at  Didsbury  and  Richmond;  £70,000  was  given  to  the  missionary 
society,  which  spent  £^Q.ooo  on  the  site  and  building  of  a  mission- 
house  in  Bishopsrate  Within;  £38,000  was  act  apart  for  the  removal 
of  chapel  debts,  ftc. 

Methodism  was  now  feoogniaed  as  one  of  the  great  moral  and 

Siritual  forces  of  the  world.    Its  progresa  was  rapid,  but  in  1849 
ere  came  a  disastrous  check    There  was  moA  jealousy  of  Dr 


Bunting,  the  naetcr  mind  of  Methodism,  to  whose  foresight  and 
wisdom  lari^  part  of  its  success  was  due.  Fly-sheeU  were  issued 
attacking  hun  and  other  eminent  ministers.  James  Everett,  Samud 
Dunn  and  William  Griffith  were  expelled  from  the  ministiy,  and  aa 
agitation  bspa  which  nJibed  Wesleyaa  Methodism  off  100,000 
OMmben.  Those  who  now  left  the  Connodoa  joined- the  refonncta 
ofi&tSand  1 836  and  formed  the  Methodist  Free  Churches.  In  185a 
the  constitution  of  the  Quarterly  Meeting  was  deariy  defiiMd,  and 
the  June  Quarteriy  Meeting  obtained  tne  ri|[ht  to  approach  con- 
ference with  mrmnrials.  Various  other  provisions  were  made  which 
increased  oonfideooe.  It  was  not  till  1856  that  the  Connrrion  began 
to  recover  from  the  loss  caused  by  this  agitation. 

Methodism  bgpm  its  work  for  popular  education  in  a  very  modest 
way.  In  1837  it  had  nine  infant  schools  and  twenty-two  schools 
for  ddcr  children.  A  giant  of  £5000  was  made  from  tne  Centenary 
Fund  for  the  proviaioo  of  Wc4eyan  day-echools.  The  oonfereace 
of  1843  directed  that  greater  attention  must  be  given  to  this  de> 
partment,  and  a  committee  met  in  the  following  October  whidi 
resolved  that  700  achools  shouhl  be  established  if  possible  within  the 
next  seven  yean,  aad  an  Education  Fund  laised  of  £S000  a  year. 
In  1849  the  Normal  Training  College  for  the  education  of  «day- 
school  teachers  was  opened  in  Westminster,  and  in  x87i  a  second 
ooUe^  was  opened  in  Battersea  for  school-mistresses.  Westminster 
provides  for  I30  and  Southhmds  for  lio  studentSi  They  supply 
teachers  not  only  for  Wesleyan,  but  for  oouodl  sdiools  all  over  the 
country,  and  no  colleges  have  a  hkher  reputation.  Boidcs  its  dayw 
schools,  Methodism  possesses  the  Leys  Sdvx)!  at  Cambridge,  Rydal 
Mount  at  Colwyn  Bay  and  prosperous  boardiog-echools  for  boys 
and  girls  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 

Metbodiam  hw  from  the  beginning  done  mudi  work  in  the  army. 
Dr  William  Harris  Rule  (1800-1890).  who  was  aopointed  chu>lain  at 
Gibraltar  in  1832,  won  for  it  fuller  recognition  irom  the  authorities. 
Charies  H.  Kd&,  his  coUcague  at  AMcfshot,  and  R.  W.  Allen  had 
a  large  share  in  the  strugsle  by  which  Methodist  work  both  in  the 
army  and  the  navy  was  Mveloped.  Capimtaon  grants  have  made 
it  possible  to  ofganue  the  work  at  every  station  at  nooieand  abroad. 
No  homes  for  soldiers  aad  sailors  are  more  efficient  or  better  liked 
by  the  men.  The  service  done  by  Methodist  chaplains  in  war  time^ 
and  especially  in  the  Boer  War,  won  the  warmest  recognition  from 
the  authorities. 

In  1878,  laymen  were  intvoduced  into  the  Wesleyan  conference. 
They  had  been  members  of  the  committee  appointed  in  1803  to 
"  guaid  our  privileges  in  these  periloos  times,  '*  and  had  gradually 
taken  their  place  on  the  missionary  aad  other  oommitteesu  Circuit 
stewards  had  attended  the  district  meetings  before  1817  but  in  that 

Sar  their  right  to  attend  was  establishea.  The  Financial  District 
eeting  of  which  they  were  members  was  created  in  1819  and  the 
financial  buriness  of  each  district  soon  came  under  its  controL  Out 
of  the  Annual  Home  Miasioimry  gathering  qnang  a  system  of 
committees  of  rei^w  which,  in  1652,  James  H.  Rjgg  suggested 
might  be  enlarged  and  combined  into  a  kind  of  diet  composed  of 
ministers  and  laymen  who  should  consider  reports  from  the  various 
departments,  llie  time  was  not  ripe  for  sudi  a  scheme,  but  in  1861 
the  prindple  of  direct  representation  was  introduced  into  the  com* 
mittees  01  review.  The  Riepreaentative  Session  which  met  in  1878 
consisted  of  240  ministers  and  240  laymen.  The  Pastoral  Sesrion  of 
ministers  met  first  to  deal  with  pastoral  affairs.  In  1891  the  Repre- 
sentative  Session  was  sandwicned  between  the  two  parts  of  the 
Pastoral  Session.   In  1898  it  met  first  and  its  numbers  were  enlar^ 


stewards.  The  great  advance  in  oiganiation  made  with  audi  peace 
and  KOodwfll  was  commemorated  in  1878  by  the  Thanksgiving  r  und 
which  reached  £297.500.  Dr  Rigg,  the  prerident  of  that  year,  nit 
all  his  strength  into  the  movement,  and  evory  department  of  Methodist 
work  at  home  and  abroad  shared  in  the  benefits  of  the  fund. 

The  Forward  Movement  in  Methodism  dates  from  that  period. 
A  bolder  policy  won  favour.  Methodism  tealixed  its  strength  and 
its  obligationsL  In  1885  the  Rev.  S.  F.  Collier  was  appointed  tQ 
Mandiestcr  and  the  Rev.  Peter  Thompson  was  sent  to  work  in  the 
East  End.  Next  year  the  Revs.  Hu^ h  Price  Hughes  and  Mark  Guy 
Peane  began  the  West  London  Mission.  Every  succeeding  year  lun 
witnessed  development  and  growth.  Large  mission-halls  have 
been  built  in  the  principal  towns  of  Englandt  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
Cttax  oongregataons  have  been  gathered,  ana  the  work  done  for  up. 
lifting  the  faSen  and  outcast  has  earned  the  gratitude  of  all  gocd 
men.  The  Manchester  misdon  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  glories  of 
that  dty.  The  Forward  Movement  will  always  be  associated  with 
the  name  of  Hugh  Price  Hughes  (f.s.).  Village  Methodism  shared 
in  the  quickening  which  the  Forward  Movement  brought  to  the 
large  towns.  Chapels  which  had  been  dosed  were  reopened;  an 
entrance  was  found  into  many  new  villages.  Weak  drcuita  were 
grouped  together  and  gained  fresh  energy  and  hope  by  the  union. 

No  work  has  been  dearer  to  Metbodistt  than  that  of  the  National 
Children's  Homeand  Orphanage  founded  by  Dr  Bowman  Stephenson 
in  18^  Its  headquarters  are  In  Bethnal  Green,  but  It  has  branches 
in  various  parts  of  the  country  and  an  emigmtion  depttt  in  Canada. 
It  cares  not  only  for  waifs  and  strays,  but  for  Cripples  awl  ddiosiS 


WESSEL 


533 


and  tlie  reformatofy  school  has  done  splendid  service  for  lads  who 
have  oommkted  a  first  offence.  Dr  A.  E.  Giegoiy,  who  in  1900 
succeeded  Or  Stephenson,  has  seen  lemarlcable  pnwress  in  alt  de- 
partmeots  of  the  great  institution  under  his  care.  Sisters  of  the 
People  "  and  deaconesses,  for  whom  there  is  a  training  home  at 
llkley,  founded  by  Dr  Stephenson  in  1903,  have  also  done  much  to 
bdp  in  thaw  modem  devefoptnents  of  Methodism. 

The  Chapel  Conuntttee.  which  has  its  headquarters  in  Manchester, 
has  general  oversight  of  9070  trusts  with  propcrtv  valued  at  about 
twenty-five  mitlions.  The  number  of  Methodist  chapels  in  1818  was 
2000:  in  1839,  3500;  in  1910,  8606.  The  sitting  increased  from 
a  million  in  1851  to  about  3,375.000  In  1910.  The  outlay  on  trust 
property  in  that  period  was  more  than  fifteen  millions.  Debts 
amountiiMj  to  £3,366,013  have  been  paid  off  since  1854  Mace  than 
half  a  million  has  been  advanced  in  loans  and  of  this  nothing  has 
been  tost.  In  1907  and  1908  £1,2^3,283  was  spent  on  trust  property, 
and  of  this  £892,114  was  oontnbuted.  London  Methodism  owes 
more  than  can  be  tdid  to  the  Metropolitan  Chapel  Buildins  Fund 
which  was  founded  in  1861.  The  names  of  the  Rev.  William  Arthur, 
Sir  Francis  Lycctt,  Sir  W.  McArthur,  will  always  be  associated  with 
this  fund  which  has  promoted  the  erection  of  some  hundred  new 
chapels.  The  Extension  Fund,  established  in  1874.  lately  by  the 
help  of  Sir  Francis  LycetC  and  Mr  Mewbum.  has  done  simiiar  work 
for  country  towns  and  viUagesi  About  two  thousand  chapels  have 
been  assisted  with  gvants  and  loans.  Simitar  work  lias  biieen  done 
in  Scotland  by  a  fund  established  in  1878.  North  and  South  Wales 
also  liave  their  Chapel  Funds.  A  secretary  and  committee  were 
appointed  in  1910  to  carry  out  various  developments  of  work  in 
London.  -The  work  of  the  Metropolitan  Chapd  Bailding  Fund  mad 
the  London  Mission  is  taken  over  by  this.new  committee. 

John  Wesley  felt  a  lively  interest  in  the  Sunday  schools  which 
began  to  spring  up  all  over  England  in  the  last  years  of  his  life. 
The  first  rules  for  the  management  of  Methodist  Sunday  schools  were 
issued  by  the  Confetencc  in  1827.  I  n  1837  there  wcve  3339  Methodbt 
Sunday  schools  with  S9«297  teachers  aod  341.443  scholars.  A 
quarter  of  the  preaching  places,  however,  had  no  schools.  The 
Education  Committee  was  formed  in  1838  to  lake  oversight  of  the 
work  in  day  and  Sunday  schools.  The  Methodist  Sunday  School 
Union,  founded  in  1873,  was  formed  into  a  department  in  1907  and  is 
doing  much  to  guide  and  develop  ttie  work.  The  Temperance  Com- 
mittee was  formed  in  187^;  a  temperance  secretary  was  set  apart 
in  1890.  The  department  has  its  monthly  organ  and  has  its  offices 
in  Westminster.  The  Wesley  Guild  Movement,  established  in  1901, 
has  its  headquarters  in  Loeds  and  is  doing  a  great  work  for  the 
young  people  of  Methodism. 

The  centenary  of  ^Wesley's  death  was  kept  in  1891.  Memorable 
services  were  held  in  City  Road  Chapel,  which  was  restored  and 
rendered  more  worthy  of  its  historic  position.    Wesley's  statue  was 

Ebced  in  the  forecourt.  In  1898  the  rooms  in  Weskry's  house,  where 
e  studied  and  where  he  died,  were  set  apart  as  a  Methodist  Museum. 
The  first  Methodist  Oecumenical  Conference  was  held  in  London  in 
1881,  the  second  in  Washington  in  1891,  the  third  in  London  in  1901 , 
the  fourth  being  fixed  for  Toronto  in  191 1.  The  Methodist  Assembly 
which  met  in  Wesley's  Chapel,  London,  in  1909  brought  the  branches 
of  British  Methodism  together  with  good  resutts.  A  considerable 
extension  of  the  thrse  years'  term  has  been  secured  in  certain  cases 
by  a  legal  device  for  escaping  the  provisions  of  the  eleventh  clause 
of  Wesley's  Deed  Poll,  but  some  more  satisfactory  method  of  dealing 
with  the  subject  is  under  consideration. 

The  great  event  of  recent  Methodist  history  was  the  Twentieth 
Century  Fund  inaugureted  by  Sir  Robert  W.  Perks  in  1898.  To 
hia  unwearying  zeal  and  business  ability  the  triumph  secured  was 
chiefly  due.  The  Rev.  Albert  Clayton,  the  secretary  of  the  fund, 
lavished  his  strength  on  his  vast  task  and  the  total  income  exceeded 


>n8.  £96^873:  Children's  Home,  £48,436.  The  Royal 
Aquarium  at  Westminster  was  purchased  and  a  central  hall  and 
church  house  as  the  headquarters  of  Methodism  erected.  For  this 
Inject  £243,306  was  set  apart. 

BiBLiocaArar.— £«siei  of  Waky,  Hampson  (1791),  Coke  and 
Moore  079')i  Whitehead  (i 793-1 796),  R.  Southey  (l8ao),  Moore 
(r834),Walton  (1831),  Overton  (189  O.Wedgwood  (1870),  L.  Tyerman 
(1870),  Uliivre  (1868,  1900),  jf.  Telford  (1886, 1899),  W.  H.  Filchett 
(1906),  Winchester  (1906). 

Histories  of  Methodism. — Dr  George  Smith,  Dr  Abet  Stevens. 

i.  Telford,  W.  J.  Townsend,  H.  B.  Workman  and  G.  Eayfrs.  A  New 
fistory  of  Methodism  (1909);  Poetical  Works  of  J.  and  C.  WtsUy, 
Wesley's  Works  (1771-1774,  1809-1813;  ed,  Benson,  1829-1831: 
ed.  Jackson  1856-1862).  standard  ed.  of  Wesley's  Journal  (cd. 
N.  Cumock,  1910):  Cambridge  Modem  History,  vol.  vi.;  Luke 
Tyerman,  Lift  ofGeorgie  Wkitefieid  (1876) ;  J.  K.  Overton,  The  Endtsk 
church  in  tie  Eigkternih  Century;  \.  H.  Overton  and  F.  Relton. 
The  En^ish  Church  (171^-1800);  J.  S.  Simon,  Revival  of  Religton 
ik  Engtand  in  the  Eighteenth  Century',  W.  E.  H.  Lccky.  History  of 
England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  J.  H.  Rigg,  The  Ltving  Wesley, 
The  Churehmanskip  of  John  Wesley,  R.  Green.  Bibliography  of  the 
Works  of  /  and  C.  Wesley,  Wesley  t  Veterasu,  Liaes  of  Early 
Uelhodiu  preachers  (Finsburv  Librar>).  Q.  T.*) 


WESSEU  JOHANi  (c.  1420-1489),  Dutch  theologian,  wai 
born  at  Groningen.  He  was  educated  at  the  famous  school  at 
Deventer,  which  was  under  the  supervision  of  the  Brothers  of 
Common  Life,  and  in  dose  connexion  with  the  convent  of 
Mount  St  Agnes  at  Zwolle,  where  Thomas  k  Kempis  was  then 
living.  At  Deventer,  where  the  best  traditions  of  the  X4th- 
century  mysticism  were  still  ctiltivated,  Wessel  Imbibed  that 
earnest  devotional  mysticism  which  was  the  basis  of  his  theology 
and  which  drew  him  irresistibly,  after  a  busy  life,  to  spend  his 
last  days  among  the  Friends  of  God  in  the  Low  Countries.  From 
Deventcr  he  went  to  the  Dominican  school  at  Cologne  to  be 
taught  the  Thomist  theology,  and  came  In  contact  with  human- 
ism. He  leamt  Greek  from  monks  who  had  been  driven  out  of 
Greece,  and  Hebrew  from  some  Jews.  The  Thomist  theology 
sent  htm  to  study  Augustine,  and  hia  Gieek  reading  led  him  to 
Plato,  sources  whidi  laigely  enriched  his  own  theological  system. 
Interest  in  the  disputes  between  the  realists  and  the  nominalists 
in  Paris  induced  him  to  go  to  that  dty,  where  he  remained  for 
siiteen  years  as  scholar  and  teacher.  There  he  eventually  took 
the  nominalist  aide,  pxompted  as  much  by  his  mystical  anti>- 
ecdesiastical  tendencies  as  by  any  metaphysical  inilglit;  for 
the  nominalists  were  then  the  antJ-papal  party.  A  desire  to 
knofw  more  about  humanism  sent  him  to  Rome,  wiiere  in  1470 
he  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Italian  schohus  and  under  the 
protection  of  Cardinals  Bessarion  and  Francis  Delia  Rovcre 
(general  of  the  Fmndscan  order  and  afterwards  Pope  Sixtus 
IV.).  It  is  said  that  Sixtus  would  have  gladly  made  Wessel 
a  bishop,  but  that  he  had  no  desire  for  any  eedesiastieol 
preferment.  From  Rome  he  rettimed  to  Paris,  and  speedily 
became  a  famous  teacher,  gathering  round  him  a  band  of  en- 
thusiastic young  students,  among  whom  was  ReudUin.  In  1475 
he  was  at  Basel  and  in  1476  at  Heidelberg  teaching  philosophy 
in  the  university.  As  old  age  approached  he  came  to  have  a 
growing  dislike  to  the  wordy  theolc^gical  strife  which  surrounded 
him,  and  turned  away  from  that  university  discipline,  "  non 
studia  sacrarum  litcrarum  sed  studiorum  commixtae  cov- 
Tuptiones."  After  thirty  years  of  academic  life  he  went  back 
to  his  native  Groningen,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  partly 
as  director  in  a  nuns'  doister  there  and  partly  In  the  convent 
of  St  Agnes  at  Zwolle.  He  was  welcomed  as  the  most  renowned 
scholar  of  his  time,  and  It  was  fabled  that  he  had  travelled 
through  all  lands,  Egypt  as  well  as  Greece,  gathering  every- 
where the  fruits  of  all  sciences — "a  man  of  rare  erudition," 
says  the  title-page  of  the  first  edition  of  his  collected  works, 
"  who  in  the  ^adow  of  papal  darkness  was  called  the  light  of 
the  world."  His  remaining  years  were  spent  amid  a  drde  of 
warm  admirers,  friends  and  dlsdples,  to  whom  he  imparted 
the  mystical  theology,  the  zeal  for  higher  learning  and  the 
deep  devotional  spirit  which  characterized  his  own  life.  He  died 
on  the  4lh  of  ()clobcr  1489,  with  the  confession  on  his  lips, 
"  I  know  only  Jesus  the  crucified."  He  is  buried  In  the  middle 
of  the  choir  of  the  church  of  the  "  GecsUichen  Maegden,"  whose 
director  he  had  been. 

Wessel  has  been  called  one  of  the  "  reformers  before  the  Refor- 
mation," and  the  title  is  justifiable  if  by  it  b  meant  a  man  of  deeply 
spiritual  life,  who  protested  against  the  growing  paganizing  of  the 
paf>acy,  the  supe^titious  and  magical  uses  of  the  sacraments,  the 
authority  of  ecclesiastical  tradition,  and  that  tendency  in  later 
scholastic  theology  to  lay  greater  stress,  in  a  doctrine  of  iustification, 
upon  the  Instrumentality  of  the  human  will  than  on  the  objective 
work  of  Chrbt  for  man's  salvatk>n.  His  own  theokMnr  was,  howe%'er, 
essentially  medieval  in  type,  and  he  never  s^raqied  that  experimental 


(Luther)  had  written  nothing  before  he  read  them,  people  might  well 
have  thought  that  he  had  stolen  aU  his  ideas  from  them.  The  books 
are  of  an  aphoristical  character,  the  ideas  being  rather  mechanically 

'  His  correct  name  was  Wessel  Harmcns  Gaosfort  (or  Gaoaevort), 
the  Christian  name  Wessel  being  a  corruption  of  Basilius,  and  the 
surname  Gansfort  being  that  of  a  Westphalian  village  from  which 
his  family  came. 

'  The  colkfction  tntloded  IH  prooidmOia,  De  emait  et  effedShus 
incamaHonis  et  passionis^  De  dtffutta  et  polestoto  eaUswiUta,  D* 
iacramenle,  paenUentiae,  Quae  sit  vera  coaik^msuo  saiulorunt,  Po 
purgatorio  and  a  number  oT  letters. 


WESSELENYI— WESSEX 


nlber  than  of  Lulhei. 


WoKl);  W.  Mil 
fc_(i831):  K, 

edition  of    "* 


I.   fhnuibarityoT  the  Bibk  Wend  wmJd 
y.  ma  pml     u      j;  .^'^  zii^\ 


{jiOlrt    (iBuil  to- 

Kbtknttaducb,  n 

i/AtariaimD  fi. 

WBSBliinn.  MIKLOI.  B*ioh  (1796-1850),  HuBCuiu 
MUcaman,  Kin  of  Buun  MikUi  V/tt»dtoyi  and  nota  Cmti, 
ni  bom  at  Zilb6,  ud  ns  edncUcd  U  hu  filber'i  cude  by 
Utma  FUiky  in  the  moat  Ubcisl  uid  paliiolic  dinctton.  In 
181]  be  pennanenlly  tnleied  puUic  Me  >nd  nude  the  u- 
quuntunce  of  Count  Steplien  Sxtcbenyi  irhMe  companion  be 
KU  on  a  loni  educative  foreisn  itnit,  <n  bit  teittm  from  nhich 
be  becama  one  of  tbe  leaden  of  ibe  libetal  movemalt  in  ibe 
U[^  Hooe.  Id  iSn  appealed  hi>  BaliMUtk  (Prejudicn), 
which  kFU  for  jDBfl  a  pt^btted  boolL  He  n%  :be  EorefnoM 
leader  oC  tbe  OppoaitioQ  at  tbe  diet  of  1834,  ud  his  [ncly 
eipresaed  opfnionA  on  land-redflinptioa,  together  with  his 
effort!  to  give  greater  pubiidty  to-  the  dehata  of  the  diet  by 
printini  Ibcm,  involved  him  in  two  ciperoivc  crown  proaecu- 
Itona.  Ho  waa  impriaoncd  at  Citfcnbe^,  Hhilhci  he  bad  (one 
to  be  cured  of  on  eye  trouble,  and  («o  yean  later  beoiine  quite 
blind.  Sutsequenlly  he  did  mucb  for  agriculture,  cbildren'i 
home*  and  the  iatiwlDCIlon  and  extension  of  the  lilk  induauy 
in  Hangary.  The  eventa  of  1S4S  brought  him  home  from  a 
long  rendencc  abroad,  but  he  wai  no  longer  the  manhe  had  been, 
and  loan  (ritfadrew  again  to  Grlienherg.  He  dted-m  the  iiit 
of  Auil  tSja.  on  hia  my  back  to  Hungaiy. 

See  Fmnci  SiiliEyL  Uf,  ami  QuurrfBarH  NickaUu  WaitUnyi 
Ikl  YKKiifr  [Kiiiig.^ud:ipe«,  T876).  (R.  N,  B.) 

WBSSEX,  one  of  Ibe  kingdom)  of  An^Saion  Britain.  The 
story  of  ir»  origin  a  pven  in  the  Saion  Chronide.  According  to 
this  tbe  kingdom  was  founded  by  two  princca,  Cerdic,  and  Cynric 
his  son,  who  landed  iri  494  or  495  and  were  followed  by  other 
settlers  in  joi  and  J14.     After  several  successful  battles  against 


it  thc« 


nlifled 


southern  part  of  Hampshire.  In  SJ"  Cerdic  and  Cynric  are  said 
to  have  conquered  the  Iile  of  Wight,  which  Ihcy  gave  to  two  of 
their  relniives,  Siuf  and  Wihigar,  Cerdic  died  in  ]34-  Cynric 
defeated  the  Britons  al  Salisbury  In  sji  and  again  in  conjunction 
with  bis  son  Ceawlia  at  Deranhurh,  probably  Birbuiy  Hill,  in 
SS6.  Al  his  death  in  s*"  be  waa  succeeded  by  Ceawlin,  who  is 
mentioned  by  Bede  as  the  second  of  the  Etiglish  kings  to  hold  an 
imftrium  in  Britain.  With  him  we  enter  upon  a  period  not 
perhaps  of  history,  but  at  Leaat  of  more  or  leifl  reliable  tradilMa. 

and  Sim  Is  much  debated.  At  all  eventa  no  vnlue  can  be  attached 
lo  the  datca  given  in  the  Chronicle.  The  pretace  to  this  work 
plaoa  Cerdic's  asaumption  of  the  sovereignty  sii  ycua  alter 
his  landing,  that  Is,  in  the  year  500,  and  aasfgns  him  a  reign  of 
siitdcn  years,  which  makes  hia  death  fall  eighteen  years  before 
jjt,  Ibe  date  reconled  in  the  annals.  Again,  while  the  annals 
leciord  CeawHn's  a<fe>aion  in  jCo  and  his  expulsion  in  591,  tbe 
preface  wfth  otbs  early  authorities  aiaigns  him  a  reign  of  only 
seventeen  yeiia.  Further  a  number  of  genealogJea,  both  in  the 
Chronicle  and  elsewhere,  represent  Cynric  as  grandson  of  Cerdic 
and  son  of  a  certain  Cieoda.  Su^ilcion  likewise  attaches  to  the 
name  Ceidlc.  irtiich  seems  to  be  Welsh,  while  we  leam  from 
Bede  that  the  Iile  of  Wight,  together  with  pan  at  least  of  the 
Kampohire  coast,  was  cnloniied  by  Jitet.  who  apparently  had  a 
kingdom  dblinct  from  Ihtt  of  Wessei.  For  these  rcaaona  tbe 
M017  s(  the  foundation  of  Wcmci,  tbmi^  H  appean  to  powtw 


considetahle  antiquity,  must  be  regarded  a*  open  to  (rav* 
suipidan.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  dyrutsty  claimed  to 
be  of  tbe  same  origin  aa  the  reyal  bouse  of  Bemicia  and  that  two 
of  Cerdic's  ancestoit,  Fieawme  and  Wig,  figure  hi  the  story  M 
Wermund,  king  of  AngeL 

Whatever  may  be  the  truth  about  the  ori^  of  the  kingdom, 
and  it  is  by  no  means  impossible  that  the  invasion  really  proceeded 
from  a  dlBerent  quarter,  we  need  not  doubt  that  it*  dimensions 
were  Lirgcly  iacteased  under  Ceawlin.     In  hisrdgn  the  Chronicle 

oiled  Bedcanford  in  J71,  by  wUch  Aylesbury  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  Thame*  valley  fell  into  the  hsnda  cJ  the  We*t  Ssiona, 
and  another  at  Deorhsm  In  J77,  which- led  to  the  capture  of 
Cirencester,  Bath  and  Gloucester.  Ceawlin  is  alio  said  to  have 
defeated  lEthelbcrht  at  a  place  oUol  Wibbandun  (possibly 
Wimbledon)  in  568.  In  sgi  be  was  expelled  and  died  in  tlu 
following  year.  Of  his  successors  Ceol  and  Ceoiwulf  we  know 
Uttle  though  the  latter  is  said  to  have  been  engaged  in  constant 
warfare.  Ceolwull  was  aucceeded  La  An  by  Cynesila,  whose 
aou  Cwichelm  provoked  a  Nortbunbtiaa  invasion  by  ibe 
attempted  murder  of  Edwin  in  6ifi.  These  kings  are  also  said  10 
have  come  into  collision  with  the  Mercian  king  Penda,  and  it  is 
poMble  that  the  province  of  the  Hwicce  (j.t.l  was  lost  in  their 
lime.  After  the  acceiaion  of  Oswald,  who  married  Cynegik's 
daughter,  to  the  Ihronc  of  Nonhumbria,  both  Cynegib  and 
Cwichelm  were  bapiiied.  Cynegils  was  succeeded  in  641  by  his 
son  Cenwalh,  who  married  uid  subsequently  diwrccd  Pcnda'a 
aisler  and  was  on  that  accnmt  eipelled  by  that  king.  After  his 
return  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Welsh  neat  Pen-Selwood, by 
which  a  large  part  of  Somerset  came  into  hisbands.  In  661  be 
was  again  attacked  by  the  Mercians  under  Wulfhere.  At  hia 
death,  probably  In  673,  the  throne  is  said  to  have  been  held  for  a 
year  by  his  widow  Seiburh,  who  was  succeeded  by  Aeacwine, 
674-676,  and  Centwine,  676-*8s.  According  to  Bede,  howe\-er, 
the  kingdom  was  in  a  state  of  disunion  from  the  death  of  Cenwalh 
to  tbe  accession  of  Ceadwalla  in  AJJ,  who  (reatly  increased  it* 
prestige  and  conquered  the  Isle  of  Wight,  the  inhabitant*  of 
which  he  treated  with  great  bsibarity.  Aflera  brief  reign  Cead- 
walla went  to  Rome,  where  he  wti  baptiied,  and  died  shortly 
afterwards,  leaving  the  kingdom  to  Ine.  By  the  end  of  the  7lh 
■  ■  ■  -  weUas 


whole  ol 


and  Dor: 


:othe 


West  Saioni.  On  the  mignation  of  Ine.  ii 
the  throne  was  obtained  by  Athelheard,  a^^urently  bis  brathei- 
In-law,  who  had  to  submit  to  the  Mecdin  king  £thelbald,  by 
whom  he  seem*  lo  have  been  attacked  in  733.  Cuthred,  who 
succeeded  In  740,  at  firsl  octed  in  conceit  with  ^thelbald,  but 
revolted  in  751.  At  his  death  In  jj6  Sigebciht  succeeded.  The 
latter,  howeier,  on  acoomil  ol  hia  misgovemment  was  deserted  by 
most  of  the  leading  T»blcs,  and  with  the  eiciplian  of  Hampahire 
the  whole  kingdom  come  into  thehandaof  Cynewulf.     SIgcberhl, 


liter 


eath  tl 


bnt  vengeance  waa  afterwards  taken  on  Cynewull  by  his  biMher 
Cyncheacd.  Cynewulf  was  succeeded  fn  7M  by  Berhlric,  who 
married  Eadburg,  daughter  of  the  Mercian  king  OSi.    Her 


:  title  of 


sued  to  the  • 


of  later  kinga.  Berhtric  was  iucc«eded  by  Ecgberht  ((.el 
chlei  evHit  of  whose  reign  was  the  overthrow  of  the  Mercian 
king  Beornwulf  in  815,  which  led  to  the  ettabll^mcni  of  W«L 
Saioa  aapiemacy  and  to  the  acneiaiiaa  by  Wesei  ol  Subci. 
Suttey,  Kent  and  Eaei. 

j«ihelwulf  (?.r.),  son  of  Ecgberht,  succeeded  lo  tbe  throne  of 
Wessei  at  his  father's  death  in  8jq.  wbllc  the  eastern  provinces 
went  to  his  son  or  biDther  -Cthelatan,  A  similar  division  took 
place  on  £thd>nlf's  death  between  his  two  sons  iCihclbdil 
and  ^thelbecht,  but  on  the  death  of  the  former  in  8;*  ^hd- 
betht  united  the  whde  in  his  own  hands,  his  younger  biDlhen 
Sthelred  and  Alfred  renouncing  their  claims.  ■Cthelbcrhi  was 
succeeded  In  86i  by  lEilulred.  andtbelaiieiby  AIfredlsS7i; 
This  was  tbe  period  of  tlie  great  Danish  invasion  which  culmhtted 


WEST,  B.~WESTBORO 


535 


in  the  submission  of  Guthram  in  878.  Shortly  afterwards  the 
kingdom  of  the  Mercians  came  to  an  end  and  their  leading  eari 
i£thelred  accepted  Alfred's  overiordship.  By  886  Alfred's 
authority  was  admitted  in  all  the  provinces  of  England  which 
were  not  under  Danish  rule.  From  this  time  onwards  the 
histoiy  of  Wessex  is  the  history  of  England. 

Kinzs  of  Wesiex. 


519 
534 
560  (c.  57») 


6ti 


597  ic.  594) 


Cerdic 

Cynric 

Ceawlin  . 

Ceol  .     . 

Ceolwulf. 

Cynegils  . 

Cenwalh  . 

Sextnirh  . 

iCacwine 

Centwine 

Ceadwalla 

Ine 

The  dates  are  those  of  the  annals  in  the  Chronide,  with  approximate 
eonrections  in  brackets. 

^m  AniUhSaxtm  Chr^ukk^  edited  by  Earleand  Plummer  (Oxford, 
1893-1899) ;  Bede.  Hist.  Eccl.  and  Continuatio,  edited  by  C.  Plummer 
(Oxford.  1896);  "Annates  Lindisfamenses,"  in  the  Monumenta 
Germ.  kist.  xix.  503-508  (Hanover.  1866):  Asaer,  L»/«  0/  Ktng 
Alfred,  edited  by  W.  H.  Stevenson  (Oxford.  1904):  W.  de  G.  Birch. 
CartidariHm  Soxomeum  (London,  1885-1893)*  (F  G.  M.  B.) 


.  643  (c.  64s) 

.  672  (c.  673) 
.  674 
.  676 

•Si 


iCthelheard 

Cuthred  . 

Sigeberht 

Cyniewulf 

Berhtric  . 

Ecgbert  . 

iEthelwulf 

iEthelbald 

^Ethelbcrht 

.Cthclred 

Alfred      . 


.  738(726) 
.  741(740) 
*  754(756) 

.  784(786) 

.   800  (803) 

.  836(839) 

.  855(858) 

.  860 

.  866 

.  871 


BBHJAimi    (1738-1820),    English    historical    and 
portrait-painter,  was  bom  on  the  loth  of  October  1738,  at 
Springfield,   Pennsylvania,   of   an   old   (Quaker   famfly  from 
Buckinghamshire.    When  a  boy  of  seven  he  began  to  show 
his  inclinations  to  art.    According  to  a  well-known  story,  he 
was  sitting  by  the  cradle  of  his  sister's  chiM,  walching  its  sleep, 
when  the  infant  happened  to  smile  in  its  dreams,  and,  struck 
with  its  beauty,  young  Benjamin  got  some  paper,  and  drew  its 
portrait.    The  career  thus  begun  was  prosecuted  amid  many 
difficulties;  but  his  perseverance  overcame  eveiy  obstade,  and 
at  the  age  of  eighteen  he  settled  fn  Philadelphia  as  a  portrait- 
painter.    After  two  years  he  removed  to  New  Yoric,  where 
he  practised  his  profession  with  considerable  success.    In  1760, 
through  the  assistance  of  some  friends,  he  was  enaMed  to  com- 
plete his  artistic  education  by  a  visit  to  Italy,  where  he  remained 
nearly  three  years.    Here  he  acquired  reputation,  and  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  principal  academies  of  Italy.    On  the  expiry 
of  his  Italian  visit  he  settled  in  London  as  an  historical  painter. 
His  success  was  not  long  doubtfuL    George  HI.  took  him  under 
his  special  patronage;  and  commissions  flowed  in  upon  him 
from  all  quarters.    In  1768  he  was  one  of  the  four  artists  who 
submitted  to  the  king  the  plan  for  h  royal  academy,  of  which 
he  was  one  of  the  earliest  members;  and  ini773  he  was  appointed 
historical  painter  to  the  king.    He  devoted  his  attention  mainly 
to  the  painting  of  large  pictures  on  historical  and  religious 
subjects,  conceived,  as  he  believed,  in  the  style  of  the  old  masters/ 
and  executed  with  great  care  and  much  taste.    So  high  did  he 
stand  in  public  favour  that  on  the  death  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds, 
in  1792,  he  was  elected  his  successor  as  president  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  an  ofiice  which  he  held  for  twenty-eight  yean.    In 
t8o3  he  took  advantage  of  the  oppMtum'ty  afforded  by  the 
peace  of  Amiens  to  visit  Paris,  and  inspect  the  magnificent 
collection  of  the  masterpieces  of  art,  pillaged  from  the  gallery 
of  almost  every  capital  in  Europe,  whidh  then  adorned  the 
Louvre.    On  his  return  to  London  he  devoted  himsdf  anew 
to  the  labours  of  bis  profession,  which  were,  however,  somewhat 
broken  in  upon  by  quarrels  with  some  of  the  monben  of  the 
Royal  Academy.    In  1804  he  resigned  his  office,  but  an  all  but 
unanimous  request  that  he  should  return  to  the  chair  induced  him 
to  recall  his  resignation.    Time  did  not  at  all  weaken  the  energy 
with  which  he  laboured  at  his  easel.    When  sixty-five  he  painted 
one  of  his  largest  works,  "  Christ  healing  the  Side."    llis  was 
originally  designed  to  be  presented  to  the  Quakers  m  Philadelphia, 
to  assist  in  erecting  a  hospital.    On  its  completion  it  was  exhibited 
In  London  to  immense  crowds,  and  was  purchased  by  the  British 
Institution  for  3000  guineas.  West  sending  a  replica  to  PhOa- 
delphia.    His  subsequent  works  were  nearly  all  on  the  same 
grand  scale  as  the  picture  which  had  beta  M  fuocsitful,  bat 


they  did  not  meet  with  very  ready  sile.    He  died  in  LoodoB  on 
the  xxth  of  March  1830,  and  was  buried  in  St  Paid'a. 

West's  works,  which  fond  criticisoi  ranked  during  his  life  with 
the  great  productions  of  the  old  masters,  are  now  considered  as  in 
general  formal,  tame,  wanting  that  freedom  of  nature  and  that  life 
which  genius  alone  can  breathe  into  the  canvas.  His  "  Death  <A 
Wolfe  is  interesting  as  introducing  modern  costume  instead  of  the 
classical  draperies  which  had  been  previously  universal  in  similar 
subjects  by  English  artists:  and  his  "  Battle  of  La  Hogue " 
is  entitled  to  an  honourable  place  among  British  historical 
paintings. 

An  aeeount  of  West's  life  was  published  by  Gait  (The  Progress  of 
Genius,  1816).  See  also  H.  T.  Tuckerman,  Book  qf  the  ArtisU 
(N.Y.,1868}. 

WEST,  NICHOLAS  (i46x-iS33)>  English  bishop  and  diplo- 
matist, was  bom  at  Putney,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  at  King's 
CoU^e,  C^ambridge,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow  in  1483.  He  was 
soon  ordained  and  appointed  rector  ol  Eg^esdilie,  Durham, 
receiving  a  little  hiter  two  other  livings  and  becoming  chaplain 
to  King  Hemy  VIL  In  1509  Henry  VIII.  appointed  him  dean 
of  St  George's  chapd,  Windsor,  and  In  1515  he  was  elected 
bishop  of  ^y.  West's  long  and  successful  career  as  a  diplo* 
matist  began  in  1502  throu^  his  friendship  with  Richard  Fox, 
bishop  of  Durham.  In  the  interests  of  Heniy  VII.  he  visited 
the  German  king  Maximilian  I.  and  George,  duke  of  Saxony; 
in  1506  he  negotiated  an  important  oommercial  treaty  with 
Flanders,  and  he  attempted  to  arrange  marriages  between  the 
king's  daughter  Mary  and  the  future  emperor  Charles  V.,  and 
between  the  king  himself  and  Charles's  sister  Margaret.  By 
Heniy  VIII.  West  was  sent  many  times  to  Scotland  and  to 
France.  Occupied  mainly  during  the  years  1513  and  1514  with 
journeys  to  and  from  Scotland,  ht  visited  Louis  XII.  of  France 
in  the  autumn  of  1514  and  his  successor  Francis  I.  in  15x5. 
In  15x5  also  he  arranged  a  defensive  treaty  between  England 
and  France,  and  he  was  principally  responsible  for  treaties 
condnded  between  the  two  countries  in  1518  and  1525,  and  at 
other  times.  He  was  trusted  and  employed  on  personal  matten 
by  Cardinal  Wolsey.  He  died  on  the  a8th  of  April  1533.  The- 
bishop  built  two  beautiful  dispels,  one  in  Putney  church  and 
the  other  in  Ely  Gathedral,  where  he  is  buried. 

WESTALL,  RICHARD  (1765-1836),  En^^sh  subject  painter, 
was  bom  in  Hertford  in  176s,  of  a  Norwich  family.  In  1779 
he  went  to  London,  and  was  apprenticed  to  an  engraver  on  silver, 
and  in  1785  he  began  to  study  in  the  schools  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  painted  "Esau  seeking  Jacob's  Blessing," 
*'  Mary  QaoBn  of  Soots  going  to  Execution  "  and  other  historical 
subjects  in  wateroolour,  and  tatit  good  portraits  in  the  same 
medium,  but  he  is  mainly  known  as  a  book-iUustrator.  He 
produced  five  subjects  for  the  S)iakcq>eare  Gallery,  illustrated 
an  editiott  of  Milton,  executed  a  very  popular  series  of  illustra* 
tions  to  the  Bible  and  the  prayer-book,  and  designed  plates  for 
numerous  other  works.  In  tSeS  he  published  a  poem,  A  Day 
hi  Spring,  illustrated  by  his  own  pendL  His  designs  are  rather 
tame,  nunneied  and  ^eminste.  He  becanae  an  assodate  of 
the  Roysl  Academy  in  1792,  and  a  full  member  in  1794;  and 
daring  his  later  years  he  was  a  pensioiner  of  the  Academy. 
He  died  on  the  4th  of  December  1836.  His  brother.  William 
Wcstall,  A.R.A.  (Z78X-1850),  landscape  painter,  is  mainly  known 
by  his  illustrations  to  works  of  travd. 

WB8TB0R0,  a  township  of  Worcester  county,  Msssachusetts, 
U.S.A.,  about  X2  m  £.  of  Worcester.  Fop.  (1890)  5i9S;  (>900) 
5400  (1x37  bdng  foreign-bom);  (1905,  state  census)  5378;  (1910) 
5446.  Westboro  is  served  by  the  Boston  k  Albany  railway  and 
by  interurban  dectric  lines.  Area,  aboot  22  sq.  ro.  It  has  a 
public  library,  which  has  belonged  to  the  township  dnce  1857; 
and  here  are  the  Lyman  School  for  Boys,  a  state  industrial 
institution  (opened  in  x886  and  succeeding  a  state  refonn  school 
opened  in  1846),  and  the  Westboro  Insane  Hospital  (homoeopathic, 
1884),  which  is  under  the  general  supervision  of  the  State  Board 
of  Insanity.  There  are  manufactures  of  boots  and  shoes,  straw 
and  leather  goods,  carpets,  &c.  Westboro  was  the  birthplace 
of  EU  Whitney,  inventor  of  the  cotton  gin.  The  fixst  settlement 
here  WBS  made  about  1659  in  a  part  of  Marlboro  called  Chauncy 
(becaoseof  a  granitof  se^naes  bsBa  to  Charles  Chaun^  presidsia 


536 


WEST  BROMWICH— WESTBURY 


of  Harvard  College,  made  in  i6s9  and  revoked  in  1660  by  the 
General  Court  of  Massachusetts).  In  1 7 1 7  this  port  of  Marlboro, 
with  other  lands,  was  erected  into  the  township  of  Westboro, 
to  which  parts  of  Sutton  (1728),  Shrewsbury  (1762  and  1793) 
and  Upton  (1763)  vttre  subsequently  annexed,  and  from  which 
Northboro  was  separated  in  1766. 

WEST  BROMWICH,  a  market  town  and  municipal,  county 
and  parliamentary  borough  of  Staffordshire,  England,  6  m.  N.W. 
of  Birmingham,  on  the  northern  line  of  the  Great  Western 
railway.  Pop.  (1891)  59,538,  (1901)  65,175.  The  appearance 
of  the  town,  like  its  growth  as  an  industrial  centre  of  the  Black 
Country,  is  modem.  It  is,  however,  of  ancient  origin;  thus  the 
church  of  AU  Saints,  formeily  St  Clement,  was  given  by  Henry  I. 
to  the  convent  of  Worcester,  from  which*  it  passed  to  the  priors 
of  Sandwell,  who  rebuilt  it  in  the  Decorated  period,  the  present 
structure  (1872)  following  their  phut.  The  chief  public  buildings 
are  the  town  hall  (1875),  ^he  Institute  (1886),  providing  instruc- 
tion in  science  and  art,  under  the  corporation  since  1894,  the 
free  library  (1874)  and  law-courts  (1891).  The  piauresque 
Oak  House,  of  the  i6th  century,  was  opened  as  a  museum  and 
art  gallery  m  1898.  Among  schools  is  one  for  pauper  children 
in  which  engineering,  baking,  spade-husbandry,  &c.,  are  taught. 
Sandwell  Hall,  formerly  a  seat  of  the  earls  of  Dartmouth,  con- 
tains a  school  for  daughters  of  clergymen,  &c.  The  house, 
standing  in  pleasant  wooded  grounds.  Is  on  the  site  of  the  Bene- 
dictine priory  of  Sandwell,  founded  hi  the  time  of  Henry  II. 
There  are  charities  founded  by  the  families  of  Stanley  and 
Whorwood  (1613  and  1614).  Dartmouth  Park  b  a  recreation 
ground  of  about  60  acres;  others  are  Farley,  Kcnwick  and  Hill 
Top  Park.  Numerous  mines  work  the  extensive  coalfields, 
which  include  a  thirty-foot  seam.  There  axe  large  iron  and  brass 
foundries  and  smelting  furnaces,  and  malting  and  brickmaking 
are  carried  on.  The  parilamentaty  borough  returns  one  member. 
The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor  6  akiermen  and  18  councillors. 
Area,  5860  acres. 

WESTBROOK,  a  city  of  Cumberiand  county,  Maine,  U.S.A., 
on  the  Prcsumpscot  river,  5  m*  N.W.  of  Portland.  Pop.  (X890) 
6632,  (1900)  7283  (1673  foreign-born),  (1910)  8281.  It  a 
served  by  the  Mame  Central  and  the  Boston  &  Maine  railway's. 
In  Westbrook  are  the  Walker  Memorial  Library  (1894)  and  the 
Warren  Library  (1879).  The  river  provides  water-power,  and 
among  the  manufactures  are  paper,  silks,  cotton  goods,  &c.  In 
181 4  Westbrook  was  separated  from  Falmouth  and  incorporated 
as  a  township  under  the  name  of  Stroud  water,  and  in  181 5  the 
present  name  was  adopted  in  honour  of  Cokmcl  Thomas  West- 
brook, who  had  distinguished  himself  in  wars  with  the  Indians. 
In  1871  Deering,  now  a  part  of  Portland,  was  taken  from  the 
township.  A  dty  charter  was  granted  to  Westbrook  in  1889 
and  adopted  in  1891. 

WESTBURY.  RICHARD  BETHELL,  XST  Bakon  (1800-1873). 
ferd  chancellor  of  Great  Britam,  was  the  son  of  Dr  Richard 
BethcU,  and  was  bom  at  Bradford,  Wilts.  Taking  a  high  degree 
at  Oxford  in  1 818,  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Wadham  College. 
In  1823  he  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Middle  Temple.  On 
attaining  the  dignity  of  queen's  counsel  in  1840  he  rapidly  took 
the  foremost  place  at  the  Chancery  bar  and  was  appointed  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  county  palatine  of  Lancaster  in  1851 .  His  most 
important  public  service  was  the  reform  of  the  then  toisting  mode 
of  legal  education,  a  reform  vriiich  ensured  that  students  before 
call  to  the  bar  should  have  at  least  some  acquaintance  with  the 
elements  of  the  subject  which  they  were  to  profcak  In  1851  he 
obtained  a  scat  in  the  House  of  Commons,  where  he  continuef*  lo 
sit,  first  as  member  for  Aylesbury,  then  as  member  for  Wolver- 
hampton, until  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  Attaching  h/mself 
to  the  liberals,  he  became  soUdtor-general  in  1853  and  att^mey- 
generel  in  1856  and  again  in  1859.  On  June  26,  1861,  -on  the 
death  of  Lord  Campbell,  he  was  created  lord  high  chancellor 
of  Great  Britain,  with  the  title  of  Baxon  Westbury  of  W«Abury, 
county  Wilts.  The  ambition  of  his  life  was  to  set  on  foot  the 
compilation  of  a  digest  of  the  whole  law,  but  for  various  ineasons 
this  became  impracticable.  The  conclusion  of  his  tenu«e  of  the 
thaaoellgnbip  was  iiafortitaatfely  marked  by  events  which. 


although  they  did  not  render  personal  contiptioii  imputable  to 
him,  made  it  evident  that  he  had  acted  with  some  laxity  and 
want  of  caution.  Owing  to  the  reception  by  parliament  of 
reports  of  ounmittees  nominated  to  consider  the  circumstances 
of  certain  appointments  m  the  Leeds  Bankruptcy  Court,  as  well 
as  the  granting  a  pension  to  a  Mr  Leonard  Edmunds,  a  clerk 
in  the  patent  office,  and  a  derk  of  the  parliaments,  the  lord 
chancellor  fdt  it  incumbent  upon  him  to  resign  his  office,  which 
he  accordingly  did  on  the  5th  of  July  1865,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Lord  Cranworth.  After  his  redgnation  he  condnued  to  take 
part  in  the  judicial  dttings  of  the  House  of  Lords  and  the  privy 
council  until  his  death.  In  1872  he  was  appointed  arbitrator 
under  the  European  Assurance  Sodety  Act  1872,  .and  his  judg- 
moits  in  that  capacity  have  been  collected  and  published  by 
Mr  F.  S.  Reilly.  As  a  writer  on  law  he  made  no  mark,  and  few 
of  his  decisions  take  the  highest  judicial  rank.  Perhaps  the 
best  known  is  the  judgment  delivering  the  opinion  of  the  judidal 
committee  of  the  privy  coundi  in  1863  against  the  heretical 
character  oi  certain  extracts  from  the  well-known  publication 
Essays  and  Reviews.  His  principal  legislative  achievements  were 
the  passing  of  the  Divorce  Act  1857,  and  of  the  Land  Registry 
Act  1862  (generally  known  as  Lord  Westbury's  Act),  the  latter 
of  which'in  practice  proved  a  failure.  What  chiefly  distinguished 
Lord  Westbury  was  the  possesion  of  a  certain  sarcastic  humour; 
and  numerous  are  the  stories,  authentic  and  apocryphal,  of  its 
exercise.  In  fact,  he  and  Mr  Justice  Maule  fill  a  position  analo- 
gous to  that  of  Sydney  Smith,  convenient  names  to  whom  "  good 
things  '*  may  be  attributed.  Lord  Westbury  died  on  the  20th  of 
July  1873,  within  a  day  of  the  death  of  Bishop  Wilberforce,  bis 
special  antagonist  in  debate. 

See  Uf€  of  Lord  Westbury  by  T.  A.  Nash. 

WESTBURY,  an  urban  district  in  the  Westbury  parliamentary 
division  of  Wiltshire,  England,  on  the  river  Biss,  a  small  tributary 
of  the  Lower  Avon.  Pop.  (1901)  3305.  It  is  95I  m.  W.  by  S. 
of  London  by  the  Great  Western  railway,  and  lies  within  3  m. 
ol  the  Somerset  border,  sheltered  on  the  cast  by  the  high  tabldand 
of  Salisbury  Plain.  All  Saints'  church  is  Norman  and  later,  with 
a  magnificent  nave.  In  the  south  transept  stands  a  monument 
to  Sir  James  Ley,  oarl  of  Marlborough  and  president  of  the 
council  in  1629;  the  "  good  earl "  addressed  in  a  sonnet  by 
Milton.  A  chained  black-lctter  copy  of  Erasmus'-  "  Para- 
phrase of  the  New  Testament "  is  preserved  in  the  south  chapel. 
In  the  suburb  of  Westbury  Leigh  is  the  "  Palace  Garden,"  a 
nooaled  site  said  to  have  been  a  royal  residence  in  Saxon  times. 

Westbury  {Westberie,  Westbwi^  figures  in  Domesday  as  a 
manor  held  by  the  king.  The  manor  was  granted  by  Henry  11. 
to  Reginald  de  Pavely  in  1172-1x73,  and  from  then  onwards 
passed  through  various  families  until  01  x8io  it  was  purchased 
by  Sir  M.  M.  Lopes  from  the  earl  of  Abingdon.  A  post  mote  was 
held  for  W«stbury  in  X361-1362,  but  the  earliest  mention  of  the 
town  as  a  borough  occurs  in  1442-1443.  The  charter  of  incorpora- 
tion is  loi»t  (tradition  says  it  was  burnt),  and  the  town  possesses  no 
other  charter.  The  title  of  the  corporation  was  "  Mayor  and 
Burg<!86es  of  Westbury,"  and  it  consisted  of  a  mayor,  recorder 
and  13  capitAl  burgesses.  The  borough  returned  two  members 
to  parliament  from  1448.  In  1832  the  number  was  reduced  to 
one,  and  in  1885  the  representation  was  merged  in  that  of  the 
"wunty.  In  1252  Henxy  III.  granted  to  Walter  de  Pavdy  a 
yearly  fair  for  three  days  from  October  31,  and  a  weekly  market 
on  Friday.  Henry  VI.  in  1460  granted  three  fairs  yearly  for 
tlttve  days  from  April  22,  Whit  Monday  and  September  13 
respectivdy,  and  a  market  <m  Thursdays.  In  1835  ^^  mayor's 
fair  was  held  at  Whitsuntide,  and  the  lord  of  the  manor'&  at 
Easter.  In  1875  a  yesriy  sheep  fair  took  place  on  the  first 
Tuesday  in  September  and  a  pleasure  fair  on  Easter  and  Whit 
Monday;  in  1888  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  September  and  on  the 
24^h  of  that  month;  the  former  still  exists.  In  1673  there 
was  a  market  on  Friday,  in  1835  a  nominal  one  on  Tuesday 
and  after  1875  it  ceased.  During  the  xBth  and  19th  centuries 
there  was  a  considerable  trade  in  malt,  bricks,  tiles  and  doth. 
The  last,  once  the  most  extensive,  has  now  sunk  into  insignifi- 
caQce»  white  (he  alh«a  exist  also  only  on  a  small  scal&. 


WEST  CHESTER— WESTCX)TT 


537 


WEST  GHB8TBIU  a  borough  and  the  couaty*seat  of  Chester 
county,  Pennsylvaxila,  U.S.A.,  about  20  m.  W.  of  Philadelphia. 
Pop.  (1890)  8028;  (1900)  9524,  of  whom  566  were  foreiga-born 
and  17 77  were  negroes;  (19x0  census)  111767.  West  Chester 
is  served  directly  by  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore  &  Washington  railways  and  by  an  intenirban  electric 
line  to  Philadelphia,  electric  lines  connect  with  the  Philadelphia 
&  Reading  at  Lenape,  4  m.  to  the  south- west,  and  at  CoatesviUe, 
10  QL  to  the  west.  The  borough  lies  about  450  ft.  above  sea-level 
in  an  imdulating  country.  At  West  Chester  are  the  West  Chester 
State  Normal  School  (1871),  the  Darlington  Seminary  (non^ 
sectarian;  for  girls),  founded  in  18 51  by  Smedley  Darlington 
(1837-1899;  principal  of  the  school  in  1851-1861  and  a  repre- 
sentative in  Congress  in  1887-189 1),  the  Friends'  Graded  School 
and  the  Friends'  (Orthodox)  Select  School.  There  are  fine 
botanical  gardens  in  Marshall  Square.  Among  the  public  build- 
ings are  a  county  court  house  (1847-1848},  a  county  jail  and  a 
county  hospital  (1892-1893),  the  public  library  and  a  large 
Y.M.C.A.  building.  The  colonial  Turk's  Head  Hotel  here  has 
been  so  called  since  1768  and  was  probably  first  opened  in  1762. 
West  Chester  is  in  a  farming  country  with  important  market- 
gardens  and  dairy  farms;  among  its  manufactures  are  dairy 
implements,  foundry  and  machine-shop  products  and  carriage 
and  wagon  materials.  The  factory  product  in  1905  was  valued 
at  $2,121,185.  There  are  several  large  nursery  farms  here. 
West  Chester  was  first  settled  in  17 13,  succeeded  Chester  as  the 
county-seat  in  1784- 1786,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in 
X  788  and  as  a  borough  in  1 799.  During  the  War  of  Independence 
the  battle  of  Brandywine  was  fought  about  7  m.  S.  of  West 
Chester  on  the  nth  of  September  1777,  and  on  the  20th  General 
Anthony  Wayne,  with  a  small  force,  was  surprised  and  routed 
by  the  British  at  Paoli,  about  8  m.  N.E. 

WESTCOTT.  BROOKB  FOSS  (1825-1901),  English  divine 
and  bbhop  of  Durham,  was  bom  on  the  12th  of  January  1825 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Birmingham.  His  father,  Frederick 
Brooke  Westcott,  was  a  botanist  of  some  distinction.  Westcott 
was  educated  at  King  Edward  VL  school,  Birmingham^  under 
James  Prince  Lee,  where  he  formed  his  friendship  with  Joseph 
Barber  Lightfoot  iq.v.).  In  1844  Westcott  obtained  a  scholarship 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  took -Sir  William  Browne's 
medal  for  a  Greek  ode  in  1S46  and  1847,  the  Members'  Prize 
for  a  Latin  essay  in  1847  as  an  undergraduate  and  in  1849  as 
a  bachelor.  He  took  bis  degree  in  January  1848,  obtaining 
double-firBt  honours.  In  mathematics  he  was  twenty-fourth' 
wrangler,  Isaac  Todhuntcr  being  scm'or.  In  classics  he  was 
senior,  being  bracketed  with  C.  B.  Scott,  afterwards  headmaster 
of  Westminster.  After  obtaining  his  degree,  Westcott  remained 
for  four  years  In  residence  at  Trinity.  In  1849  he  obtained 
his  felloMTship;  and  in  the  same  year  he  was  ordained  deacon 
and  priest  by  his  old  headmaster,  Prince  Lee,  now  bishop  of 
Manchester.  The  time  spent  at  Cambridge  was  devoted  to  most 
strenuous  study.  He  took  pupils;  and  among  his  pupils  there 
were  reading  with  him,  almost  at  the  same  time,  his  school 
friend  Lightfoot  and  two  other  men  who  became  his  attached 
and  lifelong  friends,  £.  W.  Benson  and  F.  J.  A.  Hort  (qq.v,).  The 
inspiring  influence  of  Westcott 's  intense  enthusiasm  left  its 
mark  upon  these  three  distinguished  men;  they  regarded  him 
not  only  as  their  friend  and  counsellor,  but  as  in  an  especial 
degree  their  teacher  and  oracle*  He  devoted  much  attention 
to  philosophical,  patristic  and  historical  studies,  but  it  soon 
became  evident  that  he  would  throw  his  strength  into  New 
Testament  work.  In  1851  he  published  his  Nonislan  prize 
essay  with  the  title  BUmeiUs  of  the  Cospd  Harmony. 

In  1852  he  became  an  assistant  master  at  Harrow,  and  soon 
afterwards  he  married  Miss  Whithard.  He  proeecnted  his  sduxd 
work  with  characteristic  vigotur,  and  succeeded  in  combining 
with  his  school  duties  an  enormous  amount  both  of  theological 
research  and  of  Hterary  activity.  He  worked  at  Harrow  for 
nearly  twenty  years  under  Dr  C.  J.  Vaughan  and  Dr  Montagu 
Butler,  but  while  he  was  always  conspicuously  successful  in 
inspiring  a  few  senior  boys  with  something  of  his  own  intellectual 
and  moral  enthusiasm,  he  was  never  in  the  same  measure  capable 


of  maiotaining  4iscipline  among  latyo  numbeis.  The  writings 
which  he  produced  at  this  period  created  a  new  epoch  in  the 
history  of  modern  English  theological  scholarship.  In  1855 
he  published  the  first  edition  of  his  History  oJUie  New  Teslamtni 
Caitou,  which,  frequently  revised  and  expanded,  became  the 
standard  English  work  upon  the  subject.  In  1859  there  appeared 
his  Cbaracteristics  of  the  Gospel  Miracles.  In  i860  he  expanded 
his  Norrisian  essay  into  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Uie  Gospels, 
a  work  remarkable  for  insight  and  minuteness  of  study,  as  well 
as  for  reverential  treatment  combined  with  considerable  freedom 
from  traditional  lines.  Westcott's  woric  for  Smith's  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible,  notably  his  articles  on  "  Canon,"  "  Maccabees," 
"  Vulgate,"  entailed  noost  careful  and  thorough  prc^ration, 
and  led  to  the  composition  of  his  subsequent  valuable  popular 
books.  The  Bible  in  the  Church  (1864)  and  a  History  of  the  English 
Bible  (1869).  To  the  same  period  belongs  The  Gospel  of  the 
Resurrection  (1866).  As  a  piece  of  consecutive  reasoning  upon  a  - 
fundamental  Christian  doctrine  it  deservedly  attracted  great 
attention.  Its  width  of  view  and  its  recognition  of  the  claims 
of  historical  science  and  pure  reason  were  thoroughly  character- 
istic  of  Westcott's  mode  of  discussing  a  theological  question. 
At  the  time  when  the  book  appeared  his  method  of  apologetiG- 
showed  both  courage  and  originality,  but  the  excellence  of  the 
work  is  impaired  by  the  difficulty  of  the  style. 

In  1S65  he  took  his  B.D.,  and  in  1870  his  D.D.  He  received 
in  later  years  the  honorary  degrees  of  D.C.L.  from  Oxford  (i88x) 
and  of  D.D.  from  Edinburgh  (i88j).  In  1868  Westcott  was 
appointed  examining  chaplain  by  Bishop  Connor  Magee  (of 
Peterborough) ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  accepted  a  canonry 
at  Peterborough,  which  necessitated  his  leaving  Harrow.  For 
a  time  he  conicmplatcd  with  eagerness  the  idea  of  a  renovated 
cathedra]  life,  devoted  to  the  pursuit  of  learning  and  to  the 
development  of  opportunities  for  the  religious  and  intellectual 
benefit  of  the  diocese.  But  the  regius  profcssocship  of  divinity 
at  Cambridge  fell  vacant;  and  Lightfoot,  who  was  then  Hulsean 
professor,  declining  to  become  a  candidate  himself,  insisted  upon 
Westcott's  standing  for  the  post.  It  was  due  to  Lighifoot's 
support  almost  as  much  as  to  his  own  great  merits  that  Westcott 
was  elected  to  the  chair  on  the  ist  of  November  1870.  This  was 
the  turning-point  of  his  life.  He  now  occupied  a  great  position 
for  which  he  was  supremely  fitted,  and  at  a  juncture  in  the 
reform  of  university  studies  when  a  theologian  of  liberal  views, 
but  universally  respected  for  his  massive  learning  and  his  devout 
and  single-minded  character,  would  enjoy  a  unique  opportunity 
for  usefulness.  Supported  by  bis  friends  Lightfoot  and  Hort, 
he  threw  himself  into  the  new  work  with  extraordinary  energy. 
He  deliberately  sacrificed  many  of  the  social  privileges  of  a 
university  career  in  order  that  his  studies  might  be  more  con- 
tinuous  and  that  he  might  see  more  of  the  younger  men.  His 
lectures  were  generally  on  Biblical  subjects.  His  Commentaries 
on  St  John's  Gospel  (1881),  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (1889) 
and  the  Epistles  of  St  John  (1883)  resulted  from  his  public 
lectures.  One  of  his  most  valuable  works,  The  Gospel  of  Life 
(189a),  a  study  of  Christian  doctrine,  incorporated  the  materials 
upon  which  he  was  engaged  in  a  series  of  more  private  and 
esoteric  lectures  delivered  on  week-day  evenings.  The  work 
of  lecturing  was  an  intense  strain  to  him,  but  its  influence  was 
immense:  to  attend  one  of  Westcott's  lectures — even  to  watch 
him  lecturing — was  an  experience  which  lifted  and  solemnized 
many  a  man  to  whom  the  references  to  Origcn  or  Rupert  of 
Deutz  were  almost  ludicrously  unintelligible.  Between  the 
years  1870  and  i88x  Westcott  was  also  continually  engaged  in 
work  for  the  revision  of  the  New  Testament,  and,  simultaneously, 
in  the  preparation  of  a  new  text  in  conjunction  with  Hort.  The 
years  in  which  Westcott,  Lightfoot  and  Hort  could  thus  meet 
frequently  and  naturally  for  the  discussion  of  the  work  in  which 
they  were  all  three  so  deeply  engrossed  formed  a  happy  and 
privileged  period  in  their  lives.  In  the  year  1881  there  appeared 
the  famous  Westcott  and  Hort  text  of  the  New  Testament, 
upon  which  had  been  expended  nearly  thirty  years  of  incessant 
labour.  The  reforms  In  the  regulations  for  degrees  in  divinity, 
the  formation  and  first  revision  of  the  new  theological  tripos. 


538 


it  CuBbiMce  aauiaa  to  DdU,  (be  ioMita- 
tion  of  Ihi  Chuich  Societx  (fM  the  discuuioa  41  theola^nl 
and  ccdisailicil  quotioiu  by  ibc  youosR  mm),  Ihe  mcctinp 
fer  the  dhrinity  hcully,  the  orgsniuliiHi  of  IhF  new  Divinity 
School  ind  Libt«ry  and,  Uler,  the  itutitution  of  the  Cambridge 
Qergy  Tninin^  Scbool,  were  aU,  io  a  very  reA[  degree,  the  teeuit 
ol  Westcott'*  energy  and  influence  as  rcgius  prafeHor.  To  Ihis 
list  diould  also  be  added  theOxfocd  and  Cambridge  prcUnunary 
enanunalion  tor  candidates  Tor  holy  onten,  with  whicb  he  was 
IroiB  ths  6al  most  doiely  identified.    The  success  of  Ihia  very 

The  departure  of  Lighiloot  lo  the  set  of  Duitiam  In  iSyg 
wai  a  great  blow  to  Westcolt.  Nevedhcleu  it  mulled  in  bdng- 
iofr  him  into  (till  greater  prominence.  He  wu  (ompelled  lo 
tai*  Ibe  lead  In  matlen  where  Lightfool'i  more  pr»ctical  nature 
had  previously  been  piedominant.  la  li&s  Wesicoit  was  elected 
to  a  prolessoriil  fellowship  at  Klog'a.  Shortly  afterward*, 
having  previously  tdigncd  his  cangnry  at  Peierhorongh,  he  »ras 
appointed  by  Ihe  crowa  to  a  canoniy  at  Westmlnsler,  and 
accepted  the  portion  of  ezamining  chaplain  to  Archtnshop 
Benson.     Hia  liitle  edition  of  the  Paragraph  Psdier  (1879), 


K  of  choir 


•n  the 


■«  fail*  (188]),  are  teminis 
tioos  ^lent  at  Peierbaioagh.  He  held  bis  canon 
uter  in  conjunction  with  the  regiiii  proiesorsh 
ol  the  Joint  work  was  veiy  heavy,  and  the  inlenjj 
rest  and  Atudy  which  he  brought  to  bear  upon  ! 
e  labours  of  the  EccleiL     ■    ■  -  " 


lie  Abbey  gave  him 


,  added  to 


Kofde 


siiDUS.  h;s  Kitnons  were  generally  portions 
D  this  period  belong  the  volumes  CAriiiw 
Cmaiimmaliir  iitSb)  aoA  Sociai  Aipali  of  Ckriilianily  {if»T). 

In  March  1890  he  was  nominated  10  the  see  of  Durham,  there 
to  follow  in  the  steps  of  his  beloved  fn>nd  LIghtfoot,  who  bad 
<fied  in  December  1S89.  He  wis  consecrated  on  Ihe  isl  ol  May 
at  Wettminster  Abbey  by  Aidibisbc^  Ihompion  (of  York), 
Hort  being  the  preacber,  and  enthroned  at  Durham  cathedral 
on  tiM  ijih  ol  May.  The  change  of  work  and  surroundings 
ould  hardly  have  been  gre&ter.  But  Ihe  sudden  immersion 
in  the  pnciical  administrotion  of  a  northern  diocese  gave  him 
new  slrength.  He  surprised  the  world,  which  had  supposed 
him  to  be  a  recluse  and  a  mystic,  by  the  practical  interest  he 
took  in  the  mining  population  of  Durham  and  in  the  great 
•hipping  and  artisan  industries  of  Sunderland  and  Gateshead. 
Upon  one  famous  octaaion  in  jSgf  he  suixeeded  in  bringing  to 
a  peaceful  solution  a  long  and  hitter  strike  which  had  divided 
the  muten  and  men  in  the  Durham  collieries;  and  his  success 
was  due  to  the  confidence  which  he  inspired  by  the  eitraonlinary 
moral  energy  of  hia  strangely  "  prophetic  "  personality,  at  once 
Ihoughlful,  vehement  and  aSectionate,  His  constant  endeavour 
to  call  the  attention  of  Ihe  Church  lo  the  teliglous  aspect  of  social 
cpiHtions  was  a  special  note  in  hit  public  ullcrince^  He  was 
a  sta.unch  supporter  ol  the  co-operative  movement.  He  was 
practically  the  founder  of  Ihe  Christian  Social  Union.  He 
continually  insisted  upon  the  necessity  of  promoting  the  cause 
of  foreign  missions,  and  he  gladly  gave  lour  o(  bis  sons  for  the 
work  of  the  Church  in  India.  His  energy  was  remarkable -to 
Ihe  very  end.  But  during  the  last  two  or  three  years  of  his 
life  he  aged  ouisiderably-  His  wife,  who  had  been  for  some  years 
an  iovilid,  died  rather  suddenly  on  the  iSlh  of  May  1901,  and  he 
detlicaled  Lohermemoty  his  last  book,  I.uiBiij/riwi  Work  (1901). 
He  preached  a  farewell  sermon  10  the  miners  in  Durham  tathedial 
at  their  annual  festival  on  the  lolh  of  July.  Then  came  a 
•bait,  sudden  illnos,  and  he  passed  away  on  the  >Jth  of  July... 

Weslcoll  was  no  narrow  specialist.  He  had  the  keenest  tove 
rfpoetry,  music  and  ait.  He  wai  himself  no  mean  draugbtsmaa, 
■nd  used  otlea  to  say  thai  if  he  had  not  laken  otdeis  he  would 
iMve  beoime  as  architect.  His  Ulerary  sympathies  were  mde. 
Be  wouM  never  lire  ol  praising  Euripides,  while  lew  men  had 
^ven  such  minute  sludy  to  Ilie  writings  of  Robert  Browning. 
B*  feUowcd  with  ddight  the  devdapmenl  of  natural  tatsce 


stndlci  at  Cambifdie.  Re  spared  to  pafni  to  be  accntWe,  or  to 
widen  the  basis  o[  his  thov^l.  Thus  he  devoted  one  summer 
vacation  lo  the  aielDl  anatyili  of  Cointe's  Pdiliqiit  t^lm. 
He  studied  assiduously  Tkt  Saati  Beeli  cf  He  Easl.t.r\Ao. 


•  of  Chris 


laflord 


philosophy  of  other  reh'gion 
was  wool  to  regard  him  as  a  mystic;  and  the  myilical.  or 

hb  leaching.  He  had  In  Ibis  respect  many  points  of  similarity 
witb  the  Cambridge  Ptatonisia  of  the  T7ih  century,  and  witb 
F.  D.  Maurice,  lor  whom  he  had  prolound  legaid.  Bui  in  other 
lespecU  he  was  very  practical;  and  his  stiengih  ol  will,  his 
learning  and  his  Tom  of  charaeler  made  him  really  mastfriul 

moment.  Hewasastnngsupponerol  Churchreform.espeiMy 
in  Ihe  direction  ol  obtaining  larger  powers  for  the  laity. 

He  kept  himself  aloof  from  all  piny  strife.  He  describes  him- 
self when  he  says,  "  The  student  of  Christian  doctrine,  because 
he  strives  after  exactness  of  phrase,  because  be  is  ctmscicus 
of  the  inadequacy  of  any  one  human  foVmula  to  exhaust  Ibe 
troth,  will  be  filled  with  sympathy  for  every  genuine  erideavour 
towards  the  embodiment  of  li^l  opinion.  Partial  views  itmct 
and  eidsl  in  virtue  of  Ihe  fragment  of  liulh— he  it  great  or 
small — which  they  include;  and  it  is  the  work  of  the  theologian 
to  seize  this  no  less  than  to  detect  Ihe  hrst  spring  of  error.  It  is 
easier  and.  En  one  sense,  it  is  more  impressive  to  make  a  per- 

place  beside  it  to  divergent  eitposlljons;  bul  Lhis  show  of  drar- 
ness  and  power  is  dearly  purehased  at  the  cost  of  Ihe  ennobling 
conviction  that  the  wliole  truth  is  far  greatei  than  our  fndividuil 
minds.  He  who  believes  that  every  Judgment  on  the  highest 
matters  different  from  his  own  is  simply  a  heresy  must  have  a 
mean  idea  of  Ihe  faith;  and  while  the  qualifications,  the  reserve, 
the  lingering  sympathies  of  the  real  student  make  him  in  many 


d  that 


teal  theok^'an  "  {LcsK 
pp.  84-Sj).  His  theological  work  was  always  dlsl 
the  place  which  he  assigned  to  Divine  Kevela' 
Scripluie  and  in  the  leaching  of  history.    His  c 


from  W«k. 
ngulshed  by 
ion  in  Holy 


ontributed  in  England  10  the  better  understanding  of  the 
nes  of  the  Resurrection  and  the  Incarnation.  His  woik 
ijuncllon  with  Horl  upon  the  Creek  teil  of  tlie  New  TesU- 
will  endure  as  one  of  the  greatest  achievements  of  En^sh 
al  criticism.  The  principles  which  are  eqjiained  in  Hoil'i 
luctioato  the  leii  had  been  anived  at  after  yean  of  elabot- 
Lvesligation  and  continual  coirespondenre  and  disctisaioo 
en  Ihe  Iwo  friends.    The  place  nhich  il  almost  at  onct  Unk 

le  was  a  recognttton  of  (he  great  advance  which  it  npie- 
I  in  the  use  and  classillcalion  ol  andent  aulhoritiet.  His 
enlariea  rank  with  Lighlfoot's  as  Ihe  best  type  of  Biblical 
lis  produced  by  the  English  Church  in  (he  19th  century, 
hy  of  Wtrtcoit's  mDit  imponsat 
ni  editions  ;-~£biiwiU(  offJu  Ceifd 


(iBMI;  OiHaaa  Lift  ManilM 
b  JUinni  Xffi  tf  lii  nttHralia 
UmfCMtl'iUin):  CtmmnHuj 
CammnUary  m  Ou  BPlHla  it  S 
'  'd  (iSBaJ:  AkMuh  itflt' 


township  of  Washington  county, 
Idand,  D.SJ^i,  in  the  eitreme  S.W.  pari  ol  the  stale,  al 
44  m.  S.S.W.  irf  Providence,  separated  fnua  OwDecticut  on 
W,  by  the  Pawaln^  Dver,  whidi  lorma  the  mnhciB  bouiK 


WESTERMANN— WESTERN  AUSTRALIA 


539 


of  tke  towofiUp  abo.  Pop.  (1890)  6813,  (1900)  7541,  (1788 
being  foreign-bom  and  185  negroes),  (1905,  state  census)  8381, 
(19x0)  8696.  Area,  about  31  sq.  m.  Westerly  is  served  by  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railway,  and  by  interurban 
dectric  lines  connecting  with  Norwich  and  New  Lcndon,  Conn. 
The  township  includes  several  small  villages,  connected  by 
electric  railways^  the  best  known  being  Watch  Hill,  which  ha» 
fine  sea-bathing.  Larger  villagea  are  Westerly,  in  the  western 
part  of  the  township  and  at  the  bead  of  navigation  (for  small 
vessels)  on  the  Pawcatuck  river,  and  Niantlc,  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  township.  In  Westerly  there  is  a  public 
library  (1894),  with  33,323  volumes  in  1909.  Bey<»id  Watch 
Hill  Point  on  the  SJW.  point  of  an  L-shaped  penfaksula,  running 
first  W.  «id  then  N.,  is  Napatree  Point,  on  which  is  Fort  Mans- 
field, commanding  the  N.E.  entrance  to  Long  Island  Sound. 
The  township  is  the  centte  of  the'granatd  industry  of  the  state; 
the  qnanies  are  near  the  village^  of  Westerly  and  Niantic.  The 
granite  is  of  three  Idnds:  white  statuary  granite,  a  quartz 
moneon^,  with  a  fine  even-grained  texture,  used  extensivdy  for 
moxmments;  bhie  granite,  also  a  quartz  monzonite  imd  also  much 
used  for  monuments;  and  red  granite,  a  biotite  granite,  reddish 
grey  in  colour  and  rather  coarse  in  texture,  used  for  buildin^i.^ 
Among  the  manufactures  are  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  thread 
and  printing  presses.  The  water  supply  is  from  artesian  weUs. 
The  first  settlement  here  was  made  in  i66x,  and  the  township 
was  organized  in  1669,  when  the  present  luime  was  adopted 
instead  of  the  Indian  Misquamicut  (meaning  "  salmon ")  by 
wluch  it  had  been  called.  In  x686  the  name  was  changed  to 
Haversham,  but  in  1689  the  present  name  was  restored. 

See  Frederic  Denison,  Wtsterly  and  its  W&mssesjor  Two  BuHdrtd 
end  Fifty  Years,  1626-1876  (Providence,  R.I.,  1878). 

WESTBRHASNt  FRANCOIS  JOSEPH  (d.  1794).  French 
gniersl,  was  bora  at  Mokheim  in  Alsace.  At  an  early  age  he 
entered  a  cavalry  regiment,  but  soon  left  the  service  and  went  to 
Paris.  He  embraced  enthusiastically  the  ideas  of  the  Revolution , 
and  in  1790  became  ijreffitr  of  the  municipality  of  Haguenau. 
After  a  short  imprisonment  on  a  charge  of  inciting  tmeuUs  af 
Haguenan,  be  returned  to  Paris,  where  be  joined  Danton  and 
played  an  important  part  in  the  attack  on  the  Tuileries  on  the 
zoth  of  August  1792.  He  accompanied  Dumouriez  on  his  cam- 
paigns and  assisted  him  in  his  n^gotiationa  with  the  Austrians, 
being  arrested  as  an  accomplice  after  the  general's  defection. 
He  succeeded,  however,  in  proving  his  innocence,  and  was  sent 
with  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade  into  La  Vendie,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  extraordinary  courage,  by  the 
audacity  of  his  manceuvres,  and  by  his  severe  treatment  of  the 
insurgents.  After  suffering  a  defeat  at  Ch&tillon,  be  vanquished 
the  Vend£ans  at  Beaupr£au,  Laval,  Granville  and  Baug6,  and 
in  December  1793  aimihilated  their  army  at  Le  Mans  and 
Savenay.  He  was  then  summoned  to  Paris,  where  he  was  pro- 
scribed with  the  Dantonist  party  and  executed  on  the  5th  of 

April  1794. 
See  P.  Holl,  Nos  gitUraux  alsaciens  . . .  Westermanu  (StraMburg, 

1900)- 

WESIERN  AUSTRALIA,  a  British  colonial  state,  forming 
part  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia.  (For  Map,  see  Avs- 
TSALIA.)  This  portion  of  Australia  lies  to  the  west  of  129*  £. 
long.,  forming  oonsidoaUy  more  than  on^third  of  the  whole;  it 
has  an  area  of  1,060,000  aq.  m.,  is  1400  m.  in  length  and  S$o 
in  breadth,  and  has  a  coast-line  of  3500  m.  It  is  divided  into 
five  districts—Central,  Central  Eastern,  South-Baatem,  North 
and  Kimbcrley.  The  Central  or  settled  district,  in  the  south- 
west, is  dividixi  into  twenty>«ix  counties.  Apart  from  the  coast 
lands,  the  map  presents  almost  a  blank,  as  the  major  portion  is 
practically  a  d:^  waste  of  stone  and  sand,  rdieved  by  a  few 
shallow  salt  lakea.  The  rivers  of  the  south  are  small^-the  Black- 
wood being  the  most  considerable.  To  the  north  of  this  are  the 
Murray,  the  well-known  Swan,  the  Moore,  the  Greenough  and 
the  Murchison.  The  last  is  400  m.  k>ng.  Shark's  Bay  recdvea 
the  Gascoyne  (200  m.  bn|0,  with  its  tribuury  the  Lyons. 

>  See  T.  N.  Dale.  The  Chi^  Commental  Granites  of  iiassachiseUs, 
Nev  Hampshire  and  Rhode  Island  (Washington,  1908).  Bulletin 
3^  of  the  United  States  Geological  Sorvey. 


Stin  farther  north,  where  the  coast  trends  eastward,  the  principal 
rivers  are  the  Ashburton,  the  Fortescue  and  the  De  Grey. 
Kiinberley  district  to  the  north-east  has  some  fine  streams — the 
Fitzroy  and  Ord  and  their  tributaries,  on  some  of  which  (the 
Mary,  Elvira,  &c.)  are  the  goldfields,  250  m.  south  of  Cambridge 
Gulf.  The  Darling  mountain  range  is  in  the  south-west.  Mount 
William  reaching  3000  fL;  in  the  same  quarter  are  Toolbrunup 
(3341  ft.),  Ellen's  Peak  (3420),  and  the  Stirling  and  Victoria 
ranges.  Gardner  and  Moresby  are  flat-topped  ranges.  Mount 
Elizabeth  rises  behind  Perth.  Hampton  tableland  overlooks  the 
Bight.  In  the  north-west  are  Mount  Bruce  (4000  ft.),  Augustus 
(5580),  Dalganmger  (2x00),  Barlee,  Pyrton  and  the  Capricorn 
rangew  Kimberky  has  the  King  Leopold,  M'Clintock,  Albtft 
Edward,  Hardman,  Geikie,  Napier,  Lubbock,  Oscar,  Mueller 
and  St  George  ranges.  The  lake  district  of  the  interior  is  in  the 
Gibson  and  Victoria  deserts  from  24**  to  32^  S.  The  lakes  receive 
the  triflhig  drainage  of  that  low  re^on.  Almost  all  of  them  are 
salt  from  the  presence  of  saline  mart 

Geology. — ^The  mala  mass  of  Wcstralia  consists  of  a  vast  block  of 
Archean  rocka,  which  forms  the  whole  of  the  western  half  of  the 
Australian  contineni;.  The  rocks  form  a  plateau,  which  faces  the 
coast,  in  a  series  of  scarps,  usually  a  short  distance  inland.  The 
edge  of  this  plateau  is  separated  from  the  Southern  Ocean  by  the 
NuUarixH*  Uroestoofls,  at  the  head  of  the  Great  Australian  Bight; 
but  they  giaduaily  become  nairower  to  the  west;  and  the  Archean 
rocks  r^ch  the  coast  at  Port  Dempster  and  to  the  east  of  Esperance 
Bay.  Toencc  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Archean  rocks  extends 
due  west,  while  the  coast  trends  southward,  and  is  separated  by  a 
belt  of  Lower  Palaeoxoic  and  Mesozoic  deposits;  but  the  reappear- 
ance of  the  granitic  rocks  at  King  George  Sound  and  Albany  may  be 
due  to  an  outlier  of  the  Archean  tableland.  Alons  the  western 
ooBst,  the  scajp  of  the  Archean  plateau  forms  the  IJarling  Range 
behind  Penh.  Further  north,  behind  Shark's  Bay,  the  plateau 
recedes  from  the  coast,  and  trends  north-westwara  through  the 
HamiAenley  Mountains  and  the  highlands  of  Pilbarra.  The 
Archean  rocks  underlie  the  Kimberley  Goldfield;  but  they  ate 
separated  from  the  main  Archean  plateau  to  the  south  b^  the 
Lower  Palaeoeoic  rocks,  which  extend  up  the  basin  of  the  Fitzroy 
river  and  form  the  King  Leopold  and  Oscar  Ranges. 

The  Archean  rocks  are  of  most  interest  from  the  auriferous  lodes 
which  occur  in  them.  The  Archean  rocks  of  the  area  between  the 
Darling  Range  and  the  ^Idfield  of  Coolgardie  were  classified  by 
H.  P.  \Voodward  into  su  parallel  belts,  running  northward  and 
southward,  but  with  a  slight  trend  to  the  west.  The  westernmost 
belt  consists  of  clay  slates,  quartzitcs  and  schbts,  and  is  traversed 
by  dyke*  <^  diorite  and  felstone;  the  belt  forms  the  western  foot 
of  the  Archean  plateau,  along  the  edge  of  the  coastal  plain.  The 
aeoond  belt  coesists  of  gneisses  and  schistSj  and  forms  the  western 
part  of  the  Archean  plateau.  Its  chief  mineral  deposit  is  tin,  in 
the  Green-bushes  tiiwfieki,  and  various  other  minerals,  such  as 
graphite  and  asbestoe.  Then  follows  a  wide  belt  of  granitic  rocks; 
It  has  ao.  permanent  surface  water  and  is  bare  <4  minerals,  and, 
therefoce,  lermed  for  a  long  time  an  effective  barrier  to  the  settle- 
ment or  proepecring  of  the  country  to  the  east.  This  granitic  band 
ends  to  the  cast  in  the  first  auriferous  belt,  which  ext«ids  from  the 
Philtipa  river,  oa  the  southern  coast,,  to  Southern  Cross,  on  the  Perth 
to  Kalgoorlie  railway;  thenoe  it  goes  through  Mount  Magnet,  Lake 
Austin  and  the  Murchieoa  Goldneki  at  Nannine,  and  through  the 
Peak  Goldfield  to  the  beads  of  the  Gascoyne  and  Ashburton  rivers. 
To  the  east  of  this  bdt  is  a  barren  band  of  granites  and  gneisses, 
succeeded  aoain  eastward  by  the  second  aunferous  belt,  including. 
the  chief  ffoUifieids  of  Westralia.  They  begin  on  the  south  with  the 
Dundas  Ooldfidd,  and  the  mining  centre  of  Norseman;  then  to 
the  north  follow  the  goklfields  of  Kalgoorlie,  with  its  GoMen  Mile  at 
Boulder,  and  the  now  less  important  field  of  Coolgardie.  This  line 
oontinaes  thenoe  through  the  goldfields  of  Leonora  and  Mount 
Margaret,  and  reappean  behind  the  western  coast  in  the  rabana 
Golofidd.  The  rocks  of  the  goldfields  consist  of  amphoboUte-schiats 
and  other  bade  schists,  traversed  by  dykes  of  granite,  diorite  and 
porphyrite,  with  some  pcrklotites.  Some  of  the  amohibolitcs  have 
been  crushed  and  then  silidfied  into  jasperokls,  so  that  they  much 
resemble  attend  sedimentary  slates. 

The  Pakcoaoic  group  is  represented  by  the  Cambrian  rocks  of  the 
Kimberley  Goldfidd,  which  have  yielded  OUneilus  forrestL    There 

3>pear  to  be  no  certaia  representatives  of  the  Ordovician  system; 
hile  the  Silurian  is  represented  in  the  King  Leopold  Range  of 
Kimberiey,  and,  according  to  H.  P.  Woodward,  in  the  contorted. 
unfoaailUferous  quartrites  and  shales  of  the  Stirling  Range,  north  of 
Albany.  The  Upper  Palaeozok  b  well  represented  by  an  area  of 
some  2000  sq.  m.  of  Devonian  sedimentary  and  volcanic,  rocks  m 
the  Kimberiey  district,  and  by  the  Carboniferous  system^ncluding 
both  a  fewer,  marine  type,  and  an  upper,  terrestrial  type.  The  Lowe 
Cartxmifcrous  limestones  occur  in  the  Napier,  Oscar  and  Geikie 
Ranges  of  Kimberiey.  and  in  the  basin  of  the  Gascoyne  nver,  where 
they  contain  the  gladal  deposits  diicovned  by  Gibb-MMthmd* 


540 


WESTERN  AUSTRALIA 


betwetn  tlie  Woommel  aiid  Miralyit  nvtn.  The  ufjper  and  tcrrcArial 
^pq  of  the  Carboniferous  include  sandstone*  with  Stigmana  and 
tcpidodendron  in  the  Kimberlcy  district,  and  the  coals  of  the  Irwin 
coalfield,  the  age  of  which  is  proved  by  the  intcrst ratification  of  the 
coal  seams  with  beds  containing  Produeius  nibquadraius,  Cyrtina 
carbonaria  and  Aviathpecle*  subomttguttimaius,  Tbe  Mesosoic 
rocks  were  discovered  in  1861,  and  their  chief  outcrop  is  along  the 
western  coast  plains  of  Westralia  between  Geraldton  and  F^rth. 
They  have  been  pierced  by  many  bores  put  down  for  artesian  wells. 
The  fossils  indicate  a  Lower  JuiasMcage;  and,  according  to  Etheridge, 
flome  of  the  fossils  are  Lower  Cretaceoua;  The  Collie  ooalfield,  to 
the  east  of  Bunbury,  is  generally  regarded  as  Meaozoic  Its  coal  is 
inferior  in  quality  to  that  of  Eastern  Australia,  and  contains  on  an 
average  of  34  analyses  11*77%  of  moisture,  and  8'63%  of 
ash.  Aocordmg  to  Etheridge  its  a^  is  Perm^-Carboniferoiis.  The 
Kainozoic  rocks  include  the  manne  limeMonca  in  the  NuUarbor 
Plains  at  the  head  of  the  Great  Australian  Bight,  whence  they 
extend  inland  for  150  m.  They  have  no  surface  water,  but  the  rain- 
fall In  this  district  nourishes  artesian  wells.  The  occurrence  of 
marine  Kainozoic  beds  under  the  western  ooactal  plain  is  proved 
by  the  bores,  as  at  Carnarvon,  where  tlsey  appear  to  oe  over  looo  ft. 
in  thickness.  The  coastal  region  also  includes  sheets  of  clav  and 
sandstone,  with  deposits  of  brown  coal  as  on  the  Fitzgeralcf  river 
on  the  southern  coast,  and  in  the  basin  of  the  Gascoyne.  The 
Archean  plateau  of  the  interior  is  covered  by  wide  sheets  of  sub* 
aerial  ana  lacustrine  deposits,  which  have  accumulated  in  the  basins 
and  river  valic>'s.  They  include  mottled  clavs,  lateritic  ironstones 
and  conglomerates.  In  places  the  materials  have  been  roughly 
assorted  by  river  action ,  as  in  the  deep  lead  of  Kanowna.  The  clays 
contain  the  bones  of  the  Diprotodon,  so  that  they  are  probably  of 
Upper  Pliocene  or  Pleistocene  age.  The  Kainoeoic  volcanic  period 
of  Australia  is  represented  by  the  basalts  of  Bunbury  and  Black 
Point,  cast  of  Flinders  Bay. 

A  bibliography  of  Wcstralian  geology  has  been  issued  by  Maitland, 
Bulletin  C^l.  Survey,  No.  i,  1898.  An  excellent  summary  of  the 
mineral  wealth  of  the  state  has  been  |;iven  by  Maitland,  Bulletin  8, 
Ko.  4,  1900,  pp.  7-2%,  also  issued  in  the  Year-book  of  Western 
Australia.  The  main  literature  of  the  geology  of  Westralia  is  in  the 
Bulletins  of  the  Geol.  Survey,  and  in  the  reports  of  the  Mines  De- 
partment. A  general  account  of  the  gold^mining  has  been  given 
by  A.  G.  Charieton,  1903;  and  also  by  Donald  Clark.  Australiam 
Mining  and  Metallurgy  (1904).  0«  W.  G.) 

Flora. — Judged  by  its  vegetable  forms.  Western  Australia' would 
ecem  to  be  older  tlan  eastern  Australia,  South  Australia  being  of 
intermediate  age.  Indian  relations  appear  on  the  northern  side, 
and  South  African  on  the  western.  There  are  fewer  Antarctic  and 
Polynesian  representatives  than  in  the  eastern  cok>iue8.  European 
forms  are  extremely  scarce.  Compared  with  the  other  side  of 
Australia,  a  third  of  the  genera  on  the  south-west  is  almost  wanting 
in  the  south<east.  In  the  tatter,  55,  having  more  than  ten  species 
each,  have  1260  species;  but  the  former  has  as  many  in  55  of  its 
80  genera.  Of  those  55,  36  are  wanting  in  the  south-east,  and  17 
are  absolutely  peculiar.  There  are  fewer  natural  orders  and  genera 
westward,  but  more  species.  Baron  von  MttUer  declared  that 
*'  ncariy  half  of  the  whole  vegetation  of  the  Australian  continent  has 
been  traced  to  within  the  boundaries  of  the  Western  Australian 
territory."  He  includes  9  Malvaceae.  6  Euphorbiaceae,  2  Rabiaceae, 
9  Proteaceae,  47  Leguminosae,  10  Myrtaceae,  I3  Conyocitae, 
5  Labiatae,  6  Cyperaccae,  i^  Convomilaceae,  16  Graminoae,  3 
Filices,  10  Amaranthaccae.  Yet  over  500  of  its  tropical  species 
are  identified  with  those  of  India  or  Indian  Islands.  While  seven- 
tenths  of  the  orxkrs  reach  their  maximum  south-west,  three-tenths 
do  so  south-cast.  Cypress  pines  abound  in  the  north,  and  ordinary 
pines  in  Rottncst  Island.  Sandalwood  iSantalum  cygnontm)  ts 
exported.  The  gouty  stem  baobab  (Adanumia)  is  in  toe  tropics. 
Xanthorrkota,  the  grass  tree,  abounds  in  sandy  districts.  Mangrove 
bark  yields  a  purple  tan.  Palms  and  xamias  begin  in  the  north- 
west. Tbe  Melaleuca  Leucadendron  is  the  paperbark  tree  of  settlers. 
The  rigid-leafed  Banksia  is  known  as  the  honeysuckle.  Casuannae 
are  the  he  and  she  oaks  of  colonists,  and  the  Execarpus  is  thdr 
cherry  tree.  Beautiful  flowering  slinibs  distinguish  the  south-west; 
and  the  deserts  arc  ail  ablaze  with  6ower8  after  a  fall  of  ram. 
Poison  plants  are  generally  riiowy  Leguninosac,  Sula  and  tbe 
Castrohbium. 

The  timber  trees  of  the  south-west  are  almost  unequalled.  Of 
the  Eucalypts,  the  jarrah  or  mahogany^  E.  maranala,  as  first  for 
value.  It  runs  over  five  degrees  01  htitude,  and  its  wood  resists 
the  terrdo  and  the  ant.  Sir  Malcolm  Eraser  assicns  14.000  sq.  m. 
to  the  jarrah,  10.000  to  B.  viminalis^  ajoo  to  the  karri  <£.  tclotfta 
or  E.  diifersicotor),  2400  to  York  gum  (£.  l&xoplUebah  800  to  the  a>cd 
gum  (E.  ealophylla)  and  900  to  tuart  or  native  pear  (£.  gompko- 
cepkala).  Not  much  good  wood  is  got  whhin  ao  m.  of  the  coast. 
The  coachbutldcr's  coorup  rises  over  300  ft.  Morrcl  furnishes  good 
timber  and  nch  oil.  An  ever-increasing  txade  is  done  ia  the  timber 
of  the  south-western  forests. 

fauna  —Among  the  mammals  are  the  Macropu^  gieanUus,  M. 
irma,  M  dama,  M  brachyurusj  iMiorthesUs  foscMtus,  Btitongia 
penicillala,  Phalanguta  vulpecula,  Fseudoekinu  cookit  Dasyums 
geoffroyt,  Tarstpes  rostratus,  AnkckutMS  apicaliSt  Peramdes  ^oegtda, 
Ftramdes  my^urus^  MyrmtcfbiM*  Jastiatm,    Fosail  foans  paitoke 


of  the  eidstinK  mafbupial  chanKter,  Diprtati&u  bdflg  tlBed  to  Ibe 
wombat  and  Kangaroo.  Nail-bearing  kangaroos  are  in  the  north- 
west ;  the  banded  one,  size  of  a  rabtnt.  is  on  Shark's  Bay.  Noctunml 
phalangere  live  in  holes  of  trees  or  in  the  ground.  Carnivorous 
Pkascogalae  are  found  in  south-west.  There  are  thrte  kinds  of 
wombat.  The  rocfc-loving  manopial  Osphmntor  is  only  in  the 
north-east,  and  Perapulcs  bongatmnllei  at  Shark's  Bay.  The 
dalgyte  or  Peirogale  lagoiU  is  at  Swan  river  and  Bvpsiprymnus  in 
the  south.  The  colony  has  only  two  species  of  wallabies  to  five  in 
New  Soudi  Wales.  The  Halmaturus  of  the  Abrolhos  is  a  sort  of 
wallaby :  a  very  degant  species  is  18  in.  hmg.  The  pretty  Dtmncm, 
<!^  in.  long,  lives  on  stamens  and  nectarj  like  the  Tarsipes,  having  a 
brush  at  the  tip  of  its  tongue;  its  tail  uprehensile.  The  hare-nke 
tagorchestes  fautatus  is  a  great  leaper.  The  HapaloHs  of  the  interidr 
has  nests  in  trees.  Beaver  nts  and  other  small  rodents  are  trouble- 
some,  and  bats  are  numerous*  The  dingo  U  the  wild  dog.  The 
platypus  {OmUkor^mckus)  and  the  JBckidna  are  the  only  iwms  of 
the  Monotremata,  The  seal,  whale  and  dvsong  occur  in  tM  adjacent 
seas. 

The  west  is  not  to  rldi  as  the  east  of  Australia  ia  biids.  Maay 
forms  are  absent  and  othets  but  pooriy  icpresentad.  tbeu^  some 
are  j>eculiar  to  tbe  west.  The  timSercd  south-west  has  the  greatest 
variety  of  birds,  which  are  scarce  enough  in  the  dry  and  treeless 
interior.  Of  lizards  the  west  has  12  genera  not  found  in  eastera 
Australia.  Of  snakes  there  are  but  15  spedes  to  3  ia  Tasmania 
and  31  in  New  South  Wales.  While  the  jpoisoooos  sorts  are  2  to  2 
in  the  cast,  they  are  l  to  I  in  the  west.  The  turtle  is  obtained  as 
an  article  of  food.  The  freshwater  fishes  are  not  al!  like  those  <rf 
the  east.  They  include  the  mullet,  snapper,  ring  fish,  guard  fidh, 
bonita,  rock  cod,  shark,  saw  fish,  parrot  fish  and  oobUcr.  Under 
the  head  of  fisheries  may  be  mcntioaed  the  pearl  oyafeeiv  which  is 
dived  for  by  natives  at  bhark's  Bay;  the  trqiang  or  b6cne-de-mer 
is  also  met  with  in  the  north.  Insects  are  well  represented,  especially 
Coleoptera,  Lepidoptera,  Hymenoptera,  Hemipten  and  Diptera. 

CNsmUs.— With  uttle  or  no  cola  anywhere,  the  heat  of  summer 
over  the  whole  area  is  coosidemble.  Western  Australia  differs 
from  the  country  to  the  east  in  haviag  no  extensive  ranges  to  collect 
vapour,  while  the  trade  winds  blow  c«  the  dry  land  instead  of  from 
the  ocean ;  for  these  two  reasons  tbe  climate  is  vety  dry.  Thunder- 
storms often  supply  almost  the  only  rainfall  in  the-  ipterior.  The 
9outh«wcstem  comer,  the  seat  of  settlements.  Is  the  only  portion 
where  rains  can  be  depended  on  for  cukivation;  but  even  there  few 
places  have  a  rainfall  of  40  in.  As  one  goes  northward  the  moisture 
lessens.  The  north-west  and  all  the  coast  along  to  Kimbtfley.  with 
most  of  that  district,  suffer  much  from  dryness.  The  north-east 
comes  In  summer  within  the  sphere  of  the  nottb-ireat  snonsoons, 
though  just  over  the  low  coast-range  few  ahowexs  are  kaowa.  The 
south  coast,  exposed  to  polar  breezes,  with  uninterrupted  sea,  has 
to  endure  len^hened  droughts.  In  the  Swan  river  quarter  the 
rainfall  is  in  winter,  being  brought  by  north-west  winds,  and  summer 
days  have  little  moisture.  While  the  south  wind  cooU  the  settled 
rcgk>n,  it  comes  over  the  parched  interior  to  the  northcm  lands. 
The  hot  wind  of  Swan  river  is  from  the  east  and  north-cast ;  but  it 
is  from  the  south  in  summer  to  Kimberley  and  the  north-west.  In 
one  season  the  land  breeze  is  hot,  in  another  000),  but  always  dry. 

The  climate  of  Perth  is  typical  of  the  south-'Westcra  diacncts. 
There  are  two  distinct-  seasons,  the  winter  aad  thesitiamcv.  Tbe 
winter  ooromenoes  somewhat  abruptly.  Ixing  ushered  in  by  heavy 
rams;  it  begins  usually  not  earlier  than  the  middle  of  April  or 
later  than  the  middle  of  May,  and  continues  until  towards  uie  end 
of  October  Thewinteraare,  asa  mle,  very  niild,biit  tbaeisaoaie 
cold  weather  u  July  and  AugcMt,  .and  though  there  ia  little  at  the 
coasti  frost  is  not  lUKonunon  inland  The  summer  is  heralded  by 
an  occasional  hot  day  in  October,  in  November  the  weather  becomes 
settled  and  continues  warm  until  the  end  of  Match  In  the  four 
months.  December  to  March,  the  maximum  temperature  in  the  shade 
exceeds  90*  on  an  average  on  37  days,  but  as  a  rule  the  heat  docs 
not  last  fang,  the  evmungs  aaa  mgnti  bang  ttapeicd  by  a  cool 
breeze. 

In  the  interior  the  climate  resembles  that  of  the  south-west  m 
regard  to  tbe  occurrence  of  two  seasons  only  The  winter,  however, 
has  much  less  ram  than  on  the  coast,  and  is  cold,  clear  and  Inacfaig 
The  summer  is,  as  a  rule,  hot.  but  is  tempered  m  the  south  1^ 
occasional  cool  changes,  though  unrelievoa  as  the  tropic  is  ap- 
proached. Within  the  tropics  there  are  two  seasons,  the  wet  and 
the  dry.  The  wet  season  is  most  unpleasant,  the  temperature 
rarely  tailing  below  100*;  the  4ry  season,  which  lasts  from  April 
to  Novonber,  is  usually  fine,  dear  and  calm.  The  average  ruaiall 
at  Perth  b  33  in*  falling  on  no  days;  the  mean  maximum  tempera- 
ture b  74*9^  and  the  minimum  54*-^* :  ^^  Coofgardie  the  ibesn 
maximum  a  77-8*  and  the  mean  minimum  52-4^;  at  Wyndhani, 
on  the  north-west  coast,  the  mean  maximum  is  93>9*  and  the  mini- 
mum 75*4*. 

Populati0n.—TopahLtiot\  made  very  dow  Increase  under  the 
old  conditions  of  settlement,  and  even  -when  gold  was  discovered 
in  1882  at  Kimbcriey,  and  five  years  later  at  Yilgam,  no  great 
impetus  was  ^ivcn  to  the  colony,  and  at  the  census  of  1891  ^ 
popiilation  was  still  under  50,000.    tht  sensational  gold  findi 


WESTERN  AUSTRALIA 


S+i 


U  Coolgardic  in  1898,  iiowerer,  had  a  most  importsnt  inflncnnw  in 
drawing  population,  aod  in  three  and  a  half  yean  the  population 
was  doubled:  during  a  portion  of  this  time  the  rush  of  minen 
to  the  gold-fields  was  so  great  as  to  be  reminisoent  of  the  ex- 
perienoe  of  the  eastern  colonies  during  the  'fifties..  At  the  end 
of  X905  the  population  was.  154,779,  comprising  150,495  males 
and  104,^84  females.  The  slowness  of  the  early  growth  and  the 
more  rapid  strides  of  later  years  will  be  gathered  from  the  fdlow- 
ing  figurus:  pop.  (i860)  X5»337>  (1870)  35,084,  (1880)  29,019, 
(1890)  46,190,  (189s)  101,338,  (X90X)  X941889.  The  chief 
towns  of  Western  Australia  are:  Perth— the  CBpital — 56,000, 
Fremantle  23,008,  Kalgoorlie  6780,  Boulder  5658^  The  luimber 
of  people  in  all  gold-field  towns  fluctuates  very  greatly.  Cool- 
gardie,  for  example,  was  leturaed  u  July  1894  aa  having  within 
its  municipal  boundaries  za,ooo  people;  in  1905  it  had  only  3830* 

The  birthi  during  1905  Bumbered  9582  aad  the  deatha  3709«  the 
rateft^per  thousand  of  population  beii^;  respectively  30*30  and  10-83, 
■howing  a  net  increment  of  X9-47  per  1000.  In  the  period  1861- 
1865  the  birth-rate  was  39*07  per  looo.  Between  1886  and  1890 
it  stood  at  36*88;  then  came  a  rapid  decline,  and  in  1896  was 
nached  the  low  level  of  32*67  per  1000.  In  1901  the  rate  was 
30 '34  per  1000.  The  decline  in  the  birth-rates  has  Been  a  coaunon 
experience  of  all  the  Australian  states;  in  Western  Australia  it  was 
due  in  a  large  degree  to  the  decline  in  the  proportion  of  females  to 
males.  In  1870  the  females  numbered  62  %  of  the  males,  and  in 
1880  75%,  while  in  X895  the  proportion  was  only  ^5%.  The 
illegitimate  births  during  1905  were  4*19  %  of  the  total  births.  The 
death-rate,  which  in  1807  was  16-99  per  io<m>  has  steadily  declined 
in  recent  years.  The  large  influx  of  young  unmarried  men  in  the 
years  1894-1898  was  followed  by  the  arri^^  of  a  large  number  c^ 
nngle  women,  and  the  marriage-rates  increased  from  7  per  1000  in 
the  five  years  1891-X895  to  io*7  per  lOOO  in  1697.  la  lOQS  the  rate 
stood  at  the  more  normal  level  of  8*d8.  Except  for  a  slignt  influx 
of  population  in  the  three  years  188^-1887,  due  to  the  gold  dis- 
coveries at  Kimberiey,  there  was  very  little  immigration  to  Westmi 
Australia  prior  to  189 1 ;  in  that  year,  however,  there  was  a  consider- 
able inpouring  of  population  from  the  eastern  coknies,  notably 
from  Victoria  and  South  Australia,  and  in  the  seven  years  which 
closed  with  1897  the  population  of  the  colony  gained  nearly  1 10,000 
by  immigration  alone.  In  1898  there  was  still  a  larj^  inflow  of 
population,  but  the  outflow  was  also  great,  and  in  1898  and  the 
following  year  the  two  streams  balanced  one  another;  but  1900 
showed  an  excess  of  6000,  and  1905  of  7617  gained  by  imnngration. 

Western  Austnlia  is  the  most  tpanely  populated  of  aH  the 
states;  only  the  coastal  fringe  and  tho  goM-fidds  show  any 
evidences  of  settlement,  and  if  the  area  were  divided  amon^rt 
the  population  there  would  be  but  ten  persons  to  52  sq.  m. 
The  population  is  almost  exclusively  of  British  origin,  and  only 
differs  fxom  that  of  the  other  states  In  that  there  is  a  larger 
body  of  Anstialiaii-boni,  who  are'itot  natives  of  the  colony 
itself.  About  45%  of  the  population  are  members  of  the 
Church  of  England;  pne^ouith  belong  to  other  Protestant 
denominations,  and  one-fourth  are  Roman  Catholics. 

Admittistr^Hon.-^ln  1890  Western  Australia,  up  to  that 
time  a  cxown  ccismy  administered  by  a  governor,  was  granted 
responsible  govemmenL  The  le^dative  authority  is  vested 
in  a  parliament  composed  of  two  Houses — a  Le^slative  Councfl, 
whose  thirty  members  are  elected  for  six  years,  and  a  Legislative 
Assembly  of  fifty  members,  elected  by  adult  suffrage  (men  aod 
women).  As  a  portion  of  the  Commonwealth,  Western  Australia 
sends  six  senators  and  five  representatives  to  the  federal  parlia- 
ment. In  a  country  so  sparsely  settled  mtmidpal  government 
haa  little  scope  for  operation. 

So  far  forty-four  municipalities  have  been  gazetted.  Beddes 
the  municipalities  there  are  district  roads  boards,  dected  by 
the  ratepayers  of  their  respective  districts, to  take  diarge  of  the 
formation,  construction  and  maintenance  of  the  public  roads 
throughout'  their  districts.  There  were  in  2905  ninety-fonr  such 
boards  ui  existence.  Some  of  the  districts  are  of  enormous  sixe: 
Pilbarra,  lor  example,  has  an  area  of  24,356  sq.  m.;  Cool- 
gardie  North  has  75,968  sq.  m.;  Nullagine  has  90,438  sq.  m., 
and  the  Upper  Gascoyne  has  136,000  sq.  m.  Over  areas  so  vast 
little  effective  work  can  be  accomplisbed,  but  where  the  districts 
are  small  the  administration  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  munid- 
palMes.  The  recdpts  from  rates  of  all  local  districts  in  1905 
was  £104^760,  and  the  ffrants  by  the  govemmept  £80,938,  making 
a  total  ol  iitsA^ 


EAiMMofi.— Attendance  at  school  is  coapnlaory  upon  all  diOdren 
over  six  years  and  under  fourteen  years  of  age.  Inatniction  is 
imparted  only  itk  secalar  aubjects,  but  the  law  allows  special  religious 
teaching  to  be  given  during  hall  an  hour  each  day  by  clergymen  to 
children  of  their  own  denomination.  Childreif  can  claim  free  educa* 
tion  on  account  of  inability  to  pay  fees,  of  living  more  than  a 
mile  from  school,  or  of  having  attended  school  for  more  than  400 
half-days  during  the  precediag  yea^  The  state  expended  in  1905 
iiSitSHS  00  public  Instructxm,  the  great  bulk  of  which  was 
devoted  to  primary  schools.  The  number  <^  schoob  supported  by 
the  state  in  that  year  was  335,  the  teachers  numbered  888,  the 
net  enrolment  of  scholars  was  27,978,  and  the  average  attendance 
23t703.  Ther^were  in  1905  99  pnvate  schoob  with  390  teachera 
and  7353  scholars,  the  average  attendance  being  6128. 

Judq^  by  the  number  of  persons  arrested,  crime  is  more  prevalent 
than  in  any  other  part  of  Australia.  The  gold-fields  have  attracted 
some  of  the  best  aad  most  enterprising  of  the  Australian  population ; 
at  the  same  time  many  undesuable  persona  flocked  to  fhe  state 
expecting  to  leapa  harvest  in  the  movement  and  confusion  of  the 
gold  diggings.  These  latter  form  a  large  part  of  the  criminal 
population  of  the  state.  The  arresta  in  1905  numbered  14.646, 
of  which  2104  were  for  serious  offences;  so  that  for  every  thousand 
of,  the  popuUtton  49  were  arrested  for  trivial  and  8  for  aerioua 
Crimea. 

Finance.— The  disooimry  of  gold  and  the  settlement  on  the  gold- 
fields  of  a  laige  popuUtion,  for  the  most  part  consumers  of  dumble 
goods,  has  entirely  revolutionized  the  public  finances  of  the  statew 
In  1891  the  revenue  waa  £497.670,  that  la,  £10, 153.  per  inhabitant ; 
m  189s  it  rose  to  £1,125.941,  or  £ia,  xos.  per  mhabitaat;  and  in 
1897  to  £a,8«2,75>i  or  £20.  12s.  2d.  per  inhabitant.  For  1905  the 
figurea  were  isMs^SM^*  or  £14, 18s.  50.  per  inhabitant.  The  chief 
souroea  of  itvenue  in  1905  were:  customs  and  excise,  £1,027,898; 
other  taxation,  £221.738;  railways,  £1,629,956;  public  lands 
Gndudittg  mining),  £2O7.90ft;  all  other  sources.  £527,843.  The 
expenditure  haa  nsen  with  the  levenne,  the  figures  tor  1905  being 
£3.7451324,  equal  to  £1^.  9s.  2d.  per  head  of  population.  The  chief 
Items  of  expenditure  m  1905  were:  raUway  working  expenses, 


ugust  __,_ 

an  act  was  passed  authorizing  the  raising  of  certain  sums  for  the 
construction  of  public  works;  in  x88l  the  amount  owing  was  not 
more  than  £5x1,000,  and  in  189X  only  £1.613,000  or  £30^  ss.  8d.  per 
mhabitant;  from  the  year  last  named  the  indebl^ness  has  in- 
creased by  leaps  and  bounds,  and  in  1905  had  mounted  up  to 
£i6j642,773«  a  aum  equal  to  £66,  loe.  id.  per  iahabitant,  involving 
an  interest  charge  of  £574i406  or  £2,  5s.  id.  per  inhabitant.  The 
proceeds  of  the  loaqs  were  used  largely  for  the  purpose  of  railway 
extension— the  expenditure  on  this  service  at  the  middle  of  1900 
was  £9,618.070;  on  water  supply  and  sewerage  works,  i>.89249o; 
on  telegraplM  and  telephones,  £269.308;  on  harbour  and  nver 
improvements,  £2,182,539;  on  devetopment  of  goki-ficlds,  £973,082; 
on  development  of  agriculture,  £597.189. 

D^ence.— The  kical  defence  force  of  Western  Australia  in  1905 
comprised  ^7  permanent  artflkrymen,  772  militia,  580  voUinteers, 
and  2534  riflemen—^  total  of  3943.  The  defence  of  the  state  ia 
undertaken  by  the  federal  government. 

Aftii«raii.— -Gold-mining  is  the  main  industry,  and  in  1905  16,832 
miners  were  directly  engaged  in  it;  as  large  a  number  is  indirectly 
engaged  in  the  industry.  Gold,  rilver,  coal,  tin  and  copper  are  the 
chietnuncrals  mined;  the  mineral  production  of  the  state  in  1905 

The  value  of  the  gold  produced  was 

with  1904.  The 
year  amounted 


cniet  nuncrais  mmca;  tne  mineral  production  01  th< 
was  valued  at  £8,555,841.    The  value  (tf  the  gold 
£8.305,654,  a  falling  off  of  £118,572  as  compared  wi 

dividends  paid  by  the  gold-mining  companies  Tor  that , 

to  £2.167,639  as  against  £2,050,^  in  1904.    Up  to  1905  the  total 
recorded  mineral  produaion  of  Western  Australia  amounted  in 


value  to  £65.012,409— «okl  representing  £63,170,9x1  of  that  sum; 
while  £i3>739.842  had  been  paid  in  dividends. 

Western  Australia  ranks  as  the  largest  gold  producer'  of  the 
Australian  group.  Coal  is  worked  at  Collie,  25  m.  E.  of  Bunbury: 
boring  operations  which  had  been  going  on  between  Greenough  ana 
Mullewa  on  the  Geraldton-Cue  railway  tine  were  discontinued  in 
i^K,  the  bore  hole,  carried  to  a  depth  of  1418  ft.  having  failed  to 
disclose  any  coal  seams.  The  eicport  of  copper  in  1905  was  valued 
at  £16,266;  of  tin.  £86.840;  of  suver,  £44,278.  The  value  of  the 
coal  produced  in  that  )rear  was  £55.312. 

Industries. — The  agricultural  possibilities  of  the  state  are  more 
restricted  than  those  of  the  eastern  states,  as  the  rainfall  in  the 
southern  and  temperate  portion  does  not  extend  far  from  the  coast, 
and  the  land  where  the  Tall  is  satisfactory  is  only  good  over  small 
areas.  The  area  cultivated  in  1871  was  52,000  acres;  in  188 1  it 
was  53,000  acres;  in  1891,  64,000  acres;  and  in  1905,  A67.122 
acres.  The  principal  crops  grown  in  the  year  last  named  were: 
wheat,  195,071  acres;  oats,  15,713  acres;  hay,  124,906  acres. 
The  wheat  yield  was  11-83  bushels  per  acre,  and  the  hay  crop  i'i2 
tonspcracre.  In i905thenumberoi8heepdepasturedwas3, 130,703; 
cattle.  631,825;  horses,  97.397.  These  figures  show  an  increase  for 
an  classes  of  stock.  Tnere  are  in  the  state  about  2000  camels. 
The  number  of  sheep  has  increased  considerably  in  late  years.  In 
1871,  2.000,000  lb  of  wool  were  exported;  in  1881,  4,100,000  lb;  to 


S^  WEST  HAM— WEST  INDIES 

PirpndCnlir,  vilh  in  Culy  En^di  tencr,  ud  taa 


isively  iTJtortd.  There  >i 
of  [866  K 


WBST  HAM.  (  municipal,  CDUDly,  ud  pariitmentuy  borougfa 
«f  Euex,  Ed^uii1»  fonuQg  aa  cBitmid  nibuFb  c[  Loadun. 
Pop.  UBgi)  io«,90],  (1901)  5*7,358.  The  p«rfsh  ttlCTches 
noilh  and  Bonth  from  Wanitcad  and  LeyUs  I0  tlic  Thuna,  and 
tut  and  vast  Iiom  E»t  Ham  lo  Uie  rivei  La.  It  i>  dividHi 
into  four  wards— Church  SttstI,  Slntioid-Iangtbane,  Plaulow 
and  UpIOD.  The  church  of  All  SainU  h»  B  good  P«p«uticu1i 
lower,  hnl  the  remainda  is  eiteasii  '  ■    ~ 

number  of  old  monument.     In  the 

eaily  muiil  paialinc  wal  diici>vcnd.  and  ■  trandtion  Norman 
ticrestot)'  *■»  diicovired,  reniiining  above  the  later  nave. 
Then  Ate  several  modern  chuiches,  and  a  Franciscan  monaiteiy 
and  (chool  (St  Bonaveniure't),  Wat  Ham  Park  (So  ■crts) 
occupies  the  vie  of  Ham  Uouie  and  park,  lor  many  yean  the 
midcnce  of  Sarauel  Guniey,  the  hanker  and  phitanlhropbt. 
The  place  was  purchased  for  £15,000,  and  vested  in  the  corpora- 
tion of  London  for  llic  use  of  the  pulilic  Of  tkis  amount  the 
Gumey  [amily  contributed  £10.000  and  the  cotporation  the  same 
ining  £s°°°  being  collected 


of  V 


IS  taken 


■d  £0  1874.  Mis  Eli 

on  the  coDfinesof  her  brother's  park.  In  176)  tbe  numbaol 
3l  Hun  paHifa  waaustol  to  be  700,  ol  which  "  455  an 
nuMioM  and  i«s  cott»J:e«,"  Now  lew  large  houjes  remain,  bat 
the  smaller  houses  have  greatly  Increased.  There  arc  numerous 
chemical  and  other  manufacture  which  have  been  reiruived 
Irom  London  ilself;  and  the  large  population  can  also  be  traced 


II  Eastern  railw>y  at  Strallord.    This 

East  Hem  (pop.  »e,oi8),  where  the  old  village  church  ol  St  Maiy 
Magdalene  nlalDS  Norman  portions.  West  Ham  is  governed 
by  >  mayor,  11  aldermen  and  j6  coucdtlDn.  Area  4W]  acns. 

At  the  time  of  the  Conquest  West  Ham  belonged  to  Alesian 
and  Leuted,  two  freemen,  and  at  Domesday  to  Ralph  Cemon 
and  Ralph  Pevnrl.  West  Ham  village  iru  Included  in  the 
part  which  descended  to  the  Cemons,  who  took  the  name  of 
Montfirhet.  The  raaaor  of  West  Ham  was  settled  upon  Stral- 
ford-Langtbonie  Abbey,  founded  by  William  de  Montfichet 
in  I135  for  monks  of  the  Cistercian  order.  The  ab|)ey  stood  in 
the  marshes,  or  a  brandi  of  the  Leaknownasthe  Abbey  Creek, 
■bout  )  m.  south  of  Stratford  Broadway.  West  Ham  received 
the  gnat  o(  a  maiiet  and  annual  fair  in  1253.  The  lordship 
was  given  to  the  abbey  of  Stratford,  and,  passing  to  the  crown 
at  the  disaotution,  formed  part  of  the  dowry  of  Catherine  of 
Portugal,  and  was  therelore  called  the  Queen's  Manor.  In  1885 
the  UT^an  sanitary  district  was  erected  into  a  parliamentary 
borough,  returning  two  members  for  the  northern  and  southern 
divisions respeclively.   ItwasincorpoTatedln  iBS4. 

WEST  HAVSH,  ■  borough  ol  Orange  lowndilp.  New  Ravoi 
couBly,  Oonnecticul,  U.S.A.,  on  New  Haven  Harbor  and  separ- 
ated fnnn  New  Haven  by  the  West  river.  Fop.  (1900)  5147 
(»9J  fortlgn-bom);  (njio)  8543.  West  Haven  is  served  by  the 
New  York,  New  Haven,  &  Hartford  railway.  Il  is  mainly  a 
residenilal  (ubutb  of  New  Haven.  There  is  a  public  park,  and 
Savin  Rock,  ritlng  (mm  Long  Island  Sound,  is  a  summer  resort. 
West  Havon  was  set  apart  from  New  Haven  in  1811  and  was 
united  with  Noitb  Millord  to  form  the  township  oi  Orange; 
it  WIS  locoTpotaiod  as  a  borough  in  1873. 

WEST  HOBOKBH.  a  town  0!  HudKn  county,  New  Jetiey, 
U,S.A.,  in  the  N.E.  part  of  the  stale,  adjoining  Koboken  and 
Jetaey  City.  Pop.  (1S90)  ii.Mj;  I1900)  ij.o«4.  of  whom  9119 
were  (oreign*orn;  (iflio.  cenau)  3J40J,  For  transportation 
faciliiica  the  town  depenc^  upon  tbe  railways 
and  Jersey  City.  West  Hobokeo  lies  a' 
Hudaon  rivet,  occupies  a  pleasant  site  > 
that  ol  its  nei^bouring  munidpiliiiea,  1 

tngs  art  a  Canxfi*  libniy,  St  Michael's  I 


tin 


hitler  than 


a  theokiglcil  lAool},  ■  Domlatean  Convent,  and  seven!  Km 
chnrcbef;  Wd  there  an  two  Roman  Calbolic  orphanages 
The  town  b  an  important  centre  for  Ibe  mamifaciure  ol  sill 
and  silk  goods;  in  1905  the  valH  of  these  products  wai 
t4,)ii,<Mg,  Wt*t  Koboken  was  created  a  separate  lownEhif 
in  1861 ,  Irora  a  part  of  tbe  tmmibip  o(  North  Bergen,  and  ii 
18841ns  ineorporaied  aa  a  town. 

mBTHOUOHTOH,  ao  urbaii  dntrkt  In  the  Westboughioi 
parllamsitaiy  dfvisaB  of  LuictsMrc,  England,  ;  m.  W.S.W 
of  BoUco  on  the  LaDCuUra  and  Yorkahin  railway.  Pop 
(1901)14^77.  ThcTearacotlmiaes  JDIheneighbourbood,  am 
the  town  poHcoe*  dlk  lacunfea,  pfint-warks  and  cotton  milb 
WeatbooghHD  before  Ike  tine  of  Rkluud  II.  was  a  mano 
belonging  to  Iha  abbey  of  Cockenaod.  It  waa 
■t  the  RefatmatioD.  and  aiace  then  has  been  vested  In  the  cm 
Tlie  army  at  Prince  Rnpen  aaacenlded  on  Weatbougbton  a 


the  Antillta  iq.w.), 
rvde  arc  or  paiabob 
from  Florida  in  Nortta  America  and  Yucatan  in  Centra]  Airerica 
to  Voiemela  In  South  America,  and  encJoting  the  Caribbean 
Sea  (At5,ooo  aq.  m.)  and  (he  Gidf  of  Mexico  (750,000  aq.  m.  in 
area).  'Ibe  land  area  of  all  the  islands  is  nearly  100,000  sq.  m., 
with  an  estimated  populalion  of  about  6^  minions;  that  ol  Ibe 
Britiifa  islands  about  11,000  sq,  m.  The  islands  difler  widely 
one  fcoDi  anoibei  in  area,  populalion,  geognphical  posiiion. 
and pbyiical cbatactetistica.  TbeyaredividedinlotbcBahamas, 
lbeGiesterAntiUa(Cuba,jBmak>,  Haiti  and  Porto  Rico),  and 
the  LcMer  AniiUca  (comprising  the  Kmalido'}.  Tbe  Lcssei 
AnlDlea  am  again  divided  Into  tbe  Windward  Island*  and 
Leeward  ^■^■**'^*  Geegrapbically,  the  Leeward  Islands  ate  those 
to  Ibe  Bonb  of  St  Lucia,  and  tb*  WiBdnard,  Si  Lucia  and  iho« 
to  the  south  of  it;  but  for  administrative  purposes  tbe  Biilish 

Ibe  chair 

...  , .„ fifh  Jamaica  and  tbe  otber  Ihrough 

iBlslaKlaaDdtbcMiBleriosaBaak.  lo£iai.t*II>u 
1  divides  tbe  Anlilles  inio  three  looea^  (1)  The 
me,  which  la  confined  to  the  Leaser  AnlUlet.  it 
r'origin  and  eonlalos  many  recent  volcanic  cones. 
•tnna  of  Uaads  wMeh  eueiids  {ion  Saba  and 
laandtlte  Greaadlaea.  The  wcatsn  pan  of  tbe 
iuadeloupe  belong  to  Ibis  tone,  (a)  'The  aecond 
y  of  Cretaceoui  and  early  Tertiary  recks.    In  the 


Barlhobuew,  An^n 


Fkrnda  and  the  plain  of  Yucatan  may  be  loot 
to  thi.  tone.  Neither  Trinidad  nor  the  isbr 
coaat  can  be  said  to  belong  to  any  of  the<e  thr 
theyanapanof  Ihemainbndnadf.   They 

achiita»  suppoaed  10  be  Archaean,  eTU~' 

and  Quaternary  depoaitt;  and  the 
from  about  Wi.W.  10  S,"'  "  " 
much  more,  nearly  aUiei 


;.  irSs'S 


S'*!.  „. 


,  CeolwIcaMy,  in  lad.  Ibex  islands  are 
!o  the  Gmler  Antillta  and  to  Ceniia! 
he  Ltiiet  AniBln:  and  then  a  iceord- 
-eaion  ID  believe  (bat  the  an  lornied  by  ibe  West  Indan 
eaUy  comijoaile  in  origin.  Aliliough  ihe  thrre  lonej 
ly  Sueai  are  ItaW  clcarlv  defintd,  the  eeolual  history 
Iter  Antilles.  witTi  which  mutt  be  lududed  the  Virgin 
n  oKisIderahly  Irom  that  of  the  Lew*.  InCubaand 
an  idiists  whu^  are  probably  ol  pre-Cntaceous  age. 
Ddecd,  been  referred  id  the  Archaean;  but  (he  olded 


WEST  INDIE6 


0%DCine.  ■  pto.,- 

HailL    The  Cnaler  nniiiia  mint  ■ 
onn^ileHjy  tubmeried,  ind  the  Hmi 

Tiiiudid  piint  <o  a  ufDUar  Bibmnivnoc  beyoo. _ 

liUddB.  In  Ihc  middle  ol  tbc  Olifoane  period  a  mjftily  upfasw. 
ucompanied  by  motinuiri  faldirv  »itd  the  iotniuon  of  plutcnic 
rockj.  railed  the  Greater  AnIiUcs  lar  above  Ibeir  prnent  levels  u»d 
united  the  ilTanrll  with  one  Anothn-,  And  perha[M  with  Florida.    A 

mulled  in  the  production  ot  the  praeni  (opognpln. 

heci  Dontldaed  (hAugbout  the  Tertiary  pmod  and  even  do*n  lo 
the  pccKdt  d».  Another  imponani  diftcience  k  thac  except  in 
Ttiiudad  and  Ktrbado«»  which  do  mt  properly  bckma  to  the  Carib< 
bean  chain,  no  decp-sca  dcpoiiu  have  yet  been  found  in  [he  Lc^kt 
AnillLeiand  there  u  no  evidence  that  Iheareacvcr  tanli  toabyimal 

In  the  loretoing  acoiuni  the  chranali«y  ol  R.  T.  Hill  hu  been 

the  ago'and  correlation  o[  the  varuus  Tertiary  tlcpDKU  and  con- 
■H|i>enlly  as  to  the  date*  of  the  great  dejireiuon  atvi  elevation, 
h  W,  spencer,  for  eutrnple,  pUcc*  the  grraicat  elevation  of  the 
Aalillea  iti  the  Pliocene  and  Plcuiocene  perioda.  MoroovcTi  chiefly 
on  the  evidence  o[  gubnerted  valleyi,  he  concludea  that  practically 


Them 


1,  plarin 


lUlititdH,  and  on  the  higbcT  pom  of  many  of  the  Itlanda  a  marked 
decree  of  coolneta  may  HitenUy  be  found.    With  the  eiception  of 


after  a  period  varying  ftoDi  the  end  of  July  ti>  theTcfinning  of 
Otlober,  when  thegrcil  rainfall  ol  the  year  teeini.  accompanied  by 
treiDendoin  and  dntruetive  huTricanea.     Thit  leaHTi  n  localty 


'  a  day  or  two  they  f. 


Urdi  t^°ri'?^', 

iriiedailhediitat.-.. ,„., 

loei  reach  latitude  3J*  N,,  Ibey  cu 

ind  alinosl  inwiriably  wheel  vmnd  on  ufs\ 


L  of  the  Gulf  of  Meii 


tbeWwk  'The 

a(ly  ud  threaten.-.  .,, 

puni  of  wLDiL  mcrewng 
■  long  heavy  i""  --' 
diimnnoftfie. 


theafremoon. 


.  December  mariii  the  bceinninc 
-._.,  -ccampanied  by  freth  winda  and 
IM  (Ul  AfitiL    The  avengB  lenpenlure 

. — Amaybitalienaaafavoutableavnage. 

tout  the  year.  So*  F.  in  the  forenoon-  and  about  Ba'Tn 
Loon.  Tlie  ntajihnum  ts  By  ,  and  the  nuoimum  j<\ 
-Tha  Bon  of  the  lilaode  ii  ot  gnt  variety  aiuf  rjchnaa. 
a*  plaota  havB  bcoii  introduced  from  nun  para  of  the  globe,  nnd 
flouri^  either  JnawilditateoruEiderailllvatkin;  grain,  veGetablee. 
and  fniit*,  generally  common  In  cool  dimatca.  may  be  Ken  grouing 
in  lumtiance  within  a  ihort  distance  ol  like  plants  nhich  onlvatTain 
pofeciiiHi  under  tbe  lolkienee  ol  oneme  heal,  nothing  being  here 
mHifql  Idf  ih*  •occaarful  pfopapoon  ol  both  but  a  diiferencv  in 
■ "  :H  the  larida  npqn  which  they  jpnw.    The  f<HgBa. 


ipeciet  ot  fum^rodbciog  ticea.     Some 
Btimated  to  have  attained  an  age  ol  4000. 

thar^KtAr  when  ia  the  ground,  11  u«d  as  a  material  for  hoiw 
building.    XaitlluaylBii,  the  admired  and  valuabte  aalia-mud  • 

SrT™'u^h™r^^"oodyi"djau4MoJa™alYo!d.^^lI 


need.   Ih-mtnacit 


Oik.     Cmpe  of  tobnccQ,   bearir^   peas, 
popular,  and  a  ipeeie*  of  rice,  khich 

I  covers  njany  ul  the  plaini,  and  afforda 

AruK— The  (auu  ol  the  rcfioa  it  Neotropical,  bekin^ng  to  that 

_ he'Nortl.-Amnira  ™™"ilin  of^ 

m'cniie  to  the  isbnds.    The  resiijcnt  birds,  however, 

of^hich  are  ceriainly  Nrntrrfpical,  show  beyond 

1  region  the  islands  properly  belong-   Mammals 

_-.  —  .- -i  groups,  rare.    The  agouti  abounds,  and  wikl 

pigs  and  dogs  arc  aulhcientJy  numectHis  to  alTord  good  tpan.  10  the 
huEiler.  as  wcllasimallerg.iine,  in  ihe  ihape  of  armadiltot.  opossums, 
mutk-rats  and  raccoona.  The  non.mii;miing  birds  include  troflons» 
sugar-birds,  rhitterm,  and  many  pormis  and  humming  Urds, 
Waterfawland  vHioushindsolpigeorisaiteinabundance.  1ttp<ilea 
jce  nunuTDua:  snakes— both  the  boa  and  adder — are  innumerable, 
while  lirardi,  scorpiana,  tarantulas  and  centipedes  arc  everyrrhcrc 
Insesis  arc  in  srcot  numiwrs*  and  arv  dtcn  annoying.  Amor^ 
domestic  aninuu  mdka  are  lanety  reared,  nnd  where  the  coantry 
afEords  suitable  pascurt  and  forage  catlle-brecdiiw  is  practiBea. 
Goats  at»uiid,  and  large  Bocks  ol  sheep  are  kept  for  the  save  of  their 


the  height  of  the  lands  Dpon  which  they  grow.    The  forests,  which 
Orfoni,  lOtPil ;     J,  W.  Spencer,  "  Retonsrnielion  ol  the  AntiPcan 


ILGBd. 


lEr.T;w.:™T:^: 


rB<l5).  P 


7^ 


in  GeoL  Maf.,  !-.„  rr.  .„--.,... 

J.  W.  Spenoer  in  Owrl.  Jiun.  Gni.  Sx..  vol..  Itvii.,  kviU.  rigc 
1901):  R.  T,  Hai,  "The  Ceal«y  and  Phyiical  Geograpfiy 
Jamaic*."  AiB.  »».  Omf.  ItA  Bmri,  vol  xxxiv,  {■«»). 


Windward  Isf^inda: 


lia  faiid  adlactnl  iJnails) 


itlmalt,  1006. 


&s 


Sf,t 

U,IIJ 

lg,8M 
■91,5*8 


lis 

I8.s»0 

,.118,011' 


5+6 


WEST  INDIES 


operations  ol  educational  institutions  and  of  laqge  Bumbers  of 
niissionaries  of  various  religious  denominations,  the  percentage 
of  illcptimate  births  among  the  population  of  the  British  West 
Indian  islands  remains  veiy  high — in  Barbados  about  54,  in 
Jamaica,  63;  in  Trinidad,  59%  of  the  general  births;  and 
79  %  of  t  he  East  Indian. 

The  population  of  the  West  Indies  represents  many  original 
stocks,  the  descendants  of  which  have  developed  variations  of 
habits  and  customs  in  their  New  W6rld  environment.  They 
may  be  divided  into  six  main  classes:  (i)  Europeans — ^immi- 
grants (British,  French,  Spanish  and  in  a  lesser  degree  Dutch, 
Danish  and  German)  and  West  Indian  bom;  (2)  African  negroes 
—immigrants  (a  fast  vanishing  quantity)  and  West  Indian  born; 
(3)  a  nuxture  of  Europeans  and  Africans;  (4)  coolin  from  India-*- 
imported  and  West  Indian  bom;  (5)  Chinese;  (6)  aboriginal 
Indians  of  more  or  less  pure  descent.  Of  these,  the  people  of 
pure  African  blood  are  in  a  large  majority,  the  **  coloured  " 
race  of  mixed  European  and  African  blood  being  next  in  numerical 
importance.  Under  British  influence  the  negroes  of  the  West 
Indies  have  become  British  in  thought  and  habit;  and  it  would 
seem  that  the  simulating  influence  of  European  direction  and 
encouragement  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  future  development 
and  progress  of  these  islands.  In  the  republics  of  Santo  Domingo 
and  Haiti  the  negroes  are  left  to  drift  along,  while  the  French 
and  Danish  islands  show  no  great  sign  of  progress. 

Brilish  CoUmies,  Coptmment,  &%.—The  British  West  India 
colonies*  are  either  crown  oolonies— that  is  to  say,  their  govern- 
ment is  absolutely  under  the  control  of  the  Briti&h  Cojonlal 
Office,  the  official  members  of  their  councils  predominating, 
and  the  unofficial  members  being  nominated  by  the  crown, 
as  in  the  Windward  and  Leeward  Islands—or  they  have  a 
measure  of  representative  government,  as  in  the  Bahamas, 
Barbados  and  Jamaica,  in  which  all  or  part  of  the  legislatures 
are  elected  and  are  more  or  less  independent  of  crown  control. 
The  laws  of  the  various  colonics  are  English,  with  local  statutes 
to  meet  local  needs.  The  governors  and  high  officials  are 
appointed  by  the  crown;  other  officials  are  appointed  by  the 
governor.  Each  governor  acts  under  the  advice  of  a  privy 
council.  In  matters  of  detail  the  colonies  present  a  variety  of 
forms  of  government  (for  which  see  the  separate  articles). 
Federation  has  been  widely  discussed  and  is  held  desirable  by 
many,  but  in  view  of  the  insular  character  of  the  colonies,  the 
considerable  distances  separating  some  of  them,  and  in  many 
instances  the  lack  of  common  interests  (apart  from  certain 
broad  issues),  the  project  appears  to  be  far  from  realization. 

The  only  fortified  places  in  the  British  West  Indies  are  Jamaica, 
Barbados  and  St  Lucia — all  of  importance  as  coaling  stations. 
In  many  of  the  islands  there  are  local  volunteer  forces.  The 
police  forces  of  the  Colonies  are  in  the  main  modelled  on  the 
Irish  constabulary,  supplemented  by  rural  constabulaiy.  The. 
force  is  usually  officered  by  Europeans. 

Economic  Conditions. — The  West  Indian  colonies  have  suffered 
from  periods  of  severe  economic  depression,  though  from  the 
early  years  of  the  20th  century  there  has  been  good  evidence  of 
recovery  and  development.  An  obvious  reason  for  temporary 
depression  is  the  liability  of  the  islands  to  earthquakes  and 
hurricanes,  in  addition  to  eruptions  in  the  volcanic  islands, 
such  as  those  in  St  Vincent  and  Martinique  in  zgos.  For  exa  mple, 
the  great  earthquake  of  January  1907  in  Jamaica  may  be 
recalled,  and  hurricanes  caused  serious  damage  in  Jamaica  in 
August  X903  and  November  2909,  and  in  the  Bahamas  in 
September  and  October  1908.  A  treasury  fund  has  been  estab- 
lished In  Jaihaica  as  a  provision  against  the  effects  of  such 
disasters.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  excessive  rainfall  which 
accompanies  these  storms  is  ol  great  ultimate  benefit'  to  the  soil. 

The  British  West  Indian  colonies  do  not  offer  opportunities 
for  ordinary  labouring  immigrants.  Barbados  is  the  only  island 
where  the  land  is  entirely  settled.  But  the  settlement,  planting 
and  development  ol  lands  elsewhere  involve  a  considerable 
amount  of  capital,  and  manoal  labour  is  pvovided  by  the  natives 

*  It  is  a  common  practice  to  include  British  Guiana  with  these, 
bat  the  present  article  b  confined  to  the  insular  odonies. 


or  Eaat  Indian  coolies.  Attempu  to  settle  Eaiepean  Isbouren 
have  been  unsuccessful.  The  West  Indian  negro,  as  a  labouring 
class,  has  frequently  been  condemned  as  averse  from  regular 
work,  apathetic  in  regard  to  both  his  own  and  his  ocdony's 
affaira,  immoral  and  dishonest.  In  so  far  as  these  shortcomiDgs 
exist,  they  are  due  to  the  tendencies  inherited  from  the  period 
of  slavery,  to  the  ease  with  which  a  bare  livelihood  may  be 
obtained,  and  to  other  such  causes.  But  for  the  most  part  die 
negroes  appreciate  their  advantages  under  British  government 
and  are  quick  to  assimilate  British  customs  and  ideas.  Advances 
in  the  system  of  peasant  proprietorship  have  brought  beneficial 
results.  The  drafting  of  large  numbers  of  labourers  from  the 
West  Indies  to  the  Panama  canal  works  early  in  the  aotfa  century, 
though  causing  a  shortage  of  labour  and  involving  legislation 
In  some  of  the  Islands,  exercised  a  moral  effect  on  the  natives 
by  enlarging  their  horizon. 

The  growth  of  general  prosperity  in  the  British  West  Indies  is 
assigned*  *'to  the  revival  of  the  sugar  industry,  to  the  dtvtAtp- 
ment  of  the  fmit  trade;  to  the  increase  in  the  cultivation  of 
cocoa  and  cotton,  to  the  volume  of  tourist  travel,  which  swells 
year  by  year;  and  to  such. local  developments  as  the  'boom'  in 
Trinidad  oil."  It  was  pointed  out  in  the  Report  of  the  Royal 
Commission  on  Trade  Relations  between  Canada  and  the  West 
Indies  (Cd.  5369,  London,  19 10)  that  "  the  geographical  position 
of  the  West  Indian  Colonics  must  always  tend  to  tlirow  them 
under  the  influence  of  the  fiscal  system  ^thcr  of  the  United 
States  or  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Attempts  have  been 
msude  from  time  to  time  to  obtain  for  these  Colonies  spedal 
advantages  in  the  markets  of  the  United  States.  .  .  .  The 
Colonial  policy  of  the  United  States  has  now  finally  stopped 
advance  in  that  direction,"  and  the  connexion  with  the  Dominion 
has  therefore  become  of  paramount  importance.  The  Dominion 
government  admitted  the  West  Indies  to  the  British  preferential 
urif!  (35%  under  existing  duties)  in  1898.  The  percentage  was 
raised  to  33)  in  1900.  In  1903  the  duties  imposed  on  bounty-fed 
beet  sugar  in  the  United  States,  which  had  opened  the  market 
there  to  West  Indian  sugar,  were  abolished,  and  a  surtax  (since 
removed)  was  placed  oir  German  imports  into  Canada.  Both 
acts  enhanced  the  value  of  the  Canadian  market  to  the  West 
Indies,  while  that  of  the  American  sugar  market  was  further 
reduced  when  in  190X  sugar  from  Porto  Rico  began  to  be 
admitted  thereto  free  of  duty,  and  when  spedal  terms  were 
extended  to  sugar  from  the  PMUppine  Islands  and  Cuba  in  1902 
and  1903  respectively.  The  Canadian  connexion  was  thusburgcly 
instrumental  in  saving  the  sugar  industry  in  the  West  Indies 
from  severe  depression,  if  not  from  the  actual  extinction  foieseen 
by  a  Royal  Commission  in  1897.  This  commission  pointed  out, 
in  particular,  the  danger  which  threatened  those  colonies  where 
sugar  provided  practically  the  sole  industrial  and  commercial 
interest.  On  a  recommendation  of  this  eommisslon  the  Imperial 
Department  of  Agriculture  was  established  in  1898,  its  cost 
being  met  from  imperial  funds.  It  is  under  a  commiaawner 
with  headquarters  at  Barbados.  Its  functions  are  to  maintain 
and  supervise  botanical  and  experimental  stations,  to  establish 
agricultural  schools,  arrange  agricultural  teadiiog  in  other 
schools,  create  scholarships,  and  issue  publications.  The  depart- 
ment has  been  largely  instrumental  in  establishing  new  industries 
and  thus  relieving  many  islands  from  dependence  onthesuglir 
industry  alone. 

The  negollatimis  for  commtfdal  relations  between  the  West 
Indies  and  Canada  began  in  x866;  in  187a  proposals  for  steam- 
ship subsidies  were  accepted.  The  Comnuafon  of  1909  recom- 
mended that  the  governments  should  continue  to  subodise  a 
service,  for  which  they  suggested  various  improvements.  In 
1901  a  Una  of  subsidized  steamers  had  been  started  between 
Jamaica  and  England,  bat  this  contract  expired,  and  the  mafl 
contract  was  determined  in  19x0,  aiul  recommendations  were 
put  forward  for  a  steamship  service  between  Canadian  and 
West  Indian  ports  with  Improvements  additional  to  those 
rcconunendcd  by  the  Commissnn.    It  may  be  added  that  the 

•  In  The  Times  of  May  24, 1910,  where.  In  an  imperial  auppleroeol. 
a  number  of  artidcs  on  the  West  Indian  colonies  appear. 


WESTMACOTT 


547 


Commnrion  also  made  reoommendations  for  tba  reduction  of 
the  high  cable  rates  between  the  West  Indies  and  the  United 
Kingdom. 

Besides  sugar,  the  iMindpal  fsradacts  of  the  istonds  are  coooa, 
fniits  and  cotton.  Cotton-growing  reached  importance  in  a  very 
short  time  owing  laigely  to  the  efforts  of  the  Imperial  Department 
of  Aniculture,  Sea  Island  seed  having  been  planted  in  St  Vincent 
onlyin  1903,  and  In  that  bland  and  elsewhere  (Antigua,  St  Kitts, 
Montserrat)  good  crops  are  now  obtained.  GrencLda  is  almost 
entirely,  and  Trinidad,  Dominica  and  St  Ltida  are  laijsely,,  dependent 
upon  cocoa.  The  fruit  and  spice  trade  is  of  growing  imnortance, 
and  there  is  a  demand  for  bottled  fruit  in  Canada  and  elsewhere. 
The  variety  of  fruits  grown  is  great;  the  bananas  and  oranges  of 
Jamaica,  the  Kmes  of  Montsenat,  Dominica  and  St  Luda,  and  the 

?ine>ap|dn  of  the  Bahamas  may  be  mentioned  as  charecteristic* 
t  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  islands  as^a  whole 
cannot  be  said  to  possess  a  community  of  commercial  interests. 
Even  the  iudustries  already  indicated  are  by  no  means  equally 
distributed  throaghout  the  Hlands:  moreover  there  are  certain 
local  indostrica  ol  high  importanoev  such  as  the  manufacture  of 
rum  in  Jamaica,  the  production  of  asphahe  and  the  working  of 
the  oilfields  (the  devefopment  of  which  was  first  seriously  under' 
taken  about  1905)  in  Trinidad,  and  the  production  01  arrow- 
rx>t  in  St  Vincent.  Sponges  are  an  important  product  of  the 
Bahamas,  and  salt  of  the  Turks  isbnda.  Rubber  planution  hai 
bees  successfully  exploited  in  several  islands,  such  as  Trinidad, 
Dominica  and  St  Lucia.  (See  further  articles  on  the  various 
islands.) 

Rdirum. — In  all  the  British  colonies  there  h  foil  re1i]|ious  tolera- 
tion. The  Church  of  England  Province  of  the  West  indies  is  divided 
into  the  following  bishoprics:  Jamaica,  Nassau  («.e.  Bahanu»), 
Trinidad,  (British)  Honduras,  Antigua  (t.«.  Leeward  Islands), 
Barbados.  Windward  Islands.  (British)  Guiana.  With  the  exception 
of  Barbados  and  British  Guiana,  the  Chuich  of  Eneland  is  dis> 
estaUtshed,  disendowment  takiiw  place  gradually,  the  churches 
thus  becoming  self'supportii^  In  Barbados  the  Church  is  both 
•Btabli^ied  and  endowed^  In  the  Bahamas  and  Jamaica  discn- 
dowment  is  gradually  taking  place:  in  Trinidad  and  British  Guiana 
the  Church  of  England  receives  endowment  concurrently  with  other 
leRgious  bodies.  The  Wlndwanl  Islands,  Lcewanl  islands  and 
British  Honduras  are  totally  disendowed,  in  all  the  islands*  cjKcpt 
Trinidad,  St  Lucia,  Grenada  and  Dominica,  the  Church  of.  England, 
though  in  all  cases  in  a  minority  when  compared  with  the  aggrwate 
of  other  bodies,  is  the  most  numerous  of  any  denomination.  There 
are  Roman  CatlH^  bishops  at  Portof-Spain  (Trinidad),  Roseau 
(X>ominica~-for  the  Leeward  Isbnds).  Jamaica.  British  Guiana  and 
Barbados  (resident  at  Georgetown).  British  Honduras,  Guadeloupe. 
Martinique,  Haiti  (archbbhop  and  four  bishops),  Santo  Domingo 
(archbishop).  Cuba  ^archbisnop  and  bbhop).  Porto  Rico  and 
Curasao.  Other  religions  denominations  working  actively  in  the 
West  Indies  are  the  Baptists*  We^eyans,  Presbyterians,  Congre- 
gationalists  and  Moravians. 

Hist&ry.^^Tbie  ardiipelafo  received  the  name  of  the  West 
huSks  from  Celumbus,  who  hoped  that,  through  the  islands,  he 
bad  found  a  new  route  to  India.  Hie  name  of  AntiUea  was 
derived  from  the  fact  that  Columbus^  on  his  arrival  here,  was 
•apposed  to  have  reached  the  fabled  land  of  Antllia.  Columbus 
first  landed  on  San  Salvador,  generally  identified  with  Watllng 
Island  of  the  Bahamas,  and  several  v<^ages  to  this  new  land  were 
made  in  rapid  succession  by  the  great  discoverer,  resulting  in 
the  finding  of  most  of  the  larger  islands,  and  a  more  intimate 
knowledge  of  those  already  known.  The  importance  of  its  latest 
possession  was  at  once  recognized  by  the  court  of  Spain,  and,  as  a 
first  move  towards  turning  the  West  Indies  to  profitable  account, 
number^  of  the  natives,  for  the  most  part  a  harmless  and  gentle 
people,  were  shipped  overseas  and  sold  into  slavery,  others 
being  employed  in  forced  labour  in  the  mines  which  the  Spaniards 
had  opened  throughout  the  archipelago,  and  from  which  large 
returns  were  expected.  Thus  early  in  its  history  began  that 
traffic  in  humanity  with  which  the  West  India  plantations  are 
so  widely  associated,  and  which  endured  for  so  long  a  time* 
Goaded  to  madness  by  the  wrongs  inflicted  upon  them,  the 
aborigines  at  last  look  arms  against  their  masters,  but  with  the 
result  whidi  might  have  been  expected — their  almost  utter  ex- 
tiipatioa.  Many  of  the  survivors  sought  release  from  their 
sufferings  in  suicide,  and  numbers  of  olhen  perished  in  the 
mines,  so  that  the  native  race  soon  almost  ceased  to  exist.  Spain 
was  not  long  allowed  to  retain  an  undisputed  hold  upon  the 
Islands:  British  and  Dutch  seamen  soon  sought  the  new  region, 
accounts  concerning  the  fabulous  wealth  and  treasure  of  which 
ftJtfed  all  Europe,  and  a  desnkoiy  warfare  began  to  be  waged 


amongst  the  various  voyagers  who  flocked  to  this  EI  Dorado,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  Spaniards  found  themselves  gradually 
but  surely  foroed  from  many  of  their  vantage  grounds,  and 
compelled  very  materially  to  rednce  the  area  over  which  they 
had  held  unchecked  sway.  The  first  care  of  the  Engtish  settlen 
was  to  find  oat  the  teal  agricuhurai  capabilities  of  the  islands, 
and  they  diligently  set  about  planting  tobacco,  cotton  and 
indigo.  A  French  West  India  Company  was  incorporated  in 
1625,  and  a  settlement  esubUshed  on  the  island  of  St  Christopher, 
wheife  a  small  English  colony  was  already  engaged  in  dearing 
and  cultivating  the  ground;  these  were  driven  out  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1630,  but  only  to  return  and  again  assume  posses- 
sion. About  this  time,  also,  the  celebrated  buccaneers,  Dutch 
smugglers,  and  British  and  French  pirates  began  to  infest  the 
neighboufing  seas,  doing  much  damage  to  legitimate  traders, 
and  causing  ooinmeroe  to  be  carried  on  only  tmder  force  of  arms, 
and  with  much  difficulty  and  danger.  Indeed,  It  was  not  till 
the  beginning  of  the  iSth  century— some  time  after  Spain  had, 
in  1670,  given  up  her  daim  to  the  exdusi ve  possession  of  the  aidii> 
pelago-~that  these  rovers  were  rendered  comparatively  harm- 
less; and  piracy  yet  lingered  off  the  coasts  down  to  the  early  years 
ol  the  19th  century.  In  Tfi40  sugar-cane  began  to  be  systematic* 
any  planted,  and  the  marvellous  prosperity  of  the  West  Indies 
began;  It  was  not  from  the  gdd  and  predous  stones,  to  whidi 
the  Spaniards  had  looked  for  wealth  and  power,  but  from  the  cane 
that  the  fortunes  of  the  West  Indies  were  to  Hiring.  The  success- 
ful propagation  of  this  plant  drew  to  the  islands  crowds  of 
adventuiers,  many  of  them  men  of  oonsidenble  weahh.  The 
West  Indies  were  for  many  years  tised  by  the  English  govern- 
ment  as  penal  settlements,  the  prisoners  working  on  the  planta- 
tions as  slaves.  In  1655  a  British  force  made  an  unsuccessful 
attack  on  Haiti,  but  a  sudden  descent  on  Jamaica  was  more 
fortunate  in  its  result,  and  that  rich  and  beautiful  island  has  since 
remained  in  the  possession  of  Great  Britain.  The  Fiortvguese 
were  the  firlt  to  import  negroes.as  slaves,  and  their  example  was 
followed  by  other  nations  having  West-Indian  colonies,  the 
traffic  existing  for  about  300  years.  In  1660  a  division  of  th« 
islands  was  arranged  between  England  and  Fhmce,  the  remaining 
aborigines  being  driven  to  specified  localities,  but  this  treaty  did 
aot  produce  the  benefits  expected  from  it,  and  as  wars  raged  in 
Europe  the  islands  (see  separate  articles)  frequently  changed 
hands. 

AtTTHQaiTics.— Sir  C.  P.  Lucas,  A  Bistartcai  Geognpky  ef  ih§ 
British  Cotvmes,  vol.  ii.  (Oxford,  revision  of  19M);  C.  Washington 
Eves,  CM.G..  The  WeU  Indus  (4th  edition.  London.  1897);  A. 
Caldecott,  B.D.,  Ths  Church  in  the  West  Indus  (Cokmial  Church 
Histories,  London.  1898):  Robert  T.  Hill,  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico, 
with  the  other  Islands  of  the  West  Indies  (London,  1898);  Amos 
Kidder  Fiske.  History  of  the  West  Indies  (New  York,  1899) ;  H.  de  R. 
Walker.  The  West  Indies  and  the  British  Empire  (London,  1901); 


West  Indies  and  the  Spanish  Main  (London,  1896J ;  Sir  Harry  John- 
ston, The  Negro  in  the  New  World  (London,  1910);  J.  W.  Root. 
The  British  West  Indies  and  the  Sugar  Industry  (1899);  Colonial 
Office  Reports;  Reports  of  Royal  CommisMOOs,  1897  and  1910. 

WESTMACOTT,  SIB  RICHARD  (177^1856),  British  sculptor, 
was  bom  in  London,  and  while  yet  a  boy  learned  the  rudiments 
of  the  plastic  art  in  the  studio  of  his  father,  who  was  then  a 
sculptor  oS  some  reputation.  In  1793,  at  the  age  of  eighteen, 
he  went  to  Rome  and  became  a  pupil  of  Canova,  then  at  the 
height  of  his  fame.  Under  the  prevailing  influences  of  Italy 
at  that  time,  Westmacott  devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  study 
<rf  dassical  sculpture,  and  throughout  his  life  his  real  sym- 
pathies were  with  pagan  rather  than  with  CHiristian  art.  Withio 
a  year  of  his  arrival  in  Rome  be  won  the  first  prize  for  sculpture 
offered  by  the  Florentine  academy  of  arts,  and  in  the  following 
year  (1795)  he  gained  the  papal  gold  medal  awarded  by  the 
Roman  Academy  of  St  Luke  with  his  baa-relief  of  Joseph  and 
his  brethren.  In  1798,  on  the  30th  of  February,  he  married 
Dorothy  Msrgaret,  daughter  of  Dr  Wilkinson  of  Jamaica.  On 
his  return  to  London  Westmacott  began  to  exhibit  his  works 
yearly  at  the  Royal  Academy,  the  fiist  work  so  exhibited  bdag 


S+8 


WESTMEATH,  EARL  OF—WESTMEATH 


Us  bust  of  Sir  WilliAm  Cbambezs.  In  1805  he  ms  dected  an 
associate,  and  in  x8ix  a  full  member  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
bis  diploma  work  being  a  "  Ganymede  "  in  high  relief;  in  1827 
he  was  appointed  to  succeed  Flaxman  as  Royal  Academy 
professor  of  sculpture,  and  in  1837  he  was  knighted.  A  very 
large  number  of  important  public  monuments  were  executed 
by  him,  including  many  portrait  statues;  but  little  can  be  said 
in  praise  of  such  works  as  the  statue  on  the  duke  of  York's 
column  (K833),  the  portrait  of  Fox  in  Bloomsbory  Square,  or 
that  of  the  duke  of  Bedford  in  Russell  Square.  Much  ad- 
miration was  expressed  at  the  time  for  Westmacott'a  monu* 
ments  to  Collingwood  and  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby  in  St  Paul's 
Cathedral,  and  that  of  Mrs  Warren  in  Westminster  Abbey; 
but  subjects  like  these  were  far  less  congenial  to  him  than 
sculpture  of  a  more  classical  type,  such  aa  the  pedimcntal 
figures  representing  the  piogresa-of  civilisation  over  the  portico 
of  the  British  Museum,  completed  in  1847,  and  his  colossal  nude 
statue  of  Achilles  in  bronze,  copied  from  the  original  on  Monte 
Cavallo  in  Rome,  and  reared  in  1822  by  the  ladies  of  England 
in  Hyde  Park  as  a  compliment  to  the  duke  of  Wellington.  He 
died  on  the  ist  of  September  1856. 

WBSTMEATH,  EARL  OF,  a  title  held  in  the  Irish  family 
of  Nugent  since  1621.  During  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  Sir  Gilbert 
Nugent  received  the  lordship  or  barony  of  Delvin  in  Mcath, 
which  soon  passed  by  marriage  from  the  Nugents  to  the  family 
of  Filzjohn.  About  two  hundred  years  later  the  barony 
returned  to  the  Nugent  family,  Sir  William  Nugent  (d.  e. 
14x5)  marrying  Catherine,  dau^ter  of  John  Fitzjohn.  The 
barony,  however,  is  considered  to  dale  from  the  time  of  Sir 
William  Nugent  and  not  from  that  of  Sir  Gilbert,  1389  being 
generally  regarded  as  the  date  of  its  creation. 

Sir  William  Nugent,  who  is  generally  called  the  zst,  but 
sometimes  the  9th,  baron  Delvin,  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Sir  Richard  (d.  c.  1460)  as  2nd  baron.  |n  1444  and  X449  Sir 
Richard  was  lord  deputy  of  Iceland.  His  grandson,  Richard, 
the  4th  baron  (d.  c,  1538),  was  summoned  to  the  Irish  parlia- 
ment in  X486.  During  bis  whole  life  he  was  loyal  to  the  English 
king,  and  both  before  and  after  the  years  1527  and  1528  when 
be  was  lord  deputy,  he  took  a  vigorous  part  in  the  warfare 
against  the  Irish  rebels.  Among  his  descendants  was  Robert 
Nugent,  Earl  Nugent  (q.v.),  Richard's  grandson,  Christopher, 
the  6th  baron  (c.  1 544-1602),  also  served  England  well,  but 
about  X576  he  fell  under  the  displeasure  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
and  he  was  several  times  imprisoned,  being  in  the  intervals 
employed  in  Ireland.  He  was  a  prisoner  in  Dublin  Castle  when 
he  died.  Delvin  wrote  A  Primer  of  the  Irish  Language,  compiled 
al  the  request  and  Jar  the  use  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 

His  son,  Richard,  the  7th  baron  (1583-1642),  took  part 
in  1606  in  a  plot  against  the  English  government  and  was 
imprisoned,  but  he  soon  escaped  from  captivity  and  secured 
a  pardon  from  James  I.  In  162 1  he  was  created  earl  of  West- 
meath.  Having  refused  in  1641  to  join  the  Irish  rebellion,  -he 
was  attacked  by  a  party  of  rebels  and  was  so  seriously  injured 
that  he  died  shortly  afterwards.  His  grandson,  Richard,  the 
and  earl  (d.  1684),  served  Charles  II.  against  Cromwell  in  Ireland 
and  afterwards  raised  some  troops  for  service  in  Spain.  His 
grandson  Thomas,  the  4th  earl  (1656-1752),  served  James  IL 
in  Ireland.  Thomas's  brother,  John,  the  5th  earl  (167 2-1 754), 
left  Ireland  after  the  fimal  defeat  of  James  II.  and  took  service 
in  France.  I^  fought  against  England  at  the  battles  of  Ramil- 
Kes,  Oudenarde  and  Malpfeiquet  and  remained  on  active  service 
miil  1748.  He  died  in  Brabant  on  the  3rd  of  July  X754.  His 
son  Thomas,  the  6th  earl  <d.  1792),  ako  served  in  the  French 
army;  latbr  he  conformed  to  the  'established  religion,  being 
the  first  Protestant  of  his  house,  and  took  his  seat  in  the  Irish 
House  of  Lords  in  1755.  His  son  George  Frederick,  the  7th 
earl  (1760-1814),  a  member  of  the  Irish  House  of  Commons 
before  1792,  was  succeeded  by  his  son  George  Thomas  John 
(i785~r87i),  who  was  created  marquess  of  Wcstmealh  in  182a 
and  who  was  an  Irish  representative  peer~from  ]83i  to  1871. 
He  died  without  legitimate  sons  on  the  5th  of  May  1871,  when 
Jm  marqucssate  beome  extinct. 


The  earldom  of  Westmeath  now  passed  to  a  distant  coinfai, 
Anthony  Francis  Nugent  (1805-1879),  a  descendant  of  Thomas 
Nugent  (d.  1715)  of  Pallas,  Galwray,  who  was  a  son  of  the  2nd 
earL  Thomas  was  chief  justice  of  Irdand  from  1687  until  he 
was  outlawed  by  the  government- of  William  III.  In  1689  bs 
was  created  by  James  II.  baron  of  Riverston,  but  the  validity 
of  this  title  has  never  been  admitted.  In  x  883  his  dcscsendaot, 
Anthony  Francis  (b.  1870),  became  the  11  th  earL 

Cadets  of  the  Nugent  •family  were  Nicholas  Nugent  (d.  1582), 
chief  justice  of  the  common  bench  in  Ireland,  who  was  hanged 
for  treason  on  the  6th  of  April  X582;  William  Nugent  (d.  1625) 
an  Irish  rebel  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth;  Sir  George  Nugent, 
Bart.  (1757-1849),  who,  after  seeing  service  in  America  and 
in  thct  Nethcrlan^,  was  commander-in-chief  in  India  from  1811 
to  1813  and  became  a  field-marshal  in  X846;  and  Sir  Charles 
Edmund  Nugent  {c.  x 759^x844),  an  admiral  of  the  fleeL  More 
famous  perhaps  was  Lavall,  Count  Nugent  (1777-1862),  who 
rose  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  the  Austrian  army  and  was 
made  a  prince  of  the  empire.  His  long  and  honourable  military 
career  biegan  in  1793  and  sixty-six  years  later  he  was  present 
at  the  battle  of  Soiferino.  His  most  dtstihguished  services  to 
Austria  were  during  the  war  with  France  in  1813  and  1814,  and 
he  was  also  useful  during  the  revolution  in  Hungary  in  X849. 

See  D' Alton.  Pedigree  of  the  Nugent  FomUj;  and  Historical  Skeldi 
of  th*  Nugent  Family^  jmntcd  by  J.  C  Lyons  (1853). 

WESTMEATH,  a  county  of  Ireland  in  the  province  of  Leinster, 
bounded  N.W,  by  Longford,  N.  by  Cavan,  N.E.  and  E.  by 
Meath,  S.  by  King's  county,  and  W.  by  Roscommon.  Tlae  area 
is  454,104  acres,  or  about  709  sq.  m.  The  Shannon  forms  the 
western  boundary.  The  average  height  of  the  surface  of  the 
coimty  is  over  250  ft.  above  sea-level.  The  highest  summits 
are  Knockktyde  (795  ft.),  Hill  of  Ben  (7x0.  ft.)  and  Knockayon 
(707  ft).  A  Urge  surface  is  occupied  by  bog.  A  spedal  feature 
of  Westmeath  is  the  number  Of  large  loog^,  which  have  a 
combined  area  of  nearly  x 7,000  acres.  In  the  north,  on  the 
borders  of  Cavan,  is  Lough  Sheelin,  with  a  length  of  5  m.,  and 
an  average  breadth  of  between  2  and  3  m.,  and  adjoining  it  is 
the  smaller  Lough  Kinale.  In  the  centre  of  the  county  there 
is  a  group  of  large  loughs,  of  which  Lough  Dereveragh  is  6  ra. 
long  by  3  broad  at  ita  widest  part.  To  the  north  of  it  are  Loughs 
Lene,  Glore,  Bawn  and  others,  and  to  the  south  Loughs  Iron 
and  Owel.  Farther  south  is  Lough  Ennell  or  Belvidere,  and  in 
the  south-west  Lough  Ree,  a  great  expansion  of  the  riVer  Shan- 
non, forming  pert  of  the  bouitdaiy  with  Rosoommon.  The 
river  Inny,  which  rises  in  Co.  Cavan,  enters  Westmeath  from 
Lough  Shoclin,  and,  forming  for  parts  of  its  course  the  boundary 
with  Longford,  falls  into  Lough  Ree.  The  Inny  has  as  one  of 
its  tributaries  th«  Glore,  flowing  from  Lough  Lene  through 
Lough  Glore,  a  considerable  part  of  its  course  being  under- 
ground. From  Lough  Lene  the  Dale  also  flows  southwards  to 
the  Boyne  and  so  to  the  Irish  Sea,  and  thus  this  lake  sends  iu 
waters  to  tho  opposite  shores  of  the  island.  The  Brosaa  flows 
from  Lough  EnncU  southwards  by  King's  county  into  the 
Shannon.  The  Westmeath  lou|^  have  a  peculiar  fame  among 
anglers  for  the  excellence  of  th^  trout-fishing. 

Westmeath  is  essentially  a  county  of  the  great  Carbooiferput 
Limestone  plain,  with  numerous  lakes  occupying  the  hollows.  Two 
or  three  little  inlicrs  of  Old  Red  Sandstone,  as  at  Kiltucan  and 
Nfoate.  form  distinctive  hills,  about  500  ft.  in  height.  At  5«>|i  Hiw 
near  Killucan,  a  core  of  Silurian  strata  appears  withia  the  sandstone 
dome.  A  conctdcmble  svstem  of  eskera.  notably  north  of  Tullamoi^ 
diversifies  the  surface  01  the  limestone  plain. 

The  soil  is  generally  a  rich  loam  of  great  depth  resting  on 
limestone,  and  is  well  adapted  both  for  tillage  and  pasturage. 
The  occupations  are  almost  wholly  agricultural,  dairy  fanning 
predominating.  Flour  and  meal  are  laivcly  produced.  The  only 
textile  manufactures  are  those  of  fric2cs,  flan  nets,  and  coarse  linen* 
for  home  use.    The  only  mineral  of  any  value  is  limestone. 

The  main  line  of  the  Midland  Great  Western  railway  entert  t«e 
county  from  E.  and  panes  W.  by  MulKogar  and  Athbne.  er&m 
Mullingar  a  branch-  runs  N.W.  to  Inny  Junction,  where  nMf 
diverge  N.  to  Cavan  (county  Cavan).  and  W.N.W.  to  Longlora 
(county  Lonqford)  and  Sligo.  A  branch  of  the  Great  Southern  a 
.Wosicrn  railway  runs  from  Portarlington  (Queen's  county)  w 
Athlone,  and  this  and  the  Midland  Great  Western  nuun  Ine  wj 
Connected  by  a  short  line  between  dutjauX  Streaoisto^vn*  ^^^"^ 


WESTMINSTER,  MARQUESSES  OF— WESTMINSTER       549 


by  the  latter  comfMny.  Water  oommuiiicatlon  with  DubHn  is 
furnished  by  the  Royal  Canal,  traverrine  the  centre  of  the  coanty. 
A  bnmcfa  of  the  Grand  Caaal  readwe  iulbeggati  in  the  aotith. 


The  populAtioik  (68,6ix  in  i&9t;  61,639  in  1901) 
in  excess  of  the  average  shown  1^  the  Irisli  counties,  and  emi- 
gnlion  is  considerable.  About  93%  of  the  total  are  Roman 
CatholicB)  and  about  86%  constitute  tbe  rural  population.  The 
principal  towns  are  AtUone  (pop.  66x7),  of  which  the  part 
forneriy  in  Roscommon  was  added  to  Westneath  by  the  luteal 
Government  (Ireland)  Act  of  1898,  and  MulUngar  (4500),  the 
county  town.  CastlcpoUard  and  Moate  are  lesser  market 
towns.  By  the  Redistribution  Act  of  1885  Weatmeath  waa 
formed  into  two  pariiftmentary  divisiona.  North  and  South, 
each  returning  one  member,  Athlone  being  included  in  the 
county  representation.  The  coimty  is  divided  into  twelve 
baronies.  Assizes  az«  held  at  MuULigM  and  quarter  sessions 
at  MuUingar  and  Moate^  The  county  is  in  the  Protestant 
dioceses  of  Dublin,  Killaloe  and  Ossory,  and  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  diocesesof  Kildarc  and  Leighlin,  Killaloe  and  Ossory. 

Westmeath  was  severed  from  Meath  {q.9.)  m  1543.  The  plan 
for  the  insurrection  of  1641  was  conceited  in  the  abbey  of 
Multifamham,  and  both  in  the  wars  of  this  period  and  those 
of  x688  the  gentiy  of  the  county  were  so  deeply  implicated 
that  the  majority  of  the  estates  were  omfiacated.  There  are 
S  considentble  number  of  raths  or  encampments:  one  at  Rath- 
ConraUi  is  of  great  extent;  another  at  Ballymore  was  fortified 
during  the  wars  of  the  CromweUIan  period  and  those  of  1688, 
snd  was  afterwards  the  headquarters  of  General  Ginkell,  when 
preparing  to  besiege  Athlone;  and  there  is  a  third  of  con- 
siderable size  near  Loug^  Lene.  The  ruins  of  the  Franciscan 
abbey  of  MuItlEamhara,  founded  in  1236  by  William  Delaware, 
picturesquely  situated  near  Lough  Dersveragh,  include  a  tfywer 
93  ft.  in  height. 

WESTMINSTER,  VARQUESSS  AND  DUXES  OP.  1U 
title  of  marquess  of  Westminster  was  bestowed  in  1831  u^n 
Robert  Groavenor,  and  £ari  Grosvenor  (x 767^x845),  whose 
grandson,  Hugh  Lupus  Giosvenor  (1825-1899),  was  created 
duke  of  Westminster  in  1874.  Thefamily  of  Grosvenor  is  of  great 
antiquity  in  Cheshire,  the  existence  of  a  knightly  house  of  this 
name  (Le  Grosvenur)  in  the  palatine  county  being  proved  by 
deeds  as  eariy  as  the  12th  centuiy  (see  Tht  Ancestor ^  vi.  19). 
The  legend  of  its  descent  from  a  nephew  of  Hugh  Lupus,  earl  of 
Chester,  perpetuated  in  the  name  of  the  first  duke,  and  the 
still  more  extravagant  story,  repeated  by  the  old  genealogists 
and  modem  ''peerages,"  of  its  ancestors,  the  "grand  hunts* 
men  "  {ffras  veneurs)  of  the  dukes  of  Normandy,  have  been 
exploded  by  the  researches  of  Mr  W.  H.  B.  Bird  (see  "  The 
Grosvenor  Myth  **  in  The  Ancestor,  voL  i.  April  1902).  The 
ancestors  of  the  dukes  of  Westminster,  Uie  Giosvenois  of  Eaton, 
near  Chester,  were  cadets  of  the  knightly  house  mentioned 
above,  and  rose  to  wealth  and  eminence  through  a  series  of 
fortunate  oisrrisges.   Their  baronetcy  dates  from  1622. 

Sir  Thotaias  Gxosvenot,  the  31x1  baronet  (1656-1700),  in  1676 
married  Mary  (d.  1730),  heiress  of  Alexander  Davies  (d.  1665), 
a  scrivener.  This  union  brought  to  the  Grosvenor  family 
certain  lands,  then  on  the  outskirts  of  London,  but  now  covered 
by  some  of  the  most  fashionable  quartets  of  the  West  End. 
Sir  Thomas's  sons,  Richard  (r689-i732),  Thomas  (x693-x^33> 
ind  Robeit  (d.  X755),  succeeded  in  turn  to  the  baronetcy,  Robert 
being  the  father  of  %  Richard  Grosvenor  (i 731-^802),  created 
Baron  Grosvenor  in  1 761  and  Viscount  Belgrave  and  Earl 
GM>sveiior  hi  1784*  The  ist  earl,  a  gtcat  breeder  of  racehoises, 
was  succeeded  by  his  only  surviving  son  Robert' (1767-184$), 
who  rebuilt  Eaton  Hall  and  developed  his  London  property, 
which  was  npidl>i4ttcreasing  in  value.  In  the  House  of  Commons, 
where  he  sat  fimn  1788  to  1802,  be  was  a  follower  of  Pitt,  who 
made  him  a  lord  of  the  admiralty  and  later  a  commtsrioner  of 
the  board  of  control,  but  after  1806  he  left  the  Tories  and  joined 
the  Whigs.  He  was  created  a  marquess  at  the  coronation  of 
William  IV.  in  1831.  His  son,  Richard,  the  and  marquess, 
(<795~-i869),  was  a  membo'  of  parliament  from  1818  to  1835 
•EBd  lord  fiteward  of  the  royal  household  from  1850  to  1859. 


The  tatter's  son,  Hugh  Lupus  (1825-^x899),  created  a  duke  m 
1874,  was  from  1847  to  1869  member  of  parliament  for  Chester 
and  from  x88o  to  1885  master  of  the  hone  under  Gladstone, 
but  he  left  the  Liberal  party  when  the  spBt  came  over  Home 
Rule  lor  IiehuuL  His  great  wealth  made  him  tftoaaSiy  coxh 
apicuous;  but  he  was  a  patron  of  many  pxogreasive  movements. 
His  eldest  son,  Victor  Akxander,  Bail  Grosvenor  (1853-^x884), 
predeceased  hhn,  and  he  was  succeeded  as  and  duke  by  his 
grandson,  Hugh  Richaxd  Arthur  Gnsvenor  (b.  1879),  who  in 
1901  manied  Miss  ComwaiUs-West.  Earl  Grosveaor's  widow, 
Cbimtess  Grosvenor,  a  daughter  of  the  9th  eail  of  Scaiboroagb^ 
had  in  1887  married  Mr  George  Wyadham  (b.  x86j),  a  grandsoii 
of  the  xst  baron  Leconfield,  who  subsequently  became  well* 
known  both  as  a  WUrakHr  and  as  a  Unionist  cabinet  miirister. 

Two  other  peerages  are  held  by  the  Grosvenor  flsoily.  In 
1857  Lord  Robert  Grosvenor  (1801-1893),  a  yoonger  son  of 
the  xst  naniuesB,  after  having  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons 
since  1822,  was  created  Baran  Eboiy.  He  was  an  energetic 
opponent  of  ritualism  in  the  Church  of  England;  and  he  was 
associated  in  phUaathxopk  woric  with  the  eari  of  Shaftedwiiy. 
On  his  death  his  son,  Robert  Wellcsley  Grosvenor  (b.  1834), 
became  the  md  baron.  In  x886.  Lord  Rkhard  Grosvenor 
(b.  1837),  a  son  of  the  snd  marquess^  was  created  Baron  Stal- 
bridge;  from  x88o  to  1885  he  had  been  "  chief  whip  "  of  the 
Ubeiral  psrty.  In  1891  he  became  chairman  of  the  Lpndoa 
ft  Northwestern  railway. 

Wltl'MIMS'llSH,  a  part  of  Lohdon,  Eng^d;  strictly  a 
dty  in  the  admlnistmtivs  coonty  of-  London,  bounded  E.  by 
"  the  Oty,"  S.  by  the  invtr  Thames,  W.  by  the  boroughs  of 
Chelsea  and  Kensington,  <nd  N.  by  Paddington,  St  Marylebone 
and  HolboriL  Westminster  was  formed  into  a  borough  by 
the  London  Government  Act  of  1899,  and  by  a  royal  charter 
of  the  29th  of  October  1900  it  was  CKSted  a  city.  The  oouncU 
consists  of  a  mayor,  10  aldermen  and  60  coundlkMS.  The  dty 
comprises  the  parliamentaiy  boroughs  of  the  Strand,  West- 
minster and  St  George's,  Hanover  Square,  each  retuming  one 
member.  Area,  2502*7  acres.  The  City  of  Westminster,  a^ 
thus  depicted,  extends  from  the  western  end  of  Fleet  Street 
to  Kensington  Gardens,  and  fiom  Oxford  Street  to  the  Thames, 
whidi  it  bordeis  over  a  distance  of  3  m.,  between  l^ctoria 
(Chelsea)  Bridge  snd  a  pohit  below  Waterloo  Bridge.  It  thus 
Indudcs  a  large  number  of  the  finest  buildings  in  London,  from 
the  Law  Coui^  in  the  east  to  the  Imperial  Inst'itute  in  the  west, 
Buckingham  and  St  James's  palaces,  the  National  Gallery, 
and  most  of  the  greatest  residences  of  the  wealthy  daascs.  But 
the  name  of  Westminster  is  more  generally  asoodated  with  a 
more  confined  area,  narady,  the  quarter  which  includes  the 
Abbey,  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  the  government  and  other 
buildings  in  Whitehall,  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral,  and  the 
parts  immediatdy  adjacent  to  these. 

Westminster  Ahbey.-^Tho  Abbey  of  St  Peter  is  the  most 
widdy  celebrated  church  in  the  British  empire.  The  Ihaxnes, 
bordered  in  early  times  by  a  great  expanse  of  fen  ^_^ 
on  dther  hand  from  Chelsea  and  Battersea  downward,  l^*'*''* 
washed,  at  the  point  .where  the  Abb^  stands,  one  uttoey, 
shore  of  a  low  idand  peihapsthree-quartersof  amilein 
circumference,  known  as  Thomey  or  Bramble  islet.  Tributary 
streams  from  the  ix>rth  formed  chaxmels  through  the  marsh, 
flanking  the  island  north  and  south,  and  Were  once  connected 
by  a  dyke  on  the  west.  These  channels  belonged  to  the  Tyburn, 
^ch  flowed  from  the  high  ground  of  Hampstead.  Relics  of 
the  Roman  occupation  have  been  excavated  in  the  former  island, 
and  it  is  supposed  that  traffic  on  the  Watling  Street,  from  Dover 
to  Chester,  crossed  Uie  Thames  and  the  marshes  by  way  of 
Thomey  before  the  construction  of  London  Bridge;  the  road 
continuing  north-west  in  the  line  of  the  modecn  Park  lane 
(partly)  and  Edgware  Road.  Tradition  places  on  the  island  a 
temple  of  Apollo,  which  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  the 
rdgn  of  the  emperor  Antoninus  Pius.  On  the  site  King  Ludus 
is  said  to  have  founded  a  church  ie»  a.d.  x7o)«  The  irruption 
of  the  Saxons  left  Thomey  desohite.  Traditional  still,  but 
supported  by  greater  probability,  a  stoiy  states  that  Sebert, 


550 


WESTMINSTER 


ru 


king  of  Um  Eut  SaaoDS,  having  taken  part  in  tlie  foundation  of 
St  Paul's  Catliedial,  restored  or  refounded  the  church  at  Thomcy 
"  to  the  honour  of  God  and  St  Peter,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
City  of  London  "  (Stow).  A  s{4endid  Legend  relates  the  coming 
of  St  Peter  in  person  to  hallow  his  new  church.  The  sons  of 
Sebert  relapsed  into  idolatry  and  left  the  church  to  the  mercy 
of  the  Danes.  A  charter  of  Qffa,  king  of  Mercia  (785),  deals  with 
the  conveyance  of  certain  land  to  the  monastoy  of  St  Peter; 
and  King  Edgar  restored  the  church,  clearly  defining  by  a  charter 
dated  95r  (not  certainly  genuine)  the  boundary  of  Westminster, 
which  may  bo  indicated  in  modem  terms  as  extending  from  the 
Marble  Arch  south  to  the  Thames  and  east  to  the  City  boundary, 
the  former  rivtf  Fleet.  Westminster  was  a  Benedictine  founda- 
tion. In  1050  Edward  the  Confessor  took  up  the  erection  of  a 
ntt^uficent  new  church,  cruciform,  with  a  central  and  two 
western  towers.  Its  building  continued  alter  his  death,  but  it 
was  consecrated  on  Childecmas  Day,  38th  December  1065;  and 
on  the  following  "  twelfth  mass  eve  "  the  king  died,  being  buried 
iwxt  day  in  the  church.  In  1245  Henry  IIL  set  about  the 
rebuilding  of  the  church  east  of  the  nave,  and  at  this  point  it 
becomes  necessary  to  describe  the  building  as  it  now  appears. 

Westminster  Abbey  is  a  cruciform  structure  coosbting  of 
nave  irith  aisles,  transepts  with  aisles  (but  in  the  south  transept 
the  place  of  the  western  aisle  is  occupied  by  the 
eastern  dobter  walk),  and  choir  of  polygonal  apsidal 
form,  with  six  chapels  (four  polygonal)  opening  north 
«nd  sooth  of  it,  and  an  eastern  Lady  Chapel,  known  as  Heary 
VII. 's  dMpeL  There  art  two  western  towers,  but  in  the  centre 
a  low  square  tower  hardly  rises  above  the  pitch  of  the  roof. 
The  main  entrance  in  common  use  b  that  in  the  north  transept. 
The  chapter-house,  dobtees  and  other  conventual  buildings 
and  remains  lie  to  the  south.  The  total  length  of  the  church 
(exterior)  b  551  ft,  and  of  the  tijansepts  S05  ft.  in  alL  The 
breadth  of  the  nave  without  the  aisles  b  38  ft.  7  in.  and  its  height 
close  upon  102  ft.  These  dimensions  are  very  slightly  lessened 
in  the  choir*  Without,  viewed  from  the  open  Parliament  Square 
to  the  north,  the  beintiful  proportions  of  the  building  are 
readily  realised,  but  it  b  somewhat  dwarfed  by  the  absence  of  a 
centrtd  tower  and  by  the  vast  adjacent  pile  of  the  Houses  of 
Parliament,  From  thb  point  (considered  as  a  building  merely) 
it  appears  only  as  a  secondary  unit  in  a  magnificent  group. 
Seen  from  the  west,  however,  it  b  the  dominant  unit,  but  hoe 
it  b  impossible  to  overlook  the  imperfect  conception  of  the 
"  Qothic  humour "  (as  he  himself  termed  it)  manifested  by 
Wren,  from  whose  designs  the  western  towers  were  completed 
in  1740.  llie  north  frmt,  called  Solomon's  Porch  from  a  former 
porch  over  the  main  entrance,  b  from  the  designs  of  Sir  G.  G^ 
Scott,  considerably  altered  by  J.  L»  Pearson. 

Within,  the  Abbey  is  a  supei1>  example  of  the  pointed  style. 
The  body  of  the  church  has  a  remarkable  appeaiunoe  of  uniformity, 
because,  although  the  building  of  the  new  nave  was  continued 
with  intermianons  from  the  14th  centuiy  until  Tudor  times,  the 
broad  design  of  the  Early  Enguah  work  m  the  eastern  part  of  the 
church  was  carried  on  throughout.  The  chdr,  with  its  unusual  form 
and  radiating  chapels,  plaiiuy  follows  French  models,  but  the  name 
of  the  architect  b  lost.  Exquisite  ornament  b  seen  in  the  triforium 
arcade,  and  between  some  oif  the  arches  in  the  transept  are  figures, 
espedally  finely  carved,  though  much  mutilated,  known  as  the 
censing  angds.  Heftry  V|I.'s  Chapd  replaces  an  cariier  Lady 
Chapiir  and  b  the  most  *iemaricabie  bunding  of  its  period.  It 
conyrises  a  nave  with  aisles^  and  an  apsidal  eastward  end  fonsied 
of  five  small  ladbtiog  chapels.  Both  within  ^md  without  it  b 
ornamented  irith  an  extraordinary  wealth  and  minuteness  of  detail. 
A  splendid  series  of  carved  oak  staUs  lines  och  side  of  the  nave, 
and  above  them  hang  the  banners  oX  the  Knights  of  the  Bath,  of 
whom  thb  was  the  place  of  instaUation  whea  the  Order  was  re- 
constituted in  1735.  The  fan>traceried  roof,  with  its  carved  stone 
pendants,  b  the  most  exqubite  architectural  feature  of  the  chapel. 

The  choir  stalb  in  the  body  of  the  church  are  modem,  as  b  the 
organ,  a  fine  instrument  with  an  "  echo  "  attachment,  electrically 
ooaoeaed,  in  the  triforium  of  the  south  transept.  Tne  rcredos  is 
by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott,  with  mosaic  by  Salvbti.  In  Abbot  Islip's  chapel 
there  b  a  series  of  effigies  in  wax,  representing  monarchs  and  othere. 
The  cariiest,  n^ich  b  well  preserved,  b  of  Chartes  11.,  but  remnants 
of  older  figures  survive.  Some  of  the  effigies  were  carried  in  funeral 
processions  according  to  custom,  but  this  was  not  done  later  than 
17^    There  are,  however,  figures  of  Lord  Chatham  and  Nebon, 


set  up  by  the  officiab  who  received  the  fees  fomwly  paid  by  vlsiteie 
to  the  exhibition. 

But  the  peculiar  fame  of  the  Abbey  lies  not  in  its  architecture, 
nor  in  its  connexion  with  the  metropolis  alone,  but  in  the  fact  that 
it  has  kmg  been  the  piaoe  of  the  corooadon  of  sovereigns 
and  the  burial-place  of  many  of  them  and  of  their  greatest   - '*V 

subjects.    The  original  reason  for  thb  was  the  reverence  y*_. 

attaching  to  the  memory  of  the  Confessor,  whose  dirine^**/"***' 
stands  in  the  central  chapel  bdiind  the  hiah  altar.  The""  ' 
Norman  kings  were  ready  to  do  honour  to  hb  name.  From  Wtllbm 
the  Conqueror  onward  evenr  sovereign  has  been  crowned  here  except- 
ing Edward  V.  The  coronation  chairs  stand  in  the  Confessor's  chapel. 
Th^  used  by  the  sovereign  dates  from  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  and 
contains  bemath  its  seat  the  stone  of  Scone,  or  stone  of  destiny, 
on  which  the  Celtic  kings  were  crowned.  It  is  of  Scottbh  origin, 
but  tradition  identifies  it  with  Jacob's  jpiUow  at  BethcL  Here  abo 
are  kept  the  sword  and  shield  of  Ecfward  III.,  still  used  in  the 
coronation  ceremony.  The  second  chair  was  made  for  Mary, 
consort  of  Wilibm  III.  Subsequent  to  the  Conquest  many  kings 
and  queens  were  buried  here,  from  Henry  111.  to  George  II.  Not 
all  the  graves  are  marked,  but  of  those  which  are  the  tomb  of  Htnry 
VII.  and  hb  queen,  Elizabeth  of  York,  the  central  object  in  his 
own  chapel,  is  the  finest.  The  splendid  recumbent  effigies  in  bronze, 
of  Italian  workman^ip.  rest  upon  a  tomb  of  black  marble,  and  the 
whole  b  enclosed  in  a  magnificent  shrine  of  wrought  brass.  Monu- 
ments, tombsi  busts  and  memoriab  crowd  the  choir,  its  chapeU 
and  the  transepts,  nor  b  the  nave  wholly  free  of  them.  All  but  the 
minority  of  the  Gothic  period  (among  which  the  canopied  tombs  of 
Edmund  Crouchback  and  Aymer  de  Valence,  in  the  sanctuary,  are 
notable)  appear  incongruous  in  a  Gothic  settlna.  Many  of  the 
memoriab  are  not  worthy  of  their  positi<m  as  works  of  art,  nor  are 
.the  subjects  they  commemorate  always  worthy  to  lie  here,  for  the 
high  honour  of  burial  in  the  Abbey  was  not  always  r,o  conscientiously 
guarded  as  now.  Eliminating  these  conaderations,  however,  a 
wonderful  range  of  sculptural  art  b  found.  A  part  of  the  south 
transept  b  famed  under  the  name  of  the  Poet's  Comer.  The  north 
transept  contains  many  monuments  to  statesmen. 

The  monastery  was  dissolved  in  1539,  and  Westminster  was  then 
erected  into  a  bishopric,  but  only  one  prelate,  Thomas  Thurieby, 
held  theofficeof  bishop.  In  I5S3  Mary  again  aprpointed  an 
abbot,  but  Elizabeth  reinstated  the  dean,  with  twelve  pre- 
bendaries. Of  the  conventual  buildiMs,  the  ckibters  are  of ' 
the  .13th  and  14th  centuries.  On  the  south'  side  of  the ' 
southern  walk  remains  of  a  wall  of  the  refectory  are  seen  from 
without.  From  the  eastern  walk  a  porch  gives  entry  to  the  chapter 
house  and  the  chapel  of  the  Pyx.  The  fint  b  of  the  time  of  Henry 
IIL,  a  fine  octagonal  building,  its  Vaulted  roof  supported  by  a 
slender  clustered  column  of  marble.  It  was  largely  restored  by  Sir 
Gilbert  Scott.  There  are  mural  painrings  of  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries.  The  chapel  or  chamber  of  the  Pya  b  part  of  the  under- 
croft of  the  original  dormitory,  and  b  cariy  Norman  worit  of  the 
Confessor's  time.  It  was  used  as  a  treasury  for  the  regalb  and 
other  articles  of  value  In  early  times,  and  here  were  kept  the  standard 
coins  of  the  realm  used  in  the  trial  of  the  pyx  now  carried  out  at 
the  Mint.  The  undercroft  is  divided  Into  compartments  by  walls, 
and  part  of  it  appeare  in  the  gymnasium  of  Westminster  School. 
Above  it  b  now  the  chapter  horary.  To  the  south-east  lies  the 
picturesque  Little  Cloister,,  with  its  court  and  fountain,  surrounded 
^.by  readences  of  canons  and  officials.  Near  it  are  sKght  ruins  c^  the 
^*monastK-  infirmary  chapel  of  St  Catherine.  West  of  the  main 
i^obters'are  the  Deanery,  Jerusalem  chamber  and  College  Hall, 
the  building  aurrounding  a  smaU  court  and  dating  in  fabric  mainly 
from  the  14th  century.  This  was  the  Abbot's  nouae.  Its  most 
famous  portion  u  the  Jerusalem  chamber,  bdievnl  to  be  named 
from  the  former  upestnes  on  its  walls,  representiog  the  holy  city. 
Here  died  Henry  iV.jn  1413,  as  set  forth  in  Shakespeare's  Henry  IV, 
(Pt.  ii..  Act  iv.  Sc  4).  It  b  a  beautiful  room.-  with  open  timber 
roof,  windows  partly  of  stained  ^lass,  and  waOs  tapestried  and 

Eanellcd  The  Coll^ie  Hall,  adjoimng  it,  b  of  similar  construction, 
ut  plainly  fitted  in  the  common  manner  of  a  refectory,  with  a  dab 
for  the  hi^h  ubie  at  the  north  and  a  gallery  at  the  South.  It  b 
now  the  dming-hall  of  Westminster  SchooL 

Westminster  Schoet.-St  Peter's  College,  commooly  called 
Westminster  School,  b  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  eminent 
public  achoob  in  England,  and  the  only  school  of  such  standiiv 
still  occupying  its  original  site  in  London;  A  school  was  main* 
tained  by  the  monks  from  very  eariy  times,  Hieniy  VIIL  took 
steps  to  raise  it  in  Importance,  but  the  school  owes  its  present 
eminence  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  b  commemorated  as  the 
foundress  at  a  Latin  commemoration  service  held  periodically 
in  the  Abbey,  where,  moreover,  the  daily  school  service  b  held. 
The  school  building  lie  east  of  the  conventual  buildings,  sur- 
rounding Little  Dean's  Yard,  which,  like  the  cloisters,  communi- 
cates with  Dean's  Yard,  in  which  are  the  picturesque  houses  of 
the  headmaster,  canons  of  the  Abbey,  and  others.  The  build* 
ings  are  oMHlem  or  huge  modernised.    The  Great  Schoolroom 


WESTMINSTER,  STATUTES  OF 


55' 


ii  >  fine  pincDed  biB,  betriai  m  il<  wills  the  iiniis  ind 
umc9  of  muiy  cmincsC  alumni;  it  ia  entered  by  a  galcwiy 
illtibuted  (0  Inigo  Jones,  ilao  covered  with  nimca.  Aih- 
buiobun  HouM,  noo  coaliiniDg  one  oF  ihe  school  houio,  llie 
Ubcuy  ud  dao-ioami,  Ii  turned  [rom  ib>  family  lor  whom 
it  wn  buUI,  tndhiaiially  but  not  certunly,  by  fnigo  Jones. 
Hie  Snc*t  [«it  reimining  i*  tie  giand  Raircue.  The  niAiber 
of  KhoUn,  called  KiiiB'l  Sdwlin,  on  the  foundation  i>  60,  of 
widcb  40,  vbo  nt  boorden,  reprcBent  tbe  origins]  ntimbcr. 
The  great  pcaportloa  of  Ilic  boyi  its  home  boaiden  (Ta*n 
Boys).  In  tbc  CoOege  donnltoiy  ■  Litin  play  la  umtitUy 
preaented,  in  atxoidaiKe  wilh  ancieni  custom.  It  it  preceded 
by  a  prologue,  and  followed  by  a  hunwroua  epilogue,  In  Latin 
adapted  to  subject!  of  the  momenl.  Other  cuitoois  for  irbich 
the  school  i>  noted  are  tbe  acclamation  of  the  smndgn  at 
ui  Ihe  Abbey,  in  acmidance  wllh  a  privilege  jcalouilr 


Idbyl 


le  boys;  and  tb 


,nig^  in  the 


Cnal  ScbooliDoin 

pancake  cailylng  with  it  a  reward  from  tbe  Deal 

of  boy*  is  about  95a.    Vahisble  dosescholaisfaipaaiideihmtioiit 

at  Christ  Church.  Oxford,  and  Trinity  College,  Cambildge,  are 

awarded  tDBuaHy. 

Si  Harfonl'i.—On  tbe  north  dde  of  tbe  Abbey,  dose  bedde  it, 
is  Ibe  parish  church  of  Sc  Miigaret.  It  was  fosnded  in  or  soon 
after  the  time  oi  tbe  ConfnsoT,  but  the  present  buildfa^  Ii 
Perpendicular,  of  greater  beauty  within  IhiD  tritbout.  St 
Margaret's  is  officially  the  church  of  tbe  House  of  Cdmimns, 
It  it  frequently  the  scene  of  lubionable  weddings,  whidi  alt 
rarely  held  In  tbe  Abbey.  On  tbe  south  side  oi  Dean'a  Yard  ia 
the  Church  House,  a  memorial  ol  Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee  (1SS7), 
consisting  of  a  spidoui  hall  of  biick  and  atone,  wilh  eH&ces  ior 

ITfilintfuUr  Patact :  Hinaer  tf  Parliamtnl. — A  loyal  p^acc 
aisled  at  Westminster  at  least  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Canule, 
but  the  building  spoken  of  by  Fltotephcn  la  an  "  incompaiable 

to  have  been  founded  by  Edward  the  Canfnsor  and  enlarged 
by  William  Ihe  Conqueror.  The  Hall,  called  Westminster  Hall, 
WIS  built  by  Williani  Kufna  and  altered  by  Richard  II.  In  ijii 
the  palace  suflered  greatly  from  fire,  and  tfMreafI«  ceased  to 
be  used  as  a  royal  residence.  SI  Stephen's  chapel,  originally 
built  by  King  Stephen,  was  used  from  1547  for  the  meetings  of 
the  House  of  CommiHis,  which  had  been  held  previoudy  in  the 
chapter  house  of  tbe  Abbey.  The  Lords  used  another  apartment 
of  the  palace,  but  on  the  i6lh  o(  October  1834  tbe  whole  of  the 
buildings,  cicept  the  hall,  was  burnt  down.  In  1S40  tbe  bnilding 
of  Ihe  New  Palace,  or  Houses  of  Parliament,  began,  and  it  was 
completed  in  iSC;,  at  a  coat  of  about  three  millioni  sterling. 
(For  plan,  &c.,  see  AncBrrECTCRK.  Muhrti.)  It  covers  an  area 
of  about  B  acres,  and  has  a  frontage  of  abool  joe  yds.  to  the 
Thames.  The  architect  was  Sir  Charles  Barry,  asd  the  style 
b  late  PeTpendiculzj. 

Towardi  the  river  it  presents  a  rich  /otodc  inth  a  terrace  li^ng 
Vir,.,^.  ,,.»«■  sIhv.  the  royal  eniranc*.  J40  fi.  high,  and  75  Ii. 
U  the  clock  lower,  uo  ft.  b^h.  bcanng  the 


belt),  and  en 


ckick  was  erected.  Tbe  buitdinBincoirnntesWeHiiuniter  Hall,  which 
Bieaiuite>Z90(I.in]engIb,Min width,  and  90  In  heiihl.  It  has  a 
maDnilkent  open  roof^of  car^Td  oak.  and  is  used  as  iTic  vesubule  01 
Ihe  HouM  ofParliameQl.  Oi  the  inodem  rooms,  tbc  Hou»  of  Pwrs 
iia  splendidly  ornate  chamber,  97  Tt.  mlenRfh;  that  of  the  Commons 
■  70  ft.  long,  and  less  lavishly  adorned.  The  utting  o( 
is  signiliect  by  a  flsg  on  Victoria  Tower  in  daytime  — ' 
at  Ibe  umiDul  of  the  clock  t '-■" 


.Northwanl   from    Parliament   Square  a  broad, 

ig  Ihoroughiaie  leads  to  Tnfilgu  Square.    This 

which  replaced  the  narrow  King  Street.     Here, 

rmeriy  stood  YoA 

ceoltbearchbishopsol  Vorkfraoi  IJ48.   Wolsey 

Litifitd  Ihe  mansion  and  kept  high  stale  there,  but  on  h!i 

disgrace  Henry  VIIL  acquired  and  rtcmsttDCied  it.  einphiyed 


^autifiti 


Holbein  in  Its  decoration,  and  made  ft  Ui  piindpal  reridentc. 
Inigo  Jones  designed  a  magnificgal  new  palace  for  James  I., 
but  only  the  banqueting  hall  was  oompleled  (1611),  and  this 
survived  several  fires,  by  one  of  which  (1697)  nearly  the  wbok 
of  the  rest  of  the  palace  was  destroyed.  Tlie  hall,  converted 
into  a  royal  chapel  by  George  I.,  and  now  bouaing  the  museum 
of  the  Royal  United  Service  Inslilulion,  Ibe  buildings  of  wiii^ 
adjoin  it,  u  a  fine  specimen  of  Palladian  architecture,  and  iU 
ceiling  is  adorned  with  allegorical  paintings  by  Rubens,  reat«ed 


ThiDU^  thia  haU  Charie 
leath  ita  windows^ 
(d  Henry  VIIL,  ( 


Lval 


lelics,  models  ar 
passed  on  his  way  to 

and  Charles  n. 
.  The  pflndpal  (( 

the  left,  loUniag .. , 

in  1908,  from  the  designs  of  J.  H.  Bsydu  (ec  the  B< 

tlon.  Trade,  Local  GovemiBeiil,  Ac   n*  Home,  Forejgn.  Ci«__ 

and  India  OAeea  oceapv  the  next  block  a  lieavr  baMi^  adonsed 

with  allegorical  figuns.  by'''^~ '*  "  "-—'-■ — *     '^- *.^-.- 

separatiog  these  Ifom  the 
orthe  FuM  Lod  of  Ihe  ' 
chequer.    The  Treasury 

bj-si'"  " ■ 


■^ 


Bany. 


Ihe  Park  sale 

^Ivns'afv^.'Young,  anL  . 
■^■keof  Boccleacfa.  Infronr' 
i  Ihe  duke  of  Caiabridge  (d 

Trafalpr  Square  is  an  o| 


, r^-  Space  iJopiDg  sharply  10  the 

On  Ihe  south  side,  ladna  Ibe  entry  of  Whitehall,  is  the  ! 
column  (1843)  by  W.  Raillon,  14]  ft.  In  height,  1  copy  in  granite 
from  tbe  cemple  ct  Man  Ultoi  in  Rome,  downed  with  a  statue  el 
Ndsn  by  F.  H.  Bajly,  and  having  at  in  base  four  colossil  Iwns  ia 
bnmie  mndelled  by  Sir  Edwin  Landseer.  The  ceatre  of  the  aquaia 
is  levelled  and  paved  with  aiphatte,  and  contains  two  fountains. 
Therr  arc  sOtaea  of  George  IV.,  Napier,  Havelock  and  Gordon. 
Behind  the  tenace  OB  Ihe  north  rises  Ihe  National  Gallery  (iS^). 
a  Grecian  bitiiding  by  William  Wilidna,  subsequently  mpch  enjarged, 
with  its  splendid  collectioa  of  paintiAgs.  The  National  Portrait 
Gallery  it  centainrd  in  a  building  (1893)  on  tbe  north-east  aide  at 
the  National  Gallery. 

ICeifBijniter  CatkidraL—h  short  distance  from  Victoria  Street, 
towards  ita  western  end,  stands  Westminster  Cathedral  tRoman 
Catholic).  Its  foundation  was  laid  in  189S,  and  Its  consecralioa 
tDDk  place  at  the  cloae  of  1903.  Its  site  is  somewhat  drcum- 
scnbcd,  and  this  and  its  great  bulk  renders  impossible  any 
general  appreciation  of  Its  complex  outline;  but  ita  ttaldy 
domed  campanile,  383  It.  in  height,  forms  a  landmark  from 
far  over  London.  The  style  was  described  by  the  architect, 
J.  F.  Benlley,  as  early  Christian  Byianline,  and  the  material 
is  mainly  red  brick.  The  cilreme  length  i>  360  ft.,  the  breadth 
156  ft.,  the  breadth  of  the  nave  £0  ft.,  and  iti  height  (domes 
within)  irit£  

WBSTMIN5TEB,  STATIftES  OP,  two  English  statutes  pissed 
during  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  Parliament   having  met  at 
the  iiDd  of  April  1175,  its  main  work  w 


of  the  St 


!  of  West 


:rl.    Thiswi 


>lhe 


up,  not  in  Latin,  but  in  Norman  French,  and  was  passed  "  pii 

barons,  el  la  communaule  de  la  lere  ileokes  somons."  Ita  pro- 
visions can  be  best  ninunarised  in  tbe  words  of  Stubht  (Contf. 
Hirt.cap.iiv.):— 

This  set  >s  almost  a  code  by  itsdl;  it  conluns  Gfcy-OM  clausts, 

the  wht- '  -■  •—■-'-^-      '■-  ■-— ■ - 

of  Canui 

'      iM  nunnnti  rUrt  ■•  u  he  i „ , 

aUier.  elcctlontan 


1  the  whole  ground  of  le-_^ —  ----_ 

■    '  "      --  -^"'hI  now  aniicipalu  Ihac  ol 

u  rich,  without  respect  of"""^ ' 


,. _..il  Charier  is  not  lest  diicernihle;  e 

rt,  abuses  of  srardthip,  irrrgular  demands  f 
lidden  In  Ihe  same  words  or  by  amending  eiw 
■I  ayrten  of  Henry  II.,  (he  It*  of  smck.  ai 


552  WESTMINSTER,  SYNODS  OF— WESTMORLAND,  EARLS  OF 


the  institution  of  coronere,  measures  of  Richard  and  bis  minister^ 
come  under  review  as  well  as  the  Provisions  of  Oxford  and  the 
Statute  of  Marlborough." 

The  second  statute  of  Westminster  was  passed  in  the  pariia- 
ment  of  1285.  Like  the  first  statute  it  is  a  code  in  itself,  and 
contains  the  famous  dause  De  donis  condUionalibus  {q.v.)^ 
**  one  of  the  fundamental  institutes  of  the  medieval  land  law 
of  England."  Stubbs  says  of  it:  "The  law  of  dower,  of  ad- 
vowson,  of  appeal  for  felonies,  ia  largely  amended;  the  in* 
stitution  of  justices  of  assize  is  remodelled,  and  the  abuses  of 
manorial  jurisdiction  repressed;  the  statute  De  religiosis,  the 
statutes  of  Mcrton  and  Gloucester,  are  amended  and  re-enacted. 
Every  clause  has  a  bearing  on  the  growth  of  the  later  hw." 

The  sutute  Quia  Bmptom  of  1290  is  sometimes  called  the  statute 
of  Westminster  III. 

WBtnnilBTBR*  flVHOM  OP.  Under  this  heading  are 
included  certain  of  the  more  important  ecclesiastical  councils 
held  within  the  present  bounds  of  London.  Though  the  precise 
locality  is  occasionally  uncertain,  the  majority  of  the  medieval 
synods  assembled  in  the  chapter-house  of  old  St  Paul's,  or  the 
former  chapel  of  St  Catherine  within  the  precincts  of  West- 
minster Abbey  or  at  Lambeth.  The  councils  were  of  various 
types,  each  with  a  constitutional  history  of  its  own.  Before 
the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  when  convocation  assumed  substantially 
its  present  form  (see  Convocaiion),  there  were  convened  in 
London  various  diocesan,  provinckl,  national  and  legatine 
synods;  during  the  past  six  centuries,  however,  the  chief 
ecclesiastical  assemblies  held  there  have  been  convocations  of 
the  province  of  Canterbuxy. 

The  first  really  notable  council  at  St  PauPs  was  that  of  1075 
under  the  presidency  of  Lanfranc;  it  renewed  ancient  regula- 
tions, forbade  simony  and  permitted  three  bishops  to  remove 
from  country  places  to  Salisbury,  Chichester  and  Chester  re- 
spectively. In  XZ02  a  national  synod  at  Westminster  under 
Anselm  adopted  canons  against  almony,  clerical  marriages 
and  slavery.  The  councils  of  1126, 1x27  and  1x58  were  legatine, 
that  of  1 175  provincial;  their  canons,  chiefly  re-enactments, 
throw  light  on  the  condition  of  the  clergy  at  that  time.  The 
canons  of  1200  are  based  in  large  measure  on  recommendations 
of  the  Lateian  Council  of  X179.  At  St  Paul's  the  legatine  con- 
stitutions of  Otto  were  published  in  a  synod  of  1237,  those  of 
Ottobon  in  1268:  these  were  the  most  important  national 
councils  held  after  the  independence  of  York  had  been  estab- 
lished. A  synod  at  Lambeth  in  1281  put  forth  canons  none  too 
Welcome  to  Edward  I.;  they  included  a  detailed  scheme  for 
the  religious  instruction  of  the  faithful,  During  the  next  two 
centuries  the  councils  devoted  much  attention  to  heresy: 
^ight  propositions  concerning  the  body  of  Christ  after  his  death 
were  rejected  at  St  Maiy-Ie-Bowinx286;  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jews  from  England  was  sanctioned  by  a  legatine  synod  of 
Westminster  in  X291;  ten  theses  of  Wiclif's  were  condemned 
at  the  Dominican  friary  (n  X382,  and  eighteen  articles  drawn 
from  his  Trialogus  met  the  same  fate  at  St  Paul's  in  1396;  and 
(be  doom  of  Sir  John  Oldcastle  was  scaled  at  the  latter  place  in 
14 13.  The  x4th-century  synods  at  St  Paul's  concerned  them- 
selves largely  with  the  financial  and  moral  status  of  the  clergy, 
and  made  many  quaint  regulations  regarding  their  dress  and 
behaviour  (13281  1342,  X343;  cf.  1463).  From  the  time  of 
Edward  VT.  on,  many  of  the  most  vital  changes  in  ecclesiastical 
discipline  were  adopted  in  convocations  at  St  Paul's  and  in  the 
Abbey.  To  enumerate  them  would  be  to  give  a  running  com- 
mentary on  the  development  of  the  Church  of  England;  among 
the  most  important  were  those  of  1547,  15521  1554,  1562, 157X, 
1604,  x<k>5,  1640  and.  1661.  In  1852  there  was  held  the  first  of 
a  series  of  synods  of  the  newly  oiganized  Roman  Catholic 
archdiocese  of  Westminster.^  For  the  "  Pan-Anglican  Synods  " 
see  Lambeth  Confesences. 

Bibliography. — ^For  acts  of  synods  pruM*  «>  the  Reformation  see 
Spelman,  liardouin,  W.  Lynwood,  Pronincide  (Oxford,  1679),  and 
best  of  all  WUkina;  for  the  canons  and  proceedings  of  convocation* 
from  1547  to  1717  consult  E.  Cardwell,  Synodalia  (2  vols.,  Oxford* 
184a);  for  transUtioas  and  summaries,  Gucrin,  Landon  and  Hefele, 
QmciliengesckichU.  vol.  iv.  ff.;  see  also  T.  Lathbury.  A  History  of 
4fts  CmoocaHvn  tf  tkt  Ckvtk  ^  Bttgl^iU  (and  enlarged  edition. 


London.  1853);  A.  P.  Stanley,  Hiameal  OemcHais  «/  W 
Abbey  (4th  and  revised  ea,  London,   1876},  411-413.  495-504; 
H.  M.  Milman,  Annals  ofS.  Pants  Cathedral  t2na  ed.,  London,  iSte). 
Full  titles  under  Councils.  (W.  W.  R.*) 

« 

WBStHOlUAia).  BARU  OF.  Ralph  Neville,  4th  Bami 
Neville  of  Raby,  and  xst  ead  of  Westmodand  <i364-t4>s)> 
eldest  son  of  John,  3rd  fiaion  Neville,  and  his  wife  Ifand  Pdrcy 
(see  NsviLLB,  Pamify),  was  knighted  by  Thomas  of  Wood- 
stock, afterwards  duke  of  Gloucester,  during  the  French  expedi* 
tion  of  X380,  and  succeeded  to  his  father's  .barony  in  1388.  He 
had  been  joint  warden  of  the  west  march  in  1386,  and  was 
reappointed  for  a  new  term  in  1390.  In  1391  he  was  put  on  the 
oommisfflon  which  undertone  the  duties  of  constable  in  place 
of  the  doke  of  Gloucester,  and  he  was  repeatedly  engaged  m 
negotiations  with  the  Soots.  His  support  of  the  court  party 
against  the  lords  appellant  was  rewarded  in  1397  by  theearUoffl 
of  Westmorland.  He  married  as  his  second  wife  Joan  Beaufort, 
half-sister  of  Heniy  of  Lancaster,  afterwards  Heniy  lY.,  whom 
he  joined  on  his  laodiog  in  Yorkshire  in  1399.  He  alieady  held 
the  castles  of  Brancepeth,  Raby,  Middleham  and  Sheriff  Hutton 
when  he  received  from  Henry  lY.  the  honour  and  lordship  of 
Richmond  for  life.  The  only  rivals  of  the  Nevilles  u  the  north 
were  the  Percies,  whose  power  was  broken  at  Shrewsbury  in 
X403.  Both  marches  had  been  in  their  hands,  but  the  warden- 
ship  of  the  west  marches  was  now  assigned  to  Westmorland, 
whose  influence  was  also  paramount  ia  the  east,  which  was 
under  the  nominal  wardenship  of  the  young  Prince  John,  after- 
wards duke  of  Bedford.  Westmorland  had  prevented  North- 
umberhmd  from  marehing  to  reinforce  Hotspur  in  X403,  and 
before  embarking  on  a  new  revolt  he  sought  to  secure  his  enemy, 
surrounding,  but  too  late,  one  of  Sir  Ralph  Eure's  castles  wlieie 
the  earl  had  been  staying.  In  May  the  Percies  were  in  revolt, 
with  Thomas  Mowbray,  earl  marshal,  and  Archbishop  Scnpe. 
Westmorland  met  them  on  Shipton  Moor,  near  York,  on  the 
a9th  of  May  1405,  and  suggested  a  parley  between  the  leaders. 
By  pretendkig  accord  with  the  archbishop,  the  earl  induced  him 
to  allow  his  followers  to  disperse.  Scrope  and  Mowbray  were 
then  seized  and  handed  over  to  Henry  at  Pontcfract  on  the 
3rd  of  January.  The  improbabilities  of  this  narrative  have 
led  some  writers  to  thiidc,  in  face  of  contempcHaiy  authorities, 
that  Saope  and  Mowbray  must  have  surrendered  voluntarily. 
U  Westmorland  betrayed  them  he  at  least  had  no  share  in  their 
execution.  Thenceforward  he  was  busily  engaged  in  negotiating 
with  the  Scots  and  keeping  the  peace  on  the  bordon.  He  did 
not  play  the  part  assigned  to  him  by  Shakespeare  in  Henry  V., 
for  during  Henry's  absence  he  remained  in  charge  of  the  north, 
and  was  a  member  of  Bedford's  coundL  He  consolidated  the 
strength  of  his  family  by  marriage  alliances.  His  daughter 
Catherine  married  in  1412  John  Mowbray^  second  duke  of 
Norfolk,  brother  and  heir  of  the  earl  marshal^  who  had  been 
executed  after  Shipton  Moor;  Anne  married  Humphrey,  fint 
duke  of  Buckingham;  Eleanor  .married,  after  the  death  of  her 
first  husband  Richard  le  Despenscr,  Henry  Percy,  2nd  ead 
of  Northumberland;  Cicely  married  Richard,  duke  of  York, 
and  was  the  mother  of  Edward  IV.  and  Richard  UI.  The  sons 
by  his  second  marriage  were  Richard  Neville,  earl  of  Salisbary, 
William,  Baron  Fauconbcrg,  George,  Baron  Latimer,  Robert, 
bishop  of  Salisbury  and  then  of  Durham,  and  Edward,  Baroa 
Abergavenny.  The  earl  died  on  the  2xst  of  October  1425*  ^^ 
a  fine  alabaster  tomb  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  Staindrop 
church  close  by  Raby  Castle. 

See  J.  H.  Wylie,  History  of  England  under  Henry  IV.  (4  voU^ 
i884>i898). 

Ralph,  and  earl  of  Westmorland  (c,  1404-1484),  th^  son  of 
John,  Lord  Neville  (d.  1423),  succeeded  his  grandfather  in  i4'S» 
and  married  as  his  first  wife  Elizabeth  Clifford,  daughter  of  Sir 
Henry  Percy  (Hotspur),  thus  forming  further  bonds  with  th« 
Pcrdes.  The  3rd  eari,  Ralph  Neville  (i4s6-i499)»  ^^  ^ 
nephew,  and  the  son  of  John  Neville,  Lord  Neville,  who  was 
slain  at  Towton-  His  grandson  Ralph,  4th  earl  of  Westmorland 
(1499-1550),  was  an  energetic  border  warrior,  who  remained 
laithful  to  ihe  royal  cause  when  the  other  great  northern  ktfds 


WESTMORLAND 


553 


Mned  t)i«  Pilgrimage  of  Gx«oa,  He  was  wcoeedcd  by  his  son 
keniy,  5th  carl  (c.  is2S-ts6s). 

Charks,  6U1  carl  (i  543-1601),  eldest  son  of  the  5th  eail  by 
his  first  wife  Jane,  daughter  of  Thomas  Manners,  xst  carl  ot 
Rutland,  was  brought  up  a  Roman  Cathblic,  and  was  fiurther 
attached  to  the  Catholic  party  by  his,  marriage  with  Jane, 
daughter  of  Henry  Howard,  earl  of  Surrey.  He  was  a  member 
of  th^  council  of  the  north  in  1569  when  he  joined  Thomas  Percy, 
7th  earl  of  Northumberland,  and  his  uncle  Christopher  Neville, 
Uk-  the  Catholic  rising  of  the  north,  which  had  as  its  object  the 
liberation  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots.  On  the  collapse  of  the  ill* 
organised  insurrection  Westmorland  fled  with  his  brother  earl 
over  the  borders,  and  eventually  to  the  Spanish  Netherlands^ 
where  he  lived  in  receipt  of  a  pension  from  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
until  his  death  on  the  i6th  of  November  x6oi.  He  left  no  sons, 
and  his  honours  were  forfeited  by  his  formal  attainder  in  1571. 
Raby  Castle  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  crown  until  1645. 

The  title  was  revived  in  1624  in  favour  of  Sir  Francis  Fane 
{c.  1574-1629),  whose  mother,  Maxy  Neville,  was  a  descendant 
of  a  younger  son  of  the  first  carl.  He  was  created  baron  of 
Burghersh  and  jcarl  of  Westmorland  in  1624,  and  became  Lord 
le  Despenser  on  his  mother's  death  in  1626.  His  son  Miidmay 
Fane,  2nd  or  8th  earl  of  Westmorland  {e.  1602-1666),  at  first 
sided  with  the  king's  party,  but  was  afterwards  reconciled  with 
the  parliament.  John  Fane,  7th  or  x^th  earl  ol  Westmorland 
(x682?-i762),  served  under  Marlborough,  and  wns  made  in 
X739  lieutenant-general  of  the  British  armies. 

John  Fane,  xith  or  17th  earl  (1784-1859),  only  son  of  John, 
xoth  earl,  was  known  as  Lord  Burghersh  until  he  succeeded  to 
the  earidom  in  X84X.  He  entered  the  army  in  X803,  and  in  1805 
took  part  in  the  Hanovexian  campaign  as  aide-de<amp  to 
General  Sir  George  Don.  He  waa  assistant  adjutant-general 
in  Sicily  and  Egypt  (1806-1807),  served  in  the  Peninsular  War 
from  z8o8  to  18x3,  was  British  military  commisMoner  to  the 
allied  armies  under  Schwarzenbexg,  and  marched  with  the 
allies  to  Paris  in  x8x4.  He  was  subsequently  promoted  major- 
general  (1825),  lieutenant-geneml  (X838)  tad  general  (1854), 
although  the  latter  half  of  his  life  was  given  to  the  diplomatic 
service.  He  was  British  resident  at  Florence  from  18x4  to 
1830,  and  British  ambassador  at  Berlin  from  1841  to  X85X, 
when  he  was  transferred  to  >^cnna.  In  Berlin  he  had  mediated 
in  the  Schleswig-Holstein  question,  and  in  Vienna  he  was  one  of 
the  British  plenipotentiaries  at  the  oongxess  of  x8ss.  He  reUred 
in  1855,  and  died  at  Apthorpe  House,  Northamptonshire,  on 
the  i6th  of  October  1859.  Himself  a  musician  of  considerable 
reputation  and  the  composer  of  several  operas,  he  took  a  keen 
interest  in  the  cause  of  music  in  England,  and  in  X823  made 
proposals  iriiich  led  to  the  foundation  in  the  next  year  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music.  His  wife  Priadlla  Anne  (1793*1879), 
daughter  of  William  WeUealey-Pole,  3rd  earl  of  Momington, 
was  a  distinguished  artist. 

His  published  works  include  Mtmoirs  of  (he  Early  QmjxrigHS  of 
the  Duke  of  WeUinthm  in  Portugal  and  Spain  (rSao).  and  Memotr  of 
the  Operations  of  the  Allied  Armies  under  Prince  Sckwarzenberg  and 
Marshal  BlUcher  (182a). 

Francis  William  Henry,  12th  or  x8th  earl  (1825-1891),  fourth 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  also  a  distinguished  soldier.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1843  and  served  through  the  Punjab  cam- 
paign of  1846;  was  made  aide-de<amp  to  the  governor-general 
in  X848,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Oujrat  on  the  21st  of 
February  X849.  He  went  to  the  Crimea  as  aide-de<amp  to  Lord 
Raglan,  and  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel  in  1855.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  became  aide^le^amp  to  the  duke  of 
Cambridge,  and  received  the  Crimean  medal.  The  death  of 
his  elder  brother  in  X85X  gave  him  the  style  of  Lord  Burghersh, 
and  after  his  accession  to  the  earldom  in  X859  he  retired  from 
the  service  with  the  rank  of  cdoneL  He  died  in  August  1891 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Anthony  Miidmay  JuBan  Fane 
(b.  1859),  as  X3th  carl. 

WB8TII0RLUID,  a  north-western  county  of  England, 
bounded  N.W.  by  Cumberland,  N.E.  for  a  short  distance  by 
Durham.  £.  by  Y<»ksUxe,  S.  and  S.W.  by  Lancashire.    It 


icadies  the  sea  in  the  Kent  estuary  in  Morecambe  Bay.  The 
area  is  786*2  sq.  m.  Physically  the  coxmty  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  four  areas,  (i)  The  great  upland  tract  in  the  north- 
eastern part,  bordering  on  the  western  margin  of  Yorkshire 
and  part  of  Durham,  consists  mainly  of  a  wild  mooriand  area, 
rising  to  elevations  of  2780  ft.  in  Milburn  Forest,  2403  in  Dufton 
Fell,  2446  in  Hilton  Fell,  2024  m  Bastlfell,  2328  in  High  Seat, 
2323  in  Wild  Boar  Fell  and  2235  in  Swarth  Fell.  (2)  The  second 
area  comprises  about  a  third  of  the  Lake  District  (^.v.),  westward 
from  Shap  Fells.  This  area  includes  High  Street  (2663  ft.), 
Helvellyn  (^tiS)  and  Fairfield  (2863),  Langdale  Pikes  (2401) 
and  on  the  boundary  Bow  Fell  (2960),  Crinkle  Crags  (28x6)  and 
Pike  o'  Blisco  (2304).  It  must  also  be  taken  to  cover  the  elevated 
area  on  the  Yorkshire  border  which  includes  the  Ravenstonedale 
and  Langdale  Fells  to  the  N.  and  the  Middleton  and  Barbon 
Fells  to  the  S.,  of  an  intrusive  angle  of  Yorkshire.  This  area, 
however,  which  reaches  in  some  points  over  2200  ft.  of  altitude, 
is  marked  off  from  the  Lake  District  mountains  by  the  Lune 
valley.  All  but  the  lower  parts  of  the  valleys  within  these  two 
areas  lie  at  or  above  1000  ft.  above  Ordnance  datum;  and  more 
than  half  the  remainder  lies  between  that  elevation  aiKl  X750  ft., 
the  main  mass  of  Mgh  kmd  lying  in  the  area  first  mentioned. 
(3)  The  third  area  includes  the  comparatively  low  country 
between  the  northern  slopes  of  that  just  described  and  the  edge 
of  the  uplands  to  the  north-east  thereof.  Th»  covers  the  Vale 
of  Eden.  About  three-fifths  of  this  area  lies  between  the  500 
and  the  xooo  ft.  contour.  (4)  The  Kendal  area  consists  mainly 
of  undulating  lowlands,  varied  by  hills  ranging  in  only  a  few 
cases  up  to  1000  ft.  More  than  half  this  area  lies  below  the 
500  ft.  contour.  Westmorland  may  thus  be  said  to  be  divided 
in  the  middle  by  uplands  ranging  in  a  general  south-easterly 
direction,  and  to  be  bordered  all  along  its  eastern  side  by  the 
elevated  moorlands  of  the  Pennine  chain.  The  principal  rivers 
aTe~-in  the  northern  area  the  higher  part  of  the  Tees,  the  Eden 
with  Its  main  tributaries,  the  Lowther  and  the  Eamont,  and  in 
the  southern  area  the  Lune  and  the  Kent,  with  their  numerous 
tributary  becks  and  gills.  The  kkes  include  Windermere, 
part  of  Ullswater,  Grasmere,  Hawcs  Water  and  numerous 
smaller  lakes  and  tarns,  which  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  north- 
western parts  of  the  county.  Amongst  the  other  physiod 
features  of  more  or  k»s  interest  are  numerous  crags  aiKi  scars, 
chiefly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  lakes;  others  are  Mallerstang 
Edge,  Heibeck,  above  Btough;  Haikable  or  High  Cup  Gill, 
near  Appleby;  Orton  Scars;  and  the  limestone  crags  west  of 
Kirkby  Lonsdale.  Among  the  waterfalls  are  Caldron  Snout, 
on  the  northern  confines  of  the  county,  flowing  over  the  Whin 
Sill,  and  Stock  Gill  Force,  Rydal  "Falls,  Skelwith  Force,  and 
Dungeon  Gill  Force,  all  situated  amongst  the  volcanic  rocks  in 
the  west.  Hell  Gill,  near  the  head  of  the  Eden,  and  Stenkrith, 
near  Kirkby  Stejphen,  are  conspicuous  examples  of  natural 
arches  eroded  by  the  streams  flowing  through  them. 

Geology. — The  diveralty  of  •ccneiy  and  phyrical  features  in  this 
county  are  directly  traceable  to  the  uiflucncc  of  geological  structure. 
In  the  mountainous  north-western  portion,  which  includes  the 
heights  of  H«lvcllyn.  Langdale  Pikes,  and  Bow  Fell,  and  the  lakes 
Ullswater,  Hawet  Water.  Grasmere  and  Ehcrwater,  we  find  the 
great  mass  of  igneous  rocks  known  as  the  Borrowdalc  volcanic 
series— endosttesf,  basalts  and  tuffs — of  Ordovidan  age.  On  the 
northern  and  north-western  sides  these  volcanic  rocks  pass  into  the 
neighbouring  county  of  Cumberland;  their  southern  boundary  runs 
north-easterly  from  the  upper  end  of  Windermere  by  Kcntmere  and 
past  the  granitic  mass  of  Shap  Fell;  thence  the  boundary  turns 
north-westward  through  Rasgill  to  the  east  end  of  Ullswater.  Narrow 
strips  of  Ordovician  bkiddaw  slate  occur  on  the  sonth  banks  of 
Ullswater  and  fringe  the  Boirowdale  rodcs  for  some  distance  east  of 
Windermere.  A  large  area  of  Silurian  rocks  occupies  most  of  the 
south-western  part  of  the  county  from  Windermere  to  near  Raven* 
stoncdalc  and  youthward  to  Sedocrgh,  Kendal  and  Kirkby  Lonsdale. 
The  Ordovician  and  Silurian  rocks  are  bordered  on  the  east  and 
south  by  Caibonifefous  limestone  from  the  river  Eamont  southward 
through  Clifton,  Shap,  Crosby  Garrett  and  Ravenstonedale:  and 
again  south  of  Kendal,  down  the  Kent  valley  and  eastward  to 
Kirkby  Lonsdale.  Outlying  patches  of  limestone  rest  on  the' Silurian 
at  Giayrigg,  Mcalbank  ana  elsewhere.  The  Carboniferous  lime- 
stone b  found  anin  on  the  east  side  of  the  Eden  vaHey  in  Milbum 
Forest.  Dufton  Fell,  Stainmore  and  Winster  FelL  Hero  and  then 
in  the  south-east  cornier  Milkrone  Grit  and  Shales  cap  the  limcstona 


554 


WESTMORLAND 


4]id  some  litde  dntanoe  cast  of  Broush  under  Staimnore  a  sniall 
patch  of  Coal  Measures  remains.  At  the  base  of  the  Carfooniferous 
rocks  in  this  county  is  a  red  conglomeratic  deposit,  the  lower  part 
of  which  may  be  rq^aided  as  of  Old  Red  Sandstone  age;  it  may  be 
tmced  from  Ullswater  through  Butterwick,  RasgiU  and  T^bay, 
and  it  appears  again  at  Sedbergh.  Barton  and  around  Kendal.  In 
the  limestones  on  the  cast  side  of  the  Eden  the  Great  Whin  SilU  a 
diabase  ^ke,  may  be  followed  for  a  considerable  distance.  In  the 
Eden  valley  two  sets  of  red  sandstones  occur,  that  on  the  western 
aide  is  of  Permian  age  and  includes  the  conglomerate  beds  known  as 
"  brockram."  The  Permian  esctends  as  a  belt  fiom  4  to  2  m.  wide 
betwem  Penrith,  Appldiy  and  Kirlcby  Stephen.  The  sandstone  on 
the  eastern  side  of  tne  valley  is  of  Hunter  age.  The  eastern  side 
of  the  valley  is  strongly  faulted  so  that  small  patches  of  Ordovician 
and  Silurian  rocks  appear  all  alpng  the  margin  of  the  Carboniferous 
limestone.  Evidences  of  gladation  are  abundant  in  the  form  of 
morainic  accumulations  and  tranqwrted  or  striated  blocks. 

Climaie  and  AgricuUure.— The  rainfall  is  very  heavy,  espjecially 
fn  the  western  part  (see  Lakb  District),  whence  it  diminishes 
eastward.  Thus  at  Kendal,  on  the  eastern  mnk  of  the  Lake  District, 
the  mean  annual  rainfall  Is  ctill  as  high  as  4871  in.,  whereas  at 
Appleby  in  the  Eden  valley  it  is  only  32*/ 5  in.  The  greater  part  of 
the  county  may,  however,  be  considered  to  lie  within  an  area  having 
40  to  60  in.  mean  annual  falL  The  average  temperature  in  January 
at  Appleby  u  35*8*  F.,  but  at  Windermere  it  is  ^7•4^  The  summer 
temperature  is  mild;  thus  at  the  same  two  points  58*4*  and  587* 
are  recorded.  The  principal  characteristic  of  the  climate  is  the  f»re* 
ponderance  of  doudy,  wet  and  told  days,  especially  in  the  spring 
and  autumn,^-combimng  to  retard  the  growth  of  vegetation.  The 
late  stay  of  cold  winds  in  the  spring  has  much  to  do  with  the  same, 
especiaUy  in  the  bwlands  extending  atong  the  foot  of  the  Croas  Fell 
escarpment  from  Brough  north-westwards.  The  hdm-wind  ({.i^) 
is  characteristic  of  this  district.^  Scarcely  one-half  of  the  total  area 
of  the  county  is  under  cultivation,  and  of  this  acreage  about  five- 
sixths  b  in  permanent  pasture,  both  cattle  and  sheep  being  largely 
kept.  Large  portions  of  the  valleys  are  well  wooded.  Nearly  the 
whole  of  ^e  acreage  under  com  ctofw  is  occupied  by  oats;  a  litde 
barley  is  grown,  but  the  wheat  crop  is  insignincant.  About  three- 
fourths  of  the  acreage  under  green  crops  b  occupied  by  turnips.  The 
meadow-land  yiekls  exoeUent  grass.  Grass  01  inferior  value  char- 
acterizes the  pasture-lands;  while  on  the  feU  (or  unendosed)  land, 
exc<»t  in  limestone  areas,  the  herbage  consists  chiefly  of  the  coarser 
kinds  of  grass,  bents  and  heather.  These,  however,  furnish  nourish- 
ment for  the  hardier  breeds  of  sheep,  which  are  pastured  there  ^in 
large  numben.  It  is  from  the  sale  of  these,  of  their  stock  cattle, 
horses  and  pigs,  and  of  their  dairy  produce  that  the  staple  of  the 
farmers'  inooroe  is  derived.  A  large  pa^  of  Westmorland  was  formeriy 
In  the  hands  of  "statesmen"  (see  Cumberland)  whose  hoMings  were 
Usually  of  small  extent,  but  were  sufiicient,  with  careful  management, 
for  tlw  respectable  maintenance  of  themselves  and  their  families. 
The  proportion  of  landowners  of  this  class  has  greatly  decreased. 

MoMttfaetures.-^Tho  manufacturing  industries,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  any  large  supplies  of  nariv«  fuel,  are  not  numerous. 
The  principal  is  woollen  manufacture  in  one  form  or  another,  and 
this  IS  chiefly  confined  to  the  bw  country  in  and  near  Kendal. 
Bobbin-making,  the  manufacture  of  expkssives,  fulling,  snuff- 
grinding  and  several  small  industries  are  carried  on,  and  use  the 
water-power  available  at  so  many  points.  Paper-making  is  also 
carried  on.  .The  quarries  occupy  a  conriderabic  number  of  hands  at 
various  points,  as  in  the  case  of  the  green  slate  quarries  which  are 
detrimental  to  the  scenery  in  the  bwer  part  of  Langdale. 

Communications. — ^The  main  line  01  the  London  and  North* 
Western  railway  from  the  south  serves  Oxenholme  (branch  to 
Kendal  and  Windermerc).  Low  Gill  (branch  to  Ingleton  in  York- 
shire), and  Tebay,  leaving  the  oounty  after  surmounting  the  heavy 
gradtoit  at  Shap.  The  Midbtnd  main  line,  with  a  parallel  course, 
serves  Appleby.  A  branch  of  the  North  Eastern  system  from 
Dariington  serves  Kirkby  Stephen  and  Tebay,  and  another  branch 
oonnects  Kirkby  Stephen  with  Apfkby  and  Penrith. 

'  Population  and  Administratum. — ^The  azea  of  the  ancient 
county  is  503,160  acres,  with  a  population  in  1891  of  66,098 
and  in  xgoz  of  64,303.  The  natives  are  prevalently  tall,  wiry, 
long-armed,  big-handed,  dark-grey-eyed  and  frtth-coloured. 
In  disposition  they  are  cautious,  reserved  and  unemotional 
and  thrifty  beyond  measure.  The  general  chaxacter  of  the 
dialects  of  Westmorkind  is  that  of  a  basis  of  Anglian  speech, 
influenced  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  q>eech  current  amongst 
Ihc  non-Anglian  peoples  of  Strathdyde.  This  is  overlaU  to  a 
much  greater  though  variable  extent  by  the  more  decidedly 
Scandinavian  forms  <^  speedi  introduced  at  various  periods 
between  the  loth  and  the  Z3th  centuries.  Three  well-marked 
dialects  can  be  made  out. 

The  area  of  the  administrative  county  is  505,330  acres. 
The  county  ccmtains  four  wards  (oorreq>onding  to  hundreds). 
The  municjpsl  boroughs  are  Appleby,  the  county  town  (pop. 


1764)  and  Kendal  (r4,i83).  Tlie  urban  disttfcts  are  Ambleside 
(2536),  Bowness  and  Windermere  (5061),  Grasmere  (^81), 
Kirkby  Lonsdale  (1638)  and  Shap  (1236).  The  county  is  in  the 
northern  circuit,  and  assises  are  held  at  Appleby.  It  has  one 
court  of  quarter  sessions,  and  is  divided  into  five  petty  sessional 
divisions.  The  borough  of  Kendal  has  a  separate  commissioa 
of  the  peace.  There  are  xi 5  civil  parishes.  Westmorland  b  In 
the  diocese  of  Carlisle,  and  contains  86  ecclesiastical  parishes 
or  districts,  wholly  or  in  part.  There  are  two  parliamentary 
divisions,  Northern  or  Appleby  and  Southern  or  Kendal,  each 
returning  <Mie  member. 

History, — ^The  earliest  English  settlements  in  the  district 
which  is  now  Westmorland  were  effected  by  the  An^ian  tribes 
who  entered  Yoricshire  by  the  Humber  in  the  6th  century  and 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  kingdom  of  Deira,  which  jnduded 
within  its  bounds  that  portion  of  Westmorland  afterwards 
known  as  the  barony  <tf  Kendal.  The  ncMthem  district,  corre- 
spondiag  to  the  later  barony  of  Appleby,  meanwhile  remained 
unoonquered,  and  it  was  not  until  the  dose  of  the  7th  century 
that  Ecgfrith  drove  out  the  native  Britons  and  established  the 
Northumbrian  supremacy  over  the  whole  district  With  the 
Danish  invasi<Mis  of  the  9th  century  the  Kendal  district  wa« 
inchided  in  the  Danelaw,  while  the  barony  of  Appleby  formed 
a  portion  of  the  land  of  Carlisle.  The  first  mention  of  Westmor- 
land in  the  Saxon  Chronicle  occurs  under  966,  when  it  was 
harried  by  Thored  son  of  Gumuu*,  the  term  here  applying  only 
to  the  barony  of  Ai^>leby,  which  at  this  period  was  beUsg  exten- 
sively colonised  by  Norwegian  settlers,  traces  of  whose  occupation 
are  espedally  noticeable  in  the  place-names  of  the  Lake  D^rict. 

The  Domesday  Survey  describes  only  the  barony  of  Kendal 
which  appears  as  part  of  Amoundemess  in  Yorkshire.  Before 
the  Conquest  it  had  formed  part  of  the  earldom  of  Tostig  of 
Northumbria,  and  had  been  bestowed  by  WUliam  I.  on  Roger 
of  Poitou,  but,  owing  to  the  forfeiture  of  his  estates  by  the 
latter,  at  the  time  of  the  survey  It  was  in  the  hands  of  the  crown. 
The  annexation  of  the  northern  portion  of  Westmorland  to  the 
crown  of  En^and  was  accomplished  by  William  Rufus,  who  in 
X093  drove  out  D<rffin  from  the  hind  of  Carlisle,  and  fortified 
Brou^'UiMler-Stainniore,  Brougham,  Appleby  and  Pendragon. 
In  the  reign  of  Heniy  L  the  barony  of  Appleby  was  included  in 
the  grant  to  Raniriph  Meschin  of  the  earldom  of  Carlisle,  but  on 
the  accession  of  Ranulph  (0  the  earldom  of  Chester  in  11 20  it 
was  surrendered  to  the  crown,  and  its  indtuion  In  the  pipe 
roll  of  ti3t  shows  that  Westmorland  was  now  definitely  estal>* 
li^ed  on  the  administrative  basis  of  an  English  county. 

The  barony  of  Kendal  was  held  in  the  rath  century  by  the 
Mowbrays,  and  from  them  passed  to  the  family  of  Lancaster, 
who  hdd  it  as  of  the  honour  of  Westmorland.  In  the  13th 
century  it  was  separated  into  two  moieties;  the  Lindsay  moiety 
which  passed  from  the  Lindsays  to  the  Copelands  and  Coucys 
and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  to  the  Beauforts  and  Richmon<b, 
whence  was  derived  its  later  name  of  Richmond  Fee;  the  Bras 
moiety,  which  became  subdivided  into  the  Marquis  Fee  hdd  by 
the  Parr  family,  ancestors  of  Katherine  Parr,  and  the  Lumley 
Fee  which  passed  from  the  Thwengs  to  the  Lumleys  and  Hothams. 
The  barony  of  Appleby,  with  the  hereditary  shriex'alty)  was 
bestowed  by  King  John  on  the  family  o£  Veteripont,  from  whom 
it  passed  by  female  descent  to  the  Cliffords  in  the  X3th  century, 
and  in  the  x6th  century  to  the  Tuftons,  afterwards  earls  of 
Thanet,  who  retained  the  dignity  until  their  descendant,  Mr 
Barham  of  Trecwn,  yidded  his  ri^ts  to  the  crown. 

The  division  of  Westmorland  into  wards  originated  with  the 
system  of  defence  agamst  the  inroads  of  the  Scots,  each  barony 
being  divided  into  two  wards,  and  each  ward  placed  under  a 
high  constable,  who  presided  over  the  wards  to  be  maintained 
at  certain  fords  and  other  appointed  places.  The  barony  of 
Kradal  was  divided  into  Kendal  and  Lonsdale  wards,  and  the 
barony  of  Appleby,  called  the  Bottom,  into  east  and  west  wards, 
there  being  andently  a  middle  ward  between  these  last  two. 
The  shire  court  and  assizes  for  the  county  were  hdd  at  AppUby. 

The  barony  of  Appleby  was  induded  in  the  diocese  of  Yorit 
from  the  7th  century,  and  in  t39x  formed  the  deanttica  M 


WESTON— WEST  ORANGE 


555 


LoDtdafe  twi  Kmdiil  whUn  lite  ardideMoiuy  of  Rkhmond. 
Hie  barony  of  Appleby,  whidi  had  been  bestowed  by  Henry  I. 
In  the  see  of  Gtrlisle,  formed  in  1391  the  deanery  of  Westmorland 
within  the  archdeaconry  and  diocese  of  Carlisle.  The  barony  of 
Kendal  was  placed  by  Henry  VIII.  in  his  new  diocese  of  Giester, 
of  fdiidi  it  remain«l  a  part  until  in  2856  it  was  constituted 
the  archdeaconry  of  Westmoriand  within  the  diocese  of  Carlisle. 
In  iSs9  the  Westmorland  portion  of  the  archdeaconry  of  Carlisle 
was  subdivided  into  the  deaneries  of  Appleby,  Kirkby  Stei^ien 
and  Lowther;  and  the  additional  deanery  of  Ambleside  was 
formed  within  the  archdeaconry  of  Westmorland.  The  only 
religious  foundation  of  any  importance  in  Westmorland  was  the 
Premonstratensian  house  at  Shap  founded  by  ThomaSi  soi|  of 
GoBpatric,  in  the  x  2th  century. 

The  early  political  history  of  Westmorland  after  the  Conquest 
is  a  record  of  continuous  inroads  and  devastations  from  the 
Scots.  In  the  Scottish  invasion  of  the  northern  counties  which 
followed  the  battle  of  Bannockbum  Brough  and  Appleby  were 
burnt,  and  the  county  was  twice  harried  by  Robert  Bruce  in  the 
ensuing  years.  In  1385  a  battle  was  fought  at  Hoff  near  Appleby 
•gainst  the  Scots  under  Earl  Douglas,  and  in  1388,  after  Otter- 
bum,  the  Scots  sacked  Appleby  with  such  effect  that  nine- 
tenths  of  it  lay  in  ruins  and  was  never  rebuilt  In  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses,  Westmoriand,  under  the  Clifford  influence,  inclined  to 
favour  the  Lancastrian  cause,  but  was  not  actively  concerned  in 
the  struggle.  In  the  Civil  War  of  the  xjth  century  the  chief 
famifies  of  the  county  were  royalut,  and  In  1641  Anne,  countess  of 
Pembroke,  hereditary  high  sheriff  of  the  county,  garrisoned 
Appleby  Castle  for  the  khig,  placing  it  in  charge  of  Sir  Philip 
Musgrave,  the  colonel  of  the  train-bands  of  Westmorland  and 
Cumbeiiand.  In  164a  a  memorial  was  presented  to  Chaifes 
signed  by  nearly  5000  of  the  inhabitants  of  Westmorland  and 
Cumberland  protesting  their  kyalty  aiKi  readiness  to  sacrifice 
their  lives  and  fortunes  in  his  service.  Appkby  Castle  snrreDdered 
In  1648,  but  the  Btieagth  of  the  royaiist  fediag  was  shown  in  the 
yiy  which  greeted  the  news  of  the  Reitontion,  the  mayor  of 
Appkby  pubU(^  destroying  the  charter  which  the  town  had 
received  from  Cromwell.  The  Jacobite  rising  of  1745  found  maay 
adherents  in  WesUnorland,  and  a  skirmish  took  place  on  Clifton 
Moor  between  the  focoes  of  Lord  Geome  Murray  and  the  duke  of 
Cumberland.  *' 

The  economic  development  of  Westmorland,  both  on  account 
of  natonl  disadvantagiBS  and  of  the  ravages  o£  border  strife, 
has  been  slow  and  unimportant;  the  rugged  and  barren  nature 
of  the  ground  being  unfavounble  to  agricultural  prosperity, 
whOe  the  bck  of  fbel  hindered  the  -growth  of  manufactures. 
Sbeep-6uming  was  carried  on  In  the  moorland  districts,  however, 
and  the  Pkemonstrstensian  house  at  Shap  aopplied  wool  to  the 
Fknentine  and  Flomish  markets  in  the  S3th  and  k4th  centttries. 
The  clothing  industry,  which  spread  firom  Kendal  to  the  sur« 
nondiog  districts,  h  ttad  to  have  been  introdooed  by  one  John 
Kempeof  Fbmders,  who  settled  there  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III., 
and  a  itatnte  of  1465  alludes  to  cloths  of  a  distinct  make  being 
DMumfactmed  at  Kendal.  In  1589  the  county  suffered  severely 
from  the  ravages  of  the  pbgue,  0500  deaths  being  reoor^d  in 
thedeaneiy  of  Kendal  ahme.  Speed,  writing  ui  the  x  7th  century, 
nyt  of  Westmorhmd  that  ''it  is*  not  commended  either  for 
plenty  of  corn  or  cattle,  being  neither  stored  with  arable  grounds 
to  bring  forth  the  one,  nor  pasturage  to  lead  up  the  other;  the 
principal  profit  that  the  peopfe  of  this  province  raise  unto 
themselves  is  t^  dothfaig."  The  oomb  manufacture  was  estab- 
Ushed  at  Kendal  in  1700,  and  about  the  same  time  the  develop- 
men!  of  the  boot  and  shoe  trade  to  some  eatcnt  supiAemented 
the  loss  consequent  on  the  decline  of  the  dotfaing  industry 
There  were  two  paper>miDi  at  Milnthorpe  in  1777,  one  of  which 
eiistedcighty  yean  before. 

Westmorhmd  returned  two  knighu  for  the  coonty  to  the  parifo- 
ment  of  1290,  and  in  1395  two  burgesses  for  the  borough  of 
Appleby.  Under  the  Reform  Act  of  2839  Appleby  was  dis- 
franchised and  Kendal  returned  one  member. 

ifnHfywtfw.—Notable  ecdesiastieal  buildings  are  ahnost 
mtiufy  wuting  in  WcMmoiland,  though  mettCion  may  be 


made  of  the  ruins  of  Shap  Abbey,  which  lies  near  the  small 

market  town  of  that  name  in  the  bleak  upper  valley  of  the 

Lowther.  The  Perpendicular  western  tower  and  other  fragments 

renuun.  Late  Norman  work  is  jMieserved  in  some  of  the  churches, 

as  at  Kirkby  Lonsdale,  and  in  a  few  castles.   Among  the  castles, 

those  at  Appleby,  Brough,  Brougham  and  Kendal  are  notable, 

but  fiampirs  are  numerous.    Among  old  houses,  Levens  Hall 

dates  from  the  i6th  century,  and  Sisergh  Hall  embodies  part 

of  an  ancient  castle;  both  are  in  the  Kendal  district.   The  formal 

gardens  at  Levens  Hall  are  remarkable.    Lowther  Castle,  near 

Penrith,  the  seat  of  theeart  of  Lonsdsle,  is  a  fine  modem  mansion, 

m  a  Gothic  style  more  satisfactory  in  broad  effect  than  in  detaH. 

See  Joseph  Nidiolton  and  Rkbard  Bum,  The  History  and  AnH- 
fiiMes  ef  lk$  Qmrntia  «/  W$simor1aMl  and  Ctumbertand  (2  voln, 
London,  1777)]  William  Whellan.  rA«  Hutory  and  Topography  oj 
the  Counties  of  Cumberland  and  Westmorland  (Pontcfract,  1860/7 
Transactions  ^  the  Cumberlasid  and  Westmorland  Antiquarian  and 
Archaeological  Society  (Kendal,  1870.  &c.):  R.  S.  FerzuBoa^History 
of  Westmorland  <POpular  COuaty  Histories,  1894);  Str  D.  Fleming, 
DescriptUm  of  Westmorland  (1671):  T.  Gib«>n,  Legends  asid  Notes 
on  Places  of  NorthWesimorland  (London,  1887) ;  M.  W.  Taylor, 
Manorial  HaUs  of  Westmorland  (Kendal.  1893);  T.  Ellwood.  Land- 
noma  Booh  of  Jcdand  as  it  ilhisirales  the  Dtalect  and  Antiquities  of 
WestmorloMd  (Kendal,  1894);  Yieloria  County  History,  WestmorlamL 

WBraOR»  fHCniAf  (x 737-1 776),  En^bh  actor,  was  the  son 
of  a  cook.  His  first  London  appearance  was  about  r759,  and 
from  1763  until  his  death  he  wu  admitted  to  be  the  most  amusing 
comedian  on  the  En^ish  stage.  Foote  wrote  for  him  the  part 
of  Jerry  Sneak  In  the  Mayor  of  CarraU,  Abd  Drugger  in  the 
Alchemist  was  one  of  his  famous  performances;  and  Garrick, 
who  also  played  this  part,  praised  him  highly  for  it. 

WBBT01I-8UPBR-IURB,  a  seaside  resort  hi  the  Wells  parha^ 
mentary  division  of  Somenetshire,  England,  on  the  Bristol 
Channd,  137!  m.  W.  by  S:  of  London  by  the  Great  Western  rail- 
way. Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901),  19,048.  It  is  built  partly  on 
level  ground  near  the  shore,  and  partly  on  the  slopes  of  Worlebury 
Hill,  vdiich  aids  in  giving  shelter  from  the  north  and  east. 
Among  the  fir-dad  sfopes  of  the  neighbourhood,  which  command 
a  fine  view  of  the  WeUi  bilb  across  the  C^iannel,  there  are  many 
beautiful  walks  and  drives.  An  esplanade  extends  for  about 
3  m.,  and  public  gardens  have  been  laid  out  on  Worlebury  Hill, 
from  the  far  end  of  whidi  a  kmg  pier  projects,  linking  the  rocky 
islet  of  Bimbeck  to  the  town.  Grove  Park,  once  the  manor- 
housot  is  owned  by  the  council,  and  is  used  as  a  free  library, 
its  grounds  bdng  open.  Other  institutions  indude  a  museum 
opened  fo  honour  of  Queen  Victoria's  Diamond  Jubilee, 
and  the  West  of  £n|^d  Sanatorium,  to  which  two  large 
conservatories  are  attached,  as  a  winter-garden  for  invalids. 
The  town  has  long  been  famous  for  its  potteries,  and  then  am 
mineral  water-works  and  fisheries.  Large  quantities  of  sprats 
are  caught.  Intermittent  firings  exist  in  Weston,  which  are 
affected  by  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide. 

WBST  ORA]MB»  a  town  of  Essex  county,  New  Jersey,  U.S.A., 
in  the  N.E.  part  of  the  sute,  about  13  m.  W.  of  New  York  Cty. 
Pop.  (X890)  4358,  (1900)  6889  (1772  foreign-bom);  (1905,  state 
census)  787s;  (19x0)  10,080.  It  is  served  by  theOmn^  branch 
of  the  Erie  railroad,  and  is  connected  with  neighbourmg  towns 
and  dties  by  dectric  lines.  The  town  has  an  area  of  about 
7  sq.  m.  It  is  crossed  hi  a  N.E.  and  S.W.  direction  by  two  ridges 
—the  First  (also  called  the  Orange  or  Watchung)  Mountain  and 
the  Second  Mountain.  Eagle  Rock  (about  650  ft.) ,  on  the  summit 
of  First  Mountain,  commands  a  splendid  view.  On  the  eastern 
slope  of  Fbst  Mountain  are  Hutton  Park,  containing  the  grounds 
of  the  Essex  County  Country  Club,  and  UeweUyn  Park,  a  beauti- 
ful Bcsddential  tract  of  750  acsea,  muned  in  honour  of  its  originator, 
Llewellyn  S.  Haskdl  (r8r5-i87s).  West  Orange  has  various 
manufactures,  including  phonographs,  lawn  mowers  and  fdt 
hats.  In  1862  parts  of  the  townships  of  Orange,  Caldwell  and 
Livingston  were  united  .into  a  new  township  nameil  Fairmount. 
In  1863  another  part  of  Orange  was  added  and  the  name  of  the 
new  township  was  changed  to  West  Orange.  In  X900  West 
Orange  was  chartered  as  a  town. 

See  H.  Whittemorc.  The  Fomiers  and  BmOders  ef  the  Orassgts 
(fiemvK  1896). 


ssf> 


-WESTPHAUA 


WBtTPHAU  RUDOUP  (x8a6*i893>,  Gennaii  daadcal  scholar, 
was  born  at  Obcrnkircfaen  ia  Schamnburg  on  the  3rd  of  July 
i8a6.  He  studied  at  Marburg  and  Tubingen,  and  'v«a  piofeasor 
at  Breslau  (X85&-Z862)  and  Moscow  (1875-1879).  Ho  subse- 
quently Uved  at  Buckebui:g,  and  died  at  Stadtbagen  in  Schaum- 
burg-Uppe  on  the  loth  of  July  1892.  Westphal  was  a  man  of 
varied  attainments,  but  his  chief  claim  to  rerocmbranoe  rests 
upon  his  contributions  on  Greek  music  and  metre.  His  chief 
works  are.  Griechische  Metrik  (3rd  ed«,  1885-1889);  System  der 
antiken  Rhythmik  (1865);  Hephaestion's  De  mctris  enchiridion 
<i866);  Aristoxenus  of  TaretUum  (translation  and  commentary, 
1883-1893,  vol.  ii.  being  edited  alter  bis  death  by  F.  Saran); 
Di»  Musik  dcs  gricchixhcn  Aiieriums  (1883);  AUgemtine 
Metrik  der  indogcrmanisckcn  und  scmitiscken  VSlker  (1892). 
He  made  translations  of  Catullns  (1870)  and  ol  Aristophanes' 
'Ackcrnians  (1889),  in  which  he  successfully  reproduced  the 
Dorisms  in  PUttdcutsch. 

WESTPHALIA  (Ger.  Wcstjalcn)^  a  province  of  the  kingdom 
of  Prussia.  The  ancient  duchy  and  the  Napoleonic  kingdom 
of  the  same  name,  neither  of  which  was  conterminous  with  the 
modem  province,  arc  dealt  with  in  the  historical  part  of  this 
article.  The  area  of  the  province  is  7801  sq.  m.,  its  length  both 
from  N.  to  S.  and  from  £.  to  W.  is  about  130  m.,  and  it  is  bounded 
N.  by  Hanover,  £,  by  Schaumburg-Lippe,  Hanover,  Lippe- 
Detmold,  Brunswick,  Hesse-Nassau  and  Waldeck,  S.  and  S.W. 
by  Hesse-Nassau  and  the  Rhine  Province,  and  N.W.  by  the 
Idngdom  of  the  Netherlands. 

Nearly  half  of  Westphalia  is  an  extension  of  the  great  North- 
German  plain,  which  here  stretches  S.E.  into  an  acute  angle  enclosed 
on  the  N.E.  by  the  long  low  range  of  the  Teutoburger  Wald  and  its 
•oothem  prolonrntion  the  Eggegebirge,  and  on  the  S.  by  the  line  of 
hilb  called  the  Haar  or  Haarstran|;,  which  divides  the  basins  of  the 
Lippe  and  Ruhr.  The  Westphahan  plain  is  broken  by  extensive 
outcrofM  of  the  underlying  cretaceous  beds,  and  is  not  very  fertile, 
except  in  the  Hellweg,  a  zone  between  the  Haarstrang  and  the 
Uppe.  There  are  extensive  fens  In  the  N.  and  W.,  and  N.  of  Pader- 
born  is  a  sandy  waste  called  the  Senne.  The  ^in  is  drained  in  the 
N.  by  the  Enu  and  in  the  S.  by  the  Lippe,  which  rise  close  together 
In  the  Teutoburger  Wald.  Between  their  basins  are  the  Vechte  and 
other  small  rivers  flowing  into  the  Zuider  Zee.  The  triangular 
southern  portion  of  Westphalia,  most  of  which  is  included  in  Sauer- 
land  ("  south  land  "),  is  a  rugged  region  of  slate  hills  and  wooded 
valleys  drained  chiefly  by  the  Ruhr  with  its  affluents  the  L.enne» 
Mshne,  &c.,  and  in  the  S.  by  the  Sieg  and  Eder.    The  hills  rise  in 


the  S.E.  to  the  Rotlager  or  Rothaafgebiige,  culminating  in  the 
V^nterberg  plateau  with  the  Kahler  Asten  (2713  ft.),  the  behest 
summit  in  the  province.  The  RotlagergebirgCt  Eggegebiige  and 
Teutoburger  Wald  form  with  some  intermediate  ranges  the  water- 
shed between  the  basin  of  the  Weser  and  those  of  the  Rhine  and 
Enw.  In  the  N.E.  comer  of  the  province  the  Weser  divides  the 
WiehensBebtrge  from  the  Wesergebirge  by  the  narrow  pass  called 
Porta  WestSalica, 

The  climate  is  temperate  except  in  the  south,  which  is  cold  in 
winter  and  has  a  heavy  rainfall.  Of  the  total  area  4^%  is  occupied 
hv  arable  land  and  gardens,  18%  by  meadows  ana  pastures  and 
28  %  by  forests.  The  best  arricultunU  land  Is  in  the  Hellweg  and 
the  Weser  basin.  The  numoer  of  peasant  proprietoni  b  propor- 
tionately greater  than  in  any  other  part  of  rnissia,  and  as  a  class 
they  are  well-to-do.  The  crops  include  grain  of  all  kinds  (not 
sumctent,  however,  for  the  needs  of  the  province),  peas  and  beans, 
buckwheat,  potatoes,  fruit  and  hemp.  The  culdvatioo  of  flax  is 
very  extensive,  especially  in  the  N.E.  Swine,  which,  are  reared  In 
great  numbers  in  the  plains,  yield  the  famous  Westphalian  hams: 
and  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  goats  is  importanL  Tne  breeding  of 
horses  is  fostered  by  the  government.' 

The  minerel  wealth  Is  very  great,  especially  in  coal  and  iron. 
The  production  of  ooal  is  greater  than  that  of  any  otfaerprovince 
of  Prussia,  and  amounted  m  IQ06  to  53,000,000  tons*  Tne  great 
Ruhr  coal-field  extends  from  tne  Rhineland  into  the  province  as 
far  as  Unna,  the  centre  beins  Dortmund,  and  there  is  a  smaller 
coal-field  in  the  N.  at  IbbenbQren.  The  producrion  of  iron  ore, 
chiefly  S.  of  the  Ruhr  (1,360.000  tons  in  1905)  is  exceeded  in  Prussia 
only  by  that  of  the  Rhine  province.  After  ooal  and  iron  the  most 
valuable  minerals  are  zinc,  lead«  pyrites  and  copper.  Antimony, 
quicksilver,  stone,  marble,  slate  and  potter's  clay  are  also  worked, 
and  there  are  brine  springs  in  the  Hellw^  and  mineral  springs  at 
Lippspringe,  Oynhausen,  Ac. 

The  manufacturing  industry  of  the  province,  whkh  chiefly 
depends  upon  its  mineral  wealth,  is  very  extensive.  Iron  and  sted 
goods  are  produced  In  the  so-called  "  Enneper  Strasse,'*  the  valley 
of  the  Ennepe.  a  small  tributary  of  the  Ruhr  with  the  to^  of  Hagen, 
and  in  the  neighbouring  towns  of  Bochum,  Dortmund,  iscrlohn  and 
Aitena,  and  also  in  the  Segen  district.    The  brass  and  biooB 


Industries  am  carried  on  at  Istilohfi  Mid  Altraa,  tiosit  of  tia  aild 
Britannia  metal  at  Lfldenscheid;  needles  are  made  at  Isedohn  and 
wire  at  Aitena.  The  very  important  linen  industry  of  Bielefeld, 
Herford,  Minden  and  Warendorf  has  flourished  in  this  region  sittCB 
the  Z4th  century.  Jute  Is  manufactured  at  Bielefeld  and  cotton 
goods  in  the  W.  Paper  Is  extensively  made  on  the  lower  Lcnoe, 
and  leather  around  Sicgen.  Other  manufactures  are  glass,  chemicals, 
sugar,  sausages  and  cigars.  An  active  trade  is  promoted  by  several 
trunk  lines  of  railway  which  cross  the  province  (total  mileage  in 
1906, 1889  m.,  exclusive  of  light  railways)  and  by  the  navigation  <Mf 
the  Weser  (on  which  Minden  has  a  port).  Ems,  Ruhr  and  Lippe. 
Beverungen  is  the  chief  market  for  corn  aind  Paderborn  for  wo^. 

The  population  in,  1905  was  3,618,090,  or  464  per  sq.  m.  It 
is  very  unevenly  distributed,  and  in  the  industrial  districts 
is  increasing  very  rapidly.  In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  great 
influx  of  Poles  into  these  parts,  attracted  by  the  higher  wages. 
In  1900  they  already  numbered  more  than  100,000.  Between 
189^  and  1900  the  mean  annual  increase  of  the  population  was 
3'3%>  the  highest  recorded  in  the  German  empire,  but  between 
1900  and  1905  it  fell  to  2 •5%.  The  percentage  of  illegitimate 
births  (2-6)  is  the  lowest  in  (Germany.  51*0%  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Roman  Catholics,  47*9%  Protestants.  The  distribution 
of  the  two  communions  still  closely  follows  the  lines  of  the  settle^ 
mcnt  at  the  peace  of  Westphalia.  Thus  the  former  duchy  oC 
Westphalia  and  the  bishoprics  of  MOnster  and  Paderborn  which 
remained  in  ecclesiastical  hands  are  almost  entirely  Roman 
Catholic,  while  the  secularized  bishopric  of  Minden  and  the  former 
counties  of  Ravensbeig  and  Mark,  which  fell  or  had  fallen  to 
Brandenburg,  and  the  Siegen  district,  which  belonged  to  Nassau^ 
are  predominantly  Protestant* 

The  province  is  divided  into  the  three  governmental  departments 
{R€gi€rtmg^>etnrke)  of  Minden,  Milnster  and  Amsberg.  MOnster  is 
the  seat  of  government  and  of  the  provincial  university.  Wes^ 
phalia  returns  thirty-one  members  to  the  Prussian  Lower  House 
and  seventeen  to  toe  Reichstag. 

The  inhabitants  are  mainly  of  the  Saxon  stock  and  speak  Low 
German  dialects,  except  in  the  Upper  Franldsh  district  around 
Si^en,  where  the  Hessian  dialect  is  spoken. 

Westphalia,  '*  the  western  plain"  (in  early  records  Westfald^f 
was  originally  the  name  of  the  western  province  of  the  ear^ 
duchy  of  Sarony,  including  the  western  portion  of  the  modem 
province  and  extending  north  to  the  borders  oi  Friesland. 
When  Duke  Henxy  the  Lkm  of  Saxony  fell  under  the  ban  of  the 
empire  in  1 180,  and  his  duchy  was  divided,  the  bishops  of  Milnster 
and  Paderborn  becalAe  princes  of  the  empire,  and  the  archbishop 
of  Cologne,  Philip  of  Heinsbetg,  received  from  the  emperor 
Frederick  L  the  SauerUtnd  and  some  other  districts  which  htcaxae 
the  duchy  of  Westphalia.  Within  the  duchy  were  some  iif 
dependent  secular  territories,  notably  the  county  of  Mark,  whfle 
other  districts  were  hekl  as  fiefs  from  the  ardibi^ops,  afterwards 
electora.  From  2368  the  electors  themselves  hdd  the  county  of 
Amsberg  as  an  imperial  fief.  The  duchy  received  a  constitution 
of  its  own,  sad  was  governed  for  the  elector  by  a  maishsl  (Land* 
marsckail,  after  1480  Landdrost)  who  was  also  stadtholder, 
and  presided  over  the  Westphalian  chancellery.  This  system 
lasted  till  1803.  By  MaximiliaA's  administrative  organization  of 
the  empire  in  1500  the  dudiy  of  Westphalia  was  induded  as  an 
appanage  of  Cologne  in  the  scattered  circle  of  the  Lower  Rhine, 
llie  Westphalian  circle  which  was  formed  at  the  same  tino  com^ 
prised  nearly  all  the  rest  of  the  UHMlcm  province  (including  Mark) 
and  the  lands  north  of  it  between  the  Weser  and  the  frontier  of  the 
Netheriands,  also  Verden,  Schaumburg,  Nassau,  Wiod,  Lippe,' 
Berg,  Cleves^  Jtillch,  Li^ge,  BouiIk>n  and  CambraL 

Brandenburg  laid  the  foundations  of  her  dominion  in  West- 
phalis  by  obt^ning  the  counties  of  Mark  and  Ravensberg  tn> 
1614  (confirmed  x666),  to  which  the  bishopric  of  Minden  was 
added  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648  and  Tecklcnbung  in 
x'707.  By  the  settlement  of  1803  the  church  lands  were  secular- 
ised, and  Pnissia  received  the  bishopric  of  Paderborn  and  thd 
eastern  part  of  Milnster,  while  the  electoral  duchy  of  Wcstpfaslin 
was  given  to  Hesac'Dannstadt. 

After  the  peace  of  Tilsit  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  was 
crested  by  Nspolcon  L  on  the  iSth  of  August  1807,  and  given 
to  his  brother  Jerome  (see  Bonapaste).  It  included  the  present 
governmental  department  of  Minden,  but  by  far  the  largierpnrt 
of  thftJungdoBS  lay  oituidc  and  chiefly  to  the  east  of  the  raoddv 


WESTPHALIA^'  TREATY  OF 


557 


ptQvmo^  and  cotnpvbBd  tHe  Hanovefian  department  ol  Hildn- 

heim  and  in  pert  that  of  Arcnsberg,  Brunswick,  the  northern  part 

of  the  province  of  Saxony  as  far  as  the  Elbe,  Halle,  and  most  of 

Hesse-Casscl.    The  area  was  141627  sq.  m.,  and  the  popubtion 

nearly  two  millions.     Cassel  was  the  capital    A' constitution 

on  the  French  imperial  pattern  granted  by  the  king  remained 

practical^  inoperative,  an  arbitrary  bureaucratic  regime  was 

instituted,  the  finances  were  from  the  beginning  in  a  hopeless 

condition,  and  the  country  was  drained  of  men  and  money  for 

Napoleon's  wars.    In,  January  18 10  most  of  Hanover  was  added, 

but  at  the  end  of  the  same  year  half  the  latter,  together  with  the 

city  of  Minden,  was  annexed  to  the  French  empire.   Thore  had 

already  been  serious  revolts  and  raids,  and  after  the  battle  of 

Leipzig  the  Russians  drove  the  king  from  Cassel  (October  18x3), 

the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  was  dissolved  and  the  old  order  was 

for  a  time  re-established.    At  the  confess  of  Vienna  (1815) 

Hesse-Darmstadt  surrendered  her  share  of  Westphalia  to  Prussia, 

and  the  present  province  was  constituted.  __ 

See  Weddieen.  WestfaUn,  Land  und  UuU  (PadeiixMn,  18^): 
G.  Schulze,  Heimatskunde  der  Provina  Westfaien  (Minden,  looo); 
Lembei^,  Die  Hutten-  und  iietaUinduslrie  Rkeimanis  und  West- 
faitns  (4th  ed.,  Dortmund,  1905);  J.  S.  Scibcrtz,  Landes-  und 
RechtsgeichickU  des  Hereogiums  WestfaUn  (4  vols.,  AmabcrR,  1639- 
1875);  R.  Wilnians,  Die  Kaiserurkunden  der  Prooins  WestUUen 
(2  vols.,  MUnster.  1867-1881):  M.  Jansen.  Die  HerzoesgeuiaU  der 
Er^ischofe  van  Kolit  in  Westfaien  (Munich,  1895);  I-folzaprd,  Das 
Konigreich  Westfaien  (Magdeburg,  1895):  G.  Scrvt^res,  L'AUemagne 
frangaise  sous  NapaUou  1"  (Paris,  IQ04)'>  Masclhoff.  Dk  fiiiAMcfte/vitf 
der  LoHdeskuUur  in  der  Provitu  Weitjfateu  im  igle»  Jahrkundert 
(MUn«iter,  1900). 

WESTPHAUA,  TREATY  OF.  a  collective  name'given  to  the 
two  treaties  concluded  on  the  24th  of  October  164S  by  the 
empire  with  France  at  MUnster  and  with  Sweden  and  the  Pro- 
testant estates  of  the  empire  at  Osnabrttck,  by  which  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  (f.v.)  was  brought  to  an  end. 
-  As  early  as  1636  negotiations  had  been  opened  at  Cologne 
at  the  instance  of  Pope  Urban  VIU.,  supported  by  the  seigniory 
of  Venice,  but  failed  owing  to  the  disinclination  of  Richelieu  to 
stop  the  progress  of  the  French  arms,  and  to  the  refusal  of 
Sweden  to  treat  with  the  papal  legate.  In  1637  the  agents  of  the 
emperor  began  to  negotiate  at  Hamburg  with  Sweden,  though  the 
mediation  <A  Christian  IV.,  king  of  Denmark,  was  rejected  by 
Sweden,  and  the  discussions  dragged  on  for  years  without  result. 
In  the  meantime  the  new  emperor  Ferdinand  III.  proposed  at  Uic 
diet  of  Regensburg  in  1640  to  extend  the  peace  of  Prague  to  the 
whole  empire,  on  the  basis  of  an  amnesty,  from  which,  however, 
those  Protestant  estates  who  were  still  leagued  with  foreign 
powers  were  to  be  excluded.  His  aim  was  by  settling  the  Internal 
affairs,  of  the  empire  to  exclude  the  German  princes  from 
participation  in  negotiations  with  foreign  powers;  but  these 
efforts  had  no  result. . 

A  more  practical  suggestion  was  made  by  the  Cbmte  d'Avaux, 
the  French  envoy  at  Hamburg,  who  proposed  in  164 1  that  the 
negotiations  at  Cologne  and  Hamburg  should  be  transferred  to 
MUnster  and  Osnabrtick,  two  cities  in  the  WcstphaUan  circle 
not  mors  than  30  m.  apart.  A  preliminary  treaty  embodying  this 
proposal  was  concluded  between  the  fepresentativcs  of  the 
emperor,  France  and  Sweden  at  Hamburg  on  the  2sth  of  December 
1641.  A  dispute  as  to  precedence  between  France  and  Sweden, 
and  the  refusal  of  the  latter  power  to  meet  the  papal  nuncio, 
.made  the  choice  of  a  single  meetin^^place  .impossible.  It  was 
arranged,  however,  that  the  two  assemblies  should  bo  regarded  as 
a  single  congress,  and  that  neither  shoukl  conclude  peace  without 
the  other. 

The  date  fixed  for  th€  meeting  of  the  two  conventions  was 
the  nth  of  July  1643,  but  many  months  eUpsed  befoie  all  the 
representatives  arrived,  and  the  settlement  of  many  queatk>ns 
of  precedence  and  etiquette  caused  further  delays.  England, 
Poland,  Muscovy  and  Turkey  were  the  only  European  powers 
unrepresented.  The  war  continued  during  the  deliberations, 
which  were  influenced  by  its  fortunes. 

The  chief  representative  of  the  emperor  was  Count  Maxknillsn 
von  Tmutmaiudorff,  to  whose  sagacity  the  conclusion  of  peace 
pnn  latgely  due:    The  FienCh  caToys  wen  nominally  tmdtr 
xxvm  10 


Hewy  of  Orleans,  duke  of  LongueviOe,  bat  the  marquis  de 
Sabli  and  the  comte  d'Avaux  were  the  real  agents  of  France. 
Sweden  was  represented  by  John  Oxenstiema,  son  of  the  chan- 
cellor, and  by  John  Adler  Salvius,  who  had  previoudy  acted  for 
Sweden  at  Hamburg.  The  papal  nundo  was  Fabio  Chigi, 
afterwards  Pope  Alexander  VII.  Brandenburg,  repTiesented 
by  Count  Johann  von  Sayn- Wittgenstein,  played  the  foremost 
part  among  the  Protestant  states  of  the  empire.  On  the  ist  of 
June  164s  France  and  Sweden  brouj^t  forward  propositions  of 
peace,  which  were  discussed  by  the  estates  of  the  empire  from 
October  1645  to  April  1646.  Tlie  settlement  of  religious  matters 
was  effected  between  February '  1646  and  March  1648.  The 
treaty  was  signed  at  MUnster  by  the  members  of  both  conventions 
on  the  a4th  of  October  1648,  and  ratifications  were  exchanged 
on  the  8th  of  Febr.uary  1649.  The  papal  protest  of  January  3, 
1651,  was  disregarded. 

The  results  were  determined  in  the  first  place  by  the  support 
given  to  each  other  by  France  and  Sweden  in  their  demands  for 
indemnification,  the  concession  of  which  neces^ated  compensa- 
tion to  the  Gennan  states  affected,  and  secondly  by  the  deter- 
mination of  France  to  weaken  the  power  ci  the  emperor  while 
strengthening  the  Roman  Catholic  states,  especially  Bavaria. 
.  Sweden  received  western  Pomerania  with  Rttgen  and  the 
mouths  of  the  Oder,  Wismar  and  Poel,  in  Mecklenburg,  and  the 
landsof  the  archbi^opric  of  Bremen  and  the  bishopric  of  Verden, 
together  with  an  indemnity  of  5,000,000  thaleia.  The  privileges 
of  the  Free  Towns  were  preserved.  Sweden  thus  obtained  control 
of  the  Baltic  and  a  footing  on  the  North  Sea,  and  became  an 
estate  of  the  empire  with  three  deliberative  voices-  in  the 
diet. 

The  elector  of  Brandenburg  received  the  greater  part  of 
eastern  Pomerania,  and,  as  he  had  a  claim  on  the  whole  duchy 
since  the  death  of  the  last  duke  in  1635,  he  was  indemnified  by 
the  bishoprics  of  Halberstadt,  Minden  and  Kammin,  and  the 
reversion  of  the  archbishopric  of  Magdeburg,  which  came  to  him 
on  the  death  of  the  administrator.  Prince  Augustus  of  Saxony, 
in  1680.  The  elector  of  Saxony  was  albwed  to  retain  Lusatia. 
As  compensation  for  Wismar,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  obtained 
the  bishoprics  of  Schwerin  and  Ratxeburg  and  some  lands  of  the 
Knights  of  St  John.  Brunswick-Liineburg  restored  Hildesheim 
to  the  elector  of  Cologne,  and  gave  Mmden  to  Brandenburg,  but 
obtained  the  alternate  succession  to  the  bishopric  of  Osnabrtick 
and  the  church  lands  of  Walkenried  and  Grdningen.  Hesse-Casael 
received  the  prmcc^abbacy  of  Hersfeld,  the  county  of  Schaum> 
burg,  &c.  The  dector-of  Bavaria  was  confirmed  in  his  possession 
of  the  Upper  Palatinate,  and  in  his  position  as  an  elector  which 
he  had  obtained  in  1623.  Ciiarles  Louis,  the  son  and  heir  of 
Frederick  V.,  the  count  pahitine  ol  the  Rhine,  who  had  been  placed 
under  the  ban  d  the  empire,  received  back  die  Lower  Palatinate, 
and  a  new  doctorate,  the  eighth,  was  created  for  him. 

France  obtained  the  recognition  of  the  sovcreigaty  (which  she 
had  enjoyed  dt  facto  since  1552)  over  the  bishoprics  and  cities  of 
Mcts,  Toul  and  Verdun,  Pinerolo  in  Piedmont,  the  town  of 
Bcdsacfa,  the  kuidgraviate  of  Upper  and  Lower  Alsace,  the 
Sundgau,  the  advocacy  {Landtogtei)  of  the  ten  imperial  dries  in 
Alsace,  and  the  right  to  garrison  Philippsburg.  During  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  France  had  professed  to  be  fighting  against 
the  house  of  Austria,  and  not  against  the  empire.  It  was 
stipulated  that  the  immediate  possessions  of  the  empire  in 
Alsace  should  remain  in  enjoyment  of  tiidr  liberties  (in  Ai 
UberUUe  ei  ppssessioiu  immedietaUs  erga  imperium  RomoMiemt 
qua  hacienus  gavisae  jun/),  but  it  was  added  as  a  condition  that 
the  sovereignty  of  France  in  the  territories  ceded  to  her  should 
not  be  impaired  {Ha  tamen^  td  praesatti  hoc  declaratione  nihil 
detrattatum  inUlligahtr  de  to  omni  supremi  dominii  iure,  quod 
supra  concessum  est).  The  intention  of  France  was  to  acquire 
the  full  righu  of  Austria  in  Alsace,  but  as  Austria  had  never 
owned  the  Isndgraviate  of  Lower  Alsace,  and  the  Landvogtei  of 
the  ten  free  dties  did  not  in  itself  imply  possession,  the  door  was 
left  open  for  disputes.  Louis  XIV.  afterwards  availed  himself 
of  this  ambiguous  clause  in  support  o^  his  aggressive  policy  on  the 
Rhine.   The  ihdopendcacc  oi  Switserland  was  at  lasl  formally 

2a 


558 


WEST  POINT 


recognized,  as  wu  that  of  the  United  Netherlands  in  a  separate 
treaty  signed  by  Spain  at  Miiostcr. 

Apart  from  these  territorial  changes,  a  univerMl  and  uncon- 
ditional amnesty  to  all  those  who  had  been  deprived  of  their 
possessions  was  declared,  and  it  was  decreed  that  sill  secular  lands 
should  be  restored  to  those  who  had  held  them  in  1618.  Some 
exceptions  were  made  in  the  case  of  the  hereditary  dominions  of 
the  emperor. 

Even  more  important  than  the  territorial  redistribution  was 
the  ecclesiastical  settlement.  By  the  confirmation  of  the  treaty 
of  Passau  of  1552  and  the  religious  peace  of  Augsburg  of  1555, 
and  the  extension  of  their  provisions  to  the  Reformed  (Calvinist) 
Church,  toleration  was  secured  for  the  three  great  religious 
communities  of  the  empire.  Within  these  limits  the  governments 
were  bound  to  allow  at  least  private  worship,  liberty  of 
conscience  and  the  right  of  emigration,  but  these  measures 
of  toleration  were  not  extended  to  the  hereditary  lands  of  the 
house  of  Habsburg.  The  Protestant  minority  in  the  imperial  diet 
was  not  to  b^  coerced  by  the  majority,  but  rcligbus  questions 
were  to  be  decided  by  amicable  agreement.  Protestant  adminis- 
trators of  church  lands  obtained  seats  in  the  diet.  Religious 
parity  was  established  in  the  imperial  chamber  (Rtickskammer' 
^kM)^  and  in  the  imperial  deputations  and  commissions. 

The  difficult  question  of  the  ownership  of  spiritual  lands 
was  decided  by  a  compromise.  The  edict  of  restitution  of  1629 
was  annulled.  In  WUrttcmberg,  Baden  and  the  Palatinate  these 
lands  were  restored  to  the  persons  who  had  held  them  in  161 8  or 
their  successors,  but  for  the  rest  of  the  empire  possession  was 
determined  by  the  fact  of  occupation  on  the  ist  of  January  1624 
(annus  decretorius  or  normal  year).  By  the  provision  that  a 
prince  should  forfeit  his  lands  if  he  changed  his  religion  an 
obstacle  was  placed  in  the  way  of  a  further  spread  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. The  declaration  that  all  protests  or  vetoes  by  whomsoever 
pronoimced  should  be  null  and  void  dealt  a  blow  at  the  inter- 
vention of  the  Roman  curia  in  German  affairs. 

The  constitutional  changes  made  by  the  treaty  had  far-reaching 
effects.  Tlie  territorial  sovereignty  of  the  states  of  the  empire 
was  recognized.  They  were  empowered  to  contract  treaties  with 
one  another  and  with  foreign  powers,  provided  that  the  emperor 
and  the  emiure  suffered  no  prejudice.  By  this  and  other  changes 
the  princes  of  the  empire  became  absolute  sovereigns  in  their 
own  dominions.  The  emperor  and  the  diet  were  left  with  a  mere 
shadow  of  their  former  power.  The  emperor  could  not  pronounce 
the  ban  of  the  empire  without  the  consent  of  the  diet.  The  diet, 
in  which  the  6z  imperial  cities  gained  the  right  of  voting  on  all 
imperial  business,  and  thus  were  put  on  an  equality  with  the 
princes,  retained  its  legislative  and  fiscal  powers  in  name,  but 
practically  lost'  them  by  the  requirement  of  unanimity  among  the 
three  colleges,  which,  moreover,  were  not  to  g^ve  their  several 
decisions  by  majorities  of  their  members,  but  by  agreement 
between  them. 

Not  only  was  the  central  authority  replaced  almost  entirely 
by  the  sovereignty  of  about  300  princes,  but  the  power  of  the 
empire  was  materially  weakened  in  other  ways.  It  lost  about 
40,000  sq.  m.  of  territory,  and  obtained  a  frontier  against  France 
which  was  incapable  of  defence.  Sweden  and  France  as 
guarantors  of  the  peace  acquired  the  right  of  interference  in  the 
affairs  of  the  empire,  and  the  former  gained  a  voice  in  its  councils. 
For  many  years  Germany  thus  became  the  principal  theatre  of 
European  diplomacy  and  war.  But  if  the  treaty  of  Westphalia 
pronounced  the  dissolution  of  the  old  order  in  .the  empire,  it 
facilitated  the  growth  of  new  powers  in  its  component  parts, 
especially  Austria,  Bavaria  and  Brandenburg. ' 

The  treaty  was  recognized  as  a  fundamental  law  of  the  German 
constitution,  and  formed  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  treaties  until 
the  dissolution  of  the  empire. 

See  the  text  In  Dumont,  Corps  imhersd  dtplomatique  (The  Hague, 

726-1731),  vi.  429  (I.;  J.  G.  von  Mciem,  Acta  ftacis  WiStpMiau 

piMicaj6  vols.,  Hanover  and_  Gfittiiwcn,  1734-1736),  Jnstrumenia 


1726-1731),  vi.  429  (I.;  J.  G.  von  Mciem,  Ada  pacts  Wtstphatiau 
publico.  (6  vols.,  Hanover  and  Gfittiiwcn,  1734-1736),  Insirumtnia 
facis  Cacsarco-Stucicae  et  Caesareo-GoUicae  (Cfttttn|[ea,  1738); 
A.  A.  "  (Bishop  Adam  Adamil,  A  rcana  pacts  Weslphalua£  (Fmnk- 
fort,  1698),  edited  by  J.  G.  von  Meiem  (Leipttg.  1737) ;  K.  T.  Hcigcl, 
'*  D»M  Wtstl&Usche  Fikdensweric  vo«  1643-1648  ^'^in  iht  ZtiUcMft 


S^  Gesekichte  und  PdUik  (1M8):  P.  PkHippi  and  others,  J)n 
West/Mische  Frieden,  ein  CHenkbmk  (MOnstcr.  1898):  Joumai  du 
Contris  de  Munsler  par  F.  Otier,  auminier  du  comU  if'/lMi<x,ediied 
by  A.  Boppc  (Paris,  1893) ;  Cambridge  Modem  History,  iv.  p.  395  ff. 
and  bibliography,  p.  866  ff.;  J.  Bryrce,  The  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
ch.  xix.  (A.  B.  Go.) 

WEST  POINT,  a  village  and  mOitary  post,  in  Orange  county, 
New  York,  U.S.A.,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson  river, 
50  m.  above  New  York  City.  It  is  seiVed  by  the  West  Shore 
railway,  and  is  connected  by  ferry  with  the  New  York  Central 
railway  at  Garrison.  The  United  States  Military  Academy 
occupies  a  plateau  180  ft.  above  the  river,  reached  by  a  roadway 
cut  into  the  cliff  and  commanding  a  view  up  and  down  the  river 
for  many  miles.  Between  1902  and  1908  Congress  appropriated 
about  $7,500,000  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  academy,  but 
most  of  the  old  buildings  of  historic  interest  have  been  incor- 
porated. The  Headquarters  Building  and  Grant  Hall  (the  mess 
hall)  contain  portraits  of  famous  American  soldiers.  The  military 
library  is  one  of  the  finest  in  existence  (80,000  volumes  in  19 10), 
and  its  building  contains  interesting  memorials,  by  Saint 
Gaudens,  to  J.  McNeill  Whistler  and  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  both 
former  cadets  in  the  academy.  Cullum  Memorial  Hall  (1899) 
was  the  gift  of  Major-General  George  Washington  CuUum 
(1809-1892),  superintendent  of  the  academy  in  1864-1866. 
Opposite  it  is  a  monument  (1845)  to  Major  F.  L.  Dade's  command 
of  no  men  who  were  ambushed  and  killed  by  the  Seminole 
Indians  in  Ftorida  in  December  1835.  In  the  S.E.  corner  of  the 
parade  ground  (60  acres)  is  a  granite  statue  to  Colonel  Sylvanus 
Thayer  (1785-1872),  who  was  superintendent  of  the  academy 
from  181 7  to  1833.  In  the  N.W.  angle  is  the  bronze  statue  (1868) 
of  Major-General  John  Sedgwick,  U.S.  Volunteers,  who  was 
killed  by  a  shaipshootcr,  on  the  9th  of  May  1864,  while  making 
a  personal  reconnaissance  at  Spottsylvania.  Between  Trophy 
Pomt  and  the  hotel  b  the  Battle  Monument  (1874,  78  ft.  high, 
surmounted  by  a  statue  of  Victory  by  MacMonnies),  a  memorial 
to  the  soldiers  of  the  regular  army  who  died  in  the  Civil  War. 
Above  the  cliff  towards  the  N.  and  E.  of  the  plain  is  Fort  Clinton; 
in  its  E.  front  stands  a  monument  erected  in  1828  by  the  Corps 
of  Cadets  to  Kosciuszko,'who  planned  the  original  fortifications 
here  in  1778.  About  i  m.  N.  of  the  academy  is  "  West  Point 
Cemetery"  (about  14  acres)  on  the  E.  angle  of  an  Hevated  plain 
overlooking  the  river,  formerly  known  as  *'  German  Flats," 
in  which  rest  the  remains  of  Thayer,  Winfield  Scott,  Robert 
Anderson  and  other  distinguished  soldiers.  The  Cadet  Monument 
(1817)  stands  on  the  E.  angle  overlooking  the  river.  High  abuve 
the  academy  on  Mount*  Independence  (490  ft.)  still  stands  old 
Fort  Putnam,  commanding  a  fine  view  for  miles  up  and  down  the 
Hudson.  In  1908,  as  the  gift  of  Mrs  Russell  Sage  and  Miss  Anna 
B.  Warner,  there  was  added  to  the  military  reservation*  Con- 
stitution Island  (about  280  acres),  lying  directly  opposite  West 
Point,  witir  the  remains  of  two  forts  built  during  the  War  of 
Independence. 

West  Point,  **  the  Gibraltar  of  the  Hudson,*'  was  first  occupied 
as  a  military  post  in  January  1778,  when  a  chain  of  redoubts 
was  erected  at  various  strategic  pmints  along  the  Hudson.  At 
West  Point  were  built  a  half-doren  earthwork  fortifications,  of 
which  Fort  Putnam  on  Mt.  Independence,  Fort  Clinton  on  the 
extremity  of  the  point  (not  to  be  confused  with  the  Fort-  Clinton 
captured  by  the  British  in  1777  farther  down  the  river)  and 
Battery  Knox,  just  above  the  river  landing,  were  the  largest. 
These  were  the  fortificatkms  that  Benedict  Arnold,  theit  com- 
mander, in  1780  agreed  to  deliver  into  British  hands.  After 
the  discovery  of  his  treason,  Washington  made  his  headquarters 
for'  some  time  at  West  Point  before  removing  to  Newburgh. 
Later  Washington  recommended  West  POnit  as  a  site  for  a 
military  school.  Such  an  establishment  had  been  suggested  by 
Henry  Knox  in  May  1776;  and  in  October  of  that  year  the 
Continental  Congress  passed  a  resolution  appointing  a  committee 
to  draw  plans  for  "  a  military  academy  of  the  army."  A  Corps 
of  Invalids  was  established  in  June  1777,  was  cfganiaed  in 
Phtladelphia  in  J^ly  t777>  and  was  transfeived  to  West  Point  in 
t78f ;  this  corps  was  **  to  serve  at  «  military  achool  for  youtkg 
gentleima  pnmxmdf  to  tbeir  Mag  appointed  to  marcMng 


WESTPORT— WEST  SPRINGFIELD 


559 


'    Three  buQilings  had  b«n  emied  hire  In  house 

■  libmy,  In  coginisii'  (choal  nod  >  Isboiaioiy,  anil  pticlical 
U  in  gunoeiy  hid  been  begun  bttt  in  Februiry  ijgo. 
U  Newburgh,  Wuhingloa  kid  beion  hit  offiont  i1m 
a  mTlitary  Hcudemy  lucb  aa  Kntrx  had  suggested.    A 

utilkrislS)  engineen  and  cadets  erf  the  corps  was 
>a  the  president's  recommeiKlatioD  in  I7g4i  and 
roniioued  uniil  the  building!  weie  ddtnycd  by  £ic  in  i;g6.  In 
July  iftoi,  Henry  Denrbom,  Jeffenon't  aecrelary  of  war,  directed 
Hut  all  cadets  of  Lhe  coips  of  anilleTiiti,  a  >ubaidinBlt  rank  which 
had  been  establiihed  in  1794,  should  report  at  Weit  Pomt  for  io- 
sltuclion,  and  in  September  of  that  year  a  school  waa  opened 
with  five  Instructors,  iour  of  then  army  officers.  On  the  t6lh 
of  March  iSoi,  Pie^dent  JeSerson  approved  an  act  eslsblishing 

■  military  academy  at  West  Point,  and  on  the  ilh  of  July  il  was 
formally  opened  with  ten  cadeu  present.  Ai:ti  oi  tSoi  and  iSoil 
authorized  40  cadets  from  the  artillery,  ino  frtiEd  the  infantry, 
16  from  the  dragoons  and  lo  From  the  riBemen.  But  fen  of 
these  were  actually  appointed,  and  for  several  years  inattuction 
waa  disorganized  aud  desultory.  In  ifiir-iflra  instruction  was 
practically  abandoned,  and  in  March  tSii  the  "academy" 
was  without  a  tingle  insttuclor.  Up  to  this  time  3S  cadeu  had 
been  graduated,  but  they  had  beeti  admitted  without  any  sort 
of  eiaminalion.  and  at  any  age  between  ia  and  34.  An  act  of 
CoDglcsa  of  the  iqth  of  April  iSr  1  reorganiied  the  arsdcmy, 
and  laid  down  the  general  principles  and  plan  on  which  it  has 

aulhoriad.  Under  the  able  luperinlendcncy  of  Major  Sylvanus 
Thayer  this  plan  was  perfected  and  put  into  tuecenful 


Up  to  1843  ni 


torial 


requir 


ryfor 


in  that  year  a  custom  that  had  grown  up  of  providing 
lor  one  cadet  from  each  Congressional  district,  each  ~ 
and  the  District  of  Columbia,  waa  embodied  in  llie  law. 
By  acts  of  1900.  I901,  1903  and  190EI  the  Corps  of  Cadi 


^r^:? 


'}J'3'A''!'.! 


ir  eniniKS  then  are  physici 
jebia,  plane  geometry.  Knti 


become  tligible  on  eiaduation  lor  commiuiani  in  the 
Koutt.  The  maximuiB  number  of  cadeti  uader  the  appi 
d(  the  twelfth  censui  was  533.  Candidaies  (or  admlHu 
'""" " "■  ""  yearL  unmarried,  aad  al  leaat  j  it. 

y.  Rnclish  gmmniar,  compoiitiDD 
-neralbJKory.    ItK  r9oa  die  eiMi 

afl  e^^cwil'"and  military  ciieCi[^lng  rb«d^ 
military  enEinecting  (rourth,  third,  Becund  and  1 
mechanics  and  asironomy  ^Ihird  and  Bccond  claues); 
'l  and  thud  da»es}^  chemiitTy,  mi 
I  sKond  cbstes);  drawing  (ihiid 
4.  ii.  French  and  Sfdnis*^  ' 


hiitory  (new  eadeli 

academic  innmctk 

Sih  of  June.    The  sumni 
encampments.    Each  cad 

at  thirty  cents  per  day. 


niliurx  hygiene  Jvcand  clua)!  and  Ensliih  and 
eadeli  and  lourih  class).  The  course  14  four  yeori.  and 
1 : I (he  lit  of  September  10  the 

r  day.  or  eommulaCion  thereof 
,ta  h09'50.     The  number  of 


in  181J-18: 
iS6-lMl.B 


een;in  rBoi-rBoiand 
Sl4>   Jo«ph  Gardner 


1?^/!^ 


Sylvanus  Thay, 
1 639- 1845  and  il 
rBji.  Henry  lin 

p  c*'i-"'l£' 

1*66,  C.  W.  Cullum;  in  t866-lS;t,  Thomai  damEleKchtr  {iSjl- 
l«9S)l  in  1871-1876.  Thomai  Howard  Riiger  (lB33-i9o;l;  in 
iStE-iSSi,  ].Vf.  Scha6eld:in  iBSt-iMi,  O.  0.  Howards  Tn  t8Bi- 
1887,  Weiley  Mcnitl:  in  1887-1889.  John  Cnibb  Park  (1S17- 
toooj;  in  l8lHl-lS9t,  John  Mo'ildin  Wi1»n  <h.  1817);  in  1803- 
i8n8.  Oswald  Herbert  Emu  [b.  1841)^  in  iSfB-i^oe,  AIIkti  UopoTd 

"'».  ti'u'-.ia?*"""  "■  '•■ ""  "■  ""'■  "'■  '•" 


County  Mayo,  Ireland,  near  1 
Bay.  Pop.  {190O  389J.  Tht 
by  the  Midland  Gt(a1  Westei 
river  nwulh  being  served  by 


See  C.  W,  Cunum,  BbfrapkiailSitiiUtii/  lb  Ofiiiri  andCraJiala 
nSlht  U«aal  SUUI  UiOah^'a^y  (1  vols..  New  York.  1801- 
1«14);  E.  C.  Boynton.  Hi.Ury  0/  ital  Pcial  (lt*l-  1863):  J.  P. 
Faity,  Writ  PmU  in  Ilie  Eailr  Saliil  (Troy,  loDi) ;  Morris  SchaH, 
TitSfirU^OU  IVuI  Poiu  (Boston,  tjo/);  aAd  the  uaual  reports 

1,  aeaport  and  seaside  re»ort  of 
he  mouth  of-a  small  river  in  Oew 
town  is  i6o  m.  W.  from  Dublin 
n  railway,  Wcstport  Quay  at  the 
a  branch  line.  There  is  a  small 
eiport  trade  m  grain.  'I  tie  tieauliful  tiemesne  of  the  marqueia 
of  Sligo  enriches  the  neighbourhood.  Clew  Bay,  thickly  studded 
with  islands  and  surrounded  wiLh  moimlains,  is  oite  of  the  moat 
magnifianl  of  the  great  inlets  on  the  W.  coast.  Near  Ibe  S. 
sb«e  ia  Croagh  Patrick  (1510  ft.),  an  isolated  conical  hiU  of 
singularly  perfect  form,  in  wide  repute  as  a  place  ol  pilgrimage. 
WEST  PROSSIA  (Ger.  Wtilfiiauiai),  a  province  ol  Pnuua, 
bounded  on  the  tl,  by  the  Baltic,  on  the  E.  by  East  Pniaiia, 
on  the  S.  by  Ru»^nn  Poland  and  the  province  of  Posen,  and  on 
the  W.  by  Brandenburg  and  Pomcraoia.  The  area  ii  9861 
sq.  m.  The  greater  part  is  occupied  by  the  low  Baltic  plateau, 
inletsecled  by  a  network  ol  streams  arid  lakes,  and  tiung  to  the 
Turmberg  (1086  ft.)  near  Dsniig.  East  ol  Koniu  is  an  eitensivc 
moorland,  70  m.  long,  called  the  Tuchelet  Hcide.  The  lakes, 
thou^  very  nunxroua,  are  not  large.  The  Vistula,  hen  of  great 
width,  and  subject  to  desttuctive  floods,  enters  the  provinca 
near  Thorn,  and  Bowing  north  in  a  valley  which  divides  lh« 
plateau,  enters  Danzig  Bay  by  a  large  delta,  the  Werder.  Tlw 
'■"       ■■         ■      )I  the  Vistula,  as  the  Drewcni 


its  right  hi 


its  left. 


Pmisia.  but  the  climalc  is  Ich  hanh  and  lhe  fenillly  of  the  loil 
greiier.  Arable  land  and  gardens  eecupy  SJ-4%  of  the  an, 
mcidows  and  putures  iiJ)%.  foresu  3i-7%,  and  the  rest  ia 
Bonly  waste.  The  valley  and  delta  ol  Ibe  VlUuia  an  very  letlUe, 
and  pmluce  gmd  cn^is  of  wheat  and  pasturage  for  horaea.  cattle 
and  thcvp.  Bcsidn  ceieals,  the  chief  crops  are  potaloea,  bay, 
tobacco,  ganlcn  induce,  liuil  and  sugar-bitt.  Poultry,  Itih  and 
timber  are  Important  soutcei  ol  wealth.  Cavalry  bases  (especially 
at  the  govcmnicnl  itud  farm  of  Maiitnwerder)  and  metlm  ifceep 
are  mrtd.  The  minerals  are  ualmponant,  cieept  amber,  feat  and 
clay.  Shipbuilding  ia  carried  on  at  Dadiig  and  Elbing,  and  ia 
various  places  there  arc  iron  and  glass  works,  aaw-miUs,  auur 
factories  and  diMilltrits.  Much  of  Ibe  trade  pBHes  through  iha 
ports  of  ftandg  and  Elhing. 

rf   IM  l^he  ™.  ^  -'°*'^^^*^'?  or°  J4"j  %  ™  Paler,'Jl 

the  immigration  o(  German  (armera.  Tlie  Kashubcs  to.*.),  nearly  all 
of  whom  (less  than  100,000 )  live  in  W.  Fruuia,  chlelfy  in  the  wni. 
from  Putiig  ID  Konili,  arc  here  lectonnl  with  the  Poles.  The 
Pokt  proper  chiefly  inhalql  the  centre  of  the  province,  and  (he 
bordcn  ol  RuHian  Poland-  Among  lhe  Germans,  who  are  nuHt 
numerous  In  the  nonh<Ait,  Low  German  dialects  are  ipoken. 

number  <|.4%  and  Protnianti  466%  ol  the  populalion.  and 
there  air  l^™  lews.  The  Poles  an  almosl  aU  Roman  Catholics. 
Ttie  province  IS  divided  into  the  governmental  departments  of 
Danrig  and  MaricDwenler.  It  reiums  iwenty.lwo  members  to  tbo 
Pmsuan  Lower  House  and  thirteen  to  lb*  Reichstag.    Dansig  is 

West  Prussia,  with  the  exception  of  aoulbem  Pomeranla 
(around  Macicnwerder)  which  belonged  to  Prussia,  was  a  pos- 
sesiioD  ol  Poland  from  rt66  till  Ibe  liral  partition  of  Piriand 
in  i7)>,  when  it  waa  given  to  Prussia  with  Ibe  eiceptlon  of 
DaniigandThom.which  Poland  retained  till  r793.  The  present 
province  was  formed  in  iBoS,  but  from  1814  to  1878  was  uniteit 
with  East  Prussia.    For  its  history  see  also  Pbi7SS1a  and  Pound. 

See  K.  Lohmeyet.  CtuUclUt  m  Oil-  vM  Ifeil^mm  (pan  i.. 
ud  ed.,  Gotha.  1908);  Vallentin.  ICeiipiraKri  uil  ifm  eisirn 
?aAneliitia    duH!    Jdihrtladrrli    CTiibingen,     1893)1    Ambrauat. 

WIST    EPRnOPIEU).    a    lonm^tiip   of   Mampder^  county. 


Springfield 
bom);  (ig 


.   U.S.A 


(1890)   so? 


]    the   Com 
(i9- 


i    (tsm 


56o 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


electric  raOways  to  Holyoke  and  Hartford.  The  principal 
villages  are  Merrick  and  West  Springfield  on  the  Connecticut 
river  and  Mittineague  on  the  Westfield  river.  West  Springfield 
was  originally  a  part  of  Springfield.  The  first  seltlexneot  was 
not  made,  however,  untU  about  1653,  and  there  were  few  settlers 
until  after  King  Philip's  War  (1676).  Jh  1696  West  Springfield 
was  organized  as  a  separate  parish,  and  in  1774  was  made  a 
separate  township.  Holyoke  was  set.  off  from  it  in  i860,  and 
Agawam  in  1855. 

WEST  VIRGINIA,  the  north-westernmost  of  the  so-called 
Southern  states  of  the  United  States  of  America,  lying  between 
latitudes  37"  zo'  and  40**  40^  N.,  and  longitudes  77^  40'  and 
83"  40'  W.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north-wdst  by  Ohio,  from 
which  it  Is  separated  by  the  Ohio  river,  on  the  north  by  Penn- 
sylvania and  Maryland,  the  Potomac  river,  dividing  it  from 
the  latter  state;  on  the  east  and  south-east  by  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland  and  Virginia,  the  boundary  lines  in  the  first  two  cases 
bdng  meridians,  in  the  last  case  a  very  irregular  line  following 
the  crest  of  mountain  ridges  in  places;  and  on  the  south-west 
by  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  the  Big  Sandy  river  separating  it 
from  the  latter  state.  The  extreme  length  of  the  state  from 
north  to  south  is  about  240  m.,  the  extreme  breadth  from  cast 
to  west  about  265  m.  Area,  24,170  sq.  m.,  of  which  148  sq.  m. 
is  water  surface, 

Pkysicdl  Feaiures.-^Tht  state  is  divided  into  two  distinct  physio- 
graphic provinces;  the  Alleghany  Plateau  on  the  west,  compnains 
perbaps  two-thirds  of  the  area  of  the  state,  and  forming  a  part  of 
the  great  Appalachian  Plateau  Province  which  extends  from  New 
Vork  to  Alabama;  and  the  Newer  Appalachians  or  Great  Valley 
Region  on  the  east,  being  a  part  of  the  large  province  of  the  same 
name  which  extends  from  Canada  to  Central  Alabama.  The 
Alleghany  Plateao  consists  of  neariy  horizontal  beds  of  limestone, 
sandstone  and  shales,  including  important  seams  of  coal;  inclines 
slightly  toward  the  north-wtst,  and  is  intricately  dissected  by 
extensively  branching  streams  into  a  maze  of  narrow  canyons  and 
steep-sided  hills.  Along  the  Ohio  river,  these  hills  rise  to  an  elevation 
of  800  to  1000  ft.  above  sea-level,  while  toward  the  south-east  the 
elevation  increases  until  3500  and  4000  ft;  are  reached  along  the 
south-east  margin  of  the  plateau,  which  is  known  as  the  Alleghany 
Front.  The  entire  plateau  area  is  drained  by  the  Ohio  river  and  its 
tributaries.  Along  the  flood-plains  of  the  lareer  rivers  are  fertile 
"  bottomlands,"  but  the  ruegedness  of  the  plateau  country  as  a 
whole  has  retarded  the  development  of  the  slate,  much  of  which  is 
still  sparady  populated.  The  coal  beds  are  of  enormous  extent, 
and  constitute  an  important  element  in  the  wealth  of  the  state. 
Petroleum  and  natural  gas  also  occur  in  the  plateau  rocks  in  great 
quantities. 

In  the  Newer  Appalachian  region,  the  beds  which  still  lie  hori- 
zontal in  the  plateau  province  were  long  ago  thrown  into  folds  and 
planed  off  by  erosion,  alternate  belts  of  hard  and  soft  rock  being 
left  exposed.  Uplift  permitted  renewed  erosion  to  wear  away  the 
■oft  belts,  leaving  mountain  ridges  of  hard  rock  separated  by 
parallel  valleys.  Fience  the  recion  is  variously  known  as  the  Ridge 
and  Valley  Belt,  the  Great  Valley  Region,  or  the  Folded  Appa- 
lachians. The  mountain  ridges  vary  in  heij^ht  up  to  4000  ft.  and 
more,  the  highest  point  in  the  state  being  ^ruce  Knob  (4860  ft.)* 
The  parallel  valleys  are  drained  by  north-east  and  south-west 
flowing  streams,  those  in  the  north-east  being  tributftiy  to  the 
Potomac,  those  farther  south  tributary  to  the  Great  Kanawha. 
Although  the  valleys  between  the  ridges  are  not  always  easy 
of  access,  they  give  broad  areas  of  nearly  levd  agricultural 
land. 

flbra.— -The  plateau  portion  of  West  Virginia  is  lar^ly  covered 
bjr  hardwood  forests,  but  along  the  Ohio  river  and  its  principal 
tributaries  the  valuable  timber  has  been  rcmox'cd  and  considerable 
areas  have  been  wholly  cleared  for  farming  and  pasture^  lands. 
Among  the  most  important  trees  of  this  area  are  the  white  and 
chestnut  oaks,  the  black  yralnut,  the  yellow  poplar,  and  the  cherry, 
the  southern  portion  of  the  state  containtne  the  largest  reserve 
supply.  In  the  area  of  the  Newer  Appalachian  Mounuins.  the 
eastern  Panhandle  region  has  a  forest  similar  to  that  of  the  plateau 
district;  but  between  these  two  areas  of  hardwood  there  is  a  long 
belt  where  spruce  and  white  pine  cover  the  mountain  ridges.  Other 
trees  common  in  the  state  are  the  persimmon,  sassafras,  and,  in  the 
Ohio  Valley  region,  the  sycamore.  Hickory,  chestnut,  locust,  maple, 
beech,  dogwood,  and  pawpaw  are  widely  distributed.  Among  the 
shrubs  amJ  vines  are  tlie  blackberry,  black  and  red  raspberry, 
gooseberry,  huckleberry,  hazd  and  crape.  Ginseng  «•  an  important 
medicinal  plant.  Wild  ginger,  elder  and  sumach  arc  commoiu 
and  in  the  mountain  areas,  rhododendrons,  mountain  laurel  ana 
azaleas. 

Otmofltf.— Inasmuch  as  the  slate  has  a  range  of  over  ^000  ft.  in 
altitude,  the  climate  varies  greatly  in  different  districts.  The  mean 
annual  temperatures  for  typical  sections  are  as  fdk>ws:  Ohio  Valley 


north  of  the  thirty-ninth  panHel,  53*  P.;  sottth-westam  part  of 
state,  56*;  central  plateau  district,  52*:  mounuinous  belt  along 
south-eastern  boundary  of  state,  48*  to  50*.     Wellsburg,  in  the 
northern  Panhandle,  has  a  mean  winter  temperature  of  27*,  a  aumflacr 
mean  of  70*.    Parkersbuig,  farther  down  the  Ohio  Valley,  has  a 
winter  mean  of  34*  a  nd  a  summer  mean  of  74*.    JMartinsburg.  in  the 
eastern  Panhandle,  has  nearly  the  sdme  means,  33*  and  74^    Terra 
Alta,  in  the  north-eastern  mountains,  has  a  winter  mean  of  a6*,  a 
summer  mean  of  01^  67*.    The  first  killing  frosts  generally  occur 
about  the  middle  of  Octooer  in  the  Ohio  Valley  region,  and  aliout  the 
first  of  October  in  the  higher  plateau  and  mountain  regk>a;  the 
average  dates  for  the  last  killing  frosts  in  the  same  loctuities  are 
the  middle  and  last  of- April  respectively.    In  the  Ohio  Valley  and 
eastern  f^nhandle  the  summer  mean  temperature  is  74*,  the  winter 
mean  ^i*  to  34*.    The  hwhest  recorded  temperature  for  the  state 
is  107*,  the  lowest-^*.    Temperatures  above  100*  and  below-f  5* 
are  rare.    Precipitation  is  greatest  in  the  mountains,  over  50  in.; 
and  least  over  the  Ohio  Valley,  the  eastern  Panhandle  and  the 
extreme  south-east,  35  to  40  in.    Snows  are  frequent  during  the 
winter,  and  sometimes  deep  in  the  higher  plateau  and  mountain 
districts.    The  prevailing  winds  are  from  south  to  west. 
^  Aguculturb. — ^Tbestateispriroaiilyagricultural.    Ingcneralthe 
richer  western  part  b  devoted  to  crops,  and  the  eastern  part  to  raising 
live-stock.   The  crop  of  Indian  com  in  1909  was  27,632.000  bushels, 
and  the  acreage  880,00a    The  wheat  crop  was  4,810,000  bushels, 
and  (he  acreage  370,00a    The  crop  of  buckwheat  was  499.000 
bushels  (grown  on  22,000  acres).   The  rye  crop  was  148,000  budicls. 
and  the  acreage  11, 00a    The  production  of  oats  was  2,156.000 
bushels  (grown  on  98,000  acres).    In  1909  the  acreage  of  hay  alone 
was  675,000  acres,  and  the  crop  was    844,000  tons,  valued  at 
Sii,2a5,ooa     Tobacco  is  grown  throughout  the  state;  in  1909 
on    12,000  acres  was  grown  a  crop  of  12,000,000  lb,  valued  at 
$1,663,200. 

Stock-raising  is  an  important  industry,  especially  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  state. ' 

Minu  au4  Oaiamcj.— The  state's  great  mineral  wealth  is  in  coals 
of  various  kinds,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas. 

The  coal  deposits  underlie  about  17.000  sq.'  m.  (more  than  70  % 
of  the  total)  of  the  state's  area,  and  bituminous  coal  has  been  foumi 
in  51  of  the  55  counties:  this  is  one  of  the  hrgcst  continuous  coal 
fields  in  the  worid.  The  princiixil  districts  are  the  Fairmont 
^or  Upper  Monongahela)  and  the  Elk  Garden  (or  Upper  Potomac) 
in  the  northern,  and  the  Pocahontas  (or  Fht  Top)  and  the  New  and 
Kanawha  rivers  districts  in'  the  southern  part  of  the  state.  The 
total  output  of  the  state  was  44.648  tons  in  1863,  when  the  first  ship- 
ments outside  the  state  were  made;  and  41,897.843  tons  (valued 
at  f40.009.054)  in  1908,  when  the  output  of  West  Virginia  was 
third  in  quantity  and  m  value  among  the  states  of  the  Union,  being 
exccedcd^only  by  that  of  Pennsylvania  and  of  Illinois.  "The  teams 
are  principally  above  water  levels  and  in  many  cases  have  been  laid 
bare  by  erosion;  and  the  supply  is  varied — besides  a  "  fat  coking, 
gassy  biturninous,"  there  are  an  excellent  grade  of  splint  coal 
(first  mined  in  1864  at  Coalburg,  Kanawha  county)  and  (except  that 
in  Kentucky)  the  only  important  supply  of  cannci  coal  in  the  United 
States.  Most  of  the  mines  are  operated  under  '*  non-union  "  rules. 
The  bituminous  coal  of  West  Virginia  is  a  particularly  good  coking 
coal,  and  in  190;$,  1906, 1907  and  1906  West  Virginia  ranked  second 
(to  Pcnnsylvanui)  among  the  states  of  the  Union  in  the  amount 
of  coke  manufactured:  the  Flat  Top  district  is  the  principal  coke« 
making  region. 

Petroleum  ranks  second  to  coal  among  the  state's  mineral  re- 
sources. In  1 771  Thomas  Jefl'erson  dcscnbcd  a  "  burning  spring  " 
in  the  Kanawha  Valley,  and  when  wells  were  drilled  for  salt  brine 
near  Charleston  petrofeum  and  natural  gas  were  found  here  before 
there  was  any  dniling  for  oil  in  Pennsylvania.  Immediately  before 
the  Civil  War,  petroleum  was  discovered  in  shallow  wells  near 
Parkcrsburg,  and  there  was  a  great  rush  of  prospectors  and  specu- 
lators to  the  Little  Kanawha  Valley.  Dut  the  Civil  War  interrupted 
development.  After  the  war,  wells  were  drilled  at  Burning  Springs. 
Oil  Rock,  California  House,  Volcano,  Sandhill  and  Horseneck,  and 
in  the  years  1865-1876  t.ooo.ooo  bbls.  of  oil,  valued  at  $20,000,000, 
were  taken  out  of  these  districts.-  A  successful  well  in  Marion  county, 
near  Mannington,  far  from  the  region  of  the  cirlier  wells,  was  drilled 
in  1889,  and  th^  output  of  the  state  increased  from  119.448  bbls. 
in  1888  to  544>ii3  in  i389.  and  to  2.406.216  in  1891;  in  1893  it 
was  first  more  than  8,000,000  bbls.;  ana  in  1900  it  was  16.105,675. 
After  1900  it  gradually  decreased — although  new  pools  in  Wetzel 
county  were  found  in  1902 — and  in  1908  it  was  9.523,176  bbls. 
(valued  at  $16,011,865). 

Natural  gas,  like  petroleum,  was  first  heard  of  in  West  Virginia  in 
connexion  with  a  burning  spring  on  the  Kanawha,'  and  there  were 
gas  springs  on  the  Big  Sandy  and  the  Little  Kanawha.  In  1841 
natural  zas  was  found  with  salt  brine  in  a  well  on  the  Kanawha,  and 
was  used  as  a  fuel  to  evaporate  the  salt  water.  The  production  was 
not  large  until  after  1805;  it  was  valued  at  $1,334,023  in  1898,  at 
I3.954.472  in  1901,  at  $10,075,804  in  1905,  at  $16,670,962  in  1907, 
and  at  $14,837,130  in  1^,  when  (as  since  190^.  when  it  first  was 
greater  than  that  of  Indiana)  it  was  second  only  in  value  to  that  of 
Pennsylvania.  The  princifial  field  is  in  Wetzel  countv,  but  there 
ait  important  .suppliefe  in  Lewis,  Harrison,  Marion,  Monongahela. 


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WEST  VIRGINIA 


561 


Lincoln  and  Wayne  couatie*.  Much  of  the  natata!  gas  is  piped  out 
of  the  state  into  Ohio  (even  into  the  northern  parts),  Kentucky, 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland;  within  the  sUte  gas  has  been  utilixcd 
as  a  f  ud  in  carbon  black  and  glass  factories. 

Brine  wells  have  been  mentioned  above;  the  salt  industry  u 
still  carried  on  in  Mason  county,  and  in  1908  I4S.I57  bbls.  were  pro- 
duced with  a  value  of  $10,481;  an^^here  is  a  small  output  of 
bromine.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  the  state  in  the  coal  hills  (especially 
Laurel  Hills  and  Beaver  Lkk  Mountain),  but  the  deposits  have  not 
been  worked  on  a  lar^  scale.  Pig  iron  is  manufactured  cheaply 
because  of  the  low  pnce  of  fuel;  in  1907  the  value  of  pig  jron  manu- 
factured in  the  state  was  $6,454,000.  There  are  deposits  of  ex- 
cellent cby.  especially  for  pottery,  and  in  1907  ($2,159,132)  and 
1908  ($2,083,821)  the  state  ranked  after  Ohio  and  New  Jersey  m  the 
vahie  of  pottery.  The  total  value  of  all  clay  products  in  West 
Virginia  was  $3,261,736  in  1908.  An  excelknt  glass  sand  is  pro- 
cured from  cnuhed  sandstone  near  Berkeley  Springs,  Morgan 
county.  Grindstones  have  been  quarried  in  Wood  and  Jackson 
counties.  There  are  black  slate  deposits  near  Martinsbuir.  There 
are  mineral  springs,  mostly  medicinal  waters,  in  Greenbrier,  Summers, 
Webster,  Ohio  aiid  Preston  counties.  Among  the  more  noted 
medicinal  springs  are:  dassed  as  calcareous  and  earthy.  Sweet 
Springs,  74*  F.,  in  Monroe  county,  diuretic  and  diaphoretic;  and 
Berkeley  Springs,  74*  F.,  in  Morgan  county,  reputed  restorative  in 
neuralgic  cases,  and  as  containing  sulphur;  Salt  Sulphur  Springs, 
in  Monroe  county,  of  value  in  scrofula  and  skin  diseases. 

Manufactures. — Manufacturing  is  brgcl^  k)cali2ed  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  state  along  the  Ohio  river.  The  value  of 
the  factory  product  in  1005  was  $99,040,676.    The  principal  manu 


facture  is' iron  and  steel:  in  1905  the  prmluct  of  steel  works  and 

IS4t8o2'    The  iron  mills  are  almost  alt  in  the 
vicinity  of  Wheeling.    The  first  rolling  mill  west  of  the  Alleghanies 


rolling  mills  was  $i3,4S4>8o2- 


was  probably  one  near  Morgantown.  Next  in  importance  among 
the  state's  manufactures  are  lumber  and  timber,  and  flour  and  grist 
miJIs.  The  tanning,  currying  and  finishing  of  leather,  an  industry 
largely  dependent  on  the  pkntiful  supply  of  oak  and  hemlock  bark 
for  tanning,  is  ccntraliicd  In  the  northern  and  eastern  ports  of  the 
stale,  near  the  forests.  The  glass  industry  began  in  Wheeling  in 
1821,  and  there  a  process  was  discovered  by  which  in  1864  for  soda 
ash  bicarbonate  of^lime  was  substituted,  and  a  lime  ^lass  was  made 
which  was  as  fine  as  lead  glass;  other  factors  contributing  to  the 
kKnIization  of  the  manufacture  of  glass  here  are  the  fine  glass  sand 
obtained  in  the  sUte  and  the  plentiful  supply  of  natural  gas  for 

TransportoHon  and  Commerce. — Railway  development  in  West 
Virginia  has  been  due  largely  to  the  exploitation  of  the  coal  and 
luml)er  resources  of  the  state.  The  Baltimore  &  Ohio  railway 
leads  in  trackage:  it  enters  the  state  with  several  lines  at  its  northern 
end :  its  main  line  crosses  this  portion  of  the  state  from  east  to  west, 
striking  the  Ohio  at  Parkersburg,  and  one  of  its  lines  (Ohio  River 
railway^  extends  nearly  the  length  of  the  state  from  Wheeling  in 
the  north  through  Parkersburg  to  Kenova  in  the  south.  This  road 
serves  as  a  earner  for  the  northern  coat  producing  districts.  The 
Chesapeake  &  Ohio  traverses  the  southern  Mrt  of  the  state,  from 
White  Sulphur  Springs  in  the  east,  through  Charleston  to  the  Ohio, 
serving  the  New  and  Kanawha  rivers  coal  district  as  a  freight  carrier; 
the  Norfolk  &  Western  ninsjust  within  the  soulh-westem  boundary 
along  the  valley  of  the  Big  siandy,  carrying  coal  both  east  and  west 
from  the  Pocahontas  coal-field;  and  the  new  Virginian  railway 
entering  at  the  south-east  taps  the  coal-producing  region  (the 
Kanawha  and  Pocahontas  districts)  at  Dcepwatcr,  serving  in 
addition  to  the  Norfolk  &  Western  as  a  carrier  of  coal  to  Norfolk 
on  the  Virginia  coast.  The  railway  mileage  of  the  state  grew  with 
great  rapidity  in  the  decade  1880-1800;  it  was  691  m.  in  1880, 
1.433.30  in  1890,  2,473-34  in  1900  and  3.215-32  in  January  1909. 
Natural  facilities  for  transportation,  afTotded  oy  the  Ohio  nvcr  and 
its  branches,  the  Monongahela,  at  the  northern  end  of  the  state, 
and  the  Little  Kanawha  and  the  Great  Kanawha,  are  of  special  value 
for  the  shipment  of  lumber  and  coal.  The  Monongahela  has  been 
improved  by  locks  and  dams  to  Fairmont.  It  is  the  carrier  of  a 
heavy  tonnage  of  cool  to  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania.  The  Little 
Kanawha,  which  has  also  been  improved,  serves  chiefly  for  the 
UansporUtion  of  logs  which  are  floated  down  to  the  Ohio. 

Popuiaium.—lht  population  of  West  Virginia  at  the  various 
censuses  since  its  organization  as  a  state  has  been  as  follows: 
1870,  442,014;  j88o,  618,457;  i8go,  762,794;  I900,  9S8,8oo; 
1910,  1,221,119.  In  1890-1900  and  1900-1910  the  increase  in 
population  was  more  than  one  fourth.  Of  the  total  population 
in  1900,  97-7%  was  native-born,  892,854  were  native  whites, 
43.499  were  negroes,  56  were  Chinese  and  12  were  Indians. 
Of  the  inhabitants  bom  in  the  United  Slates  61,508  were 
natives  of  Virginia,  40,301  of  phio,  28,927  of  Pennsylvania 
and  10,867  of  Kentucky;  and  of  the  foreign-bom  there  were 
6537  Germans,  334J  Irish,  2921  Italians  and  2622  English. 
Of  the  total  population  71,388  were  of  foreign  parentage— 
i.e.  either  one  or  both  parents  were  foreign-born,  and  18,239 


were  of  German  and  10,534  of  Irish  parentAge,  on  both  the 
father's  and  the  mother's  side. 

In  X906  there  were  in  the  state  301,565  members  of  religious 
denominations,  of  whom  86-2%  were  Protestants.  The 
Methodist  bodies  with  1x5,825  communicants  (38*4%  of  the 
total  communicants  or  members)  were  the  strongest.  There 
were  67,044  Baptists  (3226  United  Baptists,  20x9  Primitive 
Baptists  and  1513  Free  Baptists);  40,011  Roman  Catholics; 
19,993  United  Brethren,  all  of  the  "  New  Constitution  "\ 
19,668  Presbyterians;  13,323  Disciples  of  Christ;  6506  Lutherans, 
and  5230  Protestant  Episcopalians.  The  principal  cities  of  the 
stat»  are  Wheeling,  Huntington,  Parke^burg,  Charleston  (the 
capital),  Martinsburg,  Fairmont  and  Grafton. 

Adminisiraiion. — ^The  first  constitution  of  1863  was  super* 
sedcd  by  the  present  instrument  which  was  adopted  August 
1872  and  was  amended  in  x88o,  1883  and  1902.  The  constitution 
may  be  amended  by  cither  of  two  methods.  A  majority  of  the 
members  elected  to  each  house  may  submit  the  question  of 
calling  a  convention  to  the  people;  and  if  a  majority  of  the 
votes  cast  approve,  an  election  for  members  of  a  convention 
shall  be  held,  and  all  acts  of  the  convention  must  be  submitted 
to  the  people  for  ratification  or  rejection.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  two-thirds  majority  of  each  house  of  the  legislature  may 
submit  an  amendment  or  ammdments  to  pc^ular  vote  at  the 
next  general  election,  when  the  approval  of  a  majority  of  the 
qualified  voters  is  necessary  for  ratification.  All  male  citizens 
above  twenty-one  years  of  age  have  the  right  of  suffrage,  subject 
to  a  residence  of  one  year  in  the  state  and  sixty  days  in  the 
county  in  which  they  offer  to  vote.  Paupers,  insane,  and  those 
convicted  of  treason,  felony  or  bribery  in  an  election  are 
barred,  **  while  the  disability  continues,"  and  no  person  in  the 
military,  naval  or  marine  service  of  the  United  States  is  deemed 
a  resident  of  the  state  by  reason  of  being  stationed  therein. 
An  official  blanket  ballot  containing  the  names  of  the  candidates 
arranged  in  columns  according  to  party  is  provided  at  public 
expense. 

Executive. — ^The  executive  department  consists  of  the  governor, 
secretary  of  state,  superintendent  of  free  schools,  auditor,  treasurer 
and  attorney-general,  all  elected  by  the  people  at  the  time  of  the 
presidential  election  and  serving  for  four  years  from  the  fourth  of 
Mareh  following.  The  governor  must  have  been  a  citizen  for  five 
years  preceding  this  election,  must  have  attained  the  age  of  thirty  and 
IS  ineligible  for  re-electk>n  during  the  four  years  succeeding  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term.  In  case  of  the  death,  resignation  or  other  dis- 
ability of  the  governor,  the  president  of  the  Senate  acts  as  governor, 
and  in  case  m  his  incapability  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Dele- 
gates; and  these  two  failing,  the  legislature  on  joint  ballot  elects  an 
acting  governor.  A  new  mction  must  be  called  to  fill  the  vacancy 
unless  the  unexpired  term  is  less  than  one  year.  The  governor 
appoints,  subject  to  the  consent  of  a  majonty  of  the  members 
elected  to  the  Senate,  all  officers  whose  appointment  or  election  is 
not  otherwise  provided  for.  In  case  of  a  vacancy  in  the  court  of 
appeals  or  in  the  circuit  court  the  governor  appoints  until  the  next 
general  election,  or  if  the  unexpired  term  is  less  than  two  years, 
until  the  end  of  the  term.  The  governor  sends  a  message  at  the 
beginning  of  each  session  of  the  legislature,  and  may  convene  the 
houses  in  extraordinary  session  when  he  deems  it  necessary.  He 
may  veto  a  bill,  or  in  case  of  an  appropriation  bill,  the  separate 
items,  but  this  veto  may  be  overridden  by  a  simple  majority  of  the 
total  membership  fA  each  house.  Any  bill  not  retumea  with  objcc' 
tions  within  five  days  after  presentation  beoomes  a  law.  An  appro- 
priation bill  cannot  oe  vetoed  after  the  legislature  adjourns. 

Legislativt. — ^The  fegislature,  consisting  of  the  Senate  and  the 
House  of  Delegates,  meets  at  the  capital  on  the  first  Wednesday  in 
January  of  the  odd  years.  The  Senate  is  composed  (1910)  of  thirty 
members,  chosen  from  fifteen  districts  for  a  term  of  four  years,  but 
one  half  the  membership  retires  biennially.  A  senator  must  be 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  must  have  been  a  citizen  of  the  state 
for  five  years  and  a  resident  of  the  district  for  one  year  preceding 
his  election^  The  Senate  elects  a  preudent,  confirms  or  rejects  the 
nominations  of  the  governor,  and  acts  as  a  court  of  tmp«Khment 
for  the  trial  of  public  officers,  besides  sharing  in  legislative  fimctions. 
The  House  of  Delegates  is  composed  (1910)  of  eighty-ax  members, 
of  whom  each  county  (gooses  at  least  one.  A  delegate  must  be  a 
citizen  and  have  resided  one  year  in  the  county  from  which  he  is 
chosen.  No  person  holding  a  lucrative  office  under  the  state 
or  the  United  States,  no  salaried  officer  of  a  tailroad  com|>any, 
and  no  officer  of  any  court  of  record  is  eligible  for  membership  in 
either  house.  Besides  its  legislative  functions  the  House  prepares 
articles  of  impeachment  and  prosecutes  the  proceedings  before  the 
Senate.    The  length  of  the  legislative  session  b  foity-five  days, 


562 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


but  it  may  be  extended  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  members 
elected  to  each  house.  No  act  takes  effect  u ntil  ninety  days  after  its 
passage  unless  two-thirds  of  the  member*  of  each  house  specifically 
ocderothcfwiae. 

Judiciary. — ^Thc  jodicial  power  b  vested  in  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Appeals,  ^e  Circuit  courts,  such  inferior  courts  aa  may  be 
estabitshed,  county  courts,  the  powers  and  duties  of  which  are, 
however,  chiefly  police  and  fiscal,  and  in  justices  of  the  peace.  The 
Supreme  Court  of  Appeals,  consisting  of  five  judges,  elected  for 
terms  of  twelve  years,  holds  three  terms  annually,  one  at  Wheeling, 
one  at  Charleston  and  one  at  Charles  Town.  It  has  original  juris- 
diction in  cases  of  habeas  corpus,  mandamus  and  prohibition,  and 
appellate  jurisdiction  in  cases  involving  a  greater  amount  than  one 
hundred  dollaia;  oonoemiiig  title  or  boundary  of  lands,  pn4>ate  of 
wills:  the  a|H>ointmenC  or  c|uaiiftcation  of  personal  represenUtives. 

{;uardians,  curators,  committees.  &c.;  concerning  a  mill,  roadway, 
erry  or  hnding;  the  right  of  a  corporation  or  county  to  levy  tons 
or  taxes;  in  cases  of  quo  warranto,  habeas  corpus,  mandamui,  certio- 
nri  and  prohibition,  ind  aU  others  invtJving  freedom  or  the  con- 
•titutioaalitv  of  a  law;  in  criminal  cases  where  there  has  been  a 
conviction  tor  felony  or  misdemeanour  in  a  circuit,  criminal  or 
Intermediate  court;  and  in  cases  relating  to  the  public  revenues. 
The  court  designates  one  of  its  members  as  president.  Nineteen 
judges  elected  lor  terms  of  eight  years  in  eighteen  circuits  compose 
the  circuit  court,  the  judges  of  which  have  original  jurisdiction  of 
matters  involving  more  than  S50;  of  all  cases  of  habeas  corpus, 
mandamus,  quo  warranto  and  prohibition;  of  all  casra  in  equity: 
and  of  all  crimes  and  misdemeanours.  The  judges  have  appellate 
Jurisdiction  of  cases  civil  and  criminal  conking  up  from  the  lower, 
courts.  In  order  to  relieve  the  drcuit  juc^es  the  legislature  has 
esublished  by  special  acts  inferior  courts,  generally  with  criminal 
jurisdiction  only,  in  nine  counfics  of  the  state.  The  judicial  powers 
of  the  county  court  are  confined  to  probate,  the  appointment  of 
exocutors,  aciministrators  and  other  personal  representatives,  and 
the  settlement  of  their  accounts,  matters  relating  to  apprentices  and 
to  contested  elections  for  county  and  district  ofiiccrs.  (See  below 
under  Local  Govemmcnl.)  One  or  two  justices  of  the  peace  (de- 
pending on  population)  are  elected  from  each  magisterial  district; 
there  must  be  not  lets  than  three,  nor  more  than  ten,  districts  in  each 
county. 

Local  GooernmenL — As  in  Virginia^  the  county  is  the  unit  of  govern- 
ment, though  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  introduce  the  township  sys- 
tem was  made  in  the  first  constitution.  The  county  court,  consisting 
of  thite  commissionerselected  for  sixyeara  but  with  terms  so  anranfted 
that  one  retires  every  two  years,  is  the  police  and  fiscal  authonty. 
Other  officers  are  the  cleric  of  the  county  oourt,  elected  for  six  years, 
the  sheriff,  who  also  actsas  tax-collector  ajid  treasurer ,  the  prosecuting 
attorney,  one  or  two  assessors,  the  surveyor  of  lands  ana  the  super- 
btendent  of  free  schools,  all  elected  for  the  term  of  four^ears;  the 
sheriff  may  not  serve  two  consecutive  full  terms.  In  addition  there 
are  boards  appointed  or  elected  by  various  authorities  and  charged 
with  specific  auties.  They  include  the  local  board  of  health  and  the 
board  of  jury  commissioners.  Each  of  the  magisterial  districts  (of 
which,  as  has  been  said,  there  must  be  at  least  three  and  not  more 
than  ten  in  each  county)  elects  one  or  two  magistrates  and  con- 
stables, and  a  boanl  of  education  of  three  membou.  The  constitu- 
tion provides  that  the  legislature,  on  the  request  of  any  county,  may 
establish  a  special  form  of  county  government,  and  several  of  the 
larger  and  more  populous  counties  have  special  acts. 

Jiisctllaneous  Laws. — A  woman's  right  to  hold,  manage  and  acquire 
property  is-  not  affected  by  marriage,  except  that  unless  she  lives 
apart  from  her  husband,  she  may  not  mortgage  or  convey  real  estate 
without  bb  consent.  A  woman  becomes  of  age  at  twenty-one. 
Rights  of  dower  and  courtesy  both  exist.  When  a  husband  dies 
intestate  leaving  a  widow  and  issue,  the  widow  is  entitled  to  the  life 
use  of  one-third  of  the  real  estate  and  to  one-third  of  the  personal 
ettate  absolutely.  If  there  is  no  issue  she  takes  the  whole  of  the 
personal  esute,  while  the  real  estate,  subject  to  her  dower,  goes  first 
to  her  husband'a  father  and  then  to  hb  mother,  brothers  and  sisters. 
If  the  wife  dies  intestate  iJbe  husband  has  a  right  to  the  use  of  her 
real  estate  for  life,  and  to  one-third  of  the  personal  estate  if  there  is 
iswe ;  otherwise  to  the  whole.  Neither  can  by  will  deprive  the  other 
of  the  right  of  dower  or  courtesy  in  the  real  estate  and  of  the  right  to 
one-third  of  the  personal  estate.  Children  may  be  disinherited  with 
or  without  cause.  Any  parent  or  infant  children  of  deceased  parents 
may  set  apart  personal  estate  not  exceeding  (200  in  value  which  shall 
be  exempt  from  execution.  A  homestead  not  exceeding  $1000 
in  value  may  be  set  apart,  provided  that  it  is  recorded  beiore  the 
debt  against  which  it  was  claimed  was  contracted.  Marriages 
between  whites  and  negroes,  or  where  either  party  had  a  wife  or 
husband  living,  or  within  the  pcbhibited  degrees  01  consanguinity, 
or  wh«e  cither  was  insane  or  physically  incapable  of  marria^  or 
where  the  mate  was  under  eighteen  or  the  female  under  sixteen 
may  be  annulled.  No  female  or  male  under  twelve  may  be  employed 
in  mines,  and  no  chUd  under  twelve  may  be  employed  in  a  factory, 
and  when  school  is  in  session  none  under  fourteen. 

Charities,  Sfc. — ^The  state  chariublc  and  penal  institutions  consbt 
of  the  West  Vitginb  Hospiul  for  the  Insane  at  Weston,  the  Second 
Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Spencer,  three  miners'  hospitals — one  at 
Welch,  one  at  McKendree  and  one  at  Fairmont;  the  We?t  Virginia 


Asylum  for  Incurables  at  Httntington.  Schoob  for  the  Deaf  and 
Blind  at  Romney.  the  West  Virginia  Penitentiary  at  Moundsvitle. 
the  West  Virginia  Reform  School  at  Grafton  and  the  West  Virginia 
Industrial  Home  for  Girls  near  Salem.  These  are  att  under 
the  supervision  of  a  sute  board  of  control  of  three  members, 
appointed  by  the  governor,  which  was  created  in  1909,  and  also  has 
control  of  the  finances  of  th<^aate  educational  system.  There  b  also 
a  state  humane  society,  which  was  orgaaixed  m  1S99  for  the  pfo« 
tection  of  children  and  of  the  helpless  aged,  and  for  the  prevention  of 
cruelty  to  animals.  The  West  Virginia  Colored  Orphans'  Home  near 
Huntington  b  not  under  state  control,  but  has  received  appropria- 
tions from  Che  legislature.  In  1908  a  law  was  enacted  for  establi^ing 
the  West  Virginia  Children's  Home  to  be  under  the  control  of  the 
Humane  Society. 

Education. — Each  magisterial  district  constitutes  a  ackool  dittrkt 
and  there  are  abo  a  few  independent  school  districts.  For  each 
school  district  there  is  a  board  of  education  conaistine  of  a  president 
and  two  commissioners,  each  elected  for  a  term  of  lour  years,  one 
commissioner  every  two  years.  This  board  b  authorised  to  establish 
and  alter  sub-distncts.  A  law  enacted  in  190S  requires  that  children 
between  eight  and  fifteen  years  of  age  shall  attend  school  twenty-four 
weekscach  year,  provided  the  public  school  in  theirdistrict  is  in  session 
that  length  of  time.  The  county  supervision  of  public  schools  is  vested 
in  a  county  superintendent,  who  is  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years. 
The  state  supervision  b  vested  in  a  state  superintendent,  who  b  elected 
for  a  term  of  four  years.  A  state  board  of  education,  consisting  of 
the  state  superintendent  and  five  other  persons  appointed  by  him, 
constitutes  a  state  board  of  examiners  (for  special  primary,  high 
school  and  professional  certificates)  and  prescribes  the  course  of 
study.  There  is  also  a  state  school  book  coromiasion,  consisting  of 
the  state  superintendent  and  eight  other  members  appointed  by  the 

{[ovcrnor.  The*  state  maintains  six  normal  schoob  lor  whites  (at 
-luntington,  Fairmont,  West  Liberty,  Glenville,  Shepherdstown. 
Athens)  and  two  for  negroes  (at  Institute  and  at  Bluefield).  They 
are  governed  by  a  board  of  regcnu  consisting  of  the  state  super- 
intendent and  six  other  members  appointed  by  the  governor.  At 
the  head  of  the  educational  system  is  the  West  Virginia  University 
(1867)  at  Morgantown  {q.v.).  The  principal  institutions  of  higher 
learning  not  under  sute  control  are  Bethany  College  (Christian, 
1841).  at  Bethany;  Morris  Harvey  CoUege  (Methodist  Episcopal. 
Southern^  1888),  at  BarboursviUe;  West  Virpnia  Wesleyan  Colbge 
(Methodist  Episcopal.  1890).  at  Buckhaanon ;  and  Davis  and  Elkins 
C<^lege  (Presbyterian,  1904),  at  Elkins. 

Finance. — The  state  revenue  is  derived  mainly  from  a  general  pro- 
perty tax.  licence  taxes  levied  on  various  businesses  and  oocugMitions, 
a  collateral  inhcriunce  tax  and  a  capitation  tax.  For  the  year  ending 
on  the  50th  of  September  1906  the  receipts  were  (3.382, 131 -66 
and  the  disbursements  $3.432 ,3 17 '03.  West  Virginia's  share  of  the 
Virginia  debt  which  existed  when  West  Virginia  was  set  off  from 
Virginia  has  not  yet  been  determined  (see  below,  f  History),  but 
other  than  this  the  state  has  no  debt,  and  the  contraction  of  a 
state  debt  other  than  "to  meet  casual  deficits  in  the  revenue,  to 
redeem  a  previous  Ibbility  of  the  state,  to  suppress  insurrection, 
repel  invasion  or  defend  the  state  in  time  of  war  "  is  forbidden 
by  the  constitution.  The  indebtedness  of  a  county,  municipality 
or  school  district  b  limited  to  5%  of  the  value  of  iu  taxable 
property. 

History. "^That  part  of  Virginia  beyond  the  Alleghany  moun* 
tains  was  a  favourite  haunt  of  the  Indians  before  the  first 
coming  of  the  whites,  and  there  are  many  Indian  mounds,  in- 
dicative of  an  early  and  high  cultural  development,  within  the 
present  limits  of  the  state,  and  especially  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Mounds ville  (q.v.).  The  western  part  of  Virginia  was  not 
explored  until  k>ng  after  considerabk  settlements  had  been  made 
in  the  cast.  In  1671  General  Abram  Wood,  at  the  direction  of 
Governor  William  Berkeley  (c.  1610-1677),  sent  a  party  which 
discovered  Kanawha  Falls,  and  In  17 16,  Governor  Alexander 
SpoLtswood  with  about  thirty  horsemea  made  an  excursion  into 
what  U  DOW  Pendleton  county.  John  Van  Metre,  an  Indian 
trader,  penetrated  into  the  northern  portion  in  1725,  and  Morgan 
ap  Morgan,  a  Welshouui,  built  a  cabin  in  the  present  Berkeley 
county  in  1727..  The  same  year  GemMxi  settlers  from  Pcni)- 
sylvania  founded  New  Mecklenbui|(,  the  present  Shepherdstown, 
00  the  Potomac,  and  others  soon  followed.  Charles  Il.of  England, 
in  1661,  granted  to  4  company  of  gentlemen  the  land  between  the 
Potomac  and  RappahannoGk  riven,  commonly  known  as  the 
"  Northern  Neck."  The  grant  finally  come  into  the  possession 
of  Thomas,  Lord  Fairfax,  and  in  1746  a  stone  was  erected  at  the 
source  of  the  north  branch  of  the  Potomac  to  mark  the  western 
limit  of  the  grant.  A  considerable  port  of  this  land  was  surveyed 
by  Cieoige  Washington  between  1748  and  1751.  The  diary  kept 
by  the  young  surveyor  indicates  that  there  were  already  many 
squatters,  largely  of  German  origin,  along  the  South  Branch  i 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


5^3 


AePbtomac.  Christopher  Gist,  a  surveyor  In  the  employ  of  the 
first  Ohio  Company  (see  Omo  Company),  which  was  composed 
chiefly  of  Virginians,  in  1751--1752  explored  the  country  along  the 
Ohio  river  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kanawha,  and  the  company 
sought  to  have  a  fourteenth  colony  established  with  the  name 
"  Vandalla."  Many  settlers  crossed  the  mountains  after  1750, 
though  they  were  somewhat  hindered  by  Indian  depredations. 
Probably  no  Indians  lived  within  the  present  limits  of  the  state, 
but  the  region  was  a  common  hunting  ground,  crossed  also 
by  many  war  trails,  and  during  the  French  and  Indian  war 
(1754-63)  the  scattered  settlements  were  almost  destroyed.  In 
X774  the  governor  of  Virginia,  Lord  Dunraore,  himself  led  a  JForce 
over  the  mountains,  and  a  body  of  militia  under  General  Andrew 
Lewis  dealt  the  Shawnee  Indians  under  Cornstalk  a  crushing  blow 
at  Point  feasant  (q.v,)  at  the  junction  of  the  Kanawha  and  the 
Ohio  rivers,  but  Indian  attacks  continued  until  after  the  War  of 
bidependence.  During  the  war  the  settlers  in  Western  Virginia 
were  generally  active  Whigs  and  many  served  in  the  Continental 
army. 

Social  conditions  In  western  Virginia  were  entirely  unlike 
those  existing  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  state.  The  population 
was  not  homogeneous,  as  a  considerable  part  of  the  immigra- 
tion came  by  way  of  Pennsylvania  and  included  Germans,  the 
Protestant  Scotch-Irish  and  settlers  from  the  states  farther 
north.  During  the  War  of  Independence  the  movement  to  create 
another  state  beyond  the  AUcghanies  was  revived,  and  a  petition 
(1776)  for  the  establishment  of "  Westsylvania"  was  presented  to 
Congress,  on  the  ground  that  the  mountains  made  an  almost 
impassable  barrier  on  the  east.  The  rugged  nature  of  the  country 
made  slavery  unprofitable,  and  time  only  increased  the  social, 
poh'tical  and  economic  differences  between  the  two  sections  of  the 
state.  The  convention  which  met  in  1829  to  form  a  new  con- 
stitution for  Virginia,  against  the  protest  of  the  counties  beyond 
the  mountains,  required  a  property  qualification  for  suffrage,  and 
gave  the  slave-holding  counties  the  benefit  of  three-fifths  of 
their  slave  population  in  apportioning  the  state's  representation 
in  the  lower  Federal  house.  As  a  result  every  county  beyond 
the  AUeghanies  except  one  voted  to  reject  the  constitution,  which 
was  nevertheless  carried  by  eastern  votes.  Though  the  Virginia 
constitution  of  1850  provided  for  white  manhood  suffrage,  yet  the 
distribution  of  representation  among  the  counties  was  such  as  to 
give  control  to  the  section  east  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains. 
Another  grievance  of  the  West  was  the  large  expenditure  for 
internal  improvements  at  state  expense  in  the  'East  compared 
with  the  scanty  proportion  allotted  to  the  West.  For  an  account 
of  the  Virginia  convention  of  i86x,  which  adopted  the  Ordinance 
of  Secession,  sec  Virginia.  Here  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  only 
nine  of  the  forty-six  delegates  frajn  the  present  slate  of  West 
Virginia  voted  to  secede.  Almost  immediately  after  the  adoption 
of  the  ordinance  a  mass  meeting  at  Clarksburg  recommended  that 
each  county  in  north-western  Vir^nia  send  delegates  to  a  conven- 
tion to  meet  in  Wheeling  on  the  13th  of  May  x86i.  When  this 
**  First  Wheeling  Convention"  met,  four  hundred  and  twenty-five 
delegates  from  twenty-five  counties  were  present,  but  soon  there 
was  a  division  of  sentiment.  Some  delegates  favoured  the 
immediate  formation  of  a  new  state,  but  the  more  far-sighted 
members  argued  that  as  the  ordinance  had  not  yet  been  voted 
upon  by  the  people,  and  Virginia  was  still  in  the  Union,  such 
action  would  be  revolutionary,  since  the  United  States  Constitu- 
tion provides  that  no  state  may  be  divided  without  its  consent. 
Therefore  it  was  voted  that  in  case  the  ordinance  should  be 
adopted  (of  which  there  was  little  doubt)  another  convention 
including  the  merabers-clcct  of  the  legislature  should  meet  at 
Wheeling  on  the  nth  of  June.  At  the  election  (23rd  May  1861) 
the  ordinance  was  ratified  by  a  large  majority  in  the  state  as  a 
whole,  but  in  the  western  counties  40,000  votes  out  of  44,000 
were  cast  against  it.  The  "  Second  Wheeling  Convention  "  met 
according  to  agreement  (nth  June),  and  declared  that,  since  the 
Secession  Convention  had  been  called  without  the  consent  of  the 
people,  all  its  acts  were  void,  and  that  all  who  adhered  to  it  had 
vacated  their  offices.  An  act  for  the  "  reorganization  **  of  the 
government  was  passed  on  the  19th  of  June.    The  next  day 


Frti«ri8  H.  PferpoBt  was  chMeli  govemor  of.  VhgiAia,  other 
officers  were  elteted  and  the  convention  adjourned.  The 
legislature,  composed  of  the  members  from  the  weftem  eountks 
who  had  been  elected  on  the  33rd  of  May  and  some  bf  the  hold- 
over senators  who  bad  been  elected  in  1859,  i^et  at  Wbeding  on 
the  ist  of  July,  filled  the  remainder  of  the  state  offices,  organized 
a  state  government  and  dected  two  United  States  senators  who 
were  recognized  at  Washington.  There  wene,  therefore,  two 
state  governments  in  Virgil,  one  owning  allegiance  to  the 
United  States  and  one  to  the  Confederacy.  The  Convention, 
which  had  taken  a  recess  until  the  6th  of  August,  then  re- 
assembled and  (August  30)  adopted  an  ordinance  providing  for 
a  popular  vote  on  the  formation  of  a  new  state,  and  for  a  con- 
vention to  frame  a  constitution  if  the  vote  should  be  favourable. 
At  the  election  (October  24,  x86i)  18,489  votes  were  cast  for  the 
new  state  and  only  781  against.  Tbe  convention  met  on  the 
26th  of  November  iB6t,  and  finished  its  work  on  the  x8th  of 
February  1862,  and  the  instrument  was  ratified  by  the  people 
(18,162  for  and  514  against)  on  the  xxth  of  April  S862.  Next  the 
legislature  of  the  "  Reorganized  "  government  on  the  X3th  of  May 
gave  its  consent  to  the  formation  of  the  new  state.  Application 
for  admission  to  the  Union  was  now  made  to  Congress,  and  on  the 
31st  of  December  1862  an  enabling  act  was  approved  by  President 
Lincoln  admitting  the  state  on  the  condition  that  a  provision  for 
the  gradual  abolUion  of  slaveiy  be  inserted  in  the  Constitution. 
The  Convention  was  reconvened  on  the  xath  of  February  1863, 
and  the  demand  of  Congress  was  met.  The  revised  instrument 
was  adopted  by  the  people  on  the  26th  of  March  1863,  and  on  the 
doth  of  April  1863  President  Lincoln  issued  a  proclamation 
admitting  the  state  at  the  end  of  sixty  days  (June  20,  1863). 
Meanwhile  officers  for  the  new  state  were  chosen,  and  Govemor 
Pierpont  removed  his  capital  to  Alexandria  where  he  asserted 
jurisdiction  over  the  counties  of  Virginia  within  the  Federal 
lines.  The  question  of  the  constitutionality  of  the  formation 
of  the  new  state  was  brought  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  in  the  following  manner.  Berkeley  and  Jefferson 
counties  lying  on  the  Potomac  east  of  the  mountains,  in  1863, 
with  the  consent  of  the  "  Reorganized  "  government  of  Virginia 
voted  .in  favour  of  annexation  to  West  Virginia.  Many  voters 
absent  in  the  Confederate  army  when  the  vote  was  taken  refused 
to  acknowledge  the  transfer  on  their  return.  The  Virginia 
legislature  repealed  the  act  of  cession  and  in  x866  brought  suit 
against  West  Virginia  asking  the  court  to  declare  the  counties 
a  part  of  Virginia.  Meanwhile  Congress  on  the  10th  of  March 
1866  passed  a  joint  resolution  recognizing  the  transfer.  The 
Supreme  Court  in  X87X  decided  in  favour  of  West  Virginia,  and 
there  has  been  no  further  question.  During  the  Qvil  JVar  West 
Virginia  suffered  comparatively  little.  McClellan's  forces  gained 
possession  of  the  greater  part  of  the  territory  in  the  summer  of 
1 861,  and  Union  control  was  never  seriously  threatened,  in  spite 
of  Lce'^  attempt  in  the  same  year.  In  1865  General  John  D. 
Iraboden,  with  5000  Confederates,  overran  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  state.  Bands  of  guerrillas  burned  and  plundered  in  some 
sections,  and  were  not  entirely  suppressed  until  after  the  war 
was  ended.  The  state  furnished  about  36,000  soldiers  to  the 
Federal  armies  and  somewhat  less  than  10,000  to  the  Confederate. 
The  absence  in  the  army  of  the  Confederate  sjrmpathizers  helps 
to  explain  the  small  vote  against  the  formation  of  the  new  state. 
Durtnglhe  war  and  for  years  afterwards  partsan  feeling  ran  hi^ 
The  property  of  Confederates  might  be  confiscated,  and  in  1866 
a  constitutional  amendment  disfranchising  all  who  had  given 
aid  and  comfort  to  the  Confederacy  was  adopted.  The  addition 
of  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Amendments  to  the  U.S. 
Constitution  caused  a  reaction,  the  Democratic  party  secured 
control  in  1870,  and  in  1871  the  constitutional  amendment  of 
1866  was  abrogated.  The  first  steps  toward  this  change  had 
been  taken,  however,  by  the  Republicans  in  X870.  In  X872  an 
entirely  new  constitution  was  adopted  (August  22). 

Though  the  first  constitution  provided  for  the  assumption  of  a 
part  of  the  Virginia  debt,  negotiations  opened  by  Virginia  in 
i870were  fruitless,  and  in  1871  that  state  funded  two-thirds  ol 
the  debt  and  arbitrarily  assigned  the  remainder  to  West  Virginia. 


S64 


WESTWARD  HO— WETSTEIN 


The  lejislWWe  of  tha  iMlec  Mile  In  i!7J  •dopi*)  «  "P 

dtdaring  (h«  betw«n  i8»  »nd  iB6.,  dudng  - 

Iiich  period 

debl  had  been  uicHned,  the  wtuera  counties  bad 

paidaneic 

of  tues,  more  Ihaa  equal  to  the  nmount  which  had  bcea 

pended  in  the  well  for  the  puiposes  Iqi  which  Ih 

debt  had  b 

incurred,  and  coatluded  with  the  statement:  ' 

West  Vitgi 

owes  no  debt,  has  no  bonds  for  sale  aizd  asks  no  credit." 

H»6  Virginia  enieied  suit  in  the  U.S.  Supreme  C 

West  Virginia  to  aiiume  i  poition  oi  the  debL 

West  Virg, 

deniuitwl,  but  was  overruled,  and  on  the  4th 

f  May  i(»l 

mulct  was  appointed  to  lake  testimony.    The 

slate  rejec 

decisively  the  overture*  ■ladc  by  Virginia  in 

1866,  looL 

towuds  &  reunion  of  the  commonwealths. 

G™«H./»'«lKJrp«ia. 

1861-1869 

>B69 

1B69-1871 

John  I.  Jacobs      ....    Deinociai 
Henry  M.  Mathnn 

1877-1881 

iS-iS 

Wn.™  MacC^k^      '.'.'.             !!   , 

I89J-1897 

Albert  B.  White 

Wm.  M.  O.  Dawun 

1905-1909 

Wm.  E.  CkuKock 

,.— .    n   see   Hem 

""-ihinpon.  1904).  beii«  Bullcl 
r  I  the  Riporis .  and  Ihi  B\ 
Virtinia  (Morganlown,  1901 


GCe'scic  AOas  of  ibe  Unhed  SlaK 
ilainc.  Remtrits  0/  ^^'^  Virrm 
-  ■■  JTk.  JtfMiiUw  5(1 

M  the  Uanual 
:  Seercury  oC  Slat., 
oq.);     Tie  Ciii  ft 


(Mors 


I90J),  a  CircuW  c 
:  a  HiHory  iff  £■ 
'  the  State  Superii 
'  Wal  Virpiaa  (nei 

tory  and  Cooem  mnti 
cdillon,  1908);  A.S.W1 


rlnled  Cine 


fmiH.ilfciMtoii^Piii^VCCl .  -- 

luK  0/  Wat  k-ii-paia  (WhtelinK.  I9D1>:  ard  M.  F.  [b- 

lim  b/Mc  CsnUilHfun  d/ (fill  Kire>*ia  (Morganur     .    ._ 

WESTWARD  HO,  a  small  seaside  village  in  Ibe  Bamslaple 
patliamentuy  division  of  Devonshire,  England,  on  Ihe  eastof 
Banmaplo  Bay,  j)  m.  N.l*.  of  Bidefotd,  on  the  Bidctotd, 
Apfdedor*  Ic  Weslwatd  Ho  railway.  Of  modem  gtoHlh,  it 
lakes  lit  name  from  a  famous  novel  by  Charles  Kingsley.  Many 
visitors  ire  attncted  in  tummcr  by  its  pure  and  bracing  air,  iis 
quiet,  and,  above  oU,  by  its  golf  dub,  with  links  laid  out  on  the 
tsndbiUs  known  as  Bnunlon  Burrows.  Westward  Ho  forms 
paitof  Ihc  urban  district  of  NoETHAH,  which  had  a  population  in 

WETHEHSFIELO,  a  township  of  Hartford  county,  Conneclicul , 
U.S.A..  on  the  Connecticut  rivet,  adjoining  od  ihe  N.  the  cily  of 
Hartford,  of  whicb  ii  is  a  residential  suburb.  Fc^.  (iS9o)ii;i; 
(ifloo)  s6]j  (489  foreign- born);  (1910)  3148.  Area,  about  11 
iq.  m.  It  ia  scived  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hanfonl 
railway  and  by  elecliic  lines  to  Harllord.  Among  its  old  buildings 
are  ihe  house  in  which  in  1781  George  Washington  and  Count 
Rochambeau  met  to  plan  Ihe  Yoiklown  campaign;  the  Fitsi 
Church  of  Christ  (Congregational),  erected  in  17&1  and  re- 
modelled in  1838  and  i8Si;and  the  old  academy  building,  which 


Lbrary.  The 

reisa^a 

ntelm 

icre 

56Ul.in(rirth. 

T>e  Conn 

I  Slate  pr 

son  is  in 

Welh. 

isAeld.    In  the  tow 

nship  loba 

geiablesa 

d  garde 

seeds 

ised  and  diiry 

nslderable 

ce;ih. 

cipal  manufac 

olBind  m 

Wci 

erjli 

Ul  Is  Ihe  oldes 

Title  (on 

euolby 

Contot  Kltle. 

by  legisli 

F 

b.4.'890. 

until  '•hich  time 

Govt 

ino.  Wil»ii  hel 

inhabited  township  In  Um  state:  It  was  6l»  setibd   la  O* 

»nd  received  its  present  name  in  1437.  With  Hanford  and 
Windsor  in  1639  it  fnmed  Ihe  FundamenKj  Orders  of  the 
Colony  of  ConnecticuL  Before  1660  its  inhabiUinls  aided  in  ihe 
founding  of  Stamford  and  Milford,  Conoeciicut,  and  of  Hadley, 
MassachusctU. 
See  M.  R.  Stiles,  Hitterj  n!  Anatnl  WtOtrifiM  (New  YoA 

WETSTEIN  (also  WettStein),  JOHAHN  JAKOB  (i6g3-i7S4). 
New  Testament  Clitic,  was  born  at  Basel  on  Ihe  jth  of  Mirdl 
1&93.  Among  his  tutors  in  theology  was  Samuel  Werenfelt 
(1637-1749),  an  inOuential  anlicipalor  of  modern  scientific 
eicgetis.  Whileslillaitudenihe  began  Indirect  hisatlention  to 
the  special  pursuit  of  his  Ufe— Ibe  teit  of  the  Ct  -fk  New  Testa- 
ment. A  rclallve,  Johann  Wetslein,  who  was  the  university 
librnrian,  gave  him  permission  to  eumine  and  collate  ihie 
principal  MSS.  of  the  New  Teslament  in  the  Ubcary,  and  he 
copied  the  various  reading  which  they  contained  into  his  copy 
o(  Gerard  of  Uaestrichl's  edition  of  the  Greek  leil.    In  1713 

Di  sariii  Nm  Tatamaui  lalionibui,  and  sought  10  show 
thai  variety  of  tcadingi  did  not  dctisct  from  Ibe  authority 
of  the  Bible.  Wetslein  paid  great  attention  also  to  Aramaic 
and  TilmudJc  Hebrew.  In  the  spring  of  1714  he  undertook 
a  learned  tour,  which  led  him  to  Paris  and  En^and,  the  gnai 
object  of  fiis  Inquiry  everywhere  being  manuscripts  of  Ihe  New 
Test.-imcnt.  In  1716  he  made  ihe  acquaintance  oi  Richard 
Bentley  it  Cambridge,  who  look  great  interest  in  bis  work. 

carefuUy  the  Codex  Ephraani,  Bcnlley  having  then  in  view  a 
critical  edilion  of  the  New  Testament.  In  July  1717  Wetslein 
relumed  to  take  the  office  of  a  curate  at  btge  (diacmmiinnmaiiii) 
It  Basel,  a  post  which  be  beld  for  three  years,  at  the  eiptialion 
of  which  he  eichanged  it  to  become  his  father's,  colleague  and 
successor  In  the  parish  of  Si  Leonard's.  Al  the  same  limf 
he  puisued  bis  favourite  sludyrSnd  gave  private  leclurcs  on 
New  Testament  ciegesis.  It  was  then  thai  hcdecidcdioprcpar* 
a  critical  edition  of  the  Greek  New  TeElameai.  He  had  in  Ihe 
meantime  broken  wilh  Bent  ley,  whose  famous  Pitfesali  appeared 
in  171a  His  earlier  teachers,  however,  J.  C.  Iselln  and  J.  L. 
Frcy,  nho  were  engaged  upon  work  similar  10  his  own,  became  so 
unfriendly  towards  him  that  after  a  lime  he  was  iotbiddcn  any 
further  use  of.lhc  manuscripts  in  the  library.  Thi:n  a  Tumour 
got  abroad  that  his  projected  teii  would  lake  Ihe  Soeinian  side 
In  Ihe  case  of  such  passages  as  i  Timothy  lii.  161  and  in  olhei 
ways  (e.g.  by  regarding  Jeaus's  templalion  as  a  subjeclivt 
experience,  by  eiplainlng  some  of  Ihe  miracles  in  a  natural  way) 
he  gave  occasion  for  the  ausl>icion  of  heresy.  At  length  in  1719 
the  charge  of  projecling  an  edition  of  Ibe  Greek  Testament 
savouring  of  Arian  and  Soeinian  views  was  ioimally  laid  ngiinsl 
him.  The  end  of  the  long  and  unedifying  trial  was  his  dismissal, 
on  the  13th  of  May  1730,  from  his  o(nce<^  curate  of  St  Leonard's. 
He  then  removed  irom  Basel  10  Amslerdam,  shetc  a  relative, 
Johann  Hcinrich  Wetslein,  had  an  importani  printing  and 
puhllshing  business,  from  whose  ofliee  eiccUcnl  cdilions  of  the 
classics  were  issued,  and  also  Cciard  of  Macstiichl's  edition  of  the 
Creek  Teslament.  Wetslein  had  begun  10  print  in  this  oBicF 
an  edilion  of  the  Greek  Teslament,  which  was  suddenly  slopped 

he  publbhed  anonymously  the  Frolitcinaia  ad  Nori  Ttslamtx6 
Craai  rdilioncm,  which  be  had  proposed  should  accompany  ho 
Greek  Testament,  and  which  was  republished  by  him,  wilh 
addilions,  as  part  othisgtcal  work,  1751.  The  neil  year  (1731) 
the  Remonstrant!  offered  him  the  chair  of  philosophy  in  Iheir 
college  at  Amsterdam,  vacated  by  ihe  Htncss  of  Jean  le  Cletc, 
on  condition  thai  he  dnuld  clear  himself  of  the  suspicion  of 
heresy.  He  thereupon  returned  to  Basel,  and  procured  a 
■rsal  (March  jj,  1731)  of  Ihe  f 


o  all  h 


IS  beron 


WETTIN— WEXFORD 


565 


Iniflh,  after  mudi  painful  oontutfon,  he  was  allowed  to  instruct 
tlie  RamoDstiant  sttxlettts  in  pfaikjMphy  and  Ueboew  on  certain 
somewhat  humiliating  conditions.  For  the  rest  of  hi»  life  he 
continued  professor  in  the  Remonstrant  college,  diylmmg  in 
1745  the  Greek  chair  at  Basel.  In  1746  he  once  more  visited 
Eni^and,  and  ooUated  Syiiac  MSS.  for  his  great  woik.  At  last 
this  appeared  in  1751-17^,  in  two  folio  volumes,  under  the 
UUe  Novum  Teslamentum  Crageum  edttimus  reuplae  cum 
Uctionikus  variantibus  coduum  MSS.,  &c.  He  did  not  venture 
to  put  new  readings  in  the  body  of  his  page,  but  consigned  those 
of  them  which  he  recommended  to  a  place  between  the  Uxlus 
rtuphts  and  the  full  list  hi  various  readings.  Beneath  the  latter 
he  gave  a  oommentaiy,  consisting  principally  of  a  mass  of 
valuable  illustrations  and  parallels  drawn  from  classical  and 
rabbinical  literature,  which  has  formed  a  storehouse  for  all 
later  commentators.  In  his  FroUgomena  he  gave  an  admirable 
methodical  account  of  the  HSS.,  the  versions  and  the  readings 
of  the  fathers,  as  well  as  the  troubled  stoxy  of  the  difficulties 
with  which  he  had  had  to  contend  in  the  prosecution  of  the  work 
of  his  life.  He  was  the  first  to  designate  uncial  manuscripts 
by  Roman  capitals,  and  cursive  manuscripts  by  Arabic  figures. 
He  did  not  long  survive  the  completion  ctf  this  work.  He  died 
at  Amsteidam  on  the  ajrd  of  March  1754. 

WetBtein's  New  Testament  has  never  been  lepuUished  entire. 
The  London  ixrlnter,  WilUam  Bowyer,' published,  m  1763,  a  text  in 
which  he  introduced  the  readings  reconunended  by  Wetstdn;  J.  G. 
Semler  republished  the  ProUiomena  •  and  appendix  (1764);  A. 
Lotze  commenced  a  new  edition  of  the  work,  Init  the  Prdegomena 
oafy  appeared  (Rotterdam,  18^1),  and  this  "  castigatec)."  It  is 
geneiaUy  allowed  that  Wetstein  rendered  mvaluable  service  to 
testiud  criticism  by  his  collection  of  various  readiogs  and  his 
methodical  account  of  the  MSS.  and  other  sources,  and  that  his 
work  was  rendered  less  valuable  through  his  prejudice  against  the 
Latin  verskm  and  the  principle  of  grouping  MSS.  in  families  which 
had  been  recommended  by  Richard  Bentley  and  I  A.BengeL 
,  See  Wetstein's  account  of  bis  labour*  and  trials  in  his  Nov.  TvsU 
1.;  articles  in  C.  F.  Illgcn's  Zlschr.jUr  kutor.  Tkeai.  by  C.  R.  Hagenr 
bach  (1839).  by  L.  r.  Van  Rhyn  in  1843  and  again  by  Heinrich 
Bfittger  m  1870;  S.  P.  Tregelles,  Auount  of  the  fitted  Text  of  the 
New  TtstamaU;  Fi  H.  A.  Scrivener'a  ItUrodtuHon  to  tko  OtUdsm 
e(f  tke  Now  Tutamfnti  W.  Goas,  Proteskmli$cko  DogmoHk,  vol.  iu.  -. 
the  art.  in  Herzog's  ReaUncykhpddio  and  in  the  AUfumno  dotOscko 
Biograpkie. 

WBTTni,  the  name  of  a  famfly  from  which  several  of  the 
foyal  houses  of  Europe  have  sprang,  dnived  from  a  castle  whidi 
stood  near  the  small  town  of  that  name  on  the  Saale.  Attempu 
to  tnce  the  descent  to  the  Saxon  cUef  \IWuUnd  or  Witteklnd, 
who  died  abont  807,.  or  to  Burchard,  margrave  of  Hivringia 
(d.  908),  have  fsiled,  and  the  eariiest  known  ancestor  is  one 
Dietrich,  who  was  count  of  Hassegaa  or  Hosgau,  a  district  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Saale.  Dietrich  was  kilted  in  983  fighting 
the  Hungarians,  and  his  sons  Bedo  L  (d.  X009)  and  Frederick 
(d.  X0S7)  received  lands  taken  from  the  Wends»  including  the 
county  or  Gdii  of  Wettin  on  the  fii^t  bank  of  the  Saale.  Dedo's 
son  Dietrich  H.  inherited  these  lands,  distinguisbed  himself 
in  warfare  against  the  Poles,  and  married  Matilda,  daughter  of 
Ekkard  I.,  maxgrave  of  Meissen.  Their  son  Dedo  IL  obtained 
the  Saxon  east  mark  and  lower  Lusatia  on  the  death  of  his 
unde  Ekkaid  IL,  maxgrave  of  Meissen,  In  1046,  but  in  X069 
he  quaxxeikd  with  the  emperor  Henxy  IV.  and  was  compelled 
tosuixenderhispossesshms.  He  died  in  1075,  and  hb  lands  were 
granted  to  his  son  Henxy  I.,  who  in  X089  was  invested  with  the 
maxk  of  Meissen.  In  X103  Henxy  was  succeeded  l^  his  cousin 
Thimo  (d.  1104),  ^o  built  a  castle  at  Wettin,  and  was  called 
by  this  name.  Henxy  IL,  son  of  Heniy  I.,  followed,  but  died 
childless  in  1x13;  his  cousin,  ConiBd  I.,  son  of  Thimo,  dalmed 
Meissen,  of  whkh  he  secured  possession  in  1x30,  and  in  1x35 
the  emperor  Lothair  IL  added  lower  Lusatia  to  his  possessions. 
Abdicating  in  1x56,  Conrad's  Umds  were  divided  between  his 
five  sons,  when  the  county  of  Wettin  fell  to  his  fourth  son  Henry, 
whose  family  died  out  ia  13x7.  Wettin  then  passed  to  the 
descendants  of  Conxad's  youngest  son  Frederick,  and  in  X388 
the  county,  town  and  castle  of  WeMin  were  sold  to  the  arch- 
bishop of  Magdeburg.  They  were  retained  by  the  archbidiop 
untfl  the  peace  of  Westphalia  hk.x648,  when  they  passed  to  the 


elector  of  Brandenburg,  and  tJterwards  became  incorporated 
in  the  kingdom  of  Prussia. 

G>nrad  L  and  his  successors  had  added  largely  to  their  po8» 
sessicms,  until  under  Henry  I.,  the  Ulustnous,  margrave  of 
Meissen,  the  lands  of  the  Wettins  stretched  from  the  Oder  to  the 
Werxa,  and  from  the  Erzgebiige  to  the  Haiz  mountains.  The 
subsequent  histoxy  of  the  family  is  meiged  in  that  of  Meissen, 
Saxony  and  the  four  Saxon  dukedoms.  In  June  X889  the  8coth 
anniversary  of  the  rule  of  the  Wettins  in  Meissen  and  Saxony 
was  celebrated  with  great  splendour  at  Dresden. 

See  G.  E.  Hofrndster.  Das  Hans  WoUm  (Leipzig.  1889);  C.  W. 
BOttiger,  CescktckU  des  KnrsUutos  tmd  Kdnttreuhs  Sacksen  (Gotha, 
i867>x873)  i  O.  Posae,  Dte  Markgnfen  vo»  Moumoh  und  das  Hahs 
WiUin  (Leibxig,  1881) ,  K.  Wenck,  J>te  Wethner  tm  I4ten  Jahrknnderl 
(Leipzig*  1077);  Kammd,  Poslsckriit  tur  Soojdhrtgen  JuMfeter  dot 
Houses  WelHn  (Ldpzag,  1889)  j  and  H.  B.  Mayer,  Hof-  imd  Zentrtd* 
venooltKHg  dor  WeUinor  (Leipsig,  1903). 

WBTZLAR,  a  town  of  Germany,  In  the  Prussian  I^ine 
provmce,  pleasantly  atuated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Dill*  and 
Lahn,  64  m.  N.£.  of  Coblens  by  the  railway  to  Giessen.  Pop. 
(1905)  X  3,276.  The  most  conspicuQus  building  is  the  cathedrd, 
dating  in  part  from  the  x  ith,  in  part  from  the  X4th-i6th  centuries. 
The  munidpa]  archives  contain  interesting  documents  of  tho 
whilom  impexial  chamber  (see  iijfra).  Tbe  town  preserves 
associations  of  (joethe,  who  wrote  Die  Leiden  desjungem  Werthen 
after  living  here  in  X77a  as  a  legal  offidal,  and  of  Chariotte  Buff, 
the  Lotte  of  Werther.  Overlooking  the  town  are  tbe  ruins  of  the 
medieval  castle  of  Kalsmant.  There  are  iron  mines  and  foundriea 
and  optical  instrument  factories.  Wetdar  was  originally  «- 
royal  demesne,  and  in  the  X2th  century  became' a  free  imperial 
town.  It  had  grown  in  importance  when,  in  1693,  the  imperial 
chamber  {Reichskammergerichi)  was  removed  hither  from  Spires. 
The  town  lost  its  independence  in  1803,  and  passed  to  the  prince* 
primate  Dalberg.  Three  years  later  (x8o6),  on  tbe  dissolution 
of  the  empire,  the  imperial  diamber  ceased  to  exist.  The  French 
were  defeated  here  by  the  Austrians  and  Saxons  under  the 
archduke  C3iaries,  xsth  June  1796. 

WEXFORD,  a  county  of  Ireland  in  the  province  of  Ldnster, 
bounded  N.  by  Wfcklow,  £.  and  S.  by  St  (jeoige's  Channel^ 
and  W.  by  Wateeford,  Kilkenny  and  Cazhm.  The  area  ia 
Sl^tlSl  Bccs  or  about  90s  sq.  m.  The  coast'Kne  does  not 
present  any  stxiking  features,  and  owing  to  the  number  of 
sandbanks  navigation  la  dangerous  near  the  shore.  Hie  only 
inlet  of  importance  on  the  east  coast  and  the  only  sa'fe  hatbour 
is  Wexford  Harbour,  which,  owing  to  a  bar,  ia  not  accessible  to 
huge  vessels  at  ebb-tide.  Tbe  aitifidal  harbour  <rf  Rosslare, 
outside  Wexford  Harbour  to  the  south,  was  therefore  opened  in 
X906.  On  the  south  ^»ast  tbe  great  inlet  of  Wateiford  Harbour 
separates  tbe  county  from  Waterford  and  Kilkenny,  and  among 
several  inlets  Bannow  Bay  is  the  largest.  Several  islets  adjoin 
the  coast.  South  from  Crossfamogue  Point  are  the  Saltee 
Islands,  and  Coningmore  and  Omingbeg,  beyond  the  latter 
of  which  is  the  Saltee  Hghtshfp.  South-east  from  Greenore 
Point  is  the  Tuskar  Rock. 

The  surface  of  the  county  is  cfaiefiy  a  serfes  of  verdant  few 
hills,  except  towards  the  northern  and  western  boundaries.  An 
devated  xidge  on  the  north-wrstera  boundaiy  forms  the  tormina* 
ti<»  of  the  granitic  range  in  Wlddow,  uid  in  Oo^ian  Kinshda, 
on  the  borjtets  of  Wkkfew,  rises  to  a  height  of  X985  ft.  On  the 
westen  border,  another  nnge,  situated  diiefly  in  Caxlow, 
extends  from  the  vaDey  of  the  Slaney  at  Newtownbaxry  to  the 
confluence  of  the  Banow  with  the  Nore  at  New  Ross,  and 
readies  9409  ft.  iA  Blackstaire  Mountain,  and  36x0  ft  in  Mount 
Ldnster  on  the  border  of  0>.  Carfew.  In  the  southern  district, 
a  hilly  region,  reaching  In  Forth  Mountain  a  hdght  of  7^5  f^*> 
forms  with  Wexford  Haibour  the  northern  boundaries  of  the 
baronies  of  Forth  and  Baigy,  a  peninsula  of  flat  and  fertile  land. 
The  river  Shney  enters  the  county  at  Its  north-western  ex- 
tremity, and  flows  south-east  to  Wexford  Hari>our.  Its  chief 
tributary  is  the  Bann,  which  flows  south-westwards  from  the 
borders  of  WIcklow.  The  Barrow  forms  the  western  boundary 
of  the  county  from  the  Blackstahs  range  of  mountains  tOl  its 
cohfluenoe  with  the  Suir  at  Watexfoid  Haxbotu. 


566 


WEXFORD 


Ccelogy. — ^The  Lcinster  Chain,  with  its  granite  core  and  maipn 
of  mica-schist,  bounds  the  county  on  the  west.  From  this,  Silurian 
ground  stretches  to  the  sea,  like  a  platform  with  a  hummocky 
eurface,  numerous  intrusive  and  contemporaneouc  (dsitic  lavas, 
and  some  diorites  occurring  alon{{  the  strike  in  contmuation  of  the 
Watcrford  scries.  A  granite  outlier  rises  south-cast  of  Enniscorthy , 
and  granite,  in  part  gneissic,  forms  Camsore  Pt.  From  near  Cour- 
town  to  Bannow  Bay,  greenish  slates  like  the  Oldhamian  scries  of 
Wicklow  form  a  broad  band,  with  Okl  Red  Sandstone  and  Carboni- 
ferous Limestone  dpove  them  near  Wexford.  Siiurian  beds  appear 
again  towards  Camsore.  The  surface  of  the  county  b  much  modified 
by  glacial  drift,  and  by  the  presence  of  sands  and  gravels  of  prc- 
Qacial  and  possibly  late  Pliocene  age.  These  interesting  beds  arc 
used  for  liming  the  fields,  under  the  name  of  "  manure  gravels,"  on 
account  of  the  fosnl  shells  that  they  contain. 

/iu/f»/rf«f.— The  soil  for  the  most  part  is  a  cold  stiff  clay  resting 
on  clay-slate.  The  interior  and  western  districts  are  much  inferior 
to  those  round  the  roasts.  In  the  south-eastern  peninsula  of  Forth 
and  Bargy  the  soil  is  a  rich  alluvial  mould  mixed  with  coralline 
sandstone  and  limestone.  The  peninsula  of  Hookhead,  owing  to 
the  limestone  formation,  is  specially  fruitful.  In  the  western  districts 
of  the  county  there  are  large  tracts  of  turf  and  pcat-inoss.  The 
acreage  under  pasture  is  a  little  over  twice  that  of  tillage,  and 
figures  show  a  fair  maintenance  of  the  principal  croM,  barley,  of 
wliich  the  county  produces  mofte  than  any  other  Irish  county, 
oats,  poutoes  and  turnips.  Tbe^ numbers  also  of  cattle,  sheep, 
pigs  and  poultry  arc  large  and  increasing,  or  well  maintained. 
Except  in  the  town  of  Wexford  the  manufactures  and  trade  are  of 
smaliimportance.  The  town  of  Wexford  is  the  headquarters  of  sea 
and  salmon  fishing  districts,  and  there  are  a  few  fishing  villages 
on  the  inlets  of  the  south  coast. 

The  main  line  of  the  Dublin  &  South-Eastern  railway  enters  the 
county  from  N.E.,  and  runs  to  Wexford  by  way  of  Enniscorthy, 
with  a  branch  W.  to  New  Ross,  from  Macmine  Junction.  Con- 
necting with  this  line  at  Palace  Ea«t,  a  branch  of  the  Great  Southern 
&  Western  joins  the  Kilkenny  &  Kildare  line  at  Bagenalstown, 
county  Carlow.  This  company  also  owns  the  lines  from  Rosslarc 
harbour  to  Wexford  and  across  the  southern  part  of  the  county  to 
Watcrford.  There  is  water  communication  for  barges  by  the  Slancy 
to  Enniscorthy;  by  the  Barrow  for  laraer  vessels  to  New  Ross,  and 
by  this  river  and  the  Grand  Canal  for  barges  to  Dublin. 

PopnlalUn  and  Admimstralion. — ^The  pppulation  decreases 
(112,063  in  1891;  xo4tio4  in  xqox),  but  this  decrease  and  the 
emigration  returns  are  less  s^ous  than  the  average  of  Irish 
counties.  Of  the  total  about  91%  are  Roman  Catholics,  and 
about  8j%  fonn  the  xural  population.  The  principal  towns 
are  Wexford  (pop.  xz»x68),  New  Ross  (s847)>  Enniscorthy 
(5458)  and  GoTcy  (2x78).  Newtownbanry,  finidy  situated  on 
the  Slaney  below  the  ontliecs  of  Mount  Leinster,  is  a  lesser 
market  towxu  To  the  Irish  parliament,  until  the  Union  of  i8oo» 
the  county  returned  two  members,  and  the  boroughs  of  Bannow, 
Ck>iunines,  Enniscorthy,  Fethard,  (k>rey,  New  Ross,  Taghmon 
and  Wexford  two  each.  By  the  Redistribution  Act  of  1885 
Wexford,  which  had  xetumed  two  members  sh&ce  x8oo,  was 
divided  into  two  parliamentary  divisioDS,  North  and  South,  each 
returning  one  member,  the  borough  of  Wexford,  which  formerly 
returned  one  member,  and  the  portion  of  the  borough  of  New 
Ross  withm  the  county,  being  meiged  in  the  South  Division.  The 
county  is  divided  into  ten  baronies.  It  is  in  the  Protestant  diocese 
of  Dublin,  and  the  Roman  CalhoUc  dioceses  of  Dublin,  Ferns,  and 
Kildare  and  LeighUn.  Assizes  are  held  at  Wexford,  and  quarter 
sessions  at  Enniscorthy,  Corey,  New  Rocs  and  Wexford. 

History  and  AntiptUies. — ^The  northern  portion  of  Wexford 
was  included  in  Hy  Kinsdagh,  the  peculiar  territory  of  the 
Macmorroughs,  overlords  of  Leinster,  who  had  their  chief 
residence  at  Ferns.  Dermod  Macmorrough,  havixig  been  de^ 
posed  from  the  kingdom  of  Leinster,  ssked  help  of  Henry  U.', 
king  ti  England,  who  authorised  him  to  raise  forces  in  Ei^land 
for  the  assertion  of  his  daim.  He  secured  the  aid  of  Strongbow 
by  promising  him  the  hand  of  Eva,  and  in  addition  obtained 
assistance  from  Robert  Fitzstef^en  and  Maurice  Fitzgerald  of 
Wales.  On  the  xst  of  May  z  169  Fitzstepben  landed  at  Bagenbon 
on  the  south  side  of  Fethard,  and  after  four  days'  siege  captured 
the  town  of  Wexford  from  its  Danish  inhabitants.  After  this 
Dennod  granted  the  territory  of  Wexford  to'Fitzstephen  and 
Fitj^geraki  and  their  heirs  for  ever.  Macmorrough  having  died 
in  X 17  2,  Stnngbow  became  lord  of  Leinster.  At  first  Henzy  II. 
retained  Wexford  in  his  own  possession,  but  in  Z174  be  com- 
mitted it  to  Strongbow.  The  barony  of  Forth  is  almost  entirely  | 
peopled  by  the  desoendaatft  oC  tbow  who  accompanied  these  1 


English  expeditions.  Wexford  was  one  of  the  twelve  counties 
mlo  which  the  oonquered  territory  in  Ireland  is  generally  stated 
to  have  been  divided  by  King  John,  and  formed  part  of  the 
possessions  of  William  Marshal,  earl  of  Pembroke,  who  bad 
married  Strongbow's  daughter.  Through  the  female  line  it 
ultimately  passed  to  J(rfm  Talbot,  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  who  in 
X446  was  made  eaxl  of  Watcrford  and  baron  of  Dungarvan.  In 
1474  George  Talbot  was  seneschal  of  the  liberty  of  Wexford. 
The  district  was  actively  concerned  in  the  rebellion  of  164 1; 
and  during  the  Cromwellian  campaign  the  town  of  Wexford 
was  carried  by  storm  on  the  9th  of  October  1649,  and  a  week 
later  the  garrison  at  New  Ross  surrendered— a.  "seasonable 
mercy,"  according  to  Cromwdl,  as  giving  him  an  "  opportunity 
towards  Munster."  Wexford  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  rebellion 
of  1 798,  the  leaders  there  being  the  priests. 

Evidences  of  the  Danish  occupation  are  seen  in  the  numerous 
raths,  or  encampments,  especially  at  Dunbrody,  Enniscorthy  and 
New  Ross.  Among  the  monastic  ruins  special  mention  may  be  made 
of  Dunbrody  abbey,  of  great  extent,  founded  about  1 1 78  for  Cistercian 
monks  by  Hervey  de  Montmorency,  marshal  of  Hpnry  II.;  Tintem 
abbey,  founded  in  1200  by  William  Marshal,  eari  of  Pembroke, 
and  peopled  by  monks  from  Tintem  abbey  in  Monmouthshire;  the 
abbey  of  St  Sepulchre,  Wexford,  founded  shortly  after  the  invasion 
by  the  Roches,  lords  of  Fermoy ;  Ferns  abbey,  founded  by  Dermod 
Macmorrough  (with  other  remains  including  the  modernized  cathe- 
dral of  a  former  sec,  and  ruins  of  a  church) ;  and  the  abbey  of  New 
Ross,  founded  by  St  Alban  Jti  the  6th  century.  There  are  a  con- 
siderable number  of  old  castles,  including  Ferns,  dismantled  by  the 
parliamentary  forces  under  Sir  Charles  Coote  in  1641,  and  occupying 
the  site  of  the  old  palace  of  the  Macmorroughs;  the  massive  pile  01 
Enniscorthy.  founacd  by  Raymond  le  Gros;  Carrick  Castle,  near 
Wexford,  tne  first  built  by  the  English;  and  the  fort  of  Duncannon. 

WEXFORD,  a  seaport,  market  town  and  municipal  borough, 
and  the  county  to^'n  of  Co.  Wexford,  Ireland,  finely  situated 
on  the  south  ^de  of  tlie  Slaney,  where  it  discharges  into  Wexford 
Harbour,  on  the  Dublin  &  South-Eastern  railway,  92!  m.  S. 
of  Dublin.  Pop.  (1901)  x  1,168.  Wexford  Harbour,  formed  by 
the  esttiaiy  of  the  Slaney,  is  about  5  m.  from  N.  to  S.  and  about 
4  from  E.  to  W.  There  are  quays  extending  nearly  900  yds., 
and  the  harbour  a£Fords  good  accommodation  for  shipping,  bat 
its  advantages  are  in  great  part  lost  by  a  bar  at  its  mouth  pre- 
venting the  entrance  of  vessels  drawing  more  than  12  ft.  An 
artificial  harbour  was  therefore  opened  at  Rosslare  in  1906, 
outside  the  southern  part  of  the  promontory  closing  in  the 
harbour,  and  this  is  connected  with  Wexford  by  a  railway 
(8}  m.)  owned  by  the  Great  Southern  &  Western  Company, 
and  is  served  by  the  passenger  steamers  of  the  Great  Western 
railway  of  England  from  Fishguard.  The  town  of  Wexford 
consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  exbemdy  narrow  streets,  of 
picturesque  appearance,  but  tnconveni^t  to  traffic.  Some 
remains  exist  of  the  old  walls  and  flanking  towers.  The  Pro- 
testant church,  near  the  ruins  of  the  aiuaent  abbey  of  St  Sepulchre 
or  Selsker,  as  said  to  occupy  the  spot  where  the  treaty  was 
signed  between  the  Irish  and  the  English  invaders  in  11 69.  The 
principal  modem  buildings  are  the  town-hall,  court>-house, 
barracks,  occupying  the  site  of  the  andent  >astle,  St  Peter's 
College  for  the  education  of  Catholic  clergy,  with  a  striking 
chapel  by  A.  W.  Pu^,  and  a  ntunber  of  convents.  At  Carrick, 
2  m.  W.,  the  Anglo-Niunnflns  erected  their  first  casUe,  and 
<H>posite  this,  aaoss  the  liver,-  is  a  inodem  round  tower  com- 
memorating the  men  of  Wexford  who  died  in  the  Crimean  War. 
The  principal  exports  are  agrictdtural  produce,  live  stock  and 
whisky.  Shipbuilding  is  carried  on,  and  also  tanning,  malting, 
brewing,  iron-foundiBg»  distilling  and  the  manufacture  of 
artificial  manure,  flour,  agrictdtural  implements,  and  rope  and 
twine.  Wexford  is  the  headquarters  ol  salmon  and  sea  fishery 
districts.  Under  the  Local  Ck>venunent  (Ireland)  Act  1898 
if  retains  its  mayor  and  ooiporatiiim. 

Wexford  was  one  of  the  earliest  colonies  of  the  English,  having 
been  taken  by  Fitzstephen.  It  waft  the  second  town  that  Crom- 
well besieged  in  1649-  It  was  garrisoned  for  William  lU  in 
1690.  In  1798  it  was  made  the  headquarters  of  the  rebeb,  who, 
however,  surrendered  it  on  the  2tst  of  June.  In  13x8  the  town 
received  a  charter  from  Aymer  de  Valence,  which  was  extended 
by  Heniy  IV.  in  141 1»  and  confiimed  bx  Elisabeth  in  1558. 


WEYBRIDGE— WEYMOUTH 


567 


By  James  I.  it  was  m  1608  made  a  free  borough  corporate,  by 
the  title  of  "  the  town  and  free  borough  corporate  of  Wexford." 
It  returned  two  members  to  parliament  from  1374  till  the  Union, 
when  they  were  reduced  to  one.  In  1865  it  was  included  in  the 
south  division  of  the  county. 

WSTBRIDGB,  an  urban  district  in  the  Chertsey  paittamentary 
division  of  Surrey,  England;  19  m.  W.S.W.  from  London  by 
the  London  &  South-Westem  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  5339.  It 
lies  in  the  jQat  valley  of  the  river  Wey,  x  m.  above  its  juncdon 
with  the  "thames.  The  river  is  locked  up  to  Godalming,  and 
navigation  is  assisted  by  cuts.  Weybridge  has  grown  in  modem 
times  out  of  a  village  into  a  residential  town.  The  church  of 
St  James  is  modem  but  contains  numerous  andcnt  memorials, 
and  one  by  Sir  F.  Chantrey  for  the  duchess  of  York  (d.  1820), 
daughter  of  Frederick  WiUikm-II.  of  Prussia,  to  whose  memory 
there  is  also  a  column  on  Weybridge  Green.  The  summit  of 
this  column  is  that  which  formerly  stood.at  Seven  Diab,  London. 
The  Roman  Catholic  chapel  of  St  Charles  Borromeo  was  the 
burial-place  o!  Louis  Philippe,  ex-king  of  the  Frendi  (d.  1850), 
who  resided  at  Garemont  in  the  neighbouring  parish  of  Esher,  his 
queen  and  other  members  of  his  family,  but  their  bodies  were 
subsequently  removed  to  Dreux  in  Normandy.  To  the  east 
of  Weybridge  lies  Henry  Vm.'s  park  of  Oatlands  (sec  Walton- 
ON-T&AMEs).  In  1907  the  Brooklands  racing  track  for  motor- 
cars was  opened  near  Weybridge.  It  has  a  circuit  of  3  H  in- 
round  the  inner  edge,  and  including  the  straight  finishing  track 
is3|m.  in  total  length,  its  maximum  width  is  xoo  ft.,  and  at  the 
curves  it  is  banked  up  to  a  maximum  height  of  28  ft.  8  in. 

WB7DBN,  R06IBR  VAN  DBR  [originally  Rogex  de  1a 
PastureJ*  (c.  1400-1464),  Flemish  painter,  was  bom  in  Toumai, 
and  there  apprenticed  in  1427  to  Robert  Campin.  He  became 
a  gild  master  in  1432  and  in  1435  removed  to  Brussels,  where 
he  was  shortly  after  appointed  town  painter  His  four  historical 
works  in  the  H6tel  de  Ville  have  perished,  but  three  tapestries 
in  the  Bem  museum  are  traditionally  based  on  their  designs. 
In  Z449  Rogier  went  to  Italy,  visiting  Rome,  Ferrara  (where 
he  painted  two  pictures  for  Lionel  d'Este),  Milan  and  probably 
Florence.  On  returning  (1450)  he  executed  for  Pierre  Bladelin 
the  **  Magi "  triptych,  now  in  the  Berlin  Gallery,  and  (r43s)  ^^ 
altaxpiece  for  the  abbot  of  Cambrai,  which  has  been  identified  with 
a  triptych  in  the  Prado  Gallery  representing  the  "  Crucifixion," 
**  Expulsion  from  Paradise  "  and  "  Last  Judgment."  Van  der 
Weyden's  style,  which  was  in  no  way  modified  by  his  Italian 
journey,  is  somewhat  dry  and  severe  as  compared  with  the  painting 
of  the  Van  Eycks,  whose  pupil  Vasari  erroneously  stipposed  him  to 
be;  bis  colour  is  less  rich  than  theirs,  his  bmsh-work  more 
laboured,  and  he  entirely  lacks  their  sense  of  atmosphere.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  cared  more  for  dramatic  expression,  particularly 
of  a  tragic  kind,  and  his  pictures  have  a  deeply  reKgious  inten- 
tion. Comparatively  few  works  are  attributed  with  certainty  to 
this  painter;  chief  among  such  are  two  altarpicces  at  Berlin, 
besides  that  mentioned  above,  "The  Joys  and  Sorrows  of 
Mary,"  and  "  Life  of  St  John  the  Baptist,"  a  **  Deposition  " 
and  "  Crucifixion "  in  the  Escorial,  the  Prado  triptych, 
another  ("  Annunciation,"  "  Adoration  "  and  "  Presentation  ") 
at  Munich;  a  "  Madonna  "  and  a  "  St  John  the  Baptist "  at 
Frankfort.  Tlie  "Seven  Sacraments"  altarpiece  at  Antwerp 
is  almost  certainly  his,  likewise  the  "  Deposition  "  in  the  TJffizT, 
the  triptych  of  the  Beaune  ho^ital,  and  the  "Seven  Sorrows" 
at  Brussels.  Two  pictures  of  St  Luke  psuntjng  the  Virg^,  at 
Brussels  and  St  Petersburg-  respectively,  are  attributed  to  him. 
None  of  these  Is  signed  or  dated.  Van  der  Weydctt  attracted 
many  foreigners,  notably  Martm  Schongauer,  to  his  studio,  and 
he  became  one  of  the  main  influences  in  the  northern  art  of  the 
X5th  century.  He  died  at  Brussels  in  1464.  His  descendant, 
RoGUR  VAN  DER  Weydek  the  younger,  is  known  to  have 
entered  the  Antwerp  gild  In  1528,  but  no  work  of  his  has  yet 
been  satisfactorily  authenticated. 
Sec  Hasset  Rozer  von  der  Wtydtn  und  Roger  van  Br&gge  (Strasg- 

burg,  1905). 

"1  -  -  -         -    ■  ■         -  ■  . 

*■  He  has  flonietimes  been  wrongly  identified  with  a  painter  called 
Rogirr  of  Bruges  or  Rugj^erb  da  Bruggia. 


WBVLBR  T  mOOlAU,  VAtERlANO,  Marqiieft  oT  Tenerife 
(1839-  ),  Spanish  soldier,  wad  bom  at  Paima  de  Majorca. 
His  family  were  originally  Prussians,  and  served  in  the  Spanish 
army  for  several  generations.  He  entered  at  «xteen  the  mbitary 
coU^  of  infantry  at  Toledo,  and,  when  he  attained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant,  passed  into  the  staff  oollege,  from  which  he  came 
out  as  the  head  of  hia  class.  Two  years  aft«wards  be  became 
captain,  and  was  sent  to  Cuba  at  Us  own  request.  He  distin* 
guished  himself  in  the  expedition  to  Santo  Domingo  in  many 
fights,  and  especially  in  a  daring  reconnaissance  with  few  men 
into  the  heart  of  the  enemy's  Unea,  for  which  he  got  the  cross 
with  laurels  tA  San  Fernando.  Fh>m  x868  to  1872  he  served 
also  brill&mtly  against  the  Cuban  rebels,  and  commanded  a 
corpd  of  volunteera  specially  raised  for  Um  in  Havana.  He 
returned  to  Spain  in  1873  as  brigadier-geiieral,  and  took  an 
active  part  against  the  Carlists  in  the  eastern  provinces  of  the 
PenmsiUa  in  1875  and  1876,  for  which  he  was  raised  to  the  imnk 
of  general  of  division.  Then  he  was  elected  senator  and  given 
the  title  of  marquess  of  Tenerife.  He  held  the  post  of  captain- 
general  in  the  Canary  Isles  from  1878  to  1883,  and  in  the  Balearic 
Isles  afterwards.  In  z888  lie  was  sent  out  as  captain-general 
to  the  Philippines,  where  he  dealt  very  steifnly  with  the  native 
rebels  of  the  Carolines,  of  Mindanao  and  other  provinces.  On 
his  retum  to  Spain  in  1892  he  was  appointed  to  the  comnumd 
first  of  the  6th  Army  Corps  in  the  Basque  Provinces  and  Navarre, 
where  he  soon  qudSed  agitations,  and  then  as  captain-geoeral 
at  Barcelona,  where  he  remained  until  January  1896.  In 
Catalonia,  with  a  state  of  siege,  he  made  himadf  the  terror  of 
the  anarchists  and  socialtets.  After  Marshal  Ounpoa  had  failed 
to  pacify  Cuba,  the  Conservative  government  of  Canovas  dd 
Castillo  sent  out  Weyler,  and  this  selection  met  the  approval 
of  most  Spaniards,  who  thought  him  the  proper  man  to  crash 
the  rebellion.  Weyler  attempted  to  dO  this  by  a  policy  of 
inexoraUe  repression,  which  raised  a  storm  of  indignation,  and 
led  to  a  demand  from  America  for  his  recall.  Tl^  recall  was 
granted  by  the  Liberal  government  of  Sagasta,  but  Weyler 
afterwards  asserted  that,  had  he  been  left  alone,  he  would  have 
stamped  out  the  rebellion  in  six  months.  After  hia  retum  to 
Spain  his  reputation  as  a  strong  and  ambitious  soldier  made 
him  one  of  those  who  in  case  of  any  constitutional  disturbance 
might  be  expected  to  play  an  important  rMe,  and  his  political 
position  was  nationally  affected  by  this  consideration,  hii 
appointment  in  1900  as  captain-general  of  liladrid  resulted 
indeed  in  more  thsn  one  ministerial  crisis.  He  was  minister  of 
war  for  a  short  time  at  the  end  of  1901,  and  again  in  1905.  At 
the  end  of  October  Z909  he  was  appointed  captain-general  at 
Barcelona,  where  the  Asturbances  connected  with  the  execution 
of  Francisco  Ferrer  were  quelled  by  him  without  bloodshed. 

WBYMAN,  8TANLBT  JOHH  (1855-  ),  English  novelist, 
was  bom  at  Ludlow,  Shropshire,  on  the  7th  of  August  1855, 
the  son  of  a  solicitor.  He  was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  School, 
and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  to6k  his  d^(ree  in  modem 
history  in  1877,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple 
in  1881,  joining  the  Oxford  circuit.  Hehadbeenpiactisingaam 
barrister  for  efg^t  years  when  he  made  Us  repntation  as  a 
novelist  by  a  series  of  romances  dealing  with  French  Mstory* 
Tht  House  oj  the  Wolf  (1889),  A  CenUeman  0/  Fr<MU  (1893), 
Under  the  Red  Robe  (1894),  Memoirs  of  d  Mintster  of  Pnmco 
(1895),  &«.  Among  his  later  novels  were.  Sknwbury  (1897), 
The  CasOe  Itm  (1898),  Sopkis  (1900),  ComU  B&miSbed  (i^or), 
Tn  King's  Byways  (1902),  The  Lotig  Night  (1903),  The  Abhess 
of  Vlaye  (1904),  St&reecrow  Farm  <x^5>,  Chiangs  (1906) 

WBTMODTft,  a  township  of  Norfolk  county,  Massachusetts, 
U.S.A., on  Weymouth  harbowia  part  of  Boston  Bay,  9  m.  S.S. 
of  Boston,  between  Qobey  and  Bralntree  (to  the  W)  and 
KRngham  to  the  £»  Pop,  (1890)  10,866,  (1900)  ix«324  (1845 
fordgn-bom) ;  (1^5,  state  CMisus)  11,585,  (19x0)  X4«B9$.  Ana, 
19  sq.  m.  Wcymooth  la  served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
&  Hartford  railway,  and  Is  •connected  with  Boston,  Quincy, 
Brsintree,  IBngham,  Nantaskel  and  Rockland  by  clectdc 
4lnes.  In  the  township  there  are  several  vilk^jta,  incliiding 
Weynotttfaf  North  Weymouth.  East  WesnaQuth  and  Sooth 


J 


568 


WEYMOUTH— WHALE 


Weymouth,  and  the  imaller  vflhgea  of  Weymouth  Centrcp 
Weymouth  Heights,  Lovell's  Comer,  Nash's  Comer  and  Old 
Spain,  and  there  are  also  four  tslands,  Round,  Grape,  Slate  and 
Sheep.  The  mainland  itaell  is  largely  a  peninsula  lying  between 
the  Weymouth  Fore  river  and  the  Weymouth  Back  river,  to 
the  west  and  east  respectively.  The  surface  of  the  country  is 
rough:  Great  Hill  (at  one  of  the  narrowest  parts  of  the  peninsula) 
is  about  X40  ft.  above  the  rivers.  In  the  township  are  the  Fogg 
Library  (1898,  in  South  Weymouth)  founded  by  a  bequest 
of  John  S.  Fogg;  and  the  Tufts  library  (1879,  in  Wejrmouth 
village),  endowed  by  Quincy  Tufts  and  his  sister  Susan  Tufts. 
In  1905  the  towuhip^s  factory  products  were  valued  at 
^4,921,955,  of  which  $2,588,8x3,  or  S3<;6%  of  the  total,  was 
the  value  of  boots  and  shoes,  llie  township  owns  and  operates 
its  water  works;  the  water  supply  is  obtained  from  Weymouth 
Great  Pond  in  the  village  of  South  Weymouth.  Weymouth  was 
first  settled  in  1623  by  Robert  Gorges.  It  was  known  first  as 
the  Flantation  oi  Wessaguscus  or  Wessagusset;  was  incorpo- 
lated  as  a  township  in  1635;  and  its  boundaries.bave  been  prac- 
tically unchanged  since  1637,  when  Round  and  Grape  islands 
were  granted  to  Weymouth. 

See  C.  F  Adams,  Jr.,  **  WetsaguMet  and  WeynKrath  "  in  No.  3 
(1905)  of  the  PtMiealums  of  the  Weymouth  Historical  Society 
toigajaised  in  1879  and  incorporated  in  1886),  and  D.  H.  Hura, 
BiOory  of  Norjolk  County  (Boston.  1884). 

WEYMOUTH  and  MBLCOMBB  REGIS,  a  seaport,  watering- 
place,  market  town  and  municipal  borough  in  the  Southern  parlia- 
mentary division  of  Dorsetshire,  England,  14s  m.  S.W.  by  W. 
from  London,  on  the  London  &  South-Westem  and  Great 
Western  railways.  Pop«  (1891)  x6,ioo;  (1901)  19,843.  It  is 
formed  of  Weymouth,  a  fishing  town  and  seaport  on  the  south- 
west of  the  Wey,  and  Meloombe  Regis  on  the  north-east  of  the 
river,  the  two  towns  being  contiguous.  The  situation  on  Wey- 
mouth Bay,  which  is  enclosed  to  the  south  by  the  Isle  of  Portland, 
and  north  by  the  eastward  trend  of  the  coast,  is  picturesque. 
An  esphmade  about  i  m.  in  length  fronts  the  sea.  To  the  south 
of  the  esplanade  is  a  pier  of  stone  on  wooden  piles,  and  the 
Alexandra  and  other  public  gardens  are  attractive.  The  harbour 
lies  between  the  pier  on  the  north  and  the  spur  of  land  called 
the  Nothe  on  the  south,  and  is  protected  by  a  concrete  wall 
extending  500  ft.  northward  from  the  Nothe.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  old  town-hall,  the  market  house,  the  guildhall, 
the  Royal  Dorset  Yacht  Qubhouae,  the  theatre,  the  Royal  Victoria 
Jubilee  Hall,  the  Wejrmouth  and  Dorset  eye  infirmary,  the 
Weymouth  royal  hospital  and  dispensary  «dA  the  barracks. 
Of  the  numerous  churches  none  dates  from  before  the  19th 
century.  Opposite  the  Royal  Terrace  is  an  equestrian  statue 
of  GeoDge  IIL,  erected  in  1809  in  commefinoration  of  his  jubilee. 
A  mile  S.W.  of  Weymouth  is  Sandsfoot  Castle,  a  fort  erected 
by  Henry  VIII.  for  the  protection  of  the  shipping.  The  principal 
exports  are  Portland  stone,  bricks  and  tiles  and  provisions,  and 
the  imports  are  coal,  timber,  garden  and  dairy  prqduce  and 
wine.  Ship  and  boat  building,  rope  and  sail  making,  and  brewing 
are  carried  on.  The  Great  Western  railway  company  maintains 
a  regular  service  of  passenger  steamers  to  Guernsey  and  Jersey 
The  municipal  borough  is  under  a  mayor,  8  aldermen  and  34 
councillors.    Area,  xa99  acres. 

Although  its  convenient  harbour  was  probably  used  before 
Saxon  times,  and  bronxe  weapons  and  Roman  interments  have 
been  found,  there  is  no  evidence  that  Weymouth  {Waimuc, 
WaytmOk)  was  a  place  of  eariy  settlement  The  first  mention 
of  **  that  place  adled  Weymouth"  occurs  in  a  charter  of  King 
iEthdied  (866-871),  while  it  is  agahi  spoken  of  in  a  charter 
of  King  iEthelstan  (895-940).  Edward  the  Confessor  gave  the 
manor  to  the  church  of  Winchester  in  X043,  and  it  remained 
with  the  prior  and  convent  of  St  Swithin  until  the  X3th  century, 
when  it  pMsed  by  exchange  to  Gilbert  de  Clare,  earl  of  Gloucester, 
though  the  vassals  of  the  prior  and  convent  remained  exempt 
from  dues  and  tronage  in  the  port.  Coming  by  marriage  into 
the  hands  of  the  ear^  of  March  and  Plantagenets,  the  manor 
was  finally  vested  in  the  crown.  The  first  charter  was  that 
fOBled  by  the  prior  and  convent  .ui  xss'i  by  which  WejnoMHith 


was  made  a  free  borough  and  port  for  aU  meidiaats,  the  burgeaact 
holding  their  burgages  by  the  same  customs  as  those  of  Ports- 
mouth and  Southampton.  The  demand  of  six  ships  from  the 
town  by  the  king  in  X324  shows  its  importance  in  the  14th 
century,  but  there  is  no  mention  of  a  mayor  until  1467.  It  is 
probaUe  that  the  town  suffered  considerably  at  the  hands  of  the 
French  at  the  beginning  of  the  x  5th  century,  though  in  1404  the 
men  of  Weymouth  were  victorious  over  a  party  which  landed 
in  the  Isle  of  Portland.  Early  in  the  i6th  century  the  commercial 
rivalry  between  Weymouth  and  the  neighbouring  borough  of 
Mdcombe  came  to  a  height.  Melcombe  had  received  a  charter 
from  Edward  I.  in  xa8o  granting  to  its  burgesses  half  the  port 
and  privileges  similar  to  those  enjoyed  by  the  citizens  of  London, 
Edward  IL  in  X307-X308  granted  that  its  men  might  elect  for 
themselves  two  bailiffs.  The  date  of  the  grant  of  the  town  at 
an  annual  fee-farm  of  8  marks  is  uncertain,  but  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.  a  commisdon  was  appointed  to  inspect  the  destmction 
wrought  by  the  king's  enemies  on  the  town,  with  the  result  that 
the  fee-farm  was  reduced  to  208.  The  continual  di^;>utcs 
between  the  two  boroughs  led  to  the  passing  of  an  act  of  union 
in  X57X,  the  new  borough  being  incorporated  under  the  title 
of  the  "  Mayor,  Bailiffs  and  Burgesses  "  by  James  I.  in  x6.i6; 
further  charters  were  granted  by  Charles  II.  and  George,  II. 
Melcombe  Regis  first  returned  two  members  to  parliament 
in  X307,  and  Weymouth  in  13x9,  four  members  being  returned 
by  the  united  boroughs  until  xSja,  when  the  representation  was 
reduced  to  two  and  ceased  in  X885.  The  medieval  fairs  are  no 
longer  held.  As  early  as  x  293  trade  was  carried  on  with  Bayonne, 
and  ^x  years  later  a  receiver  of  customs  on  wool  and  wool-feBs 
is  mentioned  at  Wesrmouth,  while  wine  was  imported  from 
Aquitaine.  In  x  586  sugar  is  mentioned  as  an  import,  and  in  1646 
deal  boards  were  brought  here  from  Hamburg.  The  town 
suffered  severely  during  the  Civil  War,  being  garrisoned  by  the 
parliamentary  troops  in  1642,  taken  by  the  earl  of  Carnarvon 
in  X643,  and  surrendered  in  the  following  year.  The  town  is 
described  as  "  but  little  "  in  X733,  but  a  few  years  afterwards 
it  gained  a  rq>utation  as  a  watering-place,  and  the  duke  of 
Gloucester  built  a  house  here;  George  III.  and  the  royal  family 
in  X789  paid  Weymouth  the  first  of  a  series  of  visits  whid^ 
further  ensured  its  popularity. 

See  H.  J.  Moule.  Descriptive  Catalogae  of  A0  Charters,  Miuute 
Booksp  and  other  Documents  of  the  BorouM  of  Weymouth  and  Mekome 
Refis,  A.D.  I2S0  to  i860  (Weymouth,  1883);  John  Hutchins,  History 
and  Antiquities  of  the  County  of  Porset  (yd  ed.,  Westminster,  x86o). 

WHALE,  the  English  name  applied  to  all  the  larger  and  some 
of  the  smaller  representatives  of  the  order  Cetacea  (q.v.). 
Although  by  their  mode  of  life  far  removed  from  dose  observa- 
tion, whales  are  in  many  respects  the  most  interesting  and 
wonderful  of  all  creatures;  and  there  is  much  in  their  structure 
and  habits  worthy  of  study.*  One  of  the  first  lessons  a  study  of 
these  animals  affords  is  that,  in  the  endeavour  to  discover  what 
a  creature  really  is,  from  what  others  it  is  descended,  and  to 
which  it  is  related,  the  outward  appearance  affords  little  clue, 
and  we  must  go  deep  below  the  surface  to  find  the  essential 
characteristics  of  its  nature.  There  was  once,  and  may  be  still, 
an  idea  that  a  whale  is  a  fish.  To  realize  the  fallacy  of  this  notion 
we  have  only  to  consider  what  a  fish  really  is,  what  under  aQ 
the  diversities  of  form,  size  and  colour  there  is  common  to  all 
fishes,  and  we  see  that  in  everything  which  characterizes  a  true 
fish  and  separates  if  from  other  classes,  as  reptiles,  birds  and 
mammals,  the  whale  resembles  the  last  and  differs  from  the 
fish.  It  is  as  essentially  a  mammal  as  a  cow  or  a  horse,  and 
simply  resembles  a  fish  externally  because  it  is  adapted  to  inhabit 
the  same  dement,  but  it  is  no  more  on  that  account  a  fish 
than  is  a  bat  (because  adapted  to  pass  a  great  part  oif  its  existence 
on  the  wing)  nearly  related  to  a  bird.  In  every  part  of  the 
structure  of  a  whale  we  see  the  result  of  two  principles  acting 
and  reacting  upon  each  other — on  the  one  hand,  adherence  to 
type,  or  rather  to  fundamental  inherited  stractural  conditions, 
and,  on  the  other,  adaptation  to  the  peculiar  drcurostances 
under  which  it  Uvea,  and  to  which  it  has  become  gradually 
fitted.    The  external  fish'-Uke   form   is  perfectly   suited   for 


twbiuBliig  tlnca^  tbs  mter;  (he  Ull,  bowever,  to  Ml  ptoced 
vcrtiolly  ma  in  fliha.  but  boiiioDUlly,  •  podiion  whicfa  Kcoordt 
bttlB  with  tbe  coDMiat  necaiiiy  lor  liung  to  tlic  wifict  for 
(he  pucpOK  of  bnathiiig.  The  haiiy  covering  duni:(eri9>ic 
of  hU  mam"*'*,  which  if  present  mi^l  interfere  vith  npidity 

«niU-T-s  fen  short  brulles  iboul  the  diin  or  upper  lip— which 
ue  often  onJ)' present  in  j'nuiig  animals.  Tbe  function  (rf  keeping 
tbe  body  wans  is  peifonned  by  t,  ihick  kyet  of  uoa-oonduoing 


569 


Ih*  whole  otlhe  idtervaL  The 
laDgement  b  comi^eled  by  the 
lip,  whidi  rises  stiffly  above 


perfectior 

gmt  develo|HneQt  o.  . _.    __  _^,  .  . 

tbe  jiw-bone  and  pnvenis  the  long,  slrader,  Seiible  ends  of  tbe 
whalebone  from  being  carried  outwards  by  the  rush  of  walei 

closure  of  the  jaws  and  raising  of  the  tongue. 

If,  aa  appmn  highly  probable.  Ihe  "  bowhcad  "  of  the  Okhotsk 

Sea  and  Bering  Bir^t  beioncs  lo  tbis  ipedcs,  its  nnge  is  drcuin- 

~  '       "'       '  '       liathcBeaaonbothudEiQf Greenland. 

JC  on  the  Labrador  a 
-m  the  lunb.  iia  nni,-  - 
rdini  to  Scam- 


deny  tbe  poKibilily  al  the  Cnnland 

them  ri^t  whale  (£.  auHraiiii  re- 
tbe  ahsoicc  of  a  dorsal  fin  and  of 
:  skin  o(  the  throat  and  cbcsl,  but 


tough  bain.    The  temarkaUe  development  of  tbe  month 
and  of  the  Bttuclures  in  connediJon  with  it,  wbidi  dis- 
tinguishes the  right  Hfasle  from  all  its  affies.  is  entirely  in 
relation  to  the  nature  of  its  food,     fly  this  apparatus 
the  creature  is  enabled  to  avaQ  Itself  ol  the  mlnnle^ 
but  high^  nutritlani  crustaceans  ajid  ptcmpods  which 
iwann  in  immense  shoals  In  the  »ea»  it  [nqucnts.    Tbt 
large  mouth  enables  <t  to  take  in  at  one  time  a  sufficient  d 
quantity  of  water  filled  with  then  sniall  organisms, 
and  the  length  and  delicate  stnicture  of  tbe  wbale- 
bone    provide    an    efficient    strainer   or  halr-sieTe    b)r 
which  the  water  can  be  drained  oS.     It  tbe  wfaalebene  we 
rigid,  and  only  as  long  as  is  the  aperture  between  (be  npp 


s  divided  into  severs]  species  accord- 
disiributian:  B.  biaaytiuii  of  the 
n  of  tbe  North  Fad£c,  B.  aiulriUis 
I.  aHiipodarum  and  B.  nutae-sdanduu 
the  diAereatUl  cbaiacteis  by  which 
ght,  and  tbe  number  of  specimens 
not  nfficient  to  afford  tbe  necessary 
these  characters  can  be  regaided  as 

vas  formeriy  abundant  in  tiK  N«tb 


i  lowe 


[eft  beneath  El  when  the  jaws  were  leparated,  chroogh  w 
the  water  and  the  minute  particles  of  food  would  esc^te. 
instead  of  this  the  long,  slender,  bratb-like,  elastic  ends  ol 
whalebone  blades  fold  back  wben  the  mouth  is  doied.  the  f 
ones  passing  below  the  faindei  ones  in  a  chaimel  lying  beti 
the  tongue  and  tbe  lower  jaw.  Wben  the  moui  is  ope 
their  etaatldty  causa  tfaem  to  straighten  out  like  a  how  unt 
so  that  at  whatever  distance  the  jawn  are  separated  the  stn 


.—The  Bbck  Wbak  or  Sonthera  Right  Whale  (B.  euitnlb). 

um  of  the  Basque  provinces  'of  France  and  Spain  in  tbe  middle 
(IB.    From  the  toth  to  the  iMi  eentaries  Bayonne.  BicniB.  S( 

-ji  (he  north  coast  of  Spain,  were  the  ceatnm  of  an  active  whale 
"  fiahcy,"  whicb  supplied  Europe  wijh  nil  and  whalebone.  In  lata' 
dma  the  whala  were  puTnued  ru  for  as  the  coaal  of  Newfoundland, 
'lowever.  already  EPtting  scarce  when  (he  voya^  ujider- 
is  tbe  dose  of  ^e  ]6(h  century  For  the  discovery  ol  (be 


570 


WHALEBONE— WHALE-FISHERY 


may  be  meotioned  three,  namdy.  in  the  harbour  of  San  Sebastian  in 

January  1854,  in  the  Gulf  of  Taranto.  in  the  Mediterranean,  in 
ebruary  1877,  and  on  the  Spanish  .coast  between  Guetaria  and 
Zarauz  (Guipuscoa)  in  February  1878.  The  skeletons  of  these  three 
whales  arc  preserved  in  the  museums  of  Copenhafen,  Naides  and 
San  Sebastian  respectively.  On  the  coast  of  the  United  States 
several  specimens  have  been  taken;  and  a  cargo  of  whalebone 
belonging  to  this  spedes  was  received  at  New  Bedford  in  1906. 
During  toe  latter  year  six  examples  were  killed  by  whalers  from 
Buneveneader.  in  the  island  of  Harris  (see  R.  C.  Haldane.  Ann,  Scot. 
Nat.  Hisi.,  1907. p.  13).  In  the  North  Pacific  a  similar  if  not  identical 
whale  is  rq:ularly  hunted  by  the  Japanese,  who  tow  the  carcases 
ashore  for  the  purpose  of  flensing  and  extracting  the  whalebone. 
bi  the  tropical  seas,  however,  right  whales  are  never  or  rarely  seen; 
but  the  southern  temperate  ocean,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Kerguelen's  Island,  Australia  and  New 
&aiand.  is  inhabited  by  *'  black  whales,"  once  abundant,  but  now 
nearly  exterminated  through  the  wanton  destruction  of  the  females 
as  they  visit  the  bays  and  inlets  round  the  coast,  their  constant  habit 
in  the  breeding  time.  The  range  of  these  whales  southward  has  not 
been  accurately  determined;  but  no  species  corresponding  with  the 
Arctk  right  wluile  has  been  met  with  m  the  Antarctic  seas. 

See  also  Hump-back  Whalb,  Rorqual,  Speru-Whalx,  Bbluga, 
&c.  (W.H.F.;R.L.») 

WHALBBONB»  the  inaccurate  name  under  which  the  baleen 
plates  of  the  rij^t  whale  are  popularly  known;  the  trade-name 
of  whale-fin,  which  the  substance  receives  in  coumerce,  is  equally 
misleading.  Whalebone  is  formed  in  the  palate  on  the  roof  of 
the  mouth  and  is  an  exaggeration  of  the  ridges,  often  horny  in 
character,  which  are  found. on  the  rooi  of  the -mouth  of  all 
mammals.  Three  kinds  are  reoognixed  by  traders— the  Grten- 
land,  yielded  by  the  Greenland  whale,  Balaena  mysUcdus] 
the  South  Sea,  the  produce  of  t])e  Antarctic  black  whale,  B, 
australis;  and  the  Pacific  or  American,  which  is  obtained  from 
B.  japonica.  Very  many  different  names  have  been  pven  to 
whales  of  the  B.  austraUs  group,  and  it  is  possible  that  local 
races  exist,  whilst  some  writers  are  inclined  to  regard  B.japonica 
as  not  ^)ecifically  distinct  fr6m  B.  australis.  Of  these  the 
Greenland  whalebone  is  the  most  valuable.  It  formed  the  only 
staple  known  in  earlier  times,  when  the  northern  whale  fishery 
was  a  peat  and  productive' indiistry.  This  whalebone  usually 
comes  into  the  market  trimmed  and  dean,  with  the  hairy  fringe 
which  edges  the  plates  removed.  To  prepare  whalebone  for  its 
economic  ai^lications,  the  blades  or  plates  are  boiled  for  about 
twelve  hours,  till  t&e  substance  is  quite  soft,  in  which  state  it 
is  cut  either  into  narrow  strips  or  into  small  bristle-like  fiUr 
ments,  according  to  the,  use  to  which  it  is  to  "be  devoted. 

Whalebone  possesses  a  unique  combination  of  properties  which 
render  it  peculiariy  and  almost  exclusively  suitable'  for  several 
purposes.  It  is  light,  flexible,  tough  and  fibrous,  and  its  fibres  run 
parallel  to  each  otner  without  intertwisting.  One  of  its  earliest  uses, 
referred  to  by  William  le  Breton  in  the  13th  century,  was  to  form 
the  plumes  on  helmets.  It  has  been  found  practicable  to  employ 
flexible  steel  for  several  purposes  to  which  whalebone  was  formerly 
applied,  especially  in  the  umbrella  and  corset  industries,  in  which 
steel  is  now  almost  exclusively  used.  Whalebone,  is,  however,  still 
io  large  demand  among  dressmakers  and  milliners;  but  it  is  princt^ 
pally  used  in  the  brush  trade.  In  cases  where  bristla  are  too  soft  and 
weak,  and  where  the  available  vegetable  fibres  possess  insufiidcnt 
elasticity  and  durability,  whalebone  offers  the  great  advantage  of 
bdng  procurable  in  strips  or  filaments,  long  or  short,  thick  or  thin, 
aocoraing  to  requirement.  Hence  it  is  principally  used  for  making 
brushes  for  meoianical  purposes.  The  use  of  whalebone  in  brush- 
making  was  originally  patented  by  Samuel  Crackles  in  x8o8,  -and 
various  special  machines  have  been  adapted  for  cutting  the  material 
into  filaments.  When  whalebone  came  into  the  Englnh  market  in 
tbm  17th  century  it  cost  at  first  about  £700  per  ton.  In  the  18th 
century  its  price  ranged  from  £350  to  £^  per  ton,  but  early  in  the 
19th  century  it  fell  as  low  as  £tS-  Later  it  varied  from  £aoo  to  X^so ; 
but  with  the  decrease  in  whaling  the  article  has  become  very  scarce, 
and  upwards  of  jC^ooo  per  ton  is  no^r  paid  for  Greenland  wlulebone. 

WHAI2-FI8HERY,  or  Whauno,  the  pursuit  and  capture 
of  the  larger  species  of  cetaceans  (see  Cetacea  and  Whau). 
Man,  In  aU  probability,  first  became  acquainted  with  the  value 
of  the  products  yielded  by  whales  from  stranded  individuals; 
but  at  what  time  he  first  ventured  to  hunt  and  kill  these  monsters 
in  ^e  open  ocean  it  is  now  impocuble  to  ascertain.  Wc  know, 
however,  frmn  King  Alfred's  account  of  (^there's  voyagie  to 
the  White  Sea  that  the  Norwegians  were  'expert  whalers  at 
least  a  thousand  3rears  ago;  and  we  also  know  that  from  the 
totb  to  the  16th  centuries  the  Ququca  of  Biftyonae,  Bianitx, 


St  Jcan-de-Lus,  San  Sebastian  aad  certain  other  Fiench  and 
Spanish  ports  were  carrying  on  a  Iwccative  trade  in  the  products 
of  a  whale-fishery  conducted  by  themselves,  wUdi  supplied 
Europe  with  whidebone  and  oiL  In  the  latter,  and  not  im« 
probably  also  in  the  former  case,  the  species  hunted  was  the 
Atlantic  right-whale,  or  black  whale  {Balamd  biscaytHsis), 
which  the  Basques  seem  to  have  well-nigh  extenniaated  in  their 
own  waters;  and  it  was  not  till  a  later  epoch  that  tlae  pursuit 
of  its  larger-hMded  cousin,  tlie  Greenland  rii^t-whale  (B. 
mysticetus)t  was  initiated.  Hunting  the  q)enn-whale,  or  cacha- 
lot, in  the  South  Sea  was  a  still  later  development,  while  rorqual- 
hunting  is  quite  a  modem  industry. 

Of  whaling  vessels  of  the  old  type,  a  brief  notice  will  suffice. 
Those  engaged  in  the  British  South  Sea  fishery,  which  was  ni 
its  prime  about  the  year  1790,  were  from  300  to  400  tons  burden, 
and  -equipped  for  at  least  a  three-years'  voyage.  They  carried 
from  a8  to  35  officers  and  men,  and  six  whale-boats.  Built 
diarp  at  both  ends,  these  boats  were  about  27  ft.  kngy  and  were 
furnished,  in  addition  to  masts  and  sails,  with  a  couple  of 
3oo-fathom  whale-lines.  When  a  whale  was  sighted  from  the 
"  crow's-nest "  *t  the  masthead  of  the  vessel,  four  boats,  each 
carrying  a  crew  of  six  men,  were  lowered  and  despatched  in 
pursuit.  The  crew  consisted  of  a  boat-steercr  in  the  bow,  four 
rowers  and  a  headsman  in  the  stem.  The  boatrsteerer  carried 
the  harpoons  with  which  the  whale  was  first  attacked,  and  when 
the  boat  was  once  "  fast "  to  a  whale  by  means  of  thit  harpoon 
and  line,  the  attack  was  carried  on  by  the  headsman,  who  was 
armed  with  k>ng  slender  lances.  When  several  whales  were  seen, 
two  or  more  of  the  boats  might  make  separate  attacks;  but  in 
other  instances  they  kept  together,  so  that  their  united  lines 
were  available  when  tlie  whale  descended  or  "  sounded."  After 
the  first  blow  of  the  harpoon,  or  at  all  events  after  the  first 
effective  lancing,  the  "sounding"  was  deep  and  prolonged; 
but  loss  of  blood  eventuaJl3r€aused  the  victim  to  keep  near  tlie 
surface,  when,  if  all  went  well,  it  was  finally  despatched  by  lance- 
thmsts  behind  one  of  the  flippers  into  the  vital  parts. 

When  a  q>erm-whale  was  killed,  the  carcase  was  made  fast 
to  the  side  of  the  vessel,  and  the  process  of  flensing,  or  "  cutting- 
in,''  commenced.  On  being  made  fast  to  the  vooel,  the  whsle 
was  enveloped  in  a  framework,  and.a  strip  of  the  blubber  cut  in 
a  spiral  direction.  By  raising  this  strip  with  the  aid  of  proper 
apparatus,  the  whale  could  be  turned  round  and  round  on  its 
axis,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  blubber  removed  in  a  con- 
tinuous piece,  to  be  cut,  as  required,  into  convenient  lengths. 
Meanwhile  the  liquid  q>ermaceti,  or  "head-matter,"  was 
ladled  out  in  buckets  from  the  great  cavity  in  the  skuU  and  put 
in  casks,  where  it  sdidified,  to  be  carried  to  port  and  there 
refined.  The  blubber  was,  however,  reduced  to  oil  by  "  try- 
works"  with  which  the  vessd  was  provided,  and  stored  in 
barrels.  A  large  male  sperm-whale  will  yield  as  much  as  eighty 
barrels,  or  about  3  tons  of  oil;  while  the  yield  of  a  small  female 
does  not  exceed  x  or  3  tons.  In  the  old  days  the  cargo  of  a 
successful  vessel  might  include  the  products  of  a  hundred  whales, 
yielding  ham  150  io  aoo  tons  of  boiled  sperm-oil  in  addition  to 
the  q>ermacetL 

In  the  old  days  of  the  Greenland  whale-fishery  vessels  of 
about  350  tons  burden  were  deemed  the  most  eligible,  these 
being,  constructed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  resist  so  far  as  possible 
the  pressure  of  the  ice.  The  crew  w»s  about  fifty  in  number, 
and  the  vessel  carried  lix  or  seven  whale-boats  of  thesaxne 
length  as  those  used  in  the  South  Sea  fishery.  The  vessels  left 
Peterhead  and  Dundee  (the  ports  for  the  GreenUnd  fishery, 
as  was  London  for  the  South  Sea  fishery)  about  the  banning 
of  April,  and,  after  touching  at  the  Shetlands,  reached  the 
whalmg-grounds  before  the  end  of  that  nwnth.  In  approaching 
a  whale,  which  was  effected  from  belund,. silence  was  essential, 
and  the  harpoon  had  to  be  delivered  within  a  distance  of  a  few 
yards.  The  moment  the  wounded  .whale  disappeared  a  flag 
was  hoisted  in  the  boat  to  give  notice  that  assistance  was  re- 
quired from  the  ship.  Attention  to  the  line  was  a  matter  of  the 
utmost  importance,  as  if  it  became  entangled  the  boat  would 
be  drawn  under  water  by  the  whale.    Sometimes  its  motion 


WHALE-FISHERY 


57« 


ittardfld  bygone  or  man  tarns  rmuid  the  "  boIlArd/'  &  post 
fixed  lor  this  purpose  in  the  boat;  when  this  was  done  the 
friction  was  so  great  as  to  produce  quantities  of  smoke,  fire 
being  prevented  by  sluidng  the  bollard  with  water.  Even  with 
the  asustance  offered  by  the  bollard,  the  whale-line  might  be 
run  out  within  ten  minutes,  when  the  lines  of  a  second  or  even 
a  third  boat  would  be  attaiched.  In  this  manner  some  600  or 
700  fathoms  of  line  woi^  be  taken  out;  the  whale  commonly 
remaining  under  water  when  first  wounded  for  about  40  minutes, 
although  a  period  of  an  hour  is  said  to  be  not  unfrequent.  On 
rising  after  its  second  descent  the  whale  was  attacked  with 
lances  thrust  deep  into  the  body  and  aimed  at  the  vital  parts. 
The  old-fashioned  lance  was  a  6-f t.  rod  and  f-fai.  iron,  flattened 
at  one  end  into  the  form  of  a  lance-head  with  cutting  edges, 
and  at  the  other  expanding  faito  a  socket  for  the  reception  of 
a  short  wooden  handle.  Torrents  of  blood  spouted  from  the 
blow-hole  of  the  whale  denoted  the  approadiiiig  end  of  the 
struggle.  So  soon  as  the  whale  was  dead,  no  time  was  lost  in 
piercing  the  tafl  or  **  flukes,"  and  thus  makfaig  the  carcase  fast 
to  the  boats  by  means  of  a  cable,  and  then  towing  it  in  the 
direction  <rf  the  ship.  From  fifteen  minutes  to  as  much  as 
fifty  hours  might  be  occuj^ed  in  a  whale-hunt. 

The  following  account  of  the  operation  of  *'  flensing,**  or 
securing  the  blubber  and  whalebone  of  the  Greenland  whale, 
is  taken  from  Sir  William  Jardine's  Naturalists^  Library:-^     * 

"The  huge  carcase  is  somewhat  extended  by  strong  tackles 
[4aced  at  the  snout  and  tail.  A  band  of  blabber,  two  or  three  feet  in 
width,  enctrcKng  the  whale's  body  at  what  is  the  neck  in  other 
animals,  is  called  the  kent,  because  by  means  of  it  the  whale  is  turned 
over  or  kented.  To  this  band  is  fixed  the  lower  extremity  of  a  com- 
bination of  powerful  blocks,  called  the  ketU-purckase,  by  means  of 
which  the  wnolc  circumference  of  the  animal  is,  section  oy  section, 
brought  to  the  surface.  The  harpooaers,  baling  spikes  on  their  feet 
to  prevent  their  falling  from  the  carcaae,  then  begin  with  a  kind  of 
spade,  and  with  huae  knives,  to  make  long  parallel  cuts  from  end  to 
end,  which  are  divided  by  cross-cuts  into  pieces  of  about  half  a  ton. 
These  are  conveyed  on  deck,  and,  after  bang  reduced  to  smaller 
portions,  are  stowed  in  the  hold.  Finally,  being  by  other  ofwrations 
still  further  divided,  the  blubber  is  put  into  casks,  which  is  called 
'  makiaff-off .'  and  packed  down  completely  by  a  suitable  instrument. 

•"  While  this  flennns  is  proceeding,  and  when  it  reaches  the  lips, 
which  contain  much  ou,  the  baleen  (whalebone)  is  exposed.  This  is 
deCsched  by  means  of  bone  hand-splkos,  bone  knives  and  bone 
spades.  The  whole  whalebone  is  hoisted  on  deck  in  one  mass,  when 
it  is  split  by  bone  wedges  into  iuaks,  containing  five  or  ten  blades 
each,  and  stowed  away.  When  the  whole  whalebone  and  blubber  are 
thus  secured,  the  two  jaw-bones,  from  the  quantity  of  oil  which  they 
contain,  are  usually  hobted  on  deck,  and  then  only  the  krMf  re- 
mains—the huge  carcase  of  flesh  and  bone,  which  b  abandoned  either 
to  sink  or  to  be  devoured  by  the  tnrds,  sharks  and  bears,  which  duly 
attend  00  such  occasions  for  their  share  of  the  prey." 

The  largest  cargo  ever  secured  by  a  Scotch  whaler  was  that 
of  the  "  Revolution  *'  of  Peterhead  in  1814,  which  comprised 
the  products  of  no  less  than  forty-four  whales.  The  oil,  which 
amounted  to  399  tons,  realized  £9568,  while  the  price  obtained 
for  the  whalebone,  added  to  the  government  bounty  then  given 
to  Greenland  whalers,  brought  up  the  total  sum  to  £xr,ooo. 
Allowing  a  ton  to  each  whale,  the  whalebone  alone  at  present 
prices  would  have  yielded  about  £110,000! 

At  a  later  period,  say  about  x88o,  the  Greenland  whaler  had 
grown  to  a  vessel  of  from  400  to  500  tons  gross  register,  rigged 
either  as  a  ship  or  a  bark,  aind  provided  with  auxiliary  engines 
of  about  75  horse-power.  She  would  be  manned  by  from  fifty 
to  sixty  hands,  and  would  carry  eight  boats  of  the  type  men- 
tioned above.  Below  the  hold-beams  were  fitted  about  fifty 
iron  tanks  capable  of  containing  from  200  to  350  tons  of  oil. 
Such  a  vessel  would  cost  about  £17,500  to  build,  and  her  working 
expenses,  exclusive  of  interest  and  insurance,  would  be  about 
£500  a  month.  At  the  period  mentioned  each  whale-boat  was 
armed  with  a  harpoon-gun  measuring  4  ft.  6'  in.  in  length  and 
weighing  75  ib;  Uie  barrel  being  3  ft.  Ung,  with  xHn.  bore, 
4nd  mounted  in  a  wooden  stock,  tapering  behind  into  a  pist<^- 
handle.  The  gun-haipoon  is  used  solely  for  first  getting  on  to 
the  whales;  hand-harfwons  being  employed  for  getting  a  hold 
with  other  Bnes. 

Withoot  refeniag  to  further  impvowafients  m  the  weapons 


and  vessels  employed,  it  will  suffice  to  state  that  in  the  Greenland 
whale-fishery  the  whales  are  still  killed  from  whale-boats.  In 
the  rcMrqual-fishery,  as  at  Newfoundland*  on  the  other  hand, 
the  actual  attack  is  made  from  a  steam-vessel  of  considerable 
size,  as  is  described  in  the  following  quotation  from  a  paper 
by  Mr  G.  M.  Allen  in  the  American  Natwaiist  for  1904,  refer- 
ring to  the  fishery  at  Rose-au-Rue,  Placentia  Qay^  New- 
foundland ^-^ 

'*  The  fishery  itself, "  observes  the  author,  **  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  small  and  staunchly  built  iron  ateamers  of  something  over  one 
hundred  tons.  A  cannon-like  gun  u  mounted  on  a  pivot  at  the  bow, 
and  dtschaiges  a  s-ft.  harpoon  of  over  100  Ib  weight,  which  at  short 
range  is  nearly  burled  in  the  body  of  the  whale.  A  hollow  iron  cap 
Uled  with  blasting  powder  is  screwed  to  the  tip  of  the  harpoon, 
forming  its  pout.  A  timed  fuse  discharges  the  bomb  inside  the hody 
of  the  whale.  The  harpoon  carries  a  stout  cable  which  is  handled  by 
a  ^weriul  5-sheet  winch  on  the  steamer's  deck.'* 

Explosive  harixMns  of  the  type  referred  to  were  invented  by 
Svend  Foyn,  t  Norwegian,  and  used  by  him  about  the  year 
1865  or  x866  m  the  manner  described  above,  as  they  still  are 
m  various  Norwegian  rorqual-fisheries. 

.  In  fiaheiics  of  this  type  the  carcases  of  the  whales  are  towed' 
into  harbour  for  flensing;  and  in  place  of  the  "  kreng  "  being 
wasted,  the  flesh  is  worked  up  to  form  an  excellent  manure, 
while  the  bones  are  ground  up  and  also  used  as  fertilisers. 

A  somewhat  similar  mode  of  proceeding  characterizes  the 
sperm-whale  fishery  now  carried  on  in  the  Azores,  so  far  at  least 
aa  the  towing  of  the  carrascs  to  shore  for  the  purpose  of  flensing 
is  concerned.  According  to  an  account  given  by  Professor 
E.  L.  Bouvier  in  the  Bulletin  de  VJnstUul  Ocianagirapkique  for 
X907,  American  whalers  have  observation  stations  on  most  of 
the  islands  of  the  Azores  group;  Hc«ta,  in  Fayal,  being  the 
favourite  station.  The  carcases  of  the  cachalots  are  towed  for 
flensing  into  a  small  creek  adjacent  to  the  port,  where,  after  the 
removal  of  the  spermaceti  and  blubber,  they  are  left  to  rot. 
Even  the  teeth  have  a  commercial  value,  being  either  sold  aa 
curiosities  in  Horta,  or  utilized  for  ivory.  Whenever  practicable, 
the  whales  caught  by  the  vessels  bek>nging  to  the  great  sperm- 
whaling  station  at  New  Bedford  are  towed  into  the  hwbour 
for  flensing. 

Passing  on  to  a  review  of  some  of  the  more  important  whale- 
fisheries  of  the  worid,  the  Atlantic  fishery  by  the  Basques 
in  the  loth  and  six  succeeding  centuries  claims  first  mention. 
Readers  desirous  of  obtuning  further  insight  into  the  little  that 
is  known  about  it  are  referred  to  an  interesting  paper  by  Sir 
Clements  Markham  publiahe4  in  the  Proueiings  of  the  Zoo- 
logical Society  of  London  for  x88i.  Althou^,  as  already 
mentioned,  the  black  whale  {BaUuna  biscayensis)  was  well-oigh 
exterminated  in  the  north  Atlantic  by  the  Basques,  and  for 
many  years  afterwards  was  excesuvely  rare,  yet  quite  recently 
several  examples  have  been  taken  by  Scotti^  whalers  off  the 
Hebrides,  while  the  whalebone  of  others  has  been  received  at 
New  Bedford. 

The  discovery  in  1596  by  the  Butch  navigator  Barents  of 
Spitzbergen,  followed  by  the  voyage  of  Hudson  in  the  "  Hope- 
well "  in  1607,  may  be  said  to  have  inaugurated  the  second 
phase  in  the  wh^uig  industry;  these  adventurous  voyages 
biingmg  to  light  for  the  first  time  the  existence  of  the  Greenland 
whale  (B.  mysticelus)\  a  species  of  much  greater  value  than  any 
that  had  been  previously  hunted. 

Here  it  may  be  well  to  refer  to  two  common  misconcq>tions 
regarding  this  whale.  In  the  first  place,  it  does  not  appear 
to  be,  as  commonly  supposed,  a  circumpolar  species.  There  is, 
for  instance,  no  evidence  of  its  occurrence  eastward  of  Spitz- 
bergen along  the  Siberian  coast  between  10*  and  170^  E.;  and 
it  is  not  till  the  btter  parallel  is  reached,  at  Cape  Schelagskoi, 
that  the  domain  of  the  so-called  bowhead  of  the  American 
vhalea  is  entered. 

'*  On  the  other  skle  of  Bering  Strait.**  writes  Mr  T.  Southwell 
in  the  Annals  of  ScoUisk  Natural  History  for  April  1904,  "  these 
whales  do  not  appear  to  penetrate  mucn  farther  east  than  Cape 
Bathurst.  and  it  seems  highly  improbable  that  there  is  any  inter- 
communication between  uiose  at  that  point  and  the  whales  in 
Baffin  Bay.    On  the  other  bafid,  the  whales  on  the  east  side  U 


57* 


WHALE-FISHERY 


Davb  Strait  do  not  deaoeod  so  Car  aooth  ••  Cape  Farewdl.  nor 
are  those  in  the  Greenland  Sea  known  to  pass  vevtward  round 
that  cape.  It  seems  therefore  that,  although  tneir  range  as  a  species 
b  undoubtedly  extensive  longitudinally,  the  )ocalidea  they  inhabit 
are  greatly  restricted,  each  being  inhabited  by  a  local  race  differing 
from  the  other  in  some  slight  degree." 

The  second  misconceptioa  ia  that  the  Gnenland  whale  has 
gradually  been  driven  northward  by  the  whalers.  A  sufficient 
proof  of  the  falsity  of  this  idea  is  afforded  by  the  fact  that  the 
nainute  organisms  constituting  the  food  of  the  species  are  re- 
stricted to  the  icy  seas  of  the  far  north.  The  Greenland  whale  is, 
in  fact,  essentially  an  ice-whale. 

To  revert  to  the  histozy  of  the'fishexy,  no  sooner  was  the 
accesailMlity  of  the  Spitxbeigen  seas  made  known  than  vessels 
were  fitted  out  for  iduiling  there,  at  first  by  the  British,  and  soon 
after  by  the  Dutch.  The  seas  absolutely  swarmed  with  whales, 
which  showed  little  fear  of  vessels  and  could  thus  be  captured 
with  ease.  The  first  whaling  expedition  was  despatched  by  the 
Muscovy  Company,  under  the  oMnmand  oi  Jonas  Poole;  and 
the  success  of  four  voyages  (1609-1612)  soon  attracted  the  atten-* 
tion  of  other  nations.  Some  indication  of  the  abundance' of  the 
whales  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in  the  year  1697  no 
less  than  1959  of  these  monsters  were  killed  off  Spitabeigen  1^ 
188  vessels. 

The  fishery  in  Davis  Strait  was  begun  in  1719  by  the  Dutch, 
who  at  first  killed  laige  numbers  of  whales  and  were  subset 
quently  followed  by  the  British.  Although  many  whales  have 
been  seen  in  recent  years,  few  are  taken;  and  it  is  the  opinicm  of 
many  that  in  Greenland  waters,  at  any  rate,  steam  has  been  fatal 
to  the  industiy. 

The  following  summary  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the'  British 
Greenland  whale-fi^ry  is  given  by  Mr  Southwell  in  the  artide 
already  cited: — 

"  For  the  first  quarter  of  the  loth  century  acarcdy  a  seaport  of  any 
importance  on  the  east  coast  01  England  was  nnrepreaented  in  the 
Arctic  seas:  from  Scotland,  Berwick,  Leith,  Kirkcaldy,  Dundee, 
Montrose,  Aberdeen,  Peterhead,  Kirkwall,  Greenock  and  for  a  time 
Banff  and  Bo'ncss,  all  took  part  in  the  whale-fishery.  Gradually, 
one  by  one,  they  fell  offr  riU  only  Peterhead,  which  sent  out  her  firvt 
whaler  in  1788,  and  Dundee  (which  started  in  1790)  were  left.  In 
1893  Peterhead,  which  in  1857  sent  out  34  vessels,  ceased  to  be  repre- 
sented in  the  industry,  leaving  Dundee  in  possession  of  the  field. 
Dundee  sent  out  its  largest  flwt  in  188s,— 16  vessels;  in  IO03  she 
was  represented  by  5  veaseb  only,  one  01  which  was  wrecked." 

According  to  Mr  Southwell's,  account  of  the  Arctic  fishery 
{Zoologist^  1906),  a  Dundee  vessel,  the  "  Scotia,"  visited  the  east 
Greenland  seas  in  the  summer  of  1906,  where  she  took  four 
small  right-whales;  this  visit  being  the  fost  made  to  those  seas 
by  a  British  vessel  since  1899. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  British  whalers  were  accustomed 
to  sail  for  the  Arctic  Ocean  eariy  in  April;  and  if  thdr  destina- 
tion was  the  east  Greenland  sea,  off  the  west  coast  of  Spitzbeigen, 
they  generally  arrived  on  the  grounds  about  a  month  later. 
The  whales  make  their  appearance  amongst  the  ice  near  the  sea 
edge  about  the  xsth  of  May,  but  only  remain  until  the  opening 
of  the  barrier-ice  permits  them  to  resume  their  northward 
journey;  for  about  the  middle  ot  June  they  suddenly  disappear 
from  these  grounds,  and  are  last  seen  going  north-west,  when  the 
north  Greenland  whale-fishing  is  over  for  the  season.  If  nn* 
successful  in  obtaining  a  cargo  at  the  northern  grounds,  the  whale- 
ships  were  accustomed  to  proceed  southwards  as  far  as  lat.  75^; 
where,  if  the  sea  were  sufiidently  open,  they  penetrated  west* 
wards  until  the  coast  of  Greenland  became  visible.  There  they 
cruised  amongst  the  ice  until  August,  when  the  darkness  of  the 
nights  put  an  end  to  the  season's  fishing.  If  the  south-west 
fishery,  in  Davis  Strait,  were  the  first  object  of  the  voyage,  the 
vessels  arrived  at  the  edge  of  the  ice  near  Resolution  Island  in 
April.  If  unsuccessful  here  they  proceeded  direct  to  Disco 
Island,  where  they  usually  arrived  early' in  May.  The  whales 
appear  about  the  middle  of  May  at  South  East  Bay,  where  a  great 
filling  was  once  carried  on.  The  dangerous  passage  of  Melville 
Bay  was  next  performed;  the  whales  entering  the  north  water 
in  June,  and  pushing  on  towards  the  sounds.  If  there  were  a 
"  land-floe  across,"  i.e.  if  the  land-ice  of  the  west  side  were  con- 
liBuous  aogosa  the  entrance  of  Ponds  B^y  and  T.anfaslcf  Sound^ 


whales  would  bt  sen  in  ooBBdoablftMiaben  aii<  food 
might  be  obtained;  but  immediatdy  the  landrfloe  bioke'iip 
they  departed  to  the  westward.  When  there  waa  no  land-floe 
across,  the  whales  proceeded  at  once  to  thb  sechided  waters  of 
Eclipse  Sound  and  Prince  Regent  Inlet  for  the  summer  months. 
At  this  season  most  of  the  vesseb  cruised  in  the  sounds,  but  a 
few  searched  the  middle  ioe;  until  the  darkness  of  the  August 
nights  compelled  them  to  seek  anchorage  in  some  of  the  harbours 
of  the  west  side,  to  await  the  return  of  the  whales  south.  This 
migration  takes  place  on  the  formation  of  young  ice  in  the  sounds, 
usually  in  the  Uutcr  part  of  September.  Only  the  larger  whales, 
most  of  which  are  males,  come,  however,  dose  down  along  the 
land  of  the  west  aide.  T^ese  the  ships  sent  their  boats  to  ^ter< 
cept;  this  forming  the  inshore-fishiag,  or  *'  sodc-nosing,"  which 
continued  till  the  formation  of  young  ioe  drove  the  veasds  out  of 
harbour,  usually  early  in  October. 

A  few  vesseb^  American  as  well  as  British,  occasionally  entered 
Hudson  Bay  and  prosecuted  the  fishing  ih  the  neighbourhood  of 
Southampton  Island,  even  entering  Fox  Channd.  There  were 
whaling-4taticns  in  CumberUnd  Inlet,  and  a  few  vessels  usually 
remained  throughout  the  winter,  ready  to  take  advantage  of  the 
opening  of  the  ice  in  the  following  spring.  Here  both  young  atad 
old  whales  make  their  appearance  in  May;  and  the  fishing 
conthmed  till  the  whales  migrated  northwards  in  June. 

Of  the  other  nationalities  which  took  part  in  the  Spitsbergen- 
Greenland  fisheries,  it  may  be  mentioneid  that  the  Dutch  had 
fisheries  both  at  Jan  Mayen  till  1640  and  at  Spitzbetgen.  In 
the  Spitsbergen  fishery  10,019  whales  were  taken  by  them  in  the 
ten'yeais  from  1679  to  1688.  About  x68o,  when  the  fishing  was 
probably  most  prosperous,  they  bad  260  vessels  and  14,000 
seamen  employed.  The  fishery  continued  to  flourish  on  an 
extensive  scale  till  1770,  when  it  be^m  to  decline,  and  it  finally 
came  to  a  dose  before  the  end  of  the  century.  At  the  same  time 
the  Germans  prosecuted  the  fishing  to  a  vexy  considerable  extent; 
79- vessels  from  Hamburg  end  Bremen  being  employed  in  X72X,. 
while  during  the  fifty  yeaas  from  1670  to  17x9  an  average  of 
45  vessels  suled  yearly  from  Hamburg  alone.  Gennan  vesseb 
continued  to  engage  in  the  fishery  tmtil  1873.  The  Spaniards, 
although  they  at  first  supplied  the  harpooners  to  the  crews 
of  the  English  and  Dutch  vessels,  never  seem  to  have  engaged 
laxgdy  in  the  northern  fisheiy.  The  Danes,  although  likewise 
eariy  appearing  on  the  Spitzbergen  fishing-grounds,  never 
pursued  the  industry  on  a  large  scale  until  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Davis  Strait  fishing  in  X72X,  in  whidi  year  they 
had  90  vessels  engaged;  but  by  X803  the  number  hsd  fallen 
to  35. 

The  continually  increasing  rarity  of  the  Greenland  whale  has 
caused  an  enormous  appreciation  in  the  value  of  whalebone  of 
recent  years,  as  compared  to  the  prices  ottainia^  the  first  half  of 
the  last  century.  For  about  twenty  years  precedmg  the  year  i8ao 
the  average  price  of  thb  commodity  was  about  £163  per  ton:  while 
in  the  year  1835  whalebone  of  the  Greenland  whale  sold  at  £aflO  per 
ton,  and  that  dT the  south  Atlantic  black  whale  iBalaena  Qustratis)  at 
/145  per  ton.  At  the  present  date  the  price  is  about  £2500  per  ton, 
but  a  few  years  ago  it  touched  £2800,  although  soon  alter  it  tell  for  a 
short  time  to  £f 40a  The  reason  of  the  fall  from  £2806  to  £^500  (at 
about  which  figure  the  price  has  stood  for  some  time)  is  believed  to  be 
owing  to  the  use  of  stripe  of  bom  for  many  purposes  where  whale- 
bone was  formerly  employed.  Owing  to  its  much  ffreater  lengtl).  the 
whalebone  of  the  Greenland  whale  is,  as  indicatea  above,  far  more 
valuable  than  that  yieMed  by  the  northern  and  southern  Atlantic 
black  whalea,  of  which  comparativelv  little  generally  comes  into  the 
market.  The  best  quality  of  whalebone  is  known  in  the  trade  as 
"  size-bone,"  and  consists  of  plates  not  less  than  6  ft.  in  length. 

In  the  twenty  years  preceding  1840  the  average  price  of  whale- 
oil  from  the  northern  fisheries  was  £30  per  ton ;  the  actual  price  ia 
1835  being  £40  per  ton.  At  the  present  day  the  price  is  only  £23 
per  ton.  It  may  be  added  that  in  183$  South  "Sea  oil  sold  at  £43 
and  spcrm-ml  at  £75  per  ton. 

A  few  woxds  will  suffice  for  tKe  American  fishery  pf  the  so- 
called  bowhead,  the  western  race  of  the  Gixeenland  whale,  in 
Bering  Stndt  Here  the  whales  are  mottly  sought  for' and 
killed  in  open  water,  and  the  vessds  are  Consequently  less 
adapted  for  <oe-work.  For  the  most  part  the  vessels  sail  fitMAk 
San  Frandaco  in  March,  and  arrive  at  the  ice-edge  offCapa 
wkeie  tha  fiibi«g  is  bqpm.  in  -May.-  v The  whales 


WHALE-OIL 


^3?3 


diuppcu  Saiint  iuanicr,  bul  i 
"  fsll-fishing "  ii  carried  on  ll 
Burowi  UKJ  bcliretn  ihe  mu 


a  iSj6  *  4iK<ii 


The  tpccm-nlule  £sh«y,  of  which  the  preducU  an  ipcr- 
mucii,  spcrm-gil,  imbeipii  (moalt)'  found  Bnting  [n  muiea 
in  Iht  lea)  »nd  letlb,  appeati  Id  have  b«n  inilialed  by  tho 
Amciiouu  in  1690,  who  lor  1  coDtiderabk  period  iound  luffident 
occupaUon  in  the  ocighbourhood  ol  their  own  couli.  The 
British  ue,  however,  UUcd  (0  hive  opened  up  the  gnu  whiling- 
gtoundt  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans,  itlhoush  liity  did 
not  embailianipeini-Khaiiii(till  1775.  Within  kuthao  twcnly 
yean  from  that  dale  (heir  trade  had.  however,  attained  its 
maiimuDi;  no  ten  than  7j  Brilisb  vtueli,  ali  from  the  port 
of  London,  bdng  engaged  hi  thii  [ndintry  In  Ihe  year  1741. 
Alter  this  there  wai  a  steady  decline  till  18^0.  when  only  31 
vetwls  wen:  thus  employed;  and  lince  181}  sperm-whaling 
basfeBsed  to  Lie  a  Briii^  iodufitry. 

Ai  regards  Ihe  Amtricaji  liahety,  iht  bland  ol  Nantncket 
embarked  in  Uill  trade  about  the  yearijii.and  by  1771  there 
we™  360  American  ships  engaged  in  sperm-whaling.  whJe  in 
■  1846,  when  the  fisheiry  wai  about  at  its  Benith,  Ihe  number 
WIS  7]5,  mostly  from  New  Bedford.  Between  1877  and  itg6  tho 
avenge  number  of  vessels  liad  ami  to  150.  New  BetKotd,  on 
(he  Atlantic,  and  San  Frindsco,  on  the  Pacific  aide,  «re  the  two 
great  whaling  centres;  and  during  the  period  last  mentioned 
the  average  import!  of  whaling  pioducts  into  the  United  Statcn 
totalled  Sioi  tons  of  sperm-oil,  together  with  4MJ  tons  ol 
*hafc-oil  ind  I4S  t™"  "^  whajebone. 

Duiing  the  first  hall  of  the  last  cenWry  (be  colony  of  New 
Soatb  Wales  was  busily  engaged  in  tMs  tnde,  ind  In  1835 
ctponed  iflSj  tons  of  apenn-oil. 

Since  the  year  iSgi,  when  no  las  tban  103  head  were  taken 
by  the  Peterhead  whaler  "  EdipK,"  the  Norwegians  have 
carried  on  1  fishery  for  the  bottte-nosed  whale  (HypcrtSdBn 
rottratta),  A  q>edei  which  although  greatly  inferior  in  point  of 
nie,  yields  an  oil  closely  akin  to  •perm-oil,  but  possessed  of  even 
greater  lubricating  power.  An  average  male  botlle-nose  will 
yield  about  u  cwls.  of  oil.  containing  5%  of  pure  ipennaceti. 
Bottle-nose  fishing  is  cbiefiy  carried  on  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  Jan  Mayen  sod  Iceland  during  Ihe  months  of  Miy,  June  and 
July,  the  whales  usually  disappearing  quite  suddenly  about 
the  middle  of  the  last-mentfoned  month.  In  1903  about  1600 
t,  which  would  Imply  the 


whales. 


The  hivention  by  Svtnd  Foyn  ot  tbe  eiploaive  bupoon, 
already  referred  to,  inaugurated  about  the  year  iBM  the  Nor- 
wegian fin-whale  fishery,  an  industry  which  has  since  been 
taken  up  by  other  nallonalities.  The  rorquals  ot  fin-whalea 
{BalaatBptera'),  which  Include  Ihe  largest  of  all  ceuceans,  are 
built  lor  ^wed,  and  lie  much  fiercer  animjla  than  either  the 
Greenland  or  the  Atlantic  right  whale;  thelt  rash  when  wounded 
being  of  enormoui  velodly,  wUle  their  vltillly  is  such  thit 
ttladiing  them  in  tbe  old-fashioned  way  with  the  hand-hatpooD 
h  practically  useless,  and  at  the  same  time  fraught  with  great 
danger  to  the  putjuen.  To  a  eomiderahle  ertent  the  same 
may  be  affirmed  of  the  humpbicked  whale  {Mtiaplent).  Under 
these  circumstances,  previous  to  the  invention  of  tbe  bomb- 
harpoon,  these  whiles  were  left  entirely  alone  by  the  whalers. 

fly  the  yen  iSSj  the  Norwegians  had  a  fleet  of  over  39  vessels 
engaged  b  this  fishery  oH  the  coast  of  Finmatk,  the  amount 
of  whose  calch  comprised  t3j8  whales  in  rSBs,  and  <>S4  in  the 
loOowing  year.  Gradually  the  Norwegians  hive  developed  and 
extended  the  rorqual- fishery,  ind  they  now  possess  sUtions  in 
Iceland,  the  Firoes  and  Shcllandi,  and  also  at  Suneveaeider 
in  Haiila  lo  the  Hebrides.  In  tbe  Sbetlinds  Ihere  ite  two 
Halioti*  M  the  bod  of  Roni*  Toe  an  ttas  Dorth-wtd  nde  of  the 


and  when  opetatloM  an  onled  <•  hwn  Mty  and  Jnha 
till  September,  when  the  whales  leave  the  shore.  During  tbe 
first  seiion  (190])  the  NorrCnB  Whaling  Company's  vessels 
lEiUed  64  whales.  »bile  61  were  accounled  lor  by  tbe  Shetland 
Whaling  Company, 

In  tSoS  1  lucceaifid  lorqual-fisheiy  wis  established  by  the 

Newfoundland    Steam    Whaling    Company    at    Rose-an-Rue, 

Placemii  Bay,  Newfoundland-    Fonr  species  of  rorqoals  19  well 

1*  humpbacks  ire  hunted;  and  during  a  portion  of  the  season 

In  1403  Ihe  calch  Included  r74  of  the  former  and  14  of  the  tatter. 

'     addition  10  the  above-mentioned  fisheries  for  the  larger 

»,  there  are  conslderabie  loal  captuies  of  the  smaller  kinds, 

commonly  known  as  grampuses  01  killers,  porpoiies.ajid  dolphins. 

^'  these,  however,  very  brief  mention  must  suffice.    The  most 

ortant  capture!  are  generally  made  fn  northern  seas,     TTie 

:k  pilot-while,  01  grindhvil  (Globinptaliii  mcfoi),  Is,  for  hl- 

stince,  not  Infrequently  taken  In  large  shoals  by  tlie  P 


^nbyb, 


.-■le-Tiiheryorit 
"tihery,"  ZoiWo^ 


le  slated  with  regard  to  the  grampus  or  killer  (Orta 
,,    jf  which  noless  than  47  head  were  killed  at  once 

importance  Is  the  white-whale  or  Miifs  {DdfhinapUna  Itvtal), 
which  is  hunted  lor  its  blubber,  hide  and  flesh,  the  average  yidd 
per  head  being  ibout  100  gallons  of  oil  In  1871  the  Tromsoe 
whalers  captured  no  less  than  91A7  individuals,  while  In  iS^ 
30D  out  (^  a  school  of  some  qoo  were  captured  on  a  single  ocn^on 
at  Pwnt  Bamw,  Alaska.  These  whahs,  which  are  worth  about 
jC3  a  head,  yield  the  Leilher  known  commercially  as  "  porpoise- 
hide,"  The  narwhal  (Umtdm  mttwctras),  yielding  both  blubber 
and  Ihe  valuable  ivoiy  luiks,  is  usually  captured  singty  hy  Ibe 
Greenlanden  fn  their  "kayaks."  Local  porpoise  and  dolphja 
fisheries  are  carried  on  by  the  fishermen  In  many  paris  of  the 

success  In  this  respect;  iriiile  even  the  fresh-waier  snsu  or  Ganges 
dolphin  (niUiniura  t"'K'lca)  and  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  dolphin 
iPeulafa^  Haintillei)  are  also  caogbt  in  eomideiable  nunben 
for  tbe  Bike  ol  their  blubber. 
.—The  f  c 

Je.ri<«_. 

iStj):  W.  S.  Toww,  A  i 
'PLlulelphia,  1007):  J.  R. 
'New  York,  1908) ;  C- R.  t..,. 
Buque  PcDvlntti  of  Spain,"  t 
T.  SoathveU.  "  Notei  on  Ihi 
CLondon,  18M-IW).  »d  "( 

*uritt'd™-(fl?'siol,  hal'lliil 
Oh»trvailon<  00  Roniual)  oH 
NaimaliMl,  KXwUi.  613  (t9C 
ShetlsKl,  1004,"  Am.  Scaa.  Jl 
in  Scolland,"  U.   (1007),   p. 

i^Ai^Se  Ptlnc^ifelllorucn!  ^90""  BiiHeriri" 

gra^Mfu  (Monaco,  1907),  No.  93.  IK.  !-.•} 

WHALK411L,  Ihe  ofl  obtained  from  the  blubber  of  various 
apedes  of  the  genus  Balaoa,  as  B,  myiliMus,  GieenJind  or 
"  right "  wbale  (northern  while-oD),  B.  oiufpofit  (southern 
whale-c(I},  B^atrafltra  Imgiwarsa,  Balamapltra  horialis 
(Finback  (^  Finnei  iriia)e-oil,  Humpback  dl).  The  "  orca  " 
or  "  killer  "  while,  and  tbe  ^  beluga  "  or  white  while,  also  yield 
"  while-oQs."  "Train-oil"  proper  Is  the  northern  whale-oil,  but 
this  term  has  been  applied  to  all  blubber  oils,  and  In  Germany, 
to  all  marine  animal  oils — fish-oils,  liwr  ofla.  and  blubber  oils. 
The  most  Important  whale-cnl  Is  tpena  or  spermaceti  oil,  yielded 
by  the  sperm-whales. 

Whak-oil  vBiiei  in  colour  from  ■  bright  boney  ydlow  to  ■  dark 
ro,  according  to  the  cooditioi  of  the  bhibker  fron  which  it  has 

1      1.  l_  ^  ,„  ,  „^  5,f^  jjou     ,-j  .t.  .^..... 

Eible  the  Midi.    With  I 

spermaceti,  aepintci fnfn  tCeoil,  lod  ■  litde  in 

point  neiHy  the  whole  of  these  conadl 

out.    When  scponted  ind  pressed,  thii  __..- _. 

tallow,  and  the  oil  Irom  which  it  b  removed  is  diftinguisbed  ai 

presaed  whale-oilj  this,  owing  10  its  limmdit)',  is  w> — ' ' 

aiipami^U.  Whali-al is  principally  used.lDoUiiigwn 


leikricir 


57+ 


WHALLEY— -WHARTQN  (FAMILY) 


In  batchififf  flax  and  other  ventable  fibres,  tn  currying  and  chamois 
kather'making.  and  aa  a  lobricant  for  machinery.  Sperm-oit  is 
obtained  from  the  cavity  in  the  head  of  the  sperm-whale,  and  from 
several  smaller  receptacles  throughout  the  body  of  the  animal. 
During  the  life  of  the  whale  the  contents  of  these  cavities  are  in  a 
fluid  condition,  but  no  sooner  is  the  "  head  matter  "  removed  than 
the  solid  wax  spermaceti  separates  in  white  crystalline  flakes,  leaving 
the  oil  a  clear  yellow  flutd  having  a  6shy  odour.  Refined  sperm-oil  is 
a  most  valuable  lubricant  for  snuU  and  delicate  machinery  (see  Oiu). 

WHALLEY,  EDWARD  (c.  i6is-<.  i67s)«  English  regicide, 
the  exact  dates  of  whose  birth  and  death  are  unknown,  was  the 
second  son  of  Richard  Whalley,  who  had  been  sheriff  of  Notting- 
hamshire in  1595,  by  his  second  wife  Frances  Cromwell,  aunt  o( 
Oliver  Cromw^.  His  great-grandfather  was  Richard  Whalley 
(1499-1583),  a  prominent  adherent  of  the  protector  Somerset 
and  member  of  parliament.  He  is  said  to  have  started  in  the 
trade  of  a  woollen-draper,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  great 
rebellion  he  took  up  arms  for  the  parliament,  became  major  of 
Cromwell's  regiment  of  horse,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself 
in  the  field.  His  conduct  at  Gainsborough  fight  in  1643  was 
especially  praised  by  Cromwell;  he  fought  at  Marston  Moor, 
comBoanded  one  of  Cromwell's  two  regiments  of  cavalry  at 
Naseby  and  at  the  capture  of  Bristol,  was  then  sent  into  Oxford- 
shire, took  Banbury,  and  was  besieging  Worcester  when  he  was 
superseded,  according  to  Richard  Baxter,  the  chaplain  of  his 
rqpment,  on  account  of  his  religious  orthodoxy.  He,  however, 
supported  his  regiment  in  their  grievances  against  the  parlia- 
ment in  1647.  When  the  king  was  seized  by.  the  army,  he  was 
entrusted  to  the  keeping  of  Whalley  and  his  regiment  at  Hampton 
Court.  Whalley  refused  to  remove  Charles's  chaplains  at  the 
bidding  of  the  parliamentary  commissioners,  and  treated  his 
captive  with  due  courtesy,  receiving  from  Charles  after  his 
flight  a  friendly  letter  of  thanks.  In  the  second  Civil  War, 
Whalley  again  distinguished  himself  as  a  soldier,  and  when  the 
king  was  brought  to  trial  he  was  chosen  to  be  one  of  the  tribunal 
and  signed  his  death-warrant.  He  took  part  in  Cromwell's 
Scottish  expedition,  was  wounded  at  Dunbar,  and  in  the  autumn 
of  1650  was  active  in  dealing  with  the  situation  in  north  Britain. 
Next  year  he  took  part  in  Cromwell's  pursuit  of  Charles  U.  and 
was  in  the  fight  at  Worcester.  He  followed  and  supported  his 
great  kinsman  in  his  political  career,  presented  the  army  petition 
to  parliament  (August  1652),  approved  of  the  protectorate,  and 
represented  Nottinghamshire  in  the  parliaments  of  1654  and 
1656,  taking  an  active  part  in  the  prosecution  of  the  Quaker 
James  Naylor.  He  was  one  of  the  administrative  major-generals, 
and  was  responsible  for  Lincoln,  Nottingham,  Derby,  Warwick 
and  Leicester.  He  supported  the  "  Petition  and  Advice,"  except 
as  regards  the  proposed  assumption  of  the  royal  title  by  Cromwell, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  newly  constituted  House  of  Lords 
in  December  1657.  On  the  protector's  death,  at  which  he  was 
present,  he  in  vain  gave  his  support  to  Richard;  his  regiment 
refused  to  obey  his  orders,  and  the  Long  Parliament  dismissed 
him  from  his  command  as  a  representative  of  the  army.  In 
November  1659  he  undertook  an  unsuccessful  mission  to  Scotland 
to  arrange  terms  with  Monk.  At  the  Restoration,  Whalley,  with 
his  son-in-law^  General  William  Goffe,  escaped  to  America,  and 
landed  at  Boston  on  the  27th  of  July  z66o,  living  successively  at 
New  Haven  and  at  Hadley,  Massachusetts,  every  attempt  on  the 
part  of  the  government  at  home  to  procure  his  arrest  meeting 
with  failure.  He  was  alive,  but  failing  inliealth,  in  1674,  and 
probably  did  not  long  survive.  Whalley  was  twice  married; 
first  to  Judith  Duflell,  by  whom,  besides  other  children,  he  had  a 
son  John  and  a  daughter  Frances  (who  married  Major-General 
William  Goife,  the  regicide);  and  secondly  to  Maxy  Middleton, 
sister  of  Sir  George  Middlctoil,  by  whom  be  had  two  sons,  Henry 
and  Edward. 

AuTHOKiTiBS.— An  account  of  Whalley's  life  is  in  Noble's  Lives 
9f  the  RepcUes;  and  of  his  family  in  Noble's  Memoirs  of  the  Pro- 
Uctoral  House  of  Cromwell,  vol.  ii. ;  see  also  Gardiner's  and  Claren- 
don's histories  of  the  period,  Peck's  Desiderata  cvnosa  (1779; 
Whalley's  account  of  the  lung's  flight) :  Ezra  Stiles's  History  of  three 
of  the  Jvdffis  of  Charles  I.  (1794.,  Ac).  The  article  by  C.  H.Firth  in 
the  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  is  an  admirable  summary.  Whalley's  sojourn 
in  America  is  dealt  with  in  numerous  papers  published  by  the 
MassKhusetts  Historical  Society,  and  in  tne  mtcbioson  Papers 


published  (1865)  by  the  Prince  Society;  see  also  Athtitic  iiontUy, 
vi-  «9^3;  FwfwyfcKMifd  MatX  55-66,  230.  359;  P.  B.  !>exfei*8 
Memoranda  concerning  Whafley  and  Ooffe,  riew  HcM»  Cd.  HisL 
Soc.  Papers.  iL  (1877);  Poem  commomoratm  ^  Gofie,  Wh^y 
and  Dixwell,  with  abstract  of  their  history,  by  Philagathos 
(Boston.  1793);  Palfrey's  HisL  of  Hew  England,  ii.  (1866); 
Notes  end  (juries,  5th  series,  ViiL  359  (bibliography  of  American 
works  on  the  regiddes). 

WHARF,  a  place  for  loading  or  miloading  ships  or  vessels, 

particulariy  a  platform  of  timber,  stone  or  other  material  along 

the  shore  of  a  harbour  or  along  the  bank  of  a  navigable  river 

against  which  vesseh  may  lie  and  discharge  their  cargo  or  be 

loaded.    The  O.  Eng.  word  kwerf  meant  literally  a  turning  or 

turning-place  {kwcorfan,  to  turn,  cf.  Goth,  kwairhati.  Or.  icapir6i, 

wrist),  and  w)is  thus  used  particularly  of  a  bank  of  earth,  a  dam 

which  turns  the  flow  of  a  stream;  the  cognate  word  In  Dutch, 

wer/,  meant  a  wharf  or  a  shipbuilder's  yard,  cf.  Dan.  taerft^ 

dockyard,  and  the  current  meaning  of  the  word  is  probably 

borrowed  from  Dutch  or  Scandinavian  languages. 

In  English  law  all  water«bome  goods  must  be  landed  at  specified 
places,  in  particular  hours  and  under  suporvision;  wharves,  which 
t>y  the  Merchant  Shipping  Ace  1895, 1 493,  include  quays,  docks  and 
other  premises  on  which  goods  may  be  lawfully  landed,  are  either 
"  sufferance  wharves,"  authorized  by  the  commissioners  of  customs 
under  bond,  or  "  legal  wharves  "  specially  appointed  by  treasury 
warrant  and  exempt  from  bond*  There  are  also  wharves  authorisod 
by  statute  or  by  prewriptive  right.  The  owner  or  occupier  of  a 
whari  is  styled  a  "  wharfinger,  properly  "  whariager,"  with  an 
intrusive  n,  as  in  *'  messenger  "  and  "  passenger." 

WHARNCUFFE,  JAMES  ARCHIBALD  STUART-WORTLET- 
MACKENZIB,  iST  Baron  (177^1845),  Engh'sh  statesman, 
was  the  s(m  of  .Colonel  Stuart,  son  of  the  3rd  earl  of  Bute  and  of 
his  wife  Mary  Wortley-Montagu(Baroness  Mountstuart  in  her  own 
right),  as  whose  heir  Colonel  Stuart  added  the  name  of  Wortley, 
taking  later  also  that  of  Mackenzie  (which  his  son  in  later  life 
discarded)  as  heir  to  his  uncle  J.  S.  Mackenzie  of  Rosehaugh. 
He  entered  the  army,  becoming  colonel  in  1797,  but  retired  in 
z8oz  and  devoted  himself  to, politics,  sitting  in  parliament  as  a 
Tory  for  Bossiney  in  Cornwall  till  18 z8,  when  he  was  returned 
for  Yorkshire.  His  attitude  on  various  questions  became 
gradually  more  Liberal,  and  his  support  of  Catholic  emancipation 
lost  him  his  seat  in  1826.  He  was  then  raised  to  the  peerage  as 
Baron  Whamdiffe  of  Wortley,  a  recognition  both  of  his  previous 
parliamentary  activity  and  of  bis  high  position  among  the  country 
gentlemen.  At  first  opposing  the  Reform  BiU,  he  gradually 
came  to  see  the  undesirability  of  a  popular  conflict,  and  he  separ- 
ated himself  from  the  Tories  and  took  an  important  part  in 
modifying  the  attitude  of  the  peers  and  hdping  to  pass  the  bill, 
though  his  attempts  at  amendment  only  resulted  in  his  pleasing 
neither  party.  He  became.lord  privy  seal  in  Peel's  short  ministry 
at  the  end  of  1834,  and  again  joined  him  in  184 1  as  lord  president 
of  the  council  In  1837  he  brought  out  an  edition  of  the  writings 
of  his  ancestress.  Lady  Mary  Wortley-Montagu  (new  ed.  1893). 
On  his  death  in  1845  he  was  succeeded  as  2nd  baron  by  his  eklest 
son,  John  Stuart-WortJey  (1801-1855),  whose  son  Edward,  3rd 
baron  (1827-1899),  best  known  as  chairman  of  the  Manchester, 
Lincoln  &  Sheffield  railway,  converted  under  him  into  the  Great 
Central,  was  created  ist  earl  of  Whamdiffe  and  Viscount  Carlton 
in  1876;  his  name  was  prominently  identified  with  railway 
enterprise,  and  became  attached  to  certain  features  of  its  nomen- 
clature.  He  was  succeeded  as  2nd  earl  by  his  nephew  Francis 
(b.  1856). 

Among  other  members  of  the  family,  several  of  whom  dis- 
tinguished themselves  in  law,  politics,  art  and  the  army,  may  be 
mentioned  the  ist  baron's  third  son,  James  Archibald  Stuart- 
Wortley  (1805-1881),  recorder  of  London  and  solidtor-general; 
his  son,  C.  B.  Stuart-Wortley,  K.C.  (b.  1851),  became  well  known 
in  parliament  as  under-sccretary  for  the  home  office  (1885,  and 
i886-x89a)  and  deputy-chairman  of  committees. 

WHAR11)ir  (Family).  The  Whartons  of  Wharton  were  an  old 
north  of  England  family,  and  in  1543  Thomas  Wharton  (1495- 
1568)  was  created  a  baron  for  his  services  in  border  warfare. 
From  him  descended  the  and,  3Bd  and  4th  barons;  and  the 
latter,  Philip  Whaston  (1613-1696),  was  the  father  of  Thomas 
Whaktok  (164^1.71$),  who  ini  X7Q6  wM  created  carl  Md  in 


WHARTON,  F.— WttAtELY 


57i 


17x4  marquess  ol  Wharton.  The  xst  marquess  was  one  of  the 
chief  Whig  politicians  after  the  Revolution.  He  is  famous  in 
iiteraxy  hktoiy  as  tlie  author  of  the  famous  political  ballad, 
Lillibwrierc,  which  "sang  James  II.  out  of  three  kingdoms." 
Wharton  was  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  Anne's  reign,  and  in- 
curred the  wrath  of  Svidft,  who  attacked  him  as  Verres  in  the 
Examiner  (No.  14),  and  drew  a  separate  "  character  "  of  him, 
which  is  one  of  Swift's  masterpieces.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
wit  and  versatile  cleverness,  and  cynically  ostentatious  in  his 
immorality,  having  the  reputation  of  being  the  greatest  rake  and 
the  truest  Whig  of  his  time.  Addison  dedicated  to  him  the  fifth 
volume  of  the  Spectator ^  giving  him  a  vexy  different  "  character  " 
from  Swift's.  His  first  wife,  Anna  Wharton  (1632-1685),  was 
an  authoress,  whose  poems,  including  an  EUgy  on  Lord  Rockesttr, 
were  celebrated  by  WiUter  and  Dryden.  His  son,  Pbiup 
Wharton  (1698-1731),  duke  of  Wharton,  succeeded  to  his 
father's  marquessate  and  fortune,  and  in  1718  was  areatcd  a  duke. 
But  he  quickly  earned  for  himself,  by  his  wild  and  profligate 
frolics  and  reckless  playing  at  politics,  Pope's  satire  of  him  as 
"  the  scorn  and  wonder  of  our  days  "{Moral  Essays,  L  179).  He 
spent  his  large  estates  in  a  few  years,  then  went  abroad  and 
gave  eccentric  support  to  the  Old  Pretender.  There  is  a  lively 
picture  of  his  appearance  at  Madrid  in  1726  in  a  letter  from  the 
British  consul,  quoted  in  Stanhope's  History  of  Engfand  (il. 
140).  He  was  outlawed  in  1729,  and  at  his  death  the  titles 
became  extinct.  In  1843  a  claim  was  made  before  the  House  of 
Lords  for  a  revival  of  the  barony  in  favour  of  Mr  Kemys-Tynte, 
a  descendant  of  the  ist  baron  in  the  female  line. 

For  the  history  of.  the  family  see  E.  R.  Wharton's  WharUms  of 
WharUm  HaU  (1898). 

WHARTON,  FRAHCtt  (1830-1889),  American  legal  writer 
and  educationalist,  was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  7th  of  March  z8aa  He  gradtiated  at  Yale  in  X839,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1843,  became  prominent  in  Pennsylvania 
politics  as  a  Democrat,  and  in  Philadelphia  edited  the  North 
A  merican  and  United  States  Gatette,  He  was  professor  of  English 
history  and  literature  at  Kenyon  College,  Gambler,  Ohio,  in 
1856-1863.  He  took  orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church 
in  1862  and  in  1863-1869  was  rector  of  St  Paul's  Church,  Brook- 
Iine»  Massachusetts.  In  187  i*i88z  he  taught  ecclesiastical  polity 
and  canon  law  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Theological  School  at 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  and  at  this  time  he  lectured  on  the 
conflict  of  laws  at  Boston  University.  For  two  years  he  travelled 
in  Europe,  and  after  two  years  in  Philadelphia  he  went  to 
Washington,  D.C.,  where  he  was  lecturer  on  criminal  law  (1885- 
x886)  and  then  professor  of  criminal  law  (1886-1888)  at  Columbian 
(now  (}eoige  Washington)  University;  in  1885-18^8  he  was 
solicitor  (or  examiner  of  claims)  of  the  Department  of  State, 
and  from  1888  to  hi*  death  on  the  aist  of  February  1889  was 
employed  on  an  edition  (authorised  by  Congress)  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  United  States  (6  vols., 
1889,  ed.  by  J.  B.  Moore),  which  superseded  Sparks's  compilation. 
Wharton  was  a  "  broad  churchman  "  and  was  deeply  interested 
in  the  hymnology  of  his  church.  He  received  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  from  the  univefsity  of  Edinburgh  in  1883,  and  was  the 
foremost  American  authority  on  international  law. 

He  pabKshed:  A  Treatise  on  the  Criminal  law  of  the  United  Slates 

^1846;  many  times  reprinted^;  State  Trials  of  the  United  States 
urtng  the  Administrations  if  Washington  and  Adams  (1849);  A 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Homicide  in  the  United  States  (18A5);  with 
Moieton  Stilld,  A  Treatise  on  MedicalJurisOfudence  (1855);  Modern 
Theism  (1859),  in  which  he  applied  rules  of  legal  evidence  to  modem 
•ccprical  theories;  A  Treatise  on  the  Conflict  of  Latms  (1872:  5rd  ed. 
190O;  A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Neglieenu  C1B74);  A  Commentary 
on  vie  Law  of  Agency  and  Agents  (1876).  A  Commentary  on  the  Law 
of  Evidence  tn  cml  Issues  (1877;  3rd  ed.  1888);  a  companion  work 
on  Criminal  Bndenu;  Commentary  on  the  Law  of  ContracU  (1882); 
Commentaries  on  Low  (1884) ;  and  a  Digest  of  the  International  Law 
of  the  United  States  Jbi  vols.  1886). 

See  the  Memoir  (Philadelphia.  1891)  by  his  daughter.  Mrs  Vide, 
and  several  friends;  and  J.  B.  Moore's  "  Brief  Sketch  of  the  Life 
4^  Francis  Wharton."  prefaced  to  the  first  volume  of  the  RevolU' 
iionaty  Diplomatie  Correspondence. 

WHAR'TON,  HENRY  (1664-1695).  English  writer,  was 
defended  from  Thomas,  snd  Baron  Wharton   (i5>^tS7>)> 


being  a  son  of  the  Rev.  Edmund  Wharton,  vicar  of  Worstead, 
Norfolk.  Bom  at  Worstead  on  the  9th  of  November  1664, 
Wharton  was  educated  by  his  father,  and  then  at  GonviUe  and 
Caius  College,  Cambridge.  Both  his  industry  and  his  talents 
were  exceptional,  and  his  university  career  was  brilliant.  In 
1686  he  entered  the  service  of  the  ecclesiastical  historian,  the 
Rev.  William  Cave  (1637-1713),  whom  he  helped  in  his  literary 
work;  but  considering  that  his  assistance  was  not  sufficiently 
appreciated  he  soon  forsook  this  employment.  In  1687  he  was 
ordained  deacon,  and  in  1688  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  William  Sancroft,  under  whose 
generotis  patronage  some  of  his  literary  work  was  done.  The  arch- 
bishop,  who  had  a  very  high  opinion  of  Wharton's  character  and 
talents,  made  him  one  of  his  chaplains,  and  presented  him  to  the 
Kentish  living  of  Sundridge,  and  afterwards  to  that  of  Chartham 
in  the  same  county.  In  1689  he  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
William  and  Mary,  but  he  wrote  a  severe  criticism  of  Bishop 
Burnet's  History  of  the  Reformation,  and  it  was  partly  owing  to 
the  bishop's  hostility  that  he -did  not  obtain  further  preferment 
in  the  English  church.  He  died  on  the  5th  of  March  1695,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Wharton*8  most  valuable  work  is  his  An^ia  sacra,  a  collection  of 
the  lives  of  Eng|ttsh  archbishops  and  bishops,  which  was  published 
in  two  volumes  in  1691.  Some  of  these  were  written  by  Wharton 
himself;  others  were  borrowed  from  early  writera  His  other 
writings  include,  in  addition  to  his  criticism  of  the  History  of  the 
Reformation,  A  treatise  of  the  cdihacy  of  the  clergy  (1688);  The 
^hnsiasm  of  the  Church  of  Rome  demonstrated  in  some  observations 
upon  the  life  of  Ignatius  Loyola  (1688);  and  A  defence  of  pluraliiies 
(1692.  new  ed.  1703).  In  the  Lambeth  Library  there  are  sixteen 
volumes  of  Wharton's  manuscripts.  Describing  him  as  "  this 
wonderful  man,"  Stubbs  says  that  Wharton  did  for  the  elucidation 
of  English  Church  history  "  more  than  any  one  before  or  since." 
A  life  of  Wharton  b  included  in  George  D'Oyly's  L^e  of  W,  Sancroft 
(1821). 

WHATELY,  RICHAin)  (1787-1863),  English  logician  and 
theological  writer,  archbishop  of  Dubh'n,  was  bom  in  London  on 
the  ist  of  February  17S7.  He  was  educated  at  a  private  school 
near  Bristol,  and  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  He  obtained  double 
second-class  honours  and  the  prize  for  the  English  essay;  in 
181 1  he  was  elected  fellow -of  Oriel,  and  in  1814  took  orders. 
During  his  residence  at  Oxford  he  wrote  his  Celebrated  tract. 
Historic  Doubts  rdative  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  .a  very  clever 
jeu  d*esprit  directed  against  excessive  scepticism  as  applied  to 
the  Gospel  history.  After  his  marriage  in  iSsx  he  settled  in 
Oxford,  and  In  1823  was  appointed  Bampton  lecturer.  The 
lectures,  On  the  Use  and  Abuse  cf  Party  Spirit  4m  Matters  of 
Rdigion,  were  published  in  the  same  year.  In  August  1813  he  re* 
moved  to  Halesworth  in  Suffolk,  but  in  1825,  having  been  ajv* 
pointed  principal  of  St  Alban  Hall,  he  returned  to  Oxford.  At 
St  Alban  Hall  Whately  found  much  to  reform,  and  he  left  it  a 
different  place.  In  1825  he  published  a  series  of  Essays  on  Some 
of  the  Pecttliarities  of  the  Christian  Religion,  followed  in  1828  by 
a  second  scries  On  some  of  the  Difficulties  in  the  WriUngs  of 
St  Paul,  and  in  1830  by  a  third  On  the  Errors  of  Romanism  traced 
to  their  Origin  in  Human  Nature.  While  he  was  at  St  Alban 
Hall  (1826)  the  work  appeared  which  Is  perhaps  moat  closely 
associated  with  his  name — ^hls  treatise  on  Logic,  originally 
contributed  to  the  Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana,  in  which  he 
raised  the  study  of  the  subject  to  a  new  level.  It  gave  a  great 
impetus  to  the  study  of  logic  throughout  Great  Britain.  A 
similar  treatise  on  Rhetoric,  also  contributed  to  the  Encyclopaedia, 
appeared  in  1828.  In  1829  Whately  was  elected  to  the  pro* 
fessorship  of  poEtical  economy  at  Oxford  in  succession  to  Nanau 
William  Senior.  This  was  a  subject  admirably  suited  to  his 
lucid,  practical  intellect;  but  his  tenure  of  office  was  cut  short 
by  his  appointment  to  the  archbishopric  of  Dublin  fai  1S31. 
He  published  only  one  course  of  Introductory  tenures  (1831)1 
but  one  of  his  first  acts  on  going  to  Dublin  was  to  endow  a  chair 
of  pdttical^onomy  in  Trinity  College  out  of  his  private  purse. 

Whately's  appointment  by  Lord  Grey  to  the  see  of  Dublin 
came  as  a  great  surprise  to  everybody,  for  though  a  decided 
Liberal  Whately  had  from  the  beginning  stood  aloof  from  all 
political  parties,  and  ecdesiasticaliy  his  posUton  waa  that  «l 


J76 


WHAT-NOT— WHEAT 


an  Ithnuielite  fighting  for  his  own  hand.  The  Evangelicals 
regarded  hun  as  a  dangerous  latitudinarian  on  the  ground  of 
his  views  on  Catholic  emancipation,  the  Sabbath  question,  the 
doctrine  of  election,  and  certain  quasi-SabelUan  opinions  he  was 
■supposed  to  hold  about  the  character  and  attributes  of  Christ, 
while  his  view  of  the  church  was  diametrically  opposed  to  that 
of  the  High  Church  pMurty,  and  from  the  beginning  he  was  the 
determined  opponent  of  what  was  afterwards  called  the  Trac- 
tarian  movement.  The  .appointment  was  challenged  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  but  without  success.  In  Ireland  it  was  im- 
mensely unpopular  among  the  Protestants,  both  for  the  reasons 
just  mentioned  and  as  being  the  appointment  (A  an  Englishman 
SAd  a  Whig.  Whately's  bhint  outspokenness  and  his  "  want  of 
conciliating  manners,"  which  even  his  friends  admit,  prevented 
him  from  ever  completely  eradicating  these  prejudices,  while 
at  the  same  time  he  met  with  determined  opposition  from  his 
own  clergy.  He  ran  counter  to  their  most  cherished  prejudices 
from  the  first  by  connecting  himself  prominently  with  the 
attempt  to  establish  a  national  and  unseaarian  system  of 
educatinm.  He  enforced  strict  discipline  in  his  diocese,  where 
it  had  been  long  unknown;  and  he  published  an  tmanswerable 
statement  of  his  views  on  the  Sabbath  (Thoughts  on  the  Sabbath, 
1832).  He  took  a  small  country  place  at  Redcsdale,  4  m.  out 
of  Dublin,  where  he  could  enjoy  his  favourite  rdascalion  of 
gardening.  Here  his  life  was  one  of  indefatigable  industry. 
Questions  of  tithes,  reform  of  the  Irish  church  and  of  the  Irish 
Poor  Laws,  and,  in  particular,  the  organization  of  national 
education  occupied  much  of  his  time.  But  he  found  leisure 
for  the  discussion  of  other  public  questions,  for  Example,  the 
subject  of  transportation  and  the  general  question  of  secondary 
punishments.  In  1837  he  wrote  his  well-known  handbook  of 
Ckristian  Etidences^  which  was  translated  during  his  lifetime 
mto  more  than  a  dozen  languages.  At  a  later  period  he  also 
wpote,  in  a  similar  form.  Easy  Lessons  on  Rnsoningf  on  Morqis, 
on  Mind  and  on  the  British  Constitution.  Among  his  other 
works  may  be  mentioned  Charges  and  Tracts  (1836),  Essays 
4m  Some  of  the  Dangers  to  Christian  Patth  (1839),  The  Kingdom 
0/  Christ  (1841).  He  also  edited  Bacon's  Essays,  Paley's  Evi- 
dences  and  Paley's  Moral  Philosophy.  His  cherished  scheme 
of  unsectarian  religious  instruction  for  Protestants  and  Cathohcs 
alike  was  carried  out  for  a  number  of  years  with  a  measure  of 
success,  but  in  1852  the  scheme  broke  down  owing  to  the  op- 
position of  the  new  Catholic  archbishop  of  Dublin,  and  Whately 
felt  himself  constrained  to  withdraw  from  the  Education  Board. 
From  the  beginning  Whately  was  a  keen-sighted  observer  of 
the  condition  of  Ireland  question,  and  gave  much  offence  by 
openly  supporting  the  stale  endowment  of  the  Catholic  clergy 
as  a  measure  of  justice.  During  the  terrible  years  of  1846  and 
1847  the  archbishop  and  his  family  were  unwearied  in  their 
efforts  to  alleviate  the  miseries  of  the  people.  From  X856 
onwards  symptoms  of  decline  began  to  manifest  themselves 
in  a  paralytic  affection  of  the  left  side.  Still  he  continued  the* 
active  discharge  of  his  public  duties  till  the  summer  of  1863, 
when  he  was  prostrated  by  an  ulcer  in  the  leg,  and  after  several 
months  ol  acute  suffering  he  died  on  the  8th  of  October  1863. 

Whately  was  a  great  talker,  much  addicted  in  early  life  to 
aigument,  in  which  he  used  others  as  instruments  on  which  to 
hammer  out  his  own  views,  and  as  he  advanced  in  life  much 
given  to  didactic  monologue.  He  had  a  keen  wit,  whose  sharp 
edge  often  inflicted  wounds  never  deliberately  intended  by  the 
speaker,  and  a  wholly  uncontrollable  love  of  punning.  Whately 
often  offended  people  by  the  extreme  unconvcntionaUty  of  his 
manners.  When  at  Oiiord  his  white  hat,  rough  white  coat, 
and  huge  white  dog  earned  for  him  the  sobriquet  of  the  White 
Bear,  and  he  outraged  the  conventions  ol  the  place  by  exhibiting 
the  exploits  of  his  climbing  dog  in  Christchurch  Meadow.  With 
a  remarkably  fair  and  lucid  mind,  his  sympathies  were  narrow, 
and  by  his  blunt  outspokenness  on  points  of  difference  he 
alieoated  many.  With  no  mystical  fibre  in  his  own  constitution, 
the  Tmctarian  movement  was  incomprehensible  to  him,  and  was 
the  object  of  his  bitter  dislike  and  conumpt.  The  doctrines  of 
dK  Low  Church  party  seemed  to  him  to  be  ahnosl  equally  tinged 


with  superstition.  He  took  a  practical,  almost  buafnoa-like 
view  of  Christianity,  which  seemed  to  High  Churchmen  and 
Evangelicals  alike  little  better  than  Rationalism.  In  this  they 
did  Whately  less  than  justice,  for  lus  religion  was  very  real  and 
genuine.  But  he  may  be  said  to  have  continued,  the  typical 
Christianity  of  the  i8th  century — that  of  the  theologians  who 
went  out  to  fight  the  Rationalists  with  their  own  weapons.  It 
was  to  Whately  essentially  a  belief  m  certain  matters  of  fact,  to 
be  accepted  or  rejected  after  an  examination  of  "  evidences.*' 
Hence  his  endeavour  always  is  to  convince  the  logical  faculty, 
and  his  Christianity  inevitably  appears  as  a  thing  of  the  intellect 
rather  than  of  the  hearL  Whately's  qualities  are  exhibited  at 
their  best  in  his  Logic,  which  is,  as  it  were,  the  quintessence  of 
the  views  which  he  afterwards  applied  to  different  subjects. 
He  wrote  nothing  better  than  the  luminous  Appendix. to.  thi^ 
work  on- Ambiguous  Terms. 

la  186^  fail  daughter  published  liisceUaneous  Remains  from  hia 
commonplace  book  and  in  1866  his  Life  and  Correspondenu  in  two 
volumes.    The  Anecdotal  Memoirs  of  Archbishop  Whately,  by  W.  J 
Fitzpatrick  (1864),  enliven  the  picture. 

WHAT-NOT,  a  piece  of  furniture,  derived  from  the  French 
itagtre,  which  was  exceedingly  popular  in  England  in  the  first 
three-quarters  of  the  19th  century.  It  usually  consists  of 
slender  uprights  or  pillars,  supporting  a  series  of  shelves  for 
holding  china,  ornaments  or  trifles  of  any  kind — hence  the 
allusive  name.  In  its  English  form,  although  a  convenient 
drawing-room  receptacle,  it  was  rarely  beautiful.  The  early 
mahogany  examples  are,  however,  sometimes  graceful  in  their 
simplicity. 

WHEAT  (Trilicum),  the  most  important  and  the  most  gener- 
ally diffused  of  cereal  grasses.  It  is  an  oiuiual  plant,  with  hollow, 
erect,  knotted  stems,  and  pro- 
duces, in  addition  to  the  direct 
developments  from  the  seed- 
Ung  plant,  secondary  roots  and 
secondary  shoots  (tiUcrs)  from 
the  base.  Its  leaves  have  each 
a  long  sheath  encircling  the 
stem,  and  at  the  jimction  of 
the  blade  or  **  flag  "  with  the 
sheath  a  smaU  whitish  out- 
growth or  "  ligula."  The  in- 
florescence or  ear  consists  of 
a  central  stalk  bent  zigzag, 
forming  a  series  of  notches  (see 
fig.  i),  and  bearing  a  number 
of  flattened  spikelets,  one  of 
which  grows  out  of  each  notch 
and  has  its  inner  or  upper  face 
pressed  up  against  it.  At  the 
base  of  each  spikelet  are  two 
empty  boat-shaped  glumes  or 
"chaff -scales,"  one  to  the  right, 
the  other  to  the  left,  and  then 
a  series  of  flowers,  2  to  8  in 
number,  closely  crowded  to- 
gether; the  uppermost  are 
abortive  or  sterile, — ^indeed,  in 
some  varieties  only  one  or  two 


Fig.  1.— Spikelet  and  Flowers  of 
Wheat. 

A,  Spikelet  magniffed. 


of  the  flowers  are  fertile.  Each  _^ 

flower  consists  of  an  outer  or  'b[  Siumci*,  from  "side! 

lower  glume,  called  the  flower-  C  Glumes,  from  back. 

ing  glume,  of  the  same  shape  as  £•  Flowering  glume  or  lower  palea. 

ihccmptyglumeandtcrmhuit.    f]  Lod1J"ules  at  base  of  ;.  the 

ovary,  surmounted  by  st  vies. 

(7 and  ^,Sced  from  front  amlback 
respectively. 

/  Rachts,  or  central  stalk  of  ear^ 
4)ikclets  removed. 


ing  in  a  long,  or  it  may  be  in  a 

short,  awn  or  *'  beard."    On 

the  other  side  of  the  flower 

and    at    a    slightly    higher 

level    is    the     "  palca,"    of 

thinner  texture  than  the  other  glumes,  with  infolded  margins 

and  with  two  ribs  or  veins.    These  several  glumes  are  doM^ 

applied  out  to  the  othw  lo  as  to  conceal  and  protect  the  ovary. 


WHEAT 


577 


and  th^  only  aeparate  for  &  short  Um«  when  flowering  takes 
place;  after  fertUizatioa  they  close  again.  Within  the  pale 
are  two  minute,  ovate,  pointed,  white  membranous  scales  called 
"lodiculcs."  These  contain  three  stamens  with  thread-like 
filaments  and  oblong,  two-lobed  anthers.  The  stamens  are 
placed  round  the  base  of  the  ovary,  which  is  rounded  or  oblong, 
much  smaller  than  the  glumes,  covered  with  down,  and  sur- 
mounted by  two  short  styles,  extending  into  feathery  brush-like 
stigmas.  The  ripe  fruit  or  grain,  sometimes  called  the  "  berry," 
the  matured  state  of  the  ovary  and  its  contents,  is  oblong  or 
ovoid,  with  a  longitudinal  furrow  on  one  side.  The  ovary  adheres 
firmly  to  the  seed  in  the  interior,  so  that  on  examining  a  longi- 
tudinal section  of  the  grain  by  the  microscope  the  outer  layer 
is  seen  to  consist  of  epidermal  cells,  of  which  the  uppermost 
are  prolonged  into  short  hairs  to  cover  the  apex  of  the  grain. 

Two  or  three  layers  of 
cells  inside  the  epidernus 
constitute  the  tissue  of 
the  ovary,  and  overlie 
somewhat  similar  layers 
which  form  the  coats  of 
the  seed.  Within  these 
is  the  albumen  or  endo- 
sperm, constituting  the 
flowery  part  of  the  seed. 
The  outermost  layer  of 
the  endosperm  consists 
of  square  cells  larger  and 
more  regular  in  form  than 
those  on  each  side;  these 
contain  alcuron  grains — 
small  particles  of  gluten 
or  nitrogenous  matter. 
The  remaining  central 
mass  of  the  seed  is  com- 
posed of  numerous  cells 
of  irregular  form  and  size 
containing  many  starch 
grains  as  well  as  gluten 
granules.  The  several 
layers  of  cells  above  re- 
ferred to  become  more 
Fig.     a.—/.    Beardless    wheat.    //.  or  less  dry  and  insepar- 

^ulii  "*]•??*'  "i^^  x'^:i'  ^^''  ^^^^  able  one  from  another, 
wheat.    All  much  reduced.  ,  ..  .   . 

formmg   the   substance 

known  as  "bran."  At  the  lower  end  of  the  albumen,  and 
placed  obliquely,  is  the  minute  embryo-plant,  which  derives  its 
nourishment  in  the  first  instance  from  the  albumen;  this  is 
destined  to  form  the  future  plant. 

The  wheat  plant  is  nowhere  found  in  a  wild  condition.  Some 
of  the  qxdes  of  the  genus  Aegitops  (now  generally  referred  to 
Trilicum  by  Bentham  and  Hooker  and  by  Hacckcl) 
may  possibly  have  been  the  sources  of  our  oultivated 
forms,  as  they  cross  freely  with  wheats.  Hacckel 
considers  that  there  are  three  species,  (i)  TriiUum  mono- 
coccum^  which  undoubtedly  grows  wild  in  Greece  and  Meso- 
potamia, is  cultivated  in  Spain  and  elsewhere,  and  was  also 
cultivated  by  the  aboriginal  Swiss  lake>dwellere,  as  well  as  at 
Hissarlik,  as  is  shown  by  the  grain*  found  in  those  localities. 
(2)  T,  saiivum  is  the  ordinary  cultivated  wheat,  of  which  Hacckcl 
recogruzes  three  principal  races,  spdla^  dicoccum  and  knax. 
Spelt  wheats  (see  fig*  a)  were  cultivated  by  the  aboriginal  Swiss, 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  throughout  the  Roman  empire. 
The  variety  dicoccum  was  also  c\dtivatcd  in  prehistoric  times, 
and  is  still  grown  in  Southern  Europe  as  a  summer  wheat  and 
one  suitable  for  starch-making.  The  variety  tenax  includes  four 
sub-races,  vulgare  (common  wheat),  compaclum^  turgidum  and 
c/Mrum  (see below).  (3)  The  third  species,  T.  ^o/onic«m,  or  Polish 
wheat,  is  a  very  distinct-looking  form,  with  long  leafy  glumes; 
its  origin  is  not  known.    As  these  varieties  intercross  with  each 

'See  drawings  made  to  scale  by  Mr  Worthington  Smith  in  the 
Gardmtrs  Chranide  (25th  December  1S86). 


OH^a 


other,  the  prasumption  Is  that  they,  like  the  tpedes  of  AtgUops, 
which  also  intercross  with  wheat,  may  have  ail  originated  from 
one  common  stock. 

Basing  his  conclusions  upon  philological  data,  such  as  the 
names  of  wheat  in  the  oldest  known  languages,  the  writings 
of  the  most  ancient  historians,  and  the  observations 
of  botanical  travellers,  De  Candolle  infers  that  the  SmflC** 
original  home  of  the  wheat  plant  was  in  Mesopotamia,  tioa. 
and  that  from  there  its  cultivation  extended  in  very 
early  times  to  the  Canaries  on  the  west  and  to  China  on  the  east. 
In  the  western  hemisphere  wheat  was  not  known  till  the  x6th 
century.    Humboldt  mentions  that  it  was  accidentally  intro- 
duced into  Mexico  with  rice  brought  from  Spain  by  a  negro 
slave  belonging  to  Cortes,  and  the  same  writer  saw  at  Quito  the 
earthen  vase  in  which  a  Flemish  monk  had  introduced  from 
Ghent  the  first  wheat  grown  in  South  America. 

As  might  be  anticipated  from  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  from 
time  immemorial  and  from  its  wide  diff unon  throughout  the  eastern 
hemisphere.the  varieties  of  wheat — that  is,  of  T.  satioum'—  -. .  .  - 
are  very  mimerous  and  of  every  grade  of  inten«ty.  Those  1!]|32m«. 
cases  in  which  thevariation  is  most  cxtremesome  botanists  """■"'"• 
would  prefer  to  consider  as  forming  distinct  species;  but  others, 
as  die  Vilmorin,  havinj;  regard  to  the  general  facts  of  the  case 
and  to  the  numerous  mtermediate  gradations,  look  upon  all  the 
forms  as  derivatives  from  one.  In  iUustnition  of  this  utter  point 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  not  only  do  the  several  varieties  run  one 
into  the  other,  but  their  chemical  compoution  varies  likewise 
according  to  climate  and  season.  According  to  Professor  Church.* 
even  in  the  produce  of  a  single  ear  there  may  be  3  to  a  %  more  of 
albuminoid  matters  in  some  grains  than  in  others;  out  on  the 
average  the  proportion  of  gluten  to  starch  is  as  q«ii  to  100.  From 
the  point  of  view  of  affiicuiture  it  is  generally  of  no  great  moment 
what  rank  be  assigned  to  the  various  forms.  ^  It  is  only  important 
to  take  cognizance  of  them  for  purposes  of  cultivation  under  varying 
circumstances.  Hence  we  only  allude  to  some  of  the  principu 
variations  and  to  those  characteristics  which  are  found  to  t>e  unstable, 
(i)  Setting  aside  differences  of  constitution,  such  as  hardihood,  size, 
and  the  luce,  there  is  relatively  little  variation  in  the  form  of  the 
on^ns  of  vegetation.  This  indicates  that  less  attention  has  been 
paid  to  the  straw  than  to  the  grain,  for  it  is  certain  that,  were  it 
desirable,  a  great  range  of  variation  might  be  induced  in  the  foliage 
and  straw.  As  it  is,  some  varieties  are  hardier  and  taller  than 
others,  and  the  straw  more  solid,  varying  in  colour  and  having  leas 
liability  to  be  "laid";  but  in  the  matter  of  "tillering,"  or  the 
production  of  lide-shoots  from  the  base  of  the  stem,  there  is  much 
difference.  Spring  wheats  procured  from  northern  latitudes  mature 
more  rapidly  than  those  from  temperate  or  hot  climates,  whilst  the 
reverse  is  the  case  with  autumn  wheats  from  the  same  source.  The 
diflFcrence  is  accounted  for  by  the  greater  amount  of  light  which  the 
plants  obtain  in  northern  regions,  and,  especially,  by  its  comparatively 
uninterrupted  continuance  during  the  growing  period,  when  there  aro 
more  working  houn  for  the  plants  in  the  day  than  in  more  southern 
climes.  Autumn  wheats,  on  the  other  hand,  are  subjected  to  an 
enforced  rest  for  a  period  of  several  months,  and  even  when  grown 
in  milder  climates  remain  quiescent  for  a  longer  pesiod.  and  start 
into  growth  later  in  springs- much  later  than  varieties  of  southern 
origin  These  latter,  accustomed  to  the  mild  winters  of  those 
latitudes,  begin  to  grow  early  in  spring,  and  are  in  consequence 
Ibble  to  iniury  from  spring  frosts.  Wheats  of  dry  countries  and  of 
those  exposed  to  severe  winds  have,  says  De  Vilmorin.  narrow  loives, 
pliant  straw,  bearded  ears,  and  velvety  chafT— <haracteristics  which 
enable  them  to  resist  wind  and  drought.  Wheats  of  moist  climates, 
on  the  other  hand,  have  broader  leaves,  to  admit  of  more  rapid 
transpiration.  No  doubt  careful  microscopic  scrutiny  of  the  minute 
anatomy  of  the  leaves  of  plants  grown  under  vanous  conditions 
would  reveal  further  adaptations  of  structure  to  external  conditions 
of  climate.  At  any  rate,  it  is  certain  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  hard 
wheats  are  almost  exclusively  cultivated  in  hot,  dry  ooumries,  the 
spdt  wheats  in  mountainous  districts  and  on  poor  soil,  tuigid 
(durum  forms)  and  common  wheats  in  plains  or  in  valkys-^ihe  beet 
races  of  wheat  being  found  on  rich  alluvial  plains  and  in  fertile 
valleys.  The  wheat  used  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Florence  for  straw- 
plaiting  is  a  variety  with  very  slender  sulks.  The  eeed  is  sown  very 
thickly  at  the  beginning  of  winter  and  pulled,  not  cut,  about  the  end 
of  May,  before  the  ear  is  ripe.  In  the  United  Kingdom  ordinary 
wheat,  such  as  old  red  Lammas  and  Chiddam  white,  is  used  for 
straw-plaiting,  the  straw  being  cut  some  time  before  the  berry 
ripens.  The  propensity  to  **  tiller  *  is  of  the  greatest  importance, 
as  it  multiplies  the  resources  of  the  farmer.  An  instance  of  this 
is  given  in  the  PhUos^pkical  Transactions  (1768),  where  it  is  stated 
that  one  seedling  plant  in  the  Cambridge  botanic  garden  was  divided 
into  eighteen  parts,  each  of  which  was  replantedand  subsequently 
again  divided,  till  it  produced  sixty-seven  plants  in  one  season. 
In  March  and  April  of  the  following  year  these  were  again  divided 

'  food  Grains  of  India,  p.  94. 


578 


>.  irkieb  In  due  dne  ^did  il 


Tntf  ji  Dbvrvi^  in  the  UabiUly  u 


ThF  cliHiBcatioil  Jl  the  diiln 
hu  occupied  the  attoidoii  <£  nunv  botanist*  and  igricultoriiii. 
„  __  Tbe  duiificntiail  Adopwa  by  Henry  de  VHmorin  in  hii 
2|J^J^  1«  Bill  meOitHn  (ftot,  iMi)  i>  hascd,  iji  tbe  fim 

'*"*  bialu  into  ■  number  o(  jmnu,  u  in  ilie  ipett  -hMIe. 
In  Ihe  Gnt  dw  Ibe  ripe  grain  mdily  deucliei  iiielC  [roin 
tlir  chiHnatet,  wliite  in  the  ipdu  il  i>  more  or  Im  idlisflit  id 
tjicm^  or  not  leadiJy  lepuabie  from  them.    Tbe  (lue  whealatre 

I  f").   lucs^   wheau  {T. 

I  il>n»>)  and  Poliih  ■huu 
I  (7-.   f«il«ii«m).        In  the 


Fto.  t.— LrnigiiUi 

Grain  oEWbcai! 

A.  Epidcmul  ceilt- 


in  niironen  ili^n 


i>|.  Ihe 


•uctiaol  Ihe  KoJT  Tht 

k    FurlMT  Hjb< 

uGuTorThcesn  (u>"ite,  I*™ 
ears  (glabnHia— i^f-  imootb— 


at  downy)  and  the  colour  ol  ibe  and 

ol  the  point!  ol  the  riuma  litraiaht,  bent  outw3rd«»  or  tun 
inward)),  the  lonn  ol  ibc  tar  at  lenaled  on  a  crou-vclion.  and 

intlabilici;  ol  thoe  viriationt.  Proletaar  Church  memioni  ihi 
tingle  grain  wiU  tie  aacnetiiDefl  lumy  ajul  partly  opaque  and  floun. 
in  which  caie  iti  componition  will  correuond  vritD  iu  aifiect.    Tbe 
di^fiod  into  ipring  w-beat  and  winter  wheat  b 
tolel)^.   Any  variotY  may  be  a  itiriDg  or  a  winter 

be  observed  that  Ihe  median  43oieti  dn  Kt  BU  a 
autnmn  wheatL    Among  the  turgid  wheat!  t 


maiuradon  ol^lie  fi^in 
in  (be  product4an  tt  addi 


■"..tt 


eoiau  of  AJtrogen  in  the  grain  was  al 
lirecily  on  the  oenve  ol  ripening,  aa  ir 
it  dK  aeaain.  than  on  dille^a  in  man 

Apart  Irom  the  botanical  i 
iou  ol  the  laculiy  of  vatial 
h«  genealogy  and  origin  o( 


te 


and  Deh^in  Idvt  (boio  '  Ihe  "  infiniie  u| 
Ihe  ordina/y  wheati  ol  a  particular  aquin 

ing  to  (be  nature  ol  [he  aoU,  demands,  sayaDc  Vlliaorin.  intelhgen 
floaaccuAteknowlcdiFon  thepartof  Ihelarmer.  If  a  good  varii.- 
be  grown  Ln  poor  uil.  Ihe  result  will  be  unprofiiabte,  tuhilc.  If  bi 


h  are  the  best  adapted 

-headed  variety  gT«jwn 


ss&s.- 


and  in  North  Amerii 


r-rnorihailil,  65■(Sehu- 
[Ioorl.a^>o^■clhevai!eyol 

ihciiraiHof  Mjgcilan.a. 
ope.  Abytainia,  Rodji^uex, 
archipelago^    Tbno  «ide1y 

over  which  Ihe  culiuR  U 
iplation  ol  Iheplani.    The 

ir  large  leUiive  proponien 


rpoflci  the  aofi  flouTy  wbt 

■  niitvnIffLijim.    Ullb  (he  modem  proccuei of  nulling,  the  lb 

fitf  they  make  (be  bm  flour  for  bakers'  _ 
I  the  aptine  «heali  arfr.  as  a  rule,  harder  tlia 

. ..   ..„ The  bearded  variciici  are  lupposed  id  b 

hardier :  a(  any  rate  They  defy  the  ravages  of  predatory  bird*  (nor 
completely  than  the  unarmc-d  vsrieties,  and  ihey  are  pKfeiaUe  ir 

detached.  Tbe  dvum  wheals  are  specially;  eniplo>i:d  in  Italy  fo 
Ihe  fabrication  of  macaroni-  Polish  wheat  is  used  for  eimilar  pui 
poses.  Spelt  wheats  are  grown  in  Ibe  colder  moimtainous  district 
of  Europe;  their  flour  is  very  fine,  and  is  ufcd  especially  for  pastry 

speclaJmachirtef 
Wheal  begins 


p'!^'i85°'V?^  I 


S*C.  Ut*F.):  and. 
kI  by  the  sum  ti  ihc 
tnn  begins  to  escape 


surlace. 


it  rarely  gccminales.    Tbe  seedii 

''Bo6°'iF^  '"""^"^rSd '"h~""^ '"■•"i "h""iiiiiiS  ^ 

JS",  or  a  liKle  above,  (he  flowers  are  ploducrd.  A  nill  biBhcr  daily 
mean  is  requiird  for  the  lull  devclnpmcnt  and  ripening  of  (he  grain. 
The  Bguies  here  ci(ed  an  given  by  Riiler  and  are  calculated  lor 
the  climate  of  Paris;  but-  ol  course,  Ihe  same  principlea  apply  in 
the  case  of  other  counlriet.  The  amouni  of  ligCl  aniTol  iwailun 
inal  Ihe  vbeat  plant 
*r^A»  does  bot  Buffer 
iheculilutgr, 


ind  Enmishcs  c 
'heat  in  Ihe  « 
Tbe  lollowint 


ne  oi  great  importar 

in  i^Mhe  wSinB  ™™'i 
.  cited  by  De  Vilr 


ID  trie  cuirrtaor. 

ionaie  cultiue  of 
jf  England. 

_ ..iJoulW,winglrt 

int  ol  Ihe  demands  made  Hpon  the 

-      itbu^wltQf  whoit 


The  nnmcRKis  variclies  of  wheal  now  in  cutliyalion  h«*  been 
obtained  either  by  seleclion  or  by  Cross-breeding,  In  any  wheal- 
fteld  (ben  may  be  observed  on  close  inspection  plants    fx^f—, 

■eaaon.  iliey  may  (or  may  no()  rc^tjduce  Ihe  pariicular   *'"*"**' 
variation,   IJibeydo,andlbesanKprocessof  seleciianbecoDdaited. 

lie  Best  grains  from  the  best  ears.  Ma}or 
Aociikg"  pedigree  wheats"  of  line  qulil)'- 
may  be  eipecled  Irom  croBs-hrceding.  or 
mm.  U^nuary  18BS),  p.  33. 


Hallan  sucee 


WHEAT 


579 


the  fertlUcatioa  of  die  flowere  of  one  dacription  of  wheat  by  the 
pollen  of  another.  This  has  been  attempted  by  ShircfT,  Le  Couteur, 
Mauad  and  others  ta  the  past,  and  more  recently  by  H.  de  Vilmorin 
and  Messrs  Carter.  Under  natural  circumstances  wheat  is  scU- 
Fcrtiliied:  that  is  to  say,  the  pollen  of  any  given  flower  impregnates 
the  stigma  and  ovule  of  the  same  flower;  the  glumes  and  coverings 
tk  the  flower  being  tightly  pressed  round  the  stamens  and  stigmas 
ia  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  the  access  of  insects  and  to  ensure  the 
deposit  of  the  poUen  upon  the  stigmas  of  the  same  flower.  This 
process  of  self-fertilization  is  the  usual  method,  and  no  doubt  keeps 
the  variety  true  or  unmixed :  but  the  occasional  presence  of  varieties 
in  a  wheat-fidd  shows  that  oross-fertilization  is  sometimes  secured. 
The  stamens  of  the  wheat  plant  may  frequently  be  seen  protruding 
beyond  the  glumes,  and  their  position  might  lead  to  the  inference 
that  cross-fertilizatioa  was  the  rule;  but  on  closer  examination  it 
will  be  found  that  the  anthers  are  empty  or  nearly  so.  and  that  they 
are  not  protruded  till  after  they  have  deposited  the  pollen  upon  the 
stigma.  The  separation  of  the  glumes,  which  occurs  at  the  time  of 
fertiliaation,  and  which  permits  the  egress  of  the  useless  stamess 
after  that  operation,  occurs  only  under  certain  conditions  of  tempera- 
ture, when  the  heat,  in  fact,  is  sufficient  to  cause  the  lodiculcs  of 
the  flower  to  become  turgid  and  thus  to  press  apart  the  glumes.  A 
temperature  of  about  75  F.  is  found  by  Messrs  Carter  to  be  the 
most  favourable.  From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  evident  that 
the  artificial  fertilization  of  wheat  is  a  very  delicate  operation.  The 
glumes  have  to  be  separated  and  the  anthers  cut  away  before  the 
pollen  is  fully  formed^  care  being  taken  at  the  same  time  not  to  injure 
the  stigma,  and  specially  not  to  introduce,  on  the  scissors  or  other- 
wise, any  pollen  except  that  of  the  variety  desired.  De  Vilroorin's 
experiments  have  shown  that  all  the  varieties  will  intercross,  and 
that  even  such  a  distinct  form  as  the  Polish  is  no  exception.  From 
this  he  concludes  that  all  the  forms  have  originated  from  one  stock 
and  are  to  be  comprised  within  one  species.  In  the  progeny  of  these 
crossed  wheats,  especially  in  the  secund  generation,  much  variation 
and  difference  of  character  is  observable — a  phenomenon  commonly 
noticed  in  the  descendants  from  cresses  and  hybrids,  and  styled  by 
Naudin  "  irreffular  variation."  Sometimes  characteristics  appear  in 
the  crossed  wlieats  which  are  not  found  in  the  parent  varieties, 
although  they  occur  in  other  wheats.  Thus.  De  Vilmorin  records 
the  presence  of  tur]gid  wheats  among  seedlings  raised  from  a  common 
vhcat  fertilized  with  the  pollen  of  a  hard  variety,  and  spi'It  wheats 
among  the  descendants  of  a  common  crossed  with  a  turgid  wheat. 
The  production  of  wheat,  with  the  use  of  wheat  bread,  has  in- 
creased enormously  since  the  extension  of  railways  has  made  possibic 
the  transportation  of  grain  for  great  distances  (see  Grain  Tbadb) 
Of  late  years  the  increase  of  production  has  been  most  notable  in 
southern  Russia,  Ar^gentina,  Australia,  India  and  North  America. 

American  Wheai-Parming.^  —  That  wonderful  agricultural 
region,  extending  from  the  international  line  00  the  north  to 
the  37th  parallel,  and  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  looth 
meridian,  and  comprising  36  states,  produces  76%  of  the 
American  wheat  crop.  This  region,  which  contains  only  30% 
of  the  land  surface  of  the  country,  but  embraces  60%  of  its  total 
farm  area  and  70%  of  its  improved  farm  acreage,  is  the  greatest 
cereal-producing  region  of  the  world.  Besides  wheat,  it  produces 
82%  of  the  totai  corn  crop,  91  %  of  the  total  oat  crop  and  83% 
of  the  total  bay  crop  of  the  United  States.  The  methods  pursued 
in  the  eastern  portion  of  this  region  are  similar  to  those  used 
in  other  parts  of  the  world;  but  in  the  north-western  portion 
wheat -growing  is  carried  on  on  a  gigantic  scale,  and  by  methods 
almost  unknown  anywhere  else.  The  best  illustration  of  the 
great  or  "  bonanza  *'  wheat  farms,  as  they  arc  called,  are  found 
along  the  Red  river  (of  the  North),  where  it  flows  between  the 
states  of  North  Dakota  and  Minnesota. 

The  wheat  grown  in  the  United  States  b  of  two  distinct  kinds. 
One  is  the  largc-kcmel  winter  wheat  of  the  Eastern  states;  the 
other  is  the  bard  spring  wheat.  The  "  blue  stem  "  or  the 
•*  Scotch-Fife  "  arc  native  varieties  of  the  latter  kind  grown  in 
Minnesota  and  the  two  Dakotas.  For  flour-making  this  wheat 
is  considered  the  best  in  the  world.  During  the  season  of  1849 
the  product  of  hard  spring  wheat  amounted  to  nearly  350,000,000 
bushels,  or  two-fifths  of  the  entire  wheat  product  of  the  United 
States.  Of  this,  Minnesota  and  the  two  Dakotas  alone  produced 
200,000,000  bushels.  Minnesota  b  the  greatest  wheat -producing 
state  in  the  Union.  Her  fields  in  iSqq  covered  5,000,000  acres. 
and  she  produced  nearly  80,000.000  bushels,  which  is  twice 
the  entire  production  of  all  Australia,  and  more  than  that  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  put  together.  In  Minnesota  and  the 
Dakotas  the  farms  are  devoted  almost  exclusively  to  wheat- 
growing.  Many  of  them  contain  from  3000  to  lo.coo  acres. 
'For  Caiudian  Wheat  see  Can  a  pa  %AgricultHr4. 


The  ooUQtiy  is  &  voy  levd  «iie,  nakiog  it  possible  to  use  all 
kinds  of  machinery  with  great  success.  As  there  are  no  moun- 
tains or  swamps,  there  is  here  very  little  waste  land,  and  every 
square  foot  of  the  vast  wheat  fields  can  be  made  productive. 

The  first  characteristic  of  a  "  bonanza  "  wheat  farm  is  the 
machinery.  The  smallest  agricultural  implement  used  upon 
them  is  a  plough,  and  the  largest  is  the  elevator.  A 
hoe  or  a  spade  is  almost  unknown.  Between  these 
two  there  are  machines  of  all  sizes  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  particular  work.  Let  us  assume  the  conditions 
prevailing  upon  a  bonanza  farm  of  5000  acres,  and  briefly 
describe  the  process  of  wheat  production  from  the  ploughing 
of  the  land  to  the  delivery  of  the  grain  in  the  final  market. 
These  great  wheat  farms  were  established  upon  new  lands  sold 
directly  to  capitalists  by  the  railroads.  The  lands  became  the 
property  of  the  railroads  largely  through  government  grants, 
and  they  Attracted  capitalists,  who  bought  them  in  large  bodies 
and  at  low  prices.  The  improvements  made  upon  them  consist 
of  the  cheap  wooden  dwellings  for  the  managers,  dormitories 
and  dining-holls  for  the  men,  stables  for  the  horses,  and  sheds 
and  workshops  for  repairing  machinery.  Very  little  of  the  land 
is  under  fence.  Since  the  desirable  lands  cf  the  coimtry  have 
been  occupied,  the  prices  of  these  lands  have  advanced  slowly, 
with  the  result  that  the  big  farms  are  being  divided  up  into 
small  holdings.  After  a  generation  or  two,  if  land  continues 
to  rise  in  the  market  as  it  has  recently,  the  bonanza  farms  will 
become  a  thing  of  the  post.  At  present  the  best  of  these  lands 
in  the  valley  of  the  Red  river  (of  the  North)  are  worth  from  $3$ 
to  $30  an  acre.  The  improvements  upon  them  add  about  $5 
an  acre  more.  A  farm  b  not  considered  a  big  one  unless  it 
contains  from  2000  to  10,000  acres  at  least.  There  are,  of  course, 
many  small  farmers  owning  from  two  to  five  sections  (640  acres 
in  each  section),  but  their  methods  are  more  Uke  those  of  the 
small  farmers  in  the  eastern  United  States  or  on  the  continent 
of  Europe.  It  is  necessary  to  own  a  large  body  of  land  in  order 
to  be  able  to  use  the  machinery  and  methods  here  described. 
It  b  bard  to  convey  a  just  notion  of  the  size  of  these  farms.  They 
stretch  away  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  in  every  direction, 
making  it  diflicult  even  for  the  vbitor  to  conceive  their  size. 
The  distances  across  wheat  fields  are  so  great  that  even  horse- 
back communication  is  too  slow.  The  farms  are  separated 
into  divisions,  and  lodging-houses  aixi  dining-halls  and  barns 
are  scattered  over  them,  so  as  to  keep  the  workmen  and  teams 
near  the  scpne  of  their  labour.  The  men  living  at  one  end  of  the 
farm  may  not  see  those  at  the  other  for  mooths  at  a  time.  Even 
then  it  is  necessary  to  take  the  meals  to  the  men  in  the  fields 
rather  than  allow  them  to  walk  or  ride  to  the  dining-halls.  It 
b  not  an  unusual  thing  for  a  working  crew  to  find  themselves 
at  the  dinner  hour  2  m.  from  their  hall. 

First,  after  burning  the  old  straw  of  the  previous  jrear — which  h 
real  labour  in  itself,  so  enormous  is  its  bulk — comes  the  ploughing. 
This  begins  in  October.  The  (plough  used  has  a  16-in.  p.  .. 
share,  turns  two  furrows,  and  is  drawn  by  five  horses.  '^*'»""* 
Each  plough  covers  about  350  acres  in  a  season,  travelling  an  average 
of  30  m.  a  day.  The  ploughing  begins  in  October,  and  continues  a 
month  or  six  weeks,  according  to  the  season.  The  ploughs  are  driven 
in  "  gangs  "  under  the  eye  oia  superintendent,  who  rides  with  them. 
From  eight  to  ten  of  these  ploughs  follow  each  other  around  the  vast 
section.  If  one  stands  a  tew  rods  ahead  of  them  they  seem  to  be 
following  one  another  in  a  line;  but,  if  one  stands  to  the  right  of  the 
"  gang,  one  sees  that  the  tine  is  broken,  and  that  the  second  plough 
is  a  width  farther  in  the  field  than  the  leader,  and  so  on  for  the  ent  ire 
number.  Experience  shows  that  it  costs  about  70  cents  an  acre  to 
plough  the  land  in  this  way.  About  forty  men  arc  employed  upon  a 
larm  of  5000  acres  during  the  ploughing  season.  The  men  are  paid 
by  the  month,  and  receive  about  S35.  including  their  board.  They 
breakfast  at  five  o'clock,  take  an  hour  for  their  dinner  at  noon— 
usuallv  in  the  field — and  have  their  supper  at  seven.  At  the  end  of 
the  ploughing  season  these  particular  men  are  usually  discharged. 
Only  eight  or  ten  are  kept  on  a  farm  of  this  size  throughout  the  year. 
The  other  men  ^o  back  to  their  homes  or  to  the  factones  in  the  cities, 
where  they  await  the  harvesting  and  threshing  season.  The  eight  or 
ten  who  rejnain  upon  the  farm  are  employed  in  doing 'odd  Jobs,  such 
as  overhauling  machinery,  or  helping  the  carpenter  and  bfacksmtth. 
or  looking  after  the  horses.  1'he  wheat  region  is  a  country  of  heavy 
snows,  and  of  severe,  dry  cold:  but  when  March  comes  the  snows 
begin  to  melt  away,  and  by  April  the  ploughed  land  is  dry  enough  for 


58o 


WHEAT 


plo 


the  hArrew.  The  hamywing  Is  done  wftb  «5-ft.  tiarro««,  drawn  by 
four  honei)  and  operated  by  a  tingle  man.  One  man  can  barrow 
60  to  73  acres  a  day. 

The  •eedingfollows  immediately  with  four-horee  press  drills  that 
cover  12  ft.   The  harrows  and  drills  are  worked  in     gangs  "  as  the 

Sloughs  were.  Each  drill  will  go  fix^m  20  to  25  m.  a  day. 
^hen  the  weather  is  good  the  seeding  upon  a  5000-acre 
farm  will  be  done  in  twenty  or  twenty-five  davs.  It  is  usual  to  seed 
a  bushel  and  a  peck  of  wheat  to  the  acre.  The  wheat  used  for  this 
purpose  is  carefully  selected  after  the  harvest  of  the  previous  year, 
and  is  thoroughly  cleaned  of  foreign  seeds.  Through  years  of  culti- 
vation, varieties  of  wheat  have  been  produced  which  are  particu- 
larly well  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  this  region.  It  has  been 
found  more  profitable  to  use  the  native  "  blue  stem  "  or  "  Scotch- 
Fife  "  wheat  than  the  seed  from  any  other  country,  or  even  from  the 
neighbouring  states.  Counting  the  seed,  wheat  and  the  labour,  it 
costs  about  $1  an  acre  to  harrow  the  ground  and  plant  the  wheat. 

When  the  planting  is  done  the  extra  labourers  ate  discharged  again, 
and  the  regular  ones  are  put  to  work  on  the  corn,  oats  and  millet, 
.  ,An,,r  which  are  grown  to  feed  the  horses.  The  men  who  do  the 
Lmmur,  ^^^  important  work  are  all  temporary  labourers.  They 
come  from  the  cities  of  the  east  or  the  farms  <rt  the  south.  They  begin 
with  the  early  harvest  in  Oklahoma,  and  work  northwards  up  the 
Missouri  and  the  Red  river  until  the  season  doses  in  Manitoba. 
They  are  not  tramps,  but  steady,  industrious  men,  with  few  bad 
habits  and  few  ambitions.  On  well-managed  farms  dnnking  and 
gambling  are  strictly  forbidden.  The  work  is  hard,  and,  as  there 
are  few  amusements  on  the  farm,  the  men  spend  their  resting  periods 
in  sleep.  Their  dormitories  arc  usually  comfortably  furnished,  their 
dining-halls  dean.  The  bonanza  farmers  find  it  good  policy  to  feed 
their  men  well.  Many  a  strike  has  occurred  in  the  midst  of  the 
harvest  because  the  quality  or  quantity  of  the  food  served  was  not 
what  it  ought  to  have  been.  The  largest  part  of  this  food  is  brought 
from  the  eastern  states.  Some  potatoes,  turnips  and  beans  are  grown 
upon  the  farms;  but  the  corned  beef,  bacon  and  groceries  come 
from  the  dties.  It  is  estimated  that  it  costs  35  cents  a  day  to  feed 
each  labourer.  Farmers  say  that  a  good  name  in  these  respects 
enables  them  to  get  the  choice  of  workmen,  and  that  no  money  brings 
such  sure  returns  as  that  expended  in  the  bedrooms  and  upon  the 
food. 

The  harvest  labourers  begin  to  arrive  from  the  south  about  the 
middle  of  July,  and  by  the  end  of  this  month  the  harvest  is  at  its 
_  height.    A  farm  6(  5000  acres  will  use  75  or  100  extfa  men. 

?"*  With  the  men  comes  the  new  machinery  in  train  loads. 

*•'''•*  It  is  estimated  that  at  least  $5,000,000  worth  of  agri- 
cultural machines  is  annually  sold  in  this  region.  The  wheat  fanners 
say  that  it  does  not  pay  to  take  undue  care  of  old  machinery,  that 
more  money  is  lost  in  repairing  and  tinkering  an  old^  machine  than 
would  pay  for  a  new  one.  The  result  is  that  new  machinery  is  bought 
in  very  large  quantities,  used  until  it  is  worn  out  or  cannot  be  re- 
paired without  considerable  work,  and  then  left  io  the  fields  to  rust. 
Heaps  of  cast-iron  can  be  seen  already  upon  many  of  the  large  farms. 
Of  course  a  great  many  extra  parts  are  bought  to  take  the  place  of 
those  which  lircak  most  frequently,  and  some  men  are  always  kept 
at  work  repairing  machines  in  the  field.  One  of  the  big  lo.ooo-acre 
farms  will  use  up  two  car-loads  of  twine  in  a  sinffte  harvest,  enough  to 
lay  a  line  around  the  whole  coast  of  England.  Ireland  and  Scotland. 
The  harvesters  vary  in  sizs  according  to  the  character  of  the  land. 
Upon  the  rougher  ground  and  small  farms  the  ordinary  binders  are 
used ;  upon  the  great  plains,  like  those  of  California,  a  great  harvester 
is  used,  which  has  a  cutting  line  52  ft.  wide.  These  machines  cut. 
thresh  and  stack  the  grain  at  the  rate  of  1600  sacks  a  day,  and  cover 
an  area  in  that  time  of  100  acres.  These  machines  can  only  be  used 
where  the  wheat  ripens  thoroughly  standing  in  the  field.  The 
harvest  labourer  earns  Sio  a  week  everywhere  in  America.  The 
bonanza  farmer  expects  one  machine  to  cut  at  least  250  acres,  and 
three  men  arc  required  for  each  of  them.  The  harvest  lasts  from 
ten  days  to  three  weeks,  according  to  the  weather.  Including  the 
labour  and  the  wear  and  tear,  it  costs  about  60  cents  an  acre  to  harvest 
wheat. 

The  wheat  is  not  stacked  as  in  the  Eastern  states  and  in  England, 
but  stands  upright  in  shocks  in  the  field.  The  grain  cures  very 
Ytg^f^^f  rapidly  in  the  dry  climate,  so  that  by  the  time  the  wheat 
^  is  all  cut  and  shocked  on  one  end  of  the  division,  it  is 
ready  for  the  thresher  at  the  other.  The  shocks  of  wheat  are  hauled 
directly  to  the  thresher  and  fed  into  the  self-feeder.  It  usually  takes 
a  day  and  a  quarter  to  thresh  the  wheat  which  it  took  a  day  to  cut. 
The  farmer  estimates  that  a  threshing-machine  can  thresh  all  the 
wheat  ordinarily  grown  upon  2500  acres,  so  that  a  5000-acre  farmer 
would  have  at  least  two  machines  running  at  the  same  time.  Time 
b  a  very  important  thing  in  threshing,  since  a  rainfall  might  spoil 
enough  grain  in  one  night  to  buy  several  machines.  The  tnrcshing 
season  is  thus  a  time  of  great  pressure  and  of  extensively  active  work. 
The  wheat  straw  is  worse  than  a  waste  product — it  is  a  great  nuisance 
upon  the  bonanza  farm.  A  little  of  it  is  used  for  fuel  for  the  engines 
and  for  bedding  the  stock:  but  the  bulk  of  it  is  dragged  away  from 
the  threshing  machine  by  machinery,  and  left  lying  in  great  heaps 
until  an  opportunity  is  afforded  for  burning  it  up.  This  is  usually 
done  immediately  before  the  ploughing  in  the  autumn.  The  grain 
lalla  from  the  spout  of  the  thresher  into  the  box-wagon,  which  carries 


Thm 


it  to  the  elevator.  The  elevator  is  placed  at  the  milway  statlofi.  and 
is  usually  owned  by  the  bonanza  farmer. 

From  the  time  the  sheaves  of  wheat  are  tumbled  into  the  wagon 
until  the  flour  reaches  the  hands  of  the  cook,  no  hand  touches  the 
wheat  that  passes  through  the  great  Minneapolis  mills. 
When  the  box-wagons  reach  the  elevator  the  loosing  of 
a  bolt  dumps  the  grain  into  the  bin,  where  it  remains 
until  the  pulling  of  a  lever  lets  it  into  the  cars.  Every  pound  of  it  is 
weighed  and  aax>unted  for,  and  entered  upon  the  books,  so  as  to 
show  the  exact  product  of  each  division  of  tne  farm.  After  the  rush 
of  the  threshing  is  over  the  farmer  studies  these  books  carefully  to 
see  what  his  land  is  doing,  and  makes  his  plans  for  the  next  year,  ao  as 
to  rest  or  strengthen  those  divisions  which  are  failine.  It  costs 
about  $1.50  an  acre  to  thresh  the  grain  and  put  it  into  the  devator. 
This  sum,  added  to  the  estimated  cost  of  the  other  processes  men- 
tioned above,  makes  the  total  cost  of  growing  an  acre  of  grain  about 
$3.80.  This  includes  the  cost  of  labour,  seed  and  wear  and  tear 
of  machinery,  but  does  not  include  the  interest  on  land  or  plant. 
The  taxes  on  land  will  average  25  cents  an  acre.  The  farmers 
estimate  that  the  other  improvements,  the  waterworks,  devators. 
insurance,  horse  feed,  &c.,  will  make  this  up  to  $6  an  acre.  The  best 
of  these  farms  will  yield  20  bushels  to  the  acre.  This  makes  the 
wheat  cost  30  cents  a  bushel.  During  the  last  five  years  the  average 
farm-selling  price  of  wheat  in  the  North-West  has  been  58  cents. 
An  acre  thus  produces  $11.60,  making  a  gross  profit  of  $5.60.  Still 
to  be  provided  for  is  the  interest  on  the  operating  expenses  for 
eighteen  months,  which  will,  at  8  ^{1,  be  48  cents  per  acre.  Interest 
on  the  capital  in  land,  improvements  and  machinery,  at  $30  per  acre, 
make  $1.80  more,  or  a  total  interest  charge  of  $2.28.  When  this  is 
deducted  from  the  gross  profits  of  $5.60  prices  found  above,  we  have 
a  net  profit  of  $3>32  an  acre,  not  an  exorbitant  one  by  any  means. 
This  is  about  8%  on  the  capital  invested  in  the  land,  plant  and 
operating  expenses.  But  we  have  described  the  conditions  on  one 
of  the  best  bonanza  farms.  The  average  yield  per  acre  in  this  region 
is  not  oyer  18  bushels,  and  the  average  expenses  would  be  higher  Uuui 
those  given. 

Every  bonanza  farmer's  office  is  connected  by  wire  with  the 
markets  at  Minneapolis,  Chicago  and  Buffalo.  Quotations  arrive 
hourly  in  the  selling  season,  and  the  superintendent 
keeps  in  dose  touch  with  his  agents  in  the  wheat-pits ' 
of  these  and  other  dties.  When  the  instrument  tells  him  of  a 
good  price,  his  agent  is  instructed  to  sell  immediatdy.  The 
farmer  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Red  river  (of  the  North)  is  kept 
fully  Informed  as  to  the  drought  in  India,  the  hot  winds  in  the 
Argentine  and  the  floods  of  the  Danube.  Any  occurrences  in 
these  distant  parts  of  the  world  are  known  to  him  ina  surprisingly 
short  time.  The  world's  great  wheat  fields  almost  lie  within  his 
s'ght,  so  well  does  he  know  the  conditions  that  prevail  in  them. 
7>n  days  are  allowed  for  deliveiy,  so  that  lie  can  usually  ship  the 
wheat  after  it  is  sold.  In  the  early  days  of  wheat-farming  the 
bonanza  farmer  often  speculated,  but  experience  has  taught  him 
that  he  had  better  leave  this  to  the  men  in  the  dties,  and  content 
himself  with  the  profit  from  the  business  under  his  eye.  The 
great  elevator  centres  are  in  Duluth,  St  Paul,  Minneapolis,  Chicago 
aiid  Buffalo.  These  elevators  have  a  storage  capacity  of  from 
100,000  to  2,500,000  bushels.  The  new  ones  are  built  of  steel, 
operated  by  steam  or  electricity,  protected  from  fire  by  pneu- 
matic water-pipes,  and  have  complete  machinery  for  drying  and 
scouring  the  wheat  whenever  it  is  necessary.  The  devators  are 
provided  with  long  spouts  containing  movable  buckets,  which 
can  be  lowered  into  the  hold  of  a  grain-laden  vessel.  The  wheat 
is  shovelled  into  the  pathway  of  the  huge  steam  sho\'els,  which 
draw  it  up  to  the  ends  of  these  spouts,  where  the  buckets  seize 
it,  and  carry  it  upwards  into  the  elevator,  and  distribute  it 
among  the  various  bins  according  to  grade.  A  cargo  of  200,090 
bushels  can  thus  be  unloaded  in  two  hours,  while  spouts  on  the 
other  side  of  the  elevator  reload  it  into  cars,  five  to  ten  at  a  time, 
filling  a  car  in  from  five  to  ten  minutes,  or  the  largest  canal  boat 
in  an  hour.  The  entire  work  of  unloading,  storing  and  rdoading 
adds  only  one  cent  to  the  price  of  a  bushel  of  wheat. 

^c  great  wheat-growing  states  like  Minnesota  have  estab- 
lished systems  of  inspecting  and  grading  wheat  under  state  super- 
vision.   In  Minnesota  the  system  is  carried  out  by  the        

Railroad  and  Warehouse  Commission(i88s),whith  fixes   '•■P*<*** 

and  defines  the  different  grades  of  wheat  and  directs  the 

work.   At  present  there  are  18  grades  recognized  in  this 

state.    The  first  is  described  as  "  No.  i ,  hard  spring  wheat, 

sound,  bright  and  well  cleaned,  comf)osed   mainly  <^  hard 

'  Scotch-Fife,'  weighing  not  less  than  s8lb  to  the  measured 


WHEAT 


S8f 


bushel."  The  second  grade  is  known  u  "  No.  x,  northern  spring 
wheat,  sound,  and  well  ckaaed,  composed  of  the  hard  and  soft 
varieties  of  sprug  wheat."  So  the  varieties  run — **  No.  a, 
northern  ";  '*  No.  3,  northern/'  &c.-^own  to  the  x8th,  which 
is  "no  grade."  The  official  faispectors  examine,  grade  and 
sample  the  wheat  in  the  cars  in  which  it  is  received  at  the  great 
markets  or  elevators.  The  cars  are  sealed  at  the  point  of  oiii^nal 
shipment.  The  first  thing,  therefore,  is  to  examine  the  seals 
to  see  that  they  are  mibroken.  The  inspector  then  samples 
and  examines  the  wheat,  and  enters  the  grade  upon  a  blank 
opposite  the  number  and  letters  of  the  car.  His  tag  and  sample 
go  to  the  wheat  exchange  or  chamber  of  commerce,  wfaeze  they 
are  exposed  in  small  tin  pans,  and  form  the  basis  of  the  trading. 
A  few  years  ago  the  wheat  received  from  the  north-west  was 
very  dean  indted,  but  since  the  new  land  has  all  been  cultivated 
the  fields  are  growing  more  weedy,  with  the  result  that  the  iriieat 
brought  in  is  becoming  mixed  with  oats  and  seeds  of  weeds, 
requiring  more  careful  separating  and  bspection.  After  the 
inspector  has  finished  his  work  the  cats  are  resealed  with  the 
state  seal,  and  await  orders  of  the  purchaser.  The  delay  will 
not  ordinarily  be  more  than  one  day.  The  commission  keeps 
complete  records  and  samples  of  each  car  until  the  wheat  has 
passed  entirely  out  of  the  market.  When  disputes  occur  as  to  the 
grade  they  can  thus  be  instantly  settled.  If  the  grade  is 
changed  after  a  second  examination  the  state  pays  the  expense 
of  the  inspection;  if  not,  i^  is  paid  by  the  agent  who  raises  the 
objection.  Only  about  5%  of  the  sampks  are  ever  reinspected, 
and  in  less  than  a%  of  these  is  the  grade  changed.  Tbie  com- 
mission  collects  the  small  fee  of  20  cents  a  car  for  its  services  as 
inspector,  and  later  weighs  all  the  wheat  as  it  is  distributed  into 
the  elevators.   This  smsdl  charge  pays  all  the  expenses. 

The  transportation  of  the  wheat  from  the  fields  of  the  north- 
west  to  the  seaport  is  a  business  of  tremendoia  magnitude. 
Most  of  this  wheat  goes  by  way  of  the  lakes  through  the 
Sault  Sainte  Marie  canal  to  Buffalo,  where  it  is  shipped 
by  rail  or  inland  canal  to  New  York,  Philaddphia  or 
Baltimore.  Duluth,  on  Lake  Superior,  is,  surprising  to  say,  the 
second  port  in  the  United  States  m  point  of  tonnage.  The  Sault 
Sainte  Marie  canal  passes  two  and  a  half  times  as  much 
tonnage  during  the  eight  months  it  is  open  as  the  Suez  canal 
posses  in  the  entire  year.  The  cheapest  transportation  in  the 
world  is  found  upon  dtese  lakes,  the  rate  being  only  three-fourths 
of  a  mill  per  ton  of  wheat  per  mile.  The  greater  hike  vessels, 
called  "  Whalebacks,"  cany  cargoes  up  to  250,000  bushels,  a 
bulk  difficult  to  conceive.  700  bushds  is  a  car-bad.  At  that 
rate  the  cargo  of  950,000  buishels  wiU  fill  360  American  cars,  or 
9  trams  of  40  cars  each.  At  20  bushels  to  the  acre,  this  single 
cargo  vould  represent  the  yield  of  two  and  a  half  farms  of  5000 
acres  each,  like  that  described  above,  with  every  acre  in  cultiva- 
tion. The  railways  of  the  north-west  have  a  monopoly  of  the 
bu^ess  of  hauling  wheat,  with  the  result  that  it  costs  20  cents  to 
ship  a  bushel  of  wheat  from  the  Dakota  field  to  Duluth,  which  is 
as  much  as  it  costs  to  forward  it  from  Duluth  to  LiverpooL 
The  bushel  of  wheat,  or  an  equivalent  amount  of  flour,  can  be 
shipped  from  Minneapolis  or  Duluth  to  almost  any  point  in 
western  Europe  for  from  30  to  25  cents. 

What  are  the  prospects  of  wheat  production  ui  the  United  States? 
In  hu  preddential  address  before  the  British  Asiodatioa  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science  (1900).  Sn*  William  Crookes 
painted  a  rather  dark  picture  of  the  future  of  the  worid's 
wheat  production.  Among  other  things  he  said,  "  It  is 
almost  certain  that  within  a  generation  the  ever-increasing 
population  of  the  United  btates  will  consume  all  the 
wheat  growrt  within  its  borders,  and  will  be  driven  to  import  like 
ourselves.  "  Americans  think  that  this  statement  is  altogether  too 
pessimistic.  Not  sufficient  account  had  been  taken  of  the  unculri- 
vated  land  in  (arms,  and  of  the  possibilities  of  improvins  the  yield, 
and  still  further  cheapening  the  product.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Uojtcd  States  will  by  1933  nave  a  population  of  133,000,000.  This 
population  would  require  a  wheat  crop  of  700,000,000  bushels  for  iu 
own  use  alone.  Limiting  attention  to  the  great  cereal-producing 
region  described  above,  let  us  see  what  the  prospects  are  for  mcreasing 
the  acreage  and  the  yield.  The  fact  that  these  States  contain,  ac- 
cording to  the  last  census,  over  100,000,000  acres  of  unimproved 
land^  already  enclosed  in  farms,  sugigests  at  once  the  great  possi- 
bilities in  wheat.    But  all  this  bnd  is  not  immediately  available  for 


cukivatfon.  The  availableneis  of  the  nnimproved  land  in  these 
sutes  b  chiefly  a  question  of  population  and  physical  features,  la 
states  liln  New  York  and  Bennsylvaaia,  whkh  are  much  broken  up 
by  hills  and  mountains,  and  have  already  a  large  population,  it  is 
probable  that  the  land  available  for  wheat  cultivation  is  now  nearly 
all  taken  up,  altMough  they  still  have  30%  of  unimproved  land  in 
farms.  lo  the  great  Mates  of  Michigan,  Missouri,  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas  there  is  still  40  to  50%  of  unimproved 
-land  in  farms.  There  are  few  mountains  and  hills  in  these  States, 
and  there  is  still  room  in  them  for  a  laiige  popubtk>n.  It  is  evMent 
that  in  states  like  these  wheat  culture  is  destmed  to  increase  greatly. 
Twelve  states,  in  this  vast  cereal-growing  region>-Ohio.  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Michigan,  Iowa.  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  North  and  South  Dakota — still  have  from  ao  to  40%  of 
unimproved  land  in  farms.  The  toul  area  of  these  sUtes  is  nearly 
four  times  that  of  France.  Their  soil  is  primarily  as  fertile  as  hers. 
If  we  pot  the  poDulatk>n  of  France  at  40^)00,000,  the  atates  in 

Juestion  could,  at  the  same  ratio,  support  a  population  of  140,000,00a 
ranoe  produced  durii^  the  five  years  ending  1897  efeht  bushdsof 
wheat  per  caput.  At  eight  bushels  per  caput,  the  people  m 
these  twelve  states  alone  oould  produce  1,120,000,000  bushels,  or 
430,000,000  bushels  more  than  will  be  required  by  the  popuktion  of 
X33tOoo,ooo  expected  by  1933.  This  iaa  great  manufactunng  as  well 
as  a  great  agricultural  n^on,  and  it  is  here,  therefore,  that  a  huge 
part  of  this  mcrease  in  population  will  be  found. 

It  »  evident  that  there  iagreat  room  for  improvement  also  in  the 
matter  of  yield  per  acre.  The  average  yield  of  wheat  per  acre  has 
Increased  slowly  in  recent  years.  So  long  as  there  was  so  much 
virgin  land  to  be  brou|;ht  under  cultivation,  it  b  surprising  that  it 
has  increased  at  all,  smce  the  tendency  everywhere  b  to  "  skin  " 
the  rich,  new  bnds  first.  Mr  B.  W.  Snow,  formerly  one  of  the  statis- 
ticians of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  has  shown 
{The  Forum,  vol.  zxviiL  p.  oa)  that  the  inodudns  capadty  of  the 
wheat  lands,  under  favourable  weather,  increased  steadily  during 
the  period  1880^1899.  He  disringuishes  between  the  actual  yield 
and  the  nroducing  capacity,  and  bases  hb  comparison  upon  the 
latter.  He  takes  the  average  for  each  year  of  five  yeare  between 
1880  and  1890^  and  shows  that  the  producing  capacity  per  acre 
increased  0.5  bushel  between  the  first  and  the  second  period,  1.3 
bushels  between  the  second  and  the  third,  and  1.4  bushels  between 
the  third  and  the  fourth.  In  the  period  1880-1884,  inclusive,  the 
maximum  capacity  was  a  little  lew  than  14  bushels,  while  in  the 
period  1895-1899  the  maximum  capacity  exceeded  slightly  17 
bushels— an  increase  of  3.2  bushels  per  acre,  or  23%,  in  less  than 
twenty  yean.  He  says. "  To  account  for  thb  increase  in  the  potential 
yield  in  our  wheat-fields  many  factore  must  be  taJccn  Into  considera- 
tion. Amoni^  these  may  be  mentioned  improved  methods  of  plough- 
ing, tile  drainage,  use  of  the  press  drill,  which  results  in  greater 
immunity  ajrainst  winter  killing,  crop  rotation,  and,  to  a  very  small 
extent,  fertilization.  An  important  factor  to  be  mentioned  in  this 
connexion  b  the  change  in  the  distribution  of  the  acreage  under 
wheat,  consequent  upon  falling  prices.  A  decline  in  the  price  of 
wheat  rendered  its  production  unprofitable  where  the  rate  of  yield 
was  small.  Gradually  these  lands  were  pcused  over  to  crops  better 
suited  to  them;  whue  at  the  same  time  the  wheat  acreage  was 
increased  in  districts  having  a  better  rate  of  yield."  He  predicts 
that  "  the  increase  in  the  acre  yields  in  thb  rountry  has  only  begun. 
AH  that  has  been  accomplished  during  the  period  under  review  may 
be  attributed  to  improvements  in  implements  for  preparing  the  soil 
and  pbnting  the  seed.  Wheat  is  grown  year  after  year  without 
rotation  except  in  a  few  cases— on  a  thira  or  more  of  our  wheat 
acreage;  not  one  acre  in  fifty  b  directly  fertilized  for  the  crop,  and 
only  a  minimum  amount  01  attention  is  given  to  the  betterment  of 
seed  stock.  If,  in  the  face  of  what  cannot  be  considered  less  than 
careless  and  inefficient  agricultural  practice,  we  have  increased  the 
wheat  capacity  of  our  bnd  by  3.2  bushels  per  acre  in  so  short  a 
time,  what  may  we  not  expect  in  the  way  of  laige  acre  yields  before 
we  experience  the  hardships  of  a  true  wheat  famine?  " 

DiaMuef.— Wheat,  like  other  cereals,  b  Ibble  to  epidemic  diseases 
caused  by  porjsitic  organisms  whicl)  prey  on  the  plant  tissues.  Of 
these  the  rust,  smut  and  bunt  fungi  are  by  far  the  most  oommoo 
and  the  most  destructive.  Rust  alone  b  said  to  cause  an  annual  loss 
of  wheat  in  Indb  amounting  to  from  a,ooo,ooo  to  20,000,000  rupees. 
We  ^ve  no  simibr  calcubtion  of  loes  for  Great  Britain,  where  ^cat 
As  not  soumuch  grown,  but  it  b  well  known  that  there  is  a  continual, 
serious  depredation  of  value  in  the  crops  due  to  parasitic  fungi. 

The  rust  fungus,  Puecinia  gfaminis,  is  a  Uredine  belonging  to  the 
heteroedous  group,  that  b,  one  that  passes  from  one  host  to  another 
at  different  stages  of  its  life-hbtory.  In  spring,  while  the  wheat 
plants  are  still  green  and  immature,  the  rust  makes  its  appearance 
as  orange*red  spots  or  streaks  on  the  stalln  and  leaves.  These 
coloured  spots  are  due  to  the  presence  of  a  sorus  or  byer  of  counUeas 
numbere  of  minute  brown  spores,  the  ureiospores  of  the  summer 
fruiting  form.  The  fine  thread-like  filaments  composing  the  myceliu  m 
of  the  fungus  are  embedded  in  the  tissue  underneath  and  around  the 
uredo-sorus,  and  draw  from  the  host  the  nourishment  required.  The 
spores,  when  mature,  are  easily  detached,  and  are  carried  by  insccu 
or  by  the  wind  to  other  wheat-plants.  If  infection  takes  place, 
other,  sori  are  formed  in  ten  days  or  a  fortnight  under  favourable 
oonditkinB  of  mobtura  and  warmth. 


582 


sell  o(  >hicli  It  fflkd  viih  du 
InffctM  of  th«  Icavei  of  Ibc 

"Kou 


ioUowt  on  Ibe 


,,. .-.  ^.j-cyclcdODiDpSrU. 

^hougb  thb  u  the  Dormal  and  comDWie  dewlopm«nt  of  Pk 
irmmmii,  h  u  not  invarubfy  followed.  Id  AiuiniliBi  for  ini 
the  berbcny  i*  an  impofUd  plant  and  of  nn  occurrence*  yc 
b¥eo''bu>^'il'  T«lcuto«pofT* of  hntroeciom riLKi  never  n 
tb*  hint  on  vhkh  Ibcv  an  pndiKsi,  k  Ihsl  u  many  tu 


A.   MaBortckuIc 

Ic3f  of  couch. 

*,     Eixdeimij  mp 


r)ona  ••'(*"'■ 


pcddiuni,  and  f»» 
nia.   (AfwrSachvl 


r     C,  Mi 

n     1*.  sXhylMnlDh^EwiXftcr 

f    of    Birbtnl  Dk  Bivy  i 

bly  turvive  the  winter  in  Europe  as  vcQ  i 
t  rite  to  the  niit  of  the  lollowing  year     \ 

iihcr  yean  KandyoMitatlacked.   Run  di 


ion  to  diainaDO  hclpi  lo  k«p  down 

ig  II  n^ardcd.  and  rnui  there  k  a 
^y^lHdly diwMd.   Mocial'l^mkln 

■traim  (hat  Kavt  been  pmvnL  able  lo  rciitl  the  dueue. 

gnun  Smut  of  wheat.  Ua^ta  TntKi,  infects  the  host  bi  the  time 
of  Bowmng  The  fuMtit-vporet.  fran  lomc  diwated  plant,  alight 
on  the  ftfnui  of  the  Hcrwrr.  nnd  gcrminaLe  there  alont  with  the 
pDllen<fTaini-     The  dmlopuig  wed  thus  Fnck«n  fungal  hyphae. 


i(  wheu  plantK    It  ia 
fw    (pnd'  of"  iht 


uniBHbk  (o  deKct'ihe  fint 


come,    a^mcn^    niJ»^ 

S 

&"'■  Js.sr"- 

Tt-Si 

P5~?~?K 

nB'^i^ni5liI^^Trf'"il.SS' 
mcfuialem.     B    of    TiH^ 

t)»rn  without  injuring  1 

'rL 

Other    5ara.ilt    tung 

gruuTu.  a  mildew  ^gnm.  hu 
au>ed  gn^l  loB  ia  va'nou.  coun- 

'"■'iJEt„ 

n   B  the 

irin.  DOoikut  pamimi 
cauiei  dofoTmiiie.  of  thi 

°k^^. 

d  lnl1o.«»nee    anoi 

her  nne- 

what  iimilat  fuiqiu.  O^AuMu  (ranmu.  aliacha  the 

implclely  dMIrovinii  the  planta. 

lieow  oT  hailey.  Ui 

alwbecn 

ormi  long  narrow  dart-biowD 

«K3h.  on  the  lea™,  wh 

and  die     The  lower 

leaveaan 

UBiaUy  the  only  ana  aiti 

■eked,  and 

the  yield  of  grain  bai  •a  been 

wiouilvafTectttl. 

I  bird'i 


oiibthd  n 


ihough  )  Taylor.  Ihe  "  water  poet  "  (d.  1654),  if 
h  sccna  5nt  ID  occur,  and  F.  WiUughby,  eiplain  ii  i,in  ine  noroi 
of  J.  Ray,  the  latter's  tranilator)  ai^vcn"  becauMlin]  the  (ini« 
of  wfaeal  harvest  Ifaey  wax  veiy  fat."  The  whalear,  5tiKaJa 
ananllit,  bone  of  ibceatliest  tmgnntiofilikind  (areluniloiU 
bome,  oflcfi  niching  England  al  [be  end  of  February  and 
almost  always  by  the  middle  of  March.  He  cock  bird,  with  bis 
bluish  grey  back  and  ligbt  bu9  brcail.  set  oS  by  black  ni- 
covertf,  wtji^,  and  part  of  the  taH.  ia  rendeied  sliQ  more  con- 
spicuous by  hi]  wbilc  rump  as  be  takes  sbort  Sights  in  front  of 
those  who  disturb  him,  while  bis  sprightly  actions  und  gay  song 
hamonite  so  wcU  with  his  delicatcly-Iinled  plumaj^  is  lo 
render  him  ■  welcome  object  lo  all  who  delight  in  Irte  and  open 
When  alarmed  botb  seiet  havr  a  >harp  tnonosyllibic 
sounds  tike  ckal.  and  this  bai  pol  only  mlered  Into 
ie  local  names  of  Ibis  species  and  of  itt  allies,  faul  has 
10  be  Irequenlly  spoken  of  «!  "  chalj,"  The  nest  b 
'placed  underground,  the  bird  lakes  advantage  of  Ihe 
ne  other  animal,  or  the  shelter  ol  a  clod  in  a  fiUaw-lleld 


m  s  10  S  pale  blue  eggs  ar 


I  therciD  colltcled,  ■ 


The  wheacear  has  a  very  wide  range  throu|ihout  the  Old  Wofi 

the  L«na  and  Yana  vallcyi.  while  it  winten  in  Africa  beyond  [> 
Equator  and  in  India.     But  it  alio  breeds  regularly  in  Crrenlan 


t  The  vulgar  supposition  of  its  bcin 
Saion  name  (cf.  Bennetl'a  ed.  of  Whi 
note)  muH  be  rejected  until  evidenr*  il 
adduced.     It  is  true  that  "whit 
French  CnUliuu)  itEivcn  by  Cotgi 

IS  ipother  old  name  xiU  locally  in 


ih  Columbia  or  Calilotnia.  and 

euphcmim  of  an  Anglo- 
ffsTz/iK.  i'tftemf.  p.b9, 
that  such  a  name  ever  existed  be 
lie "  (cf.  Dutch  Wililaarl  and 
ein  lfiil;hut  the  older  namcf, 
"cloibord"  (>elod.bird)  and 


WHEATLEY—WHEATSTONE 


583 


wkhout  ever  having  beea  obeerved  in  Kamcliatka,  Japan  or  China, 
though  it  M  a  summer  resident  in  the  Tchuktohi  peninsula.  Hence 
it  would  seem  as  though  its  annual  flights  across  Bering's  Strait 
must  be  in  connexion  vith  a  migratory  movement  that  passes  to 
the  north  and  west  of  the  Stanovoi  range  of  mountains. 

Many  species  more  or  less  allied  to  the  wheatear  have  been  de- 
•cribed.  Some  eight  are  included  in  the  European  fauna;  but  the 
majority  are  inhabitants  of  Africa.  Several  of  tncm  are  birds  of  the 
desert;  and  here  it  mav  be  remarked  that,  while  most  of  these 
exhibit  the  sand-coloured  tints  so  commonly  found  in  animals  of  like 
habitat,  a  few  assume  a  black  plumage,  which,  as  explained  by 
H.  B.  Tristram,  is  equally  protective,  since  it  assimilates  them  to 
the  deep  shadows  cast  bv  projecting  8t<Hies  and  other  inequalities 
of  the  surface. 

Amongst  genera  closely  allied  to  Saxici^  are  PnUincola,  which 
comprises  amongothers  two  well-known  British  birds,  the  stonechat 
and  whinchat,  F,  nUneola  and  P.  rubetra,  the  latter  a  summer- 
migrant,  while  the  fonner  b  resident  as  a  species,  and  the  black 
head,  ruddy  breast,  and  white  collar  and  wing-spot  of  the  cock 
render  him  a  conspicuous  object  on  almost  every  furze-grown  com- 
mon or  heath  in  the  British  islands,  as  he  sits  on  a  projecting  twig 
or  flits  from  bush  to  bush.  This  bird  has  a  wide  range  in  Europe, 
and  several  other  species,  more  or  less  resembling  it,  inhabit  South 
Africa,  Madagascar,  Rfunion  and  Asia,  from  some  of  the  islands  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago  to  Japan.  The  whinchat,  on  the  other  hand, 
much  more  affects  enclosed  lands,  and  with  a  wide  range 'has  no 
very  near  ally.  The  wheatear  and  its  allies  belong  to  the  sub-family 
Turdituu  of  the  thrushes  (9.?.).  (A.  N.) 

WHBATLEY,  FRANCIS  (1747-1801),  EngUsh  portrait  and 
landscape  painter,  was  bom  in  1747  at  Wild  Court,  Covent 
Garden,  London.  He  studied  at  Shipley's  drawing-school  and 
the  Royal  Academy,  and  won  several  prizes  from  the  Society  of 
Arts.  He  assisted  in  the  decoration  of  Vauxhall,  and  aided 
Mortimer  in  paintmg  a  ceiling  for  Lord  Melbourne  at  Brocket 
Hall  (Hertfordshire).  In  youth  his  life  was  irregular  and  dis- 
npated.  He  eloped  to  Ireland  with  the  wife  of  Gresse,  a  brother 
artist,  and  estabh'shed  himself  in  Dublin  as  a  portrait-painter, 
executing,  among  other  works,  an  interior  of  the  Irish  House  of 
Commons.  His  scene  from  the  London  Riots  of  1780  was  admir- 
ably engraved  by  Heath.  He  painted  several  subjects  for 
BoydcU's  Shakespeare  CaUeryf  designed  illustrations  to  Bell*s 
edition  of  the  poets,  and  practised  to  some  small  extent  as  an 
etcher  and  mezsotint-engraver.  It  is,  however,  as  a  painter,  in 
both  oil  and  water-colour,  of  landscapes  and  rustic  subjects 
that  Wheatley  is  best  remembered.  He  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1799,  and  an  academician  in  the 
following  year.  He  died  on  the  38th  of  June  x8ox.  His  wife, 
afterwards  Mrs  Pope,  was  known  as  a  painter  of  flowers  and 
portraits. 

WHEATON.  HENRY  (i  785-1848),  American  lawyer  and 
diplomatist,  was  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  on  the  37th 
of  November  1785.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1802, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1805,  and,  after  two  yeara'  study 
abroad,  practised  law  at  Providence  (1807-181 3)  and  at  New  York 
City  (1813-1827).  He  was  a  justice  of  the  Marine  Court  of  the 
city  of  New  York  from  18x5  to  18x9,  and  reporter  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  from  x8i6  to  1837,  aiding  in  1835  In  the 
revision  of  the  laws  of  New  York.  His  diplomatic  career  began 
in  X837,  with  an  appointment  to  Denmark  as  charg6  d'affaires, 
followed  by  that  of  minister  to  Prussia,  1837  to  1846.  During 
this  period  he  had  published  a  Digest  of  tke  Law  of  Maritime 
Captures  (18x5);  twelve  volumes  of  Supreme  Court  ReportSf  and 
a  Digesf't  a 'great  number  of  historical  articles,  and  some  collected 
works;  Elements  of  International  Law  (1836),  his  most  im- 
portant work,  of  which  a  6th  edition  with  memoir  was  prepared 
by  W.  B.  Lawrence  and  an  eighth  by  R.  I^^Dana  {q.v.)]  HistoiH 
du  Progris  du  Droit  des  Gens  en  Europe^  written  in  1838  for  a 
prize  offered  by  the  French  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political 
Science,  and  translated  in  1845  ^V  William  B.  Lawrence  as  A 
History  of  the  Law  of  Nations  in  Europe  and  America]  and  the 
ICight  of  Visitation  and  Search  (1843).  The  History  took  rank  at 
once  as  oite  of  the  leading  works  on  the  subject  of  which  it 
treats.  Wheaton's  general  theory  is  that  international  law 
consists  of  **  those  rules  of  conduct  which  reason  deduces,  as 
consonant  to  justice,  from  the  nature  of  the  society  existing 
among  independent  nations,  with  such  definitions  and  modificor 
|2oosa»Biay  be  established  by  general  co&SQot*'!  ^,1.846  Wheat  op 


was  requested  to  resign  by  the  new  president,  Folk,  who  needed 
his  place  for  another  appointment.  The  request  provoked  general 
condemnation;  but  Wbeaton  resigned  and  returned  to  the 
United  States.  He  was  caUcd  at  once  to  the  Harvard  Law 
SdMol  as  leanrer  on  international  law;  but  he  died  at  Dor- 
chester, Massachusetts,  on  the  xxth  of  March  1848. 

WHBATSTONB,  SIR  CHARLES  (1803-1875),  EngTish  physicist 
and  the  practical  founder  of  modem  telegraphy,  was  bom  at 
Gloucester  in  February  1803,  his  father  being  a  music-seller  in 
thatdty.  In  x8o6  the  family  removed  to  London.  Wheatstone's 
education  was  carried  on  in  several  private  schools,  at  which 
he  appears  to  have  displayed  no  remarkable  attainments,  being 
mainly  characterized  by  a  morbid  shyness  and  sensitiveness  that 
prevented  him  from  making  friends.  About  x8x6  he  was  sent 
to  his  unde,  a  musical  instrument  maker  in  the  Strand,  to  leara 
the  trade;  but  with  his  father's  countenance  he  spent  more  time 
m  reading  books  of  all  kinds  than  at  work.  For  some  years  he 
continued  making  experiments  in  acoustics,  following  out  his  own 
ideas  and  devising  many  beautiful  and  ingenious  arrangements. 
Of  these  the  "  acoucryptophonc  "  was  one  of  the  most  elegant — 
a  hght  box,  shaped  like  an  andent  lyre  and  suspended  by  a 
metallic  wire  from  a  piano  in  the  room  above.  When  the  in- 
strument was  played,  the  vibrations  were  transmitted  silently, 
and  became  audible  in  the  lyre,  which  thus  appeared  to  play  of 
itself.  On  the  death  of  his  uiide  in  1823  Wheatstone  and  his 
brother  succeeded  to  the  business;  but  he  never  seems  to  have 
taken  a  very  active  part  hi  it,  and  he  virtually  retired  after  six 
years,  devoting  himself  to  experimental  research,  at  first  chiefly 
with  regard  to  sound.  Although  he  occasionally  read  a  paper  to 
sdentific  societies  when  a  young  man,  be  never  could  become 
a  lecturer  on  account  of  his  shyness.  Hence  many  of  bis  in- 
vestigations were  first  described  by  Faraday  in  his  Friday 
evening  discourses  at  the  Royal  Institution.  By  X834  his 
ori^nality  and  resource  in  experiment  were  fully  recognized, 
and  he  was  appointed  professor  of  experimental  philosophy  at 
King's  College,  London,  in  that  year.  This  appointment  was 
inaugurated  by  two  events, — a  course  of  eight  lectures  on  sound, 
iH^ich  proved  no  success  and  was  not  repeated,  and  the  deter- 
mination by  means  of  a  revolving  mirror  of  the  speed  of  electric 
discharge  in  conductors,  a  piece  of  work  leading  to  enormously 
important  results.  The  great  velocity  of  electrical  transmission 
suggested  the  possibility  of  utilizing  it  for  sending  messages; 
and,  after  many  experiments  and  the  practical  advice  and 
business-like  co-op«ration  of  William  Fothergill  Cooke  (1806- 
X879),  a  patent  for  an  electric  tdegraph  was  taken  out  in  their 
joint  names  in  1837.  Wheatstone's  early  training  in  making 
musical  instruments  now  bore  rich  fmit  in  the  continuous 
designing  of  new  instruments  and  pieces  of  mechanism.  His  life 
was  uneventful  except  in  so  far  as  the  variety  of  his  work  lent  it 
colour.  He  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  X837;  in 
1847  he  married;  and  in  1868,  after  the  completion  of  his  master- 
piece, the  automatic  tdegraph,  he  was  knighted.  While  in  Paris 
perfecting  a  recdving  instrument  for  submarine  cables.  Sir 
Charles  Wheatstone  caught  cold,  and  died  on  the  xgth  of  October 

VSlteatstone's  physical  mvestigations  are  described  in  more  than 
thirty-six  papers  in  various  scientific  joumaU,  the  more  important 
being  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions^  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal 
Society,  the  Comptes  rendus  and  the  British  Association  Reports* 
They  naturally  aivide  themselves  into  researches  on  sound,  light 
and  clectridty,  but  extend  into  other  branches  of  physics  as  well. 
But  his  best  work  by  far  was  in  the  mvention  of  complicated  and 
delicate  mechanism  for  various  purposes,  in  the  construction  of 
which  he  employed  a  staff  of  workmen  trained  to  the  highest  degree 
of  excellence.  For  his  insight  into  mechanism  and  his  power  over 
it  he  was  unequalled,  except  perhaps  by  Charles  Babbase.  A  crypto- 
graphic madiioe,  which  chanKcdthedpher  automatically  and  pnntcd 
a  message^  entirely  uninteOigible  until  translated  by  a  duplicate 
instrument,  wasooe  <fi  the  most  perfect  examples  of  this.  Crypto- 
graphy had  a  great  fascination  for  Wheatstone ;  he  studied  it  deeply 
at  one  time,  and  deciphered  many  of  the  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum 
which  had  defied  all  other  interpreters.  In  acoustics  his  principal 
work  was  a  research  on  the  transmission  of  sound  through  solids,  the 
explanation  of  Chladni's  figures  of  vibrating  solidsj  various  mvestiga- 
tions of  the  principles  of  acoustics  and  the  mechanism  of  headog.  and 
the  invention  of  new  mudcal  instruments,  eg.  the  concertina  \q  v.). 


sH 


WHEATSTONE'S  BRIDGE 

It  viilb^  t)i 


The 

•ilvetd  bcad'icBecIing  ■  point  ot  light.'lh 

peniiunce  of  the  luccdfive  imasct  on  the 

■enud  in  cuivn  o(  light.    In  Li^t  there  aie 

eye.  oa  the  phyiiology  of  visan,  on  bincu! 

invention  of  one  of  the  popular  acKntihc  LiiBtiiiiiKiiu.  (in:  HcrnjB.vLP^- 

ffl.f.),  and  on  colour.     The  polar  clock,  deviied  lor  lue  in  plut  of  # 

UTi-dia).  dppJics  the  fact  that  the  plane  of  polaiuat  ion  of  uy  light  i* 

•Iwiyi  90*  (rom  the  position  of  the  lun;  hence  by  nxiuurinc  the 

■limuthal  antic  of  the  |>lane.  even  when  ihe  un  ii  bctow  the  hocuon, 

"  The  PmnuEic  Dccompoiilion  ol  Electrical  Light,  le  proved  that 
BparfEi  from  different  nietals  give  dutinctive  ipecttB,  which  afforded 
a  ready  meaiu  of  tUicriniinating  between  them.  But  It  h  by  hii 
electrical  woric  that  WheatHooe  k  bot  Rmcmbend.  Me  dm  onty 
guided  thegnnrthofneBtiBctekgnphyoB  bad  wirett  but  made  the 
caiLicit  eaperimenta  with  wbrnanne  cabin,  foreeedng-thc  practica- 
b9ity  of  thi>  meant  of  communicatian  ag  eaily  ai  1840.  He  dented 
the  A,  B.  C  "  telegraph  iuttDmcnt,  the  automatic  tfanmiltcr, 
by  which  mtMAjfti.  may  be  tent  at  the  rate  of  yjo  WDrda  a  aifnutc. 
printing  tetegiaph  recciven  of  vai4«»  fonni.  electrical  dironoecopet. 
and  many  forms  of  electrical  lecordingapparaiu*. — ajuonget  others 
two  aeu  of  legistering  iDeteorological  iTwrummiL  of  which  the 
eariier.  deKribetl  in  1042-  waa  afierwa 
Secchi  and  F.  van  RyHelberihe.  but  1I 
included  metallic  ihelmonteteia  and  wa 
WheatUone'a  &m(l[li  J*!!^!  wen:  c 
Phy^cal  Society  of  tendon  in  1870. 
will  be  found  in  his  Prx.   Inil.   C.E. 


Soc.. 


WHBATSTXlliS'S  BRIDOE,   a 


nls  developed  t^  Father  A. 
illected  and  published  by  the 


trical  ii 


suchachatac 

absence  of  a  cunetit  In  another  branch  (caUed  the  conjug 
blanch)  csUbliihes  a  relation  between  the  tuiitancc  of  Ibe  li 
olben  by  which  we  can  determine  Ihe  value  ol  the  reaiitascc 
one  ol  theH,  that  ol  the  others  being  assuttutd  to  be  knoi 

altht>ugh  it  hears  his  itatae  and  u  commonly  attributed  to  hi 
and  was  employed  by  him  iji  »nie  ol  bis  electrical  re 
bulbyS.H.  Christie,  in    "     ' 


i^°2irMWmenl  1 

the  battery  ciniuii.  and  let'  (i+y)  be  ■ 
•ittance  p,  y  the  current  through  the  rei 
B.  TfaenbyG.  R.  iCimhhoff'ilawifiee 
the  current  equaliona, 

(P+G+R)  C*+y)-C^-R«-0 

jQ+G  +  a»-C(i+rt-S.-0 

S+S+B)i-R(i  +  y)-Sy-E 
RcBnanging  tie  terai*  and  iolviag  Cs  s  (the  csmM  Ihiough  the 
gaivaooioeter).  »c  obtain 

*-(PS-RfflE/4. 
where   A    is   a   comply    ejpmaion,    involving   the  re^acancei 
P.  Q.  R.  S,  C,  and  B.  which  doei  wW  concern  ns.    Hence  when 
a-o,  P  :Q-R  ;  S  and  ibe  value  of  R  can  be  determined  in  terms  of 
P. Q  and  a 

In  the  practical  inilnimeat  the  thm  anna  of  the  bridge  P,  Q, 
and  5  are  generally  compoaed  of  cnils  of  wire  contained  in  a  boi. 
whiln  R  Is  the  redstancc  Che  value  of  which  is  to  be  determined. 
This  last  rraslance  is  connected  to  the  other  three  with  the  addition 


>  See  WbeatRone't  SatKHfit  Paf^t,  p 


Iheieloie  cofl^ns  in  altering  the  ratio  of  the  th 
ind  S.  until  the  galvanometer  indicatei  no  cun 

:>ridge,  or  [*«t  Oflice  pattern,  the  two  ratio  a 


1  one  block  and  panlj 
DDnected  by  accuratelT 
interconnected  by  the 

■nl  flowine  "froiii  one  end  of  the  setM  P>  the 

— . „joo,  4000  ohms.   The' junction  between  each 

■  cwls  Ii  connected  aa  above  described  to  a  block,  the  blocki 
nterconnected  by  plugi  all  of  which  are  made  intetchsngeaUb 
Iher  form  of  Wheatatone's  Dridge.  shown  in  fig.  9.  ii  known 

I  a'oDt^  bM  bWk.  and  by  wr^^T^'^Si  liu  int^ 
(Ag.  3)-   It  will  be  seen  that  if  a  plug  »  pUiced  IB ~ 


Fio.  3. — Dlsgmo  ihgwii 


magnitude  of  each  caQ  the  total  miitaooe  may  be  made  anything 
from  1  to  Q,  10  tn  go.  or  too  to  900  ohma,  &G.  Three  or  feme  of  the 
"  dlala  ■'  (hua  compoaed  are  nmuiged  aide  by  rfde,  the  bran  bbck* 
bong  mounted  on  a  slab  <rf  ebonite  and  the  oollt  contained  in  the  boi 
"-idcTiKath.  and  they  are  so  Mned  up  that  the  central  block  cJ  on* 
..  . ._j  ._  .1,  ou^  blocS  of  the  sen  marked  O.    This 

plug  pattern  just  described.  Ahndn 
:act  tLat  tbe inaenhiD or (aaoval eia 


diallBD 

Ing  constructed  on 
tBi  pattecB  has  ll 


WHEEI^-WHEEL,  BREAKING  ON  THE 


585 


•  ModlfiHl  Fofm  ql  WtuBIKom 


T  C.  Qii^  Fi 


d  b{  Oh  hci  tUt  lb>  eaB  t>  MMtd  by  th*  nnmi  Bud  t« 


by  wbicb  to  RgiilatB  and  duck  othscnili  entmrntm  trf  a 

bnn  cylinder  (fiE.S).  ThiiBBldcRdta  two  thick  li 
"ipR',  >nd  Iba  coaigcodoRd  in  a  watcT'tlghl  bran  i: 


<    The  (oiuxn- 

drvbcd  by  Lord  Kelvin  Ii  aii[daycd.    The 

"*  ~'' V  QHidiicton  joliiLiw  dz  polity  and  Id  OM 

KriviBud  Varicy  dkflM^^MM 


,_.  r  300,1897).    Tlw  ai. 

WhEiuninE'i  bridzE  will  to  lousd  docribad  ii 

Ik's  Randbaik  far  lAi  EltOriail  LalitraUry  and  Tiilint- 

ncrciiDKCEs:— F.E.  Snilih,  "On  Mdhoda  o(  Hlfh  Prndwn  fortbe 
Conpukon  el  RoImbmx*."  ^ipeDdii  u  the  Rnnt  r*  (he  BritM 

Aaodaiioa  Coaimiiuc  on  Ekcuical  Suadudi,  BritUk  il I'liiirn 

Aparl  {York,  1006),  or  tbe  Blaltidan.  S7.  p.  VJd  (iJoA);  C.  V. 
DiVKble,  "Rcilitance  Colli  and  ConpuHioai.  Brituk  Aaatia- 
fim  Ktt«T<  (LciccMcr,'  IW7).  orlbe  SbokKwi,  97,  p.  95;  (19D7),  ind 
6a,  p.M(l9ii;)!  1.  A.  Flenlai. "  A  Fom  of  PriMinni  Balunlv 
Coaparini  Standud  CoiK^I>U{.  ifa^  (Fobniaiy.  iNo);  "A 
Donn  for  a  SlandanI  ol  Electrical  Reiietaixc,"  PhO.  Vai.  Quality 
I^M;  C,  Aurfnall  Pair,  BitOrical  Matiirint  Iv^mmtiM  (IVjiSt 
W.  H.  Price  rk(  Pn-tHaJ  ifffuamniM  tf  Jitririua:  A.  Gny, 
"  -  "  -  ia  £biM(ilT  owf  l/a(iHl>m  (iqoo);  RoDd 
aonul«r,"lViK.W—  "—  '—- '—  ■- 


(190^1  iln  Pric.  Imtu  Co.  silt- 
iMdrnl,  17,(1.685' ' 

WHEEL  [O.  Eng.  kalril,  katM,  & 
DaD.  kM.  trc;  Ihe  Indo-European 
cjjjrl,  Gi.  jcIkXh,  ciide,  wbeiice  " 


"  Pnc  pkp.  5m.  LoHdta,  19,  p;  in 
■M  (>9<>J):  and  i^«.  j^in.  Sk,. 
a.  A.  F,) 

,  coeaa.te  vfth  IceL  I|W, 
■oot  is  seen  in  Sanskrit 
:ycle"],  a  circular  frame 


'hMl  3Tid  fat  the  modiSutioD  ol  the  lever,  known 
uis,"  and  ol  the  meclianical  poven,  lee 
cat  familiar  type  of  Ibe  wheel  ji  o(  atane 
:Ty  tnic  of  ychiclc,  but  il  fonns  >n  essential  part 
■  kind  of  mechinism  or  madiintry.  VehlCTilat 
irllal  times  were  circular  disks  eltha  cut  out  of 


11  iDlo  a 


pcoplfs  today,  especially  wl 
tracks,  il  any  eiist,  atcof  therokighest  description,  and  travelling 
it  beavy.  The  ordiniiy  wheel  consisti  of  the  nave  (O.  Eng. 
iu/h,  d.  Gcr.  Naie,  allied  wilh  "navel"),  the  central  pottion  or 
hub,  through  which  the  axle  passes,  the  spokes,  the  iBdlBl  bats 
insetted  In  the  nave  and  teachiug  to  the  periphenl  rim,  the 
feUoe  DC  lelly  [0.  Eng.  Jilgc,  Gee.  Fdge,  properly  that  which 
fitted  together,  Teut.  fiUian,  to  fit  togelbei}.  From  the  monu- 
ments wc  see  that  the  audeet  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  charioti  had 
usually  sii  spokes;  the  Greek  and  Roman  wheels  from  lour  to 
eight.  (See  funher  Cubiage  and  Cwtaui;  also  Tiu;  end 
attidg  on  Bicycle;  Tmcycle;  and  Motob  VeBHxW.) 

VHESLi  BRSAKINS  ON  THE,  a  form  of  tonuie  and  eiecutloii 
formerly  In  use,  especially  in  France  and  Cennany.  Il  Is  satd  to 
have  been  first  used  in  ike  latter  counny,  where  the  victim  was 
placed  on  a  cart-wiieel  and  bis  llmtx  stretcbed  out  atong  tbe 
■pokes.  Tlie  wheel  wu  made  to  tlowiy  nvntve,  ind  tin  mio'i 
bones  Iwc^cn  wilb  bbws  of  bd  inm  bu.  Sometiiiei  It  «u 
merdfully  ordered  OiM  tbe  CBcnlkmer  ifamld  strike  the  cdabnl 
on  dust  and  itomch,  Uows  kmnm  as  con; i  ii  piu,  wUdi  R 
once  aided  the  torture,  and  in  Fiance  he  was  usually  sCnmgled 
after  the  lecODd  or  (bird  btDW.    A  wheel  was  not  atway*  used 


5^6 


WHEELER,  J.— WHETHAMSTEDB 


In  WMne  oountries  it  was  upon  a  frame  shaped  like  St  Andrew's 
Crofls  that  the  sufferer  was  stretched.  The  punishment  was 
abolished  in  France  at  the  Revolution.  It  was  employed  in 
Germany  as  late  as  1827.  A  murderer  was  broken  on  the  raw 
-vt  wheel  at  Edinburgh  in  1604,  and  two  ol  the  ammifiinit  of  the 
regent  Lennox  thus  suffered  death. 

WHEELER,  JOSEPH  (1836-1906),  American  soldier,  was 
bom  at  Augusta,  Georgia,  in  1836,  and  entered  the  United  States 
cavalry  from  West  Point  in  1859.  Within  two  years  the  Civil 
War  broke  out,  and  Wheeler,  as  a  Southerner,  resigned  to  enter  the 
Confederate  service.  In  a  short  time  he  became  colonel  of  the 
XQth  Alabama  Infantry,  with  which  he  took  part  in  the  desultory 
operations  of  i86x  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  He  commanded 
a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  but  soon  afterwards  he  returned 
to  the  cavalry  arm  in  which  he  won  a  reputation  second  only 
to  Stuart's.  After  the  action  of  Perryville  he  was  promoted 
brigadier-general,  and  in  January  1863  major-generaL  Thence- 
forward throughout  the  campaigns  of  Chickamauga,  Chattanooga 
and  Atlanta  he  commanded  the  cavalry  of  the  Confederate  army 
in  the  West,  and  when  Hood  embarked  upon  the  Tennessee 
expediUon,  he  left  Wheeler's  cavalry  to  harass  Sherman's  army 
during  the  "  March  to  the  Sea."  In  the  closing  operations  of 
the  war,  having  now  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  he  com- 
manded the  cavalry  of  Joseph  Johnston's  weak  army  in  North 
Carolina,  and  was  included  in  its  surrender.  After  this  he  became 
a  lawyer  and  a  cotton  planter  and  in  1882-^3  and  1885-1900  was 
a  representative  in  Congress.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish- 
American  War  in  1898,  President  M'Kinley,  in  pursuance  of  the 
policy  o£  welding  the  North  and  the  South,  commissioned  two 
ex-Confederate  generals — Wheeler  and  Fitzhug^  Lee  as  major- 
generals  of  Uidted  States  volunteers,  and  in  this  capacity 
Whoeler  was  placed  in  command  of  the  cavalry  division  of 
Shafter's  army  in  Cuba.  He  commanded  in  the  actions  of 
Guasimas  and  San  Juan,' was  afterwards  sent  to  the  Philippines 
in  command  of  a  brigside,  and  in  1900  was  commissictwd  a 
brigadier-general  !n  the  regular  army.  Shortly  afterwards  he 
retired.   General  Wheeler  died  on  the  35th  of  January  1906. 

WHEELER,  WILLIAM  ALMON  (1819-1887),  vice-president  of 
the  United  States  from  1877  to  x88x,  was  bom  at  Malone,  New 
York,  on  the  30th  of  June  18x9.  He  studied  at  the  university 
of  Vermont  for  two  years  (X833-X835),  and  in  X845  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  First  as  a  Whig,  and^then,  after  x  856,  as  a  Republican, 
he  was  prominent  for  many  years  in  state  and  national  politics. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  state  Assembly  in  1849-1850,  a  member 
and  president  pto  ttmpore  of  the  state  Senate  in  1858-1859,  and 
a  member  of  the  national  House  of  Representatives  in  x86x-x863, 
and  again  from  1869  until  X877.  He  was  the  author  of  the  so- 
called  "  Wheeler  Compromise,"  by  which  the  difficulties  between 
contending  political  factions  in  Louisiana  were  adjusted  in 
1875.  Nominated  for  vice-president  by  the  Republicans  in 
X876  on  the  ticket  with  President  Hayes,  he  was  installed 
in  office  through  the  decision  of  the  Igfectoral  Commission,  and 
at  the  end  of  his  term  he  retired  from  public  life.  He  died  at 
Malone  on  the  4th  of  June  X887. 

WHEEUNO,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Ohio  county. 
West  Virginia,  U.S.A.,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Ohio  river,  at  the 
mouth  of  Wheeling  Creek,  66  m.  (bv  rail)  S.W.  of  PitUburg. 
Pop.  (1890)  34)523;  (x$oo)  33,878,  of  whom  xo66  were  negroes, 
and  5461  were  foreign-bom,  including  3x06  Germans  and  876 
Irish;  (x9xo,  census)  4X,64i.  Area,  3-2  sq.  m.  Wheeling  is 
served  by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  the  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Wheeling  &  Lake  Erie  railways,  by  the  belt  line  of  the  Wheeling 
Termmal  Company  and  by  interurban  electric  Imes.  Wheeling 
is  Ihe  lai^gest  city  in  West  Virginia,  and  commercially  the  most 
important  place  on  the  Ohio  river  between  Pittsburg  and 
CindnnatL  It  is  built  on  a  luurrow  strip  of  bottom  land,  b^ween 
the  river  and  steep  hills,  at  an.  elevation  of  about  640  ft^  above 
tidewater.  Between  the  mainland  and  Wheeling  (formerly 
Zane's)  Island,  wluch  forms  a  part  of  the  dty,  there  are  a  susp<tn- 
sion-bridge,  which  has  a  span  of  xoio  ft.,  and  a  sted  bridge, 
and  from  the  island  across  the  back  river  channel  there  are  two 
bridges  .to  the  Ohio  shore,  one  from  the  middle  of  the  island  to 


Bridgeport  on  which  the  OU  National  Road  cmaes  the  river, 
and  the  other  from  the  northern  end  of  the  island  to  Martin's 
Ferry,  Ohio.  A  fifth  bridge  connects  Wheding  with  Bellaire, 
Ohio.  Wheeling  has  a  public  library,  containing  23,261  volumes 
in  1909.  Near  the  dty  is  the  Mount  de  Chantal  Academy  (Roman 
Catholic)  for  girls,  and  in  Wheehng  is  Linsly  Institute,  a  secondary 
school  for  boys.  The  prindpal  public  buildings  are  the  Custom- 
House  and  Post-Office,  the  City  Hall,  a  High  School,  a  YM.C.A. 
building  and  a  Scottislx  Rite  Cathedral.  In  the  dty  are  a  City 
HoqMtal  (private,  1890)  aiui  the  Wheeling  Hospital  (under  the 
Sisters  of  St  Joseph,  1853).  On  the  National  Road  there  is  a 
monument  to  Henxy  Clay;  and  in  the  City  Hall  Square  is  a 
Soldiers'  Monument.  By  reason  of  its  situation  on  the  Ohio 
river  Wheeling  is  an  important  shipping  and  distributing  centre, 
and  it  has  various  important  manufacturing  interests.  Its  factory 
products  were  valued  in  X905  at  $23,297,475.  The  diief  industry 
b  the  manuf actutc  of  iron  and  sted,  which  in  X905  gave  employ- 
ment to  more  than  34%  of  the  dty's  wage-earners;  and  yielded 
more  than  46%  of  the  total  value  of  its  products.  The  manu- 
factare  of  nails,  begun  here  in  1849,  was  for  many  years  of  great 
importance.  Other  products  in  1905  were  slaughtering  and  meat 
products,  $x, 81 2,348;  nudt  liquors,  $i,54i|i85;  tobacco  and 
cigars  (especially  stogies),  $x,x6i,594;  foundry  and  machmie- 
shop  products,  $709,376;  lumber  and  pUning  mill  products, 
$685,861;  pickles,  preserves  and  sauces,  $676,437;  glass, 
$508,145;  and  pottery.  Glass  was  first  manufactured  here 
in  X821.  Coal  is  found  m  abundance  in  the  surrounding  region, 
and  also  natural  gas,  whidi  is  much  used  as  fud  in  the  manu- 
facture of  iron,  sted  and  glass. 

The  first  settlement  here  was  made  In  1770  by  Colond  Ebenezer 
Zane  (X747-18XX),  and  his  brothers,  Jonathan  (one  of  the 
founders  of  2^esvillc,  Ohio)  and  Silas,  who  in  the  autumn  of 
that  year  made  their  way  to  this  point  from  thdr  home  in 
Virginia,  and  took  possession  of  claims  at  the  mouth  of  Wheding 
Creek.  Other  settlers  came  soon  afterward,  and  in  1774  a  strong 
stockade  fort  was  erected  within  the  present  limits  of  Wheding 
—at  the  top  of  Main  SUeet  hill.  Until  X776  this  fort  was  called 
Fort  Fincastle  in  honour  of  Lord  Dunmore,  Viscount  Fincastle, 
governor  of  Virginia  from  X77X  to  1776.  After  1776  it  was  called 
Fort  Henry,  in  honour  of  Patrick  Henry.  During  this  period  the 
Indians  were  hostile,  and  the  settlers  were  frequently  forced 
to  take  refuge  in  the  stockade.  On  the  ist  of  S^tember  1777 
the  fort  was  attacked  by  a  large  force  of  Indians  and  x  5  of  the 
whites  were  killed;  during  this  attack,  when  the  ammunition 
of  the  ddenders  had  failed,  Elizabeth  Zane  (a  X7 59-1 847),  a 
aster  of  Ebcnezer,  brought  lender  fire  a  keg  of  powder  from 
a  house  sixty  yards  from  the  fort.  In  September  xySi  the  fort 
was  unsuccosfully  besieged  for  two  days  by  a  force  of  about 
40  British  regular  soldiers  and  about  350  Indians.  The  town 
was  laid  out  by  Colonel  Zane  in  X793,  was  incorporated  in  x8o6, 
and  was  chartered  as  a  dty  in  1836.  It  was  designated  as  the 
capital  of  the  "restored  govemmentof  Virginia"  in  x86i, 
after  the  secesdon  of  Virginia  at  the  begiiming  of  the  CivO  War, 
and  was  the  capital  of  West  Virginia  from  1863  to  X869,  and  again 
frpm  X875  until  May  X885.  The  name  "  Wheding  "  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  an  Indian  word,  of  uncertain  meaping,  sometimes  trans- 
lated as  "  the  place  of  the  head." 

WHETHAH8TEDE.  JOHN  (d.  1465),  English  abbot,  was  a 
son  of  Hugh  Bostock,  and  was  bom  at  Wheathampstead  in 
Hertfordshire,  owing  his  name,  the  Latin  form  of  whidi  is 
Prumentorius,  to  this  circumstance.  In  early  life  he  entered  St 
Albans  Abb^  and  m  1420  he  was  chosen  abbot  of  this  house. 
In  X423  he  attended  a  council  at  Pavia,  but  in  England  his  time 
was  mainly  occupied  with  lawsuits,  several  of  which  he  carried  on 
to  defend  the  property  and  enforce  the  rights  of  the  abbey.  In 
X440  he  resigned  his  post,  but  in  1451,  on  the  death  of  his  suc- 
cessor, John  Stoke,  he  became  abbot  for  the  second  time.  He 
died  on  the  foth  of  January  x  46  5,  and  his  tomb  aaay  still  be 
seen  in  the  abbey  diurcb.  Whethamstede  was  ah  energetic  and 
successful  al>bot.  He  greatly  improved  the  buildings  at  St 
Albans,  which  suffered  somewhat  during  liis  later  years  owing 
to  the  wars  of  the  roses;  he  also  did  some  building  at  Gloucester 


WHETSTONE— WHICHCOTB 


587 


CoOege,  Oxford,  with  which  he  was  connected.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Duke  Humphrey  of  Gloucester,  whom  he  helped  to  gather  to- 
gether his  famous  collection  of  books,  and  was  himself  a  wtiter, 
his  works  including  Cranarium  de  viris  iUustribui;  Pakarium 
poiUirum]  and  Super  Valerium  in  Augustinum  de  Anchona. 

Whcthamstede's  Chronicle^  or  the  Reiisbrum  abbatiae  Jehninis 
Wktlkamsteit,  is  a  -register-  compiled  0oon  after  the  abbot's  death, 
which  tells  the  events  of  his  second  abbacy.  It  has  been  edited  by 
H.  T.  Riley,  and  is  in  vol.  i.  of  the  Ksgutra  fUMtttdam  abbtUum 
monastcrii  S.  Aibani  (London,  1872).  The  events  of  his  first  abbacy 
are  narrated  in  the  AnnaUs  mortastfrii  S.  Aibani  of  John  Amundes- 
ham.  also  edited  by  H.  T.  Riley  (London,  18^1870. 

WHETSTONE,  GEORGE  (1544?-!  587?),  English  dramatist 
and  author,  was  the  third  son  of  Robert  Whetstone  (d.  1557). 
A  member  of  a  wealthy  family  that  owned  the  manor  of 
Walcot  at  Bernack,  near  Stamford,  he  appears  to  have  Inherited 
a  small  patrimony  which  he  speedQy  dissipated,  and  he  com- 
plains bitterly  of  tfie  failuie  of  a  lawsuit  to  recover  an  inheritance 
of  which  he  had  been  unjustly  deprived.  In  1572  he  joined  an 
English  regiment  on  active  service  in  the  Low  Countries,  where 
he  met  George  Gascoigne  and  Thomas  Churchyard.  Gascoigne 
was  his  guest  near  Stamford  when  he  died  in  1 577,  and  Whetstone 
commemorated  his  friend  in  a  long  elegy.  His  first  volume,  the 
Ro^ke  oj  Regarde  (1576),  consisted  oi  talcs  in  prose  and  verse 
adapted  from  the  Italian,  and  in  1578  he  published  The  right 
excellent  and  famous  Historye  of  Promos  and  Cassandra,  a  play  in 
two  parts,  drawn  from  the  eighty-fifth  novel  of  Giraldi  Cinthio*s 
Hualomilhi.  To  this  he  wrote  an  interesting  preface  addressed 
to  William  Fleetwood,  recorder  of  London,  with  whom  he 
claimed  kinship,  in  which  he  criticizes  (he  contemporary  drama. 
In  1582  he  published  his  Hcplameron  of  CiviU  Discourses^  a 
collection  of  tales  which  includes  The  Rare  Historie  of  Promos 
and  Cassandra.  From  this  prose  version  apparently  Shakespeare 
drew  the  plot  of  Measure  for  Measure^  though  he  was  doubtless 
familiar  with  the  story  in  its  earlier  dramatic  form.  Whetstone 
accompanied  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  on  hb  expedition  in  1578- 
1 579,  and  the  next  year  found  him  in  Italy.  The  Puritan  spirit 
was  now  abroad  in  England,  and  Whetstone  followed  its  dictates 
in  his  prose  tract  A  Mir  our  for  Mageslrales  (1584),  which  in  a 
second  edition  was  called  A  Touchstone  far  the  Time.  Whetstone 
did  not  abuse  the  stage  as  some  Puritan  writers  did,  bat  he 
objected  to  the  performance  of  plays  on  Sundays.  In  1585  he 
returned  to  the  army  in  Holland,  and  he  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Zutphen.  His  other  works  are  a  collection  of  military 
anecdotes  entitled  The  Honourable  Reputation  of  0  Souldier 
(1585);  a  political  tract,  the  English  Myrror  (1586),  numerous 
el^es  on  distinguished  persons,  and  The  Censure  of  a  Loyall 
Subject  (1587).  No  information  about  Whetstone  is  available 
after  the  publication  of  this  last  book,  and  it  is  conjectured  that 
he  died  shortly  afterwards. 

WHEWELL,  WILUAM  (1794-1866),  British  philosopher  and 
historian  of  science,  was  bom  on  the  24th  of  May  1794  at  Lan- 
caster. His  father,  a-  carpenter,  wished  him  to  follow  his  trade^ 
but  his  success  in  mathematics  at  Lancaster  and  Heversham 
grammar-schools  enabled  him  to  proceed  with  an  exhibition  to 
Trinity,  Cambridge  (1812).  He  was  second  wrangler. in  18x6, 
became  fellow  and  tutor  of  his  coUege,  and,  in  1841,  succeeded 
Dr  Wordsworth  as  master.  He  was  professor  of  mineralogy  from 
1828  to  1852,  and  of  moral  philosophy  (then  called  "  moral 
theology  and  casuistical  divinity  ")  from  1838  to  X855.  He 
died  on  the  6th  of  March  1866  from  the  effects  of  a  (all  from 
hb  horse. 

Whewell  was  promineDt  not  only  m  scientific  research  and 
philosophy,  but  abo  in  university  and  college  adminbtration. 
Hb  first  work,  An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Mechanics  (1819), 
cooperated  with  those  of  Peacock  and  Herschel  in  reforming  the 
Cambridge  method  of  mathematical  teaching;  to  him  in  large 
measure  waa  due  the  recognition  of  the  moral  and  natural 
sciences  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Cambridge  cuniculum  (1850). 
In  general,  however,  especially  in  later  years,  he  opposed  reform: 
he  defended  the  tutorial  system,  and  m  a  controversy  with 
ThiriwaU  (1834)  opposed  the  admbsion  of  Dbscnters;  be 
upheld  the  deriaa  fellowship  system,  the  privileged  dass  of 


"  fdlow-cofftmonert,"  and  the  aotbeiHty  oC  heads  of  colleges  in 
university  affairs.  He  opposed  the  appohitment  of  the  University 
Commission  (1850),  and  wrote  two  pamphlets  {Remarhs)  against 
the  reform  of  the  university  (1855).  He  advocated  as  the  true 
reform,  against  the  scheme  of  entrusting  dectlons  to  the  members 
of  the  senate,  the  use  of  college  funds  and  the  subvention  of 
scientific  and  professorial  work. 

In  1826  and  1826,  Whewell  was  engaged'  with  Airy  in  "con- 
ducting experiments  in  Dolcoath  mine,  Cornwall,  in  order  to 
determine  the  density  of  the  earth;  Their  united  labours  were 
upsuccessful,  and  Whewell  did  Uttle  more  in  tbe  way  of  ex- 
perimental Sdence.  He  was  the  author,  however,  of  an  Essay  on 
Mineralogical  Classifteotion,  published  in  1838,  and  contributed 
various  memoirs  on  the  tides  to  the  FMasopkical  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Society  between  1833  and  1850.  But  it  b  on  hb 
History  and  PhUosophy  of  the  Sciences  that  hb  daim  to  an 
enduring  reputation  mainly  rests.  The  History  of  the  Inductive 
SdknceSffrom  the  Earliest  to  the  Present  Time  appeared  origmally 
in  1837.  Whewell's  wide,  if  superfidal,  acquaintance  with  various 
branches  of  sdence  eiuibled  him  to  write  a  comprdienaive 
account  of  their  development,  which  b  still  of  the  greatest  inslue. 
In  hb  own  opinion,  the  History  was  to  be  regarded  as  an  intro- 
duction to  the  PhUosophy  of  the  Inductive  Sciences  (1840).  The 
latter  treatise*  analyses  the  method  exemi^fied  in  the  fomuition 
of  ideas,  in  the  new  inductions  of  sdence,  and  in  the  applications 
and  systematization  of  these  inductions,  all  exhibited  by  tbe 
History  in  the  process  of  devebpment. 

In  the  Philosophy,  Whewell  endeavours  to  follow  Bacon's  pbn  for 
discovery  of  an  dfectual  art  of  discovery.  He  examines  ideas 
("  explication  of  conceptions  ")  and  by  the  "  colligatioa  of  facta 
endcflvoufs  to  unite  these  ideas  to  the  facta  and  so  construct  science. 
But  no  art  of  discovery^  such  as  Bacon  anticipated,  follows,  for 
"  invention,  sagacity,  genius  "  are  needed  at  each  step.  He  analyses 
induction  into  three  steps: — (1)  the  selection  of  the  (fundamental) 
idea,  such  as  space,  number,  cause  or  likeness;  (2)  tbe  fonnation  of 
the  conception,  or  more  special  modification  of  those  ideas,  as  a 
drcle,  a  uniform  force,  &c.:  and  (3)  the  determination  of  magni- 
tudes. Upon  these  follow  spedal  methods  of  induction  applicable  to 
quantity,  viz.,  the  method  of  curves,  the  method  of  means,  the 
method  of  least  squares  and  the  method  of  renducs,  and  specbl 
methods  depending  on  resemblance  (to  which  the  transition  b  made 
through  the  law  ofcootinuity),  viz.  the  method  of  gradation  and  the 
method  of  natural  classification. 

Here,  as  in  his  ethical  doctrine  (see  Ethics),  Whewell  was  moved 
by  opposition  to  contemporary  Englbh'empindsm.  Following  Kant, 
he  asserted  against  J.  S.  Mill  the  a  priori  nature  of  necessary  tnith, 
and  by  hb  rules  for  the  construction  of  conceptions  he  dispensed  with 
the  inductive  methods  of  Mill. 

Between  .1835  *"**  **^'  Whewell  was  the  author  of  various  works 
on  the  philosophy  of  morab  and  politics,  the  chief  of  whkh,  Elements 
of  Morality,  including  Polity,  was  published  in  1845.  The  peculbrity 
of  thb  Nirork — ^written,  of  course,  from  what  b  known  as  the  in- 
tuitional point  of  view — bits  fivefold  division  of  the  springs  of  action 
and  of  tneir  objects,  of  the  primary  and  universal  rights  of  man 
(personal  security,  property,  contract,  family  rights  and  govern- 
ment), and  of  the  cardinal  virtues  (benevolence,  justice,  truth,  purity 
and  order).  Among  Whewdl's  other  worlcJB-— too  numerous  to 
mention — reference  must  be  made  to  writings  popular  in  their  day, 
such  as  the  Bridgewater  Treatise  on  Astronomy  (1833),  and  the  essay. 
Of  the  Plurality  of  Worlds  (1854).  in  which  he  argued  against  the  pro- 
bability  of  planetary  life,  and  also  to  the  Platonic  Dialogues  for  Enfiisk 
Readers  ( 1 850-1 861).  to  the  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Moral  Philosophy 
in  England  (1852),  to  the  essay,  Qf  a  Liberal  Education  m  General, 
with  particular  reference  to  the  Leading  Studies  of  the  University  of 
Cambridge  (1845),  to  the  important  edition  and  abridged  translation 
of  Grotius,  De  jure  belli  et  pacis  (1853),  and  to  the  edition  of  tbe 
Meahematicat  Works  of  Isaac  Barrow  (i860). 

Full  bibliographical  details  are  given  hy  Isaac  Todhunter,  W. 
Whewdl:  au' Account  of  his  Writings  (3  vols.,  1876).  See  abo  Life 
of  W.  Whewell,  by  Mrs  Stair  Dougbs  (1881). 

WHICHCOTB  (or  Whitchcot£),  BENJAmH  (1609-1683), 
EngKsh  divine  and  philosopher,  was  bom  at  Whichcote  Hall, 
Stoke,  Shropshire,  and  educated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  became  fellow  in  1633.  He  was  ordained  in 
1636,  and  appointed  shortly  afterwards  to  be  Sunday  afternoon 

*  Afterwards  broken  op  into  three  parts  published  separately:  (1) 
the  History  of  Scientific  ideas  (1858),  substantblly  a  reproduction  of 
the  first  part  of  the  Philosophy,  (3)  the  Noonm  erganum  renovatum 
(1858),  containing  the  second  part  of  the  tame  work,  but  without  the 
historical  review  of  opinions,  which  was  issued  wi^  large  additions  as 
(3)  the  Philosophy  of  Discovery  (i860). 


S8& 


WHICKHAM— WHIG  AND  TORY 


lecturer  at  Itinity  Cfaurchi  Cambridge.  In  1643  he  received  the 
rectory  of  North  Cadbury,  Somerset,  and  in  the  following  year 
he  waa  appointed  provoat  of  King's  College,  Cambridge,  in  place 
of  Samuel  Collins  who  was  ejected.  On  resigning  North  Cadbury 
in  1649  be  became  rector  of  Milton,  Cambridgeshire.  In  1650 
he  was  vice-chancellor  of  Cambridge  University.  Cromwell  in 
1655  consulted  him  upon  the  question  of  extending  tolerance 
to  the  Je^vB.  His  Puritan  views  lost  him  the  provostship  of 
King's  Collie  at  the  Restoration  of  x66o,  but  on  complying 
with  the  Act  of  Uniformity  he  was  i4>pointed  to  the  living  of 
St  Anne'Si  Blackfriars,  London.  In  1668  he  became  vicar  of 
St  Lawrence  Jewry,  I«ondon.  He  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
important  school  of  Cambridge  Platraoists.  His  works,  chiefly 
theological  treatises  and  sermonsi  were  all  published  posthum- 
ouily.   He  died  in  May  1683. 

See  John  TuUoch.  Raiianal  Tluoloiy,  iL  50-84  (1874) ;  and  Masters 
m  En^isk  Theology,  edited  by  A.  Bany  (1877}. 

WHICKHAN*  an  urban  district  in  the  Chester-le-Street 
parliamentary  division  of  Durham,  England,  4  m.  S.W.  of 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  near  the  river  Derwent.  Pop.  (1901) 
ia,853.  There  is  a  station  (Swalwell)  on  a  branch  of  the  North- 
Eastem  railway.  The  church  of  St  Mary  has  Norman  and 
Transitional  portions,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  is  the  mansion 
of  Gibside,  of  the  X7tii  century.  The  demesne  borders  the  Der- 
went, and  is  of  great  beauty,  part  being  laid  out  in  formal 
gardens  and  straight  avenues.  It  contains  a  lofty  Doric  column 
and  a  detached  chapel  and  banqueting  hall,  and  in  the  vicinity 
are  picturesque  fragments  of  the  monastic  chapel  of  Friarside, 
and  of  the  manor  house  of  Hollinside.  Whickham  is  one  of 
the  centres  of  a  coal-mining  district,  the  mines  employing  the 
majority  of  the  industrial  population;  but  there  are  also  iron, 
steel,  and  chemical  works. 

WHIG  AND  TORY,  the  names  associated  with  two  opposing 
political  parties  in  England.  The  origin  of  "  Whig  "  has  been 
much  controverted;  it  has  been  associated  with  the  Scots  for 
"  whey,"  as  implying  a  taunt  against  the  "  sour-milk  "  faces  of 
the  western  Lowlandcrs;  another  theory  is  that  it  represented 
the  initials  of  the  Scots  Covenanters'  motto,  "  We  hope  in  God  "; 
another  derives  it  from  the  Scots  word  "  whiggam,"  used  by 
peasants  in  driving  thdlr  horKs.  It  was,  however,  a  form  of  the 
Scots  Gaelic  term  used  to  describe  cattle  and  horse  thieves,  and 
transferred  to  the  adherents  of  the  Presbyterian  cause  in  Scot- 
land. "  Tory  "  is  derived  from  the  Irish  Tar  a  Rit  "  Come,  oh 
king! "  associated  with  the  creed  of  the  Irish  native  levies  enlisted 
in  the  civil  wars  on  behalf  of  the  loyalist  cause;  the  outlaws  who 
fought  for  James  in  Ireland  after  the  revolution  were  similarly 
nicknamed  Rapparees  or  Tories. 

Pu-Kamentary  p«rtics,  as  such,  came  into  eilstence  in  England 
as  soon  as  parliament  Sdiicved  or  aimed  at  predominance  in  the 
state.  In  1641,  shortly  after  the  meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament, 
they  were  divided  on  the  question  of  church  reform,  passing, 
as  soon  as  political  questions  were  involved,  into  Cavaliers  and 
Roundheads.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Cavaliers  in  164a  and 
1643  the  Houses  were  divided  into  a  peace  party  and  a  war 
party,  and  these  in  1643  took  the  shape  of  Presbyterians  and 
Independents.  After  the  Restoration  there  was  a  country 
party  and  a  court  party,  and  to  these  the  names  of  Whig  and 
Tory  were  appUed  in  '1679,  in  the  heat  of  the  struggle  which 
preceded  the  meeting  of  the  first  short  parliament  of  Charles  II. 
The  words  were  nicknames  given  by  the  opponents  of  each  party. 
To  call  a  man  a  Whig  was  to  compare  him  with  the  Presbyterian 
rebels  of  the  west  of  Scotland.  To  call  a  man  a  Tory  was  to 
compare  him  with  the  Papist  outlaws  of  Ireland.  In  fact,  at 
this  time  the  Whigs  were  mamtaincrs  of  parliamentary  power 
over  the  crown  and  of  toleration  for  Dissenters,  the  Tories 
maintaincrs  of  the  hereditary  indefeasible  rights  of  the  wearer 
of  the  crown  and  of  the  refusal  of  toleration  to  Dissenters.  The 
relation  between  the  parties  was  further  qualified  by  the  fact  that 
the  heir  to  the  crown  was  a  Roman  Catholic,  whose  claim  to 
succeed  was  defended  by  the  Tories  and  assailed  by  the  Whigs. 

The  persistency  of  the  names  of  the  two  parties  is  mainly 
owing  to  their  essential  unmcaningBess.     Aa  new  questions 


arose,  the  names  of  the  old  ptrtles  were  retained,  though  tbe 
objects  of  contention  were  no  longer  the  same.  The  Revolution 
of  1688-89  made  it  impossible  for  the  Tories  to  retain  their 
old  attitude  of  attachment  to  the  hereditary  right  of  the  occupant 
of  the  throng,  with  the  exception  of  the  extreme  wing  of  the 
party,  which  remained  Jacobite.  They  still,  however,  continued, 
thou£^  accepting  the  Toleration  Act,  to  oppose  the  offering  of 
further  favours  U>  Dissenters.  In  Anne's  reign,  after  the  wmr 
with  France  had  gtm*"  on  for  some  time,  they  supported  a  peace 
policy,  whilst  the  Whigs  advocated  a  continuance  of  the  war. 
On  the  whole,  during  the  hist  years  of  the  17  th  and  the  first  years 
of  the  i8th  century  the  Whigs  may  be  regarded  as  the  party 
of  the  great  landowners,  and  of  the  merchants  and  tradesmen, 
the  Tories  as  the  party  of  the  smaller  landowners  and  the  country 
clergy.  Tlie  Whigs  established,  through  their  hold  upon  tlw 
boroughs  under  the  influence  of  the  great  landowners,  a  firm 
government,  which  could  keep  in  check,  and  at  last  practically 
.  set  aside,  the  power  of  the  crown^  The  Tories,  distrusting  the 
authority  of  the'  ministerial  government,  and  fearing  a  new 
despotism  based  on  parliamentary  corruption,  became,  especially 
after  BoUngbroke's  return  from  exile,  almost  democratic  in 
their  views  and  in  their  demands  for  the  pbrificalion  of  the 
existing  system. 

With  the  accession  of  George  III.  Toryism  took  a  new  form. 
The  struggle  about  the  Dissenters  was  now  a  thing  of  the  past, 
and  the  king  was  accepted  as  a  leader  in  carrying  on  the  attack 
against  the  power  of  the  great  Whig  families.  The  attack  was  the 
easier  because  the  Whig  families  had  split  into  factions.  For 
some  time  the  dividing  line  between  Whigs  and  Tories  was  this: 
the  Tories  asserted  that  the  king' had  a  right  to  choose  his 
ministers  and  control  their  policy,  subject  to  the  necessity  of 
securing  a  majority  of  the. House  of  Commons,  whilst  the  Whigs 
thought  that  the  choice  should  lie  with  leading  members,  ot 
parliament,  and  that  the  king  should  have  no  controlling  power. 
The  Whig  view  appears  to  resemble  that  subsequently  ad<^ted; 
but  in  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  the  corruption  which 
prevailed  rendered  the  analogy  worthless,  and  the  real  conflict 
was  between  the  corrupt  influence  of  the  crown  and  the  influence 
of  a  clique  of  great  landowners  resting  on  their  possession  of 
electoral  power  through  the  rotten  boroughs.  In  1770  the  king 
had  his  way  and  established  Lord  North  at  the  treasury  as 
his  nominee.  The  Whigs,  deprived  of  power,  improved  their 
position  by  the  loss  of  one  great  instrument  of  corruption;  but 
they  were  weakened  by  the  establishment  of  two  distinct  currents 
of  opinion  in  their  own  ranks.  The  main  body  under  Rocking- 
ham was  influenced  by  Burke  to  demand  practical  reforms, 
but  set  its  face  against  any  popular  changa  in  the  constitution. 
The  Whigs  who  followed  Chatham  wished  to  place*  parliament 
on  a  more  popubr  basis  by  the  reform  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
When  in  1783  Chatham's  son  Pitt  became  prime  minister,  the 
Tory  party  took  a  new  start.  It  retained  the  Tory  principle  of 
reliance  on  the  crovm,  and  joined  to  it  Chatham's  principle  of 
reliance  on  the  people  as  opposed  to  the  great  Whig  families: 
It  also  supported  Pitt  in  practical  reforms. 

All  this  was  changed  by  the  French  Revolution.  In  opposition 
to  the  new  democracy,  the  Tories  coalesced  with  a  section  of  the 
Whig  families,  the  representatives  of  which  entered  the  ministry 
in  1794.  From  this  time  till  1822,  in  spite  of  men  like  Pitt,  and 
the  personal  influence  of  Tory  leaders  who  supported  moderate 
reform,  Toryism  came  to  be  popularly  identified  with  a  desire  to 
retain  the  ex'tsting  state  of  things,  however  full  of  abases  it 
might  be.  When  Canning  and  Peel  entered  the  ministry  in 
1822,  a  gradual  change  took  place,  and  a  tendency  to  practical 
reform  manifested  itself.  The  refusal  of  Wellington  to  listen  to 
any  proposal  for  altering  the  constitution  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons threw  power  once  more  into  the  hands  of  the  Whigs  in  1830. 
Shortly  afterwards  the  name  Tory  gave  place  to  that  of  Conscr\'a- 
tive  iq.v.),  though  it  was  cherished  by  those  Conservatives  who 
wished  to  assert  their  power  of  originating  a  definite  policy,  and 
who  dishl^ed  to  be  branded  with  a  purely  negative  appellation, 
and  it  was  also  retained  as  a  term  of  opprobrium  by  the  Liberals 
for  those  whom  they  regiurded  as  old-fashioned  opponents  of 


WHIG  PARTY 


589 


reform.  The  name  of  Whig  was  replaced  by  that  of  Ubenl» 
being  frequeotly,  howeveft  asstgned  to  the  less  progressive  por* 
cioo  of  the  party,  the  *'  moderate  Liberals,"  or  even  to  bali-and- 
half  Conservatives,  as  a  term  more  or  )ess  of  reproach  It  ceased 
to  be  a  Dame  accepted  by  any  definite  English  political  section, 

WHIG  PARTY,  in  Amcricai  a  political  party  prominent  from 
about  1824  to  1854.*  The  first  national  party  system  of  the 
United  States  came  to  an  end  during  the  second  war  with  Great 
Britain.  The  destruction  of  the  Federalist  party  (^.t.)  through 
a  scries  of  suiddal  acts  which  began  with  the  Alien  and  Sedition 
laira  of  1798,  and  closed  with  the  Hartford  Coavantion  of  i8i4-> 
1815,  left  the  Jelfersonian  Repnblican  (Democratic)  party  in 
undisputed  control  When,  after  Waterloo,  Napoleon  ceased  to 
disturb  the  relations  of  the  new  world  with  Uie  old,  the  American 
people,  freed  for  the  first  time  from  all  trace  of  political  depend* 
ence  on  Europe,  were  at  liberty  to  shape  their  public  policy  in 
their  own  way.  During  the  period  of  rapid  internal  develop- 
ment which  followed  after  181 5,  the  all-inclusive  Republican 
party  began  gradually  to  disintegrate  and  a  new  party  system 
was  evolved,  each  member  of  which  was  the  representative  of 
such  groups  of  ideas  and  interests,  class  and  local,  as  sequired 
the  support  of  a  separate  party.  This  work  of  disintegration* 
and  rebuilding  proceeded  so  slowly  that  for  more  than  a  decade 
after  the  Peace  of  Ghent  eadi  new  party,  disguised  during  the 
early  saigcs  of  organization  as  the  peraonal  following  of  a  parti- 
cular leader  or  group  of  leaders,  kept  on  calling  itself  Republican. 
Even  during  the  sharply  contested  election  of  1824  the  rival 
partisans  were  known  as  Jacksoe,  Crawford  and  Callioun,  or  as 
Clay  and  Adams  R^ubUcans.  (See  DEMOCaAtic  Pabty.)  It 
was  not  until  late  in  the  administration  of  John  (^ncy  Adams, 
1825  to  1829,  that  the  supporters  of  the  president  and  Henry 
Clay,  the  secretary  of  state,  were  first  recognized  as  a  distinct 
party  and  b^^  to  be  called  by  the  accurately  descriptive  term 
National  Republicans.  But  after  the  party  had  become  con- 
solidated, in  the  passionate  campaign  of  1838,  and  later  in  oppos- 
ing the  measures  of  President  Jackson,  it  adopted  in  1854  the 
name  Whig,  whichi  through  memorable  associations  both  British 
and  American,  served  as  a  protett  against  eiecutive  encroach- 
ments, and  thus  facilitated  union  with  other  parties  and  factions, 
such  as  the  Anti-Masonic  party  (9. v.),  that  had  beonalieoated  by 
the  high-handed  measures  of  Prnident  Jackson.  The  new  name 
announced  not  the  birth  but  the  maturity  of  the  party,  and  the 
definite  establishment  of  its  principles  and  general  lines  of  policy. 
The  ends  for  which  the  Whigs  laboured  were:  first,  to  maintain 
the  integrity  of  the  Union;  second,  to  make  the  Union  thoroughly 
national;  third,  to  maintain  the  republican  character  of  the 
Unkm;  fourth,  while  utilising  to  the  full  the  inheritance  from 
and  through  Europe,  to  devel(^  a  distinctly  American  type  of 
d^HUisation;  fifth,  to  propagate  abroad  by  peaceful  means 
American  ideas  and  institutionsp  Among  the  policies  or  means 
wUch  the  Whigs  used  in  order  to  realise  their  priadples  were  the 
bioad  oonstructioD  of  those  provisions  of  the  Federal  (Constitution 
which  confer  powers  on  tJic  national  goveniment;  protective 
tariffs;  comprehensive  schemes  of  intenial  Improvements  under 
the  direction  and  at  the  cost  of  the  national  government; 
support  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States;  resistance  to  many 
acts  of  President  Jackson  as  encroachments  by  the  executive  on 
the  legislative  btanch  of  the  government  and  therefore  hostile  to 
repubDcanism;  coalition  vpth  other  parties  in  order  to  promote 
national  as  opposed  to  partisan  tads;  resort  to  compromise  in 
Older  to  allay  sectional  irritation  and  compose  sectional  differ- 
ences; and  cardial  and  yet  prudent  expression  of  aympathy 
with  the  liberal  movement  in  other  lands. 

The  activity  of  the  Whig  party,  reckoned  from  the  election 
of  1834,  when  ftaoiganization  began,  to  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise  in  1854*  coven  thirty  years.  In  two  respects, 
namdy,  the  rise  of  the  new  radical  democracy  under  Andrew 
Jackson,  and  the  growth  of  sectionalism  over  Uie  slavery  issue, 
this  peik)d  was  highly  criticaL  In  view  of  these  events  the  most 

*  Immediately  before  the  War  of  Independence  and  during  the 
war  thoee  who  favoured  the  cotonial  canae  and  iodependence  were 
cattad  "  Whigs." 

xxvm   xo* 


diiBcult  task  of  the  Whigs,  cleariy  discenied  and  heartily  accepted 
by  them,  under  the  patriotic  and  conservative  leadership  of 
Henry  Clay  and  Daniel  Webster,  was  to  anodente  andenlighten, 
rather  than  antagooiae,  the  new  democracy;  aad^what  proved 
to  be  beyond  their  poweca— to  overcome  the  dianipUog  influence 
of  the  slavery  issue. 

The  inaugural  address  and  the  messages  to  (Congress  of  Presi- 
dent J  Q.  Adams  set  forth  clearly  the  nationalixing,  broad- 
construction  programme  of  the  new  party.  But  his  supporters 
m  Congress,  imp^foctly  organised  and  facing  a  powerful  opposi- 
tioa»  accompliiiied  very  little  in  the  way  of  legjshulon.  The 
ekcUon  of  X82S  gave  to  Andrew  Jackson  the  presldewy,  and  to 
the  people,  in  a  higher  degree  than  ever  before,  the  control  of  the 
government.  The  president's  attack  upon  the  Bank,  the  intro- 
ductioa  of  the  modem  "  spoils  system ''  into  the  Federal  dvil 
service,  the  unprecedented  use  of  the  veto  power,  Jadcaon's 
assumption  of  powers  which  his  opponents  deemed  unconstitu- 
tional, and  his  personal  hostility  towards  Clay , who  had  succeeded 
Adams  in  the  leadership  of  the  party,  brought  about,  under 
Whig  leadei^hip,  a  coalition  of  opposition  parties  which  influenced 
deeply  and  permanently  the  character,  policy  and  fortunes  ol 
the  Whig  party.  It  became  the  champion  of  the  Bank,  of  the 
right  of  Congresa,  and  of  the  older  and  purer  form  of  the  dvil 
service.  Moreover,  as  a  means  of  strenglhenfaig  the  bond  with 
their  new  allies,  the  Whigs  learned  to  practise  a  tolerance  towards 
the  opinions  and  even  the  prindplea  of  their  associates  which  is 
exceptional  in  the  histoiy  of  American  political  parties.  In  strict 
accord  with  thdr  own  principles,  however,  the  Whigs  supported 
the  president  during  the  Nullification  (Controveny  (see  NuxxincA- 
noN).  The  renown  of  Webster  as  the  foremost  expositor  of  the 
national  theory  of  the  Umon  rests  largely  on  his  speeches  during 
this  controversy,  in  particular  on  his  oetebrated  r^ly  to  Senator 
R.  Y.  Hayne  of  Soutb  Ouolina.  Neverthdess,  after  vindicating 
the  rights  of  the  Union,  most  of  the  Whigs  supported  Clay  in 
arranging  the  comproinise  tariff  of  1832  which  enabled  the 
NuUifiera  to  retreat  without  acknowledging  discomfiture.  The 
majority  of  the  Northern  Whigs,  with  the  entiro  Southern 
membership  of  the  party,  disapproved  the  propaganda  of  the 
Abolitionista  on  the  gnMud  of  its  tendency  to  endanger  the 
Union,  and  many  from  a  like  motive  voted  for  the  "  Gag  Rules  " 
of  Z835-1844  (aee  Adams,  J.  Q.),  which  in  spirit,  if  not  in  letter, 
violatMl  the  constitutional  right  of  petition.  In  the  dectioo . 
of  1832  Clay  was  the  nominee  of  the  party  for  the  presidency, 
but  in  1836  and  1840,  purely  on  groutids  of  expediency,  the 
Whig  conventions  nominated  General  W.  H.  Harrison.  During 
the  administration  of  Martin  Van  Buren  the  V^dgs  tried  with 
success  to  make  party  capital  out  of  the  panic  of  2837,  which  they 
ascribed  to  Jackson,  and  out  of  the  long  depression  that  followed, 
for  which  they  held  Van  Buren  responsible.  The  election  of 
General  Harriten  in  the  "log  cabin  and  hard  dder''  campaign 
of  1840  proved  a  fruitless  victory:  the  early  death  of  the  pru- 
dent and  the  anti-Whig  poh'tics  of  his  successor,  John  Tyler 
iq.t.)^  whom  the  Whigs  had  imprudently  chosen  as  vice-president, 
shattered  thpir  legislative  progranune. 

In  1844  Clay  was  again  the  Whig  candidate,  and  the  annexa- 
tion of  Texas,  involving  the  risk  of  a  war  with  Mexico,  was  the 
leading  Issue.  The  Whigs  opposed  annexation ;  and  the  prospect 
of  success  seemed  bright,  untfl  CUy,  in  the  effort  to  remove 
Southern  misapprehensions,  wrote  that  he  "  would  be  glad  '*  at 
some  future  tune  to  see  Texas  annexed  if  it  could  be  done 
"  without  dishonour,  without  war,  with  the  common  consent 
of  the  Union,  and  upon  just  and  fair  terms."  It  is  widdy  hdd 
that  this  letter  turned  against  Clay  the  anti-slavery  dement 
and  lost  him  the  presidency.  The  triumph  of  Polk  in  1844  was 
followed  by  the  annexation  of  Texas  and  by  war  with  Mcxica 
The  Whigs  exposed  the  war,  but  on  patriotic  grounds  voted 
supplies  for  its  prosecution.  The  acquisition  of  Texas,  and  the 
assured  prospect  of  a  great  territorial  enlargement,  at  the  cost  of 
Mexico,  brought  to  the  front  the  question  of  slavery  in  the  new 
domain.  The  agitation  that  followed  continued  through  the 
presidential  dection  of  2848  (in  which  the  Whigs  dected  General 
Zachary  Taylor),  and  did  not  subside  until  the  passage  of  tlie 


59° 


WHIP— WHIPPING 


"  Compramlu  Mawrn  of  1850  "  (f.*.)'.  To  its  ■mhon  (Us 
compromise  Hened  nicaLial  to  Ibc  ptcscrvatinn  of  (he  Union, 
but  il  lol  direclly  lo  (be  dnlniclion  of  tbe  Whig  party.  la  Ibe 
North,  where  the  inhumgne  FuRitive  Slave  Liw  grew  diQy  aons 
odious,  the  kdhateoce  to  tbe  Corapromlie  on  which  Clay  and 
Webster  indsled  weakened  the  party  filally.  The  allemitive, 
namdy,  a  committal  of  tbe  party  to  the  repeal  oE  tbe  obnojious 
law,  would  have  driven  the  Southern  Whiff  tnlo  the  camp  of 
the  Democrats,  leaving  the  Nonbern  Whigs  a  seclionat  party 
powerless  10  taist  the  disniplion  of  the  Union.  The  only 
weapons  that  tbe  Whiff  knew  how  to  use  in  defence  of  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law  were  appeals  to  patTiotluti  and  BCCIMiul  bar- 
gajninf,  sod  these  couhl  Ix  employed  only  lo  long  **  Ibe  party 

Tbe  National  Whig  Connotlon  of  l8ji,  tbe  last  that  repre- 
tented  the  pirty  in  Its  entirety,  gave  to  Iba  N«tbeni  Whiff  the 
nsming  of  the  candidate— General  Winfield  Scott— who  waa 
ddeated  In  the  ensuing  election,  and  to  tbe  Southern  the  framing 
ot  the  platform  with  Its  "  finality  "  plank,  which,  as  revised  by 
Webster,  read  as  foUaws;  "That  the  series  oC  acts  of  the  Thirty- 
second  CongteH,  the  act  known  as  tbe  Fugitive  Slave  Law  in- 
cluded, ale  received  and  acquiesced  in  by  the  Whig  party  of  tbe 
United  States  as  a  cettiement  in  princii^e  and  BUbsUoce  of  the 
dangerous  and  eadting  questions  which  Ihey  embrace  -  -  ■  and 
we  will  maintain  this  system  as  osentitJ  to  the  nationality  of 
the  Wlug  party  and  tbe  integrity  of  the  Union." 

Two  yeais  later  tbe  Repeal  of  tbe  Missouri  Compromise  by 
the  Kansas-Nebraska  Art  demonstrated  that  "  this  system  " 
coold  not  be  maintained,  and  that  in  committing  ihc  Whig 
party  to  the  policy  of  its  mainttoaDCe  the  Conventim  of  iSs' 
had  signed  the  dealb-watnnt  of  tbe  party. 

Among  the  services  of  the  Whigs  tlie  ^st  in  importance  ara 
Ihesa:  During  the  thirty  ciilicat  yean  in  which  under  Ihe 
leadel^p  of  Clay  and  Webster  Ihey  maintained  the  national 
view  of  the  nature  of  the  Union,  tbe  Whiff  conlributed  mora 
than  all  their  rivds  to  impress  this  view  upon  tbe  hearts  and 
minds  of  the  people.  During  this  same  extended  period  aspeace- 
maken  between  the  secUons  Ihey  kept  North  and  South  together 
until  the  North  had  become  strong  enough  to  uphold  by  force  tbe 
integrity  of  the  Union.  And  lastly  Ihey  bequeathed  to  the  Re- 
publican party  the  principle!  on  vtdch,  and  the  leader,  Abtabam 
Uncoln,  through  nbom  the  eadanttred  Union  was  finally  saved. 


mnary  (New  Yorlt.  1B9OJ.  in.  v.  J 

WHIP,  in  genemi,  ID  instnnnenf  for  itriUog,  usually  con 
of  a  handle  of  a  llcnbte  nature  with  a  lath  attached  (sec 
riNo,  below).  In  English  pattiamentary  usage,  a  "  whip 
member  {or  mcmbera)  chosen  by  the  leader  or  leader 
political  party  for  tbe  special  duly  of  securing  the  atln 
of  the  other  members  of  (hat  party  on  all  necessary  occ 
Lbbrcvialed  from  tbe  whipper-in  of  a 


The  nan 


Whips  a 


,  of  coutw,  abrayi  n 


I   the  (overainenii 

■   in  im. 


t  itidf. 


depend  upon  the  result  of  a  division  in  tbe  House,  When 
najotity  ot  the  party  in  power  is  not  large  it  Is  very  necessary 
that  there  sboold  always  be  at  hand  a  sufGdent  number  of  its 
suppotten  to  make  up  a  majority,  and  wiihotit  tbe  aa^slance  of 
the  whips  ft  wodd  be  impossiUe  to  secure  tkii.  Tbe  chief 
(hip  of  the  government  holds  the  office  of  patronage  «ecrelaty  10 
he  treasury,  so  called  because  when  offices  were  freeV  clis* 
tilbuted  lo  aecuie  the  support  of  members,  it  was  his  chief  duty 
di^MW  of  (he  patronage  to  tbe  best  advantage  of  bis  party. 
He  la  stm  the  dMaitcI  tbnogh  which  mcb  patronage  as  is  left 
tbe  pHme  Duoister  la  dispensed.  He  is  assisted  by  thiee  Junior 
whips,  «4)a  are  officially  appointed  as  junior  lords  of  Ibe  tivaury; 
their  taUiia  an  £1000  a  year  each,  while  tbe  patronage  secretary 
iia  a  salary  of  £1000.  The  partia  not  in  oBice  have  iriiipt 
vho  are  unpaid.  Atteodanco  of  mcmben  Is  prlmaHty  secured 
by  lithognpbed  notices  Bent  by  tbe  whips  to  their  ff^wing, 
the  urgency  or  importance  of  tbe  notice  being  indicated  by  Ibe 
umber  of  lines  underacoring  the  notice,  a  four-line  whip  usually 
ignifying  the  eltremeM  tugency.  Tbe  whipa  also  arrange  for 
he"  pairing  "of  such  ot  the  nKmbora  of  their  party  who  dtsiie 
0  be  absent  with  those  members  ot  tbe  opporition  party  who 
Iw  desire  to  be  absent.  Tbe  chief  whips  of  either  parly  arrange 
In  consultation  with  each  other  the  leading  speakers  fix  an 
important  debate,  and  also  its  length,  and  give  (he  list  of  speaker! 
to  the  speaker  t»r  chairman,  who  iDually  falls  In  with  (he  arrange 
meet.  They  lake  no  part  b  debale  themselves,  but  are  cod- 
stantly  preseDt  in  tbe  House  during  Its  ailliiigt,  keeping  a  finger, 
as  it  were,  upon  Ibe  pulse  of  the  House,  and  consuntly  informfaig 
their  leader  aa  10  Ibe  >UU  of  the  House.  Whan  any  divisbia 
Is  regarded  as  a  aUictly  party  osc,  the  whipi  act  aa  teUcta  in  the 

An  mteresting  account  cl  Che  ci6ke  of  whip  li  given  ia  A.  [- 
Lowell'i  Guanuutm  ej  Extlni  (190B).  voL  i.  c  hv. 

WHfPPIHe,  or  Floociho,  a  method  of  corporal  punisbment 
Irhich  in  one  form  or  another  has  been  used  In  all  agu  uid  alt 
lands  (see  BasTtXADO,  Knodt,  Cat-o'-Nihi-Taiu).  In  andent 
Rome  a  dtiren  could  not  be  acuorged,  it  being  tonsldered  an 
Infamous  punuhmenL  Slaves  were  beaten  with  rods.  Similaily 
in  early  medieval  England  (he  whip  could  rut  be  used  on  the 
freeman,  but  was  reserved  for  the  villein.  The  Anglo-Saiona 
whipped  prlEonen  with  a  three<orded  kiutted  lash.  It  waa 
tiot  uncommon  for  mistreasea  to  whip  or  have  their  servants 
whipped  to  death.  William  of  Mabnesbuiy  relates  that  aa  a 
child  King  £thebed  was  flogged  with  candles  by  his  mother, 
who  had  no  handier  weapon,  Bntn  he  was  insensible  with  pain. 
During  the  Saxon  pefiod  whipping  waa  the  otdinary  punishment 
for  oRences,  great  orimalL  Payments  for  whipping  figure  largely 
in  munldpal  and  parish  accounts  fnnn  an  early  date.  The  aboli- 
tion ot  the  monastcTies.  where  tbe  poor  bad  been  sure  of  free 
meals,  led  during  the  i6lb  century  10  an  Increese  of  vagrancy,  at 
which  tbe  Statute  of  Laboureia  (i}So)  and  Its  provisjoni  as  to 
whipping  had  been  eatly  aimed.  In  Ibe  reign  of  Hcniy  VIII. 
vraa  passed  (1530}  the  famous  Whlppiag  Act,  directing  vaffVita  to 
be  canfed  to  some  matket  town  or  other  place  "  and  there  tied  to 
the  end  of  a  cart  naked  and  beaten  wiib  whips  thnjugbout  ndi 
imarket  town  till  lb*  body  shall  be  Moody."  In  (he  39th  yetc 
of  Ettcabeth  a  new  act  was  passed  by  which  the  offender  m*  lo 
be  stripped  lo  the  vilst,  not  quite  naked.  It  wst  undo  (hli 
sutule  that  whippinf-poats  were  sobailtuted  for  ibe  cart. 
Many  of  these  posts  wen  romhlned  with  stocks,  as  that  at 
Waltham  Abbey,  *Uch  bears  date  "  1598."  It  is  of  oak,  s  ft. 
0  In.  high,  wilh  Iran  daspa  for  the  bands  when  used  for  whining, 
and  for  Ihe  feet  when  tued  as  stocks.  Fourpence  na  tlie  old 
charge  for  wbipping  male  and  female  rogues.  At  quaitei- 
tessions  In  Devonshire  at  Easts  ijoS  it  was  ordered  that  tbe 
mothers  of  bastatd  chBdrcn  should  be  whipped;  the  reputed 
fathers  su£eting  a  like  punishment.  In  the  west  of  England 
in  1684,  "certain  Sootch  pcdlaia  and  petty  chapmen  being  in  the 


WHISKER— WHISK.Y 


591 


of  ahoppe-keepers,"  tlwconil orderedUiem  to  be  snipped  naked 
and  whipped.  The  flogging  of  women  was  common.  Judge 
Jeffreys,  in  so  sentencing  a  female  prisoner,  is  reported  to  have 
exclaimed,  **  Hangman,  I  charge  you  to  pay  particular  attention 
to  this  lady.  Scourge  her  soundly,  man:  scourge  her  tfll 
her  blood  runs  downl  It  is  Christmas:  a  cold  time  for  madam 
to  strip.  See  that  you  warm  her  shoulders."  Lunatics,  too, 
were  whipped,  for  in  the  Constable's  Accounts  of  Great  Staui^ton, 
Hunts,  occurs  the  entry,  "  i6<^i,  Paid  in  charges  Uking  up  a 
distracted  woman,  watching  her  and  whipping  her  next  day — 
8/6d."  A  still  more  remarkable  entry  is  "  17x0-1,  Pd.  Thomas 
Hawkins  for  whipping  two  people  yt  had  smallpox-^8d."  In 
X764  the  Publk  Ledger  states  that  a  woman  who  is  described  as 
"  an  old  offender  "  was  taken  from  the  Clerkenwell  Bridewell 
to  Enfield  and  there  publicly  whipped  at  the  cart's  tail  by  the 
common  hangman  for  cutting  wood  in  Enfield  Chase.  A  statute 
of  1 791  abolished  the  whipping  of  females. 

WHISKER,  a  word  chiefly  used  in  the  plural  in  the  sense  of 
the  hair  worn  by  a  man  on  the  cheeks  as  opposed  to  the  beard  onr 
the  chin  and  the  moustache  on  the  upper  lip  (see  Beasd).  It 
is  also  applied  to  the  bristly  feelers  growing  round  the  mouth  of 
a  cat  or  other  animal.  The  word  by  derivation  means  that  which 
"  whisks  "  or  "  brushes." 

WHISKY,  or  Wihskey,  a  potable  spirit  distilled  from  cereal 
grains.  The  name  is  probably  derived  from  the  Cdtic  uisie- 
beatka  (water  of  Ufe),  which  was  subsequently  contracted  to 
nsquebauihf  and  still  later  to  whisky  (d.  Ske^t,  Etym.  DiU. «.«.). 
The  liquor  known  as  "usquebaugh"  in  the  X7th  and  i8lh 
centuries  was  not,  however,  of  the  same  character  as  the  whisky 
of  modem  times,  but  was  a  compound  of  plain  spirit  with 
saffron,  nutm^p,  sugar  and  other  spices  and  flavouring  matters. 
Whether  the  term  whisky  to  denote  a  plain  type  of  spirit  was  used 
concurrently  with  usquebaugh,  or  whether  the  latter  name 
covered  both  varieties,  is  not  clear.  It  is  certain,  however,  that 
an  alcoholic  liquor,  derived  mainly  from  grain,  has  been  pr^Muxd 
for  verv  many  centuries  in  both  Ireland  and  Scothuid  (see 
Spuutsj.  There  are  three  main  types  of  whisky,  namely,  Scotch* 
Irish  and  American. 

>  Scotch  whiskies  may  be  broadly  divided  into  two  main  groups, 
namely  (a)  pot-still  or  malt  whiskies,  and  ib)  patent-still  or  grain 
whiskies;  the  former  are  made  practically  without  exCQ>tion 
from  malted  barley  only,  the  latter  from  a  mixture  of  oialted 
barley  and  other  tmmalted  cereals,  chiefly  lye,  oats  and  maize 
(see  Spirits),  (a)  There  are  four  main  varieties  of  Scotch  malt 
wbiducs,  namely,  Highland  Malts,  Lowlund  Mahs,  Campbeltowns 
and  I^ys.  The  Highland  Malta  are  produced  (if  we  except  a 
few  distiUeries  on  the  inlands  in  the  west  and  north)  in  the  district 
on  the  mainland  lying  north  of  an  imaginary  line  drawn  thsough 
Dundee  on  the  east  and  Greenock  on  the  west.  The  largest 
group  of  distiUeries  is  in  the  famous  Spcyslde  or  Glenlivet  district. 


The  Lowland  Mafts  are  made  aouth  of  the  iamginary  line  aOuded 
to.  The  Campbeltowns  are  distilled  in  or  near  the  town  of  that 
name  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Kintyre  peninsula.  The  Islays 
are  produced  in  the  island  of  that  name.  Tl^ese  different  varieties 
of  whisky,  although  made  in  much  the  same  way,  yet  possess 
distinctive  characteristics  of  flavour.  The  t3rpe  of  bariey 
employed,  the  qpiantity  of  pest  employed  in  cuing  the  malt, 
the  quality  of  the  water,  the  manner  of  carrying  out  the  various 
distillery  processes— particularly  that  of  dii^iUation — the  shape 
and  siae  of  the  stills,  &c.,  all  these  are  factors  which  affect  the 
flavour  of  the  final  product.  The  Islays,  which,  aa  a  rule,  are 
considered  to  be  among  the  most  valuable  of  Scotch  whiskies, 
possess  a  very  full  and  peaty  flavour  together  with  a  strong 
ethereal  bouquet.  For  thb  reason  they 'are  much  used  for 
blending  with  whiskies  of  a  lighter  type.  The  HigUand  Malts 
proper  (Speyside  type)  are  less  peaty  than  the  Islays,  yet  possess 
a  fuU  flavour,  although  many  of  them  are  inclined  to  be 
"  elegant "  rather  than  "  big."  The  Lowland  Malts,  again,  are, 
as.  a  class,  less  peated  than  the  Highland  Malts,  and  indeed, 
nowadays,  in  view  of  the  growing  taste  for  a  more  neutral  dasa 
of  beverage,  there  are  some  Lowland  Malt  distilleries  which  dis- 
pense with  the  use  of  peat  altogether.  Many  of  the  Lowland 
Malts  possess  considerable  body  and  flavour,  but,  on  the  whole, 
they  are  lighter  and  not  so  fine  as  those  of  the  Highland  variety. 
Lowland  distillers  are  now  running  their  spirit  at  much  the  same 
strength  as  their  Highland  colleagues,  whereas  formerly  it  was 
the  custom  to  work  at  a  far  higher  strength.  The  result  is  that 
the  difference  between  the  two  classes  of  spirit  is  not  so  marked 
as  it  was.  The  Campbeltowns,  although  in  some  respects  similar 
to  the  Islays  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Highland  Malts  on  the 
other,  are  somewhat  rougher  and  less  elegant  than  these.  They 
usually  possess  a  full  peaty  flavour,  (b)  Patent-still  or  grain 
whiskies  are,  as  a  class,  lighter  in  flavour  and  "  body  "  than  the 
pot-stiU  types.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  rectification  of 
these  whiskies  is  carried  a  good  deal  further  than  is  the  case  with 
the  "  malta."  They  are  made  from  a  mlxiure  of  malted  and 
unmalted  cereak,  and,  as  no  peat  is  employed  in  the  curing  of 
the  malt,  they  lack  the  "  smoky  "  flavour  of  the  other  varieties. 
Some  controversy  has  arisen  as  to  whether  these  patent-still 
spirits  have  a  right  to  the  name  of  "  whidiy  "  or  "  Scotch 
whisky,"  but  although,  no  doubt,  this  controversy  is  largely  due 
to  conflicting  trade  interests,  it  has  also,  in  the  author's  opinion, 
been  caused  by  a  very  general  popular  misconception  as  to  the 
true  character  of  these  whiskies.  The  idea  that  they  are  true 
'*  silent "  or  **  neutral "  spirits — i.e.  alcohol  and  water  pure  and 
simple— is  quite  incorrect.  They  possess  a  distinct  flavour,  which 
varies  at  different  distilleries,  and  analysis  discloses  the  fact 
that  they  contain  very  appreciable  quantities  of  the  "  secondary  " 
products  which  distinguish  potable  spirits  from  pUin  alcohol. 
Indeed,  as  a  result  of  an  extensive  investigation  of  the  question 


Composiiiffm  of  ScoUh  Whiskies, 

Note.^-The  figures  below  are  bated  on  a  hige  number  of  analyses  of  typical  samples.  Cf.  Schidrowitz  and  Kaye,  Journal  Soc. 
Chem,  Ind,  <June  1905).   Wheietwo  figures  are  given  in  the  same  oolumn,  tney  do  not  indicate  extremes,  but  merely  normal  variation. 


Description. 

(Results  expressed  in  grams  per  100  litres  of  absolute  alcohol.)                                1 

Alcohol. 

Total 
Acid. 

Non-volatile 
Acid. 

Esters. 

Higher 
Alcohols. 

Akkhydes. 

FurfuroL 

Highland  Malts- 
New  light  type  •.     . 
New  heavy  type 
Mature  light  type 
Mature  heavy  type  . 

Lowland  Malts — 

New 

Mature    .... 

Campbeltown —     .     . 

New 

Mature     .     .     .      . 

!sby>     . 

Grain  Whiskies- 
New    .     . 
Mature 

Practically     all     Scotch 
whiskies  are  distilled  at 
about  2^  O.P.  (about 
72%    of   aloohol    by 
volume).   Prior  to  stor- 
age they  are  reduced 
to  11  O.P.  with  water. 
Mature  whiskies  con- 
tain 45  to  60%  of  alco- 
hol according  to  age, 
humidity      01       store. 
^.      For   retail    sale, 
whiskiea  are  reduced  to 
a  strength  of  roughly 
17  to  24  U.P. 

15 
20 

}    20-80 

20-60 

20-30 
30-8<y 

Trace  to  5 
25-50 

Nn 

NU 

5-35 

Nil 
5-20 

Nil 
5-25 

Nil 
5-25 

50 
75 

50-100 

25-50 
50-75 

50-70 
60-120 

20-40 
25-50 

140 
200 
«50 
920 

110-180 
120-200 

180-220 
230-250 

50-60 
60-70 

10 
20-40 

)    15-50   j 

)  israo  { 

20-40 

30-70 

2-10  \ 
i-*5    S 

2-5-3 

3-5 

2-3 
2-5-4'5 

2-5-4-5 
2-3  5 

3-8 
2-5-7 

•  ■ 

Trace  to  6-75 

*  The  Islays  give  similar  figures  to  the  Highland  Malts  except  that  the  Higher  Akohols  and  Furfurol  are  slightly  higher. 


592 


WHISKY  INSURRECTION 


by  the  author,  it  has  been  shown  that  the  relative  proportion  x>f 
"  secondary  "  products  in  Highland  Malt,  Lowland  Malt  and 
"  grain  '*  whiskies  respectively,  is  roughly  as  3:3:1.  The 
figures  in  the  foregoing  table  illustrate,  as  far  as  we  are  at  present 
aUe  to  determine  them,  the  general  onnposition  of  the  various 
types  of  Scotch  whiskies  referred  to. 

>  The  character  of  Scotch  whisky  is  much  influenced  by  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  matured.  Chief  among  the  factors  in  this 
connexion  is  the  nature  of  the  cask  emplojred.  The  main  varieties 
are  plain  wood,  sherry  and  refill  casks.  Technically  the  term 
"  plain  "  wood  is  applied  to  a  cask  made  from  seasoned  oak 
which  has  contained  no  other  liquor  than  whisky.  Similarly 
the  term  "  sherry  **  wood  is  as  a  rule  only  applied  to  a  cask 
the  wood  of  which  has  become  impregnated  with  sheny  by  con- 
tact with  that  wine,  and  which  has  not  been  used  in  any  other 
manner.  A  sherry  cask  which  has  been  filled  with  whisky, 
then  emptied  and  "  refilled ''  with  whisky,  is  known  as  a  "  refill." 
Brandy  and  Madeira  "  wood  "  are  also  occasionally  employed. 
The  nature  of  the  atmospheric  conditions  of  the  cellar  is  also 
of  importance  in  determining  character  and  quality  (see  Spouts). 
Blendint. — ^Scotch  whiskies  are,  as  a  general  rule,  "blended" 
prior  to  sale  to  the  public  By  **  Mending  b  understood  the  art  of 
putting  together  different  types  and  varieties  of  whisky  to  form  a 


wfch  that  employed  for  Scotch  "  grain,"  tmt  as  a  dasi  they  are 
somewhat  lifter  as  regards  flavour  and  body  than  the  latter. 
Irish  whiskies  are  not  classified  territorially,  although  occasionally 
the  distinction  of  "  Bublm  "  or  *'  Country  makes  "  is  recognized 
in  the  trade.  Broadly  speaking,  however,  the  dUffesenoes  between 
Irish  whiskies  are  not  due  to  dass,  but  to  individual  variation. 

American  Whisky. — There  are  two  main  varieties  of  American 
whisky,  namely,  Rye  whisky,  the  predominant  raw  material  in 
the  manufacture  of  which  is  rye,  and  Bourbon  or  com  whisky, 
made  mainly  from  Indian  com  (maize).  Both  varieties  possess 
a  mudi  higher  flavour  and  greater  body  than  do  the  Scotch  or 
Irish  whiskies,  due  partly  to  the  class  of  raw  material  employed, 
and  partly  to  the  method  of  distillation.  Broadly  speaking,  the 
American  self  (so-called  "  straight ")  whiskies  contain  (fouble 
the  quantity  of  secondary  or  "  by ''  products  present  in  Scotdi 
or  Irish  whbkies. 

American  whiskies  are  almost  invariably  stored  in  very  heavily 
charred  barrels,  which,  while  it  very  appreciably  affects  the 
flavour,  is  necessary,  masmuch  as  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  would 
be  possible  to  mature  these  exceedingly  heavy  whiskies  within 
a  commercially  reasonable  time  Without  the  cleansing  and 
purifying  effect  of  the  charcoal  formed  by  the  burning  of  the  cask. 
Even  with  the  aid  of  the  charred  cask,  the  average  maturation 
time  of  the  American  pot-still  whiskies  is  certainly  two  or  three 
years  longer  than  that  of  Scotch  and  Irish  whiskies.        (P.  S.) 


hannonious  combination.  ^The  general  run  of  "  self  "  whiskies — ue. 
whiskies  from  a  single  distillery— do  not  appear  to  be  to  the  public 
taste,  but  by  combining  different  kinds  01  whisky  bl«idcrs  have 
succeeded  in  pro-  _ 

d^dng  an  article C&mpMtim  ef  Irish  Whishies  (Analysts  hy  Sehidromta  and  Kays). 

the  demand  for 
which  has  in- 
creased  enor- 
mously during  the 
past  quarter  of  a 
century,  and 
which  may  now 
be  regarded  as  a 
staple  beverage 
in  all  English- 
spcakins  ooun- 
tries.  The  great 
expansion  01  the 
Scotch  whisky 
trade  of  late  years 
is  undoubtedly 
due  in  the  main 
to  the  introduc- 
tion of  blending 
on  sckintific  lines. 
There  are  different 


Description. 

(Results  expressed  in  grams  per  100  litres  of  absolute  alcohol.)               | 

Akohol 
percent 
by  vol. » 

Total  Acid. 

Non- 

voUtile 

Add. 

Esters. 

Higher 
Aknhols. 

AMefaydes. 

Furfurol. 

Dublin  Whiskies— 

i.>  Pot-stiU  (new)    .     . 

la.  Pot-still.  From  same 
distillery,  14  years 
old  (plamwooa) 

9.    Pot-still  (new)    .     . 

9a.  Pot-still.  From  same 
distillery,  .  14  years 
old 

3.  Pot-still,  14  years  old 

4.  Patent-still  (new)     . 

71-73 

57-08 
7411 

60-47 
63-4a 
70-76 

7 

1 

17 

Trace 

8 
NU 

8 

^^ 
Trace 

34 

25 

145 

185 
333 

936 
38 

19 

68 
8 

• 

3a 

5-5 

3-3 
41 

4-4 

4-5 

•  « 

*  Irish  whbky  b  generally  distilled  at  about  50  O.P.  and  reduced  with  water  to  25  O.P.  prior  to  storage. 

'  Nos.  1, 3, 3  and  4  represent  different  distilleries. 


types  of  blends.  In  some  a  Highland  Malt,  in  others  an  Islay,  in 
otners  again  a  "  grain  "  flavour  may  predominate,  but,  generally 
speaking,  the  aim  of  the  blender  is  to  produce  an  artide  in  which  no 
single  constituent  "comes  through^' — i.e.  is  markedly  apparent. 
The  best  blends  are  produced  by  olending  a  number  01  "  vatted  " 
whiskies.  A  "  vat  "  is  produced  by  blending  a  number  of  whiskies  of 
the  same  style  or  type,  for  jnstancc,  ten  or  fifteen  Highland  Malts 
titicries. 


from  different  distil 


The  "  vat  "  is  allowed  to  mature  before 


whisky. 

A  typical  high-class  blend  would,  on  analysis,  show  figures  much  as 
follows:  Alcohol,  45  to  48%  by  vol.;  total  acid,  30  to  50;  non- 
volatile add,  30  to  30;  esters,  30  to  60;  higher  alcohols,  190  to  170; 
aldehydes,  1$  to  2S;fnrfurolt  3-5  to  3-5. 

Irish  Whisky. -^Insitk  pot-stiU  whisky  b  sharply  differentiated 
from  the  Scotch  variety  In  that  (a)  the  raw  materials  employed 
are  generally  composed  largdy  of  unmalted  grain,  (b)  the  malt 
is  not  peat-cured,  (c)  the  process  of  distillation  is  entiitly  different 
both  as  regards  method  and  apparatus  (see  Sfzuts).  The  result 
is  that  whereas  Scotch  whisky  possesses  a  characteristic  dry, 
dean  flavour,  Irish  whisky  is  round  and  sweet,  with  a  full  etherud 
bouqueu  The  general  run  of  Irish  pot-still  whiskies  are  made 
with'3o  to  50%  of  malted  barley,  the  balance  being  rye,  oats,  un- 
malted barley  and  wheat.  A  few  distilleries  employ  malted  bar^y 
onibs  but  the  product  so  obtained— owing  to  the  different 
methods  tmploytd  and  the  absence  of  peat  cnrin|^— Is  quite 
different  from.  Scotch  malt  whisky.  The  Irish  "  grsin  **  or 
"  patent  still "  whiskies  are  made  in  a  manaer  piacticaUy  identical 


WHISKT  IHSURRICTIOII*  THE,  an  uprising  in  Western 
Pennsylvania  in  1 794  against  the  Federal  Government,  occasioned 
by  the  attempted  enforcement  of  the  excise  law  (enacted  by 
Congress  March  1 791)  on  domestic  spirits.  The  common  prejudice 
in  America  against  excise  in  any  form  was  fdt  with  espedal 
strength  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  Virginia  and  North  Carolina, 
where  many  small  whisky  stills  existed;  and  protests  were  made 
almost  immediately  by  the  Pennsylvaniana.  Albeit  Gallatin 
(9.S.)  took  a  leading  part  in  expressing  their  resentment' in  a 
constitutional  manner,  but  under  the  agitator  David  Bradford 
the  movement  soon  developed  into  excesses.  The  attempt  to 
enforce  the  law  led  to  stormy  scenes  and  riotous  violence,  the 
Federal  revenue  officers  in  some  cases  bdng  tarred  and  feathered; 
but  in  September  1794  President  Washington,  usiag  the  new 
powers  bestowed,  by  Congress  in  May  i79>»  despatched  a  con- 
siderable force  of  militia  a^iinst  the  rebellious  Pennsylvaniana, 
who  thereupon  submitted  without  bloodshed,  the  influence  of 
Gallatin  bdng  used  to  that  end.  Bradford  fled  to  New  Orleavis; 
some  of  his  more  prominent  supporters  were  tried  for  treason  ^d 
convicted,  but  promptly  pardoned.  In  American  histoiy  this 
so<alled  "  rebellion  "  is  important  chiefly  on  account  of  the 
emphasis  it  gave  to  the  emplosrment  by  the  Federal  Executive 
of  the  new  powers  bestowed  by  (jongress  for  interfering  to  enforce 
Federal  laws  within  the  states.  Xt  is  indeed  ialemd  from  one 
of  Hamilton'a  own  fetters  that  hia  object  in  proposing  this  excise 
law  was  loM  to  obtain  revenue  than  to  provoke  just  such  a  local 
resistanceraa  would  enable  the  oentnl  government  to  demoostmte 
itSBtitngtb. 


WHIST 


593 


WHIST*  a  giuiie  M  canb.  The  etymofegy  of  the  name  is 
dispUtedi  Po68U>ly  it  is  of  imiutive  origin,  from  "whist" 
(Hist!  Hushl  SUence!).  "It  is  caUed  WfaJst  from  thesUence 
that  must  be  observed  in  .the  play  "  (Cotton,  CompUai  Gamester). 
In  the  i6th  century  a  card  game  called  Iriumpk  or  Irump  was 
commonly  played  in  England.  A  game  called  trionfi  h  men^ 
tioned  as  early  as  1526,  and  tnumphus  Hispanicut  in  1541* 
La  trUmpht  occurs  in  the  list  of  games  played  by  Gaigantua 
(Rabelais,  first  half  of  x6th  century).  In  Giovanni  Florio's 
iVoride  of  Wordes  (1598)  trionfo  is  defined  as  "  the  play  called 
trump  or  rufl."  It  is  probable  that  the  game  referred  to  by  the 
writers  quoted  is  la  triompke  of  the  early  editions  of  the  AccdtnU 
des  jeux.  It  is  importxmt  to  note  that  this  game,  called  by 
Charles  Cotton  "  French  ruff,"  is  similar  to  hcaxtL  **  £nglisb 
ruff-and-honours,"  also  described  by  Cotton,  is  similar  to  whisL 
If  we  admit  that  ruff  and  trump  are  convertible  terms,  of  which 
there  is.  scarcely  a  doubt,  the  game  of  trump  was  the  precursor 
of  whisL  A  purely  English  origin  may,  therefore,  be  claimed 
lor  trump  (not  la  triompke).  No  record  is  known  to  esdst  of  the 
invention  of  this  game,  nor  of  the  mode  of  its  growth  into  ruff- 
and-honours,  and  finally  into  whist.  The  earliest  reference  to 
trump  in  English  is  believed  to  occur  in  a  sermon  by  Latimer, 
"On  the  Card,"  preached  at  Cambridge,  in  Advent,  about  the 
year  1539.  He  says,  "  The  game  that  we  play  at  shall  be  the 
triumph.  .  .  .  Now  turn  up  3%ur  trump,  .  .  .  and  cast  your 
trump,  your  heart,  on  this  card."  In  Camm»  CurUm*s  Needle 
(157.S)  Dame  Chat  says,  "  We  be  fast  set  at  trumpe."  Eliot 
{Fruits  for  ike  French,  1593)  calls  trump  "  a  verie  common  ale- 
house game."  Richard  Price  or  Rice  (/nsec/iw  against  Vices, 
1579)  observes  that  "  renouncing  the  trompe  and  commmg  in 
againe"  («.<.  revoking  intentionally)  is  a  common  sharper's 
trick.  Cotton  in  his  Compleat  Gamester  says,  "  He  that  can  by 
craft  overlook  his  adversary's  game  hath  a  great  advantage." 
Thomas  Dekker  {Bdman  of  London^  160S)  speaks  of  the  deceits 
practised  at  "  tromp  and  such  like  games."  Trump  also  occurs 
in  Antony  and  Cleopatra  (written  about  1607),  with  other  punning 
allusions  to  card-playing-— 

"  She,  Eros,  has 
Packed  cards  with  Caesar,  and  faUe-played  my  gkxy 
Unto  an  enemy's  triumph." — Act  iv« 

Ruff-and-honours,  if  not  the  same  game  as  trump,  was  probably 
the  same  with  the  addition  of  a  score  for  the  four  highest  cards 
of  the  trump  suit.  A  description  of  the  game  is  first  met  with  in 
The  Compleat  Gamester  ( 1 674)  by  Cotton.  He  states  that  rufl-and- 
honours  {tUias  slamm)  and  whist  are  games  very  commonly 
known  in  England.  It  was  played  by  four  players,  paired  as 
partners,  and  it  was  compulsory  to  follow  suit  when  able.  The 
cards  ranked  as  at  whist,  and  honours  were  scored  as  now. 
Twelve  cards  were  dealt  to  each  player,  four  being  left  in  the 
stock.  The  top  card  of  the  stock  was  turned  up  for  trumps.  The 
holder  of  the  ace  of  trumps  was  allowed  to  r»jf,  i.e.  to  take  in  the 
stock  and  to  put  out  four  cards  from  his  hand.  The  game  was 
played  nine  up;  and  at  the  point  of  eight  honours  could  be  called, 
as  at  long  whist.  Cotton  adds  that  at  whist  there  was  no  stock. 
The  deuces  were  put  out  and  the  bottom  card  was  turned  up  for 
trumps. 

It  is  believed  that  the  earilest  mention  of  whist  is  by  Taylor, 
the  Water  Poet  (MoUo,  1621).  He  spells  the  word  "  whisk." 
The  earliest  known  use  of  the  present  spelling'is  in  Hudibras, 
the  Second  Part  (spurious),  1663.  The  word  is  afterwards  vpdl 
indifferently  ^riusk  or  wlUst  for  about  half  a  century.  Cotton 
(1674)  spells  it  both  ways.  Richard  Seymour  {Court  Gamester ^ 
X734)  has  "  whist,  vulgarly  called  whisk."  While  whist  was 
undergoing  this  change  of  name,  there  was  associated  with  it  the 
additional  title  of  swabbers  (probably  allied  to  sweep,  or  sweep- 
stakes). Fielding  {ffistory  of  Mr  Jonathan  Wild)  says  that 
whisk-and-swabbers  was  "  the  game  then  [1682]  in  chief  vogue." 
Francis  Grose  {Classical  Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar  Tongue^  1785) 
states  that  swabbers  are  "  the  ace  of  hearts,  knave  of  dubs,  aoe 
and  duoe  <tf  trumps  at  whist."  The  true  function  of  the  swabbers 
Is  not  positivdy  known;  it  is  probable  that  the  holders  of  these 
cards  were  entitled  to  leoeive  a  certain  stake  from  the  other 


playen.  Swabbers  dropped  out  of  general  us^  during  the  x8th 
century.  The  points  of  the  game  rose  from  nine  to  ten  ("  nine 
in  aU,"  Cotton,  1725;  "ten  in  all,"  Seymour,  Z734>  "rectified 
according  to  the  present  standard  of  play  ")•  Simultaneously 
with  this  alteration,  or  closely  following  it,  the  entire  pack  of 
fifty-two  cards  was  used,  the  deuces  being  no  bnger  discarded. 
This  improvement  introduces  the  odd  trick,  an  clement  of  great 
importance  in  modem  whist.  Early  in  the  x8th  century  whist 
was  not  a  fashionable  game.  The  Hon.  Daincs  Barrington 
{Archaeologia,  vol.  viii.)  says  it  was  the  game  of  the  servants'  hall. 
Contemporary  writers  refer  to  it  in  a  diqiaragiug  way,  as  being 
only  fit  for  hunting  men  and  country  squires,  and  not  for  fine 
ladies  or  people  of  quality.  According  to  Barrington,  whist  was 
first  played  on  scientific  principles  by  a  party  of  genilemen  who 
frequented  the  Crown  (joffee  House  in  Bedford  Row,  London, 
about  1728.  They  laid  down  the  following  rules:  "  Lead  from 
the  strong  suit;  study  your  partner's  hand;  and  attend  to  the 
score."  Shortly  afterwards  the  celebrated  Edmond  Hoyle  {q.v.) 
published  his  Short  Treatise  (1742).  It  has  been  surmised  by 
some  that  Hoyle  belonged  to  the  Crown  Coffee  House  party. 
This,  however,  is  only  a  conjecture.  There  Is  abtmdant  evidence 
to  show  that,  in  the  middle  of  the  xSth  century,  whist  was 
regularly  played'at  the  coffee  houses  of  London  and  in  fashionable 
society.  From  the  time  of  Hoyle  the  game  continued  to  increase 
in  public  estimation,  until  the  introduction  of  bridge,  which  has 
to  a  large  extent  replaced  it,  but  which  has  much  in  common 
with  it. 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  mark  the  sucoesdve  stages  through  which 
whist  passed  from  the  time  of  Cotton.  The  only  suggestions  as  to 
play  19  Cotton  are  that,  "  though  you  have  but  mean  cards  in  your 
pwn  hand,  yet  you  may  play  them  so  suitable  to  those  in  your 
partner's  hand  that  he  may  cither  trunip  them  or  play  the  best  of 
that  suit  " ;  also  that "  you  ought  to  have  a  special  eye  to  what  cards 
arc  play'd  out,  that  you  may  know  by  that  means  either  what  to 
play  if  you  lead  or  how  to  trump  securely  and  advantagiously."  It 
appears  from  this  that  the  main  ideas  were  to  make  trumps  by  rufBng, 
to  make  winning  cards,  and  to  watch  the  fall  of  the  caras  with  these 
objects.  In  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  Crown  Coffee  House  school  a 
distinct  advance  is  to  be  noticed.  Their*  first  rule,  "  Lead  from  the 
strong  suit,"  shows  a  sound  knowledge  of  the  game.  Their  second 
rule,  'Study  your  ixirtner's  hand,"  though  sound,  is  rather  vague. 
Their  third  rule, "  Attend  to  the  score,"  if  amended  into  "  Play  to  the 
score,"  is  most  valuable.  From  the  Crown  Coffee  House  school  to 
Hoyle  is  rather  a  wide  jump;  but  there  is  no  intervening  record. 
Hoyle  in  his  Short  Treaiise  endorses  and  illustrates  the  "  Crown  " 
rules.  He  also  brought  the  doctrine  of  probabilities  to  bear  on  the 
game,  and  gave  a  number  of  cases  which  show  a  remarkable  insignt 
mto  the  play. 

About  1770  was  published  William  Payne's  Maxims  for  Playing 
the  Came  of  WkisL  The  advance  in  this  book  is  decided,  as  it  in- 
culcates the  rules  of  leading  invariably  irom'  five  trumps  and  the 
return  of  the  highest  card  from  throe  held  originally.  Matthews's 
Advice  to  the  Young  Whist-Player  (anon.,  1864)  repeats  the  "  maxims 
of  the  old  school,'  with  "observations  on  those  he  think^  erroneous  ** 
and  "  with  several  new  ones,"  but  some  of  the  maxims  which  he 
thinks  erroneous  are  now  generally  allowed  to  be  correct. 

Soon  after  Matthews  wrote  the  points  of  the  game  were  cut  do^n 
from  ten  (long  whist)  to  five  (short  whist).  CUy's  account  of  this 
change  is  that,«about  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century.  Lord 
Peterborough  having  lost  a  large  sum  of  money,  the  players  pro* 
posed  to  make  the  game  five  up,  m  order  to  give  the  loser  a  chance  of 
recovering  his  loss.  The  new  game,  short  whist,  was  found  to  be  so 
lively  that  it  soon  became  general,  and  eventuaUy  superseded  the 
long  game.  "  Coelebs  "  {fiawe  and  Praaice  ef  Whist,  1S51),  who 
mamly  repeats  former  writers,  only  calls  for  mention  because  he 
first  printed  in  his  second  edition  (1856)  an  explanation  of  the  call  for 
'"  '"      '  was  first  recognized  as  part  of  the  game 

Club  about  1840.    Long  whist  may  be 

^.    The  new  game  nooessarily  caused  a 

change  in  the  style  of  play,  as  recorded  by  James  ClaEV  in  The  Lama 
^  Short  Whist,  and  a  Treatise  on  the  Game  (1864). 

Whist  then  travelled,  and  about  1830  some  of  the  best  Fmnch 
whist-pUycfs,  with  Descfaapelles  at  their  head*  modified  and  im- 
proved the  okl-Cashloned  system.  They  were  but  little  influenced 
oy  the  traditions  of  long  whist,  and  were  not  content  merely  to  iroi- 
tate  the  English.  The  French  game  was  the  ficoro  and  horror  of  the 
old  school,  who  vehemently  condemned  its  rash  trump  leads;  those 
who  adopted  the  practice  <»  the  new  school  weie  found  to  be  winning 
players. 

Dr  William  Pole  {Philosophy  of  Whist,  1883)  remarks  that  the  k>ng 
experience 'of  adepts  had  led  to  the  introduction  of  nuiny  improve- 
ments in  detail  nnoe  the  time  of  Hoyle,  but  that  nothing  had  been 


596; 


WmSTLER 


the  straight  flute  and  flageolet  tjrpe  made  of  Wood  or  metal  and 
pierced  with  holes,  to  the  metal  signaling  pipe  used  for  signalling 
on  board  ship  or  by  policemen.  Similarly  the  term  is  used  of  the 
instruments  sounded  by  the  escape  of  steam  on  a  locomotive  or 
other  engine  and  on  steamships,  &c.,  as  a  means  of  giving  signals. 
WHISTLER.  JAMES  ABBOTT  McNEILL  (1834-1903). 
JVmerican  artist,  was  bom  at  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
loth  of  July  1834.  His  father  was  Major  G.  W.  Whistler,  and 
his  mother  one  of  the  Baltimore  family  of  Winans.  He  was  first 
heard  of  in  Europe  in  1857,  when  he  had  already  been  an  art 
student,  In  Paris,  in  the  studio  of  Gleyre.  His  first  etchings, 
those  known  as  "  The  French  Set,"  were  the  means  of  bringing 
him  under  the  notice  of  certam  people  interested  in  art,  but  the 
circulation  of  these  first,  like  that  of  his  later  etchings,  has 
alway.%  of  necessity,  been  more  limited  than  their  fame.  The 
impressions  from  each  plate  are  generally  few.  It  was  still  in 
etching  that  Whistler  continued  his  labours,  and,  coming  to 
London  in  1859,  it  appeass,  he  almost  at  once  addressed  himself 
to  the  chronicle  of  the  quaint  riverside  buildings  and  the  craft 
of  the  great  stream—the  Thames  "  below  Bridge."  The  "  French 
Set"  had  mcluded  De  Hooch-like  or  Nicholas  Macs-like  genre 
pieces,  such  as  "La  Vieille  aux  loques,"  the  "Marchahde  de 
moutarde,"and  "The  Kitchen,"  this  last  incomparably  improved 
and  perfected  by  the  rctoucliing  that  was  accomplished  a  quarter 
of  a  century  after  the  first  performance.  The  Thames  series  of 
sixteen  etchings,  wrought  chiefly  in  1859,  disclosed  a  new  vision 
of  the  river,  in  which  there  was  expressed,  with  perfect  draughts- 
manship, with  a  hitherto  unparalleled  command  of  vivacious  line, 
the  form  of  barge  and  clipper,  of  warehouse,  wharf  and  waterside 
tavern.  "The  Pool,"  "Thames  Police"  and  "Black  Lion 
Wharf  "  are  perhaps  the  finest  of  this  series.  Before  it  was 
begun.  Whistler,  ere  he  left  Paris,  had  proceeded  far  with  a  plate, 
existing  only  in  the  state  of  trial  proof,  and,  in  that,  of  extreme 
rarity.  It  is  called  "  Paris,  lie  de  la  Cit4,"  and  has  distinct  and 
curious  manifestations  of  a  style  to  be  more  generally  adopted 
at  a  later  period.  For  several  years  after  the  completion  of  the 
"  Sixteen  Etchings,"  Whistler  etched  comparatively  little;  but 
about  1870  we  find  bim  entering  what  has  been  described  as  his 
"  Leyland  period,"  on  account  of  his  connexion  with  the  wealthy 
shipowner  and  art  patron,  Mr  Frederick  R.  Leyland,  of  Prince's 
Gate,  whose  house  became  famous  for  Whistler's  Peacock  Room,^ 
painted  in  1877.  In  that  period  he  worked  greatly  in  diy-point. 
The  "  Model  Resting,"  one  of  the  most  graceful  of  his  figure 
pieces,  and  "  Fanny  Leyland  " — an  exquisite  instance  of  girl 
portraiture — ^are  notable  performances  of  this  time.  To  it  also 
belong  the  largely  conceived  dry-points,  so  economical  of  means 
and  endowed  with  so  singular  a  unity  of  effect,  the  "  London 
Bridge  "  and  "  Price's  Candle-works."  A  little  later  came  the 
splendid  visions  of  the  then  disappearing  wooden  bridges  of 
Battersca  and  Putney,  and  the  plate  "  The  Adam  and  Eve," 
which  records  the  river-front  of  old  Chelsea.  This,  however,  is 
only  seen  in  perfection  in  the  most  rare  proofs  taken  before  the 
publication  by  the  firm  of  Hogarth.  From  these  plates  we 
pass  almost  imperceptibly  to  the  period  of  the  Venetian  etchings^ 
for  in  1879,  at  the  instance  of  the  Fine  Art  Sodety,  Whistler 
made  a  sojourn  in  Venice,  and  here  he  wrought,  or,  to  speak 
accurately,  commenced,  not  only  the  set  of  prints  known  as  the 
"  Venice  Set,"  but  also  the  "  Twenty-six  Etchings  "—likewise 
chiefly,  though  not  wholly,  of  Venice — issued  later  by  the  firm 
of  Dowdeswell.  One  or  two  of  the  minor  English  subjects  of  the 
"  Twenty-six  Etchings  " — those  done  afltr  the  artist's  return 
from  Venice — give  indications  of  the  phase  reached  more  clearly 
in  certain  little  prints  executed  a  few  years  later,  and,  with 
perhaps  one  exception,  never  formally  published.  "  Fruit 
Shop,"  "  Old  Clothes  Shop,"  and  "  Fish  Shop,  busy  Chelsea," 
belong  to  this  time.  Later,  and  bent  upon  doing  justice  to  quite 
dififcrent  themes,  which  demand  diiTercnt  methods,  the  ever 
flexible  artist  again  changes  his  way,  and — not  to  speak  of  the 
dainty  Uttic  records  of  the  places  about  the  Loire,  which  in 
qiethod  have  affinity  with  the  pieces  last  named-— we  have 

*  Whistler  quarrelled  with  Levland,  and  eventually  painted  his 
Ufe-aize  portrait  a*  a  devil  with  oornsand  hoofs. 


"Steps,  Amsterdam,"  "Nocturne,  Dance  House,"  with  its 
magical  suggestion  ojf  movement  and  light,  and  the  admirable 
landscape  "  Zaandam."   With  the  mention  of  these  things  may 
fitly  dose  a  sketch  of  Wbistler's  periods  in  etching;  but  before 
proceeding  to  other  branches  of  his  work,  the  main  characteristics 
of  the  whole  series  of  etchings  (of  which,  in  Wedmore's  Whistler's 
ElchingSf  nearly  300  examples  are  described)  should  be  briefly 
indicated.  These  main  characteristics  are  precision  and  vivacity ; 
freedom,  flexibility,  infinite'  technical  resource,  at  the  service 
always  of  the  most  alert  and  comprehensive  observation;  an 
eye  that  no  picturesqueness  of  L'ght  and  shade,  no  interesting 
grouping  of  line,  can  ever  escape — ^an  eye,  that  is,  that  is  emanci- 
pated from  conventionaUty,  and  sees  these  things  therefore  with 
equal  willingness  in  a  cathedral  and  a  mass  of  scaflc^ding,  in  a 
Chelsea  shop  and  in  a  suave  nude  figure,  in  the  facade  of  a 
Flemish  palaoe  and  in  a  "  great  wheel "  at  West  Kensington. 
Mr  Whistler*s  pictures  have  as  a  chief  source  of  their  attractive- 
ness those  mental  qualities  of  alertness  and  emancipation. 
Charm  of  colour  and  of  handling  enhance  the  hold  which  they 
obtain  upon  such  people  of  taste  as  may  be  ready  to  receive 
them.    There  are  but  very  few  of  them,  however,  at  least  very 
few  oil  pictures,  when  one  considers  the  number  of  years  since 
the  art/st  began  to  labour;  and  one  notable  fact  must  be  at 
once  understood — the  admitted  masterpieces  in  painting  belong 
abnost  entirely  to  the  eariier  time.    "  Sarasate  "  is  an  exception, 
'and  "  Lady  Archibald  Campbell,"  and  in  its  smaller,  but  stiil 
charming,  way  "  The  Little  Rose  of  Lyme  Regis  ";  but  even 
these — save  the  "  Little  Rose  " — are  of  1885  or  thereabouts. 
A  few  years  earlier  than  they  are  the  "  Coimie  Gilchrist,"  tbe 
"  Miss  Alexander,"  and  the  "  Rosa  Corder,"  and  the  Thames 
"  Nocturnes  ";  but  we  go  farther  back  to  reach  the  "  Portrait 
of  the  Painter's  Mother,"  which  is  now  in  the  Luxembourg; 
the  "  Portrait  of  Carlyle,"  now  at  Glasgow;  the  "  Cremorne 
Gardens,"  the  "  Nocturne,  Valparaiso  Harbour,"  the  "  Music 
Room,"  with  little  Miss  Annie  Haden  standing  by  the  piano 
while  her  mother  plays,  and  the  "  White  Girl,"  or  "  Little  White 
Girl,"  in  which  Whistler  shows  the  influence,  but  never  the 
domination,  of  the  Japanese.   Of  the  slight  but  always  exquisitely 
harmonious  studies  in  water  colour,  undertaken  by  Whistler 
in  his  middle  period,  none  call  for  special  notice.   To  the  middle 
time,  too,  belong,  not  pcrliaps  all  of  his  slight  but  delicately 
modelled  pasteb  of  the  figure,  but  at  least  his  more  universally 
accepted  pastels  of  Venetian  scenes,  in  which  he  caught  the 
sleepy  beauty  of  the  Venetian  by-way.   In  pastel,  as  in  painting, 
in  water  colour  and  in  etching,  Whistler  has  never  been  unmind- 
ful of  the  particular  qualities  of  the  medium  in  which  he  has 
worked,  nor  of  the  applicability  of  a  given  medium  to  a  given 
subject.    The  result,  accordingly,  is  not  now  a  victory  and  now 
a  failure,  now  a  "  hit  "  and  now  a  "  miss,"  but  rather  a  succession 
of  triumphs  great  and  small    One  other  medium  taken  up  by 
\Vhistler  must  now  be  mentioned.  His  lithographs — his  drawings 
on  the  stone  ih  many  instances,  and  in  others  his  drawings  on 
that  "  lithographic  paper  "  which  with  some  people  is  the  easy 
substitute  for  the  stone  to-day — are  perhaps  half  as  numerous  as 
his  etchings.    Mr  T.  R.  Way  has  catalogued  about  a  hundred. 
Some  of  the  lithogmphs  are  of  figures  slightly  draped;  two  or 
three  of  the  very  finest  are  of  Thames  subjects — including  a 
"  nocturne  "  at  Umehouse,  of  unimaginable  and  poetic  mystery; 
others  are  bright  and  dainty  indications  of  quaint  prettiness 
in  the  old  Faubourg  St  Germain,  and  of  the  sober  lines  of  certain 
Georgian  churches  in  Soho  and  Bloomsbury.  ,  An  initiator  in 
his  own  generation,  and  ever  tastefully  experimcnial.  Whistler 
no  doubt  has  found  enjoyment  in  the  variety  of  the  mediums  he 
lias  worked  in,  and  in  the  variety  of  subjects  he  has  brilliantly 
tackled.      The  absence  of  concentration  in  the   Whistlerian 
temperament,  the  lack  of  great  continuity  of  effort,  may  probably 
prove  a  drawback  to  his  taking  exactly  the  place  as  a  painter  of 
oil  pictures,  which,  in  other  circumstances,  his  genius  and  his 
taste  would  most  certainly  have  secured  for  him.    In  the  future 
Whistler  must  be  accounted,  in  oil  painting,  a  master  exquisite 
but  rare.    But  the  number  and  the  range  of  his  etched  subjects 
and  the  extraordinary  variety  .of  perception  aod^  skill  idudi 


WHIST(»I— WHITBREAD 


597 


te  htt  hrauibt  to  bew  ttpon  the  qaciitfan  of  Us  Mtrly  tliiee 
hundred  coppea,  eosuK»  and  have  indaed  already  comiMsaed, 
the  acceptance  oC  him  mb  m.  master  among  masters  in  that  art  of 
etching.  Rembrandt's,  Van  Oyck's,  M^iyon's,  Claode's,  are,  in 
factt  the  only  naities  whtcb  there  is  full  warranty  for  pronouncing 
beside  his  own. 

No  account  of  Whistler's  career  would  be  oomplete  without  a 
reference  to  His  supremely  controvefsial  personality.  In  187$ 
he  brought  a  libel  action  against  Ruslun  for  his  criticisms  in  Pcrs 
Clangera  (iS??)*  Ruskin  had  denounced  one  of  his  nocturnes 
at  the  Crosvenor  Gallery  as  "  a  pot  of  paint  flung  in  the  public 
face."  After  s  long  trial,  Whistler  was  awarded  a  farthing 
damages.  His  examination  caused  much  .interest,  especially  in 
artistic  circles,  on  acoount  vi  his  attitude  in  vindication  of  the 
purely  artistic  side  of  art;  and  it  was  in  the  oourw  of  it  that  he 
answered  the  question  as  to  how  long  a  ceruin  '*  impression  " 
had  taken  him  to  execute  by  saying,  "  All  my  life."  His  eccen- 
tricity of  pose  and  dress,  combhwd  with  his  artistic  anogance, 
sharp  tongue,  and  bitter  humour,  made  him  one  of  the  most 
talked^bout  men  in  London,  and  his  mtts  were  quoted  every- 
where. He  followed  up  his  quarrel  with  Ruskin  by  publishihg  a 
saliriasi  pamphlet,  WhisUer  v.  Ruskin:  Art  v.  Art  Critkt,  In 
(88$  he  gave  his  Ten  o'Ciock  Lecture  in  London,  afterwards 
embodied  in  Tlie  Gentle  Art  ef  Making  Enemies  (t8oo).  The 
substance  of  this  flippantly  written  and  amusing  outburst  was 
an  insistence  on  the  liberty  of  the  artist  to  do  what  was  right  in 
his  artistic  eyes,  and  the  inability  of  the  public  or  the  critics  to 
have  any  ideas  about  art  worth  considering  at  all.  In  189s 
another  quarrel,  with  Sir  William  Eden,  whose  wife's  portrait 
Whistler  had  painted,  but  refused  to  hand  over,  came  into  the 
courts  in  Paris;  and  Whistler,  though  albwed  to  keep  his  picture, 
was  conciemned  in  damages.  In  later  years  he  lived  mainly  in 
Paris,  but  he  returned  to  live  in  London  in  1902;  and  he  died 
on  the  1 7th  of  July  1903  at  74  Cheyne  Walk,  Chelsea.  In  1888 
he  had  married  Mrs  Goodwin,  widow  of  E.  W.  Goodwin,  th^ 
architect,  and  daughter  of  J.  B.  Philip,  the  sculptor;  she  died 
in  1896,  leaving  no  children.  In  1886  he  became  president  of  the 
Royal  Sociely  of  British  Artists  (a  title  at  which  afterwards  he 
scoffed);  and  he  took  a  leading  part  later  in  founding  the 
International  Art  Society,  of  which  he  was  the  first  president. 
His  "  Nocturne  in  blue  and  silver  *'  was  presented  to  the 
National  GaUecy  after  bis  death  by  the  National  Art  Cbllection 
Fund. 

See  also  T.  R.  Way  and  G.  R.  Dennis,  The  Art  of  J.  MeN.  WhistUr 
1901}:  F.  Wedmort,  Mr  IVhisOer's  Etchings;  Theodore  Duret. 


k 


istotrf  de  J.  McN.  Whistler  et  de  son  eeuvre  (1904):  Mortimer 
Menpcs,  WhisUer  as  I  knew  him;  W.  G.  Bowdoin,  WhtsUer^  the  Man 
and  his  Work  (1902);  Cataloeue  of  Memorial  Exhibition  (Inter- 
national Society,  1905);  and  b.  R.  and  J.  Pennell,  The  Life  of 
James  McNeiU  Whistler  (1906).  (F.  \Vb.) 

WHISTON,  WIUIAM  (x667-i750»  English  dhrine  and 
mathematician,  was  bom  on  the  9th  of  December  1667  at  Norton 
in  Leicestershire,  of  which  village  his  father  was  rector.  He 
was  educated  privately,  pertly  on  acoount  of  the  delicacy  of 
his  health,  and  partly  that  he  might  act  as  amanuen^  to  his 
father,  who  had  lost  his  sight.  He  afterwards  entered  at  Chtre 
CoUe^,  Cambridge,  where  he  applied  himself  to  mathematical 
study,  and  obtaineid  a  fellowship  in  1693.  Be  next  became 
chaplain  to  John  Moore  (1646-1714),  the  iearhed  bishop  of  Nor- 
wich, from  whom  he  received  the  hving  of  Lowestoft  m  1698. 
He  had  already  given  several  proofs  of  his  noble  but  over- 
scrupulous conscientiousness,  and  at  the  sam6  time  of  a  pro- 
pensity to  paradox.  His  Nem  Theory  ef  tke  Earth  (1696), 
although  destitute  of  sound  scientific  foundation,  obtained  the 
praise  of  both  Newton  and  Locke,  the  latter  of  whom  justly 
daased  the  author  among  those  who,  if  not  adding  much  to  our 
knowledge,  "  at  least  bring  some  new  things  to  our  thoughts." 
In  170X  he  resigned  his  living  to  become  deputy  at  Cambridge 
to  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  whom  two  >'ears  later  he  succeeded  as 
Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics.  In  1707  he  was  Boyle 
lecturer.  For  several  years  Whiston  continued  to  write  and 
preadi  both  on  mathematical  and  theological  subjects  with  con- 
siderable success;  but  his  study  of  the  Apostolical  CamtiinHom 


had  eon^fnced  him  that  Arlanism  was  the  creed  of  the  primi- 
tive church;  and  with  him  to  form  an  opinion  and  to  pub- 
lish it  were  things  almost  simultaneous.  His  heterodoxy  soon 
became  notorious,  and  in  1710  he  was  deprived  of  his  pro- 
fessorship andexpeUed  from  the  university.  The  rest  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  incessant  controversy— theological,  mathemaiical, 
chPMiologica!  and  miscellaneous.  He  vindicated  his  estimate 
of  the  Aposti^icai  Constitutions  and  the  Arian  views  he  had 
derived  from  them  in  his  Primitive  Ckristianily  Revived  (5  vols., 
1711-1712).  In  1713  he  produced  a  reformed  Ulurgy,  and  soon 
afterwards  founded  a  society  for  promoting  primitive  Christianity, 
lecturing  in  support  of  his  theories  at  London,  Bath  and  Tun- 
bridge  Wells.  One  of  the  most  valuable  of  his  books,  the  Life 
of  Samuel  Clarke,  appeared  tn  1730.  While  heretical  on  so  many 
points,  he  was  a  firm  believer  in  supernatural  Christianity,  and 
frequently  took  the  field  in  defence  of  prophecy  and  miracle, 
including  anointing  the  sick  and  touching  for  the  king's  evil. 
His  dislike  to  rationalism  in  religion  also  made  him  one  of  the 
numerous  opponents  of  Benjamin  Hoadiy's  Plain  Auounl  of 
tke  Nature  and  End  of  the  Sacrament.  He  proved  to  his  own 
satisfaction  that  Canticles  was  apocryphal  and  that  Baruch 
was  not.  He  was  ever  pressing  his  views  of  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment and  discipline,  derived  from  the  Apostolical  Consiiluiions, 
on  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  marvelled  that  they  could 
not  see  the  matter  in  the  same  light  as  himself.  He  assailed  the 
memory  of  Athanasius  with  a  virulence  at  least  equal  to  that 
with  which  orthodox  divines  had  treated  Arius.  He  attacked 
Sir  Isaac  Newton's  chronological  system  with  success;  but  he 
himself  fiost  not  only  time  but  money  in  an  endeavour  to  discover 
the  longitude.  Of  all  his  singular  opinions  the  best  known  is  his 
advocacy  of  derical  monogamy,  immortalized  in  the  Vicar  of 
Wakefidd.  Of  all  his  labours  the  most  useful  is  his  translation  of 
Josepfaus  (1737),  with  valuable  notes  and  dissertations,  often 
reprinted.  His  last  "famous  discovery,  or  rather  revival  of 
Dr  Giles  Fletcher's,"  which  he  mentions  in  his  autobiography 
with  infinite  complacency,  was  the  identification  of  the  Tatars 
with  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel.  In  1 745  he  publi^ed  his  Primitive 
New  Testament.  About  the  same  time  (1747}  he  finally  left  the 
Anglican  communion  for  the  Baptist,  leaving  the  church  literally 
as  weQ  as  figuratively  by  quitting  it  as  the  clergyman  began  to 
read  the  Athanastan  creed.  He  ^cd  in  London,  at  the  house  of 
his  son-in-law,  on  the  22nd  of  August  1752,  leaving  a  memoir 
(3  vols.,  1749-1750)  which  deserves  more  attention  than  it  has 
received,  both  for  its  characteristic  individuaUty  and  as  a  store- 
house of  curious  anecdotes  and  illustrations  of  the  religious  and 
moral  tendencies  of  the  age.  It  does  not,  however,  contain  any 
account  of  the  proceedings  taken  against  him  at  Cambridge, 
these  having  been  publish^  separately  at  the  time. 

Whiston  Is  a  ctrtkin^  example  of  the  association  of  an  entirely 
pajadoxical  bent  of  mmd  with  proficiency  in  the  exact  sciences. 
He  also  illustrates  the  powbility  of  arriving  at  rationalistic  conclu- 
sions in  theology  without  the  sligbtcst  tincture  of  the  ratiooaliattc 

"but 

to 

written 

a  folio  book  on  the  Canticles,  I  decUnod  to  go  to  hear  him."  When 
not  engaged  in  controversy  he  was  not  devoid  of  good  sense.  He 
often  saw  men  and  things  very  clearly,  and  some  of  his  bon  nuris 
areadmireble. 

VHITAKSR,  J08BPH  (1820-1895),  Engh'sh  pubb'^er,  was 
bom  in  London  on  the  4th  of  May  1820,  and  apprenticed  to  a 
bookseller  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  After  a  long  experience  with 
various  bookseOjng  firms,  he  began  business  on  his  own  account  as 
a  theological  publisher.  In  January  1858  he  started  the  Book- 
sttter^  and  for  1869  published  the  first  issue  of  Whitaker*s  Almanackt 
the  annual  work  of  reference,  which  also  met  with  immediate 
success.  In  1874  he  published  the  first  edition  of  the  Reference 
Catalogue  of  Current  Literature,  of  which  several  editions  baye 
since  appeared.  Whitaker  died  at  Enfield  on  the  15th  of  May 
1895.    He  had  been  the  father  of  fifteen  children. 

WHITBREAD.  SAMUEL  (1758-1815),  English  politician,  came 
of  a  Bedfordshire  Nonconformist  family;  his  father  had  made 
a  consideraUe  fortune  as  owner  of  the  well-known  brewery  asso- 
ciated with  his  luuna.    Educated  at  Eton  and  St  John*B  OoUege, 


6oo 


WHITE,  HENRY  KIRKE— WHITE,  JJ  B. 


fear,  and  fflostrated  with  large  notet  and  obiervatioBS.  Svdi 
a  beginiiiiig  ndght  induce  moce  able  naturalisu  to  write  the 
hiitoiy  of  varioui  diatricts  and  might  in  time  occaaon  the  pro- 
dnction  of  a  work  fo  mnch  to  be  wished  for— a  full  and  complete 
natural  history  of  these,  kingdons."  Yet  the  famous  Natural 
Hitlary  and  AnHquUies  of  Sdbanu  did  not  appear  antU  1789. 
It  waa  well  received  from  the  beginning,  and  has  been  reprint«i 
time  after  time. 

To  be  a  typical  parish  natural  history  so -far  as  completeness  or 
order  is  oonoerned,  it  has  of  course  no  pretensions;  batches  of 
letters,  an  esny  on  antiquities,  a  oaturalist's  caiendar  and  miocd- 
laneous  jottings  o(  all  kinds  are  but  the  unsystematized  material 
of  the  work  proper,  which  was  never  written.  Yet  it  is  largelyto 
this  very  piecemeal  character  tliat  its  popularity  has  been  due.  The 
style  has  the  simple,  yet  fresh  and  graphic,  directness  of  all  good 
letter>writiag.  and  there  is  no  lack  otpasaafes  of  keen  observation, 
and  even  shrewd  interpretation.  .White  not  only  notes  the  homes 
and  ways,  the  times  and  seasons,  of  plants  and  ammals —  comparine, 
for  instance,  the  different  ways  in  which  the  squirrel,  the  6cla- 
mouse  and  the  nuthatch  cat  their  baad-nuts—or  watches  the 
mii^tiona  of  birds,  which  were  then  only  begiaaing  to  be  properly 
ncordtd  or  understood,  but  he  knows  more  than  any  other  observer 
until  Charles  Darwin  about  the  habits  and  the  usefulness  of  the 
earthworms,  and  is  certain  that  plants  distil  dew  and  do  not  merely 
condense  it.  The  book  is  also  interesting  as  having  appeared  on  the 
bocderland  between  the  medieval  and  the  modem  school  of  natural 
history,  avoiding  the  uncritical  bhinderingof  the  old  Encyclopaedists, 
without  entering  on  the  technical  and  analytic  character  of  the 
opening  age  of  separate  monographs.  Moreover,  as  the  first  book 
which  raised  natural  history  into  the  rtf^on  of  literature,  much  as  the 
C&mpUat  AnMler  did  for  that  gentle  art,  we  must  affilsate  to  it  the 
more  finishca  products  of  later  writers  like  Thoreau  or  Richard 
Jeffcries.  Yet,  while  these  are  essential  merits  of  the  book,  its  en- 
dearing charm  lies  deeper,  in  the  sweet  and  kindly  personality  of  the 
author,  who  on  his  rambles  gathers  no  spoil,  but  watches  the  birds 
and  fiod-mice  without  diaturnng  them  from  their  nests^  and  quietly 
plants  an  acorn  where  he  thinks  an  oak  is  wanted,  or  sows  beech-nuts 
in  what  is  now  a  stately  row.  He  overflows  with  anecdotes,  seldom 
indeed  gets  beyond  the  anecdotal  stage,  yet  from  this  all  study  of 
nature  must  b^in;  and  he  sees  everywhere  intelligence  and  beauty, 
love  s«d  sociality,  where  a  later  view  of  nature  insists  primarily  on 
mere  adaptation  of  interests  or  purely  competitive  struggles.  The 
encyclopaedic  Interest  in  nature,  although  in  White's  day  culminat- 
ing in  the  monumental  synthesis  of  Buffon,  was  also  disappearing 
before  the  analytic  specialism  inaugurated  by  Linnaeus;  yet  the 
catholic  interests  of  the  simple  naturalist  of  Selbome  fully  reappear 
a  century  later  in  the  greater  naturalist  of  Down,  Charles  Darwin. 

The  Life  and  Letters  of  Gilbert  White  of  Selbome,  by  his  great  grand- 
nephew,  Rashlcigh  Holt-White,  appesired  in  1901. 

WHin^  HENRY  KIRKB  (1785-1806),  English  poet,  was  bom 
at  Notiingham,  the  son  of  a  buicber,  on  the  sist  of  March  1785. 
He  was  destined  at  first  for  his  father's  trade,  but  after  a  short 
I4>prenticeship  to  a  stocking-weaver,  was  eventually  articled  to 
a  lawyer.  Meanwhile  he  studied  hard,  and  his  master  offered 
to  release  him  from  his  contract  if  he  had  sufficient  means  to 
go  to  college.  He  received  encouragement  from  Capel  Lofft, 
the  friend  oC  Robert  Bloom£eld,  and  published  in  1803  Clifton 
GrcvCy  a  Sketch  in  Verse^  Vfitk  other  Poems^  dedicated  to  Gcorgiana, 
duchess  of  Devonshire.  The  book  waa  violently  attacked  in  the 
MotUlily  Review  (February  1804),  but  White  waa  in  some  degree 
compensated  by  a  kind  letter  from  Robert  Southey.  Through 
the  efforts  of  his  friends,  he  was  entered  9&  a  sizar  at  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  pending  a  year  beforehand  with  a  private 
tutor.  Close  application  to  study  induced  a  serious  illness,  and 
fears  xvere  entertained  for  his  sanity,  but  he  went  into  residence 
at  Cambridge,  with  a  view  to  taking  holy  orders,  in  the  autumn 
of  iSoj.  The  strain  of  continuous  study  proved  fatal,  and  he 
died  on  the  19th  of  October  1806.  He  was  buried  in  the  church  of 
All  Saints,  Cambridge.  The  genuine  piety  of  his  religious  verses 
secured  a  place  in  popular  hymnology  for  some  ol  his  hymns. 
Much  of  his  fame  was  due  to  sympathy  inspired  by  his  early 
death,  but  it  is  noteworthy  that  Byron  agreed  with  Southey 
in  forming  a  high  estimate  of  the  young  man's  promise. 

His  Remains,  with  his  lettets  and  an  account  of  his  life*  were  edited 
^  vols.,  1807-1832}  by  Robert  Southey.  See  prefatory  notices  by 
h  Harris  Nicolas  to  his  Poetical  Wotkt  (newed.,  1866)  in  the  "  Aldine 
Edition  "  of  the  British  poets:  by  H.  K.  Swann  in  the  volume  of 
selections  (1897)  in  the  Canterbury  Poets',  and  by  John  Drinkwater 
to  the  edition  in  the  "  Muses'  Library."  See  also  J.  T.  Godfrey  and 
J.  Waid,  T^taHsMSf  and OMMlr^Jb^ry iCrAs  IfMff  (1908). 


^ 


WHRl*  HUGH  LAWSON  (1773-1840),  American  statesman, 
was  bom  in  Iredell  county,  North  Carolina,  on  the  30th  or 
October  1773.  In  1787  he  crossed  the  mountains  into  East 
Tennessee  (then  a  part  of  North  Carolina)  with  his  father  James 
White  (1737-18x5),  who  was  subsequently  prominent  in  the 
early  history  of  Tennessee.  Hugh  became  in  1 790  secretary  to 
Governor  William  Blotint,  and  in  1793-1793  served  under  John 
Sevier  against  the  Creek  and  Cherokee  Indians,  and  in  the 
battle  of  Etowah  (December  1793),  according  to  the  accepted 
tradition,  killed  with  his  own  htfnd  the  Cherokee  chief  Kingfisher. 
He  studSiBd  in  Philadelphia  and  in  1796  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  at  Knoxville.  He  was  a  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of 
Tenneesee  in  1801-1807,  a  state  senator  in  1807-1809,  and  in 
xtegriSis  was  judge  of  the  newly  organized  Supreme  Court  of 
Erron  and  Ai^eals  of  the  state.  From  18x2  to  1827  be  was 
president  of  the  State  Bank  of  Tennessee  at  Knoxville,  and 
managed  it  so  well  that  for  several  years  during  this  period  it 
was  the  only  western  bank  that  in  the  trying  period  during  and 
after  the  War  of  181  a  did  not  suspend  specie  payments.  In 
1821-1824  be  was  a  member  of  the  Spanish  Claims  Commission, 
and  in  1825  succeeded  Andrew  Jackson  in  the  United  States 
Senate,  serving  until  1840  and  being  president  pro  tern,  in  1832- 
1834.  In  the  Senate  he  opposed  internal  improvements  by  the 
Federal  government  and  the  recharter  of  the  United  States  Bank, 
favoured  a  protective  tariff  and  Jackson's  coercive  policy  in 
regard  to  nullification,  and  in  general  supported  the  measures  of 
President  Jackson,  though  bis  opposition  to  the  letter's  indis- 
criminate appointments  caused  a  coolness  between  himself  and 
Jackson,  which  was  increased  by  While's  refusal  to  vote  to  ex- 
punge  the  resolutions  of  a  former  Senate  censuring  ihc  president. 
In  1830,  as  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Indian  Affairs,  he 
secm^  the  passage  of  a  bill  looking  to  the  removal  of  the  Indians ' 
to  lands  west  of  the  Mississippi.  He  was  opposed  to  Van  Buren, 
Jackson's  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1836,  was  himself 
nominated  in  several  states  as  an  independent  candidate,  and 
received  the  twenty-six  electoral  votes  of  Tennessee  and  Georgia, 
ihoogh  Presulent  Jackson  made  strong  efforts  to  defeat  him  in 
the  former  state.  About  1838  he  became  a  Whig  in  politics,  and 
wlien  the  Democratic  legislature  of  Tennessee  instructed  him  to 
vote  for  Van  Burrn's  sub-treasory  scheme  he'  objected  and 
resigned  (Jan.  1840).  His  strict  principles  and  his  conservatism 
won  for  him  the  sobriquet  of  *'  The  Cato  of  the  United  States 
Senate."    He  died  at  Knoxville  on  the  loth  of  April  1840. 

See  Nancy  N.  Scott  (ed.),  A  Memoir  of  Hugh  Lawson  Whiu 
(Philadelphia.  1856). 

WHITE,  JOSEPH  BLANCO  (1775-1841),  British  theologian 
and  poet,  was  born  at  Seville  on  the  nth  of  July  1775  He  was 
educated  for  the  Roman  Cathdic  priesthood  i  but  after  his 
ordination  (1809)  religious  doubts  led  him  to  escape  from  Spain 
to  England  (i8to),  where  he  ultimately  entered  the  Anglican 
Church,  having  studied  theology  at  Oxford  and  made  the 
friendship  of  Arnold,  Newman  and  Whately.  He  became  tutor 
in  the  family  of  the  last-named  when  he  was  made  archbishop  of 
Dublin  (183 1).  While  in  this  position  he  embraced  Unitarian 
views;  and  he  found  an  asylum  amongst  the  Um'tarians  of 
Liverpool,  where  he  died  on  the  20th  of  May  1841. 

White  edited  El  EspaAol,  a  monthly  Spanish  magazine  in 
London,  from  1810  to  18x4,  and  afterwards  received  a  civil  list 
pension  of  £250.  His  principal  writings  are  Doblado*s  Letters 
from  Spain  (1822);  Evidence  against  Catholicism  (1825); 
Second  Travels  of  an  Irish  Gentleman  in  Search  of  a  Religion 
(2  vols.,  1834);  Observations  on  Heresy  and  Orthodoxy  (1835). 
They  all  show  literary  ability,  and  were  extensively  read  in  their 
day.  He  also  trandaied  Paley's  Evidences  and  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  into  Spanish.  He  is  best  remembered,  however, 
by  his  sonnet  "Night  and  Death"  ("Mysterious  Night!  when 
our  first  parent  knew  ''),  which  was  dedicated  to  S.  T.  Coleridge 
on  its  appearance  in  the  Bijou  for  1828  and  has  since  found  its 
way  into  several  anthologies.  Three  ver^ons  are  given  in  the 
Academy  of  the  X2th  of  September  1801. 

See  Ltfe  of  the  Rev.  Jose^  Blanco  White,  written  by  himself,  with 
portions  of  his  CorresponJience,  edited  by  John  Hamilton  Thodi 
(London,  z  yah,,  1844). 


WHITE,  K.  a— WHITE,  T. 


601 


WHRIL  RICBAIIO  ORAST  (xftaa-xSSs),  American  Shake- 
spearean scholar,  philologist  and  essayist,  was  bom  in  New  York 
dty,  oi\  the  33rd  of  May  1822.  He  graduated  at  the  university 
oC  the  City  of  New  York  in,  1839,  studied  inedidne  and  then  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  18451  but  made  no  serious 
attemf>ls  to  practise.  He  cdntributed  (anonymously)  musical 
Criticisms  to  the  New  York  Courier  and  Bnqmrer,  of  which  be 
^as  co-editor  in  1851-1858,  and  became  a  member  of  the  staff 
of  the  New  York  World,  when  that  paper  was  established  in 
i860.  In  x86i'i878  he  was  chief  of  the  United  States  Revenue 
Marine  Bureau,  for  the  district  of  New  York.  When  he  was 
31  .years  ol4.he  wrote  his  sonnet,  "  Washington:  Pater  Patriae," 
which,  published  anonymously,  was  frequently  ascribed  to 
Wordsworth,  and  by  William  CuUen  Bryant  was  ascribed  to 
Landor ;  White  did  not  admit  his  authorship  until  1853.  In  1 853 
he  contributed  anonymously  to  Putnam^s  Magatiw  (October 
and  November),  an  acute  and  destructive  criticism  of  (Collier's 
folio  manuscript  emendations  of  Shakespeare;'  and  in  the 
following  year  this  criticism  was  republished  (with  other  matter) 
in  his  Skakespeare*s  Scholar:  being  Hisiorical  and  Critical 
Studies  oj.  his  Texlf  CharaclcrSt  and  Commentators;  with  an 
Examination  of  Mr  CoUier*s  Folio  of  j6aj.  During  the  Civil  War 
he  contributed  to  the  Spectator,  under  the  pseudonym,  "  A 
Yankee,"  a  series  ol  articles  which  greatly  influenced  English 
public  opinion  in  favour  of  the  North,  while  his  clever  and 
pungent  satire.  The  New  Gospel  of  Peace;  according  to  St  Benr- 
jamintxn  four  books  (x863r'i866)~-«bo published  anonymously — 
was  an  effective  attack  upon  "  copper-headism "  and  the 
advocates  of "  peace  at  any  price."  He  died  in  New  York  on  the 
8th  of  April  1885. 

In  addition  to  those  mentioned  above,  has  Shakespearean  publica- 
tioos  include.  Essay  en  the  Authorship  of  the  Throe  Paris  of  King 
Henry  VI.  (1850),  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  William  Shahespeare;  wiih 
an  Essay  towards  the  Expression  of  his  Genius,  and  an  account  of  the 
Rise  and  Progress  of  the  English  Drama  A»  the  Time  of  Shahespeare 
(1865) ;  an  annotated  edition  of  Shakespeare's  woria  in  $  vol&  (1083). 
and  Studies  in  Shahespeare  (1885),  pkwding  for  a  rational  ti«atment 
of  the  plays  without  over-annotation,  textual  or  aesthetic.  On 
linguistic  subjects  he  wrote  Words  and  their  Uses,  Past  and  Present 
(1870),  and  a  sequel,  Every  Da-^  Engfish  (t88o),  which  without  lingu- 
istic thoffoughneiB,  stimulated  tntaest  in  the  neneial  subject  of  gMd 
use  in  languaBte.  His  other  publications  include  National  Hymns'. 
How  they  are  Written  and  IJow  they  are  not  Written  (x86t),  containing 
some  of  the  best  and  worst  of  1200  hymns  submitted  to  a  committee 
^of  whkh  White  was  a  membci)  in  a  competition  for  a  prue  offered 
or  a  national  hymn;  Poetry,  Lyrical^  Narratiee  and  Satiriealt  of  the 
CioU  War  (1866);  The  FaU  of  Man:  or.  The  Lose*  0f  tke  Conlias, 
By  a  Learned  Gorilla  (1871) ;  Chronicles  of  Gotham,  By  U.  Donough 
Outis  (1871);  The  American  View  of  the  Copyright  Question  (1880), 
Bn^nd  Without  and  Within  (1881),  and  The  Pate  of  Mansfield 
Hmnphreys  (1884).  a  novel.  For  estimates  of  White's  critical  writing 
see  the  review  of  Shahespeare's  Seh^^r  in  the  EdecHc  Magaaine,  vol. 
xxxiv.  (1855):  and  the  articles  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  voL  xlix. 
(1882)  by  El  P.  Whipple,  and  vol.  Ivii,  (1886). 

His  son,  Stanford  White  (X853-X906),  the  famous  architect, 
sUxdied  onder  Henry  H.  Rkhardson,  whiiMn  be  oaviited  in  the 
designing  of  Trinity  Church,  Boston,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  New  York  firm  of  McKirn,  Mead  &  White  'm  x88i.  He 
designed  the  Madison  Square  Gardeni  the  Century  and  Metro- 
politan Clubs  in  New  York  City,  the  buildings  of  the  New  York 
University  and  the  University  of  Viiigiiua,  and  the  pedestals 
for  several  of  the  statuea  by  Augustus  St  Gaudem,  He  was 
murdered  by  Harry  Thaw  in  1906. 

WHITE,  BOBBRT  (i64S-t704),  English  engntver  and 
draughtsman,  was  bom  in  London  in  1645.  He  studied  en- 
graving under  David  Loggaii,  for  whom  he  executed  numy 
architectural  subjects;  his  early  works  also  indude  landscapes 
and  engraved  title-pages  for  books.  He  acquired  great  skill  in 
portraiture)  his  works  of  this  class  being  oommooly  d^wn  with 
black-lead  pencil  upon  vellum,  and  afterwards  exoeUendy  en- 
graved in  Une.  Portraits  executed  in  this  manner  he  marked 
ad  vivum,  and  they  are  priced  by  collectors  for  their  artistic 
merit  and  their  authenticity.    Virtue  catalogued  375  portrait 

>  J.  Raine  Collier,  Notes  asid  Entendaskns  to  He  Tepet  ofShahe' 
Mtoare's  Plays  from  Early  MS.  CorreeHons  in  a  Co^  of  the  Folio,  O^ 
Qjondon,  1853). 


i 


engravings  by  White,  including  the  likenesses  of  many  o(  the 
most  celebrated  personages  of  •  his  day;  and  nine  portraits 
engraved  in  mezzotint  are  assigned  to  him  by  J.  Chidoner  Smith. 
White  died  at  Bloomsbuxy,  London,  in  X704.  His  son,  George 
White,  who  was  bom  about  X67X  and  <Ued  about  1734,  is  also 
known  as  an  engraver  and  portrait-painter, 

WHITE,  SIR  THOMAS  (x49>-i567)>  founder  of  St  John's 
Collie,  Oxford,  was  a  son  of  William  White,  a  dothier,  and  was 
bom  at  Reading.  At  an  eariy  age  he  became  a  merchant  in 
London  and  was  soon  a  member,  and  then  master  of  the  Merchant 
Taylors  Company;  growing  wealthier  he  became  an  alderman 
and  sheriff  of  the  dty  of  London.  One  of  the  promoters  of  the 
Muscovy  Company,  he  was  knighted  in  1553,  and  in  October  of 
the  same  year  he  was  chosen  lotd  mayor.  His  term  of  office 
fell  in  a  strenuous  time.  He  had  to  defend  the  dty  against  Sir 
Thomas  Wyat  and  his  lollowers,  and  he  took  part  in  the  iM 
of  the  rebels,  as  just  previously  he  had  done  in  the  case  of  Lady 
Jane  Grey.  In  x  5 55  White  received  a  licence  to  found  a  college 
at  Oxford,  which  he  endowed  with  lands  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  city  and  which,  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  St  John 
Baptist,  was  opened  in  1560.  Soon  after  this  event  Sir  Thomas 
began  to  lose  money,  and  he  was  comparatively  poor  when  he  died 
at  Oxford  on  the  xath  of  Febmary  X567.  His  later  years  were 
mainly  spent  in  Oxford,  and  he  was  buried  in  the  chapel  of  St 
John's  College.  White  had  some  share  in  founding  the  Merchant 
Taylors'  School  in  London.  He  was  twice  married,  but  left  no 
children.  A  portrait  of  him  hangs  in  the  hall  of  St  John's  College 
and  one  on  ^aas,  pointed  in  the  x6th  centtu-y,  is  in  the  old 
library.  Several  early  lives  of  him  are  among  the  college  manu- 
scripts. Sir  Thomas  must  be  distinguished  from  another  Sir 
Thomas  White  of  South  Wamborough,  Hampshire,  some  of 
whose  property,  by  a  curioua  coinddence,  passed  also  into  the 
possessbn  of  St  John's  College. 

WHITE,  THOMAS  (c.  1550^x634),  English  divine,  was  born 
at  Bristol  about  x  550,  the  son  of  a  dothier.  He  graduated  from 
Magdalen  Hall  (now  Hertford  College),  Oxford,  in  1570;  took 
holy  orders,  and,  coming  to  London,  bcfaune  rector  of  St  Gregory 
by  St  Paul's  and  shortly  after  vicar  of  St  Dunstao's  in  the  West. 
Scveml  of  his  sermons,  attacking  play-going  and  the  vices  of  the 
metropolis,  were  printed.  He  was  made  a  prebendary  of  St 
Paul's,  treasurer  of  Salisbury,  caiu>n  of  Christ  Chinch,  Oxford, 
and  canon  of  Windsor.  In  16x3  he  built  and  endowed  an 
almshouse,  called  the  Temple  Ho^ital,  in  Bristol,  In  x6ax  he 
founded  what  is  now  known  as  White's  chair  of  moral  philosophy 
at  Oxford,  with  a  salary  of  £xoo  per  annum  for  the  reader,  and 
several  small  exhibitions  for  schdars  of  Magdalen  Hall.  He 
died  on  the  xst  of  March  X634,  bequeathing  £3000  for  the  estab- 
li&hment  of  a  college  of  "all  the  ministers,  parsons,  vicars, 
leaurers  and  curates  in  London  and  its  suburbs"  (afterwards 
Sion  College  {q.v.)),  and  an  almshouse,  now  abolished,  and 
leaving  bequests  for  lectureships  at  St  Paul's,  St  Dunstan's  and 
at  Newgate. 

WHITE,  THOMAS  (x6a8-x698),  bishop  of  Peterboiough,  was 
bom  at  Aldington  in  Kent,  and  educated  at  St  J<^n's  College, 
Cambridge.  Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  became  vicar  of 
Newaxk-on-Txent  in  1660,  vicar  of  Allhallows  the  Great,  London, 
in  x666,  and  vicar  of  Bottesford,  Ldccstershire,  in  1679.  In< 
X683  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  princess  Anne,  and  in  1 685 
he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Peterborough.  In  x688  he  joined  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  William  Sancroft,  and  five  of  his 
suffragan  bishops  in  petitioning  against  the  declaration  of 
indulgence  issued  by  James  II.,  sharing  the  trial  and  the  triumph* 
ant  acquittal  of  his  colleagues.  In  X689  he  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary  and  was  deprived  of  his 
see,  but  he  did  not  become  very  active  among  the  nonjurors.. 
White  died  on  the  30th  of  May  X698. 

The  bishop  must  be  distinguished  not  only  from  the  founder  of 
Sion  College,  but  also  from  Thomas  White  (X593-1676),  philo- 
sopher and  controversialist.  Educated  at  St  Omcr,  Valladolid 
and  Douai,  the  Utter  was  ordained  priest  in  x6i7,aad  taught  for 
some  years  in  the  college  at  Bouai.  Later  be  was  president  of 
the  English  college  at  Lisbon.    He  died  in  London  on  the  6tb 


6o2 


WHITE,  SIR  W.  A.— WHITEBAIT 


of  July  1676.  White  wts  a  voluminous  writer;  not  onfy^  dM  he 
engage  in  controveny  with  Protestants,  but  he  attacked  the 
personal  infallibility  of  the  pope. 

.  WHITE,  SIR  WILUAH  ARTHUR  (i834-x89z)7  British 
diplomatist,  wa%  bom  at  Pulawy,  in  Poland,  on  the  xjth  of 
February  1824.  He  was  descended  on  his  father's  side  from  an 
Irish  Roman  Catholic  family.  His  mother's  family,  though  no.t 
of  Polish  extraction,  owned  considerable  estates  in  P(^nd,  where 
White,  though  educated  at  King  William's  College,  Isle  of  Man, 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  spent  a  great  part  of  his  eariy 
days,  and  thus  gained  an  tntimiette  knowledge  of  the  Slavonic 
tongues.  From  1843  ^  1^57  he  lived  in  Poland  as  a  country 
gentleman,  but  in  the  latter  year  he  accepted  a  post  in  the  British 
consulate  at  Warsaw,  and  had  almost  at  once  to  perform  the 
duties  of  acting  consul-general.  The  insurrection  of  1863  gave 
him  an  opportunity  of  showing  his  immense  knowiedgA  of  Eastern 
politics  and  his  combination  of  diplomatic  tact  with  resolute 
determination.  He  was  promoted  in  1864  to  the  post  of  consul 
at  Danzig.  The  Eastern  Question  was,  however,  the  great 
passion  of  his  life,  and  in  1875  he  succeeded  in  getting  transferred 
to  Belgrade  as  consul-general  for  Servia.  In  1879  h(  was  made 
British  Agent  at  Bucharest.  In  1884  he  was  offered  by  Lord 
Granville  the  choice  of  the  legation  at  Rio  or  Buenos  Aires,  tind 
in  188$  Lord  Salisbury,  who  yfia  then  at  the  Foreign  Office, 
urged  him  to  go  to  P^ing,  pointing  out  the  increasing  import- 
ance of  that  post.  White's  devoted  friend.  Sir  Robert  Morier, 
wrote  in  the  same  sense.  But  White,  who  was  already  acting 
as  ambassador  ad  interim  at  Constantinople,  decided  to  wait; 
and  during  this  year  he  rendered  one  of  his  most  conspicuous 
services.  It  was  largely  owing  to  his  efforts  that  the  war  between 
Servia  and  Bulgaria  was  prevented  from  spreading  into  a 
universal  conflagration,  and  that  the  union  of  Bulgaria  and 
eastern  Rumelia  was  accepted  by  the  powers.  In  the  following 
year  he  was  rewarded  with  the  embassy  at  Constantinople.  He 
was  the  first  Roman  Catholic  appointed  to  a  British  embassy 
since  the  Reformatioru  He  pursued  consistently  the  policy  of 
counteracting  Russian  influence  in  the  Balkans  by  erecting  a 
barrier  of  independent  states  animated  with  a  healthy  ^rit  of 
national  life,  and  by  supporting  Austrian  interests  in  the  East. 
To  the  furtherance  of  this  policy  he  brought  an  unrivalled 
knowl(Hige  of  all  the  under-currents  of  Oriental  intrigue,  which 
his  mastery  of  languages  enabled  him  to  derive  not  only  from  the 
newspapers,  of  which  he  was  an  assiduous  reader,  but  from  the 
obscurest  sources.  His  bluff  and  straightforward  manner,  and 
the  knowledge  that  with  him  the  deed  was  ready  to  follow  the 
word,  enabled  him  at  once  to  in^ire  confidence  and  to  overawe 
less  masterful  rivals.  The  official  honours  bestowed  on  him 
culminated  in  x888  with  the  G.C.B.  and  a  seat  on  the  Privy 
Councfl.  He  was  still  ambassador  at  Constantinople  when  he 
was  attacked  by  influenza  during  a  visit  to  Beriin,  where  he  died 
on  the  28th  of  December  i89r. 

WHITE,  SIR  WIIXIAH  HENRY  (1845-  )i  English  naval 
architect,  was  bom  at  Devonport  on  the  2nd  of  February  1845, 
and  at  the  age  of  fourteen  became  an  apprentice  in  the  dockyard 
there.  In  1864  he  took  the  first  place  in  the  scholarship  com- 
t>etirion  at  the  Royal  School  of  Naval  Architecture,  which  had 
then  just  been  established  by  the  Admiralty  at  South  Kensington, 
and  in  1867  he  gained  his  diploma  as  fellow  of  the  school  with 
first-class  honours.  At  once  joining  the  constructive  staff  of  the 
Admiralty,  he  acted  as  confident!^  assistant  to  the  chief  con- 
structor. Sir  Edward  Reed,  until  the  latter's  retirement  in  1870. 
The  loss  of  the  "  Captain  "  in  that  year  was  followed  by  an 
inquiry  into  designs  for  ships  of  war,  and  in  connexion  with  this 
White,  together  with  his  old  fellow-student,  William  John, 
worked  out  a  long  series  of  calculations  as  to  the  stability  and 
strength  of  vessels,  the  results  of  which  were  published  in  an 
important  paper  read  in  1871  before  the  Institution  of  Naval 
Architects..  In  1872  White  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
Council  of  Construction  at  the  Admiralty,  in  1875  assistant  con- 
structor, and  in  x88x  chief  constructor.  In  April  1883  he  left 
the  service  of  the  Admiralty,  at  the  invitation  of  Lord  (then  Sir 
W.  C.)  Armstrong,  in  order  to  undertake  the  difficult  task  of 


organizing  a  department  for  the  constmctioii  of  wanhips  of  tlie 
largest  size  at  the  Elswick  works;  but  he  only  remained  there 
for  two  and  a  half  years,  for  in  October  1885  he  returned  to  the 
Admiralty  in  succession  to  Sir  Nathaniel  Bamaby  as  director  of 
naval  construction,  retaining  that  post  until  the  beginning  of 
1902,  when  ill-health  obKged  him  to  relinquish  the  arduous 
labours  it  entailed.  During  that  period,  which  in  Great  Britahn 
was  one  of  unprecedented  activity  in  naval  shipbuilding  as  a 
result  of  the  awakening  of  public  opinion  to  the  vital  importance 
of  sea-power,  more  than  200  vcsseb  of  various  types  were  added 
to  the  British  navy,  at  a  total  cost  of  something  like  100  millions 
sterling,  and  for  the  design  of  all  of  these,  as  wdl  as  for  the  work 
of  their  constraction^  Sir  W^Uam  White  was  ultimately  respon- 
sible. In  addition,  he  did  much  to  further  the  knowledge  of 
scientific  diipbuilding.  He  was  professor  of  naval  architecture 
at  the  Royal  School  from  1870  to  1873,  and  when  in  the  latter 
year  it  was  moved  to  Greenwich  to  be  merged  in  the  Royal  Naval 
College,  he  reoiganized  the  course  of  instruction  and  acted  as 
professor  for  eight  years  more.  The  lectures  he  gave  in  that 
capacity  were  the  foundation  of  his  Manual  of  Naval  Arckilecture^ 
which  has  been  tiansbted  into  several  foreign  kinguages  and  is 
recognized  as  a  standard  text-book  all  over  the  worid.  Sir 
William  White,  who  was  chosen  a  feUow  of  the  Rojral  Society 
in  1888,  also  read  many  professional  papers  before  various 
learned  and  engineering  societies.  He  was  created  K.C.B.  in 
1895. 

WHITBAVBS.*' JOSEPH^  FREDERICK  ^83$'  ),  Britoh 
palaeontologist,  was  bora  at  Oxford,  on  the  26th  of  December 
1835.  He  was  educated  at  private  schools,  and  afterwards 
worked  under  John  Phillips  at  Oxford  (1858-1861);  he  .was  led 
to  study  the  Oolitic  rocks,  and  added  largely  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  fossils  of  the  Great  Oolite  series,  Combrash  and  Corallian 
{Rep.  Brit.  Assoc,  i860,  and  Ann.,  Nat.  Hist,  1861).  In  i86x  he 
visited  Canada  and  made  acquaintance  with  the  geology  of 
Quebec  and  Montreal,  and  in  1863  he  was  appointed  curator  of 
the  museum  and  secretary  of  the  Natural  History  Society  of 
Montreal,  posts  which  he  occupied  until  1875.  He  studied  the 
land  and  freshwater  molluscs  ol  Lower  Canada,  and  the  marine 
invertebrata  of  the  coasts;  and  also  carried  on  researches  among 
the  older  Silurian  (or  Ordovician)  fossils  of  the  neighbourhood  of 
Montreal.  In  1875  he  joined  the  palacontological  branch  of 
the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada  at  Montreal;  in  the  f(^owing 
year  he  became  palaeontologist,  and  in  X877  he  was  further 
appointed  zoologist  and  assistant  director  of  the  survey.  In  x88  x 
the  offices  of  the  survey  were  removed  to  Ottawa.  His  pubUca- 
tions  on  Canadian  Zoology  and  palaeontology  are  numerous  and 
important.  Dr  Whiteaves  was  one  of  the  original  fellows  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  CanadSr  and  contributed  to  its  Transactions, 
as  well  as  to  the  Canadian  Naturalist  and  other  journals.  He 
received  the  hon.  degree  of  LL.  D.  in  X900  from  McGill  University, 
Montreal. 

WHITBBAlTt  the  vernacular  name  of  the  small  fish  which 
appears  in  large  shoals  in  the  estuary  of  the  Thames  during  the 
summer  months,  and  is  held  in  great  esteem  as  a  delicacy  for  the 
table.  Formeriy  whitebait  was  supposed  to  be  a  distinct  species 
of  fbh.  T.  Pennant  and  G.  Shaw  believed  it  to  be  some  kind 
of  Cyprinoid  fish,  similar  to  the  bleak,  whilst  E.  Donovan,  in  his 
Natural  History  of  British  Fishes  (1802-1808),  misled  by  speci- 
mens sent  to  him  as  whitebait,  declared  it  to  be  the  young  of  the 
shad.  In  X820  W.  Yarrell  proved  conclusively  that  Donovan's 
opinion  was  founded  upon  an  error;  unfortunately  be  contented 
himself  with  comparing  whitebait  with  the  shad  only,  and  in 
the  end  adopted  the  opinion  of  the  Thames  fishermen,  whose 
interest  it  was  to  represent  it  as  a  distinct  aduh  form;  thus  the 
whitebait  Is  introduced  into  Yarrdl^  History  of  British  Fishes 
(1836)  as  Ctupea  alba.  The  Fh:nch  Ichthyologist  Valenciennes 
went  a  step  farther,  declaring  it  to  be  not  only  specifically  but 
also  generically  distinct  from  all  other  Clupeoids.  It  is  now 
known  to  consist  of  the  young  fry  of  herrings  and  sprats  in 
varying  proportions  mixed  with  a  few  shrimps,  gobies,  stickle- 
backs, pope-fishes  and  young  flounders:  but  these  impurities 
are  as  far  as  possible  pidced  out  from  the  whitebait  before  it  is 


WHITEFIELD 


603 


marketed.  The  fishaig  is  cMtA  on  from  Fdmuny  to  August, 
and  samples  taken  in  the  soccessive  months  were  found  to 
contain  the.  following  percentages  of  herrings,  the  remainder 
being  young  sprats:  7,  5,  14*  30,  87,  75,  5a.  Hence  it  will  be 
seen  that  sprats  predominated  in  February,  March,  April  and 
May,  herrings  in  June  and  July.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
these  yoiing  herrings  are  derived  from  a  local  "  winter  "  mce 
spawning  about  February  and  March,  and  having  nothing  to  do 
with  the  great  shoals  of  the  more  open  sea  spawning  in  the  North 
Sea  in  November.  The  Thames  being  unequal  to  the  supply  of 
the  large  demand  f<Mr  this  delicacy,  large  quantities  of  whitebait 
are  now  brought  to  London  and  other  markets  from  many  parts 
of  the  coast.  In  times  past  whitebait  were  considered  to  be 
peculiar  to  the  estuary  of  the'  Thames;  and,  even  after  the 
specific  identification  of  Thames  whitebait  with  the  young  of  the 
herring  and  sprat,  it  was  still  thought  that  there  was  a  dis- 
tinctive auptnoTity  in  its  condition  and  flavour.  It  is  possible 
that  the  young  fish  find  in  the  estuary  of  the  Thames  a  larger 
amount  of  suitable  food  than  on  other  parts  of  the  coast,  where 
the  water  may  be  of  greater  purity,  but  possesses  less  abundance 
of  the  minute  aninuU  life  on  which  whitebait  thrive.  Indeed, 
Thames  whiidiait  which  have  been  compared  with  that  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Exe,  the  Cornish  coast,  Menai  Strait,  and  the 
Firth  of  Forth  seemed  to  be  better  fed;  but,  of  course,  the 
specific  characteristics  of  the  herring  and  sprat— ^to  which  we 
need  not  enter  here — were  nowise  modified. 

The  fry  of  fishes  is  used  as  an  article  of  diet  in  almost  every 
country:  in  Germany  the  young  of  various  q)edes  of  Cyprinoids, 
in  Italy  and  Ji^ian  the  young  of  neariy  every  fish  capable  of 
being  readily  captured  in  sufficient  numbers,  in  the  South  Sea 
Islands  the  fry  of  Teuthis,  in  New  Zcahnd  young  Calaxitu 
are  consumed  at  certain  seasons  in  large  quantities;  and,  like 
whitebait,  these  fry  bear  distinct  names,  different  from  those  of 
the  adult  fish. 

Whitebait  are  caught  on  the  flood-tide  from  boats  moored  in  from 
3  to  5  fathoms  of  water.  The  net  used  is  a  bag  some  ao  ft.  long, 
narrow  and  sroall-incshed  towards  the  tail  end.  tM  mouth  being  kept 
open  in  the  direction  of  the  advancing  tide  by  a  framework  3  or  4  it. 
square.  It  b  placed  alongside  the  boat  and  sunk  to  a  depth  of  ^  ft. 
bcbw  the  suriace;  from  time  to  time  the  end  of  the  bag  is  lifted  mto 
the  boat,  to  empty  it  of  its  contents.  The* "  schools'  of  whitebait 
advancing  and  retiring  with  the  tide  for  days,  and  probably  for 
weeks,  have  to  run  the  gauntlet  of  a  doern  of  these  nets,  and  therefore 
get  very  much  thinncain  number  by  the  end  of  the  season.  When 
the  view  commenced  to  ^ain  ground  that  whitebait  were  largely 
young  herrinff,  the  question  arose  whether  or  not  the  immense 
destruction  01  the  young  brood  caused  by  this  mode  of  fbhing  in- 
juriously affected  the  fishery  of  the  mature  herring-  This  perhaps  it 
ooes;  but,  since  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  herring  is  much  more 
restricted  in  its  migrations  than  was  formerly  believed,  and  that  the 
shoals  are  to  a  great  extent  local,  the  in^r^,  such  as  it  is,  must  be 
local  and  limited  to  the  particular  distnct  in  which  the  fishing  for 
whitebait  is  methodically  practised.  Smilar  reaaoniag  applies  to 
sprats.  U.T.  C.) 

WHITBFIBliD^  OBOROB  (i7i4~t77o),  English  reUgious 
leader,  was  bom  on  the  x6th  of  December  17x4  at  the  Bell  Inn« 
Gloucester,  of  which  his  father  was  landlord.  At  about  twelve 
years  of  age  he  was  sent  to  the  school  of  St  Maiyde  Crypt, 
Gkmcester,  where  he  devefeped  some  skill  in  docution  and  a 
taste  forreadmg  pUys,  a  drcamstance  vi^cb  probably  had 
oonsiderable  influence  on  his  subsequent  career.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen  he  was  taken  from  school  to  assist  his  mother  in  the 
public-house,  and  for  a  year  and  a  half  was  a  common  drawer. 
He  then  again  returned  to  school  to  prepare  for  the  university, 
and  in  1733  entered  as  a  servitor  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
graduating  in  1736.  There  he  came  under  the  influence  of  the 
Methodists  (see  Wesley),  and  entered  so  enthusiastically  hito 
their  practices  and  habits  that  he  was  attacked  by  a  severe 
illness,  which  compelled  him  to  return  to  his  native  town.  His 
enthusiastic  piety  attracted  the  notice  of  Martin  Benson,  bishop 
of  Gloucester,  who  ordained  him  deacon  on  the  20th  of  June 
1736.  He  then  began  an  evangeiia'ng  tour  fn  Bath,  Bristol 
and  other  towns,  his  eloquence  at  once  attracting  immense 
nnltifudcs. 

|a  1736  he  was  invited  by  Wesley  to  go  out  as  missionary  to 


Georgia,  and  went  to  London  to  wait  on  the  trustees. .  Before 
setting  sail  he  preached  in  some  of  the  principal  London  churches, 
and  in  order  to  hear  him,  crowds  assembled  at  the  church  doors 
long  before  daybreak.  On  the  sSth  of  December  1737  he  em- 
barked for  Georgia,  which  he  reached  on  the  7th  of  May  1738. 
After  three  months'  residence  there  he  returned  to  Eng^d  to 
receive  priest's  orders,  and  to  raise  contributions  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  orphaniage.  As  the  clergy  did  not  welcome  him 
to  their  pulpits,  hie  began  to  preach  in  the  open  air.  At  Kings- 
wood  Hfll,  Bristol,  his  addresses  to  the  colliers  soon  attracted 
crowds,  and  his  voke  was  so  dear  and  powerful  that  it  could 
reach  so^ooo  folk.  His  fervour  and  dramatic  acticm  held  them 
spdl-bound,  and  his  homely  pathos  soon  broke  down  all  barriers 
of  resistance.  "  The  first  discovery  of  their  being  affected,"  he 
says, "  was  by  seeing  the  white  gutters  made  by  thdr  tears,  which 
plentifully  fell  down  thdr  black  cheeks."  In  1 738  an  account  of 
Whitefield's  voyage  from  London  to  Geoigia  was  published  with- 
out his  knowledge.  In  1739  he  published  his  J&umal  from 
his  arrival  in  Savannah  to  his  return  to  London,  and  also  bis 
Journal  from  his  arrival  in  London  to  his  departure  thence  on 
his  way  to  Georgia.  As  his  embarkation  was  further  delayed  for 
ten  weeks  he  published  A  Continuation  of  the  Reo.  Mr  WkUefidd*s 
Journal  during  iko  Time  he  vfas  delayed  in  Engfand  by  the  Embargo. 
His  unfavourable  reception  in  En^nd  by  the  dergy  led  him  to 
make  reprisals.  To  Joseph  Triipp's  attack  on  the  Methodists  he 
published  in  2739  A  Preservative  against  Unsettled  Notions^  in 
which  the  dergy  of  the  Church  of  England  were  denounced  with 
some  bitterness;  he  also  published  shortly  afterwards  The 
Spirit  and  Doctrine  and  Lives  of  our  Modern  Clergy ^  and  a  reply 
to  a  pastoral  letter  of  the  bishop  of  London  in  which  he  had  been 
attacked.  In  the  same  year  appeared  Sermons  on  Various 
Subjects  (2  vols.),  the  Church  Companion^  or  Sermons  on  Several 
Subjects^  and  a  recommendatory  epistle  to  the  Life  cf  Thomas 
HalyburUm.  He  again  embarked  for  America  in  August  1739, 
and  remained  there  two  years,  preaching  in  all  the  principal 
towns.  He  left  his  incumbency  of  Savannah  to  a  lay  ddegate 
and  the  commissary's  court  at  Charieston  suspended  him  for 
ceremonial  irregularities.  While  there  he  published  Three 
Letters  from  Mr  WhUefield,  in  which  he  referred  to  the  "  mystery 
of  iniquity  "  in  Tillotson,  and  asserted  that  that  divine  knew  no 
more  of  Christ  than  Mahomet  did. 

During  bis  absence  from  England  Whitefidd  found  that  a 
divergence  of  doctrine  from  Calvinism  had  been  introduced  by 
Wesl^;  and  notwithstanding  Wcdey's  exhortations  to  brotherly 
kindness  and  forbearance  he  withdrew  from  the  Wesleyan 
connexion.  Thereupon  his  friends  built  for  him  near  Wesley's 
church  a  wooden  structure,  which  was  named  the  Moorfields 
Tabernacle.  A  reconciliation  between  the  two  great  evangelists 
was  soon  effected,  but  each  thenceforth  went  his  own  way.  In 
i74r,  on  the  invitation  of  Ralph  and  Ebenezer  Erskine,  be  paid 
a  visit  to  Scotland,  commencing  his  labours  in  the  Secession 
meeting-house,  Dunfermline.  But,  as  he  refused  to  limit  his 
ministrations  to  one  sect,  the  Seoeders  and  he  parted  company, 
and  without  their  countenance  he  made  a  tour  through  the  prin- 
dpal  towns  of  Scotland,  the  authorities  of  which  in  most  instances 
presented  him  with  the  freedom  of  the  burgh,  in  token  of  thdr 
estdfinate  of  the  benefits  to  the  community  resulting  from  his 
preaching.  From  Scotland  he  went  to  Wales,  where  on  the 
14th  of  November  he  married  a  widow  named  James.  The 
marriage  was  not  a  happy  one.  On  his  return  to  Lcoidon  in  1 742 
he  preached  to  the  crowds  in  Moorfields  during  the  Whitsun 
holidays  with  such  effect  as  to  attract  neariy  all  the  people 
from  the  shows.  After  a  second  visit  to  Scotland,  June- 
October  r742  (where  at  Cambuslang  in  partictilar  he  wielded  a 
great  spiritual  influence),  and  a  tour  through  England  and  Wales, 
J742-1744,  he  embarked  in  August  1744  for  America,  where  he 
remained  till  June  1748.  On  returning  to  London  he'found  his 
congregation  at  the  Tabernacle  dispersed;  and'fais  drcumstancts 
were  so  depressed  that  he  was  obliged  to  sell  his  household 
furniture  to  pay  his  orphan-house  debts.  Relief  soon  came 
through  his  acquaintance  with  Selina,  countess  of  Huntingdon 
(fs.).  who  appointed  him  one  of  lier  chaplains. 


'66+ 


WHITEFISH— WHITEHEAD 


The  remainder  o!  WhiLefkld'ft  life  was  apent  chiefly  la  evangel' 
izing  tours  in  Great  Britain,  Irelami  and  America.  It  has  been 
staled  that "  in  the  compass  of  a  single  week,  and  that  for  years, 
he  spoke  in  general  forty  hours,  and  in  very  nuuiy  sixty,  and 
that  to  thousands."  In  X74S  the  synods  of  Glasgow,  Perth  and 
Lothian  passed  vain  resolutions  intended  to  exclude  htm  from 
churches;  in  x 7  53  he  compiled  his  hymn-book,  and  in  i756opened 
the  chapel  which  still  bears  his  name  in  Tottenham  Court  Road. 
On  his  return  from  America  to  Engbmd  for  the  last  time  the 
change  in  his  appearance  fordbly  impressed  Wesley,  who  wrote 
in  his  Journal:  "  He  seemed  to  be  an  old  noan,  being  fairly  worn 
out  in  ha  Master's  service,  though  he  had  hardly  seen  fifty  years." 
When  health  was  failing  him  he  placed  himself  on  what  he 
called  "  short  allowance,"  preaching  only  once  every  week*day 
and  thrice  on  Sunday.  In  1769  he  returned  to  America  for  the 
seventh  and  last  tikne,  and  arranged  for  the  conversion  of  his 
orphanage  into  Bethesda  College,  which  was  burned  down  in 
X773.  He  was  now  affected  by  a  severe  asthmatic  complaint; 
but  to  those  who  advised  him  to  take  some  rest,  he  answered, 
"  I  had  rather  wear  cut  than  rust  out."  He  died  on  the  30th  of 
September  1770  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  where  he  had 
arrived  on  the  previous  evening  with  the  intention  of  preaching 
next  day.  In  accordance  with  his  own  desire  he  was  buried 
before  the  pulpit  in  the  Presbyterian  church  of  the  town  where 
he  died. 

Whitcfield's  printed  works  convey  a  totally  inadequate  idea  of  his 
oratorical  powers,  and  arc  all  in  fact  below  mediocrity.  They  ap* 
pea  red  in  a  collected  form  in  1771-1772  in  seven  volumes,  the  last 
containing  Memoirs  of  his  Lije,  by  Dr  John  Gillies.  His  Letters 
(1734-1770)  were  comprised  in  vola.  i.,  ii.  and  iii.  of  his  Works  and 
were  also  published  separately.    His  Select  Works,  with  a  memoir  by 

t  Smith,  appeared  in  1850.    Sec  Lives  by  K<^rt  Philip  (1837), 
.Tyerman  (a  vols.,  1876-1877)^!.  P.GIedstode  (1871, new  ed.  1900), 
and  \V..H.  Lecky's  History  oj  England^  vol.  ii. 

WHITEFISH,  a  collective  name  applied  in  different  countries 
to  very  different  kinds  of  freshwater  fishes.  The  numerous 
European  species  of  the  Cyprinoid  genus  Leuciscus  are  frequently 
comprised  under  the  name  of  "  Whitefish,"  but  the  term  is 
employed  here  for  the  various  species  of  the  Salmonoid  genus 
Corcgonus.  The  Coregonus  group  arc  somewhat  herring-shaped, 
silvery  salmonids  with  small,  toothless  or  feebly  toothed  mouth, 
and  rather  large  scales.  They  are  distributed  over  Europe,  Asia 
and  North  America,  some  species  living  in  the  sea,  bht  most 
inhabiting  clear  lakes.  The  highly  esteemed  "  lavaiet  "  of  Savoy, 
the  "  felchen,"  "  kiWi,"  "  gangfisch,"  "  pal6c,"  "  giavenche." 
"  f6ra  "  or  Switzeriand  and  southern  Germany,  the  "  sik  "  of 
Sweden,  belong  to  this  genus,  which  is  represented  in  British 
aixl  Irifth  waters  by  the  boating  (C.  oxyrhynchus),  oocasionaiiy 
found  in  the  North  Sea,  the  gwyniad  or  pawaa  (C.  dupeoides) 
6f  Loch  Lomond,  Haweswater,  l^water  and  Bala,  the  vendace 
(C.  vandesim)  of  Lochmaben,  and  its  newly  described  ally 
(C.  gracilhr)  from  Derwentwater  and  Bassenthwaite  kikes  in 
Cumberland.  About  eight  spedes  are  distinguished  from  the 
northern  parts  of  North  America.  The  Corcgonus  are  mostly 
of  small  size,  few  of  them  attaining  a  length  of  18  in.  Secondary 
nuptial  sexual  characters  are  by  no  means  so  well  marked  as  in 
Salmot  but  peari-like  excrescences  may  appear  on  the  scales 
during  the  breeding  season,  and  are  more  prominent  in  males 
than  in  females. 

WHITEHALL,  a  village  of  Washington  county,  New  York, 
U.S.A.,  in  a  township  of  the  same  name  on  the  Poultney  river 
nnd  the  Champlain  Canal,  at  the  bead  of  Lake  Champlain, 
and  78  m.  by  rail  N.  by  E.  of  Albany.  Pop.  (1890)  4434;  (1900) 
4377,  of  whom  547  were  foreign-born;  (1905)  414S;  (i9>o)  49i7- 
Whitehall  is  served  by  the  Delaware  &  Hudson  railway, 
and  is  the  N.  terminus  of  the  new  barge-canal  system  of  New 
York  state.  It  is  situated  in  a  narrow  valley  between  two  hills 
called  West  Mountain  and  Skene's  Mountain,  and  Wood  Creek 
flows  through  the  village  and  empties  into  the  lake  with  a  laX\, 
from  widch  valuable  water-power  is  derived;  there  are  various 
manufactures,  and  the  village  owns  and  operates  the  water  works. 
In  1759,  to  strengthen  the  British  hold  on  Canada,  a  large  tract 
of  land  at  the  S.  «ad  of  Imkft  Champlain  was  granted  to  Colonel 


Philip  Skene  (x73S-«z8io),  wlw  feoi^t  at  TkonkittopL  in  1758 
and  in  1759,  and  who  established  here  in  1761  a  settlement  of 
about  thirty  families  which  he  called  SkeneiLorough  and  which 
was  patented  in  1765.  Skene  was  a  Loyalist,  and  in  May  1775 
Skenesborotigh  was  seized  by  a  party  of  American  volunteers. 
In  Burgoyne's  expedition  (1777)  Skene  and  his  son,  Andrew 
Philip  Skene  (i753-i8a6),  served  as  guides,  and  Skenesborough 
was  recovered  by  the  British  after  most  of  it  had  been  burned  by 
the  Americans.  At  the  close  of  the  war  Skene's  estate  was 
confiscated  and  in  1786  the  phice  was  named  Whitehall.  In  the 
War  of  181 2  Whitehall  was  fortified  and  was  a  base  of  supplies 
for  American  operations  against  Canada.  It  was  incorporated 
as  a  village  in  1806. 

WHITQIAVEM,  a  municipal  and  pariiamentary  borou^, 
seaport  and  market  town  of  Cumberland,  England,  41  m. 
S.VV.  of  Carlisle.  Pop.  (1901)  19,324.  It  lies  mainly  in  a  valley 
opeiung  upon  the  Irish  Sea,  with  high  ground  to  north  and  south, 
and  is  served  by  the  London  &  North- Western,  the  Cockermouth, 
Keswick  &  Penrith  and  the  Fumess  raOways.  The  harbour 
is  protected  by  two  main  piers,  of  which  the  western  is  a  fine 
structure  by  Sir  John  Rcnnie,  and  divided  into  four  parts  by 
others;  it  has  a  wet  dock  and  extensive  quayage.  Regular 
passenger  communications  are  maintained  with  the  Isle  of  Man. 
The  exports  are  principally  coal,  pig  iron  and  ore,  steel  and  stone. 
The  port  was  made  subordinate  to  that  of  Maryport  in  1893. 
There  are  collieries  near  the  town,  the  workings  extending 
beneath  the  sea;  there  are  also  iron  mines  and  works,  engineering 
works,  shipbuilding  yards,  breweries,  tanneries,  stone  quarries, 
brick  and  earthenware  works,  and  other  industrial  establish- 
ments in  and  near  the  town.  The  parliamentary  borough 
returns  one  member.  The  municipal  borough  is  under  a  mayor, 
6  aldermen  and  x8  councillors^    Area  18x0  acres. 

Whitehaven  (Witofihaven)  was  an  insignificant  possession  of 
the  priory  of  St  Bee  which  becaipe  crown  property  at  the  ds- 
solution  of  the  religious  houses.  It  was  acquired  before  1644 
by  relatives  of  the  earl  of  Lonsdale,  who  secured  the  prosperity 
of  the  town  by  working  the  coal-mines.  From  r7o8  the  harbour 
was  governed  by  twenty-one  trustees,  whose  power  was  extended 
and  municipalized  by  frequent  legijjation,  until,  in  1885,  they 
were  incorporated.  In  X894  this  government  by  incoiporated 
trustees  gave  place  to  that  of  a  municipal  corporation  created  by 
charter  in  that  year.  The  harbour  was  entrusted  to  fifteen ' 
commissioners.  Since  the  Reform  Act  of  1832  Whitehaven  has 
returned  one  representative  to  parliament.  A  weekly  market 
and  yearly  fairs  were  granted  to  Sir  John  Lowther  in  1660;  two 
fairs  were  held  in  1B88;  and  the  market  days  are  now  Tuesday, 
Thursday  and  Saturday.  Whitehaven  coal  was  sent  chiefly  to 
Ireland  in  the  i8th  century.  In  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century 
other  exports  were  lime,  freestone,  and  grain;  West  Indian, 
American  and  Baltic  produce,  Irish  flax  and  Welsh  pig  iron 
were  imported,  and  shipbuilding  was  a  growing  industry.  Paul 
Jones,  the  notorious  buccaneer,  served  his  ftppmnUceship  at  the 
port,  which  in  1778  he  successfully  raided,  burning  three  vessels. 

WHITEHEAD.  WILUAH  (1715-1785).  En^ish  poet4aureB(e, 
son  of  a  baker,  was  bom  at  Cambridge,  and  baptized  on  the 
X2th  of  February  771 5*  His  father  had  extntvagant  tastes, 
and  spent  large  sums  in  ornamenting  a  piece  of  land  near  Grant- 
chester,  afterwards  known  as  "  Whitehead's  Folly."  WiUiam 
was  his  second  son,  and  through  the  patronage  of  Henry  Broml^, 
afterwards  Lord  Montfort,  was  admitted  to  Winchester  CoUes?. 
In  1 735  he  entered  Clare  Hall,  Carnbridge,  as  a  sizar,  and  became 
a  fellow  in  r742.  At  Cambridge  Whitehead  published  an  epistle 
"On  the  Danger  of  writing  Verse"*  and  some  other  poems, 
notably  an  heroic  epistle,  Ann  BoUyn  to  Henry  Ike  Eighth  (l  743), 
and  a  didactic  Essay  an  Ridicule  (x743)-  In  1745  he  became 
tutor  to  Viscount  VUIiers,  son  of  the  eari  of  Jersey,  and  took  up 
his  residence  in  London.  He  produced  two  tragedies:  The 
Roman  Father  (Drury  Lane,  24ih  of  February  1750),  and  Creusa, 
Queen  0/  Atheiu  (Drury  Lane,  20th  of  April  i7S4)-  The  pk>ts 
are  based  respectively  on  the  Horace  of  Comeille,  and  the  fen 
of  Euripides.    In  June  1754  he  went  abroad  with  Lord  VUUera, 

*  Printed  in  A  QaUetUim  of  Foms  by  mtnl  Hands  (vol.  U.,  lU'^V 


WHITE  HORSE,  VALE  OF^WHTTILEY 


605 


and  Jti».<pmpanion  Visooiint  Kiuwluuii*  ton  of  Sail  Hanwft, 
only  returniog  to  £aglai)i.d  in  the  autumn  of  1756.  In  1757 
he  waa  appointed  poet4auDeate  in  SMCcc«ioD  to  Cihbeff,  and 
proceeded  to  write  annual  effusiona  in  the  royal  honour.  That 
he  was  not  altogether  happy  in  his.  position,  which  was  dis- 
creditCMd  by  the  fierce  attacks  made  on  his  predecessor,  Colk|r 
Gibber,  appean  from  "  A  Pathetic  Apology  for  all  Laureates, 
past,  present  and  to  come."  Charles  Churchill  attacked  him  in 
2769,  in  the  third  book,  of  The  Chest,  aa  the  heir  of  Dullness  and 
Method.  In  the  same  year  Whitehead  produced  his  most 
successful  work  in  the  comedy  of  the  School  for  LoterSj  produced 
at  Drury  Lane  on  the  xoth  of  February.,  This  success  encouraged 
David  Garrick  to  make  him  his  reader  of  pUys.  Whitehead's 
farce,  The  Trip  to  Scotland,  was  peifonned  on  the  6th  of  January 
1770W  He  ooUeeted  his  Plays  and  Poems  in  1774.  He  had  for 
some  time,  after  his  xetum  from  the  Continent,  resided  in  the 
houses  of  his  patrons,  but  fztxn  1769  he  lived  in  London,  where 
he  died  on  the  14th  of  Apiil  17SS.  Beside  the  wocka  already 
mentioned.  Whitehead  wrote  a  burlesque  poem.  The  Sweepers, 
a  number  of  verse  conUs,  of  which  "  Variety  "  and  "  The  Goat's 
Beard  "  are  good  examples,  and  mudi  occasional  and  official 
verse.  ... 

See  memoire  by  his  friend  William  Maaoni  prefixed  to  a  complete 
edition  of  his  poems  (York,  1788).  His  plavs  are  printed  in  Bell's 
British  Theatre  (vols.  3,  7.  20)  and  other  collections,  and  bis  poems 
appear  in  Chalmers's  Works  of  the  English  Poets  (vol,  17)  and  similar 
compilations. 

WHITE  HORSE,  VALE  OF.  the  name  of  the  valley  of  the 
Ock,  a  stream  which  joins  the  Thames  from  the  west  at  Abingdon 
in  Berkshire,  England.  The  vale  is  flat  and  well  wooded,  its 
green  meadows  and  foliage  contrasttng  richly  with  the  bald 
summits  of  the  White  Horse  Hills,  which  flank  it  on  the  south. 
On  the  north  a  lower  ridge  separates  it  from  the  upper  Thames 
valley;  but  local  usage  sometimes  extends  the  vale  to  cover  all 
the  ground  between  the  Cotteswolds  (on  the  north)  and  the 
White  HoTse  Hills.  According  to  the  geographical  definition, 
however,  the  vale  is  from  a  to  5  m.  wide,  and  the  distance  by 
road  from  Abingdon  to  Shrivenham  at  its  head  is  18  m.  Wantage 
is  the  only  town  in  the  heart  of  the  vale,  lying  in  a  sheltered 
hoUow  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  along  which,  moreov^,  villages  are 
more  numerous  than  elsewhere  In  the  vale.  Towards  the  west, 
above  Uffington,  the  hills  reach  a  culminating  point  of  856  ft. 
in  White  Horse  HilL  In  its  northem  flank,  just  bdow  the  summit , 
a  gigantic  figure  of  a  horse  is  cut,  the  turf  being  removed  toshow 
the  white  chalky  soil  beneath.  This  figure  gives  name  to  the  hill, 
the  range  and  the  vale.  It  is  374  ft.  long  and  of  the  rudest 
outline,  the  neck,  body  and  tail  varying  little  in  width.  Its 
origin  is  unknown.  Tradition  asserted  it  to  be  the  monument  of 
a  victory  over  the  Danes  by  King  Alfred,  who  was  bom  at 
Wantage;  but  the  site  of  the  battle,  that  of  Ashdown  (871), 
has  been  variously  located.  Moreover,  the  figure,  with  others  of 
a  mmilar  character  elsewhere  in  England,  is  considered  to  be 
of  a  far  higher  antiquity,  dating  even  from  bdore  the  Roman 
occupation.  Many  ancient  remains  occur  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Horse.  On  the  summit  of  the  hill  there  is  an  extensive  and  well- 
preserved  circular  camp,  apparently  used  by  the  Romans,  but 
of  earlier  origin.  It  is  nained  Uffington  Castle  from  the  village 
in  the  vale  below.  Within  a  short  distance  are  Rardwell  Castle, 
a  square  work,  and,  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  hills  near  Ash- 
down  Park,  a  small  camp  traditionally  called  Alfred's.  A  smooth, 
steep  gully  on  the  north  flank  of  White  Hone  Hill  is  called  the 
Manger,  and  to  the  west  of  it  rises  a  bald  mound  named  Dragon's 
Hill,  the  trfftiitional  scene  of  St  (George's  victory  over  the  dragon, 
the  blood  of  which  made  the  ground  bare  of  gnus  for  ever.  But 
the  name,  properly  Pendragon,  is  a  Celtic  form  signifiving  **  chief 
of  longs,"  and  may  point  to  an  early  place  of  burial,  to  the  west 
of  White  Horse  Hill  lies  a  cromlech  called  Wayland  Smith's  Cave, 
said  to  be  the  home  of  a  smith  Who  was  never  seen,  but  shod  the 
horses  of  travellen  if  they  were  left  at  the  place  with  payment. 
The  legend  is  daborated,  and  the  smith  appears  as  a  character, 
in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel  Kenihoorth.  The  White  Horse 
itself  has  been  carefully  cleared  of  vegetation  from  time  to  time, 
and  the  process,  known  as  the  "  Scouring  of  the  White  Horse," 


Has  fomeily  made  the  oocaaini  ol  a  lettind. 
were  held,  and  keen  livafay  was  maintained,  not  only  bctweeH 
the  inhabitanta  of  the  local  villages,  but  between  local  champions 
and  those  from  distant  parts  of  England.  The  first  of  such 
fcstivala  known  took  place  in  1755,  and  th^  died  out  only 
subsequently  to  2857.  A  grassy  track  represents  the  ancient 
road  or  Ridge  Way  along  the  crest  of  the  hills  continuing  Icknield 
Street,  from  the  Chiltem  Hills  to  the  north-cast,  across  the 
Thames;  and  other  earthworks  in  addition  to  tbdse  near  the 
White  Hocse  overlook  the  vale,  such  as  Letcombe  Castle  above 
Wantage.  At  the  foot  of  the  hUls  not  far  east  of  the  Horse  ii 
preserved  the  so-called  Blowing  Stone,  a  masa  of  sandstom 
ineiced  with  holes  in  such  away  that  when  blown  like  atrumpet 
a  loud  note  is  produced.  It  is  belie^'ed  that  in  the  earliest  times 
the  stone  served  the  purpose  of  a  bugle.  Several  of  the  villagi 
churches  in  the  vale  are  of  interest,  notably  the  fine  Eariy 
EnjjUsh  cruciform  building  at  Uffington.  The  length  of  the  val^ 
ia  traversed  by  the  main  h'ne  of  the  Great  Western  railwayi 
between  Didcot  and  Swindon,  r  '^  " 
See  Thomas  Hughes,  The  Scouring  of  the  White  Horse  (1859). 

WHITEINO,  RICHARD  (184^.  ),  English  author  and 
journalist,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  37th of  July  1840^  the  son 
of  a  civil  servant.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Benjamin  Wyon,  medallist 
and  seal-engraver,  and  made  Ids  journalistic  d6but  by  a  series 
of  papers  in  the  Evening  Star  in  1866,  printed  separately  in  the 
next  year  as  Mr  Spr&uts,  His  Opisuoi$s.  He  became  leader- 
writer  and  correspondent  on  the  Morning  Star,  and  was  subso* 
quently  on  the  staff  of  the  Manchester  Guardian,  the  New  York 
World,  and  for  many  yean  the  DaUy  News,  resigning  from  the 
last-named  paper  in  1899.  His  novel  The  Democracy  (3  vols., 
1876)  was  published  under  the  pseudonym  of  Whyte  Thome. 
His  remarkable  story  The  Island  (2888)  attri^ted  little  attention 
until,  years  afterwarda,  its  successor.  No.  5  John  Street  (1899), 
made  him  famous;  tb»  earlier  novel,  waa  then  republished* 
Later  works  were  The  Yellow  Van  (19^3),  Ring  in  the  New  (1906), 
All  Moonshine  (1907). ' 

WHITELBT,  WILUAM  (1831-^^907),  English  '^Univenal 
Provider,"  was  bom  at  Agbifgg,  near  Wakefidd,  Yorkshire,  on 
the  39th  of  September  tt^t,  the  son  of  a  corns-factor.  At  the  ag« 
of  sixteen  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  firm  of  drapers  at  Wakefield; 
In  1851  he  made  his  first  visit  to  London  to  see  the  Great  Exhibi- 
tion, and  was  so  impressed  with  the  size  and  activity  of  thft 
metropolis  that  he  determined  to  settle  there  as  soon  as  hta 
apprenticeship  was  over.  A  year  later  he  obtained  a  subordinate 
position  in  a  draper's  establishment  in  the  city,  and  after  studying 
the  drapery  trade  in  this  and  other  London  establishments  for 
ten  years,  in  1863  himself  opened  a  small  shop  for  the  sale  of 
fancy  drapery  in  Westboume  Grove,  Bayswater. '  His  capital 
amounted  to  about  £700,  which  he  had  saved  from  his  salves 
and  commissions,  and  he  at  first  employed  two  young  girls  and 
an  errand  boy.  Friends  in  the  trade  had  assured  him  that 
Westboume  Grove  was  one  <^  the  two  worst  streets  in  London 
for  his  business)  but  Wfaiteley  had  noted  the  number  and  quality 
of  the  people  who  passed  the  premises  every  afternoon,  and 
relied  on  bis  own  judgment.  Events  justified  his  confidence,  and 
within  a  year  he  was  employing  fifteen  hands.  He  made  a  con- 
sistent practice  of  marking  aU  goods  in  plain  figures  and  of 
"dressing"  his  shop>window  attractively,  both  unusual  features 
in  the  retail  trading  of  the  time,  and  fo  this,  coupled  with  the 
fact  that  he  was  satisfied  with  small  profits,  he  largely  attributed 
a  success  in  which  his  own  genius  for  organization  and  energy 
played  a  conspicuous  part.  In  1866.  Whlteley  added  general 
drapery  to  his  other  business,  opening  by  degrees  shop  after 
shop  and  department  after  department,  till  he  was  finally 
enabled  to  call  himself  the  '*  Universal  Provider,"  and  boast 
that  there  wa^  nothing  which  his  stores  could  not  'suj^Iy. 
"Whiteley's  was,  in  fact,  the  first  great  instance  of  a  large 
general  goods  store  hi  London,  held  under  one*man's  control. 
In  1899  the  business,  of  which  the  profits  then  averaged  over 
£100,000  pel*  annum,  was  turned  into  a  Umited  liability  company, 
Whiteley  retaining  the  bulk  of  the  shares.  On  the  23Td  of 
January  1007  he  was  shot  dead,  after  an  interview  in  his  pri\'ate 


6o6 


WHITELOCKE,  SIR  J.— WHTTELOCKE,  B 


office,  by  Horace  Geoiige  Rayner,  who  daimed  (but,  as  waspioved^ 
wrongly)  to  be  bis  illegitimate  son  and  who  had  been  refused 
pecuniaxy  assistance.  Rayner  was  found  guilty  of  murder,  and 
sentenced  to  be  hanged;  but  the  home  secretary  (Mr  Herbert 
Gladstone),  in  response  to^  agitation  for  his  ieprieve,commuted 
the  sentence  to  penal  servitude  for  life. 

WHITELOCKE,  SIR  JAMES  (1570-1633),  English  judge,  son 
of  Richard  Whitelocke,  a  London  merchant,  was  bom  on  the  28th 
of  November  1570.  Educated  at  Merchant  Taylors'  School, 
London,  and  at  St  John's  College,  Oxford,  he  became  a  fellow 
of  his  college  and  a  barrister.  He  was  then  engaged  in  managing 
the  estates  belonging  to  St  John's  College,  Eton  College  and 
Westminster  College,  before  he  became  recorder  of  Woodstock 
and  member  of  parliament  for  the  borough  in  x6io.  In  16^ 
Whitelocke  was  made  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  session  of  the 
county  palatine  of  Chester,  and  was  knighted;  in  1624  he  was 
appointed  justice  of  the  court  of  king's  bench.  He  died  at 
Fawley  Court,  near  Reading,  an  estate  which  he  had  bought  in 
1616,  on  the  22nd  of  June  X632.  Hi9  wife,  Elisabeth,  was  a 
daughter  of  Edward  Bulstrode  of  Hedgerley  Bulstrode,  Buc^ng- 
hamshire,  and  bis  son  was  Bulstrode  Whitelocke. 

Sir  James  was  greatly  interested  in  antiquarian  studies,  and  was 
the  author  of  several  papers  which  are  printed  in  T.  Heeme's  CoUu" 
lion  of  Discourses  (1770;  hb  ioumal,  or  Libtf  famtlicus,  was  edited 
by  John  Bruce  and  published  by  the  Camden  bodety  in  1858. 

Whitelocke'a  elder  brother,  Edkumd  Whrblocke  (i^s-1608), 
was  a  soldier  in  France  and  later  a  courtier  in  F,ngland.  He  was 
imprisoned  because  he  was  suspected  of  being  concerned  in  the 
Gunpowder  Plot,  and  although  he  was  most  probably  innocent, 
he  remained  for  some  time  in  the  Tower  of  London. 

The  soldier  John  Whitelocke  (r757-z833)  waa  doubtless  a 
descendant  of  Sir  James  Whitelocke.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1778  and  served  in  Jamaica  and  in  San  Domingo.  In  1805  he 
was  made  a  lieutenant-general  and  inspectot-geneial  of  recruit- 
ing, and  in  1807  he  was  appointed  to  command  an  expedition 
sent  to  recover  Buenos  Aires  from  the  Spaniards.  An  attack  on 
the  dty  was  stubbornly  resisted,  and  then  Whitelocke  concluded 
an  arrangement  with  the  opposing  general  by  which  he  aban- 
doned the  undertaking.  This  proceeding  was.  regarded  with 
great  disfavour  both  by  the  soldiers  and  others  in  South  America 
and  in  Eni^d,  and  its  author  was  brought  before  A  court- 
martial  in  z8o8.  On  all  the  charge^  except  one  he  waa  found 
guilty  and  he  waa  dismisqed  from  the  service.  He  lived  in  retire- 
ment until  his  death  on  the  23rd  of  October  1833. 

WHITELOCKE,  BULSTRODE  (1605-1675),  English' lawyer 
and  parliamenurian,  eldest  son  of  Sir  James  Whitelocke,  was 
baptized  on  the  xgth  of  August  1605,  and  educated  at  Merchant 
Taylors'  School  and  at  St  John's  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
matriculated  on  the  8th  of  December  1620.^  He  left  Oxford, 
without  a  degree,  for  the  Middle  Temple,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1626  and  chosen  treasurer  in  1628.  He  was  fond  of  field 
sports  and  ctf  music,  and  in  1633  he  had  charge  of  the  music  in 
the  great  masque  performed  by  the  inns  of  court  before  the  king 
and  queen.  Meanwhile  he  had  been  elected  for  Stafford  in'  the 
parliament  of  1626  and  had  been  appointed  recorder  of  Abingdon 
and  Henley.  In  1640  he  was  chosen  member  for  Great  >Iailow 
in  the  Long  Parliament.  He  took  a  promment  part  in  the 
proceedings  against  Strafford,  was  chairman  of  the  committee 
of  management,  and  had  charge  of  articles  XIX.-XXI V.  oi  the 
impeachment.  He  drew  up  the  bill  for  making  parliaments 
indissoluble  except  by  their  own  consent,  and  supported  the 
Grand  Remonstrance  and  the  action  taken  in  the  Commons 
against  the  illegal  canons;  on  the  militia  question^  however,  he 
advocated  a  joint  control  by  king  and  parliament. .  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Great  Rebellion  he  took  the  side  of  the  parliament, 
using  his  influence  in  the  country  as  deputy-lieutenant  to  prevent 
the  king's  raising  troops  in  Buckinghamshire  and  Oxfordshire. 
He  was  sent  to  the  king  at  Oxford  both  in  1643  and  1644  to 
negotiate  terms,  and  the  secret  communications  with  Charles 
on  the  latter  occasion  were  the  foundation  of  a  charge  of  treason 
brought  against  Whitelocke  and  Denzil  Holies  (9.9.)  later. 
He  was  again  one  of  the  commis8ioner»  atJJjcbridge  iA_i645., 


Nevertheless  he  oMMsed  the  pdicy  of  Holies  and  the  peace 
party  and  the  proposed  disbanding  of  the  army  in  1647,  and 
though  one  of  the  lay  members  of  the  assembly  of  divines, 
repudiated  the  claims  of  divine  authority  put  forward  by  the 
Presbyterians  for  their  church,  and  i^^royed  of  religious  toler* 
anoe.  He  thus  gravitated  more  towards  Cromwell  and  the 
army  party,  but  he  took  no  part  either  in  the  disputes  between 
the  army  and  the  parliament  or  in  the  trial  of  the  king.  On  the 
eatablishmoit  of  the  Commonwealth,  though  out  of  sympathy 
with  the  government,  be  waa  nominated  to  the  council  of  state 
and  a  commissioner  ol  the  new  Great  SeaL  He  urged  Cromwell 
after  the  battle  of  Worcester  and  again  in  165s  to  recall  the  royal 
family,  while  in  1653  he  disapproved  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Long 
Parliament  and  was  especially  marked  out  for  attack  by  Cromwell 
in  his  speech  on  that  occasion.  Lata:  in  the  autumn,  and  perhaps 
in  consequence,  Whitelocke  was  despatched  on  a  mission  to 
Christina,  queen  of  Sweden,  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  alliance  and 
assure  the  freedom  of  the  Sound.  On  his  return  he  resumed  his 
office  as  commissioner  of  the  Great  Sdbl,  was  appointed  a  com- 
missioner <rf  the  treasury  with  a  salary  of  £xooo,  and  was  returned 
to  the  parliament  of  1654  for  each  of  the  four  constituencies  of 
Bedford,  Exeter,  Oxford  and  Buckinghamshire,  electing  to  sit 
for  the  latter  constituency. 

Whitelocke  was  a  learned  and  a  sound  lawyer*  He  had  hitherto 
shown  himself  not  unfavourable  to  reform,  having  supported 
the  bill  introducing  the  use  of,  English  into  legal  proceedings, 
having  drafted  a  new  treason  law,  and  set  on  foot  some  altera- 
tions in  chancery  procedure,  A  tract  advocating  the  registering 
of  title-deeds  is  attributed  to  him.  But  he  opposed  the  revolu- 
tionary innovations  dictated  by  ignorant  and  p<^ular  prejudices. 
He  defeated  the  strange  bUl  which  sought  to  exclude  lawyers 
from  parliament;  and  to  the  sweeping  and  ill-considered  changes 
in  the  court  of  chancery  proposed  by  Cromwell  and  the  council 
he  offered  an  unbending  and  hpnoumble  resistance,  being  dis- 
missed in  consequence,  together,  with  his  colleague  Widdtington, 
on  the  <Hh  of  June  1655  from  his  commissionership  of  the  Great 
Seal  (see  Lbmthall,  William).  He  stUI,  however,  remained  on 
good  teems  with  Cromwell,  by  whom  he  was  re^)ected;  he  took 
part  in  public  business,  acted  as  Cromwell's  adviser  on  foreign 
affairs,  negotiated  the  treaty  with  Sweden  of  1656,  and,  elected 
again  to  the  parliament  of  the  same  year  as  member  for  Bucking- 
hamshire, waa  diairman  of  the  committee  which  conferred  with 
Cromwell  on  the  subject  of  the  Petition  and  Advice  and  urged 
the  protector  to  assume  the  title  of  king:  In  December  1657  he 
became  a  member  of  the  new  House  of  Lords.  On  Ridiatd 
Cromwell's  accession  he  was  reappointed  a  commissioner  of  the 
Great  Seal,  and  had  odnsiderabfe  influence  during  the  former's 
short  tenure  of  power.  He  returned  to  his  place  in  the  Long 
Parliament  on  its  recall,  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council 
of  state  on  the  14th  of  May  1659,  and  became  president  in 
August;  and  subsequently,  on  the  fresh  expulsion  of  the  Long 
Parliament,  he  was  included  in  the  comihittee  of  safety  which 
superseded  the  council.  He  again  received  the  Grdat  Seal  into 
his  keeping  on  the  ist  of  November.  During  the  period  which 
immediately  preceded  the  Re^oration  he  endeavoured  to  oppose 
Monk's  schemes,  and  desired  Fleetwood  to  forestall  him  and  inake 
ternis  with  Charles,  but  in  vain. 

On  the  failure  of  his  pUns  he  retired  to  the  country  and  awaited 
events.  Whltelocke's  career,  however,  had  been  marked  by 
moderation  and  good  sense  throughout.  .  The  necessity  of 
carrying  on  the  government  of  the  country  somehow  or  other 
had  been  the  chief  motive  of  his  adherence  to  Cromwell  rather 
than  any  sympathy  for  a  republic  or  a  military  dictatorship, 
and  his  advice  to  Cromwell  to  accept  the  title  of  king  was  doubt- 
less tendered  with  the  deject  of  giving  the  administration  greater 
subility  and  of  protecting  its  adherents  under  the  Statute  of 
Henry  VIL  Nor  bad  he  shown  himself  unduly  ambitious  or  self- 
seeking  in  the  ptirsuit  oi  office,  and  be  had  proved  himself  ready 
to  sacrifice  high  place  to  the  clalmi  of  professional  honour  and 
duty.  These  considerations  were  not  without  weight  with  his 
contemporaries  at  the  Restoration.  .Accordingly  Whitek>cke 
was  not  excepted  bma  the  Act  of  Indemnity,  and  after  tho 


WHITE  MOUNTAINS— WHITESIDE 


607 


t)-SMDt  of  vuiowiHiii*  to  Uk  king  uhI  scboa  he  w  u  tllovcd  ii 

tAm  the  bulk  of  hb  profwrty.  -  He  lived  Junaforth  in  tedut^)! 
;ChiltoDin  WiluUn,  dying  on  Uk  iStli  of  Jul^  1675. 
WUMleeb  lurrU  (0  R<  f 

'  Fiwi(».diugln«o(LaRl  r 

---■ —  j(  Rowluu]  1 

-,-^    .-.  -JA  ihe  Authi  'J 

m  lit  hlti"l't  tl  llu  nil  a 

i  iiprinied,  ■  work  whkhl  I 

lervett  being  UrRiy  •  coup  p 

erIliecvciitiaiiSibouiidiiii  t 


IjjFn 
Culcti 


collectioru  (tfiif.  Brit.  Citom. 
MSS.  Brit.  Mix.  997  .add.  t 
Smiiik  Bmiun  .  .  .  wu  pu 
Reeve  In  IS85  IfM.  MSS.  4 
Cnun,  III,  Sip,  IQO,  91;);  . 
Jlimttri  ef  Farliamai  . . .  wc 

jTrsaM  lUi  /ili»^  UOutniK 


E  illiibiimi  u  liiin. 


5«lb 


edi  JTi 


by  C.  K.  Flnh  in  tbi  Dkl  Nal.  Biat.  wilh  lulhoril 

I*. r..    J    D     nn...>_i.    ■_.    r_    h.    Wllittlol„ 

[tally;  Ifoi*''  Jt^t" 


1  <>r  £.   miubrfci  by   R.  H.  Wbilclacke 


(1860);  H.  R«i 
^Ex^ni;  £>(. 

WH^  ■ODITTAnn,  the  portion  of  the  AppBlvrhtHn  Mi 
tain  lyitem  vhicb  Invena  Hew  Hunpehiie,  U.S.A.,  beli 
the  AndnMCDCgin  end  Upper  AmmoDooeuc  rival  on  the  north 
end  the  like  country  on  the  Boulh.    They  covei  in  aici  cj  about 
IJOO  aq.  m.,  are  composed  of  lunewlut  homogeneous  gnnile 

RgioD  focmaly  greatly  clevalcd.  From  a  plateau  which  his  been 
cut  deep  by  riven  end  itreanB  ihey  liie  to  nnindKl  nimmiis  olien 
nobk  la  outliae  and  of.ffiater  elevation  ihan  elsewhere  in  the 
Appalachian  ^steni,  empt  in  Nonh  Carolina,  aild  nilminaie 
ia  Moont  Waahington,  GtQj  ft.  above  the  lea.  Thirteen  other 
MUiumta  have  an  elevation  exceeding  5000  ft.  The  scenery  is  so 
beantiful  and  varied  that  the  leglao  has  hHtg  been  popular  as  a 
summer  resort.  It  ii  Iiavened  hy  railways,  one  of  Hbicb  ascends 
Mount  Washington,  and  contains  uomemut  viltagea  and  line 
holds. 

S«  the  article  Nsw  HAHnniu:  Ihe  CnldKtJPart 
1907)  puUilhed  by  the  AppalachiiB  Mounuin  Club;  i 
lacUa  Bbld,  1S76  nq.),  a  periodical  publiebcd  by  tbc  hbh 

WHITE  PLUm.  a  village  and  the  county-seal  of  WeScbeUtr 
couDly,  New  York,  U.S.A.,  about  ri  m,  N.  of  New  York  Ciiy 
OD  tbe  BroDi  rivn,  about  midway  between  the  Hudson  river  and 
Loig  Iilani!  Soood.  Pi^.  (1890)  4508;  (1900)  7S99,  of  whom 
1679  weie  foreign-boni  and  i6g  were  negroes;  (1910  census) 
>e,4>5.  The  village  is  served  by  the  New  Yoik  Cealnl  « 
Hudson  River  railway,  and  »  coimected  by  electric  lines  with 
New  York  City,  and  with  Yonkeis,  Mount  Vernon.  New  Rocitrlle. 
Tinytoon  and  Mamaioneck.  White  Pki 
naldential  suburb  stretching  over  a  considni 
ttvc-dad  hiDs  and  picruresqae  stretches  of  meadow  Lands  In  the 
vaneyofibeBroDiandMamaroneck  rivers.  NnribeviUigtue 
SDver,  Kensico  and  Sye  lakes.  Among  tbe  public  buildlDgs  and 
tbe  Institutions  here  are  a  £ne  Public  Library  boildnig,  a  town 
ball,  an  armoury,  tbe  Westchester  county  court  house  and 
coanly  Jail,  leveTal  private  schools,  the  White  Plains  Hospitd, 
St  Agnes  Hospltil,  the  Ptesbyterisa  Convalescents'  Sanitarium, 
tbe  New  York  Orthopaedic  Hospital,  Muldoon'i  Hygienic  In- 
stitute and  Bloomingdale  Hospiul  lot  the  Insane  (iSii).  In 
White  Plaint  are  the  grounds  of  the  Century  Country  Gub,  Ike 
KnoUwood  Coil  and  Country  Club  and  the  WestcheMcT  Coonly 
Fair  Association.  ■" 


1.^**- 


1  beautiful 


When  the  Dutch  Snt  settled  HanbalUn,  the  central  poniori 
el  whit  Is  BOW  Weslcbeater  county  was  the  Canary  for  part  of 
the  Itahlcan  tribe;  It  was  called  QuarTopaa  hy  the  Indiana.  To 
the  early  Inden  here  the  region  waa  known  as  "the  While 
rUia  "  from  tbe  groves  of  white  bobam  whioh  covered  tt.  The 
first  organiied  •eltlement  (November  1M3)  was  by  a  party  of 
CoDDecticin  Puritana,  who  bad  Killed  aF  Rye  in  what  waa  then 


ditputed  territory  between  New  Yoik  and  Cotnectitut;  they 
moved  westwait]  in  a  body  and  took  up  lands  the  title  to  vhicb 
they  bought  from  ibe  Indians.  The  heirsof  John  Kichbetl  claimed 
that  White  Fiaini  was  mmprised  in  a  tract  extending  N.  fnini 
Ibe  Munaroneck  rivet  granted  to  him  by  the  Dutch  and  con- 
fiimcd  by  the  Engii«]i,  and  tbe  controvcisy  between  these  hcin 
and  the  seiilera  from  Rye  was  only  leitled  in  1711  by  the  grant 
to  Joseph  Budd  and  liitecn  other  settlers  of  a  toyal  patent 
uader  which  the  iRcholderB  chose  their  local  officers  and  managed 
their  own  aflaiia.  '  io  I7ig  \V"hite  Rsins  succeeded  Westchester 
as  the  CDunty.seat  of  Wettchcsler  county.  In  the  early  summer 
of  r776  the  Third  Provincial  Congress,  having  adjourned  from 

way— the  site  is  now  occupied  by  an  armoury  and  ia  mnrLcd  by 
a  monument  (19 10).  From  the  steps  of  this  building  the  Deckra- 
lion  of  Indepeiidmu,  brought  from  Philadelphia,  bu  oSlcially 
read  for  the  hnt  time  in  New  York  on  tbe  nth  of  July  1716. 
Here  Congrra  adapted  fgimally  the  name  "  Convention  of 
Keprcsentativea  of  tbe  Suie  of  New  York,"  and  from  this  dates 
the  existence  of  New  York  aa  a  stale.  After  the  British  undef 
Lord  Howe  had  effected  a  Landing  at  Throg's  Neck  on  Long 
Isbnd  Sound,  Washington  withdrew  (Ocloher)  all  his  forces  from 
the  North  end  of  Manhillan  Island  except  the  gairisHi  of  Fori 
Washington,  and  (iitt  October)  Concentrated  his  army  near 
While  Plains.  His  right  rested  on  the  Bronx  river  here,  and 
there  was  a  small  force  in  rude  earthworks  on  Chatlerton's  Hill 
on  tbe  W.  hank.  This  point  Howe  atlacked  (October  iSlh), 
his  troops  advancing  in  two  columns  4000  strong,  the  Britidt 
under  General  Aleiander  Leslie,  the  Hessians  under  Colonel 
Johann  (wltlieb  Rail,  General  Aleiander  McDougsU,  in  tom- 
oiand  of  the  American  tight  wing,  reinforced  tbe  troops  on  the 
bill,  making  the  number  of  the  defenders  about  iCioo,  The 
attack  w»  stubbornly  resisted  for  lome  time,  after  which  the 
Americans  retreated  in  good  order  across  the  rivet.    The  British 

was  made  to  follow  the  Americans,  who  carried  their  dead  and 
wounded,  some  135  in  numba,away  with  them,  Washington's 
forces  retired  three  days  later  to  North  Castle  township,  wbere 
they  occupied  a  stronger  position.  The  old  Miller  House,  which 
sUU  stands  io  North  White  Plains,  was  occupied  at  intervali 
by  W^bington  as  his  heaiiquartos  before  the  battle  and  again 
in  thesummetof  1778.  In  1 779  a  Contlnenul  force  under  Aaron 
Burr  was  stationed  here  foe  some  months,  and  in  1781  (July) 
White  Plaint  was  occupied  by  parts  of  Iduzun'a  and  Kocham- 
beau's  French  force.  In  r866  White  Plains  received  a  village 
charter,  which  it  still  retains  in  sptte  of  its  large  populatioru 

See  F.  Shonnard  and  W.  W.  &xiDDer,  Hiilary  of  ICukkrJlcr  CoaiUy 
(N.V..  1900).  and  J.  T.  Scharf,  BUItryif  WnUlmIn  ComXy  (a  voli, 
ibid.,  iSU], 

WHITSSIDE.  laaa  (rSa«-i87«),  Irish  judge,  son  of  William 
Whiteside,  a  clergyman  of  the  tjhurcfa  of  Ireland,  was  bom  on 
the  iiih  of  Augu:A  1SD4,  and  waa  educated  at  Trinity  Ccdiege, 
Dublin,  being  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  iSjo.  He  very  rapidly 
acquimj  a  large  practice,  and  after  iaking  silk  in  1&43  he  gained 
a  reputation  for  forensic  oratory  surpassing  that  of  all  his  con. 
temporaries,  and  rivalling  that  of  his  most  famous  predecessor* 
of  the  I  Slh  century.  He  defended  Daniel  O'Connell  in  the  state 
trial  of  rS4j,  and  William  Smith  O'Brien  in  r84B;  and  his 
greatest  triumph  was  in  the  Yetverton  caie  In  j*6i.  He  waa 
elected  member  for  Ennlskiilen  ia  1851,  and  in  1S59,  became 
member  for  Dublin  University, .  In  parliameol  he  wis  no  lest 
sucttisfulasa  speaker  than  at  the  bar,  and  in  rSsi  was  appoioted 
(oUdtor-geneial  for  Ireland  la  tbe  £rs(  admlnisttatioD  of  tbe 
earl  of  Derby,  becoming  sttomry-general  in  rSjS,  and  affiin  In 
In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  cbiej  justice  of  the 
Queen's  Bench;  and  he  died  im  the  15th  of  November 
1S76.  Whiteside  was  ■  man  of  handsome  ptncoce,  attlactivc 
personality  and  cultivated  taste*.  In  ^i^t^  after  a  vnil  to  Italy,' 
he  published  /(nfy  in  lit  IHnMtHa  Cenlnry;  and  in  1S70  hff 
collected  and  republished  some  paper*  contributed  many  years 
'to  pcriodicab.  under  (he  fhk  E*^  SkHtku  ^  Biiatnml 
•u.    In  iSu   Wbitf^tk  m«nisd   Rotttla,  rtaughtet  ol 


6o8 


WHTTETHROAT— WHITGIFT 


Wniiam  VtupSiat,  and  sstcr  of  Sir  Joseph  N^ier  (1804-1882), 
lord  chanoellor  of  Irdaod. 
See  J.  R.  O'Flanagan,  71»  Irish  Bar  (London,  1879):^ 
WHlTBrHROAT,  a  name  commonly  given  to  two.  specie^  of 
little  birds,  one  of  which,  the  Motaeilta  syhia  of  Linnaeus  and 
Syhia  mja  or  5.  tAiufta  of  recent  authors,  is  regarded  as  the  type, 
not  only  of  the  genus  S^tia^  but  of  the  sub-family  of  thrushes 
known  as  S'yhiinae  (cf.  Wakbler).  -  Very  widely  spread  over 
Great  Britun,  in  some  places  tolerably  common,  and  by  its 
gesticulations  and  song  rather  conspicuous,  it  is  one  of  those  birds 
Which  have  gained  a  familiar  nickname,  and  "  peggy  whitethroat " 
is  the  anthropomorphic  appellation  of  schoolboys  and  milkmaids, 
though  it  shares  **  nettle^reeper "  and  other  homely  names 
jrith  perhaps  more  than  one  congener,  while  to  the  writers  and 
readers  of  books  it  is  by  way  of  distinction  the  greater  white- 
throat.  The  ksser  whitethroat,  Syltia  cunuca^  is  both  in  habits 
and  plumage  a  much  less  sightly  bird:  the  predominant  reddish 
brown  of  the  upper  surface,  and  especially  the  rufous  edging  of 
the  wing-'feathers,  that  are  so  distinctive  of  its  larger  congener, 
are  wanting,  and  the  whole  plumage  above  Is  of  a  smoky-grey, 
while  the  bird  in  its  movements  is  never  obtrusive^  and  it  rather 
shuns  than  courts  observation.  The  nests  of  each  of  these 
species  are  very  pretty  works  of  art,  firmly  built  of  bents  or  other 
plant-stalks,  and  usually  lined  with  horsehair;  but  the  sides 
and  bottom  are  often  so  finely  woven  as  to  be  like  open  basket- 
work,  and  the  eggs,  si^ashed,  spotted  or  streaked  with  olive- 
brown,  are  frequently  visible  from  beneath  through  the  interstices 
of  the  fabric.  This  style  of  nest-building  seems  to  be  common 
to  all  the  species  of  the  genus  Syhia,  as  now  restricted,  and  in 
many  districts  has  obUuncd  for  the  builders  the  name  of  "  hay- 
jack/'  quite  without  reference  to  the  kind  of  bird  which  puts 
the  nests  together,  and  thus  is  also  applied  to  the  blackcap, 
S.  atricapiUa,  and  the  garden-warbler—this  last  being  merely  a 
book-name-7-^.  salkaria  (S.  kortensis  of  some  writers).  The 
former  of  these  deserves  mention  as  one  of  the  sweetest  songsters 
of  Great  Britain.  The  name  blackcap  is  applicable  only  to  the 
cock  bird,  who  further  differs  from  Us  brown-capped  mate  by 
the  purity  of  his  ashy-grey  upper  plumage;  but,  notwithstanding 
the  marked  sexual  difference  in  ai^)earance,  he  takes  on  himself 
a  considerable  share  of  the  duties  of  incubation.  All  these  four 
birds,  as  a  rule,  leave  Great  Britain  at  the  eoA.  €ii  summer  to 
winter  in  the  south.  Two  other  spedes,  one  certainly  belonging 
to  the  same  genus,  S.  arpkea,  and  the  other,  S.  nisoria^  a  some- 
what aberrant  form,  have  occurred  two  or  three  times  in  Great 
Britain.  The  curious  Dartford  warbler  of  English  writers, 
Syhia  wtdatat  is  on  many  accounts  a  very  interesting  bird,  for 
it  is  one  of  the  few  of  its  family  that  winter  in  England— a  fact 
the  more  remarkable  when  it  is  known  to  be  migratory  in  most 
parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  Its  distribution  in  England  is 
very  local,  and  chiefly  confined  to  the  southern  counties.  It  is 
a  pretty  little  dark-coloured  bird,  which  here  and  there  may  be 
seen  on  furse-grown  heaths  from  Kent  to  Cornwall.  For  a 
species  with  wings  so  feebly  formed  it  has  a  wide  range,  inhabiting 
nearly. all  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean  seaboard,  from 
Palestine  to  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  thence  along  the  west 
coast  of  Europe  to  the  English  ^Channel;  but  evecywhete  else 
it  seems  to  be  very  local.' 

*  Thb  may  be  the  mcwt  convemerTt  "place  for  noticing  the  small 
group  of  warblers  belonging  to  the  well-marked  genus  Hypelaut 
which,  though  in  Kenerafappearance  and  certain  habits  resembling 
the  Pkyltoscopi  (cf.  [willow]  wr£n),  would  seem  usually  to  have  little 
to  do  with  those  birds,  and  to  be  rather  allied  to  the  S^viinae. 
They  have  a  remarkably  loud  song,  and  in  consequence  are  highly 
valued  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  where  two  species  at  least  spend 
the  summer.  One  of  them,  H.  icterina,  has  occurred  more  than  once 
in  the  British  Islands,  and  their  absence  as  regular  visitors  is  to  be 
r^retted.  Among  the  minor  characteristics  of  this  little  group  is  one 
afforded  by  their  esgs,  which  are  of  a  deeper  or  pder  brownish  pink, 
spotted  with  purplish  blade.  Their  nests  are  beautiful  structures, 
combining  warmth  with  liehtness  in  a  way  that  cannot  be  fully 
appreciated  by  any  description.  .  (A.  N.) 

WHITFIBtD.  JOHN  CLARKE  (177^x836),  Enfl^  organist 
and  composer*  waa  bom  at  Gloucester  00  the  13th  of  December 
i77o»  and  educated  at  Oiford  under  Dr  Philip  Hayas.  In  1789 


he  was  appointed  crgaaist  of  t&e  paiUb  dnacth  at  Lodlow 
Four  years  Uter  he  took  the  degree  of  Mus.  Bac.  at  Cambridge, 
and  in  1795  he  waa  chosen  oxganiat  of  Armagh  cathedral,  whence 
he  removed  in  the  same  year  to  Dublin,  with  the  appointments 
of  organist  and  master  of  the  children  at  St  Patrick's  cathedral 
and  Christchurch.  Driven  from  Ireland  by  the  rebellion  of  1798, 
he  accepted  the  post  of  organist  at  Trinity  and  St  John's  Colleges, 
Cambridge,  and  about  the  same  time  assumed  the  surname  of 
Whitfield,  in  addition  to  that  of  Clarke,  by  which  he  had  been 
previously  known.  He  took  the  degreeof  Mus.  Doc.  at  Cambridge 
in  X799,  and  in  x8io  proceeded  to  the  same  grade  at  Oxford. 
In  1820  he  was  elected  organist  and  master  of  the  choristers 
at  Hereford  cathedral;  and  on  the  death  of  Dr  Haig  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  music  at  Cambridge.  Three  years  after- 
wards  he  resigned  these  appointments  in  consequence  of  an 
attack  of  paralysis.  He  died  at  Hereford,,  on  the  aznd  of 
February  1836. 

Whitfield's  compositions'were  very  numerous."  Among  the  best 
of  them  are  four  volumes  of  anthems,  published  in  1805.  He  also 
composed  a  great  number  of  songs,  one  of  which — "  Bird  of  the 
Wilderness,"  written  to  some  wclt-known  verses  by  James  H(wg,  the 
"  Ettrick  Shepherd  " — attained  a  high  degree  of  popularity.  But  the 
great  work  of  nis  life  was  the  publication,  in  a  popular  and  eminently 
useful  form,  of  the  oratorios  of  Handel,  which  he  was  the  fint  to 
present  to  the  public  with  a  complete  pianoforte  accompaniment. 

WHITGIPT,  JOHN  (c.  i55(>-l6o4),  English  archbishop,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Henry  Whitgift,  merchant  of  Great  Grimsby, 
linoolnshite,  where  he  was  born,  according  to  one  account  in 
xS33t  hut  according  to  a  calculation  founded  on  a  statement  of 
his  own  in  1530.  At  an  early  age  his  education  was  entrusted 
to  his  uncle,  Robert  Whitgift,  abbot  of  the  neighbouring  OMaias- 
tery  of  WeUow,  by  whose  advice  he  was  afterwards  seat  to  St 
Anthony's  school,  London.  In  1549  he  matriculated  at  Queens' 
Collie,  Cambridge,  and  in  May  1550  he  migrated  to  Peinbroike 
Hall,  where  he  had  the  martyr  John  Bradford  for  a  tutor.  la 
^&y  XS55  he  became  a  fellow  of  Peterhouse.  Having  taken 
orders  in  1560,  he  became  in  the  same  year  chaplain  to  Riduud 
Cox,  bishop  of  Ely,  who  collated  him  to  the  rectory  of  Teveisham^ 
CambridgeshircL  In  1563  he  was  appointed  Lady  ifaigaret 
professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  and  his  lectures  gave  such 
satisfaction  to  the  authorities  that  on  the  5th  of  July  1566  they 
considerably  augmented  his  stipend.  The  following  year  he  was 
appointed  regius  professor  of  divinity,  and  also  became  master 
first  of  Pembroke  Hall  and  then  of  Trinity.  He.  had  a  principal 
share  in  compiling  the  statutes  of  the  university,  which  passed  the 
great  seal  on  the  35th  of  September  1570,  and  in  November 
f<Jlowing  he  was  chosen  vicc-chancdlor.  Macaulay's  description 
of  Whitgift  as  "  a  narrow,  mean,  tyrannical  priest,  who  gained 
power  by  servility  and  adulation,"  is  tinged  with  rhetorical 
exaggeration;  but  undoubtedly  Whitgift 's  extreme  Hi^  Church 
notions  led  him  to  treat  the  Puritans  with  exceptional  intoler- 
ance. In  a  pulpit  controversy  with  Thomas  Cartwri^t,  regard* 
iog  the  constitutions  and  customs  of  the  Church  cf  England,  he 
showed  himself  Cartwiight's  inferior  in  oratorical  effectiveness, 
but  the  balance  was  redressed  by  the  exercise  of  arbittaiy 
authority.  Whitgift ,  with  other  heads  of  the  university,  deprived 
Cart  Wright  in  2570  of  his  professorship,  and  in  S^tember  1571 
exercised  his  prerogative  as  master  of  Trinity  to  deprive  him  of 
his  fellowship.  In  June  of  the  same  year  Whitgift  was  nominated 
dean  of  Lincoln.  In  the  following  year  he  published  An  Answer0 
to  a  Certain  Libel  intituled  an  Admonition  to  the  ParUcmetii; 
which  led  to  further  oontrover^  between  the  two  divines.  On 
the  S4th  of  March  2577,  Whitgift  was  appointed  bishop  01 
Worcester,  and  during  the  absence  of  Sir  Henry  Sidney  in  Iidancl 
(1577)  he  acted  as  vice-president  of  Wales.  In  August  1583 
he  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  thus  waa 
largely  instrumental  in  giving  its  special  complexion  to  the  church 
of  the  Reformation.  Although  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Queen 
Elizabeth  remonstrating  against  the  alienation  of  church  pro- 
perty, Whitgift  always  retained  her  special  confidence.  In  his 
policy  against  the  Puritans,  and  in  his  vigorous  enforcement  of 
the  subscription  test,  he  thoroughly  cacried  out  the  queen's 
policy  of  reUgbous  uniformity.    He  drew  up  articles  aimed  at 


WHITHORN— WHITMAN,  M. 


609 


nonconformiAg  ministcts,  and  obtained  increased  powers  for  tlie 
Court  of  High  Commission.  In  1 586  he  became  a  privy  councillor. 
His  action  gave  rise  to  the  Marprelate  tracts,  in  which  the  bishops 
and  clergy  were  bitterly  attacked.  Through  Whitgift's  vigilance 
the  printers  of  the  tracts  were,  however,  discovered  and  punished ; 
and  in  order  more  effectually  to  check  the  publication  of  such 
opinions  he  got  a  law  passed  in  1595  making  Puritanism  an 
offence  against  the  statute  law.  In  the  controversy  between 
Walter  Travers  and  Richard  Hooker  he  interposed  by  prohibiting 
the  preaching  of  the  former;  and  he  moreover  presented  Hooker 
with  the  rectory  of  Boso>nibe  in  Wiltshire,  in  order  to  afford  him 
more  leisure  to  complete  his  Ecdesuulical  Polity,  a  work  which, 
however,  cannot  be  said  to  represent  either  Whitgift's  theological 
or  his  ecclesiastical  standpoint.  In  1595  he,  in  conjunction  with 
the  bishop  of  London  and  other  prelates,  drew  up  the  Calvinistic 
instrument  known  as  the  Lambeth  Articles,  which  were  not 
accepted  by  the  church.  Whitgift  attended  EUzabieth  on  her 
deathbed,  aiul  crowned  James  I.  He  waspresent  at  the  Hampton 
Court  Conference  in  January  1604,  and  died  at  Lambeth  on  the 
a9th  of  the  following  February.  .  He  ws^  buried  in  the  churdi  of 
Croydon,  and  bis  monument  there  with  his  recumbent  effigy 
was  in  great  part  destroyed  in  the  fire  by  which  the  church  was 
burnt  down  in  1867. 

Whitgift  is  described  by  his  biogra(»her,  Sir  G.  Paule,  as  of  "  middle 
stature,  scronff  and  well  shaped,  of  a  grave  countenance  and  brawn 
complexion,  black  hair  and  eyes,  his  Beard  neither  long  nor  thick." 
He  was  noted  for  his  hospitatity,  and  was  somewhat  ostentatious  in 
his  habits,  sometimes  visiting  Canterbury  and  other  towns  attended 
by  a  retinue  of  Qoo  horsemen.  '  He  left  several  unpublished  works, 
which  are  included  among  the  MSS.  Angliae.  Many  of  his  letters, 
articles,  injunctions,  &c.  are  calendared  in  the  pubHsned  volumes  of 
the  "  State  Paper  "  series  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth;  His  Collected 
Works,  edited  for  the  Parker  Society  by  John  Ayre  (3  vols..Cambridgc, 
1851-1853),  include,  besides  the  controversial  tracts  already  alluocd 
to,  two  sermons  publi.shed  during  his  lifetime,  a  selection  from  his 
letters  to  Cecil  and  others,  and  some  portions  of  his  unpublished  fASS. 

A  Lf/»of  Whitgift  by  Sir  G.  Paule  appeared  in  1612,  and  ed.  1640. 
ItwMembodiedbYJonnStrvptintiis  Life  and  Acts  of  Whitgift  (1718). 
There  is  alsoa  life  m  C.  Wordsworth's  Ecciesiastkal  Biography  (1810}, 
W.  F.  Hook's  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  (1875),  and  vol.  i.  of  Whit- 
gift's CotfecArd  Works*  See alsoC.H.Cooptr't AthenaeCantabrigienses. 

WHITHORN,  a  royal  burgh  of  Wigtownshire,  Scotland. 
Pop.  (1901)  XI  [8.  It  is  situated  near  the  southern' extremity 
of  the  peninsula  of  Machers,  i2\  m.  S.  of  Wigtown  by  railway. 
The  town  consists  of  one  long  street  running  north  and  south, 
in  which  the  town-hall  is  situated.  It  is  famous  for  its  associa- 
tions with  St  Ninian  or  Ringan,  the  first  Christian  missionary 
to  Scotland.  He  landed  at  the  Isle  of  Whithorn,  a  small  pro- 
montory about  3i  m.  to  the  S.E.  where  he  built  (397)  a  church 
of  stone  and  lime,  which,  out  of  contrast  with  the  dark  mud  and 
wattle  huts  of  the  natives,  was  called  Candida  Casa,  the  White 
House  (AnglpTSaxon,  HtoU  earnt  Whitheme  or  Whithorn).  This 
he  dedicated  to  his  master  St  Martin  of  Tours.  Ninian  died 
probably  in  432  and  was  buried  in  the  church.  A  hundred  years 
later  the  Magnum  Motuisterium,  or  monastery  of  Rosnat,  was 
founded  at  Whithorn,  and  became  a  noted  home  of  learning 
and,  in  the  8th  century,  the  seat  of  the  bishopric  of  Galloway. 
It  was  succeeded  in  the  zsth  century  by  St  Ninian's  Priory,  built 
for  Premonstratensian  monks  by  Fergus  "  King  "  of  Galloway, 
of  which  only  the  chancel  (used  as  the  parish  church  till  1822) 
with  a  richly  decorated  late  Norman  doorway,  and  fragments 
of  the  lady  chapel,  vaults,  cellars,  buttresses  and  tombs  remain. 
The  priory  church  was  the  cathedral  churcK  of  the  see  till  the 
Reformation,  when  it  fell  into  gradual  decay.  In  Roman  times 
Whithorn  belonged  to  the  Novantae,  and  William  Camden,  the 
antiquary,  identified  it  with  the  Leukopibia  of  Ptolemy.  It 
was  made  a  rc^al  burgh  by  Robert  Bruce. 

WHITIKQ,  a  city  of  Lake  county,  Indiana,  U.S.A.,  on  the 
S.W.  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  about  xo  m.  S.E.  Of  Chicago. 
Pop.  (1890)  Z408;  (X900)  3983  (1597  foreign-bom);  (X9X0)  6587. 
Ills  served  6y  the  B^timore  &  Ohio,  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan 
Southern,  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Chicago,  Indiana  &  Southern 
and  (for  freight  only)  the  Elgm,  JoKet  &  Eastern,  the 
Chicago  Terminal  Transfer,  and  the  Indiana  Harbour  Belt  rail- 
way»;  and  ia  connected  with  Chicago  and  with  the  surrounding  I 


towns  by  an  electric  line.  Thft  city  has  a  Carnegie  library  and 
a  public  park.  Manual  training,  from  the  fourth  to  the  twelfth 
grades,  is  a  feature  of  the  public  school  system.  Whiting  adjoins 
the  cities  of  Hammond  and  East  Chicago,  and  is  practically  a 
part  of  industrial  Chicago,  from  which  it  is  separated  only  by  a 
state  line.'  It  is  a  shipping  point;  the  Standard  Oil  Company 
ha$  a  la^ge  refinery  here,  and  among  its  manufactures  arc 
asphidtum  for  street-  paying,  linoleum  and  men's  garments. 
Whiting  was  first  settled  about  X870,  was  incorporated  as  a  town 
in  1895,  and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1903. 

WHITING  iPadus  merlangus)^  a  fish  of  the  family  Cadida4, 
which  is  abundant  on  the  shores  of  the  German  Ocean- and  all 
round  the  coasts  of  the  JBritish  Islands;  it  is  distinguished  from 
the  other  q>ecies  of  the  genus  by  having  /rom  33  to  35  rays  in 
the  first  anal  fin,  and  by  lacking  the  barbel  on  the  chin.  The 
snout  is  long,  and  the  upper  jaw  longer  than  the  lower.  A  black 
spot  at  the  root  of  the  peaoral  fin  is  also  very  characteristic  of 
this  species,  and  but.  rarely  absent.  The  whiting  is  oiie  of  the 
most  valuable  food  fishes  of  northern  Europe,  and  is  caught 
throughout  the  year  by  hook  and  line  and  by  the  trawl.  It 
is  in  better  condition  at  the  beginning  of  winter  than  after  the 
spawning  season,  which  falls  in  the  months  of  February  and 
March.  Its  usual  size  is  from  x  to  i)  lb,  but  it  may  attain  ttf 
twice  that  weight. 

WHITLOW,  a  name  applied  loosely  to  any  inflammation 
involving  the  pulp  of  the  finger,  attended  by  swelling  and 
throbbing  pain.  In  the  simplest  form,  which  is  apt  to  occur  in 
sickly  children,  the  inflammation  results  in  a  whitish  vesicle  of 
the  skin,  containing  watery  or  bloody  fluid.  In  all  such  cases, 
where  the  deeper  structures  are  not  implicated,  no  radical  local 
treatment  is  needed,  although  the  illness  is  an  indication  for 
constitutional  treatment.  The  inflammation  is  not  usually 
spoken  of  as  whitlow  unless  it  involves  the  deeper  structures 
of  the  last  joint  of  the  finger,  in  which  case  it  is  associated  with 
intense  pain.  As  the  result  of  a  scratch  or  prick  of  the  finger 
septic  germs  enter  the  skin  and  give  rise  to  an  acute  inflammation^ 
with  throbbing  and  bursting  pain.  I(  the  germs  do  not  spread 
from  that  spot,  they  set  up  an  acute  localized  attack  of  erysipelas 
which  may  end  in  &  superficial  abscess.  More  often,  however, 
they  make  their  way  to  the  periosteum  of  the  last  bone  of  the 
finger,  and  involve  it  in  a  devastating  inflammation  which  may 
end  in  death  (necrosis)  of  that  bone.  Sometimes  the  germs  find 
their  way  into  the  tendon-sheath,  and,  spreading  into  the  palm 
of  the  hand,  cause  a  deep  abscess  with,  perhaps,  sloughing  of 
the  tendon,  and  leaving  a  permanently  stiffened  finger.  In  some 
cases  amputation  of  the  finger  is  eventually  .called  for.  Wbitk>w 
ia  espedaUy  apt  to  occur  in  people  who  are  out  of  health,  as  in 
them  the  micro-organisms  of  the  disease  meet  with  less  resistance. 
So  soon,  therefore,  as  the  acute  stage  of  the  disease  is  over,  tonic 
treatment,  with  quinine  and  iron,  is  needed.  The  local  treatment 
of  whitlow  demands  a  free  incision  into  the  area  in  which  the 
germs  are  undergoing  cultivation,  and  the  sooner  that  this 
is  done  the  better.  It  is  wrong  to  wait  for  an  abscess  to  be 
formed.  A  prompt  incision  may  actually  prevent  the  formation 
of  abscess,  and  the  easing  of  the  tension  of  the  inflamed  tissue  by 
the  incision  gives  immediate  relief.  Perhaps,  even  in  the  early 
stage  of  the  disease,  a  bead  or  two  of  pus  may  find  exit,  but 
whether  there  is  abscess  or  not,  the  depths  of  the  wound 
diottld  be  swabbed  out  with  some  strong  carbolic  or  mercuric 
lotion  in  order  to  destroy  the  germs.  The  hand  should  then 
be  placed  upon  a  splint  with  antiseptic  fomentations  around 
the  finger.  It  should,  moreover,  be  kept  well  raised,  or  worn 
in  a  sUng.  (E.  O.*) 

WHITMAN.  MARCUS  (x8o8-z847),  American  missionary 
and  pioneer,  was  bom  at  Rushville,  New  York,  on  the  4th  of 
September  iSoa.  He  studied  medicine,  at  Pittsfield,  Massachur 
setts,  and  practised  in  Canada  and  in  Wheeler,  Steuben  county, 
New  York.  In  1834  he  was  accepted  by  the  American  Board  ci 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  for  missbnary  work  among 
the  American  Indians,  and  was  assigned  to  the  Oregon  territory, 
then  under  the  joint  occupation  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  He  set  out  early  in  1835,  but  retiuned  almost  immediate^ 


WHITMAN,  WALT 


Rev,  uid  Mn  H,  H.  Spilding  uul  W.  H.  Gray,  uid  settled  u 
WiiilMpu,  nur  the  present  Wslli  Walls.  Washiaslon.  Dis- 
tensions which  u«c  aniDag  the  nusiioiiuiei  and  Ibeir  ipparenl 
luk  or  luoxu  led  to  1  nululiOD  (Febnuuy  1(141)  of  Ibe  Ptu- 
dential  Committee  of  the  Board  to  abjmdaD  the  southerti  sEptiOD- 
Wtlh  the  conscnl  ol  his  uuciates,  Dr  Whitman  slaned  (lom  the 
iUlloD  (3rd  October  1S41}  on  Ihe  perilous  winler  Jourwy  ovi 
the  Rocky  Hounlains  and  aaoss  the  plains  (01  the  misatonai 
beadquarten  at  B<»ton,  10  urge  the  revocation  of  the  otde 
He  visited  New  York  lod  Wubinilon  abo  to  eniist  help  an 
lympalh]'.  On  hia  Tetum  jouniey  "be  joined  >  considerab 
body  of  emigranls  on  theii  way  to  Oregon  and  [riloted  Ibci 
■cross  the  moDnlain*.  The  mission,  however,  gained  Ihe  Ul-wi 
of  the  Indians,  and,  on  the  19th  of  October  1847  Dr  and  Mi 
n  and  twelve  othen  were  killed,  and  the  station  wi 


Onih.       ■ 


IfaofNovi 


S41he« 


•Ulhotily  of  Mr  ^Idirg.  Ihil  lbs  piupoie  1 
twcmy-iwD  yean  ufon,  wu  id  pccveni  the  1 


m  iKEred'llai  Wb"^ 


I, '  iHb- 1  S»8>V  E.  G'  BoL" 


UT.  WALT  (1819-1891),  American  poet,  was  bom  at 
West  Hills,  on  Long  Island,  New  York,  on  Ihe  31st  of  May  1819. 
His  ancestry  was  mingled  English  and  Holland  Dutch,  and  had 
flourished  upon  Long  IsUnd  raar«  than  ijo  years— long  enough 
to  hav«  taken  de«p  root  In  the  toil  and  to  have  developed,  bi  its 
■        -    ■  ™g  family       '        - 


lather,   Waller  Whit  ma 


T  and  carpenter;  his 


r,  iru  the  graoddaughtet  of 
captain.  There  do  not  appeal  10  be  any  men  In  his  line  of 
descent  given  10  scholarly  or  iotdkctua]  purMiita  tjll  we  get 
back  to  the  i;th  century,  when  we  come  to  Abijah  Whitman, 
a  clergyman,  settled  in  Connecticut.  -Later  this  Abijah  moved 
lo  Long  Island,  and  from  him  all  the  Whitmans  on  the  island 
descended.  Walt  was  the  second  of  a  family  of  nine  children. 
The  parents  early  moved  to  Brooklyn,  where  Whitman  spent  his 
youth.  His  career  wat  a  chequered  one,  like  that  of  so  many 
other  lelf-made  Amerlran  men.  First  he  waa  an  errand  boy  in 
a  lawyer's  office;  then  he  was  employed  in  a  printing  office; 
RFIt  he  became  a  country  school  teacher;  he  founded  (iSjG) 
and  till  1839  edited  the  Lent  'iJa"^  at  Huntington,  and 
bter  edited  a  daDy  paper  in  BrtxAlyn  (the  Ba^,  i&^b-iitJ): 
then  he  wai  found  in  New  Oiteans,  on  the  editorial  tlaff  of  tha 
CracenI  (1848-1S49);  aJletwards  he  passed  hb  lime  carpentering, 
building  and  s^ng  uuill  bouses  in  BiooUyn  (i85i-i8;4), 
tn  tfie  meanwhile  writing  for  the  magazines  and  reviews  and 
tuning  out  several  novels,  and  finally  revolving  in  his  mind  the 
scheme  of  his  Lcrvcl  of  Crcii.  This  scheme  was  probably 
gestaling  in  his  mind  during  the  years  1853,  18S4  and  iSsJ. 
He  frequently  stopped  his  carpentering  lo  work  >t  bis  poems. 
He  left  voluminous  manuscript  notes,  showing  the  preparatory 
studies  and  reflections  that  preceded  the  Ltaxi;  many  of  them, 
ander  the  title  ol  Wofci  and  Fraimtnls,  were  privately  printed 
by  his  literary  eiecutot,  Di  Richard  Maurice  Buckt,  in  1899. 
TInaDy,  in  the  aummer  of  iljs  the  finrt  edilkin  ol  £«Ht  0/ 


GrdR ■ppcired-~asmillqnuta of niMty-fmiTptRei.  Tbtbook 
did  not  attract  the  attention  c4  the  critics  and  the  reading 
public  till  1  letter  liom  EmersonloIbepoe1,inwhichtbe  volume 
was  characterized  as  "  the  most  extraordinary  piece  of  wit  and 
wisdom  that  America  has  yet  contributed,"  was  publiibed  in 
the  New  York  Tnlmni.  This  created  a  demand  for  Ihe  book, 
and  started  it  upon  a  career  thai  has  probably  had  more  vidsti- 
tudes  and  called  forth  tnore  adverse  as  well  as  more  eulogistic 
criticiarn  tban  any  other  contemporary  literary  work.  In  1836 
a  second  and  much  enlarged  edition  of  Leotes  tf  Grass  a[^Kared- 
In  1S60  a  third  edition,  with  much  new  matter,  was  published 
in  Botlon.  In  186)  Whitman  went  to  Washington  10  look  after 
his  brother.  Lieutenant -Colond  George  W.  Whitman,  1*0  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Fredeticksburg.  Henceforth,  for  more 
than  ten  years  he  remained  in  and  about  Washuigton,  aclmg  at 
a  volunteer  nurse  in  the  army  hospitals  as  long  as  the  war  lasted, 
and  longer,  and  then  finding  employment  as  a  clerk  in  the 
government  tlepartments,  in  the  meantime  adding  to  and  revising 
his  Lrata  and  publiihlng  two  or  three  editions  of  them,  himself 
his  own  publisher  and  bookseller.  Out  ol  his  war  eiperiences 
came  in  1866  his  Dnm  Tapt,  subsequently  incorporated  into  Ihe 
main  volume.  Early  in  1873  he  suffered  a  patnlylic  stroke  which 
partially  disabled  him.  He  then  went  10  Camden,  New  Jersey. 
to  live  and  continued  to  itslde  in  that  diy  till  his  death  on  the 
i;ih  of  Iilarch  1S9S.  In  1871  appeared  his  prose  voliune  called 
Dimacralic  Viilai.  In  1S76  be  published  a  thin  volume,  called 
Tvo  RkfuItU,  made  up  of  prose  and  vent.  Sfaimtn  Dayt  ami 
CdlHl,  also  prose,  appeared  in  1881.  New  edillont  ct  his  Leant 
continued  lo  appear  at  intervals  as  long  as  he  lived.  A  final  and 
com[^ie  edition  of  his  works,  including  both  prose  and  verse, 
was  published  in  Philadelphia  in  18S9. 

Whitman  never  married,  never  left  America,  never  laid  up, 
or  aimed  to  lay  up,  riches:  he  gave  hit  time  and  bii  substance 
freely  10  others,  belonged  to  no  club  nor  coterie,  associated 
habitually  with  the  common  people— mechanics,  coach-iiiveta, 
working  men  of  all  kinds— wot  always  cheerful  and  optimiatic 
He  vfas  large  and  picturesque  of  figure,  slow  ol  movement, 
tolerant,  receptive,  democratic  and  full  of  charity  and  goodwill 
towards  all.  His  life  was  a  poet's  life  from  first  to  last — free, 
unworldly,  unhurried,  unconventional,  unselfish,  and  was  con- 
tentedly and  joyoiuly  lived.  He  left  many  notes  that  tbrow 
light  upon  his  aims  and  methods  in  compoung  leoKi  af  Cnut. 
"  Make  no  quotations,"  be  charged  himself.  "  and  no  reference 
lo  any  other  writers.  Lumber  Ihe  writing  wilb  nothing— let  it 
go  as  lightly  as  the  bird  files  in  the  air  or  1  fish  swims  in  the  tea. 
Avoid  all  poetical  similes;  be  faithful  10  the  perfect  hkelihoods 
of  lutuie — healthy,  eiact,  simple,  disdaining  ornaments.  Do 
not  go  into  criticisms  or  atgumentt  at  all;  make  full-blooded, 
rich,  flush,  natural  woiks.  Insert  natunl  things,  indeairuciibles, 
idioms,  characleristics,  rivers,  nates,  persons,  Sc  Be  full  of 
strong  jtnnai  icrms.  .  .  .  Poet  I  beware  lest  your  poems  ar* 
'   bi  the  spirit  that  co 


n  the  c. 


real  things  ihemselvea."    The  molher-idea  ,  ,    .. 

says,  Is  democracy,  and  democracy  "  carried  far  beyond  poKlict 
into  the  region  ol  taste,  the  lUndards  ol  manners  and  beauty, 
and  even  into  philosophy  and  theology."  His  teowi  cenitnly 
tidiilei  democracy  as  no  other  modem  literary  wotk  doea, 
and  brings  the  reader  into  intimate  and  enlarged  relations  with 
fundamental  human  qualities— with  sei,  manly  love,  charily, 
futh,  self-esteem,  candour,  purity  of  body,  sinily  of  mind.     He 

lemocratic  because  he  wna  not  in  any  way  teparaicd  nor 
detached  from  the  common  people  by  his  quality,  his  culture,  or 

pirations.    He  was  bone  of  their  bone  and  flesh  of  their 
Tried  by  current  tlandards  his  poems  ItcJi  fotm  and 

ure,  but  tbey  undoubtedly  have  in  lull  measure  the  tpialitin 

leriu  that  the  poet  sought  lo  ^ve  Ihem.  0-  Bd.) 

_._  his  Cems*rU  Wrianti  (10 vol>..>Iew  York.  rooi).  iHlh  bibllo. 
graphiealandcritical  mancibyO.  L.Trigga.  Hb Fmu (lou) ha* 
■  bioKraphical  innodvciion  w  John  Burroughs,  whose  wkilnun: 
A  .Sliuly  (Boston.  1896)  lormi  Ihe  tenth  volume  of  the  "  New  River- 

Canada.  wM  BMntUfivm  mkir  if  kit  Diatia  titS  LOmry  ffsMaMb 


WHITNEY,  B.— WHITNEY,  W.  D. 


6ii 


fBMlon.  1904)  edited  by  W.  S.  Kennedy;  In  n  WaU  Whitman 
(Philadelphia,  1893)  edited  by  his  literary  executors,  H.  L.  Traubel, 
R.  M.  Bucke,  T.  B.  Harned;  Horace  Traubd.  With  WaU  Wkilman  in 
Camden  (Boston,  1907)*  a  record  of  talks  in  1888,  full  of  material; 
Bliss  Perry,  Walt  Whitman:  His  Lift  and  Work  (Boston,  1907),  with 
new  material  and  unpublished  letters;  CclamuSt  a  series  ot  letters 
(i86Chi88o)  written  Dy  Whitman  to  a  V/oung  friend"  (Peter 
Doyle),  edited  by  R.  M.  Bucke  (1897),  who  also  wrote  an  authorized 
biography— Tm/  Whitman  (Phihdelphia,  i883)-^which  contains 
contemporary  criticisms  of  Whitman  and  W.  D.  O'Connor's  "  Cjnood 
Gray  Poet"  (1866);  WaU  Whitman  (London,  1893).  a  study  by 

LAddington  Syroonds;  Reminiscences  oj  WaU  Whitman  teitk 
ractijrom  his  Letters  (London,  1806)  by  W.  S.  Kennedy;  H.  B. 
Binns.  Life  of  Walt  Whitman  (New  York,  1906) ;  and  critical  esti- 
mates in  R.  L.  Stevenson's  Famttiar  Studies  cf  Men  and  Books  (1882) ; 
E.  Dowden's  Studies  in  Literature  (1892),  and  in  EU  C.  Stedman's 
Poets  of  .Anteriea,  &c.  A  bibliography  of  writings  on  Whitman  ia 
appended  to  Selections  (Boston,  1898),  edited  by  O.  L.  Triggs. 

WHITNEY*  BU  (1765-1825),  American  inventor,  was  bom  on 
a  far^i  in  Westboro,  Massachusetts,  on  the  8th  of  December  1 765. 
He  exhibited  unusual  mechanical  ability  at  an  early  age  and 
earned  a  considerable  pait  of  his  expenses  at  Yale  College,  where 
he  graduated  in  1792.  He  soon  went  to  Savannah,  Georgia, 
expecting  to  secure  a  position  as  a  teacher,  but  was  disappointed, 
and  accepted  the  invitation  of  Mrs  Nathanael  Greene,  the  widow 
of  the  Revolutionary  general,  to  spend  some  time  on  her  planta- 
tion on  the  Savannah  river,  while  deciding  upon  his  future 
course.  The  construction  by  Whitney  of  several  ingenious 
household  contrivances  led  Mrs  Greene  to  introduce  him  to  some 
gentlemen  who  were  discussing  the  desirability  of  a  machine  to 
separate  the  short  staple  upland  cotton  from  its  seeds,  work 
which  was  then  done  by  hand  at  the  rate  of  a  pound  of  lint  a  day. 
In  a  few  weeks  Wlutney  produced  a  model,  consisting  of  a  wooden 
cylinder  encircled  by  rows  of  slender  spikes  ict  half  an  inch  apart, 
which  extended  between  the  bars  of  a  grid  set  so  closely  together 
that  the  seeds  could  not  pass,  but  the  lint  was  pulled  through 
by  the  revolving  spikes;  a  revolving  brush  cleaned  the  spikes, 
and  the  seed  fell  into  another  compartment.  The  machine  Was 
worked  by  hand  and  could  clean  50  lb  of  lint  a  day.  The  model 
seems  to  have  been  stolen,  but  another  was  constructed  and  a 
patent  was  granted  on  the  14th  of  March  1794.  Meanwhile 
Whitney  had  formed  a  partnership  with  Phineas  Miller  (who 
afterward  married  Mrs  (jreene),  and  they  built  at  New  Haven, 
Connecticut,  a  factory  (burned  in  March  1795)  for  the  manu- 
facture of  the  gins.  The  partners  intended  to  establish  an 
absolute  monopoly  and  to  charge  a  toll  of  one-third  of  the  cotton 
or  to  buy  the  whole  crop.  They  were  unable  to  supply  the 
demand  for  gins,  and  country  blacksmiths  constructed  many 
machines.  A  patent,  later  annulled,  was  granted  (May  1 2,  z 796) 
to  Hogden  Holmes  for  a  gin  which  substituted  circular  saws  for 
the  spikes.  Whitney  spent  much  time  and  money  prosecuting 
infringements  of  his  patent,  and  in  1807  its  validity  was  finally 
settled.  The  financial  returns  in  Georgia  cannot  be  ascertained. 
The  legislature  of  South  Carolina  voted  $50,000  for  the  rights  for 
that  state,  while  North  Carolina  levied  a  license  tax  for  five  years,* 
from  which  about  $30,000  was  realized.  Tennessee  paid,  perhaps, 
$10,000.*  Meanwhile  Whitney,  disgusted  with  the  struggle, 
began  the  manufacture  of  fire-arms  near  New  Haven  (1798)  and 
secured  profitable  government  contracts;  he  introduced  In  this 
factory  division  of  labour  and  standardized  parts.  Although  the 
modern  gin  has  been  much  enlarged  and  improved,  the  essential 
features  are  the  same  as  in  Whitney's  first  model,  and  the  inven- 
tion profoundly  influenced  American  industrial,  economic  and 
social  history. 

Sec  Denison  Olmsted,  Memoir  (New  Haven,  1846);  D.  A.  Tomp- 
kins. Cotton  and  Cotton  Oil  (Charlotte,  N.C.,  1901) ;  and  W.  P.  Blake. 
"  Sketch  of  Eli  Whitney  "  in  New  Haven  Colony  Historical  Society, 
Papers,  vol.  v.  (New  Haven,  1894). 

WHITNEY,  JOSIAH  DWIGHT  (1819-1896),  American  geolo- 
gist, was  bom  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  on  the  ajrd  of 
November  1819.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1839,  and  after  two 
years'  work  as  assistant  in  the  geological  survey  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, spent  some  time  in  Europe  in  the  study  of  chemistry, 
mineralogy  and  geology.  Returning  to  the  United  States  in 
1847,  he  laboured  lucc^sfully  for  a  lime  in  the  copper  and  iron 
■  D.  A.  Tompkins,  CWtos  (1901).  p.  a8. 


lands  of  the  Lake  Superior  region;  in  1855  he  became  State 
chemist  and  professor  in  the  Iowa  University  and  took  part 
in  the  geok>gical  survey  of  the  state;  he  subsequently  worked  in 
the  lead  region  of  the  upper  Missouri  river,  in  Wisconsin,  and 
in  lUittois,  publishing  many  reports,  singly  or  in  collaboration 
with  others.  From  x86o  to  1874  he  was  state  geologist  of 
California,  and  issued  a  comprehensive  series  of  reports  on  its 
topography,  geology  and  botany.  In  1869,  with  William  R 
Brewer,  he  determined  the  heights  of  the  principal  Rocky 
Mountain  summits;  and  in  recognitioo  <rf  his  labours  Mount 
Whitney  (i4i503,  in  Inyo  county,  Cahfomia,  the  highest  peak  in 
the  United  States)  received  its  name  from  him.  From  1865  until 
his  death  he  was  professor  of  geology  and  director  of  the  school 
of  mining  and  practical  geology  at  Harvard  University,  residing 
in  Cambridge  save  when  absent  on  expeditions  of  research.  The 
records  of  his  investigations  are  somewhat  dispersed;  the  most 
homogeneous  of  his  writings  are  The  Metallic  Waslth  of  Ike 
United  StaleSfdescrihed  -and  compared  with  that  of  other  Coutttriet 
(X854),  a  work  of  importance  at  the  time  of  its  issue,  and  Cm- 
trihutums  to  American  Geology  (vol  i.  only,  1880).  He  died  at 
Lake  Sunapee,  New  Hampshire,  on  the  x8th  of  August  1896. 

WHITNEY.  WILUAH  C0LUN8  (1841-1904),  American 
political  leader  and  financier,  was  bom  at  Conway,  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  1 5th  of  July  184 1 ,  of  Puritan  stock.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  in  1863,  studied  law  at  Harvard,  and  practised  with 
success  in  New  York  City.  He  was  an  aggressive  opponent  of 
the  *'  Tweed  Ring,"  and  was  acUvely  allied  with  the  anti- 
Tammany  organizations,  the  "  Irving  Hail  Democracy  "  of 
1875-1890,  and  the  "  County  Democracy  "  of  1880-1890,  but 
upon  the  dissolution  of  the  latter  he  became  identified  with 
Tammany.  In  187^1882  he  was  corporation  counsel  of  New 
York,  and  as  such  brought  about  a  codification  of  the  laws 
relating  to  the  dty,  and  successfully  contested  a  large  part  of 
certain  claims,  largely  fraudulent,  against  the.  city,  amounting 
to  about  $30,000,000,  and  a  heritage  from  the  IVeed  regime. 
During  President  Cleveland's  first  administration  (1885-1889), 
Whitney  was  secretary  of  the  navy  department  and  did  much 
to  develop  the  navy,  especially  by  encouraging  the  domestic 
manufacture  of  armour  plate.  In  1891  he  was  instrumental  in 
bringing  about  the  third  nomination  of  Mr  Cleveland,  and  took 
an  influential  part  in  the  ensuing  presidential  campaign;  but 
in  1896,  disapproving  of  the  "  free-silver  "  agitation,  he  refused 
to  support  his  party's  candidate,  Mr  W.  J.  fiiyan.  Whitney 
took  an  active  interest  in  the  development  of  urban  transit  in 
New  York,  and  was  one  of  the  oi|;anizers  of  the  Metropolitan 
Street  Railway  Company.  He  was  also  interested  in  horse- 
racing,  and  in  1901  won  the  English  Derby  with  Volodyovski, 
leased  by  him  from  Lady  Meuz.  He  died  in  New  York  City  on 
the  3nd  of  February  1904. 

WHITNEY,  WILUAH  DWIGHT  (1827-1894),  American 
philologist,  was  born  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
9th  of  February  1827.  He  was  the  fourth  child  and  the  second 
surviving  son  of  Josiah  Dwight  Whitney,  a  banker,  and  Sarah 
Williston,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Payson  WiUiston  (i763*i856) 
of  Easthampton,  Mass.,  and  a  sister  of  Samuel  Williston  (1795- 
1874),  founder  of  Williston  Seminary  at  Easthampton.  Through 
both  parents  he  was  descended  from  New  England  stock  remark- 
able alike  for  physical  and  mental  vigour;  and  he  inherited  all 
the  sodal  and  intellectual  advantages  that  were  afforded  by  a 
commum'ty  noted,  in  the  history  ot  New  Enghind,  for  the  large 
number  of  distinguished  men  whom  it  produced  At  the  age  of 
fifteen  (1842)  he  entered  the  sophomore  class  of  Williams  College 
(at  WIlliamstown,Mass.),  where  he  graduated  three  years  later 
with  the  highest  honours.  His  attention  was  at  first  directed  to 
natural  science,  and  his  interest  in  it  always  remained  keen, 
and  his  knowledge  of  its  principles  and  methods  exerted  a  notice- 
able influence  upon  his  phiblogical  work.  In  the  summer  of 
1849  he  had  charge  of  the  botany,  the  barometrical  observations 
and  the  accounts  of  the  United  States  survey  of  the  Lake  Superior 
region  conducted  by  his  brother,  Josiah  D.  Whitney,  and  in  the 
summer  of  1873  assisted  in  the  geographical  work  of  the  Haydeo 
expedition  in  Colorado.  His  interest  in  the  study  of  Sanskrit 


6l2 


WHITSTABLE—WHITSUNDAY 


was  first  AmLeacd  in  184^  and  he  at  once  devoitd  himself 
with  enthusiasm  to  this  at  thit  time  littJe-explotcd  field  of 
philological  labour.  After  a  brief  course  at  Yale  with  Professor 
Edward  Elbridge  Salisbury  (18x4-1901),  then  the  only  trained 
Orientalist  in  the  United  States,  Whitney  went  to  Germany  (1850) 
and  studied  foe  three  years  at  Berlin,  under  Weber,  Bopp  and 
Lepsius,  and  at  Tttbingen  (two  summer  semesters)  under  Roth, 
returning  to  the  United  Sutes  in  1853.  In  the  following  year 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Sanskrit  in  Yale,  and  in  1869  also 
of  comparative  philology.  He  also  gave  instruction  in  French 
and  German  in  the  college  until  1867,  and  in  the  Sheffield 
scientific  school  until  x886.  An  urgent  call  to  a  professorship  at 
Harvard  was  declined  in  1869.  The  importance  of  his  contribu- 
tions to  science  was  early  and  widely  recognized.  He  was 
elected  to  membership  in  numerous  learned  societies  in  all  parts 
of  the  world,  and  received  many  honorary  d^rees,  the  most 
notable  testimonial  to  his  fame  being  his  election  on  the  31st  of 
May  [881,  as  foreign  knight  of  the  Prussian  order  pour  U 
mirile  for  science  and  arts  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the 
death  of  Carlyle.  In  1870  he  received  from  the  Berlin  Academy 
of  Sciences  the  first  Bopp  prize  for  the  most  important  contribu- 
tion to  Sanskrit  philology  during  the  preceding  three  yean— his 
edition  of  the  TdiUiriyo-Prdii^dkkya  {Journal  of  the  Ameriam 
Oriental  Society^  voL  is.).  He  died  at  NeW  Haven,  Connecticut, 
on  the  7th  of  June  1894. 

As  a  philologist  Whitney  is  noted  especially  for  his  work  in 
Sanskrit,  which  placed  him  among  the  first  scholars  of  his  time. 
He  edited  (1855-1856),  with  Professor  Roth,  the  Alkarta-VedO' 
Sanhitd\  published  (1862)  with  a  translation  and  notes  the 
Atkaroa-Veda'Prdti^kkya',  made  important  .contributions  to 
the  great  Petersburg  lexicon;  issued  an  index  verborum  to  the 
published  text  of  the  Alharta-Veda  {Journal  oj  the  American 
Oriental  Society,  1881);  made  a  translation  of  the  AtkarwhVedOt 
books  i.-xix.,  with  a  critical  commentary,  which  he  did  not  live 
to  public  (edited  by  Lanman,.  1905);  and  published  a  large 
number  of  special  articles  upon  various  points  of  Sanskrit 
philology.  His  most  notable  achievement  in  this  field,  however, 
is  his  Sanskrit  Grammar  (1879),  *>  '''o^^  which,  as  Professor 
Delbrilck  has  said,  not  only  is  "  the  best  text-book  of  Sanskrit 
which  we  possess,"  but  also  places  its  author,  as  a  scientific 
grammarian,  on  the  same  level  with  such  writers  as  Madvig 
and  Kriiger.  To  the  general  public  Whitney  is  best  known 
through  his  popular  works  on  the  science  of  language  and  his 
labours  as  a  lexicographer.  The  former  are,  perhaps,  the  most 
widely  read  of  all  English  books  on  the  subject,  and  have  merited 
their  popularity  through  the  soundness  of  the  views  which  they 
present  and  the  lucidity  of  their  style.^  His  most  important 
service  to  lexicography  was  his  guidance,  as  editor-in-chief,  of 
the  work  on  The  Century  Dictionary  (1889-1891).  Apart  from 
the  permanent  value  of  his  contributions  to  philology,  Whitney 
is  notable  for  the  great  and  stimulating  influence  which  he 
exerted  throughout  his  life  upon  the  development  of  Am&ican 
scholarship. 

The  chronological  bibliography  of  Whitney's  writims  appended  to 
vol.  xix.  (first  half)  of  the  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  Society, 
issued  in  May  i8<}7,  contains  360  numbers.  Of  these  the  most  im- 
portant. In  addition  to  those  mentioned  above,  are:  Translation  of 
the  SiryasiddhSnta,  a  Text-book  of  Hindu  Astronomy  (Jour.  Am. 
Oriental  Soe„  vol.  vi.,  i860);  LanftfOfe  and  the  Study  of  Lanptage 
(1867):  A  Compendious  Cerman  Grammar  (1869):  Oriental  and 
Lintuistic  Indies  (1873:  second  series.  187A);  The  Life  and  Growth 
of  language  (1875):  lEssentials  of  Engitsk  Grammar  (1877);  A 
Compendious  Cerman  and  En^ish  Dietumary  (1877);  A  Practical 
French  Grammar  (1866):  Max  iHUler  and  the  Science  ofLoMtuagfi 
(1892).  (B.  E.  S.) 

WHITVTABLB.  a  watering-place  an  the  St  Augustine's  paiiia- 
roentary  division  of  Kent,  England,  on  the  north  coast  at  the 
east  end  of  the  Swale,  6  m.  N  J4.W.  of  Canterbury,  on  the  South 
Eastern  ft  Chatham  railway.    Pop.  of  urban  dntrict  (1901 ),  7086. 

■  They  are  particularty  important  in  that  thev  coantei acted  the 
popular  and  interestingly  written  books  of  Max  MQller:  for  instance, 
MUllcr,  like  Renan  and  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  regarded  language  as 
an  innate  faculty  and  Whitney  considered  it  the  product  of  experience 
and  outward  circumstance.  See  Whitney**  artide  PkiMogy  in  the 
press  nt  edition  of  the  Bmyelepaedia  Bntemncs* 


The  branch  railway  cooaectiag  WhltsuUe  with  Ckntcsbmy 
was  one  of  the  earliest  in  En^and^  opened  in  183a  The 
church  of  All  Saints  (Decorated  and  Perpendicular)  possesses 
some  old  brasses;  it  was  restored  in  187$.  Whitstable  has  been 
famous  for  its  oyster  beds  from  time  ImmemoriaL  The  fisheries 
were  held  by  the  Incorporated  Company  of  Dredgers  (incor- 
porated by  Act  of  Parliament  in  1793),  the  affairs  being 
administeied  by  a  foreman,  deputy  foceman  and  jury  of  twelve; 
but  in  1896  an  Act  of  Parliament  transferred  the  management  of 
the  fishery  to  a  compahy.  The  less  extensive  Seasalter  and  Ham 
ojrster  fishery  adjoins.  There  is  also  a  considerable  coasting  trade 
in  coal  in  conjunction  with  the  South-Eastem  ft  Chatham  railway 
company,  who  are  the  owners  of  the  haiboor,  which  accom- 
modates vessels  of  about  400  tons  alongside  the  quay.  The 
urban  district  consists  of  parts  of  the  old  parishes  of  Whitstable 
and  Seasalter.  In  modern  times  the  manor  was  held  by  Wynne 
Ellis  (1790-1875),  who  left  a  valuable  collection  of  paintings  to 
the  nation. 

Tankerton,  adjoining  WhiUtable  to  the  N.C,  is  a  newly 
established  seaside  resort. 

WHITSUNDAY,  or  Pent£COST  (LaL  PenteeostCf  Cr.  vominaTli 
sc.  'ilMipO',  Fr.  Penteclite,  Ger.  Pfingsten,  it.  O.  H.  Ger.  fimfchusiinX 
one  of  the  principal  feasts  of  the  Christian  Church,  celebrated 
on  the  fiftieth  {iremiimarii)  day  after  Easter  to  commemorate 
the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  disciples.  The  day  became 
one  of  the  three  baptismal  seasons,  and  the  name  Whitsunday 
is  now  generally  attributed  to  the  white  garments  formeriy  worn 
by  the  candidates  for  baptism  on  this  feast,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Dominica  in  albis.  The  festival  is  the  third  in  importance  of  the 
great  feasts  of  the  Church  and  the  last  of  the  annual  cyde 
commemorating  the  Lord.  It  is  connected  with  the  Jewish 
Pentecost  (q.v.),  not  only  in  the  historical  date  of  its  origin  (see 
Acts  vii.),  but  in  idea;  the  Jewish  festival  is  one  of  thanks  for 
the  first-fruits  of  the  earth,  the  Christian  for  the  first-fruits  of 
the  Spirit.  In  the  early  Church  the  name  of  Pentecost  was  given 
to  the  whole  fifty  days  between  Easter  and  Whitsunday,  which 
were  celebrated  as  a  period  of  rejoicing  (Tertullian,  De  idolalr. 
c.  xa,  De  bapt.  19,  De  cor.  milit.  3,  Apost.  Canons,  c  37,  Canons  oj 
Antioch,  30).  In  the  narrower  sense,  as  the  designation  of 
the  fiftieth  day  of  this  period,  the  word  Pentecost  occurs  for 
the  first  time  in  a  canon  of  the  council  of  Elvira  (305),  which 
denounces  as  an  heretical  abuse  the  tendency  to  celebrate  the 
40th  day  (Ascension)  instead  of  the  50th,  and  adds:  "  juxta 
auctoritatem  scripturarum  cuncti  diem  Pentecostis  celebremus." 
There  is  plentiful  evidence  that  the  festival  was  regarded  very 
early  as  one  of  the  great  feasts;  Gregory  Naxianxen  {Orta.  xliv. 
De  Pentec.)  calls  it  the  "  day  of  the  Spirit "  {ftt/iipa  roD  Uv^naros), 
and  in  385  the  Peregrinatio  Silviae  (see  Duchesne,  Origines, 
App.)  describes  its  elaborate  celebration  at  Jerusalem.  The  code 
of  Theodosius  (xv.  5,  De  spectaculis)  forbade  theatrical  perform- 
ances and  the  games  of  the  circus  during  the  feast.  The  custom 
of  hallowing  the  days  immediatdy  surrounding  the  festival  is 
comparatively  late.  Thus,  among  others,  the  synod  of  Mainz  in 
813  ordered  the  cdebration  of  an  octave  similar  to  that  at 
Easter.  The  custom  of  cdebrating  the  vigil  by  fasting  had 
already  been  introduced.  The  duration  of  the  festival  was, 
however,  ultimately  fixed  at  three  days.  In  the  Church  of 
England  this  is  still  the  rule  (there  are  special  collects,  gospels 
and  epistles  for  Monday  and  Tuesday  in  Whitsun  week);  in 
the  Lutheran  churches  two  days  only  are  observed. 

In  the  middle  ages  the  Whitsun  services  were  marked  by  many 
curious  customs.  Among  these  described  by  Durandus  (Rationale 
div.  off.  vL  107)  are  the  letting  down  of  a  dove  from  the  roof  into 
the  church,  the  dropping  of  balls  of  fire,  rose-leaves  and  the  like. 
Whitsun  is  one  of  the  Scotti^  quarter-days,  and  though  the 
Church  festival  is  movable,  the  legal  date  was  fixed  for  the  xsth 
of  May  by  an  act  of  1693.  Whitmonday,  which,  with  the  Sunday 
itself,  was  the  occasion  for  the  greatest  of  all  the  medieval  church 
ales,  was  made  an  English  Badk  Holiday  by  an  act  pasMd  on  the 
asth  of  May  1871. 

See  Duchesne.  Origines  du  cvlte  CkrHien  (1889);  W.  Smith  and 
Chcetham.  Die  of  Cknstian  Annuities  (1874-1880);  Henog-Hauck, 


WHITTIER 


613 


BtaUncyUopddis  (rgoO,  xv.  a54t  t^v.  **  Pfingsten.**  For  th« 
many  tupentitiont  and  obtervanoea  of  the  day  aee  P.  H.  Ditch- 
field,  (M  English  Ctuioms  (i897):  Brand,  Antiquities  of  Great 
Britain  (Haalitt'e  edit..  196ft);  B.  Picart.  CMmmies  et  coutumes 
nligi€U$0» de  tousles  peuplis  (173^. 

WHITTIBR,  JOHM  6REKNLEAF  (1807-1892),  America's 
"  Quaker  poet "  of  freedom,  faith  and  the  scntimcbc  of  the 
common  people,  was  born  in  a  Merrimack  Valley  farmhouse, 
Haverhill,  Massachuaetts,  on  the  xyth  of  December  1807.  The 
dwelling  wasbuUt  in  the  17th  century  by  his  ancestor,  the  sturdy 
immigrant,  Thomas  Whittier,  notable  through  his  efforts  io 
secure  tolemtion  for  the  disciples  of  GeoigtfFoxin  New  England. 
Thomas's  son  Joseph  joined  the  Society  of  Friends  and  bore  his 
diare  of  obloquy.  Successive  generations  obeyed  the  monitions 
of  the  Inner  Light.  The  poet  was  bom  in  the  faith,  and  adhered 
to  its  liboalized  tenets,  iu  garb  and  speech,  throughout  his 
lifetime.  Hjs  father,  John,  was  a  fanner  of  limited  means  but 
independent  spirit.  I&  mother,  Abigail  Huasey,  whom  the  poet 
strongly  resembled,  was  of  good  stock.  The  Rev.  Stephen 
Bachiler,  an  Oxford  man  and  a  Churchman,  who  became  a 
Nonconformist  and  emigiated  to  Boston  in  1632,  was  one  of  her 
forebears  and  also  an  ancestor  of  Daniel  Webster.  The  poet  and 
the  statesman  showed  their  kinship  by  the  **  dark,  deep-set  and 
lustrous  eyes  "  that  impressed  one  who  met  either  of  these 
uncommon  men.  The  former's  name  of  Greenlcaf  is  thou^t 
to  be  derived  from  the  French  Feutllevert,  and  to  be  of  Huguenot 
origin;  and  there  was  Huguenot  blood  as  well  in  Thomas 
Whittier,  the  settler.  The  poet  thus  fairty  inherited  his  con- 
science, reli^ous  exaltation  and  spirit  of  protest.  All  the 
Whittiers  wens  men  of  stature  and  bodily  strength,  John  Green- 
leaf  being  almost  the  first  exception,  a  lad  of  delicate  mould, 
scarcdy  adapted  for  the  labour  required  of  a  Yankee  farmer 
and  his  housdu^d.  He  bore  a  fair  proportion  of  it,  but  through- 
out his  life  was  frequently  brought  to  a  halt  by  pain  and  physical 
debility.  In  youth  he  was  described  as  "  a  handsome  young  man, 
tall,  slight,  and  very  erect,  bashful,  but  never  awkward."  His 
shyness  was  extreme,  though  covered  by  a  grave  and  quiet 
exterior,  which  could  not  hide  his  love  of  fun  and  sense  of  the 
ludicrous.  In  age  he  retained  most  of  these  characteristics, 
refined  by  a  serene  expression  of  peace  after  contest.  His  eyes 
never  lost  their  glow,  and  were  said  by  a  woman  to  be  those  of 
one  "  who  had  kept  innocency  all  his  days." 

Whittier's  early  education  was  restricted  to  what  he  could  gain 
from  the  primitive  "  district  school "  -of  the  neighbourhood. 
His  call  as  a  poet  came  when  a  teachw  lent  to  him  the  poems  of 
Bums.  He  was  then  about  fifteen,  and  his  taste  for  writing, 
bred  thus  far  upon  the  quaint  Journals  of  Friends,  the  Bible  and 
The  PUgrim^s  Progress^  was  at  oaot  stimulated.  There  was 
little  art  or  inspiration  in  his  boyish  verse,  but  in  his  nineteenth 
year  an  older  sister  thought  a  specimen  of  it  good  enough  for 
submission  to  the  Free  Press,  a  weekly  paper  which  William 
Lloyd  Garrison,  the  future  emancipationist,  had  started  in  the 
town  of  Newburyport.  This  initiated  Whittier's  literary  career. 
The  poem  was  printed  with  a  eulogy,  and  the  editor  sought  out 
his  young  contributor:  their  alliance  began,  and  continued  until 
the  triumph  of  the  anti-slavery  cause  thirty-seven  yean  later. 
Garrisop  overcame  the  elder  Whittier's  desire  for  the  full  services 
of  his  son,  and  gained  permission  for  the  latter  to  attend  the 
Haverhill  academy.  To  meet  expenses  the  youth  worked  in 
various  ways,  even  making  slippers  by  hand  in  after-hours; 
but  when  he  came  of  age  his  text-book  days  were  ended.  Mean- 
while he  had  written  creditable  student  verse,  and  contributed 
both  prose  and  riiyme  to  newspapers,  thus  gaining  friends  and 
obtaining  a  dedded  if  provincial  reputation.  He  soon  essayed 
journalism,  fint  spending  a  year  and  a  half  hi  the  service  of  a 
publisher  of  two  Boston  newspapers,  the  Manufacturer,  an  organ 
of  the  Gay  protectionists,  and  the  Philanlfa^opist,  devoted  to 
humane  reform.  Whittier  edited  the  former,  having  a  bent  for 
politics,  but  wrote  for  the  latter  also.  His  father's  last  illness 
recalled  him  to  the  homestead,  where  both  farm  and  famOy 
became  his  pious  charge.  Money  had  to  be  earned,  and  he  now 
cccured  an  editorial  post  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  which  he 


sustained  until  forced  by  lU-health*  eariy  in  hb  twenty-fifth 
year,  to  re-scek  the  Haverhill  farm.  There  he  remained  ^m 
1832  to  1836,  when  the  property  was  sold,  and  the  Whittiers 
removed  to  Amesbury  in  order  to  be  near  their  ineeting-house 
and  to  enable  the  poet  to  be  in  touch  with  affairs.  The  new 
home  became,  as  it  proved,  that  of  his  whole  after-life;  a  dwelling 
then  bought  and  in  time  remodelled  was  the  poet's  residence 
for  fifty-six  years,  and  from  it,  after  his  death  on  the  7th  o£ 
September  xSgs,  his  remains  were  borne  to  the  Amesbuiy 
graveyard. 

While  in  Hartford  Whittier  issued  in  prose  and  verse  bis  first 
book,  Legends  of  New  En^and  (183 1),  and  edited  the  writings  of 
the  poet  John  Gardiner  C.  Brainard.  Thenceforward  he  was 
constantly  printing  verse,  but  of  the  hundred  or  more  pieces 
composed  before  his  settlement  at  Amesbury  less  than  fifty  are 
retained  in  his  final  collection.  Of  these  none  has  more  signific- 
ance than  the  poem  to  Garrison,  which  appeared  in  1831,  and 
was  read  (December  1633)  at  the  Philadelphia  Convention  that 
formed  the  Anti-Slaveiy  Society.  To  that  convention,  with 
one-third  of  its  membership  composed  of  Friends,  Whittier  was 
a  delegate,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  committee  that  drafted 
the  famous  Declaration  of  Sentiments.  Although  a  Quaker, 
he  had  a  polemical  spirit;  naen  seeing  Whittier  only  in  his  saintly 
age  knew  Uttle  of  the  fire  wherewith,  setting  aside  ambition  and 
even  love,  he  maintained  his  warfare  against  the  "  national 
crime,"  employing  action,  argument  and  lyric  scorn.  A  future 
was  open  for  him  among  the  Protectionists,  who  formed  the  Whig 
party,  and  doubtless  soon  would  have  carried  him  to  the  United 
States  Congress.  As  it  was,  he  got  no  farther  than  the  legislature 
of  his  own  state  (1835-1836),  elected  by  his  neighbours  in  an 
anti-slavery  town.  But  if  Garrison,  Phillips  and  Sumner  and 
Mrs  Stowe  were  to  be  the  rhapsodists  of  the  long  emancipattoB 
struggle,  Whittier  was  its  foreordained  poct-sccr.  In  1833  he 
bad  issued  at  his  own  cost  a  pamphlet, "  Justice  and  Expediency," 
that  provoked  vehement  discussion  North  and  South.  Later 
he  shared  with  the  agitators  their  experience  of  lawlessness^ 
mob-violence  and  political  odiimi.  His  sister  Elizabeth,  who 
became  his  life  companion,  and  whose  verse  is  preserved  with  his 
own,  was  president  of  the  Woman's  Anti-Slavery  Society  in 
Amesbury.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  first  collection  of  Whittier's 
lyrics  was  the  Poems  -written  during  the  Progress  of  Ike  Abolition 
Question  in  the  United  States,  issued  by  a  friend  in  1837.  But 
Mogg  Megone  (1836)  was  his  first  book,  a  erode  attempt  to  apply 
the  manner  of  Scott's  romantic  cantos  to  a  native  theme.  Among 
his  other  lyrical  volumes,  of  dates  earlier  than  the  Civil  War,  were 
Lays  of  my  Home  (1843),  Voices  of  Freedom  (1846),  Songs  of 
Labor  (1850),  The  Chapel  of  the  Hermits  (1853),  The  Ponoram* 
(1856),  Home  Bathds  ([80o).  The  titles  of  In  War  Time  (1863) 
and  National  Lyrics  (1865)  rightly  designate  the  patriotic  rather 
than  T^aean  contents  of  these  booM.  The  poet  was  closely 
affiliated  with  the  Atlantic  Monthly  from  the  foundation  oi 
that  classic  magaahie  in  1857.  His  repute  became  national  with 
the  welcome  awarded  to  Swm-Bound  In  x866,  and  brought 
a  corre^X)nding  material  reward.  Of  his  later  books  of  verse 
may  be  mentioned  The  Tent  on  the  Beach  (1867),  The  Penn- 
syhania  PUgrim  (1872),  The  Vision  of  Eehard  (1878),  The  Kinfs 
Missive  (x88i).  At  Sundown,  his  last  poems  (1890).  As  early  as 
1849  an  illustrated  collection  of  his  poems  appeared,  and  his 
Po^ical  Worhs  was  issued  in  London  in  1850.  During  the 
ensuing  forty  years  no  less  than  ten  successive  collections  of  iris 
poems  appeared.  Meanwhile  he  did  much  editing  and  compiling, 
and  produced,  among  other  works  in  prose.  The  Stranger  in 
Lowell  (x84s),  Supernaturalism  in  N€10  England  (1847),  Leaves 
from  Margaret  Smith's  Journal  (1849),  a  pleasing  treatment  in 
dd-style  English  of  an  eariy  Cotenial  theme.  When  he  died, 
in  1892,  in  New  Hampshire,  among  the  hills  he  loved  and 
sang  so  well,  be  had  been  an  active  writer  for  over  sixty  yean, 
leaving  more  than  that  number  of  publications  that  bore  his  name 
as  author  or  editor.  His  body  was  brought  to  Amesbury  for 
interment;  the  funeral  services  were  held  in  the  open  air,  and 
conducted  after  the  simple  rites  of  the  Frittids,  in  the  presence 
of  a  large  concoone,  ceitain  o(  whom  "  spake  as  they  were 


6i4 


WHITTINGHAM,  C— WHITTINGHAM,  W. 


moved  "  in  tribute  to  the  bard.  The  Amesbury  bouee  has  been 
acquired  by  the  *'  Whittier  Home  Association,"  so  ihat  the 
buUiding  and  grounds  are  guarded  as  he  left  them,  and  form  a 
shrine  to  which  there  is  a  constant  pilgrimage.  The  Haverhill 
homestead,  memorized  in  Sncw-Bound,  is  also  held  by  trustees 
"  to  preserve  the  natural  features  of  the  landscape,"  and  to  keep 
the  buildings  and  furniture  somewhat  as  they  were  ui  their 
minstrel's  boyhood. 

It  would  be  unjust  to  consider  VVhittier's  genius  from  an  academic 
point  of  view.  British  lovers  of  poetry — except  John  Bright  and 
others  of  Uke  laith  or  spirit — have  been  slow  to  comprdiend  his  dis- 
tinctive rank.  As  a  poet  he  was  essentially  a  balUdist.  with  the  faults 
of  his  qualities;  ana  his  ballads,  in  their  freedom,  naivet<S.  even  in 
their  undue  length,  are  among  the  few  modem  examples  of  unso- 
phnticated  vorse.  He  returned  agahi  and  again  to  their  production, 
seldom  labouring  on  sonnets  and  lyrics  of  the  Victorian  mould.  His 
car  for  melody  was  inferior  to  his  sense  of  time,  but  that  his  over- 
facilitv  and  structural  defects  were  due  less  to  lack  of  taste  than  to 
eariy  habit,  Georgian  modeb,  disassodation  from  the  schools,  b  indi- 
cated by  his  work  as  a  writer  of  prose.  In  Margaret  Smith's  Jaurmd 
an  artbtic,  though  suppositive,  Cobnial  style  b  well  maintained. 
Whittier  became  very  sensible  of  hb  shortcomings^  and  when  at 
lebure  to  devote  himself  to  his  art  he  greatly  bettered  it,  giving  much 
of  hb  later  verse  all  the  polish  that  it  required.  In  extended  com- 
position, as  when  he  followed  Longfelk>w  s  Tales  <^  a  Wayside  Inn 
with  hb  own  Tent  on  the  Beach,  he  often  failed  to  rival  hb  gradef til 
brother  poec  In  American  balladry  he  was  pre-eminent;  such 
pieces  as  "  The  Swan  Song  of  Parson  Avery."  "  Marguerite,"  "  Bar- 
clay of  Ury."  "  Skipper  Ireson's  Ride,"  "  In  the  '  Ol3  South,'  "  hold 
their  pbce  in  literature.  It  b  necessary  above  all  to  consider  the 
relation  of  a  people's  Years  of  growth  and  ferment  to  thesoi^  which 
represents  them ;  for  m  the  strains  of  Whittier,  more  than  in  those 
of  any  other  19th-century  lyrist,  the  saying  of  Fletcher  of  Saltoun 
as  to  the  ballads  and  laws  of  a  nation  finds  a  hbtoric  illustration. 
He  was  the  national  bard  of  justice,  humanity  and  reform,  whose 
voice  went  up  as  a  trumpet  until  the  victory  was  won.  Its  lapses 
resembled  those  of  Mrs  Browning,  who  was  of  hb  own  breed  in  her 
fervour  and  exaltation.  To  the  last  it  was  uncertain  whether  a  poem 
by  Whittier  would  "  turn  out  a  sang,"  or  *'  perhaps  turn  out  a 
sermon  ";  if  the  latter,  it  had  deep  sincerity  and  was  as  close  to  hb 
soul  as  the  other.  He  began  as  a  liberator,  but  various  causes  em- 
pbycd  hb  pen;  hb  heart  was  with  the  people,  and  he  was  under- 
standed  of  them :  he  loved  a  worker,  and  the  Songs  of  Labor  convey 
the  zest  of  the  artisan  and  pioneer.  From  1832  to  1863  no  occasion 
escaped  him  for  inspiring  the  assailants  (tf  slavery,  or  chanting  paeans 
of  their  martyrdom  or  triumph.  No  crusade  ever  had  a  truer  burcate 
than  the  author  of  "  The  Virginia  Slave  Mother,"  "  The  Pastoral 
i«tter  " — one  of  hb  stinging  ballads  against  a  time-eerving  Church — 
•'  A  Sabbath  S<ine,"  and  ''The  Slaves  of  Martinique."  '^  Randolph 
of  Roanoke  "  b  one  of  the  most  pathetic  and  most  elevated  of 
memorial  tributes.  "  Ichabod  "  and  "  The  Lost  Occasion,"  both 
evoked  by  the  attitude  of  Wdwter,  are  Roman  in  their  oondemnation 
and  "  wild  with  aU  regret." 

The  green  rusticity  of  Whittier*s  farm  and  village  life  imparted 
a  bucolic  charm  to  such  Isrrics  as  "  In  School  Days,"  "  The  Bare- 
foot Boy,"  "  Tell'mg  the  Bees,"  "  Maud  Mullcr,"  and  "  My  School- 
mate." Hb  idyllic  masterpiece  b  the  sustained  transcript  of  winter 
scenery  and  home-life,  Smno-Bound,  which  has  had  no  equal  except 
Longfellow's  "Evangeline"  in  American  favour,  but,  in  fact, 
nothing  of  its  dass  since  "  The  Cottar's  Saturday  Night  "  can  justly 
be  compared  with  it.  Ak>ng  with  the  Quaker  poet^  homing  sense 
and  passion  for  liberty  of  body  and  soul,  religion  and  patriotism  are 
the  dominant  notes  of  hb  song.  Hb  conception  of  a  dtizcn's 
prerogative  and  duty,  as  set  forth  in  "The  Eve  of  Election," certainly 
IS  not  that  of  one  whose  legend  b  "  our  country,  right  or  wrong.*' 
Faith,  hope  and  boundless  charity  pervade  the  "  QuestioBs  of  Life," 
'*  Invocation,  and  "  The  Two  Angds."  and  are  exquisitdy  blended 
in  "  The  Eternal  Goodness,"  perhaps  the  most  enduring  of  his  lyrical 
poems.  "  We  can  do  without  a  Church,"  he  wrote  in  a  letter;  "  we 
cannot  do  without  God.  and  of  Him  we  are  sure.'*  The  Inward  voice 
was  hb  inspiration,  and  of  all  American  poets  he  was  the  one  whose 
song  was  most  like  a  pnytr.  A  knightly  cdibate,  hb  stainless  life, 
his  ardour,  caused  him  to  be  termed  a  Yankee  Galahad;  a  pure 
and  simple  heart  was  laid  bare  to  those  who  loved  him  in  ''^My 
Psalm,'^  "  My  Triumph  "  and  "  An  Autograph."  The  spiritual 
habit  abated  no  whit  of  hb  inborn  sagadty,  and  it  b  said  that  in 
his  later  years  political  leaders  found  no  shrewder  sage  with  whom  to 
take  counsd.  when  the  question  of  primacy  among  American  poets 
was  canvassed  by  a  group  of  the  puolic  men  of  Lincoln's  time,  the 
vote  was  for  Whittier;  he  was  at  least  one  whom  they  understood, 
and  who  expressed  thdr  feeling  and  coavictrans.  Parkman  ^led 
him  "  the  poet  of  New  England,"  but  as  the  North  and  West  then 
were,  charged  with  the  spirit  of  the  New  England  states,  the  two 
verdicts  were  much  the  same.  The  fact  remains  that  no  other  poet 
has  sounded  more  native  notes,  or  covered  so  much  of  the  American 
legendary,  and  that  VVhittier's  name,  among  the  patriotic,  dean  and 
true,  was  one  with  which  to  conjure.   He  was  revsred  by  the  people 


cleaving  to  their  altars  and  their  fire^  ana  his  birthdays 
calendared  as  festivals,  on  wlUch  graeungs  were  sent  to  him  by 
young  and  old. 

In  hb  age  the  poet  revised  hb  works,  classifying  them  for  a 
definitive  edition,  in  seven  volumes,  publbhed  at  Boston,  186S. 
Their  metrical  portion,  annotated  by  Horace  E.  Scudder,  can  be 
found  in  the  one-volume  "Cambridge  Editmn,"  (Bostxm,  1894). 
Whittier's  Life  and  Letters,  prepared  by  hb  kinsman  and  literary 
executor,  Samuel  T.  Pickard,  also  appeared  in  1804. 

See  also  G.  R.  Carpenter,  John  Greenleaf  WktUier  (Boston,  1903) 
in  the  "American  Men  of  Letters"  series;a  life  (too?)  by  Bliss  Penrv : 
and  B.  Wendell,  StdUg/sn  (New  York,  1893.  pp.  149-201).  (E.ci) 

WHITTINGBAM,  CHARLEB  (1767-1840),  English  printer, 
was  bom  on  the  16th  of  June  1767,  at  Caludon  or  C-ailcdon, 
Warwickshire,  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  was  apprenticed  to  a 
Coventry  printer  ai)d  bookseller.  In  1789  he  set  up  a  small 
printing  press  in  a  garret  off  Fleet  Street,  Ix>ndon,  with  a  loan 
obtained  from  the  typefounding  firm  of  VViliiam  Ca^n,  and  by 
1797  hb  business  falid  so  increased  that  he  was  enabled  to  move 
into  larger  premises.  An  edition  of  Gray's  Poems ^  printed  by  him 
in  1799,  sectued  him  the  patronage  of  all  the  leading  publShers. 
Whittingham  inaugurated  the  idea  of  printing  cheap,  handy 
editions  of  standard  authoxs,  and,  on  the  bookselling  trade 
threatening  not  to  sell  his  productions,  took  g  room  at  a  coffee 
bouse  and  sold  them  by  auction  himself.  In  1809  he  started  a 
paper-pulp  factory  at  Chbwick,  near  London,  and  in  181 1 
founded  the  Chbwick  Press.  From.xSio  to  2815  he  devoted 
hb  chief  attention  to  illustrated  books,  and  b  credited  with  having 
been  the  first  to  use  proper  overlays  in  printing  woodcuts,  as  he 
wss  the  first  to  print  a  fid^,  or  "  Indian  Paper  "  edition.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  to  use  a  steam-engine  in  a  pulp  mill,  but  hb 
presses  he  prefored  to  have  worked  by  hand.  He  died  at 
Chbwick  on  the  5th  of  January  1840. 

Hb  nephew,  Charles  Whittingham  (1795-1876),  who  from 
2824  to  1828  had  been  in  partnership  with  his  uncle,  in  igjg 
assumed  control  of  the  business.  He  abneady  had  printing  works 
at  Took's  Courts  Chancery  Lane,  London,  and  had  printed 
various  notable  books,  specially  devoting  himself  to  the  intro- 
duction of  ornamental  initial  letters,  and  the  artistic  arrange- 
ment of  the  printed  page.  The  imprint  of  the  Chbwick  press 
was  now  placed  on  the  productions  of  the  Took's  Court  as  well 
as  of  the  Chbwick  works,  and  in  1852  the  whole  business  was 
removed  to  London.  Under  the  management  of  the  youngo- 
Whittingham  the  Chiswick  Press  achieved  a  considerable 
r^utatioo.    He  died  on  the  21st  of  April  1876. 

WHITTINGHAM,  WILUAM  (c.  Z524-i579)»  EngUsh  scboUr, 
who  belonged  to  a  Lancashire  family,  was  bom  at  Chester. 
Educated  at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  he  became  a  fellow  of 
All  Soub'  College  and  a  senior  student  of  Christ  Church,  and 
later  he  visited  several  universities  in  France  and  Germany. 
A  strong  Protestant,  he  returned  to  England  in  1553,  but  soon 
found  it  expedient  to  travel  again  to  France.  In  1554  he  was  a 
leading  member  of  the  band  of  Eng^sh  Protestant  exiles  who 
were  assembled  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  in  the  contro- 
versies which  took  place  between  them  concerning  the  form  of 
service  to  be  adopted,  Whittingham '  strongly  supported  the 
Calvinbtic  views  propounded  by  John  Knox.  These  opinions, 
however,  did  not  prevail,  and  soon  the  Scottish  reformer  and  hb 
follower  were  found  at  Geneva;  in  1559  Whittingham  succeeded 
Knox  as  miiuster  of  the  EngUsfa  congregation  in  that  dty,  and 
here  he  did  hb  most  noteworthy  work,  that  of  making  an  EngUsh 
translation  of  the  Bible.  He  was  probably  responsible  for  the 
Englbh  translation  of  the  New  Testament  which  appeared  in 
1557,  and  he  bad  certainly  a  large  share  in  the  translation  of  both 
the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments  which  b  called  the  Genevan 
or  Breeches  Bible.  This  was  printed  at  Geneva  in  1560  and 
enjoyed  a  remarkable  popularity  (see  Bible,  English).  He 
also  made  a  metrical  translation  of  some  of  the  Psalms.  Having 
returned  to  Eng^nd  in  1560,  Whittingham  went  to  France  in 
the  train  of  Francis  Russell,  2nd  earl  of  Bedford,  and  a  little 
later  he  acted  as  minister  of  the  English  garrison  at  Havre, 
being  in  this  place  during  its  siege  by  the  French  in  1 562.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  made  dean  of  Durham.  He  attended  well 
to  the  duties  of  hb  office,  but  hb  liking  for  puritan  customs  made 


WHITTINGTON,  R.— WHITTLESEY 


615 


oertsm  ptehtes  and  otfaera  look  upon  him  with  suspicion,  and 
in  1576  or  1577  a  commission  ^vas  appointed  to  inquire  into  his 
conduct.  This  liad  no  result,  and  another  commission  was 
appointed  in  1578,  one  charge  a^nst  Whittingham  being  that 
he  had  not  been  duly  ordained.  The  case  was  still  imder  con- 
sideration when  the  dean  died  on  the  loth  of  June  1579. 

WHRTINOTON*  RICHARD  (d.  1423),  mayor  of  London, 
described  himself  as  son  of  William  and  Joan  (Dugdale,  Mon- 
asiicon  An^icanumt  vi  740).  This  enables  him  to  be  identified 
as  the  third  son  of  Sir  William  Whittingtcm  of  Fiauntley  in 
Gloucestershire,  a  knight  of  good  family,  who  married  after 
1355  Joan,  daughter  of  William  ACansel,  and  widow  of  Thomas 
Berkeley  of  Cubberley.  Consequently  Richard  was  a  very 
young  man  when  he  is  mentioned  in  1379  as  subscribing  five 
marl^  to  a  city  loauk  Rt  was  a  mercer  by  trade,  and  clearly 
entered  on  his  commercial  career  under  favourable  circumstances. 
He  married  Alice,  daughter  of  Sir  Ivo  Fitzwaryn,  a  Dorset  knight 
of  considerable  property.  Whittington  sat  in  the  common 
council  as  a  representative  ci  Coleman  Street  Ward,  was  elected 
alderman  of  Broad  Street  in  March  1393,  and  served  as  sheriff 
in  I393'*i394>  When  Adam  Bamme,  the  mayor,  died  in  June 
X397i  Whittington  was  appointed  by  the  king  to  succeed  him, 
and  in  October  was  elected  mayor  for  the  ensuing  year.  He  had 
acquired  great  wealth  and  much  commercial  importance,  and 
was  mayor  of  the  staple  at  London  and  Calais.  He  made 
frequent  large  loans  both  to  Henry  IV.  and  Henry  V.,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  legend,  when  he  gave  a  banquet  to  the  latter  king  and 
his  queen  in  1421,  completed  the  entertainment  by  burning 
bonds  for  £60,000,  which  he  had  taken  up  and  discharged. 
Heniy  V.  employed  him  to  superintend  the  expenditure  of 
money  on  completing  Westminster  Abbey.  But  except  as  a 
London  commercial  magnate  Whittington  took  no  great  part  m 
pubhc  affairs.  He  was  mayor  for  a  third  term  in  1406-1407, 
and  for  a  fourth  in  X4iO'Z42o.  He  died  in  March  1423.  His 
wife  had  predeceased  him  leaving  no  children,  and  Whittington 
bequeathed  the  whole  of  his  vast  fortune  to  charitable  and  public 
purposes.  In  his  lifetime  he  had  joined  in  procuring  Leadenhali 
for  the  city,  and  had  borne  nearly  all  the  cost  of  building  the 
Creyfriars  Libraxy.  In  his  last  year  as  mayor  he  had  been 
shocked  by  the  foul  state  of  Newgate  prison,  and  one  of  the  first 
works  undertaken  by  his  executors  was  its  rebuilding.  His 
executors,  chief  of  whom  was  John  Carpenter,  the  famous  town 
clerk,  also  contributed  to  the  cost  of  glazing  and  paving  the  new 
Guildhall,  and  paid  half  the  expense  of  building  the  library  there; 
they  repaired  St  Bartholomew's  hospital,  and  provided  b<»5es  for 
water  at  Billingsgate  and  Cripplegate.  But  the  chief  of  Whitting- 
too's  foundations  was  his  college  at  St  Michael,  Paternoster 
church,  and  the  adjoining  hospital  The  college  was  dissolved 
at  the  Reformation,  but  the  hospital  or  almshouses  are  still 
maintained  by  the  Mcrceis'  Company  at  Highgate.  Whittington 
was  buried  at  St  Michael's  church.  Stow  relates  that  his  tomb 
was  spoiled  during  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  but  that  under  Mary 
the  parishioners  were  compelled  to  restore  it  (Survey ^  i.  243). 
Whittington  had  a  house  near  St  Michael's  church;  it  is  doubtful 
whether  he  had  any  connexion  with  the  so-called  Whittington 
Palace  in  Hart  Street,  Mark  Lane.  There  is  no  proof  that  he  was 
ever  knighted;  Stow  does  not  call  him  Sir  Richard.  Much  of 
Whittington 's  fame  was  probably  due  to  the  magnificence  of  his 
charities.  But  a  writer  of  the  next  generation  bears  witness  to 
his  commercial  success  in  A  Libeli  of  English  Policy  by  styling 
him  "  thesunne  of  marchaundy.  that  k>destarre  and  chief 'Chosen 
flower," 

"  Pen  and  paper  may  not  me  suffice 
Him  to  describe,  so  high  he  was  of  price." 

The  Richard  Whittington  of  history  is  thus  very  different  from 
the  Dick  Whittington  of  popular  legend,  which  makes  him  a 
poor  orphan  employed  as  a  scullion  by  the  rich  merchant,  Sir 
Hugh  Fitawarren,  who  ventures  the  cat,  his  only  possession, 
on  one  of  bis  master's  ships.  Distressed  by  ill-treatment  he 
runs  away,  but  turns  back  when  he  hears  from  Holloway  the 
prophetic  peal  of  Bow  bells.  He  returns  to  find  that  his  venture 
has  brought  him  a  fortune,  marries  his  master's  daughter,  and 


succeeds  to  his  business.  The  legend  is  not  referred  to  by  Stow, 
whose  love  for  exposing  fables  would  assuredly  have  prompted 
him  to  notice  it  if  it  had  been  well  established  when  he  wrote. 
The  first  reference  to  the  story  comes  wit*-  the  licensing  in  1605 
of  a  play,  now  lost,  The  History  of  Richard  WkiUingUm,  tj 
his  lowe  byrth,  his  great  fortune.  Thomas  Heywood  in  1606 
makes  one  of  the  characters  in  //  you  hnow  not  me  you  hnow 
nobody^  allude  to  the  legend,  to  be  rebuked  by  another  because 
"4hey  did  more  wrong  to  the  gentleman."  "The  legend 'of 
Whittington,"  probably  meaning  the  play  of  1605,  is  also 
mentioned  by  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  in  1611  in  The  Knight 
of  the  Burning  Pestle.  The  stoiy  was  then  no  doubt  popular. 
When  a  little  later  Robert  Elstracke,  the  engraver,  published  a 
supposed  portrait  of  Whittington  with  his  hand  resting  on  a  sktiU, 
he  had  in  deference  to  the  public  fancy  to  substitute  a  cat; 
copies  in  the  first  state  are  very  rare.  Attempts  have  been  made 
to  explain  the  stoiy  as  possibly  referring  to  vessels  called  "  cats," 
which  were  employed  in  the  North  S^  trade,  or  to  the  French 
aehai  (purchase).  But  Thomas  Keightley  traced  the  cat  story  in 
Persian,  Danish  and  Italian  folk-lore  at  least  as  far  back  as 
the  Z3th  century.  The  assertion  that  a  carved  figure  of  a  cat 
existed  on  Newgate  gaol  before  the  great  fire  is  an  unsupported 
assiunption. 

Bibliography,— The  most  important  early  references  to  Whitting- 
ton are  contained  in  Dr  R.  R.  bhaipe's  Calendar  of  Letter-hook  H\ 
H.  T.  Riley's  Menwrials  of  Londoni  and  Political  Songs,  ii.  17B 
(Rolls  series).  For  his  charities  see  Stow's  Survey  of  London  (ed. 
C.  L.  Kin^ord,  1908).  For  documents  relating  to  Whittington 
College  sec  Dugdale,  Monasticon  A  nglicanum,  vi.  740,  and  the  Calendar 
of  Patent  Rolls,  Henry  VL,  ii.  214-217.  Samuel  Lysons  collected  the 
facts,  but  accepted  the  legend  in  The  Model  Merchant  of  the  MuUk 
Ages  (i860).  The  Life  by  W.  Besant  and  J.  Rice  does  not  improve 
on  Lysons.  Some  useful  references  will  be  found  in  J.  H.  VVylie's 
History  of  England  under  Henrp  IV,  For  an  examination  01  the 
legend  «ce  T.  Keightley 's  Tale f  and  Popular  Fictions,  pp.  241-3^6 
(1834).  and  H.  B.  Wheatley^s  preface  to  his  edition  of  The  History 
of  Sir  Ruhard  Whittington  (first  published  in  1656).        (C  U  K.) 

WHITTINGTON,  an  urban  district  in  the  north-eastern 
parliamentary  division  of  Derbyshire,  En^and,  10  m.  S.  by  E. 
of  Sheffield  and  2  m.  N.  of  Chesterfield,  on  the  Midland  railway. 
Pop.  (1901)  9416.  The  parish  church  of  St  Bartholomew  was 
restored  after  its  destruction  by  fire,  excepting  the  tower  and 
spire,  in  1SQ5.  Samuel  Pegge,  the  antiquary  (i  704-1 796).  was 
vicar  of  Whittington  and  Heath  for  many  years,  and  was  buried 
here.  Stone  bottles  and  coarse  earthenware  are  manufactured 
in  the  town,  where  there  are  also  hirge  ironworks,  collieries  and 
brickworks.  A  small  stone  cottage,  known  as  Revolution  House, 
was  the  meeting>place  of  John  Darcy,  the  xst  eari  of  Danby, 
and  the  4th  earl  of  Devonshire,  who  there  concerted  the  plans 
by  which,  in  168S,  the  Whig  party  brought  about  the  fall  of 
James  IL  and  the  succession  of  William  III.  It  was  then  a 
hostelry,  known  as  the  '*  Cock  and  Pynot  ";  pynot  being  the 
local  name  for  a  magpie. 

WHITTLE8BA  (or  Wbittlescy),  WILUAH  (d.  1374),  arch* 
bishop  of  Canterbury,  was  probably  bonvin  the  Cambridgcshiie 
village  of  Whittlesey.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  owing 
principally  to  the  fact  that  he  was  a  nephew  of  Simon  Islip, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  he  received  numerous  ecclesiastical 
preferments;  he  held  prebends  at  Lichfield,  Chichester  and. 
Lincoln,  and  livings  at  Ivychurch,  Croydon  and  CHffe.  Later  he 
was  appointed  vicar-general,  and  then  dean  of  the  court  of  arches 
by  Islip.  In  1360  he  became  bishop  of  Rochester,  and  two  years 
later  bishop  of  Worcester.  In  1368  Whiltlesea  was  elected 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  succession  to  SSmon  Langham,  but 
his  term  of  office  was  very  uneventful,  a  circumstance  due  partly, 
but  not  wholly,  to  his  feeble  heakh.  He  died  at  Lambeth  on  the 
5th  or  6th  of  June  1374. 

WHITTLESEY,  a  market  town  in  the  Wisbech  parliamentary 
division  of  Cambridgeshire,  England,  5^  m.  £.  of  Peterboroii^h, 
between  that  city  and  March,  00  the  Great  Eastern  railway. 
Pop.  of  urban  district  (iQOi)  39091  It  lies  on  a  gentle  eminence 
in  the  flat  fen  country,  and  the  fine  Perpendiciibir  tower  and  spire 
of  the  church  of  St  Mary  are  a  hindmark  from  far.  A  little  to 
the  north  is  the  great  artificial  cut  carrying  the  waters  of  ifat 


6i6 


WHITWORTH— WHOOPING-COUGH 


river  Nene;  and  the  neighbourhood  b  intersected  with  many 
other  navigable  "  drains.'*  To  the  south-west  b  the  traa  known 
as  Whittlesey  Mere,  6  m.  distant  from  the  town,  in  Huntingdon- 
shire. It  was  a  lake  until  modem  times,  when  it  was  included  in 
a  scheme  of  drainage.  The  so-called  Whittlesey  Wash,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  town,  b  among  several  tracts  in  the  fens 
which  are  perennially  flooded.  St  Mary's  church  b  principally 
Perpendicular,  but  has  Norman  and  Decorated  portions;  the 
church  of  St  Andrew  is  also  Decorated  and  Perpendicular.  The 
town  has  manufactures  of  bricks  and  tiles,  and  a  considerable 
agricultural  trade. 

WHITWORTH,   SIR  JOSEPH.   Bart.    (1803-1887),   Englbh 
engineer,  was  born  at  Stockport,  near  Manchester,  on  the  21st 
of  December  1803.    On  leaving  school  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he 
was  placed  with  an  uncle  who  was  a  cotton>spinner,  with  the  view 
of  becoming  a  partner  in  the  business;  but  hb  mechanical  tastes 
were  not  satbfied  with  thb  occupation,  and  in  about  four  years 
he  gave  it  up.    He  then  spent  some  time  with  various  machine 
manufacturers  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Manchester,  and  in 
1825  moved  to  London,  where  he  gained  more  experience  in 
machine  shops,  including  those  of  Henry  Maudslay.    In  1853 
he  returned  to  Manchester  and  started  in  bu^ness  as  a  tool- 
maker.    In  1840  he  attended  the  meeting  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion at  Glasgow,  and  read  a  paper  on  the  preparation  and  value 
of  true  planes,  describing  the  method  which  he  had  successfully 
used  for  making  them  when  at  Maudslay's,  and  which  depended 
on  the  principle  that  if  any  two  of  three  surfaces  exactly  fit  each 
other,  all  three  must  be  true  planes.   The  accuracy  of  workman- 
ship thus  indicated  was  far  ahead  of  what  was  contemplated 
at  the  time  as  possible  in  mechanical  engineering,  but  Whitworth 
not  only  proved  that  it  could  be  attained  in  practice,  but  also 
showed  how  it  could  be  measured.    He  found  that  if  two  tnie 
planes  were  arranged  parallel  to  e4ch  other,  an  exceedingly  small 
motion  towards  or  from  each  other  was  sufficient  to  determine 
whether  an  object  placed  between  them  was  held  firmly  or 
allowed.io  drop,  and  by  raotmting  one  of  the  planes  on  a  screwed 
shaft  provided  with  a  comparatively  large  wheel  bearing  a  scale 
on  its  periphery,  he  was  able  to  obtain  a  very  exact  measurement 
of  the  amount,  however  minute,  by  which  the  distance  between 
the  planes  was  altered,  by  observing  through  what  angular 
distance  the  wheel  had  been  turned.    In  1841,  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  he  urged  the  necessity 
for  the  adoption  of  a  uniform  system  of  screw  threads  in  place 
of  the  various  heterogeneous  pitches  then  employed.  His  system 
of  standard  gauges  was  also  widely  adopted.    The  principles 
of  exact  measurement  and  workmanship  which  he  advocated 
were  strictly  observed  in  hbown  manufactory,  with  the  result 
that  in  the  Exhibition  of  1851  he  had  a  show  of  machine  toob 
which  were  far  ahead  of  those  of  any  competitor.    It  was  doubt- 
less this  superiority  in  machine  construction  that  caused  the 
government  three  years  later  to  requ<»t  him  to  design,  and 
estimate  for  making,  the  machinery  for  producing  rifled  muskets 
at  the  new  factory  at  Enfield.    He  did  not  see  hb  way  to  agree  to 
the  proposition  in  this  form,  but  it  was  ultimately  settled  that  he 
should  undertake  the  machinery  for  tlie  barr^  only.    Finding 
that  there  was  no  established  practice  to  guide  him,  he  b^an  a 
series  of  experiments  to  determine  the  best  principles  for  the 
manufacture  of  rifle  barrels  and  projectiles.    He  ultimately 
arrived  at  a  weapon  in  which  the  necessary  rotation  of  the  pro- 
iectile  was  obtained,  not  by  means  of  grooving,  but  by  making 
the  barrel  polygonal  in  fonn,  with  gently  rounded  angles,  the 
bullets  aho  being  polygonal  and  thus  travelling  on  broad  bearing- 
surfaces  along  the  rotating  polygon.    The  projectile  he  favoured 
was  3  to  3i  calibres  in  kngth,  and  the  bore  he  fixed  on  was 
0-45  in.,  which  was  at  first  looked  upon  as  too  smalL      It  is  re- 
ported that  at  the  trial  in  1857  weapons  made  according  to  these 
principles  excelled  the  Enfield  weapons  in  accuracy  of  fire, 
penetration  and  range  to  a  degree  "  which  hardly  leaves  room 
for  comparison."    He  also  constructed  heavy  guiu  on  the  same 
lines;  these  were  tried  in  competition  with  Armstrong's  ordnance 
in  1864  and  1865,  and  in  their  inventor's  opinion  gave  the  better 
BtsuUs,  but  th^  were  not  adopted  by  the  government.    In 


constructing  them  Whitworth  experuaoed  difficntty  in  fettfanf 
large  steel  castings  of  suitable  soundness  tad  ductility,  and  thus 
was  led  about  1870  to  devise  hb  oompreased  sted  process,  in 
which  the  metal  b  subjected  to  hi^  pressure  mtdle  stiE  in  the 
fluid  state,  and  b  afterwards  forged  in  hydraulic  presses,  not  by 
hammers.  In  1868  he  founded  the  Whitwocth  scholarships, 
setting  aside  an  annual  sum  of  £3000  to  be  given  Ux  **  inteUigenoe 
and  proficiency  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  mechanics  and  its 
cognate  sciences,"  and  in  the  following  year  he  was  created  a 
baronet.  He  died  at  Monte  Carlo,  whither  he  had  gone  for  the 
sake  of  hb  health,  on  the  22nd  of  January  1887.  In  addition 
to  handing  over  £roo,ooo  to  the  Science  and  Art  Department  for 
the  permanent  endowment  of  the  thirty  Whitworth  scholarships, 
hb  residuary  legatees,  in  pursuance  of  what  they  knew  to  be  hb 
intentions,  expended  over  half  a  million  on  charitable  and  educa' 
tional  objects,  mainly  in  Manchester  and  the  neighbourhood. 

WHOOPINO-COUGH,  or  Hoopmo-CoUGH  (syn.  Pertussis, 
Chin-cough) ,  a  specific  infective  disease  of  the  respiratory  mucous 
membrane,  of  microbic  origin  (see  Pasasitic  Diseases),  mani- 
festing itself  by  frequently  recurring  paroxysms  of  convulsive 
coughing  accompanied  with  peculiar  sonorous  inspirations  (or 
whoops).  Although  specially  a  disease  of  childhood,  whoopmg- 
cough  is  by  no  means  limited  to  that  period  but  may  occur  at  any 
time  of  life.  It  b  one  of  the  most  dangerous  diseases  of  infancyi 
the  yearly  death-rate  in  England  and  Wales  for  each  of  the 
five  years  1904-1908  being  greater  than  that  from  scarlet  fever 
and  typhoid  added  together.  The  majority  of  these  deaths  were 
in  infants  under  one  year,  97%  in  children  under  $  years 
(Tatham).  It  b  more  common  in  female  than  in  male  children. 
There  b  a  distinct  period  of  incubation  variously  estimated  at 
from  two  to  ten  days.  Three  stages  of  the  disease  are  recognized, 
viz.  (x)  the  catarrhal  stage,  (2)  the  spasmodic  or  pannysmal 
stage,  (3)  the  stage  of  dedine. 

The  first  stage  b  characterized  by  the  ordinary  phenomena 
of  a  catarrh,  with  sneezing,  watering  of  the  eyes,  irritation  of  the 
throat,  feverishness  and  cough,  but  in  general  there  is  nothing 
in  the  symptoms  to  indicate  that  they  are  to  develop  into 
whooping-cough,  but  the  presence  of  an  ulcer  on  the  fraenun 
linguae  b  said  to  be  diagnostic  The  catarrhal  stage  usually 
lasts  from  ten  to  fourteen  days.  The  second  stage  b  marked  by 
the  abatement  of  the  catarrhal  ssrmptoms,  but  at  the  same  time 
by  increase  in  the  cough,  which  now  occurs  in  irregular  paroxysms 
both  by  day  and  by  night.  Each  paroxysm  consists  in  a  series 
of  violent  and  rapid  expiratory  coughs,  succeeded  by  a  loud 
sonorous  dr  crowing  inspiration — the  *' whoop."  During  the 
coughing  efforts  the  air  b  driven  with  great  force  out  of  the  lungs, 
and  as  none  can  enter  the  chest  the  symptoms  of  impending 
a^hyxia  appear.  The  patient  grows  deep-reid  or  livkl  in  the  face, 
the  eyes  appear  as  if  they  would  burst  from  their  sockets,  and 
suffocation  seems  imminent  till  relief  b  brought  by  the  *'  whoop  " 
— ^the  louder  and  more  vigorous  the  better.  Occasionally  blood 
bursts  from  the  nose,  mouth  and  ears,  or  is  extravasated  into 
the  conjunctiva  of  the  eyes.  A  sin^  fit  rarely  lasts  beyond  from 
half  to  three-quarters  of  a  minute,  but  after  the  ** whoop" 
another  recurs,  and  of  these  a  number  may  come  and  go  for 
several  minutes.  The  paroxysm  ends  by  the  coughing  or  vomiting 
up  of  a  viscid  tenacious  secretion,  and  usually  after  thb  the 
patient  seems  comparatively  well,  or,  it  may  be,  somewhat 
wearied  and  fretful.  The  frequency  of  the  paroxysms  varies 
according  to  the  severity  of  the  case,  being  in  some  instances  only 
to  the  extent  of  one  or  two  in  the  whole  day,  while  in  others 
there  may  be  several  in  the  course  of  a  angle  hour.  Slight  causes 
serve  to  bring  on  the  fits  of  coughing,  such  as  the  acts  of  swallow- 
ing, talking,  laughing,  crying,  &c.,  or  they  may  occur  without 
any  apparent  exciting  cause.  In  general  children  come  to 
recognize  an  impending  attack  by  a  feeling  of  tickling  in  the 
throat,  and  they  ding  with  dread  to  their  mothers  or  nurses,  or 
take  hold  of  some  object  near  them  for  support  during  the 
paroxysm;  but  although  exhausted  by  the  severe  fit  of  coughing 
they  soon  resume  thrir  play,  apparently  little  the  worse.  The 
atucks  are  on  the  whole  most  severe  at  night.  This  stage  of 
the  disease  usually  continues  for  tliirty  to  fifty  days,  bat  it  may 


WHYMPER— WHYTE-MELVILLE 


617 


be  diorter  or  longer.  It  b  duxxng  this  time  that  complications 
are  apt  to  arise  which  may  become  a  source  of  danger  greater 
even  than  the  malady  itsdf.  The  chief  of  these  are  inflamma- 
tory affections  of  the  bronchi  and  lungs  and  convulsions,  any  of 
which  may  prove  fatal.  When,  however,  the  disease  progresses 
favourably,  the  third  or  Urminal  stage  is  announced  by  the  less 
frequent  paroxysms  of  the  cough,  which  generally  loses  in  great 
measure  its  "  whooping  '*  character.  The  patient's  condition 
altogether  undergoes  amendment,  and  the  symptoms  disappear 
in  from  one  to  three  weeks.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that 
for  a  long  period  afterwards  in  any  simple  catarrh  from  which 
the  patient  suffers  the  cough  often  assumes  a  spasmodic  character, 
which  may  suggest  the  erroneous  notion  that  a  relapse  of  the 
whooping-cough  has  occurred. 

In  severe  cases  it  occasionally  happens  that  the  disease  leaves 
behind  it  such  structural  changes  in  the  lungs  (emphysema, 
&c.),  as  entail  permanent  shortness  of  breathing  or  a  liability  to 
attacks  of  asthma.  Further,  whooping-cough  is  well  known  to 
be  one  of  those  diseases  of  early  Ufe  which  are  apt  to  give  rise 
to  a  weakened  and  vulnerable  state  of  the  general  health,  or 
to  call  into  activity  any  inherited  morbid  tendency,  sudi  as  that 
towards  consumption. 

As  regards  the  treatment  in  mild  cases,  little  is  necessary 
beyond  keeping  the  [Milient  warm  and  carefully  attending  to  the 
general  health.  The  remedies  applicable  in  the  case  of  catarrh 
or  the  milder  forms  of  bronchitis  are  <^  service  here,  while  gentle 
counter-irritation  to  the  chest  by  stimulating  lim'ments  may  be 
employed  all  through  the  attack.  In  mild  weather  the  patient 
may  be  in  the  open  air.  An  abdominal  binder  should  be  worn 
night  and  day  in  order  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  hernia. 
Systematic  disinfection  of  the  sputum  by  means  of  a  solution 
of  corrosive  sublimate  or  by  burning  sboul  i  be  practised  in  order 
to  check  the  q>read  of  infection.  In  the  more  severe  forms 
efforts  have  to  be  employed  to  modify  the  severity  of  the 
paroxysms.  Numerous  remedies  are  recommended,  the  chief 
of  which  are  the  bromides  of  ammonium  or  potassium,  chloral, 
codeine,  &c.  These  can  only  be  safely  administered  under 
medical  advice,  and  with  due  regard  to  the  symptoms  in 
individual  cases.  Zhiring  convalescence,  where  the  cou^  still 
continues  (o  be  troublesome,  a  change  of  air  will  often  effect  its 
removal. 

WHYHPIBR,  BDWASD  (1840-  ),  British  artist,  explorer 
and  mountaineer,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  ayth  of  April  1840. 
The  son  of  an  artist,  he  was  at  an  early  age  trained  to  the  profes- 
sion of  a  wood-engraver.  In  i86o  be  was  oommissiooed  to  make 
a  series  of  sketches  of  Alpine  scenery,  and  undertook  an  extensive 
journey  in  the  Central  and  Western  Alps.  Among  the  objects 
of  this  tour  was  the  illustration  of  an  attempt,  which  proved 
unsuccessful,  made  by  Professor  Bonney's  party,  to  ascend  Mont 
Pclvoux,  at  that  time  believed  to  be  the  highest  peak  of  the 
Dauphin£  Alps.  He  successfully  accomplished  the  ascent  in 
i86i>— the  first  of  a  series  of  expeditions  that  threw  much  light 
on  the  topography  of  a  district  at  that  time  very  imperfectly 
mapped.  From  the  summit  of  Mont  Pelyoux  he  discovered  that 
it  was  overtopped  by  a  neigfabouxing  peak,  subsequently  named 
the  Pointe  des  £crins,  which,  before  the  annexation  of  Savoy 
added  Mont  Blanc  to  the  possessions  of  France,  was  the  highest 
point  in  the  French  Alps.  Its  ascent  by  Mr  Whymper's  party 
in  1864  was  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  feat  of  mountaineering 
op  to  that  date.  The  years  r86i  to  1865  are  filled  with  a  number 
of  newexpeditions  in  the  Mont  Blanc  group  and  the  Pennine  Alps, 
among  them  the  ascent  of  the  Aiguille  Verte  and  the  crossing  of 
the  Moming  Pass.  Professor  Tyndall  and  Mr  Whsrmper  emu- 
lated each  other  in  fruitless  attempts  to  reach  the  summit  of  the 
Matterhom  by  the  south-western  or  Italian  ridge.  Mr  Whymper, 
Six  times  repulsed,  determined  to  try  the  eastern  face,  convinced 
that  its  predpitous  appearance  when  viewed  from  Zermatt  was 
an  optical  illusiota,  and  that  the  dip  of  the  strata,  which  on  the 
Italian  side  formed  a  continuous  series  of  overhangs,  should  make 
the  opposite  ride  a  natural  staircase.  His  attempt  by  what  is  now 
tlie  usual  route  was  crowned  with  success  (14th  of  July  1865); 
bat  on  the  descent  flour  of  the  party  slipped  and  were  kiUed,  and 


only  the  breaking  of  the  rope  saved  Mr  Whymper  aiid  the  two 
remaining  guides  from  the  same  fate.  The  account  of  his 
attempts  on  the  Matterhom  occupies  the  greater  part  of  his 
ScranMes  among  the  Alps  (1871),  in  which  the  illustrations 
are  engraved  by  the  author  himself,  and  are  very  beautiful. 
His  campaign  of  1865  had  been  planned  to  exercise  his  judgment 
inr  the  choice  of  routes  as  a  pi^eparation  for  an  expedition  to 
Greenland  {1867).  This  resulted  in  an  important  collection  of 
fossil  plants,  which  were  described  by  Professor  Hccr  and 
deposited  in  the  British  Museum.  Mr  Whymper's  report  was 
published  in  the  Reptfrt  of  the  British  Association  for  the  year 
i860.  Though  hampered  by  want  of  means  and  by  the  prevalence 
of  an  epidemic  among  the  natives,  he  proved  that  the  Interior 
could  be  explored  by  the  use  of  suitably  constracted  sledges,  and 
thus  contributed  an  important  advance  to  Arctic  exploration. 
Another  expedition  followed  in  1872,  and  was  devoted  to  a  survey 
of  the  coast-line.  He  next  organized  an  expedition  to  Ecuador, 
designed  primarily  to  collect  data  for  the  study  of  mountain- 
sickness  and  of  the  effect  of  diminished  pressure  on. the  human 
frame.  He  took  as  his  chief  guide  Jean-Antoine  Carrel,  whose 
subsequent  death  from  exhaustion  on  the  Matterhom  after 
bringing  his  employers  into  safety  through  a  snowstorm  forms 
one  of  the  noblest  pages  in  the  history  of  mountainecrini;.  During 
1880  Mr  Whymper  on  two  occasions  ascended  Chimborazo, 
whose  summit,  20,500  ft.  above  sea-level,  had  never  before  been 
reached;  spent  a  night  on  the  summit  of  Cotopaxi,  and  made 
first  ascents  of  half-a-dozen  other  great  peaks.  In  1892  he 
published  the  results  of  his  journey  in  a  volume,  entitled  Tra»ds 
amongst  the  GretU  Andes  9/  the  Equator.  His  observations  on 
mountain-sickness  led  him  to  conclude  that  it  was  caused  by 
"diminution  in  atmospheric  pressure,  which  operates  in  at  least 
two  ways— namely,  (a)  by  lessening  the  value  of  the  air  that  can 
be  inspired  in  any  given  time,  and  (6)  by  causing  the  air  or  gas 
within  the  body  to  expand,  and  to  press  upon  the  internal  organs"; 
and  that  "  the  effects  produced  by  (6)  may  be  temporary  and 
pass  away  when  equilibrium  has  been  restored  between  the 
internal  and  external  pressure."  The  publication  of  his  work 
was  recognized  on  the  part  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society 
by  the  award  of  the  Patron's  medal.  His  experiences  in  South 
America  having  convinced  him  of  certain  serious  errors  in  the 
readings  of  aneroid  barometers  at  high  altitudes,  he  pubhshed  a 
work,  entitled  Hcno  to  Use  the  Aneroid  Barometer ^  and  succeeded 
in  introducing  important  improvements  in  their  constmction. 
He  afterwards  published  two  guide-books  to  Zermatt  and 
Chamonix.  In  1901-1905  he  undertook  an  expedition  in  the 
region  of  the  Great  Divide  of  the  Canadian  Rockies. 

WHYTB,  ALKZANDER  (1837-  ),  Scottish  divine,  was 
bom  at  Kirriemuir  in  Forfarshire  on  the  xjth  of  January  1837, 
and  was  educated  at  the  imiversity  of  Aberdeen  and  at  New 
College,  Edinburgh.  He  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland  and  after  serving  as  colleague  in  Free  St  John's^ 
Glasgow  (i866-i87o),Temoved  to  Edinburgh  as  colleague  and 
successor  to  Dr  R.  S.  Candlish  at  Free  St  George's.  In  1909  he 
succeeded  Dr  Marctis  Dods  as  prindpal,  and  professor  of  New 
Testament  literature,  at  New  College,  E<i^burgh. 

Among  his  publications  are  Characters  and  Ptaratteristies  ej 
William  Lam  (1893);  Bnnyan  Characters  (t  vob.,  1894);  Samuk 
Ruthei/ord  (1894);  An  Aj>pndaiioH  of  Jacob  Behmem  (1895); 
Lancelot  Andremes  and  his  Prioate  Devotions  (1895) ;  Bible  Character* 
(7  vols.,  1897);  Santa  Teresa  (1897);  Father  John  of  Cronslait 
(1898);  An  Aptreeiaiion  ofBrorone's  tCeligto  Medici  (1898} ;  Cardinal 
Newman,  An  Appreciation  (1901). 

WHTTB-MBLVHXB.  QBORGB  JORH  (i82t-r878),  English 
novelist,  son  of  John  Whyte-Melville  of  Strathkinness,  Fifeshtre, 
and  grandson  on  his  mother's  side  of  the  5th  duke  of  Leeds, 
was  bom  on  the  19th  of  June  1821.  Whyte-Melville  received  his 
education  at  Eton,  entered  the  army  in  1839,  became  captain  in 
the  Coldstream  Guards  in  1846  and  retired  in  1849.  After  trans- 
lating Horace  (1850)  in  fluent  and  graceful  verse,  he  published 
his  first  novel,  Dighy  Grand,  in  1853.  The  unflagging  verve  and 
intimate  technical  knowledge  with  which  he  described  sporting 
scenes  and  sporting  characters  at  once  drew  attention  to  him  as 
a  novd&t  with  a  now  vein.    He  was  the  laureate  of  foz-hm[iting; 


6i8 


WICHITA— WICKLOW 


■11  Ilit  DW9t  popular  ud  dJMioctive  bsoa  ud  bsoiiiti.  Difby 
Cnnd,  Tdbuty  Nogo,  the  Honourable  Cruhcr,  Mr  Sawyer, 
Kite  CoVFDIiy,  Mn  LuceUo,  are  or  would  be  loighLybunlen. 
Tilbury  JVofo  wu  toDiiibuied  lo  tlie  SpBriim  Uatatint  is  iSu 
and  published  separalely  in  1S54-  He  showed  in  Ihe  advenluTcs 
of  Mr  Nogo — and  it  became  more  apparent  in  hu  later  vortt — ■ 
that  he  bad  a  Huec  hand  in  humaiout  nanalive  than  in  pubelk 
dcscripLion;  his  palboi  a  the  palhu  of  the  ptocbei.  Hit  neit 
novel,  Cau'ol  Bmiur,  at>peared  in  Fraw'i  Uafatm  (i8m). 
Vihca  the  Crimean  War  broke  out  Whyle-MelviUe  weBl  out  aa 
■  volunteer  maior  of  Turiciih  irregular  avalryi  but  this  waa 
the  only  break  in  hb  literaiy  career  Inxn  the  time  that  he  began 
to  viile  novel!  till  his  death.  By  a  strange  icddent.  he  k»l  hit 
life  in  the  bunting-Geld  on  the  5 tb  of  December  187S,  tbe  ben> 
ol  many  a  slifl  ride  meeting  his  fate  in  galloping  quietly  over  an 
ordinary  ploughed  field  in  the  Vale  of  the  While  Hone. 
IheCrimear*""*""™        ""    "  " 


^KaU  Comuy  Itiii);  Tin  h 

■)\  Coodjor  !ft*int±iKl};  It. 

•    Marias    (1862):    rii   Cladia. 

Bnoumt™  vl«t4);  Cuist  (1B66);  Binia  a. 

AJoneUo  liiTiy.  UJtdtJoifi  (18741;  SUl 
film  {1875):  Jimiiu  (1875);  «^''  »■>/'  {' 
ilSjty.    Scita.1  ol  iheK  noveli  lie  biHoni 

KoMpt  the  movL  faniDiw  of  them.  As  an  h 
IvUk  la  Bat  equal  to  Harrnod  Aintworth 
and  miauteneid  of  detail:  thi(  he  make*  his  el 
with  gttat  viiAlnes).  It  is  on  hit  portraiture 
Ire  society  thai  hn  reputation  a>  a  novdtft 
r  Dpd  then  a  chancter  rmppears,  such  as  (b 
'    '      "      n[  meple-chaaer.  PT  the  i 


iiy  mepk  chaaer.  or  ihs  laiciiBiinf  ininiDi 

lelnvcniuin  ct  incklenH  is  anuf inc.   Whyie- 

iUh  of  Bjortint  society  lor  hii iincn- 

»— •  a>  tbe  pirfrxipsl.nwralin  of  Ih^i 


lion,  but  may  alio  be  laitl^  > 

society;  heeicertcd  a  constdcrable  and  a ' ,.  ...  .-. 

mamei*  and  moiabol  lbs  giUed  youth  of  hiKioH.  Kit^Miiaiid 
Vma  (1M9)  and  hit  metrical  X^iiil  lifttt  Tnt  Crm  (iil7j).  ibouili 
tnpectable  in  pouil  of  wnificatioD,  are  cf  do  particuUr  merit. 

WICBITA,  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indian  d  Caddoan 
■lock.  They  call  themselves  KJlikilish  or  Tawfbash.  Their 
former  range  was  between  the  Red  and  Washita  rivers,  Oklahoma, 
and  they  ate  now  on  a  reietvalian  there.  They  were  kinsmen 
d  the  Pawnee,  and  the  French  called  ihun  Fani  Plqui  ("  Tat- 
tooed Pawnee '').  lliey  were  known  to  other  Indians  as  Ihe 
"Tattooed  People"  in  aUusion  to  the  extensive  lalloalng 
customary  among  them.   They  numbered  jooeinotabout  iSoo, 

WlCHIti.  a  dty  and  tbe  counO'-sest  of  Sedgwick  tsunty, 
Kinsai,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Arkansas  river,  at  the  mouth  ol  the 
Utile  Arkansas,  30S  m.  (by  rail}  S,W.  ol  Kansaa  City.  Fop. 
(iMo)  4{iii;  (1890)  sifia;  £1900)  a+.Sri,  of  whom  1447  were 
foreigD-hom  and  1389  were  negroes;  (igie  census],  S),4jo. 
Area,  1S.7S  iq,  m.  WidiiU  is  served  by  the  AichisMi,  Topeka 
&  Santa  i'i,  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  PadSc.  the  Missouri 
Fadfic,  the  Si  Louis  tc  San  Frandica,  and  the  Kansas  Oty, 
Mexico  &  Orient  railways-  The  site  ol  the  dty  is  level,  about 
Tjtu  It.  above  the  sea.  The  priodpol  public  buildings  are  the 
Federal  building,  the  dty  hAU,  Ihe  CDUDly  court  bDu»,ay,M.C.A. 
building,  an  audilAtium  uid  eiposiiion  hall  and  a  Masonic 
Temple.  In  Wichita  ore  Faimuunt  College  (Congregational; 
co-educational;  organized  as  a  preparatoty  school  in  iSgi  and  aa 
a  college  in  iSgs);  Friends'  University  (Sodely  of  Friends; 
co-educiUona] ;  iSciS);  and  Mount  Cuinel  Academy  and  the 
Fro-Cithedral  School  (both  Roman  Catholic).  Aniong  the  dly'i 
parks  (art*  in  igog,  31}  acres)  i«  one  (Rivenide)  of  146  acres. 
The  dty  i>  supplied  wilh  natural  gas.  Wichita  is  a  transporta- 
tion cenlie  for  Ihe  rich  agricultural  region  surroundini;  it,  and  is 
an  important  market  for  broom-com.  In  rgo5  it  ranked  third 
among  the  dties  of  the  alate  in  value  of  its  factory  product 
(tl,iSg,S44].  The  ptindpal  iodusliy  is  slaughleriog  and  meat- 
packing. Hie  Kansas  Gty,  Meiico  &  Orient  railway  has  cgi- 
shapa  here.    Wichita,  named  from  an  Indian  tribe,  was  sellled 

adopted  hy  popular  vole  government  by  commission  under  a 
stale  law  (^  1007  providing  l<s  a  mayor  and  four  1 


beads  of  tbe  executive,  finance,  Mnets  and  public  {mprovemcDti, 
parks,  public  buildings  and  healib,  and  wolei  and  lights  depart- 
menli,  all  elected  (or  two  years  and  nominated  by  primary 
election  or  by  petition  signed  by  at  least  ij  voters. 

WICK,  a  royal,  municipal  and  pi^ice  burgh,  seaport  and 
county  iDwn  of  Caithness.  Scotland.  Fop.  (igoi)  7911.  Il  is 
situated  at  the  head  of  Wick  Bay,  on  Ihe  North  Sea,  31J  m.  N. 
of  Edinburgh,  by  the  North  British  and  Highland  railways- 
It  consists  of  the  old  buigh  and  Loultbuigh,  iia  continuation, 
on  the  north  bank  of  tbe  tivei  Wick,  and  of  Pulleneyiown,  the 
chief  ical  of  comnerce  and  trade,  on  the  south  side-  Pulieney- 
town,  laid  out  in  i3oj  by  Ihe  British  Fishery  Society,  is  built  on 
a  regular  plan;  and  Wick  proper  consisls  chieily  ol  the  narrow 
and  irregular  High  Slreel,  with  Bridge  Street,  more  regulariy 
built,  which  contains  the  town  hall  and  the  county  buildmgs. 
In  Fulteneytown  there  are  an  academy,  a  chamber  of  commerce, 

buildings  are  the  free  libraries,  Ihe  Rhind  Charitable  Instilulioo 
and  the  combination  boepilaL  Theport  CDoaisIsof  two  barboun 
ol  fair  iiit,  but  the  enlranic  it  dangerous  in  ilormy  weather. 
The  chief  eipocU  are  fiih,  cattle  and  agrlcultun 


Leith  and  Aberdeen  run  twice 


1  prosperity. 


a  week  and  there  is  il»  weekly 
communication  witn  ^siromncss,  Kirkwall  and  Lerwick.     It  n 

years  it  was  the  chief  seal  ol  the  heriin^ 
but  lis  insufficienl  harbour  accommodation  has  hampered  its 
pcogress,  and  both  Peterhead  and  Fraserburgh  surpass  it  as 
fishing  pons.  Women  undertake  tlie  cleaning  and  curing,  and 
the  work  attracts  them  from  all  parts.  So  expert  ate  tbey  that 
on  tbe  occasion  of  a  heavy  catch  they  are  sent  as  for  even  as 
-Yarmouth  lo  direct  and  assist  the  local  hands.  Shipbuilding 
has  now  been  discontinued,  but  boat-buildiilg  and  net-making 
are  eilensively  carried  on.  There  are  also  coopeiage,  Ibe 
manufacture  of  fish-guano  and 'fish  pniducts.  Sour  mills,  steam 
saw  mills,  a  ropery  and  a  woollen  manufactory,  a  breweiy  and 
a  distillery.  The  towi),  with  Cromarty,  Dingwall,  Domocb, 
Kirkwall  and  Tain,  farms  the  Wick  group  ol  parliamentaiy 
buitht.  Wick  IVik  or  "  hay  "}  is  mentioiwl  al  early  as  1140. 
Il  was  constituted  a  royal  biugh  by  James  VI.  in  ijSg,  Its 
superior  being  then  Ceoige  Sinclair.  Jlh  eari  of  Caithness.    By 

the  betting-fishery,  but  its  real  importance  dates  from  Um 
{snstruction  of  a  harbour  in  iSoS. 

WICKLOW,  a  county  of  Ireland  In  the  proirince  of  Leinater, 
bounded  £.  by  Si  Gcsrge'a  Channel,  N.  by  the  county  of  Dublin, 
S.  by  Wexford  and  W.  by  Caiiow  and  detached  portions  at 
Kildait.  Tbe  area  is  jco,sie  acres  or  about  7SiBq-m-  Wicklow 
is  among  the  most  famous  counties  of  Ireland  for  beauty  of 
scenery,  both  coastal  and  more  csptdally  ii^nd.  The  coast  is 
precipitous  and  picturesque,  but  very  dangerous  of  approach 
owing  to  sandbanks.  There  ale  no  inlets  that  can  be  properly 
termed  bays.  The  harbour  at  Wicklow  has  a  considerable  trade} 
but  that  of  AiUow  is  suiLatile  only  for  small  vessels.  To  the 
north  of  the  iswn  of  Wicklow  there  is  a  remarkable  shioj^  beach, 
partly  piled  up  by  tbe  waves  and  cunenls-  The  cenlial  portino 
of  the  county  is  occupied  by  a  mountain  range,  forming  one  of  ths 
lour  prindpal  mountain  groups  of  Ireland.  The  tiirection  of  tho 
range  is  fmm  N.E-  to  S.W.,  and  the  highest  elevations  are  gener- 
ally attained  along  the  central  line.  The  range  consisu  of  long 
sweeping  moorlands,  rising  occauonally  by  precipitous  escarp- 
ments into  culminating  points,  the  hi^itit  summits  being 
Kippuie  (1473  il.),  Dufl  Hill  (1364),  Table  Mounlain  (;4ifi}  and 
LugnaquQla  (3039),  the  lost  acqiured  by  the  War  OHice  as  a 
manoeuvring  ground.  The  range  rises  from  the  north  by  ■ 
succession  of  ridges  inteisecied  by  deep  gleni^  and  subsides 
towards  the  bonlers  ol  Weifoni  and  Cailon.  To  the  north  its 
couiuy  Dublin,  and  add  al  traction  U  Ibe  souihcra 


lenllalou 


valleys  then 

the  mote  trmaikable  being  those  at  the  lower  end  ol  Cieomabiic 
and  the  lowct  end  of  Clendalough.    It  is  in  its  dc^  tftoi  that 


WIGlLtOW— WICtCRAM 


6lQ 


flmch  of  tB^  pecnfitf  dnnn  of  Wlcfclbw  fcwery  {» to  %•  fiMmd, 

the  frequently  nigged  aatunl  fafttufwoonlnsting  findy'with 
the  rich  and  liuniriant  foliage  of  tlie  extonsive  vooda  which  line 
their  faanka.  Among  the  more  &motu  of  these  glens  are  Glen- 
daloogh,  Daigle,  Glencree,  Glen  of  Oip  Downs,  Devil's  Glen, 
Glenmalure  and  the  beautiful  vale  of  Avoca  or  Ovoca.  The 
principal  riven  are  the  Liffey,  on  the  north-western  border; 
the.Vartry,  which  passes  through  Devil's  Glen  to  the  sea  north 
of  Wicklow  Head;  the  Avonmoie  and  the  Avonbeg,  which  iinite 
at  the  "  meeting  of  the  waters "  to  form  the  Avoca,  which  is 
afterwards  joined  by  the  Aughrim  ^nd  faUs  into  the  sea  at 
Arklow;  and  the  Slaney,  in  the  west  of  the  county,  pasdng  south- 
wards into  Carlow.  There  are  a  number  of  small  but  finely  situ- 
ated lalces  in  the  valleys,  the  prindpal  being  Loughs  Dan,  Bray  and 
Tay  or  Luggelaw,  and  the  longhs  of  Glendaloug^.  The  trout- 
fishing  is  generally  fair.  Owing  to  its  protimity  to  Dublin  and 
its  accessibility  from  England,  the  portions  of  the  county  possess- 
ing scenic  interest  have  been  opened  up  to  great  advantage. 
Bray  in  the  jaorth  is  one  of  the  most  popular' sca«de  resorts  in 
the  ^nntry,  and  GreysConea,  5  m.  S.,  is  a  smaller  one.  Of  the 
small  towns  and  villages  inland  which  are  much  frequented  for 
the  beauty  of  the  country  In  which  they  lie,  are  Enniskerry, 
west  of  Bray,  and  near  the  pass  of  the  Scalp;  Laragh,  near 
Giendalough,  from  which  a  great  military  road  runs  S.W.  across 
the  hills  below  Lugnaquilla;  and,  on  the  railway  south  of 
Wicklow,  Rathdrum,  a  beautifully  situated  village,  Woodenbridge 
in  the  Vsle  <A  Avoca  and  Aughrim.  Near  the  village  of  Shillelagh 
lies  die  wood  which  is  said  to  have  given  the  name  of  skilUlazk 
to  the  oaken  or  blackthorn  staves  used  by  Irishmen.  Ashford 
and  Roundwood  on  the  Vastry  river,  Del^uiy  near  the  Glen  of 
the  Downs,  and  Rathnew,  a  centre  of  coach  routes,  especially 
for  the  Devil's  Glen,  must  also  be  mentioned.  The  b«iuty  of 
the  central  district  of  the  Wickkm  mountains  lies  in  its.  wild 
•oKtude  in  contradistinction  to  the  more  gentle  scenery  of  the 
popuUted  ^ens.  In  the  extreme  north-west  of  the  county 
Blessington  is  a  favourite  resort  from  Dublin,  served  by  a  steam 
tramway,  which  continues  up  the  valley  of  the  Liffey  to  the 
waterfaUs  of  Polkphuca.  The  climate  near  the  sea  is  remarkably 
mild,  and  permits  the  myrtle  and  arbutus  to  grow. 

(Sioiffy.— Wickbw,  at  regards  its  ^logy,  b  mamly  an  extension 
of  county  "Wexford,  the  Leinater  chain  bounding  it  on  the  west,  and 
Silurian  foothills  sloping  thcooe  .down  to  the  sea*  Thehighland  of 
muscovite-j^nite.  with  a  marginal  zone  of  mica-achist,  produced  by 
contact-action  on  the  Silurian  shales,  runs  from  Shillelaah  to  the  sea 
north  of  Bray,  its  highest  point  being  Lugnaquilla.  The  rounded 
heather-dad  moors  give  way  to  more  brokm  country  on  either  side, 
where  the  streams  cut  deeply  into  the  Silurian  region.  The  water- 
supply  of  Dublin  is  obtamcd  from  an  artificial  lake  on  the  first 
plateau  of  the  foothills  at  Roundwood.  From  Wicklow  town  to  near 
Bray,  red  and  greenish  slates  and  yellow-brown  quartzites,  probably 
Cambrian,  form  a  hilty  countnr,  in  which  rise  Carrick  Mt.,  tnc  Great 
SuKarloaf  and  Brsy  Head.  OUhamia  oocura  ia  this  aerica.  Volcanic 
ana  intnwve  felsites  and  diorites  abound  in  the  SUurian  beds  of  the 
south,  running  along  the  strike  of  the  strata.  A  considerable  amount 
of  gold  has  been  extracted  from  the  valley-gravels  north  of  Croghan 
KiaaheU  on  the  Wexford  bonier.  Tinstooe  has  also  been  found  in 
small  auaaticies.  Lead-ore  b  raised  west  of  Laragh.  and  the  mines 
in  the  Avoca  valley  have  been  worked  for  oopoer.  lead  and  sulphur, 
the  last-named  bemg  obtained  from  pyrite.  Paving-setts  are  made 
from  the  diorite  at  Arklow,  and  granite  is  extensively  quarried  at 
BaUylenockan  on  the  west  dde  of  the  mountain-chain. 

Industries. — ^Thelaad  in  the  lower  ^ouads  ia  fertile:  and  although 
the  ereater  part  of  the  higher  districts  is  covered  with  heath  and  turf, 
it  anords  good  pasturage  for  sheep.  There  is  a  considerable  extent  01 
natural  timber  as  wdl  as  artifktal  |>lantation8.  The  acreage  under 
pasture  is  nearly  three  rimes  that  of  tilbge,  and ,  whereas  the  principal 
crops  of  oata  and  potatoes  decrease  considerably,  the  nnmbera  of 
sheep,  cattle,  pigs  and  poultry  arc  well  maintained.  Except  in  the 
Avoca  district,  where  the  mining  industry  is  of  some  importance,  the 
occupations  are  chiefly  agricultural,  the  port  of  Wicklow  Is  the 
headquarters  of  a  sea-ltshery  district. 

The  Dublin  and  South-Eastern  railway  akirts  fhe  coast  by  way  of 
Bray  and  the  town  of  Wicklow.  touching  it  again  at  Arkkrv.  with  a 
branch  line  from  Woodenbridge  junction  to  Shillelagh.  A  branch 
of  the  Great  Southern  &  Western  line  from  Sallins  skirts  the  west 
of  the  county  by  Baltinglasa. 

PoptdiOicn  and  Administralvm. — ^The  population  (64,492  in 
1891, 60,834  in  1901)  decreases  to  a  less  extent  than  the  average 
of  the  Irish  oonntiai.  and  emigntion  ia  considerable.    Of  the 


total  about  80%  are  Roman  CathoBcs,  and  18%  Protestant 
Episcopalians;  about  80%  forms  the  rural  population.  Bray 
(pop.  7424)1  Wicklow  (the  county  town,  3288)  and  Arklow  (4944) 
are  the  prindpal  towns,  all  on  the  coast;  Wicklow  is  the  only 
considerable  port.  Wicklow  returned  to  the  Irish  parliament, 
until  the  Union  in  1800,  two  county  members  and  two  each  for 
the  boroughs  of  Baltinglass,  Bray,  Tinahely  and  Arklow;  it, 
is  now  formed  into  two  parliamentary  divisions,  an  eastern  and 
a  western,  each  returning  one  member.  The  county  is  divided 
into  eigjht  baronies.  It  is  mainly  in  the  Protestant  diocese  of 
Dublin  and  in  the  Roriian  Catholic  dioceses  of  Dublin,  Kildare  and 
Leif^ilin  and  Ferns.  Assizes  are  hdd  at  Wicklow,  and  quarter- 
sessions  at  Bray,  Baltin^ass,  Tinahely,  Arklow  and  Wicklow. 
.  '  History  and  Antiquities. — Wicklow  was  not  made  a  counl;y 
until  1606.  It  was  the  last  Irish  ground  shired,  for  in  this 
mountainoua  district  the  Irish  were  long  able  to  preserve  inde- 
pendence. Wickfow  sided  with  the  royal  cause  during  the 
Cromwellian  wars,  but  on  Cromwell's  advance  submitted  to  him 
without  striking  a  blow..  During  the  rebellion  of  1798  some  of 
the  insurgents  took  refuge  within  its  mountain  fastnesses,  and  an 
engagement  took  place  near  Aughrim  between  a  band  of  them 
imder  Joseph  Holt  ( £756-1826)  and  the  British  troops.  A  second 
skirmish  was  fought  at  Arklow  between  the  rebels  and  General 
Needham,  the  former  being  defeated. 

Of  the  ancient  cromlechs  there  are  three  of  some  interest,  one  near 
Enniskerryi  another  on  the  summit  of  Lugnaquilla  and  a  third,  with 
a  druidku  drcic,  at  Donagfamore.  There  are  comparatively  on- 
important  monastic  remains  at  Rathdrum,  Baltinglasa  and  Wicklow. 
The  ruins  in  the  vale  of  Glendalough.  known  as  the  "  seven  churcheB," 
including  a  perfect  round  tower,  are,  perhaps  excepting  Ck>nmacnoise, 
the  most  remarkable  ecclesiastical  remains  .in  Ireland.  They  owe 
their  origin  to  St  Kevin,  nrho  lived  in  the  vale  as  a  hermit,  and  is 
reputed  to  have  died  on  the  jrd  of  June  6i8«  Of  the  oM  fortalices  or 
strongholds  associated  with  the  carl^^  wars,  those  of  q)ecial  interest 
are  Black  Castle,  near  Wicklow,  originally  founded  by  the  Norman 
invaders,  but  taken  by  the  Irish  in  1301.  and  afterwards  rebuilt  by 
William  Fitswilliam;  the  scattered  remains  of  Castle  Kevin,  the 
aiicient  stronghokt  of  the  OTooles*  by  whom  it  was  pcobabiy 
originally  built  in  the  12th  century:  and  the  ruins  of  theoldcastle  <i 
the  Ormondes  at  Arklow,  founded  by  Theobakl  FitzWaltcr  (d.  1285), 
the  scene  of  frequent  conflicts  up  to  the  time  of  Cromwell,  by  whom  it 
was  demolished  in  i6m,  and  now  containing  within  the  interior  of  its 
ruined  walls  a  constabulary  barrack.  The  fine  mansion  of  Powers- 
court  occupies  the  site  of  an  old  fortalkx  founded  by  De  la  Pocr,  one 
of  the  knights  who  landed  with  Strongbow;  in  the  rdgn  of  Henry 
VI H.  it  was  Uken  by  the  OTooles  arid  O'Brynes. 

WICKLOW*  a  seaport,  market  town,  and  the  county  town  of 
county  Wickk>w,  Ireland,  picturesquely  sittiated  at  the  mouUi 
of  a  lagoon  which  recdves  the  river  Vaitry  and  other  streams, 
2S{  m.  S.  of  Dublin  by  the  Dublin  &  South-Eaatem  railway. 
Pop.  iigoi)  3288.  The  harbour,  which  is  govefmd  by  oommis- 
sioners  and  can  accommodate  vessds  of  i  $00  tons,  has  two  piers, 
with  quayage.  There  is  a  considerable  import  trade  in  coal, 
timber,  iron  and  slate;  and  some  exports  of  grain  and  metallic 
ore,  but  the  latter  suffers  by  competitkm  with  the  imports  to 
Britain  of  sulphur  ore  from  Spain.  The  town  has  county  build- 
ings, a  parish  church  embodying  a  good  Norman  door  from  a 
previous  structure,  some  ruins  of  a  Franciscan  abbey  of  the  13th 
century,  and  remains  of  Black  Castle,  on  a  commanding  situation 
above  the  sea,  founded  in  Norman  times  and  rebuilt  by  William 
FitzwiHiam  after  capture  by  the  Irish  in  1301.  The  name  shows 
the  town  to  have  been  a  settlement  of  the  Norsemen.  The  difl 
scenery  to  the  S.  towards  Widdow  Head  is  fine,  and  the  town  has 
some  claims  as  a  seaside  resort.  It  is  governed  by  an  urban 
district  council. 

WICKRAM.  JORG.  or  Georc  (d.  c,  1560),  German  poet  and 
novelist,  was  a  native  of  Colmar  in  Alsaoe;  the  date  of  his  birth 
is  unkiwwn.  He  passed  the  latter  part  of  hia  life  as  town  clerk 
of  Burgheim  on  the  Rhine,  and  died  before  1562.  Wickraro 
was  a  many-sided  writer.  He  founded  a  Mcistersinger  school 
in  Colmar  in  1549,  and  has  left  a  number  of  Meisterstngerliedrr.' 
He  edited  Albrecht  von  Halbeistadt*s  Middle  High  German 
version  of  Ovid*s  Metamorf  hosts  (1545),  and  in  1555  he  published 
Das  RoUwagenbUchlein,  one  of  the  bfst  of  the  many  German 
collectfons  of  tales  and  anecdotes  which  appeared  in  the  16th 
century.    The  title  of  the  book  implies  its  object,  namdy,  to 


620 


WIDDRINGTOIf,  BARCWS^TWDUKIND 


supply  ceuling  for  the  travoDer  in  the  "  RoUwagen  "  or  diUsenoes. 

A%  a  dramatist,  Wickram  wrote  FaanochissjfieU  {Das  Nanen' 

gUssen,  1537;  Der  ireue  Eckart,  X538J  and  two  dramas  00 

biblical  subjects,  Der  verlorene  Sohn  (1540)  and  Tobias  (1551). 

A  moralizing  poem,  Der  irrereitctuU  PUger  (155^)*  is  hall-satiric, 

half-didactic     It  b,  however,  as  a  novelist  that  Wickram  has 

left  the  deepest  mark  on  his  time,  his  chief  romances  being  Ritter 

Calmy  aus  SchoUiand  (1539),  CabrioUo  und  Rcinhard  (1554), 

Der  Knabenspiegel  (1554),  Von  guUn  und  bdsen  Nackbam  (1556) 

and  Der  Goldfaden  (i  S57) •   These  may  be  regarded  as  the  earliest 

attempts  in  German  literature  to  create  that  nu>dcm  type  of 

middle-dass  fiction  which  ultimately  took  the  place  of  the 

decadent  medieval  romance  of  chival^. 

Wickram's  works  have  been  edited  by  J.  Bolte  and  W.  Scheel  for 
the  Stuttgart  Litsmrischer  Verein  QvolL,  322,  223.  229,  330.  1900- 
1903);  Der  Ritter  Calmy  was  republished  by  F.  dc  la  Motte  Fouqu6 
in  1806;  Der  Goldfaden  by  K.  Brentano  in  1809;  the  RoUwaten- 
bUcUein  was  edited  by  H.  Kun  in  1865.  and  there  is  also  a  reprint 
of  it  in  Reclam's  Unioersalhibliotkek.  Sec  A.  Stober,  /.  WUkram 
(1866);  W.  Scherer,  Die  Anfdnie  des  detUschen  Prosaromans  (1877). 

WIDDRINOTON.  BARONS.  In  November  1643  Sir  William 
Widdrington  (1610-1651),  of  Widdrington,  Northumberland, 
son  and  heir  of  Sir  Heniy  Widdrington  (d.  1623),  was  created 
Baron  Widdrington,  as  a  reward  for  his  loyalty  to  Charles  I. 
He  had  been  member  for  Northumberland  in  both  the  Short 
and  the  Long  Parliaments  in  1640,  but  in  August  1642  he  was 
eipeOed  becaiise  he  had  joined  the  royal  standard.  He  fought 
for  the  king  chiefly  in  Yorkshire  and  Lincolnshire  during  1642 
and  1643;  he  was  governor  of  Lincoln  in  1643,  but  in  1644,  after 
hdlping  to  defend  York,  he  left  England.  Although  in  1648  he 
had  been  condemned  to  death  by  the  House  of  Commons,  he 
accompanied  Charles  II.  to  Scotland  in  1650,  and  he  was  mortally 
wounded  whilst  fighting  for  him  at  Wigan,  dying  on  the  3rd  of 
September  1651.  His  great-grandson,  William,  the  4th  baron 
(1678-1743),  took  part  in  the  Jacobite  rising  of  17 15,  and  with 
two  of  his  brothers  was  taken  prisoner  after  the  fight  at  Preston. 
He  was  convicted  of  high  treason,  and  his  title  and  estates  were 
forfeited,  but  he  was  not  put  to  death,  and  he  survived  until  the 
19th  of  AprU  1743.  When  his  son,  Henry  Frauds  Widdrington, 
who  cbiimed  the  barony,  died  in  September  1774,  the  family 
appears  to  have  become  extinct. 

Other  eminent  members  of  this  family  were  Sir  Thomas  Wlddrine- 
ton  and  his  brother  Ralph.  Having  married  adau^hterof  Ferdinando 
Fairfax,  afterwards  3nd  Lord  Fairfax.  Thomas  Wkldrington  was 
knighted  at  York  in  1639.  and  in  1640  he  became  member  of  paflia-. 
nent  for  Berwkk.  He  was  already  a  bairisoer.  and  hb  kgal  know- 
ledge was  very  useful  during  the  Civil  War.  In  1651  be  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  council  of  state,  although  he  had  declined  to  have 
any  share  in  the  trial  of  the  king.  Widdnofton  was  elected  Speaker 
in  September  1696,  and  in  June  i6$8  he  was  appointed  chief  baron  of 
the  exchequer.  In  1659  and  again  in  1660  he  was  a  member  of  the 
council  of  state,  and  on  three  occasions  he  was  one  of  the  00m- 
mtsstoners  of  the  gnat  seal,  but  he  lost  some  of  his  offices  when 
Charin  IL  was  restoied.  However,  he  remained  in  parliament  nnril 
Us  death  on  the  13th  of  May  i66|.  He  left  four  daughtcn.  but 
no  sons.  Widdrington,  who  founded  a  school  aC  Stanafoniliani, 
Northumberland,  wrote  AnaUcta  Eboracensia;  some  Remayues  of  ike 
tityef  York.  This  was  not  oubltshed  until  1877.  when  it  was  edited 
with  mtroduction  and  notes  oy  the  Rev.  Caesar  Caine.  His  younger 
brother.  Ralph  Widdrington  (d.  1688),  was  educated  at  Christ's 
ColVm.  Cambridge,  whero  he  made  the  aoiuainunce  of  Milton.  In 
1654  he  was  appointed  rectus  professor  of  Creek  at  Cambridge,  and  in 
1673  Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity. 

The  name  of  Roger  Widdrington  was  taken  by  Thomas  Pteston 
(I563>i640),  n  Benedictine  monk,  who  wrote  aeveml  books  of  a 
controversial  nature,  and  pasMd  much  o£  his  time  in  prison,  bcsM 
still  a  captive  when  he  died  on  the  3rd  of  April  164a.  (See  Rev.  £ 
Taunton,  Tke  Engfisk  Black  Momks  of  St  Benedict,  1897.) 

In  1840  the  writer,  Samuel  Edward  Cook,  took  the  name  of 


Widdrington.  his  mother  being  the  hdroas  of  aoae  of  the  estates  of 
thb  family.  Having  served  in  the  British  navy  be  lived  for  aome 
years  in  Spain,  writing  SkeUkes  in  Spain  dunng  the  years  1839- 
1833  (London,  1834) ;  and  Spain  and  tke  S^niards  in  1S43  (London. 
1844).  He  died  at  his  residence,  Newton  Hall.  Northumberland,  on 
the  nth  of  January  1856  and  was  succeeded  in  the  owneiship  of  bb 
csutes  t>y  his  nephew.  ShakroM  Fit^berbert  lacson.  who  took  the 
name  Widdrington.  See  Rev.  John  Hodgson,  History  oj  Nartknmker- 
'^(1820-1840). 


WIDHES,  a  municipal  borough  in  the  Widnes  parliamentary 
d^nsion  ol  Lancashire,  Eoi^and.  on'  the  UetKt»  ^  «.  E.S.E. 


from  Uvnpool,  tcrvrdTby  tht  Loodoik  k  North'^Westem  mxad 
Lancashire  &  Yorkshiie  lailways  and  the  Cheshire  lines. 
Pop.  (1901)  38,580.  It  is  wholly  of  modem  growth,  for  in  1851 
the  population  was  under  aooo.  There  aie  capacioos  docks  on 
the  river,  which  is  Crossed  by  a  wrou|^t-iron  bridge,  xooo  ft. 
long,  and  95  in  height,  completed  in  1866,  and  having  two  Hncs 
of  railway  and  a  footpath.  Widnes  is  one  of  the  principal  seats 
of  the  alkali  and  soap  manuiactuie,  and  has  also  grease-works 
for  locomotives  and  waggons,  copper  works,  iron*foundries,  oQ. 
and  paint  works  and  sail<loth  manufactories.  *  The  barony  of 
Widnes  in  X5S4-IS55  «as  declared  to  be  part  of  the  dacfay  of 
Lancaster.  The  town  was  incorporated  in  1892,  and  the  corpora- 
tion consista  of  a  mayor,  6  aklermen  and  x8  counciUon.  Axes, 
3iioacres. 

WIDOB,    CHARLES   MARIE  (1845-       ),  French  composer 
and  ofganist,  was  bom  at  Lyons  on  the  22nd  of  February  1S45. 
He  studied  first  at  Lyons,  then  at  Brusseb  under  Lemmens  for 
the  organ  and  F^tis for  composition.   In  1870  he  became  <»gaBist 
of  the  church  of  Saint  Sulpice  in  Paris.    He  succeeded  C£sar 
Franck  as  professor  of  the  organ  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  where 
he  was  also  appointed  professor  of  composition,  counterpoint 
and  fugue  in  1896.    A  veiy  prolific  composer,  he  displayed  his 
creative  ability  in  a  variety  of  different  styles.  His  works  indude 
an  opera,  MaUre  Ambros  (Op6ra  C6mi<iue,  1896),  La  KerripuK 
(ballet,,  given  at  the  Op€ra,  1880),  incidental  music  to  Conle 
d'mril  (1885),  Les  Jacobites  (1S85)  and  Jeanne  d'Art  (a  panto- 
mime play,  1890),  three  symphonies,  Tke  Walpnrgis  Nigkt  and 
other  works  for  orchestra,  a  quintet  for  strings  and  piano,  txio 
for  piano  and  strings,  a  mass,  psalms  and  other  sacred  composi' 
tions,  symphonies  for  organ,  a  large  number  of  piano  piece  and 
many  songs. 

WIDUKIMD.  Saxon  historian,  was  the  author  of  Res  §esia€ 
Scxanicae.    Nothing  is  known  of  his  life  except  that  he  was  a 
monk  at  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Corvey,  and  that  he  died  about 
X004,  although  various  other  conjectures  have  been  formed  by 
students  of  his  work.    He  is  also  sunrased  to  have  written  lives 
of  St  Paul  and  St  Theda,  but  no  traces  of  these  now  remain. 
It  is  uncertain  whether  he  was  a  resident  at  the  court  of  tlie 
emperor  Otto  the  Great  or  not,  and  also  whether  he  was  oa 
intimate  terms  with  Otto*s  illegitimate  son  William,  archbishop 
of  Mainz.   His  Res  gestae  Saxonicae^  dedicated  to  Matilda,  abbess 
of  Quedlinburg,  who  was  a  daughter  of  Otto  the  Great,  is  divided 
into  three  books,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  was  undoubtedly 
written  during  the  lifetime  of  the  emperor,  probably  about  96& 
Starting  with  certain  surmises  upon  the  origin  of  the  ^ayronn^ 
he  deab  with  the  war  between  Theuderich  I.,  king  of  Anstra^a, 
and  the  Thuringians,  in  which  the  Saxons  played  an  important 
port.  An  allusion  to  the  conversion  of  the  race  to  Chri&ti?juty 
under  Charkmagne  brings  him  to  the  early  Saxon  dukes  and  the 
reign  of  Henry  the  Fowler,  whose  campaigns  air  referred  to  in 
some  detail.    The  second  book  opens  with  the  election  of  Otto 
the  Great  as  German  king,  treats  of  the  risings  against  his 
authority,  and  condiidcs  with  the  death  of  his  wife  Edith  in  946. 
In  the  third  book  this  historian  deals  with  Otto's  expedition  into 
France,  his  troubles  with  his  son  Ludolf  and  his  son-in-law, 
Conrad  the  Red,  duke  of  Lorraine,  and  the  various  wars  in 
Germany;  but  makes  only  casual  reference  to  Otto's  visits  to 
Italy  in  95t  and  962.    He  gives  a  vivid  account  of  the  defeat 
of  the  Hungarians  on  the  Lechfeld  in  August  955,  and  ends  with 
the  death  of  Otto  in  973  and  a  eulogy  on  his  life. 

Widukind  formed  his  style  upon  that  of  SaUust;  he  was 
familiar  with  the  De  vitis  CMsarum  of  Suetonius,  the  Vita 
Kareii  magrn  off  EinhaxVl,  and  probably  with  Livy  and  Bede. 
Many  quotations  from  the  Vulgate  are  found  in  his  writings, 
and  there  are  traces  of  a  knowledge  of  Virgil,  Ovid  and  other 
Roman  poets.  His  sentences  are  occasionally  abrupt  and 
lacking  in  clearness,  hb  Latin  words  are  sometimes  germanized 
(as  when  he  writes  micki  for  mikii  and  grammatical  errors  are 
not  always  absent.  The  earlier  part  of  his  work  is  taken  fnom 
tradition,  but  he  wrote  the  contemporary  part  as  one  familiac 
with  court  life  and  the  events  of  the  day.  He  says  very  littla 
iboot  aSaiia  outside  Germany,  »ud  although  Mandatory  ol 


WIDUKIND— WIELAND 


621 


.3: 


monastic  life  gives  due  prowisuaux  to  secular  affaiis.   He  wtites 
as  a  Saxon,  proud  of  the  history  of  his  race  and  an  admiier  of 

Henry  the  Fowler  and  Otto  the  Great. 

ThFee  manuscripts  exist  of  the  Res  gestae^  one  of  which  is  in  the 
British  Museum,  and  the  book  was  first  published  at  Basel  in  153a. 
The  best  edition  is  that  edited  by  G.  Waits  in  the  Mtnutmenta 
Cermantae  hislorica.  Scriptores,  Band  iii.  (Hanover  and  Berlin, 
1826).  A  good  edition  published  at  Hanover  and  Leipzig  in  1904 
contains  an  introduction  by  K.  A.  Kehr. 

Sec  R.  Kopke.  Widukind  von  Coney  (Berlin,  1867);  T.  Raaae. 
Widukind  von  Korvei  (Rostock,  1880):  and  B.  Simson,  '  Zur  Kritik 
des  Widukind  "  in  the  Ntues  Archiv  der  CeseOschan  fOr  dltert 
deutscke  Cesckickte,  Band  xii.  (Hanover.  1876).  (A.  W.  H.*) 

WIDUKIND,  or  Wittekind  (d.  c.  807),  leader  of  the  Saxons 

during  the  earlier  part  of  their  resistance  to  Cbaiiamagne, 

belonged  to  a  noble  Westphalian  family,  and  is  first  mentioned 

in  777  when  his  absence  from  an  assembly  of  the  Saxons  held  by 

the  Frankbh  king  of  Paderbora  was  a  matter  for  remark.    It  is 

inferred  with  considerable  probability  that  be  Kad  taken  a 

leading  part  in  the  attacks  on  two  Prankish  garrisons  in  776, 

and  possibly  had  shared  in  earlier  fights  against  the  Franks;  and 

so  feared  to  meet  the  king.    In  778  he  returned  from  exile  in 

Denmark  to  lead  a  fresh  rising,  and  in  782  the  Saxons  at  his 

instigation  drove  out  the  Prankish  priests,  and  plundered  the 

border  territories.    It  is  uncertain  whether  Widukind  shared  in 

the  Saxon  victory  at  the  Suntel  mountains,  or  what  part  he  took 

in  the  risings  of  783  and  784.    In  785  Charlemagne,  leading  an 

expedition  towards  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  learned  that  Widukind 

was  in  the  land  of  the  Nordaibingians,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 

river.    Negotiations  were  begun,  and  the  Saxon  chief,  assured  of 

his  personal  safety,  appeared  at  the  Prankish  court  at  Attigny. 

There  he  was  baptized,  the  king  acting  as  his  sponsor  and  loading 

him  with  gifts.    The  details  of  his  later  life  ate  unknown.    He 

probably  returned  to  Saxony  and  occupied  there  an  influential 

position,  as  in  922  the  inheritance  of  the  "old  count  or  duke 

Widukind  "  is  referred  to.    Many  legends  have  gathered  around 

his  memory,  and  he  was  long  regarded  as  a  national  hero  by  the 

Saxons.    He  is  reported  to  have  been  duke  of  Engria,  to  have 

been  a  devoted  Christian  and  a  builder  of  churches,  and  to  have 

fallen  in  battle  in  807.    Kingly  and  princely  houses  have  sought 

to  establish  their  descent  from  him,  but  except  in  the  case  of 

Matilda,  wife  of  the  German  king,  Henry  I.  the  Fowler,  without 

any  success. 

See  W.  Dickamp,  Widukind  der  Sfachsenfllhrer  nach  Gesckichte  und 
Sage  (MOnstcr,  1877):  J.  Dcttmcr,  Der  SacksenfUhrer  Widukind 
nach  Cesckxckte  und  Sage  (Wiirzbtirg,  1879). 

WIEDEMANN,  GUSTAV  HEINRICH  (1826-1899),  German 
ph3rsicist,  was  born  at  Berlin  on  the  2nd  of  October  1826.  After 
attending  the  Cologne  gymnasium,  he  entered  the  university  of 
Berlin  in  1844,  and  took  his  doctor's  degree  there  three  years 
later.  His  thesis  on  that  occasion  was  devoted  to  a  question  in 
organic  chemistry,  for  he  held  the  opinion  that  the  study  of 
chemistry  is  an  indispensable  preliminary  to  the  pursuit  of 
physics,  which  was  his  ultimate  aim.  In  Berlin  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  H.  von  Heimholtz  at  the  house  of  H.  G.  Magnus, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Berlin  Ph3rsical  Society.  In 
1854  he  left  Berlin  to  become  professor  of  physics  in  Basel 
University,  removing  nine  years  afterwards  to  Brunswick 
Polytechnic,  and  in  1866  to  Karisruhe  Polytechnic.  In  1871 
be  accepted  the  chair  of  physical  chemistry  at  Leipzig.  The 
attention  he  had  paid  to  chemistiy  in  the  earlier  pert  of  his 
career  enabled  him  to  hold  his  own  ia  this  position,  but  he  found 
his  work  more  congenial  when  in  1887  he  was  transferred  to  the 
professorship  of  physics.  He  died  at  Leipag  on  the  34th  of 
March  1899.  His  name  is  probably  most  widely  known  for  his 
literary  work.  In  1877  he  undertook  the  editorship  of  the 
Annalen  der  Physik  vnd  Ckemie  in  succession  to  J.  C.  Poggen" 
dorff ,  thus  starting  the  series  of  that  scientific  periodical  which 
is  famJliariy  cited  as  Wied.  Ann.  Another  monunkental  work 
for  which  he  was  respKinaible  was  Die  Lekre  vm  der  ElektricitMt, 
or,  as  it  was  called  in  the  first  instance,  Lekre  von  Gahanismus 
und  BlekiromagitelistHMSf  a  book  that  is  unsurpassed  for  accural 
and  comi^ehensiveness.  He  produced  tbe  first  edition  in 
i86x,  and  a  fourth,  revised  and  enlarged,  was  only  completed  a 
Axvm  n 


short  tine  before  his  death.  But  his  origuial  woik  was  also 
important.  His  data  for  the  thermal  conductivity  of  various 
metab  were  for  long  the  most  trustworthy  at  the  disposal  of 
physicists,  ^nd  his  determination  of  the  ohm  io  terms  of  the 
specific  resistance  of  mercury  showed  remarkable  skill  in  quanti- 
tative research.  He  carried  out  a  number  of  magnetic  investiga* 
tions  which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  many  interesting  pheno- 
mena, some  of  which  have  been  rediscovered  by  others;  they 
related  among  other  things  to  the  e£Fect  of  mechanical  strain  on 
the  magnetic  propnties  of  the  magnetic  metals,  to  the  relation 
between  the  chemical  composition  of  oompotind  bodies  and  their 
magnetic  properties,  and  to  a  curious  parallelism  between  the 
laws  of  torsion  and  of  magnetisoL  He  also  investigated  electrical 
endosmosis  and  the  electrical  resistance  of  electrolytes.  His 
eldest  son,  Eilhard  Ernst  Gustav,  bom  at  Berlin  on  the  ist  of 
August  1852,  became  professor  of  physics  at  Erlangen  in  1886, 
and  his  yoiwger  son,  Alfred,  bom  at  Berlin  on  the  x8th  of  July 
1856,  was  appointed  to  the  extnordinaiy  professorship  of 
Egyptdk)gy  at  Bonn  in  1892. 

WIELAND,  CHRI8T0PH  MARTIN  (x733~z8x3),  German  poet 
and  man  of  lettns,  was  bora  at  Obecfaolzheim,  a  village  near 
Biberach  in  Wfirttemberg,  on  the  5th  of  September  1733.  His 
father,  who  was  pastor  in  Oberholzheim,  and  subsequently  in 
Biberach,  took  great  pains  with  the  child's  education,  and  from 
the  town  scho<rf  of  Biberach  he  passed  on,  before  he  had  reached 
his  foiuteenth  year,  to  the  gymnasium  at  Klosterberge,  near 
Magdeburg.  He  was  a  precocious  child,  and  when  he  left  school 
in  1749  was  widely  read  in  the  I^tin  classics  and  the  leading 
contemporary  French  writeis;  amongst  German  poets  his 
favourites  were  Brockes  and  Klopstock.  While  at  home  in  the 
summer  of  1750,  he  fell  in  love  with  a  kinswoman,  Sophie  Guter- 
mann,  and  this  k>ve  affair  seems  to  have  acted  as  an  incentive 
to  poetic  composition;  under  this  inspiration  he  planned  his 
first  ambitious  work,  Die  Nalur  der  Dtnge  (1753),  a  didactic  poem 
in  six  books.  In  1750  he  went  to  the  university  6i  Tfibingen  as 
a  student  ci  law,  but  his  time  was  mainly  taken  up  with  literary 
studies.  The  poems  he  wrote  at  the  university — Bermaim,  an 
epic  (published  by  F.  Mun(^er,  1886),  Zw^/  moraliscke  Brieft 
m  Veran  (1752),  AnHrOvid  (i75a)~-are  pietistic  in  tone  and 
dominated  by  the  faifluemce  of  Klt^tock.  They  attracted  the 
attentira  of  the  Swiss  literary  r^mrar,  J.  J.  Bodiner,  who 
invited  Wieland  to  visit  him  in  Zflrich  in  the  summer  of  1753. 
After  a  few  months,  however,  Bodmer  felt  himself  as  little  in 
sympathy  with  Wieland  as,  two  years  earlier,  he  had  felt  himself 
with  Klopstock,  and  the  friends  parted;  but  Wieland  renoained 
in  Switaeiland  until  1760,  residing,  in  the  last  yttur,  at  Bern  where 
be  obtained  a  position  as  private  tutor.  Here  be  stood  in  intimate 
rdations  with  Rousseau's  friend  Julie  de  BonddL  Meanwhile 
a  change  had  oome  over  Wiehud's  tastes;  the  writings  of  his 
early  Swiss  years — Der  ieprUfte  Abraham  (1753),  Symfaikiem 
(1756),  Emp^ndungm  «itie$  Ckrislm  (1757)  were  still  in  tho 
manner  of  his  earlier  writings,  but  with  the  tragedies.  Lady 
Jokauna  Cray  (1758),  and  CUmenHna  son  ParreUa  (1760) — the 
latter  based  on  Ricfaardaon's  Sir  Ckarks  Gramdis^H^tht  epic 
fragment  Cyrus  (x759)t  and  the  "  moral  story  in  dialogues," 
Araspes  und  Panikea  (1760),  Wieland,  as  Lessing  said,  "  forsook 
the  ethereal  spheres  to  wander  again  among  the  sons  of  men.'* 

Wieland's  conversion  was  completed  at  Biberach,  whither  he 
had  returned  in  1760,  as  director  of  the  chancery.  The  dullness 
and  monotony  of  his  life  here  was  relieved  by  die  friendship  of 
a  Count  Stadion,  whose  libraxy  in  the  castle  of  Warthausen,  not 
far  from  Biberach,  was  well  stocked  with  French  and  English 
literature.  Here,  too,  Wieland  met  again  his  early  love  Sophie 
Gutermaim,  who  had  meanwhile  become  the  wife  of  Hofrat  La 
Roche,  then  manager  of  Count  Stadion's  estates.  The  former  poet 
of  an  austere  pietism  now  became  the  advocate  <A  a  light-hearted 
philosophy,  from  which  frivolity  and  sensuality  were  not  ex- 
cluded. In  Dam  Sylvio  von  Rosalva  (1764),  a  romance  in  imita- 
tion of  Dan  QmxoUf  he  held  up  to  ridicule  his  eariier  faith  and 
in  the  Kamiscke  Bndklungen  (1765)  he  gave  his  extravagant 
imagination  only  too  free  a  rein.  More  important  is  the  novel 
Cesckickte  des  Agatkan  (X766-X767),  in  which,  under  the  guise  of 

2a 


WIELICZKA— WIENER-NEUSTADT 


m  ipIiitDi]  and  intd- 


■  Gntk  flctioD.  Wielud  dcKiflKd  bii 

kctiui  growth-  This  work,  vhich  Lcsilng  fee 
■uvd  dI  cUuiic  Uule,"  Bub  (a  tpoch  in  thi 
tbe  nodern  paycbolagicil  bovcL  Of  Rpul 
Widud'a  uanalitkia  of  tw«Dty-twa  d[  ShakapuTe'i  plftyi  inio 
pniB  (ft  vtib.,  1761-1766);  Lt  WIS  tlu  fint  ^(enpt  to  presnt  tbe 
Fjif<k>i  poet  la  lh«  Gennan  people  in  umething  OF^iurlung 
miircty.  With  Ihe  poemi  tlmtatiiai  oda  iU  Pliiljatpliu  dtr 
Craien  {n6A),  Idrii  (1768),  Cimbata  (1770).  Da  «w  Amadii 
(1771)1  Wielud  opened  Ihe  leiies  o(  light  and  grueful  lomvicei 
fai  wfie  which  ■ppealed  so  irreutiljly  to  hii  awleoipotartrs 
and  uled  u  ui  intidole  10  the  lenlinientiU  evxua  o[  the 
tubuquent  Slam  lovl  Dram  nuvemenl.  Widiad  mimed  in 
1745,  ud  between  1769  ud  1771  wai  piofeea  of  philoaophy 
al  EriuTt.  Id  the  Lul-menlioried  year  he  puUuhed  Dtr  gaiiUnt 
SpUidoderiit  Klmpti^SclKidiaa,  ipeAtfo^cmii  ' 


ienlal  <I 


t;  thii . 


LI  AmaLic  of  San-WeiQiar  and  rendled  id 


lof  d< 


lof  u 


s,  Karl  Augi 


idKonil 


iiipenl 


■here 


In  later  life  he  bouglil  an  alUe,  Weiniir  rcDuuncd  Wielaod' 
boBH  until  hii  destb  on  ilie  lolfa  of  Junuicy  iSi3>  Here,  in 
■  77],  heloundcd  Cer  liiJiflie  if o-hir,  which  under  hit  edilonhip 
(1773-1769)  became  the  tnoil  influential  Klerary  review  in 
Gemuny.  Of  the  wrilisgaof  hii  later  yeanlbe  most  imp«tant 
«re  the  udmiiahle  lalire  on  German  provincialily — the  moEt 
utnurtivo  of  all  hii  prose  writings — Dit  Abdtrileii,  tine  sekr 
wakrtckeinlicke  Gtukidiie  (1774),  and  the  cbannlng  poetic 
rDtnances,DdiiriiMeriivXrcJbfl<(i77A),2>aj5pii<|]UrmJrrEJkm(i777)T 
Caarn  dtr  Addiff  (1777),  Dit  WMnKkc  edir  PcranUi:  [1778),  a 
series  culminaliiig  with  Widand^s  poetic  msAteTf^ecei  the 
toniantic  epii:  ol  Obtrim  (17S0).  Although  beknghig  10  a  eliM 
of  poetry  in  vhii;h  modern  leaden  take  but  little  interest,  OitreH 
has  niU,  owing  10  the  farile  beauty  of  its  Etaniu,  the  power  to 
cbatn.  In  Widsnd's  later  novels,  such  as  the  Geluimt  GaekuUt 
ia  FUhttiphn  Ptrtgrinia  Pnteui  (1791)  and  Arislipp  mi 
tMie  teinef  Ztitfenatat  (iSoo-iSoi),  a  didactic  and phikwphic 
tendency  obtcurcs  the  small  Ittersiy  interest  they  possess.  He 
•bo  translated  Hance'i  Salirti  (17W).  J-udu's  Worts  (i78»- 
ITSg),  Cicero's  Leilen  (iSoS  S.),  and  from  1796  to  iSsj  he 
«dited  the  AUitdai  tfunK  irtilcb  did  valuable  tervice  In 
popularizing  Greek  iludie*. 

Withoul  crrsling  a  school  In  the  strict  sense  ol  tbe  term, 
Wieland  influence  very  considerably  the  German  blerature  of 
hia  lime.  The  verse-romuKe  and  tbe  novel— moR  especially 
In  Austria — benefited  by  his  example,  and  even  the  Rnmaalidits 
of  a  later  date  borrowed  many  a  hint  from  hjni  in  their  eicut^ns 
Into  tbe  literatures  of  the  loutb  of  Europe.  Tbe  qualities  which 
diMingniib  his  work,  bit  Hucnt  style  snd  li^t  touch.  hi>  careleu 
UvoUty  lather  than  poetic  depth,  tbow  him  lo  bave  been  in 
Bteiary  tempemment  more  akin  to  Arlosio  and  Voltsire  than  to 
tbe  note  spiritual  and  serioui  leaden  of  German  poeiry;  but 
these  vtry  qualities  in  Wieland't  poetry  inlroduccd  a  bslancing 
tleaieht  iaio  German  claiaical  literature  and  added  materially 
to  it!  fuDntsB  and  tompleteneas. 


Edl^oni  of  Wieland't  SStittiitht  Wtrit  appism]  in  (17U-1B01. 43 
rfa)  (1»1»-182»,  M  vol,.),  (183^.840,  311^1^).  and  WjJ-liSS. 
voiO.   The  liteK  edition  (40  vols.)  »a,  cdiied  by  H.  l5pnt«t 

rlB,  aMbly  by"l?  i«oV- 

-  -  (vohL  51-S6,  1  889)1 

Obche  (4  vob.,  were 


if. 

MM 


Spnthi  and  Sm  (il^l 
C  A.  BehniR.  SUn« 
Valitlaii  H  Sfrmtr. 
Brtitliu  n(«  in  ibn  ilciiri 


WIBUCZXA,  a  minUig  town  In  Galiria,  Auitrla.  >»  a 
by  rail  W.  of  Lembttg  and  g  m.  S.E.  of  Ciacow.  Pop.  (iqeo) 
6011.  It  b  built  on  the  sh^ies  of  a  hiU  which  hall  encinJss  tbe 
place,  and  over  (he  celebrated  saltmines  ol  the  same  name- 
Theie  minei  arc  ihe  ricbetl  in  Austria,  and  among  the  most 
renurkable  in  the  world.  They  consist  ol  seven  difiercnl  leveb, 
one  above  the  other,  and  have  deven  ihafls.  two  of  wbich  are 
in  the  town.  The  levels  arc  connected  by  sigbli  af  steps,  and 
are  composed  of  a  labyrinth  of  chambcn  and  passages,  whose 
length  aggregates  over  65  m.  The  length  of  the  mines  from 
E.  Id  W.  Is  >)  m.,  the  breadth  fmm  N.  to  S.  is  1050  yds.  and  1  he 
depth  lestbes  gio  It.  Many  ol  the  old  chsmbera,  some  o[  which 
'  'Uished  with  portals,  cindeUbra, 


tialuo,  be,  all.  hewn 
chipds.  containing  al 
called  tbe  dancing  a 


o  la.ge 


re  Iccpl;  Ihe  Kronieuchtersaal,  a 


ul  they  were  already  worked 


fiered  g 


ally  In 


the  ton  is 

iga-Myji. 
In'iSjo  he  was  elected  a 
Bji  be  wss 


beginning  ol  the  Insi 

obLiIn  the  assistance,  or  at  least  the  mediation,  ol  England;  t>ul 
tbe  only  riault  ol  bis  mission  was  tbe  pubUca|ion  of  Ihe  pamphlet 
Mtminn  filsinlt  i  Lerd  PalmasloH  (Waraaw,  1831).  On  the 
collapse  of  tbe  insurrection  he  emigrated,  and  on  his  return  to 
Poland  devoted  himself  eicluiively  to  literature  and  the  cullii-a- 
tion  of  bis  estates.  On  the  Dcca«on  ol  the  Galician  outbreak 
of  1845,  when  the  Rulhenian  peasantry  massacred  some  hundreds 
of  Polish  landowners,  an  outbreak  generally  attributed  to  the 
machiuatbns  ol  tbe  Austrian  government,  Wielopoliki  wrote 
bis  famous  ItUrt  d'lm  taUUIummi  piJeiuii  su  ptina  dt  UtUtr- 
niik  (Brussels,  1846),  which  caused  a  great  sensation  al  the  lime, 
and  in  which  he  altemplfd  lo  ptove  that  Ibc  Austrian  court  wai 
actingincollusioB  with  the  Russian  in  the  aSair.  In  iSSi,  when 
Aleunder  II.  was  benevoleniiy  disposed  towards  ihs  Poles  and 
made  certam  pobtical  and  national  concession!  10  them.  Wiclo- 
polski  was  appointed  president  ol  the  commissions  ol  public 
worship  and  justice  and  subsequently  president  of  (be  council  of 

established  his  influence,  and  in  1867  be  was  appointed  adjutant 
to  the  granit-duke  Constantlne.  This  ofhcc  be  held  till  the 
iiib  of  September  1863,  when  Trnding  it  impossible  to  resist  the 
rising  current  ol  radicalism  and  revolution  he  resigned  all  his 
oRices,  and  obtained  at  bis  own  request  unlimilcd  leave  of 
absence.  He  retired  to  Dresden,  where  he  died  on  the  solh  of 
Decetnber  1877. 

See  Hcnryk  U^M.  U  Uaranis  Wi^opahlti,  10  n;  el  ion  limps 
rVienr.a,  iSSol ;  IVIodlimwrii  V"^".  Tk,  Lit,  eni  P^ky  ^  li« 
ilartpiii  Wulop^!H  (Ru.)  (Si  IVlersburf .  .8gii.         <R.  tl.  fl.) 

WietEH-NBUBTADT,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  Lower  Austria, 
31  m.  S.  of  Vienna  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  18,438.  It  is  situated 
between  the  Fischa  and  the  Leitha  and  is  doie  to  the  Hungarian 
'.    It  was  almost  entlirly  rebuilt  after  a  destructive  fire 


1S34,  ar 


a  few  medieval  edilicrs,  ll 


n  have  disappeared. 


WIENIAWSKI— WIESBADEN 


6^3 


of  the  emperor  MaximOitti  I.,  iHio  vm  born  here  m  1459.  1^ 
fiarish  church,  with  its  two  lofty  towen,  i»  siibstaatially  a  Roman- 
esque building  of  the  15th  centoiy,  but  the  choir  and  transepts 
are  Gothic  additions  of  a  later  date.  The  late  Gothic  church 
of  the  old  Cistercian  abbey  contains  a  handsome  monnmcnt  in 
memory  of  Leonora  of  Portugal  (d.  1467),  consort  Of  the  emperor 
Frederick  III.,  and  possesses  a  rich  l^rary  and  an  interesting 
museum.  The  town-house  is  also  a  noteworthy  building  and 
contains  large  and  important  archives.  The  diief  industrial 
establishments  are  a  lawge  ammunition  factory  and  an  engine 
factory;  but  manufactures  of  cotton,  silk,  velvet,  pottery  and 
paper,  sugar-refining  and  tanning  are  also  extensively  carried  on. 
Trade  is  also  brisk,  and  is  facQitated  by  a  canal  connecting  the 
town  with  Vienna,  <uid  «ised  chiefly  for  the  transport  of  ooal  and 
timber. 

Neustadt  was  founded  in  1 192,  and  was  a  favourite  residence  of 
numerous  Austrian  sovereigns,  acquiring  the  title  of  the  "  ever- 
faithful  town"  {die  aUeseit  getreue  Stad()  from  its  unfailing 
loyalty.  In  1246  it  was  the  scene  of  a  victory  of  the  Hungarians 
over  the  Austrians;  and  in  i486  it  was  taken  by  Matthias 
Coryinus,  king  of  Hungary,  who,  however,  restored  it  to  Maxi- 
milian I.  four  years  later.  In  1529  and  1683  it  was  besi^ed  by 
the  Turks.  It  was  at  Neustadt  that  the  emperor  Rudolf  U. 
granted  to  the  Bohemian  Protestants,  in  1609,  the  "  Majest&ts- 
brief,"  or  patent  of  equal  rights,  the  revocation  of  which  helped 
to  precipitate  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

See  Hinncr.  WandttbUder  aus  dtr  Gexkichte  Wiener-Neustadts 
(Wiener-Neustadt,  1892). 

WIENIAWSKI,  HBNRI  (1835-1880),  Polish  violinist  and 
composer,  was  bom  at  Lublin,  in  'Poland,  on  the  lotb  of  July 
183  s.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Paris  Conservatoire  from  1843  to 
1846,  and  again  in  1849-1850.  Meanwhile  he  had  given  concerts 
in  his  native,  country  and  in  Russia,  and  in  1850  entered  upon 
the  career  of  a  travelling  virtuoso,  together  with  his  brother 
Joseph,  a  distinguished  pianist.  He  ^vas  appointed  solo  violinist 
to  the  tsar  in  i860,  and  tau^t  in  the  Conservatoire  of  St  Peters- 
burg from  1862  ta  1867.  He  went  on  tour  again  in  1872  with 
Rubinstein  in  America,  and  on  bis  return  in  1874  was  appointed 
to  succeed  Vicuxtemps  as  professor  in  the  Brussels  Conservatoire; 
but,  like  his  predecessor,  he  was  compelled  through  ill-health 
to  give  up  the  post  after  three  years,  retiiming  to  a  public 
career  in  spite  of  his  illness,  until  his  death,  which  occurred  m 
a  hospital  in  Moscow,  on  the  31st  of  March  1880.  He  was  a 
wonderfully  sympathetic  solo  player,  and  a  good  if  not  a  great 
quartet  player.  His  Ligende,  the  fantasias  on  Fausi  and  on 
Russian  airs,  his  two  concertos  and  some  other  pieces,  have 
retained  their  high  place  in  the  violin  repertoty. 

WIEPRECHT,  WILHELH  FRIEDRICH  (i8o2>i872),  German 
musical  conductor,  composer  and  inventor,  was  bom  on  the 
loth  of  August  1802,  at  Aschersleben,  where  his  father  was  town 
musician.  According  to  his  autobiography,  Wicprecht  early 
learned  from  his  father  to  play  on  nearly  all  wind  instmments. 
It  was  in  violin-playing,  however,  that  his  father  particularly 
wished  him  to  excel;  and  in  1819  he  went  to  Dresden,  where  he 
studied  composition  and  the  violin  to  such  good  purpose  that 
a  year  later  he  was  given  a  position  in  the  city  orchestm  of 
Leipzig,  playing  also  in  those  of  the  opera  and  the  famous 
Gewandhaus.  At  this  time,  besides  playing  the  violin  and 
clarinet  in  the  orchestra,  he  also  gave  solo  {performances  on  the 
t  rom  bone.  I  n  1 8  24  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  became  a  member 
of  the  royal  orchestra,  and  was  in  the  same  year  appomted 
chamber  musician  to  the  king.  His  residence  at  Berlin  gave 
Wicprecht  ample  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  his  genius  for 
military  music,  on  which  his  fame  mainly  rests.  Several  of  his 
marches  were  early  adopted  by  the  regimental  bands,  and  a 
more  ambitious  military  composition  attracted  the  attention 
of  Gasparo  Spontini,  at  whose  house  he  became  an  intimate  guest. 
It  was  now  that  he  began  to  study  acoustics,  in  order  to  correct 
the  deficicndcs  in  military  musical  instruments.  As  the  result, 
he  improved  the  valves  of  the  brass  instruments,  and  succeeded, 
by  constructing  them  on  sounder  acoustic  principles,  in  greatly 
increasing  the  volume  and  purity  of  their  tone.   He  also  hnvented 


the  bass  tuba  or  bombardon  fai  order  to  give  greater  richness  and 
power  to  the  bass  parts.  In  recognition  of  these  mventions  he 
was,  in  1835,  honoured  by  the  Royal  Academy  of  Berlin:  In 
1838  he  was  appointed  fay  the  Prussian  government  director- 
general  of  all  the  guards'  bands,  and  in  recognition  of  the  magnifi- 
cent performance  by  massed  bands  on  the  occasion  of  the 
emperor  Nicholas  I.'s  visit  the  same  year,  was  awarded  a  spcdal 
uniform.  In  1843  he  became  director-general  of  the  bands  of  the 
loth  ConfedexBte  army  corps,  and  from  this  time  exercised  a 
profound  influence  on  the  development  of  military  music  through- 
out Germany,  and  beyond.  He  was  the  first  to  arrange  the 
symphonies  and  overtures  of  the  classical  masten  for  military 
instruments,  and  to  organize  those  outdoor  performances  of 
concert  pieces  by  military  bands  which  have  done  so  much  to 
poptdarize  good  music  m  Germany  and  elsewhere.  The  periorm- 
ance  arranged  by  him  of  Beethoven's  "  Battle  of  Vittoria,"  hi 
vdiich  the  bugle  calls  were  given  by  trumpeters  stationed  in 
various  parts  of  the  garden  and  the  cannon  shots  were  those  of 
real  gxms,  created  immense  sensation.  Besides  the  great  work 
he  accomplished  in  Germany,  Wicprecht,  in  1847,  reorganized  the 
military  music  in  Turkey  and,  in  1852,  in  Guatemala.  He 
composed  military  songs  as  well  as  numerous  marches,  and  con- 
tributed frequently  on  his  favourite  subject  to  the  Berlin  musical 
papers.  He  died  on  the  4th  of  August  1872.  Wicprecht  was  a 
man  of  genial,  kindly  and  generous  nature,  and  was  associated 
with  many  charitable  fqundations  established  for  the  benefit 
of  poor  musicians. 

WIB8BA0IBN,  a  town  and  watering-place  of  oerm«n/,  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Hesse-Nassau.  Pop.  (1905)  100,953.  It 
is  delightfully  situated  in  a  basin  under  the  well-wooded  .south- 
western spurs  of  the  Taunus  range,  5  m.  N.  of  Mainz,  3  m.  from 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  (at  Biebrich),  and  25  m.  W.  o( 
Frankfort-on-Main  by  rail.  The  town  is  on  the  whole  sumptu- 
ously built,  with  broad  and  regular  streets.  Villas  and  gardens 
engirdle  it  on  the  north  and  east  sides  and  extend  up  the  hills 
behind.  Its  prosperity  is  mainly  due  to  its  hot  springs  and  mild 
climate,  which  have  rendered  it  a  favourite  winter  as  well  as 
summer  resort.  The  general  character  of  the  place,  with  its 
numerous  hotels,  pensions,  bathing  establishments,  villas  and 
places  of  entertainment,  is  largely  determined  by  the  require- 
ments of  visitors,  who  in  1907  ntmibercd  180,000.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  royal  palace,  built  in  1837-1840  as  a  residence 
for  the  dukes  of  Nassau,  and  now  a  residence  of  the  king  of 
Prussia;  the  Court  Theatre  (erected  1892-1894);  the  new 
Kurhaus,  a  large  and  handsome  establishment,  with  colonnades* 
adjoining  a  beautiful  and  shady  park;  the  town-hall,  in  the 
German  Renaissance  style  (1884-1888);  the  government  ofiices 
and  the  museum,  with  a  picture  gallery,  a  collection  of  antiquities, 
and  a  library  of  150,000  vols.  Among  the  churches,  which  are  all 
modem,  are  the  Protestant  Marktkircke,  in  the  Gothic  style 
with  five  towers,  built  1853- 1862;  the  Bergkircke;  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  of  St  Boniface;  the  Angh'can  cbureh  and  the 
Russian  church  on  the  Neroberg.  There  are  two  synagogues. 
Wiesbaden  contains  numerous  scientific  and  educational  institu- 
tions, including  a  chemical  laboratory,  an  agricultural  college 
and  two  musical  conservatoria. 

The  alkaline  thermal  springs  contain  }%  of  common  salt,  and 
smaller  quantities  of  other  chlorides;  and  a  great  deal  of  their 
efficacy  is  due  to  their  high  temperature,  which  varies  froh  156" 
to  ro4*'  Fahr.  The  water  is  generally  Cooled  to  93**  F.  for  bathings 
The  principal  spring  is  the  Kockbrunnen  (156*  F.),  the  water  of 
which  is  dmnk  by  sufferers  from  chronic  dyspepsia  and  obesity. 
There  are  twenty-eight  other  springs  of  nearly  identical  composi- 
tion, many  of  which  are  used  for  bathing,  and  are  efficacious 
in  cases  of  rheumatism,  gout,  nervous  and  female  disorders  and 
skin  diseases.  The  season  lasts  from  April  to  October,  but  the 
springs  are  open  the  whole  year  through  and  are  also  largely 
attended  in  winter. 

Two  miles  north-west  of  the  town  Hes  the  Neroberg  (800  ft.), 
whence  a  fine  view  of  the  surrounding  country  is  obtained,  and 
which  is  reached  by  a  funicular  railway  froip  Beausite,  and  6  m. 
to  the  west  lies  the  Hobe  Wurzal  (9025  ft.)  with  an  outlook  fewer. 


624 


WIG 


Wiesbaden  is  one  oi  the  oldest  watering-places  m  Germany, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  the  capital  of  the  Taunus  spas.  The 
springs  mentioned  by  Pliny  {Hist.  not.  zxx.  a)  as  Ponies  MaUkiaci 
were  known  to  the  Romans,  who  fortified  the  place  c.  i  x  b.c.  The 
massive  wall  in  the  centre  of  the  town  known  as  the  Heiden- 
mautr  was  {vobably  part  of  the  fortifications  built  und»'  Dio- 
cletian. The  name  Widbada  ("  meadow  bath  ")  appears  in  830. 
Under  the  Carolingian  monarchs  it  was  the  site  of  a  palace,  aiid 
Otto  I.  gave  it  civic  rights.  In  the  xith  centiny  the  town  and 
district  passed  to  the  coimts  of  Nassau,  Icjl  to  the  Walram  line 
in  135$,  and  in  1355  Wiesbaden  became  with  Idstein  capital  of 
the  county  Nassau-Idstein.  It  suffered  much  from  the  ravages 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  was  destroyed  in  1644.  In  1744 
it  became  the  seat  of  government  of  the  principality  Nassau- 
Usingen,  and  was  from  1815  to  z866  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of 
Nassau,  when  it  passed  with  that  duchy  to  Prussia.  Though 
the  wrings  were  never  quite  forgotten,  they  did  not  attain  their 
greatest  repute  until  the  close  of  the  x8th  century.  From  1771 
to  1873  Wiesbaden  was  a  notorious  gambling  resort;  but  in  the 
latter  year  public  gambling  was  suppressed  by  the  Prussian 

government. 

See  Roth,  (ksckiciu  und  hisUmsche  Tot>opaf>hie  der  Stadl  Wies- 
baden (Wiesbaden,  1883) ;  Pagenstechcr,  IVtesbaden  in  medisinisch- 
topographischer  Beeiehung  (Wiesbaden,  1870);  Kranz.  Wiesbaden 
und  setne  Tkermen  (Leipzig,  1884):  Pfciffcr,  Wiesbaden  als  Kurort 
(Sth  ed..  Wiesbaden.  1899);  and  Hcyl,  Wiesbaden  und  seine  Untie- 
bungen  (27th  ed.,  Wiesbaden,  1908). 

WIG  (short  for  "  periwig,"  an  alternative  form  of  "  peruke," 
Fr.  perrugue;  cf.  Span,  pdvca;  conjecturally  derived  from 
Lat.  pUus);  an  artificial  head  of  hair,  worn  as  a  personal  adorn- 
ment, disguise  or  symbol  of  office.  The  custom  of  wearing  wigs 
is  of  great  antiquity.  If,  as  seems  probable,  the  curious  head- 
covering  of  a  prehistoric  ivory  carving  of  a  female  head  found 
by  M.  Piette  in  the  cave  of  Brassempouy  in  the  Landcs  represents 
a  wig  (see  Ray  Lankester,  Science  from  an  Easy  Ckaifj  fig.  7) 
the  fashion  is  certainly  some  100,000  years  old.  In  historic 
times,  wigs  were  worn  among  the  Egyptians  as  a  royal  and 
official  head-dress,  and  specimens  of  these  have  been  recovered 
from  mummies.  In  Greece  they  were  used  by  both  men  and 
women,  the  most  common  mune  being  vrfpUai  or  ^cvAxif,  some- 
times rponbtuov  or  x^/uu  irpba&eroi.  A  reference  in  Xenophon 
{Cyr.  i.  3.  2)  to  the  false  hair  worn  by  Cyrus's  grandfather 
"  as  is  customary  among  the  Medes,"  and  also  a  story  in  Aristotle 
iOecon.  4.  14),  would  suggest  that  wigs  were  introduced  from 
Persia,  and  were  in  use  in  Asia  Minor.  Another  origin  is  sug- 
gested by  Athenaeus  (xM.  523),  who  says  that  the  lapyfpan 
inunigrants  into  Italy  from  Crete  were  the  first  to  wear  rpoicbtua 
'TtptBerd,  and  the  elaborately  frizzled  hair  worn  by  some  of  the 
figures  in  the  frescoes  found  at  Cnossus  makes  it  probable  that 
the  wearing  of  artificial  hair  was  known  to  the  Cretans.  Lucian, 
in  the  2nd  century,  mentions  wigs  of  both  men  and  women  as 
a  matter  of  course  (Alex.  59,  Dial.  mer.  xi).  The  theatrical  wig 
was  also  in  use  in  Greece,  the  various  comic  and  tragic  masks 
having  hair  suited  to  the  diaracter  represented.  A.  £.  Haigh 
(Attic  Theatre^  pp.  221,  239)  refers  to  the  black  hair  and  beard 
of  the  t^nrant,  the  fair  curb  of  tbe  youthfxil  hero,  and  the  red 
hair  characteristic  of  the  dishonest  slave  of  comedy.  These 
conventions  appear  to  have  been  handed  on  to  the  Roman 
theatre. 

At  Rome  wigs  came  into  use  certainly  in  the  early  days  of  the 
empire.  They  were  also  known  to  the  Carthaginians;  Polybius 
(iii.  78)  says  that  Hannibal  used  wigs  as  a  means  of  disguise. 
The  fashionable  ladies  of  Rome  were  much  addicted  to  false  hair, 
and  we  learn  from  Ovid,  Anurres^  i.  14.  45)  and  Martial  (v.  68) 
Ihat  the  golden  hair  imported  from  Germany  was  most  favoured. 
Juvenal  (vi.  120)  shows  us  Messalina  assuming  a  yellow  wig  for 
her  visits  to  places  of  ill-fame,  and  the  scholiast  on  the  passage 
says  that  the  yellow  wig  was  characteristic  of  courtesans. 
The  chief  names  for  wigs  were  galeruSf  galerictdum^  corymbium, 
eapillamentuM,  caiiendmmt  or  even  cotnae  emplae,  &&  Calerus 
meant  in  the  first  place  a  skuU-cap,  or  coif,  fastening  under  the 
chin,  and  made  of  hide  or  fur,  worn  by  peasants,  athletes  and 
fhmina.   The  first  men's  wigs  then  would  have  been  tight  fur 


caps  simulating  hair,  which  would  naturally  suggest  wigs  of 
fake  hair.  Otho  wore  a  wig  (Suetonius,  Olko  §  12),  which  a>uld 
not  be  distinguished  from  real  hair,  while  Nero  (Dio  Cass.  Ixi.  9) 
wore  a  wig  as  a  disguise,  and  Heliogabalus  also  wore  one  at  times 
(ibid.  Indx,  13).  Women  continued  to  have  wigs  of  different 
colours  as  part  of  their  ordinary  wardrobe,  and  Faustina,  wife 
of  Marcus  Aurdius,  is  said  to  have  had  several  hundred.  An 
amusing  development  of  this  is  occasionally  found  in  portrait 
busts,  e.g.  that  of  PlautUla  in  the  Louvre,  in  which  the  hair  is 
made  movable,  so  that  by  changing  the  wig  of  the  statue  from 
time  to  time  it  should  never  be  out  of  fashion. 

The  Fathers  of  the  Church  violently  attacked  the  custom  of 
wearing  wigs,  Tertullian  {De  cuUufem.  C.  7)  being  particularly- 
eloquent  against  them,  but  that  they  did  not  succeed  in  stamping 
out  the  custom  was  proved  by  the  finding  of  an. auburn  wig  in 
the  grave  of  a  Christian  woman  in  the  cemetery  of  St  Cyriacus. 
In  672  a  synod  of  Constantinople  forbade  the  wearing  of  artificial 
hair. 

Artificial  hair  has  presumably  always  been  worn  by  women 
when  the  fashion  required  abundant  locks.  Thus,  with  the 
development  of  elaborate  coiffures  in  the  i6th  century,  the 
wearing  of  false  hair  became  prevalent  among  ladies  in  Europe; 
Qaetn  Elizabeth  had  eighty  attires  (rf  false  hair,  and  Maty  queen 
of  Scots  was  also  in  the  habit  of  varying  the  attires  of  hair  die 
wore.  The  periwig  of  tbe  i6th  century,  however,  merely  simu- 
lated real  hair,  either  as  an  adornment  or  to  supply  the  defects 
of  nature.  It  was  not  till  the  17th  century  that  the  peruke  was 
worn  as  a  distinctive  feature  of  costume.  The  fashion  started  in 
France.  In  X620  the  abb^  La  Riviere  appeared  at  the  court  ol 
Louis  XIII.  in  a  periwig  made  to  simulate  long  fair  hair,  and 
four  years  later  the  king  himself,  prematurely  bald,  also  adopted 
one  and  thus  set  the  fashion.  Louis  XIV.,  who  was  proud  of  his 
abundant  hair,  did  not  wear  a  wig  till  after  X670.  Meanwhile, 
his  courtiers  had  continued  to  wear  wigs  in  imitation  of  the  royal 
hair,  and  from  Versailles  the  fashion  spread  through  Europe. 
In  England  it  came  in  with  the  Restoration;  for  thougli  the 
prince  of  Wales  (Charles  I.},  while  in  Paris  oq  his  way  to  Spain, 
had  "  shadowed  himself  the  roost  he  could  under  a  burly  perruque, 
which  none  in  former  days  but  bald-headed  pieople  used,"  he 
had  dropped  the  fashion  on  returning  to  England,  and  he  and  his 
Cavaliers  were  distinguished  from  the  "  Roundheads  "  only  by 
wearing  their  own  flowing  locks.  Under  Charles  II.  the  wearing 
of  the  peruke  became  general.  Pepys  records  that  he  parted 
with  his  own  hair  and  "  paid  £3  for  a  periwigg  ";*  and  on  going 
to  church  in  one  he  says  "  it  did  not  prove  so  strange  as  I  was 
afraid  it  would."  It  was  under  Queen  Anne,  however,  that  the 
wig  attained  its  maximum  development,  covering  the  back  and 
shoulders  and  floating  down  over  the  chest.  So  far,  indeed, 
whatever  the  exaggeration  of  its  proportions,  the  wig  had  been 
a  "  counterieithair  "  intended  to  produce  the  illusion  of  abundant 
natural  locks.  But,  to  quote  the  inimitable  author  of  Ploco' 
cosmost  *'  ^  1-bc  perukes  became  more  common,  their  shape 
and  forms  altered.  Hence  we  hear  of  the  clerical,  the  physical, 
and  the  huge  tie  peruke  for  the  man  of  law,  the  brigadier  or 
major  for  the  army  and  navy;  as  also  the  tremendous  fox  ear, 
or  cluster  of  temple  curls,  with  a  pig-tail  behind.  The  merchant, 
the  man  .of  business  and  of  letters,  were  distinguished  by  the 
grave  full  bottom,  or  more  moderate  tie,  neatly  curled;-  the 
tradesman  by  the  long  bob,  or  natty  scratch;  the  country 
gentleman  by  the  naturtU  fly  and  hunting  peruke.  All  conditions 
of  men  were  distinguish^  by  the  ait  of  the  wig,  and  none  more 
so  than  the  coachman,  who  wore  his,  as  there  does  some  to  this 
day,  in  imitation  of  the  curled  hair  of  a  water-dog."  ' 

*  This  was  cheap.  The  author  of  Plocacosmos  says  that  "  when 
they  first  were  wore,  the  price  was  usually  one  hundred  {guineas  "; 
and  the  article  in  Diderot  s  Encyclopidie  says  that  it  sometimes  cost 
as  much  as  1000  Uns. 

*  Plocacosmos,  p.  aog.  Tbe  writer  goes  on  to  describe  the  fashions 
on  the  staee.  "  So  late  as  King  William's  reign,  in  one  of  Rove's 
pieces,  iMoy  Jane  Grey,  the  Ix>rd  Guildford  Dudley  is  dressed^  in  all 
the  modem  fashion  of  laced  coat,  cravat,  high  peniice,  &c.,  while  the 
heroine  is  simply  drest,  her  hair  parted  in  tne  middle,  hanging  care- 
lettly  on  her  MKNilderft.. . .  Nearer  our  time,  in  the  tragedy  ol  Colo, 
Mr  Booth  is  dressed  a-la-mode,  with  the  huge  peruke.. . .  Mr  Quin 


WIGAN— WIGEON 


62$ 


This  differentiation  of  wigs  aococdingto  daas  and  profession 
dpiains  why,  when  eaziy  in  the  reign  of  George  IIL  the  general 
fashion  of  wearing  wigs  began  to  wane  and  die'out,  the  practice 
held  its  own  among  professional  men.  It  was  by  slow  degrees 
that  doctors,  soldiers  and  clergymen  gave  up  the  custom.  In 
the  Church  it  survived  longest  among  the  bishops,,  the  wig 
ultimately  becoming  a  sort  of  ensign  of  the  episcopal  dignity. 
Wigs  were  first  discarded  by  the  bishops,  by  permission  of  the 
king,  at  the  coronation  banquet  of  Williun  IV.,  the  weather  being 
hot;  and  Greville  comments  on  the  odd  appearance  of  the  pre- 
lates with  their  cropped  poUs.  At  the  coronation  of  Queen 
Victoria  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  alone  of  the  prdlates, 
still  wore  a  wig.  Wigs  are  now  worn  as  part  of  ofi&dal  costume 
only  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  its  dependencies,  their  use 
being  confined,  except  in  the  case  of  the  speaker  of  the  house  of 
commons  and  the  clerks  of  pariiament,  to  the  lord  chancellor, 
the  judges  and  members  of  the  bar  (see  Robes).  Wigs  of  course 
continue  to  be  worn  by  many  to  make  up  for  natural  deficiencies; 
and  on  the  stage  the  wig  is,  as  in  all  times,  an  indispensable 
adjunct.  Many  of  the  modem  stage  wigs  are  made  of  jute, 
a  fibre  which  lends  itself  to  marvellously  perfect  imitations  of 
human  hair. 

Sec  F.  W.  Fairholt,  Costume  in  BngUmd,  i  vols.,  ed.  Dillon  <i885) : 
C.  F.  Nicolai,  Ober  den  Cebrouch  dtr  jalscken  Boon  umd  PerHtcben 
(1801);  the  articles  "  Coma  "  and  "  Galenis"  in  Darembcrg  and. 
Saglio's  Dictionnaire  des  antiquitis.  There  is  an  admirable  article  on 
wigs  and  wig-making  in  Dideroc's  BneycloptdU  (1765),  t.  xii.,  s.v. 
*'  Pemiqua.'  Jamca  Stewart's  Ploe/uosmos,  Cf  the  WhoU  An  of 
Hairdressing  (London,  1763)  also  contains  rich  material. 

WIGAN,  a  market  town,  and  municipal,  county  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  Lancashire,  England,  194  m..N.W.  by  N. 
from  London  by  the  London  &  North-Westem  railway,  served 
also  by  the  Lancashire  &  Yorkshiro  and  the  Great  Central  rsil- 
ways.  Pop.  (1891)  55,013,  (190Z)  60,764.  It  lies  on  the  small 
river  Douglas,  which  flows  into  the  estuary  of  the  Ribble.  There 
is  connexion  by  canal  with  Liverpool,  Manchester,  &c.  The  older 
portions  of  the  town  occupy  the  north  Ixmk  of  the  river,  the 
modern  additions  being  chiefly  on  the  south  bank.  The  church 
of  All  Saints,  late  Perpendicular,  consisting  of  chaacel  with 
aisles  and  two  cfaapels,wwas  restored  in  1630  and  in  modern 
times.  There  are  numerous  modem  churches  and  chapds. 
The  principal  public  buildings  are  the  Royal  Albert  Edward 
Infirmary  and  Dispensary,  the  public  hall,  the  borough  courts 
and  offices,  the  arcade,  the  market  hall,  the  free  public  library 
and  the  county  courts  and  offices  (1888).  The  educational 
institutions  include  the  free  grammar  school  (founded  by  James 
Leigh  in  1619  and  rebuilt  in  1876),  the  Wigan  and  District 
Mining  and  Technical  College  (built  by  public  subscription  and 
opened  in  1903)  and  the  mechanics'  institution,  also  the  convent 
of  Notre  Dame  (1854),  with  a  coflege  for  pupil  teachers  and  a 
high  Khool  for  girls,  and  several  Roman  Catholic  schools.  A 
public  park  of  37  acres  was  opened  hi  1878.  The  town  owes 
much  of  its  prosperity  to  its  coal  mines,  which  employ  a  large 
proportion  of  the  inhabitants  and  supply  the  factory  furnaces. 
The  chief  manufacture  is  that  of  cotton  fabrics;  the  town  also 
possesses  iron  forges,  iron  and  brass  foundries,  oil  and  grease 
works,  railway  waggon  factories,  and  bolt, screw  and  nail  works. 
The  parliamentary  borough,  returning  one  member  since  1885, 
is  coextensive  with  the  municipal  borough,  and  falls  mainly 
within  the  Ince  division  of  the  county.  The  county  borough  was 
created  in  1888.  The  corporation  consists  of  a  mayor,  xo 
aldermen  and  30  councillors.  Area  5082  acres,  including  the 
former  urban  district  of  Pcmberton  (pop.  31,664  in  1901),  which 
was  included  with  Wigan  in  1904. 

acted  almost  all  his  young  characters,  as  Hamlet,  Horatio,  Pierre, 
&c.  in  a  full-dress  suit  and  large  peruke.  But  Mr  Garrick's  ecnius 
. . .  first  attacked  the  mode  of  dress,  and  no  part  more  than  that  of 
the  heed  of  hair.  The  consequence  of  this  was.  that  a  capital  player's 
wardrobe  "  [came  to  include)  '*  what  thuy  call  natural  heads  of  hair; 
there  is  the  comedy  head  01  hair  and  the  tragedy  ditto;  the  silver 
locks,  and  the  common  gray:  the  carotty  poll,  and  the  vellow 
caxon ;  the  savage  black,  and  the  Italian  brown  and  Shytock  s  and 
Fatstafl's  very  different  heads  of  hair;  . . .  with  the  Spanish  fly, 
the  foxes  tail.  &c  &c."  He  adds  that  the  tendency  is  to  replace  those 
by  **  the  hair,  without  powder,  simply  curled." 


Roman  remains  have  been  fotmd,  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
town  covers  the  site  of  a  Roman  post  or  fort,  Coccium.  Wigan, 
otherwise  Wygan  and  Wigham,  is  not  mentioned  in  Domesday 
Book,  but  three  of  the  townships,  UphoUand,  Dalton  and  Orrd 
are  named.  After  the  Concjuest  Wigan  was  part  of  the  barony 
of  Newton,  and  the  church  was  endowed  with  a  carucate  of  land, 
the  origin  of  the  manor.  Some  tin^e  before  Henry  UI.'s  reign 
the  baron  of  Newton  granted  to  the  rector  of  Wigan  the  manorial 
privileges.  In  1346  Henry  III.  granted  a  charter  to  the  famous 
John  Mantel,  parson  of  the  cfauxdi,  by  which  Wigan  was  con- 
stituted a  free  borough  and  the  burgesses  permitted  to  have  a 
Gild  Merchant.  In  1349  John  Mansel  granted  by  chaxter  to  the 
burgesses  that  each  should  have  five  roods  of  land  to  his  burgage 
as  freehold  on  payment  of  13d.  each.  Confirmations  and  exten- 
sions of  Henry  III.'s  charter  were  granted  by  Edward  II.  (13 14), 
Edward  IIL  (x349)>  Richard  II.  (1378),  Henry  IV.  (1400), 
Henry  V.  (1413)*  Charles  IL  (1663),  James  U.  (1685)  and  William 
IV.  (1833  and  1836).  In  1358  Henry  HI.  granted  by  charter 
to  John  Mansel  a  weekly  market  on  Monday  and  two  fairs,  each 
of  three  days,  beginning  on  the  eve  of  Ascenskm  Day  and  on  the 
eve  of  All  SainU'  Day,  October  38th.  Edward  II.  granted  a 
three  days'  fair  from  the  eve  of  St  Wilfrid  instead  of  the  AU 
Saints'  fair,  but  in  1339  Edward  III.  by  charter  altered  the 
fair  again  to  its  original  date.  Charies  II.'s  charter  granted, 
and  James  II.'s  confirmed,  a  three  days'  fair  b^jnnmg  on  the 
x6th  of  July.  Pottery  and  bdl-founding  were  formerly  import- 
ant trades  hero,  and  the  manufacture  of  woollens,  e^>edally  of 
blankets,  was  carried  on  In  the  x8th  century.  The  cotton  trade 
developed  rapidly  after  the  introduction  of  the  cylindrical 
csrding  machine,  which  was  set  up  here  two  years  before  Peel 
used  it  at  Bolton.  During  the  Civil  War  the  town,  from  its 
vicinity  to  Lathom  House  and  the  influence  of  Lord  Derby, 
adhered  staunchly  to  the  king.  On  the  xst  of  April  1643  the 
Parliamentarians  under  Sir  John  Seaton  captured  Wigan  after 
severe  fighting.  In  the  following  month  Lord  Derby  regained 
it  for  the  Royalists,  but  Colonel  Ashton  soon  retook  it  and 
demolished  the  works.  In  1651  Lord  Derby  landed  from  the 
Isle  of  Man  and  inarched  through  Preston  to  Wigan  on  the  way 
to  join  Charles  IL  At  Wigan  Lane  on  the  35tfa  of  August  a 
fierce  battle  took  place  between  the  Royalist  forces  under  Lord 
Derby  and  Sir  Thomas  Tyldesley  and  the  Parliamentarians  under 
Colonel  Lflbune,  in  which  the  Royalists  were  defeated,  Tyldesley 
was  killed  and  Lord  Derby  wounded.  During  the  rebellion  of 
1745  Prince  Charles  Edwaifd  spent  one  night  (December  10th) 
here  on  his  return  march.  In  x  395  Wigan  returned  two  members 
to  parliament  and  again  in  1307;  the  right  then  remained  in 
ab^ance  till  X547,  but  from  that  time  till  1885,  except  during 
the  Commonwealth,  the  borough  returned  two  members,  and 
since  1885  one  member.  The  church  of  All  Saints  is  of  Saxon 
origin,  and  was  existing  in  Edward  the  Confessor's  time.  The 
list  of  rectors  is  oomfrfete  from  1199. 

WlQIOlf,  or  Widgeon  (Fr.  Yigeon.  from  the  Lat.  Vipio),^ 

also  called  k>caUy  "  Whewer  "  and  *'  Whew  '*  (names  imlutive 

of  the  whistling  caU-note  of  the  male),  the  Anas  fenelope  of 

linnaeus  and  Mareca  pendope  of  modem  ornithologists,  one  of 

the  moat  abundant  species  ol  ducks  throughout  the  greater  part 

of  Europe  and  northern  Asia,  reaching  northern  Africa  and  India 

in  winter.    A  good  many  pairs  breed  in  the  north  of  Scotland; 

but  the  nurseries  of  the  vast  ntunbers  which  resort  in  autunm  to 

the  waten  of  temperate  Europe  are  in  Lapland  or  farther  to  the 

eastwaM.   Comparatively  few  breed  in  Iceland. 

Intermediate  in  rise  between  the  teal  and  the  mallard,  and  less 
showy  in  plumage  than  either,  the  drake  wigeon  is  a  beautiful  bird, 
with  the  greater  part  of  hu  bill  blue,  his  forehead  cream-colour, 
his  head  and  neck  chestnut,'  replaced  by  greyish-pink  below  and 
above  by  lavender-grey,  which  last,  produced  by  the  transverse 
undulations  of  fine  black  and  whhe  lines^  extends  over  the  back  and 
upper  surface  of  the  wings,  txcept  some.of  the  coverts,  which  are 

*■  So  PiosoN  (o.v.)  from  Pipio.  Other  French  names,  nM>re  or  less 
kxal.  are,  according  ro  RoUand,  V^^um,  KfUfceii,  Wcpu,  Wonus, 
WimeU  Wuict,  Vioux  aad  Difton.  In  some  parts  of  England  the 
smiul  teasing  ^cs.  generally  called  midges,  are  known  as  "  wigeons." 

*  Hence  come  the  additional  local  names  "  bald-pate  **  and  "  red- 


TVIGGIN— WIGHT,  BLE  OF 


cooMiSeiuuily  whlta.  ukd  abowi  Itidf  ickEil  OB 
are  lurttiEr  omuiKntcd  by  a  iloHy  encn  9 
bUch  bun;  tbe  uil  u  pointed^ud  duh;  tbv 
ii  white.  Tbe  lemlt  hue  the  inoooniciicHii 
utk  o(  he  •»  unoaE  nioet  si  (lie  dvcfc  liibe. 


H^iich  ufiDtiad  t^  lake*  or 


L  of  Non 


Iilinds  in  Dw  racific   1 


it  midd  uem,  dd  the  FlibylaS 
ut  the  New  Woild  hu  two  allied  ipeda 
M.  ameriaam  (a  freihly  lulled  esunplB 

itinent,  and  in  viatu  reichuij;  Cential 
Amenca  ana  me  west  indlm  talandi  at  far  as  Tnnidad,  wholly 
Teaemblea  it£  Old- World  fon^cDer  io  hablu  and  much  in  appear^ 
ancx.  But  in  it  the  chestnut  or  the  head  u  rqilaced  by  a  dose 
apeckiiog  o[  black  and  buflj  the  while  wiog-^overtB  arc  wutinx, 
uid  neatly  all  the  plumage  a  subdued  in  tone.  The  otbet  Ipcciet. 
if.  sibilairii,  iababits  the  Knitheni  portion  d  South  Aranica  and 
ila  iilandt,  fidm  Chile  on  the  wett  to  the  FalUawb  on  the  east, 
and  ia  easily  ncognized  by  its  nearly  white  head,  nape  ^oasy 
with  purple  and  green,  and  olher  dlflcnnctt;  while  the  plumafc 
hardly  dilfers  sexually  at  alt.  (A.N.) 

WIOOtN,  KATE  DODOUB  (iSjT-  ),  ADietican  noveUM, 
dsugh tei  of  Robert  N.  Smith,  ( lawyer,  wu  bom  in  Hiiladelphia, 
Penruytvajua,onlheiethof Sepleinba  1857.   She' 


1S76  to  Los  Angeles,  Cahfornia.  She  taught  in  Santa  ^ubaiK 
CoU^e  (1877-1878),  estaUished  la  San  Fnurisro  the  firat  free 
klndetgarteni  for  poor  chitdien  on  the  nettem  coast  (iS7S),and, 
»ith  the  help  of  ho  sister.  Miss  Nora  Ardiibald  Smiib,  siid  of 
Mfs  Sarah  B.  Cooper,  oifaDiaed  the  California  Kindergarten 
Training  School  (tSSo).  She  married,  in  18S0,  Samuel  Bradley 
Wiggin  of  San  Francisco,  who  died  in  1SS9.  In  1895  she  married 
George  Christopher  Rigp,  but  continued  to  write  under  the 

in  both  prose  and  verse.  But  her  literary  reputation  rests 
rather  on  her  works  of  prose  fiction,  which  ^ow  a  real  gift  lor 
depicling  cbaracter  and  an  original  vein  of  humour.  The  best 
kncwnol  these  are:  r*(£irifi'CAru(i<iaiCaroJ(i88J)iPaH:feV> 
Bni/i!k  ExHriiKa  (1893):  Harm  Liia  (1896):  Paiilotfi 
Frapvi  (189B),  being  Fendopc's  experiences  in  Scotland; 
Pnthft'i  Iritk  ExfiTinai  (1901);  Tht  Diary  0/  a  Caou-Cirl 
(i»oi);  and  Rdnaa  cf  Sunnyiraeli  Fann  (1903). 

WIGGLES  WO  HTH,  mCHABL  (1631-1705),  Atncrican  dergy- 
maa  and  poet,  was  bom  in  Englarid,  probacy  in  Yorkshire,  on 
the  iSth  ol  October  1611.  His  father,  Edward  (d.  16:3],  pcne- 
cuted  for  his  Puritan  faith,  emigrated  with  bis  fsnily  to  New 
England  in  ifijS  and  seiiled  in  New  Haven.  Michael  Uudied 
for  a  time  at  a  school  kept  by  Eiekicl  Cheever,  and  in  i6ji 
graduated  at  Harvard,  where  be  was  a  tutor  (and  a  Fellow) 
in  165^1654-  Haviag  £tled  bimselF  for  the  rainistry,  he 
pteftched  at  Chulestoim  ill  i6j3~t6;4,  and  was  pastor  at 
Maiden  from  1656  until  hii  death,  thou^  for  twenty  yean  or 
more  bodily  infirmities  pieveatcd  his  regular  attendance  upon  hit 
dulia— Cotton  Mather  described  him  as  "  s  little  feeble  sbado* 
ol  a  mw."  During  this  interval  he  studied  medicine  and  began 
a  successful  practice.  He  via  agoiD  a  Fellow  of  Harvard  in 
J607-1J0S.  He  died  at  Mahko  on  the  10th  of  June  1705- 
Wiggleawortfa  is  best  known  at  the  author  of  Tlu  Day  0/  D«m; 
er  a  PetHcaS  Dacriptim  of  Ihi  Gnat  and  Last  J^dfrnaa  (iMi). 
At  least  two  English  and  eight  American  editions  have  appeared, 
notable  among  thMn  being  thai  of  i8«7  (New  Voii).  edited  by 
W.  H.  Burr  and  including  other  poems  of  Wigglesworth,  ft 
memoir  and  an  autobiography.  For  a  century  litis  rctlislic 
and  terrible  expreaakm  ol  the  prevailing  Calvinistic  theology  wah 

poenu  include  Ced'i  Cnlrnmy  wM  Nra  En^ni  (written  in 
1661. "  in  the  time  of  the  great  dmugbl,"  and  Gist  printed  in  Ihs 


Pmniimti  cj  Iht  ifoiMctnA  BbMcat  Sttbly  for  lyBi). 

and  ifiol  DKl  g/ l*i  £e(ir;  or  Muditettsiu  fmcnJii;  1*1  ^M«uit]>, 
End  and  UaMf-a  ff  Affittim  nto  Cofi  OaUrat  {1669; 
Rntedln  1703). 

His  iDo,  SaKnEL  (1689-1768),  also  a  dergyoan,  was  tba 
autbof  of  aeveral  pnae  works  and  o(  one  poem  of  nerit,  "  A 
Funeral  Song"  (1709).  Anothn  son,  Edward  (16^3-1765), 
.was  the  bist  Ui^lts  profetsorof  Divinity  at  Harvard  (i7i>-i7«5), 
and  the  author  ol  various  theokigical  works;  and  a  graudton, 
Edwaid  (i73T-i794l,w]>i  the  second  Htdlis  professor  ol  Divinity 
(1763-1791).  in  Hhich  potiilon  be  wai  aoccBeded  by  Uichad 
Wig^wonh's  great-grandson.  Rev.  David  Tappui(i7Si-iSaj). 

S«  J.  W.  Dsane,  Jfiwirs/Ro.  ifwtHf  WiaftrHrtl,  IBoma, 
1871). 

WlSffl,  liLS  O?,  an  island  off  tha  wntli  cout  of  Englml, 
forming  part  of  Hampshire,  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
tbe  Solent  and  Spltbead.  It  is  of  diamond  shape,  meastrins 
ul  nt.  from  E.  to  W.  and  i;i  from  N.  to  S.  (eitiemes).  Tin  am 
it  147  tq.  m.  The  south  cout  it  (or  the  oust  put  cHS-bound 
and  grand,  and  there  is  much  qinelly  beiuiitul  eceneiy  both 
inland  and  along  the  northern  shores.  Although  east  winds  are 
at  times  prevalent  In  'winter  and  spring,  sod  sumnwr  heats  may 
be  eicestin,  the  dlmate,  especially  in  certain  favoured  spots, 
is  mild  and  healthy.   As  a  result  Duneroua  watering-places  have 

A  range  of  high  chalk  downs  crosiet  tbe  island  from  east  to 
west,  terminating  seaward  in  the  Culver  diffs  and  the  di£b  near 
Freshwaler  teqiectivcly.  It  is  breached  easlwatd  by  the  Yat 
stream  flowing  N.E.,  in  the  centre  by  the  Medina,  the  piindpii 
stream  In  the  iiUnd,  Hawing  N.,  and  by  another  Yar,  flowing  N., 
in  the  extreme  west.  These  downs  teach  a  height  over  700  ft. 
west  of  the  Medina,  but  east  of  it  do  not  grently  exceed  400  ft. 
The  slope  northward  is  gradual.  The  north.wett  and  north-catt 
coaots,  overlooking  the  Solent  and  Spiihead  reapcdivedy,  rise 
sharply,  but  hardly  ever  assume  the  diQ  form;  they  are  beauti- 
fully wooded,  and  bioken  by  many  picluietque  estuaries,  such 
as  those  of  the  western  Yar  and  Newtown  on  the  tiortb-WBt, 
the  Medina  opening  northward  opposite  Southampton  Water, 
and  Wootton  Creek  and  the  mouth  of  the  eastern  Yii  on  the 
□uith-eost.  The  sUcftms  menriooed  rise  very  near  the  south 
coast;  the  watem  Yar,  indeed,  so  dose  to  it  Uiat  the  high  land 
west  of  the  stream  is  nearly  Insulated.  A  second  range  ot  downs 
ID  the  extreme  south,  between  St  Catherine'*  Faint  and  Duimoee, 
reaches  the  gieatnt  elevation  in  the  island,  eiceeding  8co  ft. 
i;i  St  Catherine's  Hill.  Bdow  these  heights  on  the  scanrd  side 
occurs  the  remarkable  tract  known  as  the  UnderdiS,  a  kind  ol 
terrace  formed  by  the  collapse  of  rocks  overlying  soft  strata 
[sand  and  day]  which  have  been  undermined.  The  upper  diifa 
shelter  this  terrace  from  the  north  winds;  the  dimate  is  re- 
markably niild,  and  many  dcUcale  plants  flourish  luxuriantly. 


on  the  soft  rocks  has  hallowed  out 
n  as  chines.   Many  of  these,  though 
ihe  most  famous  art  Shanklin  and 
.  shows  perhaps  the 


DP  gullies 


.  of  sa 


Blackgang  chines.  The  weste 
finest  development  of  sea-diffo- 
rise  three  detadied  masaet  ol  chalk,  about  roo  111  in  height, 
known  as  the  Needles,  exposed  to  the  full  strength  of  the  south- 
westerly gales  driving  up  the  ChanneL  During  a  storm  in  1764 
a  fourth  spire  was  undermined  and  fell. 

inlereitf  lU  focfh^^been  dllemineXb^™  d^pl^  i^ni!?uial 
fold  which  hai  Ihrawu  up  the  Chalk  wilh  a  high  nnnhward  dip.  n 

ward'to'cul^  Ch^L  %i^ lo a  kiik"in  Ilu  (oM  the  ridge «|and> 
tooiowfaat  south  of  Caridrroalie.  On  tbe  north  ilde  of  the  ridae  the 
Chalk  dip*  beneath  the  Tenlariea  ol  the  Hampshire  Basin.  Imme- 
diaccly  north  of  tbe  Chalk  the  Lowsr  Eocene,  Reading  beds  and 
London  Clay  form  a  narrow  pvallel  sirlp,  followed  by  a  similar  strip 
ol  Umw  Eocene,  Bracklesham  and  Bagibet  beda  The  renainint 
nDctbern  portion  of  the  island  ii  oceni^ed  by  fluvio-nurine  Oligocene 
Arata,  including  the  Headon.  Osborne.  Bembridgc  and  Hamitr«d 


WIGTOWN 


627 


coast,  and  may  alto  be  studied  to  great  advanta^  in  White  Cliff  and 
Alum  Bays,  la  Alum  Bay  the  vertical  disposition  of  the  strata  it 
well  shown,  and  the  highly-coloured  Bagshot  sands  and  days  form  a 
conspicuous  feature.  From  the  excellent  coast  sections  many  fossils 
may  be  obtained.  South  of  the  Chalk  ridge  that  rock  has  been  com* 
pletely  removed  by  denudation  so  as  to  expose  the  underlying  Upper 
Creensand,  which  has  slipped  in  many  places  over  the  underlymg 
Gault  (locally  called  "  blue  slipper  ")i  forming  picturnque  landsUps. 
The  Lower  Creensand  formation  may  best  m  studied  in  the  cliff 
section  from  Atherfield  Point  to  Rocken  End,  and  in  the  chines  of 
Shanklin  and  Blackgang.  Beneath  the  Creensand  the  Wealden  is 
exposed  in  the  section  from  Brook  to  Atherfield.  and  also,  to  a  much 
less  extent,  in  Sandown  Bay.  The  Wealden  strata  have  yielded 
abundant  fossU  remains  of  extinct  reptiles  (Iguanodm),  especially 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Brook  and  Cowlcaae  Chines;  and  at  Brook 
Point  an  extensiive  fossil  forest  exists,  being  the  remains  of  a  great 
raft  of  timber  floated  down  and  deposited  in  estuarine  mud  at  the 
mouth  of  a  great  river.  At  Brook  also  the  characteristic  Wealden 
moUusk.  Undo  wMmsis,  occurs  abundantly. 

Towns,  ix. — Newport  at  the  head  of  the  MedJaa  estuary  is  the 
chief  town;  Cowes  at  the  mouth  the  chief  port.  The  principal 
resorts  of  vbitors  are  Cowes  (the  headquarters  of  the  Royal  Yacht 
Squadron);  Ryde  on  the  north-east  coast;  Sandown,  Shanklin 
and  Ventnor  on  the  south-east;  Freshwater  Gate  on  the  south- 
west, and  Yarmouth  on  the  Solent.  Others  are  Tolland  Bay 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Solent,  GurAard  near  Cowes,  and  Seaview 
and  Bembridge  south  of  Ryde.  The  principal  lines  of  com- 
munication with  the  mainland  are  between  Cowes  and  South- 
ampton, Ryde  and  Portsmouth,  and  Yarmouth  and  Lymington. 
Newport  is  the  chief  railway  centre,  lines  running  N.  to  Cowes, 
W.  to  Yarmouth  and  Freshwater,  S.  to  Ventnor,  with  a  branch 
to  Sandown,  and  £.  to  Ryde.  A  direct  line  connects  Ryde, 
Sandown,  Shanklin  and  Ventnor,  and  has  a  branch  to  St  Helen's 
and  Bembridge.  There  are  few  industries  in  the  island.  The 
land  is  chiefly  agricultural,  a  large  proportion  being  devoted  to 
sheep-grazing.  Fishing  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent  on 
the  south  coast — ^lobsters,  crabs  and  prawns  being  plentiful. 
Oyster  cultivation  has  been  attempted  in  the  Medina,  in  firading 
Harbour  and  in  the  Newtown  river.  At  Cowes  shipbuilding  is 
carried  on,  and  timber  is  gfown  for  the  British  navy  in  a  part 
of  the  andent  forest  of  Parichurst,  between  the  Medina  and  the 
Solent.  The  general  trade  of  the  island  centres  at  Newport, 
but  in  the  coast  towns  the  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants 
consbts  in  providing  for  visitors.  The  island  shares  in  the 
defences  of  the  Solent,  Spithead  and  Portsmouth;  there  are 
batteries  at  Puckpool  near  Ryde,  and  on  the  eastern  foreland, 
and  along  the  west  coast  between  the  Needles  and  Yarmouth. 
Strong  associations  connect  the  Isle  of  Wight  with  the  British 
royal  family.  Osborne  House,  near  Cowes,  was  a  residence  and 
the  scene  of  the  death  of  Queen  Victoria,  and  was  presented  to 
the  nation  by  King  Edward  in  190a  (see  Cowes).  Princess 
Beatrice  succeeded  her  husband  Prince  Henry  of  Battenberg  as 
honorary  governor  of  the  island  in  1896.  The  island  is  divided 
kito  two  liberties,  East  and  West  Medina^  esdudmg  the  boroughs 
of  Newport  and  Ryde;  and  it  forms  one  petty  and  special 
sessional  division  of  the  county.  The  urban  districts  are  Cowes* 
East  Cowes,  St  Helen's,  Sandown,  Shanklin  and  Ventnor.  Until 
xSSj  there  was  one  member  of  pariiameni  for  the  idand  and  one 
for  the  borouj^  of  Newport;  now,  however,  there  is  only  one 
member  for  the  whole  island.  Epiacopally  the  island  has  for 
many  centuries  bek>ngedto  the  see  of  Winchester.  Pop.  (1891) 
78,672;  (1901)  82,418. 

History.— Among  the  most  interesting  relics  of  the  Roman 
occupation  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  following  its  conquest  by  Ves- 
pasian in  A.D.  43  are  the  villas  at  Brading  and  Carisbrooke,  the 
cemetery  at  Newport,  and  remains  of  foundations  at  Comfaly 
Farm,  Gurnet,  and  between  Brixton  and  Calboinne.  Of  thie 
settlement  of  the  island  by  the  Jutes  no  authentic  details  are 
preserved,  but  in  661  it  was  annexed  by  WuUhere  to  Wessex  and 
subsequently  bestowed  on  his  vassal,  the  king  ef  Sussex.  In 
99S  it  was  the  headquarters  of  the  Danes,  who  levied  their  supines 
from  the  opposite  coasts  of  Hampshire  and  Sussex. 

From  the  14th  to  the  i6th  century  the  island  was  continuously 
under  fear  of  invasion  by  the  French,  who  in  1377  burnt  Yar- 
mouth and  Francheville  (the  latter  being  subae^ent^  rebuilt 


and  known  as  Newtown),  and  so  devastated  Newport  that  it  Uy 
uninhabited  for  two  years.  In  1419,  on  a  French  force  landing 
in  the  island  and  demanding  tribute  in  the  name  of  King  Richard 
and  Qatto.  Isabella,  the  islandeisrepUed  that  the  king  was  dead 
and  the  queen  sent  home  to  her  parents  without  any  such 
condition  of  tribute,  **  but  if  the  Frenchmen's  minde  were  to 
fight,  they  willed  them  to  come  up,  and  no  man  should  let  them 
for  the  space  of  five  hours,  to  refresh  themselves,  but  when  that 
time  was  eipired  they  should  have  battayle  given  to  them  "; 
a  pioposition  prudently  declined  by  the  Frenchmen,  who  returned 
to  their  shipa  and  sailed  home  again.  A  more  fonnidable  raid 
was  attempted  in  154S  when  a  French  fleet  of  150  large  ships, 
25  galhors,  and  so  smaller  vessels  drew  up  off  Brading  Harbour, 
and  in  spite  of  the  brave  defence  of  the  islanders  wrought  much 
serious  destroctioB.  Wolvetton  near  Brading  having  lain  a 
mined  site  ever  sfaice.  As  a  result  of  this,  the  last  French  invfr* 
sloD,  an  oiganiaed  system  of  defence  was  pLumed  for  the  island, 
and  forts  were  constructed  at  Cowes,  Sandown,  Freshwater 
and  Yarmotttb.  During  the  Civil  War  of  the  17th  century  the 
island  was  ahnost  unanimous  in  support  of  the  parliament,  and 
Carisbrooke  Castle  was  the  prison  of  Charles  I.  from  1647  to  1648, 
and  m  1650  of  his  two  childven,  the  princess  Elizabeth  and  the 
duke  of  Gloucester,  the  former  dying  there  from  the  effects  of 
a  dull  alter  only  a  few  weeks  of  captivity. 

The  lordship  of  the  island  was  granted  by  William  the  C<m- 
qnerpr  to  William  FUs-Osbem,  but  escheated  to  the  crown  by 
the  treaaon  of  Roger,  son  of  William,  and  was  bestowed  by 
Henry  L  od  Baldwin  de  Redvers,  whose  descendant  Isabella  de 
Fortibus  sold  it  to  Edward  I*  in  1S93  for  6000  marks.  Hence- 
forth the  island  was  governed  by  wardens  appointed  by  the 
crown,  who  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  were  styled  captains,  a 
title  revived  in  x88o  in  the  person  d  Prince  Henxy  of  Battenberg. 
The  ancient  place  of  assembly  for  the  freemen  of  the  island  was 
at  Shide  Bridge  near  NewpMt^  and  at  Newport  also  was  held 
the  Enighten  Court,  in  which  cases  of  small  debt  and  trespasses 
were  judged  by  those  who  held  a  knight's  fee  or  part  of  a  knight's 
fee  of  Garisbiooke  Castle.  The  feudal  tenants  held  their  lands 
for  the  service  of  escorting  theur  lords  into  and  out  of  the  island, 
and  of  serving  forty  days  at  their  own  cost  in  defence  <^  Caris* 
brooke  Oistk.  In  the  Domesd&yiSurvey  twenty-nine  miUs  are 
mentioned,  and  salt-works  at  Boaxhunt,  Bowoombe,  Watching* 
well  and  Whitfield.  The  island  quarrks  have  been  woriied  from 
remote  times,  that  of  Qnan  supplying  material  for  Winchester 
cathediaL  Alum  was  collected  at  Parkhursi  Forest  in  1579. 
Alum  and  sand  for  glass-making  were  formerly  obtained  at  Akua 
Bay*  In  1295  the  united  boroughs  of  Yaxmouth  and  Newport 
made  an  isolated  ntrun  of  two  members  to  parliament.  From 
1 584  the  boroughs  of  Lymington,  Newport,  Newtown  and 
Yarmouth  returned  two  members  &Kh,  until  under  the  act  of 
X833  the  two  last  were  disfranchised.  By  the  act  of  x868 
Lymington  and  Newport  lost  one  member  each,  and  by  the  act 
of  188s  were  disfranchised. 

Antiqmties.-'-Eaxly  antiquities  include  British  pit  villages 
near  Rowboroo^,  Celtic  tunmU  Qn  several  of  the  chalk  dbwns, 
and  the  so-called  Long  Stone  at  Mottiston,  a  lofty  sandstone 
monolith.  The  Roman  villa  near  Brading  contains  some  beauti- 
ful and  well-preserved  examples  of  tcsselated  pavements. 
Carisbrooke  Castle  Is  a  beautiful  ruin  built  upon  the  site  of  an 
ancient  British  stronghold.  There  are  slight  remains  of  Quut 
Abbey  near  Ryde,  founded  for  Benedictines  (afterwards  Cis- 
tercians) by  Baldwin  de  Redvers  in  the  ihst  half  of  the  i»th 
century.  The  most  noteworthy  andeht  churches  are  those  of 
Bonchurch  (Norman),  Brading  (transitional  Norman  and  Early 
English),  Shalfleet  (Norman  and  Decorated),  and  Carisbrooke, 
of  various  styles. 

See  Victona  County  History,  Hampshire ;  Sir  -R.  Wonley.  Tho 
History  of  the  Tsle  of  Wight  (London,  1781);  Richard  Warner.  The 
«, ....  r  .   ./.„.  t. ,-,    ..  _  _. Woodward. 

London, 
...         ,  .  .    .  -  of  Wight 

(London,  1891). 

WIGTOWN,  a  royal  burgh  and  the  county  town  of  Wigtown- 
shire, Scotland.  Popu  (1901)  1339*  It  is  situated  on  the  westen 


628 


WIGTOWNSHIRE 


shore  of  Wigtown  Bay  ■  irhence  the  name,  from  the  Scandinavun 
fikt  "  bay  " — 7  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Newton  Stewart  by  nulway. 
It  b  built  on  an  eminence  around  a  spadous  central  area  laid  out 
in  walks.  The  town  hall  stands  at  a  comer  of  this  square,  and 
at  the  opposite  side  are  two  crosses,  one  of  1738  and  the  other 
commemorating  Waterloo.  Some  fishing  is  canied  on.  In  the 
old  churchyard  were  buried  Margaret  MacLachlan,  a  widow  aged 
63,  and  Margaret  Wilson,  a  girl  of  18,  two  covenanting  martyn 
who  were  tied  to  stakes  in  the  sands  of  Wigtown  Bay  and  drowned 
by  the  rising  waters  (1685),  to  whose  memory,  as  well  as  that  of 
three  men  who  were  hanged  at  the  same  time  without  trial,  an 
obelisk  surmounted  by  an  urn  was  erected  in  1858  on  the  top  of 
Windy  Hill,  outside  the  town.  Wigtown  was  made  a  royal 
burgh  in  1469. 

WIQT0WN8HIRB  (sometimes  called  West  Gaxix>way),  a 
south-western  county  of  Scotland,  bounded  N.  by  Ayrshire,  E. 
by  Kirkcudbrightshire  and  Wigtown  Bay,  S.  by  the  Irish  Sea 
and  W.  and  N.  by  the  North  Channel.  Including  the  small 
island  of  St  Helena,  at  the  head  of  Luce  Bay,  it  coven  an  area 
of  311,609  acres,  or  487  sq.  m.  On  the  eastern  boundary  the 
estuary  of  the  Cree  ezpan<b  into  WlgUmn  Bay,  between  which 
and  Luce  Bay,  farther  west,  eitends  the  promontory  of  the 
Machers,  terminating  in  Burrow  Head.  By  the  indentation  of 
Luce  Bay  on  the  south  and  Loch  Ryan  on  the  north  the  hammer^ 
headed  peninsula  of  the  Rinns  is  formed,  of  which  the  Mull  of 
Galloway,  the  most  southerly  point  of  Scotland,  is  the  southern, 
and  MiUeur  Point  the  northern  extremity.  The  more  or  less 
nigged  coast  has  many  small  inlets,  few  of  which,  owing  to 
hidden  rocks,  afford  secure  landing-places.  Excepting  Ix>di 
Ryan,  a  fine  natural  harbour  of  whidh  Stranraer  is  the  port,  the 
huiMurs  are  not  available  for  vessels  of  heavy  burden,  on 
account  either  of  the  great  distance  to  which  the  sea  retires,  or 
of  their  exposure  to  frequent  fierce  galea.  Much  of  the  county 
has  a  wild,  bleak  appearance,  the  higher  land  beiqg  covered  with 
heath  and  whins,  whfle  in  the  lower  districts  there  are  long 
stretches  of  Ix^  ^d  moss,  and  in  the  north  centre,  a  few  miles 
west  of  Newton  Stewart,  b  a  tract  known  as  the  Moors^  Only 
towards  the  Ayrshire  border  do  the  hiUs  reach  a  oonaderable 
altitude,  Benbrake  and  Craigairie  Fell  being  each  1000  ft.  in 
height.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Cree,  forming  the  bomidary 
with  Kirkcudbrightshire  and  flowing  past.  Newton  Stewart 
and  Carty  into  Wigtown  Bay;  the  Bladenoch,  issuing  from 
Loch  Maberry  and-falUng  into  Wigtown  Bay  at  Wigtown  after 
a  course  of  22  m.,  its  principal  affluents,  all  on  the  rig^t,  being 
Black  Bum,  the  Tarff  and  the  Malzie;  and  the  Luce,  formed 
by  the  junction  at  New  Luce  of  Main  Water  and  Cross  Water  of 
Luce,  and  emptying  itself  into  Luce  Bay.  Most  of  the  numerous 
lochs  are  small,  several  being  situated  in  private  parks,  as  at 
the  eari  of  Stair's  estate  of  Castle  Kennedy.  Among  the  larger 
lakes  are  Loch  Maberry  and  Lodi  Domal,  both  partly  in  Ayrshire, 
and  Lodi  Odultxce  in  the  north  of  the  shire,  I^odi  Cohnell  in  the 
west.  Loch  Ronald  in  the  centre  and  the  group  of  Castle  Loch 
and  four  others  in  the  parish  of  Mochnim,  towards  the  south, 
and  Loch  Dowalton,  at  the  junction  of  Kirkinner,  Sorbie  and 
Glasserton  parishes. 

G*clo0.-^A  line  drawn  in  a  north-easteriy  direction  from  the  coast 
about  3  m.  below  Portpatrick,  pasHng  slightly  north  of  the  head  of 
Luce  Bay  by  Newton  Stewart  to  the  Cairnsmore  of  Fleet,  divides  the 
counter  BO  that  practically  all  the  rocks  on  the  northern  side  are  of 
Ordovician  age,  while  those  on  the  south  are  Silurian.  This  line 
coincides  with  the  general  direction  of  the  strike  of  the  beds  through- 
out the  county.  Most  of  the  Ordovician  rocks  are  black  shales,  in 
which  graptolites  may  be  found,  along  with  greywackes  and^  grits; 
they  include  the  Glenldll  and  Hartfell  groups  of  the  Moffat  district. 
These  rocks  may  be  seen  exposed  on  the  coast  south  of  Portpatrick 
and  in  the  valley  of  the  Cree.  The  slate  qoarries  of  Cairn  Ryan  are  of 
Llandeilo  age.  Ncariy  the  whole  of  the  Silurian  region  is  occupied  b/ 
dark  grits,  greywackes  and  shales  of  Llandovery  age,  thouah  here  and 
there  a  smaU  exposure  of  the  underlying  black  Moffat  shales  appears 
on  the  denuded  crest  of  one  of  the  innumerable  folds  into  which  all 
these  rocks  have  been  thrown.  A  series  of  shales,  flags  and  grey- 
wackes of  Wcnkxrk  age  is  found  on  the  shore  between  Burrow  Head 
and  Whithorn.  On  the  west  side  of  Loch  Ryan  is  a  narrow  belt  of 
Permian  breccia  and  thin  sandstones  about  9  m.  long  and  I  m.  wide* 
this  rests  unconfonnably  upon  .a  rimtlar  belt  of  Carhoniferoos  sand- 
•tooes,  about  8  m.  long  and  i  m.  in  width«  which  lies  00  tha  west 


dde  of  the  Permian.  A  small  natch  of  srantte  stands  out  on  the  const 
at  Lagnntulloch  Head,  north  of  the  Mull  of  Galloway.  There  are 
also  a  few  patches  and  dikes  of  diorite  and  quarta-felaite.  Glacial 
morainea  and  dnimlins  are  found  over  much  01  the  older  formations, 
and  are  well  seen  betwftn  Glcnluce  and  Newton  Stewart  and  south 
of  Wigtown.  The  boulder-day  is  used  for  brick-maldng  near 
Stranraer.  On  the  coasts  of-  Luce  Bay  and  Loch  Ryan  raised 
beaches  are  found  at  levds  of  2%  ft.  and  50  ft.  above  the  sea,  and 
tracts  of  blown  sand  lie  above  toe  shore.  There  are  several  peat* 
covered  areas  in  the  county. 

Climate  and  Atriadtmre.—Tht  mean  annual  rainfall  amounts  to 
^•3  in.,  varying  from  49*19  In.  at  Kirkcowan,  a  few  miles  west  of 
Newton  Stewart,  to  a6-8i  in.  at  the  Mull  of  Galloway.  The  average 
temperature  for  the  year  a  ^-y  P.,  for  January  40''^F.  and  for  J  uly 
58*5*  F.  In  spite  of  its  humidity  the  climate  is  not  unfavourable  for 
the  ripeniiu;  of  crops,  and  frosts  aa  a  rule  are  not  of  long  duration. 
Much  of  die  shire  consists  of  stony  moors,  rendering  tne  work  of 
reclamation  difficult  and  in  some  parts  impossible.  The  pavelly  soil 
along  the  coasts  requires  heavy  manuring  to  make  it  fruitful,  and  in 
the  higher  arable  quartera  a  rocl^  soil  prevails,  better  adapted  for 
grass  and  green  crops  than  for  grain.  A  large  extent  of  the  surface  ia 
black  top  reclaimea  from  the  moofa,  and  in  some  districts  feam  and 
day  are  found.  By  dint  of  energy,  however,  and  constant  resort  to 
scientific  agriculture,  the  farmersnave  placed  half  of  the  shire  under 
cultivation,  and  the  standard  of  farming  is  as  hi^  as  that  of  any 
county  in  Scotland.  Oats  is  the  iMding  crop,  barley  ar.d  wheat  occupy- 
ing only  a  small  area.  Tumipsand  swedes  constitute  the  great  bulk  of 
the  green  crops,  potatoes  coming  next.  Large  tracts  are  under  dover 
and  rotation  grasses  and  in  permanent  pasture,  in  consequence  of  the 
increaan^  attention  peud  to  dairy-farming,  which  is  carried  on  in 
comtHnation  and  on  scientific  principles.  Several  creainerics  have 
been  established  in  the  dairy  country,  cheese  bring  a  leading  prodact. 
Though  the  siae  of  the  herds  is  surpassed  in  several  other  Scottish 
counties,  the  number  of  milch  cattle  is  only  exceeded  in  three  (Ayr, 
Aberdeen  and  Lanark).  Ayrshire  b  the  favourite  breed  for  dairy 
purposes,  and  black  polled  Galloways  are  found  in  the  eastern 
districts.  ^  A  cross  of  the  two  breeds  a  also  maintained.  The  sheep 
are  prindpally  black-faced  on  the  hill  farms,  and  in  other  parta 
Leicester  and  other  long-woolled  breeds.  The  flocks  are  usually 
heavy,  and  great  numbers  of  pigs  are  kept.  The  shirc  has  acquired 
some  reputation  for  its  horses,  chiefly  Clydesdale.  The  holdings  are 
fairiy  large,  the  average  being  considerably  over  100  acres,  one- 
third  of  them  running  from  100  acres  to  300.  Most  of  the  park  land  ia 
findy  wooded,  and  there  are  a  few  nurseries,  market  gardens  and 
orchards. 

Otiier  7iidif5Crier.— There  are  small  manufactures  in  several  of  the 
towns,  aa  woollens  at  Kirkcowan;  tweeds,  leather  and  agricultural 
implements  at  Newton  Stewart;  dairy  appliances,  beer,  flour  and 
bncks  at  Stranraer ;  and  whisky  at  Bladenoch.  Sandstone  and  slates 
are  quarried,  and  peat  is  cut  in  various  places.  Fisheries,  on  a  minor 
scale,  are  conducted  chiefly  from  Stranraer,  certain  villages  on  Loch 
Ryan  and  Luce  Bay,  and  Wigtown^  and  the  Cree,  Bladenoch  and 
Luce  yield  salmon.  Shipping  is  mainly  carried  on  from  Stranraer, 
but  also  from  Port  William,  rortpatrick,  Wigtown  and  Garliestown. 

The  Glasgow  &  South-Westcm  railway  runs  to  Stranraer  via 
Girvan,  and  the  Portpatrick  and  Wigtownshire  joint  railway  from 
Newton  Stewart  to  Portpatrick  via  Stranraer,  with  a  branch  line  at 
Newton  Stewart  to  Wigtown  and  Whithorn.  There  arc  coach 
services  from  Stranraer  to  Ballantrae  on  the  Ayrshire  coast  and  to 
Drumore,  4  m,  N.  of  the  Mull,  and  regular  communication  by  mail 
steamer  between  Stranraer  and  Larne  m  Co.  Antrim,  Ireland. 

PoptUaticH  and  Admiiiiriratian,-^ln  1891  the  population 
amounted  to  36,06a;  in  1901  to  32fi&s  ot  67  persons  to  the 
sq.  m.,  the  decrease  for  the  decade  bdng  the  third  highest  ill 
Scotland.  In  xgox  then  wero  88  persons  speaking  Gaelic  and 
English.  The  prindpal  towns  are  Stranraer  (pop.  6056); 
Newton  Stewart  (2598),  which,  however,  standing  on  Iwth  banks 
of  the  Cree,  extends  into  Kirkcudbrightshire *,  Wigtown  (1329)} 
and  Whithorn  (xx88).  Foxmedy  Wigtown,  Stranraer  and 
Whithorn  formed  with  New  Galloway,  in  Kirkcudbrightshire, 
a  group  of  bur^s  xetuining  one  member,  but  in  1885  the  first 
three  were  merged  in  the'county,  which  returns  one  member  to 
parliament.  Wigtown,  the  county  town,  Stranraer  and  Whit* 
horn  are  royal  but|^  Tlie  shire  forms  part  of  the  sheriffdom  of 
Dumfries  and  Galloway,  and  a  sheriff-substitute  sits  at  Wigtown 
and  Stranraer.  The  administrative  oonnty  is  divided  into  the 
Lower  district,  comprising  the  shire  tut  of  the  parishes  of  New 
Luce' and  Old  Luce,  and  the  Upper  district,  comprising  the 
ahire  west  of  and  induding  these  parishes.  The  county  is  under 
school-board  jurisdiction,  and  thoe  are  high  schoob  in  Newton 
Stewart  and  Stranraer.  The  board-schools  in  Whiihom  and 
Wigtown,  have  secondary  departments,  and  several  of  the  schools 
in  the  shire  earn  ^ ranu  for  higher  education.    The  county 


WIGWAM— WIHTRBD 


629 


cooncil  expends  the  **  residue  "  grant  in  providing  bursaries 
for  science  pupils,  and  in  subsidising  agricultural  classes  at 
Kilmarnock  and  Edinburgh  University,  and  the  cookery  classes 
and  science  department  of  the  high  schools. 

Hislory  and  Antiquities. — Galloway,  or  the  country  west  of  the 
Nith,  belonged  to  a  people  whom  Ptolemy  called  Novantae  and 
Agricola  subdued  in  ajx  79.  They  were  Atecoit  Picts,  and  are 
conjectured  to'  have  replaced  a  small,  dark-haired  aboriginal 
race,  akin  probably  to  the  Basques  of  the  Iberian  peninsula. 
They  held  this  south-western  corner  of  ScotUnd  for  centuries, 
protecting  themselves  from  the  northern  and  southern  Picts  by  a 
rampart,  called  the  Deil's  Dyke,  which  has  been  traced  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  from  Beoch  on  the  eastern  side  of  Loch  Ryan 
to  a  spot  on  the  Nith  near  the  present  ThomEill,  a  distance  of 
SO  m.  Evidences  of  the  Pictish  occupation  are  prevalent  in  the 
£>rm  of  hill  forts,  cairns,  standing  stones,  hut  circles  and  aannogs 
or  lake  dwellings  (several  of  which  were  exposed  when  Dowalton 
Loch  near  Sorbie  and  Barhapple  Loch  near  Glcnluce  were 
drained),  besides  canoes  and  flint,  stone  and  bronze  implements. 
The  Romans  possessed  a  small  camp  at  Ri^Mun  near  Whithorn 
and  a  station  at  Rerigonium,  which  has  been  identified  with 
Innermeasan  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Loch  Ryan;  but  so  few 
lepaains  exist  that  it  has  been  (included  they  effected  no  per- 
manent settlement  in  West  Galloway.  Ninian,  the  first  Christian 
missionary  to  Scotland,  landed  at  I^  of  Whithorn  in  396  to 
convert  the  natives.  His  efforts  welt  temporarily  successful, 
but  soon  afta  his  death  (43a)  the  people  relapsed  into  paganism, 
excepting  a  faithful  remnant  who  continued  to  carry  on  Christian 
work.  A  monastery  was  built  at  Whithorn,  and,  though  the 
bishopric  founded  in  the  8th  century  was  shortly  afterwards 
removed,  it  was  established  again  in  the  lath,  when  the  priory 
erected  by  Fergus,  "  king  "  of  Galloway,  became  the  cathedral 
church  of  the  see  of  Galloway  and  so  remained  till  the  Reforma- 
tion. In  the  6th  century  the  people  accepted  the  suzerainty  of 
the  Northumbrian  kings  who  allowed  them  in  return  autonomy 
under  their  own  Pict^  chiefs.  On  the  decay  of  the  Saxon 
power  more  than  two  hundred  years  later  this  overlonUiip  was 
abandoned,  and  the  Atecotts  formed  an  alliance  with  the  North- 
men then  ravaging  the  Scottish  coasts.  Because  of  this  rdation- 
ahip  the  other  Picts  styled  the  Atecotts,  by  way  of  reproach, 
Gallgaidhel,  or  stranger  Gaels,  whence  is  derived  Galloway,  the 
name  of  their  territory.  With  the  aid  of  the  Norsemen  and  the 
men  of  Galloway  Keimeth  Macaipine  defeated  the  northern 
Picts  at  Forteviot  and  was  crowned  king  of  Scotland  at  Scone 
in  844.  Henceforward  the  general  history  of  Wigtownshire  is 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  that  of  Kirkcudbrightshire.  A  few 
particular  points,  however,  must  be  noted.  Malcolm  MacHeth, 
who  had  married  a  sister  of  Somerled,  lord  of  the  Isles,  headed 
about  1 1 50  a  Celtic  revolt  against  the  intrusion  of  Angb-Norman 
lords,  but  was  routed  at  Causewayend  near  the  estuary  of  the 
Cree.  In  1x90  Roland,  lord  of  Galloway,  built  for  Cistercians 
from  MelitMe  the  fine  abbey  of  Glenluce,  of  which  the  only 
remains  are  the  foundations  of  the  nave,  the  gable  of  the  south 
transept,  the  doisters,  quadrangle  and  the  vaulted  chapter-house. 
In  the  disordered  state  of  the  realm  during  David  II.'s  reign  east 
Galloway  had  been  surrendered  to  Edward  III.  (1333),  but 
Wigtownshire,  which  had  been  constituted  a  shire  in  the  previous 
century  and  afterwards  called  the  Shire  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
Stewartiy  of  Kirkcudbright,  remained  Scottish  territory.  In 
134s  Sir  Malcohn  Fleming,  eari  of  Wigtown,  was  appointed 
sheriff  with  power  to  hold  tht  county  sq>arate  from  the  other  half 
of  Galloway,  but  falling  into  straitened  circumstances  he  sold 
his  earldom  and  estates  in  1372  to  Archibald  the  Grim,  3rd  earl 
of  Douglas,  thus  once  more  placing  all  Galloway  under  one  lord. 
Under  Douglas's  lordship  the  laws  of  GaUoway,  which  had 
obtained  from  Pictish  times  and  included,  among  odier  features, 
trial  by  battle  (unless  an  accused  person  chose  expressly  to  foigo 
the  native  custom  and  ask  for  a  jury),  were  modified,  and  in  1426 
abolished,  the  province  then  coming  under  the  general  law.  Soon 
after  the  fall  of  the  Dooi^ases  (i4S5)  the  Kennedy  family,  long 
established  in  the  Asrrshire  district  of  Carrick,  obtained  a 
prqionderating  influence  in  Wigtownshire,  and  in  1509  David 


Kennedy  was  created  earl  of  Cassillis.  Gilbert,  the  4th  earl,  so 
powerful  that  he  was  called  the  "  king  of  Carrick,"  held  the  shire 
for  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  when  she  broke  with  the  Lords  of  the 
Congregation,  but  could  do  little  for  her  cause.  He  profited  by 
the  Reformation  himaelt,  however,  to  acquire  by  fraud  and 
murder  the  estate  of  Clenluce  Abbey  (about  1570).  In  1603 
James  VI.  instituted  a  bishop  in  the  see  of  Galloway— which 
had  not  been  filled  for  twenty  yearsn-and  otherwise  strove  to 
impose  episcopacy  upon  the  people,  but  the  inhabitants  stood 
firm  for  the  Covenant.  The  acts  against  Nonconformity  were 
stringently  enforced  and  almost  every  incumbent  in  Galloway 
was  deprived  of  his  living.  Field-preaching  was  a  capital  crime 
and  attendance  at  conventicles  treason.  A  reign  of  terror 
siq)ervened,  and  numbers  of  persons  emigrated  to  Ulster  in  order 
to  escape  persecution.  John  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  Viscount 
Dundee,  having  replaced  Sir  Andrew  Agnew,  who  had  refused 
the  Test,  as  sheriff  (1682),  goaded  the  people  into  rebellion,  the 
drowning  of  Margaret  MacLachlan  and  Margaret  Wilson  within 
flood-mark  in  Wigtown  Bay  (1685)  being  an  instance  of  his 
ruthless  methods.  With  the  Revolution  of  x688  Presbyterianism 
was  restored,  and  John  Gordon,  recently  consecrated  bishop 
of  Galloway,  retired  to  France.  The  Jacobite  risings  of  1715 
atid  Z745  excited  only  languid  interest,  but  in  1747  heritable 
jurisdictions  were  abolished  and  Sir  Andrew  Agnew  ceased  to  bo 
hereditary  sheriff,  though  he  was  the  only  official  able  to  prove 
continuous  tenure  of  the  post  since  it  was  granted  to  his  family 
in  145X.  The  first  sheriff  appointed  under  the  new  system  was 
Alexander  Boswell,  Lord  Auchinleck,  father  of  James  fioswell, 
the  biographer  of  Dr  Johnson.  In  1 760  an  engagement  took  place 
in  Luce  Bay,  when  the  young  French  seaman,  Francois  Thurot, 
with  three  warships,  attempting  a  diversion  in  Jacobite  interests, 
was  defeated  and  killed  with  the  loss  of  three  hundred  men  and 
his  vessds. 

Among  andent  castles  in  Wigtownshire  may  be  mentiohed  the 
diff  towers,  possibly  of  Norse  origin,  of  Car^down  and  Castle 
Feather  near  Burrow  Head;  the  ruins  of  Baldoon,  south  of 
Wigtown,  associated  with  events  which  suggested  to  Sir  Walter 
Scott  the  romance  of  The  Bride  of  Lammermoor;  CorsciK'aU  near 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  Rinns;  the  Norse  stronghold  of 
Cruggleton,  south  of  Garliestown,  which  belonged  in  the  X3th 
century  to  de  Quincy,  earl  of  Winchester,  who  had  married  a 
daughter  of  Alan, "  king  "  of  Galloway,  and  to  Alexander  Comyn, 
and  earl  of  Buchan  (d.  X389),  his  son-in-law;  Dunskey,  south  of 
Portpatrick,  built  in  the  i6th  century,  occupying  the  -site  of  an 
older  fortress;  the  fragments  of  Long  Castle  at  Dowalton  Loch, 
the  andent  seat  of  the  MacDoneUs;  Myrton,  the  seat  of  the 
MacCuIlochs,  in  Mocbrum  parish;  and  the  ruined  tower  of 
Sorbie,  the  andent  keep  of  the  Hannays. 

See  Sir  Herbert  Maxwell.  Hislory  of  Dumfries  and  CaUoway 


Wiftown  and  Wkilhom  (\\1gtown,  1877). 

WIGWAM*  a  term  loosdy  adopted  as  a  general  name  for  the 
houses  jof  North  American  Indians.  It  is,  however,  strictly 
applied  to  a  particular  dome-shaped  or  conical  hut  made  of  poles 
lashed  together  at  the  tops  and  covered  with  bark.  The  skin 
tents  of  many  of  the  Plains  Indians  are  called  tipis.  The  word 
"  wigwam  "  represents  the  Europeanised  or  Anglicised  form  of 
the  Algonkian  wikou-om-ut,  i.e.  "  in  his  (their)  house." 

WIHTRED,  king  of  Kent  (d.  735),  son  of  Ecgberht,  nephew  of 
Hlothhere  and  brother  of  Eadric,  came  to  the  Kenti^  throne  in 
690  after  the  period  of  anarchy  which  followed  the  death  of  the 
latter  king.  Bode  states  that  Wihtred  and  Swefheard  were 
both  kings  in  Kent  in  693,  and  this  statement  would  appear  to 
imply  a  period  of  East  Saxon  influence  (see  Kent),  while  there 
is  also  evidence  of  an  attack  by  Wessex.  Wihtred,  however, 
seems  to  have  become  sole  king  in  694.  At  his  death,  which  did 
not  take  place  until  725,  be  left  the  kingdom  to  his  sons  Aethel- 
berht,  Eadberht  and  Aliic  After  the  annal  694  in  the  Chronicle 
there  is  inserted  a  grant  of  privileges  to  the  church,  which  pur- 
ports to  have  been  issued  by  Wihtred  at  a  place  called  Baccan- 
celde.   This  grant,  however,  cannot  be  accepted  as  genuine  and 


^ 


630 


WILBERFORCfi,  R.  L— WILBERFORCE,  S. 


has  merely  an  ilhistniive  value,  but  there  Is  still  extant  a 
code  of  laws  issued  by  him  in  a  councfl  held  at  a  place  called 
fieighamstyde  (Barham?)  during  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign 
(probably  695). 

See  Bode.  Hisi.  Bed.,  ed,  C.  Plommer  (Oxford.  1896);  Xnfb- 
SaxoH  Chrcnickt  ed.  Earle  and  Pluinmer  (Oxiordt  1899). 

W1LBBRF0RCB»  ROBERT  ISAAC  (1802-1857),  English 
dergyman  and  writer,  second  son  of  William  Wiiberforoe,  was 
bom  on  the  19th  of  December  1802.  He  was  educated  at  Orid 
College,  Oxford,  taking  a  double  first  in  2823.  In  1826  he  was 
chosen  fellow  of  Orid  and  was  ordained,  among  his  friends  and 
colleagues  bemg  Newman,  Pusey  and  Keble.  For  a  few  years 
he  was  one  of  the  tutors  at  Orid,  but  the  provost,  Edward 
Hawkins,  disliked  his  religious  views,  and  in  1831  he  resigned 
and  Idt  Oxford.  In  1832  he  obtained  the  living  of  East  Farlrigh, 
Kent,  which  in  1840  he  exchanged  for  that  of  Burton  Agnes, 
near  HulL  In  1841  he  was  appointed  archdeacon  of  the  East 
Riding.  About  this  time  Wilberforce  became  very  intimate  with 
Manning,  and  many  letters  on  theological  and  ecdeaiastical 
questions  pasftd  between  them.  In  1851  Manning  jomed  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  three  years  later  Wilberfoice  took  the  same 
step.  He  was  preparing  for  his  ordination  when  he  died  at 
Albano  on  the  3rd  of  February  1857.  He  left  two  sons,  the 
younger  of  whom,  Edward  Wilberforce  (b.  1834),  became  one 
of  the  masters  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature.  Edward's 
son,  Lionel  Robert  Wilberforce  (b.  i86i)»  was  m  1900  appointed 
professor  of  physics  in  the  university  of  LiveipooL' 

'  R.  I.  Wilberforce  assisted  his  brother  Samuel  to  write  the  Life  and 
to  edit  the  Correspondenee  of  his  father.  His  other  writings  include : 
Churek  Courts  and  Church  DiscMiiu  (1843);  Doctrine  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist  (18^3} ;  Doctrine  of  the  Incarnation  tn  Rdaiion  to  Mankind 
and  the  Church  (1848  and  later  editions) ;  The  Five  Empires,  a  Sketch 
of  Ancient  History  (1840);  A  Sketch  of  the  History  of  Erastianism 
(1851):  An  Enqutry  into  the  Principles  of  Church  Authority  (1854); 
and  a  lomanoe,  RmHUus  and  Lucius  (1842). 

^LBERFORCB,  SAMUEL  (1805-1873),  English  bishop, 
third  son  of  William  Wilberforce,  was  bom  at  Clapham  Common, 
London,  on  the  7th  of  September  1805.  In  1823  he  entered 
Oriel  College,  Oxford.  In  the  "United  Debating  Society," 
which  afterwards  developed  into  the  "  Union,"  he  distinguished 
himself  as  a  zealous  advocate  of  liberalism.  The  set  of  friends 
with  whom  he  chiefly  associated  at  Oxford  were  sometimes 
named,  on  account  of  their  exceptionally  decorous  conduct, 
the  "  Bethel  Union  ";  but  he  was  by  no  means  averse  to  amuse- 
ments, and  spedally  delighted  in  hurdle  jumping  and  hunting. 
He  graduated  in  1826,  taking  a  first  class  in  mathematics  and  a 
second  in  classics.  After  his  marriage  on  the  nth  of  June  1828 
to  Emily  Sargent,  he  was  in  December  ordained  and  appointed 
curate-in-charge  at  Checkenden  near  Henley-on-Thames.  In 
1830  he  was  presented  by  Bishop  Sumner  of  Winchester  to  the 
rectory  of  Brightstone  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  In  this  compara- 
tivdy  retired  q)here  he  soon  found  scope  for  that  manifold 
activity  which  so  prominently  characterised  his  subsequent 
career.  In  1831  he  published  a  tract  on  tithes,  "  to  correct  the 
prejudices  of  the  lower  order  of  farmers,"  and  in  the  following 
year  a  collection  of  hymns  for  use  in  his  parish,  which  had  a 
large  general  circulation;  a  small  volume  of  stories  entitled 
the  Note  Book  of  a  Country  Clergyman]  and  a  sermon,  The 
Apostolical  Ministry.  At  the  close  of  1837  he  published  the 
Letters  and  Journals  of  Henry  Martyn.  Although  a  High 
Churchman  Wilberforce  held  aloof  from  the  Oxford  movement, 
and  in  1838  his  divergence  from  the  "  Tract "  writers  became  so 
marked  that  J.  H.  Newman  dedlned  further  contributions  from 
him  to  the  British  Critic^  not  deeming  it  advisable  that  they 
should  longer  "  co-operate  very  closely."  In  1838  Wilberforce 
published,  with  his  dder  brother  Robert,  the  Life  of  his  father, 
and  two  years  later  his  father's  Correspondence.  In  1839  he  also 
published  Eucharislka  (from  the  old  English  divines),  to  which 
he  wrote  an  introduction,  Agalhos  and  other  Sunday  Stories,  and 
a  volume  of  UnvoersUy  Sermons,  and  in  the  following  year  Rocky 
Island  and  other  Parables.  In  November  1839  he  was  installed 
archdeacon  of  Surrey,  in  August  1840  was  collated  canon  of 
.Winchester  and  in  October  he  accepted  the  rectory  of  Alverstoke. 


In  1841  he  was  chosen  Bampton  lecturer,  and  shortly  af  terwanb 
made  chaplain  to  Prince  Albert,  an  appointment  he  owed  to 
the  impression  produced  by  a  speech  at  an  anti-slavery  meeting 
some  months  previously.  In  October  1843  he  was  appointed 
by  the  archbishop  of  York  to  be  sub-almoner  to  the  queen.  In 
1844  appeared  his  History  of  the  American  Church.-  In  Marck 
of  the  following  year  he  accepted  the  deanery  of  Westminster, 
and  in  October  the  bishopric  of  Oxford. 

The  bishop  in  1847  became  involved  in  the  Hampden  con- 
troversy, and  signed  the  remonstrance  of  the  thirteen  bishops 
to  Lord  John  Russell  against  Hampden's  appointment  to  the 
bishopric  of  Hereford.  He  also  endeavoured  to  obtain  satis- 
factory assurances  from  Hampden;  but,  though  unsuccessful 
in  this,  he  withdrew  from  the  suit  against  him.  The  publication 
of  a  papal  bull  in  1850  establishing  a  Roman  hierarchy  in  England 
brought  the  High  Church  party,  of  whom  Wilberforce  was  the 
most  prominent  member,  into  temporary  disrepute.  The  seces- 
sion to  the  Church  of  Rome  of  his  brother-in-law,  Archdeacon 
(afterwards  Cardinal)  Manning,  and  then  of  hb  brothers,  as  well 
as  his  only  daughter  and  his  son-in-law,  Mr  and  Mrs  J.  H.  Pye, 
brought  him  under  further  susi>icion,  and  his  revival  of  the 
powers  of  convocation  lessened  his  influence  at  court;  but  his 
unfailing  tact  and  wide  sympathies,  his  marvellous  energy  In 
church  organization,  the  magnetism  of  his  personality,  and  his 
doquence  both  on  the  platform  and  in  the  pulpit,  gradually  won 
for  him  recognition  as  Without  a  rival  on  the  episcopal  bench. 
Ha  diary  reveals  a  tender  and  devout  private  life  which  has 
been  overlooked  by  those  who  have  only  considered  the  versatile 
facility  and  persuasive  expediency  that  marked  the  successful 
public  career  of  the  bishop,  and  earned  him  the  sobriquet  of 
"  Sot^y  Sam."  In  the  House  of  Lords  he  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  discussion  of  social  and  ecclesiastical  questions.  He  has 
been  styled  the  "  bishop  of  society  ";  but  society  occupied  only 
a  fraction  of  his  time.  The  great  bent  of  his  energies  was  cease- 
lessly directed  to  the  belter  organization  of  his  diocese  and  to 
the  furtherance  of  schemes  for  increasing  the  influence  and 
efTiciency  of  the  church,  tn  1854  he  opened  a  theological  coUege 
at  Cuddesdon,  which  was  afterwards  the  subject  of  some  con- 
troversy on  account  of  its  alleged  Romanist  tendencies.  His 
attitude  towards  Essays  and  Reviews  in  186 1,  against  which  he 
wrote  an  article  In  the  Quarterly,  won  him  the  special  gratitude 
of  the  Low  Church  party,  and  latterly  he  enjoyed  the  full  con- 
fidence and  esteem  of  all  except  the  extreme  men  of  either  side 
and  party.  On  the  publication  of  J.  W.  Colenso's  Commentary 
on  the  Romans  in  1861,  Wilberforce  endeavoured  to  induce  the 
author  to  hold  a  private  conference  with  him;  but  after  the 
publication  of  the  first  two  parts  of  the  Pentateuch  Critically 
Examined  he  drew  up  the  address  of  the  bishops  which  called 
on  Colenso  to  resign  his  bishopric.  In  1867  he  framed  the  first 
Report  of  the  Ritualistic  Commission,  in  which  coerdve  measures 
against  ritualism  were  discountenanced  by  the  use  of  the  word 
"restrain"  instead  of  "abolish"  or  "prohibit."  He  also 
erwieavoured  to  take  the  sting  out  of  some  resolutions  of  the 
second  Ritualistic  Commission  in  x868,  and  was  one  of  the  four 
who  sign^  the  Report  with  qualifications.  Though  strongly 
opposed  to  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church,  yet,  when 
the  constituencies  decided  for  it,  he  advised  that  no  opposition 
should  be  made  to  it  by  the  House  of  Lords.  After  twenty-four 
years'  labour  in  the  diocese  of  Oxford,  he  was  translated  by 
Gladstone  to  the  bishopric  of  Winchester.  He  was  killed  on  the 
19th  of  July  1873,  by  the  shock  of  a  fall  from  his  horse  near 
Dorking,  Surrey. 

Wilberforce  left  three  sons.  The  eldest,  Reginald  Carton 
Wilberforce,  bdng  the  author  oi  An  Unrecorded  Chapter  of  the 
Indian  Mutiny  (1894).  His  two  younger  sons  both  attained  dis- 
tinction in  the  Englidi  church.  Ernest  Roland  Wilberforce  (1840- 
1908)  was  bishop  of  Newcastle-on-Tyne  from  1882  to  1895,  and 
bishop  of  Chichester  from  1895  tiU  his  death.  Albert  Basil  Orme 
Wilberforce  (b.  1841)  was  appointed  canon  residentiary  of  West- 
minster in  1894,  chaplain  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1896  and 
archdeacon  of  Westminster  in  1000;  he  has  published  sevirsl 
volumes  of  sermons. 


WILBERPORCE,  W.— WILBRANDT 


631 


Besides  the  -works  already  mentioned,  Wilbeiforce  wrote  Heroes  t(f 
Hebrew  History  (1670),  onginalty  contributed  to  Good  Words,  and 
several  volumes  of  eermons.  See  Life  of  Samuel  Wilberforce^  toiik 
Selections  from  his  Diary  and  Correspondence  (18^^1883),  vol.  1.,  ed. 
by  Canon  A.  R.  AshwcU,  and  vols.  it.  and  in.,  cd.  by  his  son 
R.  G.  Wilbcrforcc,  who  also  wrote  a  one- volume  Life  (1888).  One  of 
the  volumes  of  the  "  English  Leaders  of  Relimn  "  is  devoted  to  him, 
and  he  is  included  in  Dean  Burgoo's  Lives  of  Twelve  Good  Men  (i888)» 

WILBBRFORCB,  WILUAM  (1759-1833);  English  philan- 
thropist whose  name  is  chiefly  associated  with  the  aboUtion  of 
the  slave  trade,  was  descended  from  a  Yorkshire  family  which 
possessed  the  manor  of  Wilbcrfoss  in  the  East  Riding  from  the 
time  of  Henry  II.  till  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century.  He  was 
the  only  son  of  Robert  Wilberforce«  member  of  a  commercial 
house  at  Hull,  by  his  wife  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Thomas  Btrd  of 
Barton,  Oxon,  and  was  bom  at  Hull  on  the  24th  of  August  1759. 
It  was  from  his  mother  that  he  inherited  both  his  feeble  frame 
and  his  many  rich  mental  endowments.  He  was  not  a  diligent 
scholar,  but  at  the  grammar  school  of  Hull  bis  skill  in  elocution 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  master.  Before  he  had  completed 
his  tenth  year  he  lost  his  father  and  was  transferred  to  the  care 
of  a  paternal  uncle  at  Wimbledon;  but  in  his  twelfth  year  he 
returned  to  Hull,  and  soon  afterwards  was  placed  under  the  care 
of  the  master  of  the  endowed  school  of  Pocklington.  Here  his 
love  of  sodal  pleasures  made  him  neglectful  of  his  studies,  but 
he  entered  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  in  October  1766.  Left 
by  the  death  of  his  grandfather  and  uncle  the  possessor  of  an 
independent  fortune  under  his  mother's  sole  guardianship,  he 
was  somewhat  idle  at  the  university,  though  he  acquitted  himself 
in  the  examinations  with  credit;  but  in  his  serious  years  he 
"  could  not  look  back  without  unfeigned  remorse "  on  the 
importunities  he  had  then  neglected.  In  1780  he  was  elected  to 
the  House  of  Commons  for  his  native  town,  his  success  being 
due  to  his  personal  popularity  and  his  lavish  expenditure.  He 
soon  found  his  way  into  the  fast  poh'tical  society  of  London,  and 
at  the  club  at  Goosetrees  renewed  an  acquaintance  begun  at 
Cambridge  with  Pitt,  which  ripened  into  a  friendship  of  the 
closest  kind.  In  the  autumn  of  1783  he  set  out  with  Pitt  on  a 
tour  in  France;  and  after  his  return  his  eloquence  proved  of 
great  assistance  to  Pitt  in  his  struggle  against  the  majority  of 
the  House  of  Commons.  In  1784  Wilberforce  was  elected  for 
both  Hull  and  Yorkshire,  and  took  his  seat  for  the  latter  con- 
stituen<3y. 

A  journey  to  Nice  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  with  his 
friend  Dr  Isaac  Milner  (1750-1820),  who  had  been  a  master  at 
Hull  grammar  school  when  Wilberforce  was  there  as  a  boy,  and 
had  since  made  a  reputation  as  a  mathematician,  and  afterwards 
became  president  of  Queens'  College,  Cambridge,  and  dean  of 
Cariisle,  led  to  his  conversion  to  Evangelical  Christianity  and 
the  adoption  of  more  serious  views  of  life.  The  change  had  a 
marked  effect  on  his  public  conduct.  In  the  beginning  of  1787 
he  busied  himself  with  the  establishment  of  a  sodety  for  the 
reformation  of  manners.  About  the  same  time  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Thomas  Garkson,  and  began  the  agitation  against 
the  slave  trade.  Pitt  entered  heartily  into  their  plans,  and 
recommended  Wilberforce  to  undertake  the  guidance  of  the 
project  as  a  subject  suited  to  his  character  and  talents.  While 
Clarkson  conducted  the  agitation  throughout  the  country, 
Wilberforce  took  every  opportum'ty  in  the  House  of  Commons 
of  exposing  the  evils  and  horrors  of  the  trade.  In  1 788,  however, 
a  serious  illness  compelled  him  to  retire  for  some  months  from 
public  life,  and  the  introduction  of  the  subject  in  parliament 
therefore  devolved  on  Pitt,  whose  representations  were  so  far 
successful  that  an  act  was  passed  providing  that  the  number  of 
slaves  carried  in  ships  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  tonnage. 
On  the  12th  of  May  of  the  following  year  Wilberforce,  in  co-opera- 
tion with  Pitt,  brought  the  subject  of  abolition  again  before  the 
House  of  Commons;  but  the  friends  of  the  planters  succeeded 
in  getting  the  matter  deferred.  On  the  27th  of  January  following 
Wilberforce  carried  a  motion  for  referring  to  a  special  committee 
the  further  examination  of  witnesses,  but  after  full  inquiry  the 
motion  for  abolition  in  April  1791  was  lost  by  163  votes  to  88. 
Ill 'the  following  April  he  carried  a  motion  for  gradual  abolition 


by  238  to  85  votes;  bat  in  the  House  of  Lords  the  discussion 
was  finally  postponed  tifl  the  following  session.  Notwith- 
standing his  unremitting  labours  in  educating  public  opinion 
and  annual  motions  in  the  House  of  Commons,  It  was  not  till 
1807,  the  year  following  Pitt's  death,  that  the  first  great  step 
towards  the  abolition  of  slavery  was  accomplished.  When  the 
anti-slavery  society  was  formed  in  1823,  Wilberforce  and  Clarkson 
became  vice-presidents;  but  before  their  aim  was  accomplished 
Wilberforce  had  retired  from  public  life,  and  the  Emancipation 
Bill  was  not  passed  till  August  1833,  a  month  after  his  death. 

In  1797  Wilberforce  published  A  PrcUiial  View  of  the  Prevail- 
ing Kdigious  Syslem  of  Professed  Christians  in  the  Higher  and 
Middle  Classes  of  this  Country  Contrasted  teith  Real  Christianity, 
which  within  half  a  year  went  through  five  editions  and  was 
afterwards  translated  into  French,  Italian,  Dutch  and  German. 
In  the  same  year  (May  1797)  he  married  Barbara  Ann  Spooner 
and  took  a  house  at  Clapham,  where  he  became  one  of  the 
leaders  of  what  was  known  as  the  "  Clapham  Sect "  of  Evangeli- 
cals, Including  Henry  Thornton,  Charles  Grant,  £.  J.  Eliot, 
Zacchary  Macaulay  and  James  Stephen.  It  was  in  connexion 
with  this  group  that  he  then  occupied  himself  with  a  plan  for  a 
religious  periodical  which  should  admit  "a  moderate  degree 
of  political  and  common  intelligence,"  the  result  being  the 
appearance  in  January  x8ox  of  the  Christian  Observer.  He 
also  Interested  himself  In  a  variety  of  schemes  for  the  advanci^ 
ment  of  the  social  and  religious  welfare  of  the  community, 
including  the  establishment  of  the  Association  for  the  Better 
Observance  of  Sunday,  the  foundation,  with  Hannah  More  (g.v.), 
of  schools  at  Cheddar,  Somersetshire,  a  project  for  opening  a 
school  in  every  pmrish  for  the  religious  instruction  of  children, 
a  plan  for  the  education  of  the  children  of  the  lower  classy, 
a  bill  for  securi.:g  better  salaries  to  curates,  and  a  method  for 
disseminating,  by  government  help,  Christianity  in  India.  In 
parliament  he  was  a  supporter  of  parliamentary  reform  and  of 
Roman  Catholic  emancipation.  In  18x2,  oh  account  of  failing 
health,  he  exchanged  the  representation  of  Yorkshire  for  that 
of  a  constituency  which  would  make  less  demands  on  his  time, 
and  was  returned  for  Bramber,  Sussex.  In  1825  he  retired  from 
the  House  of  Commons,  and  the  following  year  settled  at  High- 
wood  HOI,  near  Mill  HHl,  "just  beyond  the  disk  of  the  metropolis." 
He  died  at  London  on  the  29th  of  July  1833,  and  was  buried 
In  Westminster  Abbey  dose  to  Pitt,  Fox  and  Canning.  In 
Westminster  Abbey  a  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory,  and  iir 
Yorkshire  a  county  asylum  for  the  blind  was  founded  in  his 
honour.  A  column  was  also  erected  to  him  by  his  townMien  of 
Hun.  Wilberforce  left  four  sons,  two  of  whom,  Samuel  and 
Robert  Isaac,  are  noticed  separately.  The  youngest,  Henry 
William  Wilberforce  (1807-1873),  was  educated  at  Oriel  College, 
Oxford,  and  was  president  of  the  Oxford  Union.  He  took 
orders  in  the  Eni^sh  Church,  but  in  1850  became  a  Roman 
Catholic.  He  was  an  active  journalist  and  edited  the  Catholic 
Standard, 

The  chief  authorities  of  the  career  of  William  Wilberforce  are  his 
Life  (5  vols.,  1838)  by  his  sons,  Robert  Isaac  and  Samuel,  and  his 
Correspondence  (id40)  also  published  by  his  sons  A  smaller  edition 
of  the  Life  was  published  l^  Samuel  Wilberforce  in  1868.  See  also 
The  privaU  papers  cf  William  Wilber/orce,  edited  by  A.  M.  Wilberiorce 
(1827) ;  Sir  James  Stephen,  Essays  in  Ecclesiastical  Biography  (1849) ; 
J.  C.  Colquhoun,  Wilberforce,  His  Friends  and  Times  (1866):  John 
Stouffhton.  William  Wtlberforee  (1880);  J.  J.  Gurney.  Familiar 
Shetek  of  Wilberiorce  (1838);  and  J.  S.  Hartford,  ^collections  of 
W.  Wilberforce  (1864). 

WILBRANDT,  ADOLF  (1837-  ),  Gervaah  novelist  and 
dramatist,  was  bom  at  Rostock  on  the  24th  of  August  1837, 
the  son  of  a  professor  at  that  university.  Having  received  his 
early  education  at  the  g3rmna8ium  of  his  native  town,  he  entered 
the  university  and  engaged  in  the  study  of  law.  This,  however, 
he  soon  abandoned  in  favour  of  philology  and  history,  and 
continued  these  studies  in  Berlin  and  Munich.  After  taking 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy,  he  joined  the  Aaff  of  the 
Snddcutsche  Zeitung  in  Munich.  He  travelled  abroad  for  a  time 
and  in  1871  settled  in  Vienna,  where,  two  yean  later,  he  married 
the  actress,  Auguste  Baudius.   In  1881  Wllbraadt  was  appointed 


632 


WILBYE— WILDE 


director  of  the  Hofburg  theatre  in  succession  to  Franz  Dingcl- 
ttedt,  an  office  he  held  until  1887.  In  this  year  be  returned  to 
his  native  town  of  Rostock,  and  remained  actively  engaged  in 
literary  production.  Wiibrandt  is  distinguished  both  as  a 
dranuitist  and  novelist.  His  merits  were  aduiowledged  by  the 
award  of  the  Grillparzer  prize  on  two  occasions— in  1875  for 
the  tragedy  Gracchus  dcr  Volkslribun,  and  in  1890  for  his  dramatic 
poem  Der  Meisier  von  Palmyraf  while  in  1878  he  received  the 
Schiller  prize  for  his  dramatic  productions. 

Among  his  plays  may  be  mentioned  the  tragedies,  Arria  und 
Messalina  (1874),  Nero  (1876);  Kriemhitd  (1877);  ^^  comedies 
Unerreickbar  (1870),  Die  Maler  (1873),  Jugendtiebe  (1873)  and 
Der  Kamff  urns  Dasein  (1874);  and  the  drama  Die  ToctUer  des 
Berm  Paorici^  (1883).    Among  his  novels  the  following  deserve 


Sophocles  and  Euripides  (1866),  GedichU  (1874, 1889  and  1907),  and 
a  volume  of  Erinnerungcn  C 1905). 

See  V.  Klempercr,  AdolJwUhrandL  Eitu.Studie  iber  seine  Werka 
(1907),  and  A.  Stern,  Siudien  sur  Lileratur  der  Gegenwart  (3rd  ed., 

1905). 

WILBYE,  JOHN,  English  x6th-century  madrigal  composer, 
was  bom  probably  at  Bury  St  Edmunds,  but  the  details  of  his 
life  are  obscure.  A  set  of  madrigals  by  him  appeared  in  2598 
and  a  second  in  x6oS,  the  two  sets  containing  sixty-four  pieces; 
and  from  a  few  contributions  known  to  have  been  made  by  him 
to  other  contemporary  sets,  we  can  infer  that  he  was  alive  in 
1614.  He  is  the  most  famous  of  all  the  English  madrigalists; 
his  pieces  have  long  been  favourites  and  are  included  in  modem 
collections. 

WILD,  JONATHAN  {c.  X683-1725),  English  criminal,  was  bom 
about  1682  at  Wolverhampton,  where  his  father  was  a  wig-maker. 
After  being  apprenticed  to  a  local  buckle-maker,  he  went  to 
London  to  learn  his  trade,  and,  getting  into  debt,  was  imprisoned 
for  several  years.  The  acquaintance  of  many  criminals  which 
he  made  in  prison  he  turned  to  account  after  his  release  by 
setting  up  as  a  receiver  of  stolen  goods.  -.Wild  shrewdly  realized 
that  it*was  safer,  and  in  most  cases  more  profitable,  to  dispose 
of  such  property  by  returning  it  to  its  legitimate  owners  than 
to  sell  it,  with  the  attendant  risks,  in  the  open  market,  and  he 
thus  built  up  an  immense  buaness,  posing  as  a.fecoverer  of 
stolen  goods,  the  thieves  receiving  a  commission  on  the  price 
paid  for  recovery.  A  special  act  of  parliament  was  passed  by 
which  receivers  of  stolen  property  were  made  accessories  to  the 
theft,  but  Wild's  professed  "lost  property  office"  had  little 
difficulty  in  evading  the  new  law,  and  became  so  prosperous 
that  two  branch  offices  were  opened.  From  profiting  by  robberies 
in  which  he  had  no  share.  Wild  naturally  can^  to  arrange 
robberies  himself,  and  he  devised  and  controlled  a  huge  organiza- 
tion, which  plundered  London  and  its  approaches  wholesale. 
Such  thieves  as  refused  to  work  with  him  received  short  shrift. 
The  notorious  Jack  Sheppard,  wearied  of  Wild's  exactions,  at 
last  refused  to  deal  with  him,  whereupon  Wild  secured  his  arrest, 
and  himself  arrested  Sheppard's  confederate,  "  Blueskin." 
In  return  for  Wild's  services  in  tracking  down  such  thieves  as 
he  did  QOt  himself  control,  the  authorities  for  some  time  toler- 
ated the  offences  of  his  numerous  agents,  each  a  specialist  in  a 
particular  kind  of  robbery,  and  so  themselves  strengthened  his 
position.  If  an  arrest  were  made,  Wild  had  a  plentiful  supply 
of  false  evidence  at  hand  to  establish  his  agents'  t^ibi,  and  he 
did  not  hesitate  to  obtain  the  conviction,  by  similar  means,  of 
such  thieves  as  refused  to  recognize  his  authority.  Such  stolen 
property  as  could  not  be  returned  to  the  owners  with  profit 
was  taken  aSroad  in  a  sloop  purchased  for  this  work.  At  last 
either  the  authorities  became  more  strict  or  Wild  less  cautious. 
He  was  arrested,  tried  at  the  Old  Bailey,  and  after  being  acquitted 
on  a  chaige  of  stealing  lace,  found  guilty  of  taking  a  reward  for 
restoring  it  to  the  owner  without  informing  the  police.  He  was 
hanged  at  Tybum  on  the  24th  of  May  1725. 

WILDBAD,  a  watering-place  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Wtirttemberg,  picturesquely  situated  1475  ^^-  ftbove  the  sea, 
in  the  romantic  pine-clad  gorge  of  the  £^z  in  the  Black  Forest, 
38  m.  W.  of  Stuttgart  and  14  £.  of  Baden-Baden  by  rail.  Pop. 


(1905)  3734*    It  contains  an  Evangelical,  a  Roman  Catholic 
and  an  English  church,  and  has  some  small  manufacture* 
(cigars,  paper  and  toys).    Its  thermal  alkaline  springs  have  at 
temperature  of  90^-100^  Fahr.  and  are  used  for  bathing  in  case» 
of  paralysis,  rheumatism,  gout,  neuralgia  and  similar  ailments. 
The  fact  that  the  springs  rise  within  the  baths,  and  are  thus 
used  at  the  fountain-head,  is  considered  to  contribute  materially 
to  their  curative  value.  The  water  is  used  internally  for  affections 
of  the  stomach  and  digestive  organs,  and  of  the  kidne)rs,  bladder, 
8rc.     Wildbad  possesses    all  the   usual  arrangements  for  the 
comfort  and  amusement  of  the  visitors  (over  15,000  annually), 
including  large  and  well-appointed  hotels,  a  Kurbaus,  a  Trink- 
Halle  and  promenades.     The  neighbourhood  is  picturesque, 
the  most  attractive  spot  being  the  Wildsee,  of  which  k^^ds 
are  told. 

See  W.  T.  v.  Renz.  Die  Kur  tu  WUdbad  (with  Guide.  WHdbad. 
1888),  and  Weizsftcker.  Witdbad  (2nd  ed.,  1905). 

WILDB,  OSCAR  O'FLAHERTIE  WILLS  (1856-1900),  English 
author,  son  of  Sir  William  Wilde,  a  famous  Irish  surgeon,  was 
bom  in  Dublin  on  the  15th  of  October  1856;  his  mother,  Jane 
Frandsca  Elgee,  was  well  known  in  Dublin  as  a  graceful  writer 
of  verse  and  prose,  under  the  pen-name  of  "  Speranza."  Having 
distinguished  himself  in  classics  at  Trinity  College,  DubUn, 
Oscar  Wilde  went  to  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  in  1874,  and  won 
the  Newdigate  prize  in  1878  with  his  poem  "  Ravenna,"  besides 
taking  a  first-class  in  classical  Moderations  and  in  Lilerae 
Humaniores.  But  his  career  at  Oxford,  brilliant  intellectually 
as  he  showed  himself  to  be,  was  chiefly  signalized  by  the  part 
he  played  in  what  came  to  be  known  as  the  aesthetic  movement. 
He  adopted  what  to  undergraduates  appeared  the  elTeminate 
pose  of  casting  scom  on  manly  sports,  wearing  his  hair  long, 
decorating  his  rooms  with  peacock's  feathers,  lilies,  sunflowers, 
blue  china  and  other  objets  d*art,  which  he  declared  his  desire 
to  "  live  up  to,"  afl^ecting  a  lackadaisical  manner,  and  professing 
intense  emotions  on  the  subject  of  "  art  for  art's  sake  " — then 
a  new-fangled  doctrine  which  J.  M.  Whistler  was  bringing  into 
prominence.  Wilde  made  himself  the  apostle  of  this  new  cult. 
At  Oxford  his  behaviour  procured  him  a  ducking  in  the  Cherwell, 
and  a  wrecking  of  his  rooms,  but  the  cult  spread  among  certain 
sections  of  society  to  such  an  extent  that  languishing  attitudes, 
"  too-too  "  costumes  and  "  aestheticism  "  generally  became  ^ 
recognized  pose.  Its  affectations  were  burlesqued  in  Gilbert 
and  Sullivan's  travesty  Patience  (1881),  which  practically 
killed  by  ridicule  the  absurdities  to  which  it  had  grown.  At 
the  same  time  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  "  aesthetic  "  move- 
ment, in  the  aspect  fundamentally  represented  by  the  school  of 
William  Morris  and  Rossetti,  had  a  permanent  influence  on 
English  decorative  art.  As  the  leading  "aesthete,"  Oscar 
Wilde  became  one  of  the  most  prominent  personalities  of  the 
day;  apart  from  the  ridicule  he  encountered,  his  affected 
paradoxes  and  hLs  witty  sayings  were  quoted  on  all  sides,  and 
in  1882  he  went  on  a  lecturing  tour  in  the  United  States.  In 
1884  he  married  Cx)nstance  Lloyd.  He  had  already  published 
in  1881  a  selection  of  his  poems,  whkh,  however,  only  attracted 
admiration  in  a  limited  circle.  In  1888  appeared  The  Happy 
Prince  and  Other  Tales,  illustrated  by  Waller  Crane  and  Jacomb 
Hood.  This  charming  volume  of  fairy  tales  was  followed  up 
later  by  a  second  collection,  The  House  of  Pomegranates  (189a), 
acknowledged  by  the  author  to  be  "  intended  neither  for  the 
British  child  nor  the  British  public."  In  much  of  his  writings, 
and  in  his  general  attitude,  there  was  to  most  people  an  undertone 
of  rather  nasty  suggestion  which  created  prejudice  against  him, 
and  his  novel,  The  Picture  q/  Dorian  Cray  (1891),  with  aU  its 
sparkle  and  cleverness,  impressed  them  more  from  this  point 
of  view  than  from  its  purely  literary  brilliance.  Wilde  contri- 
buted some  characteristic  articles  to  the  reviews,  all  coloured 
by  his  pecub'ar  attitude  towards  art  and  Ufe,  and  ;n  1891  re- 
published three  of  them  as  a  book  called  Intentions.  His  first 
real  success  with  the  larger  public  was  as  a  dramatist  with 
Luidy  Windermere's  Fan  at  the  St  James's  Theatre  in  189a, 
followed  by  A  Womanp/No  Importance  (1893),  ^4/*  Idcat  Husband 
(1895)  and ,  n<e^/m^ar/aiK<  of  Being  Earnest  (1895).       Thft 


WILDENBRUCH— WILDERNESS 


633 


diainatic  and  litcivy  ability  shown  in  tbeae  plays,  all  of  which 
were  published  later  in  book  form,  was  as  undoubted  as  their 
diction  and  ideas  were  characteristically  paradoxicaL  In  1893 
the  licenser  of  plays  refused  a  licence  to  Wilde's  SalonUf  but  it 
was  produced  in  French  in  Paris  by  Sarah  Bernhardt  in  1394. 
His  success  as  a  dramatist  had  by  thia  time  gone  some  way  to 
disabuse  hostile  critics  of  the  suspicions  as  regards  his  personal 
character  which  had  been  excited  by  the  apparent  looseness  of 
morals  which  since  his  Oxford  days  it  had  always  pleased  him 
to  affect;  but  to  the  consternation  of  his  friends,  who  had 
ceased  to  credit  the  existence  of  any  real  moral  obliquity,  in 
189s  came  fatal  revelations  as  the  result  of  his  bringing  a  libel 
action  against  the  marquis  of  Quccnsberry;  and  at  the  Old 
Bailey,  in  May,  Wilde -was  sentenced  to  two  years'  imprisonment 
with  hard  labour  for  offences  under  the  Criminal  Law.  Amend- 
ment Act.  It  was  a  melancholy  end  to  what  might  have  been 
a  singularly  brilliant  career.  Even  after  leaving  prison  he  was 
necessarily  an  outcast  from  decent  circles,  and  he  lived  mainly 
on  the  Continent,  under  the  name  of  "Sebastian  Melmoth." 
He  died  in  Paris  on  the  30th  of  November  1900.  In  1898  he 
published  his  powerful  Ballad  of  Reading  Cool.  His  CMecUd 
FocmSf  containing  some  beautiful  verse,  had  been  issued  in 
1893.  While  in  prison  he  wrote  an  apology  for  his  life  which 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  his  executor  and  published  in  1905. 
The  manuscripts  of  A  Florentine  Tragedy  and  an  essay  on 
Shakespeare's  sonnets  were  stolen  from  his  house  in  1895^  In 
X904  a  five-act  tragedy,  The  Duchess  of  Padua,  written  by  Wilde 
about  1883  for  Mary  Anderson,  but^not  acted  by  her,  was  pub- 
lished in  a  German  translation.  {Die  Herzogin  von  PaduOj  trans- 
lated by  Max  Meycrfeld)  in  Berlin.  It  is  still  impossible  to 
take  a  purely  objective  view  of  Oscar  Wilde's  work.  The  Old 
Bailey  revelations  removed  all  doubt  as  to  the  essential  un- 
hcalthiness  of  his  personal  inffuence;  but  his  literary  genius  was 
none  the  less  remarkable,  and  his  plays  were  perhaps  the  most 
original  contributions  to  English  dramatic  writing  during  the 
period.  (H.  Ch.) 

WILDENBRUCH,  ERNST  VON  (1845-1909),  German  poet  and 
dramatist,  was  born  on  the  3rd  of  February  1845  at  Beyrout 
in  Syria,  the  son  of  the  Prussian  consul-general.  Having  passed 
his  early  years  at  Athens  and  Constantinople,  where  his  father 
W£^  attached  to  the  Prussian  legation,  he  came  in  1857  to 
Germany,  received  his  early  schooling  at  the  Pfldagogium  at 
Halle  and  the  Franzosische  Gymnasium  in  Berlin,  and,  after 
passing  through  the  Cadet  school,  became,  in  1863,  an  officer 
in  the  Prussian  army.  He  abandoned  the  military  career  two 
years  later,  but  was  recalled  to  the  colours  in  1866  for  the  war 
with  Austria.  He  next  studied  law  at  the  university  of  Berlin« 
and  again  served  in  the  army  during  the  Franco-Prussian  War, 
1870-7X.  In  1876  Wildenbruch  was  attached  to  the  foreign 
office,  which  he  finally  quitted  in  1900  with  the  title  of  counsellor 
of  legation.  He  achieved  his  first  literary  successes  with  the 
epics  VionviUe  (1874)  and  Sedan  (1875).  After  publishing 
a  volume  of  poems,  Liedcr  und  BaUaden  (Berl.,  J877;  7th  ed., 
1900) ,  he  produced,  in  1882,  the  tragedy,  Die  Karolinger.  Among 
his  chief  dramas  may  be  mentioned  the  tragedy  Uardd  (1883); 
Die  Quitzows  (188S);  Der  Cencraljeldoherst  (1889);  Die  Hauben- 
lercfic  (1891);  Hdnrich  und  Heinriehs  Geschleeht  (1895);  Dte 
Tociiler  des  Erasmus  (1900);  and  Kdnig  Laurin  (1902).  Wilden- 
bruch was  twice  (in  1884  and  1896)  awarded  the  Schiller  prize, 
and  was,  in  1892,  created  a  doctor  of  philosophy  honoris  causa 
by  the  imiversity  of  Jena.  He  also  wrote  several  volumes  of 
short  stories  (Novellen,  1883;  Neue  Novellen,  1885;  Tiefe 
fVasser,  1897,  &c.).   He  died  on  the  isth  of  January  1909. 

Cf.  B.  Litzmann,  Das  deutsche  Drama  in  den  Bewegungen  der 
Geeenwart  (1894;  4th  ed.,  1897);  H.  Bulthaupt,  Dramaturgie  des 
Schauspieis,  vol.  iv.  (1901). 

WILDERNESS,  a  large  forest  in  Spottsyhrania  county, 
Virginia,  U.S.A.,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Rapidan,  extending 
from  Mine  Run  on  the  E.  to  Chancellorsville  on  the  W.  It  is 
famous  in  military  history  •  for  the  battles  of  Chancellorsville 
(1863)  and  Wilderness  (1864)  during  the  American  Civil  War. 

ChanceUcrsmiRe.'-lsi  May  1863  a  three  days'  battle  was  fought 


at  ChancelloTsviUe  between  the  Aimy  of  the  Potomac,  under 
General  J.  Hooker,  and  General  Lee's  Army  of  Northern  Virginia, 
which  had  stemmed  the  tide  of  invasion  in  the  East  by  taking 
up  a  defensive  position  along  the  right  or  south  bank  of  the 
Rappahannock.    General  Bumside  had  suffered  a  severe  repulse 
in  front  of  the   Confederate  position  at  Fredericksburg  in 
December  1862,  and  his  successor  resolved  to  adopt  the  alterna- 
tive plan  of  turning  Lee's  flank  and  so  gaining  the  road  to 
lUchmond.    General  Lee  had  meanwhile  weakened  his  forces 
by  detaching  Longstreet's  two  divisions  and  the  cavalry  brigades 
of  Hampton,  Robertson  and  Jones.    Hooker  had  now  at  his 
disposal  12,000  cavalry,  400  guns  and  120,000  infantry  and 
artillery,  organized  in  seven  corps  (I.  Reynolds,  II.  Couch, 
UL  Sickles,  V.  Meade,  VI.  Sedgwick, XI.  Howard,  XU.  Slocum). 
General  Lee  counted  only  45,000  men  of  all  arms  effective. 
Hooker  detached  10,000  cavalry  under  Stoneman  and  Sedg- 
wick's corps  (30,000)  to  demonstrate  on  his  flanks  along  the 
Rapidan  and  at  Fredericksburg,  while  with  the  remainder  he 
moved  up  the  Rappahannock  and  'crossed  that  river  and  after- 
wards the  Rapidan  and  on  the  30th  of  April  fixed  his  head- 
quarters at  Chancellorsville,  a  farmhouse  in  the  Wilderness. 
Lee's  cavalry  under  Stuart  had  duly  reported  the  Federal 
movements  and  I^e  called  up  "  Stonewall "  Jackson's  four 
divisions  from  below  the  Massaponax  as  soon  as  Sedgwick's 
corps  crossed  the  river  at  Fredericksburg.    At  Chancellorsvilte 
Anderson's  division  was  in  position,  and  McLaws  was  sent  to 
support  him„  while  Jackson  took  thiree  divisions  to  the  same 
point,  leaving  Early's  division  to  observe  Sedgwick.     Hooker 
had  cleared  and  entrenched  a  position  in  the  forest,  inviting 
attack  from  the  E.  or  S.    General  Lee,  however,  discovered  a 
route  by  which  the  Federals  might  be  attacked  from  the  N. 
and  W.,  and  Jackson  was  instructed  to  execute  the  turning 
movement  and  fall  upon  them.    As  soon  as  a  brigade  of  cavalry 
was  placed  at  his  disposal  Jackson  marched  westward  with  his 
corps  of  22,000  men  and  by  a  d6tour  of  15  m.  gained  the  Federal 
rght  flank,  while  Anderson  and  McLaws  with  20  guns  and  1 2,000 
men  demonstrated  in  front  of  Hooker's  army  and  so  kept 
90,000  men  idle  behind  their  earthworks.     One  of   Stuart's 
cavalry    brigades   neutralized    Stoneman's    10,000    horsemen. 
Sedgwick  was  being  contained  by  Early.     Jackson's  attack 
surprised  the  Federals,  who  fled  in  panic  at  nightfall,  but  Jacksoa 
was  mortally  wounded.     Next  day  the  attack  was  resumed 
under  the  direction  of  Stuart,  who  was  reinforced  by  Anderson, 
while  McLaws  now  threatened  the  left  flank  of  the  Federals 
and  Fitz  Lee's  cavalry  brigade  operated  against  their  line  of 
retreat.    Hooker  finally  gained  the  shelter  of  an  inner  line  of 
works  covering  the  ford  by  which  he  must  retreat.    Meanwhile, 
Early  had  checked  Sedgwick,  but  when  at  last  the  Federal  corps 
was  about  to  overwhelm  the  Confederate  division  Lee  came  to 
succour  it.    Then  Sedgwick  was  assailed  by  Early,  McLaws  and 
Anderson,  and  driven  over  the  Rappahannock  to  join  the  re- 
mainder of  Hooker's  beaten  army,  which  had  rccrosscd  the 
Rapidan  on  the  5th  of  May  and  marched  back  to  Falmouth. 
Phisterer's  Record  states  that  the  Federal  loss  was  16,000  and 
that  of  the  Confederates  r  2,000  men. 

Sec  A.  C.  Hamlin,  ChancellorsviUe ;  G.  F.  R.  Henderson,  Stonewall 
Jackson:  A.  Doubleday,  ChanceUorswle  and  CeUysburg,  Baiiles  and 
Leaders  of  Ike  Civil  H^or  and  Official  Records  of  the  War  of  Secession. 

;g,  W.  R.) 

Grani*s  Campaign  of  the  Wilderness  and  Cold  Harbor.-^Oti 
the  evening  of  the  3rd  of  May  1864,  after  dark,  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  commanded  by  Major-General  G.  G.  Meade  and 
consisting  of  the  II.,  V.  and.  VI.,  and  Cavalry  corps,  left  its 
winto"  quarters  about  Culpeper  to  manoeuvre  across  the  Rapidah 
with  a  view  to  fighting  a  battle  at  or  neaf  New  Hope  Church 
and  Craig's  Church.  The  army,  and  the  IX.  corps  (Bumside), 
which  was  an  independent  command,  were  directed  by 
Lieutenant-General  Grant,  the  newly  appointed  conmiander  of 
the  armies  of  the  United  States,  who  accompanied  Meade's  head- 
quarters. The  opposing  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  under<}eneral 
R.  E.  Lee  lay  in  quarters  around  Orange  Court  House  (A.  P. 
Hill's  corps),  Vcrdiersville  (EwcU's  corps)  and  Gordonsville 


*3+ 


WILDERNESS 


(LoDgUrNt't  eorpi).  TbaiBpeelive  number*  were lAnny of  the  |  Gnal'*  lamilea  d  aveliDBg  ■  billle  until  be  wu  dear  ct 
Polomu,  98,000;  IX.  coipflf  aa^ooo;  Army  ef  Northem  VvfiniB.  I  tbe  Wildemoa  waa  not  4dueved,  fof  Confederue  iofanliy 
nthei  lev  tbu  70,000.  I  afqw«red  on  the  Onnge  TuTn[Hke  eeit  of  Mine  Run,  when  on 

Tbe  dating  of  Lhe  Rapidan  wu  made  at  Gennuinn  md  Ely'i    hrs  awn  iniliative  Warren  bad  posted  a  divlnon  of  the  V.  a 


Ford*,  ont  erf  leacb 
tU'Q  leading  coipa  had  reached  (heir  balting-placei — V.,  Wilder- 
ness  Tavern;  and  II.,  CbancellonviUe.  The  VI.  followed  tbe  V. 
and  hailed  aouch  of  GermBima  Ford.  Two  of  the  three  divisions 
of  uvalry  preceded  the  march,  and  scouted  to  the  front  and 
Blahs.  Controversy  has  arisen  as  lo  whether  the  early  holt  of 
(lie  Umon  anny  in  tbb  midst  of  tbe  Wildemcs  was  nol  a  serious 


flank-guard,  and  some  cavalry,  judiciously  l^t 
behind  by  Wil3<Hi  at  FariEer's  Store,  became  epgaged  a  Lillle 
la(er  with  hostile  forces  on  the  Onuge  Plank  Road.  This  led 
to  tbe  suspenson  of  the  whde  raanmivre  towards  Lee's  right 
nar.  The  first  idea  of  the  Union  headquarters  wai  that  Lee 
was  falliug  back  to  the  North  Anna,  covered  by  a  bold  rear- 
gue, wUch  Grant  and  Meade  anaiiged  (o  cut  oS  and  dcMnqr 


error  of  judgment.  Tbe  reason  aaaigncd  was  the  necmity  of 
piotectlng  an  enormous  wagon  train,  carrying  ij  day*'  aupplie* 
for  the  whole  arrny,  that  wa*  croulng  after  the  II.  corps  At 
lly'a  Ford.  Bumside's  coepa  was  fmi  to  the  rear  when  the 
advance  began,  but  by  making  foreed  inaJxiia  it  wai  able  tg 
reach  Germanna  Fold  during  tbe  stb  of  May.  On  that  day  the 
man<ruvre  towards  Craig's  Church  was  Tesumed  at  5  a.m.. 
Wibon'a  cavalry  divincm  moving  from  Pajlcr^  Store  aoutb- 
ward,  tbe  V.  corps  (Warrm)  moving  ftum  Wildemat  Tavern 
towarda  Farker'a  Store,  foUowed  by  tbe  VI.  under  Sedgwick, 
the  IL  from  Chancelicaaville  by  way  of  Todd's  Tavm  towards 
Sbady  Gmve  Church.  Of  the  other  cavalry  di^^aioai,  Gregg's 
weot  towards  Fredcrtckaburg  (near  where  the  Confederate 
cavalry  corpa  had  been  reported)  and  Torbsl's  (which  had  acted 
1*  reuguaid  and  watched  (he  upper  Rapada"  during  the  £rit 
day'*  march),  was  Dot  yet  across  the  rivo-. 


convergent  attack  of  Wanen  and  Sedgwick.  But  the 
of  infintiy  on  lAe  Plank  Road  as  weU  as  the  Fike 
had  ahown  that  Lee  intended  to  fight  in  tbe  Wilderness,  arid 
Hancock  (II-  corps)  wa*  called  in  fnm  Todd'*  Taveni,  while 
one  division  (Getty's)  of  the  VI.  was  hurried  to  the  intcnection 
of  the  Bnx:k  and  Plank  roads  to  bold  that  point  unlH  Hancodi'a 
anivaL  Getty  airived  just  in  time,  for  Confederate  skirmiihen 
were  found  dad  and  wounded  only  50  yrls.  from  the  croaB  ttxds. 
Tbe  division  then  formed  up  to  await  Hancock's  arrival  up  the 
Brock  Road,  practically  immofeated.  for  L«  had  only  (wo  of 
his  cons  on  Che  ground  [Hill  on  the  Plank  Road,  £wcll  on  the 
Pike),  and  did  not  desire  Id  force  a  decision  until  Longstreet'* 
distant  corpa  should  arrive. 

Meanwhile  Warren  had  been  slowly  forming  up  his  attacking 
line  with  great  difficulty  in  (he  wood*.  Grant  appears  to  have 
used  bitter  wncda  to  Meade  en  tbe  nibject  of  Wanu's  delaya. 


WILDERNESS 


63s 


and  Metde  puaed  these  on  to  WaitCD,  lAo  Is  torn  fbfced  hit 
sttbordinatcft  iato  premature  actioiu  In  the  end,  about  noon. 
Griffin's  division  of  Warren's  corps  attacked  directly  along  the 
Pike  and  arusbed  the  enemy's  &st  line,  but,  unsui^rted  by 
the  VL  corps  on  the  right  and  Wadsworth's  division  (V.  corps) 
on  the  left,  both  of  which  units  were  still  groping  thdr  way  for- 
ward  in  the  woods,  was  forced  back  .with  heavy  losses.  Wads- 
worth  took  a  wrong  direction  in  the  woods  and  presented  himself 
as  an  easy  victim  to  Ewell's  right,  soon  after  Griffin's  repulse. 
The  VI.  corps  advanced  hiter  in  the  day  on  Wanen's  right, 
but  was  only  partially  engaged.  The  result  of  the  attack  on 
Ewell  was  thus  completely  unsatisfactory,  and  for  the  rest  of 
the  battle  the  V.  and  VI.  corps  were  used  principally  as  reser- 
voirs to  find  supports  for  the  offensive  wing  under  Hancock,  who 
arrived  on  the  Plank  Road  about  t  p  jl 

Hancock's  divisions,  as  they  came  up,  entiendied  thcmadves 
along  the  Brock  Road.  In  the  afternoon  he  was  ordered  to 
attack  whatever  force  of  the  enemy  was  on  the  Plank  Road  in 
front  of  him,  but  was  unwilling  to  do  so  until  he  had  his  forces 
well  in  hand.  Finally  Getty  was  ordered  to  attack  "  whether 
Hancock  was  ready  or  not."  This  may  have  been  an  attempt 
to  force  Hancock's  hand  by  an  appeal  to  his  soldieriy  honour,  and 
as  a  fact  he  did  not  leave  Getty  unsupported.  But  tho  dis- 
jointed attacks  of  the  II.  corps  on  Hill's  entrenchments,  while 
forcing  the  Confederates  to  the  verge  of  ruin,  were  not  as  success- 
ful as  the  preponderance  of  force  on  the  Union  side  ought  to 
have  ensurad.  For  four  hours  the  two  lines  of  battle  were 
fighting  50  yds.  apart,  until  at  nightfall  the  contest  was  given 
up  through  mutual  exhaustion. 

The  battle  of  the  6th  was  timed  to  begm  at  5  k.u.  and  Grant's 
attack  was  wholly  directed  on  Parker's  Store,  with  the  object  of 
crushing  Hill  before  Longstrcet  could  assist  fajm.  If  Longstreet, 
instead  of  helping  Hill,  were  to  attack  the  extreme  Union  left, 
so  much  the  better;  but  the  far  more  probable  course  for  him 
to  take  was  to  support  Hill  on  or  north  of  the  Pbmk  Road,  and 
Grant  not  only  ordered  Hancock  with  six  of  the  deven  divisions 
of  Meade's  army  to  attack  towards  Parker's  Store,  but  sent  his 
own  "  mass  oi  manoeuvre  "  (the  IX.  corp^)  thither  in  such  a 
way  as  to  strike  Hill's  left.  The  cavahy  was  drawn  back  for  the 
protection  of  the  trains,*  for  "  eyery  musket "  was  required  in 
the  ranks  of  the  infantry.  Warren  and  Sedgwick  were  to  hold 
Ewdl  occupied  on  the  Pike  by  vigorous  attacks.  At  5  o'clock 
Hancock  advanced,  drove  back  and  broke  up  Hill's  divisions, 
and  on  his  right  Wadsworth  attacked  their  left  rear.  But  after 
an  hour's  wood  fighting  the  Union  attack  came  to  a  standstill, 
and  at  this  moment,  the  critical  moment  for  the  action  of  the 
IX.  corps,  Bumside  was  still  more  than  a  mile  away,  having 
scarcely  passed  through  Warren's  lines  into  the  woods.  Then 
Longstreet's  corps,  pushing  its  way  in  two  columns  of  fours 
through  HiQ's  retreating  groups,  attacked  Hancock  with  the 
greatest  fury,  and  forced  lum  back  some  hundreds  of  yards. 
But  the  woods  broke  the  force  of  this  attack  too,  and  by  7.30 
the  battle  had  become  a  stationary  fire-fight..  After  an  interval 
in  which  both  sides  rallied  their  confused  masses,  Longstreet 
attacked  again  and  gained  more  ground.  Persistent  rumours 
came  into  the  Union  headquarters  of  a  Confederate  advance 
against  the  Union  left  rear,  and  when  Grant  realized  the  atiuition 
he  broke  off  one  of  Bumside's  divisions  from  the  DC.  corps 
column  and  sent  it  to  the  cross  roads  as  direct  reserve  to  Hancocji. 
At  this  moment  the  battle  took^a  very  unfavourable  turn  on 
the  Plank  Road.  Longstreet  had  sent  four  brigades  of  infantry 
by  a  d€tour  through  the  woods  south  of  the  Plank  Road  to  attack 
Hancock's  left.  This  was  very  effective,  and  the  Union  troops 
were  hustled  back  to  the  cross-roads.  But  Longstreet,  like 
Jadcson  a  year  before  in  these  woods,  was  wounded  by  his  own 
men  at  the  critical  moment  and  the  battle  again  came  to  a 
standstill  (2-2.30  P.u.). 

Bumside's  corps,  arriving  shortly  before  10  a.il  near  Chewn- 

*  Wilflon's  diviflion,  in  its  movement  on  Shady  Grove  Church  on 
the  5th,  had  been  cut  off  by  the  enemy's  advance  on  the  Plank  Road 
and  attacked  by  some  Confederate  cavalry.  But  it  extricated  itself 
and  joined  Gregg,  who  had  been  sent  to  assist  him.  at  Todd's  Tavern. 


ing's  house,  the  poshlOli  whence  it  was  to  have  attacked  Hill's 
left  in  the  eariy  morning,  was  about  to  attack,  in  ignorance  of 
Hancock's  repulse,  when  fortunately  an  order  reached  it  to 
suspend  the  advance  and  to  make  its  way  through  the  woods 
towards  Hancock's  ri^t.  This  dangerous  flank  march,  screened 
by  the  woods,  was  completed  by  a  pjc,  and  General  Bumside 
began  an  attack  upon  the  left  of  Longstreet's  command  (R.  H. 
Anderson's  fresh  division  of  Hill's  corps).  But  Hancock  J>eing 
in  no  condition  to  support  the  DC  corps,  the  whole  attack  was, 
at  3  P.M.,  postponed  by  Grant's  order.  untU  6  P.ic.  Thus  there 
was  a  long  respite  for  both  sides,  varied  only  by  a  little  skirmish- 
ing. But  Lee  was  detcmiined,  as  always,  to  have  the  last  word, 
and  about  4.15-4.30  a  fierce  assault  was  delivered  amidst  the 
bummg  woods  upon  Hancock's  entrenchments  along  the  Brodc 
Road.  For  a  moment,  aided  by  the  dense  smoke,  the  Con- 
federates seized  and  held  the  first  line  of  works,  but  a  counter- 
stroke  dislodged  them.  Bumside,  though  not  expecting  to  have 
to  attack  before  6,  put  into  the  fight  such  of  his  troops  as  were 
ready,  and  at  5.30  or  thereabouts  the  assai^ilting  line  receded  ii^ 
the  woods.  Grant  cancelled  his  <N:der  to  attack  at  6,  and  at 
the  decisive  point  the  battle  was  at  an  end.  But  on  the  extreme 
rif^t  of  the  Union  army  a  sudden  attack  was  delivered  At  sunset 
upon  the  hitherto  unmolested  VL  corps,  by  Gordon,  one  of 
Ewell's  brigadiers.  This  carried  off  two  generals  and  several 
hundred  prisoners,  and  a  panic  ensued  which  affected  all  the 
Union  forces  on  the  Pike,  and  was  not  quieted  until  after 
nightfall. 

Lee,  theref  oro,  had  the  last  word  on  both  flanks,  but  in  qute 
of  this  and  of  the  very  heavy  losses,'  Grant  had  already  resolved 
to  go  on,  instead  of  going  back  like  his  various  predecessors. 
To  him,  indeed,  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness  was  a  victory,  an 
indecisive  victory  indeed,  but  one  that  had  given  him  a  mcHal 
superiority  which  he  did  not  intend  to  forfeit.  His  scheme, 
drafted  early  on  the  morning  of  the  7th,  was  for  the  army  to 
march  to  Spottsylvanla  on  the  night  of  the  7th-8th,  to  assemble 
there  on  the  8th,  and  thence  to  undertake  a  fresh  manoeuvre 
i^ainst  Lee's  right  rear  on  the  9th.  This  movement  required 
the  trains  with  the  fighting  line  to  be  cleared  away  from  the 
roads  needed  for  the  troops  at  once,  and  Lee  promptly  discovered 
that  a  movement  was  in  progress.  He  mistook  its  object,  however, 
and  assuming  that  Grant  was  falling  back  on  Fredericksburg, 
he  prepared  to  shift  fiSs  own  forces  to  the  south  of  that  place 
so  as  to  bar  the  Richmond  road.  This  led  to  a  race  for  Spott- 
sylvanla, which  was  decided  more  by  accidents  to  either  side 
than  by  the  measures  of  the  two  commanding  generals.  On  the 
Union  side  Warren  was  to  move  to  the  line  SpottsyWania  Court 
House-Todd's  Tavern,  ft^wed  by  Hancock;  Sedgwick  was 
to  tiJce  a  roundabout  route  and  to  come  in  between  the  V.  and 
11.  corps;  Bumside  to  follow  Sedgwick.  The  cavalry  was 
ordered  to  watch  the  approaches  towards  the  right  of  the  army. 
The  movement  began  promptly  after  nightfall  on  the  7  th.  But 
ere  long  the  head  of  Warren's  column,  passing  in  rear  of  Han- 
cock's line  of  battle,  was  blocked  by  the  headquarters  escort 
of  Grant  and  Meade.  Next,  the  head  of  the  V.  corps  was  again 
checked  at  Todd's  Tavern  by  two  cavalry  divisions  which  had 
been  sent  by  Sheridan  to  regain  the  ground  at  Todd's  Tavern,* 
given  up  on  the  6th,  and  after  fighting  the  action  of  Todd's 
Tavern  had  received  no  further  orders  from  him.  hfeade, 
greatly  irritated,  ordered  Gregg's  division  out  towards  Corbin's 
Bridge  and  Merritt's  (Torbert's)  to  Spottsylvanla.  On  the  hitter 
road  the  Union  cavalry  found  themselves  opposed  by  Fits  Lee's 
cavalry,  and  after  some  hours  of  disheartening  work  in  the 
woods,  Merritt  asked  Warren  to  send  forward  infantry  to  drive 
the  enemy.  This  Warren  did,  although  he  was  just  preparing 
to  rest  and  to  feed  his  men  after  their  exhausting  night-march. 
Robmson's  division  at  the  head  of  the  corps  deployed  and  swiftly 
drove  in  Fiu  Lee.  A  little  beyond  Alsop's,  however,  Robinson 
found  his  path  T>arred  by-  entrenched  infantry.    This  was  put 

*  The  Union  losses  in  the  battle  were  18,000,  the  Confederates  at 
least    ri.soo. 

>  In  consequence  of  a  mistaken  order  that  the  trains  which  he 
protecting  were  to  move  forward  to  Piney  Branch  Chuich« 


636 


WILDERNESS 


of  Aitderson's  (Long^treet's)  onpa.  That  officer  had  been 
ordered  to  draw  out  of  his  (Wilderness)  woiks»  and  to  bivouac, 
preparatory  to  marching  at  3  a.ic.  to  the  Court  House,  but, 
finding  no  good  resting-place,  he  had  moved  on  at  once.  His 
route  took  him  to  the  Catharpin  Road  (Hampton's  cavalry 
protecting  him  towards  Todd's  Tavern),  and  thence  over  Corbin'a 
Bridge  to  Block  House  Bridge.  At  or  near  Block  House  Bridge 
the  corps  halted  to  test,  but  Stuart  (who  was  with  Fits  Lee) 
called  upon  Anderson  for  assistance  and  the  march  was  resumed 
at  full  speed.  Sheridan's  new  orders  to  Gregg  and  Merritt  did 
not  arrive  until  Meade  had  given  these  officers  other  instmc- 
tions,  but  Wilson's  cavalry  division,  which  was  out  of  the  line 
of  march  of  the  infantry,  acted  in  accordance,  with  Sheridan's 
phin  of  occupying  the  bridges  in  front  of  the  armsr's  intended 
position  at  Spottsylvania  Court  House,  and  seized  that  place, 
inflicting  a  smart  blow  upon  a  brigade  of  Stuart's  force  that 
was  met  there. 

The  situation  about  9  am.  on  the  8th  was  therefore  curious. 
Warren,  facing  E.,  and  opposed  by  part  of  Anderson's  corps, 
was  seeking  to  fight  his  way  to  Spottsylvania  Court  House  by 
the  Brock  Road.  Wilson,  facing  S.,  was  holding  the  Court 
House  and  driving  Fit2  Lee's  cavalry  partly  westward  on  to  the 
backs  of  the  infantry,  opposing  Warren,  partly  towards  Block 
House  Bridge,  whence  the  rest  of  Anderson's  infantiy  was 
approaching.  All  the  troops  were  wcaiy  and  hungry,  and 
Sheridan  ordered  Wilson  to  evacuate  the  Court  House  and  to 
fall  back  over  the  Ny.  Warren  fruitlessly  attacked  the  Con- 
federate infantry  at  Spindler's,  General  Robinson  being  severely 
wounded,  and  his  division  disorganized.  The  other  divisions 
came  up  by  degrees,  and  another  attack  was  made  about  ix. 
It  was  pressed  close  up  to,  and  in  some  places  over,  the  Con- 
federate log-works,  but  it  ended  in  failure  like  the  first.  A  third 
attempt  |n  the  evening  dwindled  down  to  a  reconnaissance  in 
force.  Anderson  was  no  longer  isolated.  Early's  division  ob- 
served Hancock's  corps  at  Todd's  Tavern,  but  the  rest  of  Ewell's 
and  all  Hill's  corps  went  to  Spottsylvania  and  prolonged  Ander- 
son's line  northward  towards  the  Ny.  Thus  the  re-grouping  of 
the  Union  army  for  manoeuvre,  and  even  the  running  fight  or 
strategic  pursuit  imagined  by  Grant  when  he  found  Anderson 
at  Spottsylvania,  were  given  up,  and  on  the  9th  both  armies 
rested.  On  this  day  General  Sedgwick  was  kUlcd  by  a  long- 
range  shot  from  a  Confederate  rifle.  HSs  place  was  taken  by 
General  H.  G.  Wright.  On  this  day  also  a  violent  quarrel 
between  Meade  and  Sheridan  led  to  the  departure  of  the  cavalry 
corps  on  an  independent  mission.  This  was  the  so-called 
Richmond  raid,  in  which  Sheridan  defeated  Stuart  at  Yellow 
Tavern  (where  Stuart  was  killed)  and  captured  the  outworks 
of  Richmond,  but,  having  started  with  empty  forage  wagons,* 
had  then  to  niake  his  way  down  the  Chickahominy  to  the  nearest 
supply  depots  of  the  Army  of  the  James,  leaving  the  Confederate 
cavalry  free  to  rally  and  to  rejoin  Leo. 

Finding  the  enemy  thus  gathered  in  his  front.  Grant  decided 
to  fight  again  on  the  loth.  While  Haoooqk  opposed  Early,  and 
Warren  axid  Wright  Hill  and  Anderson,  Bunside  was  ordered 
by  Grant  to  work  his  way  to  the  Fredericksburg-Spottsylvam'a 
road,  thence  to  attack  the  enemy's  right  rear.  The  first  stage 
of  this  movement  of  the  IX.  corps  was  to  be  made  on  the  9th, 
but  not  the  attack  itself,  and  Buinside  was  consequently  ordered 
not  to  go  beyond  a  place  called  "  Gate  "  on  the  maps  used  by  the 
Union  staff.  This,  it  turned  out,  was  not  the  farm  ol  a  person 
called  Gate,  as  headquarters  supposed,  but  a  mere  gate  into  a 
field.  Omsequently  it  was  missed,  and  the  IX.  corps  went  on 
to  Gale's  or  Gayle's  house,  where  the  enemy's  skirmishers  were 
driven  in.*  The  news  of  an  enemy  opposing  Bumside  at "  Gate," 
which  Grant  still  siqyposed  to  be  the  position  of  the  IX.  corps, 
at  once  radically  altered  the  plan  of  battle.   Lee  was  presumed 

*  Owing  to  the  circumstances  of  his  departure,  the  angry  army 
etaff  told  him  to  move  out  at  once  with  the  forage  that  he  liad,  and 
Sheridan,  though  the  army  reserve  suppliet  were  at  hand,  made  no 
attempt  to  fill  up  frdta  them. 

'  A  further  aouroe  of  confusion,  for  the  historian  at  least,  is  that 
on  the  nirvev  nttpe  made  in  1867  this  "  Gayle  "  is  calkid  "  Beverly  " 
(aet  ffl^  II.). 


to  be  moving  north  towards  F^rederkksbuxg,  iad  Ora&t  iaw  an 
opportunity  of  a  great  and  decisive  success.  The  JX.  corps  was 
ordered  to  hold  iu  position  at  all  costs,  and  the  others  were  to 
follow  up  the  enemy  as  he  concentrated  upon  Bumside.  Hancock 
was  called  in  from  Todd's  Tavern,  sent  down  to  force  the  fords 
of  the  Po  at  and  below  Tinder's  Mill,  and  directed  upon  Block 
House  Bridge  by  an  officer  of  Giant's  own  staff,  whUe  Watrea 
and  Wright  were  held  ready.  But  onte  more  a  handful  of 
cavalry  in  the  woods  delayed  the  effective  deployment  of  the 
moving  wing,  and  by  the  time  that  the  II.  corps  was  collected 
opposite  Block  House  Bridge  it  was  already  night.  Still  there  wbs» 
apparently,  no  diminution  of  force  <^posite  Bumside,  and  Hancock 
was  ordered  to  resume  bis  advance  at  early  dawn  on  the  xoth. 

Meade,  however,  had  little  or  no  cognizance  of  Grant's  orders 
to  the  independent  DC  corps,  and  his  orders,  conflicting  with 
those  emanating  from  the  Lieutenant-General's  staff,  puzzled 
Hancock  and  crippled  his  advance.  At  xo  the  whole  scheme 
was  given  up,  and  the  now  widely  deployed  Union  army  closed 
on  its  centre  as  best  it  could  for  a  direct  attack  on  the  Spott- 
sylvania position.  At  4,  before  the  new  concentration  was 
complete,  and  while  Hancock  was  still  engaged  in  the  difficult 
operation  of  drawing  back  over  the  Po  in  the  face  of  the  enemy, 
Warren  attacked  unsupported  and  was  repulsed.  In  the  woods 
on  the  left  Wright  was  more  successful,  and  at  6  p.  m.  a  rush  of 
twelve  selected  regiinents  under  Colonel  Emory  Upton  carried 
the  right  of  Lee's  log-works.  But  for  want  of  support  this 
attack  too  was  fruitless,  though  Upton  held  the  captured  works 
for  an  hour-and  brought  off  xooo  prisoners.  Bumside,  receiving 
Grant's  new  orders  to  attack  from  Gayle's  towards  Spottsylvania, 
sent  for  further  orders  as  to  the  method  of  attack,  and  his  advan<% 
was  thus  made  too  late  in  the  day  to  be  of  use.  Lee  had  again 
averted  disaster,  this  time  by  his  magnificent  handling  of  his  only 
reserve.  Hill's  (now  Early's)  corps,  which  he  used  first  agnjivM: 
Hancock  and  then  against  Burnside  with  the  greatest  effect. 

This  was  the  fourth  battle  since  the  evening  of  the  4th  of 
May.  On  the  morning  of  the  1 1  th  Grant  sent  his  famous  message 
to  Washington,  "  I  purpose  to  fight  it  out  on  this  line  if  it  takes 
all  summer."  The '12th  was  to  be  the  fifth  and,  Grant  hoped, 
the  decisive  battle.  A  maze  of  useful  and  useless  entrench- 
ments had  been  constructed  on  both  sides,  especially  on  the 
Um'on  aide,  from  mere  force  of  habit.  Grant,  seeing  from  the 
experience  of  the  loth  that  his  corps  commanders  were  manning 
these  entrenchments  so  strongly  that  they  had  only  feeble  forces 
disposable  for  the  attack,  ordered  all  superfluous  defences  to 
be  given  up.  Three  corps  were  formed  in  a  connected  line  (from 
right  to  left,  v.,  VI.,  IX.)  during  the  ixth,  and  that  night  the 
II.  corps  moved  silently  to  a  position  between  Wright  and 
Burnside  and  formed  up  in  the  open  field  at  Brown's  in  an 
attacking  mass  of  Napoleonic  density — three  lines  of  divisiqns, 
in  line  and  in  battalion  and  brigade  columns.  Bumside  was  to 
attack  from  Gayle's  (Beverly's  on  tho  map)  towards  McCool's. 
Warren  and  Wright  were  to  have  at  least  one  division  each  clear 
of  their  entrenchments  and' ready  to  move. 

Up  to  the  xith  Lee's  line  had  extended  from  the  woods  in 
front  of  Block  House  Bridge,  through  Perry's  and  Spindler's 
fields  to  McCool's  house,  and  its  right  was  refused  and  formed 
a  loop  round  McCool's.  All  these  works  faced  N.W.  In  addi- 
tion, Bumside's  advance  had  caused  Early's  corps  to  entrench 
Spottsylvania  and  the  church  to  the  south  of  it,  facing  E. 
Betwjcen  these  two  sections  were  woods.  The  coimexion  made 
between  them  gave  the  loop  around  McCool's  the  appearance 
from  which  it  derives  its  historic  name  of  The  Salient.  Upon 
the  northern  face  of  this  Salient  Hancock's  attack  was  delivered. 

On  the  nth  the  abandonment  of  Bumside's  threatening 
advance:  on  his  rear  and  other  indices  had  disquieted  Lee  as  to 
his  left  or  Block  House  flank,  and  he  had  drawn  off  practically 
all  Ewell's  artillery  from  the  McCooI  works  to  aid  in  that  quarter. 
The  infantry  that  manned  the  Salient  was  what  remained  of 
Stonewall  Jackson's  "foot  cavalry,"  veterans  of  Antietam, 
Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville.  But  at  4.35,  in  the  mist, 
Hancock's  mass  swept  over  their  works  at  the  first  msh  and 
swarmed  in  the  interior  of  the  Salient,  gathering  thousands  of 


WILDERNESS 


63J 


t  Lee  Ind  Mnt  buck 
Hnpktdy  db- 


iedcitite  bciEultg 


«  ths  idd  bktterie*  tt 


nd  odtcd  Fnknh  we 
,  uid  the  coantcr-stluk 

1  fpwct  order  diwe  Uicm  back  to  Ihe  line  of 
.  Then, iboul 6,  there bcgMiooeoiilic moat 
es  in  histDiy.  WhiLe  Early,  tviftly  diavins 
louM,  chedied  Bumsde'i  iiuck  from  the 
I,  attained  a^n  add  a^oiu  t>y  parti  of  the 
'  occu[Hcd  in  proervizig  bis  own  front,  Lee, 
and  the  few  thoosatid  mm  whom  the  otfaa 


lime  came,  Lee  MCtttded  10  well  that  after  twenty  houn'  biuor 
Bating  the  new  iine  wu  ready  and  the  Coniedctato  |ave  ip 
the  barren  ptiie  to  Haacodt.  Lee  had  kM,  4000  priunf  n  aa 
well  a>  45CK1  killed  and  wounded,  a*  againu  7000  m  the  Army  gf 
Ibe  Potomac  and  the  IX.  urpa. 

There  were  other  tiatllei  in  front  of  Spoltsylvania,  hut  that 
o[  the  nth  wu  the  climax.  From  the  ijlh  la  the  »lli  the 
Federals  gradually  worked  round  from  west  to  call,  dehverinf 
ial  atiacka  in  the  vain  tiope  oi  tUacoverini  a  weak 


point 


Lee'9 


■cneiali  could  tpaie,  delivered  all  day  a  scries  of  fierce  counlcr- 

Uiokei  agalnal  [lucock.    Nearly  all  Wright's  corps  and  even 

(Bumude'l  old  "Gayle")  and  Quiseilberry'i,  Lee  fscini 

part  o[  Wanen's  [inthe  end  4ifloo  men)  were  drawn  into  the 

from  the  new  woriu  south  0(  Hani»n'.  Ihrongh  the  Court  B 

6»ht  at  the  Salient,  for  Grant  and  Meade  well  knew  that  Lee 

to  SneU's  Bridge  on  the  Po.    In  the  fork  of  the  Po  and  lb 

wu  atruggUng  to  gain  lime  lor  the  conHruction  of  a  relienchr 

with  woods  and  marshes  to  obttnict  every  movement,  t 

this  leipile,  the  CDnfedcrates  would  have  to  lelrat  u  he^ 

a  new  manteuvre.    But  here,  as  in  the  Wilderness,  Lee  ma 

they  could,  pressed  in  front  and  Bank.    But  the  initial  luprri- 

tD  have  the  bsl  word.    While  the  Union  army  was  rcsli 

ority  oi  the  Federals  was  neutiatiud  by  thdr  disorder,  and. 

acmp  lor  Uie  first  Ume  since  leaving  Culpeper.  Ewell's 

keeidng  the  fight  aUve  by  successive  brigade  attacks,  while  the 

suddenly  attacked  its  baggage-ttaio  near  Hanis't  house. 

troop*  Dol  actually  employed  were  held  out  of  danger  till  their 

CcnfederaUs  were  driven  oB,  but  Grant  had  to  defer  his  inl 

(hM  d  tall,  10  dinn  ih*  V.  carpi'  uiwk. 

man<euvre  for  two  days.    When  the  armies  left  Spottsyl 
little  more  than  a  fortnl^  after  breaking  up  from  w 

63« 


WILDERNESS 


im  origintl  total  of  120,000  for  tlie  Union  aitny,  86,000  out  of 
70,000  for  the  Confederates. 

The  next  manoeuvre  attempted  by  Grant  to  bring  Lee's  army 
to  action  "  outnde  works  **  was  of  an  unusual  character,  though 
it  had  been  foreshadowed  in  the  improvised  plan  of  crushing 
Lee  against  Bumside's  corps  on  the  9th.  Hancock  was  now 
(aoth)  ordered  to  move  off  under  cover  of  night  to  Milford, 
thence  he  was  to  march  south-west  as  far  as  possible  -along  the 
Richmond  and  Fredericksburg  railroad,  and  to  attack  whatever 


NORTH 
ANNA 

/hsttmiis  9bet/l  3i.m.  on  May 


Piom  TM  WUdimtsf  ami  CM  Barbitr,  by 


ofH«BhBM.LiailML 


force  of  the  enemy  he  met.  It  was  hoped  that  this  bold  stroke 
by  an  isolated  corps  would  draw  Lee*s  army  upon  it,  and  the 
rest  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  would,  if  this  hope  were  realized, 
drive  down  upon  Lee's  rear  while  Hancock  held  him  up  in  front. 
Supposing,  however,  that  Lee  did  not  take  the  bait,  the  man*' 
onrvre  would  resolve  itself  into  a  turning  movement  with  the 
object  of  compelling  Lee  to  come  out  of  his  Spottsylvania  Uiies 
on  pain  of  being  surrounded. 

The  II.  corps  started  on  the  night  cf  the  soth-aist.  The 
alarm  was  soon  giveiL  At  Milford,  where  he  forced  the  passage 
of  the  Mattapony,  Hancock  found  himself  in  the  presence  of 
boitilo  infantry  from  Richmond  and  heard  that   mor»  had 


arrived  at  Hanover  Junction,  both  from  Richmond  aftd  from 

the  Shenandoah  Valley.  He  therefore  suspended  h»  advance 
and  entrenched.  The  main  army  began  to  move  ofl,  after  giving 
Lee  time  to  turn  against  Hancock,  at  10  a.m.  on  the  sist,  and 
marched  to  Cailett's,  a  place  a  few  miles  S.W.  of  Gninea's 
bridge,  Warren  leading,  Bumside  and  Wright  following.  But  110 
news  came  in  from  Hancock  until  late  in  the  evening,  and  the 
development  of  the  manoeuvre  was  consequently  delayed,  no 
that  on  the  night  of  the  axst-sxnd  I.«e's  army  slipped  across 

Warren's  front  en  ratUt  for 
Hanover  Junaion.  The  other 
Confederate  forces  that  had 
opposed  Hancock  likewise  fell 
bi&ck.  Grant's  manoeuvre  had 
failed.  Its  principal  aim  was 
to  induce  Lee  to  atuck  the 
II.  corps  at  Milford,  its  secondary 
and  alternative  purpose  was, 
by  didodging  Lee  from  Spott- 
sylvania, to  force  on  an  en- 
counter battle  in  open  ground. 
But  he  was  only  offered  the 
bait — not  compelled  to  take 
it,  as  he  would  have  been  if 
Hancock  with  two  corps  had 
been  placed  directly  athwart  the 
read  between  Spottsylvania  and 
Hanover  Junction — ^and,  having 
unimpaired  freedom  of  action, 
he  chose  to  retreat  to  the 
Junction.  The  four  Union  corps, 
therefore,  could  only  pursue  him 
to  the  North  Anna,  at  which 
river  thty  arrived  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  23rd,  Warren  on  the 
right,  Hancock  on  the  left, 
Wright  and  Bumside  being  well 
to  the  rear  in  second  line.  The 
same  afternoon  Warren  seized 
Jericho  Ford,  brought  over  the 
V.  corps  to  the  south  side,  and 
repulsed  a  very  sharp  counter- 
stroke  made  by  one  of  Lee's 
corps.  Hancock  at  the  same 
time  stormed  a  Confederate  re- 
doubt which  covered  the  Tele- 
graph Road  bridge  over  the  river. 
Wright  and  Bumside  closed  up. 
It  seemed  as  if  a  battle  was  at 
hand,  but  in  the  night  reports 
came  in  that  Lee  had  fallen  back 
to  the  South  Anna,  and  as  these 
were  more  or  less  confirmed 
by  the  fact  that  Warren  met 
with  no  further  opposition,  and 
by  the  enemy's  retirement  from 
the  river  bank  on  Hancock's 
front,  the  Union  generals  gave 
orders,  about  midday  on  the 
24th,  for  what  was  practically  s 
general  pursuit.  This  led  incidentally  to  an  attempt  to  drive 
Lee's  rearguard  away  from  the  point  of  passage,  between 
Warren's  and  Hancock's,  required  for  Bumside,  and  in  the 
course  of  this  it  became  apparent  that  Lee's  army  had 
not  fallen  back,  but  was  posted  in  a  semicircle  to  which 
the  North  Anna  formed  a  tangent.  On  the  morning  o< 
the  asth  this  position  was  reconnoitred,  and  found  to  be 
more  formidable  than  that  of  Spottsylvania.  Moreover,  it 
divided  the  two  halves  of  the  Union  army  that  had  crossed 
above  and  below. 

Grant  gave  up  the  game  as  drawn  and  planned  a  new  move. 
This  had  as  iu  objects,  first,  the  seizure  of  a  point  of  passage 


or  MILCS 

^    ^    <    < 


WILDERNESS 


639 


on  the  PamuAkey;  secondly,  the  deployment  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  and  of  a  contingent  expected  from  the  Army  of 
the  James,  and  thirdly,  the  prevention  of  Lee's  further  retire- 
ment, which  was  not  desired  by  the  Union  commanders,  owing 
to  the  proximity  of  the  Richmond  defences  and  the  consequent 
want  of  room  to  manoeuvre.  On  the  37th  Sheridan's  cavalry 
and  a  light  division  of  infantry  passed  the  Pamunkey  at  Hanover 
Town,  and  the  two  divided  wings  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
were  withdrawn  over  the  North  Anna  without  mishap — thanks 
to  exactitude  in  arrangement  and  punctuality  in  execution. 
On  the  28th  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  had  arrived  near  Hanover 
Town,  while  at  Hawes's  Shop,  on  the  road  to  Richmond,  Sheridan 


and  anvn  battle  was  again  taken  up,  the  "  anvil "  being  Smith's 
XVIII.  corps,  which  had  come  up  from  the  James  river  to  White 
House  on  the  30th;  but  once  more  the  lure  failed  because  it 
was  not  made  sufficiently  tempting. 

The  hst  episode  of  the  campaign  centred  on  Cold  Harbor, 
a  village  dose  to  the  Chlckahominy,  which  Sheridan's  cavalry 
seized,  on  its  own  initiative,  on  the  51st.  Here,  contrary  to 
the  expectation  of  the  Union  staff,  a  considerable  force  of 
Confederate  infantry— new  arrivals  from  the  James — ^was  met, 
and  in  the  hope  of  bringing  on  a  battle  before  either  side  had  time 
to  entrench.  Grant  and  Meade  ordered  Sheridan  to  hold  the 
village  at  all  costs,  and  directed  Wright's  (VI.)  corps  from  the 

TOTOPOTOMOY 
AND  COLD  HARBOR. 

Vv        positions  May  26 


Fraa  Ttm  WiUtrmns  uad  CM  Uarbtr,  hf  ^nusuan  fd  Hugh  Recs,  LUtad. 


had  a  severe  engagement  with  the  enemy's  cavalry  Lee  was 
now  approaching  from  Hanover  Junction  via  Ashland,  and 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  swung  tound  somewhat  to  the  right 
so  as  to  face  in  the  presumed  direction  of  the  impending  attack. 
The  Confederate  general,  however,  instead  of  attacking,  swerved 
south,  and  planted  himself  behind  the  Totopoiomoy.  Here 
he  was  discovered,  entrenched  aa  always,  on  the  2Qth,  and 
skirmishing  all  along  the  line,  varied  at  limes  by  more  severe 
fighting,  occupied  that  day  and  the  ^oth.  On  the  morning  of 
the  31st  the  Union  army  was  arranged  from  right  to  left  in  the 
Older  VI.,  H.,  IX.  and  V  corps,  Sheridan  having  meantime 
drawn  off  to  the  left  rear  of  the  infantry. 
Now,  for  t^e  last  lime  in  the  oampaigni  the  idea  of  a  haouaer 


extreme  right  wing,  and  Smith's  (XVIII )  from  Old  Church» 
to  march  thither  with  all  possible  speed,  Wright  in  the  night  of 
the  31st  of  May  and  Smith  on  the  morning  of  the  isl  of  June. 
Lee  had  actually  ordered  his  corps  commanders  to  attack,  but 
was  too  ill  to  enforce  his  wishes,  and  in  the  evening  Wnghi 
and  Smith  themselves  astaulled  the  Confederate  front  opposite 
Cold  Harbor.  The  assault,  though  delivered  by  tired  men,  was 
successful.  The  enemy's  first  or  skirmish  line  was  everywhere 
stormed,  and  parts  of  the  VI.  corps  even  penetrated  the  mai» 
Une.  Nearly  800  prisoners  were  taken,  and  Grant  at  Once  pre« 
pared  to  renew  the  attack,  as  at  Spottsylvania,  with  larner 
forces,  bringing  Hancock  over  from  the  right  of  the  b'he  on  the 
night  of  the.  lat*  and  osdering  Hancock,  Wright  and  SniUi  lA 


640 


WILDMAN— WILFRID 


assault  on  the  next  morning.  But  Lee  had  by  now  moved  more 
forces  down,  and  his  line  extended  from  the  Totopotomoy  to 
the  Chickahominy.  Hancock's  corps,  very  greatly  fatigued 
by  its  night  march,  did  not  form  up  until  after  midday,  and 
meanwhile  Smith,  whose  corps,  originally  but  to,ooo  strong, 
had  been  severely  tried  by  its  hard  marching  and  fighting  on  the 
xst,  refused  to  consider  the  idea  of  renewing  the  attack.  The 
passive  resistance  thus  encountered  dominated  Grant's  fighting 
instinct  for  a  moment.  But  after  reconsidering  the  problem  he 
again  ordered  the  attack  to  be  made  by  Wright,  Smith  and 
Hancock  at  5  p.m.  A  last  modification  was  made  when,  during 
the  afternoon,  Lee's  far  distant  left  wing  attacked  Bumside 
and  Warren.  This,  showing  that  Lee  had  still  a  considerable 
force  to  the  northward,  and  being,  not  very  inaccnrately,  read 
to  mean  that  the  6  m.  of  Confederate  entrenchments  were  equally 
— t.e.  equally  thinly — guarded  at  aU  points,  led  to  the  order  being 
given  to  all  five  Union  corps  to  attack  at  4*30  a.m.  on  the  3rd 
of  June. 

The  resolution  to  make  this  plain,  unvarnished  frontal  assault 
on  entrenchments  has  been  as  severely  criticized  as  any  action 
of  any  cornmander  in  the  Civil  War,  and  Grant  himself  subse- 
quently expressed  his  regret  at  having  formed  it.  But  such 
criticisms  derive  all  their  force  from  the  event,  not  from  the 
conditions  In  which,  beforehand,  the  resolution  was  made.  The 
tisks  of  failure  were  deliberately  accepted,  and  the  battle — if  it 
can  be  called  a  battle — was  fought  as  ordered.  The  assault 
was  made  at  the  time  arranged  and  was  repulsed  at  all  points, 
with  a  loss  to  the  assailants  of  about  8000  men:  Thereafter  the 
two  armies  lay  for  ten  days  less  than  a  hundred  yards  apart. 
There  was  more  or  less  severe  fighting  at  times,  and  an  almost 
ceaseless  bickering  of  skirmishers.  Owing  to  Grant's  refusal 
to  sue  for  permission  to  remove  his  dead  and  wounded  in  the 
terms  demanded,  Lee  turned  back  the  Federal  ambulance  parties, 
and  many  wounded  were  left  to  die  between  the  lines.  It  was 
only  on  the  7th  that  Grant  pocketed  his  feelings  and  the  dead 
were  buried. 

'  This  is  one  of  the  many  incidents  of  Cold  Harbor  that 
must  always  rouse  painful  memories— thou^  to  blame  Lee  or 
Grant  supposes  that  these  great  generals  were  infinitely  more 
inhuman  here  than  at  any  other  occasion  in  their  lives,  and  takes 
no  account  of  the  consequences  of  admitting  a  defeat  at  this 
critical  moment,  when  the  causes  for  which  the  Union  army 
and  people  contended  woce  about  to  be  put  to  the  hazard  of  a 
presidential  election: 

The  Federal  army  lost,  in  this  montb  of  almost  incessant 
campaigning,  about  50,000  men,  the  Confederates  about  33,000. 
Tliough  the  aggregate  of  the  Umon  losses  awed  both  contem- 
poraries and  historians  of  a  later  generation,  proportionately 
the  losses  of  the  South  were  heavier  (46%  of  the  original  strength 
as  compared  with  41  %  on  the  Union  side),  and  whereas  within 
a  few  weeks  Grant  was  able  to  replace  nearly  every  man  he  had 
lost  by  a  new  recruit,  the  Confederate  government  was  almost 
at  the  end  of  its  resources. 

See  A.  A.  Humphreys,  TTu  CamtetM  of  Vininia,  1864-65  (New 
York.  1883):  MiUiary  History  Society  of  Mas8achu«?tt«,  The 
Wilderness  Campaign;  Official  Records  of  the  RebeUum,KT\a\  numbers 
67. 68  and  C9;  and  C.  F.  Atkinson,  The  Wilderness  and  Cold  Harbor 
(London.  1908).  (C.  F.  A.) 

WILDMAN,  SIR  JOHN  {c.  1631-1693),  English  agitator,  was 
educated  at  the  university  of  Cambridge,  and  during  the  Civil 
War  served  for  a  short  time  under  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  He 
became  prominent,  however,  not  as  a  soldier  but  as  an  agitator, 
being  in  1647  one  of  the  leaders  of  that  section  of  the  army 
which  objected  to  all  compromise  with  the  king.  In  a  pamphlet. 
Putney  Pfojetts^  he  attacked  Cromwell;  he  was  responsible 
for  The  Case  of  the  Army  staled^  and  he  put  the  views  of  his  associ- 
ates before  the  coundl  of  the  army  at  a  meeting  in  Putney  church 
in  October  1 647.  The  authorities  looked  upon  him  w  it  h  su^icion , 
and  in  January  1648  he  and  John  Lilburne  were  imprisoned, 
preparations,  says  Clarendon,  being  made  *'for  his  trial  and 
towards  hb  execution."  However,  he  was  rrieased  in  the 
MlowiBg  August,  and  for  a  time  he  was  asndated  with  the 


party  known  as  the  levellers,  but  he  quickly  severed  Ut 
connexion  with  them  and  became  an  officer  in  the  army.  He 
was  a  large  buyer  of  the  land  forfeited  by  the  royalists,  and  in 
1654  he  was  sent  to  the  House  of  Commons  as  member  for 
Scarborough.  In  the  following  year  he  was  arrested  for  con- 
spiring against  Cromwell,  and  after  his  release  four  months 
later  he  resumed  the  career  of  plotting,  intriguing  alike  with 
royalists  and  republicans  for  the  overthrow  of  the  existing 
regime.  In  1659  he  helped  to  seize  Windsor  castle  for  the  Long 
Parliament,  and  then  in  November  1661  he  was  again  a  prisoner 
on  some  suspicion  of  participating  in  republican  plots.  For 
six  years  he  was  a  captive,  only  regaining  his  freedom  after 
the  fall  of  Clarendon  in  October  1667. 

In  or  before  1681  Wildman  became  prominent  among  those 
who  were  discontented  with  the  rule  of  Charles  II.,  being 
especially  intimate  with  Algernon  Sydney.  He  was  undoubtedly 
concerned  in  the  Rye  House  Plot,  and  under  James  II.  he 
was  active  in  the  interests  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  but 
owing  to  some  disagreements,  or  perhaps  to  his  cowardice,  he 
took  no  part  in  the  rising  of  1685.  He  found  It  advisable, 
however,  to  escape  to  Holland,  and  returned  to  England  with 
the  army  of  William  of  Orange  in  1688.  In  1689  he  was  a 
member  of  the  convention  parliament. 

Wildman  was  postmaster  -  general  from  April  1689  to 
February  1691,  when  some  ugly  nmaours  about  his  con- 
duct brought  about  his  dismi^al.  Nevertheless,^  he  was 
knighted  by  William  III.  in  1692,  and  he  died  on  the  and 
of  June  1693.  Sir  John,  who  was  the  author  of  many  political 
pamphlets,  left  an  only  son,  John,  who  died  childless  in 
1 7 10. 

WILES.  IRVING  RAMSAY  (i86z-  ),  American  artist,  was 
bom  at  Utica,  New  York,  on  the  8th  of  April  1861.  He  studied 
under  his  father,  the  landscape  painter,  Lemuel  Maynard  Wiles 
(1826-1905),  in  the  Art  Students*  League,  New  York,  and  under 
Carolus  Duran,  at  Paris.  His  earlier  work  was  as  an  illustrator 
for  American  magazines,  and  later  he  devoted  himself  with  great, 
success  to  portraiture.  He  became  a  full  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  (r897)  and  a  member  of  the  American  Water- 
Color  Society 

WILFRID  (c.  634-709),  English  archbishop,  was  bom  of  good* 
parentage  in  Northumbria,  c.  634.  When  serving  in  King  Oswio's- 
court,  he  attracted  the  notice  of  the  queen,  Eanfled,  who,  foster> 
ing  his  inclination  for  a  religious  life,  placed  )iim  under  the  care 
of  an  old  noble,  Cudda,  now  a  monk  at  Lindisfarae.  Later  on 
Eanfled  enabled  him  to  visit  Rome  in  the  company  of  Benedict 
Biscop.  At  Lyons  Wilfrid's  pleasing  features  and  quick  intelli- 
gence made  Anncmund,  the  archbishop,  desire  to  adopt  him  and! 
marry  him  to  his  niece.  Resisting  his  offers,  the  youth  went  on 
to  Rome,  received  the  papal  benediction,  and  then,  in  accordance 
with  his  promise,  returned  to  Lyons,  where  he  stayed  for  three 
years,  till  the  murder  of  his  patron,  whose  fate  the  executioners 
would  not  let  him  share.  On  his  return  home,  Oswio's  soit 
Alchfrid  gave  him  a  monastery  at  Ripon,  and,  before  long^ 
Agilbcrt,  bishop  of  the  Gewissae,  or  West  Saxons,  ordained  him 
priest 

He  was  probably  already  regarded  as  the  leading  exponent 
of  the  Roman  discipline  in  England  when  his  speech  at  the 
council  of  Whitby  determined  the  overthrow  of  the  Celtic 
party  (664).  Atx>ut  a  year  later  he  was  consecrated  to  the  see 
of  York,  not.  however,  in  England,  where  perhaps  he  could  not 
find  the  fitting  number  of  orthodox  prelates,  but  at  Compile, 
Agilbert  being  now  bishop  of  Paris.  On  his  return  jotnmey  he 
narrowly  escaped  the  pagan  wreckers  of  Sussex,  and  only 
reached  his  own  country  to  find  Ceadda  (St  Chad)  installed 
in  his  see. 

The  rest  of  his  life  Is  largely  a  record  of  wandering  and 
misfortune  For  three  years  (665-668)  he  ruled  his  mon- 
astery at  Ripon  in  peace,  though  acting  as  bishop  in  Merda  and 
Kent  during  vacancies  in  sees  there.  On  Archbishop  Theodore's 
arrival  (668)  he  was  restored  to  his  ace,  and  spent  in  it  nine  years 
of  ceaseless  activity,  especially  in  building  churches,  only  to  b» 
driven  out  through  the  anger  of  King  Ecgfrith's  quean  (677)* 


WILHELMINA  (NETHERLANDS)— WILHELMSH A VEN       64 1 


Theodcnre  now  divided  Wilfrid's  large  diocese  into  three;  and 
the  aggrieved  prelate  went  to  lay  his  case  before  the  bishop  of 
Rome.  On  his«way  a  west  wind  drove  him  to  Friesland,  where 
he  evangelized  the  natives  and  prepared  the  way  for  WilUbrord 
(q.v.).  Late  in  life  he  ordained  Suidbert  bishop  of  the  Frisians. 
A  synod  held  at  Rome  under  Agalho  (6S0)  ordained  his  restitu- 
tion; but  even  this  decision  could  not  prevent  his  being  cast  into 
prison  on  his  return  home.  When  released  he  wandered  first  to 
Mercia,  then  to  Wessex  and  finally  to  Sussex.  Here  he  rescued 
the  pagan  folk  from  an  impending  famine,  sent  preachers  to  the 
Isle  of  Wight  and  founded  a  monastery  at  Selsey.  After  Ecgfrith's 
death  (20th  May  685)  Wilfrid  was  restored  to  York  (much 
circumscribed),  and  Ripon  (686-687).  He  was  once  more  driven 
out  In  691-692,  and  spent  seven  years  in  Mercia.  A  great  council 
of  the  English  Church  held  in  Northumt>ria  excommunicated  him 
in  702.  He  again  appealed  to  Rome  in  person,  and  obtained 
another  decision  in  his  favour  (703-704).  Despite  the  intercession 
of  Brihwald,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Aldfrith  king  of  North 
umbria  refused  to  admit  the  aged  pretate  into  his  kingdom  till 
his  last  Illness  (703).  This  year  or  the  next  a  council  was  held 
near  the  River  Nidd,  the  papal  letters  were  read,  and,  despite  the 
opposition  of  the  bishops,  Wilfrid  once  more  received  the  abbeys 
of  Ripon  and  Hexham.  Not  k>ng  after  he  died  at  Oundle  in 
Northamptonshire  as  he  was  going  on  a  visit  to  Ceolred,  king  of 
Mercia  (709).  He  was  buried  at  Ripon,  whence,  according  to 
Eadmer,  his  bones  were  afterwards  removed  to  Canterbury. 

Wilfrid's  is  a  memorable  name  in  English  history,  not  only  because 
of  the  large  part  he  played  in  supplanting  the  Celtic  discipline  and 
in  establishing  a  precedent  of  appeal  to  papal  authority,  but  also  by 
reason  of  his  services  to  architecture  and  leamine.  At  York  he  re- 
newed Paulinus's  old  church,  roofing  it  with  lead  and  furnishing  it 
with  glass  windows;  at  Ripon  he  bunt  an  entirely  new  basilica  with 
columns  and  porches;  at  Hexham  in  honour  of  St  Andrew  he  reared  a 
still  nobler  church,  over  which  Eddius  grows  eloquent.  In  the  early 
days  of  his  bishopric  he  used  to  travel  about  his  diocese  attended  by 
a  little  troop  of  siulled  masons.  He  seems  to  have  also  reformed  the 
method  Of  conducting  the  divine  services  by  the  aid  of  his  skilled 
chanters,  iCdde  and  iEond,  and  to  have  established  or  renewed 
the  rule  of  St  Benedict  in  the  monasteries.  On  each  visit  to  Rome  it 
was  his  delight  to  collect  relics  for  his  native  land;  and  to  his 
favourite  basilica  at  Ripon  he  gave  a  bookcase  wrought  in  gold  and 
precious  stones,  besides  a  splendid  copy  of  the  Gospels. 

Wilfrid's  life  was  written  shortly  after  his  death  by  Eddius  at  the 
request  of  Acca,  his  successor  at  Hexham,  and  Tatbert,  abbot  ci 
Ripon — both  intimate  friends  of  the  great  bishop.  Other  lives  were 
written  by  Frithegodc  in  the  loth,  by  Folcard  m  the  nth,  and  by 
Eadmer  eariy  in  the  12th  century.  See  also  Bede's  Hist.  Ecd.  v.  19, 
iii.  25,  iv.  13,  &c.  All  the  lives  are  printed  in  J.  Raim's  Historians  of 
tkt  Church  of  York,  vol.  i.  "  Rolls  "  series. 

.WILHBUHNA  [Wilreuona  Helena  Paxtunb  Mabia 
o»  Oranoe-NassauJ  (1880-  ),  queen  of  the  Nether- 
lands, was  born  at  the  Hague  on  the  31st  of  August  1880. 
Her  father,  William  III.  (Wfllem  Paul  Alexander  Flrederik 
Lodewijk),  had  by  his  first  wife,  Sophia  Frederika  Mathilde  of 
Wflrttemberg,  three  sons,  all  of  whom  predeceased  him.  Ha,ving 
been  left  a  widower  on  the  3rd  of  June  1877,  he  married  on  the 
7th  of  January  1879  Adeiheid  Emma  Wilhehnina  TheresUi 
second  daughter  of  Prince  George  Victor  of  Waldeck-Pyrmont^ 
bom  on  the  3nd  of  August  1858,  and  Wiihelmina  was  the  only 
issue  of  that  union.  She  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  her  father's 
death,  which  took  place  on  the  23rd  of  November  1890,  but  until 
her  eighteenth  year,  when  she  was  "  inaugurated  "  at  Amsterdam 
on  the  6th  of  September  1898,  the  business  of  the  state  was 
carried  on  under  the  regenqr  of  the  queen-mother,  in  accordai^ce 
with  a  law  made  on  the  and  of  August  1884.  On  the  7th  of 
February  1901  Queen  Wiihelmina  manied  Henry  Wladimir 
Albert  Ernst,  duke  of  Mecklenburg-Sdiwerin  (bom  on  the  X9th 
of  April  X876).  To  the  great  joy  of  the  Dutch  people,  Queen 
WUhelmina,  on  the  30th  of  April  1909,  gave  trirth  to  an  heir 
to  the  throne,  the  Princes^  Juliana  (Jidiana  Louise  Emma 
Haria  Wiihelmina).     (See  Holland:  History,) 

WILHEUflNA  (Sophia  Fxxiiebika  WnsEunNA)  (1709- 
1758),  margravine  of  Baiieoth,  was  bom  in  Berlin  on  the 
3rd  of  July  1709,  the  daughter  of  Frederick  William  I.,  crown 
prince,  afterwards  king  of  Prussia,  and  of  Sophia  Dorothea, 
dang^ler  of  the  elector  of  Hanover  (Geoise  I.  of  England). 


Wiihelmina  shared  the  unhappy  childhood  of  her  brother, 
Frederick  the  Great,  whose  friend  and  confidante  she  remained, 
with  the  exception  of  one  &hort  interval,  all  her  life.  Sophia 
Dorothea  wbhcd  to  marry  her  daughter  to  Frederick,  prince  of 
Wales,  but  on  the  English  side  there  was  no  disposition  to  make 
the  offer  except  in  exchange  for  substantial  concessions,  to  which 
the  king  of  Prussia  was  not  prepared  to  assent.  The  fruitless 
intrigues  carried  on  by  Sophia  Dorothea  to  bring  about  this 
match  played  a  large  part  in  Wilhelmina's  early  life.  After 
much  talk  of  other  matches,  which  came  to  nothing,  she  was 
eventually  married  in  1731  to  Frederick,  hereditary  prince  of 
Baireuth.  The  marriage,  only  accepted  by  Wiihelmina  under 
threats  from  her  father  and  with  a  view  to  lightening  her  brother's 
•disgrace,  proved  at  the  outset  a  happy  one,  though  it  was 
clouded  at  first  by  narrow  means,  and  afterwards  by  the 
infidelities  of  the  future  margrave  with  Dorothea  von  Marwitz, 
whose  ascendancy  at  the  court  of  Baireuth  was  bitterly  resented 
by  Frederick  the  Great,  and  caused  an  estrangement  of  some 
three  years  between  Wiihelmina  and  the  brother  she  so  devotedly 
loved.  When  Wilhelmina's  husband  came  into  his  inheritance  in 
T735  the  pair  set  about  making  Baireuth  a  miniature  Versailles. 
Their  building  operations  included  the  rebuilding  of  their 
summer  residence,  th^  Ermitage,  the  great  Baireuth  opera-house, 
the  building  of  a  theatre  and  the  reconstruction  of  the  Baireuth 
palace  and  of  the  new  opera  house.  They  also  founded  the 
university  of  Erlangen,  the  tmdertakings  bringing  the  court 
to  the  verge  of  bankruptcy. 

The  margravine  made  Baireuth  one  of  the  intellectual  centres 
of  Germany,  surrounding  herself  with  a  little  court  of  wits  and 
artists  which  gained  added  prestige  from  the  occasional  visits 
of  Voltaire  and  Frederick  the  Great.  With  the  outbreak  of  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  Wilhelmina's  interests  shifted  from  dilct-tant- 
ism  to  diplomacy.  She  acted  as  eyes  and  ears  for  her  brother  in 
southern  Germany  until  her  death  on  the  14th  of  October  1758, 
the  day  of  Frederick's  defeat  by  the  Austrians  at  Hochklrch. 
Her  only  daughter  Frederica  had  contracted  in  1748  an  unhappy 
marriage  with  Charles  Eugene,  duke  of  Wtirttemberg. 

TKe  margravine's  memoirs,  liimotres  de  ma  v»e,  written  or  revised 
between  IJ48  and  her  death,  are  preserved  in  the  Royal  Library  of 
Berlin.  They  were  first  printed  m  two  forms  in  1810 — a  German 
translation  down  to  the  year  1 733  from  the  firm  of  Cotta  of  TQbingen : 
and  in  French  published  by  Viewes  of  Brunswick,  and  coming  oown 
to  1742.  There  have  been  several  subsequent  editions,  including  a 
German  one  published  at  Leipzig  in  1908.  An  English  translation 
was  published  in  Berlin  in  1904.  For  the  discussion  on  the  authen* 
ticity  of  these  entertaining,  though  not  very  trustworthy,  meraoics, 
see  G.  H.  Fertz,  Ohtr  die  Merkwirdigkeiten  der  Markgrafin  (1851). 
See  also  Arvddc  Barine,  Princesses  «l  grandes  dames  CParis,  1890); 
E.  E.  Cuttell,  WUhdmine\  Martraoine  of  Baireuth  (London,  a  vols., 
1^5);  and  R.  Fester,  Die  Bayreutker  Sckwester  Friedricks  des 
Grossen   (Berlin,    1902). 

WILHELMSHAVEN,  or  WiLHEUCSHAFEN,  a  town  of  Germany, 
and  the  chief  naval  station  and  war  harbour  of  the  empire  on  the 
North  Sea,  situated  on  the  north-west  shore  of  the  Jade  Busen, 
a  large  shallow  basin  formed  by  inundations  and  united  with 
the  sea  by  the  Jade,  a  channel  3  m.  long.  Pop.  (1885),  19,422; 
(1905),  26,012,  of  whom  8227  belonged  to  the  navy  or  army. 
The  ground  on  which  it  stands  (4  sq.  m.)  was  purchased  by 
Prussia  from  the  grand-duke  of  Oldenburg  in  1853,  when  the 
Prussian  navy  was  being  formed.  The  construction  of  the 
barbour  and  town  was  begun  in  1855,  and  the  former  was  open«l 
in  1869.  Though  reckoned  a  part  of  the  Pmssian  province  of 
Hanover  it  is  completely  surrounded  on  the  landward  side  by 
Oldenburg  territory.  The  town  is  laid  out  on  a  regular  plan 
and  ample  scale,  and  the  streets  are  wide  and  shaded  with  trees. 
The  main  thoroughfare  is  the  Roonstrasse,  which,  running  E. 
and  W.,  passes  the  market-square,  upon  which  stand  the  town 
hall  and  the  post  office.  There  are  two  Evangelical  and  two 
Roman  Catholic  churches,  a  gymnasium,  schools  for  warrant 
officers  and  engineers  and  other  naval  educational  institutions. 
The  original  harbour,  constructed  in  1855-1869,  consists  of  an 
inner  and  outer  basin.  To  the  south-east  of  the  inner  harbour 
a  large  new  harbour  has  been  more  recently  constructed  for 
war  vessels  in  commission.    This  so-called  new  harbour  (170 


642 


WILKES,  C— WILKES,  J. 


acres  in  area  and  26}  ft.  deep)  is  connected  by  means  of  a  lock 
(571  ft.  long)  with  the  new  harbour  entrance,  which  was  com- 
pleted in  1886.  On  the  north  it  is  connected  with  the  fitting-out 
basin  (5832  ft.  long,  446  ft.  wide),  which  again  is  connected  by  a 
lock  (i$8  ft.  long)  with  the  outer  basin  (617  ft.  long,  410  ft.  wide), 
and  so  with  the  old  harbour  entrance.  North  of  this  the  "  third 
entrance  "  has  been  recently  constructed,  with  two  enormous 
locks,  one  of  which  in  an  emergency  could  be  used  as  an  additional 
dock.  On  the  west  side  of  the  fitting-out  basin  lies  the  shipbuild- 
ing basin  (1237  ft.  long  by  742  ft.  wide),  with  three  dry-docks 
(of  which  two  are  each  453  ft.  long,  85  ft.  wide  and  more  than 
30  ft.  deep,  whilst  the  third  is  304  ft.  long),  and  also  with  two 
slips  of  the  largest  size.  Further  new  docks  (each  about  617  ft. 
by  97  ft.),  capable  of  containing  large  battle-ships,  were  com- 
pleted in  1906.  A  torpedo  harbour  lies  to  the  south-east  of  the 
new  harbour.  The  three  entrances  to  the  old  and  new  harbours 
are  sheltered  by  long  and  massive  moles;  and  the  whole  complex 
of  docks,  building  slips,  machine  shops,  &c.,  forms  the  govern- 
ment dockyard,  which  is  enclosed  by  a  lofty  wall  with  fourteen 
iron  gates.  The  establishment  is  defended  by  strong  fortifica- 
tions. The  commercial  harbour  lies  on  the  south  side  of  the  town 
at  the  east  end  of  the  Eras- Jade  canal.  The  industries  of  the  place 
are  almost  exclusively  connected  with  the  requirements  of  the 
dockyard,  and  embrace  machine  shops,  iron  foundries  and  boiler 
works.  Wilhelmsha  ven  is  visited  for  its  sea-bathing.  It  possesses 
depots  for  artillery  and  mines,  a  meteorological  observatory  and 
a  signalling  station.  A  battalion  of  marines  is  stationed  here. 
Since  1900  the  development  of  the  naval  establishment  and  of  the 
town  has  been  exceptionally  rapid,  coincident  with  the  growth 
of  the  German  navy,  and  with, the  shifting  o(  political  and  naval 
activity  from  the  Baltic  to  the  North  Sea. 

See  Eberhard,  FQhrer  durch  WUhdmshaoen  itnd  seime  Umgebung 
(Wilhelmsha ven,  1906) ;  L.  v.  Krohn,  Vienigjahreuieinem  deutschen 
kritgshafen  (Wilhelmsha ven,  1905). 

WILKES,  CHARLES  (i 798-1877),  American  naval  officer  and 
explorer,  was  born  in  New  York  City  on  the  3rd  of  April  1798. 
He  entered  the  United  States  Navy  as  a  midshipman  in  181 8, 
and  became  a  lieutenant  in  1826.  In  1830  he  was  placed  in 
charge  of  the  division  of  instruments  and  charts,  and  in  1838 
was  appointed  to  command  an  exploring  and  surveying  expedi- 
tion in  the  Southern  Seas,  authorized  by  Congress  in  1836.  The 
expedition,  including  naturalists,  botanists,  a  mineralogist, 
taxidermists,  a  philologist,  &c.,  was  carried  by  the  sloops-of-war 
"  Vincennes  "  and  "  Peacock,"  the  brig  "  Porpoise,"  the  store- 
ship  "  Relief  "  and  two  tenders.  Leaving  Hampton  Roads  on 
the  i8(h  of  August  1838,  it  stopped  at  Madeira  and  Rio  de 
Janeiro;  visited  Tierra  del  Fuego,  Chile,  Peru,  the  Paumota 
group  of  the  Low  Archipdago,  the  Samoan  islands  and  New 
South  Wales;  from  Sydney  sailed  into  the  Antarctic  Ocean  in 
December  1839  and  reported  the  discovery  of  an  Antarctic 
continent  west  of  the  BaUeny  islands;^  visited  the  Fiji  and 
the  Hawaiian  islands  in  1840,  explored  the  west  'coast  of  the 
United  States,  including  the  Ccriumbia  river,  San  Frandsco  Bay 
and  the  Sacramento  river,  in  1841,  and  returned  by  w«y  of  the 
Philippine  blands,  the  Sulu  archipelago,  Borneo,  Singapore, 
Polynesia  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  reaching  New  York  on 
the  toth  of  Jime  1842.  He  was  court-martialled  on  his  return, 
but  was  acquitted  on  all  chai^ges  except  that  of  illegally  punbhing 
men  in  his  squadron.  For  a  short  time  he  was  attached  to  the 
Coast  Survey,  but  from  1844  to  1861  he  was  chiefly  engaged  in 
preparing  the  report  of  the  expedition.  Twenty-eight  volumes 
were  planned  but  only  nineteen  were  published.  Of  these  Wilkes 
wrote  the  Nanatite  (6  vols.,  1845;  5  vols.,  1850)  and  the  volumes 
Hydrography  and  litteordogy  (1851).  The  Narrativi  contains 
much  interesting  material  concerning  the  manners  and  customs 

*  This  discovery  was  made  on  the  19th  of  January  1840,  one  day 
before  Dumont  d'Urville  sighted  Ad61ie  Land  about  400  m.  farther 
W.  That  Wilkes  discovered  an  Antarctic  continent  was  long  doubted, 
and  one  of  the  charges  against  him  when  he  was  court-martialled 
was  that  he  had  fabricated  this  discovery,  but  the  expedtlion  of  Sir 
Ernest  Shacklcton  in  1908-1909  corroborated  Wilkes.  That  part 
of  the  Antarctic  continent  known  as  Wilkes  Land  was  named  in  his 


and  political  and  economic  conditions  in  many  places  then  little 
known.  Other  valuable  contributions  were  the  three  reports  of 
James  D.  Dana  on  Zoophytes  (1846),  Geology  (1849)  SLnd  Crustacea 
(2  vols.,  1852-1854).  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  Wilkes 
(who  had  reached  the  rank  of  commander  in  1843  and  that  of 
captain  in  1855)  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  "  San 
Jacinto  "  to  search  for  the  Confederate  commerce  destroyer, 
"  Sumter."  On  the  8lh  of  November  1861  he  stopped  the 
British  mail  packet  "  Trent,"  and  took  ofif  the  Confederate 
commissioners  to  Europe,  James  M.  Mason  and  John  SlidelL 
Though  he  was  officially  thanked  by  Congress,  his  action  was 
later  disavowed  by  President  Lmcdn.  His  next  service  was  in 
the  James  river  flotilla,  but  after  reaching  the  rank  of  commodore, 
on  the  1 6th  of  July  1862,  he  was  assigned  to  duty  against  blockade 
runners  in  the  West  Indies.  He  was  disrated  (becoming  a  captain 
on  the  retired  list)  m  November  1862  on  the  ground  that  he  had 
been  too  old  to  receive  the  rank  of  commodore  under  the  act 
then  governing  promotions;  and  engaged  in  a  long  controversy 
with  Gideon  Welles,  secretary  of  the  navy.  This  controversy 
ended  in  his  being  court-martialled  in  1864  and  being  found 
guilty  on  several  counts  and  sentenced  to  public  reprimand  and 
suspension  for  three  years.  But  on  the  25th  of  July  x866  be  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  on  the  retired  list.  He 
died  at  Washington  on  the  8th  of  February  1877. 

In  addition  to  many  shorter  articles,  reports,  &c..  he  published 
Western  America,  including  Calijornia  and  Oregon  (1849)  and  Theory 
of  the  Winds  (1856). 

WILKES.  JOHN  (1727-1797).  English  poliUctan,  descended 
from  a  family  long  connected  with  Letghton-Btixsard  in  Bedford- 
shire, was  bom  at  Qerkenwell,  London,  on  the  17th  of  October 
1727,  being  the  second  son  of  Israel  Wilkes,  a  rich  distiller, 
and  the  owner,  through  his  wife  Sarah,  daughter  of  John  Beaton 
of  Hoxton,  of  considerable  house  property  in  its  north-eastern 
suburbs.  After  some  training  under  private  tuition  John  Wilkes 
was  sent  to  the  university  of  Leyden,  matriculating  there  on 
the  8th  of  September  1744.  Several  young  men  of  talent  from 
Scotland  and  England  were  studying  in  thb  Dutch  university 
at  that  period,  and  a  lively  picture  of  their  life,  in  which  Wilkes 
displays  the  gaiety  of  temper  which  remained  faithful  to  him  all 
his  days,  is  presented  to  us  by  Alexander  Cadyle  {Aut^nog.j 
i860,  ed.  J.  H.  Burton).  With  thu  training  he  acquired  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  classical  literature,  and  he  enlarged  his 
mind  by  travelling  through  Holland,  Flanders  and  part  of 
Germany.  At  the  ck>se  of  1748  he  returned  to  his  native  land, 
and  in  a  few  months  (October  1749)  was  drawn  by  his  relalJona 
into  marrying  iNIary,  sole  daughter  and  heiress  of  John  Metd, 
citizen  and  grocer  of  London,  who  was  ten  years  his  senior.  Tho 
ill-assorted  pair — Ux  she  was  grave  and  staid,  while  he  rioted  in 
exuberant  spirits  and  love  of  society — ^lived  together  at  Ayleft- 
buiy  for  some  months,  when,  to  make  matters  worse,  they 
returned  to  town  to  dwell  with  the  wife's  mother.  One  child,  a 
daughter,  was  bom  to  them  (5th  of  August  j  7  50).  and  then  Wilkes 
left  his  wife  and  removed  to  Westminster,  where  he  kept  open 
bouse  for  many  young  men  about  town  possessing  uwe  wit  than 
morals.  In  1 754  he  contested  the  constituency  of  Berwick'upon* 
Tweed,  but  failed  to  gain  the  seat. 

Wilkes  was  now  a  well*known  figure  in  the  life  of  the  West  end, 
and  among  his  associates  were  Thomas  Potter,  the  son  of  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Sir  Francis  Dashwood,  afterwards 
Lord  le  Despencer,  and  Lord  Sandwich,  the  last  of  whom  in 
after  years  showed  great  animosity  towards  his  old  companion  in 
revelry.  In  July  1757,  by  a  triangular  arrangement  in  which 
Potter  and  the  first  William  Pitt  pkiyed  the  other  parU»  Wilkes 
was  elected  for  Aylesbury,  and  for  this  constituency  he  wtt  at&in 
returned  at  the  general  dection  in  March  1761.  Pitt  was  his 
leader  in  politics;  but  to  Pitt  he  applied  in  vain  for  a  seat  «t  -the 
Board  of  Trade,  nor  was  he  successful  in  his  application  fof 
the  post  of  ambassador  at  Constantinople,  or  for  thatoffliMnior 
of  (Quebec.  As  he  attributed  tlwee  failures  to  the  opposition 
of  Lord  Bute,  he  estaMsshed  «  paper  called  the  North  Briton 
(June  1762),  in  which  he  from  the  first  attacked  the  Scotch 
prime  minister  with  wfoefdinf  bittemei^,  nail  0cew  bolder  ju  it 


WILKES-BARRE 


6+3 


proceeded  in  its  ootme.  OneofitsaitideeridtenledLoidTalboti 
tbe  steward  <A  the  royal  household,  and  a  duel  was  the  result. 
When  Bute  resigned,  the  issue  of  the  journal  was  suspended; 
but,  when  the  royal  speech  framed  by  George  Grenville's  ministry 
showed  that  the  change  was  one  of  men  only,  not  of  measures, 
a  supplonoitary  number,  No.  45,  was  published,  23rd  of  April 
1763,  containing  a  caustic  criticism  of  the  king's  message  to  his 
parliament.  Lord  Halifax,  the  leading  secretary  of  state,  issued 
a  gmeral  warrant  "to  search  for  authors,  printers  and  pub* 
Ushers,"  and  to  bring  them  before  him  for  examination.  Charles 
Churchill,  the  poet  and  a  coadjutor  in  this  newspaper  enterprise, 
escaped  through  the  good  offices  of  Wilkes;  but  the  chief  offender 
was  arrested  and  thrown  into  the  Tower  Csoth  of  April  1763).  A 
week  later,  however,  he  was  released  by  order  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas  on  the  ground  that  his  privilege  as  a  member 
of  parliament  afforded  him  immunity  from  arrest.  General 
warrants  were  afterwards  declared  illegal,  and  Halifax  himsdf, 
after  a  series  of  discreditable  shifts,  was  cast  in  heavy  sums,  on 
actions  brought  against  him  by  tbe  persons  whom  he  had  injured 
~-the  total  expenses  incurred  by  the  ministry  in  these  lawless 
proceedings  amounting  to  at  least  £100,000.  So  far  Wilkes  had 
triumphed  over  his  enemies,  but  he  gave  them  cause  for  rejoicing 
by  an  indiscreet  reprint  of  the  obnoxious  No.  45,  and  by  striking 
off  at  his  private  press  thirteen  copies  of  an  obscene  Essay  on 
fVomartt  written  by  his  friend  Potter,  in  parody  of  Pope's  Essay 
on  Man,  one  of  which  got  into  the  hands  of  Lord  Sandwich. 
Immediately  on  the  meeting  of  the  House  of  Commons  (15th 
of  November  1763)  proceedings  were  taken  against  him.  Lord 
North  moved  that  No.  45  was  **  a  false,  scandalous  and  seditious 
Kbel,*'  and  the  paper  was  publicly  burnt  in  Cheapside  on  the  4th 
of  December.  The  Essay  on  Woman  was  on  the  same  day  brough  t 
before  the  Upper  House  by  Lord  Sandwich,  and,  on  account  of 
the  improper  use  which  had  been  made  of  Bishop  Warburton's 
name  as  the  author  of  some  coarse  notes,  the  woric  was  voted  a 
breach  of  privilege,  and  Wilkes  was  ordered  to  be  prosecuted  in 
the  Court  of  King's  Bench  for  printing  and  publishing  an  impious 
fibel.  He  was  expelled  from  the  House  of  Commons  on  tht 
X9th  of  January  1764;  and  on  the  21st  of  February  he  was  found 
guilty  in  the  Eling's  Bench  of  reprinting  No.  45  and  of  printing 
and  publishing  the  Essay  on  Woman.  Wilkes  was  on  these  dates 
absent  from  England.  Some  strong  expressions  ai^lied  to  him 
by  Samuel  Martin,  an  ex-secretaiy  of  the  treasury;  had  provoked 
a  duel  (r6th  of  November  1763),  in  which  Wilkes  was  severely 
wounded  in  the  stomach.  He  withdrew  to  Paris,  and.  as  he  did 
not  return  to  England  to  receive  his  sentence  in  the  law  courts 
was  pronounced  an  outlaw. 

For  several  years  Wilkes  remained  abroad,  receiving  £1000  a 
year  from  the  leading  Whigs,  and  in  the  course  of  his  travels  he 
visited  many  parts  of  Italy.  In  February  1768  he  relumed  to 
London  and  sued  the  king  for  pardon,  but  in  vain.  His  next  step 
was  to  offer  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  representation  of  the 
city  of  London,  when  he  was  the  lowest  at  the  poll.  Undaunted 
by  this  defeat,  he  solicited  the  freeholders  of  Middlesex  to  return 
him  as  their  champion,  and  they  placed  him  at  the  head  of  all 
competitors  (28th  of  March).  He  appeared  before  the  King's 
Bench,  and  on  a  technical  point  procured  a  reversal  of  his  out- 
lawry; but  the  original  verdict  was  maintained,  and  he  was 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  twenty-two  months  as  well  as  to 
a  fine  of  £1000,  and  he  was  further  ordered  to  produce  securities 
for  good  behaviour  for  seven  years  after  his  liberation.  His 
conduct  was  brought  before  the  House  of  Commons,  with  the 
result  that  he  was  expelled  from  the  Houseon  the  3rd  of  February 
1769,  and  with  this  proceeding  there  began  a  series  of  contests 
between  the  ministry  and  the  electors  of  Middlesex  without 
parallel  in  English  history.  They  promptly  re-elected  him 
(i6lh  of  Febniary),  only  to  find  him  pronounced  incapable  of 
sitting  and  his  election  void.  Again  they  returned  him  (i6lh  of 
March)  and  again  he  was  rejected.  A  fourth  election  then 
followed  (13th  of  April),  when  Colonel  Henry  Lawes  Luttrell, 
with  all  the  influence  of  the  court  and  the  Fox  family  in  his 
favour,  obtained  296  votes,  while  1143  were  given  for  Wilkes, 
but  two  days  later  the  House  declared  that  Luttrell  had  been 


duly  dected.  Through  these  audacious  proceedings  a  storm  of 
fury  broke  out  throughout  the  country.  In  the  cause  of  "  Wilkes 
aad  liberty  "  high  and  low  enlisted  themselves.  His  prison  cell 
was  thronged  daily  by  the  chief  of  the  Whigs,  and  large  sums 
of  money  were  subscribed  for  his  support.  So  great  was  the 
popular  sympathy  in  his  favour,  that  a  keen  judge  of  contem- 
porary p<^tics  declared  that,  had  George  IIL  possessed  a  bad 
and  Wilkes  a  good  character,  the  king  would  have  been  an 
outcast  from  his  dominions.  At  the  height  of  the  combat  in 
January  1769  Wilkes  was  elected  an  alderman  for  the  dty  of 
London;  in  1 771  he  served  as  sheriff  for  London  and  Middlesex, 
and  as  alderman  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  struggle  between 
the  corporati<m  and  the  House  of  Commons  by  which  freedom 
of  pubUcatton  of  the  parliamentary  debates  was  obtained. 
His  admirers  endeavoured  in  1772  to  procure  his  election  as  lord 
mayor  of  London,  but  he  was  set  aade  by  the  aldermen,  some 
of  whom  were  allied  with  the  ministry  of  Lord  North,  while  others, 
as  piiver  and  Townshend,  leant  to  the  Liberalism  of  Lord 
Shelburne.  In  1774,  however,  he  obtained  that  dignity,  and 
he  retained  his  seat  for  Middlesex  frorh  the  dissolution  in  1774 
until  1790.  He  moved  in  1776  for  leave  to  bring  in  a  bill  "  for 
a  just  and  equal  representation  of  the  people  of  England  in 
pailiament";  but  attempts  at  parliamentary  reform  were 
premature  by  at  least  half  a  century.  After  several  failures 
better  fortune  attended  his  efforts  in  another  direction,  for  on 
the  3rd  of  May  1782  all  the  declarations  and  orders  against  him 
for  his  electicms  in  Middlesex  were  ordered  to  be  expunged  from 
the  journals  of  the  House.  In  1779  Wilkes  was  dected  chamber- 
lain of  the  city  by  a  large  majority,  and  the  office  became  his 
freehdd  for  life.  He  died  at  his  house  in  Grosvenor  Square, 
London,  on  .the  26th  of  December  1797.  His  daughter  Mary, 
to  whom  he  was  tenderly  attached,  died  on  the  12th  of  March 
r8o2. 

Wilkes  printed  editions  of  Catullus  (i  788)  and  Theophrestus  ( 1 790), 
and  at  the  time  of  his  death  had  made  considerable  progress  «ath  a 
translation  of  Anacreon.  His  conversation  was  01  ten  sullied  by 
obscenity  and  proUnit]^;  but  he  knew  how  to  suit  his  conversation 
to  his  company,  and  his  well-known  assertion  that,  in  spite  of  his 
squint  and  ugly  as  he  was,  with  the  start  of  a  ouarter  of  an  hour  he 
could  get  the  fcictter  of  any  man,  however  good-looking,  in  the  graces 
of  any  lady,  shows  his  confidence  in  his  powers  of  fascination.  The 
king  was  obliged  to  own  that  he  had  never  met  so  well-bred  a  lord 
mavor.  and  Dr  Johnson,  who  made  his  acquaintance  at  the  house  of 
Dilly,  the  bookseller  in  the  Poultry,  confessed  that  "  Jack  has  great 
variety  of  talk,  ^ack  is  a  scholar,  and  Jack  has  the  manners  of  a 
gentleman."  It  is  doubtful  how  far  he  himself  believed  in  the  justice 
of  the  principles  which  he  espoused.  To  George  ill.  he  remarked  of 
his  devoted  friend  and  legaf  adviser,  Serjeant  Glynn,  "  Ah,  sir!  h^ 
was  a  Wilktte,  which  I  never  was."  His  writings  were  marked  by 
great  power  of  sarcasm.  Two  collections  of  his  letters  were  published, 
one  of  Letters  to  kis  Daugkttr,  in  four  volumes  in  1804.  the  other 
Correspondence  with  kis  Friends,  in  which  are  introduced  Memoirs  cf 
his  Life,  by  John  Almon,  in  five  volumes,  in  1805.  A  Life  by  Percy 
Fitzgerald  was  published  in  1888.  Essays  on  him  arc  in  Historical 
Gleanings,  by  J.  E.  Thorold  Rogers,  2nd  scr.  (1870);  Wilkes  and 
CobbeU,  by  J.  sL  Watson  (1870):  and  WUkes,  Sheridan  and  Fox,  by 
\V.  F.  Rae  (1874).  His  connexion  with  Bath  is  set  out  in  John 
Wilkes,  by  W.  Grecory  (1888),  and  that  with  the  city  of  London  ir 


Modem  History  of  ike  City,  by  Charles  Welch  (1896).  A  fragment  o) 
his  autobiography  (Br.  Museum  Addit.  MSS.  30865),  chiefly  de- 
scriptive of  his  exile  in  France  and  Italy,  was  printed  for  W.  F. 
Taylor  of  Harrow  in  1888.  (W.  P.  C.) 

WILKBS-BARRfi,  a  dty  and  the  county*seat  of  Lusemc 
county,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.,  on  the  north  branch  of  tht 
Susquehanna  river,  about  100  m.  N.N.W.  of  Philadelphia. 
Pop.  (r89o),  37.718;  C1900),  51,721,  of  whom  12,188  were  foreign- 
born,  including  2792  Germans,  2083  Welsh,  2034  Irish,  1578 
English  and  1000  Russian  Poles;  (1910  censl»),  67,105.  Area, 
4-8  sq.  m.  Wilkes-Barr£  is  served  by  the  Central  Railroad  of 
New  Jersey,  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the  Delaware,.  Lackawanna  & 
Western,  the  Delaware  &  Hudson,  the  New  York,  Susquehanna 
&  Western  and  the  Pennsylvania  railways,  and  by  three  inter- 
urban  electric  lines — the  Wilkes-Barr6  &  Hazleton,  connecting 
with  Hazleton,  about  20  m.  S.,  the  Wilkes-Barr€  &  Wyoming 
Valley,  and  the  Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Vallfcy,  connecting 
with  Scranton  about  17  m.  N.E.  On  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
river  (which  is  here  spanned  by  two  iron  bridges)  lies  Kingston. 


64+ 


WILKIE,  SIR  DAVID 


The  dty  is  attractively  situated  in  the  historic  Wyoming  Valley. 
The  prindpai  public  building  include  the  counly  court-house, 
the  post  office,  the  city  hall,  the  county  gaol  and  the  9th  Regiment 
Armory.  Among  the  dty  parks  are  Hollenback  (102  acres) 
and  Riverside  (19  acres)  parks,  the  River  Common  (35  acres) 
and  the  Frances  Slocum  Playgr6und.  In  the  dty  are  the  Harry 
Hillman  Academy  (non-sectarian),  a  secondary  school  for  boys; 
the  Malinckiodi  Convent,  the  Wilkes-Barri  Institute  (Presby- 
terian), a  school  for  girls;  St  Mary's  Academy  (Roman  Catholic), 
for  girls;  the  Osterhout  Free  Library  (44,000  vols.),  the  Library 
of  the  Law  and  Library  Association  (xo,ooo  vols.)  and  that  of 
the  Wyoming  Historical  and  Geologtcad  Society  (x8,ooo  vols.), 
which  was  founded  in  1858.  Wilkes-Barr6  is  situated  in  the  centre 
of  the  richest  anthradte  coal  region  in  the  United  States,  Luserne 
county  ranking  first  in  1908  in  the  productMMi  of  anthradle  in 
Pennsylvania;  and  the  value  <^  the  factory  products  increased 
from  $8,616,765  in  1900  to  $11,240,893  in  1905,  or  30*5  %. 
Among  important  manufactures  are  foundry  and  machine-shop 
products,  valued  at  $1,273,491  in  1905;  silk  and  silk  goods 
($1,054,863);  lace  curtains,  cotton  'goods,  wiiework,  &c.  The 
dty  is  governed  by  a  mayor  elected  for  three  years,  and  by  a 
legislative  body  composed  of  a  select  council  (one  member  from 
each  of  the  16  wards  elected  for  four  years)  and  of  a  common 
council  (one  member  from  each  ward,  elected  for  two  years). 

The  township  of  Wilkes-Barr6  was  one  of  five  townships 
the  free  grant  of  which,  in  December  1768,  by  the  Susque- 
hanna Land  Company  of  Connecticut  was  intendoi  to  encourage 
settlement  and  make  good  the  company's  claim  to  the 
Wyoming  Valley  (q.v.).  In  May  1769  more  than  100  settlers 
from  New  England,  in  command  of  Major  John  Durkee  (1728- 
1782),  arrived  at  this  place.  With  others  who  came  a  few  days 
later  they  erected  the  necessary  log  cabins  on  the  river  bank, 
near  the  present  Ross  Street,  and  in  June  began  to  enclose 
these  within  a  stockade,  known  as  Fort  Durkee.  During  the 
same  summer  Major  Durkee  gave  the  town  its  present  name  in 
honour  of  John  Wilkes  (17  27-1 797)  and  Colonel  Isaac  Barr6 
(17 26-1802),  both  stout  defenders  in  parliament  of  the  American 
colonists'  cause  before  and  during  the  War  of  Independence,  and 
in  the  following  year  the  town  plat  was  made.  In  September 
1769  the  "  First  Pennamite- Yankee  War,"  as  the  conflict 
between  Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania  for  the  possession  of  the 
valley  is  called,  broke  out.  The  Yankees  lost  Fort  Durkee  in 
November,  but  recovered  it  in  the  following  February.  The 
Pennamites  erected  Fort  Wyoming  on  the  river  bank  near  the 
present  Northam()ton  Street  in  January  1771,  but  the  Yankees 
took  it  from  them  in  the  following  August.  In  the  War  of 
Independence,  immediately  after  the  battle  of  Wyoming  (July  3, 
1778),  Wilkes-Barr6  was  burned  by  the  Indians  and  British 
Rangers;  and  again  in  July  1784,  during  the  "  Second  Pennamite- 
Yankee  War,"  twenty-three  of  the  twenty-six  buildings  ^wcre 
burned.  In  1786  the  Penn^lvania  legislature  sent  here  Colonel 
Uraothy  Pickering  (q.v.)  to  organize  Luzerne  county,  and  to 
effect  a  reconciliation  between  the  Connecticut  settlers  and  the 
government  of  Pennsylvania.  Colonel  John  Franklin  (1749- 
1831)  led  a  counter  movement,  and  was  imprisoned  on  a  charge 
of  treason  in  October  1787,  but  Franklin's  followers  reuliatcd 
by  kidnapping  Pickering  in  June  1788,  and  kept  him  in  the 
woods  for  nearly  three  weeks  in  a  vain  effort  to  make  him 
promise  to  intercede  for  Franklin's  pardon.  Wilkcs-Barri 
was  gradually  rebuilt  after  its  destruction  in  1784,  and  in  1806 
the  borough  was  erected,  though  it  was  not  separated  politically 
from  the  township  until  1818  (or  1819).  A  new  charter  was 
granted  to  the  borough  in  1855,  and  Wilkes-Barr£  wa&  chartered 
as  a  dty  in  1871. 

See  O.  J.  Harvey,  A  History cj  WUkes-Bani  (3  voU,  Wilkes-Barr6. 
1909-1910). 

WILKIE,  SIR  DAVID  (1 785-1841),  Scottish  painter,  was  bom 
on  the  iSth  of  November  1785,  the  son  of  the  parish  minister 
of  Cults  in  Fifeshire.  He  very  early  developed  an  extraordinary 
love  for  art.  In  1799,  ^^^^^  ^  ^^  attended  school  at  Pitlessie, 
Kettle  and  Cupar,  his  father  reluctantly  yielded  to  his  desire 
to  become  a  painter;  and  through  the  influence  of  the  earl  of 


Leven  Wilkie  was  admitted  to  the  Trustees*  Academy  in 
Edinburgh,  and  began  the  study  of  art  under  John  Graham, 
the  teacher  of  the  schooL  From  William  Allui  (afterwards 
Sir  William  Allan  and  president  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy) 
and  John  Burnet,  the  engraver  of  Wilkie'a  works,  we  have  aa 
interesting  account  of  his  early  studies,  of  his  indomitable 
perseverance  and  power  of  dose'  ^plication,  of  his  habit  of ' 
haunting  fairs  and  market-places,  and  transferring  to  his  sketch- 
book all  that  struck  him  as  characteristic  and  telling  in  figure  or 
inddent,  and  of  his  admiration  for  the  works  of  Carse  and  David 
Allan,  two  Scottish  painters  of  scenes  from  humble  life.  Among 
his  pictures  of  thb  period  are  mentioned  a  subject  from  Macbeth, 
"  Ceres  in  Search  of  Proserpine,"  and  "  Diana  and  Calisto," 
which  in  1803  gained  a  premium  of  ten  guineas  at  the  Trustees' 
Academy,  while  his  pencil  portraits  of  himself  and  his  mother, 
dated  that  year,  and  now  in  the  possession  of  the  duke  of 
Bucdeuch,  prove  that  he  had  already  attained  considerable 
certainty  of  touch  and  power  of  rendering  character.  A  scene 
from  Allan  Ramsay,  and  a  sketch  from  Macneill's  ballad  of 
Scotland's  Skaitk,  afterwards  developed  into  the  well-known 
"  Village  Politicians,"  were  the  first  subjects  in  which  his  true 
artistic  individuality  began  to  assert  itself. 

In  1804  Wilkie  returned  to  Cults,  established  himself  in  the 
manse,  and  began  his  first  important  subject-picture, "  Pitlessie 
Fair,"  which  includes  about  140  figures,  and  in  which  he  intro^ 
duced  portraits  of  his  neighbours  and  of  several  members  of 
his  family  circle.  In  addition  to  this  elaborate  figure-picc^ 
Wilkie  was  much  employed  at  the  time  upon  portraits,  both  at 
home  and  in  Kinghom,  St  Andrews  and  Aberdeen.  In  the 
spring  of  1805  he  left  Scotland  for  London,  carrying  with  him 
his  "  Bounty-Money,  or  the  Village  Recruit,"  which  he  soon 
disposed  of  for  £6,  and  began  to  study  in  the  schools  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  One  of  his  first  patrons  in  London  was  Slodart,  a 
pianoforte  maker,  a  distant  connexion  of  the  Wilkie  family, 
who  commissioned  his  portrait  and  other  works  and  introduced 
the  young  artist  to  the  dowager-countess  of  Mansfield.  This 
lady's  son  was  the  purchaser  of  the  "  Village  Politicians,^'  which 
attracted  great  attention  when  it  was  eidiibited  in  the  Royal 
Academy  of  1806,  where  it  was  followed  in  the  succeeding  year 
by  the  "  Blind  Fiddler,"  a  commission  from  the  painter's 
lifelong  friend  Sir  George  Beaumont.  Wilkie  now  turned  aside 
into  the  paths  of  historical  art,  and  painted  his  "  Alfred  in  the 
Neatherd's  Cottage,"  for  the  gallery  illustrative  of  English 
history  which  was  being  formed  by  Alexander  Davison.  After 
its  completion  he  returned  to  genre-painting,  produdng  the 
"  Card-Players  "  and  the  admirable  picture  of  the  "  Rent  Day," 
which  was  composed  during  recovery  from  a  fever  contracted 
in  1807  while  on  a  visit  to  his  native  village.  His  next  great 
work  was  the  "  Ale-House  Door,"  afterwards  entitled  the 
"  Village  Festival "  (now  in  the  National  Gallery),  which  was 
purchased  by  J  J.  Angcrstein  for  800  guineas.  It  was  followed 
in  1813  by  the  well-known  "  Blind  Man's  Buff,"  a  commission 
from  Uie  prince  regent,  to  which  a  companion  picture,  the 
"  Penny  Weddii^,"  was  added  in  1818. 

Meanwhile  Wilkie's  eminent  success  in  art  had  been  rewarded 
by  professional  honours.  In  November  1809  he  was  elected 
an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy,  when  he  had  hardly  at- 
tained the  age  prescribed  by  its  laws,  and  in  February  1811  he 
became  a  full  academician.  In  181 2  he  opened  an  exhibition 
of  his  collected  works  in  Pall  Mall,  but  the  experiment  was 
unsuccessful,  entailing  pecuniary  loss  upon  the  artist.  In  1814 
he  executed  the  "  Letter  of  Introduction,"  one  of  the  most 
delicatdy  finished  and  perfect  of  his  cabinet  pictures.  In  the 
same  year  he -made  his  first  visit  to  the  continent,  and  at  Paris 
enterol  upon  a  profitable  and  delighted  study  of  the  works  of 
art  collected  in  tJhe  Louvre.  Interesting  particulars  of  the  time 
are  preserved  in  his  own  matter-of-fact  diary,  and  in  the  more 
sprightly  and  flowing  pages  of  the  journal  of  Haydon,  his  fellow- 
traveller.  On  his  return  he  began  "  Distraining  for  Rent," 
one  of  the  most  popular  and  dramatic  of  his  works.  In  1816  he 
made  a  tour  through  Holland  and  Belgium  in  company  with 
Raimbach,.the  engraver  of  many  of  his  paintings.    The  "  Sir 


WILKINS,  SIR  C. 


6+5 


Vralter  Scott  and  his  Family/*  a  cabinet-daed  picture  witb  small 
full-length  jBgtires  in  the  dress  of  Scottish  peasants,  was  the 
result  of  a  visit  to  Abbotsford  in  1818.  **  Reading  a  Will,". a 
commission  from  the  king  of  Bavaria,  now  in  the  New  Pinakothck 
at  Munich,  was  completed  in  1820;  and  two  years  later  the 
great  picture  of  "  Chelsea  Pensioners  Reading  the  Gazette  of 
the  Battle  of  Waterloo,"  commissioned  by  the  duke  of  Wellington 
ia.  x8i6,  at  a  cost  of  1200  guineas,  was  exhibited  at  the  Royal- 
Academy. 

In  x8^2  Wilkie  visited  Edinburgh,  in  order  to  select  from 
the  royal  progress  of  George  IV.  a  fitting  subject  for  a  picture. 
Th^  "  Reception  of  the  King  at  the  Entrance  of  Holyrood 
Pahux  *'  was  the  incident  ultimately  chosen;  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  when  the  artist,  upon  the  death  of  Raeburn,  had  been 
appointed  royal  limner  for  Scotland,  be  received  sittings  from 
the  monarch,  and  began  to  work  diligently  upon  the  subject. 
But  several  years  elapsed  before  its  completion;  for,  like  all 
such  ceremonial  works,  it  proved  a  harassing  commission, 
uncongenial  to  the  painter  while  in  progress  and  unsatisfactory 
when  finished.  His  health  suffered  from  the  strain  to  which 
he  was  subjected,  and  h»  condition  was  aggravated  by  heavy 
domestic  trials  and  responsibilities.  In  1825  he  sought  relieif 
in  foreign  travel:  after  visiting  Paris,  he  passed  into  Italy, 
where,  at  Rome,  he  received  the  news  of  fresh  disasters  through 
the  failure  of  his  publishers.  A  residence  at  Tdplitx  and  Carlsbad 
was  tried  in  1826,  with  little  good  result,  and  then  Wilkie  re- 
turned to  Italy,  to  Venice  and  Florence.  The  summer  of  1827 
was  spent  in  Geneva,  where  he  bad  sufficiently  recovered  to 
paint  his  "  Princess  Dona  Washing  the  Pilgrims'  Feet,"  a  woric 
which,  like  several  small  pictures  executed  at  Rome,  was  strongly 
influenced  by  the  Italian  art  by  which  the  painter  had  been 
Surrounded.  In  October  he  passed  into  Spain,  whence  he 
returned  to  England  in  June  1828. 

It  is  impossible  to  over-estimate  the  influence  upon  Wilkie's 
art  of  these  three  years  of  fordgn  traveL  It  amounts  to  nothing 
short  of  a  complete  change  of  style.  Up  to  the  period  of  his 
leaving  England  he  bad  been  mainly  influenced  by  the  Dutch 
genre-painters,  whose  technique  he  had  carefully  studied,  whose 
works  he  frequently  kept  beside  him  in  his  studio  for  reference 
as  he  painted,  and  whose  method  he  applied  to  the  rendering 
of  those  scenes  of  English  and  Scottish  life  of  which  he  was  so 
dose  and  faithful  an  observer.  Teniers,  in  particular,  appears 
to  have  been  his  chief  master;  and  in  his  earlier  productions 
we  find  the  sharp,  precise,  spirited  touch,  the  rather  subdued 
colouring,  and  the  clear,  silvery  grey  tone  which  distinguish 
this  master;  while  in  his  subjects  of  a  ^ghtly  later  period — 
those, such  as  the  "  Chelsea  Pensioners,"  the*'  Highland  Whisky 
Still  •'  and  the  "  Rabbit  on  the  Wall,"  executed  in  what  Burnet 
styles  his  second  manner,  which,  however,  may  be  regarded 
as  only  the  development  and  maturity  of  his  first — ^he  begins 
to  unite  to  the  qualities  of  Teniers  that  greater  richness  and 
fulness  of  effect  which  are  characteristic  of  Ostadc.  But  now  he 
experienced  the  spell  of  the  Italian  masters,  and  of  Vdazques 
and  the  great  Spaniards. 

In  the  works  which  Wilkie  produced  in  his  final  period  he 
exchanged  the  detailed  handling,  the  delicate  finish  and  the 
reticent  hues  of  his  earlier  works  for  a  style  distinguished  by 
breadth  of  touch,  largeness  of  effect,  richness' of  tone  and  full 
force  of -melting  and  powerful  colour.  His  subjects,  too,  were 
no  longer  the  homely  things  of  the  genre-painter:  with  his 
broader  method  he  attempted  the  portrayal  of  scenes  from 
history,  suggested  for  the  most  part  by  the  associatioits  of  his 
foreign  travel.  His  change  of  style  and  change  of  subject  were 
severely  criticized  at  the  time;  to  some  extent  he  lost  his  hold 
upon  the  public,  who  regretted  the  familiar  subjects  and  the 
interest  and  pKithos  of  his  earlier  productions,  and  were  less 
ready  to  follow  him  into  the  historic  scenes  towards  which  this 
final  phase  of  his  art  sought  to  lead  them.  The  popular  verdict 
had  in  it  a  basis  of  truth:  Wilkie  was  indeed  greatest  as  a  genre- 
painter.  But  on  technical  grounds  his  change  of  style  was 
criticized  with  undue  severity.  WhOe  his  later  works  are 
admittedly  more  fkequently  faulty  in  form  and  draughtsmanship 


than  those  of  his  earlier  period,  some  of  them  at  least  (the 
"Bride's  Toilet,"  1837,  for  instance)  show  a  true  gain  and 
development  in  power  of  handling,  and  in  mastery  over  com- 
plex and  forcible  colour  harmonies.  Most  of  Wilkie's  foreign 
subjects— the  "  Piffcrari,"  "Princess  Doria,"  the  "Maid  of 
Saragossa,"  the  "Spanish  Podado,"  a  "Guerilla  Council  of 
War,"  the  "  Guerilla  Taking  Leave  of  his  Family  "  and  the 
"  Guerilla's  Return  to  his  Family  "—passed  into  the  English 
royal  collection;  but  the  dramatic  "Two  Spanish  Monks  of 
Toledo,"  also  entitled  the  "  Confessor  Confessing,"  became  the 
property  of  the  marquis  of  Lansdowne.  On  his  return  to 
England  Wilkie  completed  the  "  Reception  of  the  King  at  the 
Entrance  of  Hol3rrood  Palace," — 9.  curious  example  of  a  union 
of  his  earlier  and  later  styles,  a  "  mixture  "  which  was  very 
justly  pronounced  by  Haydon  to  be  "  like  oil  and  water."  His 
"  Preaching  of  John  Knox  before  the  Lords  of  the  Congrega- 
tion" had  also  been  begun  before  he  left  for  abroad;  but  it 
was  painted  throughout  in  the  later  style,  and  consequently 
presents  a  more  satisfactory  unity  and  harmony  of  treatment 
and  handling.  It  was  one  of  the  most  successful  pictures  of 
the  artist's  later  period. 

In  the  beginning  of  1830  Wilkie  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Sir  T.  Lawrence  as  painter  in  ordinary  to  the  king,  and  in  11836 
he  received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  The  main  figure-picttu-es 
which  occupied  him  until  the  end  were  "  Columbus  in  the 
Convent  at  La  Rabida"  (1835);  "Napoleon  and  Pius  VII. 
at  Fontainebleau  "  (1836);  "  Sir  David  Baird  Discovering  the 
Body  of  Tippoo  Sahib  "  (1838);  the  "  Empress  Josephine  and 
the  Fortunc-TcUer "  (1838);  and  "Queen  Victoria  Presiding 
at  ho'  First  Council "  (1838).  His  time  was  also  much  occupied 
with  portraiture,  many  of  his  works  of  this  class  being  royal 
commissions.  His  portraits  are  pictorial  and  excellent  in 
general  distribution,  but  the  faces  are  frequently  wanting  in 
drawing  and  character.  He  seldom  succeeded  in  showing  his 
sitters  at  their  best,  and  his  female  portraits,  in  particular, 
rarely  gave  satisfaction.  A  favourable  example  of  his  cabinet- 
sized  portraits  b  that  of  Sir  Robert  Liston;  his  likeness  of 
W.  Esdaile  is  an  admirable  three-quarter  length;  and  one  of 
his  finest  full-lengths  is  the  gallery  portrait  of  Lord  Kellie,  in 
the  town  hall  of  Cupar. 

In  the  autumn  of  1840  Wilkie  resolved  on  a  voyage  to  the 
East.  Passing  through  Holland  and  Germany;  he  reached 
Constantinople,  where,  while  detained  by  the  war  in  Syria,  he 
painted  a  portrait  of  the  young  sultan.  He  then  sailed  for 
Smyrna  and  travelled  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  remained  for  some 
five  busy  weeks.  The  last  work  of  all  upon  which  he  was  en- 
gaged was  a  portrait  of  Mehemet  Ali,  done  at  Alexandria.  On 
his  return  voyage  he  suffered  from  an  attack  of  illness  at  Malta, 
and  died  at  sea-  off  Gibraltar  on  the  morning  of  the  ist  of  June 
1841.  His  body  was  consigned  to  the  deep  in  the  Bay  of 
Gibraltar. 

An  elaborate  Life  of  Sir  David  Wilkie,  by  Allan  Cunningham. 
oontaininK  the  painter's  journals  and  his  obiservant  and  wefl-con- 
sidered  "  Critical  Remarks  on  Works  of  Art,"  was  published  in  1843. 
Redgrave's  Century  of  Painters  of  the  Engfish  School  and  Jonn 
Burnet's  Practical  Essays  on  the  Fine  Arts  may  also  be  referred  to  for 
a  critical  estimate  of  his  works.  A  list  of  the  exceptionally  numerous 
and  excellent  engravings  from  his  pictures  will  be  found  in  the  Art 
Union  Journal  for  January  1840.  Apart  from  his  skill  as  a  painter 
Wilkie  was  an  admirable  etcher.  The  best  of  bis  plates,  such  as  the 
"  Gentleman  at  his  Desk  "  (Laing,  VII.),  the  "  Pope  examinine  a 
Censer  "  (Uing,  VIIL),  and  the  "  Seat  of  Hands  "  (Laing.  IV.),  are 
worthy  to  rank  with  the  work  of  the  greatest  figure-etchers.  During 
his  lifetime  he  issued  a  portfolio  of  seven  plates,  and  in  1875  Dr  David 
Lainff  catalogued  and  published  the  complete  series  of  his  etchings 
and  dry-points,  supplymg  the  place  of  a  few  copper-plates  that  had 
been  lost  by  reproductions,  in  his  Etchings  of  Datnd  Wilkie  and 
Andrew  GMes.  (J.  M.  G.) 

WILKIN8,  SIR  CHARLES  (t749?-i836),  English  Orientalist, 
was  bom  at  Frome,  Somersetshire,  probably  in  1749,  and  in 
1770  he  went  to  India  as  a  witer  in  the  East  India  Company's 
service.  He  was  soon  attracted  to  the  study  of  Oriental  hmguages, 
particularly  Sanskrit,  and  did  an  important  work  towards 
facilitating  such  study  by  founding  a  printing  press  for  these' 
languages,  taking  a  large  personal  share  in  the  practical  work  of 


646 


WILKINS,  G,— WILKINSON,  J. 


prepanng-  the  type.  He  returned  to  EogUnd  in  1786,  but  con- 
tinued  his  study  of  Sanskrit,  and  he  afterwards  became  librarian 
to  the  East  India  Company,  and  examiner  at  Haiieybury  on  the 
establishment  of  the  college  there  in  1805.  Wilkins  was  knighted 
in  1833  in  recognition  of  his  services  to  Oriental  scholarship,  and 
he  died  in  London  in  1836.  He  was  a  pioneer  in  the  department 
of  learning  with  which  his  name  was  associated,  being  the  first 
Englishman  to  acquire  mastery  of  Sanskrit,  and  to  make  a 
thorough  study  of  Indian  inscription^  in  that  script.  He  compiled 
a  Sanskrit  grammar  and  published  several  translations  from  the 
sacred  books  of  the  East,  besides  pr^aring  a  new  edition  of 
Richardson's  Persian  and  Arabic  dictionary,  and  a  catalogue  of 
the  manuscripts  collected  by  Sir  William  Jones,  who  acknow- 
ledged his  indebtedness  to  Wilkins,  and  whom  the  latter  assisted 
in  founding  the  Asiatic  Society  of  BengaL 

WILKINS,  GEORGE  (fl.  1607),  English  playwright  and 
pamphleteer,  is  first  mentioned  as  the  author  of  a  pamphlet  on 
the  Thru  Miseries  oj  Bdrharyj  which  probably  dates  from.  1604. 
He  was  associated  with  the  King's  Men,  and  was  thus  a  colleague 
of  Shakespeare.  He  was  chiefly  employed  in  remodelling  old 
plays.  He  collaborated  in  1607  with  William  Rowley  and  John 
Day  in  The  Travailes  of  the  Three  English  Brothers,  In  the 
same  year  a  play  was  produced  which  was  apparently  entirely 
Wilkins's  work.  It  is  The  Miseries  oj  Inform  Martage^  and 
treats  the  story  of  Walter  Calverley,  whose  identity  is  thinly 
veiled  under  the  name  of  "  Scarborough."  This  man  had  killed 
his  two  children  and  had  attempted  to  murder  his  wife.  The 
play  had  originally  a  tragic  ending,  but  as  played  in  1607  ended 
in  comedy,  and  the  story  stopped  short  before  the  catastrophe, 
perhaps  because  of  objections  raised  by  Mrs  Calverley's  family, 
the  Cobhams.  The  crime  itself  is  dealt  with  in  A  Yorkshire 
Tragedy,  which  was  originally  performed  with  three  other  plays 
under  the  title  of  AWs  One.  It  was  entered  on  the  Stationers' 
Register  in  1608  as  "  written  by  William  Shakespeare/'  pub- 
lished with  the  same  ascription  in  that  year,  and  reprinted  in 
1619  without  contradiction  of  the  statement.  Mr  Sidney  Lee 
assigns  to  George  WiUdns  a  share  in  Shakespeare's  Pericles  and 
possibly  in  Tinton  of  Athens.  DcUus  conjectured  that  Wilkins 
was  the  original  author  of  Pericles  and  that  Shakespeare  re- 
modelled it.  However  that  may  be,  Wilkins  published  in  1608 
a  novel  entitled  The  Painfull  Adventures  of  Pericles^  Prynce  of 
Tyre,  being  the  true  history  of  Pericles  as  it  was  lately  presented 
by  .  .  .  John  Cower,  which  sometimes  follows  the  play  very 
closely. 

Mr  Fleay  (Biog.  Ckron.of  the  Drama)  says  that  the  external  evi- 
dence for  the  Shakespearian  authorship  of  the  Yorkshire  Tragedy 
cannot  be  impugned,  and  in  the  absence  of  other  authorship  cannot 
be  lightly  set  aside,  but  he  does  not  abandon 'the  hope  of  establishing 
a  contrary  opinion.  Both  Mr  Fleay  and  I^Dfessor  A.  W.  Ward 
(Eng.  Dram.  LiL  ii.  p.  182)  seem  to  think  that  the  story  of  Marina  in 
Pericles  was  a  complete  original  play  bjr  Shakespeare,  and  that  the 
remodelling  story  should  be  reversed,  f.«.  that  Pericles  is  a  Shake- 
spearian play  remodelled  by  a  playwright,  possibly  Willdns.  Mr 
Lee  {Dia.  Nat.  Bios.,  Art.  **  Wilkins")  says  the  Yorkshire  Tragedy 
was  "  fraudulently  assigned  to  Shakespeare  by  Thomas  Pavier,  the 
publisher. 

WILKINS,  JOHN  (1614-1672),  bishop  of  Chester,  was  bom 
at  Fawslcy,  Northamptonshire,  and  educated  at  Magdalen  Hall, 
Oxford.  He  was  ordained  and  became  vicar  of  Fawsley  in  1637, 
but  soon  resigned  and  became  chaplain  successively  to  Lord  Saye 
and  Sele,  Lord  Berkeley,  and  Prince  Charles  Louis,  nephew  of 
Charies  I.  and  afterwards  elector  palatine  of  the  Rhine.  In  1648 
he  became  warden  of  Wadham  College,  Oxford.  Under  him  the 
college  was  extraordinarily  prosperous,  for,  although  a  supporter 
of  Cromwell,  he  was  in  touch  with  the  most  cultured  royah'sts, 
who  placed  their  sons  in  his  charge.  In  1659  Richard  Cromwell 
appointed  him  master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  At  the 
Restoration  in  1660  he  was  deprived,  but  appointed  prebendary 
of  York  and  rector  of  Cranford,  Middlesex.  In  166 1  he  was 
preacher  at  Gray's  Inn,  and  in  1662  vicar  of  St  Lawrence  Jewry, 
London.  •  He  became  vicar  of  Polebrook,  Northamptonshire, 
in  1666,  prebendary  of  Exeter  in  1667,  and  in  the  following  year 
prebendary  of  St  Paul's  and  bishop  of  Chester.  Possessing  strong 
•dentific  tastes,  he  was  the  chief  founder  of  the  Royal  Society 


and  its  first  seoetaiy.    He  died  in  Londoii  on  the  igdi  ^ 
November  167a. 

The  chief  of  his  numerous  works  is  an  Essay  towards  a  Real  Char^ 
acter  and  a  Philosophical  Language  (London,  1668),  in  which  he  ex- 
pounds a  new  universal  language  for  the  use  of  philoaophcn.  He  is 
remembered  also  for  a  curious  work  entitled  The  Discovery  of  a 
World  in  the  Moon  (1638,  ^d  ed.,  with  an  appenduc "  The  possibiHty 
of  a  passage  thither,"  164GU.  Other  works  are  A  Discourse  concerning 
a  New  Planet  (1640);  Mercury,- or  the  Secret  and  Swift  Messenger 
(i64i.)>  a  work  of  some  ingenuity  on  the  means  of  rapid  correspond- 
ence; and  Mathematical  Magick(i64S). 

See  P.  A.  Wright  Henderson,  The  Life  and  Times  of  John  Wilkins 
(1910),  and  also  the  article  Aeronautics. 

WILKINS,  MARY  ELEANOR  (1862-  ),  American  novelUt, 
was  bom  in  Randolph,  Massachusetts,  on  the  7th  of  January 
x86a,  of  Puritan  ancestiy.  Her  early  education,  chiefly  from 
reading  and  observation,  was  supplemented  by  a  course  at 
Mount  Holyoke  Seminary,  South  Hadley,  Mass.  Her  home  was 
in  her  native  village  and  in  BratUeboro,  Vermont,  until  her 
marriage  in  1902  to  Dr  Charles  M.  Freeman  of  Metucfaen,  New 
Jersey.  She  contributed  poems  and  stories  to  children's 
magazines,  and  published  several  books  for  children,  including 
Young  Lucretia  and  other  Stories  (1892),  The  Pot  of  Gold  and 
other  Stories  (1892),  and  Once  upon  a  Time  and  other  Child 
Verses  (1897).  For  older  readers  she  wrote  the  following  volumes 
of  short  stories:  A  Humble  Romance  and  other  Stories  (1887), 
A  New  Englatid  Nun  and  other  Stories  (1891),  Silence  and  other 
Stories  (1898),  three  books  which  gave  her  a  prominent  place 
among  American  short-story  writers;  The  People  of  Our  Neigh' 
barhood  (1898),  The  Love  of  Parson  Lord  and  other  Stories  (1900), 
Understudies  (1901)  and  The  Givers  (1904);  the  novels  Jane 
Field  (1893),  Pembroke  (1894),  Madelon  {i8q6),  Jerome,  a  Poor 
Man  (1897),  The  Jamesons  (1899),  The  Portion  of  Labor  (x90x> 
and  The  Debtor  (1905);  and  Giles  Corey,  Yeoman  (1893),  a  prose 
tragedy  founded  on  incidents  from  New  England  history.  Her 
longer  novels,  though  successful  in  the  portrayal  of  character, 
lack  something  of  the  unity,  suggestiveness  and  charm  of  her 
short  stories,  which  are  notable  contributions  to  modem  American 
literature.  She  deals  usually  with  a  few  traits  peculiar  to  tl^e 
village  and  country  life  of  New  England,  and  she  gave  literary 
permanence  to  certain  characteristics  of  New  England  life  which 
are  fast  disappearing. 

WIIKINSBURG,  a  borough  of  Allegheny  county,  Pennsyl* 
vania,  U.S.A.,  immediately  £.  <^  Pittsburg,  of  which  it  is  a 
residential  suburb.  Pop.  (1890)  4662;  (1900)  11,886,  of  whom 
X336  were  foreign-bom  and  275  were  negroes;  (1910  census) 
18,924.  Wilkinsburg  is  served  by  the  Pennsylvania  railway  and 
by  interurban  electric  lines.  It  is  a  post-station  of  Pittsburg. 
In  the  borough  are  a  Home  for  Aged  Protestants  C1882),  the 
United  Presbyterian  Home  for  the  Aged  (1879),  and  Columbia 
hospital  (1908).  Settled  in  1798  and  known  first  as  McNairviUe 
and  then  as  Ri|^>eyville,  the  place  was  renamed  about  1840  in 
honour  of  William  Wilkins  (i 779-1 865),  a  member  of  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1831-1834,  minister  to  Russia  in  1834-1835, 
a  representative  in  Congress  in  1843-1844,  and  secretary  of  war 
in  President  John  Tyler's  cabinet  in  1844-1845.  In  1887 
Wilkinsburg  was  incorporated  as  a  borough. 

WILKINSON,  JAMES  (i  757-1825),  American  soldier  and 
adventurer,  was  born  in  Calvert  county,  Maryland,  in  1757.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  Independence  he  abandoned  the 
study  of  medicine  to  enter  the  American  army,  and  he  Served 
with  General  Benedict  Arnold  in  the  (^ebec  campaign  and  was 
later  imder  General  Horatio  Gates,  acting  from  May  1777  to 
March  1778  as  adjutant-general  of  the  Northern  DepartmenL 
He  was  sent  to  Congress  to  report  Gates's  success  against  Bur* 
goyne,  but  his  tardiness  secured  for  him  a  sarcastic  reception. 
Gates  recommended  him  for  a  brigadier-general's  commission 
for  services  which  another  actually  performed,  and  succeeded 
in  gaining  it,  but  their  friendship  was  brt^en  by  the  collapse 
of  the  Conway  Cabal  against  Washington  in  which  both  wera 
implicated  and  about  which  Wilkinson  had  indiscreetly  blabbed. 
Wilkinson  then  resigned  (March  J  7  78)  his  ni^wly-acquired 
commission,  but  later  re-entered  the  service  an  the  quartennsiter ., 


WILKINSON,  J.  J.  G.— WILKINSON,  J. 


647 


gaienl%  dep&ftawnt,  «sd  was  cIothier-geDenl  from  July  1779 
to  March  17SZ. 

In  commoK  with  many  other  army  offioen  WiUdiuon  now 
tuned  toward  the  West,  and  in  1784  settled  near  the  Falls  of 
the  Ohio  (Louisville),  vihen  he  ^eedily  became  a  prominent 
merchant  and  farmer  and  a  man  of  considerable  influence.    He 
began  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  movement  for  seimrate  state- 
hood for  .Kentucky,  and  in  1787  he  entered  into  an  irregidar 
OMnmerdal  agreement  with  the  Spanish  officials  of  Louisiana. 
At  this  time,  as  his  own  papers  in  the  Spanish  archives  show,  he 
took  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  Spain  and  began  to  intrigue  with  his 
fellow-Kentuckians  to  detach  the  western  settlements  from  the 
Union  and  bring  them  under  the  influence  of  the  Louisiana 
auth6rities.  His  commercial  ccmnections  at  New  Orleans  enaUed 
him  to  hold  out  the  lore  of  a  ready  market  at  that  port  for 
Kentucky  products,  and  this  added  greatly  to  the  strcngUi  of  the 
separatist  movement.    He  neutralized  the  intrigues  of  certain 
British  agents  who  were  then  working  in  Kentucky.    For  these 
various  services  he  received  until  z8oo  a  substantial  pension  from 
the  Spanish  authorities,  being  oflkiaUy  known  in  their  oorre- 
spondenoe  as  "  Number  Thirteen."  At  the  same  time  he  worked 
actively  against  the  Spanish  authorities,  especially  through 
Philip  Nolan.    Wilkinson's  ventures  were  not  as  lucrative  as  he 
hoped  for,  and  in  October  1791  he  was  given  a  lieut.-colonel'fl 
commission  in  the  regular  army,  possibly,  as  a  contemporary 
suggested,  to  keep  him  out  of  mischief.  During  this  year  he  took 
an  active  part  in  the  minor  campaigns  which  pre<xded  General 
Arthur  St  Clair's  disastrous  defeat  by  the  Indians.   As  brigadier- 
general  (from  March  1792)  and  second  in  command,  he  served 
under  General  Anthony  Wayne  in  the  latter's  successful  cam- 
paign of  1794  against  the  Indians,  and  in  this  campaign  he  seems 
to  have  tried  to  arouse  discontent  again^  his  superior  among 
the  Kentucky  tn>op8,  and  to  have  intrigued  to  supplant  him 
upon  the  reduction  of  the  army.    Upon  Wayne's  death  in  1796, 
Wilkinson  became  general  in  command  of  the  regular  army, 
retaining  his  rank  as  brigadier  and  likewise  his  Spanish  pension. 
He  seems  to  have  tried  to  stir  up  both  the  Indians  and  the 
Spaniards  to  prevent  the  survey  of  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  United  States  in  1797  and  1798,  and  succeeded  in  delaying 
Commissioner  Andrew  Ellicott  for  several  months  in  this  import- 
ant task.    At  the  same  time  his  proteg^,  the  filibusterer,  Philip 
Nolan,  was  engaged  in  a  reconnaissance  for  him  west  of  the 
Mississippi.    In  1803  Wilkinson  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
to  receive  Louiaana  from  France,  and  in  1805  became  governor 
of  that  portion  of  the  Purchase  above  the  33rd  parallel,  with 
headquarters  at  St  Louis.    In  his  double  capacity  as  governor 
o|  the  Territory  and  commanding  officer  of  the  army,  reasonably 
certain  of  bis  hold  on  Jefferson,  and  favourably  situated  upon 
the  frontier  remote  from  the  centre  of  government,  he  attempted 
to  realize  his  ambition  to  conquer  the  Mexican  provinces  of  Spain. 
For  this  purpose  in  1805  he  entered  into  some  sort  of  agreement 
with  Aaron  Burr,  and  in  1806  sent  Z.  M.  Pike  to  explore  the  most 
favourable  route  for  the  conquest  of  the  south-west.    Before  his 
agent  returned,  however,  he  had  betrayed  his  colleague's  plans 
to  Jefferson,  formed  the  Neutral  Ground  Agreement  with  the 
Spanish  commander  of  the  Texas  frontier,  placed  New  Orleans 
under  martial  law,  and  apprehended  Burr  and  some  of  his  alleged 
accomplices.    In  the  ensuing  trial  at  Richmond  the  prisoners 
were  released  for  lack  of  sufficient  evidence  to  convict,  and 
Wilkinson  himself  emerged  with  a  much  damaged  reputation. 
He  was  then  subjected  to  a  series  of  courts-martial  and  con- 
gressional investigations,  but  succeeded  so  well  in  hiding  traces  of 
his  duplicity  that  in  181 2  he  resumed  his  military  command  at 
New  Orleans,  and  in  1813  was  promoted  major-general  and  took 
possession  of  Mobile.   Later  in  this  year  he  made  a  most  miserable 
fiasco  of  the  campaign  against  Montreal,  and  this  finally  brought 
his  military  career  to  a  dishonourable  end.    For  a  time  he  lived 
upon  his  plantation  near  New  Orleans,  but  later  appeared  in 
Mexico  City  as  an  applicant  for  a  land  grant,  incidentally  acting 
as  agent  for  the  American  Bible  Sodcty.    Here  on  the  28th  of 
December  1825  he  succumbed  to  the  combined  effects  of  climate 
and  of  opium. 


Sc«  Wilkinson's  Memmrs  of  My  Own  Hme  (Phlladdphia,  l8t6): 
untrustworthy  and  to  be  used  with  caution:  W.  R.  Shepherd, 
"  Wilkinson  and  the  Beginning  of  the  Spanish  Conspiracy  "  in 
American  Historical  Review,  vol.  ix.  (New  York,  1904).    (I.  J.  C.) 

WlUCmSON,  JAMBS  JOHV  OARTH  (18x8-1899),  Sweden- 
borgian  writer,  the  son  of  James  John  Wilkinson  (died  1845), 
a  writer  on  mercantile  law  and  judge  of  the  County  Palatine  of 
Durham,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  3rd  of  June  x8x3.  He 
studied  medidne,  and  set  up  as  a  homoeopathic  doctor  in 
Wimpole  Street  in  1834.  He  was  early  attracted  by  the  works  of 
William  Blake,  whose  Songs  of  Experience  he  endeavoured  to 
interpret,  and  of  Swedenboii;,  to  the  elucidation  of  whose  writings 
he  devoted  the  best  energies  of  his  life.  Between  1840  and  1850 
he  edited  Swedenbofg's  treatises  on  .  The  Doctrine  of  Charity, 
The  Animal  Kingdom,  OulHws  of  a  Philosophic  Argument  on  the 
InfiniUj  and  Hieroglyphie  Key  to  Natural  and  Spiritual  Mysteries. 
Wilkinson's  preliminary  discourses  to  these  translations  and  his 
critidsms  of  Coleridge's  oommcnts  upon  Swedenborg  displayed 
a  striking  aptitude  not  only  for  mystical  research,  but  also  for 
original  philosophic  debate.  The  vigour  of  his  thou^  won 
admiration  from  Henry  James  (father  of  the  novelist)  and  from 
Emerson,  through  whom  he  became  known  to  Carlyleand  Froude; 
and  his  speculation  further  attracted  Tennyson,  the  Oliphants 
and  Edward  Maitland.  He  wrote  an  able  sketch  of  Swedenborg 
for  the  Fenny  Cyclopaedia,  and  a  standard  biography,  Emanuel 
Swedenborg  (published  in  1849);  but  interest  in  this  subject  far 
from  exhausted  his  intellectual  energy,  ^ich  was,  indeed, 
multiform.  He  was  a  traveller,  a  linguist,  well  versed  in  Scan- 
dinavian  literature  and  ptdlologyf  the  author  of  mystical  poems 
entitled  Impronsations  from  the  Spirit  (1857),  a  social  and 
medical  reformer,  and  a  convinced  opponent  of  vivisection  and 
also  of  vacdnalion.  He^  died  at  Finchley  Road,  South  Hamp- 
stead,  where  he  had  n^ded  for  nearly  fifty  years,  on  i8th 
October  1899.  He  is  commemorated  by  a  bust  and  portrait  in 
the  rooms  of  the  Swcdenborgian  Society  in  Bloomsbuiy  Street, 
London. 

WILKINSON,  JOHN  (i79»-x8o8),  "the  great  Staffordshire 
iron -master,"  was  bom  in  1728  at  Clifton,  Cumberland,  where 
his  father  had  risen  from  day  labourer  to  be  overlooker  in  an 
iron  furnace.  A  box«4ron,  patented  by  his  father,  but  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  the  son,  helping  laundresses  to  gratify 
the  frilled  taste  of  the  dandies  of  the  day,  was  the  beginning  of 
their  fortunes.  This  they  made  at  Bkckbanow,  near  Fumeto. 
When  he  was  about  twenty,  John  moved  to  Staffordshire,  and 
built,  at  Bilston,  the  fiist  furnace  there,  and,  aftn  many  experi* 
ments,  succeeded  in  utilizing  coal  instead  of  wood-charooal  in 
puddling  and  smelting;  The  father,  who  now  had  works  at 
Bcrsham,  near  Chester,  was  again  jomed  by  his  son,  who  con« 
structed  a  new  boring  machine,  of  an  accuracy  heretofore 
unequalled.  James  Watt  found  that  the  work  of  this  machine 
exactly  filled  his  requirements  for  his  "  fire-engine  "  for  cylinders 
bored  with  greater  precision.  Wilkinson,  who  now  owned  the 
Bersham  works,  resolved  to  start  the  manufacture  of  wrought 
iron  at  Broseleyon  a  larger  scale,  and  the  firat  engine  made  by 
Boulton  and  Watt  was  for  him  to  blow  the  bellows  there.  Here- 
tofore bellows  were  worked  by  a  water  whed  or,  when  power 
failed,  by  horses.  His  ndghbours  in  the  business,  who  were 
contemplating  installing  Newcomen  engines,  waited  to  see  how 
his  would  turn  ouL  Great  care  was  taken  in  all  its  pacts,  and 
Watt  himself  set  it  up  early  in  1776.  Its  success  made  the  re- 
putation of  Boulton  and  Watt  in  the  Midland  counties.  Wilkin- 
son now  found  he  had  the  power  alike  for  the  nicest  and  the  most 
stupendous  operations.  The  steam  cylinder  suggested  to  him 
the  plan  of  producing  blast  now  in  use.  He  was  near  coal;  he 
surrounded  himself  with  capable  men,  whom  he  fully  trusted; 
he  made  a  good  article,  and  soon  obtained  large  orders  and 
prospered.  In  1786  he  was  making  32-pounders,  howitzers, 
swivels,  mortars  and  shells  for  government.  The  difficulty  of 
getting  barges  to  cany  his  war  material  down  the  Severn  led 
him,  in  1787,  to  construct  the  first  iron  barge — creating  a  wonder- 
ful sensation  among  owners  and  builders.  Wilkinsorf  taught  the 
French  the  art  of  boring  cannon  from  the  solid,  and  cost  all  the 


648 


WILKINSON,  SIR  J.  G.— WILL 


tubes,  cylinders  and  iron  work  required  for  the  Paris  water- works, 
the  most  formidable  undertaking  of  the  day.  He  also  erected 
the  first  steam  engine  in  France,  in  connexion  with  these  works. 

Wilkinson  is  said  to  have  anticipated  by  many  years  the 
introduction  of  the  hot  blast  for  furnaces,  but  the  leathetn  pipes, 
then  used,  scorched,  and  it  was  not  a  success.  His  were  the  first 
coal-<utting  machines.  He  proposed  and  cast  the  first  iron  bridge. 
It  connected  Broseley  and  Madeley,  across  the  Severn,  and  its 
span  of  100  ft.  6  in.  was  considered  a  triumphal  wonder.  Wilkin- 
son was  now  a  man  of  great  means  and  greater  influence.  He 
issued  tokens  of  copper,  bearing  his  likeness  and  on  the  reverse 
a  forge  and  tools  of  the  trade,  silver  coins  for  3s.  6d.,  and  also 
pound  notes,  as  other  tradesmen  of  that  day  did.  He  never 
wrote  a  letter  without  using  the  word  iron,  indeed  he  was  iron- 
mad,  and  provided  by  will  that  he  should  be  buried  in  an  iron 
coffin,  preferably  in  his  gatden  at  Castle  Head,  near  lindaL  He 
died  on  the  14th  of  July  1808. 

Wilkinson  was  twice  married  without  issue.  His  very  large 
property  was  frittered  away  during  a  lawsxiit  brought  by  a 
nephew  against  the  illegitimate  children  whom  he  had  named  as 
his  heirs.  It  -was  carried  from  various  courts  in  the  kingdom  to 
the  House  of  Lords  and  then  to  the  Court  of  Chancery.  Here 
Lord  Eldon  decided  for  the  defendants,  thus  reversing  all  previous 
decisions  taken  upon  the  law  of  the  case. 

WILKINSON,  SIR  JOHN  GARDNER  (1797-1875),  English 
traveller  and  Egyptolo^t,  was  bom  on  the  sth  of  October 
1797,  the  son  of  the  Rev.  John  Wilkinson,  a  well-known  student 
of  antiquarian  subjects.  Having  inherited  a  sufficient  income 
from  his  parents,  who  died  when  he  was  young,  he  was  sent  by 
his  guardian  to  Harrow  in  18x3,  and  to  Exeter  College,  Oxford, 
in  x8i6.  He  took  no  degree,  and,  suffering  from  ill-health, 
went  to  Italy,  where  he  met  Sir  William  GeU,  and  resolved  to 
study  Egyptology.  Between  1821  and  1833  he  travelled  widely 
in  the  Nile  Valley  and  began  to  publish  the  results.  He  returned 
to  England  in  1833  for  the  sake  of  his  health,  was  elected  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1834,  published  The  Topography  of 
Thebes  and  Generai  Survey  of  Egypt  (1835)  and  Manners  and 
Customi  of  Ike  Ancient  Egyptians  (3  vols.,  1837),  and  on  the 
36th  of  August  1839  was  km'ghted  by  the  Melbourne  ministry. 
In  1843  he  returned  to  Egypt  and  contributed  to  the  Journal 
of  the  Geographical  Society  an  article  entitled  "  Survey  of 
the  Valley  of  the  Natron  Lakes."  This  appeared  in  1843,  in 
which  year  he  also  published  an  enlarged  edition  of  his  Topo- 
graphy^  entitled  Moslem  Egypt  and  Thebes,  a  work  afterwards 
rdssued  in  Murray's  series.  During  1844  he  travelled  in  Monte- 
negro, Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  an  account  of  his  observations 
being  published  in  1848  {Dalmatia  and  Montenegro,  s  vols.). 
A  third  visit  to  Egypt  in  1848-1849  resulted  in  a  further  article 
in  the  Journal,  "  On  the  Country  between  Wady  Halfah  and 
Jebel  Bcrkel  '^  (1851);  in  1855  he  again  visited  Thebes.  Subse- 
quently he  investigated  Cornish  antiquities,  and  studied  zoology. 
He  died  at  Llandovery  on  the  29th  of  October  1875.  To  his 
old  school,  Harrow,  he  had  already  in  1864  presented  his  collec- 
tions Vith  an  elaborate  catalogue. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned  he  pnbltshed  Materia  Hieroglyphica 
(>laUa.  1838);  Extracts  from  several  Hieroglypkical, Subjects  (1830); 
Topographical  Survey  of  Thebet  (18 to);  Ucsimile  of  the  Turin 
papyrus  (1851),  previously  edited  without  the  writing  on  the  back 
of  the  papyrus  by  Lepsius;  Architecture  of  Ancient  Egypt  (1850); 
A  Popular  Account  ef  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (1854);  important  notes 
in  Rawlinson's  Herodotus;  Colour  and  Taste  (1858);  articles  in 
archaeological  and  sdentific  periodicals. 

WILKINSON,  TATE  (1739-1803),  English  actor  and  manager, 
was  bom  on  the  37th  of  October  1739,  the  son  of  a  clergyman. 
His  first  attempts  at  .acting  were  badly  received,  and  it  was  to 
his  wonderful  gift  of  mimicry  that  he  owed  his  success.  His 
imitations,  however,  naturally  gave  offence  to  the  important 
actors  and  managers  whose  peculiarities  he  hit  off  to  the  life. 
Garrick,  Peg  Woffington,  Samuel  Foote  and  Sheridan,  after 
being  delighted  with  the  imitations  of  the  others,  were  among 
the  most  angry,  when  it  came  to  their  turn,  and  threatened  never 
to  forgive  him.  Garrick  never  did.  As  an  actor,  Wilkinson 
was  most  successful  in  Foote's  plays,  but  his  list  of  parts  was  a 


long  one.    In  Shakeyearian  chancters  be  waa  veiy  popvht 

in  the  provinces.   In  1766  he  became  a  partner  of  Joseph  Baker 

in  the  management  of  several  Yorkshire  theatres,  ami  sole 

manager  after  his  partner's  death  in  1770  of  these  and  others. 

In  this  capacity  he  was  both  liberal  and  successful.    He  died 

on  the  x6th  of  November  1803. 

See  his  Memoirs  (4  vob..  1790)  and  The  Wandering  Patentee  (4 
vols.,  1795). 

WILL,  in  philosophy.  The  "  Problem  of  Freedom  "  provides 
in  reality  a  common  title  under  which  are  grouped  dijficultics 
and  questions,  of  varying  and  divergent  interest  and  diaracter. 
These  difficulties  arise  quite  naturally  from  the  obligation, 
which  metaphysicians,  theologians,  moral  philosophers,  men 
of  science,  and  psychologists  alike  re«>gnize,  to  pve  an  accoimt, 
consistent  with  thdr  thc<Mnc9,  of  the  relation  of  nmn's  power 
of  deliberate  and  purposive  activity  to  the  rest  of  the  universe. 
In  the  main,  no  doubt,  the  problem  is  a  metaphysical  problem, 
and  has  its  origin  in  the  effort  to  reconcile  that  belief  in  man's 
freedom  which  is  regarded  by  the  unsophisticated  moral  con- 
sciousness as  indisputable,  with  a  belief  in  a  universe  governed  by 
rational  and  necessary  laws.  But  the  historical  origin  of  the 
questions  at  issue  is  to  be  sought  rather  in  theology  than  in 
metaphyacs,  while  the  discovery  made  from  time  to  time  by 
men  of  sdenoe  of  the  inapplicabiUty  of  natural  laws  or  modes 
of  operation  (whidi  they  have  been  accustomed  to  regard  as  of 
universal  range  and  necessity)  to  the  facts  or  assumed  facts  of 
human  activity,  is  a  constant  source  of  fresh  discussions  of  the 
problem.  SimUarly  the  modem  attempt  upon  the  part  of 
psychology  to  analyse  (under  whatever  limitations  and  with 
whatever  object  of  inquiry)  all  the  forms  and  processes  of 
human  consciousness  has  inevitably  led  to  an  examination  of 
the  consciousness  of  human,  freedom:  while  the  postulate 
of  most  modem  psychologists  that  conscious  processes  are  not 
to  be  considered>as  removed  from  the  sphere  of  those  necessary 
causal  sequences  with  which  science  deals,  produces,  if  the 
consciousness  of  freedom  be  admitted  as  a  fact  of  mental 
history,  the  old  metaphysics  difficulty  in  a  new  and  highly 
specialized  form. 

There  is  some  ground  nevertheless  for  maintaining,  contrary 
to  much  modcmopinion, that  the  controversy  is  fundamentally 
and  in  the  main  a  moral  controversy.  It  is  true  that  the  precise 
relation  between  the  activities  of  human  wills  and  other  forms 
of  activity  in  the  natural  world  is  a  highly  speculative  problem 
and  one  with  which  the  ordinary  man  is  not  immediatdy  coH' 
cemed.  It  is  tme  also  that  the  ordinary  moral  consciousness 
accepts  without  hesitation  the  postulate  of  freedom,  and  is 
unaware  of,  or  imperfectly  acquainted  with,  the  speculative 
difficulties  that  surround  its  pos^bility.  Moreover,  much  work 
of  the  highest  importance  in  ethics  in  modem  as  well  as  ancient 
times  has  been  completed  with  but  scanty,  if  any,  reference  to 
the  subject  of  the  freedom  of  the  will,  or  upon  a.  metaphysical 
basis  compatible  with  most  of  the  doctrines  of  both  the  rival 
theories.  The  determinist  equally  with  the  libertarian  moral 
philosopher  can  give  an  account  of  morality  possessing  internal 
coherence  and  a  certain  degree  of  verisimilitude.  Yet  it  may  be 
doubted  (i)  whether  the  problem  would  ever  have  arisen  at  all 
except  for  the  necessity  of  reconciling  the  theological  and 
metaphysical  hypotheses  of  the  omniscience  and  omnipotence 
of  God  with  the  needs  of  a  moral  universe:  and  (2)  whether  it 
would  retain  its  perennial  interest  if  the  incursions  of  modem 
scientific  and  ]>sychological  inquiry  into  the  domain  of  human 
consciousness  did  not  appear  to  come  into  conflict  from  time 
to  time  with  the  presuppositions  of  morality.  The  arguments 
proceeding  from  either  of  the  disputants  by  means  of  which 
the  controversy  is  debated  may  be  largely  or  almost  wholly 
speculative  and  philosophicaL  But  that  which  produces  the 
rival  arguments  is  primarily  a  moral  need.  And  there  are  not 
wanting  signs  of  a  revival  in  recent  years  of  the  earlier  tendency 
of  philosophical  speculation  to  subordinate  the  necessities  of 
metaphysical,  scientific  and  even  psychological  inquiries  to 
the  prima  facie  demands  of  the  moral  consciousness. 

There  is  no  trace  of  the  emergence  of  the  problem  of  freedoQI 


WILL 


649 


In  ttiy  iAteD^ible  or  distinct  form  in  the  mhidft  of  early 
Greek  physdsts  or  pbilofiophen.  Their  doctrines  were  mainly 
based  upon  a  belief  in  the  government  of  the  universe 
by  some  form  of  physical  necessity,  and  though 
■diffefont  opinions  might  prevail  as  to  the  mode  of  opera- 
lion  of^  the  various  forms  of  physical  necessity  the 
occasibnai  recognition  of  non-material  contributory  causes  never 
ihioulited  to  A  tecognition  of  the  Independence  of  human  volition 
or  intelligence.  Nor  can  it  be  seriously  mdihtalned  that  the 
problem  of  freedom  in  the  form  in  which  it  is  presented  to  the 
modem  mind  ever  became  the  subject  of  debate  in  the  philosophy 
of  Socrates,  Plato  or  Aristotle.  It  is  true  that  Socrates  brought 
into  prominence  the  moral  importance  of  rational  and  intelligent 
conduct  as  opposed  to  action  which  is  the  result  of  unintelligent 
caprice.  Moral  conduct  was,  according  to  Socrates,  the  result 
of  knowledge  while  it  is  strictly  impossible  to  do  wrong  knowingly. 
Vice,  therefore,  is  the  result  of  ignorance  and  to  this  extent 
Socrates  is  a  determinist.  But  the  subsequent  speculations  of 
Aristotle  upon  the  extent  to  which  ignorance  invalidates  responsi- 
bility, though  they  seem  to  assume  man's  immediate  conscious- 
ness of  freedom,  do  not  in  reality  amount  to  very  much  more 
than  an  anilysis  of  the  conditions  ordinarily  held  sufficient  to 
Cdhstltute  vpldHtary  or  involuntary  action.  The  further 
^estioh  whether  the  voluntary  acts  for  Which  a  ftiah  Is  ordinarily 
held  fespoilsible  are  really  the  outcome  of  his  freedom  of  choice, 
is  barely  touched  upon,  and  most  of  the  problems  which  surround 
the  attempt  to  distinguish  human  agency  from  natural  and 
necessary  causation  and  caprice  or  chance  are  left  unsolved. 
For  Aristotle  remained  content  with  a  successful  demonstration 
of  the  dependence  of "  voluntariness  "  as  an  attribute  of  conduct 
upon  knowledge  and  human  personality.  And  though  ultimately 
the  attribution  of  responsibility  for  conduct  is  further  limited  to 
actions  which  are  the  result  of  purposive  choice  (xpoofpcatT), 
Aristotle  appears  to  waver  between  a  view  which  regards 
rpoalpwis  as  involving  an  ultimate  choice  between  divergent 
ends  of  moral  action  and  one  which  would  make  it  consist  in 
the  choice  of  means  to  an  end  already  determined.  A  similar 
absence  of  discussion  of  th^  main  problem  at  issue  is  noticeable  in 
Plato.  It  is  true  that  in  a  famous  passage  in  the  tenth  book 
of  the  Republic  (x.  617  fit.)  he  seems  to  make  human  soul&rcspon- 
tible  through  their  power  of  choice  for  the  destinies  which  they 
meet  with  during  their  respective  lives.  But,  as  with  Socrates, 
their  power  of  making  a  right  choice  is  limited  by  their  degree 
of  knowledge  or  of  ignorance,  and  the  vexed  question  of  the 
relation  of  this  determining  intelligence  to  the  human  ^^ill  is  left 
unsolved.  <  With  the  Stoic  and  Epicurean  philosophies  the 
problem  as  it  shapes  itself  for  the  consideration  of  the  modem 
world  begins  to  appear  in  dearer  outlines.  Stoic  loyalty  to  a 
belief  in  responsibility  based  on  freedom  of  choice  appeared 
difficult  to  reconcfle  with  a  belief  in  an  all-pervading  Anitna 
iiundi,  a  world  power  directing  and  controlling  actions  of 
every  kind.  And  though  the  Stoic  doctrine  of  determinism 
'did  not,  when  applied  to  moral  problems,  advance  much  beyond 
the  reiteration  of  arguments  derived  from  the  universal 
validity  of  the  principles  of  causality,  nor  the  Epicurean 
counter-assertion  of  freedom  avoid  the  error  of  regarding 
chance  as  a  real  cause  and  universal  contingency  as  an 
explanation  of  the  universe,  it  was  nevertheless  a  real  step 
forward  to  perceive  the  existence  of  the  problem.  Moreover, 
the  argument  by  means  of  which  Chrysippus  endeavoured  to 
prove  U19  compatibility  of  determinism  with  ethical  responsibility 
is  in  some  respects  an  anticipation  of  modem  views.  For  the 
dlstinaion  between  main  and  contributory  causes  of  conduct 
(causae  adjuvanUs  and  causae  principaUs — the  otriov  and 
\walTio»  of  Platonic  and  Aristotelian  philosophy)  preserved 
the  possibility  of  regarding  character,  the  main  cause,  as  the 
responsible  and  accountable  element  in  morality.  And  there 
is  much  that  is  antidpatory  of  modem  libertarian  vic\vs  in  the 
psychological  argument  by  which  Cameadcs  attempted  at  once 
to  avoid  the  Epicurean  identification  of  will  with  chance,  and 
to  prove  the  ralionalityof  choice,  undetermined  by  any  external 
or  antecedent  necessity,  as  an  explanation  of  human  actions 


tBUy, 


(cf.  Jfttict  snd  Slaflles,  Hisl.  </  Problems  of  PhXhsopky— Psy- 
chology, p.  324). 

It  was  not  until  the  rise  of  Christianity  as  an  historical  religion 
that  the  difficulty  of  reconciling  a  belief  in  human  freedom  with 
a  belief  in  the  Divine  government  of  the  world  became 
apparent  to  its  fuUest  extent.  The  Christian  doctrine 
of  the  Creation  at  once  challenged  the  pantheistic 
presuppositions  of  Hellenic  thought  and  reinforced  the  belief 
already  existing  in  will  as  a  real  cause.  At  the  same  time  the 
dualism  involved  in  the  simultaneous  acceptance  of  an  optimistic 
account  of  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  universe  (such  as  is  implied 
in  Christian  theology)  and  a  belief  in  the  reality  of  moral  evil 
witnessed  to  by  the  Christian  doctrine  of  Redemption,  intensified 
the  difficulties  already  fell  concerning  man's  responsibility  and 
God's  omnipotence.  Neoplatonic  philosophy  had  been  in  thtf 
main  content  either  to  formulate  the  c<mtnidiction  or  to  deny 
the  reality  of  one  of  the  opposing  terms.  And  traces  of  Neo- 
platonic influence,  more  especially  as  legards  their  doctrine 
of  the  unreality  of  the  material  and  sensible  world,  are  to  be 
found  everywhere  in  the  Christian  phiknophers  of  Alexandria, 
preventing  or  impeding  their  formulation  of  the  problem  of  free- 
dom in  its  fun  scope  and  urgency.  St  Augustine  was,  perhaps, 
(he  first  thinker  to  face,  though  not  to  solve,  the  true  theological 
and  moral  difficulty  inherent  in  Christian  thought.  Two  lines  of 
thought  are  to  be  traced  in  the  most  implacable  hostility  and 
contradiction  throughout  his  system.  On  the  one  hand  no 
thinker  reiterates  or  emphasizes  more  cogently  the  reality  of 
individual  responsibility  and  of  will.  He  affirms  the  priority 
of  will  to  knowledge  and  the  dependence  of  consdousness  upon 
physical  attention.  He  asserts  also  the  fact  that  our  human 
power  of  receiving  divine  illumination  (t.«.  a  capadty  of  spiritual 
insight  in  no  sense  dependent  upon  the  creative  activity  of  the 
intellect)  is  conditioned  by  our  spontaneous  acts  of  faith.  And 
he  finds  in  the  existence  of  divine  foreknowledge  no  argument 
for  the  impotence  or  determined  character  of  human  acts  of  will. 
The  timeless  foreknowledge  of  the  Deity  foresees  human  actions 
as  contingent,  not  as  causally  determined.  But  when  Augustine 
is  concerned  to  reconcile  the  reality  of  individual  freedom 
with  humanity's  universal  need  of  redemption  and  with  the 
absolute  voluntariness  of  Divine  Grace,  he  is  constrained  to 
contradict  most  of  those  postulates  of  which  in  his  advocacy 
of  libcrtarianism  he  was  an  eager  champion.  He  limits  the 
possession  of  freedom  to  Adam,  the  first  man,  who,  by  abusing 
his  prerogative,  has  comipted  the  human  race.  Man  as  he  now 
is  cannot  do  otherwise  than  evil.  Inherited  incapadty  for  the 
choice  of  good  is  the  punishment  for  Adam's  misuse  of  freedom. 
The  possibility  of  redemption  depends  upon  the  bestowal  of 
Divine  Grace,  which,  because  it  is  in  no  instance  deserved,  can  be 
awarded  or  withdrawn  without  injustice.  And  because  Adam's 
choice  necessitates  punbhment  it  follows  that  in  some  instances 
Divine  Grace  can  never  be  bestowed.  Hence  arises  in  Augustine's 
system  the  doctrine  of  Predestination  (^.t.).  From  the  the^ 
logical  standpoint  every  individual  is  predestined  dther  by  his 
natural  birthright  to  evil  or  by  Divine  Grace  to  good,  and  the 
absolute  foreknowledge  and  omnipotence  of  God  exdudes  even 
the  possibility  of  any  initiative  on  the  part  of  the  individual 
by  means  of  which  he  might  influence  God's  timdess  choice. 

The  medieval  treatment  of  the  problem  follows  in  the  main 
Augustinian  or  Aristotelian  traditional  lines  of  thought,  though 
successive  thinkers  arrive  at  very  diverse  conclusions. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  for  example,  develops  the  Platonic 
argument  which  proves  the  dependence  of  the  will 
upon  the  intellect  and  makes  the  identification  of  morality 
with  knowledge.  Freedom  exists  for  Thomas,  if  it  exists  at  all, 
only  as  the  power  of  choosing  what  is  necessarily  determined 
by  the  intellect  to  be  choiceworlhy,  the  various  possibilities 
of  choice  being  themselves  presented  by  the  understanding  to 
the  will.  And  though  in  a  certain  sense  Dhrine  foreknowledg« 
is  compatible  upon  his  view  with  human  freedom,  the  freedon 
with  which  men  act  is  itself  the  product  of  Divine  determination. 
Man  is  predetermined  to  act  freely,  and  Divine  foreknowledge 
foresees  human  actions  as  oontisgent.  Duns  Scotus  oa  the  othcy 


648 


WILKINSON,  SIR  J.  G.— WILL 


tubes,  (^linden  and  iron  work  required  for  the  Paris  water- works, 
the  most  formidable  undertaking  of  the  day.  He  also  erected 
the  first  steam  engine  in  France,  in  connexion  with  these  works. 

Wilkinson  is  said  to  have  anticipated  by  many  years  the 
introduction  of  the  hot  blast  for  furhaces,  but  the  leathern  pipes, 
then  used,  scorched,  and  it  was  not  a  success.  His  were  the  first 
coal-Kiitting  machines.  He  proposed  and  cast  the  first  iron  bridge. 
It  connected  Broseley  and  Madeley,  across  the  Severn,  and  its 
span  of  zoo  ft.  6  in.  was  considered  a  triumphal  wonder.  Wilkin- 
son  was  now  a  man  of  great  means  and  greater  influence.  He 
issued  tokens  of  copper,  bearing  his  likeness  and  on  the  reverse 
a  forge  and  tools  of  the  trade,  silver  coins  for  3s.  ^d.,  and  also 
pound  notes,  as  other  tradesmen  of  that  day  did.  He  never 
wrote  a  letter  without  using  the  word  iron,  indeed  he  was  iron- 
mad,  and  provided  by  will  that  he  should  be  buried  in  an  iron 
coffin,  preferably  in  his  gatden  at  Castle  Head,  near  lindaL  He 
died  on  the  Z4th  of  July  x8o8. 

Wilkinson  was  twice  married  without  issue.  His  very  large 
property  wtu  frittered  away  during  a  lawsuit  brought  by  a 
nephew  against  the  illegitimate  children  whom  he  had  named  as 
his  heirs.  It  was  carried  from  various  courts  in  the  kingdom  to 
the  House  of  Lords  and  then  to  the  Court  of  Chancery.  Here 
Lord  Eldon  decided  for  the  defendants,  thus  reversing  all  previous 
decisions  taken  upon  the  law  of  the  case. 

WIUaVSON,  SIR  JOHN  GARDNER  (1797-1875),  English 
traveller  and  Egyptologist,  was  born  on  the  sth  of  October 
1797,  the  son  of  the  Rev.  John  Wilkinson,  aweU-known  student 
of  antiquarian  subjects.  Having  inherited  a  sufficient  income 
from  his  parents,  who  died  when  he  was  young,  he  was  sent  by 
his  guardian  to  Harrow  in  1813,  and  to  Exeter  CoUege,  Oxford, 
in  x8i6.  He  took  no  degree,  and,  suffering  from  ill-health, 
went  to  Italy,  where  he  met  Sir  William  Cell,  and  resolved  to 
study  Egyptology.  Between  182 1  and  1833  ^^  travelled  widely 
in  the  Nile  Valley  and  began  to  publish  the  results.  He  returned 
to  England  in  1833  for  the  sake  of  his  health,  was  elected  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1834,  published  The  Topography  of 
Thebes  and  General  Sitney  of  Egypt  (1835)  and  Manners  and 
Customi  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (3  vols.,  1837),  and  on  the 
36th  of  August  1839  was  knighted  by  the  Melbourne  ministry. 
In  184a  he  returned  to  Egypt  and  contributed  to  the  Journal 
of  the  Geographical  Society  an  article  entitled  "  Survey  of 
the  Valley  of  the  Natron  Lakes."  This  appeared  in  1843,  in 
which  year  he  also  published  an  enlarged  edition  of  his  TopO' 
graphyy  entitled  Moslem  Egypt  and  Thebes,  a  work  afterwards 
reissued  in  Murray's  series.  During  1844  he  travelled  in  Monte- 
negro, Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  an  account  of  his  observations 
being  published  in  1848  (Dalmatia  and  Montenegro^  2  vols.). 
A  third  visit  to  Egypt  in  1848-1849  resulted  in  a  further  article 
in  the  Joumaly  "  On  the  Country  between  Wady  Halfah  and 
Jebel  Bcrkel ''  (1851);  in  1855  he  again  visited  Thebes.  Subse- 
quently he  investigated  Cornish  antiquities,  and  studied  zoology. 
He  died  at  Llandovery  on  the  39tii  of  October  1875.  To  his 
old  school,  Harrow,  he  had  already  in  1864  presented  his  collec- 
tions Vith  an  elaborate  catalogue. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned  he  published  Materia  Hiero^ypkica 
(Alalta,  i8a&);  Extracts  from  seoeral  Hierogfvpkical. Subjects  (1830); 
Topographical  Survey  of  Thebes  (1830);  tacsimilc  01  the  Turin 
papyrus  (1851),  previously  edited  without  the  writing  on  the  back 
of  the  papyrus  by  Lepsius;  Architecture  ef  Ancient  Egypt  (1850}; 
A  Popular  Auount  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (1854);  important  notes 
in  Rawlinson's  Herodotus;  Colour  and  Taste  (1858);  articles  In 
archaeological  and  scientific  periodicals. 

WILKINSON,  TATE  (1739-1803),  Engh'sh  actor  and  manager, 
was  born  on  the  37th  of  October  1739,  the  son  of  a  clergyman. 
His  first  attempts  at  acting  were  badly  received,  and  it  was  to 
his  wonderful  gift  of  mimicry  that  he  owed  his  success.  His 
imitations,  however,  naturally  gave  offence  to  the  important 
actors  and  managers  whose  peculiarities  be  hit  off  to  the  life. 
Garrick,  Peg  Woffington,  Samuel  Foote  and  Sheridan,  after 
being  delighted  with  the  imitations  of  the  others,  were  among 
the  most  angry,  when  it  came  to  their  turn,  and  threatened  never 
to  forgive  him.  Garrick  never  did.  As  an  actor,  Wilkinson 
was  most  successful  in  Foote's  plays,  but  his  list  of  parte  was  a 


long  one.  In  Shakespearian  chanctm  he  ww  vcfy  pofwlat 
in  the  provinces.  In  1766  he  became  a  partner  of  Joseph  Baker 
in  the  management  of  several  York^iire  theatres,  and  sole 
manager  after  his  partner's  death  in  1770  of  these  and  others. 
In  this  capacity  he  was  both  liberal  and  successful.  He  died 
on  the  16th  of  November  1803. 

See  his  Memoirs  (4  vols..  1790)  and  The  Wandering  Patentee  (4 
vaU.,i795)> 

WILL,  in  philosophy.  The  "  Problem  of  Freedom  "  provides 
in  reality  a  common  title  under  which  are  grouped  difficulties 
and  questions,  of  varying  and  divergent  interest  and  character. 
These  difficulties  arise  quite  nattuaUy  from  the  obligation, 
which  metaphysicians,  theologians,  moral  philosophers,  meo 
of  science,  and  psychologbts  alike  recognize,  to  give  an  account, 
consistent  with  their  theories,  of  the  relation  of  man's  power 
of  deliberate  and  purposive  activity  to  the  rest  of  the  universe; 
In  the  main,  no  doubt,  the  problem  is  a  metaphysical  problem, 
and  has  its  origin  in  the  effort  to  reconcile  that  belief  in  man's 
freedom  which  is  regarded  by  the  unsophisticated  moral  con- 
sciousness as  indisputable,  with  a  belief  in  a  universe  governed  by 
rational  and  necessary  laws.  But  the  historical  origin  of  the 
questions  at  issue  is  to  be  sought  rather  in  theology  than  in 
metaphy^cs,  while  the  discovery  made  from  time  to  time  by 
men  of  science  of  the  inapf^cability  of  natural  laws  or  modes 
of  operation  (which  they  have  been  accustomed  to  regard  as  of 
universal  range  and  necessity)  to  the  facts  or  assumed  facts  of 
human  activity,  is  a  constant  source  of  fresh  discussions  of  the 
problem.  SimUariy  the  modem  attempt  upon  the  part  of 
psychology  to  analyse  (under  whatever  limitations  and  with 
whatever  object  of  inquiry)  all  the  forms  and  processes  of 
human  consciousness  has  inevitably  led  to  an  examination  of 
the  consciousness  of  human,  freedom:  while  the  postulate 
of  most  modem  psychologists  that  conscious  processes  are  not 
to  be  considered-«s  removed  from  the  sphere  of  those  necessaiy 
causal  sequences  with  which  science  deals,  produces,  if  the 
consciousness  of  freedom  be  admitted  as  a  fact  of  mental 
history,  the  old  metaphysics  difficulty  in  a  new  and  hij^y 
specialized  form. 

There  is  some  ground  nevertheless  for  maintaining,  contrary 
to  mudi  modemopinion,  that  the  controversy  is  fundamentally 
and  in  the  main  a  moral  controversy.  It  is  true  that  the  precise 
relation  between  the  activities  of  human  wills  and  other  forms 
of  activity  in  the  natural  world  is  a  highly  q>eculative  problem 
and  one  with  which  the  ordinary  man  is  not  immediately  con* 
cemed.  It  is  true  also  that  the  ordinary  moral  consciousness 
accepts  without  hesitation  the  postulate  of  freedom,  and  b 
unaware  of,  or  imperfectly  acquainted  with,  the  speculative 
difficulties  that  surround  its  possibility.  Moreover,  much  work 
of  the  highest  importance  in  ethics  in  modem  as  well  as  ancient 
times  has  been  completed  with  but  scanty,  if  any,  reference  to 
the  subject  of  the  freedom  of  the  will,  or  upon  a.  metaphysical 
basis  compatible  with  most  of  the  doctrines  of  both  the  rival 
theories.  The  determinist  equally  with  the  libertarian  moral 
philosopher  can  give  an  account  of  morality  possessing  internal 
coherence  and  a  certain  degree  of  verisimilitude.  Yet  it  may  be 
doubted  (i)  whether  the  problem  would  ever  have  arisen  at  all 
except  for  the  necessity  of  reconciling  the  theological  and 
metaphysical  hypotheses  of  the  omniscience  and  omnipotence 
of  God  with  the  needs  of  a  moral  universe:  and  (3)  whether  it 
would  retain  its  perennial  interest  if  the  incursions  of  modem 
scientific  and  psychological  inquiry  into  the  domain  cS.  human 
consciousness  did  not  appear  to  come  into  conflict  from  time 
to  time  with  the  presuppositions  of  morality.  The  arguments 
proceedmg  from  eithsr  of  the  disputants  by  means  of  which 
the  controversy  is  debated  may  be  largely  or  almost  wholly 
speculative  and  philosophicaL  fiut  that  which  produces  the 
rival  arguments  is  primarily  a  moral  need.  And  there  are  not 
wanting  signs  of  a  revival  in  recent  years  of  the  earlier  tendency 
of  philosophical  speculation  to  subordinate  the  necessities  of 
metaphysical,  scientific  and  even  psychological  inqiurics  to 
the  prima  facie  demands  of  the  moral  consciousness. 

There  is  no  trace  of  the  emergence  of  the  problem  of  freedom 


WILL 


649 


fitL  tay  lAteDigible  -or  dlsdoct  torn  in  the  minds  of  early 
Greek  phyddsts  or  philoeophen.  Their  doctrines  were  mainly 
based  upon  a  belief  in  the  government  of  the  universe 
by  lome  form  of  phyncal  necessity,  and  though 
•different  opinions  might  prevail  as  to  the  mode  of  opera- 
tion of  the  various  forms  of  physical  necessity  the 
occasional  recognition  of  non-material  contributory  causes  never 
iinduhted  to  a  recognition  of  the  independence  of  human  volition 
or  intelligence.  Nor  can  it  be  terioUsly  mdihtalncd  that  the 
problem  of  freedom  in  the  form  in  which  it  is  presented  to  the 
modem  mind  ever  became  the  subject  of  debate  in  the  philosophy 
of  Socrates,  Plato  or  Aristotle.  It  is  true  that  Socrates  brought 
into  prominence  the  moral  importance  of  rational  and  intelligent 
conduct  as  opposed  to  action  which  is  the  result  of  unintelligent 
caprice.  Moral  conduct  was,  according  to  Socrates,  the  result 
of  knowledge  while  it  is  strictly  impossible  to  do  wrong  knowingly. 
Vice,  therefore,  is  the  result  of  ignorance  and  to  this  extent 
Socrates  is  a  determinist.  But  the  subsequent  speculations  of 
Aristotle  upon  the  extent  to  which  ignorance  invalidates  responsi- 
bility, though  they  seem  to  assume  msn's  immediate  conscious- 
ness of  freedom,  do  not  in  reality  amount  to  very  much  more 
than  an  analysis  of  the  conditions  ordinarily  held  sufficient  to 
constitute  voluntary  or  Involuntary  action.  The  further 
Question  whether  the  voluilUry  acts  fof  which  a  than  Is  ordinarily 
held  responsible  are  really  the  outcome  of  his  freedom  of  choice, 
is  barely  touched  upon,  and  most  of  the  problems  which  surround 
the  attempt  to  distinguish  human  agency  from  natural  and 
necessary  causation  and  caprice  or  chance  are  left  unsolved. 
For  Aristotle  remained  content  with  a  successful  demonstration 
of  the  dependence  of "  voluntariness  "  as  an  attribute  of  conduct 
upon  knowledge  and  human  personality.  And  though  ultimately 
the  attribution  of  responsibility  for  conduct  is  further  limited  to 
actions  which  are  the  result  of  purposive  choice  (xpoolpcacr), 
Aristotle  appears  to  waver  between  a  view  which  regards 
rpoaifMris  as  involving  an  ultimate  choice  between  divergent 
ends  of  moral  action  and  one  which  would  make  it  consist  in 
the  choice  of  means  to  an  end  already  determined.  A  similar 
absence  of  discussion  of  th<:  main  problem  at  issue  is  noticeable  in 
Plato.  It  is  true  that  in  a  famous  passage  in  the  tenth  book 
of  the  RepuUic  (x.  617  ff.)  he  seems  to  make  human  souUrcspon- 
tible  through  their  power  of  choice  for  the  destinies  which  they 
meet  with  during  their  respective  lives.  But,  as  with  Socrates, 
their  power  of  making  a  right  choice  is  limited  by  their  degree 
of  knowledge  or  of  ignorance,  and  the  vexed  question  of  the 
relation  of  this  determining  intelligence  to  the  human  will  is  left 
unsolved.  <  With  the  Stoic  and  Epicurean  philosophies  the 
^problem  as  it  shapes  itself  for  the  consideration  of  the  modem 
world  begins  to  appear  in  clearer  outlines.  Stoic  loyalty  to  a 
belief  in  responsibility  based  on  freedom  of  choice  appeared 
difficult  to  reconcfle  with  a  belief  in  an  all-pervading  Anima 
Mnndi,  a  world  power  directing  and  controlling  actions  of 
every  kind.  And  though  the  Stoic  doctrine  of  determinism 
'did  not,  when  applied  to  moral  problems,  advance  much  beyond 
the  reiteration  of  arguments  derived  from  the  universal 
validity  of  the  principles  of  causality,  nor  the  Epicurean 
counter-assertion  of  freedom  avoid  the  error  of  regarding 
chance  as  a  real  cause  and  universal  contingency  as  an 
explanation  of'  the  universe,  it  was  nevertheless  a  real  step 
forward  to  perceive  the  existence  of  the  problem.  Moreover, 
the  argument  by  means  of  which  Chrysippus  endeavoured  to 
prove  the  compatibility  of  determinism  with  ethical  responsibility 
is  in  some  respects  an  anticipation  of  modem  views.  For  the 
distinaion  between  main  and  contributory  causes  of  conduct 
{causae  adjuoantes  and  causae  principaUs — the  alriov  and 
iwalrtov  of  Platonic  and  Aristotelian  philosophy)  preserved 
the  possibility  of  regarding  character,  the  main  cause,  as  the 
responsible  and  accountable  element  in  morality.  And  there 
is  much  that  is  anticipatory  of  modem  libertarian  views  in  the 
psychological  argument  by  which  Cameades  attempted  at  once 
to  avoid  the  Epicurean  identification  of  will  with  chance,  and 
to  prove  the  rationality  of  choice,  undetermined  by  any  external 
or  antecedent  necessity,  as  an  explanation  of  human  actions 


(cf.  Janet  and  Brailles,  Hist,  of  Problems  ef  Philosophy-- Psy- 
chology, p.  324). 

It  was  not  until  the  rise  of  Christianity  as  an  historical  religion 
that  the  difficulty  of  reconciling  a  belief  in  human  freedom  with 
a  belief  in  the  Divine  government  of  the  world  became  ^^ 
apparent  to  its  fullest  extent.  The  Christian  doctrine  ^J^^' 
of  the  Creation  at  once  challenged  the  pantheistic 
presuppositions  of  Hellenic  thought  and  reinforced  the  bcUef 
already  existing  in  will  as  a  real  cause.  At  the  same  time  the 
dualism  involved  in  the  simultaneous  acceptance  of  an  optimistic 
account  of  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  universe  (such  as  is  implied 
in  Christian  theology)  and  a  belief  in  the  reality  of  moral  evil 
witnessed  to  by  the  Christian  doctrine  of  Redemption,  intensified 
the  difficulties  already  felt  concerning  man*s  responsibility  and 
God's  omnipotence.  Neoplatonic  philosophy  had  been  in  thtf 
main  content  either  to  formulate  the  contradiction  or  to  deny 
the  reality  of  one  of  the  opposing  terms.  And  traces  of  Neo- 
platonic influence,  more  especially  as  regards  their  doctrine 
of  the  unreality  of  the  material  and  sensible  world,  are  to  be 
found  everywhere  in  the  Christian  philosophers  of  Alexandria, 
pre\*enting  or  impeding  their  formulation  of  the  problem  of  free- 
dom in  its  fun  scope  and  urgency.  St  Augustine  was,  perhaps, 
(he  first  thinker  to  face,  though  not  to  solve,  the  true  theological 
and  moral  difficulty  inherent  in  Christian  thought.  Two  lines  of 
thought  are  to  be  traced  in  the  most  implacable  hostility  and 
contradiction  throughout  his  system.  On  the  one  hand  no 
thinker  reiterates  or  emphasizes  more  cogently  the  reality  of 
individual  responsibility  and  of  will.  He  affirms  the  priority 
of  will  to  knowledge  and  the  dependence  of  consciousness  upon 
physical  attention.  He  asserts  also  the  fact  that  our  human 
power  of  receiving  divine  illumination  (t.«.  a  capacity  of  spiritual 
insight  in  no  sense  dependent  upon  the  creative  activity  of  the 
intellect)  is  conditioned  by  our  spontaneous  acts  of  faith.  And 
he  finds  in  the  existence  of  divine  foreknowledge  no  argument 
for  the  imi)Otence  or  determined  character  of  human  acts  of  will. 
The  timeless  foreknowledge  of  the  Deity  foresees  human  actions 
as  contingent,  not  as  causally  determined.  But  when  Augustine 
is  concerned  to  re(x>ncilc  the  reality  of  individual  freedom 
with  hunumity's  universal  need  of  redemption  and  with  the 
absolute  voluntariness  of  Divine  Grace,  he  is  constrained  to 
contradict  most  of  those  postulates  of  which  in  his  advocacy 
of  libertarianism  he  was  an  eager  champion.  He  limits  the 
possession  of  freedom  to  Adam,  the  first  man,  who,  by  abusing 
his  prerogative,  has  corrupted  the  human  race.  Man  as  he  now 
is  cannot  do  otherwise  than  evil.  Inherited  incapacity  for  the 
choice  of  good  is  the  punishment  for  Adam's  misuse  of  freedom. 
The  possibility  of  redemption  depends  upon  the  bestowal  of 
Divine  Grace,  which,  because  it  is  in  no  instance  deserved,  can  be 
awarded  or  Viithdrawn  without  injustice.  And  because  Adam's 
choice  necessitates  punishment  it  follows  that  in  some  instances 
Divine  G race  can  never  be  bestowed.  Hence  arises  in  Augustine's 
system  the  doctrine  of  Predestination  (^.t.).  From  the  theo- 
logical standpoint  every  individual  is  predestined  either  by  his 
natural  birthright  to  evil  or  by  Divine  Grace  to  good,  and  the 
absolute  foreknowledge  and  omnipotence  of  God  excludes  even 
the  possibility  of  any  initiative  on  the  part  of  the  individual 
by  means  of  which  he  might  influence  God's  timeless  choice. 

The  medieval  treatment  of  the  problem  follows  in  the  malB 
Augustinian  or  Aristotelian  traditional  lines  of  thought,  thougb 
successive  thinkers  arrive  at  very  diverse  conclusions. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  for  example,  develops  the  Platonic 
argument  which  proves  the  dependence  of  the  will 
upon  the  intellect  and  makes  the  identification  of  morality 
with  knowledge.  Freedom  exists  for  Thomas,  if  it  exists  at  all, 
only  as  the  power  of  choosing  what  is  necessarily  determined 
by  the  intellect  to  be  choiceworlhy,  the  various  possibilities 
of  choice  being  themselves  presented  by  the  understanding  to 
the  will.  And  though  in  a  certain  sense  Dhrme  foreknowledgs 
is  compatible  upon  his  view  with  human  freedom,  the  freedom 
with  which  men  act  is  itself  the  product  of  Divine  determination. 
Man  is  predetermined  to  act  freely,  and  Divine  foreknowledge 
foresees  human  aaions  as  contingent.  Duns  Scotus  on  Um  othcy 


650 


WILL 


Mtf 


hand  is  the  great  champion  of  indetermiiusin.  Upon  his  view 
the  intellect  must  always  be  subordinate  to  the  will,  and  to  the 
will  belongs  the  power  of  complete  self-determination.  Morality 
in  effect — to  such  an  extreme  position  is  he  driven  in  his  opposi- 
tion to  the  Thomists — becomes  the  arbitrary  creation  of  the 
Divine  Will  and  in  no  sense  depends  for  its  authority  upon 
rational  principles  or  is  a  form  of  knowledge. 

The  modern  treatment  of  the  problem  from  Descartes,  Hobbes, 
Spinoza  and  Leibnita  down  to  Kant  is  too  much  inwoven  into 
the  metaphysical  systems  of  individual  great  philoso- 
tf^^^*'  phers  to  afford  the  possibility  of  detailed  treatment 
in  the  present  article.  Reference  should  be  made 
either  to  the  individual  philosophers  themselves  or 
to  articles  on  metaphysics  or  on  ethics.  Hobbes  is  the  great 
exponent  of  materialistic  determinism.  Ideals  and  volitions  arc 
upon  his  view  ultimately  movements  ol  the  brain.  Will  is 
identified  with  appetite  or  fear,  the  causes  of  which  are  to  be 
found  only  in  the  external  world.  Descartes  advocates  a  kind 
of  freedom  which  is  apparently  consistent  with  forms  both  of 
determinism  and  indeterminism.  He  explains  the  p<ttsibility 
of  error  on  the  ground  that  the  mind  possesses  the  liberum 
arbilrium  indifferetUiae  and  can  always  refuse  to  afBrm  the 
truth  of  a  conclusion  drawn  from  premises  which  are  not  self- 
evident.  And  even  when  the  presentations  before  the  mind 
are  so  clear  that  assent  to  their  truth  cannot  be  refused,  the 
possibility  of  assenting  still  rests  with  the  will,  which  can  refuse 
to  attend  to  any  presentation,  or  can  refuse  assent  with  the  sole 
motive  of  proving  its  freedom.  Spinoza  is  a  convinced  deter- 
minist  regarding  the  will  as  necessarily  determined  by. ideas. 
Extension,  i.t.  the  spatial  world,  and  the  world  of 
Sfi^oMM  consciousness  arc  alike  attributes  of  the  one  sub- 
t^naKM.  stance  which  can  only  be  called  free  in  the  sense  of 
being  determined  by  nothing  but  itself.  Freedom  in 
the  moral  sphere  consists  simply  in  the  control  of  the  passions 
by  reason.  Leibnitz  retains  this  attenuated  belief  in  moral 
freedom  and  combines  with  it  a  belief  in  the  spontaneity  of 
moral  agents  in  the  sense  that  they  possess  the  power  of  acting 
and  need  no  other  principle  of  action  save  the  laws  of  their  own 
natures.  But  inasmuch  as  the  agreement  between  the  acts  of 
Leibnitz's  monads  is  due  to  a  divine  pre-established  harmony, 
and  the  theoretical  contingency  which  in  the  abstract,  i.e.  as 
logically  possible,  can  be  predicated  of  their  acts,  is  in  practice 
Aon-existent,  Leibnitz  is  in  effect  a  dcterminist. 

Locke's  treatment  of  the  problem  is  in  some  respects  more 
interesting  than  the  theories  of  other  English  philosophers 
of  his  school.  Freedom,  according  to  Locke,  belongs 
iJ!***"'  to  the  man,  not  to  the  will.  If  we  will  at  all  we  are 
to  that  extent  free,  t.e.  our  actions  express  our  pur- 
poses. If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  press  Leibnitz's  objection,  i.e. 
that  such  an  argument  is  no  answer  to  the  question  whether  an 
act  of  will  can  be  free  in  the  sense  that  it  is  not  determined  by 
reasons  presented  by  the  understanding,  Locke  replies  that 
the  will  is  in  effect  determined  by  the  uneasiness  of  desire,  i.e. 
by  the  desire  to  avoid  pain.  Hume's  doctrine  follows  logically 
fzom  his  theory  as  to  the  nature  of  causality.  If  our  belief  in 
Accessary  connexion  in  the  physical  world  is  in  reality  an  illusion, 
it  follows  that  the  opposition  between  freedom  and  necessity 
will  be  illusory  also.  On  the  other  hand  if  our  belief  in  the 
necessity  of  causal  connexion  is  the  result  of  custom,  to  custom 
will  be  due  also  the  belief  in  a  necessity  governing  human  actions 
observable  everywhere  in  men's  ordinary  opinions  and  practice. 
Contrasted  with  this  belief  in  necessity  the  supposition  we  have 
of  freedom  is  illusory,  and,  if  extended  so  as  to  involve  a  belief 
that  men's  actions  do  not  proceed  from  character  or  habitual 
4ispo8ilion,  immoral. 

Kant's  theory  of  freedom  is,  perhaps,  the  most  characteristic 
doctrine  of  his  system  of  ethics.  Distinguishing  between  two 
worlds,  the  sensuous  and  the  intcUi^ble,  the  pheno- 
menal and  the  noumenal,  Kant  allows  no  freedom  to 
the  natural  will  determined  by  the  succession  of  motives,  desires 
•nd  Appetites  which  form  the  empirical  and  sensuous  self.  But 
m  ooQirast  with  the  phenomenal  world  governed  by  empirical  I 


Kurt. 


laws  Kant  sets  the  nooffleaAl  and  Intelligible  world  in  «iucb 
by  a  timeless  act  of  will  man  is  free  to  accept  the  m<n»l  oNnmand 
of  an  unconditional  imperative  for  no  reason  other  than  its  own 
rati<mal  necessity  as  the  deliverance  of  his  highest  nature.  The 
'difficulties  of  the  Kantian  system  are  mainly  to  be  looked  for 
in  his  account  of  the  relation  between  the  phenomenal  and 
noumenal  world. 

In  more  recent  times  the  controversy  has  been  concerned 
either  with  the  attempted  proof  of  determinism  by  the  advo- 
cates of  psychological  Hedonism,  an  attempt  which 
at  the  present  time  is  generally  admitted  to  have  ^**2. 
failed;  or  with  the  new  biological  knowledge  con-  Zm!"'^ 
ceming  the  influence  of  heredity  and  environment 
in  its  bearing  upon  the  development  of  character  and  the  poasl- 
bility  of  freedom.  The  great  advance  of  biological  knowledge 
in  recent  times  though  it  has  in  no  sense  created  a  new  problem 
(men  have  always  been  aware  of  the  importance  of  racial  or 
hereditary  physical  qualities  in  their  influence  upon  human 
conduct)  has  certainly  rendered  the  existence  <^  compile 
individual  freedom  (in  the  sense  in  which  it  was  advocated  by 
older  libertarians)  in  the  highest  degree  unlikely.  The  ad- 
vocates of  freedom  are  content  in  the  present  day  to  postulate 
a  relative  ix>wer  of  influencing  conduct,  e.g.  a  power  df  controlling 
inherited  temperament  or  subduing  natural  passion.  Such  a 
relative  freedom,  indeed,  taking  into  account  the  admitted 
inviolability  of  natural  laws,  was  from  the  very  beginning  all 
that  they  could  claim. 

But  it  was  inevitable  that  the  enormous  advances  made  by 
the  physical  and  other  sciences  in  modern  times  should  bring 
with  them  a  reasoned  attempt  to  bring  the  phenomena  of 
consciousness  within  the  ^here  controlled  by  physical  laws  and 
natural  necessity.  There  will  never  perhaps  in  any  period  of 
the  world's  history  be  wanting  advocates  of  materialism,  who 
find  in  the  sensible  the  only  reality.  But  the  materialism  ol 
modern  times  is  more  subtle  than  that  of  Hobbes.  And  the 
determinism  of  modern  science  no  longer  consists  in  a  crude 
denial  of  the  reality  of  conscious  processes,  or  an  attempt  to 
explain  them  as  only  a  subhmated  form  of  matter  and  its  move- 
ments; it  is  content  to  admit  the  relative  independence  of  the 
world  of  consciousness,  while  it  maintains  that  laws  and  hypo- 
theses sufficient  to  cxpbin  material  processes  may  be  extended 
to  and  will  be  discovered  to  be  valid  of  the  changing  sequences 
of  consdous  stales  of  mind.  Moreover,  much  of  the  apparent 
cogency  of  modern  scientific  detcrminist  arguments  has  been 
derived  from, the  unguarded  admissions  or  timorous  acquiescence 
of  their  opponents.  It  is  not  enough  merely  to  repel  the  in- 
cursions of  physiological  science,  armed  with  hypotheses  and 
theories  valid  enough  in  their  own  sphere,  upon  the.domain  of 
consciousness.  If  the  attack  is  to  be  finally  repulsed  it  will  be 
imperatively  necessary  for  the  libertarian  to  maintain  that  no 
full  explanation  of  the  physical  universe  can  ever  gain  assent 
which  docs  not  take  account  of  the  reality  and  influence  within 
the  material  world  of  human  power  of  initiative  and  freedom. 
Of  this  necessity  there  is  a  growing  consciousness  in  recent  years, 
and  no  more  notable  exposition  of  it  has  been  published  than  is 
contained  in  James  Ward's  Naturalism  and  Agnosticism.  Nor 
is  there  any  lack  of  evidence  of  a  growing  dissatisfaction  on  the 
part  of  many  physiologists  with  the  complacent  assumption 
that  the  methods  of  physical  science,  and  particularly  the  con- 
ception of  causal  activity  common  to  the  sciences  which  study 
inorganic  nature,  can  be  transferred  without  further  criticism 
to  the  examination  of  life  and  mind.  Meanwhile  the  scientific 
onslaught  upon  the  libertarian  p>osition  has  been  directed  from 
two  chief  quarters  It  has  been  maintained,  on  the  one  hand, 
that  any  theory  which  presupposes  a  direct  correspondence 
between  the  molecular  movements  of  the  brain,  and  the  states 
of  consciousness  which  accompany  them  must  make  the  freedom 
of  the  will  impossible.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  asserted  that 
quite  apart  from  any  particular  view  as  to  the  relation  between 
mind  and  body  the  existence  of  the  freedom  of  the  will  is 
necessarily  incompatible  with  the  principle  of  the  conserva- 
tion of  energy  and  is  therefore  in  direct  contradiction  to 


WILL 


^51 


nuny  If  not  moftt  of  the  Msuxed  conclusions  of  the  physical 
sciences. 

As  regards  the  first  of  these  two  main  contentions,  it  must 
suffice  here  to  point  out  the  main  difficulties  in  which  a 
determinist  and  especially  materialist  account  of 
the  relation  between  conscioasness  and  the  organic 
processes  which  accompany  it  appears  to  be  involved. 
The  arguments  of  thorough-going  materialism  can  in 
most  cases  be  met  with  a  direct  negative.  No  kind  of  evidence 
can  be  adduced  sufficient  to  prove  that  consciousness  is  a  secre- 
tion of  the  brain,  an  effect  or  even  a  consequent  of  material 
processes  or  modes  of  motion.  No  direct  causal  relationship 
between  a  molecular  movement  and  a  state  of  consciousness 
has  ever  been  established.  No  physiologist  has  ever  claimed 
the  power  to  prophesy  with  any  approach  to  accuracy  the  future 
mental  states  of  any  individual  fvom  an  examination  of  his 
brain.  And,  though  some  kind  of  correspondence  between  the 
physical  and  conscious  series  of  states  has  been  observed  and  is 
commonly  taken  for  granted  in  a  number  of  instances,  proof 
that  entire  correspondence  exists  is  still  wanting,  and  the  precise 
kind  of  correspondence  is  left  undetermined.  Ncvenhclcss,  the 
belief  that  material  processes  must  be  held  sufficient  to  account 
for  material  changes  in  the  human  organism  as  in  all  other 
regions  of  the  material  world,  can  be  held  quite  independently 
of  any  particular  theory  as  to  the  relation  between  mind  and 
body,  and  in  many  of  its  forms  is  equally  destructive  of  a  belief  in 
the  freedom  of  the  will.  It  is  a  belief,  too,  which  is  increasingly 
prevalent  in  modern  sdence.  The  theory  of  psychophysical 
parallelism  involves  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  the  majority  of 
its  upholders  the  further  assumption  of  some  unity  underlying 
both  the  physical  and  psychical  series  which  may  one  day  be 
discovered  to  be  susceptible  of  scientific  expression  and  inter- 
pretation. Certainly  without  some  such  assumption  the  hypo- 
thesis of  an  exact  correspondence  between  the  series  described 
as  parallel  becomes,  as  Professor  Ward  has  shown,  unmeaning. 
And  many  scientific  thinkers,  while  professing  allegiance  to  a 
theory  which  insists  upon  the  independence  of  each  parallel 
series,  in  reality  tacitly  assume  the  superior  importance  if  not 
the  controlling  force  of  the  physical  over  the  psychical  terms. 
But  a  mere  insistence  upon  the  complete  independence  of  the 
physical  series  coupled  with  the  belief  that  its  changes  are 
wholly  explicable  as  modes  of  motion,  ».«.  that  the  study  of 
molecular  physics  is  competent  to  explain  all  the  phenomena 
of  life  and  organic  movements,  is  sufficient  to  eliminate  the 
possibility  of  spontaneity  and  free  origination  from  the  universe. 
For  if  consciousness  be  looked  upon  as  simply  an  epiphenomenon, 
an  unaccountable  appearance  accompanying  the  succession  of 
material  changes,  the  possibility  either  of  active  interference 
by  human  volition  at  any  point  within  the  physical  series  or  of 
any  controlling  or  directing  efficacy  of  consciousness  over  the 
whole  set  of  material  changes  which  accompany  its  activity 
becomes  unthinkable.  There  are,  nevertheless,  serious  diffi- 
culties involved  in  the  supposition  that  the  changes  in  the  brain 
^vilh  which  physiology  and  the  biological  sciences  deal  can  be 
satisfactorily  explained  by  the  mechanical  and  mathematical 
conceptions  common  to  all  these  sciences,  or,  indeed,  that 
any  of  these  organic  changes  is  susceptible  in  the  last  resort 
of  explanation  derived  from  purely  material  premises.  The 
phenomena  of  life  and  growth  and  assimilation  have  not  been 
satisfactorily  explained  as  mechanical  modes  of  motion,  and 
the  fact  that  identical  cerebral  movements  have  not  been  dis- 
covered to  recur  makes  scientific  and  accurate  prediction  of 
future  cerebral  changes  an  impossibility.  But  more  convindng 
than  most  of  the  philosophical  arguments  by  which  the  theories 
of  psychophysical,  parallelism  have  been  assailed  is  the  fact  that 
it  runs  counter  to  the  plain  evidence  of  the  ordinary  conscious- 
ness. No  matter  to  what  extent  the  unphilosophical  thinker 
may  be  under  the  influence  of  materialistic  presuppositions,  he 
always  recoils  from  the  conclusion  that  the  facts  of  his  mental 
life  have  no  influence  upon  his  physical  movements.  Meaning, 
design  and  purpose  are  to  him  terms  far  more  explanator)'  of 
his  movements  in  the  outer  world  than  the  mechanical  and 


mathematical  equivalents  to  which  his  actions  will  ultimately 
be  reduced  if  the  sciences  should  achieve  their  avowed  purpose. 
To  regard  himself  as  a  conscious  automaton  he  can  never  be 
persuaded.  Further,  he  finds  in  the  series  of  antecedents  and 
consequents  capable  of  mathematical  and  spatial  determination, 
which  certain  men  of  science  present  to  him  as  their  final  account 
of  his  physical  and  psychical  history,  no  real  explanation  of  the 
facts:  he  is  far  more  inclined  to  look  for  an  explanation  of  the 
efficacy  of  causal  changes  in  the  categories  of  will  and  purpose 
for  which  they  are  a  substitution. 

Nor,  finally,  is  the  lost  defensive  position  of  scientific  deter- 
minism— the  theory,  namely,  that  the  freedom  of  the  will  is 
incompatible  with  the  doctrine  of  the  conservation  of  energy — 
to  be  accepted  without  question.  That  doctrine,  if  it  is  to 
possess  cogency  as  a  proof  of  the  impossibility  of  the  libertarian 
position,  must  assume  that  the  amount  of  energy  sufficient  to 
account  for  physical  and  psychical  changes  is  constant  and 
invariable  in  quantity,  an  assumption  which  no  scientific  in- 
vestigator is  competent  to  prove.  .\  regulative  principle  which 
may  |X)sscss  great  value  when  applied  and  confined  to  the 
comparatively  abstract  material  of  the  mathematical  and  quasi- 
mathematical  sciences  is  highly  dangerous  if  extended  to  the 
investigation  of  living  bodies.  "  In  its  present  form,  and  since 
the  development  of  the  mechanical  theory  of  heat,  the  principle 
of  the  conservation  of  energy  certainly  seems  to  apply  to  the 
whole  range  of  physico-chemical  phenomena.  But  no  one  can 
tell  whether  the  study  of  physiological  phenomena  in  general, 
and  of  nervous  phenomena  in  particular,  will  not  reveal  to  us, 
besides  the  vu  viva  or  kinetic  energy  of  which  Leibnitz  spoke, 
and  the  potential  energy  which  was  a  later  and  necessary  ad- 
junct, some  new  kind  of  energy  which  may  differ  from  the  other 
two  by  rebelling  against  calculation  "  (Bergson,  Time  and  Frte 
wait  Eng.  trans,  by  F.  L.  Pogson,  pp.  151,  152). 

It  is,  however,  from  the  development  of  the  scientific  study 
of  psychology  more  than  from  any  other  region  of  thought 
that  light  has  been  thrown  upon  the  problem  of 
freedom.  The  determinist  presuppositions  of  psy-  ^gyc^n/agy. 
chofegy  (determinist  because  they  involve  the  applica- 
tion of  the  causal  conceptions  of  modem  science  to  mental 
phenomena)  have  in  many  instances  in  no  way  retarded  the 
utilisation  of  new  information  concerning  mental  processes 
in  order  to  prove  the  reality  of  freedom.  Bergson  is  perhaps 
the  most  notable  instance  of  a  philosopher  fully  conversant  with 
psychological  studies  and  methods  who  remains  a  convinced 
libertarian.  But  the  contribution  made  by  psychology  to  the 
solution  of  the  problem  has  taken  the  form  not  so  much  of  a 
direct  reinforcement  of  the  arguments  of  cither  of  the  opponent 
systems,  as  of  a  searching  criticism  of  the  false  assumptions 
concerning  conative  processes  and  the  phenomena  of  choice 
common  alike  to  dcterminisls  and  libertarians.  It  has  already 
been  pointed  out  that  the  problem  as  it  presented  itself  to 
utilitarian  philosophers  could  lead  only  to  a  false  solution, 
depending  as  it  did  upon  a  wholly  fictitious  theory  as  to  the 
nature  of  desire.  There  are  still  many  traces  to  be  found  in 
modem  psychology  of  a  similar  unreal  identification  of  desire 
with  will.  But,  nevertheless,  the  new  light  thrown  upon  the 
unity  of  the  self  and  the  more  careful  and  accurate  scrutiny 
made  by  recent  psychologists  of  the  phenomena  of  decision  have 
rendered  it  no  longer  possible. either, for  dcterminisls  to  deny 
the  fact  of  choice  (whatever  be  their  theory  as  to  its  nature) 
or  for  libertarians  to  regard  the  self  or  the  will  as  isolated  from 
and  unaffected  by  other  mental  constituents  and  antecedents, 
and  hence,  by  an  appeal,  to  wholly  fictitious  entities,  to  prove 
the  truth  of  freedom.  The  self  or  the  will  can. no ; longer  be 
looked  upon  as  possessing  a  kind  of  impcrium  in  impcrio,  "  this 
way  and  that  dividing  the  swift  mind."  And  if  freedom  of 
choice  be  a  possibility  at  all,  it  must  in  future  be  regarded  as  the 
prerogative  of  a  man's  whole  personality,  exhibited  continuously 
throughout  the  devcloproent  of  his  character,  displayed  to  some 
extent  in  all  conscious  conative  processes,  though  especially 
apparent  in  crises,  necessitating  deliberate  and  serious  purpose. 
The  mistake  of  earlier  advocates  of  determinism  J^  in  the 


6S2 


WILL 


supfKisition  that  self-conscious  moral  action  could  be  explained 
by  the  use  of  the  same  categories  and  upon  the  same  hypotheses 
usually  considered  sufficient  to  explain  the  causal  sequences 
observable  in  the  physical  world.  Conduct  was  regarded  as 
the  result  of  interaction  between  character  and  environment; 
or  it  was  asserted  to  be  the  resultant  effect  of  a  struggle  between 
motives  in  which  the  strongest  prevailed.  And  the  libertarian 
critic  had  before  him  a  comparatively  easy  task  when  he  ex- 
hibited the  complete  interdependence  of  character  and  en- 
vironment, or  rather  the  impossibility  of  treating  either  as 
definite  and  fixed  factors  in  a  process  explicable  by  the  use  of 
ordinary  scientific  categories. 

It  was  not  difTicuIt  to  show  that  motives  have  meaning  only 
with  reference  to  a  self,  and  that  it  is  the  self  which  alone  has 
power  to  erect  a  desire  into  a  motive,  or  that  the  attraction  of 
an  object  of  appetite  derives  much  of  its  power  from  the  character 
of  the  self  to  which  it  makes  its  appeal.  What  is  possibly  not 
so  obvious'  is  the  extent  to  which  libertarians  have  themselves 
been  guilty  of  a  similar  fallacy.  It  is  comparatively  unimportant 
to  the  dcterminist  whether  the  cause  to  which  he  attributes 
conduct  be  the  self,  or  the  will,  or  character,  or  the  strongest 
motive,  provided  that  each  of  these  causes  be  regarded  as 
definitely  ascertainable  and  that  its  effects  in  sufficiently  known 
circumstances  be  calculable.  It  is  possible  to  treat  will  as  a 
permanent  cause  manifesting  itself  through  a  series  of  sequent 
changes,  and  obedient  to  the  laws  which  govern  the  development 
of  the  personality  of  the  single  individual. 

And  the  libertarian,  by  his  arguments  showing  that  appeal 
must  be  made  to  an  act  of  will  or  of  the  self  in  the  explanation 

of  the  phenomena  of  choice,  does  nothing  directly 
JSjJJJJIi  '**  disprove  the  truth  of  such  a  contention.  If,  how- 
luiHiH,       cvi^r,  it  be  argued  by  libertarians  that  no  explanation 

is  possible  of  the  manner  in  which  the  self  or  the  will 
makes  its  decisions  and  inclines  to  this  motive  or  to  that,  while 
they  still  assert  the  independent  existence  of  the  self  or  will, 
then  they  are  undoubtedly  open  to  the  retort  of  their  opponents 
that  upon  such  a  theory  no  rational  explanation  of  conduct 
will  be  possible.  For  to  regard  a  particular  decision  as  the 
effect  of  the  "  fiat"  of  a  self  or  will  unmotived  and  uninfluenced 
by  the  idea  of  a  future  object  of  attainment  seems  to  be  equiva- 
lent to  the  simple  statement  that  the  choice  was  made  or  the 
decision  taken.  Such  a  theory  can  prove  nothing  either  for 
or  against  the  possibility  of  freedom. 

Moreover,  many  of  the  arguments  by  which  the  position  of 
rigid  libertarians  of  the  older  school  has  been  proved  untenable 
M^slhm     ***^**  ^^^^^  advanced  by  moral  philosophers,  and  by 

thinkers  not  always  inclined  to  regard  psychology 
with  complete  sympathy.  The  doctrine  of  self-determination, 
advocated  by  T.  H.  Green  and  idealist  writers  of  his  school, 
has  little  or  nothing  in  common  with  the  doctrine  that  the  self 
manifests  its  freedom  in  unmotived  acts  of  will.  The  advocates 
of  self-determination  maintain  that  conduct  is  never  determined, 
in  the  sense  in  which,  e.g.  movements  in  the  physical  world  are 
determined,  because  man  in  virtue  of  his  aclf-consciousness  has 
a  power  of  distinguishing  himself  from,  even  while  he  identifies 
himself  with,  a  purely  natural  object  of  desire;  and  this  must  always 
make  it  impossible  to  regard  him  as  an  object  governed  by  purely 
natural  forces.  Consciousness  and  especially  self-consciousness, 
can  never  bt  explained  upon  hypotheses  adequate  only  to 
explain  the  blind  working  of  the  unconscious  world.  But  the 
insistence  of  idealist  writers  upon  the  relation  of  the  world  of 
nature  to  conscious  intelligence,  and  especially  to  a  universal 
consciousness  realizing  itself  throughout  the  history  of  in- 
dividuah,  rendered  it  alike  Impossible  to  deny  altogether  some 
influence  of  environment  upon  character,  and  to  regard  the 
history  of  individual  willing  selves  as  consisting  in  isolated 
and  unconnected  acts  of  choice.  Self-consciousness,  if  it  be 
conceived  as  distinguishing  itself  from  its  past  history  or  from 
the  natural  world,  must  be  conceived  also  as  in  some  sense 
related  to  the  empirical  self  which  has  a  history  Sn  time  and  to 
the  natural  organism  in  which  it  finds  a  home.  It  is  the  precise 
of  this  relation  which  idealist  philoaophets  kave  obscure. 


Hkt 


Nor  is  that  obscurity  to  any  appreciable  degree  illuminated 
by  the  tendency  also  noticeable  in  idealist  writers  to  find  the 
true  possession  of  freedom  only  in  a  self  emancipated  from  the 
influence  of  irrational  passion,  and  liberated  by  knowledge  from 
the  dominion  of  chance  or  the  despotism  of  unknown  natural 
forces.  Here  also  psychology,  by  its  elucidation  of  the  important 
part  which  instinctive  appetites  and  animal  impulses  play  in 
the  development  of  inteUigcnce,  still  more  perhaps  by  arguments 
(based  largely  upon  the  examination  of  hypnotic  subjects  or 
the  phenomena  of  fixed  ideas)  which  8lx>w  the  permanent 
influence  of  irrational  or  semi-rational  suggestions  or  habits 
upon  human  conduct,  has  done  much  to  aid  and  abet  idealists 
in  their  contentions.  It  cannot  in  fact  be  denied  that  from 
one  point  of  view  human  freedom  is  strictly  relative,  a  posses- 
sion to  be  won  only  after  painful  effort,  exhibiting  itself  in  its 
entirety  only  in  supreme  moments  when  the  self  is  unswayed 
by  habit,  and  out  of  full  knowledge  makes  an  individual  and 
personal  choice.  Ideal  freedom  will  be  the  supreme  achieve- 
ment of  a  self  completely  moralized.  But  the  process  by  which 
such  freedom  is  eventually  to  be  gained  must,  if  the  prize  is  to 
be  worth  the  having,  itself  exhibit  the  gradual  development 
of  a  self  w^hich,  under  whatever  limitations,  possesses  the  same 
liberty  of  choice  in  its  early  stages  as  in  its  latest.  And  no 
theory  which  limits  the  exercise  of  freedom  to  the  choice  only 
of  what  is  strictly  good  or  rational  can  avoid  the  imputation  of 
destroying  man's  responsibility  for  the  choice  of  eviL 

But  the  most  important  point  at  issue  between  the  <^po^ng 
theories  has  remained  throughout  the  history  of  the  controversy, 
the  morality  or  immorality  of  their  respective  solutions 
of  the  problem.  The  advocates  of  either  theory  must 
in  the  last  resort  appeal  to  the  direct  evidence  of  the 
moral  consciousness.  It  remains  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the 
arguments  advanced  on  either  side. 

It  has  always  been  maintained  by  convinced  libertarians  tha£ 
without  a  belief  in  the  freedom  of  the  will  morality  become^ 
unmeaning  (sec  Determinisu).  Moreover,  without  a  belief  in 
the  freedom  of  the  will  the  conception  of  moral  obligation  upon 
which  the  existence  of  morality  depends  and  from  which  all  other 
moral  terms  derive  their  meaning  loses  its  chief  significance. 
What  is  opposed  to  obligation,  or  at  least  always  distinguished 
from  it,  is  that  very  domain  of  necessity  within  which  deter- 
minists  would  bring  the  will.  For  even  when  the  felt  obligation. 
is  absolute,  where  the  will  is  completely  moralized,  where  it 
is  inconceivable  in  the  case  of  a  good  man  that  the  act  which  he 
performs  should  be  other  than  it  is,  there  the  obligation  which 
he  recognizes  is  an  obligation  to  choose  autonomously,  and  as 
such  is  distinguished  from  desire  or  appetite  or  any  of  the  other 
alleged  determinants  of  action.  If  the  question  be  asked  "  Where 
is  the  evidence  for  this  alleged  freedom  to  choose  between 
alternatives?"  the  appeal  is  always  made  to  the  witness  of  the 
moral  consciousness  itself.  No  one,  it  is  said,  who  ever  feels 
remorse  for  the  committal  of  .a  wrong  act  can  honestly  avoid  the 
admission  that  at  the  moment  when  the  act  was  committed  he» 
could  have  acted  otherwise.  No  one  at  the  moment  of  action 
is  ever  aware  that  hts  will  is  being  necessitated.  What  he  is 
dearly  conscious  of  is  the  power  to  choose.  Any  proof,  in  the 
scientific  sense,  that  a  man's  acts  are  due  to  his  power  of  free 
initiative  would  be  from  the  nature  of  the  case  impossible. 
For,  inasmuch  as  scientific  proof  depends  upon  the  evidence  of 
causality,  such  efforts  after  scientific  demonstration  would  end 
only  by  bringing  either  the  man's  whole  personality  or  some 
element  in  it  within  the  sequence  of  the  chain  of  natural  causes 
and  effects,  under  the  domination  of  that  natural  necessity  from 
which  as  a  conscious  being  he  is  free.  The  science  of  morality 
must  be  content  in  itssearch  for  causes  to  recognize  the  rationality 
of  choice  as  a  real  determining  agent  in  human  affairs.  And  no 
account  of  the  psychology  of  human  action  which  regards  conduct 
as  due  to  self-determination,  but  leaves  open  the  question 
whether  the  self  is  free  to  choose  is,  so  it  is  argued,  capable  of 
providing  an  adequate  theory  of  the  admitted  facts  o£  moral 
consciousness. 

We  most  now  consider  the^argumenU  by  which  detcrminists 


k 


WILL 


6S3 


attack  the  pbftition  of  their  opponents  and  the  evidence  which 
they  adduce  to  show  that  the  freedom  of  the  will  is  no  necessary 

postulate  for  moral  action.  For  thorough-going  deter- 
^fgigg  minism  of  the  older  t3rpe  the  dependence  of  morality 
•Mto.        upon  freedom  did  not  of  necessity  prove  an  obstacle. 

Hedonistic  psychology  denied  the  libertarian  hypothesis, 
but  it  denied  also  the  absoluteness  and  intuitive  character  of  moral 
obligation,  and  attached  no  validity  to  the  ordinary  interpreta- 
tion of  terms  like  "  ought  **  and  duty.  Modem  determinists 
differ  from  the  earlier  advocates  of  their  theory  in  their  endeavour 
lo  exhibit  at  least  the  compatibility  of  morality  with  the  absence 
of  freedom,  if  not  the  enhancement  of  moral  values  which, 
according  to  some  of  its  advocates,  follows  upon  the  acceptance 
of  the  deterministic  account  of  conduct. 

If  a  coherent  theory  capable  of  giving  an  explanation  of  the 
ordinary  facts  of  morality  and  not  involving  too  violent  a  breach 
c^mu^  ^^h  the  meaning  of  mora!  terms  m  their  accepted  usage 
|Tf?^  were  all  that  ncra  be  required  of  dcterminist*  m  order  to 
reconcile  the  defenders  of  the  moral  consciousness  to  the 
loss  of  their  belief  in  the  will's  freedom,  it  would  follow  without 

auestion  that  the  determinists  have  proved  their  case.  Neither  the 
eterrent  nor  the  reformatory  theories  of  punishment  (q.v.)  neces- 
sarily depend  upon  or  carry  with  them  a  belief  in  the  freedom  of  the 
will.  On  the  contrary,  a  belief  that  conduct  necessarily  results  upon 
the  presence  of  certain  motives,  and  that  upon  the  application  of 
certain  incentives,  whether  of  pain  or  pleasure,  upon  the  presence  of 
certain  stimuli  whether  In  the  shape  of  rewards  or  punishments, 
actions  of  a  certain  character  will  necessarily  ensue,  would  seem  to 
vindicate  the  rationality  of  ordinary  penal  fcgislaiion.  if  its  aim  be 
deterrent  or  reformatory,  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  is  possible  upon 
the  libertarian  hypothesis.  Humanitarian  moralists,  who  hesitate 
to  believe  in  the  retributive  theory  of  punishment  because,  as  they 
think,  its  aim  is  not  the  criminars  future  well-being  but  merely  the 
vindication  through  pain  of  an  outrage  upon  the  moral  Law  which 
the  criminal  need  never  have  committed,  might  welcome  a  theory 
which  urges  that  the  sole  aim  of  punishment  should  be  the  exercise 
of  an  influence  determining  the  cnminal's  future  conduct  for  his  own 
or  the  social  good. 

Moreover,  the  belief  that  the  justice  of  punishment  depends  upon 
the  responsibility  of  the  criminal  for  his  paat  ollcnces  and  the  ad- 
mission of  the  moral  consciousness  that  nis  previous  wmng-doing 
was  freely  chosen  carries  with  it,  so  it  is  argu«d.  consequences  which 
the  libertarian  moralist  might  be  willing  to  accept  with  reluctance. 
For  whatever  may  have  bwn  the  character  of  the  individual  in  the 
past,  it  is  possible  upon  the  libertarian  view  that  by  the  exercise  of 
nis  freedom  he  has  brought  about  in  himself  a  complete  change  of 
character:  he  may  be  now  the  exact  opposite  in  character  of  what  he 
was  then.  U(>on  what  grounds,  therefore,  shall  we  discriminate 
between  the  justice  of  punishing  him  for  what  he  was  at  a  previous 

Eeriod  in  his  life  and  the  injustice  of  forgiving  him  becausccf  what 
e  is  in  the  present ?  While  if  the  deterrent  and  reformatory  theories 
alone  provide  a  rational  end  for  punii^hment  to  aim  at  then  the 
libertarian  hypothesis  pushed  to  its  extreme  conclusion  roust  make 
all  punishments  equally  useless.  For  no  punishments  can  prevent 
the  individual  from  becoming  a  person  of  whatsoever  character  he 
chooses  or  from  committing  acts  of  whatsoever  moral  quality  he 
(Jetermincs  to  prefer.  A  simihr  line  of  argument  would  lead  to  the 
conclusion  that  theconceptionof  thcstateasaneducating.controlling 
and  civilizing  agency  involves  the  belief  that  individualcitizcns  can 
be  influenced  and  directed  by  motives  which  have  their  origin  in 
external  suggestion,  i.e.  that  the  determinist  theory  alone  provides  a 
rational  basis  for  state  activity  of  whatever  kind. 

It  m^ht,  however,  be  thought  that  whatever  be  the  compati- 
bility of^tbeories  of  punishment  or  of  the  activity  of  the  state  as  a 
/fjff^gf^  moralizing  agency  with  determinism,  to  reconcile  the 
denial  of  freedom  with  a  belief  in  the  reality  of  remorse 
or  penitence  will  be  plainly  impossible.  Nevertheless  there  is  no 
tendency  on  the  part  of  modern  determinists  to  evade  the  difficulty. 
They  areue  with  considerable  cogency  that  determinism  is  very  far 
from  affording  any  ground  for  believing  in  the  impotence  of  will. 
The  belief  that  our  actions  have  been  determined  in  the  past  carries 
with  it  no  argument  that  they  will  be  of  a  like  character  in  the  future. 
Though  in  the  future  as  in  the  past  they  must  be  equally  determined, 
yet  the  forcer  that  will  determine  their  character  in  the  future  may 
be  as  yet  unanalyscd  and  unapparcnt.  No  man  can  exhaust  by 
introspective  analysis  the  hidden  elements  in  his  personality.  The 
existence  of  feelinas  of  remorse  and  penitence  testify  to  the  presence 
in  the  individual  of  motives  to  good  conduct  which,  if  acted  upon  and 
allowed  full  scope  and  development,  may  produce  a  complete  change 
of  character.  Determinism  is  not  necessarily  the  logic  of  despair. 
Moreover,  in  a  certain  sense  the  very  feelings  of  rcmor!«  and  penitence 
which  are  the  chief  weapons  in  the  libertarians'  armoury  testify  to 
the  truth  of  the  determinists'  contention.  For  they  are  the  natural 
and  logical  consequence  of  the  acts  which  the  penitent  deplores. 
Such  feelings  follow  the  committal  of  acts  of  a  certain  character  in  a 
consciousness  sufficiently  moralized  as  inevitably  as  pain  in  the 

xxvin  II* 


natural  world  follows  upon  the  violation  of  one  of  nature's  taws. 
And  they  would  lose  a  great  part  of  their  significance  if  they  did  not 
testify  to  the  continued  existence  in  a  man  s  personality  of  motives 
and  tendencies  likely  to  influence  his  conduct  in  the  future  as  they 
have  already  influenced  it  in  the  past.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  give  any 
rational  explanation  of  the  idea  of  responsibility  itself  upon  inde- 
terminist  assumptions.  For  to  hold  a  person  to  be  a  responsible  agent 
is  to  believe  that  he  possesses  a  certain  fixity  and  stability  of  char- 
acter. Freedom  in  the  sense  of  complete  liberty  of  choice  would 
seem  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  free  agents  are  irresponsible,  un> 
accountable.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  throughout  the  history 
of  the  controversy  the  chief  arguments  for  cither  side  have  been  pro- 
vided by  the  extreme  and  exaggerated  statements  to  which  their 
opponents  have  been  driven  in  the  presentation  of  their  case.  So 
long  as  libertarians  contend  that  what  alone  possesses  moral  value  is 
unmotivcd  choice,  acts  of  will  of  which  no  explanation  can  be  given 
save  the  arbitrary  fiat  of  individual  selves  at  tnc  moment  of  decision, 
it  is  not  difficult  for  determinists  to  exhibit  the  absurdities  to  which 
their  arguments  lead.  It  can  easily  be  shown  that  men  do  as  a 
matter  of  fact  attach  moral  adjectives  to  environment,  tempera- 
mental tendencies,  natural  endowments,  instinctive  desires,  m  a 
word  to  all  or  most  of  those  forces  moulding  character,  from  which, 
according  to  liliortarians,  the  individual's  fr^dom  of  choice  should  be 


motive,  influenced  by  no  desire,  which  is  due  neither  to  the  natural 
display  of  character  nor  to  the  influence  of  environment,  is  eithsr 
merely  fortuitous  or  the  product  of  a  philosophical  theory. 

But,  as  has  been  already  suggested,  the  libertarian  argument  by 
no  means  necessarily  leads  to  such  extreme  conclusions.  The 
libertarian  is  not  plc<^ed  to  the  belief  that  acts  which  alone  exhibit 
real  freedom  are  isolated  acts  which  depend  upon  a  complete  change 
of  character,  a  change  which  is  in  no  sense  continuous  w^ith,  and  is  in 
no  kind  of  relation  to.  the  scries  of  successive  changes  which  make  up 
an  individual's  mentaj  and  moral  history.  It  is  true  that  a  consistent 
advocate  of  indctermtntsm  must  deny  that  the  will  is  determined  by 
motives,  and  must  admit  that  no  reason  can  finallv  be  given  for  the 
individual's  choice  beyond  the  act  of  choice  itself.  For  to  give  a 
reason  for  choosing  (where  "  reason  "  is  not  merely  equivalent  to  the 
determinists*  "  cause  "  or  "  necessary  antecedent  ")  would  simply 
lie  to  find  the  explanation  of  the  individual's  choice  in  some  previous 
decision.  Moral  conduct  is  conduct  which  follows  upon  the  choice  of 
ends,  and  to  give  a  reason  for  the  choice  of  an  end  in  any  particular 
instance  is  cither  to  explain  the  nature  of  the  end  chosen  and  thus  to 
describe  the  choice  (a  proce»  which  can  in  no  sense  show  that  the  act 
of  choice  was  itself  necessitated),  or  it  is  to  find  the  ground  of  the 
particular  decision  in  its  relation  to  an  end  already  chosen.  Bijt 
whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  end  chosen  the  libertarian  is  not  con- 
cerned to  deny  that  it  mu$t  possess  a  fixed  determinate  character. 
If  duty  be  chosen  as  opposed  to  pleasure  the  opposition  between 
duty  and  pleasure  is  a  necessary  one.  The  recognition  of  such  a 
necessary  opposition  is  involved  in  the  determinate  act  of  choice. 
But  the  choice  itself  is  neither  necessary  nor  determined.  The  belief 
that  libertariantsm  denies  the  binding  forcv  of  habit  or  the  gradual 
devclopntent  of  unchecked  tendencies  in  character  depends  upon  a 
similar  misconception.  The  continuity  of  a  man's  life  and  purposes 
would  be  equally  apparent  whether  he  nabitually  performed  the  same 
acts  and  made  the  same  decisions  in  virtue  of  nis  freedom  of  choice 
or  as  the  product  of  necessary  forces  moulding  his  character  in  ac- 
cordance vriih  fixed  laws.  Just  as  the  phenomena  of  sudden  con- 
version, coniplete  revolutions  of  character  occurring  to  outward 
appearance  in  a  momentary  space  of  time,  are  no  valid  argument 
against  determinism — they  may  be  due  to  the  sudden  emergence  of 
elements  in  life  and  character  long  concealed— so  what  looks  like 
the  orderly  and  necessary  development  of  a  character  growing  and 
exhibiting  its  activity  in  accordance  with  fixed  laws  may  in  reality 
be  due  to  innumerable  secret  struggles  and  momentous  decisions, 
acts  of  choice  of  which  only  the  results  are  outwardly  apparent.  The 
ends  which  at  any  moment  the  individual  is  free  to  choose  or  reject 
possess  a  determinate  character:  their  existence  or  non-existence  as 
possibilities  is  also  to  a  very  large  extent  determined  for  him.  No 
man  can  choose  to  become  whatsoever  he  will,  for  the  ends  which  he 
can  accomplish  are  restricted  in  number  as  well  as  definite  in  ouality. 
But  the  real  strength  of  the  libertarian  position  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  consciousness  is  capable  of  distinguishing  ends  at  all. 
Wlienever,  for  example,  there  is  an  admission  on  the  part  of  any 
individual  that  in  any  previous  act  he  made  the  attainment  of 
pleasure  his  end  rather  than  the  performance  of  duty,  there  is  also  a 
tacit  admission  that  he  might  have  acted  otherwise.  And  the  exist- 
ence of  penitence  and  remorse  is  not  merely  a  sign  of  the  emergence  in 
consciousness  of  elements  in  character  nobler  than  and  opposed  to 
those  tendencies  which  once  held  sway.  They  are  feelings  which 
are  incapable  of  coming  into  being  at  all  save  when  coupled  with  the 
judgment,  "  I  ought  to  have  acted  otherwise  because  I  possessed  the 
power.  "  The  same  argument  holds  good  concerning  our  feelings 
with  regard  to  the  justice  or  injustice  of  punishing  a  criminal  if  we 
believe  that  his  will  was  determined.  It  may  be  politic  or  expedient 
to  inflict  pain  upon  a  criminal  in  order  either  to  effect  an  alteration 
in  bis  character  or  to  deter  him  or  others  from  future  performance  ol 


654 


phcAomc'ion  dT  Hidden  tonvcrbon  and  ihe  like  i«  tufficienl  alto  u 
prove  ihil  ihcalaiccan  Qcver  be  lurc  Ihai  Ihe  punbhmcdu  bhicb  ii 
mllicttupoiilhcindividualwillhavc  thv  effect  iifDEi  hit  diaraclcr  and 
comluci  which  It  dourct.  Ir  may  bv  replied  that  tupcricncc  nukcv  ii 
nUHiiubly certain  IhilllieinlliclKin of  ccruio  penaltict  will  pccdua 
aciiol  a  certain  chaniiterind  thai  the  inHueiice  gl  ortiiin  incentiya 

i!i^IiIliMmi.hireni.«allf  TEelSa"  ■-*-'""'" 

iK«»»uilla>ii>id«it 

he  coutd  ■«  avoid  the 

to  produce  in  hii  tun. _.,,- .-  

■eU  or  todcty  tt  bcwk  Ihe  niark  and  irrelevant  to  Ihe  quettion 

At  the  momenl  ol  action  lh(  individual  uivariihly  reganls 
r^kiam.     conducl  (houM  lead  the  individual  to  regard  himieif 


as  dtltrmined  u  the  very  moment  when 

he  was  aware 

of  himself  is  bet.    It  is  this  immediate  c<m»io 

usncst  of  the 

ves  which  tb 

finds  B  diflicult  to  eipLtin.    He  ma 

freedom  «iLh  the  facts  ol  eiisience  ar 

td  the  nature 

of  the  world. 

But.  in  ordinary  cam  of  Ulusion.  a 

nee  let  the  r 

awn  for  the 

illusion  be  discovered,  and  there  is  no  longer  the 

our  being  longer  deceived.     The  phe 

lomena  which  deceived  us 

may  continue  to  peissl.  but  they  no 

longer  pers 

though  it  should  still  retain  ihoM  characicrislic  ra 

arks  or  »gn. 

ol  reality  which  hitherto  we  regarded 

as  significai 

t  of  a  naiure 

which  wc  now  no  longer  believe  it  t 

good  of  our 

of  freedom?    Ii  it  ponibte  to  hold  that  determin 

are  of  go  convincing  a  chirncter  »s  1 

0  enable  us 

orthy  niiute 

of  our  con- 

iciousnets  that  we  are  free  to  choose  lictwcen  alt 

to  grasp  beneath  Ihe  appearance  the 

nderlyingnc 

roles  our  wills?     Our  actual  conjcic 

usnessoffr. 

cciioutly  diluted.     And  (hougli  rcncclion  upon 

onduct  may 

lead  us  to  suppose  that  our  past  acts  w 

etedetermint 

d.  that  desire 

of  pleasure  or  Ihe  wish  to  avoid  pai 

controlled 

ur  Wilis,  Ihe 

oDendeis  against  morality, 

suchatgumenisaiamereeicuse,    M 

ence  are  witnesses  in  Ihe  wrongdoer  to 

he  truth  oft 

tion.   On  the  other  hand  we  have  no 

uchimmedi! 

ness  of  Ihe  necessity  which  is  said 

o  control  on 

t  will).    We 

iharpty  dislingui&h  that  freedom  w 

ich  is  the  p 

human  action   from   the  necessary 

causiiion  di 

"^tM^  In 

nature.     Within   the   domain   of   a 

mtrotpective 

analysis  it  unable  to  discover  those  ch 

insofnece», 

uyicqucnccs 

which  it  is  the  province  of  science  to 

Ihe  physical 

successfully 

eiplain  to  us 

»i^"Tc!L 

and  Umited  in  lis  nature  10  the  «h 

Ihe  consciousness  of  freedom  could 

vcr  have  arisen,  we  may 

I  bywill.see  tHHE»itNi:E,  Inte 
a  general  teem  whilst  "  tcsliniE 
s  of    personally^    but    this  dii 


Legal  systems  wh 
of  Scotland  aikd  Fi 
only  where  the  d< 
France  this  tcslrici 

held  that  " 


■oiilion  by  vQI, 


I  peuple  1 


oritic*.     R.  T.  Troplong,  fi 
est  la  plus  tiande  preuve  < 


mo«  European  mintrin  wBi  gratlyaidcd  at  ■  later  period       »-„. 
by  ecclniaiiia  vcncd  in  Roman  taw.   In  India,  accord-       TzT^ 
ingtoihebeiieroplnion.itwasunlinownbefaKihe  English       ""- 
"PI'J'W;  'jj  the  Mosaic  law  and  in  ancient  Athens  the  will,,  if  it 

eaiewiih  thef.rffi  teriarwhin,  whcretfiey  are  unaffected  by  Roman 
law.  The  will  ia,  on  the  other  hand,  lecovniied  by  RabbinioU  awd 
Mohammedan  Law.  The  eaity  Roman  wil^  as  Sir  H.  Maine  shon,  ■ 
differed  from  i he  modern  will  in  motr  important  respects.  It  mi  at 
nrsE  effeeiual  during  the  lifetime  of  the  perwm  who  made  It;  it 
wumadeinpublicitiMlilinuitTevocabfe.  iKDriginnlobjtel.  liko 
that  of  adoption,  wai  to  secure  the  peipeiuition  of  Ihe  lamUy. 
This  waidonc  Iv  Hciiniig  the  due  vniint  of  (he  kirtiaai  in  ■  pefw 
who  cDUtd  be  relied  kboii  to  keep  up  Ihe  family  rites.  There  ■•  much 
probabiliEy  in  thcconieetiireihata  will  wasonly  allowed  lobemAde 
when  the  leuator  had  no  frafilri  dimwenble,  or  when  the  MUibi 
■ud  waived  thdr  liuhts.  Ills  cenain  Iron  the  teit  of  Cains'  ihiu  the 

iiade  in  pncivlu.  oron  Ihcevcof  bailie.  The  former  were  publUied 
lelore  Ike  cmtlia.  ai  repmcnlative  of  Ihe  patrician  pnln.  and  were 
insinally a Itgiilalmaet.  TheKwHIewereihepeeJliar privllegeoC 
lalncians.    At  a  bier  limt  grew  up  a  form  e(  plebeian  will  (nifo- 

•ai  furtlHT  modlKcd  by  the  inllunKe  of  Ihe  pnciei.  npecially  In 
:he  directian  ol  rensmtnn  of  jUrimnnua  or  leitamenurv  trvKi, 
::«<«. Hi  or  informarwilb,  also  came  into  ue.  and  were  ..nfient  f« 
ilmoH  every  purwHC  bui  the  appoinlmcnt  of  an  heir.  In  ihe  time 
rf  Jiminian  a  will  fwinded  partly  on  Ihe ^Hi  tmfc,  partly  on  the  edict 
as  generally  in 

The  whole  property  of  the  lenaloi  could  noi  be  SniaKd.  The 
nghw  ol  heirs  and  dptrrndanli  were  protected  by  enicinients  which 

being  the  imrdy  ol  thov  puird'ovcr.  The  age  at  which  testa- 
menury  capacity  began  was  fourteen  in  the  case  ol  main,  twelve  In 
the  ease  o(  trmalcL  lip  to  a.d.  4]gawill  must  have  been  in  Latin* 
-'tw  that  date  Creek  was  allowed.  Certain  persons  npecially 
Mirrs,  were  pnvilrgrd  fmni  observii^  the  ordinary  forms.   The 

peiiodi.    At  f\iu  it  was  practically  unlimited,    'nien  the  law  waa 

heir  who  dmy  made  an  Invenloiyof  the  properly  of  the  drceajed  was 
Ironly  tothe  aaiett  to  whiehhehadsucceeded.   Tliii Knriuiion 

Someihina  like  ihc  E^iglirfi  pr^le  ■•  lo  be  found  in  the  rules  far 
ikingiheseabafa  will  In  presence  of  the  praetor.  CloselycDn- 
ed  with  the  will  wai  the  dmlio  matiis  lauu.  the  rvln  of  which 
c  been  as  a  whole  adopted  in  England  (s«  below).  An  immense 
T  in  the  C«»i(i-W.ii  occupied  with  lesiameniary  law.  Jht 
le  of  part  V.  of  the  Diva    books  mviii.-uxvi.)  deals  with  the 

siibiect.  and  v  rfo  a  large  number  of  conrtilutions  in  the  Codr  and 


WILL 


655 


early  as  Constantlne.  and  heivtict  and  monks  wtn  placed  under  a 
dinbility  to  make  a  will  or  take  gifts  k(t  by  will.   A  wfll  was  often  dc* 

posited  in  a  churrh.  The  canon  law  follows  the  Roman  law 
f''^^  with  a  still  greater  leaning  to  the  advantage  of  1  he  Church. 
^^'  NoChurch  property  could  be  bequeathed.  Manifest  usurers 

were  added  to  the  list  01  those  under  disability.  For  the  validity 
of  a  will  it  was  generally  necessary  that  it  should  be  made  in  the 
presence  of  a  priest  and  two  witnesses,  unless  where  it  was  made  in 
pias  cauuu.  The  witnesses,  as  in  Roman  law,  must  be  idonei.  Gifts 
to  the  Church  were  not  subject  to  the  deductions  in  favour  of  the  heir 
and  the  children  ncres&ary^  in  ordinary  cases. '  in  England  the  Churrh 
succeeded  in  hoMing  in  its  own  hands  for  centuries  jurisdiction  in 
testamentary  matters. 

The  Roman  law  of  wills  has  had  considerable  effect  upon  English 
law.     In  the  words  of  Sir  H.  Maine.  "  The  Enelish  bw  of  testa- 

mentary  succession  to  penonahy  has  become  a  modified 
^'V'*'  form  of  the  dispensation  under  ^hich  the  inheritances  of 
^"'*  Roman  citizens  were  administered."  '     At  the  same  time 

there  are  some  broad  and  striking  dilTcrenccs  which  should  be  borne 
jn  mind.  The  following  among  otncrs  may  be  noticed,  (t)  A  Roman 
testator  could  not.  uiiless  a  soldier,  die  partly  testate  and  partly 
intestate.  The  will  must  stand  or  fall  as  a  whole.  This  is  not  the 
case  in  En^and.  (2)  There  is  no  one  in  English  bw  to  whom  the 
unioersitas  juris  o(  the  testator  descends  as  it  did  to  the  Roman  beres, 
whose  appointment  was  essentbl  to  the  validity  of  a  formal  will,  and 
who  partook  of  the  nature  of  the  En^^lish  heir,  executor,  adminis- 
trator, devisee  and  Iccutcc.  (3)  The  disabilities  of  testators  differed 
in  the  two  systems.  The  disability  of  a  sbve  or  a  heretic  is  peculiar 
to  Roman  uw,  of  a  youth  bet%raen  fourteen  and  twenty-one  to 
English  bw.  (4)  The  whole  property  may  be  disposed  of  in  tncbnd ; 
but  It  was  not  so  at  Rome,  where,  except  by  the  wills  of  soldiers, 
children  could  not  be  disinherited  unless  for  specified  acts  of  mis- 
conduct. During  the  greater  part  of  the  period  of  Roman  law  the 
heir  must  also  have  had  hisFalcidian  fourth  in  order  to  induce  him  to 
accept  the  inheritance.  (5)  In  Engli&h  law  all  wills  must  conform  to 
certain  statutory  requirements;  the  Romans  recognized  from  the 
time  of  Augustus  an  informal  will  called  codiciUi.  The  English  codicil 
has  little  in  common  with  this  but  the  name.  It  is  not  an  informal 
will,  but  an  addition  to  a  will,  read  as  apart  of  it.  and  needing  the 
same  formalities  erf  execution.  (6)  The  Roman  iegatum  applied  to 
both  movables  and  immovabk»:  in  England  a  legacy  or  bequest  is  a 

fifi  of  personalty  only,  a  gift  of  real  estate  being  called  a  devise.* 
7)  The  Roman  will  spoke  from  the  time  of  making;  the  English 
speaks  from  the  time  of  death.  This  difference  becomes  very  im- 
portant in  case  of  alteration  in  the  position  of  the  testator  between 
the  making  of  the  will  and  his  death.  As  a  rule  the  Roman  will 
could  not.  the  English  can.  pass  after-acquired  property. 

Liberty  of  alienation  by  will  is  found  at  an  early  period  in  England. 
To  judge  from  the  words  of  a  bw  of  Canute,  intestacy  appears  to 
have  bwn  the  exception  at  that  time.*  How  far  the  liberty  extended 
is  uncertain;  it  is  the  opinion  of  some  authorities  that  complete 
disposition  of  land  and  goods  was  allowed,  of  others  that  limited 
rignts  of  wife  and  children  were  recognized.  However  this  may  be. 
after  the  Con<juest  a  distinction,  the  result  of  feudalism,  to  use  a 
convenient  if  inaccurate  term,  arose  between  real  and  personal 
property.  It  will  be  convenient  to  treat  the  history  of  the  two  kinds 
of  will  separately. 

It  became  the  bw  after  the  Conquest,  according  to  Sir  E.  Coke.* 
that  no  estate  greater  than  for  a  term  of  years  could  be  disposed  of 
^^  by  will,  unless  in  Kent,  where  the  custom  of  gavelkind 

*—•  prevailed,  and  in  some  manors  and  boroughs  (cspecblly 

P^'^fv*  the  City  of*  London),  where  the  pre-Conquest  law  was 
preserved  by  special  indulgence.  The  reason  why  devise  of  land  was 
not  acknowledged  by  bw  was,  no  doubt,  partly  to  discourage  death- 
bed gifts  in  mortmain,  a  \icw  supported  by  Gbnvill,  partly  becauw 
the  testator  could  not  give  the  aevisee  that  seisin  which  was  the 
principal  element  in  a  feudal  conveyance.  By  means  of  the  doctrine 
of  uses,  however,  the  devise  of  bnd  was  secured  by  a  circuitous 
method,  generally  by  conveyance  to  feoffees  to  uses  in  the  lifetime  of 
the  feoffor  to  such  uses  as  he  should  appoint  by  his  will  (see  Trust).* 
Up  to  comparatively  recent  times  a  will  of  bnds  still  bore  traces  of 
its  origin  in  the  conveyance  to  uses  inter  vivos.  On  the  pasning  of  the 
Statute  of  Uses  bnds  again  became  non-de\'isable,  with  a  saving  in 
the  statute  for  the  validity  of  wills  made  before  the  1st  of  May  1536. 
The  inetmvenicnce  of  this  state  of  things  soon  began  to  be  felt,  and 
was  probably  aggravated  by  the  large  amount  of  bnd  thrown  into 
the  market  after  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries.  As  a  remedy  an 
act  was  passed  in  1540.  and  a  fufthcr  expbnatory  act  in  1S4>-I543. 

'  Most  of  the  bw  is  contained  in  Dtcrttals^  iii.  26,  "  De  Tcsta- 
SMntis." 

*  Ancient  Law.  chap.  vi. 

'The  distinction  between  bequest  and  devise  did  not  always  exist 
For  instance,  the  Assize  of  Northampton,  c.  4.  speaks  of  a  dcvibc 
{ftitisa)  of  chattels  (see  Bequest). 

*  Secular  Laws,  c.  68.  '2  Inst.  7. 

*  Many  instances  of  such  conveyances  occur  in  Sir  Harris  Nicolas' 
Ttstamenla  vetuita  and  in  Fifty  Earliest  Englith  If'ttfx  (1387-1439). 
edited  by  Dr  F.  J.  Fumivall  in  1882. 


The  effect  of  these  acts  was  to  make  bnds  held  in  fee  simple  devisable 
by  will  in  writing,  to  the  extent  of  two-thirds  where  the  tenure  was  by 
knight  service,  and  the  whole  where  it  was  in  socage.  Corporations 
were  incapacitated  to  receive,  and  married  women,  infants,  idiots  and 
lunatics  to  devise.  An  act  of  1660.  by  abolishing  tenure  by  kn^ht 
service,  made  all  bnds  devisable.  In  the  same  reign  the  Statute  of 
Frauds  (1677)  dealt  with  the  formalities  of  execution.  Up  to  this 
time  simple  notes,  even  in  the  handwriting  of  another  person,  con- 
stituted a  sufficient  will,  if  published  by  the  testator  as  such.  The 
Statute  of  Frauds  required,  inter  alia,  that  all  devises  should  be  in 
writing,  signed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  person  for  him  in  his 
presence  and  by  his  direction,  and  should  also  be  subscribed  by 
three  or  four  credible  witnesses.  The  strict  interpretation  by  the 
courts  of  the  credibility  of  witnesses  led  to  the  passing  of  an  act  in 
>75i*-t75'«  making  interested  witnesses  sufficient  for  the  due  execu- 
tion of  the  will,  but  decbring  gifts  to  them  void.  The  will  of  a  man 
was  revoked  by  marriage  and  the  birth  of  a  child,  of  a  woman  by 
marriage  only.  A  will  was  also  revoked  by  an  alteration  in  circum- 
stances, and  even  by  a  void  conveyance  inter  vivos  of  bnd  devised  by 
the  will  made  subsequently  to  the  date  of  the  will,  which  was  pre- 
sumed to  be  an  attempt  by  the  grantor  to  give  Iraal  effect  to  a  chance 
of  intention.  As  in  Roman  bw,  a  will  spoke  from  the  time  of  the 
making,  so  that  it  could  not  avail  to  pass  after-acquired  property 
without  republication,  which  was  equivalent  to  making  a  new  will. 
Copyholds  were  not  devisable  before  1815,  but  were  usually  sur- 
renocred  to  the  use  of  the  will  of  the  copyhold  tenant;  an  act  of  1815 
made  them  devisable  simply.  Devises  of  lands  have  gradually  been 
made  Ibbk  tc  the  cbims  of  creditors  by  a  series  of  statutes  beginning 
with  the  year  1691. 

The  history  of  wills  of  personalty  was  considerably  different, 
but  to  some  extent  folk>wea  parallel  lines.    In  both  cases  partbl 
preceded  complete  power  of  disposition.     The  general 
opinion  of  the  oest  authorities  is  tnat  by  the  common  law     ^^^?ff^ 
oi  Engbnd  a  man  could  only  dispose  of  his  whole  pcnonal     P^V^fv* 

Kropcrty  if  he  left  no  wife  or  children ;  if  he  left  eit ner  wife  or  children 
c  could  only  dispose  of  one-half,  and  one-third  if  he  left  both  wife 
and  children.  The  shares  of  wife  and  children  were  called  their  pats 
rationabiiis.  This  pars  ratianabilis  is  expressly  recognised  in  Magna 
Carta  and  was  sued  for  by  the  writ  de  mtionabili  parte.  At  what 
perkxl  the  right  of  dispo<ntion  of  the  whole  personalty  superseded  the 
old  law  is  uncertain.  That  it  did  so  is  certain,  and  the  pbccs  where 
the  old  rule  still  existed — the  province  of  York,  Wales  and  the  City 
of  London — were  regarded  as  exceptions.  The  right  of  bequest  in 
these  places  was  not  assimibted  to  the  general  law  until  compara- 
tively recent  times  by  acts  passed  between  1693  and  1726.  A  will  of 
personalty  could  be  made  by  a  male  at  fourteen,  by  a  female  at 
twelve.  The  formalities  in  the  case  of  wills  of  personalty  were  not  as 
numerous  as  in  the  case  of  wills  of  bnd.  Up  to  1838  a  nuncupative 
or  oral  will  was  sufficient,  subject,  where  the  gift  was  of  £30  or  more, 
to  the  restrictions  contained  in  the  Statute  of  Frauds.  The  witnesses 
to  a  written  will  need  not  be  "  credible,"  and  it  was  specially  enacted 
by  an  act  of  1705  that  any  one  who  could  give  evidence  in  a  court  of 
law  was  a  good  witness  to  a  will  of  personalty  A  will  entirely  in  the 
testator's  nandwriting,  called  a  holograph  will,  was  valid  without 
signature.  At  one  time  the  executor  was  entitled  to  the  residue  in 
default  of  a  residuary  legatee.  But  the  Executors  Act  1830  made 
him  in  such  an  event  trustee  for  the  next  of  kin. 

Jurisdiction  over  wills  of  personalty  was  till  1858  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical courts,  probate  being  granted  by  the  diocesan  court'  if  the 
goods  of  the  deceased  lay  in  the  same  diocese,  in  the  provincial  court 
of  Canterbury  (the  prerogative  court)  or  York  (the  chancery  court) 
if  thedeceas«l  had  oona  notabiHa.  that  is,  goods  to  the  value  of  £^  in 
two  dioceses.  The  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  was  of  a  very  Ancient 
origin,  it  was  fully  established  under  Henry  II..  as  it  is  mentioned 
by  Glanvill.  In  the  city  of  London  wills  were  enrolled  in  the  Court  of 
Itustings  from  1258  to  168S  after  having  been  proved  before  the 
ordinary  Contested  cases  before  1858  were  tried  in  the  provincial 
court  with  an  appeal  originally  to  the  Court  of  Delegates,  bter  to  the 
iudicialcomm«ttceof  the  privy  council.  There  werealsoa  few  special 
local  juri<dictinns,  courts  baron,  the  university  courts,  and  others, 
probably  for  the  mo^x  part  surx'ivals  of  the  pre-Conquest  period,  when 
wills  seem  to  haw  been  published  in  the  county  court.  The  ecclesi- 
astical courts  had  no  jurisdiction  over  wills  of  land,  and  the  common 
bw  courts  were  careful  to  keep  the  ccdcsbstical  courts  within  tlicir 
limits  by  means  of  prohibition.  No  probate  of  a  will  of  bnd  was 
necessary,  and  titk^  to  real  estate  by  will  might  be  made  by  pro- 
duction of  the  will  as  a  document  of  title.  The  Kability  of  the 
executor  and  legatee  for  the  debts  of  the  testator  has  been  gradually 
established  by  tceislation.  In  general  it  is  limited  to  the  amount  of 
the  succession.  Personal  Ibbility  of  the  executor  beyond  this  can 
by  the  Statute  of  Frauds  only  be  established  by  contract  in  writing. 

Modern  English  Law. — ^Such  were  the  principal  stages  in  the 
hbtory  of  the  bw  as  it  affected  wills  mado  before  1838  or  proved 
before  1856.  The  principal  acts  now  in  force  are  the  Wilis  Act 
1837,  the  amending  act  of  1852,  the  Court  of  Probate  Act  1857, 

'The  testamentary  jurisdiction  of  the  archdeacon's  court  is 
alluded  to  by  Chaucer  in  the  "  Friar's  Tale,"  bat  it  was  afterwards 
completely  superseded  by  the  bishop's  court. 


656 


WILL 


the  Judicature  Acts  1873  and  1875  and  the  Land  Tkransfer  Act 

1897.  AU  but  theacts  of  1837  and  1852  deal  mainly  with  what 
happens  to  the  will  after  death,  whether  under  the  voluntary  or 
contentious  jurisdiction  of  the  Probate  Division  (see  Probate). 
Some  of  the  earlier  acts  are  still  law,  though  of  little  importance 
since  the  more  modem  and  comprehensive  enactments. 

>  The  earliest  on  the  statute  roll  is  an  act  of  Henry  III.  (1236), 
enabling  a  widow  to  beaucath  the  crops  of  her  lands.  Before  the 
Wilk  Act  untformity  in  the  law  had  been  urgently  recommended  by 
the  Real  Property  Commissioners  in  1833.  It  appears  from  their 
teport'  that  at  the  time  of  its  appearance  there  were  ten  different 
ways  in  which  a  will  might  be  made  under  different  circumstances. 
.  The  act  of  1837  affected  both  the  making  and  the  interpretation 
of  wills.*  Excluding  the  latter  for  the  present,  its  main  provisions 
were  these.  AH  property,  real  and  personal,  and  of  whatever  tenure, 
may  be  disposed  of  by  will.  If  customary  freeholds  or  copvholds 
be  devised,  the  will  must  be  entered  on  the  court  rolls.  No  wilf  made 
by  any  person  under  the  age  of  twentv-onc  is  valid.  Every  will  is  to 
be  in  wnting,  signed  at  the  foot  or  end  thereof  by  the  testator  orby 
some  person  in  his  presence  and  by  his  direction,  and  such  signature 
b  to  be  made  or  acknowledged  by  the  testator  in  the  presence  of  two 
or  more  witnesses  present  at  the  same  time,  who  are  to  subscribe  the 
wilt  in  the  presence  of  the  testator.  It  is  usual  for  the  testator  and 
the  witnesses  to  sign  every  sheet.  Publication  is  not  necessary.  A 
wiU  is  not  void  on  account  of  the  incompetency  of  a  witness.  Gifts 
to  a  witness  or  the  husband  or  wife  of  a  witness  are  void.  A  creditor 
or  executor  may  attest.  A  will  is  revoked  (except  where  made  in 
eaercise  of  a  power  of  appointment  of  a  certain  kind)  by  a  later  will. 
or  by  destruction  with  the  intention  of  revoking,  but  not  by  pre- 
sumption arising  from  an  alteration  in  circumstances.  Alterations  in 
a  will  must  be  executed  and  attested  as  a  will.  A  will  speaks  from 
the  death  of  the  testator,  unless  a  contrary  intention  appear.  An 
unattested  document  may  be.  if  properly  identified,  incorporated  in 
a  will,  but  such  a  document,  tf  executed  subsequently  to  the  will,  is 
inoperative. 

Rules  of  interpretation  or  construction  depend  chiefly  on  decisions 
of  the  courts,  to  a  smaller  extent  on  statutory  enactment.  The 
taw  W.1S  gradually  brought  into  its  present  condition  through  pre- 
cedents  extending  back  for  centuries,  especially  decisions  of  the 
court  of  chancery,  the  court  par  exctlUnce  of  construction,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  court  of  probate.  The  court  of  probate  did 
not  deal  unless  incidentally  with  the  meaning  of  the  will;  its  juris- 
diction was  confined  to  seeing  that  it  was  duly  executed.  The 
present  state  of  the  law  of  interpretation  is  highly  technical.  Some 
phrases  have  obtained  a  conventional  meaning  which  the  testators 
who  used  them  probably  did  not  dream  of.  Many  of  the  judicial 
doctrines  which  had  gradually  become  established  were  altered  by 
the  Wills  Act.  These  provisions  of  the  act  have  since  that  time 
themselves  become  the  subject  of  judicial  decision.  Among  other 
provisions  are  these,  most  of  them  to  take  effect  only  in  the  absence 
of  a  contrary  intention.  A  residuary  devise  b  to  include  estates 
comprised  in  lapsed  and  void  devi»es.  A  general  gift  of  the  testator's 
lands  is  to  include  copyholds  and  leaseholds.  A  general  gift  of  real 
or  personal  estate  is  to  include  real  or  personal  estate  over  which  the 
testator  had  a  general  power  of  appointment.  A  devise  without 
woTdsof  limitation  is  to  pass  the  fee  simple.  The  words  "die  without 
issue."  or  similar  words,  arc  to  mean  die  without  issue  living  at  the 
time  of  the  death  of  the  person  whose  issue  was  named,  not  as  before 
the  act.  an  indcfiniie  failure  of  issue,  an  estate  tail  being  thus  created. 
Trustees  under  an  unlimited  devise  arc  to  take  the  fee  simple. 
Devises  of  estates  tail  are  not  to  lapse  if  the  devisee,  though  he  pre- 
deceased the  tesutor.  left  issue  inheritable  under  the  entail.  Gifts 
to  children  or  other  issue  leaving  issue  living  at  the  testator's  death 
are  not  to  lapse.  Rules  of  interpretation  founded  on  principles  of 
equity  independent  of  statute  arc  very  numerous,  and  for  them  the 
works  devoted  to  the  subject  must  be  consulted.  Some  of  the  more 
important,  stated  in  as  general  a  form  as  possible,  are  these.  The 
intention  of  the  testator  is  to  be  observed.  This  rule  is  calkxi  by 
Sir  E.  Coke  the  polcstar  to  guide  the  judges.  There  is  a  presumption 
against  intestacy,  again»t  double  portions,  against  constructing 
merely  precatory  words  to  import  a  trust,  &c.  One  part  of  the  will 
is  to  be  expounded  by  another.  Interlineations  and  alterations  are 
presumed  to  have  been  vaaiAic  after,  not  as  in  deeds  before,  execution. 
Words  arc  supposed  to  be  used  in  their  strict  and  primary  sense. 
Many  words  and  phrases,  however,  such  as  "  money."  '  residue  "  and 
"  issue  "  and  other  words  of  relationtthip,  have  become  invested  with 
a  technical  meaning,  but  there  has  been  a  recent  tendency  to  include 
illegitimate  children  in  a  gift  to  "  children."  Evidence  is  admissible 
in  certain  cases  to  explain  latent  ambiguity,  and  parol  evidence  of  the 
terms  of  a  lost  will  may  be  eiven  as  in  the  famous  case  of  SugHeu  v. 
Lord  St  Leonards  (1876),  i  Prob.  Div.  154. 

A  wilt  may  be  void,  in  whole  or  in  part,  for  many  reasons,  which 
may  be  divided  into  tjwo  great  classes,  those  arising  from  external 
ciKumstances  and  those  arising  from  the  will  itself.    The  main 

i  Fourth  Report,  p.  12. 

*  By  i  I  of  the  act  the  word  "  will  '*  includes  codicil. 


exftikiptes  of  the  former  class  are  revocation  by  burning,  tearing.  Ac., 
by  a  later  will,  or  by  marriage  of  the  tesutor  (eitcept  as  below), 
incapacity  of  the  testator  from  insanity,  infamy  or  legal  disability 
(such  as  being  a  convict),  undue  influence  and  fraud,  any  one  of 
which  is  ground  for  the  court  to  refuse  or  revoke  probate  of  a  will. 
A  will  being  ambulatory  is  always  revocable,  unless  in  one  or  two 
exceptional  instances.  Undue  influence  is  a  ground  upon  which 
frequent  attempts  are  made  to  set  aside  wilts,  tto  nature  is  well 
exfMained  in  a  judgment  of  Lord  Penaance's:  "  Pressure  of  whatever 
character,  whether  acting  on  the  fears  or  the  hopes,  if  so  exerted  as  id 
overpower  the  voUtioil  without  convincing  the  judgment,  is  a  species 
of  restraint  under  which  no  valid  will  can  be  made."'  There  is 
nothing  corresponding  to  the  querela  inofficiosi  teslamenti,  but  un- 
itaturai  pfox'isions  may  be  evidence  of  mental  defect.  ^  The  circum- 
stances appearing  on  the  face  of  the  will  which  make  it  open  to  ob- 
jection may  cither  avoid  it  altogether  or  create  a  partial  intestacv. 
the  will  remaining  good  as  a  whole.  Where  the  will  b  not  duly 
executed,  e.g.  if  it  is  a  forgery  or  if  it  is  not  signed  by  the  testator  or 
the  proper  number  of  witnesses,  the  will  is  not  admitted  to  probate  at 
all.  Where  it  contains  devises  or  bequests  bad  in  law,  as  in  general 
restraint  of  marriage,  or  tending  to  create  perpetuities,  or  contrary 
to  public  policy,  or  to  some  particular  enactment,  only  the  illegal 
part  is  void.  A  remarkable  instance  b  a  well-known  case  in  which  a 
condition  subsequent  in  a  devise  was  held  void  as  against  public 
policy,  being  a  gift  over  of  the  estate  devised  in  case  the  first  devisee, 
the  eldest  son  df  an  earl,  did  not  before  hb  death  obtain  the  lapsed 
title  of  duke  of  Bridgewater.* 

There  arc  some  wills  of  an  exceptional  kind  which  demand  special 
notice.  The  Kiug. — It  was  resolved  in  parliament  in  Richard  Il.'a 
reign  (1392)  that  the  king,  hb  heirs  ana  successors,  might  lawfully 
make  their  lestanMrnts.*  In  some  later  cases  parliamentary  authority 
has  been  given  to  royal  wills,  in  others  not.  The  executors  oi 
Ifenry  IV.  wereconfirnHsd  inthetrofhceby  letters  patent  of  Henry  V.^ 
those  of  Henry  V.  by  parliament.  The  largest  testamentary  powers 
ever  conferred  on  an  English  king  were  given  to  Henry  Vlll.  by  att 
act  of  1 533-1  S34> empowering  him  to  limit  and  appoint  thesucccseiott 
to  the  crown  by  will,  in  default  of  children  by  Jfane  Seymour  t>r  any 
future  wife.  By  39  &  40  Geo.  UK  c.  88  the  kins  and  his  successor 
may  devise  or  bequeath  their  private  property.'  No  court,  however, 
has  jurisdiction  to  grant  probate  of  the  will  of  a  king.  Guardian' 
shtp. — .^sa  general  rule  wills  deal  with  property,  but  even  at  common 
law  a  will  simply  appointing  a  guardian  was  good.  The  common  law 
was.superscded  by  an  act  01  1660,  under  which  a  father  may  dispose 
of  the  custody  of  his  unmarrk^d  infant  children  by  wiU.  The 
Guardianship  of  Infants  Act  t886  extended  such  powers  in  certain 
caxes  to  the  mother.  Married  Woman. — At  common  law  a  married 
woman  could  not  (with  a  few  exceptions)  make  a  will  without  her 
husband's  licence  and  consent,  and  this  disability  was  specially  pre- 
served by  the  Wills  Acts  of  Henry  VIII.  and  of  1837.  A  comnwn 
mode  of  avoiding  this  difficulty  was  for  the  husband  to  contract  before 
marriage  to  permit  the  wife  to  make  an  appointment  disposing  of 
personalty  to  a  cenain  value.  Couns  of  equity  from  an  early  time 
allowed  her.  under  certain  restrictions,  to  make  a  will  of  property 
held  for  her  separate  use.  In  some  cases  her  husband  could  dispose 
of  her  property  by  wilt,  in  others  not.  The  \av(  as  it  existed  previously 
to  1883  is  now  practically  obsolete,  the  Married  Women's  Pn^)erty 
Act  1882  enabling  a  married  woman  to  dispose  by  will  of  anv  real  or 
personal  propcny  as  her  separate  property  as  a /Irmr  soie  without  the 
intervention  of  any  trustee.  The  act  also  enables  a  married  woman 
who  is  executrix  of  a  will  to  act  as  if  she  were  a  feme  soie.  The 
Married  Women's  Property  Act  1893  extended  the  act  of  1883  by 
making  it  unnecessary  for  the  will  oT  a  married  woman  to  be  re- 
executed  or  republished  after  the  death  of  her  husband.  Ahen.-^ 
Before  1870  an  alien  enemy  resident  in  England  could  only  dispose 
of  property  by  will  with  the  king's  licence.  The  Naturalization  Act 
1870  enabfes  him  to  Ho  so  as  fully  as  a  natural-born  British  subiect. 
But  if  he  be  an  alien  domiciled  abroad  he  cannot  avail  himself  of  L«rd 
King.sdown's  Act- (see  below).  Soldier  and  Sailor — Wills  of  soldiers 
in  actual  military  service,  and  of  sailors,  are  subject  to  special  Icgis- 
tation.  and  are  excepted  from  the  operation  of  the  \Vill9  Act.  Tlie 
privilege  only  applies  to  wills  of  personal  estate.  Such  wills  may 
usually  be  made  when  the  testator  has  attained  the  age  of  fourteen, 
and  are  not  revoked  by  marriage  only  but  by  marriage  and  the  birth 
of  a  child.  Wills  of  soldiers  on  an  expedition  nuy  be  made  by  un« 
attested  writing  or  l}y  nuncupative  testament  before  two  witnesses. 
Wills  of  petty  officers  and  seamen  in  the  navy,  and  of  marines,  as  far 
as  relates  to  their  pay  or  priac-money.  must  be  attested  by  an  officer, 
and  wills  made  by  a  seaman  in  the  merchant  service  must,  if  made  at 
sea,  be  attested  by  the  master  or  mute,  if  made  on  land  by  a  super- 
intendent of  a  mercantile  marine  office,  a  minister  of  religion,  justice 
of  the  peace,  or  consular  or  customs  officer.  See  the  Merchant 
Shipping  Act  1894.  s.  177.  The  wills  of  pri.H)ners  of  war  are  subject 
to  special  regulations,  and  the  Admiralty  may  at  its  discretion  waive 

»  Hall  V.  Hall,  L.R.  i  Prob.  a8i. 

*  Egrrton  v.  Earl  Brownlow,  4  House  of  Lords  Cases,  2  lO. 
•4  Insi.  335. 

•  See  the  CoUectton  of  Royal  Wills  printed  for  the  Society  of  AaA- 
quaries  by  J.  Nichols  (1780). 


WILL 


657 


the  due  execution  of  wiUs  in  other  instances.  The  effects  of  seamen, 
marines  and  sotdiera,  killed  or  dying  in  the  service,  are  exempt 
from  duty.  Pay,  wages,  prize  money  and  pensions  due  to  persons 
empioyea  in  the  navy  may  be  paid  out  without  probate  where  the 
whole  assets  do  not  exceed  £33.  The  Board  of  Trade  may  at  its  dis- 
cretion dispense  with  probate  of  the  will  of  a  merchant  seaman  whose 
effects  do  not  exceed  £50  in  value.  By  an  act  passed  in  1868  the 
existing  exemptions  are  extended  to  the  sum  of  £ioo  in  the  case  of 
civil  service  pay  or  annuities,  of  civil  or  military  allowances  charge- 
able to  the  army  votes,  and  of  army  prize  money.  Will  made  under 
power. — ^A  will  made  under  a  power  of  appointment  is  not  revoked 
By  marriage  when  the  real  or  personal  estate  thereby  appointed 
would  not  m  default  of  appointment  pass  to  the  testator's  ^ecutor 
or  administrator  or  to  the  next  of  kin.  Before  the  Wills  Act  a  will 
exercising  a  power  ci  appointment  had  to  conform  to  any  special 
requisitions  in  the  power,  but  since  the  act  the  power  is  duly  exercised 
if  executed  and  attested  like  an  ordinary  will.  Registration. — In  the 
register  counties  memorials  of  wills  affecting  lands  in  those  counties 
must  be  registered.  Member  of  friendly  society.  &c. — Members  of 
friendly,  industrial  and  provident  societies,  depositors  in  savings 
banks,  and  servants  in  certain  public  offices,  may  under  the  pro- 
visions of  numerous  acts  make  a  nomination  to  an  amount  not  ex- 
ceeding £100.  Such  nomination  is  practically  equivalent  to  a  will, 
and  may  be  made  at  the  age  of  sixteen. 

At  common  law  there  could  be  no  larceny^  of  a  will  of  lands.  ^  But 
now  by  the  Larceny  Act  of  1861  stealing^  injuring  or  concealing  a 
will,  whether  of  real  or  personal  estate,  ts  punishable  with  penal 
servitude  for  life.  Forgery  of  a  will  (at  one  time  a  capital  crime) 
renders  the  offender  liable  to  the  same  penalty.  Fraudulent  con- 
cealment of  a  will  material  to  the  title  by  a  vendor  or  mortgagor  of 
land  or  chattels  is,  by  the  Law  of  Property  Amendment  Act  1059,  ^ 
misdemeanour  punishable  by  fine  or  imprisonment  or  both.  It 
should  be  noticed  that  a  contract  to  make  a  will  containing  pro- 
visions in  favour  of  a  certain  person  or  certain  persons  is  valid  tf  it 
fulfil  the  requirements  of  the  law  regulating  contract.  A  good 
example  u  Synge  v.  Synge  (1894)  i  K.B.  466. 

For  death  duties  see  Estate  Duty,  Legacy,  Succession  Duty. 

The  principal  authorities  for  the  English  law  are,  for  the  formalities. 
Sir  E.  V.  Williams,  Executors;  Holdsworth  and  Vickers,  Law  of 
Succession;  J.  Williams,  Wills  (utd  Succession;  for  the  construction, 
the  works  of  Sir  James  Wigram  and  of  Messrs  Jannan,  F.  V. 
Hawkins  and  Theobald.  Precedents  will  be  found  in  Hayes  and 
Jarman's  Concise  forms  of  Wills,  and  in  ordinary  collections  of  pre- 
cedents in  conveyancing.  For  comparative  law  see  E.  Lambert, 
Le  Rigime  successoral  (ntris,  1903). 

The  act  of  1857  Applies  to  Ireland.  The  main  difference  between 
■the  law  of  the  two  countries  is  that  in  Ireland  a  bequest  for  masses 
,.  ,  -  for  the  repose  of  the  testator's  soul  is  valid,  provided  that 
^^^  the  masses  be  public,  in  England  such  a  bequest  is  void  as 
tending  to  superstitious  uses. 

Up  to  1868  wills  of  immovables  were  not  allowed  in  Scotland.  The 
usual  means  of  obtaining  disposition  of  heritage  after  death  was  a 
Q^,!,,^  trust  disposition  and  settlement  by  deed  de praesenti,  under 
seeuaua,  -^jji^^  ^^^  truster  disponed  the  property  to  trustees 
according  to  the  trusts  of  the  settlement,  reserving  a  life  jnterest. 
Thus  something  very  similar  to  a  testamentary  disposition  was 
secured  by  means  resembling  those  employed  in  England  before  the 
Wills  Act  of  Henry  VIII.  _  The  main  disadvantage  of  the  trust  dis- 
position was  that  it  was  liable  to  be  overthrown  by  the  hcir^  who 
could  reduce  ex  capite  lecti  all  voluntary  deeds  made  to  his  prejudice 
within  sixty  days  of  the  death  of  his  ancestor.  In  1868  the  Titles  to 
Land  Consolidation  Act  made  it  competent  to  any  owner  of  lands  to 
settle  the  succession  to  the  same  in  the  event  of  death  by  testa- 
mentary or  mortis  causa  deeds  or  writings.  In  1871  reduction  ex 
capile  kcti  was  abolished.  A  will  of  immovables  must  be  executed 
with  the  formalities  of  a  deed  and  registered  to  give  title.  The  dis- 
ability of  a  woman  as  a  witness  was  removed  by  the  Titles  to  Land 
Consolidation  Act.  As  to  wills  of  movables,  there  are  several  im- 
portant points  in  which  they  differ  from  corresponding  wills  in 
England,  the  influence  of  Roman  law  being  more  marked..  Males 
may  make  a  will  at  fourteen,  females  at  twelve.  A  nuncupative 
legacy  is  good  to  the  amount  of  £100  Soots  (£8,  6e.  8d.),  and  a  holo- 
graph testament  is  good  without  witnesses,  but  it  must  be  signed  by 
the  testator,  differing  in  this  from  the  old  English  holograph.  By  the 
Conveyancing  Act  1874  such  a  will  is  presumed  to  have  been  «cecuted 
on  the  date  which  it  bears.  Not  all  movables  can  be  left,  as  in 
England.  The  movable  property  of  the  deceased  is  subject  to  jus 
reltctae  and  legitim.  See  McLaren,  Wills  and  Succession,  for  the  law, 
and  Judicial  StyUi.  for  styles. 

United  Stales.— ^y  the  constitutions  of  many  states  laws 
giving  effect  to  informal  or  invalid  wills  are  forbidden.  The 
age  of  testamentary  capacity  varies  very  much.  Eighteen  is  a 
common  one.  Full  liberty  of  disposition  is  not  universaL  Home- 
steads  generally,  and  dower  estates  frequently,  are  not  devisable. 
In  some  states  only  a  disposable  portion  of  the  property  can 
be  left,  so  that  chDdren  cannot  be  disinherited  without  good 
cause,  and  in  some  chfldren  omitted  in  a  will  may  still  take 


their  share.  It  is  frequently  provided  that  a  certaih  amount 
must  be  left  to  the  widow.  Louisiana  follows  French  law,  by 
which  the  testator  can  under  no  circumstances  alienate  by  will 
more  than  half  his  property  if  he  leave  issue  or  ascendants.  In 
some  states  a  married  woman  may  not  leave  more  than  half  her 
property  away  from  her  husband.  Some  require  the  husband's 
consent  and  subscription  to  make  the  will  of  a  married  woman 
valid.  Nuncupative  and  holograph  wills  are  in  use.  The 
former  are  confined  to  personalty  and  must  generally  be  reduced 
to  writing  within  a  short  time  after  the  words  are  spoken.  In 
Louisiana  the  mystic  or  scaled  will  still  exists.  The  number  of 
witnesses  necessary  for  the  validity  of  a  will  of  any  kind  is 
usually  two,  sometimes  three.  Wilk  of  soldiers  and  sailors  are 
privileged,  as  in  England.  There  are  several  dedsions  of  state 
courts  that  belief  in  spiritualism  does  not  of  itself  constitute 
testamentary  incapacity. 
See  Jannan,  American  edition'by  Randolph  and  Takott. 

Prance. — ^The  law  is  mainly  contained  in  ss.  967-1074  of  the 
Code  Civil.  Wills  in  France  may  be  of  three  kinds:  (i)  kold- 
grapkf  which  must  be  wholly  written,  dated  and  signed  by  the 
testator;  (2)  made  as  a  puUic  instrument,  i.e.  received  by  two 
notaries  before  two  witnesses  or  by  one  notary  before  four 
witnesses;  this  form  of  will  must  be  dictated  by  the  testator 
and  written  by  the  notary,  must  be  read  over  to  the  testator 
in  the  presence  of  the  witnesses  and  must  be  signed  by  testator 
and  witnesses;  (3)  mystic,  which  are  signed  by  the  testator, 
then  closed  and  sealed  and  delivered  by  him  to  a  notary  before 
six  witnesses;  the  notary  then  draws  up  an  accotmt  of  the 
proceedings  on  the  instrument  which  is  signed  by  the  testator, 
notary  and  witnesses.  Legatees  and  their  blood  relations  to 
the  fourth  degree  may  not  be  vdtnesses.  Nuncupative  wills 
are  not  recognized.  Soldiers*  and  sailors'  wills  are  subject  to 
special  rules  as  in  most  other  coimtries.  Full  liberty  of  dis- 
position only  exists  where  the  testator  has  no  ascendants  or 
descendants,  in  other  cases -his  quantitS  disponiMe  is  subject 
to  riserve;  if  the  testator  has  one  child  he  may  only  dispose 
of  half  his  estate,  if  two  only  one-third,  if  three  or  more  only 
one-fourth;  if  he  has  no  descendants  but  ascendants  in  both 
lines  he  may  dispose  of  half,  if  ascendants  in  one  line  only  he 
may  dispose  of  three-fourths.  The  full  age  of  testamentary 
capadty  is  twenty-one  years,  but  minors  over  the  age  of  sixteen 
may  dispose  by  will  of  half  of  the  estate  of  which  they  could 
dispose  had  they  been  of  full  age.  There  is  no  restriction  against 
married  women  making  wills.  A  contract  to  dispose  of  the 
succession  is  invalid,  s.  791. 

The  codes  of  the  Latin  races  in  Europe  are  in  general  accord- 
ance with  the  French  law. 

Germany. — Most  of  the  law  will  be  found  in  the  BUrgerliches 
Cesetsbuch,  ss.  2064-2273.  A  holograph  will,  either  single  or 
joint,  is  allowed.  Other  wills  must  be  declared  before  a  judge 
or  notary  or  (outside  Germany)  a  consul.  Two  witnesses  are 
required,  unless  the  witness  be  a  notary  or  the  registrar  of  the 
court,  who  is  sufficient  alone.  The  formalities  may  be  relaxed 
in  certain  cases,  such  as  Imminent  death,  a  state  of  siege,  a 
prevailing  epidemic,  &c.  Descendants,  ascendants  and  the 
husband  and  wife,  are  entitled  to  compulsory  portions  {pfiicht- 
teilsberecktigt).  But  those  prima  facie  entitled  may  be  deprived 
of  their  share  for  certain  specified  kinds  of  misconduct.  A  con- 
tract to  make  any  specified  testamentary  disposition  is  in- 
operative. But  a  contract  of  inheritance  (Erlnerlrag)  made 
inter  vivos  by  direct  disposition  is  valid  in  certain  cases  and 
will  operate  on  the  death  of  the  contractor.  The  modes  o£ 
revocation  are  much  the  same  as  in  England  (except  marriage). 
But  there  is  one  peculiar  to  Germany,  the  inconsistency  of  a  will 
with  an  Erbvertrag]  in  such  an  event  the  will  is  wholly  or  pro 
tanto  revoked. 

International  Law.— There  are  three  main  directions  which  the 
opinion  of  jurists  and  the  practice  of  courts  have  taken.  .  (i)  The 
whole  property  of  the  testator  may  be  subjected  to  the  hw  of  his 
domicii.  To  this  effect  is  the  opinbn  of  Savigny  and  the  German 
practice.  Certain  modifications  have  been  macfe  by  modem  law. 
especially  by  the  EinfMkntngsgfisetz  of  1896.  (2^)  The  property  may 
be  subjected  to  the  law  of  the  place  where  it  happens  to  be  at  the 


6s8 


WILLARD— WILLESDEN 


time  of  thetottator'sdMth.  ,(3)  The  nowible  proMfty  nay  be  sub- 
jected to  the  law  of  the  domicilTthe  immovable  (including  leaseholds) 
to  the  law  of  the  place  where  it  is  situate,  the  Ux  loci  ret  sita*.  England 
and  the  United  States  follow  this  rule.  Testamentary  capacity  is 
generally  govenied  by  the  law  of  the  testator's  domicil  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  the  form  of  the  instrument  in  most  countries  either  by 
the  law  of  his  domicil  or  the  law  of  the  place  where  the  will  was  made, 
at  his  option.  The  old  rule  of  Englisn  law  was  to  allow  the  former 
alternative  only.  The  law  was  altered  for  the  United  Kingdom  in 
1861  by  the  Wilis  Act  1861  (known  as  Lord  Kingsdown  s  Act). 
by  which  a  will  madfe  out  of  the  United  Kingdom  by  a  British  subject 
is,  as  far  as  r^rds  personal  estate,  good  if  made  according  to  the 
forms  required  Dy  the  law  of  the  place  where  it  was  made,  or  by  the 
law  of  the  testator's  domicil  at  tlic  time  of  making  It.  or  by  the  law 
of  the  place  of  his  domicil  of  orisin.  Subsequent  change  ot  domicil 
does  not  avoid  such  a  will.  Another  act  passed  on  the  same  day*  the 
Domicile  Act  1861,  enacted  that  by  convention  with  any  foreign 

government  foreign  domicil  with  regard  to  wills  could  not  be  acquired 
y  a  testator  without  a  year's  residence  and  a  written  declaration 
of  intention  to  become  domiciled.  By^  the  same  act  foreign  consuls 
may  by  convention  have  certain  authority  over  the  wills  and  property 
of  subjects  of  foreign  states  dying  in  England.  In  the  United  States 
some  states  have  adopted  the  narrow  policy  of  enacting  by  statute 
the  old  common  law  rule,  and  providing  that  no  will  is  valid  unless 
oude  in  the  form  required  by  the  law  of  the  state  of  the  testator's 
domicil.  The  capacity  of  the  testator,  revocation  and  construction 
of  a  will,  are  governed  by  the  law  of  the  domicil  of  the  testator  at  the 
time  of  his  death — except  in  cases  affected  by  Lord  Kingsdown's 
Act,  as  he  must  be  supposcsd  to  have  used  language  in  consonance 
with  that  law,  unless  indeed  he  express  himself  in  technical  language 
of  another  countiy .  A  good  instance  is  Croos'  Cast  ( 1904),  Prob.  269, 
where  it  was  held  that  the  will  of  a  Dutch  woman  (at  the  time  of  her 
death  domiciled  in  Eneland)  duly  made  in  Holland  was  not  revoked 
by  her  marriage,  that  Deing  no  ground  of  revocation  by  the  law  of 
Fiolland.^  The  persons  who  are  to  take  Under  a  will  arc  decided  by 
different  rules  according  as  the  property  is  movable  or  immovable, 
the  former  being  governed  by  the  law  of  the  domicil,  the  latter  by  the 
lex  loci  rei  sitae.  It  was  held,  however,  in  1881  by  the  court  of  appcil 
In  England  that,  under  the  will  of  an  Englishman  domiciica  in 
Holland,  leaving  personal  property  to  children,  children  le^timated 
ptr  subseqwns  mairimonium  could  take,  aa  they  were  legitunate  by 
the  law  01  Holland,  though  not  by  the  law  of  England  (re  Goodmans 
Trusts,  17  Ch.  D.  366).  This  principle  was  carried  further  in  re 
Greys  Trusts  (1802),  3  Ch.  88,  where  it  was  held  that  a  Intimated 
child  was  entitled  to  share  in  a'  devise  of  English  realty.  But  it  is 
to  be  noted  that  a  person  bom  out  of  lawful  wedlock,  though  legiti- 
mated, cannot  succeed  as  heir  to  real  estate  in  Ensland  ^Btrtwhtstle 
V.  VardUl,  2  Q.  and  F.  89^).  A  will  duly  execute  abroad  is  generally 
required  to  be  clothed  with  the  authority  of  a  court  of  the  country 
where  any  property  affected  by  the  will  is  situate.  0 •  W.) 

WILLARD.  FRANCES  BUZARBTH  (1839-1898),  American 
reformer,  was  born  at  Churchville,  Monroe  county,  New  York, 
on  the  38tb  of  September  1839.  She  attended  the  Milwaukee 
Female  College  in -1857  and  in  1859  graduated  at  the  North- 
western Female  College  at  Evanston,  Illinois.  She  then  became 
a  teacher,  and  in  1871-1874  she  was  president  and  professor 
of  aesthetics  of  the  Woman's  College  at  Evanston,  which  became 
part  of  the  North-Westem  University  in  1873.  In  1874  she 
became  corresponding  secretary  and  from  1879  until  her  death 
was  president  of  the  National  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union,  and  from  1887  until  her  death  was  president  of 'the 
World's  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union.  She  first  spoke 
in  favour  of  woman's  suffrage  in  1877;  and  in  1884  she  was 
a  member  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Prohibition  party. 
In  1890  she  was  elected  president  of  the  Woman's  National 
Council,  which  represented  nearly  all  of  the  women's  societies  in 
America.  She  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Our  Unions  a  New 
York  publication  in  the  interests  of  the  National  Woman's 
Christian  Temperance  Union,  and  of  the  Signal  (after  x88a  the 
Union  Signal),  which  she  edited  in  x892~x898  and  which  was 
the  Illinois  organ  of  the  union.  She  died  in  New  York  City 
on  the  i8th  of  February  1898. 

With  Mary  A.  Llvermore  she  edited  A  Woman  0/  the  Century 
(Buffalo,  N.Y.,  189^.  which  includes  a  sketch  of  her  life;  and  she 
published  Nineteen  Beautiful  Years  (1864),  a  life  of  her  sister;  Horn 
to  Win:  A  Book  for  Girls  (1886),  Glimpses  of  Fifty  Years  (1889). 
and,  in  collaboration  with  H.  M.  Winslow,  Mrs  S.  J.  White  and  others, 
OccHpationsJor  Women  (iZ^j).  See  A.  A.  Cordon,  The  Beautiful  Life 
of  Frances  E.  Willard  (Chicago.  1898),  with  an  Introduction  by  Lady 
Henry  Somerset,  and  W.  M.  Thayer,  Women  Who  Win  (New  York. 
1896). 

-^  ■  . i_ I.        _       _m.       !■--     i-TTM     — ■ — — II      ■    I  ■!■       r^i-ii 

*  The  law  of  Holland  will  be  found  set  out  in  the  case-  It  is  in 
general  accordance  with  that  of  France. 


WIU.BMITB,  a  mineral  consisting  of  sine  orthositlcate. 
ZnsSiOi,  crystallizing  in  the  parallel-faced  hemihcdral  cla^ 
of  the  rbombohedral  system.  Crystab  have  the  form  of  hexa- 
gonal prisms  terminated  by  rbombohedral  planes:  there  are 
distinct  cleavages  parallel  to  the  prism-faces  and  to  the  base. 
Granular  and  cleavage  masses  are  of  more  common  occurrence. 
The  colour  varies  considerably,  being  colourless,  white,  greenish- 
yellow,  apple-green,  fleah-red,  &c.  The  hardness  is  5),  and  the 
specific  gravity  3 •9-4*  2.  A  variety  containing  much  manganese 
replacing  zinc  is  called  "  troostite."  Willemite  occurs  at  Sterling 
Hill,  Sussex  county,  and  Franklin  Furnace  in  New  Jersey, 
where  it  ia  associated  with  other  zinc  oroa  (franklinite  and 
zincite)  in  crystalline  limestone.  It  has  been  found  at  only 
a  few  other  localities,  one  of  which  is  near  Li£ge,  and  for  this 
reason  the  mineral  was  named  after  William  I.  of  the  Nether- 
lands. Under  the  influence  of  radium  radiations,  willemite 
fluoresces  with  a  brilliant  green  colour.  (L.  J.  S.) 

WILLEM8.  FLORENT  JOSEPH  ^ARIB  (Z823-X905),  Belgian 
painter,  was  bom  at  Li^ge  on  the  8th  of  Januaiy  1823.  He  had 
no  regular  tuition  in  painting,  but  learnt  by  copying  and  restoring 
old  pictures  at  Malincs,  where  he  lived  from  1832.  He  made 
his  debut  at  the  Brussels  Salon  in  1842  with  a  "  Music  Party  " 
and  an  "  Interior  of  a  17th-century  Guard-room"  in  the  style 
of  Terburg  and  Metsu.  Soon  afterwards  he  settled  in  Paris, 
where  his  pictures  enjoyed  considerable  popularity  under  the 
second  empire.  Among  his  most  famous  works  may  be  men- 
tioned "  The  Wedding  Dress  "  (Brussels  Gallery),  "  La  F£tc  des 
grands-parents "  (Brussels  Gallery),  "  Le  Baise-main  "  (Mme. 
Cardon's  collection,  Brussels),  "  Farewdl "  (Willems  coll., 
Brussels), "  The  Arches  of  the  Peace  "  (Delahaye  coll.,  Antwerp) 
and  "The  Widow"  (engraved  by  Desvachcz).  He  died  at 
Netiilly-sur-Seine  on  the  23rd  of  October  1905. 

WILLEMS.  JEAN  FRANCIS  (1793-1846),  Hemish  writer, 

began  life  in  the  office  of  a  notary  at  Anvers.    He  devoted  his 

leisure  to  literature,  and  in  18 10  he  gained  a  prize  for  poetry 

with  an  ode  in  celebration  of  the  peace  of  TilsiL   He  hailed  with 

enthusiasm  the  constitution  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands, 

and  the  revival  of  Flemish  literature;  and  he  published  a- 

numbcr  of  spirited  and  eloquent  writings  in  support  of  the 

claims  of  the  native  tongue  of  the  Netherlands.    His  political 

sympathies  were  with  the  Orange  party  at  the  revolution  of 

1830,  and  these  views  led  him  into  trouble  with  the  provisional 

'government.    Willcms,  however,  was  soon  recognized  as  the 

imquestioned  leader  of  the  Flemish  popular  movement,  tJbe  chief 

plank  in  whose  platform  he  made  the  complete  equality  of  the 

languages  in  the  government  and  the  hiw  courts.    He  died  at 

Ghent  in  1846. 

Among  his  writings^  which  were  very  numerous,  the  most  im- 
TOTtant  were:  Les  Sciences  el  Us  arts  (1816),  Aux  Beiges  (1818); 
Etude  sur  Us  origines  et  I'histoire  des  temps  primUifs  de  la  vule  d^Anters 
(1828):  Milanges  de  litUraiure  et  d'hisUnre  (1829);  besides  several 
learned  critical  editions  of  old  Flemish  texts. 

WILLBSDEN*  an  urban  district  in  the  Harrow  parliamentary 
division  of  Middlesex,  England,  suburban  to  London,  lying 
immediately  outside  the  boundary  of  the  cotmty  of  London 
(boroughs  of  Hammersmith  and  Kensington).  Pop.  (1881) 
37ri53;  (1901)  1x4,81 1.  It  has  increased  greatly  as  a  residential 
district,  mainly  of  the  working  classes.  There  are,  nMieover, 
considerable  railway  works  attached  to  Willesden  Junction, 
where  the  suburban  lines  of  the  London  &  North  Western,  North 
London,  and  Great  Western  railways  connect  with  the  main  line 
of  the  first-named  company.  Remains  of  Norman  building  have 
been  discovered  in  the  church  of  St  Mary,  which  is  of  various 
dates,  and  has  been  much  enlarged  in  modern  times.  Several 
ancient  monuments  and  brasses  are  retained.  There  b  a  Jewish 
cemetery  in  Willesden  Lane.  The  adjoining  residential  districts 
are  Hatlesden  on  the  south,  Kilbum  and  Brondesbury  on  the 
east,  CricUewood  and  Neasden  (with  tho  works  of  the  Metro- 
politan railway)  on  the  north. 

At  Domesday  the  manor  of  Willesden  and  Harlesden  was  held 
by  the  canons  of  St  Paul's.  In  the  X2t]i  century  it  was  formed 
into  eight  distinct  manors,  seven  of  which  were  held  by  the  same 
number  of  pcebendariea.     A  ahrine  or  image  of  St  Mary  (Out 


WILLETTB-^WILLIAM  I.  (ENGLAND) 


659 


I^ady  of  WQkaden)  was  in  the  X5U1  century  an  object  of  pilgrim- 
age, but  by  the  middle  of  the  century  following  the  ceremonies 
had  fallen  into  abuse,  and  the  shrine  was  suppressed. 

WILLBTTB,  LEON  ADOLPHB  (1857-  ),  French  painter, 
illustrator,  caricaturist,  and  lithographer,  was  bom  in  Chalons- 
sur-Mame.  He  studied  for  four  years  at  the  £cole  des  Beaux> 
Arts  under  Cabanel— a  training  which  gave  him  a  uitique  posit  ion 
among  the  graphic  humorists  of  France.  Whether  comedy  or 
tragedy,  dainty  triviality  or  political  satire,  bis  work  is  instinct 
with  the  profound  sincerity  of  the  artist.  He  set  Pierrot  upon  a 
lofty  pedestal  among  the  imaginary  heroes  of  France,  and 
established  Mimi  Pinson,  frail,  lovable,  and  essentially  good- 
hearted,  in  the  affections  of  the  nation.  Willette  is  at  once  the 
modem  Watteau  of  the  pencil,  and  the  exponent  of  sentiments 
that  move  the  more  emotional  section  of  the  public.  Always  a 
poet,  and  usually  gay,  fresh,  and  delicate,  in  his  presentation  of 
idylls  exquisitely  dainty  and  characteristically  Gallic,  illustrating 
ihe  mcne  "  charming"  side  of  love,  often  pure  and  sometimes 
unnecessarily  materialistic,  Willette  frequently  reveals  himself 
bitter  and  fierce,  even  ferocious,  in  his  hatreds,  being  a  violent 
though  at  the  same  time  a  generous  partisan  of  political  ideas, 
furiously  compassionate  with  love  and  pity  for  the  people — 
whether  they  be  ground  down  under  the  heel  of  political  oppres- 
aon,  or  are  merely  the  victims  of  unrequited  love,  suffering  all 
the  pangs  of  graceful  anguish  that  are  born  of  scornful  treatment. 
There  is  charm  even  in  his  thrilling  apotheosis  of  the  guillotine, 
and  in  the  introduction  into  his  caricatures  of  the  figure  of  Death 
itsdf.  The  artist  was  a  prolific  contributor  to  the  French  illus- 
trated .  press  under  the  pseudonyms  "  C^oi,"  "  Pierrot," 
"  Louison,"  "  B6b6,"  and  "  Nox,"  but  more  often  under  his  own 
name.  He  illustrated  M£landri's  Les  Purrois  and  Les  CibouUis 
d*aorUt  and  has  published  his  own  Pauvre  Pierrot  and  other 
works,  in  which  he  tells  his  stories  in  scenes  in  the  manner  of 
Busch.  He  decorated  several  "  brasseries  artlstiques "  with 
wall-paintings,  stained  glass,  &c,  notably  Le  Chat  nolr  and 
La  Palette  d'or,  and  he  painted  Uie  highly  imaginative  ceiling 
for  La  Cigale  music  haU.  His  characteristically  fantastic  "  Parce 
Domine"  was  shown  in  the  Franco-British  Exhibition  in  1908. 
A  remarkable  collection  of  his  works  was  ochibited  in  1888. 
His  "  Valmy  "  is  in  the  Luxembourg,  Paris. 

WILUAM  (A.S.  Wilhelm,  O.  Norse  ViHuOlmr;  O.  H.  Ger. 
WiUahdm,  WUlahclm,  M.  H.  Ger.  WiUehdm,  WilUhaim,  Mod.Ger. 
Wilhelmi  Du.  WUlem;  O.  Fr.  ViUaime,  Mod.  Fr.  GuiUaume; 
from  "  wiU,"  Goth.  vUjOy  and  "  helm,"  Goth,  hilms,  Old  Norse 
MidlmTf  meaning  possibly  "  one  who  wills  to  protect" ),  a 
masculine  proper  name  borne  by  many  Einopean  sovereigns 
and  others,  of  whom  the  more  important  are  treated  bckrw  in  the 
following  order: — (x)  kings  of  England  and  Scotland.  (3) 
Oth«r  sovereigns  in  the  alphabetical  order  of  their  states.  (3) 
Other  raling  princes.   (4)  Prelates,  Chroniclers,  &c. 

WILUAM  L  (X027  or  X028-X087),  king  of  England,  sumamed 
the  Conqueror,  was  bom  in  1027  or  1028.  He  was  the  bastard 
son  of  Robert  the  Devil,  duke  of  Normandy,  by  Arietta,  the 
daughter  of  a  tanner  at  Falaise.  In  1034  Robert  resolved  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem.  Having  no  legitimate  son  he  induced 
the  Norman  barons  to  acknowI»ige  William  as  his  successor. 
They  kept  their  engagement  when  Robert  died  on  his  journey 
(1035),  though  the  young  duke-elect  was  a  mere  boy.  But  the 
next  twelve  years  was  a  period  of  the  wildest  anarchy.  Three 
of  William's  guardians  were  murdered;  and  for  some  time 
he  was  kept  in  strict  concealment  by  his  relatives,  who  feared 
that  he  might  experience  the  same  fate.  lYained  in  a  hard 
school,  he  showed  a  precodous  aptitude  for  war  and  government. 
He  was  but  twenty  years  old  when  he  stamped  out,  with  the  help 
of  his  ovedord,  Henry  I.  of  Prance,  a  serious  rising  in  the  districts 
of  the  Bessin  and  Cotentin,  the  object  of  which  was  to  put  in  his 
place  his  kinsman,  Guy  of  Brionne.  Accompanied  by  King  Henry, 
he  met  and  overthrew  the  rebels  at  Val-des-Dunes  near  Caen 
(1047).  It  was  by  no  means  his  last  encounter  with  Norman 
traitors,  but  for  the  moment  the  victory  gave  him  an  assured 
position.  Next  year  he  joined  Henry  in  attacking  their  common 
enemy,  Geoffrey  Martel,  count  of  A^jou.   Geoffxcly  occupied  the 


border  fortress  of  Alenson  with  the  good  will  of  the  inhabitants. 
But  the  duke  recovered  the  place  after  a  severe  siege,  and  inflicted 
a  terrible  vengeance  on  the  defenders,  who  had  taunted  him  with 
his  base  birth;  he  also  captured  the  castle  of  Domfront  from  the 
Angevins  (X049). 

In  X051  the  duke  visited  England,  and  probably  received  from 
his  kinsman,  Edward  the  Confessor,  a  promise  of  the  English 
succession.  Two  yean  later  he  strengthened  the  claims  whidi  he 
had  thus  established  by  marrying  Matilda,  a  daughter  of  Baldwin 
V.  of  Flanders,  who  traced  her  descent  in  the  female  line  from 
Alfred  the  Great.  This  union  took  place  in  defiance  of  a  prohibi- 
tion which  had  been  promulgated,  in  1049,  by  the  papal  coundl 
of  Reims.  But  the  affinity  ot  William  and  Matilda  was  so  remote 
that  political  rather  than  moral  consderations  may  have  deter- 
mined the  pope's  action.  The  marriage  was  zealously  opposed 
by  Archbishop  Malger  of  Rouen  and  Lanfranc,  the  prior  of  Bee; 
but  Lanfranc  was  persuaded  to  intercede  with  the  Curia,  and 
Pope  Nicholas  IL  at  length  granted  the  needful  diq>en8ation 
(X059).'  By  way  of  penance  William  and  his  wife  founded  the 
abbeys  of  St  Stephen  and  the  Holy  Trinity  at  Caen.  The  political 
difficulties  caused  by  the  marriage  were  more  serious.  Alarmed 
at  the  close  connexion  of  Normandy  with  Fknders,  Henry  I. 
renounced  the  alliance  which  had  long  existed  between  the  Capets 
and  the  house  of  Rollo.  He  joined  forces  with  Geoffrey  Martel 
in  order  to  crush  the  duke,  and  Normandy  was  twice  invaded  b^ 
the  allies.  In  each  case  William  decided  the  campaign  by  a  signal 
victory.  The  invasion  of  X054  was  checked  by  tke  battle  of 
Mortemer;  in  X058  the  French  rearguard  was  cut  to  pieces  at 
Varaville  on  the  Dive,  in  the  act  of  crossing  the  stream.  Between 
these  two  wars  William  aggrandized  his  power  at  the  expense 
of  Anjott  by  annexing  Mayenne.  Soon  after  the  campaign  of 
Varaville  both  Henry  I.  and  Geoffrey  Martel  were  removed  from 
his  path  by  death  (xo6o).  He  at  once  recovered  Maine  from  the 
Angevins,  nominally  in  the  interest  of  Herbert  II.,  the  lawful 
count,  who  became  his  vassaL  In  X063,  however,  Herbert  died 
and  Maine  was  formally  aimexed  to  Normandy.  This  acquisition 
brought  the  Norman  frontier  ahnost  to  the  Loire  and  isolated 
Brittany,  long  coveted  by  the  Noxinan  dukes,  from  the  rest  of 
France. 

About  X064  the  accidental  visit  of  Harold  to  the  Norman 
court  added  another  link  to  the  chain  of  events  by  which  William's 
fortunes  were  connected  with  England.  Whatever  doubt  hangs 
over  the  details  of  the  story,  it  seems  clear  that  the  earl  made 
a  promise  to  support  the  claims  of  his  host  upon  the  English 
succession.  This  promise  he  was  invited  to  fulfil  in  xo66,  after 
the  Confessor's  death  and  his  own  coronation.  Harold's  perjury 
formed  the  chief  excuse  for  the  Norman  Conquest  of  England, 
which  in  reality  was  a  piratical  venture  resembling  that  of  the 
sons  of  Tancred  d'Hauteville  in  Lower  Italy.  William  had  some 
difficulty  in  securing  the  help  of  his  barons.  When  consulted 
in  a  great  council  at  Lillebonne  they  returned  an  unfavourable 
reply,  and  it  was  necessary  to  convince  them  individually  by 
threats  and  persuasions.  Otherwise  the  conditions  were  favour- 
able. Wiliiajn  secured  the  benevolent  neutrality  of  the  emperor 
Henry  IV.;  the  influence  of  the  archdeacon  Hildebrand  obtained 
for  the- expedition  the  solemn  approval  of  Pope  Alexander  II. 
Philip  I.  of  France  was  a  minor  under  the  guardianship  of 
William's  father-in-law,  the  count  of  Flanders.  With  Tostig, 
the  banished  brother  of  Harold,  William  formed  an  alliance 
which  proved  of  the  utmost  service.  The  duke  and  his  Normans 
were  enabled,  by  Tostig's  invasion  of  northern  England,  to  bnd 
unmolested  at  Pevensey  on  the  28th  of  S^tcmber  xo66.  On 
the  14th  of  October  a  crushing  defeat  was  inflicted  on  Harold 
at  the  battle  of  Senlac  or  Hastings;  and  on  Christmas  Day 
William  was  crowned  at  Westminster. 

Five  years  more  were  to  elapse  before  be  became  master 
of  the  west  and  north.  Early  in  X067  he  made  a  progress  through 
parts  of  the  south,  receiving  submissions,  disposing  of  the  lands 
of  those  who  had  fought  against  him,  and  ordering  castles  to 
be  built;  he  then  crossed  the  Channel  to  cdebrate  his  triumph 
in  Normandy.  Disturbances  at  once  occurred  m  Northumbria, 
OB  the  Wdsh  auurcbes  and  in  Kent;  and  he  was  compelled  to 


662 


WILLIAM  IIL  (ENGLAND) 


Forest,  the  victim  of  Afi  tnow  from  An  unknown  hand.  The 
common  story  names  Walter  Tirel,  who  was  certainly  close  at 
hand  and  fled  the  country  without  venturing  to  abide  the  issue 
of  a  trial.  But  a  certain  Ralph  of  Ajx  is  also  accused;  and 
Tirel,  from  a  safe  distance,  solemnly  protested  his  innocence. 

It  remains  to  notice  the  main  features  of  the  domestic  ad- 
ministration which  made  the  names  of  William  and  his  minbter, 
Ralph  Flambard,  infamous.  Respecting  the  grievances  of  the 
laity  we  have  few  specific  deuils.  But  we  are  told  that  the 
"  moots  "  all  over  Engfaind  were  "  driven  "  in  the  Interests  of 
the  king;  which  perhaps  means  that  aids  were  extorted  from 
the  shire-cour(s.  We  also  learn  that  the  forest-laws  were 
rigorously  administered;  that  the  king  revived,  for  certain 
offences,  the  death-penalty  which  his  father  had  abolisfaed; 
that  all  men  were  vexed  by  unjust  gelds  and  the  feudal  classes 
by  unscrupulotts  misinterpreutions  of  the  customs  relating  to 
the  incidents  of  wardship,  marriage  and  relief.  On  one  occasion 
the  militia  were  summoned  in  considerable  niuibers  for  a  Norman 
expedition,  which  was  no  part  of  then-  duty;  but  when  they 
arrived  at  the  sea-coast  they  were  bidden  to  hand  over  their 
journey  money  and  go  home.  The  incident  is  not  uninstruaive 
■s  a  side-light  on  the  king's  finance.  As  to  the  oppression  of 
the  church  we  are  more  fully  informed;  after  allowing  for 
exaggeration  there  still  remains  evidence  enough  to  prove  that 
the  ecclesiastical  policy  of  Rufus  was  unscrupulously  venal. 
Vacant  sees  and  abbacies  were  either  kept  for  years  in  the  hands 
of  the  king,  who  claimed  the  rigfit  of  a  feudal  guardian  to 
appropriate  the  revenues  so  long  as  the  vacancy  continued; 
or  they  were  openly  sold  to  the  highest  bidder.  The  history  of 
Anselm's  relations  with  the  kmg  is  fully  narrated  by  the  bio- 
grapher Efldmcr.  Anselm  received  the  see  of  Canterbury  in 
1093,  after  it  had  been  in  the  king's  bands  for  upwards  of 
four  years.  William  made  the  appointment  in  a  moment  of 
repentance,  when  side  and  at  death's  door.  But  he  resented 
Anselm's  demand  for  full  restitution  of  the  temporah'ties  and 
his  refusal  to  make  any  pa3nnent,  in  the  nature  of  an  aid  or 
relief,  which  jnig^t  be  construed  as  simoniacal.  Other  grounds 
of  quarrel  were  found  in  the  reproofs  which  the  primate  aimed 
at  die  vkes  of  the  court,  and  in  his  requests  for  leave  to  hold  a 
church-coundl  and  initiate  reforms.  Finally,  in  1095,  Anselm 
exasperated  the  king  by  insisting  on  his  right  to  recognize 
Urban  II.  as  the  lawful  pope.  By  the  "  customs  "  <rf  the  Con- 
queror it  had  been  the  rule  that  no  pope  should  be  recognized 
in  England  without  the  king's  permission;  and  Rufus  was 
unwilling  that  the  Ens^ish  Church  should  be  committed  to 
either  party  in  the  papal  schism  which  had  ahready  lasted 
fifteen  years.  Anselm,  on  the  other  hand,  asserted  that  he  had 
accepted  the  primacy  on  the  distinct  condition  that  he  should 
be  allowed  to  acknowledge  Urban.  The  di^nite  came  before  a 
great  council  which  was  held  at  Rockingham  (Feb.  25,  xoqs)* 
The  king  demanded  that  the  assembly  should  adjudge  Ansebn 
guilty  of  contumacy,  and  was  supported  by  the  bishops.  The 
lay  barons,  however,  showed  their  ill-will  towards  the  king's 
general  policy  by  taking  Anselm's  part.  Rufus  was  forced  to 
give  way.  He  recognized  Urban,  but  entered  upon  intrigues 
at  Rome  to  procure  the  suspension  of  the  archbishop.  Finding 
that  Urban  would  not  betray  a  toyal  supporter,  the  king  fell 
back  upon  his  authority  as  a  feudal  suxerain.  He  taxed  Anselm 
with  having  failed  to  provide  a  satisfactory  quota  of  knights 
for  the  Webh  war  (1097).  The  archbisbcp.  seeing  that  he  was 
never  to  be  left  in  peace,  and  despairing  of  an  opportunity  to 
effect  the  reforms  on  which  his  heart  was  set,  demanded  urgently 
thai  lie  shouM  be  allowed  to  leave  Engllnd  for  the  purpose 
of  visiting  Urban.  Both  the  iaag  and  the  barons  suspected 
that  this  was  the  first  step  towards  an  appeal  to  the  pope's 
jurisdiction  against  that  of  the  icytl  oourt,  I.eave  was  at  first 
refused;  but  ultimately,  as  Anselm  continued  to  press  his 
demand,  he  was  suffered  to  d^iart,  nc^  without  experiencing 
some  petty  insults  on  his  way  (Oct.  1097).  The  motive  of  the 
king's  apparent  clemency  was  soon  revcded.  He  seited  the 
estates  ^  the  archbishopric,  and  kept  them  in  his  own  hands 
for  the  future.  The  frieods  of  the  archbishop  weve  thuft  justified 


in  their  assertion  that  the  te&l  of  Rufus  for  his    fatber's 

**  customs  "  was  a  mere  cloak  for  avarice  and  tyranny. 

In   appearance   William   11.  was   unattractive;  bull-necked, 
with  sloping  shoulders,  extremely  corpulent  and  awkward    in 
his  gait.     His  long  locks  and  desn-shaven  face  marked    his 
predilection  for  the  new-fangled  fashions  which  contemporary 
ecclesiastics  were  never  weary  of  denouncing.    His  features  were 
strongly  marked  and  coarse,  his  eyes  grey  and  deeply  set;  he 
owed  his  nickname  to  the  fiery  hue  of  his  complexion,     ffe 
stuttered  violently  and  in   moments  of  passion  was  almost 
inarticulate.     His  familiar  conversation  was  witty  and   blas- 
phemous.   He  was  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  vicious  parasites, 
and  no  sembhince  of  decorum  was  maintained  in  his- household. 
His  character  was  assailed  by  the  darkest  rumours  which  be 
never  attempted  to  confute.    He  died  unmarried  and  without 
issue. 

Tlie  main  authorities  for  the  reign  are  the  Peterboroutk  Chrentcle 
(ed.  C.  Plummcr,  2  vols.,  Oxford,  1892-1800);  Eadmer'»  Vit^ 
Anselmi  and  Htstoria  Ntnorum  (ed.  M.  Rule,  "  Rolls  "  series,  1884)  ; 
William  of  Malmesbury's  De  geslis  regum  (ed.  W.  Stubbs,  '*  Rolls  " 
scries,  7  vols.,  1887- 1889);  Orderic  Vitalis'  Htstoria  eulesiastica 
(ed.  A.  le  Pr6vost,  5  vols.,  Paris,  1838-1855).  Of  modern  works  the 
most  exhaustive  is  E.  A.  Freeman's  Reign  or  WilUam  Rufus  (2  vols.. 
Oxford,  1882).  See  also  J.  H.  Round  s  Feudal  England  (London. 
1895).  (H.  W.  C.  D.) 

WILLIAM  ni.  (1650-X702),  king  of  En^nd  and  prince  of 
Orange,  was  the  only  son  of  William  II.,  prince  of  Orange, 
stadtholder  of  the  Dutch  republic,  and  Mary,  daughter  of 
Charics  I.  of  England,  and  was  bom  at  the  Hague  on  the  4th  d 
November  1650,  eight  days  after  his  father's  death.  His  father 
had  attempted  a  coup  d'itat,  which  had  failed,  with  the  result 
that  on  his  death  the  office  of  stadtholder  was  abolished.  Power 
passed  into  the  hands  of  John  de  Witt,  who  represented  the 
oligarchic  element  and  the  q>ecial  interests  of  one  province, 
Holland,  and  was  taken  from  the  Orange  party  whidi  repre- 
sented the  more  democratic  element  and  the  more  general 
interests  of  the  Seven  Provinces.  William  inherited  the  baleful 
lustre,  without  the  substantial  power,  which  his  ancestors  had 
given  to  the  name  of  Orange.  He  grew  up  among  enemies,  and 
became  artful,  suq>idous  and  self-controlled,  concealing  his 
feeling  behind  the  mask  of  an  immobile,  almost  repulsive,  cold- 
ness. Like  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  and  the  youngor  Pitt,  he 
was  a  wonderful  example  of  premature  mental  development. 

In  1672  Louis  XIV.  suddenly  invaded  Dutch  territory.  The 
startling  successes  of  the  French  produced  a  revolution  among 
the  Dutch  people,  who  naturally  turned  for  help  to  the  scion 
of  the  house  of  Orange.  On  the  8th  of  July  1672  the  states 
general  revived  the  stadtfaolderate,  and  declared  William  stadt- 
holder, captain-general  and  admiral  for  life.  This  revolution 
was  followed  by  a  riot,  in  which  John  de  Witt  and  his  brother 
Cornelius  were  murdered  by  the  mob  at  the  Hague.  Evidence 
may  be  sought  in  vain  to  connect  William  with  the  outrage, 
but  since  he  lavishly  rewarded  its  leaders  and  promoters  this 
circumstance  is  not  very  much  to  his  credit.  The  cold  cynicism 
with  which  he  acted  towards  de  Witt  is  only  matched  by  the 
heroic  obstinacy  with  whidi  he  confronted  Louis.  Resolved  as 
he  said  "  to  die  in  the  last  ditch,"  he  rejected  all  thought  of  sur- 
render and  appealed  to  the  last  resource  of  Dutch  patriotism 
by  opening  the  sluices  and  laying  vast  tracts  under  water.  The 
French  army  could  not  ^vance,  while  the  French  and  English 
fleets  were  defeated  by  the  Dutch  admiral,  De  Ruyter.  William 
summoned  Brandenburg  to  his  aid  (1672)  and  made  treaties 
with  Austria  and  Spain  (1673).  ^  August  1674  he  fought  his 
first  great  battle  at  Seneffe,  where,  though  the  struggle  was  not 
unequal,  the  honours  hiy  with  Condi.  The  French  evacuated 
Dutch  territory  early  in  1674,  but  continued  to  hold  places  on 
the  Rhine  and  in  Flanders.  In  April  1677  William  was  badly 
beaten  at  St  Omer,  but  bahinced  his  military  defeat  by  France 
by  a  diplomatic  victory  over  EngUnd.  In  November  1677  he 
married  Mary,  eldest  dau^ter  of  James,  duke  of  York,  after- 
wards King  James  II.,  and  undertook  negotiations  with  England 
in  the  following  year  which  forced  Louis  to  make  terms  and 
sign  the  treaty  of  Nijmwegea  in  August  1^78,  which  gave 


n 


WILLUM  III.  (ENGLAND) 


663 


Franche  ComU  and  other  places  in  Spanish  Flanders  to  France. 
For  some  reason  never  yet  outde  dear,  but  perhaps  in  order  to 
produce  a  modification  of  terms  which  threatened  the  balance 
of  power,  William  attacked  the  French  army  at  Mons  four  days 
after  the  signature  of  peace.  Luzemboitrg  defeated  him  after 
a  sanguinary  and  resultless  struggle,  and  WiUiam  gained  nothing 
by  his  inexplicable  action. 

After  the  war  Louis  continued  a  course  of  aggression,  absorb- 
ing frontier-towns  in  imperial  or  Spanish  territory.  WiUiam 
started  a  new  coalition  against  him  in  October  168 1  by  making 
a  treaty  with  Sweden,  and  subsequently  with  the  empire,  Spaiii 
and  several  German  princes.  After  absorbing  Strassbuig  (1681), 
Louis  invaded  Spanish  Flanders  and  took  Luxembutig  (1684). 
Even  then  the  new  league  would  not  fight  and  allowed  Louis 
to  retain  his  conquests  by  the  truoe  of  Regensburg  (1685),  but 
none  the  less  these  humiliatrans  gave  rise  to  a  more  closely- 
knit  and  aggres«ve  coalition,  which  was  organized  in  16S6  and 
known  as  the  League  of  Augsburg. 

From  1677  onwards  WiUiam  had  carefully  watched  the 
poUtics  oi  England.  On  the  accession  of  James  IL  in  1685  he 
forced  the  duke  of  Monmouth  to  leave  Holland,  and  sought  to 
dissuade  him  from  his  Ul-starred  expedition  to  England.  He 
apparently  tried  to  conciliate  his  father-in-law  in  the  hope  of 
bringing  him  into  the  League  of  Augsbui^.  At  the  same  time 
he  astutely  avoided  offending  the  party  in  England  which  was 
opposed  to  Janies.  By  November  1687  he  had  decided  that 
it  was  hopeless  to  expect  that  James  would  join  the  league 
against  Louis,  and  he  therefore  turned  for  support  to  the  English 
opposition.  He  caused  his  chief  minister  Fagcl  to  write  a  letter 
expressing  his  disapprobation  of  the  religious  poUcy  of  James, 
which  was  published  in  November  1687.  This  announcement 
of  his  views  was  received  with  wild  enthusiasm  by  the  English 
who  saw  in  him  the  friend  of  their  liberties  and  their  Church. 
But  he  knew  too  much  of  the  English  to  suppose  they  would 
tolerate  an  armed  invasion,  and  he  acoordin^y  made  it  clear 
that  he  would  not  undertake  active  interference  unless  he 
received  a  definite  invitation  from  leading  Englishmen.  On 
the  30th  of  June  1688  Admiral  Herbert,-  disguised  as  a  blue- 
jacket, set  out  from  England  with  a  letter  from  seven  influential 
Englishmen,  asking  WiUiam  to  "  bring  over  an  army  and  secure 
the  infringed  liberties  "  of  England. 

WiUiam  set  out  from  Holland  with  an  army  on  the  and  of 
November  and  landed  at  Torbay  (Nov.  sth  t688).  After  a  few 
days  of  hesitation,  many  influential  noUemen  declared  for  him 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  James,  who  had  at  first  joined 
his  army  at  Salisbury,  feU  back  to  London  and  tried  to  negotiate. 
While  his  commissioners  were  amusing  William,  Jamvs  sent  oft 
his  wife  and  son  to  France,  and  tried  to  follow  ihcm.  He  was 
stopped  in  his  flight  by  some  fishermen  at  Faver^ham,  and  was 
forced  to  return  to  London.  William  insisted  that  he  should  be 
sent  to  -Rochester,  and  there  allowed  him  to  escape  to  France. 
After  this  final  flight  of  James,  William,  on  the  advice  of  an 
assembly  of  notaUes,  summoned  a  convention  parliament  on 
the  2and  of  January  1689.  After  a  great  deal  of  discussion, 
William  was  at  length  proclaimed  joint-sovereign  of  England 
in  conjunction  with  his  wife,  Mary  (Feb.  T3th  1689). 

A  constitutional  settlement  was  effected  by  the  end  of  1689, 
almost  aU  the  disputed  points  between  king  and  pariiament 
being  settled  in  favour  of  the  latter.  Though  William  by  no 
means  appreciated  this  confinement  of  his  prerogative,  he  was 
too  wise  to  oppose  it.  His  own  initiative  is  more  cleariy  trace- 
able in  the  Toleration  Act,  extending  liberty  of  private  worship 
to  Dissenters.  He  also  succeeded  in  passing  an  Act  of  Grace 
and  Indemnity  in  1690,  by  which  he  calmed  the  violettce  of 
party  passion.  But  in  general  his  domestic  policy  was  not  very 
fortunate,  and  he  can  hardly  claim  any  personal  credit  for  the 
reassessment  of  the  land-tax  (1602),  the  creation  of  the  national 
debt  or  the  recoinage  act  (1695-1695).  Further,  he  threatened 
the  existence  of  the  Bank  of  England,  by  lending  his  support 
to  a  counter-institution,  the  Land  Bank,  which  ignominiously 
coUapsed.  Though  he  was  not  blind  to  the  commercial  interests 
of  Eagkuid,  he  was  neglectful  of  the  administration  and  affairs 


of.  her  oversea  colonies.  But  though  he  was  unable  to  extract 
the  best  results  from  parliament  he  was  always  able  to  avert 
its  worst  excesses.  In  spite  of  strong  personal  opinions  to  the 
contrary,  he  accepted  the  Triennial  Act  (1694),  the  vote  reducing 
the  army  to  10,000  men  (1697),  the  vote  disbanding  his  favourite 
Dutch  Guards  (1699)  and  even  (November  1699)  a  biU  re- 
scinding the  grants  of  forfeited  Irish  estates,  which  he  had  made 
to  his  favourites.  The  main  cause  of  Uie  humiUations  WUliam 
suffered  from  parliament  lay  in  his  incapacity  to  understand  the 
party  or  cabinet  system.  In  his  view  the  best  way  to  govern 
was  to  have  both  parties  represented  in  the  ministry,  so  that, 
as  Whig  and  Tory  feU  out,  the  king  came  by  his  own.  A  study 
of  his  reign  shows  that  this  method  was  unsuccessful,  and  that 
his  affairs  went  most  smoothly  when  the  parliamentary  majority 
held  the  same  views  as  the  ministry.  It  is  not  often  remembered 
that  WiUiam  possessed  an  experience  of  the  workings  of  repre- 
sentative government  in  Holland,  which  was  remarkably 
similar  to  that  in  England.  Hence  his  mistakes  though  easy 
to  understand  are  by  no  means  so  p»ardonable  as  were,  for 
example,  those  of  the  Georges,  who  had  been  absolute  monarcha 
in  their  own  country.  WUUam's  unpopularity  with  his  new 
people  was,  on  the  whole,  unjustified,  but  his  memory  is  rightly 
darkened  by  the  stain  of  the  "  Massacre  of  Glencoe."  In  1692 
he  signed  an  order  for  the  *'  extirpation  "  of  the  Macdonalds, 
a  smaU  dan  in  the  vale  of  Glencoe.  It  is  improbable  that  he 
meant  his  order  to  be  UteraUy  executed,  it  is  not  certain  that 
he  knew  they  had  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance,  to  him.  None 
the  less,  when  the  massacre  was  carried  out  with  circumstances 
of  revolting  barbarity,  WUliam  behaved  as  he  had  done  after 
the  murder  of  De  Witt.  Popular  pressure  forced  him  to  bring 
the  murderers  to  justice,  to  punish  them  and  dismiss  them  his 
service.  But  shortly  afterwards  they  were  aU  received  into  favour; 
"  one  became  a  cdonel,  another  a  knight,  a  third  a  peer." 

These  and  other  actions  indicate  that  WiUiam  could  show 
on  occasion  a  cold  and  cynical  ruthlessncss.  But  whUe  admit- 
ting that  his  means  were  sometimes  unprincipled,  it  must  be 
recoUected  that  his  real  ends  were  high  and  nobk.  While  he 
sometimes  disregarded  the  wishes  of  others,  no  one  was  more 
ready  to  sacrifice  his  own  feeUngs  for  the  attainment  of  the 
master  aim  of  his  Ufe,  the  restoration  of  the  "  Balance  of  Power," 
by  the  overthrow  of  the  predominance  of  'France.  This  was 
the  real  aim  of  WiUiam  in  going  to  England  in  1688.  He  had 
set  off  to  secure  an  ally  against  Louis,  and  he  came  back  from 
his  expedition  with  a  crown  on  his  head  and  a  new  nation  at 
his  back,  united  in  its  dctesution  of  po*pery  and  of  France. 

As  king  of  England  he  concluded  treaties  of  alliance  with 
the  members  of  the  League  of  Augsbui^  and  sent  a  large  army 
to  oppose  the  French  in  Flanders.  But  his  greatest  immediate 
peril  during  1689-1690  came  from  the  drcumstance  that  the 
French  disputed  the  mastery  of  the  seas  with  the  Anglo-Dutch 
fleet,  and  that  Ireland  was  strongly  for  King  James.  On  the  1st 
of  July  1690  the  aUies  were  badly  beaten  at  sea  off  Beachy  Head, 
but  on  the  same  day  William  himself  won  a  decisive  victory  over 
James's  army  at  the  Boyne  in  Ireland.  Dublin  and  Drogheda 
soon  fell  and  James  fled  from  Irehuid.  The  chances  of  continued 
resistance  in  Ireland,  which  depoided  on  communication  with 
France,  were  finaUy  destroyed  by  the  great  victory  off  Cape  La 
Hogue  (May  19th,  1692).  Ireland  was  speedily  conquered  when 
once  the  supremacy  of  England  on  the  sea  became  assured.  Now 
the  French  fleet  was  definitely  destroyed,  and  though  a  destruc- 
tive privateering  warfare  continued,  England  was  no  longer  in 
danger  of  invasion. 

The  decisive  successes  for  the  Alliance  were  gained  by  its  naval 
victories,  whose  importance  WiUiam  somewhat  underrated  and 
for  whose  execution  he  had  only  an  indirect  responsibility.  In 
169a  he  lost  Namur  and  was  badly  defeated  at  Steinkirk  (August 
4th),  and  in  1693  he  was  disastrously  beaten  at  Neer^'inden  or 
Landen  (July  igth)  In  1695  he  was  able  to  resume  the  offensive 
and  to  retake  Namur  In  a  briUiant  and.  what  was  more  unusual, 
a  successful  campaign.  WilUam  bad  assumed  the  duties  of 
commander-in-chief  too  young  to  learn  the  fuU  duties  of  a  pro- 
fessional soMier  hinsdf,  and  his  imperious  wiU  did  not  suffer 


664 


WILLIAM  IV.  (ENGLAND) 


Others  to  direct  him.  Hence  though  often  fertile  in  resource 
and  ingenious  in  plan,  he  was  always  a  brilliant  amateur;  and, 
though  sometimes  unlucky,  he  was  never  really  the  equal  of  such 
generals  as  Cond6  or  Luxembourg. 

In  diplomacy  William  wa3  as  uniformly  successful  as  in 
war  he  was  the  reverse.  His  unity  of  aim  and  constancy  of 
purpose  make  him  one  of  the  greatest  of  modem  diplomatists. 
He  held  together  his  ill-assorted  coalition,  and  finally  concluded 
peace  at  Ryswick  in  September  1697.  Louis  restored  all  his 
acquidtions  since  1678,  except  Strassburg,  and  recognized  William 
as  king  of  England.  During  the  subsequent  years  William  tried 
to  arrange  a  partition  treaty  with  France,  by  which  the  domains 
of  the  childless  Charles  II.  of  Spain  were  to  be  divided  at  his 
death.  But  on  the  death  of  Charles  in  1700  the  whole  heritage 
was  left  to  France.  William  endeavoured  to  oppose  this,  and 
used  Louis's  recognition  of  James  Edward  tiie  "  Old  Pretender  " 
as  king  of  England  (September  1 701)  to  set  the  English  people 
in  a  flame.  War  was  already  declared  in  1702,  but  William, 
who  had  long  been  ailing,  died  from  the  combined  effects  of  a  fall 
from  his  horse  and  a  chill  on  the  8th  of  March  1702.  It  was 
truly  tragic  that  his  doom  should  have  come  at  the  moment  when 
he  had  once  more  drawn  together  a  great  alliance  in  Europe, 
and  when  he  possessed  a  popularity  in  England  such  as  he  had 
never  before  enjoyed. 

In  viewing  William's  character  as  a  whole  one  is  struck  by  its 
entire  absence  of  ostentation,  a  circumstance  which  reveals  his 
mind  and  poh'cy  more  clearly  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 
No  one  can  doubt  his  real  belief  in  religion  in  spite  of  many 
moral  failings  or  weaknesses.  He  was  an  unfaithful  husband 
and  often  treated  his  wife  with  scant  consideration;  he  was 
too  fond  of  Dutch  favourites  like  Keppel  or  worthless  women 
like  Lady  Orkney.  When  it  suited  his  interests  he  sanctioned  the 
systematic  corruption  of  members  of  pariiament,  and  he  con- 
doned massacres  like  those  at  the  Hague  or  in  Glencoe.  On  the 
other  hand  he  did  not  hesitate  to  inflict  considerable  injury  on  his 
own  people,  the  Dutch,  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  with  England 
(1689),  when  it  became  clear  that  only  in  this  way  could  England's 
co-operation  be  secured.  The  Dutch  criticism  on  him  has  been 
that  he  might  ha^'e  done  more  to  reform  the  clumsiness  of  their 
constitutk>nal  procedure,  and  thus  given  them  some  return  for 
the  crippling  expenses  of  the  war.  English  criticism  avers  that 
he  ought  to  have  recognized  more  fully  the  system  of  party 
government,  and  to  have  done  more  to  promote  our  colonial 
and  commercial  development.  Military  historians  point  out 
that  he  sometimes  sacrificed  great  advantages  to  impetuosity; 
naval  experts  that  he  sometimes  threw  away  great  opportunities 
by  indiflerence.  Some  of  these  criticisms  are  rather  beside  the 
mark,  but  were  all  true,  they  would  not  impair  his  essential 
greatness,  which  hy  in  another  sphere.  The  best  proof  of  his 
real  powers  of  statesmanship  is  that  the  peace  of  Utrecht  was 
subsequently  made  on  the  broad  liiMS  which  he  had  laid  down 
as  the  only  security  for  Exiropean  peace  nearly  a  dozen  years 
before  its  conclusion.  While  he  lacked  in  diplomacy  the  arts  of 
a  Louis  XIV.  or  the  graces  of  a  Marlborough,  he  grasped  the 
central  problems  of  his  time  with  more  clearness,  or  advanced 
solutions  with  more  ultimate  success,  than  any  other  statesman 
of  his  age.  Often  bafiled,  but  never  deH>airing,  William  fought 
on  to  the  end,  and  the  ideas  and  the  spirit  of  his  policy  continued 
to  triumph  long  after  the  death  of  their  author. 

Original  Authorities.— Gilbert  Burnet,  ffutorv  of  mvOim  Time, 
ed.  O.  Airy  (London,  1897) :  William  Carstares  (The  King  s Secretary) 
Papers,  edited  by  J.  McCorroick  (London,  1774);  Queen  Mary, 
LeUers  with  Those  of  James  JI.  and  WiUiam  III.,  ed.  R.  Docbner 

i Leipzig,  1886);  Lettres  el  mfmoires,  edited  by  Countem  Bcntinct 
London,  1880);  duke  of  Portland,  HiH.  MSS.  Comm.  Retort,  xv. 
^pp.  pt.  iv.  (London.  1897)  '•  Shrewsbury  Correspondence,  cd.  W.  Coxe 
(London,  1821):  Shrewsbury  MSS,— Hist,  MSS.  Comm.  Rep.  xv. 
vol.  ii.  pts.  i.  ana  ii.  (London,  IQQI^;  Letters,  ed.  P.  Grimblot  (2  vols., 
London.  1848). 

MoDBRN  Works  (see  also  under  Tames  JD.-^-Dr  Paul  Haakc. 
Brandenburtische  Peiitih  in  1688-1689  (KasKl,  1896):  Marquis  of 
Halifax.  Lm,  H.  C.  Foxcroft  (2  vols.,  London.  1898);  Macaulay. 
History,  vols,  i.-vi.:  Essays,  vols,  i.-iii.  (London,  1898);  Baroness 
Nyevelt,  Court  Life  in  the  Dutch  RepuUxc  (London.  1906):  F.  A.  J. 
iMire,  Histoire  &  /a  ritolutian  de  s688  (3  vobw.  Paris.  1848). 


WILUAM  IV.  (1765-1837).  king  of  EngUnd,  third  son  oi 
George  III.,  was  bom  at  Buckingham  Palace  on  the  21st  of 
August  1765.  In  1779  he  was  sent  to  sea  and  became  a  midship- 
man under  Admiral  Digby.  Next  year  he  sailed  under  Rodney 
and  took  part  in  the  action  off  Cape  St  Vincent  (i6tii  of  January 
1780).  During  the  rest  of  the  wax  the  young  prince  saw  plenty 
of  service,  for  which  be  imbibed  a  strong  liking,  and  to  1^  the 
foundation  of  his  popularity.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  n'ar  he 
travelled  in  Germany,  visiting  Hanover  and  Berlin,  where  he 
was  entertained  by  Frederick  the  Great.  In  1785  he  passed  for 
lieutenant;  next  year  he  was  made  captain  and  stationed  in  the 
West  Indies.  Shortly  after  1787,  being  tired  of  his  sution,  he 
sailed  home  without  orders,  and  was  punished  for  bis  inaub> 
ordination  by  being  obliged  to  stay  at  Plymouth  till  his  ship  was 
refitted,  when  he  again  sailed  for  the  West  Indies. 

In  1789  he  was  made  duke  of  Clarence.  When  war  ym 
declared  against  the  French  republic  in  1793,  he  strongly  sup- 
ported it  and  was  anxious  for  active  employment;  but,  though 
he  was  made  rear-admiral  of  the  red,  he  could  obtain  no  com- 
mand. Thus  condemned  to  inactivity,  he  amused  or  revenged 
himself  by  joining  the  prince  of  Wales  and  the  duke  of  York 
in  their  opposition  to  the  king.  He  threw  himself  into  the  dissi- 
pations of  sodety,  and  his  hearty  geniality  and  bluff,  sailor-like 
manners  gainM  him  popularity,  though  they  did  not  secure  him 
respect.  He  took  his  seat  w  the  House  oi  Lords,  where  he 
defended  the  extravagancies  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  spoke  on 
the  Divorce  Bill,  vehemently  opposed  the  emancipation  of  slaves 
and  defended  slavery  on  the  ground  of  his  experience  in  the  West 
Indies.  Meanwhile  he  formed  a  connexion  with  Mis  Jordan, 
the  actress,  with  whom  lie  lived  on  terms  of  mutual  affection 
and  fidelity  for  nearly  twenty  years,  and  the  union  was  only 
broken  off  eventually  for  political  reasons.  During  all  this 
period  the  prince  had  lived  in  comparative  obscurity.  The  death 
of  Princess  Charlotte  in  1817  brought  him  forward  as  in  the  line 
of  succession  to  the  crown.  In  x8i8  he  married  Adelaide  of  Saxe- 
Meiningen,  a  lady  half  his  age,  without  special  attractions,  but 
of  a  strong,  self-willed  nature,  which  enabled  her  subsequently 
'  to  obtain  great  influence  over  her  husband.  On  the  death  of  the 
duke  of  York  in  1827  the  duke  of  Clarence  became  heir  to  the 
throne,  and  in  the  same  year  he  was  ^>pointed  lord  high  admiral. 
In  discharging  the  functions  of  that  ofiSce  he  endeavoured  to 
assume  independent  control  of  naval  affairs,  although  his  patent 
precluded  him  from  acting  without  the  advice  of  two  members 
of  his  coundL  This  involved  him  in  a  quarrel  with  Sir  George 
Cockbuin,  in  which  he  had  to  give  way.  As  he  still  continued 
to  act  in  defiance  of  rules,  the  king  was  at  length  obliged  to  call 
upion  him  to  resign. 

On  the  28lh  of  June  1830  the  death  of  George  IV.  placed  him 
on  the  throne.  During  the  first  two  years  of  his  reign  England 
underwent  an  agitation  more  violent  than  any  from  which  it 
had  suffered  since  1688.  William  IV.  was  well-meaning  and 
conscientious;  but  his  timidity  and  irresolution  drove  ministers 
to  despair,  while  his  anxiety  to  avoid  extremes  and  his  want  of 
insight  into  affairs  pTok>nged  a  dangerous  crisis  and  brought  the 
country  to  the  verge  of  revolution.  Immediately  after  his  acces- 
sion the  revolution  of  July  broke  out  in  France  and  gave  a  great 
impulse  to  the  reform  movement  in  England.  The  king,  though 
he  called  himself  an  "  old  Whig,"  did  not  dismiss  the  Tory 
ministry  which  had  governed  the  country  during  the  last  two 
years  of  his  brother's  reign;  but  the  elect kms  for  the  new 
parliament  placed  them  in  a  minority.  Within  a  fortnight  of  the 
opening  of  parliament  they  were  l>eaten  on  a  motion  for  the 
reform  of  the  civil  list,  and  resigned.  Lord  Grey  underlo<A  to 
form  a  ministry,  with  the  avowed  intention  of  bringing  in  a 
large  measure  of  reform.  This  was  not  in  itself  displeasing  to  the 
king,  who  had  liberal  tendencies,  and  a  few  years  before  had 
supported  Catholic  emancipation.  But,  when  the  struggle  in 
parliament  began,  his  disinclination  to  take  up  a  decided  attitude 
soon  exiiosed  the  government  to  diificuUies.  The  first  Reform 
Bill  was  introduced  on  the  1st  of  March  1831;  the  second 
reading  was  carried  on  the  21st  of  March  by  a  majority  of  one^ 
Shortly  afterwards  the  government  weic  beaten  in  committeCi 


WILLIAM  (SCOTLAND)-~WILLIAM  I.  (GERMANY)         665 


Mad  offered  to  resign.  The  king  declined  to  accept  their  resigoa- 
tioni  but  ftt  the  same  time  was  unwilling  to  dissolve,  althou^  it 
was  obvious  that  in  the  existing  parliament  a  ministiy  pledged 
to  reform  could  not  retain  office.  From  this  dilemma  William 
was  rescued  by  the  conduct  of  the  opposition,  which,  anxious 
to  bring  on  a  change  of  ministry,  moved  an  address  against 
dissolution.  Regarding  this  as  an  attack  on  his  prerogative, 
William  at  once  dissolved  parliament  (April  183 1).  The  elections 
gave  the  ministry  an  overwhelming  majority.  The  second 
Reform  Bill  was  brought  in  in  June,  and  passed  its  third  reading 
(21st  of  September)  by  a  majority  of  109.  A  fortnight  later 
(8th  of  October)  the  Lords  threw  out  the  bill  by  a  majority  of  41. 
But  after  a  protracted  political  crisis  (see  the  article  on  Grey, 
Cbakles  Grey,  2nd  earl)  the  king  was  compelled  to  consent  to 
create  a  sufficient  number  of  new  peers  to  carry  the  bill,  and  the 
threat  was  successful  in  bringing  about  the  passing  of  the  act  in 
1832. 

During  the  zest  of  his  reign  William  IV.  had  not  much  Of^x)!- 
tunity  of  active  political  interference,  but  on  one  other  occasion 
he  made  an  unjustifiable  use  of  his  prerogative.  Two  years  after 
the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  the  ministry  of  Lord  Grey  had 
become  unpopular.  In  July  1834  Lord  Grey  himself  retired  and 
Lord  Melbourne  took  the  lead.  There  were  divergences  of 
opinion  in 'the  cabinet,  and  the  king  strongly  objected  to  the 
ministerial  policy  respecting  the  Irish  Church.  On  the  shallow 
pretext  that  Lord  Althorp's  removal  to  the  Upper  House  would 
weaken  the  ministry  in  the  House  of  Commons,  where,  however, 
they  still  had  a  majority,  he  suddenly  dismissed  them  and 
summoned  Sir  Robert  Peel  (14th  of  November).  Peel's  ministry, 
containing  many  members  who  had  been  in  the  government  on 
the  king's  accession,  was  called  from  its  short  duration  "  the 
ministry  of  the  hundred  days."  Its  formation  clearly  indicated 
that  the  Whig  proclivities  of  the  king,  which  had  never  been  more 
than  partial  or  lukewarm,  had  wholly  disappeared.  The  step 
was  regarded  with  general  disapprobation.  It  was  immediately 
followed  by  a  dissolution,  and  the  ministry  soon  found  themselves 
in  a  minority.  Beaten  on  Lord  John  Russell's  motion  respecting 
the  Irish  Church  (3rd  of  April  1835),  Peel  resigned  and  Melbourne 
again  came  into  power.  Under  him  the  Whigs  retained  the  lead 
during  the  remainder  of  the  reign.  This  amp  d'Hci  of  November 
Z834  was  the  last  occasion  on  which  the  English  sovereign  has 
attempted  to  impose  an  unpopular  ministry  on  the  majority  in 
parliament. 

In  May  1837  the  king  began  to  show  signs  of  debility,  and  died 
from  an  affection  of  the  heart  on  the  20th  of  June,  leaving  behind 
him  the  memory  qf  a  genial,  frank,  warm-hearted  man,  but  a 
blundering,  though  well-intentioned  prince.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  niece  Queen  Victoria. 

Authorities. — Cortes^ondencs  of  Earl  Grey  wUk  Wiiliam  IV.  and 
Sir  Herbert  Taylor  (London,  1867);  Fitzgerald's  Life  and  Times  of 
WiUiam  IV.;  Grcville's  Memoirs;  Memotrs  ol  Sir  Robert  Pcd;  the 
Creeoey  Papers;  Ciril  Correspondence  of  the  Duke  of  WeUtngton; 
Walpole's  History  of  Engfasid;  Martineau'a  History  of  the  Peaee.. 

(G.  W.  P.) 

WILLIAM  (xi43>z2r4),  king  of  Scotland,  sumamed  *'the 
Lion,"  was  the  second  son  of  Henry,  earl  of  Huntingdon  (d.  1152), 
a  son  of  King  David  I.,  and  became  king  of  Scotland  on  the  death 
of  his  brother,  Malcolm  IV.,  in  December  1165,  being  crowned 
at  Scone  during  the  same  month.  After  his  accession  to  the 
throne  William  spent  some  time  at  the  court  of  the  English 
king,  Henry  II.;  then,  quarrelling  with  Henry,  he  arranged 
in  XI 68  the  first  definite  treaty  of  alliance  between  France  and 
Scotland,  and  with  Louis  VII.  of  France  assbted  Henry's  sons 
in  their  revolt  against  their  father  in  1x73.  In  return  for  this 
aid  the  younger  Henry  granted  to  William  the  earldom  of 
Northumberland,  a  possession  which  the  latter  had  vainly  sought 
from  the  English  king,  and  which  was  possibly  the  cause  of  their 
first  estrangement.  However,  when  ravaging  the  country  near 
Abwick,  William  was  taken  prisoner  in  July  X174,  and  after  a 
short  captivity  at  Richmond  was  carried  to  Normandy,  where  he 
soon  purchased  his  release  by  assenting  in  December  1x74  to  the 
treaty  of  Falaise.  By  th:s  arrangement  the  king  and  his  nobles, 
clerical  and  lay,  undertook  to  do  homage  to  Hem;  ana  his  son; 


this  and  other  provisions  placing  both  the  church  and  state  of 
Scotland  thoroughly  under  the  suzerainty  of  England.  William's 
next  quarrel  was  with  Pope  Alexander  III.,  and  arose  out  of  a 
doable  choice  for  the  vacant  bishopric  of  St  Andrews.  The  king 
put  forward  his  chaphun,  Hugh;  the  pope  supported  the  arch- 
deacon, John  the  Scot,  who  had  been  canonically  elected.  The 
usual  interchange  of  threats  ana  defiances  followed;  then  after 
the  death  of  Alexander  in  ix8x  his  successor,  Lucius  IIL,  con- 
sented to  a  compromise  by  which  Hugh  got  the  coveted  bishopric 
and  John  became  bishop  of  Dunkeld.  In  1 188  William  secured  a 
papal  bull  which  declared  that  the  Church  of  Scotland  was  directly 
subject  only  to  the  see  of  Rome,  thus  rejecting  the  claims  to 
supremacy  put  forward  by  the  English  archbishop,  lliis  step 
was  followed  by  the  temporal  independence  of  Scotland,  whid^ 
was  one  result  of  the  continual  poverty  of  Richard  I.  In 
December  1189,  by  the  treaty  of  Canterbury,  Richard  gave  up 
all  claim  to  suzerainty  over  Scotland  in  return  for  10,000  marks, 
the  treaty  of  Falaise  being  thus  definitely  annulled. 

In  xz86  at  Woodstock  William  married  Ermengarde  de 
Beaumont,  a  cousin  of  Henry  11.,  and  peace  with  Enghuid  being 
assured  three  years  later,  he  turned  his  arms  against  the  turbulent 
chiefs  in  the  outlying  parts  of  his  kingdom.  His  authority  was 
recognized  in  Galloway  which,  hitherto,  had  been  practically 
independent;  he  put  an  end  to  a  formidable  insurrection  in 
Moray  and  Inverness;  and  a  series  of.  campaigns  taught  the 
far  north,  Caithness  and  Sutherland,  to  respect  the  power  of  the 
crown.  The  story  of  William's  relations  with  King  John  is 
interesting,  although  the  details  are  somewhat  obscure.  Soon 
after  John's  accession  in  1199  the  Scottish  king  asked  for  the 
earldom  of  Northumberland,  which  Richard  I.,  like  his  father, 
had  refused  to  restore  to  Scotland.  John,  too,  lefused  this  de- 
mand, but  the  threatened  war  did  not  take  place,  and  in  x2oo 
William  did  homage  to  the  English  king  at  Lincoln  with  the 
ambiguous  phrase  "  saving  his  own  rights."  After  a  period  of 
inaction  war  between  the  two  countries  again  became  imminent 
in  X209;  but  a  peace  was  made  at  Norham,  and  about  three 
years  later  another  amicable  arrangement  was  reached.  Both 
these  treaties  seem  to  have  been  more  favourable  to  England 
than  to  Scotland,  and  it  is  possible  that  William  acknowledged 
John  as  overlord  of  his  kingdom.  William  died  at  Stirling  on  the 
4th  of  December  Z214  and  was  buried  at  Arbroath.  He  left  one 
son,  his  successor  Alexander  II.,  and  two  daughters,  Margaret  and 
Isabella,  who  were  sent  to  England  after  the  treaty  of  1209^ 
and  who  both  married  English  nobles,  Margaret  becoming  the 
wife  of  Hubert  de  Burgh.  He  also  left  some  illegitimate  diildren. 
William's  reign  is  a  very  important  period  in  the  early  history  of 
Scotland,  and  may  almost  be  said  to  mark  an  epoch  in  evccy 
department  of  public  life.  The  relations  of  England  and  Scotland 
and  of  Scothmd  and  France;  the  rise  of  towns,  the  development 
of  trade  and  the  establishment  of  order  in  Scotland  itself;  and 
the  attitude  of  the  Scottish  Church,  both  to  the  papal  see  and  to 
England,  were  all  vitally  affected  by  the  events  of  this  reign. 
William  founded  and  richly  endowed  the  abbey  at  Arbroath, 
and  many  of  the  Scottish  towns  owe  their  origin  to  his  charters. 

See  E.  W.  Robertson,  Scotland  under  her  Early  Kings  (Edinburgh, 
1862);  Lord  Hailcs,  Annals  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  18 19);  A.  Lang, 
History  of  Scotland^  vol.  i.  (1900) ;  also  Scotland  :  History. 

WILUAM  I.  (X797-1888),  king  of  Prussia  and  German  emperor, 
was  the  second  son  of  Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia  and 
Louise,  a  princess  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  He  was  bom  at 
Berlin  on  the  32nd  of  Mardi  1797,  and  received  the  names  .of 
Wilhdm  Friedrich  Ludwig.  He  was.  a  delicate  child  and  had  to 
be  carefiUly  nurtured.  His  constitution,  however,  was  sound, 
and  he  became  one  of  the  most  vigorous  men  in  Germany.  After 
the  battle  of  Jena  he  spent  three  years  at  Kfinigsberg  and  MemeL 
Meanwhile  he  bad  given  evidence  of  sterling  honesty,  a  strict 
love  of  order,  and  an  almost  passionate  interest  in  everything 
relating  to  war.  On  the  ist  of  January  1807  he  received  an 
officer's  patent,  and  on  the  30th  of  October  X813  was  appointed 
a  captain.  William  accompanied  his  father  in  the  campaign  of 
1 814,  and  early  in  the  following  year  received  the  iron  cross  for 
personal  bravery  shown  at  Bar-sur-Aube,    He  took  part  in  tho 


666 


WILLIAM  I.  (GERMANY) 


entry  into  Paris  on  the  31st  of  Match  18x4,  and  afterwards 
visited  London.  He  joined  the  Prussian  army  in  the  final 
campaign  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  again  entered  Paris.  The 
prince  was  n»de  a  colonel  and  a  member  0/  the  permanent 
military  commission  immediately  after  his  twentieth  birthday, 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  b^me  a  major-general.  In  1820 
he  received  the  command  of  a  division;  and  during  the  fdlowing 
nine  years  he  had  not  only  made  himself  master  of  the  militaTy 
system  of  his  own  country  but  studied  closely  those  of  the  other 
European  states.  In  1825  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general,  and  obtained  the  command  of  the  corps  of 
guards^  On  the  i  ith  of  June  1829  he  married  Augusta,  daughter 
of  Charles  Frederick,  grand  duke  of  Saze- Weimar.  This  lady, 
who  had  imbibed  the  Liberal  tendencies  of  the  court  of 
Weimar  and  later  developed  a  keen  S3rmpathy  with  Catholicism, 
exercised  afterwards  as  queen  and  empress  a  considerable 
influence  at  court,  in  a  sense  generally  hostile  to  Bismarck's 
views.   She  died  on  the  7th  of  January  1890. 

On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1840 — ^the  new  king,  Frederick 
William  IV.,  being  childless — Prince  William,  as  heir  presumptive 
to  the  throne,  received  the  title  of  prince  of  Prussia.  He  was  also 
made  lieutenant-governor  of  Pomcrania  and  appointed  a  general 
of  infantry.  In  politics  he  was  deddcdiy  conservative;  but  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  he  saw  that 
some  concessions  to  the  popular  demand  for  liberal  forms  of 
government  were  necessary.  He  urged,  however,  that  order 
should  be  restored  before  the  establishment  of  a  constitutional 
system.  At  this  time  he  was  the  best-hated  man  in  Germany, 
the  mass  of  the  Prussian  people  believing  him  to  be  a  vehement 
supporter  of  an  absolutist  and  reactionary  policy.  He  was  even 
held  responsible  for  the  blood  shed  in  Berlin  on  the  x8th  of  March, 
and  was  nicknamed  the  "  Cartridge  Prince,"  although  he  had 
been  relieved  m'ne  days  before  of  his  command  of  the  guards. 
So  bitter  was  the  feeling  against  him  that  the  king  entreated 
him  to  leave  the  country  for  some  time,  and  accordingly  he  went 
to  London,  where  he  formed  intimate  personal  relations  with 
Prince  Albert,  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Lord  John  Russell,  Lord  Palmer- 
ston  and  other  English  statesmen.  On  the  8th  of  June  he  was 
back  at  Berlin,  and  on  the  same  day  he  took  his  seat  as  member 
for  Wirsitz  in  the  Prussian  nationd  assembly,  and  delivered  a 
speech  in  which  he  expressed  belief  in  constitutional  principles. 
In  1849,  when  the  revolutionary  party  in  the  grand-duchy  of 
Baden  became  dangerous,  he  accepted  the  command  of  "  the 
army  of  operation  in  Baden  and  the  Palatinate,"  and  his  plans 
were  so  judiciously  formed  and  so  skilfully  executed  that  in  the 
course  of  a  few  days  the  rebellion  was  crushed.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  campaign  an  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  on  his  life. 
In  October  1849  he  was  appointed  military  governor  of  the 
Rhineland  and  Westphalia,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Coblenz. 
In  1854  the  prince  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  field-marshal  and 
made  governor  of  the  federal  fortress  of  Mainz.  When  the  king 
was  attacked  with  a  disease  of  the  brain.  Prince  William  assumed 
the  regency  (7th  October  1858),  and  on  his  brother's  death,  on 
the  2nd  of  January  186  x,  succeeded  him  as  William  I. 

The  political  events  of  William's  regency  and  reign  are  told 
cisewhere  (see  Gekmany:  History;  Pkussza:  History).  His 
personal  influence  upon  these  events  is,  however,  of  great 
importance  and  deserves  separate  notice.  William  was  not  a 
ruler  of  the  intellectual  type  of  Frederick  the  Great;  but  he 
believed  intensely  in  the  "  God  of  battles  "  and  in  his  own  divme 
right  as  the  vicegerent  of  God  so  conceived.  He  believed  also 
in  the  ultimate  union  of  Germany  and  in  the  destiny  of  Prussia 
as  its  .instrument;  and  he  held  that  whoever  a^iired  to  rule 
Germany  must  seise  it  for  himself  (Letter  to  von  Natzmer  of  the 
!0th  of  May  1849,  in  Natzmer's  Unter  den  HokemaUcrn).  But 
an  attitude  so  wholly  alien  to  the  Liberal  temper  of  contemporary 
Germany  was  tempered  by  shrewd  common  sense,  and,  above 
all,  by  a  capacity  to  choose  his  advisers  well  and  listen  to  their 
advice.  Thus  it  came  about  that  the  regent,  whose  reactionary 
views  were  feared,  called  the  Liberals  into  oflice  on  Bismarck's 
advice,  though  later  he  did  not  heutate  to  override  the  constitu- 
tion when  the  refusal  of  the  supplies  for  the  new  armaments 


made  this  cowse  necessary.  FhMn  September  1862,  wben 
Bismarck  took  oflBce  as  minister  president,  William's  personality 
tends  to  be  obscured  by  that  of  his  masterful  servant,  who 
remained  beside  him  till  his  death.  But  Bismarck's  Rcminis- 
cences  contain  plentiful  proof  that  his  master  was  by  no  means  a 
dpher.  His  prejudices,  indeed,  were  apt  to  run  athwart  th^ 
minister's  plans;  as  ux  the  Schleswig-Holstein  question,  when 
the  king's  conscience  in  the  matter  of  the  claims  of  the  Augusten- 
burg  prince  threatened  to  wreck  Bbmarck's  combinations. 
But,  as  Bismarck  put  it,  the  annexation  of  the  duchies  gave  hixn 
"  a  taste  for  conquest,"  and  in  the  campaign  of  1866  the  difficulty 
was  to  restrain  the  king,  who  wished  to  enter  Vienna  in  triumph. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  feelings  of  the  Prussians  before 
the  war,  its  striking  success  fully  justified  the  king's  policy, 
and  on  his  return  to  Berlin  he  was  received  with  unbounded 
enthusiasm. 

In  the  events  immediately  preceding  the  Franco-German  War 
of  X870-7Z  again  it  was  Bismarck  and  not  the  king  that  gave 
the  determining  impulse.  In  the  matter  of  the  HohenzoUera 
candidature  King  William's  attitude  was  strictly  "correct." 
He  was  justified  in  refusing  to  discuss  further  with  Benedetti 
the  question  of  "  guarantees,"  a  matter  which  touched  his  honour; 
and  if  the  refusal,  courteous^  framed,  was  read  in  Paris,  as  an 
insult,  this  was  due  to  Bismarck's  "  editing  "  of  the  Ems  telegraaa 
(see  Bismarck)  The  result  of  the  outcry  in'  France  and  of  the 
French  declaration  of  war  was  that  all  Germany  rallied  round  the 
king  of  Prussia,  and  when,  on  the  3rst  of  July,  he  quilted  BcrHa 
to  join  his  army,  he  knew  that  he  had  the  support  of  a  united 
nation.  He  crossed  the  French  frontier  on  the  nth  of  August, 
and  personally  commanded  at  the  battles  of  Gravelotte  and 
Sedan.  It  was  during  the  siege  of  Paris,  at  his  headquarters  in 
Versailles,  that  he  was  proclaimed  German  emperor  on  the  iStfa 
of  January  187X.  On  the  3rd  of  March  1871  he  »gncd  the  pre- 
liminaries of  peace  which  had  been  accepted. by  the  French 
Assembly;  and  on  the  21st  of  March  he  opened  the  first  imperial 
parliament  of  Germany.  On  the  i6th  of  June  hetriuxrpfaantly 
entered  Berlin  at  the  head  of  his  troops. 

After  that  period  the  emperor  left  the  destinies  of  Germany 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  Bismarck,  who  held  the  oflice  of 
imperial  chancellor.  In  his  personal  history  the  most  notable 
events  were  two  attempts  upon  his  life  in  1878 — one  by  a  working 
lad  called  H5del,  another  by  an  educated  man,  Karl  Nobiling. 
On  the  first  occasion  the  emperor  escaped  without  injury,  but 
on  the  second  he  was  Seriously  wounded.  These  attacks  grew 
out  of  the  Socialist  agitation;  and  a  new  Reichstag,  elected  for 
the  purpose,  passed  a  severe  anti-Socialist  law,.which  was  after- 
wards from  time  to  time  renewed.  UntU  within  a  few  da>'5  of 
his  death  toe  emperor's  health  was  remarkably  robust;  he  died 
at  Berlin  on  the  gth  of  March  x888. 

The  nam  ci  WiUiaiii  I.  marked  ao  era  of  vast  importance  in  the 
hbtory  <m  Germany.  In  his  time  Pruana  became  the  first  powef 
in  Germany  and  Germany  the  first  power  in  Europe,  though  these 
momentous  changes  were  due  in  a  less  degree  ta  him  than  to 
Bismarck  and  Moltke;  but  to  him  belongs  the  credit  of  having 
recogniaed  the  genius  of  these  men,  and  of  having  trusted  them 
absolutely.  Personally  William  maintained  the  best  traditions  of  the 
HohenzoUems,  not  only  by  the  splendour  of  the  achievements  with 
which  his  name  will  always  be  mtimatcly  associated,  but  by  the 
umplicity,  manliness  and  uprightness  of  hb  daily  life.  By  his 
marriage  with  Augusta  of  Saxc-Weimar  William  I.  had  two  children : 
the  crown  prince  Frederick  William  (b.  1851^,  who  succeeded  him  as 
Frederick  III.  (q.v.),  and  the  princess  Louise  (b.  1838},  married  ia 
1856  to  the  grand-duke  of  Baden. 

William  I.  s  military  writings  were  published  in  9  vols,  at  Berlin 
in  1807.  Of  his  letters  and  speeches  several  collections -have  ap- 
pearcd:  Poliliscke  Korrespondtnz  Kaiser  Wilbtlins  I.  (1890):  Kaiser 
Wilkelms  des  Grossen  Briefe,  Reden  und  Sckriflen  (2  vols.,  1905),  and 
his  correspondence  with  Bismarck  (ed.  Penzlcr,  Leipzig,  1900).  A 
large  number  of  biographies  have  appeared  in  Gernun,  of , which 
may  be  mentioned  L.  Schneider's  Aus  dem  Lehen  Kaiser  Wilhdms 
(3  vols.,  Berlin.  1888;  Fr.  translation.  1888};  v.  Bemhardi.  Die 
ersten  ResUrungsjakre  K.  WUhelms,  TagebuchbtStter  (Leipzig,  1895); 
Oncken.  Das  Zeitaller  Kaiser  WUhelms  (a  vols.,  Berlin.  1890-1892); 
F.  Delbrilck,  Die  Jugend  des  Kdnigs  Friedrich  Wiiheim  IV.  ven 
Prtussen  und  des  Kaisers  u.  Kdnigs  Wilhelm  /.,  TagebuchUdlier 
(Berlin.  1007) ;  Blurae,  Kaiser  Wilhelm  und  .  .  .  Roon  als  fiildner 
des  preusstsohdetttscken  Seeres  (Berim,  1906);  E.  Marcks,  Kaiser 


WILLIAM  n.  (GERMANY) 


667 


WitMm  I.  (Leipzig,  1897}  sth  ed.  T905).   In  English  have  appeared 

WiUiam  of  Cermat^,  by  Archiliald  Forbes  (1888),  a  translation  of 
Cdouard  Simon's  Thif  Emperor  WiUiam  and  his  Reijm  (3  vols.,  1886). 
See  also  Sybel's  Founding  of  the  German  Empire  (£ng.  trans.,  New 
York,  189<>-I89I). 

WILUAM  II.  [FuEoucH  WiLHEfii  Victor  Albest] 
(1859-  ')i  king  of  Prussia  and  German  emperor,  was  bom 
on  the  37th  of  January  1859  at  Berlin,  being  the  eldest  child 
of  Prince  Frederick  of  Prussia,  afterwards  crown  prince  and 
second  German  emperor,  and  of  Victoria,  princess  royal  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  On  his  tenth  birthday  he  was  appointed 
second  lieutenant  in  the  First  Regiment  of  the  Guards.  From 
September  1874  to  January  1877  he  attended  the  gymnasium 
at  Cassel;  he  studied  for  two  yean  at  Bonn,  and  was  then  for 
some  time  diiefly  occupied  with  his  military  duties.  In  1885 
he  was  appointed  colond  of  the  Hussars  of  the  Guard.  He  was 
much  influenced  by  the  military  atmosphere  in  which  his  life 
was  spent,  and  was  more  in  sympathy  with  the  strongly  mon- 
archical feelings  of  the  emperor  William  and  Bismardc  than 
with  the  more  liberal  views  of  his  own  parents,  but  until  the 
illness  of  his  father  in  1887  he  took  no  part  in  political  life.  The 
death  of  his  grandfather  was  quickly  followed  by  that  of  his 
father,  and  on  the  15th  of  June  he  became  ninthking  of  Prussia 
and  third  German  emperor.  The  chief  events  of  his  reign  up 
to  1910  are  narrated  under  Germany:  History,  but  here  it  is 
necessary  to  dwell  rather  on  the  personality  of  the  emperor 
himself.  His  first  act  was  an  address  to  the  army  and  navy, 
while  that  io  his  people  followed  after  three  days.  Throughout 
his  reign,  indeed,  he  repeatedly  stated  that  the  army  was  the 
true  basis  of  his  throne:  "  The  soldier  and  the  army,  not  parlia- 
mentaiy  majorities,  have  welded  together  the  German  Empire. 
My  confidence  is  placed  on  the  army." 

From  the  first  he  showed  his  intention  to  be  his  own  chancellor, 
and  it  was  this  which  brought  about  the  quarrel  with  Bismarck, 
.  whQ  could  not  endure  to  be  less  than  all-powerful.  The 
dismissal  and  disgrace  of  the  great  statesman  first  revealed  the 
resolution  of  the  new  ruler;  but,  as  regards  foreign  affairs, 
the  apprehensions  felt  at  his  accession  were  not  fulfilled.  While 
he  maintained  and  confirmed  the  alliance  with  Austria  and  Italy, 
in  obedience  to  the  last  injunctions  of  his  grandfather,  he 
repeatedly  attempted  to  establish  more  cordial  relations  with 
Russia.  His  overtures,  indeed,  were  scarcely  received  with 
corresponding  cordiality.  The  intimacy  of  Russia  with  France 
increased,  and  more  than  a  year  passed  before  the  Russian 
emperor  appeared  on  a  short  visit  to  Berlin.  In  1890  the 
emperor  again  went  to  Russia,  and  the  last  meeting  between 
him  and  Alexander  III.  took  place  at  Kiel  in  the  autumn  of 
1891,  but  was  marked  by  considerable  coolness.  By  his  visit 
to  Copenhagen,  as  in  his  treatment  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland 
and  in  his  frequent  overtures  to  France,  the  emp>eror  showed  the 
strong  desire,  by  the  exercise  of  his  own  great  personal  charm 
and  ability,  to  heal  the  wounds  left  by  the  events  of  a  generation 
before.  In  the  autumn  of  t888  he  visited  not  only  the  courts 
of  the  confederate  princes,  but  those  of  Austria  and  Italy. 
While  at  Rome  he  went  to  the  Vatican  and  had  a  private  con- 
versation with  Pope  Leo  XIII.,  and  this  visit  was  repeated  in 
1895  and  again  In  1903.  In  1889  the  marriage  of  his  sister,  the 
Princess  Sophie,  to  the  duke  of  Sparta,  took  him  to  Athens; 
and  thence  he  sailed  to  Constantinople.  It  was  the  first  time 
that  one  of  the  great  rulers  of  Christendom  had  been  the  guest 
of  the  sultan.  A  more  active  interest  was  now  taken  by  Germany 
in  the  affairs  of  the  Levant,  and  the  emperor  showed  that  he 
would  not  be  content  to  follow  the  secure  and  ascertained  roads 
along  which  Bismarck  had  so  long  guided  the  country.  It  was 
not  enough  that  Berlin  had  become  the  centre  of  the  European 
system.  The  emperor  was  the  apostle  of  a  new  Germany, 
which  claimed  that  her  voice  should  be  heard  in  all  political 
affairs,  in  whatever  quarter  of  the  globe  they  might  rise.  Once 
again,  in  1898,  he  went  to  Constantinople.  It  was  the  time 
when  the  Armenian  massacres  had  made  the  name  of  Abd-ul 
Hamid  notorious,  and  the  very  striking  friendliness  shown 
towards  him  scarcely  seemed  consistent  with  the  frequent 


claims  made  by  the  emperor  to  be  the  leader  of  Christendom; 
but  any  scruples  were  doubtless  outweighed  by  the  great  impulse 
he  was  able  to  give  to  Gemuui  influence  in  the  East.  From 
Constantinople  he  passed  on  to  Palestine.  He  was  present  at 
the  consecration  of  the  German  Protestant  church  of  the  Re- 
deemer. By  the  favotur  of  the  sultan  he  was  able  to  present  to 
the  German  Catholics  a  plot  of  ground,  the  Dormition  de  la 
Sainte  Vierge,  very  near  to  the  Holy  Places. 

The  motive  of  his  frequent  travels,  which  gained  for  him 
the  nickname  of  Der  Reise-Kaiser,  was  not  solely  political,  but 
a  keen  interest  in  men  and  things.  His  love  of  the  sea  was 
shown  in  an  annual  voyage  to  Norway,  and  in  repeated  visits 
to  the  Cowcs  regatta.  He  was  a  keen  yaditsman  and  fond  of 
all  sorts  of  sport,  and,  though  deprived  of  the  use  of  his  left 
arm  through  an  accident  when  he  was  a  child,  he  became  an 
excellent  shot  and  rider. 

At  the  time  of  his  accession  there  was  a  strong  mamfestation 
of  anti-British  feeling  in  Berlin,  and  there  seemed  reason  to 
suppose  that  the  party  from  which  it  proceeded  had  the  patronage 
of  the  emperor.  Any  temporary  misunderstanding  was  removed, 
however,  by  his  visit  to  England  in  1889.  For  the  next  six  years 
he  was  every  year  the  guest  of  Queen  Victoria,  and  during  the 
period  that  Caprivi  held  office  the  political  relations  between 
Germany  and  Great  Britain  were  very  dose.  While  the  emperor's 
visits  were  largely  prompted  by  personal  reasons,  they  had  an 
important  political  effect;  and  in  1890,  when  he  was  entertained 
at  the  Mansion  House  in  London  and  visited  Lord  Salisbury 
at  Hatfield,  the  basis  for  an  entente  cordiale  seem^  to  be  under 
discussion.  But  after  1895  the  growth  of  the  colonial  spirit 
in  Germany  and  the  strong  commercial  rivalry  with  Great 
Britain,  whidi  was  creating  in  Germany  a  feeling  that  a  navy 
must  be  built  adequate  to  protect  German  interests,  made  the 
situation  as  regards  England  more  difficult.  And  an  imexpected 
incident  occurred  at  the  end  of  that  year,  which  brought  to  a 
head  all  the  latent  feelings  of  suspicion  and  jealousy  in.  both 
countries.  On  the  occasion  of  the  Jameson  Raid  he  despatched 
to  the  president  of  the  Transvaal  a  telegram,  in  which  he  con- 
gratulated him  that  "  without  appealing  to  the  help  of  friendly 
powers,"  he  had  succeeded  in  restoring  peace  and  preserving  the 
independence  of  his  country.  It  was  very  difficult  to  regard 
this  merely  as  an  impulsive  act  of  generous  sympathy  with  a 
weak  state  unjustly  attacked,  and  though  warmly  approved 
in  Germany,  it  caused  a  long  alienation  from  Great  Britain. 
The  emperor  did  not  again  visit  England  till  the  beginning  of 
1901,  when  he  attended  the  deathbed  atid  funeral  of  Queen 
Victoria.  On  this  occasion  he  placed  himself  in  strong  opposition 
to  the  feelings  of  the  large  majority  of  his  countrymen  by 
conferring  on  Lord  Roberts  the  Order  of  the  Black  Eagle,  tlie 
most  highly  prized  of  Prussian  decorations.  He  had  already 
refused  to  receive  the  ex-president  of  the  Transvaal  on  his  visit 
to  Europe.  Meanwhile,  with  the  other  great  branch  of  the 
English-speaking  people  in  the  United  States,  it  was  the  emperor's 
policy  to  cultivate  more  cordial  relations.  In  1902,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  launching  of  a  yacht  built  for  him  in  America, 
he  sent  his  brother  Prince  Henry  to  the  United  States  as  his 
representative.  The  occasion  was  rendered  of  international 
importance  by  his  official  attitude  and  by  his  gifts  to  the  American 
people,  which  included  a  statue  of  Frederick  the  Great.  The 
emperor  also  initiated  in  1906  the  exchange  of  professors  between 
German  and  American  universities. 

As  regards  home  policy,  the  most  important  work  to  which 
the  emperor  turned  his  attention  was  the  increase  of  the  German 
naval  forces.  Frorn  the  moment  of  his  accession  he  constantly 
showed  the  keenest  interest  in  naval  affairs,  and  the  numerous 
changes  made  in  the  organization  were  due  to  his  personal 
initiative.  It  was  In  January  1895.  at  an  evening  reception  to 
members  of  the  Reichstag,  that  he  publicly  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  movement  for  making  Germany  a  sea  power.  In 
all  the  subsequent  discussions  on  the  naval  bills  his  influence 
was  decisively  used  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  Reichstag. 
"  Our  future,"  he  declared,"  is  on  the  water,"  and  in  speeches 
in  all  parts  of  Uie  country  he  combated  the  iudifferencc  of 


668 


WILLIAM  II.  (GERMANY) 


the  inland  Germant  to  the  lea;  *'  I  wiU  not  rest,"  he  telegraphed 
to  his  brother,  "  till  I  have  brought  my  navy  to  the  same  height 
at  which  my  army  stands."  The  development  of  German 
armaments  during  the  next  few  years  (see  Navy)  showed  that 
this  was  no  idle  boast.  But,  while  it  was  inevitable  that  the 
inference  should  be  drawn  that  the  increase  of  the  German 
navy  was  directed  towards  eventual  hostilities  with  Great  Britain, 
the  emperor  himself  insisted  that  the  real  object  was  the  preserva- 
tion of  peace  consistently  with  the  maintenance  of  Germany's 
"  place  in  the  sun.'*  In  March  1905,  in  a  speech  at  Bremen, 
he  declared  the  aim  of  the  HohenzoUems  to  be  "  a  world-wide 
dominion  founded  upon  conquests  not  gained  by  the  sword, 
but  by  the  mutual  confidence  of  nations  that  press  towards 
the  same  goal."  "  Every  German  warship  launched,"  he  said^ 
"  is  one  guarantee  more  for  peace  on  earth."  In  the  same 
spirit  he  protested  later,  in  an  "interview"  published  in  the 
Daily  Telegraph  of  the  28th  of  October  X90S,  that  he  had  always 
been  actuated  by  the  friendliest  feelings  towards  England,  but 
that  "  Germany  must  be  prepared  for  any  eventualities  in  the 
East,"  and  that,  in  view  of  the  growing  naval  power  of  Japan, 
England  should  welcome  the  existence  of  a  German  fleet  "  when 
they  speak  toother  on  the  same  side  in  the  great  debates  of  the 
future"  For  to  the  emperor,  who  had  published  a  cartoon, 
drawn  by  himself,  representing  the  Eiuropean  powers  in  league 
against  the  YcUow  Peril,  the  Anglo- Japanese  alliance  seemed 
a  betrayal  of  the  white  race,  an  unnatural  league  which  could 
not  last..  The  justification  of  his  naval  policy  so  far  as  European 
affairs  were  concerned  was  revealed  in  the  effective  intervention 
of  Germany  in  regard  to  France  and  Morocco  in  1905,  and 
in  1909  in  the  defiance  of  British  policy  when  Austria, 
backed  by  Germany,  tore  up  the  treaty  of  Berlin  in  regard  to 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina. 

In  numerous  rhetorical  speeches  the  emperor  had  impressed 
the  world  with  his  personal  conviction  of  autocratic  ^vereignty, 
and  his  monarchical  activity  was  certain,  sooner  or  later,  to  bring 
him  into  conflict  with  the  constitutional  limitations  of  his 
position  as  king  of  Prussia  and  German  emperor.  His  imperial 
style,  a>nstitutionaUy  but  the  honorary  title  of  the  primus  inter 
pares  in  a  free  confederation  of  sovereign  princes,  was  invested 
by  him  with  something  of  the  glamour  of  that  of  the  Holy  Roman 
emperors,  with  their  shadowy  daim  to  world-dominion.  In 
speech  after  speech  he  proclaimed  the  world-mission  of  Germany, 
of  which  he  himself  was  the  divinely  appointed  instrument; 
Germans  are  "  the  salt  of  the  earthy"  they  must  not  "  weary 
in  the  work  of  civilization,"  and  Germanism,  like  the  spirit  of 
imperial  Rome,  must  expand  and  impose  itsdf.*  This  new 
imperialism,  too,  had  a  religious  basis,  for  "  the  whole  of  hUhian 
life  hinges  simply  and  solely  on  our  attitude  towards  our  Lord 
and  Saviour."*  The  emperor's  progresses  in  the  East  were 
concdved  in  thie  ^>irit  of  the  new  crusade,  at  once  Christian 
and  German;  and  a  solemn  service,  to  which  none  but  the 
emperor  and  his  train  were  admitted,  was  held  on  the  summit  of 
the  Mount  of  Olives..  In  the  same  spirit,  too,  the  emperor  dis- 
pensed the  marks  of  his  ^>proval  and  disapproval  beyond  the 
borders  of  his  own  jurisdiction,  sometimes  with  results  which 
wcrd  open  to  criticism.  The  "Kruger  tdegram"  has  been 
mentioned;  scarcdy  less  characteristic  was  the  message 
despatched  by  him  on  the  9th  of  April  1906,  after  the  Algedras 
conference,  to  Count  Goluchowaki,  the  Austro-Hungarian 
foreign  minister,  congratulating  him  on  having  proved  "a 
brilliant  second  on  the  dudling-ground."  Goluchowski's  retire- 
ment was  mainly  due  to  this  compliment.  In  1905  he  bestowed 
the  order  Pour  le  Mirite  not  only  on  the  Japanese  general  Nogi, 
but  also  on  the  Russian  general  StOssel,  the  ddender  of  Port 
Arthiur,  who  was  afterwards  condemned  by  a  Russian  court- 
martial  for  dereliction  of  duty.  In  1902  his  tel^^ram  to  the 
regent  of  Bavaria  condemning  the  refusal  of  the  derical  majority 
in  the  diet  to  vote  £5000  for  art  purposes,  and  offering  himself 
to  supply  the  money,  was  regarded  as  an  imwarrantable  inter- 

^  Speech  at  Biemen  (Match  1905). 

'Speech  at  Gniecno,  Poland  (August  1905). 

*  Sj)eech  at  confirmation  of  hi»  wa  (October  1903). 


ference  in  the  internal  affain  of  BavarU  and  looaed  itio&C 
resentment  among  the  clericals  all  over  Germany. 

Owing  to  the  political  conditions  in  Germany  it  was  generally 
left  for  the  Socialists  to  attack  these  excursions  on  the  part  of 
the  emperor  into  fidds  which  lay  beyond  his  strict  fxeiogative. 
But,  apart  fr6m  the  txaditicmal  linea  of  poiitiral  deavage,  such 
as  the  inherited  hatred  of  the  Liberal  South  for  the  HohenxoUem 
"  corporal's  cane,"  other  centres  of  dissatisfaction  woe  coining 
into  being.  The  emperor  was  isolated  in  his  efforts  to  impose 
the  old,  strenuous,  Prussian  ideala  of  "  sdf-denial,  disapline, 
religion,  avoidance  of  foreign  oootagion."  With  the  growth 
of  wealth  Gemumy  was  becoming  materialized  and  to  some 
extent  Americanized,  partly  through  the  actual  reflux  of  emi- 
grants grown  rich  in  the  United  States.  In  this  new  society, 
far  removed  from  the  days,  denounced  by  the  historian  Gervlnus, 
when  the  Germans  were  content  to  **  fiddle  and  be  slaves,"  the 
phrases  which  still  woke  responsive  echoes  in  the  squires  of  the 
Old  Mark  of  Brandenburg  were  apt  to  create  surprise,  if  not 
indignation;  and  in  the  great  industrial  classes  the  prindples  of 
Social  Democracy  ^read  apace.  Hie  emperor  himself  here  and 
there  even  yidded  a  little  to  the  new  ideas,  as  when,  in  the 
famous  "  Babd  and  Bible  "  controversy  of  1903,  arising  out  of 
lectures -in  which  Professor  Dditzsch  had  derived  Jewish  mono- 
theism from  Babylonian  polytheism,  he  publidy  accepted  the 
main  condusion  of  the  "  higher  criticism  "  of  the  Old  Testament, 
while  maintaining  that  the  kemd  and  contents,  God  and  His 
works,  remain  always  the  same;  or  when  on  the  zyth  of  November 
1906,  on  the  25th  anniversary  of  William  I.'s  edict  annotmcing 
national  insurance,  he  promised  further  social  rdorms.  But  he 
was  impatient  of  what  he  considered  factious  opposition,  and 
was  apt  to  appeal  from  the  nation  in  parliament  to  the  nation 
in  arms,  as  when  in  1906,  at  the  Silesian  manoeuvres,  he  oon- 
denmed  the  critical  spirit  exercised  towards  the  government,  and 
invoked  once  more  the  protection  of  Germany's  "  Divine  Ally." 
Clearly,  this  was  an  attitude  which  was  inconsistent  with  the 
devdopment  of  what  prided  itsdf  on  being  a  constitutional 
state;  but  there  were  obvious  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
controlling  the  utterances  of  a  ruler,  vigorous,  self-confident 
and  conscious  of  the  best  intentions,  who  was  also  the  master 
of  many  legions,  whose  military  spirit  he  could  evoke  at 
wiU.  In  October  1906  the  publication  of  Prince  Hohenlohe'a 
Memoirs,  containing  indiscreet  revdations  of  the  emperor's 
action  in  the  dismiitsal  of  Bisnuirck,  caused  a  profound 
sensation.  A  few  months  later,  in  February  1907,  the  prestige 
of  the  court  was  further  damaged  by-  various  unsavoury  revela- 
tions, made  by  Herr  Harden  in  the  Zukunfi,  as  to  the  character 
of  the  "  camarilla  "  by  which  the  emperor  was  surrounded,  and 
it  was  afl&rmcd  that  a  connexion  could  here  be  traced  with  the 
fall  of  Caprivi  in  1894.  The  long-drawn-out  trials  and  counter- 
trials  kft  the  character  of  the  emperor  entirdy  unstained,  but 
they  resulted  in  the  disgrace  of  men  who  had  been  his  confidants 
— Prince  Philip  Eulenbuig,  Count  Ktmo  Moltke  and  others. 
The  attitude  of  the  emperor  throughout  was  manly  and  sensible; 
and  not  the  least  satisfactory  outcome  of  the  whole  sorry  business 
was  the  issue,  on  the  28th  of  January  1907,  of  an  edict,  iJterwards 
embodied  in  a  bill,  greatly  modifying  the  law  of  Use-majesU, 
which  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  reign  had  been  used  to  ridiculous 
excess  in  the  imprisonment  of  the  authors  d  the  sUghtcst 
reflectton  on  the  person  of  the  sovereign. 

Anglo-German  relations  were  apparently  improved  by  a  visit 
of  the  emperor  to  England  in  November  1907.  But  early  in  1908 
they  wereagain  strained  by  the  revelation,  made  in  The  Times 
of  the  6th  of  March,  of  a  correspondence  between  the  emperor 
and  Lord  Tweedmouth,  the  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  in  which, 
in  answer  to  friendly  assurances  on  the  emperor's  part,  the 
British  secretary  of  state  had  communicated  to  him  an  outline 
of  the  new  naval  programme  before  it  had  even  been  laid  on  the 
table  of  the  House  of  (Emmons.  The  angry  controversy  to 
which  this  gave  rise,  and  the  emperor's  attempts  to  allay  it,  led 
at  the  end  of  the  year  to  a  serious  crisis  in  his  relations  with  his 
subjects.  On  the  nth  of  August  he  had  met  Edward  VII.  at 
Cronberg;  on  the  ^oth,  in  a  speech  at  Strassburg,  he  reiteratc^l 


WILLIAM  I.  (NETHERLANDS) 


669 


tlw  iDleation  of  Gcrnuay  to  maiatain  tbe  Uth  level  of  her 
umuneDtii  and  on  tlu  i3tb  ol  Octobec  there  appeared  in  Lbe 
Daily  TtUpafli  ta  utnocdiucy  "  interview,"  authotind  by 
him,  in  wbicb  be  expounded  bia  attiludc.  The  docuraeat  vaa  s 
Tiiuinf  ot  his  Uble-t»lk  during  his  sUy  at  HIghdifie  Caitle,  on 
the  Hampahiie  cout  oppoeite  the  Isle  ol  Wight,  in  the  Butumn 
of  1Q07.  In  it  he  Teittirated  that  hia  heart  vraa  let  oo  peace; 
be  declared  that,  >o  far  from  bong  boatile  10  the  English,  be  had 
oQcndedlargeaectionaolhiapeopleby  hlsfriendabipfor  England, 

rejection  of  the  pr^MHala  of  France  and  Ruasia  foi  a  joint  inlet- 
vcntiOD  (o  atop  the  South  African  War;  be  also  mentioned  tbe 
curioui  facl  Ibat  at  an  eaily  stage  ot  the  war  be  had  himaclf 
dran-n  up  a  plan  of  campaign  foi  the  British  and  wot  it  to 
Windsor.  It  waaonlbisoccaaion.  too,  tha.t  he  mule  the  sugges- 
tion otan  eventual  co-opciation  of  the  British  and  German  Heels 
in  the  Far  Ea«.    This  pronouncement  created  a  profound 


inse.  but  Jn  Rusi    , 
a  MachiavcUiaji  a' 


ically  tcsponai 


oi  p 


Reichstag  lbe  best  defence  that  he  could  fot  the  imperial  indis- 
cietion,  declaring  that  henceforth  (he  empeiqr  would  show  mora 
reserve.  The  emperor  publicly  endorsed  lbe  chancelhst'a  ei- 
planations,  and  for  nearly  two  years  maintained  in  public  an 

delivered  at  Kttnigsbetg,  on  the  ijth  of  August  iqio.  In  tbii 
Ihc  cmpetot  again  laid  special  stress  upon  tbe  divine  right 
by  Which  alone  lbe  kings  of  Prussia  rule,  adding: "  considering 
m>-sel£  as  tbe  instrument  of  the  Lord,  without  heedmg  the  views 
and  opinions  of  the  day,  I  go  my  way."  Thia  speech  hid  to  a 
debate,  on  a  Socialist  inteipdiation.  In  tbe  Reichstag  (November 
j6).    In  reply  10  tbe  ec 


if  the  pledge  given  in  igoS,  the  chancellor 
the  emperor  had  exceeded  his  constitutional  rigbta, 
wrted  by  the  majoiily  of  the  House, 
imr  mimed  on  the  a;th  of  ns 


waa  eeleWaled  with  much  (tnnwny  on 
and  who  married  on  the  Mh  oi  June  191 
Mecklenburg,  their  eldeM  aon,  WUhelm,  be 


1906;  (I)  Eilel  Friedrich,  born  on  tbe  7ih  t 

^  ??.'.''f..;i"'.s'J."k'^>L'l"«' 


iglb  of  January 
161  Joachim,  bor 


inlhei^thofScpiei 


IS^: 


1904). 


la  Tilt  GimuM  Enfercr's  Spacka  (L 


WtLUAM  I.  (1779-1S44),  king  of  tbe  Netbedanda,  bom  at 
tbe  Hague  on  lbe  a4lh  of  Augiut  1779,  was  the  son  ot  William  V., 
prince  of  Onuige  and  hereditary  stadlholdcr  of  the  United 
Netherlands  by  Sophia  Wilhelmina,  princess  of  Piuisia.  tn 
1791  he  married  Frederica  Wilbelmina,  daughter  of  Frederick 
'"""■       "     "ling  of  Prussia,  thus  cementing  very  closely  the 


en  the  h 


«olOrai 


E-Nas! 


idllohi 


if  war  with 

he  distinguished  himself  in  the  struggle  against  the  revolutionary 
army  under  Dumourica  by  the  capture  of  Landredea  and  the 
relief  of  Cbarleroi.  By  the  victories  of  Fichegtu  the  sladlholder 
and  all  his  family  were,  however,  compelled  lo  leave  Holland  and 
seek  refuge  in  England,  where  the  palace  of  Hampton  Court  was 
■et  apati  for  iMl  use.  He  afterwards  made  BerUu  hia  residence, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  tbe  unfortunate  campaign  under  the 
duke  of  Votk  for  the  recoaquest  of  the  Netherlands.  AtUr  the 
peus  ol  Amiens  he  had  an  interview  with  Napoleon  al  Paris, 
tad  nceived  iiniie  tenilory  adjoiniiig  tbe  hetedilaiy  domains 


ins  ol  his  bouse, 
by  the  death  of 


of  lbe  house  of  Nassau  in  Westphalia  as  1 

abandonmenl  of  the  sladtbolderaCe  and  th 
WUIiam  refused,  however,  in  i$o6,  b  wbii 
bia  father  he  became  prince  of  Orange,  ti 
from  those  oi  his  Piusstan  rdatlvea,  and  f 
He  was  therefore  de^ioiled  by  Napoleon  of  all  his  pi 
In  1S09  be  accepted  a  command  in  the  Austrian  army  under  tbe 
arcbduke  Chulia  and  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Wagntn. 
When  Uollaod  rose  in  revolt  against  French  domination  In  1813, 
after  dghtecn  years  of  exile  be  landed  aL  Scbcvmingen  (oQ  lbe 
iglh  of  November]  and  was  on  the  3rd  of  Deceoiber,  an^  un^ 
versa!  rejoicing,  proclaimed  piiuce  sovereign  of  the  Netherlands. 
His  assumplion  in  the  fallowing  year  of  lbe  title  of  king  of  the 
Netherbmda  was  recognised  by  the  powers,  and  by  the  treaty 
ot  Fails  bis  sovereignty  was  eitended  over  the  southern  as  wdl 
as  the  northern  Netherlands,  Belglura  being  added  lo  Holland 
"  as  an  inaease  of  territory."  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  in 
vhich  Dutch  and  Belgiaa  troops  fought  ude  by  side  under  hia 
command.  Ihe  congress  of  Vienna  furtber  aggrudised  bim  by 
making  him  sovereign  of  tbe  teniloiy  of  Luxemburg  with  the 
tille  of  grand  duke. 

William  had  many  excellent  qualities,  but  bis  kog  life  of  exile 
and  hardship  bad  made  him  niggardly  and  narrow.  He  was 
unable  to  rise  to  the  great  opportunity  which  lay  before  him 
ol  creating  out  of  tbe  Dutch  and  Beigbn  provinces  a  strong  and 
united  state.  Two  bundred  and  fifty  years  of  political  separation 
and  widely  diffcriug  eiperienrcs  had  caused  lbe  two  kindred 
populations  on  this  and  that  side  of  the  Scheldt  to  grow  apart 
in  aentimecl  and  tradition.    This  ^Meience  was  still  futlber 


u  of  a  Romi 
s  Wililiin  was  ir 


religious  creed.  Funber, 
inhabited  by  a  Wallooi 


{&  by  racial  cl 


ic  dials 


.    AU 


:ceptcd  unanimously  by  the  Dutch, 
but  was  rejected  by  the  Belgians,  because  it  contained  provisious 
for  liberty  of  wonhjp.  Tbe  king,  however,  by  a  subterfuge 
declared  that  the  fundamental  bw  bad  been  approved.  Tbe 
new  constitution,  therefore,  started  badly,  and  it  was  soon 
evident  that  WiUism  intended  to  make  bis  will  prevail,  and  u> 
carry  out  bis  prgjccis  for  what  he  conceived  the  social,  indusl rial 
and  educational  welfare  of  the  kingdom  regardicas  ol  tbe  c^posH 
lion  of  Belgian  public  opinion.  The  Belgians  had  many  griev- 
ances. Their  representaiion  in  tbe  stales  general  was  elsclly 
equal  to  that  of  the  Dutch,  though  their  population  was  En  the 
proportion  of  seven  to  five.  With  the  help  of  the  oSicial  vote  of 
ministers  the  Dulcb  were  thus  able  to  have  a  perpetual  majority. 
The  whole  machineiy  ol  government  was  ci;ntraliud  at  the 
Hague,  and  Dutchmen  AUhI  nearly  all  the  principal  posts.  The 
allcmpl  of  the  king  to  enforce  lbe  official  use  ol  the  Dutch 
bnguage,  and   the  foundation  of  lbe  so-called  philosophical 


ollege  al  Louvai 
The  rapi,'     ■ 


helped  Ic 


Industrial  and  manufacturing 
laigely  to  the  stimulus  of  WiUlam'a  personal 
Ljiiative,  ain  nothing  to  bring  north  and  soutb  together,  but 
Llhcr  increased  their  rivalry  and  jealousy,  for  the  Dulcb  pro- 
inces  had  neither  manufactures  nor  Iron-  and  coal-mlnet,  but 
ere  dependent  on  agriculture  and  sea-home  commerce  for 
Kir  welfare.  Such  dashing  of  interests  was  sure  lo  produce 
ienalion,  but  the  king  remained  apparently  blind  to  ihe  signs 
:  the  limes,  and  the  severe  enforcement  nf  a  haish  law  restricting 
eedom  of  the  press  led  suddenly  in  1830  to. a  revolt  {see 
ELGiDu),  which,  beginning  al  Brussels  at  tbe  end  ol  August, 
ipEdly  spread  over  the  whole  country.  The  Dutch  were  olniait 
ithoul  striking  a  blow  expelled  from  the  country,  Ihe  itrongly 
fortifiFd  seaport  of  Antwerp  alone  remaining  in  their  hands. 


Had  lbe  king  cc 

ioulhem  Nethetlanda,  it  is  probable  that  the  revolt  mi( 
been  appeased.  At  the  first  there  was  undoubtedly  1 
body  ot  public  opinion  in  favour  of  such  a  compromise, 
house  of  Orange  had  many  adbueuts  in  tbe  countiy. 


of  lbe 


670  WILLIAM  II.  (NETHERLANDS)— WILLIAM  OF  HOLLAND 


however,  was  too  proud  and  too  obstinate  to  lend  himself  to  such 
a  course.  He  appealed  to  the  powers,  who  had,  in  1815,  created 
and  guaranteed  the  independence  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands. By  the  treaty  of  the  eighteen  articles,  however,  concluded 
at  London  on  the  aQth  of  June  1831,  the  kingdom  of  Belgium 
was  recognized,  and  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg  was  elected  king. 
William  refused  his  assent,  and  in  August  suddenly  invaded 
Belgium.  The  Belgian  forces  were  dispersed,  and  the  Dutch 
would  have  entered  Brussels  in  triumph  but  for  the  intervention 
of  the  French.  Still,  however,  William- declined  to  recognize 
the  new  throne,  and  he  had  behind  him  the  unanimous  support 
of  Dutch  public  opinion.  For  nine  years  he  maintained  this 
attitude,  and  resolutely  refused  to  append  his  signature  to  the 
treaty  of  1831 .  His  subjects  at  length  grew  weary  of  the.  heavy 
expense  of  maintaining  a  large  military  force  on  the  Belgian 
frontier  and  in  1839  the  king  gave  way.  He  did  so,  however, 
on  favourable  terms  and  was  able  to  insist  on  the  Belgians  yielding 
up  their  possession  of  portions  of  Limburg  and  Luxemburg, 
which  they  had  occupied  since  1830. 

A  cry  now  arose  in  Holland  for  a  revision  of  the  fundamental 
law  and  for  more  liberal  institutions;  ministerial  responsibility 
suras  introduced,  and  the  royal  control  over  finance  diminished. 
William,  however,  disliked  these  changes,  and  finding  further 
that  his  proposed  marriage  with  the  countess  d'Oultremont,  a 
Belgian  and  a  Roman  Catholic,  was  very  unpopular,  he  suddenly 
abdicated  on  the  7th  of  October  1840.  After  his  abdication  he 
married  the  countess  and  speiit  the  rest  of  his  life  in  quiet 
retirement  upon  his  private  estate  in  Silesia.    He  died  in  1844. 

See  L.  Jottsand,  GuHlaume  d'Oranee  avani  son  a9(nemenl  au 
trine  ies  Pays-Bas;  E.  C.  de  Gerlache,  aistoire  du  royaume  des  Pays- 
Bos  depuis  1814  jusgu'eu  18^0  (3  vols.,  Brusacls,  1842) ;  W.  H.  de 
Beaufort,  Dit  eersU  regeeringsjaren  van  Koning  WiUem  I.  (Amsterdam, 
1886);  H.  C.  Colenbrandcr,  De  Bdgische  Onmentding  (The  Hague, 
1905} ;  T.  Juste,  Le  SouUoement  de  la  HoUande  en  1813  et  lafondation 
du  royaume  des  Pays-Bus  (Brussels,  1870):  and  P.  Blok.,  Gesckiedenis 
der  Nederlandsche  Yolk,  vols.  viL  aiid  viii.  (Leiden,  1907-1908). 

WILLIAM  n.  (1792-1849),  king  of  the  Netherlands,  son  of 
William  I.,  was  bom  at  the  Hague  on  the  6th  of  December  1793. 
When  he  was  three  years  old  his  family  was  driven  out  of  Holland 
by  the  French  republican  armies,  and  lived  in  exile  until  1813. 
He  was  educated  at  the  military  school  at  Berlin  and  afterwards 
at  the  university  of  Oxford.  He  entered  the  English  army, 
and  in  x8xi,  as  aide-de-camp  to  the  duke  of  Wellington,  took  part 
in  several  campaigns  of  the  Peninsula  War.  In  1815  be  com- 
manded the  Dutch  and  Belgian  contingents,  and  won  high 
commendations  for  his  courage  and  conduct  at  the  battles  of 
Quatrc  Bras  and  Waterloo,  at  the  latter  of  which  he  was  wounded. 
The  prince  of  Orange  married  in  1816  the*  grand  duchess  Anna 
Paulowna,  sister  of  the  tzar  Alexander  I.  He  enjoyed  consider- 
able popularity  in  Belgium,  as  well  as  iu  Holland  for  his  afTability 
and  moderation,  and  in  1836,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Belgian 
revolution,  he  betook  himself  to  Brussels,  and  did  his  utmost 
by  personal  conferences  with  the  most  influential  men  in  the 
Belgian  capital  to  bring  about  a  peaceable  settlement  on  the 
basis  of  the  administrative  autonomy  of  the  southern  provinces 
under  the  house  of  Orange.  His  father  had  given  him  powers 
to  treat,  but  afterwards  threw  him  over  and  rejected  the  terms 
of  accommodation  that  he  had  proposed.  He  withdrew  on 
this  to  England  and  resided  there  for  several  months.  In  April 
183 1  William  took  the  command  of  a  Dutch  army  for  the  invasion 
of  Belgium,  and  in  a  ten-days'  campaign  defeated  and  dispersed 
the  Belgian  forces  under  Leopold  I.  after  a  sharp  fight  near 
Louvain.  He  would  have  entered  Brussels  in  triumph,  but  his 
victorious  advance  was  stayed  by  the  intervention  of  the  French. 
In  1840,  on  the  abdication  of  his  father,  he  ascended  the  throne 
as  William  II.  The  peace  of  1839  had  settled  all  differences 
between  Holland  and  Belgium,  and  the  new  king  found  himself 
confronted  with  the  task  of  the  reorganization  of  the  finances, 
and  the  necessity  of  meeting  the  popular  demand  for  a  revision 
ot  the  fundamental  law,  and  the  establishment  of  the  electoral 
franchise  on  a  wider  basis.  He  acted  with  good  sense  and 
Ikioderation,  and,  although  by  no  means  a  believer  in  democratic 
ideas,  he  saw  the  necessity  of  satisfying  public  opinion  and 


frankly  gave  his  support  to  larger  measures  of  reform,  the 
fundamental  law  was  altered  in  1848  and  the  Dutch  monarchy, 
from  being  autocratic,  became  henceforth  constitutional.  The 
king's  attitude  secured  for  him  the  good  will  and  afTcciion  of  a 
people,  lo3ral  by  tradition  to  the  houso>  of  Orange,  and  the 
revolutionary  disturbances  of  1848  found  no  echo  in  Holland. 
William  died  suddenly  on  the  17th  of  March  1849. 
See  J.  J.  Abbink,  Leven  van,  Koning  WHtem  II,  (Amsterdam* 


1840) ;  J.  Bosscha,  Het  Leven  van  WiUem  den  Tweede^  Koning  der 
Nederlanden,  1703-1849  (Amsterdam.  1852);'  P.  Blok.  Gesckiedet 
der  Nederlandsche  Volk  (Leiden,  1908).  (G.  E.) 


WILUAM  III.  (1817-1890),  king  of  the  Netherlands,  son  of 
William  n.,was  bomat  Brussels  on  the  19th  of  February  18x7. 
He  married  in  1839  Sophia,  daughter  of  William  I.,  king  of 
Wiirttemberg.  Sophia  was  an  accomplished  woman  of  high 
intelligence,  but  unfortunately  the  relations  between  the  royal 
pair  were  far  from  cordial  and  finally  ended  in  complete  disagree- 
ment, and  the  breach  between  them  continued  until  the  death 
of  the  queen  in  1877.  The  private  life  of  the  king  in  fact  gave 
rise  to  much  scandal;  nevertheless  he  was  an  excellent  con- 
stitutional monarch,  and,  though  he  never  sought  to  win 
popular  favour,  succeeded  in  winning  and  retaining  in  a  remark- 
able degree  his  people's  affectionate  loyalty.  He  had  no  sym- 
pathy w^ith  politiod  liberalism,  but  throughout  his  long  reign 
of  forty-two  years,  with  a  constant  interchange  of  ministries 
and  many  ministerial  crises,  he  never  had  a  serious  conflict  «ith 
the  states-general,  and  his  ministers  could  always  count  upon 
his  fair-mindedness  and  an  earnest  desire  to  help  them  to  further 
the  national  welfare.  He  was  economical,  and  gave  up  a  third 
of  his  civil  list  in  order  to  help  forward  the  task  of  establishing 
an  equilibrium  in  the  annual  budget,  and  he  was  always  ready 
from  his  large  private  fortune  to  help  forward  all  schemes  for  the 
social  or  industrial  progress  of  the  country.  It  was  largely 
due  to  his  prudent  diplomacy  that  Holland  passed  pacifically 
through  the  difficult  period  of  the  Luxemburg  settlement  in 
1866  and  the  Franco-German  War  of  1870. 

William  III.  had  two  sons  by  bis  marriage  with  Sophia  of 
WUrttembcrg,  William  (1841-1879),  and  Alexander  (1843-1884). 
Both  of  them  died  unmarried.  The  decease  of  Prince  Alexander 
left  the  house  of  Orange  without  a  direct  heir  male,  but  the 
prospect  of  a  disputed  succession  had  fortunately  been  averted 
by  the  marriage  of  the  king  in  1879  with  the  princess  Emma 
of  Waldeck-Pyrmont.  From  this  union  a  daughter,  Wilhc^ina, 
was  bom  in  1880.  On  her  father's  death  at  the  Loo,  on  the 
23  rd  of  November  1890,  she  succeeded  as  queen  of  the  Nether- 
lands under  the  regency  of  her  mother. 

William  was  grand  duke  of  Luxemburg  by  a  personal  title, 

and  his  death  severed  the  dynastic  relation  between  the  kingdom 

of  the  Netherlands  and  the  grand  duchy.     The  sovereignty  of 

the  Luxemburg  duchy  passed  to  the  next  heir  male  of  the  house 

of  Nassau,  Adolphus,  ex-duke  of  Nassau. 

See  J.  A.  Bruijne,  Geschiedenis  van  Nederland  in  omen  tijd.  (5  vols., 
Schiecfam.  1889-1906}:  P.  Blok,  Geschiedenis  der  Nederlandsche 
Volk  (Leiden,  1908),  vol.  viii.;  and  G.  L.  Keppers,  De  regeering  van 
Koning  WiUem  III.  (Groningen,  1887).  (G.  E.) 

WILLIAM  (1227-1256),  king  of  the  Romans  and  count  of 
Holland,  was  the  son  of  Count  Floris  IV.  and  his  wife  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry,  duke  of  Brabant.  He  was  about  six  years 
of  age  when  his  father  was  killed  in  a  tournament,  and  the  fact 
that  his  long  minority  was  peaceful  and  uneventful  speaks  well 
for  the  good  government  of  his  two  paternal  uncles,  who  were 
his  guardians.  William  was,  however,  suddenly  in  1247  to 
become  a  prominent  figure  in  the  great  Guelph-GhibeUine 
struggle,  which  at  that  time  was  disturbing  the  peace  of  Europe. 
The  quarrel  between  the  church  and  the  emperor  Frederick  II. 
had  now  reached  an  acute  stage.  Pope  Innocent  IV.,  who  had 
failed  in  repeated  efforts  to  induce  various  princes  to  accept  the 
dignity  of  king  of  the  Romans  in  place  of  the  excommunicated 
Frederick,  found  the  youthful  William  of  Holland  ready  to 
accept  the  proffered  crown.  After  a  long  siege  William  succeeded 
in  taking  the  imperial  city  of  Aiz-ia-Chapelle,  where  he  was 
crowned  on  AU  Saints'  Day  1248.  As  the  recognized  head  of 
the  Guelph  party  he  spared  no  efforts  to  win  for  himself  friendi 


WILLIAM  L  (SICILY)— WILLIAM  I.  (WURTTEMBERG)      671 


In  Germany,  but  he  never  really  saoceeded  in  forming  a  party 

or  gaining  for  Mmsclf  a  footing  in  the  Empire  during  the  lifetime 

of  Frederick.    Wjth  the  extinction  oLthe  Hohenstatifen  house 

in  X254  his  chances  were  much  improved,  but  shortly  ofter^vards 

his  death  occurred  on  the  28th  of  January  1256  through  his 

horse  breaking  through  the  ice  during  ani  obscure  campaign 

among  the  Friaan  marshed.    William  was  more  success^  in 

Ills  struggles  with  Margaret,  countess  of  Flanders  and  Hainaat, 

known  as  "  Black  Meg/'    She  wished  her  succession  to  pass  to 

the  sons  of  her  second  marriage  with  V^lHam  of  Dampierre  in 

preference  to  those  of  his  first  marriage  with  Boudiard  of 

Avenues.    But  John  of  Avennes,  her  eldest  son,  had  married 

William's  sister  Aleidis.    William  took  up  arms  in  defence  of 

his  brother-in-law's  rights  and  Margaret  was  decisively  beaten 

at  West  Kappel  in  1253,  and  was  compelled  to  acknowledge 

John  of  Avennes  as  her  successor  to  the  county  of  Hainaut. 

See  A.  Ulnch,  Cesckichte  des  rdmischen  KdnigSf   WilMm  von 
BoUand  (Hanover,  1882). 

WILUAH  I.  (d.  1 166).  king  of  Sidly,  Son  of  King  Roger  11. 

by  Elvira  of  Castile,  succeeded  in  1154.    His  title  "  the  Bad  " 

seems  little  merited  and  expresses  the  bias  of  the  historian 

Falcandus  and  the  baronial  class  against  the  king  and  the  olTicial 

class  by  whom  he  was  guided.    It  is  obvious,  however,  that 

William  was  far  inferior  in  character  and  energy  to  his  father, 

and  was  attached  to  the  semi-Moslem  life  of  his  gorgeous  palaces 

of  Palermo.    The  real  power  in  the  kingdom  was  at  first  exercised 

by  Medo  of  Bari,  a  man  of  low  birth,  whose  title  ammiratus 

ammiratorum  was  the  highest  in  the  realm.    Mato  continued 

Roger's  policy  of  excluding  the  nobles  from  the  administration, 

and  sought  also  to  curtail  the  liberties  of  the  towns.  The  barons, 

always  chafing  against  the-royal  power,  were  encouraged  to  revolt 

by  Pope  Adrian  IV.,  whose  recognition  William  had  not  yet 

sought,  by  the  Basileus  Manuel  and  the  emperor  Frederick  II. 

At  the  end  of  1155  Greek  troops  recovered  Bari  and  began  to 

besiege  Brindlsi.    WiUiam,  however,  was  not  devoid  of  military 

energy;  landing  in  Italy  he  destroyeid  the  Greek  fleet  and  army 

at  Brindlsi  (28th  May  1156)  and  recovered  Bari.    Adrian  came 

to  terms  at  Bencvento  (xSth*  June  X156),  abandoned  the  rebels 

and  confirmed  William  as  king,  and  in  11 58  peace  was  made  with 

the  Greeks.    These  diplomatic  successes  were  probably  due  to 

Maio;  on  the  other  hand,  the  African  dominions  were  lost  to 

the  Almohads  (1156-1 160),  and  it  is  possible  that  he  advised  their 

abandonment  in  face  of  the  dangers  threatening  the  kingdom 

down  from  the  north.    The  policy  of  the  minister  led  to  a  general 

conspiracy,  and  in  November  xi6o  he  was  murdered  in  Palermo 

by  Matthew  Boncllo,  leader  of  the  Sicilian  nobles.    For  a  while 

the  king  was  in  the  hands  of  the  conspirators,  who  purposed 

murdering  or  deposing  him,  but  the  people  and  the  army  tallied 

round  him;  he  recovered  power,  crushed  the  Sicilian  rebels, 

bad  Bonello  blinded,  and  in  a  short  campaign  reduced  the  rest 

of  the  Regnow  Thus  freed  from  feudal^revolts,  William  confided 

the  government  to  men  trained  in  Maio's  school,  such  as  the 

grand  notary,  Matthew  d'Agello.  His  latter  years  were  peaceful; 

he  was  now  the  champion  of  the  true  pope  against  the  emperor, 

and  Alexander  III.  was  installed  in  the  Lateran  in  November 

XI 65  by  a  guard  of  Normans.    William  died  <ni  the  7th  of  May 

X166.  (E.  Cu.) 

WILUAM  II.  (d.  1189),  king  of  Sicily,  was  only  thirteen 
years  old  at  the  death  of  his  father  WiUiaro  L  when  he  was 
placed  under  the  regency  of  his  mother.  Marguerite  of  Navarre. 
Until  the  king  came  of  age  in  1x71  the  government  was  controlled 
first  by  the  chancellor  Stephen  of  Perche,  cousin  of  Marguerite 
(i  166-1  x68),  and  then  by  Walter  Opbamil,  archbishop  of  Pdermo, 
and  Matthew  d'Ajello,  the  vice-chancellor.  William's  character 
is  very  indistinct.  Lacking  in  military  enterprise,  secluded  and 
pleasure-loving,  he  seldom  emerged  from  his  palace  life  at  Palermo. 
Yet  his  reign  is  marked  by  an  ambitious  foreign  poUcy  and  a 
vigorous  diplomacy.  Champion  of  the  papacy  and  in  secret 
league  with  the  Lombard  cities  he  was  able  to  defy  the  common 
enemy,  Frederick  II.  In  X174  and  1175  he  made  treaties  with 
Genoa  and  Venice  and  his  marriage  in  February  11 77  with 
Joan,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  England,  marks  his  high  position 


in  Buiopesii  politici.  To  tecure  peace  with  the  emperor  he 
sanctioned  the  marriage  of  his  aunt  Constance,  daujghter  of 
Roger  II.,  with  Frederick's  son  Henry,  afterwards  the  emperor 
Henry  VI.,  causing  a  general  oath  to  be  taken  to  her  as  his 
successor  in  esse  of  his  death  without  heirs.  This  step,  fatal  to 
the  Norman  kingdom,  was.  possibly  takdi  that  Williain  might 
devote  himself  to  foreign  conquests.^ 

Unable  to  revive  the  Africa^  dominion,  William  directed  his 
attack  on  Egypt,  from  which  Saladin  threatened  the  Latin- 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  In  July  X174,  50,000  men  were  landed 
before  Alexandria,  but  Saladin's  arrival  forced  the  Sicilians  to 
re-embark  in  disorder.  A  better  prospect  opened  in  the  confusion 
in  Byzantine  affairs  which  followed  the  death  of  Manud  Com- 
nenus  (xi8o),  and  William  took  up  the  old  design  and  feud 
against  Constantinople.  Durazzo  was  captured  (xxth  June  X185) 
and  in  August  Thessalonica  surrendered  to  the  jcnnt  attack  of 
the  Sicilian  fleet  and  army.  The  troops  then  marched  upon  the 
capital,  but  the  troop  of  the  emperor  Isaac  Angdus  overthrew 
the  mvaders  oh  the  banks  of  the  Strymon  (7th  Sept.  1x85). 
Thessalonica  was  at  once  abandoned  and  in  1x89  WiUkm  made 
peace  with  Isaac,  abandoning  all  the  conquests.  He  was  now 
planning  to  induce  the  crusading  armies  of  the  West  to  pass 
through  his  territories,  and  seemed  about  to  play  a  leading  part 
in  the  third  Crusade.  His  admiral  Margarito,  a  naval  genius 
equal  to  George  of  Antioch,  witb  600  vessels  kept  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  open  for  the  Franks,  and  forced  the  all-victorious 
Saladin  to  retire  from  before  TripoU  in  the  spring  of  xx88.  In 
November  1x89  William  died,  lea^ang  no  children.  His  title 
of  "  the  (}ood  "  is  due  perhaps  less  to  his  character  than  to  the 
cessation  of  internal  troubles  in  his  reign.  The  '*  Vo3rage  "  of 
Ibn-Giobair,  a  traveller  in  Sicily  hi  1x83-1 185,  shows  WiUiam 
surrounded  by  Moslem  women  and  eunuchs,  speaking  and  reading 
Arabic  and  living  like  "  a  Moslem  king.''  (E.  Cu.) 

WILUAH  I.  [FuEDsiax  Karl]  (X78X-X864),  kmg  of  Wurt- 
temberg,  son  of  Frederick,  afterwards  King  Frederick  I.  of 
WOrttcmbcrg,  was  bom  at  Lilben  in  Silesia  on  the  i7th  of 
September  1781.  In  his  early  days  he  was  debarred  from  public 
life  owing  to  a  quarrel  with  his  father,  whose  time-serving 
deference  to  Napoleon  was  distasteful  to  Um.  In  18x4-181  $  he 
suddenly  rose  into  prominence  through  the  Wars  bf  Liberation 
against  France,  in  which  he  commanded  an  army  corps  with  ho 
little  credit  to  himself.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  Wiirttem' 
berg  in  x8x6  he  realized  the  expectations  formed  of  htm  as  it 
liberal-minded  ruler  by  promulgating  a  constitution  (18x9), 
under  which  serfdom  and  obsolete  class  privileges  were  swept 
away,  and  by  issuing  ordinances  which  greatly  assisted  the 
financial  and  industrial  development  and  the  educational  progress 
of  his  country.  .In  1848  he  sought  to  disarm  the  revolutionary 
movement  by  a  series  of  further  liberal  reforms  which  removed 
the  restrictions  more  recently  hnposed  at  Mettemich's  instance 
by  the  Germanic  diet.  But  his  relations  with  the  legislature, 
which  had  from  time  to  .time  become  strained  owing  to  the 
bureaucratic  spirit  which  he  kept  alive  in  the  administration, 
were  definitely  broken  off  in  consequence  of  a  prolonged  conflict 
on  questions  of  Germanic  policy.  He  ciit  the  knot  by  repudiating 
the  enactments  of  1848-1849  and  by  summoning  a  packed 
parliament  (1851),  which  re-enforced  the  code  of  1819. 

The  same  difficulties  which  beset  William  as  a  constitutions) 
reformer  impeded  him  as  a  champion  of  Germanic  union.  Intent 
above  all  on  preserving  the  rights  of  the  Middle  Germanic  states 
against  encroachments  by  Austria  and  Prussia  he  lapsed  into 
a  policy  of  mere  obstruction.  The  protests  which  he  made  in 
1820-1823  against  Mettemich's  policy  of  making  the  minor 
German  states  su1»ervient  to  Austria  met  with  less  success  than 
they  perhaps  deserved.  In  1849-1850  he  made  a  firm  stand 
against  the  proposals  for  a  Germanic  union  propounded  in  the 
National  Parliament  at  Frankfort,  for  fear  lest  the  exaltation 
of  Prussia  should  eclipse  the  lesser  principalities.  Though  forced 
to  accede  to  the  proffering  of  the  imperial  crown  to  the  king  of 
Prussia,  he  joined  heartily  in  Prince  Schwarzenberg's  schemes  for 
undoing  the  work  of  the  National  Parliament,  and  by  means  of 
*  ChalandoQ.  £a  VtmiauUon  normande,  iL  389L 


672        WILLIAM  IV.  (OF  HESSE)— WILLIAM  OF  ORANGE 


the  coup  d^iUU  described  above  forced  hts  oountry  into  a  policy 
of  alliance  with  Austria  against  Prussia.  Nevertheless  his 
devotion  to  the  cause  of  Germanic  union  is  proved  by  the  eager- 
ness with  which  he  helped  the  formation  of  the  ZoUverein  (i8a&- 
1830),  aihd  in  spite  of  his  conflicts  with  his  chambos  he  achieved 
unusual  popukrity  among  his  subjects.  He  died  on  the  35th  of 
June  1864,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Charles. 

See  Nick,  WHMm  I.,  Kdutg  von  WUrttembergyWid  seine  Reperwig 
(Stuttgart,  i86a)  ;  P.  Stalin,  "  K6nlg  Wilhelra  I.  von  Wfirttembcig.'' 
ZeilschriftfUr  aUgemeine  CeschickU,  1885,  pp.  353-367, 417-434. 

WILLIAM  IV.t  landgrave  of  Hesse  (153  2-1 592) »  was  the 
son  and  successor  of  the  landgrave  Philip  the  Magnanimous. 
He  took  a  leading  part  in  safeguarding  the  results  of  the  Reforma- 
tion and  was  indefatigable  in  his  endeavours  to  unite  the  dififercnt 
sections  <^  Protestantism  for  the  sake  of  effective  resistance 
against  the  Catholic  reaction.  His  counsels  were  marred  by 
his  reluctance  to  appeal  to  arms  at  the  critical  moments  of  action, 
and  by  the  slcnderness  of  his  own  resources,  but  they  deserve 
attention  for  their  broad  common  sense  and  spirit  of  tolerance. 
As  an  administrator  of  his  principality  he  displayed  rare  energy, 
issuing  numerous  ordinances,  appointing  expert  officials,  and  in 
particular  establishing  the  finances  on  a  scientific  basis.  By 
a  law  of  primogeniture  he  secured  his  land  against  such  testa- 
mentary divisions  as  had  diminished  his  own  pqjtion  of  his 
father's  estate.  He  not  only,  patronized  art  and  science,  but 
continued  as  ruler  the  intercourse  with  scholars  which  he  had 
cultivated  in  his  youth. 

^  William  was  a  pioneer  in  astronomical  research  and  perhaps  owes 
his  most  lasting  fame  to  his  discoveries  in  this  branch  ol  study. 
Most  of  the  mechanical  contrivances  which  made  Tycho  Brahe's 
instruments  so  superior  to  those  of  his  contemporaries  were  adopted 
at  Casael  about.  1584,  and  from  that  time  the  observations  made 
there  seem  to  have  been  about  as  accurate  as  Tycho's;  but  the  re- 
sulting longitudes  were  6'  too  great  in  consequence  of  the  adopted 
solar  parallax  of  3'.  The  principal  fruit  of  the  observations  was  a 
catalogue  of  about  a  thousand  stars,  the  places  of  which  were  deter- 
mined by  the  methods  usually  employed  in  the  i6th  century,  con- 
necting a  fundamental  star  bv  means  of  Venus  with  the  sun,  and 
thus  finding  its  longitude  and  latitude,  while  other  stars  could  at 
any  time  be  referred  to  the  fundamental  star.  It  should  be  noticed 
that  clocks,  on  which  Tycho  Brahe  depended  very  little,  were  used 
at  Cassel  for  finding  the  difference  of  neht  ascension  between  Venus 
and  the  sun  before  sunset;  Tycho  preferred  observing  the  angular 
distance  between  the  sun  and  Venus  when  the  latter  was  visible  in 
the  daytime.  The  Hessian  star  catalogue  was  published  in  Lucius 
Barettus's  Historic  coeUstis  (Augsburg.  1668).  and  a  number  of  other 
observations  are  to  be  found  m  Coeli  el  siderum  in  eo  errantium 
ohsenaiiofus  Hassiacae  (Leiden,  1618),  edited  by  Willebrord  Sncll. 
R.  Wolf,  in  his  "  Astronomische  Mittheilungen,"  No.  45  {Viertel- 
iahrssckrift  der  naturforschenden  Gesellschaft  in  ZHtick,  1878},  has 
given  a  re8um6  of  the  manuscripts  still  preserved  at  Cassel,  which 
throw  much  light  on  the  methods  adopted  in  the  observations  and 
reductions. 

WILLIAM  (1533-1584)1  sumamed  the  Sd.ENT,  prince  of 
Orange  and  count  of  Nassau,  was  born  at  the  castle  of  Dillenburg 
in  Nassau,  on  the  35th  of  Anril  1533.  His  grandfather,  John, 
count  of  Nassau,  had  left  his  Netherland  possessions  to  his 
elder  son  Henry,  his  German  to  his  younger  son  William.  This 
William  of  Nassau  (d.  1559)  had  by  his  wife,  Juliana  of  Stolberg, 
a  family  of  five  sons,  of  whom  the  subject  of  this  notice  was  the 
eldest,  and  seven  daughters.  Henry  became  the  trusted  friend 
and  counsellor  of  Charles  V.,  and  married  (151 5)  Claude,  sister 
of  Philibert,  prince  of  Orange.  Philibert,  having  no  issue, 
made  R6n£,  the  son  of  Henry  and  Claude,  his  heir.  R£n£,  at 
the  age  of  twenty-six,  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  St  Dizier  in  1544, 
and  left  his  titles  and  great  possessions  by  will  to  his  cousin 
William,  who  thus  became  prince  of  Orange.  W^illiam's  parents 
were  Lutherans,  but  the  emperor  insisted  that  the  boy-succcsspr 
to  R£ne's  heritage  should  be  brought  up  in  his  court  at  Brussels, 
as  a  Catholic  The  remembrance  of  his  ancestors'  services  and 
his  own  high  qualities  endeared  William  to  Charles,  who  secured 
for  him,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  the  hand  of  Anne  of  Egmont, 
heiress  of  the  count  of  Buren.  Anne  died  in  1558,  leaving  issue 
a  son  Philip  William,  prince  of  Orange  and  count  of  Buren, 
and  a  daughter.  It  was  on  the  shoulder  of  the  young  prince  of 
Orange  that  Charles  V.  leant  when,  In  1555,  in  the  presence 
of  a  great  assemblv  at  Brussels,  he  abdicated^  tp  ff  ^'Ci^'  cf  hif  | 


son  Philip,  the  loveieigBty  of  the  Nethedandar  William 
also  selected  to  cany  the  insignia  of  the  empiie  to  Ferdinand, 
king  of  the  Romans,  when  Charles  resigned  the  imperial  crown. 
He  had,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  been  pkced  by  the  emperor, 
before  his  abdication,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  ac^ooo  men  in 
the  war  with  France,  and  be  continued  to  fill  that  poit  wider 
Philip  in  1556,  but  without  distinction.  His  services,  as  a 
diplomatist,  were  much  more  brilliant.  He  was  one  of  the  three 
plenipotentiaries  who  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Catcau-Cambrfsis 
(1559),  and  was  largely  responsible  for  bringing  about  a  settle- 
ment so  favourable  to  Spanish  interests.  ATter  the  conclusion 
of  the  peace,  the  prince  spent  some  time  at  the  French  court, 
in  the  capacity  of  a  state  hostage  for  the  carrying  out  of  the 
treaty.  It  was  during  his  sojourn  in  France  that  William  by 
his  discreetness  acquired  Xhe  soubriquet  of  U  TacUurne  (the 
Silent),  which  has  ever  since  dung  to  his  name.  The  appellation 
is  in  no  way  expressive  of  the  character  of  the  man,  who  was 
fond  of  conversation,  most  eloquent  in  speech,  and  a  master  of 
persuasion.  His  two  great  adversaries  of  the  decade,  which 
followed  the  peace  of  Cateau-Cambr6sis,  were  in  1559  closely 
associated  with  him;  Granvelle  as  a  plenipotentiary,  Alva 
as  a  fellow  hostage. 

Up  to  this  time  the  life  of  Orange  had  been  marked  by  lavish 
display  and  extravagance.  As  a  grand  seigneur  in  one  of  the  most 
splendid  of  courts,  be  surrounded  himself  with  a  retinue  of  gay 
young  noblemen  and  dependents,  kept  open  house  in  his  magni- 
ficent Nassau  pakice  at  Brussels,  and  indulged  in  every  kind  of 
pleasure  and  dissipation.    The  revenue  of  his  vast  estates  w» 
not  sufficient  to  prevent  him  being  crippled  by  debt.    But  aftet 
his  return  from  France,  a  change  began  to  come  over  Orange. 
Philip  made  him  councillor  of  state,  knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece, 
and  stadtholder  of  Holland,  Zccland  and  Utrecht;  but  there 
was  a  latent  antagonism  between  the  natures  of  the  two  men 
which  speedily  developed  into  relations  of  coolness  and  then  of 
distrust.    The  harshness  with  which  the  stem  laws  against 
heretics  were  carried  out,  the  presence  of  Spanish  troops,  the 
filling  up  of  ministerial  offices  by  Spaniards  and  other  foreigners 
had,  even  before  the  departure  of  Philip  for  Spain  (August  1559), 
stirred  the  most  influential   Netherland    noblemen — foremost 
among  them  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  the  counts  of  Egmont 
and  Hoorn — to  a  policy  of  constitutional  opposition.  With  the 
advent  of  Margaret  of  Parma  the  situation  biccame  more  serious. 
All  state  business  was  carried  out  by  the  Consulta;  all  power 
virtually  placed  in  the  hands  of  Cardinal  Granvelle;  the  edicts 
against  heretics  enforced  with  the  utmost  severity;  the  number 
of  bishoprics  increased  from  three  to  fourteen  (sec  Nether- 
lands).   As  a  protest.  Orange,  Egmont  and  Hoorn  withdrew 
from  the  council  of  state,  and  wrote  to  the  king  setting  forth 
their  grievances.    At  this  time  Orange  ytr&s  still  nominally  a 
Catholic,  but  his  marriage  in  August  1561  with  Anne,  daughter 
and  heiress  of  the  elector  Maurice  of  Saxony,  with  Lutheran 
rites,  at  Dresden,  was  significant  of  what  was  to  come.    It 
marked  the  beginning  of  that  gradual  change  in  his  religious 
opinions,  which  was  to  lead  William  through  Lutheranism  to 
that  moderate  Calvinism  which  he  professed  after  1573.    Of  the 
sincerity  of  the  man  during  this  period  of  transformation  there 
can  be  little  doubt.    Policy  possibly  played  its  part  in  dictating 
the  particular  moments  at  which  the  chants  of  faith  were 
acknowledged.     No  student  of  the  prince's  volummous  corre- 
spondence can  fail,  however,  to  see  that  he  was  a  deeply  religious 
man.    The  charges  of  insincerity  brought  against  him  by  his 
enemies  arise  from  the  fact  that  in  an  age  of  bigotry  and  fanati> 
dsm  the  statesmanlike  breadth  and  tolerance  of  William's 
treatment  of  religious  questions,  and  hb  aversion  to  persecuticxi 
for  matters  of  opinion,  were  misunderstood.  His  point  of  view 
was  in  advance  of  that  of  his  time. 

In  the  spring  of  1564  the  constitutional  opposition  of  the 
great  nobles  to  the  policy  of  the  king  appeared  to  be  successful. 
Granvelle  was  withdrawn,  the  Consulia  abolished,  and  Orange, 
Egmont  and  Hoorn  took  their  seats  once  more  on  the  Council. 
They  speedily  found,  however,  that  things  did  not  mend. 
Granvelle  had  gone,  but  the  royal  policy  was  unchanged.  la 


WILLIAM  OF  ORANGE 


673 


August  1564  FliSlip  issued  an  order  for  aunying  out  the  decrees 
of  tbe  Coundl  of  Trent,  and  for  the  strict  execution  of  the 
placards  agsinst  heretics.  Protests,  letters,  personal  missions 
were  in  vain,  the  king's  will  was  not  to  be  moved  from  its  purpose. 
The  ^>irit  of  resistance  spread  first  to  the  lesser  nobles,  then  to 
the  people.  In  the  memorable  year  1566  came  "the  Com- 
promise," "  the  Request,^'  the  banquet  at  the  Hotel  Culemburg 
with  its  cries  of  *'  Vitcnt  Us  Cueux  "  followed  by  the  wild 
iconoclastic  riots  and  outrages  by  bodies  of  fanatical  Protestant 
sectaries  at  Antwerp  and  elsewhere.  The  effect  of  this  Uist 
outbreak  was  disastrous.  Philip  was  filled  with  anger  and  vowed 
vengeance.  Hie  national  leaders  drew  back,  afraid  to  identify 
themselves  with  revolutionary  movements,  or  the  cause  of 
extreme  Protestantism.  Egmont  was  a  good  Catholic,  and  took 
active  steps  to  suppress  disorder,  and  Orange  himself  at  the 
request  of  the  regent  betook  himself  to  Antwerp,  where  the 
citizens  iir  arms  were  on  the  point  of  engaging  in  civil  strife. 
At  the  risk  of  his  life  the  prince  succeeded  in  bringing  about  an 
accord,  and  as  he  proclaimed  its  terms  to  a  sullen  and  half -hostile 
crowd  he  uttered  for  the  last  time  the  words,  "  Long  live  the 
Kingl"  It  was  his  final  act  of  loyal  service  to  a  sovereign, 
who  from  secret  emissaries  that  he  kept  at  Madrid,  be  knew  to 
be  plotting  the  destruction  of  himself  and  his  friends.  In  vain 
he  endeavoured  to  rouse  Egmont  to  a  sense  of  his  danger,  and 
to  induce  him  and  other  prominent  leaders  to  take  steps,  if 
necessary  by  armed  resistance,  to  avert  their  doom.  Finding 
all  his  efforts  fruitless  William,  after  resigning  all  his  posts,  left 
the  country  (2 and  of  April  1567),  and  took  up  his  residence  with 
his  family  at  the  ancestral  home  of  the  Nassaus  at  Dillcnburg. 

At  that  very  time  Alva  was  quitting  Madrid  for  his  terrible 
mission  of  vengeance  in  the  Netherlands  (see  Alva).  The 
story  of  the  Council  of  Blood  and  of  the  executions  of  Egmont 
and  Hoorn  is  told  elsewhere.  The  prince  of  Orange  was  out  of 
reach  of  the  tyrant's  arm,  but  by  an  act  of  imprudence  he  had 
left  his  eldest  son,  Phih'p  William,  count  of  Buren,  studying  at 
the  university  of  Louvain.  He  was  seized  (February  1568)  and 
carried  off  to  Spain,  to  be  brought  up  as  an  enemy  to  the  political 
and  religious  principles  of  his  father.  He  himself  was  outlawed, 
and  his  property  confiscated.  In  March  he  published  a  lengthy 
defence  of  his  conduct,  entitled  "  Justification  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange  against  his  Calumniators,"  and  meanwhile  strained 
every  nerve  to  enlist  an  armed  force  for  the  invasion  of  the 
Netherlands.  To  raise  money  his  brother,  John  of  Nassau, 
pledged  his  estates,  William  himself  sold  his  plate  and  jewels. 
An  attack  was  made  in  three  directions,  but  with  disastrous 
results.  The  force  under  Louis  of  Na^au  indeed  gained  a  victory 
at  Heiligerlee  in  Friesland  (May  23rd),  but  met  with  a  crushing 
defeat  at  the  hands  of  Alva  in  person  (juIy  21st)  at  Jemroingcn. 
All  seemed  lost,  but  William's  indomitable  spirit  did  not  despair. 
**  With  God's  help,"^  he  wrote  to  his  brother  Louis,  "  I  am 
determined  to  go  on.'*  In  September  he  himself  crossed  the 
Meuse  at  the  head  of  18,000  infantry  and  7000  cavalry.  But 
Alva,  while  clinging  to  his  steps,  refused  to  fight,  and  William, 
throui^  lack  of  funds,  was  compelled  to  disband  his  mercenaries, 
and  withdraw  over  the  French  frontier  (November  17th). 

Then  followed  the  most  miserable  period  of  Orange's  fife. 
In  fear  of  assassination,  in  fear  of  creditors,  he  wandered  about 
from  place  to  place,  and  his  misfortunes  were  aggravated  by  the 
bad  con(hact  of  his  wife,  Anne  of  Saxony,  who  left  him.  She  was 
finally,  on  the  ground  of  insanity,  placed  in  close  confinement 
by  her  own  family,  and  remained  incarcerated  until  her  death 
six  years  later.  During  the  years  1 569-1 57?  the  brothers  William 
and  Louis,  the  one  in  Germany,  the  other  in  France,  were, 
however,  actively  preparing  for  a  renewal  of  the  struggle  for  the 
freedom  of  the  Netherlands.  The  barbarities  of  Alva  had  caused 
Spanish  rule  to  be  universally  hated,  and  the  agents  of  the 
Nassaus  were  busy  in  the  provinces  rousing  the  spirit  of  resistance 
and  trying  to  raise  funds.  In  1569  ei^teen  vessels  provided 
with  letters  of  marque  from  the  prince  of  Orange  were  preying 
upon  Spanish  commerce  in  the  narrow  seas.  Stimulated  by  the 
hope  of  [Sunder  their  number  rapidly  grew,  until  the  wild  and 
fiene  coraaixs — ^namod  "  Beggars  of  the  sea  "  (Gueux  de  nur) — 


became  a  tenor  to  their  enemies.  The  refusal  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
in  1572  to  allow  the  Beggars  to  refit  in  English  harbours  led  to 
the  first  success  of  the  patriot  cause.  On  the  ist  of  April  a  force 
under  the  command  of  Lumbres  and  Tresling,  being  compelled 
to  take  refuge  in  the  Maas,  seized  the  town  of  Brill  by  surprise. 
Encouraged  by  their  success  they  likewise  took  by  assault  the 
important  sea-port  of  Flushing.  Like  wildfire  the  revolt  ^read 
through  Holland,  Zeeland,  Utrecht  and  Friesland,  and  the 
principal  towns,  one  after  the  other,  submitted  themselves  to  the 
authority  of  the  prince  of  Orange  as  their  lawful  stadtbolder. 
Louis  of  Nassau  immediately  afterwards  dashed  with  a  small 
force  from  France  into  Hainault,  and  captured  Valenciennes 
and  Mons.  In  Mons,  however,  Louis  was  blockaded  by  a 
superior  Spanish  force,  and  eventually  forced  to  surrender. 
William  crossed  tlie  Rhine  with  20,000  men  to  relieve  him,  but 
he  was  out-generalled  by  Alva,  nearly  lost  his  life  during  a  night 
attack  on  his  camp  at  Harmignies  (September  i  ith),  and  retired 
into  Holland.  Delft  became  henceforth  his  home,  and  he  cast 
in  his  lot  for  good  and  all  with  the  brave  Hollanders  and  Zee- 
landers  in  their  struggte  for  freedom,  '*- being  resolved,"  as  he 
wrote  to  his  brother  John,  "  to  maintain  the  affair  there  as  long 
as  possible  and  decided  to  find  there  my  grave."  It  was  his 
spirit  that  animated  the  desperate  resistance  that  was  offered 
to  the  Spanish  arms  at  Haarlem  and  Alkmaar,  and  it  was  throu^ 
his  personal  and  unremitting  exertions  that,  despite  an  attack 
of  fever  which  kept  him  to  his  bed,  the  relief  of  Leiden,  on  the 
3rd  of  October  1574,  was  effected  just  as  the  town  had  been 
reduced  to  the  last  extremity. 

In  order  to  identify  himself  more  closely  with  the  cause  for 
which  he  was  fighting.  Orange  had,  on  October  23rd,  1573,  made 
a  public  profession  of  the  Calvinist  religion.  But  he  was  never 
a  bigot  in  religious  matters.  The  three  conditions  which  he 
laid  down  as  the  irreducible  minimum  on  which  negotiations 
could  be  based,  and  from  which  he  never  departed,  were:  (i) 
freedom  of  worship  and  liberty  to  preach  the  Gospel  according 
to  the  word  of  God;  (2)  the  restoration  and  maintenance  of  all 
the  andent  charters,  privileges  and  liberties  of  the  bnd;  (3)  the 
withdrawal  of  all  Spaniards  and  other  foreigners  from  all  posts 
and  employments,  civil  and  military.  On  these  points  he  was 
inflexible,  but  he  was  a  thoroughly  moderate  man.  He  hated 
religious  tyranny  whether  it  were  exercised  by  Papist  or  Calvinist, 
and  his  political  aims  were  not  self-seeking.  His  object  was  to 
prevent  the  liberties  of  the  Netherlands  from  being  trampled 
underfoot  by  a  foreign  despotism,  and  he  did  not  counsel  the 
provinces  to  abjure  their  allegiance  to  Philip,  until  he  found  the 
Spanish  monarch  was  intractable.  But  when  the  abjuration 
became  a  necessity  he  sought  to  find  in  Elizabeth  of  England 
or  the  duke  of  Anjou,  a  sovereign  possessing  sufficient  resources 
to  protect  the  land  from  the  Spaniard. 

William  (24th  of  June  1575)  took  as  his  third  wife,  Charlotte 
de  Bourbon,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Montpensier.  This  marriage 
gave  great  offence  to  the  Catholic  party,  for  Charlotte  was  a 
renegade  nun,  having  been  abbess  of  Jouarre,  and  Anne  of 
Saxony  was  still  alive.  In  April  1 576,  an  act  of  Union  between 
Holland  and  Zeeland  was  agreed  upon  and  signed  at  Delft^ 
by  which  supreme  authority  was  conferred  upon  the  prince, 
as  ad  interim  ruler.  In  this  year  (1576)  the  outrages  of  the 
Spanish  troops  in  the  southern  Netherlands,  who  had  mutinied 
for  want  of  pay,  caused  a  revulsion  of  feeling.  The  horrors  of 
the  "Spanish  Fury"  at  Antwerp  (November  4th)  led  to  a 
definite  treaty  being  concluded,  known  as  the  Pacification  of 
Ghent,  by  which  under  the  leadership  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  the 
whole  seventeen  provinces  bound  themselves  together  to  drive 
the  foreigners  out  of  the  country.  This  was  supplemented  by 
the  Union  of  Brussels  (January  1577)  by  which  the  Southerners 
pledged  themselves  to  expel  the  Spaniards,  but  to  maintain  the 
Catholic  religion  and  the  king's  authority.  To  these  conditions 
William  willingly  assented;  he  desired  to  force  no  man's  con- 
science, and  as  yet  he  professed  to  be  acting  as  stadtbolder 
under  the  king's  commission.  On  September  23rd  he  entered 
Brussels  in  triumph  as  the  acknowledged  leader  of  the  whole 
people. of  the  Netherlands,  Catholic  as  well  as  Protestant,  in 


674- 


WILLIAM  II.  OF  ORANGE 


tbdr  Rsistaiice  to  foreign  oppression.  At  tliis  moment  he 
touched  Ibe  zenith  of  his  career.  It  was,  however,  but  a  short- 
Kved  position  of  eminence.  After  the  entiy  into  -  Bttisseb 
followed  the  period  of  tangled  intrigue  during  which  the  archduke 
Blatthias,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  tlie  palatine  count  John  Casimir 
and  Don  John  of  Austria  were  all  striving  to  secure  for  themselves 
a  position  of  supremacy  in  the  land.  William  had  to  steer  a 
difficult  course  amidst  shoals  and  quicksands,  and  never  did  his 
brilliant  talents  as  diplomatist  and  statesman  shine  more 
brightly.  But  after  the  sudden  death  of  Don  John  he  found 
himself  face  to  face  with  an  opponent  of  abilities  equal  to  his  own 
in  the  person  of  Alexander  Famese,  prince  of  Parma,  appointed 
governor  general  by  Philip.  Famese  skilfully  fomented  the 
jealousy  of  the  Catholic  nobles  of  the  south — the  Malcontents — 
against  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  the  Pacification  of  Ghent  was 
henceforth  doomed.  The  Walloon  provinces  bound  themsdves 
together  in  a  defensive  league,  known  as  the  league  of  Anras 
(5th  of  January  1579)  and  by  the  exertions  of  John  of  Nassau 
(at  that  time  governor  of  Gelderland)  Holland,  Zeeiand,  Utrecht, 
Gelderland  and  Zutphen  replied  by  signing  (29th  of  January) 
the  compact  known  as  the  Union  of  Utrecht.  William  still 
^ruggled  to  keep  the  hirger  federation  together,  but  in  vain. 
The  die  was  now  cast,  and  the  Northern  and  Southern  Nether- 
lands from  this  time  forward  had  separate  histories. 

On  the  25th  of  March  1581  a  ban  was  promulgated  by  King 
Philip  against  the  prince  of  Orange,  in  which  William  was  de- 
nounced as  a  traitor  and  enemy  of  the  human  race,  and  a  reward 
of  25,000  crowns  in  gold  or  land  with  a  patent  of  nobility  was 
offered  to  any  one  who  should  deliver  the  worid  of  this  pest. 
William  replied  in  a  lengthy  do^ment,  the  Apdogy,  in  which  he 
defended  himself  from  the  accusations  brought  against  him,  and 
on  hb  part  charged  the  Spanish  king  with  a  series  of  misdeeds 
and  crimes.  The  Afology  is  valuable  for  the  biographical  details 
which  it  contains.  William  now  feh  that  his  struggle  with 
Philip  was  a  war  d  outrance,  and  knowing  that  the  United  Pro- 
vinces were  too  weak  to  resist  the  Spanish  armies  unu'ded,  he 
endeavoured  to  secure  the  powerful  aid  of  France,  by  making 
the  duke  of  Anjou  sovereign  of  the  Netheriands.  Holland  and 
Zeeiand  were  averse  to  this  project,  and  to  conciliate  their 
prejudices  Orange,  provisionally,  and  after  some  demur,  accepted 
from  those  provinces  the  offer  of  the  countship  (24th  of  July 
1 581  >.  Two  days  later  the  representatives  of  Brabant,  Flanders, 
Utrecht,  Gelderland,  Holland  and  Zeeiand  assembled  at  The 
Hague,  solemnly  abjured  the  sovereignty  of  Philip,  and  agreed  to 
accept  the  French  duke  as  their  sovereign  in  his  place.  Anjou 
was  solemnly  inaugurated  by  tho  prince  in  person  at  Antwerp, 
as  duke  of  Brabant,  on  the  19th  of  February  1582.  While  at 
Antwerp  an  attempt  was  made  upon  William's  life  (March  z8th) 
by  a  Biscayan  youth,  named  Juan  Jaureguy.  Professing  to  offer 
a  petition  be  fired  a  pistol  at  the  prince's  head,  the  ball  pas»ng 
in  at  the  right  ear  and  out  by  the  left  jaw.  After  hanging  for 
some  time  between  life  and  death,  William  ultimately  recovered 
and  was  able  to  attend  a  thanksgiving  service  on  the  2nd  of  May. 
The  shock  and  anxiety  proved,  however,  fatal  to  his  wife,  Char- 
lotte de  Bourbon.  She  expired  on  the  5th  of  May  after  a  very 
short  illness. 

The  French  sovereign  soon  made  himself  impossible  to  his  new 
subjects,  and  the  hopes  that  William  had  baaed  upon  Anjou  were 
sorely  di»ppointed.  The  duke  was  dissatisfied  with  his  position, 
aim^  at  being  an  absolute  ruler,  and  tried  to  carry  his  ambitious 
ideas  into  effect  by  the  treacherous  attack  on  Antwerp,  which 
bears  the  name  of  the  *'  French  Fury."  Its  failure  rendered 
Anjou  at  once  ridiculous  and  detested,  and  his  shameless  mis- 
conduct brought  no  small  share  of  opprobrium  on  William  him- 
self. The  trusty  Hollanders  and  Zedanders  remained,  however^ 
staunchly  loyal  to  him,  and  Orange  now  fixed  his  residence 
permanently  in  their  midst.  On  the  7th  of  April  1583  he  married 
in  fourth  wedlock  Louise  de  C<^gny,  daughter  of  the  famous 
Huguenot  leader,  and  widow  of  the  Seigneur  de  T61igny.  With 
her,  "  Father  William,"  as  he  was  .affectionately  styled,  settled 
ai  the  Prinsenhof  at  Delft,  and  lived  like  a  plain,  homely  Dutch 
burgher,  quietly  and  unostentatiously,  as  became  a  man  who  bad 


spent  his  an  in  hb  country's  cause,  and  whose  resourced  were  now 
of  the  most  modest  description. 

Ever  since  the  promulgation  of  the  ban  and  the  offer  of  & 
reward  upon  his  life,  religion  and  political  fanaticism  had  been 
continually  compassing  his  assassination,  and  the  free  access 
which  the  prince  gave  to  his  person  offered  facilities  for  such  a 
purpose,  de^te  the  careful  watch  and  ward  kept  over  Mm  by 
the  burghers  of  D^  and  his  own  household.  He  was  shot  dead 
by  a  Burgundian,  Balthazar  G€rard,  on  the  9th  of  July  1584, 
as  he  was  leaving  his  dining  hall.  Gerard  was  moved  by  devoted 
loyalty  to  his  faith  and  king,  and  endured  the  torments  of  a 
barbarous  death  with  supreme  courage  and  resignatiozL  William 
was  buried  with  great  pomp  at  the  public  charges  in  the  Neuwe 
Kerk  at  Delft  amidst  the  tears  of  a  mourning  people. 

William  the  Silent  was  tall  and  well  formed,  of  a  dark  com- 
plexion, with  brown  hair  and  eyes.  He  was  the  foremost  states- 
man of  his  time,  capable  of  forming  wise  and  far-reacMng  plans 
and  of  modifying  them  to  suit  the  changing  circumstances  in 
whidi  it  was  necessary  to  put  them  in  «iecution.  Iri  moments 
of  difficulty  he  displayed  splendid  resource  and  courage,  and  he 
had  a  will  of  iron,  which  misfortunes  were  never  able  to  bend  or 
break.  To  rescue  the  Netherlands  from  the  tyrannical  power 
of  Spain,  he  sacrificed  a  great  portion,  vast  wealth  and  eventu- 
ally his'life.  He  had  the  satisfaction,  however,  of  knowing  before 
he  died  that  the  cause  for  which  he  had  endured  so  much  and 
striv«i  so  hard  had  survived  many  dangers,  and  had  acquired 
strength  to  offer  successful  resistance  to  the  overwhelming 
power  of  King  Philip.  He  was  the  real  founder  of  the  independ- 
ence and  greatness  of  the  Dutch  republic. 

He  left  a  large  number  of  children.  By  Anne  of  Egmont  he  had 

a  son  Philip  William,  who  was  kidnapped  from  Louvain   (1567) 

and  educated  at  Madrid,  and  a  daughter.    By  Anne  of  Saxony, 

a  son  Maurice  (see  Maurice  of  Nassau,  prince  of  Orange)  and 

two  daughters.    By  Charlotte  de  Bourbon,  six  daughters.    By 

Louise  de  Coligny,  one  son,  Frederick  Henry  (see  Fkeocbicx 

Henry,  prince  of  Orange). 

See  Genhard,  Correspondanc*  de  Guilfaume  le  Tacitumt ;  Groen  von 
Prinsteren  Archives  ou  correspondanu  inSdiie  de  la  moison  d'Orantit- 
Nassau;  Commelin,  WUkelm  en  Maurils  van  Nassau^  prinsen  van 
Orangien,  haer  leven  en  bedrijf;  Meursius,  Gtdielmvs  Attriart4s; 
Putnam,  WiUiam  the  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange,  the  Moderate  Man  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century;  Harrison,  WiUtam  the  Silent;  Vorstenuan  van 
Oyen,  Hel  Vorstenhuis  Orange-Nassau;  Ddaborde,  Ckarhtle  df 
Bourbon^  princesse  d'Orange;  I)eIaborde,  Louise  de  Coligny,  princesst 
d'Oratig^e;  Blok,  Geschiedenis  van  het  Nederlandsche  Volk,  vol.  il.; 
R.  Fruin,  Het  voorspel  van  den  tachtigjarigen  oorhg;  Motley,  Rise  of 
the  Dutch  Republic;  CamMdgi  Modem  History,  vol.  iii.  cc.  vl., 
vii.  (G.  £.) 

WILLIAM  IL  (1626-1650),, prince  of  Orange,  bom  at  The 
Hague  on  the  27th  of  May  1626,  was  the  son  oi  Frederick  Henry, 
prince  of  Orange,  and  his  wife  AmaSa  von  Sobns,  and  grandson 
of  William  the  Silent.  By  the  act  of  survivance  passed  in  163 1 
the  offices  and  dignities  held  by  Frederick  Henry  were  made 
hereditary  in  his  family.  On  the  xsth  of  May  1641  William 
married,  in  the  royal  chapel  at  Whitehall,  Mary,  princess  royaJ 
of  Engiaixl,  eldest  daughtor  of  King  Charles  I.  At  the  time  ol 
the  wedding  the  bridegroom  was  not  yet  fifteen  yean  old,  the 
bride  was  five  shears  younger.  WiUiam  from  his  early  youtl 
accompanied  hb  fatha  in  his  campaigns,  and  already  in  1645 
highly  dffitinguished  himself  in  a  brilliant  cavalry  fight  at 
Burgerhout  (September  5).  On  the  death  of  Frederick  Henry 
WilUiLm  succeeded  him,  not  only  in  the  family  honours  and 
possessions,  but  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  act  of 
survivance  in  all  his  official  pos^,  as  stadthoMcr  of  Holland, 
Zeeiand,  Utrecht,  Gelderland,  Overyssel  and  Groningen  and 
captain-general  and  admiral-general  of  the  Union.  At  the 
moment  of  his  accession  to  power  the  negotiations  for  a  separate 
treaty  of  peace  with  Spain  were  almost  oonduded,  and  peace  was 
aaually  signed  at  MUnster  on  the  30th  of  Jantiary  1648.  By 
this  treaty  Spain  recognized  the  independence  of  the  United 
Netheriands  and  made  large  concessions  to  the  Dutch.  William, 
who  had  always  been  bitterly  opposed  to  the  policy  of  abandoning 
the  French  alliance  in  order  to  gain  better  terms  from  Spain,  did 
his  utmost  to  prevent  the  ratification,  but  matters  were  too.  fai 


WILLIAM  THE  BRETON— WILLIAM  OP  MALMBSBURY    67$ 


ftdvtnced  for  his  interposition  to  prevail  in  the  face  of  the  deter« 
minatioo  of  the  states  of  Holland  to  conclude  a  peace  so  advan- 
tageous to  their  trade  interesu.  William,  however,  speedily 
opened  secret  negotiations:  with  France  in  the  hope  <k  securing 
the  armed  assistance  of  that  power  for  the  carrying  out  of  his 
ambitious  projects  of  a  war  of  aggrandisement  against  the  Spanish 
Netherlands  and  of  a  restoration  of  bis  brother-in-law,  Charles  II., 
to  the  throne  of  EngUnd.  The  states  of  Holland,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  determined  to  thwart  any  attempts  for  a  renewal  of 
war,  and  insisted,  in  de6ance  of  the  authoiity  of  the  captain- 
general  supported  by  the  states-general,  in  virtue  of  their  claim 
to  be  a  sovereign  province,  in  disbanding  a  large  part  of  the 
regiments  in  their  pay.  A  prolonged  controversy  arose,  which 
ended  in  the  states-general  in  June  1650  commissioning  the 
prince  of  Orange  to  visit  the  towns  qf  Holland  and  secure  a 
recognition  of  their  authority.  .  The  mission  was  unsuccessful 
Amsterdam  refused  any  hearing,  at  all  William  resolved 
therefore  to  use  force  and  crush  resistance.  On  the  30th  of 
July  six  leading  members  of  the  states  of  Holland  were  seized 
and  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Loevestein.  On  the  same  day 
an  atteoipt  was  made  to  occupy  Amsterdam  with  troops.  The 
dtisens  were,  however,  warned  in  time,  and  the  gates  dosed. 
William's  triumph  was  nevertheless  complete.  Cowed  by  the 
bold  seizure  of  their  leaders,  the  states  of  Holland  submitted. 
The  prince  had  now  obtained  that  position  of  supremacy  in  the 
rq>Dblic  at  which  he  had  been  aiming,  and  could  count  on  the 
support  alike  of  the  states-general  and  of  the  provincial  states 
for  his  policy.  He  lost  no  time  in  entering  into  fresh  negotiations 
with  the  French  government,  and  a  draft  treaty  was  already 
early  in  October  drawn  up  in  Paris  and  the  Count  d'Estrades 
was  commissioned  to  deliver  it  in  person  to  the  prince  of  Orange. 
It  was,  however,  never  to  reach  hu  hands.  William  had,  on  the 
8th  o£  October,  after  his  victor/ was  assured,  gone  to  his  hunting 
seat  at  Dieren.  Here  on  the  27th  he  became  ill  and  returned 
to  The  Hague.  The  complaint  proved  to  be  small-pox,  and  on 
the  6th  of  November  he  died.  William  was  one  of  the  ablest 
of  a  race  rich  in  great  men,  and  had  he  lived  he  would 
probably  have  left  his  mark  upon  histoiy.  A  week  after  his 
death  his  widow  gave  birth  to  a  son,  who  was  one  day  to  become 
William  UI.,  king  of  Engbwd.  (C.  E.) 

WIUIAM  THB  BRBTON  {e.  xi6o-c.  1225),  French  chronider 
and  poet,  was  as  his  name  indicates  bom  in  Brittany.  He  was 
educated  at  Mantes  and  at  the  university  of  Paris,  afterwards 
becoming  chaplain  to  the  Fk-ench  king  PhiUp  Augustus,  who 
employed  him  on  diplomatic  errands,  and  entrusted  him  with 
the  education  of  his  natural  son,  Pierre  Chariot.  William  is 
supposed  to  have  been  present  at  the  battle  of  Bouvincs.  His 
works  are  the  Phllippide  and  the  Gesta  Philippi  II.  regis  Fran- 
corum.  The  former,  a  poem  three  versions  of  which  were  written 
by  the  author,  gives  some  very  interesting  details  about  Philip 
Augustas  and  his  time,  including  some  information  about 
military  matters  and  shows  that  William  was  an  excellent  Latin 
scholar.  In  its  final  form  the  Gesta  is  an  abbreviatkin  of  the  work 
of  Rigord  (^.v.).  who  wrote  a  life  of  Philip  Augustus  from  X179 
to  T2o6,  and  a  continuation  by  William  himsdf  from  1207  to 
1220.  In  both  works  Wilh'am  speaks  in  very  laudatory  terms 
of  the  king;  but  his  writings  are  valuable  because  he  had  personal 
knowledge  of  many  of  the  facts  which  he  rehites.  He  also  wrote 
a  poem  KarloHs,  dedicated  to  Pierre  Chariot,  which  is  lost. 

^lliam's  works  have  been  edited  with  introduction  by  H.  F. 
Delaborde  as  (Euvres  de  Rigord  el  de  GuiUatane  U  Breton  (Paris, 
1882-1885),  and  have  been  translated  into  French  by  Guitot  in 
CoUeeiicn  des  mhnoires  relatifs  d  Ckistoire  de  FranUt  tomes  xi.  and 
xii.  (Paris,  i833->i835).  See  Deiaborde's  introduction,  and  A. 
MoUnier,  Le*  Siirces  de  VhiOoire  de  Frantu,  tome  iii.  (Paris,  1903). 

WILUAM  THB  CUTO  (ixot-iisS)  was  the  son  of  Robert, 
duke  of  Normandy,  by  his  marriage  with  Sit>yIIa  of  Conversano. 
After  his  father's  defeat  and  capture  by  Henry  I.  of  England  at 
the  battle  of  Tinchebrai  (i  106)  the  young  William  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  conqueror.  Henry  magnanimously  placed  his 
nephew  in  the  custody  of  Helias  of  Saint  Saens,  who  had  married 
a  natural  daughter  of  Duke  Robert.    Fearing  for  the  safety 


of  the  boy,  Helias  carried  faun,  in  xixi,  to  the  court  of  Louis  VI. 
of  France.  That  sovereign  joined  with  the  discontented  Norman 
barons  and  others  of  Henry's  enemies  in  recognizing  William  as 
the  rightful  claimant  to  the  duchy;  Robert,  a  prisoner  whom 
there  was  no  hope  of  rdeasing,  they  appear  to  have  regarded  as 
dead  in  the  eye  of  the  law.  William's  claims  furnished  the  pretext 
for  two  Norman  rebellions.  The  first  whidi  lasted  from  11 12  to 
XI 20  was  abetted  by  Louis,  by  Fulk  V.  of  Anjou  and  by  Baldwin 
VU.  of  Flanders.  In  the  second,  which  broke  out  during  1x23, 
Heiuy  I.  had  merely  to  encounter  the  forces  of  his  own  Norman 
subjects;  his  diplomatic  skill  had  been  successfully  employed 
to  paralyse  the  ill-will  of  other  enemies.  In  11 23  or  1x23  William 
married  Sibylle,  dau^ter  of  Fulk  of  Anjou,  and  with  her  received 
the  county  of  Maine;  but  Heniy  I.  prevailed  upon  the  Curia 
to  aimul  this  union,  as  being  within  the  forbidden  degrees. 
In  XX 27,  however,  the  pretender  obtained  from  Louis  the  hand 
of  J^^na  of  Montferrat,  half-sister  of  the  French  queen,  and 
the  vacant  fief  of  Flanders.  His  own  rigorous  government  or  the 
intrigues  of  Henry  I.  raised  up  against  William  a  host  of  rebels; 
a  rival  claimant  to  Flanders  appeared  in  the  person  of  Thierry 
or  Dirk  of  Alsace.  In  besieging  Alost,  one  of  the  strongholds 
of  the  rival  party,  William  received  a  wound  which  mortified 
and  proved  fatal  Quly  28,  1x28).  He  left  no  issue;  althouf;h 
Duke  Robert  survived  him  and  only  died  in  X134,  the  power 
of  Henry  I.  was  thenceforth  undisputed  by  the  Normans. 

See  Ordericus  Vitalis,  Eist.  eceUsiaslicOf  and  Sir  James  Ramsay's 
Foundations  qf  England,  vol.  ii.  (1898}. 

WILUAV  OF  MALMESBURY  (c.  xo8o-c.  XX43),  English 
historian  of  the  X2th  century,  was  bom  about  the  year  xo8o, 
in  the  south  country.  He  had  French  as  well  as  English  blood 
in  his  veins,  but  he  appears  to  have  spent  his  whole  life  in  England, 
and  the  best  years  of  it  as  a  monk  at  Malmesbuxy.  His  tastes 
were  literary,  and  the  earliest  fact  which  he  reconhi  of  his  career 
is  that  he  assisted  Abbot  Godfrey  (1081-X105)  in  collecting  a 
library  for  the  use  of  the  community.  The  education  which 
he  received  at  Malmesbury  included  a  smattering  of  logic  and 
physics;  but  moral  philosophy  and  history,  e^ecially  the  latter, 
were  the  subjects  to  vhich  he  devoted  most  attention.  Later 
he  made  for  himsdf  a  collection  of  the  histories  of  fordgn 
countries,  from  reading  which  he  concdved  an  ambition  to 
produce  a  popular  account  of  English  history,  modelled  on  the 
great  work  of  Bede.  In  fulfilment  of  this  idea,  William  produced 
about  1 1 20  the  first  edition  of  his  Gesta  regum,  which  at  once  gave 
him  a  reputation.  It  was  followed  by  the  first  edition  of  the 
Gesta  fontificum  (1125).  Subsequently  the  author  turned  aside 
to  write  on  theological  subjects.  A  second  edition  of  the  GesXa 
regum  (11 27)  was  dedicated  to  Earl  Robert  of  Gloucester,  whose 
literary  tastes  made  him  an  appreciative  patron.  William  also 
formed  an  acquaintance  with  Bishop  Roger  of  Salisbury,  who 
had  a  castle  at  Malmesbury.  It  may  have  been  due  to  these 
friends  that  be  was  offered  the  abbacy  of  Malmcsbuiy  in  1x40. 
But  be  preferred  to  remain  a  simple  bibliothecarius.  His  one 
public  appearance  was  made  at  the  council  of  Winchester  (ix4x), 
in  which  the  dergy  declared  for  the  empress  Matilda.  About 
this  date  he  undertook  to  write  the  Ilisioria  naoeUa,  giving  an 
accoant  of  events  dnce  X125.  This  work  breaks  off  abruptly 
at  the  end  of  ,xx42,  with  an  unfulfilled  promise  that  it  will  be 
continued.  Piesuinably  William  died  before  be  oould  redeem 
bis  pledge. 

He  is  the  best  English  historian  of  his  time.  The  nsaster  of 
a  good  Latin  style,  he  shows  literary  instincts  which  are,  for  his 
time,  remarkiU)ly  sound.  But  his  contempt  for  the  annalistic 
form  makes  him  at  times  careless  in  his  chronology  and  arbitxary 
in  his  method  of  arranging  his  materia];  he  not  infrequently 
flies  off  at  a  tangent  to  rdate  stories  which  have  little  or  no 
coimexion  with  the  main  narrative;  his  critical  faculty  Is  too 
often  allowed  to  lie  dormant.  His  researches  were  by  no  means 
profound;  he  gives  us  less  of  the  history  of  his  own  time  than 
we  have  a  right  to  expect — far  less,  for  example,  than  Orderic 
He  is,  however,  an  authority  of  considerable  value  from  xo66 
onwards;  many  telling  anecdotes,  many  shrewd  judgments  on 
persons  and  events,  can  be  gleaned  from  his  pages. 


676 


WILLIAM  OF  NANGIS— WILLIAM  OF  ST  CALAIS 


FttaUt  ITwti.— Tbe  ana  rciam  antn 
ycin4M-i"7'  But  Ibe  klcr  Rcciuiau  ad 
ie&maaM  ta  Earl  Robtn.  10 thccdition  oC 

E  _liif  diapoial  th 


pre-Con. 


,„, Jc  worki  of  Bede.  Ado  .- 

William  oi  Junu^:  one  or  more  Engliih  cbmiicln  limilar  10  Ihe 
cxnnC  "  WsmBcr  "  and  "  Pcuiboraudi "  (nu:  tama't  Vit  o( 
AlCnd,  and  a  iwlikal  biognpfay  oi  .uhtUtan:  itie  chroiuda  of 
S  Riquiet  and  FonurwUc;  >  cdkection  of  talu  Rkalini  to  the  R«n 
of  the  emiienr  Hconr  III.;  and  the  Lvca  of  viiioin  oinu.  For 
Ihe  lUc  oTwilliini  I.  lie  diawa  oa  WilUan  ol  Poitien:  for  the  £ru 
cniaade  b*  pahily  folknn  Fuldw  of  Channa;  liii  knowlEdge  of 

iloo.iKniab9UKafanEii(1i>>ichnink1e.  The  fifth  and  la>i  bc»k. 
dcaline  with  tht  reign  of  Henry  I.,  is  chiefly  remarkable  (or  in  de- 
auUorben  and  an  obviout  deure  to  ualte  the  bat  lue  lor  that 
monarcbt  vbne  treatment  of  Anaelm  he  prudently  aicnbei  to 
Robert  of  Meiilan  (d.  ili8>.  Both  in  Ihii  work  and  in  the  CmIh 
t<i*tiMiam  the  later  rectniioni  an  remarliaUe  for  the  ODiieion  of 
ccrtaia  patiatea  which  micht  give  oflenu  to  thoae  in  hich  places. 
The  deleted  aeatenxa  (Huany  relate  to  enioent  peiKoi;  theyjpnR- 
dmea  repeac  acandal*  Kiiaetiiaa  ^ve  the  autnor'a  own  ojfhion- 
The  Gala  faMifiaim  ^vea  accounia  of  the  aevetal  Englidi  leei  and 
their  biihopa.  from  the  bepr-'--  —  -■—■ "-'" 


five  booka;  the  Bl 


,  „  .  .^.    njr  aaima  of  the  aouth  and 

TIdi  work,  like  the  Cufti  >«■■■,  CDntaini 
1  the  Ufc  and  miiBcka  il  St  Aldhthn  of 
upon  the  Uegiiphy  by  Abbot  Fariciui; 
iin  DODio  i.-iv.,  which  an  of  the  gieatcat  value  to 
hiituiian.  Tlie  B4iuHa  WHlfa  la  annaliftic  in  form. 
Donaftcrtbelnttleof  Lincoln,  aa  an  apc^isy  for  the 

"^^ -hor  embarks  on  (peciai  pleading 

p  Roger  of  SaTubiuy.  but  showa 


lalmcAbury  were  e 
«...  ,«6(,5.,,b 


of  MalmcAbi--,  ^ 

O^ndoiT.  ISO*!;  but  the  tent  nf 
DTHaidy  rXttd  the  Gilo  ripim 
I  Hlltotiol  Society  in  1^0.  and 

ut  of  W.  Stubba  in  Ibe  "  Rdli " 


bt  unfflnfatt  Clastanitnat  taksiv  U-D-  63-1126].  ii  printed  In 
ZMtStrifma  XV.  (OrfonJ.  1691).  Whailoo  in  the  «cond 
relumeofhi.^njlwjacra  (London.  1601I  give.. 
If  a  life  of  Wullsun  which  i>  an  amrJ^^Eca  tr>r 

^ ..- ......      c:„ii..  c...u„  ;_  hi,  Urm..^ 

a  Viu  5.  Dt 


m  bugnpiiy.    Finally  Stubba  in  his  Ucuwruii  a/  Si 


Un^nlii  E-Baxl  Wmta.^hmont  theie  an  Uiradti  itfOi  Vv(M ; 

^j^rnJ^'fAiloinMif^T;  an'epttcwK  ofthE'/fuIoria  of  Hsyrao 
of  Fleury  and  some  other  vorks.  hiatoncaE  and  lecal  Uutograph  in  the 
Bodleian}iLv«D?lhenrfuit5guili.  The  MSS.  cj  these  worka  are 
In  be  found  partly  in  tbc  Briiiah  Museum,  pardy  in  the  Bodkun.. 
Leil  Wtrlu. — A  Kils  .SaaiH  fWrtnfand  l/tnait  SowcH  Btmiim 
art  mentioiKd  in  theprolt^pje  to  the  book  tn  Glaatonbury;  a 
netiical  life  U  St.iElftyfu  ia  quoted  In  tbc  Crila  fmlOiaim; 


1.  Lansdow 


?^S.,«6-    LeUnS 


■pparenlly  pr 


nan  Ibm 


.... , ,^.     _iind  riv_ iCi^-i  j, 

R™in  ii4o*Leland,  Coll^^i^*m.  J7»™™''     (H.  W,  C.  D.) 

WILUAM  OP  HUlOIS  (d  1300},  French  chranicler,  »u  a 
monk  in  the  abbey  of  St  Denia.  About  irSj  he  ku  placed 
En  charge  of  the  abbey  library  aa  tiatos  tawlamm,  and  he  died 
in  June  or  July  ijoo.  Having  doubtloa  done  some  work  on  the 
Latin  manuacrlpta  on  which  the  &dtiifu  Ctrmifwj  di  Franci 
are  baaed,  William  wrote  a  kng  Chraiiim.  dealing  with  the 
hiatory  of  the  world  from  the  crralion  until  1300.  For  the 
period  before  iil]  thii  work  merely  repenla  that  o(  Sigebcrt 
ol  Cembloiu  and  othen;  but  after  thia  date  il  contains  aome 


>  are:  da 


Li-dmii  rX.:Cttla  I 
ten  nnn  frincgniM 


tn..  im  A%iacij:  Ouimi 

French  tnintlatioB  of  the 

uae  of  the  Urge  alDie  of  nunuKTiMa  at  Si  Denii 

of  the  Chmiiim  hit  urilings  do  not  add  materially ' 
Itdaeofthetlme.  Bothhischronicles.however.became' 
and  found  aevand  antiniHtan.  Jcu  de  JoioviUe  being . 


K 


, . .^n  edited  by  H.  G*mid  for  the 

Fra«t  C1*>ris.  >S4j),  and  practically  aH 
X  is'ft^TpKifc  ITJS-iItS).'  a  French 
itom  is  in  tome  liii.  ol  Culiot's  CMutiai  du 

See  A.  PoiThair.  BMiollucii  kislmca  IBeilin,  1896);  and  A. 
Molinier.  La  Ssiuia  it  I'luamri  it  Frana.  tome  iii.  [Faiu.  1903). 

WOUAM  OF  HEWBDBOR  (d.  I.  119S),  or,  aa  he  b  loIlKltiaes 
Myled,  Guiilelmm  Parvus,  English  ecdciiMlIc  and  chronicler, 
was  h  cnnon  of  the  Augtutinian  priory  of  Nevbargh  [n  the  Nonb 
Riding  ol  yorkshire.  He  was  bom  about  1136,  and  lived  at 
Newburgh  from  bi>  boyhood.  Shortly  befolt  1 196  be  began  his 
HufDriD  Ttmm  An^iaitiim.  Thi)  work,  divided  inio  five  books, 
covers  the  period  1066-1 1^.  A  great  part  of  it  a  derived  from 
known  sources,  eapedally  from  Hcory  of  Huntinf^on,  Joriimi 
Fantmnie,  the  Iliaernriin*  rtpt  Klmrdl,  or  its  French  original, 
and  a  lost  acrount,  by  Anselm  the  cha[jain,  of  the  captivily't>f 
Richard  I.  The  value  of  Newburgh's  work  lies  in  hiieitiinales  ot 
men  and  silualioni.  Eicept  for  Che  years  1154-11V3  and  the 
reign  of  Richard  he  records  few  facs  which  cannot  be  found 
elsewhere;  and  tn  matters  of  detail  be  is  prone  to  insccuncy. 
But  his  politica]  Innghl  and  bii  impartiality  entitle  hira  10  a  high 
place  anotig  the  historians  of  the  i  ith  unlury. 

See  the editioniof  the iTfifgna  by  H.C. Hamilton  IivotL. London, 
I8»)  and  by.  R.  Howlett  in  Cliroiula  o/IlK  RHpu  0/  Slrfka,  Ire 

continuaiiDn.  the  AtauOa  FiiiiKimici  (1190-iijtl),  composed  by  a 
monk  of  Furnns  Abbey,  Lancashire,  ijjilwiiven.  SRalsoSirT.  IX 
Hirdy't  Dlliriplat  CkuIoiui  ("  r  ■■-■'■—■  - 
H.  E.  Salter  in  the  En^iiH  UUUm 

WILUAK  OP  POmERS  (c.  10 


[H. 


.■J^lb., 


.    Gika 


1090),  Nt 
was  bom  at  Priaui,  near  Pont  Audemer,  and  belonged  to  an 
influential  Norman  family.  Alter  Icrving  at  a  soldier  he  studied 
at  ^ilierti  and  then  returning  to  Normandy  became  chaplain 
to  Duke  William  [WiUiam  Ibe  Conqueror)  and  archdeacon  of 
Lisieui.  Me  wrote  en  eulogjsiic  life  of  (he  duke,  the  earlier  and 
condudJng  pans  of  which  are  lost;  and  Ordeticua  Vitalis,  «1» 
gives  «  short  biography  of  him  in  his  Hiitoria  adeneslua.  aaji 
that  he  also  wrote  venea.  WiUiim'i  Ceita  Gvildmi  II.  diuii 
fformomiiwHiii,  (be  estanl  part  of  which  covers  the  period  between 
104)  and  1068,  is  valuable  for  dclaib  of  the  Conqueror's  life, 
although  untrustworthy  with  itgard  to  aSairs  in  Eni^and. 
According  to  Freeman,  "  the  work  is  disfigated  by  his  cotutanl 
spirit  of  violent  partiamship,"  It  was  written  between  loji 
and  107;,  uid  was  used  by  Oiderico*  Viialis. 
The  Gain  was  lirtt  published  by  A.  Duchesne  in  the  JKUoriat 

Sarwunmcnim  Hiitlani  (l^rii.  1619) :  and  it  is 

Striflorti  rcnus  mlaram   W^ttimH   Cmqvrllorii 

OdidDn.  1S4SI.    There  it  a  French  translation    

Gniiot't  CeUatian  ia  atmiiBii  nitltfl  »  VkUain  it  Frima  (Paiii, 
1816).  SeeG,  KOfting.  H'<fMn(>n>f«NiriC«laCiiiUan'.lwii 
(Dmden.  1B7S) ;  and  A.  MoUnter,  Ut  Satma  it  I'Usuin  it  Fiiua, 

WILUAH  OP  IT  <»LAIS  (Caui£p)  (d.  1096),  bishop  ol 
Durham  and  chid  counsellor  of  William  Rufus,  was  a  Norman 
monk  and  prior  of  SI  Calais  in  Maine,  who  received  the  sec  of 
Durham  from  (be  Conqueror  (loSi).  In  Durham  annals  he  is 
honourably  remembered  as  the  prelate  who  designed  (he  exiKing 
cathedral,  and  also  for  his  reform  of  ecdoisslicil  discipline. 
His  political  career  is  lest  creditable.  Honoured  with  Ihe  ^KciaJ 
confidence  of  William  Rufus  be  deserted  his  patron's  cause  at 
the  first  sign  of  rebellion,  and  joined  with  Odo  of  Bayeui  in 
urging  Duke  KKbert  ol  Normandy  to  claim  the  crown  (loSS). 
Afler  Ibe  collapse  of. this  plot  Witlism  was  put  upon  his  (rial 
before  the  Great  CouncD.  He  claimed  the  right  to  be  judged  by 
his  lellowbishops  alone,  this  claim  being  rejected  he  appealed  lo 
the  see  of  Rome.  This  was  tbe  £rst  case  of  an  appeal  (o  the 
pope  from  an  English  tribunal  which  had  occuned  since  (he 
71b  cintuTy.  Rulu)  and  Lanfranc  did  not  venture  to  dispute 
Ihe  right  of  appeal,  but  contended  that  (be  bishop,  as  a  royal 
vassal,  could  noi  appeal  against  the  forfeiture  of  his  temporaliiieo. 
These  were  confiscated,  and  William  left  ihc  kingdom,  but  no 
more  was  haard  of  bis  appeal,  and  in  logi  he  regained  the  royal 


WILLIAM  «  OF  TYRE  "—WILLIAM  OF  WYKEHAM 


677 


faMwr  and  his  see.  Thenceforward  he  showed  the  utmost 
subservience.  He  manaited  the  kind's  case  against  Anselm,  and 
at  Rockin^am  (1095)  actually  claimed  the  right  of  appeal,  when 
it  was  claimed  by  the  archbishop.  Notwithttanding  his  zeal  for 
the  royal  interests,  William  was  soon  afterwards  disgraced.  He 
died  in  January  1096. 

See  E.  A.  Freemiin.  Wittiam  Rufus  (188a),  and  Symeon  ofDwham^ 
voL  L  p{>.  170-195  (Rolb  cd.). 

WILLIAM  {c.  1130-iC.  1 190),  archbishop  of  Tyre  and  chronicler, 
belonged  to  a  noble  French  family  and  was  probably  bom  in 
Palestine  about  1130.  This,  however,  is  only  an  inference  from  his 
works,  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  he  had  seen  Ralph,  the  patriarch 
of  Antioch,  who  died  about  1x41;  that  he  seems  to  call  himself  a 
contemporary  historian  from  the  accession  of  Baldwin  III.  to  the 
throne  of  Jerusalem,  an  event  which  he  places  in  November 
1 143;  and  that  he  remembered  the  fall  of  Edessa  in  1x44. 
Unfortunately  the  chapter  (xix.  xz)  which  relates  to  his  early 
life  has.  been  excised  or  omitted  from  every  extant  manuscript 
of  his  Uistoria,  and  this  remade  holds  good,  not  only  for  the 
original  Latin,  but  also  for  the  French  translation  of  the  13th 
century.  William  was  still  pursuing  his  studies  in  Europe  when 
Amalric  I.  became  king  of  Jerusalem  in  1162,  but  he  returned 
to  Palestine  towards  the  close  of  1166,  or  early  in  1x67,  and  was 
appointed  archdeacon  of  Tyre  at  the  request  of  Amalric  in  August 
1x67.  In  X168  he  was  sent  on  an  embassy,  the  forerunner  of 
several  others,  to  the  emperor  Manuel  I.  at  Constantinople,  and 
in  1x69,  at  the  time  of  the  disastrous-campaign  against  Damietta, 
he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Rome  from  the  "  unmerited 
anger  "  of  his  archbishop.  But  he  was  soon  in  Palestineagain,  and 
about  XI 70  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  Amalric's  son,  Baldwin, 
afterwards  King  Baldwin  IV.  Towards  the  end  of  i  x  74,  soon  after 
Baldwin's  accession  to  the  throne,  he  was  made  chancellor  of 
the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  an  office  which  he  held  until  x  183, 
and  less  than  a  year  later  (May  x  175)  he  was  consecrated  arch- 
bishop of  Tyre.  He  was  one  of  those  who  went  to  negotiate 
with  Philip  I.,  count  of  Flanders,  in  x  177,  and  in  1x79  he  was  one 
of  the  bishops  who  represented  the  Latin  Church  of  the  East  at 
the  Lateran  council  in  Rome.  On  his  return  to  P&lestine  he 
stayed  seven  months  at  Constantinople  with  Manuel.  This  is 
William's  last  ai^earance  in  history,  but  he  was  writing  his  histoiy 
in  ii8x,  and  this  breaks  off  abruptly  at  the  end  of  1x83  or  early 
in  1x84.  He  died  probably  between  1x87  and  1x90.  About 
fifty  years  later  one  of  his  continuators  accused  Heradius,  the 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  of  procuring  his  death  by  poison  at  Ron», 
but  this  story  appears  to  be  legendary.  Equally  untrustworthy 
is  the  theory  which  identifies  William  with  the  archbishop  of  Tyre 
sent  to  Europe  to  preach  a  new  crusade  in  1188.  It  is  true  that 
Matthew  Paris  speaks  of  the  English  king,  Henry  IL,  as  receiving 
the  cross  from  the  hands  of  Wiildmus  episcopus  Tyrensis;  but 
more  contemporary  writers  omit  the  Christian  name,  while 
othem  write  it  Josce  or  Josdus. 

If  not  the  greatest,  William  of  Tyre  is  at  least  among  the  greatest, 
of  medieval  historians.  His  Hislona  rerum  m  parliibus  tmtsmarinis 
g^tarumt  or  Historia  Hierosolymitana  or  BelU  sacri  histaria  covers  the 
period  between  1005  and  1184.  and  is  the  main  authority  for  the 
history  of  the  Latm  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  between  1127,  where 
Fulcher  of  Chartrca  leaves  off,  and  1 183  or  1184,  where  Emoul  takes 
op  the  narrative.  It  was  tiansUted  into  French  in  the  13th  century, 
or  possibly  before  the  end  of  the  12th,  and  this  translation,  known  as 
the  Ckronicut  d'oulremer.  or  Livre  d' Erodes  or  lAvre  du  conquest,  is 
quoted  by  Jean  de  Joinville,  and  increased  by  various  continnations, 
is  the  standard  account  of  the  exploits  of  the  French  warriors  in  the 
East.  William's  work  consists  of  tw«nty-two  books  and  a  fragment 
of  another  book ;  it  extends  from  the  preaching  of  the  first  crusade  by 
Peter  the  Hermit  and  Pope  Urban  .II.  to  the  end  of  ii83CM-the 
beginning  of  11 84.  It  was  undertaken  at  the  request  of  Amalric, 
who  was  nimseH  a  lover  of  history  and  who  supplied  the  author  with 
Ambic  manoscripts,  and  William  says  of  it.  "  m  this  work  we  have 
had  no  guide,  whether  Greek  or  Arab,  but  have  had  recourse  to 
traditions  onlv,  save  as  regards  a  few  things  that  we  ourselves  have 
seen."  The  ''^traditions  "  here  referred  to  must  be  taken  to  include 
the  Gesta  Francorum  of  Tudebode,  the  writings  of  Fulcher  of  Chartres, 
of  Baudry  of  Bourgueil  and.  above  all,  of  Albert  of  Aix.  From  the 
beginning  to  about  1144  the  Histona  is  taken  from  these  writers; 
from  1144  to  the  end  it  ts  contemporary  and  original. 

Wniiam  also  wrote  Historia  de  onentaUbns  prindpibus.  This 
work,  which  is  now  unfortunately  lost,  wul  partly  based  upon  the 


Aiabic  chronicle  of  ^  certain  Said-ibn-Batrik  (d.  940),  patriarch  of 
Alexandria. 

No  medieval  writer,  except  perhaps  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  possesses 
Wniiam's  power  of  delineating  the  physical  and  mental  features  of 
hb  heroes.  Very  few,  moreover,  had  his  instinctive  insight  into  what 
would  be  of  real  value  to  future  ages;  genealogy,  topography, 
archaeology,  social  life,  both  political  and  ecclesiastical,  and  military 
and  naval  matters  all  find  due  exposition  in  his  pages.  It  is  iiardly 
too  much  to  say  that  from  his  work  alone  a  fairly  detailed  map  of  the 
Levant,  as  it  was  in  the  12th  century,  might  be  constructed ;  and  it  is 
impossible  to  praise  too  hi^hlv  the  scrupulous  fidelity  with  which  he 
defines  nearly  all  the  technical  terms,  wnether  relating  to  land  or  sea, 
which  he  uses.  His  chief  fault  is  in  his  chronology,  where,  indeed,  he 
is  often  at  discord  with  himself.  In  the  later  books  of  the  Historia 
hb  information,  even  regardingevcnts  taking  placd beyond  the  Nile' 
or  the  Euphrates  as  well  as  in  Europe,  is  singulariy  exact. 

His  powers  of  industry  were  exceptionally  great,  and  although  a 
man  ot  much  learning  and  almost  certainly  acc^uainted  with  Greek 
and  Arabic,  he  is  as  ready  to  enliven  his  pages  with  a  homely  proverb 
as  he  is  to  embellish  them  with  quotations  from  Cicero,  Virgil,  Ovid 
or  Plata  A  prelate  of  pious  character,  he  was  inclined  to  see  the 
judgment  of  God  on  the  iniquities  of  his  fcllow<ountrymen  in  every 
disaster  that  overtook  them  and  in  every  success  which  attended  the 
arms  of  the  Saracens. 

As  BelH  sacri  historia  the  Historia  rerum  was  first  published  in  i  •$49 
at  Basel.  More  recent  editions  are  in  J .  P.  Migne's  Patrdoeia  LahnOt 
tome  cci.,  and  in  the  "  Recueil  des  historiens  des  croisaoes,"  Hist, 
occid.i.  (Paris,  1 84^).  Manuscriptsare  in  the  British  Museum,  London, 
and  in  Corpus  Chnsti  College,  Cambridge.  It  has  been  translated  into 
German  Inr  E.  and  R.  Kausler  (Stuttgart,  1848^:  into  French  in 
Guizot's^  CoUectioH  des  mtmoiresr  tomes  xvi.,  xviiL  (Paris,  1824); 
i  nto  Italia  n  and  into  Spanish.  An  English  translation  has  been  made 
for  the  Eariy  Enelish  Text  Society  by  M.  N.  Colvin  (London,  1893). 
Sec  the  Histoire  littiraire  de  la  France,  tome  xiv.  (1869) ;  B.  Kugler, 
Studien  tur  GescMckte  des  tweiten  Kreutsuges  (Stuttgart,  1866): 
H.  Prutz,  Studien  Hher  Wilhelm  von  Tyrus  (Hanover^  1883);  and 
H.  von  Sybel,  Geschichte  des  ersten  Kreuuuges  (Leipoig,  x88i). 

WILLIAM  OF  VALENCE  (d.  X296),  brother  of  Heniy  m.  of 
England,  was  a' son  of  John's  widow,  Isabelle  of  Angoulteie, 
by  her  second  marriage.  William  came  to  England  with  his 
brothers  in  1247,  and  at  once  became  a  court  favourite.  He 
married  Joan  de  Munchensi,  the  heiress  to  the  Pembroke 
estates,  whence  he  Is  sometimes  styled  eari  of  Pembroke. 
In  X258  he  was  attacked  by  the  baronial  opposition  and  forced 
to  leave  England.  He  returned  in  X261,  after  Henry  III.  had 
repudiated  the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  and  fought  on  the  royal  side 
at  Lewes  (1264).  Escaping  from  the  pursuit  of  the  victorious 
Montfortians,  be  later  appeared  at  the  head  of  a  small  army  in 
Pembrokeshire.  This  gave  the  signal  for  the  outbreak  of  a  new 
civil  war  which  ended  with  the  defeat  of  Montfort  at  Evesham 
(x  265).  Valence  accompaxiied  Prince  Edward  to  the  Holy  Land 
and,  in  later  yeaxB,  became  a  trusted  agent  of  the  crown,  especially 
in  the  Welsh  wars.  The  positkm  of  his  estates  made  him  the 
natural  leader  of  all  expedi^ns  undertaken  against  Llewelyn 
from  South  Wales.  He  was  also  employed  in  Aquitaine. 
He  died  at  Bayoime  in  1296.  Despite  his  origin  he  had 
become,  in  course  of  time,  a  respected  leader  of  the  baronage; 
and  as  a  militaiy  commander  rose  high  above  the  average 
level. 

See  R.  Fauli's  GesckUkU  von  Buffandy  voL  ili.  (Hamburg,  1853): 
W.  U.  Blaauw.  Barons'  War  (1871). 

WILUAH  OF  WTKEHAM  (1323-1404),  English  lord  cfaan- 
cdlor  and  bishop  of  Winchester.  William  de  Wykham,  as  he 
is  called  in  earlier,  William  Wykeham  in  later  life,  hsis  been 
variously  guessed  to  be  the  son  of  a  freedman  carpenter,  and  an 
illeiptimate  son  of  (^een  Isabella  and  Roger  Mortimer  {Notes 
and  Queries  J  loth  s.  i.  222).  In  sober  truth  {Life  by  Robert 
Heete  in  Reg.  Winch.  CoU.  c.  1430)  be  was  born  at  Wickham, 
Hants,  in  1323  or  1324,  son  of  John,  whose  name  was  probably 
Wykeham,  but  nicknamed  Long,  who  was  "  endowed  with- the 
freiedom  of  his  ancestors,"  and  "  accordmg  to  some "  had  a 
brother  called  Henry  Aas.  His  mother  Sibyl  was  "  of  gentle 
birth,"  a  daughter  of  William  Bowate  and  granddaughter  of 
William  Stratton  of  Stmtton,  Hants.  His  education  at  Win* 
Chester,  no  doubt  in  the 'Great  'Gremmar  school  or  High  school 
in  Minster  Stre^,  was  paid  for  by  some  patron  unnamed  by  the 
biographer,  perhaps  Sir  Ralph  Sutton,  who  is  named  first  by 
Wykeham  among  his  benefactors  to  be  prayed  for  by  his  colleges. 
That  he  was,  as  stated  by  Archdeacon  TbomM  Martin,  tbt 


678 


WILLIAM  OF  WYKEHAM 


Author  of  a  lij9  of  Wykekamt  published  in  1597,  taught  classics, 
French  and  geometry  by  a  learned  Frenchman  on  the  site  of 
Winchester  G)llege,  is  a  guess  due  to  Wykeham's  extant  letters 
being  in  French  and  to  the  assumption  that  he  was  an  architect. 
After  some  unspecified  secular  employment,  Wykebam  became 
"  under-notary  (vice  tabeilip)  to  a  certain  squire,  constable  of 
Winchester  Castle,"  probably  Robert  of  Popham,  sheriff  of 
Hampshire,  appointed  constable  on  the  asth  of  April  1340,  not 
as  commonly  asserted  Sir  John  Scures,  the  lord  of  Wykeham, 
who  was  not  a  squire  but  a  knight,  and  had  held  tHe  office  from 
1331,  though,  from  Scures  being  named  as  second  of  his  bene- 
factors, Wykeham  perhaps  owed  this  appointment  to  his  influence. 
"  Two  or  three  years  afterwards,  namely  after  he  was  twenty," 
Wykeham  "  was  transferred  to  the  king's  court,"  i.e.  c.  1343. 
Wykeham  has  been  credited  (Gent.  Hag.  Ixzxv.  189)  with  the 
living  of  Irstead,  Norfolk,  of  the  king's  ^t  on  the  i3th  of  July 
1349.  But  apart  from  the  fact  that  this  Wykeham  is  described 
in  the  grant  as  "  chaplain,"  the  probate  of  his  will  on  the  8th  of 
March  1376-1377  (Norwich  Reg.  Heydon,  f.  X39)  shows  that  he 
was  a  different  person  (H.  Chitty  in  Ntdes  and  Queries ^  zoth  ser. 
iv.  130).  Our  Wykdiam  first  appears  in  the  public  records  in 
1350  as  keeper  of  the  manor  of  Rochford,  Hants,  during  the 
minority  of  the  heir,  William  Botreauz. 

On  the  1 2th  of  October  1352  Heniy  Sturmy  of  Elvetham, 
sheriff  and  escheator  of  Hants,  and  frequently  a  justice  in  eyre 
for  the  forests  of  Hants  and  Wflts,  at  Winchester,  describes 
William  of  Wykeham  as  "  my  clerk  "  in  a  power  of  attorney 
dated  at  Winchester,  to  deliver  seian  of  lands  in  Meonstoke 
Ferrand,  Hants,  which  he  had  sold  to  William  of  Edyndon, 
bishop  of  Winchester  (Win.  CoH.  Lib.  H.  349).  On  the  loth  of 
November  (not  December  as  Lowth,  Life  of  Wykekamt  14) 
Edyndon,  by  a  letter  dated  at  London,  appointed  William  of 
Wykeham,  derk  (not "  my  clerk  "  as  Kirby,  Archaeel.  57,  ii.  292, 
where  the  deed  is  also  misdated  ^[353),  hb  attorney  to  take 
seisin  of  lands  in  Meonstoke  Tour,  Hants,  which  he  had  bought 
from  Alice  de  Roche,  daughter  of  William  of  Tour  {ibid.  f.  250). 
These  lands  were  afterwards  bought  by  Wykeham  and  given  to 
Winchester  College.  On  the  14th  of  April  1353  (Claus.  39  £.  HI. 
m.  29  d)  Wykeham  served  as  attorney  of -John  of  Foxle,  .of 
Bramshill,  Hants,  son  of  Thomas  of  Fozle,  constable  of  Windsor 
Castle,  in  acknowledging  payment  of  a  debt  due  from  John  of 
Palton,  sheriff  of  Somerset  and  of  Hants.  On  the  xsth  of  Aprfl 
1356  schedules  touching  the  New  Forest  and  other  forests  in 
Hants  and  Wilts  were  delivered  out  of  the  Tower  of  London  to 
William  of  Wykeham  to  take  to  the  justices  in  eyre  (Claus.  30 
{L  in.  m.  19  d).  In  the  same  year  on  the  24th  of  August  Peter- 
atte-Wode  and  William  of  Wykeham,  derk,  were  appointed 
keepers  of  the  roUs  and  writs  in  the  eyre  for  the  forests  of  Hants 
and  Wilts,  of  whidi  Henzy  Sturmy  was  one  of  the  justices.  On 
the  xoth  of  May  1356  Wykeham  first  appears  in  the  direct 
employment  of  the  king,  being  appointed  derk  of  the  king's 
works  in  the  manors  of  Henley  and  Yeshampstcd  (Easthamp- 
stead)  to  pay  all  outgoings  and  eqsenses,  induding  wages  of 
masons  and  carpenters  and  other  workmen,  the  purchase  of  stone, 
timber  and  other  materials,  and  their  carriage,  under  the  view 
of  one  controller  in  Henley  and  two  in  Elasthampstead.  On  the 
8th  of  June  Walter  Nuthirst  and  Wykeham  were  made  com- 
missioners to  keep  the  statute  of  labourers  and  servants  in  the 
liberty  of  the  Free  Chapel  (St  George's),  Windsor.  On  the  30th 
of  October  1356  Wykeham  was  appointed  during  pleasure  sur- 
veyor (supervisor)  of  the  king's  works  in  the  castle  of  Windsor, 
for  the  same  purposes  as  at  Henley^  with  power  to  take  workmen 
everywhere,  except  in  the  fee  of  the  church  or  those  employed 
in  the  king's  works  at  Westminster,  the  Tower  of  Partiord,  at 
the  san^e  wages  as  Robert  of  Bemham,  probably  Bumham,  Bucks, 
who  had  been  appointed  in  1353,  usisd  to  have,  viz.  is.  a  day 
and  3s.  a  week  for  his  derk.  He  was  to  do  this  under  supervision 
of  Richard  of  Teynton,  John  le  Peyntour  (the  painter)  and 
another.  From  this  appointment  it  has  been  inferred  that 
Wykeham  was  the  architect  of  the  "  Round  Table  "  at  Windsor, 
which  has  been  confused  with  the  Round  Tower,  and  a  story 
which  is  fif^  told  by  Archbishop  Parker,  writing  thirty  yeozB 


afterwards  {AnHq.  BriL  Eeeles.  ed.  1729,  p.  385),  relates  tliaC 
Wykeham  neariy  got  into  trouble  for  inscribing  on  it, "  This  made 
Wickam,"  wliich  he  only  escaped  by  exphiining  that  it  did  not 
mean  that  Wykeham  made  the  tofwer,  but  that  the  tower  was 
the  making  of  Wykeham.  But  Wykeham  had  nothing  to  do 
with  building  either  the  Round  Tower  or  the  Round  Tabic. 
The  Round  Tower,  calkxl  the  High  Tower  in  Wykefaam's  day, 
is  the  Norman  Keep.  It  was  being  refitted  for  apartments  for 
the  king  and  queen  a  little  before  Wykeham's  time,  and  Iris  first 
accounts  indude  the  last  items  for  its  internal  decoration, 
induding  28  stained  glass  windows.  The  Round  Table,  a 
building  200  ft.  in  diameter  for  the  knights  of  the  Round  Table, 
who  preceded  the  knights  of  the  Garter,  had  been  built  in  1344 
(CMroH.  Ang^.  **  Rolls"  ser.  No.  61,  p.  17)  when  Wykeham  had 
nothing  to  do  with  Windsor.  The  inscription,  "  Thb  made 
Wykeham,"  did  exist  on  a  small  square  tower  in  the  Middle 
Bailey  formerly  known  as  Wykeham  Tower,  now  entirely  rebuilt 
with  the  inscription  recopied  and  known  as  Winchester  Tower. 
But  it  could  hardly  be  of  suffident  importance  to  cause  Wykeham 
to  play  the  sphiruc,  and  the  story  is  apparently  due  to  the  Eliza- 
bethan love  of  quips.  All  that  was  built  during  the  five  years, 
1356  to  i36i,.when  Wykeham  was  derk  of  the  works,  were  the 
new  royal  apartments,  two  long  halls  and  some  chambers  in 
the  upper  ward,  quite  uncoimeaed  with  and  east  of  the  Round 
Tower,  and  a  gateway  or  two  leading  to  them,  the  order  for 
building  which  was  given  on  the  ist  of  August  1351  (Pipe  RoU 
30  Ed.  III.).  The  accounts  of  Robert  of  Bernham,  Wykeham's 
predecessor,  who  was  a  canon  of  St  George's  Chapel  (Le  Neveii 
Fasti,  iii.  378),  are  extant,  and  from  the  payments  of  is.  a  day 
to  Mr  John  Sponle,  mason  and  orderer  or  setter-out  (ordinator) 
of  the  king's  works,  and  Geoffrey  of  Cariton  "  apparcller  "  of 
the  carpentry  work,  it  is  dear  that  they,  and  not  Bemham,  were 
the  architects  and  builders.  Canon  Bemham  was  only  the 
paymaster  and  overlooker  to  see  that  men  and  materials  were 
provided  and  to  pay  for  them.  While  in  1353-1354  £1440  and 
in  1355-1356  £747  was  expended  under  the  supervision  of 
Robert  of  Bemham,  in  1357-1358  £867  was  spent  by  Wykeham, 
induding  Winchester  Tower.  In  1358-1359  the  expenditure 
rose  to  £1254,  while  between  the  6th  of  June  1360  and  the  12th 
of  April  1361  it  amounted  to  £2817.  The  chief  items  were  a  new 
Great  Gate  with  two  flanking  towers,  a  belfry  for  St  George's 
Chapel  and  houses  in  the  Lower  Bailey,  probably  for  the  canons, 
and  in  the  Upper  Bailey,  probably  for  the  royal  household. 
On  the  1st  of  November  1361  Wykeham  was  succeeded  as  deik 
of  the  works  by  William  of  Mulsho,  another  canon  of  Windsor, 
who  afterwards  succeeded  him  also  as  dean  c^  St  Maitin-le- 
Grand.  Under  Wykeham,  William  of  Wynford,  who  i^pears 
in  1360  as  "  ai^Kirelier  "  under  Sponle,  in  1361  became  chief 
mason  and  ordinator,  and  he  was  probably  what  we  should  call 
the  architect  of  the  Great  Gate,  the  rest  of  which  was  built  under 
Wykeham's  supervision.  For  wherever  we  find  Wykeham 
building  afterwards,  we  find  Wynford  as  chief  mason.  When 
Wykeham  was  provost  <^  Wdls,  Wynford  was  retained  as 
architect  on  the  ist  of  Febmary  1364-1365  at  a  fee  of  40s.  a 
year  and  6d.  a  day  when  in  Wells  (Wells,  Lib,  Abb.  f.  253).  He 
was  architect  to  Abingdon  Abbey  (at  a  fee  of  £3,  6s.  8d.  and  a 
furred  robe)  in  1375-1376  when  the  existing  Outer  Gate  of  the 
abbey  was  built  {Abingdon  Obed.  Ace.  Camd.  Soc.,  1892).  He 
was  chief  mason  for  Wykeham's  works  at  Winchester  Cathedral 
and  for  Winchester  College,  where  his  portrait  may  be  seen 
in  the  east  window  of  the  dsapel,  and  where  his  contract  with 
the  derk  of  the  works,  an  ex-sch<dar  of  the  college,  for  the 
building  of  the  outer  gate,  is  still  preserved. 

The  ascription  to  Wykeham  of  the  invention  of  the  Perpen- 
dicular style  of  medieval  architecture  is  now  an  abandoned 
theory.  In  so  far  as  he  gave  vogue  to  that  style  the  credit 
must  be  given  to  William  of  Wynford,  not  to  William  of  Wyke- 
ham. At  all  events  he  had  very  little  to  do  with  building 
Windsor  Castle.  How  far  he  really  was  responsible  for  the  other 
great  castle  attributed  to  him,  that  of  Queenborou^  Castle 
in  the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  cannot  be  tested,  as  the  building  accounts 
for  it  aie  only  partially  extant.    Tb^  account  from  the  xst  9t( 


WILLIAM  OF  WYKEHAM 


679 


November  1361  to  1363  shorn  SSmoa  of  Bndstede,  cfeik  of  the 
works,  then  expending  £1773,  of  which  £100  was  xeceived  by 
the  blinds  of  William  of  Wykeham  at  the  exchequer,  and  that 
from  X360  shows  Bernard  Coklcs,  clerk  of  the  works,  expending 
£2306.  The  chief  evidence  cited  in  support  of  the  theoiy  that 
Wykeham  owed  bis  advancement  to  his  skill  as  an  architect  is 
the  remark  in  a  tract  Why  Poor  PriesU  have  no  benefices  that 
"  Lords  will  not  present  a  clerk  able  of  cunning  of  God's  law 
and  good  life  and  holy  ensample  .  .  .  but  a  kitchen  clerk  or  a 
fancy  clerk  or  wise  in  building  castles  or  worldly  doing,  though 
he  cannot  well  read  his  psalter."  This  tract  has  been  attributed 
to  Wycliffe»  but  without  adequate  autho^ty,  and  it  is  thought 
to  be  of  later  date,  and  if  VVykebam  is  meant  by  the  castle- 
building  derk  it  only  shows  that  popular  repute  is  no  guide  to 
fact.  That  Wykeham,  who  was  clearly  an  extremely  good  man 
of  business,  should,  when  derk  of  the  works,  have  played  a 
considerable  part  in  determining  what  wwks  should  be  done  and 
the  general  character  of  the  buildings  with  which  he  was  con- 
nected, we  may  believe;  but  to  think  that  this  attorney  and 
notary,  this  keeper  of  the  king's  dogs  (20th  Aug.  1356,  Devon's 
Issues  o/the  Exchequer ^  163}  and  of  the  king's  forests,  this  carrier 
of  rolls  and  paymaster  at  the  exchequer,  was  also  the  architect 
of  Windsor  and  Queenborough  Castles,  of  Winchester  Cathedral 
and  College,  is  to  credit  Wykeham  with  a  superhuman  combina- 
tion of  knowledge,  of  training  and  of  functions. 

That  he  gave  great  satisfaction  to  the  king  when  once  he  was 
appointed  surveyor  at  Windsor  in  1356  is  unquestionable.  He 
is  first  called  king's  derk  on  the  14th  of  November  1357,  when 
he  was  given  is.  a  day,  beyond  the  wages  he  was  already  receiving 
for  his  offices  at  Windsor  and  elsewhere,  *' until  peacefully 
advanced  to  some  benefice.''  Ecdesiastical  benefices  were  the 
chief  means  by  which,  before  the  Reformation,  the  dvii  servants 
of  the  crown  were  paid  for  services  which,  being  clerical,  were 
also  ecdesiastical,  and  for  which  the  settled  stipends  were  wholly 
inadequate.  In  his  accumulation  of  benefices  Wykeham  seems 
to  have  distanced  all  his  predecessors  and  sucoessois,  except 
perhaps  John  Maunsell,  the  chancellor  of  Henry  lU.,  and  ThfNnas 
Wolsey,  the  chancellor  of  Henry  VIII.,  the  latter  behig  a  ploxalist 
not  in  canonries  and  livings  but  in  bishoprics. 

Wykeham's  first  benefice  was  the  rectory  of  Pulham,  the 
iKhest  in  Norfolk,  worth  i'Si  <i  year,  or  some  £1600  of  our  money, 
to  which  he  was  presented  <»i  the  30th  of  November  1357. 
But  this  was  not  a  "  peaceful "  advancement,  for  it  was  only  in 
the  king's  patronage  by  reason  of  the  temporalities  of  the  see 
of  Ely  having  been  seized  into  the  king's  hands  the  year  before, 
on  account  of  the  bishop  being  implicated  in  certain  murders 
and  lotteries,  which  he  denied,  contesting  the  king's  actbn  in 
the  papal  court.  On  the  i6th  of  April  1359  the  king  gave 
Wykeham  a  pension  of  £20  a  year  from  the  exchequer  until  he 
could  obtain  peaceful  possession  of  Pulham.  On  this,  and  what 
may  have  been  a  similarly  contested  prescntatioD  to  the  canonry 
and  prebend  of  Flixton  in  Lichfield  cathedral  on  the  ist  of 
March  r359,  repeated  on  the  32nd  of  Aqgust  1360,  and  supported 
by  a  mandate  to  the  new  bishop  on  the  39th  of  January  X361, 
Wykeham's  latest  bi(^rapher  (George  Herbert  Moberly,  lAfe  of 
Wyheham,  1887,  2nd  ed.,  1893)  has  built  an  dabocate  story  of 
Wykeham's  advancement  being  opposed  by  the  pope  beeaose 
he  was  the  leader  of  a  national  party  against  papal  anthority  in 
England.  The  baselessness  of  this  Is  dear  when  we  find  that 
Wykeham  had  obtained  from  Innocent  VI.,  on  the  97th  of 
January  1357,  an  indulgence  to  choose  his  own  confessor  (Cal. 
Pap.  Reg.),  and  on  the  8th  of  July  135^  {Cal,  Pap.  Pet.  i.  331) 
asked  and  obtained  a  papal  provision  to  this  very  diurch  of 
Pulham  on  tHe  groand  that  it  had  passed  to  the  pope's  patronage 
by  the  promotion  of  its  former  pessesBor  to  the  see  of  London.' 
In  spile  of  papal  and  royal  authority,  it  Is  doubtful  whether 
Wykeham  obtained  peaceful  possession  of  Pulham  till  agatn 
presented  to  it  by  the  king  on  the  loth  of  July  V36X  dter  the 
bishop  of  Ely's  death.  The  difficulty  as  to  the  prebend  of 
Flixton  was  no  doubt  something  of  the  same  kind.  Between 
bishop,  pope  and  king  the  next  vacant  prebend  In  every  great 
church  was  generally  promised  two  at  three  deep  before  it  was 


vacant,  and  the  episcopal  aad  chapter  registers  are  full  of  the 
contests  which  ensued. 

Wykeham's  dvil  offices  rapidly  incieased.  On  the  Ides 
(15th)  of  March  r359  a  French  fleet  sacked  Winchelsea,  carrying 
off  the  women  and  girls.  On  the  loth  of  July  1359  Wykeham 
was  made  chief  keeper  and  surveyor,  not  only  of  Windsor,  but 
of  the  castles  of  Dover,  Hadley  and  Leeds  (Kent),  and  oif  the 
manors  of  Eoliejohn,  Eton,  Guildford,  Kennington,  Sheen  (now 
Richmond),  Eltham  aad  Langly  and  their  parks,  with  power 
to  repair  them  and  to  pay  for  workmen  and  materials.  (Xi  the 
soth  of  February  1360^  when  another  Jrench  invasion  .was 
feared,  the  bailiff  of  Sandwich  was  ordered  to  send  ail  the  lead 
he  had  to  Wykeham  for  the'  works  at  Dover.  In  April  the 
sheri&  of  four  batches  of  counties  were  each  ordered  to  send 
forty  masons  to  Wykeham  at  Windsn*  This  secular  activity 
was  rewarded  by  presentation  to  the  deanery  of  St  Martin-le^ 
Grand,  with  an  order  for  induction  on  the  aist  of  May,  on  which 
day  he  was  commissioned  to  inquire  by  a  jury  of  men  of  Kent 
into  the  defects  of  the  walls  and  tower  of  Dover  (Pat.  34  £.  III.  pL 
i.  m.  xa).  On  the  X5th  of  August  he  was  directed  to  hand  over 
£40  given  him  for  the  purpose,  to  k  successor,  the  treaty  of 
Br^tigny  having  been  made  meanwhile  and  confirmed  at  Calais 
with  Wykeham  as  one  of  the  witnesses  on  the  24th  of  October. 
4n  January  1361  building  work  at  Windsor  was  vigorously 
resumed,  and  again  the  shcriffis  were  ordered  to  contribute  thdr 
quotas  of  40  freestone  masons  and  40  cemeniarii  to  Wykeham's 
diarge.  (Xi  the  X3th  of  February,  on  the  joint  petition  of  the 
kin^  of  England  and  of  France,  the  pope  "  provided  "  Wyke- 
ham to  a  canonry  and  dignity  at  Lincoln,  notwithstanding  his 
deanery  and  a  prebend  at  Uandaff.  On  the  and  of  April  four  oonih 
raissioners  were  appointed  to  superintend  the  construction  of 
the  new  castle  ordered  in  the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  which  when 
finished  was  called  Queenborou^,  the  purchases  and  payments, 
not  the  works,  being  uiKicr  the  bdoved  clerk,  Wykeham  In 
this  year  came  the  second  visitation  of  the  Black  Death,  the 
Second  Plague,  as  it  was  called,  and  carried  off  four  bishops  and 
several  magnates,  with- many  clerics,  whose  vacated  preferments 
were  poured  on  Wykeham.  The  bishop  of  Hereford  being  dead, 
on  the  1 2th  ot  Jidy  1361,  the  king  presented  Wykeham  to  a 
prebend  in  Hereford  cathedral,  and  on  the  a4th  of  July  to  one 
in  Bromyard  collegiate  church;  the  bishop  of  St  David's  bdng 
dead,  prebends  iii  the  collegiate  churches  of  Abergwilly  and 
Llandewybrewi  were  given  him  on  the  x6th  of  July.  On  the 
izth  of  August  the  pope,  on  the  king's  request,  provided  him 
with  a  prebend  in.  St  Andrew's  Auckland  collegiate  church 
This  Mr  Moberly  curiously  misrepresents  as  action  against 
Wykeham.  He  in  fact  never  obtained  possession  of  it,  probably 
because  the  pope  had  already  "  provided "  it  to  Robert  of 
Stretton,  a  papal  chaplain,  who,  however,  asked  in  January 
1369  for  a  canonry  at  Lincoln  instead,  because  he  was  "  in  feai 
and  terror  of  a  certain  William  of  Wykeham."  On  the  24th  of 
September  Z36X  the  king  gave  Wykeham  a  preboad  in  Beverley 
Minster,  on  the  xst  of  October  the  prebend  of  Oxgate  in  St 
Paul's  (which  he  exchanged  for  Tattenhall  on  the  xoth  of 
December),  on  the  92nd  of  November  a  prebend  in  St  David's 
cathedral,  on  the  20th  of  December  a  prebend  in  Wherwell 
Abbey,  Hants.  So  far  the  Patent  Rolls.  The  Salisbury  records 
show  him  also  admitted  to  a  prebend  there  on  the  x6th  of  August, 
iriuch  he  exchanged  for  other  prebends  on  the  9th  and  istb 
of  October.  AU  these  clerical  preferments  Wykeham  hdd  when 
he  was  a  simple  derk,  who  had  no  doubt  undergone  the  "  first 
tonsose,"  but  was  not  even  ordained  an  acolyte  till  the  sth  .of 
December  of  -  this  golden  year.  He  added  to  his  civil  offices 
daring  the  year  that  of  clerk  (officium  circgrqfie)  of  the  exdiequer 
on  the  24th  of  October.  On  the  9th  of  October  he  acted  as 
attorney  to  the  king  in  the  purchase  of  the  manor  of  Thunderley, 
Essex.  Next  year,  1369,  he  entered  hdy  orders,  being  ordain^ 
subdeacon  on  the  istbof  March  and  priest  on  the  lath  of  June, 
and  adding  to  his  canonries  and  prebends  one  in  Shaftesbury 
Abbey  on  the  X5th  ol  July  and  another  in  Lincohi  cathedral 
on  the  30th  of  Angust.  Wykeham  meanwhile  was  actitag  as 
keeper  of  the  foresu  south  of  Trent  and  as  a  trustee  for  luKaaa, 


68o 


WILLIAM  OF  WYKEHAM 


oountess  of  Huntingdon.  Next  year,  1363,  be  was  made  a  canon 
of  the  collegiate  church  in  Hastings  Castle  on  the3Td  of  February, 
and  of  the  royal  chapel  of  St  Stephen's,  Westminster,  then  newly 
founded,  or  re-founded,  on  the  21st  of  April.  He  obtained  the 
archdeaconry  of  Northampton  on  the  26th  of  April,  and  resigned 
it  on  the  X2th  of  June,  having  been  promoted  to  that  of  Lincoln, 
the  richest  of  all  his  preferments,  on  the  23rd  of  May.  On  the 
31st  of  October  he  was  made  a  canon  of  York,  and' on  the  15th 
of  December  provost  of  the  fourteen  prebends  of  Combe  in  Wells 
cathedral,  while  at  some  date  unknown  he  obtained  also  prebends 
in  Bridgenorth  collegiate  church  and  St  Patrick's,  Dublin,  and 
the  rectory  of  Menheniot  in  Cornwall.  On  the  sth  of  May  1364 
he  became  privy  seal,  and  in  June  is  addressed  by  the  new  pope, 
Urban  V.,  as  king's  secretary.  On  the  14th  of  March  1365  he 
was  given  208.  a  day  from  the  exchequer  "notwithstanding 
that  he  is  living  in  the  household."  He  was  so  much  the  king's 
factotum  that  Froissart  (i.  249)  says  '*  a  priest  called  Sir  William 
de  Wican  reigned  in  England  ...  by  him  everything  was  done 
and  without  him  they  did  nothing."  In  fact,  as  privy  seal  be 
was  practically  prime  minister,  as  Thomas  Cromwell  was  after- 
wards to  Henry  VIH.  On  the  7th  of  October  1366,  William 
Edingdoii,  the  treasurer  of  England  and  bishop  of  Winchester, 
died;  on  the  X3th  of  October  Wykeham  was  recommended 
by  the  king  to  the  chapter  of  monks  of  St  Swithun's  cathedral 
priory  and  elected  bishop. 

A  long  story  has  been  made  out  of  Pope  Urban  V.'s  delay  in 
the  recognition  of  Wykeham,  which  has  been  conjectured  to 
have  been  because  of  his  nationalist  proclivities.  But  little 
more  than  the  ordinary  delays  took  place.  On  the  ist  of 
December  the  king,  "  for  a  large  sum  of  money  paid  down," 
gave  Wykeham,  not  only  the  custody  of  the  temporalities  of  the 
see,  but  all  the  profits  from  the  day  of  Edingdon's  death.  On 
the  ixth  the  pope  granted  him  the  administration  of  the  spiritu- 
alities. The  papal  court  was  then  moving  from  Avignon  to 
Rome,  and  on  the  14th  of  July  1367  the  bull  of  "  provision  " 
issued  at  Viterbo.  Wykeham  was  in  no  hurry  himself,  as  it 
was  not  till  the  loth  of  October  1367  that  he  was  consecrated, 
nor  till  the  9th  of  July  1368,  after  the  war  parliament  which 
met  on  the  3rd  of  June  had  been  dissolved  on  the  loth  of  June, 
that  he  was  enthroned.  Meanwhile  he  had  been  made  chancellor 
on  the  17th  of  September  1367 — thus  at  the  age  of  forty-three 
he  held  the  richest  ecclesiastical,  and  the  best-paid  civil,  office 
in  the  kingdom  at  the  same  time.  The  war  in  France  was 
disastrous,  how  far  through  Wykeham's  fault  we  have  no  means 
of  knowing.  When  parliament  again  met  in  137 1,  the  blame 
was  laid  on  the  clerical  ministers,  under  the  influence  of  Wydifle. 
He  had  been  bom  in  the  same  year  as  Wykeham,  and  like  him 
had  profited  by  papal  provisions  to  prebends  in  1361,  but  had 
since  led  an  attack  on  papal  and  clerical  abuses.  Parliament 
demanded  that  laymen  only  should  be  chancellor,  treasurer, 
privy  seal  and  chamberlain  of  the  exchequer.  On  the  Sth  of 
March  1372  Wykeham  resigned  the  chancellorship,  and  Bishop 
Brantingham  of  Exeter  the  treasurership,  and  laymen  were 
appointed  in  their  places,  though  Sir  Robert  Thorp,  who  became 
chancellor,  was  master  of  Pembroke  Hall  at  Cambridge,  and  as 
much  a  cleric  as  Wykeham  had  been  when  he  was  dean  of  St 
Martin-le-Grand  and  surveyor  of  Windsor  Castle. 

As  soon  as  he  became  bishop  Wykeham  had  begun  his  career 
as  founder.  In  1367  (Pat.  41  E.  III.  pi.  2,  m.  5)  he  purchased 
the  estates  of  Sir  John  of  Boarhunt,  near  Southwick,  with  which 
he  endowed  a  chantry  in  Southwick  Priory  for  his  parents.  Next 
year  he  began  buying  lands  m  Upoombome,  Hants,  which  he 
gave  to  Winchester  College,  and  in  Oxford,  which  he  gave  to 
New  College.  On  the  ist  of  September  1373  he  entered  into 
an  agreement  {Episc.  Reg.  iii.  98)  with  Master  Richard  of  Herton 
"  gramaticus  "  for  tep  years  faithfully  to  teach  and  instruct  the 
poor  scholars,  whom  tne  bishop  mamtained  at  his  own  cost,  in 
the  art  of  grammar,  and  to  provide  an  usher  to  help  him.  Mean- 
while (be  war  with  France  was  even  more  unsuccessful  under  the 
lay  ministry  and  John  of  Gaunt.  In  the  parliament  of  1373 
Wykehikm  was  named  by  the  Commons  as  one  of  the  eight  peers 
to  treat  with  them  on  the  state  of  the  reabn.   In  the  parliament 


which  met  on  the  xath  of  February  1376,  Lord  Latimer  and 
Alice  Perrers,  the  king's  mistress,  a  lady  of  good  birth,  and  not 
(as  the  mendacious  St  Albans  chronicler  alleged)  the  u^y  but 
perauasive  daughter  of  a  tiler,  were  impeached,  and  Wykebam 
took  a  leading  part  against  Latimer,  even  to  the  extent  of 
opposing  his  being  aUowed  counseL     At   the  dissohation    of 
parliament  a  council  of  nine,  of  whom  Wykeham  was  one,  was 
appointed  to  assist  the  king.    But  on  the  Sth  of  June  the  Black 
Prince  died.    Alice  Perrers  returned.    John  of  Gaunt  called  a 
council  on  the  x6th  of  October  to  impeach  Wykeham  on  articles 
which  alleged  misapplication  of  the  revenues,  oppressive  fines 
on  the  leaders  of  the  free  companies,  taking  briber  for  the  release 
of  the  royal  French  prisoners,  especially  of  the  duke  of  Bourbon, 
who  helped  to  make  him  bishop,  failing  to  send  relief  to  Pontfaicu 
and  making  illegal  profits  by  buying  up  crown  debts  cheap. 
He  was  condemned  on  one  only,  that  of  halving  a  fine  of  £80 
paid  by  Sir  John  Grey  of  Rotherfield  for  licence  to  alienate  lands, 
and  tampering  with  the  rolls  of  chancery  to  conceal  the  transac- 
tion.    Wykeham's  answer  was  that  he  had  reduced  the  fine 
because  it  was  too  large,  and  that  he  had  received  nothing  for 
doing  so.    Skipwith,  a  judge  of  the  common  pleas,  dted  a  statute 
under  which  for  any  erasure  in  the  rolls  to  the  deceit  of  the  king 
100  marks  fine  was  imposed  for  every  penny,  and  so  Wykeham 
owed  960,000  marks.     Wykeham  was  convicted,  and  on  the 
17th  of  November  his  revenues  were  seized  and  bestowed  on 
the  xsth  of  March  1377  on  the  young  prince  Richard,  and  he  vas 
ordered  not  to  come  within  20  m.  of  the  king.    He  '*  brake  ap 
household  .  .  .  sending  also  to  Oxford,  whear  upon  almose  nai 
for  God's  sake  he  found  70  scoUers,  that  they  should  depart  to 
their  frendis  for  he  could  no  longer  help  or  finde  them  "  {Ckrom. 
Angliae,  baa..). '  But  when  convocation  met  in  1377  the  bishops 
refused  to  proceed  to  business  without  Wykeham,  fend  he  was 
fetched  back  from  Waverky  Abbey.    He  was  exempted,  however, 
from  the  general  pardon  issued  on  the  occasion  of  Edward  IlL's 
jubilee..  But  on  the  13th  of  June  the  prince  restored  his  tempor* 
alities,  on  condition  of  his  maintaining  three  galleys  with  50 
men-at-arms  and  50  archers  for  three  months,  or  providing  the 
wages  of  300  men.    The  St  Albans  monk  says  that  this  was 
obtained  by  a  bribe  to  Alice  Perrers.    Meonstoke  Perrers,  part 
of  the  endowment  of  Winchester  College,  was  certainly  bought 
on  the  X2th  of  June   1380  from  Sir  William  Windsor,   her 
husband,  whose  name  seems  to  be  derived  from   Windsor, 
near  Southampton  water.    As  Hampshire  people  they  may  have 
helped  Wykeham.    But  as  Wykeham  was  of  the  party  of  the 
Black  Prince  and  his  widow  Joan  of  Kent,  no  dea  ex  mackina 
was  needed. 

On  the  2  ist  of  June  1377  Edward  III.  died.  Wykeham  was 
present  at  the  coronation  of  Richard  11.  on  the  iQth  of  July, 
and  on  the  31st  of  July  full  pardons  were  g^nted  him  under  the 
privy  seal,  which  at  the  request  of  Richard's  first  parliament  were 
ratified  under  the  great  seal  on  the  4th  of  December  1377.  Wyke- 
ham at  once  todL  an  active  part  in  the  financial  affairs  of  the  new 
lung,  giving  security  for  his  debts  and  himself  lending  500  marks, 
afterwards  secured  on  the  customs  (Pat.  4  Rich.  11.  pt.  i.  m.  4). 
He  then  set  to  work  to  buy  endowments  for  Winchester  and 
New  Colleges.  On  the  30th  of  June  he  obtained  licence  in 
mortmain  and  on  the  26th  of  November  issued  his  charter  of 
foundation  of "  Seynt  Marie  College  of  Wynchestrc  in  Oxenford  " 
for  a  warden  and  70  scholars  to  study  theology,  canon  and  civil 
law  and  arts,  who  were  temporarily  housed  in  various  old  halb. 
On  the  5th  of  Much  1380  the  first  stone  was  laid  of  the  present 
buildings,  which  were  entered  on  by  the  college  on  the  14th  of 
April  1386.  The  fonndatkMi  of  Winchester  was  begnn  with  a  bull 
of  Pope  Urban  VI  on  the  ist  of  June  1378*  enabling  Wykeham 
to  found  "'  a  certain  cdl^e  he  proposed  to  establish  for  70  poor 
schohirs,  clerks,  who  should  live  college-wise  and  study  in  gram- 
maticals  near  the  city  of  Winchester,"  and  appropriate  to  it 
DownUm  rectory,  one  of  the  richest  livings  belonging  to  his 
bishopric.  The  bull  says  that  the  bishop  "  had,  as  he  asseru, 
for  several  years  administered  the  necessaries  of  life  to  scholars 
studying  grammar  in  the  same  city."  On  the  6th  of  October 
1^2  the  crown  licence  in  mortmain  was  issued,  on  the  loth-ijth 


WILLIAMS,  JOHN 


el  Oclober  lb*  lite  wu  conveyed,  and  as  the  loth  of  October 
1381  "  SiDCI*  Msrie  coUe^um  "  or  in  vulcir  tongue  "  Sei 
Marie  CoOcgc  ot  Wyncbstie  by  Wyndieitre  "  wu  lautided  ft 
warden  ui4  "  70  pore  uid  needy  Kholan  studying  and  becoming 
proficienl  [n  gnunmatfcHb  or  the  art  and  science  of  grammar/' 
The  fint  stone  of  the  buildings  was  liild  on  the  iMh  of  Match 
ijSS.  and  Ibey  were  entered  on  by  the  schobn  on  the  iBLh  of 

in  1893,  in  1393.  While  ibe  new  buildings  were  bring  erected, 
(he  coUcge  remainal  la  the  piriifa  of  "  Sl  John  the  Baptist  on 
tlie  Hill  "  of  St  Gile^  supplying  scbolan  to  New  College  then 

Sth  of  April  138S  has  given  rise  to  the  creation  ol  an  ima^niry 
tdlcgc  of  St  John  tbc  Baptist  at  Winchesler  by  Ibe  Rev.  W. 
HuntCD«.ffoi.£io(.5ub."Chicheley").  The  foundation  was  on 
the  model  ol  Merton  and  Queen's  colleges  at  Oilord,  to  which 
grammat  schools  wcr«  attached  by  their  founders,  while  fellows 
of  Merton  wore  the  first  wardens  ol  both  of  WyLcham's  coLea"- 
Bolh  were  double  the  siu  of  Merton.  and  the  same  »ie  as  Ihc 
Navaire  college  of  the  queen  of  France  and  Navarre,  [ounded 


Wykehan 


1  130J,  * 

s  colleges  contained  as  many  members  as  (he  French 
queen'Sp  The  severance  of  Ihe  school  which  was  lo  feed  Iho 
college  eiclusively,  placing  it  not  at  Oiford,  but  at  Winchnlcr, 
and  constituting  it  a  sepaiaie  college,  was  a  new  departure  of 
great  impoilance  In  the  history  of  education.  Ten  IeUows  and 
16  choristers  were  added  in  1304  to  the  70  scbolan,  the  choristers 
attending  the  school  like  the  scholari,  and  being  generally, 
during  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  foundation,  ptomoLed  to  be 
sdboUrs.  The  original  statutes  have  not  come  down  to  us. 
Those  which  governed  the  colleges  until  1857  were  made  in  1400. 
They  state  that  the  colleges  were  provitled  to  repair  the  ravages 
caused  by  the  Black  Deaths  in  the  lanks  ol  the  clergy,  and  for 


ntof  tl 
jwinted  by  Wykehan 


and  Ir 


e  boyiap- 

_entry,  and  the  sons 
if  Winchester  or  London,  and  the  middle 
classes  generally,  who  needed  the  help  of  nhibiiions. 

The  time  which  elapsed  between  (he  foundation  and  com- 
fJe(ion  of  the  colleges  may  be  attributed  to  Wykeham's  pre- 
occupation with  politics  in  tfao  disturbed  state  of  aiTaJn,  due  10 
(he  papal  schism  begun  in  ij;g,  in  which  England  adhered  to 
Urban  VI.  and  France  to  Clement  VII.,  to  the  tidng  of  the 
Commons  in  i3Bt,  and  the  wars  with  Fiance,  Scotland  and 
Spain  during  John  of  Caunt'i  ascendancy.  Then  followed  the 
const  it  utional  revolution  of  the  lords  appellant  in  ijgg.  When 
rr  on  him«If,  on  the  jrd  ol  Hay  13S1},  be 


ie  Wylich 


Wykcham'a  business  capacity  b  shown 
perh^M  by  the  first  record  of  the  minute*  of  the  privy  coondl 
being  kept  during  his  (erm  of  oRicc,  and  bis  promulgation  in 
1390  ol  general  orders  as  lo  its  business.  Al  Icttt  one  occailon 
is  reoorded  in  tha  minutes  on  which  Wykeham,  on  bchall  of  the 
coundt,  look  a  firm  stand  against  Richard  II.  (md  that  b  spite 
of  tbe  king's  leaving  Ihe  council  in  a  rage.  Pesicewu  made  with 
France  in  August.  On  the  meeting  of  pariiament  In  January 
rjoo  Wykeham  re»gned  tbe  gitat  seal;  and  asked  for  an 
Inquiry  into  the  conduct  of  tbe  privy  cDoncil,  and  on  being  assured 
that  all  was  well  resumed  ii.  He  now  ihowtd  that  he  bad  not 
by  his  charities  wronged  hli  relations  by  settling  on  his  gitat- 
ncphcw  Uid  heir  Thomas  Wykeham,  whom  he  bad  educated  at 
Winchester  and  Mew  College.  Broughlon  Castle  and  estates, 
Ilia  held  by  Us  descAidanta  in  the  female  line,  tbe  family  of 
Twisleun-Wykeham-Fiennes  (peerage  of  Saye  and  Sele).  In 
July  r  j(>i  he  obtained  a  papal  bull  enabling  him  to  ^>palnt  at 
l^easure  coadjutors  to  do  his  episcopal  business. 

On  tha  17th  of  S^IFmberijqi,  Wykeham  hnally  resigned  (be 
chanceUorahip.  For  three  years  after  there  are  no  minute*  of 
Ihe  Council.  On  the  i4lh  of  November  1344  Wykeham  lent  Ihc 
king  Ihe  sum  of  £1000  (some  £30,0000!  our  money),  which  saroe 
•an  or  anathB  £1000  he  promised  oo  the  iiu  of  Februaiy  139) 


to  repay  by  mtdhimmer,  and  did  so  (Tat.  iS,  Rich.  II.  pt.  ii. 

m.  13,  41).  The  mntdei  of  the  duke  ol  Gloucester,  Richard's 
uncle,  in  1397.  was  followed  next  year  by  tbe  assumption  of 
abs<^utc  power  by  Richard.  Wykeham  was  clearly  against  these 
proceedings.     He  excused  himself  from  convocation  in  r3q7. 


Thee 


College,  just  apposite  the  gain  of  the  bishop's  palace  at  Wolvesey 
in  IJ09,  suggBl  that  he  took  part  in  the  revolution  ol  Henry  IV. 
He  appeared  in  the  privy  council  four  times  at  the  beginning  d 
Henry's  reign  (/'fk.  P.C.  L  100).  On  the  13rd  of  July  1400  he 
lent  Heniy  IV.  £;od  for  his  journey  towards  Scotland,  and  in 
1401  another  £500,  while  a  general  loan  for  tbe  war  wilb  Fiance 
sod  StotbiDd  OB  the  ist  of  April  1403  was  headed  by  Wykeham 


with  £1000,  Ihe  bishop  of  Durham  lending  looo  mar&i 
(£666,  ijs.  4d.),  and  no  one  else  more  than  £500.  Meanwhile 
on  the  aqih  of  September  1394  he  had  begun  (he  recasting  of  tha 
nave  of  the  cathedial  wilb  William  Wynloid,  the  nichitect  of 
tbc  college,  as  chief  mason,  and  Simon  Membury,  an  old  Wyke- 
hamist, as  clerk  of  the  works.  On  tbe  :4tb  of  July  1403,  be 
made  his  will,  giving  large  bcqucsls  amounting  to  some  £10,000 
(£300,000  of  our  money),  to  friends  and  relations  and  evely  kind 
of  leiigious  bouse.  On  the  i6ib  of  August  1404,  he  signed  an 
agreement  with  tbe  prior  and  convent  for  thiw  monks  to  sing 
daily  three  masses  in  his  beautiful  chanlry  chapel  in  tbe  nave  of 
the  cathedral,  while  the  boys  ol  the  olmoniy,  Iho  cathedral 
choir-boy^  were  to  say  (hnr  evening  prayers  Ihcie  for  hi*  uul. 
He  died  on  the  i7lh  of  September  1404,  aged  eighty. 

■thedrat  chanlry  and  a  bust  on  Ihc  frcnning  of  the 
mi  I   VVinchesler  coIIcec  arc   no  doubt  authentic 

po  turn  at  Winchester  and  New  College  an  lata 

Fr  cars  1364-1366,  are  picserved,  one  al  the  Dritiik 

M  ;  Record  OffiM.  a  third  at  New  College.  OatonL 

A  ted  ID  Wykeham  at  the  Billish  Museum  isihDwa 

all  1  and  its  handwriting  not  to  be  his. 

nin.  Wflhilmi  IVfinni  (i»7):  R.  Lowth,  lift 
ff  :  Mackeniie  E.  C.  Walcoii.  WiUitm  >f  tVyki- 

>iPaUM 

WfLUAMS.  JOHN  <ijSi-i6jo),  English  alchbishop  and  lord 
keeper,  son  of  Edmund  WUIiams  of  Conwav,  a  Welsh  gentkman 
of  properly,  was  bom  in  Match  1581  and  educated  at  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge.  He  was  oidaincd  about  160J,  and  in  161S 
he  preached  belore  King  James  I.,  whose  favour  he  quickly 
gained  by  bis  love  ol  compromise.  The  result  was  the  rapid 
promotion  of  Williams  In  Ihe  church;  he  obtained  several 
livings  besides  picbendj  at  Hereford,  Lincoln  and  Peterborough. 
In  1617  he  became  chaplain  to  Ihe  king,  in  !&!•}  dean  of  Salisbury, 

ig  year  dean  of  Westminster,     IDn  the  I  "    ' 


.Mobrrly'.lifcufWytrlt'aiilti 
•ir  CcUifc  (l8«);  and  the  Co 


;ith  tl 


I  1611  Willi 
duke  of  B 


lohadra 


appointed  lord  keeper,  aod 
lade  bishop  of  Lincoln,  retaining  also 
politictl  tdviser  o(  the  kini 


682 


WILLIAMS,  JOHN— WILLIAMS,  ROGER 


WQUams  oonsistcntly  ooimselled  modention  and  comproniae 
between  the  unqualified  assertion  of  the  royal  prerogative  and 
the  puritaa  views  of  popular  libertiea  which  were  now  coming 
to  the  front.  He  warned  Buckingham  and  Printe  Charles  of  the 
perils  of  their  project  for  the  Spanish  marriage,  and  after  their 
return  from  Madrid  heencounteml  their  resentment  by  opposing 
war  with  Spain.  The  lord  keeper's  counsel  of  moderation  was 
less  pleasing  to  Charles  I.  than  it  had  been  to  hia  father.  The 
new  king  was  ofiended  by  Williams's  advice  to  proceed  with 
caution  in  dealing  with  the  parliament,  with  the  result  that 
within  a  few  months  of  Charles's  accession  the  Great  Seal  was 
taken  from  Williams.  In  the  quarrel  between  the  king  and  the 
Commons  over  the  petitMHi  of  right,  Williams  took  the  popular 
side  in  oondeoming  arbitrary  imprisonment  by  the  sovereign. 
In  the  matter  of  ecclesiastical  administration  he  similarly 
followed  a  middle  course;  but  he  had  now  to  contend  against  the 
growing  influence  of  Laud  and  the  extreme  high  church  party. 
A  case  was  preferred  against  him  in  the  Star  Chamber  of  revealing 
state  secrets,  to  which  was  added  in  1635  a  charge  of  subornation 
of  perjury,  of  which  he  hnA  undoubtedly  been  guilty  and  for 
which  he  was  condemned  in  1637  to  pay  a  fine  of  £10,000,  to  be 
deprived  of  the  temporalities  of  all  his  benefices,  and  to  be 
imprisoned  during  the  king's  pleasure.  He  was  sent  to  the 
Tower.  In  1639  he  was  again  condemned  by  the  Star  Chamber 
for  libelling  Laud,  a  further  heavy  fine  being  imposed  for  this 
offence.  In  1641  he  recovered  his  liberty  on  the  demand  of  the 
Hoiise  of  Lords,  who  maintained  that  as  a  peer  he  was  entitled 
to  be  summoned  to  parliament.  When  the  Long  Parliament 
met,  Williams  was  made  chauman  of  a  committee  of  inquiry 
into  innovations  in  the  church;  and  he  was  one  of  the  bishops 
consulted  by  Charles  as  to  whether  he  should  veto  the  bill  for 
the  attainder  of  Strafford.  In  December  1641'  the  king,  anxious 
to  conciliate  public  opinion,  appointed  Williams  archbishop  of 
York.  In  the  same  month  he  was  one  of  the  twelve  bishops 
impeached  by  the  Conunons  for  high  treason,  and  committed  to 
the  Tower.  Released  on  an  undertaking  not  to  go  to  Yorkshire, 
a  promise  which  he  did  not  observe,  the  archbishop  was  en- 
throned in  York  Minster  m  June  1642.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War,  after  visiting  Conway  in  the  Royalist  interest,  he 
Joined  the  king  at  Oxford;  he  then  returned  to  Wales,  and 
finding  that  Sir  John  Owen,  acting  on  Charles's  orders,  had 
seized  certain  property  in  Conway  Castle  that  had  been  deposited 
with  the  archbishop  for  safe-keeping,  he  went  over  to  the  Parlia- 
mentary side  and  assisted  in  the  recapture  of  Conway  Castle 
in  November  1646.  Williams,  who  was  a  generous  benefactor 
of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  died  on  the  25th  of  March  1650. 
WILLIAMS,  JOHN  (1796-1839),  English  l^onconformist 
missionary,  wasbom  at  Tottenhun  near  London  on  the  29th  of 
June  1796.  He  was  trained  at  an  ironmonger,  and  acquired 
considerable  experience  in  mechanical  work.  Having  offered 
himself  to  the  London  Missionary  Society,  he  was  sent,  after 
some  training,  in  18 16  to  Eimeo,  in  the  Society  Islands,  where 
he  rapidly  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  native  language.  After 
Staying  there  for  a  short  time,  he  finally  settled  at  Raiatea, 
which  became  his  permanent  headquarters.  His  success  as  a 
missionary  here  and  elsewhere-  was  remarkable.  The  people 
rapidly  became  Christianized  and  adopted  many  of  the  habits 
of  civilization.  Williams  was  fairly  liberal  for  his  age,  and  the 
lesttlts  of  his  labours  among  the  Pacific  Islands  were  essentially 
bencficiaL  He  travel!^  unceasingly  among  the  various  island 
groups,  planting  stations  and  settling  native  missionaries  whom 
he  himself  had  trained.  From  the  Society  Islands  he  visited 
the  Hervey  group,  where  he  discovered,  and  stayed  for  a  con< 
Biderable  time  on,  the  island  of  Rarotonga.  Most  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  group  were  converted  in  a  remarkably  short 
time,  and  Williams's  infiuenoe  over  them,  as  over  the  people  of 
other  groups,  was  very  great.  Besides  establishing  Christianity 
and  dviliziation  among  them,  he  also,  at  their  own  request, 
helped  them  to  draw  up  a  code  of  laws  for  civil  administration 
upon  the  basis  of  the  new  religion.  While  at  Rarotonga  he, 
with  the  help  of  the  natives,  built  himself  a  6o-ft.  ship,  "  The 
Mctscnger  ol  Fcjace,"  within  about  four  months;  with  this  he 


returned  to  Raiatea,  and  made  voyages  among  other  isXaDd 
groups,  including  Samoa  and  the  neighbouring  islands.  Willuuns 
returned  to  England  in  1834  (having  previously  visited  New 
South  Wales  in  1821);  and  during  hb  four  years'  stay  at  home 
he  had  the  New  Testament,  which  he  had  translated  into  Raro- 
tongan,  printed.  Returning  in  1838  to  the  Pacific,  he  visited 
the  sULions  already  established  by  him,  as  well  as  several  fresh 
groups.  He  went  as  far  west  at  the  New  Hebrides,  and,  while 
visiting  Eromanga,  one  of  the  group,  for  the  firtt  time,  was 
murdered  by  cannibal  natives  on  the  20th  of.  November  1859. 

His  Narratwe  of  Missionary  Enterprises  in  the  South  Sea  Tslamds 
«ras  published  in  1837,  and  formed  an  important  contribution  to  6(ir 
knowledge  of  the  islands  with  which  the  author  was  acquainted 
Sec  Memoir  of  John  Williams^  by  Ebcnezer  Prout  (London,  1843) ; 
C.  S.  Home,  The  Story  of  the  LM^.,  pp.  41*54. 

WILLIAMS,  ROGER  (c.  1604-1684),  founder  of  the  colony  of 
Rhode  IsUnd  in  America  and  pioneer  of  religious  liberty,  son  of 
a  merchant  tailor,  was  bom  (probably)  about  1604  in  London. 
It  seems  reasonably  certain  that  he  was  educated,  under  the 
patronage  of  Sir  Edward  Coke,  at  the  Charter  House  and  at 
Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  received  his  degree  in 
1627.  According  to  tradition  (probably  untrue),  he  studied  la-y 
under  Sir  Edward  Coke;  he  certainly  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  theology,  and  in  1629  was  chaplain  to  Sir  William  Mashaxa 
of  Otes,  in  the  parish  of  High  Laver,  Essex,  but  from  consdentiovs 
scruples,  in  view  of  the  condition  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  ia 
England  at  the  time,  refused  preferment.  He  soon  decided  J« 
emigrate  to  New  England,  and,  with  his  wife  Mary,  arrived  11 
Boston  early  in  Febnuiry  1631.  In  April  he  became  teacher  of 
the  church  at  Salem,  Mass.,  as  assistant  to  the  Reverend  Somiid 
Skelton.  Owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities 
at  Boston,  with  whose  views  his  own  were  not  in  accord,  he 
removed  to  Plymouth  in  the  summer,  and  there  remained  for  two 
years  as  assistant  pastor.  In  August  1633  he  again  became 
assistant  teacher  at  Salem,  and  in  the  following  year  succeeded 
Skelton  as  teacher.  Here  he  incurred  the  hostility  of  the 
authorities  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  by  asserting, 
among  other  things,  that  the  civil  power  of  a  state  could  ptoperiy 
have  no  jurisdiction  over  the  consciences  of  men,  that  the  King's 
patent  conveyed  no  jusl  title  to  the  land  of  the  colonists,  which 
should  be  bought  from  its  rightful  owners,  the  Indians,  and  that 
a  magistrate  should  not  tender  an  oath  to  an  unregenerate  man, 
an  oath  being,  in  reality,  a  form  of  worship.  For  the  expression 
of  these  opiniont  he  was  formally  tried  in  July  1635  by  the 
Massachusetts  General  Court,  and  at  the  next  meeting  of  the 
General  Court  in  October,  he  not  having  taken  advantage  of  the 
opportunity  giwn  to  him  to  recant,  a  sentence  of  banishment 
was  passed  upon  him,  and  he  was  ordered  to  leave  the  juris- 
diction  of  Massachusetts  within  six  weeks.  The  time  was 
subsequently  extended,  conditionally,  but  in  January  1636  an 
attempt  was  made  to  seize  him  and  transport  him  to  En^and, 
and  he,  forewarned,  escaped  from  his  home  at  Salem  and  pro- 
ceeded alone  to  Manton's  Neck,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Seckonk 
river.  At  the  instance  of  the  authorities  at  Plymouth,  within 
whose  jurisdiction  Manton's  Neck  was  included,  Williams,  with 
four  companions,  who  had  joined  him,  founded  in  June  1636  the 
first  settlement  in  Rhode  Island,  to  which,  in  remembrance  of 
"  God's  merciful  providence  to  him  in  his  distress,"  he  gave  the 
name  Providence,  He  immediately  established  friendly  relations 
with  the  Indians  in  the  vicinity,  whose  kinguage  he  had  learned, 
and,  in  accordance  with  his  principles,  bought  the  land  upon 
which  he  had  settled  from  the  sachems  Can<»icus  (c.  1565-1647) 
and  Miantonomo.  His  influeace  with  the  Indians,  and  their 
implicit  o>nfidence  in  him,  enabled  him  in  1636,  soon  after 
arriving  at  Providence,  to  induce  the  Narragansets  to  ally 
themselves  with  the  Massachusetts  colonists  at  the  time  of  the 
Pcquot  War,  and  thut  to  render  a  noost  effective  service  to  those 
who  had  driven  him  from  their  conununity.  Williams  and  his 
companions  founded  their  new  settlement  upon  the  basis  of 
complete  religious  toleration,  with  a  Tiew  to  its  becoming  "  a 
slielter  for  persons  distressed  for  conscience "  (see  Ruodb 
Island).  Many  •ettlera  came  from  Maasachuaetts  aud  elaewhac 


WILLIAMS,  ROWLAND— WILLIAMSBURG 


683 


UDongotbenaaincAiiabiVlbUib: 
nu  b&pliud,  he  baplujng  uthcn 
wbiL  hw  beta  (ODuilfKd  Ihe  6r 
Williinu,  honevei,  muntBiccd  h 
for  only  thretor  Jour  months  niifj 
u  ft  "  Sflckcr,"  or  Independent,  I 
In  June  1643  h  -     ■ 


o  Englini 
I  lot  Pioi 


atuck  by  Ihe  Nartiginseli  upon  the  United  Calonies  of  New 
England  and  tbe  Mohcgatii.  In  1646  he  removed  Iiom 
Providence  to  ■  place  now  koonn  i3  Wickford,  R.1.  He  wu  at 
varioiu  limts  ■  member  of  the  general  assembly  of  (be  colscy, 
aded  u  deputy  president  for  a  abort  lime  in  1640,  wu  priaidetil, 
or  governor,  from  September  [654  I0  May  165T,  and  waa  an 
aaiBtant  in  1664,  1667  and  1670.  la  i6ji,  with  John  Clarke 
(1609-1676),  be  went  10  England  to  secure  the  Annulment  of 
>  comraiuiaD  which  had  been  obtained  by  William  Coddington 
tar  the  govenunent  ol  Rhode  Island  (Neacpon  and  Poiisinouih) 
wid  Connecticut,  and  Ibe  istic  of  a  new  ajid  more  eaplicit  charter, 
King  year  succeeded  in  bavmg  the  Coddingt< 


fated.     He  1 


n   the  I 
nweU,  MilloD  : 


•  6S4. 


having  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Ci 
ptominent  Puritans;  but  Clarke  remauied  m 
l66i  obtained  Iron  Charles  II.   a  new  ch; 
Island  and  Providence  PUDittioas."    Willian 
deoce  in  March  or  April  1684;  the  eiact  date  it 

Though  headstrong,  opinionalivD  and  rigid  in  his  thetJogkal 
views,  he  was  uniformly  tolerant,  and  he  occupies  a  high  place 
tUDOng  those  who  have  striven  for  complete  liberty  o[ 
He  was  the  first  and  the  fonmost  exponent  in  Ame 
Iheory  of  Ihe  absolute  freedom  of  the  individual  m 
Tdigion;  and  Rhode  Island,  of  which  he  was  pre-eminently -ibe 
[ounder,  was  the  first  colony  consialenlly  to  apply  this  principle 
in  practice. 

Willbiu  wsi  a  vigorous  controvenialiit.  and  psbliihed.  chiedy 
during  hki  two  viiita  (o  England,  bnidcs  A  Key  into  tin  Laatttail  of 
t/tt  Indians  irt  A  mtrua  {written  a(  Ha  on  hia  firat  vovdgc  to  Enebnd 

aaajs--,;;, " '-■'■■ 


1;  Tki 


'll>n'<!/"lt'h%lt  "/jlaw 
oeiely  (iSi7),and  in  Hiirs  1.  vol.  iii.  o(  the  JUotHKihiitll; 
HUttricol  Sxirly  Cotteaimt):  tir  CtBt^i  LtHr  Bnmiiui  sjh 
Aimtroi  (i6m);  TIh  Blimiy  Tneml  ^  PtntaHam  for  On  Camim 
fsuwiue  {l<4t);  Qmriti  of  Hiittil  ComiJinlitm  (1644)1 
Bloudy  Timnt  y/l  mort  BioMiy  {1651);  The  Hirdinr  Uini-lry 
0/  C*nj|-j  (165J);  fitBtTiWulj  0/  Spirtlml  Life  aA  UhMIU 

"  His  wntii^  blive  Inn  npubllihed  In  the  PiMiia  Ike 

l/ampinult  aub  (6  vol...  Providence,  1866-1874),  the  1  me 

containing  ha  eiinnt  letters,  wrTilen  brtwren  1631  and  *( 

b»l  biocnphies  are  thou  by  Oarai  Straus  (New  York,  nd 

E.  J.  Csrpenler  (>W.  1910).    Ahw  tee  J.  D.  Kiwwiei.  0/ 

Ralfr  WiUiami  (Boston,  1834),  and  Elton,  Z,ife  ^  Xw  mi 

(L-ondDn.  iSu;  Providence.  l83J)lJVflI>£ir(Iiiild//iiI.aii3  fc 

(rr.rulvandOctaberiSSa.aadJaBuai>i8w:aDdM.C.Ty  <ry 

■  noloeyfarhit  expuldon  from  Msssaehusetta, see  Henry  I  r's 

Al  lo  iaiCF  waiama aiBl Ui  " BatiakimiU" Jrom llu  li,  ita 

Planlolitn   (Boston.   1876).  an  unsucressful  attempt  to  prevent 

WILLIAW,  ROWUHD  (1B17-1S10),  EnRlish  divine  and 
BCboUr,  was  bom  al  Halkyn,  Flint,  the  ion  ol  Rowbnd  WiUlams 
(d.  1SS4),  canon  of  51  Auph,  and  educated  al  Eton  and  Ctin- 
bridffB.  He  was  elected  fellow  ol  King's  College,  .f^ambridge. 
In  1859,  and  took  orders  in  ifi4i.  During  the  Dext  few  years  he 
actively  opposed  Ihe  amalgamation  of  the  sees  o(  St  Asaph  tad 
Bangor.  In  1S50  he  became  vice-prindpal  and  Hebrew  lecturer 
M  St  David's  College,  Lampeter,  where  he  inlioduced  m 


He  w 


linled 


sdtct  pieadter  of  Cambridtp  University  in  iSm,  ond  preached  a 
sermon  on  inqiitatian.  afterwards  published  in  his  Ra. ' 
CaUimai  tfUr  llu  Mind  0/  Cliriil  and  Ihl  Wrilln  Couci  . 
CititnJi  (Lwidon,  iSsj).  He  wot  charged  with  hetetodoiy 
AUnd  OUivant  (i7ItS-ie30,  bishop  ol  UandaS,  required 
to  rcsigB'hk  chaplaincy,  b     ' 


if  these  dilHculiies.    Hit  view: 

mily  and  Hiitdaism  (Cnmbridgi 

3riie  essay  which  he  had  won  in  ilJjS.    He  bci 

jf  Btoadchaike  with  Bowerchnlke  and  Alvc. 


by  the  Canterbury  Cou: 


L  1&64,    WiW 


9  died  01 


Promoted  co 


Betidei  the  above  works  hii  most  important  prodoction  was  a 

pt.  ii.  edited  by  Mrs  William.  iSji  '[!"«!, ilwllSfpI^ij'U's  never 
wrillen).  Sce£(fto»JZ*tjlm,edrIe(l1)y  Mrs  WSllamt(a™lv,  1874)1 
and  T.  K.  Cbeyoe,  Fcndo,:  of  OU  TiMmtnt  Crilici^  (.893). 

WtLUiKl  SIR  WIIUAM  FBNWICK,  Bart.  (iSoo-iSSj), 
Biftish  general,  second  son  of  Commisssty-Cencral  Thomas 
WUIiams,  barrack-master  at  Halifai,  Nova  Scotia,  was  bom  at 
Annapolis,  Nova  Scotia,  on  the  4Ih  of  December  1800.  He 
entered  the  Royal  Artillery  as  second  lieutenant  in  iSij.  His 
services  were  lent  to  Turkey  in  1841,  lod  he  was  employed  as  a 
captain  in  the  arsenal  at  Constantinople,  He  was  British  com- 
missioner in  the  conferences  preceding  ihe  treaty  of  EnerAm  in 
1847,  and  again  in  the  sctlJement  of  the  Tutko-Peisian  boundary 

'-  -° "  "■ -lajoriiy  and  lieutenant-colonelcy  and  C.B.). 

he  was  British  commissioner  with  Ihe  Turkish 
the  Russian  Wsrof  1854-56,  and,  having  been 
made  a  Jerii  (lieuienant-geneial)  and  a  pasha,  be  practically 
commanded  the  Turk!  during  the  heroic  defence  of  Kara,  repuls- 
ing several  Russian  attacks  and  severely  defeating  the  Rusuan 
general  Mumviev  in  the  battle  of  Kars  on  S91I1  September  iSss- 
Cold,  cholera,  famine  and  hopelessness  of  succour  from  without, 
honrevct;  compelled  WilllaRii  to  make  an  honourable  capitulation 
on  the  iSlh  of  November  following.  A  baronetcy  with  penMon 
tor  life,  the  K.C.B.,  the  grand  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  and 
of  the  Turkish  Medjidie.  the  freedom  of  the  City  of  London  with 
a  sword  of  honour,  and  Ihe  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  of  Oiford 
Univcisity,  were  Ihe  distinctions  conferred  upon  him  for  his 
valour.  Promoted  major-general  in  Noi'ejnber  1855  on  his 
return  from  captivity  in  Rutda,  be  held  the  Woolwich  command, 
and  represented  the  borough  of  Calne  in  parliament  from  1856  to 
1859.  He  became  lieutenant-general  and  colonel-commandant 
Royal  Artillciy  in  1864,  general  in  1868,  commanded  the  forces 
in  Canada  from  1859  to  1865.  held  Ihe  govcmorihip  of  Nova 
Scotia  until  1S70,  and  the  governorship  ol  Gibiallar  until  1876. 
He  was  made  C.C.B.  in  1871,  and  Constable  of  the  Tower  of 
London  in  t88t.    He  died  in  London  on  the  i6ih  of  July  1883. 

WlLUAHSBURa,  a  dly  and  the  counly-scal  of  Jan       ~ 


only,  Vi 


_     1,  U,S.A-, 
s,  48  m.  by  ra 


ork  and 


i.E.  o(  Richmond.  Pop.  (1900) 
....  rg  is  served  by  the  Chesapeake  & 

Ohiorailway-  It  isthescalofthe  Williamsburg  Female  Institute 
(Presbyterian),  and  ol  the  College  of  William  and  Mary,  chartered 
by  the  Crown  in  169]  and  the  second  oldest  college  in  the  United 
Stales.  Besides  the  main  building  and  the  president's  bouse, 
the  College  of  William  and  Mary  has  a  science  hall,  a  gymnasium, 
a  library  buihling,  an  infirmary  and  dormitories;  in  front  ol 
Ihe  main  building  b  a  statue  by  Richard  Hayward  ol  Notbome 
Berkeley,  Lord  Botclourt  (1717-1770),  the  most  popular  loyal 
governor  of  Virginia.  The  college  offers  a  dajsieal  course  and  a 
sdeniific  course,  two-lbiids  of  the  work  in  each  being  prescribed, 
and  in  coaneilon  wiib  Ihe  normal  department  is  Ihe  Matthew 
Whiley  Model  and  Practice  School.  In  1909  there  were  11 
insttuciorsand  Ji8  students  in  the  college,  6  insiruclora  and  140 
pupils  in  Ihe  model  scboot.  and  10,000  volumes,  many  of  Ihen 
ran;,  in  the  library.  Since  1B91  the  college  has  published  Ibi 
William  and  Mary  CeUtfe  Quarterly,  an  historical  magaiine. 

anabliihed  the  Phi  Beta  Kanpa 


■coUcjiat. 

....,    lonei  during  the  War  of   Indepf 

Civil  War-     In  June  17$i  Loid  Cociiwallii  m 
kaodqimrtcn,  and  clw  iutimtioB  v 


684 


WILLIAMSON,  A.  W.— WILLIAMSON,  W.  C. 


months  of  that  year.  It  was  closed  in  1861  becausp  of  the  Civil  War, 
and  the  main  building  was  occupied  in  turn  by  Confederate  troops 
and  by  Federal  troops  until  some  of  the  latter  burned  it  in  1862. 
Although  reopened  in  1869,  the  college  was  closed  again  from  1881  to 
1888  b^ause  of  the  low  state  of  its  finances.  In  1S88  it  was  irorgan- 
ized  under  an  act  of  the  state  legislature  which  provided  for  the 
addition  of  a  normal  course  and  an  annual  appropriation  towards  its 
maintenance.  In  1893  Congress  passed  an  act  indemnifying  it  in 
some  measure  for  its  loss  during  the  Civil  War;  and  in  1906  its 
endowment  was  increased  to  more  than  $150,000  and  it  was  made  a 
state  institution  governed  by  a  board  (appointed  by  the  governor) 
and  receiving  $35,000  annuallv  from  the  state.  Peyton  Randolph, 
Edmund  Randolph,  Thomas  fcfferson,  James  Monroe,  John  Tyler, 
Chief  Justice  John  Marshall  and  General  Winfield  Scott  were 
graduates  of  the  college. 

Bruton  Parish  Church,  completed  in  17x7  and  enlarged  in  1753, 
is  the  second  church  of  a  parish  dating  from  1674.  It  contains  a/ 
Bible  given  by  King  Edward  VII.,  a  lectern  given  by  president 
Roosevelt,  and  some  old  relics.  The  church  itself  has  been 
restored  (1905-1907)  so  far  as  practicable  to  its  original  form 
and  appearance.  The  Association  for  the  Preservation  of 
Virginia  Antiquities  has  preserved  a  powder  magazine,  erected 
in  17 14,  from  which  the  last  royal  governor  of  Virginia,  Lord 
Dunmore,  removed  the  powder  on  the  day  after  the  encounter 
at  Lexington,  Massachusetts,  and  thus  occasioned  the  first  armed 
uprising  of  the  Virginia  patriots.  The  County  and  City  Court- 
House  was  erected  in  1769.  The  Eastern  State  Hospital  for  the 
Insane  was  opened  here  in  1773,  but  its  original  building  was 
burned  in  1885.  Among  several  colonial  residences  are  the 
George  Wythe  House,  which  was  the  headquarters  of  )Vashington 
during  the  siege  of.  Yorktown  in  1781,  and  the  Peyton  Randolph 
House.  The  principal-  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  men's 
winter  underwear,  lumber  and  ice,  and  the  sliipmcnt  of  lumber 
and  farm  and  garden  produce. 

Williamsburg,  originally  named  Middle  Plantatfon  from  its 
position  midway  between  the  York  and  James  rivers,  was 
founded  in  1632.  It  was  immediately  walled  in  and  for  several 
years  it  served  as  a  refuge  from  Indian  attacks.  On  the  3rd  of 
August  1676  Natham'cl  Bacon  held  here  his  "  rebel "  assembly 
of  the  leading  men  of  the  province,  and  in  January  1677  two 
of  the  "  rebels  "  were  hanged  here.  In  1698  Middle  Plantation 
was  made  the  provincial  capital;  and  in  1699  the  present  name 
was  adopted  in  honour  of  William  III.  Williamsburg  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1722.  In  1736  the  Virginia  Gautle,  the 
oldest  newspaper  in  the  South,  was  established  here.  In  the 
capitol  here  Patrick  Henry,  on  the  30th  of  May  1765,  presented 
his  historic  resolutions  and  made  his  famous  speech  against 
the  Stamp  Act.  On  the  i5lh  of  May  X776,  the  Virginia  Conven- 
tion in  session  here  passed  resolutions  urging  the  Continental 
Congress  to  declare  for  .Independence.  In  1779  Richmond 
became  the  scat  of  the  state  government,  and  in  1832  £re 
destroyed  the  last  of  the  old  capitol  at  Williamsburg  with  the 
exception  of  the  foundations,  which  since  1897  have  been  cared 
for  by  the  Association  for  the  Preservation  of  Virginia  Antiquities. 
In  the  Peninsula  campaign  of  the  Civil  War  the  Battle  of 
Williamsburg  was  fought  on  the  5th  of  May  1862  on  the  south- 
eastern outskirts  of  the  city.  The  Confederate  army  under 
General  J.  E.  Johnston  was  retreating  from  Yorktown  toward 
Richmond  and  a  part  of  it  under  General  James  Longstreet 
waited  here  to  check  the  pursuit  of  the  advance  portion  of  the 
Union  army  under  General  E..  V.  Sumner.  A  Union  division 
under  General  J.  D.  Hooker  began  a  spirited  attack  at  7.30  a.m., 
other  Union  divisions  dealt  heavy  blows,  but  they  failed  from 
hck  of  co-operation  to  rout  the  Confederates  and  at  night  the 
httcr  continued  their  retreat.  The  Union  loss  in  killed,  wounded 
and  missing  was  2  2  28 ;  the  Confederate  about  1 560. 

Soe  L.  G.  Tyler,  Williamsburg,  the  Old  Colonial  Capital  (Richmond, 
1907),  and  his"  Williamsburg,  the  Ancient  Capital,**  in  L.  P.  Powell's 
Historic  Towns  of  the  Southern  Slates  (New  York,  1900), 

WILUAHSON,  ALEXANDER  WILUAH  (1824-1904),  English 
chemist,  was  bom  at  Wandsworth,  I^ndon,  on  the  ist  of  May 
1824.  After  working  under  Leopold  Gmeltn  at  Heidelberg, 
and  Liebig  at  Giessen,  he  spent  three  years  in  Paris  studying 
the  higher  mathematics  under  Comte.  In  1 849  be  was  appointed 
professor  of  pcKtical  chemistry  at  Uoiveiaity  College,  London, 


And  from  i^ss  until  his  retirement  in  1887  he  abo  held  the 
professorship  of  chemistry.    He  had  the  credit  of  being  the 
first  to  explain  the  process  of  etheriiication  and  to  elucidate  the 
formation  of  ether  by  the  interaction  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
alcohol.    Ether  and  alcohol  he  regarded  as  substances  analogous 
to  and  bailt  up  on  the  same  type  as  water,  and  he  further  intro- 
duced the  water-type  as  a  widely  applicable  basis  for  the  clxusifi- 
catton  of  chemical  compounds.     The  method  of  stating  the 
rational  constitution  of  bodies  by  comparison  with  water  he 
believed  capable  of  wide  extension,  and  that  one  type,  he 
thought,  would  suffice  for  all  inorganic  compounds,  as  well  as 
for  the  best-known  organic  ones,  the  formula  of  water  being 
taken  in  certain  cases  as  doubled  or  tripled.   So  far  back  as  1850 
he  also  suggested  a  view  which,  in  a  modified  form,  is  of  funda- 
mental importance  in  the  modem  theory  of  ionic  dissociation, 
for,  in  a  paper  on  the  theory  of  the  formatbn  of  elheri  be  urged 
that  in  an  aggregate  of  molecules  of  any  compound  there  is  an 
exchange  constantly  going  on  between  the  dements  which  are 
contained  in  it;  for  instance,  in  hydrochloric  acid  each  atom 
of  hydrogen  does  not  remain  quietly  in  juxtaposition  with  the 
atom  of  chlorine  with  which  it  first  united,  but  changes  plac» 
with  other  atoms  of  hydrogen.    A  somewhat  similar  hypothesis 
was  put  forward  by  R.  J.  £.  Clausius  about  the  same  time. 
For  his  work  on  eiherification  Williamson  in  1862  received  a 
Royal  medal  from  the  Royal  Society,  of  which  he  be<^me  a 
fellow  in  1855,  and  which  he  served  as  foreign- secretary  fnm 
1873  to  1889.    He  was  twice  president  of  the  London  ChemicaJ 
Society,  in  i863*x86s,  and  again  in  1869-1871.     His  deatk 
occurred  on  the  6th  of  May  1904,  at  Hindhead,  Surrey,  England. 
WILUAHSfW,  SIR  JOSEPH  (i633-r70iy,  English  politician, 
was  bom  at  Bridekirk,  near  Cockermouth,  bis  father,  Joseph 
Williamson,  being  vicar  of  this  place.    He  was  educated  at 
St  Bees,  at  Westminster  school  and  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
of  which  he  became  a  fellow,  and  in  x66o  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  secretary  of  state,  Sir  Edward  Nicholas,  retaiznng  bis 
position  under  the  succeeding  secretary,  Sir  Henry  Bcanet, 
afterwards  earl  of  Arlington.     For  his  connexion  with  the 
foundation  of  the  London  CateUe  in  1665  see  Newspapers.    He 
entered  parliament  in  1669,  and  in  1672  was  made  one  of  the 
clerks  of  the  council  and  a  knight.    In  1673  and  1674  he  repre* 
sented  his  country  at  the  congress  of  Cologne,  and  in  the  latter 
year  he  became  secretary  of  stale,  having  practically  purchased 
this  position  from  Arlington  for  £6000,  a  sum  which  he  required 
from  his  successor  when  he  left  office  in  1679.    Just  before  his 
removal  he  had  been  arrested  on  a  charge  of  sharing  in  the 
popish  plots,  but  he  had  been  at  once  released  by  order  of 
Charles  II.    After  a  period  of  comparative  inactivity  Sir  Joseph 
represented  England  at  the  congress  of  Nijmwegen  in  1697,  and 
in  1698  he  signed  the  first  treaty  for  the  partition  of  the  Spanish 
monarchy.    He  died  at  Cobham,  Kent,  on  the  3rd  of  October 
1 70X.   Williamson  was  the  second  president  of  the  Royal  Society, 
but  his  main  interests,  after  politics,  were  rather  in  antiquarian 
than  in  scientific  matters.     Taking  advantage  of  the  many 
opportunities  of  making  money  which  his  official  position  gave 
him,  he  became  very  rich.    He  left  £6000  and  his  library  to 
(^ecn's  College,  Oxford;  £5000  to  found  a  school  at  Rochester; 
and  £2000  to  Thetford. 

A  great  number  of  Williamson's  letters,  despatches,  memoranda, 
&c.,  are  among  the  English  state  papers. 

WILUAMSON,  WILUAH  CRAWFORD  (1816-1895),  English 
naturalist,  was  bom  at  Scarborough  on  the  24th  of  November 
x8i6.  His  father,  John  Williamson,  after  beginning  life  as  a 
gardener,  became  a  well-known  local  naturalist,  who,  in  con* 
junction  with  William  Bean,  first  explored  the  rich  fo^ferbus 
beds  of  the  Yorkshire  coast.  He  was  for  many  years  curator 
of  the  Scarborough  natural  history  museum,  and  the  younger 
Williamson  was  thus  from  the  first  brought  up  among  scientifid 
surroundings  and  in  association  with  scientific  people.  William 
Smith,  the  "  father  of  English  geology,"  lived  for  iWo  years 
in  the  Williamsons'  house.  Young  Williamson's  nateipal 
grandfather  was  a  lapidary,  and  from  him  he  leamt  the  art  of 
cutting  stones,  an  acoomplishnieiit  wbicb  be  found  of  ^«at  mo 


WILLIAMSPORT—WILLIAMSTOWN 


685 


la  Uter  7eixi»  vheo  he  undertook  Us  work  on  the  structure 
of  fOBsU  plants.  Williamson  vexy  early  made  a  beginning  as  an 
original  coAUibutor  to  science.  When  little  more  than  sixteen 
he  published  a  paper  on  the  rare  birds  of  Yorkshire,  and  a  little 
later  (in  2854)  presented  to  the  (Geological  Society  Of  London 
his  first  memoir  on  the  Mesoxoic  fossils  of  his  native  district. 
In  the  meantime  he  had  assisted  Lindley  and  Hutton  in  the 
preparation  of  their  well-known  PcssU  Flora  of  Great  Britain, 
On  entering  the  medical  profession  he  still  found  time  to  cany 
on  his  scientific  work  during  his  student  days,  and  for  three 
yean  acted  as  curator  of  the  Natural  History  Society's  museum 
at  Manchester.  After  completing  his  medical  studies  at  Univer« 
sity  College,  London,  in  1841,  he  returned  to  Manchester  to 
practise  his  profession,  in  which  h^  met  with  much  success. 
When  Owens  College  at  Manchester  was  founded  in  185 1  he 
became  professor  of  natural  history  there,  with  the  duty  of 
teaching  geology,  soology  and  botany.  A  very  necessary 
division  of  labour  took  place  as  additional  professors  were 
appointed,  but  he  retained  the  chair  of  botany  down  to  2893. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  removed  to  Clapham,  where  he  died  on 
the  ajrd  of  June  1895.  Williamson's  tbacAing  work  was  not 
confiiwd  to  his  university  classes,  for  he  was  also  a  successful 
popular  lecturer,  especially  for  the  Gilchrist  Trustees.  His* 
scientific  work,  pursued  with  remarkable  energy  throughout 
life,  in  the  midst  of  official  and  professional  duties,  had  a  wide 
scope.  In  geology,  his  early  work  on  the  zones  of  distribution 
of  Biesozoic  fossils  (begun  in  1834),  and  on  the  part  played  by 
microscopic'  oiganisms  in  the  fonnation  of  marine  deposits 
(1845),  was  of  fundamental  importance.  In  zoology,  his  investi- 
gations of  the  development  of  the  teeth  and  bones  of  fishes 
(i84»--z85x),  and  on  recent  Foraminifera,  a  group  on  which  he 
wrote  a  monograph  for  the  Ray  Society  in  1857,  were  no  less 
valuable.  In  botany.  In  addition  to  a  remarkable  memoir  on 
the  minute  structure  of  Vttho*  (1852),  his  work  on  the  structure 
of  fossil  plants  established  British  palaeobotany  on  a  scientific 
basis;,  on  the  ground  of  these  researches  WilUamson  may  rank 
with  A.  T.  Brongniart  as  one  of  the  founders  of  this  branch 
of  science.  His  contributions  to  fossil  botany  began  in  the 
earliest. days  of  his  career,  and  he  returned  to  the  subject  from 
time  to  time  during  the  period  of  his  geological  and  soological 
Activity.  His  Investigation  of  the  Mcsozoic  cycadioid  fossil 
Zamia  (now  Wtlliamsoma)  gigas  was  the  chief  palaeobotanical 
work  of  this  intermediate  period.  His  long  course  of  researches 
on  the  structure  of  Carboniferous  plants  belongs  mainly  to  the 
latter  part  of  his  life,  and  his  results  are  chiefly,  thouglr  not 
wholly,  embodied  in  a  series  of  nineteen  memoirs,  ranging  in 
date  from  1871  to  1893,  in  the  Pkilosophical  TransactioHS.  In 
this  series,  and  in  some  works  (notably  the  monograph  on 
SUgmaria  Jicoides,  Pala^ntographical  Sodtty,  1886),  published 
elsewhere,  WUliamson  elucidated  the  structure  of  every  group 
of  Palaeoaoic  vascular  plants.  Among  the  chief  results  of  his 
researches  may  be  mentioned  the  discovery  of  plants  intermediate 
between  fens  and  cycads,  the  description  of  the  true  structure- 
of  the  fmcti&ation  in  the  extinct  ayptogamic  family  Spheno* 
phylleae,  and  the  demonstrtftion  of  the  cryptogamic  natar*  of  the 
dominant  Palaeotoic  oxdeis  Cahmarieae,  Lepidodendreae  and 
SlgiOarieae,  plants  which  oq,  account  of  the  growth  of  their 
stems  in  thickness,  after  the  manner  of  gymnoqiennous  tcecs, 
were  regarded  aa  phanoo^uiis  by  Bsoogniart  and  his  followers. 
Afte^  a  k>ng  controversy  the  truth  of  WiUiamson's  views  has 
been  fuU^  estabh'shrd,  and  it  is  now  known  that  the  mode  of 
growth,  characteristic  in  present  times,  of  dicotyledons  and 
gymnospems  prevailed  in  Palaeozoic  ages  in  every  family 
of  vascular  cryptogams.  Thus,  as  Count  SolmS'Laubach  has 
pointed  out,  palacobotany  for  the  first  time  spoke  the  decisive 
word  in  an  important  qnesticm  of  general  botany.  Vtmiiamson's 
work  in  fossil  bbtany  was  scarcely  appreciated  at  the  time  as 
it  deserved,  for  its  great  merits  were  somewhat  obscured  by  the 
author^  want  of  familiarity  -mth  the  modem  tedinicalities  c^ 
the  science.  Since,  however,  the  subject  has  been  seriously 
taken  up  by  botanists  of  a  newer  school,  the  soundness  of  the 
foundation  he  laid  has  become  fully  recognised.  It  may  be 
xxvni   12 


added  that  he  waa  a  skilled  draoghtsmaa,  OlustraClng  all  his 
works  by  his  own  drawings,  and  practising  water-colour  painting 
as  his  favourite  recreation. 

A  full  account  oS  Williamion's  career  will  be  found  in  his  auto- 
biographyf  eatidcd  Reminiscenees  oj  a  Yorkskin  Naluralistt  edited 
by  his  wife  (London,  1896}.  Among  obituary  notices  may  be 
mentioned  that  by  Count  Solins-Laubach,  Nature  (5th  September 
1895),  and  one  by  D.  H.  Scott  in  Proc,  ILS.  voL  be.  (1897). 

(D.  H.  S.) 

WILUAMSPOBT,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Lycoming 
county,  Pennsylvania',  U.S.A.,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  west 
branch  of  the  Susquehanna  river,  about  70  m.  N.  by  W.  of 
Harrisburg.  Pop.  (1890)  27,132;  (190P)  28,757,  of  whom  1144 
were  negroes  and  2228  were  foreign-bom,  induding  1089  Ger- 
mans; (1910  census),  32,860.  Area,  about  7  sq.  m.  Williamsport 
b  served  by  the  Now  York  Central  &  Hudson  River,  the  Penn- 
sylvania, the  Susquehanna  &  New  York,  and  the  Philadelphia 
&  Reading  railways,  and  by  electric  lines  connecting  with  the 
neighbouring  towns  of  Montoursvffle  (pop.  in  2900,  2665), 
South  Williamsport  (pop.  in  2900, 3328),  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
river,  and  Du  Boistown  (pop.  in  2900,  650).  The  dty  has  an 
attractive  site,  on  a  high  plain,  nearly  surrounded  by  hills.  It 
has  five  parks,  Brandon  (44  acres)  within  the  dty  limits,  and 
Vallamont,  Starr  IsUnd,  Sylvan  Dell  and  Nippono  in  its  suburbs. 
Williamsport  is  the  seat  of  Williamsport  Dickinson  Seminary 
(Methodist  Episcopal,  co-educational,  2848),  a  secondary  school.' 
Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the  county  court  house,, 
the  dty  haU,  the  United  States  Government  building,  the 
Scottish  Rite  Cathedral,  the  Masonic  Temple,  a  Y.M.C.A. 
building,  and  the  James  V.  Brown  Memorial  Library  (2907). 
In  the  city  are  a  Boys'  Industrial  Home  (2898),  a  Girls*  Training 
School  (1895),  a  Florence  Crittenton  Home  (2895),  a  Home  for 
Aged  Coloured  Women  (2898),  a  Home  for  the  Friendles8'(i872), 
and  Williamsport  Hospital  (1873).  There  are  practicaJly  no 
tenement  houses.  The  value  of  factory  products  in  2905  was 
$22,738,473,  20-7%  more  than  in  2900.  Williamsport  has  the 
largest  lumber  market  in  Pennsylvania;  lumber  was  for  forty 
years  the  most  important  of  its  manufactures,  and  Williamsport 
was  styled  the  "sawdust  dty."  The  decreasing  importance 
of  the  industry  is  due  to  the  virtual  exhaustion  of  standing 
timber  in  the  neighbourhood.  Lumber  and  timber  products 
were  valued  at  $1,310,368  in  2905,  and  lumber  and  planing  mill 
products  at  $579,667.  Among  other  manufactures  are  silk 
and  silk  goods,  valued  at  $1,292,273  in  2905;  foundry  and 
machine  shop  products,  $1,264,737;  rubber  and  leather  boots 
and  shoes,  furniture,  &c.  The  city  has  a  large  trade  with  the 
surrounding  country.  The  water  supply  is  derived  from  moun- 
tain streams  S.  of  the  city.  Lycoming  county  was  erected  in 
2795,  in  which  year  Williamsport  was  founded  and  became 
the  county-scat,  after  a  bitter  contest  with  Jayshurg,  which  was 
then  a  village  of  only  some  half  a  dozen  houses  and  which 
subsequently  ceased  to  exist.  Williamsport  was  incorporated 
as  a  borough  in  2806,  and  was  chartered  as  a  dty  !n  2866. 

WILUAMSTOWN,  a  town  of  Bourke  county,  Victoria, 
Australia,  9  m.  by  rail  S.W.  of  Melbourne.  Pop.  (2902)  24,083. 
Shipping  is  the  chief  business  of  the  place,  there  being  com- 
modious pier?,  breakwater,  also  provision  for  the  repair  of 
vessels,  patent  slips  and  shipbuilding  yards.  Several  quarries 
of  superior  basalt  are  worked  near  die  town,  and  brown  coat 
of  good  quality  has  also  been  found.  The  flourishing  industries 
indude  woollen-milling,  bottle-making,  fodder-compressing; 
meat-freezing  and  cyde-making. 

WILUAWSTOWA,  a  township  of  Berkshire  county,  Massa- 
chusetts, U.S.A.,  on  the  Hoosick  and  Green  rivers,  in  the  N.W. 
comer  of  the  state,  and  about  so  m.  N.  of  Pittsfidd.  Pop. 
(2890)  4222;  (2900)  5023,  of  whom  929  were  foreign-bora 
and  238  were  neg2X)es;  (2920  census),  3708.  WiHismstown  is 
served  by  the  Boston  &  Maine  railway  and  by  an  interurban 
electric  line  to  North  Adams.  Itcovenanareaof  about  49sq.  m. 
and  contains  five  villages.  WilUamstown,  the  prindp&l  village, 
is  a  pleasant  residential  centre  on  the  Green  river;  it  Is  sur- 
rounded by  beautiful  scenery  and  its  streets  are  shaded  by  some 
fine  old  trees.   Miisjon  Park  (20  acres)  here  Is  adorned  by  nativ* 

2a 


686 


WILUAMS-WYNN— WILLIS,  N.  P. 


ukd  foreign  thcubs  and  by  maplea,  elms,  pino  and  arbot*  vitae, 
and  "  Haystack  Moaume&t "  in  this  patk  marks  the  place  where 
Samuel  John  Mills  (1783-18x8),  in  1806.  held  the  prayer  meeting 
which  was  the  forerunner  of  the  American  foreign  miasionary 
movement.  Williamstown  village  is  best  known  as  the  seat 
of  Williams  College,  chartered  In  1793  as  a  successor  to  a  "  free 
school "  in  Williamstown  (chartered  in  1785  and  endowed  by  a 
bequest  of  Colonel  Ephraim  Williams).  Besides  recitation  and 
residence  halls,  it  has  the  Lawrence  Hail  Libnuy  (i&4i6),  contain- 
ing (1910)  68,000  volumes,  the  Thompson  Memorial  Chapel 
(1904),  the  Lasell  Gymnasium  (1886),  an  infirmary  (1S95),  ^^c 
Hopkins  Observatory  (1837)  and  the  Field  Memorial  Obsei  vatoiy 
(1882),  the  Thompson  Chemical  Laboratory  (1892),  the  Thompson 
Biological  Laboratory  (1893)  and  the  Thompson  Physical 
Laboratory  (1893).  In  19x0  the  college  had  59  Instructors  and 
537  students.  The  fourth  president  of  the  college  was  Mark 
Hopkins  (q.v.)f  and  one  of  its  most  distinguished  alumni  was 
James  A.  Garfield,  president  of  the  United  States,  whose  son, 
Karry  Augustus  Garfield  (b.  1863),  became  president  of  the 
college  in  1908. 

The  principal  manufactures  of  the  town^p  are  cotton  and 
woollen  goods  (especially  corduroy),  and  market  gardemng  is  an 
important  industry.  The  limits  of  the  township,  originaUy 
called  West  Hoosac,  were  determined  by  a  committee  of  the 
General  Court  of  Massachusetts  in  I749t  and  two  or  three  years 
later  the  village  was  laid  out.  Two  of  the  lots  were  immediately 
purchased  by  Captain  Ephraim  Williams  (i7iS~^7SS)i  who  was 
at  the  time  commander  of  Fort  Massachusetts  in  the  vicinity; 
several  other  lots  were  bought  by  soldiers  under  him;  and  in 
1 7  53  the  pn^rictors  organized  a  township  government.  Williams 
was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Lake  George  on  the  8th  of  September 
X755>  but  while  in  camp  in  Albany,  New  York,  a  few  days  before 
the  battle,  he  drew  a  will  containing  a  small  bequest  for  a  free 
school  at  West  Hoosac  on  condition  that  the  township  when 
incorporated  should  be  called  Williamstown.  The  township  was 
incorporated  with  that  name  in  1765. 

See  A.  L.  Perry,  Origins  in  WiOumstom  (New  York,  1894;  3rd 
ed.  15)00) :  and  WiUianutown  and  WiUianu  CdUf  (Norwood,  Mass., 
1899). 

WILUAHS-WTMN,  SIR  WATRIN,  Bast.  (x69»-i749)>  Welsh 
politician,  was  the  eldest  son  and  heir  of  Sir  William  Williams, 
Bart.,  of  Llanforda  near  Oswestry;  his  mother,  Jane  Thelwall, 
was  a  descendant  of  the  antiquary,  Sir  John  Wynn  of  Gwydir, 
Carnarvonshire.  Educated  at  Jesus  College,  Oxford,  Williams 
succeeded  to  Wynnstay  near  Ruabon  and  the  estates  of  the  Wynns 
on  the  death  of  a  later  Sir  John  Wynn  in  1719,  and  took  the 
name  of  Williams- Wynn.  He  was  member  of  parliament  for 
Denbighshire  from  17 16  to  1741,  and  was  prominent  among  the 
opponents  of  Sir  Robert  Watpolc;  as  a  leading  and  influential 
Jacobite  he  was  in  communication  with  the  supporters  of  Prince 
Charles  Edward  before  the  rising  of  1745,  but  his  definite  offer 
of  help  did  not  reach  the  prince  until  the  retreat  to  Scotland  had 
begun.  He  died  on  the  26th  of  September  1749*  His  first  wife, 
Ann  Vaughan  (d.  1748),  was  the  heiress  of  extensive  estates  in 
Montgomeryshite  which  still  belong  to  the  family.  His  son  and 
heir.  Sir  Watkin  Williaras-Wynn,  Bart.  (1749-1789),  was  the 
father  of  another  Sir  Watkin  (1772-1842),  the  sth  baronet.  Two 
other  sons  attained  some  measure  of  distinction:  Charles  (i775~ 
1850),  a  prominent  Toiy  politician,  and  Sir  Henry  (1783-1856), 
a  diplomatist.  A  daughter,  Frances  Williams- Wynn  (d.  1857), 
was  the  authoress  of  Diaries  of  a  Lady  of  Quality,  1707-1844^ 
which  were  edited  with  notes  by  Abraham  Hayward  in  1864. 

See  Aikew  Roberts,  Wynnslay  and  Om  Wynns  (Oswestiy,  1876). 

WILUBROBD  (or  Wxlbbosd),  ST  (d.  738),  Enfl^  missionaxy, 
"  the  i4>ostle  of  the  Frisians,"  was  bom  about  657.  JEIb  father, 
Wilgils,  an  Angle  or,  as  Alcuin  styles  him,  a  Saxon,  of  North- 
umbria,  withdrew  from  the  world  and  constructed  for  himself 
a  little  oratory  dedicated  to  St  Andrew.  The  long  and  nobles 
of  the  district  endowed  him  with  estates  till  he  was  at  last  able 
to  build  a  church,  over  which  Alcuin  afterwards  ruled.  Willi- 
brord,  almost  as  soon  as  he  was  weaned,  was  sent  to  be  brought 
IV»  at  Ripon,  where  he  must  doubtless  have  come  under  the 


influence  of  Wilfrid.  About  the  age  of  tuMty  the^deslei  of 
increasing  his  stock  of  knowledge  (c  679)  diew  him  to  Irelaitd, 
which  had  so  long  been  the  headquartets  of  learning  in  western 
Europe.  Here  he  stayed  for  twdve  years,  enjoying  the  society  of 
Ecgberht  and  Wihtberht,  from  the  former  of  whom  he  received  his 
commission  to  missionary  work  anoong  the  North-Germaa  tribes. 
In  his  thirty-third  year  (c«  690)  he  started  with  twel/e  com* 
panions  for  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine.  These  districts  were  then 
occupied  by  the  Fiisians  under  their  king,  Rathbod,  who  gave 
allegiance  to  Pippin  of  HerstaL  Pippin  befriended  him  and  sent 
him  to  Rome,  where  he  was  consecrated  archbishop  (with  the 
name  Clemens)  by  Pope  Sergius  on  St  Cecilia's  Day  696.^  Bcde 
says  that  when  he  returned  to  Frisia  his  see  was  fixed  in  Ultra- 
jectum  (Utrecht).  He  spcM  several  years  in  founding  churches 
and  evangelizing,  till  his  success  tempted  him  to  pass  into  other 
districts.  From  Denmark  he  carried  away  thirty  boys  to  be 
brought  up  among  the  Franks.  On  his  return  he  was  wrecked 
on  the  holy  island  of  Fosite  (Heligoland),  where  his  disregard  of 
the  pagan  superstition  nearly  cost  him  his  life.  When  Pippin 
died,  Willibrord  found  a  supporter  in  his  son  Charles  MarteL 
He  was  assisted  for  three  years  in  his  missionary  work  by  St 
Boniface  (7x9-722),  who,  however,  was  not  wfliing  to  become  hia 
'successor. 

He  was  still  living  when  Bede  wrote  n&  731.    A  passage  in  one 
of  Boniface's  letters  to  Stephen  III.  speaks  of  his  preaching  to  the 
Frisians  for  fifty  years,  apparently  reckoning  from  the  time  of 
his  consecration.    This  would  fix  the  date  of  his  death  in  7jS; 
and,  as  Alcuin  tells  us  he  was  eighty-one  years  old  when  he  <fied, 
it  may  be  inferred  that  he  was  bom  in  657 — a  theory  on  which 
all  the  dates  given  above  axe  based,  though  it  most  be  added 
that  they  are  substantially  confirmed  by  the  incidental  notices 
of  Bede.   The  day  of  his  death  was  the  6th  of  November,  and  his 
body  was  buried  in  the  monastery  of  Echteinach,  near  Trier» 
which  he  had  himself  founded.    Even  in  Akuin's  titne  mimdes 
were  reported  to  be  stiU  wrought  at  his  tomb. 

The  chief  authorities  for  WiUibrord's  Ufe  ai«  Alcuin's  Vita  Wilii* 
hrordi,  both  in  prose  and  in  verse,  and  Bedc's  Hist,  Eul.  v.  cc.  9-1 1. 
See  also  Eddius's  Vita  Wilfridii^  and  J.  Mabillou,  Anwdes  oriinis 
sancti  Btnedicti,  lib.  xviiL 

WILLUfANTIC,  a  dty  of  Windham  county,  Connecticut, 
U.S.A.,  in  the  township  of  Windham,  at  the  Junction  of  the 
Willimantlc  and  Natchaug  rivera  to  form  the  Shctucket,  in  the 
E.  part  of  the  state,  about  16  m.  N.W.  of  Norwich.  Pop.  (1890) 
8648;  (1900)  8937,  of  wh<nn  2491  were  forcign-bom;  (19x0 
census)  x  1,33a  It  is  served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  fr 
Hartford  and  the  Central  Vermont  tailwajrs,  and  by  electric 
lines  to  Baltic,  Norwich  and  New  London,  and  to  Sooth  Coventiy. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  State  Normal  Training  School,  and  has  a  public 
library  and  Dunham  Hall  Library  (X878).  The  Willimantlc 
river  provides  good  water-power,  and  there  axe  various  m&nu- 
factnres.  The  total  value  of  the  factory  product  in  1905  was 
$4,902,447.  The  township  of  Windham  was  incorporated  in 
x 692.  Willinuntic  was  settled  in  i8a 2,  incorporated  as  a  borough 
in  1833,  and  chartered  as  a  dty  in  1803.  The  nsme  is  from  an 
Indian  word  meaiung  "  good  look<out "  or  "  good  cedar  swamps." 

WIUM,    NATHANIEL    PARKER    (X806-X867),    American 

author,  was  descended  from  George  Wiills,  described  asa  **  Puritan 

of  considerable  distinction,"  who  arrived  hi  New  England  aboot 

X630  and  settled  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts.     Nathaniel 

Parker  was  the  ddest  son  and  second  child  of  Natlianid  Wilhs, 

a  newspaper  pxo[»ietor  In  Boston,  and  was  bom  in  Portland, 

Maine,  on  the  aoth  of  Jaxraaxy  x8o6.    After  attending  Boston 

grammar  school  and  the  academy  at  Andover,  lie  entered  Yale 

Collese  in  October  1823.    Althmtgh  he  did  not  spodally  dis* 

tingt^  himself  as  a  student,  university  Ufe  had  cansiderable 

infiuence  in. the  development  of  hia  character,  and  furnished  him 

with  much  of  his  literary  material    Immediately  after  leaving 

Yale  he  published  in  X837  a  volume  of  poetical  SHkkeSt  which 

attracted  some  attention,  although  the  critics  found  in  his 

verses  more  to  blame  than  to  praise.   It  was  followed  by  FMgititt 

Podry  (1829)  and  another  volume  of  verse  (183 1).    He  also 

^  He  had  been  cooaecmtcd  bishop,  also  by  Seigius,  on  a  pievioBS 
visit  in  699. 


WILLIS,  T WILLOBIE 


687 


contribttted  frequently  to  magazines  aiul  periodicals.    In  1829 
he  started  the  American  lionMy  Magazine^  which  was  continued 
from  April  of  that  year  to  August  1831,  but  failed  to  achieve 
success.    On  its  discontinuance  he  went  to  Europe  as  foreign 
editor  and  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Mirror.    To  this 
journal  he  contributed  a  series  of  letters,  which,  under  the  title 
PenciUings  by  Ike  Way,  were  published  at  London  in  1835 
(3  vols.;  Philadelphia,  1836,  a  vols.;^  and  first  complete  edition, 
New  York,  1841).   Their  vivid  and  rapid  sketches  of  scenes  and 
modes  oi  life  in  the  old  world  at  once  gained  them  a  wide  popu-- 
larity;  but  he  was  censured  by  some  critics  for  indiscretion  in 
reporting  conversations  in  private  gatherings.   Notwithstanding, 
however,  the  small  affectations  and  fopperies  which  were  his 
besetting  weaknesses  as  a  man  as  well  as  an  author,  the  grace, 
ease  and  artistic  finish  of  his  style  won  general  recognition. 
His  "  Slingsby  Papers,"  a  series  of  magazine  articles  descriptive 
of  American  b'fe  and  adventure,  republished  in  1836  under  the 
title  Inklings  of  Adoentttre,  were  as  successful  in  England  as  were 
his  PenciUings  by  ike  Way  in  America.    He  also  published  while 
in  England  Melanie  ani  other  Poems  (London,  1835;  New  York, 
>837),  which  was  introduced  by  a  preface  by  Barry  Cornwall 
CProcter).     After  his   marriage  to  Mary  Stace,  daughter  of 
General  William  Stace  of  Woolwich,  he  returned  to  America, 
and  settled  at  a  small  estate  on  Oswego  Creek,  just  above  its 
junction  with  the  Susquehanna.   Here  he  lived  off  and  on  from 
rB37  to  1842,  and  wrote  Letters  from  under  a  Bridge  (London, 
1840;  first  complete  edition,  New  York,  1844),  the  most  charm- 
ing of  all  his  works.    During  a  short  visit  to  England  in  1839- 
1840  he  published  Two  Ways  of  Dying  for  a  Husband.  Returning 
to  New  York,  he  .established,  abng  with  George  P.  Morris,  a 
ncwspap^  entitled  the  Evening  Mirror.    On  the  death  of  his 
wife  in  1845  he  again  visited  England.    Returning  to  America 
in  the  spring  of  1846,  he  married  Cornelia  Grinnell,  and  estab- 
lished the  National  Press,  afterwards  named  the  Home  Journal. 
In  1845  he  published  Dashes  at  Life  with  a  Free  Pencil,  in  1846 
a  collected  edition  of  his  Prose  and  Poetical  Works,  in  1849  Rural 
Letters,  and  in  1850  Life  Here  and  There.   In  that  year  he  settled 
at  IdlewUd  on  the  Hudson  river,  and  on  account  of  failing 
health  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  chiefly  in  retirement. 
Among  his  later  works  were  Hurry-Graphs  (1851),  Outdoors  at 
IdlewUd    (1854),  Ragbag    (1855),  Paul  Pane  (1856),  and    the 
Convalescent  (1859),  but  he  had  survived  his  great  repuUtion. 
He  died  on  the  20th  of  January  1867,  and  was  buried  in  Mount 
Auburn,  Boston. 
The  best  edition  of  bis  veree  writings  is  The  Poems,  Sacred, 


.  ,  -  Life 

Henry  A.  Beers,  appeared  in  the  series  of  "  American  Men  of 
Letters."  Ac  same  year.  See  also  E.  P.  Whipple,  Essays  and 
Reviews  (vol.  i.,  1848);  M.  A.  de  Wolfe  Howe,  American  Bookmen 
(New  York,  T898). 

WILLIS,  THOMAS  (1631-1675).  English  anatomist  and 
ph.vsician,  was  bom  at  Great  Bedwin,  Wiltshire,  on  the  27th 
of  January  1621.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Chcford;  and 
when  that  city  was  garrisoned  for  the  king  he  bore  arms  for  the 
loyalists.  He  took  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  mcdicme  in  1646, 
and  applied  himself  to  the  practice  of  his  profession.  In  1660, 
shortly  after  the  Restoration,  he  became  Sedleian  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  in  place  of  Dr  Joshua  Cross,  who  was 
ejected,  and  the  same  year  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  physic 
In  1664  he  discovered  the  medicinal  spring  at  Astrop,  near 
Brackley  in  Northamptonshire.  He  was  one  of  the  first  membere 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  was  elected  an  honorary  fellow  of  the 
l^oyal  College  of  Physicians  in  1664.  In  i666,  after  the  fire  of 
London,  he  took  a  house  in  St  Martin's  Lane,  and  there  rapidly 
acquired  an  extensive  practice,  his  reputation  and  skill  marking 
him  out  as  one  of  the  first  physicians  of  his  time.  He  died  in 
St  Martin's  Lane  on  the  jith  of  November  1675  and  was  buried 
fn  Westminster  Abbey. 

^  WilFis  was  admired  for  his  piety  and  charity,  for  his  deep  Insight 
into  natural  and  experimental  philosophy,  anatomy  and  cnemisfr>', 
•ad  (or  the  ^tgtata  and  puaty  of  |us  Latin  atyla.  .  Aaoog  his 


wntin^  were  Cerebri  anatomo  nervorumque  descriptio  et  usus  (1664), 
in  which  he  described  what  is  still  known,  in  the  anatomy  of  the 
brain,  as  the  circle  of  Willis,  and  Pharmaceutice  rationalu  (1674),  in 
which  he  characterhsed  diabetes  metlitus.  He  wrote  in  Engush  A 
Plain  and  Easy  Method  for  Preserving  those  that  are  Well  fiom  the 
Infeaion  of  the  Pla^,  apd  for  Curing  such  as  are  Infected.  His 
Latin  works  were  prmted  in  two  vols.  410  at  Geneva  in  1676,  and  at 
Amsterdam  in  1682.  Browne  Willis  (1682-1760),  the  antiquarian, 
author  of  three  volumes  of  Surveys  of  the  cathedrals  of  England, 
was  his  erandson. 

See  Munk,  Rati  of  the  RoytU  College  of  Physicians,  London  (and 
ed.,  vol.  1.,  London,  1878)^ 

WILLMORE,  JAMES  TIBBITTS  (1800-1863),  English  line 
engraver,  was  bom  at  Bristnall's  End,  Handsworth,  near 
Birmingham,  on  the  isth  of  September  x8oo.  At  the  age  of 
fourteen  he  was  apprenticed  to  William  Radcliffe,  a  Birmingham 
engraver,  and  in  1823  he  went  to  London  and  was  employed  for 
three  years  by  Charles  Heath.  He  was  afterwards  engaged 
upon  the  plates  of  Brockedon's  Passes  of  the  Alps  and  Turner's 
England  and  Wales.  He  engraved  after  Chalon,  Leitch,  Stan- 
field,  Landseer,  Eastlake,  Creswick  and  Ansdell,  and  especially 
after  Turner,  from  whose  "  Alnwick  Castle  by  Moonlight,"  "  The 
Old  Tem^raire,"  "Mercury  and  Argus,"  " Andent  Rome," 
and  the  subjects  of  the  rivers  of  France,  he  executed  many 
admirable  plates.  He  was  elected  an  associate  engraver  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1843.    He  died  on  the  12th  of  March  1863. 

WILLOBIE  (or  Willouchby),  HENRY  (1575?-! 596?),  the 
supposed  author  of  a  poem  called  WiUobie  his  Avisa,  which 
derives  interest  from  its  possible  conneaon  with  Shakeq)eaie's 
personal  history.  Henry  Willoughby  was  the  second  son  of  a 
Wiltshire  gentleman  of  the  same  name,  and  matriculated  from 
St  John's  College,  Oxford,  in  December  1591,  at  the  age  of 
sixteen.  He  is  probably  identical  with  the  Henr>  Willoi^by 
who  graduated  B.A.  from  Exeter  College  early  in  1595,  and 
he  died  before  the  30th  of  June  1596,  when  to  a  new  edition  of 
the  poem  Hadrian  Dorrell  added  an  "  Apologie  "  m  defence  of 
his  friend  the  author  "  now  of  late  gone  to  God,"  and  another 
poem  in  praise  of  chastity  written  by  Henry's  brother,  Thomas 
Willoughby.  WUlobie  his  Avisa  was  licensed  for  the  press  on 
the  3rd  of  September  1594,  four  months  after  the  entry  of 
Shakespeare's.  Rape  of  Lucrece,  and  printed  by  John  Windet. 
It  is  preceded  by  two  ccHumendatory  poems,  the  second  of  which, 
signed  "  Contraria  Contrariis;  Vigilantius;  Dormitanus," 
contains  the  earliest  known  printed  allusion  to  Shakeqieare  by 
name?— 

•'  Yet  Tarauyne  pluckt  his  glistering  grape, 
And  Shake-speare  paints  poore  Lucrece  rape." 

In  the  poem  itself,  Avisa,  whose  name  is  explained  in  Dorrell'a 
"Epistle  to  the  Reader"  as  Amans  Uxor  Inviolata  Semper 
Amanda,  takes  up  the  parahle  alternately  with  her  suitors,  one 
of  wlu>m  is  introduced  to  the  reader  in  a  prose  interlude  signed 
by  the  author  H.  W.,  as  Henrico  Willobego  Italo  Hispalensis. 
This  passage  omtains  a  reference  which  may  fairly  be  api^ed 
to  the  sonnets  of  Shakespeare.   It  runs: 

"  H.  W.  being  sodenly  infected  with  the  contagion  of  a  fantasticall 
fit,  at  the  first  sight  of  A,  bcwrayeth  the  secrcsy  of  his  disease 

unto  his  familiar  frcnd  W.  S.  who  not  long  before  had  tr>'ed  the 
curtesy  of  the  like  passion,  and  u-as  now  newly  recoucred  he 

determined  to  see  whether  it  woukl  sort  to  a  happier  end  for  this 
new  actor,  then  it  did  for  the  old  player." 

Then  follows  a  dialogue  between  H  W  and  W.  S.,  hi  which 
W  S.,"  the  old  player,"  a  phrase  susceptible  of  a  double  sense, 
gives  somewhat  commonplace  advice  to  the  disconsolate  wooer. 
Dorrell  alleges  that  he  found  the  MS.  of  WiUobie  his  Avisa 
among  his  friend's  papers  left  in  his  charge  when  Willoughby 
departed  from  Oxford  on  her  majesty's  service.  There  is  no 
trace  of  any  Hadrian  Dorrell,  and  the  name  is  probably  fictitious] 
there  is,  indeed,  good  reason  to  thank  that  the  pseudonym, 
if  such  it  is,  ccFVcts  the  personality  of  the  real  author  of  the 
work.  WiUobie  his  Avisa  proved  extremely  popular,  and  passed 
through  numerous  editions,  and  Peter  Colse  produced  in  1596  an 
imitation  named  Peneiop^sCvmpUisU, 

See  Skakspere  AUnsion-Books.  part  t.,  ed.  C.  M.  Tfigleby  (New 
Shakspere  Society,  1874);  A.  B.  Grocart**  "  IntftjdueONi  '^  tp  hk 
lepriat  of  (TOMm  Am  <Um  <i88oK 


WILLOCK— WILLOW 


VIUOCK  (or  Watxxnt),  JOHN  (c.~iji5-ij8;),  Scotiiih 
ic[ormcr,  wu  i  native  o(  Aynbiie  ud  wu  educated  it  the 
univoiity  oi  Clugov.  Aller  being  >  mook  loc  ■  short  time 
hr  embrsced  the  relemwd  cdi^OD  and  went  to  London,  irhen, 
about  I54?p  he  became  cbaplaln  to  Henry  Grey,  titermidfl 
duhc  of  Suffolk,  the  Iilhei  oF  Ltdy  Jane  Ccey.  On  the  icccuion 
d[  Muj  to  the  English  Ibnmi:  in  iJ5j  b<  went  to  Emden  in 
Friialuid,  wben  he  practised  u  a  physician,  varying  this  jao- 
lesion  with  viiili  to  Scotland.  He  was  auodated  with  the 
leading  Scottish  refocmen  in  theii  opposit  inn  lo  the  qoeen  regent. 
Uary  ol  Lorraine,  and  Ibe  Roman  Catholic  nligiun,  and  in  15JS 
he  returned  definitely  lo  hit  native  bnd.  WiUock  now  began 
to  preach  and  in  is$g  was  outlawed.  Popular  sympathy, 
however,  rendered  this  sentence  Inutten,  and  in  the  urae  year, 
bnng  Knox's  deputy  asminislerofStCilei'  atbednl,  Edinburgh , 
be  fmstiated  the  eOorts  of  the  ngent  to  restore  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion,  and  administered  the  comRiuBion  for  the  first 
time  in  accordance  inth  the  ideas  of  the  nformna.  He  was  one 
of  the  four  ministen  chosen  by  the  convinlion  of  October  iiS9 
to  seats  on  tbe  council  of  govemmeul,  and  was  one  of  those 
appointed  to  compile  the  lint  book  of  disciplioe.  About  ij6i 
he  became  rector  of  Loughborough  in  Leiceilershire,  but  he 
retained  his  connenon  with  the  Scottish  church  and  dm 
moderalor  of  the  general  assembly  in  1561,  and  again  ia  IJ64, 
in  I J65  and  in  1 5OS.  He  died  at  Loughboiougb  on  the  4tb  ol 
December  15S5. 

nUOUOHBY,  the  name  of  an  English  family  long  settled 
in  Nottinghamshire,  and  now  tepiesenlcd  by  Baton  Middlcton. 
Havinn  «changed  his  name  of  Bugge  (or  that  of  WiUoughby, 
Richard  dc  Willoughhy  became  a  judge  during  the  reign  ol 
Edward  II.  and  punhued  the  manors  of  WoUaton  In  Nolling- 
himshirt  and  of  Risley  in  Derbyshire.  ITa  son,  Richard  de 
WiUoughby  (d.  ij6i),  was  justice  of  the  common  pleas  under 
Edward  UI.  Richard's  descendant,  Dorothy,  who  became  the 
heinaa  of  Ihe  family  slates,  married  Robert  WiOoughby  ol 
Rare  Place,  Kent,  and  their  descendant,  Sir  Thomis  Willoughby, 
Birt.  (t.  16J0-1710),  ol  Wollalon,  was  created  Baron  Middleton 
in  !7is.  In  1S7V  his  descendant,  Digby  Wentworth  Bayard 
Willoughby  (b.  1844),  became  ihe  gth  baron.  This  title  must 
be  distinguished  from  that  of  ViKOtint  Hidleton,  borne  by  the 
Urodrick  family. 

Sir  Hugh  Willongbby,  the  seaman,  was  a  membei  ol  t)tis 
(.imily.  He  was  a  son  at  Sir  Henry  WiUoughby  (d.  tjiS),  and 
a  grandson  of  Sit  Hugh  Willoughby  of  Wollaton.    His  early 

turned  his  thoughts  ig  the  sea,  and  was  appointed  captain  of  a 
fleet  ol  three  ships  which  set  out  in  155^  with  the  object  of 
discovering  a  nnrth-eiiilera  passage  to  Cathay  and  India.  Two 
of  the  three  ships  reached  the  coast  of  Lapland,  where  it  wat 
proposed  to  winter,  and  here  Witloughhy  and  his  companioni 
died  of  cold  and  starvation  soon  alter  January  1354.  Afewycail 
later  Iheir  remains  were  found,  and  with  them  WiUoughby's 
/okrnol,  which  Is  printed  in  vol.  i.  of  R.  Hakhiyt's  Frimital 

Another  famous  member  of  this  family  was  Sir  Kesbjt  Josiah 
Willoughby  (i777-i34g),  who  entered  the  British  navy  in  1790 
and  was  present  at  the  ballle  of  CajKnhagen.  In  iSoo,  however, 
be  was  dismissed  from  the  service  by  the  aentence  of  a  court- 
Dtutial  for  his  insolent  conduct  towards  a  superior  officer,  1 
previous  oflence  of  this  kind  having  been  punished  leas  severely. 
In  1803,  on  the  renewal  oi  war,  as  a  volunteer  he  joined  an 
English  squadron  bound  for  the  West  Indies,  and  was  soon 
admitted  again  to  ihc  navy;  his  counge  and  ptomplnHS  at 
Cape  Francais  were  rcaponsible  for  laving  goo  li\-es,  and  he 

to  hia  former  rank  in  the  servkn.  Aitci  further  services  in  the 
West  Indies,  during  which  lie  displayed  marked  gallantry  on 
reveral  occasions.  Willoughby  waa  tried  by  court-martial  at 
Cape  Town  in  iSoS  on  charges  of  ctuetty;  be  seems  to  bave  taken 
a  great  delight  in  inflicting  punishment,  but  he  was  acquitted 
with  the  advica  to  be  more  moderate  in  future  in  his  language. 
Again  in  the  West  Indies,  where  ha  cwnnwDdad  IbaKMadt 


frigate,  he  waa  responAla  for  tbe  henric  defence  made  by  hli 
ship  against  a  much  atronger  French  force  at  Port  Louis, 
Mamilius,  in  August  iSio,  when  111  out  of  his  crew  •£  aSi  mta 
were  disabled  before  he  nrrendcnd.  Undeterred  by  the  seven 
wounda  which  he  had  received,  and  seeing  no  pro^tect  of  active 
service  with  tbe  British  fleet,  WiUou^y  oflered  his  services 
in  iSii  lo  the  Russian  government,  and  while  serving  with  the 
Ruiiian  army  be  was  captured  by  Ibe  French,  tie  was  taken  to 
France,  wheoce  he  escaped  to  Enj^and.  Hiving  seen  a  Ihlle 
more  servicB  in  the  navy,  ha  was  knighted  in  1^97,  was  made 
a  rear-admiral  in  ig47,  and  died  unmarried  in  LonidoD  on  the 
igth  of  May  184(1. 

WILLOW  (Stlii),  a  voy  weU-maik«d  genua  of  ptanls  con- 
aiituting,  with  the  poplar  {Pefidii]),  tbe  order  Salicaceae. 
WUows  art  trees  or  sbniba,  varying  in  stature  [rem  a  few  inrbes, 
like  Ihe  small  Btjtisb  S,  lurbaea  and  arctic  apedes  generally, 
to  lOD  [I.,  and  occurring  most  abondantiy  bi  cdd  or  lempenti 
climates  in  both  hemispheres,  and  genenlly  in  moist  sitaationsi 
a  few  species  occur  in  the  tropiat  and  aub-trepical  poniani  ol 
tba  three  great  continenta.  Their  leaves  are  dcdduous,  altonale. 
simple,  and  genenlly  much  longer  than  broad,  whence  tbe  terai 
willow-leaved  baa  become  proverbial ,  At  their  base  they  are  pn>; 
vided  with  llipulis,  which  are  also  modifled  to  form  the  scales 

{fig.  i).  which  are  on  one  tree  male  (staminate)  only,  on  another 
female  (pistillate).    Each  mole  flower  conaisls  of  a  small  scale  or 
in  the  aiil  of  which  are  usually  two,  sometimes  three,  rarely 


<re  is  asmall  gUm 


ar  disk,  v 


irely  a  larger 


Fio.  I.— So/;i  laA'to— Cummon  Sallow  or  Goat  Willow. 

kins.  6.  CapMile,  opened. 

J.  Male  flo«er.  j.  Seed. 

different  species.  Tbe  female  floMcn  arc  equally  »mp)i:,  consist- 
ing ol  a  bract,  from  whose  aiit  arises  usually  a  very  short  stalk, 
surmounted  by  two  carpels  adherent  one  to  the  other  for  Iheir 
whole  length,  except  that  Ihe  upper  end*  of  the  styles  are 
separated  into  two  siigmaa.  When  ripe  Ihe  two  carpels  separate 
in  the  form  of  two  valves  and  liberate  a  large  number  ol  seeds, 
each  provided  it  the  base  with  1  tuft  of  silky  hairs,  and  containing 
a  straight  embryo  uiibout  any  investing  albumen.  Tbe  Sowcia 
appear  genctaliy  belore  the  leaiw  and  are  thus  rendered  more 
conspicuous,  while  passage  of  pollen  by  the  wind  is  [acililalcd, 
Feniliaation  is  effected  by  insects,  especially  by  bees,  which  are 
dircGUd  in  tbcir  aswch  by  Ibt  cobiui  and  ipyanft  of  lb* 


WltUlW-MERB— WILLS 


niod  to  tbc  iaotk  OowKn.  upeciiily 
in  ipite  of  the  poverty  of  LoHct  lifs.  set  abanduit  fiuiL  flie 
tuft  of  luin  >t  the  bAK  f**^'ii»>**  npid  dispenioD  -of  du 
Med,  edy  cermlnatioD  of  wfaidi  is  rendered  doinblc  awing  to 
lU  UBolty.  Alcbongh  the  timltmlioDS  of  the  (tiui)  u«  adl 
Bufced.  ud  IB  RcognJli 


dUiebi 


Pnfc»r  C..S.  Swgeal  (SAW  </  ffWjt  Anurica)  ■ugffUe  ito 
ta  170  u  the  onmber  of  datlainidi^k  qxcleL  Sone  bouniKs 
ki*«  tnumcnitd  &>  ipedei  from  Gient  Brilnin  alaDCiHUle 

■  ipedo]  Mody  of  Ibe  Biiliili  wfUmn,  grouped  Ihca  DBder  17 
•pecie*  Kith  nOBiennn  vuieliee  ai^  hybddL'  To  iUiulnte -the 
giat  peipleilty  Mmundint  Ibe  mbfecl,  we  nny  montion  that 
10  one  vpecics,  S.  uiricew,  OM  buadnd  nod  tnnly  QFaanyma 


Flc  a.—Sala  ftmtait~*:nck  WHIow. 

A,  FloweriOf  ihoot  from  irah  t,  Femole  ifawer  rth  ami  irfth- 

ntont.  ,  Mt  bract. 

B.  nawttu^  riwH  IniB  female  }.  Single  [nit  from  which  tbc 

nluiE.  hairy   ieed4  »re  eiupinB; 

I,   FoIi«e.  onf  i«ll  ahown  KOinllEly. 

1,  CaikTn  oCFnria.  A.  B,  1,  i,  ibwi  halTTut.  km, 


kave  been  attadifd.  Some  of  theM  ue  doubtkn  rack  u  di 
botanict,  iritli  adequate  material  lot  fanning  an  opinlgn,  woiUd 
■cxcpt;  bat,  after  maJiing  the  neceeaaiy  deducllou  lor  adua' 
Bih^Jtff  ud  miBlatOBeota,  thoe  «lll  Rmaiiu  a  large  niunbe 
upon  wbkh  kgilimale  dlSuencea  of  opiokm  prevaiL  Andenui 
Myi  that  he  bu  niely  mcd  tm  ipeciineQi  of  ihii  ipccice  whici 
■tic  alike  in  the  ooUeflive  dianctn*  oBcred  by  tbc  italuie 
fotla^  and  catkfm.  No  betCei  enuople  could  be  found  ol  the 
almoel  li-niili—  T^rialion  la  iD-caned  iped^ 
FeW(eiKr4  have  greater  daiirw  tr>  notice  fTpm  an  economk  poi 

tbeir  capidity  of  erewth  and  lor  cha  pruduaian  ol  light  durat^ 
wood.  leiviccabk  lor  many  nimcita.  AnDnE  the  bBI  tm  ol  Ihii 
kind  are  S.Jtat<l>i.  "be  ciaA  willow  (fig.  1).  e^ieciitly  iht  variety 
kBOWB  ai  S.  fittaiM.  v*r.  JtaunWaiH.  ami  .fc  nita.  Iha  wUm  or 


.  .  Hilow  ii  often  injured  by  the 
»pliu]i  <rrpcJi4tini»  crairtiitfanu), 
WIUiOV-HKHB,  tn  botany,  (he  popular  name  tor  the  spcdet 
of  Epilobiitm,  a  genua  of  often  [all  herbocmus  plan^if  Bevcral 
of  whkfa  ate  nallvel  of  Brftain.  The  alendei  stems  bear  nnmiw 
letTCa  and  pbk  or  puipla  Haven,  which  in  the  n>«-bay  (£. 
tatnitQtltmit'l,  fcond  by  note  tiver-cidet  and  In  i;opin,  are  i  m. 
Ifanmhowyipikes.  G.  Mriuliim,  (miad  by  lidci 
riven,  «  tall  [dnnt  with  many  large  roae-piofile 
loiNn,  fl  known  popularly  ■•  codhna-and-cnam. 

WIUA  WIUtAH  SOfiMAM  (iBiB-iSoi),  Iiiih  dramaliit, 
waa  bom  at  KUnnny,  Inland,  on  (he  >eih  of  Januipy  iSiS, 
tbe  lOB  of  June*  Wilts  (1790-1868).  author  ol  Laa  4  lUtaltiim 
andDittiufhliiiirrislHmptUSs^iSty).  The  son  was  educated 
M  Waleifard  Giaimur  School  and  Ttinfiy  College,  Dublin. 
After  several  years  of  Journalistic  and  literary  work  fn  Dublin, 

In  i9A3  he  determined  that  be  could  make  a  belter  living  al 
portrait ^Ml^ ting,  for  (i*kJi,  though  his  art  education  bad  been 
neagre,  be  had  always  had  talent.  He  soon  made  a  falrincoAic, 
though  in  the  long  run  his  exceasrve  Bohctnianisni,  coupJcd  whh 
penUlenI  abeent-mindedncB,  lost  bin  nuuiy  sitteii.  Meanwhile 
be  had  bi^n  to  write  foe  tbe  stage.  His  fiist  ori^nal  work  was 
the  Atom  c'/irfu,  produced  at  tbe  Princess's  theatre,  London, 
In  1S6;.  Early  in  iS;i  be  wag  engaged  by  Cokmel  Batenun 
as  "  draniatiil  lo  the  Lyoeom  "  at  an  aansal  salary.  Under 
the  tcmu  of  hi)  igreemenl  he  mate  Uaia  m  Cerr'nUh,  (Mrlii  I. 
and  Eugent  Aram,  all  of  which  were  produced  at  the  LyoniB 
in  iS7i-iS;5.  With  Claria  I.,  in  which  Mi  (aftenraid*  Sir 
Heaiy)  Irving  omfimied  the  repniation  he  had  eaiiled  by  U> 
performance  in  TlH  BOi,  Wilb  Mad*  &  papokr  cdcch,  iriiidi 
he  repeated  b  OJMa  (kdqXed  boa,  G«libmith's  Vkar  «/  ITab- 
j(cU)  in  igjj.  From  (U>  dale  onwufli  WUb  wrote  canlbuiKilf, 
and  III!  1SI7  hia  name  waa  pnctkalty  never  abfeot  faen  tbe  UU 
of  some  LondoB  theatre.  His  *otk  never,  bowever,  quite  cane 
Ua  iBB^kiB  ahilitr. 


690 


WILLUGHBY— WILMINGTON 


uid  mucb  of  it  is  of  an  iafeilor  qaality.  In  CtaudiAn  (Princess's 
Theatre,  1883)  and  Faust  (Lyceum  Theatre,  1885)  he  merely 
supplied  the  text  to  a  variety  of  dramatic  situations.  In  1887 
his  mother,  whom  he  had  supported  for  many  years,  died,  and 
after  her  death  he  seemed  to  have  leas  incentive  for  work.  Wills 
Was  a  painter  by  choice,  and  never  put  his  whole  heart  into  his 
dramatic  work.  He  had  some  skill  in  ballad-writing,  shown 
in  the  well-known  "  I'll  sing  thee  songs  of  Araby."  He  died 
on  the  13th  of  December  1891. 

WILLUGHBY,  FRANCIS  (1635-1673),  English  ornithologist 
and  ichthyologist,  son  of  Sir  Francis  Willugbby,  was  bom  at 
Middleton,  Warwickshire,  in  1635.  Heis  memorable  as  the  pupil, 
friend  and  patron  as  well  as  the  active  and  original  co-worker 
of  John  Ray  iq.v.),  and  hence  to  be  tecjconed  as  one  of  the  most 
important  precursors  of  Linnaeus.  His  connexion  with  Ray 
dated  from  his  studies  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (1653-1659) ; 
and,  after  concluding  his'  academic  life  by  a  brief  sojourn  at 
Oxford,  and  acquiring  considerable  experience  of  travel  in 
England,  he  made  an  extensive  Continental  tour  in  his  company. 
The  specimens,  figures  and  notes  thus  accumulated  were  in  great 
part  elaborated  on  his  return  into  his  Ornilhohgia,  which,  how- 
ever, he  did  not  live  to  publish,  having  injured  a  naturally  delicate 
constitution  by  alternate  exposure  and  over-study.  This  work 
was  published  in  1676,  and  translated  by  Ray  as  the  Ornithology 
o/Fr.  Willughby  (London,  1678,  fol.);  the  same  friend  published 
Us  Historic  Fiscium  (1686,  fol.).  Willughby  died  at  Middleton 
Hall  on  the  3rd  of  July  1672.. 

In  Ray's  preface  to  the  former  work'  he  giv^  Willughby  much 
of  the  credit  usually  assi^^ned  to  himself,  both  as  critic  and  syatem- 
atist.  Thus,  while  founding  on  Gcsner  and  Aldrovandus,  he  omitted 
their  irrelevancies.  being  careful  to  exclude  "  hieroglyphics,  emblems, 
morals,  fables,  presages  or  ought  eke  pertaining  to  oivinitY,  ethics, 
grammar,  or  any  sort  of  humane  learning,  and  present  him  [the 
readerfwith  what  properly  belongs  only  to  natural  nistory."  Again, 
he  not  only  devised  artindal  keys  to  his  species  and  genera,  but, 
"that  he  might  clear  up  all  these  obscurities  [of  former  writers) 
and  render  the  knowledge  and  distinction  of  species  facile  to  all 
that  should  come  after,  he  bent  his  endeavours  mainly  to  find  out. 
cenatn  characteristic  notes  of  each  kind,"  while  finally,  in  apolo- 
gizing for  his  engravings,  he  yet  not  unjustly  claims  that  "  they 
are  best  and  trueot  ol  any  hitherto  graven  m  brass."  (See  also 
Ornithology.) 

WILMINGTON,  a  dty,  a  port  of  entry  and  the  county-seat  of 
New  Castle  county,  Delaware,  U.S.A.,  in  the  N.  part  of  the  state, 
near  the  Delaware  livcr,  at  the  mouth  of  Brandywine  and 
ChrisUana  creeks.  Pop.  (1890)  61,431;  (t90o)  76»So8,  of  whom 
10^478  were  foreign-bom  (3820  Irish,  1762  German,  998  English) 
and  9736  were  negroes;  (i^io  census)  8741  x.  Area,  xO'iS 
sq.  m.  It  is  served  by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  the  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore  &  Washington  (Pennsylvania)  and  the  Philadelf^ua 
&  Reading  railways,  and  by  several  steamship  lines.  WilmingUm 
Harbor  includes  Christiana  Creek  for  4  m.  above  its  mouth  and 
the  navigable  part  (a  m.)  of  the  Brandywine*  which  enters  the 
Christiana  about  if  m.  above  its  mouth.  By  x86i  the  channel 
depth  had  been  increased  from  8^  to  25  ft.,  in  1896-1906  it  was 
increased  to  21  ft.  in  the  lower  part  of  the  harbour,  and  in  1908 
the  upper  part  was  dredged  to  z8  or  19  ft.  for  widths  of  100,  aoo 
and  250  ft.  Between  2836  and  1909  $994,404  was  expended  on 
the  improvement  of  the  harbour.  Most  of  the  streets  whkh  run 
from  E.  to  W.  are  numbered;  those  which  run  from  N.  to  S. 
are  named,  often  in  honour  of  prominent  American  statesmen. , 
The  public  parks  and  squares  have  a  total  area  of  381  acres; 
the  most  important  parks  axe  Brandywine  and  Rockford,  which 
lie  ak>ng  and  near  Brandywine  creek,  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
tity.  Among  the  buBdings  of  interest  are  the  City  Hall  (1798); 
Holy  Trinity  (Old  Swedes)  Church  (1698),  probably  the  oldest 
ehurch  in  the  United  States  which  has  been  in  continuous  use; 
the  building  occupied  by  the  Historical  Society  of  Delaware 
(oiganiaed  in  2864),  which  was  the  old  First  Presbyterian  Meeting 
House,  built  bk  1740;  the  County  Court  House;  and  the  Federal 
biulding.  In  Wihniiigton,  besides  other  educational  institutions, 
la  the  Wilmington  Friends'  School  (1748),  the  oldest  p^paratory 
achool  in  the  state.  The  Wilmington  Institute  Free  Library 
(6tf,ooo  vnlumes  in  19x0)  was  iounded  in  1788,  but  was  not  made 


free  to  the  public  until  1894.  Witaniagtcui  is  the  see  of  4 
Catholic  bishop,  and  of  a  Piotestant  Episcopal  bishop. 

The  favourable  situation,  railway  furilities  and  prozinBity  to 
the  coal-fields  of  Penn^lvania,  West  Virginia  and  Virgxaia,  to 
the  sources  of  supply  of  raw  materials,  and  the  water-power 
furnished  by  the  Brandywine,  combined  ivith  the  enteiprise  of 
its  dtir<ns,  have  made  Wilmington  the  most  important  mani^ 
factnring  centre  <^  Delaware.  In  1903  the  value  of  the  factoiy 
product  of  the  dty,  $30,390,039,  was  73*8%  of  the  total  [MtxMluct 
value  of  Ihe  state.  The  principal  manufactures  are  tanned, 
curried  and  finished  leather  ($10,250,842),  steam  railway  cars 
(t5i597i756),  foundry  and  machine-shop  products  ($3,432»xxS). 
paper  and  wood  pulp  ($i,9Q4i5S6),  &c.  Shipbiukiing  ($1,780,90^ 
in  X905)  was  established  as  early  as  X739,  and  in  1836  the  frrst  iron 
steamship  and  in  1854  the  first  iron  sailing-boat  built  ixi  the 
United  States  were  built  here.  On  the  Brandywine,  near  the  dty, 
are  the  works  of  the  Du  Pont  Powder  Company,  which  extend 
over  nearly  zooo  acres,  the  largest  powder  plant  in  the  woiid. 
The  company  was  founded  in  1802  by  the  French  refugee. 
Eleuth^re  Irente  du  Pont  de  Nemours  (x77x-'x834),  who  bad 
learned  from  Lavoisier  the  modem  methods  of  powder-making; 
and  here  introduced  them  into  the  United  States.  WiliningtoQ 
is  the  port  of  entry  of  the  customs  district  of  Delaware,  with 
branch  offices  at  New  Castle  and  Lewes.  In  1909  the  ixnports 
of  the  district  were  valued  at  $463,092. 

The  dty  is  governed  under  a  charter  of  x886,  amended  in  189^ 
by  a  mi^or,  who  is  chosen  biennially  and  who  appoints  the  boutf 
of  water  commissioners  and  the  board  of  directors  of  the  stnei 
and  sewer  departments,  and  by  a  unicameral  legislature,  tk 
twelve  members  of  which  are  elected  by  wards  (except  the  presi- 
dent of  the  council,  who  is  elected  at  large,  and  is  acting  mayor 
in  the  absence  of  the  mayor).  The  council  appoints  the  auditor, 
the  clerk  of  council  who  acts  as  city  clerk  and  various  inspectcHS, 
&c.  The  police  commission  is  appointed  by  the  resident  associate 
judge  of  New  Castle  county  court.  A  board  of  educatioD  (two 
members  from  each  ward),  the  city  attorney  and  the  dty 
treasurer  are  elected  by  popular  vote. 

The  site  of  Wilmington  was  settled  in  1638  on  behalf  of  the 
South  Company  of  Sweden  by  Swedish  and  Dutch  colonists, 
under  the  leadership  of  Peter  Minuit.  The  fort  which  they  buflt 
was  called  Christina,  and  the  settlement  that  grew  up  around  it, 
Christinaham,  in  honour  of  (^ueen  Christina,  daughter  of  Gnstavus 
Adolphos.  The  fort  was  captured,  without  bloodshed,  by 
Governor  Peter  Stuyvesant  of  New  Netherland  in  1655,  but  very 
few  of  the  Swedes  left  Christinaham.  The  Swedish  language 
and  Swedish  aistoms  persisted,  and  the  rdigion  of  the  Swedes 
was  tolerated.  After  the  English  conquest  in  1664,  especially 
after  the  annexation  of  the  Delaware  counties  to  Pennsylvania 
in  1682,  Swedish  influence  dcdined.  In  173 1  a  large  part  of  the 
territory  now  induded  in  the  city  was  owned  by  Thomas  Willing, 
who  named  it  WUlingtown.  About  eight  years  later,  by  a 
borough  charter  granted  by  William  Penn,  this  named  was  changed 
to  Wilmington,  in  honour  of  Spencer  Compton,  Earl  of  Wilming- 
ton (c.  1675-1743).  During  the  War  of  Independencse  the 
battle  of  Brandywine  was  fought  13  m.  N.W.  of  Wilmington. 
In  the  first  half  of  the  iQlh  century  Wilmington  was  the  centra 
of  a  strong  anti-slavery  sentiment  and  was  a  "  station  "  of  the 
"  Underground  Railroad.'*  In  1809  the  borough  was  enlarged 
by  a  new  charter;  in  1832  Wflmlngtoh  was' chartered  as  a  dty. 
In  1900  the  dty  contained  41 '4%  of  the  total  population  of  the 
state  and,  under  the  state  oonstitotion  of  1897,  it  dects  five  of 
the  thirty-five  representative^  and  two  of  the  seventeen  seaatois 
in  the  state  legislature. 

See  Records  of  Holy  Trinity  (Old  Sroedes)  Church  (Wilmington. 
1890);  Benjamin  Ferris,  History  of  Ihe  Oritinal  SeUUmmis  am  iJbe 
Ddonare^  part  iii,  (WilratngtOD.  1846) ;  and  Elisabeth  Moittgoroery, 
Reminiscences  of  WilminiloH  (Philadelphia,  1851). 

WILMINGTON,  a  dty,  a  port  of  entry  and  the  county-aeat 
of  New  Hanover  county.  North  Carolina,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Cape 
Fear  river,  about  30  m.  from  its  mouth,  10  m.  in  direct  b'ne  fnnn 
the  ocean,  and  about  145  m.  S.S.E.  of  Raldgh.  Pop.  (1890) 
20,056;  (1900)  80,976,  of  whom  10,407  were  negroes  and  467 


WILMCXr— WILSON,  A. 


691 


wefe  fbreign-bom;  (19x0  eensos)  35,748.  It  is  the  largest  dty 
And  the  chief  seaport  oi  the  state.  Wflmington  is  served  l^ 
the  Atlantic  Coast  Line  and  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  railways, 
and  fay  steamboat  lines  to  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore 
and  to  ports  on  the  Cftpe  Fear  and  Black  rivers,  and  is  connected 
by  an  electric  line  with  Wtightsville  Beach,  a  pleasure  resort 
13  m.  distant  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Below  Wilmington  the 
dhanneL  of  the  Cape  Fear  river  is  20  ft.  deep  throughout  and  in 
some  parts  33  and  34  ft.  deep;  the  width  of  the  channel  is  to  be 
made  370  ft«  under  Federal  projects  on  which,  up  to  the  30th  of 
June  1909,  there  had  been  expended  $4^44^29.  Above  Wil- 
mington the  Cape  Fear  river  is  navigable  for  boats  drawing  3  ft. 
for  1x5  m.  to  Fayetteville.  The  dty  lies  on  an  elevated  sand 
ridge  and  extends  ak>ng  the  river  front  for  about  2^  m.  Among 
its  promhient  btdldings  are  the  United  States  Government 
Building,  the  United  States  marine  boqntal,  the  city  and  county 
hospital,  the  county  court  house,  the  dty  hall  (which  bouses  the 
public  library)  and  the  masonic  temple.  The  dty  is  the  seat  of 
Cape  Fear  Academy  (x373)  for  boys,  of  the  Academy  of  the 
Incarnation  (Roman  CathoKc)  and  of  the  Gregory  Normal  Sdiool 
(for  negroes).  The  dty  is  the  see  of  a  Firatestant  Episcopal 
bfshopc  Wilmington  is  chiefly  a  commercial  dty,  and  ships 
laige  quantities  of  cotton,  lumber,  naval  stores,  rice,  market- 
garden  produce  and  turpentine^  in  r909  the  value  of  its  exports 
was  $33,3x0,070  and  the  value  of  its  imports  $1,282,734.  The 
total  value  of  the  factory  product  in  1905  was  $3,x  55,458,  of  which 
$893,7x5  was  the  value  of  lumber  and  timber  products. 

A  settlement  wasr  established  here  in  1730  and  was  named 
New  Liverpool;  about  1733  the  name  was  changed  to  New 
Town;  in  1739  the  town  was  incorporated,  was  made  the 
oounty-seat  and  was  renamed,  this  time  in  honour  of  Spencer 
Compton,  Eari  oi  Wilmington  (c.  1673-X743).  In  X760  it  was 
incorporated  as  a  borough  and  m  x866  was  chartered  as  a  dty. 
Some  of  Wilmington's  dtizens  were  among  the  first  to  offer 
armed  resistance  to  the  carrying  out  of  the  Stamp  Act,  compelltng 
the  stamp-master  to  take  an  oath  that  he  would  distribute  no 
stamps^  During  most  of  1781  the  borough  was  occupied  by  the 
British,  and  Lord  Comwallis  had  hb  headquartefs  here. 
Although  blockaded  by  the  Union  fleet,  Wilmington  was  dtiring 
the  Civil  War  the  centre  of  an  important  interooorse  between 
the  Confederacy  and  foreign  countries  by  means  of  blockade 
runners,  and  was  thelast  important  port  open  to  the  OmlcdeAites. 
It  was  defended  by  Fort  Fisher,  a  heavy  earthwork  on  the 
peninsula  between  the  ocean  and  Cape  Fear  river,  manned  by 
1400  men  under  Colonel  William  LaiiU>.  A  federal  expedition 
of  150  vessels  under  Admiral  D.  D.  Porter  and  land  iiMtxs  (about 
3000)  under  General  B.  F.  Butler  approached  the  fort  on  the 
sot  h  of  December  1864;  on  the  34th  the  "  Louisiana,*'  loaded 
with  3x5  tons  of  powder,  was  exploded  400  yds.  fxom  the  fort 
without  doing  any  damage;  on  the  34th  and  3Sth  there  was  a 
terrific  navail  bombardment,  which  General  Butler  dedded  had 
iu>t  suffidecitly  injured  the  fort  to  make  an  assault  by  land 
possible;  oxt  the  13th  and  X4th  of  January  there  was  another 
bbmbardment,  and  on  the  j  5th  a  combined  naval  and  land  at  tack, 
in  which  General  A.  H.  Teriy,  who  had  succeeded  General 
Butler  in  command,  stormed  the  fort  with  the  help  of  the 
marines  and  sailors,  and  took  2000  prisoners  and  169  guns. 
The  Union  losses  were  366  killed,  57  missing  and  xox8  wounded. 
A  magazine  explosion  on  the  morning  of  &ke  x6th  killed  about 
100  men  in  each  army.  Tlie  dty  was  evacuated  immediatety 
afterwards. 

WILMOT,  DAVID  (x8r4-i868).  American  political  leader, 
was  bom  at  Bethany,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  20th  of  January  i8r4< 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834  and  practised  lawinTowanda. 
He  entered  politics  as  a  Democrat,  served  m  the  National  House 
of  ReprcMntatives  from  1845  to  1851,  and  although  he  favoured 
the  Walker  Tariff,  the  Mexican  War  and  other  party  measures, 
opposed  the  extension  of  slavery.  On  the  8th  of  August  1846, 
when  a  bill  was  introduced  appropriating  $2,000,000  to  be  used 
by  the  president  in  negotiating  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Mexico, 
Wilmot  immediately  offered  the  following  amendment:  "  Pro> 
vided.  That,  as  an  express  and  fundamental  condition  to  the 


acqui^tion  of  any  territory  fiom  the  Republic  of  Mexico  by 
the  United  States,  by  virtue  of  any  treaty  which  may  be  negoti- 
ated between  them,  and  to  the  use  by  the  Executive  of  the 
moneys  herein  appropriated,  neither  slavery  nor  involuntary 
servitude  shall  ever  exist  in  any  part  of  said  territory,  except 
for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  first  be  duly  convicted." 
The  amendment,  famous  in  American  history  as  the  "  Wilmot 
Proviso,"  was  adopted  by  the  House,  but  was  defeated,  with 
the  origpmal  bill,  by  the  Senate's  adjoumment.  A  similar 
measure  was  brought  forward  at  the  next  session,  the  appropria/> 
tion,  however,  bdng  increased  to  $3,000,000,  axkd  the  amendment 
being  extended  to  indude  all  territory  which  might  be  acquired 
by  the  United  States;  in  this  form  it  passed  the  House  by  a 
vote  of  XX5  to  X05;  but  the  Senate  refused  to  concur,  pa^ed 
a  bin  of  its  own  without  the  amendment;  and  the  House, 
owing  largely  to  the  influence  of  General  Lewis  Cass^'  in  March 
1847,  receded  from  its  position.  The  amendment  was  never 
actually  adopted  by  Congress,  and  was  in  fact  expressly  repudi- 
ated  in  the  Compromise  oif  1850,  and  its  content  dedared 
unconstitutional  by  the  Supreme  Court  in  the  Dred  Scott  case. 
Although  known  as  the  Wilmot  Proviso  it  really  origiiuited  with 
Jacob  Brhikerhoff  (x8xo-i88o)  of  Ohio,  Wilmot  being  sdected 
to  present  it  only  because  his  party  standing  was  more  regular. 
The  extension  <A  the  prindple  to  territory  other  than  that  to  be 
acquired  from  Mexico  was  probably  due  to  Preston  King  (x8o6- 
X865)  of  New  York.  Wilmot  supported  Van  Buren  in  1848  and 
entered  the  Republican  party  at  the  time  of  its  fornoation,  and 
was  a  delegate  to  the  xiational  conventions  of  X856  and  x86a 
He  was  president  judge  of  the  X3th  Judidal  District  of  Penn* 
sylvania  in  x8s3-i86i.  United  States  senator  in  X861-X863 
and  Judge  of  the  United  Sutes  Court  of  Claims  in  1863-1868. 
He  died  at  Towanda,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  x6th  of  March  1868. 

See  G.  P.  Garriaon,  Westward  Exlausum  (New  York  and  London, 
1906). 

WILSON,  ALEXANDER  (1766-18x3),  American  ornithologist, 
was  bom  in  Paisley,  Scotland,  on  the  6th  of  July  1766.  Hi^ 
father,  a  handloom  weaver,  soon  removed  to  the  country,  and 
there  combined  weaving  with  agriculture,  distilling  and  smuggling 
— conditions  which  no  doubt  bdped  to  develop  in  the  boy  that 
love  aC  rural  puzsuits  and  adventure  which  was  to  determine 
his  career.  At  first  he  was  placed  with  a  tutor  and  destined 
for  the  church,  but  afterwards  he  was  apprenticed  as  a  weaver. 
Then  he  became  a  peddler  and  spent  a  year  or  two  in  travelling 
through  Scotland,  recording  in  his  journal  eveiy  matter  of 
natural  histoxy  or  antiquazian  interest.  Having  incurred  a 
short  imprisoiunent  for  lampooning  the  master-weavers  in  a 
trade  dispute,  he  emigrated  to  America  in  1794.  After  a  few 
years  of  weaving,  peddling  and  desultory  obseivation,  he 
became  a  village  schooltnaater,  and  in  1802  obtained  an  appoint- 
ment near  Philaddphia,  where  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of 
William  Bartram  the  naturalist.  Under  bis  influence  Wilson 
began  to  draw  birds,  having  concdved  the  idea  of  illustrating 
the  ornithology  of  the  United  States;  and  thenceforward  he 
steadily  accumulated  materials  and  made  many  expeditiioxiSi 
In  x8o6  he  obtained  the  assistant-editorship  of  the  American 
edition  of  Rees^s  Encyclopaedia,  and  thus  acquired  more  means 
and  leisure  for  his  gret^  work,  American  Orniikt^gyt  the  first 
volume  of  which  appeared  in  the  autumn  of  x8o8,  after  which 
he  spent  the  winter  in  a  journey"  in  search  of  birds  and  sub- 
scribers." By  the  spring  of  18x3  seven  volumes  had  appeared; 
bat  the  arduous  expedition  of  that  summer,  in  search  of  the 
marine  wateriowl  to  which  the  remaining  volume  was  to  be 
devoted,  gave  a  shock  to  his  already  impaired  health,  and  he 
succumbed  to  dysentery  at  Philadelphia  on  the  23rd  of  August 

x8i't. 

Cm  his  poems,  not  excepting  the  Foresters  (Philadelphia,  1805), 
nothing  need  now  be  said,  save  that  they  no  doubt  served  to  develop 
his  descriptive  powers.  The  eighth  and  ninth  volumes  of  the 
Amtricau  Omttkoloey  were  edited  after  his  decease  by  his  friend 
George  Ord.  and  the  work  was  coatinued  by  Lu6ien  BanafMirte 
(4  .vols.,  Philadelphia.  1825-1833).  The  complete  work  was  re- 
published several  times,  and  his  Miscelianeous  Pvose  Works  and 
Poems  was  edited  with  a  mcmon*  by  the  Rev.  A.  B.  Groeart  (Psisley, 
1876).    A  statue  was  erected  to  him  at  Paisley  ia  1876. 


692 


WILSON,  SIR  D.— -WILSON,  H.  H. 


#IL8(Mi.  SIR  DAmBL  (i8l6-'x892),  afdiaeologist  and 
Canadian  educational  reformer,  was  bom  in  Edinbur^  on  the 
Sth  of  January  1816,  the  son  of  Archibald  Wilson,  a  wine- 
merchant,  and  Janet  Ailken.  After  studying  at  the  High  School 
and  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  he  spent  the  nert  ten  years 
in  journalism  and  in  other  forms  of  Uterury  work  (London 
i837'x943,  Edinburgh  1842-1847).  In  1845  he  became  secretary 
to  the  Scottish  Society  of  Antiquaries,  and  in  1848  published 
iiemffrials  of  Edinbtirg^  in  the  (Men  Time,  of  which  the  chief 
value  lies  in  the  numerous  illustations,  done  by  himself.  In 
1851  appeared  his  most  important  work,  Prekistmc  Annals 
0/ Scotland,  which  [daced  him  in  the  front  rank  of  archaeologists. 
In  1853  he  became  professor  of  Histoiy  and  En^ish  Literature 
in  the  UniversiCy  of  Toronto,  where  his  practical  ability  and 
energy  soon  made  him  the  most  impcMrtant  member  of  the  stafiL 
While  writing  extensively  on  the  archaeology  and  anthropology 
of  Canada,  and  giving  an  impetus  to  the  study,  he  produced 
nothing  of  lasting  importance.  His  main  work  lay  in  asserting 
the  claims  of  the  University  of  Toronto,  and  of  University 
College,  the  teaching  body  in  connexion  with  it,  against  the 
sectarian  universities  of  the  province  which  denounced  the 
provincial  university  as  godless,  and  against  the  private  medical 
schools  in  Toronto.  Largely  owing  to  Wilson's  energy  in 
fighting  for  what  he  called  "  the  maintenance  of  a  national 
system  of  university  education  in  opposition  to  sectarian  or 
denominational  colleges,"  the  provincial  university  gained  the 
chief  position  in  the  intdlectual  life  of  Ontario.  Two  of  the 
sectarian  universities,  the  Methodist  and  the  Anglican,  have 
now  become  united  to  the  provincial  univer^y,  but  the  Baptist 
and  the  Presbyterian  (see  Kingston)  still  retain  a  vigorous 
existence.  He  was  equally  successful  in  his  struggle  against  the 
rival  medical  schools  in  Toronto,  the  chief  of  whidi  is  now 
incorporated  with  Toronto  university.  In  his  efforts  to  escape 
the  control  of  local  politicians  he  was  less  successful,  and  in  some 
cases  appointments  to  the  provincial  university  were  made  for 
political  rather  than  for  academic  reasons.  Though  seeing  that 
in  a  young  and  democratic  country  the  Scotch-American  model 
must  be  followed  rather  than  the  English,  and  though  resisting 
attempts  to  foUow  the  practice  of  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  Wilson 
was  a  beJiever  in  the  merits  of  a  modified  form  of  the  residential 
system.  He  was.  one  of  the  first  in  Canada  to  cast  aside  the 
classical  tradition,  and  as  early  as  i860  had  the  courage  to  say: 
'*.It  is  just  because . . .  German  and  French  are  now  the  keys 
of  so  much  modern  philosophy  and  sdence  that  all  wise  Unlver- 
dty  reformers  are  learning  to  give  to  modem  languages  the  place 
they  justly  claim  in  a  liberal  education.**  In  x88i  he  was  made 
president  of  Toronto  university;  and  in  1885  president  of  the 
literature  section  of  the  Canadian  Royal  Society;  in  x888  he 
was  knighted;  and  in  1891  given  the  freedom  of  the  city  of 
Edinburgh.  He  died  at  Toronto  on  the  6th  of  August  1892. 

Record  of  Historical  Publications  relating  to  Canada^  edited  by 
G.  M.  Wrong,  vol.  v.  (Toronto  and  London,  1901),  pp.  199-317, 
gives  a  good  sketch  of  his  caroer,  and  a  bibliography  of  bis  numerous 
works.  (W.  L.  G.) 

-  WILSON,  KERRY  (x8i2-i87s),  vice-president  of  the  United 
States  from  X873  to  1875,  ^^  bom  at  Farmington,  New  Hamp- 
shire, on  the  x6th  of  Febmary  18x2.  His  name  originally  was 
Jeremiah  J.  Colbaith.  His  father  was  a  day-labourer  and  very 
poor.  At  ten  years  of  age  the  son  went  to  work  as  a  farm- 
labourer.  He  was  fond  of  reading,  and  before  the  end  of  his 
apprenticeship  had  read  more  than  a  thousand  volumes.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-one,  for  some  unstated  reason,  he  had  his 
name  changed  by  Act  of  the  Legislature  to  that  of  Henry  Wilson. 
At  Natick,  Massachusetts,  whither  he  travelled  on  foot,  he 
learned  the  trade  of  shoemaker,  and  during  his  leisure  hours 
Studied  much  and  read  with  avidity.  For  short  periods,  also, 
lie  studied  in  the  academics  of  Strafford,  N.H.,  Wolfeborough, 
N.H.,  and  Concord,  N.H.  After  successfully  establishing  himself 
as  a  shoe  manufacturer,  he  attracted  attention  as  a  public 
speaker  in  support  of  William  Henry  Harrison  during  the 
presidential  campaign  of  1840.  He  was  in  the  state  House  of 
Representatives  in  1841-42, 1846  and  18^,  and  in  the  Senate  in 


1844-4S  9nA  x85i-5».    In  1848  ha  left  the  Whig  poty  mmI 

became  one  of  the  chief  leaders  of  the  Fxee  Soil  paity,  serving 
as  presiding  officer  of  that  part/s  national  conventioa  is  i8$a» 
acting  as  chairman  of  the  Free  Soil  national  couunittee  and 
editing  from  1848  to  1851  the  Boston  RepuhUcan^  whkh  he  auile 
the  chief  Fcce  Soil  oigan.  The  Free  Soil  party  nominated  him 
for  governor  of  the  state  in  1853,  but  he  was  defeated.  For  a 
short  time  ( 1855)  he  identified  hineself  with  the  Amencanor  Kaow 
Nothing  party,  and  afterwards  acted  with  the  Republican  party. 
hk  1855  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  and  remained 
there  by  vs-elections  until  1873.  His  uncompromising  opposition 
to  the  institution  of  slavery  furnished  the  keynote  of  hia  earh'er 
senatorial  career,  and  he  soon  took  rank  as  one  of  the  ablest  and 
most  effective  anti-slavery  orators  in  the  United  States.  He  bad 
been  deeply  interested  from  1840  until  1850  in  the  miUtla  of  his 
state,  and  had  risen  through  its  grades  of  service  to  that  of 
brigadier-geneial.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was 
made  chairman  of  the  military  committee  of  the  Senate,  and  in 
this  position  performed  most  laborious  and  important  work  for 
thefouryearsof  the  war.  The  Republicans  nominated  Wilson  for 
the  vioe>presidency  in  1872,  and  he  was  elected;  but  he  died  on 
the  sand  of  November  1875  before  completing  his  term  of  office 

He  published,  besides  many  Matlons.  a  HisUry  of  ike  AnUSHamn 
Measures  of  the  Tkirt^Sepenth  and  Thsrly-Bi^htk  United  StaUt 
Congresses  (1865) ;  Miltlary  Measures  of  the  United  States  Congress 
(1868):  a  History  of  the  Reconstruction  Measures  of  tlie  Tkir^-Nintk 
and  Fortieth  Congresses  (1868)  and  a  History  of  the  Rise  and  Fall  of 
the  Slave  Power  in  America  (3  vols.,  1871-1875),  his  most  important 
work. 

The  best  biography  b  that  by  Elias  Nasoa  and  Thomas  Russdl, 
The  Life  and  Public  Servius  of  Henry  Wilson  (Boston,  1676}. 

WILSON,  HORACE  BATMAN  (X786-1860),  English  orientalist, 
was  bom  in  London  on  the  36th  of  September  x  786.  He  studied 
medicine  at  St  Thomas's  Hospital,  and  went  out  to  India  in 
x8o8  as  assistant-surgeon  .on  the  Bengal  establishment  of  the 
East  India'  Company.  His  knowledge  of  metalluxsy  caused  him 
to  be  attached  to  the  mint  at  Calcutta,  where  he  was  for  a  time 
sssociated  with  John  Leyden.  He  became  deepliy  interested 
in  the  ancient  language  and  literature  of  India,  and  by  the 
recommendatiim  of  Henry  T.  Colebrooke,  he  was  in  x8xi  ap- 
pointed secretary  to  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal  In  x8xj 
he  published  the  Sanskrit  text — with  a  graceful,  if  somewhat 
free,  translation  in  English  rhymed  verse— of  KAlidisa'schanniiic 
lyrical  poem,  the  Meghaduta,  or  Cloud-Messenger,  He  prepared 
the  first  Sanskrit-English  Dictionary  (1819)  from  materials 
compiled  by  native  scholars,  supplemented  by  his  own  researches. 
This  work  was  only  superseded  by  the  Samkritwi^lerbuck  (1853- 
1876)  of  R..  von  Roth  and  Otto  Bfihtlingk,  who  expressed  their 
obligations  to  Wilson  in  the  preface  to  their  great  work.  Wilsoa 
published  in  1827  SeUcl  Specimens  of  the  Theatre  of  the  Hindus, 
which  contained  a  very  full  survey  of  the  Indian  drama,  tiansla- 
tions  of  six  complete  plays  and  short  accounts  of  twenty-three 
others.  His  Mackensie  Collection  ( 1828)  is  a  descriptive  catalogue 
of  the  extensive  collection  of  Oriental,  especially  South  Indian, 
MSS.  and  antiquities  made  by  Cok)nel  Colin  Mackenxie,  t>ow 
deposited  partly  in  the  India  Office,  London,  and  partly  at 
Madras.  He  also  wrote  a  Historical  Sketch  of  the  First  Burmese 
War,  with  Documents,  Political  and  Geographical  (1827),  a 
Review  of  the  External  Commerce  of  Bengal  from  1813  l»  1828 
(1830)  and  a  History  of  British  India  from  180$  to  i8js>  in 
continuation  of  Mill's  History  (i844'-z848).  He  aaed  for  many 
years  as  secretary  to  the  a>mmittee  of  public  instraction,  and 
superintended  the  studies  of  the  Saui^uit  College  in  Calcutta. 
He  was  one  of  the  staunchest  opponents  of  the  proposal  that 
English  should  be  made  the  sole  medium  of  instruction  in  native 
schoob,  and  became  for  a  time  the  object  of  bitter  attacka.  In 
183a  the  university  of  Oxford  selected  Dr  Wilson  to  be  the 
first  occupant  of  the  newly  founded  Boden  chair  of  Sanskrit, 
and  in  1836  he  was  appointed  librarian  to  the  East  India 
Company.  He  was  an  original  member  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
•Society,  of  which  he  was  director  from  1837  up  to  the  time 
of  his  death,  which  took  place  in  London  on  the  8th  of  May 
i86a 


•WnSON,  JAMES 


693 


AfalllBrotWIm'aKOriiimvbsfoindlBBi  Annual  Report 

o(  the  Royal  Asiatic  Sociny  for  1S60.    A  oxuiiknbk  -  -  '- — ' 
San^rit  MSS.  (Mo  voU.)  mlkcted  by  Wiboa  in  Indi* . 
the  Bodkiu  Libcaiy. 

WIUON,    JAMBS' (ijij-ij9g)*Aniericui    _ 

juciu,  HU  born  in  0(  oeii  St  Andrcwa,  Scotland,  on  ibo  i^tli 
o(  S^tember  1742.  He  matriculated  at  the  University  ol  St 
Andiem  in  175;  md  was  luhsequently  a  student  at  the  iinlvenl- 
tiaoIGlaigow  and  Edinburgh.  Ini7G5becnii|iitedtoAnicrica. 
Jjnding  nt  New  York  in  June,  he  went  to  philaddphia  in  the 
following  year  and  in  1766-1767  »aa  inatnictor  of  I^lin  in 
the  collefte  of  FhiladclphiA,  later  the  university  of  Pennsylvania. 
Ueuirhile  be  itudied  law  in  the  office  o[  John  Dicldnion, 
adJBiU«d  to  the  bar  in  17&7,  removed  fiiat  to  Reading  and 
afterwaid  to  Culisle,  and  rapidly  rose  to  prominence.  In  August 
1774  bs  publishsd  a  pamphlet  Ccniultraliimt  on  Uu  Nalvt 
and  EOcU  of  lAc  Lefiilalix  A  Uitrily  1/  Oh  Brilish  Farlamait, 
In  which  he  argued  that  parliaracnt  had  do  constitutional  power 
to  legislate  for  the  coloniei;  Ihi)  psiDphlet  strongly  infiuenctd 
menibers  of  the  Continental  CoDgtess  which  met  in  September. 
Witaon  was  a  delegate  to  the  Fenniylvanla  provincial  ^nventlrai 
In  Juoaty  1775,  and  he  sustained  there  the  right  of  Massa- 
chusetts to  rcust  the  change  in  its  charter,  declaring  that  1 
force  whicfa  the  British  -GDvemnient  was  exercising  to  c< 
nnted  by  any  acl  of  pailiai 
of  the  common  law,  unauthi 
by  any  fommia^ii  from  the  crown,"  tlBstunce  WM  justified 
1^  "both  the  letter  and  the  spirit  of  the  British  comtiiuiioi  " 
be  also,  by  his  speech,  led  the  colonic*  in  shifting  the  bur« 
of  rapooaibilliy  from  pacliament  or  the  king's  ministeis  to 
Un|  himself.  In  May  1775  Wilson  becsme  ■  member  of  the 
Continental  Congros.  When  a  dedamtion  of  independence 
ma  first  propooed  in  that  body  he  eipr^ised  the  belief 
majoiity  of  the  people  of  Pennsylvania  were  in  favoui 
but  aa  the  instructions  oC  the  delegate!  from  Pennsylvai 
nma  of  the  other  cdoniea  oppsaed  lucb  ■  dedintka,  he  urged 
'  ctionfotthepuqwieaf givingtbe 
ID  opportonity  of  nmoving  such  i 

the  colwiies  eaxpt  Ntw  Yoik  hu)  bean  obtaiwd.  Racdving 
a  commission  as  colonel  in  May  1775,  Wiboa  raised  *  battalion 
of  tioopi  in  hii  couatyof  CiiiBlMdukd,aDd  for  a  (hut 
177A  he  look  pan  in  the  Ifew  JetMy  campaign,  but  bia  prindpai 
biboua  in  1716  and  I777«er<  InCratgrcB.    In  January  1776  he 

to  the  cokmiti,  and  the  addreas  was  written  by  him;  be  served 
on  n  tfniSai  comniittee  In  May  1777,  and  wrote  the  address 
T»  llu  /MhiMfcutb  "/  Um  Uxilai  Slala,  ut^g  tbar  firm  nippcHt 
of  the  caoao  of  Independence;  he  drafted  the  plan  of  treaty  with 
Franca  together  with  uutruction*  for  negotiating  it;  he  was  a 
meobei  of  the  Board  of  War  from  its  establi&hment  in  June 
1776  nnta  hb  retirement  from  Congreaa  in  Seplombor  1777; 
from  January  10  St^tembee  1777  he  was  chairman  of  the  Com- 
vittce  on  Appeals,  to  hear  and  determine  appeals  frotn  the 
courts  of  adndralty  In  the  averal  states;  and  he  was  a  tnembef 
ef  many  other  important  mramitteeo.  In  S^tember  1777  the 
political  faction  in  bis  state  which  had  opposed  Independence 
d  Wilson  was  fc    '       ■    •  '- 


te  of  the  I 


1  ijSj. 


Soon  after  leaving  Coogrcsi  hi  r777  Wilson  removed  to 
AnnapoUi,  Maiytand,  to  pracliie  bw,  but  he  returned  to  Fhila- 
de](Aia  In  llw  following  year.  In  1779  he  wai  commiadoned 
Advocate-Gcnetal  Ibi  Fnnce,  and  in  tUs  capacity  he  represented 
Louli  XVL  in  all  claims  aiisiag  out  ol  the  French  alfiance 
■mil  the  daw  of  the  war.  In  1781-1781  be  w*a  the  principal 
cmmiel  toi  Petmiylvania  In  tiio  Wyoming  Valley  diiputa  with 
Omuctlcnl,  which  was  decided  in  favonr  of  Pennsj^vanla  in 
December  1731  by  an  arbitration  court  appointed  liy  Congim. 
WUfon  wai  doaaly  luociUrd  iritk Robeit  Monisin. ocsutUng 


a  fan 


which  he 


.  baiii  of  the 
implkd  powers  of  Congress. 

As  a  coniiTUCtive  sutesman  Wilson  had  no  saperfor  in  Ibe 
Federal  Convention  of  1787.  He  favoured  the  independence  of- 
the  executive,  kgislstlve  and  judicial  departments,  the  supremacy 
of  the  Federal  government  ovei  the  state  govemments,aiu]  tha 
election  of  senators  as  well  as  tepresentalives  by  the  peBfih, 
and  was  <^>poscd  to  the  election  of  the  President  or  the  judges 
by  Congress.  His  political  pbiloeopby  was  based  upon  impl^l 
nrnfidencc  in  the  people,  and  he  strove  for  aoch  [vovisions  aa 
he  thought  would  best  guarantee  a  govemineut  by  the  pe<^Ie. 
When  the  constitution  had  been  framed  Wilsw  pronounced  it 
"  the  best  form  of  government  which  has  ever  been  offered  to  the 
world,"  and  be,  at  least,  among  the  ftamers  regarded  it  not  as  a 
compact  but  as  an  ocdinance  to  be  established  by  the  pei^le. 
Duiing  the  struggle  for  ntiScation  he  made  a  qwecb  before 
a  mass  meeting  in  Philadelphia  which  has  been  characterlied 


,  .787)  h< 


,    (Novel 


prolesaor  of  law  in  the  university 
Pennsylvania  in  1790,  be  delivered  at  that  institution  in  175 
1791  acouiseof  lectures  on  public  and  private  law^  some  of  thi 
lectures,  together  vkh  his  speeches  in  the  Federal  conventii 
before  the  nuua  meeting  in  Philaddphla,  and  in  the  Pennsylvai 
ratification  ccnveotion,  ore  among  the  most  valuable  commi 


WDson  was  a  delegate  to  the  slate  codatitutional  c< 
of  17B9-1790,  and  a  member  (rf  the  committee  which  dmftijd 
the  new  conMitutiiHi.  In  1789  Washington  appointed  him  an 
assodat*  Justice  oi  the  United  States  SuproJne  Court,  and  In 
179]  be  wrote  the  important  decision  in  the  caae  of  Ckiielm 
V.  Georgia,  the  purport  ol  which  was  thai  the  vtafAt  of  the 
United  Slates  consUlnted  a  sovereign  nation  and  that  the  United 
States  were  riot  a  mere  confederacy  of  soveteign  states.  He 
continued  to  serve  aa  aisodaie  justice  until  his  death,  near 


he  wis  taken  by  his  parents  to  Amerkn,  where  they  originally 
settled  in  Connecticut,  but  in  1855  rerooved  toTunaconnty 
Iowa.  HestudiedBtIawBConege,andiniS6ibccaDieafatTnei. 
He  was  a  Republican  member  of  the  state  House  ol  RepraeM»- 
tives  In  1S6S-187],  and  was  its  spealin  in  1871-187J,  and  be 
was  a  memb<T  of  the  National  House  of  ~ 
■  again  in  iSa3-i8«s-    ' 


to  iSg7  waa  proffiasor  of  agtictlltute  at  the  Iowa  Agricultural 
College,  at  Ames,  and  directorof  the  State  Agcicultunl  £^nli- 

Siatlon.  JnMardi  i897hebecame  Serrelaryot  Agricalme 
in  President  McKMcy's  Cabinet  and  served  into  PiesMnt 
TTift's  administration,  holding  office  longer  than  any  etHr 

:t  officer  snce  the  organL^ation  of  the  go 


694 


WILSON,  pHN 


WIUOH;  JOHN  (1637-1696),  Engliah  pliiywright,  son  of 
Aaron  Wilson,  a  royalist  divinet  was  bora  in  London  in  1627. 
He  matriculated  from  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  in  1644,  and 
entered  Lincoln's  Inn  two  years  later,  being  called  to  the  bar 
in  1649.  His  unswerving  support  of  the  royal  pretensions 
tecommended  him  to  James,  duke  of  York,  through  whose 
influence  he  became  Recorder  of  Londonderry  about  x68i. 
His  Discourse  of  Monarcky  (1684)1  •  tract  in  favour  of  the 
succession  of  the  duke  of  Yoik,  was  followed  (1685)  by  a 
"  Pindarique  "  on  his  coronation.  In  x688  he  wrote  Jus  regium 
Coronae,  a  learned  .defence  of  James's  action  in  dispensing  with 
the  penal  sututes.  He  died  in  obscurity,  due  perhaps  to  his 
political  opinions,  in  1696.  Wilson  was  the  author  of  four 
plays,  showing  a  vigorous  and  learned  wit,  and  a  power  of 
character-drawing  that  place  him  rather  among  the  foUowen 
of  Ben  Jooson  than  with  the  Restoration  dramatists. 

The  Cheats  (written  in  1662.  printed  1664,  1671.  Ac.)  was  phyed 
with  great  success  in  1663.  John  Lacy  found  one  of  his  beat  puts 
in  Scruple,  a  caricature  of  a  Presbyterian  min'ister  of  accomraodatinj; 
morality.  Andronicus  Ccmnenius  (1664),  a  blank  verse  tragedy,  is 
-based  on  the  story  of  Andronicus  Comnenus  as  told  by  Peter  Heylin 
in  his  Cosmop'apky.  It  contains  a  scene  between  the  usurper  and 
the  widow  of  his  victim  Alexius  which  follows  very  closely  Sh&ke- 
spcare's  treatment  of  a  parallel  situation  in  Richard  111.  The 
Proiectors  (1665),  a  prose  comedy  of  London  life,  is.  like  Moli^'s 
V Avars,  founded  on  the  Aulularia  of  Plautus.  but  there  is  no  evidence 
that  Wilson  was  acquainted  with  the  French  play.  Belpheger,  or  the 
Marriofs  of  the  Dsoil;  a  Trati<o$uedy  (1690),  trsau  of  a  theme 
familiar  to  Elizabethan  drama,  out  Wibon  took  the  subject  from  the 
Bdphetor  attributed  to  Machiavellt,  and  alludes  also  to  Straparola's 
version  in  the  NeUi.  He  also  translated  into  English  Erasmus's 
Encomium  Moriae  (x668). 

See  The  Dramatic  Worhs  of  Joku  Wilson,  edited  with  intro- 
duction and  notes  by  Tames  Maidment  and  W.  H.  Logan  in  1874 
for  the  "  DramatisU  of  the  Restoration  "  series. 

WIUON,  JOHM  (x785-i854)» Scottish  writer,  the  Cbustofhek 
NoKTH  of  Blackwood's  Maganue,  was  bom  at  Paisley  on  the  i8th 
of  May  X785,  the  son  of  a  wealthy  gause  manufacturer  who  died 
when  Jofaii  was  eleven  years  old.  He  was  the  fourth  child,  but 
the  ddest  son,  and  be  had  nine  brothers  and  sisters.^  He  was 
only  twdve  when  he  was  first  entered  at  the  university  of 
Glasgow,  and  he  continued  to  attend  various  classes  in  that 
aniversity  for  six  years,  being  for  the  most  part  under  the 
tutorship  of  Professor  Geoige  Jaxdine,  with  whose  family  he  lived. 
In  these  six  years  Wilson  "  miade  hiniself  "  in  all  ways,  acquiring 
not  inconsiderable  scholarship,  perfecting  himself  in  ail  sports 
and  exercises,  and  falling  in  love  with  a  certain  "  Margaret," 
who  was  the  object  of  his  affections  for  several  years. 

In  1803  WUson  was  entered  9S  a  gentleman  commoner  at 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  Few  men  have  felt  more  than  he 
the  charm  of  Oxford,  and  in  much  of  his  later  work,  notably  in 
the  essay  called  "  Old  North  and  Young  North,"  he  has  expressed 
his  feeling.  But  it  does  not  appear  that  his  Magdalen  days  were 
altogether  han>y,  though  he  perfected  himself  in  "  bruising," 
pedestrianism  and  other  sports,  and  read  so  as  to  obtain  a 
brilliant  first  class.  His  love  affairs  did  not  go  happily,  and  he 
seems  to  have  made  no  intimate  friends  at  his  own  college  and 
few  in  the  university.  He  took  his  degree  in  X807,  and  found 
himself  at  twenty-two  his  own  master,  with  a  good  income, 
no  father  or  guardian  to  control  him,  and  a[^>arently  not  under 
any  of  the  influences  which  in  similar  circumstances  generally 
make  it  necessary  for  a  young  man  to  s^lopt  some  profession, 
if  only  in  name.  His  profession  was  an  estate  on  Windermere 
called  Elleray,  ever  since  connected  with  his  name.  Here  he 
buflt,  boated,  wrestled,  shot,  fished,  walked  and  otherwise 
diverted  himself  for  four  years,  besides  composing  or  collecting 
from  previous  compositions  a  considerable  volume  of  poems, 
published  in  x&xa  as  the  Ids  of  Palms.  Here  he  became 
ioMmate  with  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Southey  and  De  (^uincey. 


^His  youngest  brother  was  James  Wibon   "of  Woodville 


iTafoiuM  and  to  the  North  British  Quarterly  Reoiew,  and  wrote  many 
of  the  articles  on  natural  history  in  the  sevepth  edition  of  the 


He  married  in  x8ii  Jane  Penny,  a  Liverpool  lady  of  good  fanulx* 
and  four  years  of  happy  married  life  at  Elleray  succeeded;  then 
came  the  event  which  made  a  working  man  of  letters  of  Wilson, 
and  without  which  he  would  probably  have  produced  a  feur 
volumes  of  verse  and  nothing  more.    The  major  part  of  his 
fortune  was  lost  by  the  dishonest  speculation  of  an  uncle,  ia 
whose  hands  Wilson  had  carelessly  left  it.    But  this  hard  late 
was  by  no  means  unqualified.    His  mother  had  a  house   in 
Edinburgh,  in  which  she  was  able  aiul  willing  to  recdve  her  son 
and  his  family;  nor  had  he  even  to  give  up  Elleray,  though 
henceforward  he  was  not  able  constantly  to  reside  in  it.  .  lie 
read  law  and  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar,  in  X815,  still  taking 
loany  a  sporting  and  pedestrian  excursion,  and  pubUshJag  in 
x8x6  a  second  volume  of  poems.  The  City  of  the  Plague.   Ia  x8x  7,^ 
soon  after  the  founding  of  Blackwood's  Magazine^  Wilson  began 
his  connexion  with  that  great  Tory  monthly  by  joining  with 
J.  0.  Lockhart  in  the  October  number,  in  a  satire  csUed  the 
Ckaidee  Manuscript,  in  the  form  of  biblical  parody,  on  the  rival 
Edinburgh  Reoiew,  its  publisher  and  his  contributors.    Fiom 
this  time  he  was  the  piindpai  writer  for  Blackwood%  though 
never  its*  nominal  editor,  the  publisher  retaining  a  oeitaia 
supervision  even  over  Lockhart's  and  "  Christopher  North's  " 
contributions,  which  were  the  making  of  the  magaciiie.    In 
1823  began  the  series  of  Nodes  An^osianaOf  after  x8ss  mostly 
Wilson's  work.    These  axe  discussions  in  the  form  of  oonvivi^ 
table>talk,  giving  occasion  to  wonderfully  various  dig^essioss 
of  criticism,  desoiption  and  miscellaneous  writing.    From  thcit 
origin  it  necessarily  followed  that  there  was  much  ephemeral^ 
a  certain  amount  purely  local,  and  something  wholly  trivial 
in  them.    But  their  dramatic  force,  their  incessant  flashes  of 
happy  thought  and  happy  expression,  their  almost  iacompar* 
able  fulness  of  life,  and  their  magnificent  humour  give  tbei? 
all  but  the  highest  place  among  genial  and  recreative  literatxue. 
"  The  Ettrick  Shef^erd,"  an  idealized  portrait  of  James  Hogg, 
one  of  the  talkers,  ia  a  most  delightful  creation.    Before  this, 
Wilson  had  contributed  to  Blackwood's  prose  tales  and  dtetches, 
and  novels,  some  of  which  were  afterwards  published  separately 
in  Lighis  and  Shadows  of  Scottish  Life  (x8ss),  The  Trials  e^ 
Margaret  Lyndsay   (1823)   and    The  Foresters   (1825);   later 
appoued  essays  on  Spenser,  Homer  and  all  sorts  of  modem 
subjects  and  authors. 

The  first  result  of  his  new  occupation  on  Wilson's  general 
mode  of  life  was  that  he  left  his  mother's  hoose  and  establidied 
himself  (1819)  in  Ann  Street,  Edinburgh,  with  his  wife  and 
family  of  five  children.  The  second  was  much  more  nnlooked 
for,  his  election  to  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  vniveisity 
of  Edinburgh  (x83o).  His  qualifications  for  the  post  were  by 
no  means  cribvious,  even  if  the  fact  that  the  best  qualified  man 
in  Great  Britam,  Sir  William  Hamilton,  was  slso  a  qmdidate, 
be  left  out  of  the  question.  But  the  matter  was  made  a  political 
one;  the  Tories  still  had  a  majority  in  the  town  conndl;  Wilson 
was  powerfully  backed  by  friends.  Sir  Walter  Scott  at  their 
head;  and  his  adversaries  played  into  his  hands  by  attacking 
his  moral  character,  which  was  not  open  to  any  fsir  reproach. 
Wilson  made  a  very  occellent  professor,  never  perhaps  attaining 
to  any  great  scientific  knowledge  in  his  subject  or  power  of 
eqwunding  it,  but  scting  on  generation  after  generation  of 
students  with  a  stimulating  force  that  is  far  more  Tsluable 
than  the  most  exhaustive  knowledge  of  a  ps,rticidar  topic. 
His  duties  left  him  plenty  of  time  for  magasine  work,  and  for 
many  years  his  contributions  to  Nackwoad  were  extraordinarily 
voluminous,  in  one  year  (1834)  amounting  to  over  fifty  separate 
articles.  Most  of  the  best  ahd  best  knoim  of  them  appeared 
between  1825  and  1835. 

The  domestic  events  of  Wilson's  life  in  the  last  thixty  years 
of  it  may  be  briefly  told.  He  osdllated  between  Edinburgh 
and  EUcray,  with  excursions  and  sumcoer  residences  dsewhere, 
a  sea  trip  on  board  the  Experimental  Squadron  in  the  Channel 
during  the  summer  of  1833,  and  a  few  other  uiumporta&t  diver- 
sions. The  death  of  his  wife  in  1837  was  an  exceedxngily  severe 
blow  to  him,  espedally  as  it  followed  within  three  years  that  of 
his  firisnd  Bkclmod.   For  xaany  ysan  after,  his  liieiary  vock 


WILSON,  J.  H.— WILSON,  SIR  R.  T. 


695 


Ihtennittaity  and,  with  tome  exceptions,  not  up  to  the  level 
of  his  earlier  years.  Late  in  1850  his  health  showed  definite 
signs  of  bnaking  iq>;  and  in  the  next  year  he  resigned  his 
profeswrsUp,  and  a  Ovil  List  pension  of  Xsoo  >  y^^^  ^^&s 
oonfcfred  on  him.  He  died  at  Edinburgh  on  the  jid  of  April 
1854. 

Only  a  venr  small  part  of  Wilson's  eztendve  work  was  published 
in  a  coOeoted  and  genefally  aooesribfe  form  during  his  lifetime,  the 
chief  and  almost  sole  eacestions  being  the  two  volumes  of  poems 
leferxed  to,  the  Lights  attd  Shadows  of  Scottish  I4fe,  and  the  ii0- 
creations  o/Christopher  North  (1842),  a  selection  from  his  magazine 
articles.  These  volumes,  with  a  selected  edition  of  the  Ifoctes 
Ambrosianao  in  four  volumes,  and  of  further  essays,  critical  and 
iouttinarive.  also  in  four  volumes,  were  collected  and  reissued 
uniformly  after  his  death  by  his  son-in-law.  Professor  J.  F.  Ferrier. 
The  collection  is  very  far  from  exhaustive;  and,  though  it  un- 
doubtedly contains  most  of  his  best  work  and  comparativelv  little 
that  is  not  good,  it  has  been  complained,  with  some  justice,  that  the 
chaxacteristlc,  if  rather  inunature,  productions  of^  his  first  eight 
years  on  ^ackwood  are  almost  entixely  omitted,  that  the  Nocks  are 
given  but  in  part,  if  in  their  best  part,  and  that  at  least  three  long, 
important  and  interesting  scries  of  papen,  less  desultory  than  is 
his  wont,  on  "  Spenser."  on  "  British  Critics  "  and  the  set  called 
**  Pies  BoreateB,**  have  been  left  out  altogether.  Wilson's  char- 
acteristics are,  however,  uniform  enough,^  and  the  standaid  edition 
exhibits  them  sufficiently,  if  not  exhausdvely.  His  poems  may  be 
dismissed  at  once  as  httle  more  than  interesting.  They  would 
probably  not  have  been  written  at  all  if  he  had  not  been  a  young 
man  in  the  time  of  the  full  flood  of  the  Lake  school  influence.  His 
prose  tales  have  in  some  estimates  stood  higher,  but  will  hanlly 
survive  the  tests  of  universal  criticism.  It  is  as  an  essayist  and 
critic  of  the  most  abounding  geniality,  if  not  genius,  of  great  acute- 
ness,  of  extraordinary  eloquence  and  of  a  fervid  and  manifold 
sjrmpathy,  in  which  he  has  haidly  an  e9ual,  that  Christopher  North 
will  live.  His  defects  lay  in  the  directions  of  measure  and  of  taste 
properly  so  called,  that  is  to  say.'  of  the  modification  of  capricious 
likes  and  dislikes  by  reason  and  principle.  He  is  constantly  ex- 
aggerated, boisterous,  wanting  in  refinement.  But  these  are  the 
almost  necessary  defects  of  his  qualities  of  enthusiasm,  eloquence 
and  ^[enerous  feeling.  The  well-known  adaptation  of  phrase  in  which 
he  did  not  recant  but  made  up  for  numerous  earlier  attacks  on  Leigh 
Hunt,  "  the  Animosities  are  mortal^  but  the  Humanities  live  tor 
ever,"  shows  him  as  a  writer  at  hu  very  best,  but  not  without 
a  tittle  characteristic  touch  of  grandiosity  and  empluuns.  As  a 
Utctsry  critic,  aaa  sportsman,  as  a  lover  of  nature  and  as  a  convivial 
humorist,  he  is  not  to  be  shown  at  equal  advantage  in  miniature; 
but  almost  any  volume  of  his  miscellaneous  works  will  eadiibit  him 
at  full  length  m  one  of  these  capacities,  if  not  in  all. 

See  Christopher  North,  by  Mrs  Mary  Gordon,  his  daughter  (i86a); 
and  M»  Olipfaant,  Amiab  of  a  PiMisking  Houst;  mUiam  RUuh' 
wood  end  his  Sous  (1897). 

WIUON,  JAMBS  HARRnOH  (1837-  )>  American  cavalry 
soldier,  was  bom  at  Shawneetown,  lUinofs,  in  1837  and  entered 
West  Point  military  academy  in  1855,  graduating  in  x86o.  He 
was  app<»nted  to  the  engineer  branch  of  the  Unit^  States  army, 
served  in  the  Port  Royal  and  Fort  Pulaski  operations,  being 
breveted  major  for  his  gallant  conduct  at  Pulaski,  was  on 
M*CldQaii's  staff  at  Antietam  as  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  1862, 
and  as  a  topographical  engineer  on  the  headquarters  staff  of 
the  Army  of  the  Tennessee  during  the  Vicksburg  and  Chattanooga 
campaigns.  His  services  in  the  intricate  operations  before 
Vicksburg  were  rewarded  by  promotion  to  brigadier-general 
U.S.V.  In  1864  he  was  appointed  to  command  a  division  in 
Sheridan's  cavalry  corps,  and  played  a  distinguished  part  in  the 
cavahy  operations  of  the  4th  to  6th  of  May  during  the  battle 
of  the  Wademess  (for  which  he  was  breveted  colonel  U.S.A.), 
the  so-called  Richmond  Raid,  the  operations  on  the  Totopotomoy, 
&c.  Later  in  1864  he  commanded  the  cavalry  of  Thomas's 
army  in  Tennessee.  During  the  closing  operations  of  the  war 
he  led  a  cavalry  expedition  on  a  grand  scale  through  the  South- 
western states,  occupying  Sclma,  Montgomery  and  Macon,  and 
capturing  at  different  times  nearly  7000  prisoners,  including 
President  Davis.  He  was  promoted  major-general  of  volunteers 
and  breveted  major-general  U.S.A.  shortly  before  the  end  of 
the  war.  Returning  to  duty  in  the  regular  army  as  a  lieutenant- 
cokmei  of  infantry  for  some  years,  he  resigned  in  1870  and 
engaged  in  engineering  and  railway  construction.  In  1898, 
during  the  Spanish-American  War,  he  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  in  the  new  volunteer  army,  and  took  part  in  the  operations 
in  Porto  Rico.    He  served  in  the  China  expedition  of  1900  as  a 


brigadier-general  and  hi  190X  was  placed  on  fbe  retired  Bst  as  a 
brigadier-general  U.S.A. 

WILSON,  RICHARD  (17x4-1782),  En^ish  landscape  painter, 
was  bom  at  Pen^oes,  Montgomeiyshire,  where  his  father  was  a 
deigyman,  on  the  ist  of  August  17x4.  His  early  taste  for  art 
was  observed  by  a  relative  of  his  mother.  Sir  George  Wynne, 
who  in  X729  sent  him  to  London  to  study  under  Thomas  Wright, 
a  little-lmown  portrait  painter  of  the  time,  by  whom  he  was 
instructed  for  six  years.  He  then  started  on  his  own  account, 
and  was  soon  in  a  good  practice.  Among  his  commissions  was 
a  full-length  of  the  ptinct  of  Wales  and  the  duke  of  York,  painted 
for  their  tutor,  the  bishop  of  Norwich.  Examples  of  his  portraits 
may  be  studied  in  Greenwich  Hospital,  in  the  Garrick  Club, 
and  in -various  private  collections.  In  1749  Wilson  visited 
Italy,  where  he  spent  six  years.  He  had  previously  executed 
some  landscapes,  but  it  was  now  that  the  advice  of  Zuccarelli 
and  Joseph  Vemet  decided  him  to  adopt  this  department  of  art 
exclusively.  He  studied  Claude  and  Poussin,  but  retained  his 
own  indi^uality,  and  produced  some  admirable  views  of  Rome 
and  the  Campagna.  In  1 755  he  returned  to  EngUnd,  and  became 
one  of  the  &rst  of  English  landscape  painters.  "  Niobe,"  one 
of  his  most  powerful  works,  was  exhibited  at  the  Society  of 
Artists  in  1760.  On  the  establishment  of  the  Royal  Academy 
in  X768  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  original  members,  and 
he  was  a  regular  contributor  to  its  exhibitions  tiU  X78a  He 
frequently  executed  replicas  of  his  more  important  subjects, 
repeating  spme  of  them  several  times;  in  the  figures  whidi  he 
introduced  in  his  landscapes  he  was  occasionally  assisted  by 
Mortimer  and  Hayman.  During  his  lifetime  his  landscapes 
were  never  widely  popular;  his  temper  was  consequently 
embittered  by  neglect,  and  so  impoverished  was  he  that  he  was 
obliged  to  seclude  himself  in  an  obscure,  half-furnished  room  in 
Tottenham  Court  Road,  London.  In  1776,  however,  be  obtained 
the  post  of  librarian  to  the  Academy;  and  by  the  death  of  a 
brother  he  acquired  a  small  property  near  Uanferras,  Denbigh- 
shire, to  which  he  retired  to  spend  his  last  days,  and  where  he 
died  suddenly  in  May  X78S.  After  ha  death  his  fame  increased, 
and  in  18x4  about  seventy  of  his  works  were  exhibited  in  the 
British  Institution.  The  National  Gallery,  London,  contains 
nine  of  his  landscapes. 

The  worts  of  Wilson  are  skilled  and  leaned  compositions 
rather  than  direct  transcripts  from  nature.  His  landscapes  are 
treated  with  great  breadth,  and  with  a  power  of  generaUzation 
which  occasionally  led  to  a  disregard  of  detaiL  They  are  full 
of  classical  feeling  and  poetic  sentiment;  they  possess  noble 
qualities  of  colour,  and  of  ddicate  silvern  tone;  and  their 
handling  is  ^vigorous  and  easy,  the  work  of  a  painter  who  was 
thoroughly  master  of  his  materials. 

See  Studies  ond  Dssipu  6v  JOchard  Wilson^  dons  at  Rome  em  tho 
year  xjKa  (Oxford,  181 1);  T.  Wrnht,  Some  AccotnU  of  the  Hfe  ef 
Richard  Wilson  (London,  182^);  Thomas  Hasting  etchings  from 
the  Works  of  Richard  Wilson,  vnth  some  Memoirs  ofnts  Life  (London, 
1825).  Many  of  Wilson's  best  works  were  reproduoed  by  Woollett 
and  other  engravers  of  the  rime. 

WILSON,  ROBERT  (d.  x6oo),  English  actor  and  playwright, 
was  a  comedian  in  the  earl  of  Leicester's  company,  beginning 
with  its  establishment  in  X574,  and  from  X583  to  x  588  in  the 
Queen's  and  afterwards  in  Lord  Strange's  company.  He  wrote 
several  morality  plays.  In  his  Three  Ladies  of  London  (X584) 
he  has  the  episode  of  the  attempt  of  the  Jew  to  recover  his 
debt,  afterwards  adapted  by  Shakespeare  Ih  The  Mferchant  of 
Venice.  Another  Robert  Wilson  (i  579-16x0),  probably  his  son, 
was  one  of  Hcnslowe's  dramatic  hack-writers. 

WILSON,  SIR  ROBERT  THOMAS  (1777-1849),  British 
general,  was  a  son  of  the  painter  Benjamin  Wilson  (X72X-1788), 
and  obtained  a  commission  in  the  xsth  light  dragoons  m  1794, 
taking  part  in  the  famous  charge  at  Villers-en-Cauchics.  He 
was  one  of  eight  oncers  who  received  the  emperor's  commemora- 
tion medal  (of  which  only  nine  were  stmck),  the  order  of  Maria 
Theresa  and  the  dignity  of  Freiherr  of  the  Empire.  In  the 
campaigns  of  Tourcomg  and  Toumay  and  in  the  retreat  through 
Holland,  \\^son  repeatedly  distinguished  himself.  In  T796 
he  became  captain  by  purchase,  in   1798 _ he. served  as  a 


696 


WILSON,  T.— WIESON,  SIR  ERASMUS 


brigade-Bft|oi  duiing  the  fappresafam  of  tlie  Irifih  RebeUiaii,  and  m 
X 799  was  with  the  x  5th  in  the  Helder  e^qsedition.  Haviog  hi  x8oo 
purchased  a  majority  in  a  r^imoit  serving  in  the  Mediterranean 
he  was  sent  on  a  militaxy  mission  to  Vienna  in  that  year,  but 
returned  to  take  part  in:  the  battle  of  Alexandria.  In  x8os  he 
published  an  accbunt  of  the  expedition  to  Egypt,  which  was 
shortly  afterwards  tranabted  mto  French,  and  created  a  con- 
siderable impression  by  its  strictures  upon  French  officers* 
barbarity.  Wilspn  shortly  afterwards  produced  a  translation 
oC  General  Regnier's  work  on  the  same  campaign,  with  comments. 
Shortly  afterwards  Wilson  published  a  work  on  the  defecU  of 
the  British  army  system  which  is  remembered  as  the  first  protest 
against  flogging.  In  1804  he  bought  the  colonelcy  of  the  xQth 
light  dragoons^  in  x8os  exchanged  into  the  aoth,  and  in  x8o6 
served  with  the  20th  m  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  expedition.  In 
1807  he  was  employed  as  militaiy  attache  <rf  a  mission  to  the 
king  of  Prussia,  and  so  was  present  at  Eylau,  Heilsberg  and 
Friedland,  of  which  battles  he  published  an  account  in  x8xo. 
Returning  to  En^and  with  despatches  from  St  Petersburg  he 
reached  Iiondon  before  the  Russian  declaration  of  war  and  so 
gave  the  admiralty  twenty-four  hours'  start  in  the  operation 
at  sea.  In  the  early  part  of  the  Peninsular  War  Wilson  raised 
and  commanded  the  Lusitanian  Legion,  an  irregular  Portuguese 
corps  which  did  good  service  in  x8o8  and  1809  and  formed  the 
starting-point  of  Uie  new  Portuguese  army  organized  by  Beresford 
in  x8xo.  His  services  were  rewarded  by  knighthood,  a  colonelcy 
in  the  British  tinny  and  the  Portuguese  order  of  the  Tower  and 
Sword.  In  18x1,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  he  went 
to  Turkey,  and  in  x8i2  he  travelled  thence  to  Russia,  where 
be  was  attached  to  Kutiizov's  headquarters  during  the  pursuit 
of  the  retreating  French,  being  present  at  Malo-Jaroslavietz, 
Vyazma  and  Blrasnoye.  His  account  of  the  campaign,  published 
in  x86o,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  on  these  events.  He 
continued  to  serve  with  the  Russian  army  during  X813  and 
distinguished  himself  at  Ltitzen  and  Bautzen,  the  emperor 
Alexander  decorating  him  with  the  knighthood  of  the  St  George 
order  on  the  battlefidd.  He  was  promoted  major-general  in  the 
British  am^  about  the  same  time.  He  was  at  Dresden,  Kulm 
and  I^eipzig,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  last  great  battle 
so  niuch  that  Schwarzenberg  writing  to  the  British  ambassador 
at  Vienna  attributed  to  Wilson's  skill  a  large  part  in  the  successful 
issue  of  the  battle.  But  his  services  in  the  counsels  of  the  Allies 
were  still  more  important  on  account  of  the  confidence  reposed 
in  him  personally  by  the  allied  sovereigns.  But  Castlereagh, 
treating  Wilson  as  a  political  opponent,  removed  him  to  the 
minor  theatre  of  Italy,  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  British 
ambassador.  With  the  Austrian  Army  of  Italy  he  served  through 
the  campaign  of  1814.  In  x8i6  after  Waterioo  he  c^trived  the 
escape  of  one  of  Napoleon's  supporters,  condemned  to  death 
by  tiie  Restoration  govenmient,  and  was  imprisoned  for  three 
months  with  his  comrade  in  this  adventure.  Captain  Hely- 
Hutchinsqn  (3rd  earl  of  Donoughmore),  and  censured  by  the 
commander-in-chief  in  a  general  order.  In  X817  he  published 
The  MUiiary  and  PolUkal  Power  of  Russia,  in  x8i8  he  became 
member  of  parliament  for  Southwark  and  in  182 1  he  interposed 
between  the  mob  and  the  troops  on  the  occasion  of  Queen 
Caroline's  funeral,  for  which  his  political  opponents  secured  his 
dismissal  from  the  arm^,  without  compensation  for  the  price 
of  hisFcommissibns.  He  took  an  active  part  in  politics  on  the 
opposition  side,  and  also  spent  some  time  in  Spain  during  the 
wars  of  X822-23.  On  the  accession  of  William  IV.,  his  political 
services  in  the  formation  of  the  Canning  ministry  of  X827  were 
rewarded  by  reinstatement  in  the  army  with  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-generaL  But,  disapproving  of  the  Reform  bUl,  he 
resigned  his  place  in  the  Commons.  .He  was  promoted  general 
in  184X  and  appointed  governor  of  Gibraltar  in  1842.  ^  He  died 
in  iiondon  on  the  9th  of  May  1849. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned  above.  Wilson  left  a  diary  of  his 
gravels  and  experiences  in  1812-1814,  published  in  1861,  and  an 
incomplete  autobiography,  published  two  years  later. 

WILSON,  THOMAS  (c*  X525-X58X),  English  sUtesman  and 
critic»  the  son  of  Thomas  Wilson  of  Strubby,  in  Lincolnshire, 


was  bom  about  xs^S-    He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Kiss^ 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  joined  the  school  of  HHlrwiiitts  to 
whidi  Cheke,  Thomas  Smidi,  Walter  HaddonandodieabeloQSBd. 
He  graduated  B.A4  in  1546  and  M.A.  in  1549.    In  x  551  he 
produced,  in  oonjunctioii  with  Walter  Haddon,  a  Latin  life  of 
Henry  and  Charles  Brandon,  dukes  of  Suffolk.    His  earliest  work 
of  importance  was  The  Rule  oj  Reason,  4MUm»y»gfi  Ike  A.ne  of 
LopqucsdjortkinEnglishe  (zs5i),which  was  frequently  repainted. 
It  has  been  maintained  that  the  book  on  which  Wilson's  fame 
mainly  zests.  The  Arte  of  Rketorique,  was  printed  about  the  ssrce 
time,  but  this  is  probably  an  error:    the  first  edition  extazxt  is 
dated  January  X553.    It  is  the  earliest  systematic  work   of 
literary  criticism  existing  in  the  English  language.    Wilson 
threw  in  his  lot  with  the  Dudley  family,  and  when  they  fell,  he 
fled  to  the  Continent.    He  was  with  Sir  John  Cheke  in  Paulun 
in  X555-X557,  and  afterwards  at  Rome,  whither  in  1558  Queen 
Mary  wrote,  ordering  him  to  return  to  Kngiand  to  stand  his 
trial  as  a  heretic    He  refused  to  come,  but  was  arrested  hy  the 
Roman  Inquisition  and  tortured.    He  escaped,  and  fl<^   to 
Ferrara,  but  in  1560  he  was  once  more  in  London.    WHsoa 
became  Master  of  St  Ratherine's  Hospital  in  the  Tower,  and 
entered  parliament  in  January  1563.    In  1570  he  pubUsbed  a 
translation,  the  first  attempted  in  English,  of  the  Oiyntkiats 
and  Philippics  of  Demosthenes,  on  which  he  had  been  engaged 
ttnce  X5s6.    His  Discourse  upon  Usury  appeared  in  X572.     From 
XS74  to  X  577,  Wilson,  who  had  now  become  a  prominent  peaea 
in  the  diplomatic  world,  was  principally  engaged  on  embassio 
to  the  Low  Countries,  and  on  his  return  to  England  he  was  made 
a  privy  councillor  and  sworn  secretary  of  state;    Walsingfaaa 
was  his  colleague.    In  1580,  although  he  was  not  in  hcdy  orders. 
Queen  Elizabeth  made  Wilson  dean  of  Durham.    He  died  at 
St  Ktitherine's  Hospital  on  the  x6th  of  June  X58X,  and  was 
buried  next  day,  "  without  charge  or  pomp,'*  at  his  aprc» 
wish.    The  Arte  of  Rhetorique  gives  Wilson  a  high  plaoe  tmong 
the  earliest  artificers  of  English  style;   and  it  is  interesdsg  to 
see  that  he  was  opposed  to  pedantry  of  phrase,  and  above  aB 
to  a  revival  of  uncouth  medieval  forms  of  ^>eech,  and  encouraged 
asimpler  manner  of  prose  writing  than  was  genenliy  appreciated 
in  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century. 

WILSON,  THOMAS  (1663-1755),  English  bishop,  was  bom 
at  Burton,  Cheshire,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
He  was  ordained  in  1686,  and  became  curate  at  Newchurcfa 
Kenyon,  Lancashire.  In  1692  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to 
the  9th  earl  of  Derby,  who  in  X697  offered  him  the  bisbopnc 
of  Sodor  and  Man.  He  was  consecrated  b^op  in  X698.  His 
episcopate  was  marked  by  a  number  of  reforms  in  the  Isle  of 
Man.  New  churches  were  built,  libraries  founded  and  books 
were  printed  in  Manx,  his  Principles  and  Duties  of  CkrisHamty 
(London,  1707)  being  the  first  book  published  in  that  language. 
He  also  encouraged  farming,  and  set  the  example  of  planting 
fruit  and  forest  trees.  In  order  to  restore  discipline  in  the  island 
he  drew  up  in  1704  his  wcU-known  Ecclesiastical  Constitutions. 
The  judgments  of  his  courts  often  brought  him  into  conflict 
with  the  governors  of  the  island,  and  in  1722  he  was  even  im* 
prisoned  for  a  time  in  Castle  Rushen.  In  1737,  however,  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  civil  and  spiritual  courts  was  better  defined 
by  new  statutes,  the  lordship  of  the  island  having  passed  in 
1736  to  James  Murray,  2nd  duke  of  Atholl,  with  whom  Wilson 
had  no  personal  difficulties.  In  1749  on  Zinsendorfs  invitation 
he  accepted  the  title  of  Antistes—a  synonym  for  bishop— in  the 
Moravian  Church. 

A  life  of  Wilson,  by  John  Keble,  was  published  with  his  Wcrks 
(Oxford,  18A7-1863)  The  Sodor  and  Man  Theological  School  in 
the  Isle  of  Mam  is  called  in  his  memory  the  Bishop  Wilson  School. 

WILSON,  SIR  WILUAH  JANES  ERASMUS,  gmcrally 
known  as  Sir  Erasmus  Wilson  (1809-1884),  Bntish  surgeon 
and  philanthropist,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  25th  of  November 
X809,  studied  at  St  Bartholomew's  Hospital  in  London,  and 
at  Aberdeen,  and  early  in  life  became  known  as  a  skilful  operator 
and  dissector.  It  was  his  sympathy  with  the  poor  of  London 
and  a  suggestion  from  Thomas  Waklcy  of  the  Lmcei,  of  which 
^Wilson  acted  for  a  time  as  sub-etliior,  which  ftr&t  led  him  to  take 


— 1 


WILSON,  W.— WILTON 


697 


Up  ddn  duetefli  tf  a  special  study.  The  horrible  cases  of 
scrofula,  anaciftia.and  blood-poisoning  which  he  saw  made  him 
set  to  work  to  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  persons  so  afflicted, 
and  he  quickly  established  a  reputation  for  treating  this  class 
of  patient.  It  was  said  that  he  cured  the  rich  by  ordering  them 
to  gfve  up  luxuries;  the  poor,  by  prescribing  for  them  proper 
nourishment,  which  was  often  provided  out  of  his  own  pocket. 
In  t&c  opinion  of  one  of  his  biographers,  we  owe  to  Wilson  in 
great  measure  the  habit  of  the  daily  bath,  and  he  helped  very 
much  to  bring  the  Turkish  bath  into  use  in  Great  Britain.  He 
wrote  much  upon  the  diseases  which  specially  occupied  his 
attention,  and  his  books,  A  Healthy  Skin  and  Sludenl's  Book  of 
Diseases  of  the  Skin^  though  they  were  not  reoeived  without 
criticism  at  the  time  of  their  appearance,  long  remained  text- 
books of  their  subject.  He  visited  the  East  in  order  to  study 
leprosy,  Switzerland  that  he  might  investigate  the  causes  of 
goitre,  and  Italy  with  the  purpose  of  adding  to  his  knowledge 
of  the  skin  diseases  affecting  an  ill-nourished  peasantry.  He 
made  a  large  fortune  by  his  successful  practice  and  by  skilful 
investments,  and,  since  he  had  no  family,  he  devoted  a  great 
deal  of  his  money  to  charitable  and  educational  purposes.  He 
founded  in  1869  the  chair  and  museum  of  dermatology  in  the 
Koyal  College  of  Surgeons,  of  which  he  was  chosen  president  in 
1881,  and  which  just  before  his  death  awarded  him  its  honorary 
gold  medal,  founded  in  1800  and  only  six  times  previously 
awarded.  Ho  also  founded  a  professorship  of  pathology  at 
Aberdeen  University.  After  the  death  of  his  wife  the  bulk  of 
his  property,  some  £200,000,  went  to  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons.  In  1878  he  earned  the  thanks  of  the  nation,  upon 
different  grounds,  by  defraying  the  expense  of  bringing  the 
Egyptian  obelisk  called  Cleopatra's  Needle  from  Alexandria 
to  London,  where  it  was  erected  on  the  Thames  Embankment. 
The  British  government  had  not  thought  it  worth  the  expense 
of  transportation.  He  was  knighted  by  Queen  Victoria  in  1881, 
and  died  at  Westgate-on-Sea  on  the  7th  of  August  1884. 

WUJBON,  WOODBOW  (1856-  ),  American  educationist, 
was  bom  in  Staunton,  Virginia,  on  the  28th  of  December  1856. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1879,  studied  law  at  the  University 
of  Virginia  in  1 879-1 880,  practised  law  in  Atlanta  in  1882-1883, 
and  received  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  at  Johns  Hopkins  University 
in  1886,  his  thesis  being  on  Congressional  Government  (18S5; 
and  often  reprinted).  He  was  associate  professor  of  history 
and  political  economy  at  Br3m  Mawr  in  1885-1888  and  at 
Wesley  an  University  in  1 888-1890;  professor  of  jurisprudence 
and  political  economy  at  Princeton  in  1890- 1895,  of  juris- 
prudence in  1895-1897,  and  subsequently  of  jurisprudence  and 
politics;  and  in  1902  he  became  president  of  Princeton  Univer- 
sity, being  the  first  layman  to  hold  that  office.  He  retired  in 
1910,  and  was  elected  Democratic  governor  of  New  Jersey. 
His  administration  of  the  University  was  marked  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  "preceptorial''  system,  by  the  provision  of 
dormitories  and  college  eating-haUs  for  members  of  the  lower 

classes,  and  by  the  development  of  the  graduate  school. 

He  wrote:  The  State:  Elements  of  Historical  and  Practical 
Politics,  Sketch  of  Institutional  History  and  AdrntnistraOon  (1889); 
The  Slate  and  Federal  CovemmenS  of  the  Vniud  States  (18^1); 
Dirision  and  Reunion^  j82Q-i88g  (1893)  in  the  "  Epochs  of  American 
History  "  series;  An  Old  Master  and  Other  Political  Essays  (1893): 
Mere  Literature  and  Other .  Essays  (1893);  George  Washington 
(1896),  an  excellent  biography;  the  popular  History  of  the  American 
People  (1902);  Constitutional  Government  in  the  (United  States 
C1908),  being  Columbia  Univeraity  Lectures:  and  in  the  seventh 
vcrfume  of  toe  Cambridge  Modem  History  the  chapter  on  "  State 
Rights.  1850-1860." 

WILTONt  a  market  town  and  municipal  borough  in  the  Wilton 
parliamentary  division  of  Wiltshire,  England,  86  m.  W.  by  S. 
of  London,  on  the  London  &  South- Western  and  Great  Western 
railways.  Pop.  (1901)  2203.  It  lies  among  the  pastures  beside 
the  rivers  Nadder  and  Wylye.  The  church  of  St  Mary  and  St 
Nicholas  was  built  in  1844  by  Lord  Herbert  of  Lea,  in  a  Roman- 
esque style,  richly  adorned  with  marbles  and  mosaics.  The 
central  entrance  is  upheld  by  twisted  columns  based  upon  stone 
lions.  The  belfty  is  detadied.  Wilton  House,  a  little  to  the 
loath,  was  founded  by  William  Herbert,  first  earl  of  Pembroke 


by  the  second  creation,  on  the  estates  of  the  diasolved  convent, 

which  were  granted  him  by  Heniy  VIII. 

Tradition  sayB^  that  Shakespeare  and  his  company  played  here 
before  James  I.  in  1603,  and  the  house  is  rich  in  memories  of  Sir 
Philip  Sidney  the  poet  and  soldier,  of  the  artists  Holbein  and 
Vanayck,  of  the  dramatists  Jonson  and  Masunger,  whose  father 
was  steward  here,  and  of  Inigo  Jones  the  architect.  The  first  folio 
edition  of  Shakcsjpeare  was  dedicated,  seven  years  after  the  poet's 
death,  to  the  thira  carl  and  his  brother.  In  style  Wilton  House  is 
Italian  of  the  i6th  century,  with  a  porch  added  by  Holbein.  The 
garden  front  was  rebuilt  and  other  changes  made  by  the  advice  of 
Charles  I.,  a  frequent  visitor;  and  many  subsequent  alterations 
were  made.  The  art  collections  include  the  marbles  gathered 
together  by  the  eighth  earL 

Carpet-making  forms  the  main  industry  of  Wilton;  the 
most  famous  fabrics  being  those  known  as  Wilton  carpets; 
Saxony  carpets  made  of  short-staple  wool;  and  the  rich  and 
durable  Axminsters,  long  woven  by  hand  at  Axminster  in 
Devonshire.  It  is  also  an  important  centre  for  the  sale  of  sheep. 
The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and  12  councillors. 
Area,  191 5  acres. 

A  chantry  was  founded  here  about '  a.d.  800,  afterwards 
changed  into  a  priory  of  Benedictine  sisters,  and  refounded  by 
Alfred.  In  968  WuU trude,  a  mistress  of  King  Edgar,  became 
abbess;  and  the  same  office  was  declined  by  her  daughter 
Edith,  who  died  at  twenty-three.  Miracles,  it  was  said,  were 
worked  by  Edith's  remains,  and  she  became  patron  saint  of  the 
convent,  which  afterwards  gave  shelter  to  many  noble  ladies 
and  survived  until  the  Dissolution.  Its  abbess  was  a  baroness 
of  England.  Antiquaries  have  seen  in  Wilton  the  capital  of 
a  British  kingdom.  It  was  certainly  the  chief  town  of  the 
Wilsaetas,  or  men  of  Wilts,  whom  Cynric  the-  Saxon  leader 
crushed  in  556.  It- afterwards  became  a  residence  of  the  Wessex 
kings;  and  here,  in  871,  Alfred  was  severely  defeated  by  the 
Danes.  Wilton  was  burned  in  1003  by  Swe3m,  the  Danish 
king.  After  the  Conquest  it  ranked  among  the  richest  of  royal 
boroughs.  In  1x41  Qiuxn  Matilda  celebrated  Easter  here  with 
great  pomp,  and  two  years  later  Stephen,  who  came  to  found 
a  castle,  was  driven  off  by  her  adherents.  The  prosperity  of 
Wilton  began  to  fail  when  Icknicld  Street,  the  great  highway 
of  commerce,  was  diverted  to  pass  through  Salisbury  in  1224; 
and  its  decline  was  hastened  by  the  plague,  by  which  a  third 
of  the  townsfolk  were  swept  away  in  1349. 

Wilton  {Wyllon,  Wiltune)  was  a  seat  of  the  West  Saxon  kings 
and  a  prosperous  town  until  the  removal  thence  in  J075  of  the 
seat  of  the  bishop  of  Sherborne  to  Sarum.  The  excessive  number 
of  markets  held  at  the  latter  town  in  the  13  th  centuiy  caused 
its  further  decline  into  a  poor  and  unimportant  place.  Sweyn 
burnt  and  sacked  it  in  1093,  consequently  under  Edward  the 
Confessor  it  rendered  only  £22.  However,  Domesday  presents 
it  as  a  valuable  royal  borough  held  in  farm  by  the  burgesses  for 
£50.  Frmn  1204  onwards  Wilton  figures  in  various  grants. 
Richard,  earl  of  ComwaU,  obtained  it  from  Henry  III.,  and 
William,  earl  of  Pembroke,  finally  from  Elizabeth.  The  first 
charter  given  by  Henry  I.  (probably  in  iioi)  granted  franchises 
to  the  burgesses  of  the  merchant  gild  and  company  of  Wilton 
as  enjoyed  by  London  and  Winchester,  and  was  confirmed  by 
succeeding  monarchs  from  Henry  II .  to  Henry  VI.  The  corpora- 
tion consisted  in  1350  of  a  mayor,  recorder,  5  aldermen,  3 
capital  burgesses,  xi  common  councilmen  and  other  officers, 
the  mayor  being  the  returning  officer.  Two  members  were 
returned  to  parliament  from  1293  to  1832  and  one  from  1832 
to  1885,  at  which  date  Wilton  lost  its  separate  representation. 

In  14x4  Henry  V.  granted  a  fair  on  July  ai  and  22.  This 
was  cancelled  in  14x6  and  another  substituted  on  July  22  and 
the  three  preceding  days.  Two  yearly  fairs  were  obtained  by 
the  burgesses  from  Henxy  VII.  for  four  days  from  April  23 
and  September  i.  In  1792  the  fair  days  were  November  13, 
September  12  and  May  4,  the  two  latter  are  still  held,  that  in 
September  being  one  of  the  largest  sheep  fairs  in  the  west  of 
England.  Henry  III.  granted  three  markets  weekly  on  Monday, 
Wednesday  and  Friday,  and  Henry  VI.,  in  I433f  on«  on 
Wednesday.  _;^The  hitter  was  still  held  in  1825,  but  had  ceased 
in  i888. 


698 


WILTSHIRE 


WILTSHIRE  [Wilts],  a  soutb-ivesteni  county  of  England, 
bounded  N.W.  and  N.  by  Gloucestershire,  N.E.  and  E.  by 
Berkshire,  S.C  by  Hampshire,  S.W.  and  S.  by  Dorsetshire, 
and  W.  by  Somersetshire.  The  area  is  1374*9  sq.  m.  A  great 
upland  covers  two-thirds  o£  the  county,  comprising,  in  the 
north-east,  Marlborough  Downs,  with  Savernake  Forest;  in 
the  centre,  the  broad  imdulating  sweep  of  Salisbury  Plain; 
and  in  the  south,  the  more  varied  bills  and  dales  of  the  Naddcr 
watershed,  the  vale  of  Chalk  and  Cranbome  Chase.  Large 
tracts  of  the  Chalk  are  over  600  ft.  above  the  sea,  riung  in  many 
parts  into  steep  and  picturesque  escarpments.  Several  peaks 
attain  an  altitude  of  900  ft.,  and  Inkpen  Beacon,  on  the 
borders  of  Berkshire,  Wiltshire  and  Hampshire,  reaches  ion  ft. 
Scattered  in  thousands  over  the  downs  lie  huge  blocks  of  siUcious 
Tertiary  grits,  called  sarscn  stones  or  grey  wethers,  which  were 
used  by  the  primitive  buildera  of  Stonebcnge  and  Avebury. 
The  underlying  Greensand  is  exposed  in  the  deeper  valleys  of  the 
Chalk,  such  as  the  vale  of  Pewsey,  dividing  Salisbury  Plain  from 
Marlborough  Downs,  and  the  vale  of  Chalk,  dividing  the  Nadder 
w.estwaTd  f  roni  the  heights  of  Cranbome  Chase.  One  of  the  most 
charming  features  of  the  county  is  its  fertile  and  well-wooded 
valleys.  Three  ancient  forests  remain:  Cranbome  Chase,  which 
extends  into  Dorset,  was  a  royal  deer-park  as  early  as  the  reign 
of  John,  and,  like  Savemake  Forest,  contains  many  nioble  old 
oaks  and  beeches.  The  main  part  of  the  New  Forest  belongs  to 
Hampshire;  but  No  Man's  Land  and  Hampworth  Common, 
its  outlying  heaths  and  coppices,  encroach  upon  the  south-eastern 
comer  of  Wilts.  Bentley  Wood,  5  m.  £.  of  Sidisbury,  and  the 
Great  Ridge  and  Grovcly  Woods  between  the  Nadder  and 
Wylye,  are  fine  uplands  parks.  There  is  no  great  sheet  of  water, 
but  the  reservoir  near  Swindon,  and  the  lakes  of  Longleat, 
Stourton  and  FonthiU  in  the  south-west  of  Earl  Stoke  near 
Westbury,  and  of  Bowood,  Corsham  and  Seagry  near  Chippen- 
ham, deserve  mention  for  the  beauty  of  their  scenery.  The 
upper  reaches  of  the  Thames  skirt  the  north-eastern  border, 
and  three  other  considerable  rivers  drain  the  Wiltshire  Downs. 
The  Kennet,  rising  west  of  Marlborough,  winds  eastward  into 
Berkshire  and  meets  the  Thames  at  Reading.  The  Lower  or 
Bristol  Avon  flows  from  its  source  among  the  Cotteswolds  in 
southem  Gloucestershire,  past  Malmesbury,  Chippenham, 
Melksham  and  Bradford,  where  it  curves  north-eastward  into 
Somerset,  finally  falling  into  the  Bristol  Channel.  Besides 
many  lesser  tributaries  Tt  receives  from  the  south  the  Frome, 
which  forms  for  about  5  m.  the  ix>undary  between  Wilts  and 
Somerset.  The  East  or  Christchurch  Avon,  which  rises  near 
Bishops  Cannings  in  the  centre  of  the  county,  flows  east  and 
south  into  Hampshire,  and  enters  the  sea  at  Christchurch. 
Close  to  Salisbury  it  is  joined  by  the  united  streams  of  the 
Nadder  and  the  Wylye;  by  the  Ebble,  which  drains  the  vale  of 
Chalk;  and  by  the  Bourne,  which  flows  douth  by  west  from  its 
head  near  Ludgershall. 

Geology. — As  has  been  said,  about  two-thtrds  of  the  surface  of 
Wilts  is  occupied  by  a  ^at  Chalk  upland.  Cropping  out  from 
beneath  the  Chalk  is  a  fringe  of  the  Seibomian — Upper  Greensand 
and  Gault — the  former  is  well  exposed  in  the  vale  o(  Pewsey,  west 
of  Devizes,  and  along  the  margins  of  the  vale  of  Wardour;  it  fomis 
a  broad,  hilly  tract  from  Mere  through  Stourton  to  Warminster. 
The  Gault  Clay  runs  regularly  at  the  foot  of  the  Upper  Greensand ; 
it  is  excavated  in  several  places  for  brick-making.  The  Lower 
Greensand,  which  oversteps  the  underlying  formations,  appears  from 
beneath  the  Gault  at  Poulshot  and  follows  the  same  line  of  outcrop 
northwards;  a  small  outlier  at  Seend  is  worked  for  the  iron  it 
contains.  About  one-third  of  the  county  lying  on  the  north-west 
side  of  the  Chalk  downs,  including  a  portion  of  the  vale  of  the 
White  Hone,  b  occupied  by  Jurassic  rocks.  The  Upper  Lias— the 
oldest  formation  in  the  county — ^forms  the  floor  of  the  valley  near 
Box;  it  is  followed  by  the  overlyinc  Inferior  Oolite  and  Fuller's 
Earth.  Then  succeeds  the  Great  Oolite  Series,  which  includes  the 
famous  building-stones  of  Bath,  quarried  at  Winsley  Down,  near 
Bradford,  and  at  Box,  Corsham  Down  and  other  places  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. Above  the  freestones  near  Bradford  comes  the  Bradford 
clay,  with  the  well-known  fossil  Afnocrinus  or  pear-encrinite,  followed 
by  the  Forest  Marble  limestones  and  clays.  The  rubbly  Combrash 
crops  at  Westwood,  Trowbridge,  and  Malmesbury.  Further  east 
lies  the  outcrop  of  Chcfordian  strata,  comprising  the  snndy  Kdlaways 
beds  and  overlying  Oxford  Clay,  together  forming  a  broad  low-lying 
tract  in  which  stand  Trowbridge,  Melksham,  Chippenham  and 


Cricklade.    Rising  up  from  the  eMtem  nunjh  oC  the  Oxfonllati 

vale  is  the  irregular  scarp  formed  bv  the  CoraHian  oolitic  Umestoiafea 
and  marls.  The  iron  ores  of  Westbury  are  obtained  in  this  forma- 
tion. Another  clay-bottomed  vale  lies  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Corallian  ground,  from  near  Calne  to  Swindon,  where  it  is  exploited 
for  bricks.  It  appears  also  between  Seend,  Coubtmi  and  We»t- 
bury;  also  between  Mere  and  Semley.  About  the  former  place 
it  is  brought  into  apposition  with  Cretaceous  rocks  through  the 
agency  of  an  east  to  west  fault.  At  Tisbury  and  near  Potteme  are 
small  outcrops  of  Portlandian  rocks  which  yield  the  familiar  building;, 
stones  of  Tiwury  and  Chilmark.  Limestones  and  clays  of  Purbeclr 
age  lie  in  the  vale  of  Wardour  about  Teffont  Evias.  At  Dinton  in 
the  same  vale  the  Wealden  formation  just  makes  its  appearance. 

In  the  south-eastern  comer  of  the  county  there  are  tracts  of 
Tertiary  Reading  Beds  and  London  Clay  east  of  Downton  and  on 
the  Clarendon  Hills;  these  are  covered  by  Bagshot  Beds  at  Alder- 
bury  and  Grinstead,  also  on  Hampworth  Common.  Outliers  oil 
Reading  Beds  and  London  Gay  occur  about  Great  Bedwin.;  the 
sarscn  stones  previously  referred  to  represent  the  last  remnants  of 
a  mantle  of  Tertiary  rocks  which  formeHy  covered  the  district. 
Here  and  there  drift  gravels  and  brick  earths,  besides  low-level  river 
giavels,  rest  upon  the  older  rocks* 

AgricuUure. — Some  five-sixths  of  the  total  area,  a  hi^b  proportion, 
is  under  cultivation,  but  a  large  amount  of  this  is  in  permanent 
pasture.  The  soil,  a  heavy  reddish  loam,  with  a  subsoil  of  broken 
stones,  lathe  north-west,  but  lighter  in  the  chalk  reeion,  is  essentially 
that  of  a  pastoral  country,  although  there  are  wide  tracta  of  ricKo* 
land,  suitable  for  wheat  and  beans.  Oats,  however,  are  the  largest 
grain  crop.  There  is  a  small  acreage  dassifieid  as  hill  pasture.  The 
green  crops  consist  mainly  of  turnips,  mangolds  and  swedes  Bacon- 
curing  is  carried  on.  Large  numbers  oC  sheep  are  bred  on  the 
downs,  and  datiy-farming  is  practised  in  the  north-west.  There  are 
manufactures  01  condensed  milk.  An  agricultural  college  is  est^ 
blished  at  Downton. 

Manufactures. — ^A  majority  of  the  hands  employed  in  factories 
and  workshops  are  occupied  in  the  kxomotive  works  of  the  Great 
Western  railway  at  Swindon.  There  are  also  large  engineering 
works  at  Devizes.  Cloth  is  still  woven,  though  in  greatly  diminished 
quantities,   at   Trowbridge,    Melksham,    Chippenham   and   other 

6 laces  where  water-power  is  available.     Carpets  are  woven  at 
/ilton,  haircloth  ana  coco-nut  fibre  at  Melksham,  silk  at  Malmes- 
bury, Mere  and  Warminster.    Portland  and  Bath  stone  are  quarried 
for  building  purposes,  while  iron  ore  from  mines  near  Westbiay  is 
smelted  in  that  town. 

Communications. — Three  great  railway  lines  traverse  Wkshire 
from  E.  to  W.,  throwing  out  a  number  ot  branch  lines  to  the  brger 
towns.  In  the  N.  the  Great  Western  main  line  passes  tbrcwgh 
Swindon  on  its  way  from  London  to  Bath.  A  second  line  of  the  same 
system  runs  also  to  Bath  from  Hungerford,  by  way  of  Devizes. 
South  of  Salisbury  Plain  the  South-Westem  main  line  goes  through 
Salisbury  and  the  southern  quarter  of  Wilts  on  its  way  into  Somerset. 
The  chief  branch  line  is  that  between  Salisbury  and  Westbury  on 
the  Great  Western,  The  Midland  &  South-Western  Junction  rail- 
way runs  north  from  Andover  by  Swindon,  Cricklaae  and  Ciren- 
cester. Swindon,  Salisbury  and  Westbury  are  the  three  centres  of 
railway  trafiic.  The  Avon  is  navigable  as  far  as  Salisbury,  and 
goods  are  carried  on  the  Thames  A  Severn  Canal  in  the  N.E., 
and  on  the  Kennet  &  Avon  Canal  across  Salisbury  Plain.  These 
waterways  were  formerly  connected  by  a  branch  of  the  Berks  St 
Wilts  Canal,  which  runs  S.W.  from  Berkshire,  through  Swindon  and 
Melicsham,  but  was  closed  in  1899. 

Thd  area  of  the  ancient  county  is  879,943  acres,  with  a  popula- 
tion in  1891  of  264,997  f^nd  i"  ^9°^  ^^  373,869.  The  area  of  the 
administrative  county  is  864,105  acres.  The  county  contains 
29  hundreds.  The  municipal  boroughs  are — Calne  (pop.  3457). 
Chippenham  (5074),  Devizes  (6532),  Malmesbury  (2854),  Marl- 
borough (3887),  Salisbury,  a  city  and  the  county  town  (17,117), 
Swindon  (45,006),  Wilton  (2203).  The  urban  districts  are — 
Bradford-on-Avon  (4514), Melksham  (24  50)  .Trowbridge  (11,526). 
Warminster  (s.S47).  Westbury  (3305).  Other  small  towns  are 
Cricklade  (1517),  Downton  (1786),  Highworth  (2047),  Merc 
(1977),  Pewsey  (172a),  Wootton  Bassett  (2258).  The  counly 
is  in  the  western  circtiit,  and  assisses  are  held  at  Salisbury  and 
Devizes.  It  has  one  court  of  quarter  sessions,  and  Is  divided  into 
t6  petty  ses»onal  divinons.  The  boroughs  of  Devices  and 
Salisbury  have  separate  courts  of  quarter  sessions  and  commis- 
sions of  the  peace,  and  the  borough  of  Marlborough  has  a  separate 
commission  of  the  peace.  There  are  33  5  civil  parishes.  Wfltshire 
is  mainly  in  the  diocese  of  Salisbury,  but  a  considerable  part  is 
in  that  of  Bristol,  and  small  parts  in  those  of  Gloucester,  Oxford 
and  Winchester.  It  contains  329  ecclesiastical  parishes  or 
districts,  wholly  or  in  part.  The  county  is  divided  into  five 
parliamentary  divisions,  each  returning  one  member-Nortbera 
or  Cricklade,  North-western  or  Chippenham,  Westera  or  Weai- 


—  1 


WILTSHIRE 


699 


bmy,  Etston  or  Dcfirlxes  and  Southern  or  Hilton.  It  also 
contains  the  parliamcntaiy  borough  of  Salisbury,  returning  one 
member. 

History, — ^The  English  conquest  of  the  district  now  known 
as  Wiltshire  began  in  553  with  the  victory  of  Cynric  at  Old 
Sarum,  by  which  the  way  was  opened  to  Salisbury  Plain.  Four 
years  later,  pushing  his  way  through  the  vale  of  Pewsey,  Cynric 
extended  the  limits  of  the  West  Saxon  kingdom  to  Uie  Marl- 
borough Downs  by  a  victory  at  Barbury  Hill  At  this  period 
the  district  south  of  the  Avon  and  the  Nadder  was  occupied 
by  dense  woodland,  the  relics  of  which  survive  in  Cranbome 
Chase,  and  the  first  wave  of  West  Saxon  colonization  was  chiefly 
confined  to  the  valleys  of  the  Avon  and  the  Wylye,  the  little 
township  of  Wilton  which  arose  in  the  latter  giving  the  name 
of  Wilsaetan  to  the  new  settlers.  By  the  9th  century  the 
district  had  acquired  a  definite  administrative  and  territorial 
organization,  Walstaxi,  ealdorman  of  the  Wilsaetan,  being 
mentioned  as  early  as  800  as  repelling  an  attempted  invasion 
of  the  Mercians.  Moreover,  "  Wiltunscire  **  is  mentioned  by 
Asser  In  878,  in  which  year  the  Danes  established  their  head- 
quarters at  Chippenham  and  remained  there  a  year,  plundering 
the  surrounding  country.  In  the  time  of  i£thelstan  mints 
existed  at  Old  Sarum,  Malmesbury,  Wilton,  Cricklade  and 
Marlborough.  Wilton  and  Salisbury  were  destroyed  by  the 
Danish  invaders  under  Swe3m  in  1003,  and  in  X015  the  district 
was  harried  by  Canute. 

With  the  redistribution  of  estates  after  the  Conquest  more 
than  two'fiflhs  of  the  county  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  church; 
the  possessions  of  the  crown  covered  one-fifth;  while  among 
the  chief  lay  proprietors  were  Edward  of  Salisbury,  William, 
count  of  Ewe,  Ralph  de  Mortimer,  Aubrey  de  Vcre,  Robert 
Fitzgerald,  Miles  Crispin,  Robert  d'Oily  and  Osbern  Giflard. 
The  first  oarl  of  Wiltshire  after  the  Conquest  was  William  le 
Scrope,  who  received  the  honour  in  1397.  The  title  subsequently 
passed  to  Sir  James  Butler  in  1449,  Sir  John  Strafford  in  1470, 
Sir  Thomas  Boleyn  in  1539,  and  in  1550  to  the  Paulett  family. 
The  Benedictine  foundations  at  WUton,  Malmesbury  and 
Amesbury  existed  before  the  Conquest;  the  Augustinian  house 
at  Bradenstoke  was  founded  by  Walter  d'Evrcux  in  1142; 
that  at  Lacock  by  Ela,  countess  of  Salisbury,  in  1232;  that  at 
Longleat  by  Sir  John  Vernon  before  1272.  The  Cluniac  priory 
of  Monkton  Farleigh  was  founded  by  Humphrey  de  Bohun  in 
II 25;  the  Cistercian  house  at  KIngswood  by  William  de  Berkeley 
in  1139;  and  that  of  Stanley  by  the  Empress  Maud  in  11 54. 

Of  the  forty  Wiltshire  hundreds  mentioned  in  the  Domesday 
Survey,  Selkley,  Ramsbury,  Bradford,  Mclksham,  Calne, 
Whorwellsdown,  Westbury,  Warminster,  Heytesbury,  Kinward- 
itone,  Ambresbury,  Underditch,  Furstfield,  Alderbury  and 
Downton  remain  to  the  present  day  practically  unaltered  in 
name  and  extent;  Thomgrave,  Dunelawe  and  Cepeham  hundreds 
form  the  modern  hundred  of  Chippenham;  Malmesbury  hundred 
represents  the  Domesday  hundreds  of  Cicemethom  and  Sterchdce, 
which  were  held  at  farm  by  the  abbot  of  Malmesbury;  High-  I 
worth  represents  the  Domesday  hundreds  of  Crechelade,  Scipe, 
Wurde  and  Staple;  Kingbridge  the  hundreds  of  Chingbridge, 
Blachegrave  and  Thomhylle;  Swanborough  the  hundreds  of 
Kugeberge,  Stodfaxl  and  Swaneberg;  Branch  the  hundreds 
of  Branchesberge  and  Dolesfeld;  Cawden  the  hundreds  of 
Cawdon  and  Cadworth.  A  noticeable  feature  in  the  14th  century 
1$  the  aggregation  of  church  manors  into  distinct  hundreds, 
at  the  court  of  which  their  ecclesiastical  owners  required  their 
tenants  to  do  suit  and  service.  Thus  the  bishop  of  Winchester 
had  a  separate  hundred  called  Kurwel  Bishop,  afterwarids 
absorbed  in  Downton  hundred;  the  abbot  of  Damerham  had 
that  of  Damerham;  and  the  prior  of  St  Swithin's  that  of  Elstub, 
under  each  of  which  were  included  manors  situate  in  different 
parts  of  the  county. 

The  meeting-place  of  Swanborough  hundred  was  at  Swan- 
borough  Tump,  a  hillock  in  the  parish  of  Manningford  Abbots 
idctitificd  as  the  moot -place  mentioned  in  the  will  of  King  Alfred; 
that  of  Malmesbury  was  at  Colcpark;  that  of  Bradford  at  Brad- 
ford Leigh;  that  of  Warminster  at  Hey  Oak,  about  2  m.  south  of 


Warminster,  near  Soutfaleig^  Wood.  The  vUte  court  for  Wilt- 
shire was  held  at  Wilton,  and  until  1446  the  shrievalty  was 
enjoyed  ex  officio  by  the  castellans  of  Old  Sarum.  Edward  of 
Salisbury  was  sheriff  at  the  time  of  the  Domesday  Survey, 
and  the  office  remained  hoeditary  in  his  family,  descending  to 
William  Ixmgespee  by  his  marriage  with  Ela,  great-grand- 
daughter qH  Edward.  In  the  xjth  century  the  assizes  were  held 
at  Wilton,  Malmesbury  and  New  Sarum. 

On  the  division  of  the  West  Saxon  see  in  703  Wiltshire  was 
included  in  the  diocese  of  Sherborne,  but  in  905  a  separate 
diocese  of  Wilton  was  foimded,  the  see  being  fixed  alternately 
at  Ramsbury,  Wilton  and  Sunning  in  Berkshire.  Shortly 
befora  the  Conqoest  Wflton  was  reunited  to  the  Sherborne 
diocese,  and  by  the  synod  of  107  5^x076  the  see  was  transfexred 
to  Salisbury.  The  archdeaconries  of  Wiltshire  and  Salisbury  are 
mentioDed  in  1180;  in  199  x  the  former  included  the  deaneries 
of  Avd>iiry,  Malmesbury,  Marlborough  and  Cricklade  within 
this  county,  and  the  latter  the  deaneries  of  Amesbury,  Potteme, 
Wilton,  Chalke  and  Wylye.  In  1535  the  archdcaconxy  of 
Salisbury  inchided  the  additional  deanery  of  Salisbury,  while 
Potteme  deanery  bad  been  transferred  to  the  archdeaconry  of 
Wiltshire.  The  deaneries  of  the  archdeaconry  of  Salisbury  have 
remained  unaltered;  Wiltshire  archdeaconry  now  includes  the 
deaneries  of  Avebury,  Marlborough  and  Potteme;  and  the 
deaneries  of  Chippenham,  Cricklade  and  Malmesbury  form  part 
of  the  archdeaconry  and  diocese  of  Bristol. 

The  inhabitants  of  Wiltshire  have  alwajrs  been .  addicted 
to  industrial  rather  than  warlike  pursuits,  and  the  political 
history  of  the  county  is  not  remarkable.  In  1086,  after  the 
completion  of  the  Domesday  Survey,  Salisbury  was  the  scene 
of  a  great  council,  in  which  all  the  landholders  took  oaths  of 
allegiance  to  the  king,  and  a  council  for  the  same  purpose 
assembled  at  Salisbury  in  xii6.  At  Clarendon  in  1x66  was 
drawn  up  the  assize  which  remodelled  the  provincial  administra- 
tion of  justice.  Parliaments  were  held  at  Marlborough  in  X267 
and  at  Salisbury  in  1328  and  1384.  During  the  wars  of  Stephen's 
reign  Salisbury,  Devizes  and  Malmesbury  were  garrisoned  by 
Roger,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  for  the  empress,  but  in  1138  Stephen 
seized  the  bishop  and  captured  Devizes  Castle.  In  12 16  MarU 
borough  Castle  was  surrendered  to  Louis  by  Hu|^  de  NevUie. 
Hubert  de  Burgh  escaped  in  x  333  from  Devizes  Castle,  where  he 
had  been  imprisoned  in  the  previous  year.  In  the  Civil  War 
of  the  X7th  century  Wiltshire  actively  supported  the  parlia- 
mentary cause,  splaying  a  spirit  of  violent  anti-Catholicism, 
and  the  efforts  of  the  marquess  of  Hertford  and  of  Lord  Seymour 
to  raise  a  party  for  the  king  met  with  vigorous  resistance  from 
the  inhabitants.  The  Royalists,  however,  made  some  progress 
in  the  eariy  stage  of  the  struggle,  Marlborough  being  captured 
for  the  king  in  1642,  while  in  1643  the  forces  of  the  earl  of  Essex 
were  routed  by  Charies  I.  and  Prince  Rupert  at  Aldboume,  and 
in  the  same  year  Waller,  after  failing  to  capture  Devizes,  was 
defeated  in  a  skirmish  at  Roundway  Down.  The  year  1645 
saw  the  rise  of  the  "  Clubmen  "  of  Dorset  and  Wiltshire,  whose 
sole  object  was  peace;  they  systematically  punished  any  member 
of  either  party  discovered  in  acts  of  plunder.  Devizes,  the  last 
stronghold  of  the  Royalists,  was  captured  by  Cromwell  in  1645. 
In  1655  ^  rising  organized  on  behalf  of  the  king  at  Salisbury 
was  dispersed  in  the  same  year. 

At  the  time  of  the  Domesday  Survey  the  industrial  pursuits 
of  Wiltshire  were  almost  exclusively  agricultural;  390  milU 
are  mentioned,  and  vineyards  at  ToUard  and  Lacock.  In  the 
succeeding  centuries  sheep-farming  was  vigorously  pursued, 
and  the  Cistercian  monasteries  of  Kingswood  and  Stanlcgh 
exported  wool  to  the  Florentine  and  Flemish  markets  in  the  i3ih 
and  14th  centuries.  Wiltshire  at  this  time  was  already  reckoned 
among  the  chief  of  the  clothing  coxmties,  the  principal  centre^ 
of  the  industry  being  Bradford,  Malmesbury,  Trowbridge, 
Devizes  and  Chippenham.  In  the  x6th  century  Devizes  was 
noted  for  its  blankets,  Warminster  had  a  famous  com-markct, 
and  cheese  was  extensively  made  in  north  Wiltshire.  Amesbury 
was  famous  for  its  tobacco  pipes  in  the  i6th  century.  The 
clothing  trade  went  tUfough  a  period  of  gaeat  depxtssini  in.  tiw 


700 

I7tli  nntDix.  putty  owtng  to 


WIMBLEDON 

iftks  of  plAfU«, 


lulianH 


il,  ttaes 


ulhan  twenty-eight 
two  knigfats,  uid  the 
bonxighs  of  BedviD,  Bradford,  C&lse,  ChipfKuhuD,  Ciickkde, 
DeviuA,  Dowaton,  Ludgcnbili,  MfttraotniryT  Hiribonugh, 
Old  Ssrain,  SiHsbury  and  Wdloa.  two  buigata  ttcb,  but  the 
boroughs  for  the  motf  piirt  nude  very  imgulu' rrtunu.  Uindon) 
Hcylabury  and  Woouon  Buactt  irne  cnfnnchiBcd  in  the 
tSIh  century,  ind  at  ibe  tirne  ol  the  Relorm  Act  of  iSji  the 
(ouiily  with  siteen  boionghi  returned  a  tout  of  Ihirly-four 
memben.  Under  the  latter  act  Great  Bedwin,  Downton, 
Heytsbury,  Hindoo,  Ludsenhsll,  Old  Samin  and  Wootlon 
BasKIt  were  disftanibiwd,  and  Calne,  Malineibury,  Westbury 
asd  Wilton  I«t  one  member  eui.  Under  the  act  of  i«6S  tbe 
county  returned  two  memben  in  two  divisiau,  and  Chippenham, 
Devim  and  Marlborough  lost  onemembereaeb,     Under  tbeact 

CrickLade,   Calne,  Chipp«Dhan3,  Deviug,  MalEoeabury,  Matt- 
borough,    Wesibuiy    and    Wilion    were    diafranchitedj     and 

I    prehlstDTic 


Awnjurj 


Amti^Kilies^ — AMIlAhite    a   extraordinarily   rich      .    , 

antiqiuttn.    Tlie  ttaoe  age  it  repcwoted  by  ■  number  of .,-...  .-» 

imptenienld,  prevrvcd  in  (he  uniurpuacd  coUeciion  al  Salii- 

" '--iKKenge,  with  iu  cinl«  of  [an!  Hono.  and 

.._ led  by  an  earthwork,  ana  eocloung  two  kucr 

drctea,  are  the  largeii  and  m«l  faiDoiH  megaiiUik  workt  in  Enatand, 
A  valley  near  Avebury  is  failed  with  immenae  unen  blocitft,  re- 
aemllling  a  rrver  ol  Etone,  and  jicrhaM  laid  there  by  prehislDrlc 

nunded  aa  they  were  tw  fomti  and  manhy  lK»llDia«,  it  ii  cjrar  that 


uriitL  Andent  ttrongliolds 
county,  ^  Anmig  the  bom  remarfcabK  an 
Ameibury:  Slbury  HiU,  the  tane«  anifictal 
iDonrLd  in  Europe,  near  Aveburyi  Ok  iBounda  of  MarlCDfough  and 
Old  Saium:  the  camiH  of  Ballleabury  and  Scratchbury,  near 
WarminUerj  Yambuiy,  u>  the  N.  of  Wylye,  In  Tery  perfect  pn> 
•crvalion:  Caiterlcy,  on  a  ridieway  about  T  m.  E.5.E.  of  Devim; 
WhiNlheel  and  Winkdbury.  oveiloaldni  ifie  valg  of  Chalk:  Chis- 
Inry.  aear  Savemake:  ^bury.  near  LudgenKall:  and  Figbujy 
Ring,  X  nu  N.E.  ol  Saiiibury.  Osbiuy,  6  m.  N-  of  Salitbury.  i*  an 
undoufiled  British  nKlnuie.  Dunington  Walli,  N.  of  Ameibury. 
are  probably  Ibe  ren   '       '     "^ 


of  a  bank,  with  a  trench  on 
meani  Cor  defence,  not  ai  a  bountiafy,  rom  ■uenEipcnirEj  ■[  □( 
inla%^a.  Bokerly  Dyire.  which  forma  a  part  of  the  boundary 
bnwten  Wiha  and  Donct.  It  the  laigett  aoung  trveral  tiisiiar 
cntrenijiiBeiMa,  and  bat  abo  a  ditch  north  of  the  lampon. 

Chi^  anudg  the  few  monaatle  huilduut  of  which  any  vestigct 
remain  are  the  ruined  abbeya  of  Malmetbury  and  of  Lacock  r>car 
Melkibam.  There  an  tone  tiacei  of  the  hoapital  for  kproui  women 
aflerwardt  eoni'erted  lnb>  u  Auttio  priory  at  Maiden  Bradley. 
Monktoa  Farldgh.  fanber  north  ahMW  the  SomertM  border,  had  ht 
Ganiac  priory,  founded  at  a  cell  of  Lcwea  In  the  13th  ceoturv.  and 
repraenled  by  lom  outbundingi  of  the  minor-houie.  A  college 
for  a  dean  and  II  jjrebendariei.  aflowardt  a  monatlerv  of  Bon- 
liDminet,  ^nH  fodibded  in  1347  at  EdingiDD.  Thefrhurch,  tDecoiated 
and  Perpendicular.  reMiaMei  a  cathedral  in  sie  and  itately  beauty. 
The  I4lh  century  buiMinga  of  Bndcutoke  Friary  or  CIcck  Abbey, 
founded  near  Chippenham  tor  Auuin  canons,  arc  incorp<H;iTed 
In  a  farmhouie.  Tie  fine«  chnn:he<  of  Wdtihire.  grneraDy  Prr- 
'  lit  in  the  dittriclt  where  imd  mat  could  be 
ircblteciuie  i>  man  lim^  in  the  Chalk  region. 


Sin. 


ecdedanical  boHdingt  in  England 
[ran  nkenta  of  Sajion  work  imbedded  in 
aniiiei  In  the  nave  of  Britford  chiuci 
the  eail  end  of  the  chancel  at  Bum 


and  tltewhew  there  an 
Iter  niatonry.  Such  are  tbiee 
within  a  mik  of  SalistHir>  : 


!^. 


vale  of  Pewtey.    St  Jidia'a  at  Devuct 

I  ol  St  Maty'^  in  the  aaine  town,  li  alto 
ha.  charactenr-  * '■■ 


in  itichaacel;  while  t. 

Mailboniigh,  Dilteifdge  ar  Ktcfaeiidgc.  oeu  Bo 

■~ * — ' prewrveBUDdiy  Noiip— •— • — 

lidmry  Cathedral,  iti 


uttrated  by  Si  ,    .._  ,. 

implei  aiul,  on  a  unaller  tcale.  at  AmeilHiry, 

" ■-  -'    vale  of  the  Wylye,  CoICn|botinK 

-— , .  _ mii7  iiaLn.  Downloo  aitd  Potteme,  nctr 

Devuee.  Bitbopttone.  in  the  vale  of  Chalk,  hat  the  fineit  Deconicd 
church  in  the  county,  with  a  curioui  exlmial  ckaater.  and  uDjqvr 
KKith  chancet  doorway,  receued  beneath  a  ttone  canopy.  Men, 
cloH  (o  the  boidni  of  Duthi  and  Somcrtet,  it  interetdng  ut  onlr 
for  it*  Perpendicular  church,  but  tor  a  nwdieval  chantry,  uaed  at 
a  idioDlhouK  by  Bamei,  the  Donctthire  poet,  and  for  ita  I4tb- 

Th7aM^"^  WU^iie  have  been  almost  enliiely  nept  awav- 
At  OldSarum,  Marlborough  and  Devizes  oid^  a  few  veatigva  are- kf r 

kini  been  dcmaluhed,  and  of  LDdgenball  cattle  only  a  ooull  Crag- 
meat  EuivivuL  The  rulni  of  Wardour  cank.  Handing  in  «  ri^y 
wooded  park  near  'Hibuiv,  date  from  (he  I41h  century,  and  CDout 

Two  iDwera  overtook  the  enuancc.  The  Itlh-ccatury  caatle.  one 
mile  dittant,  acroai  the  part,  ii  Boteworthy  for  itt  coUectHn  el 

einlingi.  and.  among  other  curioiitki,  for  the  "Gtaateobary 
ip."  aaid  to  be  taihioncd  out  of  a  branch  of  the  cekbrated  tbcnt 
tTie  at  Clailonbuiy.  Hie  number  of  old  country  houtti  ta  a  markid 
fealuie  in  WHtt.  Few  puithet,  eapcciilly  in  the  N.W..  are  wiihoc 
tbcir  old  maDor-houae,  utually  converted  into  a  farm,  but  prreerh-iq 
Its  flagged  root,  atoDc-inuUiorKd  wiadowi.  ipblcd  front,two^orc>tc 
pDich  and  oak-panelled  inierior-  Place  Houte,  [a  Tubury.  and 
Banoa  Farm,  at  Biadlotd.  date  from  (he  I4tb  century.  FifHentb- 
century  work  is  befli  excmplilKd  in  the  inancr-houtea  u  NorriiwtD'u 
in  the  vale  of  Chalk;  TeHont  Eviat.  in  the  vale  of  Naddtr,' 
Pi  "~ real  Chaldfaeld. near  MonklonFarkigh.   AtSouik 

tc  nd  by  Sir  Walter  Rakigh  and  Mi  boat.  Sir  WaUir 

L.  lyk>  ate  tepiwenttd  by  Longford  Cwk.  near 

Si  i  the  picture  galkriei  ut  of  great  intercH:  by 

H  e;  by  Wihon  Houu  at  Wilion,  Ringsl 


._..c.LonEleat..._. 

!  iKar  Ramthury,  Chorhon 
Chambcrlayne  in  (be  Nadi 
nodern  Caulc  Combe,  both  1 
le  borders  of  DorK(  and  Son 


minster,  Cordiaia 


IT  Chippenham  and 


See  Viama  Cc 


Hiitrry,  WiltiUn;  Sir  R.  C  Hoaie.   m 


Viama  Cinnar 

It  UUUry  0/  WL ,  „    .„, „   ,_ 

IViJiiiiVe  (14  pw..  London,  itoJ-iS44)i  AubiTy'i 
tire,  edited  by  Sir  T.  I^illippa.  ptt.  I.i  (LoDdon. 

John  Brii„.„ , 

iSis);  J.  E.  Jackson,  TAt  Jjknfi  Tnrn. 
..r...    .^,^.  „  .(„  p^tBajS^  ol  the 


nolo  by  J.  E.  lack 

H'i/UUrr  (Bath,  iSbJ): 

Ct  vols.,  London.  iSol-iSisJ: 

Ct.  Wilu,  AD.  r<yp  IDei^ei,  ..,.,.  .„ 

Wllsbire  Atchaeohigical  and  Natural  Hiitoiy  Society. 


kuB  (Devius.  iB7S)l  W.  H. Jooea.  AMnfayte 
'     '-'     "-■---    Tt^  Seattia  M  WUttiin 

li«,n     r^  .TLnJf'r  T-M». 


.  I  muDiciptl  borough  and  wolem  loidtntial 
uburb  of  Londuri,  in  ttie  Wimbledon  'parliamentary  divisioa 
f  Surrey,  England,  adjt^Dg  the  ractropoUtan  bomugh  at 
trandswoith,  S  m.  S.W.  of  Charing  Cross.  Pop.  (iSqi),  15,7171 
iQot)  41.651.  Wimbledon  Common,  to  the  north.n-cst  of  the 
islrict,  foiBis  a  continuation  of  Fulaey  Htalh  and  a  pleasanl 
ccTeation  ground.  I(was[hcmccting-idaceDf  the  Rifle  Asocia- 
ion  from  its  foundalion  in  i860  till  iflSS.  The  parish  church 
f  St  Maty  is  supposed  lo  date  from  Saion  timeji  but,  alter 

,  was  rebuilt  in  1833  in  (he  Petpendicular  atyle.  There  are 
arioui  other  churcbej  and  chapels,  all  modem.  A  tree  libraiy 
ras  established  in  1S87.    Benevolent  insUtutions  are  numcious. 


ciUon.   .Atoa.  3111  acres. 

Wimbledon  (Wi'bbanduDe)  is : 

.pposcd  to  have  been  the icencol 

aballk  in  56K  between  CcawUn 

ling  of  Wcuei,  and  .Ilhelbeihl 

king  of  Kent,  in  which  ^Ihelbcih 

wni,lch;aled,and  an  earlbwoik 

,y  have  marked  the  li 


WIMBORNE—WINCHCOMB 


701 


Coombe's  IBD  t&d  dieivlMK  Britiih  relics  have  been  found. 
At  Domesday  Wimblodoa  formed  part  of  the  manor  of  Mortlake, 
beld  1^  the  archbishofts  of  Canterbury.  iUterwards  the  name 
was  sometimes  used  interchangeably  with  Mortlake,  and  in 
1337  it  is  described  as  a  grange  or  farm  belonging  to  Mortlake. 
On  the  impeachment  of  Arundel,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
in  1398,  it  was  confiscated.-  In  the  reign  of  Heniy  Vm.  CromweUy 
earl  of  Essex,  held  the  manor  of  Wimbledon,  with  Bxistow  Park 
as  an  appendage.  On  the  confiscation  of  Cromwell's  estates 
in  Z540  it  again  fell  to  the  crown,  and  by  Henry  VIII.  it  was 
settled  on  Catherine  Pair  for  life.  By  Queen  Mary  it  was  granted 
to  Cardinal  Pole.  In  1574  Elizabeth  bestowed  the  manor-house, 
while  retainbig  the  manor,  on  Sir  Christopher  Hatton,  who  sold 
it  the  same  year  to  Sir  Thomas  Cecil  In  1588  Elizabeth  traos- 
ferred  the  manor  to  hu  son  Sir  Edward  Cecil,  in  eiKhange  for 
an  estate  in  Lincobishire.  At  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  the  manor 
was  sold  to  Adam  Baynes,  a  Yorkshireman  who  shortly  after- 
wards sold  it  to  General  Lambert;  and  at  the  Bestoration  it 
was  granted  to  the  queen  dowager,  Henrietta  Maria,  who  sold 
it  in  x66i  to  George  Digby,  earl  of  BristoL  On.his  death  in 
1676  it  was  sold  by  his  widow  to  the  lord-tteasurer  Danby. 
Some  years  after  Danby's  death  it  was  purchased  by  Sarah, 
duchess  of  Marlborough,  who  bequeathed  it  to  her  grandson, 
John  Spencer.  It  was  sold  by  the  fifth  Earl  Spencer  in  1877. 
Wimbledon  House,  built  by  Sir  Thomss  Cecil  in  1588,  was 
replaced  by  another  building  in  1735  by  the  duchess  of  Marl- 
borough; this  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1785,  and  a  new  house, 
called  Wimbledon  Park  House,  was  erected  about  i8ox.  Wimble- 
don was  incorporated  in  1905. 

inilB0BNB.(WiMBORNE  Minster),  a  market  town,  in  the 
eastern  parliamentary  division  oL Dorsetshire,  England,  xrxi  m. 
S.W.  by  W.  from  London  by  the  London  &  South- Western 
railway;  served  also  by  the  Somerset  and  Dorset  railway. 
Pop.  of  urban  district  (z90x)  3696.  It  is  situated  on  a  gentle 
sk^  above  the  river  Alien  near  its  confluence  with  the  Stour. 
The  church  or  minster  of  St  Cutbberga  is  a  fine  cruciform 
structure  of  various  styles  from  Early  Norman  to  Perpendicular, 
and  consists  of  a  central  lantern  tower,  nave  and  choir  with 
aisles,  transepts  without  aisles,  western  or  bdl  tower,  north 
and  south  porches,  cxypt  and  vestry  or  sacristy,  with  the  library 
over  it.  ,It  contains  a  large  number  of  interesting  monuments, 
including  a  brass  with  the  date  873  (supposed  to  mark  the  resting- 
place  of  King  Athelred  L),  a  lunar  orrery  of  the  14th  century  and 
an  octsgonai  Norman  font  of  Purbeck  marble,  libereisachurch 
dedicated  to  St  John  the  Evangelist.  The  free  grammar  school 
occupies  modem  buildings  in  the  Elizabethan  style.  Near 
Wimbome  is  Canford  Manor,  the  seat  of  Lord  Wimbome,  a 
mansion  in  the  Tudor  style,  built  by  Blorc  in  X826,  and  improved 
from  designs  of  Sir  Chades  Barry.  The  town  depends  chiefly 
on  agriculture;  but  the  manufacture  of  hose  is  carried  on  to  a 
small  extent,  and  there  are  also  coachbuilding  works. 

Although  Wimbome  {Wimbum)  has  been  identified  with  the 
Yindogladia  of  the  Antonine  Itinerary,  the  first  undoubted 
evidence  of  settlement  is  the  entry  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chi  onide, 
under  the  date  7x8,  that  Cuthburh,  sister  of  King  Ine,  founded 
the  abbey  here  and  became  the  first  abbess;  the  house  is  also 
mentioned  in  a  somewhat  doubtful  epistle  <rf  St  Aldhelm  in  705. 
The  importance  of  the  foundation  made  it  the  burial-place  of 
King  iEthelred  in  871,  and  of  King  Siffertfa  in  962.  iEthelwald 
seized  and  fortified  Wimbome  in  his  revolt  in  901  against  Edward 
the  Elder.  'The  early  abbey  was  probably  destroyed  by  the 
Danes  in  the  zeign  of  iGthelred  the  Unready  (978-X015),  for  in 
Z043  Edward  the  Confedor  founded  here  a  ooQege  of  secular 
canons.  The  college  remained  unaltered  until  1496,  when 
Margaret,  countess  of  Richmond,  obtained  letters  patent  from 
her  son,  Heniy  VII.,  to  found  a  chantxjr,  in  coxmexion  with 
which  she  established  a  school  The  oootinuance  of  this  was 
recommended  by  the  cpmndssionerB  of  X547,  and  in  1562  Eliza- 
beth vested  a  great  part  of  the  property  of  the  former  college 
in  a  school  corporation  of  twelve  govemon,  who  had  charge  of 
the  cburcJL  New  charters  for  the  school  were  obtained  from 
jMMs  X.  in  156s  aadfrwn  Charles  I.    At  tfaeooaqnest  Wimbome 


was  a  royal  borough,  andent  demesne  of  the  crown,  and  part  of 
the  manor  of  Kingston  Lacy,  which  Henry  I.  gave  to  Robert 
Mellent,  carl  of  Leicester.  From  him  it  dacended  by  marriage 
to  the.  earls  of  Lincoln,  and,  then  passing  by  marriage  to  Earl 
Thomas  of  Lancaster,  it  became  pared  of  the  county  and  later 
of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster;  an  inquisition  of  S352  found  that 
Henry,  duke  of  Lancaster,  had  77s.  3d.  rent  of  assize  in  the 
borough  of  Wimbome.  The  borough  is  again  mentioned  in 
I487-X488,  when  John  Plecy  hdd  six  messuages  in  free  burgage 
of  the  king  as  of  his  borough  qf  Wimbome,  but  it  seems  to  have 
been  entirely  prescriptive,  and  was  never  a  parliamentaiy 
borough.  Ilie  town  was  governed  until  the  Z9th  century  by 
two  bailiffs,  chosen  annually  at  a  court  leet  <^  the  royal  manor 
of  Wimborne  borough,  port  of  the  numor  of  Kingston  Lacy. 
The  market  hdd  here  on  Friday  of  each  week  is  not  mentioned 
in  Domesday  Book,  but  seems  to  be  of  early  origin.  Wimbome 
carried  on  considerable  manufactures  of  linen  and  woollen  goods 
until  the  time  of  Charles  IL,  when  they  declined,  thdr  pUc# 
being  taken  by  the  stocking-knitting  industry  of  the  x8Ui  century. 
See  John  Hutchins,  Tkt  History  and  Antigttitiei  cf  the  Counts  rf 
DorsH  (3rd  edition,  Westminster,  1861);  Anon.,  History  0/  Wiwh 
home  MtHSter  (London,  i860). 

WIMPPrtCN.  EMMANUEL  PBUX  BB  (1811-T884),  French 
soldier.  Entering  the  army  from  the  military  school  of  St  Cyr, 
he  saw  con^derable  active  service  in  Algeria,  and  in  1840  became 
captain,  in  1847  chef  de  hataUlon,  He  first  earned  marked 
distinction  in  the  Crimean  War  as  colonel  of  a  Turco  regiment, 
and  his  conduct  at  the  storm  of  the  Mamek>n  woo  him  the  grade 
of  general  of  brigade.  In  the  campaign  of  X859  be  was  with 
General  MacMahon  at  Magenta  at  the  head  of  a  brigade  of  Guard 
Infantry,  and  again  won  promotion  on  the  fidd  of  battle. 
Between  this  campaign  and  that  of  1870  he  was  mainly  employed 
in  Algeria,  and  was  not  at  first  given  a  command  in  the  ill-fated 
"  Army  of  the  Rhine."  But  wh^n  the  earlier  battles  revealed 
incapadty  in  the  commander  of  the  sth  corps,  De  Wiropffen 
was  ordered  to  take  it  over,  and  was  given  a  dormant  conunission 
appointing  him  to  command  the  Army  of  Chiloos  in  case  of 
Marshal  MacMabon's  disablement.  He  only  arrived  at  the  front 
hi  time  to  rally  the  fugitives  of  the  5th  corps,  beaten  at  Beaumont, 
and  to  march  them  to  Sedan.  In  the  disastrous  battle  of  the  ist 
of  September,  MacMahon  was  soon  wounded,  and  the  senior 
ofliiccr,  General  Ducrot,  assumed  the  command.  Ducrot  was 
beginiung  to  withdraw  the  troops  when  Wirnpffen  produced  his 
commission  and  countermanded  the  orders.  In  consequence 
it  fell  to  him  to  negotiate  the  surrender  of  .the  whole  French 
army.  After  his  rdease  froqi  captivity,  he  lived  in  retirement 
at  Algiers,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1884,  His  later  years  were 
occupied  with  p<demical  discussions  on  the  surrender  of  Sedan, 
the  responsibility  for  which  was  laid  upon  him. 

He  wrote,  amongst  other  works.  Sedan  (1871),  Za  Situation  de  ta 
Prance,  et  lee  r^ormee  nicessaires  (1873)  and  La  Nation  amUe 
(«875). 

WIMBURO,  a  town  in  the  Orange  Free  State,  90  m.  N.E.  by  rail 
of  Bloemfontein.  Pop.  (1904)  2762,  of  whom  1003  were  whites. 
It  is  built  by  the  banks  of  a  tributary  of  the  Vet  affluent  of  the 
Vaal,  and  is  a  trading  centre  for  a  large  grain  and  pastoral 
district.  It  is  joined  to  the  tmnk  railway  from  Port  Elizabeth 
to  the  Tnmsvaal  by  a  branch  line  from  Smalded,  28  m.  N.W. 
The  town  was  founded  in  1837  by  Commandant  H.  Potgieter, 
one  of  the  voortrekers,  and  was  xuimed  by  him  in  commemoration 
of  a  victory  gained  over  the  Matabde  chief  Mosilikatze.  It 
became  the  capital  of  a  quasi-independent  Boer  state,  which 
induded  conriderable  areas  north  of  the  VaaL  In  1848  the  town 
and  district  were  annexed  to  Great  Britain  and  thereafter  followed 
the  fortunes  of  the  Orange  river  soverdgnty  (see  Orange  Frek 
State).  In  the  Boer  War  of  1899-1902  Winburg  was  one  of  the 
Boer  centres  in  the  guerxilla  fighting  which  followed  the  fall  of 
Pretoria. 

WIMCHOOMBi  a  market  town  In  the  northern  parliamentary 
division  of  Gloucestershire,  England,  7  m.  N.E.  of  Chdtenham. 
Pop.  (X901)  2864.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  among  the 
O>tteswold  Hills,  in  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Isbourae  stream. 
The  Perpendicular  church  of  St  Peter,  cruciform,  with  a  central 


708  WINCHELSEA,  COUNTESS  OF— WINCHELSEA,  R. 


tower,  is  a  good  oaunple  of  its  period.  In  the  vicinity  b  Sudeley 
Castle,  originally  built  by  Thomas  Boteler,  Lord  Sudeley  (d. 
1398).  By  gift  of  Edward  VI.  it  came  into  the  hands  of  Sir 
Thomas  Seymour,  fourth  husband  of  Catherine  Parr;  this 
queen  died  here  and  was  buried  in  the  chapel.  The  castle  suffered 
severely  at  the  hands  of  the  pariiamentarians  in  1644,  and 
remained  ruinous  until  1837,  iriien  a  careful  restoration  was 
begun.  There  are  a  tower  of  the  14th  century,  and  considerable 
remains  of  the  isth,  the  inhabited  portion  being  mainly  of 
Tudor  date.  There  are  flour  mJDs,  paper-works  and  tanneries 
at  Winchcomb. 

Excavations  prove  that  there  were  both  British  and  Roman 
settlements  at  Winchcomb  (Wincdeumhe,  Winckdcumbe).  It 
owed  its  growth  to  the  foundation  of  religious  houses  by  Offa 
and  Coenwulf  of  Merda  in  the  8th  century.  It  became  a  borough 
in  Saxon  times,  was  the  chief  town  of  a  shire  to  which  it  gave 
its  name,  and  was  the  seat  of  government  of  the  Mercian  kingi. 
Witenagcmots  were  held  there  in  771  and  943.  Harold,  earl  of 
Wessex,  was  the  first  overiord.  It  had  become  a  royal  boron|^ 
by  1087,  and  Nvas  granted  by  a  charter  of  1224  to  the  abbots  of 
St  Mary's  to  be  held  of  the  Icing  by  a  rent  of  £50.  Winchcomb 
never  received  a.  charter  and  was  not  incorporated,  but  as  a 
borough  by  prescription  it  was  governed  by  2  bailiffs  and  zo 
chief  burgesses  until  the  coiporate  body  was  dissolved  by  act 
of  parliament  in  1883.  It  was  never  represented  in  parliament 
except  by  its  mitred  abbots  before  the  dissolution  of  the 
monasteries.  There  is  no  trace  of  the  original  grant  of  a  fair 
on  July  17  (now  held  on  July  28),  but  it  is  mentioned  as  already 
existing  in  a  charter  of  1221,  which  changed  the  market  day 
from  Sunday  to  Saturday.  Elizabeth  granted  another  fair 
on  April  25  by  charter  in  1575.  A  Tuesday  market  was  also 
granted  under  this  charter,  but  the  Saturday  market  only  is  now 
held.  Both  the  modem  fairs  are  horse  and  cattle  fairs,  but  In  the 
middle  ages  they  were  centres  of  the  doth  manufacture.  Tanning 
has  been  a  local  industry  since  the  beginning  of  the  i9th<xntuTy, 
and  paper  and  silk  factories  were  introduced  about  1 83a  Winch- 
comb took  the  side  of  the  king  in  the  Civil  War  and  was  twice 
plundered. 

See  Victoria  Coumiy  History,  CUmcestershire;  Emma  Dent,  Annals 
cf  Winckecombe  (1877);  David  Roycc,  Winck«comb€  Cortulary 
(1892). 

UriNCHELSBA,  ANNS  FINCH.  Countess  of  (:66i-i72o), 
English  author,  daughter  of  Sir  William  Kingsmill  of  Sidmonton, 
near  Southampton,  was  bom  in  April  i66z.  Five  months  later 
her  father  died,  and  her  mother  married  in  1662  Sir  Thomas 
Ogle.  Lady  Og^  died  in  1664,  and  nothing  is  heard  of  her 
daughter  Anne  until  1683,  when  she  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
maids  of  honour  of  Maiy  of  Modena,  duchess  of  York.  She 
married  in  May  1684  Colond  Heneage  Finch,  who  was  attached 
to  the  duke  of  York's  househoki.  To  him  she  addressed  poems 
and  versified  epistles,  in  which  he  figures  as  Daphnis  and  she 
as  Ardclia.  At  the  Revolution  Heneage  Finch  refused  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary,  and  he  and  his  wife  had 
no  fixed  home  until  they  were  invited  in  1690  to  Eastwell  Park, 
Kent,  by  Finch's  nephew  Charles,  4th  eari  of  Winchelsea,  on 
whose  death  in  1712  Heneage  Finch  succeeded  to  the  earldom. 
The  countess  of  Winchelsea  died  in  London  on  the  5th  of  August 
1720,  leaving  no  issue,  her  husband  surviving  until  1726. 

Lady  Winchelsea^s  poems  contain  many  copies  of  verse 
addressed  to  her  friends  and  contemporaries.  She  was  to  some 
extent  a  fdlower  of  the  "  matchless  Orinda  **  in  the  fervour  of 
her  friendships.  During  her  lifetime  she  pubUshed  her  poem 
"The  Spleen"  in  Giidon*s  Miscellany  (1701)  and  a  vohime  of 
Poems  m  1713  ^ich  included  a  tragedy  called  Aristomene^. 
With  Alexander  Pope  she  was  on  friendly  terms,  and  one  of  the 
seven  commendatory  poems  printed  with  the  17  r?  edition  of  hb 
works  was  by  her.  But  in  the  farce  Thru  Hours  after  Marriage 
(17 1 7)  attributed  to  Gay,  but  really  the  work  of  Pope,  Arbuthnot 
and  Gay,  she  is  ridiculed  as  the  learned  lady,  Phoebe  Clinket, 
a  character  assigned  to  Pope's  hand.  Lady  Winchclsca's  poems 
were  almost  forgotten  when  Wordsworth  In  the  "  Essay,  supple- 
tnenUry  to  the  Preface  **  of  his  Poemf  (18x5),  drew  attention 


to  her  nature-poetry,  asserting  that  with  the  Exception  of 
Pope's  "Windsor  Forest"  and  her  ''Nocturnal  Reverie," 
English  poetry  between  Parodist  Lost  and  Thomson's  Seasons 
did  not  present  *'  a  single  new  image  of  external  nature."  Words- 
worth sent  at  Christmas  1819  a  MS.  of  extracts  from  Lady 
Winchelsea  and  other  writers  to  Lady  Mary  Lowther,  and  his 
correspondence  with  Alexander  Dyce  contains  some  minute 
criticism  and  appreciation  of  her  poetry. 

Mr  Edmund  Gosw  wrote  a  notice  of  her  poems  for  T.  H.  Ward* s 
Englisk  Poets  (vol.  ill..  1880),  and  in  1884  came  into  possession  of  a 
MS.  volume  of  her  poems.  A  complete  edition  of  ner  verae,  Tim 
Poems  of  Anne,  Countess  of  Winchelsea,  was  edited  by  Myra  Reynolds 
(Chicago,  190^)  with  an  exhaustive  e^isay.  See  abb  £.  Cosae. 
Gossib  in  a  Lwrary  (1891).  and  E.  Dowden,  Essays,  Modern  and 
Elixahethan.  Worosworth's  anthology  for  Lady  Mary  Lowther  was 
first  printed  In  1905  (Oxford).  Some  of  her  work  remaifis  in  MS.  in 
the  possession  of  Professor  Dowdeo. 

WINCHELSEA,  ROBERT  (d.  1313),  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  probably  bora  at  Old  Winchelsea.  He  studied  and  then 
taught  at  the  universities  of  Paris  and  Oxford,  where  he  attained 
celebrity  as  a  scholar,  and  became  rector  of  the  former,  and 
subsequently  chancellor  of  the  latter  university.  He  held 
prebcndal  stalls  in  the  cathedrals  of  Lincoln  and  St  PauVs,  and 
was  made  ardideacon  of  Essex  alMut  X283.  In  December  1393 
John  Peckham,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  died,  and  early  is 
the  following  year  Winchelsea  was  elected  as  his  successor. 
His  consecration,  which  took  place  at  Aquila  in  September  1204, 
was  delayed  owing  to  the  vacancy  in  the  papacy,  but  he  fouad 
no  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  temporalities  of  the  see  from  Kin 
Edward  I.  Winchelsea  is  chiefly  renowned  as  a  strenuoia 
upholder  of  the  privileges  of  the  clergy  and  the  authority  of  tlie 
pope,  and  as  a  fearless  opponent  of  Edward  I.  Stren^hened 
by  the  issue  of  the  papal  bull  Clericis  laicos  in  1296,  he  stimukted 
the  clergy  to  refuse  pecuniary  assistance  to  JEdward  in  1^7; 
but  after  the  king  had  pronoimced  sentence  of  outlawry  against 
the  delinquents  he  instructed  each  derk  to  decide  this  question 
for  himself.  Personally  the  archbishop  still  declined  to  make 
any  contribution  towards  the  expenses  of  the  Firench  war, 
and  his  lands  were  seized  and  held  by  Edward  untfl  July  1 297, 
when  a  somewhat  ostentatious  reconcfliatlon  between  king  and 
prelate  took  place  at  Westminster.  He  took  some  part  in  the 
movement  which  led  to  the  confirmation  of  the  charters  by 
Edward  later  in  the  same  year,  but  the  struggle  with  the  king 
did  not  exhaust  his  energies.  He  asserted  his  authority  ovcf 
his  suffragans  to  the  full;  quarrelled  with  Pope  Boniface  VIII. 
over  the  presentation  to  a  Sussex  living,  and  was  excommunicated 
by  one  of  the  pope's  minions;  and  vigorously  contested  the 
claim  of  the  archbishop  of  York  to  cany  his  cross  erect  in  the 
province  of  Canterbury.  Before  these  events,  however,  the 
quarrel  with  Edward  had  been  renewed,  although  Winchelsea 
officiated  in  1299  &t  the  king's  marriage  with  Margaret,  daughter 
of  Philip  III.,  king  of  France.  Joining  the  barons  in  demanding 
certain  reforms  from  Edward  at  the  pariiament  of  Lincoln  in 
X30X,  he  compelled  the  Idng  to  g^ve  way  on  the  main  issues; 
but  the  indignation  which  followed  the  cli^  of  Pope  Boniface 
to  be  the  protector  of  Scotland,  a  claim  whidi  was  supported 
by  Winchelsea,  led  to  the  rupture  of  this  alliance.  It  is  probable 
that  one  of  the  reasons  which  led  the  archbishop  to  join  in  these 
proceedings  was  his  hostility  to  Edward's  advber,  Walter 
Langton,  bishop  of  Lichfield,  whom  he  songht  to  disgrace  both 
in  England  and  at  Rome.'  The  king  cherished  his  Indignation 
until  his  friend  Clement  V.  became  pope  in  X305,  when  he  made 
hb  final  move  against  Winchelsea.  Listening  to  Edward's 
envo3rs,  Langton  and  Henry  Lacy,  earl  of  Lincoln,  Clemcnl 
suspended  the  archbishop,  who,  after  vainly  imploring  the 
intercession  of  the  king,  left  England  and  journeyed  to  the  papal 
court  at  Bordeaux,  remaining  in  exile  unril  Edward's  death 
in  July  1307.  The  new  king,  Edwaid  II.,  requested  Gement 
to  allow  Winchelsea  to  return  to  his  see.  The  pope  aasented, 
but  soon  after  his  return  to  England  early  (n  t3o8  the  ofdlbishoK 
joined  the  king's  enemies;  even  demanded  the  release  from 
prison  of  his  old  enemy,  Langton,  and  was  one  of  the  "  ordsiners  ** 
appomted  In  13x0.    He  assisted  the  baioni  in  tbelr  itruggit 


WINCHELSEA— WINCHESTER,  EARLS  &  MARQUESSES  OF    703 


with  Sdwsrd  II.  -by  a  frequent  use  ol  spiiiuial  w«»p«iit»  and  took 
part  in  th^  proceedingi  against  the  Templars.  He  died  at  Otford 
on  the  nth  of  May  1313.  Miracles  were  said  to  have  been  worked 
at  his  tomb  in  Canterbury  cathedral,  but  efiorU  to  psocurc  his 
canonisation  were  unavailing.  Although  a  secular  priest  Winchel' 
sea  was  somewhat  ascetic,  and  his  private  life  was  distinguished 
for  sanctity  and  generosity.  As  an  ecclesiastic,  however,  be  was 
haughty  and  fond  of  power;  and  he  has  been  not  inappropriately 
described  as  "  the  greatest  churchman  of  the  time." 

See  Chronicles  ef  the  Rtigns  of  Edward  I.  and  Edward  II.,  edited 
with  introduction  by  W.  Stubbs  (London.  1883-1883);  S.  Birching- 
ton,  in  the  Anglia  socra,  edited  by  H.  Wharton  (London;  1691); 
and  W.  Stnbb*,  ComttitutiMol  History,  voL  u.  (Oxfoid,  1896). 

WINCHELSEA,  a  village  in  the  Rye  parliamentary  division 
of  Sussex,  England,  9  m.  N.E.  by  E,  from  Hastings  by  the 
South  Eastern  and  Chatham  railways.  Pop.  (1901)  670.  It 
stands  on  an  abrupt  hill-spur  rising  above  flat  lowlands  which 
form  a  southward  continuation  of  Romney  marsh.  This  was 
within  historic  tiroes  a  great  inlet  of  the  English  Channel,  and 
Winchelsea  was  a  famous  seaport  until  the  15th  century.  Two 
gates,  the  one  of  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  the  other  erected  early 
in  the  15th  century,  overlook  the  marshes;  a  third  stands 
at  a  considerable  distance  west  of  the  town,  its  position  pointing 
the  contrast  between  the  extent  of  the  ancient  town  and  that 
of  the  shrunken  village  of  to-day.  The  town  was  laid  out  by 
Edward  I.  with  regular  streets  intersecting  at  right  angles; 
the  form  is  preserved,  and  in  a  picturesque  open  space  in  the 
centre  stands  the  church  of  St  Thomas  &  Becket.  This  comprises 
only  the  chancel  and  aisles  of  a  building  which,  if  entire,  would 
rank  as  one  of  the  finest  parish  churches  in  England.  As  it 
stands  it  b  of  the  highest  interest,  showing  remarkable  Decorated 
work,  with  windows  of  beautiful  and  unusual  design,  and  a 
magnificent  series  of  canopied  tombs.  In  the  grounds  of  the 
residence  called  the  Friars  stands  the  shell  of  the  apsidal  choir 
of  a  Decorated  chapel  which  belonged  to  a  Franciscan  house. 
Of  a  Dominican  convent  and  other  religious  foundations  and 
churches  there  are  no  remains. 

The  town  of  which  the  relics  have  been  described  was  not  the 
first  of  its  name.  On  a  site  supposed  to  be  about  3  m.  S.E.,  and 
now  therefore  about  li  m.  out  in  the  English  Channel,  a  seaport 
had  gnown  up  on  a  low  peninsula.  In  1236  and  at  various 
subsequent  dates  in  the  same  century  this  town  suffered  severely 
from  encroachments  of  the  sea,  and  in  1266  it  paid  the  penalty 
for  its  adherence  to  the  cause  of  Simon  de  Montfort.  The  waves 
£mally  obliterated  the  site  in  X28S,  and  Edward  I.  thereafter 
planted  the  new  town  in  a  safe  position.  In  the  14th  and  isth 
centuries  Winchelsea  was  frequently  attacked  by  the  French, 
and  in  1350  Edward  III.  defeated  the  Spaniards  in  a  naval 
action  close  by. 

In  the  time  of  the  Confessor  Winchelsea  (Winchenesdf  Win- 

chdefCi  Wynchclse)  was  included  in  Rameslie  which  was  granted 

by  him  to  the  abbey  of  Fecamp.   The  town  remained  under  the 

brdship  of  the  abbey  until  it  was  resumed  by  Henry  HI.   Its 

early  importance  was  due  to  its  harbour,  and  by  1066  it  was 

probably  already  a  port  of  some  consequence.    By  the  reign  of 

Henry  U.,  if  not  before,  Winchelsea  was  practically  added  to  the 

Cinque  Ports  and  shared  their  liberties.    After  the  destruction 

of  Old  Winchelsea,  New  Winchelsea,  a  walled  town,  flourished 

for  about  a  hundred  years  and  provided  a  large  proportion  of 

the  ships  furnished  by  the  Cinque  Ports  to  the  crown;  but  the 

ravages  of  the  French  destroyed  it,  its  walls  were  broken  down, 

and  the  decay  of  the  harbour,  owing  to  the  recession  of  the  sea, 

prevented  any  later  return  of  its  prosperity.    The  corporation, 

which  in  1298  included  a  mayor,  barons  and  bailiffs,  was  dissolved 

by  an  act  of  1883. 

Winchelsea  as  a  Cinque  Port  was  summoned  to  parliament  in 
I264-1265  and  returned  two  members  from  1366  till  1832,  when  it 
was  disfranchised.  The  abbot  of  F^mp  seems  to  have  originally 
held  a  market.  In  1792  a  market  was  held  on  Saturdays  and  a 
faUr  on  the  14th  of  May.  but  no  market  or  fair  now  exists.  Ship- 
building and  fishing  were  carried  on  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries. 
In  later  years  Winchelsea  became  a  great  resort  for  smugglers,  and 
the  vaults  originally  constructed  for  the  Gascon  wine  trade  were 
ysed  for  storing  contraband  goods. 


WIHCHBTKB,  BiUJ  AND  HARQUBSSBS  OF. .  The  titlt 
of  earl  of  Winchester  was  first  borne  by  Saier,  or  Seer,  de  Quincy, 
who  was  endowed*by  King  John  on  the  Z3th  of  March  1207, 
with  the  earldom  of  Winchester,  or  the  county  of  Southampton. 
Saier  de  (^uincy  was  one  of  the  twenty-five  barons  named  to 
enforce  the  observance  of  the  Great  Charter.  He  served  in  the 
Crusades  at  the  siege  of  Damietta  in  12 19,  and  died  soon  after- 
wards, probably  on  the  3rd  of  November  of  that  year.  Hit 
second  son  Rogn  de  Quincy  (c.  x  195-1264),  who  is  said  to  have 
usurped  the  earldom  during  the  i^sence  of  his  elder  brother 
Robert  in  the  Holy  Land,  took  part  in  the  struggle  between 
Henry  III.  and  the  barons.  He  died  without  male  issue  in  April 
1264,  and  the  earldom  reverted  to  the  crown.  It  was  revived 
in  1322  in  favour  of  Hugh  le  Despenser,  favourite  of  Ring 
Edward  IL,  and  was  forfeited  when  he  was  put  to  death  by  the 
barons  as  a  traitor  in  1326.  In  1472  the  title,  together  with  a 
pension  of  £200  a  year  from  the  customs  of  Southampton,  but 
not  the  right  of  sitting  in  parliament,  was  given  by  King  Edward 
IV.  to  a  Burgundian,  Ix>uis  de  Bruges,  lord  of  Gruthuyse  and 
prince  <rf  Stcenhuysc,  as  a  reward  for  services  rendered  to 
himself  while  an  exile  on  the  continent.  Louis  de  Bruges 
surrendered  his  patent  to  Henry  VII.  hi  X499. 

The  maiquessate  of  Winchester  was  created  in  1551  in  favour 
of  William  Paulet,  or  Pawlet,  K.G.,  a  successful  courtier  during 
four  reigns  who  died  on  the  loth  of  March  1572.  It  has  de- 
scended in  the  male  line  of  his  family  to  the  sixteenth  possessor. 
Jfi^  Paulet,  and  marquess  (c.  X517--X576),  was  summoned  to 
parliament  as  Baron  St  John  during  the  life  of  his  father,  a 
distin^ioa  which  was  shared  by  his  three  Immediate  successors — 
William  Paulet  (c.  1535-1593),  William  Paulet  (c.  1560-1628) 
a&d  John  Paulet  («.  1598-1674).  Charles  Paulet,  son  and  hei; 
of  John  Panlet,  the  dgfath  marquess,  was  created  duke  of  Boltoni 
on  the  9th  of  April  1689,  and  the  marquessate  of  Winchester 
remained  in  connexion  with  the  duchy  of  Bolton  iq,v.)  till  the 
death  of  Hairy  Paulet,  sixth  duke  and  eleventh  marquess, 
wilhovt  male  issue  in  December  1794.  There  being  no  male 
representative  of  the  dukes  of  Bolton  this  title  lapsed,  but  the 
matqueasate  of  Winchester  waa  inherited  by  George  Paulet 
(x7a2~i8oo),  great-grandsfHv  of  Lord  Henry  Paulet  (d.  1672), 
second  ton  of  William,  the  fourth  marquess.  On  George's 
desth  on  the  sand  of  April  x8oo  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Charles  Ingoldesby  Bunoughs-Paulet  (1764-1843),  who,  in  1839, 
prefixed  the  name  of  Burroughs  to  his  own  by  royal  licence! 
Upon  his  death  on  the  a9th  of  November  1843,  the  ritle  passed 
to  his  son  John  Paulet  (z8ox-x887),  fourteenth  marquess,  who 
was  succeeded,  on  the  4th  of  July  1887,  by  his  son,  Augustuft 
John  Houy  Beaumont  (1858-1899),  officer  in  the  Guards,  who 
was  killed  at  Magenfontein  during  the  Boer  War  on  the  iith 
of  December  1899,  and  was  followed  in  the  peerage  by  his  brother, 
Henry  William  Montague  Paukt  (b.  1862). 

Tlnce  of  the  maxquesses  of  Winchester  were  men  of  note* 
It  Is  recorded  of  the  founder  of  the  family,  William  Paulet,  that 
when  asked  how  he  had  contrived  to  live  through  a  long  period 
of  txooUed  times  dttring  four  reigns,  be  replied  that  he  came 
of  the  willow  and  not  of  the  oak,  ortut  *um  e  salict  non  ex  quercu. 
This  saying,  repeated  by  Sir  Robert  Naunton  in  his  Fragmenta 
ngalia,  may  possibly  not  have  been  due  to  the  marquess 
himself,  but  if  not  it  was  well  invented  of  a  man  who  passed 
throogh  many  dangers  and  always  contrived  to  keep,  or  to 
improve,  his  places.  He  waa  the  son  of  Sir  John  Paulet  of 
Baafaig,  near  Basingstoke  m  Hampshire,  and  his  wife  Alice  or 
EUaabeth,  daughter  of  Sir  WUliam  Paulet  of  Hinton  St  George, 
Somenet.  The  year  of  his  birth  has  been  variously  given  as 
1474  end  1485.  Between  151a  and  X527  he  was  several  times 
sheriff  of  Hampshire.  He  was  knighied  before  1525,  and  in  that 
year  became  privy  ooimdUor.  He  was,  hencef9rth,  continually 
emplosred  in  the  zxiyal  boosebold  and  on  the  council,  but  hk 
only  military  service  was  m  the  easy  suppression  of  the  Pilgrimage 
of  Grace  in  1536.  In  1525  he  was  named  master  of  the  wards 
and  keeper  of  the  king's  widows  and  idiots,  that  is  to  say  he  had 
the  lucrative  charge  of  persons  of  property  who  were  wards^  in 
chivalrv.    He  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commona  whi^ 


70+ 


WINCHESTER 


co-operated  with  the  king  In  canylng  out  the  separation  of  the 
Church  from  Rome  between  2529  and  1536.  He  served  on  the 
courts  which  tried  Sir  Thomas  More  and  Aifne  Boieyn,  and  he 
was  employed  to  tell  Catharine  6f  Aragon  that  she  and  her 
daughter  were  degraded  from  their  rank.  It  is  characteristic 
of  the  type  of  man  that  he  did  his  work  gently,  and  with  a  constant 
recollection  of  the  changes  of  fortune.  His  personal  kindness 
to  Anne  Boieyn,  which  she  acknowledged,  no  doubt  stood  him 
in  good  stead  on  the  accession  of  her  daughter  Queen  Elizabeth. 
In  1538  he  was  created  Lord  St  John,  and  he  was  enriched  by  a 
grant  of  the  lands  of  Netley  Abbey,  near  Southampton.  He 
was  appointed  lord  steward  of  the  household,  and  lord  chamber- 
lain, and  became  a  knight  of  the  garter  in  1543.  Henry  Vm. 
named  him  one  of  the  council  of  regency  for  his  son  Edward  VI. 
During  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  St  John  kept  the  favour  both 
of  the  Protector  Somerset,  who  made  him  lord  keeper  of  the  great 
seal,  and  of  Somerset's  enemy,  the  duke  of  NorthumberUmd, 
who  kept  him  in  office.  He  was  created  earl  of  Wiltshire  in 
1550,  and  marquess  of  Winchester  in  1551.  On  the  death  of 
Edward  VI.,  he  trimmed  cleverly  between  the  parties  of  Lady 
Jane  Grey,  and  Mary  Tudor  till  he  saw  which  was  going  to  win, 
and  then  threw  himself  on  the  winning  side.  He  opposed  Queen 
Mary's  marriage  to  Philip,  prince  of  Spain  (PhiUp  II.),  till  he 
saw  she  was  set  on  it,  and  then  gave  his  approval,  for  it  was 
his  wise  rule  to  show  just  as  much  independence  as  enhanced 
the  merit  of  his  obedience.  He  was  lord  treasurer  under  Mary, 
and  kept  his  place  under.Elizabeth,  to  whose  ecclesiastical  policy 
he  gave  his  usual  discreet  opposition  and  final  obedience.  Win- 
chester died  at  his  house  of  Basing  on  the  loth  of  March  1572. 
He  had  built  it  on  so  grand  a  scale  that  his  descendants  are  said 
to  have  found  it  necessary  to  pull  down  a  part.  He  married, 
first  EUzabeth,  daughter  of  Sir  WilUam  Capcl,  Lord  Mayor  of 
London,  by  whom  he  had  four  sons  and  four  daughters,  and  then 
Winifred,  daughter  of  Sir  John  Bruges,  aldoman  of  London, 
and  widow  of  Sir  Richard  Sackville,  by  whom  he  had  no  children. 
It  is  said  that  one  hundred  and  three  of  his  descendants  were 
alive  at  the  date  of  his  death. 

His  grandson,  William  Paulet,  third  marquess  (c,  153^1598) 
waji  one  of  the  judges  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  and  author  of  a 
book  called  The  Lord  Marquesses  Idleness  which  contains  a 
Latin  acrostic  of  extreme  ingenuity  on  the  words  Reg^na  nostra 
Angliae. 

The  fifth  marquess,  John  Paulet  (1628-1674),  was  a  Roman 
Catholic.  He  lived  much  in  retirement  in  order  to  be  able  to 
pay  off  debts  left  by  his  father.  He  is  remembered  oy  the 
ardour  and  sincerity  of  his  loyalty  to  King  Charles  L  It  is  said 
that  he  caused  the  words  "Aimea  Loyaut6"  to  be  engraved 
on  every  pane  of  glass  in  his  bouse  of  Basing.  During  the  first 
Civil  War  it  was  fortified  for  the  king,  and  stood  a  succession 
of  sieges  by  the  parliamentary  forces  between  1643  and  1645. 
On  the  14th  of  October  1645,  it  was  stormed  by  Oliver  Cromwell. 
The  marquess,  who  fought  valiantly,  toM  Hugh  Peters,  chaplain 
of  the  New  Model  Army  of  the  parliament,  who  had  the  vulgarity 
to  crow  over  him,  "  That  if  the  king  had  no  more  ground  hi 
England  but  Basing  House,  he  would  adventure  as  he  did,  and 
so  maintain  it  to  the  utmost,"  for  "  that  Basing  House  was 
called  Loyalty."  The  house  caught  fire  during  the  storm  and 
was  burnt  down,  the  very  ruins  being  carried  away  by  order  of 
the  parliament.  The  marqiiess  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  of 
London,  but  was  finally  allowed  to  compound  for  his  estate; 
after  the  restoration  of  King  Charles  U.  he  was  promised  com- 
pensation for  his  losses,  but  nothing  was  given  to  him.  He  died 
in  Englefield  Park  on  the  5th  of  March  1674.  He  was  three 
times  married,  first  to  Jane,  daughter  of  Viscount  Savage,  by 
whom  he  had  one  son;  then  to  Honora  de  Burgh,  daughter  of 
Richard,  earl  of  St  Albans  and  Clanricarde,  by  whom  he  had 
four  sons;  and  then  to  Isabella  Howard,  daughter  of  Viscount 

Stafford. 

See  Doyle.  CMkiol  Baronoie  (London.  1886);  and  J.  A.  Froude, 
History  ef  Eufiand  (London,  1856-1870),  for  the  first  marquess; 
I.  P.  Collier,  BMioirapkieal  Account  of  Early  English  Literature 
iLondon.  1865).  for  the  second  marquess;  and  Cbrendon,  History  of 
htKtbdUonXOsdord,  1886).  for  the  fifth  mavqueM. 


WnrCBBniRf  a  chy  and  munidptl  and  paiStnentaty 
borough  of  Hampshire,  EngUnd,  66}  m.  S.W.  by  W.  from 
London  by  the  London  &  South-Western  railway;  served 
also  by  the  Southampton  branch  of  the  Great  Western  railway, 
with  a  separate  station.  Pop.  (1901)  20,929.  It  occupies  a 
hilly  and  picturesque  site  in  and  above  the  valley  of  the  Itdieii, 
lying  principally  on  the  left  bank.  The  sunouncfing  hills  are 
chalk  downs,  but  the  valley  is  well  wooded. 

Setting  aside  for  the  present  the  legends  which  place,  the 
foundation  of  a  great  Christian  church  at  ^^nchester  in  the 
2nd  century,  the  erection  of  Winchester  into  an  episcopal  see 
may  be  {daoed  eariy  in  the  second  half  of  the  7th  century,  thovi^ 
it  cannot  be  dated  exactly.    The  West  Saxon  see  was  removed 
hither  from  Dorchester  on  the  Thame,  and  the  first  bishop  of 
Winchester  was  Hcdda  (d.  705).    The  modem  diocese  includes 
nearly  the  whole  of  Hampshire,  part  of  Surrey  and  very  small 
portions  of  Wiltshire,  Dorsetshire  and  Sussex.    St   Swithin 
(S52-862),  well  known  through  the  connexion  of  his  feast  day 
(iSthJuly)  with  the  superstition  that  weather-conditions  thereon 
determine  those  of  the  next  forty  days,  is  considered  to  have 
enlarged  the  cathedral,  as  are  Athelwold  (963-984)  and  Alphege 
(984-K005).    The  history  of  the  Saxon  building,  however,  is 
very  slight,  and  as  usual,  its  place  was  taken  by  a  Norman  one, 
erected  by  Bishop  Walkclin  (1070-1098).    The  cathedral  church 
of  St  Swithin  lies  in  the  lower  part  of  the  city  in  a  wide  and 
beautiful  walled  dose.    It  is  not  very  conspicuous  from  a 
distance,  a  low  central  tower  alone  rising  above  the  general  levd 
of  the  roof.    It  consists  of  a  nave,  transepts,  choir  and  retrocboii; 
all  with  aisles,  and  a  lady-chapel  forms  the  eastward  termination. 
The  work  of  the  exterior,  of  whatever  date,  b  severely  plain. 
The  cathedral,  however,  is  the  longest  in  England,  and  indeed 
exceeds  any  other  church  of  its  character  in  length,  whidi  b 
dose  upon  556  ft.    Within,  the  effect  of  this  feature  is  very  fine. 
The   magnificent  Perpendicular  nave  is  the  work  of  Bishop 
Edxngton  (1346-1366)  and  the  famous  William  of  Wykeham 
(1367-1404),  by  whom  only  the  skeleton  of  Walkelin's  work  was 
retained.    The  massive  Norman  work  of  the  original  buildiog, 
however,  remains  comparatively  intact  in  both  transepts.    The 
central  tower  is  Ndrman,  but  later  than  Walkelin's  structure, 
which  fell  in  1107,  a  mishap  which  was  readily  attributed  to 
divine  wrath  because  King  William  II.,  who  fell  to  the  arrow 
in  the  neighbouring  New  Forest,  had  been  buried  here  seven  years 
earlier,  in  spite  of  his  unchristian  hfe.    The  tomb  believed  to 
be  his  is  in  the  choir,  but  its  identity  has  t«en  widely  disputed, 
and  even  an  examination  of  the  remains  has  failed  to  establish 
the  truth.    The  choir  is  largely  £dington*s  work,  though  the 
derestory  is  later,  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  cathedral  shows 
construction  of  several  dates.    Here  appears  the  fine  Eariy 
English  construction  of  Bishop  de  Lucy  (ii89~x304),  in  the 
rctrochoir  and  the  lady-chapel,  though  this  was  considerably 
altered  later.    Beneath  the  cathedral  east  of  the  choir  there  are 
three  crypts,  connected  together.    The  western  and  the  central 
chambers  are  Norman,  and  have  apsidal  terminations,  triiile 
the  eastern  is  Early  English.    The  cathedral  contains  many 
objects  of  interest.    The  square  font  of  black  marble  is  a  fine 
example  of  Norman  art,  its  sides  sculptured  with  scenes  from 
the  life  of  St  Nicholas  of  Myra.    The  magnificent  reredos  behind 
the  high  altar  must  have  been  erected  late  in  the  xsth  century; 
it  consists  of  a  lofty  wall,  the  full  width  of  the  choir,  pierced 
by  two  processional  doors,  and  covered  with  tiers  of  rich  canopied 
niches,  the  statues  in  which  are  modem.     A  cross  of  plain  ashlar 
stone  in  the  centre  shows  where  an  immense  silver  cradfix  was 
once  attached;  and  a  plain  rectangular  recess  above  the  altar 
once  contained  a  massive  sQver-gilt  retable,  covered  with  cast 
and  repouss£  statuettes  and  reliefs.    A  second  stone  screen, 
placed  at  the  interval  of  one  bay  behind  the  great  reredos, 
served  to  endose  the  small  chapel  in  which  stood  the  gold  shrine, 
studded  with  jewels,  the  gift  of  King  Edgar,  which  contained 
the  body  of  St  Swithin.    Under  many  of  the  arches  of  the  nave 
and  choir  are  a  number  of  very  elaborate  chantry  chapels,  eadi 
containing  the  tomb  of  its  founder.    Some  of  these  have  &at 
recumbent  effigies,  noble  examples  of  English  medieval  sculpture; 


WINCHESTER 


70s 


the  most  notable  are  the  monuments  of  Bishops  Edington, 
Wykeham,  Waynflete,  Cardinal  Beaufort,  Langton  and  Fox. 
The  door  of  iron  grills^  of  beautiful  design,  now  in  the  north 
nave  aisle,  is  considered  to  be  the  oldest  work  of  its  character 
in  England;  its  date  is  placed  in  the  nth  or  Z2th  century. 
The  mortuary  chests  in  the  presbytery  contain  the  bones  of 
Saxon  kings  who  were  buried  here.  The  remains  were  collected 
in  this  manner  by  Bishop  Henry  de  Blois  (1129-1171),  and  again 
after  they  had  been  scattered  by  the  soldiers  of  CromwelL  The 
choir  stalls  furnish  a  magnificent  example  of  Decorated  wood- 
work, and  much  stained  glass  of  the  Decorated  and  Perpendicular 
periods  remains  in  fragmentary  form.  The  library  coiitainsa 
Vulgate  of  the  zath  century,  a  finely  ornamented  MS.  on 
vellum. 

In  1905  serious  signs  of  weakness  were  manifested  in  the 
fabric  of  the  cathedral,  and  it  was  found  that  a  large  part  of 
the  foundation  was  insecure,  being  laid  on  piles,  or  tree-trunks 
set  flat,  in  soft  and  watery  soil  Extensive  works  of  restoration, 
including  the  underpinning  of  the  foundations  with  cement 
concrete  (which  necessitated  the  employment  of  divers),  were 
undertaken  under  the  direction  of  Mr  T.  G.  Jackson. 

Relics  of  the  monastic  buildings  are  slight,  and  there  are 
Early  English  arches  and  Perpendicular  work  in  the  deanery. 
Other  old  houses  in  the  Close  are  very  picturesque.  Here 
formerly  stood  the  house  which  Chades  II.  desired  of  Ken  for 
Nell  Gwyn.  Ken  refused  it,  but  the  king  bore  no  maUcc,  settling 
NcD  Gwyn  in  another  house  near  by,  and  afterwards  raising 
Ken  to  the  bishopric  of  Bath  and  Wells. 

King  Alfred  founded  a  minster  immediately  north  of  the 
present  site  of  the  cathedral,  and  here  he  and  other  Saxon  kings 
were  buried.  The  house,  known  as  Hyde  Abbey,  was  removed 
(as  was  Alfred's  body)  to  a  point  outside  the  walls  considerably 
north  of  the  cathedral,  during  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  Here 
foundations  may  be  traced,  and  a  gateway  remains.  To  the 
east  of  the  cathedral  are  ruins  of  Wolvesey  Castle,  a  foundation 
of  Henry  de  Blois,  where  the  bishops  resided.  On  the  southern 
outskirts  of  (he  dty,  in  a  pleasant  meadow  by  the  Itchen,  is  the 
Hospital  of  St  Cross.  This  also  was  founded  by  Heniy  de  Blois, 
in  1 136,  whose  wish  was  to  provide  board  and  lodging  for  13  poor 
men  and  a  daily  dinner  for  xoo  others.  It  was  reformed  by 
William  of  Wykeham,  and  enlarged  and  mostly  rebuilt  by 
Cardinal  Beaufort  (1405-1447).  The  buildings  form  three  sides 
of  a  quadrangle,  with  a  lawn  and  sun<Klial  in  its  midst;  while  the 
fourth  side  is  partly  open,  and  partly  formed  by  the  magnificent 
cruciform  church.  Tlie  earliest  parts  of  this  building  an  late 
or  transitional  Norman,  but  other  parts  are  Early  English  or 
Decorated.  The  work  throughout  is  very  rich  and  massive. 
St  Cross  Is  a  unique  example  of  a  medieval  almshouse,  and  its 
picturesquenesB  is  enhanced  by  the  curious  costume  of  its 
inmates.  It  is  still  customary  to  provide  a  dole  of  bread  and  beer 
to  all  who  desire  it.  The  parish  churches  of  Winchester  are  not 
of  special  interest-,  but  the  church  of  St  Swithin  is  curious  as 
occupying  the  upper  part  of  the  King's  Gate  This  gate  and  the 
West  Gate  alone  remain  of  the  gates  in  the  walls  which  formerly 
surrounded  the  city.  The  West  Gate  is  a  fine  structure  of  the 
13th  century.  In  the  High  Street  stands  the  graceful  Per- 
pendicular city  cross.  The  county  hall  embodies  remains  of  the 
Norman  castle,  and  in  it  is  preserved  the  so-called  King  Arthur's 
round  table.  This  is  supposed  to  date  actually  from  the  time 
of  King  Stephen,  but  the  painted  designs  upon  it  are  of  the 
Tudor  period. 

Winchester  is  famous  as  an  educational  centre,  and  in  addition 
to  Winchester  College  there  are  several  naodem  preparatory 
schools  here.  The  College  of  St  Mary,  lying  to  the  south  of  the 
cathedral  close,  is  one  of  the  greatest  of  English  public  schools. 
While  a  monastic  school  was  in  existence  here  from  veiy  early 
times,  the  college  was  originated  in  r387  by  William  of  WyLeham, 
whose  famous  scheme  of  education  embraced  this  foundation 
and  that  of  New  College,  Oxford.  The  members  on  the  founda- 
tion consisted  of  a  warden,  10  fellows,  3  cfaafdains,  70  scholars 
and  16  choristers.  The  buildings  were  completed  about 
1395.    The  quadrangles^  with  tliB  fine  diapel,  towec,  iiall 


and  cloister  are  noteworthy,  tnd  there  are.  extensive  modern 
buildings. 

The  principal  public  buildings  of  the  city  arc  the  gild-hall, 
public  library  and  art  school,  museum,  market  house^  mechanics' 
institution  and  barracks.  The  parlfamcntary  borough  returns 
one  member  and  falls  within  the  Andover  division  of  the  county. 
The  corporation  consists  of  a  mayor,  6  ddcrmen  and  18 
councillors.    Area,  193 1  acres. 

History.— Tht  history  of  the  earliest  Winchester  (Wintm, 
Wynlott)  is  lost  in  legend;  tradition  ascribes  its  foundation  to 
Ludor.Rous  Hudibras  and  dates  it  ninety-nine  years  before  the 
first  building  of  Rome;  earthworks  and  relics  show  that  the 
Itchen  valley  was  occupied  by  Celts,  and  it  is  certain  from  its 
position  at  the  centre  of  six  Roman  roads  and  from  the  Roman 
relics  found  there  that  the  Caer  Gwent  (Whit.e  Ctty)  of  the  Celts 
was,  under  the  name  of  Venta  Bdgarum,  an  important  Romano- 
British  country  town.  Hardly  any  traces  of  this  survive,  but 
mosaic  pavemcnt9>  coins,  &c.,  have  been  discovered  on  the 
south  side  of  Hi^  Street.  The  taame  of  Winchester  is  indis- 
solubly  linked  with  that  of  King  Arthur  and  his  knights,  bu^  its 
historical  greatness  begins  when,  after  the  conquest  of  the  present 
Hampshire  by  the  Gewissas,  it  became  the  capital  of  Wessex. 
Its  importance  was  increased  by  the  introduction  of  Christianity, 
although  it  was  not  at  first  the  scat  of  a  bishop,  because,  accord- 
ing to  the  later -Winchester  chronicler.  King  Cynegils  uished 
for  time  to  build  a  worthy  church  in  the  royal  city;  his  son 
Cenwalh  Is  said  to  have  built  the  old  minster.  When  the  kings 
of  Wessex  became  kings  of  all  Engkind,  Winchester  became, 
in  a  sense,  the  capital  of  England,  thougli  it  always  had  a  formid- 
able rival  in  London,  which  was  more  central  in  position  and 
possessed  greater  commfercial  advantages.  The  parallel  position 
of  the  two  cities  in  Ang^o-Saxon  times  is  illustrated  by  the  law 
of  Edgar,  ordaining  that  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures 
for  the  whole  kingdom  should  be  "  such  as  is  observed  at  London 
and  at  Winchester."  -  Under  Alfred  it  became  a  centre  of  learning 
and  educatioB,  to  which  distinguished  strangers,  such  as  St 
Grimbald  and  Asser  the  Welshman,  resorted.  It  was  the  seat  oi 
Canute's  government;  many  of  the  kings,  Including  Ecgberht, 
Alfred,  Edward  the  Elder  and-  Canute^  were  boried  there,  and, 
in  1043,  Edward  the  Confessor  was  croiwned  in-  tihe  old  minster. 
The  dty  was  sqmi^imcs  granted  as  part  of  thedowxyof  aqueen 
consort,  and  it  was  the  hodie  of  Emma,  the  wife  of  £ihdr«d 
the  Unready  and  of  Canute,  and  later  of  Edith,  the  init  of  th* 
Confessor. 

Winchester  was  very  ptoq>erous  in  the  years  succeeding  the 
Conquest,  and  its  omission,  togethir  with  London,  flora  Dome*- 
day  Book  is  probably  an  indication  of  its  peculiar  position  and 
importance;  its  proximity  to  the  New  Forest  commended  it 
to  the  Norman  kings,  and  Soutbampt>m,only  la  m.  distant,  was 
one  of  the  chief  ports  £or  the  continent.  The  Conqueror  woie 
his  crown  in  state  at  Winchester  eveiy  Easter,  as  he  wore  it 
at  Westminster  at  Whitsuntide  and  at  Gloucester  at  Christmas. 
The  royal  treasure  continued  to  be  stored  there  as  it  had  beeM 
in  Angk>-Saxon  times,  and  was  there  sdsed  by  William  Rufus, 
who,  after  his  father's  death,  "  rode  to  Winchester  and  opened 
the  Treasure  House."  In  the  reign  of  Stephen  and  again  in  the 
rdgn  of  Henry  II.  the  Court  of  Exchequer  was  hdd  at  Winchester, 
and  the  charter  of  John  promises  that  the  exchequer  and  the 
mint  shall  ever  remain  in  the  dty;  the  mint  was  an  important 
one,  and  when  in  xi  2$  all  the  coiners  of  En^and  were  tried  for 
false  coining  those  of  Winchester  alone  were  acquitted  with 
honour. 

Under  the  Norman  kings  Winchester  was  of  great  cOmmeidal 
importance;  it  was  one  of  the  earliest  seats  of  the  woollen  tnkle, 
which  in  its  different  branches  was  the  chief  industry  of  the  town^ 
although  the  evidence  furnished  by  the  JLiber  Winton  (temp. 
Henry  L  and  Stephen)  indicates  ako  a  varied  industrial  li^. 
As  early  as  the  rdgn  of  Henry  I.  the  gild  of  weavers  is  nientiooed,^ 
and  the  millers  at  the  same  date  render  their  acoount  to  tha 
exchequer. 

The  gild  merchant  of  Winchester  claims  an  Anglo-Saxotf 
origin,  but  the  first  authentic  refeience  to  it  |a-i»  onb  viithe 


7o6 


WINCHESTER 


charters  gnuitad  to  the  dty  by  Henry  11.  The  Liber  IVitUon 
tpeaks  of  a  '*  cnihts'  gild,'*  which  certainly  existed  in  the  time  of 
the  Coofeasor.  The  prosperity  of  Winchester  was  increased 
by  the  St  Giles's  Fair,  originally  granted  by  Rufus  to  Bishop 
Walkelin.  It  was  held  on  St  Giles's  Hill  up  to  the  19th  century, 
and  in  the  middle  ages  was  one  of  the  chief  commercial  events 
of  the  year.  While  it  lasted  St  Giles's  Hill  was  <;overed  by 
a  busy  town,  and  no  trade  was  permitted  to  be  done  outside 
the  -fair  within  seven  leagues,  or  at  Southampton;  the  juris- 
diction of  the  mayor  and  bailiOs  of  the  city  was  in  abeyance, 
that  of  the  bishop's  officials  taking,  its  pbce. 

From  the  time  of  the  Conqueror  until  their  expulsion  by 
Edward  L,  Winchester  wad  the  home  of  a  large  colony  of  Jews, 
whose  quarter  in  the  dty  is .  marked  to  the  present  day  by 
Jewry  Street;  Winchester  is  called  by  |(ichard  of  Devizes  "  the 
JeruKilem  oi  England."  on  account -Of  its  kind  treatment  of 
its  JewSi  and  there  alone  no  anti>JeWish  riots  broke  out  after 
the  coronation  of  Richard  I.  The  corporation  of  Winchester 
ckiims  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  in  England,  but  the  earliest  existing 
chartet^  are  two  given  by  Henry  II.,  one  merely  granting  to 
**  my  citizens  of  Winchester,  who  are  of  the  gild  merchant  with 
their  goods,  freedom  from  toll,  passage  and  custom,"  the  other 
confirming  to  them  all  liberties  and  customs  which  they  enjoyed 
in  the  time  of  Henry  I.;  further  charters,  amplified  and  con- 
firmed by  succeeding  sovereigns,  wme  granted  by  Richard  I. 
and  John.  The  governing  charter  till  1835  was  that  of  15^7, 
incorporating  the  city  imder  the  title  x>f  the  "  Mayor,  Bailiffs 
and  Commonalty  of  the  City  of  Winchester  ";  this  is  the  first 
charter  which  mentions  a  mayor,  but  it  says  that  such  an  officer 
had  existed  "  time  out  of  mind,"  and  as  early  as  897  the  town 
was  governed  by  a  wicgerefa,  by  name  Beomwulf ,  whose  death 
is  recorded  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.  There  is  a  doubtful 
reference  to  a  mayor  in  zi94»  and  the  office  certainly  existed 
early  in  the  13th  century.  Until  1832  the  liberty  of  the  soke 
^compassing  the  city  on  almost  every  side  was  outside  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  city  mapst'rates,  being  under  theseignioralty 
oC  the  bi^op  of  Winchester. 

Winchester  seems  to  have  reached  its  zenith  of  prosperity 
•t  the  -beginning  of  the  12th  century;  the  first  check  was  given 
during  the  civil  wars  of  Stephen's  reign,  when  the  city  was 
burned.  However,  the  last  entry  concerning  it  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle  says  that  Henry  Plantagenet,  after  the  treaty 
of  WalUngford,  was  received  with  "  great  worship  "  in  Winchester 
and  London,  thus  recognizing  the  equality  of  the  two  cities; 
bat  the  latter  was  rising  at  Winchester's  expense,  and  at  the 
second  coronation  of  Richard  I.  (1294)  the  citizens  of  Winchester 
had  the  significant  mortification  of  seeing  in  their  own  city  the 
citizens  of  Londcm  take  their  place  as  cupbearers  to  the  king. 
The  loss  of  Normandy  farther  favoured  the  rise  of  London  by 
depriving  Winchester  of  the  advantages  it  had  enjoyed  from  its 
convenient  position  with  regard  to  the  continent.  Moreover, 
it  suffered  severely  at  the  hands  of  Simon  de  MontfMt  the 
Younger  (1265),  although  it  still  continued  to  be  an  occasional 
royal  residence,  and  the  Statute  of  Winchester  (i  285)  was  passed, 
ma  council  held  there.  Meanwhile  the  woollen  tmde  had  drifted 
in  great  measure  to  the  east  of  En^and;  aAd  an  attempt  made 
to  revive  the  prosperity  of  Winchester  in  the  14th-  century  by 
making  it  one  of  the  stai^  towns  proved  unsuooessfuL  The 
wine  trade,  whidi  had  been  considerable,  was  ruined  by  the 
sack  of  Southampton  (1338);  a  few  years  later  the  dty  was 
dJBvastated  by  the  bla^  death,  and  the  charter  of  Elisabeth 
speaks  of  "  our  dty  of  Winchester  now  fallen  into  great  ruin, 
decsy  and  poverty.'*  During  the  Civil  War  the  dty  suffered 
moch  for  its  loynlty  to  Charies  I.  and  lost  its  ancient  castle 
founded  by  WlUiam  I.  After  the  Restorstion  a  scheme  was 
started  to  restore  trade  by  making  the  Itchen  navigable  to 
Southampton,  but  neither  then  nor  when  revived  in  the  tgth 
century  was  it  successful.  Charles  II.,  intending  to  make 
Winchester  again  a  royal  residence,  began  a  paUce  ^ere,  wMdi 
bdng  unfinished  at  his  death  was  used  eventually  as  barracks. 
It  was  burnt  down  in  1894  nnd  rebuilt  in  igor.  Northgate  and 
Soatkgatft  mut  polled  down  in  1781,  Eastg^tir  ten  yean  later. 


Westgate  still  stands  at  the  lop  of  the  High  Street.  The  goaid^ 
room  was  formerly  used  as  a  debtois'  prison,  now  as  a  museum. 
The  two  weekly  markets,  still  hdd  in  the  Com  Exchange  of 
Wednesday  and  Saturday,  were  confirmed  by  Elizabeth's 
charter;  the  latter  dates  from  a  grant  of  Henry  VI.  abolishing 
the  Sunday  maiket,  which  had  existed  from  early  times.  The 
same  grant  established  three  fairs — one  on  October  13  (the  day 
of  the  translation  of  St  Edward,  king  and  confessor),  one  on  the 
Monday  and  Tuesday  of  the  first  week  in  Lent,  and  another  on 
St  Swithin's  day;  the  former  two  are  still  held.  Winchester 
sent  two  members  to  parliament  from  1295  to  1885,  when  the 
representation  was  reduced  to  one. 

WINCHESTER,  a  town  and  the  county-scat  of  Claik  county, 
Kentucky,  U.S.A.,  in  the  £.  part  of  the  Blue  Grass  re^on  of 
the  state,  about  18  m.  £.  by  S.  of  Lexington.  Pop.  (1890)  45x9; 
(1900)  5964,  induding  3128  negroes;  (1910)  7156.  It  is  aarvod 
by  the  Louisville  ti  Nashville,  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  and  the 
liexington  &  Eastern  railways,  the  last  being  a  short  road  (Trom 
Lexington  to  Jackson)  ex)..ending  into  the  mineral  and  timber 
region  of  Eastern  Kentucky.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  the  Ken- 
tucky Wesleyan  College  (co-educational;  Methodist  Episcopal, 
South),  opened  in  1866,  and  of  the  Winchester  Traides  and 
Industrial  School  (1900),  Winchester  is  in  an  agricultural, 
liunbering  and  stock-raising  region,  and  has  various  manufacturcsi. 
It  was  first  incorporated  in  179s. 

WINCHESTER*  a  township  of  Middlesex  county,  Mas6ft> 
chusetts,  U.S.A.,  about  8  m;  W.  of  Boston  at  the  head  of  Upper 
Mystic  Pond,  one  of  the  sources  <rf  the  Mystic  river.  Pop,  (1900) 
7248,  of  whom  1968  were  foreign-bom  and  X4p  were  negroes; 
(1910)  9309.  Area,  6  sq.  m.  Winchester  is  served  by  the 
southern  division  of  the  Boston  9i  Maine  railway,  and  is  conneaed 
with  Boston,  Arlington,  Medford,  Stoneham  and  Wobum  by 
electric  lines.  It  is  chiefly  a  residential  suburb  of  ^osUhu 
Through  the  centre  ol  the  township  vdnds  the  Aberjona  river* 
which  empties  into  Mystic  Pond,  in  Winchester  township,  both 
favourite  resorts  for  canoeing,  &c.  Wedge  V<Md  and  Water 
Pond,  in  the  centre  of  the  townshif^  are  dear  and  beautiiuL 
sheets  of  water.  The  streets  of  Winchester  are  heavily  shaded, 
the  view  as  presented  from  the  ndghbouring  hills  being  that  of  a 
continuous  forest  stretching  frmn  the  beautiful  Mystic  Valley 
parkway  (of  the  Metropolitan  park  system),  of  which  more  thaii 
one-half  (so-s  acres)  is  in  the  southern  part  of  the.  township,  to 
the  Middlesex  Fells  Reservation  (another  Metropolitan  park), 
of  which  261-9  acres  are  in  the  eastern  part;  and  there  are  & 
large  pubUc  playground  and  a  oonunon.  Horn  Pond  Mountain 
and  Indian  Hill  are  about  320  ft.  above  sea-^eveL  One  of  tlie 
pleasantest  residential  districts  is  Rangdy,  a  restricted  private 
park.  The  town-haU  and  library  building  is  a  fine  struiture; 
the  library  contains  about  30,000  v<dumes,  and  the  museum  and 
collections  of  the  Winchester  Historical  and  Genealogical  Sod^y. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  leather  and  felt  goods. 

Winchester  was  originally  within  the  liinits  of  Charlestown. 
In  1638  silotments  of  land  between  the  M]rstic  Pond  and  the 
present  Wobum  were  made  to  various  Charlestown  settlers, 
induding  John  Harvard  and  Increase  Nowell  (1590-1655), 
secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  in  1644-1649,  and 
the  new  settlement  was  called  Waterfieid.  Most  of  this  territory 
in  164^  was  incMporated  in  Wobum  and  was  called  South 
Wobum.  In  1850  Winchester  was  separatdy  incorporated, 
parts  of  Arlington  (then  West  Cambridge)  and  Medford  going 
to  make  up  its  area,  and  was  named  in  honour  of  Colonel  W.  P. 
Winchester  of  Watcctown,  who  left  to  the  township  a  legacy 
for  municipal  worlcsi 

WINCSHBSTBRf  an  independent  dty  and  the  county-seat 
of  Fredeticfc  ootlnty,  Vhginia,  U.S.A..  87  m.  by  rail  W.N.W. 
of  Washington.  Pop.  (1890)  5196;  (1900)  5161,  including  xros 
negroes;  (1910)  5864.  Winchester  is  served  by  the  Baltimore  ft 
Ohio  and  the  Combeiiand  Valley  railways.  It  is  pleasantly 
situated  in  the  fertile  Shenandoah  Valley  about  720  ft.  above 
sea-levd.  Fort  Loud<»in  Seminary  for  girls  occupies  the  site 
of  old  Port  Loudoun,  and  in  the  dty  is  the  Shenandoah  VaUey 
Acadcmyi  a  viliiazy  «choot  for  boys.    Tito  Hvidky  Jibitiy 


WINCKELMANN 


707 


(1910),  ft  mcmoriftl  to  John  Handley,  a  part  of  whose  estate 
was  bequeathed  to  establish  industrial  Khools  for  the  poor  of 
Winchester,  and  an  auditorium  are  owned  by  the  municipality. 
The  United  Stales  National  Military  Cemetery  at  Winchester 
contains  the  graves  of  4480  Union  soldiers,  2382  of  them  unknown, 
and  adjoining  it  is  the  Confederate  Stonewall  Cemetery,  with 
about  8000  graves.  The  manufacture  of  shoves  is  the  leading 
industry;  among  the  other  manufactures  are  woollen  and  knit 
goods,  flour,  leather,  lumber,  paper  and  bricks.  Electricity, 
generated  at  the  Shenandoah  river,  is  used  for  power  in  many 
of  the  factories. 

A  settlement  was  established  in  this  vicinity  as  eariy  as  i752- 
In  1752  the  present  name  was  adopted  and  the  town  was  estab- 
lished by  act  of  the  colonial  legislature.  In  1756,  during  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  George  Washington,  in  command  of  the 
provincial  troops  of  Virginia,  established  his  headquarters  here 
and  built  Fort  Loudoun.  The  town  was  incorporated  in  1779. 
The  Virginta  Catette  and  Winchester  Advertiser ^  the  first  news- 
paper published  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  was  established  here 
in  1787.  In  the  Civil  War,  Winchester,  because  of  its  position 
in  the  lower  Shenandoah  Valley,  played  a  great  part,  aitd  was 
several  times  the  scene  of  engagements  between  the  Union 
and  Confederate  forces — in  1862,  Jackson's  actions  of  Kerns- 
town  and  Winchester;  in  the  Gettysburg  campaign,  the  capture 
of  a  Union  garrison  by  Ewell  (14-15  June  1863);  and  in  Sheridan's 
campaign  of  1864  the  battle  of  Winchester  or  Opequon 
(Sept.  19,  XS64),  for  all  of  which  see  Sbznandoar  Valley 
Campaigns.  Winchester  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1852  and  in 
X906  the  corporate  limits  were  enlarged. 

See  J.  E.  Norris  (ed.),  History  of  the  Lower  Shenandoah  Valley 
(Chicago.  1890).  and  T.  K.  Cartmell,  Shenandoah  VaUey  Fioneers 
(Winchester,  1909). 

WmCRBUIAlllf.  JOBANN  JOACHIII  (T7T7-X7tf8),  German 
archaeologist,  was  bom  at  Stendal  in  Brandenburg  on  the  9th 
of  December  17x7,  the  son  of  a  poor  shoemaker.  He  attended 
a  gymnasium  at  Berlin  and  the  school  at  Salzwedel,  and  in  1738 
was  mduced  to  go  as  a  student  of  theology  to  Halle.  But  he 
was  no  theologian,  and  he  soon  devoted  himself  with  enthusiasm 
to  Greek  art  and  literature.  With  the  intention  of  becoming 
a  physician  he  attended  medical  classes  at  Jena;  but  means 
were  insufficient  and  he  was  obliged  to  accept  a  tutorship  near 
Magdeburg.  From  1743  to  1748  he  was  assodate-rector  of  a 
school  at  Seehausen  in  the  Altmark.  He  then  went  to  N<)thenitz 
near  Dresden  as  librarian  to  Count  Henry  von  Bifatau,  for  whose 
history  of  the  Holy  Reman  empire  he  collected  materials.  The 
treasures  in  the  Dresden  gallery  awakened  an  intense  interest 
in  art,  which  was  deepened  by  association  with  various  artists, 
and  especially  with  A.  F.  (Deser,  who  afterwards  exercised  so 
powerful  an  influence  over  Gocihe.  Winckclmann's  study  of 
ancient  literature  had  inspired  him  with  a  desire  to  visit  Rome, 
and  he  became  librarian  to  Cardinal  Passionei  in  1754.  This 
compelled  him  reluctantly  to  Join  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

In  I7SS,  before  leaving  for  Rome,  Winckelmann  published 
his  Cedanken  ilber  die  Naehahmtmg  der  grieehisehen  Werke  in 
hfakrei  und  BUdhauerkunst  ("Thoughts  on  the  Imitation  of 
Greek  Works  in  Painting  and  Sculpture"),  followed  by  a 
pretended  attack  on  the  work,  and  a  defence  of  its  principles, 
nominally  by  an  impartial  critic.  The  Cedanhen  contains  the 
first  statement  of  the  doctrines  he  afterwards  developed,  and 
was  warmly  admired  not  only  for  the  ideas  it  contained  but  for 
its  style.  Augustus  III.,  elector  of  Saxony  and  king  of  Poland, 
granted  him  a  pension  of  300  thalers,  that  he  might  prosecute 
his  studies  in  Rome.  He  arrived  in  Rome  in  November  1755, 
became  librarian  to  Cardinal  Archinto,  and  received  much 
kindness  from  Cardinal  Passionei.  After  their  deaths  he  was 
received  as  librarian  and  as  a  friend  into  the  house  of  Cardinal 
Albani,  who  was  forming  his  magnificent  collection  at  Porta 
Salara.  In  X763,  while  retaining  this  position,  Winckelmann 
was  made  prefect  of  antiquities. 

He  devoted  himself  earnestly,  at  first  with  the  aid  of  his  friend 
A.  R.  Mengs,  to  the  study  of  Roman  antiquities,  and  gradually 
ftcquired  an  unrivalled  knowledge  of  ancient  art.    In  1760 


appeared  his  DeaerifHan  da  fUrrts  gra»iet  iU  feu  Baron  de 
Stosch;  in  1769  his  Anmerhtmgen  Mber  die  Banhunsi  der  AUen 
('*  Observations  on  the  Ardiitecture  of  the  Ancients  "),  iiu:luding 
an  account  of  the  temples  at  Paestum.  In  1758  and  1762  he 
visited  Naples,  and  from  his  Seudschreiben  von  den  heradanischeu 
Entdechungen  (1762)  and  his  Nachricht  von  den  neuesten  her^ 
culanisdten  Entdechungen  (1764)  scholars  obtained  their  first 
real  information  about  the  -treasures  excavated  at  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum.  Winckeliiianh  again  visited  Naplte  in  1765 
and  1767,  and  wrote  for  the  use  of  the  electoral  prince  an 
princess  of  Saxony  his  Britfe  an  Bianconif  whidi  were  published, 
deven  years  after  his  death,  In  the  Antolcgia  romana.  His 
mastcfpiece,  the  Ceschichte  der  Kunst  des  AUerthums  ("  History 
of  Ancient  Art"),  issued  in  1764,  was  soon  recognized  as  ft 
permanent  contribution  to  European  literature.  In  this  work 
Winckelmann  sets  forth  both  the  hntoiy  of  GrtA  art  and  the 
principles  on  which  It  seemed  to  him  to  be  based.  He  also 
presents  a  glowing  picture  of  the  conditk>nS|  political,  social  and 
intellectual,  which  tended  to  foster  creative  activity  in  andent 
Greece.  The  fundamental  idea  of  his  theory  b  that  the  end  of 
art  is  beauty,  and  that  this  end  can  be  attained  only  when 
individual  and  characterbtic  features  are  strictly  suboi^'nated 
to  the  artbt's  general  scheme.  The  true  artbt,  selecting  from 
nature  the  phenomena  fitted  for  his  purpose,  and  combining 
them  through  the  imagination,  creates  an  ideal  type  marked 
in  action  by  "  noble  simplidty  and  calm  greatness  ''-—an  ideal 
tjrpe  In  which  normal  proportions  are  maintained,  particular 
parts,  such  as  muscles  and  veins,  not  bdng  permitted  to  break 
the  harmony  of  the  general  outlines.  In  the  historical  portkm 
he  used  not  only  the  works  of  art  he  himsdf  had  studied  but  the 
scattered  notices  on  the  subject  to  be  found  in  andent  writers; 
and  hb  wide  knowledge  and  active  imagination  enabled  him  to 
offer  many  ffuitful  suggestions  as  to  perMb  about  which  he  had 
little  direct  information.  Many  of  hb  condusions  based  on  the 
inadequate  evidence  of  Roman  copies  have  been  modified  or 
reversed  by  subsequent  research,  but  the  fine  enthusiasm  of 
the  work,  its  strong  and  yet  giaceful  style,  add  its  vivid  descrip^ 
tions  of  works  of  art  give  it  enduring  value  and  Interest.  It 
marked  an  epoch  by  indicating  the  spirit  In  which  the  study  of 
Greek  art  should  be  approached,  and  the  methods  by  which 
Investigators  might  hope  to  attain  to  solid  results.  To  WInckd- 
mann's  contemporaries  it  came  as  a  revelation,  and  ezerdsed 
a  profound  Influence  on  the  best  minds  of  the  age.  It  was  rrad 
with  intense  interest  by  Lessing,  who  had  found  in  the  eariiest 
of  Winckeln»nn's  works  the  starting-point  for  hb  Laoe6on. 

Winckelmann  contributed  various  admirable  essays  to  the 
Bihltotkeh  der  schSnen  Wissenschaflen;  and  in  X766  he  pubfished 
his  Versuch  efner  AUegorie,  which,  although  containing  the  results 
of  much  thought  and  reading,  b  not  concdved  in  a  ^horoughlhf 
critical  spirit.  Of  far  greater  Importance  was  the  splendid 
work  entitled  MonumenH  anfichi  inediti  (1767^x768),  prefaced 
by  ft  Trattaia  frelhmnart,  presenting  a  general  sketch  of  the 
hbtory  of  art.  The  pbtes  in  thb  work  are  representations  of 
objects  which  had  either  been  fabely  explained  or  not  explained 
at  all.  Winckclmann's  explanations  were  of  the  highest  service 
to  archaeoIoiSy,  by  showing  that  in  the  case  of  many  works  ql 
art  supposed  to  be  connected  with  Roman  hbtory  the  ultimate 
sources  of  inspiration  were  to  be  found  in  Homer. 

In  1768  Winckelmann  went  fa  Vienna,  where  he  was  received 
with  honour  by  Maria  Theresa.  At  Trieste  on  hb  way  back  ho 
was  murdered  in  an  hotd  by  a  man  named  Arcangeli  to  whom 
he  had  shown  some  coins  presented  by  Maria  Theresa  (June  8th. 
1768).  He  was  buried  In  the  churchyard  of  the  cathedral  of 
St  Giusto  at  Trieste. 

An  edition  of  hb  works  was  begun  by  Femoiw  in  1808  and  cooi- 
pleted  bv  Meyer  and  Schuize  (i  808-1 820).  There  are  admirable 
studies  of  his  character  and  work  in  Goethe's  Winchdmann  und  sein 
Jahrkuftdert  0  S05).  to  which  contributions  were  made  by  Meyer  and 
Woir.  and  in  Walter  Patei's  Ronaissanee  (190a).  Thabcst  biography 
of  Winckrimann  b  l>y  Justi,  Wincheimamn  und  seim  Iriifnninm 
(2nd  ed.,  3  vols..  Leipiig,  1898)^  A  collection  of  Ictteim  Briefe  «• 
seine  ZUricher  freuude,  was  publiabed  by  BUlmner  flFreiburb  1883X 

0.sl:J.m.M4 


7o8 


WIND— WINDHAM 


WmD  (a  conmon  Teut.  mod,  cognate  vith  Skt.  vatatt  Lat. 
veiUus,  d.  "  weather,"  to  be  of  course  distinguished  from  to 
"  wixul,"  to  coU  or  twist,  O.Eng.  wimdan,  cf.  "wander,"  "wend," 
&c.),a  natural  motion  of  the  air,  a  current  o£  air  coming  from  any 
particular  direction  or  with  any  degree  of  velocity.  For  the 
general  account  of  winds,  their  causes,  &c.,  see  Meteobolocy. 
Winds  may  be  classified  according  to  the  strength  or  velocity 
with  which  they  blow,  varying  from  a  calm,  a  breeze  to  a  gale, 
storm  or  hurricane;  for  the  varying  scale  of  velocity  per  hour 
of  these  see  Beaufort  Scale,  and  for  the  measurement  Amemo- 
METES.  Another  classification  divides  them  into  "regular" or 
"constant"  winds,  such  as  the  "trade  winds"  (f.v),  and 
"  periodic"  winds,  such  as  the  "  monsoon  "  (^.v.).  There  are 
many  special  winds,  such  as  the  "  Fflhn,"  "chinook,"  "  mistral," 
"  harmattan,"  "  sirocco,"  which  are  treated  under  their  in- 
dividual names.  For  the  group  of  musical  instruments  known 
by  the  generic  name  of  Wind  Insteuuents  see  that  hcacting. 

WINDAU  (Russian  Yindavot  Lettish  WtnUpUs),  a  seaport 
and  sea-bathing  resort  of  western  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Courland,  at  the  noouth  of  the  Windau,  on  the  Baltic  Sea, 
jxo  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  Riga.  Pop.  (1897),  7x33.  It  has  a  castle 
built  in  1290.  The  harbour,  30  and  25  ft.  deq>,  is  free  from  ice 
all  the  year  round.  Timber,  grain  and  other  commodities  are 
exported  to  the  annual  value  of  two  to  three  millions  sterling; 
the  imports  range  between  three-quarters  and  one  million 
sterling.. 

WIND  BRACES,  in  architecture,  diagonal  braces  to  tie  the 
rafters  of  a  roof  together  and  prevent  "  racking."  In  the  better 
sort  of  medieval  roofs  they  are  arched,  and  run  from  the  principal 
rafters  to  catch  the  purlins. 

WINDBBANK,  SIR  FRANCIS  (x58»-i646),  English  secretary 
of  state,  was  the  only  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Windebank  of  Hougham, 
Lines.,  who  owed  his  advancement  to  the  Cecil  family.  Francis 
entered  St  John's  College,  Oxford,  in  1599,  coming  there  under 
the  in6uence  of  Laud.  After  a  few  years'  continental  travel 
(1605-1608),  he  was  employed  for  many  years  in  minor  public 
offices,  and  became  clerk  of  the  council.  In  June  1032  be  was 
appointed  by  Charles  I.  secretary  of  state  in  succession  to  Lord 
I>orchester,  his  senior  colleague  being  Sir  John  Coke,  and  he 
was  knighted.  His  appointment  was  mainly  due  to  his  Spanish 
and  Roman  Catholic  sympathies.  The  first  earl  of  Portland, 
Francis,  Lord  Cottington,  and  Windebank  formed  an  inner 
group  in  the  council,  and  with  their  aid  the  king  carried  on 
various  secret  negotiations,  especially  with  Spain. .  In  December 
2634  Windebank  was  appointed  to  discuss  with  the  papal  agent 
Gregorio  Panzani  the  pos^ility  of  a  union  between  the  Anglican 
and  Roman  Churches,  and  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  Puritan 
opposition  might  be  crippled  by  sending  their  leaders  to  the  war 
in  the  Netherlands.  Windebank's  efforts  as  treasury  com- 
missioner in  1635  to  shield  some  of  those  guilty,  of  corruption  led 
to  a  breach  with  Archbishop  Laud,  and  the  next  year  he  was 
lor  a  time  disgraced  for  issuing  an  order  for  the  conveyance  of 
Spanish  money  to  pay  the  Spanish  troops  in  the  Netherlands. 
In  July  1638  he  urged  upon  the  king  instant  war  with  the  Scots, 
and  in  1640,  when  tumults  wnre  breaking  out  in  England,  he 
tent  an  appeal  from  the  queen  to  the  pope  for  money  and  men. 
Ue  was  elected  in  March  1640  member  of  the  Short  Parliament 
for  Oxford  University,  .and  be  entered  the  Long  Parliament  in 
October  as  member  for  Corfe.  In  December  the  House  learnt  that 
he  had  signed  letters  of  grace  to  recusant  priests  and  Jesuits, 
and  summoned  him  to  answer  the  charge,  but  with  the  king's 
connivance  he  fled  to  France.  From  Calais  he  wrote  to  the 
£rst  Lord  Hatton,  defending  hb  integrity,  and  affirming  his  belief 
that  the  church  of  England  was  the  purest  and  nearest  the 
primitive  Church.  He  remained  in  Paris  until  his  death  on  the 
ist  of  September  1646,  shortly  after  he  had  been  received  into 
the  Roman  communion. 

WINDERMERE,  the  largest  lake  in  England,  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  Lake  District  {qx.).  It  is  in  the  county  of 
Westmorland,  the  boundary  with  Lancashire  running  from 
the  head  southward  along  the  western  shore,  round  the  foot 
and  northward  along  about  one-third  of  the  eastern  shore. 


It  forms  a  narrow  trough  whh  a  slightly  curved  axis  of  io|  m. 

The  width  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  never  reaches  i  m.  The 
area  is  5-69  sq.  m.  The  shores  are  generally  steep,  beautifully 
wooded  and  fretted  with  numerous  little  sheltered  bays.  The 
hills  immediately  surrounding  the  lake  rarely  reach  xooo  fL, 
but  the  distant  views  of  the  mountains  to  the  north  and  west 
contrast  finely  with  the  sylvan  beauty  of  the  lake  itself.  The 
middle  of  the  lake,  immediately  opposite  Bowness,  is  e^jecially 
beautiful,  for  here  a  group  of  islands  (Belle  Isle,  Thompson's 
Holme,  the  lilies  and  others)  divide  the  lake  Into  two  basins, 
the  water  about  them  seldom  exceeding  50  ft.  in  depth.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  greatest  depth  sounded  in  the  northern  basin  is 
2iq  ft.,  and  in  the  southern  134.  The  lake  receives  the  RotJiay 
and  Brathay  streams  at  the  hod;  Trout  Beck  also  flows  into  the 
north  basin,  and  Cunsey  Beck  from  Esthwaite  into  the  south. 
The  lake  is  diained  by  the  Levcn.  Steamers  belonging  to  the 
Fumess  Railway  Company  ply  regularly  on  Windermere,  the 
chief  stations  being  Lakeside,  the  terminus  of  a  branch  railway, 
beautifully  situated  at  the  foot.  Ferry  on  the  west  shore  below 
the  islands,  Bowness  on  the  east  and  Waterhead,  at  the  head, 
for  Ambleside.  The  lake  contains  perch,  pike,  trout  and  char; 
there  are  several  large  hotels  at  Bowness  and  elsewhere  on  its 
shores. 

The  town  of  Windermere,  above  the  eastern  shore  adjacent 
to  Bowness  (9.v.)i  is  in  the  Appleby  parliamentary  division  of 
Westmorland,  and  is  the  terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  London 
and  North- Western  railway  from  Oxenholroe  junction.  Numer- 
ous mansions  and  villas  have  grown  up  in  the  vicinity.  Hen^ 
from  Orrest  Head,  in  the  grounds  of  Elleray,  where  lived  Pro- 
fessor Wilson  (Christopher  North),  superb  views  over  the  whole 
lake  and  its  surroundings  are  obtained.  In  1905  Bowness  and 
Windermere  were  united  as  a  single  urban  district. 

WINDHAM,  WILUAM  (1750-1810),  English  poUtkian,  came 
from  an  ancient  family  long  resident  at  Felbrigg,  near  Cromer  In 
Norfolk.  His  father.  Colonel  William  Windham  (i7i7-x76x),was 
an  adventurous  soldier  with  a  taste  for  languages,  both  andent 
and  modem;  his  son  was  born  in  Golden  Square,  London,  on 
the  3rd  of  May  1750.  He  went  to  Eton,  which  he  quitted  ui  1766 
for  the  university  of  Gla^ow,  where  be  acquired  the  taste  for 
mathematics  wkuch  always  distinguished  him.  In  1767  he 
matriculated  as  gentleman  commoner  at  University  CoUege, 
Oxford,  where  he  remained  until  1771.  He  never  took  the  degree 
of  B.A.,  but  qualified  as  M.A.  on  the  7th  of  October  1782,  and 
received  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  on  the  3rd  of  July  1 793.  He  made 
a  tour  in  Norway  in  1773  and  visited  Switzerland  and  Italy 
between  X778  and  X78a  His  maiden  speech  on  the  political 
platform  was  delivered  at  Norwich  on  the  28lh  of  January  1778, 
whoi  he  vehemently  opposed  the  prosecution  of  the  American 
war.  His  entrance  into  public  life  took  place  in  April  1785, 
when  he  went  to  Ireland  as  chief  secretary  to  Lord  Northington, 
the  lord-lieutenant  in  the  coalition  ministry  of  Fox  and  Lord 
North.  Windham  was  his  own  keenest  critic,  his  distrust  in 
his  own  powers  and  his  disappointment  at  his  own  achievements 
being  con^icuous  on  every  page  of  his  Diary.  Sickness  com- 
pelled  his  return  to  England  early  in  July  1783,  and  he  resigned 
his  position  in  August;  but  change  of  scene  and  constant 
exerdsc  restored  him  to  health  before  the  end  of  that  year. 
In  April  1784  he  was  returned  to  parliament  as  member  for 
IMorwich  by  a  majority  of  64  votes,  thus  scoring  one  of  the  few 
triumphs  attained  by  the  adherents  of  the  coalition  cabinet. 
This  aeat  he  retained  until  i8q2,  when  he  was  beaten  on  account 
of  his  hostility  to  the  peace  of  that  year. 

Though  he  strenuously  opposed  all  proposals  for  parlia» 
mentary  reform,  to  which  most  of  the  Whigs  were  deeply  com- 
mitted, Windham  remained  in  alliance  with  that  parly  until  after 
the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution,  when  he  and  several 
of  his  chief  allies  joined  Pitt.  The  place  of  secrclary-at-war  was 
conferred  upon  him  in  July  1794,  and  he  was  at  the  same  time 
created  a  privy  councillor  and  admitted  to  a  seat  in  the  cabinet. 
Windham  discharged  the  duties  of  his  office  with  unflagging  teal, 
his  efforts  being  particularly  directed  towards  ameliorating  the 
condition  of  the  inferior  grades  of  the  army.   In  the  autumn  of 


WIND  INSTRUMENTS 


709 


t794  he  was  despatched  to  the -duke  of  York^s  camp  in  Flanders 
with  the  views  of  his  ministerial  colleagues,  but  their  advice 
could  not  counteract  the  military  incapacity  of  the  roya)  duke. 
When  Pitt  was  frustrated  in  his  intention  of  freeing  the  Roman 
Catholics  from  their  -pditical  disabilitiest  Windham,  who  in 
religious  matters  always  indmed  to  liberal  opinions,  was  one  of 
the  ministers  who  retired  fifom  office  in  February  1801.  He 
was  a  constant  opponent  of  ail  negotiations  for  peace  with  France, 
preferring  to  prosecute  t<he  campaign  at  whatever  cost  until 
some  decisive  victory  had  been  gaincdi  and  the  temporary  peace 
of  Amiens,  which  was  carried  through  under  Add^ngton's 
administration,  did  not  meet  with  his  approval.  When  he  was 
ousted  from  the  representation  of  Norwich  in  June  1803,  aseat 
lor  the  pocket  borough  of  St  MaWcs  in  Cornwall  was  found  for 
him.  He  declined  a  place  in  Pitt's  new  cabinet  (May  1804)  on 
the  ground  that  the  exclusion  of  Fox  prevented  the  formation 
of  an  administration  sufhdcntly  strong  in  parliament  and  the 
country  to  cope  with  the  dangers  which  threatened  the  safety 
of  the  nation,  and  he  offered  a  general  oppodtion  to  the  measures 
which  the  prime  minister  proposed.  On  Pitt's  death  in  January 
1806  the  ministry  of  "  All  the  Talents  "  was  formed  under  the 
leadership  of  Lord  Grenville,  and  Windham  accepted  the  seals' 
as  secretary  of  state  for  war  and  the  colonies.  Fox's  death 
necessitated  several  official  changes;  and  a  peerage  was  proposed 
for  Windham,  but  he  declined  the  proffered  honour,  and  re- 
mained in  office  as  long  as  the  ministry  existed.  A  general 
election  took  phice  in  November  1806  and  Windham  was  elected 
for  the  county  of  Norfolk;  but  the  dcction  was  declared  void 
on  petition,  and  he  was  compelled  to  dt  for  the  borough  of  New 
Romney,  for  which  he  had  also  been  dected.  In  1807,  vfbcn 
parliament  was  dissolved  under  the  influence  of  the  "  No 
Popery  "  cry  of  Spencer  Perceval,  a  seat  was  found  for  Windham 
at  Higbam  Ferrers.  Liberty  of  rdigious  opinion  he  uniformly 
supported  at  aQ  periods  of  his  Hfe,  and  with  equal  condstency  he 
opposed  all  outbreaks  of  rdigious  fanaticism;  hence  with  these 
convictions  in  his  mind  few  of  the  domestic  measures  of  the  nev 
ministers  met  wi  th  his  approbation.  Moreover,  he  disapproved  of 
the  expedition  to  the  Scheldt,  and  thought  the  charges  brought 
against  the  Duke  of  York,  as  commander-in-chief,  required 
bis  retirement  from  ofhce.  At  the  same  time  he  actively 
opposed  the  bill  of  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  hi»  colleague  on  most 
political  questions,  for  reducing  the  number  of  offences  vidted 
with  the  punishment  of  death.  In  July  1809  he  received  a  bbw 
on  the  hip  whilst  rendering  assistance  at  a  fire,  which  he  thought 
little  of  at  the  time;  but  a  tumour  subsequently  formed  on  the 
spot  and  on  operation  became  necessary.  This  brought  on  a 
fever,  and  Windham  rapidly  sank.  He  died  on  the  4th  of  June 
x8xo,  and  was  buried  in  the  family  vault  at  Fdbrigg. 

His  speeches  were  published  in  three  volumes  In  1806,  with  a 
memoir  by  Thomas  Aniyot,  his  private  secretary  while  he  was  in 
office  in  1806,  and  his  Diary  was  edited  by  Mrs  Henry  Baring  in 
1866.  The  passages  in  the  latter  work  relative  to  Dr  Johnson's 
declining  days  have  been  of  considerable  use  to  the  later  editors  of 
BoswdL 

WIND  INSTRUHEinS  (Fr.  instmrnenff  ^  tettl^  Ger.  Bias- 
instrummU^  Ital.  strumenii  da  fialo)t  a  nutnerous  and  powerful 
flection  of  the  orchestra,  dasdfied  according  to  the  acoustic 
pr(^)ertie8  of  the  instruments  and  to  certain  important  structural 
features.  The  first  great  natural  subdividon  is  that  of  (A) 
mouth  blown,  and  (B)  mechanically  blown,  instrumiints. 

Section  A  falls  into  the  classes  of  (i)  wood  wind,  (a)  bnan 
frind,  ^th  their  numerous  subdivisions. 

1.  (tf)  Wood  Wind. — Pipes  without  embouchure  or  mouthpiece, 
such  as  the  ancient  Egyptian  nay,  a  long  flute  with  narrow  bore 
held  obliquely,  and  the  syrinx  or  pan-pipes,  both  of  which  are  blown 
by  dhecting  the  breath  not  inla  the  ptpe  but  across  the  open  end,  so 
that  it  impinges  against  the  sharp  edge  of  the  rim.  (&)  Pipes  with 
embonchure  but  no  mouthpiece,  such  as  the  transverse  flute,  piccolo 
and  fife:  see  FLt;T«  and  MOtrriinBCB.  (c)  Pipes  with  whistle 
mouthpieces,  an  ancient  contrivance,  extensively  used  by  primitive 
races  of  all  ages,  which  finds  application  at  the  present  day  in  the 
flageolet,  the  whistle,  and  in  organ  pipes  known  as  the  flue^work. 
A  Kir^  class  of  medieval  inctniments,  widelv  diffused  but  now 
obmlete.  were  known  as  recorders,  beak  or  fipple-flutes./fiJVr  i  bee, 
JH^Uts  dntutt/UMs^miftUus  (Fr.),  Ptoek^nt  Blod^SUn,  SekndbdjUnen 


(Ger.).  (i)  Reed  instruments,  by' which  are  to  be  understood  not  reed 
pipes  but  instruments  with  reed  mouthpieces,  which  subdivide  again 
mto  two  families  owin^  to  the  very  different  acoustic  conditions  pjro- 
duced  Iw  the  combination  of  a  reed  mouthpiece  with  (l)  a  cylindrical 
pipe  ano(3)  a  conical  pipe.  These  combinations  influence  not  only  the 
timbre,  bat  principallv  the  harmonics  obtained  by  overblowing  and 
used  to  supplement  the  fundamental  scale  given  out  as  the  lateral 
holes  are  uncovered 'One  by  one;  the  practical  difference  to  the 
performer  may  be  summed  up  as  one  of  fingering,  (di)  comprises 
pipes  with  cylindrical  bore  with  either  single  or  double  reed  mouth- 
piece, such  as  the  clarinet  family,  the  obsolete  batyphone  ({.r.)  and 
the  family  of  cromomcs  (9.v.).  To  these  we  may  add  the  aulos  and 
tjbia  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  which  at  different  times  had  single 
and  double  reed  mouthpieces.  These  pipes  all  overblow  a  twelfth. 
(42)  Pipes  with  conical  bore  and  other  single  or  double  reed  mouth- 

K'ece.  This  class  comprises  the  important  membere  of  the  oboe 
mil^  (with  double  reed)  derived  from  the  Schalmey  and  Pommer  of 
the  middle  ages,  the  Sckryari,  an  instrument  which  had  an  ephemeral 
existence  at  the  end  of  too  16th  century  and  consisted  of  an  inverted 
cone  with  a  double  reed  placed  within  a  ^rouette  or  capsule,  which 
had  the  result  of  restricting  the  compass  of  the  instrument  to  the 
fundamental  scale,  for  haraionics  can  only  be  produced  when  the 
reed  is  controlled  by  the  lips  (see  Rbbd  iNSTKUMBNts).  The  modem 
family  of  saxophones^  with  angle  reed  mouthpiece,  intended  to 
replace  the  clarinets  in  military  bands,  may  be  classed  with  the 
wood  wind,  although  actually  made  of  brass  for  durability.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  sarrasophoncs,  a  family  of  brass  oboes  with 
double  reed,  invented  by  M.  Ssirrus  to  replace  the  .oboe  in  military 
bands.  To  these  we  may  add  the  Chmi  (a.f.)  of  Chinese  organ, 
consisting  of  a  set  of  pipes  arranged  in  a  nollow  gourd  and  sounded 
by  means  oif  free-reeds,  the  air  being  fed  to  the  pipes  in  the  reservoir 
by  the  mouth  through  a  pipe  shaped  like  the  spout  of  a  tea*pot. 
The  Cheng  is  important,asembodyiii^theprindpteof  tbefaanaonium. 
(e)  Wooden  tubes  of  conicd  bore«avmg  lateral  holes  and  sometimes 
from  one  to  three  keys,  played  by  moans  of  a  cup  or  funnd  mouth- 
piece, such  as  the  obsolete  comet  Xi.v.)  or  Zinke,  which  enjoyed  such 
widespread  popularity  during  the  i6tb  and  17th  centuries,  and 
thdr  oass  the  serpent. ,  Thejbagpipe  and  its  drones  and  chaonter 
are  indirectly  moutbblown,  with  the  exception  of  the  Union  or  Iridi 
and  of  the  Border  bagpiipes^  and  of  the  French  bagpipe  known  as 
musette,  in  which  the  bag  is  fed  with  dr  by  means  of  bellows,  instead 
of  through  an  insufflatioa  pipe. 

3.  The  Brass  Wind  consists  of  the  following  dasMs:  (a)  Tubes  of 
fixed  length,  such  as  the  natural  trumpet  and  French  horn,  dl 
medieval  horns  and  trumpets,  induding  the  budne,  the  tuba,  the 
olrphant,  the  hunting  horn  and  the  bugle,  the  classical  buccina, 
comu,  lituus  and  tuba.  The  eompeas  of  all  these  was  restricted  to 
the  few  notes  of  the  harmonic  series  obtained  by  overblowing,  {b) 
Tubes  of  which  the  length  is  varied  by  a  slide,  such  as  the  sockbut 
family,  the  sfide  trombone  and  slide  trumpet.  When  the  slide  is 
drawn  out  the  column  of  air  b  lenethencd  and  the  pitch  proportion- 
ally lowered.  Each  poution  or  shift  of  the  slide  enables  the  per- 
former to  overblow  the  harmonic  series  a  semitone  lower,  (c)  Tubes 
of  whidi  the  length  is  varied  b}^  lateral  holes  and  keys.  To  this  class 
belong  the  keyed  bude  and  its  bass  the  ophicleide,  the  obsolete 
kcyca  trumpet  and  the  bass  horns  and  Russian  bassoon,  which 
immediately  preceded  the  invention  of  valves.  The  saxophones 
and  isarruaophones  might  dso  be  classed  with  these  (see  above,  1  d2'^^ 
(J)  Tubes  ot  which  the  lenfl;th  is  varied  by  valves  or  pistons.  This 
class  is  the  most  modem  oiall,  dating  from  the  invention  of  valves 
in  1 81 5,  which  revolutionized  the  technique  and  scoring  for  brass 
instruments.  A  rational  subdivision  of  valve  instruments  is  made 
in  Germany  into  wbele  and  half  instruments  (see  Bombardon  and 
Valves),  according  as  to  whether  the  whole  length  of  tubing  comes 
into  practical  use'or  only  hdf,  or  from  the  performer's  point  of 
view  whether  the  fundamentd  note  of  the  harmonic  series  can  be 
produced,  or  whether  the  series  begins  with^the  second  member,  an 
octave  ^ove  the  first,  in  which  case  it  b  obvious  that  half  the  tubing 
is  of  no  practical  value.  The  principal  piston  instruments  are: 
the  wh<4e  instruments — contrabass  and  boss  tubas,  bombardons  or 
helicons;  the  euphonium  or  tenor  tuba;  the  haif  instruments — 
saxhorns,  FlOgelhoms,  tenor  horns,  comets,  the  valve  trombone, 
valve  trumpet  and  vdve  hom  (French  horn),  and  the  Waencr  tubas, 
which  are  really  the  basses  of  the  French  hom  and  are  played  with 
funnel-shaped  mouthpieces.  The  brass  wind  is  further  divided 
according  to  the  shape  of  the  mouthpiece  used,  (a)  With  funnel- 
shaped  mouthpiece,  such  as  the  French  hom,  tenor  hom  and  Wagner 
tubas;  and  (6)  with  cup-shaped  mouthpiece,  comprising  all  the 
other  brass  wind  instruments  except  the  bugle,  of  which  the  mouth- 
piece  b  a  hybrid,  ndther  true  funnd  nor  true  cup; 

SecHm  B:  Meekankatty  Blown  InstrumenU^—Thh  section 
consists  mainly  of  instruments  having  the  air  supply  fed  by 
means  of  bdlows;  it  compdsea  'the  two  classes:  (1)  with 
keyboard,  (2)  without  keyboard. 

X.  This  Includes  all  kinds  of  organs:  the  ancient  hydraulic  organ 
or  hydraulus,  rliffcring  from  the  pneumatic  only  in  that  water 
pressure  «w»  used  to  compress  the  air  supply  instead  of  tlie  bdtows 


710 

bdv  urtkhttd  by  boh  dl  lb*  iooi  ud  bodv  of  Un  perfo 
Ant  and  bier  by  Euint  gf  nighti;  ihc  ned  orfag.  coul 
pipe*  lunkbed  willi  beuint  im>.  known  alio  *a  tbe  m 
■rbcn  laeorponlcd  with  die  kuie  ehurcb  onan; 
-  -T —  — J  — :-jy^  ofgaiu:  uie  lafge  modem 


WINDISCHGRATZ— WINDMILL 


ppcutive  and  poeilive  orttai:  die  lir«  moder 
Te  dill    claH  alB  bdoni  tu  aceoidiaa  and 

filled  with  flue  (Hpa  or  p^pea  havLni  bealiiu  nr 


.SCi 


bujnpea  loiown  aa  muKtu 
der  Hjptn  baving  a  wind 


bcllovi  iniiead  al  by  the  liuufflation  pipe  propu  to  Ihc  bupipe; 
the  baml  oraan  bavinB  intlod  of  a  kavboard  a  tunrl  aluddtd  with 
nails,  wbidi  Till  the  valvei  adnuttini  an  lo  Ibe  Bus  [»pea  isntrally 
hidden  wilbin  die  caae.  CK-  S.) 

WIHDIffiliaBin,  nana  ALFSED  (17S7-1M1).  Auttnan 
fidd-nuushil,  enleied  the  Auitikn  oimy  in  1S04,  pinicipaled 
in  aU  Ibe  ware  agamit  N^wlcon  and  fau(ht  with  distinctian 
al  Leipii(  and  In  the  campaign  ol  1814.  In  tbe  lollowing  yeari 
of  peace  he  held  lucemive  command)  In  Prague,  being  appointed 
head  of  the  army  in  Bohemia  in  1S49-    Having  gaiired  a  teputa- 

he  wai  called  upon  to  nippieu  the  insuneition  of  Much  1848 
in  Vienna,  but  finding  himself  Dl-tupportcd  by  tbe  miniiten  he 
ipecdily  Ihrew  up  hii  poel.  Hiving  tetuined  to  Pngue  he  there 
ibowed  firmncB  in  quelling  an  anned  outbreak  of  the  Czech 
■epsraliili  (June  1S48).  Upon  the  ncmdeKence  of  leviJt 
b  Vienna  he  wis  tummoned  al  the  hend  of  t.  large  army  and 
ndueed  the  dty  by  a  formal  licge  (Oct.  10-19).  Appointed 
to  tbe  chief  covmfuid  agaiBit  the  Hungvian  rebels  he  gained 
•one  early  tuccetsti  and  reoccupied  Budapeit  (Jan.  1849), 
bul  by  hii  alownesa  In  pnisiut  he  allowed  (he  enemy  to  rally 
bi  lopetior  nnmben  and  lo  prevent  aa  effective  concentra- 
tion of  the  Anstdan  force*.  In  April  1849  he  wai  relieved  of 
imound  and  hentelorth  rarely  appeutd  again  in  public 


life. 


Sfurai-JiJM  it4S  nod  1849  Und  ed.,  Leipaig. 


m  Uhens-Shxtt.   ^ 


FlO.  t— WlndMin  H 


:  ttiU  largely 


trua.  They  are  loino 


,  o(  the  competition 
of  more  powerful  and 

'  they  are  serviceable, 
especially  In  new 
countries,  whtre  fnel 
t>  actrce  and  where 
work  can  be  done  in- 
tatmillently.  An 
Inquiry  was  made  bi 
India  bi  1819  as  to 
tba  poulbilily  of 
uting  windmiiU  for 
iirl^tfoo  (iVa/es- 
tignal     Paffs     « 


InUsH  EmtintviHi,  July  lijg), 
concluded  their  uactuliieia  woub]  be  very  limited. 
A  wlndBUl  la  not  th  my  cut  >  «eiy  powerful  01  cl&cicnt 


action  is  1 


generate  ekcliidly  b 


For  pumping  on  a  small  scale,  the  inten 
in  objection,  because  there  is  generally  a  I 
)jr  regulating  the  delivny  of  tbe  watei 
10a  windmills  are  least  auiiable,  on  1 
of    speed,    thou^     1 


id  for 

n  all  the  dder  windmills  a 


ExfBttm  WMmiOi.— 

called  the  wind  shaft,  earned  lour  to  six  arms  or  wnipi  on  wnicn 
long  TTCtaoguLar  narrow  ssils  were  spread.  Tlie  wuid  shaft  was 
pbced  at  an  Inclination  of  10°  or  15°  with  the  horisontal.  to 
enable  the  sails  to  clear  Ibe  lower  part  of  the  miU.  The  whip 
carrying  the  sail  wis  often  jo  lo  40  it.  in  length, »  that  the  tips 
of  the  sails  described  a  drde  60  to  8a  ft.  in  diameter.  The  snitt 
were  rectangular,  5  lo  fi  It.  wide,  and  occupying  fiveaiiths  of 
the  length  of  the  whip.  A  triangular  lending  laii  was  sometimes 
added.  Sometimes  tbe  sail*  coniiiled  of  a  sail-cloth  spread 
on  I  framework;  ot  other  times  tunow  boards  were  used. 
The  oldest  miU  was  no  doubt  the  fait  mill,  the  whole  itruciun 
being  carried  oa  a  poat;  to  bring  tbe  sails  to  face  the  wind, 
the  structure  was  lumcd  round  by  a  long  lever.  The  post  mill 
was  succeeded  by  the  laiea,  iiucl  or  Jreck  mill,  in  which  lb* 
mill  itself  consisted  of  a  stationary  lower,  and  the  wind  Shalt 
and  Bails  were  carried  in  a  revolving  cap  rotating  on  the  top 
of  the  tower.  Andrew  Meikle  blrodnced  in  i;ja  an  aunllary 
rotating  fan  at  right  angles  to  tbe  principal  sails,  which  ounc 
into  action  whenever  tbe  wind  was  oblique  to  the  aits  of  the  sails, 
automatically  Hoinf  tbe  sails  or  placing  them  normal  Lo  Iha 
wind.  For  safety,  the  sails  must  be  ru/ed  In  high  winds.  In 
1807.  Sit  W.  Cubilt  inlroduced  automatic  reefing  arrangemenO. 
Tbesails  were  madeof  thin  boards  held  up  lo  the  wind  by  wdghta. 
If  the  f  om  of  the  wind  exceeded  a  certain  volue  the  boaids  were 
pressed  bad  and  exposed  little  luiface. 

Ameiaui  WMmiUs.—Tbete  gcnoally  have  tbe  sails,  18  oi 
ttttfn  m  nuKber,  arranged  in  an  aimulus  or  disk.  Tbe  sails 
consisi  of  narrow  boards  or  slats  arranged  radially,  each  board 
having  a  constant  or  variable  indination  to  the  wind^i  direction. 
Ad  Ameiicu  mill  presents  a  larger  luiiice  for  a  ^ven  lengch  Of 
sail  than  the  older  type,  and  cansequently  Ibe  construction  is 
lighter.  To  tur>  the  mUl  iacatotlMwindaniddn  is  sometimes 
used  projecting  backward  bi  a  plane  at  right  angles  lo  the  plane 
of  mtatioB  ot  tha  sails.  Various  unngtments  are  adopted  for 
reefing  tbe  sails  automatically,  (o)  In  lume  an  action  equivalent 
to  reefing  is  obt«ned  by  turning  the  sail  disk  oblique  to  the 
wind.  The  pressure  on  a  side  vsnc  hi  the  plane  of  rotation, 
controlled  by  a  weight,  tuns  the  sail  disk  edgeways  lo  the  wind 
if  the  pressure  exceed*  a  «jf«  amount.  (fr)IncentrifugalgoTtroor 
mills  the  iliu  forming  the  saHi  are  connecled  in  sets  ot  sii  or 
eight,  each  set  being  fixed  lo  a  bar  al  the  middle  of  its  lengtb. 
By  rolaling  this  bar  the  slals  are  brought  end  on  to  tbe  wind, 
the  action  being  analogous  to  ihuttJnK  an  tmbRlla.  The  slats 
an  beU  up  to  the  wind  by  a  wdght.  A  cenOiiugsl  governor 
lifts  the  weight  if  the  speeJ  becomes  excessivs  and  the  ssils  are 
psitlaUy  or  completely  furled.  Many  of  the  vesting  and  reefing 
atnngemenis  are  very  ingailous  and  too  (implicated  to  be 
described  without  deliiled  dnwingi.  A  description  of  some  «f 
ibeae  arrangements  will  be  found  in  a  piper  by  J.  A.  Giifliths 
[Frin.Insl.Ca.  £fif.,  iiQ,p.  jai)  andbia"  Report  on  Tritis  of 
Wind  Pumping  Engmea  at  Park  R<qnl  in  1905"  Uiiim.JJ.iy. 
^(fic.Sot,  64,  p.  ij«). 

H'ir«r'i,4>nti/v^>II('i*ilMia.— Mesan  Warner  of  London  mala 
■  windmill  sOTnewhat  aimilar  to  American  mills.  The  shutten  or 
vanes  consist  of  a  liaoie  covered  with  canvas,  and  these  are  pivoied 
between  two  angle-inn  rings  so  as  to  form  aa  annular  sail,  Tlis 
vanes  are  connected  wiih  scaral  nrlAgs,  which  keep  them  im  to  lb* 
bui  anile  of  weather  fnclif hi  nnda.  If  Ibe  strenHh  of  the  wind 
intrcatei,  the  vanes  nv*  lo  the  wind,  forcing  back  the  spriin,  and 
thua  Ihc  area  on  whicb  the  wind  acts  diminishes.  In  addltioa, 
liicre  are  a  sirikiiig  lever  and  tackle  for  setting  Ibe  vartca  ednway* 
to  tba  wild  *baa  th*  mill  is  atofiped  ot  a  aton  Is  —j— ^   Tm 


WINfDMltL 


711 


whed  it  kei>t  face  to  the  wind  by  a  nidder  In  man  mOb;  in  Ur^ 
milb  a  tubAidiary  fan  and  g«ar  are  used.  Fig.  a  ahows  a  large  mill 
of  this  kind,  erected  in  a  similar  manner  to  a  tower  mill.  The  tower 
is  a  framework  of  iron,  and  carries  a  revolvins  cap,  on  which  the 
wind  shaft  is  fixed.    Behind  is  the  subsidiary  fan  with  its  gearing 

actine  on  a  toothed 
wheel  fixed  to  the  cap. 
It  is  important  that 
«  wind-mill  should  con- 
trol itself  so  that  it 
works  efficiently  in 
moderately  strong 
winds  and  at  the  same 
time  runs  in  very  light 
winds,  which  are  much 
more  prevalent.  It 
should  also,  by  reefing 
or  otherwise,  secure 
safety  in  storms. 

Table  I.  gives  the 
mean  velocity  of  the 
wind  in  miles  per  hour 
for  an  inland  station. 
Kew,  and  a  very  ^ex- 
posed station,  odlly, 
tor  each  month  during 
the  period  1890-1899. 

The  pressure  of  the 
wind  on  a  i^ne  normal 
to  its  direction,  com- 
posed partly  of  an 
caocess  front  pressure 
and  nci^tive  back 
pressure,  is  given  by 
the  relation 

where  ^  is  in  pounds 
per  square  foot  and  v 
the  velocity  of  the 
wind  in  miles  per  hour. 
ft  varies  a  little  with  the  form 'and  site  of  the  surface,  but  for 
the  present  purpose  this  variation  may  be  disregarded.  (See  experi- 
ments by  Dt  Stanton  at  the  National  Physical  Laboratory,  Prec. 
Inst.  Cn.  Eng.  156,  p.  78.}  ^  For  velocities  of  5,  10  and  30  m.  per 
hour  the  pmsures  on  a  plane  normal  to  the  wind  would  be  about 
0-075,  o*3  and  i-2  lb  per  sq.  ft.  respectively,  and  these  may  be 
taken  to  be  ordinary  working  velocities  for  windmills.  In  storms 
the  pressures  are  much  greater,  and  must  be  reckoned  with  in 
considering  the  stability  of  the  mill.  A  favourable  wind  velocity 
for  windmills  is  15  m.  per  hour. 

Table  I. 


Fio.  2. — ^Warner's  Annular 
Sail  WindmUI. 


Kew     . 
Scilly    . 

Jan. 

Feb. 

March. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

80 

20'6 

8-5 
195 

5.5 
i8'4 

i6'i 

7-5 
141 

70 

12-9 

Kew     . 

Scilly    . 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

70 

12*4 

7-0 

13-9 

6*o 

14-6 

65 
17*2 

70 
19-3 

8'0 

22'0 

Pressure  on  Surfaces  eUique  to  the  Wind. — Let  fig.  3  represent  a 
plane  at  rest  on  which  a  wind  current  impinges  in  the  curection  YY, 
making  an  angle  9  with  the  normal  Oa  to  the  plane.  Then  the 
pressure  n  normal  to  the  plane  is  given  very  approximately  by 
buchemin's  rule 

„«^«£2s^lb  per  sq.ft. 

where  p  is  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  foot  on  a  plane  struck 
normally  by  the  same  wina. 


In  fis.  3  fet  AB  bo  part  of  a  wmdmlfl  sail  or  vane  at  rest,  XX 
being  the  plane  of  roution  and  YY  the  direction  of  the  wind.  The 
angle   9   is    termed    the  ., 

weather  of  the  saiL    This  *• 

is    eenerally   a    constant  \      ju 

angfe  for  the  sail,  but  in  *^*M'^ 

some  cases  varies  from  a 
small  anele  at  the  outer 

end  to  a  larger  an^le  near  r  q^  k        y 

the  axis  of  rotation,  i^  ••""•—►-••-■ —jfr-^*--^--"y--—'" 
mills  of  the  European  type,  ^     **-^- 

9-12*  to  18%  and  the 
speed  of  the  tips  of  the 
sails  is  2i  to  3  times  the 
velocity  of  the  wind.    In  , 

mills    of    the    American  '• 

type,  •-aS*  to  40*,  and  Fio.  3, 

the  speed  of  the  tips  of  the 

vanes  is  |  to  i  time  that  of  the  wind.  Then  if  Oa^ifi  be  the  normal 
pressure  on  the  sail  or  vane  per  square  foot.  te-<  Is  the  effeaive 
component  of  pressure  in  the  direction  of  rotation  and 


•i 


t^n  ua9* 


^2sin>cosJ> 

'^     I+C08»»' 


When  the  sail  Is  rotating  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  wind 
direction  the  conditions  ace  more  complicated.  .In  fig.  4  let  XX  be 
the  plane  of  rotation  of  the  vane  and  YY  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
Let  Oa  be  the  normal  to  the  vane,  0  being  the  weather  of  the  vane. 
Let  Ovv  be  the  vekxtity  of  the  wind,  0«"*fi  the  velocity  of  the 
vane.  Completlnjs  the  parallebgram,  OBb>«-s^  is  the  velocity  and 
direction  of  the  wind  relatively  to  the  vane. 

*.-V(i^+ii«)-»sec^ 
tan  ^""liM 
and  the  angle  between  the  relative  direction  of  wind  and  normal  to 
the  vane  is  0+^.  It  is  clear  that  9-^  cannot  be  greater  than  90% 
or  the  vane  would  press  on  the  wind  instead  of  the  wind  on  the  vane. 
Substituting  these  values  in  the  equatbns  already  given,  the  normal 
pressure  00  the  oblique  moving  vane  is 


•««»-«^*a^^- 


The  comoonent  of  thu  pressure  in  the  direction  of  motion  of  the 
vane  is 


>-0,3^>cV""/t^g;<^ 


(g4-») 


and  the  work  done  in  driving  the  vane  is 
i»«totan^ 

foot  lb  per  sq.  ft.  of  vane  per  sec.,  where  t  is  taken  in  miles  per  houn 
For  such  angles  and 
velocities     as     are 
usual    in    windmifls 
this  would  give  for  a 
square  foot  of  vane, 
near  the  tip  about 
0*003  ^  ^t'   Ih  pcrT. 
sec.     But   parts   of  *' 
the     vane    or    sail 
nearer    the   axis   of 
rotation      are     less 
effective,  and  there 
are  mechanical  fric- 
tion   and    other  \  '^ 
causes     of     ineffici-                           itS 
ency.     An  old  rule                                 p..   . 
based     on     expcri-                                       *  ** 
ments  by  Coulomb  on  mills  of  the  European  type  gave  for  the 
average  effective  work  in  foot  lb  per  sec  per  sq.  ft.  of  sail 


W-o«ooii  »■. 


Tabls  II.-*/fi  ISO  Working  Hours. 


I. 

IL 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

Revolutions  of  wheel     «... 

208,000 

308,000 

264,000 

322,000 

222,000 

202 /x» 

Double  strokes  of  pump              s 

40,000 

122,000 

264,000 

160,000 

78,000 

202000 

Gallons  lifted         .       ,       .      %      . 

78.000 

40,000 

46,000 

40,000 

36,000 

48,000 

Average  effective  horae*power  * . 

053 

0*27 

0*31 

0'27 

0-24 

0-32 

I.  Goold  Shapley  and   Muir,  Ontario;  wheel   16  ft.  diameter,  18  vanes,  131  sq.  ft.  area  (first  prise).  II.  Thomas  ft  Son 
(second  prixe).    III.  J.  W.  Titt.    IV.  R.  Warner.    V.  J.W.Titt.    VL  H.  Sykes. 


712 


WINDOW 


Some  data  given  by  Wolff  on  milU  of  the  American  type  gave  for 
the  same  quantity 

W-0-00045P*. 

From  some  of  the  data  of  experiments  by  GrilBths  on  mills  of  the 
American  type  used  in  pumping,  the  effective  work  in  pumping 
when  the  mill  was  working  in  the  beit  conditions  amountea  to  irom 
0-00059*  to  0*00030'  ft.  tb  per  sec  per  sq.  ft. 

In  1903  trials  ot  wind-pumping  engines  were  carried  out  at  Park 
Royal  by  the  Royal  Agncultufal  Society  (Joum,  Roy.  Agric.  Sec. 
Ixiv.  174).  The  mills  were  run  for  two  months  altogether,  pumping 
against  a  head  of  300  ft.  The  6nal  results  on  six  of  the  best  mills  are 
given  in  Table  II. 

A  valuable  paper  by  J.  A.  Griffiths  (Proc,  Jnst.  Ci».  Eng.  cxix. 
331)  contains  detaib  of  a  number  of  windmills  of  American  type 
used  for  pumping  and  the  results  of  a  series  of  trials.  Table  III. 
contains  an  abstract  of  the  results  of  his  observations  on  six  typos  of 
windmills  used  for  pumping:-^ 


eastern  doorway  of  tha  Enchtheum.  whkh  formed  part  of  Cfce 
original  buikiing  of  430  bx.,  have  lately  been  found;  they  wen 
recungular  windows  with  moulded  and  enriched  architrave,  resting 
on  a  sul  and  crowned  with  the  cymatinm  moulding.  Of  later  date, 
at  Ephesus.  remains  of  similar  windows  have  been  discovered. 
Of  Roman  windows  many  examples  have  been  found,  those  of  the 
Tabularium  being  the  <ddest  known.  A  coin  of  Tiberius  representing 
the  temple  of  Concord  shows  features  in  the  side  wings  whkh  micht 
be  winpows,  but  as  statues  are  shown  in  them  th^  are  possibly 
only^  niches.  Over  the  door  of  the  Pantheon  is  an  open  bronxe 
KTsting,  which  is  thought  to  be  the  prototype  of  the  windows  which 
Rghtoa  the  large  halls  of  the  Thermae,  as  it  was  absolutely  necessary 
that  these  should  be  closed  so  as  to  retain  the  heat,  the  openings  in 
the  gratings  being  filled  with  elass.  In  some  cases  window  openings 
were  closed  with  thin  slabs  of  marble,  of  which  there  are  examples 
still  existing  in  the  churches  of  S.  Martino  and  the  Quattro  Santi 
Incoronati  at  Rome.  Similar  slabs  exist  in  the  upper  storey  of  the 
amphitheatre  at  Pola;  it  still  remains,  however,  an  open  questkui 


Tablb  III. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


VI. 


Diameter  of  wheel,  feet 

Sail  area,  square  feet 

Weather  aape,  outer  ends 

„  „     inner  ends 

Pitch  of  vanes,  outer  ends,  feet 

„  „     inner  ends,  feet  •       .       >       .       . 

Height  of  lift,  feet 

Veioci^  of  wind  at  maximum  efficiency,  miles 
per  hour 

Ratio  of  velocity  of  tips  of  vanes  to  velocity  of  wind 

Revolutions  of  mill,  per  minute 

Actual  horse-power 

In  100  average  hours  in  a  calm  locality—' 

Quantity  m  water  lifted,  ^lons  per  hour 
In  100  average  hours  in  a  windy  locality — 

Quantity  <^  water  lifted,  gallons  per  hour 


35 


33 '3 

38*  30' 
33-8 

30-6 

100 


39*3 


11-5 

43* 
33-7 
131 
61 '3 


4*3 
•93 


7.0 

6*8 
0*098 


495 

816 


306 
639 


5-8 
•93 
13*0 

O'OII 

■53 

387 


% 


13-3 
0*035 

135 
371 


r6-o 
301 
36; 

36^5 
13-7 
39-0 

6'0 

•65 
7-5 
0*034 

359 
535 


14*3 

K 
30* 

T, 

66-3 

7*0 

•91 
13*6 
0*065 

367 

540 


IO*3 

81 
38* 
38» 

17*0 
387 


8 


■h 


30'S 
0*008 

115 

237 


9*8 
60 

14' 

33*4 

7*3 
307 

6*0 

•73 
«*5 

0*0I3 

145 
370 


I.  Toowoomba;  conical  sail  wheel  with  reefine  vane.  II.  Stover;  solid  sail  wheel  with  rudder;  hand  contioL 
III.  Perkins;  solid  wheel,  automatic  rudder.  IV.  ana  V.  Althouse;  folding  sail  wheel«  rudderless.  VI.  Carlyle;  special  typew 
automatic  rudder. 


Table  IV.  gives  the  horee-power  which  may  be  expected,  according 
to  Wolff,  for  an  average  of  8  hours  per  day  for  wheels  of  the  American 
type. 


Diameter  of 
Wheel  in  Feet. 

• 

Velocity  of 

Wind  in  Miles 

per  Hour. 

Horse-power  of 
Nfill. 

Revolutions  of 
Wheel  per  Minute. 

8i 

16 

0*04 

70-75 

xo 

16 

0*I3 

6o-«5 

13 

16 

0*31 

55-«o 

\t 

16 

0-38 

SO-S5 

16 

0*41 
0*01 

45-50 

18 

16 

40-45 

30 

16 

0*78 

35-40 

25 

16 

1-34 

30-35 

Further  information  will  be  found  in  Rankine,  Tile  Steam  Engine 
and  other  Prime  Movers;  Weisbach,  The  Mechanics  of  Eufineertnt; 
and  Wolff,  The  WindmiU  as  a  Prime  Mover.  (W.  C.  U.) 

?fINDOW  (properly  "  wind  eye" ),  the  term  applied  in  archi- 
tecture (lUl.  fenestra,  Fr.  fenHre,  Span,  ventana,  Ger.  Penster) 
to  an  aperture  or  opening  in  a  wall  for  the  admission  of  light  and 
air  to  the  interior  of  a  hall  or  room. 

The  eariiest  windows  are  those  which  constituted  the  clerestory 
windows  of  the  Great  Hall  of  Columns  at  Kamak ;  they  were  filled 
with  vertical  slabs  of  masonry  pierced  with  narrow  slits.  Other 
Egyptian  temples  were  lighted  in  the  same  way.  In  one  at  Der  el 
Medinet  at  1  nebcs  the  window  was  divided  by  miniature  columns 
with  lotus  capitals.  Some  of  the  small  ivory  carvings  found  at 
Nimroud  by  Layard,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  are  evidently  of 
Egyptian  workmanship,  as  they  have  lotus  columns  forming  a 
balustrade  in  the  lower  part  of  the  window;  and  such  features  arc 
shown  in  the  Assyrian  bas-reliefs  as  windows  in  the  towers.  Dr 
Arthur  Evans's  discoveries  at  Cnossus  have  revealed,  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  palace,  rectangular  openings  which  were  certainly 
windows,  with  raised  sills  and  stone  benches  inside,  and  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  ordinary  houses  at  Cnossus  on  a  series  of  plaques 
show  that  they  were  in  two  or  three  storeys  with  openings  in  the 
upper  storL'ys  filled  with  windows  framed  in  timber  with  transoms 
and  mullions.  It  was  at  one  time  thought  that  there  were  no 
windows  in  Greek  temples,  and  those  of  the  west  front  of  the  Erech- 
theum  are  known  now  to  be  later  reconstructions  of  the  Roman 
period,  but  the  remains  of  two  windows  placed  on  either  side  of  the 


as  to  the  lighting  of  some  of  the  temples  in  Rome,  in  which  were 
placed  all  the  magnificent  statues  from  Greece,  so  as  to  enable  them 
to  be  seen  properly.  The  Pantheon  .was  lighted  by  a  circular 
ojpening  in  the  aomc  30  ft.  in  diameter;  the  rain  therefore  fell  in  at 
times,  and  consequently  the  pavement  had  a  convex  contour,  there 
being  also  holes  under  the  hypaethral  opening  in  connexion  with 
drains  beneath  the  pavemont.  There  was  a  window  at  the  south  end 
of  the  tepidarium  ol  the  Forum  baths  at  Pompeii,  said  to  have  been 
filled  with  a  bronze  frame  with  glass  in  it,  half  an  inch  thick.  Although 
no  window  frames  have  been  found  in  Pompeii.theopcnings  in  the  walls 
show  that  sonie  of  the  rooms  were  lighted  by  windows;  one  of  thera 
in  the  house  ol  Diomede  takes  the  form  of  a  bow  window  with  tlizee 
lights  in  it. 

In  the  later  styles  the  windows  assume  much  ereater  importance, 
and  in  Gothic  cathedrals  almost  govern  the  whole  design.  Already, 
however,  in  the  earliest  Byxantine  chureh,  Sta  SiMphia  at  Con- 
stantinople, the  windows  constituted  one  of  the  chief  features  of  the 
church ;  the  forty  windows  round  the  base  of  the  cupola  giving  an 
exceptional  lightness  to  the  structure;  besides,  there  arc  windows  in 
the  uigcr  and  smaller  apses  and  in  the  north  and  south  walls.  The 
windows  in  the  latter,  which  are  of  great  size,  are  subdivided  by 
marble  mullions  with  pierced  lattices  Ixtween  of  transparent  marbles. 

In  the  later  Byzantine  churches  the  windows  were  of  smaller 
dimensions,  but  always  filled  with  marble  screens,  sometimes 
I»eroed,  and  the  grouping  of  two  or  three  under  a  single  arch  is  the 
prevailing  design. 

In  the  Romanesque  styles  the  windows  are  universally  round* 
headed,  with  infinite  variety  of  design  in  the  mouldings  and  their 
enrichment,  greater  importance  being  sometimes  given  by  having 
two  or  more  nngs  of  arches,  the  outer  ones  carried  by  small  columns; 
this  is  varied  in  Norman  work  by  dividing  them  with  a  shaft  into 
two  or  more  lights  placed  in  shallow  recesses  under  an  arched  head. 
Circular  windows  occur  occasionally,  as  in  the  eastern  transept  of 
Canterbury,  at  Iffley  church,  Oxford.  Barfrcston  and  Patricksbourne 
in  Kent.  In  all  these  early  windows,  which  arc  usually  small, 
greater  light  is  obtained  by  splaying  the  jambs  inside  with  a  scoinson 
arch  over  them.  The  coupling  together  of  two  or  more  windows 
under  a  single  arch,  and  the  piercing  of  the  tympanum  above,  led 
to  the  development  of  plate  and  rib  tracery  (see  Tracery);  also 
to  that  of  the  circular  or  rose  windows,  which  throughout  the  Roman- 
esque and  Gothk  periods  constituted  very  important  features  in  the 
church,  being  placed  high  up  in  the  west  front  over  the  porch  or  in 
the  transeptsc-sometimes,  and  more  pnrticulariy  in  French  churches, 
they  occupied  the  whole  of  the  upper  fiortion  of  the  windows, 
having  vertical  lights  under  them,  but  the  junction  was  never  quite 
satisfactory. 


WINDOW  CORNICE— WINDSOR 


713 


Ahlioarii  the  employiiieBt  of  tracery  oontinued  long  after  tlie 
ckuic  revival,  the  examples  generally  are  poor  In  design,  and  even  in 
those  that  are  more  elaborate  (as  those  of  the  period  of  Henry  IL 
in  the  church  at  Le  Grand  Andely)  the  introducuon  of  classic  details 
in  the  ordinary  and  rose  windows  was  of  too  capricious  a  character 
to  make  them  worthy  of  much  attention.  The  early  Renaissance 
architects  in  France  in  some  cases,  and  notably  in  the  apsidal  chapels 
of  St  Pierre  at  Caen  (1520),  seemed  to  feel  that  the  stained  glass  was 
too  much  cut  ui>  by  the  tracery  and  rauUions.  and  omitted  them 
altogether,  trusting  to  the  iron  stanchions  and  cross-bars  to  carry 
their  glass,  so  that  a  return  was  made  to  the  simple  semicircular- 
headed  window  of  Roman  times,  retainii^  only  the  mouldines  of  the 
late  Flamboyant  period  for  the  jambe  and  arch-moulds,  mndows 
of  this  description,  however,  would  be  out  of  place  in  domestic 
architecture,  so  that  the  mullion  window  was  there  retained  with 
two  or  three  transoms,  all  moulded  and  with  sauare  heads;  in  the 
Tudor  period  cusping  was  introduced  in  the  upper  lights  and  occasion^ 
ally  in  those  below,  and  this  custom  lingered  for  a  long  time  in  the 
collegiate  buildings  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  and  in  various  houses 
throughout  England.  In  France*  square-heulcd  windows  were 
almost  always  employed,  owing  to  the  earlier  introduction  there  of 
the  Renaissance  style,  when  the  decoration  of  the  mullions,  generally 
consisting  of  classic  pilasters,  required  some  kind  of  architrave, 
frieze  and  cornice,  to  render  the  order  complete;  eventually  the 
mullion  and  transom  disappear,  and  in  the  earlier  work  of  the  Louvre 
the  windows  are  simple  rectangular  openings,  fitted  with  wooden 
framework,  and,  like  those  in  Rome,  Milan  and  Genoa,  depend  for 
their  architectural  effect  on  the  moulded  classic  jambe,  and  the  lintel, 
friexe  and  small  cornice  over;  and  in  cases  where  more  importance 
was  required,  with  small  semicircular  columns  or  pilasters  carrying 
the  usual  entablature,  with  small  pediments  sometimes  angular  and 
sometimes  semicircular,  repeating  m  fact  an  ancient  Roman  design, 
of  which  almost  the  only  examples  known  are  the  blank  windows 
and  niches  which  decorated  some  of  the  enclosure  walb  of  the  Roman 
thermae.  In  Florence  and  Siena  the  early  windows  of  the  Renais- 
sance often  had  semicircular  heads  and  were  coupled  together,  there 
being  two  lights  to  the  window  <}ivided  by  shafts,  thus  continuing 
the  tradition  of  those  of  the  eulier  Tuscan  palaces;  the  same 
treatment  was  followed  in  Venicef  Verona  and  other  towns  in  the 
northeast,  where  the  Gothic  influence  of  the  palaces  in  Venice 
created  a  transition;  thus  the  mouldings  of  the  windows  of  the 
Vendramini  and  Comer  Spinelli  palaces  lotlow  closely  those  of  the 
Ducal  Palace,  but  the  arches  are  semicircular  instead  of  being 
either  pointed  orogee  in  form.  Another  type  peculiar  to  Venice  is  a 
lofty  window  with  semidrcular  head  enclosed  in  a  rectangular  pmiel 
and  crowned  with  a  small  entablature  and  pediment. 

The  only  new  combination  of  the  x6th  century  in  Italy,  which  was 
largely  adopted  in  England  by  Inigo  Jones  ana  his  followers  in. the 
17th  and  1 8th  centuries,  is  the  so^llcd  Venetian  or  Palbdian 
window,  the  finest  example  of  which  is  that  found  in  the  Sala  della 
Ragione  or  the  basilica  at  Vicenza;  it  is  true  that  it  was  here  em- 
ployed by  Palladio  to  light  an  open  gallery,  but  the  compoution  was 
so  generally  apptpved  that  it  led  to  its  constant  adoption  for  a 
window  of  more  importance  than  the  ordinary  simple  rectangular 
form.  It  consists  ot  a  central  light  with  semidreular  arch  over, 
carried  on  an  impost  consisting  of  a  small  entablature,  under  which, 
and  enclosing  two  other  lights,  one  on  each  side,  are  pilasters.  In 
the  libnnr  at  Venice,  Sansovino  varied  the  design  by  substituting 
columns  (or  the  two  inner  pilasters.  The  Palladian  window  was 
introduce  by  Inigo  Jones  in  the  centre  of  the  garden  front  at 
Wilton,  by  Lord  Burlington  in  the  centres  of  the  wings  of  the  Royal 
Aaidemy,  and  good  examples  exist  in  Holkham  House,  Norfolk,  by 
Kent,  and  in  Worcester  College,  Oxford.  There  do  not  seem  to  be 
any  examples  in  either  Germany,  France  or  Spain.    Circular  and 


rectangular  .  ^        «, 

detached  columns  as  in  Hampton  Court  Piuafie. 


(R.  P.  S.) 


WINDOW  OORNICB,  on  ornamental  frameworfc  of  ^rood  or 
composition  to  which  window  curtains  ere  attached  hf  rods  trith 
rings  or  hooks.  Cornices  are  often  gflded  and  of  elaborate 
design,  but  they  are  less  fashionable  in  the  soth  century  than 
before  it  had  been  dSscovered  that  dabonte  draperies  barbovr 
du&t  and  microbes.  Like  other  pieces  of  furniture,  they  have 
reflected  taste  as  it  passed,  and  many  of  the  carefully  constructed 
examples  of  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century  are  still  in  use 
in  the  rooms  for  which  they  were  made.  Chippendale  provided 
a  famous  series  still  in  situ  for  the  gallery  at  Hftrewood  House, 
the  valances  of  which  are,  like  the  cornices  themselves,  of  carved 
and  painted  wood. 

WINDOW  SEAT,  a  mim'ature  sofa  without  a  back.  Intended  to 
fill  the  rca-ss  of  a  window.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  i8th  century, 
when  tail  narrow  sash  windows  were  almost  universal,  the  window 
seat  was  in  high  favour,  and  was  no  doubt  in  keeping  with  the 


formalism  of  Georgian  interiors.  It  differed  much  in  decorative 
detail,  but  little  in  form.  It  stood  as  high  from  the  floor  as  a 
chair;  the  two  ends  were  identical,  with  a  roU-over  curve,  more  or 
less  pronoimced.  The  seats  and  ends  were  usually  upholstered 
in  rich  fabrics  which  in  many  cases  have  remained  intact.  The 
legs  followed  the  fashion  in  chairs  and  were  square  and  tapered, 
or,  somewhat  later,  round  and  reeded.  Hepplewhite  and  the 
brothers  Adam  designed  many  graceful  window  scats,  but  they 
were  produced  by  all  the  cabinet-makers  of  the  period. 

WINDOW  TAX,  a  tax  first  levied  in  England  in  the  year  1697 
for  the  purpose  of  defraying  the  expenses  and  making  up  the 
deficiency  arising  from  dipped  and  defaced  coin  in  the  recoinage 
of  silver  during  the  reign  of  William  III.  It  was  an  assessed  tax 
on  the  rental  value  of  the  house,  levied  according  to  the  number 
of  windows  and  openings  on  houses  having  more  than  six 
windows  and  worth  more  than  £$  per  annum.  Owing  to  the 
method  of  assessment  the  tax  fell  with  peculiar  hardship  on  the 
middle  classes,  and  to  this  day  traces  of  the  endeavours  to  lighten 
its  burden  may  be  seen  in  numerous  biicked-up  windows. 

The  revenue  derived  from  the  tax  in  the  first  year  of  its  levy 
amounted  to  £1,200,000.  The  tax  was  increased  no  fewer  than  six 
times  between  1747  and  1808,  but  was  reduced  in  1833.  There  was 
a  strong  agitation  in  favour  of  the  abolition  of  the  tax  during  the 
winter  of  1850- 1851,  and  it  was  accordingly  repealed  on  the  24th  of 
July  1851,  and  a  tax  on  inhabited  houses  substituted.  The  tax 
contributed  £1,856,000  to  the  imperial  revenue  the  year  before  its 
repeal.  There  were  in  England  in  that  year  about  6000^  houses 
having  fifty  windows  and  upwards;  about  275,000  having  ten 
windows  and  upwards,  and  about  725,000  having  seven  windows  or 
less. 

In  France  there  is  still  a  tax  on  doors  and  windows,  and  this  forms 
an  appreciable  amount  of  the  revenue. 

WINDPIPE  the  trachea  (Gr.  Tpox^o,  sc  dprqpfo^  literally, 
rough  artery),  the  air  tube  which  l«uls  from  the  larynx  to  the 
bronchi  and  lungs  (see  RcspiKATCttY  System). 

WINDSOB,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Essex  coxmty,  Ontario, 
Canada,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Detroit  tivcr,  opposite  the  dty 
of  Detroit.  Pop.  (1901)  12,153.  It  is  on  the  Grand  Trunk, 
Canadian  Padfic,  Pere  Marquette  and  Michigan  Central  railways, 
which  connect  at  this  point  with  the  railways  of  the  United 
States  by  means  of  large  and  powerful  car-ferries.  It  is  the  centre 
of  an  important  agricultural  and  fruit-growing  district,  in  which 
tobacco  is  also  produced.  Salt  works,  flour  mills,  canning 
factories,  and  the  mantifacture  of  type-setting  machines  are 
the  prindpal  industries.  During  the  season  of  navigation  It  is 
the  centre  of  a  large  coasting  trade  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

WINDSOR,  a  township  of  Hartford  county,  Connecticut, 
U.S.A.,  on  the  Connecticut  and  Farmington  rivers,  adjoining 
the  dty  of  Hartford  on  the  N.  Pop.  (1890)  2954;  (1900)  3614, 
596  being  foreign-bom;  (19x0)  4x78.  Area  about  27  s<l.  m.  It  is 
served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  ft  Hartford  railway  and 
by  electric  lines  to  Hartford  and  to  Springfidd,  Massachusetts. 
Among  the  buildings  are  the  Congregational  Church,  built  in 
1794  (ihe  church  itself  was  organized  in  1630  in  England),  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  (1864)  and  the  Roger  Ludlow 
School.  In  Windsor  are  the  Campbell  School  (for  girls)  and  a 
public  library  (1888).  The  Loomis  Institute  (incorporated  1874 
and  1905)  for  the  gratuitous  education  of  persons  between  X2 
and  20  years  of  age  has  been  heavily  endowed  by  gifts  of  the 
Loomis  family.  Tobacco  and  market  vegetables  are  raised  in 
Windsor,  and  among  its  manufactures  are  paper,  canned  goods, 
knit  and  woollen  goods,  cigars  and  electrical  supplies.' 

In  1633  Captain  William  Holmes,  of  the  Plymouth  Colony, 
established  near  the  mouth  of  the  Farmington  river  a  trading 
post,  the  first  settlement  by  Englishmen  in  Connecticut;  a 
more  important  and  a  permanent  settlement  (until  1637  caUed 
New  Dorchester)  was  made  in  1635  by  immigrants  from  Dor- 
chester, Massachusetts,  kd  by  the  Rev.  John  Warcham,  Koger 
Ludlow  and  others.  In  1639  representatives  from  Windsor, 
with  those  from  Wethersficld  and  Hartford,  organized  the  Con- 
necticut Colony.  Among  the  original  land-holders  were  Matthew 
Grant  and  Thomas  Dewey,  ancestors  respectively  of  General 

»  In  the  township  of  Windsor  Locks  (pop  1910,3715).  immediately 
north,  cotton  yam  and  thread,  silk,  paper,  steel  and  machinery  are 
manufaaured. 


7^4- 


WINDSOR 


CJ.  S.  Grant  and  Admiral  George  Dewey;  and  Captain  John 
Mason  (1600-1672),  the  friend  of  Miles  Standish,  was  one  of  its 
early  dtizens.  It  #as  the  birthplace  of  Roger  Wolcott,  of  the 
dder  Oliver  Wolcott  (1726-1707),  of  Oliver  Ellsworth  (whose 
home  is  now  a  historical  museum),  and  of  Edward  Rowland  Sill. 
Windsor  has  been  called  "  The  Mother  of  Towns  "  ;  it  onginaUy 
included  the  territory  now  constituting  the  present  township, 
and  the  townships  of  East  Windsor  (1768),  Ellington  (1786), 
South  Windsor  (1845).  Simsbury  (1670).  Granby  (1786),  East 
Granby  (1858),  BIoom£eld  (1835)  and  Windsor  Locks  (1854). 

•  See  H.  R.  Stiles,  Ancient  Windsor  (a  vols^  New  York,  1891; 
revised  edition). 

WINDSOR  (properly  NeW  Windsos),  a  monidpal  borough 
of  Berkshire,  England,  and  a  parliamentary  borough  extending 
into  Buckinghamshire.  Pop.  (1901)  14.130.  The  town,  which 
is  famous  for  its  royal  castle,  lies  on  the  west  (right)  bank  of  the 
Thames,  aij  m.  W.  of  London  by  the  Great  Western  railway, 
which  serves  it  with  a  branch  line  from  Slough.  It  is  also  the 
terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  London  &  South- Western  railway. 
Here  the  Thames,  from  an  easterly  courae,  sweeps  first  nearly 
northward  and  then  south-eastward. 

The  castle  lies  at  the  north-eastern  edge  of  the  town,  on  a 
alight  but  commanding  eminence,  while  the  massive  round 
tower  in  the  centce,  on  its  artificial  motmd,  is  conspicu- 
-  ous  from  far  over  the  flat  land  to  the  easti  north  and 
west.  The  site  of  the  castle  is  an  irregular  parallelo- 
gram measuring  about  630  yds.  by  180.  On  the  west  the  walls 
enclosing  the  "  lower  ward."  with  the  Clewer,  Garter,  Salisbury 
and  Henry  III.  towers,  overlook  Thames  Street  and  High  Street, 
from  which  the  "  hundred  steps  "  give  access  to  the  ward  on  the 
north,  and  the  Henry  VIII.  gateway,  opening  from  Castle  Hill, 
on  the  south.  This  ward  contains  St  George's  Chapel  in  the 
centre,  with  the  Albert  Memorial  Chapel  on  the  east  and  the 
Horseshoe  Cloisters  on  the  west.  To  the  north  are  the  deanery 
and  the  canon's  r^dences,  for  the  foundation  attached  to  the 
royal  chapel  has  the  privileges  of  a  "  royal  peculiar,"  the  dean 
bdng  exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction.  To  the  south  are  the 
guard-room  and  the  houses  of  the  military  knights,  or  pensioners. 
The  round  tower  occupies  the  "  middle  ward "  ;  on  its  flag- 
turret  the  Union  Jack  or  the  Royal  Standard  is  hoisted  accord- 
ing as  the  sovereign  is  absent  or  present.  The  buildings  in 
the  "  upper  ward,"  east  of  this,  form  three  sides  of  a  square; 
the  state  apartments  on  the  north,  the  private  apertments  on  the 
east  and  the  visitors'  apartments  on  the  south.  Along  the 
north  side  of  the  castle  extends  the  north  terrace,  commanding, 
from  its  position  above  a  steep  slope,  splendid  views  across  the 
river  to  Eton  on  the  Buckinghamshire  side,  and  far  over  the 
valley.  The  east  terrace,  continuing  the  north,  overlooks  the 
gardens  in  front  of  the  private  apartments,  and  the  south  terrace 
continues  farther,  as  far  as  the  George  IV  gateway.  The  Home 
Park  lies  adjacent  to  the  castle  on  the  south,  east  and  north. 
The  Great  Park  extends  south  of  Windsor,  where  the  knd, 
rising  gently,  is  magnificently  timbered  with  the  remnant  of 
the  old  royal  forest  The  village  of  Old  Windsor  (in  distinction 
from  which  the  name  of  New  Windsor  is  given  to  the  borough) 
lies  by  the  river,  south  of  the  Home  Park.  To  the  west  of 
Windsor  itself  the  village  of  Clewer  has  become  a  suburb  of  the 
town 

As  eariy  as  the  time  of  the  Heptarchy  a  stronghold  of  some 
importance  existed  at  Windsor,  the  great  mound,  which  is 
moated,  circular  and  about  x  25  ft.  In  diameter,  being  a  remnant  of 
this  period.  William  the  Conqueror  was  attracted  by  the  forest 
as  a  hunting  preserve,  and  obtained  the  hind  by  exchange  from 
Westminster  Abbey,  to  which  Edward  the  Confessor  had  given 
it.  Thereafter  the  castle  became  what  it  remains,  the  chief 
residence  of  the  English  sovereigns.  The  Conqueror  replaced  the 
primitive  wooden  enclosure  by  a  stone  arcuii-wall,  and  the  first 
complete  round  tow^r  was  built  by  Henry  III.  about  1272,  but 
Edward  III.  wholly  reconstructed  it  on  a  more  massive  scale, 
about  1344,  to  form  a  meeting-place  for  his  newly  established 
order  of  Knights  of  the  Carter.  He  selected  this  spot  because, 
according  to  a  legend  quoted  by  the  chronicler  Froissart,  it 
on  Uie  summit  of  the  mound  that  King  Arthur  used  to  sit 


surrounded  by  his  Knights  of  the  Round  Table.  The  bulk  of 
the  existing  round  tower  is  of  Edward's. time,  but  its  walls  wero 
heightened  and  the  tall  flag-turret  added  by  the  court  architect, 
Sir  Jeffrey  Wyatville,  in  the  reign  of  George  IV.  In  addition  to 
the  Round  Tower,  Henry  III.  had  constructed  long  lines  of 
circuit-walls,  crowned  at  intervals  with  smaller  towers.  He  also 
built  a  great  hall  (the  present  chapter  library)  and  other  apart* 
ments,  together  with  a  chapel,  which  was  afterwards  pulled 
down  to  make  room  for  the  chapel  of  St  George.  The  bewtiful 
little  dean's  cloister  preserves  a  portion  of  Henry's  work  in  the 
south  wall,  a  oontemporary  portrait  of  the  king  appearing  in  dis- 
temper on  one  of  the  arches.  Another  chapel  was  built  by  him 
and  dedicated  to  his  favourite  saint,  Edward  the  Confessor. 
This  graceful  building,  with  an  eastern  apse,  is  now  called  the 
Albert  Memorial  Chapel,  some  of  Henry  III.'s  work  still  exists 
in  the  lower  part  of  its  walls,  but  the  upper  part  was  rebuilt 
in  1501-1503  by  Heniy  VII..  who  intended  it  as  a  burial-place 
for  himself  and  his  line,  before  he  began  the  chapel  whid)  bears 
his  name  and  contains  his  tomb  at  Westminster  Abbey.  Some 
years  later  the  unfinished  chapel  was  given  by.  Henry  YHI*  to 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  and  for  long  after  it  was  known  as  "  Wolse/s 
tomb-house."  Wolsey  engaged  a  Florentine  sculptor  named 
Benedetto,  probably  a  son  or  nephew  of  Benedetto  da  Maiano 
(d.  1497)1  <^lso  a  Florentine  artist,  to  make  him  a  cpsUy  tomb  of 
marble  and  gilt  bronze,  with  a  recumbent  effigy  at  the  top, 
no  doubt  similar  in  design  to  Tortigiano's  tomb  of  Henry  Vn. 
at  Westminster.  The  rich  bronxe  work  of  Wolse/s  tomb  was 
torn  off  and  melted  by  order  of  the  Cctamonwealth  in  1649, 
and  the  metal  was  sold  for  the  then  large  sum  of  £600.  In  1805 
the  black  marble  sarcophagus,  stripped  of  its  bronze  ornaments, 
was  moved  from  Windsor  and  used  as  a  monument  over  Nelson's 
grave  in  the  crypt  of  St  Paul's.  Though  Wolsey's  tomb-house 
was  roofed  in  and  used  for  mass  by  James  11.,  the  stone  vauking 
was  not  completed  until  the  whole  chapel  was  fitted  by  Sir 
Gilbert  Scott  as  a  memorial  to  Albert.  Prince  Consort.  Its  internal 
walls  were  then  lined  with  rich  marbles,  and  decorated  with 
reliefs  by  Baron  Triqueti.  The  cenotaph  of  the  Prince  Consort 
stands  before  the  altar,  with  the  tombs  of  Prince  Leopold,  duke  of 
Albany,  and  the  duke  of  Clarence,  the  last  erected  by  King 
Edward  VII.,  who  was  himself  buried  here  in  May  1910.  In  a 
vault  beneath  the  chapel  George  lU.  and  members  of  his  family 
are  buried. 

The  chapel  of  St  George  is  one  of  the  finest  examples  of 
PerpcndicxUar  architecture  in  England,  comparable  with  two 
other  royal  chapels,  that  of  Ring's  College  at  Cambridge  and  that 
of  Henry  VII.  at  Westminster,  which  are  a  little  later  in  date. 
The  building  was  begun  by  Edward  IV.,  who  in  1473  pull^  down 
almost  the  whole  of  the  earlier  chapel,  which  had  been  completed 
and  filled  with  stained  glass  by  Edward  III.  in  1363.  The  nave 
of  St  George's  was  vaulted  about  the  year  14^,  but  the  choir 
groining  was  not  finished  tfll  1507,  the  hitnging  pendants  from 
the  fan  vaulting  of  the  choir  mark  a  later  development  of  style^ 
which  contrasts  strongly  with  the  simpler  lines  of  the  earlier  nave 
vault.  In  1516  the  lantern  and  the  rood-screen  were  completed, 
but  the  stalls  and  other  fittings  weie  not  finished  till  after  15x9. 
The  chapel  ranks  next  to  Westminster  Abbey  as  a  royal  mau- 
soleum, though  no  king  was  buried  thero  bdbre  Edward  IV., 
who  left  directions  in  his  will  that  a  44>lendid  tomb  was  to  be 
erected  with  an  effigy  of  hi msclf  in  silver.  Nothing  remains  of  this 
except  part  of  the  wrought  iron  grille  which  surrounded  the  tomb, 
one  of  the  most  elaborate  and  skilfully  wrought  pieces  of  iron- 
work in  the  worid,  said  to  be  the  work  of  (^intin  Matsys.  The 
next  sovereign  buried  here  was  Henry  Vin.,who  directed  that  his 
body  should  be  laid  beside  that  of  Jane  Seymour,  in  a  magnificent 
bronze  and  marble  tomb.  The  tomb  was  never  completed,  and 
what  existed  of  its  metal-work  was  probably  melted  dovm  by 
the  Commonwealth.  No  trace  of  it  remains.  Charles  I.  was 
buried  here  without  service  in  1649.  Above  the  dark  oak  stalls 
hang  the  bbtoric  insignia  of  the  Knights  of  the  Garter,  their 
swords,  helmets  and  banners.  On  the  stalls  themselves  appear 
a  remarkable  series  of  enamelled  brass  plates  commemorating 
kmghts  of  the  order.  Many  tombs  and  memorials  are  seen  in  the 
chantry  diapeli. 


WINDTHORST 


715 


lbs  deuMry,  cdjoliiiiig  tlie  dctn't  ctofster,  is  dated  1500,  bat 
Uie  Wiocbestflr  tower  to  the  north-east  of  it  is  the  work  of  the 
lUBMHia  prelate  and  architect  William  o£  Wykeham,  who  was 
employed  by  Edward  III.  on  the  greater  part  .of  this  eztensioo 
lAd  altaatioa  of  Henry  lU.'s  work.  The  Horseshoe  cloisters 
w«n  restored  in  Tudor  style  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott.  The  Norman 
Kate  on  the  north  side  of  the  round  tower  was  rebuilt  by  Wyke 


The  site  ol  the  upper  ward  was  built  upon  by  Henry  IL,  and, 
to  a  sieater  eatent,  by  Edward  III.,  but  only  in  the  foundations 
and  lowest  storey  are  remains  of  so  early  a  period  to  be  found. 
The  buildings  were  wanting  in  homogeneity  until  their  recon- 
aUuctioQ  was  undertaken  by  Sir  Jeffrey  WyatviUe  imder  the 
direction  of  George  IV.,  for  Charles  U.  was  unable  to  carry  out 
ftsimOar  intention,  perhaps  fortunately,  as  Sir  Christopher  Wren 
piopoied  ditHtic  alterations.  Charles,  however,  conq>leted  the 
lo-csUed  Star  Building,  named  from  the  representation  of 
tike  star  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter  on  the  north  front.  Here  the 
atate  apartments  are  situated.  They  include  the  throne  room, 
St  George's  Hall,  where  meetings  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter  are 
held,  the  audi^ioe  and  presence  chambers,  and  the  grand  re- 
ception room,  adorned  with  Gobelins  tapestries,  and  the  guard- 
room with  armour.  All  these  chambers  contain  also  splendid 
pictures  and  other  objects  of  art;  but  more  notable  in  this 
connexion  are  the  picture  gallery,  the  Rubens  room  or  king's 
drawing-room,  and  the  magnificent  Van  Dyck  room.  The 
oeiliojp  of  several  of  the  chambers  were  decorated  by  Antonk> 
Vertio,  under  the  direction  of  Charles  U.  In  the  royal  library, 
whkb  is  included  among  the  private  apartments,  is  a  fine  collec- 
tion of  drawings  by  the  old  masters,  including  three  volumes 
from  the  hand  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Here  is  also  a  magnificent 
aeries  of  eighty-seven  portraits  by  Holbein,  highly  finished  in 
sepia  and  chalk,  representing  the  chief  personages  of  the  court  of 
Henry  VIIL  There  are,  moreover,  eacampies  by  Michelangelo 
and  Raphael,  though  the  series  attributed  to  these  masten  are 
not  accepted  as  genuine  in  their  entirety. 

South  of  the  castle,  beside  the  Home  Park,  is  the  Royal  Mews. 
Within  the  bounds  of  the  pork  is  Frogmore  (9.V.),  with  the  Royal 
-^^^  Mausoleum  and  that  of  the  duchess  of  Kent,  and  the 
^*'"'  royal  gardens.  An  oak-tree  marks  the  supposed  site  of 
Herne's  Oak,  said  to  be  haunted  by  the  ghost  of  "  Heme  the 
hunter,"  a  forestpranger  who  hanged  himself  here,  having  fallen 
under  the  displeasure  of  Queen  Elisabeth  (Shakespeare,  Meny 
Wives  of  WindsifTt  Act  iv.  sc  4)-  A  splendid  avenue,  the  Long 
Walk;  laid  out  in  the  Ume  of  Charles  U.  and  William  m.,-]eads 
fram  Georie  IV. 's  gate  on  the  south  side  of  the  castle  straight 
intD  the  b«irt  of  the  Great  Park,  a  distance  of  3  m.  Another 
fine  and  still  longer  straight  avenue  is  Queen  Anne's  Ride, 
planted  in  X707>  Among  various  buildings  within  the  park  is 
Cumberland  Lodge,  built  by  Charles  II.  and  taking  name  from 
the  duke  of  Cumberland,  who  commanded  the  victorious  royal 
troops  at  the  battle  of  Culloden  in  1746,  add  resided  here  as 
chief  ranger.  At  the  southern  boundary  of  the  park  is  a  beautiful 
artificial  lake  called  Viiginia  Water,  formed  bx  the  duke. 
Windsor  Forest  formerly  extended  far  over  tho  south  of  Berk- 
ahire,  and  Into  the  adjacent  county  of  SttnNy,.and  even  in  1790 
still  covered  aeady  60^000  acns.  It  waa  disafforested  by  an 
act  of  18x3* 

A  few  oUbottset  remain  in  tbfr  town  of  Windsor,  but  the 
greatet  part  is  modemiied.  The  church  of  St  John  the  Baptist 
waa  rebuilt  in  i8ss«  but  contains  som«  fine  examples 
ofGrinlingGibboos'swood-canring.  There  are  sUtues 
of  Queen  Victoria,  unveiled  in  the  first  Jubilee  year, 
i887i  and  of  Prince  Albert  (1890).  The  town  ball  was  built  in 
k686  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  who  represented  the  borou^  in 
padiamcnt.  The  town  was  formerly  celebrated  for  the  number 
<rf  its  inns,  of  which  there  were  seventy  in  i6so.  The  most 
famous  were  the  "Garter"  and  the  "  White  Hart,"  the  first  of 
which  was  the  favourite  of  Shakespeare's  Sir  John  FalstafT,  and 
is  frequently  mentioned  in  The  M^rry  Wives  •/  Windsor.  The 
boroo^  is  under  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  x8  coundUors. 
iAita,  a7S7  acrca. 


Uistory.^Wiodax  iWy^dakour,  Wyndson,  ttinMesoro)  was 
probably  the  site  of  a  Roman  settlement,  two  Roman  tombs 
having  been  discovered  at  Tyle-Place  Farm  in  1865,  while  a 
Roman  camp  and  various  antiquities  were  unearthed  at  St 
Leonard's  Hill  in  1705.  The  eariy  history  of  Windsor  centres 
round  the  now  unimportant  village  of  Old  Windsor,  which  was  a 
royal  residence  under  Edward  the  Confessor;  and  Robert  of 
Gloucester  rektes  that  it  was  at  a  fair  feast  which  the  king  held 
there  in  1053  that  Earl  Godwin  met  with  his  tragic  end.  By 
the  Confessor  it  was  granted  to  Westminster  Abbey,  but  was 
recovered  in  exchange  for  two  other  manors  by  William  I.,  who 
erected  the  castle  about  a  m.  north-west  of  the  village  and 
within  the  manor  of  Clewer,  round  which  the  later  important 
town  of  New  Windsor  waa  to  grow  up.  The  earUes*  existing 
charter  of  New  Windsor  is  that  from  Edward  I.  in  1 277,  which  wai 
confirmed  by  Edward  U.  £a  X3 15-13 16  *ii<l  by  Edward  III. 
in  1328.  This  constituted  it  a  free  borough  and  granted  to  it  a 
gild  merchant  and  other  privileges.  The  same  king  later  leased 
it  as  fee  farm  to  the  burgesses  on  condition  that  they  "  did  justice 
to  merchants,  denizen  and  alien  and  to  the  poor."  The  town 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  prosperous,  and  the  fee-fann  rent 
was  reduced  by  several  succceeding  sovereigns.  In  1439  extensive 
privileges  wv'e  accorded  to  the  burgesses  by  Henry  VI.,  and 
Edward  IV.  in  1467  granted  a  charter  of  incorporation  udder 
the  title  of  the  "  mayor,  bailiffs  and  burgesses."  Further 
confirmations  of  existing  privileges  were  granted  by  Edward  IV. 
in  1477,  by  Henry  VII.  in  1490.  by  Henry  VIII.  in  15x5  and  by 
Edward  VI.  in  1549.  A  fresh  charter  was  granted  by  James  L 
in  1603,  and  the  renewal  of  this  by  Charles  JU.  in  1664  incorporat- 
ing the  town  under  the  title  of  the  "  mayor,  bailiffs  and  burgesses 
of  the  borough  of  New  Windsor,"  remained  the  governing 
charter  until  1835.  By  the  charter  of  Edward  I.  the  county  gaol 
was  fixed  at  Windsor,  but  on  the  petition  of  the  men  of  Berkshire 
it  was  removed  thence  to  a  more  central  town  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  II.  New  Windsor  sent  two  members  to  parliaiment 
from  X302  to  1335  *°^  again  from  1446  to  1865,  omitting  the 
parliaments  of  1654  and  1656;  by  the  act  of  1867  it  lost  one 
member.  The  market  is  of  ancient  date,  and  in  1273  the  abben 
of  Bumham  is  said  to  hold  markets  atBurnham  andBeaconsfieki 
to  the  prejudice  of  the  market  at  Windsor.  Edward  IV.  in  1467 
granted  a  fair  on  the  feast  of  St  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  the 
charter  of  1603  mentions  a  Saturday  market  and  three  yeairi^ 
fairs.  No  fairs  are  now  held,  but  the  Saturday  market  is  still 
maintained.  Windsor  bridge  is  mentioned  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.;  the  present  structure  dates  from  X822.  The  town 
has  never  had  an  important  industry,  but  has  dq>ciided  almoet 
entirely  upon  the  castle  and  court. 

The  political  history  of  Windsor  central  round  the  castle,  at 
which  the  Norman  kings  held  their  courts  and  assembled  their 
witan.  Robert  Mowbray  was  ixnprisoned  in  its  dungeons  in  X095, 
and  at  the  Christmas  court  celebrated  at  Windsor  in  1x27 
David  of  Scotland  swore  allegiance  to  the  empress  Maud.  In 
XX7S  it  was  the  scene  of  the  ratification  of  the  tfeaty  of  Windsor. 
The  castle  was  bestowed  by  Richard  L  on  Hugh,  bishop  of 
Durham,  but  in  the  next  year  was  trcacheroudy  seized  by 
Prince  John  and  only  surrendered  after  a  siege.  In  1217  Ii^el- 
ram  de  Achie  with  a  garrison  of  sixty  men  gallantly  held  the 
fortress  agaixist  a  French  force  under  the  count  de  Nevers.  It 
was  a  centre  of  activity  in  the  Barons'  War,  and  the  meeting-place 
of  the  parliament  summoned  by  Henzy  in  x  261  in  rivalry  to  that 
of  the  barons  at  St  Albans;  two  years  later,  however,  it  sur- 
rendered to  Simon  de  Montfort.  The  appeal  of  high  treason 
against  Thomaa  Mowbray,  duke  of  Norfolk,  was  heard  1^ 
Richard  U.  in  Windsor  Castle  in  X398.  During  the  Civil  War 
of  the  17th  century  the  castle  was  garrisoned  for  the  parliament, 
and  in  1648  became  the  prison  of  Charles,  who  iqjMnt  his  last 
Christmas  within  its  walls. 

See  J.  E.  Tighe.  Atnais  of  Windsor  (1858);  ViOma  Cpnaty 
History:  BerksUro, 

WIKDTHORST.  LUDWIO  (x8i»-x89i).  German  politician, 
was  bom  on  the  17th  of  January  x8is  at  Kaldenhetf,  a  counter 
house  near  Osnabrttck.    Ha  spinng  from  a  Soman  Catholic 


7,1 6 


WINDWARD  ISLANDS— WINE 


family  which  for  some  generations  had  held  imporUnt  posts  in 
the  Hanoverian  civil  service.  He  was  educated  at  the  CaroUnum, 
an  endowed  school  at  Osnabrttck,  and  studied  at  the  universities 
of  GOttingcn  and  Heidelberg.  In  1836  he  settled  down  as  an 
advocate  in  Osaabrlicl;:  his  abilities  soon  procured  him  a  con- 
siderable practice,  and  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  Catholic 
Consistonum.  In  1848  he  received  an  appointment  at  the 
supreme  court  of  appeal  for  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  which 
sat  at  Celle.  In  the  next  year  the  revolution  opened  for  him, 
as  for  so  many  of  his  contemporaries,  the  way  to  public  life,  and 
be  was  elected  as  representative  for  his  native  district  in  the 
second  chamber  of  the  reformed  Hanoverian  parliament.  He 
belonged  to  what  was  called  the  Great  German  party,  and 
opposed  the  project  of  reconstituting  Germany  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Prussia;  he  defended  the  government  against  the  liberal 
and  demoaatic  opposition;  at  this  time  he  began  the  struggle 
against  the  secularization  of  schoob,  which  continued  throughout 
his  life.  In  1851  he  was  elected  president  of  the  chamber,  and 
In  the  same  year  minister  of  justice,  being  the  first  Catholic 
who  had  held  so  high  an  office  in  Hanover.  As  minister  he 
carried  through  an  important  judiciaT  reform  which  had  been 
prepared  by  his  predecessor,  but  had  to  retire  from  office  be- 
cause he  was  opposed  to  the  reactionary  measures  for  restoring 
the  influence  and  privileges  of  the  nobility.  Though  he  was 
always  an  enemy  to  liberalism,  his  natural  independence  of 
character  prevented  him  from  acquiescing  in  the  reactionary 
measures  of  the  king.  In  1862  he  again  was  appointed  mim'ster, 
but  wKh  others  of  his  colleagues  he  resigned  when  the  king 
refused  bis  assent  to  a  measure  for  extending  the  franchise. 
Windthorst  took  no  part  in  the  critical  events  of  1866;  contrary 
to  the  opinion  of  many  of  his  friends,  after  the  annexation  of 
Hanover  by  Prussia  he  accepted  the  fait  accompli,iook  the  oath 
of  allegiance,  and  was  elected  a  member  both  of  the  Prussian 
parliament  and  of  the  North  German  diet.  At  Beriin  he  found 
8  wider  field  for  his  abilities.  He  acted  as  representative  of  his 
exiled  king  in  the  negotiations  with  the  Prussian  government 
concerning  his  private  property  and  opposed  the  sequestration, 
thus  for  the  first  time  being  placed  in  a  portion  of  hostility  to 
Bismarck.  He  was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  Hanoverians 
and  of  an  those  who  opposed  the  "revolution  from  above." 
He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  formation  of  the  party  of  the 
Centre  in  1870-1871,  but  he  did  not  become  a  member  of  it, 
fearing  that  Ids  reputation  as  a  follower  of  the  king  of  Hanover 
would  injure  the  party,  until  he  was  formally  requested  to  join 
them  by  the  leaders. 

'  After  the  death  of  Hermann  von  Mallinckrodt  (1821-1874) 
in  1874,  Windthorst  became  leader  of  the  party,  and  maintained 
that  position  till  his  death.  It  was  chiefly  owing  to  his  skill  and 
courage  a$  a  parliamentary  debater  and  bis  tact  as  a  leader  that 
the  party  held  its  own  and  constantly  increased  in  numbers 
daring  the  great  struggle  with  the  Prussian  government.  He 
was  especially  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  Bismarck,  who  attempted 
personally  to  discredit  him  and  to  separate  him  from  the  rest 
of  the  party.  And  he  was  far  the  ablest  and  most  dangerous 
critic  of  Bismarck's  policy.  The  change  of  policy  (a  1870  led  to 
a  great  alteration  in  his  position:  he  was  recondled  to  Bismarck, 
and  even  sometimes  attended  receptions  at  his  bouse.  Never, 
however,  was  his  position  so  difficult  as  during  the  negotiations 
which  led  to  a  repeal  of  the  May  laws.  In  1887  Bismarck 
appealed  to  the  pope  to  nse  ha  authority  to  order  the  Centre  to 
support  the  military  proposals  of  the  government.  Whidthorst 
took  the  responsibflity  of  keeping  the  papal  instructions  secret 
from  the  rest  of  hfs  party  and  of  disobejring  them.  In  a  great 
meeting  at  Cok>gne  in  K^rch  18S7  he  defended  and  justified  his 
action,  and  claimed  for  the  Centre  full  independence  of  action  in 
all  purely  political  queitiona.  In  the  social  reform  he  supported 
Bismarck,  and  as  the  undisputed  leader  of  the  brgest  party  in 
the  Rdchstag  be  was  aMe  to  exercise  infhience  over  the 
action  of  the  government  after  Bismarck's  retirement.  His 
rdatlonB  with  the  emperor  William  II.  became  very  cordial, 
and  fai  1891  he  achieved  a  great  parliamentaiy  triumph  by 
defMtiDg  the  School  talU  and  compelling  Goiiler  to  lengn.    A 


few  days  afterwards  he  died,  on  the  14th  of  Biarch  1801 ,  «t  Beriin. 
He  was  buried  in  tht  Marienkirche  in  Hanover,  which  bad  been 
erected  from  the  money  subscribed  as  a  testimonial  to  himself. 
His  funeral  was  a  most  remarkable  display  of  public  esteem, 
in  which  nearly  all  the  ruling  princes  of  Gennany  joined,  and 
was  a  striking  sign  of  the  position  to  which,  after  twenty  years 
of  incessant  struggle,  he  had  raised  his  party.  Windthont  was 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  greatest  of  German  parliamentary 
leaders:  no  one  equalled  him  in  his  xeadiness  as  a  debater, 
his  defective  eyesight  compelling  him  to  depend  entirdy  upon 
his  memory.  It  was  hb  inisfortttne  that  nearly  all  his  life  was 
spent  in  opposition,  and  he  had  no  opportunity  of  showing  his 
abilities  as  an  administrator.  He  enjoyed  unbounded  popularity 
and  confidence  among  the  German  (^thoDca,  but  he  was  In  no 
way  an  ecclesiastic:  he  was  at  first  opposed  to  the  Vatican 
decrees  of  1870,  but  quickly  accepted  them  after' they  had  been 
proclaimed.  He  was  a  very  agreeable  companion  and  a  thorou^ 
man  of  the  worid,  singulariy  free  from  arrogance  and  pomposity; 
owing  to  his  small  stature,  he  was  often  Imown  as  "die  kkiae 
Excellenz."  He  married  in  1839.  Of  his  three  children,  two 
died  before  him ;  his  wife  survived  him  only  a  few  months. 

-Windthorst's  AHSgevMUe  Redtn  were  published  In  three  volumes 
(Osnabrack,  1901 -1902).  See  abo  J.  N.  Knopp.  Litdvii  Windtkont: 
tin  UbensliiU  (.Dntdtn;  1898);  and  Hfligen.  Ludwti  Windthorst 
(Cologne.  1907)-  O-W.Hs.)    , 

WINDWARD  ISLAMDS,  a  group  and  colony  in  the  West 
Indies.  They  consist  of  the  British  island  of  St  Lnda.  St  Vincent 
and  Grenada,  with  a  chain  of  small  islands,  the  Grenadines, 
between  the  two  latter  islands.  They  are  not  a  shigle  colony, 
but  a  confederation  of  three  separate  colonies  with  a  common 
govemor-in-chief,  who  resides  at  St  George's,  Grenada.  Eadi 
islknd  retains  its  own  institutions,  and  they  have  neither  legb- 
hxture,  laws,  revenue  nor  tariff  in  common.  There  is,  however, 
a  common  court  of  appeal  for  the  group  as  well  as  for  Barbados, 
composed  of  the  chief  justices  of  the  respective  islands,  and  there 
is  also  a  common  audit  system,  whOe  the  islands  unite  in  maintain- 
tng  certain  institutions  of  general  utility.  The  Windward  Islands, 
wUch,  as  a  geograf^cal  di^a^on,  properly  include  Barbados, 
derive  their  name  from  the  fact  that  they  are  the  most  exposed 
of  the  Lesser  Antilles  to  the  N.E.  Trade,  the  prevailing  wind 
throu^ut  the  West  Indies. 

WINS  (Lat.  vinum,  Gr.  ofn»),  a  term  whidi  when  used  in  its 
modem  sense  without  qualification  designates  the  fermented 
product  of  grape  juice.  The  fermented  juices  of  other  fruits 
or  plants,  such  as  the  date,  ginger,  plutn,  kc.,  are  also  termed 
wine,  but  the  material  from  which  the  wine  is  derived  Is  In  such 
cases  also  added  in  qualification.  The  present  article  deals 
solely  with  wine  derived  from  the  grape  (see  Vine). 

Historical.^'This  art  of  viticulture  or  wine-making  is  a  very 
ancient  one.  In  the  East  it  dates  back  almost  as  far  as  we  have- 
historical  records  of  any  kind.  In  Egypt  and  in  Greece  the 
introduction  of  wine  was  ascribed  to  gods;  in  Greece  to  Dionysus; 
in  ^ypt  to  Osiris.  The  Hebrews  ascribed  the  art  of  wine*making 
to  Noah.  It  is  probable  that  the  discovery  that  an  intoxicating- 
and  pleasant  beversge  could  be  made  from  grape  juice  was  purely, 
accidental,  and  that  it  arose  from  observations  made  in  connexion 
with  crushed  or  bruised  wild  grapes,  much  as  the  manufacture 
of  beer,  or  in  its  earliest  form,  mesd,  may  be  traced  back  to  the 
accidental  fennenution  of  wild  honey.  In  ancient  times  the 
cultivation  of  the  vine  indicated  a  relatively  settled  and  staUe 
form  o£  civilization,  inasmuch  as  the  vine  requires  a  considerable 
maturation  period.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  tliat  viticulture 
was  introduced  subsequent  to  the  raising  of  cereal  crops.  The 
Nabataeans  were  forbidden  to  cultivate  the  vine,  the  object 
being  to  prevent  any  departure  from  their  traditional  nomadic 
habits.  The  earliest  examples  of  specific  wines  of  which  we  have 
any  record  are  the  Chalj^n  wine,  produced  near  Damascus, 
in  which  the  Phoenicians  traded  in  the  time  of  Esekiel  (xxvfi. 
18),  and  which  at  a  later  date  was  mnch  appreciated  by  the 
Persian  kings;  and  the  wines  from  the  Greek  islands  (Chios, 
Lesbos,  Cos).  With  regard  te  the  introduction  of  the  vine  Into 
other  paru  of  Europe,  it  appears  that  it  was  brought  to  ^dv 


WINE-MAKINCl 


WINE 


7«7 


by  the  Phoenicians,  and  to  Italy  and  flouthem  Gaul  from  Greece. 
In  the  earliest  Roman  times  the  vine  was  very  little  cultivated 
in  Italy,  but  gradually  Rome  and  Italy  generally  became  a  great 
wine  country.  At  a  later  date  the  republic  sought  to  stimulate 
its  home  industry  by  prohibiting  the  Importation  of  wine,  and 
by  restricting  its  cultivation  in  the  colonies,  thus  preserving 
the  latter  as  a  useful  market  for  Italian  vines.  According  to 
Pliny,  Spanish,  Gallic  and  Greek  wines  were  all  consumed  in 
Rome  during  the  xst  century  of  the  Christian  era,  but  in  Gaul  the 
production  of  wine  appears  to  have  been  limited  to  certain 
districts  on  the  Rhone  and  Gironde.  The  cultivation  of  the 
vine  in  more  northern  parts  (i.e.  on  the  Seine  and  Moselle)  was 
not  commenced  until  after  the  death  of  Probus.  Owing  no  doubt 
to  the  difficulties  of  transportation,  wine  was,  in  the  middle 
ages,  made  in  the  south  of  England,  and  in  parts  of  Germany, 
where  it  is  now  no  longer  produced  (cf.  Hchn,  Ctdlurpfianzen,  &c., 
and  Mommsen,  Rdmische  Cesckichie^  v  q8  et  seq.).  We  know 
very  little  of  the  ancient  methods  of  cultivating  the  vine,  but 
the  Romans— no  doubt  owing  to  the  luxuriant  ease  with  which 
the  vine  grows  in  Italy— appear  to  have  trained  it  on  trees, 
treltis  work,  palisades,  &c.  The  dwarf  form  of  cultivation  now 
common  in  northern  Europe  docs  not  appear  to  have  obtained 
to  any  extent.  It  seems  likely  that  the  quality  of  the  m'ne 
produced  in  ancient  times  was  scarcely  comparable  to  that  of 
the  modern  product,  inasmuch  as  the  addition  of  resin,  salts 
and  spices  to  wine  was  a  common  practice  With  regard  to  the 
actual  making  of  the  wine,  this  does  not  appear  to  have  differed 
very  much  in  principle  from  the  methods  obtaining  at  the 
present  day.  Plastering  appears  to  have  been  known  at  an  early 
date,  and  when  the  Juice  of  the  grapes  was  too  thin  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  good  wine,  it  was  occasionally  boiled  down  with  a 
view  to  concentration.  The  first  wine  receptacles  were  made  of 
skins  or  hides,  treated  with  oil  or  resin  to  make  them  imiservious. 
Later,  earthenware  vessels  were  employed,  but  the  wooden  cask 
— not  to  mention  the  glass  bottle — was  noc  generally  known 
until  a  much  later  period. 

Production. — ^The  total  wine  production  of  the  world,  which, 
of  course,  fluctuates  considerably  from  year  to  year,  amounts  to 
roughly  3000  million  gallons.  France  and  Italy  are  the  chief 
wine-produdng  countries,  the  former  generally  producing  rather 
more  than  the  latter.  During  the  phylloxera  period  Italy  in 
some  years  had  the  greater  output  (e.^.  xS86-i888  and  i890>- 
1892).  The  average  production  of  the  chief  wine-producing 
countries  will  be  gathered  from  the  following  table: — 

Wm»  ProdndioH,   Awtrait  Amnial  ProinOhn  m  Miliums  of  CaU^m 

for  QuinqiuHnial  Periods 


CouDtry. 


France  .  .  * 
Italy  ..  . 
Spain  .  •  , 
Poitu|{al  .  . 
Aufttna-Hungary 
Germany    ,     . 


Period. 


1891-1895. 


770 

674 
521 

74 

"3 

49 


1896-1900. 


4x2 

123 
120 

64 


190X-1905. 


1126 
840 
390 

178 
74 


The  United  States  produces  roughly  50,  Bulgaria  and  Rumania 
each  40  and  Servla  xo  million  ^dlons.  The  United  Kingdom 
produces  no  wine,  but  the  Cape  and  the  Australian  Common- 
wealth each  produce  some  5  million  gallons. 

The  vviation  from  year  to  year  in  the  quantity  of  wine  produced 
In  individual  countries  is,  of  course,  far  greater  than  that  obaerved 
in  the  Ofse  of  beer  or  spirits.  Thus,  owing  to  purely  climatic  vagaries, 
the  quantity  of  wine  produced  in  Germany  in  1891  was  only  16 
million  gallons,  whereas  in  1896  it  amounted  to  xii  millions,  sitni- 
brly  the  French  production,  which  was  S87  million  gallons  in  1895, 
amounted  to  no  tess  than  X482  millions  in  1900.  In  the  same  way 
the  Italian  production  has  varied  between  583  million  gallons  (1895) 
and  793  millions  (1901).  and  the  Spanish  between  331  million  gallons 
an  1896  and  636  mulions  in  1892. 

ConsumpiioH. — ^It  is  only  natural  that  the  consumption  of  wine 

should  be  greatest  in  the  countries  where  it  is  produced  on  the 

largest  scale,  but  the  discrepancy  between  the  consumption  of 
AXV19  \z% 


different  countries  is  little  short  of  cstoniriiing.  Thus,  at  the 
present  time,  the  consumption  per  head  in  France  is  practically 
a  hundred  times  that  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  twenty  times 
that  of  Germany — the  latter,  it  must  be  remembered,  being  itseM 
an  important  wine-produdng  area. 

The  folk>wing  table  will  give  some  Idea  of  the  relative  .con- 
sumption of  wine  in  different  countries:^ — 

Averaie  Consumption  of  Wine  per  Head  of  Population. 


Country. 

Period.                         1 

189X-1895. 

1896-1900. 

1901-1905. 

GaUons. 

Gallons. 

GalkNM. 

France  ..*... 

23-0 

288 

30-8 

Italy 

20*6 

20-0 

?i:j 

Spam     .....'. 

2I-I 

1 6*4 

Portugal      ..... 

II'O 

20-3 

171 

Austna-Hungary  .     •     . 

2-9 

3-2 

3-9 

Germany          .     •     •     • 
United  btates  .... 

1-19 

1-38 

1-45 

0-30 

0-32 

0-43 

Bntish  Empire — 
United  Kingdom     ,     . 

0-37 

0-40 

0-32 

Australia      .... 

i>09 

l'I2 

1*30 

Cape*      

•  ■ 

•    • 

•  • 

^  Has  varied 

between  x-9 

and  37. 

The  whole  of  the  ^iae  consumed  in  the  United  Kingdom  is 
imported.  On  the  average  somewhat  more  than  one-third  of  the 
wiiw  imported  is  derived  from  France,  and  about  a  quarter  from 
Spain  and  Portugal  reqwctively. 

TTuMf  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  in  IQ06. 


From 

Nature  of  Wines. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

(Galloos). 

i 

France  .     .     . 

Claret,  burgundy. 

champagne,  &c. 

4.I05.3« 

2.221423 

Portugal     .     . 

Chiefly  port 

3.707.377* 

1,099.727 

Spain    •     *     . 

Sherry, tarra- 

« 

Germany"       I 
Netheriands   f 

goBa»  &c      ft     . 

2,808,751 

397,840 

Hock.Mo6eUe    • 

1,268.662 

729,0(M 

Italy      .     .     . 

•  * 

345^247 

43.515 

Total  for  foreign 

countries 
Australia     .     . 

•  • 

•  « 

"•« 

4.094.672 

100.161 

Total      British 

pocaesttions   . 

•  • 

777.689 

ia3,89X 

^The  quantity  of  port  received  was  exceptionally  large.  The 
average  quantity  w  rather  under  3  million  gallons  and  the  value 
about  £850,000. 

'  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  German  wines  come  to  the 
United  ICangdom  via  the  Netfacrlands. 

Of  the  wines  imported  from  France,  about  one-quarter  was 
Champagne  and  Saumur  the  remainder  consisting  almost  entirely 
of  still  wines,  such  as  claret  and  buigundy. 

VmCUITUKE  AMD  WlNt-lCAXXMO 

General  Considerations.-^Mthovit^  the  wine  fs  ctiltlvatcd  In 
practically  every  part  of  the  world  possessing  an  appropriate 
climate  and  soil,  from  California  in  the  West  to  Persia  in  the  East, 
and  from  Germany  in  the  North  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
some  of  the  South  American  republics  in  the  South,  yet,  as  Is  the 
case  also  with  the  cereal  crops  and  many  fruits  and  vegetables, 
the  wines  produced  in  countries  possessing  temperatp  cfimAtes 
are-when  the  vintage  is  successful — finer  than  those  made  in 
hot  or  serai-tropical  regions.  Although,  for  instance,  the  wines 
of  Italy,  Greece,  the  Cape,  ftc.,  possess  great  body  and  strength, 
they  cannot  compare  as  regards  elegance  of  flavour  and  bouquet 
with  the  wines  of  France  and  Germany.  On  the  other  hand,  of 
course,  the  vagaries  of  the  temperate  climate  of  i^rthem  Europe 
frequently  lead  to  a  partial  or  complete  failure  of  the  vintage, 
whereas  the  wines  produced  in  relatively  hot  countries,  althoui^ 
they  undoubtedly  vary  in  quality  from  year  to  year,  are  rarely, 
if  ever,  total  failures.  The  character  of  a  wine  depends  mainty 
(a)  on  the  nature  of  the  soil;  (6)  on  the  general  type  of  the 
climate;  (r)  on  the  variety  of  vhie  cultivated.  The  quality, 
as  diitinct  from  general  character,  depends  almost  entirely  ob 


7i8 


WINB 


(CHEMISTRY  OF  WINB 


the  vintage,  i.e.  on  the  ifeather  conditions  preceding  and  dunng 
the  gathering  of  the  grapes  and  the  subsequent  fermentation 
Of  all  these  factors,  that  of  the  oatufe  of  the  soil  on  which  the 
vine  b  grown  is  perhaps  the  most  important  The  same  vine,  ex* 
posed  to  practically  identical  conditions  of  climate,  will  produce 
markedly  different  wines  i£  planted  in  different  soils.  On  the 
other  hand,  different  varieties  of  the  vine,  provided  they  are 
otherwise  not  unsuitable,  may,  if  planted  in  the  same  soil,  after 
a  time  produce  wines  which  may  not  differ  seriously  In  character 
Thus  the  planting  of  French  and  German  vines  in  other  count ncs 
(e.g.  Australia,  the  Cape)  has  not  led  to  the  production  of  directly 
comparable  wines,  although  there  may  at  first  have  been  some 
general  resemblance  in  character.  On  the  other  hand,  the  re- 
planting of  some  of  the  French  vineyards  (after  the  ravages  due 
to  the  phylloxera)  with  American  vines,  or,  as  was  more  generally 
the  case,  the  grafting  of  the  old  French  stock  on  the  hardy 
American  roots,  resulted,  after  a  tinje,  jn  many  cases,  in  the 
production  of  wines  practically  indistinguishable  from  those 
formerly  made. 

Wiiu-making.—Tht  art  of  wine-making  is,  compared  with  the 
xnanufacture  of  beer  or  spirits,  both  in  principle  and  in  practice 
a  relatively  simple  operation.  When  the  grapes  have  attained  to 
maturity  they  arc  collected  by  hand  and  then  transferred  in 
baskets  or  carts  to  the  press  house.  After  the  stalks  have  been 
removed  either  by  hand  or  by  a  simple  apparatus  the  juice  is 
expressed  either — as  b  still  thtf  case  in  many  quarters— by 
trampling  under  foot  or  by  means  of  a  simple  lever  or  screw 
press  or  by  rollers.  In  the  case  of  red  wines  the  skins  are  not  re- 
moved, inasmuch  as  it  is  from  the  latter  that  the  colour  of  the 
wine  is  derived.  The  must,  as  the  expressed  juice  of  the  grape  is 
termed,  2s  now  exposed  to  the  process  of  fermentation,  which 
consists  essentially  in  the  conversion  of  the  sugar  of  the  must 
into  alcohol  and  various  subsidiary  products.  The  fermenting 
opM-ations  in  wine-making  differ  radically  from  those  obtaining 
in  the  case  of  beer  or  of  spirits  in  that  (if  we  except  certain  special 
cases)  no  yeast  is  added  from  without.  Fermentation  Is  induced 
spontaneously  by  the  yeast  cells  which  are  always  present  in 
large  numbers  in  the  grape  4tself.  The  result  is  that— as  com- 
pared with  beer  or  spirits—the  fermentation  at  first  is  relatively 
slow,  but  it  rapidly  increases  in  intensity  and  continues  until 
practically  the  whole  of  the  sugar  is  converted.  In  the  case  of  the 
production  of  certain  sweet  wines  (such  as  the  sweet  Sauternes, 
Port  and  Tokay)  the  fermentation  only  proceeds  up  to  a  certain 
extent.  It  then  cither  stops  naturally,  owing  to  the  faa  that  the 
yeast  cells  will  not  work  rapidly  in  a  liquid  containing  more  than 
a  certain  percentage  of  alcohol,  or  it  is  stopped  artificially  either 
by  the  addition  of  spirit  or  by  other  means  which  will  be  referred 
to  below.  As  the  character  of  a  wine  depends  to  a  considerable 
extent  on  the  nature  of  the  yeast  (see  Feucektation),  many 
attempts  have  been  made  of  late  years  to  improve  the  character  of 
inferior  wines  by  adding  to  the  unfermented  must  a  pure  culture  of 
yeast  derived  from  a  superior  wine.  If  pure  yeast  is  added  In  this 
manner  in  relatively  large  quajititios,  it  will  tend  to  predominate, 
•  inasmuch  as  the  number  of  yeast  cells  derived  from  the  grapes  is 
at  the  commencement  of  fermenUtion  relatively  small.  In  this 
way,  by  making  pure  cultures  derived  from  some  of  the  finest 
Ffcnch  and  German  wines  it  has  been  possible  to  lend  something 
of  their  character  to  the  inferior  growths  of,  for  instance,  Cali- 
fornia and  Australia.  It  is  not  possible,  however,  by  this  method 
to  entirely  reproduce  the  character  of  the  wine  from  which  the 
yeast  is, derived  inasmuch  as  this  depends  on  other' factors  as 
well,  particularly  the  constitution  of  the  grape  juice,  conditions 
of  climate,  &c.  The  other  micro-organisms  naturally  present  in 
the  must  which  is  pitched  with  the  pure  culture  are  not  without 
their  influence  on  the  result.  If  it  were  possible  to  sterilize 
the  must  prior  to  pitching  with  pure  yeast  no  doubt  better 
results  niigbt  be  obtained,  but  this  appears  to  be  out  of  the 
question  inasmuch  as  the  heating  of  the  must  which  sterilization 
involves  is  not  a  practicable  operation.  After  the  main  fermenta- 
tion is  finished,  the  young  wine  is  transferred  to  casks  or  vats. 
The  general  method  followed  is  to  fill  the  casks  to  the  bung-hole 
,  and  to  Ixep  them  full  by  an  occasional  addition  of  wine.   The 


secoofdary  fermcBUtkm  prooeedi  slowly  and  the  carbosic  add 
formed  is  allowed  to  escape  by  way  of  the  bung-bole,  which  in 
order  to  prevent  undue  access  of  air  is  kept  lightly  covered  or  ia 
fitted  with  a  water  seal,  which  permits  gas  to  pass  out  of  the 
cask,  but  prevents  any  return  flow  of  air.  During  this  secondary 
fermentation  the  wine  gradually  throws  down  a  deposit  which 
forms  a  coherent  crust,  known  as  argol  or  lea.  This  consists 
chiefly  of  cream  of  tartar  (bitartrate  of  potash),  tartrate  of  lime, 
yeast  cells  and  of  albuminous  and  colouring  matters.  At  the 
end  of  some  foiu-  to  five  months  this  primary  deposition  is  prac- 
tically finished  and  the  wine  more  or  less  bright.  At  this  stage  it 
receives  its  first  racking  Racking  consists  merely  in  separating 
the  bright  wine  from  the  deposit.  The  wine  is  racked  into  clean 
casks,  and  this  operation  is  repeated  at  intervals  of  some  mcntha, 
in  all  three  to  four  times.  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  not  possible  by 
racking  alone  to  obtam  the  wine  in  an  absolutely  bright  condition. 
In  order  to  bnng  this  about,  a  further  operation,  namely  that  of 
fiutngt  IS  necessary  This  consists,  in  most  cases,  in  adding  to 
the  wine  proteid  matter  in  a  finely  divided  state.  For  this 
purpose  isinglass,  gelatin  or,  in  the  case  of  high-class  red  winea, 
white  of  egg  is  employed.  The  proteid  matter  combines  with 
a  part  of  the  tannin  in  the  wine,  forming  an  insoluble  tannate. 
and  this  gradually  subsides  to  the  bottom  of  the  cask,  dragging 
with  it  the  mechanically  suspended  matters  which  are  the  main 
cause  of  the  wine's  turbidity.  In  some  cases  purely  mechanical 
means  such  as  the  use  of  Spanish  clay  or  filtration  are  employed 
for  fining  purposes.  Some  wines,  particularly  those  which  lack 
acid  or  tannin,  arc  very  difficult  to  fine.  The  greatest  care  is 
necessary  to  ensure  the  cleanliness  and  asepticity  of  the  casks  in 
which  wine  is  stored  or  into  which  it  is  racked.  The  most  common 
method  of  ensuring  cask  cleanliness  is  the  operation  known  as 
"  sulphuring."  This  consists  in  burning  a  portion  of  a  sulphur 
"match"  (>.e.  a  flat  wick  which  has  been  steeped  in  melted 
sulphur,  or  simply  a  stick  of  melted  sulphur)  in  the  interior  of  the 
cask.  The  sulphurous  acid  evolved  destroys  such  micro-organisms 
as  may  be  in  the  cask,  and  in  addition,  as  it  reduces  the  supply 
of  oxygen,  renders  the  wine  less  prone  to  acidulous  fermentation. 
Sweet  wines,  which  are  liable  to  fret,  are  more  highly  and 
frequently  sulphured  than  dry  wines.  After  the  wine  has  been 
sufficiently  racked  and  fined,  and  when  it  has  reached  a  certain 
stage  of  maturation — varying  according  to  the  type  of  wine 
from,  as  a  rule,  two  to  four  years — the  wine  is  ready  for  bottling. 
Certain  wines,  however,  such  as  some  of  the  varieties  of  port, 
are  not  bottled,  but  are  kept  in  the  wood,  at  any  rate  for  a 
considerable  number  of  years.  Wines  so  preserved,  however, 
develop  an  entiMly  different  character  from  those  pUoed  in  bottle. 

CUBMISTBY  or  WiKE 

Maturation  of  the  Crape. — ^The  processes  which  take  place  in  the 
grape  during  its  growth  and  maturation  arc  of  consideraDic  interest. 
E.  Mach  has  made  some  interesting  observations  on  this  point. 
At  first — i.e.  at  the  beginning  of  ^uly  when  the  berries  have  atrained 
to  an  appreciable  size — the  specific  gravity  of  thejuice  is  very  low; 
it  contains  very  little  sugar,  but  a  good  deal  of  aoid,  chiefly  free 
tartaric  acid  and  malic  aad.  The  jutce  at  this  period  contains  an 
appreciable  amount  of  tannin.  As  tke  berry  grows  the  amount  of 
sugar  gradually  increases,  and  the  same  up  to  a  certain  point  applies 
to  the  acidity.  The  character  of  the  acidity,  however,  changes,  the 
free  tartaric  add  gradually  disappearing,  forming  bitartrate  of 
potash  and  being  otherwise  broken  up.  On  the  other  hand,  the  free 
malic  acid  increases  and  the  tannin  decreases.  When  the  grape  is 
ripe,  the  sugar  has  attained  to  a  maximum  and  the  acidity  is  very 
much  reduced;  the  tannin  has  entirely  disappeared. 

The  following  figures  obtained  by  Mach  afford  an  ioterestiag 
illustration  of  tbese  processes: — 

At  first  the  sugar  in  the  juice  consists  entirely  of  dextrose,  but 
later  fructo^  (lacvulose)  is  formed.  The  sugar  in  ripe  grape  juiec 
is  practically  invert  sugar,  i.e.  consists  of  practically  equal  parts  of 
dextrose  and  fructose.  The  proponion  of  sugar  present  in  the  juice 
of  ripe  grapes  varies  considerably  according  to  the  type  of  grape, 
the  locality  and  the  harvest.  In  temperate  climates  it  varies  as  a 
rule  between  15  and  20%.  but  in  the  case  of  hot  climates  or  where 
the  grapes  are  treated  in  a  special  manner,  it  may  rise  as  high  as 
35%and  more. 

/rnii<iii(U»oii.— The  fermentation  of  grape  juice,  t.«.  the  must,  is, 
as  we  have  seen,  a  relatively  •im|>le  operation,  consisting  as  it  does 
in  exposing  it  to  the  spontaneous  action  of  the  micro-organtsma 
cootamed  tn  it.    The  main  producu  formed  are.  as  ia  ail  cases  of 


VINE  DISEASeSi 


WINE 


7*9 


Constitution  of  Crape  Juke  at  Various  Periods  of  Maturation. 

(£.  Mach.) 


Date  of  Analysis  of  Juice. 

6th  July. 

12th  Aug. 

9th  Sept. 

12th  Oct 

Specific  gravity  . 

Sugar       .     .     . 
Total    add     (as 
tartaric  add)  . 
Tartar      .     .     . 
Malic  acid     .     . 
Tannin     .     . 

I-OIO 
Per  cent. 
0-86 

2-66 
0-67 
i-i6 
o-io6 

1-029 
Pet  cvbW 
2-02 

0-55 

2-47 

0-012 

1-083 
ftrceaH, 
1852 

©♦87 
0-54 
055 

•  • 

1093 
Prrctal. 
23- 1 7 

0-7I 

OS5 
0*43 

f   ■ 

alcoholic  fermentation,  ethylic  alcohol,  water  and  carbonic  add. 
At  the  same  time  various  subsidiary  products  such  as  glycerin, 
•ucdnic  acid,  small  quantities  of  higher  alcohols,  volatile  acids  and 
compound  esters  are  produced.  In  the  case  of  red  wines  colouring 
matter  is  dissolved  from  the  skins  and  a  certain  amount  of  mineral 
matter  and  tannin  is  extracted.  It  is  to  these  subsidiary  matters 
that  the  flavour  and  bouquet  in  wine  are  particularly  due,  at  any  rate 
in  the  first  stages  of  maturation,  although  some  of  the  substances 
originally  present  in  the  grape,  such  as  ready  formed  esters,  essential 
oils,  fat  and  so  on,  also  play  a^  r6Le  in  this  regard.  In  view  of  tlie 
fact  that  frcsItaFape  juice  contains  ixmumerable  bacteria  and  mouldsi 
in  addition  to  the  yeast  cells  which  bring  about  the  alcoholic  fenncn* 
tation,  and  that  tne  means  which  are  adopted  by  the  brewer  and 
the  distiller  for  checking  the  action  of  tlM»e  undesirable  organisms 
cannot  be  employed  by  the  wine>makcr,  it  is  no  doubt  remarkable 
that  the  natural  wine  yeast  so  seldom  fails  to  assert  a  preponderating 
Action,  particulariy  as  the  number  of  yeast  cells  at  the  beginning  en 
fermentation  is  rclati\'cly  small.  The  fact  is  that  the  constitution 
of  average  grape  juice  and  the  temperatures  of  fermentation  which 
generally  prevail  are  particularly  well  suited  to  the  life  action  ai 
wine  yeast,  and  are  inimical  to  tne  development  of  the  other  organ- 
isms. When  these  conditions  fail,  as  is.  for  instance,  the  case  when 
the  must  is  lacking  in  addity,  or  when  the  weather  during  the 
fermentation  period  is  very  hot  and  means  are  not  at  hana  to  cool 
the  must,  bacterial  side  termentations  may,  and  do,  often  take 
place.  The  most  suitable  temperature  for  fermentation  varies 
according  to  the  type  of  wine,  in  the  case  of  Rhine  wines  it  is 
between  20  and  25  C.  If  the  temperatures  rise  above  this,  the 
fermentation  is  liable  to  be  too  rapid,  too  much  akrohol  is  formed  at 
a  relatively  early  stage,  and  the  result  is  that  the  fermentation 
ceases  before  the  whole  of  the  sugar  has  been  transformed.  Wines 
which  have  received  a  check  of  this  description  during  the  main 
fermentation  are  very  liable  to  bacterial  troubles  and  frets.  In  the 
case  of  wines  made  in  more  southerly  btitudcs  temperatures  between 
25  and  30*  arc  not  excessive,  but  temperatures  appreciably  over  30* 
frequently  kiad  to  mischief.  The  young  wine  immediately  after  the 
cessation  of  the  main  fermentation  is  very  differently  constituted  fnom 
the  must  from  which  it  was  derived.  The  sugar,  as  we  have  seen, 
has  disappeared,  and  alcohol,  glycerin  and  other  substances  have 
been  formed.  At  the  same  time  the  acidity  is  markedly  reduced. 
This  reduction  of  acidity  is  partly  due  to  the  deposition  of  various 
salts  of  tartaric  acid,  which  arc  less  soluble  In  a  dilute  alcoholic 
medium  than  in  water,  and  jportly  to  the  action  of  micro-organisms. 
Young  wines  differ  very  widely  in  their  composition  according  to 
class  and  vintage.  The  alcohol  in  naturally  fermented  wines  may 
vary  between  7  and  16%,  although  these  are  not  the  outside  limits. 
Theacidity  may  vary  between  0-3  and  1  %  according  todrcumstanccs. 
The  iMirmal  proportion  of  glycerin  varies  between  7  and  imparts  for 
every  100  parts  of  alcohol  m  the  wine,  but  even  these  limits  arc 
frequently  not  reached  or  exceeded.  The  total  solid  matter  or 
"  extract."  as  it  is  called,  will  vary  between  1-5  and  3-5%  for  dry 
wines,  and  the*mineral  matter  or  ash  ^nerally  amounts  to  about 
one-tenth  of  the  "  extract."  The  tannin  in  young  ltd  wines  may 
amount  to  as  much  as  0-4  or  0-5  %.  but  in  white  win^  it  is  much  less. 
The  amount  of  volatile  acid  siiould  be  very  small,  and,  except  in 
•pedal  cases,  a  percentage  of  volatile  acid  exceeding  o*i  to  o  if  %, 
according  to  the  class  of  wine,  will  indicate  that  an  abnormal  or 
undesirable  fermentation  has  taken  place.  As  the  wine  matures 
the  most  noticeable  feature  in  the  first  instance  is  the  reduction  in 
the  acidity,  which  is  mainly  due  to  a  deposition  of  tartar,  and  the 
disappearance  of  tannin  and  colouring  matter,  due  to  fining  and  the 
action  of  oxygen. 

The  taste  and  bouquet  of  wines  in  the  earlier  stages  of  their 
development,  or  within  the  first  four  or  five  years  of  the  vintage,  are 
almost  entirely  dependent  upon  constituents  derived  from  the  must, 
either  directly  or  as  a  result  of  the  main  fermentation.  In  the  case 
of  dry  wines,  the  quality  which  is  known  as  "  body  "  (pabte-f  ulneas) 
is  mainly  dependent  on  the  solid,  <*.«.  non-vobtile,  Constituents. 
These  comprise  gummy  and  albuminous  matters,  acid,  salts,  glycerin 
and  other  matters  of  which  we  have  so  far*  little  knowledge.  The 
apparent  "  body  "  of  the  wine,  however,  is  not  merely  dependent 
«pon  the  abeolute  quantity  of  solid — non-volatile— matters  it  con- 
tMiMt  but  is  iniluonosH  ako  by  the  rdative  iKoportions  in  which 


the  various  constituents  exist.  For  instance,  a  wine  which  under 
favourable  conditions  would  seem  full  and  round  inay  appear 
harsh  or  rough,  merely  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  contains  a  smalt 
quantity  of  suspended  tartar,  the  latter  causing  temporary  hyper- 
acidity at^d  apparent  "  greenness."  It  has  been  found  oy  experience 
also  that  wines  which  are  normally  constituted  as  regards  the  relative 
proportions  of  their  various  constituents,  provided  that  the  quantitiei 
of  tnese  do  not  fall  below  cenain  limits,  are  likely  to  develop  well, 
whereas  wines  which,  although  periccily  sound,  snow  an  abnormal 
constitution,  will  rarely  turn  out  successful.  The  bououet  of  young 
wines  is  due  principally  to  the  compound  esters  whicn  exist  in  the 
juice  or  are  formed  by  the  primary  fermentation.  It  was  at  one  time 
thought  that  the  quality  of  the  bouquet  was  dependent  upon  the 
absolute  quantity  of  these  compound  esters  present,  but  the  author 
and  others  have  plainly  shown  that  this  is  not  the  case.  Among 
the  characteristic  esters  present  in  wine  is  the  wcfl-koown  "  oenanthic 
ether."  which  consists  principally  of  ethylic  pelargonate.  It  does 
not  follow  that  a  wine  which  shows  a  pretty  bouquet  in  the  primary 
stages  will  turn  out  well.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  ircqucntly  the  case 
that  the  mOsc  successful  wines  in  after  years  are  those  which  at  first 
show  very  little  bouc|uet.  The  maturation  of  wine,  whether  it  be  in 
bottle  or  in  cask,  is  an  exceedingly  interesting  operation.  The 
wines  which  remain  for  a  long  period  in  cask  gradually  lose  alcohol 
and  water  by  evaporation,  and  therefore  become  in  time  extremely 
concentrated  as  regards  the  solid  and  rcbtively  non-volatile  matters 
contained  in  them.  As  a  rule,  wines  which  are  kept  for  many  years 
in  ca^k  become  very  dry.  and  the  loss  of  alcohol  oy  evaporation— 
particularly  in  the  case  of  light  wines — has  as  a  result  the  production 
of  acidity  by  oxidation.  Although  these  old  wines  may  contain 
absolutely  a  very  kirge  quantity  01  acid,  they  may  not  aptiear  acid 
to  the  palate  inasmuch  as  the  other  constituents,  particularly  the 
glycerin  and  gummy  matters,  will  have  likewise  increased  in  relative 
quantity  to  such  an  extent  as  to  hide  the  acid  flavour.  In  the  case 
of  maturation  in  bottle  the  most  prominent  features  are  the  mellowing 
of  the  somewhat  hard  taste  associated  with  new  wine  and  the 
dex'clopment  of  the  secondary  bouquet.  The  softening  efTect  of  age 
is  due  to  the  deposition  of  a  part  of  the  tartar  together  with  a  ()art 
of  the  tannin  and  some  of  tne  colouring  matter.  The  mechanism 
of  the  development  of  the  secondary  bout^uet  appears  to  be  dependent 
firstly  on  purely  chemical  processes,  principally  that  of  oxidation, 
and  secondly  on  the  life  activity  of  certain  micro-organisms.  L. 
Pasteur  filled  glass  tubes  entirely  with  new  wine  ana  then  sealed 
them  up.  It  was  found  that  wine  so  treated  remained  unchanged 
in  taste  and  flavour  for  years.  On  the  other  hand,  he  filled  some 
other  tubes  partly  with  wine,  the  remaining  space  being  occupied 
by  air.  In  tnls  case  the  wine  gradually  matured  and  acquired  the 
propc-rties  which  were  associated  with  age.  Wortraann  examined  a 
number  of  okl  wines  and  found  that  in  all  cases  in  which  the  wine 
was  still  in  ^ood  condition  or  of  fine  character  a  small  number  of 
living  organisms  (yeast  cells,  Ac.)  were  still  present.  He  also 
found  that  in  the  case  of  old  wines  which  had  frankly  deteriorated, 
the  presence  of  micro-organisms  could  not  be  detected.  It  is,  how;- 
ever,  not  absolutely  clear  whether  the  improvement  observed  on 
maturation  Is  actually  due  to  the  action  01. these  micro-organisms. 
It  may  be  that  the  conditions  which  are  favourable  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  wine  are  also  favourable  to  the  continued  existence  of 
the  micro-organisms,  and  that  their  disappearance  is  ccinddent 
with,  and  not  the  cause  of,  a  wine's  deterioration.  It  is  frequently 
assumed  that  a  wine  is  necessarily  ^ood  because  it  is  old,  and  that  the 
quality  of  a  wine  increases  indennitely  with  age.  This  is,  however, 
a  very  mistaken  idea.  There  is  a  period  in  the  life  history  of  every 
wine  at  which  it  attains  its  maximum  of  quality-  This  period  as  a 
rule  is  short,  and  it  then  commences  "  to  go  back  "  or  deteriorate. 
The  age  at  which  a  wine  is  at  its  best  is  by  no  means  so  great  as  is 
popularly  supposed.  This  age  naturally  depends  upon  the  character 
of  the  wine  and  on  the  vintage.  Highly  alcoholic  w^ines.  such  as  port 
and  sherry,  will  improve  and  remain  good  for  a  much  longer  period 
than  relatively  light  wines,  such  as  claret,  champagne  or  Moselle. 
As  regards  the  latter,  indeed,  it  is  nowadays  held  that  it  is  at  its  best 
within  a  very  short  period  of  the  vintage,  and  that  when  the  charac- 
teristic slight  "  pricicling  "  taste  due  to  carbonic  acid  derived  from 
the  secondary  fermentation  has  disappeared,  the  wine  has  lost  its 
attraction  for  the  modem  palate.  In  the  same  way  champagne 
rarely,  if  ever,  improves  alter  twelve  to  fourteen  years.  With 
regard  to  claret  it  may  be  said  that  as  a  general  rule  the  wine  will  not 
improve  after  twenty-five  to  thirty  years,  and  that  after  this  time  it 
will  commence  to  aeteriorate.  At  the  same  lime  there  are  excep- 
tional cases  in  which  claret  may  be  found  in  very  fine  condition  after 
a  lapse  of  as  much  as  forty  years,  but  even  in  such  cases  it  will  be 
found  that  for  every  bottle  that  is  good  there  may  be  one  which  is 
distinctly  inferior. 

Diseases 

Diseases  of  the  Vine. — The  vine  i^  subject  to  a  number  of  diseases 
some  of  which  are  due  to  micro-organisms  (moulds,  bacteria),  others 
to  insect  life.  The  most  destructive  of  all  these  diseases  is  that  of 
the  phylloxera.  The  Pkj^ioxera  vaslatrtx  is  an  insect  belonging  to 
the  gr«en  Ay  tribe,  which  destroys  the  roou  and  leaves  of  the  growing 
plant  by  forming  galls  and  nodosities.  Practically  every,  wine* 
growing  country  has  been  afHicted  with  this  disease  at  one.  <ime  o^ 


720 


WINE 


PVINES  OF  FRANCE 


another.  The  mat  eirideinic  in  the  French  vineyards  in  the  years 
1883  to  1885  led  to  a  reduction  ol  the  yield  of  about  50%.  Many 
remedies  for  this  disease  have  been  suggested,  including  total 
submersion  of  the  vineyards,  the  use  of  carbon  bisulphide  for  spray- 
ing, and  of  cop(>er  salts,  but  t^ere  appears  to  be  little  doubt  that  a 
nuuly  serious  epidemic  can  only  be  dealt  with  bv  systematic  destruc- 
tion of  the  vines,  followed  by  replanting  with  resistant  varieties. 
This,  of  course,  naturally  leads  to  the  pnxuiction  of  a  wine  somewhat 
diflferent  in  character  to  that  produced  before  the  epidemic,  but  this 
difficulty  may  be  overcome  to  some  extent,  as  it  was  in  the  Bordeaux 
vineyards,  by  grafting  ancient  stock  on  the  roots  of  new  and  resistant 
vines.  Oidtum  or  mildew  is  only^  second  in  importance  to  the 
phylloxera.  It  is  caused  by  a  species  of  mould  which  lives  on  the 
green  part  of  the  plant.  The  leaves  shrivel*^  the  plant  ceases  to  grow, 
and  the  grapes  that  are  formed  also  shrivel  and  die.  The  most 
effective  cure,  short  of  destruction  and  replantation,  appears  to 
be  spraying  with  finely  divided  sulphur.  Another  evil,  which  is 
caused  by  unseasonable  weather  during  and  shortly  after  the 
flowering,  is  known  as  coidure.  Thb  causes  the  flowers,  or  at  a 
later  penod  the  young  fruit,  to  fall  off  the  growing  plant  in  large 
numbers. 

Diseases  of  TTinc.— These  are  numerous,  and  may  be  derived  either 
directly  from  the  vine,  from  an  abnormal  constitution  of  the  grape 
juice,  or  to  subsequent  infection.  Thus  the  disease  known  as  toume 
or  casse  is  generally  caused  by  the  wine  having  been  made  or  partly 
made  from  grapes  affected  by  mildew.  The  micro-oreanism  giving 
rise  to  this  disease  generally  appears  in  the  form  of  small  jointed  rods 
and  .tangled  masses  under  the  microscope.  Wine  which  is  affected 
by  this  disease  loses  its  colour  and  flavour.  The  colour  in  the  case 
of  red  wines  is  first  altered  from  red  to  brown,  and  in  bad  cases 
disappears  altogether,  leaving  an  almost  cok>urlcss  solution.  This 
disease  is  also  caused  by  the  wine  lacking  alcohol,  acid  and  tannin, 
and  to  the  presence  of  an  excess  of  albuminous  matters.  The  most 
common  disease  to  which  wine  is  subject  by  infection  is  that  caused 
by  a  micro-organism  termed  mycoderma-vini  (French  Jleurs  de  vin). 
Inis  micro-organism,  which  resembles  ordinary  yeast  cells  in  appear- 
ance, forms  a  pellicle  on  the  surface  of  wine,  particularly  when  the 
latter  is  exposed  to  the  air  more  than  it  should  be,  and  its  develop- 
ment is  favoured  by  lack  of  alcohol.  The  micro-organism  splits  up 
the  alcohol  of  the  wine  and  some  of  the  other  constituents,  forming 
carbonic  acid  and  water.  This  process  indicates  a  very  intensive 
form  of  oxidation  inasmuch  as  no  intermediary  acid  is  formed. 
One  of  the  most  common  diseases,  namely  that  producing  acetous 
fermentation,  differs  from  the  disease  caused  by  M.  vini  in  that  the 
alcohol  is  transformed  into  acetic  acid.  It  is  caused  by  a  micro- 
organism termed  Mycoderma  aceti,  which  occurs  in  wine  in  small 
groups  and  chaplcts  of  round  cells.  It  is  principally  due  to  a  lack-of 
alcohol  in  the  wine  or  to  bck  of  acidity  in  the  must.  The  micro- 
organism which  causes  the  disease  of  biUerness  (amer)  forms  longish 
branched  filaments  in  the  wine.  Hand  in  hand  with  the  development 
of  a  disagreeable  bitter  taste  there  is  a  precipitation  of  colouring 
matter  and  the  formation  of  certain  disagreeable  secondary  con- 
stituents. This  disease  is  generally  caused  by  infection  and  is 
favoured  by  a  lack  of  alcohol,  acid  and  tannin.  Another  disease 
which  generally  occurs  only  in  white  wines  b  that  which  converts 
the  wine  into  a  thick  stringy  liquid.  It  is  the  viscous  or  graisse 
disease.  As  a  rule  this  disease  is  due  to  a  lack  of  tannin  (hence  its 
more  frequent  occurrence  in  white  wines).  The  mannitic  disease, 
which  is  due  to  high  temperatures  during  fermentation  and  lack  01 
acid  in  the  must,  is  rarely  of  serious  consequence  in  temperate 
countries.  The  micro-oreanism  splits  up  the  lacvulose  in  the  must, 
forming  mannitol  and  different  adds,  particularly  volatile  acid. 
The  wine  becomes  turbid  and  acauires  a  peculiarly  bitter  sweet 
taste,  and  if  the  disease  goes  further  becomes  quite  undrinkable. 
It  would  appear  from  the  researches  of  the  author  and  others  that 
the  mannitol  ferment  is  more  generally  present  in  wines  than  is 
supposed  to  be  the  case.  Thus  the  author  found  in  some  very  old 
and  fine  wines  very  appreciable  q^uantities  of  mannitol.  In  these 
cases  the  mannitic  fermentation  had  obviously  not  developed  to 
any-  extent,  and  small  quantities  of  mannitol  appear  to  exercise  no 
prejudicial  effect  on  flavour. 

Treatment  of  Diseases. — ^It  was  found  by  Pasteur  that  by  heating 
wine  out  of  contact  with  air  to  about  66*  C.  the  various  germs 
causing  wine  maladies  could  be  checked  in  their  action  or  destroyed. 
The  one  disadvantage  of  this  method  is  that  unless  very  carefully 
applied  the  normal  development  of  the  wine  may  be  seriously 
retarded.  In  the  case  of  cheap  wines  or  of  wines  which  are  already 
more  or  less  mature,  this  is  not  a  matter  of  any  great  imjMrtance, 
but  in  the  case  of  the  finer  wines  it  may  be  a  serious  consideration. 
Pasteurizing  alone,  however,  will  only  avail  in  cases  where  the  disease 
has  not  gone  beyond  the  initial  stages,  inasmuch  as  it  cannot  restore 
colour,  taste  or  flavour  where  those  have  already  been  affected. 
In  such  cases,  and  also  in  others  where  pasteurizing  is  not  applicable, 
some  direct  treatment  with  a  view  to  ^minatine  or  adding  con- 
stituents which  are  in  excess  or  lacldne  is  indicated.  In  this  re^rd 
it  is  somewhat  diflicult  to  draw  the  line  between  that  which  is  a 
rational  and  scientific  method  for  preventing  waste  of  good  material 
and  sophistication  pure  and  simple.  It  appears  to  the  author,  how- 
ever, that  where  such  methods  are  employed  merely  with  a  view  to 
werooming  •  specific  malady  and  thert  is  no  intention  c^  increasing 


the  quantity  of  the  wine  Cor  purpoaca  of  gain,  or  of  givinn  it  a  fictUioua 
appearance  of  quality,  these  operations  are  perfectly  lusiifiable  and 
may  be  compared  to  the  modifications  of  prwiedure  which  are  forced 
uponthe  brewer  or  distiller  who  has  to  deal  with  somewhat  abnormal 
raw  material.  It  has  been  found,  for  instance,  that  in  the  case  at 
the  mannitic  disease  the  action  of  the  micro-or^nism  may  be 
checked,  or  prevented  altogether,  by  bringing  the  acidity  of  the  snust 
up  to  a  certain  level' by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  tartaric 
acid.  Again,  it  is  well  Known  that  in  the  case  of  the  viscous  disease 
the  difficulty  may  be  overcome  try  tlie  addition  of  a  small  quantity 
of  tannin.  In  the  same  way  the  disease  caused  by  the  mildew 
organism  may  be  counteracts  by  a  slight  addition  m  alcohol  and 
tannin.  One  method  of  assisting  nature  in  wine-making,  which  h, 
in  the  o|Mnk>n  of  the  author,  not  justifiable  if  the  resulting  product 
is  soM  as  wine  or  in  such  a  manner  as  to  indicate  that  it  is  natural 
wine,  is  the  process  termed  "  gallislzing,"  so  called  from  its  inventor 
H.  L.  L.  Gall,  which  has  been  largely  practised,  particularly  on  the 
Rhine.  The  process  of  Gall  consists  in  adding  sugar  and  water  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  establish  the  perccnta^  of  free  add  and  sugar 
which  are  characteristic  of  the  best  years  in  the  must  obtained  in 
inferior  years.  Although  there  is  no  objection  to  this  pnxluct  from 
a  purely  hygienic  point  of  view,  it  is  not  natural  wine,  and  the 
products  present  in  the  must  other  than  sugar  and  acid  are  by  this 
process  seriously  affected.  Another  methodof  dealing  with  inferior 
must,  due  to  J.  A.  C.  Chaptal,  consists  in  neutralizing  excessive  acid 
by  means  of  powdered  marble,  and  bringing  up  the  sugar  to  normal 
proportions  by  adding  appropriate  amounts  oS  this  substance  in  a 
solid  form.  There  is  less  objection  to  thb  process  than  to  the 
former,  iiuismuch  as  it  does  not  result  in  a  dilution  of  the  wixie. 
It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  indiscriminate  addition  of 
alcohol  and  water,  or  of  dther  to  must  or  to  wipe,  must  be  regarded 
as  a  reprehensible  operation. 

Plastering. — In  some  countries,  particularly  in  Ttaly,  Spain  and 
Portu^l.  it  has  been  and  still  is  a  common  practice  to  add  a  small 
quantity  of  gypsum  to  the  fermenting  must  or  to  dust  it  over  the 
grapes  prior  to  pressing.  It  b  said  that  wines  treated  in  this  nfianner 
mature  more  quickly,  and  that  they  are  more  stable  and  of  better 
colour.  It  certainly  appears  to  be  the  case  that  musts  which  are 
plastered  rarely  suffer  trom  abnormal  fermentation,  and  that  the 
wines  which  result  very  rarely  turn  acid.  The  main  result  of 
plastering  is  that  the  soluble  tartrates  in  the  wine  are  decomposed, 
forming  insoluble  tartrate  of  lime  and  soluble  sulphate  of  potash. 
It  is  held  that  an  excess  of  the  latter  b  undesirable  in  wine,  but 
unless  the  quantity  apprecbbly  exceeds  two  grams  per  litre,  no 
reasonable  objection  can  be  raised. 

Basis  Wines. — Wines  which  are  made  not  from  fresh  grape  juice 
but  from  raisins  or  concentrated  must,  or  similar  material,  are  gener- 
ally termed  basis  wines.  They  are  prepared  by  adding  water  to  the 
concentrated  saccharine  matter  and  subsequently  pitching  with 
wine  yeast  at  an  appropriate  temperature.  Frequently  alcohol, 
tannin,  glycerin,  and  similar  wine  constituents  are  also  added.  If 
carefully  prepared  there  is  no  objection  to  these  basis  wines  from  a 
hygienic  point  of  view,  although  they  have  not  the  delicate  qualities 
and  stimulating  effects  of  natural  wines;  unfortunately,  however, 
these  wines  have  in  the  pa^  been  vended  on  a  larj^e  scale  in  a  manner 
calculated  to  deceive  the  consumer  as  to  their  real  nature,  but 
energetic  measures,  which  have  of  late  been  taken  in  most 
countries  affected  by  this  trade,  have  done  much  to  mitigate  the 
evil. 

Wines  of  France 

It  may  be  safely  said  that  there  is  no  other  country  in  which 
the  general  conditions  are  so  favourable  for  the  production  of 
wine  of  high  quality  and  on  a  large  scale  as  is  the  case  in  France. 
The  climate  is  essentially  of  a  moderate  character;  the  winters 
are  rarely  very  cold,  and  the  summers  are  seldom  of  the  intensely 
hot  and  dry  nature  which  b  cbancteristic  of  tnost  southeriy 
wine  countries.  There  are  large  tracts  of  gently  undulating  or 
relatively  flat  country  which  is.  Inasmuch  as  it  ensures  effective 
exposal  of  the  vines  to  the  sun,  of  a  type  particularly  suited  to 
viticulture.  There  b  almost  everywhere  an  effident  supply  of 
water,  and  lastly  the  character  of  the  soil  is  in  many  parts  an  ideal 
one  for  the  production  of  wine  high  in  quality  and  abundant  in 
quantity.  Il  may  here  be  stated  thai  a  rich  soil  such  as  is  suiuble 
for  the  growth  of  cereal  crops  or  vegetables  b  not,  as  a  rule,  an 
ideal  one  for  the  production  of  fine  wines.  The  ideal  soil  for  vine- 
growing  is  that  which  possesses  a  suffidency,  but  not  an  excess,  of 
nulrimeat  for  the  plant,  and  which  b  so  constituted  that  it  will 
afford  good  drainage.  The  most  important  qualification,  howevo-, 
is  that  it  should  .be  so  constituted  as  to  preserve  and  store  up 
during  the  relatively  cold  weather  the  heat  which  it  has  derived 
from  the  atmosphere  during  the  summer.  In  thb  respect  the 
famous  Bordeaux  or  Gironde  district  is,  perhaps,  more  fortunate 
than  any  other  pari  of  the  world.    The  thrifty  and  methodical 


WINES  OF  FRANCE)  WJ 

habit!  oi  Ibc  FicDch  peuuuy,  and  aim  Ibe  lyitem  o[  uatU 
holding!  which  prevail!  in  France,  luve,  then  i>  lillle  doubt, 
done  much  to  niac  Ihe  French  wine  induslcy  to  Ihe  pre-eminent 
position  which  it  hold!.    There  is  perhapi  no  branch  o(  igii- 


being  reughly  looo  million  gallons.  ■'] 
ibin  the  average  produced  previous 
(iSSi-iSS;).  The  highot  production  ( 
i£7Sj  when  roughly  ES40  million  gallons 


ia.    The  exports  amoun 
It  yean  (1896-1907)  tl 


(.B98)  Ihe  .. 


itity  e. 


to  roughly  40  million 

are  thoseof  1897,  1898, 
favounble  of  tbcae  yeara 
>n  gallons.    The  grcalest 


mUlioD 


gallon!  were  produced.  The  number  of  dific 
Winn  pioduced  in  France  is  remarkable.  The  red  wines  include 
th«  elegant  and  delicale  (though  not  unstable)  winci  ol  the 
Gimide,  and  again  the  lull,  though  nul  coane,  wines  of  the  Bur 
gundy  disLrici.  Among  the  white  wines  we  have  the  full  sweei 
Siulemes,  the  relatively  diy  and  elc|p°'  Graves  and  Chablis, 
aiwl   the  light   white   wiae»  ivhicii    produce  champagne  and 

Ci'imJt  (Bardraia:)  irfurl.—K  France  ig  Ihe winr-Drowingcouflliy 
far  tzctttrta,  Ihe  Bordeaui  diiirict  may  be  regarded  Bs  Ihe  hcan 
and  centre  ol  the  Freacb  wine  industry.  Although  other  parti  ol 
Frarve  produce  earellent  wines,  the  Gm^nde  i*  eaiily  first  if  bijgh 

and  stable  cftaiaclei',  elegance  and  -"-■' — ="-  — -■ 

are  coaiidered  logetbrr.    The  total 


which  ih 


i%K 


chief  watersheds  ar^  those  ■ 
LfDroo^ne,  ana  tnetr  conAnenC  the  Gironde^  Tlie  sou  vanes  very 
considerably  in  it!  character,  and  it  itdue  Co  these  variations  thai  ko 
many  dilTerent  type!  of  viae  are  produced  in  this  dittncL  Icicner- 
allrconiiitso(lmiesIone,orof  mixed  Ihneirone  and  clay,  or  of  sand 
and  elav.  of  of  navel,  with  here  arid  there  flint  and  rolled  quarti. 
nived  sand  and  clay, 

, .____._    , ihich  exists  in  a  hard 

;ly.    It  Is  formed  of  sand  er  fine  gravel  cerr^ented  by 
JoTlron,  This  stoneisknown  locally  under  the  name 

SsL , - 

Mofflincandquaiu.    The  hnest  winesol  Ihe  MMocand  Cnvel 
largely  grown  on  a  mixture  of  gravel,  qusrU  and  sand  with 

t_  «i  ..  ?,.- 1...     -n..  Cimnife  viliculrural  region  is  divided 

t,  MMdc.  SauterntL  Crava,  CAlIs. 
Although  properly  bdouging  10  Ihe 

_  .  is  aomeiimfs  dasailicd  Kparately,  as 

indeed,  having  regard  to  die  euxilenix  and  vatiely  of  its  vioei,  il 

ibdiviaiaaof  IbaGutHhle  disbrict  is 

"  'Tvariety.    "nil  Mm" 
....  -..  Bordeaux,  boattded  bv 


namely,  MMoc.  S; 


id  of  pudding  ttr 

^.    _.  .jLormedof  sando 

inlilinled oxide sT Iron.  Thisstoneitknoi 

generally  (ound  at  a  depih 

onhe  lifidoc  and  Graves.   ■; 

(u^m.  TheWt^in^ 

relay.    The  Cironifc  vil 

Eniie-deux-Mers  and  Palui 
■  :  Si  Em -  ■ 

tlS)^ 

thai  of  tbe  Mtdoc    ..  _ 

clarel  Is  produced  in  greatest  eacel 

IliqGanHineand  Girondeon  theean. 
north.    It  V.  rovEhly,  M  m.  hing^y 

limestone  and  sand  on  Ihe  surfs 

The  pindpal  vines  grown  in  the  Midoc  a 

which  is  the  most  important,  tbe  Gtoe 


.     .1.  broad.    Tte  soil 

iMdy  of  gravd,  quarti, 

ic  Hii'd*.^,  aiHj  wi  day  and  alioj  bcrieath. 

in  the  M«doc  are  the  Cabemet-Sauvignon, 

-.  tanc,  the  Gtoe  Cabetiiec,  the  Merlot,  Ihe 

Malbec  and  the  Verdot.  All  iheee  produce  red 
wines,  very  little  white  wiite  is  made  in  the  M^doc  pnver.  The 
method  of  vine  cultivation  is  peculiar  and  dtaractedslic  The  viaes 
arekepc  v^  tow,  and  as  a  rule  only  two  brandtcs  or  arms,  which  are 
trained  at  nght  anglee  tn  Ihe  stem,  are  permitted  to  form.  This 
dwarf  system  ol  culture  gives  tbe  MMoc  vineyards  at  a  diMance  the 
appearance  of  a  sea  of  small  busies,  thereby  producing  an  eflect 
entirely  diHerent  frrBn,  for  instance,  thai  seen  on  the  Rhine  with  its 
high  basket-shaped  plants.  The  mrthods  ot  making  the  wine  in 
the  MMoe  are  of  Ihe  Bmnlest  docripiion.  The  vintage  generally 
takes  plaee  towards  the  end  of  Septrnibn  or  the  beginning  of  October. 
The  grapes  from  which  the  i'-"~  —  "—'i"'"-'"i'''  '•"•'  ™v—.inn- 
ally  not  al  aH)  removed  are  1 


re  portly  or  wholly  (a 


the 'night  of  the  F 

apes  themsefvo,  or  by  the  presuire  aused 
ui.     Presses  arc  not  used  in  tbe  ease  of  red 
itation,  when  they  are  employed  la  order 

lays;  by  this  lime  tbe  must  has  ptacticany 
T,  and  the  young  wine  is  drawn  oR  and  filled 

bout  lii  Sleeks  to  two  mooihs.  and  the  first 
1  rule,  in  February  or  Marvh.    SubHijiient 
t  June  and  November  of  the  aime  year, 
■ear,^  until  boHling,  two  racking,  a  year 

Ki  until  after  ferme 
seiarate  the  wHne  f 

■■sr.'K5.¥.::. 

in   tbe   following 

-..-  — .„ jneyards  from  which  llw  actual  fume  of  (he  wiiu 

derived-  Unlike  the  products  of  the  different  vineyards  of  m 
rither  districts,  which  arv  purchased  by  the  aierchantn  and  vat 
to  supply  a  gerieral  wine  for  commerce,  Ihe  yield  of  the  prind 

particular  g/osnh  and  of  a  particular  year.    T 


Le  Aieurt.  Caolenac! 
ManjuB  d*  Tenn^  UaiyrHi 


rWINES  OF  FRANCE 


ripkCroKkt. 
Chlnu  Pontet-CanR.  Pauillac 

Biuillcy.  Pauillac. 
Grand- PuvU««e,  Paullkc. 
DucuH-Onnd-ruy,  PauUUc. 
ChllMU  Ly«h-B3BU,  PiuilL-ic. 


tmrnm.  Si  ul^ 
y,  St  E«tph». 


the  liiier  tnj*Lh>  or  the  other  Bordraui 
Fcfnit  from  Ihit  of  wiD«  vcniUr  in  lypM 

ei4urc  lUbilily  wilhoul  bnn^  heavy  or  Af 
;iracidily  iawy  bowand  their  bouquet  ch 


'  ^ttinctly  diffeiv 
claret  type  prodi 
The  quality  cl 

ayccvWiiL  vimag 


in  Sp.,in. 


i  in«riibly  tl^""™  Thiri'hJ  - 

xtituenta,  although  the  abulute  a 
'nti  mty  differ  widely^    It  ia  the  a 

ghMl  ciau.    The  lAles  below  inll 


winei  of  the 
or  the  Cape. 


IS&S.  1M4.   iSbcj.  I 


.i8gs» 


iTu'liViu^'blet 


^o:;:i 


t  tETrive) 


really  Gpod   vintage  ol  the  poAt-miidew-phyluun 
fcdiSn^iVc™™  ^ch'iiel'™^ 

?W  qJ°S,e'"Ki.' 
whieh  differ^'i"- 
The  CnvB 

which  nnla  ...  , ,  -^ - 

Mtdoc    The  lemiii^er  ol  Ih(  ted  Grai 


hily  luUer  ■- 


..  gravd.  cUy  or  land. 

t  [E  MMoe.    The  mrlna 

body  and  moR  ■Icoholic  thati 

liiyr"™"""'""' 


ct  may  be  mcationed  th 


Aiuilya,.^ 

':Uj««tajU(,tfD.:fe«« 

frnlneri.' 

Vintage. 

Dewiption. 

byv"' 

Total 
Acidity. 

ss. 

Ask. 

'S!- 

Glycerin. 

Sugar, 

il 

l«9« 
1899 

■  90s 

CMlat.La£» 

1116 
I1*S 

1 

aeaj 

3S-34 

IS 

1-41 

1-28 

I78 

7-99 

IS 

I'S 

Analjia  tf  Difftrtnt  Clartu  of  On  Squu  PnUofe' 


by  Vol. 

Acidity. 

Manei). 

"Add* 

>9oa 

a:Ji:r^H„d^ivd 

":8i 

a 

SS 

a 

IS 

8-76 

;:s 

i§ 

VrU 

s» 

•■4S 

^Ji 

■ij 

;;S 

i:a 

3-58 

ao^T 

lioughly  70  to 
yieldacf  the 


thu  that  o(  Uw  lowei- 


'Renilta  (occepling  alcohol)  are  exprciied  in  ■ 
lut  of  IheGirende  durinE  the  U>I  fev  yean  haibeen 

an  iSBl  10  1S85.  lo  the  yean  1SJ4  and  1875  the 
too  tniUion  ^lona.  The  output  ol  Che  claap-ed 
oniidefably  necoMing  to  the  vinta^,  but  la  on  the 

K>  Ibe  great  eare  enetrised  in  the  vineyarda.  greater 
lower-ETwIe  areaa.  Thue  within  recent  years  the 
ChlleaM  Cafite  was  at  n  minimum  in  190J  when  onlv 
■  (the  bnsibead  o(  tJaiet— 46  gallosaj  were  piudu«d. 


tj.  reiughly  faiu  per  ttmaamd. 
T  entirely  different  from  tNoae 


lit  ia  that  they  fthrivei  u; 


rvalenc  in  Ibe  m) 
K  MAdoc  and  the 
:y  ol  Higar.    Thii 


ie  latter  pcriocl  of  rlpcnin 


WINES  OF  FRANCBI 


WINE 


1^ 


in  the  wines.  When  the  stapes  hnv«  Attmined  the  proper  degree  of 
ripeness,  or  rather  ovcr-ripeneas,  they  are  gathered  with  the  greatest 
care,  the  berries  being  frequently  cut  off  Trom  the  branches  singly, 
and  sorted  according  to  their  appearaace.  The  grapes  aie  then  not 
crushed,  but  are  immediately  pressed,  and  the  juice  alone  is  subjected 
to  fermentation.  As  a  rule,  three  wines  are  made  in  the  principal 
vineya^  in  three  succesrive  periods.  The  first  wine,  which  is 
termed  the  frin  ds  tHe^  is  geneFaHy  the  sweetest  and  finest,  the  next 
(called  the  mUieu)  being  somewhat  drier  and  the  last  (vti>  ds  queut) 
being  the  least  valuabfe.  For  some  markets  these  wines  are  shipoed 
separately,  for  others  they  are  blended  according  to  the  prevalent 
taste.  The  musts  from  which  the  Sauternes  wines  are  made  are  so 
concentrated  that  onlv  a  part  of  the^  sugar  is  transformed  into 
alcohol,  an  appreciable  portion  remaining  unfermented.  These 
wines,  therefore,  require  very  careful  handling  in  order  to  prevent 
undesirable  secondary  fermentations  taking  puce  at  a  later  period. 
They  are  subjected  to  frequent  racking,  the  casks  into  which  tliey  are 
racked  being  more  highly  sulphured  than  is  the  case  with  red  wines. 
This  is  necessary,  not  only  to  prevent  fcrmenution  recommencing, 
but  also  in  order  to  preserve  the  light  golden  colour  of  the  wine, 
which,  if  brought  into  contact  with  an  excess  of  air,  rapidly  assumes 
an  unsightly  brown  shade. 

The  Sauternes  generally  are  fuU-bodied  wines,  veiy  luscious  and 
y«t  delicate ;  they  possess  a  special  xtoe.  or,  in  other  words,  that  special 
taste  which,  while  it  remains  in  the  mouth,  leaves  thepalate  pertectly 
fresh.  The  finer  growths  of  the  Sauternes  are  classifwd  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  red  wines  of  the  Mddoc.  There  are  two  main  growths, 
the  wines  bong  as  foltows: — 

Classification  of  Sautbrnbs 


Grand  First  Growth. 
Cbftteau  Yquem.  Sauternes. 
First  Groatks. 

Ch&teau  La  Tour  Blanche,  Bommcs. 
,.        Peyraguey.  Bommcs. 
.,       Vigneau,  Bommcs. 
„        Suduiraud,  Preignac. 
„       Coutet,  Barsac. 
„       CUmens,  Banac. 

Bayle  (Guiraud),  Sautcmet. 

Rieussec,  Fargucs. 

Rabaud,  Bommes, 

Seamd  Grawlks. 


n 


0* 


Cbiteau  Mirat,  Barsac 

.,  Doisy,  Barsac. 

„  Peyxotto,  Bommes. 

„  d'Arche.  Sauternes. 

„  Fithot.  Sauternes. 

„  Broustet-N^rac,  Barsac 

„  Caillou,  Barsac. 

„  Suau,  Barsac. 

„  Malle,  Preignac 

„  Romcr,  Preignac. 

„  Lamothe.  Sauternes. 

The  production  of  the  Sauternes  vineyards  is,  as  a  rule,  smaller 
than  that  of  the  chief  red  i^rowths,  snd  in  consequence  of  this,  and 
that  the  district  is  a  relatively  small  one,  the  prices  of  the  finer 
growths  are  often  very  high. 

The  COtcs  district  consistsof  the  slopes  rising  from  the  lower  marehy 
regions  to  the  east  of  the  Garonne  and  the  Dordo^ne  respectively. 
The  best  of  the  COtes  wines  are  grown  m  the  St  Emilion 
StBaunaa,  f^iQ^^  fhij  region  consists  of  the  commune  of  St 
Emilion.  together  with  the  four  surfounding  communes.  It 
produces  vrines  of  a  decidedly  bigger  type  than  those  of  the 
M£doc.  and  is  frequently  called  the  Burgundy  of  the  Bordeaux 
district.  The  classitication  of  the  St  Emilion  wines  is  very  compli- 
cated, but  in  principle  is  similar  to  that  of  the  M£doc  wines.  Among 
the  better  known  wines  of  the  first  growths  are  the  following: 
ChAteau  Ausone.  Chftte^u  Bclair,  Ch&teau  Clos  Fourtet.  Ch&tcau 
Pavie,  Ch&teau  Coutet.  Chateau  Cheval-Blanc.  Chateau  Figeac. 
The  Chdtcaa  Ausone  is  of  peculiar  interest,  inasmuch  as  it  is  here 
that  the  poet  Ausonius  possessed  a  magnificent  villa  and  cultivated 
a  vineyard  (a.d.  300). 

Palus  and  Entre-deux-  Mers. — ^The  above  wines  are  grown  in  the 
marshy  regions  in  the  immediate  neightwurhood  of  the  Garonne  and 
Dordogne.  They  poduce  useful  but  rather  rough  wines.  The 
Entre^eux-Mere  district  forms  a  peninsula  between  the  Garonne 
and  Dordogne,  comprising  the  arrondisscments  of  La  R4ole,  the  south 
of  Libourne  and  the  east  of  Bordeaux.  This  district  produces  both 
red  and  white  wines,  but  their  character  is  not  comparable  to  that 
of  the  M6doc  or  of  the  COtcs.  They  are  generally  employed  for  local 
consumption  and  blending. 


The  sparkling  wine  known  to  ns  as  champagne  takes  its  nanae  fraei 
the  former  province  which  is  now  replaora  Dy  the  departments  oi 
Marne.  Haute-Marne.  Aubc  and  Ardennes.  The  best 
wines,  however,  arc  grown  almost  exclusively  in  the  Marxie 
district.  The  cultivation  of  the  vine  in  the  Champagne  is 
of  very  ancient  date.  It  appears  that  both  red  and  white  wines 
were  produced  there  in  the  reign  of  the  Roman  emperor,  Probus 
(in  the  3rd  century  a.d.),  and  according  to  Victor  Rendu  the  Queue 
of  wine  was  already  worth  19  livres  in  the  time  of  Francis  IL.  and 
had,  in  1694,  attained  to  the  value  of  1000  livres.  It  was  at  about 
the  latter  date  that  sparkling  or  elTervescent  wine  was  first  made, 
for,  according  to  M.  Perricr,  a  publication  of  the  year  1718  refcra 
to  the  fact  that  wine  of  this  description  had  then  oeen  known  for 
some  twenty  years.  The  actual  discovery  of  this  type  of  wine  is 
ascribed  to  Dom  P^rignon,  a  monk  who  managed  the  cellars  of  the 
abbey  of  Haut  Villers  from  1670  to  1715.  It  appears  also  that  it 
was  this  same  Dom  P^rignon  who  first  used  cork  as  a  material  for 
closing  wine  bottles.  Up  till  then  such  primitive  means  as  pads  of 
hemp  or  cloth  steeped  in  oil  had  been  employed.  It  is  veiv  likely 
that  the  discovery  of  the  utility  of  cork  lor  stoppering  led  to  the 
invention  of  effervescent  wine,  the  most  plausible  explanation  being 
that  Dom  P6rignon  closed  some  bottles  filled  with  partially  fermented 
wine,  with  the  new  material,  and  on  opening  them  later  observed 
the  effects  produced  by  the  confined  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  art  of 
making  the  wine  was  kept  secret  for  some  time,  and  many  mysterious 
fables  were  circulated  concerning  it:  inter  alia  it  was  believed  that 
the  Evil  One  had  a  hand  in  its  manufacture.  It  docs  not  appear, 
however,  to  have  become  popular  or  consumed  on  a  large  scale  imtii 
the  end  of  the  i8th  century. 

The  district  producing  the  finest  champagne  is  divided  into  tvo 
detinct  regions,  popularly  known  as  the  rtoer  and  the  mountflin 
respectively.  The  former  consists  of  the  vineyards  »tuated  on  or  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  banks  of  the  Marne.  The  principal  vine- 
yards in  the  valley,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  are  those  at  Ay. 
Dizy,  Hautvillers  and  Mareuil;  on  the  left  bank,  on  the  slopes  of 
Epernay  and  parallel  with  the  river,  those  at  Plerry  and  Mousey: 
in  the  district  towards  the  south-east,  on  the  slopes  01  Avize.  those  of 
Aviae.  Cremant,  Vert  us  and  Mesnil.  The  chief  vineyards  in  the 
"  mountain  "  district  arc  at  Vcrsy,  Verzenay,  Sillcry.  Riily  and 
Bottxy. 

The  soil  in  the  champagne  district  consists  on  the  slopes  largely  of 
chalk  and  in  the  plain  ofalluvial  soil.  It  is  interspersed  with  some 
clay  jind  sand.  The  chief  red  vines  of  the  champagne  district  are 
the  Plant-dor6,  Franc-Pineau  and  the  Pbnt  vert  dor£.  The  Plant 
gris,  or  Meunier,  yields  ^apes  of  a  somewhat  inferior  quality.  The 
chief  white  vine  is  the  Pincau.  also  known  as  Chardonay.   llie  best 

fualities  of  wine  are  made  almost  exclusively  from  the  black  grapes, 
or  this  rrason  it  is  necessary  that  the  process  of  collection,  separation 
and  pressing  should  proceed  as  quickly  as  possible  at  vintage  time 
in  order  that  the  juice  may  not,  through  indiMent  fermentation, 
dissolve  any  of  the  ook>uring  matter  from  the  skins.  For  the  same 
reason  the  grapes  are  collected  in  baskets  in  order  to  avoid  excessive 
prtssure.  and  are  transported  in  these  to  the  press  house.  As  there 
IS  no  preliminary  crushing,  the  presses  used  for  extracting  the  juke 
have  to  be  of  a  poweriul  character.  As  a  rule,  three  qualities  of 
wine  are  made  from  one  batch  of  grapes,  the  first  pressing  yielding 
the  best  quality,  whilst  the  second  arid  third  are  relatively  inferior. 
-  After  the  must  has  been  allowed  to  rest  for  some  hours  in  order  to 
effect  a  partial  clearing,  it  is  drawn  off  into  barrels  and  fermented  in 
the  latter.  The  first  racking  and  fining  takes  place  about  December. 
The  wine  is  allowed  to  rest  for  a  further  short  period,  and  if  not  bright 
ts  again  racked  and  fined.  It  is  then  ready  for  bottling,  but  previous 
to  this  operation  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  whether  the  wine  contains 
sufficient  remanent  sugar  to  develop  the  "  gas "  necessary  for 
effcrveacence.  If  this  is  not  the  case,  sugar  is  added,  generally  in 
the  form  of  fine  cane  or  candied  sugar,  llie  bottles  employed  have 
to  be  of  very  fine  quality,  as  the  pressure  which  they  have  to  stand 
may  be  as  much  as  7  to  8  atmospheres  or  more.  Fomoerly  the  loss 
through  breakage  was  very  great,  but  the  art  of  making  and  selecting 
these  DOttles  has  greatly  improved,  and  the  loss  now  amounts  to 
little  more  than  57o.  whereas  formcriy  25%  and  even  30%  was 
not  an  uncommon  figure.  In  the  spring-time,  shortly  after  bottling. 
the  rise  in  temperature  produces  a  secondary  fermentation,  and  this 
converts  ihc  sugar  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid.  This  fermcmsiioa 
proceeds  ihrouehout  the  summer  months,  and  in  the  meantime 
a  sediment  which  adheres  to  the  side  of  the  bottle  is  gradually  formed. 
The  bottles,  which  up  till  now  have  been  in  a  horizontal  position, 
are  then,  in  order  to  prepare  them  for  the  next  process,  namely, 
that  known  as  disgorging,  placed  in  a  slanting  position,  neck  down- 
wards, and  are  daily  shaken  very  slightly,  so  that  by  decrees  the 
sediment  works  its  way  on  to  the  corJc.  This  process,  which  takes 
several  weeks,  is  a  very  delicate  one,  and  requires  much  skill  on  the 
part  of  the  workman.  When  the  whole  of  the  sediment  is  on  the 
cork,  the  iron  clip,  with  which  the  latter  is  kept  in  position,  is  removed 
for  a  moment,  and  the  force  of  the  wine  ejects  the  sediment  and 
cork  simultaneously.  This  operation  also  requires  much  skill  in 
order  to  avoid  an  excessive  escape  of  wine.  An  ingenious  modification 
has  of  modern  times  been  introduced,  which  consists  in  freezing  pset 
of  the  contents  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  The  cork  may  then  be 
*  withdrawn  and  the  sediment  removed  without  any  wine  bring  iMt. 


IWINBS  OP  PKAMCE 


[df  mule  ii  ftCUinec 
iiKur  ij  emplovrd ;  i 
MUHUiiriikdilK 


kIb»  partkubr 
d  ibat.  nrKtly 


alar  piirpo«e^    T1i«e 


■K 


wr  it  delicint  in 

.,_     _  ,,,--- --  ._.ted  to  thii  pni 

nucb  u  dumpine  in  mny  cue  hum  be  Rguded  in  llie  I 
manuFvtuTH  article  nther  thaa  aa  a  natuni  pmliict. 
lipai  centna  of  the  dkampagne  trwte  an  ml  RHiiit»  Epernay, 

(hree  yvan  avrrtMl  abeut  9  mUKon  falloiDi  but  iC  occa^onany 

lint  at  bijh  ai  n>  mlllian  nlkmi.  A  ■niit'pan  el  tbit  wine,  bow- 
rver.  it  not  suitable  for  making  hlgb-ctatt  Ammnme.  A>  a  nile, 
.he  tupply  CDDiidcnbly  exceedt  the  demand*  and  llw  ttock  in  hand 

il  the  piMUt  lime  amoanlttonniiWy  Imiryeatt' 
inldwil  wine,  but  to  tbli  must  be  added  ihc  itodc  • 
■hkh  it  conddeiable.  For  the  period  inft-iw  tl 
il  boltln  in  itocli  amoonted  toover  111  mjllion.  die  I 
t,  Au#r  91  millionB.  and  the  bottlea  required  for  inl 
to  iDmethlnf  over  lo  mfiiioBt,    There 


Ay 


InFi 


« tow  niin^ 


ual  o)i 


t    exported. 


It  el  tjie  RhSoe,  the  dntrfct  pewit 


RhClae,  the  dnCilct  prodnuc  tha  Bcujolai* 
'mportant  winea,  bovenr,  the  BuiUH^  wine* 
toe  centte  of  thb  n«OB  on  the  naffe  at  lov  hUla 
'touth-reet  called  the  est  "" 
>e  C«te  d'Or  b  chieflv  lia 
'  ciiCtkbe 


ly  touth-reet  called  the  CSta  d'Or,  or  AcEoldeE 

lf>e  C«te dOr b chieflv I- ^  -  '^'- 

vineyardt  prodndm  the  I 
1 — 1 — i,thoaeal  thetoi 


..._ , ^P'  frowthfc 

..-  vincyardt  (which  are  nown  on  nt  terracn 
on  X  00  the  tliioei  theoKlva)  lane  aoiith-weil  and 

to  t  ol  the  lun  I  raya.   The  mutt  important  vine — 

in  of  the  CAle  d'Or  practically  the  only  viae — ii  the 

Pi  lul  in  the  plain  and  in  the  disrist  of  Mlcon  and 

B>  ay  b  muclii  Bililf  ated    The  Influence  dI  the  aoil 

on  !  vine  is  Intereniagly  iUuurated  by  the  diSeteni 

ch  Bt  rtown  in  thcae  diitrictt.  the  Beaujolait  wins 

having  lar  greater  dittinction  than  Ihote  of  Mlcon.  Thecommuoe 
of  Bcaune  mutt  be  regarded  aa  the  centre  of  the  Burgundy  dittrki, 
and  pottetiei  numeroua  vfaieyardi  of  the  hlgbeit  dati.  To  the 
north  of  Beaune  lie  the  famout  vioeyaidt  of  Cbambenin,  Clc4 
Vougeot.  Rooianfe.  Richeboutg,  Nullt  St  Ceoigo  and  Cotton:  10 
the  todth  thoae  of  Fommaid,  Volnay,  Maodi«lie  and  Meunault  with 
iti  famaua  white  wlnet. 

The  vinificatioo  of  the  Burgundy  winet  takca  place  in  cuveiii 
500  to  aooo  galLona  capadty.  and  it  hat  for  very  many  yean  bnt 
the  conmon  practice  in  vintafto  in  which  the  mutt  it  deficient  in 
taccharloe  to  enture  the  lUbUity  of  tbe  wine  by  the  addition  of 
iome  aupr  in  tbe  <iih.  The  first  rackings  o^nerally  take  place  La 
February  or  Maich.  and  the  lecond  in  July.  The  pncticcof  tugariiu 
faaiensujed  greater  tubiiiij;  and  keeping  power  to  the  winet,  which 
formeHy  vtrr  frequently  iiregular  in  diaracter  and  difficult  to 


No. 

Deicription  of  Wine 

Vintage. 

■5- 

A^id. 

E«™n. 

Ad. 

^ff 

<u5" 

Clyeeiin. 

'S- 

i 

hamptgne  natvie 
rat 

ntadiy 
Dry 

1 

1 

si 

11 

;i 

1-76 

J.JS 

IS 

li 
90s 

e..7 

ii 

7-7S 

b,i6l,jM  gallniu  of  champagne,  to  the  value  a 
iiii|aned  into  the  United  Kingdom.    The  jewi 

fithcrtd  from  the  ptmding  ubie.  whicli  it  u 
Dumber  o(  anaiyio  publithcd  by  the  author  mc 
the  ^■afyf'  lot  January  1900.     ,     .  ,     ^    ^      ,, 

It  will  be  tren  that,  compaml  with  the  dry,  h 
praponioa  oi  tugar.  alcohol  and  acidity  i,  comi 
champagne,  and  the  eiiraci  [lohd  matfr)  rathci 

The  Iniitlul  dcpiitmcntj  walEird  by  the  Loire 
produv  cooaiderable  qLianiLiEci  cf(  wine.  The  w 
■  ..  ■  Loire  hnre^sen  known  for  many  cei 
'■■■■■  iguwereuKdonlyattUllwinct.  All 
if  wu  found  that  Ihe  wino  of  Saui. 
oi  the  Maine-et'Loire)  conldbetucct 

drveioped.  At  fitit  it  wsi  chicAy  ui 
ol  ihe  Chanpagne  when  the  vintage 
but  at  the  prctent  time  it  is  Idrgely 
impont  of  ifnrlding  Saumur  into 
amoanicd  to  lUJU  gallons,  valu 
averagv  wholetale  value  of  Saumur  i 
champagne,  it  compares  favouiablj 
anicLe.  and  in  flavour  and  chanctc 

dill  10  tbi  fact  ihai  the  range  ol  limi 
ika  cava  >t  tilualed.  aaonl  ny  ucv 


Chambettln 
Clu^baUe' 
VoupT*  • 
FItgey 


CiotdelaPernite. 
Chambenin.  Clot  de  Bi 
Cloi  de  Tart,  Lei  Bunm 


Musigny. 


.  RomaiiteConti 

.  Lc*    &int-CcorEn.      U*     Vaueraina.      U> 
Ponctt.   Lta    Pruliers.    Lei   Boudoia,    Lea 


SPAIN] 


WINE 


72s 


An  interesting  feature  of  the  Cdte  d'Or  is  the  Homioe  de  Beaune, 
a  celebrated  charitable  institution  and  hospital,  tne  revenues  of 
which  are  principally  derived  from  certain  vineyards  in  Beaune, 
Corton,  Votnay  and  Pommard.  The  wines  of  these  vineyards  are 
sold  every:  year  by  auction  early  in  November,  and  the  prices  they 
make  serve  as  standards  for  the  valuation  of  the  other  growths. 

To  the  south  of  Lyons,  in  the  department  of  the  Didme,  are  made 
in  the  district  of  ValMce  the  celcDrated  Hermitage  red  and  white 
HermUMta.  '^"C*  The  quality  of  some  of  these,  particularly  of  the 
ncrmn^Kv.  ^,1,^^^^  white  wincs,  IS  considered  very  fine.  The  quantity 
produced  is  very  small  The  red  wincs  made  at  the  present  time  are 
after  the  style  of  Bitrgtmdy  and  possess  good  keeping  qualities. 

If  y.t  except  the  wines  of  Roussillon,  produced  m  tne  old  province 
of  that  name,  in  the  extreme  south  of  France,  the  above  consritute 
^j^  the  principal  varieti^  of  French  wincs  known  in  the 

^^  United  Kmgdom.    They  form,  however,  but  a  small 

fraction  of  the  entire  production  of  the  country.  The  most  prolific 
viticultural  district  of  France  is  that  known  as  the  Midi,  comprising 
the  four  departments  of  the  Herault,  Aude,  Card,  and  the  Pyrcn^es- 
Orientales.  Thus  in  1901  the  department  of  the  Herault  alone 
produced  nearly  300  million  gallons  of  wine,  or  approximately  a 
quarter  of  the  whole  output  of  France.  The  average  amount  of 
wine  made  in  the  four  departments  for  the  past  three  years  has  been 
roughly  500  million  gallons.  These  wines  formeriy  were  largely 
exported  as  vin  de  cargnison  to  South  America,  the  United  States, 
Australia.  &c  ,  and  were  also  much  employed  for  local  consumption 
in  other  parts  of  France.  Owing,  however,  to  the  fact  .that  viti- 
culture has  made  much  progress  in  South  America,  in  California,  in 
Australia  and  particularly  in  Algeria,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  the 
quality  of  these  Midi  wmea  has  fallen  off  considerably  since  the 

?hy11oxcra  period,  the  outlet  for  them  has  become  mucn  reduced, 
hese  and  other  reasons,  notably  the  manufacture  of  much  fictitious 
wine  with  the  aid  of  sugar  (fortunately  stopped  by  the  rigid  new  wine 
laws),  led  to  the  grave  wine  crisis,  which  almost  amounted  to  a 
revolution  in  the  Midi  in  the  spring  and  summer  of  1907. 

Viticulture  has  made  great  strides  in  Algeria  during  recent  years. 
The  first  impetus  to  this  department  was  given  by  the  destruction 
Ajgmftm  or  crippling  of  many  of  the  French  vineyards  during 
^•^^  the  phylloxera  period.  The  present  output  amounts  to 
roughly  1^  million  gallons,  and  the  acreage  under  the  vine  has 
increased  from  107,048  hectares  in  1890  to  167,657  hectares  in  1905. 
The  wines,  moreover,  of  Algeria  are  on  the  whole  of  decidedly  fair 
quality,  possessing  body  and  strength  and  also^  stability.  In  this 
regard  they  arc  superior  to  the  wines  of  the  Midi. 

WiHES  OT  Spain 
The  wines  of  Spain  may  be  regarded  as  second  in  importance 
to  those  of  France.  Although  the  quantity  produced  is  not  so 
large  as  in  Italy,  the  quality  on  the  whole  is  decidedly  superior 
to  that  of  the  latter  coimtry.  There  are 'three  main  types  of 
wine  with  which  consumers  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  familiar, 
namely  Sherry,  Tarragona  (Spanish  Port  or  Spanish  Red)  and 
wincs  of  a  darct  type.  The  trade  with  the  United  Kingdom  is 
of  considerable  proportions,  the  total  quantity  of  Spani^  wines 
imported  in  1906  amounting  to  1,689,049  gallons  of  red  wine  (to 
the  value  of  £154,963),  and  white  wines  to  the  extent  of  z,x  19,703 

gallons  (to  the  value  of  £242,877). 

The  most  important  wine  produced  in  the  province  of  Andalusia, 
which  is  the  chief  vine-growing  district  of  Spain,  b  that  known  to 
_-  us  as  sherry,  so  called  from  the  town  of  Jcrezde  la  Frontcra. 

sacrry,  ^hich  is  the  centre  of  the  industry.  Sherry  b  produced 
in  a  small  district  bounded  by  San  Lucar  in  the  north-east,  Jerez 
in  the  east  and  Port  St  Mary  on  the  south.  The  total  viticultural 
area  amounts  to  about  20,000  acres.  The  soil  is  of  very  varying 
nature,  and  consists  in  some  districts  of  the  so-called  dbarin  (mainly 
chalk  with  some  sand  and  clay),  in  others  of  barros^  which  is  mainly 
»nd  cemented  together  with  chalk  and  clay,  and  of  mrenas^  which 
consists  of  neariy  pure  saiKl.  Most  of  the  vineyards  in  the  Jerez 
district  are  upon  albariza  soil,  those  to  the  north  and  north-east 
are  mainly  ot  barrcSt  and  those  close  to  the  seashore  of  arenas. 
The  dominating  vine  is  the  Palomino^  which  produces  amontiUados 
and  finos.  ()ther  important  vinos  arc  the  Perruno  and  the  Matitua 
CasteUano.  There  is  also  a  variety  of  Pedro-Ximenes,  which, 
however,  is  not  bsed  for  making  ordinary  wine,  but  for  the  ptirpose 
'of  preparing  the  so-called  dulce.  a  very  sweet  must  or  wine,  made 
from  over*npG  grapes,  which,  alter  fortification  with  spirit,  is  cna- 
ployed  for  swtietemng  other  wines.  The  process  of  vinification  is 
comparatively  simi^  The  arapes  are,  after  gathering,  dusted  over 
with  plaster  of  Paris,  and  tnen  crushed  by  treading  in  a  shallow 
rectangular  vessel  termed  the  lagar.  The  juice,  which  is  so  obtained 
together  with  that  which  resulb  from  tne  pressing  of  the  murk, 
&i  fermented  in  much  the  same  manner  as  is  customary  in  other 
countries.  There  are  two  main  types  of  sherry  known  in  the  United 
Kingdom*  namely,  those  of  the  anumliUado  and  those  of  the  rnanaan' 
iUa  cUusses.  The  former  are  generally  sweet  and  full-bodied,  the 
latter  light  and  dry.  The  manaaniUas  are  mostly  shipped  in  the 
natural  «ute.  exoept  for  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  spirit. 


The  amoniiOades  may  be  again  divided  into  th«jEiMS  and  the  obnuat 
the  former  bdng  the  more  delicate.  These  distinctions  are  not  of  a 
hard  and  fast  character,  for  they  f  reouently  merely  represent  differeat 
developments  of  the  same  wine.  Thus,  according  to  Thudicum,  the 
regular  heavy  sherry  from  albarita  soil  remains  immature  for  a 
number  of  years  and  then  becomes  a^iao.  After  five  to  eight  yean 
it  may  become  an  amotUtUadoj  and  if  it  is  left  in  cask  and  allowed  to 
develop,  it  will,  after  it  attains  an  age  of  nine  to  fourteen  yean, 
become  an  oloroso,  and  still  later  it  may  become  a  secco.  In  Jerea 
itself  a  different  classification,  namely  that  according  to  quality  and 
not  age,  exists,  which,  however,  is  only  employed  locally.  Thus  the 
term  palma  is  applied  to  fine  dry  wines  when  in  their  second  or 
third  years.  Th^  may  be  amontiUados^  but  according'  to  some 
they  never  become  olorosos.  Then  there  are  varieties  Known  aa 
double  and  treble  palmat  and  single,  douUe  and  treble  polo,  the 
latter  being  the  finest  form  of  oloroso.  Then  there  is  the  quality  of 
wine  termed  raya.  This  is  dry  and  sound,  and  forms  a  great  part  of 
the  sherry  expmted  to  the  United  Kingdom.  The  sweetness  of  the 
sweet  sherries  is  partly  due  to  an  inherent  property  of  the  wine 
(apart  from  any  sugar  they  may  contain)  and  partly  to  natural  or 
added  sugar.  In  some  cases  the  fermentation  of  the  must  is  stopped 
by  the  addition  of  spirit  before  the  whole  of  the  saccharine  b  con- 
verted, and  the  winca  so  prepared  retain  a  proportion  of  the  augar 
naturally  present  in  the  must.  In  other  cases  dry  wines  are  prepared 
and  sugar  b  added  to  them  in  the  form  of  diMt  (see  above|.  In 
order  to  prevent  refermentation  it  b  thea  necessary  to  fortify  these 
wincs  with  apint.  The  standard  of  colour  required  for  certain 
quantities  b  maintained  by  the  addition  of  cwtr.  The  latter  ■ 
made  by  boiling  wine  down  until  it  attains  the  consistency  of  a 
liqueur.  The  great  bulk  of  sherry  shipped  to  the  United  Kingdom 
b  blended.  The  system  of  blending;  sherry  in  some  respects  recalla 
that  of  the  blending  of  Scotch  whiskies.  Wines  of  the  same  type  are 
stored  in  vats  or  solerast  and  the  contents  of  the  soUras  are-  kept  as 
far  as  possible  up  to  a  particular  style  of  colour,  flavour  and  sweet- 
ness. Prior  to  anipment  the  contents  of  various  sokns  are  blended 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  article  required. 

In  addition  tothe  wines  described  above,thcre  are  othen  of  a  similar 
nature  grown  in  the  vicinity,  such  as  numiiUa  (made  in  Cordova) 
and  motuer  (produced  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Guadalquivir). 

The  bulk  of  the  sherry  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  stiff 
consists  of  the  heavier,  fortified  wines,  varying  in  strength  from 
17  to  21  %  of  absolute  alcohol,  although  the  fiscaichange  introduoed 
in  1886,  whereby  wincs  not  exceeding  30**  proof  (ix,  about  17%  of 
alcohol)  were  admitted  at  a  duty  of  is.  3d.,  as  against  3s.  for  heavier 
wines,  naturally  tended  to  promote  the  shipment  of  the  lighter  dry 
varieties.  In  thb  connexion  it  b  interesting  to  note  diat  tiie  im« 
portatk>n  of  sherry  into  the  United  Kingdom  on  a  conaiderabie 
scale  commenced  m  the  15th  century,  and  that  the  wine  dhipped 
at  that  time  was  of  the  dry  varie^.  It  seems  possible  that  snmy 
was  the  first  wine  known  as  sack  m  thb  oountnr,  but  it  ia  at  IcMt 
doubtful  whether  thb  word  b,  as  some  contend,  derived  fiom  seek 
or  sec,  i'.«.  dry.  According  to  Morewood  it  b  more  likely  to  haw 
come  from  the  Japanese  Sak6  or  Sacki  (see  SasA),  derived  m  its  turn 
from  the  name  of  the  dty  of  Osaka. 

Chemically  the  sweet  sherry  differe  from  the  natural  dry  Hght 
wines  in  that  it  contains  relatively  high  propordons  of  aloobol| 
extractives,  su^r  and  sulphates,  and  small  quantities  of  acid  ana 
glycerin,   fins  b  wdl  illustrated  by  the  following  analysb:"- 

Analysis  cf  Skerry  (Fresenius). 


Alcohol 
percent 
by  vol. 

Grams  per  Litre.                                  ] 

Extract. 

Total 

Acid. 

Ash. 

Glycerin. 

Sugar. 

Sulphates. 

19-94 

489 

3-3 

4-2 

4*3 

30*2 

3-75 

Malaga  is  a  sweet  wine  (produced  in  the  province  of  that  name) 
which  is  little  known  in  England,  but  enjoys  considerable  favour  on 
the  Continent.  It  is  generally,  as  exported,  a  blend  made  jg^^m, 
from  vino  duke  and  vino  secco,  together  with  varying      ^"^■" 

auantitics  of  vino  maestro,  vino  tierno,  arope  and  color.  The  vino 
ulce  and  vino  secco  are  both  made  as  a  rule  from  the  Pedro  Jimenez 
(white)  grape,  the  former  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  duice  which 
b  employedin  the  sherry  industry,  the  latter  by  permitting  fermenta- 
tion to  take  its  normal  course.  The  vino  maestro  consists  of  must 
which  has  only  fermented  to  a  slight  degree  and  which  has  been 
**  killed  "  by  the  addition  of  about  17  %  oT  akohol.  The  vino  iierne 
is  made  by  mashing  raisins  (6  parts)  with  water  (2  parts)  pressing, 
and  then  adding  alcohol  (l  part)  to  the  must  Arope  b obtained  by 
concentrating  vtno  duke  to  one-third,  and  color  by  concentrating  the 
arope  over  a  naked  fire.  Malaga  is  therefore  an  interesting  example 
of  a  composite  wine.  B^des  the  sweet  variety,  a  coarse  dry  wine 
b  also  made,  but  thb  b  little  known  abroad. 

Another  well-known  wine  district  in  the  south  of  Spain  b  that  of 
Rota,  where  a  sweet  red  wine,  known  in  England  as  tent  (tinto), 
chiefly  used  for  ecclesiastical  purposes,  is  produced. 

Wtnes  of  ike  Centre  and  Nortk. — ^While  the  most  important  Spanish 
wines  are  those  grown  in  the  southern  province  of  Andalutu,  the 


726 


WINE 


R*ORTUGAL 


central  and  northern  dtstHctt  also  produce  vine  In  contiderable 
quantity,  and  much  of  this  is  of  ytry  fair  quality.  Thus  in  the 
central  district  of  Val  de  Peffaa  and  m  the  Kioja  region  (situated 
between  Old  Castile  and  Navarre)  in  the  north-east  are  produced 
red  wines  which  in  regard  to  vinosity,  body  and  in  some  other  respects 
resemble  the  heavier  clarets  or  burgundies  of  France-^though  not 
possessing  the  delicacy  and  elegance  of  the  latter.  They  are  snipped 
in  some  Quantity  to  the  United  Kingdom  as  Spanish  "  claret  or 
Spanish  burgundy."  The  most  important  industry,  outside  the 
touthem  districts,  is,  however,  that  in  Catalonia,  where,  in  the 
aeighbourhood  of  the  town  of  that  name,  the  wine  known  as  Tarra- 
^na  or  Spanish  **  port  "  is  produced.  The  finest  Tarragona  (which 
much  resembles  port)  is  made  in  the  Priorato  region,  about  15  m. 
inland. 

WlHES  O;  POXTCGAL 

tn  the  north-east  of  Portugal,  not  far  from  the  town  of  Oporto 

*-4rom  which  it  takes  its  name  and  whence  it  is  exported — 

Is  produced  the  wine,  unique  in  Its  full-bodied  and  generous  phar- 

tcter,  known  as  port. 

Pott  is  grown  in  the  Alto  Douro  district,  a  rugged  tract  of  land 
aoroe  30  to  40  m.  long  by  10  m.  wide,  which  commences  at  a  point 
p^  on  the  river  Douro  some  60  m.  above  Oporto.     The 

^^.  character  of  the  Alto  Douro  is  extremely  mountainous 
and  rugged.  J.  L.  W.  Thudichum,  in  his  Treatise  on  Wines,  gives  a 
striking  and  almost  poetical  description  of  it  as  compared  with 
Jcres.     He  says:  "  Tne  vinesrards  of  Jerez  are  so  beautifdl  and 

Eroducttve  that  the>'  mi^t  well  be  termed  the  vineyards  of  Venus. 
Fndulating  hiils,  easily  accessible  from  all  sides,  are  covered  with  a 
luxurious  growth  of  vmes.  .  .  .  Very  different  is  the  aspect  of  the 
Alto  Douro.  Here  all  n  rock,  gorge,  almost  inaccessible  mountain, 
precipice  and  torrent,  while  over  or  along  all  these  rude  features  of 
nature  are  drawn  countless  lines  of  stone  walls  by  which  man  makes 
orsttpportsthesoilitt  which  the  vines  find  their  subsistence.  ...  I 
thought  that  if  Jerez  was  the  vineyard  of  Venus,  this  Alto  Douro 
vineyaid  must  be  termed  the  vineyard  of  Hercules."  The  vine- 
ttaros  are,  in  fact,  situated  on  artificially  niade  terraces,  supported 
by  walls  on  the  mountain  sides.  If  this  were  not  the  case  the 
heavy  winter  rains  would  wash  away  the  soil.  The  climate  of  the 
Altd  l>ouro  is  very  variable.  Intense  heat  in  summer  is  followed  by 
severe  cold  in  wmter.  The  soil  is  a  peculiar  clay-schist,  on  or 
alternating  with  granite,  and  it  is  to  the  peculiar  conditions  of 
climate  and  soil  that  port  owes  its  remarkable  qualities  of  colour, 
body  and  high  flavour.  There  appears  to  be  no  predominant  and 
distmct  type  oi  vine,  such  as  is  the  case  in  other  vittcultural  districts, 
but  a  number  of  varieties,  mostly  yielding  grapes  of  a  medium  size 
are  cocnmon  to  the  Douro  vineyards.  The  method  of  cultivation 
is  genetally  that  of  a  lational  low  culture,  and  in  this  respect  differs 
from  that  employed  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  where  the  vines  are 
cither  trained  on  trees  or  over  trellis-work  at  some  height  from  the 
ground. 

Kisf^SoilfM.— The  process  of  converting  the  Alto  Douro  grapes 
into  wine  differs  in  some  material  particulars  from  those  employed 
elsewhere.  The  grapes  are  cut  and  then  conveyed  in  baskets  by  the 
Callei^  (as  the  labourers  who  come  specially  from  Galida  in  Spain 
for  this  purpose  are  termed)  to  the  winery.  Here  the  stalks  are 
removed,  generally  by  a  machine  similar  to  the  French  iprappeir, 
and  the  grapes  then  placed  in  the  laear.  This  is  a  square  stone 
vessel  of  considerable  size  made  to  hold  up  to  fifteen  pipes  (the  pipe 
equals  115  gallons)  of  wine.  It  is  roughly  3  ft.  deep  and  from  3  to 
10  yds.  wide.  The  grapes  are  first  trodden  for  a  period  varying 
from  twenty-foui  hours  upwards,  and  are  then  allowed  to  ferment 
In  the  ia^  itself.  When  the  fermentation  has  reached  a  certain 
point  it  is  generally  the  custom  to  again  tread  the  must  in  order 
to  extract  as  much  colour  as  possible  from  the  skins.  In  order  to 
preserve  the  sweet  quality  of  the  wine,  fermentation  is  not  permitted 
to  continue  beyond  a  certain  point.  When  this  is  reached  the  wine 
h  drawn  from  the  lagar  over  a  strainer  or  some  similar  arrangement 
into  vats  yielding  from  five  to  thirty  pipes.  The  murk  remaining  in 
the  laiar  is  then  pressed  by  means  of  a  lever  or  beam  press  with 
which  this  vessel  is  fitted.  In  order  to  prevent  the  wine  from  fer- 
menting further  and  so  becoming  dry,  from  4  to  5  volumes  of  brandy 
are  added  to  every  100  volumes  of  wine  in  the  vats.  The  alcohol 
employed  for  this  purpose  is  as  a  rule  of  high  quality  and  made 
solely  from  wine,  when,  after  the  approach  of  the  cold  weather, 
the  lees  have  dropped,  the  wines  are  racked  and  a  further  addition 
of  brandy  is  made.  The  second  racking  takes  place  in  March  or 
April,  and  the  wine  is  now  placed  in  casks  and  sent  to  Oporto,  where 
it  is  stored  in  large  over-ground  buildings  termed  lodges.  A  further 
addition  of  brandy  is  generally  added  before  shipment.  The  great 
bulk  of  the  wine  is  stored  for  many  years  before  shipping,  but  this 
docs  not  apply  to  the  commoner  varieties,  nor  to  the  finest  wines, 
which,  being  the  produce  of  a  specific  year,  are  shipped  unblended 
and  as  a  vintage  wine.  The  most  famous  vintages  of  recent  times 
were  those  of  18^7,  1851,  1863.  1868,  1870,  1873,  1878,  1881,  1884 
and  1887.  A  white  port  is  also  made  in  the  Alto  Douro,  and  this, 
althouj^  little  known  in  England,  is  exported  in  considerable 
quantities  to  Germany  and  Russia.  The  white  port  is  grown  in 
vineyards  whkh  are  not  quite  so  favoured  as  itsards  position  as 


the  red  port  growths.  White  port  b  made  from  white  grspes,  and  a 
peculiarity  ofits  manufacture  is  that  the  must  is  frequently  fcrmeiued 
in  the  presence  of  the  skins,  which  is  most  unusual  in  the  case  of 
white  wines.  This  gives  a  certain  stringency  to  white  port,  wfaick 
is  characteristic  of  toe  wine. 

Diseases.— Tht  Alto  Douto  has  from  time  to  time  been  sadly 
ravaged  by  the  oidium  and  pk^icxera.  The  fonaer  first  made  ita 
appearance  about  the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  and  reached  a 
climax  in  1856.  when  only  about  15,000  pipes,  that  is,  sboiit  one- 
sixth  of  the  usual  quantity,  was  vinugcd.  In  consequence  of  this, 
the  exportation  of  port  dropped  from  over  40,000  pipes  in  1856  to 
about  16,000  pipes  in  1858.  Since  then  oidium  has  reappeared  from 
time  to  time,  but  the  remedy  of  spraying  with  finely  divided  sulphur, 
which  was  discovered  at  the  time  of  the  epidemic,  has  enabled  the 
wine  farmers  to  keep  it  under.  The  pkylhxera,  whkh  appeared  in. 
Alto  Douro  in  about  1868,  also  did  enormous  damage,  and  at  ooe 
time  reduced  the  yield  to  about  one-half  of  the  normal.  At  out 
time  the  position  appeared  to  be  desperate,  particularly  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  the  farmers  refused  to  believe  that  the  trouble  was 
due  to  anything  other  than  the  continuous  drought  of  successive 
dry  seasons,  but  at  the  present  time,  after  much  expenditure  of 
energy  and  capital,  the  condition  of  affairs  is  once  toon  fairly 
sattsiactory. 

Port  Wine  Trade.— The  port  wine  trade  is  of  considerable  import- 
ance to  the  United  Kingdom  not  only  because  the  chief  trade  in  this 
wiae  is  with  that  country,  but  also  Secause  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  capiul  invested  m  the  industry  is  English,  u  is  probable 
that  the  Enjgluh  capital  locked  up  in  the  port  industry  amounts  to 
some  2  millions  sterling.  In  the  period  preceding  the  'seventies  of 
the  last  century  practically  the  whole  of  the  wine  exported  from' 
Oporto  came  to  Great  Britain.  Thus  in  the  year  1864  there  weie 
exported  to  Great  Britain  29,942  pipes  and  to  the  rest  of  the  world 
5677  pipes.  The  trade  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  however,  bat 
gradually  grown  since  then,  the  figures  being  as  foUows^~ 

Exports  of  Wine  from  Oporto. 


Year. 

To 
Great  Britain. 

To  Rest 
of  the  World. 

1898 

»903 
1900 

Pipes. 

35.753 
30,281 

41.093 

32.832 
34.356 

Pipes. 
20.778 
31.741 
69.93« 
65.058 

80.934 

The  growth  of  the  export  trade  from  Oporto  with  the  rest  of  the 
world  is  principally  due  to  the  enormous  increase  in  the  quantity  ol 
wine  sent  to  South  America^  chiefly  Brazil,  but  only  a  snudl  propor- 
tion of  this  (probably  one-eighth)  is  port  wine  proper.  The  Dulk  of 
it  consists  of  wine  from  the  Minho  and  Beira  districts.  These  facts 
also  account  for  the  apparent  anomaly  that  the  exports  from  Oporto 
are  much  higher  than  tne  total  production  of  wine  in  the  Alto  Douro. 
At  the  present  time  the  average  production  of  the  Alto  £>ouro  is 
about  50,000  pipes.  During  the  isut  decade  it  was  at  a  maximum  in 
1904,  when  70,000  pipes  were  produced,  and  at  a  miaimum  in  1903, 
when  only  18,000  pipes  were  obtained.  The  value  of  the  port  taken 
by  the  United  Kingdom  was  in  the  year  1906  over  one  million  sterling, 
that  is,  rather  \en  than  half  of  the  total  value  of  all  the  French  wines 
imported,  but  more  than  double  the  value  of  the  total  of  Spanish 
wines. 

The  chemical  features  of  interest  in  port  are  the  relatively  high 
proportions  of  alcohol  (the  bulk  of  the  wine  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom  containing  some  18  to  22%  of  alcohol]),  sugar  and  tannin. 
The  sugar  varies  considerably  according  to  the  vintage,  but  as  a  rule 
amounts  to  from  7  %  to  15  %. 

Other  Portuguese  Wines. — ^The  wines  of  the  Alto  Douro  only  form 
a  smaH  proportion  of  the  total  quantity  of  wine  produced  in  Portugal. 
The  main  wine-growing  distnct  outside  that  of  Oporto  u  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Lisbon.  The  diief  varieties  are  those  grown  at 
Torres  Vedras,  which  are  of  a  coarse  claret  type;  at  CoUares.  where 
a  wine  of  a  somewhat  higher  Quality  is  produced;  at  Carcavellos, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus;  and  at  Bucellas.  In  the  latter  district 
is  produced  a  white  wine  from  the  Ricssling  grape,  which  is  commonly 
known  iii  the  United  Kingdom  as  Bucellas  Hock. 

As  far  as  the  United  Kingdom  b  concerned,  the  Madeira  wine 
industry  is  mainly  of  interest  in  that  it  was  largely  developed  by 
and  is  still  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  British  merchants,  mmo^^ 
The  shipments  to  the  United  Kingdom,  howeverj  which  ^*"""'*» 
reached  a  maximum  in  1820,  when  over  half  a  million  gallons  were 
imported,  has  fallen  off  to  one-tenth  of  that  amount,  and  the  con- 
sumption in  these  islands  was  barely  20,000  gallons  in  1906.  This 
falling  away  in  the  taste  for  Madeira  is  partly  ascribable  to  fashion 
and  partly  to  the  temporary  devastation  of  the  vineyards  by  the 
phylloxera  in  the  middle  of  last  century.  The  re-estaDlishment  of 
the  vineyards  and  the  consequent  development  of  the  industry  did 
not,  however,  lead  to  a  renewal  of  the  trade  on  the  former  scale  with 
this  country.  The  output  in  1906  amounted  to  lo^ooo  pipes  (Maddra 


GXRltANY-  irV<Vl 


WINE 


727 


pipe  "99  gsHoiM)  and  the  export  to  6010  i^pee,  of  whick  tqaandty 
1951  pipes  went  to  Cermanv.  1680  ^pe«  to  France,  796  pipes  to 
Russia  and  755  pipes  to  the  united  kingdom.  Madeira,  like  sherry 
and  port,  is  a  fortified  «rine.  The  method  of  viniAcation  is  stmil^ 
to  that  employed  in  other  parts  of  Portugal,  but  the  method  employed 
for  hastening  the  maturation  of  the  wine  is  peculiar  and  character* 
ictic.  This  consists  in  subjectinc  the  wine,  in  building  specially 
designed  for  this  purpose,  to  a  high  temperature  for  a penod  of  nme 
OQonths.  The  temperature  varies  from  100*  to  140*  F.  according 
to  the  quality  of  the  wine,  the  lower  temperature  being  used  for  the 
better  wines.  The  bwklings  in  which  this  process  is  carried  out  are 
built  of  stone  and  are  divided  into  compartments  heated  by  means  of 
hot  air  derived  from  a  system  of  stoves  and  flues.  Much  of  the 
characteristic  flavour  of  Madeira  is  due  to  this  practice,  which 
hastens  the  mellowing  of  the  wine  and  also  teods  to  check  secondary 
fermcntatiott  inasmuch  as  it  is,  in  cfiect,  a  mikl  kind  of  pasteurisation. 

Wines  or  Ceuuny 

Although  the  quantity  of  wine  produced  in  Germany  is  com- 
paratively small  Bad  subiect  to  great  variations,  the  quaUly  of  the 
finer  wines  is,  in  successful  yeara,  of  a  very  high  order.  In  fact 
Germany  is  the  only  country  which  produces  natural  {i.e.  un- 
fortified) wines  of  so  high  a  class  as  to  be  comparable  with — 
althotigh  of  an  ailirely  different  character  from — the  wines 
of  France.  The  finer  wines  possess  great  breed  and  distinction, 
coupled  with  a  very  fine  and  pronounced  bouquet,  and  in  addi- 
tion  they  are  endowed  with  the — in  the  case  of  lighter  wines- 
rare  quality  of  stability.  The  great  inequalities  observed  in  the 
different  vintages  and  the  exceptionally  fine  character  of  the 
wines  jn  good  ycais  are,  generally,  due  to  the  same  cause,  namely, 
to  the  geographical  position  of  the  vineyards.  The  wines  of  the 
Rhine  are  grown  in  the  most  northerly  latitude  at  which  viti- 
culture is  successful  in  Europe,  and  consequently,  when  the 
seasons  are  not  too  unpropitious,  they  display  the  hardiness  and 
distinction  •  characteristic  of  northern  prodacts^  During  the 
period  1891-1905  the  total  production  of  Germany  has  averaged 
roughly  62  million  gallons,  attaining  a  maximum  of  iii  milh'on 
gallons  in  1896  and  a  minimum  of  16  million  gallons  in  1S91. 
The  trade  with  the  United  Kingdom  is  now  a  very  considerable 
one,  amounting  in  2906  to  roughly  x}  million  gallons  to  the 
value  of  three-quarters  of  a  million  sterling. 

The  wines  grown  in  the  Rheingau.  Rheinhessen  and  in  parts  of  the 
Palatinate  are  geoerally  known  1^  the  name  of  Rhine  wines,  although 
many  of  these  are  actually  produced  on  tributaries  of 
that  river.  Thus  the  well-known  Hochheimer,  itom 
which  the  curious  generic  term  "  hock "  employed  in 
England  for  Rhine  wines  is  denvcd,  is  made  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
little  vills^  of  that  name  situated  on  the  Main,  a  number  of  miles 
above  the  junction  of  the  latter  with  the  Rhine.  The  Rheingau 
dntrict  proper  stretches  along  the  north  bank  of  the  Rhine  from 
Bingen  on  the  west  to  Mains  on  the  east.  The  most  important 
wines  in  this  region  are  those  of  the  johannisberg  and  of  the  Stein- 
berg. The  vineyards  of  the  former  are  said  to  have  been  planted 
originally  in  the  i  ith  century,  but  were  destroyed  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.-  They  were  replanted  by  the  abbot  of  Fulda  in  the  i8th 
century.  During  the  French  Revofutioo  the  property  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  bat  after  the  battle  of  Jena, 
Napoleon  deprivod  nim  of  it  and  presented  it  to  Marshal  Kellermann. 
On  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  the  emperor  of  Austria  took  possession  of 
the  vineyard  and  gave  it  to  Prinee  Mettemich.  At  the  present  time 
the  proper^  still  bdongs  to  the  descendants  of  the  btter.  The 
vineyards  01  Steinberg  belong  to  the  state  of  Prussia.  The  vineyards 
of  these  two  properties  arc  tended  with  extraordinary  care,  and  the 
wines,  of  wh^ch  several  ouatities  are  made  in  each  case,  fetch  ex- 
ceedingly hi|fh  prices.  The  finest  wines  are  produced  in  a  manner 
somewhat  similar  to  that  employed  for  making  the  Sautemes. 
The  grapes  are  allowed  to  become  over-ripe  and  are  then  selected  by 
hand.  This  process  produces  the  so-called  Auslese  wines,  whicn 
frequently  fetch  as  much  as  30s.  or  40s.  a  bottle.  The  other  most 
important  wines  produced  in  the  Rheingau  and  its  extensions  are 
those  of  Marcobrunn,  Geisenheim,  RQdesheim  and  Hochhcim.  The 
roost  important  wines  produced  in  Rheinhessen  (on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine  and  south  of  the  Rheingau)  are  those  oT  Liebfraumilch, 
Nierstein.  Oppenheim,  Bodenhetm.Laubenhcim  and  Scharlachberg. 
In  the  Palatinate  the  most  important  growths  are  those  of  Foret, 
Deideshdm  and  Dihrkheim. 

The  wines  of  the  Moselle  are  of  a  somewhat  different  character  to 
those  of  the  Rhine.  Whereas  the  Rhine  wines  of  the  finer  descriptions 
UtotaWf.  *'*  *'  *  ™.**  fairly  full  bodied  and  of  marked  vinosity.  the 
Moselle  wines  are  mostly  light  and  of  a  somewhat  delicate 
nature.  While  the  Rhine  wines  generally  improve  in  bottle  (or  a 
lengthy  period,  the  Moselles  are  as  a  rule  at  their  best  when  com- 
paratively freab.    Indeed,  many  connoisseurs  hold  that  when  a 


Rhtae 


Moselle  ceases  t6  sboir  dgas  of  tbe  soriiewkat  ptotongad  sectmdafy 
fermentatbn.  characterixed  by  the  slight  prickling  sensation  produced 
on  the  palate  (caused  by  the  presence  of  bubkues  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  in  the  wine),  that  it  lias  passed  its  best.  The  best-known  growths 
of  the  Moselle  are  those  of  Brauneben;,  Bernkastel,  Piesport  and 
Zcltingen.  Some  of  the  tributanes  of  the  Moselle  also  product 
wines  which  in  quality  approach  those  of  the  parent  river.  Among 
these  Riay  be  ated  the  growths  of  Scharzhofbefg,  Geisbeig  and 
Dodcstein. 

Lain  quantities  of  wine  are  |>roduoed  in  Alsace-Lorxaine.  Baden 
and  WQrttcmbeig,  but  the  majority  of  these  have  little  interest* 
inasmuch  as  they  are  used  only  for  home  consumption.  Amoiw  the 
wines,  however,  which  are  well  kiunra  may  ne  mentionea  the 
Franconian  growths,  amongst  which  the  celebrated  Stein  wine, 
which  is  grown  at  the  foot  of  the  ciudel  of  the  town  of  WQrzbufg. 
and  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden  the  celebrated  growths  of  Affenthal 
(red)  and  MarkgnLfler 

Practically  all  the  important  wines  of  Gennany  are  white,  although 
there  are  a  few  red  growths  of  some  quality,  for  instance  that  of 
Assmannshausen  in  the  Rheingau.  The  tatter  is  produced  from  the 
black  Burgundy  vine,  the  Pineau.  In  the  Rheingau  the  predominant 
vine  is  the  Riessling.  This  plant  appears  to  be  ind^enous  to  the 
Rhine  valley,  and  the  finest  wines  are  made  exclusively  from  its 
grepes.  In  the  hope  of  reproduciag  the  characteristic  of  the  Rhine 
wines,  the  Riessling  has  bcenplantra  in  many  young  wine-producing 
countries,  such  as  Australia,  California  and  tne  Cape,  and  not  antisely 
without  success.  It  thrives  best  on  rocky  mountain  slopes  freely 
exposed  to  the  sun,  and  requires  a  relatively  h^  temperature  to 
reach  perfect  maturity.  In  the  lower  lands,  therefore, it  iscustoraary 
to  plant.  In  addition  to  the  Riessling.  vines  such  as  Osterreicbcr  and 
Kleinberger,  which  mature  more  readily  than  the  former.  Other 
vines,  such  as  the  Orltens  and  the  Trammer,  are  also  found  in  small 
quantities  in  the  Rheingau.  On  the  Moselle  the  RIcMlingand  the 
Kleinberger  are  the  chief  growths.  The  vintage  on  the  TUilne  ia^ 
in  order  to  permit  the  grapes  to  acquire  the  "  over-ripeness  "  ncoessaiy 
to  the  peculiar  character  of  the  wines,  Rnerally  very  late,  rarely 
taking  place  before  the  end  of  October.  The  process  of  tinlfioatioa 
is  peculiar  in  that  fermentation  takes  place  in  relatively  small  casks^ 
the  result  being  that  there  are  frequently* marked  diffeienoes  in  th« 
produce  of  the  same  g^rowth  and  vintage. 

The  very  ^reat  variations  which  are  shown  by  the  same  ppwihs 
of  different  vintag;e5  makes  it  impracticable  in  the  case  of  the  Gcfman 
white  wines  to  give  representative  analyses  of  them.  Comparing 
the  fine  wines  ol  the  better  vintages  with,  for  instance,  the  red wme« 
of  the  Gironde,  the  main  features  of  interest  are  the  relatively  hl^ 
proportions  of  acid  and  glycerin  and  the  low  proportion  of  tanam 
which  they  contain. 

WMbs  op  Italy 

Italy  tanks  second  to  France  as  regards^  the^  quantity  of  wine 
produced,  but  in  respect  to  quality  a  comparison  is  scarcely  possible* 
inasmuch  as  the  Italian  wines  are  on  the  whole  of  a  poor  character. 
They  display  many  of  the  features  characteristic  of  southern  wines, 
showing  either  an  excessive  vinosity  coupled  with  a  somewhat  crude 
bouquet,  or  where  the  alcoholic  strength  is  not  high,  a  decided  lack 
of ^  stability.  The  reason  for  this  is  to  be  sought  partly  in  the  un* 
scientific  methods  of  cultivation,  and  partly,  la  many  districts,  in 
the  haphaiard  methods  of  vinificatlon  employed.  The  vines  are  to 
a  great  extent  still  trained  on  trees  or  trelhs-work.  or  allowed  to 

frow  among  the  rest  of  the  vegetation  in  the  most  casual  manner, 
t  must  be  stated,  neverthelcw,  that  of  recent  years  a  decided  im- 
provement has^  set  in  in  some  quarters  ou  ing  to  the  lively^  interest 
which  the  Italian  government  nas  taken  in  the  subject,  principally 
owing  to  the  important  export  trade  to  America,  SM^itseriand  and 
other  countries.  The  trade  uith  the  United  States,  which  in  1887 
amounted  to  little  over  120,000  gallons,  has  risen  to  considerably 
over  a  million  gallons.  The  exports  to  the  Argentine  Republic 
amount  to  roughly  a  million  gallons,  and  to  Su  itzcrland  from  4  to  8 
million  gallons.  The  trade  with  the  United  Kingdom  is  small, 
amounting  to  little  over  a  quarter  of  a  million  gallons  annually,  and 
of  a  value  rather  less  than  £50,000.  The  total  exports  of  luly  axe 
on  the  average  not  far  from  40  million  gallons.  The  wines  of  northern 
Italy  are  on  the  whole  of  good  colour,  out  somohat  harsh.  Among 
the  best-known  wines  in  Piedmont  are  the  Barolos  and  the  wines  of 
Asti,  which  are  made  from  a  species  of  muscatel  grapes.  They  are 
of  an  agreeabkr  flavour,  and  this  especially  applies  to  the  white  de- 
scriptions. A  considerable  quantity  of  sparkling  wine  is  manu-: 
factured  in  this  district.  Among  the  best-known  wines  of  Lombardy 
are  the  Passella  wines  of  Valtdlna.  In  central  Italy  the  best  arowths 
are  those  of  Chianti.  Pomino,  Montalcino,  Carmignano  and  Monte* 
pulciano.  Tuscany  produces  the  greater  part  of  these  wines,  whKh 
are  of  good  but  not  excessive  alcoholic  strength,  contaimng  as  a  rule 
some  1  oj  %  to  11 J  %  of  alcohol.  The  M ontepulciano  wines  have  a 
brilliant  colour  and  hijfh  bouquet,  and  are  of  a  sweet,  luscious 
flavour.  The  wines  of  Chianti.  near  Siena,  are  often  descnM 
as  being  of  the  claret  type,  but  actually  they  are  somewhat  similar 
to  the  CTowths  of  Benujolais.  The  best  Italian ^fines,  i^o^I!*^**'!.^!! 
proKibfv  those  rmwn  in  the  Neapolitan  district.  The  test  pi  these- 
w  the  celebrated  Lacrima  ChristC  which  Is  grown  on  tke  defss.tii* 


729 


WINE 


(AUSTRIA:  WnED  STATCS 


Vciaviot  fiom  a  vIm  botfinf  tlM  Mine  tmmt.  It  ha*  a  fine  red 
colour,  and  unites  deUcacy  and  a  hwh  bouquet  with  a  sweet  elegant 
taste.  The  white  muscat  wines  oC  Vesuvius  are  also  of  good  quality, 
and  the  island  of  Capri  produces  some  excellent  wine.  Perhaps  the 
but  known  of  Italian  wines  in  the  United  Kingdom^  is  that  produced 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Marsala  in  the  islandof  Stdly,  which  bears 
the  name  of  the  town  from  which  it  is  exported.  Marsala  is  a 
fortified  white  wine  which  b  grown  and  made  with  considerable  care. 
It  is  somewhat  similar  in  character  to  the  wines  of  Madeira,  but  its 
character  also  recalb  some  of  the  sherry  types.  It  b  vatted  and 
blended  in  much  the  same  way  as  sherry,  ana  there  b  a  considerable 
trade  in  thb  wine  with  the  United  Kingdom.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  Palermo,  Muscat  and  Malvoiaie  wines  of  very  fair  Quality  are  made. 
The  idands  of  Sardinia  and  Elba  prodxioe  considerable  quantities  of 
wine,  some  of  which  b  of  fair  quauty. 

Wines  of  Austria-Hungary 
In  point  of  quantity  Austria-Hungary  takes  the  fourth  place  among 
the  wine-produdng  nations.  The  avenuee  production  for  the  period 
I90i-i90<^  was  178  million  gallons.  Of  thb  quantity  Austria  b 
responsible  for  roughly  three-fifths  and  Hungary  for  the  remaining 
two-fifths.  The  character  of  the  Hungarian  wine  is,  however,  much 
higher  than  that  of  the  Austrian  growths.  The  quality  of  the  bulk 
of  the  Anstro-Hungarian  wines  has  been  improved  of  late  years, 
prindpaUy  owin^to  the  endeavours  of  the  respective  govermuents  to 
mtroouce  scientific  and  modem  methods  among  the  wine-farmers. 
Since  the  recovery  of  the  Hungarian  vineyards  uom  the  phylloxera 
considerable  efforts  have  been  made  to  develop  an  export  trade,  but 
so  far  the  wines  0^  Hungaiv  are  not  generally  known  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  Nevertheless,  Hungary  produces  at  least  one  class  of 
wine  which  may  be  oonsklered  of  international  importance,  namdy, 
the  famous  Tokay.  Thb  b  produced  in  the  mountainous  Hegyalia 
region  in  a  district  whidi  has  the  town  of  Tokay  for  its  centre.  The 
vine  from  which  Tokay  b  made  b  the  PurmitU.  The  finest  varieties 
of  Tokay  are  nnade  entirely  or  mainly  from  Furmint  grapes  which 
have  been  alloWed  to  become  over-ripe  in  a  manner  somewhat 
similar  to  that  obtaining  in  the  Sautemcs  districts.  In  the  case  of 
Tokay,  however,  the  transformation  of  the  f^rape  into  what  b 
piBcticaUy  a  raisin  b  not  brought  about  by  the  mtcrvention  of  any 
particular  micro-organism.  The  sun  b  sufficiently  powerful  to  cause 
tbe  evaporation  of  the  water  in  the  grape  through  the  skin  without 
any  prdinunary  loosening  of  the  latter  by  the  action  of  the  iMOrytis 
cinem  or  any  other  micro-oiganbm.  The  most  precious  variety 
ot  Tokay  b  tne  so^alled  tssence.  Thb  b  produced  by  placing  the 
finest  grapes  in  casks  and  drawing  off  the  juice  which  exudes  naturally 
as  a  result  of  the  weiffht  of  the  material.  The  Tokay  essence  is,  even 
after  many  years,  stul  a  partblly  fermented  wine,  rarely  containing 
more  than  7%  to  9%  of  alcohol.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
main  fermentation  rarely,  if  ever,  reaches  a  climax.  Another  variety 
of  Tokay  b  the  so-called  szamorod.  This  b  produced  by  pressing  a 
mixture  of  dried  grapes  and  fully  ripe  grapes  and  fermenting  the 
must  so  obtained.  It  contains  up  to  about  14%  of  aJcohoiand 
relatively  little  sugar.  The  most  common  kind  of  Tokay  is  the  so- 
called  Ambruck  wine.  This  b  obtained  by  extracting  dried  grapes 
with  the  must  of  ordinary  grapes.  According  to  the  amount  of 
dried  grapes  (^bebs)  employed,  the  wine  b  termed  1  to  5  "  buttig." 
The  Ausbruch  wines  take  from  three  to  four  years  to  ripen,  and  they 
may  contain  from  r2%  to  i$%  of  alcohol  and  a  httle  or  a  fair 
quantity  of  sugar,  these  factora  vanring  according  to  the  vintage 
and  the  numbo*  of  "  butts  "  of  tibeSs  employed.  Another  variety 
of  Tokay  is  the  so-called  mdslds.  The  term  b  applied  to  different 
varieties  of  wines  according  to  the  district,  but  in  tne  Neighbourhood 
of  Tokay  it  generally  refers  to  wines  obtained  by  treating  szamorod 
or  Ansbntdx  residues  with  dry  wine.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  M6nes 
sweet  red  ^nes  produced  by  the  Ausbruch  system  are  also  termed 
mdslds.  Hungary  produces  a  variety  of  other  wines  both  strong, 
such  as  those  of  central  Hungary,  ana  relatively  light,  such  as  those 
of  Croatb  and  Transylvania.  The  wines  oroduced  at  Carlowitz  (on 
the  Danube),  some  40  m.  north-west  of  Belgrade,  are  somewhat 
stronger.  They  have  a  flavour  somewhat  resembling  port,  but  are 
coarser,  and  lack  the  fine  bouquet  of  the  latter.  The  other  chief 
vinen^rowing  countries  of  the  empire  are  Dalmatia,  Lower  Austria 
and  Smia.  Some  of  the  Dalmatian  wines  are  of  fair  quality,  and 
somewnat  resemble  Burgundy. 

Wines  of  thb  Unitbd  States 
The  cultivation  of  the  vine  has  made  very  rapid  strides  in  the 
United  States  during  the  past  half -century.  Whereas  in  1850  tbe 
production  amounted  to  little  more  than  a  million  gallons,  the  output 
to-day  b,  in  good  years,  not  far  short  of  50  miluon  gallons.  The 
result  has  been  that  the  domestic  wines  have  now  very  lai;gcly 
displaced  the  foreign  product  for  ordiimy  beverage  purposes.  At 
the  fame  time,  tiiere  b  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  fuicr  Euro{>ean 
wines  will  be  entirely  displaced,  inasmuch  as  these  are  characterized 
by  qualities  of  delicacy  and  breed  which  cannot  be  reproduced  at 
will.  At  the  same  time,  there  b  no  doubt  that  much  of  the  wine 
flvoduced  in  the  United  States  is  of  very  fair  quality,  and  thb  b 
unely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Americans  have  been  at  great  pains 
to  Introduce  the  latest  scientific  methods  in  regard  to  the  vine  and 
-^ ^'  -    xbtts  in  parts  of  California,  when  Ugh  temperatures 


are  HaUe  to  picvmfl  dqrinf  the  vintage,  the  aysmm    first  employed 
in  Algeria— of  cooling  the  must  during  fermentation  to  the  proper 
temperature  by  means  of  a  series  of  pipes  in  which  iced  water  circu- 
lates b  now  largely  employed.  The  use  of  pure  culture  yeast  deri\-ed 
from  many  of  the  most  famous  European  vineyards  has  also  dorm 
much  towards  improving  the  quality.    In  CaUfonua  thete  are,  in 
addition  to  the  native  growths,  vines  from  almoat  every  European 
wine-j{rowing  centre,  and  the  produce  of  these  foca  by  such  names  as 
Rieshng,  Hermit^;e,  Sauternes,  ChbndL  Ac.,  in  acoordanoe  wixJh 
the  district  of  origin  of  the  vine.    CaUfonua  is  the  largest  wine- 
growing state,  as  the  Pacific  slope  seems  paitioulariy  suitable  to 
vine-growing.    At  the  present  time  there  are  about  280^000  acres 
under  the  vine  in  Calaforma,  and  the  number  of  vines  b  about  90 
millions.    The  annual  production  b  about  30  million  gallons,  of 
which  rather  more  than  one-half  b  dry  wine.    A  good  deal  of  sweet 
wine  b  also  made,  particularly  in  the  Fresno  district,  where,  however, 
a,  large  proportion  of  the  grapes  b  grown  with  a  view  to  m^fcipg 
raiuns.    Fiulowing  CaUfonua,  New  York  and  Ohio  are  the  most 
important  wine-producing  states.    The  centre  of  the  wine  trade  of 
Ohio  b  at  Sandusky  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie.    Here,  as  well  as  at 
Cleveland^ "  champagnes "  and  "  dareU "  and"  sparkUng Catawba  " 
are  the  chief  wines  produced.   The  latter  was  first  made  by  Nicolaa 
Longworth  of  CincinnatL     The  Catawba  b  the  chief  growth  of  the 
Lake  Erie  dbtrict;  the  other  important  vines  being  the  Delaware 
and  Concord.    New  York  state,  in  which  wine  has  been  grown  from' 
a  very  early  period,  produces  roughly  threo<iuartere  of  all  the 
domestic  **  charopanBes."    There  are  about  7S>ooo  acres  under  the 
vine  in  thb  state,  and  roughly  ^  million  gallons  are  produced  annually. 
The  wines  grown  on  the  Paafic  slope  are  generally  of  a  mDd  and 
sweet  character,  resembling  in  general  nature  the  wines  of  soathera 
Euro^  (Italy,  Spain,  Portu^l).    In  the  eastern  and  middle  states 
the  wines  produced  are  of  a  lighter  t^e  and  of  drier  flavour,  and  aie 
somewhat  similar  to  the  growths  of  Germany  and  France.    At  ttr 
present  time  America  exports  a  considerable  ouantity  of  wine,  aai 
there  b  some  trade  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  Califomian  **  daret.' 

Wines  op  the  British  EiinRB 
The  production  of  the  Britbh  empire  is  very  small,  amounting  to 
roughly  10  million  ffallons,  and  this  is  produced  almost  entirely  in 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  the  Australian  Commonwealth.  At 
present  the  average  vintag^  of  the  Cape  and  of  Australia  is  in  each 
case  roughly  5  to  6  million  gallons.  In  1905  New  South  Wales  pro- 
duced 831,000,  Victoria  1,726,000,  and  South  Australia  2,8k6,ooo 
gallons  respectively.  The  trade  of  Australb  with  the  United 
Kingdom  b  now  considerable,  having  increased  from  168,188  gallons 
in  1887  to  622,836  gaUons  in  IQ06.  It  is  possible  that  tbe  trade 
would  grow  much  more  rapidly  than  it  has  done  if  it  were  practicable 
to  ship  the  lighter  varieties  of  wines.  These,  which  would  oe  suitable 
for  orainary  Deverage  purposes,  cannot  as  a  rule  stand  the  passage 
through  the  Red  S^,  and  it  is  therefore  only  possible  to  ship  the 
heavier  or  fortified  wines.  It  b  doubtful,  therefore,  whether  the 
products  of  the  British  Empire  will  ever  displace  European  wines 
in  the  United  Kingdom  on  a  really  large  scale,  for  they  cannot 
compete  at  present  as  regards  quality  with  the  finer  wines  of  Eurrae, 
nor,  for  the  reason  stated,  with  the  lighter  beverage  wines.  The 
quality  of  the  wine  produced  in  the  Cape  and  in  Australia  has  im- 
proved very  much  ot  recent  years,  chiefly  owing  to  the  introduction 
of  scientific  methods  of  wine  cultivation  and  of  wine-makinr  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  has  been  the  case  in  California.  The 
red  wines  of  Australb,  particularly  those  of  South  Australia,  some- 
what resemble  French  wines,  bong  intermedbte  between  claret  and 
burgundy  as  regards  their  principal  characteristics^  *There  are 
several  types  of  white  wines,  some  resembSng  French  Sauternes 
and  Chablis  and  othen  the  wines  of  the  Rhine.  It  has  been  recog- 
nized, however,  that  it  is  impossible  to  actually  rMModuce  the 
character  of  the  European  wines,  and  it  b  now  generally  held  to  be 
desirable  to  recognize  the  fact  that  AustraUan  and  Cape  wines  repre- 
sent distinct  types,  and  to  sell  them  as  such  without  any  reference 
to  the  European  parent  types  from  which  they  have  been  derived. 

Otbbr  Countries 
Considerable  quantities  of  wine  arc  produced  in  the  Balkan  states* 
but  the  bulk  of  thb  is  of  a  coarse  description  and  only  fit  for  local 
consumption.  The  average  yield  of  Bulgaria  and  Rumania  b  prob- 
ably some  30  to  40  million  gaUons  for  each  country,  but  in  some  yeara 
it  is  much  larger.  Thus  in  1896  Rumania  produced  no  le»  than  101 
million  gallons  and  Bul^ria  81  million  gallons.  The  wine  industry 
in  Greece,  which  in  ancient  times  and  auring  th^  middle  ages  was 
of  preat  imfwrtance,  has  now  become,  at  any  rate  in  point  of  quality, 
<iuite  insignificant.  At  the  present  time  a  great  part  of  the  industiy 
is  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  currant  vine  (Vi/u  corimtkioca}. 
There  is  a  considerable  export  of  currants  and  raisins  and  con« 
centrated  wine  must  from  this  country.  Many  of  the  blands  of 
the  Mediterranean,  from  which  the  ancients  drew  their  supplies  of 
wine,  such  as  Chios,  Cos,  Tenedos,  Crete  and  Cyprus,  still  product 
considerable  quantities  of  wine,  bit  the  bulk  of  thb'  b  scarcely  to 
the  modem  European  taste.  In  Asia  wine  b  produced,  according  to 
Thudichum,  principally  in  Caucasia  and  Armenia.  In  Penia,  aiso^ 
wines  are  made,  cs|>ccially  in  the  Shiraz  dbtrict.  Russia  also  pro- 
duces a  small  quantity  of  wine,  principally  in  the  Crimoa.    CP.&} 


i 


WINEBRENNER— WINGATE 


729 


WlHBBRElftlBR.  JOHN  (r  707-1 860),  American  dcTgyrnao, 
founder  of  the  '*  Church  of  God."  was  bora  in  Glade  Valley, 
Frederick  county.  Maryland,  on  the  25th  of  March  1707  He 
studied  at  Dickinson  CoUege,  Carlisle,  Pennsylvania,  was  ordained 
in  the  German  Reformed  Church  m  1820  and  became  a  pastor 
at  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania,  where  his  revival  preaching  and  his 
Revnal  Hynm-Book  (1S25)  brought  about  a  break  between  his 
followers  and  the  Reformed  Church  In  1830  he  founded  the 
Church  of  God  (whose  members  are  commonly  called  Wine- 
brennertans) .  he  was  speaker  of  its  conference  and  edited  its 
organ.  The  Church  AdvocaU,  until  his  death  in  Harrisburg  on 
the  1 2th  of  September  i860  He  wrote  Bnef  Vtews  of  iha 
Church  oj  God  (1840).  A  Treatise  on  Rcgritera^toH  (iS44)t 
Doctrinal  and  Pradual  Sermons  (i860),  and  with  I  B  Rupp« 
The  History  of  all  the  ReHgtous  Denotmuaiions  m  the  Umted 

States  (1844) 

The  Church  of  God  has  three  sacraments  baptism  (by  immersion), 
feet  washing  and  the  Lord's  Supper  (administered  to  Chnstiaqs 
onl)r.  in  a  sitting  posture,  and  in  the  rvemng) .  it  ts  generally  Ar 
minian  and  pre-miUenarian,  and  in  government  has  local  elders  and 
deacons,  an  annual  eldership  composed  of  pastors  and  lay  elders,  and. 
chosen  by  (and  from)  the  annual  elderships,  a  general  eldership 
which  meets  since  1905  once  in  four  years  The  denomination  m 
1906  numbered  518  organisations  and  24.356  communicants,  m  the 
following  states  Pennsylvania  (11,157),  Ohio  (2980),  Indiana 
(1999)1  "l*"o>*  (i55S)<  Maryland  (1904).  Missouri  (10^),  Iowa  West 
Virginia,  Arkansas.  Kansas.  Oklahoma.  Nebraska.  Michisan.  Wash* 
ington,  Oregon  and  Minnesota  Under  the  general  eldership  are 
Fmdlay  College.  Findlay.  Ohio,  Fort  Scott  CoUe^ate  Institute,  Fort 
Scott,  Kansas;  and  an  academv  at  BarlceyviUe,  Pennsylvania. 
Some  (oreign  missionary  work  is  done  m  Bengal. 

WIMBIU  OBORO  BENBDIKT  (1789-1858),  German  Pro- 
testant theologian,  was  bom  at  Leipaag  on  the  13th  of  April 
1789.  He  studied  theology  at  Leipzig,  where  eventually  (1832) 
he  became  professor  ordinarius.  From  1824  to  1830  he  edited 
with  J.  G.  V.  Engelhardt  the  Neues  hnHsches  Journal  der  theo- 
hgischen  LUeratur^  and  alone  from  i8a6  to  1832  the  Zettschnft 
far  wissetuchafUiche  Theologie  He  is  weD  known  as  the  author 
of  a  GrammuOih  des  neutestammUliehen  Spachdioms  (1821, 
8th  ed  revised  by  P  W  Schmiedel,  1894  ff ),  of  which  several 
translations  have  appeared,  the  latest  being  by  W  F  Moulton 
(1870,  3rd  ed  1882)     He  died  on  the  i2tli  of  May  tSsS. 

His  other  works  include  Komparatwe  DarstMunt  des  Lekrbetnffes 
der  verschiedenen  ctvtsUtehen  tCtrchenparteien  (1824.  ath  ea  by 
F  Ewald,  1682.  Eng  trans.  1873).  Btbltsches  Realvfdrterbuch  (1820. 
3rd  ed  1 847-1 848. 2  vols.).  Grammalik  des  bibltschen  und  targunttschen 
Ckaidatsmus  (1824.  3rd  ed  by  B  Fischer,  ChaldStsche  Grammatik 
fUr  Btbel  und  Talmud.  1882.  Eng  trans.  1845)  and  a  useful  Hand- 
buch  der  theolotisehen  Lueratur  (1820  3rd  ed  1838-1840,  a  vols., 
supplement,  1842)  Cf  W  Schmidt,  "  Zum  Ged&chtnis  Dr  G.  B. 
Winers,"  in  the  Bcttrdge  tur  sdchsischen  Ktrchengeschtchte, 

WINE-TABLE,  a  late  18th-century  device  for  fadUtating 
after-dinner  drinking — the  cabinetmakers  called  it  a  "  Gentl^ 
man's  Social  Table  "  It  was  always  narrow  and  of  semicircular 
or  horseshoe  form,  and  the  guests  sat  rotmd  the  outer  circum- 
ference. In  the  earlier  and  simpler  shapes  metal  wells  for  bottles 
and  ice  were  sunk  in  the  surface  of  the  table,  they  were  fitted 
with  brass  lids.  In  later  and  more  elaborate  examples  the  tables 
were  fitted  with  a  revolving  wtne-carriage,  bottle-holder  or  tray 
working  upon  a  balanced  arm  which  enabled  the  bottles  to  be 
passed  to  tay  guest  without  shaking  The  side  oppo^te  the 
guests  was  often  fitted  with  a  network  bag  It  has  been  con- 
jectured that  this  bag  was  intended  to  hold  biscuits^  but  it  is 
much  more  likely  that  its  function  was  to  prevent  ghuses  and 
bottles  which  might  be  upset  from  falling  to  the  floor  That 
the  winc-table  might  be  drawn  up  to  the  fire  in  cold  weather 
without  inconvenience  from  the  heat  it  was  fitted  with  curtains 
hong  upon  a  brass  frame  and  ninning  upon  tings-  Sometimes 
the  table  was  accompanied  by  a  circular  bottle-stand  supported 
OB  a  tripod  into  which  the  bottles  were  deeply  sunk  to  preserve 
them  from  the  heat  of  the  fire.  Yet  another  form  was  drcuUir 
with  a  socket  in  the  centre  for  the  bottle  Wine-tables  followed 
the  fashion  of  other  tables  and  were  often  inlaid  with  wood  or 
brass.   They  are  now  exceedingly  scarce 

WIHFIELD*  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Cowley  county, 
KaofM,  U.S.A.,  lo  the  S-  part  of  the  ft«te,  on  the  Walnut  river, 


about  40  m.  S.S.E.  of  Wichita.  Pop.  (1890)  5184;  (1900) 
5S54i  of  whom  203  were  foreign  bom  and  282  were  negroes; 
(1905)  7845,  (1910)  6700  It  Is  served  by  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
&  Santa  F£,  the  Missouri  Padfic,  and  the  St  Louis  &  San  Francisco 
railways,  and  is  connected  by  electric  line  with  Arkansas  City, 
Arkansas.  In  the  dty  arc  St  John's  Lutheran  College  (1893), 
the  South-west  Kansas  College  (Methodist  Episcopal,  opened  in 
1886),  St  Mary's  Hospital  and  Training  School  (1898),  Winfidd 
Hospital  (1900),  a  Lutheran  orphans*  home  and  a  State  School 
for  Feeble-mmded  Youth  Island  Park  (so  acres)  is  the  meeting- 
place  of  a  summer  Chautauqua.  Winfidd  is  a  supply  and  dis* 
tnbuting  point  for  a  rich  fanning  country,  in  which  large 
quantities  of  wheat  and  alfalfa  are  raised.  Limestone  is  quarried 
near  the  dty,  and  natural  gas  is  found  in  the  vidnity  and  piped 
m  from  eastern  fields  for  general  use  in  the  dty  The  munid- 
pahty  owns  and  operates  tbe  waterworks  and  the  electric-lighting 
plant    Winfidd  was  settled  in  1870  and  incorporated  in  1871. 

WINeATK.  SIR  PRANCIB  RBBIHAIP  (1861-  ),  British 
general  and  administrator  in  the  Sudan,  was  bom  at  Broadfield, 
Renfrewshire,  on  the  asth  of  June  i86x,  being  the  seventh  son 
of  Andrew  Wingate  of  Glasgow  and  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
Richard  Turner  of  Dublin  He  was  educated  at  the  Royal 
Military  Academy,  Woolwidi,  and  became  a  lieutenant  in  the 
Royal  Artillery  in  t88o.  He  served  in  India  and  Aden,  1881- 
1883,  and  in  the  last-named  year  joined  the  Egyptian  army  on 
its  reorganisation  by  Sir  Evdyn  Wood,  and  m  the  Gordon  Relief 
Expedition  of  1884-1885  was  A.D  C  and  military  secretary  to 
Sir  Evelyit  Fw  his  services  he  recdved  the  brevet  rank  of 
major*  After  holding  an  appointment  in  England  for  a  brief 
period  he  rejoined  the  Egyptian  army  in  1886.  He  took  part 
u  the  operations  on  the  Sudan  frontier  in  1889,  induding  the 
engagement  at  Tosld  and  m  the  further  operations  in  1891, 
being  present  at  the  capture  of  Tokar  In  1894  he  was  governor 
of  Suakin.  His  prindpal  work  was  in  the  Inteiligenoe  branch 
of  the  service,  of  which  he  became  dfarector  in  189a  A  master 
of  Arabic,  his  knowledge  of  the  country,  the  examination  of 
prisoners,  refugees  and  others  from  the  Sudan,  and  the  study  of 
documents  captured  from  the  Dervishes  enabled  him  to  publisb 
m  1891  Mahdiism  and  the  Egyptian  Sudan,  an  authoritative 
account  of  the  rise  of  the  Mahdi  and  of  subsequent  events  in 
the  Sudan  up  to  that  date.  Largdy  through  his  instrumentality 
Father  Ohrwalder  and  two  nuns  escaped  front  Omdunnan  in 
1891  Wmgate  also  made  the  arrangements  which  led  to  the 
escape  of  Slatin  Pasha  In  1895.  The  English  versions  of  Father 
Ohrwalder's  narrative  {Ten  Yean  in  the  MahdVs  Camp,  1892) 
and  of  Slatin's  book  {Firt  and  Svord  in  the  Sudan,  1896)  were 
from  Wingate's  pen,  being  rewritten  from  a  rough  translation 
of  the  ori^bal  German.  • 

As  director  of  niilitaxy  inteUigence  be  served  In  the  campaigns 
of  1896-1898  which  resulted  in  the  reconqoest  of  the  Sudan, 
imrluding  the  engagement  at  Firket,  the  battles  of  the  Atbara 
and  Omdunnan  and  the  expedition  to  Fashoda.  In  an  interval 
(March-June  1897)  he  went  to  Abyssinia  as  second  in  command 
of  the  Rennell  Rodd  mission.  For  his  services  he  was  made 
colonel,  an  extra  A.D.C  to  Queen  Victoria,  received  the  thanks 
of  parliament  and  was  created  K.C  M.G.  Wingate  was  in  com* 
maind  of  an  expcditionaiy  force  which  in  November  1899  defeated 
the  remnant  of  the  Dervish  host  at  Om  Debzcikat,  Kotdofan, 
the  khalifa  being  among  the  slain.  For  this  achievement  he 
was  made  K.C.B  In  December  of  the  same  year,  on  Lord 
Kitchener  being  summoned  to  South  Africa,  Sir  Reginald 
Wingate  succeeded  him  as  governor-general  of  the  Sudan  and 
sirdar  of  the  Egyptian  army  His  administration  of  the 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  was  conspicuously  successful,  the  country, 
after  the  desolation  of  the  Mahdia,  rapidly  regaining  a  measure 
of  prosperity  In  1903  he  was  raiseid  to  the  rank  of  major-general 
and  in  t9o8  became  lieutenant-general.  He  was  also  created  a 
pasha  and  in  1905  received  the  honorary  degree  of  D  C.L.  from 
Oxford  University  In  1909,  at  the  request  of  the  British 
government,  Wingate  undertook  a  special  mission  to  Somaliland 
to  report  on  the  military  situation  in  connexion  with  the  proposed 
evacuation  of  the  interior  of  the  protectorate 


73* 


WINNIPEG— WINONA 


freebndsinandirBCtioMby  C«iMidi>mf)t,t1«»»«n  tCBdcdtobluM 
up  the  hamkt  of  Winnipeg  into  a  oonsidemble  town. 

The  following  figures  of  population  show  the  xemarkable 
increase   of   Winnipeg:    (1870)    2x5,    (1874)'    1869;    (1885) 

l9iS74i  (1898)  39i384i  (X90O  4a»34o;  (1905)  79i97S»  (x9o6) 
90,153;  (1907)  100,000  (estimated).  The  rapid  growth  oi  the 
dty,  the  cfiaracter  of  the  soil,  and  the  high  prices  of  material  for 
street  construction  have  led  to  a  large  and  expensive  civic 
organization.  The  dty  is  govened  by  a  mayor,  four  controllers, 
and  tw^ve  aldermen.  The  dty  possesses  the  public  utility 
of  water,  but  the  dty  street  csr  system,  gas,  and  private  electric 
lighting  are  in  the  hands  of  a  private  company  The  dty 
has  dedded  to  introduce  electric  power  from  Winnipeg  river, 
at  a  point  some  50  m.  distant,  llie  streets  are  in  some  cases 
macadamized  and  in  other  cases  bled:  paved,  and  in  still  others 
asphalted.  The  Parks  Board  is  a  board  appointed  by  the  dty 
council,  and  has  the  complete  administration  of  a  fixed  percentage 
of  the  dty  taxes.  The  streets  are  boukvarded,  trees  planted  on 
them,  and  both  of  these  kept  by  the  Parks  Board.  A  number  of 
wdl-kept  small  parks  are  found  throughout  the  dty,  and  a  large 
park — the  Assiniboine— is  being  prepared  and  beautified.  The 
pvatest  business  street  is  Main  Street,  on  which  (north)  the 
Great  Canadian  Pacific  railway  station  and  Royal  Alexandra 
Hotel  are  situated,  and  (south)  the  Union  station  of  the  Canadian 
Northenk  and  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  railways  are  found.  On  or 
near  this  street  (133  ft.  wide)  are  placed  the  great  finandal 
institutions  of  the  dty,  induding  dghteen  chartered  banks, 
mahy  of  which  are  ornaments  to  the  dty,  and  many  loan, 
insurance,  and  real  estate  buildings  and  offices.  The  depart- 
mental stores  and  offices  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  and  its 
Fort  Gany  court,  which  stand  on  Main  Street  South,  are  worthy 
of  that  andent  company.  The  dty  hall,  with  park  and  volunteers' 
monument,  are  on  the  same  street,  whUe  the  lofty  Union  Bank, 
Mclntyre,  and  Bon  Accord  blocks  are  here  wildernesses  of  offices 
of  every  description,  "tht  second  great  street,  Portage  Avenue, 
of  the  same  width  as  Main  Street,  runs  at  right  angles  to  Main 
Street,  and  is  the  mercantile  street  of  the  dty  On  this  are  the 
post  office,  Free  Press  office,  Y.M.C.A.  building,  Aildns  Block, 
T.  Eaton  &  Co.'s  enormous  departmental  shop,  and  the  Ideal 
Building,  which  are  worthy  of  note.  The  wholesale  business 
street  of  the  dty  is  Princess,  running  paralld  to  Main  Street, 
and  the  two  most  beautiful  residential  streets  are  Broadway  and 
Asriniboine  Avenues.  All  parts  of  the  dty  are  reached  by  the 
Winnipeg  electric  street  raQway,  which  nms  north  for  25  m. 
on  the  continuation  of  Main  Street  to  the  town  of  Selkirk,  west 
along  Portage  Avenue  for  12  m.  to  St  James,  SilvW  Hdghts, 
St  Charles  and  Headingly,  and  south  through  Fort  Rouge  to 
River  Park.  At  the  north  of  the  dty  are  St  John's  episcopal 
buildings,  including  St  John's  CoUege  and  boys'  school.  In  the 
central  part  of  the  dty  are  the  pariiament  building,  governor's 
residence,  barracks,  law  courts,  university,  Mamtoba  College 
and  Wesley  College  buildings.  More  than  dghty  churches, 
many  of  them  of  architectural  value,  are  foimd  scattered  over 
the  dty,  while  the  General  Hospital,  Women's  Home,  Children's 
Home,  Children's  Aid  Shelter  and  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institute 
tptdk  of  the  benevolence  of  the  dtizens.  One  of  the  most 
striking  features  of  Winnipeg  is  seen  in  the  daborate  system  of 
public  schools!  The  buildings  are  not  exceeded  for  beauty  of 
design  or  for  completeness  of  finish  by  any  Canadian  dty  and  by 
few  American  dties. 

The  geographical  portion  of  Winnipeg  Is  unique  for  the 
purposes  of  trade.  Like  Chicago  it  stands  on  the  eastern  border 
of  the  prairies.  All  western  trade  in  Canada  of  the  vast  provinces 
of  Mam'toba,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta  and  British  Columbia, 
must  pass  through  the  narrow  bdt  of  100  m.,  lying  between 
the  international  boundary  line  and  I^ke  Winnipeg.  Midway 
in  this  belt  stands  Winnipeg.  The  trade  from  the  wide  extent 
of  three-quarters  of  a  million  of  square  miles  of  prairie  and 
woodland,  becoming  more  populous  every  year,  must  flow  as 
through  a  narrow  spout  at  Winnipeg;  every  railway  must 
pass  through  Winnipeg.  In  consequence  Winnipeg  is  already  a 
*  Incorporated  in  this  year  as  a  dty. 


oonaidcffsble  manufacturing  oentie.  Its  bmber  and  flour  mBb 
are  its  largest  industries,  but  the  following  are  found:  aerated 
waters  and  breweries,  tent  makers,  bakmg-powder  manufactories, 
box  manufacturers,  brick  makers,  broom,  brushes  and  carriage 
makers,  cement  blocks,  manufacturing  chemists,  chocolate  and 
dgar  manufacturers,  confectionery,  copper  plate,  cornice  makers, 
engine  builders,  gas  fitters,  ink  manufacturers,  jewelry  makers, 
lime  makers,  milliners,  opticians,  paint  makers,  paper-box 
makeiB,  photogn4>beiB,  pickle  makers,  planing  mills,  porifc 
packers,  pubUshcss,  pump  makers,  rubber-stamp  maken, 
sash,  door  and  blind  factories,  upholsterers,  ventilating  manu- 
factory, vinegar  factories,  foimdries,  wire  and  fence  manu- 
factories.  The  area  of  the  dty  is  1 2,700  acres. 

WIMMIPBO,  a  lake  and  river  of  Canada.  The  lake  is  in 
Saskatchewan,  Manitoba  and  Keewatin,  and  is  situated  between 
50*  20'  and  53®  50'  N.  and  96°  20'  and  99*  15'  W.  It  covers  an 
area  of  8555  sq.  m.,  is  at  an  altitude  of  7x0  ft.  above  the  sea,  is  260 
m.  long,  25  to  60  m.  wide,  and  contains  several  large  islands, 
induding  Reindeer  (70  sq.  m.)  and  Big  Island  (60  sq.  in.).  It  is 
shallow,  being  nowhere  more  than  70  ft.  in  depth,  and  in  con- 
sequence, extremely  stormy  and  dangerous.  It  abounds  in  fish» 
its  white  fish  being  espedally  celebrated.  Its  shores  are  low 
and  on  the  south  extremely  marshy.  The  principal  affluent 
rivers  are:  Red  river,  from  the  south;  Winnipeg,  Bloodvdn, 
Berens  and  Poplar  from  the  east,  and  the  Dauj^in  and  Sas- 
katchewan from  the  west.  It  recdves  the  surplus  waters  of  lakes 
Manitoba  and  Winnipegosis,  and  discharges  by  the  river  Nelson 
into  Hudson  Bay.  The  river  Wirmipeg  rises  near  Savanne  staUon 
in  48^  47'  N.  and  89**  57'  W ,  and  flows  in  a  westerly  direction 
under  the  names  of  Savanne,  Sdne,  and  Rainy  rivers  to  the 
Lake  of  the  Woods;  issuing  thence  as  the  Winnipeg,  it  flows 
N.W.  with  an  exceedin^y  tortuous  and  turbulent  course  to  the 
lake  of  the  same  name.  It  is  navigable  from  the  foot  of  the  Lake 
of  the  Woods  to  the  head  of  Rainy  lake — with  a  short  portage  at 
Fort  Frances  falls~a  distance  of  208  m.  Its  prindpal  tributary 
is  English  river. 

WINNIPEGOSIS,  a  lake  of  Manitoba  and  Saskaidiewan, 
Canada,  between  51®  34'  and  53*  11'  N.  and  99®  37'  and  loi"  06' 
W  Its  greatest  length  is  122  m.,  greatest  width  17  m.;  shore- 
line 570  m.,  and  area,  exclusive  of  islands,  2000  sq,  m.  Its 
greatest  ascertained  depth  is  38  ft.,  and  mean  altitude  828  iU 
above  the  sea.  Mossy  river  from  the  south,  draining  Lake 
Dauphin,  Swan,  and  Red  Deer  rivers  are  the  only  considerable 
streams  that  fall  into  it.  It  drains  by  the  Waterhen  river  through 
Waterhen  lake  into  Lake  Manitoba,  and  thence  by  the  Little 
Saskatchewan  into  Lake  Wiruilpeg.  It  was  discovetod  by  the 
chevalier  de  la  Vererfdrve  in  1739. 

WINONA,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Winona  county, 
Minnesota,  U.S.A.,  about  95  m.  S.E.  of  St  Paul,  on  the  W.  h&nk 
of  the  Mississippi  river,  here  crossed  by  three  sted  bridges. 
Pop.  (z88o)  xo,2o8;  (1890)  18,208;  (1900)  19,714,  of  whom 
5000  were  foreign-bom  and  30  negroes,  (r9io  census)  18,583. 
There  are  large  Gendan  and  Polish  dements  in  the  population; 
and  German  and  Polish  journals,  besides  two  dailies  in  EngUsh, 
are  published  here.  Winona  is  served  by  the  Chicago ,  Burh'ngton 
&  Quincy,  the  Chicago  Great  Western,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
&  St  Paul,  the  Green  Bay  &  Western,  and  the  Chicago  &  North- 
Western  railways,  and  by  river  steamboat  lines.  It  is  pictur- 
esqudy  situated  on  a  broad,  levd  terrace,  slightly  elevated  above 
the  river,  and  surmounted  by  steep  bluffs  rising  to  400-500  ft. 
At  Winona  axe  the  Winona  General  Hospital  (1894),  to  which  is 
attached  a  Nurses'  Training  School;  the  first  State  Normal 
School  (opened  in  i860),  and  Winona  Seminary  (1894)  for  girls, 
conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Saint  Frands.  The  dty  has  a  public 
library  (about  30,000  vols.),  vdth  a  mural  decoration  by  Kenyon 
.Cox;  a  Federal  buUding;  a  Masonic  Temple,  and  several 
parks,  and  it  owns  its  own  water  supply  (operated  by  the  Hotly 
system).  In  r905  the  total  value  of  the  factory  product  was 
$7,850,236  (305%  more  than  in  1900).  The  site  of  the  dty  was 
frequently  used  as  a  landing  place  in  the  old  fur-trading  days, 
but  was  not  permanently  settled  until  about  r8s3.  Winona  was 
first  chartered  as  a  dty  in  1857.    A  large  part  of  it  was  destroyed 


WINSPORD— WINSTED 


733 


br  fire  in  iKo.    Tie  nune  Wiacu  i>  did  ta  be  ■  Sioiu  irord 

WIMSroRD.  in  urban  diMrict  [d  tbe  NDithwich  padiaoienUiry 
diviuan  of  Cheshire,  England,  on  the  rivci  Weaver,  e  m,  S.  of 
Nailhvich,  on  the  London  li  North-Wcsleca  lailwiy  and  the 
Cheshire  Lines.  Fop.  (iqoi)  lojSi.  In  the  (own,  which  ii  only 
Kcocd  to  Noithirich  in  ih^  Rspccl.  large  qiunlilies  of  salt  an 
raised  and  conveyed  to  Liverpool  for  ejiportation;  bdng  shipped 
in  flats  down  the  Weaver,  whicli  has  been  rendered  navigable 
by  an  elaborate  fiytlem  of  lodts.  Rock-salt  is  procured,  as 
Irell  It  that  oblaincd  from  Ihe  brine-pools.     Boat-building  is 


million  ions  ol  sail  a 

panying  i 
-eahippedB 

moury,  ana  mor 
nnually.    Owing 

othepuir 

pmg 

of  Ihe  brin 

e.  lam 

tracts  of  land  have  been  su 

ibereislbusaeonBta 

nldsneer 

0  bouses- The  iro 

bridge  a 

the  Weaver 

^hiefawaa  bidit  in 

i8S6,h»d  tobei3l«Kllhn 

Ihe  IsUovir 

g  twcniyiii  yean. 

'Dk  townh^ 

■etdved  much 

beneSt   In 

.n   phiU 

Ihroplst., 

ar  J«efb  Verdi 

technical  sdwol,  and  Sir  Jcriui 

Bnioner  a  guildhall  and 

Iher 

VIMSLOW,  EDWUD  (isgs-ifis;),  one  of  tbe  founders  of 
the  Plymouth  colony  iu  America,  was  bom  hi  Droiiwich, 
Worcewnshire,  England,  on  the  iSth  of  October  150s.  In 
tfir?  he  removed  to  Leiden,  united  with  John  Robinson's  church 
there,  and  in  i6jo  was  one  of  the  "  pilgrims  "  who  emigrated  to 
New  England  on  (he  "  MaySower  "  and  founded  the  Plymouth 
colony.  His  wife,  Elizabeth  (Barker)  Winslow,  whom  he  bad 
nirried  in  May  i6i3  at  Leiden,  having  died  toon  alter  their 
arrival,  he  married,  in  May  t63i,  Mrs  Susannah  White,  the  mother 
of  Peregrine  White  (1610-1704),  the  first  white  chihi  bom  in 
New  England.  This  was  the  first  marriage  in  the  New  En^and 
calonies.  Winslow  was  delegated  by  his  associates  to  treat  with 
the  Indians  in  the  vicinity  and  succeeded  in  irinning  the  friend- 
ship of  their  chief,  Massasoil  (c.  isSo-iMi}.  He  was  one  of 
cicept  in  1633-1634,  1636- 


1637  a 


-i6aS.  ' 


Colonies  of  New  England.  On  several  occask 
England  to  look  after  tbe  interests  of  Plym 
chusetts  Bay.  and  defend  these  colonies  from  I 
men  as  John  Lyford,  Thomas  Morton  (ij.t.)  ai 
(T,t.).  He  led  on  his  last  mis«on  as  the  agent 
Bay,  in  October  i6t6,  and  «peni  nine  yean  i 
"    ■   ■"     minor  office  under  Cre 


of  the 


e  Unit 


n  of  Ihe  f 


1654*: 


Kthei 


idets 


'nyed  by  Denr 
chief  gl  the  thieeEnglish  commissioni 
on  hii  expedition  against  tbe  West  India 

portrait,  the  only  authentic  iikencn  ol  any  of  the  "  Mayflower ' 
"  pilgrims,"  is  in  the  gaOny  of  the  Pilgrim  Society  at  Plymoull: 
Man. 


Ground)  or 
E«tlin<f-  Si 

he  alu  is  (u 

Ike  P^ima  iBoaaa.  1841). 

Serf.  D.  Moore's  M(»w>>i  of  Xwnims  Carrmtts  (Ne 

1877)  BiH  ].  G,  Fllfrey'l  Hiiloiy  0/  Nra  Entlatit  (3 
iSs»-iB64).  Abo  >«  a  paper  by  W.  C.  Windm 
Edwam  Wintow,  hit  PUoe  and  Fan  in  Plynoulb  C 
^■nnoJ  Sipcrt  al  lb  AmtritaK  BilUritat  Auetia 
(WMUB«taa,  IW). 


Bon,  JosiAB  WiNSiov  (iti9-i63a},  tru  educaled  at 
i  College.  He  was  elecled  a  deputy  to  tbe  Geceial 
Ji  1653,  was  an  "assistant"  Irom  i6sT  to  1673,  and 
'    m  June  167J  untU  his  death.    From  i6s8  tc     ' 


of. the  ' 


e  Unit 


1  Celoni 


o( 


I,  and  in  [675,  dutiog  King  Philip' 
immander-in-cbief  of  tbe  united  forces  of  New  England, 
WIHSOR,  JUSnH  (iS3i-iSg7},  AmeTican  wiitetand  bbratian, 
as  bom  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  on  the  and  of  January  1831. 
t  the  age  of  nineteen  he  printed  a  Hislory  0/  Duibury,  Mass., 
He  left  Harvard  before  gtsduation 
:lberg,  but  not  until  he  had  planned 
'wrick  and  his  CotOemporaria,  the 

it  Univeisity.    In  i«66  Winsor  waa 
Boston  public  libraiy,  and  in  1S6B 
ill  superintendent.    In  1E77  be  became  librarian  oI  Harvard 

popularized  the  uk  of  both  these  great  collections  of  books. 

'     "  library  he  edited  a  most  useful 

biography  ai  ' 


study  in  Paris  and  He 
eitended  memoir  of 
inutcript  o(  which,  in  1 
in  the  library  of  Her 


While  a 

piled  the  fiisl  of  i 
fiction.  In  1876  he  Degan  a  senea 
The  first  was  a  BibHognipky  t)  Ik 
0/  Skoknpeare  vilk  Perliailar  Si 
UnTottiinately.  all  eiccpt  about  a 
were  destroyed  by  fire.    A  small 

reasonable  bibliography.    In  i89c 


lof  wi 


y  cf  Boh 


hundred  copies  of  thii  work 
volume  entitled  Tlic  Rtada't 
I'm  (1879)  is  the  model  of  a 


Ito).  wi 


.  and 


Euppkmentcd  them  with  notes  as  to  give  an  air  of  unity  to  tbe 
whole  work,  and  completed  it  in  twenty-thice  months.  He  then 
set  to  work  on  a  still  larger  co-operative  book,  Tkc  NarrBliTt  ami 
Criticcl  Hillary  of  A  mcrka,  which  vamompklKiU^tg)  in  eight 
royal  octavo  volumes.  These  great  tasks  had  compelled  Wiiuor 
to  make  a  careful  and  sytlcmatic  study  of  historical  ptoblcmi 
with  the  aid  of  contemporaneous  cartograiAy.  Among  the 
early  results  of  this  study  were  the  BiMiopaphy  0/  Pialtin-/i 
Ctopapky  (18B4),  and  the  Colafopa  0/  ikc  KM  Ciiltiliim  of 
Mafi  rdaliHi  la  Amtriia  (18E6),  published  in  the  Hanari 
Library  BuBilmi.  His  vast  knowledge  took  the  final  form  of 
(our  volumes  entitled  Chrislepher  Cclamtui  (itgt),  Carlirr  la 
Frontnuit  (1S04).  Thi  tfiiiiuippi  Bmin  (1895),  and  Tkt 
IVntward  Umemnil  (1897).  Beades  great  stores  of  infomutton 
bitherlo  accesdbte  only  to  the  speciali: 


Tvcd  ft 


LTcful  XeH 


a  the  ] 


rrenlly  n 


^ly.  iiblia- 


tts  Siapr  of  ikt  Oriiwta- 
EjicfBiM  «((joii  was  prepaiea  at  the  request  of  the  Venezuela 
Boundary  Commission.  He  was  one  ol  the  founders  ol  bolh  the 
American  Libniy   Association   and   Ihe  American  Historical 

yean.   1S7&-1SS;,  and  Ihe  latter  in  18S6-1887.     He  died  in 
Cambridge  on  the  ::nd  al  Ociober  1S97. 

See  Horace  E.  Scudder'i  "  Memoir  of  Justin  Winnr  "  in  the 
Fmtiilf  !f  U"  JWi«HI*i.KKi  Hillaricai  &nr(y  (ind  K  ■    ■ 

biblkigraphy  of  hit  wrilingt  is  in  Harvard  CoHege  I 
pafl<aafCoal,ilmtians.  No.  u. 

WINSTED,  a  bonnigh  in  the  township  of  Winchester,  Lilchlield 
county,  Connecticut,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Mad  and  Still  rivers,  in  the 
N.W.  part  ol  tbe  sute,  about  ifi  m.  N.W.  of  Hartford.  Fop. 
of  the  township  (1890)  fiiSj;  (1000)  7763;  of  the  botough 
(1900)  6804,  of  v*om  i!t3  were  (oreign-bom;  (1910)  7754. 
Theborough  is  served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Harlfoid 
and  the  Central  New  England  railways,  and  by  electric  railway 
to  Torrington.  Among  the  public  institutions  ate  the  Willlani 
L.  Gilbert  Home  for  friendless  children  and  the  Gilbert  free  high 
school,  each  endowed  with  more  than  Seoo,ooo  by  William  L. 
Gilbert,  a  prominent  dtizen;  Ihe  Bcardslcy  public  library 
(1874).  the  Convent  of  Saint  Margaret  of  Corlona,  a  Franciscan 
and  the  Litchfield  County  Hospital    In  a  park  to 


73+ 


WINSTON-SALEM— WINTERFELDT 


the  central  part  of  the  borough  there  is  a  tower  (60  ft.  high)  to 
the  memory  of  the  soldiers  of  Winstcd  who  fell  in  the  Civil  War, 
and  another  park  contains  a  soldiers'  monument  and  a  memorial 
fountain.  VVatci  power  is  derived  from  the  Mad  river  and  High- 
land lake,  which  is  west  of  the  borough  and  is  encircled  by  the 
Wakefield  boulevard,  a  seven-mile  drive,  along  which  there  are 
many  summer  cottages.  The  manufactures  include  cutlery  and 
edge  tools,  docks,  silk  twist,  hosiery,  leather,  &c.  Winsted  was 
settled  in  1756  and  chartered  as  a  borough  in  1858.  The  name 
Winstcd  was  coined  from  Winchester  and  Barkhamsted,  the 
latter  being  the  name  of  the  township  immediately  east  of 
Winchester.    The  township  of  Winchester  was  incorporated  in 

1771. 

WINST0N-5AXEH,  two  contiguous  cities  of  Forsyth  county, 
North  Carolina,  U.S.A.,  about  115  m.  N.W.  of  Ralei^.  Pop.  of 
Winston  (1880)  2854;  (1890)  8018;  (190c)  10,008  (5043  negroes); 
(1910)  17,167.  Pop.  of  Salem  (1890)  271 1;  (1900)  3642  (488  being 
negroes);  (1910)  5533.  Both  cities  are  served  by  the  Southern 
and  the  Norfolk  &  Western  railways.  Since  July  1899,  when  the 
post  office  in  Salem  was  made  a  sub-station  of  that  of  Winston, 
the  cities  (ofHcially  two  independent  municipalities)  have  been 
known  by  postal  and  railway  authorities  as  Winston-Salem. 
W^inston  is  the  county-seat  and  a  manufacturing  centre.  Salem 
is  largely  a  residential  and  educational  city,  with  many  old- 
fashioned  dwellings,  but  there  are  some  important  manufactories 
here  also;  it  is  the  scat  of  the  Salem  Academy  and  College 
(Moravian)  for  women,  opened  as  a  boardinfr-school  in  1802; 
and  of  the  Slater  Normal  and  Industrial  School  (non-sectarian) 
£ot  negroes,  founded  from  the  Slater  Fund  in  189a.  The  surround- 
ing country  produces  tobacco  of  a  very  superior  quality,  and  to 
the  tobacco  industry,  introduced  in  1872,  the  growth  of  Winston 
is  chiefly  due;  the  manufacture  of  flat  plug  tobacco  here  is 
especially  important.  The  total  value  of  Winston's  factory 
products  increased  from  $4,887,649  in  1900  to  $11,353,296  in 
1905,  or  132-3%. 

Salem  was  founded  in  1 766  by  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von  Marschall 
(1721-1802),  a  friend  of  Zinzendorf,  and  the  financial  manager 
of  the  board  controlling  the  Moravian  purchase  made  in  North 
Carolina  in  1 753,  consisting  of  100,000  acres,  and  called  Wachovia. 
The  town  was  to  be  the  centre  of  this  colony,  where  missionary 
work  and  religious  liberty  were  to  be  promoted,  and  it  remained 
the  home  of  the  governing  board  of  the  Moravian  Church  in 
the  South.  In  1849  exclusive  Moravian  control  of  Salem's 
industries  and  trades  was  abolished;  in  1856  land  was  first 
sold  to  others  than  Moravians,  and  in  the  same  year  the  town 
was  incorporated.  Winston  was  founded  in  1851  as  the  county- 
seat  and  was  named  in  honour  of  Major  Joseph  Winston  (1746- 
1815),  a  famous  Indian  fighter,  a  soldier  during  the  War  of 
Independence  and  a  representative  in  Congress  in  1793-1795 
and  1803-1807.  The  growth  of  the  two  cities  has  been  rapid 
since  1900. 

5)ce  J.  H.  Clewell.  History  of  Wachovia  in  North  Qtrolina  (New 
York,  1902). 

WINTER.  JOHN  STRANGE,  the  pen-name  of  Henrietta 
Eliza  Vaughan  Stannard  (1856-  ),  English  novelist,  who  was 
born  on  the  13th  of  January  1856,  the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  H.  V. 
Palmer,  rector  of  St  Margaret's,  York.  She  early  began  to 
write  fiction  for  different  magazines,  producing  sentimental 
stories,  chiefly  of  army  life.  Two  of  these,  Booties*  Baby  and 
Houp'la,  which  appeared  originally  in  The  Graphic  in  1885, 
established  her  reputation,  and  she  became  a  prolific  novelist, 
producing  some  sixty  other  light  and  amusing  books,  the  best 
of  which  deal  with  military  life.  An  indefatigable  journalist 
on  matters  affecting  women,  she  was  the  first  president  of  the 
W^riters'  Club  (1892),  and  presided  from  1901  to  1903  over  the 
Society  of  Women  Journalists.  She  married  in  1884  Arthur 
Sunnard,  a  civil  engineer. 

WINTER,  PETER  (c.  1755-1825),  German  dramatic  composer, 
was  born  at  Mannheim  about  1755.  He  received  some  instruc- 
tion from  the  Abt  Voeler,  but  was  practically  self-taught. 
After  nlaying  in  the  Kapelle  of  the  Elector  Karl  Tbeodor,  at 
M'mich,  be  became  in  1776  director  of  the  court  theatre.    When 


Mozart  produced  his  Idanuneo  at  Munidi  in  1781,  M^ter, 
annoyed  at  his  success,  conceived  a  violent  hatred  for  htm; 
yet  of  more  than  thirty  operas  written  by  Winter  between  I77t 
and  1820  very  few  were  unsuccessful.  His  most  popular  work. 
Das  unterbrochene  Opferfesi,  was  produced  in  1796  at  Vienna, 
where  in  i797'-i798  he  composed  Die  Pyramiden  ^om  Babylon 
and  Das  Labyrinth^  both  written  for  him  by  Schickancdcr  in 
continuation  of  the  story  of  Mozart's  Zanberfiote.  He  rcturnod 
to  Munich  in  1798.  Five  years  later  he  visited  L<»idon,  where 
he  produced  Calypso  in  1803,  Proserpina  in  1804,  and  Zalra  in 
180S,  with  great  success.  His  last  opera,  Sdngcr  und  Schneider^ 
was  produced  in  1820  at  Munich,  where  he  died  on  the  17th  of 
October  1825.  Besides  hb  dramatic  works  he  composed  some 
effective  sacred  music,  including  twenty-six  masses. 

WINTEBFELDT,  HANS  KARL  VON  (i707<-i757),  Prussian 
general,  was  bom  on  the  4th  of  April  1707  at  Vanselow  in 
Pomerania.  His  education  was  imperfect,  and  in  later  life  he 
always  regretted  his  want  of  familiarity  with  the  French  language. 
He  entered  the  cuirassier  regiment  of  his  ttnde,  Major-General 
von  Wimcrfeldt  (now  the  12th)  in  1720,  and  was  promoted 
comet  after  two  years'  service.  But  he  ueato  fortunate  enough, 
by  his  stature  and  soldierly  bearing,  to  attract  the  notice  of 
Frederick  William  I.,  who  transferred  him  to  the  so-called  giant 
regiment  of  grenadiers  as  a  lieutenant.  Before  long  he  became 
a  petsonal  aide«de-camp  to  the  king,  and  in  1733  he  was  sent 
with  a  party  of  selected  non-conunissioned  oflftcers  to  assist  in 
the  organization  of  the  Russian  anny.  While  the  guest  of 
Marshal  MUnnich  at  St  Petersburg,  Winterfeldt  fell  in  loye  with 
and  married  his  cousin  Julie  von  Malteahn,  who  yaa  the  marshara 
stepdaughter  and  a  maid-of-honour  to  the  grand-duchess 
Elizabeth.  On  returning  to  Prussia  he  became  intimate  with 
the  crown  prince,  afterwards  Frederick  the  Great,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  the  .Rhine  campaign  of  1734.  This  intimacy, 
in  view  of  his  personal  relations  with  the  king,  made  Winter- 
feldt's  position  very  delicate  and  diflkult,  for  Frederick  William 
and  his  son  were  so  far  estranged  that,  as  every  one  knows^ 
the  prince  was  sent  before  a  court-martial  by  his  father,  on  the 
charge  of  attempting  to  desert,  and  was  condcnwed  to  death. 
Winterfeldt  was  the  prince's  constant  friend  through  all  these 
troubles,  and  on  Frederick  II.'s  accession  he  was  promoted 
major  and  appointed  aide-de-camp  to  the  new  sovexdgn. 

When  the  first  Silesian  War  broke  out  Winterfeldt  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  St  Petersburg,  which,  however,  faikd.  He  then 
comm^inded  a  grenadier  battalion  with  great  distinction  at  Moll* 
witz,  and  won  further  glory  in  the  celebrated  minor  combat  of 
Rothschloss,  where  the  Prussian  hussars  defeated  the  Austrians 
(May  17,  1 741).  One  month  from  this  day  Winterfeldt  was 
made  a  colonel,  as  also  was  Zietcn  (9.9.),  the  cavalry  leader  who 
had  actually  commanded  at  Rothschloss,  though  the  latter,  as 
the  older  in  years  and  service,  bitterly  resented  the  rapid  pro- 
motion of  his  junior.  After  this  Frederick  chiefly  employed 
Winterfeldt  as  a  confidential  staff  ofiicer  to  represent  his  views 
to  the  generals,  a  position  in  which  he  needed  extraordinary 
tact  and  knowledge  of  men  and  affairs,  and  as  a  matter  of  course 
made  many  enemies. 

In  the  short  peace  before  the  outbreak  of  the  second  war  he 
was  constantly  in  attendance  upon  the  king,  who  employed  him 
again,  when  the  war  was  resumed,  in  the  same  capacity  as  before, 
and,  after  he  had  been  instrumental  in  winning  a  series  of  success* 
ful  minor  engagements,  promoted  him  (1745)  major-general, 
to  date  from  January  1743. 

For  his  great  services  at  Hohenfriedberg  Frederidc  gave  him 
the  captaincy  of  Tatiau,  which  carried  with  it  a  salary  of  500 
thalers  a  year.  At  KathoL'sch-Henncrsdorf,  where  the  sudden 
and  unexpected  invasion  of  the  Austro-Saxons  was  checked  by 
the  vigour  of  Zieten,  Winterfeldt  arrived  on  the  field  in  time  to 
take  a  decisive  share.  Once  again  the  rivals  had  to  share  their 
laurels,  and  Zieten  actually  wrote  to  the  king  in  disparagement 
of  Winterfeldt,  receiving  in  reply  a  full  and  generous  recognition 
of  his  own  worth  and  services,  coupled  with  the  curt  remark  that 
the  king  intended  to  employ  General  von  Winterfeldt  in  anyway 
that  he  thought  fit.    During  the  ten  years*  peace  thal^^r^edai 


WV«TBRGR£EN— WINTHER 


735 


the  nestt  grtat  mr»  WinttffeUh  was  in  conitaQt  attendance 
upon  the  king,  eioept  when  employed  on  confidential  missions 
in  the  prorlhces  or  abroad.  In  1756  be  was  made  a  lieutenant- 
general  and  received' the  order  of  the  Black  Eagle. 

In  this  year  he  was  feverishly  active  in  collecting  information 
as  to  the  coalition  that  was  secretly  preparing  to  crush  Prussia, 
and  in  preparing  for  the  war.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
discussions  which  eventiiated  in  Frederick's  decision  to  strike 
the  first  blow.  He  was  at  Pima  with  the  king,  and  advised  him 
against  absorbing  the  Saxon  prisoners  into  his  own  army.  He 
accompanied  Schwerin  in  the  advance  on  Prague  in  1757  and 
took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battle  there.  After  the  defeat  of 
KoUn,  however,  Winterfeldt,  whom  Frederick  seems  to  have 
regarded  as  the  only  man  of  character  whom  he  could  trust  to 
conduct  the  more  delicate  and  diflficult  operations  of  the  retreat, 
found  himself  obliged  to  work  in  close  contact  with  the  king's 
brother,  Prince  William,  the  duke  of  Brunswick-Bevern,  Zieten 
and  others  of  his  enemies.  The  operations  which  followed  may 
be  summarized  by  the  phrase  "everything  went  wrong"; 
after  an  angry  scene  with  His  brother,  the  prince  of  Prussia 
retired  from  the  army,  and  when  Frederick  gave  WInterfcldt 
renewed  marks  of  his  confidence,  the  general  animosity  reached 
its  height.  As  it  chanced,  however,  WInterfcldt  fell  a  victim 
to  his  own  bravery  in  the  skirmish  of  Moys  near  GOrlitz  on  the 
7th  of  September.  His  wound,  the  first  serious  wound  he  had 
ever  received,  proved  fatal  and  he  died  on  the  8th.  The  court 
enmities  provoked  by  his  twenty  years'  unbroken  intimacy 
and  influence  with  the  king,  and  the  denigration  of  less  gifted 
or  less  fortunate  soldiers,  followed  him  beyond  death.  Prince 
William  expr«6sed  the  bittMuess  of  his  hatred  in  almost  his  last 
words,  and  Prince  Henry's  memoirs  give  a  wholly  incredible 
portrait  of  Winterfeldt's  arrogance,  di^onesty,  immorality 
and  incapacity.  Frederick,  however,  was  not  apt  to  encourage 
incompetence  in  his  most  trusted  officers,  and  as  for  the  rest, 
WInterfcldt  stood  first  amongst  the  very  few  to  whom  the  king 
gave  his  friendship  and  his  entire  confidence.  Oft  hearing  of 
Winterfeldt's  death  he  said,  ''  Einen  WInterfcldt  finde  ich  nie 
wieder,"  and  a  little  later,  "  Er  war  ein  gutcr  Mensch,  ein 
Scclenmensch,  er  war  mein  Freund."  WInterfcldt  was  buried 
at  his  estate  of  Barschau,  whence,  a  hundred  years  later,  his  body 
was  transferred  to  the  Invaliden  Kirchhof  at  Berlin.  A  statue 
was  erected  to  his  memory,  which  stands  in  the  Wilhelmsplatz 
there,  and  another  forms  part  of  the  memorial  to  Frederick  the 
Great  in  Unter  den  Linden. 

See  Hatis  Karl  v.  Wtnterfeldt  und  der  Tag  von  Moys  (GCrlitz, 
^857);  and  K.  W.  v.  Scnoning,  Winterfadts  Beisettung;  eine 
biographis£ke  SktMse  (Berlin,  1857). 

WINTERGREEN,  known  botanically  as  Caultheria  procumbens, 
a  member  of  the  heath  family  {Ericaceae) ^  is  a  small  creeping, 
evergreen  shrub  with  numerous  short  erect  branches  bearing 
in  the  upper  part  shortly-stalked  oval,  thick,  smooth  shining 
leaves  with  sharp-toothed  edge.  The  flowers  are  borne  singly 
in  the  leaf  axels  and  are  pendulous,  with  a  pale  pink  waxy- 
looking  um-shapcd  oorolla.  The  bright  crimson-red  sub- 
gk>bular,  berry-Uke  fruit  consists  of  the  much-enlarged  fleshy 
calyx  wfaich  surrounds  the  small  Ihin-walled  many-seeded  capsule. 
The  plant  is  a  native  of  shady  woods  on  sandy  soil,  especially  ui 
mountainous  districts,  in  southern  Canada  and  the  northern 
United  States;  it  is  quite  hardy  in  England.  The  leaves  are 
sharply  astringent  and  have  a  peculiar  aromatic  smell  and  taste ' 
due  to  a  volatile  oil  known  as  oil  of  winter  green,  used  in 
medicine  in  the  treatment  of  muscular  rheumatism  (for  the 
therapeutic  action  see  Saucyuc  Acid)  .  An  infusion  of  the  leaves 
is  used,  under  the  name  mountain  or  Salvador  tea,  in  some  parts 
of  North  America  as  a  substitute  for  tea;  and  the  fruits  are  eaten 
under  the  name  of  partridge  or  deer  berries.  Other  names  for 
U»c  plant  are  tea-berry,  checker-beny,  box-berry,  Jersey  tea, 
■pice-herry  and  ground  holly. 

See  Bentley  and  Trimen.  Medicinal  Plants,  t.  164. 

WniTBR'S  BARK,  the  bark  of  Drimys  Winteri,  an  evergreen 
tree  belonging  to  the  Magnolia  family.  It  was  formeriy  officinal 
o^  Ewope,  and  is  still  held  in  esteem  in  BrazU  and  other  pans 


of  South. America  as  a  popular  remedy  for  scurvy  and  other 
diseases.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  the  mountains  and  highlands 
from  Mexico  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

WINTERTHUR,  a  flourishing  industrial  town  in  the  Tdss 
valley,  canton  of  Zurich,  Switzeriand,  and  by  rail  17  m.  N.E.  of 
Zurich.  It  is  1450  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  has  a  rapidly  increasing 
population  (in  1870,  9317;  in  1880, 13,502;  in  1888, 15,805;  and 
in  1900,  aa,33s),  all  C^man-speaking  and  nearly  all  Protestants. 
It  is  the  point  of  junction  of  seven  lines  of  railway,  and  is 
therefore  of  considerable  comxnerdal  importance.  Its  main  in- 
dustries are  cambric-weaving,  cotton-printing,  the  manufacture  of 
machinery,  and  wine-growing,  Stadtberg  being  the  best  variety 
of  wine  grown  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  town.  It  is  a  modern, 
well-built  town,  with  a  fine  town-hall  and  well-arranged  school 
buildings.  It  suffered  severely  from  the  disastrous  financial 
enterprise  of  the  National  Railway  of  Switzerland  which  it 
promoted.  In  1878  it  had  to  sell  its  property  in  that  line,  and 
from  1881  to  1885  it  was  in  great  difficulties  in  the  matter  of  a 
loan  of  nine  million  francs  guaranteed  in  1874  by  the  town, 
together  with  three  others  in  Aargau,  to  that  ill-fated  railway. 
As  the  three  co-guarantor  towns  were  unable  to  pay  their  share, 
the  whole  burden  fell  on  Winterthur,  which  struggled  valiantly 
to  meet  its  liabilities,  and  was  helped  by  hirge  loans  from  the 
cantonal  and  federal  governments. 

The  Roman  settlement  of  VUudurum  (Oltic  dur,  water]  was  a 
little  north-cast  of  the  present  town,  at  the  place  now  known 
as  Ober  Winterthur.  It  was  there  that  in  919  Burkhard  II., 
duke  of  Alamannia,  d<^fealed  Rudolf  II.,  king  of  Transjuran 
Burgundy.  It  was  lefounded  in  the  valley  m  1 180  by  the  counts 
of  Kyburg  (their  castle  rises  on  a  hill,  4  m.  to  the  south  of  the 
town),  who  granted  it  great  liberties  and  privileges,  making  it 
the  seat  of  their  district  court  for  the  Thurgau.  In  1264  the 
town  passed  with  the  rest  of  the  Kyburg  inheriUnce  to  the 
Habsburgs,  who  showed  very  great  favour  to  it,  and  thus  secured 
iu  unswerving  loyalty.  In  1292  the  men  of  Zurich  were  beaten 
back  In  an  attempt  to  take  the  town.  For  a  short  time  after  the 
outlawry  of  Duke  Frederick  of  Austria,  it  became  a  free  imperial 
city  (141 5-1442);  but  after  the  conquest  of  the  Thurgau  by  the 
Swiss  Confederates  (1460-1461)  Winterthur,  which  had  gallantly 
stood  a  nine-weeks'  siege,  was  isolated  in  the  midst  of  non- 
Austrian  territoiy.  Hence  it  was  sold  by  the  duke  to  the  town 
of  Zurich  in  1467,  its  ri^ts  and  liberties  being  reserved,  and  its 
history  since  then  has  been  that  cC  the  other  lands  ruled  by  Zurich. 
In  1717-1726  Zurich  tried  hard  by  means  of  heavy  dues  to  crush 
the  rival  silk  and  cotton  industries  at  Winterthur,  which,  how- 
ever, on  the  whole  very  successfully  maintained  its  ancient 
rights  and  liberties  against  the  encroachments  of  ZUricfa. 

See  H.  GHtsch,  Beitrdge  s.  SJtem  Winltrihurer  Verfassungsgeschiehte 
(Winterthur.  1906):  J.  C.  Trolt,  Geschichle  d.  Stadi  WtnUrikur  (8 
vols.,  1840-1850).  (W.  A.  B;  C.) 

WINTHBR,  CHRISTIAN  (1796-1876),  Danish  lyrical  poet, 
was  bom  on  the  29th  of  July  1796  at  Fcnsmark,  in  the  province 
of  PraestO,  where  bis  father  was  priest .  He  went  to  the  university 
of  Copenhagen  in  1815,  and  studied  theology,  taking  his  degree 
in  1824.  He  began  to  publish  verses  in  18 19,  but  no  collected 
volume  appeared  until  1828.  Meanwhile,  from  1824  to  1830, 
Winther  was  supporting  himself  as  a  tutor,  and  with  so  much 
success  that  in  the  latter  year  he  was  able  to  go  to  Italy  on  his 
savings.  In  1835  a  second  volume  of  lyrics  appeared,  and  in 
1838  a  third.  In  1841  King  Christian  VIII.  appointed  Winther 
to  travel  to  Mecklenburg  to  instruct  the  princess  Caroline,  on 
the  occasion  of  her  betrothal  to  the  Crown  Prince  of  Denmark, 
in  the  Danish  language.  Further  collections  of  lyrics  appeared 
in  1842,  1848,  1850,  1853,  1865  and  1872.  When  he  was  past 
his  fiftieth  year  Winther  married.  In  1851  he  received  a  pension 
from  the  state  as  a  poet,  and  for  the  next  quarter  of  a  century  he 
resided  mainly  in  Paris.  Besides  the  nine  or  ten  volumes  of 
lyrical  verse  mentioned  above,  Winther  published  The  Stag*s 
Flighty  an  epical  romante  in  verse  (1855);  ^^  '^^  T^^or  of  Grace, 
a  novel  (1874);  and  other  works  in  prose.  He  died  in  Paris  on 
the  30th  of  December  1876,  but  the  body  was  brou^t  to  Den- 
mark, and  was  buried  in  the  heart  of  the  woods.  In  the  veise  of 


736 


WINTHROP,  J^WINTHROP,  R.  C. 


Chxistiu  Winther  the  sceneiy  of  Dennuurk,  its  beecbwoods»  lakes 
and  meadows,  its  violet-sceiited  dingles,  its  hoUows  perfumed  by 
wild  strawberries,  found  such  a  loving  and  masterly  painter  as 
they  are  never  likely  to  find  again.  He  is  tbe  most  q)ontaneous 
of  lyrists;  his  little  poems  are  steeped  in  the  dew  and  U^t  and 
odour  of  a  cool,  sunshiny  morning  in  May.  His  melodies  are  art- 
less, but  full  of  variety  and  ddicate  harmony.  When  he  was 
forty-seven  he  fell  in  love,  and  at  that  mature  age  startled 
his  admirers  by  publishing  for  the  first  time  a  cycle  of  love- 
songs.  They  were  what  were  to  be  expected  from  a  ^irit  so 
unfaded;  they  still  stand  alone  for  tender  homage  and  simple 
sweetness  of  passion.  The  technical  perfection  of  Winther's 
verse,  in  its  extreme  simplicity,  makes  him  the  first  song-writer 
of  Denmark.  (£.  G.) 

:  WIMTHROP,  JOHN  (x  58S-1649),  a  Puritan  leader  and  governor 
of  Massachusetts,  was  bom  in  Edwardston,  Suffolk,  on  the  X3th 
of  January  (O.S.)  1588,  the  son  of  Adam  Winthrop  of  Groton 
Manor,  and  Anne  (Browne)  Winthrop.  In  December  1602  he 
matriculated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  but  he  did  not 
graduate.  The  years  after  his  brief  course  at  the  university 
were  devoted  to  the  practice  of  law,  in  which  he  achieved  con- 
siderable success,  being  appdnted,  about  1623,  an  attorney  in 
the  Court  of.  Wards  and  Liveries,  and  also  being  engaged  in  the 
drafting  of  parliamentary  bills.  Thoi^h  his  residence  was  at 
Groton  Manor,  much  of  his  time  was  spent  in  London.  Mean- 
while he  passed  through  the  deep  spiritual  experiences  char- 
acteristic of  Puritanism,  and  made  wide  acquaintance  among  the 
leaders  of  the  Puritan  party.  On  the  26th  of  August  1629  he 
joined  in  the  "  Cambricjge  Agreement,"  by  which  he,  and  his 
associates,  pledged  themselves  to  remove  to  New  England, 
provided  the  government  and  patent  of  the  Massachusetts  colony 
should  be  removed  thither.  On  the  coth  of  October  following  he 
was  chosen  governor  of  the  "  Governor  and  Company  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  in  New  England,"  and  sailed  in  the  "  ArbeUa  " 
in  March  1630,  reaching  Salem  (Mass.)  on  the  12th  of  June  (O.S.), 
accompanied  by  a  large  party  of  Puritan  immigrants.  After  a 
brief  sojourn  in  Charlestown,  Winthrop  and  many  <rf  his  imme- 
diate associates  settled  in  Boston  in  the  autumn  of  1630.  He 
shared  in  the  formation  of  a  church  at  Charlestown  (afterwards 
the  First  Church  in  Boston)  on  the  30th  of  July  1630,  of  which 
he  was  thenceforth  a  member.  At  Boston  he  erected  a  large 
house,  and  there  he  lived  till  his  death  on  the  26th  of  March 
(O.S.)  1649- 

Winthrop's  history  in  New  EngUmd  was  very  largely  that  of 
the  Massachusetts  colony,  of  which  he  was  twdve  times  chosen 
governor  by  annual  election,  serving  in  1629-1634,  1637-1640, 
in  x642-:x644,  and  in  X646-X649,  and  dying  in  office.  To  the 
service  of  the  colony  he  gave  not  merely  unwearied  devotion; 
but  in  its  interests  consumed  strength  and  fortune.  His  own 
temper  of  mind  was  conservative  and  somewhat  aristocratic, 
but  he  guided  political  development,  often  under  cimunstaiices 
of  great  difficulty,  with  singular  fairness  and  conspicuous 
magnanimity.  In  1634-1635  he  was  a  kader  in  putting  the 
colony  in  a  state  of  defence  against  possible  coerdon  by  the 
English  govenmient.  He  opposed  the  majority  of  his  fellow- 
townsmen  in  the  so-called  "  Antinomian  controversy  "  of  1636- 
X637,  taking  a  strongly  conservative  attitude  towards  the  ques- 
tions in  dispute.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the  Conunissioners 
of  the  United  Colonies  of  New  England,  organized  in  x64'3. 
He  defended  Massachusetts  against  threatened  parliamentary 
interference  once  more  in  1645-1646.  That  the  colony  success- 
fully weathered  its  early  perils  was  due  more  to  \li^nthrop's 
skill  and  wisdom  than  to  the  services  of  any  other  of  its  dtisens. 

Winthrop  was  four  times  married.  His  first  wife,  to  whom 
he  was  united  on  the  x6th  of  April  X605,  was  Maxy  Forth, 
daughter  of  John  Forth,  of  Great  Stambridge,  Essex.  She  b<Mre 
him  six  children,  of  whom  the  eldest  was  John  Winthrop,  Jr. 
(f.s.).  She  was  buried  in  Groton  on  the  a6th  oi  June  161 5. 
On  the  6th  of  December  x6i$  he  married  Thomasine  Clopton, 
dau^ter  of  William  Qopton  of  Castldns,  near  Groton.  She 
died  in  childbirth  about  a  year  later.  He  married,  on  the  39th 
of  April  16x8^  Margaret  Tyndal,  daughter  of  Sir  John  TVndal, 


of  Great  Maploted,  Vmau  She  loUowcd  him  to  Nevr  Eni^and 
in  X65X,  bore  him  dght  children,  and  died  on  th«  14th  of  June 
X647.  Late  in  X647  or  eariy  in  1648  he  married  Mrs  Manha 
Coytmore,  widow  of  Thomas  Coytmoce,  who  survived  him,  and 
by  whom  he  had  one  soil 

Winthnq>'s  Jmmal,  an  invaluable  reoord  of  early  Maasachnsetts 

historv,  was  printed  in  put  in  Hartfofd  in  i79o;  the  wfa<^ia  Boston, 
editca  h^  James  Savage,  as  The  History  ofliew  En^ndfrom  i6jo 
to  1649,  in  182^-1826,  and  again  In  1853:  and  in  New  York,  edited 
by  James  K.  Hosmer,  in  X906.  His  btography  has  been  written  by 
Robert  C.  Winthrop,  Uie  and  Letters  0/  Jolm  Winthrop  (2  vd^, 
Boston,  X864,  1867;  new  ed.  1869);  and  by  Joseph  H.  Twichell, 
John  Winthrop  (New  York.  1891).  See  also  Mn  Alice  M.  Earie^ 
Margaret  Winthrop  (New  York,  1895).  (W.  Wa.) 

WINTHROP,  JOHN  (1606-1676),  generally  known  as  John 
Winthrop  the  Younger,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Groton, 
England,  on  the  X2th  of  February  x6o6.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Bury  St  Edmunds  grammar  school  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  studied  law  for  a  short  time  after  X634  at  the  Inner 
Temple,  London,  accompanied  the  ill-fated  expedition  of  the 
duke  of  Buckingham  for  the  relief  of  the  Protestants  of  La 
Rochelle,  and  then  travelled  in  Italy  and  the  Levant,  returning 
to  England  in  1629.  In  X63X  he  followed  his  father  to  Massa- 
chusetts, and  was  one  of  the  "  as^tants  "  in  X635,  1640  and 
164X,  and  from  1644  to  1649.  He  was  the  chief  founder  of 
Agawam  (now  Ipswich),  Mass.,  in  1633,  went  to  En^and  in 
1634,  and  in  the  following  year  return^  as  governor,  for  one 
year,  of  Connecticut,  under  the  Saye  and  Sele  patent,  sending  out 
the  party  which  built  the  fort  at  Saybrook,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Connecticut  river.  He  then  lived  for  a  time  in  Massachusetts, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  science  and  attempted 
to  interest  the  settlers  in  the  development  of  the  colony's  mineral 
resources.  He  was  again  in  England  in  X641-1643,  and  on  his 
return  established  iron-works  at  Lynn  and  Braintree,  Mass. 
In  1645  he  obtained  a  title  to  lands  in  south-eastern  Connecticut, 
and  founded  there  in  1646  what  is  now  New  London,  whither  he 
removed  in  X650.  He  became  one  of  the  magistrates  of  Connecti- 
cut in  j6sii  in  1657-1658  was  governor  of  the  colony;  and  in 
X659  again  became  governor,  being  annually  re-elected  until  his 
death.  In  X662  he  obtained  in  England  the  charter  by  which 
the  colonies  of  Connecticut  and  New  Haven  were  united.  Besides 
being  governor  of  Connecticut,  he  was  also  in  1675  one  of  the 
commissioners  of  the  United  Colonies  of  New  England.  While 
in  England  he  was  elected  to  membership  in  the  newly  organized 
Royal  Society,  to  whose  Philosophic^  Transactions  he  con> 
tributed  two  papers,  "  Some  Natural  Curiosities  from  New 
England,"  and  "  Description,  Culture  and  Use  <^  Maize."  He 
died  on  the  5th  of  April  1676  in  Boston,  whither  he  had  gone  to 
attend  a  meeting  of  the  commisMoners  ol  the  United  Colonies 
of  New  England. 

His  correspondence  with  the  Royal  Society  was  published  in 
series  i,  vol.  xvi.  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society s  Proceedings. 
See  T.  F.  Waten's  Sketch  ef  the  Life  of  John  Winthrop  the  Younger 
(Ipewich,  Mass.,  1899). 

Winthrop's  son,  Frz-Jork  Wzntbkof  (X638-X707),  was 
educated  at  Harvard,  though  he  did  not  take  a  degree;  served 
in  the  parliamentary  army  in  Scotland  under  Monck,  whom  ha 
accompanied  on  his  march  to  London,  and  returned  to  Connecti- 
cut in  1663.  As  major-general  he  commanded  the  unsuccessful 
expedition  of  the  New  Yoik  and  Conixacticut  forces  against 
Caiuuia  in  1690;  from  1693  to  1697  he  was  the  agent  of  Con- 
necticut in  London;  and  from  1698  until  his  diMUh  he  was 
governor  of  Connecticut. 

WINTHROP,  ROBERT  GHARLU  (1809-1894)1  American 
orator  and  statesman,  a  descendant  at  CovtmoT  J^n  Winthrop 
(x588'x649),  was  bom  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  on  the  12th  of 
May  X809.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1828,  studied  law  with 
Daniel  Webster  and  in  1831  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  was  a 
memb«  of  the  Massachusetts  House  of  Representatives  In 
X834-X840— for  the  last  three  years  as  speaker, — and  In  1840 
was  dtcted  to  the  natioiud  House  of  Representatives  as  a 
Whig,  serving  from  December  1840  to  1850  (with  a  short  ittter- 
mtssioix,  April-December  1842).  He  soon  benne  prominent  axvl 
was  speaker  of  the  Thirtieth  Congress  (1847-1849),  thoofh  fait 


WINTHROP— WINZET 


737 


CottervAtten  on  s&nrery  snd  kindred  qnettions  displeased  ez- 
txemistSk  Nortli  and  South,  who  prevented  his  re-election  as 
speaker  of  tlie  Thirty-first  Congress.  On  the  resignation  of 
Danid  Webster  to  become  secretary  of  sute,  Winthrop  was 
appointed  to  the  Senate  (July  1850),  but  was  defeated  in  the 
Massachusetts  legislature  for  the  short  term  (Jan.  30,  1851) 
and  for  the  long  term  (April  24, 185 1)  by  a  coalition  of  Democrats 
and  F^ee  SoQers  and  served  only  until  Februaiy  1851.  In  the 
same  year  he  received  a  plurality  of  the  votes  cast  for  governor, 
but  as  the  constitution  required  a  majority  vote,  the  dection  was 
thrown  into  the  le^slature,  where  he  was  defeated  by  the  same 
coalition.  Thereafter,  he  was  never  a  candidate  for  political 
office.  With  the  breaking  up  of  the  Whig  party  he  became  an 
independent  and  supported  Millard  Fillmore  in  1856,  John  BcII 
in  i860,  and  General  G.  B.  McCleUan  in  1864.  He  was  president 
of  the  MaasachusetU  Historical  Society  from  1855  to  1885,  and 
for  the  last  twenty-seven  yeax«  of  his  Ufe  was  president  of  the 
Peabody  Trust  for  the  advancement  of  education  in  the  Southern 
States.  Among  his  noteworthy  orations  of  a  patriotic  character 
were  those  delivered  at  Boston  in  1876,  at  Yorktown  in  i88r, 
and  in  Washington  on  the  completiim  of  the  Washington  Monu- 
ment in  1885.  .  He  died  in  Boston  on  the  i6th  of  November 

Among  his  publications  were  Addresses  and  Speeches  (Boston, 
i853-l8iS6):  L^e  and  Letters  of  John  Winthrop  (2  voU^  Boston. 
1864-1867}:  and  Washsnelont  Bcwdoin  and  Frankltn  (Boston, 
1876).  See  R.  C.  Wtnthirop.  Jr.,  Memotr  ef  R.  C.  Winthrop 
(Boston.  1897). 

wniTHROP,  a  township  and  a  summer  resort  of  Suffolk 
county,  Massachusetts,  U.S.A.,  occupying  a  peninsula  jutting 
out  into  Massachusetts  Bay  about  5  m.  N.E.  of  Boston  and  3  m. 
S.E.  of  Chelsea,  and  forming  part  of  the  north-eastern  boundary 
of  Boston  Harbour.  Pop.  (1900)  6058,  of  whom  1437  were  foreign- 
bom  and  43  were  negroes;  (1910,  U.S.  census)  10,132.  Between 
May  and  October  the  population  is  estimated  to  be  between 
14,000  and  z6,qga  Area,  z-6  sq.  m.  Winthrop  is  served  by  the 
Winthrop  branch  of  the  Boston,  Revere  Beach  &  Lynn  railway, 
and  by  electric  railway  from  Orient  Heights  to  Revere,  Chelsea, 
East  Boston,  Lynn  and  Boston.  The  township  contains  several 
villages  connected  by  a  railway  loop;  there  are  nine  stations  in 
its  5-3  m.  of  tradL  The  peninsula  bsa  about  8  m.  of  water  front 
on  tlM  ocean  and  the  harbour.  The  northern  part  nearest  the 
narrow  neck  connecting  with  the  mainland  is  a  high  bluff, 
known  as  Winthrop  Highlands,  having  its  north-eastern  terminus 
in  Grover's  Cliff,  a  bold  headland  which  forms  the  north-eastern- 
most point  of  the  peninsula.  On  Grover^s  Cliff  is  Foil  Heath,  a 
battery  of  three  powerful  bng-range  guns.  At  the  western  end 
of  the  Highlands  is  Fort  Banks  (a  part  of  Boston's  harbour 
defence),  consisting  of  a  masked  battery  of  sixteen  xa  in.  mortars, 
each  able  to  drop  a  600  lb  shell  on  a  ship  6  m.  at  sea.  From 
Grover's  Cliff  a  fine  sandy  beach  fadng  the  open  ocean  leads  to 
Great  Head,  the  highest  elevatkxn  on  the  peninsula.  Winthrop 
Shore  Drive  (16-73  acres),  one  of  the  reservations  of  the  Metro- 
politan park  system,  is  a  public  parkway  along  the  shore.  From 
Great  Head,  a  long  sandy  spit  curves  away  southward,  ending 
in  Point  Shirl^,  a  hillodc  and  flat  .sandy  plain,  separated  by 
Shirley  Gut,  a  narrow  channel  of  deep  water,  from  Deer  Island, 
on  wMch  are  the  Boston  House  of  Correction  and  City  Prison. 
At  Point  Shirley  is  the  Point  Shirley  Club  house;  at  the  western 
foot  of  Great  Head,  on  Crystal  Bay,  is  the  Winthrop  Yacht  Club 
house  and  anchorage;  and  at  Winthrop  Center  on  the  west  side 
are  the  Town  Hall,  the  IBgh  School,  the  Public  Library,  the 
Masonic  Hall,  College  Park  Yacht  Club  and  Ingleside  Park. 
There  are  several  large  summer  hotels. 

'  Winthrop,  first  known  as  '' PuUen  Poynt"  (Pulling  Point) 
because  the  tide  made  hard  pulling  here  for  boatmen,  was  origin- 
4tty  a  part  of  Boston;  it  was  part  of  Chelsea  from  1739  until  1846, 
^Hien  with  Rumney  Marsh  it  was  separately  incorporated  as  North 
Qielsea,  from  which  it  was  set  off  as  a  township  in  185a  under 
its  present  name,  in  honour  of  Deane  Winthrop  (i623-r704), 
who  was  a  son  of  (jovemor  John  Winthrop,  the  elder,  and  whose 
house  is  sdU  n^nv^i^g-  Point  Shirley  takes  its  name  from 
Govermx  William  Shiri^y  who  helped  to  establish  a  cod  fishery 


there  in  1753.  Before  and  after  the  War  of  IndiependeiKit 
Winthrop  was  a  favourite  seaside  home  for  Bostonians,  many 
prominent  families,  including  the  Gibbons,  Hancocks,  Bartletts, 
Emersons,  Lorings  and  Lowells,  having  country-seats  here. 
The  community  was  a  sedudcd  rural  retreat  until  the  construc- 
tion of  the  railway  in  1876  converted  it  into  a  watering-place. 
See  C  W.  Hall.  Historic  Winthrop,  1630-1902  (Boston.  1902). 

WINWOOD,  SIR  RALPH  (c.  1563-1617),  English  politician, 
was  bom  at  Aynhoe  in  Northamptonshire  and  educated  at  St 
John's  College,  Oxford.  In  1599  he  became  secretary  to  Sir 
Henry  Neville  (c.  r  564-161 5),  the  English  ambassador  in  France, 
and  he  succeeded  Neville  in  this  position  two  years  later,  re- 
taining it  until  1603.  In  this  year  Winwood  was  sent  to  The 
Hague  as  agent  to  the  States-General  of  the  United  Provinces, 
and  according  to  custom  he  became  a  member  of  the  Dutch 
coundl  of  state.  His  hearty  dislike  of  Spain  coloured  all  his 
actions  in  Holland;  he  was  anxious  to  see  a  continuance  of  the 
war  between  Spain  and  the  United  Netherlands,  and  he  expressed 
both  his  own  views  and  those  of  the  English  government  at  the 
time  when  he  wrote, "  how  convenient  this  war  would  be  for  the 
good  of  His  Majesty's  realms,  if  it  might  be  maintained  without 
his  charge."  In  June  1608  Winwood  signed  the  league  between 
England  and  the  United  Provinces,  and  he  was  in  Holland  when 
the  trouble  over  the  succession  to  the  duchies  of  Jillich  and  Geves 
threatened  to  cause  a  Etiropean  war.  In  this  matter  he  negotiated 
with  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  on  behalf  of  James  I. 
Having  returned  to  England  Sir  Ralph  became  secretary  of 
state  in  March  r6i4  and  a  member  of  parliament  In  the  House 
of  Commons  he  defended  the  king's  right  to  levy  impositions, 
and  other  events  of  his  secretaryship  were  the  inquiry  into 
the  murder  of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury  and  the  release  of  Raleigh 
in  z6i6.  Raleigh  was  urged  by  Winwood  to  attack  the  Spanish 
fleet  and  the  Spanish  settlements  in  South  America,  and  the 
secretary's  share  in  this  undertaking  was  the  subject  of  com- 
plaints on  the  part  of  the  representatives  of  Spain.  In  the 
midst  of  this  he  died  in  London  on  the  27th  of  October  1617. 
"  It  can  hardly  be  doubted,"  says  Gardiner,  "  that,  if  he  had 
lived  till  the  following  summer,  he  would  have  shared  in  Raleigh's 
ruin."  One  of  Winwood's  daughters,  Anne  (d.  1643),  married 
Edward  Montagu,  and  Baron  Montagu  of  Boughton,  and  thdr  son 
was  Ralph  Montagu,  xst  duke  of  Montagu. 

Winwood's  official  correspondence  and  other  fMpers  passed  to  the 
duke  of  Montagu,  and  are  now  in  the  possession  of  the  duke  of 
Bucdeuch.  They  are  calendared  in  the  Report  of  the  Historical 
Manuscripts  Commission  on  the  manuscripts  of  the  duke  of  Buc- 
deuch. bee  the  Introduction  to  this  Report  (1899);  and  also  S.  R. 
Gardiner,  History  of  Enghind,  vols.  ii.  and  iiL  (i  904-1907). 

WINZET,  NINIAN  (15x8-1592),  Scottish  polemical  writer, 
was  bom  in  Renfrew,  and  was  probably  educated  at  the  university 
of  Glasgow.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1540,  and  in  1552  was 
appointed  master  of  the  grammar  school  of  Linlithgow,  from 
which  town  he  was  later  "expellit  and  schott  out"  by  the 
partisans  of  Dean  Patrick  Kiidodiy,  "preacher"  there.  He 
had  also  enjoyed  the  office  of  Provost  of  the  Collegiate  Church 
of  St  Michael  in  that  town.  He  retired  to  Edinburgh,  where 
the  return  of  Queca  Mary  had  given  heart  to  the  Catholics. 
There  he  took  part  in  the  pamphlet  war  which  then  raged, 
and  entered  into  conflict  witif  Knox  and  other  leading  reformers. 
He  appears  to  have  acted  for  a  time  as  confessor  to  the  queen. 
In  July  1562,  when  engaged  in  the  printing  of  his  Last  Blast, 
he  narrowly  escaped  the  vengeance  of  his  opp(Mients,  who  had  by 
that  time  gained  the  upper  hand  in  the  capital,  and  he  fled, 
on  the  3rd  of  Septembo',  with  the  ntmcio  Gouda  to  Louvain. 
He  reached  Paris  in  1565  and  became  a  member  of  the  "  German 
Nation  "  of  the  university.  At  Queen  Mary's  request  he  joined 
Bishop  Leslie  on  his  embassy  to  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1571, 
and  remained  with  the  bishop  after  his  removal  by  Elizabeth's 
orders  to  ward  at  Fenny  Staunton,  Huntingdon^iire.  When 
further  suq[>idon  fell  on  Leslie  and  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower,'  Winzet  was  permitted  to  return  to  Paris.  There  he 
continued  his  studies,  and  in  1574  left  for  Douai,  where  in  the 
following  year  he  became  a  licentiate.  He  was  in  residence  at 
Rome  from  157$  to  1577,  and  was  then  appointed  by  Pope 


738 

OicgDiy  Xm.  ■bbot  of  tbe  BOMilktliw  moBMcryat  St 
Rcgtmbntg.    Then  hs  died  at    ' 
Wlniet'i  WHta  MR  miDBet  a 


u  m  think,  reierrtng  our  iufti 

la  bk  fim  work,  Cmduh  Tma 
I  j6i,  hr  rats  his  fellow  dersy  (b 
from  Knoi  rvfarduig  bii  aiitboHi 

witii  Cftdidic  buifoes  1^  tbe  m 
Blul,  wliidi  vu  intemipteil  in 
hcRIicv  tod  a  falidy  oroaioed  c 
nn  Qwilimi  (I  jAj).  addroKd 


uhb  (bui  polenucal.  He  InnftUied  the  CffmmonUanZm  0 
/iiucniliu  LiriDcisii  (IJfil),  >nd  wroie,  In  Latin,  a  FlaitUur 
ttbrianin  %ad  »  V(/tlaIii  ■sCciU'iVun  fauknunvn  (i;Si). 

WiiuM'i  veniacubr  vriiinfi  have  been  ediied  by  /.  Hewijan  (o 
he  S.T.S.  {t  vole.,  i»eB.  lS«a).  The  Traeuia  vne  printed,  »iih  . 
Kcluxby  cavid  Ijiing.by  the  Maiibnd  Club  (idisl.  Foe  Winzei' 
■surer  aw  Zoiqllauer.  tfuUrio  r«  filcariu  OS  STiiL,  MscLenzK 
LiDci.  ilL.  and  the  Inlmduction  to  S.T,S..  edit,  ili, 

WIBB  (A.S.  Wr.  a  win;  cf.  Sued.  virt.  la  twbt,  M.H  C 
B*n,  *  gold  ornament,  L»t.  ririae,  nrmleii,  uliitnaidy  (roi 
kt  CDDt  wl,  la  twist,  bind),  a  Ihin  long  cod  o[  metal,  gcnerall; 

■cyond  alt  enumeration.  It  forms  ihc  law  malcriil  ot  imporun 
DBnnfactures,  such  as  the  wirc-net  industry,  wirc-clotb  Diakinj 
lod  wire-rope  tpinning,  in  which  it  occupies  a  place  tnalogous 
o  a  textile  &\uc.  Wire-cloth  of  all  degrees  of  strength  and 
ineness  of  mesh  is  used  lor  siTling  and  screening  mach' 
or  draining  paper  pulp,  far  window  screens,  and  lot  many 
nirpoaes.  Vast  qnaniiiietof  OHJperand  iron  wire  are  emp 
or  telegraph  and  Leiephone  wires  aAd  cabirs,  and  ts  caudi 
a  electric  Ughting.     It  is  in  no  less  demand  for  fencing,  and 


r  stringed  musical  in 


Tbe  physical  p 
possessed  by  onl) 
alloys.    The  meti 


Rnd 

Bsh-hoo 

in-Ii 

rdmir 

r«.n 

rl« 

wire  are 

imhei 

ot  tm 

.h    R 

d  meullic 

e  Gisi 

pl«. 

be  d 

ctilc;  and, 

.the 

win 

ptindpally 

possessing  1 

uidcc 

ttainof 

their 

alloys  with 

Diameter. 

Strain. 

Gold      .... 
l^iiQum    .     .     . 
Silver     .... 
CoM)er  .... 

cSJUri  :  '.  '. 
lEpiiB-J.: 

i 

-0640 
-o&oo 

■0630 

if  is 

""H" 

Dr  W.  H.  WoUaston  first  luccKded  in  drawing  a  pluinum  win 
ti^BT  inch  in  diameter  by  encasing  a  fine  platinum  kIr  within 
sitvet  to  ten  lima  its  diameter.  Therorednirehethenreducedto 
fVna  inch,  and  by  dissolving  away  the  silver  coaling  the  plalinum 
w^  Tstn  inch  thick  only  remaiDed.  By  continued  Ircalment 
b  this  way  vurs  of  platinum  for  tpider-liDcs  of  telescopes  have 
been  obtained  of  such  eitreme  lenuily  that  a  mile  length  of  the 
win  weighs  ml  more  than  a  grain;  uid  it  is  said  that  platinum 
■  in  TVn  »<=.. 


if  the  block!  ai 

iperatioa  of  threadhig  the  Hire  bat  thrau^  all  tli 
a  the  blocks  ii  lernicd  "  strinAng-up."   The  anangcm 
lulcation  include  a  pump  which  Ikods  the  dls,  and  Ri  m 
■     -•--■- lions  of  the  Mr-"- ■-■-■--■-- 

anil  vary  great 

3f  redaction  ejicctcdi  e 


WIREWORM 


739 


tftplng.  The  tttruxnAag  or  cmneriac  machines  emi^oyed  in 
thb  work  are  desigoed  to  carry  supplies  oi  material  and  wind  it  on 
to  the  wire  which  is  passing  through  at  a  rapid  rate.  Some  of  the 
smallest  machines  for  cotton  covering  have  a  large  drum,  which 
grips  the  wire  and  moves  it  through  toothed  gears  at  a  definite 
^leed;  the  wire  passes  through  the  centre  of  disks  mounted  above 
a  long  bed,  and  the  disks  cany  each  a  number  of  bobbins  varying 
from  ux  to  twelve  or  more  m  difTercnt  machines.  A  supply  of 
covering  material  is  wound  on  each  bobbin,  and  the  end  is  ted  on  to 
the  wire,  which  occupies  a  central  position  relatively  to  the  bobbins; 
the  latter  being  revolved  at  a  suitabte  speed  bodily  with  their  disks, 
the  cotton  is  consequently  served  on  to  the  wire,  winding  in  spiral 
fashion  so  as  to  overlap.  If  a  large  number  of  strands  are  required 
the  dbln  are  duplicated,  so  that  as  many  as  sixtv  spools  may  be 
carried,  the  second  set  of  strands  being  latd  over  the  nrst.  For  the 
heavier  cables,  used  for  dectric  light  and  power,  and  submarine 
cables,  the  machines  are  somewhat  different  in  construction.  The 
wire  is  still  carried  through  a  hollow  shaft*  but  the  bdbbins  or  spools 
of  covering  material  are  set  with  their  spindles  at  ri^ht  angles  to 
the  axis  oi  the  wire,  and  they  lie  in  a  circular  case  which  rotates  on 
roUere  below.  The  various  strands  coming  from  tne  spools  at  various 
parts  of  the  circumference  of  the  cage  all  lead  to  a  disk  at  the  end 
of  the  hoUow  shaft.  This  disk  has  perforations  through  which  each 
of  the  strands  pass,  thence  being  immediately  wrapped  on  the  cable,, 
which  slides  through  a  bearing  at  this  point.  Toothed  gears  having 
certain  definite  ratios  are  used  to  cause  the  winding  arum  for  the 
cable  and  the  cage  for  the  spoob  to  rotate  at  smtable  relative  speeds 
which  do  not  vary.  The  cages  are  multiplied  for  stranding  with  a 
large  number  of  tapes  or  strands,  so  that  a  machine  may  have  six 
bobbins  on  one  cage  and  twelve  on  the  other.  In  the  case  of  sub- 
inarine  csbles,  coverings  of  jute-served  gutta-pjercha  are  employed, 
upoo  which  a  protecrive  covering  of  sted  wires  is  laid,  subsequently 
treated  with  jute  yams  or  tapes  and  protected  with  coatings  df 
compound.  Messrs  Johnson  &  Phillips,  Ltd.,  of  Charlton,  Kent, 
make  combination  machines  which  lay  the  steel  wires,  apply  the 
tapes  and  cover  with  the  preservative  compound,  in  one  continuous 
opiecation.  The  wire  is  carried  on  bobbins  in  two  rotating  cages, 
having  twelve  bobbins  each,  and  the  jute  bobbins,  seventy-two  in 
number,  are  mounted  on  disks,  while  the  compound  is  supplied 
from  steam-heated  tanksj  through  which  the  cable  is  passea  by 
rollers.  A  machine  of  this  class  will  turn  out  as  much  as  8  m.  of 
finished  cable  in  a  day  of  twelve  hours.  When  a  supply  of  steel  wire 
has  been  used  up,  the  next  portions  are  united  by  electric  wdding. 

Tapes  of  paper,  rubber  or  jute  are  served  from  bobbins  on  dtsks 
and  also  in  soma  designs  from  indepemdent  bobbins,  each  jmounted 
on  its  own  pin,  set  at  a  suitable  angte  in  a  frame,  to  give  the  spiral 
l^d.  In  some  instances  seventv-two  byera  of  paper  are  applied  to 
high-tension  cablesb  These  cables  are  subsequentr^  put  into  steam- 
heated  tanks,  hermetically  sealed  and  connected  to  a  vacuum  pump, 
by  which  the  mobture  b  drawn  off  cu  quickly  as  possible,  when 
the  cable  b  thoroughly  dry  a  Quantity  of  compound  is  admitted 
to  the  tank  and  so  permeates  the  insulation.  Lead  b  put  on  the 
outside  of  the  paper  in  a  press,  which  has  dies  through  ^ich  the 
cable  passes,  and  is  covered  with  a  uniform  coating  or  tube  of  lead, 
forced  into  the  dies  and  around  the  cable  by  hydraulic  pressure. 
Steel  tapes  are  in  some  cases  used  to  armour  cables  and  protect  them 
from  external  injury;  the  tape  b  wound  in  a  similar  manner  to  the 
othor  materials  already  described. 

Rubber  covering  of  wires  and  cables  b  done  by  passing  them 
through  grooved  rollera  simultaneously  with  rubber  strips  above 
and  baow,  so  that  the  rubber  b  crushed  on  to  the  wires,  the  btter 
emerging  as  a  wide  band.  The  separate  wires  are  parted  forcibly, 
each  retaining  its  rubber  sheathing.  Vulcanizing  is  afterwards  done 
m  steam-heated  drums. 

Many  aiixihary  machines  are  necessary  in  connexion  with  wire- 
and  cable-covering,  as  pUnt  for  preparii^^  the  rubber  and  paper,  ftc., 
cutting  it  into  stops,  winding  it,  measuring  lengths,  &c. 

IFcrs  Gatffsi.-— In  commerce,  the  siies  a  wire  are  estimated  by 
gauges  which  consbt  of  plates  of  areolar  or  oblong  form  havine 
notches  of  different  widtJis  round  their  edges  to  receive  wire  and 
sheet  metals  of  different  thicknesses.  Each  notch  b  stamped  with 
a  number,  and  the  wire  or  sheet,  which  just  fits  a  given  notch,  b 
stated  to  be  of,  say.  No.  lo,  ii.  I3,  &c.,  of  the  wire  gauge.  But 
it  b  always  necessary  to  state  what  particular  gau^  b  used,  rince, 
unfortunately,  uniformity  b  wanting.  Holtsapffd  mvesiigated  the 
subject,  and  published  a  valuabte  ooUectton  of  tacts  rebting  thereto 
in  1846.  A  more  exhaustive  report  was  published  by  a  committee 
of  the  Society  of  Telegraph  Engineers  in  1879  {Joum.  Soc.  Tel.  Eng. 
^iii.  p.  476),  a  result  of  which  was  the  sanctioning  by  the  Board  of 
Trade,  in  1884,  of  the  New  Imperial  Standard  VTire  Gauge.  That 
report  stated:  "The  different  gauges  in  use  might  be  counted  by 
hundreds.^  .  .  .  Every  wire-drawer  has  gauges  adjusted  to  suit 
special  objects.  When  competition  b  keen,  wire  is  commonljr  drawn 
by  one  gauge  and  sold  by  another;  half  sizes  and  quarter  sizes  are 
in  constant  use  among  the  dealers,  the  wire  being  sold  as  whole  sizes. 
Sometimes  four  or  five  different  gauge  plates  nave  been  made  by 
one  maker — some  by  which  the  workmen  are  paid,  and  others  by 
which  'the  wire  b  sold.  .  .  The  whole  system  is  in  confusion,  and 
tendis  itself  to  those  who  desire  to  use  frauaulent  practices,**  Thomas 
Hughes  iThs  Ent^iih  Wire  Guigt,  London,  1879)  stated  that,  **  In 


the  same  town  some  use  Stubs,  some  the  Warrington,  some  the 
Lancashire,  some  the  Yorkshire,  some  the  Birmingham,  some  the 
iron  wire  gauge  and  some  their  own  made  wire  gauge,  all  maintaining 
the  gauge  in  their  own  possession  to  be  the  correct  one." 

Gauges  may  be  broadly  divided  into  two  groups,  the  empirical 
and  the  geometrical.  The  first  include  all  the  old  ones,  notably  the 
Birmingnain  f  B.W.G.)  and  the  Lancashire  or  Stubs.  The  origin  of 
the  B.W.G.  b  lost  in  obscurity.  The  numbers  of  wire  were  in  common 
use  eariier  than  1735.  It  b  believed  that  they  originally  were  based 
on  the  series  of  drawn  wires.  No.  i  beinff  the  onginal  rod,  and  succeed- 
ing numben  corresponding  with  each  draw,  so  that  Na  10,  for 
example,  would  have  passed  ten  times  through  the  draw  pbte. 
But  the  Birmingham  and  the  Lancashire  gauge,  the  latter  being 
based  on  an  averaging  of  the  dimensions  collated  from  a  large 
number  of  the  former  in  the  poseesaon  of  Peter  Stubs  of  Warrington, 
have  long  hdd  the  leading  position,  and  are  still  retained  and  used 
probably  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  more  recent  geometrical 
gauges.  There  b  no  need,  therefore,  to  give  an  account  of  the  other 
and  less  known  gauges  which  have  been  used  by  manufacturers. 
In  no  case  b  there  any  tegular  increment  of  dimensions  from  which 
a  regubr  curve  oould  be  drawn. 

The  first  attempt  to  adopt  a  geometrical  system  was  made  by 
Messrs  Brown  &  bharpe  in  1855.  They  estabibhed  a  regular  pro- 
eression  of  thirty-nine  steps  between  the  English  sizes,  No.  0000 
(460  mils)  and  No.  36  (5  mib).  E^ch  dbmeter  was  multiplied  by 
0-890523  to  give  the  next  lower  size.  This  b  now  the  American 
gaiu»,  and  b  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  U.S.A. 

The  Imperial  Standard  Wire  Gauge,  which  has  been  sanctioned 
by  the  British  Board  of  Trade,  b  one  that  was  formulated  by  J. 
Latimer  Clark.  Incidentally,  one  of  its  recommendations  b  that 
it  diffen  from  pre-existing  gauges  scarcely  more  than  they  differ 
among  themselves,  and  it  b  based  on  a  rational  system,  the  basb 
being  the  mil.  No.  7/0,  the  brgest  size,  b  0-50  m.  (^00  mib)  in 
dbmeter,  and  the  smallest,  No.  50,  b  o-ooi  in.  (i  mil)  m  dbmeter. 
Between  these  the  dbmeter,  or  thickness,  diminishes  by  xo*$57  %, 
and  the  weight  diminishes  by  ao%. 

But  the  fact  remains  that  a  laji^  number  of  gauges  are  still  in 
common  use,  and  that  gauges  of  the  same  name  differ  and  are 
therefore  not  authoritative.  Sheet  'iron  wire  gauge  differs  from 
Stubs' sted  wire  gauge.  Gauges  for  wire  and  plate  differ.  Accuracy 
ran  only  be  secured  by  specifying  precisely  the  name  of  the  gauee 
Intended,  or,  what  b  generally  better,  the  dimensions  in  decunals, 
which  can  always  be  tested  with  a  micrometer.  A  decimal  gauge 
has  been  proposed.  Tables  of  decimal  equivalents  of  the  wire 
gauges  have  Dc6n  prepared,  and  are  helpful. 

liie  circular  forms  of  gauge  are  the  most  popubr,  and  are  generally 
3i  in.  in  diameter,  with  thirty-six  notches;  many  have  the  decimal 
cx]uivalcnts  of  the  sizes  stamped  on  the  back.  Oblong  plates  are 
similarly  notched.  Rolling  mill  gauges  arc  also  oblong  in  form 
Many  gauges  are  made  with  a  wcage-fikc  slot  into  which  the  wire  is 
thrust;  one  edge  being  graduated,  the  point  at  which  the  movement 
of  the  wire  b  arrested  gives  its  size.  The  graduatrans  are  those  of 
standard  wire,  or  in  thousandths  of  an  inch.  In  some  cases  both 
edges  are  graduated  differently  to  serve  for  comparison  between  two 
systems  ot  measurement.  A  few  gauges  are  made  with  holes  into 
whk:h  the  wire  haus  to  be  thrust.  All  gauges  are  hardened  and 
ground  to  dimensions 

WIIIBWOItlf,  a  popular  n&tne  for  the  slender,  hard-skinned 
grubs  or  larvae  of  the  click-beetles  or  EUUeridae^  a  family  of 
the  Coleoptera  {q.v,).  These  larvae  pass  a  long  life  (two  or  three 
yeais)  in  the  soil,  feeding  on  the  roots  of  plants,  and  they  often 
cause  much  damage  to  farm  crops  of  all  kinds,  but  espedally  to 
ccTcab.  A  wireworm  may  be  known  by  its  broad,  quadrate 
head  and  cylindrical  or  somewhat  flattened  body,  all  of  whose 
segments  are  protected  by  a  firm,  chitinons  cuticle.  The  three 
pairs  of  legs  on  the  thoracic  segments  are  short  and  the  last 
abdominal  segment  b,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  beetle  grubs, 
directed  downwards  to  serve  as  a  terminal  proleg.  The  hinder 
end  of  the  body  is  acutely  pointed  in  the  larvae  of  the  spedes  of 
Agriotes  {A.  ohscunts  and  A.  lineaivs)  that  are  the  best  known 
of  the  wireworms,  but  in  another  common  form  (the  grub  of 
Atkous  haemonhoidalis)  the  tail  b  bifid  and  beset  with  sbaip 
processes.  The  subterranean  habits  of  wireworms  make  it 
hard  to  exterminate  them  when  they  have  once  begun  to  attack 
a  crop,  and  the  most  hopeful  practice  is,  by  rotation  and  by 
proper  treatment  of  the  land,  to  clear  it  of  the  insects  before  tiie 
seed  be  sown.  Passing  easily  through  the  soil  on  account  of  thefr 
shape,  wireworms  travel  from  plant  to  plant  and  thus  injure 
the  roofs  of  a  la^^  number  in  a  short  time.  (See  EooNOVlc 
Entoitology.)  Other  subterranean  creatures — sudi  as  the 
"leather-jacket**  grub  of  crane-flies— which  have  no  legs, 
and  geophifid  centipedes,  which  may  have  over  two  hundred, 
are  often  confounded  with  the  u-fegged  wuewonna. 


74© 


WIRKSWORTH— WISCONSIN 


WIIIK8W0BTH,  a  market  town  in  the  western  parliamentary 
division  of  Derbyshire,  England,  14  m.  N.N.W.  of  Derby,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Midland  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901) 
3807.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  at  the  head  of  the  valley  of 
a  small  tributary  of  the  Derwent,  at  an  elevation  exceeding 
yx>  ft.,  and  is  almost  encircled  by  sharply  rising  hills.  The 
cruciform  church  of  St  Mary,  with  a  central  tower  and  short  spire, 
is  in  great  part  Early  English,  with  Perpendicular  additions, 
but  considerable  traces  of  a  Norman  building  were  revealed 
during  a  modem  restoration.  There  is  a  manufacture  of  tape  in 
the  town,  and  lead-mining  and  stone-quarrying  are  carried  on 
in  the  neighbourhood;  relics  of  the  Roman  working  of  the  lead 
mines  have  been  discovered.  A  large  brass  vcssd  used  as  a 
standard  measure  for  the  lead  ore,  and  dating  from  the  time 
of  Henry  VIII.,  is  preserved. 

WISBBCH,  a  municipal  borough,  market  town,  and  port 
in  the  Wisbech  parliamentary  division  of  Cambridgeshire, 
England,  38  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Cambridge,  on  the  Great  Eastern  and 
the  Great  Northern  and  Midland  joint  railways.  It  lies  in  the 
flat  fen  country,  on  the  river  Nene  (mainly  on  the  east  bank), 
II  m.  from  its  outlet  on  the  Wash.  By  the  Wisbech  canal  it 
has  communication  with  the  Ouse.  The  church  of  St  Peter 
and  St  Paul  has  a  double  nave,  with  aisles,  the  north  arcade 
being  Norman;  but  the  rest  of  the  building  is  mainly  Decorated 
and  Perpendicular.  There  are  remains  of  a  Norman  west  tower; 
the  Perpendicular  tower  stands  on  the  north  side.  The  museum 
contains  a  valuable  library  and  various  collections,  including 
antiquities  and  objects  of  art  and  natural  history.  Other  in- 
stitutions include  a  grammar  school  founded  in  the  middle  of 
the  i6th  century  and  provided  for  by  a  charter  of  Edward  VI., 
the  Cambridgeshire  hospital,  a  custom-house,  a  cattle-market, 
and  an  important  corn-exchange,  for  Wisbech  has  a  large  trade 
in  grain.  A  Gothic  monument  OMnmemorates  Thomas  Clarkson 
(i 760-1846),  a  powerful  opponent  of  the  slave-trade,  and  a 
native  of  the  town.  The  shipping  trade  is  carried  on  both  at  the 
town  itself  and  at  Sutton  Bridge,  8  m.  lower  down  the  river. 
The  chief  imports  are  coal,  timber  and  iron,  and  the  exports 
grain  and  other  agricultural  products  and  salt.  Foreign  trade  is 
chiefly  with  the  Russian  Baltic  ports.  In  the  neighbourhood 
large  quantities  of  fruit  are  grown,  including  apples,  pears, 
plums,  gooseberries,  and  strawberries.  Potatoes,  asparagus, 
and  other  vegetables  are  also  grown  for  the  London  market. 
The  town  possesses  agricultural  implement  works,  coach- 
building  works,  breweries,  ropeworks,  planing  and  savdng  mills,. 
and  com  and  oil-cake  mills.  The  borough  is  under  a  mayor, 
6  aldermen,  and  18  councillors.   Area,  6476  acres. 

Wisbech  {WiseUc,  ix.  Ousebec)  is  near  a  Roman  embankment 
and  tumuli.  About  940  the  manor  is  said  to,  have  been  given 
to  the  abbey  of  Ely  by  Oswy  and  Leoflede;  the  abbot  held  it 
in  1086;  and  it  became  attached  to  the  see  of  Ely  with  the  other 
possessions  of  the  monastery.  The  castle  is  alleged  to  have  been 
built  by  William  I.,  and  was  converted  from  a  fortress  in  the  fens 
into  an  episcopal  palace  between  1471  and  1473.  The  growth 
of  Wisbech  depended  on  its  position  and  episcopal  patronage. 
In  1x90  tenants  of  Wisbech  Barton  acquired  an  exemption 
from  tolls  throughout  England,  confirmed  by  John,  Henry  IV. 
and  Henry  V.  The  Gild  of  the  Holy  Trinity  is  mentioned  in 
1379,  and  grew  rich  and  poweriuL  After  its  dissolution  the 
townsmen  became,  in  1549,  a  corporation  holding  of  the  king, 
by  a  charter  which  transferred  to  them  the  property  and  duties 
of  the  gild,  and  was  renewed  in  x6xo  and  1669.  By  the  Municipal 
Corporations  Act  of  1835  a  mayor,  aldermen  and  a  council 
replaced  the  capital  burgesses,  the  older  governing  body.  The 
borough  returned  a  member  only  to  the  parliament  of  1658; 
its  elected  member.  Secretary  Thurloe,  chose  then  to  represent 
another  constituency.  A  fair  of  twenty  days  from  the  vigil  of 
Holy  Trinity  was  granted  to  the  bishop  of  Ely  in  x  33  7 .  The  mart 
still  occupies  by  custom  the  interval  between  Lynn  mart,  of 
which  it  is  probably  an  offshoot,  and  Stamford  fair  in  mid-Lent. 
A  pleasure  fair,  c^ed  the  Statute  Fair,  takes  place  shortly 
before  Michaelmas.  Importance  attaches  to  the  horse  fair, 
held  in  1837  in  the  week  before  Whitsuntide  and  now  on  the 


second  Thursday  in  May  and  on  July  25,  and  to  the  cattle  faSt 
in  the  beginning  of  August.  Saturday  was  market  day  in  1793; 
a  corn  market  is  now  held  on  Saturday,  a  cattle  market  on 
Thursday  and  Saturday.  In  1086  eels  were  prolific  in  Wi^Mch 
water.  The  port  was  noteworthy  until  a  diveruon  of  the  Ouse, 
before  1292,  rendered  it  hardly  accessiUe.  Drainage  restored 
trade  before  1634,  and  the  act  of  1773  for  making  Kinderley's 
Cut  was  the  beginning  of  pro^ierity.  From  1783  to  xSss  agriod- 
tural  produce  was  exported  and  coal  imported.  Hemp  and  flax 
had  an  importance,  lost  between  1827  and  1849,  but  re^MnaUe 
in  1792  for  fairs  on  Saturday  and  Monday  before  Palm  Sunday. 

Sec  W.  Watson.  History  of  Wisbech  (Wubech,  1827);  N.  Walker 
and  C.  Thomas.  History  of  Wisbech  (Wisbech.  1849);  History  ti 
Wtsbech  (Wisbech  and  London.  1833). 

WISCOMSIll  (known  as  '*  the  Badger^  sUte  '^.^  one  of  the 
North  Central  states  of  the  United  States  Of  America.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  Lake  Michigan,  on  the  N.  by  the  Upper 
Peninsula  of  Michigan  and  Lake  Superior,  cm  the  W.  by  Min- 
nesota and  Iowa,  and  on  the  S.  by  Illin<4a.  Its  greatest  length 
from  N.  to  S.  (42*  30'  N.  Lat.  to  47*  3'  N.  Lat.)  is  300  ip.,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  (86*  49'  W,  Long,  to  92**  54'  W.  Long.)  is  250  m. 
The  greater  part  of  the  western  boundary  separating  the  Mate 
from  Minnesota  and  Iowa  consists  of  the  Mississii^i  'and  St 
Croix  rivers  floring  S.  and  the  Saint  Louis  river  flowing  into 
Lake  Superior.  The  Menominee  and  Montreal  rivets  lixm.  a 
considerable  pait  of  the  boundary  line  on  the  N.  and  £.,  a^yr^^y 
it  from  the  Upper  Peninsula  of  Michigan.  The  state's  hie 
shore  boundary  is  more  than  550  m.  long.  Included  in  Wis- 
consin are  thQ  Apostle  Ishmds  in  Lake  JSuperior,  an4  Washington 
Island  and  fi  group  of  smaller  islands  at  the  entrance  to  Green 
Bay  on  the  Lake  Michigan  side.  The  stAte  occupies  a  total 
area  of  56,066  sq.  m.,*  810  of  which  are  water  surface.  Roughly 
speaking,  it  divides  the  Great  Lakes  region  from  the  upper  vaUcy 
of  the  MirissippL 

Physical  Features. — ^Wiflconan  forms  part  of  the  inner  margin  of 
an  ancient  coastal  plain  and  the  okUand  of  crystalline  rocksabout 
which  the  plain  aediments  were  deposited.  The  plain  and  the  old- 
land  were  well  worn  down  by  eroaon  and  then  were  oplif ted;  were 
dissected  by  stream  valleys,  and  were  glaciated.  The  surface  b 
generally  roiling  and  undulating,  comprising,  with  the  Upper  Penin- 
sula of  Michigan,  a  swellinE  elevation  of  land  between  the  three 
depressions  represented  by  Lakes  Michigan  and  Superior  and  the 
Mississippi  and  the  St  Croix  rivers.  The  lowest  elevatioQs  are  in  the 
southern  and  central  portions  of  the  state,  where  tBe  altitude 
averages  between  580  and  600  ft.  above  sea-level.  The  highest 
l>oints  in  the  state  are  residual  masses  of  relatively  resistant  rock 
rising  above  the  erosion  surface;  such  are:  Rib  Hill  (i9^  ft.)  in 
Marathon  countv.  in  the  north-central  part,  and  some  «  the  peaks 
of  the  Plenokee  Range  in  the  N.  part  01  the  state,  which  are  about 
1800  ft.  high.  From  the  N.  highland  two  heights  of  land  (1200  u> 
1600  ft.)  extend  southward  well  into  the  central  poftions  of  the 
state,  dividing  the  greater  part  of  its  area  into  two  natural  drainage 
basins.  The  westernmost  ci  these  elevations  separates  the  valleys 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  St  Croix  from  that  €A  the  Wisconan  raver. 
The  eastern  elevation  b  a  ridge  or  cuesta  formed  by  an  ootcroi^ing 
hard  layer  of  the  ancient  coastal  plain :  and  it  separates  the  Wisconsin 
river  basin  from  the  Fox  River  Valley  and  the  streams  flowing  into 
Lake  Michignn.  Along  the  Mississippi  and  the  Wisconsin  runs  a 
chain  of  bluffs  varving  in  height  from  aoO  to  300  ft.,  and  in  the  E.  a 
rocky  limestone  ridge  or  cuesta  some  30  m.  back  from  Lake  Michigan 
extends  from  the  Door  county  peninsula.  E  of  Lake  Winnebago  and 
as  far  south  as  the  Illinois  hne.  There  are  no  large  rivers  flowing 
into  Lake  Superior  and  very  little  drainage  in  that  direction,  as 
from  a  point  some  30  m.  S.  of  the  lake  afl  the  streams  flow  in  a 
southerly  direction.  The  Missisnopi  is  the  drainage  h^An  for  a 
greateir  part  of  the  state.  The  St  Croix  river  rises  in  the  S.W.  part 
of  the  Penokee  Range  and  flows  W.  and  S..  forming  the  western 
boundary  of  the  state  for  13^  m.  before  it  joins  the  Mississippi  20  m. 
below  St  Paul.    Before  it  is  joined  by  the  Wisconsin,  the  Mississippi 

^  The  badger  is  not  found  in  the  state,  and  the  name  prc^bly 
originated  as  a  nickname  for  those  lead  miners  N.  of  the  Illinois 
line  who  came  fronrthe  East,  who  lived  in  dug-outs  like  the  hiUside 
burrows  of  the  badger,  and  who  did  not  go  home  in  winter  like  the 
miners  from  southern  Illinois  and  farther  south,  who  arere  called 
"  suckers,"  a  name  borrowed  from  the  migrating  fish  in  the  Rock, 
Illinois  and  other  rivers  flowing  south.  The  name  "  suckers  "  was 
applied  generally  to  alt  the  people  of  Illinois,  and  the  name  "  badgera  '* 
to  the  people  01  Wisconsin  and  "  badger  state  "  to  the  state. 

*  Besides  the  area  as  given  here,  the  state  has  jurisdiction  over 
approximately  7500  sq.  in.  of  Lake  Mkhigan  and  S378  sq.  -na.  of 
LaKe  Superior. 


vnsicoHsaf 


741 


i  •evccil  ri««B  ^  cedaideBible  leBfedi.  tltt  OMMt  importuit  of 
whicb  are  the  Cliippewa  and  the  Black.  Tne  Wiaconain  river  riaea 
OD  the  Upper  Michigan  border  and  flows  S.  and  W.  for  600  m., 
joming  the  MiMintppinenr  Prairie*  duChien.  It  is  navisaUe  aa  far 
as  Portage»  some  aoo  m.  fmm  its  mouth.  The  Fox  river  (more  than 
360  mrioag)  rises  in  the  aouth  central  portion  of  the  state,  flows  N. 
and  E.  by  a  circuitous  route  through  Lake  ^A^nnebago,  and  thence 
N.  into  Green  Bay.  and  is  the  longest  and  most  important  stream 
draining  into  Lake  Michigan.  The  Wolf  river  is  its  most  imjpurtant 
tributary^  Joining  it  from  the  U»j  in  its  upper  course.  Beatdes  the 
Fox  several  smaller  streams  drain  into  tfie  Lake  Michigan  basin. 
Among  these  are  the  Menominee  and  Oconto,  which  flow  into  Green 
Bay ;  an  arm  of  Lake  Michigac,  and  the  SheboyEan  and  Milwaukee 
rivet*  emptying  directly  into  the  hdte.  The  southern  portion  of  the 
state  is  drained  oy  several  streams  flowing  acroaa  the  Illinois  boundary 
and  finding  their  way  eventually  through  other  rivers  into  the 
Miasiaippi.  The  kcgest  ol  these  are  the  Rock,  Des  Flames.  Fox 
(of-  the  Ilunois),  or  Piantaka,  and  the  Pecatonica  rivers.  On  account 
of  glacial  disturbance  of  the  drainage^.  Wisconsin's  many  streams 
provide  water-powers  of  great  value  that  have  contributed  much 
to  theindusbriad  prosperity  of  thestate.  The  most  valuableof  these 
are  the  Fox*  the  Roac  and  the  upper  Wisconsin  and  its  tributaries. 
Wisconsin  has  more  than  2500  lakes«  mostly  in  the  glaciated  N. 
and  E.  parts  of  the  state.  Of  these  the  largest  is  Lake  WMuieba^, 
between  QJumet,  Outa^mie,  Fond  du  Lac  and  Winnebago  counties, 
with  an  extieme  length  of  30  m.  and  a  breadth  of  10  m.,  and  one  of 
the  largest  bodies  or  water  lying  wfaoUy  within  any  state  in  the 
Unioiu  On  its  t»aks  are  the  important  manufacturing  cities  of 
Oshkosh,  Fond  du  Lac,  Neenah  and  Menasha.  and  through  it  flows 
the  Fox  river.  In  the  S.  and  E.  portions  of  the  state  the  lakes  are 
beautiful  clear  bodies  of  water  with  sandy  or  gmveUed  shores,  and, 
as  a  rule,  high  banks  heavily  wooded.  Many  of  them  are  famous  as 
summer  resorts*  notably  Lake  Geneva,  Green  Lake,  the  lakes  in 
Waukesha  county  and  the  famous  "  four  lakes  "  near  Madison. 

ftora  (u%d  Fauna. — Wiscnnsin  was  orijpnally  the  native  home  of 
roost  of  the  wild  fowl  and  animals  found  in  the  other  North  Central 
states.  Deer  were  found  in  large  numbers  in  all  sections  of  the  state, 
bear  were  common  in  the  central  and  northern  parts,  bison  were 
found  in  the  south>west,  wolves,  lynx  ("  wild  cats  ),  and  foxes  and 
other  smaller  animals  particularly  ox  fur-bearing  varieties.  The 
streams  abounded  in  fish.  The  abundance  of  {^me  made  the  region 
between  the  lakes  and  the  Mississippi  a  favounte  hunting  ground  of 
the  Indians,  and  later  a  productive  field  lot  the  trapper  and  fur 
trader.  Bear,  deer  and  lynx  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  less  settled 
forest  regions  of  the  N.  parts,  and  the  fisheries  are  still  important. 
The  m^faunal  life  of  Aft^scoaaio  is  exoeedin^y  varied;  C.  B.  Cory 
Be  Bibliography)  enumerates  398  species  for  Wisconsin  and 
tlinois,  and  of  these  probably  not  leas  than  350  occur  in  Wisoonun. 
The  more  characteristic  ana  useful  biid*  include  many  apecies  of 
the  ^»rtow,  such  as  the  song,  swamp,  Lincoln's  chipping  and  field 
sparrow;  die  bank,  barn,  cliff,  white-bellied  andi  roiq;h-winged 
swallow,  as  well  as  the  purple  martin  and  the  chimney  swift;  tan 
or  more  species  of  fly-catchers,  including  the  least,  arcadian,  phoebe, 
wood  pcwee,  oUve-sided  and  king  bird;  about  ten  species  01  wood- 
peckere,  of  which  the  more  common  are  the  downy,  hairy,  yellow- 
bellied  and  golden-winged  (flicker) ;  about  thirty  species  of  warblers, 
including  tm  parula,  cerulean,  Blackburnian,  prothonotary,  yellow 
NashviUe,  red-start,  worm-eating  and  che8tnut-sided;andfottr  or  five 
species  of  vireos.  The  song-birds  are  well  represented  in  the  hermit 
thrush,  wood  thrash,  Wilson's  thrush  (or  veery),  brown  thrasher, 
rotrin,  blue  bird,  bobolink,  meadow  lark,  ipld  nnch,  &c  Among 
the  gany  birds  are  the  niflfed  grouse  (partndge),  quail,  snairie  hen 
and  wild  turkey.  The  birds  of  prey  include  the  red-ahoutdered,  red- 
tailed,  broad-winged.  Cooper's,  sharp-shinned  and  sparrow  hawk 
and  the  bald  eagle;  the  great  horned,  barred,  barn,  snowy,  short- 
eared  and  aereech  owls.  The  ducks  include  the  mallard,  black 
duck,  canvas<back  and  redphead;  the  Canadian  goose,  the  snowy 
goose  and  the  blue  goose  also  appear  during  the  migrating  seasons. 

Originally  the  greater  portion  of  what  is  now  Wisconsin  was 
covered  with  foresu,  although  in  the  S.  and  W.  there  were  consider- 
able tracts  of  rolling  prairie  kinds.  I  n  the  S.  portion  the  predominat- 
ing trees  were  hickory,  elm,  oak  and  poplar.  Along  the  shore  of 
Lake  Michigan,  and  extending  inland  a  quarter  of  the  dbtaoce  across 
the  state  and  northward  through  the  Fox  River  Valley,  there  was  a 
heavy  bdt  of  oak,  maple,  bircn,  ash,  hickory,  elm  and  some  pine. 
From  the  N.  shores  of  Green  Bay  there  stretched  away  to  the  N.  and 
W.  «a  enormous  and  unbroken  forest  of  pines,  hemlocks  and  sprace. 
CUmaU. — The  climate  of  the  whole  state  is  influenced  by  the 
storms  which  move  eastward  along  the  Canadian  border  and  by 
those  which  move  northward  up  the  Miasiseippi  Valleyt  and  that  of 
the  eastera  and  northern  sections  u  moderated  by  the  (j«eat  Lakes. 
The  winters,  especially  in  the  central  and  north-western  sections,  are 
km^  and  severe,  and  the  summcars  In  the  central  and  south-western 
sections  are  very  warm;  but  the  air  is  so  dry  that  cold  and  heat  are 
ksa  {eh  here  than  they  are  in  some  humid  cHmates  with  less 
extreme  temperatures.  The  mean  annual  temperature  for  the 
state  b  4i(*  F.  July,  with  an  average  temperature  for  the  state 
of  70*,  is  tne  warmest  month,  and  February,  with  an  average  of  15*, 
is  the  coldest.  Within  a  period  of  thirty-«ght  years,  from  1870  to 
iVoB,  ejiireiuw  at  Milwaukee  raijged  from  loo*  to  -  as*,  whfle  at 


llux 


La  Crosse,  on  the  western  border  and  leas  than  60  m.  farther  north, 
they  ranged  during  the  same  period  from  104*  to  -  43*.  The  greatest 
extremes  recorded  at  regular  observing  stations  range  from  ill*  at 
Brodhead,  in  (keen  county  and  near  the  southern  border,  on  the  21st 
of  July  loot  to  -'48*  at  Barron,  in  Barron  county  in  the  north-westera 
part  (M  the  state,  on  the  loth  of  February  1889.  The  average  annual 
precipitation  for  the  state  is  31  '5  in.  Two-thirds  of  this  comes  in  the 
six  growing  months  from  i^ril  to  September  inclusive,  and  the  rain- 
fall IS  well  distributed  over  afl  sections.  There  is  an  annual  snowfall 
of  ^  in.  in  the  northern  section,  ^  in.  in  the  southern  section  and 
36  in.  in  the  central  section,  which  is  quite  evenly  distributed  through 
the  months  6f  December,  January,  February  and  March.  In  tne 
northern  section  the  heavy  snowfall  is  caused  by  the  cyclonic  storms 
along  the  Canadian  border,  and  in  the  southern  section  the  snowfall 
b  increased  by  the  storms  which  ascend  the  Miastsnppi  Valley.  All 
sections  of  the  state  are  subject  to  tornadoes.  Tney  occur  more 
frequently  in  the  western  portion  than  in  the  eastern  portion,  but 
one  of  the  most  destructive  in  the  history  of  the  state  occurred  at 
Racine  on  the  i8th  of  May  1863/  This  storm  killed  35  penons, 
injured  100,  and  destroyed  consitfeiable  property. 

AgricuUttrt.-^Hay  and  grain  are  the  most  important  crops.  In 
1909  the  acreage  <n  hay  was  3,369,000  and  the  value  of  the  crop 
$34iiBoo,ooo.  In  the  production  of  the  hardy  cereals,  bariey,  lye  and 
buckwheat,  Wisoonain  ranks  high  among  the  states  of  tne  Onion; 
but  oats  and  Indian  com  are  the  largest  cereal  crops  in  the  state. 
The  crop  of  oats  was  79,800,000  bushels  (raised  003,280,000  acresand 
valued  at  $31,122,000)  in  1909;  of  Indian  corn,  50,589,000  bushds 
(raised  on  ii533»ooo  acres  and  valued  at  $30,3M,ooo);  of  barley, 
24,248,000  buucls  (raised  on  866,000  acres  and  valued  at  $13,579,000 
— a  crop  exceeded  only  by  that  of  C^ifornia  and  that  of  Minnesota) ; 
of  wheat,  ^,484,000  bushels  (raised  on  179,000  acres  ai>d  valued  at 
^3t34Si00oy  ;of  rye,4,727^ooobushds  (raised  on290,oooacre8and  valued 
at  $3,214,000— a  crop  exceeded  only  by  that  of  Pennsylvania  and 
that  df  Michigan) ;  and  of  buckwheat,22 1 ,000  bushels(grownon  18,000 
acres  and  valued  at  $172,000).  The  potato  crop  is  huge,  26^724,000 
bushels  being  raised  in  1900  on  262,000  acres,  a  crop  exceeded  only 
in  New  York,  Michigan  and  Maine  Tobacco  also  ba  valuaUe  crop: 
in  1909  37,170,000  Ik,  valued  at  $3,419,640,  were  grown  on  31,500 
acres.  In  1909  14,000  acres  of  sugar  beets  were  harvests  and 
34.340,000  S>  <»  sugar  were  manufactured  in  the  four  beet  sugar 
factories  in  the  state.  In  the  south-central  part  of  the  state  there  are 
valuable  cranberry  marshes.  Orchard  fruits,  especially  appln,  are 
of  increasing  importance. 

The  raisiag  of  hve-stock,  particulariy  of  dairy  cows,  is  an  unportant 
industry.  In  1910,  out  of  a  total  of  2.587.000  neat  cattle,  there  were 
1,506,000  milch  cows.  The  total  number  of  horses  in  the  state  was 
669,000  in  1910,  when  they  were  valued  at  $8o,949,ooa  There  were 
i,O34i00O  sheep,  and  1,651,000  swine. 

Afontf/sctercf.-— The  growth  of  manufacturing  has  been  raiud:  in 
1850  the  value  of  the  manufactures  was  $9,293,068:  in  i860, 
$27,849,467;  in  1870.  $77,214,326;  in  1880,  $128,255480;  in 
1890,  $248,546,164;  and  in  1900,  $360,818,942.  The  product 
under  the  factory  system,  excluding  hand  trades  and  neighbourhood 
industries,  was  $326^752,878  in  1900  and  $411,139,681  in  1905. 
The  most  important  of  the  state's  manufactures  in  1900  and  in  1905 
were  lumber  and  timber  products,  valued  in  the  latter  year  at 
$44*395>766  (Wiaconnn  being  second  in  rank  to  the  state  of  Wash- 
ington). About  60%  (both  in  quantity  and  value)  of  the  lumber 
sawed  in  1905  was  white  pine;  next  in  importance  were  hemkxrk 
(mpre  than  oiie-fourth  in  quantity),  basswood  (nearly  4  %)  and,  in 
smaller  quantities,  birch,  oak,  elm,  maple,  ash.  tamaracK,  Norway 
pine,  cedar  and  spruce.  The  value  of  the  product  of  planing  mills 
was  $11,210,205  in  1905;  and  other  important  manufactures  based 
on  raw  materials  from  forests  were  paper  and  wood  pulp  ($17,84^,174) 
and  fumituro  (11,569,591).  Second  in  value  in  1905  were  cnecse« 
butter  and  condensed  milk  ($20,904,791),  iii  the  product  of  which 
Wisconsin  ranked  second  to  New  York  in  1900  and  1905.  In  190^ 
Wisconsin  ranked  first  of  all  the  states  in  the  value  of  butter,  second 
in  the  value  of  cheese  and  fifth  in  the  value  of  condensed  milk;  the 
dairy  product  of  Wisconsin  in  thb  year  was  17-8  %  (by  value)  of  that 
of  the  entire  country.  Foundry  and  machine-shop  products  ranked 
third  in  value  in  IO05,  when  they  were  valued  at  $29,908,001,  and 
when  iron  and  steel  manufactures  were  valued  at  $10,453,750. 

Among  the  other  important  manufactures  in  1905  were:  malt 
liquors  ($28,692,340)  and  malt  ($8,740,103,  being  1137%  more  than 
in  1900);  flour  and  grist-mill  products  ($28,352,237;  about  60% 
was  wheat  flour);  leather  ($25345,123);  wholesale  slaughtering  and 
meat-packing  ($16,060423);  agricultural  implements  ($10,076,760); 
carriages  and  wagons  ($7,511,392);  men's  clothing  ($6,525,276): 
boots  and  shoes  ($6,511,563);  steam  railway  cars,  constructed  and 
repaired  ($6,511,731);  hosiery  and  knit  goods  ($4,941,744)?  cigars 
($4,372,139);  mattresses  and  spring  beds  ($3,5*7.587);  and 
electrical  machinery,  apparatus  ana  supplies  ($3,194,132). 

In  1905.  out  of  a  total  factory  product  of  $^i  i  .139,681.  $259,420,044 
was  the  value  of  goods  made  in  factories  m  the  twenty-two  muni- 
cipalities of  the  state,  with  a  population  (1900)  of  at  least  8000;  but 
only  36*3  %  of  the  total  number  of  factories  were  in  urban  districts. 
More  than  one-third  of  the  value  of-  factory  products  was  that  of  the 
manufactures  of  Milwaukee  ($138,881,545).  Racine  ranked  second 
with  a  factory  product  valued  at  $16,450,963.    The  manufacture  of 


7+2 


WISCONSIN 


{urnicuic  in  Wiaoonmn  m  centralised  eMiccially  in  Slieboygan,  where 
in  1905  was  manufactured  about  one-tbird  of  the  furniture  made  in 
the  3tate. 

Minus  and  Quamts.-^Thit  lead  mines  of  south-western  Wisconsin 
played  an  important  part  in  the  early  development  of  the  state  (sec 
I  History).  When  the  main  deposits  had  been  worked  down  to  the 
wato*  level,  miningf  up  to  that  time  principall  v  of  lead)  stopped  and  did 
not  start  again  until  aoout  1900,  when  the  high  price  of  zinc  stimulated 
nenewed  working  of  these  deposits.  The  pnnctpal  ores  are  galena, 
sphalerite  or  cine  blende  and  smithsonite  or  zinc  carbonate,  which 
is  locally  called  "  dry  bone  "  and  which  was  the  first  zinc  ore  mined 
in  the  state.  In  1908  the  lead  product  was  valued  at  $347,592 
and  the  zinc  product  at  $1,711,36^,  Wisconsin  ranking  fourth  among 
the  sinc-minmg  states.  The  production  A  iron  ore  in  the  Gogebic 
and  Menominee  ranges  on  the  upper  Michigan  border  is  important. 
Red  haematite  was  mined  in  iJodge  county  before  1854;  in  1877 
the  deposits  in  Florence  county  were  first  worked,  and  in  i88a 

S6a>i7  tons  were  shipped  from  that  county;  and  about  i88a  began 
e  df/clopment  of  the  Gogebk:  deposits  in  Iron  and  Ashland 
counties.  The  masdmum  output  was  in  1890,  being  948,965  bng 
tons;  in  1902  it  was  783,996  long  tons  (79%  from  Iron  county): 
and  in  1908,  733,993  tons.  The  output  b  almost  entirely  haematite. 
There  are  large  deposits  of  stratified  clay  along  the  shores  of  Lake 
Michiran,  from  which  is  made  a  cream-coloured  orick,  so  laigeljr  used 
in  Milwaukee  that  that  city  has  been  called  the  "  cream  dty  " ; 
the  total  valoe  of  day  products  in  1907  was  $i,i27,8i9and  in  i^ 
$95Si39S*  By  far  the  most  valuable  mineral  output  »  building 
atone,  which  was  valued  in  1908  at  $2,8y>,920,  induding  granite 

1$i  1539.781).  limestone  ($1,103,000)  and  sandstone  ($319,130). 
n  1907  and  1908  the  state  rankea  fifth  among;  the  states  of  the 
country  in  the  value  <A  granite  quarried ;  in  1900  it  ranked  fifteenth. 
The  industry  began  in  1880,  when  the  first  quarry  (at  Granite 
Heif^hts,  Marathon  county)  was  opened.  The  prindpal  quarries 
are  in  Dodge,  Green  Lake  (a  blackish  granite  is  quamed  at  Utiey 
and  a  pinkish  riiyditc  at  Berlin),  Maratnon,  Marinette,  Marquette, 
Sauk,  Waupaca  and  Waushara  counties.  Wisconsin  granite  b 
especially  suitable  for  monumental  work.  Limestone  to  found  in  a 
b«^d  bdt  in  the  east,  south  and  west;  more  than  40%  of  the  total 
output  in  IQ08,  which  was  valued  at  $1,103,009,  ^x^a*  ^^ed  for  road- 
maung  and  more  than  one-sixth  in  the  manufacture  of  concrete. 
In  1907  and  1908  Wisconsin  ranked  seventh  among  the  states  in  the 
value  of  limestone  ouarried.  The  first  limestone  quarries  were 
opened  at  Genesee,  Waukesha  county,  in  1848:  at  Wauwatosa,  near 
Milwaukee,  in  1855;  and  near  Bndgeport  in  1856.  Freshwater 
pearis  are  found  in  many  of  the  streams;  and  in  1907  and  1908 
Wisconsin  ranked  first  amons  the  states  in  the  value  of  mineral 
waten  sold,  with  a  value  of  $1,536,703  in  1907  and  $1413,107  in 
1908,  although  in  both  years  the  quantity  sold  in  Wisconsin  was 
ms  than  in  Minnesota  or  in  New  York.  The  most  famous  of  these 
springs  are  in  Waukesha  county^  whence  White  Rock,  Bethesda, 
Clysmic  and  other  waters  are  shipped. 

Porests.—^n  1890  and  in  1900  (when  the  wooded  area  was  esti- 
mated at  31,750  sq.nn.,  or  58%  of  the  total  area  of  the  state)  Wis* 
consin  was  the  foremost  state  in  the  Union  in  the  production  of 
lumber  and  timber.    In  1905  the  value  of  the  lumber  and  timber 

eroduct  was  exceeded  by  that  of  Washin^n;  but  as  late  as  1908 
iTiaconsin  was  the  chief  souree  of  the  white  pine  supply.  Next  to 
whtte  pine  (used  lai]scly  in  shipbuilding)  in  value  in  1908  were  red  or 
Norway  pine  (used  in  house  building),  nemlock  (used  for  lumber  and 
wood  pulp)  and  white  n>ruce,  a  very  valuable  lumber  tree.  In  1908 
the  area  of  the  state  forest  reserve  lands  under  a  state  board  of 
forestry  (chiefiy  in  Oneida,  Forest,  Iron,  Price  and  Vilas  counties) 
was  353.573  acres.  Forest  fires  have  been  numerous  and  exceedingly 
destructive  in  Wisconsin;  the  loss  of  timber  and  other  property 
from  this  cause  in  1908  was  about  $9,000,000. 

Fisheries. — ^The  fisheries  of  Wisconsin  are  of  considerable  import- 
ance; the  catch  in  1908  was  valued  at  $1,067,170,  lake  trout  and 
herring  bdng  the  most  valuable.  There  is  a  state  board  of  com- 
missioners of  fisheries  (see  below,  \  Covemment),  which  distributed 
in  1908  149,338,069  eggs,  fry  and  nngerlings,  including  112,0^5,000 
wall-eyed  pike  and  about  12,000,000  each  oflake  trout  apd  whitefish. 
There  are  state  hatcheries  at  Madison  (for  brook  and  rainbow  trout), 
Bayfield  (brook,  rainbow  and  lake  trout  and  whitefish),  Oshkosh 
(laice  trout,  whitefish  and  wall>eyed  pike),  Minocqua  (ptKe,  bass  and 
muskallonge),  Ddafield  (black  bass  and  wall-eyed  pike)  and  Wild 
Rose  (brook  trout). 

TratuporUUion  and  CrainKfCff.— iRailway  building  in  Wisconsin 


1857  to  the  Mississipi  . 
runner  of  the  great  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St  Paul  system,  which 
now  crosses  the  southern  half  of  the  state  with  two  trunk  lines  and 
with  one  line  parallels  the  shore  of  LakcMichi^n.  The  Chicago  & 
North-Western  and  the  Chicago,  St  Paul.  Mmneapolis  &  Omaha, 
which  it  controls,  are  together  known  as"  The  North- Western  Line." 
The  tracks  of  the  Chicago  &  North-Western  (built  to  Janesville  in 
1855  and  to  Fond  du  Lac  in  1858)  form  a  network  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  state,  affording  direct  connexions  with  Chicago.  The 
Chicago.  St  Paul,  Minneapolis  &  Omaha  extends  into  the  western 
part  of  the  state,  where  it  connects  with  the  trans-MiBsissippi  lines 


of  the  Chicago  A  North-Wisstcni.  The  Chicago,  Burflngton  A 
Quincy  (owned  by  the  Great  Northern  and  the  Northern  Pacific 
railways)  travenes  the  state  along  its  western  boundary  and  gives 
it  access  to  a  third  great  railway  system  with  transcontinental 
service.  The  Minneapolis.  St  Paul  &  Sault  Ste;  Marie,  i|i  which  las 
been  absorbed  the  old  Wisconsin  Central,  crosses  the  state  and 
extends  into  the  Canadian  North- West,  sharing  in  the  heavy  graia 
traflic  of  that  section,  and,  like  the  Duluth,  South  Shore  &  Atlantk. 
which  runs  along  the  Lake  Superior  shore,  is  a  link  in  the  ttant- 
continental  svstem  of  the  Canadian  Pacific,  which  oontr^  both  these 
roads.  The  Northern  Pacific  enters  Wisconsin  in  its  north  westers 
corner  and  extends  to  the  Lake  Superior  country.  The  Green  Bey 
&  Western  railway  between  Winona  and  Keiraitnee  has  ferry  con- 
nexion across  Lake  Midiigan.  In  1900  there  were  6538  m.  of  track, 
and  on  the  1st  of  January  i^  7513  m.  Characteristic  of  the 
commetce  of  the  state  is  the  shipment  by  the  Great  Lakes  of  bulky 
freight,  chiefly  iron  ore,  grain  and  flour  and  lumber.  The  retun 
freight  movement  to  the  Wisconsin  kike  ports  is  made  up  chieAy 
of  coal  from  the  Lake  Erie  shipping  points  tor  the  ooalfidda  of  Peww 
sylvania  and  West  Viiginia.  Milwaukee  is  one  of  the  leading  lake 
ports,  and  is  the  only  port  of  entry  in  the  state;  its  imports  were 
valued  at  $796,285  in  1899  and  at  $4,493*635  in  1909,  and  its 
exports  at  $2726  in  1899  and  at  $2^.890  in  1909. 

To  connect  the  upper  Mississippi  river  and  the  Great  Lakes, 
between  1840  and  1850  a  canal  was  be^un  between  the  Pox,  flowing 
into  Green  Bay,  an  ann  of  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Wisconsin  river, 
flowing  into  the  Mississippi,^  and  improvement  of  navigation  on 
these  riven  was  undertaken  fay  the  state  with  the  Assistance  of  the 
Federal  government;  in  18^3  the  work  came  into  the  hands  of  a 
private  corporation  which  in  1856  opeaoA  the  canal.  In  1873  it 
was  taken  over  by  the  United  States.  In  1887  the  route  through  the 
Wisconsin  river  was  abandoned,  and  thereafter  only  the  Fax  river 
was  Improved.  Up  to  June  i^  $3,810,431  had  been  apent  by 
the  Federal  government  on  thb  improvement.  Green  Bay  hsia 
communkation  with  Lake  Michigan,  not  only  hy^  way  of  its  natural 
entrance,  but  by  a  covemment  ship  canal  (built  1873^1881  by  a 
private  company;  taken  over  by  the  Federal  government  in  1893; 
maximum  draft  in  X909,  so  ft.;  projected  channel  depth,  3i  ft.)  at 
Sturgeon  Bay,  an  arm  of  Green  Bay.  whkh  cuts  acrosa  the  Ekxr 
county  peninsuku  In  1908  there  passed  through  this  cajnal  3307 
vessels  carrying  caigocs  of  an  estimated  value  or$i8,36i,455«x5. 

PoptUatioH. — ^The  popuhtion  of  Wsoonsin  in  18^  was  1,686.880 
(exclusive  of  6450  persons  specially  enumerated) ;  in  1900  the  totid 
was  3,o69/>42-|-an  increase  of  33 •2%  on  the  basis  of  the  total  at 
each  enumeration;  and  in  1910  it  reached  a  total  of  2,333,86o.> 
The  density  of  the  population  in  1910  was  42.3  to  the  square  mile. 
Of  the  total  population  in  1900.  1,5^.071.  or  75*1  %.  weta  native- 
born,  the  increase  in  native-born  since  1890  having  been  32*3%, 
while  there  was  a  decrease  of  fordgn-bom  of  o>6  %.    ThefealUqg  off 
in  foreign  immigration  in  the  decade  1890-1900  contrasts  atrongly 
with  the  increase  of  28*1  %  in  the  number  of  foreign-bom  in  iMa- 
1890.    Of  the  native*bora  population  in  1900,  84%,  or  1.304,918, 
were  bom  within  the  state.     Of  the  fordgn-bora  342,777  were 
Germane,  61,575  were  Norwegians,  26,196  were  Swedes,  35,607 
were  natives  ofCjerman  Poland,  23,860  were  English-Canadians 
and  23,544  were  Irish.   Of  the  total  population  1 12472,327  pecaons,  or 
more  than  seven-tenths  (71*2%).  were  of  fonrign  parentago— <a 
either  one  or  both  parents  were  fordgn-boni~-«nd  576,746  were  of 
German,  134,203  of  Norwegian,  76,593«of  Irish  and  70,585  of  Polish 
parentage,  both  on  the  father's  and  on  the  mother  s  side.    At  the 
census   of  1840,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  thousand  French- 
Canadians,  the  population  was  made  up  of  American-bora  pioneeim 
from  the  Eastern  states,  and  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  terri- 
tory of  a  RMinkling  of  men  from  Kentucky,  Virginia  and  fanhcr 
south.    Before  the  next  census  was  taken  tac  le^utionary  move- 
ment of  1848  in  Germany  led  to  the  cmigratkm  of  thousands  from 
that  country  to  Wisconsin,  and  there  waa  an  increase  of  886*0  % 
in  the  population  from   1840  to  18^     Norwegians  and  otner 
Scandinavians,  Irish,  Poles,  Dutch,  Belgians  and  Swiss  followed. 
C^ermans  and  Irish  are  now  scattered  throughout  the  state;  but 
the    German    element    predominates    markedly    in    Milwaukee. 
Norwegians,  Danes  and  Swedes  are  mora  numerous  in  the  western 
and  northern  counties.    There  are  Finna  in  Douglas  county  and 
Icdandere  on  Washington  Island,  in  Green  Bay.    Pdes  are  chiefly 
in  Milwaukee,  Manitowoc  and  Portage  counties,  Bdgiansand  Dutch 
in  Brown  and  Door  counties,  («erman  Swiss  in  Green,  Fond  do  Lac, 
Winnebago,  Buffaloand  Pierce  ooundes,  and  Bohemians  in  Kewaunett 
county,  where  they  form  almost  50%  of  the  population.    Some 
Italians  are  massed  in  Vemonaad  Florence  counties,  and  there  aiB 
French  Canadians  in  the  north.    There  were  8373  indiam,  of  whom 
1657  were  not  taxed,  3^42  necroes,  3i3  Chinese  and  5  lapaneae  in 
the  state  in  1900.    The  Indians    indtide  repreaentauves  o(f  the 
Menominee  (1487  in  1909),  Stockbridge  and  Muniee  (583)  tribe*  under 
the  Keshena  Sdiool,  Chippewa  under  tlic  Lac  du  Flambmi  School 
(705)  end  the  La  Pointe School  (4453),  Ondda  (2259)  undertheOncida 

"'"     ■  .  ■         »  11  •    -  I  I  I    ■■     ■  III!    »»  11      I       I  .11  III  I  III 

^^The  Fox  and  Wisconsin  rivers  are  separated  at  Portage  by  a 
distance  of  only  2  zn. 

'  At  each  preceding  census  the  population  was  as  follows:  (1840) 
30.945,  (1850)  305.391.  (i860)  775.WI,  (1870)  ifiS^<^  By  tb« 
state  census  of  1905  it  was  3,338,949. 


WISCONSIN 


7+3 


Sdiool,  WinmlM|[o  (1094)  tmder  the  Wittenbett  Sdiool  aod  Pota- 
-watofni  (440)  not  under  an  ag;ent.  The  civiliKd  Brotherton  and 
Stockbrif^  Indfions  Kve  principally  in  Calumet  county.  Among 
retigioua  CKnominations  the  Roman  Catholics,  with  505,264  membere 
in  1906,  had  50*S  %  o(  the  total  communicaota  or  church  members 
in  tne  state.  The  Lutheran  bodies  ranked  next  with  384,286 
members  (io^uding  153,690  of  the  Evangelical  church.  49.535  <«  the 
United  Norwegian  church,  23,927  of  the  Synod  for  the  Norwegian 
Evangelical  church  I5i47i  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Joint  Synod 
of  CMiio,  15.230  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod  of  Iowa  and 
8695  of  the  General  Council).  Only  one  other  state  (E^nsjrlvania) 
had  a  larger  percentage  of  the  total  membership  of  this  denomination. 
Tiaens  were  57.473  Methodists  (chiefly  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Chax«b),  36,163  Coogrq^atioiialista  and  31,716  Baptists. 

Cavemment.— The  original  constitution  of  the  state,  adopted 
in  J84S,  and  amended  in  1869,  1870,  1874,  1877,  iSiSi,  1883, 
1902  and  1908,  is  still  in  force.  An  amendment  may  be  proposed 
by  either  house  of  the  legislature,  and  if  passed  by  tnfo  successive 
legislatures  by  a  majority  of  the  members  elected  to  each  house 
must  be  submitted  to  the  people  for  ratification  by  a  majority 
vote.  A  constitutional  convention  may  be  called  on  the  reoom- 
mendation  of  a  majority  of  the  Senate  and  Assembly  if  this 
proposal  receives  a  majority  vote  at  the  next  election  for  members 
of  thx>  legislature.  Suffrage  was  originally  granted  to  every 
male'  twenty-one  yean  of  age  or  upwaxds  resident  in  the  state 
for  one  year  preceding  any  election — if  he  were  a  white  citizen 
of  the  Vnitcd  States,  or  a  white  of  foreign  birth  who  had  declared , 
his  intention  to  be  naturalized,  or  an  Indian  declared  by  Congress 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  a  civilised  person  of  Indian 
descent  not  a  member  of  any  tribe;  and  the  constitution  pro- 
vided that  the  legislature  might  by  law  give  suffrage  to  others 
than  those  enumerated  if  such  an  act  of  legislature  were  approved 
by  a  majority  of  the  popular  vote  at  a  general  election.  By  an 
amendment  of  1882  tlw  word  "  white  "  was  omitted  and  by  an 
amendment  of  1908  it  was  provided  that  those  foreign-bom  and 
imnaturaii2cd  in  order  to  become  electors  must  have  declared 
their  intentions  to  become  citizens  before  the  ist  of  December 
1908,  and  that  *'  the  rights  hereby  granted  to  such  persons 
shall  cease  on  the  first  day  of  December  a.d.  xqi  a."  The  amend- 
ment of  X908  also  permits  the  legislature  to  provide  for  the 
registration  of  electors  in  incorporated  dties  and  villages. 

The  official  ballot  is  of  the  blanket  type,  with  names  of  candi- 
dates in  party  columns,  but  with  no  candidate's  name  repeated 
on  the  ballot  and  with  no  emblems  to  mark  the  p>arty  columns. 
In  1909  an  act  was  passed  permitting  county  boards  to  adopt  a 
"  coupon  "  ballot.*  Since  1905  there  has  been  a  direct  nomina- 
tion syste  m  of  primaries  for  all  officers  except  delegates  to  national 
nominating  conventions. 

Executive  power  b  vc^ed  in  a  governor  and  a  lieutenant- 
gnvemor,  elected  for  two  years.  The  governor's  salary  (since 
1869)  is  $5000  a  year  and  the  Ueutenant-governor's  $1000. 
Candidates  for  either  office  must  be  citizens  of  the  United  States 
and  qualified  electors  of  the  state.  The  lieutenant-governor  is  pre- 
sident of  the  Senate  with  a  casting  vote  only.  A  bill  vetoed  by 
the  governor  becomes  a  law  if  it  is  approved  by  two-thirds  of 
the  members  present  in  each  house;  and  a  bill  not  returned  by 
the  governor  within  six  days  (excepting  Sunday;  before  190$ 
the  constitutional  limit  was  three  days)  after  its  presentation 
to  him  becomes  a  law  unless  the  return  of  the  bill  is  prevented 
by  the  adjournment  of  the  legislature.  The  governor  has  power 
to  grant  reprieves,  commutations  and  pardons,  except  for  treason 
— he  may  suspend  execution  of  sentence  for  treason  until  action 
is  taken  by  the  legislature — ^and  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

The  administrative  officers,  a  secretary  of  state,  a  treasurer 
and  an  attorney-general,  are  elected  for  two  years  and  act  as 
comnussioners  of  public  lands.  The  secretary  of  state  is  e»- 
qficio  auditor;  and  he  acta  as  governor  if  the  regularly  elected 

.  ^  Excepting  persons  under  guardianship,  those  weak-minded  or 
insane,  those  convicted  (without  restoration  to  civil  rights)  of  treason 
or  felony,  and  those  who  have  engaged  (directly  or  indirectly)  in  a 
duel. 

*  TIm  coupon  ballot  was  proposed  for  me  throucfaout  the  state,  but 
was  defeated  fay  popular  vol.;  in  April  1906.  The  ticket  is  made  up 
of  as  many  coloured  sbects  as  there  are  party  organizations  (plus 
one  for  independent  nominations),  and  the  name  of  each  candidate 
k  on  a  perforated  slip,  which  must  be  detached  if  it'  is  to  be  voted. 


governor  and  lieuCenant-govemor  die,  are  removed  from  office 

or  are  absent  from  the  state.  A  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  is  chosen  by  poptilar  vote  for  a  four-year  term. 
Other  administrative  officers  are  a  commissioner  of  insurance 
(from  1867  to  1878  the  secretary  of  the  state  was  commissioner 
of  insurance;  the  office  became  dectivc  in  1881) ;  a  commissioner 
of  labour  and  industrial  statistics;  three  nulroad  commissioners,* 
who  have  jurisdiction  over  all  public  utilities,  including  telegraph 
and  telephone;  a  commissioner  of  hanking;  a  dairy  and  food 
commissioner;  a  state  superintendent  of  public  property; 
three  tax  commissioners  who  act  (since  1901)  as  a  state  board  of 
assessment;  commissioners  of  fisheries  (established  1874);  a 
state  board  of  agriculture  (1897);  and  a  state  board  of  forestry 
(1905,  succeeding  a  department  created  in  1903). 

The  legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  and  an  Assembly  and 
meets  biennially,  and  when  called  in  qiedal  session  by  the  governor 
to  transact  special  buaness  deinitdy  named  in  the  governor's 
call.  The  number  of  assemUymen  cannot  be  less  than  54  or 
more  than  xoo,  and  the  number  of  senators  must  be  not  more  than 
one-third  or  Ine  than  one-fourth  the  numbtf  of  members  of  the 
Assembly.  In  xpro  there  were  33  senators  and  100  assemblymen* 
Elections  to  the  Senate  and  Assembly  are  biennial*  and  the  term 
of  members  of  the  Assembly  is  two  years,  but  the  senatorial 
term  is  four  years  and  only  one-half  of  the  members  are  elected 
each  two  years.  A  candidate  for  either  house  must  have  resided 
in  the  state  at  least  one  year,  must  be  a  qualified  elector  in  the 
district  from  which  he  is  chosen,  and  may  not  be  a  member  of 
Ck>ngress  or  hold  any  mUitaiy  or  dvU  office  under  the  United 
States.  Since  1855  a  state  census  has  been  taken  every  ten  years, 
and  on  the  basis  of  these  censuses  the  legislature  re-apportions 
the  Senate  and  Assembly  districts.  Each  member  of  the  Icgis* 
lature  reaves  $500  a  year  and  10  cents  a  mile  for  mileage. 
Any  bill  may  originate  in  either  house,  and  cither  house  may 
amend  a  bill  passed  by  the  other.  Special  legislation  of  several 
specified  kinds  is  forbidden,  especially  by  amendments  of  1871 
and  1892;  and  the  constitution  as  adopted  in  1648  prohibited 
the  Iqpalature's  aathorizing  any  lottery  or  granting  any  divorce. 
The  Assembly  may  iropeadi  civil  officers  by  a  majority  of  all 
elected  members,  and  the  Senate  to  try  impeachments;  for 
conviction  a  two-thirds  vote  of  all  members  present  is  required. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  state  is  vested:  in  a  supreme 
court*  of  seven  members  (salary  $6000  a  year;  elected  for  a 
term  of  ten  years;  the  senior  justice  is  chief  justice)  with 
appellate  jurisdiction  throughout  the  state,  general  superintend* 
ence  over  all  inferior  courts,  power  to  issue,  hear  and  determine 
writs  of  habeas  corpus,  mandamus,  injunction,  quo  wur<irtt&, 
certiorari  and  other  original  and  remedial  writs;  nineteen  (only 
five  under  the  constitution  of  1848)  circtut  courts,  of  one  judge 
each  except  in  the  second  cuxuit  (including  Milwaukee)  in  which 
there  are  four  judges,  elected  (at  a  spring  election,  and  not  at 
the  general  state  election)  by  the  voters  of  the  circuit  district; 
probate  judges,  one  elected  (for  two  years)  in  each  county, 
except  where  the  legislature  confers  probate  powers  on  inferior 
courts;  and  in  towns,  cities  and  villages,  justices  of  the  peace, 
elected  for  two  years. 

Local  Government, — ^Wisconsin  has  the  mixed  or  township-county 
system  of  local  government.  Each  township  (or  "  town,'  as  it  is 
eomniODlY  called)  dects  at  its  annual  town  meeting  on  the  first 
Tuesday  m  April  three  supervisors,  a  clerk,  a  treasurer,  one  or  more 
aasessoffs.  two  justices  of  the  peace,  from  one  to  three  constables, 
and,  if  the  town  has  a  library,  a  librarian.  Justices  of  the  peace 
hold  office  for  two  yrars,  other  town  officets  for  one  year  only,  except 
that  in  a  county  having  a  population  of  100,000  or  more  (Milwaukee 
county),  town  meetings  are  biennial  and  all  <^cer»  are  elected  for 
two  years.  For  other  than  school  purposes  rates  must  not  exceed 
2  %  of  the  assessed  valuation  of  the  taxable  property  in  the  towR> 
The  chairmen  of  the  several  town  boards  of  supervisors,  with  (he 

'  The  office  of  railroad  commissioner  was  created  in  1874,  became 
elective  in  1881  and  was  replaced  under  an  act  of  1^5  by  a  com- 
mission of  three  members,  which  received  jurisdiction  over  other 
public  service  corporaHons  in  1907. 

*  Until  1881  elections  to  the  legislature  were  held  annually,  and 
the  term  of  assemblymen  was  one  year  and  of  senators  two  year*. 

*Not  separately  organiied  until  1853.  the  judges  of  the  ciseolt 
courf  actea  as  justices  of  the  supreme  coon*  ^ 


744 


WISCONSIN 


•uperviior  of  eadi  wtrd  of  a  city  and  the  mpernMr  o(  each  viHafe 
Lb  the  couaty,  conititute  the  county  board  of  supervisors,  and  each 
county  elects  biennially,  at  the  general  election  in  November,  a 
clerk,  a  treasurer,  a  shcrifT,  a  coroner,  a  cleric  of  the  circuit  court,  a 
district-attorney,  a  register  of  dcc-ds  and  a  surveyor.  The  county 
board  represents  the  county,  is  entrusted  with  the  care  of  the  county 
pn^ierty  and  the  managenaent  of  the  county  business,  appoints  a 
supervisor  of  assessments  and  levies  the  taxes  necessary  to  defray 
the  county  expenses.  The  countv  board  also  elects  a  county  high* 
way  commissioner  for  a  term  of  three  years,  is  required  to  designate 
a  system  of  prospective  county  highways,  and  may  levy  a  special 
tax  and  borrow  money  for  the  development  of  the  system.  Cities  are 
chartered  according  to  population,*  with  a  na^yor,  a  single  legislative 
Chamber  known  as  the  board  of  aldermen  or  city  council  and  the  usual 
administrative  officers  and  boards.  The  mayor,  aldermen,  treasurer, 
comptroller,  justices  of  the  peace  and  supervisors  must  be  elected  by 
the  people,  but  the  other  offices  are  filled  as  the  council  of  each  city 
directs.  ^  An  act  of  1^)09  provides  for  the  adoption  of  government  bv 
commission  in  any  city  of  the  second,  third  or  fourth  class  which 
votes  for  this  form  of  government  at  an  elcction'callcd  by  a  petition 
signed  by  25  %  of  the  voters  at  the  preceding  election  for  mayor. 

Miscellaneous  Lxms. — A  married  woman  may  manage  her  separate 
(woperty  as  if  she  were  single.  A  widow  u  entitled  to  a  dower  in 
one-third  of  her  hust^nd's  real  estate,  and  a  widower  is  life  tenant  by 
courtesv  of  all  the  real  estate  of  which  his  wife  died  seiaed  and  not  dis- 
posed 01  by  her  last  will,  unless  she  leaves  issue  by  a  former  husband, 
to  whom  the  estate  might  descend,  in  which  case  her  estate  passes 
immediately  to  such  bsuc.  If  either  husband  or  wife  dies  intestate 
and  leaves  no  issue  the  surviving  spouse  is  entitled  to  the  entire 
estate  of  the  deceased,  both  real  and  personal.  The  causes  for  an 
absolute  divorce  are  adultery,  impoten<^,  sentence  to  imprisonment 
for  a  term  of  three  years  or  more,  wilful  desertion  for  one  year, 
cruel  or  inhuman  treatment,  habitual  drunkenness  and  voluntary 
separation  for  five  years.  For  any  other  cause  than  adultery  an 
action  for  a  divorce  cannot  be  brought  unless  one  of  the  parties  has 
been  a  resident  of  the  state  for  two  years  immediately  preoedine  the 
suit.  Neither  party  is  permitted  to  marry  a  third  paurty  until  one 
year  after  the  divorce  has  been  obtained.  Adultery  is  punishable 
by  imprisonment  in  the  state  prison  for  not  more  than  tnrce  years 
nor  less  than  one  year,  or  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  fiooo  nor  less  than 
S200.  A  husband  who  wilfully  abandons  hts  wife,  Icavins  ber 
destitute,  or  who  refuses  to  support  her  when  he  is  able  to  do  so, 
may  be  punished  by  imprisonment  in  the  state  prison  not  exceeding 
one  year  or  in  the  county  jail  or  workhouse  not  more  than  six  months 
nor  less  than  fifteen  days,  and  for  ten  days,  in  the  discretion  of  the 
judge,  he  may  be  kept  on  a  broad  and  water  diet.  A  homestead 
owned  and  occupied  by  any  resident  of  the  state  and  consisting  of 
not  more  than  40  acres  of  agricultural  land  outside  the  limits  of  a 
city  or  village,  or  one-fourth  of  an  acre  within  a  city  or  village, 
together  with  the  dwelling-house  and  other  appurtenances,  it  exempt 
from  liability  for  debts  other  than  labourers ,  mechanics'  and  pur- 
chaae-money  liens,  mortgages  and  taxes.  If  the  homestead  is  sold 
the  proceeds  from  the  ssue,  to  an  amount  not  exceeding  $5000,  are 
likewise  exempt  for  a  period  of  two  years,  provided  they  are  held 
for  the  purpose  of  procuring  another  homestead.  If  the  owner  is 
a  married  man  hb  homestead  cannot  be  sold  or  mortgaged  without 
his  wife's  consent.    The  employment  of  children  under  fourteen 


permitted  only  during  the  vacation  ot  the  pui 
between  fourteen  and  sixteen  years  of  age  may  be  employed  at  a 
gainful  occupation  only  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  school 
principal  or  clerk  of  the  board  of  education.  No  child  under  sixteen 
years  of  age  may  be  employed  longer  than  fifty-five  hours  in  any 
one  week,  more  than  ten  hours  in  any  one  day,  more  than  six  daya 
In  any  one  week,  or  between  6*0  p.m.  and  7*0  a.m. 

Otncr  radical  legislation,  especially  in  regard  to  railways,  has 
included:  the  Porter  Law,  regulating  rates,  which  was  enacted  in 
1874  during  the  "  Granger  Movement,"  was  modified  from  time  to 
time,  and  was  displaced  Dy  a  law  of  190s  (in  1908  declared  constitu- 
tional BO  long  as  stockholders  receive  a  reasonable  compensation  " 
on  in  veatments)  creating  a  state  railway  commission,  and  providing  for 
the  physical  valuation  of  railways  on  an  ad  valorem  basis  tor  taxation ; 
a  law  (1907)  making  3  cents  a  mile  the  maximum  fare;  an  anti-> 
tipping  hw  (1005);  a  law  forbidding  the  sale  of  cigarettes ;  an  act 
(1907)  forbidding  insurance  companies  to  do  both  participating  and 
non-participating  business;  and  an  eight-hour  laboor  law  in  cfSoct 
on  the  1st  of  January  1908. 

Fimtnct. — Revenue  for  state  purposes  is  derived  principally  from 
taxes  on  corporations,  from  an  innerftance  tax  and  frt>m  departmental 
and  institutional  fees  and  charges;  that  for  counties,  towns,  villages 
and  cities  from  a  general  property  tax.  The  general  property  tax 
has  long  been  emploj/cd  almost  wholly  for  educational  purposes  only. 
The  state  tax  on  railways  and  other  public  service  corporations  is 

^  The  first  class  comprises  cities  having  a  population  of  150,000 
or  move  (Milwaukee);  the  second  class  those  having  a  population 
between  •40JOOO  and  150.000;  the  third  class  those  having  a  popu- 
lation between  10,000  and  401000;  the  fourth  class  those  having  a 
population  leas  than  10,000. 


levied  on  aa  od  saiffrvm  basis;  bat  ttkpluMie  oompaaiea  «e 
by  collecting  a  percentage  of  the  gross  receipts.  Insaranoeoomi 
are  taxed  on  premiunw  and  income.  In  1906  th«  ooastitatioa 
antended  to  permit  a  ^duated  tax  on  incomes,  privileges  and 
occupations.  A  poll  tax  u  levied  for  highway  purposes  in  towaa  ami 
villages,  but  the  ip;neral  charter  law  does  not  provide  for  the  collec- 
tion of  poll  taxes  m  cities.  The  proceeds  from  corporation  taxes  in- 
creased from  $1,711,387  in  1899  to  f5,969>77i  in  1908.  The  aiate 
receipts  from  all  sources  increased  from  14,070,316  for  the  year  coding 
September  30. 1899,  to  $8,209,982  for  the  year  ending  June  30.  1906: 
the  disbursements  in  the  latter  year  were  $7,762,771  or  $S37,aii 
leas  than  the  reoopts. 

Asa  result  of  the  (aOure  of  "  wildcat  *'  banks  duting  the  TerrHorial 
period,  a  clause  was  inserted  in  the  state  constitution  forbiddios  the 
legislature  to  charter  a  bank  or  pass  a  general  banking  law  until  the 
people  had  voted  in  favour  of  banks,  and  providing  further  that  no 
banlc  charter  or  general  banking  law  should  be  <M  any  force  untQ 
a  majority  of  the  voters  at  a  general  election  had  approved  of  iu 
The  pec^iie  gave  their  approval  to  a  general  banking  law  in  1852, 
and  state  banks  were  incorporated  undo-  it.  Private  banks  and  one 
savings  bank  were  also  chartered.  In  190^  a  state  banking  depart- 
ment was  created  under  the  mana^pement  of  a  commissioner  of  Mnk- 
ing  appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate 
for  a  term  of  five  years.  Under  this  law  private  banks  becanie 
state  banks,  and  au  except  national  banks  are  examined  by  the 
commissioner,  hb  deputy  or  some  person  appointed  by  the  com- 
missioner, at  least  once  a  year.  When  satisfied  that  a  bank  has 
become  insolvent,  the  commissioner  may  take  posaesooa  of  it  attd 
wind  up  its  affairs.  In  1909  there  were  470  state  banks  and  3  savings 
banks  with  total  resources  amounting  to  $140,155455. 

To  prevent  such  extravagant  expenditures  for  internal  improve- 
ments as  had  brought  disaster  to  Michigan  and  other  states,  tlie 
framers  of  the  constitution  of  Wisconsin  Inserted  a  claase  limiting 
its  aggregate  indebtedness  to  $100,000  for  all  purposes  other  than 
to  repel  an  invasion,  to  suppress  an  insurrection  or  for  defence  in 
time  of  war,  and  the  state  is  free  from  debt  with  the  exception  of 
that  contracted  on  account  of  the  Civil  War.  This  war  debt, 
although  amounting^  to  $2,251,000,  is  held  by  four  state  educational 
funds.  A  constitutional  amendment,  adopted  in  187^,  limits  the 
indebtedness  of  each  county,  city,  town,  village  and  scnoot  district 
to  5  %  of  the  value  of  its  taxable  property. 

Education. — \t^sconsin  has  an  excellent  free  public  school 
system,  which  was  established  in  XS48  and  which  provides  a 
graded  system  of  instruction  in  country  district  and  dty  schools, 
high  schools  and  normal  schools  and  the  University  of  Wiscoimn 
(incorporated  1848;  see  Wisconsin,  Uniyekstty  of).  By  a 
Law  of  1907  school  attendance  (24  weeks  per  annum  in  the  country 
— a  law  of  1903  had  required  only  20  weeks — ^32  weeks  in  dtics) 
was  made  compulsory  for  children  between  seven  and  fourteen 
years  of  age  who  do  not  live  more  than  2  m.  from  school  by  the 
nearest  travelled  public  highway.  In  1907-1908  37*2%  of 
those  between  seven  and  fourteen  years  of  a^  fai  the  state 
attended  no  schooL  The  total  public  school  enrolment  in  1909 
1910  was  466,554.  In  1901  a  law  was  enacted  providing  for 
state  graded  schools  of  two  classes,  which  must  be  opened  for  at 
least  nine  months  each  year;  graded  schools  of  the  first  claaa 
(of  three  or  more  departments)  receive  $300  a  year  each  from 
the  state,  and  graded  schools  of  the  second  class  (of  two  depart- 
ments only)  receive  $200  a  year  each  from  the  state.  About 
X906  rural  graded  schools,  outside  of  villages,  were  first  organized. 
Ihere  are  twenty-two  day  schools  for  the  deaf.  There  are  a 
few  township  high  schools  (28  out  of  285  in  1909),  and  these 
receive  from  the  state  one-haif  of  the  total  annually  paid  for 
teachers'  salaries;  for  free  high  schools  the  first  state  provision 
was  made  in  1875.  Ihere  are  spedal  kindergarten  training 
departments  in  tlve  Milwaukee  and  Superior  schools,  depart- 
ments for  manual  training  at  Oshkosh  and  Plattcville,  and  a 
training  department  in  domestic  science  at  the  Stevens  Point 
school.  The  first  kindergarten  officially  connected  with  any 
American  state  normal  school  was  opened  at  Oshkosh  in  18S0. 
The  state  normal  schools  are  supported  largely  from  the  interest 
($89,137  in  1908)  of  a  fund  ($1,957,330  in  1908)  created  in  1865 
from  the  sale  of  swamp  and  overflowed  lands,  and  from  an 
annual  state  tax  ($230,000  in  1908).  In  addition  to  the 
state  university  the  state  maintains  at  Platteville  a  school  of 
mines,  opened  in  1908.  Under  state  control  there  is  a  system 
of  teachers'  and  fanners'  institutea.  A  Free  Ubra^  Comnmuon 
of  five  members  created  in  1895  maintains  about  650  dfctdating 
free  public  b'brarics  comprising  more  than  40,000  volumes. 
In  X907  there  were  about  960,000  vcdumes  in  public  township 


WISCONSIN 


7+5 


for  which  a  law  ol  1887  liad  made  pioviaioii;  since 
1895  the  formation  of  such  libraries  has  been  mandatory,  and 
books,  dioBOi  by  the  oounty  superintendent,  are  bought  from  a 
luad  of  10  cents  for'every  person  ni  school  age  in  towns,  viilsgcs 
and  dtles  of  the  fourth  dass.  An  act  of  X901  permits  county 
boards  to  twtfViWh  county  systems  of  travelling  libraries.  In 
i^^  the  total  ezpoiditure  for  public  education  in  the  state  was 
$12,547,574;  of  this  sum  $10,604,294  was  spent  for  common 
schools,  Ugh  sdioola  and  graded  schools,  $1,091,135  for  the 
university,  and  $547,661  for  normal  schools.  The  total  iiuxme 
for  schools  m  1907-1908  was  $r, 773,659,  of  which  $1,379,410 
was  from  thr  seven-tentha-of^a-mill  tax,  $300,000  was  from 
licence  fees  and  taxes  npon  onpoEatiattS  (for  salaries  of  rural 
scho<d  inspectors)  and  $194,249  the  income  from  the  common 
school  fmad  which  in  that  year  amdunted  to  $3,845,929. 

Educstional  institutions  of  collegiate  rank  are  Beloit  College 
(1846;  originally  Congregatbnal,  now  undenominational) 
at  Beloit;  CarroU  College  (1846,  Presbyterian),  at  Waukesha; 
Lawrence  College  (1847;  Methodist  Episcopal),  at  Appleton; 
Conoofdia  CoUi^  (x88i*,  Lutheran),  Marquette  University 
(1864,  Roman  CaUioHc),  and  Milwaukee-Downer  College  (1895; 
ikon-Bectaiiatt,  for  women;  an  outgrowth  of  Downer  College, 
Congregational  and  Presbyterian,  founded  at  Fox  Lake  hi  1853), 
•11  at  Mihrankee;  Milton  College  (1867;  Seventh  Day  Baptist), 
at  Milton;  North-western  University  -(1865;  Lutheran)  at 
Watertown;  Ripon  College  (1851;  originally  under  Presbyterian 
and  Congregational  control,  now  non-sectarian),  at  Ripon; 
Waylaad  Uidverslty  (1855;  co-educational;  Baptist),  at  Beaver 
Dam;  and  the  fdOowing  Roman  Catholic  schoob:  St  Clara 
Academy  (1847;  Dominican)  at  Sinsiniwa,  St  Frands  Seminary 
(1853)  at  St  Francis,  and  St  Lawrence  College  (i86x,  Capuchin) 
at  Mt  Calvary.  There  are  also  many  private  academies  and 
trade  or  tedmical  sdiools,  and  six  Industrial  schools  for  Indians. 

CharitahU  and  Penal  InsHtnHons.'^ln  the  number  and  equipment 
of  its  reformatory,  charitable  and  penal  iostitations,  Wisconsin 
stands  high.  These  institutions  are  under  the  general  direction  of  a 
state  t>oanl  of  control  (established  in  1905)  of  five  members  (one  a 
woman),  appointed  by  the  governor  for  a  term  of  five  years.  This 
board  has  chaige  of  the  following  institutions:  a  State  Hospital  for 
the  Insan«  (i860)  at  Mendota;  the  Northern  Hospital  for  tho 
Insane  (1973)  ^  WinndngOw  4  m.  N.  of  Oshkoeh;  a  School  for  the 
Deaf  itSsa)  at  Delavan.  Walworth  county,  in  which  the  teaching  is 
prindpo^'  oral  and  which  includes  a  hkh  school;  a  School  for  the 
Blind  (i&M*  taken  over  by  the  state  m  1850)  at  Jancsville;  an 
ItidustrialSchOol  for  Boys  (opened  in  i860,  as  a  House  of  Refuge)  at 
Waukoha,  with  a  farm  of  404  acres;  the  State  Prison  (185^)  at 
Waupun ;  State  Public  School  for  Dependent  and  Neglected  Children 

ii886)  at  Sparta,  with  a  farm  of  234  acres;  Wisconsin  Home  for 
'eeble  Minded  (1896)  at  Chippewa  Falls:  Wisconsin  State  Re- 
formatory (1898),  near  Green  Bay;  and  Wisconsin  State  Tubercu- 
losis Sanatorium  (1907)  at  Wales,  Waukesha  county.  In  addition 
the  board  has  partial  control  over  the  Wisconsin  Workshop  for  the 
Blind  (1903)  at  Milwaukee,  where  there  is  a  wilbw  ware  factory, 
and  the  Wisconsin  Industrial  School  for  Girls  (1875)  also  at  Mil- 
waukee. It*  powers  of  inspection  extend  over  5  semi-state  in- 
stitutional 33  county  Snsane  asylums,  69  nols,  48  poor-houses,  50 
private  benevolent  uistitutions  and  ao6  poTkre  sutiona  and  kxkupe. 
^e  board  has  also  power  of  visitation  and  inspection  over  the 
Wisconrin  Veterans'  Home  at  Waupaca,  founded  in  1887  by  the 
state  department  of  the  Grand  Amy  of  the  Republic.  In  the 
state's  treatment  of  the  insane,  chronic  cases  are  separated  and  sent 
to  the  county  asylums.  The  labour  of  convicts  in  the  state  prison 
b  leased;  until  1878  the  state  itself  auperviaed  manufactunng  in 
the  prison;  then  for  twenty-five  years  the  convicts  were  employed 
in  making  shoes  for  a  Chicago  firm;  and  since  190^  the  state  has 
recdved  65  cents  a  day  for  the  labour  of  each  convict,  and  at  least 
300  convicts  aie  enmloyed  in  the  manufacture  of  socks  and  stocldnga, 
trom  which  in  1900-IQ08  ^two  years)  the  income  to  the  state  waa 
$156,890.  In  1910  a  binding  twine  factory  was  estaUtshed  in  the 
prison.  In  the  state  reformatory  the  labour  of  some  inmates  is 
leased  to  tallore,  and  the  others  make  brooms  or  bricks,  or  work 
In  a  cabinet  shop  or  on  the  fann.  Since  1907  a  parole  law  has  been 
in  foree  for  prisoners  with  a  good  record  at  the  state  prison.  By  a 
law  of  1909  certain  ofiendets  are  placed  under  probation  under  the 
supervision  of  the  State  Board  of  Control. 

History. — Politically  Wisconsin  has  been  under  French 
domination  (from  1634  to  1760);  mider  British  domination 
(from  1760,  formaBy  1763,  to  1783);  and  under  that  of  the 
United  States  nnce  1783.  But  the  British  faifluence  on  the  com- 
Buudty  was  negligible,  and  British  rule  was  never  more  than 


nominal  and  was  confined  to  the  military  posts.  When  American 
troops  occupied  the  posts  at  Green  Bay  and  Prairie  du  Chien 
in  1816,  thirty-three  years  after  it  had  become  a  part  of  the' 
territory  of  the  United  States,  the  region  was  still  almost  cx- 
dnsively  French  in  manners,  customs  and  population;  and  so 
it  remained  for  nearly  two  decades. 

The  region  comprised  in  the  present  state  of  Wiscondn,  when 
first  explored  by  Europeans,  was  a  favourite  htmting-ground 
for  the  Indians  who  constantly  crossed  this  region  between  the 
Great  Lakes  and  the  upper  Missisdppi.  The  Indian  population 
of  Wisconsin  in  the  first  half  of  the  17th  century  was  probably 
larger  than  that  of  any  region  of  similar  size  east  of  the  Mississippi 
Among  the  many  different  tribes  were  the  Sioux,  Chippewa, 
Kickapoo,  Menominee,  Mascoutin,  Potawatomi,  Winnebago, 
and  Sauk  and  Foxes.  In  the  eastern  and  southern  portions  of 
the  region  there  are  still  numerous  mounds,  the  rdics  of  an 
earlier  Indian  civilization.^  In  the  lead  regions  in  the  S.W.,  with 
the  help  of  Pawnee  slaves,  the  Indixms  worked  the  lead  diggings 
In  a  rough  way.  The  whole  course  of  the  eariy  history  of  Wis- 
consin was  profoundly  influenced  by  these  racial  and  geographic 
considerations.  The  French  adventurers,  bent  on  findmg  either 
a  **  North-west  passage  "  or  some  land  route  to  the  Pacific  (which 
they  believed  to  be  no  farther  west  than  the  Mississippi) ,  naturally 
went  west  by  the  water  routes  of  Wisconsin;  as  a  fine  field  for  their 
bart  ering  and  trading  with  water-courses  by  which  they  could  con- 
vey their  pelts  and  skins  back  to  Montreal,  the  re^on  attracted  the 
coureurs  de  bois  and  fur  traders;  and  it  seemed  promising  also  to 
the  zealous  French  Catholic  misdonaries.  The  impelling  influences 
on  the  French  settlement  of  the  region  were  the  love  of  explora- 
tion and  adventure,  the  commercial  instinct  and  religious  zeal. 

Jean  Nicolet,  an  experienced  explorer,  was  sent  west  by 
Samuel  de  Champlain,  the  governor-general  of  New  France, 
in  the  simimcr  of  1634  to  investigate  mysterious  rumours  of  a 
people  .known  as  "  the  men  of  the  sea  "  who  were  thought  by 
some  to  be  Tatars  or  (Chinese.*  After  a  long  and  difficult  journey 
into  a  region  which  he  seems  to  have  been  the  first  white  man 
to  enter,  Nicolet  landed  on  the  soil  of  Wiscondn  at  a  point  on 
Green  Bay  about  10  m.  -below  the  present  city  of  Green  Bay. 
Near  what  is  now  kno^ni  as  Red  Banks  there  was  a  populous 
village  of  Winnebago,  which  welcomed  and  entertained  him. 
He  made  a  treaty  with  the  Indians,  went  up  the  Fox  river  to  a 
point  somewhere  near  the  present  dty  of  Berlin  (Green  Lake 
county)  where  he  found  another  hirge  village,  and  returned  to 
Green  Bay  and  thence  to  his  post  on  Lake  Huron. 

Twenty  years  later  Pierre  Esprit,  Sieur  de  RacUsson,  and 
Medard  (Thouart,  Sieur  des  Groseilliers,  started  (1654)  from 
(Quebec,  crossed  Lakes  Huron  and  Michigan,  wintered  in  Wis- 
consin, ascended  the  Fox,  crossed  to  the  Wisconsin  and  possibly 
reached  the  Mississipiu  river  eighteen  years  before  Jacques 
Marquette  and  Louis  Joliet.  In  1659-1660  they  were  again 
hi  the  West,  but  the  opposition  of  the  French  authorities  pre- 
vented their  further  explorations. 

The  first  of  the  missionary  pioneers  was  the  Jesuit,  Father 
Rcn£  M6nard,  who  in  1661  lost  his  life  on  the  upper  Wisconsin 
river.  In  1665  Father  Claude  Allouez  established  the  first  per- 
manent mission  in  Wisconsin  on  the  shores  of  CHiequamegOQ  Bay, 
near  the  first  trading  post  established  by  Radisson  and  Groseilliers. 
In  1669  he  was  succeeded  by  Father  Jacques  Marquette  {g.v.) 
and  went  to  the  Fox  River  Valley;  there  he  established  the 
mission  of  St  Frands  Xavier  at  the  first  rapids'  on  the  Fox 
river  near  a  populous  Indian  village.    About  this  mission,  one 

^  One  of  the  moat  famous  of  these  mounds  is  the  so-called  Elephant 
Mound,  4  m.  S.  of  Wyalusine,  in  Grant  county  in  the  S.W.  corner 
of  the  state,  near  the  Mississippi  river;  it  is  an  effigy  mound,  and  a 
drifting  of  earth  changed  its  original  shape,  that  of  a  beer,  so  that  it 
roughly  resembled  an  dephant :  see  pp.  91-93  of  the  T^th  Annmai 
Rtport  (1894),  Bureau  01  American  Ethnology. 

'These  gens  de  mer  "  were  the  Winnebago  Indians:  the  name 
••  ouinipegou,"  meaning  "  men  of  t'e  fetid  water,"  was  interpreted 
by  the  French  to  apply  to  salt  water,  whereas  it  probably  referred 
to  sulphur  springs  near  Lake  Winnipeg,  from  whkih  the  Winnebago 
came  to  Green  Bay.  ..  ^      . .     .... 

>  It  was  from  these  "  rapides  dea  p^ret "  (rapUa  of  the  father^;^ 
that  De  Pere  waa  named 


746 


WISCONSIN 


of  tlie  most  •occenful  established  by  the  JesuiU  in  the  West, 
gathered  a  group  of  traders  who  formed  a  settlement  that  (or  many 
'  years  existed  as  a  transient  post  and  store-house  for  trappers. 

Father  Marquette,  forced  in  167 1  by  Indian  wars  to  abandon 
his  post  on  Chequamegon  Bay,  settled  with  the  Huron  at  the 
Straits  of  Mackinac,  whence  in  May  1673  accompanied  by  Louis 
JoUet  he  set  out  for  the  Missiasii^i  river.  They  halted  at  De 
Pere,  set  off  down  the  Fox- Wisconsin  route,  followed  the  Wis- 
consin to  its  mouth  and  came  out  upon  the  Mississippi  near  the 
site  of  the  present  city  of  Prairie  du  Chien,  on  July  17th,  exactly 
two  months  after  they  left  St  Ignace  mission  on  Mackinac  Island. 
After  descending  the  Mississippi  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas 
they  returned  by  way  of  the  Dcs  Plaines  portage,  paddled  ak)og 
the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  arrived  at  Dc  Pere. 
In  September  1679  Robert  Cavelicr,  Sieur  de  la  Salle,  and  Henri 
de  Tonty  entered  the  mouth  of  the  Fox  river  in  the  **  Griffon," 
the  first  ship  to  sail  the  Great  Lakes.  In  the  same  year  Daniel 
Greysolon  Du  Luth,  a  coureur  dc  hois,  explored  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi and  the  Wisconsin  and  Black  rivers.  In  1680  Father  Louis 
Hennepin,  a  Recollet  Franciscan  who  had  accompanied  La  Salle, 
followed  the  Mississippi  northward  from  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois 
along  the  western  border  of  Wisconsin  to  the  site  of  the  present 
city  of  St  Paul.  The  same  course  was  followed  by  tUe  fur-trader, 
Pierre  Charles  Le  Sueur,  in  1683. 

In  167 1  Simon  Francois  Daumont  Saint-Lusson  at  Sault  Ste 
Marie  had  takbn  formal  possession  of  the  region  in  the  name 
of  the  king  of  France;  in  1685  Nicolas  Perrot  (1644-c.  1700), 
a  trader  who  had  first  visited  the  wilds  of  Wisconsin  probably 
as  early  as  1665,  was  appointed  "  commandant  of  the  West," 
and  this  event  closes  the  period  of  exploration  and  begins  that 
of  actual  occupation.  Traders  had  begun  to  swarm  into  the 
country  in  increasing  numbers,  and  to  protect  them  from  the 
Indians  and  to  control  properly  the  licensed  fur-trade  a  military 
force  was  necessary.  Perrot  built  a  chain  of  forts  along  the 
Mississippi  and  a  post  (the  present  Galena,  Illinois)  near  the 
southern  boimdary  of  the  state,  where  he  discovered  and  worked 
a  lead  mine.  In  1712  the  slaughter  of  a  band  of  Foxes  near 
Detroit  was  the  si^ial  for  hostilities  which  lasted  almost  con- 
tinuously until  1740,*  and  in  which  every  tribe  in  the  Wisconsin 
country  was  sooner  or  later  involved  either  in  alliance  with  the 
Foxes  or  with  the  French;  the  Chippewa,  always  hostile  to  the 
Foxes,  the  Potawatomi  and  the  Menominee  sided  with  the  French. 
This  war  seriously  interfered  with  the  French  plans  of  trade 
development  and  exploitation,  and  by  rendenng  difficult  the 
maintenance  of  a  chain  of  settlements  which  might  have  con- 
nected Canada  and  Louisiana  was  a  contributing  cause  of  the 
final  overthrow  of  French  dominion.  In  this  period  permanent 
military  posts  were  established  at  Green  Bay  and  Cbequamegon 
(1718);  in  17x8  it  was  reported  that  traders  had  settled  at  Green 
Bay  and  De  Pere;  in  1727  a  post  was  established  on  Lake  Pepin. 

Wisconsin  was  little  disturbed  by  the  Seven  Years'  War. 
Yet  the  French  and  Indians  of  Wisconsin  contributed  their 
quota  to  the  French  armies— a  force  of  half-brccds  and  Indians 
under  a  half-breed,  Charies  Michel  de  Langlade  (1729-1800). 
After  the  fall  of  Montreal  (Sept.  1760)  Robert  Rogers,  who  had 
been  sent  to  Detroit  to  occupy  the  French  posts  in  the  West, 
dispatched  Captain  Henry  Balfour  with  a  force  of  British  and 
Colonial  troops  to  garrison  Mackinac  and  the  Wisconsin  posts 
which  had  been  dismantled  and  were  almost  deserted.  He 
arrived  at  La  Bayc  (Green  Bay)  in  October  1761,  and  left  there  a 
garrison  under  Lieut.  James  Gorrell  of  the  6oth  (Royal  American 
Foot)  Regiment.  The  traders  who  accompanied  them  were  the 
Rucleus  of  the  first  English-speaking  colony  on  Wisconsin  soil. 
The  French  fort  was  rechristcned  Fort  Edward  Augustus.  The 
period  of  British  occupation  was  brief.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
conspiracy  of  Pontiac  Lieut.  Gorrell  was  compelled  (in  July  1763) 
to  evacuate  the  fort,  and  make  his  way  to  Montreal.*     When 

*  In  that  year  the  Foxes  were  scattered  or  forced  to  surrender  by 
Pierre  Paul  le  Pcrriire,  sieur  Marin,  who  had  been  appointed  com- 
mandant of  the  West  in  1729. 

'  It  was  not  until  1814  that  a  British  force  again  occupied  a 
WiscoMinpoftt. 


the  conspiracy  was  crushed  in  1765,  Wiscondn  was  reopcaed 
(or  traders,  and  not  only  French  but  American  raccchaots  mod 
travellers  flocked  into  the  region.  Among  these  were  Alexander 
Henry  (1739-1824),  who  as  early  as  1760  had  visited  the  site 
of  Milwaukee,  and  who  now  obtained  a  monopoly  of  the  Lnka 
Superior  trade,  and  Jonathan  Carver  (f.v.),  who  in  1766  readhed 
Green  Bay  on  his  way  to  the  MississippL 

In  1774  was  passed  the  Quebec  Act  for  the  govemmeBt  of 
the  Province  of  Quebec  into  which  the  Wisconsin  region  was 
incorporated  by  this  act,  but  it  had  httle  effect  on  the  FieiKJi 
settlements  west  of  Lake  Michigan,  which  remained  thjoughoat 
the  entire  British  period  a  group  of  detached  and  periodically 
self-governing  communities.  Little  as  they  cared  for  their 
British  rulers  the  Wisconsin  vaydgewi  and  habitam^  iniiueoced 
probably  by  their  cupidity  and  by  actual  money  payments, 
for  the  most  part  adhered  to  the  British  cause  during  the  War 
of  Indepeiulcnce.  De  Langlade  led  his  French  and  lodian 
forces  against  the  American  frontier  communities  west  of  the 
Alleghanies.  This  pro-British  spirit,  however,  did  not  dominate 
the  whole  Wisconsin  region,  and  while  De  Langlade  was  harassing 
the  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  frontier,  Godefrey  de  Linctot, 
a  trader  of  Prairie  du  Chien,  acting  as  agent  for  George  Rogers 
Clark,  detached  several  western  tribes  from  the  British  adherence, 
and  personally  led  a  band  of  French  settlers  to  jiis  aid.  The  close 
of  the  war,  although  it  conveyed  the  region  to  the  sovereignty 
of  the  United  States,  was  not  followed  by  American  occupation. 
In  this  period,  however,  the  fur-trade  assumed  proportions  of 
greater  importance,  and  trading  posts  were  established  by  the 
North-west  Company  (Canadian).  In  1786  a  more  systematic 
attempt  was  made  to  work  the  lead  mines  by  Julien  Dubuque, 
who  obtained  the  privilege  from  the  Indians.  In  1787  Wisconsin 
became  part  of  the  North-west  Territory,  but  it  was  not  until 
after  the  ratification  of  Jay's  treaty  that  in  1796  the  western 
posts  wa%  evacuated  by  the  British:  Before  the  actual  military 
occupation  (1816)  by  the  United  States,  American  traders  had 
begun  to  enter  into  a  sharp  rivalry  for  the  Indian  trade.  In 
1800  Wisconsin  was  included  in  the  newly  organized  Indiana 
Territory;  and  in  1809  on  the  admission  of  Indiana  as  a  state 
it  was  attached  to  Illinois.  During  the  second  war  with  Great 
Britain,  the  Wisconsin  Indians  and  French  settlers  generally 
sided  with  the  British,  and  in  1814  many  of  them  participated 
In  Major  William  McKay's  expedition  against  Fort  Shelby  at 
Prairie  du  Chien.  In  1816  Fort  Howard  was  built  at  Green  Bay, 
and  Fort  Crawford  at  Prairie  du  Chieo.  In  the  same  year  was 
confirmed  the  treaty  negotiated  in-  1804  by  WlllStoi  Henry 
Harrison,  by  tire  terms  of  which  the  Indian  title  to  the  lead 
region  was  extinguished.  In  i8zo  the  product  of  lead  had  been 
about  400^000  tt>,  largely  mined  and  smelted  by  Tn/itaaif  but 
the  output  was  now  increased  enormously  by  the  American 
miners  who  introduced  new  machinery  and  new  methods,  and 
by  1830  there  were  several  thousand  miners  in  the  region,  in^ 
eluding  negro  slaves  who  bad  been  broa^  novth  by  Southern 
prospectors  from  Kentucky  and  Missouri.  In  i8r8  Illinois 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  and  Wisconsin  was  incorporated  in 
Michigan  Territory,  and  at  that  time  American  civil  government 
in  the  Wisconsin  region  was  first  established  on  an  orderly  atul 
permanent  basis.  Wisconsin  th«i  comprised  two  counties. 
Brown  (cost)  and  Crawford  (west),  with  county  seats  at  Green 
Bay  and  Prairie  du  Chien.  XTbtU  1830, the  fur-trade,  controlled 
largely  by  John  Jacob  Astor's  American  Fur  Company,  con- 
tinued  to  be  the  predominating  htterest  in  the  Wisconsin 
region,  but  then  the  growing  lead  mining  industry  began  to 
overshadow  the  fur-trade,  and  in  the  mining  region  towns  and 
smelting  furnaces  were  rapidly  built.  Io4iaii  miners  were  soon 
driven  out  of  bushiess  and  were  nearly  crowded  out  of  their 
homes.  Friction  between  the  settlers  and  the  Indians  could  not 
long  be  avoided,  and  in  1827  Red  Bird  and  his  band  of  W'innebago 
attacked  the  whiles,  but  after  some  bloodshed  they  were  defeated 
by  Major  William  Whistler  (1780-1863)  of  Fort  Howard.  Fi\*e 
years  later  occurred  a  more  serious  revolt,  the  Black  Hawk  War 
(see  Black  Hawk),  which  a|so  grew  out  ot  the  dispute  over  the 
mineral  liMidtj 


"VHSCaNMN 


747 


TIm  Black  Htwk  War  not  menly  aettled  the  Indian  qmstion 
to  far  as  Wisconsin  was  concerned,  but  made  the  region  better 
known,  and  gave  an  appreciable  impetus  to  its  growth.  A 
series  of  Indian  treaties  in  1829, 1831, 1833  and  1833  extinguished 
the  Indian  titles  and  <^>ened  up  to  settlement  a  vast  area  of  new 
land.  The  first  ne^-spaper,  the  Green  Bay  InteU^encer,  began 
publication  in  1833.  In  1834  two  land  offices  were  opened,  and 
by  x836»  878,0x4  acres  of  land  had  been  sold  to  settlers  and 
qtecnlatoni.  A  spedal  census  showed  a  population  of  more  than 
11,000  in  1836.  The  new  growth  started  a  movement  for  a 
separate  Territorial  organization  fpr  that  part  of  Michigan  Ijdng 
west  of  Lake  Michigan,  but  this  was  not  finally  accomplished 
until  1 836,  when  Michigan  entered  the  Union.  The  new  Tmritory 
of  Wisconsin  comprised  not  only  the  area  included  in  the  present 
state,  but  the  present  Iowa  and  Minnesota  and  a  considerable 
portion  of  North  and  South  Dakota.^  Henry  Dodge  (1782- 
1867)  was  appointed  its  first  governor  by  President  Jackson 
The  first  Territorial  Council  met  in  1836  at  Old  Bchnont,  now 
Leslie,  Lafayette  county,  but  in  December  of  that  year  Madison 
was  selected  as  the  capital,  after  a  contest  in  which  Fond  dv 
Lac,  MOwankee,  Racine,  Green  Bay,  Portage  and  other  places 
were  considered,  and  in  which  James  Duane  Doty,  later  governor, 
owner  of  the  Madison  town  plat,  was  charged  with  bribing 
legislators  with  town  lots  in  Madison.  In  1838  the  Territory  of 
Iowa  was  erected  out  of  all  that  part  of  Wisconsin  lying  west 
of  the  Mississippi.  The  movement  for  the  admission  of  Wiscon- 
sin  to  the  Union  was  taken  up  in  earnest  soon  after  1840,  and 
after  several  years'  agitation,  in  which  Governor  Doty  took  a 
leading  part,  on  the  loth  of  August  1846  an  Enabling  Act  intro- 
duced in  Congress  by  Morgan  L.  Martin,  the  Territorial  delegate, 
received  the  approval  of  President  Polk.  Meanwhile  the  Terri- 
torial legislature  had  passed  favourably  on  the  matter,  and  in 
April  the  act  was  ratined  by  a  popular  vote  of  12,334  to  2487, 
The  first  constitution  drafted  was  rejected  (sth  April  1847) 
owing  to  the  articles  relating  to  the  rights  of  married  women, 
exemptions,  the  elective  judiciary,  &c.  A  second  convention, 
thou^t  to  be  more  conservative  than  the  first,  drafted  another 
constitution,  which  on  the  X3th  of  March  1848  was  adopted  by 
16,799  fty^  ^^^  ^394  no^.  The  constitution  was  approved  by 
Congress  and  signed  by  the  president  on  the  29th  of  May  1848; 
the  first  state  election  had  already  been  held  on  the  8th  of 
May,  and  Governor  Nelson  Dewey  and  other  state  officers  were 
sworn  into  office  on  the  7  th  of  June.  In  the  same  year  the  free 
public  school  system  was  establi^ed,  and  the  great  stream  of  Ger- 
man immigration  set  in.  Railway  construction  began  in  1851. 
Wisconsin  was  a  strong  anti-slavery  state.  In  1S54  one  of  the 
first  steps  in  the  organization  of  the  Republican  party  {q.v.) 
was  taken  at  Rlpon.  In  the  same  year  a  fugitive  slave  named 
Glover  was  seized  at  Racine  and  was  afterward  rescued  by  an 
anti-slavery  mob  from  Milwaukee;  the  State  Supreme  Court 
rendered  a  decision  which  declared  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  ta 
be  null  and  void  in  Wisconsin. 

In  1856  a  contested  election  for  the  governorship  between 

Governor  WiUiam  A.  Barstow  (1813-1865),  a  candidate  for 

re-election,  and  his  Republican  opponent,  Coles  Bashford  (1816- 

1878),  threatened  to  result  in  dvil  war.    But  the  courts  threw 

out "  supplementary  returns  "  (possibly  forged  by  the  canvassers) 

and  decided  in  favour  of  Bashford,  who  was  the  first  Republican 

to  hold  an  office;  with  two  exceptions  Wisconsin  has  elected 

Republican  governors  ever  since.    The  state  gave  its  electoral 

*  Wiaconsiii*  as  the  last  state  to  be  created  wholly  out  of  the  old 
North-Wcst  Territory,  was  the  loser  in  boundary  disputes  with  neigh- 
bouring states.  As  originally  planned.  Wisconsin  would  have  m- 
diided  that  fsnt  of  Illinois  west  of  a  line  running  across  the  aouthcm 
end  of  Lake  Michigan ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  this  tract  actually 
voted  to  join  Wisconsin,  but  .Congress  paud  no  attention  to  their 
demands,  and  this  strip  of  land,  including  Chicago,  became  a  part  of 
Illinois.  After  the  Toledo  War  (see  Toledo,  Ohio),  to  recompense 
Michigan  for  her  losses  to  Ohio  the  northern  peninsula,  geographically 
a  part  of  the  Wisconsin  region,  was  given  to  Michigan.  Finally  a 
larger  tract  of  land  E.  of  the  Mississippi,  which  include  St  t*aul. 
part  of  Minneapolis  and  Duluth,  was  cut  off  from  Wisconsin  on  her 
admission  to  the  Union  to  form  with  other  land  farther  west  the  new 
Territory  of  Minnesota.  See  *'  The  Boundaries  of  Wisconein  "  in 
vot  xL  of  Wisarmin  Historical  CMeOions, 


vote  for  Lincoln  in  i860  and  supported  the  administr&tion  during 
the  Civil  War.  The  policy  of  the  sUte  to  keep  its  regiments 
full  rather  than  send  new  regiments  to  the  front  made  the  strength 
of  a  Wisconsin  regiment,  according  to  General  W.  T.  Sherman, 
frequently  equal  to  a  brigade.  The  whole  number  of  troops 
furnished  by  Wisconsin  during  the  war  was  91,379.  In  January 
1874  a  Democratic  Liberal  Reform  administration  came  into 
power  in  the  state  with  William  R.  Taylor  as  governor.  At  the 
legislative  session  which  followed,  the  Potter  law,  one  of  the  first 
attempts  to  regulate  railway  rates,  was  passed.  The  railways 
determined  to  evade  the  law,  but  Taylor  promptly  brought  suit 
in  the  State  Supreme  Court  and  an  injunction  was  issued  re^ 
straining  the  companies  from  disobedience.  In  1876,  however, 
the  Republicans  regained  control  of  the  state  government  and 
the  law  was  modified.  In  1889  the  passage  of  the  Bennett  law, 
providing  for  the  enforcement  of  the  teaching  of  English  in  all 
public  and  parochial  schools,  had  a  wkle  political  effect.  The 
Germans,  usually  Republicans,  roused  for  the  defence  of  their 
schools,  voted  the  Democratic  state  ticket  at  the  next  state 
election  (1890),  with  the  result  that  George  Wilbur  Peck,*  the 
Democratic  nominee,  was  chosen  governor  by  30,000  plurality. 
The  Bennett  law  was  at  once  repealed,  but  not  tmtil  1895  did 
the  Republicans  regain  control  of  the  administration.  It  was 
accomplished  then  after  a  Demoaatic  gerrymander  had  been 
twice  overthilown  in  the  courts.  Since  that  time,  however, 
the  Republican  party  has  grown  more  secure,  and  it  has  placed 
on  the  statute  books  a  series  of  radical  and  progressive  enactments 
in  regard  to  railway  rate  legislation  and  taxation,  publicity  of 
campaign  expenditures  and  a  state-wide  direct  primaiy  law 
(1905).  In  all  these  reforms  a  leading  part  was  taken  by 
Governor  Robert  M.  LaFollette  (b.  1855),  who  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  in  1905.  Opposition  to  his  political 
programme  resulted  in  a  serious  split  in  the  Republican  ranks, 
the  opposition  taking  the  old  name  of  '*  Stalwarts  "  and  his 
followers  came  to  be  known  as  "  Halfbreeds."  Governor 
LaFollette,  however,  could  draw  enough  support  from  the 
Democrats  to  maintain  the  control  of  the  state  by  the  Republicans. 
Wisconsin  had  several  times  been  visited  by  disastrous  forest 
fires.  One  in  the  north-eastern  counties  (Oconto,  Brown,  Door, 
Shawano,  Manitowoc  and  Kewaunee)  in  1871  resulted  in  the 
loss  of  more  than  a  thousand  lives.  Another  serious  fire  occurred 
in  the  north-west  in  July  1894. 

GOVBKNORS  OF  WISCONSIN 

TerritoriaL 

Henry  Dodge       .      •      .      ..     Democrat  1836-1841 

iames  Duane  Doty             .       «    Whig  1 841-1844 

Jathaniel  P.  Tallmadge     ;.      .<        „  1844-1845 

Henry  Dodge        ^       .       .       .     Democrat  1845-1848 

suae. 

Nelson  Dewey      .       v      .  ,  Democrat  1848-I853 

Leonard  J.  Farwell      .       ,  ^  „  1852-1854 

William  A.  Barstow     .       ,'  w  ..  1854-1856 

Arthur  McArthur  •      .       ,  ,  Republican  1856 

Cples  Bashford     .       .       «  i»  „.  1856-1858 

Alex.  W.  Randall ... 


Louis  P.  Harvey 
Edward  Salomon  . 
Tames  T.  Lewis    . 
Lucius  Fairchild  .       .- 
C.  C.  Washburn   .       , 
William  R.  Taylor       .. 
Harrison  Ludington     .. 
William  E.  Smith.       0 
Jerembh  M.  Rusk       » 
William  D.  Hoard 
George  W.  Peck   . 
William  H.  Upham      % 
Edward  Scofield   .       . 
Robert  M.  LaFollette* 
Tames  O.  Davidson 
F.  E.  McGovern  . 


p 

e 


m 

»• 

>» 

1862 

1862-1864 
I 864-1 866 

tc 

1866-1872 

tt 

1872-1874 
1874-1876 
1876-1878 

Democrat 
Republican 

It 

1878-1882 

t» 

1882-1889 

»» 

I889-1891 

Democrat 

1891-1895 

Republican 

1895-1897 

It 

1897- 1901 

i> 

1901-1906 

If 

1906-19II 

It 

1911- 

*  Peck  (b.  1840)  was  a  printer  and  then  a  journalist,  founded  In 
1874  at  La  Crosse  the  Sun,  which  in  1878  he  removed  to  Milwaukee, 
and  was  the  author  of  many  humorous  sketches,  notably  a  series  of 
volumes  of  which  the  hero  is  "  Peck's  Bad  Boy." 

*  Lieut. -Governor;  succeeded  Barstow,  who  resigned  during 
a  contest  with  Bashford. 

*  Resigned  to  become  a  member  of  the  United  States  Senate. 

*  Lieut.-Govemor:  elected  governor  in  1906  and  1908. 


746 


WISCONSIN 


of  the  most  successful  establisbed  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  West, 
gathered  a  group  of  traders  who  formed  a  settlement  that  for  many 
*  years  existed  as  a  transient  post  and  store-house  for  trappers. 

Father  Marquette,  forced  in  1671  by  Indian  wars  to  abandon 
his  post  on  Chequamcgon  Bay,  settled  with  the  Huron  at  the 
Straits  of  Mackinac,  whence  in  May  1673  accompanied  by  Louis 
Joliet  he  set  out  lor  the  Mississippi  river.  They  halted  at  De 
Pere,  set  off  down  the  Fox- Wisconsin  route,  followed  the  Wis- 
consin to  its  mouth  and  came  out  upon  the  Mississippi  near  the 
site  of  the  present  city  of  Prairie  du  Chien,  on  July  17th,  exactly 
two  months  after  they  left  St  Ignoce  mission  on  Mackinac  Island. 
After  descending  the  Mississippi  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas 
they  returned  by  way  of  the  Des  Plaines  portage,  paddled  along 
the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  arrived  at  De  Pere. 
In  September  1679  Robert  Cavelicr,  Sieur  de  la  Salle,  and  Henri 
de  Tonty  entered  the  mouth  of  the  Fox  river  in  the  "  Griffon," 
the  first  ship  to  sail  the  Great  Lakes.  In  the  same  year  Daniel 
Greysolon  Du  Luth,  a  coureur  de  bois,  explored  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi and  the  Wisconsin  and  Black  rivers.  In  1680  Father  Louis 
Hennepin,  a  Recollct  Franciscan  who  had  accompanied  La  Salle, 
followed  the  Mississippi  northward  from  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois 
along  the  western  border  of  Wisconsin  to  the  site  of  the  present 
city  of  St  Paul.  The  same  course  was  followed  by  tUe  fur-trader, 
Pierro  Charles  Le  Sueur,  in  1683. 

In  1 67 1  Simon  Fransois  Daumont  Saint-Lusson  at  Sault  Ste 
Marie  had  takbn  formal  possession  of  the  region  in  the  name 
of  the  king  of  France;  in  1685  Nicolas  Perrot  (1644-c.  1700), 
a  trader  who  had  first  visited  the  wilds  of  Wisconsin  probably 
as  early  as  1665,  was  appointed  "  commandant  of  the  West," 
and  this  event  closes  the  period  of  exploration  and  begins  that 
of  actual  occupation.  Traders  had  begun  to  swarm  into  the 
country  in  increasing  numbers,  and  to  protect  them  from  the 
Indians  and  to  control  properly  the  licensed  fur-trade  a  military 
force  was  necessary.  Perrot  built  a  chain  of  forts  along  the 
Mississippi  and  a  post  (the  present  Galena,  Illinois)  near  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  state,  where  he  discovered  and  worked 
a  lead  mine.  In  171a  the  slaughter  of  a  band  of  Foxes  near 
Detroit  was  the  signal  for  hostilities  which  lasted  almost  con- 
tinuously until  1740,^  and  in  which  every  tribe  in  the  Wisconsin 
country  was  sooner  or  later  involved  either  in  alliance  with  the 
Foxes  or  with  the  French;  the  Chippewa,  always  hostile  to  the 
Foxes,  the  Potawatomi  and  the  Menominee  sided  with  the  French. 
This  war  seriously  interfered  with  the  French  plans  of  trade 
development  and  exploitation,  and  by  rendcnng  difficult  the 
maintenance  of  a  chain  of  settlements  which  nught  have  con- 
nected Canada  and  Louisiana  was  a  contributing  cause  of  the 
final  overthrow  of  French  dominion.  In  this  period  permanent 
inilitary  posts  were  established  at  Green  Bay  and  Chequamcgon 
(17 18);  in  17 18  it  was  reported  that  traders  had  settled  at  Green 
Bay  and  De  Pere;  in  1727  a  post  was  established  on  Lake  Pepin. 

Wisconsin  was  little  disturbed  by  the  Seven  Years'  War. 
Yet  the  French  and  Indians  of  Wisconsin  contributed  their 
quota  to  the  French  armies— a  force  of  half-breeds  and  Indians 
under  a  half-breed,  Charles  Michel  de  Langlade  (17  29-1800). 
After  the  fall  of  Montreal  (Sept.  1760)  Robert  Rogers,  who  had 
been  sent  to  Detroit  to  occupy  the  French  posts  in  the  West, 
dispatched  Captain  Henry  Balfour  with  a  force  of  British  and 
Colonial  troops  to  garrison  Mackinac  and  the  Wisconsin  posts 
which  had  been  dismantled  and  were  almost  deserted.  He 
arrived  at  La  Baye  (Green  Bay)  in  October  1761,  and  left  there  a 
garrison  under  Lieut.  James  Gorrell  of  the  60th  (Royal  American 
Foot)  Regiment.  The  traders  who  accompanied  them  were  the 
mideus  of  the  first  English-speaking  colony  on  Wisconsin  soil. 
The  French  fort  was  rechristened  Fort  Edward  Augustus.  The 
period  of  British  occupation  was  brief.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
conspiracy  of  Pontiac  Lieut.  Gorrell  was  compelled  (in  July  1763) 
to  evacuate  the  fort,  and  make  his  way  to  Montreal.*     When 

*  In  that  year  the  Foxes  were  scattered  or  forced  to  surrender  by 
Pierre  Paul  le  Perri^.  sicur  Marin,  who  had  been  appointed  com- 
mandant of  the  West  in  1729. 

*  It  was  not  until  1814  that  a.  British  force  again  occupied  a 
WiaconaiapoftC 


the  conspiracy  was  crushed  in  1765,  Wiscon^n  was  reopenet 

(or  traders,  and  not  only  French  but  American  merchants  and 
travellers  flocked  into  the  region.  Among  these  were  AJexaada 
Henry  (1739-1824),  who  as  early  as  1760  had  visited  the  site 
of  Milwaukee,  and  who  now  obtained  a  monoftoly  of  the  Lake 
Superior  trade,  and  Jonathan  Carver  (9.9.),  who  in  1766  reackd 
Green  Bay  on  his  way  to  the  Mississippi. 

In  1774  was  passed  the  Quebec  Act  for  the  govemmesi  ti 
the  Province  of  Quebec  into  which  the  Wisconsin  region  vas 
incorporated  by  this  act,  but  it  had  little  effect  on  the  Fiend 
settlements  west  of  Lake  Michigan,  which  remained  thiougbcut 
the  entire  British  period  a  group  of  detached  and  periodicaSf 
self-governing  communities.     Little  as  they    cared   for  thdr 
British  rulers  the  Wisconsin  voyageurs  and  kabiiansy  infiueDcal 
probably  by  their  cupidity  and  by  actual  money  paymestst 
for  the  most  part  adhered  to  the  British  cause  during  the  Wai 
of  Independence.     De  Langlade  led  his  French   and   Indiaa 
forces  against  the  American  frontier  communities  west  of  tk 
Alleghanies.    This  pro-British  spirit,  however,  did  not  dominale 
the  whole  Wisconsin  region,  and  while  De  Langlade  was  harassing 
the  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  frontier,  Godefrey  de  Linctot, 
a  trader  of  Prairie  du  Chien,  acting  as  agent  for  George  Rogos 
Clark,  detached  several  western  tribes  from  the  British  adhexenoe, 
and  personally  led  a  band  of  French  settlers  to  his  aid.    The  dose 
of  the  war,  although  it  conveyed  the  region  to  the  sovctdgoij 
of  the  United  States,  was  not  followed  by  American  occupaikm. 
In  this  period,  however,,  the  fur-trade  assumed  proportions  of 
greater  importance,  and  trading  posts  were  established  by  lie 
North-west  Company  (Canadian).    In  1786  a  more  systemaik 
attempt  was  made  to  work  the  lead  mines  by  Julien  Dubuque, 
who  obtained  the  privilege  from  the  Indians.    In  1787  Wiscojou 
became  part  of  the  North-west  Territory,  but  it  was  not  usti 
after  the  ratification  of  Jay's  treaty  that  in  1796  the  western 
posts  were  evacuated  by  the  British:   Before  the  actual  miliuij 
occupation  (18x6)  by  the  United  States,  American  traders  bid 
begun  to  enter  into  a  sharp  rivaiiy  for  the  Indian  trade.    In 
1800  Wisconsin  was  hiduded  hi  the  newly  organized  Indians 
Territory;  and  in  1809  on  the  admission  of  Indiana  as  a  state 
it  was  attached  to  Illinois.    During  the  second  war  with  Great 
Britain,  the  Wisconsin  Indians  and  French  aettlecB  generalljr 
sided  with  the  British,  and  in  1814  many  of  them  participatd 
in  Major  William  McKay's  expedition  against  Fort  Shelby  at 
Prairie  du  Chien.   In  1816  Fort  Howard  was  built  at  Green  Bay, 
and  Fort  Crawford  at  Prairie  du  Chien.    In  the  same  year  iras 
confirmed  the  treaty  negotiated  in  1804  by  WffiUm  Heniy 
Harrison,  by  the  terms  of  which  the  Indian  title  to  the  lead 
region  was  extinguished.    In  1810  the  product  of  lead  had  hcen 
about  400^000  tt>,  largely  mined  and  smdted  by  Indians,  but 
the  output  was  now  increased  enorfnoosly  by  the  American 
miners  who  introduced  new  machinery  and  new  methods,  and 
by  1820  there  were  several  thousand  miners  in  the  region,  in- 
duding  negro  slaves  who  bad  been  brought  north  by  Southern 
prospectors  from  Kentucky  and   Mfssouri     In   i8r8  Iliiooia 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  and  Wisconsin  was  incorporated  in 
Michigan  Territory,  and  at  that  time  American  dvil  government 
in  the  Wisconsin  region  was  first  established  on  an  orderly  and 
permanent  basis.     Wisconsin  th«i  comprised  two  counties, 
Brown  (east)  and  Craxvford  (west),  with  county  seats  at  Green 
Bay  and  Prairie  du  Chien.    Until  1830, the  fur-trade,  controUtxl 
laniely  by  John  Jacob  Astor's  American  Fur  Company,  con- 
tinued to  be  the  predominating  mtetest  in  the  Wiscoosin 
region,  but  then  the  growing  lead  tnining  Industry  began  to 
overshadow  the  fur-trade,  and  in  the  mining  region  towns  anJ 
smelting  furnaces  were  rapidly  built.    Indian  miners  were  fiO(» 
driv^  out  of  business  and  were  nearly-  crowded  out  of  their 
homes.    Friction  between  the  settlers  and  the  Indiaos  could  not 
long  be  avoided,  and  in' 182 7  Red  Bird  and  his  band  of  Winnebago 
attacked  the  whites,  but  after  some  bloodshed  they  were  defeated 
by  Major  William  Whistler  (1780-1863)  of  Fort  Howard.   F»« 
years  later  occurred  a  more  serious  revolt,  the  Black  Hawk  War 
(see  Black  Hawk),  which  a|so  grew  out  oilhe  dispute  over  lbs 
ouoaral  liMidtj 


■WISCONMN 


kuoi 


TlM  Blidc  Hiwk  Vw  m 


t  an  appiec 


Ug,i8ji,i33ia 


K  Indlaii  qwstili 

liiis     ■     ■ ■  ■ 


tbeJndlui 

land.  Tbc  finl  nev-spapcr,  the  Gmo  Hay  Inidlitcnccr,  began 
publication  in  1S33.  In  1S34.  two  land  a£ce>  were  optned,  and 
by  1836,  878,014  wxei  of  land  had  been  laid  to  Kttleis  and 
■pecnlalois.  A  special  census  ■hoved  a  population  ol  more  than 
11,000  in  183S.  The  new  ipiralh  starltd  a  movemtnl  for  a 
Kpaialc  Tciritocial  oiganusliaa  fpl  Uiat  pan  of  Michigan  lying 
west  of  Lkke  Michigiui,  but  Ihii  was  not  finally  aaxim[diihed 
until  fS36,<rhenMIdii^!aneiite>«l  the  Union.  The  new  Tknliory 
of  'H^coniin  comprised  not  only  thearta  included  in  the  present 
state,  but  the  piesent  Iowa  and  Minnesota  and  a  considerable 
portion  of  North  umI  South  Dakota.'  Heniy  I>odge  (17B3- 
lB6j)  was  appointed  its  first  governor  by  President  Jackson 
The  first  Temioiial  Coundl  met  b  1836  at  OH  Belmont,  non 
Leslie,  Lalayette  county,  but  in  Deeembei  of  that  year  Uadison 
irai  selected  as  the  capital,  alter  a  contest  id  which  Fond  da 
Lac,  MQwaukee,  Racine,  Green  Bay,  Pottage  and  other  places 
were  considered,  and  in  which  James  Duine  Doty,  later  governor, 
owner  of  the  Madison  town  pUt,  was  charged  with  bribing 
lesislatois  with  town  lots  in  Madison.  In  iSjS  Ihe  Tenitoiy  at 
Iowa  was  erected  out  of  all  that  put  ot  Wiscopsin  lying  wtsL 
ol  the  MissisjippL  The  movement  (oi  tbe  admiasioa  of  Wiscon- 
iSa  to  the  Union  was  laicn  up  in  earnest  soon  after  1840,  and 
after  several  years'  agitation,  in  which  Governor  Doty  took  a 
leading  part,  on  the  lolh  ol  August  1S46  an  Enabling  Act  intro- 
duced in  Congress  by  Morgan  L,  Martin,  the  Territorial  delegate, 
'      ■  ■ 'le  apptD^iI  of  Prr  ■ '    ■  "  "      "-      "^     ' 

'1  J4»7. 


jetted  (sih  April  184;) 
owing  to  tne  articles  relating  to  tAe  rights  of  married  women, 
exemptions,  (he  elective  judiciary,  &c.  A  second  convention, 
thought  to  be  more  conservalive  than  the  £rst,  drafted  another 
constitution,  which  on  the  13th  of  March  184B  was  adopted  by 
16,799  ayes  and  631)4  noes.  The  constitution  was  approved  by 
Congress  and  signed  by  the  president  on  the  rgth  of  May  1848; 
the  Gnc  state  election  had  already  been  held  on  the  8tb  ol 
May,  and  Governor  Nelson  Dewey  and  other  state  officers  were 
sworn  [tiio  olGce  on  the  7lh  of  June.  In  the  same  year  tbe  Ircc 
public  school  system  was  esiablijied,  tnd  the  great  stream  of  Cer- 
Dian  immigration  set  in.  Railway  construction  began  in  i8ji. 
Wisconsin  was  a  strong  anti-slavery  sUlc.  In  1854  one  of  the 
first  steps  in  the  orginliation  of  the  Republican  party  (j.i.) 
was  taken  at  Ripon.  In  the  same  year  a  fugitive  slave  named 
Clover  was  seized  al  Racine  and  was  aiterward  rescued  by  an 
anti-stavcry  mob  from  M3waukee;  the  Sute  Supreme  Court 
rendered  a  decision  which  declared  the  Furtive  Slave  Law  to. 
be  null  and  void  in  Wisconun, 

In  1856  a  contested  election  for  the  governorship  between 
Governor  William  A.  Barstow  (iHu-iSfif),  a  candidate  for 
re-eteclion,  and  his  R^ublican  opponent,  Coles  Bashfoid  (1816- 
1S7B),  threatened  to  result  in  civil  war.  But  the  courts  threw 
out "  supplementary  returns  "  (possibly  lorged  by  tbe  canvassers) 
and  decided  in  favour  of  Bashlord,  who  was  (he  first  Republican 
lo  hold  an  office;  with  (wo  eiccptions  Wisconsin  has  elected 
Republican  governors  ever  since.    The  state  gave  its  electoral 

>  WisconsiiL  a>  tbe  last  stale  (0  be  created  whollr  out  of  the  old 
North- West  Teiriiorv,  was  the  loierinboundary  disputes  with  neich- 
bsuring  nales.  As  originallr  planned.  Wiacoiuin  would  have  In- 
cluded thili  tart  of  lUJDoiswiKol'liBcmil^lEnntlimltlieca 
end  of  Lake  Michigan:  and  the  iohabiUDU  of  this  tract  actuaUy 
voted  to  i«n  WiHuniln,  but.ConEms  mU  no  alicniion  to  Iheir 
demand),  and  this  itiipol  land,  including  Chicago,  became  a  part  of 
lllinais.  After  the  l^Mo  War  (see  Toledo,  Ohio),  to  recomfiense 
MichigaDfDrherkH««itoOhiollKnDrrhenpeninMila,acocranhicaUy 


Ih  other  land  faithtr  wi 


Uno^  In  iS4o  end  supported  the  admlnfatrstloD  during 
[1  War.    The  policy  of  the  slate  to  keep  its  regiments 


full  rather 
of  a  Wise 

frequently  equal  to  a  brigade.  The  whole  number  of  troops 
furnished  by  Wisconsin  during  the  »>rw»S9i,379.  In  January 
1874  a  Democratic  Liberal  Reform  administration  came  into 
power  b  the  state  with  William  R.  Taylor  as  go  Jettior.  At  the 
legtslalive  session  which  foUowed,  the  Potter  law,  one  of  the  first 
attempts  lo  regulate  railway  rates,  was  passed.  Tbt  ruilwayi 
determined  to  evade  the  law,  but  Taylor  promptly  brought  aiut 
In  the  State  Supreme  Court  and  an  injunction  wis  issued  re- 
straining the  companies  from  disobedience.  In  1876,  however, 
tbe  Republicsas  regained  control  of  tbe  state  government  and 
the  law  was  tnodified.  Id  iSSo  the  passage  ol  the  Bennett  bw, 
providing  for  the  eDfoimnent  of  the  (eadiing  of  English  in  tQ 
public  and  parwhial  schools,  had  a  wide  poUtical  eflect.  The 
Germans,  tuually  RepubUcans,  roused  for  the  defence  of  their 
schools,  voted  tbe  Denwoatic  state  ticket  at  the  next  stale 
election  (189a),  with  the  result  that  Ceotxe  Wilbur  Peck.'  the 
Democratic  nominee,  was  chosen  goveniof  by  30,000  pluialiiy. 
The  Bennett  law  was  at  once  lepealed,  but  not  until  iBtis  did 
the  Republicans  regain  control  of  the  adminiatratloa.  It  was 
accompUibed  then  after  a  Democratic  gettytnaadet  had  been 
twice  overthrown  in  the  courts  Since  that  time,  however, 
the  Republican  party  has  grown  more  secure,  and  It  has  placed 
on  the  statute  hooks  aseries  of  radical  and  progressive  enactments 
in  regard  10  railway  rate  legislation  and  tualion,  publicity  of 
campaign  expenditures  and  a  stato-widc  direct  primary  law 
(1005).  In  all  these  reforms  a  leatling  part  was  taken  by 
Governor  Robert  M.  LaFollctte  (b,  igjj],  who  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  in  igoj.  Oppal[ion  to  bis  pohtical 
piograaime  reaulted  in  a  serious  atdit  in  the  Rq)BblicBn  nnks, 
the  opposition  taking  the  old  name  of  "  Stalwarts  "  and  his 
followers  came  lo  be  known  as  "  Halfbteeds."  Governor 
LaFolletie,  however,  <suld  draw  enough  support  fiom  the 
Demociata  lo  maintain  the  control  ol  the  slate  by  the  Republicans. 
Wisconsin  had  several  times  been  viwted  by  disastrous  loreal 
fires.  One  in  the  noflh-eoslem  counties  (Oconto,  Brawn.  Door, 
■■     ■  ind  Kew  


in  the  notth-wi 


re  than 


I  In  July  lE 


nother 


iani""Tall™d; 


iBsa-ieu 
iBS4'l«sS 
■  B56 


.    Republican    i87S-l8;8 

„          1878-ieSi 

1SSJ-1S89 

'    Demomt       i89i-il<» 

.    ReputilKan    i»9S-ie97 

[»97-l901 

^£S^". 

:      ;;     1906-1011 

■  91'- 

<P«k(b.lB40y«a<apri 

1874  at  La  Croue  the  5i>i<,  w 

ch 

111878  he  removed  10  Milwaukee, 
«ous  sketches,  notably  a  uiies  d 

and  was  the  author  of  many 

TOluraei  ol  »hk:h  the  hero  '• 

"fv 

k-s  Bad  Boy." 

a  ™n'iM'S!h"&l°hJori!™^"' 

Baislow,    who    leMgned   during 

:?,'!^?"?''_.'°i'^?.f.."J' 

of  the  UiUted  States  Senate* 

748 


WISCONSIN,  UNIVERSITY  OF 


BiBUOGSAPHY.-~For  phytical  description  and  natuial  mourres 
^  stheReports  (biennial)  and  the  Bulletins  (Madison)  of  the  Wisconsin 
Geologicau  and  Natural  History  Survey,  especially  important  (or 
economic  gcoloeVf  hydrography  and  agriculture,  and  the  Annual 
Reports  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Board  of  AgTiculture^  the  Reports 
(biennial)  of  the  State  Forester,  the  Reports  of  the  U.S.  Census, 
and  the  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  published  annually 
by  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey.  A  good  school  manual  is  E.  C. 
Case's  Wisconsin,  Us  Gedqgy  and  Physical  Geography  (Milwaukee, 
1907).  C.  B.  Cory,  The  Birds  of  Illinois  and  Wisconsin,  Field 
Museum  of  Natural  Historv^  Publicatbn  No.  131  (Chicago.  1909), 
and  L.  Kumlien  and  N.  HoUister,  "  The  Birds  of  Wisconsin,  in  voL 
iii.,  new  series,  of  the  Bulletin  (Milwaukee)  of  the  Wisconsin  Natural 
History  Society,  are  valuable.  On  state  government  see  The  Blue 
Book  Mthe  Siate  of  Wisconsin  (Madison),  published  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Che  conunisstoner  of  bbour  and  industrial  statistics  and  D.  E, 
Spencer,  ImoI  Government  in  Wisconsin  (Madison,  1888).  For  a 
list  of  works  on  the  hbtory  of  the  state  see  D.  S.  Durrie's  "  Biblio- 
graphy of  Wisconsin  "  in  vol.  vi.,  new  series.  Historical  Magatine. 
The  best  short  history  is  R.  G.  Thwaites,  Wisconsin  (Boston,  1008), 
in  the  "  American  Commonwealths  "  scries.  The  same  author's 
Slory  of  Wisconsin  (Ibid.  1890)  in  the  "  Story  of  the  States  "  series, 
and  H.  E.  Lcglcr's  Leading  Exxnls  in  Wisconsin  History  (Milwaukee, 
1898),  a  good  orief  summary,  are  other  single-volume  works  covering 
the  entire  period  of  the  state's  history.  One  of  the  best  accounts 
of  the  state's  early  history  is  E.  H.  Neville  and  D.  B.  Martin's 
Historic  Green  Bay  (Green  Bay,  1893).  S.  S.  Hebberd's  Wisconsin 
under  ih«  Dominion  of  France  (Madison,  1890)  contains  an  account 
of  the  earlier  period  written,  however,  before  much  recent  material 
was  brought  to  tight.  "Much  material  of  value  is  contained  in  the 
Historical  CoUeOums  (18  vols.,  Madison,  1855  eqq.)  of  the  State 
Historical  Society  of  Wisconsin  (i8a6:  reorganized,  1849),  and  in 
the  Bulletins  of  Jnformalion,  Proceedings  and  Draper  Series  of  the 
same  society  are  many  valuable  historical  papers  and  monographs. 
See  also  W.  R.  Smith's  History  of  Wisconsin  (3  vols.,  Madison,  1854). 
The  Plarkman  Society  Papers  (Milwaukee.  1895-18^)  provide  a 
collection  of  good  articles  on  special  topics  of  Wisconsin  history,  and 
the  Original  Narratites  and  Reprints  published  by  the  Wisconsin 
History  Commission  (created  by  an  act  of  1905)  deal  with  Wisconsin 
in  the  Civil  War.  See  also  Auguste  Gosselin,  Jean  Nicole  1618^ 
1649  (1803) :  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  The  Old  North-West  (New  York,  1888) ; 
Cbaries  Moore.  The  North-West  under  Three  Flap  (New  York,  1900) ; 
R.  V.  Phelan,  Financial  History  of  Wisconsin  (Madison,  1908); 
F.  J.  Turner,  Character  and  Influence  of  the  Indian  Trade  in  Wis- 
consin, vol.  ix.  of  Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies  (Baltimore, 
1899);  F.  Parkman,  2'he  Jesuits  in  North  America  (Boston,  1870); 
and  the  volumes  of  the  Jesuit  Relations,  edited  by  R.  G.  Thwaites. 

WISCONSIN,  UNIVERSmr  OF,  a  co-educational  institutioa 
of  higher  learning  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  the  capital  of  the  slate, 
established  in  1848  under  state  control,  supported  largely  by  the 
state,  and  a  part  of  the  state  educational  system.  The  university 
occupies  a  picturesque  and  beautiful  site  on  an  irregular  tract 
(600  acres),  including  both  wooded  hills  and  undulating  meadow 
lands  stretching  for  z  m.  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Mendota. 
The  main  building,  University  Hall  (1859;  enlarged  1897-1899 
and  Z905-1906),  which  crowns  University  Hill,  is  exactly  i  m. 
from  the  state  capitoL  The  other  buildings  include  North  Hail 
(1850),  South  Hall  (1854),  Science  Hall  (1887),  the  Biology  Build- 
ing (191  z),  the  Chemical  Building  (Z904'i905),  the  Hydraulic 
Laiwratory  (1905),  the  Engineering  Building  (1900),  the  Law 
School  (1894),  Chadboume  Hall  (1870;  remodelled  in  1896)  for 
women,  Latlulop  Hall  (19x0)  for  women,  Assembly  Hall  (1879), 
the  Chemical  Engineering  Building  (1885),  Machine  Shops 
(1885),  the  armoury  and  gymnasium  (1894),  a  group  of  half 
a  doeea  buildings  belonging  to  the  CoUcg^  of  Agricultiu-e  and 
the  Washburn  Observatory  (1878;  a  gift  of  Governor  C,  C. 
Washburn).  On  the  lower  campus  is  the  building  of  the 
Wisconsin  State  Historical  Society. 

The  univerrity  includes  a  oolleee  of  letters  and  science,  with 
general  courses  in  liberal  arts  ana  special  courses  in  chemistry, 
commerce,  journalism,  muric,  pharmacy  and  training  d[  teachers 
and  library  work;  a  collie  of  engineering,  with  courses  in  civil, 
mechanical,  electrica],  chemical  and  mining  engineering,  and  an 
apfriied  electro-chemistry  course;  a  college  of  agriculture,  with  a 
government  experiment  station,  long,  middle  and  ^ort  courses  in 


giving  tne  first  two  )^ears  01  a  meaicai  course;  a  gra< 
school;  and  an  extension  division,  Including  departments  of  in- 
struction by  lectures,  of  correspondence  study,  of  general  information 
and  welfare,  and  of  debating  and  public  discussion.  There  is  a 
eummer  session,  in  which,  in  addition  to  courses  in  all  the  colleges 
and  schools,  instruction  is  offered  to  artisans  and  apprentices  anain 
Ubrary  training.    The  college  of  agriculture,  one  of  the  largest  and 


best  equipped  in  the  coufitrv,  provides  also  brfeftr  ooilrsea  oC  pncCial 
training  for  farmers  and  farmers'  wives.  In  corinexion  with  the 
state  department  of  health,  instruction  on  the  prevention  and  tnat- 
ment  of  tuberculosis  is  provided,  exhibits  and  instructors  or  demoa- 
stratore  being  sent  to  every  part  of  the  state.  The  ttate  bygiesic 
laboratory  is  conducted  by  the  university*  On  the  uni  voraity  osntpia 
is  the  forest  products  laboratory  (1910)  of  the  United  States  govcn- 
ment.  At  Milwaukee  there  is  a  university  settlement  assocated 
with  the  sodal  work  of  the  university. 

Admission  to  the  univereity  b  on  examfaiation  or  certificate  fna> 
accredited  high  achoob  or  academies.  Tuition  is  free  for  reakJeBts 
of  the  state.  Courses  in  the  first  two  years  are  las^geiy  prescribHi, 
in  the  last  two  years  elective  "  under  a  definite  system.  In  1910 
there  were  395  instructors  and  4947  students  (3560  men  and  13^7 
women).  The  university  libiarv  proper,  of  i63,<xx>  vdlumes  aad 
40,000  pamphlets,  is  housed  in  tne  Historical  Society's  buiJdiag.  is 
which  are  also  the  collection  of  the  Historical  Society  and  that  d 
the  Wisconsin  Academy  of  Arts  and  Science»--«L  total  in  1910  ol 
404.000  books  and  202,000  pamphlets. 

The  grounds,  buildings  and  equipments  of  the  univ«rrity  a/e  valued 
at  $2,000,000.  The  income  of  the  university,  indudhv  income  fros 
the  Federal  land  grants,  from  invested  productive  funds  and  fras 
state  tax  levies,  exceeds  one  million  dollars  annirally.  Since  1905 
the  state  legislature  has  appropriated  for  the  current  expenses  of 
the  university  a  |  mill  tax.  More  than  $3,000,000  was  IdFt  to  tk 
university  in  1908  for  a  memorial  theatre,  research  pcofesoorriupi 
and  graduate  fellowships  by  William  Freeman  Vilas  (1840-190&), 
who  graduated  at  the  university  in  1858  and  was  postmaster-geoeo/ 
of  the  United  States  in  1885-1888,  secretary  of  the  interior  in  188S- 
1889  and  U.S.  senator  from  Wisconsin  in  1891-1897. 

An  act  for  the  creation  of  a  university  to  be  supported  by  tk 
Territory  was  passed  by  the  first  session  of  the  Territorial  lege- 
lature  in  1836,  but  except  for  the  naming  of  a  board  of  truslea 
the  plan  was  never  put  into  operation.    A  similar  act  for  tk 
establishment  of  a  tmiversity  at  Green  Bay  had  no  more  resuU. 
In  1838  a  university  of  the  Territory  of  V^sconsin  was  created 
by  act  of  the  Territorial  legislature  and  was  endowed  with  fwv 
townships  of  land.    Th^  was  the  germ  of  the  state  university, 
provision  for  which  was  made  in  the  state  constitution  adopted 
in  1848.  The  university  was  incorporated  by  act  of  the  legislateir 
in  that  year  with  a  board  of  regents  as  the  governing  hoAs, 
chosen  by  the  legislature.'    A  preparatoiy  department  «u 
opened  in  the  autumn  of  that  year,  and  John  H.Lathrop  (1799- 
1866),  a  graduate  of  Yale,  then  president  of  the  tmiversity  of 
Missouri,  was  chosen  as  the  first  chancellor  of  the  new  institutioa. 
He  was  inaugturated  in  1850,  and  in  that  year  North  Hall,  the 
first  building,  was  erected.  The  fiicst  academic  class  graduated  io 
X  854.   In  the  same  year  the  Federal  Congress  (which  had  granted 
to  the  state  seventy- two  sections  of  salt-spring  lands,  and  as  no 
such  lands  were  fotmd  in  the  stale,  had  been  petitioned  to  chanje 
the  nature  of  the  grant)  granted  seventy-two  sections  to  be  "sold 
in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  may  direct  for  the  benefit  and 
in  aid  of  the  university."    The  Federal  land  grants,  however, 
which  ought  to  have  supported  the  university,  were  Sacrificed  to 
a  desire  to  attract  immigrants,  and  the  institution  for  many 
years  was  compelled  to  get  along  on  a  small  margin  which  rendered 
extension  difficult;  and  the  university  permanent  fimd  was  soon 
impaired  for  the  construction  of  buildings.    Henry  Barnard  in 
1859  succeeded  Lathrop  as  chancellor,  but  resigned  in  jS6u 
After  the  Civil  War,  the  ofHce  of  chancellor  was  di^laced  by  that 
of  president.    Paul  Ansel  Chadboume  (1833-1883),  a  graduate 
(and  afterwards  president)  of  Williams  College,  became  presi- 
dent in  1867,  and  in  his  presidency  (X867-X870)  the  university 
was  reorganized,  a  college  of  law  was  founded,  co-education 
was  established  and  the  agricultural  college  was  consolidated 
with  the  university,  a  radiod  departure  from  the  plan  adopted 
in  most  of  the  Western  states.    In  X87X-X874  John  Hartson 
Twombly,  a  graduate  of  Wesleyan  University  and  one  of  lh< 
founders  of  Boston  University,  Was  president,  and  the  kffjalatm 
first  provided  for  an  annual  state  tax  of  $10,000  for  the  university. 
With  the  coming  to  the  presidency  (X874).  of  John  Bascom  (b. 
1827),  another  gniduate  of  Williams,  the  university  began  s  bc^ 
period   of   development;   the   preparatory   department  w>* 

'  The  univernty  is  now  governed  by  regents,  of  whom  t**"*,'?* 
president  of  the  univereity  and  the  state  superintendent  e(  pul)^ 
instructton-'are  ex  oAcio,  and  the  others  are  appointed  by  ^ 
governor  for  a  term  cii  three  years,  two  from  the  state  at  iarie  aflo 
one  from  each  congressional  mdct* 


1 


WISDOM,  BOOK  OF 


7+9 


abolislied  in  1880^  and  (he  fiiuuiccs  of  Ihe  miifcnity  wore  put  on 
a  firm  bawa  by  the  gnnt  of  a  stale  tax  of  one-tenth  of  a  milL 
U  nder  the  pioideiKy  (iSSy-xS^a)  of  Thomas  Chiowder  Chamber- 
lin  (b.  1843),  a  graduate  of  Beloit  CoUege  and  a  member  of 
the  U.S.  G^oin^ad  Survey,  the  university  attendance  grew  from 
Soo  to  1000  students,  and  buildings  were  elected  for  ih^  college 
of  law,  dairy  school  and  science  hall.  Under  President  Charlea 
Kendail  Admins  (1835-1903),  who  was  a  graduate  of  the  univer- 
sity of  Michigan,  where  as  professor  of  history  lie  had  introduced 
in  1869-1870  the  German  method  of  ''semiaac"  study  and 
research,  and  who  had  just  resigned  the  piesklency  (i885-i89a> 
of  Cornell  University,  the  enrolment  of  the  univeisity  increased 
from  looo  in  1892  to  a6oo  in  1901,  and  tbe  growth  oC  the  graduate 
school  was  particularly  notable.  Under  Charles  Kichaid  Vai»- 
Hise,'  who  was  the  first  alumnus  to  become  president  and  who 
succeeded  President  Adams  in  1904,  the  growth  of  the  uoiveisity 
continued,  and  its  activities  were  constantly  enlarged  and  the 
scope  of  its  work  was  widened. 

See  &  H.  Carpenter.  X  Histontal  Sktlck,^  fU  Ummrsil^  ^ 
Wisconsin  from  tSdo  to  1876  (Madiaon,  1876),  and  R.  G.  Thwaites, 
The  VniversUy  of  Wisconsin,  its  History  and  Us  Alumni  {\\nd,^  I900). 

WISDOM,  BOOK  OP,  or  WtsooM  of  Solomon  fSept.  Zo^a 
raX^/ituMot;  Lat.  Vulg.  Lifxr  sapientiac),  an  apocryphal  book  of 
the  *'  Wisdom  Literature  "  {q.t.)^  the  most  brilliant  production 
of  pre-Christian  Hebrew  philosophical  thought,  remarkable  both 
for  the  elevation  of  its  ideas  and  for  the  splendour  of  its  diction. 
It  divides  itself  naturally,  by  its  contents,  into  two  parts,  in  one 
of  which  the  theme  is  righteousness  aAd  wisdom,  in  the  other  the 
early  fortunes  of  the  IsraeUte  people  considered  as  a  righteous 

nation  beloved  by  God. 

'  Tlie  first  part  (ch.  i.-ix.)  falb  alao  into  two  divisions,  the  first 
(t.-v.)  dwelling  on  the  contrsat  between  the  righteous  sad  the  wicked, 
the  tecond  <vi.*ixO.  setting  forth  the  glories  of  wisdom.  After  an 
exhortation  to  the  judges  of  the  earth  to  put  away  evil  counsels  and 
thus  avoid  death,  tne  author  declares  that  God  has  made  no  kingdom 
of  death  on  the  earth,  but  ungodly  men  have  made  a  covenant  with 
it :  certain  sceptics  (probably  ootn  Geatilc  and  Jewish)  holding  this 
life  to  be  brief  and  without  a  future,  give  theiM>lves  up  to  sensuality 
and  oppress  the  poor  and  the  rishtcous;  but  God  created  man  to  be 
immortal  (S.  23).  and  there  Wil!  be  compensation  and  retribution 
in  the  future:  the  good  will  rule  (on  earth),  the  wicked  will  be  hurled 
down  to  destruction,  though  they  seem  now  to  flourish  with  long  Kfe 

Sod  abundaoce  of  children  (ii«-v.).  At  this  point  Solomon  is  intro- 
uced,  and  from  ihe  following  section  (vi.-ix)  the  book  icems  tohave 
t^kcn  its  title.  Solomon  reminds  kings  and  rulers  that  they  will  be 
held  to  strict  account  by  GoA,  and,  urging  them  to  learn  wisdom 
fiom  bis  words,  proceeds  to  give  his  own  cKpcrienoe;  devoting 
himself  from  his  youth  to  the  punuit  of  wisdom  he  had  {ouad  her 
to  be  a  treasure  that  never  failed,  the  source  and  embodiment  of  all 
that  is  most  excellent  and  beautiful  in  the  world — through  her  he 
lookft  to  obtain  influence  over  men  and  immortality,  and  he  concludes 
with  a  prayer  that  God  would  seiid  her  out  of  his  holy  heavens  to  be 
his  companma  and  guide* 

The  aecomi  part  of  the -book  (x.-xix.)  connects  itself  formally  with 
the  first  by  a  summary  description  of  the  r6lc  of  wisdom  in  the  early 
rimes :  she  directed  and  preserved  the  fathers  from  Adam  to  Moses 
(«.  i-xi.  I).  From  this  point»  however,  nothing  is  said  of  wisdom — 
the  rest  01  the  book  is  a  philosc^hMal  and  imacinattve  narrative  of 
Israelite  alfain  from  the  Egyptan  oppression  to  the  settlement  in 
Canaan.  A  brief  description  of  how  the  Egyptians  were  punished 
through  the  very  things  with  which  they  sinned  (thou{[h  the  punish- 
ment was  noe  fatal,  for  God  lovca  all  things  that  exist),  and  how 
iudgments  on  the  (^naanites  were  executed  gradually  (so  as  to  give 
them  time  to  repent),  is  foltowed  by  a  dnsertation  on  the  or%in, 
various  forms,  absurdity  and  results  of  polytheism  and  idolatry 
^iil.-xv.):  the  worship  of  natural  objects  is  said  to  be  less  blame- 
worthy than  the  worshio  of  images— this  latter,  arising  from  the 
desire  to  honour  dead  children  and  living  kings  {the  Euhemeristie 
theory),  is  fnherently  abvufd,  and  led  to  aU  sorts  of  moral  depravity. 
In  the  four  last  chapters  the  author,  returning  to  the  history,  gives 
a  detailed  account  of  the  provision  made  for  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  and  of  the  pains  and  terrors  with  whkh  the  Egyptians 
plagued. 


«»A 


^1  ■  I     "^^^~^"^'^"^^^^^^^^B^PWM««^"^*w^i^Pw^BVi^B^n«m^^iM«««OTB^H^^^ViaVHP^a^pi^Nw^r«Hi^H^to^B^M^iw«^K«^*aMi*aM^ 

..  ^  President  VanHlse  (b.  1857)  graduated  at  the  university  of 
Wisconsin  in  1879.  became  instructor  in  mxAogy  there  in  1883,  in 
1897  beoame  oonsultiag  geolonst  of  the  Wisconsin  Geological  and 
Natural  History  Survey,  and  In  1900  became  geok>giKt  in  charge  of 
the  Division  of  Pne-Cambrian  and  Metamorphic  Geology,  VS. 
Geological  Survey.  He  wrote  Corr^lion  Papers — Archaean  and 
Algfinkian  (1892)1  Some  Principles  ControUini  tie  Deposition  ef  Ores 
(1001 ).  A  Treatise  on  Metamorphism  (1903)  and  several  works  with 
other  authors  on  the  different  iron  regions  of  Michigan. 
Axvili   13 


It  is  not  easy  to  dcteroune  whether  the  book'is  all  from  the 
same  author.  On  the  one  hand,  it  may  be  said  that  one  general 
theme — the  salvation  and  final  prosperity  of  the  righteous— is 
visible  throughout  the  work,  that  (jod  is  everywhere  represented 
as  the  supreme  moral  governor  of  the  worid,  and  that  the  con- 
ception of  immortality  is  found  in  both  parts;  the  second  part, 
though  differing  in  form  from  the  first,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
historical  illustration  of  the  principles  set  forth  in  the  latter. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  points  of  view 
in  the  two  parts  are  vexy  different:  the  philosophical  conception 
of  wisdom  and  the  general  Greek  colouring,  so  prominent  ii^ 
the  fint  part,  are  quite  lathing  in  the  second  (x.  i-ai.  x  being 
regarded  as  a  transition  or  connecting  section  inserted  by  an 
editor).  While  the  first  has  the  fonn  of  a  treatise,  the  second  is  an 
«ddress  to  God;  the  first,  though  it  has  the  Jewish  people  in 
mind,  docs  not  refer  to  them  by  name  except  incidentally  in 
Solomon's  prayer;  the  second  is  wholly  devoted  to  the  Jewish 
national  experiences  (this  is  true  even  of  the  section  on  idolatry)^ 
It  is  in  the  second  that  we  have  the  finer  ethical  concept  ion  of  God 
as  father  and  saviour  of  all  men,  lover  of  souls,  merciful  in  his 
dealings  with  the  wicked^in  the  first  part  it  is  his  justice  that  is 
emphasized;  the  hope  of  immortality  is  prominent  in  the  first, 
but  is  mentioned  only  once  (in  xv.  3)  in  the  second.  The  two 
parts  are  distinguished  by  difference  of  style;  the  Hebrew 
principle  of  parallelism  of  clauses  is  employed  far  more  in  the 
first  than  in  the  second,  which  has  a  number  of  plain  prose 
passages,  and  Is  also  rich  in  uncommon  compound  terras.  In 
view  of  these  differences  there  is  ground  for  holding  that  the 
second  part  is  a  separate  production  which  has  been  united  with 
the  first  by  an  editor,  an  historical  haggadic  sketch,  a  midrash, 
full  of  imaginative  additions  to  the  Biblical  narrative,  and  en- 
livened by  many  strikfhg  ethical  rsflections.  The  question, 
however,  may  be  left  undecided. 

Bbth  parta  of  the  book  ignore  the  Jewish  sacrificial  cult.  Sacrifices 
are  not  nKnttoned  at  ail;  a  passing  reference  to  the  temple  is  put 
into  Solomon's  mouth  (ix*  8).  Moses  is  described  (xi.  1)  not  as  the 
great  lawgiver,  but  as  the  holy  prophet  through  whom  the  works  of 
the  people  were  prospered.  (It  may  be -noted,  as  an  illustration  of 
the  allusive  style  of  the  book,  that,  Aough  a  number  of  men  are 
spoken  of,  not  one  of  them  is  mentioned  by  name:  in  iv.  iO'i4« 
'  which  is  an  expaosioa  of  C«en.  v.  2Jl,  the  reader  is  leit  to  recognize 
Enoch  from  his  knowledg^e  of  the  Bibncal  narrative.)  In  the  second 
part  of  the  book  there  is  no  expression  of  **  messianic  "  hope :  in 
the  firrt  part  the  picture  of  the  national  future  agrees  in  general 
(if  its  expreeskms  are  to  be  taken  literally)  with  thatgivenin  the  book 
of  Daniel;  the  lews  are  to  have  dominion  over  the  peoples  (iiL  8), 
and  to  receive  irom  the  Lord's  hand  the  diadem  of  beauty  (v.  16), 
but  there  is  no  mention  of  particular  nations.  The  historical  review 
in  the  second  part  is  coloured  by  a  bitter  hatred  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians;  whether  this  sprlngi  from  resentment  of  the  former 
sulierings  of  the  Israelites  or  is  meant  as  an  allusion  to  the  circum* 
stances  of  the  author's  own  time  it  is  hardly  pOsnbIc  to  say. 

The  book  appears  to  teach  individual  ethical  immortality,  though 
its  treatment  of  the  subject  is  somewhat  vague.  On  the  basis  of 
Gen.  i.'iuu  it  is  said  (M.  23  f.)  thai  God  created  man  for  tnwnonality 
(that  is,  apparently,  on  earth)  and  made  him  an  image  of  hb  own 
betna,  but  through  the  envy  of  the  devil  death  came  into  the  world, 
yet  (tii.  t-4)  the  souls  of  the  righteous  are  in  the  hand  of  God,  and, 
though  they  eecm  to  die,  their  hope  is  full  of  immortality.  The 
description,  however,  appears  to  glide  into  the  conception  of  national 
immortality  (iii.  8^  v.  16).  especially  in  the  fine  sorites  in  vL  17-20; 
the  beginning  of  wisdom  b  desire  for  instruction,  and  devoted  regard 
to  instruction  is  love,  and  love  is  observance  of  herlaws,  and  obcdten<.e 
to  her  laws  is  assurance  of  incomiption,  and  incorrupt  ion  brings  uS 
near  to  God,  and  therefore  desire  for  wisdom  leads  to  a  kingdoni 
(but  the  nature  of  the  kingdom  b  not  stated).  The  iadividualbtic 
view  is  expressed  in  xv.  3:  the  knowledge  of  God's  power  (that  is. 
a  righteous  life)  b  the  root  of  immortality.  This  csMage  appears 
to  exclude  the  wicked,  who,  however,  are  said  (iv.  io)  to  be  punished 
hereafter.  The  figurative  nature  of  the  language  respecting  the 
fueuM  makes  it  dimcult  to  determine  precisely  the  thought  of  the 
■  book  on  thb  point ;  but  it  seems  to  contemplate  continued  cxiMtcnce 
hereafter  for  both  righteous  and  wicked,  and  rewards  and  punishments 
allotted  on  the  basis  of  moral  character.  Angeb  are  nor  mentioned] 
but  the  serpent  of  Gen.  iii.  is.  for  the  first  time  in  literature^  idcafflficd 
with  the  devil  ("  Diabolos,"  ii.  24,  the  Greek  translation  of  the 
Hebrew  "  Satan  ") ;  the  rfilc  assigned  him  (envy)  b  similar  to  that 

pressed  In  "Secrets  of  Enoch.'*  xxxl.  3-6;  he  fs  here  introdu«;d 


exi 


to  account  for  the  fact  of  death  In  the  worid.  In  iii.  ^  the  writer,  iil 
hb  polemic  against  the  prosaerous  unapdiy  men  of  his  time;  denies 
that  death*  saert  life  and  lack  of  children  are  to  be  consider^ 

2a 


7S<5 


WISDOM  UTERATURE 


rotafortufic^  for  th<  rishteMiv-^ovcr  mgittast  ttmm  thingiithe  pomarion 
of  wUdom  i«  dcd«rca  to  be  the  supreme  good.  The  ethical  standard 
of  the  book  is  hij;h  except  in  the  bitterness  displayed  towards  the 
•*  wicked,"  that  is,  the  enemies  of  the  Jews.  The  only  occurrence 
ia  old  Jewish  literature  (except  in  Ecclus.  xhr.  a)  oi  a  word  for 
"coascicnoe"  is  found  in  xvii.  1 1  («nwitf»nt):  wickedness  ia  timoroua 
under  the  condemnation  of  conscience  (the  saaae  tboitdit  in  Prov. 
xxvili.  i}.  The  book  is  absolutely  monQthet$tic,  and  trie  character 
ascribed  to  the  deity  is  ethically  pure  with  the  exception  mcnik>acd 
above. 

The  style  skows  that  the  book  was  wifttto  in  Greek,  though 
naturaOy  it  contains  Hebraisms.  The  author  of  the  first  part 
was  in  all  probability  an  Alexandrian  Jew;  nothing  further  is 
known  of  him;  and  this  b  true  of  the  author  of  the  second  part, 
if  that  be  &  separate  production.  As  to  the  date,  the  decided 
Greek  colouring  (the  conception  of  wisdom,  the  list  of  Stoic 
virtues,  viiL  7,  the  idea  of  pre-exbtence,  viiL  90,  and  the  ethical 
conception  of  the  future  life)  points  to  a  time  not  earlier  than  the 
tst  century  B.C.,  while  the  fact  that  the  hbtory  is  not  allegorized 
suggests  priority  to  Philo;  probably  the  work  was  composed 
late  in  the  xst  century  B.C.  (thb  date  would  agree  with  the  social 
situation  described).  Its  exdu^on  from  the  Jewbh  Canon  of 
Scripture  resfilted  naturally  from  its  Alexandrian. thought  and 
from  the  fact  that  it  was  written  in  Greek,  tt  was  used,  however, 
by  New  Testament  writers  <vii.  32  f.,  Jas.  ill  17,  viL  a6;  Heb.  i. 
a  f.,  IX.  15;  2  Cor.  V.  1-4,  x{.  23;  Acts  xvii,  30,  xiil  1-5,  xiv. 
33-26;  Rom.  i.  18-32,  xvi.  7;  t  Tim.  iv.  xo),  and  b  quoted  freely 
by  Patrbtic  and  later  authors,  generally  as  inspired.  It  was 
recognized  as  canonical  by  the  council  of  Trent,  but  is,  not  so 
regi^ded  by  Protestants. 

>  LiTBKATtJRS.— The  Greek  text  Is  given  in  O.  P.  Fritcsche.  tib. 
Apocr.  VeL  TesL  (1871);  W.  J.  Deane.  Bk.  of  Wisd.  O881):  M.  B. 
Swete,  tXd  TesL  in  Grk.  (ist  ed.,  1891 ;  and  ea.,  1897;  Sag.  trans,  in 
Deaae.  1881);  W.  R.  Chqrton.  UnMt^and  Apoar^  Scnpi,  (i&S4\i 
C.  J.  Ballj  Variorum  Apocr.  (1892);  Re\^sed  Vers,  of  Apocr.  (1895). 
Introductions  and  Comnu.:  C.  L.  W.  Grimm  in  Kurtgef.  JSxet. 
Udbek,  *.  d,  Aptcr.  d,  A.  T.  (1860);  E.  C  Bissell  ia  Unge-Schaff 
(i860):  W.  J.  Deane  (i88i>;  F,  W.  Farrar  in  Wace'a  Apoat.  (1888); 
Ed.  Reoss,  French  ed.  (1B78).  Ger.  ed.  (1894);  E.  SchOrer,  Je». 
PeopU  (Eaig.  trans..  1891);  C.  Siegfried  in  Kautzsch,  Apocr,  (1900); 
Tony  Andr6,  Lss  Apocr.  (1903).  See  also  the  articles  in  Hcrzog- 
Hauck'a  Realeneydopddui  Hastings,  Did,  BibU;  Chcyne  and 
Black.  EHcyd.  BibL  (C.  A,  T.*) 

WISDOM  UTBRATURE,  the  name  applied  to  the  body  of 
W  Testament  and  Apocryphal  writings  that  contain  the  philo- 
sophical thought  of  the  later  psre-Chrislian  JudaiaOL  Old  Semitic 
philosophy  was  a  science  not  of  ontology  in  the  modem  sense  of 
the  term,  but  of  practical  life.  For  the  Greeks  "  love  of  wisdom  " 
involved  inquiry  into  the  basb  and  origin  of  things;  the  Hebrew 
*'  wisdom  "  was  the  capacity  so  to  order  life  as  to  get  out  of  it 
the  greatest  possible  good.  Though  the  early  Hebrews  (of  the 
time  before  the  5th  century  B.C.)  must  have  reflected  on  life, 
there  b  no  trace  of  such  reflection,  of  a  systematic  sort,  in  their 
extant  literature.  "  Wise  men  "  are  distrusted  and  opposed 
by  the  prophets.  The  latter  were  concerned  only  with  the 
maintenanceof  the  sole  worship  of  Yahweh  and  of  sodal  morality. 
Thb  was  the  ta^  of  the  early  Hebrew  thinkers,  and  to  it  a  large 
pan  of  the  higher  energy  of  the  nation  was  devoted.  The  external 
law  given,  as  was  believed,  by  the  God  of  Israel,  was  held  to  be 
the  sufhdent  guide  of  life,  and  everythmg  that  looked  like  reliance 
on  human  wisdom  was  regarded  as  disloyalty  to  the  Divine 
Lawgiver.  While  the  priests  developed  the  sacrificial  ritual, 
it  was  the  prophets  that  represented  the  theocratic  element  of 
the  national  life— they  devoted  themselves  to  their  task  with 
noteworthy  persbtence  and  ability,  and  their  efforts  were  crowned 
With  success;  but  their  virtue  of  singlemindedness  carried  with  it 
the  defect  of  narrowness — they  despised  all  peoples  and  all 
countries  but  their  own,  and  were  intolerant  of  opinions,  held  by 
their  fellow-dtizens,  that  were  not  wholly  in  accordance  vdtb 
their  own  principles. 

.  Tbe  reporu  of  the  earlier  wise  men,  men  of  practical  sagacity 
in  political  and  social  affairs,  have  come  to  us  from  unfriendly 
sources;  it  b  quite  possible  that  among  them  were  some  who 
took  interest  in  life  for  its  own  sake,  and  reflected  on  its  human 
moral  basb.  But,  il  thb  was  so,  no  record  of  their  reflections 
kas  been  preserved.   The  class  of  sages  to  whon  we  owe  tbe 


Wisdom  Books  did  not  arise  till  a  diange  had  come  over  ike 
national  fortunes  and  life.  The  firm  estabtbhiittf  nt  of  the  dortriv 
of  practical  monothctsm  happened  to  coincide  in  time  witfa  liie 
destruction  of  the  national  political  life  <ln  the  6th  century  s.c ). 
At  the  moment  when  thb  doctrine  bad  €oine  to  be  gencn^y 
accepted  by  the  thinking  part  of  the  nation,  the  Jews  fiwnrf 
themsehres  diq)ersed  among  foreign  communftles,  and  fro^ 
that  time  were  a  subject  people  environed  by  aliens,  Babylooas, 
Persian  and  Greek.    The  prophetic  ofi&ce  ceased  to  exist  vbca 
its  work  was  done,  uid  part  of  the  intellectual  e^rgy  of  vst 
people  was  thus  set  free  for  other  tasks  than  the  cstablbfaBiei 
of  thebtic  dogma.    The  ritual  law  was  substantially  compie'jnl 
by  the  end  of  the  sth  century  1B.c.;  it  became  the  object  c 
study,  and  thus  arose  a  dass  of  schofan,  amon^  whom  v« 
some  who,  under  the  influence  of  the  general  culture  of  the  tixx. 
native  and  foreign,  poshed  their  investigations   beyond  t^e 
limits  of  the  national  law  and  became  students  and  critio  c: 
life.   These  last  came  to  form  a  separate  class,  though  withotf 
formal  organisation.    There  was  a  tradition  of  learning  (/oi  • 
viiL  8,  XV.  10)— the  results  of  observation  and  experience  »ct  1 
handed  down  orally.   Ia  the  2nd  century  b.c,  about  the  turi  j 
when  the  synagogue  took  shape,  t&ere  were  est%blisbed  schock  \ 
presided  over  by  eminent  sages,  in  which  along  With  Instnictica  • 
in  the  law  much  was  said  concermog  the  geacral  conduct  ot  I 
life  (see  Pirxe  Aboth).    The  social  unification  produced  hj  \ 
the  conquests  of  Alexander,  brought  the  Je^s  into  intioutt 
relations  with  Greek  thought.    It  may  be  inferred  from  B«b- 
Sira's  statements  (Ecclus.  xxxiz.  x-ix)  that  it  was  the  cwxs&  j 
for  scholars  to  travel  abroad  and,  like  the  scholars  of  medievil  \ 
Europe,  to  increase  their  knowledge  by  personal  aasoriationTiti 
wise  men  throughout  the  world.    Jews  seem  to  have  entod 
eageriy  into  the  larger  intellectual  life  of  the  last  three  oentmis 
before  the  Ix^inning  of  our  era.   For  some  the  tnflu^ce  of  t^ 
asBOciatioa  was  of  ^.  general  nature^  merely  Jkxodifying  tlx^ 
concq>tion  of  the  moral  life;  others  adopted  to  a  greater  cf 
less  extent  some  of  the  peculiar  Ideas  of  the  current  system  d    I 
philosophy.    Scholars  were  held  in  honour  IM  those  days  by    j 
princes  and  people,  and  Ben-Sira  frankly  adduces  thb  fact  a 
one  of  the  great  advantages  of  the  putsait  of  wisdom.    It  «••    I 
in  dties  that  the  study  of  life  and  philosophy  was  best  carried  ff,    | 
and  it  b  chiefly  with  dty  life  that  Jewbh  wisdom  deals. 

The  extant  writings  of  the  Jewish  sages  are  contained  b  tbe 
books  of  Job,  Proverbs,  Psalms,  Ben-Sira,  Tobit,  Ecdesiaste*! 
Wisdom  of  Solomon,  4th  Maccabees,  to  which  may  be  added  tk 
first  chapter  of 'Pirke  Aboth  (a  Talmudic  tract  giving,  probably 
pre-(nirbtian.  material).    Of  these  Job,  Pss.  xlix.,  Ixxiii.,  xdl 
6-8  (5-7),  Ecdes.,  Wisdom,  are  discussions  of  the  moral  govers- 
ment  of  the  world;  Prov.,  Pss.  xxxvii.,  exit.,  Ben«Sira,  Tob.  ir.,'    \ 
xii.  7-11,  Pirke,  are  manuab  of  conduct,  and  4th  Maccsb*     | 
treats  of  the  autonomy  of  reason  in  the  moral  life;  Pss.  viil, 
xix.  s-7  (i*6),  xxix.  3-X0,  xc.  s-ia,  cvii.  i7-33«  cxzxix.,  cxliv.  3  {•* 
cxlvii.'8  f.  are  reflections  on  man  and  physical  nature  (d.  the 
Yahweh   addresses   in  Job,   and  Ecdus.   xlii.    i^-vlili.  jj)-     / 
Sceptical  views  are  expressed  in  Job,  Prov.  xzx.  a-4(Agur), 
Ecdes.;  the  rest  take  the  current  orthodox  position. 

Though  the  latcllectuat  world  of  the  sa^es  is  different  from  tfcat  o[ 
the  prophetic  and  kgal  Hebraism,  they  do  not  break  with  tM 
fundamental  Jewish  thebtic  and  ethical  crecdt.  Their  moaotnct0| 
remains  Semitic — even  in  their  coocsptioA  of  the  oo^mogonic  mm 
iUuminatiog  (unction  of  Wisdom  they  regani  God  as  staadiflg  oaiaat  \ 
the  world  of  physical  nature  and  raaa,  aivl  do  not  grasp  or  accept  toe 
idea  of  the  identity  of  the  human  and  the  diviae|  there  is  u>us  a 
sharp  dbtinction  between  their  general  theistio  position  and  that  01 
Greek  philosophy.-  They  retain  the  «ld  high-  standard  of  ^BMm» 
and  in  some  instances  go  beyond  it,  as  in  the  injunctions  to  be  uw 
to  enemies  (Prov.  xxv.  at  f.)  and  to  do  to  no  man  what  is  hateful  to 
one's  self  (Tob.  iv.  15):  in  these  finer  maxims  they  doubtless  lepf** 
sent  the  Bcnerel  ethical  advance  of  the  time.  .      ^ 

They  differ  frMn  the  older,  writers  in  pcaeticslly  ignonsK  uj 
physical  supernatural— that  is,  though  they  reoard  the  rtirscl«« 
the  andem  timea  (referred  to  particularly  in  Wisdom  «vi.-x«.}  J» 
hbtoHcal  facts,  they  say  nothing  of  a  miraculous  clement  in  tJieiiK 
of  their  own  time.  Angels  occur  only  in  Job  and  Tobit,  and  twcrew 
noteworthy  characters:  in  Job  they  are  beings  whom  God  <*«*• 
with  folly  (iv.  ig),  or  they  are  mediators  between  God  and  bisb 


WISE,  H.  A.^WISfi,  r.  M 


Cv.  t,  »Btfi}.  «^  tlMt  Ilk  tftty  aie  liiiiAM;Md.-*n4  thr EMiiin  bM$ 
tindudinir  the  Satan)  io  tha  prologue  bdong  to  a  popular  ttoiy.  tne 
figure  ol  Satan  being  used  by  tae  author  to  account  for  Job's 
calamities:  in  Tobit  the  "  afTaSle  '*  Raphael  is  a  clever  man  oT  the 
world.  Except  io  Wisdom  ii.  24  (where  the  ccrpent  of  Cen.  iii.  is 
c&lted  "  Diabolos  "),  there  is  mention  of  one  demon  only  (Asmodeus, 
in  Toh.  iii.  8.  17),  and  that  a  Pernan  fignre^  Job  alone  intioditces 
the  mythical  dia^gofis  (iii.  8,  vii.  la,  ix.  131  xxvL  I2)  that  oGCur  io 
late  prophetical  writings  (Amos  ix.  a;  Isa.  xxvii.  l};  as  the  earliest 
of  the  Wisdom  books,  it  is  the  friendfiest  to  supernatural  machinery. 

Like  the  prophetical  writings  before  Ezekiel,  the  Wisdom  boon, 
while  they  leoogaise  the  aacrifidal  ritual  aa  aa  cxistfag  cuMOoi* 
attach  little  importance  to  It  as  aa.eknoent  of  religious  Iif«  (the 
fullest  mention  of  it  is  in  Eodus.  xxxv.  4  ff^  0;  the  difference 
between  prophets  and  sages  is  that  the  former  do  not  regard  the 
ritual  as  of  divine  appointment  (Jer.  vii.  22)  and  oppose  it  as  non- 
mocaU  while  the  latter,  probably  aooBptiog  the  law  a»  divine,  by 
layittg  most  stress  oa  tlie  umyersal  aide  el  relimoo,  lose  sight  of  iu  local 
and  mechanical  side  (see  Ccdus.  xxxv.  i-^.  Their  broad  culture 
(reinforced,  perhaps,  by  the  political  conditions  of  the  time)  made 
them  comparatively  indifferent  to  Messianic  hopes  and  to  that 
eonception  of  a  final  Juc^mcnt  of  the  nations  that  was 'closely 
connected  with  tliese  hop^:  a  Messiah  is  not  mentioned  in  their 
writiuga  (not  in  Prov.  xvi.  10-15),  end  a  final  judgment  only  in 
Wisdom  of  Solomon,  where  it  is  not  of  nations  but  of  individuals. 
Tn  this  regard  a  comparison  between  them  and  Danid,  Enoch  and 
Psalms  01  Solomon  is  iastnictfive.  Their  interast  is  in  the  etlikal 
training  of  the  individual  Oilttrth. 

There  was  nothing  in  their  general  position  to  make  them  in- 
hospitable to  ethical  conceptions  of  the  future  life,  as  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  so  soon  as  the  Egyptian-Greek  idea  of  immortality 
made  itself  felt  in  Jewish  circles  it  w«s  adopted  by  the  autbor  of 
the  Wisdom  of  Soiomon:  but  prior  to  tlie  1st  century  b.c.  it  does 
not  appear  in  the  Wisdom  literature,  and  the  nationalistic  dogma  of 
resurrection  is  not  mentioned  in  it  at  all.  Everywhere,  except  in 
the  Wisdom  of  Solomon^  the  Underworld  Is  the  old  Hebrew  inant 
Abode  of  all  the  dead,  and  theiefors  a  negligible  quantity  Cor  the 
motaHtft.  Nor  do  the  teges  go  beyond  the  old  potidon  in  their 
ethical  theory;  they  jiavf  no  philosophical  discussion  of  the  basis 
of  the  moral  life;  their  standard  of  j^ood  conduct  is  existing  law  and 
Custom;  fheir  motive  f6r  right-doing  is  individual  eudaemonisti^, 
not  the  good  of  society,  or  loyahy  to  an  idtal  of  riehteoosness  lor  ks 
own  sake,  but  advantage  for  one's  sell.  They  do  aot  attempt  a 
peychohvcalrexplanatioB  of  the  origin  of  buoMo  sin,;  bad  thoiight 
ivh^r  ra\  Eoclus.  xxxvii.  3}  is  accepted  as  a  fact,  or  its  entrance  into 
the  mind  of  man  is  attributed  (Wlsd.  a.  24  )to  the  dcvit  (the  serpent 
of  Gen.  ill.).  In  fine,  they  eschew  theories  and  confine  themselves  to 
visible  facta. 

It  is  in  keeping  with  thdr  whole  point  of  view  that  they  claim  no 
divine  inspiration  for  themselves:  they  speak  with  authority,  but 
their  authority  is  that  of  reason  and  conscience.  It  is  this  definitcfy 
rational  tone  that  constitutes  the  diffe^tia  of  the  teaching  of  the 
•ages.  Fbrtheold  external  law  they  substitote  tJie  intBrnal  law: 
coascienoe  is  recogatnd  fos  the  power  that  approves  or  coademiu 
conduct  (^vx4,  Ecclus.  xiv.  2;  avtuUvmn,  wi8d.^Sol.  xvii.  11). 
Wisdom  is  represented  as  the  result  of  human  relTection,  and  thus  as 
the  guide  in  all  the  affairs  of  fife.  It  is  also  sometfmes  conceived  of 
as  divine  (in  Wisd.of  Sotand  In  parts  of  Prov.  and  £cclns.,bnt  not 
in  Eccles*),  in  accordance  with  the  Heb(«w  view,  whkh  regards  all 
human  powers  as  bestowed  dlicctly  by  Ood;  it  is  identified  with  the 
fear  of  God  (Job  xxviii.'28;  Prov.  i.  7:  Ecclus.  xv.  i  ff.)  and  even 


WIS 


with  the  Jewish  law  (Ecdus.  xxiv.  25).  But  in  such  passages  it 
remains  fumlamentally  human;  no  attempt  b  made  to  define  the 
limiis  of  the  human  and  the  divine  in  its  coomositioa — i(  is  all  )iuman 
and  all  divine.  The,  personification  of  wisdom  reaches  almost  the 
verge  of  hypostasis :  in  Job  xxviii.  it  is  the  most  precious  of  things ; 
in  Prov.  viii.  it  is  the  companion  of  God  in  His  creatK*?  work,  itself 
created  before  the  world:  in  Ecdtis.  xxiv.  the  itttionalistte  oon^ 
veptiofi  is  set  forth:  wisdom,  created  in  the  beginning,  compasses 
heaven  and  earth  seeking  rest  and  finds  at  last  its  dweninfl-place  in 
Jerusalem  (and  so  substantially  4tb  Maccabees);  the  height  of 
sublimity  is  reached  in  Wisd.  of  Sol.  vii.,  where  wisdom,  the  bright- 
ness of  the  everlasting  light,  is  the  source  of  all  that  is  noblest  in 
human  life. 

Greek  ioflue^^e  appears  clearly  in  the  sages'  attitude  toward  the 
phenomena  of  kfe.  God,  they  hold,  is  the  sole  creator  and  ruler 
of  the  world;  yet  man  is  free,  autonomous — Gkxl  is  not  responsible 
for  men's  faohs  (Rectus,  xv.  1 1-20) ;  divine  wisdom  is  viriue  in  the 
works  of  lutofe  and  in  beasts  and  awn  (Job  xxxviii.  f.;  Pes,  viii., 
cxxxix.).  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  recognition  of  the  inequalities 
and  miseries  of  life  Qob:  Ecclus.  xxxiii.  11  ff.,  xl.  i-ii;  Eccles.). 
and.  as  a  result,  scepticism  as  to  a  moral  government  of  the  world, 
f  n  Job,  which  is  probably  the  earliest  of  the  phik)6ophical  books, 
the  quest-ion  whether  God  is  just  is  not  definitely  answered :  the 
prologue  affirmli  that  the  sufferings  of  good  men,  suggested  by  the 
sneer  of  Satan,  are  intended  to  demonstrate  the  reality  of  human 
goodness;  elsewhere  (v.  17,  xxxiii.  17  ff.)  they  are  regarded  as 
disciplinary:  the  Yahweh  speeches  declare  man's  inability  to 
ondemand  God's  dealings;  the  prosperity  of  the  wicked  is  nowhere 
explained.   The  ethical  manuals,  Prov.  (except  xauc  2-4)  and  Ecclus., 


751 

are  not  interested  in  the  quesdoa  and  ignore  it;  A&tir's  agnostieism 
([Prov.  XXX.  3-4>  is  substantially  the  positk>n  of  the  Yahweh  speeches 
in  Job  directed  against  the  'unco-wise**  of  hb  day.  Koiielcth's 
scepticism  (in  the  original  form  of  Ecderiastes}  is  deep-seated  ana 
far-reaching:  though  he  Is  a  theist,  he  sees  no  justice  in  the  worki, 
and  kwks  on  human  life  aa  meaninglets  and  resultleas.  For  him 
death  is  the  end-all,  and  it  is  against  some  such  view  as  this  that  the 
argument  in  Wisd.  of  SoL  ii.*v.  is  directed.  With  the  establishment 
of  the  belief  In  ethical  immortality  this  phase  of  scepticism  vanished 
from  the  Jewidi  worid,  not,  however,  without  leaving  behind  it 
works  of  enduring  value. 

In  all  the  WiMom  books  virtue  is  conceived  of  as  contermiaous 
with  knowMjK*.  SalTation  is  attained  not  by  believing  but  by  the 
perception  01  what  is  right:  wisdom  is  lesidcnt  in  the  soul  and 
Identical  with  the  thou^nt  of  man.  Yet,  with  this  adoption  of  the 
Greek  p<rfot  of  view,  tae  tone  and  spirit  of  this  literature  remate 
Hebrew. 

The  wiitingii  of  the  sages  are  all  anonymous.  No  single  man 
apfwaiB  AS  creator  of  the  tendency  of  (bought  they  represent^ 
tbcy  are  the  product  of  a  period  extending  over  several  centuries 
bttt  they  form  an  intellectual  imity,  and  presuppose  a  great  body 
of  Uunkeis.  The  sages  may  be  regarded  as  the  beginners  of  a 
ttniversal  rsligi<m:  they  Ml  the  need  of  permanent  prindples 
of  life,  and  were  able  to  set  aside  to  some  extent  the  local  features 
of  the-  current  'creed.  That  they  did  not  found  &  universal 
tdicion  was  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  fact  that  the  time  was 
not  lipe  for  such  a  faitb;  but  ibey  left  material  that  was  taken 
up  into  later  systems. 

LiTSaATuaBt-^IC  Siegfried,  PkUo  von  Alexandria  (i975);  I. 
Prummond,  PAi/lo  Judanu  {1888)1  H-  Bcla,  Oriiines  d.  X  pM. 


Judio-Atex.  (tS9o);  T.  K.  Chevne,Vo6  and  SU,  {l8St)  and  Jm. 
Rdig.  Ufe,  &c.  (l«9«). 


fi888):  H.  Bois,  Orirines  d 
hevne.  Job  and  Sol.  {1887 

{C,  H.  T.*) 

WISB,  RQIRT  ALfiXAMDER  (1806-1876),  American  pdH- 
tidan  and  soldier,  was  bom  at  Drummondtown  (or  AcGomad^, 
Accomack  county,  Virginia,  on  the  3rd  of  December  1806. 
He  graduated  from  Washington  (now  Washington  and  JeffcSfeod) 
College,  Pennsylvania,  in  rSss,  and  began  to  practhe  lev  in 
Nashville,  Tennessee,  in  1828.  He  returned  to  Accomscft 
county,  Vs.,  in  1830,  and  served  in  the  National  House  of  Repn^ 
sentatlves  in  1833-1837  as  an  anti-nuHification  Democrat,  but 
broke  with  tbe  party  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  d^Msits  from  the 
Um'ted  States  Bank,  and  was  re-elected  to  Congress  in  1837, 
1830  sud  1841.  as  a  Whig,  and  fax  1843  as  a  Tylep  DcmocnI. 
From  1844  to  1847  be  was  minister  to  Brft£il.  In  1850-1851 
he  was  a  member  of  the  convention  to  revise  the  Vitiginia  con- 
stitution, and  advocated  white  manhood  snfiFrage,  kiCemal 
improvements,  and  the  abolition  of  imprisonment  for  debt. 
In  1855  he  was  elected  governor  of  the  state  (T856-i86d)  as  s 
Democrat.  John  Brown's  raid  occurred  dtiring  bts  term,  and 
Wise  refused  to  reprieve  Brown  after  sentence  Had  been  passed. 
He  strongly  opposed  secession,  but  finally  voted  for  the  Virginia 
ordinance,  was  coin  missioned  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
army  and  served  throughout  the  war.  -  He  died  at  Richmond, 
Va.,  on  the  tsth  of  September  1876.  He  wrote  Seten  Decades 
of  Ike  Union  i7go-j96o  (1872). 

His  son,  Joim  Sekgeamt  Wtse  (b.  1S46),  United  States 
Attorney  for  the  Eastern  District  of  Virginia  in  1 881-1883,  ^nd 
a  member  of  the  National  House  of  Representatives  in  i883'-i88^, 
wrote  The  End  of  an  Era  (1899)  and  ReeoUtctUms  of  TktiUm 
Presidents  (1006). 

See  the  Life  of  HjA.  Wise,  by  his  grandson,  B.  H.  Whe  (1899). 

WISE,  I8AAC  VAYER  (1819^1900),  American  Jewish  theo- 
logian,  was  bom  in  Bohemia,  but  his  career  is  associated  wKb 
the  organization  of  the  Jewish  reform  movement  in  the  United 
Stales.  From  the  moment  of  Ws  arrival  in  America  (1846)  bib 
influence  made  itself  felt.  In  1854  he  was  appointed  rabbi  at 
Cincinnati.  Some  of  his  actions  roused  considerable  oppositibil. 
Thus  he  was  Instmmcntal  in  compiling  a  new  prayer-book, 
which  he  designed  as  the  "  American  Rite  "  (^fihhag  America). 
He  was  opposed  to  poh'tical  Zionism,  and* the  Montreal  Cofl- 
ference  (1897),  at  his  Instigation,  passed  resolutions  disapproving 
of  the  attempt  to  establish  a  Jewish  state,  and  affirming  that  the 
Jewish  Messianic  hope  pointed  to  a  great  universal  brotherhood. 
In  keeping  with  this.denial  of  a  Jewish  nationality,  Wise  believed 
in  national  varieties  of  Judaism,  and  strove  to  harmoniie  tlR 
synagogue  with  locd  drcinnfttancet  and  i^mfNitbicSw    Si  ttAjB 


752 


WISEMAN,  CARDINAL 


he  conceivedi'tbe  ide*  of  a  itmo»,  and  after  a  campaign  lailing 
a  quarter  of  a  century  the  Union  of  American  Hebrew  Congrega- 
tions was  founded  (1873)  in  Cindnnatl.  As  a  corbllary  of  this 
be  founded  in  1875  the  "Hebrew  Union  College"  in  the  same 
city,  and  this  institution  has  since  trained  a  large  number  of 
the  rabbis  of  America.  Wise  also  organized  various  general 
assemblies  of  rabbis,  and  in  1889  established  the  Central  Con- 
ference of  American  Rabbis.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce 
family  pews  in  synagogues,  and  in  many  other  ways  "  pcddental- 
Ized"  Jewish  worship. 
See  D.  Philipson,  TTu  Riforin  Movement  m  Judaism  (1907).  (I*  A.) 

WISEMAK,  NICHOLAS  PATRICK  STBPHBir  (1802-1865). 
English  cardinal,  was  bom  9,1  Seville  on  the  snd  of  August  j8o^. 
the  child  of  Anglo-Irish  parents  recently  settled  in  Spain  for 
business  purposes.  On  his  father's  death  in  1805  he  was  brought 
to  AVaterford,  and  in  x8xo  he  was  sent  to  Ushaw  CoUege,  near 
Durham,  where  he  was  educated  until  the  age  of  sixteen,  when 
he  proceeded  to  the  English  College  in  Rome,  reopened  in  18x8 
after  having  been  closed  by  the  Revolution  for  twenty  years. 
He  graduated  doctor  of  theology  with  distinction  in  1815,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  apppointed 
vice-rector  of  the  English  College  in  1827,  and  rector  in  1828 
when  not  yet  twenty-six  years  of  age.  This  office  he  held  until 
1840.  From  the  first  a  devoted  student  and  antiquary,  he 
devoted  much  time  to  the  examination  of  oriental  MSS.  in  the 
Vatican  library,  and  a  first  vdume,  entitled  H&rae  Sytiacae, 
published  in  1827,  gave  promise  of  a  gn>at  scholar.  Leo  XII. 
apppointed  him  curator  of  the  Arabic  MSS.  ia  the  Vatican,  and 
professor  of  oriental  languages  in  the  Roman  university.  At 
.this  date  he  had  dose  relations,  personal  and  by  correspondence, 
with  Mai,  Bunsen,  Burgess  (bi^op  of  Salisbury),  Tholuck  and 
Kluge.  His  student  life  was,  however,  bcoken  by  the  pope^s 
command  to  preach  to  the  English  in  Rome;  and  a  course  of  his 
lectures,  On  ike  Cmnexion  between  Science  and  Repealed  Religion, 
deservedly  attracted  much  attention,  his  general  thesis  being  that 
whereas  scientific  teaching  has  repeatedly  been  thou^t  to 
disprove  Christian  doctrine,  further  investigation  has  ^owa 
thait  a  reconstruction  is  possible.  He  visited  England  in  1835- 
1836,  and  delivered  lectures  on  the  principles  and  main  doctrines 
of  Roman  Catholicism  *in  the  Sardinian  Chapel,  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields,  and  in  the  church  at  Moorfields,  now  pulled  down. 
Their  effect  was  considerable;  and  at  Pusey's  request  Newman 
levibwed  them  in  the  British  Critic  (December  1836),  treating 
Ihem'for  the  most  part  with  sympathy  as  a  triumph  over  popular 
Protestantism.  To  another  critic,  who  had  ^ken  occasion  to 
point  out  the  resemblance  between  CalhoUc  and  pagan  cere- 
monies, Wiseman  replied,  boldly  admitting  the  likeness,  and 
maintaining  that  it  could  be  shown  equally  well  to  exist  between 
Christian  and  heathen  doctrines.  In  1836  he  founded  the 
Dublin  Review,  partly  to  hif  use  into  the  lethargic  English  Catholics 
higher  ideak  of  their  own  religion  and  some  enthusiasm  for  the 
papacy,  and  partly  to  enable  hiip  to  deal  with  the  progress  of  the 
Oxford  Movement,  in  which  he  was  keenly  interested.  At  this 
date  he  was  already  distinguished  as  an  accomplished  scholar 
and  critic,  able  to  converse  fluently  in  half-a-dozen  languages, 
and  well  informed  on  most  questions  of  scientific,  artistic  or 
anliqttarian  interest.  In.  the  winter  of  1838  he  was  visited  in 
Jlome  fay  Macaulay,  Manning  and  Gladstone.  An  article  by. 
him  on  the  Donatist  schism  appearing  in  the  Dublin  Review  in 
July  1839  made  a  great  impression  in  Oxford,  Newman  and  others 
seeing  the  force  of  the  analogy  between  Donatists  and  Angh'cans. 
^mq  words  be  quoted  from  St  Augustine  influenced  Newman  pro- 
fonnd^:  "  Quapropter  securus.  judicat  orbis  terrarum  bonos 
Hon  esse  qui  se  dividiint  ab  orbe  terrarum.'*  And  preaching  at 
the  opening  of  St  Mary's  church,  Dert>y,  in  the  same  year, 
he  anticipated  Newman's  argument  on  religious  development, 
published  six  years  later.  In  1840  he  was  consecrated  bishop, 
and  sent  to  England  as  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Walsh,  vicar-apostoh'c 
<»f  the  Central  district,  and  was  also  appointed  president  of  Oscott 
CoUege  near  Birmin^[iam.  Oscott,  under  his  presidency,  became 
«  centre  for  English  Catholics,  where  he  was  also  visited  by  many 
4it|iitfuisbed  meiii  including  foxcignexs  and  non-Catholics.   The 


Oxford  converts  (1845  aad  later)  added  oonsidemUy  to  Wise- 
man's responsibilities,  as  many  of  them  found  thems^ves  wholly 
without  means,  while  the  old  Oitholic  body  looked  on  the  new- 
comers with  distrust.  It  was  by  his  advice  that  Newman  and  his 
companions  spent  some  time  in  Rome  before  undertaking  clerical 
work  in  England.     Shortly  after  the  accession  of  Pius  IX. 
Wiseman  was  appointed  temporarily  vicar-apostolic  of   the 
London  district,   the  appointment  becoming  permanent    in 
Fd>ruaiy  1849.    On  his  arrival  from  Rome  in  1847  he  acted 
as  informal  diplomatic  envoy  from  the  pope,  to  ascertain  from 
the  government  what  support  England  was  likely  to  give  in 
carrying  out  the  liberal  policy  with  which  Pius  inaugurated  his 
reign.  In  response  Lord  Minto  was  sent  to  Rome  as  "  anauthentic 
organ  of  the  British  GoverBment,"  but  the  policy  in  question 
proved  abortive.   Residing  fai  London  in  Golden  Square,  Wiaemao 
threw  himself  into  his  new  duties  with  manv-sided  activity, 
working  cspedally  for  the  reclamation  of  Catholic  criminals  and 
for  the  restoration  of  the  lapsed  poor  to  the  practice  of  Ibeir 
religion.    He  was  sealous  for  the  establishment  of  religious 
communities,  both  of  men  and  women,  and  for  the  holding  of 
retreats  and  missions.    He  preached  (4th  July  1848)  at  the 
opening  of  St  George's,  Southwark,  an  occasion  unique  in 
England  since  the  Reformation,  14  bishops  and  240  priests  beiog 
present,  and  six  religious  orders  of  men  being  represented.   The 
progress  of  Catholicism  was  undeniable,  but  yet  Wiseman  found 
himself  steadily  opposed  by  a  minority  among  his  own  clergy, 
who  disliked  his  Ultramontane  ideas,  Ids  *'  Romanizing  and  in- 
novating  2eal,"  especially  in  regard  to  the  introduction  of  sacred 
linages  into  the  churches  and  the  use  of  devotions  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  hitlierto  unknown  among 
English  Catholics.   In  July  1850  he  heard  of  the  pope's  intention 
to  create  him  a  cardinal,  and  he  took  this  to  mean  that  he  was 
to  be  permanently  recalled  to  Rome.   But  on  his  arrival  there 
he  ascertained  that  a  part  of  the  pope's  plan  for  restoring  a 
diocesan  hierarchy  in  England  was  that  he  himself  should  return 
to  England  as  cardinal  and  archbishop  of  Westminster.    The 
papal  brief  establishing  the  hierarchy  was  dated  29th  September 
1850,  and  on  7th  October  Wiseman  wrote  a  pastoral,  dated 
"  from  out  of  the  Flaminian  Gate  " — ^a  form  diplomatically 
correct,  but  of  bombastic  tone  for  Protestant  ear»— in  which 
he  spoke  enthusiasticaUy,  if  also  a  little,  pompously,  of  the 
"  restoration  of  Catholic  England  to  its  orbit  in  the  ecclesiastical 
firmament/'    Wiseman  travelled  slowly  to  England,  round  by 
Vienna;  and  when  he  reached  London  (nth  November)  the 
whole  country  was  abhue  with  indignation  at  the  "papal 
■ggressuMi,"  which  was  misunderstood  to  imply  a  new  and 
imjustifiable  daim  to  territorial  rule.    Some  indeed  feared  that 
his  life  was  endangered  by  the  violttioe  of  popular  feeling.    But 
Wiseman  displayed  calmness  and  courage,  and  immediately 
penned  an  admirable  Apped  to  the  Engfish  People'  (a  pamphlet  of 
over  30  pages),  in  wliich  he  explained  the  nature  of  the  pope's 
action,  and  argued  that  the  admitted  principle  of  toleration 
included  leave  to  establidi  a  diocesan  hierarchy;  and  in  his  con- 
-cluding  paragraphs  he  effectively  contrasted  that  dominion 
over  Westminster,  which  he  was  taunted  with  claiming,  with  his 
duties  towards  the  poor  Catholics  resident  there,  with  which  alone 
he  was  really  concerned.    A  course  of  lectures  at  St  George's, 
Southwark,  further  moderated  the  storm.    In  July  1852  he  pre- 
sided at  Oscott  over  the  fint  provincial  ^ynod  of  Westminster,  at 
which  Newman  preached  his  sermon  on  the  "  Second  Spring  "; 
and  at  this  date  Wiseman's  dream  of  the  rapid  conversion  of 
England  to  the  ancient  faith  seemed  not  incapable  of  realization. 
But  many  difficulties  with  his  own  people  shortly  beset  his  path, 
due  largely  to  the  suspicions  aroused  by  his  evident  preference 
for  the  ardent  Roman  zeal  of  the  converts,  and  esp«^ally  of 
Manning,  to  the  dull  and  cautious  formalism  of  the  old  Cathdics. 
The  year  1854  was  marked  by  his  presence  is  Rome  at  the 
definition  of  the  dogma  of  the  immaculate  conception  of  the 
Blessed  Viigin  (8th  December),  and  by  the  publication  of  his 
historical  romance,  Poldola,  a  tale  of  the  Church  of  the  Cata- 
combs, which  had  a  very  wide  circulation  and  was  translated  into 
ten  languages.    In  1855  Wiseman  applied  for  a  coadjutor,  and 


M.  bklnpof  Ryoiattk  Ih  frJew)  lince  borbood, 

IB  tids  of  irdibighop  of  Trrbiiond.  Two 

ymn  ut0  huumhc  wb  ^ipihiIbI  pnmat  of  Wcatmuutn 
uxl  be  Mlibliihtd  in  B*]r*«WH  ha  aunmunity  of  ihe  "  OUkin 
Of  5t  Chuln."  AU  WiMOUn'i  Uter  yara  wen  daikened  by 
Erdnftoa'a  cocMcieptknw  but  implicable  hoitOitj  to  Hanmn^^ 
Ukd  to  hbMdf  in  aa  fu  u  he  wu  wppoacd  to  be  icting  imdcr 
Minnfnf^  iaduenot  Hie  ttatj  of  Ibe  atimnpmcnt,  Thjch  if u 
luidy  ■  OMUa  of  tcDpcniDCBl,  i>  iullr  told  la  Wud'i  biognpfair. 
Ullinatdy.  bi  Jidjr  iSto,  Eningtoo  wM  depriml  by  Ibe  pope 
of  bii  ot>wljiit«nl4>  oitb  risbt  of  taaxabm,  ud  be  ntlrcd  lo 
Prior  Pufc,  BMT  BMt,  wbcn  he  died  in  1886.  In  Ibe  •ammet 
of  iSsS  Wiwaan  peid  ■  vidt  to  IiduKi,  w^st.  u  ■  tudinl  of 
Itish  no,  Iw  «M  teoived  with  cdlbnelum.  Hii  >pe«be>, 
Mtmoni  andkctuie^  dellveicd  dndoc  bb  toar,  were  printed  la  1. 


WISHART— WISLICENUS 

SiS.  be  fled  lo  En^and,  wt 


(o  llie  occMioD  *ad  id  ipf  Iring  witb  ajpinpUhy  ud  tict.  WiM- 
meii  wn  lUe  lo  ue  coioidefmble  <Tifliiwif*  ^ntb  Es^Ui  poli< 
tidftno,  pvUy  beatae  in  bis  diy  Fi'c''*^*  Citboiia  were  wiveriof 
In  tlieir  bktoElcil  iliegiuioe  U)  tbe  Lilxn]  puly.  Altbedinctsr 

tbet  btltcRd  tlw  poeilion  of  CttboUci  in  ttfud  to  poor  ediaidi, 
relonnsWrie*  ud  woricbooMO,  (ad  in  tlw  MMot  of  tbdt  umy 
rhiphim.  Iai8<i3,*ddnHaftlwCitlMlicCoapeMUH>Ihis, 
be  itated  tint  •inca  iSjo  tbe  number  of  priou  in  Eo^uid  bid 
laentaed  fion  4^4  to  1141,  end  of  cmveDti  of  women  from  lA 
to  162,  while  tberc  weK  5$  reltgiaiB  bouia  of  men  in  1S63  end 
Bone  in  i  B30.  Tbe  lot  two  yon  o(  hi>  life  wen  tniablai  by 
fUntia  en  d  by  ontrDvenia  in  wbidi  be  fowid  bimidf,  nidet 
U Mining's  influesiE,  campetled  la  adopt  *  policy  hm  libsnl  Ibu 
thU  wbizb  bad  beeti  bii  in  earlier  yean.  Thus  be  bad  to  coo- 
dmn  tliB  AnociatioD  for  the  Promotion  of  tbe  Unity  of  ChrbKot- 
dom,  witJl  wbicb  be  bad  sitown  some  aynqiatiiy  in  its  inception 
In  1S57;  ajid  to  forbid  Catbolic  paients  to  eend  tbcir  aou  to 
Oifocd  or  Cnmiuidge.  tbooib  at  an  niUcr  date  be  bad  lioped 
(with  Newman)  that  at  Oxford  at  least  a  cc^ege  or  halt  m%bt 
be  aiaigiifd  to  Ibem'  Bat  in  other  respects  his  but  years  wert 
ckkevted  by  marks  of  general  regard  and  aduoralios,  in  wbicb 
Bon-CatboUcs  jouied;  ud  after  bia  death  (i6tb  Februniv  186]) 
there  was  an  exlraordiiiafy  denonelratioa  of  polmUr  respect  as 
bia  body  waa  talien  from  St  Muy'e,  Moorfields,  lo  the  cemetery 
at  Kenul  Green,  where  it  wa*  hueiuied  tiai  ii  should  re«t  only 
nnlil  a  mole  Attiiig  place  a»dd  tie  fooud  in  a  Roman  Cubolic 
calbedrat  chuiib  of  Weilmiaswr.  On  the  jotb  of  January  i»oj 
tbe  body  waa  removed  with  great  ceremony  from  Kensal  Green 
•nd  reinricd  in  the  crypt  of  tbe  new  catbediai,  where  It  lies 
beaeath  a  Gothic  altar  tomb,  with  1  ncumbcnt  effigy  of  tbe 
archbishop  in  full  pontificala. 

WLkiii*b  was  uodeibtedly  an  embont  Eniliihnan,  and  one  cf 
the  raoM  learned  bko  ol  hia  time.  He  was  the  friend  and  corre- 
Boodenl  of  raany  (oreigncTS  of  disiiiKtion,  nrpps  "hom  msy  be 
named  DOllinBCr,  Lameniuis,  MonlalenibcTt  am!  F^P^Mn  HI.    As 

wh«  on-Eiiilish  tleiDcnt  oi  (wienutkin  in  hii 
■ccoenplisbmeats  and  ability  wcH  auch  as  won 
bim  influence  and  praminence  in  any  age  ol 
braides  beiov  highly  gifted  Inlelleciuan^  ati 
marked  by  tbnse  specially  human  qualiiiea  « 
iatenit  of  all  Mudenis  of  lift  and  character. 
tbe  principles  known  aa  Ultramentanc  no  Hill 
in  matters  ccclesiastkaL  He  insisted  on  a  poi 
of  the  CbDRh'g  lilUriyi  and  while  strenuous 
I»vine  commission  to  tnch  faHh  and  moral 
Chwch  as  in  other  respRis  a  leaner:  aid  he 
cfcoDclllatkin  with  the  werld  and  analliance  wKI 
of  coDteoiperarv  Ibeught.  ll  was.  In  hiajudgir 
■nee  with  the  genius  of  ibe  Catholic  ChuTch  tl 
tbnioudy  assimiiif  e  all  that  la  worthy  in  the  civ 

See  thabiogiaphyby\Vil(cU Ward.  ritrU'.ei  I 

ViMMsn  ()  vols..  1897:  fifth  and  diSiiper  edition,  1900). 

WUBABT.  flBOHOB  [c.  isiJ-'H*).  Scollish  reformer,  bom 
tbout  iji],  belonged  la  a  younger  branch  of  tbe  Wisbarta  cf 
Pltarxow.  Hisearlyiifehasbeen  the  subject  of  many  conjectures; 
bntanjuently  be  graduated  M,A.,  probably  al  King's  College. 
AberAes,  and  uu^  ai  a  Khoolmaitec  at  MonliOM.    Accused 


753 

a  similar  cbalfe  wu 


to  England 
bridge.  In 
emhaajy  wb 


MJbe* 


brougbt  ag[ 

01  lUo  he  started  for  Germany  and  SwitEoriand,  and  returning 
member  of  Corpus  Cbtisi  CollegB,  Cam- 
mt  to  Scotlaod  In  tbe  train  of  a  Scoltab 
ime  to  London  to  tootider  tbe  treaty  of 
Prince  Edward  and  th?  infant  queen  of  Scota 
There  hai  been  much  controversy  whether  be  wu  tbe  Wisbatt 
who  in  April  1544  approached  the  English  govonment  with  a 
propoaal  for  getting  rid  of  Cardinal  Beaton.  Roman  (^tbolic 
htatoriana  such  as  BeHesheLm,  and  Anglicans  like  Canon  Dixon, 
have  aciiqited  tbe  idcniificalion,  while  Frauds  does  not  dispute 
it  and  t>r  Gaiidncr  avoids  comnutling  hunself  ILtlUrx  at^  Pap<n 
tf  Bevy  VIII.  vol.  lit  pt.  i.,  Introd.  pp.  nvii-nviii).  There 
was  aaotber  George  Wiihan,  bailie  of  Dundee,  who  allied  bimseU 
with  Beatoo'i  murderers;  and  Su-  John  Wlsbart  (d.  tnb), 
sfttnntd*  a  Scottlah  jadge,  has  also  claima  to  the  doubtful 
distinetion.  Sir  John  waa  certainly  a  friend  of  Creigbton.  labd 
of  Bnnton,  wlio  was  deeply  implicated  m  the  pkit .  but  Cre^hton 
also  befriended  tbe  tcfonncT  during  his  evangdical  labours  bi 
Hldfetbian.  The  one  agaliut  the  idormcr  is  not  pmven  and  it 
not  probable. 

nis  career  ai  >  pteadier  began  in  1544,  and  thestoiy  bubecn 
told  b  Rowing  colotus  by  bia  diadple  John  Enoi.  fie  went 
from  placo  to  place  In  peril  of  bi>  11^  denouncing  Ibe  cnoti  of 
Rome  and  tbe  abases  in  tlie  church  at  Mootroae,  Dundee,  Ayr, 
In  Kyle,  at  Psth,  Ediabnith,  Ldth,  Uaddiivton  ud  dseadiefi. 
At  Omiistan,  In  Deomba  1545,  lie  wu  (died  by  the  earl  cf 
Bothmll,  and  Uaufcind  by  Oder  d  tbe  pdvy  council  to  Edin- 
Inir^  canle  on  Jann^  19,  IS46.  TlieDce  be  wu  banded  over 
to  ^^ -*■•—'  Beaton,  'who  hut  hfni  burnt  at  St  Andrews  on 
Haidi  I.  Foae  tad  Knox  Mtiibnle  to  bun  a  prophecy  of  the 
death  of  (bo  Cudbul,  wba  waa  aaaiainated  on  Uay  19  follow- 
ing, paitly  at  uy  rale  in  Rvnga  for  Wafaart's  death. 

Kaox'a  Hut.:  R«.  P.C.  Scotbudi  Pose's  jlcli  end  tfoaawaU: 
Hay  f^lemiag's  Jfwfyri  wd  Cw/vhti  tf  Si  Aoinai:  Cramond's 
rn>llla6iiiiJ)riiiliirl(l898]:BndfncI.e/A'al.£io(r.voLI;iiL(i48.];i, 
I5]->H)-  (A.  F.  P.r 

WISHAT,  a  nranfcipal  and  police  burgh  of  Laiurlisbirc, 
ScolUnd.  Pop,  (1901)  30.37.J.  It  occupiea  the  face  of  a  hill  a 
short  distinceiouth  of  the  South  Caldcr  and  about  3  m.N.  of  Ibe 
Clyde,  rs  m,  E.S.E,  of  Glasgow  by  Ibe  Caledoniu  raflway.  It 
owes  its  importance  to  tbe  development  of  the  coal  and  iron 
indusuy,  and  wu  created  a  police  burgh  in  iSss  It  was  ex. 
tended  to  include  the  villages  of  Cambusnethnn  and  Craigneuk 
in  1S74.  Tbe  chief  public  buadings  are  the  lown.hall,  Victoria 
ban,  Ibe  public  libmry  and  the  parish  ball,  and  there  ii  also  a 

WlSUC^n;  JOBANNES  (iSjs-i«oi),  German  chemist, 
wu  bom  on  the  J4tb  of  June  1835  at  Klrin-Eichsicdt,  in  Tbu- 
ringia.  In  1855  be  entered  Halle  Univeruly,  but  in  a  few 
months  emignlled  to  America  with  his  father  For  a  time  bo 
acted  u  asaistanl  lo  Professor  E.  N.  Honlord  at  Harvard,  and 
in  iSjj  was  appointed  lecturer  at  the  Uechanlcs'  Institute  In 
NewYodt.  RelurningtoEuropeiniSifi.he continued hiiuudlt* 
St  Zflricb  Oniveraily,  where  nine  years  later  he  became  professor 
of  chemistry.  This  posi  he  held  till  187)  He  then  succwded 
A.  F.  L.  SttMter  in  the  chair  of  chemblry  at  WOnburg,  and 
in  1SS5,  on  the  dcstb  of  A.  W.  H.  Kolbe,  was  appointed  lo  Ihe 
same  pmfESsoisblp  at  Leiprig,  where  he  died  on  the  6tb  of 
December  1 


vely  K 


nrganU 


Jislty,  a 


Hally  to 


chcmijlry. 

dJfBcultiea  concerning  me  comojnaiion  01  aao  ano  aimnoiu; 
properties  in  oxy-Bcids  in  general,  and  resulted  in  the  discovery  of 
two  substances  difleriog  in  physical  properties  though  posHsiing 
a  structure  of  proved  chemical  identity.  To  this  phenomenon, 
then  noticed  for  the  first  time,  he  give  the  name  of "  geomelrlol 
isomerism."  So  far  back  aa  1969,  befote  the  publication  of  Ibo 
doctrine  of  J.  H,  van'I  Hofl  and  J.  A.  L*  Bel,  he  eipirsaed  Ihe 

an  adequate  eiplanatloa  of  certain  cubon  compounds,  and 


75+ 


WISMAR— WITCH  AND  WIZARD 


suggested  that  account  must  ht  taken  of  thevtrxhiedeiuLageruug 
ikrer  Atom*,  im  RfiUmc  Later  (see  Die  rSumluhe  Anordnung 
der  Atame  in  organiscken  MoUkUlen,  1887)  he  extended  the 
appUcation  of  the  van't  Hoff-Le  Bel  theory,  believing  that  it, 
together  with  the  supposition  that  there  axe  "  specially  directed 
forces,  the  afi^ty-enetgies,"  which  determine  the  relative 
position  of  atoms  in  the  molecule,  afforded  a  method  by  which  the 
spatial  arrangement  of  atoms  in  particular  cases  may  be  asoer- 
taintd  by  eitperimcnt.  Wislicenus  is  also  known  for  his  work 
on  aceto-acetic  ester  and  its  application  as  a  synthetical  agent. 
He  was  awarded  the  Davy  medal  by  the  Royal  Society  in  x8o8. 

WISMAR,  a  seaport  town  of  Gomany,  in  the  gnmd-Kluchy 
of  Meeklenburg-Schwcrin,  situated  on  the  Bay  of  Wismar, 
one  of  the  best  harbours  on  the  Baltic,  20  m.  by  rail  N.  of 
Schwerin.  Pop.  (1905)  21,903.  The  town  is  weQ  and  regularly 
buUt,  with  broad  and  straight  streets,  and  contuns  numerous 
handsome  and  quaint  buildings  in  the  northern  Gothic  style. 
The  church  of  St  Mary,  a  Gothic  edifice  of  the  13th  and 
14th  centuries,  with  a  tower  260  ft.  high,  and  the  church  of  St 
Kicholas  (1381-1460),  with  very  lofty  vaulting,  are  regarded 
a%  good  examples  of  the  influence  exercised  in  these  northern 
provinces  by  the  large  church  of  St  Mary  in  LUbecL.  The 
elegant  crudform  church  of  St  (korge  dates  from  the  X4th 
and  isth  centuries.  The  FOrstenhof,  at  one  time  a  ducal 
tesideoce,  but  now  occupied  by  the  municipal  authorities,  is  a 
lichly  decorated  specimen  of  tlie  Italian  early  Renaissance 
style.  Built  in  1552-1565,  it  was  restored  m  1877-1879.  The 
"  Old  School,"  dating  from  about  1300^  has  been  restored,  and 
is  now  occupied  as  a  museum.  The  town  hall  (rebuilt  in  1829) 
<pntains  &  collection  of  pictures.  Among  the  manufactures  of 
Wismar  axe  iron,  machinery,  paper,  roofing-lelt  and  a^halt. 
There  is  a  considerable  trade,  especially  by  sea,  the  exports 
including  grain,  oil<seeds  and  butter,  and  the  imports  coal,  timber 
and  ir5n.  The  harbour  is  deep  enou^  to  admit  vessels  of  i7<'ft. 
draught,  an4  permits  large  steamers  to  unload  along  its  quays. 
Two  miles  from  Wismar  lies  the  watering-place  of  Wendorf. 

Wismar  is  said  to  have  received  dvic  rights  in  1229,  and  came 
into  the  pqssession  of  Mecklenburg  in  1301.  In  the  i3ih  and  X4th 
centuries  it  was  a  flourishing  Hanse  town,  with  important  woollen 
factories.  Though  a  plague  carried  off  xo,ooo  of  the  inhabitants 
in  1376,  the  town  seems  to  have  remained  tolerably  prosperous 
until  the  i6th  century.  By  the  peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648  it 
passed  to  Sweden,  with  a  lordship  to  which  it  gives  its  name. 
In  1803  Sweden  pledged  both  town  and  lordship  to  Mecklenburg 
for  1,258,000  thalers,  reserving,  however,  the  right  of  redemp- 
tion after  100  years.  In  view  of  this  contingent  right  of  Sweden, 
Wismar  was  not  represented  In  the  diet  of  Mecklenburg  until 
^(897.  In  1903  Sweden  finally  renounced  its  claims.  Wismar 
stfjl  retains  a  few  relics  of  its  old  liberties,  indudjng  the  right  to 
fly  its  own  flag. 

Sce^  Burracister,  Besdirei^ne  von  Wismar  (Wismar,  X857); 
Wnllgcrotli,  CeschichU  der  Stoat  wismar,  pt.  !.  (Wismar,  1898);  and 
Bruno  Schmidt,  Der  Sckwedisch-mecklenburpscne  Pfandvertrag  aher 


Stadt-und  Herrsckafi  Wismar  (Leipzig,  1901). 

WITAK,  or  WiTENACEMOT  (from  0.  Eng^  ui'to,  pi.  wUan, 
a  wise  man,  and^em^/,  a  meeting,  from  O.  Eng.  mitatt,  to  meet), 
the  national  councO  in  England  in  Anglo-Saxon  times.  Its 
origin  is  obscure.  There  is  some  resemblance  between  it  and  the 
two  asseinbUes  mentioned  by  Tadtus  in  the  Ccrmania,  a  larger 
and  a  smaller  one,  but  this  analogy  must  not  be  pressed  too  far. 
In^Anglo-Saxon  England  in  the  7th  and  8th  centuries  it  seems 
certain  that  each  of  the  larger  kingdoms,  Kent,  Wessex,  Merda 
and  Korthumbria,  had  its  separate  witan,  or  council,  but  there 
js  a  diGTerence  of  opim'on  as  to  whether  this  was  identical  with, 
or  distinct  from,  the  folkmoot,  in  which,  theoretically  at  least, 
all  freemen  had  the  right  to  appear.  H,  R.  von  Gneist  (History 
fij  the  English  Constitution)  agrees  that  the  two  assemblies  were 
Identical  and  a  somewhat  similar  view  is  put  forward  by  J.  M. 
Kemble  {Saxons,  in  England)  and  E.  A.  Freeman  {History  oj 
the  Norman  Conquest).  Freeman  advances  the  theory  that  the 
right  of  all  the  freemen  to  attend  the  gemdi  had  for  practical 
jpurposes  fallen  into  disuse,  and  thus  the  assembly  had  come  to 


be  coBiuied  to  the  wise  men.  In  otimr  iraids,  the  f  oMunoot  Iis4 
become  the  witan<  Evidence  in  support  of  Uiis  view  is  sought 
for  in  the  accounts  in  the  An^&^axan  CkrcmkU  and  dsewhae, 
where  the  decisions  of  the  witan  were  recdved  with  loud  expRs> 
sions  of  approval  or  of  disapproval  by  an  anembled  crowd,  and 
it  is  axgued  that  this  is  a  survival  from  an  earUer  ege,  when  al 
the  freemen  attended  the  witan.  But  the  attendatnoe  of  the  crowd 
can  be  otherwise  explained.  The  meetings  lefened  to  were 
probably  those  of  exceptional  interest,  socfa  as  the  election  or 
the  coronation  of  a  king,  aiul  people  from  the  aeighbourfaood 
were  there  merely  as  interested,  and  aomrtlmea  exdtcd, 
spectaton.  The  contrary  opinion,  that  the  two  ■wermblies 
were  distixict,  is  hdd,  although  with  characteristic  caution,  by 
Stubbs  {ConsL  HisL  vol.  i.).  He  thmks  that  on  the  union  of 
the  kingdoms  the  witans  were  merged  into  one  another,  while 
the  folkmoot  became  the  shivemoot.  As  the  number  of  kings 
decreased  the  number  of  witans  decreased,  until  eaxiy  in  the 
9th  centuxy  there  was  one  king  and  one  witan  in  all  Eni^and. 

The  power  of  the  witan  varied  according  to  the  pecsooah'tjr 
of  the  reigning  king,  bemg  considerable  unda  a  weak  ruler, 
but  inconsiderabte  under  a  strong  one.  Generally  speaking, 
it  diminished  as  the  years  went  by,  and  horn  "  necessary 
asaenters  "  its  members  became  "  merely  attesting  witnesses." 
Its  duties  are  idiown  by  the  preamble  to  the  laws  of  Ine,  king  of 
Wessex,  and  200  years  fatter  by  the  preamble  to  those  of  Alfred 
the  (jreat,  while  several  similar  cases  coidd  be  instanced.  Ine 
legislates  "  with  the  oounsd  and  with  the  teaching  of  Cenred 
my  father  and  of  Hedde  my  bishop,  and  of  Eorcenwald  my 
bishop,  with  all  my  ealdormen  arid  the  most  diatnoguisfaed 
witan  of  my  people"  (Stubbs,  Select  Charters),  and  AJhed 
issues  his  code  of  bws  "  with  the  oounsd  and-  oansent  of  hb 
witan."  Thus  the  members  of  the  witan  were  pcunarily 
counsellors.  »  With  their  consent  the  king  promulgated  lam* 
made  grants  of  land,  appointed  bishops  aiul  ealdonnen,  and 
discharged  the  other  duties  of  government.  The  witan  was  also 
a  court  of  justice,  Earl  (jodwine  and  many  other  offenders 
recdving  sentence  of  outlawry  therein.  Its  members  had  the 
power  of  electing  a  new  king,  although  the  area  of  their  choice 
was  strictly  limited  by  custom  and  also  the  light  of  depofiing 
a  king,  although  this  seems  to  have  been  hifrequendy  exercised. 

Its  members  signed  the  charters  by  which  the  kiiq^  conveyed 
grants  of  land  to  churdies  and  to  individuals,  and  it  is  from 
the  extant  charters  that  we  mainly  derive  our  knowledge  about 
the  composition  of  the  witan.    It  consist^,  in  addition  to  ths 
king,  his  sons  and  other  relatives,  of  the  bishops  and  later  soiae 
abbots,  of  some  under-kings  and  the  eakiocmen  of  the  shirei 
or  provinces,  and  of  a  number  of  ministri,  or  king^s  thegna. 
These  ministri  were  nominees  of  the  king;  they  included  the 
important  members  of  his  household,  and  thdr  munber  gradually 
increased  until  it  outstripped  that  of  all  the  other  naembers. 
The  witan  appears  probably  to  have  had  no  fixed  place  of  meeting, 
and  to  have  assembled  around  the  person  of  the  king,  whereva 
he  might  be.    In  the  later  years  of  its  existence,  at  least,  it 
met  three  times  a  year,  at  Easter,  Whitsuntide  and  Christmas. 
The  number  of  counsellors  attending  the  meetings  of  the  witan 
varied  considerably  from  time  to  time.    "  In  a  witenagemot 
held  at  Luton  in  November  aj>.  931  were  the  two  archUahopSt 
two  Weteh  princes,  seventeen  hhhtfps,  fifteen  ealdormen,  five 
abbots  and  fifty-nine  ministri.    In  another,  that  of  Winchester 
of  AJ>.  934,  were  present  the  two  archbishops,  four  Welsh  king^ 
seventeen  bishops,  four  abbots^  twelve  ealdormen  and  fifty* 
two  ministri.    These  are  perhaps  the  fullest  extaent  h'sts.    (N 
Edgar's  witenagemots,  the  one  of  A.D.  966  contained  the  king's 
mother,  two  archbishops,  seven  bishops,  five  ealdormen  and 
fifteen  ministri;  and  this  is  a  fair  spedmen  of-  the  usual  pro- 
portion "  (Stubbs,  Const.  Hist,  ch.  vi.).  Almost  immediattly 
after  the  Norman  Conquest  the  word  fell  into  disuse. 

See  also  D.  T.  Medley.  English  Omstitultonai  History  (1907)] 
H.  M.  Chadwick,  Studies  on  An^Saaum  InsHtutims  (1^5):  ""^ 
the  article  Pailiambnt.  (A.  W.  U.  *; 

WrrdH  and  WtZARO.  These  two  words  are  now  generally 
used  of  an  adept  of  the  black  art,  a  sorcerer,  magidan,  Unak 


WITCH  BROOMS— WITCHCRAFT 


755 


and  taiate  niptctiveijr  {aer Mincae  and  WztoicBXn-).  <*  Wftdi/' 
formerly  ot  <onim<m  gender,  lepnseaU  O.  Eng.  wlcca  (masc.)* 
vke»  (femOf ftgeat-nooDftto iriceUm,  to pnctiM toroery,  probably 
a  caiuative  verb  from  O.  fiag.  xokan,  to  give  way  <d .  "  weak  ")» 
and  therefore  signifying  to  avert  (evU),  conjure-  away  So 
>Iorweg.  ni^a  means  (i)  to  turn  aside,  (2)  to  eaordte.  Tbe 
pattidpial  "  wicked  "  means  witch-like.  "  Wizard  "  is  formed 
irom  "  viBe/'  with  the  slightly  contemptuous  Anglo-French 
aaffix  -ardt  na  in  drunkard,  laggard,  sluggard,  &c. 

WITCH  BB0MI8.  or  "Birds'  Nests,"  in  botany,  peculiar 
broom-iike  growths  often  seen  ca  the  branches  of  many  trees. 
They  are  a  dense  development  of  branching  tw%a  formed  at 
one  place  on  a  branch  as  the  resuk  of  tiie  irritation  set  up  by  the 
presence  of  a  mita  of  &  fungus. 

WITGHORAFT*  a  tern  often  used  of  magical  practices  of  all 
aorta,  but  hem  confined  to  the  inalcvolent  (**  black  ")  magic  of 
vomen.  It  sbooM,  however,  be  noted  that  the  male  witch 
occasionally  appears  in  fioUdoce^  while  *'  widte  witchcraft "  is 
c6nunon;  the  practkea  of  the  witch  of  Endor  are  akin  rather  to 
spifitoatiBm  than  witchcraft.  The  Geiman  term  keioe  was  not 
flriginally  applied  to.huniatt  beings  at  aU,  but  to  child>deiRouring 
demons,  corresponding  to  tlie  Roman  Jbm^a;  and  it  is  used  in 
thb  sense  till  tiie  14th  century,  it  docs  not  appear  in  Uierature 
hi  its  ptesent  sense  tiU  some  time  in  the  xjth  century. 
!  The  modem  Enropean  oonoeptkm  of  the  wft«h  is  perhaps 
the  KSdlt  «l  the  fusion  of  several  originally  discrete  ideas. 
In  totua  connbies  we  find  tlie  tUstinction  made  between  con- 
Jnrers,  witdies  and  sorceects;  the  former  were  supposed  to  raise 
the  devil- by  meana  of  qiels  and  force  him  to  io  their  will;  the 
witch  praceeded  by  way  of  friendly  pact  with  an  cvi  spirit; 
a  third  dass  produced  strange  efleets,  without  the  sM  of 
spirits  (see  MaocX  by  mesas  of  images  Off  forms  of  words.  We 
sko  iind  -a  distinction  drawn'  between  <divlncM, '  «fM/hMMiifff 
(■•astroto^Krs),  ccyataiHgazen,  necxomancen  and  otheMj  but  It 
must  be  temembered  tliat  our  knowledge  lot  tbe  earlier  period 
b  ratiier  of  lotined  ideas  than  of  the  iutual -popular  bcUeh,  and 
for  the  later  period  of  the  popular  belief  eophisticatcd  by  eedSsi- 
astical  subtlctisa.  In  present-day  toiief  the  witch  Is,  like  the 
savage  magician,  initiated  by  another  or  heiself  perfems 
ceremonies  beBeved  to  give  hpr  magkai  pow^ra.  She  poascsm 
a  fanniiar  (see.  LvcAsmnofv}  Maos^,  "nimse  iorm  she  can 
assume;  she  can  ride  ihroi^  the  air  in  Sonne  easos  arid  Is 
equally  adept  at  all  kUdsIof  magio.  Sis  A«  C  I^yatt'aiaiaiains 
that  the  witch  lit  a  pemob  who  weiks  magic- by  hor-owa  powen, 
not  by  the  aid  and  counsel  of  supernatural  beings;  but  this 
view,  though  it  may  be  thK  o£  poisoning  and  Sfanilar  features 
foRntdy  leckotisd  t,  pait  of  witchcmft,  does  not  apply  to  the 
European  witch.  Witchcraft  and  pomcasien  see  found  in 
cbse  relation-  in  the  psyiAioal  epidemics  of  the  middle  ages,  but 
are  otherwise  unrelated. 

Wikkcrafi  among  PtimiUm  Pafks^-^KtAtfMi^  magical 
powers  are  everywhere  attributed  to  women,  witehctaft  as  hen 
defined  is  by  no  meanaunivenal;  in  Etoope  akne  &*  the  woman 
the  almost  exclusive  repository  of  magical  poweis^  in'  the  Conigo 
the  mufftendsn^tf  may  be  eithciraman  or  i-woman^sgidf  Intact  the 
sexes  are  said  to  be  engaged  in  magical  punuits  inapproxfanalely 
equal  numben;  in  Australia  men  are  much  nve  ooneemed 
with  ma^  than  women,  but  the  latter  have  certain  fbrms 
peculiar  to  themselves  fai  the  central  axea,  andj  as  in  medieval 
Europe,  it  is  largely  concerned  with  sexual  matters.  •  At  the 
present  day  the  European  witch  is  almost  invariably  old,  but 
this  is  not  characteristic  dt  the  female  magidan.  of  primitive 
peoples,  or  not  to  the  same  extent;  it  must  be  remembered  that 
tbe  modem  idea  of  witchcraft  is  largely  a  learned  product — 
tile  result  of  sdiolastic  and  inquisitorial  ingenuhy,  mingled  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  with  genuine  folk  beliefs.  In  India,  among 
the  Agariyas  of  Bengal,  the  instruction  in  witchcraft  is  ^ven  by 
the  old  women;  but  the  pupils  are  young  ^Is.  The  Indian 
witch  is  believed  to  have  a  cat  familiar;  there,  as  in  Europe, 
many  tests  am  appfied  to  witches;  they  amy  be  thrown  into 
water,  or  their  identity  discovered  by  variMis  forms  of  divination; 
«fc  thiQy  may  be  lEiowit  by  the  fact  that  beating  them,  with  the 


'Castor  <0  plant  makes  thnn  cry  out.  As  a  punishment  the  witch 
may  be  shaved,  made  to  drink  dirty  water,  or  othenxi'ise  ill-used. 

WiUkeraftinClasneal  Times.-'^Our  knowledge  of  witchcraft  in 
pagan  antiquity  is  slight,  but  Horace  has  left  us  an  elaborate 
description  of  the  proceedings  of  two  witches  in  the  Esquifine 
cemeteiy.  At  the  new  moon  they  steal  into  it  to  gather  bones 
and  noxious  herbs,  their  feet  bare,  their  hair  loose  and  their 
robes  tucked  up.  So  far  from  aiming  at  secrecy,  however,  they 
alarm  their  neighbours  with  their  cries.  Making  a  hollow  in  the 
ground  they  rend  a  black  lamb  over  it  to  summon  the  dead. 
Then  taking  two  Images,  one  of  wool  representing  a  witch,  one 
of  wax  representing  the  man  whose  infidelity  she  xHshes  to  punish, 
a  witch  performs  magical  ceremonies;  the  moon  turns  red, 
hell  hounids  and  snakes  glide  over  the  q>ot.  Then  thoy  bury 
the  muzzle  of  a  Wolf  and  bum  the  waxen  imago;  as  it  melts,  so 
fades  the  life  of  its  prototype.  In  Greece  Thessalian  women 
had  the  reputation  <^  being  specially  powerful  witches;  their 
poisons  were  famous  and  they  were  said  to  be  able  to  make  the 
moon  descend  from  tbe  sky^ 

Medieval  WHtkeraft -^Vfe  know  less  of  early  and  medieval 
witchcraft  than  of  modem  savage  and  popular  beliefs;  oui 
knowledge  of  it  Is  drav^-n  partly  from  secular  80urce»->thc  laws 
aoalnst,  and  in  later  times  the  trials  for  the  ofifence— partly  from 
ecclesiastical  sources;  but  in  each  case  the  popular  creed  is 


filtered  through  the  mind  of  a  writer  who  did  not  necessarily, 
understand  or  share  the  belief.  For  the  earlier  period  we  have 
penitentials,.  decisions  of  councils,  discussions  as  to  the  possi*' 
bility  of  the  various  kinds  of  witchcraft,  as  to  their  exact  re->' 
lation  to  the  sin  of  hemsy  or  as  to  tbe  mechanism  by  which  th< 
supposed  results  were  achieved;  at  a  later  period  the  trials  of 
witches  before  the  Inquisition  are  of  great  importance;  but  the 
belicls  of  this  period  must  be  sharply  distinguished  from  those  of 
the  earlier  one.  Finally  we  have  a  great  mass  of  material  in  the 
secular  trials  of  the  x6th  and  two  following  centuries. 

There  are  marked  differences  in  tho  character  of  the  witch^' 
craft  beliefs  of  diffexent  countries,  due  perhaps  in  part  to  the 
faifluenoe  of  the  Inquisition,  which  reacted  on  the  popular  CDn^ 
txpdotts,  in  part  to  real  differences  in  the  original  folk  beliefs.  Ii» 
northern  countries  the  witches*  Sabbath  never  seems  to  assume 
any  importance;  in  Gcrmuiy,  in  the  form  of  the  Bracken 
assembly  on  May  Eve,  it  is  a  prominent  feature,  and  hi  En^^aAd 
we  may  bring  it  into  relation  with  the  belief  that  atcertam  periods 
<A  the  year  demona  and  spirits  are  abroad  and  have  special 
powen;  in  south  Eurc^  the  idea  of  the  Sabbath  seems  to  owe 
much  of  its  prominenoe  to  the  assodatlon  of  witchcraft  Iritk 
heresy  and  the  assemblies  of  the  Waldenses  and  others.  Again* 
tbe  **  evil  eye "  (9.*.)  is  especially  associated  with  the  aoutk 
of  Europe;  and  the  "  ligature  "  (production  of  impotence  bv 
magical  meanef  often  only  with  reference  to  a  q>ecified  individual) 
haralways  ph^ed  a  far  larger  part  in  the  conception  of  Witch* 
craft  than  it  has  in  the  leas  amorous  northern  climesi  and  it  is 
doubtlem  due  to  this  in  great  part  that  woman  in  this  part  of 
Europe  is  so  prominent  in  magic;  in  the  north,  on  the  other  hand, 
we  find  the  stoffm*raviing' woman,  hardly  yet  extinct  in  the  nofll^ 
of  Scotknd,  already  famous  in  pre-Christian  fimes;  we  may 
perhaps  coimect  the  importance  of  woman  in  Germany  in  pari 
with  the  conception  of  the  Wild  Hunt  and  the  spirits  who  fly  by 
night,  though  doubtless  other  factors  played  their  part. 

DndopmetU  of  Idcas.-^  the  history  of  EuropeoiT  witchcraft 
we  may  distinguish  three  periods:  (i>  down  to  a.«.  lajo*  in 
Which  the  mal  existenoe  of  some  or  even  all  kinds  of  magic  ia 
doubled,  and  the  various  spedes  are  dearly  held  a5undci  ti) 
seodar  and  ecclesiastical  writmgs;  <s)  from  12^  to  1430* 
during  which,  under  the  influence  of  scholaaticism.  the  doubta 
as  to  the  possibility  and  reality  of  witchcraft  gradually  vaoishf 
while  side  by  side  with  this  theoretical  development  the  practice 
of  the  Inquisitkm  instils  the  new  conception  into  the  popular 
mhid  and  produces  the  impression  that  a  great  recrudc^^cence  of 
witchcraft  was  in  pnogrtts;  (3)  from  1430  onwards  the  previously 
disparate  conceptions  became  fused,  at  any  rate  in  literature^ 
and  we  reach  the  period  of  wStch  pcrs^ution,  which  did  not  coma 
to  an  end  till  the  17th  or  even  the  18th  century. 


7S6 


WITCHCRAFT 


In  the  first  of  these  three  periods  we  find  (i)  the  conception 
of  the  malefica^  who,  in  oominott  with  her  male  connteipArt, 
uses  poison,  spells  and  waxen  images,  produces  tempeBtSv  works 
by  means  of  the  evil  eye  and  is  regarded  as  the  cause  of  impotence, 
a  feature  which  continually  called  the  attention  of  theologians 
and  jurists  to  the  question  of  magic  by  the  problems  raised  by 
siu'ts  for  divorce  or  nullity  of  marriage.  (2}  Side  by  side  with 
her,  we  find,  this  time  without  a  male  oountciport,  the  siriga, 
frequently  embodying  also  the  ideas  of  the  lanua  and  larva; 
originally  she  is  a  female  demon,  in  bird  form  (and  in  many  parts 
of  the  world  female  demons  are  spedaliy  malignant),  who  flies 
by  night,  kills  children  or  even  handsome  young  men,  in  order 
to  eat  them,  asaomes  animal  form,  sometimes  by  means  of  an 
ointment,  or  has  an  animal  familiar,  rides  on  a  besom,  a  piece  <>f 
wood  or  an  animal,  and  is  sometimes  brought  into  connexion 
with  the  souls  of  the  dead.  This  latter  feature  arises  from  the 
gradual  fusion  of  the  belief  in  the  striga,  the  UnholtUt  with  the 
kihdly  suite  of  Frau  Holde,  the  soids  for  whom  the  tabulae 
fortunae  were  q>read.  The  flight  through  the  air  is  so  common 
a  feature  in  the  savage  creed  that  the  demon4dea  of  the  siriga 
in  Europe  can  hardly  be  a  gmuine  folk-bdfef ;  or,  if  it  is,  it 
must  have  existed  side  by  side  with  a  similar  witch-belief,  of 
which  no  traces  seem  to  exist  in  the  earlier  literature.  The  same 
remark  applies  to  belief  in  transformation.  Although  the  develop- 
ment of  the  sexual  element  is  main^  of  later  date  and  con- 
tempcNraneous  with  the  evolution  of  the  Sabbath  idea,  the  mh- 
eubUus  daemmttm  was  certainly  not  unknown  to  the  period 
before  800.  This  intrusion  of  the  incubus  in  the  domain  of 
witchcraft  was  probably  due  to  the  attitude  of  the  church 
towards  magic. 

Eedesiastical  and  Civil  La», — For  the  attitude  of  the  church 
to  witchcraft  there  are  three  factors  to  be  considered:  (i)  the 
Ekiblical  recognition  of  its  reality;  (a)  the  universal  belief  in 
demons  and  m&|^c;  and  (3)  the  identification  of  these  demons 
with  heathen  deities.  The  orthodox  view  fluctuates  between 
the  theory  that  witchcraft  is  idolatry,  arecognition  of  real  powers, 
and  that  it  is  disobedience,  a  superstitious  following  of  neoft- 
enstent  gods.  The  Biblical  conception  of  a  witch  is  a  person 
who  deals  with  familiar  spnits  (Lev.  xx.  so),  and  the  express 
provision  that  a  witch  should  not  be  suffered  to  live  (Ex.  xxiL 
x8)  ooukl  have  left  no  doubt  that  the  crime  w;^  a  rnl  one  in 
the  Mosaic  law.  Although  the  familiar  plays  but  a  small  part 
bi  this  early  period,  we  find  that  the  church  early  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  witchcraft  depended  on  a  con^>act  with  demons; 
in  the  Synod  of  Elvira  (a.d.  306)  it  was  prcmounoed  to  be  one  of 
the  three  canonical  sins — apostaqr*-and  punished  by  the  refusal 
of  oommunion,  even  on  the  death<4>ed.  Augustine  lays  down 
{De  doct.  <kr.  n.  xx.)  that  witchcraft  depends  on  a  pact  with  the 
devil;  at  Worms  in  a.d.  829  the  Prankish  bishops  dedaied  that 
the  devil  aided  both  sexes  to  prepare  love  potions^  to  cause  storms 
and  to  abstract  milk,  fruits  of  the  fidd,  &c. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  all  kinds  of  witchcraft 
were  equally  recognised.  Tho  inmissores  iempeskUwrn  and  the 
po^nen  by  magical  means  were  commonly  recognized  as  real, 
but  the  striga  was  usually  regarded  as  a  pure  superstition.  An 
Irish  synod  {c.  a.d.  800)  pronounces  a  Christian  to  be  anathema, 
who  ventures  to  believe  in  the  pos^bility  of  flij^  through  the 
air  and  blood-sucking;  Stephen  of  Hungary  (997~io3B)  like- 
wise distinguishes  the  maUfica  from  tibe  s^a't  Kegino  of 
PrOm  {c.  906)  concludes  that  the  flight  by  night  with  the  devil 
and  the  goddess  Diana  is  a  delusion,  the  work  of  the  devil. 
Burchard  of  Worms  (d.  T025)  prescribes  t9to  years'  penance 
for  the  belief  that  the  Unholde  kill  Christians,  cook  them  and  eat 
their  hearts,  which  they  r^laoe  by  a  piece  of  wood,  and  then 
wake  them.  Agobard  uid  others  even  express  doubts  as  to  the 
reality  of  weatiberrmaking.  For  those  who  took  this  view, 
and  even  for  others  who,  like  John  of  Damascus,  accepted  the 
siriga,  a  mild  attitude,  in  strong  contrast  to  the  later  persecnlkma, 
was  the  accepted  policy.  The  Synod  of  Rcisbach  (799)  demands 
penance  for  witchcraft,  but  no  punishment  in  this  life.  J<^n 
of  Damascus,  Agobard,  John  of  Salisbury  and  Burchard  are 
equally  mild. 


For  the  church  witcfacntft  was  a  eamnicil  sfn,^or  aapendtiai; 
for  the  dvil  law  it  was  a  violation  of  the  dvil  rights  of  odien, 
so  far  as  real  results  weie  produced.  Consequently  we  find  tbe 
legal  distinction  between  the  mak^  and  the  siriga  is  equally 
marked.  The  Frankish  and  Alema&niah  laws  of  aj>.  500^600 
accept  the  former  but  regard  the  latter  as  mere  siapentitiaa 
The  Lex  Salica  indeed  punished  the  striga  as  a  murderess,  bat 
only  exacted  wergeld.  Rothar  lokbade  Judges  to  kill  the  striga, 
and  Charlemagne  even  punished  the  bcttel  in  them.  Tl» 
Alemanni  (a.o.  600)  forbade  private  torture.ef  wodscn  suspected 
of  witchcraft  or  strigism.  But  although  witchoaft  was  criminal, 
and  we.  find  occasional  laws  against  sorlidrias  (Wcstfrmaks, 
AJ>.  873),  or  expulsions  (from  Pomecania,  IZS4,  &c),  in  tin 
period  the  crime  is  unimportant  save  where  wuieficittm.  is  ana- 
bined  with  treason  and  the  person  of  the  king  il  ateed  at. 

Further  Desdopmentj—lk  the  second  period  <i  230-1430) 
we  have  to  deal  with  two  factors  of  fwadamrBtal  Importance: 
(1)  the  elabokation  of  demonelogy  and  alfied  ideas  \jy  the  schol- 
astics, and  (2)  the  institution  of  the  Inquisitioii  to  deal  with  tAe 
rising  flood  of  heresy.  Atthebeghuiingof  diueiathepvevakot 
view  of  the  siriga  seems  to  have  been  that  she  really  esisted; 
Caesar  of  Heisterbadi  {c,  1225)  recognises  the  female  monster 
who  kills  children;  William  of  Paris  (c.  xsjo)  agrees  thst 
lamiae  and  sirigae  eat  children,  but  they  are  ^ed  to  tbe  damiiM 
stfcliiniatf;  that  they  are  veal  wsDien  is  a  fodish  belief.  Scholastic 
ingenuity,  however,  soon  disposed  of  sationaKstic  dbjectioas 
to  human  flights  through  the  air;  the  ride  ot'  disembodied 
spirits,  led  by  the  devil,  Diana,  Hesodias  (the  Asadia  of  moden 
Italy),  &C.,  became  the  assemblies  of  witches  to  do  homage  to 
the  deviL  But  this  fiision  was  not  the  work  of  the  scholastics 
alone;  for  the  church,  witchcraft  had  long  consisted  in  the 
recognition  of  demona  Tlie  new  sect%  especially  the  Cathan, 
who  held  that  theinfluenoeof  the  devil  had  perverted  the  teachingi 
of  Christianity,  were,  like  the  eaity  Christians,  the  object  ef 
unfounded  charges,  in  this  case  of  worship  of  the  devil,  thii 
naturally  led  to  the  belief  that  they  were  given  to  witcbcrsft 

IVom  the  7th  century  onwards  wmnen  and  ptiestsfigure  hirgdy 
in  .the  accusations  of  witchcraft,  tiie  latter,  because  their  <Ske 
made  the  canonical  offence  more  sbrious,  the  former  because 
love  potions,  and  especially  impolenHa  ex  mdkficio,  are  the 
weapons  of  the  female  sex.  With  the  rise  and  development  of 
the  belief  in  the  heretics'  Sabbadi,  which  first  appears  early 
in  the  nth  cefattay,  another  sexual  dmneirt-Mhe  caneubUws 
<AMfS0iiffSs— began  to  play  its^  part,  'and  soon  the  prcdomlnanoe 
of  woman  in  magic  was  aanued.  In  1250  certain  Ushops 
gave  to  the  Dotniiucan  Etienae  de  Bourbon  (Stepbanus  de 
Borbone^  d.  <.  xs6i)  a  description  of  the  Sabluith;  and  twenty* 
five  years  later  the  Inquisition  took  cognisance  of  the  first  case 
of  this  kind;  from  the  X4th  century  onwards  the  idea  was 
indissolubly  connected  with  witchcraft. 

Jh  the  first  half  of  this  second  period,  witchcraft  was  still 
superstition  for  the  canon  law,  a  dvil  wrong  for  the  secuhr 
law;  later,  although  these  ideas  still  persisted,  all  magic  wss 
held  to  be  heresy;  its  redity  and  heretlcid  nature  was  expressly 
maintained  by  Thomas  Aquinas.  Already  in  1158  the  inquisitocs 
took. cognisance  of  magic  as  heresy,  and  from  1320  onwards 
there  was  a  great  increase  in  the  number  /bf  cases.  At  first  the 
witch  was  handed  over  to  the  secular  arm  for  execution,  either 
as  an  obstinate  heretic  or  as  the  worker  of  evil  magic;  later 
it  was  found  necessary  (0  make  provision  for  the  numerous  casei 
in  whfdi  the  offender  abjured;  it  was  decided  that  repcnunce 
due  to  fear  did  not  release  the  wit(A  from  the  consequences  ef 
her  heresy. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  second  period  the  jurisdiction  psssed 
in  France  from  the  spiritual  to  the  secular  courts  by  a  dedsioa 
of  the  paikment  of  Paris  in  r39i.  The  inquisitors  did  not* 
however,  resign  their  work,  but  extended  their  sphere  of  opeis^ 
tions;  the  great  European  persecution  from  1434  to  X447  ^'^ 
eo^esiastical  'as  wcU  es  secnlan  In  the  third  period  (iAS^ 
OBWarda).  the  opening  of  which  is  marked  by  this  attempt  w 
root  out  whcbcraft,  we  find  that  the  woii:  of  the  scholaStici 
and  inquisitors  hasresulted  io  the  tompleis  louon  of  orii 


,  WITCHCRAFT 


<DiIlKt  Idea*  md  llit  aystdllntbn  of  (m  Bodtrn  Ida 
iritch.  To  Ihe  melbadi  of  the  ipquiiUon  muU  be  uoribed 
great  pan  Die  apiad  ot  Ihue  canccfHiont  UMngM  tbe  people^ 
for  the  UalUui  iiaiifiaiam  oi  Ipquiiilor't  Uuutl  (14^), 
foLLowLDg  closely  4n  the  importuit  bull  SttHtmu^  deiid^oJtlti 
sjalibui  {iDDOcent  VIU.,  ii3i),  gave  Ikem  ■  handbwA  Inm 
vbich  they  plied  their  tortimd  victinu  with  queBliqns  and 
verc  iiljle  to  ejitnct  luch  atnfessionB  u  tbey  desiicdi  hy  ■ 
Mwigc  pervenioo  thcK  (dmiuion,  wrnng  fiwa  their  vioimg 
by  tmck  or  itumlJ-iae*,  wen  detcribcd  u  volunUry. 

The  lubKqueni  hiuaiy  of  wiichcnlt  may  be  ualed  in  lesa 
dctaiL  £n  £ngUnd  iJie  tdala  veif  matt  aumetov*  jn  the  ITLh 
CEBturvi  but  tbe  nbieace  of  judicial  toitiue  made  tbe  cava 
prupoctiGoately  less  numeniui  than  they  were  on  the  Eumpeafi 
coiiliiieDl.    Ooe  of  Ihe  most  lamoui  wilcb-hodns  wai  Uatthew 

three  yeua.  Muy  of  bis  mUbods  were  ooi  (v  remwsd  from 
actuil  tonurei  he  piicked  the  body  of  tbe  vilch  to  fiod  atiaea- 
thelic  aieai;  oibn  lifnt  were  the  inability  to  abed  ton, 
or  Icpcat  tbe  Lord's  Prayer,  the  practice  of  walking 'backwards 
or  against  the  sun,  throwing  tbe  hair  loose.  Intertwining  the 
£ngen,  be.  Wilche)  nete  also  wei^ied  agidnit  the  BiUe,  or 
thrown  into  water,  tbe  thumbs  and  toes  tied  ciogawise,  and 
those  wbo  did  not  sink  veie  adjudged  guily;  a  very  common 
practice  was  to  ibave  the  witch,  perhapB  to  discover  insensible 
spots,  hut  more  probably  because  oiiginaUy  the  familiar  spirit 
wu  supposed  to  ding  to  tbe  hair.  The  last  EB^kh  trial  lor 
witchcraft  was  b  1711,  when  Jane  Wenham  was  convicted,  btfl 
not  executed.  OccislDiiil  cues  of  lynching  continue  to  occur, 
even  at  the  present  day. 

In  Scotland  trials,  accompanied  by  torture,  wetc  very  frequat 
in  tbe  i;th  century.  A  faraDoa  wItch-Gnder  wat  Kiooid. 
The  last  trial  and  eieculion  took  place  in  I7i>. 

In  New  England  there  was  a  remarkaUe  outburst  oflaDatidam 
^tbefimousSatem  witchcraft  delusion-Mn  i6Qi-r6o3;butiBany 
of  the  prisoners  were  not  (sovicted  and  Kma  of  the  convicts 
received  the  governor's  pardon  (see  SiiaM,  Uabs.}. 

On  the  continent  oC  Europe  the  beginning  of  Ihe  lAth  century 
uw  (he  trial  of  witchcraft  cases  takAi  out  irf  the  hands  ol  the 
Inquisilio-n  ia  France  and  Cccaiany.  and  the  hlOucnce  of  the 
ifolbKilKcamepiedominantiii  tbesecountries.  AmongfamoDi 
continenUal  triab  may  be  mentioBed  that  of  a  woman  nuned 

with  the  Uarqulse  de  Bnnvilliers.  Trials  and  occulions  did 
not  finally  cease  till  the  end  of  Ihe  iSih  century.  In  Spani  a 
woman  was  burnt  ia  17S1  at  Seville  by  the  Jnqaisitlon:  tbe 
secular  courts  condemned  a  girl  to  dec^tation  in  17B3;  in 
Germany  an  encntion  look  place  in  Fosen  in  170J.  Id  South 
America  and  Meiico  witch-burofng  seems  to  bin  lasted  till 
1  iulo  the  second  half  of  the  14th  ctstuiy,  the  latest 


The  t< 


.umbo  of  V 


a  of  ibe  1 


i  true  that  Benedict  Carpiov  (i5Qj~i(i<S6)  pesied  sentence  on 
000  victims,  the  former  figure  is  undoubledJy  too  low. 
!lic  of  IJu  Critiiol  Spirii.— It  is  commonly  usulned  and  bis 
n  asserted  by  Lecky  that  the  historical  evidence  for  wilcb- 


lebdlef  in 


ritcbcraft  may  be  quoted;  but  tbe  tasllmc 
"  ^n  <fuantity,  II  we  eio 


the  voluctesa  declaration  ol  the  victirtis  of 
as  to  the  pathological  nde  of  wflcbcraft  I3  abundant,  but  affords 
no  proof  of  the  erroneous  iulerences  drawn  from  the  gennine 
phenomena.  If  this  anctiticsl  altitude  Is  found  in  our  own  day, 
it  b  not  ntipriibig  that  the  ntlonalistlc  splHt  was  long  in  making 
ill  appearance  and  slow  In  gllnlag  the  victory  over  tupvrstilion. 
From  the  rjth  century  onnwds  the  oM  view  that  Iransfonnstion 
and  transportalfon  were  not  teahlics  but  delusions,  caused 
directly  by  tbe  devil,  began  to  gather  force.  Among  the  import- 
ant works  may  be  mentioned  Johann  Weicr's  Di  Praiiligils 
Datmotium  (rjCs),  Reginald  Scott's  (c.  tjjS-JSBo)  Distatrry 
•l  Wittier^  Ufi*)  which  wu  ordered  to  be  burnt  by  King 


James  I.,  who  had  Umielt  nplied  to  H  bi  hi 

(t597),  Ballhasar  Bekker's  Srtomn*  WcreU  (1691),  ■  .  ... 
though  it  went  farther  in  the  direction  of  scpticism,  had  less 
influence  than  Friedrich  v.  Spec's  CaUio  aimintlu  (i6jt). 
In  France  Jean  Uvicr  defended  the  rationalistic  view,  and 
Jean  Bodin  demanded  tha;  be  should  be  sent  to  tbe  M^  lor 

Fiydudaty  '!  ICilcicrq/l.— Although  at  the  hdgfat'  of  the  witdi 
persecution  torture  wrung  from  innocent  victims  valueless 
confessions  which  are  at  beat  evidence  that  kng-continued 
agony  ol  body  may  be  instrumental  m  provoking  hiUudnations. 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  witches  commotdy,  Uke  tbe  magician 
in  lower  pUnes  of  culture,  firmly  believe  in  their  own  powers, 

Ignorance  of  the  effects  of  suggestion  leads  both  the  witch  and 
others  lo  regard  at  supernormal  eflects  which  are  really  due  to 
the  victim's  beliel  in  The  pcesibility  of  witchcraft.  This  sppliea 
especially  to  casa  of  "UgiiiuR."  (i)  Tdeiiatby  (;.i.)  seems  in 
some  cases  to  play  a  pait  m  eilabliihing  the  witch's  reputation; 
Bomc  evidence  has  been  produced  that  hypnoCiam  at  a  distance 
is  possiUe.  and  an  account  of  her  powers  ^ven  by  a  French 

ne^cctedinapptoisingtheevidenceEorwitchcraft.  (3)  Whatever 
be  the  teal  eaplanalion  of  the  belief  in  poltergrists  (f.s.)  and 
"  phynta!  phenomena  "  iq-t-).  the  belief  in  ihem  rests  on  a  very 
different  basis  from  thai  of  tbe  belief  in  lycanthropy;  ciiBggera- 
tioD  and  credulity  alone  will  not  explain  how  these  phenomena 
come  to  be  associated  with  witchoaft.  On  the  other  hand, 
subjective  causes  pdayed  their  part  in  causing  the  witch  to  believe 
b  henslf.  (4)  Auto-suggestion  may  produce  halludnationa 
and  detoalau  hi  othetKite  sane  subjects:  and  for  those  who  do 
not  question  the  reality  of  witchcraft  Ibis  must  cerate  power- 
fully, f  s)  The  descriptions  of  witchn  show  that  hi  many  casa 
Ibeir  sanity  was  more  Iban  questionable;  trance  and  hysteria 
also  playod  their  part.  (6)  It  is  uncenabi  to  what  extent  drugs 
snd  salves  hsve  helped  to  cause  balludnstion;  but  that  they  bad 
■ooM  share  team  certain,  though  tnodoa  eiperimenten  have 
beat  led  to  throw  doubt  on  the  alleged  effects  of  some  of  the 
drugs;  here  too,  however,  the  effect*  of  suggestion  must  be 
reckoned  with;  we  do  not  issociate  the  use  of  tobacco  wllb 
halludnatlons,  but  it  was  employed  to  produce  them  In  Haiti 
in  Che  same  way  ss  hemp  among  the  Bantu  of  the  present  day. 
(7)  HalludnatifHB  occurring  under  torture  mnst  have  Icnded 
to  convince  bystanders  and  victims  alike,  no  less  than  the  accept- 
ance of  suggestions,  positive  and  negative. 

At  regardi  the  tiatune  of  Ihe  ideas  accepted  as  a  mult  ol 
suggeilion  at  ssto-tuggestion,  they  were  on  the  one  band  derived, 
a*  we  have  asen,  from  eccleaiasilcat  and  especially  scholastic 
sources;  but  beneath  ibese  elements  is  a  stratum  of  popular 
belief,  derived  in  the  main  perhaps  from  pagan  sources,  Irtt  lo 
[his  day  Id  Italy  witchcralt  Is  known  aa  (a  ttccka  tdipmt, 
and  hu  been  handed  down  In  an  unbroken  tradition  for  counties 


MOf 

■dnWi 


Si, iS. -. 

niiuiii  Ju  fion,  Foiitiiri  ef  Ai  Fjt 
Han't  miL   For  the  American  nc 
Ou    Vaadoii.     Foi    " 
Riiitum  ami  FM 


s-Sn.'T.; 


W.''SSlte.  

in  N,  titiia-  Fur  a  eurvey  of  European  witch- 
fntury.  see  J.  Hansen.  ZtiAtnialui  (looo)  and 
al»  Gtat  V.  HOnbrftck.  Dm  PafjIMm,  L: 

SaMtidon   ■•>{  HypnclUmMi:  Tylor.   Primilmt   CMM«. 

anrniapcil  plant*.  Kt  B.  GiUien.  UtPtfOu  iM(«wt: 


758 


WITCH-HAZEL— WITHER 


Ba>tian,  Per  Uttuek  In  itr  Gisehkktt,  On  iritdicnft  and  iimiuty. 
atfi  Hack-Tuke,  HisUiry  of  Ituanky\  O.  Sndl,  Hfxeoprocesse  utid 
CeisUsstdrun%.  For  a  discussion  of  cne  evidence  for  the  real  existence 
of  witchcraft,  see  E.  Gurney,  Phantasms  ef  the  Livings  vol.  L:  F. 
Podmore,  Modem  Spiritualism,  L  13.  (N.  W.  T.) 

WITCH-HAZBIi»  in  botany,  the  common  name  for  a  North 

American  shrub,  Hamamdis  tirginicaf  known  in  gardens.    The 

dusters  of  rich  yellow  flowers  begin  to  expand  in  the  autumn 

before  the  leaves  fall  and  continue  throughout  the  winter.    The 

bark  and  leaves  are  astringent,  and  the  seeds  contain  a  quantity 

of  oil  and  are  edible.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  use  of  the 

twigs  as  divining  rods,  just  as  hhxA  twigs  were  used  in  EngUnd. 

Britten  and  Holland  (Dielionttry  of  English  Plant  Names,  p.  347) 
quote  three  British  plants  under  this  name:  (i)  Wych  dm  (Ulmus 
montana),  which,  according  to  Parkinson  (Tbec^.  >403),  was  called 
"  Witch  haseU,"  because  the  leaves  are  like  unto  the  leaves  of 
the  Hascll  nut  ;  (2)  Hornbeam  {Carpinus  Betidus),  which,  according 
to  Gerard,  was  to  called  in  some  places  from  its  likeness  to  the  elm  or 
*'  wkh  Haaell  tree  " ;  and  (3)  Mountaia  ash  (Pyras  Aucuparia). 

WITCH  OF  AONESI,  in  geometry^  a  cubic  curve  invented 
by  Maria  Gaetana  Agnea.  It  is  constructed  by  the  following 
method:  Let  AQB  be  a  seinldrcle  of  diameter 
AB,  produce  MQ  the  ordinate  of  Q  to  P  so  that 
MQ :  MP ::  AM :  AB.  Then  the  locus  of  P  is  the 
witch.  The  cartesian  equation,  if  A  be  taken  as 
origin  and  AB(«2a)  for  the  axis  of  a:,  is 
ry*«i4a'(2a"*«).  The  curve  consists  ot  one 
bcaach  entirdy  to  the  left  of  the  line  x^aa  and 
having  the  axis  of  y  as  an  a^mptote. 

WITHAM,  an  urban  district  in  the  Maldon 
parliamentary  dlviaon  of  Esses^  England,  .39  m. 
N.E.  by  £.  from  London  by  the  Great  Eastern  rail- 
way. Pop.  (1901)  3454.  It  lies  on  the  ^iyer  Brain, 
an  affluent  of  the  Blackwater,  also  kapwn  as  the 
Guith,  a  form  connected  irith  the  name  Witham.  Tht  church  of 
St  Nicholas  is  prindpally  Decorated,  but  retains  earlier  portions. 
Roman  bricks  appear  in  its  fabric,  and  premise  a  Roman,  station 
in  the  vidnity.  Surrounding  the  church  (which  stands  in»a  high- 
lying  portion  of  the  town  known  as  Chipping  Hill)  there  arc 
earthworks,  possibly  the  remains  of  a  fortification  reoorded  as 
made  by  order  of  Edward  the  Hder  in  913,  but  perhaps  of 
British  origin. 

WITHER*  OEOROB  (i  588-1667),  English  poet  and  satirist,  son 
of  George  Wither,  of  Hampshire,  was  bom  at  Bentworth^  near 
Alton,  on  the  nth  of  June  1588.  He  was  sent  to  Mac^alen 
College,  Oxford,  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  remained  at  the  univer- 
sity for  two  ye&rs.  His  ndghbours  appear  to  have  had  no  great 
opinion  of  him,  for  they  advised  his  father  to  put  him  to  "  some 
mechanic  trade."  He  was,  however,  sent  to  one  of  the  Iims  of 
Chancery,  eventually  obtaining  an  introduction  at  court.  He 
wrote  an  d^y  (161 2)  on  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  and  a  volume 
of  gratulatoiy  poems  (16 13)  on  the  marriage  of  the  princess 
Elixabeth,  but  his  uncompromising  character  soon  prepsjred 
trouble  for  him.  In  161  x  he  published  AbH^es  Stript  and  WUpt, 
twenty  satires  of  general  application  directed  against  Revenge, 
Ambition,  Lust  and  other  abstractions.  The  volume  included 
a  poem  called  "  The  Scourge,"  in  which  the  lord  chancellor  was 
attacked,  and  a  series  of  epigrams.  No  copy  of  this  edition  is 
known,  and  it  was  perhaps  suppressed,  but  in  161 3  five  editions 
appeared,  and  the  author  was  lodged  in  the  Marshalsea  prison. 
'the  influence  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  supported  by  a  loyal 
**  Satyre ''  to  the  king,  in  which  he  hints  that  an  enemy  at  court 
had  fitted  personal  meanings  to  his  general  invective,  secured  his 
rdease  at  the  end  of  a  few  months.  JHe  had  figured  as  one  of  the 
Interlocutors, "  Roget,"  in  his  friend  William  Browne's  Shepherd's 
Piptf  with  which  were  bound  up  eclogues  by  other  poets,  among 
them  one  by  Wither,  and  during  his  imprisonment  he  wrote  what 
may  be  regarded  as.  a  continuation  of  Browne's  work,  The 
^Shepherd's  Hunting  (printed  1615),  eclogues  in  which  tin  two 
poets  ai^>ear  as  "Willie"  and  "Roget"  (in  later  editions 
**  Fhilarete  ").  The  fourth  of  these  edogues  contains  a  famous 
passage  in  praise  of  poetry.  After  his  rdease  he  was  admitted 
(16 1 5)  to  liuGoln's  Inn,  and  in  the  same  year  he  printed  privately 
FidHa,  a  love  .degy*  ^  which  thcie  is  a  unique  copy  in  the 


Bodleian.  Other  editions  of  tUs  book,  wUcb  eontmiaed  tht 
lyric  *'  Shall  I,  wasting  in  despair,"  appeared  !n  16x7  4nd  16x9. 
In  x6ai  be  returned  to  the  satiric  vein  with  Wiiher*s  Moito.  Nee 
h(Aeo,  nee  cateo,  nee  euro.  Over  30,000  copies  of  thib  poem  were 
sold,  according  to  his  own  account,  within  a  few  months.  Like 
his  earlier  invective,  it  was  said  to  be  fa'bellous,  and  Wither  was 
again  imprisoned,  but  shortly  afterwards  released  without  fbcixkal 
trial  on  the  plea  that  the  book  had  been  duly  licensed.  In  1622 
appeared  his  Paire-Virtue,  The  Mistresse  of  PhiP  Arete,  a  kng 
panegyric  of  a  mistress,  partly  real,  partly  allegorical,  written 
chiefly  in  the*seven-sylhbled  verse  of  whkh  he  was  a  mastec 

Wither  began  as  a  moderate  in  p<4itics  and  religion,  but  from 
this  time  his  Puritan  leanings  became  more  and  more  pronomtced, 
and  his  later  work  consists  of  religious  poetry,  and  of  con- 
troverual  and  political  tracts.  His  Hymiet  and  Songs  of  the 
Cknrck  (i639<-x623)  were  issued  under  a  patent  of  King  James  L 
ordaining  that  they  diould  be  bound  up  with  every  copy  of  the 
authorized  metricid  psalms  offered  for  sale  (see  Hvmns).  TUs 
patent  was  opposed,  as  incOndstent  with  thdr  privilege  to  print 
the  ".singing-psalms,"  by  the  Stationeis'  Company,  to  Wither's 
gi-eat  mortification  and  loss,  and  a  second  dmilar  patent  was 
finally  ^sallowed  by  the  House  ci  Lords.  Wither  was  in  London 
during  the  plague  of  1625,  and  in  1608  puUIAed  BHiain*s 
RemembraneeTt  a  voluminous  poem  on  the  st^bfect,' interspersed 
with  denhndations  of  the  wickedness  of  the  times,  and  prophccks 
of  the  disasters  about  to  faU  upon  England.  He  also  inddientaliy 
avenged  Ben  Jonson's  satire  on  him  as  the  "  Chronoinastix  "  of 
Time  Yendkated^  by  a  reference  to  Ben's  "  dnmken  condavc.** 
This  book  he  was  oUiged  to  print  with  his  own  hand  in  ooii> 
sequence  of  his  quarrel  with  the  Stationers'  Company.  In  1635 
he  was  employed  by  Henry  Taunton,  a  London  publisher,  to 
write  English  verses  illustjutive  tA  the  allegotioal  plates  of 
Crispin  van  Passe,  originally  designed  for  Gabrid  Rollenhagen's 
Nudeus  emUematum  sdectissimorum  {t&io-^6i$).  The  book 
was  published  as  a  CoUectum  4^  Embkmes,  Amdent  and  Madame, 
of  which  the  only  perfect  copy  iniown  Ss  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  best  of  Withcr's  religious  poetry  is  contained  In  HdeiuiuUt 
or  BrUam*s  Second  Remembrancer,  iridch  was  printed  in  Holland 
in  1641.  Many  ol  the  poems  rise  to  a  high  point  of  escodlence. 
Besides  those  properly  entitled  to  the  desigiMitfan  of  hymns,  the 
book  contains  songs  of  singular  btautyi  especisHy  the  Cradle- 
song  ("  Sleep,  baby,  sleep,  what  ails  my  dear  "),  the  Anniversary 
Marriage  Song  ("  Lord,  living  here  are  we  "),  tbePenunhulation 
Song  ("  Lond,  it  hath  pleasM  Thee  to  say  "),  the  Song  for  Loveis 
("  Come,  sweet  heart,  oome,  let  us  prove  *),  the  Soug  tot  the 
Happily  Married  ("  Since  they  in  singing  take  deUgiit ")  and 
that  for  a  Shepherd  ("Renownid  men  thdr  lierds  to  keep") 
-"-(Nos*  50  in  the  first  part,  1 7  and  24  in  the  second,  and  so,  at  and 
41  in  the  third).  There  is  also  in  the  second  part  &  fine  song 
(No.  S9)f  fu^l  o(  liistorical  as  well  as  poetical  interest,  upon  the 
evil  times  in  which  the  pOet  lived,  beginnings 

"  Now  are  the  times,  these  an  the  dayt 

Which  will  those  men  approve 
Who  take  delight  in  honest  ways 

And  pious  courses  love; 
Now  to  the  world  it  will  appear 

That  innocence  of  heart 
Will  keep  us  far  more  free  from  (ear 

Than  hdmet,  shield  or  dart." 

Wither  wrote,  generally,  in  a  pure  nervous. Bnj^sh  Idlon,  and 
preferred  the  reputation  of "  rusticity  "  (an  epitiiet  applied  to  him 
even  by  Baxter)  to  the  tricks  and  artifices  of  poetical  style  whidi 
were  then  in  favour.  It  may  be  partly  on  that  aooount  that  he 
was  better  apfxedated  by  posterity  than  by  his  contemporaries. 

Wither  had  served  as  captain  of  horse  in  1639  in  the  expedition 
of  Charles  L  against  the  Scottish  Covenanters,  and  his  religious 
rather'  than  h^  pditical  convictions  must  be  accepted^  the 
explanation  of  the  fact  that,  three  years  after  die  Scottish 
expedition,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Great  Rebellion,  he  is  found 
definitely  siding  with  the  pariiament.  He  sdd  his  estate  to  raiss 
a  troop  of  horse,  and  Was  placed  by  a  parliamentary  comnittce 
in  command  of  Famham  Csstle.  After  a  few  days'  occupatioa 
he  kit  the  place  unddendcd,  and  matched  to  London.  His  o^n 


WITHERITE-— WITNESS 


759^ 


bouse  near  FjELrnham  was  plundered,  asd  he  himself  was  captured 
by  a  troop  of  koyaliat  horse,  owing  his  life  to  the  intervention  of 
Sii  John  Denham  on  the  ground  that  so  long  as  Wither  lived 
he  himself  could  not  be  accounted  the  worst  poet  in  England. 
After  this  episode  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major.  He 
was  present  at  the  siege  of  Gloucester  ^1643)  and  at  Naaeby 
(1645).  He  had  been  deprived  in  1643  of  his  nominal  command, 
and  of  his  commission  as  justice  of  the  peace,  in  consequence  of 
an  attack  upoa  Sir  Richard  Onslow,  who  was,  he  maintained, 
responsible  for  the  Famham  disaster.  In  the  same  year  pailia^ 
mcnt  made  him  a  grant  of  £2000  for  the  loss  of  his  property, 
but  he  apparently  never  received  the  fun  amount,  and  complained 
from  time  to  time  of  his  embarrassments  and  of  the  slight  re- 
wards he  received  for  his  services.  An  order  was  made  to  settle 
a  yeariy  income  of  £150  on  Wither,  chargeable  On  Sir  John 
Dcnham's  sequestrated  estate,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  he 
ever  received  it.  A  amall  place  given  him  by  the  Protector  was 
forfeited  **  by  declaring  vnto  him  (Cromwell)  those  truths  whkh 
he  was  not  willing  to  hear  of."  At  the  Kestoration  be  was 
arrested,  and  remained  in  prison  for  three  years.  He  died  in 
London  on  the  2nd  of  May  1667. 

His  extent  writings,  catalogued  in  Park's  Briiish  Bibliognplurt 
nnmber  over  a  hundred.  Sir  S.  E.  Brydges  published  Tke  Skipketd's 
Hunting  (I814).  Fiddia  (1815)  and  Pair  Virtut  (k8i8),  and  a  selection 
afypeared  in  Stanford's  Works  of  tke  BrUisk  PoeU^  vol.  v.  (1810). 
Most  of  Withef's  works  were  edited  in  twenty  volumes  for  the 
Spenser  Society  (1871-1882);  a  selection  was  included  by  Henry 
Morley  in  hia  Compaitiou  Poets  O891) ;  Fidelia  and  Fair  Virtus  are 
included  in  Edward  Arber's  Enffisk  Gamer  (vol.  iv.,  1883 1  vol.  vi. 
18B3),  and  an  eaccetlent  edition  of  Tke  Poetry  of  George  Wttker  was 
edited  by  F.  Sidgwick  in  1902.  Among  A.  C.  Swinburne's 
MisceBanies  there  w  an  amusing  account  of  a  copy  of  a  selection 
fnnn  Wither's  poems  annotated  oy  Lamb,  then  by  I>r  Nott,  whose 
notes  were  the  subject  of  further  ruthless  comment  from  Lamb. 

WITHERITB*  a  mineral  consisting  of  barium  carbonate 
(BaCOa),  crystallizing  in  the  orthorhombic  system.  The  crystals 
are  invariably  twinoied  together  in  groups  of  three,  giving  rise 
to  pseudo-hexagonal  forms  somewhat  resembling  bipyramidal 
crystals  of  quarts,  the  faces  are  usually  rough  and  striated 
horizontally.  The  colour  is  dull  white  or  sometimes  greyish, 
the  hardness  is  3)  and  the  specific  gravity  4*3.  The  mineral  is 
named  after  W.  Withering,  who  b  X784  recognized  it  to  be 
chemically  distinct  from  barytes.  It  occurs  in  veins  of  lead  ore 
at  Hexham  in  Northumberland,  Alston  in  Cumberland,  Angk- 
zark,  near  Chorley  in  Lancashire,  and  a  few  other  localities. 
Witherite  is  readily  altered  to  barium  sulphate  by  the  action  of 
water  containing  calcium  sulphate  in  solution,  and  crystals  are 
therefore  frequently  encrusted  with  barytes.  It  is  the  chief  source 
of  barium  salts,  and  is  mined  in  considerable  amounts  in  North- 
umberland. It  is  used  for  tbc  preparation  of  rat  poison,  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass  and  porcelain,  and  formerly  for  refining 
sugar.  (L.  J.  S.) 

WITHER8P00N,  JOHH  (1723-1794),  Scottish-American  divine 
and  educationalist,  was  bom  at  Gifford,  Yester  parish.  East 
Lothian,  Scotland,  on  the  5th  of  February  1722/1725,  the  son  of 
a  minister  of  the  Scotch  Established  Church,  James  Wither- 
spoon  (d.  17  59),  and  a  descendant  on  the  distaff  side  from  John 
Welch  and  John  Knox.  He  studied  at  Haddington,  and  gradu- 
ated in  1739  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  completed 
a  divinity  course  in  1743.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the 
Haddington  presbytery  in  X743,  and  after  two  years  as  a  pro- 
bationer was  ordained  (1745)  minister  of  the  parish  of  Beith. 
His  EccUsiasUaU  Characteristics  (1753)!  Serious  Apology  (1764), 
and  History  of  a  Corporation  of  Servants  discovered  a  few  years  ago 
in  the  Interior  Paris  of  South  America  (1765),  attacked  various 
abuses  In  the  church  and  satirised  the  "  moderate  "  party.  In 
1757  he  had  become  pastor  at  Paisley;  and  in  1769  he  received 
the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Aberdeen.  He  was  sued  for  libel  for 
printing  a  rebuke  to  some  of  his  parishioners  who  had  travestied 
the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper;  and  after  several  years  in 
the  courts  he  was  ordered  to  pay  damages  of  £150,  which  was 
raised  by  his  parishioners.  He  refused  calls  to  churches  in 
Dublin  and  Rotterdam,  and  in  1766  dedined  an  invitation 
bvovghfc  him  by  Richard  Stockton  t*  go  to  Aoierica  as  president 


of  the  QoQege  of  New  Jersey  {jaoyr  Princeton  University) ;  but  he 
accepted  a  second  invitation  and  left  Paisley  in  May  1768.  His 
close  relation  with  the  Scotch  Church  secured  important  material 
assistance  for  the  college  of  which  he  now  became  president, 
and  he  toured  New  England  to  collect  contributions.  He  secured 
an  excellent  set  of  scientific  iq>paratua  and  improved  the  in- 
struction in  the  natural  sciences^  he  introduced  courses  in 
Hebrew  and  French  about  1772;  and  he  did  a  large  part  of  tie 
actual  teaching,  having  courses  in  languages,  divinity,  moral 
philosophy  and  eloquence.  In  the  American  Presbyterian 
church  he  was  a  prominent  figure;  he  worked  for  union  with  the 
Congregationalists  and  with  the  Dutch  Reformed  body;  and  at 
the  synod  of  1786  he  was  one  of  the  committee  which  reported  in 
favour  of  the  formation  of  a  (jeneral  Assembly  and  which 
drafted  *'  a  system  of  general  mles  for  .  .  .  goveminent." 
In  politics  he  did  much  to  fniluence  Irish  and  Scotch-Irish 
Presbyterians  to  support  the  Whig  party.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  provincial  congress  which  met  at  New  Brunswick  in  July 
1774;  presided  over  the  Somerset  dbunty  committee  of  corre- 
spondence in  1774-1775;  was  a  member  of  the  New  Jersey 
constitutional  convention  in  the  spring  of  1776;  and  from  June 
1776  to  the  autumn  of  1779  and  in  17S0-X7&3  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Continental  Congress,  where  he  uf|^  the  adopti<Mn  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  being  the  only  clergyman  to 
sign  it.  He  became  a  member  of  the  secret  committee  of  corre- 
spondence in  October  1776,  of  the  Board  of  War  in  October 
1777,  and  of  the  committee  on  finance  in  1.778.  He  opposed 
the  issue  of  paper  money,  supported  Robert  Morris's  plan  for  a 
national  bank,  and  was  prominently  connected  with  aU  C9n- 
gressional  action  in  regard  to  the  peace  with  Great  Britain. 
He  had  lost  the  nght  of  one  eye  in  1784,  and  in  1791  became  quite 
blind.  He  died  on  his  farm,  Tusculum,  near  Princeton,  on  the 
15th  of  November  170^ 

There  is  a  statue  of  Witherspoon  in  Fairmount  Park,  PhiladdphiB, 
and  another  on  the  University  Libraiy  at  Princeton.  His  Essay 
OH  Ike  Connexion  hetween  tke  Doctrine  of  Justification  by  tke  Impuled 
Righteousness  of  Christ  and  Holiness  of  Life  (1756)  was  his  principal 
theological  work.  He  also  published  several  sermons,  and  Con- 
siderations on  tka  Nature  and  Extent  of  tke  Legislative  Authority  of  the 
British  Parliament  (1774),  soroetimes  attributed  to  Benjamin 
Franklin.  His  ooUected  works,  with  a  memoir  by  his  son-in-law, 
Samuel  Stanhope  Smith  (who  succeeded  him  as  president  of  the 
college),  were  edited  by  Dr  Aahbcl  Green  (New  York,  1801--1802). 
See^  Davkl  Walker  Woods.  John  WUkerspoon  (New  Yoric.  1906^: 
and  M.  C.  Tyler,  Literary  History  of  tke  American  RevoIutioUt  vol.  lik 
(1897). 

WITNESS  (from  O.  Eng.  wiian,  to  know),  in  law,  a  person  who 
is  able  from  his  knowledge  or^  experience  to  make  statements 
relevant  to  matters  of  fact  in  dispute  in  a  court  of  justice.  The 
rekvancy  and  probative  effect  of  the  statements  wlUch  he  mokes 
belong  to  the  bw  of  evidence  (^.t .).  In  the  present  article  it  is 
only  proposed  to  deal  with  matters  concerning  the  position  of  the 
witness  himself.  In  England,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  common 
law,  the  jurors  seem  to  have  been  the  witnesses,  for  they  were 
ori^nally  chosen  for  their  knowledge  or  presumed  knowledge 
of  the  facts  in  dispute,  and  they  could  (and  can)  be  challenged 
and  excluded  from  the  jury  if  related  to  the  parties  or  (Otherwise 
likely  to  show  bias  (see  Jury),  The  Scottish  jurors'  oath  con^ 
tains  the  words  "  aid  no  truth  conceal,"  an  obvious  survival 

from  the  time  when  a  iuror  was  a  witness. 

Modern  views  as  to  the  persons  competent  to  give  evidence  ate 
very  different  from  those  of  Roman  law  and  the  systems  derived 
from  it.  In  Roman  law  the  testimonjr  of  many  persons  •  ^ 
was  not  admissible  without  the  application  of  torture,  and  p^uaiy 
a  larcc  body  of  possible  witnesses  was  excluded  for  reasons  '•^•^• 
whicn  have  now  ceased  to  be  considered  expcdicht,  and  witnesses  were 
subject  to  rules  which  have  long  become  obsolete.  Witnesses  must 
be  idonei,  or  duly  qualified.  Minors,  certain  heretics,  infamous 
persons  (such  as  women  convicted  of  adultery),  and  those  interested 
in  the  result  of  the  trial  were  inadmissibie.  Parents  and  children 
could  not  testify  against  one  another,  nor  could  sbvrs  against  their 
masters,  nor  those  at  enmity  with  the  party  against  whom  their 
evidence  was  offered.  Women  and  slaves  could  not  act  as  witnesses 
to  a  will.  There  ^ftrt  also  some  hard  and  fast  rules  as  to  number. 
Seven  witnesses  were  necessary  for  a  will,  five  for  a  mancipatw  Or 
manumission,  or  to  determine  the  question  whether  a  person  were 
free  or  a  slave.  A»  under  the  Mosak  law,  two  witnesses  were  gener- 
ally nccmaiy  as  a  minioMun  number  to  prove  any  fact.    Vniut 


760 


WITNESS 


respoHsio,  tisHs  tmnino  non  amdUUut  are  the  vords  of  a  eMistttutioA 
of  Constantine.  The  evidence  of  a  single  witneae  wu  simply  semi- 
pUna  probalio,  to  be  supplemented,  in  oefault  of  a  second  witness,  by 
torture  or  by  reference  to  oath.  The  canon  law  followed  the  Roman 
Uw  as  to  competence,  but  eictended  the  disabilities  to  excommuni- 
cated peraons  and  to  a  layman  in  a  criminal  diaive  a^nst  a  derk, 
imless  be  were  actually  the  proeecutor.  The  evidenoe  of  a  notary 
was  generally  equivalent  to  that  of  two  ordinanr  witnesses.  The 
evidence  df  the  pope  and  that  of  a  witness  who  simply  proved 
baptism  or  heresy  (according  to  some  authorities)  are  perhaps  the 
only  other  cases  in  whidi  canon  law  dispensed  with  confirmatory 
evidence.  It  is  probable  that  the  incompetence  of  Jews  as'witnesses 
in  Spain  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries  was  based  on  what  is  totced 
"  want  of  religion/'  i«.  heresy  or  unwillingneas  to  take  the  Christian 
oath  on  the  gospels.  But  m  England  until  their  expulsion  they 
were  in  the  status  of  slaves  (coMtn)  <A  the  king.  A  policy  nmilar 
to  that  of  Roman  tew^^Wfu  followed  for  centuries  in  England  by 
excluding  the  testimony  4>f  parties  o^  persons  interested,  of  witnesses 
for  a  prisoner,  and  of  infamous  persons,  such  as  those  who  had  been 
attainted  or  had  been  vanquished  in  the  trial  by  battle,  or  had 
stood  in  the  pillory.  AH  these  were  said  9oeem  non  habere.  In  the 
days  of  trial  oy  battle  a  t>arty  could  render  a  witness  a^nst  him 
incompetent  by  challenging  and  defeating  him  ih  the  judicial  combat. 
Women  were  generally  regarded  as  whoUy  or  partiafiy  incompetent 
English  law  bad  also  certain  rules  as  to  the  number  of  witnesses 
necessary.  Thus  under  a  Statute  of  1383  (6  Rich.  II.  st  3,  c  5) 
the  nomber  of  compuigators  necessary  to  free  an  accused  person 
from  complidty  in  the  peasant  revolt  was  fixed  at  three  or  four. 
Five  was  the  number  necessary  under  the  Liber  feudorum  for 
proving  ingratitude  to  the  lord.  In  one  instance  in  old  Scots  law 
the  number  of  witnesses  had  the  curious  effect  of  determining  the 
punishment.  By  the  assizes  of  Kine  William,  the  ordeal  of  water 
was  undergone  oy  the  accused  on  the  oaths  of  three  witnesses;  if 
to  them  the  oaths  of  three  seniores  were  added,  the  penalty  was 
immediate  hanging. 

In  the  course  of  the  gradual  development  of  the  law  of  evidence, 
which  is  in  a  sense  peculiar  to  the  English  mtem,  the  fetters  of  the 
Roman  rules  as  to  witnesses  were  gradually  shaken  off. ,  In  .civil 
cases  all  disabilities  by  interest,  relationship,  sex  or  crime  nave 
been  swept  away.  The  witness  need  not  be  idoneus  in  the  Roman 
sense,  and  objections  which  in  Roman  law  went  to  his  competence, 
in  Ei^;lish  law  go  to  his  credibility.  The  only  general  test  of  compet- 
ency IS  now  understanding.  It  excludes  lunatics,  Idiots,  dotards 
and  children  of  tender  years;  a  person  convicted  of  perjury  is  said 
to  be  competent  if  convicted  at  tommmi  law,  but  incompetent  if 
convicted  under  the  act  of  Elisabeth.  No  trial  ever  takes  place 
now  under  this  act,  and  on  this  point  the  act  seems  to  have  Men 
virtually  repealed  by  Lord  Denman's  Act  (184^;  6  &  7  Vict,  c  85}. 
The  disqualification  Is  not  absolute  as  to  lunatics;  as  to  chiklren  it 
is  sometimes  made  to  depend  on  whether  they  are  able  to  understand 
the  nature  of  the  witness's  oath.  And  in  certain  cases  within  the 
Criminal  Law  Amendment  Act  1885  and  the  Prevenfion  of  Cruelty 
to  Children  Act  1904,  the  unsworn  evklenoe  of  childieii  of  tender 
years  is  admissible  but  needs  conoboration. 

Nonojudidal  witnesses' are  those  who  attest  an  act  of  tmusual 
importance,  for  the  due  executwn  of  which  evidence  may  afterwards 
be  required.  They  are  dther  made  necessary  by  law,  as  the  witnesses 
to  marriages  and  wills,  or  used  by  general  custotn^  as  the  witnesses 
to  deeds.  In  some  cases  the  attestation  has  become  a  mere  form, 
such  as  the  attestation  of  the  lord  chancellor  to  a  writ  of  summoils 
(see  Wmt). 

The  rule  of  Engluh  law  as  to  the  number  01  witnesses  necessary 
is  expressed  in  the  phrase  testes  tonderatUur  non  numerantur.  But 
there  are  certain  exceptions*  all  statutory.  Two  witnesses  are 
necenary  to  make  a  will  valid;  two  are  required  to  be  present  at  a 
marriage  and  to  attest  the  entry  in  the  marriage  register;*  and  in 
the  case  of  blaq>hemy.  perjury,  personation  and  most  forms  of 
treason,  two  or  more  witnesses  are  necessary  to  justify  conviction. 
Witnesses  to  bilb  of  sale  under  the  Bills  of  Sale  Act  1882,  and  wit* 
nesses  on  a  charge  of  peraonadon  at  dections,  are  required  to  be 
"  credible."  And  in  the  case  of  dishonour  of  a  foreign  bill  of  ex- 
change the  evidence  of  a  notary  public  is  requiredj  probaoly  a  survival 
from  the  law  merchant  or  a  concession  to  continental  practice.  A 
warrant  of  attorney  must  be  attested  by  a  soUdtor,  and  certain 
conveyances  of  property  held  on  charitaDle  uses  must  be  attested 
by  two  solidtors.  In  certain  dvil  cases  the  evidence  of  a  single 
witness  is  not  sufficient  unless  corroborated  in  some  material 
particular — not,  necessarily  by  another  witness— <.#.  in  actions  of 
breaich  of  promise  of  marriage,  or  affiliation  proceeding  and  matri- 
monial causes,  or  where  unsworn  evidence  of  children  is  admissible. 
In  practice,  but  not  in  strict  law,  the  evidence  of  an  accomplice  is 
required  to  be  corroborated., 

,  The  English  common  law  in  theory  has  never  permitted  examina- 
tion by  torture — unless  certain  forms  of  cross-examination  can  be 
so  described.  In  trials  in  the  court  of  admiralty  the  Roman  system 
was  used  until  1536  (28  Henry  VIII.  c  15).  Torture  in  Scotland  was 
abolished  at  the  Union. 


'  The  provisions  of  the  Marriage  Act  1823  appear  to  be  dirrcto^. 
Non-compliance  does  not  invalidate  the  laarriAge,  but  eroatet  diQH 
culty  as  to  lu  proof  in  other  proceedings,  e.g.  for  bigamy. 


In  criminal  ouea  an  accussd  pcfimi  omM  not  fonncffy  be 
sworn  as  a  witness  or  examined  by  the  court,  though  he  was  free  to 

make  statements.  The  origin  of  this  rule  is  by  some  traced  to  the 
maxim  nemo  tauhtr  prodere  seipsum,  by  others  to  the  theory  Aafc 
the  petty  jury  were  the  prisoner's  witnesses.  Moreover,  witnesses 
for  the  defence  could  not  oe  examined  on  oath  in  cases  of  treason  and 
fekmy  until  1703  in  Eittland,  171  <  in  Itdand  and  1735  in  Scotland. 
The  husband  or  wife  of  the  accused  could  not  be  examined  on  oath 
as  a  witness  rither  for  the  prosecution  or  the  defence  except  In  pro- 
secutions for  treason  or  for  persoiud  imuries  done  by  one  spouse  to 
the  other.  This  excluawn  was  in  aoooni  with  the  disqnalificatioo  of 
parties  to  dvil  causea:  but  them  waa  a  lack  of  redpntdty,  for  the 
prtMecutpr  was  a  competent  witness  because  the  crown  b  the  nominal 
prosecutor.  The  nile  had  to  a  certain  extent  a  beneficial  effect  for 
the  defence,  in  saving  the  accused  from  cross-examination,  which  in 
certain  periiods  and  m  political  trials  wonld  have  led  to  aboac.  Oe 
the  abolition  of  other  qiaqualificationa  that  of  the  xciwcd  was  left. 
This  inconsistency  led  to  much  legal  discussion  and  to  piecemeal, 
and  ultunatety  complete^  char.ce  in  the  law.  In  1878  the  Criminal 
Code  Commissbn  recommended  that  prisoners  diould  be  allowed  to 

E've  evidence  on  their  own  behalf  on  oath.  Since  1872  many  statutes 
ive  been  pasmd  rendering  accused  penoos  and  their  husbamda  or 
wives  competent  witnesses  on  charges  of  particular  offences  Most 
of  these  acts  do  not  make  them  compellable  witnesses. 

By  the  Criminal  Evidenoe  Act  1808  (60  and  61  Vict  c  36)  the 
defendant,  or  the  wife  or  hudsand  of  the  defendant,  h  made  a  com- 
petent but  ao«  a  oonpdJabl^witnesa  for  the  defence  at  every  stage 
of  criminal  proceedings^  subject  to  certain  conditions,  of  which  the 
prindpal  are  that  a  prisoner  shall  not  be  called  except  on  his  or  her 
own  application,  and  that  the  failure  of  the  prisoner  or  his  wife 
or  her  husband  to  give  evidence  is  not  to  be  the  subject  of  comment 
by  the  proaecution,  and  that  the  prisoner  may  not  be  craas-examincd 
as  to  any  previous  offence  or  conviction  or  as  to  character,  uniot 
the  proof  of  a  prevbus  offence  Is  admissible  evidenoe  in  the  case, 
or  unless  he  or  she  has  siven  evidence  of  his  or  her  good  character, 
or  cross-examined  with  that  view,  or  unless  the  nature  and  conduct  of 
the  defence  is  such  as  to  involve  imputatkms  on  the  character  of  the 
prosecutor  or  the  witnesses  for  the  prosecution.  The  act  apf>lies  to 
Great  Britain  but  not  to  Ireland.  It  has  been  extended  to  proceed- 
ings before  naval  and  military  courts-martial.  This  statute  aorogates 
the  common  law  rule  making  an  accused  person  incompetent,  and 
in  practice  supersedes  moat  of  the  prior  particular  statutes.  But 
It  is  neoassiy  to  observe  that  as  to  certain  offences  named  in  the 
schedule  of  the  act  and  in  other  earlier  or  later  acts,  the  husband  or 
wife  b  competent  without  the  consent  of  the  accused;  and  that 
proceedinn  by  indictment  for  obstruction  or  non-repair  of  puUtc 
ways,  bridges  and  rivers  are  for  purposes  of  evklenoe  treated  as  dvfl 
proceedingiL 

Quite  apart  from  statute  a  husband  or  wife  has  always  and  aecea- 
sanly  been  a  competent  witness  in  criminal  prootedings  against  the 
other  spouse  in  resi>cct  of  personal  injuries. 

Even  where  a  witness  is  competent,  his  statements,  whether  of 
fact  or  of  expert  opinion,.are  not  admissible  in  evidence  unless  he  has 
taken  the  required  oath,*  or.  where  he  consdcntwusly  objects  to 
taking  an  oath  or  by  want  of  religion  would  not  be  bound  by  the  oath, 
has  made  the  substituted  affirmation  or  dedaratran.  This  question 
was  settled  in  1888  after  the  entiv  of  Mr  Bradlaugh  into  parBamenti 
Unless  he  b  duly  sworn,  &c,  there  b  no  enforceable  sanction  for 
false  evidence  (see  Perjury).  English  law  has  gradually  accepted 
as  suffident  any  form  of  oath  which  the  witness  b  prepared  to  accept 
as  binding  on  him  in  accordance  with  his  religious  beliefs,  whether 
he  be  Christian  or  Jew,  Mahommedan.  Hinou.  Sikh  or  Buddhist. 
At  ^0  time  peen  in  certain  proceedings  testincd  on  tbdr  honour 
unsworn,  but  now  no  distinction  b  made  except  at  already  stated  in 
the  case  of  young  children. 

The  attesutKNi  of  documents  out  of  courts  of  justice  b  ordinarily 
not  on  oath;  but  whtn  the  documents  have  to  oe  proved  in  court 
the  attesting  witnesses  are  sworn'  like  otheia,  and  tne  only  judicial 
exception  b  that  of  witnesses  ordered  to  produce  documents  (called 
in  Scotland  "  havere  ")  who  are  not  sworn  unless  they  have  to  verify 
the  documents  produced.  Questions  aa  to  competence  (tnduding 
questions  of  the  right  to  affirm  instead  of  swearing  or  as  to  the  proper 
form  of  oath)  are  settled  by  examinatbn  by  the  court  without  oath, 
on  what  b  termed  the  voir  dire.  The  evidence  of  judicial  witnesses 
b  taken  viva  voce  at  the  trial,  except  in  interiocutory  proceedings  and 
in  certain  matters  in  the  chancery  division  and  in  bankruptcy  courts. 
Where  the  witness  cannot  attend  the  court  or  b  abroad  nb  evidence 
may  be  taken  in  writing  by  a  commissioner  ddc^ted  by  the  court, 
or  By  a  fordgn  tribunaluader  letters  of  request  issued  by  the  court 
in  whidi  the  cause  b  pending.  The  depositions  are  returned  by 
the  delegated  authority  to  the  court  of  trial.  Under  English  l^w 
evidence  must  be  taken  viva  voce  in  a  criminal  trial,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  e.g.  where  a  witness  who  has  made  a  deposition  before  a 
ma^strate  at  an  earlier  stage  in  the  case  is  dead  or  unable  to  travel, 
or  in  certain  cases  within  the  Merdiant  ShippingActs.  or  of  offences 
in  India  or  by  crown  officials  out  of  England.    1  n  Europe  tommissions 

*  The  givirig  of  evidence  unsworn  appears  to  have  been  at  one 
tifhe  regudea  as  a  privilege.    The  men  of  Ripon,  for  instance,  were 
I  by  aehaiter  of  ifitntbun  to  be  believed  oa  their  yea  and  nay  in  all 
disputes. 


WITNEY 


761 


tniHum aie  finely  used  toobttJn  wiitttn  dcpctltbiiy  fcf  th>  purpof 

cir criminal  trials,  and  are  allowed  Co  be  executed  in  Eo^aad.  In 
England  the  viva  voce  examination  of  witnesaes  u  not  conducted  by 
the  presidins  judge  but  by  the  advocates  in  the  cause,  and  the 
witnees  b  called  not  by  the  court  but  by  the  party.  The  court, 
however,  has  full  power  to  call  witoessea  not  called  m  citlier  party, 
or  to  examine  witnesses  on  questiona  not  ioquixed  into  by  the 
advocates  of  either  party. 

The  examination  of  a  witness  by  the  advocate  of  the  side  for  whkfa 
he  is  called  is  termed  "  examinatioiHii-cbief  " ;  when  by  die  advocate 
of  the  other  party  it  b  called  "  cross-examination.  "  The  judce,  aad 
by  his  leave  the  iurocs,  are  free  to  question  the  witness..  But  the 
main  duty  of  the  jud^  is  not  himself  to  interrogate,  the  witness  but 
to  see  that  neither  side  asks  irrelevant  or  vexatious  questions  (see 
R.S.C.  1883.  order  36,  role  38). 

As  a  genaal  rule  competent  witoeiiea  are  also  compdlable,  csomt 
the  king; ».«.  they  can  be  required  to  attend  the  court  and  to  take 
the* oath  and  to  answer  all  relevant  Questions.  But  by 
the  statutes  as  to  evidence  In  criminal  cases  the  accused 
ii  not  a  compellable  witness,  nor  in  many  spedfied  cases 
is  the  husband  or  wife  of  the  aocuaed*   The  atteodance  of  witaeasea 


courts  by  witness  summons;  m  criminal  prooeedinfp  before  the 
Hi|Ch  Court  of  J  ustioe  ar  a  oottit  of  aasiae  or  quarter  sesswna  by  crowa 
oflnoe  subpoena  or  by  recai^inuice  entened  into  before  justices 
when  the  accused  was  committed  for  trial.  In  proceedings  before 
justices  out  of  quarter  sessions  the  attendance  of  a  witness  is  secured 
by  witness  summons  or  if  need  be  by  arrest  on  warrant  of  a  justice. 
In  criminal  rtm  ■  tender  of  expenses  is  not  ttwentiaL  Whereawita^ss 
refuses  to  attend  or  to  be  sworn  or  to  answer,  he  u  summarily 
punishable  for  contempt  if  the  court  b  one  of  record,*  and  liable  to 
imprisonment  if  the  proceedings  are  before  a  court  of  summary 
jurisdiction.  Various  acts  of  pariiament  deal  with  oompdling 
appeamnoe  before  committees  of  pariiaaient,  courts  martial  aad 
tthet  tribunab  of  a  special  nature.  The  attendance  of  a  witness 
who  bin  custody  is  obtained  by  writ  of  Aa6«a5corp«j  ad  Ustijuandum 
or  by  jadge's  order  in  certain  cases,  or  bv  order  of  the  home  secretary 
under  the  Prison  Act  iS^S*  A  witnessa  expenees  in  a  dvil  case  are 
payable  by  the  party  calUng  him  and  are  included  in  the  costs  of  the 
cause.  Scales  of  aUowancos  are  scheduled  to  the  Rules  of  the 
Supreme  Gjurt  and  the  County  Court  Rules.  Failure  of  a  witness 
duly  sungononed  to  attend  in  a  civil  action  exposes  him  to  liability 
in  respect  of  pecuniary  danuge  done  Co  the  party  by  his  absence. 
In  criminal  cases  the  witness's  expenses  iall  on  the  party  calling  him* 
but  ia  prosecutions  for  felony  and  many  misdemeanours  the  expenses 
are  paid  out  of  the  local  rate  in  accordance  with  scales  fixed  by  the 
home  secretary  (see  Costs). 

A  witness  b  privileged  from  arrest  on  dvil  process  while  ha  b  in 
atcendaaoe  on  a  conrt  of  justice  or  b  on  hb  way  to  or  from  the  court 
(eundOttHorando  et  redtundo).  The  privilege  docs  not  exempt  from 
arrest  on  a  criminal  charge.  All  witnesses  except  the  defendant  in  a 
criminal  case  are  enritled  to  object  to  answer  any  question  put 
to  them  in  court  on  the  ground  that  the  answer  might  tend  to 
crimiaace  them  or  to  expose  them  to  a  peaalty  or  forfeiture,  or  where 
the  question  b  as  to  the  fact  of  adultery.  The  defendant  in  a 
criminal  case  if  sworn  as  a  witness  is  not  entitled  to  refuse  to  answer 
questions  tending  to  prove  him  guilty  of  the  offence  for  which  he  u 
being  tried,  and  a  witness  cannot  refuse  to  answer  a  question  on  the 
ground  that  the  answer  might  involve  admission  of  a  debt  or  aabject 
him  to  a  dvil  action  (1806,  c.  37). 

Witnesses  are  also  privilegra  from  making  disdosure  of  matters 
known  to  them  in  the  following  cases:  (l;  Public  officers,  as  to 
matters  coming  within  thdr  offidal  cognizance  if  they  can  swear  that 
it  is  inconsistent  with  the  public  service  to  disclose  them.  Thb 
applies  to  state  secrets,  and  extends  to  jurors  as  to  what  passed  among 
them,  and  the  public  prosecutor;  and  the  police  on  thb  ground 
refuse  to  disclose  the  sources  of  information  leading  to  prosecutions 
for  crime.  (3)  Lawyers,  as  to  communicadons  between  themselves 
and  their  citento,  unless  the  commuakatkMis  are  In  theaiselvef  part 
of  a  criminal  or  unlawful  enterprise.  Englbh  law  declines  to  extend 
professional  privilege  to  communications  between  doctor  and  patient 
or  priest  and  penitent.  In  most  European  countries,  and  in  many 
Bntish  coloiiies,  nadlcal  privilege  b  recogniied  as  to  matters  com> 
rounioated  to  the  doctor  or  even  discovoid  by  him  in  attending  the 
patbot.  In  Catholic  countries  confeswoas  to  a  pries(  are  sacred. 
In  England  it  b  not  now  the  practice  to  Insist  on  evidence  by  a 
minister  of  religion  as  to  matters  confessed  to  him  as  such.  (3) 
Cdmmunicadons  beiwceu  husband  and  wife  during  the  marria^je 
have  always  been  privileged  from  disclosure,  and  thb  privilege  is 
preserved  by  modem  lecbuttion  (1853,  c.  83,  s.  3;  i898,c.  36,  s.  x.  d.). 

It  is  correlative  to  the  oblij^ation  of  a  witness  to  testify  that  no 
action  may  be  brought  against  him  under  English  bw  for  any 
flCatemeot  however  cwfamatory,  however  irrelevant,  and  however 
malidout,  made  by  him  in  the  course  of  hb  testimony  in  judicbl 
proceedings  (Seaman  v.  Neikerciifl,  1876.  I  C.P.D.  540:  Hodson  v. 
Fare,  1 899,  i  Q.  B.  455),  The  only  remedy,  if  the  statement  b  deliber- 
atcly  false,  b  to  prosecute  him  tor  perjury. 

*  lo  ecdesiastkal  courts  the  poobhroent  was  by  eaconunudcatioak 


'  Oadmrtea  of  treason  lists  of  tba  witaesies  to  be  called  by  the 
crowa  must  be  supplied  to  the  accused.  In  ordinary  indictable 
cases  there  b  no  such  obligadon,  but  the  names  of  the  witnesses  for 
the 'crown  are  written  on  tae  back  of  the  indictment :  and  where  the 
witnesses  have  not  beea  eaauniaed  at  the  preliminary  inquiry  it  b 
now  astablished  piactioe  to  require  notice  to  the  accused  of  thdr 
names,  and  a  pr6cu  of  what  they  will  be  called  to  prove.  In  ScotUnd 
in  all  indictable  cases  a  Ibt  of  witnesses  must  be  served  on  the 
accused  (the  pand)  (1887.  c.  35).  and  the  same  rule  b  observed  in 
France.    Ia  the  United  States  the 


course  b  adopted  where  a 
capital  offeace  b  charged. 

Sariiand, — ^The  rules  as  to  competence  of  witnesses  have  been 
made  substantially  the  same  as  in  England  by  modem  legblation 
(1837,  c  37.  »•  9;  >840,  c.  S9,  a.  l;  185a,  c.  ^7;  1874,  c.  64).  Their 
attendance  b  procured  by  dtarioa.  Witnesses  to  produce  documents 
are  called  "haven." 

The  evidence  of  witnesses  b  taken  on  oath  fin  the  Scots  form) 
or  affirmation.  Their  privileges  are  substantially  the  same  as  in 
England,  but  they  may  be  sued  for  irrdevant  defamatory  statements 
volunteered  during  their  evidtooe,  the  law  of  Scotland  00  thb  point 
bdng  the  same  as  vnder  the  Dutch  Roman  bw  (seeNatban,  Common 
Law  s/  S,  Africa,  \  1593). 

British  Possessions.— In  India  the  law  as  to  witnesses  and  evidence 
b  consolidated  in  the  Indian  Evidence  Act  1872,  which  contains  in 
code  form  the  substance  of  the  English  bw  00  the  subject.  The 
test  of  competency  b  uoderrtaadiagi "  all  persons  shall  be  competent 
to  testify  unless  the  court  conudoa  that  they  are  prevented  from 
understanding  the  questions  put  to  them  or  from  giving  rational 
answers  to  these  questions  by  tender  years,  extreme  old  age.  disease 
whether  of  bod>r  or  mind,  or  of  aay  other  cause  of  the  same  kind. 
A  lunatic  b  not  incompetent  to  testify  unless  he  b  prevented  by  hb 
lunacy  from  understandinr  the  questions  put  to  him  and  giving 
rational  answers  to  them  (s.  ti8).  Ia  criminal  proceedings  the 
defendant  is  not,  but  the  hunnnd  or  wife  of  the  defendant  b.  com- 

Stent  (s.  »o).  Under  the  Indba  Oaths  Act  (x.  of  1873)  Hlndns  or 
abanunedans  or  persons  objecting  to  make  aa  oath  aiay  afi^rm 
(s.  6).  The  court  may  accept  an  oath  or  solemn  afiirmatioo  in  any 
form  common  amongst  or  field  as  binding  by  persons  of  the  per- 
suasbn  or  religion  to  which  the  witness  belongs,  unless  it  b  repugaaat 
to  justice  or  deceacy  (s.  8).  In  the  rest  of  the  British  empire  the 
law  as  to  witnesses  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  ci  Eagtondt 
but  has  in  most  colonies  been  incorporated  m  statutes  or  codes  (e.x* 
Britbh  Gubna,  Ord.  No.  30  of  1893).  Colonbl  legisbtion  has 
provided  for  the  evidence  of  accused  persons  under  ooaditiona 
similar  to  but  no*  identical  with  those  prevailing  in  Engbnd.  la 
colonies  with  a  large  native  popuUtion  there  b  from  time  to  time  a 
tendency  to  reje^  the  evidence  of  coloured  witnesses  against 
Europeans. 

C/nitod  5(ale»^~Therolesof  the  TIniCed  States  as  to  witnesses  have 
a  common  origin  with  those  of  England  and  are  on  the  same  Uaes^ 
but  in  most  states  depend  on  the  particuUr  provisions  of  state  codes. 
The  number  of  witnesses  necessary  for  the  attestation  of  a  marriaos 
or  will  b  not  uniform  in  all  the  states.  While  slavery  was  bwful, 
the  evidence  of  slaves  (and  in  some  states  that  of  free  persons  of 
colour)  was  not  recdved  for  or  against  whites.  These  nues  appear 
not  to  have  been  absolutely  overridden  by  the  14th  amendment  ta 
the  Federal  Constitution,  and  the  Uws  01  Delaware  and  Nebraska 
discriminate  against  free  persons  of  colour.  Incompetency  by  con- 
viction of  perjury  or  subornation  b  retained  in  fedemi  laws  (ReV. 
Stat.  (  5393)  and  in  those  of  a  few  states  (see  Wi^more,  p. 
654  a). 

European  CoutUries. — In  the  law  of  most  European  states  the 
Roman  bw  as  to  the  competency  and  examination  of  witnesses  Is 
more  dosely  followed  than  in  countries  whose  bw  b.based  on  that 
of  Engbnd.  In  criminal  cases  the  prisoner  b  not  only  competent 
but  necessary,  and  the  whole  system  of  procedure  b  inqubitoriaU 
beginning  with  interrogation  of  the  accused,  not  by  the  state  prose- 
cutor, but  by  the  president  of  the  court.  In  view  of  this  system  it  b 
not  surprising  that  the  English  conception  of  the  rules  of  proof 
and  reknrancy,  known  as  the  law  of  evidence,  b  not  accepted ;  siaoe 
under  the  continental  system  the  person  who  puts  the  questions  b 
the  person  who  has  to  oetermine  tneir  relevancy.  In  France  con- 
sanguinity and  affinity  to  the  parties  disqualify  a  witness  in  civil 
cases,  ana  he  is  also  asked  whether  he  b  employ^  or  servant  of  the 
parties  (Code  Civil,  Proc.  363. 368).  In  criminal  cases  a  like  inquiry 
IS  made.  Consanguinity  and  affinity  in  the  case  of  Kncab  may  be 
made  ground  of  disqualification  if  the  obiectk>n  b  taken,  as  may 

ecunbry  interest  in  the  penalty  {Code  i'instr.  Crim.  75,  333;. 
usbancl  and  wife  cannot  testify  for  or  against  eadi  other  even  after 
divorce  («6.).  In  France  disability  to  be  a  witness  may  be  inflicted 
as  part  of  the  punishment  on  conviction  for  certain  crimes  (Coda 
Penal,  art.  42)-  (W.  F.  C. ) 

wiTNBT*  a  market  town  in  the  Woodstodt  parliamentary 
divbion  of  Oxfordshire,  England,  on  the  river  Windrush,  a 
tributary  of  the  Thames,  75)  m.  W.N.W.  of  London  on  the  East 
Gloucestershire  branch  of  the  Gi%at  Western  railway.  Pop.  of 
urban  district  (1901)  3574.  The  urban  district  was  extended  in 
1898  to  hiclttde  poftiohi  of  the  scattered  viUaffes  of  Hafley  aad 


76^ 


WITOfWT— WITTE 


Curbrid^.  Witney  fe  the  seit  of  sn  otd-estabUshed  indxatry 
in  bUnkct-maldng,  and  gloves  snd  other  woollen  goods  are  also 
made.  The  broad  main  street  contains  several  picturesque 
houses  of  the  X7th  century  and  latef ,  and  in  it  stands  the  Butter 
Cross,  supported  on  columns  and  dating  from  1683.  The  grammar 
school  was  founded  in  1683,  and  a  Blue  Coat  School  in  x  723.  The 
great  church  of  St  Mary  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  county.  It  is 
caruciform  with  a  lofty  central  tower  and  spire,  'the  latter  con- 
sidered to  be  a  direct  development  of  the  early  spire  of  the 
cathedral  at  Oxford.  The  tower  is  Early  English,  but  the  church 
exhibits  the  other  styles,  including  a  remarkable  Norman  porch. 
At  Coggs,  in  the  water-meadows  bordering  the  river  immediately 
below  Witney,  a  priory  was  attached  to  the  Benedictine  Priory 
of  F6camp,  and  ol  this  there  are  Early  English  remains  in  the 
vicarage,  while  the  church  is  mainly  Decorated.  The  foundation, 
however,  dates  from  the  nth  century. 

The  manor  of  Witney  {WytHneye,  Wylnay,  Wytney)  was  held 
by  the  see  of  Winchester  before  the  Conquest.  It  was  sold  in 
1649,  but  was  given  back  to  the  bishopric  at  the  Restoration. 
In  the  middle.of  the  z8th  century  it  was  leased  by  the  bishop  of 
Wincheister  to  the  duke  of  Marlborough.  Witney  was  a  borough 
by  prescription  at  least  as  early  as  1278,  and  sent  representatives 
to  parliament  with  more  or  less  regularity  from  1304  to  X330. 
The  government  was  by  the  steward  and  bailiffs  ol  the  bish<^ 
of  Winchester,  assisted  by  constables,  wardmen  and  other 
officers.  A  woollen  industry  was  probably  established  at  an  early 
date,  for  there  is  reference  to  a  fulling  mill  in  a  charter  of  King 
Edgar  dated  909.^  In  1641  the  blanket-makers  petitioned  the 
crown  against  .vexatious  trade  regulations;  in  1673  the  town 
is  described  as  "  driving  a  good  trade  for  blankets  and  rugs." 
In  17x1  the  blanket-makers  obtained  a  charter  making  them  into 
a  company,  con^ting  of  a  ouster,  assistants,  two  wardens 
and  a  commonalty.  ^1331  the  bishop  of  Windiester  received 
a  grant  of  a  five  days'  fair  at  Witney  at  the  feast  of  St  Leonard. 
In  1278  the  bishop  was  declared  to  have  at  Witney  a  weekly 
Diarket  on  Thursday  and  two  fairs  on  the  day  of  Ascension  and  on 
St  Leonard's  day.  A  further  grant  of  two  yearly  fairs  was  made 
in  1414  to  the  bishop  of  Winchester  at  his  manor  of  Witney, 
namely,  on  the  vi^l  and  day  of  St  Clement  the  Pope,  and  at  the 
{cast  ci  St  Barnabas. 

See  J.  A.  Giles,  History  of  WUney  (London,  185a);  Victoria  County 
History,  Oxon;  W.  J.  Monk,  History  of  Witney  (1894). 

WrroWT,  or  WiTOLix  (X350-Z430),  grand-duke  of  Lithuania, 
son  of  Kiejstutf  prince  of  Samogitia,  first  appears  prominently 
In  1383,  when  the  Teutonic  Order  set  him  up  as  a  candidate  for 
the  throne  of  Lithuania  in  opposition  to  his  cousin  Jagiello 
(see  Wladislaus),  who  had  treacherously  murdered  Witowt's 
father  and  seized  his  estates.  Witowt,  however,  convinced  him- 
self that  the  German  knights  were  far  more  dangerous  than  his 
Lithuanian  rival;  he  accepted  pacific  overtures  from  Jagiello 
and  became  his  ally.  When  JagieUo  ascended  the  throne  of 
Poland  as  Wladislaus  II.  in  1386,  Witowt  was  at  first  content 
with  the  principality  of  Grodno;  but  jealousy  of  Skiigiello, 
one  of  JagieUo's  brothers,  to  whom  Jagiello  committed  the 
government  of  Lithuania,  induced  Witowt  to  ally  himself  once 
more  with  the  Teutonic  Order  (treaty  of  KSnigsberg,  34th  of 
May  r39o).  He  strengthened  his  position  by  giving  his  daughter 
^opbia  in  marriage  to  Vaaly,  grand-duke  of  Muscovy;  but  he 
never  felt  secure  beneath  the  wing  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  and 
when  JagieUo  removed  SkirgieUo  from  the  government  of 
Lithuania  and  offered  it  to  Witowt,  the  compact  of  Ostrow 
(Sth  of  August  X393)  settled  all  differences  between  them. 
Keverthdess,  subsequent  attempts  on  the  part  of  Poland  to 
Subordinate  Lithuania  drove  Witowt  for  the  third  time  into 
the  arms  of  the  Order,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Salin  in  X398,  Witowt, 
who.  now  styled  himself  Supremus  Dux  Liihuaniaet  even  went 
SO  far  as  to  cede  bis  ancestral  province  of  Samogitia  to  the  knights, 
and  to  form  an  alliance  with  them  for  the  conquest  and  partition 
of  Pskov  and  Great  NQvgorod .  His  ambition  and  self-confidence 
at  this  period  knew  no  bounds.  He  nourished  the  grandiose 
idea  of  driving  out  the  hordes  of  Tunerlane,  freeing  all  Russia 
%9m  the  Tatar  yoke,  and  proclaiming  himself  emperor  of  the 


North  and  East.  This  dicsm'of  emptie' was  <il8slp«ied  by  fail 
terrible  defeat  on  the  Lower  Dnieper  by  the  Tatars  on  the  12th 
of  August  X399.  He  was  now  convinced  that  the  true  policy 
of  Lithuania  was  the  closest  possible  alliance  with  Poland. 
A  union  between  the  two  countries  was  effected  at  Vitna  on  the 
x8th  of  January  1401,  and  was  confirmed  and  extended  by 
subsequent  treaties.  Witowt  was  to  reign  over  Lithuajiia  as 
an  independent  grand-duke,  but  the  two  states  were  to  be  m- 
dissolubly  united  by  a  common  policy.  The  result  was  a  whole 
series  of  wars  with  the  Teutonic  Order,  which  now  acknowledged 
SwidrygieUo,  another  brother  of  Jagidlo,  as  graad-dukc  of 
Lithuania;  and  though  Swidrygiello  was  defeated  and  driven 
out  by  Witowt,  the  Order  retained  possession  of  Samogitia, 
and  their  barbarous  methods  of  y*  converting "  the  wretched 
inhabitants  finally  induced  Witowt  to  rescue  his  fellow-country- 
men at  any  cost  from  the  tender  merdes  of  the  knights.  In  the 
beginning  of  X409  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  JagieUo  at  Kovo- 
grudok  for  the  purpose,  and  on  the  9th  of  July  1410  the  combined 
Polish-Lithuanian  forces,  reinforced  by  Hussite  auxiliaries, 
crossed  the  Prussian  border.  The  rival  forces  encountered  at 
Griinewald,  or  Tannenberg,  and  there  on  the  14th  or  15th 
July  1410  was  fought  one  of  the  decisive  battles  of  th^  world, 
for  the  Teutonic  Knights  suffered  a  crushing  blow  from  which 
they  never  recovered.  After  this  battle  Poland-Lithuania 
began  to  be  regarded  in4he  west  as  a  great  power,  and  Witowt 
stood  in  high  favour  with  the  Roman  curia.  In  1429,  instigated 
by  the  emperor  Sigismund,  whom  he  magnificently  entertained 
at  his  court  at  Lutsk,  Witowt  revived  his  claim  to  a  kingly 
crown,  and  Jagiello  reluctantly  consented  to  his  cousin's  corona- 
tion; but  before  it  could  be  accomplished  Witowt  died  at  Troki, 
on  the  3 7th  of  October  1430.  He  was  certainly  the  most  Imposirg 
personality  of  his  day  in  eastern  Europe,  and  his  martial  valour 
was  combined  with  statesmanlike  foresight. 

See  Jozef  Ignac2  Kraszcwski,  LtthuaHta  mtder  Wttowl  (Pol.) 
rWiina,  1850);  Augustin  Thciner,  Vetera  Monumenta  Pcioniae 
(Rome,  1860-1864);  Karol  Szajnocha,  Jadwi^a  and  Jagiotto  (Pel) 
(Lemberg,  1 850-1 856);  Teodor  Narbutt.  History  of  tiU  Lithttartian 
Nation  (Pol.)  (Wilna.  1835-^836);  Codex  episMaris  Witoldi  Magni 
(ed.  Prochaska,  Cracow,  1882).  (R.  N.  B.) 

WITSIUS,  HERMANN  (1636-1708),  Dutch  theologian,  was 
born  at  Enkhuysen,  North  Holland,  and  studied  at  Grdningen, 
Leiden  and  Utrecht.  He  was  ordained  to  the  ministry,  becoming 
pastor  at  Westwoud  in  1656  and  afterwards  at  Wormeren, 
Goesen  and  Leeuwaarden,  and  became  professor  of  divinity 
successively  at  Franeker  (1675)  and  at  Utrecht  (1680).  In 
1698  he  went  to  Leiden  as  the  successor  of  Friedrich  Spanheim 
the  younger  (1632-X70X).  He  died  at  Leiden  on  the  33nd  of 
October  X708. 

Witsius  tried  to  mediate  between  the  orthodox  theology  and  the 
"  federal "  system  of  Johannes  Cocceius,  but  did  not  succeed  in 
pleasing  either  party.  The  more  important  of  his  works  are: 
Judoais  christianinns--€irca  principia  fid^  et  SS,^  Triniiatem 
(Utrecht,  1661);  De  oeconomia  foederum  Dei  cum  hominibus  Q1677. 
still  regarded  as  one  of  the  clearest  and  most  suggestive  expositions 
of  the  so^allcd  **  federal  "  theology) ;  Diatribe  de  septem  eptslohrum 
apocalypiicarum  se$uu  kisiorico  ae  propketico  (Franeker,  1678^; 
axerciiationes  sacrae  in  symbUum  quod  apostolorum  dicitur  el  ta 
orationem  Dominicam  (Franeker,  1681);  MtsceUanea  sacra  (Utrecht, 
1692-1700,  2  vols.). 

WITTB,  SBRQB  JULIEVICH*  Count  (1849-  ),  Russian 
statesman,  was  bom  at  Tifiis,  where  his  father  (of  Dutch  extrac- 
tion) was  a  member  of  the  Viceregal  Council  of  the  Caucasus. 
His  mother  was  a  lady  of  the  Fadeyev  family,  by  whom  he  was 
brought  up  as  a  member  of  the  Eastern  Orthodox  Church  and 
thoroughly  imbued  with  nationalist  feeling  in  the  Russian 
sense  of  the  term.  After  completing  his  studies  at  Odessa 
University,  in  the  faculty  of  maUiematics  and  physical  science, 
and  devoting  some  time  to  joarnalism  in  close  relations  with  the 
Slavophils  and  M.  Katkov,  he  entered  in  1877  the  service  of  the 
Odessa  State  railway,  and  so  distinguished  himself  in  the  trans- 
port operations  necessitated  by  the  Turkish  can^Mugn  of  2877' 
1878,  that  he  was  soon  afterwards  appointed  general  tralBc 
manager  of  the  South- Western  railway  of  Russia  and  member 
of  an  Imperial  commission  which  had  to  study  the  whole 
question,  of  railway  construction  and  management  throughout 


/WnTEtSfiAiCW  -^AWItY) 


76$ 


the  empire.  Hib  apecislky  wm  sn  intimate  acquamtaoce  witk 
the  problem  of  nulway  rates  in  connexion  wiib  the  general 
economic  development  of  the  country,  and  in  18S4  be  published 
a  work  on  the  subject  which  attracted  some  attention  in  the 
offidai  world.  Among  those  who  had  discovered  his  exceptional 
ability  in  matters  of  that  kind  was  M,  Vishnegradski*  minister 
of  finance,  who  appointed  him  head  of  the  railway  department 
in  the  finance-  minisdy.  In  x8ga  he  was  promoted  to  be  minister 
of  ways  of  communication,  and  in  the  following  year,  on  the 
retirement  of  Vishnegradski,  he  succeeded  him  as  minister  of 
fiumce.  In  this  important  post  he  di^layed  extraordinary 
activity.  He  was  an  ardent  disdple  of  Frieddch  List  and  sought 
to  develop  home  industries  by  means  of  moderate  protection 
and  the  intxoduction  of  foreign  capital  for  indistriaf  purposes. 
At  the  same  time  he  succeeded  by  drastic  measures  in  putting 
a  stop  to  the  great  fluctuations  in  the  value  of  the  paper  currency 
and  in  resuming  specie  payments.  The  rapid  extension  of 
the  railway  system  was  also  largely  due  to  his  energy  and 
financial  ingenuity,  and  he  embarked  on  a  crusade  against  the 
evils  of  druakenneaa  by  organizing  a  government  monopoly  for 
the  sale  of  alcohoL  In  the  region  of  foreign  policy  he  greatly 
contributed  to  the  extension  of  Russian  influence  in  northern 
China  and  Persia.  Naturally  of  a  combative  temperament, 
and  endowed  with  a  persevering  tenacity  rale  among  his  country- 
men,  he  struggled  for  what  he  considered  the  liberation  of  his 
country  from  the  economic  bondage  of  foreign  nations.  Germany 
was,  in  his  opinion,  the  neighbour  whose  aggressive  tendencies 
had  to  be  specially  resisted.  He  was  therefore  not  at  aU  ptrsona 
grata  in  Berlin,  but  the  German  imperial  authorities  learned  by 
experience  that  he  was  an  opponent  to  be  respected,  who  under^ 
stood  thoroughly  the  interests  of  his  country,  imd  was  quite 
capable  of  adopting  if  necessary  a  vigorous  policy  of  reprisals. 
During  his  ten  years'  tenure  of  the  finance  ministry  he  nearly 
doubled  the  revenues  of  the  empire,  but  at  the  same  time  he 
made  for  himself,  by  his  poHcy  and  his  personal  chajracteristics, 
a  host  of  enemies.  He  was  transferred,  thecefore,  in  1903  from 
the  influential  post  of  finance  minister  to  the  ornamental  position 
of  president  of  the  committee  of  ministers.  The  object  was  to 
deprive  him  of  any  real  political  influence,  but  circumstances 
brought  about  a  different  result.  The  disasters  of  the  war  with 
Japan,  and  the  rising  tide  of  revolutionary  agitation,  compelled 
the  government  to  think  of  appeasing  popular  discontent  by 
granting  administrative  reforms,  and  the  reform  projects  were 
revised  and  amended  by  the  body  over  which  M.  Witte  presided. 
Naturally  the  influence  of  a  strong  man  made  itself  felt,  and  the 
president  became  virtually  prime  minister;  but,  before  he  had 
advanced  far  in  this  legislative  work,  he  was  suddenly  trans- 
formed into  a  diplomatist  and  sent  to  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  U.S  A, 
in  August  1905,  to  negotiate  terms  of  peace  with  the  Japanese 
delegates.  In  these  negotiations  he  showed  great  energy  and 
decision,  and  contributed  largely  to  bringmg  about  the  peace. 
On  his  return  to  St  Petersburg  he  had  to  deal,  as  president  of 
the  first  ministry  under  the  new  constitutional  r£^me,  with  a 
very  difficult  political  situation  (see  RusaiA:  Mkiofy);  he  was 
no  longer  aUe  to  obtain  support,  and  early  in  1906  be  retired 
into  private  life, 

WITTBL5BACH,  the  name  of  an  important  German  family, 
taken  from  the- castle  of  Wittelsbach,  which  formerly  stood  near 
Aichach  on  the  Paar  in  Bavaria.  In  11 34,  Otto  V.,  count  of 
Scheyern  (d.  i  iss)*  removed  the  residence  of  his  family  to  Wittela* 
bach,  and  called  himself  by  this  name.  Otto  was  descended  from 
Luitpold»  duke  of  Bavaria  and  margrave  of  Carinthia,  who  was 
killed  in  907  fighting  the  Hungarians.  His  son,  Amulf  L, 
called  the  Bad»  drove  back  the  Hungarians,  and  was  elected 
duke  of  Bavaria  in  ^xj.  Amulf»  who  was  a  candidate  for  the 
German  aown  in  919,  claimed  to  be  independent,  and  openly 
defied  the  German  king,  Conrad  I.  In  921,  however,  he  recog- 
niaed  the  authority  of  Henry  I.  the  Fowjer,  in  return  for  the 
right  to  dispense  justicei  to  coin  money  and  to  appoint  the 
bbhops  in  Bavaria.  He  died  at  Regensburg  in  937,  and  his  elder 
SOB,  Eberhard,  fought  in  vain  to  retain  the  duchy.  In  938  it  was 
liven  by  the  German  kmg.  Otto  h,  the  Great,  toAroulf 's  brotheri 


BeitoId'I.,  ^h  gieatly  reduced  privileges^  AmulTs  yoMnger  sonj 
Amulf  II.,  continned  the  struggle  against  Otto  I.,  and  some* 
time-before  his  death  in  954  was  made  count  palatine  in  Bavaria^ 
This  office  did  not  become  hereditary,  hbwever,  and  his  descend* 
ants  bore  simply  the  title  of  counts  of  Scheyern  until  about  xii<^, 
when  the  emperor  Henry  V.  recognised  Count  Qtto  V.  as  count 
palatine  in  Bavaria.  His  son,  Count  Otto  VI.,.  who  succeeded 
his  father  in  1x55,  aooMnpanied  the  German  king,  Frederick  I., 
to  Italy  in  XX  54,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  couragci 
and  later  rendered  valuable  assistance  to  Frederick  in  Germany. 
When  Henry  the  Lion*  duke  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  was  placed 
under  the  imperial  ban.  in  xxSo,  Otto's  services  were  rewarded 
by  the  investiture  of  the  dukedom  of  Bavaria  at  Altenburg, 
Since  the  time  of  Otto  L  Bavaria  has  been  ruled  by  the 
Wittelsbachs. 

Otto  died  at  Pfullendorf  in  1183,  and  was  succeeded  in  the 
duchy  by  his  son,  Louis  I.  (1174-1331),  but  the  dignity  of  oouot 
palatine  in  Bavaiia  passed  to  his  brother  Otto,  whose  son  Otto, 
succeeding  in  1 1S9,  murdered  the  German  king  Philip  at  Bamberg 
on  the  2ist  of  June  1208.  He  was  placed  under  the  ban  by  the 
emperor^Otto  IV.,  and  was  killed  at  Obemdorf ,  near  Regensburg, 
by  Henry  of  Kalden,  marshal  of  the  empire,  in  March  1209.  His 
lands  passed  to  his  son  Louis,  then  only  nine  years  old,  who  began 
his  rule  in  T19}.  In  1208  he  destroyed  the  ancestral  castle  of 
Wittelsbach,  the  site  of  which  is  now  marked  by  a  church  and  an 
obelisk. 

At  first  touls  supported  Otto  IV.  in  his  struggle  with 
Frederick  of  Hohcnslaufen  (the  emperor  Frederick  Jl.),  but 
deserted  his  cause  when  Frederick  invested  his  son,  Otto,  with 
the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhi*e  in  x  2 14.  Louis  appears  to  have  been 
pievipusly  promised  this  Mccession,  and  to  strengthen  his  claim 
married  his  son.  Otto,  to  Agnes,  the  sister  of  Henry,  the  count 
palatine,  who  died  without  heirs  in  X3X4.  Louis  accompanied 
the  Cxuaaders  to  Damietta  in  x  221,  and  governed  Germany  as 
regent  from  1225  until  X228,  when  he  deserted  Frederick  II. 
at  the  instigation  of  Pope  Gregory  IX.  He  was  murdered  at  the 
bridge  of  Kelheim  on  the  i  sth  of  September  x  23 1,  and  the  emperor 
was  generally  suspected  a(  complicity  in  the  deed.  Louis'  son. 
Otto  the  Illustrious  (1206-X253),  undertook  the  government 
of  the  Palatinate  in  X228,  and  became  duke  of  Bavaria  in  1231. 
He  was  attached  to  the  Hohenstanfen  by  the  marriage  of  his 
daughter,  Elisabeth,  with  Coniad,  sen  of  Frederick  IL  in  1946. 
He  supported  Frederick  in  his  struggle  with  the  anti-kings, 
Henry  Raspe,  landgrave  of  Thuringia,  and  William  II. ,  oount  of 
Holland,  and  was  put  under  the  papal  ban  by  Pope  Iimocent  IV., 
Bavaria  being  laid  under  an  interdict.  When  King  Conrad  IV. 
went  to  Italy  in  1251,  Otto  remained  as  his  representative  in 
Germany,  until  his  death  on  tl»e  39th  of  November  1253.  He 
Ijcft  two  sons,  Louis  and  Henry,  who  reigned  jointly  until  1255, 
when  a  division  of  the  lands  was  made,  by  which  Louis  IL 
(1228-X294)  received  upper  Bavaria  and  the  Palatinate  of  the 
Rhine,  and  Henry  L  (d.  X290)  bwer  Bavaria.  Louis,  who  soon 
became  the  most  powerful  prince  in  southern  Germany,  was 
called  "  the  Stem,"  because  in  a  fit  of  jealousy  he  caused  his  first 
wife,  Maria  of  Brabant,  to  be  executed  in  1 2  56.  He  was  the  uncle 
and  guardian  of  Conradln  of  Hohenstanfen,  whom  he  assisted 
to  make  his  journey  to  Italy  ux  1267,  and  accompanied  as  for  as 
Verona.  When  Conradin  was  executed  in  X268  Louis  inherited 
his  lands  in  Germany,  sharing  them  with  his  brother  Heniy. 
In  1273  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  German  crown,  but  was  in- 
duced to  support  Rudolph,  count  of  Habsburg,  whose  eldest 
daughttf  ,  Matilda,  he  married  in  this  year.  He  was  a  great  source 
of  strength  to  the  Habsbuigs  until  his  death  in  1294.  Lower 
Bavaria  was  ruled  by  the  descendants  of  Henry  I.  until  the 
death  of  his  great-grandson,  John  I.,  in  1340,  when  it  was  again 
united  with  upper  Bavaria.  The  .sons  of  Louis,  Rudolph  L 
(d.  13 19)  and  Louis,  who  became  German  king  as  Louis  IV.  ux 
13x4,  ruled  their  lands  in  oonunon,  but  after  sqme  trouble  be- 
tween them  Rudolph  abdicated  in  13x7. 

In  1329  the  most  important  division  of  the  Wittelsbach  lands 
took  place.  By  the  treaty  of  Pavia  in  this  year»  Louis  granted 
the  Palatinate  sL  the  Rhine  and  the  upper  Palatinate  of  Bavari* 


764 


WlTTfeN^WITTGBNSTEIN 


to  his  brother's  flora, Itudolph  n.  (<!.  1353)  and  Rupert  I.  Rupert, 
who  from  1353  to  1390  was  sole  ruler,  gained  the  dectoral  dignity 
for  the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine  in  1356  by  a  grant  of  some  lands 
in  upper  Bavaria  to  the  emperor  Qiarles  IV.  It  had  be<;n  exer- 
cised .from  the  division  of  1339  by  both  branches  in  turn.  The 
descendants  of  Louis  IV.  retained  the  rest  <4  Bavaria,  but  made 
several  divisions  of  thnr  territory,  the  most  important  of  which 
was  in  1392,  ndien  the  branches  of  Bngokbtadt,  Munich  and 
Landshut  were  founded.  These  were  reunited  under  Albert  IV., 
duke  of  Bavaria-Munich  (1447-1508)  and  the  upper  Palatinate 
was  added  to  Hiem  in  i6s8.  Albert^  descendants  ruled  over  a 
united  Bavaria,  until  the  dteth  of  Duke  Maximilian  III.  in 
1777,  when  it  passed  to  the  Elector  Palatine,  Charles  Theodore. 
Tlie  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine,  after  the  death  of  Rupert  I.  in 
X390,  passed  to  his  nephew,  Rupert  11.,  and  in  r398  to  his  son, 
Rupert  III.,  who  was  German  king  from  1400^  to  14x0.  On  his 
death  it  was  divided  into  four  branches.  Three  of  these  had  died 
out  by  XSS9)  and  their  possessions  were  inherited  fay  the  fourth 
or  Simmem  line,  among  whom  the  Palatinate  was  again  divided 
(see  Faiahnate). 

In  174^,  after  the  extinction  of  the  two  senior  Hnes  of  this 
family,  the  Subbach  branch  became  the  senior  line,  and  its  head, 
the  dector  Charles  Theodore,  inherited  Bavaria  in  1777.  He 
died  in  1 799,  and  Maximilian  Joseph,  the  head  of  the  ZweibrQcken 
branch,  inherited  Bavaria  and  the  Palatinate.  He  took  the  title 
of  king  as  Maximilian  I. 

In  1623,  when  the  elector  Frederick  V.  (the  "  Whiter  King  ") 
was  driven  from  his  dominions,  the  electoral  privilege  was  trans- 
ferred to  Bavaria,  and  in  164S,  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  an 
eighth  electorate  was  created  for  the  Wittelsbachs  of  the 
Palatinate,  and  was  exerdscd  by  the  senior  branch  of  the 
family. 

The  Wittelsbachs  gave  three  kings  to  Germany,  Louis  IV., 
Rupert  and  Charies  VII.  Members  of  the  family  were  also 
margraves  of  Brandenburg  from  1323  to  X373,  and  kings  of 
Sweden  from  1654  to  1718. 

See  J.  DOllinser.  J>as  Haus  WiUdshack  tmd  mm  Btdeukmi  nt  def 
dsutschen  Cesckukte  (Munich,  i860);  I.  F.  Bdhmer,  WitUlsbackiscks 
lte$€sten  bis  1340  (Stuttgairt,  1854):  F.  M.  Wittmann,  Monummta 
WiUelsbacensia  (Urkundenbuch,  Munich,  X857-1861);  K.  T 
Heigel.  Die  Wiildsbacher  (Munich,  x88o);  F.  Leitschuh,  Die  WiUets* 
backer  in  Bayem  (Bambeig.  1894). 

WilTKN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Westphalia,  favourably  situated  anoong  the  coal-fields  of  the 
Ruhr,  14  m.  £.  of  Essen  and  15  ra.  N.E.  of  Elberfeld  by  rail. 
Pop.  (1905)  35,841.  It  is  an  important  seat  of  the  steel  industry. 
Other  industries  are  the  making  of  soap,  chemicals  and  beer. 
Witten  was  made  a  town  !n  1825. 

See  Hanel,  WiUener  OrUkunde  und  Orbgesebe  QNittea,  1903). 

WriTBIfBBRQ,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Saxony,  situated  on  the  Elbe,  59  m.  by  rail  S.W.  of  Berlin, 
on  the  cnain  line  to  Halle  and  at  the  junction  of  railways  to 
Palkenberg,ToigauandRossIau.  Pop.  (1905)  20,3^2.  The  three 
suburbs  which  adjom  the  town  are  not  older  than  X817.  Witten- 
berg is  interesting  chiefly  on  account  of  its  dose  connexion 
with  Luther  and  the  dawn  of  the  Reformation,  and  several  of 
its  buildings  are  associated  with  the  events  of  that  time.  Part 
of  the  Augustinian  monastery  in  which  Luther  dwelt,  at  first 
as  a  monk  and  in  later  life  as  owner  with  his  wife  and  family, 
is  still  preserved,  and  has  been  fitted  up  as  a  Luther  museum. 
It  contains  numerous  relics  of  Luther  and  portraits  and  other 
paintings  by  the  Cranachs.  The  Augusteum,  built  in  1564- 
r583  on  the  site  of  the  monastery,  is  now  a  theological  seminary 
The  Schloaskirche,  to  the  doors  of  which  Luther  nailed  his  famotu 
ninety-five  theses  in  15x7,  dates  frpm  1439-1499;  it  was, 
however,  seriously  damaged  by  fire  during  the  bombardment  of 
1760,  was  practically  rebuilt,  and  has  since  (X885-X892)  been 
restored.  The  old  wooden  doors,  burnt  in  1760,  were  replaced 
in  1858  by  bronze  doors,  bearing  the  Latin  text  of  the  theses. 
In  the  interior  of  the  church  are  the  tombs  of  Luther  and 
Melandithon,  and  of  the  electors  Frederick  the  Wise,  by  Peter 
Vischerthe  elder  (1527),  and  John  the  Constant,  by  Hans  Vischer^ 
abo  portraits  of  the  refonners  by  Lucas  Cranacfa.the  younger. 


The  parish  church,  in  which  Luther  often  pnuhedg  was  bojh 
in  the  X4th  century,  but  has  been  mudi  altered  since  Luther^ 
time.  It  contaira  a  magnificent  painting  by  Lucas  Oanach  the 
elder,  representing  the  Ix^rd's  Supper,  Baptism  and  ConfcssioD, 
also  a  font  by  Hermann  Vischer  (1457).  The  present  inlaatiy 
barracks  were  at  one  tiiiie  occupied  by  the  univenlty  of  Witten> 
berg,  founded  in  1502,  but  merged  in  the  oafvenlty  of  Hdle 
in  1815.  Luther  was  appointed  professor  of  phikMopby  here 
in  1508;  and  the  new  univeraity  rapidly  acquired  ft  ooosideiaUe 
reputation  from  its  connexion  with  die  early  Refoimers.  la 
exposition  to  the  strict  Lutheran  oxAoAoxy  of  Jean  it  rqnt- 
sented  the  more  moderate  doctrines  of  Mdanchthon.  In  the 
Wittenberg  Concord  (1536)  the  refo.rmcrs  agreed  to  a  aeCdemeat 
of  the  eudiuistic  oontroveny.  $hakespeare  makes  Hamlet 
and  Horatio  study  at  Wittenberg.  The  andent  ekctooi 
palace  is  another  of  the  buildings  that  suffered  severely  in  1760; 
it  now  contains  archives.  Mebmdithon's  houae  and  the  house 
of  Lucas  Cranach  the  elder  (X473-XS53),  who  was  bqx^omaster 
of  Wittenberg,  are  also  pointed  out.  Sutues  of  lAither  (fay 
Schadow),  Mdanchthon  and  Bugenhageo  embellish  the  town. 
Hie  spot,  outside  the  Elster  Gate,  wfaMcre  Luther  publidy  bomed 
the  papal  bull  in  1520,  is  marked  by  an  oak  tree.  Flodcuitun^ 
iron^ounding,  distilling  and  brewing  are  caxricd  on.  Ihe 
formeriy  considerable  manufacture  of  the  heavier  kinds  d 
doth  has  died  out. 

Wittenberg  is  mentioned  as  eariy  as  xx8o.  It  was  the  capital 
of  the  little  duchy  of  Saze-Wittenbexg,  the  rulers  of  which  after' 
wards  became  dectors  of  Saxony;  and  it  continued  to  be  a 
Saxon  reddence  under  the  Emcsdne  electors.  The  Ci^itulatioQ 
of  Wittenberg  (X547)  is  the  name  given  to  the  treaty  by  which 
John  Frederick  the  Magnanimous  was  compelled  to  xcaign  the 
dectoral  dignity  and  most  of  his  territory  to  the  Albertine 
branch  of  the  Saxon  family.  In  X760  the  town  was  bombarded 
by  the  Austrians.  It  was  occupied  by  the  Frendi  in  1806, 
and  refortified  in  18x3  by  command  of  Napoleon;  but  in  18x4 
it  was  stormed  by  the  Prusdans  under  Tauentden,  who  received 
the  title  of  ''von  Wittenberg"  as  a  reward.  Wittenberg 
continued  to  be  a  fortress  of  the  third  class  until  the  zeoxganiza- 
tion  of  the  German  defences  after  the  foundation  of  the  new 
empire  led  to  its  being  dismantled  in  1873. 

See  Meynert.  GtsckuhU  der  Stadt  WiUenberg  (Deaiau,  1845): 
Sticr,  Dm  Sekloisktrche  tu  WiUenbert  (Wittenberg.  x86o);  ZiulafT. 
Die  BegrabnissstdUen  Wittenhergs  una  ihre  DenimdUr  (Wlttcnbert, 
1897):  and  Guriitt.  "Die  Lutherstadt  Wittenberg,"  m  Muther* 
Dte  Kmul  (Beriin,  1902). 

WlTfBMBBROB,  s  town  of  (Sermany,  in  the  Prussian  provmce 
of  Brandenburg,  on  the  Elbe,  near  the  influx  of  the  Stepenita 
into  that  river,  77  m.  N.W.  from  Berlin  by  the  nkain  line  <^  nil- 
way  to  Hamburg,  and  at  the  junction  of  railways  to  Stendal, 
Lflneburg  and  PerleberK-  Pop.  (X905)  x8,5ox.  The  magnificent 
bridge  here  spanning  the  Elbe,  one  mile  in  length,  was  built 
in  185X  at  a  cost  of  £237,500.  The  chief  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  railway  plant,  doth,  wool,  soap,  shod<l^,  furniture, 
bricks  and  cement.  

WmOEIIffrBIN,  LUDWIO  ADOLF  PBTBR,  Comrr,  prince 
of  Sajm-Wittgenstdn-Ludwigsbuig  (x769>i  843),  Russian  soldier, 
was  descended  from  a  family  of  formerly  independent  counts 
in  Westphaha.  His  father  had  settled  m  Russia,  and  he  entered 
the  axmy,  distxnguishmg  himsdf  in  the  Polish  War  of  xy^r- 
95,  and  then  serving  in  the  Caucasus.  In  1805  he  fous^ 
at  Austerlits,  in  x8o6  agamst  the  Turks  and  In  1807  aguost 
Napoleon  at  Friedland  and  against  the  Swedes  in  Fixdand. 
In  the  war-  of  181 2  he  commanded  the  rig^t  wing  anny  of  the 
Ruasbns.  In  the  campaign  of  18x3  in  January  he  took  cfvtt 
the  command  of  the  Russian  army  after  Kutfisov's  death. 
But  after  the  defeats  of  the  Spring  campaign  he  lakt  down  this 
command  and  led  an  army  corps  during  the  Dresden  and  Leipxi^ 
campaigns,  and  at  Bar-sur-Aube  in  the  x8x4  oampaoign  he  was 
severely  wounded.  In  1823  he  was  promoted  fietd-oanfasli 
and  in  x8a8  he'was  appobted  to  command  the  Rusdan  army  in 
the  war  against  Turkey.  But  31  hedth  soon  obliged  him  to 
retire.  In  1834  the  king  of  Prussia  gave  hSm  the  title  of  prince. 
He  died  on  the  nth  of  June  t<4> 


WnriNGAU-^WLADISLAUS 


765 


VmVQAO  {CzedL,  TfeboiO,  a  town  of  Bohemia^  95  m*  S. 
«l  Pranue  by^  raUL  Pop.  (1900)  5467,  mostly  Czech*  The  parish 
church  is  a  Gothic  edifice  of  the  14th  centaiy,  with  fine  doiaten; 
and  the  LuSnic  chiteau,  once  belonging  to  the  family  of  Rosen* 
beig,  and  now  to  Pdnce  ^waizenbeig,  dating  from  the  xsth 
tentucy,  is  reputed  to  contain  the  most  extensive  and  vahiable 
archives  in  Bc^cmia.  The  artificial  cultivation  of  fish,  now 
duefly  carp,  in  the  numerous  ponds  that  sunoand  the  town 
dates  from  the  .14th  century. 

■  WITU»  or  YiTu»  a  sultanate  of  East  Africa  included  m  the 
Tanaknd  province  of  the  British  East  Africa  protectorate. 
It  extends  along  the  coast  from  the  town  of  Kipini  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Ozi  river  (2*  30^  S.)  to  the  northern  limit  of  Manda  Bay 
(2**  S.);  area  1200  sq.  m.  The  chief  town,  Witu,  is  26  m.  N. 
^  Kipini.  The  state  was  founded  by  Ahmed-bin-Fumo  Luti, 
the  last  Nabhan  sultan  of  Patta  (an  idand  off  the  coast),  who  was 
coa<|uered  by  Seyytd  Majid  of  Zanzibar.  Ahmodi  about  1860, 
tods,  refuge  in  the  forest  district,  and  made  himself  an  indqwii- 
dent  chief,  acquiring  the  title  of  Simba  or  the  Lion.  In  188$ 
Ahmed  was  induced  to  phce  his  country  under  German  protec- 
lion,  and  in  1887  the  limits  of  Witu  Irene  fixed  by  international 
agreement.  In  1890  Germany  transferred  her  protectorate  to 
Great  Britain.  In  the  September  of  that  year  a  British  naval 
force  under  Admiral  Sic  £.  FremantJe  was  sent  against  the  sultan 
Bakari,  who  had  sdcceeded  Ahmed  in  x8£7  and  by  whose  orders 
nine  Cetman  traders  and  scttkrs  had  been  murdoied.  Disorders 
continued  until  1894,  and  in  the  f olbwing  year  Omar-bin«Hamed 
«f  the  Nabhan  dynasty — an  andent  race  of  Asiatic  origin — was 
recognized  as  sultan.  The  sultan  is  guided  by  a  British  resident, 
and  the  state  «nce  the  accession  of  Sultan  Omar  has  been  both 
peaceful  and  prosperoua.  The  population  of  the  sultanate  is 
«ver,i'S,Qoo;  of  the  town  of  Witu  6000,  chiefly  Swahilia;^The 
port  of  Witu  is  Mkonumbi  (pop.  xooo).  '^ 

WIVEUSCOHBB  (pionounosd  Wilscomb),  a  market  town  in 
the  western  parliamentary  division  of  Somersetshire,  England, 
9I  m.  W.  of  Taunton  by  the  Great  Western  railway.  Pop. 
(1901),  2246.  It  stands  on  a  picturesque  sloping  site  in  a  hilly 
district,  and  has  some  agricultural  trade  and  a  brewing  industry, 
while  in  the  neighbourhood  are  ^late  quarries. 

Traces  of  a  large  Roman  camp  may  still  be  seen  to  the  SQUtli« 
east  of  Wiveliscombe  (JVdUscopibc,  WiUcomhe,  Wiviscombe), 
which  is  near  the  line  of.  a  Roman  road,  and  hoards  of  Roman 
coins  have  been  discovered  in  the  ncighbouihood.  The  town 
probably  owed  its  ori^  to  the  suitability  of. its  position  .for 
defence,  and  it  was  the  site  of  a  Danish  fort,  later  replaced  by  a 
Saxon  settlement.  The  overl(»:ds  were  the  bishops  of  Bath  and 
Wells,  who  had  a  palace  and  park  here.  They  obtained  a  grant 
of  freewarrcn  in  1257.  No  charter  granting  self-government 
to  Wiveliscombe  has  been  found,  and  the  only  evidence  for  the 
traditional  existence  of  a  borough  b  that  part  of  the  town  is  called 
^'  the  borough,"  and  that  until  the  middle  of  the  19th  century 
a  bailiff  and  a  portreeve  were  annually  chosen  by  the  court  lect. 
A  weekly  market  on  Tuesdavs,  granted  to  the  bishop  of  Bath 
and  Wells  in  1284,  is  still  held.  During  the  '17th  and  i8th 
^nturies  the  town  was  a  centre  of  the  woollen  manufacture. 

WLADISLAUS  (\Vladislaw),  the  name  of  four  kings  of  Poland 
and  two  Polish  kings  of  Hungary.* 

WiAOiSMUs  L  (1260-1333),  king  of  Poland,  called  tokietek, 
or  "  Span-long,"  from  his  diminutive  stature,  was  the  re-creator 
of  the  Polish*  realm,  which  in  consequence  of  internal  quarrels 
bad  at  the  end  of  the  13th  century  split  up  into  fourteen  in- 
dependent prindpaUties,  and  become  an  easy  prey  to  her  neigh- 
bours, Bohemia,  lithuania,  and,  most  dangerous  of  all,  the 
Teutonic  Order,  In  1296  the  gentry  of  Great  Poland  elected 
Wladislaus,  then  prince  of  Cujavia,  to  reign  over  them;  but 

>  In  Hunf*arian  hntory  the  Polish  Wladislaus  (Mar.  inAsti6)  is 
dtatitifuiafaed  from  the  Hungarian  Ladislaus  (Lisslo}.  They  are 
nckcHwd  separately  for  mrpotat  of  numbering.  Besides  the 
Wladislaus  kings  ol  Poland,  there  were  three  earlier  dukes  of  this 
name:  Wladislaus  I.  (d.  1102),  Wladislaus  II.  (of  Cracow,  d.  1163) 
and  Wladislaus  HI.,  duke  of  Great  Poland  ^nd  Craoow  (d.  1231). 
By  some  historiaiM  these  are  induded  in  the  numbering  of  the  nmA 


fgnqBreigns.  Kipg  Wladislaus  U  be^ng  thus  IV.  and  to  00., 


distrustikig  the  capadty  of  the  tadtum  little  man,  they  changed 
their  mmda  and  placed  themsdvea  under  the  protection  of  the 
powerful  Weaeeslausy  king  of  Bofaenia,.  who  waa  crowned  at 
Gnesen  in  X3oa  Wladishms  thereupon  went  to  Rome,  whcrs 
Pope  Boniface  VHI.,  lealoaaof  the  growing  hifiuenoe  of  Bohemia, 
adopted  his  cause;  and  en  the  death  of  Wenoodaus  in  130s 
Wladisbnis  tocceeded  in  tmitlng  bcneatli  hia  "^way  the  prind- 
pahtiea  of  little  and  Great  Poland.  From  the  first  be  waa 
beset  with  great  diifiailtiet.  The  towns,  moatly  of  Genmui 
origin,  and  the  prelates  headed  by  Huskatat  bishop  of  Cracow, 
were  against  faim  because  he  endeavoured  to  make  use  of  their 
riches  foe  the  defence  of  the  sordy  pressed  state.  The  rebdUous 
magbtrates  of  Cracow  he  succeeded  in  suppressing,  but  he  had 
to  invoke  the  aid  of  the  Teutonic  Order  to  save  Danzig  from  the 
margzavcs  of  Braitdenboig/tfaus  saddling  Poland  with  a  far  more 
dangerous  enemy;  for  the  Order  not  only  proceeded  to  treat 
Danzig  aa  a  conquered  city,  but  claimed  possession  of  the  whole 
of  Pomciania.  VHadidaua  thereupon  (1317)  appealed  to  Pope 
John  XXII.,  and  a  tribonal  of  looal  prelates  appointed  by 
the  holy  see  ultimatdy  (Feb.  9, 1321)  pronounced  judgment  in 
favour  of  Wladislaus,  and  oondenmed  the.  Order  not  only  to 
restore  Pomerania  but  also  to  pay  heavy  damages.  But  the 
knights  appealed  to  Rome;  the  pope  reversed  the  judgment  of 
his  own  tribuntal;  and  the  only  result  of  these  negotiations 
was  a  long  and  bloody  six  years'  war  (i337>-i333)  between  Poland 
and  the  Order,  in  wUcb  all  the  princes  of  Central  Europe  took 
part,  Hungary  and  Lithuania  sidfaig  with  Wladislaus,  and 
Bohemia,  Masovia  and  Silesia  with  the  Order.  It  was  not  till 
the  last  year  but  one  of  his  Ufa  that  Wladislaus  succeeded 
with  the  idd  of  has  Hungarian  atties  in  inflicting  upon  the  knights 
thdr  first  serioua  reverse  at  Plowoe  (37th  of  Sepumber  1332). 
In  March  1333  he  died.  He  bad  laid  the  foundations  (rf  a  strong 
Polish  monarchy,  and  with  the  consent  of  the  pope  revived  the 
royal  dignity,  bdng  solemnly  crofwned  king  of  Poland  at  Cracow 
on  the  <oth  of  January  1330.  His  reign  is  remarkable  for  the 
development  of  the  Polish  constitution,  the  gentry  and  prelate* 
being  admitted  to  some  share  in  the  government  of  the  country.' 

See  Max  P^bach.  Prtusstseh-pdnUeht  Stadien  tur  G^kiehte  des 
MiUdaOer*  (Halle,  1886);  Julias  A.  G.  von  Pflu^-Harttung,  D» 
deHisdieOrdmimKami!f«l4timt$d€sBaytrHittUiiKtr 


1900). 


'Kum(}jupnto 


Wladislaus  n.,  Jacxello  (x350-x434y,  kmg  of  Poland^ 
was  one  of  the  twelve  aons  of  Olgierd,  grand-Klttkeof  Lithuania^ 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1377.  From  the  very  bcgitaang  <rf  Us 
reign  JagieUo  was  involved  in  disputes  with  the  Teutonic  Order, 
and  with  his  unde,  the  valiant  Kiejstut,  who  ruled  Samogitla 
mdependently.  By  the  treaty  of  Dawidystefc  (June  x,  1380) 
he  contracted  an  alliance  with  the  kni^^,  and  two  years  latere 
acting  on  the  advice  of  hb  ovtf  counsellor,  Wojdyllo,  entsccd 
Kiejstut  and  h^  consort  to  Krewo  and  there  treacherously 
murdered  them  (Aug.  13,  xjfls).  This  foul  deed  naturally  drove 
Witowt  (^.f.),  the  son  of  Kiejstut,  into  the  arms  of  the  Order, 
but  both  princea  speedfly  lecogniEed  that  the  knights  iveie  the 
real  enenlics  of  Uthuaniay  and  prudently  comporing  thdr  itiff er^ 
ences  hivaded  Prussian  territory.  Thia  waa  the  bcghmiag  of  the 
fifty  yeaia'  struggle  with  the  Teutonic  Ovder  which  waa  to  make 
the  reign  of  Jagiello  so  memorable.  He  looked  about  him 
betimes  for  sIDcs  against  the  common  cnemv  of  the^lavonic  races, 
and  fortune  dnjtubuly  favoured  him.  Tn^  Poles  had  brought 
their  young  queen  Jadwiga  home  from  Hi^ngary,  and  In  1384 
Japdlo  sent  a  magnificent  embassy  to  Cracow  offering  her  his 
hand  on  condition  that  they  shared  the  Polish  ero^.  Jadwiga 
had  looK  been  betrothed  to  William  of  Austria;  but  she  sacrificed 
her  preoilections  for  her  country's  good.  On  the  1 5th  of  February 
X386  Jagidlo,  who  had  previously  been  dected  king  of  Poland 
under  the  title  of  Wladislaus  B.,  accepted  the  Roman  faith  fa 
the  cathedral  of  Cracow,  and  on  the  tSth  his  espousals  with 
(2ueen  Jadwiga  were  solemnized. 

Jagiello's  first  political  act  after  .his  coronation  was  the 
conversion  of  Lithuania  to  the  true  rel^on.  This  solemn  act  was 
accomplished  at  Vilna,  the  Lithuanian  capital,  'on  the  17th  of 
February  X387,  when  a  stately  concourse  of  nobles  and  prcbtes. 


766 


WLADISLAUS 


headed  by  the  Jung,  proceeded  td  the  gmvt  of  secular  oaks 
beneath  which  stood  the  statue  of  PerbaacB.  and  other  idda, 
and  in  the  preaence  of  an  inuaense  nnillitude  hawed  down  the 
oaks,  destroyed  the  idols,  estinguished  the  Acred  ha  and  elevated 
the  cross  on  the  deaeoated  heathen  altac^  30/100  Lithuanians 
receiving  Christian  baptism^  .A  Cathofic  hieraicby  wa^  inune* 
diatdy  set  up.  A  Polikh  Franciscan,  Andrew  Wassik>,  was  oon« 
secrated  as  the  first  Catholic  bishop  d  Vilna^  and  Lithuania 
was  divided  ecclesiastically  into  seven  dioceses.  Mainly  on  the 
initiative  of  Queen  Jadwdga,  Red  Russia  with  Its  capital  the  great 
trading  dty  of  Lemberg  was  pecsuaded  to  acknowledge  the 
dominion  of  Poland;  and  there  on  the  27th  of  September  1587 
the  hospodacs  of  Walachia  and  Moldavia  for  tie-  ficit  time 
voluntarily  enrolled  themselves  among  the  vaaBab  ol  Pdand. 

With  savage  Lithuania  converted  and  in  dose  alliance  with 
Catholic  Poland,  the  Teutonic  Otder  was  seriously  thraatened. 
The  knights  endeavoured  to  se-establish  their  position  by  sowing 
dissensions  between  Poland  and  Lithuania.  1$  this  ft*  «  time 
they  succeeded  (see  Witowt);  bat  in  1401  Jagiello  recognized 
Witowt  as  independent  grand-duke  o£  Uthuania  (union  of  Vilna, 
January  18,  1401),  and  their  naioiL  was  cemented  in  the  battle 
of  Grfinewald,  wliich  shook  the  irfiole  fabric  of  the  Teutonic 
Order  to  its  very  foundations.  Henceforth  a  remarkable  .change 
in  the  whole  policy  of  the  Order  was  apparent.  The  struggle  was 
no  longer  for  dominion  but  for  existence  Fortunate  for  them, 
in  Jagieliothcy  posscsscdanequaUycantioussadpadficoppoaent. 
Wladislaus  11.,  in  sharp  contrast  to  Witowt,  was  of  anything 
but  a  martial  tempetamebt.  He  never  swerved  frOm  his  main 
object,  to  unite  Poland  and  Lithuania  against  the  dangerous 
denationalizing  German  influences  which  environed  him.  But 
he  would  take  no  risks  and  always  preferred  craft  to  violence. 
Hence  his  leaning  upon  the  holy  see  In  all  his  disputes  with  his 
neighbours.  Hence,  too,  his  modctation  a(t  the  peace  of  Thorn 
(ist  of  February  141  x),  when  tho  knights  skilfully  extricated 
themselves  from  their  difficulties  by  renouncing  their  pretensions 
to  Samogitia,  restoring  Dobrsyn  and  p&yiag  a  war  indemnity; 
Jagiello  was  content  to  discredit  them,  rather  than  provoke  them 
to  a  war  d  cutratue.  Equally  skilful  was  Jagicllo's  long  diplo- 
matic dud  with  the  emperor  Sigismund,  then  the  disturbing 
dement  of  Central  Euxopo,  wlio  aimed  at  the  temodeUing  of 
the  whole  continent  and  was  responsible  for  the  first  projected 
partition  of  Poland. 

Jagiello  was  married  four.Umes.  At  the  dying  request  of  the 
childless  Jadwiga  he  espoused  a  Styrian  lady,  Maria  CiUci,  who 
bore  him  a.  daughter,  also  called  Jad^iga.  His  third  wife, 
Elizabeth  Grabowska,  died  without  issuer  and  the  question  of 
the  sticcession  then  became  ao  serious  that  Jagietto's  advisers 
cx>uiKeUed  him  to  betroth  hfsdavighter  to  Frederick  of  Hohen- 
EoUem,  who  was  to  be  educated  m  PoUjsd  as  the  hdr  to  the  throne. 
But  in  X4SS  JagitfHo  himself  solved  the  difficulty  by  wedding 
Sonia,  princess  of  Vyazma,  a  Ruflslan  lady  nechristened  Sophia, 
who  bore  him  two  sons,  WJadishiiis  andCasimir,  both  of  whom 
uhinately  succeeded  faam.  Jai^eUo  died  at  Grodkanear  LembeiK 
in  1434.  During  his  reign  of  half  a  century  Poland  bad  risen  to 
the  rank  of  a  great  power,  a  position  she  was  to  retain  for- nearly 
two  hundred  years  under  the  dynasty  which  JagJcUo  had 
founded. 

See  AogviC  Sokofowdd.  Hisltry  §f  PaUutA,  vd.  I  (Fok)  (Vienna, 
IQ03):  Carl  Edward  Napicrskt,  RutwLiihwinian  AcU  (Ru«.)  (St 
merebun;,  1868);  M^numcnta  Ucdii  Acvi  (Cracow,  1882):  Karol 
Siajnocha.  Joiwigja,  and  Jaiidh  (Pol.)  (Umbvrg.  i8S5-r856) 

WtAWSiAUS  m.  (1424-1444)1  Wng  of  Poland  and  Hungary, 
the  eldest  son  of  Wladislaus  IL  Jagiello,  by  his  fourth  wife, 
Sophia  of  Vyazma,  was  bom  at  Cracow  on  the  31st  of  October 
X424,  succeeding  to  the  throne  in  his  tenth  year.  The  domestic 
troubles  which  occurred  during  his  minority  had  an  inrponanf 
influence  upon  the  development  of  the  Polish  consUlulion; 
but  under  the  wise  administration  of  Zbignicw  Olcsnicki  Poland 
suffered  far  less  from  her  rebels  than  might  have  been  anticipated; 
and  Wladislaus  gav^  the  "first  proof  of  his  manhood  by  defeating 
the  arch-lrailor  Spytck  of  Melztyn  in  his  camp  at  Grotnik  on 
the  4lh  of  May  1 439.  On  the  sudden  death  of  the  emperor  Albert, 
who  was  also  king  of  Bohemia  and,  Hungary,  the  HungarUhs 


dectfxt  Wladislaos  ai  their  king,  despite  the  oppMSdMl  Oflhe 
widowed  empress  Elizabeth,  already  big  with  the  child  «ho 
subsequently  ascended  the  Hungarian  throne  as  Wladislaus  V. 
But  Wladislaus  UI.,  who  was  aolemidy  crowned  king  of  Hungtry 
9l  Buda  by  the  Msgyarprimate  in  Ju^  1440^  had  to  light  against 
the  partisans  of  the  empress  for  three  yoars  till  Popo  Eugcnius 
IV.  mediated  between  them  so  as  to  enable  Wladislaus  to  lead 
a  dusade  against  the  Turks.  War  was  proclaimed  against 
Sultan  Murad  IL  at  the  diet  of  Boda  on  Palm  Sunday  1445, 
and  with  an  army  of  40^000  men,  mostly  Magyars,  the  yomg 
monarch,  with  Hunyadi  commanding  under  him,  crossed  the 
Danube,  took  Nish  and  Sofia,  and  advancing  to  the-  slope  of 
the  Balkans,  returned  to  Hungary  covered  with  glory.  Europe 
resounded  with  the  praises  of  the  youthful  hero,  and  the  Venetians, 
the  Genoese,  the  duke  of  Burgundy  and  the  pope  encouraged 
Wladidaus  to  continue  the  war  by  offering  him  eveiy  assistance. 
'But  at  this  juncture  the  sultan  offered  terms  to  Wladislaus 
through  George  Brankovic,  despot  of  Servia,  and,  by  the  peace 
of  Szeged  (July  i,  1444),  Murad  engaged  to  snrrender  Servia, 
Albania  and  whatever  territory  the  Ottomans  had  ever  coin 
quered  from  Hungary,  including  84  fortresses,  besides  paying 
an  indemnity  of  100,000  florins  in  gold.  Unfortunately,  Wladis* 
kius  listened  to  the  representations  oi  the  papal  legate,  Cardinal 
Julian  Cesarini,  who  urged  him  in  the  name  of  religion  to  break 
the  peace  of  Szeged  and  resume  the  war.  De^te  the  repie* 
sentations  of  the  Poles  and  of  the  majority  of  the  Msg>'ais, 
the  kinqg,  only  two  days  aftor  solemnly  swearing  to  observe  the 
terms  of  the  treaty,  crossed  the  Danube  a  second  time  to  co* 
operate  with  a  fleet  from  the  West  which  was  to  join  hands  with 
the  land  army  at  Gallipoli,  whither  also  the  Greeks  and  the 
Balkan  SUvs  were  to  direct  their  auxiliaries.  But  the  Walachians 
were  the  sole  allies  of  Hungary  who  kept  faith  with  her,  and  on 
the  bloody  field  of  Varna,  November  the  loth,  1444,  Wladislaus 
lost  his  life  and  more  than  a  fourth  of  Iris  arihy. 

Sec  Jufian  Bartosasewtct,  Viae  ef  the  RBUHmu  of  PoUmd  wkh  Ih 
Turks  and  Tatars  (Pol.}  (Warsaw,  i860);  August  Sokolovski, 
History  qf  Poland,  vol.  ii.  (Pol.)  (Vienna,  I90d):  Ign&cz  Acsady, 
History  of  the  Hungarian  Realm,  vol.  1.  (Hung.)  (Budapest,  1905). 

WtAOiSLAtrs  IV.  (1595-1648),  king  of  Poland,  son  of  Sigismund 
nj.,  king  of  Poland,  and  Anne  of  Austria,  succeeded  his  father 
on  the  throne  in  1637.  From  his  early  youth  he  gave  promise 
of  great  military  talent,  and  served  his  apprenticeship  in  the 
science  of  war  under  Zolkiewski  in  the  Muscovite  campaigns 
of  X610-1612,  and  under  Chodkiewicz in  1617-16x8.  Wfadishus's 
first  official  act  was  to  march  against  the  Muscovites,  who  had 
declared  waf  against  Poland  immediately  after  the  death  of 
Sigismund,  and  were  besieging  Smolensk,  the  key  of  Pcrfand's 
eastern  frontier.  After  a  scries  of  bloody  engagements  (Aug. 
7-32,  1632)  Wladislaus  compelled  the  tsar's  general  to  abandon 
the  siege,  and  eventually  to  surrender  (March  r,  1634)  with  his 
whole  army.  Meanwhile  the  Turks  were  threatening  m  the  south, 
and  Wladislaus  found  it  expedient  to  secure  his  Muscovite 
conquests.  Peace  was  concluded  at  the  river  Polyankova  on 
the  28th  of  May  1634,  the  Poles  conceding  the  title  of  tsar  to 
Michael  Komanov,  who  renounced  all  his  claims  upon  Livonia, 
Esthonia  and  Courland,  besides  paying  a  war  indemnity  of 
200,000  rubles.  These  tidings  profoundly  impressed  Suttan 
Murad, and  when  the  victorious  Wladislaus  appeared  at  Lembeig, 
the  tisual  starting-point  for  Turkish  expeditions,  the  Porte 
offered  terms  which  were  acccptied  In '  October,  each  powet 
engaging  to  keep  their  borderers,  the  Cossacks  and  Tatars,  in 
order,  and  divide  between  them  the  suzerainty  of  MoMavia 
and  Walachia,  the  sultan  binding  himsdf  always  to  place 
philo-Polish  hospodars  on  (hose  slippery  thrones.  In  the  follows 
ing  year  the  long-pending  differences  with  Sweden  were  settled, 
very  much  to  the  advantage  of  Poland,  by  tho  truce  of  Stumdorf, 
which  was  to  fast  for  twenty-six  years  from  the  islb  September 
T635.  Thus  externally  Poland  was  everywhere  triumphant 
Internally,  however,  things  were  in  their  usually  deplorable 
state  owing  to  the  suspicion,  jealousy  and  parsimony  of  the 
estates  of  the  realm.  They  had  double  reason  to  be  grateful  to 
Wladislaus  for  defeating  the  enemies  of  the  republic,  for  he  had 
also  paid  M  the  expenses  of  fait  campaigns  out  of  his  own  pocket* 


WOAI>— WODiEN 


767 


jK  he  eould  not  obuin  payment  of  ihe  debt  due  to  hint  from  the 
state  till  1643.  He  was  bound  by  the  poita  convetUa  which  he 
signed  on  his  accession  to  maintain  a  iket  on  the  Bailie.  He 
proposed  to  do  so  by  levying  tolls  on  all  imfSorts  ud  exports 
passing  through  the  Pnissian  ports  which  had  been  regained 
by  the  truce  of  Stumdorf.  Sweden  during  her  temporary  occupa* 
tlon  of  these  ports  had  derived  from  them  an  annual  income  of 
3,600,000  gulden.  But  when  Wladislaus,  their  lawful  possessor, 
imposed  similar  toQs  in  the  interests  of  the  republic,  Dandg  pro- 
tested and  appealed  to  the  Scandinavian  powers.  Wladidaos'^ 
little  fleet  attempted  to  blockade  the  port  of  the  rebelUous  dty; 
whereupon  a  Danish  admiral  tffoke  the  blockade  and  practically 
destroyed  the  Polish  flotilla.  Yet  the  stjm,  so  sensitive  to  Its 
own  privileges,  allowed  the  insult  to  the  king  and  the  Injury  to 
the  state  to  pass  unnoticed,  conniving  at  the  destruction  of  the 
national  navy  and  the  depletion  of  the  treasury,."  lest  wardifpc 
should  make  the  crown  too  powerful."  For  some  years  after 
this  humiliation,  >\'ladislaus  became  indifferent  to  affairs  and 
sank  into  a  sort  of  apathy;  but  the  birth  of  his  son  St^smund 
(by  his  first  wife,  Cecilia  Rcnata  of  Austria,  in  1640)  gave  him 
fresh  hopes,  and  he  hegan  with  renewed  energy  to  labour  for 
the  dynasty  as  well  as  for  the  nation.  He  saw  that  Poland, 
with  ^er  existing  constitution,  could  not  hope  for  a  long  future, 
and  he  determined  to  bring  about  a  royuh'st  reaction  and  a 
reform  along  with  it  by  every  means  in  hfs  power.  He  began 
by  founding  the  Order  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  consisting 
of  72  young  noblemen  who  swore  a  special  oath  of  allegiance 
to  the  crown,  and  were  to  form  the  nucleus  oi  a  patriotic  move- 
ment antagonistic  to  the  constant  usurpations  of  the  diet,  but 
the  sejm  promptly  inter\'ened  and  quashed  the  attempt.  Then 
he  conceived  the  idea  of  using  the  Cossacks,  who  were  deeply 
attached  to  him,  as  a  means  of  chastising  the  szlaclita,  and  at  the 
same  time  forcing  a  war  with  Turkey,  which  would  make  his 
military  genius  indispensable  to  the  republic,  and  enable  him 
if  successful  to  carry  out  domestic  reforms  by  force  of  arms* 
His  chief  confidant  in  this  still  mysterious  affair  was  the  veteran 
grand  hetman  of  the  crown,  Stanislaw  Koniccpolski,  who  under- 
stood the  Cossacks  better  than  any  man  then  living,  but  difiered 
from  the  kmg  in  preferring  the  conquest  of  the  Crimea  to  an  open 
ivar  with  Turkey.  Simultaneously  Wladislaus  contracted  an 
oflfensive  'and  defensive  alliance  with  Venice  against  the  Porte, 
a  treaty  directly  contnry  indeed  to  the  p^cla  convents  he  had 
sworn  to  observe,  but  excusable  in  the  despenate  dbcctimatanoeSk 
The  whole  enterprise  feH  through,  owing  partly  to  the  death 
of  Koniecpolski  before  it  was  matured,  partly  to  the  hastiness 
^th  which  the  king  published  his  intentions,  and  partly  to  the 
careful  avoidance  by  the  Porte  of  the  slightest  occasion  of  a 
rupture.  Frustrated  in  all  his  plans,  broken-hearted  by  t  he  death 
of  his  son  (by  his  second  wife,  Marie  Ludwika  of  AngouUme, 
Vladjslaus  had  no  issue),  the  king,  worn  out  and  disillusioned, 
^led  at  Merecs  on  the  aoth  of  May  1648,  in  his  5  and  year. 
After  his  cousin  Gustavus  Adolphus,  whom  in  many  respects 
lie  strikingly  resembled,  he  was  indubitably  the  most  andable 
•nd  brilliant  of  all  the  princes  ol  the  House  of  Vasa. 

See  Wiktor  Csermak,  Tk€  Plans  of  the  Turkish  Wars  ofWladisTata 
IV.  (Pol.)  (Cracow,  1895);  V.  V.  Volk-Karachevsky,  The  Stntgtle 
cf  Poland  with  the  Cossacks  (Rus.)  (Kiev,  1B99) ;  LeUers  and  other 
Writings  qf  Wladislaus  IV.  (Pol.)  (Cracow.  1845).         (R,  N.  B.) 

WDADt  a  herbaceous  plant,  known  botanically  as  Isaixs 
tincloria  (natural  order  Cnidferae),  which  occurs  sporadically 
in  Eni^d  in  fields,  00  banks  and  chalk-pits.  The  erect  branched 
•tern,  I  to  3  ft.  in  height,  bears  sessile  leaves  and  terminal  clusters 
of  smidi  yeRow  flowers;  the  brown  pendulous  pods  are  \  in. 
long.  The  ancient  Britons  stained  themselves  with  this  plant. 
It  is  still  cultivated  in  Uncolnshire. 

WOBURM,  %  market  town  in  the  northern  parliamentary 
division  of  Bedfordshire,  England,  with  a  station  (Wobum  Sands), 
on  a  branch  of  the  London  &  North- Western  railway,  3  m.  from 
the  town  and  51  m.  N.W.  by  N.  from  London.  Pop.  (1901) 
1 1 39.  It  lies  in  a  hollow  of  a  northern  spur  of  the  Chiltern  Hills, 
In  a  finely  wooded  locality.  There  is  some  agricult  ural  trade,  and 
•little  straw-plaiting  and  lace-making  are  carried  on.  ,To  the  west 


of  the  Umti  lies  Wobon  PiMk«>tke  denwnM  of  Wobura  AtH>ey» 
the  scat  of  the  dukea  of  BedfobL  The  abbey  was  a  Cisterdaa 
fomdatioD  of  S145,  hut  only -tcaoty  Benudna  ol  the  buildings  are 
seen  in  the  aMnsioii  which  nee  on  its  site.  Thl9»  with  most 
of  the  abbey  bods,  w»  sranted'bgr  Heniy  VUX.  to  John,  Lord 
Russell,  ia  i^Ti  who  was  created  eiri  of'Bediord  ia  1550  (the 
duhedou  dating  liwn  1694).  Th«  maaaion  was  begun  in  1744; 
it  contains  a.  magasfioeot  'calkction  of  paintipga  aad  other 
objects  of-  ait. 

VOBURN;  a  dty  of  MiddLoexoooaty,  Jubuaachvsetu,  U.S.A., 
zo  m.  W.  by  N.W.  of  BoMon.  fiop.  (1890)  13,499;  (1900) 
14,454,  of  whom  3840  nereibreigftjwm  and  a6i  were  negroes; 
(1910,  U.&  census)  i^oS.  •  Patm^  is*6  aq«  m*  Wobum  is 
served  by  the  aouthert  divieioa  ol  the  Boston  &  Maine  rul way, 
and  is  connected  withBuriiogtenvLenagton,  Reading,  Stoocham, 
Wilmingtea,  Wincheeter,  Arlington,  Boston  and  Lowell  by 
electric  ndlway*.  lo  the  dty  area  are  sevecal  villages,  including 
Wobum  proper,  knowa  as  ''the  Ceiitre,"  North  Woburn, 
Wobum  Hfghlaiids,  CummingtviUe  (in  (he  western  part),  Mis- 
hawum  (in  the  north-east),  Mca&tvale  (in  the  east)  and  Walnut 
Hill  (also  in  the  east).  There  are  two  andent  bmying-gnninds; 
the  oldest,  on  Park  Stieet,  dates  irom  about  i6ia  and  contains 
the  graves  of.  ancestors  of  four  presidents'— Cleveland,  Benjamin 
Harrison,  FrankMn  Pierce  and  Oarfidd->and  a  granite  obelisk 
to  the  memory  of  Loammi  Baldwin  (1744-1807).  On  Acaden^ 
Hilt  is  the  Wartea  Academy  boikEng  used  by  a  Free  Industrial 
School.  Forest  Paric  (53  acres)  is  a  fine  stretch  of  natural  woods, 
and  there  are  servcral  smal  parks  and  squares;  on  Wobum  Com- 
mon  is  the  Public  Library,  by  H.  fi.  Richardson,  the  gift  of 
Charles  Winn.  The  boildlng  booses  an  art  gallery  and  historical 
museam,  and  a  Hbraiy  of  about  so^ooo  volomes  espedaily  rich 
in  Americana.  Among  colonial  houses  still  standing  are  the 
birthplace  of  Count  Raihford  <ih  North  Wobum),  built  about 
1 714,  and  now  preseived  by  the  Ramford  Historical  Association 
as  a  depositoty  for  the  Rumford  library  and  historical  memorials, 
and  the  Baldwin  mansion  (built  partly  in  i66x  atid  later  eabufed), 
the  homeofLoanaar  Baldwin  (i78o-xft38),  known  as  "  the  father 
of  dvil  engineeifng  in  America.^  Wobum's  manufactories  are 
concentrated  within  asmall  area.  The  city  is  the  most  important 
leather  manufacturing  ceotre  of  New  En^and:  in  1905  the  value 
of  the  leather  product  was  $2,851,554,  being  61-3%  of  the 
value  of  aU  factory  products  ($4»654>o67);  other  manufactures 
are  diemicals,  leather-working  machinery,  boots  and  shoes,  glue 
and  cotton  goods.   MaAet  gardening  is  an  hapoitaatindostiy. 

Wobwn,  first  settled  alnnit  1638^x640,  was  incorporated  as 
a  township  under  its  present  name  in  x64a,  and  was  the  first 
township  set  off  from  Charlestown.  It  ibcn  inchided  a  large 
part  of  the  present  WrodicBter  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
present  Wilmlngtoh  aad  Burlington,  separately  ofganiaed  in 
T730  and  1799  rfeipscci»dy>  It  was  named  after  Wobum  In 
Bedfordshire  by  Its  chief  founder,  Edward  Johnson  (x  599*1679), 
whosfc  work.  The  Wcnd^'WorkiHg  Prcniienca  of  ZwH*t  Saviour 
(r654;  litest  ed<  r9io),  wasoneof  the  eariiest  hl^rical  accounts 
of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Cbkaiy.  The  leather  industry  was 
established  by  David  Commln^at  Commingsville  shortly  before 
the  War  of  Independence.  Wobam^s  industrial  growth  dates 
from  the  consttuction  through  the  township  of  the  old  Middlesex 
Cans!.  The  city  was  charteied  in  x888. 

See  P.  L.  Converse^  Legmdeof  Wobmn,  i&49^8p2  (avols.,  Wobura. 
i89»-t8Q6) :  Samud  Sewall.  Htstory  of  Wobum^j640  to  iS6o  (I^ton, 
1868);  F.  E,  WcthcTcO.  Tw  Bundred  and  Fiftieth  Anniversary  ^ 
Wobum  (Wobum,  1893):  and  G.  M.  Champncy  in  Sl  A.  Drake** 
History  of  Middlesex  County  (»  vob.,  Boston^  1880). 

WOCHUA  (AcHVA),  a  pygmy  people  of  Africa*  living  in  the 
forests  of  the  Mabode  district,  soath  of  the  Wette.  They  were 
discovered  (x880'i883)  by  Dr  W.  Junker,  who  described  them 
as  "well  proportioned,  though  the  oval-shaped  head  seemed 
somewhat  too  Itff ge  for  the  Slse  of  the  body.'*  Some  are  of  light 
complexion,  like  the  Akko  and  Batwa,  bat  aa  a  general  rule  they 
belong  to  the  darker,  crfsper^ialred;  dmregeaulne  negro  stock. 

WODEfT,  a  ddty  of  the'  Angto-Saxona,  the  xmme  bdng  the 
Anglo-Saxon  eounlerpart  of'' the  Soandiaavian  Odia  (f-*.)* 
In  German  the  same  gad  wsa-Mlkd  Wodad  or  Waotan.  OmUlg 


76$ 


WODROW— WOHLER 


to  the  v«ry  snutll  amoant  oC  ittfornatian  viUdi  has  come  down 
to  us  regarding  the  gods  of  aadent  England  and  Germany,  it 
cannot  be  determined  how  lar  the  diatacter  and  adventures 
attributed  to  Odin  in  Scandinavian  mythology  were  known  to 
other  Teutonic  peoples.  It  is  dear,  however,  that  the  god  was 
credited  with  special  skill  m  magic,  both  in  England  and 
Germany,  while  the  stoiy  of  the  Langobatdic  migration  (sec 
LoMBAans)  represents  him  as  the  dispenser  of  victory.  From 
Woden  also  most  of  the  anglo-Saxon  royal  families  traced  their 
descent.  By  the  Romans  he  was  identified  at  an  early  date  with 
Mercurius,  whence  our  name  "Wednesday"  (Woden's  day) 
as  a  irandatk>n  of  diet  MiercuHL  Tadtos  states  that  the  ancient 
Germans  worshipped  Mercurius  mote  than  any  other  god,  and 
that  they  offered  htm.  human  sacrifices.  Many  sdiolars  connect 
the  orif^n  oi  the  deity  with  the  popular  German  and  Swedish 
belief  in  a  raging  host  (in  Germany  called  dot  trtUmde  Hter  or 
Wutes  HetTj  but  in  Sweden  Odetu  Jap),  which  passes  through  the 
forests  on  stormy  ni^ts.  There  is  evidence,  however,  that 
deities  similar  to  Woden  were  known  to  some  of  the  andent 
peoples  of  central  Europe,  €.g,  the  Gaub  and  Thradans,  See 
Teyjtonic  Peopics,  adjitu  (H.  M.  C.) 

WODROV,  ROBERT  (1679-1734),  Scottish  historian,  was 
born  at  Glasgow,  being  a  son  of  James  Wodrow,  professor  of 
divinity.  He  was  educated  at  the  nnivernty  and  was  librarian 
from  1697  to  1701.  From  1703  till  his  deaith,  on  the  21st  of 
March  1734,  be  was  parish  minister  at  Eastwood,  near  Glasgow. 
He  had  sixteen  children,  his  son  Patrick  bdng  the  "  auld 
Wodrow  "  of  Bums's  poem  "  Twa  Herds."  His  great  work, 
The  History  of  the  Suffcringf  of  the  Church  ef  Scetiand  from  the 
Restoration  to  the  RcnoiuHoHf  waa  published  in  two  volumes  in 
1731-1788  (new  ed.  with  a  life  of  Wodrow  t^  Robert  Bums^ 
D.D.,  1807-1808).  Wodrow  also  wrotea  Ufc  (1828)  of  his  father. 
He  left  two  other  works  in  MS. — Uemevs  of  Reformers  and 
Ministers  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  AnateOa:  or  Uatenals  for 
a  History  of  RemarhaUe  Frooidenees,  mosUy  rdoHng  to  Scotch 
Mimster9  and  ChrisUons,  Of  the  former,  two  volumes  were 
published  by  the  Maitland  Club  in  1834*1841  and  one  volume  by 
the  New  Spalding  Club  in  1800;  the  latter  was  published  in 
four  volumes  by  the  Maitland  Chih  in  i843->s843« 

Wodrow  left  a  grinc  mass  of  ooncspondcnce,  three  volumes  of 
which,  edited  by  T.  M'Cric.  appeared  m  1843-1844.  The  Wodrow 
Society,  founded  in  Edinburgh  to  perpetuate  his  memory,  was  in 
existence  from  1841  to  1847,  several  works  being  publubed  under  itt 
auspices.  

WGELPL,  JOSEPH  ■  <i773«iSis),  Aualrian  pianist  and  com- 
poser, was  born  in  1779  at  Salzbuxg»  where  he  studied  music 
tinder  Leopold  Mosart  and  Michad  Haydn.  After  a  short 
residence  at  Warsaw  he  produced  his  fint  opera,  Der  Hdlienberg, 
wKh  some  success  at  Vienna,  where  it  was  soon  followed  by  Dae 
9ch9ne  MUchmUdeken  and  some  other  dmmatic  pieces.  *  His  fame 
now  rests  apon  his  oompositiona  for  the  pianoforte,  and  the  skill . 
with  which  he  b  said  to  have  met  .thdr  formidable  demands 
upon  his  power  as  an  executanL  The  perfection  pf  his  technique 
was  immeasurably  enhanced  by  the  enormous  stretch  of  his 
fingers  (his  hand  could  strike  a  Uiiiteenth  with  ease);  and  to  his 
wide  grasp  of  the  keyboard  he  owed  a  facility  of  execution  which 
he  turned  to  cxcdlent  aoooont,  especially  in  his  eatempcMre 
performances.  Ifis  technique  was  superior  even  to  that  of  the 
young  Beethoven,  who  playtd  in  company  with  him  at  the 
house  of  Count  Wetslar,  and  hi  memory  of  this  exhibition  of 
good-humoured  rivalry  he  dedicated  to  Beethoven  his  '*  Three 
Sonatas,"  Op,  6.  (Quitting  Vienna  in  1798,  he  exhibited  his 
skill  in  most  of  the  great  European  capitals,  and,  after  spending 
some  yean  in  Paris,  made  his*  first  appearance  in  London  on 
the  27th  of  May  1805.  Here  he  enjoyed  a  long  term  of  popularity, 
crowned  about  1808  by  the  piibHattion  of  his  sonata.  Op.  41, 
containing  some  variations  on  "  Life  let  us  cherish."  This, 
on  account  of  iu  technical  difficulty,  he  entitled  N^n  Plus 
UUra;  and,  in  reply  to  the  challenge,  Dussek's  London  pub- 
lishers reprinted  a  sonata,  by  that  composer*  originally  called 
Le  Retour  4  Paris,  with  the  title  Plus  PUra,  and  an  Ironical 
dedkation  to  Norn  Plus  Ultra,  .Woelfl  died  in  Great  Marylebone 
jStreet,  Laadooi  on  the  sist  of  May  181s. 


VOPHNOTON,  MARGARfir  tPBc]  (c.  I7t4->7^l.  English 
actress,  was  born  at  Dublin,  of  poor  parents.  As  a  child  of  ten 
she  played  Polly  Peachum  in  a  liUiputian  presentation  of  Tbt 
Beu^r*'  Opera,  and  danced  and  acted  at  various  Dublin  theatres 
until  1 740,  when  her  success  as  Sir  Hany  Wikfaur  in  The  Constant 
Couple  secured  her  a  London  engagement.  In  this,  and  as 
Sylvia  in  The  RecruUing  Officer,  she  had  a  pronounced  success; 
and  at  Brury  Lane  and  Covent  Garden,  as  well  as  in  DubUn, 
she  appeared  in  all  the  plays  of  the  day  to  ever  growing  pt^nilarity. 
Among  her  best  impersonations  were  the  el^ant  women  oi 
fashion,  like  Lady  Beuy  Modish  and  Lady  Townlcy,  and  in 
"  breeches  parts  "  she  was  unapproachable.  She  lived  openly 
with  Gacrick,  and  her  other  love  affairs  were  numerous  and 
notorious,  but  her  generosity  and  kindness  of  heart  were  equally 
well  known.  She  educated  her  sbter  Maiy,  and  cared  for  and 
pensioned  her  mother.  She  built  and  endowed  by  wUl  some 
almshouses  at  Teddington,  where  she  lived  quietly  after  her 
retirement  in  1757. 

See  Austin  Dobaon's  introduaion  to  Charles  Rcade's  nov^l  Peg 
Woffintton  (London,  185^),  and  Augustin  Daly's  Woffintton:  a  Tribute 
to  the  A  ctress  and  the  Woman  (1888). 

WOHLER,  FRIBDRICH  (1800-J882),  German  chemist,  was 
bom  at  Eschershcim.  near  Frankfort-on-the-Mafn,  on  the  3xst 
of  July  1800.  In  1814  he  began  to  attend  the  gymnasium  at 
Frankfort,  where  he  carried  out  experiments  with  his  friend 
Dr  J.  J.  C,  Buch.  In  1820  he  entered  Marburg  University, 
and  next  year  removed  to  Heidelberg,  where  he  worked  io 
I.«opold  Gmeh'n's  laboratory.  Intending  to  practise  as  a 
physician,  he  took  his  degree  in  medicine  and  surgery  (1823), 
but  was  persuaded  by  Gmelin  to  devote  himself  to  chemistry. 
He  studied  in  Berzclius's laboratory  at  Stockholm,  and  there  began 
a  lifelong  friendship  with  the  Swedish  chemist.  On  his  return 
he  had  proposed  to  settle  as  a  Privatdozent  at  Heidelberg, 
but  acjcepted  the  post  of  teacher  of  chemistry  in  the  newly 
established  technical  school  {Gewerbesehule)  In  Berlhi  (1825), 
where  he  remained  till  1831.  Private  affairs  then  called  him  to 
Cassel,  where  he  soon  became  professor  at  the  higher  technical 
school.  In  1836  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  chemistry 
in  the  medical  faculty  at  (^dttingen,  holding  also  the  office  of 
inspector-general  of  pharmacies  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover. 
Thb  professorship  he  held  until  his  death  on  the  33rd  of 
September  1882. 

W6hlcr  had  made  the  acqoatntanee  of  Uebig,  his  Junior  by  three 
vears,  in  182s,  and  the  two  men  remained  dose  friends  and  allies 
lor  the  rest  01  their  lives.  Tc^ther  they  carried  out  a  number  oi 
joint  researches.  One  of  the  earliest,  il  not  the  earliest,  was  the 
mvestigation.  published  in  1830.  which  proved  the  polymerism  of 
cyanic  and  cvanuric  add,  but  the  roost  famous  were  those  on  the 
oil  of  bitter  almonds  G>enzaldehyde>  and  the  radide  benzoyl  (1833^. 
and  on  uric  add  (18^7),  which  are  of  fundamental  importance  lo 
the  history  of  oreanic  chemistry.  But  it  was  the  achievement 
of  Wflhler  alone,  m  1828,  to  break  down  the  barrier  hdd  to  exist 
between  organic  and  inoi^nic  chemistry  by  artiiicially  preparing 
area,  one  of  tfiose  substances  which  up  ro  that  time  Jt  nad  hen 
thought  oouM  only  be  produced  through  the  agency  of  "  vital  force." 
Moat  of  his  work,  nowcvcr,  lay  in  the  domain  of  inorganic  diemistr^. 
The. isolation  of  the  elementary  bodies  and  the  investigation  Of  their 
properties  was  one  Of  his  favourite  pursuits.  In  18IS7  he  obtained 
metallic  aluminium  as  a  fine  powder,  and  in  1845  improved  metlMxls 
enabled  him  to  get  it  in  fully  metallic  globules.  Nine  years  afte^ 
wards  H.  E.  Samte-Claire  lieville.  ignorant  of  what  he  had  done, 
adopted  the  same  methods  in  his  efforts  to  prepare  the  metal  on  an 
industrial  scale;  the  result  of  Wdhler*s  claim  of  priority  was  that 
the  two  booime  good  friends  and  joined  in  a  research,  published 
in  1856-18^7,  which  yielded  "adamantine  boron."  By  the  same 
method  as  nad  succeeded  with  aluminium  (reduction  of  the  chloride 
by  potasMum)  Wdhler  in  1828  obtained  metalffic  beiyllfum  and 
yttnimi.  Later,  in  1849,  titanium  engaged  his  attention,  aa(i 
proving. that  what  had  up  to  that  time  passed  as  the  metal  was 
really  a  cyanonitride,  he  snowed  how  the  true  metal  was  to  be  ol> 
tamed.  He  also  worked  at  the  nitrides,  and  in  1857  with  H.  Buff 
carried  out  an  inguiry  on  the  compounds  of  silicort  In  which  they 
prejiared  the  prevfousiy  unknown  gas,  silictm  hydride  of  rfUcurstted 
hydrogen;  A  problem  to  which  he  returned  repoatedly  was  that  of 
separating  nicicd  and  cobalt  from  their  ores  and  freeing  them  from 
arsenic:  and  in  the  course  of  his  long  laboratory  practice  he  worked 
out  numerous  processes  for  the  preparation  or  pure  chemicals  and 
methods  of  exact  analysis. 

The  Royal  Society's  Catalogtte  enumerates  376 separate  meffloirs 
written  by  him,  apart  from  43  m  which  he  collaborated  with  otben> 


WOHLGEMUTH— WOLCOT 


769 


In  1831  he  publishtd  Cnmdrisf  der  mmtriofuscken  Ckemie,  and  ui 
1840  Crundnss  dfr  organiichen  Chemie,  both  of  which  wont  through 
many  editions.  StitI  roorc  valuable  for  teaching  purposes  was  bis 
MiHeraianalyse  t»  BeispiHtn  (1861),  which  first  appeared  in  1853  as 
PraJUsscke  Obmm^en  in  der  ekiiHischen  Analyse,  Chemists  also  had 
to  thank  him  for  translating  three  editions  of  tht  JUkrbuch  of  BcrseUus 
and  all  the  successive  volumes  of  the  Juhresbenchi  into  German  from 
the  original  Swedish.  He  assisted  Liebig  and  Poggendorff  in  ^thc 
Handwdrterbuch  der  retnen  und  angevnndten  Chemie,  and  was  joint- 
editor  with  Liebig  of  the  Annalen  der  Chemie  und  Pkarmacie, 

A  memoir  by  Hofmann  appeared  in  the  Ber.  deut.  them.  CeseUsch, 
(1882).  reprinted  in  2ur  Entmenmi  an  voramiegaHgene  FftamiM 
(1888) 

WOHLGEMUTH,  MICHAEL  (x4l4'i'5i9)f  Gennan  painter, 
was  born  at  Nurembeig  in  1434.  Uttle  is  known  of  his  private 
Ufe  beyond  the  faa  that  in  1473  he  married  the  widow  ol  the 
painter  Hans  Pleydenwurff,  whose  son  Wilbelm  worked  as  an 
assistant  to  his  stepfather.  The  importance  of  Wohlgemuth  as 
an  artist  rests,  not  only  on  his  own  individual  pamtings*  but  also 
on  the  fact  tluit  he  was  the  head  of  a  large  workshop,  in  which 
many  different  branches  of  the  fine  arts  were  carried  on  by  a 
great  number  of  pupil-assistants,  including  Albert  Dttrer.  In  this 
oUlief  not  only  large  altar-pieces  and  other  sacred  paintings 
were  executed,  but  ako  elaborate  retables  in  carved  wood,  con- 
sisting of  crowded  subjects  in  high  relief,  richly  decorated  witii 
gold  and  cok>ur,  such  as  pleased  the  rather  doubtitil  Teutonic 
taste  of  that  time.  Wood-engraving  was  also  carried  on  in  the 
tame  worksh<H>«  the  blocka  being  cut  from  Wohlgemuth's 
designs,  many  of  which  are  remarkable  for  their  vigour  and 
clever  adaptation  to  the  special  necessities  of  the  technique 
of  woodcutting.  Two  large  and  copiously  illustrated  books 
have  woodcuts  supplied  by  Wohlgemuth  and  his  stepson 
Wilhelm  Pleydenwurff.  The  first  is  the  SduUtkammer  der 
vakren  ReichtkUmer  des  HeUs^  printed  by  Koburger  in  1491  i 
the  othier  is  the  Historia  «Mmtft,  by  Schedel,  1493-1494,  usually 
known  as  the  Nuremberg  Chnmide^  which  is  highly  valued,  not 
for  the  text,  but  for  its  remarkable  ccUection  of  spirited 
engravings.  ' 

The  earliest  known  work  by  Wohlgemuth  is  a  retaUe  con- 
sisting *A  four  piueb,  dated  1465,  now  in  the  Munich  gallery, 
a  deoocative  work  of  much  beauty.  In  X479  he  painted  the 
retable  of  the  high  altar  ia  the  church  of  St  Jdary  at  Zwickau, 
which  still  odats,  receiving  for  it  the  large  sum  ol  1400  gidden. 
One  of  his  finest  and  largest  works  is  the  great  retablo  painted 
lor  the  church  of  the  Austin  friars  at  Nuremberg,  now  moved 
hito  the  museum;  it  consists  of  a  great  many  panels,  witk  figures 
of  those  saints  whose  worship  was  spedalb^  popuhtf  at  Nuremberg. 
In  1501  Wohlgemuth  was  employed  tn  deooiate  the  town  hall 
at  Goslar  with  a  large  series  of  paintings;  some  on  the  ceiling 
are  on  panel,  uid  others  on  the  walk  arapainted  thin^iftt«apcni 
on  canvas.  As  a  portrait-painter  he  enjoyed  much  repute, 
and  some  of  bis  works  of  this  class  axe  very  admirable  for  their 
realistic  vigour  and  minute  finish.  Outside  Germany  Wohl- 
gemuth's paintings  are  scarce:  the  Royal  Institution  at  Uvcrpool 
possesses  two  good  examples^"  Pilate  washing  his  Hands,"  and 
"  The  Deposition  from  the  Cross,"  parU  probably  of  a  large  altar- 
piece.  During  the  lost  ten  years  of  his  life  Wohlgemuth  appears 
to  have  produced  little  by  his  own  hand.  One  of  ius  latest 
paintings  si  the  reUble  at  Schwabach,  executed  in  150S,  the 
contract  for  which  still  exists.    He  died  at  Nuremberg  in 

See  the  reproductions  In  Vie  CemSlde  von  Direr  und  Wohlgemuth, 
by  RichlandThode  (Nuremberg.  iSS^-rSgs). 

WOKINO,  a  market  town  in  the  Chertsey  pariiamentary 
division  of  Surrey,  England,  24  m.  S.W.  of  London  by  the 
London  and  South- Western  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district 
(1891)  9786;  (1901)  16,244-  The  river  Wey  and  the  Basing- 
stoke canal  pass  through  the  parish.  St  Peter's  church  dates 
from  the  13th  century.  Modem  structures  include  a  public 
hall,  and  an  Oriental  institute  (in  the  building  erected  for  the 
Royal  Dramatic  College,  including  a  museum  of  Eastern  anti- 
quities, a  mosque,  and  residences  for  Orientals).  In  the  vicinity 
are  the  Surrey  county  asylum  and  a  female  convict  prison. 
Near  Woking  is  Brookwood  cemetery,  belonging  to  the  London 
Necropolis  Company,  with  a  crematorium. 


WOKINAHAM,  a  market  town  and  miimdpei  borough  in  the 
Wokingham  pariiamentary  division  of  Berkshire,  England,  36  m. 
W.  by  S.  of  London  by  the  South- Western  railway,  served  also 
by  tlie  South-Eastem  and  Chatham  railway.  Pop.  (xpor)  3551. 
It  lies  on  asUc^t  eminence  above  a  valley  tributary  to  that  of  (he 
river  Loddon,  in  a  wdl-wooded  district  on  the  outskirts  of  the 
former  royal  forest  of  Windsor.  The  church  of  St  Laurence  is 
Perpendicular,  greatly  altered  by  restoration.  Two  miles  west  of 
the  town  is  the  village  of  Bearwood.  The  trade  of  Wokingham 
is  principally  agiicuituraL  The  borotigh  is  under  a  mayor,  4 
aldermen  aiKl  12  councillors.    Area,  557  acres. 

Wokingham  (Wokyn^iam,  Oakmgiam,  Ockin^mn),  which  was 
within  the  limits  of  Windsor  Forest,  was  formerly  situated  partly  in 
Berkshire  and  partly  in  a  detached  piece  of  WUt^ire,  which  is  now 
annexed  to  Berkshire;  the  Berkshire  portbn  of  the  town  was  in  the 
manor  of  Sonning.  which  was  held  by  the  bishops  of  Salisbury  from 
before  the  Conquest  until  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  The  earliest 
existing  charter  to  Wokingham  is  that  of  Elizabeth  (1563),  which 
recites  and  confirms  some  ancient  customary  privileges  respecting 
the  election  of  an  alderman  and  other  corporate  officers.     The 

fovernittg  charter  for  more  than  250  yean  was  that  of  Janes  I 
I612),  inoorpomting  it  as  a  free  town  under  the  title  of  the  "  Alder- 
man and  Burveases  of  the  Town  of  Wokiiyham  in  the  Counties  of 
Berks  and  Wilts."  Under  the  provisions  of  the  Municipal  Corpora- 
tions Act  of  i88a^  a  new  charter  of  incorpocation  was  grantea,  in- 
stituting a  municipal  body  to  consist  of  a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and 
12  councillors.  Wokingham  was  assessed  at  Xso  foe  sbip-money» 
Reading  being  assessed  at  £220.  It  had  at  this  time  a  manufacture 
of  silk  stockings,  which  Bourishod  as  early  as  1635,  and  survived  up 
to  the  19th  century.  The  town  shared  in  the  benefactioas  di  Laua. 
whose  father  was  Dom  there.  The  Tuesday  market,  which  is  still 
held  and  which,  daring  the  first  half  of  the  loth  century,  was  famous 
for  poultjy,  was  granted  to  the  bishop  of  Salisbury  by  Henry  III. 
(1219),  who  also  granted  (la^)  two  annual  fairs  to  be  held  on  the 
vigil,  day  and  morrow  of  St  Barnabas  and  All  Saints  respectively; 
the  latter  is  still  kept  up,  the  former  appears  in  the  list  of  fairs  held 
in  1792. 

WOLOOT,  JOHN  (1738-18x9),  EngUsh  satirist  and  poet, 
known  under  the  pseudonym  of  PeTek  Pindak,  was  the  son  of 
Alexander  Wolcot,  surgeon  at  Dodbrooke,  adjoining  Kingsbridge, 
in  Devonshire,  and  was  baptized  there  on  the  9th  of  May  1738. 
He  was  educated  at  Kingsbridge  free  school,  at  the  Bodmin 
and  Liskeard  grammar  schools,  and  in  France.  For  seven  years 
he  was  apprenticed  to  his  uncle,  John  Wolcot,  a  surgeon  at 
Fowey,  and  he  took  his  degree  of  M.D.  at  Aberdeen  in  1767.  In 
1769  he  was  ordained,  and  went  to  Jamaica  with  his  uncle*s 
patient,  Sir  William  l^dawny,  the  new  governor  In  1772  he 
became  incumbent  of  Vere,  Jamaica,  but  on  the  death  of  his 
patron  (tith  of  December  1772)  he  returned  to  England,  and 
settled  as  a  physician  at  IVuro.  In  1781  Wolcot  went  to  London, 
and  took  with  him  the  young  Cornish  artist,  John  Opie,  whose 
talents  in  painting  he  had  been  the  first  to  recognise.  Before 
they  left  Cornwall  Opie  apparently  made  a  rash  engagement  to 
share  his  profits  with  Wolcot,  but  a  breach  between  them 
occurred  soon  after  they  settled  in  London.  Wokot  had  already 
achieved  seme  success  in  a  Supplicating  Epistle  to  the  Reviewers 
(1778),  and  after  his  settlement  in  London  he  threw  off  with 
marvdlous  rapidity  a  succession  of  pungent  satires.  George  III. 
was  his  favourite  subject  of  ridicule,  and  his  peculiarities  were 
described  or  distorted  in  The  Lousiad  (1785),  Peeps  at  SI  James's 
(1787)  and  The  Royal  Visit  to  Exeter.  Two  of  Wolcot 's  happiest 
satires  on  the  **  farmer  king  "  depicted  the  royal  survey  of 
Whltbread's  brewery,  and  the  king's  naive  wonder  how  the 
apples  got  Into  the  apple  dumplings.  In  his  Expostulatory  Odes 
(1789)  he  eulogized  the  piince  of  Wales.  BosweU's  biography  of 
Johnson  was  ridictiled  in  An  Epistle  to  James  Boswell  (1786), 
and  fai  the  same  year  followed  another  piece,  called  Bosry  and 
PieaL  Other  subjects  were  found  in  Sir  Joseph  Banks  and 
tke  Emperor  of  Morocco  (1790).  and  a  Compiimerdoty  EpistU 
to  James  Bruce  (x  790).  Among  his  early  satires  were  Lyric  Odet 
to  the  A  cademiokms  (x  784) ,  and  another  series  on  the  same  subject, 
Farewdl  Odes  (1786).  He  specially  attacked  Benjamin  West, 
but  expressed  great  admiration  for  the  landscapes  of  Gains- 
borough and  Richard  Wilson.  Wolcot  was  himself  no  mean 
artist,  and  in  1797  a]^ared  Si*  Picturesque  Views  from  Pointings 
by  Peter  Pindar ^  engraved  by  Aiken.  In  1795  he  disposed  of 
his  works  to  the  booksellers  for  an  annuity  of  £2  5a     His 


770 


WOLCOTT—WOLF,  F.  A. 


various  pieoci  tme  publiAed  in  1796  lo  fb«r  oeuvo  vttlnmcs 
and  oUea.  nprinted.  Wokot  cared  little  whether  he  fait  above 
or  below  the  belt,  and  the  grooi  vilaperadon  he  indulged  in 
spoils  much  of  his  work  for  present«day  leaden;  but  he  had  a 
broad  aeose  of  hiunour,  a  keen  eye  for  the  ridicuAons,  and  great 
(elidty  of  imagery  and  expression.  Some  of  his  serious  pieces" 
his  rendering  of  Thomas  Walton's  epigram  on  Slegp  and  his  Lord 
Grtgtry,  for  example — ^reveal  an  unexpected  fund  of  genuine 
tenderness.  In  William  Gifford,  who  attacked  him  ini  the 
EpisUt  to  P.  Pimiof,  he  for  once  met  with  more  than  his  match. 
Wolcot  made  a  personal  assault  on  hn  enemy  in  Wright's  shop 
in  Piccadilly,  but  Gifiord  was  too  quick  for  him,  and  Wokot  was 
soundly  thrashed.  He  died  at  Latham  Place,  Somen  Town, 
London,  on  the  14th  of  January  18x9,  aiul  seven  days  later  was 
buried,  as  he  had  desired,  near  Samuel  Butler,  the  author  of 
Bttdibrast  in  St  Paul's,  Covent  Garden. 

Polwhele,  the  Comtsh  nutorian,  was  well  acquainted  with  Wolcot 
in  his  early  life,  and  the  best  acoMint  of  hi»  reaidenoe  in  the  west 
is  found  m  voL  i.  of  Polwhefe's  JVadUums  and  in  Polwhele's 
Bioffraphioal  Sketches,  vol.  ii.  Cyrus  Reddinr  was  a  frequent 
>Hbicor  at  the  old  man's  house,  and  has  described  Wolcot's  later 
days  in  his  Pasi  CekbritiUt  voL  L,  and  his  fifty  Ymnf  RecolUetiMS, 
voUk  i.  and  iL 

WOLCOTTf  ROOBR  (1679-1767),  American  administrator, 
was  bom  in  Windsor,  Connecticut,  on  the  4th  of  January  1679, 
the  son  of  Simon  Woloott  (d.  x  68  7) .  He  was  a  grandson  of  Henry 
Wodcott  (1S78-X655)  of  Gaidon  Manor,  Tdland,  Somerset, 
who  emigrated  to  New  En^^nd  in  1628,  assisted  John  Mason 
and  others  to  found  Windsor,  Conn.,  in  1635,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  first  General  Assembly  of  Connecticut  in  1637  and  of  the 
House  of  Magbtrates  from  1643  to  his  death.^  Roger  Wolcott 
was  early  apprenticed  to  a  weaver  and  throve  at  thb  trade,  he 
was  a  membor  of  the  Connecticut  General  Assembly  in  1709,  one 
of  the  Bench  of  Justices  in  17x0^  commissary  of  the  Connecticut 
forces  in  the  expedition  of  X7x  i  against  Canada,  a  member  of  the 
Council  in  X714,  judge  of  the  county  court  in  1721  and  of  the 
superior  court  in  1732,  and  deputy-governor  and  chief-juslice 
of  the  superior  court  In  1741.  He  was  second  in  conunand  to  Sir 
William  Pepperrell,  with  rank  of  major-general  in  the  expedition 
(1745)  against  Louisbourg,  and  was  governor  of  Connecticut  in 
<7Si'X754-  He  died  in  what  is  now  East  Windsor,  on  the 
17th  of  May  1767. 

He  wrote  Poetical  MediuMons  (1725),  an  epic  on  The  Agency  of 
the  Honourable  John  Winthrop  m  the  Comt  0/  King  Charles  the  Second 
([Minted  in-pp.  262-298  of  vol.  iv..  series  1,  Collections  oS  Massachusetts 
Historical  Society),  and  a  pamphlet  to  prove  that "  the  New  England 
Congregational  churches  are  and  always  have  be«n  consociated 
churches."     His  Journal  at  the  Siege  of  Louisbourg  is  printed  in 

Hi.  X3i'i6i  of  voL  L  (i860)  ol  the  CoUettions  ct  the  Connecticut 
istorical  Society. 

His  son,  Erasius  Woloott  (1732-1793)  was  a  member  of 
the  Connecticut  General  Assembly  and  its  speaker.;  he  was  a 
brigadier-general  of  Connecticut  militia  in  the  War  of  Inde« 
pendence,  and  afterwards  a  judge  of  the  Supeooc  Court  of 
Coqnccticut. 

Another  son,  Ouver  Wolcott  (1726-1797),  graduated  at 
Yale  in  X747  and  studied  medkine  with  his  brother  Alexander 
(17X2-X795).  In  X75X  he  was  made  sheriff  of  the  newly  estab- 
lished Litchfield  county  and  settled  in  Litcbfidd,  where  he 
practised  law.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Cottudl  in  1774-1786 
and  of  the  Continental  Congress  in  1775-1776,  1778  and  X780' 
X784.  Congress  made  him  a  commissioner  ci  Indian  aflaics  for 
the  Northern  Department  in  1775,  fod  during  the  taiky  years 
of  the  War  of  Independence  he  was  active  in  raising  militia  in 
Connecticut.  He  was  one  of  the  aignets  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence;  commanded  Connecticut  militia  that  helped  to 
defend  New  York  City  in  August  1776;  in  1777  organised  more 
Connecticut  volunteecs  and  took  part  in  the  last  few  days  of 
the  campaign  against  General  John  Burgoyne;  and  in  1779 
commanded  the  piilitia  during  the  British  invasioo  of  Con- 
necticut. In  1784,  as  one  of  the  commissioners  of  Indian  affairs 
for  the  NtNthem  Department,  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Fort 
Slanwix  (22nd  OcL)  settling  the  boundaries  of  the  Six  Nations. 

*  Henry  Wolcott  tlie  younger  (d.  1680)  was  one  of  iJie  paces  tees 
Of  Connecticut  under  the  charter  of  1662. 


In  1766- 1796  he  was  fieutenant-govemof  of  Connecticut,  sad 
in  November  1787  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  Conventioa 
which  ratified  the  Federal  Constitution,  ht  becanw  govemor  is 
K796  upon  the  death  (15th  Jan.)  of  Samud  Huntington,  aad 
served  until  his  death  on  the  ist  of  December  1797. 

See  the  sketch  by  his  son  Oliver  in  Sandenon's  Biograpky  of  Urn 
Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  (l%iladelphia.  i820>t827). 

Oliver's  son,  Guver  Wolcott,  jun.  (X760-X833),  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1778,  studied  law  in  Litchfield  under  Judge  Tapping 
Reeve,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1781.  With  Oliver 
Ellsworth  he  was  appointed  (May  1784)  a  comxnissioner  to  adjust 
the  claims  of  Connecticut  against  the  Dbfted  States.  In  1788 
he  was  made  oomptraUer  w  publk  accounts  of  Connecticut; 
in  the  next  year  was  appointed  auditor  of  the  Federal  Treasury; 
in  Juno  1791  became  comptroller  of  the  Treasury,  and  in  February 
1 795  succeeded  Alexander  Hamilton  as  Secretary  of  the  TVeasury. 
At  the  end  of  iSoo  be  resigned  after  a  bitt«  attack  by  the 
Demoatatk-Republican  press,  against  which  be  defended  himsdf 
in  an  Address  to  the  People  of  the  United  States  In  1801-1802 
he  was  judge  of  the  Circiut  Court  of  the  Second  District  (Connecti- 
cut,  Vermont  and  New  York),  and  th«i entered  business  in  New 
York  City,  where  he  was  president  of  the  short-lived  Merchants' 
Bank  (X803)  and  president  (i8t»>i8i4)  of  the  Bank  of  North 
America.  With  a  brother  he  then  foimded  factorjes  at  Wolcott* 
vflle  (near  Litchfield).  He  re-entered  politics  as  a  leader  of  the 
*'  Tokration  Republicans,"  attempting  to  oust  the  Congregatioiisl 
dergy  from  power  by  adopting  a  more  liberal  constitution  in 
place  of  the  charter;  he  was  defeated  for  governor  in  1815, 
but  in  Z817  presided  over  the  state  convention  which  adopted 
a  new  constitution,  and  in  the  same  year  was  elected  governor, 
serving  until  1827.  He  died  m  New  York  Oty  on  the  xst  of 
June  X833. 

Has  arandson,  Geoige  Gibbs  (i8i8-za73),  in  1846  edltfid  Memoes 
of  the  Admtnistratton  of  Washington  and  John  Adams  ',  from  ikt 
Papers  of  Olvoer  Wolcott,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  Wolcott  wrote 
British  Itifhteme  on  the  Affairs  of  tie  United  Stales  Prosed  and  Ex- 
plained (1804). 

A  grandson  of  the  second  Oliver's  brother  Frederick  was 
|tooER  Wolcott  (t847-i9ox),  who  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1870,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Suffolk  bar  in  1874.  He  practised 
law  in  Boston,  and  served  in  the  Massachusetts  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives  in  1882-1884  as  a  Republican.  In  189s  he  was  elected 
lieutenant-governor  (re-elected  1893  and  1895),  and  in  1896 
became  acting-governor  upon  the  death  (5th  March)  of  Governor 
Frederick  T.  Greenhalge.  He  was  elected  governor  in  1896 
and  served  until  X900.  He  died  on  the  sxst  of  December  190X. 

EowASD  OuvEK  Wolcott  (x848-i9os),«  mcmberof  the  same 
family , went  to  Colorado,  beoameinterMted  in  silver  mining  there, 
was  a  U.S.  Senator  in  x889*i9ox ,  and  was  a  prominent  Republicaa 
bimetallist. 

See  William  Lawresce,  Ksgfir  WolcoU  It847--i90il  (Boston.  1902), 
and  for  all  the  family,  Samuel  Woloott,  Mtmortal  of  Henry  WolcoU, 
one  of  the  first  Settlers  of  Windsor,  Conneclicutt  and  of  some  of  his 
Descendants  (New  York,  1881). 

VOLF,  FRIBDRICH  AUOUBT  (X759-X834),  German  philo- 
logist and  critic,  was  bom  on  the  15th  of  February  1759  at 
Hainrode,  a  little  village  not  far  from  Nordfaausen,  in  the  province 
of  Hanover.  His  father  was  the  village  schoolmaster  and  organbt. 
In  time  the  family  removed  to  Nordhausen,  and  there  young 
Wolf  went  to  the  grammar  school,  where  he  soon  acquired  all 
the  Latin  and  Greek  that  the  masters  could  teach  him,  besides 
learning  French,  Italian,  Spanish  and  music  The  precocity 
of  his  attainments  was  only  equalled  by  the  force  of  wiU  and 
confidence  in  his  own  powers  which  characterized  him  throughout 
life.  After  two  years  of  sditaxy  study,  at  the  age  of  eighteen, 
Wolf  went  (1777)  to  the  university  of  Gattingen.  His  fiist  act 
there  was  a  prophecy — one  of  those  prophecies  which  spring 
from  the  conscious  power  to  bring  about  their  fulfilment.  Be 
had  to  choose  his  "  faculty,"  and  chose  one  which  then  existed 
only  in  his  own  mind,  the  faculty  of "  philology."  What  is  even 
more  remarkable,  the  omen  was  acc^ed.  He  carried  his  point, 
and  was  enrolled  ss  he  desired.  C.  G.  Heyne  was  then  the  chief 
ornament  of  Gottingcn,  and  Wolf  and  he  were  not  on  good  terms. 
Heyne  excluded  him  from  his  lectures,  and  brusquely  condemned 


WOLF,  H. 


71t 


Wolfs  views  on  Homer.  Wolf,  however,  pursued  bis  studies 
in  the  tmiversity  library,  from  which  he  borrowed  with  his  old 
avidity.  During  1779^1783  Wolf  was  a  schoolmaster,  first  at 
nfcld,  then  at  Osterode.  His  success  as  a  teacher  was  striking, 
and  he  found  time  to  publish  an  edition  of  the  Symposium  of 
Plato,  which  excited  notice,  and  led  to  Ws  promotion  (1783) 
to  a  chair  in  the  Prussian  university  of  HaDe.  The  moment 
was  a  critical  one  in  the  history  of  education.  The  fiterary 
impulse  of  the  Renaissance  was  almost  spent ;  schohiship  had 
become  dry  and  trivial.  A  new  school,  that  of  Locke  and 
Rousseau,  sought  to  make  teaching  more  modem  and  more 
human,  but  at  the  sacrijice  of  mental  discipline  and  scientific 
aim.  Woll  was  ea^r  to  throw  himself  into  the  contest  on  the 
side  of  uitiqaity.  In  HaDe  (1783-Z8C7),  by  the  force  o£  his  will 
and  the  enlightened  aid  of  the  ministers  of  Frederick  the  Great, 
he  was  able  to  carry  out  hi^  long-cherished  ideas  and  found  the 
science  of  philology.  Wolf  defined  philology  broadly  as  "  know- 
lodge  of  human  nature  a*  exhibited  in  antiquity."  The  matter 
of  such  a  science,  he  held,  must  be  sought  in  the  history  and 
education  of  some  highly  cultivated  nation,  to  be  studied  in 
written  remains,  works  of  art,  axui  whatever-else  bears  the  stamp 
of  national  thought  or  skill.  It  has  therefore  to  do  with  both 
history  and  language,  but  primarilyas  a  science  of  tntcrpreMion, 
in  which  historical  facts  and  linguistic  facts  take  their  place  in 
an  organic  whole.  Such  was  the  ideal  which  Wolf  had  in  his 
mind  when  he  established  the  philological  seminariMm  at  HaUe. 

Wolfa  writings  make  Kttlc  show  in  a  library,  and  were  always 
subordinate  to  his  teaching.  During  his  time  at  Halle  he  pub- 
lished his  commentary  on  the  Leptines  of  Demosthenes  (x  789) — 
which  suggested  to  his  pupil,  Aug.  Boeckb,  the  PudNc  Ecmamy 
of  i4M<wj— and  a  Bttle  later  the  celebrated  Prt^t^pmena  to  Homer 
C1795).  This  book,  the  work  with  which  his  name  is  chiefly 
associated,  was  thrown  off  in  comparative  haste  to  meet  an 
immediate  need.  It  has  all  the  merits  of  a  great  piece  of  oral 
teaching— ^mmand  of  method,  suggestivencss,  breadth  of  view. 
The  reader  docs  not  feel  that  hc  has  to  do  with  a  theory,  but  wth 
g;reat  ideas,  which  are  left  to  bear  fruit  in  his  mind  (see  Hqjubr). 
The  publication  led  to  an  unpleasant  polemic  with  Hoyne, 
who  absurdly  accused  faim  of  reprodoetng  what  he  had  heard 
from  him  at  COttingen. 

The  Halle  professorship  ended  tragically,  and  with  it  the  happy 
and  productive  period  of  WoK's  life.  He  was  swept  &way,  and 
Ms  university  w^th  him,  by  the  deluge  of  the  French  invasion. 
A  painful  gloom  oppressed  his  remaining  yeats  (1807-1324), 
which  he  spent  at  Berlin.  He  became  so  fractioxis  and  intolerant 
as  to  alienate  some  of  his  warmest  friends.  He  gained  a. place 
in  thie  department  of  education,  through  the  exertions  of  W. 
von  Humboldt.  When  this  became  unendurable,  he  once  more 
took  a  professorship.  But  he  no  longer  taught  with  his  old 
success;  and  he  wrote  very  little.  His  most  finished  wock, 
the  Darstelivng  der  Altertkumtwisfensefiaft,  though  published 
at  Beriin  (1807),  belongs  essentially  to  the  Halle  time.  At 
length  his  health  gave  way.  He  was  advised  to  try  the  south 
of  France.  He  got  as  fatr  as  Marseilles,  and,  dying  there  on  the 
8th  of  August  r8i4,  was  laid  in  the  classic  soil  of  that  ancient 
Hellenic  city. 

M^rk  Pattison  wrote  an  admirable  sketch  of  Wolfs  life  and  work 
in  the  North  British  Retira  of  June  1865.  reproduced  in  his  Essays 
(1889);  see  fll«o  j.  E.  Sandvs,  Hist,  of  Class.  Schol.  ill.  (1908), 
pn.  M.<So.'  Wolf's  JCteine  Se'kriften  were  edited  by  C.  Bernhardy 
(Hailej  l969)-  Work*  not  inclHdcd  are  the  ProUgtmutta,  the  Lttttrt 
to  Beyne  (Berlin,  1797),  the  comnjcntary  on  the  Leptinef  (Halle, 
1789)  and  a  translation  of  the  Clouds  of  Aristophanes  (TBerlui,  iSll). 
To  these  must  be  adtftxl  the  Vorlesungen  on  Ihad  \.-rv.,  taken  from" 
the  neces  of  a  pupil  and  edited  by  Uateri  (Bern,  1890).   (D.  B.  M.)  • 

WOLF,  HUGO  (i860- 1903),  German  composer,  was  born  on 
the  13th  of  March  i860  at  Windischgraz  in  Styria.  His  father, 
who  was  in  the  leather  trade,  was  a  keen  musician.  Ftom  him 
Hugo  learned  the  rudiments  of  the  piano  and  the  violin.  After 
an  unhappy  school  life,  in  which  he  showed  little  aptitude  for 
anything  but  music,  he  went  in  1875  to  the  Conservatoire.  He 
appears  to  have  learned  very  little  there,  and  was  dismissed  in 
1877  because  of  a  practical  joke  in  the  form  of  a  threatening 


letter  to  the  (firtctor,  for  which  he  was  perhaps  unjustly  held 
responsible.  From  the  age  of  seventeen  he  had  to  depend  upoo/ 
himself  for  his  musical  training.  By  giving  lessons  on  the  pianty 
and  with  occasional  small  hdp  from  his  father  he  managed  to* 
live  for  several  jrears  in  Vienna,  but  it  was  a  life  of  extreme^ 
hardship  and  privation,  for  which  his  delicate  constitution  and 
his  proud,  sensitive  and  nervcms  temperament  were  particularly 
'ill-suited.  In  1884  he1>ecame  musical  critkto  the  SahnUattf 
a  Viennese  society  paper,  and  contrived  by  his  uncompromisingly 
trenchant  and  sarcastic  style  to  win  a  notoriety  which  was  not 
helpful  to  hh  future  prospects.  His  ardent  discipleship  of 
Wagner  was  unfortunately  linked  with  a  bitter  opposition  ttf 
Brahms,  for  whose  works  he  always  tetalned  an  ineradicable 
disKke.  The  publication  9t  the  end  of  1887  of  twelve  of  his  songs 
seems  to  have  definitely  decided  the  course  of  h»  genius,  for 
about  this  time  he  retired  from  the  S<UonbtaU,  and  resolved  Uf 
devote  Ws  whole  energies  to  song-compostllon.  The  nine  year» 
which  followed  practically  represent  his  life  as  a  composer.  The/ 
were  marked  by  periods  of  feverish  creative  activity,  alternating 
with  periods  of  mental  and  physical  exhaustion,  during  whidi  he' 
was  sometimes  unable  even  to  bear  the  sound  of  music.  By  th^ 
end  of  T891  he  had  composed  the  bulk  of  his  works,  on  which  Mr 
fame  chiefly  rests,  43  M5rike  L!eder,  30  Eiehendorff  Lieder, 
51  Goethe  Lieder,  44  Lieder  from  Geibel  and  Heyse*s  SpdnUcker 
Liederspidf  and  t2  from  Heyse^  Italienisckes  Lieder^uck,  a 
second  part  consisting  of  34  songs  being  atfded  in  1896.  Besides 
these  wibre  13  settings  of  lyrics  by  different  authors,  incidental 
music  to  Ibsen^s  Pest  aufSolkaitg,  a  few  choral  and  instrumental 
works,  aiT  opera  in  four  acts,  BerCcrrttidor,  successfully  produceil 
at  ^fannheim  in  Jtme  1896,  and  finally  settings  of  three  sohnet^ 
by  Michelangelo  in  March  1897.  In  September  of  fhis'year  the 
malady  which  had  long  threatened  descended  upon  him;  iM^ 
was  placed  in  an  asylum,  released  in  the  following  January,  only* 
to  be  immured  again  some  months  later  by  his  own  wish,  after 
an  attempt  to  drown  himself  in  the  Traunsee.  Pour  painft^  years 
elapsed  before  his  death  on  the  22nd  of  February  1903.  Apart 
ffom  his  works  and  the  tragedy  of  Ids  last  years  there  is  little? 
in  Wolffs  nfe  to  distinguish  it  from  that  of  other  struggling  andf 
unsuccessful  musicians.  His  touchy  and  dlfl^cuh  temperament 
perpetually  stood  in  the  way  of  worldly  success.  What  little  he 
obtained  was  due  to  the  persevering  efforts  of  a  small  band  of 
friends,  critics  and  singers,  to  make  his  songs  known,  to  thfr 
support  of  the  Vienna  Wagner- Vercin,  and  to  the  formation  in' 
1895  of  the  Hugo- Wolf- Verein  in  Berlin.  No  doubt  it  was  als& 
a  good  thing  for  his  reputation  (hat  the  firm  of  Schott  undertook' 
in  1 89 1  the  publication  of  his  songs,  but  the  financial  result  after 
five  years  amounted  to  85  marks  35  pfennigs  (about  £4,  los.). 
He  lived  in  cheap  lodgings  till  in  1896  the  generosity  of  his  friend^ 
provided  him  with  a  house  of  his  own,  which  he  enjoyed  for  one 
year. 

Among  the  song  composers  who  have  adopted  the  modern 
standpoint,  according  to  which  accepted  canons  of  beauty  and 
of  form  must  yield  if  they  interfere  with  a  closer  or  more  vivid 
realization  of  dramatic  or  emotional  expression,  Wolf  holds  a 
place  in  which  he  has  no  rival,  not  because  of  the  daring  origin- 
ality  of  his  methods  and  the  remarkable  idiosyncrasies  of  his 
style,  but  because  these  are  the  direct  outcome  of  rare  poeticaT 
insight  and  imaginative  power.  He  has  that  gift  of  vision  whicTi 
makes  the  difference  between  genius  and  talent.  His  frequent 
adoption  of  a  type  of  song  built  upon  a  single  phrase  or  leit-mbliv. 
in  the  accompaniment  has  led  to  the  misleading  statement  that 
his  work  represents  merely  the  transference  of  Wagnerian 
principles  Lo  song.  In  reality  the  forms  of  Wolf's  songs  vary  as 
widely  as  those  of  the  poems  which  he  set.  No  less  remarkable 
is  the  immense  range  of  style  at  his  command.  But  with  Wolf 
methods  of  form  and  style  are  so  inseparably  linked  with  the; 
poetical  conceptions  which  they  embody,, that  they  can  hardlj^ 
be  considered  apart.  His  place  among  the  greatest  song-writers 
is  due  to  the  essential  truth  and  originality  of  his  creations,  andf 
to  the  vivid  intensity  with  which  he  has  presented  them.  Thcsq 
results  depend  not  merely  on  musical  gifts  that  arc  exceptional, 
but  also  upon  a  critical  grasp  of  poetry  of  the  highest  ordet: 


772 

Ko  other  composer  has  exhibited  so  scnpulous  a  reverence  for 
the  poems  which  he  set.  To  displace  an  accent  was  for  him  as 
heinous  an  act  of  sacrilege  as  to  miainterprel  a  conception  or  to 
ignore  an  essential  suggestion.  Fineness  of  declamation  has 
never  reached  a  higher  point  than  in  Wolf's  songs.  Emphasis 
should  also  be  laid  upon  the  objective  and  dramatic  attitude  of 
his  mmri.  He  pief eired  to  make  himself  the  mouthpiece  of  the 
poetry  rather  than  to  use  his  art  for  purposes  of  self-revelation, 
avoiding  for  his  songs  the  works  of  those  whom  with  healthy 
tcom  he  termed  the  Ich-I^oeten.  Hence  the  men  and  women 
characterized  in  his  songs  are  living  realities,  f  ooning  a  veritable 
portrait  gallery,  of  which  the  figures,  though  unmistakably  the 
work  of  a  single  handi  yet  maintain  their  own  separate  identity. 
These  statements  can  be  verified  as  well  by  a  reference  to  the 
simpler  and  more  melodious  of  his  songs,  as  to  those  which  are 
of  extreme  daboration  and  difficulty.  Among  the  former  may 
be  named  Das  verlassene  USgdUin  in  der  FrUke  and  Der  CHrtner 
(M6rike),  VersckmUgtne  UAt  and  Dtr  MufikatU  (Eichendorfi), 
Anakreons  Grab  (Goethe),  AlU  pngen.  Hen,  sur  Ruh*  and  Hen, 
was f raff t  {;Spamsckes  UedtrspiO),  Nos.  z  aod4  of  the  Italieniscke$ 
Liederbuch,  and  among  the  latter  AeoUkarfe  and  Der  Feuerreiter 
(M5rike),  Ganymed  and  Prometheus  (Goethe).       (W.  A.  J.  F.) 

WOLF,  JOSEPH  (ZS20-X899),  Anglo-Gennan  artist,  the  son 
of  a  German  farmer,  was  bom  in  xSao  at  MOnstermaifeld,  on  the 
river  Moselle,  in  the  Rhine  Province.  In  his  boyhood  he  was  an 
assiduous  student  of  bird  and  animal  life,  and  ^owed  aremark- 
able  capacity  as  a  draughtsman  of  natuxld  history  subjects.  His 
powers  were  first  recognized  byTrofessor  Schlegel  of  the  Leiden 
museum,  whd  gave  him  employment  as  an  illustrator.  In  1848 
he  settleid  in  London,  where  he  remained  tiU  his  death  on  the 
aoth  of  April  1899.  He  made  many  drawings  for  the  Zoological 
Society,  and  a  very  large  number  d  illustrations  for  books  on 
natural  history  and  on  travel  in  various  countries;  but  he  also 
won  a  considerable  success  as  a  painter. 

See  A.  H.  Palmer,  The  Life  of  Joseph  Wdf  (London,  1895). 

WOLF  {Cams  lupus),  the  common  English  name  for  any  wild 
member  of  the  typical  section  of  the  genus  Cants  (tee  Cakkivora). 
Excluding  some  varieties  of  domestic  dogs,  wolves  are  the  largest 
members  of  the  genus,  and  have  a  wide  geographical  range, 
extending  over  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  North 
America  from  Greenland  to  Mexico,  but  are  not  found  in  South 
America  or  Africa,  where  they  are  replaced  by  other  members 
of  the  family.  They  present  great  diversities  of  size,  length 
and  thickness  of  fur,  and  coloration,  although  resembling  each 
other  in  all  important  structural  characters.  These  differences 
have  given  rise  to  a  supposed  mtfltiplScity  of  species,  expressed 
by  the  names  C*  tycoon  (Central  Europe),  C.  laniger  and  C.  niger 
(Tibet),  the  C.  oaidentalis,  C.  nubUus,  C.  mexicanus,  &c,  of 
North  America,  and  the  great  blackish-brown  Alaskan  C. 
pambasileuSi  the  largest  of  tbem  all.  But  it  is  doubtful  whether 
these  should  be  regi^ed  as  more  than  local  varieties.  In  North 
America  there  is  a  second  distinct  smaller  species,  called  the 
coyote  or  prairie-wolf  {Cants  latrans),  an4  perhaps  the  Japanese 
wolf  (C  hodophylax)  may  be  distinct,  although,  except  for  its 
smaller  size  and  shorter  legs,  it  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from 
the  common  species.  The  wolf  enters  the  N.W.  comer  of  India, 
but  in  the  peninsula  iS  replaced  by  the  more  jackal-like  C.  paUipes^ 
which  is  probably  a  member  of  the  jackal  group,  and  not  a  wolf 
at  all. 

The  ordinary  colour  of  the  wolf  is  yellowish  or  fulvous  grey, 
but  almost  pure  white  and  entirely  black  woWes  are  known. 
In  northern  countries  the  fur  is  longer  and  thicker,  and  the  animal 
generally  larger  and  more  powerful  than  in  the  southem  portion 
of  its  range.  Its  habits  are  similar  everywhere  and  it  is  still, 
and  has  been  from  time  immemorial,  especially  known  to  man 
in  all  the  countries  it  inhabits  as  the  devastator  of  sheep  flocks. 
Wolves  do  not  catch  their  prey  by  lying  in  ambush,  or  stealing  up 
close  and  making  a  sudden  spring,  but  by  fairly  mnning  it  down 
in  open  chase,  which  their  speed  and  remarkable  endurance 
enable  them  to  do.  Except  during  summer  when  the  young 
families  of  cubs  are  being  separately  provided  for  by  their  parents, 
they  assemble  in  troops  or  packs,  often  in  relays,  and  by  their 


WOLF,  J.— ^VOLFDIETRICH 


combined  and  perKveiing  efforts  are  abk  tooveipowo  and  UB 
deer,  antelopes  and  wounded  animals  of  all  sixes.  It  is  singnUr 
that  such  dosefy  allied  q>edes  as  the  domestic  dog  and  the 
Arctic  fox  are  among  the  favourite  prey  of  wolves,  and,  as  is 
well  known,  children  and  even  f uU-grown  people  are  iu>t  in- 
frequently the  objects  of  their  attack  when  pressed  by  hunger. 
Notwithstanding  the  proverbial  ferocity  of  the  wolf  in  a  wild 
state,  many  instanrrs  are  recorded  of  animah  taken  when  quite 
young  becoming  tame  and  attached  to  the  person  who  has 
brou^t  them  up,  when  they  exhibit  many  of  the  ways  of  a  dog. 
They  can,  however,  rarely  be  trusted  by  strangers.    . 

Tne  history  of  the  wolf  m  the  British  Isles,  and  its  gradval  extir- 
pation, has  been  thoroughly  investigated  by  Mr  J.  E.  Hartlnc  in  hb 
work  on  Exiimcl  British  Animals^  from  wfaidi  the  foikm-ing  account 
is  abridged.  To  judge  by  the  osteolai^cal  remains  which  the  re. 
searches  of  goolo^ts  have  broudit  to  light,  ^tbcre  was  perhaps 
scarcely  a  county  in  Ensland  or  Wales  in  which,  at  one  time  or 
another,  wolves  aid  not  aoound,  while  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  they 
must  have  been  still  more  nnmerous.  The  fossil  remains  which 
have  beea  discovered  in  Britain  are  aot  larfer  than,  nor  ia  any 
way  to  be  distinguished  from,  the  coneaxmdiog  bones  and  teeth  oL 
Euroi)ean  wolves  of  the  present  day.  m>lf*hunting  was  a  favourite 
pursuit  of  the  andent  Britons  as  well  as  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  In 
Athelstan's  reign  these  animals  abounded  to  such  an  estent  in  York- 
shire that  a  retreat  was  built  by  one  Acefaom,  at  Fliaton,  near  Filey, 
wherein  travellers  might  seek  refuge  if  attaclned  by  them.  As  U  wdl 
known,  great  efforts  were  made  by  iCing  Edcu*  to  reduce  the  number 
of  wolves  in  the  country,  but,  notwithstanding  the  annual  tribute  off 
300  skins  paid  to  him  during  several  years  by  the  l^ng  of  V^alcs,  be 
was  not  altonther  eo  socooaf ul  as  naa  been  conuBfwly  imagined. 
In  the  reisnoi  Henry  III.  wolves  were  sufficiently  numerous  in  some 
parts  of  the  country  to  induce  the  king  to  make  grants  of  land  to 
various  individuals  upon  the  express  condition  of  their  taking 
measures  to  destroy  these  animals  wherever  they  could  be  fotino. 
In  Edward  II.'s  tine,  the  king's  fotest  of  the  Peak,  in  Derbyshire, 
is  especially,  mentioned  as  tiuested  with  wolves,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  (i485-i509)that  wolves  appear  to 
have  become  finally  extinct  in  England.  This,  however,  u  rather 
a  matter  of  inference  from  the  cessation  of  all  mention  of  them  is 
local  records  than  from  any  definite  evidence  of  their  extirpation. 
Their  last  retreat  was  probably  in  the  desolate  wolds  of  Yorkshire. 
In  Scotland,  as  might  be  supposed  from  the  nature  of  the  country, 
the  wolf  matntatned  its  hold  Tor  a  much  loi^^er  period.  There  is  a 
welMmown  story  of  the  last  of  the  race  being  killed  by  SAr  Ewcn 
Cameron  of  Locniel  in  1680,  but  there  is  evldoioe  «f  welves  having- 
survived  in  Sutherlandshire  and  other  parts  into  the  foIWwinc 
century  (perhaps  as  late  as  1743),  thouen  the  date  of  their  finu 
extinction  cannot  be  accurately  fixed.  In  Ireland,  In  CromweU's 
time,  wolves  were  particulariy  troublesome,  and  said  to  be  increas- 
ing in  numbers,  so  that  special  measures  were  taken  for  their  dcttmc- 
tion,  such  as  the  offering  of  large  Tewards  for  their  heads,  and  the 
prohibition  (in  1652)  otthe  exportation  of"  wolf-do0i,"  the  large 
dogs  used  for  hunting  the  wolves.  The  active  measures  taken 
then  and  later  reducea  their  number»  greatly,  so  that  towards  the 
end  of  the  century  they  became  scarce,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
sister  island,  the  date  of  their  final  disappearance  caanot  now  be 
ascertained.  It  has  been  placed,  upon  the  evidence  of  somewhat 
doubtful  traditions,  as  late  as  1766. 

It  is  owing  to  their  porition  that  the  British  Trends  have  been 
able  to  dear  themselves  of  these  formidable  aod  destructive  animals, 
for  France,  with  no  natural  barriers  to  prevent  their  incursions  from 
the  continent  to  the  cast,  is  liable  every  winter  to  visits  from  numbers 
of  these  animals.  (W.H.F.;  R.L.*) 

WOLFDIBTRICH,  German  hero  of  romance.  The  tale  of 
Wolf  dietrich  is  connected  iikith  the  Merovingian  princes,  Thcodoric 
and  Theodebert,  son  and  grandson  of  Clovis;  but  in  the  Middle 
High  German  poems  of  OrtnU  and  Wolf  dietrich  in  the  Hddenbuck 
{q.v.)  Wolfdietrich  is  the  son  of  Hugdietrich,  emperor  of  G}n- 
stantinople.  Kq>udiated  and  exposed  by  his  father,  the  child 
was  spared  by  the  wolves  of  the  forest,  and  was  educated  by  the 
faithful  Berchtvng  of  Meran.  The  account  of  his  parents  and 
their  wooing,  however,  differs  in  various  texts.  After  the 
emperor's  death  Wolfdietrich  was  driven  from  his  inheritance 
by  his  brothers  at  the  instigation  of  the  traitor  Sabene.  Berch- 
tung  and  his  sixteen  sons  stood  by  Wolfdietrich.  Six  of  these 
were  slain  and  the  other  ten  imprisoned.  It  was  only  after  long 
exile  in  Lombardy  at  the  court  of  King  Ortnit  that  the  hero 
returned  to  deliver  the  captives  and  regain  his  kingdom.  WoUdie- 
tricVs  exile  and  return  suggested  a  parallel  with  the  history  of 
Dietrich  of  Bern,  with  whom  he  was  often  actually  identified; 
and  the  Mentors  of  the  two  heroes,  Hildebrand  and  Berch- 
tung,  are  cast  in  the  same  mould.    Presently  features  of  the 


L 


WOI<FE,  C— WOLFF,  C.  F. 


773 


Wotfdietricli  legend  were  transferred  to  the  Dietrich  cycle,  and  in 
the  Anhang  to  the  Hddenbuch  it  is  stated  in  despite  of  all  lus- 
torical  considerations  that  Wolfdietrich  was  the  grandfather  of 
the  VerMieae  hero.  Among  the  exploits  of  Wolfdietrich  was  the 
slaughter  of  the  dragon. which  had  slain  Ortnit  {q.9.).  He  thus 
took  thq  place  of  Hardheri,  one  of  the  mythical  Hartung  brothers, 
the  original  hero  of  this  feat.  The  myth  attached  itself  to  the 
family  of  Clovtt,  around  which  epic  tradition  rapidly  gathered. 
Hugdietrich  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  epic  counterpart 
of  Theodoric  (Dietrich),  eldest  son  of  Clovis.  The  prefix  was  the 
barbarian  equivalent  of  Frank/  And  was  employed  to  distinguish 
him  from  Theodoric  the  Goth.  After  his  father's  death  he 
divided  the  kingdom  with  his  brothers.  Wolfdietrich  represents 
his  son  Theodebert  (d.  548},  whose  succession  was  disputed  by 
his  uncles,  but  was  secured  by  the  loyalty  of  the  Frankish  nobles. 
But  father  and  son  are  merged  by  a  process  of  epic  fusion  in 
Wolfdietrich.  The  rape  of  Sydrat,  daughter  of  the  heathen 
Walgunt  6L  Salnecke,  by  Hugdietrich  disguised  as  a  woman, 
is  typical  of  the  tales  of  the  wooing  of  heathen  princesses  made 
fashionable  by  the  Crusades,  and  was  probably  extraneous  to 
the  original  legend.  It  may,  however,  also  be  put  on  a  semi- 
historical  .basis  by  adopting  the  suggestion  of  C.  Voretxsch. 
(Episcke  Sludien  /.  Die  Comp.  dcs  Huon  von  BordeauXt  Halle 
xgoo),  that  Wolfdietrich  is  far  more  dosely  connected  with 
Theodoric  than  Theodebert,  and  that  Hugdietrich,  therefore, 
stands  for  Clovis,  the  hero,  in  the  Merovingian  historians,  of  a 

well-known  Brautfahrtsaga. 

Ortxil  and  lVol(diitrich  have  been  edited  by  Or  J.  L.  Edlen  von 
Lindhausen  CTObingea,  X906).  G.  Sarruin,  in  Zeiischr.  fiir  deuUcke 
Phik  (1^96)3  oompared  the  legend  of  Wolfdietrich  with  the  history  of 
Gundovald,  as  given  by  Gregory  of  Tours  in  books  vL  and  vii.  of  his 
Histm  Frduconun. 

WOLFE.  CHAIU.B5  (1791-1823),  Irish  poet,  son  of  Theobald 
Wolfe  of  Blackball,  Co.  Kildare,  was  bom  on  the  X4th  of 
December  1791.  He  was  educated  at  English  schools  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  matriculated  in  1809  and 
graduated  in  18x4.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  x8i  7,  and  obtained 
the  curacy  of  BaUydog,  Co.  Tyrone,  which  he  shortly  exchanged 
for  that  of  Donoughmore  in  the  same  county.  He  died  at  Cork 
on  the  21  St  of  February  1823  in  his  thirty-second  year.  Wolfe 
was  well  known  as  a  poet  in  Trinity  CoQege  circles.  He  Is 
remembered,  however,  solely  by  his  stirring  stanzas  on  the 
•*  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore,"  written  in  18 16  in  the  rooms  of 
Samuel  CVSullivaa,  a  college  friend,  and  printed  in  the  Ncmy 

Telegraph. 

See  John  Ruseell.  Remains  of  ike  Rev.  Charles  Wolfe  (2  vols.,  1825; 
4th  ed.,  1829),  and  a  correspomlence  in  Notes  and  Queries,  8th  series, 
vol.  ViiL  pp.  145.  >78.  S35.  253*  33>  and  418. 

WOiPB.  JAMES  (1727-1759),  British  general,  the  hero  of 
Quebec,  waabom  at  Westerham  in  Kent  on  the  2nd  of  January 
X727.'  At  .an  early  age  he  accompanied  his  father.  Colonel 
(afterwards  Ueutenant-General)  Edward  Wolfe,  one  of  Marl- 
borough's veterans,  to  the  Carthagena  expedition,  and  in  X741 
his  ardent  desire  for  a  mflitary  career  was  gratified  by  his  appoint- 
ment to  an  ensigncy.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  proceeded  with 
the  1 2th  Foot  (now  Suffolk  Regiment)  to  the  Rhine  Campaign, 
and  at  Dettingen  he  distinguished  himself  so  much  as  acting 
adjutant  that  he  was  made  lieutenant.  In  1744  he  received  a 
company  in  Barrers  vegiment  (now  the  4th  Ring's  Own).  In 
the  Scottish  rising  of  the  "  Forty-five^  he  was  employed  as  a 
brigadennajor.  He  was  present  at  Hawley's  defeat  at  Falkirk, 
and  at  CuUoden.  With  his  old  regiment,  the  12th,  Wolfe 
served  in  the  Flanden  campaigns  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland, 
and  at  Val  (Lauffeld)  won  by  his  valour  the  commendation  of 
the  duke.  Pxomotion  followed  in  1749  to  a  majority,  and  in 
X750  to  the  lieutenant-colonelcy  of  the  20th,  with  which  he  served 
in  Scotland.  Some  years  Uter  be  spent  six  months  in  Paris. 
When  war  broke  out  afresh  in  x757  he  served  as  a  staff  officer  in 
the  unfortunate  Rochefort  expedition,  but  his  praspecu  were 
not  affected  by  the  failure,  for  bad  his  advice  been  taken  the 
result  might  well  have  been  different.   Next  year  he  was  sent  to 

1  **  Huffo  Theodoricua  iste  dicitur.  Id  est  Francus.  quia  olim  omnes 
Franci  Hugones  vocabantur  .  .  ., "  Annates  QuedRnburg,  (Peru 
Script.  UL  420.) 


N.  America  as  a  brigadier-general  In  the  Louisborg  expedition 
under  Amherst  and  Boscawen.  The  landing  was  effected  in 
the  face  of  ttrenuous  (^position,  Wolfe  leading  the  foremost 
troops.  On  the  27th  of  July  the  pbux  surrendered  after  an 
obstinate  defence;  during  the  siege  Wolfe  had  had  charge  of 
a  most  important  section  of  the  attack,  and  on  his  lines  the 
fiercest  fighting  took  place.  Soon  afterwards  he  returned  to 
England  to  recruit  his  shattered  health,  but  on  learning  that 
Pitt  desired  him  to  continue  in  America  he  at  once  offered  to 
return.  It  was  now  that  the  famoiis  expedition  against  Quebec 
waa  decided  upon,  Wolfe  to  be  in  command,  widx  the  local  mnk 
of  major-genera!.  In  a  brief  holiday  before  his  departure  he  met 
at  Bath  Miss  Lowther,  to  whom  he  became  engaged.  Very  shortly 
afterwards  he  sailed,  and  on  the  xst  of  June  1759  the  Ctueb^ 
expedition  sailed  from  Lotiisburg  (see  Quebec).  After  wearisome 
and  disheartening  failures,  embittered  by  the  pain  of  an  internal 
disease,  Wolfe  crowned  his  work  by  the  dedsive  victory  on  the 
Plains  of  Abraham  (13th  of  September  1759)  by  which  the  French 
permanently  lost  (Quebec.  Twice  wounded  earlier  in  the  fight, 
he  had  refused  to  leave  the  field,  and  a  third  bullet  passing  through 
his  lungs  inflicted  a  mortal  injury.  While  he  was  lying  in  aswoon 
some  one  near  him  exdaimed,  "  They  run;  see  how  they  run!" 
"  Who  run?  "  demanded  Wolfe,  as  one  roused  from  sleq>.  "  The 
enemy,"  was  the  answer;  "  they  g|ve  way  everywhere."  Wolfe 
rallied  for  a  moment,  gave  a  last  order  for  cutting  off  the  retreat, 
and  murmuring,  "  Now  God  be  praised,  I  wiU  die  in  peace," 
breathed  his  last.  On  the  battle-ground  a  tall  column  bears  the 
words,  "  Here  died  Wolfe  victorious  on  the  X3t^  of  September 
1 759-"  In  the  governor's  garden,  In  (Quebec,  tJbfin  is  also  a 
nionument  to  the  memory  of  Wolfe  and  his  gallant  opponent 
Montcalm,  who  survived  him  only  a  few  hours,  with  the  inscrip- 
tion "  Wolfe  and  Montcalm.  Mortem  virtus  communem,  Jamam 
historian  monumentum  postefitas  dedit.**  In  Westminster  Abbey 
a  public  memorial  to  Wolfe  was  unvdied  on  the  4th  of  Octob^ 

r773» 

See  R.  Wright,  Lifi  of  Major-General  James  Wolfs  (London,  1864) ; 
F.  Parkman,  MonleiUm  and  Wolfe  (London,  l8&();  TWeftw  Brittsh 


Soldiers  (London,  1899).;  General  WoUe's  InstrucHons  to  Young 
Officers  (i 768-1 780):  Bockles  Wilkpn.  The  life  and  LMtrs  of  Janus 
Woffe  (1909):  and  A.  G.  Bradley,lro//«  (1895). 


WOLFENBthTEU  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  duchy  of 
Brunswick,  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Oker,  7  m.  S.  of 
Brunswick  on  the  railway  to  Harzburg.  Pop.  (1905)  19,083. 
Lessing  was  ducal  librarian  here,  and  the  old  library  building, 
designed  ini723  in  imitation  of  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  contains 
a  marble  statue  of  him.  The  library,  induding  300,000  printed 
books  and  10,000'  MSS.,  was,  however,  transferred  to  a  large 
and  new  Renaissance  edifice  in  X887.  It  is  especially  rich  in 
Bibles,  inctmahula  and  books  of  the  early  Reformation  period, 
and  contains  some  fragments  of  the  Gothic  bible  of  Ulfilas* 
Opposite  the  old  library  is  the  palace,  now  occupied  by  a  seminaxy. 
The  ducal  burial-vault  is  in  the  chivch  of  St  Mary. 

A  castle  is  said  to  have  been  founded  on  the  site  of  Wolfen- 
bilttel  by  a  margrave  of  Mdssen  about  1046.  When  this  began 
m  X267  to  be  the  residence  of  the  early  Bnmswick  or  Wolfen- 
bttttd  line  <^  counts,  a  town  gradually  grew  up  around  iL  In 
X542  it  was  taken  by  the  Saxons  and  Hessians,  who,  however, 
evacuated  it  five  years  later  after  th^  battle  of  MUhlberg.  In 
the  Thirty  Yeara'  War,  in  June  1641,  the  Swedes,  under  Wrangd 
and  KBm'gsmark,  defeated  the  Austrians  undear  the  archduke 
Leopold  at  WdfenbUtteL  The  -town  pass^  wholly  into  the 
poaseHion  of  the  Brunswick-Wolfenbattd  family  in  X67X,  and 
for  nesjly  one  hundred  years  enjoyed  the  distinction  of  being 
the  ducal  capital.  In  x754,  however,  Duke  Charles  transferred 
the  ducal  residence  to  Brunswick. 

See  Vogec,  Ert&hlungen  aus  der  CeschichU  det  Stadt  WolfenbHUet 
(WoifeabOttd.  1882):  von  Heinemann,  Die  henogfiche  BibUotheh 
M  WolfenhAUd  (ind  cd.»  WoUenbOttel.  1894)*  For  the  "  WoUca- 
battel  fragmenU  "see  LBsaiMC  and  RsuiAaos, 

WOLFF,  CASPAR  FRIBDRICH  (x 733-1794),  German  anato-' 
mist  and  physiologist,  Justly  reckoned  the.  founder  of  modem 

I  embryology,  was  bom  in  1735  At  Berlin,  where  he  studied 
anatomy  and  physiolbgy  under  lbs  ddor  J.  F.  MeckcL    He 


WOI^FF,.  C..^-WOI,FF,  J. 


774 

gEadualcd  ia  meQicbU  at  llaile'iii  1759,  ^  tlwsis  being  ha  iasnouA 
Theoria  ieneraiionis.  After  serving  as  a  surgeoa  in  tht  Seven 
Years'  War»  he  wished  to  lecture  on  anatomy  and  physiology 
in  Berlin,  but  being  refused  permission  he  accepted  a  call  from 
(JK  empress  Catharine  to  become  pcofeasor  of  those  subjects  at 
the  academy  of  St  Petersburg,  and  acted  in  this  capacity  until 

his  death  there  in  x  794. 

While  the  theory  of  "  evolution  "  in  the  crude  seme^— t.e.  a  simple 
growth  in  fdze  and  unfolding  of  oreans  alt  previously  existent  in  the 
germ — wa»  in  possession  of  the  field,  his  researches  oii  the  develop- 
ment of  the  alimentary  canal  in  the  chick  first  deariy  established 
the  converse  view,  that  of  epinenesis,  i^.  of  i>rogreeBive  fornntioq 
and  differentiation  oi  organs  from  a  germ  primitively  homogeneous. 
He  also  largely  anticipated  the  moocrn  conception  of  embryonic 
layers,  and  is  said  even  to  have  foreshadowed  the  cell  theory. 

.  WOLFF  Ocss  correctly  Wotp),  CHRISTIAlf  (1679-1754), 
German  philosopher  and  mathematician,  the  son  of  a  tanner, 
was  born  at  Brcslau  on  the  24th  of  January  1679.  At  the 
university  of  Jena  he  studied  first  mathematics  and  physics, 
to  which  he  soon  added  philosophy.  In  1703  he  qualified  as 
Pnvaldouni  in  the  university  of  I^ipzig,  where  he  lectured 
till  1706,  when  he  was  called  as  professor  of  matheinatics  and 
natural  philosophy  to  Halle.  Before  this  time  he  had  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Leibnitz,  of  whose  philosophy  his  own  system 
is  a  modification.  In  Halle  Wolff  limited  himself  at  first  to 
mathematics,  but  on  the  departure  of  a  colleague  he  added 
physics,  and  presently  included  all  the  main  philosophical 
disciplines.  But  the  claims  which  Wolff  advanced  on  behalf 
of  the  philosophic  reason  (see  Rationalism)  appeared  impious  to 
his  theological  colleagues.  Halle  was  the  headquarters  of  Piet ism , 
which,  after  a  long  struggle  against  Lutheran  dogmatism,  had 
itself  assumed  the  characteristics  of  a  new  orthodoxy.  Wolf!*s 
professed  ideal  was  to  base  theological  truths  on  evidence  of 
mathematical  certitude,  and  strife  with  the  Pietists  broke  out 
openly  in  1721,  when  Wolff,  on  the  occasion  of  laying  down  the 
office  of  pro-rector,  delivered  an  oration  "  On  the  Practical 
Philosophy  of  the  Chinese  "  (Eng.  tr.  1750),  in  which  he  praised 
the  parity  of  the  moral  precepts  of  Confucius,  pomting  to  them 
as  an  evidence  of  the  power  of  human  reason  to  attain  by  its 
own  efforts  to  moral  truth.  For  ten  years  Wolff  was  subjected 
to  attack,  until  in  a  fit  of  exasperation  he  appealed  to  the  court 
for  protection.  His  enemies,  however,  gained  the  car  of  the  king 
Fredericlt  WilHam  I.  and  represented  to  him  that,  if  Wolff's 
determinism  werto  recognized,  no  soldier  who  deserted  could  be 
punished,  since  he  would  only  have  acted  as  it  was  necessarily 
bTcdctermincd  that  he  shonld.  Thisr  so  enraged  the  king  that 
he  at  once  deprived  Wolff  of  his  office,  and  commanded  him  to 
leave  Prussian  territory  within  forty-eight  hours  on  pain  of  a 
halter.  The  same  day  Wolff  passed  into  Saxony,  and  pttsently 
proceeded  to  Marbtirg,  to  which  university  he  had  received  a  can 
before  this  crisis.  'Hie  landgrave  of  Hesse  received  him  with 
every  mark  of  ^stinction,  and  the  circumstances  of  his  expulsion 
drew  universal  attention  to  his  philosophy.  It  was  eveiywhere 
discussed,  and  over  two  hundred  books  and  pamphlets  appeared 
for  or  against  it  before  1 737,  not  reckoning  the  systematic  treatises 
of  Wolff  and  his  followers.  In  T740  Frederick  William,  who  had 
already  made  overtures  to  Wolff  to  return,  died  suddenly,  a&d 
one  of  the  first  acts  of  his  successor,  Frederick  the  Great,  waa  to 
recaH  hfm  to  Halle.  His  entry  into  the  town  on  the  6th  of 
December  1740  partook  of  the  nature  of  a  triumphal  procession. 
In  1743  he  became  chancellor  of  the  university,  and  in  1745  he 
received  the  title  of  Frtikerr  from  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  But 
his  matter  was  no  longer  fresh,  he  had  outlived  his  power  of 
attracting  students,  and  his  class-rooms  remained  emp^.  He 
died  on  the  9th  of  April  1754. 

The  Wolffian  philosophy  held  almost  undis^yoted  sway  in  Germany 
till  it  was  displaced  by  the  Kantian  revolution.  It  is  essentiaUy  a 
common-sense  adaptation  or  watering-down  of  the  Lciboitxian 
-system ;  or,  as  wt  can  hardly  speak  of  a  system  in  connexion  with 
Licibnitz,  Wolff  may  be  said  to  have  methodized  and  redactd  to 
dogmatic  form  th^  thoughts  of  h»  great  pvedeceesor.  which  often, 
however,  lose  the  greater  part  of  their  suggcstivcncss  In  the  process. 
Since  his  philosophy  disappeared  before  the  influx  of  new  ideas  and 
the  appearance  of  more  speculative  minds,  it  has  been  customary  to 
dwell  ahoott  exduaively  on  its  deCect^rHhc  want  of  depth  or  fresh^ 


ness  of  insight,  and  the  aridity  of  lU'neft^rMaslto  (ormrfSlm.  wtddl 

tends  to  relapse  into  verbose  platitudes  But  this  is  to  do  injustice 
to  Wolff's  real  merits.  These  are  mainly  his  comprehensive  view  of 
philosophy,  as  embracing  in  its  survey  the  whole  field  of  human 
knowledge,  his  insistence  everywhere  on  dear  and  OKtbodic  ac> 
posltioa,  and  his  confidence  in  the  power  of  reaMia  to  reduce  all 
subjects  to  this  form.  To  these  must  be  added  that  he  was  pract ically 
the  first  to  "teach  philosophy  to  speak  German."  The  Wolffian 
system  retains  the  determinism  and  optimism  of  Leibnitz,  but  the 
monadology  necedcs  into  the  background,  the  monads  faffing  astuoder 
into  souls \)r  conscions  beings  on  the  one  hand  and  mere  atons  on 
the  other.  The  doctrine  of  the  pre-established  harmony  also  loses  its 
metaphysical  significance,  and  the  principle  of  sufficient  reason 
introduced  by  i^ibnitz  is  once  more  discarded  in  favour  of  the 
principle  of  contradiction  which  Wolff  seeks  to  make  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  philOBophy.  Philosophy  is  defined  by  him  aa  the 
science  of  the  i)ossible,  and  oividcd,  according  to  the  two  faculties 
of  the  human  individual,  into  a  theoretical  and  a  practical  part. 
Logic,  sometimes  called  philosophia  rationalise  forms  I  he  int  reduc- 
tion or  propaedeutic  to  both.  Theoretical  philosophy  has  for  us 
parts  ontology  or  pkilasopkia  prima,  cosmology.  rati<Mtal  psycho- 
logy and  natural  theology;  ontology  treats  ol  the  existent  ia 
general,  psychology  of  the  soul  as  a  simple  non-extended  substance, 
cosmology  of  the  worid  as  a  whole,  and  rarional  theology  of  the 
existence  and  attributes  of  God.  These  are  best  known  to  philo- 
sophical students  by  Kant's  treatment  of  them  in  the  Crili^ue  oj 
Pure  Reason.  Practical  philosophy  is  subdivided  into  ethics. 
economics  and  politics.  Wolff's  moral  principle  is  the  realization 
of  human  perfection. 

Wolff's  most  important  works  are  as  follows:  AnUrngsffAmie  tJla 
malhtnuUtschin  Wissfnukaften  (1710;  in  LAtin,  EUmenta  wuah€S€OS 


Menscken  Thun  und  Lassen  (r72o):  Vem.  Ged,von  dem  gesettukafi' 
lichen  Ltben  der  Menscken  (i72r) ;  Vem.  Ged.  van  den  Wirkungen  der 
Nalur  (1723);  Vern.  Ged.  van  den  Absickten  der  nalMrlicken  Dinge 
(1724);  Vem.  Ced.  von  dem  Gebratteke  der  TkeiU  in  Menscken, 
Thieren  vnd  Pflansen  (1725) ;  the  last  seven  may  briefly  be  described 
as  treatises  on  lo^c,  metaphysics,  moral  pbilotophy,  jpelltical 
philosophy,  theoretical  physics,  teleology,  physiology;  Pkuosohkin 
rationalis,  sive  lofica   (1728);  Philosophia  prima,  sise  Ontoiogia 

if  729);  Cosmoiogxa  generalis  (1731);  Psychotogia  empirica  {17^2)1 
*syfchologia  ralionalxs  (1734);  Theoiogia  naturaiis  (I736-1737>; 
PhUosophia  practica  universalis  (1738-1739);  Jus  naturae  and  Jus 
Gentium 
Kleine 

G. 

{Eigene  £^fensbefckreibung,  ed.  H.  Wuttke,  1841)  and  the  usual 
histories  of  philosophy,  see  W.  Schradcr  in  AUgemtine  deuUcka 
Biographie,  xliv.;  C.  C.  Ludovici,  Ausfuhrlicker  Entwu^  einer  voU- 
stdndigen  Hislorie  der  Wolff scken  PhUosophie  (173&-1738);  J. 
Deschamps,  Cours  abrigi  deJa  philosopkie  vn^ffienn^  U743);  F-  W, 
Kluge.  chriitian  von  Wolff  der  Pkilcsopk  (i^i);  W.  Amsperger, 
Ckristian  Wolffs  Verhdltnis  tu  Leibnis  (1897).       (A.  S.  P.-P. ;  X.) 

WOLFFp  JOSEPH  (1795-1862),  Jewish  Christian  missionary, 
was  bom  at  Weilersbach,  near  Bamberg,  Germany,  in  1795. 
His  father  became  rabbi  at  Wtirttemberg  in  1806,  and  sent  lus  son 
to  the  Protestant  lyceum  at  Stuttgart.  He  was  converted  to 
Christianity  through  reading  the  books  of  Johann  Michael  von 
Sailer,  bishop  of  Kegensburg,  and  was  baptised  in  18x2  by  the 
B<medictine  abbot  of  Emaus,  near  Prague.  Wolff  was  a  keen 
Oriental  scholar  and  pursued  his  stupes  at  Tubingen  and  at 
Rome,  where  he  was  expelled  from  the  Collcgio  di  Propaganda  in 
x8i8  for  attacking  the  doctrine  of  infallibility  and  criticising  hifc 
tutors.  After  a  short  stay  in  the  monastery  of  the  Redemptorists 
at  Val  Sainte  near  Pribourg,  he  went  to  London,  entered  the 
Anglican  Church,  and  resumed  his  Oriental  and  theological 
studies  at  Cambridge,  tn  1821  he  began  his  orfsslonary  wander- 
ings in  the  East  by  vlating  Egypt,  the  Sinaittc  penfaisula, 
Jerusalem,  Aleppo,  Mesopotamia,  Persia,  Tiflis  andtbe  Crimea, 
returning  to  England  in  1826,  when  Edward  Irving  introduced 
him  to  Lady  Geor^na  Walpole,  6th  daughter  of  Horatio  Wkipde, 
earl  of  Orford,  whom  he  married  in  February  1607.  In  X82S 
Wolff  set  out  to  search  for  the  ten  tribes,  traveiling  throui^ 
Anatolia,  Armenia,  Turkestan  and  Afghanistan  to  Simla  and 
Calcutta,  suffering  many  hardships  Init  preachiiAg  with  en- 
thusiasm. He  xisitcd  Madras,  Pondicherty,  Tinnevelly«  Goa  and 
Bombay,'  travelling  home  by  Egypt  and  ^falta.  Jn  rS36  be 
found  Samuel  Gobat  in  Abyssinia,  took  him  to  Jiddah,  and  him- 
self visited  Yemen  and  Bombay,  goinS  on  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  was  ordained  deacon  in  1837,  and  priest  in  1838 


WOLFRAMITE— WOLFRAM  VON  ISCHENBACH 


77S 


In  the  flame  year  he  was  given  the  rectory  of  Linthwaite  in 
Yorkshire.  In  1843  he  went  to  Bokhara  to  seek  two  Britbh 
oiBcers,  lieut.-Colonel  C.  Stoddart  and  Captain  A.  ConoUy, 
and  narrowly  escaped  the  death  that  had  overtaken  them;  his 
Narrative  of  this  mission  went  through  seven  editions  between 
x^5  and  1859.  In  2845  he  was  presented  to  the  vicarage  of 
Be  Brewersy  Somerset,  and  was  planning  another  great  missionary 
tour  when  he  died  on  the  2nd  of  May  1Z62. 

He  published  several  Journals  of  his  expeditions,  especially 
Travds  and  Adventures  of  Joseph  Wciff  (2  vols.,  London,  i860). 

His  son,  Sir  Henrt  Drummond  Wolff  (1830-190S),  was  a 
well-known  English  diplomatist  and  Conservative  politician, 
who  started  as  a  clerk  in  the  foreign  oiKce  and  was  created 
K.C.M.G.  in  1862  for  various  services  abroad.  In  1874-1880  he 
sat  in  parliament  for  Christchurch,  and  in  1880-1885  for  Ports- 
mouth, being  one  of  the  group  known  as  the  "  Fourth  Party." 
In  1885  he  went  on  a  special  mission  to  Constantinople  in  con^ 
nexion  with  the  Egyptian  question,  and  as  the  result  various 
aVkward  diflEculties,  hinging  on  the  sultan's  suzerainty,  were 
got  over.  In  x888  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  Teheran,  and  from 
1892  to  1900  was  ambassador  at  Madrid.  He  died  on  the  nth 
o£  October  1908.  Sir  Henry  was  a  notable  rflcotUeur,  and  he  did 
good  service  to  the  Conservative  party  by  helping  to  found  the 
Primrose  League.  He  was  created  G.C.M.G.  in  1878  and  G.C.B. 
in  1889.   .    

WOIiFklAHITB,  or  Wolfram,  a  mineral  consisting  of  iron- 
manganese  tungstate,  (Fe,  Mn)W04.  The  name  is  of  doubtful 
origin,  but  it  has  been  assumed  that  it  h  derived  from  •'the 
German  Wolf  and  Rah^  (froth),  corresponding  with  the  spuma 
lupi  of  old  writers,  a  term  hardly  appropriate,  however,  to  the 
mineral  in  question.  Wolframite  crystallises  in  the  monoclinic 
S3'stem,  with  approximation  to  an  orthorhombtc  type;  and  the 
crystals  offer  perfect  pinacoidal  cleavage.  The  colour  of  wol- 
framite is  generally  dark  brownish-black,  the  lustre  metallic  or 
adamantine,  the  hardness  5  to  5-5,  and  the  specific  gravity  7-1 
to  7-5.  Wolframite  may  be  regarded  as  an  isomorphous  mixture, 
irt  variable  ratio,  of  iron  and  manganese  tungstates,  sometimes 
with  a  small  proportion  of  niobic  and  tantalic  acids.  It  was  in 
wolframite  that  the  metal  tungsten  was  first  recognized  in  1 785 
by  t'wo  brothers,  J.  J.  and  F.  d^huyar.  At  the  present  time 
the  mineral  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  tungsten^steel  and  in 

the  preparation  of  certain  tungstates. 

Wolframite  is  commonly  associated  with  tin-ores,  as  in  many  parts 
of  Cornwall,  Saxony  and  Bohemia.  In  consequence  of  the  two 
minerals,  cassiterite  and  wolframite,  having  nearly  the  same  density, 
their  separation  becomes  difiicult  by  the  ordinaiV  processes  of  ore- 
dressing,  but  may  be  cfTcctcd  by  means  of  magnetic  separators,  the 
wolframite  being  attracted  by  powerful  magnets^  A  process  intro- 
duced many  years  ago  by  R.  Dxland  consisted  in  roasting  the  mixed 
ore  with  carbonate  of  soda,  when  the  wolfram  was  converted  into 
sodium  tungstate,  which  was  easily  removed  as  a  soluble  salt. 
Wolframite  occurs  at  many  localities  in  the  United  States,  notably 
at  Trumbull.  Conn.,  where  it  has  been  mined,  and  at  Monroe.  Conn., 
where  it  accompanies  bismuth  ores.  Other  localities  are  in  Mecklen- 
burg county,  N.C.,  and  in  the  Mammoth  mining  district,  Nevada. 
Wolframite  has  in  some  cases  resulted  frum  the  alteration  of  schcelite 
(9.V.).  though  on  the  contrary  pseudomorpha  are  known  in  which 
scheclitc  has  taken  the  form  of  wolframite.  By  oxidation  wolframite 
may  become  encrusted  with  tungstic  ochre,  or  tungstite,  sometimes 
known  as  wolframine,  a  name  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
wolframite. 

As  the  relative  proportions  of  iron  and  manganese  vary  in  wolfram- 
ite, the  composition  tends  towards  that  of  other  minerals.  Thus 
there  is  a  manganous  tungstate  (MnWO«)  known  as  htibnerite,  a 
name  given  by  £.  N.  Riotte.  in  1865.  in  compliment  to  Adolph 
Htibner,  a  Saxon  mineralogist.  There  is  also  a  mineral' which 
contains  little  more  than  ferrous  tungstate  (FeWO«).  and  is  known 
as  ferberite,  having  been  named  by  A.  Brcithaupt  in  1863  after 
Rudolph  Ferber.  The  original  hObnerite  came  from  the  Mammoth 
district.  Nevada,  and  the  ferberite  from  the  Sierra  Almagrera  in 
Spain.^  It  is  possible  that  such  minerals  mav  represent  the  extreme 
terms  in  the  series  formed  by  the  vari«$ics  01  wolframite. 

(F.W.R.*) 

WOliFRAM  TON  E&CHBNBACH,  the  most  hnportant  «Ad 
iodividuk!  poet  of  medieval  Germany,  flotirished  during  the  end 
of  the  T2th  and  beginning  of  the  T3th  oentury.  He  was  one  tof 
the  brilliant  group  of  Minnesingeiis  whom  the  Landgrave 
Herrmann  of  Thurli^  g&tbeied  round  Um  «t  the  historic 


castle  of  the  Wartburg.  We  know  by  his  own  fitatemeot  that  he 
was  a  Bavarian,  and  came  of  a  knightly  race,  counting  his  achieve- 
ments with  spear  and  shield  far  above  his  poetical  gifts.  The 
Eschenbach  from  which  be  derived  bis  name  was  most  prob- 
ably Ober-£schenbach|  not  far  from  Pletnfeld  and  Nuremberg; 
there  tf  no  doubt  that  this  was  the  pJace  of  his  burial,  and  so  lata 
as  the  17th  centujy  his  tomb  was  to  be  seen  in  the  church  of 
Ober-Escheobacb,  which  was  then  the  burial  place  oi  the  Teutonic 
knights.  Wolfram  probably  belonged  to  the  small-  nobility, 
for  he  alludes  to  men  ol  importance^  sncfa  as  the  counts  of 
Abenbeig,  and  of  Wertheim,  as  if  be  had  been  in  theur  service^ 
Certainly,  he  was  a  poor  man,  foe  hd  makes  frequent  and  jesting 
oUudons  to  hia  poverty.  Bartsch  condudes  tlisA  he  was  a 
younger  son,  and  Chat  Vrhile  theiamily  seat  was  at  Eschenbach, 
Wolfram's  home*  was  the  insignificant  estaie  of  WikSenbuig  (toi 
which  he  alludes),  now  the  viUage  of  Wehlenbecg.  Wotfraaa 
seems  \o  have  diadained  all  literary  aocomplishmeots^  and  in 
fact  insists  on  his  tuilettered  cjondition  both  in  Parnvak  and  m. 
WUlthoim.  But  this  is  somewhat  perplexing,  for  these  poems  are 
beyond  all  doubt  rendcrings-of  French  originals.  Weie  the  poema 
read  to  him,  and  did  be  dictate  his  tiAaslaCtDn,  to  a  scribe?  The 
date  of  Wolf  ramfl  death  is  uncertain.  We  knew  that  he  was  alive 
in  1216,  as  in  WUkhalm  he  laments  the  death  of  the  Landgrave 
Herrmann,  which  took  place  in  that  year,  but  how  long  hft 
survived  hia  triend  and  patron  we  do  not  know. 

Wolfram  von  Eschenbach  Kves  in,  and  is  revealed  by,  hie 
work,  which  shows  him  to  have  been  a  man  of  remarkable  force 
and  peraonality.  He  has  left  two  long  epic  poems>  Fmwvak 
and  WiUchalm  (the  latter  a  translation  of  the  French  cfaan* 
son  de  geste  Aliscans),  certain  fragments,  TUurti  (appteently 
iotetuled  as  an  introduction  to  the  iPaiaM),  and  a  gioup  of 
lyHftI  poems,  WOcktepdaeder.  These  last  derive  their  name  f  rom- 
thc  fact  that  they  record  the  feelings  of  lovers  wdhoi  havingtpassed 
the  oi^t  in  each  othtr'a  company,  are  called  to  fieparate  by  the 
cry  of  the  watchman,  heralding  the  dawn.  These  Tagt  Lieder, 
at  Wikki4t,JjUi0r,  art  a  feature  •of  Old  Geoiufn  Joac-p6eti7,  of 
which  Wagner  hai  preserved  the  tradition  in  the 'warning  cry 
of  Brangaene  in  the  second  act  of  Tristan,  But  the  principal 
ittiesest  of  Wolfram's  work  lies  in  bis  Fanivd,  immeasdrably 
the  finest,  and  most  spiritual  rendering  of  the  Peneval*GraU 
story. 

The  pToUem  of  the  source  of  the  Parmd  is  tlie  crux  of  medieval 
literal^  criticisil)  (see  PEftCEVAi.).  These  are  the  leading  points. 
The  poem  is  divided  into  sixteen  books.  From  iii^  to  kii.,  in- 
clusive, the  story  marches  pari  passu  with  the  Perceval  ,ol 
Chretien  de  IVoyes,  at  one  moment  agreeing  almost  literaDy 
with  the  French  text,  at  the  next  introducing  details  <juite  un- 
known to  it.  Books  I  and  u.,  unrepresented  in  Chretien,  relate 
the  forttmcs  of  the  hero's  father,  and  connect  the  atory  closely 
with  the  housd  of  Anjou;  the  four  concluding  books  agree  with 
the  commencement,  and  further  connect  the  Grail  story  with 
that  of  the  Swan  Knight,  for  the  first  time  identifying  that 
hero  with  Parzival's  son,  a  version  followed  by  the  latei  German 
romance  of  Lokengrin.  At  the  conclusion  Wolfram  deSnitdy 
blames  Chretien  for  having  mistold  the  talc,  while  a  certain  Kiot, 
the  Provencal  (whom  he  has  before  named  as  his  source),  had 
told  it  aright  from  beginning  to  end.  Other  i>eculiarities  of  this 
version  are  the  lepresentation  of  the  Grail  itself  as  a  stone, 
and  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  castle  as  an  ordered  knighthood, 
Templeisen;  the  numerous  allusions  to,  and  evident  familiarity 
with.  Oriental  learning  in  its  various  branches;  and  above  all, 
the  iconnecting  thread  of  ethicd  interpretaUon  which  runs 
through  the  whole  poems  The  Pdnl$d  k  &.  scttl^irama;  the 
cottiict.  between  light  and  darkness,  faith  and  doubt,  is  its 
theme,  and  the  evolution  of  the  hero's- cfaantcter  is  •steadily  and 
oansistenily  worited  out.  The  teaching  isof  acharacter  straiigdy 
at  variance  with*  the  other  romances  <rf  the  cjtde.  Instead  of  an 
asceticism,  based  upon  a  futidamenii^y  low  and  degndin^  view 
of  women.  Wolfram  upholds  a  sane  and  healthy  meislity; 
chastity,  rather  than  celibacy,  is  hia  Ideal,  and  a  loyal  observance 
of  the  marriage  bond  is  in  hia  eyes  the  highest  vsirtii^.  '  Not 
rttimoent  fipm  the  iworld^  hut  iulfibDent  4»i  du^  in  .the*  fmald; 


776 


WOLGAST— WOLLASTONITE 


b  the  goal  he  marks  out  tm  atUininent.  Whether  views  so  large, 
so  sane  and  so  wholesome,  are  to  be  pUced  to  the  credit  of  the 
German  poet,  or  of  his  French  source  (and  modern  criticism  is 
leaning  more  and  more  ta  a  belief  in  the  existence  of  Kiot), 
the  Farriod  is  the  work  of  a  remarkable  personality,  and,  given 
the  age  and  the  environment,  a  unique  literary  acMevement. 

Wolfram  has  moments  of  the  highest  poetical  in^ration, 
but  his  meaning,  even  for  his  compatriots,  is  often  obscure. 
He  is  in  no  sense  a  master  of  language,  as  was  Gottfried  von 
Strassbourg.  This  latter,  in  a  very  interesting  passage  of  the 
Tristan,  passes  in  review  the  poets  of  the  day,  awarding  to  the 
majority  praise  for  the  excellence  of  their  style,  but  one  he  ddes 
not  name,  cudy  blaming  him  as  being  so  obscure  and  invdved 
that  none  can  teU  what  his  meaning  may  be;  this  un-named  poet 
has  always  been  understood  to  be  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  and 
in  a  passage  of  WilUkdm  the  author  refers  to  the  unfavourable 
criticisms  passed  on  PantML  Wolfram  and  Gottfried  were 
both  true  poets,  but  of  widely  differing  style.  Wolfram  was, 
above  all,  a  man  of  deeply  religious  diaracter  (witness  his  intn>> 
duction  to  WUUhalm),  and  it  seems  to  have  been  this  which 
specially  impressed  the  mind  of  his  compatriots;  in  the  13th- 
century  poem  of  Der  Warfburg-KHeg  it  Is  Wolfram  who  is 
chosen  as  the  representathre  of  QnistiAnity,  to  oppose  the 
enchanter  Klingior  von  Ungerland.  (J.  L.  W.) 

V0L0A8T,  a  seaport  town  of  Germany,  hi  the  Prussian 
province  of  Pomerania,  situated  on  the  river  Peene,  wbidi 
separates  it  from  the  island  of  Usedom,  50  m.  by  rail  £.  of 
Grcifswald.  Fop.  (1905)  8346.  There  are  various  manufactures. 
Wdgast  became  a  town  in  i347t  and  after  being  the  residence  of 
the  duke  of  Pomerania-Wolgast,  it  was  ceded  to  Sweden  in 
164S.  It  was  captured  four  times  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
and  in  1675  by  Frederick  William,  elc^or  of  Brandenburg.  It 
was  restored  to  Germany  in  181 5. 

See  B.  Heberldn,  Beiirdge  tur  GesekkJ^  det  Bwg  imi  Stadt  Wdgast 
(Wolgast,  1S92). 

W0LLM1ON,  WILUAH  (i6s9-x734)»  English  philosophical 
writer,  was  bom  at  Cotoa*Clanfotd  in  Staffordshire,  on  the  26th 
Of  March  1659.  On  leaving  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1681,  he  became  an  assistant  master  at  the  Birmingham  grammar- 
school,  and  took  holy  orders.  In  x688  an  uncle  left  him  a  fortune. 
He  then  moved  to  London,  married  a  lady  of  wealth,  and  devoted 
himself  to  learaii^  and  philosophy.  He  embodied  his  views  in 
the  one  book  by  which  he  is  remembered,  The  RdigjUfn  of  Nattm 
Ddineaied  (xst  ed.  1722;  2nd  ed.  1724).    He  died  in  October 

1724. 

WoUatton's  Rdixum  V  Natwt,  which  falls  between  CUtffce's 
Discourse  of  the  Vuchangeabte  OUigfilions  of  Natural  Relinom  and 
Butler's  SermonSt  was  one  of  the  popular  pnilosophical  books  of  its 
day.  To  the  8th  editk>n  (1750)  was  added  a  ufe  of  the  author. 
The  book  was  Resigned  to  be  an  answer  to  two  questions:  Is  there 
such  a  thtrfg  as  natural  religion?  and,  If  there  Is,  what  is  it?  Wd- 
laston  starts  with  the  ansumption  that  reUgion  and  morality  are 
identical,  and  labours  to  show  that  religion  is  the  pursuit  of  happi- 
neu  by  the  practice  of  truth  and  reason."  He  claims  orinnality 
for  his  theory  that  the  moral  evil  is  the  practical  denial  of  a  true 

Eroposiiton  and  moral  good  the  afiirmation  of  it  (see  Ethics).  Wol- 
iston  also  published  anonymously  a  small  book.  On  the  Design  of  the 
Book  of  Ecdesiaites,  or  the  UnreasonabUness  of  Men's  Restless  Con- 
'ention  for  the  Present  Enjoyments,  represented  in  an  English  Poem 
(London,  1691). 

See  John  Clarke,  Examination  efihe  Notion  of  Moral  Good  and  Evil 
advanced  t*  a  laU  book  entitled  The  Religion  of  Nature  Delineated 
(London,  1725):  Drechsler,  Vber  Wollaston^s  Moral-Pkilosophie 
(Erkingen,  1802);  Sir  Leslie  Stephen's  Bistary  of  English  Thought 
in  the  Eighteenin  Century  (London,  1876),  ch.  in.  and  ch.  ix.;  H. 
Sidgwick's  History  of  Ethics  (1903),  pp.  198  aq. 

W0LL48T0N,  WILUAH  HTDB  (1766-1828),  English  chemist 
and  natural  phDosopher,  was  bom  at  East  Dereham,  Norfolk, 
on  the  6th  of  April  1766,  the  second  of  seventeen  children. 
His  father,  the  Itev.-  Francis  Wollaston  (1731-18x5),  rector  of 
Chislehurst,  grandson  of  the  William  Wollaston  noticed  above, 
was  an  eoUinsiastic  astronomer.  Wdlaston  was  educated  at 
Charterhouse,  and  afterwards  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge^  of 
which  he  became  a  fellow.  He  took  the  degrees  of  M.B.  (1787) 
and  M.D.  (1793),  starting  to  practise  medicine  in  1789  at  Bury 
Si  Edmunds,  whence  he  soon  removed  to  London.  Buthensadv 


little  way,  and  failed  to  obtain  a  vacant  physiciansMp  at  StGeorge^ 
hosfHtal;  the  result  was  that  he  abandoned  medidne  and  took 
to  original  research.  He  devoted  much  attention  to  the  affaiis 
of  the  Royal  Sodety,  of  which  he  was  dected  a  fdlow  in  1793 
and  made  secretary  in  x8o6.  He  was  elected  interim  president 
in  June  1820,  on  the  death  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks;  but  he  did  not 
care  to  cnt«  into  competition  with  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  and 
the  latter  was  dected  presidcnt^at  the  anniversary  meeting  in 
November  1820.  Wollaston  became  a  member  of  the  Geolo^cal 
Society  of  London  ih  1812,  and  served  frequently  <»  the  Coundl 
and  for  some  time  as  a  vice-president.  Beyond  appearing  at  the 
meetings  of  learned  sodeties  he  took  little  part  in  public  affairs; 
he  lived  alone,  conducting  his  investigations  in  a  deliberate  and 
exhaustive  manner,  but  in  the  most  rigid  seduslon,  no  person 
bdng  admitted'  to  his  laboratory  on  any  pretext.  Towairis  the 
close  of  1828  he  felt  the  approach  of  a  fatal  malady — a  tumour  in 
the  brain — and  devoted  his  last  days  to  a  carefid  revisal  of  his 
unpublished  researches  and  industrial  processes,  dictating  several 
papers  on  these 'subjects,  which  were  afterwards  pid>lished  in 
the  Philosophical  Transactions,  He  died  in  London  on  the  32Dd 
of  December  1828. 

Most  of  Wolhston's  original  worie*  deals  more  or  less  directly  whfa 
chemical  subjects,  but  diverges  on  aU  sides  into  optics,  acoustics, 
mineralogy,  astronomy,  phyaology,  botany  and  even  art.  In 
chemistry  he  made  a  speciahty  ofthe  platinum  metals.  Platinum 
itself  he  discovered  how  to  work  on  a  practical  scale,  and  he  is  said 
to  have  made  a  fortune  from  the  secret,  which,  however,  he  diKlofcd 
in  a  posthumous  paper  (1820);  and  he  was  the  first  to  detect  the 
metals  palladium  (1804)  ana  rhodium  (1805)  in  crude  platinum. 
In  regard  to  palladium  bis  conduct  was  open  to  critiosm.  He 
anonymously  offered  a  quantity  of  the  metal  for  sale  at  an  instni- 
ment-maker  s  shop,  issumg  an  advertisement  in  which  some  of  its 
main  properties  were  described.  Richard  Chevenix  ^i774'~i83o).  a 
diemist,  having  bought  some  of  the  substance,  decided  after  ex- 
periment that  It  was  not  a  simi^  body  as  claimed,  but  an  alloy  of 
mercury  with  platinum,  and  in  1803  presented  a  paper  to  the  Rm'al 
Sodety  setting  forth  this  view.  As  secretary,  Wollaston  saw  this 
paper  when  it  was  sent  in,  and  is  said  to  have  tried  to  persuade  the 
author  to  withdraw  it.  But  having  failed,  be  allowed-  the  paper, 
and  also  a  seoond  by  Chevenix  of  the  same  tenor  in ^1805,  to  be  read 
without  avowing  that  it  was  he  himself  who  had  originally  detected 
the  metal,  although  he  had  an  excellent  opportunity  of  stating  the 
fact  in  1804  when  he  discussed  the  subsunco  ui  the  paper  which 
announced  the  discovery  of  riiodium.  la^  1809  he  proved  the  ele- 
naentary  character  of  odumbium  (niobium)  and  titanium,  la 
optics  he  was  the  first,  in  1802,  to  observe  the  dark  lines  in  the  solar 
spectrum.  Of  the  seven  lines  he  saw,  he  nwarded  the  five  moat 
prominent  as  the  natural  boundaries  or  dividing  lines  of  the  pure 
simple  colours  of  the  prismatic  spectrum,  which  he  supposed  to  have 
four  primary  divisions.  He  described  the  reflecting  goniometer  in 
1809  and  the  camera  ludda  in  1812,  provided  microscopists  with  the 
"Wollaston  doublet."  and  applied  coiKavo-convcx  lenses  to  the 
purposes  of  the  oculist.  His  crvophorus  was  described  m  1813,  in  a 
paper"  On  a  method  of  freenng  at  a  distance."    In  ,1821,  after 


C.  Oersted  (1777-1851)  had  shown  that  a  magneric  needle  is 
ilectric  current,  he  attempted,  in  the  laboratory  of 


deflected  by  an  electric .      ,> 

the  Royal  Institution  in  the  presence  of  Humphry  Davy,  to  convert 
that  deflection  into  a  continuous  rotation,  and  also  to  obtain  the 
rcdprocal  effect  of  a  current  rotating  round  a  magnet.  He  failed  m 
both  respects,  and  when  Michad  Faraday,  who  overheard  a  portion 
of  his  conversation  with  Davy  on  the  subject,  was  subsequently 
mote  successful,  he  was  inclined  to  assert  the  ment  of  pnority.  to 


audible  to  ordinary  ears  (1820),  the  physiology  of  vision  (1824).  the 
apparent  direction  of  the  eyes  in  a  portrait  (1824)  and  the  compansoo 
of  the  light  of  the  sun  with  that  ofthe  moon  and  fixed  stars  (1 829). 

In  geological  circles  Wollaston  is  famous  for  the  medal  which 
bears  his  name,  and  which  (together  with  a  donation  fund)  is  annoany 
awarded  by  the  council  of  the  Gcolodcal  Sociehr  of  London,  being 
the  result  of  the  interest  on  jtiooo  bequeathed  by  Wollaston  for 
••  promoting  researches  concerning  the  mineral  structureof  theearth. 
The  first  awaid  was  made  in  1831.  The  medal  is  the  highc^  honour 
bestowed  by  the  society:  it  was  ortginally  made  of  palladium,  but 

is  now  made  of  gold.  .«  .     r      j  :-  ^ 

An  appreciative  essay  on  Wollaston  will  be  lound  m  Oeotge 
Wilson's  Religio  Cbemict  (1862).  _ 

WOLLAflTONITB,  a  rock-formteg  mineral  coiwistmg  of  cafciom 

mctasilicatc,  CaSia,  arystaUidng  in  the  jnonodinic  system  and 

bdonging  to  the  pyroxene  (q.v,)  group.    It  differs,  ^o*"^^^» 

from  other  members  of  this  group  m  having  cleawages,  not  parallel 

I  to  the  prism-faoes,  but  in  two  diceaions  perpendicular  to  ihe 


WOLUN— WOLSELEY,  VISCOUNT 


plmMfltvnunetry.  CryiUhaKniuallyclaiigBlBlpualM: 
■lii  of  lynuneuy  »od  flMltned  pmllcl  lo  I'        -■    -■ 
hcacs  (he  early  name  "  Ubulu  :p4r  ";  the 
b  ilui  W.  H.  WoUutob.    Th«  raioeni  uMiUjr  occuB  IB  WUla 
desvige  muiei.    The  lordDm  ia  5,  uid  the  qwdfic  liwiljt 
I'Sj.    ll  is  •  chsncLensLJc  prodiKt  al  oiaUct-n"        — •'— 
occurting  etpedally,  with  gaisel,  diopude,  ftc^ 

limeatoiies,     Ciyilali  are  iouod  in  the  rsvitiea  «f     ..   

limestone  bkidii  o(  Monte  Somma,  Vauviiu.  At  Swta  Ft  U 
the  State  of  Chiapas,  Meuco,  a  lAJge  tock-masB  of  woUaatobht 
canioomof^ld  and  copper:  here  are  (ound  krga  pinkayiUb 
which  aie  oltea  putially  or  wboUy  ■Uered  to  opO.       CL.  J.  5.) 

VOLUK,  an  island  of  Germaay,  in  Ihe  Prouiu  proviace  ol 
Fomcrsnia,  the  mora  eutslj  of  the  itlwuta  at  the  nwuth  of  tk« 
Odei  which  Mpuate  the  Sltttiner  HaS  Iran  tb*  Baltfc  Su. 
It  ii  divided  from  the  mainland  on  the  E.  hy  the  Dlevcoow 
Channel, iQdCrDtnUsedamontheW.bytheSwiui.  Itisrautfily 
tilangulat  inihape.andhasanaiceof  gssq.m.  Heath  and  und 
alleraale  with  iwin^,  lalui  and  forest  on  iu  urFace,  which  il 
flal.eictpt  towards  (he  souih-vesl.  when  the  krw  htUa  of  t-ebhin 
rise.  Caltle-icnring  and  fithing  are  the  chief  r»iuc«  of  the 
inhablUnU,  who  number  about  i^ooo.  Idisdtoy,  on  the  N.W. 
coast,  ii  a  favourite  sea-bathing  renHt,  and  sonia  of  the  otfaa 
viUagn,  as  Ostiwine,  oppveite  SwincmUnde,  Fiiiter,  famous  for 
it9Rls,and  Lehbin,aie^>o  viiitcdiniiunnier.  Wollin, ilie only 
town,  is  situated  on  the  DierniDw,  and  is  conoocted  with  the 
mainland  by  three  bridjo.  It  cfuiieion  liieindustricsof  aunall 
■'  ■"      -     m.  Pop. (1900) «679. 


N'eu' tl 


Wendish  city  <A  Wolin  or  Juinne,  called  Jtilin  by 
and  Winetha  or  VineU  (i.(,  Wendish  town)  by  the 
In  the  iQthtad  litb  centuries  ft  was  the  centre  irf  Ul  active  and 
•itensive  trade.  Adam  ol  Bmnen  (d.  1076]  extols  its  use  and 
veailb,  and  niei1ti<ns  that  Creeha  and  other  foreiipiers  frequented 
il.  and  that  Saions  were  pernillled  to  settle  there  on  equal  terms 
Blih  the  Wends,  so  long  as  they  did  not  obtrude  the  fact  of  tbdr 
Chiislianity.  The  Northmen  node  ^  settlement  here  abont  470, 
and  built  a  forttess  dD  the  "  silver  hill,"  called  Jomsburg.  which 
is  often  mentioned  in  the  sagas.  Its  foundation  was  attributed 
to  s  legendary  Vilcing  esilcd  from  Denmark,  called  Palnotokc 
or  Falnaioki.  The  stronghold  of  Jomsburg  was  destroyed  in 
logS  by  King  Msgnis  Baifod  of  Norway.  This  is  probably 
the  origin  ol  the  legend  that  Vineta  was  overthrown  by  a  stonn 
or  eatthquahe  and  overwhelmed  by  the  sea.  Some  submaHne 
"  ■  m  Uscdom  are  Kill  populsrly 


.    The  t 


m  of  Woll 


1  bishopric,  which  was  transferred 
Kaumin  about  1170.    Wollin  was  burnt  by  Canute  VI.  of.  Den- 
mark in  ]tS3,  and  was  taken  by  the  Swedes  in  1630  and  .1759 
and  by  the  Brandenburgcrs  in  i6;q  and  16;;. 
See  KhuH,  n^  GtschkUt  PalTialstii  <mJ  iet 


Rauir 


»  CBnIi 


ihnrfir  (Cm 

in.  liy):  Haai,  Strni  rid  Enat 
d  Wiam  (Stettin,  i»a4J. 


iuMt^B  ton  dm  Imdn  Uudom  1 

WOLLOHaOHft.  a  snport  of  Camden  county,  New  South 
Wales,  Australia.  40  m.  hy  rail  S,  of  Sydney,  the  third  port  and 
chief  huboBT  on  the  S.  maitt  of  ihe  colony.  Pop.  [1901)  3545, 
Iu  harbour,  known  as  Belaionl  Basin,  is  ciciiv^itFd  out  of  the 
rock,  having  BO  am.  of  3  seres,  snd  a  di^th  of  tS  ft.  at  low  water. 
A  breakwater  protects  its  mouth;  it  hse  a  Ughthoose,  tnd  Is 
defended  by  a  fon  on  Signal  Hill.  ItistbepDrtforiheOsbame- 
Wiliscnd  and  Mount  Pleasant  coUieries.  which  srs  connectod 
with  il  by  nfl.  It  lies  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Eeirs,  amid  fine 
DiDuiilsJn  and  coast  scenery. 

WOLOF  (Wotora,  Joiai),  a  Negroid  peopteof  Senfgal,  French 
West  Airira.  Tbey  occupy  the  seaboard  between  St  Louis  and 
Cope  Verde  and  the  south  bank  of  the  Senegal  from  Its  tnovth 
to  l>agana.  farther  inland  the  districts  of  the  Wslo,  Cayor 
llM>ludJolaf(l}ie  last,  the  name  Ola  chief  division  of  Ihensiion, 

sivriy  ptorJed  by  Wolof.    The  dtin  of  St  Louis  and  I^oksr  are 
both  in  the  Wolof  country,  and  throughout  the  i^rencb  Sudan 


IlK  oU  UoEdoni  of  Ciyor,  the  lai«u  of  Wolof  states;  has  been 
pcescsred  by  the  FiocA.  'neUDg  iselecud,  twt  always  fiwn  the 
mliiw  family,  asd  the  electon.  aonielves  luubig  to  lucceed.  uily 
nunABfouc.  When  decied  the  king  riceiva  a  vue  said  to  contain 
theseedsof  sH  plants  rrowihg  la  Cayor,  and  he  is  thus  made  lord  of 

Ihe  land.    la  eartter  <&y*  Ihn  was  Ihe  Bur  or  "Gna~ 

whom  all  petty  chWs  ssml  aUi«laBea.   The  WoM  ai 
IS  (he  Fiesch,  aid  bi^  ccastaoily  jnivad  tl 


"  Gnat  WoM,"  to 


woLovsKi,  unns  ntufconncHSi  batkokd  (iSio- 

1S76),  French  economist  and  politician,  was  bom  in  Warsaw 
and  educated  In  Paris,  but  returned  to  Warssw  and  took  part  in 
the  revolution  of  1S30.  Sent  to  Parrs  ss  secretary  to  the  legation 
by  the  provisional  government,  he  set  tied  there  on  the  suppression 
of  the  Polish  rebcUton  and  was  naturalised  in  1834.  In  1833  be 
founded  the  Kmu  ie  Ugiilatwii  d  dc  jvriiprwlena,  and  wrote 
voluminously  on  economic  and  financial  subjects.  He  estab- 
lished the  first  Cr&Ht  Foncter  in  France  in  lEji,  and  in  ii6\ 
became  professor  ol  political  economy  at  the  Conservatoire  in 
succession  to  J.  A.  BhinquL  Hi  was  a  member  of  the  national 
assembly  from  1&48  to  1S51,  sod  again  from  1871  till  bis  election 
as  a  senitoe  in  1876.  Be  wu&ttioog  Itee-tndet  and  an  ardent 
bimetaUItu 
Of  his  works  the  following  aie  the  more  Important;  iSobiluetum 

eK*ICii&n(it^:Us'FiiiaiiaidilaRiittu{iS64):LaQiiciliimda 
JBwym  (I  M4) ;  La  L&trU  n  •imirtiiilt  jiKj) -.L' Or  tl  tvgnU  (i  870) . 


{1833-  ),  British  field  marshal,  cMut  son  of  Major  (ismet 
Joseph  Wolteley  ol  the  King^  Own  Borderers  (15th  Foot),  wss 
bom  at  Golden  Bridge,  Co.  Dublin,  on  the  4th  of  )une  1833. 
Educated  at  Dublin,  he  obtained  a  commission  ss  ensign  in  Ihe 
nth  Foot  in  Msrch  1851,  and  was  transferred  to  the  Soth  Foot, 
with  which  he  served  b  the  second  Burmese  War.  He  was 
severely  wounded  on  the  igth  ol  March  1S53  in  the  attack  ol 
Donaby^i,  was  mentioned  In  despatches,  and  received  the  war 
medal-  Promoted  to  be  beutenont  and  invalided  home,  he 
exchanged  mto  the  90th  Light  Infantry,  then  in  Dublin.  He 
accompanied  the  regiment  to  the  Crimea,  End  landed  at  Balaklsva 
in  December  1854.  He  was  selected  to  be  an  assistant  en^neer. 
and  did  duty  with  the  Royal  Engineers  In  the  trenches  before 
Sevastopol.  He  was  promoted  to  be  captain  in  January  1B5;, 
after  )ess  than  three  years'  service,  and  terved  thioughont  Ihe 
sl^e,waswDnndedsttbe  Quarries  on  th«  7th  of  Jone,  and  agam 
in  the  trenches  on  the  joih  of  August.  After  the  fall  of  Sevutopol 
Wolsdey  was  employed  on  the  quartermasler-geaeral's  staS, 
assisted  in  the  embsrtatlon  of  the  troops  and  stores,  and  wis  one 
of  the  lost  to  leave  the  Crimea  in  July  1856.  For  bit  services 
he  was  twice  mentioned  in  deqxtcbcs,  wss  noted  for  a  brevet 
majority,  lecelved  the  war  medal  witb  clasp,  the  sih  clan  of  the 
French  Legion  of  Honour,  tbe  5th  cbiss  of  tbe  Turkish  Mejidie 
and  Ihe  Turkldi  nedaL    After  rii  mODlba'  duty  with  Ihe  goth 


778 


! 


WOLSELEY,  VISCOUNT 


Foot  «t  AMenhoty'  be  went  wHklt  agttii,  in  Much  iSs7f  to  join 
the  ezpedition  to  China  under  Major^Genenl  the  Hon.  T. 
Ashburnham.  Wolseley  embarked- &q  command  of  three  oom- 
panies  in  the  transport  "  Transit,"  whick  was  vrecioed  in  the 
Strait  of  Banka.  The  troops  were  aU  saved,  but  with  only  their 
arms  and  a  few  roaods  of  ammuailion,  and  were  taken  to  Singa* 
pore,  whence,  jod.  acooiut  of  the  Indian  Mutiny,  they  were 
despatched  with  aU  baste  to  Calcutta.  Wolseley  distinguished 
himself  at  the  relief  of  Ludcnow  under  Sir  Cblin  Campbell  in 
November,  and  in  the  defence  of  the  Alambagh  position  under 
Outramr  taking  part  in  the  actions  of  the  sand  of  December  1857, 
the  1 2th  and  x6th  of  January  1858,  and  the  repulse  of  the  grand 
attack  of  the  3ist  of  February.  In  March  he  served  at  the  final 
siege  and  capture  of  Lacknow.  He  was  then  appointed  deputy- 
assistant  quartermaster-general  on  the  staff  of  Sir  Hope  Grant's 
Oudh  division,  and  was  engaged  in  all  the  operations  of  the 
campaign,  including  the  actions  of  Bari,  Sarsi,  NawabganJ,  the 
capture  of  Faizabad,  the  passage  of  the  Cumti  and  the  action  of 
Sultanpur.  In  the  autumn  and  winter  of  1658  he  took  part  in 
the  Baiswara,  tzans-Gogra  and  trans-Rapti  campaigns,  ending 
with  the  complete  suppression  6f  the  rebelli<m.  Fcm*  his  services 
he  was  frequently  mentioned  in  despatches,  and,  having  received 
bis  Crimean  majority  in  March  i8|8,  was  in  April  1859  promoted 
to  be  lieutenant-colonel,  and  leocived  the  Mutiny  medal  and  clasp. 
Wolseley  continued  to  serve  on  Sir  Hope  Grant's  staff  in  Oudh, 
and  when  Grant  was  nomiiated  to  the  coinmdnd  of  the  British 
troops  in  the  Anglo-French  expedition  to  China  in  xS6o,  accom- 
panied him  as  depnty-assistant  <i.uartemiaster*gcneraL  He  was 
present  at  the  action  at  Sin-ho,  the  capture  of  Tang-ku,  the 
storming  of  the  Taku  Forts,  the  occupation  of  Tientsin,  the 
battle  of  Pa-Ie-cheau  and  the  entry  into  ^king.  He  assisted 
in  the  re-embarkation  of  the  troops  before  the  winter  set  in. 
He  was  mentioned  in  despatches,  and  for  his  services  received 
the  medal  and  two  clasps.  On  his  return  home  he  published  the 
NarraHve  of  the  War  with  Ckindin  i860. 

In  November  i86x  Wolseley  was  one  of  the  special  service 
officers  sent  to  Canada  to  make  arrangements  for  the  reception 
of  troops  in  case  of  war  with  the  United  States  in  connexion 
with  the  mail  steamer  "Tient"  incident,  and  when  the  matter 
was  amicably  settled  he  remained  on  the  headquarters  staff  in 
Canada  as  assistant  qnartcrmaster-general.  In  1865  he  became 
a  brevet  colonel,  was  actively  employed  the  following  year  in 
connexion  wit^  the  Fenian  nuds  from  the  United  States,  and  in 
1867  was  appointed  deputy  quartermaster-general  in  Canada. 
In  1869  his  Soldiers'  Pocket  Book  for  Field  Sendee  was  published^ 
and  has  since  run  through  many  editions.  In  1870  he  success- 
fully oommianded  the  Red  rivnr  expedition  to  put  down  a  rising 
under  Louis  Rid  at  Fort  Garry,  now  the  city  of  Winnipeg, 
the  capital  of  Manitoba,  then  an  outpost  in  the  Wilderness, 
which  could  only  be  reached  through  a  network  of  rivers  and 
lakes  extending  for  600  m.  from  Lake  Superior,  traversed  only 
by  Indians,  and  where  no  supplies  were  obtainable.  The  admir- 
able arrangements  made  and  the  careful  organisation  of  the 
transport  reflected  great  credit  .on  the  commander,  who  on  his 
return  home  was  made  K.C.M.G.  and  C.B. 

Appointed  assistant  adjutant-general  at  the  war  office  in 
X87X  he  worked  hard  in  furthering  the  Card  well  schemes  of  army 
reform,  was  a  member  of  the  localization  committee,  and  a  Lc£n 
advocate  of  short  service,  territorial  regiments  and  linked 
battalions.  From  this  time  till  he  became  commander-in- 
chief  Wokcley  was  the  prime  mover  and  the  dedding  influence 
in  practical]^  all  the  steps  taken  at  the  war  office  for  promoting 
th^peffidency  of  the  army  under  the  altered  conditions  of  the 
day.  In  1873  he  commanded  the  expedition  to  Ashanti,  and, 
havtog  made  idl  his  arrangements  at  the  Gold  Coast  before 
the  arrival  of  the  white  troops  in  January  1874,  was  able  to  com* 
plete  the  campaign  in  two  months,  and  re-embark  them.for  home 
before  the  unhealthy  season  began.  This  was  the  campaign 
which  made  his  name  a  housel)pld  word  in  England.  He  fought 
the  battle  of  Amoaful  on  the  3xst  of  January,  and,  after  five 
days'  fighting,  ending  with  the  battle  of  Oadahsa,  entered  Kumasi, 
which  he  btmiKt    He  received  the  thanks  of  both  Houses  of 


ParUament  and  a  gnnt  of  £t5,ooo,  was  promoted  to  be  mft|b«(* 
general  for  distinguished  service  in  the  field,  received  the  medal 
and  dasp  and  was  made  G.C.M.G.  and  K.C.B.   The  freedom 
of  the  dty  of  London  waa  conferred  upon  him  with  a  sword  of 
honour,  and  he  was  made  honorary  B.C.L.  of  Oxford  and  LL.D. 
of  Cambridge  universities.  On  his  return  home  he  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  auxiliary  forces,  but  had  not  held  the  poet 
for  a  year  when,  in  consequence  of  the  native  unrest  in  Natal, 
he  was  sent  to  that  colony  as  governor  and  general  conunandins* 
In  November  -1876  he  accepted  a  seat  on  the  council  of  India, 
from  wfaicA  in  1878,  having  been  promoted  lieutenant-general, 
he  went  as  high-commissioner  to  the  newly  acquired  possession 
of  Cyprus,  and  in  the  following  year  to  South  Africa  to  supersede 
Lord  Chelmsford  in  Command  of  the  forces  in  the  Zulu  War, 
and  as  governor  of  Natal  and  the  Transvaal  and  high  coeho 
missioncr  of  South-East  Africa.    But  on  his  arrival  at  Durban 
in  July  he  found  that  the  war  in  Zvluland  was  practically  over, 
and  after  effecting  a  temporary  settlement  he  went  to  the 
TransvaaL    Having  reorganized  the  administration  there  and 
reduced  the  powerful  chief  Sikuknni  to  submission,  he  returned 
home  in  May  x886and  was  appointed  quartermaster-general  to 
the  forces.   For  his  services  in  Sduth  Afika  he  received  the  Zulu 
medal  with  clasp,  and  was  made  G.C.B. 

In  i88a  he  was  appointed  adjutant-general  to  the  forces/ 
and  in  August  of  that  year  was  given  the  conunand  of  the  British 
forces  in  Egypt  to  suppress  the  rebellion  of  Arabi  F^sha  (see 
Egypt:  Military  Operations).  Having  seized  the  Suez  Canal, 
he  disembarked  his  troops  at  Isniailia,  and  after  a  very  short 
and  brillianl  campaign  oampletely  defeated  Arabi  Pasha  at 
Td'-el^Kebir,  and  suppressed  the  rebellion.  For  his  services 
he  reodved  the  thanks  of  parh'ament,  the  medal  with  clasp, 
the  bronze  star,  was  promoted  general  for  distinguished  service 
in  the  fidd,  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Wolsdey  of  Cairo 
4nd  Woiadey,  and  reodved  froon  the  Khedive  the  ist  class  of 
the  order  of  Uie  Osmanieh.  In  1884  be  was  again  called  away 
from  his  duties  as  adjutant-general  to  conunand  the  Nile  expedi- 
tion for  the  rehef  of  General  Gordon  and  the  besieged  garrison 
of  Khartum.  The  expedition  arrived  too  late:  Khartum  had 
fallen,  and  Gordon  was  dead;  and  in  the  q)ring  of  1885  com- 
plications with  Russia  over  the  Penjddi  inddent  occurred,  and 
the  withdrawal  of  the  e3q)edition  followed.  For  his  services  he 
recdved  two  dasps  to  his  Egjrptian  medal,  the  thanks  of  parlia- 
ment, and  was  crieated  a  viscount  and  a  knight  of  St  Patrick.] 
He  continued  at  the  war  oflioe  as  adjutant-general  to  the  forces 
until  1890,  when  he  was  given  the  command  in  Ireland.  He 
was  promoted  U>  be  field  marshal  in  1894,  and  was  nominated 
colonel  of  the  Royal  Horse  Guards  in  1895,  in  whidi  year  he 
was  appohited  by  the  Unionist  government  to  succeed  the  duke 
of  Cambridge  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces.  This  was 
the  position  to  which  his  great  experience  in  the  field  and  his 
previous  signal  success  at  the  war  oifice  itself  had  fuHy  entitled 
him.  His  powers  were,  however,  limited  by  a  new  order  in 
council,  and  after  holding  the  appointment  for  over  five  years, 
he  handed  over  the  oommand-in-diief  to  Earl  Roberts  at  the 
commencement  of  1901.  The  fact  that  the  unexpectedly  layge 
force  required  for  South  Africa  was  mainly  furnished  by  means 
of  the  system  of  reserves  which  Lord  Wolsdey  had  originated 
was  in  itself  a  high  tribute  to  his  foresight  and  sagadty;  but 
the  new  conditions  at  the  war  office  had  never  been  to  his  lilung, 
and  on  bdng  released  from  responsibility  he  brought  the  whole 
subject  before  the  House  of  Lords  in  a  speech  which  resulted 
in  some  remarkable  disclosures. 

Lord  Wolsdey  had  been  appointed  colonel-in-chief  of  the 
Royal  Irish  Regiment  in  1898,  and  in  1901  was  made  gold" 
stick  in  waiting.  He  married  in  1867  Louisa,  daughter  of  hit 
A.  Erskine,  his  only  child,  Frances,  being  hdress  to  the  viscountcy 
under  special  remainder.  A  frequent  contributor  to  periodicals, 
he  also  published  The  Decline  and  Pall  of  Napoleon  (1895), 
Tfie  Life  of  John  ChurchiU,  Duks  of  Marlborc^g/k,  to  the  Accession 
of  Qween  Anne  (1894),  and  The  Story  of  a  Soldier't  Life  (1903), 
giving  In  the  lasC-named  work  an  accoimt  of  his  career  down  to 
the  dose  of  the  Athand  War. 


mausBY 


779 


•WbVUft  IBOIIAft  '(c  X47}^x53e)>  Eni;U9b  ctrdimil  and 
MafinatMUky  bfltti  at  Ipswich  about  1475,  was  son  of  Robert  Wolaey 
{(W  Wiik7,  as  bM  name  was  always  spelt)  by  his  wife  Joan.'  His 
faibei  is  generally  descaribed  as  k  butcher,  but  he  sold  other  thfaigs 
ttian  meat;  and  ahhougfa  a  man  of  some  piopeny  and  a  chttrdl- 
wavden^f  St  Nicholas,  Ipswich,  his  character  seems  to  hare  borne 
m  itriidng  resenbhoioe  to  that  of  Thomas  Cromwell's  father. 
He  wtu  cDOtitiuaily  being  fined  for  aUowiog  his  pigs  to  stray  in 
the  ttnet,  teliag  bad  meat,  letting  his  house  to  doubtful  char- 
actenfor  llttfal  purpoaes^  and  generally  infringing  the  by-laws 
teheeing  weights  and  measnros  (extracts  from  the  Ipswidi 
feootds,  prijsted  in  the  Atkemuum,  1900,  i.  40o)<  He  died  in 
September  1496,  and  his  wiU,  which  has  been  preserved,  was 
|n«vied  k  few  days  later. 

Thomas  was  educated  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford;  but  the 
details  of  hisuniverBity  cireer  are  dnubtful  owing  to  the  defective- 
ness of*  the  wniversity  and  college  Agisters.  He  is  saki  to  have 
graduated -B. A.  at  {he  age  of  fifteen  {ix,  about  1490);  bat  Ma 
earh'cst  definite  appearaace  in  the  records  is  as  Junior  bursar 
of  Magdalen  College  in  I49$-X499,  and  senior  bursar  in  1499- 
1500,  an  ofltee  he  was-  compelled  to  resign  for  applying  funds 
to  the  completion  of  the  great  tower  without  sufficient  authority 
(W.  D.  Macniy,  Reg.  ^  Magdalen  College^  i.  39^30,  133-134). 
fie  mutt  have  been  elected  fellow  of  Magdalen  some  years  before; 
and  as  master  of  Magdalen  College  school  he  had  under  his 
charge  thite  sons  of  Thomas  Grey,  first  marquess  of  Dorset. 
Dorset's  beneficent  intentions  for  his  sons'  pedagogue  pn>bably 
snggested  Wolscy's  ordination  as  priest  at  Marlborough  on 
March  10,  1498,  and  on  October  xo,  1500,  he  was  instituted, 
on  Dorset's  presentatfon,  to  the  rectory  of  Limington  in  Somerset. 
Bis  connexion  with  Magdalen  had  perhaps  terminated  with  his 
resignation  of  the  bursarship,  though  he  supplicated  for  the 
degrees  of  B>D.  and  D.D.  in  1510;  and  the  college  appears  to 
have  derived  no  advantage  from  Wolscy's  subsequent  greatness. 

At  Limhigton  he  came  into  conflict  with  law  and  order  as 
represented  by  the  sheriff,  Sir  Amias  Paulet,  who  is  said  by 
Cavendish  to  have  phiced  Wolsey  in  the  stocks;  Wolsey  retali- 
ated long  afterwards  by.  confining  Paulet  to  Ids  chambeis  in 
the  Temple  for  five  or  six  years.  Dorset  died  in  1501,  but  Wolsey 
found  other  patrons  in  his  pursuit  of  wealth  and  fame.  Before 
the  end  of  that  year  he  obtained  from  the  pope  a  dispensation 
to  hold  two  livings  in  conjunction  with  Limington,  and  Arch- 
bishop Deane  of  Canterbuiy  abo  appointed  him  his  domestic 
chaplain.  Deahe,  however,  died  in  1503,  and  Wolsey  became 
chaplain  to  Sir  Hfchard  Nanfao,  deputy  of  Calais,  who  apparently 
recommended  him  to  Henry  Vn.  Nanfan  died  in  1507,  but  the 
king  made  Wolsey  his  chaplain  and  employed  him  in  diplomatic 
work.  In  1508  he  was  sent  to  James  IV.  of  Scotland,  and  in 
the  same  year  he  pleased  Henry  by  the  extraordinary  expedition 
with  which  he  crossed  and  recrossed  the  Channel  on  an  emnd 
connected  with  the  king's  proposal  of  marriage  to  Margaret  of 
Savoy.  His  ecclesiastical  preferments,  of  which  he  received 
several  m  1506-1509,  culminated  in  his  appointment  by  Heniy 
to  the  deanery  of  Lincoln  on  February  4, 1 509. 

Henry  VIII.  made  Wolsey  Ms  almoner  immetfiately  on  his 
accession,  and  the  receipt  of  some  half-dozen  further  ecclesiastical 
preferments  in  the  first  two  years  of  the  reign  marks  his  growth 
in  royal  favour.  But  if  was  not  till  towards  the  end  of  1511  that 
Wolsey  I)ecamc  a  privy  councillor  and  secured  a  controlling  voice 
in  the  government.  His  influence  then  made  itself  felt  on  English 
policy.  The  young  king  took  little  pains  wilh  the  government, 
and  the  control  of  affairs  was  shared  between  the  clerical  and 
peace  party  led  by  Richard  Fox  {q.v.)  and  Archbishop  Warharti, 
and  the  secular  and  war  party  led  by  Surrey.  Hitherto  pacific 
counsels  had  on  the  whole  prevailed;  but  Wolsey,  who  was  nothing 
If  not  turbulent,  turned  the  balance  in  favour  of  war,  and  his 
marvellous  administrative  energy  first  found  full  scope  in  the 
preparations  for  the  JEnglish  expedition  to  Biscay  in  1512,  and 
for  the  campaign  in  northern  France  in  1513.  He  brought  about 
the  peace  with  France  and  marriage  between  Mary  Tudor  and 
Louis  XII.  in  1514,  and  reaped  his  reward  in  the  bishoprics  of 
Ltncob  and  Toumai,  the  archbishopric  of  York,  which  was 


conferred  frcnYAA  by  lispil'btdl'In^S^litbnlbtt,  ahd  th«  ctrdinal- 
ate  vhich  he  had  sent  Po^dMe  Vei^  to  beg  from  Leo  X.  in 
May  X  514,  but  did  not  receive  till  the  following  year.  Neverthe- 
less, when  Frauds  I.  in  1-515  soootodtd  Lords  XU.  and  wod  the 
battle  of  Marignano,  Wolsey  took  the  iMd  in  astisting  the 
emperor  Maxindlian  to  oppose  hhn;  and  this  rovival  of  warlike 
detfgns  was  resented  by  Rn  aAd  Waiiuan,  wiio  retired  from 
the  government,  leaving  Wbfcey  supfeme.  ■  Maxiiiilian  proved 
a  broken  leed,  and  in  fsrSWdseybfOught  about  a  general 
!]acificatk>n,  secwing  at  (hs  dhase  ttee  his  cppbintaient  as 
legate  d  iaikre  in  England.  Kb  tSius  anpasseded  Washam,  who 
was  Ugatus  luOus,  in  ecdesiastieal  abtbority;  and  thoagh  Ugaie^ 
i  latere  were  supposed  to  eierdie:oiily  apedal  ami  temporary 
powers,  Wblsey  seeured  the  pmetical  pannnieBcfe  of  his  oflke. 

The  electkm  of  Chsariss  V,  as  ^mpemr  in  1519  brought  tlie 
rfvahy  betwectt  him  and  Frauds  I«  toa  head/and  Wolsey  w«s 
mainly  responsible  for  tho  httftnde  adopted  by  fhe  English 
govwnmeht.  Both  monarchs  weip<ta#e9  for  Enghuid's  alliance, 
and  their  suit  enabled  Wolsey  to  appear  for  the  menent  as  the 
arbiter  of  Bunope.  Engiaiid^  cosmuetdal  fefaltions  with  Charles 
V.'s  subjects  in  the  Netbedaads  put  ^r  with  the  emperor  almost 
out  of  the  questiOQ;  and  ctei  observers  thought  that  England's 
obvJoQs  policy  was  to  stand  by  while  the  two  rtvals  enfeebled 
each  other,  and  Uien  make- her  own  proifit  out  of  thdr  weakness. 
But,  although  a  gorgeous  show  of  friendship  witih  France  was 
kept  .up  at  the  FieUof  Ctoth  of  Cold  in  r59o,  it  had  been  detar- 
mined  before  the  conference  of  Caliis  in  ^511,  at  which  Wobey 
pretended  to  adjudicate  ob  the  merits  of  the  d^ute,  to  side 
actively  with  Charlco  V. '  Wofcey  liad  vested  interosts  In  such  a 
policy.  Parliament  had  in  t5i3«*x5i5  showed  signs  of  strong 
anti-clerical  feeling;  Wolsey  had  in  the  better  year  urged  its 
spiiedy  dissolution,  and  had  not  called  another;  and  he  prob- 
ably hoped  to  distrsct  attention  from  the  church  by  a  spirited 
foreign  policy,  as  Hertty  V.  hadf  done  a  centuiy  beforo.  He  had, 
moreover,  received  assuvances  from  the  emperor  that,  he  would 
further  Wokey's  e&ndidaturo  for  the  pap«cy;  and  although  be 
protested  to  Henry  VIII.  that  he  would  rather  continue  in  faia 
service  than  be  ten  popes,  that  did  not  prevent  him  from  secretly 
instructing  hito  agents  at  Rome  topttsv hik  daims  to  the  otmosL 
Charles,  however,  pdid  Wolsey  theshicere  compliment  of  thinking 
that  he  would  not  b6«uflicientlyBubservient  on  the  papal  throne; 
while  he  wrote  lettenpfn  Wolscy's  favour,,  he  took  care  that  they 
Should  not  reach  thdr  destination  In  lime;  and  Weieey  faited 
to  secure  election  both  in  ^521  and  1594.  Tbis  ambition  dis- 
tinguishes his  foreign  polity  from  that  of  Henry  VII.,  to  which  it 
has  been  likened*  Henry  VII.  cued  only  for  EngUnd;  Wolsey'to 
object  was  to  play  a  great  part  on  th^  European  stage.  The  aim 
of  the  one  was  national,  thatof  tbeotherwasoecumenical. 

In  any  case  the  decision  taken  in  1 5a  i  was  a  blunder.  Wolsejr^ 
assistance  helped  Charles  V.  to  that  position  of  predominance 
which  was  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  defeat  and  capture  of 
Prands  I.  at  Pavia  in  1525;  and  the  balance  of  powelr  upon 
which  Enghind's  influence  rested  was  destroyed.  Her  efforts 
to  restore  it  in  i526-r528  were  ineffectual;  her  prestige  had 
depended  upon  her  repotation  for  wealth  derived  from  the  fact 
that  she  had  acted  in  recent  years  as  the  paymaster  of  Europe. 
But  Henry  VII.'s  accumulations  had  disappeared;  parilament 
resisted  in  1523  the  imposition  of  new  titxation;  and  the  attempts 
to  raise  forced  loans  and  benevolences  in  1526*1526  created  a 
storm  of  oppontion.  Still  nxyre  unpopular  was  the  brief  war  with 
Charles  V.  in  which  Wolsey  involved  England  in  1528.  The  sack 
of  Rome  in  1527  and  the  defeat  of  the  French  before  Kafdea 
in  1528  confirmed  Charles  V.'s  supremacy.  Peace  was  made  in 
1529  between  the  two  rivals  without  England  being  consulted, 
and  her  influence  at  Wolscy's  fafi  was  less  than  it  had  been  at 
his  accession  to  power. 

This  failure  reacted  upon  Wolsey's  position  at  home.  Hia 
domestic  was  sounder  than  Ms  foreign  peUcy:  by  his  develop- 
ment of  the  star  chamber,  by  his  firm  administration  of  Justice 
and  maintenance  of  order,  and  by  his  repression  of  feudal 
jurisdiction,  he  rendered  great  services' to  the  monarchy.  But 
the  inevitable  opposition  of  the  nobility  to  this  policy  was  not 


78? 


WOLTBR 


mitigated  by  the  iKt  tint  it  W$k  dutied  out  1^  a  chttidimftn; 
tlie  result  was  to  embitter  tbc  aatafcmum  of  the  secular  party 
to  tbe  church  and  to  cooceAtiate  it  upon  Woliey'a  head.  The 
control  of  the  ptiptucy  by  Cfaaries  V.,  moreover,  made  it  impossible 
for  Wohey  to  suoOMd  in  hia  efforta  to  obtain  from  Clement  VII. 
the  divorce  which  Heniy  VIII.  waa  seeking  from  Charles  V.'s 
aunt,  Catherine  of  Axifoa.  An  inacfiption  on  a  contempoiaiy 
portrait  of  Wolaey  at  Anas  caUa  him  the  author  of  the  divorce, 
and  Roman  Catholic  historians  from  Sanders  downwards  have 
generally  adopted  the  view  that  Wobey  advocated  this  measure 
merely  as  a  means  to  bceak  Enghmd's  alliance  with  Spain  and 
con&rm  its  alhance  with  France.  This  view  is  unliistorical, 
and  it  ignores  the  various  personal  and  national  motives  wUch 
lay  behind  that  movement.  These  is  no  evidence  that  Wolsey 
first  suggested  the  dwocce,  though  when  he  found  that  Henry 
was  bent  upon  it,  he  pressed  for  two  points:  0*)  that  an  applicar 
tion  should  be  made  to  Rome,  instead  of  deciding  the  matter  in 
England^  and  (iL)  that  Heniy^  wha  divorcedi  should  many  a 
French  princess. 

The  appeal  to  Rome  was  a  natural  couiae  to.  be  advocated  by 
Wolsey,  whoae  despotism  over  the  English  church  depended  upon 
an  authority  derived  from  Rome;  but  it  was  probably  a  mistake. 
It  ran  counter  to  the  ideaa  suggested  in  1527  on  the  captivity  of 
dement  VII.,  that  England  and  f  ranee  should  set  up  indepen- 
dent patriarchates;  and  its  success  depended  upon  the  problem- 
atical destruction  of  Charles  V.'s  power  in  Italy.  At  fixst  this 
seemed  not  improbable;  French  armies  marched  south  on 
Naples,  and  the  pope  sent  Campeggio  with  full  powers  to  pro- 
nounce the  divorce  in  England.  But  he  had  hardly  started  when 
the  French  were  defeated  in  1518;  their  ruin  was  completed 
in  1519,  and  Clement  VII.  was  oUiged  to  come  to  terms  with 
Charles  V.,  which  ihchided  Campeggio's  recall  in  August  1529. 

Wolsey  deariy  foresaw  his  own  fall,  the  oooaequent  attack 
on  the  church  and  the  triilmph  of  the  secular  party.  Parliar 
ment,  which  he  had  kept  at  arm's  length,  waa  hostile;  he  was 
hated  by  the  nobility,  and  his  general  unpopularity  is  reflected 
in  Skelton's  satires  and  in  Hall's  Cktvmde,  Even  churchmen 
had  been  alienated  by  Jiis  suppresskn  of  flumasteries  and  by  his 
monopoly  of  ecdesiastieal  po^mer;  and  his  only  support  was  the 
king,  who  had  now  developed  a  determination  to  rule  himself. 
He  surrendered  all  his  offices  and  mXL  his  preferments  ezc^t  the 
archbi^iDpric  of  York,  reoeKring  in  retoni  a  pension  of  xooo 
marks  (equal  to  six  or  seven  thousand  pounds  a'year  in  modem 
currency)  from  the  bishopric  of  Winchester,  and  retired  to  bis  see, 
whidi  he  had  never  before  visited.  A  bill  of  attainder,  passed  by 
the  Lords,  was  rejectid  at  Cromwett^s  instigation  and  probably 
with  Henry's  goodwill  by  the  Commons.  The  last  lew  months 
of  his  life  were  spent  in  the  exemplary  discharge  of  his  archi- 
episcopal  duties;  but  a  not  altogether  unfounded  suspicion  that 
he  had  invoked  the  assistance  of  Francis  I.,  if  not  of  Charles  V. 
and  the  pope,  to  prevent  his  fall  Involved  him  in  a  charge  of 
tresjson.  He  was  summoned  to  London,  but  died  on  his  way  at 
Leicester  abbey  on  November  50,  and  was  buried  there  on  the 
followiogday. 

I1ie  completeness  of  Wolsey's  fall  enhanced  his  former  appear- 
ance of  greatness,  and,  bidted,  he  is  one  of  the  outstanding  figures 
in  English  history.  His  quah'ties  and  his  defects  were  alike 
exhibited  on  a  generous  sode;  and  if  his  greed  and  arrogance 
were  colossal,  so  were  his  administrative  capacity  and  his  appetite 
for  work.  **  He  is,"  wrote  the  Venetian  ambassador  Giustiniani, 
,**  very  handsome,  learned,  extremely  eloquent,  of  vast  ability 
and  indefatigable.  He  abne  transacts  the  business  which 
occupies  all  the  magistrates  and  councils  of  Venice,  both  civil 
and  criminal;  and  all  state  afiaira  axe  maiuigcd  by  him,  let  their 
nature  be  what  it  may.  He  is  grave,  and  has  the  reputation  of 
being  extremely  just;  he  favours  the  pec^  exceedingly,  and 
especially  the  poor,  hearing  their  suits  and  seeking  to  despatch 
them  instantly."  As  &  dipbmatist  he  has  had  few  rivals  and 
perhaps  no  superion^  But  his  pride  wis  equal  to  his  abilities. 
The  familiar  diaige,  repeated  in  Shakespeare,  of.  having  written 
EsP  et  meus  rtx,  while  true  in  fact,  is  false  in  intention,  because 
no  Latin  schcJar  could  put  the  words  in  any  other  order;  but 


it  reflects  faithful^  enough  Wolsey's  mental  attitude.    iSha- 
tiniani  explains  that  he  had  to  make  proposals  to  the  ^w*i«M 
before  he  broached  them  to  Henry,  lest  Wolsey  "  should  reseat 
the  precedence  conceded  to  the  king.'*   "  He  is,"  wrote  another 
diplomatist,  "  the  proudest  preUite  that  ever  breathed."    He 
arrogated  to  himself  the  privileges  of  royalty,  made  servants 
attend  him  upon  their  kneies,  compelled  biahofw  to  tie  his  shoe* 
latchets  and  dukes  to  hold  the  basin  while  he  wadied  his  hands^ 
and  considered  it  condescension  when  he  aUowed  ambassadors 
to  kiss  his  fingers;  he  paid  little  heed  to  their  sacrosanct  ciiaiw 
acter,  and  himself  laid  violent  hands  on  a  papal  nuncio.    His 
egotism  equalled  Henry  VIU;'s;  his  jealousy  and  Hi-treatment 
of  Richard  Pace,  dean  of  St  Paul's,  referred  to  by  Shakespeare 
but  vehemently  denied  by  Dr  Brewer,  has  been  proved  by  the 
pubUcatjon  of  the  Spanish  state  papers;  and  Polydore  Vergil, 
the  historian,  and  Sir  R.  Sheffield,  speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  were  both  sent  to  the  Tower  for  o^plaining  of  his 
conduct.    His  morals  were  of  the  laxest 'descriptk>n,  and  be 
had  •»  many  illegitimate  children  as  Henry  VIII.  himself.    For 
his  son,  before  he  was  eighteen  years  old,  he  procured  a  deanery, 
four  archdeaconries,  five  prebends  and  a  chancellorship,  and  he 
sought  to  thrust  him  into  the  bishopric  of  Durham.   For  hifflsell 
he  obtained,  in  addition  to  his  archbishopric  and  lord  chancellor- 
ship, the  abbey  of  St  Albans,  reputed  to  be  the  richest  in  England* 
and  the  bishopric  first  of  Bath  and  Wells,  then  of  Durham,  and 
firmlly  that  of  Winchester.    He  also  used  his  power  to  extort 
enormous  pensions  from  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I«  and  lavish 
gifts  from  English  suitors.    His  New  Year's  presents  were 
reckoned  by  Ciuatiniani  at  15,000  ducats,  and  the  emperor  paid 
—or  owed-— him- 18,000  livres  a  year.    His  palaces  outshone 
those  of  his  king,  and  few  monarchs  could  afford  such  a  disphiy 
of  plate  as  conunonly  graced  the  cardinal's  table.    His  jfounda- 
tions  at  Oxford  and  Ipswich  were,  nevertheless,  not  made  out  of 
his  superabundant  revenues,  but  out  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
dissolution  of  monasteries,  not  all  .of  which  were  devoted  to  those 
laudable  objects. 

That  such  a  man  would  ever  have  used  the  unparalleled  powers 
of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  with  which  he  had  been  entrusted 
for  a  genuine  reformation  of  the  church  is  only  a  pious  opinion 
cherished  by  those  who  regret  that  the  Reformation  was  left  for 
the  secular  arm  to  achieve;  and  it  is  useless  to  plead  lack  of 
opportunity  on  behalf  of  a  man  who  for  sixteen  years  had  enjoyed 
an  authority  never  before  or  since  wielded  by  an  English  subject. 
Wolsey  must  be  judged  by  his  deeds  and  not  by  doubtful  in- 
tentions. During  the  first  half  of  his  government  he  material]^ 
strengthened  the  Tudor  monarchy  by  the  vigorous  administration 
of  justice  at  home  and  by  the  brilliance  of  his  foreign  policy 
abroad.  But  the  prestige  he  secured  by  1521  was  delusive; 
its  decline  was  as  rapid  as  its  growth,  and  the  expense  of  the 
poliqr  involved  taxation  whidi  seriously  weakened  the  loyalty 
of  the  people.  The  concentration  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  power 
by  Wols^  in  the  hands  of  a  churchman  provided  a  precedent  for 
its  concentration  by  Henry  VIII.  in  the  hands  of  the  crown; 
and  the  personal  example  of  lavish  ostentation  and  loose  morals 
which  the  cardinal-archbisliop  exhibited  cannot  have  been 
without  influence  on  the  kingf  who  grew  to  maturity  under 
Wolsey 's  guidance. 

The  LtUtrs  and  Papers  of  Henry.  VIIL^  vols.  i.-iv.,  supplemented 
by  the  Spanish  and  Venetian  Calendars,  contain  almost  all  that  is 
known  of  Wolsey's  public  career,  though  hdditional  light  on  the 
divorce  has  been  thrown  by  Stephen  Eases'  Rdmische  DokumenU 
(1893).  .  Cavendish's  biief  Life,  whidi  is  almost  contemporary,  has 
been  often  edited.  Fiddes's  huge  tome  (172^)  is  fairly  exhaustive. 
Brewer,  in  his  elaborate  prefaces  to  the  LeUers  and  Paters  (reissued 
as  his  History  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  VIII.),  originated  modern  ad* 
miration  for  Wolsey;  and  nis  views  are  reflected  m  Crcighton's 
WoUey  \n  the  "Twelve  EngKsh  Statesmen"  series,  and  in  Dr 
Gairdner't  careful  articles  in  thp  Did,  Nat,  Biog.  and  Cambridgf 
Modem  History,  A  less  enthusiastic  view  is  adopted  in  H.A.  L. 
Fisher's  volume  (v.)  in  Longmans'  Political  History  (1006)  and  in 
A.  F.  Pollard's  Henry  VIII,  (190a  and  1905;.  (A.  F.  P.) 

W0LTER,  CHARLOTTE  (XB34-Z897),  Austrian  actress,  was 
bom  at  Cologne  on  tbc  ist  of  March'  1834,  and  began  her  artistic 
career  at  Budapest  in  18^7.  -She  played  minor  parts  at  the  Kad 


WOLVERHAMPTON,  VISeODNT-^WOMBAT 


781 


.     »iNt. 

w  fif  IphigeniKi  in  wblck  rtls  >be 

.  ChutoUB  Wella  ww  □« 
.  tfar  Kpertory 
iBdoiM  UhIu,  Sqipbii,  L>d)>  Uubctb,  Ifaiy  Stout,  Pteckru, 
rUdi^  Adiienna  Latninmir,  Jane  Eyre  aiid  Meuliiu,  in 
wMcfa  dunctM  iba  mt  tnunaittUnd  bjr  Ihe  punter  Huu 
Uakut.  SbtwuabaUinlaiitablecipoiiaitaltliahaaDain 
ptajn  bjt  Cidlpuwv  IMilKl,  Damwwd  S«dau. 
Sh  EkiwihU.  CtorisOt  Vilbr  (Vlnm.  i8t7):      Hindildd. 

VOLVKRHAMFHW,   UXHKY    BUIUT    HWUR.    Vo- 

cODBT(i«j»-       (.EngBih  ~     ■ 

tb«  i6lh  of  Miy  1830.     Ht  .      . 

WoInrhunploD,  and 'coming  of  o-  LibcimJ  BODConroTtniit  funily 
iaokipnnniainl  paittD  politic!.  In  iSSo  ba  mi  elected  Libsnl 
■nenbei  ot  pirliamant  lor  Wotvethanlptoa.  and  w»  n-declo] 
for  the  eul  division  at  ntccaern  coirtciti.  In  i8S4'-iSSj  be 
WM  undd-Kcretuy  lor  the  Borne  Office,  ud  in  1S86  fiiiaodid 
tccielsiytolhetreuaty.  In  Hi  GladnoDe^  1891-1)94  inintstry 
he  KU  preaiikal  of  the  IochI  gavonnoit  board,  and  in  Loid 
RoMbety'i  cshinel,  1*5^-1895.  iccteury  of  tiate  for  India. 
In  these  and  the  «icce«Ung  years  ol  opposition  he  was  recogniied 
as  a  sound  economist  and  a  sober  adnuniimlof,  ai  well  ai  1 
udivasajljr  ropecttid  Tepiestntative  of  Donconfonniit  views. 

diancellor  of  Ihe  dncfay  of  Lancastec,  ud  be  rMaihed  thil  office 
in  Ur  Aiquilb'a  ministcx,  but  ni  tniufened  la  tbe  Haute  of 
Lords  wilh  ■  viKsiintcy  (April  1008).  Heretir«l  in  1910.  His 
dmghler,  Ellen  Tbomeyenrft  Fowltr,  who  married  Mi  A.  L. 
Fdkin  in  1903,  becsme  well  known  aa  >  noveliM  with  hex  Cut- 
.mint  IiabdCanutiyUSgS)  and  other  boolu. 

WOLVBBHAIIPTOM,  a  nuliM  tomi,  and  munidpal,  countT 
Add  puUamaAtary  boRHigb  of  Staffordsbire,  England,  T15  m. 
N.W.  InxB  London  by  tbe  London  A  Nonb-Weitern  ciilwiy, 
tami  also  by  ibe  conbem  line  <d  tbe  GnU  Wnlein  and  by 
a  branch  ol  the  Midland  lailwiy.  Fop.  (1891)  8i,tli;  (1901) 
^,187.  It  lies  at  Ibe  Borth-WBtein  ed|e'of  tbe  Enup  of  great 
iniinhclarfiig  tewna  extending  S.£.  to  Blnningbain,  but  there 
■re  pleasant  tesideDlial  rabnibt  to  tbe  wot,  where  the  country  ii 
rich  and  well  wooded.  Tbe  illualiaa  li  devated  and  healthy. 
The  church  of  St  Peter  is  a  fine  ciudfonn  buihtiog.  with  S. 
porch  and  central  tower-  The  lower  part  of  the  lower  and  the 
S.  transept  date  from  the  13th  cntucy;  the  nave,  clcrestoiy, 
itpper  part  of  the  lower  and  N.  transept  from  the  15th;  the 
chancd  was  rthuilt  in  the  restoradoo,  coapleled  in  186s,  with  an 
•piidal  termination.  The  cUef  public  bDltdings  are  tbe  town 
hall  (1B71),  eickange,  agricuKunl  hall,  IreeUbnty  and  tbeatn*. 
A  large  tree  grammar  achoal,  ioaaded  In  iji;  by  Sir  Stephen 
Jermyns,  a  native  of  tbe  town  and  aldennan  of  Londoa,  occnples 
nodera  bulUfnp  (1876).  There  ana  Blue  Coat  icbaal  (iiie) 
and  a  acbool  of  art.     The  benevolent  intCHatioiu  tBduda  a 


Quoen  Squan  ii  an  equealiian  slatiu  oi  Albert,  Prince  Coomt. 
unveiled  by  Queen  Victoria  in  1866,  and  on  Enow  HUI 1  ataiue 

(i8ro)  of  Charles  Pelham  Villien.  There  are  parks  on  the  evit 
and  wsl  of  the  town,  ud  a  new  racecourse  (1S8;)  replaces  that 
fomxriy  on  the  «le  of  the  wen  park.  In  the  district  S.  and  E. 
of  Wolverhampton  (the  Black  Country)  coal  and  ironatone  arc 
mined.  Iianmangeiy  and  itetl  goods  ol  all  kindi,  especialiy 
locks,  machinery,  tool*  and  cycles,  arc  produced;  there  are 
also  tia  and  dnc  vorlu.  Uirge  agrindtwal  markcla  are  supi^ed 
from  the  disttfcti  W.  and  N.  of  Ihe  town.  An  annual  fair  I9  held 
at  Wbirsunlide.  In  1901  an  industrial  and  art  eihibition  was 
held.  The  parliamenUry  borough  ol  Wolverhampton  has  three 
divisions,  each  letuminf  one  member.     The  town  is  governed 


acres.  WEDmsFnio  0>op.  4883),  Huth  Town  or  weonesneia 
Heath  (9441)  ud  WlIumuLL  (18.515)  are  neighbouring  urban 
dielricla,  nilhp^uUtionseniplftyed  in  the  manufaetuecd  locks, 
keys  and  tmaU  iron  goodi,  In  iion  and  biass  fonadilct,  vamU 
works,  Sc. 

The  town  of  Walverhamplon  (HimJent,  Wtltrnekamtltmt, 
Waliinukamflm)  seen*  to  have  grown  up  round  tbe  church  ol 
St  Mary,  aflerwaidi  the  royal  free  chapel  of  Wolverbait^tea, 
probably  founded  in  99G  1^1  Wulfnina,  widow  of  tbe  earl  of 
Northampton,  who  in  that  year  endowed  it  with  eitenaive  land^ 
Hie  estates  oE  the  clerks  ol  Handone  are  enumerated  In  Donu** 
day.  In  1 904  John  gnnted  the  manor  of  Wolverhampton  lo  tbe 
chuKji,  ud  at  the  Hetotmatiao  it  wm  held  by  the  dean  of  tbe 
coUegiite  body;  in  15S3  Edtntd  VL  granted  Ihe  college  and 
maDOr  to  Duiley,  duke  of  Nortfaunberivid,  bat  Mary,  at  the 
beginning  of  her  reign,  rctounded  tbe  college  and  restored  to  it  kl 
(iropeity,  and  Ihit  inangeineiit  was  confirmed  by  Elinbeth. 
Henry  III,  (1138)  granted  tbe  Wednesday  raaiiet,  which  Is  HiK 
held,  and  a  fair  for  eight  days,  he^ning  u  tbe  eve  o(  tbe  lean 
of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  0<ine  39),  During  tbe  Oreat  RebeUIoB 
the  sympathies  of  Wolverhampton <weTe  royalist.  In  1645  il 
for  a  time  tbe  headqnarten  of  Prince  Rnperl,  while  CI     '     ~ 


Uyat 


.    All! 


!  IJth  C< 


wie  esteemed  Ibe  secund  market  in  the  c 
account  of  Wolverhampton  published  in  1751  stated  Chat  the 
cbiei  loannfaciure  was  locks,  "bae  being  the  most  ingenkua 
lockanlibs  in  England,"  and  atuibuied  tbe  slow  growth  of  the 
town  to  the  fact  that  most  of  tbe  land  wna  church  property. 
Wolverhampton  was  incoi^iated  in  1B4S  as  a  municipal  bomu^ 
It  waa  not  represented  in  parliament  until  after  the  passing  of  tbe 
Kefonn  Bill  (1839),  under  nhich  it  returned  two  members  untfl 
in  iSSs  (he  lepraentaiion  was  increased  to  three.  Tbe  count]' 
borough  dales  from  1888. 

WOLVnTOM,  a  town  in  the  Buckingham  parHamentary 
diTtrioBi  Of  Buddn^ianiahire,  Eo^and,  ne^r  (he  river  Ouse, 

rt  m.  N.W.  by  N.  of  London  by  the  London  &  North-Weslern 

Lilway.  Pop,  (1901)  53J3.  Its  modern  growth  and  importance 
are  tlw  result  ol  the  estaUisbment  oi  carriage  works  by  the 
railway  company.  Tliere  are  also  printing  works.  A  steam 
tramway  eonneCti  tbe  town  with  the  dd  market  town  ol  Stony 
Stratford  oB  the  Onsa,  >  m.  W. 

WOMBAT,  the  title  of  the  typical  representatives  ol  the 
numupial fimOy Pkucs/oMyufiiE (see MAasupiALu],  Theyhave 
tbe  dental  formula:  b|,e,  t,f. -),••.  l:-t4..    All  Ihe  teeth  art 


Taimaniin  Wbmbat  (MuMlniyi  uniiat}, 
19  gRiwlh.  bav4ng  persistent  pnlpa,     Tbe  fnoaon 
large  and  chisd-like.  much  as  in  rodents.    The  body  Is  broad 
depressed,  the  Deck  short,  the  bead  large  and  flat,  the  eyo 
11  ud  the  tail  rudimentary  and  bidden  in  the  lui.     Tbe 


F8? 


WOMBWELL-T^WOMBN 


a    «  4 


f  imbs  .ane  equal,  fttoiift  and  short.  The  feet  have  bioad,  naked, 
tuberciUaied  sc4eft;  the  forefeet  with  five  distinct  toes,  each 
lumished  with  a  kng,  strong  and  sU^tly  carved  nail,  the  fint 
and  fifth  oonsidciably  shorter  than  the  othier  three.  The  hind- 
ieet  have  a  very  short  naiUeas  fint  toe;  the  second,  third  and 
fourth  toes  partially  united  by  integument,  of  nearly  equal 
kngtb;  the  fifth  distinct  and  rather  shorter;  these  four  are 
pnyvided  with  bng  and  curved  nails.  In  the  typical  gnnip  of 
the  genus  Phascolomys  we  find  the.  following  diaracters: — Fur 
rough  and  coarse;  ears  short  and  rounded;  mnssle  naked; 
postorbital  process  of  the  frontal  bone  obsolete;  ribs  fifteen 
pairs.' •  Vertebrae:  C  7,  D.  15*  L.  4,  S.  4,  Ca.  io>i3.  The 
wombat  of  Tasmaniaand  theisiajDuiB  of  Bass's  Straits  {P.  utsimis), 
and  the  closely  similar  but  larger  P.  piatyrkinus  of  the  southern 
portion  of  the  mainland  of  Australia,  belong  to  this  group.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  faatry^noaed  wombat  (jP.  lati/rous)  of 
S^ttthem  Australia,  the  fur  is  smooth  and  silky;  the  ears  are 
large  and  more  pointed;  the  muzzle  is  hairy;  the  frontal  region 
jol  the  skuILis  broader  than  in  thk  other  section,  with  well-marked 
pQStorbital  processes;  and  there  are  thirteen  ribs.  Vertebrae: 
C  '7,D.  13,  L.  6,  S.  4,  Ca.  x  s-x6. 

In  general  form  and  action  wombats  resemble  small  beam, 
having  a  somewhat  similar  shuffling  manner  of  walking,  buttfafey 
are  still  shorter  in  the  legs,  and  have  a  broader  and  flatter  back. 
They  live  entirely  on  the  ground,  or  in  burrows  or  hoks  among 
rocks,  and  feed  on  grass,  roots  and  other  vegetable  substances. 
They  sleep  during  the  day,  but  wazKler  forth  at  night  in  search 
i)f  food,  and  are  shy  and  gentle,  though  they  can  bite  strongly 
when  provoked.  The  only  noise  the  Tasmanian  wombat  makes 
is  a  low  hissing,  but  the  hairy-nosed  wombat  is  said  to  emit  a 
short  quick  grunt  when  annoyed.  The  prevailing  colour  of 
the  last-named  species,  as  well  as  P.  ursinus  of  Tasmania,  u 
brownish  grey.  Tlie  large  wombat  of  the  mainland  is  variable 
in  colour,  some  individuals  being  pale  yellowish  brown,  others 
dark*  grey  and  some  black.  The  length  of  the  head  and  body 
is  about  3  ft.  Fossil  remains  of  wombats,  some  of  larger  size 
than  any  now  existing,  have  been  found  in  caves  and  Pleistocene 
deposits  in  Australia.  (R.  L.  *) 

WOMBWBLLt  an  urban  district  in  the  Barnsley  parliamentary 
division  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  £n|^d,  4  m.  S.E. 
of  Barnsley,  on  the  Great  Central  and  Midland  railways.  The 
inhabitants  aro  chiefly  employed  in  the  extensive  collieries. 
Pop.  (xgox)  13,352. 

WOMEN.  The  very  word  "woman"  (O.  Eng.  vdfmann), 
ctymcriogically  meaning  a  wife  (or  the  wife  division  of  the  human 
race,  the  female  of  the  species  Homo),  sums  up  a  long  history  of 
dependence  and  subordination,  from  which  the  women  of  to-day 
have  only  gradually  emancipated  themselves  in  such  parts  of 
the  world  as  come  under  "  Western  civilization."  Though 
married  life  and  its  duties  necessarily  form  a  predominant  element 
in  the  woman's  sphere,  they  are  not  necessarily  the  whole  of  it; 
and  the  "  woman^s  movement "  is  essentially  a  struggle  for  the 
recognition  of  equality  of  opportunity  with  men,  and  for  equal 
rights  irrespective  of  sex,  even  if  special  relations  and  conditions 
are  willingly  incurred  under  the  form  of  partnership  involved 
in  marriage.  The  difficulties  of  obtaining  this  recognition  are 
obviously  due  to  historical  causes  combined  with  the  habits  and 
customs  which  history  has  produced. 

The  dependent  position  of  women  in  early  law  is  proved  by 
the  evidence  of  most  ancient  systems  which  have  in  whole  or 
BMriytaw,  ^"  ^'^^  descended  to  us.'  In  the  Mosaic  law  divorce 
was  a  privilege  of  the  husband  only,'  the  vow  of  a 
woman  might  be  disallowed  by  her  father  or  husband,'  and 
daughters  could  inherit  only  in  the  absence  of  sons,  and  then 
they  mast  marry  in  their  tribe.*  The  guilt  or  innocence  of  a 
wife  accused  of  adultery  might  be  tried  by  the  ordeal  of  the 
bitter  water.*    Besides  these  instance^  which  illustrate  the 

t  -^  But  in  the  earliest  extant  code,  however,  that  of  KhaAimurabi, 
,the  position  of  women  was  free  and  dignified.    See.  Babylonian 

J*AW. 

'  Deut.  xxiv.  I.  •  Numb.  xxx.  3. 

'   '  Nvmb.  Kxvii.,  xavL  *  Nxuab*  v.  11. 


sabocdinatjon  of  wooHh,. there  was  AMich  kgislatioii  detUag  with, 
safer  aliot  oSencea  against  chastity,  and  marriage  of «  man  with 
a  captive  heathen  woman  or  witb  a  piifchaaad  slave.  So  f^r 
from  second  marriages  being  reatiwiied,  as  they  wen  h^r  Christian 
legislatioD,  it  was  the  duty  of  a  rhadksii  widow  to  many  her 
deceased  husband's  brother.  In  India  aubjectioii  was  a  casdiaal 
principle.  "  Day  and  night  must  women  be  held  by  their  pro> 
lectors  in  a  state  of  dependence,"  says  Manu.*  The  rate  of  inr 
heritance  was  agnatic,  that  is,  descent  traced  throng  mala 
lo  the  exclusion  of  lemaka.*  The  gradual  growth  of  xMdAMs, 
or  property  of  a  woman  given  by  the  husband  before  or  alter 
marriage,  or  by  the  wife's  family,  may  have  led  to  the  suttee, 
for  both  the  family  of  the  widow  itnd  the  »*— H-^n^  had  ui 
interest  in  getting  the  life  estate  of  a  woman  out  of  the  way.* 
Wonen  in  Hindu  h^w  had  only  limited  rights  of  inhttitance, 
and  were  disqualified  as  witnesses. 

In  BomM  hiw  a  wonuui  was  even  in  hisUiric  times  oampletely 
dependent.  If  married  she  and  her  property  passed,  into  the 
power  of  her  husband;  if  unmarried  she  was  (toJess  a  vestai 
virgin)  under  the  perpetual  tutelage  of  her  father  during  his  hie. 
and  after  his  death  <rf  her  agbates,  that  is,  there  of  her  kinsmen 
by  blood  or  adoption  who  would  have  been  under  the  power  of 
the  common  ancestor  had  he  livad.  Failing  agnates,  the  tutelage 
probably  passed  to  the  gtns.  The  wiie  wafr  the  purchased 
property  of  her  husband,  and,  like  a  slave,  acquired  only  for 
bis  benefit.  A  wonuui  could  not  exercise  any  dvil  or  public 
office.  *  la  the  words  of  Ulpian,  "  femlnae  ab  omnibus  offids 
civilibus  vel  pidilids  remotae  sunt."*  A  woman  could  not 
continue  a  family,  for  she  was  "caput  el  finis familiae suae,"" 
could  not  be  a  witness,  surety,  tutor,  or  curator;  tht  could  not 
adopt  or  l:>e  adopted,  or  make  a  will  or  ctetcacL  She  could  not 
succeed  cb  inUsUUo  as  an  agnate,  if  further  reatoved  than  a  sister. 
A  daughter  might  be  disinherited  by  a.  genecsl  danae,  a  sea 
only  by  name.  On  the  other  hand,  a  woman  waa  privileged 
in  some  matters,  but  rather  from  a  feeKngoC  pity  for  her  bodily 
weakness  and  presumed  mental  incapacity*^ than  for  any  more 
worthy  reason.  Thus  she  couM  plead  ignorance  of  law  as  a 
ground  for  dissolving  an  obligation,  which  a  man  ca^d  not  as  a 
rule  do;  she  could  aocuM  only  Incases  of  treason  and  witchcraft; 
and  she  was  in  certain  cases  ettn^A  from  torture.  In  succession 
ab  inUstalo  to  immovable  property  Roman  law  did  not»  as  docs 
English,  recognizeany  privBegeof  males  over  females. 

Legal  disabilities  were  gradoally  mitigated  by  the  influence  of 
fictions,  the  praetorian  equity  and  legislation.  An  example 
of  the  first  was  the  mode  by  whidi  a  woman  freed  herself  from 
the  authority  of  her  tutonby  fictitious  cession  into  the  authority 
of  a  tutor  nominated  by  herself,  or  by  sale  of  herself  into  the 
power  of  a  nominal  husband  on  the  understanding  that  he  was 
at  once  to  emancipate  her  ta  another  perKMi,  who  then  manur 
mitted  her.  The  action  of  equity  is  illustrated  by  the  reoognitioa 
by  the  praetor  of  cognatic  or  natural  as  distmguished  from 
sgnatic  or  artificial  relationship,  and  of  a  widow's  dahn  to  succeed 
on  the  death  of  her  hnsband  intestate  and  without  relations. 
LegisUtion,  beginning  as  early  as  the  Twelve  Tables,  which  fo^ 
bade  excessive  mourning  for  the  dead  by  female  moumeis, 
did  not  progress  uniformly  towards  enfranchisement  of  women. 
For  instance,  the  Lex  Vooonia  (about  169  B.C.),  dtUed  by  St 
Augustine  the  most  unjust  of  all  laws,  provided  that  a  womat 
could  not  be  instituted  heir  to  a  man  who  was  registered  as  owner 
of  a  fortune  of  100,000  asses."  A  constitution  of  Valentinian  I. 
forbade  bequests  by  women  to  ecdesiastics.    But  the  tendmcy 

*  Ch.  tx.  {  3  (Sir  W.  Tones's  translation). 

^  Whether  this  was  the  oldest  rule  of  inheritance  has  been  much 
debated.  That  birth  of  a  chiU  ^ve  the  mother  certain  legal  righta 
in  a  primitive  stage  of  society  is  the  view  of  many^  writers.  See 
csDecially  Das  MuUerrecht  otj.  J.  Bachofen  (Stuttgart,  1861}. 

*  Maine,  Early  History  of  institutions,  lect.  xi. 

*  Dig.  I  16.  195.  »•  Ibid. 

"  ImbeeiUitas  is  the  term  used  more  than  once  in  the  texts  of 
Roman  law.  ^  ■ 

^  The  way  in  which  this  law  was  evaded  was  by  non-enrolment  of 
the  testator  in  the  census  (see  Montesouieu.  Esprit  des  his,  bk. 
xxvii.).  Another  way  was  by  leaving  her  the  inheritafice  by  fidoitom- 
(see  TauBT). 


WOM£N 


7H 


of  legbtarticm  wta  umiiubte^  in  tlie 
Adoption  of  women  was  allowed  by  Diocletian  and  Maxunian 
in  ^91.  The  tutelage  of  women  of  full  age  was  removed  by 
CUndJAW,  and,  tlkough  afterwards  in  part  revived,  has  disappeared 
by  the  time  of  Justinian.  This  implied  lull  testamentary  and 
<5ontractua1  liberty.  In  regard  to  the  separate  property  of  the 
married  woman,  the  period  of  doi  had  by  the  time  of  Justinian 
long  superseded  the  period  of  manus*  The  result  was  that,  in 
spite  of  a  feiw  remaining  dis^ilitie^  such  as  the  general  incapacity 
to  be  Surety  or  witness  to  a  will  or  contract,  of  a  wife  to  make 
a  gift  to  her  husband,  of  a'  widow  to  marry  within  a  year  of 
her  husband's  death,  the  position  of  women  had  beqome,  in  the 
words  of  Sir  H.  Mahie,  **  one  of  great  peisooal  and  proprietary 
independence."'  For  this  improvement  in  their  position  they 
were  largely  indebted  to  the  legislation  of  the  Christian  emperors, 
espedaUy  ii  JnstinlBn»  who  prided  himself  <m  being  a  protector 
of  wom6B«- 

Tbe  fellowinr  are  a  few  of  the  matten  in  which  Christianity  appean 
to  have  made  aitenitions,  MBerslly  Imt  perhaps  not  always  improve- 
ments,  in  the  law.  As  a  role  the  lnflueflO0  of  the  church  was  exereiaed 
in  favoai*  of  the  abolition  of  the  disabilities  imposed  by  the  older  law 
upon  celibacy  and  childlessness,  of  increased  facilities  for  enterii^ 
a  professed  religious  life,*  and  of  due  provirion  for  the  wife.  The 
churth  also  supported  the  political  power  of  those  who  wwe  her  best 
friends.  The  government  of  Pulcberia  or  Irene  would  hardly  have 
bieen  endiiiipd  in  the  days  of  the  pagan  empire.  Other  cases  in  which 
Christianity  probably  exeirised  mnuence  may  be  briefly  stated,  (i) 
All  differences  in  the  law  of  succession  06  intestate  of  maTei  and  females 
were  abolished  by  Justinian.    (2)  The  appointment  of  mothers  and 

Eandmothers  as  tutors  was  sanctioned  oy  the  same  emperor.  (3) 
e  extended  to  all  cases  the  principle  established  by  the  Senatus 
Consultum  Tertullianum  (158),  enabling  the  mother  of  three  (if  a 
freed  woinan  four)  children  to  sua^ed  to  the  property  of  her  children 
who  died  intestate,  and  save  increased  rights  of  succession  to  a  widow. 
<4)  The  restrictions  on  the  marriage  of  senators  and  other  men  of  high 
rank  with  women  of  low  rank  were  extended  by  Constantino,  but 
almost  entirely  removed  by  Justinian.  (5)  Second  marrians  were 
discoursced  (especially  by  making  it  legal  to  impose  a  condition  that 
a  widow^i  right  to  property  should  cease  on  re*marriage),  and  the 
Leonine  Constitutions  at  the  end  of  the  ^h  centnry  made  third 
mairiages  punishable.  (6)  The  same  constitutions  made  the  bene- 
dktion  of  a  priest^  a  necessary  part  of  the  ceremony  of  marriage.' 
The  criminal  law  in  its  relation  to  women  presents  some  points  of 
interest.  Adultery  was  punished  with  death  by  Constantine,  but 
the  penalty  was  ieduced  by  Justinian  to  rdegation  to  a  convent. 
A  woman  condemned  for  adultery  could  not  re-marry.  A  marriage 
between  a  Christian  and  a  Jew  rendered  the  parties  guilty  of  adultery. 
Severe  laws  were  enacted  against  offences  of  uncnastity,  especially 
procuiteraent  and  incest.  It  was  a  capital  crime  to  carry  off  or  offer 
violence  to  a  nun.  A  wife  could  not  commit  furtum  of  her  husiaiand's 
goods,  but  he  had  a  special  action  rtrutn  amolanm  against  her. 
By  several  sumptuary  constitutions,  contained  in  the  Code,  bk.  xL, 
women  as  well  as  men  were  subject  to  penalties  for  wearing  dress  or 
ornaments  (except  rings)  imitating  those  reserved  for  the  emperor 
and  his  famujf.  Actresses  and  women  of  bad  fame  were  not  to  wear 
the  dress  of  vir^ns  dedicated  to  Heaven.  If  a  consul  had  a  wife  or 
n&other  living  with  him,  he  was  allowed  to  incur  greater  expense  than 
if  he  lived  alone.  The  interests  of  working  women  were  protected 
by  enactments  for  the  r^ulatjon  of  the  gynofUa,  or  worlohops  for 
spinningf  dyeing,  &c. 

The  canon  law,  looking  with  disfavour'  on  the  female  inde- 
pendence prevailing  in  the  Uter  Roman  law,  tended  rather  in 
the  opposite  direction.  The  Jkcretum  specially  inculcated 
subjection  of  the  wife  to  the  husband,  and  obedience  to  his  will 
in  all  things.*  The  chief  differences  between  canon  and  Roman 
law  were  in  tbe  law  of  marriage,  especially  in  the  introduction 
of  publicity  and  of  the  formalities  of  the  ring  and  the  kiss.  The 
benediction  of  a  priest  was  made  a  necessary  part  of  the  ceremony, 
as  indeed  it  bad  been  made  by  the  civil  power,  as  has  been  already 
stated,  in  the  post-Justinian  period  of  Roman  law.  But  in 
practice^  this  rule  appears  to  have  fallen  into  disuse  until  it  was 
again  revived  by  the  council  of  Trent.    It  was,  however,  the 

» A  neienl  Law,  ch.  v.  Hence  the  necessity  of  such  laws  as  the  Lex 
Oppia  (see  SUMPTUARY  Laws). 

»  A.  remarkable  example  of  this  tendency  was  the  provisron  that 
art  actress  mi^ht  leave  the  stage  and  break  her  contract  of  service 
with  impunity  in  order  to  become  a  nun.  Even  under  the  pagan 
fmperors  a  conslhution  of  Diocletian  and  Maximian  in  285  had 
cnnrtcd  that  no  one  was  to  be  compelled  to  marry  (Corf.  v.  4,  id). 

'Sec  R.  T.  Troplong.  De  f influence  dn  christianisme  sur  le  droit 
civil. 

*  Ft.  ii.  caus.  xxxiii.  qu.  v.  ch.  16. 


rule  of  the  Eagtisb  common  law  «iter  the-  Refocmadim.  Tbt 
ceremony  was  not  to  be  performed  during  Lent.  The  woman 
was  to  be  veiled  during  the  ceremony.  A  promise  of  mszriage 
was  so  sacred  that  it  inade  a  subsequent  maniace  with  another 
penon  void.  Spiritual  cognaUon  was  a  bar  to  mazriage.  The 
aea  tenet  of  the  church  waft  made  necessary  for  divorce.  As  to 
women  in  general  the  law  does  not  say  very  much,  Womeii^  even 
seUtives»  weie  not  to  live  with  priests  unless  in  case  ol  necessity. 
They  were  not  to  approach  the  altar  or  fiU  any  public  office  <4 
the  church;  nor  might  they  lend  money  on  uauiy.  Baptism 
might  be  valid  although  administered  by  a  woman.  Women 
who  had  professed  religion  could  not  be  forced  to  give  eridenoe 
as  witnesses.  In  Mme  caaos  the  civideooe  el  weinen  was  not 
lecdvable.* 

The  early  law  of  the  noithem  parts  of  Edrope  is  interesting 
from  the  different  ways  in  which  it  treated  vodunr .  In  the  wocdf 
of  Sir  H.  Maine^^"  The  pootion  of  women  in  these  barbarout 
systems  of  tnhedtance  varies  veiy  greatly.  Sometimes  th«gr 
inherit,  dther  as  individuals  or  as  classes,  only  when  males  (rf 
the  same  generation  have  failed.  Sometimes  they  do  not  in^ 
berk*  but  transmit  a  right  of  inheritance  to  their  male  issuek 
Sometimes*  they  succeed  to  one  kind  of  propettyi  for  the  most 
part  movable  property,  which  they  probably  took  a  great  share 
in  producing  by  their  household  labour;  for  example,  in  th* 
real  Salic  law  (not  in  the  imaginary  code)  there  is  a  set  of  rules 
of  succession  which,  in  my  opinion,  clearly  admk  women  and 
thdr  descendants  to  a  share  in  the  mheritaiice  of  movable 
property,  but  confine  land  exclusively  to  males  and  the  descend- 
ants of  males. . .  •  The  idea  is  that  the  proper  mode  of  providing 
lor  a  woman  is  by  giving  her  a  marriage  portion;  but,  when  she 
is  once  married  into  a  separate  commimity  omslsting  c^  strangers 
in  blood,  neither  she  nor  her  children  are  deemed  to  have  any 
further  daim  on  the  parent  group."  Among  the  Scandinavian 
races  women  were  under  perpetuil  tutelage,  whether  nsarried  or 
unmarried.  The  first  to  obtain  freedom  were  the  widows.' 
As  late  as  the  code  of  Christian  V.,  at  the  end  of  the  1 7th  century; 
it  was  enacted  that  if  a  woman  married  without  the  consent  of 
her  tutor  he  might  have,  if  he  wished,  administration  and  tisuf  xuct 
of  her  goods  during  her  life.*  llie  provision  made  by  the 
Scandinavian  laws  under  the  name  of  moming-gift  was  perhaps 
the  parent  of  the  modem  settled  property.*  The  Brehon  law 
of  Ireland  excepted  women  from  the  ordinary  course  of  the 
law.  They  could  distrain  or  contract  only  in  certain  named 
cases,  and  distress  upon  their  property  was  regulated  by  special 
rales.  In  the  pre-Conquest  codes  in  EngUnd  severe  laws  were 
denounced  against  unchastity,  and  by  a  Uw  of  Canute  a  woman 
was  to  lose  nose  and  ears  for  adultery.  The  laws  of  Athelstan 
contained  the  peculiarly  brutal  provision .  for  the  punishment 
of  a  female  ^ve  convicted  of  theft  by  her  being  burned 
alive  by  eighty  other  female  slaves.  Other  laws  were  directed 
against  the  practice  of  witchcraft  (9.7.)  by  women.  Monogamy 
was  enforced  both  by  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  law;  and  second 
and  third  marriages  involved  penance.  A  glimpse  of  cruelty 
in  the  household  is  afforded  by  the  provision,  occurrhig  no  less 
than  three  times  in  the  ecclesiastical  legislation,  that  if  a  woman 
scourged  her  female  slave  to  death  she  must  do  penance.  Traces 
of  wife*purchase  are  seen  in  the  law  of  Ethdbert,  enacting  that 
if  t  man  carry  oflF  a  freeman's  wife  he  must  at  his  own  expense 
procure  the  husband  another  wife.  The  codes  contain  few 
provisions  as  to  the  property  of  married  women,  but  those  few 
appear  to  prove  that  she  was  in  a  better  position  than  at  a  later 

*  On  this  branch  of  the  subject  see  Manssen's  He/  ChrisUndom  e» 
de  Vfouw  (Leiden.  1877). 

*  Early  La»  and  Custom,  ch.  v. 

'  See  StiernhOdk,  Dejurt  Sveonum  (Stockholm*  1672),  bk.  ii.  ch.  i.; 
Mcsaenius.  l^t^  Svecarum  (Stockholm.  17 14). 
-  *  Bk.  iii.  ch.  xvi.  §{1,2. 

*  The  development  of  the^  bride*'price  no  doubt  was  in  the  same 
direction.  Its  original  meam'ng  was,  however,  different.  It  was  the 
sum  paid  by  the  husband  to  the  wife's  family  for  the  pun:hase  of  p.i  rt 
of  the  family  property,  while  the  moming-gift  was  paid  as  ^etiknt 
virginitalis  to  the  bride  herself.  In  its  English  form  mornin|-gi''t 
occurs  in  the  laws  of  Canute:  in  its  Lattnlsed  form  of  morgangtva  it 
occurs  in  the  Leges  Henrici  Primi, 


7U 


period.  'neb*adIiMpTeb«'ithin)ci(berhnibuKl'*piuti«lr; 
the  lim  oi  Edmund  u  Id  b«ir<it!ul  allowed  ihii  lo  bt  inctwed 
ts  lull  by  intBiuptU]  contnct,  to  ihc  vfaole  if  ihc  hid  chiUnn 
•nd  did  not  n-suny  alter  ber  husband's  deatb.  He  doabt 
the  domr  ad'ttsliitm  tcdaiat  favoured  by  the  churdi  gEnoally 
•Bpaneded  the  legal  rigfati  where  the  pic^xity  vil  luge  (bl 
tact  thia  la  qiedally  pnrrided  by  Magna  Carta,  c.  f).  "  Prmllio 
homlnit  tolUt  pRmiiiaKai  legli."    The  legal  li^ta  ol  a  mairinl 


iby 


tiie  time  of  GlaaviU  her  penon  and  pnpctty  bad  beCDtna  duHng 
bet  hniband'a  hletime  ectinly  at  hk  diifxiaat,  and  alter  hSs  death 
Mmited  to  hei  dovet  and  her  fari  riMenaHUl, 

A  lev  (d  the  DOR  btereitliig  mattcn  Id  arbkh  the  aid  oomaiDn 
and  itatute  law  of  England  placed  women  in  a  special  pontjon 
nay  b«  noticed.  A  woman  wai  euapt  from  legal  duties  more 
paiticulaily  attaching  to  men  and  not  perfDimabla  by  deputy. 
She  could  apiwRntly  adginally  not  bold  a  proper  ieud.  i.i,  one 
ol  which  the  tenure  waaby  military  service.^  The  same  principle 
•ppeaia  in  the  l«le  tliat  ibc  could  not  be  endowed  of  a  castle 
maintained  for  the  delen«  of  tbe  leabn  and  not  lor  Ibe  private 
aie  of  tbe  owner.    Sbe  could  receive  homage,  bi 


Klfroi 


it  and 


,    Slie  could  be  constable, 


■ervke  at  the  abcnfl'i  toutn.  Sbi 
liy  the  oitb  of  all^iuirz  in  tbe  leet 
CMlUwed,  but  wag  uid  to  be  waivi 
(hher  of  a  castle  01  a  viU,  but  not ! 
ol  Wtstmorland,  an  bereditiry  office,  eierdsed  in  person  in  the 

and  MoolgoniEry.  In  certain  cases  a  woman  could  transmit 
lifhu  which  she  amid  out  enjoy.  On  such  a  power  of  trana- 
ninioa,  •*  Sir  H.  Uaioe  shows,'  rated  tbe  claim  of  Edwaid  III. 
to  the  crowp  of  Fianco,  Tbe  claim  Urimik  a  womin  was  not  a 
breachol  tbe  French  constitutional  law,  nhicb  rejected  the  claim 
t/  a  WDDMD.  The  jealousy  of  a  woman's  political  influence  is 
•trikini^y  shown  by  tlut  case  of  Alice  i^rrers,  tbe  mistress  of 
Edward  III.  She  was  accused  o<  bnaUng  an  ordinance  by 
whkh  women  bad  been  forbidden  lo  do  buiiueB  for  hire  and  by 
way  of  maintenance  in  tlie  king's  court.' 
By  MsFna  Carts  a  womin  could  not  accuse  a  man  of  murder 
'  St  of  bcr  huiband.  This  disabilit^y  no  doubt  arose  frnin 
'allnr  battleshenatuRHydidlHtappearinpcraan 


not  adniltad  as  a  witness  to  prqve  tbe 
a  aiiiing  wheUier  he  were  free  oc  a 


only  De  a  guarotan  even  oi  oa  owe  cnnaren  ro  a  iimiTea  evitnt- 
Her  will  was  revoked  by  maniage,  that  of  a  nan  only  tiy  wirisgD 
•ndtbesiibeequentlHrihalBdSid.   By  31  Hen.  VI.  c  a  the  ki^s 
writ  out  of  cbanccry  was  Branted  to  a  woman  allegiiiE  that  she  had 
become  bound  by  an  obligat Eon 'through  force  or  '—"''      °-  -i 
Hen.  VI.  c  1  a  woman  ought  have  Uvery  of  land  as  bd 
Beaiit  o(  deigy  was  Cnt  allowed  la  woBcn  pulial 
c  «.fidlyby3WlL&U.c  q  Md  4  ud  S  WiUTa  A 
■hippiiK  wu  not  abolisbed  until  57  Geo.  III.  c.  i 

■II  cusuntU  t  Gea.  IV  c  S7-.  BunHog  n>  the  pun!' 


Istt1ya>i7l4.    Ueome 

*f«';;s;r^v< 

syeurtnuaSi                         ■ 

lioas  as  to  women  s  diesg 

lit  in  1363  (37  Edw.  III. 

t3:E        _i 

daughten  of  lervsnts  » 

uidyeoo™ 

veils.    The  UK  ol  iur  wi 

IS  confined  to 

ISh-s^IHt 

renisl  above  joo  niarks 

a  year.    Car 

olrsnkinthednsswisa 

loineulcaledbylEdw  IV.  cs.  The  wife 

or  daughter  ef  a  knigkt 

•rdolb  of  gold  «  sable  fur. 

or  1  girdle  garnished  with  lilvet.    By  11  Edw.  tV.c  T.ctMhofcoM 

'j^b^'Siuxt^,'' 

fined  to  women  of  the  royil  Ismily.     It  is 

3;  Ed-.  III.  c  6,  hjndimfi.mtn  wm 
women  rdli|l.>  work  ns  they  had  been 

■oiHomeii!   s'eSw.I^.'c.  3 

'  It  is  reiBirkaUe  thai  the  great  fii 

dJ!!''^hu«''i>'K^n'tS'rteisble  at  1" 
•  Bartp  Urn  nd  Ciiilrm.iik.  v 


I9  Lo^wds  ami  athv  alfaa 

, , alt  of  the  Hlk  B(»iiaters  and  i» 

ipatkms  for  women.   In  siime  cases  the  wives  uj 

daiHhten  of  tndesmes  mn  aOowed  to  assist  In  lb*  tnikw  of  thtk 
husbands  OBd  fethcfsi  see.  hr  inMance,  the  v»  tuMsniia  ■■■■■», 
I  Jac  [.  c  n.  Some  irMaig  ootpstatiooa,  such  as  tk*  Baal  ladin 
Comunyi  ncogniied  no  diiunetion  of  sa  in  Ihsii  membcra.  Th* 
diaalnlilics  ImfHsed  on  women  by  substantive  law  are  aometima 
-actable  in  the  ariy  Law  of  pnxxduiv.  For  inetaocc,  by  the  Staont 
!  Essoins  (IS  Edw.  It. «.  ar>— In  d.  sniU.  npi.  dU  not  Ha  *tat* 
te  party  was  a  wmaii:  Usl  ia.  a  woman  (irith  a  leir  eampUuwal 
»]ld  not  csoiie  bs  abaeiicc  from  court  by  slkgiiw  that  she  waa  on 
ublKduiy.  Tbeinfluenceof theehuichBvctydcadvtraccableia 
ime  e*  the  tarliw  criminal  legislation.  TTiiwbyl]  Edw.  [.  si.  i.e. 
4.  it  was  iwniihat>le  with  rhnr  yeara'  Jmunsomiient  to  carry  aww* 
nun.  eren  with  hs  onsnt. ,  Tb*  »■  Arlicks,  31  K«.  yi  IL  c  14, 
I  chastily  by  women. 
In  SeoiLnd,  as  orly  as  RqliM  lf(MK"<  <<">>  centBiy)  wDiiH 
wetheDbfcclolqxcilllepilrsgnktDB.  liillist  miik  ibi  iiiitWi 
riJtrru  [probflbly  a  tax  paid  to  the  lord  on  the  ouririaco  ol  his 
lunt's  dsughnr)  was  find  at  a  aum  dUcriag  *-~-^-g  u  the  nak 
lihewocnsB.  WuBMWs  ancient  laws  dealt  witk  trade  aad  aumpm- 
ry  matlen.  By  tlM  Lfa  Owhisf  AinsniM  lenale  brewslars  sank- 
ig  bad  sk  wen  tofoffeit  cightpenceand  b*  put  en  the  «cidag.«<iH^ 
nd  wn  to  set  an  ale-wand  outside  their  bouiea  uadet  a  penalty 
f  bourpeuA  Tbe  same  laws  also  provided  that  a  married  woosna 
smmittjng  a  tiwass  without  her  husband's  knwledge  might  be 
tun  ivid  I  ike  a  child  under  age.  The^RUntaCiUfoItheiJlhcenluiy 
nsctcd  that  s  msiried  woman  ought  ml  buy  woof  la  the  alr««tn  oi 

provision  for  the  daughter  cj  one  of  the  ^ld.lvethnn  unable  to 

_..;j-  /.._  1. If  through  poverty,  either  by  marrying  her  or 

By  the  act  >4%  c  *  ~ —  ''~~  "  "" 


amy^  after  tbe  ci 
was  to  go  to  dmi 
be  known.  I3B1.  < 
allawed  women  tc 
secuuoaitd.  1 61 1 
catt-of  ckxhes.     . 


:  of  thnr  hu^iands. 
nth  bet  laca  covert 

if  was  conceived  in  l 
ar  any  hcadnlress  t 


more  libcnl  loirit,  aad 
whkh  they  Tad  bea 

tnat  not  motetnaniwociianBaoirauaeni  woe  lobe  made^a  bride 
at  her  wedding.  In  Its  more  iDodan  aipccl  the  law  is  in  most  mspccta 
•imikr  to  thai  of  England.  (J,*.) 

Id  separate  legal  articles  attentloti  Is  drawn,  on  vuioua  cub- 
jects,  lo  any  special  provisions  or  dhabiUlies  affecting  it,^,m 
women;  see,  for  instance,  EviDEtici:,  DivoECi,  a^ia. 
Mauuce,  Ckiuiren  ILar  rilaliiii  (a),  Iniamt,  iaw 
HrsBAND  AM>  Wira.  Tic  mavement  fat  removing  S^!^ 
the  older  daatdlitiej  hsi  ptognaed  at  such  different     TiWiia* 

English  law  in  1910. 

Cinl  l?i(U].— The  age  at  whkh  1  gbl  can  cnnmcl  •  valid  minlaie. 
years  m  advance  of  a  boy.  who 


twenty:  br  tb 
ment  by  stiust 
by  her  If  she  is 


y  Act  1007  any  setile- 
lotvslid  unless  tiecuied 


, _ _     .   an  is  liaWe  for  the  aopfort  d  illegitimate 

lildren  till  thev  attain  the  age  ol  sixteen.  Shetsgenenlly  assistnl, 
the  absence  of  acrcentat,  ^r  an  aflUation  ofder  gnnted  by  magl^ 
iratea.  A  married  aroman  having  separate  property  is,  under  the 
Married  Women's  Property  Act  s  iSBl  and  tfot.nable  for  the  support 
of  her  parents,  husband,  children  and  grandchildren  becoming 
ehargvaMa  to  any  union  oc  sortth.  At  common  law  the  lather  was 
tntiikd  as  xgainst  the  mother  10  the  cusedy  o(  a  legitieaate  child 
up  to  the  age  of  siiteen,  and  could  only  lorldt  sui:h  right  by  mia- 
CDOduct.  Hut  the  Court  of  Chanctry,  wherever  there  wu  Injtl 
property  and  the  infant  could  be  made  a  ward  of  court,  took  *  leM 
ligkl  view  of  the  paternal  righu  and  looked  nuce  to  the  intenil  of 
ther  chikl.  and  CDnsequently  in  some  casts  W  tbe  tsitenslon  o(  th* 
moiher's  rights  at  common  law.  Lcmslslion  has  tended  In  the  same 
direction.   By  the  Infanta' Custody  Act  1873,  IheCourt  of  Chaiittry 

the  custody  or  control  ol  a  child  to  the  mother.  The  JudlcatBR  Act 
1873.  1 13  $10),  enacted  that  in  questions  rdating  to  lh«  custody 
anifeiiiieaiiDn  of  infants  the  rules  of  equity  should  prevail.  Tv 
Guardianship  ot  Infants  Aci  iSBfi  largely  extended  the  melherV 
powen  of  appointing  and  acting  as  a  tuardian,  and  gave  the  court 
a  discretion  to  regard  the  mother's  withes  as  to  Ihc  custody  ol  tkt 
ehihlna.    Tbe  Summary  ]urisdictic4i  (Mamrd  Women}  Act  iBfS 


7t.iS. 


WOMEN 


78s 


Tte  iNQ8t  itmarloibte  diMbirtdflft  under  which  women  were  atill 
placed  tn  1910  wens  (1)  the  exclusion  of  female  heire  imm  intestate 
succession  10  real  estate,  unless  in  the  absence  of  a  male  heir  (see 
Inheritance;  (Succession)  ;  and  (2}  the  fact  that  a  husband  could 
obtain  a  divorce  for  the  adultery  of  hts  wife,  while  a  wife  eould  only 
obtain  It  for  h«r  husband's  adultery  if  coupled  whh  sooae  other  cause, 
such  as  cruelty  or  desertion. 

Suits  in  wbidi  either  neoesoarily  or  practicallv  onW  women  are 
plaintiffs  are:  breach  of  oromise,  affiliation  (s:v.)  and  (though  not 
nominatly)  seduction  (^.v.;. 

The  action  for  breach  of  promise  ^  may  indeed  bo  brought  by  a 
nan.  but  this  ia  very  rare,  and  its  only  real  interest  is  M  a  prof^ion 
for  women.  It  may  be  brought  by  but  not  against  an  infant^  and  not 
against  an  adult  if  he  or  sne  has  merely  ratified  a  promise  made 
during  infancy;  it  may  be  brought  agauist  but  not  oy  a  married 
man  or  woman  (in  spite  of  the  inherent  incapacity  of  such  a  peraon 
to  havo  married  the  plaintiff),  and  neither  by  nor  a^sinet  the  personal 
representatives  of  a  deceased  party  to  the  promise  <unless  where 
special  damage  has  accrued  to  the  personal  estate  of  the  deceased). 
The  promise  need  not  be  in  writing.  The  parties  to  an  action  are 
by  33  and  33  Vict.  c.  68  competent  witneMcs;  tlio  plaintiff  cannot, 
however,  recover  a  verdict  without  his  or  her  testimony  being 
corroijoratcd  by  other  material  evidence*  The  measure  of  damages 
is  to  a  sreatcr  extent  than  In  most  actions  at  the  discretion  of  the 
iury:  they  may  take  into  consideration  the  injury  to  the  plaintiff's 
feelings,  especially  if  the  breach  of  ^ndse  be  aggravated  oy  seduc- 
tion. Either  pail^  haa  a  ri^t  to  trial  by  niry  under  the  fulea  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  1883.  The  action  cannot  oe  tried  in  a  county  court. 
unless'  by  consent,  or  unless  remitted  for  trial  there  by  the  High 
Court.  Unchastity  of  the  plaintiff  unknown  to  the  defendant  when 
the  promise  was  made  and  dissolution  of  the  contract  by  mutual 
oonsent  are  the  ^nct^  deiencea  whidi  are  usuaUy  laisad  to  the 
action.  Bodily  infirmity  of  the  defendant  is  no  defence  to  the 
action,  though  it  may  justify  the  other  party  in  refusing  to  marry 
the  person  thus  affected.  Where  the  betrothed  are  within  prohibited 
degrees  of  consanguinity  or  affinity,  there  can  be  no  valid  pnxniae  at 
all.  and  so  no  action  for  its  breach. 

Criminal  Law. — ^There  are  some  offences  which  can  be  committed 
only  by  women,  others  which  can  be  committed  only  against  them. 
Among  the  former  are  concealment  of  birth  On  nine^nine  cases 
out  of  a  hundred),  the  now  obsolete  offence  of  being  a  common 
scold,  and  prostitution  (g.o.)  and  kindred  offences.  Where  a  married 
woman  commits  a  crime  in  company  with  her  husband^  she  is 
generally  presumed  to  have  actea  by  his  coercion,  and  so  to  be 
entitled  to  accjuittal.  This  presumption,  however,  was  never  made 
in  witchcraft  cases,  and  is  not  now  made  in  cases  of  treason,  murder 
and  other  grave  crimes,  or  in  crimes  in  which  the  principal  part  is 
most  usually  taken  by  the  wife,  such  as  keeping  a  brothel.  In  fact* 
the  exceptions  to  the  old  presumption  are  now  perhaps  more  numerous 

'  The  action  for  breach  of  promise  of  marriage  u  in  some  of  its 
incidents  peculiar  to  English  law.  In  Roman  law,  betrothal  Upm- 
taiia)  imposed  a  doty  on  the  betrothed  to  become  husband  and  wife 
within  a  reasonable  time,  subject  to  the  termination  of  the  oblation 
by  death,  repudiation  by  the  words  ^ondiiume  tua  nom  uior^  or  lapse 
of  time,  the  time  fixed  being  two  years.  No  action  lay  for  breach  of 
promise  to  marry  unless  arrhae  sponsalitiae  had  been  given,  tJ. 
earnest  of  the  baigain,  to  be  forfeited  by  the  party  refusing  to  carry 
it  out.  The  orrAa  might  also  be  given  by  a  parent,  and  was  equally 
liable  to  forfeiture.  A  provincial  governor,  or  one  of  his  relations  or 
household,  could  not  recover  any  arrha  that  might  have  been  given, 
it  being  supposed  that  he  was  in  a  position  of  authority  and  able  to 
exercise  influence  in  forcing  consent  to  a  betrothal.  In  the  canon 
law  breach  of  the  promise  made  by  the  spopualia,  whether  de  praeunH 
or  d€  fuhtro,  a  division  unknown  to  Roman  law,  does  not  without 
more  appear  to  have  sufficed  to  found  an  action  for  its  breach, 
except  so  far  as  it  fell  under  ecdenastical  cognizance  as  laesio  fidci, 
but  it  had  the  more  serious  legal  effect  of  avoiding  as  a  canonical 
disability  the  subseouent  marriage,  while  the  original  $poiuaiia 
continued,  oC  a  bctrotned  person  to  any  other  than  t^ie  one  to  whom 
he  or  she  was  originally  betrothed.  The  sporualia  became  inoperative, 
either  by  mutual  consent  or  by  certain  supervening  impediments, 
such  as  ordination  or  a  vow  of  chastity.  The  canonical  disability 
of  pre-contract  was  removed  in  England  by  %a  Hen*  VIII.  c.  38, 
re-established  in  the  reien  of  Edward  VI.,^ana  finally  abolished  in 
1753.  In  England  the  outy  of  the  parties  is  the  same  as  in  Roman 
law,  via.  to  carry  out  the  contract  within  a  reasonable  time,  if  no 
time  be  specially  fixed.  FormeHy  a  contract  to  niaity  ooukl  be 
specifically  enforeed  by  the  ecclesiastical  court  compelDng  a  cd»- 
bration  of  the  marriage  im  fade  tcckiiae.  The  last  instance  of  a 
suit  for  this  purpose  was  in  1752,  and  the  right  to  bring  it  was 
abolished  in  1753  by  Lord  Hardwicke's  Act  (26  Geo.  11.  c.  33). 
In  Scotland  a  promise  in  the  nature  of  sponsalia  MfiOuro  not  followed 
by  consummation  may  be  resiled  from,  subject  to  the  liabili^  of 
the  party  in  fault  to  an  action  for  the  breach^  which  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c. 
120,  s.  aS,  is  a  proper  cause  for  trial  by  jury.  If,  however,  the 
sponsalia  be  d<  traesenti,  and,  according  to  the  more  probable 
opinion,  if  they  be  de  fiUuro  followed  by  consummation,  a  pre- 
contract is  constituted,  giving  a  right  to  a  decree  of  declarator  of 
marriage  and  equivalent  to  marriage,  unless  declared  void  during 
the  lifetime  of  the  parties. 


than  those  falKnt  within  it.  The  doctride  of  coereioa  and  the 
practice  of  separate  acknowledgment  of  deeds  by  married  women 
(necessary  before  the  Married  Women's  Property  Act)  seem  to  be 
vestiges  of  the  period  when  women,  berides  being  chattels,  were 
treated  as  diattds.  Formerly  a  wife  could  not  steal  her  Imsband'a 
property,  but  since  the  Married  Women's  'Property  Act  this  haa 
become  possible.  Adultery  is  no  crime,  England  bdng  almost  the 
only  country  where  such  b  the  case.  It  was  punished  by  fine  in  the 
ecclesiastical  courts  up  to  the  17th  century,  and  was  made  criminal 
for  a  short  time  by  an  ordinance  of  the  Long  Parliament.  The 
offenoee  which  can  be  ooinmitted  only  against  women  are  chiefly 
those  against  decency,^  such  as  rape,  procurement  and  aimilsLr 
crimes,  in  which  a  conaderable  change  in  the  taw  in  the  direction 
of  increased  protection  to  women  was  made  by  the  Criminal  Law 
Amendment  Act  1885.  In  regard  to  the  protection  given  to  a  wife 
against  her  husband  modem  leipdaty>n  has  considerably  strengthened 
the  wife's  position  by  moans  of  judicial  separation  and  maintenance 
in  case  of  desertion  (see  Divorce).  The  wnipping  of  female  offenden 
was  abolished  in  1820.  Chastisement  of  a  wife  by  a  husband, 
posMbly  at  one  time  lawful  to  a  reasonable  extent,  would  now 
certainly  constitute  an  assault.  The  husband's  rights  are  limited 
to  restraining  the  wife's  liberty  in  case  of  her  misconduct. 

In  Scotland  the  criminal  law  differe  slightly  from  that  of  England. 
At  one  time  drowning  was  a  punishment  s{>ecially  reserved  for 
women.  Incest  (9.V.),  or  an  attempt  to  commit  incest,  has  always 
been  punishable  as  a  crime.  Adultery  and  fornication  are  still 
nominally  crimes,  but  criminal  proceedings  in  these  cases  have  fallen 
into  desuetude.  The  age  of  testamentary  capacity  is  still  twelve, 
not  twenty-one,  as  in  England. 

The  whole  idea  of  Women's  position  in  social  life,  and  their 
ability  to  take  their  place,  independently  of  any  question  of 
sex,  in  the  work  of  the  world,  was  radically  changed  jf^ftar 
in  the  English-speaking  countries,  and  also  in  the  more 
progressive  nations  beyond  their  bounds,  during  the 
19th  centuiy.  This  is  due  primarily  to  the  movement 
for  women's  higher  education  and  its  results.  To  deal  in  detail 
with  this  movement  in  various  countries  would  here  be  too 
intricate  a  matter;  but  in  the  English-speaking  countries  at 
all  events  the  change  is  so  complete  that  the  only  curious  thing 
now  Is,  not  what  spheres  women  may  not  enter,  more  or  less 
equally  with  men,  but  the  few  from  which  they  are  still  excluded. 

Before  the  accession  of  (^een  Victoria,  there  was  no  systematic 
education  -for  English  women,  but  as  the  first  half  of  the  xpth 
centuiy  drew  to  a  dose,  broader  views  began  to  be  held  on  the 
subject,  while  the  himumitarian  movement,  as  well  as  the  rapidly 
increasing  number  of  women,  helped  to  put  their  education  on 
a  sounder  basis.  It  became  nu>re  thorou^;  its  methods  were 
better  calculated  to  stimulate  intellectual  power;  and  the  con- 
victlon  that  it  was  neither  good,  nor  politic^  for  women  to  remain 
intellectually  in  thdr  fonner  state  of  ignorance,  was  gradually 
accepted  by  every  one.  Hie  movement  owed  much  to  Frederick 
Dcnison  Maurice.  He  was  its  pioneer;  and  (Queen's  College 
(1848),  which  he  founded,  was  the  first  to  give  a  wider  scope  to 
the  training  of  its  scholars.  Out  of  its  teaching,  and  that  of 
its  professon  (including  Charles  Kingsley),  grew  neariy  all  the 
educational  advantages  which  women  enjoy  to-day;  and  to 
the  women  who  were  trained  at  Queen's  CoUcge  we  owe  some 
of  the  best  teaching  in  England.  Bedford  College,  Clieltenham 
College,  the  North  London  Collegiate  School  for  G^ls,  the  Giris' 
Public  Day  School  Company's  schools,  are  some  of  those  which 
sprang  into  Iif6  in  different  parts  of  England,  and  were  filled, 
as  rapidly  as  tbcy  were  opened,  by  the  girls  of  the  middle  and 
professional  dasaes.  From  their  teaching  came  the  final  stage 
which  gave  women  the  same  academic  advantages  aa  men. 
Somerv^e  College  and  Lady  Margaret  Hall  at  Oxford,  Girton 
and  Newnham  Colleges  at  Cambridge,  Westfield  College  in 
London,  St  Hilda's  College,  St  Hugh's  HaU,  HoUoway  College* 
Owens  College,  the  Manchester  and  Birmingham  and  Vktoria 
Universities,  and  other  colleges  for  women  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  are  some  of  the  later  but  equally  successful 
results  of  the  movement.  The  necessity  for  testing  the  quality 
of  the  education  of  women,  however,  soon  began  to  be  fdt.  The 
University  of  Cambridge  was  the  first  to  institute  a  special 
examination  for  women  over  eighteen,  and  its  example  was 
followed  by  Oxford;  but  while  London,  Dublin  (Trinity  College), 
Belfast  (Queen's),  Victoria,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  St  Andrews 
universities  now  grant  degrees,  Oxford  and  Cambridge  still  denied 
them  in  1910.    In  the  act  of  1908  establishing  the  new  Roman 


786 


WOMEN 


Catholic  vii«enlt]r  In  Iidaiid,  it  was  provided  diat  twonemben 
of  the  senate  aliould  be  women;  and  Queen's  University,  Belfast, 
had  three  women  in  xgio  in  its  senate.  Women  may  point  with 
justifiable  piide  to  the  fact  that  within  a  very  few  years  of  their 
admisBlon  to  university  ezaiiiinations,they  provided  at  Cambridge 
both  a  senior  dassic  and  a  senior  wrangler.  In  America  (see 
Co-£OucAnoN)  the  movement  has  gone  much  farther  than  in 
Great  Britain. 

The  temperate,  calm,  camest  dwncanour  of  women,  both  in 
the  schools  and  in  univer^ty  Hfe,  awakened  admiration  and 
respect  from  all;  and  the  movement  brought  into  existence  a 
vast  number  of  women,  as  well-educated  as  men,  hard-worJung, 
persevering  and  capable,  wha  invaded  many  professions,  and 
could  hold  their  ground  where  a  sound  education  was  the  found- 
ation of  success.  The  pioneers  of  female  education  spent  their 
energies  in  developing  their  higher  and  more  intellectual  ideals, 
but  later  years  opened  up  other  positions  which  better  education 
has  enabled  women  to  filL  In  the  Hterary  field  they  soon  invaded 
journalism  (see  Newspapebs),  and  took  an  important  place  on 
the  staffs  of  libraries  and  museums.  They  form  an  important 
(and  in  America,  the  predominating)  secti(»  of  the  trarhing 
profession  in  the  state  schools,  and  in  all  research  work  play  an 
increasingly  valuable  part.  It  is  hot  possible  for  every  woman 
to  be  a  schoUr,  a  doctor  (see  below),  a  lawyer,^  or  possibly  to 
attain  the  highest  position  in  professions  where  competition 
with  men  is  keen,  but  the  development  of  women's  woric  has 
opened  many  other  outlets  for  their  energies.  As  members  of 
school  boards,  factory  inspectors,  poor  law  guardians,  sanitary 
in^>ectors,  they  have  had  ample  scope  for  gratifying  their  ambition 
and  energy.  The  progress  made  in  philanthropy  and  reUgious 
activity*  is  largely  diie  to  their  devotion,  under  the  auspices 
of  countless  new  societies.  And  increasing  provision  has  been 
made,  in  the  arts  stnd  crafts,  for  the  furtherance  of  their  careers. 
There  are  successful  women  architects  now  working  in  England, 
and  in  1905  a  woman  won  the  silver  medal  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  British  Architects;  a  large  number  of  women  travel  for  business 
firms;  in  decorative  work,  as  silversmiths,  dentists,  law  copyists, 
proof-readers,  and  in  plan  tracing  women  work  with  success; 
wood-carving  has  become  almost  as  recognized  a  career  for  them 
as  that  of  typewriting  and  shorthand,  in  which  an  increasing 

^'Wonen  have  Ions  practised  law  in  the  United  Sutea,  and  in 
1896  the  benchers  of  the  Ontario  Law  Society  decided  to  admit 
them^to  the  bar  In  France  in  Decembo-  1900  an  act  was  passed 
enabling  womeh  to  practise  as  barristers,  and  Madame  Petit  was 
mrom  in  Paris,  while  a  woman  was  briefed  for  the  defence  In  a  murder 
oaae  in  Toulouse  in  1903,  this  being  the  first  case  of  a  woman  pleading 
in  a  European  criminalcourt.  In  Finland  and  Norway  women  have 
long  practised  as  barristers,  and  in  Denmark  since  X908  they  have 
been  admitted  as  assisunts  to  lawyers.  By  the  law  of  the  Nether- 
fcinds  they  are  admitted  as  notaries.  In  England  a  apoctal  tribunal 
of  the  House  of  Lords  presided  over  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  decided 
io  1903  not  to  admit  women  to  the  English  bar,  on  the  grounds  that 
there  was  no  precedent  and  that  they  were  not  desirous  of  creating 
one ;  but  numocrs  of  women  take  degrees  in  law  In  British  universi- 
ties, and  several  have  become  solicitors. 

*  In  the  olden  rimes  before  the  Refonnatioii  in  England  various 
reliipous  communities  absorbed  a  large  numb^  01  the  surplus 
femaWi  population,  and  in  High  Church  and  Roman  Catholic  circles 
many  ladies  still  enter  various  sisterhoods  and  devote  their  lives  to 
teaching  the  young,  visiting  the  poor  and  nurring  the  rick.  In  the 
Church  of  England  the  only  office  wfakh  remained  open  to  women 
wtts  the  modest  one  of  churchwarden*  and  this  office  is  not  infie* 
quently  filled  by  women.  The  Convocation  of  Canterbury  m  1908 
refused  by  a  majority  of  two  to  admit  women  to  parochial  church 
cbuncils,  though  qualified  persons  of  the  female  sex  may  vote  for 
parochial  lay  lepfesentatives  on  the  church  coundL  In  the  Inde> 
pendent  Churches  there  are  fewer  restrictkms.  Among  the  Con* 
|it9gationalists  women  have  eqnal  votes  on  all  questions  and  may 
become  deacons  or  even  ministers;  Miss  Jane  Brown  has  been 
fecognlsed  as  pastor  of  Brotherton  Congregational  Church,  Yorfc- 
f2"^t!  ^1  ^^^  ^  ^*"^^^  **  pastor  of  that  in  Cardiff,  and  in  the 
Methodist  Churdr  women  frequently  act  as  k)cal  preachers.  The 
same  equaUty  and  share  in  relijnous  work  is  accorded  to  women  by 
the  Baptists,  the  Society  of  Fnends  and  the  Salvation  Army,  the 
tuccms  of  which  is  largely  due  to  them.  In  Unitarian  congregations 
m  the  United  States  and  Australia  many  women  have  been  ap- 
fowled  ministers,  and  in  England  the  Rev.  Genrude  von  Petsold 
hekl  in  1910  the  post  of  minister  of  the  Narborough  Road  Free 
Vhnstiaa  Church.  Leicester. 


PHItlcal 


nvmber  am'  finding' empleymeBL    Agricidtim  awl  (M&aing 

have  opened  up  a  new  field  of  woik,  and,  with  it,  kfadied  oocnpa- 
tions. 

Women  have  always  found  a  peculiar)^  fitting  sphere  as 
nuiaes,  though  it  is  oniyia  recent  yeaca  that  musing  (g.».)  has 
been  professionalized  by  means  of  proper  eduottioM.  _ 
But  their  admission  to  the  medical  profession  itself 
was  one  of  the  earliest  triumphs  of  the  X9th-century  movement. 
It  began  in  Ametka,  btit  was  quickly  followed  up  in  England. 
After  having  been  refused  admissioD  to  instruction  by  numerous 
American  medical  schools,  Miss  Elisabeth  Black  well  was  allowed 
to  enter  as  a  student  by  the  Geneva  Medical  Collq^e,  N.Y., 
in  1S47,  from  which  she  graduated  ia  t&49.  Hers  was  the  first 
woman's  name  to  lie  placed  on  the  Medical  Rci^Btcr  of  the 
Uni!  ed  Kingdom  (1859).  In  Great  Britain  the  struggle  to  obtain 
admission  to  the  teaching  schools  and  to  the  examinations  for 
medical  degrees  and  diplomas  was  long  and  bitter.  Xhou^ 
the  Society  of  the  Apothecaries  admitted  Mrs  Gnnett  Anderson 
(q.%.)  to  their  diploma  in  1865,  it  was  only  after  a  series  of  rebufiis 
and  failures  that  women  were  admitted  to  the  degree  examina- 
tions of  the  various  universities.  In  August  1(76  an  "  ^naKiii^  » 
act  was  passed,  empowering  the  nineteen  British  medical 
examining  bodies  to  confer  their  degrees  or  diplomas  without 
distinction  of  sex.  In  1908  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  decided  to  admit  women  to  their  diplomas  aad 
fellowships.  In  the  meantime  women  doctors  had  become  a 
common  phenomenon. 

Women  in  England  may  fill  some  of  the  highest  positions  in 
the  states  A  woman  may  be  a  queen,  or  a  regent,  and  as  queen 
regnant  has,  by  x  Mary,  sess.  3,  c.  x,  as  full  rights 
as  a  king.  Among  the  public  offices  a  woman  may 
hold  are  those  of  county,  borough,  parish  and  rural  or 
urban  district  oounciUor,  overseer,  guardian  of  the  poor,  church- 
warden and  sexton.  In  1908  Mrs  Garrett  Anderson  was  elected 
mayor  of  Aldeburgh,  the  first  case  of  a  woman  holding  that 
posirion.  Women  have  also  been  nominated  as  members  of 
Royal  Commissions  (e.g.  those  on  the  Poor  Law  and  Divorce). 
A  woman  cannot  serve  on  a  jury,  but  may,  if  married,  be  one  of 
a  "  jury  of  matrons'*  empanelled  to  determine  the  condition  of 
a  female  prisoner  on  a  writ  ie  venire  inspiciendo.  She  can  vote 
(if  unmarried  or  a  widow)  in  county  council,  munfcrpalj  poor 
law  and  other  local  elections.  The  granting  of  the  parliamentary 
franchise  to  women  was,  however,  still  withheld  in  191a  The 
history  of  the  movement  for  women's  suffrage  is  told  below. 
It  may  be  remarked  that,  with  or  without  the  possession  of  a 
vote  on  their  own  account^  politics  in  England  have  in  modem 
times  been  very  oonaiderably  influenced  by  the  work  of  women 
as  speakers,  canvassers  and  organisers.  The  great  Conservative 
auxiliary  political  organization,  the  Primrose  League,  owes  its 
main  success  to  women,  and  the  Women's  Liberal  Federation, 
on  the  opposite  side,  has  done  much  for  the  Liberal  party. 
The  Women's  Liberal  Unionist  Association,  which  came  into 
being  in  1886  at  the  rime  of  the  Irish  Home  Rtile  Bill,  also  played 
an  active  part  in  defence  of  the  Unionist  cause. 

The  movement  for  the  aboliUon  of  the  sex  distinction  In  respect 
of  the  right  conferred  upon  certain  citizens  to  share  in  the 
election  of  parliamentary  representatives  dates  for 
pracUcal  purposes  from  the  middle  of  tlie  19th  century.  *"" 
The  governmental  systems  of  the  axuaenl  world  were 
based  without  exceptiQn  on  the  view  that  women  could  take 
no  part  in  state  politics,  except  in  oriental  countries  as  monarcha. 
Exceptional  women  such  ss  Cleopatra,  Semiramis,  Aisinoe, 
ought  in  the  absence  of  men  of  the  royal  house,  and  by  reason 
of  royal  descent  or  personal  prestige,  occupy  the  throne,  and  an 
Aspasia  might  be  recognized  as  the  able  head  of  a  polirical  salon, 
but  women  in  general  derived  thence  no  polirical  status.  Though 
Christianity  and/a  broadening  of  men's  theories  of  life  tended  to 
raise  the  moral  and  social  status  of  women,  yet  Pa\d  definitely 
assigns  subservience  as  the  pn^r  function  of  women,  and 
many  of  the  fathers  looked  upon  them  mainly  as  inheriting  the 
temptress  function  of  Eve.  This  view  generally  obtained  through' 
oBt  the  middle  ages,  though  here  and  there  fl^mmerings  of  a  new 


WOMEN 


i%j 


tSm.  «fe  Men;  mii^  of  tite  grait  Em^  iBbbesws  diaeliarKed 
their  tetritoriiil  duties  as  landownen,  and  mmen  as  outodians 
of  castles  voted  for  knjghta  of  the  shite.  In  the  lyth  and  iSth 
centuries  in  England  and  Ameiieaf  under  the  ii^uenceof  advanc- 
ing political  theory,  and  in  France  in  the  tSth  centtiry,  thb  idea 
began  to  take  shape.  In  England  the  writings  of  Mary  AsteU 
iSerious  Proposal  to  Ladies,  1607)  and  others  led  to  Che  gradual 
revision  of  the  inherited  idea  of  the  education  and  the  true  sphere 
of  women,  while  in  1790  Maty  WoUstoneciaft  pirt)lished  her 
VtndicutioH  of  the  Rights  cf  Wemem.  In  America  the  dawning  of 
a  political  consciousness  is  evidenced  by  the  claim  made  in  1647 
by  Margaret  Brent  to  sit  in  the  Aaatmbfyti  Maryland  as  the 
executor  of  Lord  Baltimore,  and  by  the  fe<)ueats  made  by 
Abigkil  Adams  (wifo  of  John  Adams),  Mercy  Otis  Warren  and 
Hannah  Lee  Corbhi,  that  women  taxpayers  should  enjoy  direct 
representation.  In  France  the  movement  towards  democracy 
did  not  in  the  hands  of  Rousseau  include  the  enfranchisement 
of  womeni  and  Comte  taught  tluit  women  were  politically  inferior 
to  men;  Condorcet,  however,  demanded  equal  rights  for  both 
sexes.  Although,  through' an  oversight,  women  could  vote  under 
the  first  constitution  of  New  Jersey  from  1776  to  1S07,  Uiere  is  no 
doubt  that  women's  suffrage  had  made  practically  no  progress  in 
any  country  till  comparativdy  hite  in  the  rpth  ctottnry.  There 
has  been  considerable  discussion  as  to  whether  women  had 
constUution^y  a  ngjit  to  vote  in  England  prior  to  the  Reform 
Act  of  r852  (see  Mrs  C.  C.  Stopes,  British  Freewoman).  The 
discussion,  however,  is  one  of  purely  antiquarian  interest,  and 
the  Reform  Act  made  quite  dear  what  had  certainly  been 
the  recognized  custom  before,  by  introducing  specifically  the 
word  '*  male  "  in  the  new  frandiise  Jaw  (2  and  3  Wifi.  IV.,  cap. 
45,  sections  19  and  so). 

Theearhest  known  handbfll  representmg  the  modern  *'  women's 
suffrage"  movement  in  England  dates  from  about  1847,  and  in 
1857  the  first  society  was  formed  in  Sheffield,  the  "Sheffield 
Female  Political  Association,"  due  largely  to  the  work  of  a 
Quaker  lady,  Anne  Kent  of  Chelmsford.  In  July  of  the  same  year 
Mrs  Johxi  Stuart  Mill  published  an  article  in  the  Westminster 
Rttiew}  The  earliest  outstanding  figure,  however,  h  Lydia 
Ernestine  Becker  (i827>-x89o),  descended  on  the  mother's  side 
from  an  old  Lancashire  family,  her  father  being  the  son  of  a 
German  firho  settled  in  England  m  early  youth.  She  became  a 
well-kno^vn  botanist,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Charles  Darwin. 
In  1858  the  Englishwoman's  Journal  was  started,  and  by  this 
time  there  was  a  vigorous  agitation  for  the  alteration  of  the 
law  relating  to  the  property  and  earnings  of  married  women. 
Among  the  loaders  of  thdt  movement  were  Barbara  Leigh  Smith 
(Mis  Bodichon)  and  Bessie  Rayner  Parkes  (Madame  Belloc). 
At  the  same  time  a  famous  group  of  women,  Emily  Davies, 
Miss  Beale  and  Miss  Buss(foimder5  respectively  of  the  Cheltenham 
Ladies'  College  and  the  North.  London  Collegiate  School)  and 
Miss  Garrett  (Dr  Garrett  Anderson),  Miss  Helen  Tayk>r  (John 
Stuart  Mill's  Stepdaughter)  and  Miss  Wolstenholme  (afterwards 
Mrs  Elmy)y  discussed  women's  suffrage  at  the  "Kensington 
Society." 

A  new  era  began  'with  the  election  in  1865.  as  member  for  West* 
minster,  of  John  Stuart  Mill,  who  placed  women's  suffrage  in 
his  election  address.  From  that  time  the  subject  became  more 
or  less  prominent  in  each  successive  parKamevt*  Mill  proBented 
the  first  petition  in  May  1867.  In  1868  the  case  of  ChorUon  e. 
Lings  was  decided  against  women  applicants  for  the  vote  by  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  a  similar  decision  was  given  by 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Appeal  in  Scotland.  From  this  time 
the  efforts  of  the  various  local  committees  (in  London,  Manchester, 
Bristol,  Edinburgh  and  Birmingham)  were  directed  to  promoting 
a  bill  in  parliament,  and  to  forwarding  petitions  (an  average 
of  300,000  signatures  a  year  was  maintainod  from  1870  to  x88o). 
The  Womeris  Suffrage  Journal  was  founded  in  1870^  and  in  the 
same  year  Jacob  Bright  moved  the  second  reading  of  the  Women's 
Disabilities  Bill  which  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  33  votes.  Mr 
Gladstone  then  threw  his  opposition  into  the  scale,  and  the  bill 

'This  article  was  written  in  reference  to  the  Women's  Rights 
Conviincioo  held  in  Worcester,  Mass..  USJk.:,^in  CX:tober  1850. 


«a8  rejected  In  committee  by  dso  to  94.  In  1871  the  same 
biU  was  again  lost  by  220  to  151,  in  n^ite  of  a  memorial  headed 
by  Florence  Nightingale,  Mary  Carpenter,  Augusta  Webster, 
Harriet  Martineau,  Frances  Power  Cobbe  and  Anna  Louisa 
Chishobn  (Mrs  H.  W.  Cfaishohn).  G.  O.  Trevelyan's  Household 
Franchise  Bill  in  1873  raised  the  hopes  of  the  women's  suffragist, 
and  Mr  Joseph  Chamberlain  at  a  great  Liberal  meeting  in 
Birmingham  carried  a  resolution  in  favour  of  the  proposed  change. 
Ftom  1874  to  1876  the  biU  was  in  charge  of  a  conservative, 
Mr  Forsyth,  and,  des^te  the  opposition  of  John  Bright  and  the 
efforts  of  a  parliamentary  committee  for  "  maintaining  the 
integrity  Of  the  franchise,"  the  number  of  supporters  was  wdl 
maintained.  The  work  proceeded  uneventfully  from  1876  to 
1884,  huge  meetings  being  bdd  in  all  the  chief  towns.  In  x88o 
the  franchise  was  conferred  upon  women  owners  in  the  Isle  o^ 
Man,  subsequently  upon  women  occupiers  also.  In  1883  a  great 
Liberal  conference  at  Leeds  voted  in  favour  of  women's  suffrage 
under  the  leadership  of  Dr  Crosskey  and  Walter  S.  B.  M'Laren. 
The  next  notable  event  in  the  movement  was  the  defeat  of  W. 
Woodall's  amendment  to  the  Reform  Bill  (1884),  providing  that 
words  importing  the  masculine  gender  should  include  women, 
by  27X  votes  to  135,  Mr  Gladstone  again  making  a  poweriul 
appeal  to  his  party  to  withdraw  the  support  which  they  had  .given 
in  the  past.  104  liberal  members  crossed  over  in  answer  to 
this  appeal.  Numerous'  bilk  and  resolutions  followed  year 
by  year  in  the  names  of  W.  Woodall,  L.  H.  Courtney  (Lord 
Coiutney,  whose  bill  was  read  a  second  time  without  a  division, 
x886),  W.  S.  B.  M'Laren,  Baron  Dimsdale,  Caleb  Wright,  Sir 
Albert  K.  Rollit,  F.  Faithful!  Begg  (1897;  second  reading 
majority  71).  Up  to  1906  all  those  attempts  had  failed,  in  most 
cases  owing  to  time  being  taken  for  government  business. 

The  period  1906  to  19x0  witnessed  entirely  new  devdopments. 
The  suffragists  of  the  existing  societies  stffl  carried  on  their, 
constitutional  propaganda,  and  various  bills  were  introduced* 
In  1907  Mr  W.  H.  Dickinson's  bill  was  talked  out,  and  in  190S 
Mr  H.  Y.  Stanger's  bill  was  carried  on  its  second  reading  by  at 
majority  of  179,  but  the  government  refused  facilities  for  its 
progress.  Prior  to  this,  however,  a  number  of  suffragists  iiad 
oome  to  the  conclusion  that  the  failure  of  the  various  bills  was 
due  primarily  to  government  hostility.  Furthermore  the  advent 
of  a  Liberal  government  in  1906  had  aroused  hopes  among  them 
that  the  question  would  be  officially  taken  up.  Questions  were 
therefore  put  by  women  to  Liberal  cabinet  ministers  at  party 
meetings,  and  disturbances  occurred,  with  the  result  that  Miss 
Christabd  Pankhurst  and  Miss  Annie  Kenncy  were  fined  in 
Manchester  In  1906.  A  certain  section  of  suffragists  thereafter 
decided  upon  comprehensive  opposition  to  the  government  ol 
the  day,  until  such  rime  as  one  or  other  party  should  officially 
adopt  a  measure  for  the  enfranchisement  of  women.  This 
opposition  took  two  forms,  one  that  of  conducting  campaigns 
against  government  nominees  (whether  friendly  or  not)  at  bye* 
elections,  and  the  other  that  of  committing  breaches  of  the  law 
with  a  view  to  drawing  the  widest  possible  attention  to  their 
cause  and  to  forcing  the  authorities  to  fine  or  imprison  them. 
Large  numbers  of  womeA  assembled  while  parliament  was  sitting; 
in  contravention  of  the  regulations,  and  on  several  occasions 
many  arrests  were  made.  Fines  were  imposed,  but  practically 
aU  refused  to  pay  them  and  suffered  imprisonment.  At  a  later 
stage  some  of  the  prisoners  adopted  the  further  courae  of  refusing 
food  and  were  forcibly  fed  in  the  gaols. 

The  faihire  of  all  the  bills  previously  drafted  on  the  basis  of 
exact  equality  between  the  sexes,  and  the  fact  that  t>oth  Unionists 
and  Liberals  refused  to  make  the  matter  a  party  question, 
coupled  with  a  general  feeling  of  discomfort  at  the  relaHOns 
between  theso<al!cd  "  militant "  suffragists  and  the  authorities, 
led  in  the  spring  of  1910  to  the  formation  of  a  committee  (CftUed 
the  Conciliation  Committee)  of  members  of  parliament  under 
the  presidency  of  the  earl  of  Lytton.  This  committee,  consisting 
of  some  55  members  belonging  to  all  parties,  succeeded  in  agrees 
ing  upon  a  new  bill  based  upon  the  occupier  franchise  established 
by  the  Munidpal  Franchise  Act  of  1884.  It  was  urged  on  behalf 
of  this  bOl  that  it  wotfld  establish  the  principTe  on  a  sufficiently 


788 


WOOD,  ANTHONY  A 


representative  bai^s  without  altering  the  numerical  balance  of 
parties  in  the  coontQr.  It  was  calculated  that  slightly  over 
1,000,000  women  would  be  enfranchised.  After  considerable 
pressure  both  inside  the  house  and  outside,  Mr  Asquith  consented 
to  give  two  days  of  government  time  for  the  debate,  and  the 
second  reading,  moved  by  the  Labour  member,  Mr  D.  J.  Shackle* 
ton,  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  iio  votes.  A  further  attempt 
to  commit  the  bill  to  a  Grand  Committee  failed  by  175  votes; 
the  bill  was  therefore  sent  to  a  committee  of  the  whole  house, 
and  Mr  Asquith  announced  that  he  would  not  give  further 
facilities.  It  was  noteworthy  that,  though  the  bill  was  opposed 
as  undemocratic  by  Mr  Lloyd-George  and  other  Liberals,  it  was 
supported  by  32  out  of  40  of  the  Labour  members,  and  evidence 
was  given  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  new  voters  would  have 
been  working  women. 

The  leading  women's  suffrage  societies  may  here  be  mentioned. 
All  these  societies  have  advocated  precisely  the  same  view,  namely 
that  women  diould  have  the  same  electoral  privileges  as  men, 
whatever  franchise  system  be  adopted. 

1.  Tilt  National  Union  ef  Women's  Suffrage  Societies  is  the  oldest 
organization.  It  began  about  1867  ai  a  number  of  separate  local 
committees,  and  after  various  reorganizations  a  great  amalgamation 
of  ail  local  societies  was  framed  in  1896  under  the  present  title. 
This  union  had  200  branches  in  1910.  All  the  eariy  suffragists 
belonged  to  this  body,  and  in  latter  years  the  chief  name  is  that 
of  Mrs  Henry  Fawcett.  The  union  pursued  continuously  the 
"  constitutional "  policy  and  stood  apart  altogether  from  the 
**  militant  "  societies.  Its  official  organ,  TTte  Common  Cause,  was 
founded  in  1906. 

2.  The  National  Women*s  Social  and  PolitiaU  Union,  associated 
chiefly  with  the  name  of  Mrs  Emmdinc  Pankhunt  and  Miss  Christa- 
bel  rankhurst,  formed  in  1906,  originated  the  more  **  militant " 
policy.  Its  income  in  1909-1910  reached  the  figure  of  /6o,ooo,  and 
up  to  September  1910  some  500  of  its  members  had  underppne 
imprisonment.  It  undertook  a  widespread  campaign  of  meetings, 
and  though  at  first  its  speakers  were  subjected  to  an  opposition  of 
a  violent  character,  there  was  no  doubt  that  the  movement  received 
horn  its  activities  a  wholly  new  stimulus.  Its  official  organ,  Votes 
for  Women,  obtained  a  large  circulation. 

Societies  of  various  kinds  multiplied.  In  1907  were  formed  (3)  the 
Women's  Freedom  League  (chiefly  associated  with  the  name  of  Mrs 
C.  Despard,  a  prominent  supporter  of  the  Labour  party),  whose 
members  objected  to  the  internal  administration  of  the  Social  and 
fV>KticaI  Union,  but  agreed  in  adopting  its  policy  in  a  modified 
form ;  and  (4)  the  Men's  League  for  Women's  Suffrage,  a  sodcty 
which  included  men  of  all  parties,  and  in  September  1910  adopted 
the  anti-government  election  policy.  Numerous  other  party'  and 
non-party  societies  were  formed,  and  resolutions  supTOiting  the 
principle,  either  in  the  abstract  or  as  a  part  of  adult  suffrage,  were 
passed  by^  various  Conservative,  Liberal  and  Labour  cOiuerences 
and  associations. 

The  remarkable  prominence  of  the  movement  and  the  fact  that 
successive  parliaments  contained  a  majority  of  pledged  suffragists 
led  to  the  formation  of  opixnition  soacties.  In  1908  was  formed 
the  WomtM's  National  Anti-Suffrage  Z^eague,  of  men  and  women, 
whwJi  drew  into  its  ranks  promment  persons  such  as  Lord  Cromer, 
Lord  Curzon,  Lady  Jersey  and  Mrs  Humphry  Ward;  and  about 
the  same  time  the  Men's  League  for  Opposing  Women's  Suffrage 
came  into  existence.  These  two  leafi:ues  amalgamated  in  December 
1910.  as  the  National  League  for  Opposing  Women's  SuffnM,  with 
Lord  Cromer  as  m«sident.  The  AntuSnffmne  Reeiew  was  founded 
in  1909. 

In  New  Zealand  a  measure  for  the  enfranchisement  of  women, 
introduced  by  Richard  Scddon,  was  carried  in  September  1893 
(in  the  upper  house  by  a  majority  of  2).  In  Australia  the  votfi 
has  been  extended  to  all  adult  women  both  in  the  states  (the  first 
being  South  Australia,  1894,  the  last  Victoria,  1909}  and  for  the 
Ccmimonwealth  parliament.  Thev  have,  moreover,  the  right 
to  sit  in  the  representative  assemblies. 

The  movement  assumed  aa  organized  form  in  the  United 
States  somewhat  earlier  than  in  the  United  Kingdom.  It  arose 
out  of  the  interest  taken  by  women  in  the  temperance  and  anti- 
slavery  agitations,  and  was  fostered  by  the  discussion  on  women's 
property  rights.  In  1840  the  question  was  raised  in  a  more 
acQte  form  by  the  exclusion  of  women  delegates  from  the  World's 
Convention,  and  in  1848  the  first  women's  suffrage  convention 
was  held  at  Seneca  Falb,  the  leading  spirits  being  Mrs  Elizabeth 
Cady  Stanton,  Martha  C.  Wright  and  Lucretia  Mott.  Later 
conventions  at  Salem  and  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  in  1850, 

'£.f.  the  Conserwatioe  and  Unionist  Women's  Franchise  Associo' 
tion,  of  which  the  countess  of  Sdborne  became  president  in  1910. 


were  the  predecessors  of  annual  meetfngik  hut  (he  eitravacBiit 
dress  adopted  by  some  of  the  women  brought  ridicule  upcui  the 
movement,  whidi  was  further  thrown  into  the  background  by 
the  Civil  War.  In  1869  were  formed:  (x)  in  New  York,  the 
Nationai  Women's  Storage  AssodatUm,  aiid  (2}  in  Cleveland, 
the  Anmiam  Woman*$  St^ffr^e  Association,  In  1890  these  two 
societies  amalgamBted  as  the  National  American  Wonusn't 
Suffrage  Association,  ol  which  in  1900  Mrs  Carrie  ChaCpman 
Catt  became  president.  The  question  waa  considered  by  a 
adect  committee  in  the  48th  Coogveas,  and  aoo  petitions,  i«{»c- 
senting  millions  of  individuals,  Were  presented  in  1900.  The 
Labour  and  SodaUst  parties  in  general  supported  the  women's 
daim,  but  there  was  considerable  oppontion  in  other  parties. 
In  5  states  (Wyoming  since  1869;  Colorado,  1893;  Utah,  1896; 
Idaho,  1896;  and  Washington,  19x0)  women  are  doctors,  aind  in 
25  states  they  have  exerdsed  the  sdiool  suffrage.  In  Louisiana 
they  obtained  the  suffrage  in  connexion  with  tax  levies  in  X898. 
Anti-suffrage  sodeties  have  also  been  formed  in  Brooklyn  (1894), 
Massachusetts  (1895),  Illinois  (1897),  Oregon  (1899). 

In  Finland  all  adult  men  and  women  over  the  age  of  24, 
exduding  paupers,  recdved  the  right  to  vote  for  members  of 
the  Diet  in  1906,  in  which  year  nineteen  women  became  members 
of  the  Diet.  In  Norway,  where  there  is  male  suffrage  for  men 
over  35  years  of  age,  women  were  entitled  to  vote  by  a  law  ol 
1907*  provided  they  or,  if  married,  their  husbands  \i.e.  where 
property  is  jointly  owned)  had  paid  income  tax  on  an  annual 
income  of  400  kroner  (£22)  in  the  towns,  or  300  kroner  (£16,  xos.) 
in  country  districts.  In  Sweden  a  suffrage  bill  was  carried  in 
the  lower  but  rejected  in  the  upper  house  in  1909.  In  all  the 
chief  countries  there  are  suffrage  sodeties  of  greater  or  less 
strength.  In  Russia  the  question  was  placed  in  the  forefront  of 
the  demands  made  by  the  Duma  in  1906,  and  in  X907  propertied 
women  received  the  right  to  confer  votes  on  their  sons  who  would 
otherwise  be  unenfranchised.  In  France  a  feminist  congress  met 
at  Lyons  in  1909. 

The  International  Woman  Suffrage  Alliance  originated  in  the 
United  States  in  1888.  Its  membership  increased  steadily,  and  at 
the  Convention  held  in  London  in  1909  delegates  were  present  from 
twenty-two  countries.  In  the  United  Kingdom  this  Alliance  is 
represented  by  the  National  Union  of  Women  s  Suffrage  Societies. 
A  social  and  propagandist  dub  was  founded  in  London  in  X909 
with  an  international  membership.  An  international  jouinal 
under  the  title  Jus  Suffragii  (Brussels)  was  founded  in  1907. 

Authorities. — It  is  impossible  to  do  more  than  mention  a  few 
works  out  of  many  dealing  with  various  phases  of  the  modem 
"  women's  movement. "  See  Alice  Zimmem  s  Renaissance  0/  Oris* 
Education  in  England  (1898);  A.  R.  Qcveland,  Women  -under 
English  Law  (18^;  J.  L  de  Lanessan,  L'Educatien  de  la  f enema 
moaeme  (1908);  M.  Ostroeorski,  Femme  au  point  de  vue  du  droit 
public  (1893);  Mrs  C.  P.  oilman,  Women  and  Economics  (1S99); 
Miss  C.  E.  C6Ilet,  Report  on  Changes  in  the  Employment  of  Women 
(1898;  Pari,  papers,  C.  8794);  B.  and.  M.  Van  Vorst,  Woman  in 
tndusiry  (lOoS) ;  A.  Loria,  Le  Fiminisme  ou  point  de  vue  sociologisue 
(1^7);  Helen  Blackburn,  Record  of  Women's  Siiffraee,  in  the  United 
Kingdom  (1902) ;  Susan  B.  Anthony,  History  0/  Woman's  Suffrage, 
In  the  United  States  (4  vols.,  1881-1902);  C.  C.  Slopes,  Briltsh 
Free  Women  (1894);  W.  Lyon  Blease,  The  Emancipation  of  Women 
(1910}.  The  classical  exposition  of  the  arguments  on  behalf  of 
women's  suffrage  is  J.  S.  Mill's  Subjection  of  Women;  the  most 
unportant  statement  in  opposition  is  perhaps  that  of  Professor 
A.  V.  Dicey  in  the  Quarterly  Review  (Oct.  1908).  (X.) 

WOOD,  ANTHOmr  k*  (1632-Z695),  English  antiquaiy,  was 
the  fourth  son  of  Thomas  Wood  (1580-1643),  B.C.L.  of  Oxford, 
where  Anthony  was  bom  on  the  17th  of  December  163  s.  He 
was  sent  to  New  College  school  in  164 1,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve 
was  removed  to  the  free  grammar  schoc^  at  Thame,  where  his 
studies  were  interrupted  by  dvil  war  skirmishes.  He  was  then 
placed  under  the  tuition  of  his  biother  Edward  (1627-1655), 
of  Trinity  College:  and,  as  he  tells  us,  "  while  he  continued 
in  this  condition  his  mother  would  alwaics  be  solidting  him  to 
be  an  apprentice  which  he  could  never  endure  to  faeare  of." 
He  was  entered  at  Merton  College  in  1647,  and  made  postmaster 
In  1652  he  amused  himself  with  ploughing  and  bell-ringingt 

*  In  the  Lifif  he  speaks  of  himself  and  his  family  as  Wood  or 
k  Wood,  the  last  form  being  a  pedantic  return  to  old  usage  adopted 
by  himself.  A  pedigree  is  given  in  Clark's  edition. 


.-^ 


WOOD,  MRS  HENRY— WOOD,  SIR  H,  EVELYN  789 


"  biting  had  ftotn  his  most  tender  ytan  mil  extnordintfy 
nvahing  deUgiit  in  music/'  began  to  teach  himaeU  the  vioUn, 
and  tvas  examined  for  the  degree  of  B.A.  He  engaged  a  muaic- 
maater,  and  obtained  petfmiasioa  to  uae  the  BodleUn.  **  which 
he  took  to  be  the  happiness  dt  hid  Ule."  He  was  adxakted  M.Au 
in  r655,  and  in  the  following  year  published  a  volume  of  aermona 
by  his  late  brother  Edwaard.  He  began  systematicaUy  to  copy 
monumental  inscriptions  and  ti>  search  for  antiquities  in  tl^ 
eity  and  neighbourhood.  He  went  through  the  ChHst  ChuMth 
negisten.  "  at  thb  time  being  icaolved  to  sot  himself  to  the 
study  of  anticpiities."  Dr  John  Wallu,  the  keeper,  alkmed  him 
fsce  access  to  the  univeisity  registers  in  x66o;  "  hetfe  he  layd 
the  foundation  of  that  book  which  was  Coniieen  yeas  afterwards 
published,  vis.  HUL  et  Andq.  Uwit.  Oxm.'*  He  also  came  to 
know. the  Oxford  collections  of  Brian  Twyne  to  which  be  waa 
greatly  faAlebled.  He  steadily  investigated  the  muniments  of 
all  the  ooDegm,  and  in  1667  made  bis  first  journey  to  London, 
whece  he  visited  Dugdale,  who  introduoed  him  into  the  Cottonian 
library,  ahd  Prynne  showed  him  the  same  civility  for  the  Tower 
lecoxds.  On  October  aa,  1669,  he  wis  sent  for  by  the  deisgates 
of  the  press,  '*  that  whereas  he  had  taken  a  gieat  deal  ot  palncs 
in  writteg  the  HiO.  tfnd  Aniiq  of  tkt  UnkarsUie  of  Oxom,  they 
would  for  his  paines  give  him  an  100  K,  for  hiscofrie,  conditlonaUy, 
that  he  would  suffer  the  book  to  bo  translated  into  Latine." 
He  accepted  the  offer  and  set  to  work  to  prepare  his  EngUdi 
MS.  for  the  transUton,  Ricfaaid  Peers  and  Richard  Reeve, 
both  appointed  by  Dr  Fell,  dean  of  Christ  Church,  who  under* 
rook  the  expense  of  printing.  In  i<i74  appeared  HiUoria  ei 
atUiquiUUs  UnkenUaUs  Oxctdtntist  handsomely  reprinted  "  e 
Theatre  Sbeldoniano,"  in  two  folio  volumes,  the  first  devoted 
to-the  univenity  in  general  and  the  second  to  the  colleges.  Copies 
were  widely  distributed,  and  univeisity  and  author  received 
anich  praise.  On  the  other  hand,  Bkliop  Barkrit  told  a  corre- 
spondent that  "  not  only  the  Latine  but  the  history  itself  is  in 
many  things  ridiculously  false^'  {G^ntdne  RtmoikSt  1693,  p.183). 
In  1678  the  university  registett  which  had  been  in  his  custody 
for  eighteen  years  were  removed,  as  it  waa  leaied  that  he  would 
be  impficated  fai  the  Popish  plot.  To  relieve  himself  from 
suspicion  he  took  the  oaths  of  supremacy  and  allegiance.  During 
this  time  he  had  been  gradually  completing  Us  great  work, 
which  waa  producijd  by  a  London  publisher  in  169x0169a, 
7  vols,  ^olio,  Alhence  Oxonknses:  en  Bmct  History  cf  all  tk§ 
Writers  and  Biskcps  who  have  had  their  Bdtuatiim  in  the  Umversily 
of  Oxford  from  1500  to  1690^  to  which  are  added  the  FatU^  or  A  nnats 
fof  the  said  time.  On  the  S9tb  of  July  1693  he  was  condemned 
in  the  vices^ancellor's  court  for  certain  Ubels  against  the  late 
earl  of  Clarendon,  fined,  banished  from  the  university  until  he 
tecanted,  and  the  offending  pages  burnt.  The  proceedings  were 
printed  in  a  volume  of  Miscellanies  published  by  Curli  m  1714. 
Wood  was  attacked  by  Bishop  Burnet  in  a  Letter  le  the  Bishop 
of  Lkhftdd  end  Coventry  (1693, 4to),  and  defended  by  his  nephew 
Dr  Thomas  Wood,  in  a  Vindication  <^  the  Historiographer ^  to 
which  is  added  the  Historiographer's  Answer  (1693),  4to,  reproduced 
in  the  subsequent  editions  of  the  Athenae,  The  nephew  also 
defended  his  undo  in  An  Appendix  to  the  Ufe  of  Bishop  Seth 
Ward,  1697,  8vo.  After  a  shopt  illness  he  died  on  the  aSth  of 
November  1695,  and  was  buried  in  the  outer  chapel  of  St  John 
Baptist  (Merton  College),  in  Oxford,  where  he  superintended  the 
di j^ng  of  his  pwn  grave  but  a  few  days  before. 

He  It  described  as  "  a  venr  strong  lusty  man,  **  of  uncouth  mannen 
and  appjearance,  not  so  deal  as  he  pretended,  ot  reserved  and  temper- 
ate  habits,  not  avaricious  and  a  despiaer  of  honoure.  He  received 
neither  office  nor  reward  from  the  university  which  owed  90  much  to 
his  labours.  He  never  married,  aod  led  a  life  of  self-deaial,  entirely 
devoted  to  antiquarian  research.  Bell-ringing  and  music  were  his 
chief  relaxations.  His  literary  style  is  poor,  and  his  taste  and  judg- 
ment are  frequently  warped  by  prejuoioe,  but  his  two  grrat  worn 
and  unpoblimcd  collections  form  a  priceless  source  of  information  on 
Oxford  and  her  worthies.  He  was  always  suspected  of  being  a  Roman 
Catholic  and  invariably  treated  Jacobites  and  Papists  better  than 
Dissenters  in  the  AUienae,  but  he  died  in  communion  with  the  Church 
of  England. 

Wood's  original  manuscript  (puiciiased  by  th«  Bodkiaa  in  1846) 
was  first  published  by  John  Gutch  as  The  History  and  Antiquities 
ef  the  Colteges  and  Halls  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  with  a  con- 


tinnatten  (1786-179^.9  vols.  4to).  and  The  History  and  AnUgmtke 
of  ike  University  of  Qaerd  (1793-1796,  3  vols.  4to},  with  portrait  of 
Wood.  To  these  snbitid  be  added  The  Antient  and  Present  State 
efthe  City  of  Oimrd,  chiefly  collected  by  A.  h  Wood,  with  additions 
by  the  Ree.  Ser^MPeshalt  (I773f  .4to^  the  text  is  KaiUcd  and  the 
editing  very  imperfect).  An  acunirable  edition  of  the  Snrvey  ^  As 
A  lUiquities  of  the  City  efOj^ford,  composed  in  1661-66  In  A  nthony  wood, 
editra  by  Andrew  Clark,  was  issued  by  the  Oxford  Historical  Society 
(1880-1899,  3  vols.  8vo).  Modtus  Solium,  a  Collection  of  Pieces 
of  Hnmonr,  chiefly  ill-natured  personal  stories,  was  published  a| 
Oxford  in  1751,  lamo.  Some  letters  between  Aubrey  and  Wood  were 
given  in  toe  Cefitleman's  Magaeine  (3rd  scr.,  ix.  x.  xi.).  Wood 
consulted  Dr  Hudson  about  setting  a  third  volume  of  the  Atkenae 
printed  in  Holland,  saying.  *' When  this  volume  comes  out  I'll  make 
you  laugh  again  "  (Rdif.  Heamianae/u  59).  Thia  was  included  in  a 
second  edition  of  the  Atkenae  pubNshcd  by  R.  Knaplock  and  J. 
Tonson  in  I7ai  (a  vols,  folio).  "  very  much  corrected  and  enlarged, 
with  the  addition  of  above  500  new  lives."  The  third  appeared  as  "  a 
new  edition,  with  additions,  and  a  continuation  by  Philip  Bliss** 
(i8i^*i8ao,  4  vols.  4to).  The  Ecclcsiastkat  History  Society  proposed 
to  bnng  out  a  fourth  edition,  which  stopped  at  the  Life,  ed.  by  Bliss 
(1848,  8 vo;  see  Cent.  Mae.,  N.S,  xxix.  145.  a68).  Dr  Bliss's  inter- 
leaved copy  is  in  the  Bodlebn,  and  Dr  Crimths  announced  in  1859 
that  a  new  edition  was  contemplated  by  the  Press,  and  asked  for 
additional  matter  (seo  N^es  and  Queriet,  and  ser.,  vii.  514,  and  6th 
aer.«  vi.  5,  ^i).  Wood  bequeathed  his  library  (ia7  MSS.  and  ^70 
printed  books)  to  the  Ashrooleao  Muscuoi,  and  the  keeper,  Williaro 
Huddesford,  printed  a  catalogue  of  the  MSS.  in  1^61.  In  1858 
the  whole  collection  was  transferred  to  the  Bodleian,  'where  aj| 
volumes  of  Wood's  MSS.  had  been  since  1690.  Many  of  the  original 
papers  from  which  the  Atkenae  was  written,  as  well  as  several  fane 
volumes  of  Wood's  correspoodcnce  and  all  his  diaries,  are  in  the 
Bodleian. 

We  are  intimately  acquainted  with  the  most  minute  partkrulars 
of  Wood's  life  from  his  Diaries  (1657-1695)  and  autobtography; 
all  eartier  editions  are  now  supeneded  by  tiie  efaboiate  work  of 
Andrew  ClaA,  The  Life  and  Times  of 
of  Oi^ord,  X032-16Q5,  described 
Society^  J891-1900.  5  vols.  8vo). 

ed.  Bliss  (and  ed.,  1669,  3  vols,  mno);  Heame's  Remarks 
and  CeUeetiens  (Oxfoid  Historical  Society.  1885-1907),  vola 
i.-viii.;  Macray's  Annals  of  Ike  Bodleian^  Lierary  (and  ed.,  1890); 
Nichols's  Literary  Anecdotes,  L  iv.  v.  viii.;  Noble's  Biogr.  Histoiy 
of  England,  l  (H.  R.  T.) 

WOOD,  KRS  RENRY  [Ellen]  (1814-1887),  English  novelist, 
was  bom  at  Worcester  on  the  17th  of  January  1814.  Her 
maiden  name  was  Price;  bcr  father  was  a  glove  manufacturer 
in  Worcester.  She  married  Henry  Wood  in  1836,  and  after 
her  marriage  lived  for  the  most  part  in  France,  her  husband, 
who  died  In  1866,  being  at  the  head  of  a  large  shipping  and 
banking  firm.  In  i860  she  wrote  a  temperance  tale,  Danesbury 
House,  which  gained  a  prize  of  £100  offered  by  the  Scottish 
Temperance  League;  but  before  this  she  had  regularly  contri- 
butcd  anonymous  stories  to  periodicals.  Her  first  great  success 
was  made  with  East  Lynne  (x86x),  which  obtained  enormous 
popularity.  It  was  translated  into  several  languages,  and  a 
number  of  dramatic  versions  were  made.  The  Channings  and 
Mrs  Halliburton's  Troubles  followed  in  1862;  Verner*s  Pride 
and  The  Shadow  of  Asklydyat  in  1863;  Lord  OakbunCs  Daughters, 
Oswald  Cray  and  Trevlyn  Hold  in  1864.  She  became  proprietor 
and  editor  of  the  Argosy  magazine  in  1867,  and  the  Johnny  Ludlow 
talcs,  published  anonymously  there,  are  the  most  artistic  of 
her  works.  Among  the  thirty-five  novels  Mrs  Henry  Wood 
produced,  the  best  of  those  not  hitherto  mentioned  were 
Roland  Yorke  (1869) ;  TVtr^'n  the  Mau  (1872)  and  Edina  (1876). 
She  continued  to  edit  the  Argosy,  with  the  assistance  of  Imt  son, 
Mr  C.  W.  Wood,  tUl  her  death,  which  occurred  on  the  loth  of 

February  1887. 

Memariats  of  Mrs  Henry  Wood,  by  hereon,  were  pnUtihed  hi  1894. 

WOOD,  SIR  HBMRY  BVEtYN  (1838-  ),  Britvh  field 
marshal,  was  bom  at  Bralntree,  Essex,  on  the  9th  of  February 
1838,  the  youngest  son  of  Sir  John  Page  Wood,  Bart.  Educated 
at  MiriboTough,  he  entered  the  Royal  Kavy  m  1852,  and  served 
as  a  midshipman  in  the  Russian  war,  being  employed  on  shore 
with  the  naval  brigade  in  the  siege  operations  before  Sevastopol, 
mentioned  in  despatches,  and  severely  wounded  at  the  assault  oft 
the  Redan  on  June  18,  1855.  Immediately  afterwards  he  left 
the  navy  for  the  army,  becoming  a  comet  in  the  13th  Light 
Dragoons.  Promoted  lieutenant  in  1856,  he  exchanged  into 
the  17th  Lancers  in  1857,  and  served  in  the  Indian  Mutiny  wKh 
distinction  as  brigade-major  of  a  flying  column,  wfauiing  the 


790 

Vietorift  Cross.  In  t86x  he  l>caime  captain,  !n  1862  brevet- 
major,  cxcbangiDg  about  the  same  time  into  the  73rd  Highlanders 
(Black  Watch),  but  returned  to  the  cavalry  three  years  later. 
Having  meantime  served  as  an  aide-de-camp  at  Doblin,  he  was 
next  employed  on  the  staflf  at  Aldershot  until  1871,  when  he  was 
cppointcd  to  the  90th  (now  and  Scottish  Rifles)  as  a  regimental 
major.  In  1867  he  had  married  the  Hon.  Maiy  Pauline  South- 
well, sister  of  the  4th  Lord  SouthwelL  In  1873  he  was  |Mromoted 
brevet  lieutenant-colonel,  and  in  1874  served  in  the  Ashanti  War 
(brevet-colonel);  in  x874-'i878  he  was  again  on  the  staff  at 
Aldershot,  and  in  November  1878  he  became  regimental  lieu- 
teaant'colonel,  the  Qoth  being  at  that  time  in  South  Africa 
engaged  in  the  Kaffir  War.  In  January  1879  he  ^as  in  command 
of  the  left  column  of  the  army  that  crossed  the  Zulu  frontier, 
and  shortly  afterwards  he  received  the  local  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  Under  him  served  Colonel  Redvers  fuller  and  also 
the  Boer  leader,  Piet  Uys,  who  fell  at  Inhlobana,  but  the  re- 
pulse at  that  place  was  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the 
successful  battle  of  Kambula.  At  the  close  of  the  war  Sir 
Cvelyn  Wood,  who  received  the  K.CJB.  for  his  services,  was 
appointed  to  command  the  Chatham  district.  But  in  January 
t88r  he  was  again  in  South  Africa  with  the  local  rank  of  major- 
general,  and  after  Sir  G.  P.  Colley's  death  at  Majuba  it  fell  to 
his  lot  to  negotiate  the  armistice  with  General  Joubert.  Re- 
maining in  Natal  until  February  1882,  he  then  returned  to  the 
Chatham  command,  having  meantime  been  promoted  sub- 
stantive major-general.  In  1882  he  was  made  a  G.C.M.G. 
and  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  Egyptian  expedition.  He 
remained  in  Egypt  for  six  3rears.  From  1883  to  1885  he  was 
Sirdar  of  the  Egyptian  army,  which  he  reorganized  and  in  fact 
created.  During  the  Nile  operations  of  1884-85  he  commanded 
the  forces  on  the  line  of  communication  of  Lord  Wolseley's  army. 
In  1886  he  returned  to  an  English  command,  and  two  years  later 
(January  1S89),  with  the  local  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  he 
was  appdnted  to  the  Aldershot  command.  He  became  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1891,  and  was  given  the  G.C.B.  at  the  close  of 
his  tenure  of  the  command,  when  he  went  to  the  War  OfHce 
as  quartermaster-general.  Four  years  afterwards  he  became 
adjutant-general.  He  was  promoted  full  general  in  1895.  He 
commanded  the  H.  Army  Corps  and  Southern  Command  from 
1901  to  1904,  being  promoted  field  marshal  on  the  8th  of  April 
1903.  In  1907  he  became  colonel  of  the  Royal  Horse  Guards. 
After  retiring  from  active  service  he  took  a  leading  part,  as  chair- 
man of  the  Association  for  the  City  of  London,  in  the  organization 
of  the  Territorial  Force.  Sir  Evelyn  Wood  published  several 
works,  perhaps  the  best  known  of  which  to  the  soldier  are 
Achievements  of  Cavalry  (1897)  and  Cavalry  in  the  Waterloo 
Campaign  (1896).  He  also  wrote  The  Crimea  in  1854  and  in  x8g4\ 
an  autobiography,  From  Midshipman  to  Field  Marshall  and 
The  Revolt  in  Hindostan, 

WOOD,  JOHN  GEORGE  (1827-1889),  EngUsh  writer  and 
lecturer  on  natural  history,  was  born  in  London  on  the  aist  of 
July  1827.  He  was  educated  at  Ashbourne  grammar  school 
and  at  Merton  College,  Oxford;  and  after  he  had  taken  his 
degree  in  1848  he  worked  for  two  years  in  the  anatomical  museum 
at  Christ  Church  under  Sir  Henry  Adand.  In  1852  he  was 
ordained  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  England,  became  curate  of  the 
parish  of  St  Thomas  the  Martyr,  Oxford,  and  also  took  up  the 
post  of  chaplain  to  the  Boatmen's  Floating  Chapel  at  Oxford. 
He  wa»  (NKkined  pdest  in  1854,  and  in  that  year  gave  up  his 
curacy  to  devote  himself  for  a  time  to  literary  work.  In  1858 
he  accepted  a  readership  at  Christ  Church,  Newgate  Street,  and 
lie  waa  assistant-chaplain  to  St  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  London, 
itom  1856  until  1862.  Between  1868  and  1876  he  held  the  office 
«C  precentor  to  the  Canterbury  Dioc»an  Choral  Union.  After 
1876  'he  devoted  himself  to  the  production  of  books  and  to 
deUvering  in  all  parts  of  the  country  lectures  on  zoology,  which 
he  illustrated  by  drawing  on  a  black-board  or  on  large  sheets 
of  white  paper  with  coloured  crayons.  These  "  sketch  lectures,'* 
as  he  called  them,  were  very  popular,  and  made  his  name  widely 
known  both  in  Great  Britain  and  in  the  United  States.  In  1883- 
x884.,ht  delivered  the  Lowell  lectures  at  Boston.    Wood  wa$ 


WOOD,  J.  C— WOODBURY 


for  a  tim^  editor  o(  the  Bo^i  Owi  MofodHe. 
important  work  was  a  Natural  History  in  tfarae  voinmes,  but  he 
was  better  known  by  the  series  of  books  which  begika  with 
Common  Objocts  of  the  SeaSkarOy  and  which  included  popular 
monographs  on  shells^  moths,  beetles,  the  ndcroaoope  and  Cmh 
m9i^  Objects  of  the  Couniry.  Omr  Qarden  PHenis  mnd  Foes  was 
another  book  which  found  hosts  of  appreciative  leadets^  He 
died  at  Coventry  on  the  3fd  of  Matdi  1889. 

WOOD.  SBARLS8  VALBHTIVB  (1798-1880),  English  paUeoiH 
tologist,  was  bom  on  the  14th  o(  February  1798.  He  went  to  sea 
in  181 1  as  a  midshipnun  in  the  East  India  Company^  service, 
which  he  left,  however,  in  1826.  He  then  settled  at  Hasfcetoa 
near  Woodbridge,  Suffolk.  He  devoted  himself  to  a  study  of  the 
moUusca  of  the  Newer  Tertiary  (Crag)  of  Svffolk  and  Norfolk, 
and  the  Older  Tertiary  (Eocene)  of  the  Hampshire  basin.  Oa 
the  latter  subject  he  published  A  Moncgrapk  of  l&s  Eocene 
Bitalves  of  England  (r86i'-i87i),  issued  by  the  PslaeoDto-- 
graphical  Society.  His  chief  work  was  A  Monograph  of  the  Crag 
MoUusca  (1848^1856),  published  by  the  same  society,  for  whkh 
he  was  awarded  the  Wollaston  medal  in  i860  by  the  Geolog;ical 
Society  of  Londim;  a  supplement  was  issued  by  him  in  187  2» 
1874,  a  second  in  1879,  and  a  third  (edited  by  his  son)  in  1B82. 
He  died  at  Martlesham,  near  Woodbridge,  oa  the  t6ih  ol October 
i88a  His  son,  Searles  Valentine  Wood  (r830-i884),  was  Eor 
some  years  a  solicitor  at  Woodbridge,  but  gave  up  the  pro« 
fession  and  devoted  his  energies  to  geology,  studying  especial^ 
the  structure  of  the  deposits  of  the  Crag  and  glftdal  dhfts. 

WOODBRIDGE.  a  market  town  in  the  Woodbridge  parlia- 
mentary division  of  Suffolk,  England;  79  m.  N.E.  by  £.  from 
London  by  the  Great  Eastern  railway.  Pop.  ol  urban  district 
(1901)  4640.  It  is  prettily  situated  near  the  head  of  the  Deben 
estuary,  which  enters  the  North  Sea  to  m.  S.  by  &  The  church 
of  St  Mary  the  Virgin  fa  a  beautiful  Perpendicular  stnicCun^ 
with  a  massive  and  lofty  tower  of  flint  work.  The  huge  estate 
left  by  Thomas  Seekford  of  Sekforde  (1578)  endows  th^  grammar 
school  and  hospital.  Woodbridge  Abbey,  built  by  Seekford, 
occupies  the  site  of  an  Augustinian  foundation  ol  the  i^th 
century.  There  is  a  Urge  agricultural  trade,  and  geoecal  foia 
and  horse  fairs  are  held. 

WOODBURY,  CHARLES  HERBERT  (1864*  ),  American 
marine  painter,  was  bom  at  Lynn,  Ma^^chusetts,  on  the  Z4th 
of  July  1864.  He  graduated  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology,  Boston,  In  1886,  was  a  pupil  of  the  Acadinzie 
JuUen,  Paris.  He  was  president  of  the  Boston  Water  Color 
Club,  and  became  associate  of  the  National  Academy  ol  Design, 
New  York.  His  wUe^  Marda  Oakes  Woodburyi  born  in  1865  at 
South  Berwick,  also  became  known  as  a  painter. 

WOODBURY,  LEVI  (1789*1851),  American  political  leader, 
was  bom  at  Francestown,  New  Hampshire,  on  the  ^and  ol 
December  1789.  He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in 
1809,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  181  a,  and  was  a  judge  of  the 
superior  court  from  1816  to  1823.  In  1823-1834  he  was  governor 
of  the  state,  in  i8a5  was  a  member  and  speaker  of  the  state 
House  of  Repcesentatlves,  and  In  1825-1831  and  again  in  184 1* 
1845  wte  a  member  of  the  U.S.  Senate.  He  was  secretary  ol  the 
navy  in  1831-1834,  secretary  .of  the  treasury  m  1834-1841, 
and  associate  justice  of  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court  from  1846  until 
his  death,  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire^  on  the  4th  ol 
September  1851.  From  about  1825  to  1S45  Woodbury  was  the 
undisputed  leader  of  the  Jacksonian  Democracy  in  New  l^ngland. 

See  hit  Writing.  Political,  Judicial  and  Literary  (3  vols.,  Boston, 
1852),  edited  by  Nahum  Capen:  and  an  article  in  the  ^ew  England 
MatfUttme^  new  series,  xxxviL  p.  658  (Februaiy  1908X. 

WOODBURT,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Gloucester  county, 
New  Jersey,  U.S.A.,  in  the  western  part  of  the  state,  9  m.  S. 
of  Philadelphia.  /  Pop.  (1900)  4087,  including  946  foreign-bom 
and  5 1 7  negroes;  (1910)  4643.  It  is  served  by  the  West  Jersey  & 
Seashore  Railroad.  Among  its  public  institutions  is  the  Dept* 
ford  Institute  Free  Library,  There  are  various  manufactures. 
Woodbury  is  said  to  have  been  settled  about  1684;  it  became 
the  county^seat  In  1787.  It  was  chartered  as  a' borough  in  1854 
and  as  a  city  in  1870. 


WOOD^ARVING 


791 


W00D-CA1IVI1NI»  the  prooes  wlmcby  wood  is  ornamented 
with  design  by  means  of  sharp  cutting  tools  held  in  the  hand. 
The  term  includes  anything  within  the  limit  of  sculpture  in  the 
found  up  to  hand-woriced  mouldings  such  as  help  to  compose  the 
tracery  of  screens,  &c. 

Maierial.—The  texture  of  wood  limits  the  scope  of  the  carver 
in  that  the  substance  consists  of  bundles  of  fibres  (called  grain) 
growing  in  a  vertical  direction  without  much  lateral  cohesive 
strength:  It  is  therefore  essential  to  arrange  the  more  delicate 
parts  of  a  design  "  with  the  grain  "  mstead  of  across  it,  and  the 
more  slender  stalks  or  leaf -points  should  not  be  too  much  separ- 
ated from  their  adjacent  surroundings.  The  failure  to  appreciate 
these  prinlaiy  rules  may  constantly  be  seen  in  damaged  work, 
when  it  will  be  noticed  that,  whereas  tendrils,  tips  of  birds' 
beaks,  &c.,  arranged  across  the  grain  have  been  broken  away, 
similar  details  designed  more  in  harmony  with  the  growth  of  the 
wood  and  not  too  deeply  msdercut  remain  intact.  Oak  is  the 
most  suitable  wood  for  carving,  on  account  of  its  durability  and 
toughness  without  being  too  hard.  Chestnut  (very  like  oak), 
American  walnut,  mahogany  and  teak  are  abo  very  good 
woods;  while  for  fine  work  Italian  walnut,  lime,  sycamore, 
apple,  pear  or  plum,  are  generally  chosen.  Decoration  that  is 
to  be  painted  and  of  not  too  delicate  a  nature  is  as  a  rule 
carved  in  pine. 

Tm/j.— The  carver  requires  but  few  kinds  of  too]a^-^(z)  the 
^uge — a  tool  with  a  curved  cutting  edge — used  in  a  variety  of 
forms  and  sizes  for  carving  hollows,  roimds  and  sweeping  curves; 
(a)  the  chisel,  large  and  small,  whose  straight  cutting  edge  is 
used  for  lines  and  cleaning  up  flat  surfaces;  (3)  the  ".  V"  ixxA 
used  for  veining,  and  in  certain  classes  of  flat  work  for  emphasizmg 
lines.  A  special  screw  for  fixing  work  to  the  bench,  and  a  mallet, 
complete  the  carver's  kit,  though  other  tools,  more  or  less 
legitimate,  are  often  used,  such  as  a  router  for  bringiug  grounds 
to  a  uniiorm  kvel,  bent  gouges  and  bent  chisels  lor  cutting 
hollows  too  deep  for  the  ordinary  tool. 

Metiud. — ^The  process  for  rdlef  carving  is  usually  as  follows. 
The  carver  first  fixes  the  wood  to  his  bench  by  m<;^ns  of  the  screw 
already  referred  to.  He  then  (a)  sketches  on  the  main  lines 
of  his  idea,  indicating  the  flowers,  foliage^  &c.;  or  {b)  should  the 
design  be  very  intricate  or  of  a  geometrical  character,  he  traces 
the  whole  design  from  a  pattern  first  prepared  on  p^>cr;  or 
(c)  he  may  combine  the  first  two  methods.  Next  he  grounds 
out  the  spaces  between  the  lines  with  a  gouge  to  a  moiv  or  less 
nnlform  depth.  Then  he  "  hosts  "  the  upstaadmg  pattern  that 
remains,  i.e,  he  models  and  shapes  the  details  of  his  design, 
carefully  balancing  the  Ughts  and  shadows;  and  finally,  after 
liaving  obtained  the  result  he  desires,  he  cleans  up  the  whole. 
The  quicker  be  works,  the  fewer  times  he  goes  over  the  same 
part,  the  more  sketchy  the  subsidiary  portions,  the  less  high 
finish-  he  puts  into  the  detail,  the  better  the  result.  Incised 
work,  chip<carving,  &c.,  are  generally  finished  at  once  and  not 
in  stages.  Much  carved  work,  that  of  savage  nations  for  instance, 
IS  of  course  carved  without  the  assistance  of  a  benth.  Many 
small  articles,  too,  arc  carved  in  the  hand,  little  models  of 
antelopes  or  bears,  so  familiar  in  Switscrland,  are  carved  in  this 
way  with  a  tool  somewhat  like  a  half-open  knife  but  with  the 
blade  fixed. 

5/y/«. — From  the  remotest  ages  the  decoration  of  wood  has 
been  a  foremost  art.  The  tendency  of  human  nature  has  always 
been  to  ornament  every  article  in  use.  Just  as  a  child  of  to-day 
instinctively  cuts  patterns  on  the  bark  of  his  switch  freshly 
taken  from  the  hedgerow,  so  the  primitive  man,  to  say  nothing 
of  his  more  civilized  successor,  has  from  the  earliest  times  cut 
designs  oil  every  wooden  article  he  is  accustomed  to  handle. 
The  North  American  Indian  carves  his  wooden  fish-hook  or  his 
pipe  stem  just  as  the  Polynesian  works  patterns  onjhis  paddle. 
The  native  of  British  Guiana  decorates  his  cavassft  grater  with 
a  wHl-cohceived  scheme  of  incbed  scrolls,  while  the  savage  of 
Loango  Bay  distorts  his  spoon  with  a  hopelessly  unsuitable 
design  of  perhaps  figures  standing  up  in  full  relief  carrying  a 
hammock. 
FigttM-worh  seema  to  have  beea  univcnaL    The  craving  to 


represent  one's  god  in  a  tangible  form  finds  expression  in  number- 
less ways.  The  early  carver,  and,  for  that  matter,  the  native 
of  the  present  day,  has  always  found  a  difficulty  in 
giving  expression  to  the  eye,  and  at  all  times  has  evaded 
it  by  inlaying  this  feature  with  coloured  material. 
Obsidian,  for  example,  b  used  by  the  modem  Easter  Islander 
in  common  with  the  Egyptian  craftsman  ol  the  earlier  dynasties. 
To  carve  a  figure  in  wood  is  not  only  more  difficult  but  is  \es& 
satisfactory  than  marble  (for  which  see  Sculptuse),  owing  to  the 
tendency  of  wood  to  crack,  to  be  injured  by  insects,  or  to  sufl^er 
from  changes  in  the  atmosphere.  The  texture  of  the  material, 
too,  often  (Moves  fatal  to  the  expression  of  the  features,  espedaUy 
in  the  danic  type  of  youthful  face.  On  the  other  hand,  magni- 
ficent examples  exist  of  the  more  rugged  features  of  age:  the 
beetling  brows,  the  furrows  and  lines  neutralizing  the  defects 
of  the  grain  of  the  wood.  However,  in  ancient  work  the  surface 
was  not  of  such  consequence,  for  figures  as  a  rule  were  painted. 

It  is  not  always  realized  at  the  present  day  to  what  extent  cotour 
has  even  from  the  most  ancient  times  been  used  to  enhanre 
the  effect  of  wood-carving  and  sculpture.  The  modem 
prejudice  against  gold  and  other  tints  is  perhaps  due  to 
the  fact  that  painted  work  has  been  vulgarized.  One  associates 
coloured  carvings  too  readily  with  theatre  galleries  and  the 
triumphal  car  of  the  drcus  procession.  The  "  restored  "  work  too 
of  some  church  screens  does  anything  but  encourage  the  revival 
of  this  time-honoured  custom.  The  arrangement  of  a  proper 
and  harmom'ous  scheme  of  colour  is  not  the  work  of  the  house- 
painter,  but  of  the  ^ledally  trained  artisL  Witness  the  old 
coloured  screens  of  Norfolk,  the  harmonious  greens  and.red% 
the  proper  proportion  of  gold,  the  panels  adorned  with  saint* 
on  backgrmmds  df  delicate  diaper  work,  and  compare  these 
triumphs  of  decoration  with  the  rougher  blues  and  nds  of  the 
Average  restored  screen,  and  one  ceases  to  wonder  why  we  now 
prefer  the  wood  plain. 

Of  late  years  carving  has  gone  out  of  fashion;  a  change  haa 
come  about.  The  work  is  necessarily  slow,  thus  causing  chargea 
to  appear  high.  Other  and  cheaper  methods  of  decoratfon  have 
driven  carving  from  its  former  place.  Machine  work  has  much 
to  answer  for,  and  the  endeavour  to  popularize  the  craft  by  means 
of  the  village  class  has  not  always  achieved  its  own  end.  The 
gradual  disappearance  of  the  individual  artist,  elbowed  out  as 
he  has  been  by  the  contractor,  is  fatal  to  the  continuance  of  an 
art  which  can  never  flourish  when  done  at  so  much  a  yard. 
So  long  as  the  carver  »  expected  to  work  to  some  one  else's 
pattern — so  long  as  he  is,  in  detail  at  least,  not  his  own  deiigner-^ 
this  art,  which  attamed  its  zenith  in  the  glories  of  the  i  sth-century 
cathedral  and  in  tho  continental  domestic  work  of  the  hundnd 
years  to  follow,  can  pever  h<^  to  live  again. 

AncittU  Work  htfore  tkt  Christian  £ra.-— The  extreme  dryness  olT 
the  climate  of  EB;:irpt  accounts  for  the  existence  of  a  number  of  wood- 
carvings  from  this  remote  period  (see  Ecypt:  Art  umi  n.._t. 
Arcfuuhlogy)^  Some  wood  panels  from  the  tomb  of  Hoeut  *■"*•• 
at  Sekkarah  are  of  the  III.  dynasty  (over  4000  B.C.).  The  earviag 
consists  of  hieroglyphs  and  figures  in  low  relief,  and  tbc  st^  is  ex^ 
tremely  delicate  and  fine.  A  stool  shown  on  one  of  the  panels  btt 
the  legs  shaped  like  the  fore  and  hind  lirabe  of  an  animal,  a  fokjflh 
common  in  Iig>'pt  for  thousands  of  years. 

In  the  Cairo  museum  mav  be  seen  the  statue  of  a  man  of  5» 
years  of  age,  of  the  period  of  the  great  pyramid,  possibly  400O  B.C 
The  expression  of  the  face  and  the  realism  of  the  carriage 
have  never  been  surpassed  by  any  Egyptian  sculptor  of 
thb  or  any  other  period.  The  hgnre  is  carved  out  of  a 
aoHd  block  of  sycamore,  and  in  accordance  with  the  Egyptian 
custom  the  arms  are  joined  on.  The  eyes  are  inlaid  with  pwces  Of 
opaque  white  c^uartz,  with  a  tine  of  bronze  surrounding  to  imitate  the 
Ifd;  a  small  disk  of  transparent  rock  crystal  forms  the  iris,  while  a 
tiny  bit  of  pollriied  ebony  fixed  behind  the  crystal  imparts  to  it  a 
lifelike  sparkje.  "  The  I  v.,  V.  and  VI.  dynasties  cover  the  fioesi 
period  or  Egyptkn  sculpture.  *  The  statues  found  in  the  tombs  shqw 
a  freedom  of  treatment  which  was  never  reached  in  later  times. 
They  are  all  portraits,  whicli  the  artist  strove  his  utmost  to  render 
exactly  like  his  modcL  For  these  are  not,  like  more  modem  statues, 
simply  works  of  art,  but  had  primarily  a  reli^us  signification  ** 
(Maspero).  As  the  spirits  of  the  deceased  might  inhabit  thesfc 
"  Ka     statues,  the  features  and  proportions  were  closely  copied. , 

There  are  to  be  found  in  the  principal  mnaeums  of  Europe  many 
Egyptian  examples  of  the  utmost  interest  "mummy  cases  ol  bumaa 


792 


WOOD-CARVING 


1kii«>  with  the  face  akuie  carved  aoimal  mommy  caace.  some, 
umei  boxes,  with  Jhe  figure  of  a  lizard,  perhaps,  carved  in  full 
mmmmy  ****"  standing  on  the  fid.  Sometimes  the  animal,  a 
fggfg,  cat.  sittmg  on  its  haunches,  for  example,  or  a  jackal, 
.  „  .  crouching  on  all  fours,  would  be  carved  in  the  round  and  iu 
hollowed,  body  used  as  the  case  itself. 

(X  furniture,  folding  scats  like  the  modem  campstool,  and  chairs 
With  legs  terminating  in  the  heads  of  beasts  or  the  feet  of  animals, 
g^ggl^f^  still  exist.    Beds  supported  by  lions'  paws  (XI.  and  XII. 

dynastitt,  from  GebeleIn.now1n  the  Cairo  Museum),  head- 
rests, 6  or  8  in.  high,^  shaped  like  a  crutch  on  a  foot,  very  like 
those  used  by  the  nauve  of  New  Guinea  to-day,  arc  carved  with 
scenes.  ftCr in  outline.  In  the  British  Museum  may  be  seen  a  tiny 
"^~S?'  iM-  ?y  *J  in-,  with  very  delicate  figures  carved  in  low 
relief.  This  little  box  stands  on  cabriole  legs  |  of  an  inch  long  with 
claw  feet,  quite  Louis  Quinae  in  character.  There  are  incense  Ldles. 
the  handle  representing  a  bouquet  of  lotus  flowers,  the  bowl  formed 
v%/iif  !?"  ™  *»°  aquatic  plant  with  serrated  edges  (from  Gurnah; 
lo        «3t"**        «n»«TOr  handles,  representing  a  little  pillar,  or  a 


colours,  but  the  pans  painted  whi»»«M»^r.     ,  ^?** 

delicate  lines  aild  ^otToli^^^^^^^^fi^X  ^^^^ 
pUin  surfaces  of  the  pSnels  were  alsTaS^  ""liJ^^^^^ki  V'^.i^"* 
a  background  of  delicate  gesso  d4D«^1^°i:!!5*^  wi.\5bdthwold^ 
NothSg  couW  exceed  ^b^S^' S^S^.SI^  '^^"^  *^ 
Germany.  FUnders  (PUte  I.  fie  i)  ?r  F^JSf'^^j'i'''*  "f"** 
from  the  New  Testament  in  highVlfcf  Ir^S^*'  *  Hl'**=*'S  "*"!; 
work  Of  canopies  and  clusterSi  SnnarS^^.I""«  T^^J?]?  *""* 
brilliant  colours.   In  Germany  The  iffS,  S^-rt^"  enhanced  by  em- 

phasixing  partkof  the  gilding  by  imSiS^'^^P^u""*  **^**?  **""** 
«.:.!. — I .1.*-^,*   ^■"**™*r— *  to  the  mettllic  lustre. 


owes  much  of  its 
direct  the  crafts- 


Which  were  also  of  wood  with  dog-head  ends  (XI.  dynasty,  Cairo 
Museum);  and  perfume  boxes  such  as  a  fish,  the  two  halves  forming 
the  bottom  and  top— the  perfume  or  pomatum,  was  removed  by 
little  WMden  spoons,  one  shaped  in  the  form  of  a  cartouche  emerging 
from  a  fulI-Wown  tetus,  another  shaped  like  the  neck  of  a  goose,  a 
thiitl  consisting  of  a  doe  runm'ng  with  a  fish  in  its  mouth,  the  fish 
forming  the  bowL  The  fist  might  be  prolonged,  but  enough  has  been 
•aid  to  show  to  what  a  pitch  of  refinement  the  art  of  wood-carving 
had  reached  thounnds  of  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 

Of  the  work  of  Assyria,  Greece  and  Rome,  little  is  actually  known 
except  from  history  or  inference.  It  may  bo  safely  assumed  that  the 
A*MrrtB,  ^'.'^^P*  i«ce  with  the  varying  taste  and  refinement  of 
On0€»am4  ^  .^^  ^^^  dvilixationa  Important  pieces  of  wood 
ifirata  sculpture  which  once  existed  in  Greece  and  other  ancient 
countries  are  only  known  to  us  from  the  descriptions  of 
Pausanias  and  other  classic  writers.  Many  examples  of  the  wooden 
"?J*i?  «  tn«  gods  ((iava)  were  preserved  down  to  late  historic  times. 
The  Palladium,  or  sacred  figure  of  Pallas,  which  was  guaided  by  the 
Vestal  yiqpns  in  Rome  and  was  fabled  to  have  been  brought  by 
Aeneas  from  the  burning  Troy,  was  one  of  these  wooden  C6«ml 

First  Ekven  Centuries  after  CArwi.— Wood-carving  examples  of 
5  o  *'??**?  ***  extremely  rare.  The  carved  panels  of  the  main  doors 
of  St  Sabina  on  the  Aventine  Hill,  Rome,  are  very  interesting  aped" 
mens  of  early  Christian  relief  sculpture  in  wood,  dating,  as  the  dresses 
show,  from  the  5th  century.  The  doors  are  mode  up  of  a  large  number 
of  small  jquarepanels,  each  minutely  carved  with  a  scene  from- the 
Old  or  New  Testament.  The  whole  feeling  of  these  reliefs  is 
Uioroughly  classic,  though  of  course  in  a  very  cubased  fonn.  A  very 
fine  fragment  of  Bvzantine  art  (iith-iath  centuries)  is  preserved 
in  a  monasteiy  at  Mount  Athos  in  Macedonia.  It  consists  of  two 
panels  (one  above  the  other)  of  relief  sculpture,  surmounted  by  a 
•emicircalar  arch  of  conventional  foliaee  springing  from  columns 
ornamented  with  animals  in  foliage  cf  spiral  form.  The  capitals  and 
bases  are  smiare,  each  face  being  carved  with  a  figure.  It  is  a 
wonderfully  hne  piece  of  work,  conceived  in  the  best  decorative  spirit 

In  Scandinavian  countries  we  find  some  very  eariy  work  of  ex- 
cellent design.  In  the  Christiania  Museum  there  are  some  fine  chain 
tr-iiff<ha  ^  ^^  9th  or  lotfa  centuries  carved  with  that  particular 
wlmmw9Hu  ^^  ^^  broad  treatment  of  scroll  and  strapwork  so 
eminently  suited  to  soft  wood.  In  the  Copenhagen 
Museum  there  are  paneb  from  Iceland  in  the  same  style.  The  cele* 
brated  wooden  doorwavs  of  Aal  (a.d.  laoo)  (Plate  II.  fig.  3),  Sauland, 
Flaa,  Solter  and  other  Norwegian  churches  (Christiania  Museum^  are 
only  an  elaboration  of  the  same  treatment  of  dragons  and  intncate 
scroll  work,  a  style  which  we  still  see  carried  on  in  the  door-posts  of  the 
15th  century  in  the  Nordbka  Museum,  Stockholm,  and  in  the  Ice? 
landic  work  of  quite  modem  times.  In  these  early  days  the  leal  was 
not  much  dexxlopcd  in  design.  The  carver  depended  almost  entirely 
on  the  stalk,  a,  style  of  work  whidi  has  its  counterpart  in  Burmese 
work  of  the  I7thcf3itury. 

Gothic  Period  Ufth-isth  CaUwiesY^U  was  towards  the  end  of  thu 
epoch  that  wood-carving  reached  its  culminating  point  The  choir 
■tails,  rood-screens,  roofs,  retablcs,  of  England,  France  and  the 
Teutonic  countries  of  Europe,  have  in  execution,  balance  ami  prty 
portion,  never  at  any  time  been  approached.  In  small  designs,  in 
detail,  in  minuteness,  in  mechankalacctiracy,  the  carver  of  this  time 
hM  had  hie  rivals,  but  for  greatness  of  architectural  conception,  for 
A  just  appredatkm  of  decorative  treatment,  the  designer  01  the  15th 
centuiy  stands  alone. 

It  SMMdd  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  colour  was  the  keynote  oC 
this  scheme.  The  custom  was  practically  universal,  and  enough 
traces  remain  to  show  bow  splendid  was  the  effect  of  these  old  Ck>thic 
churches  and  cathedrals  in  their  perfection.  The  priests  in  their 
goigeoua  vestments,  the  lights,  the  crucifix,  the  banners  and  incense, 
the  ireacood  or  diapered  walls,  and  that  crowning  glory  of  Gothic  art, 
the  stained  glass,  were  all  in  harmony  with  these  beautiful  schemes 
of  coloured  carved  worJc.  Red.  blue,  green,  white  and  gilding  wrre 
(ht  tints  as  a  rule  used.    Not  only  were  the  screens  painted  ij| 


with  red  or  green,  thus  giving  a  apei*^'fl?!5' 
.  The  style  of  design  used  duTing  5S?**  P^^«* 

interest  to  the  now  obsolete  custom /f"PlT"*^,  .  .  .w^  t 
man  and  his  men,  instead  of  the  m^^  ^^^^^  ^  givmg  the  work 
to  a  oontraaor.  It  is  easy  to  b**  ^^  *****f.  ban<i«^<rf  cap'*" 
travelled  about  from  church  to  dhJ^^  ^^  <>»»«  district  the  desiffiier 
would  employ  a  particular  form  «*^  *"*"*'^™*^"'  ***  vine  leaf,  while 
in  andther  adjoining  quite  s  <**<?rent  style  repeatedly  app^rs. 
Judging  by  results,  this  systew /'^^"ced.  ^^  **»*  «'?"  ^  ''^Y  *^**1 
u  design  and  execution.  Ther^P'^  scheme  was  of  course  planned 
by  one  master  mind,  but  the«^"P  <>*»^  ^  each  section,  each  part, 
each  detail,  was  left  to  the  iW»*iauaf  workman.  Hence  that  variety 
of  treatment,  that  endless  diversity,  which  givefc  a  charm  and  interest 
to  Gothic  art,  unknown  m  foo^  symmetrical  epochs.  The  Gothic 
craftsman  appreciated  t^  cardinal  fact  that  m  design  beautiful 
detail  does  not  necescarily  insure  a  beautiful  composition,  and  aub- 
ordinated  the  individual  P^rt  to  the  general  effect.  He  also  often 
carved  in  situ,  a  practice  seldom  if  ever  followed  in  the  present  day. 
Here  and  there  one  cobm  across  the  work  of  long  years  ago  stiU 
unfinished.  A  half-completed  bench-end,  a  fragment  of  screen  left 
plain,  clearly  show  that  sometimes  at  least  the  church  was  the 
workshop. 

Gothic  and  Renaissance:  a  Comparison. — Gothic  design  roughly 
divides  itself  into  two  classes:  (1)  the  geometrical,  f.«.  tracery  and 
diaper  patterns,  and  (?)  the  foliage  designs,  where  the  mechanical 
scroll  of  the  Renaissance  is  as  a  rule  absent.  The  lines  of  foliage 
treatment,  so  common  in  the  bands  of  the  15th-century  rood- 
screens  and  the  panel  work  especially  of  Germany,  serve  to  illustrate 
the  widely  different  motives  of  the  craftsmen  of  these  two  great 
epochs.  Again,  while  the  Renaissance  deagner  as  a  rule  made  the 
two  sides  of  the  panel  alike^  the  Gothic  carver  seldom  repeated  a 
single  detail.  While  his  main  lines  and  erouping  corresponded,  his 
detail  differed.  Of  numberless  examrjies  a  isih -century  chest 
(Plate  III.  fig-  6)  in  the  Kunstgewerbe  Museum,  Beriin.  may  be  re- 
ferred to.  The  arrai^ements  of  foliage;  &c,  on  top.  back  and  front, 
are  typical  of  Gothic  at  its  best 

Em  of  Ike  I2th  century-jjoo. — As  this  section  treats  of  wood- 
carving  in  Europe  generally,  and  not  of  any  one  country  alone,  the 
dates  just  named  "must  be  of  necessity  only  approximate.  The  13th 
century  was  marked  not  only  by  great  skill  both  in  design  and  treat- 
ment, out  also  much  devotional  feeling.  The  craftsman  seems  to 
have  not  merely  carved,  but  to  have  carved  to  the  glory  of  God.  At 
no  rime  was  work  more  delicately  conceived  or  more  b^utif  ully  cut. 
This  eariy  Gothic  style  certainly  lent  itself  to  fine  finish,  and  in  this 
respect  was  more  suited  to  stone  treatment  than  to  wood.  But  the 
loving  care  bestowed  on^cach  detail  seems  to  point  to  a  rcligioua 
devotion  which  is  sometimes  absent  from  later  work.  Very  good 
examples  of  capitals  (now.  alas,  divided  down  the  centre)  are  to  be 
seen  in  Petertoroueh  cathedral.  Scrolls  and  foliage  spring  from 
groups  of  columns  01  four.  Some  Italian  columns  of  the  same  date 
(Victoria  and  Albert  Museum)  should  be  compared,  much  to  the 
advantage  of  the  former.  Exeter  cathedral  boasts  misereres  un- 
surpassed for  skilful  workmanship ;  mermaids^  dragons,  elephants, 
masks,  knights  and  other  subjects  introduced  into  toliage,  form  the 
designs.  /  Salisbury  cathedral  is  noted  for  its  sull  elbows,  and  the 
reredos  in  the  south  transept  of  Addisham,  Kent,  is  another  fine 
example  testifying  to  the  great  skill  of  the  13th-century  wood- 
carvers.  A  very  intercstingset  of  stalls,  the  early  history  of  which  is 
unknown,  was  placed  in  Banning  church,  Kent,  about  the  year 
1868.  The  book  rest  ends  are  carved  with  two  scrolls  and  an  animal 
standing  between,  and  the  ends  of  the  stalls  with  figure  sculpture : 
Christ  rescuing  souls  from  Hell,  Samson  slaying  the  lion,  St  George 
and  the  dragon,  &c.  The  work  of  these  stalls  is  that  of  an  artist  who 
knew  what  effect  he  wanted  to  produce  and  got  it.  There  is  in  the 
Berlin  Museum  a  very  fine  example  of  a  13th-century  prayer  desk 
from  johanniskirche  in  Hcrford.  The  front  is  carved  in  three 
panels  under  arches,  two  with  vine  leaves  and  grapes  and  the  other 
with  an  oak  tree  conventionally  treated.  Along  the  arches  is  carved 
in  Latin  "  this  tbree-divisioncd  desk  has  John  with  the  help  of 
Thomas  carved.  Who  will  not  praise  this  work  may  he  then  be 
removed,"  a  somewhat  drastic  method  of  obtaining  favourable 
criticism. 

ijoo-ijSa. — During  this  per)od  f<4!age  forms,  though  still  conven- 
tional, more  closely  fmkywea  nature.  The  canopy  work  of  the  choir 
of  Winchester  contains  exquisite  carvings  of  oak  and  other  leaves. 
The  choir  stalls  of  Ely  and  Chichester  and  the  tomb  of  Edward  III. 
in  Westminster  Abbey  are  all  fine  examples  of  this  period.  Exeter 
boasts  a  throne — that  of  B«hop  Stapledon  (a.d.  1308-1^36)  stand- 
ing 57  ft.  hieh — which  remains  unequalled  for  perfection  of  pn^ 
portion  «ad  ddicacy  of  detail  (Plate  IV.  6g,  6).    In  Fftmoe  the  ecaUs 


wood-<:arving 


793 


ol  Si  Beaoie-«ur-Loirk  Liaeu3(,  Mid  Evraix  are  SDod  I4th*centiify 
«cainpie».  But  little  Gothic  work  is  now  to  be  seen  in  the  churches 
of  thw  country  It  is  to  the  museums  we  have  to  look  (or  traces  of 
the  old  Gothic  carvers,  The  two  rotables  in  Dijon  Museum,  the  work 
of  lacques  de  Baerze  (1301).  a  sculptor  of  Flanders,  who  carved  for 
Philippe  le  Hardi,  duke  of  Burgundy,  are  masterpieces  qf.  design  and 
workmanship  The  tracery  is  of  the  very  6nest.  chiefly  gill  on  back> 
grounds  of  cuapered  gesso  (Plate  1  fig  i). 

i38<h-iS20  — Towards  the  end  of  the  14th  century  carvers  gave  up 
lutural  foliage  treatment  to  a  great  extent,  and  took  to  more  con- 
ventional forms  (Plate  III  fig.  d)  The  oak  and  the  maple  no 
loDser  inspired  the  des^ner,  but  the  vine  was  constantly  employed. 
A  very  hirae  amount  of  15th  century  work  remains  to  us,  but  the 
briefest  reference  only  can  be  made  to  some  of  the  more  beautiful 
examples  that  help  to  make  this  period  so  great. 

The  rood  screen,  that  wonderful  feature  of  the  medieval  church, 
was  now  univecsaL    It  consisted  ol  a  tall  screen  of  usually  about 

Tft*  /*."■«  ' *  '^  ^^^'  ^^  ^®  ^^  ^  which  rested  a  loft,  i^  a  pkitform 
LglgT^  about  6  ft.  in  width  guarded  on  either  side  by  a  gallery 
and  either  on  the  top  or  in  front  of  that,  facing  the  nave, 
was  placed  the  roodt  «a  a  \&rf^  crucifix  with  figures  of  St  Mary  and 
St  John  on  either  side.  This  rood  screen  sometimes  spanned  the 
church  in  one  eontinuQus  length  (Leeds,  Kent),  but  often  filled  in  the 
aisle  and  chancel  arches  in  three  separate  divisionfl  (Church  Hand- 
borough,  Oxon.).  The  k>ft  was  as  a  rule  approached  by  a  winding 
•tair  built  in  the  thickness  of  the  aisle  wall.  The  lower  part  of  the 
■creen  itself  was  solid  panelled  to  a  height  of  about  3  ft.  6  in.  and  the 
upper  pait  of  this  panelling  was  filled  in  with  traoery  (Carbrook, 
Norfolk),  while  the  remaining  flat  surfaces  of  the  panels  were  often 
IHCtured  with  saints  on  a  background  of  delicate  gesso  diaper  (South- 
w«rfd,  Suffolk).  Towards  the  end  of  this  period  the  employment  of 
figures  became  less  common  as  a  means  of  decoration,  and  the  pancJs 
were  sometimes  filled  entirely  with  carved  foliage  (Swimbridge, 
Devoa).  The  upper  part  of  the  rood  screen  consisted  of  open  arches 
whh  the  heads  filled  in  with  pierced  tracery,,  often  enriched  with 
cfockets  (Scarning,  Norfolk),  embattled  transoms  (Castle  Hedingham, 
Essex),  or  floriated  cusps  (Eye,  Suffolk).  The  mulUons  were  con- 
stantly carved  with  foliage  (Cheddar,  Somerset),  pinnacles  (Causton, 
NorfollOt  angels  (Pilton,  Devon),  or  decorated  w^  canopy  work  in 
0BS8O  (Southwold).  But  the  feature  of  these  beautiful  screens  was 
the  toft  with  its  gaUery  and  vaulting.  The  bft  floor  rested  on  the  top 
of  the  rood  screen  and  was  usually  oalanced  and  kept  ih  position  by 
means  of  a  groined  vaulting  (Harbefton,  Devon)  or  a  cove  (bddington, 
Somerset).  The  finest  exainples  of  vaulting  are  to  be  seen  in  Devon 
(Plate  IV.  %  10).  The  bosses  at  the  intersections  of  the  ribs  and  the 
carved  tracery  of  the  screen  at  Honiton  stand  uniivaDed.  Many 
screens  still  possess  the  beam  which  formed  the  edge  of  the  loft  floor 
and  on  which  the  gallery  rested-  It  was  here  that  ue  medieval  rood- 
screen  carver  gave  most  play  to  his  fancy,  and  carved  the  finest 
designs  in  foliage  to  be  seen  throughout  the  whole  Ciothic  period. 
Althoa^  these  massed  moulds,  crests  and  bands  have  theappearance 
of  being  carved  out  of  one  log,  they  were  in  practice  invarumy  b^ilt 
up  in  parts,  much  of  the  foliage,  &c.,  being  piercedand  placed  in  nolk>w 
OMolds  In  Older  to  increase  the  shadow.  As  a  rule  tne  arrangement 
consisted  of  a  crest  mnning  along  the  top,  with  a  smaller  one  de- 
pending from  the  tower  edge,  and  three  hands  'of  foliage  and  vine 
between  them  (Fenstoo,  Devon).  The  designs  of  vine  leaves  at 
Kenton  (Plate  IV.  fig.  10),  Bow  and  Dartmonth,  all  in  Devon, 
illustrate  three  very  beautnul  treatments  of  this  plant.  At  Swim- 
bridge,  Devouj  there  b  a  very  etaborate  combination:  the  usinl 
plain  beads  which  separate  the  bands  are  carved  with  twisted  foliage 
also.  At  Abbots  Kersweli  and  other  places  in  the  district  round 
Totnea  the  carvers  introduced  faords-in  the  foliage  with  the  best  effect. 
The  variety  of  cresdns  used  is  very  great.  That  at  Winchoomb, 
Cloocester,  consists  ol  drains  combined  with  vine  leaves  and 
ioUagf  .  It  illustrates  how  Gothic  carvers  sometimes  repeated  their 
fNLttnnns  in  as  mechanical  a  way  as  the  worst  workmen  <m  the  present 
time.  Little  can  be  said  of  the  galleries,  so  few  remain  to  us.  They 
were  oeariy  aU  polted  down  wiien  the  order  to  destroy  the  roods  was 
iHMied  in  1548.  That  they  were  deooratod  with  carwd  saints  under 
■iches  (Uanannoi  Wales),  or  painted  figures  (Strencfaam,  Woroest^), 
1b  oertain  from  the  examples  that  have  survived  the  Reformation. 
At  Atherington.  Devon,  the  gallery  front  is  decorated  with  the  royal 
eoat  of  arms,  other  heraldto  devices,  and  with  prayers.  The  Breton 
screen  at  St  Fiacre-to-Faouet  is  a  wonderful  exampto  of  French  work 
of  this  time,  but  does  not  compare  with  the  best  English  examples. 
Iti  flamboyant  lines  and  its  ainall  tzaceffy  never  obtained  any  foot- 
hold In  Ei^nd,  though  screens  carved  in  this  way  (Cokuirook, 
Devon)  are  sometimes  to  be  fbond. 

The  nod  was  sometimes  of  sudi  dimensions  as  to  require  some 
support  in  addition  to  the  gallery  on  which  it  rated.  A  carved 
bcras  was  used  from  which  a  cham  connected  the  rood  itsdf.  At 
Cultompton,  Devon,  such  a  beam  still  exists,  and  is  carved  with 
ioUage;  an  open  cresting  ornaments  the  under  aide  and  two  angds 
■apport  the  ends.  This  partacuku*  rood  stood  on  a  base  of  rocks, 
ikulls  and  bones,  carved  out  of  two  solid  togs  aveias^ng  18  in.  wide 
and  ai  la.  hi^,  and  together  meaaaring  15  ft.  6  in.  tong:  there  are 
fpund  holes aiongthe  top  which  were  probably  used  for^hts. 

No  country  in  Europe  possesses  roofs  ta  equal  those  of  Kogland  in 
Che  15th  oeotury.   The  great  roof  of  WcstnUnster  Hall  (see  Roof) 


remains  to  the  pniaent  day  wHhoiit  an  equal.  In  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk  roois  abound  of  the  hammer-beam  class;  that  at  Woolpit, 
Suffolk,  is  of  the  first  rank.  Each  bracket  is  carved  with  otu»ik. 
strongly  designed  foliage,  the  end  of  every  beam  termin-  *••'■• 
ates  in  an  angel  carrying  a  shield,  and  the  purlins  are  crested,  while 
each  truss  is  supported  by  a  canopied  nicne  (containing  a  figure) 
resting  on  an  an^  corbel.  Here,  too,  as  at  Ipswich  and  many  other 
churches,  there  is  a  row  of  angels  with  outspread  wings  under  the 
wall-plate.  This  idea  of  angels  in  the  roof  is  a  very  beautiful  one, 
and  the  effect  was  of  course  much  enhanoed  by  the  cotouring.  The 
roof  at  St  Nicholas,  King's  Lynn,  is  a  magnificent  example  of  tier 
beam  constructton.  The  trusses  are  filled  in  with  tracery  at  the  sides 
and  the  centres  more  or  less  open,  and  the  beams,  whidi  are  crested 
and  embattled,  contain  a  row  of  angejs  on  either  side.  In  Devon, 
Cultompton  posse^cs  a  very  fine  semicircular  oeiling  supported  at 
intervals  by  nbs  (Merced  with  carving.  Each  compartment  is  divided 
up  into  small  square  panels,  crossed  by  diagonal  ribs  of  cresting, 
wnito  every  joint  is  ornamented  vnth  a  boss  carved  in  the  decorative 
way  peculiar  to  the  Gothic  craftsman.  The  nave  roof  of  Manchester 
cathedral  is  nearly  flat,  and  is  also  divided  up  into  small  compart- 
ments and  bossed, ^the  beams  are  supported  by  carved  brackets 
resting  on  corbels  with  angels  at  each  base. 

In  the  X5th  century,  choir  stalls  with  their  canofnes  continued  to 
Increase  in  magnificence.  Manchester  cathedral  (middto  of  15th 
century)  and  Henry  VIL's  cliapel  in  Westminster  Abbey 
(early  x6th)  are  good  examples  of  the  fashion  of  massing 
pinnacles  and  canopies;  a  custom  which  hardly  com- 
pares with  the  more  simple  beauty  of  the  14th-century  work  of  Ely 
cathedral.  The  stalb  ot  Amiens  cathedral  were  perhajM  the  finest 
in  the  world  at  the  banning  of  the  16th  century.  The  cresting 
emptoyed,  though  common  on  the  Continent,  is  of  a  kind  hardly 
known  in  England,  consisting  as  it  does  of  arches  springing  from 
arches,  and  decorated  with  crockets  and  finials.  The  tabernacle 
work  over  the  end  seats,  with  its  pinnacles  and  flying  buttresses, 
stretches  up  towards  the  roof  in  tapdring  lines  of  the  utmost  delicacy. 
The  choir  stalls  (the  work  of  Jorg  Syrlin,  1468)  in  Ulm  cathedral  are 
among  the  finest  produced  by  the  Carman  carver  fPlate  III.  fig.  4). 
The  front  panels  are  carved  with  foliage  of  splcndia  decorative  boki- 
ness,  strength  and  character;  the  stalTends  were  carved  with  foliage 
and  sculpture  along  the  top  edge,  as  was  sometimes  the  case  in 
Etavaria  and  France  as  well  as  Germany. 

In  early  times  the  choir  atone  possessed  seats,  the  nave  bdng  left 
bare.  Gradually  benches  were  introduced,  and  during  the  15th 
century  became  universaL  The  "  poppy-head  "  form  <n 
ornament  now  reached  perfection  and  was  constantly  tssed 
for  seats  other  than  those  of  the  choir.  The  name  refera 
to  the  carved  finial  which  is  so  often  used  to  complete  the  top  of  the 
bench  end  and  is  peculiarly  English  in  character.  In  De\)oa  and 
Cornwall  it  is  rarely  met  with  (Ilsingtoo,  Devon).  In  Somerset  it  n 
mom  common,  whito  in  the  eastern  counties  thousands  of  example 
remain.  The  ^uito  simple  fleur-de-lys  form  of  poppy-bead,  suitable 
for  the  village,  is  seen  in  perfection  at  Trunch.  Norfolk,  and  the  very 
elaborate  form  when  the  poppy-head  springs  from  a  crocketed  circto 
filled  m  with  sculpture,  at  St  Nicholas,  King's  Lynn.  Often  the 
foliage  contained  a  face  ^toy,  Norfolk)*  or  the  pc^py-head  consisted 
of  figures  or  birds  only  (ThurBton,  Suffolk)  or  a  figure  standing  on  a 
dragon  (Great  Brincton,  Northampton) ;  occasionally  the  tradittonal 
form  was  departed  from  and  the  mual  carved  like  a  lemon  in  outline 
(Bury  St  Edmunds)  or  a  diamond  (Tirley,  Glos.).  In  Denmark  an 
ornament  in  the  form  of  a  large  circle  sometimes  takes  the  place  of 
the  Enghsh  p(»py-head.  In  the  Copenhagen  Museum  there  is  a 
set  of  bench  ends  of  the  15th  century  with  such  .a  decoration  carved 
with  coats  of  arms,  interbkcing  strap-work.  &c  But  the  old  isth- 
century  bench  end  did  not  depend  entirely  on  the  poppy-head  for  its 
embeUtshment.  The  side  was  constantly  enriched  with  elaborate 
tracery  (Dennington,  Norfolk)  or  with  tracery  and  domestic  scenes 
(North  (^bury,  Somerset),  or  would  consist  01  a  mass  of  sculpture  in 
perspective,  with  canopy  work,  buttresses  and  sculptured  niches 
whito  the  top  of  the  bench  end  would  be  o'owned  with  figures  carved 
in  the  round,  of  the  finest  craftsmanship.  Such  work  at  Amiens 
cathedral  is  a  marvel  alike  of  conception,  dengn  and  execution.  In 
the  Kunateewerbe  Museum,  BerUn,  some  beautiful  stall  ends  are  to 
lie  seen.  (5iit  of  a  dragon's  mouth jgrowsa conventional  tree  arranged 
and  babnoed  in  excellent  proportion.  On  another  stall  end  a  tree  is 
cafved  growing  out  of  the  mouth  of  a  fool.  This  custom  of  making 
foliage  grow  out  of  the  mouth  or  eyes  is  hardly  defensible,  and  was 
by  no  means  confined  to  any  country  or  time.  We  have  plenty  of 
Renaissance  examples  of  the  same  treatment. 

Before  the  15th  century  preaching  had  not  become  a  regular 
institution  in  England,  and  pulpits  were  not  so  common.  However, 
the  vahie  of  the  sermon  began  to  be  appredatcd  from  the  ^,_^ 
use  to  which  the  Lollards  and  other  sects  put  this  method  '"■^F"* 
of  teaching  doctrine,  and  pulpits  became  a  necessity.  A  very 
beautiful  one  exisU  at  Kenton.  Devon.  It  is.  as  is  generally  the  case. 
octagoaaU  and  stands  00  a  foot.  Each  angto  is  carved  with  an 
upright  column  of  foliage  between  pmnacles,  and  the  panek^  which 
are  painted  with  saints,  are  enriched  with  carved    canopies  and 

I  foliage ;  it  is,  however,  mudi  restored.  The  pulpit  at  Trull,  Soromet. 
is  noted  for  its  fine  figure  carving.    A  huge  figure  sunding  under  a 

'  canopy  fills  each  of  the  panelled  akles«  whito  many  other  spaltor 


794- 


WOOD-CARVING 


figures  help  to  ^rieh  die  MnenI  dfect.  Enmplet  of  Gothic  «ound> 
nig  boards  are  very  rare;  tnat,  tcxether  with  the  pulpit,  ia  the  choir 
of  Winchester  is  of  the  time  of  Prior  Silkatede  (1520),  and  is  carved 
wilh  his  rebus,  a  skein.of  twisted  silk. 

The  usual  form  of  foot  cover  durins^  the  hundred  years  before  the 

Reformation  was  pyramidal,  the  ribs  of  the  salient  angles  being 

1^^.  straight  and  cusped  (Frindsbury ,  Kent  )or  of  curved  outline 

g^gf^        and  cusped  (St  Mildred.  Canterfoury).    There  is  a  very 

charming  one  of  this  form  at  Colebrook,  Devon.    It  ts 

auitc  plain  but  for  a  little  angd  kneeling  on  the  top,  with  its  hands 
bsped  in  prayer.  But  the  most  beautiful  form  b  the  massed 
collection  or  pinnacles  and  canopy  work,  of  which  there  is  such  a  line 
example  at  Sudbuiy,  Suffolk.  It  was  not  uncommon  to  carve  a  dove 
on  the  topmost  pmnacle  ^Castleacre,  Norfolk),  in  allusion  to  the 
descent  ol  the  Holy  Spirit  The  finest  font  in  England  is  un- 
doubtedly that  of  Unord.  Suffolk.  It  rises  some  20  ft.  in  height,  and 
when  the  panels  were  painted  with  saints  and  the  exquisite  taber- 
nacle work  coloured  and  gilded,  must  have  been  a  masterpieee  of 
Gothic  craftsmanship.  A  oord  connecting  the  tops  of  these  covers 
with  the  roof  or  with  a  carved  beam  standing  out  from  the  wall, 
something  Hke  a  ctane  (Salle,  Norfolk),  was  used  to  remove  the  cover 
on  the  occasion  of  baptism. 

Many  lecterns  of  the  Gothic  period  do  not  exist  to-day.  They 
omially  had  a  double  sloping  desk  which  revolvnl  round  a  central 
j^_^^  moukied  post.  The  lectern  at  Swanscombe,  Kent,  has  a 
^~"^""  circle  of  good  foliage  ornamenting  each  face  of  the  book 
rpst,  and  some  tracery  work  at  either  end  The  box  form  is  more 
common  in  France  than  in  England,  the  pedestal  of  such  ti  lectern 
being  surrounded  by  a  casing  of  three  or  more  sides.  A  good  ex- 
ample with  six  sides  is  in  the  church  of  Vance  (France),  and  one  of 
triangular  form  in  the  "Musie  of  Bourges,  while  a  four-dded  box 
lectern  is  stiU  in  use  in  the  church  of  Lenham,  Kent.  The  Gothic 
prayer  desk,  used  for  private  devotional  purposes,  is  hardlv  known 
m  England,  but  is  not  uncommon  on  the  Continent.  There  is  a 
beautiful  specimen  in  the  Mus£e.  Bourges;  the  front  and  sides  of  the 
part  for  kneeling  are  carved  with  that  small  tracery  of  ftowing  char- 
acter so  common  in  France  and  Bd^um  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
15th  century,  and  the  back,  which  nses  to  a  height  of  6  ft.,  contains  a 
little  crucifix  with  traceried  decoration  above  and  below. 

A  word  should  be  said  about  the  dboria,  so  often  found  on  the 
i~L  .  continent  of  Europe.  In  tapering  arrangement  of  taber- 
^^^  nade  work  they  nval  the  English  font  covers  in  delicacy 
of  outline  (Musie,  Rouen). 

Numbers  of  doors  are  to  be  met  with  not  only  in  churches  but  also 
to  private  houses.  Lavenham,  Suffolk,  is  rich  m  work  of  this  latter 
jj^  class.    In  England  the  eeneral  custom  was  to  carve  the 

•^^  head  of  the  door  only  with  tracery  (East  Brent,  Somerset), 
l>ttt  in  the  Tudor  period  doors  were  sometimes  covered  entirdy  with 
*'  linenfold  "  panelling  (St  Albans  Abbey).  This  form  of  decoration 
was  exceedinely  common  on  the  Continent  as  wdl  as  in  England.  In 
France  the  ooon  towards  the  latter  part  of  the  T5th  century  were 
often  square-headed,  or  perhaps  had  the  comen  roundedi  These 
doors  were  usually  divided  into  some  six  or  dght  oblong  paiids  of 
more  or  less  equal  size.  One  of  the  doora  of  Bourges  Cathedral  ia 
treated  thus,  the  pands  being  filled  in  with  very  good  tracery  en- 
viched  with  crockets  and  coats  of  arms.  But  a-more  restrained  form 
of  treatment  is  constantly  employed,  as  at  the  church  of  St  0>daj<d, 
Kouen,  where  the  upper  pands  only  are  carved  with  tracery  and  coats 
of  arms  and  the  lower  adorned  with  nmple  linenfold  dc^gn. 

To  Spain  and  the  Teutonic  countries  of  Europe  we  look  tor  the  most 
important  object  of  church  decoration,  the  ratable;  the  Reformation 
^u»m.  accounting  for  the  absence  in  England  of  any  work  of  this 
2!u^  kind.  The  magnificent  altar-piece  in  Schleswig  cathedral 
'^"*'  was  carved  by  Hans  Bruggerman,  and  consists,  like  many 
others,  of  a  number  of  paneb  filled  with  figures  standing  some  four 
or  five  deep.  The  figures  in  the  foremost  rows  are  car^^  entirely 
se|>arate,  and  stand  out  by  themselves,  while  the  bacl|»round  » 
composed  of  figure  work  and  architecture,  Ac.,  in  diminishing  peiv 
specrive.  The  pands  are  grouped  together  under  canopy  work 
forming  one  harmonious  whole.  The  genius  of  thu  ^reat  carver 
shows  Itself  in  die  large  variety  of  the  facial  expression  of  those 
wonderftd  figures  all  instinct  with  Kfe  and  movement.  In  France 
few  retables  exist  outside  the  mnseuma.  In  the  Httle  church  of 
Marbsd,  not  far  from  Beauvab,  there  is  a  retable  consisting  of  devea 
pands,  the  crudfixion  being,  of  coune,  the  prindpal  subject.  And 
there  is  a  beautiful  exam|»e  from  Antwerp  in  the  Mumb  Quny, 
Paris;  the  pierced  tracery  work  whidi  decorates  the  upper  part  being ' 
a  good  example  of  the  style  composed  of  interlacing  segments  01 
circles  so  common  on  the  Continent  during  kite  Gothic  tines  and  but 
seldom  pracdsed  in  England.  In  Spain  tne  cathedral  of  Vattadolad 
was  famous  for  its  retable.  and  Aloaso  Cano  and  other  sculfyton 
Trequently  laed  wood  for  large  statuary,  which  waa  painted  in  a 
very  realistic  way  with  the  most  startlingly  lifdike  effect.  Denmark 
also  possessed  a  school  of  able  wood-carvera  who  Imttated  the  great 
altar-pieces  of  Germany.  A  very  targe  and  wdl-carved  nramplr  ttiU 
exists  in  the  cathedral  of  Roskilde.  But  besides  these  great  aJtar- 
pieces  tiny  little  models  were  carved  on  a  scale  the  miaoianess  of 
which  staggers  the  beholder.  Triptychs  and  shrines,  Acy  measuilng 
bat  a  few  inches  were  filled  in  with  tnoery  and  %uics  that  sjidte 
the  utmost  wonder,   in  tiie  Bridih  MoNumtbece  is  each  a  triptgnch 


(Flemish,  151 1) ;  theeentR  pand,  mamHnt  aflloch  or  twoequare,  a 
crowded  with  wures  in  full  relief  said  ia  diminishing  perspective,  afttr 
the  custom  of  this  period.  This  rests  on  a  semicircular  mse  which  is 
carved  with  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  is  further  ornamented  with 
figures  and  animals.  The  whole  thing  indusive  measures  about  9  ia 
high,  and,  with  the  triptych  wings  open,  5  In.  wide.  The  extra- 
ordinary ddicacy  and  minuteness  of  detail  oi  this  microscopic  work 
baffle  description  There  is  another  such  a  piece,  also  Flemish,  ia 
the  Wallace  collection,  which  rivals  that  just  referred  to  in  mis- 
applied talent  For,  marvdlous  as  these  works  of  art  are,  they  Cai]  te 
satisfy  They  make  one's  eyes  ache,  they  worry  one  as  to  how  the 
result  could  ever  have  been  obtained,  and  after  the  first  astonish- 
ment one  must  ever  fed  that  the  same  work  of  art  on  a  scale  lacge 
enough  for  a  cathedral  couM  have  been  carved  with  half  the  labour. 
With  regard  to  panelling  generally,  there  were,  during  the  last 
fifty  yeara  of  the  period  now  under  review,  three  styles  of  design 
followed  by  most  European  carvers,  each  of  which  at*  ^^  n. 
talned  great  notoriety  Firstly,  a  developed  form  ol  small  '^■■"'■^f^ 
tracery  whfch  was  very  common  in  France  and  the  Netherlands. 
A  square-headed  pand  would  be  filled  in  with  small  detail  of  flam- 
boyant character,  the  perpendicular  line  or  muUion  being  always 
subordinate,  as  in  the  German  chasse  (Mus^e  Cluny),  aodin  some 
cases  absent,  as  the  screen  work  of  Evreux  cathedral  shows  us. 
Secondly,  the  "  linenfold  "  design.  The  great  majority  of  examples 
are  of  a  very  conventional  form,  but  at  l^re  Regis,  Donetshire,  the 
designs  with  tassels,  and  at  St  Sauv6ur,Caen,th<Me  with  fringe  work, 
readily  justify  the  universal  title  applied  to  this  very  decorative 
treatment  of  large  surfaces.  At  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  centoiy 
yet  another  pattern  became  the  fashion.  The  main  lines  of  the  design 
consisted  of  flat  hollow  mouldings  sometimes  in  the  form  of  intei^ 
ladng  circles  (Gatton,  Surrey),  at  other  times  chiefly  strawht 
(Rochester  cathedral),  and  the  mtervening  siaoes  would  be  filled  ia 


with  cusps  or  sprigs  of  foKage.  It  marks  the  last  struggle  of 
great  school  of  dea|^  to  withstand  the  oncoming  flood  of  the  new 
art— the  great  Renaissance.  From  this  time  onwand  Gothic  work* 
in  spite  01  various  attempts,  has  never  again  taken  a  place  in  domestic 
decoration.  The  lines  of  the  tracery  style,  the  pinnadc,  and  the 
crocket— unequalled  as  they  have  always  been  in  devotional  ex- 
pression—are universally  considered  unsuitod  for  decoration  in  the 
ordinary  dwdUng^'house. 

But  httle  reference  can  be  made  to  the  domestic  side  of  the  period 
which  ended  wi^  the  dawn  of  the  i6th  century,  because  so  few 
lemains  exist.  On  the  (Continent  we  have  a  certain  pro-  p 
portion  of  timbered  houses,  the  feature  of  which  is  the  ZZZjT 
sculpture.  At  Bayeax,Boarges,  Rdms  and  pre-eminently  ^"'^ 
Rouen,  we  see  by  the  figures  of  saints,  bishops  or  virgins,  how  much 
the  rel^ious  Ceding  of  the  middle  aeesr entered  into  the  domestic  life. 
In  Engund  tlie  canred  comer  post  (which  generally  carried  a  bncket 
at  the  top  to  support  the  overhanging  storey)  calb  for  oDnunent. 
In  Ipswich  there  are  several  sndi  posts.  On  one  house  near  tbn 
river,  that  odebreted  subject,  the  fox  pieachas  to  ^eese,  Is  carved  in 
gxapnic  allusion  to  the  dissemination  of  false  aoctnn& 

Of  mantdpieoes  diere  u  a  good  example  in  the  Rouen  Museum. 
The  overhanging  comen  are  supported  by  dn«ons  and  the  plain 
mouldings  have  little  bunches  ot  foliage  carved  at  cither  end,  n 
custom  as  common  in  France  during  the  15th  century  na  it  was  io 
EngUiid  a  century  earlier;  the  screen  beam  at  Eastfaoorne  pariab 
chinch,  for  example. 

As  a  rule,  cabinets  of  the  15th  century  were  rectangular  in  plan. 
In  (jermany  and  Aostria  the  lower  part  waa  often  enclosed,  aa  wdl 
as  the  upper:  the  top,  middle  and  lower  raib  being  carved  with 

Enmetrical  desten  or  with  bands  of  foliase  (Museum,  Vjenna>> 
ut  it  was  also  tne  custom  to  make  these  rnpboaida  with  the  coraeft 
cut  off,  thus  giving  five  ddes  to  the  niece  of  inmiture.  A  very  pretty 
instance,  which  b  greatly  enhanced  by  the  metal  work  of  the  h>ck 
plates  and  hinges,  »  in  the  Muafe  Quoy,  and  there  axe  other  nod 
specimens  with  the -tower  part  open  in  the  Victoria  and  Auen 
Museum,  South  Kensington. 

The  chest  was  a  very  important  piaoe  of  fumitiire^  and  b  often  tn 
be  met  with  covereci  ^ui  the  most  elaborate  carving  (OrleaiM 
Museum).  There  is  a  splendid  chest  (i4tfa  century)  is  the  Quny 
Museum  ;  the  front  is  carved  with  twdve  Knights  in  amuwr  standing 
under  as  many  arches,  and  the  spnndreis  are  filled  in  with  facci^ 
dragons  and  so  00.  But  it  is  to  the  15th  century  that  we  look  for  the 
best  work  of  this  class;  there  is  no  finer  example  than  that  ia  the 
Knnstgeweibe  Museum*  Bcriin  (Plate  Hi.  fig.  6).  The  front  is  a 
very  animated  hnnting  scene  mostf  dccoiativeb^  arranged  in  n  acheiBt 
of  foliage,  and  the  top  Beats  two  coat*  of  arms  with  hdma,  crests  and 
mantling.  But  the  more  general  custom  in  chest  decoration  was  t# 
employ  tracery  with  or  widicMkt  figure  work;  Avignon  Miwwnm 
containa  some  typcal  eimmpha  of  the  latter  dasa. 

A  certain  nuraoer  of  aeats  need  lor  donacttac  purposss  am  of  fveat 
interest.  Agoodecampleof  thelongbendiplaoeaa^narthewnli 
with  lofty  puelled  back  and  canopy  ovtr,  is  in  the  Musfo  Cluny\ 
Faria  In  the  Museum  at  Rouen  is  a  long  aeat  of  a  movable  kind  witt 
a  low  panelled  back  of  pierced  teaoecy.  i^nd  in  the  Dijon  Muieua 
there  ie  a  good  example  of  the  typioal  chair  of  the  period,  with  ama 
and  high  panelled  and  traceried  ■adc  There  was  a  ttyit  of  destga 
ndmixnbly  suited  l»  the  decoration  of  furniture  when  modeof  softwood 
andi  as  ninn.    It  aomawhat  mirmhlffl  the  enceUant  fiaamfiaavinn 


WOOD-CARVING 


795 


mstiilCttt  t4  xM  loth^isth  cMtUnto  tMtttdf  ttfcttta  to.  A 
iMttern  of  Gothic  fdiMe,  often  of  beautiful  outline,  irould  be  simply 
grounded  out  to  a  •hafiow  deptb.  The  shadows,  curves  and  twists 
onlv  being  emphasised  by  a  few  weH-disposed  cuts  with  a  "  V  ** 
tool;  and  of  ooone  the  whole  effect  grecitly  improved  by  colour. 
A  Swiss  door  of  the  isth  century  in  die  Benin  Museum,  and  some 
Gemuuii  Swiss  and  Tirokee  work  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum, 
offer  patterns  that  might  well  be  imitated  to-day  by  those  who 
Inquire  simple  decoration  while  avoiding  the  hackneyed  Elizabethan 
forma. 

It  is  hard  to  compare  the  figure  work  of  England  with  that  on  the 
Continent  otring  to  the  disairtvout  effect  of  the  Reformation.  But 
when  we  examine  the  roofs  <A  the  Eastern  counties,  the 
bench  ends  of  Soraenet,  or  the  misereres  in  many  parts  of 
the  country,  we  can  apprecate  how  laiigely  wood  sculpture 
was  used  for  purposes  of  decoration.  If  as  a  rule  the  figure  iwora  was 
not  of  a  very  hign  order,  we  have  consmcuous  exceptions  In  the  stall 
dbows  of  Sherborne,  and  the  pvl\p\t  of  Trull,  Somerset.  Perhaps  the 
oldest  Instance  b  the  much-mudlated  and  much-restored  efiigy  of 
Robert,  duke  of  Nonnandy,  p  Gloucester  Cathedral  (12th  century), 
aiKi  carved,  as  was  generally  the  case  in  England,  In  oak.  At  Qifton 
Reynes,  Buckingham,  there  are  two  figures  of  the  13th  century. 
They  are  both  hollowed  out  from  the  rack  in  order  to  facilitate 
seasoning  the  wood  and  to  prevent  cracking.  Duriiw  the  13th,  14th 
and  15th  centuries  there  are  numberless  instances  of  figure  carving  of 
the  most  graphic  description  afforded  in  the  misereres  m  many  of  our 
churches  ana  cathedrals.  But  of  fibres  carved  in  the  round  apart 
from  their  surroundings  hardly  an  mstance  remains.  At  the  little 
diapel  of  Cartmd  Fell,  in  the  wilds  of  Westmorland,  there  is  a  figure 
of  Our  Lord  from  a  crucifix,  some  2  ft.  6  in.  in  length.  The  cross  is 
gone,  the  arms  are  broken  away,  and  the  feet  have  been  burned  off. 
A  second  fisure  of  Our  Lord  toriginally  in  the  church  of  Ke3nie8 
Inferior)  is  m  the  museum  of  Caerteon,  and  a  third,  from  a  diurcb 
in  Liqcolnshire,  is  now  in  a  private  collection.  ^On  the  conti- 
nent some  of  the  finest  figure  work  b  to  be  found  in  the  retables, 
some  of  which  are  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.  ^  A  Tirolese 
panel  of  the  15th  century  carved  in  hi^  relief,  representing  St  John 
seated  with  his  back  to  the  onlooker,  is  a  masterpiece  of  perspective 
and  foreshortening,  and  the  drapery  folds  are  perfect.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  a  small  statue  of  the  Virigin.  carved  in  lime  by  a  Swiss 
hand,  and  some  work  of  the  great  Tylman  Reimenschndder  of 
Wurzburg  fi46&-iMi)  shows  that  stone  sculptors  of  medieval  times 
were  not  ashamed  of  wood. 

Renaissttftu  Period  (i6th-iph  Centuries). — With  the  beginning  of 
tSie  i6th  century  the  neat  Renaissance  began  to  elbow  its  way  in  to 
the  exclusion  oTGothfe  design.  But  the  process  was  not  sudden ,  and 
much  transition  work  has  great  merit.  The  rood  screen  at  Hurst, 
Berkshire,  the  stall  work  ofCartmel  Priory,  Westmorland,  and  the 
bench  ends  of  many  of  the  churches  in  Somerset,  give  ^|ood  tUustra- 
rions.  But  the  new  style  was  unequal  to  the  old  in  devotional  feelinjr, 
except  in  dasnc  buildings  like  St  Paul's  cathedral,  where  the  stans 
of  Crinting  Gibbons  better  suit  their  own  surroundings.  The  rest  of 
this  article  will  therefore  be  devoted  in  the  main  to  domestic  work, 
and  the  exact  location  of  examples  can  only  be  given  when  not  the 
property  of  private  owners  or  wncre  thepublic  have  access. 

During  the  l6th  century  the  best  work  is  undoubtedly  to  be  found 
on  the  Continent,  France,  Germany  and  the  Netherlands  producing 
nambcriess  examples  not  only  of  house  decoration  but  of  furniture  as 
well.  The  wealth  of  the  newly  discovered  American  continent  was 
only  one  factor  which  assisted  in  the  civilising  influence  of  this  time, 
ana  hand  in  hand  with  the  spread  of  commerce  came  the  desire  for 
refinement.  The  custom  of  buildine  houses  chiefly  in  wc^pd  wherever 
timber  was  plentiful  continued.  Pilasters  took  the  place  of  pinnacles, 
and  vases  or  dolphins  assisted  the  acanthus  leaf  to  oust  the  older 
forms  of  design.  House  fronts  of  wood  gave  ample  scope  to  the 
carver.  That  of  Sir  Paul  Pindcr  (1 600),  formerly  in  Bishopsgate,  but 
now  preserved  in  the  Victoria  and  Albeit  Museum,  b  a  good  example 
of  decorative  treatment  without  ovcrioading.  The  brackets  carvea  in 
the  shape  of  monsters  which  support  the  projecting  upper  storey  are 
typical  of  hundreds  of  dwellings,  as  for  instance  St  Peter's  Ho«|NtaI, 
Bristol.  The  panels,  too,  of  Sir  Paul  Finder's  house  should  be  noted 
as  good  examples  of  that  Jacobean  form  of  medallion  surrounded  by 
scroll  work  which  Is  at  once  as  decorative  as  it  b  simple. 

In  England  that  familiar  style  known  as  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean 
prevailed  throughout  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  At  the  present 
time  hardly  a  home  in  the  land  has  not  its  old  oak  chest  carved  with 
the  familiar  half  circle  or  scroll  border  along  the  top  rail,  or  the  arch 
pattern  on  tne  panels.  The  court  cupboards,  with  their  solid  or  open 
under  parts  and  upper  cornice  supported  by  turned  balusters  of 
extravagant  thickness,  are  to  be  seen  wherever  one  ^oes.  And  chairs, 
real  as  well  as  spurious,  with  solid  backs  carved  in  the  usual  flat 
relief,  are  bought  up  with  an  avidity  inseparable  from  fashion. 
Four-post  bedsteads  are  harder  to  come  by.  The  back  b  usually 
broken  up  into  small  panels  and  carved,  the  best  effect  being  seen  in 


those  examples  where  thepanclliiu^  or  the  framework  only  is  decorated. 
The  dining-hall  tables  often  had  six  legs  of  great  substance,  which 
were  turned  somewhat  after  the  shape  of  a  covered  cup,  and  were 
carved  witJi  foUage  baring  a  distant  resemblance  to  the  acanthus. 
Rooms  were  generally  panelled  with  oaL  sometimes  divided  at 
intervab  by  flat  pilasters  and  the  upper  friese  carved  with  scroll 


work  of  dolj^hM.  But  the  featttre  i/AMh  dItttngultfiM  the  fwrlod 
was  the  fire  mantel.  It  always  must  be  the  principal  object  in  a  room> 
and  the  Elizabethan  carver  fully  appieciateatfab  fact.  By  carving  the 
chimney  breast  aa  a  rule  to  the  ceiling  and  covering  the  surrounding 
waUs  with  mqre  or  less  plain  panelUnE,  the  deogner,  by  tiras  coneetio 
tiBting  the  attention  on  one  point,  often  produced  results  of  a  high 
order.  Caryatid  figures,  pilasters  and  frieees  were  among  the  custom* 
ary  detaibemphTyra  to  produce  good  effects.  No  finer  example  exists 
than  that  latcdy  removed  from  the  old  palace  at  Bromley-by-Bow  to 
the  Victoria  arid  Albert  Museum.  The  mantelshelf  is  6  ft.  from  the 
ground  and  consists  of  a  deep  quadrant  mould  decorated  with  flat 
scroll  work  of  good  design,  tlie  supporting  pilasters  on  ^hcr  side 
are  shaped  and mouldedin  the  customary  Jacobean  manner  and  are 
crowned  by  busts  with  Ionic  capitals  on  the  heads.  Above  the  shelf 
the'Iarg<6  centre  panel  b  deeply  carved  with  the  royal  coat  of  arms 
with  supporters  and  mantling,  and  on  dther  side  a  semicircnlar 
arched  niche  contains  a  figure  in  classic  dress.  The  Blittbethan 
carver  often  produced  splendid  staircases,  sometimes  carving  the 
newel  posts  with  heraldic  ngures  bearing  coats  of  arms,  Ac.  The  newels 
of  a  staircase  at  Highgate  support  different  types  of  Cromwellian 
floldien,  carved  with  great  vivacity  and  life.  But  in  spite  of  ex* 
cellent  work,  as  for  example  the  beautiful  gallery  at  Hatfield,  the 
carving  of  thb  period  did  not,  so  far  as  England  was  concerned, 
compare  with  other  epochs,  or  with  contemporary  work  in  other 
parts  of  Europe.  Much  of  the  work  is  badly  drawn  and  badly  exe* 
cttted.  It  b  true  that  good  decorative  effects  were  constantly  ob- 
tained at  the  very  minimum  of  cost,  but  it  b  difficult  to  disooTei| 
much  merit  in  work  wfakh  really  looks  best  when  badly  cut. 

In  France  thb  flat  and  simple  treatment  was  to  a  certain  extent 
used.  Doors  were  most  suitably  adorned  in  this  way,  and  the  split 
baluster  so  characteristic  of  Jacobean  work  b  often  to  be  met  with. 
There  are  some  very  good  cabinets  in  the  museum  at  Lyngby, 
Denmark,  illustratini^  these  two  methods  of  treatment  in  com* 
bination.  But  the  Swiss  and  Austrians  elaborated  this  style,  greatly 
improving  the  effect  by  the  addition  of  coknir.  However,  the  best 
Gmtinental  demgns  adopted  the  typical  acanthus  foliage  of  Italy, 
while  still  retaining  a  certain  amount  of  Gothic  feeling  in  the  strengtii 
of  the  lines  and  the  "  cut  "  of  the  detail  (Plate  IV.  fig.  9).  Panelling 
-—often  long  and  narrow— was  commonl)^  used  for  all  sorts  of  domestic 
purposeis,  a  feature  being  a  medallion  in  the  centre  with  a  simple 
arrangement  of  vase,  dolphins,  dragons,  or  birds  and  foliage  filhng 
in  the  spaces  above  and  below. 

The  cabinets  of  Holland  and  Belgium  are  excellent  models  0^ 
design.  These  pieces  of  furniture  were  usually  arrauKed  in  two 
storeys  with  a  fine  moulded  and  carved  cornice,  mid  mvision  and 
plintn.  The  pilasters  at  the  sides,  and  small  raised  paneb  carved 
only  on  the  projecting  j>art,  would  compose  a  very  harmonious 
whole.  A  proportion  of  the  French  cabinets  are  decorated  with 
caryatids  not  carved  in  the  best  taste,  and,  like  other  French  wood- 
work 'of  this  period,  are  sometimes  overloaded  with  sculpture; 
The  doors  of  St  Maclou,  Rouen,  fine  as  they  are,  would  hardly  to-day 
be  held  up  as  modeb  for  imitation.  A  noteworthy  set  of  doors 
belong  to  the  H6tel  de  Ville,  Oudeparde.  The  central  door  contains 
twelve  and  that  on  cither  side  eight  paneb,  eadi  ol  which  is  dirved 
with  Renaissance  foUage  surrounding  an  unobtrusive  figure.  In  the 
Palais  de  Justice  we  see  that  great  dchemeof  decoration  which  takes 
up  the  whole  of  the  fireplace  end  of  the  halL  Five  lai^  firures 
carved  in  the  round  are  surrounded  by  small  ones  and  with  foKa^ge 
and  coats  of  arms. 

In  Italy,  the  birthplace  of  the  Renaissance,  there  is  imich  fine 
work  of  the  i6th  century.  A  very  important  school  of  design  was 
promoted  by  Raphael,  whose  patterns  were  used  or  adapted  by  a 
large  number  of  craftsmen.  The  shutters  of  "  Raphael's  Stanze  ** 
in  the  Vatican,  and  the  choir  stalls  in  the  church  of  St  Pietro  de^ 
Cassinesi  at  Perugia,  are  among  the  most  beautiful  examples  of  this 
style  of  carving.  Tne  work  is  m  slight  relief,  and  carvea  in  walnut 
with  those  graceful  patterns  which  Raphael  developed  ont  of  the 
newly  discovered  remains  of  ancient  Roman  wall  pamting  from  the 
palace  of  Nero  and  other  places.  In  the  Victoria  ana  Albert  Museum 
'  are  many  examples  of  Italian  work  (Plate  IV.  fig.  1 1) :  the  door  from 
a  convent  near  Parma,  .with  its  three  prominent  masks  and  heavy 
gadroon  moulds;  a  picture  frame  with  a  charming  acanthus  border 
and  e^  and  tongue  moulds  on  either  side;  and  various  marriaee 
chests  in'walnut  covered  with  very  elaborate  schemes  of  carving.  It 
b  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  Spanish,  or  for  that  matter 
South  of  France  work,  from  Italian,  so  much  alike  ih  the  character. 
The  Spaniards  yield  to  none  in  good  wof  kmanship.  Some  Spanish 
panels  of  typical  Italbn  design  are  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum  as  well  as  cabinets  of  the  purest  Renaissance  order.  Ther^ 
b  a  wonderful  Portuguese  coffer  (17th  century)  in  this  section.  The 
top  is  deeply  carved  in  little  compartments  with  scenes  from  the  life 
of  Our  Lord. 

I7th-j8th  Centuries,— Iti  Engbnd  the  great  school  of  Grinlintf 
Gibbons  arose.  Ahhough  he  carved  many  beautiful  mouldings  91 
conventional  form  (Hampton  Court  PaUce,  Chatsworlh,  Ac),  hb 
name  b  usually  associated  with  a  very  heavy  form  of  deooratioft 
which  was  copied  direct  from  nature.  Great  swags  of  drapery  and 
foliage  with  fruit  and  dead  birds,  &c.,  would  be  carved  in  ImieafooC 
thictc.  For  technical  skill  these  examples  are  unsurpassed;  cacli 
grape  would  be  undercut,  the  finer  stalks  and  birds' tegs  stand  out  quite 


796 


WOODXARVING 


■e^ttimta^  ftftd  as  a  €«»aeqMiioe  aooa  aoocambto  tkut  «dfenyof  the 
hoasemaid'ft  broom.  Good  work  o£  this  cUm  jb  to  be  found  at 
Petworth;  Trinity  Gsllese,  Oxford;  Trioitv  CoUegn.  Cambcidns 
St  Paul's  catbedcal;  St  Janea'i  Piccadilly;  and  nany  otfier 
Londoa  cborches. 

During  tbe  tmpM  of  Louis  XIV  and  .XV.  the  principal  merit  of 
cwed  diesign,  i^.  its  appropriateness  and  suitabilityi  gndually 
diHm>earBd.  Furniture  was  often  carved  in  a  way  hardly  le^timate. 
The  iBKS,  the  rails  of  tables  and  chairsi  the  frames  of  cabmetSi  of 
looldns-glasses,  instead  of  being  first  made  for  construction  and 
strength,  and  then  decorated,  were  first  designed  to  carry  cheruba' 
hnds  and  "  rococo  "  (s^.  rock  and  shell  ornament),  auite  rcganUesa 
of  tttaltty  or  convenience.  A  wealth  of  such  mistaken  design  was  also 
applied  to  state  carriages,  to  say  nothing  of  bedsteads  and  other 
furaitureb  However,  the  wall  pandUng  of  the  mansions  of  the  richf 
and  sometimes  the  panelling  of  furniture,  was  decorated  with  rococo 
design  in  its  least  illegitimate  form.  The  main  part  of  the  wood 
torfaoe  would  be  left  plain,  while  the  centre  woufd  be  carved  with 
a  medallion  surrounded  by  foliage,  vases  or  trophies  of  torches  and 
murical  instruments,  &c.,  or  perhaps  the  upper  part  of  the  pand 
would  be  thus  treated.  Fiance  led  the  fashion,  yibxch  was  more  or 
less  followed  all  over  Europe.  In  England  gilt  chairs  in  the  style  of 
Louis  XV.  were  made  in  some  quantities.  But  Thomas  Chippen- 
dale, Ince  and  Mayhew,  Sheraton,  Johnson,  Heppdwhite  and  other 
cabinet-makers  dia  not  as  a  rule  use  much  carving  in  their  deugns. 
Scrolls,  shells,  ribbon,  ears  of  com.  &c.,  in  very  fine  relief,  were,  how- 
ever, used  in  the  embelUshment  oi  chaua,  &c,  and  the  daw  and  ball 
foot  was  emfrfoyed  as  a  termination  to  the  cabriole  legs  of  cabinets 
and  otiMsr  furniture. 

The  mantelpieces  of  the  1 8tb  century  were  as  a  rule  carved  in  i^ne 
and  painted  white.  Usually  the  shelves  were  narrow  and  supoOTted 
by  pdaoters  often  of  flat  elliptic  plan,  sometimes  by  caryatids,  and 
the  frieae  would  consist  of  a  raiaea  centre  panel  carved  with  a  classic 
scene  in  rdief.  or  with  a  mask  alone,  and  on  «ther  side  a  swag  of 
flowers,  fruit  and  foliage. 

Interior  doorways  were  often  decorated  with  a  broken  pediment 
more  or  less  ornate,  and  a  swag  of  foliage  commonly  depended  from 
eitho'  side  over  a  background  of  scrtrfl  work.  The  outside  porches 
so  often  seen  in  Queen  Anne  houses  were  of  a  character  peculiar  to 
the  i8tb  century.  A  small  platform  or  curved  roof  was  supported 
by  two  huge  and  heavy  brackets  carved  with  acanthus  scroll  work. 
Tne  staircases  were  as  a  rule  exceedingly  good.  Carved  and  pierced 
bcack^ts  woe  fixed  to  the  "  open  strings  "  {ije.  the  sides  of  th^  steps), 
giving  a  very  pretty  effect  to  the  graceful  balustrade  of  turned  and 
twisted  columns. 

Rfenaissance  figure  work  calls  for  little  comment.  During  the 
l6th  century  many  good  examples  were  produced — those  pnestly 
statues  in  the  museum  of  Sens  for  example.  But  the  figure  work 
used  in  the  decoration  of  cabinets,  &c..  seldom  roac  above  the  ordinary 
level.  In  the  iSth  century  cherubs'  heads  were  fashionable  and 
statuettes  were  sometimes  carved  in  boi^wood  as  ornaments,  but  a^  a 
means  of  decorating  houses  wood  sculpture  ceased  to  be.  The  Swiss; 
however,  have  kept  up  their  reputation  for  animal  sculpture  to  the 
nesent  day,  and  still  turn  out  cleverly  carved  chamois  and  bears, 
Se. ;  as  a  rule  the  more  sketchily  cut  the  better  the  merit.  Their 
mace  ambitious  works,  th<nr  groups  of  cows,  &c,  sometimes  reach  a 
high  level  of  excellence. 

Of  the  work  of  the  19th  century  little  can  be  said  in  praise.  Out- 
side and  beyond  the  present-day  fashion  for  collecting  old  oak  there 
seems  to  be  no  demand  for  carved  deoocation.  In  church  work  a 
certain  number  of  carvers  find  occupation,  as  also  for  repairs  or  the 
production  of  imitations.  But  the  carving  one  is  accustomed  to  see 
m  hotels  or  on  board  the^modern  ocean  palace  is  in  the  main  the  work 
of  the  machines  There  is  no  objection  to  the  machine  in  itself,  as  it 
only  grounds  out  and  roughly  models  the  de^gn  which  is  finished  by 
hand.  Its  fatal  drawback  is  that  it  is  of  commercial  value  only  when 
a  large  number  of  panels  of  the  same  pattern  are  turned  out  at  the 
same  time.  It  b  tnis  repetition  which  takes  away^  the  life  of  good 
work,  which  places  that  gulf  between  the  contract  job  and  the  indi- 
Wdual  effort  of  the  artist.  The  price  of  all  labour  has  so  greatly  in- 
creased, to  build  a  house  is  so  much  more  expend vc  than  it  was  before 
the  days  of  the  trades  union  that  none  but  the  very  rich  can  afford 
to  beauitify  th^  home  in  the  way  to  which  our  forefathers  were 
accustomed.  . 

Coptic, — In  the  early  medieval  period,  screens  and  other  fittings 
were  prodund  for  the  Coptic  churches  of  Egypt  by  native  Christian 
workmen.  In  the  British  Museum  there  is  a  set  of  ten  small  cedar 
pands  from  the  church  door  of  Sitt  Miriam,  Cairo  (13th  century). 
The  six  sculptured  figure  panels  are  carved  in  very  low  relief  and  the 
four  foliage  panels  are  quite  Oriental  in  character,  intricate  and  fine 
both  in  detail  and  finish.  In  the  Cairo  Museum  there  is  much  work 
treated  after  the  familiar  Arab  style,  while  other  designs  arc  quite 
Bynntine  in  character.   The  figure  work  is  not  of  a  very  high  order. 

Mohammedam  K^ork.^-Nothing  can  exceed  the  skill  with  which  the 
Moslem  wood-carvers  of  Persia.  Syria.  Egypt  and  Spain  designed 
and  execated  the  richest  panelling  and  other  decorations  for  wall 
linings,  ceilings,  pulpits  and  all  kinds  of  fittings  and  furniture.  The 
mosques  and  private  houses  of  Cairo,  Damascus  and  other  Oriental 
cities  are  full  of  the  most  elaborate  and  minutely  delicate  wood- 
work.   A  favourite  style  of  ornament  was  to  cover  the  surface  with 


very  intricate  -inteiladag  pattama,  formed  by  flndy  OMulded  c3». 
the  various  geometrical  spaces  between  the  nbs  were  thcss  filled  ia 
with  small  pieces  of  wood  carved  with  foliage  in  slight  r«bef  The 
use  of  different  woods  such  as  ebony  or  box,  inlaid  so  as  to  emphasise 
the  design,  combined  with  the  ingenious  richness  of  the  pattern^ 
ove  this  class  of  woodwork  an  almost  unrivalled  splendour  of.  effect. 
Carved  ivory  is  also  often  used  for  the  filling  ia  01  the  tfot^*-  The 
Arabs  are  past  masters  in  the  art  of  carving  fiat  surfaces  m  this  way. 
A  gate  in  the  mosque  of  the  sultan  Bai)goug  (Cairo^  i^h  century) 
>ml  illustrates  this  appreciation  of  lines  and  surfaces.  The  pulpst  or 
mimbar  (15th  century)  from  a  Cairo  moeque,  now  ia  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum,  ia  also  a  good  example  in  the  same  style,  tlae  smalt 
qiacos  in  this  caselmng  filled  in  with  ivory  carved  in  flat  relief. 

Screens  made^  up  of  labyrinths  of  complicated  joinery,  conmstiiw  of 
BMiltitudes  of  tiny  balusters  connecting  hexagons^  squares  or  outer 
forms,  with  the  flat  surfaces  constantly  enriched  with  small  cMxyiaa, 
are  familiar  to  every  one.  In  Cairo  we  also  have  examples  ia  the 
mosaue,of  Qous  (lath  century)  of  that  finely  arranged  ^eosaetrical 
interlacing  of  curvw  with  foliage  terminations  which  distigguiabcs 
the  Saracenic  designer.  Six  panels  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum  (ijth  century;  Plate  11.  fig.  5),  and  work  on  the  tooab  of 
the  sultan  Ej  Ghoury  Ci6th  century),  show  how  deeply  this  form  of 
decoration  was  ingrained  in  the  Aiab  nature.     Figure  work  and 


animals  were  sometimes  introduced,  in  jnedie^  faMiion,  ais  ia  the 
six  panels  just  referred  to,  and  at  the  bfipital  du  Moristan  (13th 
century)  and  the  mosque  of  £1  Nesfy  Q^yooun  (14U1  century). 
There  u  a  magnificent  panel  on  the  door  cl  Beyt-el- ICmyr.  This 
Requisite  design  is  composed  of  vine  leaves  and  grapes  ot  conven- 
tional^ treatment  in  low  relief.  The  Arab  deagner  was  fond  of 
breaking  up  his  panelling  in  a  way  reminding  one  of  a  «unilar 
Jacobean  custom.  The  main  panel  would  be  divided  into  a  number 
of  hexagonal,  triangular  or  other  shapes,  and  each  small  space  filled 
ia  with  conventional  scroll  work.  Much  of  this  ample  flat  design 
reminds  one  of  that  Byzantine  method  from  which  the  F!iralrfth?n 
carvers  were  inspired. 
Persia.^-The  Persian  carvers  closely  followed  Arab  design.     A 

Sir  of  doors  of  the  X4th  century  from  Samarkand  (Victoria  and 
bert  Museum)  are  typical.  Boxes^  spoons  and  other  small  articles 
were  often  fretted  with  interlacing  hues  of  Saracenic  character,  the 
dclicacv  and  minuteness  of  the  woiic  requiriiUE  the  utmost  patseive 
and  skul.  Many  of  the  patterns  remind  one  of  the  sandalwood  work 
of  Madras,  with  the  difference  that  the  Persians  were  satisfied  with 
a  much  lower  relief.  Sometimes  a  very  beautiful  result  was  ccitained 
by  the  sparing  use  of  fretted  lattice  pattern  among  foliage.    A  fine 

eanel  o^the  14th  century  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  aliowa 
ow  active  was  Arab  influence  even  as  far  as  Bokhara' 
India  and  Burma. — ^Throughout  the  great  Indian  peninsula  wood- 
carving  of  the  most  luxurious  Idnd  has  been  continuously  produced 
for  many  centuries.  The  ancient  Hindu  temples  were  decorated  with 
doors,  ceilings  and  various  fittings  carved  m  teak  and  .other  woods 
with  patterns  of  extreme  richness  and  minute  daboration.   We  have 
architectural  remains  from  Kashmir  Smats  (Punjab)  dating  from 
the  3rd  or,  4th  century,  the  patterns  employed  being  of  a  b^  and 
decorative  character   strongly   resembhng   the  best   Elixabethan 
design.    The  doors  of  the  temple  d^  Somnath,  on  the  north-west 
coasts  were  famed  for  thm  magnificence  and  were  highly  valued  as 
sacred  relics.   In  1034  they  were  carried  off  to  Ghazni  by  the  Moslem 
conqueror.  Sultan  Mahmud,  and  are  now  lying  at  the  fort  at  Agra. 
The  ^tes  which  now  exist  are  very  fine  specimens  of  ancient  wood- 
carving,  but  are  probably  only  copies  of  the  original  very  early 
doors.    The  Asiatic  carver,  like  certain  of  his  European  brctnren,  is 
apt  to  be  carried  away  by  his  own  enthuuasm  and  to  overcrowd  his 
surfaces.    Many  a  door,  column,  gallery  or  even  a  whole  house-front 
b  covered  witfi  the  most  intricate  design  bewildering  to  behold 
(Bhera,  Shahpur).    But  this  is  not  always  the  case,  and  the  Oriental 
is  at  times  more  restrained  in  his  methods.    Architectural  detail  u 
to  be  seen  with  only  a  simple  enrichment  carved  round  the  framing, 
producing  the  happiest  result.   The  Hindu  treatment  of  the  circle  is 
often  exceedingly  good,  and  mieht  perhaps  less  rarely  inspire  western 
dcagn.    Sometimes  native  work  strongly  resembles  Scandinavian  of 
the  1 2th  century.    Tlie  scrolls  are  designed  on  the  same  lines,  and 
foUage  and  flowers  (beyond  elementary  buds)  are  not  employed 
(Burma,  17th  century,  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum).    The  pieiced 
work  of  Bombay  calls  for  note.    Foliage,  fruit  and  flowere  are  con- 
stantly adapted  to  a  scheme  of  fret-cut  decoration  for  doors  or 
windows  as  well  as  the  frames  of  chairs  and  the  edges  ot  tables.   A 
reference  should  also  be  made  to  those  wonderful  sandalwood  tables, 
cabinets  and  boxes  to  be  seen  in  Southern  India,  always  covered  with 
design,  often  with  scores  of  figures  and  monsters  with  every  space 
filled  in  with  the  minutest  decoration.    Many  of  the  gong  stands  of 
Burma   show  the  highest  skill;   the  arrangement  of  two  figures 
bearing  a  pole  from  which  a  gong  hangs  is  familiar.  The  Burmese  are 
sculptors  of  proved  merit 

China  and  Japan. — In  these  countries  the  carver  is  unrivalled  for 
deftness  of  hand.    Grotesque  and  imitative  work  of  the  utmost 

yerfection  is  (>roduced,  and  many  of  the  carvings  of  these  countries, 
apan  in  particular,  are  beautiful  works  of  art,  especially  when  the 
carver  copies  the  lotus,  lily  or  other  aquatic  plant.  A  favourite  form 
of  decoration  consists  of  breaking  up  the  architectural  surfaces, 
such  as  cciliogs.  friezes,  &c.,  into  framed  squares  and  filling  up  each 


WOODCARVING 


Fkflo.F.A.CrtUtiM, 
Fig.  I. — Centre  Panel  of  Rcuble  in  Dijon  Museum.     Flemisfa,  1301  A.D. 


WOODCARVING 


WOODCARVING 


Fig'  6.— German  Chest.    Late  isth  Ceotury. 


WOODCARVING 


Fig.  7- — Japanese  Panel  trom  a  Buddhist  Temple.     Early  iSth  Century. 


ipt^tt 


PbolB.  P.  A .  Crallan.  PhiU,  P.  A .  C'tllai. 

Fig.  8. —  Detail  of  Bishop  Fig.  9. — Flemish  Panel.  Fig.   10. — Detail  of  Rood-Screen 

Stapledon's Throne,  1^08-1336                         Renaissance,  VaultiriR.    Late  isth  Century. 

A.D,     Fxeter  Cathe<lraL                              i6lh  Century.  Kenton,  Devon. 


—Front  ol  Walnut  Coffer,  i6th  Century.    Renaissance.     Itulian. 


WOODCHUCK— WOODCOCK 


797 


pand  with  a  drcle,  or  diMnond  of  eamnmioml  traatineni  vitk  a 
•pandrel  in  each  corner  (door  of  T'ai-M  Hail,  Pekin).  A  very  Chinese 
feature  Is  the  fi'ntal  of  the  newel  post,  so  constantly  left  more  or  less 
straight  in  profile  and  deeply  carved  with  monsters  aod  scrolla.  A 
heavily  ernvhed  mouUing  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  the 
odrooa  pattern  is  commonly  used  to  give  emphasis  to  edges^  and 
tne  dragon  arranged  in  curves  imitative  of  nature  is  frequently 
employed  over  a  closely  designed  and  subordinated  background. 
The  general  rule  that  in  «very  oountrv  designers  use  much  the 
same  means  whereby  a  pattern  is  obtained  hokls  good  in  China. 
There  arc  forms  of  band  decoration  here  which  closely  resemble  those 
of  Gothic  Europe,  and  a  chair  from  Turkestan  (3ra  century)  might 
almost  be  Elizabethan,  so  like  are  the  details.  Screens  of  gnll  form, 
so  familiar  in  Mahommedan  countffc8,.are  common,  and  the  deeply 
grounded,  closely  axnn^  patterns  of  Bombay  also  have  their 
counterparts.  The  imperial  dais  in  the  Ch'ien-Ch'ing  Hall,  Peldn,  is 
a  masterpte^ce  of  intricate  dcsigiu  The  back  consists  of  one  central 
panel  of  considerable  hdght,  with  two  of  lesser  degree  on  either  side 
luxuriously  carved.  The  whole  is  crowned  with  a  very  heavy  crest 
d  dragons  and  scroll  work;  the  throne  also  »  a  wonderful  esam][rfe 
of  carved  treatment,  and  the  doom  of  a  cabinet  in  the  same  butldmg 
show  how  rich  an  dSect  of  foliage  can  be  produced  without  the  em- 
ployment of  stalk  or  scroll.  The  Chinaman,  who  is  unequalled  as  a 
microscopic  worker,  does  not  limit  himself  to  ivory  or  metal.  One 
might  almost  say,  ho  wastes  bis  talent  on  such  an  ungEatcful  material 
as  wood.  Jn  this  material  fans  and  other  trifles  are  carved  with  a 
delicacy  that  courts  disaster. 

In  Japan  much  of  the  Chinese  type  b  apparent.  The nativecarver 
n  fond  of  massing  foliage  without  tne  stalk  to  lead  him.  He  appears 
to  put  hi  his  foliage,  iruit  and  flowers  first  and  then  to  indicate  a 
stalk  here  and  there,  thus  reverdng  the  Mder  of  the  Western  method. 
Such  a  treatment,  especially  when  birds  and  beasts  are  introduced, 
has  the  highest  decorative  effect.  But,  as  such  close  treatment  is 
bound  to  do,  it  depends  for  success  to  some  extent  upon  Its  scheme  of 
colour.  A  lone  paiiel  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  depicting 
merchants  witH  their  pockhorse  (Plate  IV.  fig*  7)|  stionriy  resembles 
io  its  grouping  and  treatment  Gothic  work  of  the  15th  century,  as 
for  example  tne  panel  of  St  Hubert  in  the  museum  at  Chalons. 
The  strength  and  character  of  Japanese  figure  work  is  quite  equal  to 
the  best  <K>thlc  sculpture  of  the  isth  century. 

SaMgi  /Zoess.— There  is  a  genml, similarity  running  through  the 
carved  design  of  most  races  of  primitive  culture,  the  chip  form 
of  ornament  being  almost  universally  employed.  Decorated  sur- 
faces depending  almost  entirely  upon  the  incised  line  also  obtain  all 
over  the  unciviKaed  worid,  and  may  no  doubt  be  accounted  for  by 
the  extensh^e  use  of  stonecutting  tools.  The  savage  carver  shows 
the  saaw  tendency  to  over-exalt  his  art  by  crowding  on  too  much 
design  as  the  more  civilized  craftsman  of  other  lands,  while  he  also 
on  occasion  exercisesa  good  deal  of  restraint  by  a  harmonkms  balance 
of  decoration  and  phin  space.  So  far  as  his  chip  designs  and  those 
patterns  mMte  or  less  dc^iendtng  on  the  line  are  «9Qncenied,  his  work 
as  a  rule  is  good  and  suitable,  but  when  he  takes  to  fi^re  work  his 
attempts  do  not  usually  meet  with  success.  Primitive  carving, 
generally,  shows  that  very  similar  stages  of  artistic  development  arc 
pained  tnrough  by  men  of  every  age  and  laoe. 

A  very  favourite  style  of  "  dip  "  pattsra  is  that  formed  by  small 
triangles  and  squares  entirely  covering  a  surface  (Hervey  Islanders), 
the  monotony  being  sometimes  varied  oy  a  band  of  Afferent  arrange- 
ment in  the  middle  of  the  article  or  at  tne  top  or  bottom.  This  form 
of  art  is  hardly  of  a  kind  cateubttM  to  enlarge  the  imaghiarion.  tboogh 
to  far  as  the  culdvatkm  of  patience  and  accuracy  is  concerned,  has  no 
equal.  But  many  natives,  as  for  example  the  Fiji  Islanders,  employ 
chip  designs  rivalling  those  of  Europe  in  variety.  Upon  occasion  the 
savage  appreciates  the  way  in  which  plain  surfaces  contrast  and 
em^asize  decorated  parts,  and  judkaously  rtstrkrU  his  skill  to 
bands  of  decoration  or  to  spedat  points  (Marquesa  Islands).  The 
lios  of  the  lower  Niger  design  their  paddles  in  a  masterly  way,  and 
show  a  fine  sense  of  proportion  between  the  plain  and  the  decorated 
surface.  Thdr  designs,  though  slightly  in  relief,  are  of  the  chip 
nature.  The  method  of  decorating  a  subject  with  ^ups  of  incised 
lines,  straight  or  curved,  thoimh  often  very  effective  and  in  every 
way  suitaole.  is  pot  a  vcnr  aavanced  form  of  art  arid  has  decided 
limits.  ^The  native  of  the  Congo  does- good  work  of  this  kind. 

Carving  in  relief  is  common  enough, Idols  bring  produced  in  maiw 
forms,  but  savage  relief  work  sel<K>m  calls  for  praise.  The  Kafir 
carves  the  handle  of  his  spoon  perhaps  in  the  form  of  a  giraffe,  and  in 
the  roond,  with  each  leg  cut  sttiarately  and  the  lour  hoofs  mwtiiw 
at  the  bowl,  hardly  a  comfortable  form  of  handle  to  hold.  The  North 
American  Indian  shows  a  wider  invention  than  some  nations,  the 
twist  in  various  shapes  being  a  favourite  treatment  say  of  pipe  stems. 
The  Papuan  has  quite  a  style  of  his  own;  he  uses  a  scroll  of  the 
form  familiar  in  Indian  ■hawia,  and  in  some  cases  the  scroll  entwines 
in  a  way  whkh  faintly  suggesU  the  guilloche.  The  native  of  New 
Guinea  also  employs  the  scroll  for  a  motive,  the  flat  treatment  of 
which  reminds  one  of  a  rimiha*  method  in  use  in  Scandinavian 
countries.  The  work  of  the  New  Zeabinder  is  gieally  in  advance  of 
the  average  primirive  type;  he  uses  a  very  good  scheme  of  scroll 
work  for  oecorative  purposes,  the  lines  of  the  scrolls  often  being  en- 
riched with  a  small  pattern  in  a  way  reminding  one  of  the  familiar 
Korman  treatment,  as  for  eMunple  the  prows  of  his  caaoes.    The 


Maori  aooMUmes  carves  mt  only  the  "  baqnboards  **  of  his  houae 
but  the  gables  alsoj  snakes  and  grotesque  figures  being  as  a  rule 
introduonl;  the  nuun  posts  and  rafters,  too.  of  the  inside  receive 
attention.  Unlike  the  Hindu  he  has  a  good  idea  of  decorative  jpr»> 
portion,  and  does  not  plan  his  scheme  of  design  on  too  small  a  scale. 

AuTHORiTOB.— Marshall,  Spteimens  of  Aniume  Caned  Furniture 
and  Woodvwrk ^iS8S};  Franklyn  Crallan.  DetaUs  of  GotkU  Wood^ 
carving  (1806);  Spnng  Gardens  Sketck-booki  Sanders,  Examples 
of  Carved  Oak  Woodwork  0/  the  j6tk  and  17th  Centuries  (1883): 
Colling,  Medieval  Foliaie  and  Decoration  (1874) ;  Bond,  Screens  and 
CalUrtes  (1908) ;  Paukcrt.  Die  Zimmerjplkick  (1904) ;  J.  Lesring,  Hols^ 
scknitsereien  (Berlin,  l88a) ;  Rouyer,  La  lUnatssanceitUn/t,  Practical 
Wood-carvtHi  (1907).  (P.  A.  CO 

WOODCHUCK,  the  vernacular  name  of  the  cammon  North 
American  representative  of  the  marmots  (see  Mabmot),  scientlfic- 
aUy  known  as  ArcUmys  mona^.  The  typical  race  of  this  8ped«a 
ranges  from  New  York  to  Georgia  and  weatward  to  the  Dakotas, 
but  it  ia  represented  by  a  aacond  and  darker  race  in  Labrador, 
and  by  a  third  in  Canada;  while  several  other  North  American 
species  have  been  named.  The  ordinary  woodchuck  measiirea 
about  1 8  in.  in  length,  of  which  the  taU  forms  a  third.  In  colour 
it  is  usttaUy  brownish  black  above,  with  the  noae,  chin,  cbeekt 
and  throat  tending  to  whitish,  and  the  under  parts  btownkk 
chestnut;  whfle  the  feet  and  tail  are  black  and  Kb^'V'tth.  Like 
other  marmots  it  is  a  burrower. 

WOODCOCK  (O.  £ng.  itmde-cocc,  wmincwit  and  awdii-aMfc), 

the  Scdofax  rusHculs^  of  omfithok>gy,  a  game-bird  which  is 

prized  both  by  the  sportsman  and  for  its  excdlence  for  the  table. 

It  has  a  long  bUl,  short  legs  and  large  eyes— suggestive  ot  its 

nocttimal  or  crepuscuhu  habita-^th  mottled  plumage  ol  lilack, 

chestnut-  and  umber-brown,  ashy-grey,  buff  aad  shining  ivfaite'^ 

the  last  being  confined  to  the  tip  of  the  lower  side  of  the  tafl- 

qulUs,  but  the  rest  intermixed  for  the  moat  part  in  beautiful 

combination.    Setting  aside  tJbe  many  extreme  aberratMHis 

from  the  normal  enuring  which  examples  of  this  aptdn 

occasionally  present  (and  some  of  them  are  extremdy  cuiioua, 

not  to  say  beautiful),  there  is  much  variation  to  be  almost 

constantly  observed  ia  the  plumage  of  individuals,  in  some  of 

which  the  richer  tints  prevail  while  others  ei^bit  a  greyer 

coloration.    This  variation  is  often,  but  not  always,  accompanied 

by  a  variation  in  size  or  at  least  in  veighu'   The  paler  birds 

are  generally  the  laiger,  but  tbe  difference,  whether  in  bulk 

or  tint,  cannot  be  attributed  to  age,  sex,  sefMon  w,  so  far  aa 

can  be  ascertained,  to  locality.    It  is,  notwithstanding,  a  very 

common  belief  among  sportsmen  that  there  are  two  "  spedea  " 

of  woodcock,  and  many  persona  of  experience  will  have  it  that, 

beside  the  differences  just  named,  the  "  little  red  woodcock  " 

invariably  flies  more  sharply  than  the  other.    However,  a  sluggish 

behaviour  is  not  really  associated  with  colour,  though  it  may 

possibly  be  correlated  .with  weight — for  it  is  quite  conceivable 

that  a  fat  bird  will  rise  more  sbwiy,  when  flushed,  than  one 

which  is    in  poor  condition.    Ornithologists    are  practically 

unanimous  in  declaring  against  the  existence  of  two  **  q>edes  '* 

or  even  "  races,"  and,  moreover,  in  agreeing  that  the  aex  of  the 

bird  cannot  be  determined  from  its  plumage>  though  there  are  a 

few  who  believe  that  the  young  of  the  year  can  be  discriminated 

from  the  adults  by  having  the  outer  web  of  the  first  quill-feather 

in  the  wing  marked  with  angular  notches  of  a  light  colour,  while 

the  old  birds  have  no  trace  of  this  "vandyke  ''omament- 

Careful  dissections,  weighings  and  measurings  seem  to  show 

that  the  male  varies  most  in  size;  on  an  average  he  is  lightly 

heavier  than  the  female,  yet  some  of  the  lightest  birds  have  proved 

to  be  cocks.' 

Though  there  are  probably  few  if  any  counties  in  the  United 
Kingdom  in  which  tne  woodcock  does  not  almost  yeariy  breed, 
especially  since  a  "  dose  rime  "  has  been  affoided  by  Uie  legidatufe 
for  the  protection  of  the  spedes,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  those  snot  in  the  BriUsh  Islands  have  come  from 

^By  Linnaeus,  and  many  ethers  after  him.  misspelt  rusiicela. 
The  correct  form  of  Pliny  and  the  older  writers  seems  to  have  been 
first  restored  in  1816  by  Oken  iZoohgie,  iL  p.  589). 

*  The  difference  in  weight  is  very  great,  thmign  this  seems  to  have 
been  exaggeiated  by  some  writers.  A  friend  who  has  had  much 
experience  tells  us  that  the  heaviest  bird  he  ever  knew  weighed  16I 
OS.,  and  the  lightest  o  ox.  aad  a  fraction. 

*  Cf.  Dr  Hoffmann^S  monograph  Die  Waldschnepfe,  ed.  a,  p.  35> 
published  at  Stuttgart  in  1987, 


79« 


WOOD  ENGRAVIKG 


abrottd. — mostly,  It  b  presumed,  from  Soindiiuivia.  These  arrive 
on  the  east  coast  m  autumn — geiier^ly  about  the  middle  of  October 
—often  in  an  eidiaOsted  and  impoverished  state,  if  unmolested, 
they  are  soon  rested,  pass  inland,  and,  as  would  appear,  in  a  marveK 
lously  short  time  recover  their  condition.  Their  future  desrination 
leems  to  be  greatly  influenced  by  the  state  of  the  weather.  If  cold  or 
frost  stop  their  supply  of  food  on  the  eastern  side  of  Great  Britain 
they  press  onward  and,  letting  alone  Ireland,  into  which  the  im- 
migrant stream  is  pretty  constant,  often  crowd  into  the  extreme 
south-west,  as  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  and  to  the  Isles  of  Scilly, 
while  not  a  few  betake  themselves  to  the  unknown  ocean,  finding 
there  doubtless  a  watery  grave,  though  instances  are  on  record  of 
examples  having  successfully  crossed  the  Atlantic  and  reaching 
Newfoundland,  New  Jersey  and  Viiiriiiia. 

With  regard  to  the  woodcock  which  breed  ia  Britaini  pairing 
takes  place  very  carlv  in  February  and  the  eggs  are  laid  often  before 
the  ipiddle  of  March.  These  are  four  in  number,  of  a  yellowish 
cream-colour  blotched  and  spotted  with  reddish  brown,  and  seldom 
take  the  pyriform  shape  so  common  among  those  of  Ltmlcoline  birds^ 
The  aest— alwajm  made  On  the  ground  amid  trees  or  underwood,  and 
4isually  near  water  or  at  least  ma  damp  locality^— is  at  first  Uttle 
more  than  a  slight  hollow  in  the  soil,  but  as  incubation  proceeds  dead 
leaves  are  collected  around  its  margin  until  a  considerable  mass  is 
accumulated.  During  this  season  the  male  woodcock  peiforms  at 
twilight  flights  of  a  pemarkable  kind,  repeating  evening  alter  evening 
(and  it  b  believed  at  dawn  also)  precisely  the  same  course,  which 
geixerally  describes  a  triangle,  the  udes  of  which  may  be  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  or  more  long.  On  these  occasions  the  bird's  apj>earance  on 
Che  wing  b  ouite  unUke  that  which  it  presents  when  hurriedly  flying 
after  being  nushed,  and  though  its  speed  b  great  the  beats  of  the 
wings  are  steady  and  slow.  At  intervab  an  eictraordinary  sound  b 
produced,  whether  from  the  throat  of  the  bird,  as  is  commonly 
averred,  or  from  the  plumage  is  uncertain.  This  characteristic  flignt 
b  in  some  parts  of  England  called  "  roading,"  and  the  track  taken  by 
the  bird  a  **  cock-road."  ^  In  Eitfbnd  in  former  times  advantage 
was  taken  of  thb  habit  to  catch  the  simple  performer  in  nets  called 
"  cock-shutts,"  which  were  hung  between  trees  across  the  o^n  glades 
or  rides  of  a  wood.  A  still  more  interesting  matter  in  relation  to  the 
breeding  of  woodcocks  b  the  fact,  finally  established  on  good  evi- 
dence, that  the  old  biids  transport  their  newly  hatched  offspring, 
presumably  to  places  where  food  b  more  accessible.  The  young  are 
clasped  between  the  thighs  of  the  parent,  whose  legs  hang  down 
dunng  the  operation,  whue  the  bill  b  to  some  extent,  posdble  only  at 
starting,  brought  into  opeiation*to  awst  in  adjusting  the  load  if  not 
ta  bearing  it  through  the  air.* 

Woodcock  Inhabit  suiuble  localities  across  the  northern  part 
of  the  Old  Woridt  from  Ireland  to  Japan,  migrating^  southward 
towards  autumn.  As  a  species  they  are  said  to  oe  resident  in  the 
Aaores  and  other  Atlantic  Islands;  but  they  are  not  known  to 
penetrate  very  far  into  Africa  during  the  winter,  though  in  many 
parts  of  Indb  they  are  abundant  dunng  the  oold  weather,  and  reach 
even  Ceylon  and  Tenasserim.  The  popular  belief  that  woodcock  live 
"  by  suction  "  b  perhaps  hardly  yet  exploded;  but  those  who  have 
observed  them  in  confinement  know  that  they  have  on  almost 
insatiable  appetite  for  earthworms,  which  the  biras  seek  by  probinjg 
•oft  ground  with  their  highly  sensitive  and  flexible  bitL'  This 
fact  seems  to  have  been  nrst  placed  on  record  by  Bowles,*  who 
noticed  it  in  the  royal  aviary  at  San  Ildcfonso  in  Spain,  and  it  has 
been  com^)orated  oy  other  observers,  and  espedallv  by  Montagu, 
who  discovered  that  bread  and  milk  made  an  excellent  substitute 
for  their  ordinary  food.   They  also  do  well  on  chopped  raw  meat. 

The  eastern  part  of  North  America  posscss«i  a  woodcock,  much 
smaller  than,  though  generall]^  (and  especially  In  habits)  similar  to, 
that  of  the  Old  continent.  It  b  the  Seolopax  minor  of  most  authors ; 
but,  chbfly  on  account  of  its  having  the  outer  three  primaries  re- 
markably attenuate*^  it  has  been  placed  in  a  separate  genus^  Pkiloiula. 
lo  lava  H  found  a  distinct  and  curiously  coloured  species,  described 
and  figured  by  Horsueld  {Trans.  Linn,  Society,  xiii.  p.  191,  and 
Zodot.  Researches,  pi.)  as  S.  satnrala.  To  thb  H.  Seebohm  (Cm- 
fraplStal  Distrihvtiou  if  fAs  FamOy  Ckaradriidat,  p.  306)  refccred  the 
5.  fosenbeTtiv/i  Schlegel  {H^ded.  Tijds.  v.4.  Dierkunde,  iv.  p.  54)  from 
New  Guinea.  Another  species  is  5.  rockusseni  from  the  Moluccas ;  thb 
"has,  like  the  snipe,  the  lower  part  of  the  tibb  bare  of  feathers.   (A.  N .) 

^  The  etymology  and  consequently  the  correct  spelling  of  these  ex- 

f»rcssk>ns  seem  to  be  very  uncertain.  Some  would  dcnve  the  word 
rom  the  French  r6d«rt  to  rove  or  wander,  but  others  connect  it  with 
the  Scandinavian  rod€,  an  open  space  in  a  wood  (aee  Notes  and  Queries, 
ser.  5,  ix.  p.  a  14,  and  ser.  6,  viii.  pp.  523,  524).  Looking  to  the 
regular  routine  foik>wed  by  the  bird,  the  naturad  supposition  woujd  be 
that  it  b  simply  an  ap^ication  of  the  English  woitf  rocuf. 

>  Cf.  J.  E.  Harting,  Zoolonst  <t879),  pp.  433'440>  And  Mr  Wolfs 
vxcellent  OlustratkHU  Sir  R.  Payae-Gauwey,  in  the  "  Badminton 
Library"  {Shooting,  ii.  p.  ii9,  note).  sUtes  that  he  himself  has 
witnessed  the  performance. 

<  *  The  pair  oTmuscles  said  by  Lochc  {Bxpl.  ScienL  do  FAlaerit,  S. 
p.  393)  to  exist  in  the  maxflla,  and  presumably  to  direct  the  move- 
ment of  the  bill,  do  not  seem  to  have  been  precisely  described. 

*  Intnodmceion  «  la  kUtoria  mUural  y  a  la  f/n^ofia  Jlsoia  de 
&>iAi.  pp.  494.  4SS  (Madrid.  I77S>. 


VOOII  BIGIlAVniO,  the  art  of  engnvhg  {q.v.)  on  wood, 
by  Uoec  so  cut  that  the  desig;n  atands  in  r^ef.  Thb  method 
of  engraving  was  hbtorically  the  earliest,  done  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  impressions  upon  paper  or  other  material.  It  b  natnral 
that  wood  engraving  should  have  occurred  first  to  the  primitive 
mind,  because  the  manner  m  which  woodcuts  are  printed  is 
the  most  obvious  of  all  the  kinds  of  printing.  If  a  block  of  wood 
u  inked  with  a  greasy  ink  and  then  pressed  on  a  piece  of  paper, 
the  ink  from  the  block  wilt  be  transferred  at  once  to  the  paper, 
on  which  we  shall  have  a  black  patch  exactly  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  inked  surface.  Now.  suppose  that  the  simple  Chinese 
who  first  discovered  this  was  ingenious  enough  to  go  a  step 
further,  it  would  evidently  occur  to  him  that  if  one  of  the 
elaborate  signs,  each  of  which  in  hb  own  language  stood  for  a 
word,  were  drawn  upon  the  block  of  wood,  in  reverse,  and  then 
the  whole  of  the  white  wood  sufficiently  cut  away  to  leave  the 
sign  in  relief,  an  image  of  it  might  be  taken  on  the  paper  much 
more  quickly  than  the  si^n  could  be  copied  with  a  camel-hair 
brush  and  Indian  ink.  No  sooner  had  this  experiment  been 
tried  and  found  to  answer  than  block-printing  was  discovered, 
and  from  the  printing  of  signs  to  the  printing  of  rude  images 
of  things,  exactly  in  the  same  manner,  the  step  was  so  easy  that 
it  must  have  been  made  insensibly.  Wood  engraving,  then,  b 
really  nothing  but  that  primitive  bkxk'-cutting  which  prepared 
for  the  printer  the  letters  in  relief  now  replaced  by  nsovabie 
types,  and  the  only  difference  between  a  delicate  modem  woodcut 
and  the  rude  letters  in  the  first  printed  books  b  a  difference  of 
artbtic  skill  and  knowledge.  In  Chinese  and  Japanese  woodcuts 
we  can  still  recognize  traditions  of  treatment  which  come  from 
the  designing  of  their  written  characters.  The  main  elements 
of  a  Chinese  or  a  Japanese  woodcut^  luinfluenced  by  European 
example,  are  dashing  or  delicate  outlines  and  markings  of  various 
thickness,  exactly  such  as  a  clever  writer  with  the  brush  would 
make  with  hb  Indian  ink  or  vermilion.  Often  we  get  a  perfectly 
black  blot,  exquisitely  shaped  and  full  of  careful  purpose,  and 
these  broad  vigorous  blacks  are  quite  in  harmony  with  the  kind 
of  printing  for  wbkh  wood  engraving  b  intended. 

It  has  not  hitherto  been  satbfactorily  ascertained  whether 
wood  engraving  came  to  Europe  from  the  East  or  was  re- 
discovered by  some  European  artificer.  The  precise  date  of 
the  first  European  woodcut  b  also  a  matter  of  doubt,  but  here 
we  have  certain  data  which  at  least  set  limits  to  the  possibility 
of  error.  European  wood  engraving  dates  cnlainly  from  the 
first  quarter  of  the  15th  century.  It  used  to  be  believed  that  a 
cut  of  St  Christopher  (now  In  the  Ry lands  library.  Manchester), 
rudely  executed  and  dated  1423,  was  the  Adam  of  all  our  wood- 
cuts, but  since  1844  investigations  have  somewhat  shaken  thb 
theory.  There  b  a  cut  in  the  Brusseb  library,  of  the  "  Virgin 
and  Chfld  "  surrounded  by  four  saints,  which  b  dated  I4i8, 
but  the  composition  is  so  elegant  and  the  drawing  so>  refined  and 
beautiful,  that  one  has  a  dtf&culty  m  accepting  the  date,  though 
it  b  received  by  many  as  authentic,  while  it  b  repu<^ted  by 
others  In  the  belief  that  the  letters  have  been  tampered  with. 
The  "  Virpn  and  Child  "  of  the  Paris  library  b  without  date, 
but  b  supposed,  apparently  with  reason,  to  be  earlier  than  either 
of  the  two  mentioned;  and  Delaborde  proved  that  two  cuts 
were  printed  in  1406.  The  **  Virgin  and  Child  "  at  Paris  may 
be  takitn.  aft  a  go6d  representative  specimen  of  very  early 
European  wood  et^aving.  It  b  simple  art,  but  not  bad  art. 
The  forms  are  drawn  in  bold  thick  lines,  and  the  black  blot  b 
used  with  much  effect  in  the  hollows  and  recesses  of  the  design. 
Beyond  thb  there  b  no  shading.  Rude  as  the  work  b,  the  artbt 
has  expressed  exquisite  maternal  tenderness  in  the  chief  detaib 
of  the  design.  The  Virgin  b  crowned,  and  stands  against  a 
niche-like  decoration  with  pinnacles  aa  often  seen  in  illuminated 
manuscripts.  In  the  woodcut  thb  architectural  decoratkmb 
boldly  but  effectively  drawn.  Here,  then,  we  have  real  art 
already,  art  in  which  appeared  both  vigour  of  style  and  tenderness 
of  feeling. 

The  earliest  wood  engraving  consbted  of  oiitfines  and  white 
spaces  with  smaller  black  spaoes^  cut  with  a  knife,  not  with  a 
gnavcct  and  shading  lines  are  rare  or  absent.    Before  passing 


w 


#:ti» 


ENGRAVINO 


799 


to  sliAded  woodtiits  ve  may  fflent!<m  ft  kind  of  wood  engntvfng 
practiced  in  the^ddlc  of  the  x^th  century  by  a  French  engraver 
(often  called  BCnuurd  Milnet,  thoagh  hia  namQ  is  a  matter  of 
doubt)  and  by  other  engravers  nearer  the  begmning  of  that 
century.  This  method  is  called  the  eribUt  a  word  for  which 
there  is  no  convenient  translation  in  English,  unless  we  call  it 
drilled.  It  means  riddled  with  small  holes,  as  a  target  may  be 
riddled  with  smftll  shot.  The  effect  of  light  and  dark  is  pfodnccd 
in  this  kind  of  engraving  by  sinking  a  great  number  of  niimd 
holes  <rf  different  diameters  in  the  substance  of  tha  wood,  wfasdi, 
of  course^  all  come  white  In  tlie  printing;  it  b,  ia  effect,  a  sort 
oi  stippling  in  white.  When  a  more  advanced  kind  of  wood 
engraving  had  become  prevalent  the  cribU  was  no  longer  used 
for  general  purposes,  but  it  was  retained  for  the  grounds  of 
decorative  wood  engraving,  being  used  occasionally  in  borders 
for  pages,  la  printers'  marks  and  other  designs,  wUcb  were 
survivals  in  black  and  white  of  the  aadent  art  of  flluminating. 
Cnriously  enough,  tl»is  kind  of  wood  engraving,  though  long 
disused  for  purposes  of  art,  was  in  recent  times  revived  with 
excellent  effect  for  scientific  poiposet,  maln^  as  a  method  of 
illustration  for  astronomical  boc^s.  The  bkck  given  by  tlie 
untouched  wooden  block  represents  the  night  sky,  and  the  holes, 
smafler  or  larger,  represent  in  white  tiie  stam  and  plancu  of 
lesser  or  greater  magnitude.  The  process  was  perfectly  adapted 
to  this  purpose,  being  cheap,  rapid  and  simple.  It  has  also  been 
used  in  a  spasmodic  and  experimental  manner  by  one  or  two 
niodem  engravers. 

The  earlier  workmen  turned  their  attention  to  woodcut  la 
silmple  black  lines,  including  outline  and  shading.  In  early  work 
the  outline  is  firm  abd  very  distinct,  being  thicker  in  Kne  than 
the  shading,  and  In  the  shading  the  Uaes  are  simple,  without 
cross-hatchings,  as  the  workmen  found  k  easier  sjtd  more 
natural  to  take  out  a  white  line-like  space  betweChi  two  parallel 
or  nearly  pamllel  bUck  linea  than  to  cut  out  the  twenty  or 
thirty  sanii  white  lozenges  Into  which  the  same  spaoe  would 
have  been  divided  by  croes-hatchlngs.  The  early  work  would 
also  sometimes  retain  the  sfanple  black  patch  which  we  find  in 
Japanese  woodcuts,  for  example,  in  the  **  Cbristnuu  Dancers," 
of  Wohlgemuth,  all  the  shoes  are  black  patches,  though  there 
is  no  discrimination  of  local  colour  in  anything  else.  A  precise 
parallel  to  this  treatment  is  to  be  found  in  a  Japanese  woodcut 
of  the  "  WikI  Boar  and  Hare>"  given  by  Aim6  Humbert  in  his 
hock  on  Japan,  in  which  the  boar  has  a  cap  wUcb  is  a  perfectly 
black  patdi  though  all  other  local  colour  is  omitted.  The 
similarity  of  method  between  Wohlgemuth  and  the  Japanese 
artist  is  close:  they  both  take  pleasure  in  drawing  thin  black 
lines  at  a  little  distance  from  the  patch  and  following  its  shape 
like  ft  border.  In  course  of  time,  as  wood  engravers  became 
more  expert,  they  were  not  so  careful  to  spare  themselves 
trouble  and  pains,  and  then  cross-hatchings  were  introduced, 
but  at  first  more  as  a  variety  to  relieve  the  eye  than  as  a  common 
method  of  shading.  In  the  r6th  century  a  simple  kind  of  wood 
engraving  reached  such  a  high  degree  of  perfection  that  the  best 
work  of  that  tiifie  has  never  been  surpassed  in  its  own  way. 

Wood  engraving  in  the  i6th  century  was  much  more  conventional 
than  it  became  in  more  recent  times,  and  this  very  conventionalnm 
enabled  it  to  express  what  it  had  to  express  with  greater  decision  and 
power.  The  wood  engraver  in  thoae  days  was  free  from  many  difiicult 
conditions  which  hampered  his  modem  successor.  He  did  not  care  in 
the  least  about  aerial  perspective,  and  nobody  expected  him  to  care 
about  it ;  he  did  not  trouble  his  mind  about  local  colour,  but  gener- 
ally omitted  it,  sometimes,  however,  giviag  it  here  and  there,  but 
oaly  when  it  suited  hia  faacv.  As  for  light-«uid-«hade»  he  shaded  only 
when  he  wanted  to  give  relief,  but  never  worked  out  anything  like  a 
studied  and  balanced  effect  of  light-and-shade,  nor  did  he  feel  any 
responsibility  about  the  matter.  What  he  really  cared  for,  and 
S^nerally  attained*  was  a  firm,  clear,  simple  kind  of  dra.wiag,  cois- 
ventionat  in  its  indifference  to  the  mystery  of  nature  and  to  the 
poetic  sentiment  which  comes  to  gs  from  that  mystery,  but  by  no 
mean?  indifferent  to  fact  of  a  decided  and  tangible  kind.  Tlie  wood 
enerarrng  of  the  i6th  century  was  a  singularly  positive  art.  as 
IKKitive  as  carving:  indeed^  most  of  the  famoas  woodcuts  of  that 
tune  might  be  translated  into  carved  panels  without  roudi  loss  of 
cbancter.^  Their  complete  independence  of  pictorial  conditions 
might  be  illustrated  by  many  examples.  In  DOrer's  "  Salutation  " 
the  dark  blue  of  the  sicy  above  the  Alphie  mountains  is  tnaalated  by 


dark  shading,  but  so  faris  this  piace  of  local  oolonrlvom  helllg  awlied 
out  in  the  rest  of  the  compodtion  that  the  important  foreground 
figures,  with  their  draperieB,  are  shaded  as  if  they  Were  white  statues* 
Again,  the  sky  itself  ia  fdse  in  its  shading,  for  it »  without  gradation, 
but  the  shading  upon  it  has  a  purpose,  which  b  to  prevent  the  upper 
part  of  the  composition  from  looking  too  empty,  and  the  convention- 
alism of  wood  engraving  was  so  acc^yted  in  those  days  that  the  artist 
coald  have  recourse  to  this  expedient  in  d^anoe  alike  of  pictorial 
harmony  and  of  natuiml  tnith.  In  Hotbein's  adndiable  aenem  of 
small  weU-fiUed  compositioaa,  the  "  Dance  of  Death."  the  firm  and 
matteriof-fact  drawing  is  accompanied  by  a  aort  of  iiglit*and-shade 
adooted  simply  for  convenience,  with  as  little  reference  to  natural 
truth  as  might  be  expected'  in  a  stained-giaas  window.  That  ia 
a  most  interesting  senes  of  little  woodcuts  drawn  and  engraved  io 
the  i6th  century  by  J.  Amman  as  illustrations  of  the  different 
handicrafts  and  trades,  and  entitled  *'  The  Baker,"  '*  The  MUler." 
'*  The  Botcher,"  and  soon.  Nothing  is  more  striking  in  this  vahmble 
series  than  the  remarkable  closeness  with  whkh  the  artist  observed 
everything  in  the  nature  of  a  hard  fact,  such  as  the  shape  of  a  hatchet 
or  a  spade;  but  he  sees  no  mystery  anywhere — he  can  draw  leaves 
but  not  foliage,  feathere  but  not  plumage,  locks  but  not  hair,  a  bill 
but  not  a  landscape.  In  the  "  Witches'  Kitchen,"  a  woodcut  by 
Hans  Baldung  (Grdn)  of  Strassburg,  dated  1510,  the  steam  rising 
from  the  pot  is  so  haid  that  it  has  the  appearance  of  two  tninlEs  01 
trees  denuded  of  their  baik,  and  makes  a  pendant  in  the  composition 
to  a  real  tree  on  the  opposite  side  which  does  not  look  more  sub> 
stanttal.  Kor  was  this  a  personal  deficiency  in  GrQn.  It  was  Dflrer's 
own  way  of  engraving  clouds  and  vapour,  and  all  the  engravers  of 
that  time  followed  it.  Their  concemions  were  much  more  those  of  a 
carver  than  those  of  a  painter.  Dilrer  actually  did  cane  in  k^h 
reUef ,  and  Grtln's  "  Witcbes'  Kitchen  "  might  be  carved  in  the  same 
manner  without  loss.  When  the  engravers  were  rather  draughtsmen 
than  carvers,  their  drawing  was  of  a  decorative  character.  For 
example,  in  the  magnificent  portrait  of  Christian  III.  of  Denmarie  by 
Jacob  Binck,  one  of  the  very  finest  examples  of  old  wood  engraving* 
the  face  and  beard  are  drawn  with  few  lines  and  very  powerfully,  but 
the  costume  is  treated  strictly  as  decoration,  the  lines  of  the  patterns 
being  all  given,  with  as  little  shading  as  possible,  and  what  shading 
there  is  is  simple,  without  cross-hatching. 

The  perfection  of  simple  wood  engraving  having  been  attained 
so  early  as  the  i6th  century  by  the  use  of  the  graver,  the  art 
became  extremely  productive.  During  the  17th  and  x8th 
centuries  It  still  remained  a  comparatively  severe  and  con> 
ventional  form  of  art,  because  the  workmen  shaded  as  much  as 
possible  either  with  straight  lines  or  simple  curves,  so  that  there 
was  never  much  appearance  of  freedom.  Modem  wood  engraving 
is  quite  a  distinct  art,  being  based  on  different  principles,  but 
between  the  two  stands  the  work  of  an  original  genius,  Thomas 
Bewick  (1753-XS28).  Although  apprenticed  to  an  engraver 
in  1767,  he  was  never  taught  to  draw,  and  got  into  ways  and 
habits  of  his  own  vdiich  add  to  the  originality  of  bis  work, 
though  his  defective  training  Is  always  evident.  His  work  is 
the  more  genuine  from  his  frequent  habit  of  engraving  Wi  own 
designs,  which  left  him  perfect  freedom  of  interpretation ;  but 
the  genuineness  of  it  is  not  only  of  the  kind  which  comes  from 
independence  of  spirit,  it  is  due  also  to  his  fidelity  to  the  technical 
nature  of  the  process,  a  fidelity  very  rare  in  the  art. 

The  reader  will  leinember  that  in  wood  engraving  every  cutting 
prints  wliite,  and  every  space  left  untouched  prints  mack.  SSaaple 
black  lines  are  obtained  by  cutting  out  white  lines  or  waces  between 
them,  and  crossed  black  lines  have  to  be  obtained  by  laboriously 
cutting  out  all  the  white  lozenges  between  them.  In  Bewick's  cuts 
white  unes,  which  had  appeared  before  him  In  the  FMes  of  177s,  are 
abundant  and  are  often  crossed,  but  black  Hnes  are  never  crossed} 
he  is  also  quite  willing  to  utilize  the  black  space,  as  the  Japanese 
wood<engraven  and  Dtkrer's  master  Wohlgemuth  used  to  do.  The 
nde  of  tm  frying-pan  in  the  vignette  of  "  The  Cat  and  the  Mouse  "  is 
treated  precisely  on  their  principles,  so  precisely  indeed  that  we  have 
the  lino  at  the  edge  for  a  border.  In  the  vinette  of  "  The  Fisher* 
man,"  at  the  end  of  the  twentieth  chapter  01  the  Memoir,  the  space 
of  dark  shade  under  the  bushes  is  left  quite  black,  whilst  the  leaves 
and  twigs,  and  the  rod  and  line  too,  are  all  drawn  In  pure  white  lines. 
Bewick,  indeed,  was  more  careful  in  his  adherenoe  to  the  technical 
oondfithMis  of  the  art  than  any  of  the  priroitnre  woodcoftera  except 
those  who  woriced  in  miU  and  who  used  white  lines  as  well  a»  their 
dots.  Such  a  thing  as  a  fiiiiing-net  is  an  excellent  test  of  this  dis- 
position. In  the  interesting  senes  by  J.  Amman  already  mentioned 
there  is  a  cut  ol  a  man  fishmg  in  a  mrer,  from  a  small  punt,  with  a 
net.  The  net  comes  dark  against  the  li^ht  surface  of  the  river,  and 
Amman  took  the  trouble  to  cut  a  white  loaenge  for  every  mesh. 
Bewick,  in  one  of  his  vignettes,  represents  a  fisherman  mending  hb 
nets  by  the  side  of  a  stream.  A  long  net  is  hung  to  dry  on  four  up- 
right sticks,  but  to  avoid  the  treable  of  cutting  out  the  loseogesr 
Bewick  artfully  contrives  his  arrangement  of  Kght  and  shade  so  that 
the  aet  shall  be  ia  lig^  against  a  space  of  black  shade  under 


WOOD  ENGRAVING 


not  Ihe  tgth  c«n(iuT 

a  chancier  derived  Innn  liic  oalurc  of  the  pnxxH; 
but  on  U»  oilier  hand,  the  modem  atl  is  Kl  to  imitate  every  kind 
of  engnviog  and  evei]' kind  of  draKing,  TtiusnehavciroodcuLs 
that  imitate  line  engraving,  others  that  copy  etching  and  even 
BtuodBt.  KrhJltt  othert  try  to  imitate  the  cnunblins  touch  oi 
cbaicoaL  or  of  chalk,  or  the  waih  of  mxet-cttiont,  the  greynesa 
of  pencil,  or  even  the  wash  and  the  pen-Une  to^fclher.  The  an  has 
heoiput  toallsortsofpurposa;  and  though  ills  not  and  cannot 
be  free,  it  is  made  to  pretend  to  a  freedom  which  the  cJd  mailers 
would  have  rejected  aa  an  ailectalion.  Rapid  sketches  aR  made 
on  the  block  with  the  pen^  and  the  modern  wood-engraver  set 
himself  patiently  to  cut  out  all  the  spaces  of  white,  in  which 
case  the  engraver  is  in  reality  less  free  than  his  piedeccsaoE  in 
the  i6tli  century,  though  the  result  has  a  false  appcaiance 
of  liberty.  The  woodcut  is  like  a  polyglot  who  has  learned  to 
^icak  many  other  languages  at  the  risk  of  forgettiog  his  own. 
And,  wonderful  ^     ''  i  •    ■.  -^       ■.  i 


tothear 


whidiit 


er  rival  eaci 


of  Lhem  on  its  own  ground.   It 

water.cabar,  but  not  their  equality;  jt  can  inutate  the  manner 
of  a  lioe  engraver  on  Bteelt  but  it  cannot  give  the  delicacy  of  his 
lineL  In  its  nKBt  modem  development  it  has  practically 
lucceeded  in  imitating  the  grey  tonalities  of  the  photograph. 
Whatever  be  the  art  which  the  wood  engravci  imitates,  a 
practised  eye  sees  at  the  £rst  glance  that  the  result  is  nothing  but 
a  woodcut.  Therefore,  although  we  may  admire  the  supple- 
oesi  ol  an  ait  which  can  assume  so  many  IransformationB, 
it  ia  certain  that  these  transfonnations  give  Itltle  satisfaction 
lo  seveie  >udges.  At  the  same  time,  as  the  ultimate  object  was 
not  only  reproduction,  but  reduplication  by  the  printlng-presfi, 
tlie  drawbacks  mentioned  are  far  outweighed  by  the  piocticol 
advanlagca.  In  manMii^  skill  and  In  variety  of  resource  modem 
wood  engiarus  hi  cnet  their  prcdccesstKa.  A  Bcl^an  wood 
engraver,  Slfehtiw  Pannemaker,  exhibited  at  the  Salon  of  iSyfi 
a  woodcut  enUUed  "  La  Baigncusc,"  which  astonished  the  art- 

BodelHng  of  a  nude  figure  being  rendered  by  aimpie  moduW 
ttons  ol  unbroken  hne.  Both  English  and  French  pubUoalions 
have  abounded  in  striking  proofs  of  ikiQ.  The  modem  art,  as 
tahibited  in  these  pubUcatkwi,  may  be  broadly  divided  into  two 
MClions,  one  depcndinf  upon  line,  in  whidi  caae  the  black  line 
of  a  pen  or  pencil  sketch  is  carefully  preserved,  and  the  other 
depending  upon  lone,  wbea  the  tones  of  a  ikctch  with  the  bmsh 
are  tranced  by  tbe  wood  engraver  into  shades  obtamcd  in  his 
ovrk  way  by  the  burin.  The  first  of  these  methods  Tequiics 
citreme  care,  skill  and  patience,  but  makes  little  demand  upon 
the  iLtfltigence  of  the  aitist;  the  second  leaves  hint  niiTrT  free  to 
bitercB'et,  but  he  cwmot  do  this  tightly  without  undcratanding 


both  to 


re  done  by  each  aeihad 


and  white,  t^  btter  being  engraved  by  interpreting  the  shadn  of  the 


vberever  Ibe  cAed  penniRed.  Ei^liili  wd« 
to  great  advantage  id  each  neWtpapen  as  ilw 
Htm  and  the  CnfUt  of  that  day,  and  bIid  Id 
wqmw-  IU1  wuu4  UhMEation.  A  certain  itaiidaru  of  viEnnie 
engnving  waa  mcbed  by  Edmund  Evans  in  Birket  Foater'i  ediiaoa 
of  CDwper'i  Tiuk,  not  likely  to  be  Hurpuaed  in  its  own  way,  eilbtr 
for  delicacy  of  tone  or  for  caref  dI  prr^Tvalioti  of  tbe  dnwing- 

Au  important  ^denaioa  of  wood  engraving  wia  doe  to  the 
invention  of  compouad  bkicka  by  Charles  Wells  aboot  the  year 
iSto.  Fcnneily  a  woodcut  was  limited  in  siie  to  the  '""—■'■"^t 
of  a  block  of  boiwood  cut  across  tbe  grain,  eicept  in  the  primitive 
coDdilioo  of  the  ul,  when  commonet  woods  were  used  in  the 
diiwtion  of  the  gnin;  but  by  this  invention  many  small  bkicks 
wen  fitted  together  so  as  la  fonn  a  tuigle  luge  one.  sometinics 
of  great  siw.  Tbey  could  be  tc^iented  or  joined  together  agiia 
at  will,  and  it  wit  this  fadlity  which  rendered  poauble  the 
rapid  pndnaioD  of  laige  cuts  foi  the  newipapcD,  maay 
cutters  woAing  on  Uw  ume  subject  at  once,  s>cb  taking  hk 

Tbe  pfoccM  employed  for  wood  engraving  may  be  bridly 

described  as  foUowa.  The  surface  of  the  block  is  lightly  whitened 
with  Chinese  whiu  so  *•  to  produce  a  light  ydictwiah-giey  tint, 
and  on  this  the  artiK  dnwt,  either  with  a  pen  if  the  work  Is 
intended  Ln  be  in  line,  or  with  a  haid-pointed  peudl  andabruih 
if  it  is  intended  to  b^in  ahade.  If  it  ia  to  be  a  line  woodcut  ths 
cutter  Btnply  digi  out  the  whites  with  a  sharp  gniver  oi  icalpd 
(he  has  thoe  tools  of  vaiious  shapes  and  uses),  and  that  it 
aU  he  has  to  do^  hut  if  the  drawing  on  the  wtxid  is  shaded  with 
a  brush,  then  the  catter  baa  to  work  upoit  the  tonea  ja  such  a 
manna  that  they  will  come  relatively  true  in  tbe  printing. 
This  ia  by  no  means  easy,  and  the  reaidt  is  often  a  " 
moil,  boidea  which  the  artist's  drawing  is  destroyed  in 
pnceM^  Lt  therefore  became  custocoaiy  to  have  the  blo^ 
photographed  before  the  engraver  touches  it,  when  the  drawing 
is  (pedally  worth  preserving.  This  was  done  for  Laighlon's 
UlDStntlions  to  Sjmila.  By  a  later  devekqxnent  the  drawing, 
nude  upon  paper,  was  by  photography  prrnled  on  Ibe  block, 
nod  the  dnwing  louuiKd  nnHwnbed  m  a  witoen  foi  or  agaioB 

In  recent  yon  the  posiikB  of  wood  engnvlDg  io  flmt 
BrilaiB  haa  wholly  changed.  Up  M  iSttr  lul  f 0[  a  little  while 
longer  il  was  the  cUef  means  of  book  and  newvaper  UhMratioo. 
and  a  frequent  nelhod  of  fine-art  npcoductioni  but  by  the 
beginning  ol  tbe  >olh  Ctntnry  it  hid  been  all  but  diiveo  out 
ofthBfieldby"r(ocai"«oriiaIviuiotnlundL  ll  HiU  ftouriiba 
in  Its  conmooei  Myle  lot  aMunerdil 
'      '     "ilufii 


decay.    But  tbe  ttmiUigaitk  end  it*  facwnile  nfmditclioB  have 


touchtaf  "  tbe  pncm  bloc>  initUies  canying  Ihck  work  w 
far  Ibit  tbe  print  from  tbe  fiiiibed  block  b  a  ckne  imitation  el 
a  wood  engraving.  This  lyitem  hu  been  carried  faitbeit  i> 
America;  it  is  tardy  seen  (toewkere. 

It  is  not  only  to  conriderallons  of  ecmMDiy  that  b  due  Ibi 
supcTsessjon  of  engraving  by  "  process."  He  a[^arent  *upe- 
Tioiity  of  tjuthhjncsa  claimed  by  the  photograph  over  the  artist  I 
drawing  is  a  factor  in  the  case — the  public  forgetting  that  a 
photographic  print  shows  us  what  a  thing  or  a  scene  kwki  like 
to  the  undiscrLmlnstii^  lens,  rather  than  what  it  looks  like  to  the 
two  eyes  of  the  specUtor,  who  uncmiciouily  Kkcli  that  part 
of  the  scoe  which  he  specjsUy  wishes  id  see.  The  rank  and  fik 
of  the  engmvers — even  ihoM  who  can  "  engrave  "  aftw  a  pictiw 
as  well  ai  "  cut  "  a  "  qtedil  anlM's  "  iketch.— niccnmbed  nM 
only  lo  the  public,  but  to  tha  attisla  Ibemsdvci,  who  frequently 
inibted  npon  Ihe  pmcas-block  for  the  Uaulalion  of  ibcil  «oA> 
They  preferred  the  greater  truth  of  outfine  (though  not  nectaartV 
of  lone}  which  Is  yielded  by  "  piocev,"  to  all  the  inherent  cbsnn 
of  the  baau;ifal  (and  expeoaive)  an  of  xylography. 


WOODFALL— WOOD  GREEN 


80 1 


III  Giwf  Britain  a  fewr  6H|ia»ig»  cf  hiA  rank  and  ^llty  Btlll 
followed  tbeait  which  waa  raised  to  so  Ugh  a  pifcch  by  W.  J.  Lintoa 
(d.  1898).  Such  were  Mr  Charles  Roberts,  Mr  Biscombe  Gardner. 
Mr  Comfort,  Mr  Ulrich  and  a  few  more — the  first  two  the  better 
encravers  for  being  also  practising  artists.  But  there  is  every  reason 
to  tear  that  if  wood  en^ving  as  a  cnft,  for  ordinary  purposes,  ceases 
to  exist,  wood  engraving  as  a  fine  art  must  disappear  as  weUr-oa 
there  would  be  nothing  to  support  the  youne  ccai  tsman  during  the 
years  of  apprenticeship  and  practice  rcquirea  to  make^an  "  artist  ** 
of  him,  and  nothing  to  compensate  him  11  he  fail  to  attain  at  once  the 
highest  aocom^shroent. 

Another  drcumstance  which  has  contributed  to  the  overthrow  of 
wood  engraving^  in  England  is  the  rapture  begotten  of  the  extra- 
ordinary executive  perfection  to  which  the  art  had  been  brought  in 
America.  These  en^vings,  published  in  magazines  and  books 
having  wide  circulation  in  England,  awakened  not  an  intdltgent 
but  a  foolish  appreciation  among  the  public.  Just  as  the  over- 
refinement  of  en^pravins  on  steel  m  Flnden  and  his  school  killed  his 
art  by  stripping  it  of  all  interest,  so  the  unsurpassable  perfection  of 
the  AmerKan  wood  engraver,  by  the  law  of  paradox,  effectually 
stifled  xylography  in  England,  as  it  has  since  done  to  an  silmoet  equal 
denec  in  America.  ^  The  reason  is  simple.  With  the  object  of  "  dis- 
iodividualiaing  "  himself,  as  he  calkd  it,  the  engraver  sought  to 
suppress  his  own  recognizable  manner  of  craftsmanship  when  trans- 
lating the  work  of  the  artist  for  the  public;  and  the  more  he  suc- 
ceeded in  effacing  himself,  and  the  more  be  refined  and  elaborated 
his  teefani^ue  and  imitated  tcxtnres.  and  tiic  more  he  developed 
extreme  nunutenesa  and  excessive  dcxtcxity  (so  as  to  secure  faithful- 
ness and  smoothness),  the  more  ckxscly  did  the  result  approximate  to 
a  photograi^  and  nothing  more.  The  result,  in  fact,  became  the 
ftauetio  ad  absurdwn  of  the  passion  for  the  minnte  and  the  perfection 
of  mere  technique.  The  result  was  amazing  in  its  oompktencss,'but 
curiously  grey  and  monotonous;  and  matter-of-fact  publishenand 
public  alike  preferred  the  photograph,  which  in  their  eyes  did  not 
differ  so  very  much  (except  in  being  a  little  greyer  and  more 
monotonous)  reproduoed  by  the  half-tone  block,  while  the  cost  of 
the  latter  was  but  a  fraction  of  that  of  the  former.  The  extreme 
elaboration,  satisfying  a  craving  of  an  acrobatic  kind,  defeated  its 
oiwn  end.  The  public  were  pleased  for  a  time,  and  the  result  has  been 
disastroas  for  the  ar^ 

In  England,  in  spite  of  the  Ihtemational  Society  of  Wood  En- 
graven, of  which  little  is  now  beard,  there  aieino  signs  of  a  general 
revival^  and  it  seems  as  if  the  art  must  be  born  again,  so  long  as  the 

Riblic  interest  in  photographs  continues.  Charles  Ricketts  and  Miss 
ousman  have  gone  back  to  a  Ddroesque,  or  Florentine,  manner  of 
the  Early  Renaissance  woodcut,  while  othera  are  striving  to  begin 
engraving  where  Bewick  began  it.  If  the  true  art  is  ever  restored, 
the  revival  will  rather  be  based  on  a  revolt  against  the  greyaess  of  the 
process-block,  and  the  offensively  shiny  surface  of  the  chalk-coated 
paper  on  whidi  it  is  printed,  than  on  any  aesthetic  delight  in  intelligent 
wood  engraving,  its  expressive  line,  its  delicate,  pearly  tones,  and  its 
rich,  fat  blacks. 

In  America,  where  the  power  of  resuscitation  is  great,  the  miracu- 
lous technical  perfection  brought  about  by  Timothy  Cole  and 
Frederick  Juengiing,  as  leaden  ofthc  school,  haspromptly  given  way 
to  a  greater  fceun^Tor  art  and  a  lesser  worship  of  mechanical  achieve- 
ment, and,  within  atrict  linuts,  wood  engraving  is  saved.  Curi- 
ously enouf^.  Cole  (an  Englishman  by  birth)  was  equally  a  leader  in 
recognizing  the  danger  which  his  own  brilliant  proficiency  had 
helped  tooring  about.  The  **  decadent "  dt  Utxe  who  had  over- 
whelmed his  art  in  the  refinements  which  threatened  to  destroy  it, 
and  who  had  been  seconded  by  the  splendid  printing-presses  of 
America  (which  might  witliout  exaggeration  be  called  instruments 
o(f  precision),  gave  up  what  may  be  termed  hyper-engraving,  and, 
surrendering  his  wonderful  power  of  imitating  surfaces  and  textures, 
changed  his  manner.  He  became  broader  in  handling;  his  example 
was  folknred  by  others,  and  wood  engraving  in  a  very  Tew  hands  still 
pffoapera  in  the  United  States. 

In  France,  where  the  art  has  reached  the  highest  perfection  and 
the  most  consummate  and  logical  development,  it  flourishes  up  to 
a  certain  point  on.  the  true  artistic  instinct  of  the  engraver,  on  the 
taste  of  an  intdligent  and  appreciative  public,  and  on  omdal  recogni- 
tion and  encoun||ement.  Nevertheless,  it  was  found  necessary  to 
establish  a  "  Society  of  Wood  Engraven  "  (with  a  magazine  of  its 
own)  to  protect  it  against  the  inroad  of  the  process-block.  The  art 
doubtless  nroduces  more  engravers  of  skill  than  it  can  provide  work 
for:  but  tnat  is  evidence  rather  of  vitality  than  of  decay.  Lcpdrc, 
Baude,  Jonnard  and  Florian  have  been  among  the  leaders  who,  in 
different  styles  of  wood  engraving,  have  sustains  the  extraordinarily 
high  level  whidi  has  been  attained  in  France,  and  which  is  fairly  well 
maintained  by  virtue  of  the  encouragement  on  which  it  has  thriven 
heretofore.  Florian^  who  died  in  1900,  was  a  man  who  successfully 
■ought  to  obtain  effects  of  tone  rather  than  line,  leaving  masses  of 
unenjtraved  surface  to  enhance  the  delicate  beauty  of  his  pearly  greys. 
But  in  rebelling  against  the  mechanical  style  formerly  so  much  in 
vogue  in  Germany,  of  indicating  roundness  of  form  by  curved  lines 
carried  as  far  as  possible  at  right  angles  to  the  convexity,  and  In 
•ttbstituting  more  or  less  longitudinal  lines  of  shading,  he  sacrificed 
a  good  ffealof  the  logic  of  form-rendering,  and  started  a  method  that 
hM  not  been  entirely  sucoessfuL 


In  Gennaiiy  the  artistic  standard  is  lower  than  in  France.  It  is 
true  that  few  outdde  Genqaay  could  model  a  head  as  finely  as  M. 
Klinkicht  in  his  own  style  of  a  judicious  mingling  of  the  black  line 
and  the  white  line;  but,  as  a  rule,  German  engraving  is  far  more 
precise,  more  mechanical,  more  according  to  formula,  and  heavier 
and  more  old-fashioned  than  that  of  cither  France  or  America.  Hie 
art  has  been  injured  b^  the  great  "  studios  "  or  factories  designed  to 
flourish  on  strictly  business  principles,  workshops  which,  in  the  edu- 
cation of  the  craftsman,  to  some  extent  annihilated  the  artist.  A 
few  there  are,  however,  of  ffreat  ability  and  taste.  The  attempt  to 
print  wood  engravings  in  ooloun  has  done  little  to  improve  the  status 
of  the  art.  In  other  countries,  however,  "  original  *  work  helped  to 
raise  the  standaxd.  Thus  the  work  of  Elbndge  Kingsley,  who  would 
sit  down  in  the  woods  and  engrave  the  scene  before  him  directly  on 
to  the  block,  exercised  no  little  influence  in  America.  The  similar 
ability  of  Lepire  to  engrave  directly  from  nature,  whether  from  the 
treee  of  Fontaineblcau  Forest  or  the  palace  of  Westminster,  has  in 
its  time  been  much  appreciated  in  his  own  country  and  in  Engbnd. 
The  efforts  at  block-printing  by  Charpentier  and  others,  not  only  with 
colour,  but  by  reinforcing  it  with  blocks  that  print  neither  lines  nor 
colour  but "  blind  "  pattern,  raised  or  depressed  upon  the  paper,  are 
evidence  of  the  movement  l^  which  new  methods  have  been  sought 
to  interest  the  public  The  immediate  results  have  not  been  very 
serious,  yet  the  fact  shows  the  existence  of  a  vitally  that  gives  some 
hope  for  the  future.  But  while  the  practice  of  dry-printinK  upon 
"  surface  paper  "  is  maintained,  it  u  hopeless  to  expect  in  the  im- 
mediate future,  in  Great  Britain  at  least,  any  permanently  good 
results  from  orthodox  wood  engraving. 


Work  (Philadelphia,  187s) :  J-  Jackson  and  W  A.  Chatto,  Trealtse  on 
Wood-Ettgrmmi  (Chatto,  1881)^  P  p.  Hamcrton.  The  Crapku  Arts 
(Sccley,  1882) ;  W.  J.  Linton,  Hutory  of  WoodrEtttraving  in  America 
(Chatto,  1882);  C.  E.  Woodberry,  History  oj  Wood-Engravtng 
(S.  Low,  1883) ;  Sir  W.  M.  Conway,  The  Wood-cutlers  of  the  Nether- 
lands m  the  TSth  cenlmry.  (Cambndge  Press,  1884),  W.  J  Linton, 
Wood-Engraving  (G.  Bell  &  Sons,  London,  1884);  Dr  F.  Lippmann, 
Wood'Engravint  tn  Italy  in  the  lUh  century  (Quaritch,  1888),  John 
Ruskin,  Aruidne  Phrentina  (Ancn,  1890);  W.  J,  Linton,  The 
Masters   of   Wood'Engravint:    folio,   issued   to   subseriben    dnly 

i London,  Stevens,  Charing  Cross,  1880  and  1892);  P.  G.  Hamerton, 
)ramng  and  Enpraving  (A.  &  C.  Black,  1892).  an  extended  reprint 
of  the  article  on  "  Engraving  "  in  the  9th  edition  of  the  EncycUh 
paedia  Britamncai  Louis  Fagan,  History  of  Engraaing  in  England 
(text  and  three  portfoUos  of  plates)  (Low,  i893-ite4):  George  and 
Edward  Dalziel,  The  Dalttel  Brothers:  a  record  of  ko  years  worh, 
iS4^iS99  (Methuen,  1901 ).  (P.  G.  H. ;  M.  H.  S.) 

WOODFALL,  HENRT  SAMPSON  (173^1805),  English  printer 
and  journalist,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  sxst  of  June  1739. 
His  father,  Henry  Woodfall,  was  the  printer  of  the  newspaper 
the  Public  Advertiser^  and  the  author  of  the  ballad  Darlry  and 
Joan,  for  which  bus  son's  employer,  John  Darby,  and  hb  wife, 
were  the  originAls.  H.  S.  Woodfall  was  apprenticed  to  his  father, 
and  at  the  age  of  nineteen  took  over  the  control  of  the  PuNie 
Advertiser.  In  it  appeared  the  famous  letters  of  "Junius." 
Woodfall  sold  his  interest  in  the  PuUic  Advertiser  in  X793.  He 
died  on  the  12th  of  December  1805.  His  younger  brother, 
William  Woodfall  (1746-1805),  also  a  journalist,  established 
in  z 789  a  daily  paper  called  the  Diary ^  in  which,  for  the  first  time, 
reports  of  the  parliamentaiy  debates  were  published  on  the 
morning  after  they  had  taken  place. 

WOODFORD,  an  urban  district  in  the  Walthamstow  (S.W.) 
parliamentary  division  of  Essex,  England,  9  m.  N.E.  from 
Liverpool  Street  station,  London,  by  a  branch  of  the  Great 
Eastern  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  13,798-  Its  proximity  to  the 
southern  outskirts  of  Epping  Forest  has  brought  it  into  favour 
both  with  residents  and  with  holiday  visitors  from  London. 
A  converted  mansion,  Woodford  Hall,  forms  a  convalescent 
home.  On  high  ground  to  the  N.  is  the  ecclesiastical  parish 
(one  of  three)  of  Woodford  Wells,  where  there  is  a  mineral 
spring.         

WOOD  GREEN,  an  urban  district  in  the  Tottenham  parlia- 
mentary division  of  Middlesex,  England,  suburban  to  London, 
7  m.  N.  of  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  on  the  Great  Northern  railway. 
Pop.  (i8gi)  25,831,  (1901)  34,*33'  The  name  covers  a  populous 
.  residential  district  lying  north  of  Homscy  and  west  of  Tottenham. 
To  the  west  Lies  Muswell  Hill,  with  the  grounds  and  building 
of  the  Alexandra  Palace,  an  establishment  somewhat  similar 
to  the  Crystal  Palace.  It  was  opened  in  1875,  destroyed  by 
fire  almost  immediately,  and  reopened  in  r87s.    Muswell  Hill 


Soz 


WOOD-IX>USE— WOODPECKER 


took  name  from  a  holy  wdl,  of  Ush  icfntte  for  coralive  powen, 
ov«r  whkh  an  or^ory  was  erected  early  in  t^  latb  century, 
attached  to  the  priory  of  St  John  of  Jerusalem  In  CledcenwdL 

WOOD-UOUSB,  a  name  commonly  applied  to  certain  terres- 
trial Crustacea  of  the  order  Isopoda  (see  Malaoostkaca),  which 
are  found  in  damp  places,  under  stones  or  dead  leaves,  or  among 
decaying  wood.  They  form  the  tribe  Oniscoidea  and  are  distin- 
guished from  ail  other  Isopoda  by  their  habit  of  living  on  land 
and  breatiiing  air,  and  by  a  number  of  slructural  characters, 
such  as  the  small  size  of  the  antennules  and  the  absence  of  the 
mandibular  pulp.  As  in  most  Isopods,  the  body  is  flattened, 
and  consists  of  a  head,  seven  thoracic  segments  which  are  always 
free,  and  six  abdominal  segments  which  may  be  free  or  fused. 
The  "  tclsoo  "  is  not  separated  from  the  last  abdominal  segment 
The  head  bears  a  pair  of  sessile  compound  eyes  as  well  as  the 
minute  antennules  and  the  longer  antennae.  Each  of  the  seven 
thoracic  segments  carries  a  pair  of  wallung  legs.  The  appendages 
of  the  abdomen  (with  the  exception  of  the  last  pair)  are  flat 
membranous  plates  and  serve  as  organs  of  respiration.  In 
many  cases  their  outer  branches  have  small  cavities  opening 
to  the  outside  by  slit-like  apertures,  and  giving  rise  internally 
to  a  system  of  ramifying  tubules  filled  with  air.  From  their 
similarity  to  the  air  tubes  or  tracheae  of  insects  and  other 
air-breathing  Arthropods  these  tubules  are  known  as  "  pseudo- 
tracheae." 

The  female  wood-louse  carries  her  <ggs,  after  they  are  extruded 
from  the  body,  in  a  pouch  or  "  marsupium  "  which  covers  the 
under  surface  of  the  thorax  and  is  formed  by  overlapping  plates 
attached  to  the  bases  of  the  first  five  pairs  of  l«;gs.  The  young, 
on  leaving  this  pouch,  are  like  miniature  adults  except  that  they 
are  without  the  last  pair  of  legs.  Like  all  Arthropoda,  they  cast 
their  skin  frequently  during  growth.  As  a  rule  the  ^n  of  the 
hinder  half  of  the  body  is  moulted  some  days  before  that  of  the 
front  half,  so  that  individuals  in  process  of  moulting  have  a 
very  peculiar  appearance. 

Some  twenty*four  species  of  wood-lice  occur  in  the  British  Islands. 
Some,  Ute  the  very  common  slaty-blue  Porcdlio  scaher,  are  practically 

cosmopolitan  in  their  distribution,  having 
been  transported,  probably  bv  the  uncon- 
scious agency  of  man,  to  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  gloTC.  Equally  common  is  the  brown, 
yeliow-roottcd  Onixus  astUms.  ArmadiUidium 
vulgare  bclongB  to  a  group  which  have  the 
power  of  rolling  themselves  up  into  a  ball 
when  touched  and  resembles  the  minipede 
Glomeris.  It  was  formerly  employed  in 
popular  medicine  as  a  read)r-made  pill.  The 
largost  British  species  is  Li^  occantca,  which 
frequents  the  sea-shore,  just  above  high- 
water  mark.  In  many  points  of  structure, 
Comnwn  Wood-louse,  for  instance  in  the  long,  nian>;-jointed 
Ontseus  asellus,  antennae,  it  is  intermediate,  as  it  is  in 
habits,  between  the  truly  terrestrial  forms 
and  their  marine  allies.  Finally,  one  of  the  most  interesting  species 
is  the  little,  blind,  and  colouriess  Platyofthrus  hoffmannsetp,  which 
lives  aa  a  guest  or  commensal  in  the  nests  of  anta.    (W.  T.  Ca.) 

WOODPBCKEBt  a  bird  that  pecks  or  picks  holes  in  wood, 
and  from  this  habit  is  commonly  reputed  to  have  its  name; 
but  it  is  in  some  parts  of  England  also  known  as  "  Woodspeight " 
(erroneously  written  "  Woodspite  ") — the  latter  syllable  being 
cognate  with  Ger.  Specki  and  Fr.  EpeUlUt  possibly  with  Lat. 
Piciu^  More  than  3oo'H>ecies  have  been  described,  and  they 
have  been  very  variously  grouped  by  systemalists;  but  all 
admit  that  they  form  a  very  natural  family  Picidae  of  Coraciiform 

*  The  number  of  English  names,  ancient  and  modem,  by  which 
these  birds  are  known  is  very  great,  and  even  a  bare  list  of  them  could 
not  be  here  given.    The  Angk»-Saxon  was  kigora  or  higtre^  and  to 


whidi  in  North  America  has  been  still  further  corrupted  into  "  high- 
hole  '*  and  more  recently  into  "  high-holder."  Another  set  of  names 
includes  "  whetile  "  and  "  woodwale,"  which,  different  as  they  look, 
have  a  common  derivation  perceptible  in  the  intermediate  form 
'*  witwale."  The  Mid.  Eng.  woiehake  (  ->  woodhack)  is  another  name 
apparently  identical  in  meaning  with  that  commonly  applied  to 
wioiodpecker. 


i,  their  ncaicst  allies  bring  the  f  wiran*  Tliey  are  gokerally 
of  bright  particoloured  plomace,  in  which  black,  white,  brown, 
dive,  green,  yellow,  orange  or  scariet— the  last  cofflmonly 
visible  on  some  part  of  the  bead — wimgt^  in  varying  pcoportiooSk 
and  most  often  strongly  contrasted  with  one  another,  appear; 
while  the  leas  conspicnoas  maildngs  take  the  form  of  bars, 
spangles,  tear-drops,  arrow-heads  or  scales.  Woodpeckers 
inhabit  most  parts  of  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  Madagascar 
and  the  Australian  Region,  save  Celebes  and  Fkwes,  but  it 
may  be  worth  stating  that  no  member  <rf  the  group  Is  knowa 
to  have  occurred  tn  Egypt. 

Of  the  three  British  species,  the  green  woodpecker,  Cuinus 
or  Puus  virtdts,  though  almost  unknown  in  Scotland  or  Ireland, 
is  the  commonest,  frequenting  wooded  districts,  and  more  often 
heard  than  seen,  its  laughing  cry  (whence  the  name  "  Yaflii  '*  or 
"  Yaffle,"  by  which  it  is  in  many  parts  known),  and  imdulating 
flight  afford  equally  good  means  of  reoogmtion,  even  when  it  is 
not  near  enough  for  its  colours  to  be  discerned.  About  the  sixe 
of  a  jay,  its  scarlet  crown  and  bright  yellow  rump,  added  to  its 
prevailing  grass-green  plumage,  make  it  a  sightly  bird,  and 
hence  it  often  suffers  at  the  hands  of  those  who  wish  to  keep 
its  stuffed  skin  as  an  ornament.  Besides  the  scarlet  crown, 
the  cock  bird  has  a  patch  of  the  same  colour  running  backward 
from  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible,  a  patch  that  in  the  hen  is 
black.*  Woodpeckers  in  general  are  very  shy  birds,  and  to 
observe  the  habits  of  the  species  is  not  easy.  Its  ways,  however, 
are  well  worth  watching,  since  the  ease  with  which  it  mounts, 
almost  always  spirally,  the  vertical  trunks  and  oblique  arms 
of  trees  as  it  searches  the  interstices  of  the  bark  for  its  food, 
flying  off  when  it  reaches  the  smaller  or  iqiper  branches—^itho^ 
to  return  to  the  base  of  the  same  tree  and  renew  its  course 
on  a  fresh  hne,  or  to  begin  upon  another  tree  near  by — and  the 
care  it  shows  in  its  close  examination,  wiU  repay  a  patient 
diserver.  The  nest  almost  always  consists  of  a  hole  chiselled 
by  the  bird's  strong  beak,  impelled  by  very  powerful  muscles, 
in  the  upright  trunk  or*arm  of  a  tree,  the  opening  being  quite 
circular,  and  continued  as  a  horizontal  passage  that  reaches 
to  the  core,  whence  it  is  pierced  downward  for  nearly  a  foot. 
There  a  chamber  is  hdlowed  out  in  which  the  eggs,  often  to  the 
number  of  six,  white,  translucent  and  glossy,  are  laid  with  no 
bedding  but  a  few  chips  that  may  have  not  been  thrown  out.' 
The  young  are  not  only  hatched  entirely  naked,  but  seem  to 
become  fledged  without  any  of  the  downy  growth  common  to 
most  birds.  Their  first  plumage  is  dull  in  colour,  and  much 
marked  beneath  with  bars,  crescents  and  arrowheads. 

Of  generally  similar  habits  are  the  two  other  woodpedcers 
which  inhabit  Britain — ^the  pied  or  greater  ^>otted  and  the 
barred  or  lesser  spotted  woodpecker — Dendrocopus  major  and 
D.  minor — each  of  great  beauty,  from  the  contrasted  white, 
blue-black  and  scarlet  that  enter  into  its  plumage.  Both  of 
these  birds  have  an  extraordinary  habit  of  causing  by  quickly- 
repeated  blows  of  their  beak  on  a  branch,  or  even  on  a  small 
bough,  a  vibrating  noise,  louder  than  that  of  a  watchman's 
rattle,  and  enough  to  excite  the  attention  of  the  most  incurious. 
Though  the  pied  woodpecker  is  a  resident  in  Britain,  Its  numbers 
receive  a  considerable  accession  nearly  every  autumn. 

'A  patch  of  conspicuous  colour,  generally  red,  on  thu  part  b 
characteristic  of  vcrv  many  woodpeckers,  and  careless  writers  often 
call  it  "  mystacial,  or  some  more  barbarously  "  moustachtaJ." 
Considering  that  moustaches  spring  from  above  the  mouth,  and  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  mandible  or  lower  jaw,  no  term  could  l>e  more 
misleading. 

'  It  often  happens  that,  just  aa  the  woodpecker's  labours  are  over, 
a  pair  of  starlings  will  take  possession  of  the  ncwlv-bored  hole,  and, 
b^  conveying  into  it  some  nesting  furniture,  render  it  unfit  for  the 
rightful  tenants,  who  thereby  suffer  ejectment,  and  have  to  begin 
all  their  trouble  again.  It  has  been  stated  of  thb  and  other  wood- 
peckers that  the  chips  made  in  cutting  the  hole  are  carefully  removed 
by  the  birds  to  guard  against  their  leading  to  the  discovery  of  the 
nest.  The  present  writer,  however,  bad  ample  opportunity  of  ob- 
serving the  contrary  as  regards  this  species  and,  to  some  extent,  the 
pied  woodpecker  next  to  be  mentioned.  Indeed  there  is  no  surer  way 
of  findiiig  the  nest  of  the  green  woodpecker  than  by  scanning  tm 
ground  in  the  presumed  locality,  for  the  tree  which  holds  the  nest  is 
always  recognizable  by  the  chipa  scattered  at  its  foot. 


WOODS,  SIR  A.~WOODSTOCK 


«o^ 


Tlie  tliree  species  fast  mentioned  are  th^  only  woodpeckers 
tBat  inhabit  Britain,  though  several  others  are  mistakenly 
recorded  as  occurring  in  the  coxmtry^-and'  especially  the  great 

black  woodpecker,  the  Picus 
martius  of  Linnaeus,  which 
must  be  regarded  ss  the  type 
of  that  genus.^  This  fine 
species  cotisiderably  txcetds 
the  green  woodpecker  in  size, 
and  except  for  its  ted  cap  is 
wholly  black,  tl  is  chiefly  an 
inhabitant  of  the  fir  forests  of 
the  Old  World,  from  Lapland 
to  Galida  and  across  Siberia 
to  Japan.  In  North  America 
this  species  is  replaced  by 
Picus  piUalus,  there  generally 
known  as  the  logcock,  an 
F«M  tM>niwt  ffMt  Bimry.  vol.  ^Qually  fine  species,  but  varic- 
c^  'JJ**"  "y  P"o»'»*<»  0*  Macfliaua  If  gated  with  white;  and  farther 

'. ^ «"'nrii.  ti  .r        ^0  the  southwaKl  occur  two 

Les»  Spotted  Woodpecfatr.        ^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^  ^  ^.^^. 

Palis,  the  ivory-billed  woodpecker  and  P.  imperiaiis.  Tlie  Picinat 
indeed  flourish  in  the  New  World,  nearly  one-half  of  the  described 
species  being  American,  but  of  the  large  number  that  inhabit 
Canada  and  the  United  States  we  can  mention  only  a  few. 

Fint  of  thcM  is  the  Califoraian  wogdpecker,  Mdanerpes  for- 
mictvonu.  which  has  been  said  to  display  an  amount  of  providence 
lieyondafamMt  any  other  biid  in  the  mmoer  of  aooiiis  it  nxes  tightly 
in  holes  which  it  oaalces  in  the  bark  of  trees,  and  thus  "  a  taige 
pine  forty  or  fifty  feet  high  will  prewmt  the  ap{ieaianoe  of  beii^ 
doaely  sMdded  with  brass  sails,  the  hsada  only  bemg  visible^'*  This 
is  not  done  to  furnish  food  in  winter,  for  the  species  migrates,  and 
•niy  ictnrns  in  spring  to  the  forests  where  its  supplies  are  laid 
up.  It  hiu  been  asswted  that  the  aooms  thus  stored  are  always 
those  which  contain  a  taaggot,  and,  being  fitted  into  the  sockets  pre- 
pared ior  them  aip-«nd  foremost,  the  endoaed  insects  are  unable  to 
escape,  as  th<^  otherwise  would,  and  are  thus  ready  for  consum|>- 
tion  by  the  buds  on  their  return  from  the  south.  But  this  state- 
ment has  again  been  contradicted,  and,  moreover,  fc  b  alleged  that 
these  woodpeckeri  folk>w  their  instinct  so  bUndly  that  "  they  do  not 
distingoith  between  an  aoorn  and  a  pebble,"  so  that  the^  "  fill  up 
the  holes  they  have  drilled  with  ao  much  labor,  not  only  with  acorns 
but  occasionally  with  stones  "  (cf.  Baird,  Brewer  and  Ridgway, 
/fartk  American  Birds,  ii.pp.  569-571). 

The  next  Nocth>Anencan  form  deserving  notice  is  the  genus 
Cofalrfcf,' represdited  in  the  north  and  east  by  C  aurattUf  the  golden- 
winged  woodpecker  or  flicker,  in  most  parts  of  the  country  a  lamiliar 
bird,  but  in  the  south  and  west  replaced  by  the  allied  C.  mtrioanvs, 
tasaiy  dtstinguislmble  among  other  characteristics  by  having  the 
•halts  of  loi  quiUs  red  Instead  of  yellow.  It  is  curious,  however,  that, 
in  the  valleys  of  the  upper  Missouri  and  Ydlowaioae  rivers^  where 
the  range  of  the  two  kinds  overkips,  birds  are  found  presenting  an 
extraocdinary  mixture  of  the  otherwise  distinctive  features  of  each. 

Other  North  American  forms  are  the  downy  and  hairy  wood- 
pecko!*,  small  birds  with  spotted  black  and  white  pkimage,  which  are 
very  valuable  as  destroyers  of  harmful  grabs  and  boreis;  the  red- 
fi^ided  wxxlpecker,  a  very  handsome  form  with  strondy  contrasted 
red.  black  and  white  plumage,  common  west  of  the  Alleehany 
Mountain^;  and  the  yeOow>bellted  woodj^ker  (*'  npsucker  '^. 

Some  other  woodpeckers  deierve  especial  notice — the  Cdapia  or 
Scroplex  mmpestrU*  which  Inhabits  the  treeless  plains  of  Paraguay 
and  La  Pkta;  also  the  South-African  woodpecker  CeocoUptes 
oltpaceut,  which  lives  almost  entirely  on  the  ground  or  rocks,  and  picks 
a  hole  for  its  nest  in  the  bank  of  a  stream  (Zootopsl,  1882,  p.  208). 

The  wobdpeckere,  together  with  the  wiynedoB  (9.v.)i  form  a  very 
oatund  diviMon  of  scansotial  birds  with  ty|;odactylou8  (eet.  and  were 
regarded  by  T.  H.  Huxley  as  forming  a  djitinct  divifion  of  birds  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  CdwmorpJuu,  whilst  W.  K.  Parker  separated 
them  from  all  other  birds  as  SaurogmUhtu,  (A.  N  } 

W00D8,  SIR  ALBERT  (18x6-1904),  English  herald,  son  of  Sir 
William  Woods,  Garter  king-of-^inns  from  1838  to  his  death  in 
1842,  was  bom  on  the  i6th  of  Aprfl  1816.  In  183S  he  became 
a  member  of  the  chapter  pf  the  Heralds'  College,  of  which  he 
vras  appointed  registrar  in  1866.  In  1869  he  was  knighted  and 
l^ecame  Garter  king-of-arms.    In  this  capacity  he  was  entrusted 

'  The  expression  Picus  martius  was  by  old  writers  used  in  a  very 

Khoal  settee  for  all  birds  that  climbed  trees,  not  only  woodpeckers. 
It  for  the  nuthatch  and  tree-creeper  (99.9.)  aswell.   The  adjective 
swarrftrs  leses  all  its  sigidficanoe  3  it  be  remoiwed  ficoos  Pictu^  as  some 
respectable  authorities  have  separated  it. 


With  many  missions  to  convey  the  order  to'  foreign  sovereigns; 
he  was  also  reg^rar  from  1878  of  the  orders  of  the  Star  of  India 
and  of  the  Indian  Empire;  and  from  1869  was  king-of-annS 
of  the  order  of  St  Michael  and  St  George.  He  officiated  at  the 
coronations,  both  of  Queen  Victoria  and  of  King  Edward  VII., 
and  his  authority  on  questions  of  precedence  was  unique.  His 
later  <fistfnctions  were  K.C.B.  (1897),  K.C.M.G.  (1899)  and 
O.C.V.O.  (1903).    He  died  on  the  7th  of  January  1904. 

WOOBf,  LBOHARD  (i774-i8$4),  Americah  theologian,  was 
bom  4t  Princeton,  Massachusetts-,  on  the  19th  of  June  1774.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1796,  and  in  1798  was  ordalAed  pastor 
of  the  Congregational  Chvrch  at  West  Newbnxy.  He  was 
prominent  among  the  founders  of  Andover  Hiedogical  Seminary^ 
and  was  its  first  professor,  occupying,  the  chair  of  Christian  ttieo* 
logy  ^m  x8o8  to  1846,  and  being  professor  emeritus  until  hif 
death  in  Andover  on  the  24th  of  August  1854.  He  helped  to 
establish  the  American  Tirict  Sodefy,  the  American  Education 
Society,  the  Temperance  Society  and  the  American  Board  of 
Commisaoners  for  Foreign  Mbslons.  He  was  an  orthodox 
Calvinist  and  an  able  dmiectician.  Hts  prindpal  worics  (5  vols., 
Andover,  1849-50)  mere  Lectures  on  ^Inspiration  of  the  Seriphtres 
(1829),  Memoirs  of  American  Missionaries  (1835),  BxanrinaHoH 
of  the  Doctrine  of  Perfection  (1841),  Lectures  on  Ckurth  CovernmeHt 
(1843),  and  Lectures  on  Swedenborpanism  (1846);  he  also  wrote 
a  History  of  Andover  Seminary  (1848),  completed  by  his  son. 

His  son,  Leonard  W(X)DS  (1807-T878),  was  bora  in  West 
Newbury,  Mass.,  on  the  24th  of  Kovember  1807,  and  gradv* 
ated  at  Union  College  in  1827  and  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  in  1830.  His  translation  of  Georg  Christian  Knapp's 
Christian  Theology  (183 1-1833)  ""a*  'o^iJ  ^*cd  as  a  text-book  in 
American  theological  seminaries.  He  was  assistant  Hebrew 
instructor  (1832-1833)  at  Andover,  and  having  been  licensed  to 
preach  by  the  Londonderry  Presbytery  in  1830  was  ordained 
as  an  evangdist  by  the  Third  Presbjrtety  of  New  York  in  1833. 
In  1834-183  7  he  edited  the  ncwly-establidied  Literary  and 
Theological  Iteview,  in  which  he  opposed  the  "  New  Haven  " 
theology.  After  being  professor  of  sacred  literature  in  the 
Bangor  Theological  Seminary  for  three  years,  he  was  president 
of  Bowdoin  C^cge  from  1839  to  1866,  and  introduced  there 
many  important  reforms.  From  June  1867  to  September  1868 
Dr  Woods  worked  in  London  and  Paris  for  the  Maine  Historical 
Sodety,  collecting  materials  for  the  eariy  history  of  Maine;  he 
induced  J.  G.  Kohl  of  Bremen  to  prepare  the  first  volume  (1868) 
of  the  Historical  Sodety's  Documentary  History,  and  he  dis- 
covered a  MS.  of  Haklwyt^s  Discourse  on  Western  Plantings 
which  was  edited,  partly  with  Woods's  notes,  by  Chaiies  Deaa 
in  1877.  He  died  in  Boston  on  the  24th  of  December  1878. 
He  was  a  remarkable  linguist,  conversationalist  and  orator, 
notaUe  lor  his  uncompromising  independence,  his  opinion 
that  the  German  reformation  was  a  misfortune  and  that  the 
reformation  should  have  been  within  the  church. 

See  E.  A.  Park,  Ufe  and  Character  of  Leonard  Woods^  Jr.  (Andover* 
1880). 

Alva  Woooe  (1794-1887),  a  nephew  of  the  elder  Le<»iard  and 
the  son  of  Abel  Woods  (1765-1850),  a  Baptist  preacher,  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  181 7  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  182 1, 
and  was  ordained  as  a  Baptist  minister*,  In  i824-x$a8  he  was 
professor  of  mathematics  and  natuial  philosoiAy  at  Brown 
University,  acting  as  president  in  1826-1827;  in  t828-i83t 
was  president  of  Transylvama  University,  Lexington,  Kentucljr; 
and  in  183 1-1837  was  president  of  the  University  of  Alabami 
at  Tuscaloosa,  where  he  organised  the  Alabama  Femak 
Athenaeum.    After  1839  he  lived  in  Providence,  R.I.  . 

WOODSTOCK,  a  town  and  port  of  entry  of  Oxford  county, 
Ontario,  Canada*  80  m.  S.W.  of  Toronto  by  rail,  on  Cedar 
creek,  the  Thames  river  and  the  Grand  Trunk  and  Canadian 
Padfic  railways.  Pop.  (1901)  8833.  It  is  In  one  of  the  best 
agricultural  sections  of  the  province,  and  has  a  large  export 
trade  in  cheese,  butter  and  farm  produce.  Organs,  pianos  and 
agricultural  implements  are  manufactured.  It  contains  a  resi- 
dential Khool,  under  the  control  of  the  Baptist  church,  affiliated 
with  McMaster  University,  Toronto. 


804 


WOODSTOCK— WOODWARD,  8. 


WOODSIOPCt  a  mtrket  town  and  municipal  boBNigh  in  Uie 
Woodstock  pafliammtary  division  of  Ozfordsliire,  England, 
yaim.  WJ^.W.  of  London,  the  tenninus  (Blenlieim  and  Wood- 
itock)  of  a  branch  of  the  Great  Western  railway.  Pop.  (zpox) 
1684.  The  little  river  Giyme,  in  a  steep  and  picturesque  vaUey, 
divides  the  town  into  New  and  Old  Woodstock.  The  church  of 
St  Mary  Magdalene,  in  New  Woodstock,  is  of  Norman  date, 
but  has  additions  in  the  later  styles,  and  a  west  tower  built  in 
1785.  The  town-hall  was  erected  in  1766  after  the  designs  of  Sir 
WilUam  Chambers.  The  picturesque  almshouses  were  erected 
in  1798  by  Caroline,  duchess  of  Marlborough.  The  town  is 
dependent  chiefly  on  agriculture,  but  a  manufacture  of  leather 
^ves  (dating  from  the  i6th  century)  is  carried  on.  Wood- 
stock is  govenied  by  a  mayor,  4  aldennen,  and  xs  coundllora. 
Area,  156  acres. 

After  the  battle  of  Blenheim  the  manor  of  Woodstock  was 
by  Aa  3  and  4  of  Queen  Anne,  chap.  4,  bestowed  in  perpetuity 
<Mi  John,  duke  of  Maiiborough.  In  x  723  it  was  destroyed,  being 
already  ruinous,  and  the  site  levelled  after  the  erection  of 
Blenheim  House,  a  princely  mansion  erected  by  Parliament  for 
the  duke  of  Marlborough  in  consideration  of  his  military  services, 
and  eH)ecially  his  decisive  victory  at  Blenheim.  The  sum  of 
£500,000  was  voted  for  the  purchase  of  the  manor  and  the 
erection  of  the  building,  a  huge  pile  built  by  Sir  John  Vanbrugh 
(9.V.),  in  a  heavy  Italo-Corinthian  style.  The  greater  part  of  the 
art  treasures  and  curios  were  sold  in  1886,  and  the  great  library 
collected  by  Charles  Spencer,  eari  of  Sunderland,  the  son-in-law 
of  the  first  duke  of  Marlboipugb,  in  x88i .  The  magnificent  park 
contains  Fair  Rosamund's  well,  near  which  stood  her  bower. 
On  the  Summit  of  a  hill  stands  a  column  commemorating  the 
duke.    Blenheim  Park  forms  a  separate  parish. 

Domesday  describes  Woodstock  {Wodestock,  WodestoV,  Wode- 
stok)  as  a  royal  forest;  it  was  a  royal  seat  from  early  times  and 
iEthelied  is  said  to  have  held  a  council  there,  and  Heniy  I.  to 
have  kept  a  menagerie  in  the  park.  Woodstock  was  the  scene 
of  Henry  II.'s  courtship  of  Rosamund  Clifford  ("  Fair  Rosa- 
mund ") .  It  was  a  favourite  royal  residence  untfl  the  Civil  War, 
when  the  manor  house  was  "  almost  totally  destroyed." 

la  the  Hundred  Rolls  of  1379  Woodstock  is  described  as  a  viD,  but 
a  burgess  is  alluded  to  in  the  sanie  document,  and  it  returned  two 
members  to  pariiament  as  a  borough  in  X302  and  1305.  A  mayor  of 
Woodstock  was  witness  to  a  deed  in  13M,  but  the  earikst  known 
charter  of  inaMDoration  was  that  from  Henry  VI.  in  1453,  establish- 


noMpor 
ing  the  vill  of  New  Woodstock  a  free  borotn^,  with  a  merchant  gild 
and  the  same  liberties  and  customs  as  New  Windsor ;  and  incorporat- 
ine  the  buigessesundertbe  title  of  the"  Mayor  and  Commonalty  of  the 
Vill  of  New  Woodstock."  The  mayor  aiid  a  seneant-at-mace  were 
CD  be  elected  by  the  oommooalty,  and  aa  independent  borough  oeiort 
was  established  for  the  trial  of  all  civil  actions  and  criminal  offencesb 
The  borough  was  also  exempted  from  the  burden  of  sending  repre- 
sentatives to  pariiament,  but  it  again  returned  two  members  In  1553 
and  then  resulariy  from  1570  until  1881,  when  Hie  representation 
was  reduced  to  one  member.  In  1885  the  boRmgk  W9s  dis- 
franchised. The  charter  of  Henry  VI.  was  confirmed  bsrilenry  VI  I., 
Edward  VI.  and  Elisabeth,  but  before  1580,  when  an  ordinance  was 
drawn  up  for  the  government  of  the  borough,  the  corporation  had 
considcraUy  developed,  including  a  high  steirard,  recorder,  mayor, 
6  aldermen,  ao  eommon  ooMndUois.  a  town  derie  and  a  crier  of  the 
oourt;  and  the  new  charter  granted  by  Charles  11.  in  i66«  did  little 
more  than  confirm  this  corporation.  The  hamlet  of  Old  Woodstock 
is  said  to  have  been  founded  Yry  Henry  I.,  and  was  never  included 
within  the  borough.  The  existing  Tuesday  market  b  stated  in  the 
Hundred  Rolb  of  12^  to  have  been  granted  by  Henry  II.  and  the 
St  Matthew's  fair  by  joha.  The  btter  was  confirmed  m  1453.  with 
the  addition  of  a  fair  at  the  feast  of  St  Mary  Magdalen,  ^ueen 
Elizabeth  In  1565  (granted  to  the  mayor  and  commonalty  a  market  on 
Friday,  and  two  fairs  of  four  days  eaeh  at  the  feast  of  St  Nicholas  and 
Lady  Day. 

See  Rev.  E.  Manhall.  BoHyHistory  cf  Woodstock  Manor  (Oxford, 
1873):  Adolphns  BaUard,  Ommides  of  Royal  Boro$uik  rf  Wood- 
ttoch  ViOonaQHmty  History,  OKfonUkirt. 

WOODWARD,  JOHH  (t66s-x728),  Eng&h  naturalist  and 
geologist,  was  born  in  Derl^yshire  on  the  ist  of  May  1665.  At 
the  age  of  sixteen  he  went  to  London,  where  he  studied  with 
Br  Peter  Barwick,  physician  to  Charles  11.  In  169a  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  physic  In  Gresham  college.  In  1693  he. 
was  elected  F.R.S.,  in  1695  was  made  M.D.  by  Archbish6>* 
Tenison  and  also  by  Cambridge,  and  in  170a  became  F.R.C.^/ 


While  still  astudent  he  became  Interested  in  botany  aikd  natunS 
history,  and  during  visits  to  Gloucestershire  his  attention  was 
attracted  by  the  fossils  that  are  abundant  in  many  parts  of  that 
county;  and  he  began  to  form  the  great  collection  with  which 
his  name  is  associated.  His  views  were  set  forth  in  An  Essay 
toward  a  Natural  History  oj  tke  Earth  and  Ttrrcslricl  Bodia, 
apeciaUy  Minerals,  btc,  (1695;  ^nd  ed.  170s,  3id  cd.  1723). 
This  was  followed  by  BrieJ  Instrudums  for  vtaksng  ObsertaHam 
in  aU  Parts  of  Ike  World  (1696).  He  was  author  also  of  if  w  Attempt 
towards  a  Natural  History  of  the  PossHs  of  Englasid  (3  vols.,  1728 
and  X729).  In  these  works  he  showed  that  the  stony  surface  of 
the  earth  was  divided  into  strata,  and  that  the  endoaed  ahdb 
were  originaUj^  generated  at  sea;  but  his  views  of  the  method  of 
formation  of  the  rocks  were  entirely  erroneous.  In  his  elaborate 
Catalogue  he  described  his  rocks,  minerals  and  foasib  in  a  mannef 
far  in  advance  of  the  age.  He  died  on  the  asth  of  Apiil  17  al^ 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abb^. 

By  his  will  he  directed  that  lus  personal  estate  and  effects  woe 
to  be  sold,  and  that  land  of  the  yearly  value  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  was  to  be  puchased  and  conveyed  to  the  University 
of  Cambridge*  A  lecturer  was  to  be  chosen,  and  paid  £xoo  a  year 
to  read  at  least  four  lectures  every  year,  on  some  one  or  other  of 
the  subjects  treated  of  in  hb  Natural  History  of  the  Earth.  Hence 
arose  the  Woodwardian  professorship  of  geology.  To  the  same 
university  he  bequeathed  hb  collection  of  English  fossils,  to  be 
under  the  care  of  the  lecturer,  and  these  formed  the  nucleus  ef 
the  Woodwardian  museum  at  Cambridge.  The  spedmois  have 
since  been  removed  to  the  new  Sedgwick  museum. 

A  fuH  account  of  Woodward's  life  and  views  and  a  portrsit  of  hia 
ut  nven  In  the  Life  aud  Letters  of  the  Reo.  Adam  Stdgmiek,  byj.  W. 
Clark  and  T.  McK.  Hughes,  where  it  b  mentioned  that  hb  paper,  md 
before  the  Royal  Society  in  x^,  entitled  Some  Thougkis  amiExperi' 
meuts  eoneemint  Vegetation,  *^  shows  that  the  author  should  be 
ranked  as  a  fonnder  of  experimental  plant*phyaiology,  for  he  was  oae 
of  the  first  to  employ  the  method  of  WBter<alture,  and  to  make 
refined  experiments  for  the  investigatioa  of  plant-life." 

See  also  The  Lives  ef  the  Professors  ef  Cnsham  CoUegje,  by  Joba 
Ward  (1740). 

WOODWARD^  8AHUBI.  (nqo-ii^^),  Englbh  geolnsist  and 
antiquary,  was  ban  at  Norwich  on  the  $td  of  October  179a 
He  was  for  the  most  part  self-edncated.  Apprenticed  in  1804 
to  a  manufacturer  of  camlets  and  bombaanes,  a  taste  for  senous 
study  was  stimulated  by  hb  master,  Alderman  John  Herring 
and  by  Joseph  John  Gumey.  Becoming  interested  in  geofegy  and 
archaeology,  be  began  to  form  the  collection  which  after  his  death 
was  purchased  fdir  the  Norwich  museum.  In  1820  he  obtained  a 
clerkship  in  Guniey*s  (afterwards  Barclay's)  bank  at  Norwich, 
and  Hudson  Oomey  and  Dawson  Turner  (of  Yannoatb),  both 
fellows  of  the  'Royal  Society,  encouraged  hb  sctentiftc  work. 
He  communicated  to  the  Arckaeologia  artides  on  the  roond  dnxrch 
towers  of  Norfolk,  the  Roman  remains  of  the  country,  &c.,  and 
other  papers  on  natural  history  and  geology  to  the  Mag,  NnL 
Hist,  and  Phil.  Mag.  He  died  at  Norwich  on  the  14th  of  January 
1838.  He  was  author  of  A  Synoptical  Table  of  British  Organic 
Remains  (X830),  the  first  work  of  its  kind  in  Britain;  An  Oullitee 
of  the  Geology  of  NorfoUt  (1833);  and  of  two  works  issued  post- 
humously. The  NarfoUt  Topographer's  Manual  (1849)  and  The 
History  and  Anti^itfes  of  Nortrick  Casde  (1847). 

Hb  eldest  son,  Bernard  Bolingbroke  Woodward  (X816-X869), 
was  librarian  and  keeper  of  the  prints  and  drawings  at  Windsor 
Castle  from,  i860  until  hb  death.  The  second  son,  Saxnud 
Pickworth  Woodward  (1821-1865),  became  in  1845  professor  ol 
geology  and  natural  hbtory  in  the  Royal  Agricultural  College, 
Cirencester,  and  in  1848  was  appointed  assbtant  in  the  depart- 
ment of  geology  and  mineralogy  in  the  British  Museum.  He  was 
author  of  A  Manual  4^  tke  MoUusca  (in  three  parts,  1851,  1853 
and  1856). 

S.  P.*  Woodward^s  son,  Horace  Bolingbroke  Woodward  (b. 
1848),  became  in  1863  an  assbtant  in  the  library  of  the  Geological 
Sodety,  and  joined  the  Geological  Survey  in  1867,  rbing  to  be 
assbtant-direaor.  In  1893*1894  he  was  imsident  of  the 
*Geologbts'  Association,  and  he  publbhed  many  important  works 
on  geok)gy.   Samuel  Woodward'syoungest  son, Henry  Woodward 


WOOL,  WORSTED  AND  WOOLLEN  MANUFACTURES     805 


<6u  iSsj)  beouBft  atiiSUiit  fai  tba  geologkat  dfipartmeot  of  Uiq 
Britiah  Mnwam  in  1858,  uid  in  1880  keeper  of  that  depart- 
ment. He  becuDO  F.R.S.  in  1873,  LL.D.  (St  Andrews)  in  1878, 
president  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London  (1894-18196), 
and .  was  awarded  .the  WoUaston  medal  of  that  todety  in 
1906.  H9  published  a  Uonograpk  of  tk€  British  FostU 
Cfttftocao^  ^>rd«r  MtrosUmata  (PaJaeontognph.  Soc.  1866^ 
1878);  A  Monograph  cf  Carboniffitous  Triiobiks  (PaL  Soc 
1883-1884).  and  many  artidea  in  scientific  journals.  He  waa 
aditor  of  tke  Ceotogical  Uaganno  from  its  commencement  in 
1864. 

See  Memoir  of  &  Woodwaid  (with  biblioaapby)  in  Tfom$,  Koifylk 
Hak  S0C.M79)*  and  of  S.  P.  Woodward  (with  portcait  and  biblio- 
graphy),. u>i<C  (1882),  by  H.  B.  Woodward. 

WOOU     WORSTBD     ARD     WOOUBI     MANUFACtUBBS. 

Wool  is  a  modified  form  oT  hair,  distii^^uished  by  its  altoder, 
toft  and  wavy  or  curiy  structure,  and,,  as  seen  under  the  micTo- 
scope,  by  its  highly  imbricated  or  seriated  suxfaooi  At  what 
point  an  animal  fibre  ceases  to  be  hair  and  becomes  wool  it  ia 
inpofldble  to  determine,  because  the  one  by  impercq>tihle 
gradations  merges  into  the  other,  so  that  a  continuous  chain  can 
be  formed  from  the  finest  and  softest  merino  to  the  rigid  bristles 
of  the  wild  boar.  Thus  the  fine  soft  wool  of  the  Australian 
merino  merges  into. the  cross-bred  of  New  Zealand;  the  cross* 
bred  of  New  2^Iand  merges  into  the  long  EogUsh  and  lustre  wool, 
which  in  turn  merges  into  alpaca  and  mohair-mateiials  with 
clearly  marked  but  undevelopied  scale  structure*  Again,  such 
^tiimaU  as  the  camel  and  the  Cashmere  goat  yield  fibres,  which 
it  would  perhaps  be  difficult  to  class  rigidly  «s  cithcc  wool 
or  hair. 

Wool  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  textile  fibres.  Owing 
to  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  spun  into  thzvad,  and  the  cooh 
fort  derived  from  clothing  made  of  wool^  it  would 
naturally  be  one  of  the  first  textilea  used  by  mankind 
for  clothing.  Ancient  records  prove  the'high  antiquity 
of  wool  textures  and  the  early  importance  of  the  sheep.  Tho 
different  kinds  of  wool  and  the  cloth  made  from  them  in  antiquity 
are  described  by  Pliny  and  referred  to  by  other  writersi  an<l  among 
the  arts  which  the'  British  Isles  owe  to  the  Romans  not  the 
least  important  is  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  wool  The  sheep 
certainly  waa  a  domestic  aninud  in  Britain  long  before  the  period 
of  the  Roman  occupation;  and  it  is  probable  that  some  use  was 
made  of  sheep  skins  and  of  wool  But  the  Romans  established  a 
wool  factory  whence  the  occupying  army  was  supplied  with  cloth- 
ing, and  the  value  of  the  manufacture  was  soon  recognized  by  the 
Britons,  of  whom  Tacitus  remarks,  "  Inde  etiam  habitus  nostri 
honor  et  frequeos  toga  '*  {Afric,  c  21).  The  product  of  the 
Windiester  looms  soon  established  a  reputation  abroad,  it  being 
remarked  that "  the  wool  of  Britain  is  often  spun  so  fine  that  it  is 
in  a  manner  comparable  to  the  spider's  thread."  This  reputation 
was  maintained  throughout  the  middle  ages,  and  the  fibre  was 
in  great  demand  in  the  Low  D>untrie8  and  othei  continental 
centres.  There  are  maoy  aUusbna  to  woollen  manufactures  in 
England  in  early  times^  but  the  native  industry  could  not  rival 
the  products  of  the  continent,  although  the  troubles  in  various 
industrial  centres,  f^m  time  to  time,  caused  skilled  workers  in 
wool  to  seek  an  asylum  in  England.  In  the  time  of  William 
the  Conqueror  Fleinish  weavers  settled  under  the  protection  of 
the  queen  at  Carlisle,  but  subsequently  they  were  removed  to 
Pembrokeshire.  At  various  subsequent  periods  there  were 
further  immigrations  of  skilled  Flemish  weavers,  who  were 
planted  at  different  places  throughout  the  country.  The  doth 
fair  in  the  churdi  yard  of  the  priory  of  St  Bartholomew  waa 
Instituted  by  Heniy  II.;  gilds  of  weavers  were  established;  and 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  exporting  woollen  doth  was  granted 
to  the  dty  of  London.  Edward  HI.  made  special  efforts  to 
encourage  wool  industries.  He  brought  weavers,  dyers  and 
fullers  from  FTanders;  he  himself  wore  British  doth;  but  to 
stimulate  native  industry  he  prohibited,  under  pain  of  life  and 
limb,  the  exportation  of  En^ish  wool.  Previous  to  this  time 
F.njrli«h  wool  had  been  in  large  demand  on  the  continent,  where 
it  had  a  reputation  exceeded  only  by  the  wool  of  Spain.    The 


cnatoitia  dutiea  levied  on  the  export  of  wool  woe' an  important 
source  of  the  rayal  revenue.  Edward  III.'a  prohibitory  law 
was,  however,  ioond  to  be  unworkable,  and  the  utmost  that  both 
he  and  his  successors  were  able  to  effect  was  to  hamper  the  export 
trade  by  vexatious  restrictions  and  to  encoorage  mnch  smugging 
of  wool  Thos  whOe  Edward  in.  limited  the  right  of  exporting 
to  merchant  fltrangen,  Edward  IV.  decreed  that  no  alien  should 
export  wool  and  that  denisens  should  export  it  only  to  Calais. 
L<i|islationof  this  kind  picvailed  tiU  the  teign  of  Elizabeth,  when 
the  free  exportation  of  English  wool  was  permitted;  and  Smith, 
m  his  Jf  Midrr  of  Woai,  points  out  that  it  was  during  this  rdgn 
that  the  manufuture  made  the  moat  rapid  progreea.  In  1660 
the  absolute  iHohflution  of  the  export  of  wool  was  again  decreed, 
and  it  was  not  tin  i8a5  that  this  law  was  finally  repealed.  The 
lesulta  of  the  pcohibitery  law  were  exceedingly  detrimental;  the 
production  of  wool  far  exceeded  the  ooonun^ktlon;  the  price  of 
the  raw  material  fell;  wool-"  running  ".or  smuggling  became 
an  organized  traffic;  and  the  whole  industry  became  disorganised. 
Extraordinary  expedienta  were  resorted  to  fdr  stimnlating  the 
demand  for  wooUen  manufactures,  among  which  waa  an  act 
passed  in  the  reign  of  Charlea  IL  decreeing  that  all  dead  bodies 
should  be  buried  In  woollen  8hioud»--an  enactment  which 
remained  in  the  Statute  Book,  if  not  in  force,  for  a  period  of  120 
years.  On  the  opening  up  of  the  colonies,  every  effort  waa  inado 
to  encourage  the  use  of  English  doth,- aiMl  the  manufacture  waa 
discouraged  and  even  prohibited  in  Ireland. 

It  waa  not  witl»out  reason  that  the  attention  of  monaicha  and 
legislatocs  waa  so  fioequently  directed  to  the  wool  industriesi 
Wool  was  indeed  "  the  flower  and  strength'  and  revenue  and 
blood  of  Ettghmd,"  and  till  the  development  of  the  <x>tton  tnuie» 
towsrda  th^  end  of  the  x8th  century,  the  wool  industries  were^ 
beyond  comparison,  the  most  important  sources  of  wealth  in  the 
country.  Towards  the  dose  of  the  i7(h  century  the  wool 
produced  in  Encland  was  estimated  to  be  worth  £3,000,000 
yearly,  furnishing  £8,000,000  worth  of  manufactured  goods,  of 
which  there  was  exported  about  £2/300^000  in  value.  In  1706 
the  official  value  of  woollen  goods  exported  waa  about  £3^000,000^ 
and  in  the  third  quarter  of  the  century  the  exports  had  incrnued 
in  value  by  about  £500^000  only.  In  i774l>>'  Campbell  {PolUicai 
Survey  of  Great  BrUam)  estimated  the  number  of  sheep  in 
EngUind  at  iO|Ooo,ooo  or  12,000^000,  the  value  of  the  wool 
produced  yeariy  at  £3,000,000,  the  manufactured  products  at 
£r  2,000,000^  and  the.  exports  at.  £3^000,000  to  £4,000,000.  He 
also  reckoned  that  the  industry  then  gave  employmeikt  to 
1,000,000  persons*  These  figures,  in  the  light  of  the  dimensiont 
of  present-day  industries,  mi^  appear  email,  but  they  bore  a 
predominant  relationship  to  the  other  great  sources  of  employ^ 
ment  and  trade  of  the  period.  In  180Q  the  native  crop  of  wool 
was  estimated  to  amount  to  96,000^000  lb;  and,  import  duty 
not  being  imposed  till  i8oa,  the  quantity  brought  fnun  abroad 
was  8/kio,ooo  lb,  6,000,000  lb  of  which  came  from  Spain.  Itf 
X825  the  importation  of  colonial  wool  became  free,  the  duty 
leviable  having  been  Cor  several  previous  yeaxa  as  high  as  6<L 
per  lb,  and  in  1844  the  duty  wm  finally  remitted  on  foreign  wool 
also. 

Sheep  were  introduced  at  Jamestown  in  Virginia  in  1609,  and 
in  1633  the  animals  were  fint  brought  to  Boston*  Ten  yean 
later  a  fulling  mill  waa  erected  at  Rowley,  Mass., 
''  by  Mr  Rowley's  people,  who  were  the  first  that  set 
upon  making  doth  in  this  western  worid."  The 
factoxy  woollen  industry  waa,  however,  not  established  till  the 
close  of  the  18th  century,  and  it  ia  recorded  that  the  first 
carding  machine  put  in  operation  in  the  United  States  was 
constructed  in  1794  under  the  lupervisioq  of  John  and  Arthv 
Schofidd. 

For  centuilea  the  finer  wools  used  for  doth-maklng  throughout 
Europe  had  been  obtained  from  Spain-Hhe  home  of  the  famous 
merino  breed  developed  from  races  of  sheep  originally 
introduced  into  the  Peninsula  by  the  Mooes*  TiU 
early  in  the  xgth  century  the  superiority  of  Spanish 
merinos  remained  unchallenged,  but  the  PeniasUlar  War  and  Ita 
attendant  eifib  produced  a  depiedatioa  of  qpalitgr  wneuatm^ 


Wottia 


$oS     WOOL,  W0K8T£D  AND  WOOLLEN  MANUPACTUKBB 


iriiktiBiAtndiictiott  of  Saaoitandl  Silestan  #ools;  iiidbh  saddesfy 
npplantod  the  product  ol  Spain.  The  Spanish  ueriiio  sheep 
hMd  beea  introduced  nto  Ssxoay  hy  the  elector  in  176s,  and  by 
Jwtidom  cxosBtnglrith  the  best  native  nu»  developed  the  famous 
electonl  brted.  Merinoa  wcrecanied  to;  Hungary  in.1775,  and  to 
Frsnoe  in  1776,  and  In  1786  Daubenton  brought  theai  to  RanK 
bonillet,  whence  a  famous  nee  developed.  In  i8oa  the  first 
mecinos  known  to  have  left  puie  desoendanta  Were  taken  to  the 
United  Sute8«  And  in  180^x8x0  an  importaitioa  (4000)  of  merino 
rfieep  waa  made* 

The  iuttodoction  of  the  merino  sheep  faxto  the  United  Statci 
was  an  important  move,  but  its  xesolu  are  not  to  be  compared 
with  tiie  vesolu  of  the  introduction  oi  the  merino  sheep 
into  AuBtraissia  about  the  end  of  the  x8th  eentury  and 
into  SoiAh  America  a  little  later.  It  is  probable  that 
the  maxked  improvemeat  In  thea^n'^aianee  of  the  first 
sheeptaken  out  by  the-eaxfy  ookinista  suggested  the  possibilities 
of  Australia  as  a  wool*growing  country.  As  has  been  noted 
above,  marked  endeaveuis  wete  being  made  at  this  time  to  extend 
the  merino  breed  of  sheep,  so  that  it  was  but  natuial  that  this 
n^Mf  to  ^'^^  ahould  be  given  the  fint  chance.  That  marked 
ZSrSu,  success  dkl  not  attend  the  fint  endeavours  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  the  London  Gonial  Wool  Sales 
origmated  m  the  necessity  of  scliing  Australian  wools  fust  for 
ariuLt  they  would  bring  under  the  hammer,  as  distinct  from  the 
private  treaty  method  of  selling  and  buybig  the  mora  highly 
priced  oontinentat  merinos.  It  should  here  be  noted  that  the 
Australian  fine  woob  were  fiist  shipped  from  Botany  Bay,  hence 
the  now  universal  Urm  "  botany  "  for  fine  wools.  The  colonists 
were  not  to  .be  repressed  however,  and  eventually,  through  the 
endeavours  of  Captafai  MacArtttur,  Sir  J.  Banks,  the  Rev. 
Samud  Maisden  and  otliers,  the  merino  breed  became  established 
on  a  firm  basis,  and  ui  a  comparatively  shori  time  Australian 
woob  were  no  kmger  a  drug  on  the  market.  The  evoliAion  waa 
not  to  stop,  however,  with  the  development  of  merino  flocks  and 
Che  exporting  of  merino  wool  No  doubt  eariy  inthe  19th  century 
the  possibilltica  of  raising  larger  sheep  on  the  better  coastid 
pasturage  was  naturally  suggested.  Until  about  1885  this 
tendency  waa  largely  repressed  owing  to  the  demand  for  merino 
as  distinct  from  cross-bred  wool.  In  other  words  wool  was  the 
dominating  factor.  But  with  the  possibilities  and  the  develops 
mcnt  of  the  frosen  meat  trade  from  t88o  to  1890  this  condition 
was  changed,  and  the  tendency  to  breed  a  large  sheep  with  a 
valuable  carcase  and  mediocre  wool  grew  apace.  New  Zealand 
was  specially  adapted  for  this  development;  thus  New  Zealand 
f roeen  nmtton  compldtely  dominated  New  Zealand  wool.  In 
this  maimer  It  came  about  that  tross-bred  wool  supplanted  merino 
wool  to  a  very  considerable  extent  throughout  Australasia. 
This  change  woixkl  have  bMit  serious  for  the  imx^  comber  and 
spinner  had  not  the  Bradford  combers,  spinners  and  manu- 
facturers put  their  shouMer  to  the  wheel  and  developed  a  worid- 
wide  renown  for  their  cross-bred  tops,  yams  and  fiabrics.  Again 
the  change  was  not  altogether  for  the  bad  so  far  as  the  Australian 
sheep  was  concerned.  Sheep-breeding  developed  into  a  real 
science,  and  remarkable  results  were  obtained  with  such  crosses 
as  Merino-Unooln,  Merino-Ldcester,  Metino-Shropshire;  all 
probably  originating  in  the  first  place  in  the  desire  to  produce 
a  large-bodied  early-fattening  sh^,  but  later  developing  into  a 
Strenuous  endeavour  to  develop  more  useful  types  of  wools. 
Thus  the  wool  produced  from  the  first  cross  Merino-Lincoln 
might  be  very  defective  Judged  from  a  pure  merino  stand- 
point, but  by  breeding  back  to  the  merrao  practicaUy  none  of 
the  usefU  merino  characteristics  were-  sacrificed,  while  length 
of  staple  WIS  added  and  the  weight  of  the  fleece  perhaps 
doubled. 

A  somewhat  different  evolution  has  taken  plaice  in  hXtt  years 
with  rofeftonoa  to  the  interior  sheep  stations.  The  merino  mcep 
wiU  thrive  where  a  larger  sheep  would  starve,  hence  its  value 
for  the  stations  wheve  salt-bush  dominates  idl  vegetation.  But. 
the  merino  siftep  is  a  '*  wool "  sheep,  not  a  "  frozen  mutton  '* 
sliD«p,  hence  aU  crossing  here  was  carried  out  with  the  idea  of 
lAaiply  developing  the  weight  of  fleect  axid  if  posaibh;  retaiidng 


the  merino  wool  charactetftties.  The  naost  marited  dewSop* 
mcnt  In  this  directwn  was  effected  by  the  introduction  of  tlx 
United  States  merino  or  Vermont  bned.  Opinions  differ  as  to 
the  wisdom  of  this  introduction.  The  weight  of  fleectcatried  per 
sheep  hsa  been  remarkably  iniMseed,  and  the  fact  that  upto  tk» 
proseat  weight  multiplied  by  price  per  lb  paid  in  LondoB.« 
elsewhere  has  be^  entirely  in  favour  of  first  and  second  cnm 
Vermonts,  has  undoubtedly  influenced  breedefs  in  its  fawrar 
Against  this  must  be  pUced  the  fact  that  the  Austrafian- VemoBt 
merino  cross  produces  a  sheep  <^  unstable  physique,  natunlly 
unable  to  withstand  drought,  and — worst  of  all  so  far  as  Londoo 
is  concerned— i>roducing  a  fleece  very  diiScult  to  judge  for  yield 
of  pure  scoured  wool.  Again,  the  Australian-Vermont  fint  cross 
is  very  liable  to  produce  a  very  strong  botany  wool,  while  what 
is  required  is  a  k>ng  but  fine  wttol  tecluucally  termed  a  kmg  and 
shafty  6o's  to  <S4's  quality. 

Htfdly  second  in  importance  to  Australia  as  a  wod-gnming 
country  comes  South  America,  or  more  correctly  Argentina  along 
with  Patagonia,  Punu  Arenas  and  the  Falkland 
Islands.  Jn  niost  years  Australia  has  produced  the  ^y* 
greater  bulk,  but  just  occasionally  S.  America  has  come  America 
out  top  and  is  likely  to  do  so  ntore  frequently  in  the 
future  owing  to  the  remarkable  developments  thc»re  tddng  placfc 
The  history  of  the  introduction  of  the  merino  sheep  into  S 
America  may  he  briefly  summed  up  as  follows.  In  1842  Henri 
Solanet,  a  Frenchman,  began  to  shear  the  comparatively  fev 
sheep  round  BUenos  Aires.  His  example  was  soon  followed  by 
Edouardo  Olivera  and  Josi  Planer.  The  i<^  almost  at  once 
came  to  these  pioneers  of  importing  wdl-bred  nuns,  and  as  S. 
America  is  essentially  a  Latin  country  it  was  but  natural  that  tbe 
French  flocks  of  Kambouillet  should  be  first  drawn  upon.  VTnh 
thedevelbpmcnt  of  the  meat  trade — ^just  as  in  the  case  of  Australia 
and  New  Zealand — a  larger  carcass  was  then  sought  aiuc 
This  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  Lincoln  ram  and  t^  develop 
ment  of  cross-bred  flocks  about  the  year  XM5.  Perhaps  tfais 
cross  was  favoured  owing  to  the  skfll  of  the  Bradford  spinnets, 
w!m>  made  excellent  use  of  the  cross-bred  wool  ptx>duced.  Flocks 
of  sheep  were  first  introduced  into  th^  Falkland  Islands  In  1867. 
The  pasturage  here  being  Hmited,  the  flocks  have  probably 
attanied  their  limit,  but  from  the  FaUdand  Islands  flocks  have 
been  passed  on  to  Punta  Arenas,  where  there  £1  practically  ^ 
Hmited  pasturage.  The  chief  centres  from  which  wool  from  S. 
America  comes  to  Europe  are  Buenos  Aitts,  whidi  exports  chiefly 
long  and  cross-bred  wools,  Montevideo,  which  exports  chiefly 
merino  wo(^,  and  the  Falkland  Islands  and  Punta  Arenas,  which 
export  mostly  wools  of  the  finer  type.  The  industry  is  largely  in 
the  hands  of  Etts^ishmen.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  British 
manufacturer  eariy  took  a  dislike  to  the  Buenos  Aifes,  8cc.,  ivtxjb, 
and  consequently  these  woob  go  largely  to  the  continent  of 
Europe.  To-day  they  by  no  means  merit  their  previous  bad 
name,  and  the  Bradford  comber  and  spinner  are  endeayourioS 
to  make  up  for  lost  opportunities. 

Prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  meriilo  sheep  into  Australia  it 
had  been  introduced  into  S.  Africa  by  the  Dutch.    There  the 
tUmate  was  not  so  helpful  as  was  that  of  Australia.      ^^^ 
The  newly  acclimatized  sheep  appears  to  have  cast  its      g^^ 
wool  at  about  the  6fth  generation  and  to  ha\no  generally     AMe»^ 
deteriorated,  necessitating  the  rcintroduction  of  frfsn 
blood  form  Europe.    In  this  manner  have  been  developed  ths 
Cape  flocks  and  the  considerable  Cape  wool  trade— hirs^ 
centred  at  Port  Elizabeth,  East  London,  Cape  Town,  Mos» 
Bay  and  Port  Natal.    The  country  is  evidently  specially  adapiw 
for  the  rearing  of  the  merino  type  of  sheep,  as  cross-bred  Cape 
wool  is  practically  unknown.    The  term  snow-white  Oape  wool,  00 
the  other  hand,  betokens  a  quality  of  whiteness  no  doubt  due 
to  the  atmospheric  and  pasturage  conditions.     Cape  wools  aje 
also  known  as  non-fdting  wools,  and  consequently  are  ^^^ 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  flannels.    In  1907  most  tntxk^ 
endeavours  were  being  made  to  develop  the  Cape  flocks  by  tnt 
introduction  of  some  thousands  of  Australian  merino  sheep 
The  opinion  of  wool  experts  waa  that  the  Cape  had  a  great  fuHtf* 
before  H  as  a  wool-producing  country. 


WOOL,  WORSTED  AND  WOCtf,LEN  MAKUFACTURES     80^ 


•tt«r 


Bales. 

Bales. 

165 

1.630 
16,926 

I5S.S58 

1870 
1901 

1903 

•     «     ^      673»3i4 

■     •     •     ■(Sv^uoo 
.      .      .      I,|M7J26 

.     .     .    <.3i9!»36s 

Brmai 


Lat^e  quanUties  of  wool  also  come  from  the  East  and  from 
Russia,  while  even  Iceland  contributes  its  quota.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that,  notwithstanding  all  the  devdopments  in- 
stanced, Europe  still  maintains  its  supremacy  as  the 
chief  wool-produdng  continent,  though,  as  the  wool 
is  laigely  manufactured  locatty,  one  hears  little  of 
European  woob. 

The  foUoffrinc  statntics  dve  an  idea  of  the  devdopment  of  the 
colonial  and  loveign   wool   trade  as  ganged  by   the   ' 
wool  sales: 

1S14  f  •  • 
1824    .     .     . 

1834  i  .  . 
I84O  .  .  . 
1850   *   .   . 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  a  large  quantity  of  $. 
Americao,  W.  Indian,  Russian.  &c..  wools,  along  with  mohair  and 
alpaca,  come  through  Liverpool,  and  consequently  are  not  taken 
into  account  here. 

With  reference  to  wools  grown  hi  the  United  Kingdom  the 
truth  seems  to  be  that  a  fine  short  wool  has  never  been  produced 
English  wool  is  known  the  world  over  as  bdttg  of  a  long 
ftnd  lustrous  type,  which  was  doubtless  that  so  much  in 
.  demand  in  the  middle  ages.    That  it  was  as  long  and 
Ittstrousas  the  typical  Icicester  or  Lincoln  of  to-day  is  doubtful, 
cs  the  new  Leicester  breed  of  afaeep  was  only  fully  developed 
by  Mr  Bakcwell  after  the  year  1747,  and  the  latter  day  Lincoln 
was  even  a  later  development  of  a  similar  character.    What  the 
exact  type  of  English  wool  or  wools  was  prior  to  the  xSth  century 
will  probaUy  never  be  decided,  but  from  the  closing  years  of 
that  century  there  fs  no  difficulty  in  being  fairly  predse.    As 
already  remarked,  the  long  and  lustrous  wools  are  the  typical 
English,  being  grown  in  Lincolnshire,  Yorkshire,  NotUngham- 
shire^  I>evoQsbire,  &&,  in  fiact  in  aU  thoae  districU  where  the 
pasturage  is  rich  and  specially  fitted  for  carrying  a  heavy  sheep. 
It  is  claimed  that  the  lustre  upon  the  wool  is  a  direct  result  of 
the  environment,  and  that  to  take  a  Xincoln  sheep  into  Norfolk 
means  the  loss  of  the  histre.    This,  is  partially  true»  but  it  is 
perhaps  better  to  take  a  huger  view  and  remember  that  the 
two  influencing  factors  are  race  and  environment:  which  b' 
the  more  potent  it  is  impossible  to  say.    Attempu  were  made  In 
the  tSth  centniy  to  develop  a  fine  wool  breed  in  England, 
George  IV.  importing  a  number  of  merino  sheep  from  Spain. 
The  discovery  was  soon  made  that  it  was  impossible  to  maintain 
a  breed  of  puro  merinos  in  Great  Britaint  but  the  final  outcome 
was  by  no  means  unsatisfactory.    By  crossing  with  the  in- 
digenous sheep  a  race  of  fairly  fine  woolled  sheep  was  developed, 
of  which  the  present  day  representative  is  the  Southdown — 
a  sheep  which  feeds  naturally  on  the  Downs  of  Sussex,  &c., 
forming  a  marked  contrast  to  the  artificially  tomip*fed  Lincoln, 
I^eicester,  8rc.,  sheep.    Following  the  short,  curiy  Southdown,  bnt 
rather  longer,  come  such  as  the  Sussex,  Oxford  and  Hampshire 
Down  sheep;  these  are  followed  by  sudb  as  the  Shropshires  and 
Shropshne  crosses,  Kent  and  Romney  Marsh,  until  at  last  the 
chain  from  the  Southdown  to  the  Lincobi  is  completed.    Of 
course  there  are  several  Britj^  wools  not  included  in  this  chain. 
Scotch  or  bhick*faee  wool  is  long  and  rough,  but  well  adapted 
4<it  being  spun  into  carpet  yams.    Welsh  wmI  has  the  peculiarity 
of  early  attaining  its  limit  of  shrinkage  when  washed,  and 
Jience  is  spedally  chosen  for  flannels.    Shetland  woof  is  of  a  soft 
nature  specially  suited  for  knitting  yams,  while  Cheviot  wool — 
said  to  be  a  cross  between  merino  sheep  saved  from  the  wreck  of 
the  Gteat  Armada  and  the  native  Cheviot  sheep — ^has  made  the 
fcinitation  of  the  Scottish  manufacturers  for  tweeds.    North 
wool-^wool  from  an  animal  of  the  Border  Leicester  and  Cheviot 
t>r«ed — ^Ripon,  Wensleydale  and  Teasdale  wools  are  also  specially 
noted  as  lustre  wools,  RIpon  and  Wensleydnle  woob  bang,  by 
many  judges,  considered  superior  so  far  as  lustre  is  concerned  to 
Lincoln  and  Leicester. 

Such  remarkable  advances  have  been  made  in  the  w^hts  of 
fleeces  carried  by  sheep  of  pSrtlcular  breeds  thatrit  is  difficult  to 


say  If  finality  has  been  itached.    The  foUewti^  list  gives  avciage 
weights; 


Br«id                Weij^ol 
vicvu.         Average  Fleece 

Breed* 

Wc«fatof 
Avenge  FIceofr 

Merino  (Australian)          6  lb 

^athdown  . 

6I» 

Merino      (South 

Lincoln  ,    . 

IS  lb 

American)     ...      6)  lb 

Shctbnd 

4lb 

Merino-Lincoln           8*10  lb 

Cashmere 

40c 

In  1885  the  avera^  weight  of  wool  per  sheep  per  year  was  about 
S  lb,  while  7  to  8  lb  is  now  the  average  weight.    Roughly  speaking 

the  veeights  of  AttstnUiaa  fleeces  are  to-day  about  double  as  comparaa 
with  1885. 

'  The  prevailing  colour  of  sheep's  wool  is  white,  but  there  a^ 
races  with  black,  brown,  fawn,  yellow  and  grey  shades  of  woo^ 
For  manufacturing  purposes  generally  white  wool  is,  ptyatal 
of  course,  most  valiiable,  but  for  the  homespuns,  which  etanetat* 
in  earlier  times  absorbed  the  bulk  of  wool,  natural  ''^*' 
cokmrs  were  frf  many  cases  used  with  good  effect.    In  *" 
domestic  spinning,  knitting,  and  weaving,  natural  colours  ait 
still  largiely  taken  advantage  of,  as  in  the  cases  of  rough  yams^ 
Shetland  knitted  shawls,  Highhuid  tweeds,  && 

As  has  already  beeft  indicated,  the  distinction  between  wool 
and  hair  lies  chiefly  in  the  great  fineness,  softness,  and  waved 
delicacy  <^  woollen  fibre,  comoined  with  a  highly  serrated  surface 
These  peculiarities  are  prodsdy  the  diaracters  which  give  wool  its 
distinctive  value  as  a  textile  fibre,  the  most  distinctive  character- 
istic of  all  being  the  serrated  structure  which  qiedally  belongs  to 
wool  and  markecfly  aids  the  important  property  of  felting,  upon 
which  many  of  itsapplications  depend.  The  serrations  of  .wool  and 
the  wavy  structure  it  assumes  are  closely  connected,  those  wools 
which  have  the  greatest  number  of  serrations  being  usually 
most  finely  waved  in  structure.  The- appearance  presented  by 
wool  imdeir  the  mjcssaoope  is  shewn  in  ig^  x-6  (Plate).  Under 
the  influence  of  moisture  and  pressure,  aided  by  alkafis  or  add% 
masses  of  wool  thoroughly  mat  together,  by  the  mutual  inter- 
locking of  the  fibres.  It  is  thus  that  the  shrinking  and  thickening 
of  woollen  teztnres  under  washing  is  accounted  for,  the  capacity 
of  wool  cloth  for  fehing  or  fblling  being  due  to  this  condition  of 
the  fibre,  possil^y  along  with  a  certain  shrinkage  of  the  true  fibre 
massi  The  serrations  are  most  numerous^  acute,  pointed  and 
distinct  in  fine  merhio  wools^  as  many  as  s8oo  per  in.  being 
counted  in  sjpedmeta  of  the  finest  Saxony  woob.  In  the  Leicester 
wool  of  England,  on  the  other  hand,  which  is  along  bright  staple, 
the  serratures  are  not  only  much  fewer  in  number,  counting  lAovt 
1800V  but  they  are  also  less  pronounced  in  chaiacter,  so  that  the 
fibre  presents  a  smoother,  less  waved  diaracter.  In  some  inferior 
wools  the  serrations  are  not  so  many  as  500  per  in.  A  amila^ 
difference  may  be  noted  in  the  fineness  of  the  fibres.  The  finest 
wool  has  a  diameter  of  from  tvW  to  t^wv  m.,  whilst  coarse 
Algerian  wools  may  rise  to  a  maximum  diameter  of  about  tH  ha* 

Other  distinguishing  qualities  of  good  wool  consist  In  uni- 
formity and  strength  of  fibre  with  freedom  from  tender  or  weak 
portions  in  its  length;  a  condition  which  not  tmf  reqnently  aiisca 
f  rofn  ill  health  in  the  sheep,  or  is  due  to  violent  climatic  changes. 
In  ill-bred  wool  there  may  also  be  found  intermingled  **  kemps  " 
or  dead  haiif-^atraight*  coarse,  dull  fibres  which  show  con- 
s^icooesly  among  the  wm^  and  become  even  more  prominent 
in  the  manufactmd  and  dyed  goodSi,  as  they  will  not  take  dye. 
Wool  also  possesses  a  softness  of  toudi  and  an  elasticity  both  in 
the  raw  and  manufactured  condition  which  distinguish  it  from 
aH  other  fibres.  In  length  of  staple  it  vanes  very  much,  attaining 
in  combing  wools  to  a  length  of  as  much  as  15  fo  20  In. 

In  dealing  with  wool  from  a  practical  point  of  view  it  must 
be  rec^used  Uiat  it  is  by  no  means  a  simple  body,  but  has  ^ 
somewhat  complex  physical  structure.  Its  composi- 
tion in  the  raw  state  may  be  said  to  be  thiecibld. 
Thus  there  is  the  wool-yolk— what  may  be  termed  a 
natural  impurity;  the  wool-fat,  which  is  not  only 
present  in  the  yolk  but  also  permeates  the  fibre  and  seems  to 
give  it  its  plastic  and  soft  handle;  and  the  cell  strtictnre  proper 
of  the  fibre.  The  natural  impurity  ot  wool->olk  is  truly  a  sklh 
product  and  is  a  protector  of  the  wool-fibre  rather  than  part  of  the 
tree  fibie  whstanca.    The  weotfat  also  may  be  regarded  as 


8o8      WOOL,  WORSTED  AND  WOOLLl^  MANUFACTUWSft 


indepeiideDt  of  the  tine  ftbwiu  lafcilaiice,  but  it  b  irdl  to 
recognuK  that  if  the  wool-fibre  be  entixdy  freed  &om  the  wool-fat 
it  loses  tU  plastic  and  elastic  nature  and  is  considerably  damaged. 
In  deandng  wool  the  true  fibre  mass  may  be  disturbed  and 
partially  destroyed  not  only  by  dxy  but  also  by  **  wet "  beat| 
and  may  be  entirely  disintegrated  by  means  of  alkalies,  ftc, 
with  heat.  The  wool-fibre  will  slmost  free  itself  from  the  natursl 
impuritie»— the  yolk— in  the  presence  of  tqnd  water.  This  is 
taken  advantage  of  in  the  various  steqping  msfhinft  placed  on 
the  market,  which  partially  scour  the  wool  by  means  it  its  own 

yolk— i;>rincipally  through  the  potash  salts  present. 

« 

According  to  Hununel  the  compoaitioo  of  the  tEvcrage  woot-ydk 

b  as  follows  >«" 


Moisture 
Yolk      . 


4to 


^l\ 


Dirt     .    . 
Wool-fibre. 


.    at024% 
•  15  ••  73% 


The  poCaih  sshs  are  aaually  recoveied  from  the  waab-wster 
products  and  a  marked  economy  thereby  effected. 
The  natural  wool-fat— populariy  known  as  '*  tanoUne  "—may  be 


partially  got  rid  of  in  the  ateeping  process,  but  it  n  almoat  invariably 
oecessaiy  to  free  the  wool  still  further  from  It  by  actually  soouring 
the  wool  on  either  the  "  emulsion  "  or  *'  solvent  '*  method,  in  cither 
case  the  action  being  largely  phyricsl.  As  prevknialy  pointed  out, 
however,  all  the  wool-fat  must  not  be  taken  away  from  the  fibre,  or 
the  fibre  will  lose  its  "  nature."  Acoordiiw  to  Dr  Bowman,  the 
chemical  compositioo  of  the  ceil  atnicture  of  the  aveesfs  wool-fibre 

Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Nitrogen 


n 
or 


I00H> 


'    It  b  said  to  be  a  most 
b  C«Hi«N,SQi..  ,  . 

If  wool  is  burnt,  it  brgely  resolves  itself  into  ammoob  gas— whence 
it  derives  its  chamcteristic  odour--aiid  caibon  **beads"  or  "re- 
saains,'*  which  serve  to  distinguish  wool  from  cotton,  which,  upon 
beiiw  burnt,  does  not  si^oulder  but  burns  with  a  flash  and  lesves  no 
beads.  For  further  psiticulars  on  the  organic  nature  of  the  wool- 
fibre  see  FiBRBs. 

The  bulk  of  the  wool  of  commerce  comes  into  the  msrket  in  the 
form  of  fieeee  wool,  the  product  of  a  single  year's  growth:  cut  from 
the  body  of  the  living  ammaT  The  first  and  finest  clip, 
gf™^  caUed  lambs'  wod^  may  be  taken  from  the  young  sheepat 
tfR,„  about  the  age  of  aght  months.  When  the  animal  b  not 
iTrT^  shorn  till  it  attains  the  age  of  twelve  or  fourteen  months 
^^  the  wool  b  known  as  hen  or  hogget,  and,  like  lambs' 
wool,  b  fine  and  tapen  to  a  point.  All  subsequently  cut  fleeces  are 
known  as  wether  wool.-  and  possess  rebtivdy  somewhat  less  value 
than  the  first  clip.  Fleece  wool  as  it  comes  into  the  market  is  "  in 
the  grease."  that  is,  unwashed,  and  with  all  the  dirt  which  gathers  to 
the  surface  of  the  greasy  wod  present :  or  it  is  received  as  **  washed  " 
wool,  the  washing  being  done  as  a  prelimiiuiry  to  the  sbeep^caring, 
cr.  in  some  few  cases,  it  b  scoured  and  b  consequently  sutcd  ss 
*'  scoured."  Skin  wool  b  that  which  b  obtained  from  sheep  which 
either  die  or  are  killed.  Typical  skin  wool  is  that  which  has  been 
removed  by  a  sweating  process.  The  worst  type  of  skin  wool— 
technically  known  as  '*  shpe  "— b  removed  from  the  sidns  fay  lime, 
which  naturslly  affects  the  handle  of  the  wool  and  renders  it  difficult 
to  bring  into  a  workabb  condition  bter.  Maxamet  in  France  b  the 
great  continental  centre  for  ddn  wools. 

Where  there  b  abundance  of  water  and  other  coovcnieiiccs  it  b 
the  practfce  to  wash  or  half-wash  sheep  pnvkms  to  shcaoag.  and 
such  srool  comes  into  the  market  as  washed  or  half- 
washed  fleece.  The  surface  of  a  fleece  has  usually  a  thick 
coating  of  dirt,  and  in  the  case  of  merino  breeds  the  fleece 
snrfsce  is  firmly  caked  together  into  sofid  masses,  from  the  adhesion 
of  dift  to  the  wool  eottstaatly  nmist  with  the  exudation  from  the  skin 
of  the  greasy  yoUc  or  "  suiot,"  so  that  in  an  unwashed,  very  greasy 
fleece  go^  of  weight  may  represent  dirt,  and  about  40  %  the  greasy 
suint  which  lubricates  the  wool,  while  the  pore  wool  b  not  more  than 
one-tUrd  part  of  the  whole.  Where  ronning  streams  exist,  the  sheep 
am  penned  by  the  side  of  the  water,  aadtawn  ooeby  one  and  held  in 
the  stream  whib  they  are  washed,  one  man  holding  and  the  other 
washing.  The  operation  b  objectionable  in  many  ways,  as  it  pollutes 
thestream,  and  it  dissipates  no  mean  amount  of  potash  sdts,  valuable 
for  manure  or  for  other  chemical  purposes.  Sheep  washing  appUahccs 
are  now  largely  cmpioycd.  the  arrangement  consisting  ol  a  pen  into 
which  the  sheep  are  dnvca  and  ■abjccted  to  a  strong  spray  of  water 
either  hot  or  cold,  which  soaks  the  Bccce  and  softens  tne  dirt.  This 
done,  they  are  caused  to  swim  along  a  tank  which  narrows  towards 
tiie  exit,  and  just  as  they  pass  out -Of  the  pen  they  am  csnght  and 
iahiectffltDastreagdoiicheofpurewater.  They  should  then  be  kept 


on  gram  bod  free  from  itnw.  sand,  Ac,  so  that  the  wool  issjrlR 
sheared  free  from  vegctabb  matter.  Ac.  After  a  few  days  the  wmI 
of  a  washed  sheep  b  suffidently  6ry  for  shearing  or  clippuig. 

The  relative  adventam  of  ahipaing  wool  in  uie  greasy  or  vsihd 
state  have  been  fiercely  debated.  Although  there  are  nstunflr 
exceptions,  the  superiority  of  greasy  wool  b  now  generally  recogmni 
Thb  b  not  only  because  the  wool  more  fully  retains  its  nataie.  hid 
because  it  b  more  readily  {udoed  for  "yield"  and  its  «b8ii« 
qualities  are;  jierhaps.  more  readily  estimated. 

The  following  list  gives  an  klca  of  the  yidd  la  desa  wool  of  tb 
chief  coBimerebl  varieties,  from  which  it  will  be  noted  thst  romUy 
merino  greasy  wool  ybkb  about  50%  daao  wool  and  English  soosi 
75%  ■ 


Type  of  Wool.  Yield  per  oestd 

CbaaWooL 

Australian  Merino »*, 

Cape  ., 48 

South  American  Merino  .......       4s 


75 

IS 

80^ 

^% 

65% 


New  Zeabnd  Cross-bred 
South  American  Cross-bred 
English  Southdown     .     . 

,.      Shropshire 

..     Lincoln 

Mohair 

Alpaca    .     .     «     .     .     ^ 

A  skilful  shearer  will  clip  the  fleece  from  a  sheep  in  one  unbrdbi 
continuous  sheet,  retaining  the  form  and  rebtive  positioss  of  tb 
asass  almost  as  if  the  creature  had  been  skinned.  In  thb 
unbroken  conditiott  each  fleece  is  rolled  up  by  itsdf  and 
tied  with  its  own  wool,  which  greatly  facilitates  the  sorting  *" 
or  stapling  which  all  wool  undergoes  for  the  separatioa  otthe  kvmI 
qualities  which  make  up  the  ffeeee.  Mechanical  sh«urs  hsve  sIsmmI 
revohMion)sed  the  shearing  industry,  a  good  sheaser  shmrisgfna 
100  to  aoo  sheep  per  day. 

On  the  great  Australbn  sheep  stations  wool  cbsaing  b  one  of  tke 
most  important  operations,  breely  taking  the  pbce  oTsorting  is  tfei 
English  wool  trade.  This  b  no  doubt  due  to  the  wonderful 
saooem  which  has  attended  the  efforts  of  the  AmrtsmlisA 
sheep  breeders  to  breed  a  sheep  of  uniform  stapb  through- 
out. Thus  the  fleeces  as  taken  from  the  sheq>  are  sidrted  tin 
trimmed  on  one  table  and  then  passed  on  to  the  classer,  who  pbco 
them  in  the 56*8, 6o'b,  64*s.  70's,  8o*sor9Q'sclsmsccordingto their ia^ 
ness,  there  numbers  approximately  iodicating  the  worsted  eouottte 
which  it  b  supposed  they  wiU  stain.  The  shorter  Austrslisn  woob  sot 
coming  under  sny  of  these  heads  are  cbssed  as  super-clothisg,  <irili» 
aryclothing,  &c.,  being  more  suitabb  for  the  woollen  bdustry. 

The  art  of  sheep  shearing,  skhting,  classing,  packing  and  tnai> 
porting  has  been  brought  up  to  a  wonderful  state  of  perfectioB  ii 
Anstralb,  and  the  "  get  up  of  the  wool  is  usually  much  wperior  u 
the  "  get  up  "  of  the^  home-clip."  Of  bte  there  has  been  an  onto; 
against  the  prevalence  of  vegetabfo  matter  in  colonisl  wools,  but  it 
seems  probable  that  with  the  adoption  of  a  suitabb  wodpsck,  isd 
the  exereising  of  a  littb  more  care  in  sortbg  at  the  home  end,  tkii 
difficulty  will  be  mtisbctorily  surmounted. 

Sorting  or  stapling  was  formerly  a  distinct  industry,  and  to  10m 
extent  it  b  so  still,  though  frequently  the  work  b  done  os  tbe 
premises  of  the  comber  or  sphmer.  Carding  woob  are 
separated  and  classed  differently-from  combiiv  woob,  and 
in  dealing  with  fleeces  from  different  breeds,  the  classifica- 
tion of  the  sorter  varies.  In  the  woOlIen  trade  short-stapte  wm*  >* 
separated  into  qualities,  known,  in  descending  series  from  the  finea 
to  the  most  worthless,  as  picklock,  prime,  choioe,  super,  hcsd 
seconds,  abb  and  breech,  and  the  proportioas  in  which  the  nigner  sm 
lower  qualities  are  present  are  octcrmined  by  the  "  class  of  tbt 
fleece.  In  the  worsted  trade  the  classification  goes,  also  in  descending 
series,  from  fine,  blue,  neat,  brown,  breedi,  downright,  seconds^ 
abb  for  English  wools.  The  last  three  are  diort  aad  not  corismW 
used  in  the  wmsted  trade.  The  greater  proportion  of  1^  Enclm 
long  wool  will  be  cbssified  as  biue^  neat  and  brown;  it  is  only  » 
exceptioaal  cases  that  more  than  from  5  to  8  %  b  "  fine  **  on  tbeojK 
hand,  or  of  k>wer  quality  than  breech  on  the  other.  Oennw? 
speaking,  the  best  portion  of  a  fleece  b  from  the  shouldem  and  •« 


ot  the  animal.  The  mi^ty  decreases  towards  the  tail  end  of  tin 
sheeny  the  '*  hritch  "  oemg  frequently  long,  strong  and  inesu**^- 
The  belly  wool  b  short,  srorn  and  dirty,  as  b  also  the  front « tbe 
throat,  whne  on  the  head  and  ditns  the  product  b  riioit.  stiBsM 
straight,  more  like  hair  than  wool  and  b  habb  to  contain  grey  bsn» 
The  oolonjal  wools  come  "  classed."  and  consequently  are  only  sM 
rob  sorted  into  three  or  four  <iualities.  Thus  a  fio's  flcere  sssy  K 
aortsd  into  56's.  ordinary  60's,  super  60*8  and  skirtings. 

The  sorter  works  at  a  table  or  frame  covered  with  wire  »«""* 
through  which  dust  and  dirt  fall  as  he  handles  the  woo).  Fkcca 
which  have  been  hard  packed  in  babs,  especbUy  if  unwashed,  10  »» 
dense  hard  masses,  which  may  be  heated  tyi  tbe  softening  ol  thejiw 
and  the  swelling  01  the  fibres  malce  them  pUabb  and  easily  opened  u]x 
When  tbe  fleece  b  spread  out  the  stapler  first  divides  it  into  two  Mpw 
ddcs;  then  he  picks  away  all  straws,  large  burrs,  and  tarry  tislj 
meats  which  are  visible;  and  then  with  ^marvellous  pf'c^^jj? 
cerL*Iniy  lie  picks  out  his  separate  qualities,  throwing  csch  M  av 


WOOL,  WORSTED  AND  WOOLLEN  MANUFACTURES      809 


Neck 


its  allotted  receptacle.  Sorting  is  very  far  removed  from  beinf  a  mere 
mechanical  proceiB  of  selecting  and  separating  the  wool  from  oectaia 
parts  of  the  fleeoe,  because  in  each  individual  fleece  qualities  and 
proportions  differ,  and  it  is  only  by  long  experience  that  a  stapler  is 
enabled,  almost  as  it  were  by  mstinct.  rightly  to  divide  up  his  lots, 
so  as  to  produee  even  qualities  of  raw  materiaL  Cleanliness  is  most 
essential  if  tbe  wool  sorter  is  to  keep  his  health  and  not  succumb  to 
the  dread  disease  known  as  **  anthrax  "  or  "  wool-sorters'  disease.'* 
Certain  woob  such  as  Persian,  Van  mohair,  &c.,  are  known  to  be  very 
liable  to  carry  the  anthrax  bacilli,  and  must  be  sorted  under  the  con- 
ditions imposed  by  government  for  "  dangerous  wools."  Ordinary  or 
non-dangerous  wools  are  perfectly  harmless  from  this  point  of  view. 

The  washing  which  a  fleeoe  may  have  received  on  the  live  sheep 
ia  not  sufficient  for  the  ordinary  purposes  oC  the  manufacturer. 
On  the  careful  and  complete  mamier  in  which  scouring  is 
effected  much  depends.  The  qualities  of  the  fibre  may  be 
seriously  injured  by  injudicious  treBtment»  while,  if  the 
wool  is  imi>erfectty  cleansed,  it  will  dye  unevenly,  and  the  manidactur- 
ing  operations  wul  be  more  or  less  unsatisfactory.  The  water  used 
for  scouring  should  be  soft  and  pure*  both  to  saw  soap  and  still  more 

because  the  insoluble  lime 
soap  formed  in  dissolving 
soap  in  hard  water  is  de- 
posited on  the  wool  fibres 
and  becomes  so  fixed  that  its 
removal  is  a  matter  of  ex^ 
treme  difficulty.  In  former 
times  stale  urine  was^  a 
favourite  medium  in  which 
to  scour  wool;  but  that  is 
now  a  thing  of  the  past,  and 
a  spedallv  prepared  potash 
soap  is  the  detergent  prin- 
cipally relied  on.  Excess  of 
alkali  has  to  be  guarded 
against,  since  uiioomlnned 
caustic  acts  energetically  on 
the  wool  fibre — eipedaliy  in 
the  presence  of  heat — and  is 
indeed  a  solvent  of  it.  A 
soap  solution  of  too  great 
strength  leiaves  the  wool 
harsh  and  brittle,  and  the 
same  detrimental  result 
arises  when  the  soapy  solu- 
tion is  applied  too  hot. 

In  former  (lays,  when  the 
method    of    nod-scouring 


Fig.  7. — Qualities  of  Wool  in  a 
Lincoln  Fleeoe. 


The  numbers  indlcatetheqtofty  of  J^Sd  ra  pUw^d  wiff  hot 
•"^i^ajen  from^tte  respective  section*  .oap-sud  in  a  large  scouring 


of  the  fleece.    Thus  the  finest 


bowl"  or  vat,  and  two 


--44s-M8foundontheshoulde«,whire  ^^  ^^h  k>ng  poles  kept 
the  ooareest  bnteh  is  found  on  the  birring  it  gently  about  till 
tund-quarters  of  the  sheep.  ^he  detergent  kmeened  and 

eepazated  the  dirt  and  dis- 
sociated the  grease.  The  wool  was  thea  lilted  out  and  drained,  after 
which  it  was  rinsed  in  a  current  of  dean  water  to  remove  the  "  scour  " 
And  then  dried.  These  operations  are  now  performed  ia  sooaring 
nmchines.  Many  firms  now  steep  the  wool  previous  to  the  true 
scouring  operation,  the  object  being  to  scour  the  wool  with  its  own 
fmtash  salts,  to  obtain  wash-waters  so  folly  diarged  urith  the  potash 
aalts  that  these  salts,  &c,  may  be  readily  extracted  and  pot  to  some 
good  usct  and  lastly  to  save  the  artificial  soonringagent  empbyed  in 
the  true  scouring  operation.  The  scouring  of  wool  has  passed  through 
many  viciisttudes  during  the  past  fifty  years,  but  to-day  the  priadple 
upon  which  all  scouring  machines  are  based  is  that  wool  naturally 
opens  out  in  water.  The  mechanical  arrangcroentsof  the  machines 
are  such  as  to  ensure  the  passage  of  the  wool  without  widue  lifting 
and  "  stringing,"  to  obviate  the  mbdng  of  wool  grease,  sand,  dirt, 
Ac.,  once  taken  out  of  the  wool  with  that  wool  agaw,  to  give  time  for 
the  thorough  action  of  the  scouring  agents,  so  t  mt  neither  too  strong 
a  solutioo  nor  too  great  a  heat  be  employed,  and  to  aUow  of  the  ready 
deuising  of  the  machines  so  that  there  is  no  unnecessary  waste^  df 
time.  In  England  the  recognised  type  of  merino  wool-washmg 
machine  a  the  fork-frame  bowL  Three  to  five  of  these  machines  are 
employed.   The  "  scour  "  is  strongest  and  hottest  in  the  first  bowl 

f  unless  this  is  used  as  a  *'  ste«3er  '^  as  the  wool  at  first  Is  protected 
rom  the  caustic  by  the  woof-fat,  Ac,  present.    The  last  bowl  is 
mmply  a  rinsing  bowl.    With  modem  '*  nip  rollers"  botany  wool  is 
•umaentfy  dry  to  be  passed  on  directly^-say  by  pneumatic  conveyers 
the  caraing.    This  the  worsted  spinner  does,  thereby  saving 


time  and  money.  The  woollen  qxnner,  however,  may  require  the 
wool  for  blending,  and  so  may  require  it  dry  and  in  a  fit  state  for 
oiling.  He,  therefore,  will  employ  one  or  other  of  the  drying  pro- 
cesses to  be  immediately  described.  For  English  and  cross-bred 
wools  more  antation  in  the  scouring  bath  may  be  desirable.  If  so, 
the  eccentric  fork  action  machine  is  employed*  in  which  the  agitation 
of  the  bath  is  satisfactorily  oontrollea  by  the  setting  of  the  forks 
whicb  propel  the  wool  forward.    Aa  average  wool  will  be  in  the 


scouring  tiquor  about  eiriit  mtmites,  the  temperature  will  vary  from 
ISO*  F.  to  1 10*  F.,  and  the  length  of  bath  through  whicb  it  will  have 
passed  will  be  (rom  48  to  60  ft. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  "  emulsion  "  method  of  wool 
scouring  as  described  above  is  practically  universal  in  England,  la 
the  United  States  of  America  the  "  solvent  '*  method  is  largdy  in 
use,  for  the  two  points  aimed  at  are  quantity  of  production  and 
cheapness.  O^ality  is  aacrificed  to  quantity  and  cheapness  results 
from  the  ease  with  which  the  agent  empk>yea-^y  carbon  disulphide 
—is  recovered  by  volatilising  and  condensing,  thus  being  used  over 
and  over  again. 

Botany  wools  should  leave  the  wod-washing  machine  in  a  fit 
condition  to  be  fed  immediatdy  00  to  the  carder,  provided  that  the 
first  cylinden  are  clothed  with  galvanized  wire*  Croes-bred  and 
English  wool,  however,  require  artificially  drying. 

The  more  gently  and  uniformly  the  dnrmg  can  be  effected  the 
better  is  the  result  attained;  over-drying  of  wool  ha9  to  be  specially 
fuarded  against.  By  some  manufacturere  the  wool  from  ^^^g 
the  squeezing  roUen  is  whizzed  in  a  hydro-extractor,  dMte 
which  drives  out  so  much  of  the  moisture  that  the  further 
drying  is  earily  effected.  The  commonest  way,  however,  of  drying;  is 
to  spread  the  wod  as  uniformly  as  possible  over  a  frameworic  of  wire 
nettii^,  under  or  over  which  is  a  range  of  steam-heated  pipes.  A 
fan  bl^  blows  air  over  these  hot  pipes,  and  the  heated  air  passes  up 
and  is  forced  upwards  through  the  layer  of  wool  which  rests  on  the 
netting  or  downwards,  as  the  case  may  be.  In  this  case,  unless  the 
wool  is  spread  with  great  evenness,  it  g^ts  unequally  dried,  and  at 
points  WDere  the  hot  air  escapes  freely  it  may  be  much  over-dried. 
A  more  rapid  and  uniform  result  may  be  obtained  by  the  uae  d  the 
meohanical  wool  drier,  a  close  chamber  divided  into  horiaootal  com- 
partments, the  floora  of  which  have  alternate  fined  and  movable  ban. 
Under  the  chamber  is  a  tubular  heating  apparatuB»  and  a  fan  by 
which  a  powerful  current  of  heated  air  is  blowa  up  the  side  of  the 
chamber,  and  through  all  the  shdves  or  compartments  successively, 
dther  following  or  ojpiwsing  the  wool  in  its  passage  through  the 
machine.  The  wool"  is  intixxiuced  by  a  continuous  feed  at  one  side 
of  the  chamber;  the  strength  d  the  Mast  carries  it  up  and  deposits  it 
on  the  upper  shelf,  and  by  the  action  of  the  movable  bare,'  which  ace 
worked  by  cranks,  it  is  carried  forward  to  the  opposite  end,  whence 
it  drops  to  the  next  lower  shelf,  and  so  on  it  travels  till  at  the  eib- 
tremity  d  the  lower  shelf  it  passes  out  by  the  ddiyery  lattice  well 
and  equally  dried.  Another  drwng  saachine  in  extenave  use 'is 
what  tt  known  as  the  "  Jumbo  Dryer."  This  consists  d  a  large 
revolving  cylinder  or  chum  which  turns  over  the  wool— as  a  churn 
turns  butter— and  owing  to  its  iodination  pasica  it  from  one  end  to 
the  other.  A  hot  air  buat  follows  the  wod  through  the  machine. 
In  this  add  in  ail  drying  marhiafU  h  is  more  important  to  get  the 
moisture  laden  air  away  from  the  wool  than  to  develop  a  great  beat. 

The  dried  wod  may  be  in  a  partially  imatted  cond«tioo.>  If  sp,  it 
must  be  opened  out  and  the  whole  material  brought  into  a  uniConnly 
free  and  kx>se  condlilian.  This  is  effected  in  the  Willey,  utuim, 
iriiich- Goosistad  a  larm  drum  and  three  email  cylindere  • 

mounted  in  an  endosra  frame.  The  drum  is  armed  with  ranges  d 
powerful  hooked  teeth  or  spikes,  and  is  geared  to  lotate  with  great 
raddity*  making  about  500  rrvdiitmns  per  minute.  The  smaller 
cyiindors,  called  workbrsrare  aUo  provided  with  strDng^)lke»:  thiy 
are  moimted  over  the  drum  and  revdve  more  slewly  in  a  direction 
contrary  to  the  drum,  the  spikes  id  which  just  dear  those  of  the 
workers.  The  wool  is  fed  into  the  drum,  which  carries  it  round  witp 
great  vebcity ;  but,  as  it  passes  on,  the  lockaare  caught  by  the  qakes 
of  the  workers,  and  in  the  contest  forpoasesdog  the  wool  the  matted 
locks  are  torn  asunder  till  the  whole  wod  is  delivered  in  a  light,  free 
and  disentangled  condition.  It  is  a  debatable  point  as  to  whether 
wiUowing  should  precede  scouring.  Sope  scourere  dwayrs  willow 
prior  to  scouring,  wh^  othen  never  subject  the  wod  to  this  optn' 
tion,  which  is  advantageous  in  Some  cases  and  oot^in  others. 

For  certain  daases  d  wool,  notably  Buenoa  Aires,  still  another 
preparing  operation  is  essential  at  this  stage— that  is,  the  removal 
of  Durre  or  small  posistently  adherent  seeds  and.  other  Bmnta^ 
fragments  d  vraetaUe  matter  which  reoMun  in  the  wod. 
Two-methods  otjeffecting  this— one  chemical,  the  other  mechanical- 
may  be  pursued.  The  chemical  treatment  consists  in  steeping;  the 
wool  in  a  dilute  solution  d  sulpburic  add  (or  other  caroonizing 
agent),  draining  off  the  dUute  add  by  means  d  the  hydro  extractw. 
and  then  heat-dcying  in  a  temperature  of  about  350*  F.  The  add 
kaves  the  wod  practically  umnjured,  but  b  ponoentmted  on  the 
more  absoriient  vegetable  matter,  and  the  high  heat  causes  it  to  act 
so  that  the  v^etable  matter  becomes  completeljr  carbonized.  The 
burrs  are  then  crushed  and  the  wod  washed  in  water  rendered 
sufficiently  dkaline  to  neutrelne  any  free  add  which  may  reanaaiii, 
and  dried.  The  same  burr>removing  effect  is  obtained  by  the  nseof  a 
solution  of  chloride  d  aluminium,  a  method  sdd  to  be  safer  for  the 
wool  and  less  hurtf  d  to  the  attendant  workmen  than  is  the  sulphuric 
add  pcocass.  For  mechanical  removing  of  boirrs,  a  madhine  some- 
thing like  the  Wilk^  in  appearance  isemployed.  The  main  feature  of 
this  apparatus  b  a  bir0e  drum  w  swift  araaed  with  fine  short  spikes 
curved  slightly  in  the  direction  in  which  it  rotates.  By  a  sense  of 
beaters  and  accular  brushes  the  wool  is  carried  toand  ted  on  these 
short  spikes,  and  in  its  rotation  the  burrs,  owing  to  their  wdght« 
hang  out  from  the  swift.   The  swift  aa  it  travels  round  isaaet  by  « 


8 10    WOOL,  WORSTED  AND  WOOLLEN  MANUPACTURBS 


WopataM 


werku  of  three  tNimM  roHen  rotating  in  aa  opaoMto  diraction.  the 
projeedng'nuls  of  wteoh  knock  the  bum  of!  the  wooL  The  bom 
tall  on  a  grating  and  are  ejected,  with  a  certain  amount  of  wool  ad» 
h«rfng  to  them,  by  another  rotating  cylinder.  With  wools  not  too 
burry  the  worrted  spinner  lareely  depends  upon  burring  rallen 
fHaxxA  upon  the  fint  cylinder  of  the  **  caider,"  and  poaatbly  to  one 
or  other  of  the  patent  pnlvcrixing  procenes  applied  fu^her  on  in  the 
can!.  In  tlie  latter  process  a  complete  pulverising  of  the  buna  b 
aimed  at.  this  beiog  effected  by  the  introduction  of  specially  con- 
structed pulverixing  roUen  beciraen  the  &st  dofierand  the  last  swift 
of  the  carding  en^ne. 

The  processes  hitherto  dtecribed  are-common  to  merino,  ciosshred 
or  botany  woob  be  tb^  intended  for  woollen  or  worsted  yams. 
From  thb  point,  however,  differentiation  starts.  Wool 
may  now  be  manipubted  with  the  idea  of  converting  It 
faito  felt  (9.s.)i  woollen  or  worsted  fabrics.  In  a  general 
way  it  may  besakl  that  woollen  yams  are  those  made  from 
short  wools  possessed  of  high  felting  qualities,  which  are  prepared  by 
the  process  of  carding:  whereby  the  fibres  are  as  far  as  possible 
crossed  and  interiacea  with  each  other,  and  that  the  carded^slivcre, 
though  perhaps  bard  spun  on  the  mule  frame,  form  a  light  fluffy 
yam,  which  suits  the  conditions  when  woven  into  cloth  for  beir^ 
brouiljht  into  the  semi-felted  condition  by  millii^  which  b  the  di*> 
tinguishing  characteristic  of  woollen  cloth.  On  the  other  hand, 
worsted  yams  are  generally  made  from  the  kmg  lustrous  varieties  of 
wool;  the  fibres  are  so  combed  as  to  brine  them  as  far  as  possible 
parallel  to  each  other;  the  spinning  b  usu^ly  effected  on  the  frame, 
and  the  yam  b  spun  into  a  compact,  smooth  and  level  thread,  which, 
when  woven  into  doth,  b  not  necessarily  milled  or  felted.  At  all 
points,  however,  woollen  and  worsted  yarna  as  thus  defined  overbp 
each  other,  some  woollens  being  made  from 
longer  wool  than  certain  worsteds,  and 
•ome  worsteds  made  from  short  staple 
wool,  carded  as  well  as  combed.  Wonted 
yam  b  now  largely  spun  on  the  mule  frame, 
while  mining  or  fching  b  a  process  done  in 
all  degrees  woollen  being  sometimes  not 
at  all  milled,  while  to  some  worsteds  a 
certain  milled  finidi  b  given.  The  faiH 
damental  distinction  between  the  two  rests 
in  the  crossing  and  interlacing  of  the 
■fiMes  in  preparing  wooHea  yam^-an 
operatioa  oonfined  to  thb  alone  amons  all 
textiles,  while  for  wonted  yarn  the  fibres 
are  treated,  as  hi  the  case  of  aH  other 
textile  materials,  by  prpoesnee  designed  to 
bring  them  into  a  emooth  paxallel  idatkio- 
ship  to  each  other. 

To  obtain  a  sliver  whidi  can  be  satis* 

(aetorily  ^wn  into  a  typicil  woollea  thread 

jrm«mg^     the  foUomg   operations  are 

necesiary;  wfUowiag.  otting  and 

■^  blending,  teasing,  carding  (two 

or  three  opemtioas),  condensing  and  roving, 
upon  the  wooQen  mule  completes  the  series  of  operations 
all  of  which  are  designed  to  lead  up  to  the  desired  nsalt.    Of 
the  foregmng  opemtions  the  carding  b  pechaps  the  most  nn^ortant 

K  it  boertamly  one  of  the  most  interesting.  At  the  saaae  time  it  must 
fully  realised  that  deficiencies  in  any  one  of  these  operations  will 
Insult  in  bad  work  at  evory  subsequent  praoess.  Forexampb,  letan 
unsatisfactory  coiAbination  of  mateifab  be  blendrd  together  and 
there  win  be  tronblo  In  both  carding  and  spimung.  The  rovuig  opera- 
tion included  above  b  not  idways  necessary.  In  the  old  days,  if  a 
really  fine  ^read  were  required,  ronw  waa  idjsolutdy  necessary,  as 
the  carder  could  not  ton  off  a  sUw  fine  enough  to  be  spun  at  one 
operation.  To-day,  however,  with  the  "  tape  "  oondenaers,  such  fine 
Mvers  can  be  turned  off  the  condenser  that  there  b  no  diffkalty  in 
spinning  directly  to  the  required  count.  In  some  few  cases,  however, 
it  may  be  cheaper  to  rove  dian  to  condense  fine;  again,  certain 
physical  characteristics  appertain  to  the  roved  thread,  as  dbtinct 
-innn  the  condensed  thraad,  which  may  occasional^  be  of  use  to  the 
doth  constructor. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  19th  ceatnry  woollen  doths  were  made  of 
ae  of  them  of  the  very  finest  wool  obtainable.  To<day 
woollen  doths  are  miwie  from  any  and  every  land  <h 
material,  of  which  the  foUowinir  are  the  most  important: 
noib  (botany.  «ross*bted,  Engnsb,  alpaca  and  mohair), 
ramigo,  dioddy,  extract,  Boeks,  fud  (dioct  mlU  waste), 
cotton  sweeping,  silk  waste,  Ac.,  Ac;  hi  fact  it  beaid  that  anything 
which  has  two  ends  to  it  can  be  incorporated  into  a  woolbn  thread 
'and  doth.  It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  all  woollen  doth  b 
cheap  and  nasty.  On  the  contrary  the  a«st  of  England  still  pro- 
duces the  finest  woollen  fabrics  of  really  marvdious  texture  and 
beauty,  and  Batley.  Dewsbwy,  Ac,  piodtioe  many  fabrics  whick  are 
Certainly  cheap  and  yet  anything  but  nasty.  The  fiiat  essential  for 
.Mending  b  that  the  materials  to  be  blended  should  be  fairly  findy 
•divided.  Thb  b  effected  by  passing  each  material,  if  necesmry, 
through  the  willow  or  through  the  "  feamaught  "— a  madiinecomimr 
•between  the  willow  <uid  tard  prior  to  bcarinning  the  "  Mend-stack." 
Somethnes  it  may  be  that  a  Mending  of  diffenm  eokiues  of  woob  to 
•"Ktain  a  definite  "  colottr  mixture    b  necessary,  more  often  b  will 


be  a  blending  of  various  matcriab,  such  as  noils,  muo^  cotton,  Ac. 
to  obtain  a  chop  Mend  which  may  be  spun  into  a  satisfactory  wup 
or  wdt  yam.  The  blender  psoceeds  as  loUows:  first  a  layer  of  No.  1 
material— say  wool— b  spread  over  the  required  area  on  the  floor;  h 
b  then  lightly  oiled.  A  layer  of  No.  2  material-^say  noib— b  noo 
added  to  the  fiiat  byer;  then  another  layer  of  wool  with  rather  ibor 
pilii^;  then  Nol  a,  then  No.  1  with  still  more  oil  nntil  alTthe  materisl 
b  built  up  into  byen  in  the  stack.  The  stack  b  now  beaten  dovs 
sideways  with  sticks,  and  then  the  more  or  has  mixed  mass  is  paaed 
through  the  wfltow  and  fsaroaucht  still  further  to  imx  fe  piior  to 
carding,  where  the  true  and  reauy  fine  ouxing  takes  place.  After 
passing  through  the  feamaught  the  material  is  sheeted  and  kft  to 
**  mdlow."  this  no  doubt  oonsbtin«  ui  the  oil  applied  dbtribatine 
itself  thnMighout  the  inateriaL  It  wod  and  oetton  are  bbndea 
together  the  wod  must  be  oiled  fivst.  or  the  blend  will  not  work  to  the 
greatest  advantage.  The  oil  may  be  best  GallipdU  dive  oil— whkh 
shoukl  not  tum  landd — but  there  ade  many  gted  oib— and  ua- 
fortunately  many  bad  dls-*^plaocd  on  the  market  at  a  reasoaabk 
■ate  which  the  really  skilled  radge  amy  use  to  advantage.  The  pe^ 
ceatage  of  oil  varies  from  3  %  to  10  %r*Hhb  lemark  appttes  botn  is 
the  woollen  and  worsted  trades— and  there  b  no  guide  as  to  the 
amount  required,  saving  and  excepting  experience,  observation  aad 
oommoa  sense.  Automatic  oiling  arrangements  have  been  applied 
in  the  woollen  trade  with  only  a  moderate  amount  of  success,  the 
sprinkling  d  the  oil  by  means  of  a  watering<an  on  the  stack,  made 
as  described  above,  still  bdng  most  in  favour.  The  oil  serves  te 
lubricate  the  fibres,  and  to  renoer  them  more  plastic  and  consequently 
■oore  workable,  and  to  Mnd  the  fibrous  mass  together  and  thu4  pie- 
vent  "  fly  "  during  the  passage  through  the  cards. 
Carding  was  originally  eflh^ed  by  hand,  two  fbt  boards  with  con- 


Mm4 


Carder;  ittoetratlng  the  principles  of  carding. 


veident  handles,  covered  with  teeth  or  card  clothing,  serving  »} 
means  of  teasing  out  lock  by  lock,  fibre  by  fibre,  reverring  root  to  tip 
aad  tip  to  root,  so  that  a  perfect  mixing  of  the  fibres  re-  cai^§' 
suited.  Itwas  bat  natural  that,  iriwaanattempt  was  made  ^^T 
to  render  the  carding  operation  more  meohaaical.  the  operatam  ihoeM 
be  oonverted  into  a  continuous  cme  through  the  adoption  of  rolleff 
in  place  of  flats.  Fbts  coarf>iaed  with  rotien  still  maintain  their 
position  in  cotton  carding,  but  in  wool  carding  the  pure  roller  card  a 
employed.  The  factors  of  carding  am  size  of  rdlcra,  speeds  of 
rolbm,  inclination  of  teeth  and  density  of  card  dothing.  Probably 
no  operation  in  the  textUe  industries  b  so  little  understOM  as  caidinfr 
Thus  the  kmg  wool  carder  would  think  a  man  an  idiot  who  suggested 
the  running  of  the  teeth  of  the  various  cylinders  actually  into  cat 
another,  while  the  short  mun^  carder  regubriy  carries  out  this  ides. 
and  so  on.  The  nndeiiyine  princ^pb  of  carding,  however,  b  sboira|* 
fig.  8,  in  which  a  sectional  drawing  of  part  01  a  card  b  |ivcni  The 
wod  b  carried  into  the  machine  oa  a  travditng  lattice  and  de- 
livered to  the  feed  rollere  A,  A',  A'  of  which  A  and  A'  in  turn  «i« 
stripped  by  the  lacker-in  B  working  at  a  greater  speedpooit  to  smooth 
side.  This  in  tum  b  stripped  by  the  a^^  stripper  C  agaia  work 
a^  a  greater  qieed  point  to  smooth  side,  whidi  in  its  tum-U  C~~ 
by  the  swift  D—the  "  catryin^orward "  and  swiftest 
cylinder  in  the  machine.  The  swift  caities  the  wod  forward  p^f 
the  stripper  E~-which  as  a  matter  of  fact  b  stripped  by  the  twi 
still  working  pomt  to  smooth  side-nnto  the  slowly  retreatia{ 
teeth  of  the  first  worker  F,  udiieh,  bdng  aet  a  fair  distance  ffo|> 
the  swift,  just  aUowa  wdl  leid*down  wool  to  pasa,  but  catcaci 
any  projeedbg  and  ofloarded  staples.  The  worker  in  its  turn  a 
stripped  by  the  stripper  E',  which  in  tum  u  stripped  by  the  ewnt  ^ 
already  described.  The  passagr  of  the  wod  forward  thfous^  the 
machine  depends  upon  its  bdng  carried  past  each  worker  in  tank 
Thus  from  beginning  to  end  of  a  machine  the  workeiH  are  set  doier 
and  doser  to  the  swift,  so  that  the  last  Worker  only  alk>ws  oom- 
.|4etely  canled  wool  to  pass  it.  Immedbtdy  on  passiim  the  ^ 
worker  F'  the  wool  is  brushed  up  on  the  surface  of  the  swift  by  u* 
"  fancy  *'  G— as  a  rab  the  ody  cylinder  whose  teeth  acfiudly  "^^^ 
into  the  testh  of  the  swift  and  the  only  eyhader  ^Mth  a  pf*' 
surface  speed  than  the  swift.   The  swift  then  throws  iu  bnished-op 


WOOL,  WORSTED  AND  WOOLLEN  MANUFACTURES'     air 


<tf  wool  into  the  Aomfy  retreMia^  teeth  of  the  doffcr  H, 
idhidicarritt  it  forward  tintU  juttglo  stiipper  C  strips  thfl  doffer.  to  be 
in  its  turn  stripped  by  swift  D'  and  so  on.  The  speeds  of  the  cylindera^ 
are  in  the  fint  pisioe  obviously  dependent  Hppn  the  principlv'OT 
carding  adopted,  the  greater  spc«d  always  stripping  (save  in  tv  case 
of  the  laocy).  As  to  whether  the  speed  shaK  be  obtained  by  aaual, 
revolutions  or  by  a  larger  diameter  of  cylinder  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  the  wool  to  be  calde4  (long  or  shorOT  the  part  which  each 
cylinder  has  to  play  in.  tim  cae6,  and  ^poo  th^  questioa  of  wear 
of  <iothing  and  powcc  Ooitsarndd-  '  As^a  rule  t)le  stdi^lpcrs  are  alt ' 
driiwki  from  a  smaller  circ<linfcrc«ce  of  the  swiff  to  obtain  conveni- 
entt|^  the  necessary  reductidn  in'  speed,  and  aie  slowly  «volving 
worfcas  are  chain  driven  frotn  the  doffcr,  which  incfttctly  receives 
its  mptSDn  from  t^e  swift.  The  ivttlclpteslRvolved  %  the  relative 
indinftHons  of  tegkh  an  .very  apparent,  but  the  princidifca  JMwMvcd 
in  thq  relative  densities  of  teeth  on  the  respective  cylinders  are  again 
much  irfvotved'  ajnd  little  understcbd. 

•  A  Complete  scribbler  or  first  caH  engine  condsts  off  A  bfetet,  or 
small  Itriit.  and  two  swffn'wlTtr  ttiB'accompanying  workers,  strippers, 
fancies,  doffers,  Ac.  The  wool  is  stripped  from  this  card  as  a  thin 
film  by  means  of  the  dofRng  comb.  This  is  usually  weighed  oit  to  the 
next  machine — whethitr  intermediate  or  condenser— a  jiven  weight 
giving  a  definite  count  of  condensed  divter.  Should  an  mtermediate 
DC  easplo^.  there  must  be  aa  autonifiitk:  fted.  taking  the  wool*  ae 
stripped  ffpm  the  lasi  doffcr  of  the  imeriKdiate»  and  feeding  it 
perfectly  evenly  on  to  the  feed  sheet  of  the  condenser.^  The  con- 
denser IS  usualfy  a  one-swifted  card,  the  only  difference  in  principle 
being  that,  whereas  the  sliver  comes  out  of  the  scribbler  or  inter- 
mediate in  one  broad  fifan,  it  is  broken  up  hito «  number  of  small 
continuous  slivers  or  films,  each  one  of  Which  wilt  ultimately  be 
drafted  or  drawn  out  and  twisted  into  a  more-«r  1^  perftet  thread. 
These  divers — which  are  delicate  and  pith-like  u  substanee — are 


stteogthens  them  and  thus  from  beginning  to  end  eqtMBeea  the 
thread.  Upon  the  completion  of  draftiag  the  spindles  are  thrown  oo* 
to  "  double  speed  "  to  complete  the  twisting  of  the  73'  of  yarn  just 
spun  as  rapidly  as  possible,  the  carriage  being  allowed  to  run  inwards 
for  a  few  inches,  to  allow  for  the  take-up  due  to  twisting.  The  mule 
now  stops  dead,  backs-off  the  turns  of  yam  from  the  lx>ttom  of-die 
spindle  to  the  top,  the  fidler  H  ,wirB  falls  into  pqddoa  to  guide  uie 
thoead  on  to  the  spindle  to  form  The  required  cop  GTand  the  oountcr- 
laHer  I  wire  rises  to  maintain  a  nice  tension  On  th»  y^m,  Tbecania^ 
jiow  runs  In,  the  spindles  being  revolved  to  wind  up  the  yam,  and.  in 
conjunction  with  the  guiding  on  of  the  faller  wire,  builds  up  a  firm 
cop  or  spool,  aa  the  case  may  be. 

Woollen  mules  are  made  with  several  hundred  spindles  and  of 
vanning  pitch  to  suit  particular  requirements.  Thus  u  the  mules  are 
to  toUevP^a  set  of  my  three  carders  with  a  tape  condenser,  and  arc 
required  to  spin  fine  counts,  the  pitch  of  the  spindles  may  be  much 
finer  than  ordinary,  but  a  greater  number  will  be  required  to  work 
ttp  the  sliver  delivMtsd  by  the  set  of  machines.  There  are  many  other 
details  which  require  careful  consideration;  the  inclination  of  the 

X indies,  for  example,  must  be  suited  to  the  material  to  be  spun, 
id  when  all  the  mechanical  arrangements  are  perfect  there  is  still 
the  necessity  of  correct  judgment  as  to  the  qualities  of  the  blend  in 
hand,  for  in  this  case  perhaps  more  than  in  any  other  the  machine 
dMst  be  adjusted  to  the  material  and  not  the  material  to  the  marhinf* 


doffer  and  the  tape-condensers,  but  their  construction  is  too  coniplest , 
to  be  described  here.    Whatever  the  type  may  be,  the  result  is  that  ' 
noted  above,  but  it  dioMld  be  noted  that  the  tnpe  enables  a  dKicb 
finer  sliver  to  be  taken  from  the  card  than  is  possible  with  other  tht 
nnde-  or  double-doffer  condenser. 

The  pnnciplcfe  involved  in  mule  spinning  are  comparatively  dmple, 
but  the  necessary  machinery  is  very  complex;  indeed  it  iaquestion- 
able  if  a  roore4ngeniou8  machine  than  the  mule  exists 
^*"*  The  pith-like  divers  received  from  the  card-loom  must  be 

sjMieiiV'  attenuated  until  the  correct  count  of  yam  is  obtained; 
they  must  be  twist^I  while  thus  attenuation  or  drafting  f s  in  process, 
otherwise  they  would  at  once  break;  and  after  being  attenuated  to 
the  required  finencssthe  requisite  nvmber  of  tuma  must  be  inserted- 
Great  stress  must  be  hud  on  the  effects  of  what  is  termed  the  "  draft- 
ing-twist "  noted  above;  it  is  probably  this  dmultaneous  drafting 
sjid  twisting  which  devek>ps  tno  most  pronounced  charaeteristics 
of  the  wooUen  yam  and  doth,  and<differentiates  it  entirely  from  the 


Fig.  9.— Sectional  View  of  the  Woollen  Mule. 

■worsted  yam  and  doth.  The  mule  (see  fig.  q)^  consists  of  the  de- 
livery cylinders  A,  upon  which  the  sliver  bobbins  B  from  the  con- 
denser arc  placed,  which  deliver  the  divers  as  required  to  the  front 
delivery  ruters  C  (these  rollers  controlling  perfectly  the  deliveiy 
of  sliver  for  each  stretch  of  the  carriage),  and  the  carriage  Eb 
carrying^  die  spindlce  whkh  kafy  be  kun  dose  tapr-t»  the  front  de- 
livery rollors  and  about  two  yards  away  from  them  to  effect  the 
"  spm,  ".which  is  of  an  intemuttent  character  The  spindles  D  are 
turned  hf  tAtids  passing  roond  a  tin  drum  tv  in  the  carriage,  but 
i(]iis  motion,  end  every  other  motion  in  the  mule,  i^  controlled 
pcfifectly  from  the  hfacfstock.  *  In  brief,  the  operation  of  spinning  is 
as  follows:  as  the  carriage  begins  to  recede  from  the  delivery  rollers 
these  rollet^  ddiv*r  condensM  sliver  at  about  the  same  rate  as  the 
carriage  mo'ves  out,  the  spindles  putting  in  a  little  twist.  When  the 
carriage  has  perhaps  completed  half  its  traverat  (say  36')  away  from 
the  front  rollers  these  suodenfy  atop  delivering  the  condensed  sliver, 
the  carriage  goes  more  and  more  slowly  outwards  until  it  completes 
its  traverse., drafting  the  diver  lOut  t9  perhaps -dpuble  the  length. 
Tliis  drafung  could  not  be  effected  but. for  (ht  "  drafting-twist," 
which,  running  Into  the  thin  paru  of  the  ydra  during  drafting. 


Fig.  10.— Plan  and  Section  of  a  Preparing  Boot  (3heeter). 
A  i9  the  baclrdiaft  vooeiviaa  its  motion  from  the  driving  shaft 
upon  which  are  the  pulleys.  This  back-shall  A  drives  the  back*" 
rollers  B  at  a  dow  speed  by  the  redodnc  train  of  wheete  C;  also  the 
front  rohers  D  at  a  much  quicker  speed  thivi^  the  train  of  wherbfi* 
and  the  faJIers  F  at  an  intermediary  qieed  by  means  of  the  levels  and^ 
screws  G.  G.  The  wool  is  **  made  Up  "  on  the  feed  slicet  and  «m 
emerging  from  the  front  roUera  is  built  m  layer  by  layer  into  the  lap 
H,  which  is  finally  broken  across  and  feeds  up  at  the  next  maidude.    • 

The  yam  as  delivered  by  the  mule  is  '*  angle  "  and  w*!!!  serve  aa 
warp  or  weft  for  the  great  bulk  of  woollen  cloths,  warp  being  as  a 
rule  twktcd  harder  tlun  weft.  Sometimes  for  strength;  sometimes 
for  colour,  however,  it  will  be  necessary  to  twist  two  or  more  of  these 
single  strands  together.  This  is  best  effected  on  a  twisting  frame  of 
the  ring  type,  which  consbts  of  delivery  rollers,  to  deliver  a  spedfied 
length  of  yam  in  relationship  to  the  turqs  of  the  spindles,  and  the 
spindles,  which  serve  to  put  in  twist  and  to  wind  the  yarn  upon  the 
bobbin  or  tube,  which  tney  carry  by  reason  of  the  retardinj^  action 
of  the  traveller.  Fancy  twists  such  as  knops,  loops,  slubs,  &c..  may 
also  be  produced  if  the  frame  is  fitted  up  with  two  pairs  of  delivery 
rollers  and  two  or  three  special  but  simple  appliances. 

Tlie  essential  feature  of  a  worsted  yarn  is  straightncss  of  fibre. 
IVior  to  the  introduction  of  automatic  machinery  there  was  litite 
difficulty  in  attaining  this  characteristic,  as  long  wool  was 
invariably  employea  and  the  sliver  was  made  up  by  hand 
and  then  twisted  With  the  introduction  of  Arkwright's 
"  water  frame  "  or  "throstle  "  the  necessity  for  prepared 
slivers  became  apparent,  and  with  the  later  introduction 
of  cap  and  mule  spinning  the  necessity  for  perfectly  prepared  silvers 
has  been  so  accentuated  that  the  preparatory  machineiy  has  quite 


WwtftC 
ymrv 


8 12     WOOL,  WORSTED  AND   WOOLLEN  MANUFACTURES 


Aui  tht  delivering  rcUtn.  B, 

back  nlkr>  G  of  Ifae  Kill- 


■nd  ipiiming  ci  thon  bouny  wo«W  on  Ihe  FRnci 
tyaicm.  Than  ii  a  Fciutih  cUv  of  nonted  yarnB, 
principally  cvprt  and  knilting  yaru,  which  IR 
tiutcd  in  a  much  readier  duiukt  (han  any  of  Ihr  k 

thr  eiinniialiail  of  C^TUin  proccAA — to  lll«  accnill 
of  the  fDngoiaf,  it  if  not  necfary  to  xrfer  jpccialty 

in  icito  ft  typical  wonted  thiiad  (he 


(otli 


-...., I..  "  ombcij  Mralf ht'nwiy a  lirn  prcfior- 
""■"*  tion  m  Ibc  loni  Abn  would  be  broke* 
■od  (siDbed  oul  a>  "  nml  "  cr  abort  fibre.  To 
obviate  (hii  (be  mnl  ia  fed  u  ainliht  ai  poi- 
•ible  into  a  ilieeier  (iU-b«i  aftn  ihli  ii  ptaet 
thnuih  oihcr  two  ibceFcr  eiU-bom.  then  ihrHifrh 
aay  iFree  can  Eill-boiet.  A>  abown  in  6(.  lollie 
nain  features  of  a  preparinc  or  Ajll-boic  ore  Ibe 
followjng:  the  feed-aheet  upon  iriitch  the  wool  ■ 


I^M, 


illboii.    The  fourth  giJI- 


mimber  of  earn  are  then  ptac«d  behind  the  fiftb  bov 
and  the  iliv^  from  tbeie  fed  DP  into  the  lack  ronen, 
and  lindlarty  with  the  djcth.   Tha  pcimary  object  of  \ 


■.t<t  or  doubling 


.  S  ellected  V  " 


Fic  i>. — F!h  and  Seeiion  i^  the  Nobk  Comb- 


Oil  will  havT  been  added  to  Ibc  wool  at 


le  laigG  comb  circle  aad  B.  B'  the  i 
u  uy  the  mechanii'"  ^  •"  '•**  '""^  **^* 
^  and  amall  circle 
.  tbe  circle*  separa 
G  and  G'  andTon 


icnbed  ftbret  are  taken  hold  of 

Tbe  bn»he>  H, 

dknilejiocoi 
previoualy  dir 


'l^fi 


le  neccMity  for  back-waihing     But  [he  inclined  planea  al  K  are  inilruniental  la  feedina  a 

hvtrt  dunnj  lhe|riHtagt  throUBh  i\iveroverihtl»ocircl«iatkeypc»clical1y  touchonea 

H^  m    l^  o    ^^D  "IHt    ^  *he  ""^  P™=™  "■  ""'■n™'- 

t  which  was  not"  got  al  "  intheacoiiring  nowworka  [  ihould  be  clean,  fairly  slralfbt  and  in  good  CQndit 


WOOL,  WORSTED,  AND  WOOLLENS 


Plate  I. 


( 

I 

* 

If 

0 


I 

o 

I 

to 

y 


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I 

u 
"S  'S 

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d 


3 


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8 

c 

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> 
*^ 

s 

ST 

M 

4-1 

O 

a 


in 
i-i 

I" 

J  •§ 

o      q 

^  J 


(X 


Plate  II 


WOOL,  WORSTED,  AND  WOOLLENS 


o 
o 


o 


ifi 


e    .Si 


on 

< 
I 


Vi 


■i 


o 


3 

CO 

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5« 


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v. 


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O 


;W!0CXi.)W01taTED;7UND  WOOLLEN  MANUFACTURES 

«{  Un  ud  on*  antSlSa  •< 

«uM'bi"iiiJ«mU>  coBbtd  by  ta>*d,  a^  pttmom  Ih* 

seBlng  bouny  ar  nw  mill  by  haad  ■>«  ■■ri^rt«»y 

mi»lkyot«mlim«eiMcHiied,buti* ' ' 

TW  hmary  at  thscgknual  wal  Dkdc 

by  imachilnry  »nil  how  the  miol  iadiativ  vu  tie. — 

an  only  be  bfWIy  r^and  u  hvb  AfaMI  1779  Dr  Edausd  (:>»■ 
Wright  lamud  tn  dMnct  typa  of  siab*.  iW  vank^  ud  ihe 
hniLontil  circiiUr.  TV  foratt  mi  «u  dn^opad  «  the  snHi- 
H»  by  HdlnH*  iBd  aim.  ullu  «ily  vilU>  lie  IM  fc**  van 

CDunlry.  'nelaniTtype  vu  mcked  upDD  by  DoniMharpe,  Nobk, 
LiMV.  tka  IMdcM  *Bif  aaomuMl  lumly  IbMtli  Uw  'drit^ -' 
lorce  of  Lfatct  (law  Lsfd  UsiIiih)  na  inada  •  tnly  Faaisal 
■uccoa  aboiB  lh«  yew  Itso.  Luut-cky  conbt  d  lUt  lyna  ■« 
be  iTadfly  fimpad  iHHhi  thne  h(ad>.  Tbe  Liaas  «  "  alp  oob 
ii  •)»::>%.  HiUblB  («  lani  mala  a&l  la^ait  ud  ■1|>h.  Tba 
IfDideii  or  iqaan-iMiian  CoMib  ia  •pcdaUrauiiad  Cor  ahon  and  nir 
(Odd qualiir woola.  TbtlB«tgFp*,tlieNcUft.iathCBiiapa|wlaro[ 
«]kK^  by  a  chute  of  knp>  aiHl  oaU  drsla*,  nqr  b*  adaBUd  M  tba 
conbliicollonE.incdiunieiaboftiKiola.  Aatbtfnst  bulk  of  cma- 
bied  and  a  CDiuiderAble  pfDcurtiaii  of  bocaay  vddI  ia  conbed  upon 
tbe  Noble  coab  a  briri  ifcacriptloo  ■  bare  caBed  br-  Tbe  objaet  I4 
aUin»1coiiib(n|btoatraiclii«athaloDsfibnaa)id(*ceBib«iiclfBB 
tbe  alivcn  tiealed  all  the  Bbipa  aadcr  l  caciaio,  lenilhi  Icavisf  the 
long  Ebna  or  "  top  "  ta  Iimii  iw^taw'  ■bich  ■•  wenaialhr  ^lu  iue 
tfaTmated  ymfn.  The  NoUTcinib,  ad^  «  effMiuflly  MBtii- 
pKibea  thii,  oHwita  h  iha.iMia  of  ■  htie  levobiai  dtcla  A  iniida 
■hkh  nvoln  tm  nMDn  (iidei  B,  B*  aa  abom  mtg-U,  cadi  of 
wbicb  touchea  the  laiw  comb  drda  at  me  point  only.  At  thia 
ofvoMlobaardcdannnDhrdaMedintothepinfl 
tbe  drdca  coDtiaiw  u  cevolve 


«paHl  thin  A.  A'  draft  or  doncste  tbe  iliveta  *a  requindT  Tl 
cvriara  B.  B',  H*  ihould  be  epccdcd  to  run  at  2  auitabto  nt«  lo  aad 
lli*dniltiiiEoperation.DiaEebyaupportt1iaaby direct aiiL  RoUe 
A,A'iii»tluifdthFilIver.hencet£cyanBut«d;   RoUoi C, C* oiu 

hII  tlie  iTrvcr  k ■— '■  ^ "—'"  '-  — ■ — '  — ■ 

ETher.    Tbeyiu 


leLivoed  by  Uir  ' 


double-beadel  baUHn  0^  coavenieot 


rollcn  la  glightly  Ivisie 


they  uts«ny  biclB  ts  lepanu.  tooMng  th*  mot  Rbrea  tctwn 
(heai.  the  •hurt  ttbrea  or  "  noD  "  belnf  Rtahttd  In  th«  teeth  oC  bat 
■oiaU  and  lain  dn:lea»  tbe  long  fibre*  hanging  on  til«  iiwde  of  th 
htre  dnie  and  on  tbe  outiidt  or  Iba  HMircM^   AMraMora 


Fio,  14.— Two-Spindle  Drawing-BMb 
levolving  tunnel  into  a  ran.  Tha  abort  fcbna.  or  "  hA."  an  lifted 
out  of  the  i^nBof  TheinuncLrdaby  "iwiL  luuvei-"  TbecontlDBOiA 
tliveri,  tbe  enilt  of  whidi  RDiain  in  the  pinttil  tbe  bnccrrrle  aller 
the  diawini^ff  ToUcn  have  been  pancd.  an  anr  lUted  Dp  ubCS 
theae  ends  are  above  Ibe  pina,  at  the  lame  time  an  additioiiarianttb 
si  sliver  beini  dnwn  into  tbecoinb,  b  that,  aa  they  nek  the  iscaH) 
amall  circle,  ihcy  an  ready  to  be  a^n  dabbid  iau  Ac  pina  <f  bo>b 
circlet  and  the  combiiig  opoatioa  repalecL  Thnn  Ibc  covbing  oa  b 

circutir,  lo  that  nechlnically  It  ii  an  ainuat  pafecl  aadine.  A* 
illimiatbc  Ibe  «tleai  dI  the  combing  induary.  it  la  ialanadna  to 
note  that  ev*n  Ibe  laaUni  of  dabbing-bn^aa  ia  a  lepaaat*  a^  by 
.no  meaoa  oolinpariaal  trade. 

After  comi^ngtl  i>  uaual  to  paM  the  "  top  "  thrsuih  two  (iU^mc* 
temied  "  Aniihcn."  The  laR  of  thcw  bsiet,  aBTo^lea  the  bat. 
deiiveit  tbe  "  top  "  ia  the  form  of  a  boll,  thin  it  ii  often  spokeaafaa 
1  **  ballinf  lai-boa."  Thia  Kage  marln  one  of  Ite  great  dhriiioBi  of 
the  woficea  trade,  tbe  coeihcr  taldog  (he  wnoA  ap  to  thia  pe^iit,  but 

iHiodrMv  and  ipina  the  ilivera  into  the  moat  de^nblfl  wanted  yamn 
EnglSll  !•»  are  uiually  prepared  for  sfa^dag  bjr  aevea  at  «dlt 
openlion.  Thirr  of  Iheaeoperatianianealenad  LBgOI-biattiSa 
■eoewhst  rimiUr  type  to  the  prepuing-boib  aal^  limner  niiji  .i 
in  buijd.  The  remamiDg  loqr  ait  dnwlrw-bom,  ij.  u  •-— ^» 
Aonindgi.  tjand  IJrtbeycointit  of  tabkactf  IRM  Mkm-iltk 
■mall  c«iTylng-n)llet*-4jot  rtBa— to  Wpport  the  vaol  la  btiatiK 
Thua  an  Engliah  let  Bi  drawing  imially  eoKabta  at  b  ahifleaa  gK^ 
box.  a  double-can  gHI-baT,  a  Iwo-apiiidle  (HMiai,  a  bB^ptadlt 
dnwing-bn.  a  louroplndle  •righ-boi.  ■  rix-ipjndle  dnwlng-ba& 
two  di-spindle  finisbera  and  Aree  thiity^pbidle  (onra.  Aboot 
fifteen  llyer  tnmead  ito  apindlet  each  will  be  required  to  lollaw  (Ml 
let.  ahbaogb  die  bahmea  viria  putly  In  accordance  wkh  the  aaan* 
nin  to.  in  Ihli  cue  Ihl'a  Engl&^belnf  Hie  Mandaid. 
'  The  obieci  ol  dravlog  ta  to  obtain  Erativ  a  levd  atinr  fran  lAkh 
thrrad  may  be  apiia.  and  ecomdly  to  reduce  the  cameaT«t 
liek  top  down  to  a  tdativeiy  thin  (oving  from  wtilcE  tbi 
anninfyamniybeqiDn.   Of  eoime  iwnlleKain  ol  fibre* 

,;  retahwd  throutbout.  ao  far  ai  poHible.    Tn  auiuupUB 

ttne  o^ecla  deuMInc  and  drafting  ■>  rexirfed  to.  Thaa  the  eodl 
— . •.-  ■ — 1.  J,h,  .t„„  y„^  willbe6,6,4,4,J,»  »,■• 


3 

Aeaei 

piit  up  at  the  back  of  the  i 

tfMEtfnlr.  «bll>  tiM  dnfta 


WOOL,  WORSTED  AND  WOOLLEN!  MANUFACTURES 

rr  Uie  dovbUiitL  ■>  in    tbc  «fv«kia  itf  cudinf.    Oa  bit  tlKHHlit  It  niflK  be  tauiarf 
._  .!■_..___.  .L_.  cjrrtini  would   rnill  !■  broken  tCfrt  ■nl  •   poor  yMl  ■( 

- ^  bvlnft  (tue  lo  Ibr  nUtiTC  cbrapncL 

impand  with  pnparidfl.  If  loot  woola  vcn 
=,.    ..  ^_. j,^  1,^. , 

-  cf  four  opHtlof  nttoA  ud 

ipurfiiff  "  burriiif  ntlH*  '*— *f 

jtliuolmkcvnnullyi •— -^ 

lapeatJ  am  Pal  tanlm  opwini  — ' 


.  ^ ,  -jffice  brcMnht  Inio  ploy     Atboiur 

l\f  brawlil  dinedy  boat  tha  wuh  bowl  lo  ihc  («)  itei 
t  u  iHuil  to  dnka  tb«  iitt  cyliBder*  with  gAlvubrd  «K 


upt  w«  "  IwMhcd  "  by  beiif  fsKd 


ilinr  puhs  to  I  b«  flvtr  E 
ud  Sully  to  Ibe  bobbhi 
F,  ohict  nu  oa  dw 
bhs^pUu  I  and  a  tn- 
VHwl  up  luid  down  by  tfeii 
pUte  iccordinf  1o  the 
lidfthoi  bobbisMiptayed. 
TbiftyB'  E  iooHndaa 
to  tbc  niailta  C  wbleh 
h  wiUb^  hrid  by  tba 
AaIk.biilMH.Sr   -•■ 


Si  ^ari  J'uid  tEuMa  n 

riidopud  down  by  the  lihct  mi 
th«  mumy  yarn,  tha  Ays  w{ 
tkt  bsbbis-b  ut  no  twitt  will  bi 
Mibia  !•  pirfcctly  Int  upon  Hi 
dtUwinc  two,  iW  the  Bycr, 

pMted  bat  not  wouwl  upop  (h 

botMa  B  effected.   Tbeipecdii 

aaftrkntly  m  wiml  ap  the  yar 
Hie  tuna  pH  Inch  are  Inptopt 
'  aaaftheflys.  Tbwil 


ihrooEh  two  tniihef-boiH,  the  lut  e(  which  "  ball!  "■  tlie  taf  fot 

woola.  tave  thai  the  bom  arc  more  in  niuflbcr  mnd  ixr  in  aoax  cvc« 
Uthterin  baild.  The  boiet  uiually  emplay«l  in    ' 


Kt  are  ai  folknn;  two  doubk-bvad  can  eill-boiea.  two  '^"~' 
two-ipindle  eill-boicn,  a  foor^apindie  dra«inE-box.  a  u-  ^jLiv 
■pind1ai^cn-boT.anei£ht-spir>dted^wkng-boictwoel*hI-     "   . 


ty-twt~«gdfcdu 


t  tJie  moa  coavcaient  aiia  W  bemg  m\ 
Fi««wlB|tlKlad«(.ihesi 


i  njSwhich_40  yd.. -■  d»B»  M  K" 


WOOL,  WOMTfiD  AMD  WOOLLEN  MANUFACTURES 

«tial  tba  dit*ta«  ad  i^Md  <<  b«]i  A«rUd  MM* 


»i5 


SltU  dnwhv  (niH  ol  wdi  ■ 

Such  control  ii  uuUy  tS« — ' ' 

type  of  COM  diwiBg-boii  i»i 

Sum  KOB  ta  b*  ^  poid 
u>  i]b««i*iiig[  imtcr  im .,— , 

'  ■  powtr,  ud  laoR  pwtiailutT  tha  DndldttMi  al  a  lefte 
th  tad  twiat,  patiskliif  mon  ol  tha  dUHMurof  a  Fnk*. 
Siitaaliic  it  Bwallv  coiaad  upon  Ok  «»p  InoM  (•«•  >((• 

drivcsalaaysaoatMoluuoBapa. ... 

to  pnt  In  the  twM.  idiile  tb*  Mniiw  o( 
tba  van  oa  (Iw  cap  wkkh  «[-—  •>» 

boUAa  ciublai  (hebobUn  u , 

"    licwa  X'Miitnd  b*  tha 


Fancy  cviatcT 

rr  placed  □□  tbe  market  in  cifttit  form,  vix,  in  hank,  on 
.  -..!.__   ._  ijgijbin*.  ob  cm*>  in  cbeoH,  in  the  irarp 


'c^nitic  pruKiplei  of  ww^Doi  kiad  « 


iadicala  ^^p 


t  baa  kan  kmlr  fanend.    TiKlar,  C^ 
a  mada,  iBBaiBfiraia  aauocac  leooUoa 

«i,  ol   sUch   It   Kiwid   ba   [onnidbk 
1 — ..  _;j. ,  arM[  anal; 


.     .  ^ta"K,   which   may  t 

'   IctcwhI  Urmly  into  the  qHodle  rajL    Thi 
fl  ' "—  L-  --  Hrawn  round  the  jing  F  bj 


roBrr  llirDu(f  which  ,|„  ^^nj;,  gt,;„.  throufh  the  yafa  aa 
■tarn  "»)'  be  blown  or  ,,,0^  i„  ^it  plan.  TSe  .pinine  la  a 
uUn  ^''b  the  piece  Snuie  and  Ibe  ring-iail  U  tiavened  t« 
nUy    be    boiW-      The  dijuihui,  the  yam  on  the  bobbin. 


8i6      WOOL,  WORSTED  AND  WOOLLEN  MANUFACTURBS 

, . ,. of  Ae  mill  bciH 

B  IliM  it  any  be  aud  thai  tlK  «o5d 


mnrndOttUitotaiU.  Ads  pnafev  diy  MoidBt  ■  Inwfltlir 
ietinnT  to  ttSa  »wy  rtlilim  ■  ml  ■  nrtain  Utte  ImWW  iiihtfi  iniM 
■toll  dndoBa.   Fiul  otttlliic  csoiiikMi  Ue  tnUiiai  ooanllaiia. 

f^nudcJMb  finliUBc  la  vafrnnUar  U  «uU«  dotk  bdiUM 
*wtlBt>oai*oltlaavB*><<™*"l'"'*n™L  Mcadiif,  Koiujiif. 

— ,_.     nilliK  ud  uaurinE  an  auaRu-.   Il*  raiiiac  aa  ■  mlc  ■ 

Sa  djjwad  by  hnaiiiiig.  althiicrt  jl  '"fjy'P  ™TVJ*- 

*****  ini^»t ""I atcondri an tlH mmt » larvDaBcn Cabric*. 
Of  count  ihc  nu  diflsHice  betmo  Ibe  wodUcd  and  the  wOaui 
detb  i>  due  la  the  aelectkn  of  the  ikfat  oMaial.  to  conect  nnis. 
•plmiliic  aod  fabric  amictun:  finMiog  rinply  cooea  aa  ■  "  di- 
•ClopeT*  In  the  caae  irf  the  wDsUai  bbiie,  wUle  Id  tba  caia  ef  the 
ininl  wofitHl  labric  h  limdy  icmi  M  ■  "  dtuet."  the  doih  ndly 
Iwnciwie  in  the  kofo.  AmsUan  doth  aa  It  kavai  ibe  loom  ■• 
naifhtly  and  ia  a  aenat  may  be  Hid  to  be  made  io  die  liniihiii(, 
Blthai«h  k  la  tner  to  aay  "  divelopad  "  la  the  BbUu«  :  in  tlK  caae 
■f  the  vonud  doth  it  k  altogether  otherviit. 

A  cottoB  waip,  luitR  wilt  atyle.  ii  tnued  altcaOhir  diSemlly 
boa  either  ol  the  foKfoliw.   t>  i>  faM  crabbed,  thea  ataanw 
,^        aceoreit  uJ  dned.  (hen  ib«Kl  by  beiiic  pued 
J22k    '■d-bM  ctgt  plate  or  ihioun  cu  )tta,  then  i 


ttcn  tennand  fioafc  pnieed.   W  eamm  thcK 
MpHad  with  diaoliiiinBilon  u  the  varied  ityteaof  coa 
Bnd^dlatrkt.l1iB/iiriiW>nce,tbeG^iriatollu"Itallan"i-*y 
haoDBaidenbly  ntied  ImB  the  fanfouiK.  bemt  inn  eonptoi,  whila 
other  atytea,ew:fa>i  slain  ali-wnlpncfi.  an  mated  very  aiBiily. 

It  wDl  be  gathend  tram  the  lon(i><^  "na^  that  Ih*  vamm  U 
«Dot  taxtwia  an  many  and  very  diBeianI  bi  chancttr.  TUi  ii 
..  ,  „  perhapi  Toliad  bml  by  onatraBiDa  a  heavy  a 
-.'"'?  wBiliUiiiayi4-3oai.pe(yaidwiihafcieDWl 
^T"^^woW6iib  lay  Moa.  tier  yaid.  Nona  the  kaa  i 
?^^^  HHT"'T'"r— *^'**pr**'°*'*^  **********  *^^ 
^^^^  A  fOn^  Harria  laved,  fee  eiamBl^  umtiaato 
vkb  a  «BthliMaaiil  Italian.  Of  coma  thne  difeoc 
created  in  any  one  pnxesa  «r  merely  by  the  leMction  a 
outerialoryvn.  Every  proem  of  nunulasan  nB^  be  d 
attain  the  deared  end,  and  il  la  mdl  to  naUaa  that  bnt* 
have  been  built  up  upon  ir)«i.  by  the  oatnlar,  muk 
iwded  ai  uiiinipoctanl  ddOlla. 

The  prindpal  itylm  of  WDolleB  doth  are  twaada,  adtooa  J 
lieaven,doHluiu,budDilcina,cairiineieaaDddiafniBle.   7 

daaa  la  the  tweod,  a>  ihle  ranya  Irom  veti "-  — 

trouarliifa   to   the   cheap .  atylea  nade 
natariab.   Tvcedi  lor  tadiea' wear  alio  lot 

The  fiiaiipal  ityle*  of  wratKl  clstha  r— 


d  iicBMU' 


I  ,       ,     ,,...„,    ..^.__    ..... ,. ,   laatiiHi.  crtptH 

Mimna  Oiteau,  luHna  of  variou  typea  ^lun  Imd 
■Ipacaa,  Ilaliuii,  mancH.  ftc.,  Ac  Many  olthcee  are  mad 
tf  wonted  yania,butDCbetau«corapouBd(o{BiBIMteniu  HI  jvm 
k  coocemed.  Thai  amaiopi  ate  made  fma  Inilt  ifiin  wonted 
waip  and  a  woollen  ireft.  Luatree  are  made  fren  Gm  bard  apoa 
cotton  warn  and  BiitUh  «r  akihah-  weft,  and  ao  on.  FarlMpa  th* 
■oat  intemtbic  point  to  note  it  the  ildll  ikveloped  by  Ei«li>h  da- 
■ivnen  during  receolyean.  Fifty  yean  oeo  the  coatiKBtal  dciiiner 
nded  the  oiarkeL  To.day  the  EniUih  doifBar  tas  at  leaat  dUn 
an  equality  with  and  in  lomc  reapccta  ia  alieady  codokrvl  aa 
aupenor  to  l^a  continent  rival- 

,  Prior  to  the  devetofaneat  of  nilive  ingemity  vi  (kill  Eo^aod 


"  "~  """daSopStof^adrtJifliiSCS/^ 

aMalVtW  Elijah  meaatth.—  "***• 
_j  i--^-  ■     '- vBtbuinuoraltoeicpect  than 
beun  Ei^iah  wool  al  bone 

, ai  inaailiBlilii  mliiaial  ib  ii4»ji 

■ann  of  the  17th,  iSth  and  Ifth  caatwiea.  u  ooajiioctiaB  with  tbe 
tovantioB  of  tba  Minnia^  fraaia  and  powerjooa.  tUa  ipBctatina 
waa  bhM  tuOy  naUlid,  at  laaat  as  br  a*  ordiaaty  veatins  fabric* 
vera  ooMersod.  Latterly,  however,  with  the  devahpnient  of  akin 
ia  nei^  Jcvitilptll  counlriie.  the  tindnicy  haa  been  topartialty 
mint  to  the  old  nndiniana.  Thoa  la  1S30  Bradlord'a  chief  aiHt 
dolh,  ia  iS7j  the  yen  trade  bad  sarkedly  devdoped.  Id  i^oo 
J .1  „_!,._,._  J  and  KHtaYBiadJirJ  haa  alalia 


.  „  ,„_ —  empkiyed  in  the  1cat3e 
ui  alf-izntaiy:  [^  rnrrth  of  the  etpon 

tF  da  of  Ibc  Umtea  Kingdom  during  the 

pt_  ^ ,.    _  _ ..„  detaiW  aee  tlooper'a  admliable  tablea 

now  bailed  by  tba  Bndf  onl  Chattber  of  Conmerca. 

Prior  la  the  devdapmat  of  the  factory  mtem  and  the 
devdopaaenlinleilileappliistaaltheenilarihelSthaii 
of  the  191b  centuriea,  tbe  leitae  indoatriee  were  SBlten 
•IT  '    ia  aoni*  lew  CB«  Don  or  le 

ar  urring.   T«layitDay.baaa 

th  a  ccBlmliaad  when  the  a> 

Bi  n.lhc^£mt 


b  '  develniied  a  r 

H  :  countiy.  and  muige  ta  toDpete  fairer 

IP  ufvtuTing  diatricta.    Since  about  tfljb, 

b(  I  doubt  tllat  the  EncUih  wool  trade  bai 

fa.      .-  _ ...  -4  blanket  trade  ie  cenlndiDuod  Batl^ 

and  Dcmbuiy.  Walei  reuina  only  a  fngment  of  ita  ooce  large 
■aaael  trade,  ihi*  mde  pow  bdoi  hxaiefTin  Yotkdib«,  witfa  the 
ewepiian  of  one  or  two  IndividualEnu  diewhere.  The  carpel  trade 
B  caiitiad  in  tialifan,  Kiddenaiaater  and  Glaagow.   Wheiher  fottbir 


uadoihtedly  favoim  Bndford.  aa  tb«  the  wool,  top,  yarn  and 
fabric  braadiea  of  the  induatry  are  individually  devdqped  to 
gnat  advantani  trA  the  developnieat  of  mnni  of  CDnuminxatioa 
andaoma  audifactu'aa  eleetiH:  or  vaui  paw  may  ndic^hrdiatnrb 
the  piiaeot  hakacc  cf  the  laduatry.  (A.F.  B.) 

Ot  UmUd  Kimfitm  fnm  lit  Pntdfal  CnXrw,  Psriifa  sad  CotfliJal. 


awmry. 

iSoo. 

iSjo. 

l»40- 

iS6a 

I««(l 

1900, 

1905. 

1907. 

New  South  Waka  1.       .       Balei 

6j8 

i«o 
'  >9 

lisjo 

i5.7< 

Si!! 

1  H440t 

'P 

is 

s 

Weat  Auutilian" 

New  Zealand 

TotalColonial    .       .       Bale. 

.. 

"Si- 
is 

431 

44.W 
7,4" 

vts 

i 

S.oj< 

Its 

1,111,163 
i4J.sie 

99,ioa 

fi 

IJ17.I67 

1 

5S.'6a 

Ii 

43.176 

'   Total  Baka 

*>■*¥> 

iMSS 

m.OT9 

491.49I 

l,4>4.S>l 

1,00*9 

usiur 

»J1M"7 

-WOOLKBR 

Brkuftr  lb  «i  t^ck  VmtVmm  Calomal^  Formgn  amd  Bmifitk  W^oU,  0ho  tf  Alpaea  •mi 


S17 


MateriaL 

1874.' 

1880. 

1885. 

1890. 

1895. 

1900. 

I90i.« 

1902.* 

1905. 

iL 

4* 

4. 

d.  . 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

Port  Phflap-«Gicasy     . 

14 

■ 

13) 

10 

10 1 

y 

11 

21 

9 

i3i 

Adelaide — Creasy  . 

11 

10 

61 

7 

' 

9 

Cape — Greasy 

16 

la 

9 

9 

7, 

1 

7. 

10 

Buencw  Aife»--Greasy  . 

7 

7 

4  ' 

5 

' 

.'J 

1 

A 

6 

BritubWool  .       .       . 

22 

16 

.    9 

10 

11 

Alpaca     «... 

33-35 

13-15 

wl-14 

M.14I 
18.13I 

I4l-a7 

16-13 

ia|-i6 

15I-19* 

15H7 

Mohair     .... 

35-45 

27-35-2 » 

14.19 

MrdO 

30|-I7 

19-17 

15 

I3t-l6 

*  Year  of  the  highest  values  of  wools  ever  reached  within  recent  tiinea. 

*  Years  of  the  lowest  valoos  of  wools  ever  reached  within  recent  timet. 

Summary  of  WooUen  and  WmtUd  FaOories  awd  of  Persons  omployoi  in  tke  samo  in  OU  Untiei  Kintdom, 


1867 


1874. 


1885. 


1889. 


1901. 


1904. 


U 


Factories       .... 
Rag  ffrindinc  machines   . 
WooHea  caraing  sets 
Worsted  combiqg  machines 
Spinning  spindles 
Doubling  spindles    . 
Power  loom* 

Children  (hatf  timers^ 
Persons  working  full  time^ 

Males         .... 

Fetnalca  ... 


2,649 


1,038 
645S.879 

\^ 

33/>54 

94.838 
»34.368 


a.617 


1.276 

5.449.495 
55^.914 
«4«i»»274 

38416 

106,005 
135.712 


»i75« 


S.375.I02 
769492 
139.902 

24.636 

112,955 
145.684 


2.5«7 


5.604.535 
969.812 
131.506 

22^40 

120441 
158.175 


2.38a 

900 

6,700 

2,924 

5.625477 

1.059.049 

104.514 


7475 

102,876 
149.558 


Summary  of  Exports  of  Wool,  Wool  WasU,  JfoUs,  Tops,  Yams  and  Fahria from  ike  UniUd  Kiutdom. 


1840. 


1882. 


1890. 


1900. 


1907. 


BritiahWool       .       , 
Foraea  and  Colonial 
Waate  .       .       .       . 
Noits    .       .       .       . 
TopB     .       .       .       . 
Wonted  Yam    . 
Mohair,  &c^  Yam     . 
Woollen  Yank     .      . 
Cloths  ... 
(Apparel       » 


lb 
5,000,000 
2,000,000 


•     .*• 


%  • 


lb 
I3i8oOyOOO 
264,100/WO 


30,840,300 

8,752,200 

1,992400 

^8.768,634 

£1.380,000 


lb 

19,500,000 

342,200,000 

2,397.600 

10.234.700 

9,oi6/)oo 

39,510.100 

l2,9S9i6oo 

1.572.700 

£20418482 

£i.700A)o 


lb 
94«90O/)0O 

197.500.000 

1.593.100 

7,897400 

28,031,200 

56,075,900 

10,397.700 

1.088.300 

£15,682,154 

£1,700.000 


lb 

34,500,000 

314.200,000 

8,937,100 

12.689.700 

35,580,000 

S54J2I.700 

17,782,800 

^  2.576,100 

£22.153,680 

£2,550.546 


WOOLLKIT.  WILUAII  (1735-1785),  English  engraver,  was 
bom  at  Maidstone,  of  a  family  wUdi  came  originally  from 
Holland,  on  the  15th  of  August  X735.  He  was  apprenticed  to 
John  Tlnney,  an  engraver  in  Fleet  Street,  London,  and  studied 
in  the  St  Martin's  Lane  academy.  His  first  important  plate 
was  from  the  "  Niobe  "  of  Richard  Wilson,  published  by  Boydell 
in  1761,  which  was  foUowed  in -1763  by  a  companion  engraving 
Crom  the  "  Phaethon "  of  the  same  painter.  After  West  he 
engraved  his  fine  plate  of  the  "Battle  of  Lit  Hogiie''(x78x), 
and  the  **  Death  of  General  Wolfe  "  (1776),  which  is  usually 
considered  WooUctt's  masterpiece.  In  1775  he  was  appointed 
cngraver-in-ordinary  to  George  UL;  and  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Incorporated  Society  of  Artists,  of  which  for  several  years 
he  acted  as  secretary.    He  died  in  London  on  the  33rd  of  May 

1785- 
In  his-plates,  which  unite  work  with  the  etching-needle,  the 

dry-point  and  the  graver,  Woollett  shows  the  greatest  richness 

^d  variety  of  execution.    In  his  landscapes  the  rendering  of 

water  is  particularly  excellent.    In  his  portraits  and  historical 

subjects  the  rendering  of  flesh  is  characterized  by  great  softness 

and  delicacy.    His  worts  rank  among  the  great  productions  of 

the  English  school  of  engraving.    Louis  Pagan,  in  his  Catahgut 

MaisonfU  of  the  Engraved  Works  of  William  Wotgktt  (1885),  has 

enumerated  123  plates  by  this  engraver. 

WOOLHAN,  JOHN  (1720-1772),  Ameiicaa  Quaker  preacher, 
waa  bom  in  Northampton,  Turlington  county;  New  Jersey,  in 
August  17)20.  When  he  was  twenty-one  be  went  to  Mount  HcUy, 
where  he  was  a  dcrk  in  a  store,  opened  a  school  for  poor  children 
and  beoaine  a  tailor.  After  1743  he  spent  most  of  his  time  as  aa 
itincnojt  pieft«ber,  visiting  pieetings  of  the  Friends  in  various 
partaoCtlieoQloniea.  In  X77»he  sailed  forLondon  to  visit  Friends 
b  the  nocth  oC  England,  especially  Yorkshire,  and  died  in  York  ol 


smallpox  on  the  7th  of  October.  He  ^wke  and  wrote  against 
slavery,  refused  to  draw  up  wiOs  transferring  slaves,  induced 
many  of  the  Friends  to  set  their  negroes  free,  and  in  1760  at 
Newport,  Rhode  Island,  memorialized  the  Legislature  to  forbid 
the  slave  trade.  In  1763  at  Wehaloosing  (now  Wyalusing), 
on  the  Susquehaima,  he  preached  to  the  Indians;  and  he  always 
urged  the  whites  to  pay  die  Indians  for  their  lands  and  to  forUd 
the  sale  of  liquor  to  them. 


Wooiman  wrote  5mm  CoiuidaraUans  on  fke  Keeping  of  Negroes 

il7<^;  part  it.,  1763);  ConHderaiions  on  Pure  Wisdom  and  Human 
*oltcy,  on^  Labor,  on  SehoolSj  and  on  Ike  Right  Use  of  tke  Lord'i 
Onlmard  Gifts  (1768) ;  Considerations  on  tke  True  Harmony  of  Math- 
kind,  and  Horn  tlis  to  ^  "  '  -  '  --  -  .  .  ..,  x  .« 
membranee  atid 
his  writings,  TTie . 
Service  of  the  Gospd  (1775),'  which  was  begun  inliis  thirtv-iixth  year 
and  was  continued  dntil  the  year  of  his  death.  The  oest'lciiowa 
edition  Is  that  prepared,  with  an  introduction,  by  John  G.  Whittier 
in  187 1.  The  Works  of  John  Wooiman  appeared  in  two  parts  at 
Philadelpbia.  in  1 774-1 775.  and  have  often  been  republished ;  * 
German  vernoo  was  printed  in  1852. 

WOOLMER,  THOMAS  (1825-1892),  British  sculptor  and  poet^ 
was  bom  at  Hadleigh,  Suffolk,  on  the  x7th  of  December  182  $• 
When  a  boy  he  showed  talent  for  modelling,  and  when  baxdy 
thirteen  years  old  was  taken  as  an  assistant  into  the  studio  ol 
WUliam  Behnes,  and  trained  during  four  years.  In  December 
1842  Woolner  was  admitted  a  student  in  the  Royal  Academy, 
and  in  1843  exhibited  his  "  Eleanor  sucking  Poison  fxora  the 
Wound  of  Prince  Edward."  In  1844,  among  the  competitive 
works  for  decorating  the  Houses  of  Parliament  was  his  life-sike 
group  of  "  The  Death  of  Boadicea.'*  In  x«46  he  had  at  Uie 
Royal  Academy  a  graceful  bas-relief  of  Shelley's  "Alaator.** 
Then  came  (1847)  "  Feeding  the  Hungry,"  a  bas-relief,  at  the 
Academy;  and  at  the  Britiw  lostitutioii  «  brilliant  statuetfct 


$i8 


WOOLSACK— WOOLSTON 


of  "  Puck  "  perched  upon  a  toadstooT  and  with  his  toe  roosShg  a 
frog.  "  Eros  and  £u[4irosyae  "  and  "  The  lUinbow  "  were  seen 
H  the  Academy  in  ift48. 

'  Woolner  became,  in  the  autumn  of  1848^  one  of  the  seven 
K*re^Raphaelite  Brethren,  and  took  a  leading  pa^t  in  The  Cerm 
(i8$o),  the  opening  poim  in  which,  called  "  My  Beautiful  Lady," 
Was  written  by  him.  He  had  ahrcady  modelled  and  exhibited 
portraits  of  Carlyle,  Browning  and  Tennyson.  Unable  to  make 
bis  way  in  art  as  he  wished,  Woolner  in  1852  tried  hfs  luck  as  a 
gold-digger  in  Australia.  Failing  In  this,  he  returned  to  England 
in  1857,  where  during  his  absence  his  reputation  had  been  in- 
creased by  means  of  a  statue  of  "  Love  "  as  a  damsel  lost  in  a  day- 
dream. Then  came  hia  second  pociraits  of  Carlyle,  Tennyson 
and  Browning,  the  figures  of  Moses,  David,  St  John  the  Baptist 
Und  St  Paul  for  the  pulpit  of  Llandaff  cathedral,  the  medallion 
portcait  of  Wordsworth  in  Grasmere  church,  the  likenesses  of  Sir 
Thomas  FairbaSrn,  Rajah  Brooke  of  Sarawak,  Mrs  Tennyson, 
Sir  W.  Hooker  and  Sir  F.  Palgrave.  The  fine  statue  of  Bacon  m 
the  New  Musei^n  at  Oxford  was  succeeded  by  full-size  statues  of 
prince  Albert  foir  Oxford,  Macaulay  for  Cambridge,  William  IIL 
for  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  London,  and  Sir  Bartle  Frere  for 
Pombayi  busts  of  Tennyson,  for  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
Vt  Whewell,  and  Archdeacon  Hare;  statues  of  Lord  Lawlrenoe 
for  Calcutta,  Queen  Victoria  for  Birmingham,  Field  for  the  Law 
Courts,  London,  Pahnerston  for  Palace  Yard,  the  noble  colossal 
smndtng  figure  of  Captain  Cook  that  overlooks  the  harbour  of 
Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  which  Is  Woolner*s  masteipieee  in  that 
elass;  the  recumbent  effigy  of  Lord  F.  Cavendish  (murdered  in 
Dublin)  in  CarUmel  church,  the  seated  Lord  Chief  Justice  White- 
side for  the  Four  Courts,  Dublin,  and  John  Stuart  Mill  for  the 
Thames  Embankment,  London;  Landseer,  and  Bishop  Jadtson 
for  St  Paul's,  Bi^op  Eraser  for  Manchester,  and  Sir  Stamford 
Kaffles  for  Singapore.  Among  Woolner's  busts  ars  those  of 
^Jewman,  Darwin,  Sedgwick,  Huxley,  Cobden,  Professor  Lush- 
Ington,  Dickens,  Kingsley,  and  Sh:  WilKam  Gull,  besides  the 
repetition,  with  variations,  of  Gladstone  for  the  Bodleian, 
jOxfordj  and  Mansion  House,  London,  and  Tennyson.  The  last 
Was  acquired  for  Adelaide,  South  Austialia.  Woolner's  poetic 
and  Imaginative  sculptures  include  **  Elaine  with  the  Shield  of 
I«ancelot,"  three  fine  panels  for  the  pedestal  of  .the  Gladstone  bust 
at  Cambridge,  the  noble  and  original  *'  Moses "  which  was 
commissioned  in  x86i  and  is  on  the  apex  of  the  gable  of  the 
Manchester  Assize  Courts,  and  two  other  works  in  the  same 
building;  ''Ophelia,"  a  statue  (i86g);  "In  Memoriam "; 
*'  Virgilia  sees  in  a  vision  Coriolanus  routing  the  Volsces  "; 
"  Guinevere  '*;  "  Mercury  teaching  a  shepherd  to  sing,"  for  the 
Royal  College  of  Music;  "  Ophelia,"  a  bust  U878);  "  Godiva," 
and"  The  Watet  Lily." 

^.*  In  1864  he  married  Alice  Gertrude  Waugh,  by  whom  he  had 
two  sons  and  four  daughters.  He  was  elected  an  associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1871,  and  a  full  member  in  1874.  Woolner 
wrote  and  published  two  amended  versions  of  "  My  Beautiful 
t'ady"from  Tke  Germ,  as  well  as  *  Pygmalion"  (1881), 
;:  Silenus  "  (1884),  "  Tiresias  "  (1886),  and  "  Poems  "  (1887) 
ocKBprising  "  NeUy  Dale  "  <i886)  and  "  Children."  Having  been 
elected  professor  of  sculpture  in  the  Royal  Academy,  Woolner 
)^gan  to  prepare  lectures,  but  they  "«frere  never  delivered,  for  he 
resigned  the  office  in  1879.  He  diied  f^ddenly  on  the  7  th  of 
October  1892,  and  was.  l^yried  in  the  churchyard  of  St  Mai;y's, 
ncndon. 

;  WOdliSACR,  i.e.  a  sack  or  cushion  stuffed  with  wool,  a  name 
"More  particulariy  given  to  the  seat  of.  the  lord  chancellor  In  the 
Hq'usc  of  Lords.  It  is  a  large  square  cushion  of  wool, -without 
back  or  arms,  covered  with  red  doth.  It  is  stated  to  have  been 
placed  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  the  reigii  of  Edward  III.  to  te- 
irrind  the  peers  of  the  importance  of  the  wool  trade  of  England. 
The  earnest  legislative  mention,  however,  is  in  an  act  of  Henry 
ytll.  (c.  to  s.  8>:  **Thc  lord  cJ»ancdlor,.lord  treastnrer  and  aH 
prAer  officers  wh6  shall  be  under  the  clegree  of  a  baron  of  a  pariia*- 
mp\i  shall  sit  and  fa«  placed  at  the  ttppermost  part  of  the  sacks 
fn  the  midst  of  the  said  pariian^ent  chamber,  either  there  to  sit 
ikpdn  one  iorta  or  upon  the  uppermost  sack."'.  The  woolsack  is 


technically  outdde  the  predncts  <rf  the  house,  and  the  toni 
chancellor,  wishing  to  speak  in  a  debate,  has  to  advance  to  his 
place  as  a  peer. 

WOOLSEY,  THBODOBB  DW16HT  (1801-1889),  Amerioia 
educationally,  was  bom  wi  New  York  City  on  tfie  jtst  of  October 
l8ox.  He  was  the  son  of  a  New  York  merchant,  a  nephew  of 
Timothy  D wight,  presi(}ent  of  Yale,  and  a  desocndant of  Jooaihu 
Edwards.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1820;  was  a  tutor  at  Yale 
in  1823-1825,  studied  Greek  at  Leipzig,  Berlin  and  Bonn  in 
1827-1830;  became  professor  of  Greek  language  and  literature 
at  Yale  in  1831,  and  was  elected  president  of  the  college  and 
entered  the  Congregational  minbtry  in  1846.  He  resigned  the 
presidency  in  1871,  and  died  on  0»  ist  of  July  1889  in  Nev 
Haven.  During  his  administratbn  the  college  grew  rapidly, 
the  scientific  school  and  the  school  of  fine  arts  were  established, 
and  the  scholarly  tone  of  the  college  was  greatly  improved 
Much  of  his  attention  in  his  last  yeaia  was  de^ed  to  the 
American  commission  for  the  revision  of  the  authorized  version 
of  the  New  Testament,  of  which  he  was  chairman  (1871-1881) 
He  prepared  excellent  editions  of  Alcestis  (1834),  Antigone  U^is), 
Pronuihcus  (1837)  and  Corpas  (1843).  He  published  several 
volumes  of  sermons  and  wrote  for  the  New  Englcnder,  of  which 
he  was  a  founder,  for  the  Norih  American  Review,  for  the  Prinu- 
ton  JUuew  aid  for  the  Century,  and  his  Introduction  to  tke  Study 
of  International  Law,  designed  as  an  Aid  in  Teaching  ond  n 
Historical  Studies  (i860)  and  his  Dhorce  and  Divorce  LegisiaiM 
(1882)  went  through  many  editions.  He  also  wrote  Palitkd 
Science,  or  the  State  Theoretically  and  Practically  Considered  (1877)1 
and  Commutiism  and  Socialism,  in  their  History  and  Theory  (i  880). 
His  son,  Theodoke  Sausbury  Woolsey  (b.  1852),  became  pro* 
fessor  of  international  law  at  Yale  in  1878.-  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Yale  Review  (1892,  a  continuation  of  the  Nee 
Englander),  and  is  the  author  of  America's  Foreign  Policy  (189}). 

WOOLSTON,  THOMAS  (1669-1731),   English  deist,  boii)  at 
Northampton  in  1669,  the  son  of  a  "reputable  tradesman/' 
entered  Sidney  College,  Cambridge,  in  1685,  studied  theoiocyi 
took  orders  and  was  made  a  fellow  of  hb  college.    After  a  tine, 
by  the  study  of  Origen,  he  became  possessed  with  ^he  notion  of 
the  importance  of  an  allegorical  interpretarloii  of  Scripture, 
and  advocated  its  use  in  the  defence  of  Christianity  both  ia  his 
sermons  and  in  his  first  book.  The  Old  Apology  for  Jkc  TniA 
of  tke  Christian  Religion  against  the  Jews  and  Cenliles  Rcvitei 
(i  705) .    For  many  years  he  published  nothing,  but  in  1 7 20-r  7 '/ 
the  publication  of  letters  and  pamphlets  in  advocojcy  of  bis 
notions,  with  open  challenges  to  the  clergy  to  refute,them,  brought 
him  into  trouble.    It  was  reported  that  his  mind  was  disordered, 
and  he  lost  his  fellowship.  From  1 721  he  lived  for  tfie  most  part 
in  London,  on  an  allowance  of  £30  a  yeajr  from  his  brother  and 
other  presents.    His  influence  on  the  course  of  the  deistical  con- 
troversy began  with  his  book,  fhe  Moderator  ketvfcen  an  Infidd 
and  an  Apostate  (1725,  3rd  ed.  ^7^9).    The  "  infidel  "  intended 
was  Anthony  Collins  iq.v.),  who  had  maintained  in  his  book 
alluded  to  that  the  New  Testament  is  based  on  the  Old,  and  that 
not  the  literal  but  only  the  allegorical  sense  of  the  prophecies  caa 
be  quoted  in  proof  of  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus;  the  "  apostate 
was  the  dcrgy  who  had  forsaken  the  allegorical  method  of  the 
fathers.    Woqlston  denied  absolutely  the  proof  from  miracles, 
called-in  question  the  fact  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ  and  other 
miracles  of  the  New  Testament,  and  maintained  that  they  must 
be  interpreted  allegorically,  or  as  types  of  spiritual  things.    J^ 
veara  later  he  began  a  series  of  Discourses  on  the  same  subject, 
m  which  he  applied  the  principles  of  lus  Moderator  to  the  mirac'tf 
of  the  Gospels  in  detail.    Thd  Discourses,  30,000  copies  of  which 
were  said  to  have  been  sold,  were  six  in  number,  the  first  appW" 
ing  ih  T727,  the  rfext  five  1728^729,  IriUi  two  Befenia  in  »7«9" 
1730.    For  these  publications  he  was  tried  before  Chief  J10UO0 
Raymond  in  r729  aftd  sentenced  (Niyvember  f8)  to  pgy*»°^ 
of  £25  for  each  of  the  first  four  Disamries,  with  iapdtMB'^ 
till  paid,  and  also  to^a  year's  Iropri^nment  and  t»fglves««^ 
for  his  good  bchsviouT  during  life.    He  failed  fad  fiud  this  lectfri^ 
and  femsined  in  donfihement  until  bis  death  oh  tbt  sist « 
iadoafy  1731'. 


WOOL1?W[CH— WOONSOC2KET.    'r 


8t^ 


UpMkb  of  i&ty  more  or  Um  weighty  pmnpHleCs  appcafcd  io 
reply  to  mp  Mioderalor  and  Z>itC0«rjvf.  Amongst  the  abler  and  most 
popular  of  them  may  be  mentioned  7L  Pearce's  77m  MiracUs  of  Jesus 
VtndkaUd  (1739):  T.  Sheriock's  Th€  Tfyal  of  ikt  WUnesses  of  thg 
kesurrtttioH  of  Jesia  (lyaOt  13th  ed.  17^).;  and  N.  Lardner'i 
VtHdkalioH  of  Thrte  og  Our  Saaiour's  Miracles  (1^99),  Lardner  being 
one  of  thooe  who  did  not  approve  pf  the proaeciiuon  01  Woolstoa  (see 
L>ardoer's  Life  by  Klppts,  in  Lardner's  Works,  vol.  L). 

See  Lifeot  Woolston  prefixed  to  his  Worhln  fiv«  volumes  (London, 
1733):  Mornmrs  of  Lift  and  Writings  ofWiUiam  Wkiston  (London^ 
I749>  pp<  931-235);  Appendix  to  A  Vindicatian  of  tk*  Mtroeifs  of 
our  Sanour.  fire,  by  J.  R^y  (2od  ed.,.1731);  J«  Cainu,  Unbdicfin  tke 
EitkUmlh  Century  (1S80);  Sayous,  Les  Dhstes  angfais  (i8iS2);  And 
the  article  DeiSM,  with  its  bibliography. 

WOOLWICBt  a  S.E.  meitropolitw  borough  of  hoadion, 
Englftod,  bounded  W.  by  Greenwich  and  Lewiaham,  and  exH 
tending  N.f  £*  and  S.,  to  the  boundary  of  the  county  of  liosdon; 
Fop.  (1901)  x<i7,x78i  Area^  8376*6  acres.  Its  N.  bouada^y  is  in 
part  the  xlver  Thames,  but  it  mckides  two  sqpsrate  amall  areas 
on  the  N.  banlci  embntdog  %■  portion  of  the  district  $»lled  N.. 
Woolwich.  Th9  area  is  seomd  to  that  6f  Wandsworth  Mvoog 
the  metrop<4itaB  boroughs,  but  $s  not  wholly  built  ovev.  ThQ 
most  populous  part  is  that  lying  between  Shooter's  Hill.i^ad 
Cthe  Roman  WatUng  Street)  avd  the  river,  the  site  falling  from  ap 
elevation  of  4i3  ft.  at  Shooter's  Hill  to  the  tiver  levfli»  To  thp*  Er 
lies  Plumstesd,  with  the  Phimstead  juarshes  horderiiic  the  river 
to  the  M.,  and  in  the  S.  of  tbeborough  is£Uham«r  A  iarge  WNrking 
population  is  employed  in  the  Roya}  AneniJ*  which  .occupiea 
a  large  atca  on<  the  river-bank,  and  ipcludes  the  R9ky4  Gun 
Fact<«y,  Royal  Cirxiage  Department,  .R<^  Labomipiry  and 
Building  Wo^ks  Department4  The  former  Hoya^  Dockyi^d  wss 
made  over  to  the  War  Office  in  xSja  and  converted  into  stores^ 
vbarves  for  Uie  k>ading  of  troopships,  &c  The  Royal  Artillery 
Bamcks;  fadng  Wocrfwkh  Common,  originally  eiaeted  in  1775, 
has  been  greatly  eiteaded  at  different  ttfties,  and  eofOiMS  of  six 
QUkgeBof  bridL.  building,  including  a  church  in  the  Ualian  Gothic 
style  erected  in  1863,  a  theatre,  and  a  libirary  in  connexion,  with 
the  officers'  mess^oom.  Opposite  the  barmcks  is  the  memorial 
to  the  offices  and  men  of  the  Royal  Artillery  who  fell  in  the 
Crimean  War,  a  bronse  figure  of  Victory  cast  out  of  cannon 
captured  in  the  Crimea*  Near  the  banacks  is  the  Royal  Artillery 
Institution,  with  a  fine  museum  and  a  lecture  hall.  On  the  W* 
a(  the  barrack  field  is  the  Royal  Military  Repositovyi  within 
the  enckNKiie  of  which  is  the  Rotunda*  originally  erected  in  St 
James's  Park  for  the  reception  of  the  allied  sovereigns  in  1814, 
and  shortly  afterwards  transferred  to  its  present  site.  It  contains 
modeb  of  the  principal  dockyards  and  fortifications  of  ^he 
Britbh  empire,  naval  models  of  all  dates,  and  numerous  specimens 
of  weapons  of  war  from  the  remotest  tivicft  to  the  p^ieaent  day. 
On  the  Common  is  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  a  castellated 
building  ereicted  from  the  design  of  Sir  J*  Wyatvilje  in  i8or, 
where  cadets  flfe  trained  for  the  artillery  and  engineer  fendces. 
There  are  a  number  of  other  barrack5.  At  the  S*£-  extremity 
of  the  ConuBon  is  tAte Herbert-Military  Hospital.  Amongseveml 
militaxy  memorials,  one  in  the  Academy  grounds  was  erected 
to  the  Prince  Imperial  of  France,  foe  two  years  a  student  in  the 
Academy*  Other  institutions  include  the  Woolwich  poljrtechnic 
and  the  BtMk  fever  hospital,  Shooter'a  Hii^  The.pqirish  church 
of  St  Mary  Ma^iUlcne  was  wbmlty  in  X7a6-i789»  near  Ihe  site  of 
the  old  one  dating  from  before  the  .1  ath  century.-  WoolwAch 
Common  (143  acres)  is.partly  within  this  borough,  but  mainly 
in  Creenmcht'  South  oi  it  is  Eltham  Common  (37  aci»^»  uA. 
in  the  E.oC  the  borough  ace  Pkufistead  Common  (to^  acres) 
and  Bostall  Heath  (134  acres).  Behind  the  Ro5?al  Military 
Acnddkny  is  a  mineral  well,  the  "  Shooter's  Hill  waters  "  mon- 
tkned  by  Evdyn.  Near  Woolwich  Common  there  are  brick  and 
tile  kiltts-aml  sand  and  chalk  pits,  and  there  are  extensive  market- 
gardens  in  the.loctlity.  The  parliaitenUry  boiwigh  of  Wootvich 
return*  one  member.  The  borough  oouncal  consists  of  a  roayofw 
6  aldenhcn,  nnd  60  councillors.  It  was  only  by  the  London 
Goveminent  Act  iSqc^  thai  Woolwich  was  brou^t  into  line  with 
other  London  districts,  for  in  185$,  as  it  had  previouaky  become 
« loeal  government  district  under  a^  local  board,  it  was  left 
tibtaMUat^hy  t^  Metriipolis  M^9geacn^Act«A     


WooMch  (Wulcwkh)  is  mentioned  in  a  grant  of  land  by  iOfHI 
Edward  m  964  to  the  abbey  of  St  Peter  at  Qhent  In  Domesday 
the  manor  is  mentioned  as  consistinjrpr  63  acres  Of  land.  The  Romsft 
Watling  Street  cxosoed  Shooter's  Hill,  and  a  Roman  cemete^  31 
supposed  to  have  occupied  the  dte  of  the  Royal  Arunal,  numeroui 


ihinence  as  a  dockyard  and  naval  station.  There  is  evidence  that 
ships  were  buJlt  at  Woolwich  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  but  it  wai 
wiin  the  purchase  by  Henry  VIII.  of  two  paitcis  of  land  in  the  manoc 
of  Woolwich,  called  Bougbtort's  Docks,  that  the  foundation  of  thn 
town's  prosperity  was  hiid,  the  laundimffof  the  "  Harry  Grice  de 
Dieu,"  of  1000  tons  burden,  making  an  epoch  hi  its  history.  Wool-* 
wieh  remained  the  chief  doc^asd  af  the  Endish  navy  untQ  the 
mtnoducrion  of  iron  ship  boildipg^  but  the  dodcyafd  was  ckused  il> 
1869.  TJ(e  town  became  the  headquarters  ot  the  Royal  Artillery  011 
the  establishment  of  a  separate  branch  of  this  service  in  the  reign  o( 
George  I.  Land  was  probably  acquired  for  a  military  post  and  store 
depdt  at  Woolwich  in  1667,  in  onder  to  aseot  battories  against  thw 
iavsding  Detch  fleet,  although  in  1664  meniioa  is  made  of  stoixH 
houses  aiid  sheds  for  repairing  &hip  carriages^  In  1666  guns,  carriages 
and  stores  were.conceatrated  at  Woolwich.  ;Xnd  In  1695  the  laboratory. 
was  moved  hither  from  Greenwich.  Before  1716  ordnance  was 
c^tained  bumi  private  numufacturcit  and  proved  by  the  Board  of 
Oidmince,  In  1716  an  exptoeion  .took  place  at  the  Moorfielda 
Foundry,  and  it  was  dedded  to  build  a  royal  brass  foundry  at  thn 
••  Tower  Place,"  as  the  establishment  at  VVboIwich  was  called  untif 
1805.  Founders  Were  advertised  for,  and  records  show  that  Andrew 
Scfaakh  of  DoQai  was  Selected.  In  1741  a  school  oTinSbuctiba  for 
the  military  bmnch  d  the  ordaaace  was  established  here*  It  waa 
not  until  1805,  however*  that  the  collection  of  establishments  «& 
Woolwich  became  the  Royal  Arsenal. 

See  C.  H.  Crinlln^,  T.  A.  Ingram  and  B.  C.  Pondnehome,  Sttrve^ 
oniReotti  of  WooMch  md  mstJCenl  (Woolwieh,  1909). 

WOOLWICH-ANV-ltBAIinMI  BBDt,  in  geology,  a  series  <4 
at^Olaceons  and  sandy  deposits  of  lower  Eocene  age  found  \n  t^e 
London  and  Hampshire  basins.  By  the  earlier  geologists  thiji 
formation  was  known  as  the-  "Plastic  Clay"  so  called  by  T.' 
Webster  hi  i8t6  nifer  the  Ar^Ue  plastiqueai  G.  C.  F.  D.  Cttvicr 
and  A.  BrOngniart.  It  was  called  the  **  Mottled  C!ay*  by 
J.  Prestwich  in  1846,  but  hi  1853  he  prdpoaeA  the  name  **  Wool" 
wich-and-Reading  Bedi"  because  the  other  terms  Were  ttc4 
applicable  to  the  different  local  aspects  of  the  series.  '• 

Three  distinct  tjTws  of  tMs  formation  are  letogiii/ed:  (1)  Tlit? 
Reading  ^pe,  a  senes  of  lenticular  mottled  clays  ami  sands,  hereSMl 
there  witn  Pebbly,  beds  and  masses  of  Qne.  land  oonverted  intot 
guartsite.  These  beds  are  generally  uofosulilerous;.  They  are  found 
in  the  N.  4nd  W.  portions  of  the  London  Basin  and  m  the  Hampshire 
Basin.  (2)  The  Woolwich  type,  grey  clays  and  pale  sands,  often  Mf 
of  estuarine  shells  and  in  pbces  with  a  well-marked  oysesr  bed.  Ae 
the  base  of  the  sbfU-beenng  clays  i«  S.£.  Londoa  thoif:  are^iebbla 
bjMb  and  Ugnitic  layers.-  The  Woolwich  beds  occur  in  W.  Kant,  the 
Ef  borders  qf  Surrey,  the  borders  of  E.  Kent,  in  S.  Essex  and  at 
Ncwhaven  in  Sussex.  (3)  A  third  type  consisting  of  light-coloured 
fslse>bedded  sands  with  marine  fosBils  occuts  in  £.  Kens.  WhcM 
ifi  festa  en  the  Thahet  beds  H  is,  an  amilaceous  ^eenmnd  wish 


Ah\^  beds  us\ralfy 
the  Thanet  beds,  but  they  are  found  on  the  Chalk  near  Bremlcyr 
Charlton,  fftmgerford,  Hortfoni  Reading,  &c.  In  Dotseuhire  «hei 
Resding  beds  <{OPcar  on  the  coast  at  StvKJland  Bay  ^^d  at  other 
points  inland.  The  "  He^fordshirc  Pudding  Stone  "  is  a  well-Known 
rock  from  near  the  base  of  the  formation;  it  Is  a  flint  pebble  con- 
glomerate In-  a  sIlicSottB  matrix.  The  f o^lt,  cstvartne,  f rsShwater add 
mariae,  indude  CorbAmia  ounHftrmi**  C*  UUinoU^t  OsirtmlMapAfttMt 
Vinaparm  iqftmst  Flarnvbis  kemistoma^  Aiehnia  (^dajtairui)  ^  tni 
qutmua,  Neniina  globulus,  and  the  ceroains  of  turtles,  crocodile  & 
sharks,  birds  (Castomis)  and  the  mammsl  Coryphodon.  Bricks,  tilrS 
and  coarae  potlcvy  and  occssionally  firebricks  nave  been  made  honl 
the  day  beds  in  this  fonnation.  ■  • 

See  Eocnsa;  also  J.  Prestwk^  O/.CS,  (1^54),.  x-;  W-  Wbitaker, 
"  Gcok)gy  of-London,"  Mem,  Cew.ourvey,  i.  and  li.  (1889)  and  Sheet 
MemoirTno.  2d8.  ; 

WOOVSOCKET,  a  dty  of  Providepoe  county,  Rihode  Islandf 
U.SJV.»,on  both  banks  of  the  Blackstone  river,  abou,t  i6m..^« 
by  W*  of  Providence*  Pofl.  (1900)  28,204;  (190$?  state  cf^sus) 
32,196  (i3i3l3<  foreign-bonii  induding89M  French  Canadians a^ii 
13(69  Irish)',  (1910)  38)X95<  Woonaocket  ,is  served  by  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  Zl  Hartford  .railway  and  by  an  intenitbaj)* 
electric  line.  Anwng  i|s  ioatitutions  fjo  the  Sacred  Heart  College 
and  the  Harris  Institute  Public  Library,  founded  (1863)  b^ 


fis^ 


^       < 


lJfD»j(3E3MR 


c'  Tkenkcimm  lettuitMrttie'dia  oada  ol  Wosoertev;  it  kdjifaM  > 
Afafc  oKwaatciy  so  doiely  that  King  John  gave  itb  yard  to  thk 
gnmskSr  and  after  that  timt  k  ctasdd  to  be  a  itronghold.  The 
C9mnuatderyf  founded  by  $t  Wuifstan  in  1085,  was  a  hoipkat, 
jm4  its  name  appeaia  to  lack  aatfK>rit|r.  It  was  rebuilt  in  Tudor 
times,  and  there  remains  a  beautiful  hall,  with  music  galleiy, 
tfhnepied  dais,  and  a  fine  bay  window,  together  with  other 
^vtB.  The  woodH^rviog  is  -  exqoiflite.  There  are  many  dd 
^ttlfninbered  houses  The  guild-haU  (i7>5)  b  an  admirable 
htiilding  hi  the  Italian  style;  it  cootains  a  portrait  of  George  UL, 
lay  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  preaesiljed  by  the  king  to  oeimnemoiate 
his  visit  to  the  city  at  the  tCienmal  musical  festival  m  1 786.  ThiSv 
Ihe  Festival  of  the  Thsee  Choirs,  is  tnaintaifted  here  altcmaiel^ 
.with  Qbiicester  and  Hereford.  The  coiporation  *  pommfai 
some  iiitereBtlng  ok)  chartera  and  manuscripts,  and  good  muni- 
cipal regalia.  Pnhlic  bUildSngs  include  the  shire-hall  <i8j5), 
Oom.  EKhange  and  market-house.  Fairs  are  held  thrice 
hnnuaUy.  The  Victoria  Instkute  indudes  a  hbrary*  muaemn 
gad  trt  gallery.  The  cathedral  school  was  fouoded  by  Heniy 
•VUL  in  1S4I,  Quoen  Elisabeth's,  in  a  modem  innlding,  in  1563; 
Iherb  are  also  a  choir  school,  and  municipal  art,  science  aud 
iechnicai  schools.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  city,  there  b  a  large 
flieaedictine  oonvetit,  at  Stanbtook  Hall,  with  a  beautiful 
jiodern  chapel.  The-  Clothiers'  Cbmpany  possesses  a  charter 
granted  by  Queen  Elisabeth;  but  the  great  industries  are  no^nr 
ihe  manufacture  of  gloves  and  of  porcehun.  A  compny  of 
CloveiSk  was  incorporated  in  1661.  The  maaulncture  of  poreelain 
js  famous.  The  materials  employed  are  china  day  and  china 
stone  ffiom  CornwaH,:fclspar  from  Sweden,  iirc>day  iroka  Stouv- 
hridgfi  and  Broseley ,  Jtarl,  flint  ind  calcined  bones.  The  Royal 
ilwodaitt  Works  cover  s  acres.  Among  Worcester's  other  trades 
Bt9  those  of  iren,  iron  goods  and  engineering  warksv  carriage 
making,  rope  spinning,  boat  building,  tanning  and  the  produD- 
Jion>of  chemical  manures  and  of  dderand  pcnry.  There  is  a 
considerabte  carrying  trade  on  the  Severm 
'  •  The  charities  are  nuroeroas,  and  mdude  St  Oswald's  hospital, 
Jif ash's  almshouses,  Wjmtt's  almshouses,  the  Berkeley  Imspita!, 
Moulding  hospital,  Shewring's  hospital,  Inglethorpe'a  alms- 
Jnhiscs,  Waldgreve's  almshouses,  Moore's  blue-osai  sdmoi, 
Quoca  Elizabeth's  charity,  and  others. 

.-  Traces  of  British  and  Roman  occupation  have  been  discovered 
)U  Worcester  {Wigeran  Ccas/er,  Wigpruia),  but  its  histoiy  begins 
.with  the  foundatioti  of  the  episcopal  see.  Beiog  the  chief  city 
0n  the  borders  of  Wales,  Worcester  waa  frequently  visited  1^ 
the  kings  of  £ngUad.  In  Z159  it  aws  taken  by  the  Empress 
Idaud  spd  retaken  and  burnt  by  Stephen  in  1149.  It  surrendered 
to  Simon  de  Montfort  in  1063.  In  1642,  during  the  Great 
Brbellion,  a  handful  of  cavaliecs  was  besieged  herci  and  in  spite 
M  0M  Attempted  relief  by  Prince  Rupert,  the  city  wte  pilhiged, 
M  it  waa  igaih  in  1646.  In  i6s<  Chaiics  IL  wUh .the  Scotdsfa 
MBQf  maicbed  into  Worcester,  where  he  wss  wdcomcd  by  the 
Iciliceas.  Cromwell  took  up  his  position  on  the  Rtd  Hill  just 
AHtSide  the  dty  gates.  Lambert  succeeded  in  passing  the  Sovcm 
M  .Upton,  and  drove  back  the  Royalist  troops  towards  Worcester. 
lChitk%  seeking  bm  advantage  of  this  di visum  of  the.  enemy 
f»  «f^>Qsite  sides  of  the  riveiv  attacked  Cremwdl's  camp.  At 
^Ift  he  was  successful,  but  Cromwell  was  reinfoited  by  Lambert's 
^roc^sia  time  to  drive  back  Charles's  foot,  who  were  not  supported 
•hytihlt  Spot  tisb  horse,  and  the  rout  of  the  King's  force  was  complete. 
^  Jik-the  reign  of  King  AU(ed»  ^bdred  and  wEthdflead,  ealddrw 
jsstt.  And  lAdy  of  the  Meiteians,  at  iJk  re<|iisst  of  the  bishop 
/.' Jtoull  a  bui^  at  Woroeiier  "  and  gesnttd  ee  him  half  of  tbeo: 
righu  and  privileges  tnere  "  both  in  market  aad  strest  within 
dl»h0iinighaadwiihattL"  RkhardLiaxi^  granted  the  town 
M  4he  burgesses  At  m  ie^^um  of  £s4,tud  Hesey  lU. in  zas^ 
^am^  a  gild  Harchant  and  dcessptioA  fsom  tdl,  and  raised 
Jir  faitn  io  isiOk'  The  iicsi  incorporation  cfenitiit  was  gnnted 
.hadiPhiiipand  Mary  in.  1554  under  the  title  of  haiUib»  aJdecmeB, 
jtftamberiaios  and  cftisens,  'but  James  L  in  i6asf  made  Che' dty 
*;Mpi(taAe  oeonty  and.iposlited  a  corpomtien  of 'a  mHyor^  6 
^dlnncb,  iUkd  ^comaoa  ooundl.  consisting  of  oltelxKly  of 
34  dtisens,  including  the  mayor  and  alderaaen,  and  amAiier 


iodrof^B^wfoclBctadtlKiB^rQrffefciiiahioai'tlle  «4.    By  t&l 

MiHudpal  Reform  Act  of  1835  the  government  was  again  siteni, 
TlIe^llorgcsscs  returned  two  members  to  parliament. from  xsgj 
to  I  tSs,  when  the  number  was  reduced  to  one.  As  early  as  1203 
tiie  men  of  tlie  town  paid  loos.  for  licence  to  buy  and  sell  doU 
as  they  had  done  in  the  time  of  Ueniy  III.,  «imI  in  1  $90  the 
weavers,'  walkcre  and  ciothieis  received  aa  inoocpocation  charter, 
but  the  trade  Imd  already  begun  to  dedine  mmd  by  1789  bad 
cessed  to  eaist.  Its  place  was  talwm  by  the  maimfactnre  of 
porcelain,  introduced  inijsr  by  Dr*WaU,  and  by  the  increasing 
manufactttte  df  gloves,  a  trade  in  wfakh  is  fcnova  to  have  been 
carded  o»  in -.the  isth  century. . 

See  Yktona  CMtmty  HaUry,  Wofctalt^f  John  Ncakev  WcmsUr 
in  OUen.  Timts  (!««»} :  Vsl^tioe  Croen.  TU  SiU^ry  and  AuHqHttia 
oj  tke  CUy  $nd  Stiibur^  <^  WorcuUf  (1796), 

VOaCKlIB*  a  dty  and   the  connty-seat    qf    Worcester 
cooaty,  Massachusetts,  U.S.A.,  about  44  tai.  W.  of  Boston  en 
tbe  Blacksunre  river,  a  fasaach  of  the  Providence  river.    Pop. 
(•900)  I  xft,42 1  (37>65a  foreign4iom);  ( 1905,  state  ccsous)  1 28, 135; 
(x9co)  I4$f98^    Area,  39  sq;  m.    Woresstcr  as  served  by  the 
Boston  &  Albany,  the  New  York,  New  Haven.  &  HaAford  sad 
the  Boston  &  Maine  rsilways,  and  is  connected  with  Springfield 
aK2  Boston  by  intenwbaa  dectric  lines.    The  park  system  d 
the  dty  oeeilpiiscs  about  twenty  tracts  with  a  total  area  of  moic 
than  HOD  acrm;  among  them  sre  Elm  Paric  (88  acres)  in  the  W. 
indoding  Mewton  Hill  (670  ft.  above  sea4evel>,  and  Green  HO 
Park  (SCO  acres)  in  the  N.E.    Other  parka  are  Inatitute  Fadt 
(18  acres)  and  Beynton  Park  (i  13  acres),  in  the  M.  W.  on  Salisbiny 
Fond,  given  to  the  city  by  Stephen  Salisbury;  Doc^  Park 
{13  acres,  N);  Burucoat  Park  (42  acres,  N.E.);  Chandler  Hill 
Park  (80  acres,  £.};  Had  wen  ($o.  acres).  University  (14  acies) 
and  Croraptoa  Park  (is- a 5  acres)  in  the  S.W.  and  S.;  asd 
Oreenwood  <r9'6.ir  acres),  Beaver  Brook  (is«5  acres),  Tatnwk 
(2-94  acres) ^Kendrick  (r4-87  acres)  and  Vernon  Hill  (16-4  acres). 
Two  miles  N.E.  of  the  centre  of  the  city  lies  lake  Q^insigamoDd, 
4  m.  long,  from  which  flows  the  river  of  the  same  name,  a  fanndi 
of  the  Blackstone.    On  its  shorfs  Is  Lake  Park  (no  acres). 
Fronting  the  Common,  a  wooded  square  in  the  centre  of  the  dty, 
is  the  City  Hajl,  near  which  is  a  bronze  statue,  by  P.  C.  French, 
of  G.  F.  Hoar.    On  the  Common  there  Is  a  monument,  designed 
by  Randolph  Rogers,  to  the  soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  Ci>'ii 
War,  and  one  to  Colond  Timothy  Bigdow  (1 739-1 70<').  <>o*°' 
Worcester's  soldiers  of  the  War  of  Independence.    The  E.  side 
of  the  Common  was  the  site  of  an  old  burying  ground,  and  tbe 
W.  side  of  the  First  Church,  built  hi  1663.    About  §  m.  N.  of  the 
Common  is  Lincoln  Square,  adjacent  to  wh?th  is  the  granite 
Court  House;  In  front  of  it  is  a  statue  of  General  Charles  Deve» 
(rSzo-tSpi)  by  Firench.    The  old  Salisbuiy  mansion,  dating 
back  to  Colonial  days,  stands  in  this  square.    At  Salisbury 
Street  and  Park  Avenue  are  the  library  and  museum  (1910) 
of  the  American  Antiquarian  Society,  established  In  lii* 
by  Isaiah  Thomas,  with  a  collection  of  interesting  portraits,  a 
library  of  99/300  vols,  and  many  thousands  of  pamphlets,  particu* 
larly  rich  in  Americans.    The  Art  Museum  was  erected  and 
endowed  (1899-1903)  by  Stephen  Salisbury,  and  contains  s 
Anc  collection  of  casts,  many  valuable  paintings,  and  the  Baa- 
croft  CoUectma  of  Japanese  arL    The  oky  has  many  ^ 
churches. 

'  Worcester  b  '  an  in|)ortaiit  educational  ^eatre.  Cla» 
University  was  established  Jiere  hi  1889  by  Jonas  Gilman  Claii 
as  a  purely  gradaate  hiatitiitibn.  In  190a  Chuk  College  wis 
opened  for  undngmdnto  work  «ader  the  presklency  of  Carroll 
I>.  Wright,  with  a  separate  endowment  of  $1,300,000.  Ib  x9<2 
it  had  30  teachers  and  177  stwfents.  The  university  ia  1910  ^ 
X5  instroctors,  103  students  and  .a  lilnaiy  of  so^ooo  volum^ 
Under  0.  Stsnley  Hall,  who  waa  made  president  in  x868,  the 
university  became  well  knowm  for  its  woHl  Sn  child-pqrchda0^« 
Woraestcr  Polytedmic  Institate  (founded  in  1865  by  1^ 
Bojnton  of  Templeton,  MsAachusetts;  opened  m  1868)  is  o^^ 
of  the  best-equipped  technkxil  schools  of  college  rank  ia  the 
oountryv  in  i9ro  it  had  49  ■  instructors,  515  students  sod  a 
iibrasy  of  isi?oo  vols*}  the  baildiMgs  sraoaar  lastitui*  P^** 


l«8 


Qb  PadichiMic  'nm  or  Ml.  St 

aitk«e  of  the  Holy  Cnu,  Hiih  *  i 

1A43  by  Beoedja  J.  FenwklLi  bunop  01  Bsauv'uu  cnuicnn 

in  1B65;  in  lOiD  it  bad  je  iumclan  uid  450  (tuktiU.    Tben 

i*  >  SUU  NorinEl  School  (1874),  ud  cwMCUd  will)  it  a 

kindaffttai  IniBJng  jdiool  (1910). 

Tbe  dty  libiuy  (115,000  voli.),  loundcd  in  1859,  wn  one  o( 
the  fcrM  in  Ihe  couDliy  to  ba  open  on  Sunday.  There  are  four 
daily  M<nM>en,  ««  prioled  in  fnmli.  Fron  177s  to  1848 
wu  tmbliahed  l*n  ihe  wecUy  tdilion  of  Iha  Wtrcattr  Sfj, 
Btablilbnl  by  luiah  ThDmu  in  1770  is  Bam  u  iJie  Ueut- 
ikiuMs  Spy  uk]  removed  by  liiiB  to  Worcoter  at  the  outbreak 
ol  the  War  o[  Independence;  a  daily  edition  was  publiikcd 
Irom  1B4S  lo  i«04.  Early  In  Ike  14th  onlucy  llie  dly  wa*  >■ 
bapoitant  publitUng  unlre. 

Wormier  ir  one  ol  the  moM  iniKKaiU.  i»»i|t»fturiin 
ceatia  in  Stw  Engbrid:  in  i^oj  Iht  nheoi  tlie  faoory 
product  wai  tji,iA4,«ll],  nuUin|  Ibe  dLy  Ibifd  anoag  lb* 
dtia  o[  Uk  itnM.  Maattladur^  oi  haadwucaad  U»laa>  an 
early  dale  laid  the  lomdMion  fat  tba  praml  iItH  »■!  otbei 
BetaIrndiatriB,iDWhwb4*S%elaHthci>nkcnwa««nplo^Hl 
in  iqej.  A  lafSi  propottloB  in  emptoyed  in  Ibe  win  and  tin-. 
mifcins  bidvlifica,  one  (danl,  thai  ol  the  Aa^ecican  Sucl  and 
Wire  Company,  empkyhit  alwut  1000  haruh;  ta  I9ui  Iha  total 
Tahi*  ol  wiro'innk  m*  ti  ,it6,cK,  ifid  ol  louiidty  and  madrine 
riMp  pmducU  t7  jiT<oo5. 

The  int  pant  ol  land  in  (hi>  part  al  thc.Bladutcaw  VaUiT 
k  In  1<J7,  and  the  loHit.  "  ..«•-_ 


kl  out  in  October  166S.  In  iblE.Ba 
thcontbrcakol  King  FMIip'i  War.it  BUteKpataribahaiidoMA 
In  1M4  it  va  Milled  asaia  and  In  usie  w»  ctauwed  lo  Wor> 

ceiler  becatue  aevcral  leaden  in  the  KUleinent  nee*  aativea  oi 
Wolccitei,  England.  In  i}i)  thi  vicioiiy  waa  c^ieBod  up  to 
■rltlement,  a  tavera  and  a  mill  wers  conliucted,  and  a  tumpiki 
road  was  btlill  lo  Booton.  Worcester  nas  Incorporated  ns  a  town 
in  i;ii.  In  1755  a  small  colony  of  (he  eiilcd  Acadlans  settled 
here.  Al  theouibieaV  oE  the  Wai  oi  Indcpcndcna:  Wwmlcr  ini 
little  more  than  a  count ry  maAM  lown.  During  Shayi'i  Rebellion 
it  was  taken  by  the  rcbdi  and  the  rouru  were  cbied.  The 
first  real  impetus  to  its  groivlh  came  In  iSJs  wllhlhcconsttoclion 
al  the  Boston  &  Woiccsicr  railway,  andii  lecdviid  a  dty  chuiti 
In  1848.  The  itiniK  anti^lavay  ■enliiaent  oi  the  eily  led  in 
1B54  to  a  scriOL's  riot,  owing  to  an  apparent  atlempi  to  enforce 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.    In  Wor "' -*^--  -' 


I  of  it. 


1  Bigclow 
c;  Dr  Rus 


xof  IhccD 


IL.HoB 


:,  invei 


iach<ne 


(i7S^iS64), 

turning  imgalu  formi  Samuel  CnNnptoii  lijif-'^'j)  and 
Lucius  Jamea  Knowta  (1S19-1884),  Ihc^rfociorsol  the  modem 
kioni;  aid  Draper  Kug^ei,  Jud  l^ourte  and  J.  C.  Ussob,  pcl- 
leclanid  the  modem  plough  and  origiBatoiaal  nwny  invenlimi* 
In  agikuUunl  machinery- 
See  F.  E.  BtjVci  ImtHnli  tf  ilu  FitH  and  SroMit  SMaifUi  tf 
WoiUMUr  (Wotralcr.  I«H):  Wm.  Lincoln.  HiUiirj  »/  H'oricJI.r  U 
lSs6  (Wormier.  183;);  al»  a-c  Htcndcd  to  1861  ty  Chirln 
Wcr^y  IWorrtiTtr.  ilfei);  D.  H.  Hunt,  '"""^^^"'r  f?^ 

I»  Wy  S'Wmulir  (Womlw.  1«0)  i"  C.  F.  JewHU  HiiW*  f 
Wuraair  Cinpuy  (3  vol*.,  Wonmer.  ie;«);  the  CnUccliau  aod  hif 
atdinn  llSBl  v|q.)of  the  WorcnlnSocielyal  Anliquily  [iuUtuled 
fo  1877)- 

WORCESTBBIHIBB.  a  midland  county  of  England,  bounded 
N.  by  Staffordshire,  E.  by  Waiwickahirc,  S.  by  CloucoUnhiie, 
W.  by  HenfonWiire,  and  N.W,  by  Shropshire.  TIk  area  it 
7;i  H].  m.  It  coven  a  portion  of  Ihe  rich  vall^s  of  the  Severp 
and  Avon,  with  Ihdr  Iribuury  valleys  and  the  hills  Kpurrtrng 
them.  The  Severn  runs  through  the  county  Iiom  N.  at  Bewdley 
toS.  Mir  TewlLCibury,  mversing  the  Vale  ol  Wortntei.  Follow- 
ing this  diiiflion  it  receiws  fiooi  Ibe  E.  the  Stour  al  Slourporl, 
the  S^woipe  abot«  Warcealer,  and  the  Avon,  wboae  poiit  ol 
i«Mt(*BiajuUaulaidt  the  county.    Tka  Avon  ralley  ii  knoan 


lUaMntyu  H^VateorEvMluat,  ttiidbtera4ed  U  itUnk 
id  [Horkei  gardentng.    Tho  CoKowiM  Milk  riu  •haipty  f  ran 

on  the  5.Z.,  of  whirh  Bredon  Hill,  within  this  county,  i| 
Avon  forms  Ibe  county  boundary 


-ilk 


ouLb. 


The  Teme  joins  the  Sorera  fnm  the  W.  below  Woiceiler.  ai 
foritis  short  siretches  of  Ibe  W.  ixnindaTX.  Sajmon  and  lam- 
preys are  taken  in  the  Severn;  Irout  and  grayling  abound  Is 
the  Teme  and  ila  feedera.  Beside*  tha  Couesniolds,  the  m«t 
hnportanl  hills  an  Ihe  Halvon  and  the  Uckey  oc  Ha^ey 
ranges.  The  Malvems  tbc  abruptly  from  the  flat  Vale  ol 
WoicesLei  on  tbe  W.  boundary,  being  putly  la  Herefordshire, 
and  leatk  a  belghi  of  ijoj  fu  in  the  Wmteict  Beacon,  and 
IT14  in  the  Hereford  Beacon.  Tliey  are  dividEd  by  Ibe  Teme 
from  a  lower  N.  continusthw,  the  Abberley  HEDs.  The'U:key 


county  are  tie  sit. 
hordAriag  ihe  Sever 


iljlvciran)  aixl  volar 


:alled  the  Cknt  Hills.  Farlly  within  lb« 
1!  Iwo  andent  forcUs.  That  of  Wyn, 
in  the  W.  in  the  N.  «£  WotccstciBhiie  and 

but  Uaivcia  Chue,  which  clothed  the  slopes  ol  the  MalVcra 
Hills,  is  hardly  reeogniaakle. 

dEiT3t>le  nKin  in  the  dntrkt.  tbey  lorm  the  highnt  gTTTund.    SlAkiUriy 

Hilh  near  Pimmi^iii  i     They  aro  utcoMded  by  ttte  Cambiiui  rocba 
(HoU/Uub  Sandstone  and  Malvcin  Shale:),  which  arc  wcU  developed 


«dLn^*S^W  ofc£kiviciaBW?b2iiSSl™iB  '^'-~ •■■- 

ihe  Siluriu  locki  iist  uocaafiirinably  on  the  carii 
they  iniliidc  ibe  Vpaa  LlindoiTiy.  Wenloct  and 
Thnc  dip  Menty  WT Ircra  the  Malvem  ntid  Ahbeitiy  I 
under  the  Old  Red  SaKbtmijwnBiif  the  Icmbijai 

IhTTn^udidnmestones  ^Wwihopc,"' 

an  io>n«nled  in  Ibe  Malvern  dittr>< 

-•iicccedi theSnurianonlhaW. boidenoKinecoumy.    inei.an)ons» 

ItTouB  LiiMsUM  nd  UillMOneCrit  wenold^onted.  lolhal  Ibe 

CoaJ  Mcnaurcs  rest  umxHiformably  on  ibo  older  rocks.    Tlicu  are 

iepie»eni«l  in  (be  Wyn:  Fomt  coalfield  near  Bewdlcy  and  in  (he  S, 

end  ofrte  S.  StaflcHtWlfrC  coalfirfd  near  Hnlewweni  Ihcy  conlohl 

Bnupcd  with  ihc  Coar>.lcaiiiEes;  tome  iniercalalfll  bmcioi  cap  ili« 

aKamt  the  o4der. rocks  of  (he  Malvema;  they  Injude  the  Bunrcr 

Ihe  bvU  of  fDck.^t  in  the  latter  yiddii^  briiie.BpnnEi  (Droitwielu 
Stoke  rrioi).  A  narrow  and  stldoio-ciroscd  ouicmp  of  Rh.ietie 
beds  iiMraduces  the  marine  Uaiaie  fArmatlon  which  occopitt  nott 
of  the  &E.  ol  theoOuniyi  the  Lower  Lin  caaiktaol  blue  diya  and 
hnettonesi  Ihe  latter  are  bunt  lor  liait  vd  yield  abwodaai 
outes.  The  BKband  limeuennol  Ihe  Middle  L»sand  ihe 
lofihc  tipper  Lias  qie  present  In  ihc  lower  *Topcs  of  Brtdon  Tiln 


IV  OM  Red  SartdiloM 


uaanik 

Jidofib 


priodpal  grain  cropa.   Tun_, ^-- — . 

green  crop  acnaec.  and  potatoes  on  abngi 
flere  II  a  (onirdeiable  acreage  under  beans,    lo  the 
of  Worwstee  riiere  sir  Inge  nurseries. 
In  Ibe  N.  Wimster  iacli^ee  •  portion  of  tte  Bheh 
ol  Ibe  iBMi.asiive  isdawial  diuicts  in  England. 

,, ertoo  and   Bricrlcy  Bill.  StouibndEe,  ItalesooeB, 

OVlbirn'  and  the  S  and  W.  suburbi  of  BlrtrlnEhim,  havi:  >  vn<t 

KQuVatlon  tTiEaiTd  in  {nm-WDrkirre  in  all  llsbranehei.  f  iaiii«|rt*cel>- 
1  wDita  u  nail^iuifag.  bi  Iht  faundhicand  cocIiMwin,  ■JvAnio 

WUgtee  u  famoiia  for  porcelain,  Kiddeniriniicr  fpt  cjrjeji  4.-4 


8^4 


WORC£ST£RSHIR£ 


ltoddltchferiwdht.iAlwolM,Afc  Sdt  b  pradueed  fiiom  brine  at 

Pfoitwidi  and  Scoke.  The  fireclays  and  limeeume  of  the  N.  unite 
with  the  coal  measures  to  form  a  basis  of  the  industries  in  the  Black 
Country.  Furniture,  ck>thing  and  paper>maldnK  and  leather-work- 
iflf  are  also  impaartant. 

•  Commimicatumsj^Thft  Great  WfMem  railway  eerves  Svesham, 
Worcester.  DrDitwich  and  Kidderminetcr,  with  branches  from 
Worcester  to  Malvern  and  into  HerefonUure.  from  Kidderminster 
to  Tenbury  and  the  W.,  and  from  the  same  junction  to  Dudley 
and  Birmiiwham.  The  London  ft  North- Western  system  touches 
Dudley.  The  Midland  company's  line  between  Derby,  Binning:haMi 
and  Bristol  runs  from  N.  to  S.  thraurii  the  countyi  with  a  branch 
diveivng  throush  Droitwich  and  Worcester,  another  serving 
Malvern  from  Asnchurch,  and  an  alternative  route  from  Birmingham 
to  Ashdiurcb  by  Redditch  and  Evesham.  The  Severn  is  an  hn- 
portant  highway;  the  Avon,  though  locked  up  to  Eveshaan.  is  littto 
used  save  by  pleasure^Mats.  Canab  foUow  the  counes  of  the  Stour 
and  the  Salwaipe,  and  serve  the  towns  of  the  Black  Country. 

Admimstraium  and  Pvpulatim.'—'The  area  of  the  ancient 
county  is  480,560  acres,  with  a  population  in  1901  of  488,338. 
Tlie  area  of  iht  administrative  counfy  h  480,059  acres,  "nie 
county  is  of  very  irregular  shape,  and  has  detached  portions 
endaved  in  Htfefordshire,  Staffordshire,  Warwickshire  and 
Cloucesteidiire.  It  comprises  five  hundreds,  like  munidpal 
boroughs  are  Bewdlcy  (2866),  Droitwich  (4901),  Dudley  (48,733)> 
Evesham  (7101),  Kidderminster  (24,681)  and  Worcester  (46,624). 
Dudley  and  the  city  and  county  town  of  Worcester  are  county 
boroughs.  The  urban  districts  are  Bromsgrove  (8418),  King's 
Norton  and  Northfield  (57,122;  forming  a  S.  suburb  of  Birming- 
ham), Lye  and  WoUcscote  (10,976;  adjacent  to  Stourbridge), 
Malvern  (16,449).  North  Bromsgrove  (5688),  Oldbury  (25,191), 
Redditch  (i3r493)>  Stourbridge  (16,302)  and  Stourport  (4529)* 
Balesowen  (4057),  Pefshore  (3348),  Tenbury  (2080)  and  Upton-^ 
upon-Sevem  (2225)  may  be  mentioned  among  other  towns, 
llie  county  is  in  the  Oxford  circuit,  and  assizes  are  held  at 
Worcester.  It  has  one  court  of  quarter-sessions,  and  is  divided 
iAto  17  petty  sessional  divisions.  Worcester  and  Dudley  have 
separate  courts  of  quarter-sessions,  and  all  the  boroughs  have 
commissions  of  the  peace.  The  total  number  of  civil  parishes 
is  239.  The  ancient  county,  which  is  mostly  in  the  diocese  of 
Worcester,  with  a  few  parishes  in  that  of  Hereford,  contains 
231  ecclesiastical  parishes  or  districts  wholly  or  in  part.  The 
county  contains  five  parliamentary  divisions — West  or  Bewdley, 
East,  South  or  Evoham,  Mid  or  Droitwich,  and  North  or 
Oldbury.  The  parliamentaiy  boroughs  of  Kidderminster  and 
Worcester  return  one  member  each,  and  parts  of  the  boroughs 
of  Dudley  and  Birmingham  are  included  in  the  county. 

History. — ^The  earliest  English  settlers  inthedistrict  now  known 
as  Worcestershire  were  a  tribe  of  the  Hwiccas  of  Gloucestershire, 
who  spread  along  the  Severn  and  Avon  valleys  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury. By  679  the  Hwiccan  kingdom  was  formed  into  a  separate 
diocese  with  its  see  at  Worcester,  and  the  Hwiccas  had  made 
themsdves  masters  of  the  modem  county,  with  the  exception 
of  the  N.W.  comer  beyond  the  Abbcrlcy  Hills.  From  this  date 
the  town  of  Worcester  became  not  only  the  religious  centre  of 
the  district,  but  the  chief  point  of  trading  and  military  communi- 
cation between  England  and  Wales.  A  charter  of  the  reign  of 
Alfred  alludes  to  the  erection  of  a  "  burh  '*  at  Worcester  by 
Edward  and  i£thelflead,  and  it  was  after  the  recovery  of  Merda 
from  the  Danes  by  Edward  that  the  shire  originated  as  an 
administrative  area.  The  fint  political  event  reconJed  by  the 
Saxon  Chronicle  in  Worcestershire  is  the  destruction  of  Worcester 
by  Hardicanute  in  1041  In  revenge  for  the  murder  of  two  of  his 
tax-gatherers  by  the  citizens. 

In  no  county  has  the  monastic  movement  played  a  more 
important  part  than  in  Worcestershire.  Foundations  existed 
at  Worcester,  Evesham,  Pershore  and  Ftadbury  in  the  8th 
century;  at  Great  Malvcm  in  the  nth  century,  and  in  the  t2th 
and  x3th  centuries  at  l^^ittle  Malvern,  Westwood,  Bordcsley, 
Whistones,  CookhiU,  Dudley,  Halesowen  and  Astiey.  At  the 
tfane  of  the  Domesday  Survey  more  than  half  Worcestershire  was 
b  the  hands  of  the  church.  The  church  of  Worcester  hdd  the 
triple  hundred  of  Oswaldslow,  with  sudi  privileges  as  to  oxdude 
the  sherifiTs  jurisdiction  entirely,  the  profiu  of  all  the  local 
CMits  accruing  10  the  bishop,  whose  faaiKib  in  1976  chined 


to  hold  his  hundred  outside  Worcester,  at  Dfyhwst,  and  it 
Wlmbomtree.  The  two  hundreds  owned  by  the  church  of  Wcii* 
minster,  and  that  owned  by  Pershore,  had  in  the  13th  ccntaiy 
been  combined  to  form  the  hundred  of  Perehore,  while  the 
hundred  of  Evesham  owned  by  Evesham  Abbey  had  been  om- 
verted  into  Blakcnhurst  hundred;  and  the  irregular  boundsria 
and  outlying  portions  <rf  these  htundreds  are  eaq>laincd  by  thdr 
having  been  formed  out  of  the  scattered  cndowmenu  of  thai 
eedesiastkal  owners.  Of  the  remaining  Domesday  hnnditdi, 
Came,  Ctent,  Cresselaw  and  Each  had  been  combined  to  form  tie 
hundred  of  Halfshire  by  the  i3th  century,  while  Doddingtm 
remained  unchanged.    The  shire-court  was  held  at  Worcester. 

The  vast  possessions  of  the  church  prevented  the  growth  d 
a  great  territorial  aristocracy  in  Worcestershire,  and  Dudky 
Castle,  which  passed  from  William  Flts-Anacolf  to  the  famifia 
of  Paynd  and  Someri,  was  the  sole  residence  of  a  feudal  baioa 
The  Domesday  fief  of  Uise  d'Abitot  the  sheriff,  founder  d 
Worcester  Castle,  and  <^  hb  brodier  Robert  le  I>c8penserpa«d 
in  the  12th  century  to  the  Beauchamps,  who  owned  Elmkf 
and  Hanley  Castles.  The  possessions  of  William  Fita  Osben 
in  Doddlngtree  hundred  and  the  TeMe  talley  ieU  to  the  crows 
after  his  rebellion  in  1074  and  passed  to  the  Mortimeta.  Bsnkjr 
Castle  and  Malvern  Chase  were  gmated  by  Henry  HI.  to  Gilhat 
de  Claro,  with  exemption  from  the  sheriffs  jurisdiction. 

The  eariy  political  hiftofy  of  Wercesteishire  centres  round  Ik 
dty  of  Worcester.  In  the  Civil  War  of  the  r7th  cent luy  WoroesM' 
shire  was  conspicuot»ly  \oytL  On  the  retreat  of  Eisex  froa 
Worcester  in  164s  the  dty  was  occupied  by  Sir  William  Ki»dl 
for  the  king,  and  only  surrendered  in  1646.  In  1641  Prim 
Rupert  defeated  the  pti^iamentary  troops  near  Powicic  Saddey 
Castle  sunendered  in  1644,  and  Dudley  and  Haitlebaty  bjr 
command  of  the  king  in  1646^ 

The  Droitwich  sah-hidattry  was  very  important  at  the  time  of  the 
Domesday  Survey,  BnMMgrove  aloae  acadmg  300  cartloads  of  «wd 
yeariy  to  the  salt-works,  la  the  lAtb  and  l^  centuries  Boirdcsfcy 
monastery  and  the  abbeys  of  Evesham  and  Penhore  exported  wm 
to  the  Florentine  and  Flemish  markets,  and  in  the  i6th  century  the 
Worcestershire  dothing  industry  gave  employment  to  8000  pcoqk; 
fnrit*culture  with  the  nuuiufacture  of  dder  and  perry,  nuA-toainng 
and  giaM-making  also  flourished  at  this  period.  The  clothing  in- 
dustry declined  m  the  17th  century,  but  the  silk-manufacture  R- 
placed  it  at  Kidderminster  and  Blockley.  Coal  and  iron  were  mined 
at  Dudley  in  the  13th  century. 

As  eany  as  1295  Worcestenhire  was  represented  by  sixieca 
members  in  parliament,  returning  two  knights  for  the  shire  and  t«o 
buigcsscs  each  for  the  dty  of  Worcester  and  the  boroughs  of  BroB» 

frovc,  Droitwich,  Dudley,  Evesham,  Kidderminster  and  Pershorfc 
Vith  the  exception  of  Droitwich,  however,  which  was  rcprescntM 
until  131 1  and  again  lenoveied  representation  in  1554.  the  ooroucu 
ceased  to  make  returns.  Evesham  was  ro-enfranchised  in  160a.  and 
in  1606  Bewdley  returned  one  member.  Under  the  Reform  ^ctct 
1832  the  county  returned  four  members  in  two  divisions;  I>roltwrai 
lost  one  member;  Dudley  and  Kidderminster  were  re^cnfranchised, 
returning  one  member  eadu    In  1867  EVedam  lost  one  member. 

AntiquUies. — ^Remains  of  eariy  camps  are  scarce,  but  there  ve 
examples  at  Berrow  Hill  near  the  Teme,  W.-  of  Wbroestcr,  st 
Round  Hill  by  Spetchley,  3  m.  E.  of  Worcester,  and  on  the 
Herefordshire  Beacon.    Roman  remains  have  been  discovered 
on  a  few  sites,  as  at  Kempsey  on  the  Severn,  S.  of  Worcester, 
at  Riffle,  in  the  S.  near  Upton,  and  at  Drdtwich.    There  sre 
remains  of  the  great  abbeys  at  Evesham  and  Pershore,  and  the 
fine  priory  chuech  at  Malvern,  besides  the  cathedral  at  Worcester* 
There  are  further  monastic  remains  at  Halesowen  and  at  Bordcsley 
near  Redditch,  and  there  was  a  Benedictine  priory  at  Astley« 
3  m.  S.W.  of  Stourport.    There  are  fine  ehurches  in  several  of 
the  larger  towns,  as  Bromsgrove.    The  village  churches  are 
generally  of  mixed  styles.   Good  Norman  work  remains  in  those 
of  Manlcy.  8  m.  N.W.  of  Worcester,  Astlcy,  Rous  Lendi  in  ibe 
Evesham  district,  Bredon  near  Pershore,  and  Bockleton  in  the 
N.W.  of  the  county;  while  the  Eariy  English  churches  (^ 
Kempsey  and  Ripple  are  noteworthy.  In  domestic  architccittre, 
the  haK-timbered  style  adds  to  the  plcturesqueness  of  vany 
streets  in  the  towns  and  vi0ages;  and  ameng  covintty  houses 
this  style  is  well  exemplified  in  Birts  Morton  Court  and  Esstiar 
ton  HaB,  in  the  dfstrict  S.  of  Malvcm,  in  Elmlcy  Lovett  'Manor 
hetweea  Draitwidi  and  KSddenaittseer.  and  in  PIrtoa  Oourt  aeit 


WORDSWOHTH,  C.~WORDSWORTH,  D. 


82s 


Xempsey.    Westvood  Pailt  is-»  nuuMimi  of  tlie  16th  And  lyik 

centuries,  with  a  picturesque  gatehouse  of  brick;  the  site  was 

fonneriy  occupied  by  a  Benediaine  Bunnery.    Madres6eld 

Court,  between  Worcester  and  MaWem,  embodies  remains  d 

a  fine  Eiisabethan  moated  mansion. 

See  Victoria  County  History,  Wannlerikirt;  T.  R.  Nash.  CMfo»> 
turns  for  the  History  ^  Woreesterskire  (a  vob.,  London,  1781-1799); 
Sir  Charles  Hastings.  Ittustrations  oflhe' Natural  History  of  Worcester- 
skire  (London,  TSI4):  W.  D.  Curzon,  Mdnufacturiui  industries  at 
Worcestershire  (Birmingham,  I8S3);  W.  &  Brusington,  Historic 
Woreester^nre  (Birmingham,  1893).  See  also  puUicationa  of  th^ 
Worcester  Historical  Society. 

WORDSWORTH,  CHARLES  (1806-1892),  Scottish  bishops 
90D  of  Christopher  Wordsworth,  Master  of  Trinity,  was  bom  in 
London  on  the  sand  of  August  1806,  and  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  Us  was  a  brilliant  dasskal  scholar, 
and  a  Iaidous  cricketer  and  athlete;  he  waa  in  the  Harrow 
cricket  deven  in  the  first  regular  matches  idth  Gton  (1832) 
and  Winchester  (1825),  and  is  credited  with  bringfaig- about  the 
first  Oiiford  and  Cambridge  match  in  1827,  and  the  first  «aivetaity 
boat-aoe  in  182&,  in  both  of  which  he  took  part.  He  won  the 
ChanceUor's  Latin  verse  at  Oxford  in  1827,  and  the  LaUn  eaiay 
in  1831,  and  took  a  fiEsL-dass  in  dassks.  From  1830  to  1833  hit 
had  as  pupils  a  number  of  men  (indnding  W.  £.  Gladstone  and 
H.  £.  Manning)  who  afterwaida  became  famoua.  He  the* 
travelled  abroad  during  1833-1834,  and  alter  a  year's  work  at 
tutor  At  Christ  Church  (1834-1835)  was  appointed  second  master 
at  Winchester.  He  had  previously  taken  holy  orders,  though  he 
only  became  priest  in  1840,  and  he  had  a  strong  reUgioua  influence 
with  the  boys.  In  1839  he  brought  out  fa^  Greek  Crmmar, 
which  had  a  great  success.  In*  184^,  however,  he  resigned; 
and  then  accepted  the  wardenship  of  Trinity  College,  Clenahnond, 
the  new  Scottish  Episcopal  pubUc  school  and  divinity  coUege, 
where  he  remained  from  1847  to  1854*  having  great  educational 
success  in  all  oe^>ecti;  though  his  views  on  Scottish  Church 
questions  brought  him  into  opposition  at  some  important  pcnnts 
to  W.  £.  Gladstone.  In  1852  he  was  decied  bishc^  of  St  Andrews, 
Dunkdd  and  Dunblane,  and  was  omsecrated  in  Aberdeen  car^ 
next  year.  He  was  a  strong  supporter  of  the  establishmeot, 
but  conciliatory  towards  the  Fxtt  churches,  and  this  brought 
him  into  a  good  deal  of  controversy.  He  was  a  voluminous 
writer,  and  one  of  the  company  of  revbers  of  the  New  Testament 
Ci87»-i8&i),  among  whom  he  displayed  a  conservative  tendency. 
He  died  at  St  Andrews  on  the  5th  of  December  189a.  He  was 
twice  married,  first  in  1855  to  Charlotte  Day  (d«  1839),  and 
secondly  in  1846  to  Katherine  Mary  Barter  (d.  2897).  He  had 
thirteen  children  altogether. 

See  his  Annah  ef  my  BoHy  Life  {1891),  and  Annds  ^  UylASe, 
edited  by  W.  Earl  Hodgson  (1893);  also  The  E^iscopoU  0$  CkaOes 
Wordsvforth,  by  his  nephew  John,  bishop  of  Salisbury  (1899). 

WOBMWORTH,  CHRUIOPHEB  (1774-1846),  English 
divine  and  scholar,  youogest.brotber  of  the  poet  William  Woncb- 
worth,  wa$  bom  on  the  9th  of  June  i774»  nod  waa  educated  at 
Trinity  (Allege,  Cambridte»  where  be  became:  •  fdlow  in  1798. 
Twdve  years  later  he  received  the  degree  of  D  J).  He  took  holy 
orders,  and  obtained  successive  preferments  throngh  the  patron- 
age of  Manners  Sutton,  bishop  of  Norwich,  afterwards  (1805) 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to  whose  son  Charles  (afterwards 
Speaker  dF  the  House  of  Commons,  and  v^count  Canterbury) 
be  had  been  tutor.  He  had  in  1802  attracted  attention  by  his 
defence  of  Granville  Sharp's  then  novel  canon  "  on  the  uses  of 
the  d^nitive  artide"  in  New  Testament  textual  criticism.  In 
tSio  he  published  an  EccletiasUaU  Bwgrapky  in  6- volumes. 
On  the  death  of  Bishop  Mansel,  in  1820,  he  was  dected  Master 
of  Trinity,  and  retained  that  position  till  1841,  when  he  resigned. 
He  is  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  modem  "  classical  tripos," 
since  he  bad,  as  vice-chancellor,  originated  in  1821  a  proposal  for 
a  public  examfaiation  In  classics  and  divinity,  which,  though  then 
rejected,  bore  fruit  in  1822.  Otherwise  his  mastership  was  un- 
distinguished, and  he  was  not  a  popular  head  with  the  coUcee. 
He  died  on  the  rnd  of  Febmaiy  1846,  at  Buxted.  In  his  Who 
vrote  Ikon  BasHikef  (1824),  and  in  other  writings,  he  advocated 
^De  claims  of  Charles  I.  to  its  authorship;  and  in  1836  he 


niihliihrd  in  a  v<dlttmes«  a  work  of  Ckrislkm  MUimles,  sdtcted 

from  English  divines^    He  married  in  1804  Mim  PrisdUa  Lioyd 

<d.  i8ts),  a  sister  of  Charles  Lamb's  friend  Charka  Lloyd;  and 

he  had  three  sons,  John  W.  (1805-1839),  Charles  {f-u.),  and 

Chriatopber  (f.e.);  the  two  latter  both  became  bishops,  and 

John,  who  became  a  fellow  and  dasaical  lecturer  at  Trinity 

College,  Cambridge,  was  an  industrious  and  emdite  schdar. 

WORDSWORTH,  CHRISflOPHER  (1807-1885),  English  bishop 

and  man  of  letters,  youngest  son  of  Christopher  Wordsworth, 

Master  of  Tihuty,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  30th  of  October 

1807,  and  waa  educated  at  Winchester  and  Trinity,  Cami- 

bridge.    He,  like  his  brother  Charles,  was  distingnidied  as  an 

athlete  as  wed  as  for  scholarship.  He  became  senior  classic^ 

and  waa  dtcted  a  feUow  and  tutor  of  Trinity  in  1830;  shortly 

afterwards  he  took  holy  orders.    He  went  for  a  totir  in  Greece 

in  x83»-i833,  and  published  various  works  on  its  ti^wgiaphy 

and  archaeok^,  the  most  famous  of  which  is  "  Wordsworth's  " 

Creeu  (1839).    In  1836  he  became  Public  Orator  at  Cambrid^ 

and  in  rite  same  year  waa  appointed  headmaster  of  Harrow') 

a  post  he  resigned  in  1844.    He  then  became  a  canon  of  West^ 

tauasler,  and  from  1850  to  1870  he  held  a  country  living  In 

Berkshire.    In  1865  he  was  made  archdeacon  of  Westminster, 

and  in  1869  bishop  of  Lincoln.    He  died  on  the  30th  of  Mardi 

1885.    He  waa  n  man  of  fine  character,  with  a  high  ideal  of 

ecdesiaslical  duty,  and  he  spent  his  money  generoudy  on  church 

objects.    As  a  schoho'  he  is  best  Imown  for  his  edition  of  the 

Greek  New  Testament  (1856-18(0),  and  the  O^d  Testomeia 

(1861-X870),  with  commentaries;  hot  his  writings  were  many 

in  number,  and  induded  a  volume  of  devotional  verse,  Tkt 

Holy  Year  (i80a),  Ckw^ek  History  up  to  JLD.  451  (1881-1883), 

and  Uemoirs  of  his  uncle  the  poet  (1851),  to  wlxmi  he  was  literary 

executor.  His  Inseriptumes  Pompeianae  (1837)  was  an  important 

contribution  to  epigraphy.  He  married  in  1838  Susanna  Hartley 

Frere  (d.  1884),  and  had  a  family  of  seven;  the  eldest  son  was 

John  (b.  1843),  bishop  of  Salisbury  (1885),  and  author  of  Prag- 

menis  of  Early  Latin  (1874);  the  eldest  daughter,  Elizabeth 

(b.  1840),  was  the  first  principal  (1879)  of  Lady  Margaret  Hall, 

Oxford. 

Hb  life,  by  J.  H.  Overton  and  Elizabeth  Wordsworth,  was  pub- 
lished in  1888I 

WORDSWORTH,  DOROTHY  (1771-1855),  Englidi  writer 
and  diarist,  was  the  third  child  and  only  daughter  of  John 
Wordsworth  of  Cockcnnouth  and  his  wife,  Anne  Cool^n- 
Crackantboipe.  The  poet  William  Wordsworth  was  her 
brother  and  a  year  her  senior.  On  the  death  of  her  father  in 
1783,  Dorothy  found  a  home  at  Penrith,  in  the  house  of  her 
maternal  grandfather,  and  aifterward&  for  a  time  with  a  maided 
lady  at  Halifax.  In  1787,  on  the  death  of  the  elder  William 
Cookson,  she  was  adopted  by  her  uncle,  and  lived  in  his  Norfolk 
parish  of  Fomtett.  She  and  her  brother  William,  who  dedicated 
to  his  sister  the  Evening  Walk  of  1792,  were  early  drawn  to  one 
another,  and  in  1794  they  visited  the  Lakes  together.  They 
determined  that  it  would  be  best  to  combine  thdr  small  capitals, 
and  that  Dorothy  should  keep  house  for  the  poet.  Flrom  this 
time  forth  her  life  ran  on  lines  dosdy  parallel  to  those  of  her 
great  brother,  whose  companion  she  continued  to  be  till  hisdeatb« 
It  is  thought  that  they  made  the  acquaintance  of  Coleridge  hi 

»797. 

From  the  autumn  of  1795  to  July  1797  William  and  Dorothy 
Wordsworth  took  up  thdr  abode  at  Racedown,  In  Dorsetshire^ 
At  the  latter  date  they  moved  to  a  large  manor-bouse,  AlfoxdeUg 
in  the  N.  slope  of  the  (^uantock  hills,  in  W.  Somerset,  S.  T.  CoIe'> 
ridge  about  the  same  time  settling  near  by  in  the  town  of  Nether 
Stowey.  On  the  20th  of  January  1798  Dorothy  Wordsworth 
b^an  her  invaluable  Journal^  used  by  successive  biographeia  of 
her  brother,  but  first  printed  in  ica  qnasfr«ntirety  by  Pkufeilor 
W.  Knight  in  1897.  The  Wordswoxths,  Cderidge,  and  Chester 
left  En^and  for  Germany  on  the  14th  of  September  1798;  and 
of  this  journey  also  Dorothy  Wordsworth  pieaerved  an  account  ^ 
portions  of  which  were  published  in  1897.  On  the  14th  of  May 
1800  she  started  another  Journal  at  Gnomere,  winch  she  kept 
very  fuMy  until  the  3<st  of  Deopmher  of  Uk  avne  yanc   fihv 


WORDSWORTH,  W. 


tMningd  it  00  tbe  ittotjuiutty  iBcnIaruMtbatinlveinonllB, 

ekmag  m  ibc  iilh  of  Januuy  iSoj.  TbcM  WRC  pHntcd  fint 
in  iSa^.  She  campntcd  JtaallaJiimt  fj  t  Ti>*r  in  Si^ttltaal,  in 
tSoj,  wilh  her  biDIha  uid  CatcridgE;  this  «u  Gnt  publiiliid 
to  1874.  HcT  next  CDDIiibutkin  to  tlie  Eunily  hatory  wu  her 
/ninuf  (/ 1  if niiKsn  AwUs,  in  November  1805,  u  urounl  of 
B  walkjng  tour  tn  Ibe  Lake  dntikt  with  her  broLhei.    la  July 


of  wbidi  Dorothy  prwrvvd  »  very  ur^  ntord,  portioni  of 
ubidi  wne  given  to  ihe  miU  in  1884,  the  irriter  tuving  refuKd 
to  publiih  it  in  1814  on  the  ([toibuI  Ihit  iit  "  objecl  WM  not  to 
Bake  L  book,  hut  to  leave  to  Iser  niece  a  neatiy-penned  memorial 
o£  thoK  few  inlcTBting  loonths  of  our  lives.'*  Meanwhite, 
witlioul  hit  bnXha,  but  in  the  compiny  oi  Joaniu  Hutchiman. 
DoTBthy  Wotdtwonh  had  InveUci]  ova  Scotlud  la  iSii, 
*nd  had  BompoKd  a  liamti  of  tlvl  Idut.  Other  MSS,  eiiu 
tad  have  been  emnlned  oiefuUy  by  the  editon  and  hbgnpben 
of  Uu  poeta.  but  the  reaitdi  whih  we  have  mentioned  and  her 
^tcn  Ion  Che  prindpaJ  htetary  teltr*  of  Dorolhy  Wordtwonh. 
'  bl  iBiD  ihe  wu  attacked  by  very  sedoiu  iUnen,  and  was  nerei 
■■■in  in  good  heallh.  After  iSj6  ihe  andd  not  be  coiuidirtfl 
M  be  in  poues^n  of  hci  mental  facidtiei,  and  became  a  pathetic 
RKmber  of  tlit  intenitiiig  hooicbald  ai  Gtaamere,  SAa  outlind 
tke  poet,  however,  by  Bcwral  yean,  dying  at  Gnimnt  on  the 
Ijth  o(  January  iSjs. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  exaggerate  tbe  traportatice  of  Dorothy 
Wocdtwotth'i  companionahip  to  her  illuatrioua  brother.     He 
twa  left   numeroui   tiibutca  to   it.   and  to  the  lympathetic 
Ly  of  her  perceptioni.     "  She,"  he  uJd, 


Andhu 


leloui 


The  value  of  the  records  preseived  by  Dorothy  Wordiwptth, 
especially  in  earlier  years,  is  hardly  to  he  ovet-catimatcd  by  those 
who  detiie  to  form  an  exact  imprca^on  of  the  revival  of  EngUih 
IMetry.  When  Wordswoclb  and  Coleridge  refaihioned  imagina- 
tive literature  at  the  cloK  of  the  iSth  century,  they  were  daily 
and  hourly  accompanied  by  a  feminine  presence  exquisitely 
attuned  to  sympathize  with  theii  eSorts,  and  by  an  intelligence 
frhich  was  able  and  ajixioiu  to  move  in  ilep  with  tbcji^ 
*  S.  T.  C.  and  my  beloved  siiter,"  William  Wordsworth  wrote 
In  iSji,  "ore  Ihe  two  beings  lo  whom  my  intellect  is  most 
indebted."  In  her  pages  we  can  put  our  hnger  on  the  very  pulse 
oC  the  machinei  we  ue  present  while  the  New  Poetry  is  evolved, 
and  the  sensitive  descrip Lions  in  ber  (HX»e  lack  nothing  but  the 
accomplishment  of  verse.  Moreover,  it  is  certain  that  the  shaip- 
neu  and  Gntnett  of  Dorothy's  observation,  "the  shooting  light* 
o(  hit  wild  eya,"  actually  aBoided  material  to  the  poeta. 
Coleridge,  lot  ioslance,  when  he  wrote  his  famous  lines  about 
"  The  one  red  leaf,  the  last  of  its  dan,"  used  almost  the  veiy 
mrdi  in  wluch,  on  the  7th  of  March  1798,  Dorothy  Woidiworth 


£  only  leaf  upon  the  tc^  of  a  . 
tnmd  and  round  like  a  rag  blown  by  the  wind." 

It  is  not  merely  by  the  biosiaph leal  value  of  be 

Wordiwonh  live*.    She  claTm!  an  fndependml 

ef  Eifliih  prne  as  one  el  tbe  very  ••rlieM  wi 

hnfuan  delicauly  cbasn,  and  with  no  ottaB 

uty,  the  Utile  [adura 

"air^add*! 


Me  bMwMD  iMgaad 
1  upon  her  broUter's  ^ 
jfwnHli,  Uka  hex  LeiU 
AZ^by£.Lce»a 
n.  when  PnfeHor  K.... 


wniiAM   (iTjs-ieso), 


<■  dw  7th  oi  April  ITTO-  H«  ma  tba  ton  of  John  Worinrorth 
(i}4>'iT>3),  u  ittiKwr,  UwAgnt  to  the  bM  tad  of  Lsudale, 
K  ptDVOW  BBo  In  hii  pislcaioB,  dtKOided  bom  an  oU 
Vetkahln  fsMfly  of  baded  polar-  Oa  Ibe  notbor't  ride  alu 
*"~' ^  ~»  eetioected  with  tk  middle  ttMoOii  cImi: 


hli  oMther,  Anne  Coatna,  *M  the  daughter  of  ■ 

mercer  In  Finriih,  but  ber  moibef  was  Dorothy  Ciukaotboriie, 

wboae  anceGlors  had  been  lords  of  the  majior  0'  "     '  ' 

FearithiliumthetioKofEdwardlU.   Helhus 

kin,  and  was  proud  of  it.   Ihe  a 


William  Wordsworth  ■ 

Richard  (1768-1S16), 

ChriMopber  (f.i.). 

Though  hit  parent*  ■ 


veifis  were  not  lax  *«**"|p 
=  out  of  sympathy  witb  it,  and  the 
unmon  MSDC*  and  convon  (oik  of  tfv 

I  dales  had  a  trawable  bendjtaiy  bias. 

II  one  of  a  bmily  of  five,  Ihe  otbon  bCmf 
l>on)thy  (i.».),  John  (r7;i-iaos),   aitd 


ra  of  Uuidy  iMck,  both  died  pRnatnxelr, 
nu  iDDcner  wnen  ne  waa  eight  year*  old,  hit  tathsT  when  he  wu 
IhinaD.  At  tho  age  of  eight  Wanhwonh  *ai  sent  t«  •chool 
at  Miwkihead,  in  tha  ^ihwaile  valley  in  Lancashire.  His 
latbtc  died  whlia  h*  wi*  ttee,  and  at  the  age  of  levBiteai  li« 
was  (eat  t»  St  }shn^  CbUtcc.  Cambtidge.  He  did  not  diatiit- 
guiab  Uaudf  In  the  stidlei  of  the  unlvtniiy,  and  for  none 
tuna  aher  taking  U>  degree  el  B^.,  in  Jinnry  i79i,lH*htnnd 
what  leemed  to  Ua  relalivat  a  n«t  perverte  reluctance  to  adofic 
any  regular  profeuion.  Hii  mother  had  T»ted  his  "  stiff,  moody 
tod  vloteot  temper  "  inchildboad,andhieenedatif  thitfanoly 
Jndgmatt  was  to  be  coofirmcd  in  his  manhood.  Afiei  taking 
hit  degree,  ha  was  preand  to  takt  holy  orders,  but  would  not; 
he  had  so  taste  for  Ihe  law;  he  idled  ■  few  monthi  tiilesaly 
in  London,  a  few  nwntb  man  with  *  Welth  coDege  friend, 
with  whom  he  had  rnada  ■  pedemlan  lour  In  FntBce  md  Swi  tjet- 
bind  during  hb  last  C^nbiMga  *acatian;  thai  in  tbe  November 
of  i;gi  he  crgMtd  lo  Fmikc,  oUenibly  to  leaiB  tha  tuguac*, 
made  the.  acqulntancB  el  revolMkHiute*.  lympuUied  with 
them  vriiemently,  and  wa*  within  ui  *«  of  tbtowbw  in  hk  lot 
with  the  Girondlns.  When  it  cane  to  tidt,  hi*  xbtlves  cu  ofl 
hit  nppUe*,  and  he  was  obliged  to  return  n  Londom  towsnls 
the  dose  of  1791.  But  ttUl  be  resisted  aU  premn  to  enter 
any  of  the  regular  pmfetaioiis,  published  his  poems  A*  Aem'sg 
tCoU  and  Datfiftiit  Simdia  m  1793,  and  In  >7M,  ttiU  moviag 
sbsul  lo  all  appearance  In  ttubbora  airaleuneN  tmmig  hk  ftienda 
and  rdatives,  had  iu>  more  rational  purpose  of  tlvdlhood  than 
dtawing  up  the  prospectus  of  a  periodkal  of  ttrictly  repubUcaa 
prindplet  10  be  eaMod  "  TTio  Philanthmpist," 

But  all  the  tine  fran  Mt  boyhood  upwardt  >  great  pnrpoia 
had  (Men  grcwbig  arid  matoritig  in  his  mind.  Tit  Fniadt 
eirpounds  in  lofty  impasidoned  strain  how  hit  tcnslbtUty  for 
nature  waa  "augmented  and  sustaizied,"  and  bow  it  tocver, 
except  for  a  briei  interval,  ceased  to  be  "  ctoalive  "  in  the  i|iecia] 
sense  of  hb  nibiequent  Tkraey.  But  It  It  niih  his  (cethigi  to- 
wards ULture  that  Tkc  Prrlndf  mabily  deal);  It  says  Utile 
regarding  Ihe  history  of  hit  ambition  to  express  tfiose  feeling*  in 
vene.  It  is  the  autobiography,  not  of  Ihe  poet  of  natare,  but 
of  the  wonhipper  and  prfcU.  TlH  tahent  inddeata  in  the  UiKvy 
of  the  poet  be  11— n  in  Hint  tn  I  in  pioie  note*  and  hi  familiBi 
ditcaune*.    Coatmeatbig  on  the  couplet  In  the  Aenng  VaU— 

Itadarliefliagbeaghiand  leaves  in  ttroager  liAS*—" 

he  said: 


with  them;  «iwf  /  awr  a  rtatmtian  la 
t^flujr.    I  ondd  not  11  that  dae  han 

e  wrote,  as  a  school  taak  at  Havltsbetd, 

[derable  acqualntUKe  with  the  poeta  of 


making.'     The  fragment  that  stand*  w 
i>r  WiUUm  WurisiDtrlk.  by  Canoi  WotdtwoRh,  toL^L 


WJORDSWDRTH;  W. 


827 


»rtiT***g  «tf  hift  ^Acfited  woito,  fSMfduiff  •  aetoluUDn  lo  tod 
his  Kfd  NBOBg  hk  native  bilb.  was  tke  oondiisifMi  ol « long  poem 
written  while  he  was  still  at  school  Aadr  un4istinguiihed  as 
he  was*  at  Cambridce  in  tfie  contest  for  academie  Iioni0iim»  the 
£9erimg  Walk^  bis  fint  pnbh'cation*  was  wiitlen  during  his 
vacations.^  He  pubUsbed  it  in  1793,  to  show,  as  he  said,  that 
he  oould  do  sonethinf,  allhodgh  he  had  not  distinguished  hiaself 
in  univetaity  woric.  There  ate  touches  here  and  there  of  the 
bent  o£  imaginatioD  that  became  dominant  in  hia  soon  afCe^ 
wards,  aotably  in  the  moral  aspiration  that  acoonpanies  his 
Rtmtmtfanu  of  CoUnu  on  the  Thames.**— 

"  O  glide,  fair  stream!  for  ever  so 
Thy  quiet  soul  on  all  bestowing, 
Till  all  our  min<h  for  ever  flow 
As  thy  deep  waters  now  are  floWiag.** 

But  in  the  main  this  first  publication  represents  the  pectin  the 

stage  described  in  the  twelfth  book  of  The  Prelude:-^ 

"  Bent  overmuch  on  superficial  things,  ' 
Pampering  mywlf  with  meagre  novettiee  ' 
Qf  colour  and  proportion;  to  the  moods 
Of  time  and  season,  to  the  inoral  power. 
The  affections,  and  the  spirit  of  the  place 
Insensible." 

But,  though  he  had  not  yet  found  his  distinctive  aim  as  a  poet, 
he  was  inwardly  bent  upon  poetry  as  "  his  office  upon  earth.** 

In  this  determination  he  was  strengthened  by  his  sister 
Dorothy  iq-v.),  who  with  rare  devotion  consecrated  her  life 
henceforward  to  his  service.  A  timely  legacy  enabled  them  to 
cany  their  purpose  into  effect.  A  friend  of  his,  whom  he  had 
nursed  in  a  last  illness,  Raisley  Calvert,  son  of  the  steward  of 
the  duke  of  Norfolk,  who  had  large  estates  in  Cumberland,  died 
early  in  179$.  leaving  him  a  legacy  of  £900.  It  may  be  well  to 
notice  how  opportunely,  as  De  Quincey  half -ruefully  remarked, 
money  always  fell  in  to  Wordsworth,  enabling  hjm  to  pursue 
his  poetic  career  without  distraction.  Calvert's  bequest  came  to 
him  when  he  was  on  the  point  of  concluding  an  engagement 
as  a  journalist  in  London.  On  it  and  other  small  resources  he 
and  his  sister,  thanks  to  her  frugal  management,  contrived  to 
live  for  nearly  eight  years.  By  the  end  of  that  time  Lord 
Lonsdale,  who  owed  Wordsworth's  father  a  large  sum  for  prO' 
fessional  services,  and  had  steadily  refused  to  pay  it,  died,  and 
his  successor  paid  the  debt  with  interest.  His  wife,  Mary 
Hutchinson ,  whom  he  married  on  the  4th  of  October  1 802,  btx>ught 
him  lome  fortune;  and  in  18x3,  when  in  spite  of  his  plain  living 
his  family  began  to  presa  apon  his  income,  he  was  appointed 
stamp-distributor  for  Westmorland,  with  an  income  of  £500, 
afterwards  nearly  doubled  by  the  increase  of  his  district.  In 
X842,  when  he  resigned  his  stamp-distributorship^  Sir  Robert 
Peel  gave  him  a  Civil  List  pension  of  £300. 

To  return,  however,  to  the  course  of  his  life  from  the  time 
when  he  resolved  to  labour  with  all  his  powers  in  the  office  of 
poet.  The  first  two  years,  during  which  he  lived  with  his  self- 
sacrificing  sister  st  Racedown,  in  I>orsct,  were  spent  in  half- 
hearted and  very  imperfectly  successful  experiments,  satires 
in  imitation  of  Juvenal,  the  tragedy  of  The  Borderers,''  m6  a  poem 
in  the  Spenserian  stanza,  now  entitled  Cuik  and  Sorrow.  How 
much  longer  this  time  of  self -distrustful  endeavour  might  have 
continued  is  a  subject  for  curious  speculation;  an  end  was  put 
to  it  by  a  fortunate  incident,  a  visit  from  Coleridge,  who  had 
read  his  first  publication,  and  seen  in  it,  what  none  of  the  public 
critics  had  discerned,  the  advent  of  "  an  original  poetic  genius." 

mind."  The  resolution  to  supply  the  deficiencies  of  poetry  in  the 
exact  description  of  natural  appearances  was  probably  formed  while 
he  was  in  this  state  of  boyish  ecstasy  at  the  accidental  revelation  of 
his  own  pofwera.  The  date  of  his  begtnntnn  as  a  poet  is  eonfinned  by 
the  linca  in  The  Idioi  Bev.  written  in  179^ 

"  I  to  the  Muses  have  been  bound 
These  fourteen  years  by  strong  indentures." 
Mn  nk«  Prdnde,  book  iv..  he  speaks  of  himself  dariri^  his  fifH 
^'acation  as  "  hansaed  with  the  tou  of  verse,  mvcfa  paina  and  little 


'Not  published  till  184a.    For  the  history  of  this  tra^y 
Memoirs,  vol.  i.  p.  113;  for  a  sound,  if  severe,  criticism  of  it,  A.  C 
5*«nbume*s  Miseellomes,  p.  ilS.    And  yet  It  was  of  the  blank  ver* 


?. '  "«  Borderers  that  Coleridge  spoke  when  he  wrote  to  Cottle  that 
be  felt  a  lUilc  man  by  the^de  of  his  friend. " 


Stnbbom  and  Independcbt  as  Wordswoith  was,  he  needed  some 
ff iendly  voko  f torn,  the  outer  worid  to  give  him  confidence  in 
himself.  Colendao  icndertd  him  this  indispenaafale  servkb 
He  had  begun  to  seek  his  themca  in 

SoitMr,  that  la  not  sociow,  but  dehgfat  \ 
And  miserable  love,  that  is  not  pain 
To  hear  of,  for  the  glory  that  redounds 
Therefrom  to  human  kind,  and  what  we  are." 

He  read  to  his  visitor  one  of  these  experiments,  the  story  of  Xhe 
ruined  cottage,  afterwards  introduced  into  the  first  book  of 
The  Excursion,*  Coleridge,  who  had  already  seen  original  poetic 
genius  in  the  poems  published  before,  was  enthusiastic  in  hia 
praise  of  them  as  having  "  a  character,  by  books  not  hitherto 
refiectcd." 

June  1797  was  the  date  of  this  memorable  visit.  So  pleasant 
was  the  companionship  on  both  sides  that,  when  Coleridge  returned 
to  Nether  Stowey,  in  Somerset,  Wordsworth  at  his  instance 
changed  his  quarters  to  Alfoxden,  within  a  mile  and  a  half  of 
Coleridge's  temporary  residence,  and  the  two  poets  lived  in 
almost  dally  intercourse  for  the  next  twelve  months.  Durinf 
that  period  Wordsworth's  powers  mpidly  expanded  and  matured; 
ideas  that  had  been  gathering  in  his  mind  for  years,  and  lying 
there  in  dim  confusion,  felt  the  stir  of  a  new  life,  and  ranged 
themselves  in  dearer  shapes  under  the  fresh  quidLcning  breath 
of  Coleridge's  swift  and  discursive  dialectic. 

The  Lyrical  Ballads  were  the  poetic  fruits  of  their  companion- 
ship. Out  of  their  frequent  discussions  of  the  relative  value  of 
common  life  and  supernatural  incidents  as  themes  for  imaginative 
treatment  grew  the  idea  of  writing  a  volume  together,  composed 
of  poems  of  the  tWo  kinds.  Coleridge  was  to  take  the  super« 
natural;  and,  as  his  industry  was  not  equal  to  his  friend's,  this 
kind  was  represented  by  the  Ancient  Mariner  abne.  Among 
Wordsworth's  contributions  were  The  Female  Vagrant,  We  -are 
Seven,  Complaint  of  a  Forsaken  Indian  Woman,  The  Last  of 
the  Flock,  The  Idiot  Boy,  The  Mad  Mother  ("  Her  eyes  are  wild  "), 
The  Thorn,  Goody  Blake  and  Harry  Gill,  The  Reverie  of  Poor 
Susan,  Simon  Ixe,  Expostulation  and  Reply,  The  Tables  Turned, 
Lines  left  upon  a  Yew-tree  Seat,  An  Old  Man  Travelling  ('/  Animal 
Tranquillity  and  Decay  "),  Lines  above  Tintem  Abbey,  The 
volume  was  published  by  Cottle  of  Bristol  in  September  1798. 

It  is  necessary  to  enumerate  the  contents  of  this  volume  in 
fairness  to  the  contemporaries  of  Wordsworth,  for  their  cold 
or  scoffing  ceceptior  of  his  first  distinctive  work.  Those  Words- 
worthians  who  give  up  The  Idiot  Boy,*  Goody  Blake  and  The 
Thorn  as  mistaken  experiments  have  no  right  to  triumph  over 
the  first  derisive  critics  of  the  Lyrical  Ballads,  or  to  wonder  at 
the  'dulhiess  that  failed  to  see  at  once  in  this  humble  issue  from 
an  obscure  provincial  press  the  advent  of  a  great  master  in 
literature.  It  is  true  that  Tintem  Abbey  was  in  the  volume, 
and  that  all  the  highest  qualities  of  Wonlswortb's  imagination 
and  ot  his  verse  could  be  illustrated  from  the  lyrical  ballads 
proper  in  this  first  publication;  but  dear  vision  is  easier  for 
us  than  it  was  when  the  revelation  was  fragmentary  and 
Incomplete. 

Although  Wordsworth  was  not  received  at  first  with  the 
respect  to  which  he  was  entitled,  his  power  was  not  entirely 
without  recognition.  There  is  a  curious  commercial  evidence 
of  this,  which  ought  to  be  noted,  because  a  perversion  of  the 
fact  is  sometimes  used  to  exaggerate  the  supposed  neglect  of 
Wordsworth  at  the  outset  of  his  career.    Wlun  the  Longmans 

*The  version  read  to  Coleridge,  however,  must  have  been  in  Spen> 
serian  stanzas,  if  Coleridge  was  right  in  his  recollection  that  it  was  in 
the  sa.ne  metre  with  The  Female  Vagrant,  the  original  title  of  Cuitt 
and  Sorrow. 

*  The  defect^of  The  Idiot  Boy  is  really  rhetorical,  father  than  poetia 
Wordsworth  himself  said  that "  he  never  wrote  anythioc  with  so  much 
glee,"  and.  once  the  source  of  his  glee  is  felt  in  the  nobiy  affectionate 
relations  between  the  two  half-witted  irrational  old  women  and  the 
glorious  imbecile,  the  work  is  wen  to  be  cjiecuted  with  a  harmony 
tlvit  should  satisfy  the  roost  exacting  criticism.  Poetically,  there- 
fore, the  poem  is  a  success.  But  rhetorically  this  particular  attimftf 
to  "breathe  grandeur  upon  the  very  humblest  face  of  human  life  *' 
must  be  pronounced  a  failure,  inasmuch  as  the  writer  did  not 
use  sufficiently  forcible  means  to  disabuse  his  readers  of  vulgar 
prepossessions. 


628 


WORDSWORTH,  W 


took  over  Cottle's  publbhtag  bustaiaifn  1799,  the  vake  of  the 
ooi^ri^t  of  the  Lyrical  BatladSf  for  wfaidi  CotUe  had  paid 
thirty  guineas,  iru  astcsscd  ftt  nit.  Cottlo  therefore  begged 
that  it  might  be  excluded  altogether  from  the  bargain,  and 
presented  it  to  the  authors.  But  in  iSoo,  when  the  fint  edition 
was  exhausted,  the  Longmans  offered  Wordsworth  £100  for  two 
issues  of  a  new  edition  with  an  additional  volume  and  an  explana- 
tory preface.  The  sum  was  small  compared  with  what  Scott  and 
Byron  soon  afterwards  received,  but  it  shows  that  the  public 
neglect  was  not  quite  so  complete  as  is  sometimes  represented. 
Another  edition  was  called  for  in  1802,  and  a  fourth  in  1805. 
The  new  volume  in  the  x8oo  edition  was  made  up  of  poems 
composed  during  his  residence  at  Goslar  in  Germany  (where  he 
went  with  Coleridge)  in  the  winter  of  1798-1799,  and  after  his 
settlement  at  Grasmere  in  December  1799.  It  contained  a 
large  portion  of  poems  now  universally  accepted. — Rulk,  NuUingf 
Three  Years  She  Grew,  A  Poet's  Epitaph,  Harileap  WeU,  Lucy 
Gray,  The  Brothers,  Michael^  The  Old  Cumberland  Beggar,  Poems 
on  the  Naming  of  Places.  But  it  contuned  also  the  famous 
Ipreface,  in  which  he  infuriated  critics  by  presuming  to  defend  his 
eccentricities  in  an  elaborate  theory  of  poetry  and  poetic  diction. 

This  document  (and  let  it  be  noted  that  all  Wordsworth's 
Pr^aces  are  of  the  utmost  interest  in  historical  literary  criticism) 
is  constantly  referred  to  as  a  sort  of  revolutionary  proclamation 
against  the  established  taste  of  the  xSth  century.  For  one  who 
has  read  Wordsworth's  original,  hundreds  have  read  Coleridge's 
brilliant  criticism,  and  the  fixed  conception  of  the  doctrines 
put  forth  by  Wordsworth  is  taken  from  that.'  It  b  desirable, 
therefore,  considering  the  celebrity  of  the  affair,  that  Words- 
worth's own  position  should  be  made  clear.  Coleridge's  criticism 
of  his  friend's  theory  proceeded  avowedly  "  on  the  assumption 
that  his  words  had  been  rightly  interpreted,  as  purporting  that 
the  proper  diction  for  poetry  in  general  consists  altogether  in 
a  language  taken,  with  due  exceptions,  from  the  mouths  of  men 
in  real  life,  a  language  which  actually  constitutes  the  natural 
conversation  of  men  under  the  influence  of  natural  feelings." 
Coleridge  assumed  further  that,  when  Wordsworth  spoke  of 
there  being  "no  essential  difference  between  the  language  of 
prose  and  metrical  composition,"  he  meant  by  language  not  the 
mere  words  but  the  style,  the  structure  and  the  order  of  the 
sentences;  on  this  assumption  he  argued  as  if  Wordsworth 
had  held  that  the  metrical  order  should  always  be  the  same 
as  the  prose  order.  Given  these  assumptions,  which  formed 
the  popular  interpretation  of  the  theory  by  its  opponents,  it 
was  easy  to  demonstrate  its  absurdity,  and  Coleridge  is  very 
generally  supposed  to  have  given  Wordsworth's  theory  in  its 
bare  and  naked  extravagance  the  coup  de  grdce.  But  the  truth 
b  that  neither  of  the  two  assumptions  is  warranted;  both  were 
expressly  disclaimed  by  Wordsworth  in  the  Preface  itself.  There 
b  not  a  single  qualification  introduced  by  Coleridge  that  wa^  not 
made  by  Wordsworth  himself  in  the  original  statement.*  In 
the  first  place,  it  was  not  put  forward  as  a  theory  of  r>oetry  in 
general,  though  from  the  vigour  with  which  he  carried  the  war 
into  the  enemy's  country  it  was  naturally  enough  for  polemic 
purposes  taken  as  such;  it  was  a  statement  and  defence  of  the 
principles  on  which  his  own  poems  of  humbler  life  were  composed. 
Wordsworth  also  assailed  the  pubUc  ta^te  a^  "  depraved,'*  first 

*  Sir  Henry  Taylor,  one  of  the  most  acute  and  Judicious  of  Words- 
worth's ehampiont,  came  to  this  conclusion  in  1834. 

*  Although  Coleridge  makes  the  qualifications  more  prominent  than 
they  uvre  m  the  original  statement,  the  two  theories  are  at  bottom 
■o  closely  the  same  that  one  Is  sometimes  Inclined  to  suspect  that 
parts,  at  least,  of  the  original  emanated  from  the  fcrrile  mind  of 
Coleridge  himself.  The  two  poets  certainly  discussed  the  subject 
together  in  Somerset  when  the  first  ballads  were  written,  and 
Coleridge  was  at  Gmsmere  when  the  Preface  was  prepared  in  1800. 
The  diction  of  the  Preface  U  curiously  Hartleian,  and,  when  they  first 
met,  Coleridge  was  a  devoted  disciple  of  Hartley,  naming  h»  fir>t 
son  after  the  philosopher,  while  Wordswohh  detested  analytic 
psychology.  If  Coleridge  did  contribute  to  the  original  theory  in 
1798  or  1800,  he  was  likely  enough  to  have  forgotten  the  fact  by  1814. 
At  any  rate,  he  evidently  wrote  his  criticism  without  making  a  ckMie 
Itndy  of  the  Preface,  and  what  he  did  in  effect  was  to  reaute  the 
original  theory  against  popular  misconceptions  of  it. 


•nd  Mainly  in  m  fir  m  ttwasadwie  I01 
treated,  being  aceastomed  to  "gross  and  violent  stnnalaats,'* 
**  craving  after  eztraordinafy  incident,"  poMesaed  with  a 
"degrading  thint  after  outrageous  stimulation,"  "frantic 
novels,  sickly  and  stupid  Gennan  tragedies,  and  deluges  of  idk 
and  extravagant  stories  in  verse."  Tins,  and  not  adherence 
lo  the  classical  nile  of  Pope,  which  had  really  suffered  deposition 
a  good  half  century  before,  was  the  first  count  in  Woedswocth'k 
defensive  indictment  of  the  taste  <A  hb  age.  As  regards  the 
"  poetic  diction,"  the  liking  for  which  was  the  second  count  in 
his  indictment  of  the  public  taste,  it  b  most  explicitly  dear  that, 
when  he  said  that  there  was  no  essential  diffettnce  between  the 
language  of  poetry  and  the  language  of  prose,  he  meant  words, 
plain  and  figurative,  and  not  structure  and  order,  or,  as  Coleridge 
otherwise  puts  it,  the  "  ordonnanoe  "  of  composition.  Coleridge 
says  that  if  he  meant  thb  he  was  only  uttering  a  tniism,  which 
nobody  who  knew  Wordsworth  woiUd  suspect  him  of  doing; 
but,  strange  U>  say,  it  b  as  a  truism,  noxninaUy  acknowledged 
by  everybody,  that  Wordsworth  does  advance  hb  doctriite  on 
this  point.  Only  he  adds — "  if  in  what  I  am  about  to  say  it 
shall  appear  to  somo  that  my  labour  b  unnecessary,  and  that 
I  am  like  a  man  fighting  a  battle  without  enemies,  such  persons 
may  be  reminded  that,  whatever  be  the  language  outwardly 
holden  by  men,  a  practical  faith  In  the  opinions  which  I  am 
wishing  to  establbh  is  almost  unknown." 

What  he  wished  to  establish  was  the  simple  truth  that  what  is 
false,  unreal,  affected,  bombastic  or  nonsensical  In  prose  is 
not  less  so  in  verse.  The  form  in  which  he  expresses  the  theory 
was  conditioned  by  the  drcumstanccs  of  the  polemic,  and 
readers  were  put  on  a  false  scent  by  hb  purely  incidental  and 
collateral  and  very  much  overstrained  defence  of  the  language 
of  rustics,  as  being  less  conventional  and  more  permanent, 
and  therefore  better  fitted  to  afford  materiab  for  the  poet's 
selection.  But  thb  was  a  side  issue,  a  paradoxical  retort  on 
hb  critics,  seized  upon  by  them  in  turn  and  made  prominent 
as  a  matter  for  easy  ridicule;  all  that  he  says  on  this  head 
might  be  cut  out  of  the  Preface  without  affecting  in  the  least 
hb  main  thesis.  The  drift  of  this  is  fairly  apparent  all  through, 
but  stands  out  in  unmistakable  clearness  in  hb  critld&m  of  the 
passac;es  from  Johnson  and  Cowper: — 

"  But  the  sound  of  the  church-going  belt 
These  valleys  and  rocks  never  heard. 
Ne'er  nghed  at  the  sound  of  a  knell 
Or  amiira  when  a  Sabbath  appeared." 

The  epithet  "church-going"  offends  him  as  a  puritan  in 
grammar;  whether  his  objection  b  well  founded  or  iU  founded, 
it  applies  equally  to  prose  and  verse.  To  represent  the  valleys 
and  rocks  as  sighing  and  smiling  in  the  circumstances  would 
appear  feeble  and  absurd  in  prose  composition,  and  is  not  less 
so  in  metrical  composition;  "  the  occasion  docs  not  justify 
such  violent  expressions."  These  are  examples  of  all  that 
Wordsworth  meant  by  saying  that  "  there  b  no  essential  differ- 
ence  between  the  language  of  prose  and  metrical  comi>o»tion.** 
So  far  b  Wordsworth  from  contending  that  the  metrical  order 
should  always  be  the  same  as  the  prose  order,  that  part  of  the 
Preface  b  devoted  to  a  subtle  analysis  of  the  peculiar  effect  of 
metrical  arrangement.  What  he  objects  to  is  not  departure  from 
the  structure  of  prose,  but  the  assumption,  which  seemed  to  him 
to  underlie  the  criticisms  of  his  ballads,  that  a  writer  of  \'erse  is 
not  a  poet  unless  he  uses  artificially  ornamental  language,  not 
justified  by  the  strength  of  the  emotion  expressed.  The  furthest 
that  he  went  in  defence  of  prose  structure  in  poetry  was  to  main- 
tain that,  if  the  words  in  a  verse  happened  to  be  in  the  order  of 
prose,  it  did  not  follow  that  they  were  prosaic  in  the  sense  of 
being  unpoetic-— a  side-stroke  at  critics  who  complained  of  his 
pvQsaiims  for  no  better  reason  than  that  the  words  stood  in 
the  Older  ol  prose  compositjon.  Wordsworth  was  far  from 
repudiating  elevation  of  ^tyle  in  poetry.  "  If."  he  said,  "  the 
poet's  irobject  be  judtcfou^ly  chosen,  it  wiU  naturally,  and  upon 
fit  ipccasion,  lead  him  to  passions  the  language  of  which,  if 
selected  truly  and  judidously,  must  necessarily  be  «**c*ififi> 
and  variegated,  and  alive  with  metaphon  and  figures." 


WORDSWORTH,  W; 


829 


8Mb  wft»  WonkiMrth's  theofy  of  poetk  dklkHi.  NotliiBg 
covld  be  more  groiBly  mhtAkcn  than  the  notion  that  the  greater 
part  of  Wordsworth's  poetry  was  oomposed  in  de6anoe  of  his 
own  theory,  and  that  he  succeeded  btU.  when  he  set  his  own 
theory  most  at  defiance.  The  misoonoeption  is  traceable  to 
the'attthority  of  Coleridge.  His  ju8t»  sjrmpathetic  and  penetrat- 
ii^  criikism  on  Wordsworth's  woric  as  a  poet  did  immense 
service  in  secuiiiig  fiMr  him  a  wider  recognition;  bat  his  proved 
fiicttdsbip  and  fa^iant  style  have  done  sad  injustice  to  the  poet 
as  a  theorist.  It  was  natural  to  assume  that  Coleridge,  if  any- 
body, most  have  known  what  his  friend's  theory  was;  and  it 
was  natumi  also  that  readers  under  the  charm  of  Ins  ludd  and 
melodious  prose  should  gladly  grant  themselves  a  dispensation 
from  the  ttonble  of.  verifying  his  facts  in  the  harsh  and  cumbrous 
eiqporition  of  the  theorist  himself.^ 

The  question  of  diction  made  most  noise,  bot  it  was  far  from 
being  the  most  important  point  of  poetic  doctrine  set  forth  in 
the  Preface.  If  in  this  he  moely  enunciated  a  truism,  generally 
admitted  in  words  bu£  too  generally  ignored  in  practice,  there 
was  real  novelty  in  his  plea  for  humble  subjects,  and  in  his  theoiy 
of  poetic  composition.  Wordsworth's  remarks  on  poetry  in 
general,  on  the  supreme  function  of  the  imagination  in  dignifying 
bumble  and  oommonplarc  incidents,  and  on  the  need  of  active 
exerdse  of  imagination  in  the  reader  as  well  as  in  the  poet,  are 
immeasonbly  more  important  than  his  theory  of  poetic  diction. 
Such  sayrnga  as  that  poetry  "takes  its  origin  from  emotion 
recollected  in  tranquillity,"  or  that  it  Is  the  business  of  a  poet 
to  trace  "  how  men  associate  ideas  in  a  state  of  excitement," 
are  Mgnificant  of  Wordsworth's  endeavour  to  lay  the  foundations 
of  his  art  in  an  independent  study  of  the  feelings  and  facuhJes 
of  men  in  real  life,  unbiased  as  far  as  possible  by  poetic  custom 
and  convention.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  new  poet  was  to 
turn  his  back  on  his  predecessors  and  never  look  behind  him  to 
what  they  had  done.  Wordsworth  was  guihy  of  no  such  extra- 
vagance. He  was  from  boyhood  upwards  a  diligent  student  of 
poetry,  and  was  not  insensible  to  his  obligations  to  the  past. 
Hti  purpose  was  only  to  use  real  life  as  a  touchstone  of  poetic 
substance.  The  poet,  in  Wordsworth's  conception,  is  distinctively 
a  man  in  whom  the  beneficent  energy  of  imagination,  opeiative 
as  a  blind  instinct  more  or  leas  in  all  men,  is  stronger  than  in 
others,  and  is  voluntarily  and  rationally  exercised  for  the  benefit 
of  all  in  its  proper  work  of  increase  and  consolation.  Not  every 
image  that  the  excited  mind  conjures  up  in  real  life  is  necessarily 
poetical.  It  is  the  business  of  the  poet  to  select  and  modify 
for  his  special  purpose  of  producing  immediate  pleasure. 

There  were  several  respects  in  which  the  formal  recognition 
of  such  elementary  prindples  of  poetic  evolution  powerfully 
affected  Wordsworth's  practice.  One  of  these  may  be  hidicated 
by  saymg  that  he  endeavoured  always  to  work  out  an  emotional 
motive  from  within.  Instead  of  choosing  a  striking  theme 
and  working  4t  it  like  a  decorative  painter,  embellishing,  enrich- 
ing,  dressng  to  advantage,  standing  back  from  it  and  studying 
effects,  his  plan  vas  to  take  incidents  that  had  set  his  own 
imagination  spontaneously  to  work,  and  to  study  and  reproduce 
with  artistic  judgment  die  modification  of  the  initial  feeling, 
the  emotional  motive,  within  himsdL  To  this  method  he  owed 
much  of  his  strength  and  also  much  of  his  unpopularity.  By 
keeping  his  eye  on  the  object,  as  spontaneously  modified  by  his 
own  imaginative  energy,  he  was  able  to  i^ve  full  and  un<)is- 
tncttfd  scope  to  all  his  powers  in  poetic  coinage  of  the  wealth 
that  hn  imagination  brought.    On  the  other  hand,  readers 

^  Wordsworth  was  not  an  adroit  expositor  in  prose,  and  he  did 
Bot  make  his  qualifications  sufficiently  prominent,  but  his  theory  of 
diction  taken  with  those  qualifications  left  him  free  without  in* 
consistency  to  use  any  language  that  was  not  coatiary  to  "  true  taste 
and  feeUng."  He  ackaowleoged  that  he  mi|;ht  occasionally  have 
substituted  "  particular  for  general  associations,"  and  that  thus 
languaee  charged  with  poetic  feeling  to  himself  might  appear  trivial 
and  riolcutous  to  others,,  as  in  The  Idiot  Boy  and  Goody  Blake;  he 
even  went  so  far  as  to  withdraw  AHce  PeU,  first  published  in  1807, 
from  several  subsequent  editions;  but  he  arkucd  that  it  was  danger* 
<*ns  for  a  poet  to  make  alterations  on  the  ample  authority  of  a  lew 
fndividoaw  or  even  classes  of  men.  because  If  he  did  not  follow  hfe  ow]S 
fadlpneat  aad  feelings  his  mind  would  faifMUMy  be  dabiliiattd« 


whose  mtaut  or  edmatioB  wu  difiteent  froni  his  «wn,  weie 

repelled  or  left  oold  and  indifferenL  or  obliged  to  makethe^ym* 

pathetic  effort  to  see  with  his  eyes,  whicb  Ik  refused  to  make  ill 

Older  that  he  might  see  w^th  thdts. 

"  He  is  retired  as  noontkle  dew 
Or  fountain  in  a  noon-day  grove. 
And  you  must  love  him  ere  to  you 
He  will  seem  worthy  of  your  love." 

From  this  habit  of  taking  the  processes  of  his  own  mind  m 
the  standard  of  the  way  in  which  "  men  s^sociate  ideas  in  a  state 
of  exdtement,"  and  language  famiUar  to  himself  as  the  standard 
of  the  language  of  "  real  men,"  arises  a  superficial  anomaly  in 
Wordsworth's  poetry,  an  apparent  contradiction  between  his 
practice  and  his  theory.  His  own  imagination,  judged  by  ordinaiy 
standards,  was  easily  excited  by  emotional  motives  that  have 
little  force  with  ordinaiy  nea.  Most  of  his  poems  start  from 
humbler,  slighter,  less  generally  striking  themes  than  those  of 
any  other  poet  of  high  rank.  But  his  poetry  is  not  correspond- 
ingly sunple.  On  the  contnuy,  much  of  it,  much  of  the  best  of 
it— for  example,  the  Ode  to  Duty,  and  that  on  the  JiUimations 
of  Immortality— a  intricate,  elaborate  and  abstruse.  The 
emotiopal  motive  is  simple;  the  passion  has  almost  always  a 
simple  origm,  and  often  is  of  no  great  intensity;  but  the  imagick- 
tive  structure  is  generally  elaborate,  and,  when  the  poet  is  at 
bis  best,  supremely  splendid  and  gorgeous.  No  poet  has  built 
such  magnificent  palaces  of  rare  material  for  the  ordinary 
everyday  homely  human  affections.  It  is  because  he  has  inr 
vested  our  ordinary  everyday  principles  of  conduct,  which  are 
so  apt  to  become  threadbare,  with  such  imperishable  robes  of 
finest  texture  and  richest  design  that  Wordsworth  holds  so  high 
a  place  among  the  great  moralists  in  verse. 

His  practice  was  influenced  also,  and  not  always  for  good, 
by  his  theory  that  poetry  "takes  its  origin  from  emotioa 
recollected  in  tranquillity."  This  was  a  somewhat  doubtful 
corollary  from  his  general  theoiy  of  poetic  evolution.  A  poem 
is  complete  in  itself;  there  must  be  no  sting  in  it  tod^uxb 
the  reader's  content  with  the  whole;  through  whatever  agita- 
tions  it  progresses,  to  whatever  elevations  it  soars,  to  this  end 
it  must  come,  otherwise  it  is  imperfect  as  a  poem.  Now  the 
imagination  in  ordinary  men,  though  the  process  is  not  express 
in  verse,  and  the  poet's  spodal  art  has  thus  no  share  in  producing 
the  effect,  reaches  the  poetic  end  when  it  Jias  so  transfipired 
a  disturbing  experience,  whether  of  joy  or  grief,  that  this  rests 
tranquilly  in  the  memory,  can  be  recalled  without  disquietude* 
and  dwelt  upon  with  some  mode  and  degree  of  pleasure,  more 
or  leas  keen,  more  or  less  pure  or  mixed  with  pain.  TTue  to  his 
idea  of  imitating  real  life,  Wordsworth  made  it  a  rule  for  himself 
not  to  write  on  any  theme  till  his  imagination  had  <^)erated 
upon  it  for  some  time  involuntarily;  it  was  not  in  his  view  ripe 
for  poetic  treatment  till  this  transforming  agency  had  subdued 
the  original  emotion  to  a  state  of  tranquillity.*  Out  of  this 
tranquillity  arises  the  favourable  moment  for  poetic  oomposition, 
some  day  when,  as  he  contemplates  the  subject,  the  tranquillity 
disappears,  an  cmbtion  kindred  to  the  original  emotion  is  re- 
instated, and  the  poet  retraces  and  sv^lements  with  all  hit 
art  the  previous  involuntary  and  perhaps  nnconacious  imagina- 
tive chemistiy. 

M^en  we  study  the  moments  that  Wordsworth  found  favour* 
able  for  successful  composition,  a  very  omous  law  reveals  itsdi, 
somewhat  at  variance  with  the  common  conception  of  him  aa 
a  poet  who  derived  all-  his  strength  from  solitsiy-communioa 
with  nature.  We  find  that  the  reduse's  best  poems  were  written 
under  the  excitement  of  some  break  in  the  monotony  of  his 
quiet  life — change  of  scene,  change  of  companionship,  change 
of  occupation.  The  law  holds  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  his  poetic  career.  An  immense  stimulus  waa  given  to  his 
powers  by  his  first  contact  with  Coleridge  after  two  yean  of 
solitary  and  abortive  effort.    Above  Tinkm  Abbey  was  oomposed 

'  The  Prdude  contains  a  record  of  hb  practice,  after  the  opening 
Kncs  of  the  first  book*— 

"  Thtfs  far,  O  friendl   did  I.  not  osod  to  make 
A  present  joy  the  aiattsr  of  a  song. 
Pour  forth,  "^Ac 


9z6 


WORDSWORTH,  W; 


during  a  four  d«9«'  nmbk  with  lib  iittw;  1m  btf/m  k  on 
leaving  Tintem,  and  oonduded  it  aa  be  waa  anlering  BrittoL 
His  reakknce  aaaidat  tUrange  acenca  and  '*  vakaown  mn  "  at 
Ooslar  was  partkolariy  fruitful:  Sk4  DmeU  mmutg  Ite  Unltodim 
Ways,  Rmtk,  Nutting,  Tktn  wa$  a  Bty^  Wi$dmtt  amd  Spint  of 
Ike  Universe,  all  belong  to  thoee  few  months  of  unfamiliar  en- 
vironment. The  breeze  that  met  him  as  he  issued  from  the  dty 
gates  on  his  homeward  journey  brought  him  the  first  thought  of 
The  Prelude. 

At  the  end  of  1799  be  waa  settled  at  Grasmexe,  In  the  lake 
District,  and  sedng  much  of  Coleridge.  The  second  year  of  his 
residence  at  Grasmere  was  unproductive;  he  was  **  hard  at 
work  "  then  on  The  Excursion;  but  the  excitement  of  a  tour 
on  the  Continent  in  the  autumn  of  1802,  combined  periiaps  with 
a  happy  change  in  bis  pecuniary  circumstances  and  the  near 
prospect  of  marriage,  roused  him  to  one  of  his  happiest  fits 
of  activity.  Hjb  first  great  sonnet,  the  tines  on  Westminster 
Bridge,  was  composed  on  the  roof  of  the  Dover  coach;  the  first 
of  the  ^lendid  series  "  dedicated  to  national  Independence  and 
Uberty,"  the  most  genenlly  impressive  and  universally  mtelli- 
giUe  of  his  poems,  Pair  Star  of  Evening,  Once  did  She  hold  tAe 
Gorgeous  East  in  Pee,  ToussoinI;  Milton,  Ikon  skouUst  be  Lhing 
at  this  Hour;  It  is  not  to  be  Thought  of  tkat  the  Plood,  When  I  have 
Borne  in  Memory  what  has  Tanud,  were  aXl  written  m  the  course 
of  the  tour,  or  in  London  in  the  month  after  his  return.  A  tour 
hi  Scotland  in  the  following  year,  1803,  yielded  the  Highland 
Oirl  and  The  Solitary  Reaper.  Soon  after  his  return  he  resumed 
The  Prelude;  and  The  AJlicUon  of  MargarH  and  the  Ode  to  Duty, 
his  greatest  poems  in  two  different  veins,  were  coincident  with 
tbe  exaltation  of  spirit  due  to  the  triamphant  and  successful 
prosecution  of  the  long-delayed  work.  Hie  Chorader  of  the 
Happy  Worrier,  which  he  described  to  Harriet  Martineau  as 
**A  chain  of  extremely  talooahle  thoughts,"  though  it  did  not 
fUfil  "poetic  conditions,"*  was  the  product  of  a  aimer  period. 
Hie  excitement  of  preparing  for  publication  always  had  a  rousing 
effect  upon  him;  the  preparation  for  the  ecfition  of  1807  resulted 
in  the  completion  of  the  ode  on  the  Intimations  of  Immortality, 
the  sonnets  The  World  is  loo  much  with  us,  Methought  I  saw  the 
Footsteps  of  a  Throne,  Two  Voices  are  there,  and  Lady,  the  Songs 
of  Spring  were  m  the  Grove,  and  the  Song  aijhe  Peast  of  Brougham 
Castle.  After  1807  there  is  a  mariced  falling  off  in  the  quality, 
though  not  in  the  quantity,  of  Wordsworth's  poetic  woik.  It  is 
tignificant  of  the  comparatively  sober  and  laborious  sjurit  in 
which  he  wrote  The  Excursion  that  its  progress  was  accompanied 
by  none  of  those  casual  sallies  of  exulting  and  exuberant  power 
that  mark  the  period  of  the  happier  Prelude.  The  comfAetion 
of  The  Excursion  was  signalized  by  the  production  of  Laodamia. 
The  chorus  of  advene  criticism  with  which  H  was  received 
Inspired  him  in  the  noble  sonnet  to  Haydon — High  is  our  Calling, 
Vrtend.  He  rardy  or  never  again  touched  tbe  same  lofty 
height. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  with  what  he  actually  accom- 
plished the  plan  of  life-work  with  which  Wordsworth  settled 
at  Grasmere  in  the  last  month  of  1799.^  The'plan  was  definitely 
cmceived  as  he  left  the  German  town  of  Goslar  in  th^  spring 
of  1799.  Tired  of  the  wandering  unsettled  life  that  he  had  led 
hitherto,  dissatisfied  also  with  the  fragmentary  occasioiuil  and 
cfisconnected  character  of  his  lyrical  poems,  he  longed  for  a 
ftermanent  home  among  his  native  hills,  where  he  might,  as  one 
called  and  consecrated  to  the  task,  devote  his  powers  con- 
tinuously to  tile  composition  of  a  great  philosophical  poem  on 
"  Man,  Nature  and  Society."  The  poem  was  to  be  called  Thg 
Hecktse,  **  as  having  for  its  principal  subject  the  sensations  and 

'  ^Thls  eaauat  callniate of  Ms  own  woHc  ia  not  merely  amusing  bat 
also  iostwetWe^  ••  Bhowing^what  is  aomecimcs  denied-~lhat  words* 
worth  himacU  knew  wdl  enouah  the  difference  betwten  "  poetiy  " 
and  such  "  valuable  thoughts  as  he  propounded  in  TTu  Excursum. 
*  *  Wordsworth's  residences  in  the  Lake  District  were  at  Dove 
€otlafe.  Towneadt  GniMnefe,  from  Oeoember  1799  till  the  spring  oi 
1808;  Allan  Bank,  from  1808  to  1811:  the  pacsooaee  at  Gcaaroece; 
fnmi  1811  to  1813;  Rydsl  Moant,  lor  the  rest  othia  life.  Dove 
Cottage  waa  bought  ia  1891  aa  a  public  laenKirial,  and  ia  beU  by 


opfinloas  of  a  poal  Uvlag  iii  retbaaMnt* 

design  to  Coleridge,  wfeM>  gave  him  cathuiiaade 

to  proceed.    But,  though  he  had  ttill  before  hian  fifty 

of  peacefiil  life  amidst  hla  beloved  aonaiy,  the  woik  in  tfae 

jected  form  at  least  waa  dcninad  to  remaia 

and  nuagivings  soon  aroae,  aad  favomabli  aawaifnim  «f  §A 

inapiration  deUyed  their  coming.   T^  auatain  Inaa  ia  hia  icaaiB> 

tioa  he  thought  of  writing  aa  an  IntrDdactkai,  or,  aa  he  pat  it, 

an  antechapel  to  the  chureh  which  ha  lainwiitil  to  bafld,  a 

history  of  Ua  owa  aund  ap  Co  the  liiae  when  ha  reoosidaed  the 

great  mtaaion  of  his  life.   One  ci  the  maay  laag^  at 

by  unsympathetic  critica  haa  been  dfracted  *![■*■»■*  Ua 

that  he  wrote  this  Prulmde  of  fouittai  baaka  abaoft 

of  diflidenoeL    But  hi  truth  the  odgiaal  BMliva  waa  ^atiuat  of 

his  own  powers.   He  turned  aaide  to  prepare  the  1 

of  the  Lyrical  Ballads  and  writa  the 

which  as  a  statement  of  hia  aims  in  poetiy  had  partly  the  1 

purpose  of  streagthcaiag  hia  self  •aoafideM& 

Jomnai  we  learn  that  in  the  winter  of  1801-180S  he  waa  **  haid 

at  work  on  The  Pedlar  "—the  origiaai  litk  of  Tka 

But  thia  experiment  oa  the iaiserirode  waa aboj 

It  appeals  from  a  letter  to  his  friend  Sir  Georfe  Beaumwit  that 

his  health  waa  far  from  rc^ust,  and  in  paiticalar  that  he  cooM 

not  write  without  intolerable  phytiad  mwaiittfwi,     Hla  aeit 

start  with  The  Prelude,  in  the  spring  of  i8ai,  waa  mote  proqMf» 

ous;  he  dropped  it  for  several  nwrnths,  but,  rcsuaaing  agaia 

in  the  spring  of  t805«  heoompleCcd  it  in  thflaumnerof  tliat  ycac 

In  1807  appeared  two  volumes  of  ooUected  poema^   It  was  aot 

tiU  1814  that  the  teooad  of  the  three  diviaooa  of  Tie  Radmsi, 

ultimately  named  Tha  Exemsian,  waa  ready  for  pnblicatioo; 

and  he  went  no  further  in  the  executioBof  his  great  design. 

Tbe  derisive  fury  with  which  The  Excursion  waa  aaaailrd 
upon  iu  first  q;>peanuice  has  kmg  baea  a  ttock  riampir  d 
critical  blindaesa^  yet  the  errpr  of  the  first  critics  h  seen  to  fie 
not  in  their  indictment  of  faults,  but  in  the  proaanenoe  th^ 
gave  to  the  faults  and  their  geaeially  disrespectM  tone  towards 
a  poet  of  Wordsworth's  greatness.  Jeffrey's  petulant  "Thn 
will  never  do,"  uttered,  pnofessedly  at  least,  more  in  sorrow  than 
in  anger,  because  the  poet  would  persist  in  ^e  of  all  friendly 
counsel  in  misapplying  his  powers,  haa  become  a  byword  oL 
critical  Gocksureness^  But  The  Excursum  has  not  "  done,*' 
and  even  Wordsworthians  who  laugh  at  Jeffrey  are  in  the  habic 
of  repeating  the  substance  of  his  critidsra. 

Jeffrey,  it  will  be  seen,  was  not  blind  to  the  occasional  felidtics 
and  unforgetable  lines  celebrated  by  Coleridge,  and  his  general 
judgment  on  The  Excurtiou  has  been  abundantly  xatifi^"  It 
is  not  upon  The  Excursion  that  Wordsworth's  lefMitation  as  a 
poet  can  ever  rest.  The  two  "  hooka  "  entitled  Tka  Ckurck- 
yard  among  Ike  Mountain^  are  the  only  parta  of  the  poem  that 
derive  mudi  force  from  the  scenic  aetting;  if  they  had  been 
published  separately,  they  would  probably  haw  obtained  at 
once  a  reception  very  different  from  that  given  to  The  Excursion 
as  a  whole.  Tfae  dramatic  setting  is  merely  dead  weight,  not 
because  the  chief  speaker  is  a  pedlar— Wordsworth  fairly  justifies 
this  selection — ^but  because  the  pedlar,  aa  a  personality  to  be 
knowa,  and  loved,  and  respected,  and  listened  to  with  interest, 
is  not  completely  created. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  adverse  crilidsin  had  a  depreasug 
influence  on  Wordsworth's  poetical  powers^ .  notwithstanding 
bis  nobly  eapreased  defiaiu:e  of  it  and  his  determination  to  hold 
on  in  his  own  path  undisturbed.  Its  effect  in  retanfing  the  sak 
of  his  poems  was  a  favourite  topic  with  him  in  his  later  yean;* 
but  the  absence  of  general  appreciation,  and  the  ridicokof  what 
he  considered  his  best  and  most  distinctive  work,  oontrOmted 
in  ail  probability  to  a  still  mora  unfoitunate  rcnilt^-ihe  prt* 
mature  depression  and  deadening  (tf  his  powen^ 

>  Ward's  Endisk  Poets,  iv.  13. 

•  Matthew  Arnold  heard  him  aay  that  "  for  he  knew  aot  boa 
mnny  years  his  poetry  had  never  brought  him  in  eoough  to  buy  his 
■noe>ftrin8a  "  (preface  to  Seleclten,  p.  v.).  The  Uteiml  facts  are  that 
he  received  £100  from  ihe  Lengmaaa  in  1800,  and  nothiog  niore  till 
he  wa»  nxty-  five^  when  Moaon  wnight  the  oopyiigh^  oC  hia  writiap 
far  £iaeoX}'ra«  lirorki,  iii.  437}*. 


WOKKINGTON-JWOR/KSOP 


«3« 


I        For  £76  yesin  after  the  condeimiatfon  of  The  Bstufsion 

I      Woniswortk  published  almost  nothixtg  that  had  not  heen  con- 

i      posed  beforoL    The  dncf  exception  »  the  Tkanks^ng  Odt  of 

iBx6.    In  1815  he  published  a  new  editiofB  of  his  poeOM,  in 

the  arrangement  according  to  faculties  and  feelm^  in  which 

they  haye  since  stood;  and  he  sought  to  explain  his  purposes 

uMie  oompletdy  than  before  in  an  essay  on  "  Poetry  as  a  Study.'* 

In  the  same  year  he  was  penuaded  to  puUtfh  Tk^  White  Doe 

oj  RyUlone^  written  mainiy  dgfat  years  before.   In  ptfldy  poetic 

I      diarm  Tht  White  Doe  ought  to  be  ranked  among  the  most  perfect 

of  Wordsworth's  poems.  But  Jeffreyj  who  was  too  busy  to  enter 

I      into  a  vein  of  poctzy  so  remote  from  common  romantic  sentiment, 

I      would  have  none  of  The  White  Doe:  he  pronounced  it  ^  the  very 

I      worst  poem  ever  written,"  and  the  public  too  readily  endorsed 

i      his  judgment*     Two  other  poems,  with  which  Wordsworth 

I      made  another  appeal,  were  not  more  successful.    Peter  BeB, 

\     written  in  1798.  was  published  in  18x9;  and  at  the  instigation 

i     of  Charles  Lamb  it  was  followed  by  The  Waffoner,  written  an 

(      1805.    Both  were  mercflessly  ridiculed  and  parodied.    These 

I     tales  from  humble  Ufe  are  writtej\  in  Wordsworth's  most  uncoa* 

I     ventional  style,  and  with  them  emphatically  "  not  to  sympathize 

I     is  not  to  understand." 

I  Meantime,  the  great  design  of  The  Jteduse  languished.  The 
t  neglect  of  what  Wordsworth  himself  conceived  to  be  his  best 
}  and  most  characteristic  work  was  not  encouraging;  and  there 
was  another  reason  why  the  philosophical  poem  on  man,  naturci 
I  and  society  did  not  make  progress.  Again  and  again  in  hb 
I  poetry  Wordsworth  celebrates  the  value  of  constraint,  and  the 
I  disadvantagie  of  "  too  much  liberty,"  of  "  unchartered  freedom."  ^ 
The  formlessness  of  the  scheme  prevented  his  working  at  it  con- 
tinuously. HenoD  his  "philo6<^y"  was  expressed  in  casual 
disconnected  soonets>  or  in  sonnets  and  ether  short  poems 
coanected  by  the  simplest  of  all  links,  sequence  in  time  or  place. 
He  stumbled  upon  three  or  four  such  serial  ideas  in  the  latter 
part  of  his  Ufe,  and  thus  found  beginning  and  end  for  chains  of 
considerable  length,  whkh  may  be  re^irded  as  fragmems  of 
the  project  which  he  had  not  sufficient  energy  of  constructive 
power  to  execute.  The  Somneis  on  the  River  Diidien,  written  in 
i8x>,- follow  the  river  from  its  source  to  the  sen,  and  form  % 
partial  embodiment  of  his  philosopfay  at  nature.  The  EedeH- 
aslical  Sotmets,  written  in  x  820-1831,  trace  the  history  of  the 
church  frons  the  Druids  onwards^  following  one  of  the  gteat 
stcesana  el  limnsa  afiaixS)  and  exhibit  part  of  Us  philosophy 
of  society.  A  tonr  on  the  continent  in  i8ao^  a  toar  m  Soothuid 
in  1831,  a  temr  on  the  west  coast  in  1833,  «.toiir  m  Italy  in  1837, 
furnished  hfm  with  other  serial  forms»  serving  to  connect  mis* 
cenaneous '  reflections  on  man,  natiue  and  sodety;  and  his 
views  on  the  punishment  of  deatlrwere  strung  together  kt  still 
another  series  in  1840. 

It  was  Coleridge's  criticism  in  the  BioffapMa  hiUraria  (tSry), 
together  with  the  enthusiastic  and  nnreserved  championship 
of  Wilson  in  Blaehwood's  Magasine  in  a  aeries  of  articles 
between  18x9  and  iSit  {Recreothns  cf  Christopher  North),  that 
formed  the  tuming-p<»nt  in  Wordsworth's  repntation.  From 
1820  to  X830  be  QtzSncey  says  it  was  militant,  from  i83i>  to 
X840  triumphant.  On  the  death  of  Southey  In  1843  he  was 
made  poet  laureate.  Eb  bargained  with  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
before  accepting,  that  no  official  verse  should  be  reqmred  of 
him;  and  his  only  official  composition,  an  ode  on  the  installa- 
tion of  the  Prince  Consort  as  chancellor  of  Cambridge  university 
in  1847,  is  believed  to  have  really  been  written  dther  by  hh 
soo-in-law  Edward  QuilUnan  or  by  his  nephew  Christopher 
(afterwaids  bishop  of  lincob).  He  died  at  Rydal  Mount,  after 
s  short  illness,  on  the  23rd  of  April  1850,  and  was  buried  in 
Grasmere  churchyard.  EUs  wife  survived  him  till  1859,  when  she 
died  in  her  90th  ytaz.  They  had  five  children,  two  of  whom 
had  died  in  x8x-2;  the  two  surviving  sons,  John  (d.  X875)  and 
William  (d.  1883),  had  families;  the  other  child,  a  daughter, 
Bora,  Wordsworth's  favovritev  married  Edward  'QuiUinan 
in  X84S  and  died  in  1847-, 


>See  the  Soonet.  Nmu  fret  met,  Ac,  The  Pats  ef  KirhsUmt  and 
the  04c  to  iHrfy. 


FnrfsMor  Kiri^t  broqghc  oat  m  188*1886  an  dghtwvohne 
editioa  of  the  Poetical  Worhst  and  in  1889  a  ij^e  in  three  volnines. 
The  Uemoirs  of  the  poet  were  published  (1851)  by  hw  nephew. 
Bbhop  Christopher  Wordsworth.  The  **8tandatd  text"  of  the 
works  is  the  editwn  of  1849-X8SO.  The  **  AMine  '*  edition  (itoi)  b 
edited  fay,  Edward  OBwden.  The  one^volunM  "  Oifofd  "  eiUtMn 
{^99Sh  edited  by  Thomas  Hutrhinson,  oontaias  every  piece  of  verse 
known  to  have  been  published  or  authorized  by  Wordsworth,  bis 
Prefects,  &c.,  and  a  useful  chronology  and  notes.  Among  critics  of 
Wordsworth  especially  interesting  tor  various  reasons  we  may 
aMnt&on.De  Quiaoey  {Warhs,.vtAe,  IL  and  v.),  Sir  Uoiry  Taylor 
iWeirhs,  vol.  v.),  Matthew  Ameld  (preface  to  Seteetiofn),  Swinburne 
lUisciUani€s),  F.  W.  H.  Myers  ("Men  of  Letters"  aeries),  Leslie 
Stephen  (Hours  in  a  lAhrary,  3rd  series.  *'  Wordsworth's  Ethics  *'}, 
Walter  Pater  {A^preeialkms),  Walter  Raleigh  CWordswarlh,  1903). 
Wofdsworth's  wridngs  ia  prose  weiecoUscfedDy  DrGrossrt  (Londoa, 
t876>.  Thiscolleetion  eontaioBd  the  pnrviously  unpublished  Apolomy 
for  a  French  Reeetutuntt  written  in  1793.  l>esidcs  the  scarce  tract  on  the 
Convention  of  Cintra  (1809)  and  the  political  addresKs  To  Iht  Free- 
hoUers  of  Westmoreltnd  (t8i8).  Wofdsworth's  Guide  to  the  Lakes 
originally  appeared  in  1810  as  an  iettodocHoe  to  Wilkinsoe's  Selea 
Views,  and  was  first  poUisbed  separstely  ia  xass.  (W.  M.;  H.  Cm.) 


VORKlireiOlf,  a  municipal  borough,  seaport  and  market 
town  in  the  Cockermouth  parliamentary  division  of  Cumberland, 
England,  34  m.  S.W.  of  (Allele,  served  by  the  Cockermouth, 
Keswick  &  Penrith,  the  London  &  North-Westem  and  the 
Cleator  &  Workington  Junction  railways.  Pop.  (1901)  26,143. 
It  lies  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  river  Derwent,  at  its  outflow  into  the 
Irish  Sea.  The  harbour  is  safe,  being  protected  by  a  stony  beadi 
and  by  a  breakwater.  The  Lonsdale  dock  Is  4}  acres  in  extenL 
The  port  was  made  subordinate  to  that  of  Maryport  in  1891. 
There  are  laige  collieries  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  town,  the 
workings  in  some  cases  extending  beneath  the  sea,  and  bla^ 
furnaces,  engineering  woriu,  cyde  and  motor  works,  ship- 
building yards  and  paper  mills.  The  borough  is  under  a  mayor, 
7  aldermen  and  21  councillors.  Area,  2245  seres.  Near  the  town 
is  Workington  Hall,  a  castellated  structure  retaining  some  of  the 
ancient  xooms,  including  that  in  which  Mary,  queen  of  Scots, 
ia  said  to  have  slept  when  she  escaped  to  England  after  the 
battle  of  Langside  in  hfay  1568. 

WORKS  ANI^  PUBUC  BUIU>Ilf  GS.  BOARD  OP.  an  adminl»- 
trative  department  in  En|^d.  In  1832  the  public  wo^  and 
buildings  of  Great  Britain  wese  for  the  first  time  placed  under 
the  control  of  a  reqionsible  minister'  of  the  crown,  and  were 
assigned  to  the  oommissionerB  of  woods  and  forests.  In  1851 
the  dcfMirtment  ol  public  works  was  erected  into  a  hoard  under 
the  name  of  Office  of  Works  and  PuUic  BuiUings.  The  first 
commisaioiier  of  works  is  the  head  of  the  board,  and  has  the 
custody  of  the  royal  palaces  and  parissnnd  of  all  poblic  buildings 
not  spedsl^  stsignrd  to  other  departments;  he  is  a  membsr 
of  the  government  aad  frequently  has  a  seat  in  the  cabinet. 

WORKSOP*  a  maxket  town  in  the  Basselbw  paxiiamentaiy 
division  of  NotSinghanshixe,  England,  co  the  Great  Central 
and  the  Midland  taflways^  and  on  the  Chestctfieki  Csnal,  1 5^  m. 
E.S.K.  of  Sheflield.  Pop.  of  urban  distxict  (I9di>.x6,ii**  To 
the  S.  Hcs  that  portion  of  Sherwood  Forest  popadarly  known 
as  the  dukeries.  The  church  of  St  Msxy  snd  St  Cuthbert  is  sa 
old  prioxy  church,  once  divided  internally  into  two  parts»  the 
£.  dedicated  to  St  Mary  being  for  the  nse  of  the  canons,  sirI 
the  W.  dedicated  to  $t  Cnthbert  for  the  parishioners.  At  the 
R^ormation  only  the  W.  poition  of  the  church  was  spared,  sxid 
for  many  ycaxs  it  was  in  a  dilspidated  condition  until  it  wfts 
restored  with  Perpendicular  additions.  Behind  it  sie  the  ruins 
of  the  lady  chapel,  containing  some  fine  Early  English  work. 
The  prioxy  gatehouse,  chiefly  m  the  Decorated  style,  now  forms 
the  entrance  to  the  precincts  of  the  church.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  been  built  early  in  die  X4th  century  by  the  3rd  Lord 
Fumival,  when  the  market  was  established.  Of  the  priory  itself 
the  only  remains  are  a  wall  at  the  N.W.  comer  of  the  church 
which  includes  the  doister  gateway.  There  wns  fwmeily  a 
Norman  keep  on  the  castle  hill.  The  manor-house,  bnllt  by 
John  Talbot,  xst  earl  of  Shrewsbuiy,  and  occasionally  occupi^ 
by  Mary,  queen  ol  Scots,  daring  her  captivity  under  the  6th 
eari,  was  In  great  part  destroyed  by  fire  in  1761,  and  when  the 
esUte  came  into  the  possession  of  the  duke  of  Newcastle  in  1840 
the  xuined  portion  was  removed  and  a  smaller  mansion  built. 


832 


WORLD— WORMS 


Hht  town  haM  %ad  free  IBinry  are  the  ponctpal  public  buikUiigi 
of  Worksop.  Malting  is  the  principal  industty.  A  large  com 
market  and  a  cattle  and  horse  (air  axe  held.  The  town  also 
IitwH  in  brass  and  iron  foundries,  agricultural  implement 
worhs,  saw-«iills  and  chemical  works;  and  there  is  a  consider- 
able trade  in  Windsor  chairs  and  wood  for  packing-cases  for 
Sheffield  cutlery.    There  are  collieries  at  Shireoaks,  3  m.  W. 

WORLD*  a  word  which  has  developed  a  wide  variety  of  mean- 
inp  from  its  original  etymological,  sense  of  the  "  aiee  of  man," 
**  course  of  man's  life."  In  O.  Eng.  it  appears  under  its  true 
form  weomld,  being  a  compound  of  wer,  inan  (cf.  Lat.  tir),  and 
yUo,  age,  from  eaU,  eld^  old.  Of  the  various  meanings  the 
principal  aie  the  earth  (y .v.),  as  a  planet,  or  a  large  division  of 
the  earth,  such  as  the  "  old  world,"  the  eastern,  the  "  new  world," 
the  western  hemisphere;  the  whole  of  created  things  upon  the 
earth,  particularly  its  human  inhabitants,  mankind,  the  human 
race,  or  a  great  division  of  mankind  united  by  a  oommon  racial 
origin,  language,  religion  w  civilization,  &c  A  derived  meaning 
is  that  of  soci^  life,  society,  as  distinct  from  a  religious  life. 

VORH.*  a  term  used  popularly  to  denote  almost  any  kind  of 
elongated,  apparently  limbless  creature,  from  a  lizard,  like  the 
Uindworm,  to  the  grub  of  an  insect  or  an  earthworm.  Linnaeus 
applied  the  Latin  term  Vermes  to  the  modem  zoological  divisions 
UoUusca^  Coeleniera,  Protozoa,  Tunuaia,  Echwodcrma  (qq-v.), 
as  well  as  to  those  forms  which  more  niodem  zoologists  have 
recognized  as  worms.  As  a  matter  of  convenience  the  term 
Vermes  or  Vermidea  is  still  employed,  for  instance  in  the  Inter- 
national Caialogue  of  Zoohgical  Literature  and  the  Zoological 
Record t  to  cover  a  number  of  wormlikc  animals.  In  systematic 
zoology,  however,  the  use  of  a  division  Vermes  has  been 
abandoned,  as  It  is  now  recognized  that  many  of  the  animals 
that  even  a  zoologist  would  describe  as  worms  belong  to  different 
divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom.  The  so-called  flatworms 
(Platyelmia,  q.v.),  including  the  Flanarians  (^iv.),  Flukes 
(see  TltciiATODEa),  Cestodes  (see  Tapei^orm)  and  the  curious 
Mesozoa  (^.v.),  are  no  doubt  related.  The  marine  Nemertine 
worms  (see  Nej^ktina)  are  isolated.  The  thick-skinned  round 
worms,  such  as  the  common  horse-worm  and  the  threadworms 
(see  Nematoda),  together  with  the  Nematomorpha  (^.v.), 
Ckaetcsomatida  (q.v.),  Desmoscoledda  (q.v.)  and  Acanthocephala 
(q.t.),  form  a  fairiy  natural  group.  The  Rotifera  (q.t.),  with 
probably  the  Kinorhyncha  (q.v.)  and  Gastrotricha  (q.v.),  are 
agahi  isolated.  The  remaining  warms  are  probably  all  coelomate 
animals.  There  i&  a  definite  Annelid  group  (see  Annelida), 
including  the  Archiarnielida,  the  bristleworms  (see  Cha£TO- 
vooa),  of  which  the  earthworm  (q.v.)  is  the  most  familiar  type, 
the  Myzostomida  (q.v.),  Hirudinea  (see  Leech)  and  the  armed 
Gephyreans  (see  EcmuROtDEA).  The  unarmed  Gephyreans 
(see  GEravKEA)  are  now  separated  from  Aieir  former  associales 
and  divided  mto  tw>o  groups  of  little  aflinity,  the  Sipvnaiicideo 
and  the  PriafmUidea  (qq.v.).  The  Pk»onidea  (q.v.)  are  now 
associated  with  Hemicha«data  (q.v.)  in  the  line  of  vertebrate 
ancestry,  whilst  the  Ckaetognalha  (qji,)  remain  in  solitaiy 
isolation. 

Mention  !s  made  under  Tapeworm  of  the  worms  of  that  species 
inhabiting  the  human  bodyr  aa  parasites,  and  it  will  be  convenient 
litre  to  mention  other  parasitic  varieties.  The  most  oommon  human 
pafatite  is  the  Ascaris  tumbricoides  or  round  worm,  found  chiefly  in 
children  and  occupying  the  upper  portion  of  the  intestine.  Tncy 
are  usaalty  few  In  number,  but  occasionally  occur  in  such  large 
numbers  that  they  cause  intestinal  obstruction.  UnGke  the  tape- 
worm no  intermediate  host  is  required  for  the  develo(Nnent  of  this 
worm.    It  develops  from  direct  ingestion  of-  the  larvae.   Various 

*The  O.  Eng.  tvynnrcpmentsa  word  common  to Tetitooic  lancvagcs 
for  a  snake  or  worm,  cf .  Cer.  Wurm,  Dan.  and  Swed.  orm,  Ou.  Worm* 
The  Lat.  vermis  must  be  connected.  The  Sanskrit  word  is  krimL 
which  has  given  kermes,  the  cochineal  Insect,  whence  **  crimson.'* 
Skcat  takes  the  ultimate  root  to  be  kar,  to  move,  especially  in  a 
.  ctienlarwotsaa.  seen  In  "  cnrve,"  "ciide."  Af.  The  word  "  wonn  " 
is  applied  to  many  objects  teaemblinE  the  animals  in  having  a  spiral 
shape  or  motion,  as  the  spiral  thread  of  a  scivw,  or  the  spiral  pipe 
through  which  vapour  Is  passed  in  distillarion  {q.v.).  As  a  term  of 
disparagement  and  contempt  the  word  is  also  need  of  persons,  from 
the  idea  of  wriggling  or  creaping  on  the  ground,  partly,  too,  perhapa« 
with  a  reminiscence  of  Genesis  iii.  14. 


symptoms,  such  aa  dianhoea.  aoaemia.  intermittent  f« 
nesa,  irritabOity  and  convulsiona  are  attributed  to  tiiae 
The  treatment  b  the  administratioa  of  santonin,  followed  by  a 
pniKativc  The  threadworm  or  Oxyurit  venmcmlaris  in  a  coamaa 
parasite  infecting  the  rectum.  The  larvae  of  this  worm  are  ahn 
directly  swallowed,  and  infection  probably  takes  place  tbrtough 
water,  or  poesibly  through  lettuces  and  watercress.  The  sympCDos 
caused  by  threadworms  am  loss  of  appetite,  anaemia  and 
imtatkm  and  itching.  The  tnatmeat  ooosiats  in  the  one  of  c 
containing  quassia,  carbolic  add.  vinegar  or  turpentine  < 
common  nit.    In  addition  mild  purgatives  should  be  given. 

WORHS,  a  dty  of  Germany,  in  the  grand-duchy  of  He 
Darmstadt,  situated  in  a  fertile  plain  called  the  Wonncgaa, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  35  m.  S.  of  Mainz,  so  m.  N.W.  of 
Heidelberg,  and  9  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  Mannheim.   Fop.  (189s) 
28,636;  (1905)  43,841,  about  a  third  of  whom  are    Romaa 
Catholics.  The  town  is  irregixlarly  built,  and  some  of  the  old  walls 
and  towers  still  remain,  but  its  general  aspect  is  modem.    The 
principal  church  and  chief  building  is  the  spacious  cathedral  of 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  which  ranks  beside  those  of  Spires  and 
Mainz  among  the  noblest  Romanesque  churches  of  the  Rhine 
(see    Architecture:    Romanesque  and  Gothic   in  CarvmoKy). 
This  magnificent  basilica,  with  four  round  towers,  two  Vnjp 
domes,  and  a  choir  at  each  end,  has  a  specially  imposing  escterior. 
though  the  impression  produced  by  the  interior  is  also  one  of 
great  dignity  and  simplicity,  heightened  by  the  natural  ctikoa 
of  the  red  sandstone  of  which  it  is  built.    Only  the  ground  plan 
and  the  lower  part  of  the  western  towers  belong  to  the  original 
building  consecrated  in  11 10;  the  remainder  was  mostly  6nished 
by  1 181,  but  the  west  choir  and  the  vaulting  were  built  in  the 
13th  century,  the  elaborate  south  portal  was  added  in  the  i4tk 
century,  and  the  central  dome  has  been  rebuilt.   The  ornamenta- 
tion of  the  older  parts  is  simple  to  the  verge  of  rudeness;  and 
even  the  more  elaborate  later  forms  show  no  hi|^  developtnettf 
of  workmanship.   The  baptistery  contains  five  remarkable  stone 
rdiefs  of  the  late  1 5th  century.  The  cathedral  is  358  ft.  long,  and 
89  ft.  wide,  or  including  the  transepts,  which  are  near  the  vest 
end,  118  ft.  (inside  measurements).    It  belongs  to  the  Roman 
Cathdic  community,  who  possess  also  the  church  of  St  Martin 
and  the  church  <rf  Onr  Lady  (Uekfranenkircke),  a  handsome 
Gothic  edifice  outside  the  town,  finished  in  1467.   The  principal 
Protestant  place  of  worship  is  the  Trinity  chtuch,  built  In  1726. 
Second  in  interest  to  the  cathedral  is  the  churth  oi  St  Ptaul,  also 
in  the  Romanesque  style,  and  dating  frons  xio3-ixx6,  with  a 
choir  of  the  earty  r^th  century,  dajsljera  and  other  SDoaastic 
buildings.    This  chsrcb  has  been  converted  ioto  an  iateresljiv 
museum  of  national  antiquities^    The  late  Romanesque  cJnudi 
of  St  Andrew  is  not  used.    The  old  synagogue,  an  ■"»*fn«Ti"fng 
building  erected  in  the  nth  century  and  restored  in  the  xjth, 
is  completdy  modernized.    The  Jewish  community  of  Wonrn 
(about  1300  in  number)  claims  to  be  the  most  ande&t  in  Gennaay 
and  to  have  existed  continuously  since  the  Christian  era,  thoui^ 
the  earliest  authentic  mention  of  it  qocvm  in  588.    A  curiovs 
tiadition,  illustrating  the  efforts  of  the  disposed  people  to 
conciliate  thdr  oppressors,  asserts  that  the  Jews  of  Wonns  gave 
thdr  voice  against  the  crucifixion,  but  that  their  mfssmyr  did 
not  anive  at  Jerusalem  until  after  the  event. 

The  town  hall  was  rebuilt  in  1884.  The  Bischofsbof,  in  whid 
the  most  famous  diet  of  Worms  (1591)  was  hdd,  is  now  replaced 
by  a  handsome  modem  residence.  The  Luginsland  is  an  old 
watch-tower  of  the  13th  century.  In  the  Lutherj^tx  rises  the 
Imposing  Luther  monument  (unveiled  in  1868),  on  a  platform 
48  ft.  sq.  In  the  centre  the  colossal  statue  of  Luther  rises,  on  a 
pedestal  at  the  base  of  which  are  sitting  figures  of  Peter  Waldo, 
WycIiHe,  Hus  and  Savonarola,  the  hendds  of  the  Reformatbn; 
at  the  comers  of  the  platform,  on  lower  pedestals,  are  statues 
of  Luther's  contemporaries,  Melanchthon,  ReuchUn,  l%ilip  of 
Hesse,  and  Frederick  the  Wise  of  Saxony,  V^tween  which  are 
allegorical  figures  of  Magdeburg  (mounilhg),  Spires  (protestioid 
and  Augsburg  (confessing).  The  greater  part  of  the  wotk, 
which  took  nine  years  to  execute,  was  designed  by  Rietschd,  and 
carried  out  after  his  death  in  1861  by  Gustav  Kiets  (x8>6-X9o8), 
Adolf  von  Donndorf  (b.  X83.O  and  Johannes  Schilling  (b.  1838). 
The  "  Rosengarten "  on  the  opposite  bink  of  tht 


WORMWOOD— WORSLEY 


833 


wtndMtd  with  thestoiieiof  tlie  WMiag  of  Ktiemliild  (m»  ii^rQ), 
has  been  laid  out  in  keeping  with  the  old  tiaditioiis  and  waa 
opeoed  with  gieai  festivities  in  1906.  Extensive  Jnuial-grounds, 
raDging  in  da  te  from  neolithic  to  Mevovhigian  tinN8»  have  leGentJ^ 
been  discoveaed  near  the  dty. 

The  tcade  and  industry  of  Worma  are  important,  and  not 
the  leaal  resource  of  the  inhabitants  is  vine-growing,  tha  most 
famous  vintage  being  known  as  Uebfranmilch,  grown  on  vine* 
yards  near  the  liebf ranenkirche.  The  manufacture  of  patent 
leather  empkkys  abont  5000  hands.  Macfaineiy;  woot,  doth, 
chicory,  slates,  &£.,  are  aka  produced.  Worms  poeeesses  a  good 
liver  harbour,  and  carries  on  a  oonsideEable  trade  by  water. 

Wonns  was  known  in  Roman  times  as  BMbetomagus,  which 
in  the  Merovingian  age  became  Wonnatia,  afterwards  by  pofMilar 
etymology  connected  with  IKnTM,  a  dragon.  The  name  Borbcto- 
magus  indicates  a  Cdtie  origin  for  the  town,  wfakh  had,  however, 
before  Caesar's  time  beoome  the  capital  of  a  German  tribe,  the 
VangioneB.  Drusus  is  said  to  have  erected  a  fort  here  in  14  B.C. 
In  413  the  emperor  Jovinus  permitted  the  Bnrgundians  under 
their  king  Guntar  or  Guntiar  to  settle  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine  between  the  Lauter  and  the  Nabe.  Here  they  founded 
a  kingdom  with  Worms  as  its  capitaL  Adopting  Arianism  they 
came  into  oon^t  with  the  Romans,  and  under  their  king 
Gundahar  or  Gundicar  (the  Gunther  of  the  Nibdtmgenlud}  rose 
in  435  against  the  Roman  governor  Aetius,  who  called  in  the 
Huns  against  them.  The  destruction  of  Worms  and  the  Bur- 
gundian  kingdom  by  the  Huns  in  436  was  the  subject  of  heroic 
legends  afterwards  incorporated  m  the  Nilielmtgeniied  (q.v.)  and 
the  Rosengarten  (an  epic  probably  of  the  late  13th  century). 
In  the  Nibdungenlied  King  Gunther  and  Queen  BrunhiU 
hold  their  court  at  Worms,  and  Siegfried  comes  hither  to  woo 
Kriemhild. 

Worms  was  rebuilt  by  the  Merovingians,  and  became  an 
episcopal  see,  first  mentioned  in  6x4,  although  a  bishop  of  the 
Vangiones  had  attended  a  council  at  Cologne  aa  early  as  347. 
There  waa  n  royal  palace  from  the  8th  centuiy,  in  whidi 
the  Frankiah  ktn^  iBclMdingCharicmagne,occBBionally  resided. 
The  scene  of  the  graceful  thou^  unfatstoricBl  mmanoeoC  Eanhard 
and  Emma,  the  daughter  of  Charlemagne,  ia  hiid  here. 

Under  the  German  kings  the  power  of  the  bishops  of  Wormi 
gradually  increased,  although  th^  never  attained  the  importance 
of  the  other  Rhenish  bishops.  Otto  L  granted  extensive  lands 
to  the  bishop,  and  in  979  Bishop  HUdbold  acquired  oomital 
lightsin  hisdty.  Buichard I.  <biab(^ IrcMn  1000 to  toi 5)de9troyed 
the  castle  of  the  Franoonian  house  at  Worms,  bmlt  the  cathedral 
and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  subsequent  territorial  power  of 
the  see^  Tberewere  frequent  stnigi^es  between  the  bishops  and 
the  citizens,  who  eqponsed  the  cause  of  Che  emperors  against 
them,  and  were  rewarded  by  privileges  which  fostered  trade. 
Hemy  IV.  granted  a  chartw  to  Worms  in  1074,  and  hekl  a  ^nod 
there  in  1076,  by  which  Pope  (Sregocy  VII.  was  declared  deposed. 
Henry  V.  acquired  Worms  in  xisx  by  the  treaty  of  Wllrsburg, 
built  a  castle  and  granted  privileges  to  the  dty,  whidi  retained 
its  freedom  until  i8or,  in  spite  of  the  bisbeps,  who  ruled  a  snodl 
territory  south  of  the  dty,  on  both  udes  of  the  Rhine,  and 
resided  at  Ladcnburgnear  Mannheim  till  1633. 

The  dty  of  Worma  was  frequently  visited  by  the  Imperial 
court,  and  won  the  title  of  **  Mother  of  Bicta^"  The  ooncocdat 
of  Worms  dosed  the  investiture  obntrovccsy  in  iiai.  The 
*'  peipetoal  peace"  (twigtr  LandfriedBi  waa pradairaed  by  the 
empoor  Maadmilian  L  at  the  diet  of  1495,  and  Luther  appeared 
before  the  famous  diet  of  xssi  to  defend  his  doctcuiea  in  the 
presence  of  Charles  V.  Four  yeare  later.  Worms  formailly 
embntced  ItetaMvntiRn,  and  religious  coBfasences  were  hdd 
these  in  1546  and  1537.  It  suffered  severe^. during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  After  bctng  saciKd  in  turn  byi  Mansfdd,  Tilly 
and  the  Spaaiaxda,  it  was  taken  by  Ozenstiema  in  1632,  who 
held  a  eonvention  here  with  his  German  allies.  The  imperial- 
ists a^ahi  took  Worms  In  1635,  and  it  adnnkted  the  French 
under  Turcnne  in  1644.  The  French  under  M61ac  burnt  the 
dty  almost  entirely  in  Z6S9,  and' it  has  only  luUy  recovered 
from  this  blow  in  recent  years..  .Thus  the  popufaktion,  wldch 


fat  its  profiperois  days  is  said  to  iMve  eaoeeded  50y000,had 
sunk  in  1815  to  6250. 

By  the  treaty  of  Worms  in  1743  an  offensive  alliance  waa 
formed  between  Great  Britain,  Austria  and  Sardinia.  The 
French  under  CusUne  took  the  dty  by  surprise  in  1792  and  it 
was  annexed  by  the  peace  of  Lun£viUe  in  1801  to  France,  together 
with  the  bishop's  territories  on  the  Idt  bank  of  the  Rhine.  The 
remaining  episcopal  d<MninioDa  were  secularised  in  1803  and 
given  to  He88e*Darmstadt,  which  acquired  the  whole  by  the 
Vienna  Congress  in  1815.  In  1849  the  Baden  revolutionaries 
sdzcd  W(ttms>  but  were  overthrown  by  the  Meddenbuigers  and 
Prussians  in  May  of  that  year. 

See  Zorn,  Warmstr  Ckromik  (3tuttgart,  1857);  Fuchi.  CesfhichU 
ier  Stadt  Worms  (Worms,  1868) ;  F.  Sdduit  Der  lUichstag  tu  Worms, 
t$2t  (Worms,  1883);  Beilrdgetur  GcschkkU  der  Sladl  Worms 
(Worms,  1 896) ;  G.  Wdf .  Zur  CesckuhU  der  Juden  in  Worms  (Bpeslau, 
1862);  Nover,  Das  altc  und  mem  Worms  (Womw,  1895). 

WORMWOOD,  the  popular  name  for  an  aromatic  herb  known 
botanically  as  Artemisia  Absinthium,  a  member  of  the  famfly 
Compositae.  It  grows  from  i  to  3  ft.  high  and  Is  silkily  hairy; 
the  leaves  are  small  and  much  cut,  and  the  flowera  are  small 
yellow  hemispherical  heads  among  the  leaves  at  the  end  of  the 
branches.  It  grows  in  waste  places.  It  Is  a  tonic  and  vermifuge 
and  used  to  flavour  drinks.  A  closdy  allied  spedes  is  A .  vidgaris, 
mugwort,  also  an  aromatic  herb,  with  larger  and  broader  leaves: 
which  are  vdute  woolly  beneath,  and  erect  woolly  heads  of 
reddish-ydlow  flowers. 

WOBBBOBOUOfl,  an  urban  district  in  the  HoUnfirth  pariia* 
mentary  divnion  of  the  W.  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  En^and, 
3  m.  S.  of  Bamsley,  near  the  Sheffidd  &  Bamsky  branch  of 
the  Great  Central  railway,  and  on  a  branch  of  the  Deame  ft 
Doive  canaL  Pop.  (1901)  10^336.  The  church  of  St  Maiy  is 
an  interesting  structure  with  remains  of  Norman  work,  but 
chicAy  of  Early  English  date.  There  are  extensive  colheriea 
and  gunpowder  mills  near,  and  in  the  town  iron  and  sted  works 
and  com  mills* 

WORSHIP  <«A  *'woith-ahip,"  O.  Eng.  «Mr0n»>e),  honour, 
dignity,  reverence,  respect.  >.The  word  is  used  in  a  special  sense 
of  the  service,  reverence  and  honour  paid,  by  means  oi  devoUoaal 
words  or  acts,  to  God,  to  the  gods,  or  to  hallowed  persons,  such 
as  the  Virgin  Mary  or  t!ie  saints,  and  hallowed  objects,  such  ^ 
holy  Images  or  rdics.  In  this  sense,  however,  it  must  be  bone 
in  ddnd  that  the  R«man  Catholic  Church  distinguishes  three 
kiiids  el  wonkip:  (x)/a<rsa,  the  worship  due  to  God  alone  (from 
Gr.  Xarpda,  service,  esp.  the  service  of  the  gods,  worship),  and  (3) 
hyperdulia,  the  worship  or  adoration  due  to  the  Virgin  Mary  as 
the  Mother  of  God  (from  Gr.  d*|p,  above,  and  iaoXdof  service), 
and  is)  duHat  that  due  to  the  samts.  (See  also  ADOSAnON.) 
The  public  service  of  God  in  church  js  icnown  as  **  divine  worship  " 
or  *'  divine  service  **  (see  Lituxcv).  In  the  sense  of  "  rewere  " 
or  "  respect,"  the  verb  **  to  worship  "  <occun  in  the  EngKsfa 
Prayer-book,  in  the  phrase  "  witfi  my  body  I  thee  womhip  " 
in  the  Marriage  Service.  In  this  sense  the  term  ''worship" 
is  sJso  used  as  a  title  of  honour  in  q)eaking  of  or  addressing- 
other  persons  of  position.  Thus  a  mayor  is  spoken  of  aa  **  big 
worship  the  mayor,"  or  "  the  worshipful  the  nn^yor*"  Blagis* 
trates  are  addrnsed  as  "  your  worship."  ' 

WORSLET,  PHIUF  fiTANBOPB  (1835^1^66),  English  poet, 
son  of  the  Rev.  Charles  Worsley,  was  bom  on  the  tsUi  of  August 
1835,  and  was  educated  at  Higfagate  grammar  school  and  Corpus 
Chrisd  College,  Oxford,  where  he  won  the  Newdigate  prise  in 
1897  with  a  poem  on  "  The  Temple  of  Janus."  In  1 861  he 
published  a  tramdation  of  the  Odyssey,  foUowfd  in  f865  by  at 
translation  of  the  first  twelve  books  of  the  /liod,  in  .both  of 
wUdi  he  ecbi^oyed  the  Spenserian  stanxa  with  success.  In  r865 
appeared  a  volume  of  Poems  and  TrasulaHons,  Woisley  died' 
on  the  8lh  of  May  i8<i6.  Ifis  trandatlon  of  the  iHad  was  cona* 
pkted  after  his  death  by  Jolm  Conhigton. 

W0R8LBT,  an  urban  district  in  the  Ecdes  paiiiamentary 
division  of  Lancashire,  En^nd,  6  m.  W.N.W.  of  Manchester 
by  the  London  &  Korth-Westem  railway.  Pop.  <s90x)  13,463; 
Its  growth  is  a  reailt  of  the  devebpment  of  tlie  cotton  menu* 
facture  and  of  the  ndghbooring  collieries.' 


834 


WORTH,  G.  F.-^WORTir 


WOBffH.  CHAMBS  VRBDBftlGK  (i89^i895)>  tlie  famous 
dressmaker,  was  bom  at  Bourne,  Lincolnshire,  in  1825.  His 
lather,  a  country  solicitor,  having  lost  his  money  in  speculation. 
Charles  was  sent  to  London  as  an  apprentice  to  Swan  &  Edgar, 
drapers.  Thence,  in  1846,  he  went  to  Paris,  without  capital  or 
friends,  and  after  twelve  years  in  a  wholesale  silk  bouse  he  begaa 
business  as  a  dressmaker  in  partnership  with  a  Swede  named 
Dobergh.  His  originality  and  skill  in  design  won  the  patronage 
of  the  eiripress  EagMe,  and,  through  her,  of  fashionable  Paris, 
After  the  Franco^Gcrman  War,  during  which  he  turned  his  house 
into  a  military  hospital,  his  partner  retired,  and  Worth  con* 
tinued  the  business,  which  employed  laoo  hands,  with  his  two 
sons  John  and  Gaston — both  naturalized  Frenchmen.  For  more 
than  thirty  3rears  he  set  the  taste  and  ordained  the  fashions  of 
Paris,  and  extended  his  sway  over  all  the  civilized  and  much  of 
the  uncivilized  world.    He  died  on  the  loth  of  March  1895. 

WORTH,  a  village  of  Alsace,  on  the  Saner,  6  m.  N.  of  Hagonau, 
which  gives  its  name  to  the  battle  of  the  6th  of  August  1870, 
fought  betwe<m  the  Germans  under  the  ccown  prince  of  Prussia 
and  the  French  under  Marshal  MacMabon.  The  battle  ia  also 
called  Reichshoffen  and  FrGschweiler. 

The  events  which  led  up  to  the  engagement,  and  thfe  general 
situation  on  the  6th  arc  dealt  with  under  Framoo-Gejuiah 
Wak.  During  the  5th  of  August  the  French  ooncentnted  in 
a  selected  position  runraog  nearly  N.  and  S.  along  the  Sauer 
Bach  on  the  left  front  of  the  German  III.  army  which  was  moving 
S.  to  seek  them.  The  position  is  marked  from  right  to  left  by 
Mord>rotin,  the  Niedcrwald,  the  heights  W.  oi  Wdrth  and  the 
Woods  N.E.  of  Fritechweiler.  £.  of  the  Saqer  the  German  IIL 
army  was  moving  S.  towards .  Hagenau,  when  their  cavafary 
found  the  French  position  about  noon.  Thereafter  the  German 
vedettes  held  the  French  under  close  observation,  while  the 
latter  moved  about  within  their  lines  and  as  far  as  the  village 
of  Worth  as  if  ia  peace  quarters,  and  this  notwithstanding  the 
defeat  of  a  portion  of  the  army  at  Weisscnburg  on  the  previous 
day.  The  remnant  of  the  force  which  had  been  engaged,  with 
o»ny  of  its  wounded  still  in  the  ranks,  marched  in  about  noon 
with  so  soldierly  a  bearing  that,  so  tu  from  their  depressing 
the  morale  of  the  rest,  their  appearance  actually  raised  it. 

About  5  p.it»  some  horses  were  watered  at  the  Saner,  aS  in 
peaoe^  withput  escort,  though  hostile  aCouts  were  in  si^t.  A 
sudden  swoop  of  the  enemy's  hussars  drove  the  party  back  to 
camp.  The  alarm  was  sounded,  tents  were  sttack  and  the 
troops  fell  in  all  -along  the  line  and  remained  under  anns  until 
the  confusion  died  down,  when  orders  were  sent  to  fall  out,  but 
not  to  pitch  the  tents.  The  army  therefore  bivouacked,  and  but 
for  this  inddent  the  battle  of  the  next  day  would  probably  not 
have  been  fought.  A  sudden  and  vioient  storm  broke  over  the 
bivouacs,  and  when  it  wat  over,  die  men,  wet  and  restless,  began 
10  move  about,  li|^t  fires,  &c.  Many  of  them  broke  out  of  camp 
and  went  into  W5rth,  whidi  was  unoccupied,  though  Prussians 
^ere  only  300  yds.  from  the  sentries.  These  fired,  and  the 
officer  commanding  the  Prussian  out|k)Sts,  hearing  the  Gonf  used 
murmur  of  voices,  ordered  up  a  b&tteiy,  and  as  soon  ss  there 
was  li^t  enough  dropped  a  few  shells  into  Wfirth.  The  Stragglers 
rushed  back,  the  French  lines  wens  again  alarmed^  and  several 
batteries  on  their  side  took  up  the  chatte nga . 

The  Prussian  guns,  as  strict  orders  bad  been  given  to  avoid 
aU  eogagcmtiit  that  day,  soon  withdrew  and  were  about  to 
Datum  to  camp,  when  renewed  Artillery  firs  was  heaxd  firom  the 
S.  and  presently  also  from  the  K.  In  the  latter  direction,  the 
H.  Bavarian  corps  had  bivotiacked  along  the  MattstaUrLaagen- 
ailabach  road  with  orders  to  continue  the  mardi  if  artiUeiy. 
were  heard  to  the  S.  This  order  was  contmry  to  the  spirit  of 
tin  III.  army  orden,  and  moreover  the  V.  Prussian  corps  to 
the  &  was  hi  i^omnte  of  its  having  been  given. 

The  outpost  battery  near  Worth  was  heard,  and  the  Bavarians 
at  once  mdvcd  forvrard.  Soon  the  leading  troops  weitoo  the 
m^  of  the  ridge  b^ween  the  Sauer  and  the  Sulxbach,  and  the 
divisional  oonmiaoder,  anxious  to  prove  his  loyalty  to  his  new 
alliesrrhis.enemifis  in  iSdd'-^rdetied  his  troops  to  attadt,  giving 
the  spire  of  Frtechwaikc,  which  was  viidibk  moer  the  woods*  tm 


the  pMBt  of  dlredloB.  The  French,  howsver,  vrere  <|uite  rcMly 
and  a  fuiioos  fusillade  broke  out,  which  was  multif^ed  by  the 
echoes  of  the  forest-dad  hills  out  of  all  propwtion  to  the  numben 
engaged.  The  Prussian  officers  of  the  V.  corps  near  Dieffenhach, 
knowing  nothing  of  the  orders  the  Bsvarians  had  received, 
were  amazed,  but  at  length  when  about  10.30a.m.  their  comrades 
were  seen  retiring,  in  some  cases  in  great  disorder,  the  ooips 
commander,  General  von  Rirchbach,  decided  that  an  eflort 
must  at  once  be  made  to  relieve  the  Bavarians.  His  diicf  of 
staff  had  already  ordered  up  the  divisional  and  corps  artillefy 
(84  guns  in  all),  and  he  himsetf  oonununiealed  his  intention  oi 
attacking  to  the  XI.  ooips  (General  von  Bose)  on  his  left  and  asked 
for  all  avaihible  assistance.  A  teport  was  also  despatched  to 
the  crown  prince  at  Sulz,  5  m*.  away. 

Meanwidle  the  XI.  corps  had  become  involved  hn  an  engage- 
ment. TheleftoftfaeV.  corps' outposts  had  over  night  occupied 
Gunstett  and  the  bank  of  the  Sauer,  and  the  French  shortly  after 
daylight  <m  the  6th  sent  down  an  unarmed  party  to  fetch  water. 
As  this  appeared  through  the  mist,  the  Pruasiatis  nnttirally 
fired  upon  it,  and  the  French  General  Lartigue  (to  whoso  divisoa 
the  party  bek>nged),  puzzled  to  acoouat  for  the  firing,  brooght 
up  some  batteries  in  readiness  to  repel  an  attack.  These  find  a 
few  rounds  only,  but  remained  in  porition  as  a  precaution. 

Hearing  the  firing,  the  XI.  corps'  advanced  guard,  which  had 
marched  up  behind  in  acconiance  with  the  general  movement  of 
the  corps  in  changingfront  to  the  west,  and  had  halted  on  loadnsg 
the  Kreushecke  Wood,  promptly  came  up  to  Spochbach  and 
Gunstett.  In  this  movement  across  ONmtry  to  Spachbach 
some  bodies  appear  to  have  exposed  themselves,  for  French 
artillery  at  Elsasshausen  suddenly  opened  fire,  and  the  dirapnd 
bursting  high,  sent  showers  of  bullets  on  to  the  house  rooC^  of 
Spachbach,  in  which  village  a  battalion  had  just  halted.  As 
the  falling  tiles  made  the  position  undesirable,  the  major  in 
command  ordered  the  march  to  be  resumed,  and  as  he  gave  the 
order,  his  horse  ran  away  with  him  towards  the  Sauer.  The 
leading  company,  seeing  the  battalion  commander  gallop, 
moved  off  at  the  douUe,  and  the  others  of  course  followed. 
Comingwithfinsi^taf  the  enemy,  they  drewa  heavy  shell  fixe,  and, 
still  under  the  hnprcssion  that  they  were  intended  to  attack, 
deployed  into  line  of  columns  and  doubled  down  to  the  irver, 
which  they  crossed.  One  or  two  companies  in  the  nei^bourhood 
had  aheady  begun  to  do  so,  and  the  stream  being  too  wide  for 
the  mounted  officera  to  jump,  presently  eight  or  ten  companies 
were  across  the  river  and  out  of  superior  control.  By  this  time 
the  French  outposts  (somfc  1500  rifles),  lining  the  edge  of  the 
Niederwald,  were  firing  heavily.  The  line  of  smoke  was  naturally 
accepted  by  all  as  the  objective,  and  the  (jennan  compaiucs 
with  a  wild  rush  reached  the  edge  of  the  wood. 

The  same  thing  had  happened  at  Gunstett  A  most  obstinate 
struggle  ensued  and  both  sides  brought  up  reinforcements.  The 
Prussians,  with  all  their  attention  concentrated  on  the  wood 
in  their  front,  and  luiving  as  yet  no  superior  commanders,  soon 
exhibited  signs  of  oonfasion,  and  thereupon  General  Lartigue 
ordered  a  counter  attack  towards  the  heights  of  Gonstett, 
when  all  the  Prussians  between  the  Niedcrwald  and  the  Sauer 
gave  way.  The  French  followed  with  a  rush,  and,  fording  the 
Sauer  opposite  Gunstett,  for  a  moment  placed  the  long  line  of 
(Serman  guns  upon  the  heights  in  considttable  danger.  At  this 
crisis  a  fresh  battalion  of  the  XI.  corps  arrived  by  the  road  from 
Surbuig  Co  Gunstett,  and  attacked  the  French  on  one  6ank 
ilrhilst  the  guns  swept  the  other.  The  momentum  of  the  charge 
disd  out,  and  the-  French  drifted  backwaids  after  an  effort 
'  which  oompdled.  the  adiniration  of  both  sides. .    . 

In  the  centre  the  fig^t  had  been  going  badly  for  the  V.  onrpa. 
As  soon  as  the  i84  guns  between  Dieifexdiach  and  Spachbach 
opened'  fire  tfaST  French  disappeared  from  sighL  There  was  no 
bngec  a  target^  snd,  perhaps  to  compel  his  adretsary  to  shotr 
.hifluelf,  von  Kixchbach  ordsmd  foUr  battaHooB  to  cross  the 
river^  These  battalions,  hmvever,  were  widely  separated,  and 
ooiniag  uhdeT  fire  as  soon  as. they  appeared,  they  attacked 
ini-.two  groups*  one  fratn  Wfirth  towards  Fitaohwciler,  the 
l-Qihtft  from  ocar .5p*C}iba«h  towsid^  the  Cah»iiy  apur»  £,  eC 


WORTH 


*3S 


BamlsUKn.  Botb  were  ovCTpowertd  by  Inf iaU7  Ere.  A  fru> 
Udb  oT  lihe  S.  party  mainuined  iutlf  ill  day  in  tbe  dboir  ot  the 
BogcuaK  cbauMee,  whkk  loniwdaNaniac-poinllotvibtcqutDt 
attacks  But  1^  TOt  wbr  drivn  hock  ia  peat  anfudon. 
Once  moR  the  duhjog  cmmler-iltiLdi  of  tht  Fnoch  was  thran 
tpio  ninfuiioa  by  tlie  Prualan  sbell  fin,  and  u  Un  Fieoch  IcQ 


dw  atladi  (galiiM  tha  Nisitevald  whk  rack  of  hli  fDroH  w  had 
arrived,  and  had  otdand  Gtocral  yea  Sebint^'t  briside,  trhU 
wai  tfcei  anitaiKUn)^  ■•  Jain  lbs  Uoopa  coUecUag  Ur  t)v  eatt 
ol  Gnntcit,  Sehk(^>p,  however,  aceiiig  tbat  hii  pnwtt  lin*  i£ 
advance  M  bdin  dtivM  en  te  tb*  Fnack  right  about.  Mmbnoa 
and  kept  him  daar  at  the  ovnftjsiaa  M  be  mcb  arouDd  GtHMttt,' 


back  the  Pmulan  iittantry,  now  rdnlorced,  kltovcd  Ibcm  u 
(about  I  p.m.).  The  comniindCT-)n-chief  of  the  Gfrman  11] 
aimr  (the  ODWB  prince  Frederick)  t)ow  appeared  on  (he  EHd  an 
wdeied  KinUach  u>  uaml  lau  until  the  pnauie  of  the  XI 
eorpa  and  Wflrttembng  divBioB  cauld  lake  effect  against  th 
Frnkch  ri^  wing.  The  majority  o(  these  troops  had  nol  yc 
leached  the  field..  Von  Bosc,  however,  seeing  the  rtltvat  of  ih 
troop*  d(  the  V.  coipa,  bad  tndcpciulcaijy  deietauned  lo  ieiie< 


diirefarded  the  order  aid  csnlioued  to  advawe  on  Moribrono. 
Thii  delibctiUc  KiqMaBC*  of  ropoaaihiU'y  really  decided  the 
battk.  fm  his  btifadequuily  dcpiqyadaaa  Bait  and  compelled 
the  French  right  »»(  (a  fall  back. 

To  covB  the  .Fiwch  retreat  Uichel's  bngsdc  of  cavalry  Kaa 
ordered  to  charge.  The  order  was  somewhat  vagae,  and  in  bia 
posiiivn  under  (»ver  near  Ebeibich,  Genenl  Michel  had  oo  koow- 
Itdgc  o(  Uw  utual  uluatiqiL  .Ural  it  cone  abouj  thaJ,  wiUiilUt 


«36 


WORTHING^WDTTON,  SIR  H. 


neoonoitrink  or  mttceavrfaig  for  pontion,  the  Fvoich  avaliy 
iode  straigbt  at  the  first  objective  which  offered  itself,  and  ttiuck 
the  victarknia  Prussians  as  they  were  crossing  the  hills  betweea 
the  AlbrechtsbaUserhoC  and  Monbnmn.  Hence  the  charge  was 
costly  and  only  partly  aoccesrfuL  Howcveri  the  Pmsaians  were 
xiddca  ovec  here  and  there,  and  their  attention  was  sufficiently 
absorbed  while  the  French  infantry  zallied  for  a  fresh  counter- 
stroke.  This  was  made  about  i  .20  tjl.  with  the  utmost  gallantry, 
and  the  Prussians  were  driven  off  the  hillsides  between  the 
AlbrechtshaQseriiof  and  Moisbronn  whidi  they  had  already  won. 
But  the  counter-attack  soon  came  under  the  fire  of  the  great 
artiUety  mass  above  Gunstett,  and,  von  Boae  having  at  length 
concentrated  the  nuun  body  of  the  XI.  corps  in  the  meadows 
between  the  Niederwald  and  the  Sauer,  the  French  had  to  with- 
draw. Their  withdrawal  involved  the  retreat  of  the  troops  who 
had  fought  all  day  in  defence  of  the  Niederwald. 

By  3  P.if.  the  Prussians  were  masters  of  the  Niederwald  and 
the  ground  S.  of  it  on  which  the  French  right  wing  had  originally 
stood,  but  they  were  in  ^cscribable  conf  uuon  after  the  pcalonged 
fighting  in  the  dense  undergrowth.  Before  order  could  be 
restored  came  another  fierce  oounter-«tndce.  As  the  Pmsaans 
emerged  from  the  N.  edge  of  the  wood,  the  French  reserves 
suddenly  came  out  from  behind  the  Elsasshaosen  heists,  and 
striking  due  S.  drove  the  Prussians  back.  It  was  a  grave  crisis, 
but  at  this  moment  von  Sdikopp,  who  throughout  all  this  had 
ikcpt  two  of  his  battalions  intact,  came  round  the  N.W.  oomer 
of  the  Wald,  and  these  fresh  battaJions  again  brought  the  French 
to  a  standstill.  Meanwhile  von  Kirchbach,  seeing  the  progress 
of  the  XI.  corps,  bad  ordered  the  iidiole  of  his  command  forward 
to  assault  the  French  centre,  and  away  to  the  right  the  two 
Bavarian  corps  moved  against  the  French  Idt,  which  still  mainr 
taincd  Its  ori^nal  position  in  the  woods  N£.  of  FrOsdiweiler. 

MacMahon,  however,  was  not  beaten  yet.  Ordering  Bonne- 
mains'  cavalry  division  to  charge,  by  squadrons  to  gain  time,  he 
brought  up  his  reserve  artillery,  and  sent  it  forward  to  case-sh<^ 
range  to  cover  a  final  counts-stroke  by  his  last  intact  battalions. 
But  from  his  position  near  FrOschwdler  he  could  not  see  hito  the 
boDow  between  Elsasshausen  and  the  Niederwald.  The  order 
was  too  late,  and  the  artillery  unlimbered  just  as  the  counter 
attack  on  the  Niederwald  alluded  to  above  gave  way  before 
von  Schkopp's  reserve.  The  guns  were  submerged  in  a  flood 
of  fugitives  and  pursuers.  Elsasshausen  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Germans.  To  rescue  the  guns  the  nearest  French  in- 
fantry attacked  in  a  succession  of  groups,  charging  Home  the 
bayonet  with  the  utmost  determination.  Before  each  attack 
the  Prussians  immediately  in  front  gave  way,  but  those  on  the 
ffanks  swung  inwards  and  Under  this  oonver^ng  fire  each  French 
attempt  died  out,  die  Prussians  foOowing  up  their  retreat.  In 
this  manner,  step  by  step,  in  confusion  which  almost  defies 
analysis,  the  Prussians  conquered  the  whole  of  the  ground  to  the 
S.  of  the  FrSschweilar-Werth  road,  but  the  Fiench  still  held  on 
in  the  village  of  Fr6schweiler  itself  and  in  the  woods  to  the  N. 
of  the  roacC  where  throughout  the  day  they  had  held  the  two 
Bavarian  corps  in  check  with  little  difficulty.  To  break  down 
this  last  stronghold,  the  giuis  of  the  V.  and  XI.  corps,  which 
had  now  come  forward  to  the  captured  ridge  of  Ebasshausen, 
took  the  village  as  their  target;  aiui  the  great  crowd  U  infantry, 
now  flushed  with  victory  but  in  the  direst  confusion,  encouraged 
%>y  the  example  of  two  horse  artillery  batteries  widch  galloped 
boldly  forward  to  case-shot  range,  delivered  One  final  rush  which 
^ept  all  resistance  before  it. 

Tlie  battle  was  won  and  cavalry  only  were  needed  to  reap  its 
consequences,  but  the  Prussian  cavalry  division  had  been  left 
behmd  without  orders  and  did  not  readi  the  battlefield  till  late 
at  night.  The  divisional  cavalry  squadrons  did  their  best,  but 
each  pursued  on  its  own  account,  and  the  results  in  prisoners 
and  guns  fell  far  short  of  what  the  opportunity  offered.  Under 
cover  of  darkness  the  French  escaped,  and  on  the  following  day 
the  cavalry  division  was  quite  unable  to  discover  the  direction  of 
the  retreat. 

MacMahon  received  no  support  from  the  nel^bourinc  Frendi 
troope  (see  FaaNCo^Gsaii an  was).   The  battle  was  wen  by  o¥er^ 


powenng  weight  of  numbrrB.  The  Prusiiaa  fenenl  staff  weft  tUi 
to  direct  upon  the  field  no  fewer  than  75,000  infantry.  6000  cavalry, 
and  300  suns,  of  whkh  71,000  rifles.  4250  nbres  and  234  |Bn 
cane  into  accioo,  against  32/mo  rifles,  4890  cabrea  and  101  cim 
on  the  Ffeach  akfe.  Tfaeauperiority  of  the  French  chaasepot  to  tk 
needle  guns  nay  leaaonably  be  set  against  the  superior  nunbei 
01  rifles  on  the  German  ride,  for  thou^  theGennana  weic  generaSy, 
thanks  to  their  numbera,  «>ie  to  bnng  a  converging  fire  upoa  the 
French,  the  latter  made  nearly  doable  the  nunber  ol  hita  far  aboit 


neariy  

the  same  weight  of  ammunitaon  fired,  but  die  French  had  aotbiic 
to  oppoae  to  the  superior  German  artillery,  and  in  alnost  evm 
Instance  it  waa  the  terrible  shell  fire  whkh  broke  up  the  Fread 
counter  attack.    All  of  these  attacks  were  in  the  h^^icat 
honourable  to  the  French  army,  and  nany  came  nearer  to  im( 
the  ultimate  auoceas  of  the  oermana  than  fa  generally  su 
One  other  point  deserves  apedal  attention.    As  soon  aa  the  bthuai 
became  general,  all  order  in  the  skirmisher  Unas  diaappeaied  00  tntS 
sides,  and  invariably,  except  where  the  Phiasiatt  nrtiuery  fire  iotcr* 
vened.  it  was  the  appearance  of  doaed  bodiea  of  troops  in  icar  d 
the  fighting  line  which  determined  the  retreat  of  thdr  opponcnli. 
Even  m  the  confused  fighting  in  the  Niederwald.  the  mere  lound  of 
the  Prussian  druma  or  the  French  bugles  induced  the  adversary  10 
give  way  even  though  druma  and  bugln  frequently  appealed  10  ik» 
existent  troopa. 

The  kwses  of  the  Germans  wen  9370  killed  and  wounded  and  i3;« 
missiM,  or  i^%;  those  of  the  French  were  about  8000  killed  aid 
wounded,  and  perhaps  I3/xk>  missing,  and  prisoners,  representing  a 
total  loss  of  about  41  %.  Some  French  ranments  retained  a  sen- 
bhnoe  of  diacipline  sifter  auttering  enormous  loaiea.  TheandTmcM 
lost  93%,  13th  hussars  87%,  and  thirteen  regiments  la  all  kistom 
SO  %  of  their  strength. 

See  the  French  and  Germail  ofidal  historiea  of  the  war:  H 
Bonnal.  FriukwOkr  (rSm);  H.  Kuns,  ScUadU  vom  Wdrtk  (1891) 
and  Krieesgaek.  Btis^itU,  Noa.  i^-tfl;  R.  Touna^  De  Cumsua  » 
NiedefwaU  and  Le  Calvaire ;  and  Commandant  Grange, "  Lea  ItiUiih 
du  champ  dc  bataUk."  Rmu  iTh^imUne  (1908-1910}.    (F.  N.  M.) 

WOBTHIMO,  a  mnnidpal  borough  and  seaside  resort  in  tk 
Lewes  parttamentary  division  of  Sussex,  EaiJaml,  fix  m.  S.  by 
W.  from  London  by  the  London,  Brighton  i  South  Coast  nil« 
way.  Pop.  (1901)  30,01$.  It  has  a  fine  marine  parade,  andt 
promenade  pier,  and  there  is  a  long  xaage  <d  firm  sands.  A 
public  park,  ar  acres  in  extent,  was  opoiod  In  i88t»  The  prindpil 
building  are  several  modem  chuiches,  the  town  ball  (1834),  | 
municipal  buikHngs,  free  library,  literary  inalltnte,  infirmary  sad 
convalescent  homes.  The  moUier  parish  of  WoiUakig  is  Brosd- 
water,  the  diuich  of  which,  x  m.  north  of  Worthing,  ia  a  cnacifonB  , 
building,  and  a  fine  example  of  trauritiooal  Normim  work.  A 
Roman  villa,  evidence  of  the  eidatehce  of  pottery  works,  sod 
a  so-called  mile-atone,  have  been  discovered  at  Worthing,  tbe 
•town  was  inoorporatei  in  1890,  and  is  under  a  mayor,  8  ^Sdcr* 
men  and  34  councillors.   Area,  1439  acres. 

WOnOH*  SIR  RSNRT  (xs68--i6a9),  En|^  author  and 
diplomatist,  son  of  Thomas  Wotton  (x  531-1 587)  and  grsad* 
nephew  of  the  diplomatist  Nicholas  Wotton  (9.V.),  was  bom  »t 
Bocton  Hall  in  the  parish  of  Bocton  or  Boti^ton  Malhecbe, 
Kent.^  He  was  educated  at  Wmchester  School  and  at  Ke« 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  matriculated  on  the  sth  of  June  1584. 
Two  years  later  he  removed  to  Queen's  College,  graduating  B.A. 
in  1588.  At  Oxford  he  was  the  ftioid  of  Albexicus  Gentilis, 
then  professor  of  CivH  Law,  and  of  John  Donne.  Doring  his 
resklence  at  Queen's  he  wrote  a  play,  Tiificretfff,  whidi  has  not 
survived,  but  his  chief  interests  appear  to  have  been  fir"*^ 
In  qualifying  for  his  M.A.  degree  he  read  three  lecturea  Dt  octU, 
and  to  the  end  of  Us  life  he  continued  to  intere^  himself  in 
physical  experiments.  His  lather,  Thomar  Wpttoo,  died  in 
1587,  leaving  to  his  son  the  very  inadrquate  ouSniteaance  of 
a  hundred  marks  a  year.  About  1 589  Wotton  went  abroad,  with 
a  view  probably  to  preparation  for  a  diplomatic  career,  and  his 
travels  appear  to  have  lasted  for  about  six  yean.  At  Altdorf 
he  met  Edward,  Lord  Zouch,  to  whom  he  later  addressed  a  series 
of  letters  (1 590-1593)  which  contain  much  political  and  otha 
news.  These  {Reliquiae  WeUpmamat,  pp.  585  et  seq.  1685) 
provide  a  record  of  the  journey.  He  travelled  by  way  of  Vienna 

*  His  elder  half-brother,  Edward  Wotton  (Iiu8-i6a6).  catered  the 
service  of  Sir  Francis  Wahtingham,  and  in  t^ls  waa  aeOt  00  an  fan* 
portant  errand  to  James  VL  of  Scotland.  In  i6cki  he  waa  made 
comptroller  of  the  royal  household,  and  in  1603  he  waa  creatH 
Baron  Wotton  of  Marfey.  The  peerage  became  extinct  on  the  death 
of  his  son  Thomas,  the  and  haroo  (iSW-ifiao). 


WPTTON,  N.-.WOUND 


837 


•lod  Vtnkt  t»  Rone,  lad  id  1593  tpeat  )M>me  time  at  Geneva  in 
the  home  oC  Isaac  Caiaubon,  to  whom  he  oontraeted  a  consider- 
able debt.  He  letureed  to  England  in  1594,  and  in  the  next 
year  waa  admitted  to  the  Middle  Temple.  While  abroad  he  had 
from  tlme>  to  time  provided  Robert  Devereux,  second  earl  of 
EaKZ,  wiU»  information,  and  he  now  definitely  entered  his 
■ervice  as  one  of  his  agents  or  secretaries.  It  was  his  duty  to 
iuppty  intelligence  of  affairs  in  Transylvania,  Poland,  Italy  and 
Germany.  Wotton  wis  n(M:,  like  his  utfortwiate  f eUow-secretary, 
Henry  Cuffe,  who  was  hanged  at  Tybam  in  1601,  actually  in- 
volved in  Essex's  downkdl,  but  he  thought  it  prudent  to  leave 
Engbnd,  and  within  sixteen  hours  of  his  patron's  apprehension 
he  was  safe  in  France,  whence  he  travelled  to  Venice  and  Rome. 
In  1602  he  was  resident  at  Florence,  and  a  plot  to  murder  James 
VI.  of  Scotland  having  come  to  the  ears  of  the  grand-duke  of 
Tuscany,  Wotton  was  entrusted  with  letters  to  warn  him  of  the 
danger,  and  with  Italian  antidotes  against  poison.  As  "  Ottavio 
Baldi  "  he  travelled  to  Scotland  by  way  of  Norway.  He  was  well 
received  by  James,  and  remained  three  months  at  the  Scottish 
court,  retaining  his  Italian  incognito.  He  then  returned  to 
Florence,  but  on  receiving  the  news  of  James's  accession  hurried 
to  England.  James  knighted  him,  and  offered  him  the  embassy 
at  Madrid  or  Paris;  but  Wotton,  knowing  that  both  these  offices 
involved  ruinous  expense,  desired  rather  to  represent  James  at 
Venice.  He  left  London  in  1604  accompanied  by  Sir  Albertus 
Morton,  his  hall-nephew,  as  secretary,  and  William  Bedell,  the 
author  of  an  Irish  translation  of  the  Bible,  as  rhaplain.  Wotton 
spent  most  of  the  next  twenty  years,  with  two  breaks  (161 2-16 16 
and  1619-163 1),  at  Venice^  He  helped  the  Doge  in  his  resistance 
to  ecclesiastical  aggression,  and  was  dosely  associated  with 
Paolo  Sarpi,  whose  history  of  the  Council  of  Trent  was  sent  to 
King  James  as  fast  as  it  was  written.  Wotton  had  offended  the 
scholar  Caspar  Schoppe,  who  had  been  a  fellow  student  at 
Altdorf .  In  i5x  i  Schoppe  wrote  a  scurrik)us  book  against  James 
entitled  EccUsiaUicus,  in  which  he  fastened  on  Wotton  a  saying 
which  he  bad  incautiously  written  in  a  friend's  album  yeais 
before.  It  was  the  famous  definition  of  an  ambassador  as  an 
"honest  man  sent  to  lie  abroad  for  the  good  of  his  country.'* 
It  should  be  noticed  that  the  ori^nal  Latin  form  of  the  epigram 
did  not  admit  of  the  double  meaning*  This  was  adduced  as  an 
example  of  the  morals  of  James  and  his  servants,  and  brought 
Wotton  into  temporary  disgrace.  Wotton  was  at  the  time  on 
leave  in  England,  and  made  two  formal  defences  of  himself,  one 
a  personal  attack  on  his  accuser  addressed  to  Marcus  Welser  of 
Strassburg,  and  the  other  privately  to  the  king.  He  failed  to 
secure  further  diplomatic  employment  for  some  time,  and  seons 
to  have  finally  won  back  the  royal  favour  by  obsequious  support 
in  parliament  of  James's  claim  to  impose  arbitrary  taxes  on 
merchandise.  In  1614  he  was  sent  to  the  Hague  and  in  1616  he 
returned  to  Venice.  In  1620  he  was  sent  on  a  special  embassy  to 
Ferdinand  11.  at  Vienna,  to  do  what  he  could  on  behalf  of  James's 
daughter  Elizabeth,  queen  of  Bohemia.  Wotton's  devotion  to 
this  princess,  expressed  in  his  exquisite  verses  beginning  "  You 
meaner  beauties  of  the  night,"  was  sincere  and  unchanging. 
At  his  departure  the  emperor  presented  him  with  a  jewel  of  great 
value,  which  Wotton  received  with  due  respect,  but  before 
Ittiving  the  dty  he  gave  it  to  bis  hostess,  because,  he  said,  he 
would  accqit  no  gifts  from  the  enemy  of  the  Bohemian  queen. 
After  a  third  term  of  service  in  Venice  he  returned  to  London 
early  in  x6>4  and  in  July  he  was  installed  as  provost  of  Eton 
College.  This  office  did  not  relieve  him  from  his  pecuniary 
embarrassments,  and  he  was  even  on  one  occasion  arrested  for 
debt,  but  he  received  in  1627  a  pennon  of  £200,  and  in  1630  thisi 
was  rai<ed  to  £500  on  the  understanding  that  he  should  write 
a  history  of  En^nd.  He  did  not  neglect  the  duties  of  his  pro- 
vostahip,,  and  was  happy  in  being  able  to  entertain  his  friends 
lavishly.    His  most  constant  associates  were  Izaak  Walton  and 

John  Hales.  A  bend  in  the  Thames  below  the  Playing  Fields, 
nown  as  "  Black  Potts,"  is  still  pointed  out  as  the  spot  where 
Wotton  and  Izaak  Walton  fished  in  company.  He  died  at  the 
begbning  of  December  1639  and  was  buried  hi  the  ehap^l  of 
Eton  CMkit. 


Sir  Henry  Wotton  was  not  an  Indnstirioiit  aathor,  and  his 
writfaigs  are  very  small  fai  bulk.  Of  the  twenty-five  poems 
printed  in  Reliqmoe  WaUonUnae  only  fifteen  are  Wottonli. 
But  of  those  fifteen  two  have  obtained  a  place  among  the  best 
known  poems  in  the  language,  the  lines  already  mentioned  *'  On 
his  Mistris,  the  Queen  of  Bohemia,"  and  "  The  Character  of  a 
HappyUfe." 

During  his  Ufecime  be  publlahed  only  The  Ekwunts  cf  Arckitecktn 
(1634).  which  is  a  paraohrate  from  Marcus  Vitruvius  Pollio,  and  a 
Latin  prose  address  to  the  king  on  his  return  from  Scotland  (1633). 
In  165 1  appeared  the  Reliquiae  WoUonianiae,  with  Izaak  Walton  a 
L^.  An  admkabte  Life  and  Letters,  reprewnttng  much  new 
Material,  by  Logan  Pearsall  Smith,  was  published  in  1907.  See  also 
A.  W.  Ward,  Str  Henry  Wotten,  a  Dieenpkical  Sketch  (1898). 

WOTTON,  NICHOLAS  (c.  1497-1567).  English  diplomatist, 
was  a  son  of  Six  Robert  Wotton  of  Boughton  Malherbe,  Rent, 
and  a  descendant  of  Nicholas  Wotton,  lord  mayor  of  London  in 
141 5  and  1430,  and  member  of  parliament  for  the  city  from 
[406  to  1429.  He  eariy  became  vicar  of  Boughton  Malherbe  and 
of  Sutton  Valence,  and  later  of  Ivychurch,  Kent;  but,  desiring  a 
more  worldly  carreer,  he  entered  the  service  of  Cuthbert  TunsiaU, 
bishop  of  London.  Having  helped  to  draw  up  the  InUitution 
oja  Christian  Man,  Wotton  in  1539  went  to  arrange  the  marriage 
between  Henry  VIII.  and  Anne  of  Cleves  and  the  union  of 
Protestant  princes  which  was  to  be  the  complement  of  this  union. 
He  crossed  over  to  En^and  with  the  royal  bride,  but,  unlike 
Thomas  Cromwell,  he  didjwt  lose  the  royal  favour  when  the  king 
repudiated  Anne,  and  In  1 541,  having  already  refused  the  bishopric 
of  Hereford,  he  became  dean  of  Canterbury  and  in  1544  dean  of 
York.  In  1543  he  went  on  diplomatic  business  to  the  Nether- 
lands, and  for  the  next  year  or  two  he  had  much  intercourse  with 
the  emperor  Charles  V.  He  helped  t6  conclude  the  treaty  of 
peace  between  England  and  France  in  i54iS,  and  was  resident 
ambassador  in  France  from  1546  to  1549.  Henry  VIII.  made 
Wotton  an  executor  of  his  will  and  left  him  £300,  and  in  1549, 
under  Edward  VI.,  he  became  a  secretary  of  state,  but  he  only 
held  this  post  for  about  a  year.  In  1550  he  was  again  sent  as 
envoy  to  Charles  V.,  and  he  was  ambassador  to  France  during 
the  reign  of  Mary,  doing  valuable  work  in  that  capacity.  vHe 
left  France  in  1557,  but  in  1558  he  was  again  in  that  country, 
helping  to  arrange  the  preliminaries  of  the  treaty  of  Cateau 
Carobrists.  In  i$6o  he  signed  the  treaty  of  Edinburgh  on  behalf 
of  Elizabeth,  and  he  had  again  visited  the  Netherlands  before 
his  death  in  London  on  the  36th  of  January  1567. 

His  brother.  Sir  Edward  Wotton  (1489-155 1),  was  made 
treasurer  of  Calais  in  1540,  and  was  one  of  those  who  lock  part 
in  the  overthrow  of  the  protector  Somerset.  His  son,  Thomas 
Wotton  (1581-1587)  was  the  father  of  Sir  Henry  Wotton  (^.t.) 

WOTTON.  VILUAK  (1666-1737).  English  scholar,  son  of 
the  Rev.  Henry  Wotton,  waa  bom  in  his  father's  parish  of 
Wrentham,  Suffolk,  on  the  13th  of  August  1666.  He  was  not 
yet  ten  years  old  when  he  was  sent  to  Catherine  Hall,  Cambridge, 
having  by  this  time  a  good  knowledge  of  Latin,  Greek  and 
Hebrew.  He  obtained  a  fellowship  at  St  John's  College,  and 
was  elected  an  F.R.S.  in  1687.  Wotton  is  chiefly  remembered 
for  his  share  in  the  controversy  about  the  respective  merits  of 
ancient  and  modem  learning.  In  lus  Refiedions  upon  Ancient 
and  Modem  Learning  (1694*  end  again  1697)  he  took  the  part  of 
the  modems,  although  in  a  fair  and  judicial  spirit,  and  was 
attacked  by  Swift  in  the  Battle  oj  the  Boohs.  During  some  of  his 
later  years  Wotton  resided  in  Wales  and  gave  himself  to'the  study 
of  CeltiCk  making  a  translation  of  the  taws  of  Howel  Dda.  which 
was  publidied  after  his  death  (1730).  Having  taken  holy  orders, 
he  was  a  prebend  of  Salisbury  from  1705  until  his  death  at 
Buxted,  Essex,  on  the  13th  of  February  1737. 

Wotton  wrote  a  History  of  Rome  (1701)  and  Miscdlaneous  Dis- 
eoeeriis  relatini  to  the  TradHiont  and  Usages  of  the  Scribes  emd  PhaH' 
sees  (1718). 

WOUND  (O.  Eng.  viMi,connected  with  a  Teutonic  verh,meaning 
to  strive,  fight,  suflfer,  seen  hi  0.  Eng.  trinnan,  whence  Eng« "  win  "), 
a  solotioli  in  the  continuity  of  the  soft  parts  of  the  body.  Con- 
tused wounds.  M  bruises,  are  hijuries  to  the  cellular  tissues  in 
which  the  skin  is  not  broken.  In  parts  where  the  tissues  are  lax 
the  dlgnB.of  swelling  and  daaoolMaUon  are  mo^e  noticeable  tha« 


838 


WOUWERMAN,  P. 


K.  G.  VOM 


in  tbe  tenter  tiMaflft.  HwiHtcoloraUoQis  caused  by  iMeflMrrlMige 
iata  the  tissues  ificckym^is),  and  passes  from  dark  puiple  tbiougli 
green  to  yeDow  before  it  disappears^  If  a  considerable  amount  of 
Uood  is  poured  forth  into  tbe  injured  tissues  it  is  termed  a 
katmatoma.  The  treatment  oC  a  bruise  consists  in  I  he  appiicatioa 
of  cold  lotion*  preferably  an  evaporating  spirit-lotion,  to  limit 
the  subcutaneous  bleeding.  The  haemorrhage  usually  becomes 
absofbed  of  its  own  accord  even  in  haematomata,  but  should 
suppuration  threaten  an  incision  must  be  made  and  the  cavity 
asepiically  evacuated. 

Open  wounds  are  divided  into  incised,  lacecatcd.  punctured  and 
gunshot  wounds^  Incised  wounds  are  made  by  any  sharp  ia^trument 
and  have  their  edges  evenly  cut.  In  these  wounds  chcre  is  usually 
free  haemorrhage,  as  the  vesecls  are  cleaaly  divided.  UuemM 
wounds  arc  those  in  which  the  edges  of  the  wound  are  torn  irregularly. 
Such  injuries  occur  frequently  from  adridcntt  with  machinery  or 
blunt  inMruments.  or  from  bites  by  animals.  The  haemorrhage 
b  less  than  from  incised  wounds,  and  the  edges  may  be  bruised. 
i*unctured  wounds  arc  those  ia  which  the  jdeptn  is  greater  than  the 
external  opening.  They  are  generally  produced  by  dharp-pointcd 
instruments.  The  chief  danger  arises  from  puncture  of  large  blood- 
vessels, or  injury  to  important  structures  such  as  occur  in  the  thorax 
and  abdomen,  it  is  also  difitcuit  to  Iceep  such  wounds  surgically 
clean  and  to  obtain  apposition  of  their  deeper  parts,  and  septic  germs 
are  often  carried  in  with  the  instrument. 

The  treatment  of  incised  wounds  is  to  arrest  the  bleeding  (see. 
HaBMORRHACB),  clcattse  the  wound  and  its  surroundings,  removing 
all  foreign  bodies  (splinters,  glass,  Ac.),  and  obtain  apposition  of  the 
cut  surfaces.  This  is  usually  done  by  means  of  sutures  or  stitches  of 
silk,  catgut,  silkwormgut  or  sliver  wire.  If  the  wound  can^  be 
rendered  aseptic,  inci^  wounds  usually  heal  by  first  intention. 
In  lacerated  wounds  there  is  danger  ol  supputation.  sloughing, 
erysipelas  or  tetanus.  These  wounds  do  not  heal  by  first  iotentioo. 
and  there  is  consequently  considerable  scarring.  The  exact  amount 
of  time  occupied  in  the  repair  depends  upon  the  presence  or  not  of 
septic  material,  as  lacerated  wounds  are  very  difficult  to  cleanse 
properly.  CaiboKc  acid  lotion  should  be  used  for  cleansing,  while 
torn  or  ragged  portions  should  be  cut  away  and  provision  made  for 
free  drainage.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  apply  sutures  at  first, 
but  the  wound  may  be  packed  with  iodoform  gauze,  and  later, 
when  a  clean  granulating  surface  has  been  obtained,  skin-eraftine 
may  be  required.  In  extensive  lacerated  tvounds,  where  the  flesh 
has  been  stripped  from  the  boaes,  where  ihure  is  a|M«ading  gangrene, 
or  in  stich  wounds  in  conjunction  with  comminuted  fractures  or  with 
severe  sepsis  supervening,  amputation  of  a  limb  may  be  called  for. 
Punctured  wounds  should  be  syringed  with  carbolic  lotion,  and  all 
splinters  and  foreign  bodies  removed.  The  location  of  needles  is 
fendeied  comparauvely  easy  by  the  use  of  the  R6atgen  rays;  the 
wound  can  then  be  (>acKed  with  gauze  and  dfained.  If  a  large  vessel 
should  have  been  injured,  the  wound  may  have  to  be  laid  open  and 
the  bleeding  vessel  secured.  Should  pahtlysis  indicate  that  a  large 
nerve  has  wen  divided,  the  wound  most  also  be  laid  open  in  order 
to  suture  the  injured  structure. 

It  is  only  possible  here  to  mention  some  of  the  special  character- 
istics of  gunshot  wounds.  In  the  modern  small-bore  rifle  (Lee- 
Metford.  Mauser)  the  aperture  of  entry  is  small  and  the  aperture  of 
exit  larger  and  more  sUt«like.  There  is  usoally  but  little  haemorrhage. 
Should  no  large  vessel  be  torn,  and  should  no  portion  of  septic 
clothing  be  carried  in,  the  wound  may  hesii  by  first  intention.  Such 
bullets  ma^  be  said  to  disable  without  killing.  ,Thcy  may  drill  a 
clean  hole  m  a  bone  without  a  fracture,  but  sometimes  there^  is  much 
splintering.  Abdominal  wounds  may  be  eo  small  that  the  intestine 
may  be  penetrated  and  adhesions  oi  neighbouring  coils  of  intestine 
cower  the  aperture.  MartinirHenry  bullets  make  larger  apertures, 
while  soft-noaed  or  "  dum-dum  "  bullets  spread  out  as  soon  as  the 
bullet  strikes,  causing  great  mutilation  and  destruction  of  the  tissues. 
Shell  wounds  cause  extensive  lacerations.  Small  shot  may  inflict 
nerious  injury  should  one  of  the  pellets  enter  the  eye«  In  gunshot 
wounds  at  short  distance  the  skin  may  be  blackened  owing  to  the 
particles  of  carbon  lodging  in  it.  The  chief  daneers  of  gunshot 
wounds  are  haemorrhage,  shock  and  the  carrying  in  of  septic  material 
or  clothing  into  the  wound. 

WOUWERMAN.  PHIUP  (161Q-1668),  Dutch  pabiter  of 
battle  and  hunting  scenes,  was  bom  at  Haarlem  in  May  ^619. 
fie  learned  the  elements  of  his  art  from  his  father,  Paul  Joosteh 
Wouwerman»  an  historical  painter  of  moderate  ability,  Und  he 
then  studied  with  the  landscape  painter,  Jan  Wynanu  (1620- 
1679).  Returning  to  Haarlem,  he  became  a  member  of  its  gild 
«f  painCers  in  164a,  and  there  he  died  fat  M«y  166S.  Abafut 
800  pictuKS  were  emunerated  ki  John  Smith's  CaUdopn  raittmni 
(1840)  is  the  work  of  Philip  Wouwerman,  and  hi  C.  Hohlede 
de  Groot's  enlarged  Caialogm,  vol.  11.  (1909),  the  nusaber  extends 
isoo;  bui  probably  many  of  these  are  the  productsoni  of  his 
bfotheti  Peter  (1623-168 a)  and  Jan  (1639-1666),  and  si  his 


many  other  ifBitatoim.   Hisattthenticuteksaiedtstingnishidby 

great  spirit  and  are  infiniiely  varied,  thou^  dealing  recuncntly 

with  cavaky  battle-pieces,  mOitacy  encampments,  cavalcades, 

and  hunting  or  hawking  panks.    He  is  equally  eacdleat  in  ha 

vivadouB  treatment  of  fignrei.  In  his  skiUul  animal  painting 

and  in  his  admirUsAe  and  ^)propriate  landscape  backgrossdi 

Three  different  styles  have  btcn  observed  a*  charscteristk  of 

the  vaiious  periods  (rf  his  art.    His   arUer  wocks  are  marked 

by  the  prevalence  of  a  foxy>bvown  ootouring,  and  by  a  tendency 

to  angularity  in  draughtsmanship;  the  productions  of  his  mkldls 

period  have  greater  purity  and  briilianoy;  and  his  latest  sod 

greatest  piauics  possess  more  of  force  and  breadth,  and  sre  inH 

of  a  delicate  silvery^giey  tone. 

See  the  Cataiogme  wsmuii  ^  the  works  of  Ike  most  ewdaatl 
Putck  and  Flemish  Painters  0/  (ke  tytk  Century,  by  De  Groot.  vol.  ii. 
(1909).  referred  to  above. 

WRAITH,  a  general  term  in  popular  parlance  for  the  appear- 
ance of  the  spirit  of  a  living  person.  (See  '*  Phantasms  of  the 
Living,"  under  Psychical  Reseabcm.) 

WRANGEL.  FRIBDRICH  HEIMRICH  BRNST,  Codnt  vox 
(1784-1877),  Prussian  general  field  marshal,  was  born  at  Sieiiin, 
on  the  tjth  of  April  1784.  He  entered  a  dragoon  regiment 
in  1796,  became  cornet  in  1797,  and  second  lieutenant  in  170^- 
He  fought  as  a  subaltern  against  Napoleon,  especially  distinguish- 
ing himself  as  Heilsbcrg  in  1807,  and  receiving  the  order  pcut 
te  mirite.  In  the  reorganization  of  the  army,  WrangeJ  became 
successively  first  lieutenant  and  captain,  and  won  distinction 
and  promotion  to  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  War  of  Liberation 
in  1813,  won  the  Iron  Cross  at  Wachau  near  Leipzig,  and  became 
colonel  in  1815.  He  commanded  a  cavalry  brigade  in  1821, 
and  two  years  later  was  promoted  major-general.  He  Commanded 
the  I  jth  Division,  with  headquarters  at  MUnster,  in  Westphalia. 
in  1834,  when  riots  occurred  owing  to  differences  between  ibe 
archbishop  of  Cologne  and  the  crown,  and  the  dcierminaiion  and 
resplution  with  which  he  treated  the  clerical  party  prevented 
serious  trouble.  He  was  promoted  lieutenant-general,  received 
many  honours  from  the  court,  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  the 
Junker  party,  and  commanded  successively  at  KOnigsbeis 
and  Stettin.  In  1848  he  commanded  the  II.  Corps  of  the  German 
Federal  army  in  the  Schleswig-Holston  campaign,  was  promoted 
general  of  cavahy,  and  won  several  actions.  In  the  autumn  he 
was  summoned  to  Berlin  to  suppress  the  riots  there.  As  governor 
of  Berlin  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg 
(appointments  which  he  held  till  his  death)  he  proclaimed  a 
state  of  siege,  and  ejected  the  Liberal  president  and  members 
of  the  Chamber.  Thus  on  two  occasions  in  the  troubled  history 
of  Prussian  revival  Wrangel'suncompromisingstemness  achieved 
its  object  without  blooddied.  From  this  time  onwards  he  was 
most  prominent  in  connexion  with  the  revival  of  the  Prussian 
cavalry  from  the  neglect  and  inefficiency  into  which  ft  had  fallen 
during  the  years  of  peace  and  poverty  after  1815.  In  1856, 
having  then  seen  sixty  years'  service,  he  was  made  a  field  marshal. 
At  the  age  of  eighty  he  commanded  the  Austro-Pnissian  army 
in  the  war  with  Denmark  in  1864  and  though  he  was  too  old 
for  active  worit,  and  often  issued  vague  or  impracticable  orders 
(he  himself  had  always  desired  that  the  young  and  briili&nt 
*'  Red  Prince,"  Frederick  Charles,  sfaotild  have  (he  comma&d). 
the  prestige  df  his  name,  and  the  actual  good  work  of  Frederick 
Charles,  Moltke  and  Vogel  von  Falckenstein  among  the  Prussisn, 
and  of  Gablenz  among  the  Austrian  generals,  made  the  campaign 
a  brilliant  success.  After  the  capture  of  Dappel  he  resigned 
the  command,  was  created  a  count,  and  received  other  honours. 
In  1866  "Papa**  Wrangel  assisted  fn  the  Bohemian  campaign, 
but  without  a  command  on  account  of  his  great  age.  He  took 
a  keen  interest  in  the  second  rcoiganizaiion  of  the  cavalry  arm 
1866-1870,  and  in  the  war  with  France  in  1870-71.  He  died 
at  Berlin  on  the  2nd  of  November  1877.  On  the  seventieth 
anniversary  of  his  entering  the  army  his  regiment,  the  3rd 
Cninssiers.  was  given  the  title  **  Graf  Wrangel." 

See  supplement  to  MiUlAr  WoekenHaU  (1877),  and  lives  by  kW 
KApptn  and  vos  Makitz  (Berlin.  1884)4 

WR^9BU    KARL   ODSTAV    VON  ^t6K9->i6»6>,    Swedish 
f  soldier,  was  descended  from  a  family  of  Esthonian  oriiin»  brancbea 


WRASSE— WRECK 


*39 


ff  «iJikkJetaMlinS«cdeti;'Riias!a.aiuiGiBnBah3r.  HU.fKtker, 
Hemuuin  von  Wrangel  (1587^1643),  vras  a  Swedish  fidd  matshal 
in  Gustavus  Adolphus's  wats.  Karl  Gustav  was  born  neat 
Up^la  on  the  2jrd  of  Oeccmber  1613,  and  at  the  a^e  of  twenty 
distuiguished  hioself  as  a  cavalry  captain  in  the  war  against 
the  Army  of  tlie  League.  Three  3reacs  later  he  was  cotonel, 
and  hi  r638  major-general,,  slffl  serving  in  Germany.  In  1644 
he  commanded  a  fleet  at  sea,  which  defeated  the  Danes  at 
Fehmanv  on  the  33rd  <rf  October.  In  x64<$  he  retimed  to 
Germany  as  «  field  nraishal  and  succeeded  Toisten^sott  bs 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Swedish  army  in  Gepnany,  which 
post  he  held  during  the  last  three  campaigns  of  the  Thirty  Years* 
War.  Under  Wrangel  and  Tuoenne  the  allied  Swedish  and 
French  armies  marched  and  fought  in  Bavaria  and  Wtbrttemberg. 
A\  the  outbreak  of  a  fresh  PoJish  war  in  1655  Wnngel  com- 
manded a  fleet,  but  in  1656  lie  was' serving  on  land  again  and 
commanding,  along  with  the  Great  Elector  of  Brandenburg, 
in  the  tliree  days'  battle  of  Warsaw.  In  1657  he  invaded  Jutland 
and  In  1658  passed  over  the  ice  into  the  islands  and  took.  Kronborg. 
In  r657  he  was  appointed  admiral  and  in  1664  general  of  the 
realm,  and  as  such  he  was  a  member  of  the  regency  during  the 
minority  of  Charles  XI.  But  his  last  campaign  was  tuofortunate. 
Commanding,  Ineffectively  owing  to  his  broken  health,  in  the 
war  against  Brandenburg,  he  was  recalled  after  his  stepbrother 
Waldemar,  Freiherr  von  Wrangel  (1647-1676),  had  been  defeated 
9i  Fehrbellin.  He  died  at  Riigen  shortly  afterwards,  on  the 
SthofJiiKri676. 

WRASSB,  a  name  given  to  the  fishes  of  the  family  Labridae 
generally,  and  more  espedally  to  certain  memben  of  th< 
family:  They  are  very  abundant  in  the  tropical  zone,  less  so 
in  the' temperate,  and  disappear  altogether  in  the  Arctic  and 

Antarctic  Circles.  Their  body  is  gener- 
ally compressed,  like'  that  of  a  carp, 
oovered  wKh  smooth  (cydotd)  scales; 
they  possess  one  dorsal  fin  only,  the 
anterior  portion  of  which  consists  of 
numerous  spines.  Many  wrasses  are 
feadily  recogntecd  by  their  thick  hpi, 
(he  inside  of  which  is  sometimes  curi- 
ousty  folded,  a  peculiarity  which  has 
given  to  them  the  German  name  of 
"  lip-fishes."  The  dentition  of  their 
laws  consists  of  strong  conical  teeth,  of  which  some  in  front,  and 
often  one  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  upper  jaw,  are  larger  than  the 
Others.  But  the  principal  organs  with  which  they  crush  shell- 
fish»  dustaoeans  and  other  hard  substances  are  the  solid  and 
stmngly^toothed  pharyngeal  bones,  of  which  the  lower  are 
coalesced  into  a  single  flat  triangular  plate.  AH  wrasses  are 
surface  fishes,  and  rocky  parts  of  the  coast  overgrown  with 
Seaweed  are  thdr  favourite  haunts  in  the  temperate,  and  coral-* 
reefs  in  the  tropical  seas.  Soipe  4  50  species  of  wrasses  (including 
parrot-wrasses)  arc  known,  chiefly  from  the  tropics. 

Of  the  British  wrasses  the  ballan  wrasse  {Labrus  macidatus)  and 
the  striped  or  red  or  cook  wrasse  {Labrus  mixius)  are  the  most 
common.  Both  belong  to  the  genus  Labrus,  in  which  the  teeth 
staAd  In  a  single  series,  and  which  has  a  smooth  edge  of  the  praeoper- 
cuJum  and  only  three  spines  in  the  anal  fin.  The  ballan  wrasse  Is  the 
l^rver,  attaining  to  a  length  of  18  In.,  and,  it  is  said,  to  a  weight  of 
8  tb;  its  colours  are  singularly  variegated,  green  or  brownish,  with' 
red  and  blue  fines  and  spots:  the  dorsal  spines  are  twenty  in  number. 
The  cook  wrasse  offers  an  instance  of  well-marked  secondary  sexual 
differencc-=-the  male  being  ornamented  with  blue  streaks  or  a  blackish 
band  along  the  side  of  the  body,  whilst  the  female  has  two  or  three 
large  black  spots  across  the  back  of  the  tail.  This  species  possesses 
only  from"  sixteen  to  eighteen  spines  in  the  dorsal  fin.  The  goldsinny 
or  oorkwing  (CrevUabrus  mdops)  is  much  more  frequent  on  the  S. 
ooasts  of  England  and  Ireland  than  farther  N.,  and  rarely  exceeds  a 
length  of  10  la  As  in  other  wrasses,  its  colours  arc  beautiful,  but 
vanable;  but  it  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  two  preceding 
spedes  by  the  toothed  edge  of  the  praeoperculum.  The  three  other 
British  wrasses  are  much  scarcer  and  more  local,  viz,  Jago's  p)ldsinny 
(Cletuiahrus  rupestrU),  with  a  large  black  spot  on  the  anterior  dorsal 
spines  and  another  on  the  base  01  the  upper  caudal  rays;  Aeantho- 
labrus  paUoni,  which  is  so  rarely  capturtxf  that  it  Lacks  a  vernacular 
name,  but  may  be  easily  recogni2«  by  its  five  anal  spines  and  by 
the  teeth  in  tne  iava  forming  a  band :   and  the  rock-cook  (Centro- 


Lips  of  LaifTUsJesliPUS. 


Iabnt9  melMMs},.  which  also  haa  fivt  anal  0piam,  but  has  the  janm 
armed  wiui  a  sinjgle  series  of  teeth. 

On  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  the  N.  states  of  the  United  States  the 
wrasses  are  represented  by  the  genus  Tantoga.^  The  only  species  of 
this  genus,  known  by  the  names  of  tautoe  or  blackfish,  is  much 
esteemed  as  food,  k  is  caught  in  great  numbers,  and  generally  sold 
of  a  weight  of  about »  Vb» 

WRAZALL,  SIB  NATHANIEL  WILUAH  (1751-1831), 
English  author,  was  born  in  Queen's  Square,  Bristol,  on  the 
8th  of  April  17  5 1.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Bristol  merchant, 
Niathaniel  Wraxall,  and  his  wife  Anne,  great  niece  of  Sir  James 
Thomhill  the  paints.  He  entered  the  employment  of  the  East 
India  Company  in  1769,  and  served  as  judge*advocale  and 
paymastser  during  the  eiqieditions  against  Guxerat  and  Baroche 
in  1 7  7 1 .  In  the  following  year  he  left  the  service  of  thfi  company 
and  returned  to  Europe.  He  visited  Portugal  and  was  pre- 
sented to  the  court,  of  which  he  gives  a  curious  account  in  his 
Historicai  Me$uoirs;  and  in  the  N.  of  Europe  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  several  Danish  nobles  who  had  been  ealed  foe 
their  support  of  the  deposed  Queen  Caroline  Matilda,  sister  of 
George  III.  Wraxall  at  their  suggestion  undertook  to  endeavour 
to  persuade  the  king  to  act  on  her  behalf.  He  was  able  to  secure 
an  interviev  with  her  at  Zell  in  S^ember  1774.  His  exertions 
are  told  in  his  Posthumous  Memoirs.  As  the  queen  died  on  the 
z  ith  of  May  1 7  7  5,  his  schemes  came  to  nothing  and  he  complained 
that  he  was  out  of  pocket,  but  George  III.  took  no  notice  of  him 
for  some  time.  In  1775  he  published  his  first  book,  Cursory 
Remarks  made  in  a  Tour  through  some  of  the  Northern  Parts  of 
Europe,  which  reached  its  fourth  edition  by  1807,  when  it  was 
renamed  A  Tour  Round  the  Baitic.  In  1777  he  travelled  agaii^ 
hi  Germany  and  Italy.  As  he  had  by  this  time  secured  the 
patronage  of  important  people,  he  obtained  a  complimentary 
Ueuteront's  commission  from  the  king  on  the  application  of 
Lord  Robert  Manners,  which  gave  him  the  right  to  wear  nniform 
though  he  never  performed  any  military  service.  In  tJbSs  year 
he  pubHshed  his  Memoirs  6j  the  Kings  of  Prance  of  the  Race  of 
VakiSr  to  which  hie  appended  an  account  of  his  tour  in  thee 
Western,  Southern  and  Interior  -Provinces  of  France.  In  1778 
he  went  again  on  his  travels  to  Germany  and  Italy,  and  accumu- 
lated materials  for  his  Memoirs  of  (he  Courts  of  Berlin,  Dresden, 
Warsaxo  and  Vienna  (1799).  In  1780  he  entered  parliament 
and  sat  till  1704  foe  Hii^a  in  Wiltshire,  LudgenhaU  and 
WailingCord,  in  succession.  He  published  in  1795  the  beginning; 
of  a  History  of  France  from  the  Accession  of  Henry  III.  to  the 
Death  of  Louis  XI  F.,wii^h  was  never  completed.  Little  is  known 
of  his  later  years  except  .that  he  was  made  a  baronet  by  the 
prince  pegent  in  1813.  His  Historic^  Memoirs  appeand  in 
1815.  Both  they  and  the  Posthumous  Memoirs  (1836)  are  very 
readEaUe  and  have  real  historical  value.  Wraxall  married  Misa 
Jane  Lascdks.in  1789,  and  died  suddenly  at  Dover  on  the  7tli 
of  Noyember  1831.  ■  Hb  grandson,  Sir  F.  C.  Lasi^eiles  WtaxaU 
(1828-1865),  was  a  miscellaneous  writer  of  some  note. 

See  preface  to  The  Historical  and  Posthumous  Memoirs  of  Sir  N.  IT, 
WraxaU,  by  H.  B.  Wheatlcy  (London,  1884}. 

.  WHEATH  (O.  Eng.  wrmb,  from  wrOon,  to  twist),  a  band  of 
leaves,  flowers  or  metal,  twisted  into  i,  dhcular  form,  and  used 
cither  as  a  chaplc^t  or  diadem  for  the  head  or  as  an  ornament 
to  be  hung  upon  or  round  an  object.  For  the  ancient  usages 
of  crowning  victors*  in  the  games  with  wreaths,  and  the  befltowal 
of  them  as  marks  of  honour  see  CsowK  and  Cohonet. 

WRECK,  a  tertn  which  In  its  widest  sense  means  anything 
\Kitliout  an  apparent  owner  that  is  afloat  upon,  sunk  in,  or 
cast  aahore  by  the  sea;  in  legal  phraseology,  as  appear  below, 
it  h£Ls  a  narrower  nieaning.  Old  Norman  foms  of  the  word,  wrec 
and  verese,  are  to  be  found  ih  charters  of  1181  and  later  date; 
and  the  former  is  still  in  use  in  Nomumdy^  Latinized  it  beoomo 
wreecumf  vrechum  or  wareciun^  and  such  phrases  as  maH9 
ejeetum,  jacfura  maris,  adotntura  maris,  shipbryche,  are  all  used 
as  descriptions  of  wreck.  In  Anglo-Saxon  charters  s&-4tpwyrp, 
and  in  the  charters  of  the  Cinque  Ports  inxentiones^  a  translation 
of  "  findalls,**  probably  a  locd  word,  are  synonymous  with 
wreck.  Formerly  an  appreciable  source  of  revenue  to  the  cfown, 
afterwards  a  valuable  addition  to  the  income  of  a  landowner 


8^0 


the  SA  coMt,  wrack  hat  almost  withiD  iBodeni  Umet  oeaaed 
to  be  a  perquisite  <rf  cither,  or  to  enrich  the  casual  finder  at  thte 
expense  of  its  rightful  owner.  Th^  history  of  the  law  as  sketched 
below  will  indicate  how  this  has  come  about. 

fftUpry.-— Of  old  it  seems  to  have  been  the  genenJ  rule  in  the 
civilized  maritime  countries  of  Europe  that  the  right  to  wreck  be* 
1onp;ed  to  the  soveraga,  aftd  formed  part  of  the  royal  revenue. 
•r>i. ^  under  the  Roman,  French  and  feudal  law;  and  In  En^- 


WRECK 


pmoeedx 
law  by  w 


Th» 

land  the  common  law  set  out  in  the  statute  Dt  praerogatim  fwfu 
( 1 7  Cdw.  1 1.,  131a),  provided  that  the  king  has  wreck  of  the  sea,  whales 
and  sturgeons  taken  in  the  sea  and  elsewhere  within  the  kingdom, 
except  in  certain  places  privileged  by  the  king.  This  right*  which  it 
is  said  had  for  its  object  the  prevention  of  the  practice  of  destroying 
the  property  of  the  shipwrecked,  was,  however,  gradually  relaxed; 
and  the  owner  of  wreck  was  allowed  to  recover  it  if  he  node  daim 
to  it,  and  gave  proof  of  his  ownership  within  a  certain  time — fixed 
at  a  year  or  a  year  and  a'day  alike  bjr  a  deci^-  of  Antonine  the 
Great,  the  feudal  law,  the  general  maritime  law,  the  law  of  France 
and  English,  law.  Richara  I.  released  hb  prerogative  right  to 
wreck  to  the  extent  of  allowing  children*  or  if  there  were  non& 
brothers  and  sisteraof  a  perishing  owner,  to  have  his  goo^s;  and 
Henry  III.,  by  a  charter  of  1230,  allowed  the  owner  of  wrecked 
goods  to  have  nis  property  again  if  he  claimed  within  three  months. 


provided  that  any  man  or  bast  escaped  from  the  ship^  The  statute 
of  Westminster  the  First  (1276,  3  Edw.  I.)  prcfvided  that  where  a 
man,  a  dog  or  a  cat  escape  ahve  out  of  die  snip,  fuch  ship  or  baige 
or  anything  in  it  shall  not  be  adjudged  wreck,  but  the  goods  shall  be 
saved  and  Kept  by  view  of  the  sheriff,  coroner  or  the  icing's  DailiflT, 
and  delivered  into  the  hands  of  siich  aS  are  of  the  town  where  the 
goods  were  found,  so  that  if  any  one  sue  for  those  floods  and  prove 
that  thev  were  hift,  or  perished  within  his  keeping,  within  a  year  and 
a  dav,  they  shall  be  restored  to  him  without  ddayt  and  if  not  they 
shall  remain  to  the  king  or  to  such  others  to  whom  the  wreck  be- 
longed. In  1377  the  statute  Dt  tfficio  corouaUnis  made  provision  for 
the  safe  custody  of  wreck,  but  coroners  were  relieved  01  their  duties 
in  respect  of  wreck  by  the  Coroners  >\ct  1887.  -  An  act  of  1353  pro- 
vided for  the  delivery^  to  .the  merchants  of  goods  coming  to  land 
which  may  not  be  said  to  be  wrecks  on  payment  of  salvage..  In 
Scotland,  a  statute  of  Alexander  II.,  sinular  to  that  of  Westminster, 
declared  that  vdiere  aiqr  creature  escapes  alive  from  a  wrecked 
vessel,  the  goods  cast  away  are  not  accounted  wreck,  but  are  to  be 
preserved  by  the  sheriff  for  those  who  within  a  year  shall  prove  their 
property  therdn;  otherwise  they  shall  escheat  to  the  crown.  For  a 
long  time  the  view  of  English  law  was  that  the  right  to  recover 
wrecked  property  dependra  on  the  fact  of  a  live  creatuif  escaping, 
though  in  Hale's^  wonls,  "  because  it  was  Ux  odiosa  to  add  affliction 
to  the  afflicted,  it  was  bound  up  with  as  many  limits  and  circum- 
stances, and  restricted  to  as  narrow  a  compass  as  might  be  ";  and 
the  admiralty  records  illustrate  the  statement.  Thus  in  1382  the 
prior  of  Wyroondham  claimed  as  wreck  a  ship  which  came  ashore 
with  no  one  on  board,  the  men  having  left  her  for  fesr  of  their  Kves 
because  of  an  enemy  ship  which  was  about  to  capture  her;  but  the 
king's  council,  before  whom  it  came,  by  certioran  from  the  admiral 
of  the  north,  decided  against  the  claim.  In  1543,  ships  grounded  on 
the  Goodwins  were  held  to  be  waif  and  wreck,  although  their  crews  to 
■ave  their  lives  made  their  way  to  shore;  and  in  1037  a.  ship  in  the 
Cinque  Ports  was  proceeded  against  in  admiralty  and  condemned. 
*'  no  man  or  dog  being  on  board,  but  only  a  dead'  man  with  nis  head 
shot  off. "  Upon  the  institution  of  the  office  of  kjrd  high  admiral 
eariy  in  the  isth  or  at  the  dose  of  the  14th  century,  it  became  usual 
for  the  crown  to  grant  to  the  lord  admiml  by  his  patent  Of  appmnt- 
ihent,  amongst  other  pr<ifiata  et  cammcdilate*  appertaining  to  his 
office,  wreck  of  the  sea ;  and  when,  eariy  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII., 
vice-admirals  of  the  coast  were  created,  the  lord  admiral  by  ^tent 
under  hb  own  hand  delegated  to  them  his  rights  and  duties  in  the 
several  eounties,  including  those  in  connexion  with  wreck.  He  did 
not,  however,  part  with  the  whole  of  his  emoluments;  his  vice- 
admirals  were  required  to  render  an  account  of  the  proceeds  of 
wreck,  and  to  hand  over  to  him  a  part,  usually  one-half,  of  their  gains. 
This  system,  depending  not  upon  any  statute,  but  apparently  upon 
an  anangeinent  between  the  kMd-admiral  and  his  vioe><diniralay 
continued  until  the  year  1846.  In  that  year  an  act  (9  ft  10  Vict, 
c  99)  was  passed  forbidding  the  vice-admirals  to  intermeddle  with 
wreck,  and  it  required  the  receivers  of  droits  of  admiralty  to  receive 
an  wreck  from  the  finders  and  to  detain  it  for  twelve  calendar 
months;  at  the  end  of  that  period  it  was  to  bencM  and  the  proceeds 
carried  to  the  credit  of  the  consolidated  fund.  The  transfer  to  this 
fund  of  the  hereditary  casual  revenues  of  the  crown  had  previously 
been  effected  by  legislation  in  the  first  years  of  the  reigns  of  William 
IV.  and  Vkioria,  by  which  the  dvH  list  was  inrtituted.  The  last 
kml-admiralf  however,  who  beneficially  enjoyed  the  proceeds  of 
wreck  was  the  duke  of  Buckingham  in  the  reign  of  Chartes  .1 .  Prince 
George  of  Denmark,  Queen  Anne's  husband  and  lord-admiral,  took 
wreck  by  his  patent,  but  by  a  oollaterel  instrument  he  surrendered 
the  greater  part  of  the  revenues  of  his  office  to  the  crown.  Not- 
withstaodinir  this  arrangement,  the  Vice-admirals  of  counties,  who, 
in  tba  absence  of  a  lord  high  admiral,  received  their  appcintnients 
sometimes  from  the  crown  and  sometimes  from  the  oommissioneni 
jf  the  admiralty,  appear  to  have  Uken  the  whole  or  part  of  the 


mtff  tfcs  pasting  of  the aet  of  1846.  ttosadesl 
jaw  by  which  the  unfoftunaie  owner  was  depriwnd  of  hia  pmerty. 
if  no  living  thing  escaped  from  the  wred^  had  during  the  i6tB  aad 
17th  centuries  lieen  gradually  but  tacitly  relaxed;  it  rniuiied, 
however,  a  dedsbn  of  Lord  Mansfield  and  the  king's  bench  in  1771 
(HtumtUm  V.  DaHn  5  Burr.  3732)  to  settle  the  law  de&itftdy  that, 
whether  or  no  any  Uvinc  creature  escaped*  the  property  la  a  wreck 
remains  in  the  owner.  In  Scotland  it  seemi  that  the  same  law  had 
been  laid  down  in  .172$,  and  there  are  indurations  that  upon  the 
continent  of  Europe  there  had  before  this  date  been  a  i^axation  of 
the  old  law  in  the  same  direction.  As  early  as  1269  a  treaty  with 
Norway  provides  that  ownere  of  ships  wiecked  noon  the  coasts  of 
Engfamd  or  Nc^way  should  not  be  deprived  ,ol  t^eir.gooda,  (Rym. 


Foed.  1450).  The  ^stem  und^  which  the  lord-admiral  and  the  vice- 
admirals  of  counties  had  -for  more  than  three  centuries  taken  charge 
of  wreck  never  worked  well.  Their  interest  was  directly  opposed 
to  their  duty;  for  it. was  to  the  interest  of  every  one  coooBmed. 
except  the  owners  and  crews  of  ships  in  distress,  that  oothing  ahoukl 
land  alive.  Apart  from  thiSj  the  system  discouraged  k^timate 
salvors.  The  admirals  and  vice-adnurels  had  by  d^reea  assumed 
that  all  salvage  operations  were  exclusively  their  business:  they 


.took  pontemitm  of  wreck  brought  or  cast  ashore,  whether  it  was 
Ugal  wreck  or  not.  and  this  often  save  rise  to  conflicts  with  outside 
working  salvors.  It  was  not  untu  the  17th  century  that  woridng 
salvors  established  the  right,  which  they  now  have,  to  a  lien  upon 
property  saved  as  a  security  for  adequate  remuneration  of  tneir 
exertions  in  saving  it;  and  if  the  vice-admirals  restored  to  its 
owners  wreck  that  had  anae  to  their  hands,  they  did  so  only  upon 
payment  of  extravagant  demands  for  salvage,  storage  and  oitea 
legal  expenses.  A  curious  side  fight  is  thrown  upon  their  practices 
by  the  case  of  an  English  ship  that  went  ashore  on  the  coast  ol 
Prussia  in  17^.  Freoerick  tte  Great  restored  her  to  her  owners, 
but  before  doing  so  he  exacted  from  them  a  bond  for  the  full  value 
of  ship  and  cargo*  and  the  condition  of  the  bond  was  that  the  owners 
would  within  six  months  produce  a  certificate  under  seal  of  the 
English  admiralty  that  by'  the  law  of  EiM;land  no  **  salvan  *'  was 
payable  to  the  .crown  or  to  the  admiral  of  England  in  the  like  case 
of  a  PrusMan  ship  going  ashore  upon  an  EngUan  coast.  The  records 
of  the  admiralty  court  show  that  Frederick  s  action  in  this  case  was 
intended  as  a  protest,  not  against  the  payment  of  a  fair  rewnid  to 
salvon  of  Prussian  ships,  but  against  exactions  by  English  vice- 
admirals  and  their  officers.  Stories  of  wilful  wrecking  of  ships  and 
of  even  more  evil  deeds  are  probably  exaggerations,  but  modem 
research  has  authenticated  sufficient  abuses  to  show  that  further 
legislation  was  necessary  to  regulate  the  taking  possession  of  wreck 
and  ships  in  distress  by  "  sea-coasters.  "  Previously  to^tfac  pasung 
of  the  act  of  1846  the  only  substantial  protection  against  plunder 
which  owners  of  a  wreckea^ship  oould  get  was  to  apply  to  the  ad- 
miralty judge  for  a  commission  enabling  them  or  their  agents  to  take 
possession  of  what  came  ashore:  but  to  obtain  such  a  conunisskMl 
took  time  and  cost  money,  and  before  the  commissioaere  arrived 
at  the  scene  of  the  wreck  a  valuable  cargo  would  have  disapjpearcd 
^nd  been  dinicraed  through  the  country.  Plunder  of  wrecks  was 
common,  and  the  crowds  that  collected  for  the  purpose  set  law  at 
defiance.  The  vice-admirals,  even  if  they  had  been  able,  did  little 
to  protect  the  ship  wrecked.  Complaints  from  the  loid-admiral 
that  thcnr  neglected  to  render  accounts  of  their  profits  were  constant ; 
and  altnough  the  crown' and  the  lordndmiial  profited  little  by 
wreck,  there  is  reason  to  think  that  the  gains  of  vice-admirals  and 
their  officere,  and  also  of  landownen  and  dwellere  on  the  coast, 
were  more  considerable.  Many  of  the  vice-admirals'  accounts  of  the 
17th  and  following  centuries  are  extant.  Most  of  them  are  for 
trifling  aums.  but  occasionally  the  amounts  are  oonsklersble.  A 
vice-admiral  tor  Cornwall  charges  himsdf  in  his  account  for  the  yean 
1628-1634  with  a  sum  of  i^.253,  and  in  1624  the  duke  of 
Buckinffoam  found  it  worth  his  while  to  buy  out  the  rights 
of  the  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports  over  wreck  within  hia 
jurisdiction  for  £1000  in  addition  to  an  annuity  of  i^oo  for  the 
warden's  life.  At  the  close  of  the  17th  century  the  vice-admiials 
were  required  to  make  affidavits  as  to  thelamount  of  their  eUns;  in 
170Q  twenty  .of  them  swore  that  their  office  was  worth  less  than  £50 
in  the  year. 

The  right  of  Ae  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports  to  wrecl^  above 
alluded  to,  was  derived  from  charters  granted  to  the  ports  by  Edward 
I.  and  his  successors;  many  other  seaports  enjo)^  a  similar  right 
under  early  charters.  It  would  seem  that  these  rights  were  of  some 
value,  for  m  1829  the  little  toWns  of  Dunwich  and  Southwold litigated 
at  a  cost  of  £1000  the  question  whether  a  tub  of  whisky  picked  up  at 
sea  belonged  to  the  admitalty  jurisdiction  of  the  one  town  or  the 
other;  and  the  town  of  Yarmouth  ii  said  to  have  spent  no  less  than 
£7000  upon  a  similar  question.  It  was  partly  In  order  to  put  an  end 
to  all  dealings  with  wreck  by  local  admiralty  courts  that  the  Municipal 
Corporations  Act  of  1835  was  passed,  ,ab(»lshiag  all  of  them,  except 
that  of  the  Cinque  Ports. 

Grants  of  wreck  to  individuals  are  eariier  than  those  to  towns. 
Even  before  the  conquest  it  seems  to  have  been  not  unusual  for 
grantees  from  the  crown  of  lands  adjoining  the  sea  to  get  the  fran- 
chise of  wreck  included  in  their  grants.  A  charter  purporting  to  be 
of  the  year  1023  contains  a  grant  by  King  Canute  to  the  abbot  of 
Canterbury  of  wreck  found  at  sea  below  tow-water  mark  as  far  as  a 


WRECK 


84.r 


«Mii  coold  by  wadInK,totich  it  with  a  sprit  (Kdnble,!^.  Dip!..  Ne.  t 

Bij).  There  ip  naaon  to  think  that  befoie  the  end  of  the  rdga  of 
enry  II.  the  crown  had  granted  away  ita  right  to  wreck  round  a 
gnat  part  of  the  ooaat  of  England.  Although  a  landowner  of  the 
present  day,  who  under  audi  a  grant  is  entitled  to  wreck,  will,  ia 
lespect  of  wreck  itself,  derive  no  substantial  benefit,  nevertheless 
the  grant  may  be  of  great  value  as  evidence  of  his  right  to  the  for^ 
shore;  and  even  where  no  gtant  of  wreck  can  be  produced,  if  he  can 
show  that  he  and  his  predecessors  have  been  accustomed  to  take 
possession  of  wrsck  on  the  fbfcshore,  it  Is  strong  evidence  as  against 
the  crown  of  has  right  to  the  foreshore,  and  a  lost  grant  may  be 
presumed.  As  to  tnese  grants  of  wreck  Hale  says  oiat  '*  though 
wreck  of  the  sea  doth  dtjitneowtmnmi  belong  to  the  king,  yet  it  may 
belong  to  a  sufaQect  by  charter  or  by  prescription. . :.  Sometime 
wrsck  hath  belonged  to  an  hoqoor  by  prescriptton,  as  in  the  honoar 
of  Antndd,  sometimes  to  the  owner  at  a  counter.  The  lords  of  all 
counties  palatine  regularly  had  isreecwm  martr  \rithin  their  counties 
pabtiae  as  part  of  their  jma  r^aliat  but  yet  inferior  lords  might 
prescribe  for  wreck  beloqrang  to  their  several  manors  within  a 
county  palatine  The  ean  of  Cornwall  had  wreteum  maris  p«r 
Mmm  €owtUatmm  Comubiae;  for  though  Cornwall  was  not  a  county 

EJadne^  it  had  many  royalties  belonging  to  it,  viz.  as  against  the 
ng,  thoagh  particular  lords  might  prescribe  for-wreclc  aciainst 
the  earl "  iDe  jmn  mom,  L  viL;  Hargxave,  41).  In  the  Isle  of 
Man  unrecfeimed  wreck,  whether  cast  on  shore  or  found  in  the 
sea,  within  the  headlands  of  Man,  bekmgs  to  the  lord,  now  the 
crown  bv  purchase  from  the  duke  oif  Athol;  in  the  Channel  Islands 
all  WTBCK  cast  on  shore  or  within  reach  of  a  person  standing  on 
shores  exont  certain  valuables  which  go  to  the  crown,  belongs  to 
the  lord  oc  the  manor  if  not  rsdatmed  within  a  year  and  a  day; 
while  in  Wales  the  old  law  made  everything  thrown  on  shore  bdong 
to  the  kinff,  for  "  the  sea  is  a  packhorse  of  the  king  "  (A.  C.  v. 
Jonest  3  H.  &  C  347).  In  Scotland,  as  in  England,  unclaimed 
wreck  belonged  to  the  crown  and  was  often  granted  to  subjects, 
genenJly  under  the  style  of  "  wrak,  waith  and  ware,"  tiM  last  two 
words  sonifying  derelict  and  seaweed.  It  was  so  granted  to  the  eau-I 
of  Orkney  in  iKfli.  It  was  occanonally  dealt  with  by  the  Soottish 
Barihunent.  Thus  by  an  act  of  1436,  shii>s  wrecked  on  the  coast  of 
Scotland  were  to  be  esdieat  to  the  king  if  they  belooged  to  a  country 
observing  a  aimilar  bw,  otherwise  to  have  the  favour  shown  to  ships 
of  S^ffthnd,  In  Fiance  under  the  name  of  droit  dt  hris  or  driit 
d'ipave  similar  grants  were  made  to  feudal  seigneurs. 

From  eariy  times  a  distinction  was  made  in  English  law  between 
wreck  cast  aahon  and  wreck  that  is  floating  or  sunken  bdow  low- 
water  mark.  Wreck  proper,  or  common  law  wreck,  ejectum  maris, 
h  what  is  cast  by  the  sea  upon  the  shore;  for  "  nothing  shall  be  said 
to  be  wrMOUis  mom,  but  such  goods  as  are  cast  or  left  upon  the  land  " 
{SirH.  CousUMe'sCasa,  1509.  5  Rep.  106),  and  this  bebqged  to  the 
kingiartf  coronas,  and  was  deeilt  with  by  the  common  law.  Floating 
and  sunken  wreck  belonged  to  the  crown  as  irUsr  ftf/aUa,  but  was 
granted  to  the  lord-admiial  juro  reps.  Even  when  the  oraoe  of  lord 
high  admiral  is  in  abeysuioe,  and  the  duties  performed  by  com- 
missioncrs,  as  now,  these  rights  are  distinguished  from  the  other  royal 
leveanes  aa.  belonging  to  the  crown  in  vk  office  of  admiralty,  or,  as 
they  are  oommmuy  known,  droits  of  the  adminUty.  From  early 
times  the  lord-^mual  tried  to  usurp,  and  there  are  several  instances 
of  his  actually  usurping  jurisdiction  over  wreck  proper;  and  In  the 
leign  of  Richard  II.  special  statutes  (which  were  only  dodaratoiy 
of  tlia  common  law)  were  passed  for  the  purpose  of  confining  hU 
jurisdictwn  to  its  proper  liinits.  One  of  these  (15  -Ric.  II.)  dedared 
that  "  of  all  manner  of  contracts,  picas  and  quereles,  and  all  other 
things  arising  within  the  bodies  of  the  counties  as  well  by  land  as 
by  water  and  also  of  wredc  of  the  sea,  the  admiral's  court  shall  have 
no  manner  of  cogniiance,  power  nor  jurisdiction,  but  all  such  planner 
of  contracts,  picas  and  quereles,  and  all  other  things  rising  within 
the  bodies  of  counties  as  well  by  kind  as  by  water  as  afore,  and  also 
wreck  of  the  sea,  shall  be  tried  by  the  laws  of  the  land  and  not  before 
aor  by  the  admiral  nor  his  lieutenant  In  any  wise." 
I  In  spite  of  this  statute,  instances  still  occurred  of  the  admiralty 
court  eaerdsing  this  jurisdiction,  until  by  frequent  prohibition  by 
the  common  law  courts,  espedaUy  in  the  17th  century,  and  by  the 
admission  of  the  admiralty  judges  thcmsdvcs,  it  was  reoornlsed  as 
beyond  the  scope  of  their  authority.  These  admiralty  droits  are 
dassified  as  flotsam,  jetsam,  lagan  and  derdict.  In  Lord  Coke's 
words,  flotsam  is  '*  adwn  a  ship  sinks  or  otherwise  perishes,  and  the 
goods  float  oa  the  sea  ";  jetsam  is  "  when  goods  are  cast  out  of  a 
ship  to  iiffhten  her  when  in  dangp  of  sinking,  and  afterwards  the  ship 
perishes  ^ ;  and  ligan,  or  la^n,  ts  '*  when  heavv  goods  are,  to  lighten 
the  ship,  cast  out  and  sunk  in  the  sea  tied  to  a  buoy  or  cork,  or  some* 
thing  oat  will  aoc  sink,  in  order  that  they  may  be  found  asain  and 
recovered."  Derdict  is  a  ship  or  car^,  or  part  of  it,  abandoned  by 
its  master  and  crew  sine  sfe  recupmmdi  et  sine  animo  revertendu 
"None  of  these  goods,"  adds  Coke,  **  which  are  so  called,  are  called 
wreck  so  long  as  they  remain  in  or  upon- the  sea-;  but  if  any  of  them 
by  the  sea  be  put  upon  the  land  then  they  shall  be  sakl  to  be  wreck" 
{JSir  B.  CenskMe's  Case,  1509,  5  Rep^  106;  and  a  Inst.  167}.  Hale 
says"  they  are  not  wreck  of  the  sea  but  of  another  nature,  neither  do 


they  pass  by  wreccnm  maris  as  is  recorded  in  Sir  Henty  Constable's 
case  and  the  case  of  the  3  Edw.  II.,  where  they  are  styled  adveniurae 
jWarifc^Aad  «•  thax.are  of  another  natoire,  so.  they  are  of  anothsr 


oognlcance  or  jurlsdietion,  vfe  the  adiidral  jurisdiction.  Flotsam* 
jetsam  and  loan,  and  other  sea  estrays,  if  they  are  taken  up  in  the 
wide  ocean,  bdong  to  the  taker  of  them  if  the  owner  cannot  be  known. 
But  if  they  be  taken  up  within  the  narrow  seas  tiut  do  bdong  to  the 
Idn^,  or  in  any  haven,  port  or  creek  or  arm  of  the  sea,  they  doi»ima 
facie  and  of  common  right  bdot^  to  the  king,  in  case  where  the  ship 

perisheth  or  the  owner  cannot  be  known But  if  the  owner  can 

be  known  he  ought  to  have  his  goods  again,  for  the  casting  them 
overboard  is  not  a  loss  of  his  property.  Although  the  right  m  these 
adventures  of  the  sea  within  the  king  s  seas  bcJo^  to  him  where  the 
owner  cannot  be  known,  yet  the  king  hath  littie  advantage  of  it.  for 
by  the  custom  of  the  English  seas  the  one  moiety  of  what  *>  gamed 

bdongs  to  him  that  saves  it  (this  Is  not  the  present  rule) A 

subject  may  be  entitied  to  these  as  he  may  be  entitled  to  wrecks* 
(i)  by  cfaarter|  (3)  by  prescription  "  {Dehtre  maris;  Harnave,' 
41,  43).  The  difierence  between  these  two  kinds  of  wreck  is  dearly 
brought  out  fa  JLw,  4Q  Casks  of  Brandy  (1836,  3  Hagg.  Ad.  357; 
and  R»  V,  2  Casks  of  Tallow,  tbid^  394)— a  dispute  between  the 
crown  and  a  grantee  of  wreck,  where  it  was  decided  that  objects 
picked  up 'below  low-water  mark,  and  within  3  m.  of  It,  as  also 
objects  afloat  between  high-  and  low-water  marlcs,  never  having 
touched  the  ground,  are  droits  of  the  crown,  whereas  objects  picked 
up  aground  between  high-  and  low-water  marks,  or  though  agrouiKit 
yet  covered  by  the  waves,  are  wreck. 

The  distinction  that  Hale  draws  in  the  above  passage  between 
sea  waifs  or  estrays  taken  on  the  high  seas,  and  those  tSkta  in  the 
seas  of  the  realm,  seems  to  be  founcfed  on  the  auupaiio  of  the  dvil 
law;  but  although  favoured  by  the  dmilar  rule  existing  in  the  case 
of  royal  fish,  it  has  not  been  recognised  by  the  courts,  which  have 
always  heM  that  in  both  cases  they  are  oxmtB  of  the  crown  in  its 
ofiice  of  admiralty,  and,  subject  to  the  right  of  the  salvor  to  reward 
and  the  right  of  the  owner  to  redalm  than  in  a  year  and  a  day,  «> 
to  the  royal  revenue  (Lord  Stowell,  Tke  Aquila,  1798,  x  C.  Rob.  37).' 
Lord  Stowell  bases  this  prerogative  right  "  on  the  general  rule  of 
dviliaed  countries  that  what  is  found  doelict  on  the  seas  la  acquired 
beneficially  for  the  sovereign,  if  no  owner  shall  appear.**.  It  seema 
that  this  was  also  Coke's  view  (a  Inst  v68). 

The  provisions  of  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act  1894,  mentioned; 
below,  upon  the  eubject  of  droits  of  admiralty  are  not  dear.  Ia 
practice  the  only  droits  of  the  admiralty  that  are  commonly  dedt 
with  are  anchors  that  have  been  dipped  or  parted  from  ia  heavy! 
weather.  In  the  Downs  and  other  roadsteactt  these  are  **  swept -^ 
for  b]^  creepere  towed  over  the  sea  bottom,  and  in  former  oays 
sweeping  for  anchon  was  a  common  industry.  In  the  I>owns  hum 
sums  have  been  made  after  sales  in  this  way<  In  the  i7t^  centurr 
it  became  customary  to  obtain  from  the  crown  grantaof  the  right  ta 
fish  for  sunken  wreck  and  treasure  not  only  upon  En^ish  coasts  but 
all  over  the  worid. 

Althouj(h  a  ship  on  board  which,  or  by  means  of  whldi  a' man  wa« 
killed,  might  be  a  deodand  (s-v.),  yet  qua  wreck  she  was  not  subjeclj 
to  forfdture  as  deodand. 

Present  British  Law, — From  thcTafaove  sketch  of  the  devdop-| 
mentof  the  law  of  wreck  it  will  be  teen  that  it  owes  little  to  the 
legislature.  After  the  act  of  1353  no  statute  dealt  with  the' sub- 
ject untfl  1713.  In  that  year  a  salvage  act  was  passed,  but  tt 
made  no  material  alteration  in  the  law;  and  although  during 
the  18th  and  early  X9th  oentiuies  seiml  acta  were  passed 
dealing  fragmentarily  with  wreck  and  salvage,  the  act  of  1846^ 
above  mentioned,  is  the  only  one  that  calls  for  notice.  That| 
act  was  embodied  In  and  added  to  by  the  MercHknt  Shipping 
Act  1854,  which  again  was  repealed,  re-enacted  and  added  taj 
by  the  Merchant  Shippfaig  Act  1894.  The  last  mentioned  act! 
contains  the  whole  of  the  existing  statute  law  upon  the  subject 
of  wreck  within  the  territorial  waters  of  the  United  ElingdomJi 
For  its  puiposes  wreck  indudes  jetsam,  flotsam,  lagan  and 
derelict,  found  in  or  on  the  shores  <rf  the  sea  or  any  tidal  watcrJ 
The  term  does  not  extend  to  a  barge  adrift  in  the  Thames,  nor 
a  raft  of  timber  adrift;  it  must  be  the  hull,  cargo  or  appurtenij 
ances  of  a  vessel  Under  the  Sea  Fisheries  Act  1883,  paJMsd  tA 
give  effect  to  the  North  Sea  Fisheries  Convention,  the  providoBi' 
of  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act  as  to  wreck,  apply  to  fishing  boat* 
with  their  rig^ng  and  gear.^  ^ 

The  provisfons  of  the  Merchaht'Shlpping  Act  dealing  with  wredi! 
(ninth  part)  may  be  summarised  as  loUowsi  The  Board  of  Ttada 
(as  the  receiver-general  of  droit*  of  admiralty)  has  the  Mneiral  supers, 
intendence  of  wreck  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  appoints  recdvcA 
of  wreck  for  the  whole  coast,  who  are  paid  by  fees.  Where  a  Britlshj 
or  foreign  vessd  Is  wrecked,  stranded  or  in  distress,  at  any  place  •• 
or  near  the  coasts  or  any  tidal  water  within  the  limits  of  the  maodoau 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  recdver  for  the  district  to  proceed  tbsre  and  dv« 
directions  for  preserving  the  ship,  the  lives  on  board  her  and  bar 
cargo  and  apparel.  He  can  require  the  assistance  of  any  penoib 
especially  the  maatar  of  any  vcesd,  or  the  useof  any  waggons,  esra 
or  horNs,  near  at  band:  and  for  this  jwrposa  aay_ps(aoa 


8+2) 


WREDE 


ttoleM  ibtm  U  a  pulilic  «0#il  «qwtly  oonvenfent,  pa«  mkI  Apus 
with  or  widiout  bones  or  carriaget  over  any  adjoining  Uads  wkoout 
the  ovner'a  or  occupier'a  cxmaent.  doing  a»  little  damage  a«  poarible, 
and  may  alao  depont  there  any  things  racovered  from  the  snip;  any 
damage  so  done  is  a  charge  on  the  ihip,  cargo  or  articks,  and  is 
lecov^able  like  salvage  (£Jf.).  Penalties  are  imposed  on  any  owner 
or  occupier  hindering  the  operations.  The  receiver  has  power  to 
suppress  any  phindenag  or  oisorderi  or  any  hindering  of  the  preser- 
vation of  the  ship,  perspos,  cargo  or  appareL  Where  any  vcMel, 
wrecked  or  in  distress  as  above,  is  plundered,  damaged  or  destroyed, 
by  any  riotous  or  tunuiituous  assmbhr  ashore  or  afloat,  compensa- 
tion must  be  made  to  her  owner  in  England  and  Scotland  by  the 
same  authority  which  would  be  liable  to  pay  compensation  in 


of  riot  iqjO.)t  «id  in  Ireland  in  cases  of  mafiaous  injuries  to  property. 
In  the  abacooe  of  the  receiver,,  his  powers  may  be  enerdsed  by  the 
following  offioere  or  oersons  in  successive  order,  vix.  a  chief  oiBicer 
of  customs,  principal  officer  of  cbast-guard,  inland  revenue  ofBoer, 
sheriff,  justice  of  the  peace,  and  naval  or  military  officer  on  full  pay. 
These  persons  act  as  the  receiver's  agent  and  put  the  salvage  in  his 
.custody^  but  they  axe  not  entitled  to  any  fees  nor  are  they  deprived 
of  any  nght  to  salvage  by  so  doing.  An  examination  is  also  directed 
to  be  held,  in  cases  ot  ships  in  distress  on  the  coasts  of  the  kingdom, 
by  a  wreck  receiver,  wreck  commissioner  or  his  deputy,  at  the  request 
of  the  Board  <^  Trade  or  a  justice  of  the  peace,  by  evidence  on  oath 
as  to  the  nan^  and  description  of  ship,  name  of  master,  shipowner 
and  owner  of  cargo,  ports  to  and  from  which  the  ship  was  bound,. the 
occauon  of  the  wip's  distress,  the  servkxs  rendered  and  the  like. 
The  act  orovides  »»  follows  for  dealinjg  with  wreck:  Any  one  finding 
wreck,  if^be  is  the  owner  of  it,  must  give  notice  of  his  having  done  so 
to  the  receiver  of  the  district,  and  if  ne  is  not  the  owner  be  must  de- 
liver it  to  that  officer  as  soon  as  possible,  except  for  reasonable  cause, 
4.1.  if,  as  a  salvor,  he  retains  it  with  the  knowledge  of  the  receiver. 
No  articles  belonging  to  a  wrecked  ship  found  at  the  time  of  the 
casualty  must  be  taken  or  kept  by  any  person,  whether  their  owner 
or  not,  but.  must  be  handed  over  to  the  receiver.  The  receiver 
taking  pooscssion  of  any  wreck  must  give  notice  of  k,  with  a  descrip- 
tion, at  the  nearest  custom-house;  and  if  the  wreck  b  in  his  af>inion 
W(Hth  more  than  £ao,  also  to  Uoyd  's.  The  owner  of  any  wreck  in  the 
hands  ojf  a  receiver  must  establish  his  claim  to  it  within  a  year,  and 
on  so  doioff,  and  paying  all  expenses,  is  entitled  to  have  it  restored 
to  him.  Where  a  foreign  ship  has  been  wrecked  on  or  near  the  coast, 
and  any  articles  forming  part  of  her  cargo  arc  found  on  or  near  the 
coast,  or  are  brought  into  any  port,  the  consular  officer  of  the  fore^ 
country  to  which  the  ship  or  caigo  belongs  is  deemed  to  be  the  agent 
for  the  owner  so  far  as  the  custody  and  disposal  of  the  article  is 
concerned.  The  receiver  may  in  certain  cases,  e.r.  where  the  value 
is  small,  sell  the  wreck  and  hold  the  proceeds  till  claimed.  The  right 
to  unclaimed  wreck  belongs  to  the  crown,  except  in  places  where  the 
crown  has  granted  that  right  to  others.  Persons  so  entitled,  such  as 
admirals — vice-admixals  are  mentioned  in  the  act  (5«d  quaert)-^ 
lords  of  manors  and  the  like,  are  entitled,  after  giving  the  receiver 
notice  and  particulars  of  their  title,  to  receive  notice  from  the  receiver 
'of  any  wrede  there  found.  Where  wreck  is  not -claimed  by  an  owner 
-within  a  year  after  it  was  found,  and  has  been  in  the  bands  of  a 
xeoeiver,  it  can  be  claimed  by  the  person  entitled  to  wreck  in  the  |rface 
where  it  was  found,  and  he  b  entitled  to  have  it  after  paying  expenses 
and  salvage  connected  with  it ;  if  no  such  person  claims  it.  it  is  sold 
by  the  receiver,  and  the  net  proceeds  are  applied  for  the  benefit  of  the 
crown,  cither  (or  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  or  the  duchy  of  Cornwall ; 
or  if  these  do  not  claim  it,  it  goes  to  the  crown.  Where  the  title  to 
uncUimcd  wreck  b  disputed,  the  dispute  may  be  settled  summarily 
as  in  cases  of  .salvage ;  cither  party,  u  dissatisfied,  may  within  three 
months  after  a  year  since  the  wreck  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
ftceiver  proceed  in  any  competent  court  to  establish  hb  title. 
Delivery  of  unclaimed  wreck  by  tht  receiver  discharees  him  from 
iiability,  but  does  not  prejudice  the  titl^  thereto.  The  Board  of 
Trade  has  power  to  purchase  rights  of  wreck.  No  person  exercising 
admiralty  jurisdiction  as  grantee  of  wreck  may  intofere  with  wreck 
Mherwise  than  in  accordance  with  the  act.  Duties  are  payable  on 
wrecked  goods  coming  into  the  United  Kingdom  or  Isle  ol  Man  as  If 
they  bad  been  imported  thither;  and  goods  wrecked  on  their  borao- 
ward  voyage  may  be  forwarded  to  their  original  destioation,  or.  if 
wrecked  on  their  outward  voyage,  to  their  jport  of  shipment,  on  due 
Mcurity  being  taken-for  the  protection  of  tne  revenue.  Wreck  oom- 
■issioners  may  be  appointed  by  the  lord  chanoeHor  to  faoM  investi- 
gations into  shipping  .casualties,  to  act  as  judges  of  courts  of  survey^ 
and  to  take  examinations  in  respect  of  ships  in  distress.  '■  *  . 
^  The  owner  of  a  wrecked  ship,  sunk  by  hb  negligence  in  a  navigable 
bighway,  so  as  to  be  nn  obstruotion  tt>  navigation,  if  he  retains  the 
•wnership  of  hor,  b  liable  in  damages  to  the  owner  of  any  other  .ship 
srhich  without  nagUgeace  runs  into  her.  U,  however,  the  owner  has 
taken  steps  to  Indicate  her  poiitlon,.or  the  harbour  authority  at  hb 
nequest  hss  undertaken  to  do  so,  no  action  liesa^nst  him  for 
MSgligence  cither  m  nm  or  in  perumam.  He  may,  however  (whether 
the  smking  was  due  to  hb  negligence  or  not),.abandon  the  ship,  and 
can  thus  Isco  bimself  from  any  further  liability  in  respect  of  her. 
if  he  abandons  her  to  any  other  person'-s.f.  an  underwriter — who 

£ys  for.  her  ns  for  a  total  loss,  that  person  does  not  become  liable 
r  bar  unbss  be  takea  possession  or  control  in  any  way.    Harbour 
nuihoritica  feneraUy^bavs  by..k>cal  statut^as  ,theyjbiave^by.the 


petienl  Halboncs,  Docks  and  PIm  Cbuses  Act  tSf  7  (tf  iweorporned 
in  their  own  act),  the  power  of  removing  the  wreck  m  such  a  case, 
and  recouping  themselves  for  their  expenses  from  its  proceeds.  Tbe 
general  act  abo  gives  a  personal  right  of  action  against  the  owner 
lor  any  balance  of  expense  over  the  value  of  the  wreck;  but  if  the 
owner  has  abandoned  it,  and  no  one  else  has  taken  it,  neither  be  oor 
any  one  ebe  b  Hable.  A  particubr  or  local  act  (as  «.{.  one  of  the 
State  of  Vbtorb)  may,  however,  fasten  thb  liability  on  the  penon 
who  b  owner  at  the  time  when  the  ship  b  wrecked,  and  then  he 
cannot  free  himself  of  it.  A  harbour  authority  b  not  obliged  to 
remove  a  wreck  because  it  has  power  to  do  so,  unless  it  takes  dues 
from  vesseb  using  the  harbour  where  the  wreck  lies,  or  in  some  way 
wairants  that  the  harbour  b  safe  for  navigation,  in  whkh  case  it  b 
under  an  obligation  to  do  so.  Further  statutory  provision  b  now 
made  in  thb  respect  by  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act,  which  empofwen 
barboul'  autboritics  to  laisej  remove  or  destroy  (and  meantime  buoy 
or  light),  or  to  sell  and  reimburse  themsdves  out  oJF  the  proceeds 
of  any  vessel  or  part  of  a  vessel,  her  tackle,  cargo,  e(|iiipinent  and 
stores,  sunk,  stranded  or  abandoned  in  any  water  under  their  control, 
or  any  approach  thereto,  which  b  an  obstruction  or  danger  to  navi- 
gation or  lifeboat  service.  They  must  first  give  due  notice  of  auch 
intention,  and  must  allow  the  owner  to  have  the  wreck  on  hb  paying 
the  fair  market  value.  The  act  gives  similar  powers  to  lighthouse 
authorities,  with  a  proviskm  that  any  dbpute  between  a  harbonr  and 
lighthouse  authority  in  this  respect  b  to  be  determined  finally  by 
the  Board  of  Trade.  Provision  la  also  made  by  statute  for  tbe  burial 
oi  bodies  cast  on  shore  from  the  sea  by  wreck  or  otherwise  within  the 
limits  of  parishes,  or.  in  extn-parocfaud  places,  by  the  parish-officen 
or  constables  at  the  cost  of  Uie  county ;  and  lords  of  manon  entitksd 
to  wreck  may  defray  part  of  the  cost  of  burial  of  bodies  cast  up 
within  the  maiior,-as  evidence  of  their  right  of  wredc. 

The  method  of  dealing  with  wreck  outside  territorial  waters  (which 
does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  the  act)  is  gavsracd  by  theprevioua 
general  law  relating  to  droits  of  admimlty.  The  Board  of  Tiade,  as 
receiver-general,  in  its  instnictbns  to  receivers,  directs  that  wreck 
picked  up  at  sea  out  of  the  limits  of  the  United  Kingdom,  or  brought 
to  it  by  British  ships,  b  to  be  taken  possession  ol  by  the  receiver 
and  held  by  him  on  behalf  of  the  owneis.  or,  if  the  ownefs  do  not  claim 
it,  on  behalf  of  the  crown.  Derelict  diips  picked  up  at  sea  ontside 
territorial  limits  and  brought  into  Britirii  ports  must  be  deltvered  to 
the  receiver  and  kept  by  him  until  the  owner  can  be  found  (but  not 
longer  than  a  year  and  a  day).  Wreck  picked  up  out  of  territorial 
Umitis  by  a  foreign  ship  need  not  be  interfered  with  by  the  receiver, 
unless  upon  apfuication  by  a  pftrty  intefested.  For  tbe  receiver's 
righu  with  respect  to  property  in  iiistress  and  its  Uability  to  salvage^ 
see  Salvacb. 

By  an  act  of  1896  it  b  the  duty  of  the  master  of  a  Irtish  ship  to 
report  to  Lloyd's  agent,  or  to  the  secretary  of  Lloyd's,'  any  floating 
derslict  ship  which  he  may  fall  in  with  at  sea.  Under  tbe  Merchant 
Shipping  Act,  it  is  a  felony  to  take  wreck  found  in  territorial  limits 
to  a  fordjEn  port,  and  it  ts  punishable  by  fine  to  interfile  with  a 
wreck.  The  receiver  has  power,  by  means  of  a  search  wanant  from 
a  justice,  to  aeareh  for  wreck  which  he  haa  reason  to  beiiewe  b  oob- 
ceialed.  By  the  general  criminal  law  in  Scotbnd  plundering  arreck  b 
punishable  at  common  Uw;  and  in  England  and  udand  it  is  aielpny 
to  plunder  or  steal  any  wreck  or  part  thereof,  to  destroy  any  wreck 
or  part  thereof,  to  prevent  or  impede  any  person  on  Jmud  a  wreck 
from  saving  himself,  and  to  exhibit  any  laise  signal  wbh  the  intent 
of  endangering  any  ship,  or  to  do  anirthing  tending  to  iho  tnunetfiate 
loss  or  dcstructbn  of  a  ship  for  which  no  other  pimidiBient  b 
provided. 

AuTUORinES.~Du  Cange,  Glossarium,  tit.  "  Wreckum  *';  Cbbf- 
tustioe  Hale,  De  ntrt  mortV;  Haigrave,  Traeta  (London,  1787); 
Palmefv  Law  of  Wreck,  Law  Tracts  (London.  1843)3  Marsdco, 
Seka  Pkas  of  Admiralty,  Sdden  Society  (London,  1B93  and  1897); 
Racords  of  the  Admiralty  and  of  ikt  Bi^  Court  of  Adminlty,  PubUc 
Reoord  Office  (London) ;  Victoria  Cotmiy History,  Cormmall,  and  other 
seaboard  counties:  Maritime  History,  by-M. Qppoiheim  (1906,  Ac.){ 
'30Qr4  of  Trade  Instrmtioas  as  to  Wreck  and  Sain»««(LaBidon). 

(R.G7m.;  G.G.  p.*) 

'WRSDE,  KARL  PHIUPP,  PirfNCE  VON  (X7d7-x838),  Bavarian 
ficld-roarsbal,  was  bom  at  Hclddbezg  on  tbe  29th  of  April 
17671  and  educated  for  tbe  career  of  a  d^vil  official  under  tbe 
Palatinate  government;  but  on*  the  outbrebk  ol  tbe  campaign 
of  X799  he  raised  a  volynteer  corps  in  the  P&Iatinate  and  was 
made  its  coloaeL.  Thb  corps  excited  the  mirth  of  the  well- 
drilled  Austrians  with  whom  it  served,  but  its  oolonel  soon  brought 
it  into  a  good  condition,  and  it  disUngubhed  ftsidf  during  Kra>''s 
retreat  on  Ulm.  At  Hohcnllnden  Wrede  commanded  one  of 
the  Palatinate  infantry  brigades  with  credit, and  after  the  peace 
of  Lun6viile  he  was  tnade  lieutenant-general  in  tho  Bavarian 
army,  which  was  entering  upon  a  period  of  reforms.  Wreds 
soon  made  himself  very  popular,  and  distinguished  himsell 
in  opposing  the  Austrian  invasion  of  1805.  The  Bavarians  were 
•for  several  y^ais  Uie  active  allies  of  Napoleon,  and  Wrede .wat 


WREN,  SIR  O.. 


HS 


mmtim»^  Iq  ^Vm^  ^•ww^ai^  njajinf  Ptuiia.  vuoBiuE  tflT^wwl  dis- 
tinctiok  at  Pultuak.  But  the  coatemptuous  attitude  of  the 
F-rench  towards  the  Bavarian  troops,  and  accusations  of  looting 
against  himself,  exasperated  the  general's  fiery  temper,  and 
both  in  1807  aiid  in  1809  even  outward  harxnony  was  only 
xnaintauied  by  the  tact  of  the  king  of  Bavaria.  In  the  latter 
year,  under  X^efebv^e^  Wcede  conduct^  the  rearguard  operations 
on  tise  Isar  and  the  Abcns,  commanded  the  Bavarians  in  the 
iutter  Tirolcae  war,  was  wounded  in  the  decisive  attack. at 
.WagBsmi  and  returned  to  Tirol  in  November  to  complete  the 
subjection  of  the  moiintaineexd..  Ni^Mleon  made  him  a  count  of 
the  Emptre  in  this  year.  But  after  n  visit  to  France,  recognizing 
that  Napoleon  would  not  respect  the  independence  of  the  Rhine 
states,  nd  that  the  enpirt  would  collapse  under  the  emperor's 
amlHtMns,  be  gradually  went  .over  to  the  anti-French  party  in 
Bavaria,  and  though  he  displayed  his  usual  vigour  in  the  Russian 
campaign,  the  retreat  convinced  him  that  Napoleon's  was,  a 
losing  cause  and  he^t  the  army..  At  first  his  resignation  was 
not  accepted,  but  early  in  1815  he  was  allowed,  to  return,  to 
Bavaria  to  reorganise  the  Bavarian  army.  But  he  had  iio 
intention  of  using  that  army  on  Napoleon's  side,  and  when  the 
king  of  Bavaria  resolved  at  last  to  join  Napoleon's  enonues, 
Wrede's  army  was  ready,  to  take  the  field.  In  concert  with 
Schvaczenbeig  Wrede  threw  himself  across  Napoleon's  line  of 
retreat  from.  Germany  at  Hanau,  but  on  the  30th  of  October 
he  was  driven  off  the  road  with  heavy  losso.  Next  year, 
after  recovering  from  a  dangerous  wound,  he  lad  a  corps  in  the 
mvasion  of  France  and  sunwrted  BlUcher's  vigorous  policy. 
In  18x5  the  Bavarians  took  the  field  but  were  not  actively 
engaged.  After  Waterloo,  Wrede,  who  had  been  made  a  prince 
in  1814,  played  &  conspicuous  part  in  Bavarian  politics  as  the 
opponent  of  JMontgelas,  whom  he  succeeded  in  power  in  18x7, 
and  in  1835  he  was  made  head  of  the  council  of  regency  during 
the  king's  absence.  He  di^  on  the  X2th  of  December  1838. 
See  lives  by  Riedcl  (1844)  and  Hellxnaim  (1881). 

'  WREH.  SIR  CHRISTOPHER  (1633-1723),  English  architect, 
the  son.  of  a  clergyman,  was  bom  at  East  Knoyle,  Wiltshire, 
on  the  aoth  of  October  1632;  he  entered  at  Wadfaam  College, 
Oxford,  in  1646,  took  his  degree  in  it$Of  and  in  1653  was  made  a 
fellow  of  AH  Souls.  While  at  Oxford  Wren  distiogmshed  himself 
in  geometry  and  applied  mathematics,  and  Newton,  in  his  iVtii- 
«>ta,  p.  19  (ed.  of  17x3),.  speaks  very  highly  of  his  work  as  a 
geometrician.  In  1657  he  became  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Cresbam  CoUege,  and  in  x66o  was  elected  Savilian  professor  of 
ustronomy  at  Oxford.  It  is,  however,  as  an  architect  that  Wren 
is  best  known,  and  the  great  fire  of  London,  by  its  destruction 
of  the  cathedral  and  xiearly  all  the  city  churches,  gave  Wren  a 
unique  opportunity..  Just  before  the  fire  Wren  was  asked  by 
Charles  II.  to  prepare  a  scheme  for  the  restoration  of  the  old  St 
Paul's.  In  May  2666  Wrox  submitted  his. report  and  designs 
•(in  the  All  Souls  collection),  for  this  work;  the  old  cathedral  was 
in  a  very  ruinous  state,  and.  Wren  proposed  to  remodel  the  greater 
pQX\^  as  he  said,  "  after  a  good  Roman  maimer,"  and  not,  "  to 
follow  the  (Gothick  Rudeness  of  the  old  Design."  Accordix^  to 
this  scheme  only  the  old  choir  was  left;  the  nave  and  transepts 
were  to  be  rebuilt  after  the  rlafflical  style,  With  a  lofty  dome  at 
the  crossings— not  unlike  the  pUw  eventually  carried  out. 
:  In  September  of  the  same  year  (1666)  the  fire  occurred,  and  the 
old  St  Paul's  was  completely  gutted.  From  1668  to  1670 
attempts  were  being  made  by  the  chapter  to  restore  the  mined 
building;  but  Pcan  SancToft  was  aiuuous  to  have  it  wholly 
rebuilt,  and  in  1668  he  had  Risked  Wren  to  prepare  a  design  for  a 
wholly  new  church.  This  first  design,  the  xpodel  lor  which  is 
preserved  in  the  South  Kensington  Aluseum,  is  very  inferior  to 
what  Wren  afterwards  devised.  In  plan  it  is  an  iihmense 
rotunda  surrounded  by  a  wide  aisle,  and  approached  by  a 
double  portipo;  the  rotunda  is  covered  with  4k  dome  taken 
trom  that  of  the  Pantheon  in  Rome;  on  this  a  second  dome 
stands,  set  on  a  lofty  drum,  and  this  second  dome  is  crowned  by  a 
taU  spire.  But  the  dean  and  chapter  objected  to  the  absence  of  a 
atructural  choir,  nave  and  aisles,  and  wished  to  foUbw  the 
inedieY^  cathedral  axrangement.    Thus,  in  spile  of  its  having 


been  appsoved  by  the  king,  this  dekijpi  ms  hi^ppt^  atftudooed^ 
nauch  to  Wren's  disgust;  and  he  prepared  another  scheme  with  » 
similar  treatment  of  a  dome  crowned  by  &  spire,  which  in  1675 
was  ordered  to  be  carried  out.  ^  Wren  apparently  did  iu>t  hiinself 
approve  of  this  second  design,  for  he  got  the  king  to  give  him 
permission  to.  alter  it  as  much  as  he  liked,  without  showing 
models  or  drawings  to  any  one,  and  the  actual  building  bears 
little  resemblance  to  the  ^iproved  design,  to  which  it  is  very 
superior  in  almost  every  possible  polnL  Wren's  earlier  designs 
have  the  exterior  of  the  church  arranged  with  one  order  of 
columns;  the  divbion  of  the  whole  height  into  two  orders  wat 
an  immense  gain  In  increasing  the  apparent  scale  of  the  whole,' 
end  makes  the  exterior  of  St  Paul's  very  superior  to  that  of  St 
Peter's  in  Rome,  which  is  utterly  dwarfed  by  the  colossal  sixe  of 
the  columns  and  pilasters  of  its  single  order.  Thepeesent  dome 
and  the  drum  on  which  it  stands,  masterpieces  of  graceful  line 
and  hamonious  proportion,  were  nvy  iapoitaat  altatttiinKfigm 
the  earlier  schem«e.  As  a  sdentifk  engineer  and  prtotiealaidlitiect 
Wren  was  perhaps  more  renuutaUe  thaa  as  an  artistic  dengner. 
The  construction  of  the  wooden  estefud  dome,  and  the  sHpport 
of  the  stolie  lantern  by  an  inner  cone  of  brickwork,  qCiite  inde- 
pendent of  either  the  external  or  intomal  dome,  «r^  wondcrfui 
examplea  of  his  cosBtructive  mgeaidty.  The  lint  itoiie  of  ths 
new  St  Paul's  waft  laid  on  the  aist  of  June  1695;  the  dieir  wai 
opened  for  use  on  the  snd  of  December  1697;  awl  the  last  stono 
of  the  cathedrsd  was  set  in  17  xa 

•  Wren  also desigiMd  acolonaade  U>  endose  aJugepiasm.fii>rmxtt8 
a  dear  space  round  tho  church,  somewhat  after  the  faahion  oC 
Benxhu'ft  colonnade  In  front  of  St  Petec^s,  biit  space  in  thfr  city 
iwis  too  valuable  to  admit  of  this.  -  Wren  was  an  enthvsiaalJc 
admirer  of  Bemiid's  designs,  and  visited  Paris  in  1665  m  order 
to  see  hiin  and  his  proposed  scheme  lor  the  febwildiiig  of  tho 
Louvre.  Bernini  showed  his  design  to  Wren,  but  would  not  let 
him  copy  it,  though,  as  he  said,  he  "  would  h&ve  givet  Ids  akm  ". 
to  be  allowed  to  do  so. 

.  After  the  destructf on  of  the  city  of  London  Wren  was  employed 
tt>  make  designs  for  rebuilding  ita  fifty  buml  churches,  aadhd 
also  prepared  A  scheme  for  laying  out  the  wholedly  <mnnew  piai), 
with  a  series  of  wide  streets  radiating  from  a  central  qiice. 
Difficulties  arising  from  the  various  ownershipt  of  the  gxioiittd 
prevented  the  accomplishment  of  this  sdieme. 

Ammig  Wren's  dty  churches  the  most  noteworthy  am  Si 
Michael's,  Comhill;  St  Bride's,  Fleet  Street,  and  St  Mary>lo-Bow, 
Cheapside,  the  latter  remarkable  for  Its  graceful  spire;  and.  St 
Stephen!Sk  Walbrook,  with  a  plain  exterior,  but  very  dabotat^ 
and  graceful  Interior.  In  the  design  oi.  sfMres  Wren  shotred  mvdi 
taste  and  wonderful  power  of  invention.  He  vias  also  very 
Judidous  in  the  way  in  which  he  expended  the  limited  money  at 
his  command;  ho  did  not  fritter  it  away  in  an  attempt  to  make 
the  whole  of  a  building  remarkable,  but  devoted  it  chiefly  to 
one  part  or  feature,  sach  as  a  spire  or  a  rich  scheme  of  internal 
decoration.  .Thus  he  was  In  some  cases,  as  in  that  of;  St 
James's,  Piccadilly,  content  to  make  the  exterior  of  an  almost 
barnlike  plalnnesa 

The  other  buildings  designed  by  Wren  were  vety  numerous. 
Only  a  few  cf  the  principal  ones  can  be  mentioned :--^the  Custom 
House,  the  Roj^  Exchange,  Mariborough  House,  Buckingham 
House,  and  the  Hall  of  the  CoDegeof  Ph}^dan»-^ow  destroyed; 
others  which  exist  are — at  Oxford,  the  Shpldonian  theatre,  the 
Ashmolean  museum,  the  Tom  Tower  of  Christ  Church,  an4 
Queen's  College  chapel;  at  Cambridge,  the  hbrixyof  Trinity 
College  and  the  chapel  of  Pembroke,  the  latter  at  the  cost  of 
Bishop  Matthew  Wren,  his  uncle.  The  western  towers  of  West- 
miosler  Abbey  are  usually  attributed  to  Wren,  but  they  were  not 
carried  out  till  1735-1745,  jnany  years  after  Wren's  death,  and 
there  is  no  reason  to  think  that  his  design  was  used.  Wmn 
(D.C.L.  from .  x66o)  was  knighted  in  1673,  and  was  elected 
IMesident  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1681.  He  was  in  parliament 
for  many  years,  representing  Plympton  from  1685,  Windsor  from 
X689,  and  Weymouth  from  1700.  He  ocMipled  the  post  of 
surv(r>'or  of  the  royal  irorks  for  fifty  years,  bat  by  a  shamcfojt 
cabal  was  dismissed  from  this  office  a  fewyears  before  his  deaths 


«++ 


WREN— WRESTQKG 


la  dkd  I>fi7137  and  b  bated  mxtcr  the  choir  of  St  Piul^; 
D  a  tablat  over  the  izater  north  doorway  is  the  vdi'bioini 
meiUam  re^tdrij,  dnumsfiat 


»  loT  binb  tt  the  Puaerine  family  Trogtodytldu, 
01  WHICH  uu  beat  koowit  euAf^  ii  TiaglodyUs  porvuiui,  the 
Ultle brown biid  withltaahott  tail, cocked  onh[gli — inqniiitive 
uid  laadHai,  that  btavea  the  -winler  of  the  British  lilahdi,  azid 
oven  Ihat  of  the  EaropeU  continent.  Great  intereit  ia  taken  in 
thi>  bird  thraaghout  tU  Ennpean  counOita,  and,  though  in 
Billaiii  conqiantiTClr  lew  venucular  nunei  have  been  applied 
to  it,  two  of  tbHD— "  tcony"  or  "Utty-wren" — are  tcmu  of 
cndeumenc.  U.  RoQand  rccoida  no  iewir  than  ijq  local  names 
Idr  it  in  Fnucai  aod  Italy,  Germany  and  other  landi  an  only 
hat  pndific. .  Muy  of  time  cany  on  the  old  belief  thai  the  witn 
w**  the  king  of  blid*,  >  beliel  connected  with  the  fable  that  once 
the  fowb  of  the  air  molved  lo  cbooie  for  their  leader  that  one 
ol  thnn  which  ihould  mouat  hlghat.  This  the  eagle  seemed  to 
iio,  tad  lO  were  nuSy  to  kccept  hit  rule,  when  •  loud  bunt  of 
'isng  was  heatd,  and  perched  upon  him  «u  leen  the  wren,  which 
Itniecfi  had  been  borne  aloft  by  the  giant.  The  curious  aiiocla- 
tion  of  this  bird  with  the  f  cut  ol  the  Three  Kings,  on  which  day 
,b  S.  Wik*,  «r,  in  Ireland  and  hi  the  S.  oi  Fiance,'  on  or  about 
|CliiiMMai  Day,  men  and  boys  used  to  "hunt  the  wren," 
MldrcMiiigit  in  along  u  "  the  king  ol  birds"  b  remarkable. 
"The  better  known  form^  b  (he  United  Suin  are  the  house- 

Carolina-wren,  also  a 
the  cacllis  wrena  and 

Wrens  have  tbe  bill  slender  and  aomevhat' ard^:  their 
food  coniisti  of  insects,  larvae  and  apideij,  but  they  will  alto  tdke 
'any  amll  creatures,  luch  aa  worms  and  snails,  and  occasionally 
'eat  letds.  The  note  is  shrill.  The  nest  is  usually  a  dan»d  itruc- 
|tnte  of  toms,  gtasB,  nioBs  and  leaves,  lined  wiihhaJr  or  feithere,  and 
from  three  lo  nine  eggs  ate  produced,  in  mosl  of  the  species  wluto, 
,  The  headquarters  of  the  wrens  are  in  tropical  America,  but 
Ihey  reach  Greenland  In  the  N.  and  the  Falkland  Islands  In  the  S. 
Some  genera  ate  eonfined  lo  the  hills  of  tropical  Asia,  but  Tro- 
^tdyta,  the  best  known,  ranges  over  N.  and  S,  America,  Asia 
■nd  Europe.^ 

'  The  IVoglodvtidae  by  no  meani  caniairTall  the  blidi  lawhlcli  the 
name  "  wren  "^  la  applied.  Several  of  ihe  Syimmu  M.  WarMcr) 
bear  it.  capedally  the  bsullful  little  p>klni.CTeil«l  wnm  id.  Kinglet) 
and  the  fmup  commonly  luiowa  in  Britain  ai  "  willow-wrens  " — 
farrniiulbejrnliuPiyJ/uiDHu.  Tfaree  ajthseaie  habitual  tummer- 
:   Tbe  larje^t,  uiually  called  tbe  wood-wren,  F.  sibilalra.  is 

-"-- in  IheS.  of  England,  and  cliirfy 

It  has  a  loud  and  prculiar  nng, 

.-,  long,  and  rcptaled  at  £nt  slowly, 

quickly,  while  at  HiKerlain  Entervali  comes 

-IS  been  syllabled  aa  cJIh,  uttered  about  three 

- — The  friltow-tfjen  pmper,  /*.  trtcJtUus,  it  in 

the  CMK  gaoenlly  diipencd.  The  thiid  spedea.  P.  ad^iia  or 
miMtr  (fnqueady  but  nxxl  wrondy  called  SjMa  tufa  or  P.  ra/ui). 
toflinMnly  known  as  tbe  chiifchan.  Iiom  the  peculiarity  of  its  con. 

^.j . .  —  . nninenjin  in  the  S.  and  W. 

I  V.    Thesa  three  iweiei 


WBBIUMI(O.Eng.'crAjtMi;tttM>tt  la  which  two  pcfHBi 

rive  to  throw  each  other  to  the  ground.  It  is  one  of  the  nuit 
primitive  and  universal  of  sports-  Upon  the  walls  of  the  temple 
"ombsof  Beni  Hssan,  nar  the  Nile,  are  sculptmvl  many  hundred 
cenes  from  wrestling  matches,  depicting  practically  alt  the  h^ds 
Lud  falls  known  at  the  present  day,  thus  proving  that  wresthng 
ns  a  highly  developed  spon  at  least  jooo  years  before  the 
Chiiitian  era.  Ai  the  dacription  of  the  boat  tctween  Odysseus 
and  A]bx  In-the  33rd  book  of  the  IHad,  and  (he  evolutions  of  the 
dasstc  Gttek  mestlen,  tally  with  the  scidptures  of  Beni  Hasan 
and  Ninevdi,  tlie  >pott  iday  have  been  introduced  Into  CSrecce 
fiont  Egypt  or  Asia.  In  Homer's  celebrated  description  of  the 
match  between  AJai  and  CMysscus  the  two  cbampions  won  only 
a  girdle,  which  was,  however,  not  used  in  the  dassic  Gre^  games. 
Nriiher  Homer  nor  Euaiarhiaj,  who  also  minotely  defneted  tbe 
battle  between  Ajai  and  Odyswo,  mentions  the  use  of  aU, 
which,  however,  wsa  itivarisMe  al  the  Olympic  gtmca,  vlieR 
wrestling  was  introduced  duiing  the  iBth  Olympiad.  The  Greet 
wrestlers  were,  after  Che  appliation  of  the  oil,  nibbed  with  Cne 
sind.toaffordabetterhold. 

■Wrestling  was  a  very  important  brandi  of  athletics  In  the 
Greek  games,  alim  tl  formed  tbe  chief  event  of  the  fentaUdon,  or 
quintu[de  games  (see  Caku,  CuissiCAi.}.  All  holds  were  allowed, 
even  strangling,  butting  and  kicking.  Crushing  the  Rngen  was 
used  espedaliy  in  the  tattcnUiim.t  combination  of  wrestling  and 
bonng.  Wrestler!  were  tauf^t  to  be  graalul  in  all  their  move- 
ments, in  accordance  with  the  Greek  ideas  of  sdlbeticA,  Thae 
were  iwo  varieties  of  Gre^  wrestling,  the  rAXr^  fyf^^,  or  upright 
wrestling,  which  was  that  gener^y  practised,  and  the  AXM^m 
(jd^hjait,  lucta  votuiattma)  or  aquirmmg  contest  after  the  con- 
testants had  fallen,  which  continued  until  oiie  aeknoTrledged 
defeat.  It  was  this  variety  (hat  was  employed  In  the  paticraivtu 
The  upright  wrestling  was  very  rinilar  to  (he  modem  catcb-a>- 
calch-can  style.  In  this  three  falls  out  of  five  decided  a  matcL 
A  variation  oi  this  style  was  that  In  which  one  of  the  contestants 
stood  within  a  small  ring  and  resisted  (he  efforts  of  hb  advenaiy 
to  pull  him  out  of  it.  Other  local  varieties  enated  in  (be  diflerent 
provinces.  The  most  celebrated  wmtler  of  sndent  timea  was 
Milo  of  Crotona  It,  sjo  B.C.),  who  scored  thirty-two  victories  in 
the  diflerent  nitional  games,  six  of  them  at  Olympia.  Creek 
alhletlc  sports  were  introdaced  Into  Borne  in  tbe  last  quarter 
of  the  ind  nntnry  B.C.,  but  it  tievct  attained  to  the  popularity 

thatitenjoyedinGreece.  ■  

Among  the  Teutooic  peoples  wresllmg,~al  leait~as  a  method 
of  fighting,  was  of  eourie  always  known;  how  popular  it  had 
become  as  a  vwrt  during  the  middle  ages  is  proved  by  the 
voluminous  literature  which  appeared  on  the  subject  alter  the 
inveii(ionofpriiithig,the  most  celebrated  work  being  the  Xnpr- 
Kitast  of  Fabian  von  Auerswald  (1539).  Albiecht  DOrer  made 
iigdratfingiilluiCratingthe  dilTcrent  holds  and  falls  in  vogue  in 
the  I  Jib  and  i6th  centuries.  These  ringuhrly  resembled  those 
used  in  tbe  Greek  games,  even  to  certain  brutal  tricks,  whid, 

litlkk  ((riendiy)  and  were  not  commonly  used.  WreUUng  was 
adopted  by  the  German  riimerefne  as  one  ol  their  aerdia, 
but  with  the  elimination  of  (lipping  and  atl  holds  bdow  tbe  Ups. 
At  present  the  most  popular  style  in  Europe  Is  the  tP-taSkA 
Graeco-Roroan.       .  ~  _       _ 

In  Switierland  uidaooie  of  the  Urolfse  valleyi  ■  kind- of 
wrestling  flourishea  tmder  the  name  of  Sckaiiiiiyi  (swin^ng). 
The  wreslleis  wear  sckmntfam  or  wrcstling-breeches,  wiA 
stout  bdts,  on  which  the  holds  are  taken.'.  The  first  nan  dowa 
loses  (he  bout.  In  Styiia,  wrestlets  stand  firmly  on  both  feet 
with  right  hands  clasped.  When  the  word  is  given  each  tries  t* 
push  or  pun  the  other  Irom  his  stance,  the  sUgbtest  DiavemcBt 
of  a  foot  sufficing  to  lose. 

Tbe  popularity  of  wrestfing  has  survived  in' many  Asiatic 
countries,  particularly  tn  Japan,  where  the  first  match  recorded 
took  place  in  jj  B.C.,  the  victor  being  Sukune,  who  has  rvl 
since  been  regarded  as  the  tutelary  deity  of  wresdeia.  In  iha 
8lh  century  (he  emperor  ShSmu  made  wrestltng  one  of  the 
faaluiEs  Of  the  annual  harvest  "  Festival  of  (he  Tin  Oaiat! 


IfRBSTLING 


J  • 


*45 


tte  ffetor  bdiif  apipoiiiud  official  referee  «ad  ^leaettte^  iriA  ii 

fkn  bearing  the  I^nd,  "  Prince  of  Lions."   In  858  the  throne 

of  Japan  was  wrestled  lor  by  the  two  sons  o{  the  emperor 

Buntoku,  and  the  victor,  Kortthito,  succeeded  his  ^ther  under 

the  name  of  Seiwa.    Imperial  patronage  of  wrestling. ceased  in 

1 1 75,  after  the  war  whidi  residted  in  the  establishment  of  the 

Shogunate,  but  continued  to  be  a  part  of  the  training  of  the 

iamwai  or  milit^y  caste.  •  About  1600,  professional  wrestling 

again  rose  to  importance,  the  best  men  being  in  the  employ  of 

the  great  daimios  or  feudal  nobles.    It  was,  nevertheless,  still 

kept  up  by  the  samuraif  and  eventually  developed  into  the 

peculiar  copibination  of  wrestling  and  system  of  doing  bodily 

injury  called  ju-jiUsu  (9.9.),  which  survives  with  wrestling 

as  a  separate  though  allied  art.    The  national  championships 

were  re-established  in  1634,  when  the  celebrated  Shiganosuke 

won  the  honour,  and  have  continued  to  the  present  day.    The 

Japanese  wxcstlecs,  like  those  of  India,  lay  much  stress  upon 

weight  and  are  generally  men  of  great  bulk,  sithough  surprisingly 

light  on  their  feet.  They  form  a  gild  which  is  divided  into  several 

ranks,  the  highest  being  compmed  of  the  joslny^,  or  elders, 

in  whose  hands  the  superintendence  of  the  wrestling  schools 

|ind  tournaments  lies,  and  who  in  feudal  times  used  to  rank  next 

to  the  samurai.    The  badges  of  the  three  hi^est  ranks  are 

damask  aprons  richly  embroidered.   Every  public  wrestler  must 

have  passed  through  a  thorough  course  of  vistruction  under  one 

of  the  joskiyori  and  have  undergone  numerous,  practical  tests. 

The  wrestlinic  takes  place  in  a  ck^  1  a  ft.  in  diameter,  the  wrestlers 

being  naked  but  for  a  loincloth.   At  the  command  of  the  referee 

the  two  adversaries  crouch  with  their  hands  on  the  ground  and 

watch  for  an  opening.    The  method  is  very  similar  to  that'  of 

the  andent  Greeks  and  the  modern  catch^as-catch*€aa  style, 

except  that  a  wrestler  who  toudtes  the  ground  with  any  port  of 

his  person  except  the  feet,  after  the  first  hold  has  beoi  taken, 

loses  the  boat. 

Indian  wrestling  resembles  that  of  Japan  in  the  great  aixe  of 
its  exponents  or  p9dv>a%St  and  the  number  and  subtlety  of  its 
attacks,  called  penckes.  It  is  of  ihe  **  loose  "  order,  the  men 
fadng  each  other  nude,  except  for  a  loln«cloth,  and  maneeuvring 
wariTy  for  a  hold.  Both  shoulden  placed  on  the  ground  stmui* 
taneousiy  constitute  a  falL 

In  Great  Britain  wrestling  was  cultivated  at  a  very  curly  age, 
both  Saxons  and  Celts  having  always  bete  oddietea  to'  it,  and 
English  literature  is  full  of  references  to  the  sport.  On  St  James's 
and  St  Bartholomew's  days  special  matches  took  place  through- 
out  England,  those  in  London  being  held  fai  St  Giles's  Field, 
whence  they  were  afterwards  tran^ened  to  OerlcenwelL  The 
lord  mayor  and  his  sherifEs  were  often  present  on  these  occasions, 
but  the  frequent  brawls  among  the  spectators  eventually  brought 
public  matches  into  disrepute.  English  monarchs  have  not 
dts^lned  to  patronise  the  sport,  and  Henry  VIIL  is  known  to 
have  been  a  powerfid  wrestli^. 

It  was  inevitable,  in  a  country  where  the  qxnt  wu  so  ancient 
and  so  universal,  that  different  methods  of  wrestling  should 
grow  up.  It  is  likely  that  the  **  loose  "  style,  hi  which  the  con- 
testants  took  any  hold  they  could  obtain,  generally  prevailed 
throughout  Great  Britain  until  the  dose  of  the  xSth  oentuiy, 
when  the  several  local  fashions  became  ^ndually  coherent;  but 
it  was  oot  until  well  into  the  xgth  that  their  several  rules  were 
codified.  Of  these  the  *'  Cumbcrhmd  and  Westmorkad  '*  style, 
which  prevails  prindpally  fo  the  N.  of  England  (except  Lanca- 
shire) and  the  S.  of  Scotland,  is  the  most  important.  In  this 
the  wrestlets  stand  chest  to  chest,  each  grasping  the  other  with 
locked  hands  round  th»  body  with  his  ddn  on  the  other's  right 
shoulcler.  The  right  arm  is  bdow  and  the  left  above  the  ad- 
versary's. iVlMn  this  hold  has  been  firmly  taken  the  umpire 
gives  the  wocd  and  the  boikt  proceeds  until  one  ttiaa  toudies 
the  gimmd  with  any  part  of  his  person  except  his  feet,  or  he 
fails  to  retain  his  hold,  in  either  Of  whldi  oases  he  loses.  When 
both  iaU  together  the  one  who  Is  undemeath>  or  first  touches 
the  groond,  loses.  If  both  fall  simultaneously  side  by  side,  it 
is  a  "dog-faU,"  and  the  bout  begins  anew.  The  different 
laanoeuvKs  used  in  British  wrestUng  to  throw  the  advenaiy  SIS. 
xxMia  X4» 


csBed  "  ddps,"  thMe  tnokt  itupditant  M  the  "  CnmberlMid  sad 
Westmorland  "  or  "  North  Country  "  style  befaig  the  "  badt« 
heel,"  hi  which  a  wrestler  gets  a  leg  behind  his  opponent's  heel 
on  the  outside;  the  '*  outside  stroke,''^  in  which  after  a  sodden 
twist  of  his  body  to  the  kft  the  opponent  is  struck  with  the  left 
loot  on  the  outside  of  his  ankle;  the  '*  hank,"  or  lifthig  the 
opponent  off  the  ground  after  a  sudden  turn,  so  that  both  fail 
together,  but  with  the  of^sonent  underneath;  the  "  faiside 
dick,"  a  hank  applied  after  jerking  the  opponent  forward,  the 
pressure  then  befaig  straight  back;  the  **  outride  dick,"  a  back- 
hed  applied  by  a  wrestler  as  he  is  on  the  pohit  of  bdng  lifted 
from  the  ground— it  prevents  tills  and  -^en  results  in  cfwt' 
lettteg  the  opponent;  the  "  cross-buttock,"  executed  by  gettmg 
one's  hip  underneath  the  opponent's,  throwing  one's  leg  across 
both  his,  lifting  and  throwmg  him;  the  "  buttock,"  in  which 
one's  h^  is  worked  still  further  under  that  of  the  opponent,whe 
is  then  thrown  righl  over  one^s  back;  the  "  hipe  "  or  "  hype,*^ 
executed  by  lifting  the  opponent,  and,  while  swinging  him  to 
the  right,  pladng  the  left  knee  under  his  right  leg  snd  csnyin^ 
it  as  high  as  possible  before  the  throw;  the  **  swinging  hipe,** 
in  which  the  opponent  is  swung  neariy  or  quite  round  befon 
the  hipe  is  apptied;  and  the  '*  breast-stroke,*'  which  is  a  suddok 
double  twist,  first  to  one  side  and  then  to  the  other,  followed 
bya  throw. 

In  the  "Cornwall  and  I>cvon"  or  "West  Country"  styte 
the  men  Wrestle  in  stout,  kM)sdy  cut  Imen  JacketS,  the  hold  behtf 
ansrwhere  above  the  waist  or  on  any  part  of  the  jacket.. /A 
bout  is  won  by  throwing  the  opponent  on  his  hade  so  that  two 
shoulders  and  a  hip,  or  two  hips  and  a  shoulder  (three  points), 
shall  touch  the  ground  simultaneously.  This  is  a  difficult 
matter,  since  ground  wKStlmg  is  forbidden,  and  a  man,  when 
he  feels  himself  falling,  wfU  usually  turn  and  Uind  on  his  side 
or  face.  Many  of  the  "  chips  "  common  to  other  styles  ate  used 
here,  the  most  cdebrated  bdng  the  "  flying  marc,"  hi  which 
the  opponent's  left  wrist  is  seized  with  one's  right,  one's  back 
turned  on  him,  his  kft  dhow  grteped  with  the  left  hand  and  he 
is  then  thrown  over  one^s  back,  as  in  the  buttock.  Until  com* 
parativdy  recently  there  was  a  difference  between  the  styles  of 
Cornwall  and  Devon,  the  wrestlers  of  the  latter  county  having 
worn  heavily^sokd  shoes,  wKh  which  it  was  legitimate  to 
belabour  the  adversary's  diina.  In  1826  a  memorable  matdl 
took  plate  between  Bcylkinhome,  the  Cornish  diamplon,  and 
the  best  wrestler  of  Devon,  Abraham  Cann,  who  woia 
"kidring-boots  «f  an  sppshbig  pattern."  Polhinhome^ 
however,  encased  his  shins  in  leather;  and  the  match  waft 
eventuaHy  drawn. 

The  "  Lancashhe"  style,*  more  generally  known  as  '*  catch- 
8a<atch-catt,"  is  practised  not  only'm  Lancashire  and  Mtib 
adjacent  districts,  but  throughout  America,  Australia,  Turicey 
and  other  countries.  It  is  the  legitimate  descendant  and  repre- 
sentative of  the  ancient  Greek  sport  and  of  the  wrestling  of  thi 
middle  ages.  A  bout  is  won  when  both  shoulders  of  one  wrestlef 
tench  the  floor  together.  No  kicking,  striking  or  other  fosi 
practices  are  aOowed,  but  theoretically  every  hold  is  legitimate^ 
Exceptions  are,  however,  made  of  the  so^^alled  strangle-holdi, 
which  are  sufficiently  described  by  their  designation,  and  any 
hold  resulting  in  a  distocation  or  a  fracture.  This  style  oontainft 
practically  all  the  manoeuvres  known  to  other  methods,  and 
in  its  freedom  and  opporttmity  for  a  display  of  sttategy,  strength 
and  skid,  is  the  most  preferable.  A  fall,  though  invariably 
begun  standing,  is  neariy  always  completed  on  theground  (mat). 
The  holds  and  "  chips  "  are  so  numerous  and  oompHcated  as  t* 
make  anything  but  an  daborste  description  inadequate.  Ths 
best  book  on  the  subject  is  the  Handbook  of  Wre$Hing  by  Hugh 
F.  Leonard  (1897). 

In  Sootknd  a  combfaiatlon  of  the  Combeifand  and  catdi-ai^ 
catch-can  styles  has  attained  some  pepniarity,  in  which  the 
WRStters  begin  with  the  North  Gountry  hold,  but  continue  the 
bout  on  the  ground  should  the  fall  not  be  a  dean  one  with  two 
shoulders  down. 

In  Ireland  tiie  national  style  is  called  "cottar  and  elbow" 
(in  America, ''bsck-wieMttng"),  from  the  hekUtaksn  by  the 


M 


WREXHAM— WRIGHT,  S. 


two  bands.    The  mn  haw,  any  part  .of  whose  pcoMi,  esocpi 
the  feet,  touches  the  g;rottiid. 

The  style  mostly  affected  by  the  profeaslonal  wrestlers  6i 
£uzope  at  the  present  day  is  the  Graeco-Roman  (falsely  so 
cafled,  since  it  bears  almost  no  resemblaaos  to  classic  wrestling), 
■which  arose  about  i860  and  Is  a  piodact  of  the  French  wxestting 
schools.  It  is  a  very  restricted  style,  as  no  tripfMng  is  allowed, 
nor  any  hold  below  the  hips^  the  result  beiog  that  the  bouts^ 
which  are  contested  almost  entirely  prone  on  the  mat,  are  usually 
tediously  long.  British  and  American  wrestlers,  being  accus- . 
tomod  to  their  own  styles,  arc  naturally  at  a  disadvantage  when 
wrestling  under  Gtaeoo-Roman  rules. 

-  WRBXHAM  (Welsh  Cvertcsam,  in  the  Anglo-Sason  Chfonide 
Wrigkltskam),  a  market  town  and  parliamentary  and  municipal 
l»orough  of  Denbi^ishirei  N.  Wales,  11  m.  S.S.W.  of  Chester, 
with  stations  on  the  Great  Western  railway,  and  on  the  Great 
Central  railway,  202  m.  from  London.  Vop.  (1901)  I4f966. 
."  One  of  the  seven  wonders  of  Wales  **  is  St  Giles's  church,  oC 
the  14th,  xsth  and  x6th  centuries,  with  a  panelled  tower  of 
several  stages  erected  between  1506  and  1520,  and  containing 
ten  famous  beUs  cast  (1726)  by  Rudhall;  the  interior  is  Decor- 
ated, and  has  two  monuments  by  RoubilUac  to  the  Myddletons« 
Wrediam  is  the  seat  of  the  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  Meaevia, 
whose  diocese  includes  all  Wales  except  Glamorganshire.  The 
endowed  free  school  was  established  in  i6oj«  The  markets  and 
fairs  are  goQd»  Aid  the  alesy  mills  (com  and  paper)  and  tanneries 
local^  famous.  Brymbo  Hall,  in  the  neighbourhood,  is  said 
to  have  been  buih  from  a  design  by  Inigo  Jones,  as  were  probably 
Gwydjrr  chapel  (1633)  and  the  Conwy  bridge  (1636),  both  at 
Llanrwst.  Erddig  Hall  was  nottKl  for  its  Wcl^  MSS.  Near 
Wrexham,  but  in  a  detached  portion  of  Flintshire,  (o  the  S.E.> ' 
is  Bangor-is<oed  (Bangor  yit  Maelor),  the  site  of  the  most 
ancient  monastery  in  the  kingdom,  founded  before  x8o;  some 
i20omonkswdre  slain  here  by  ^helfrith  of  Northumbria,  who 
also  spoiled  the  monasteiy.  Bangor-is-coed  was  probably 
Antoninus's  Bcnum^  and  the  Banthorium  of  Richard  of  Ciren- 
cester. Wrightesham  was  of  Saxon  origin,  and  lying  E.of 
Offa's  Dyke,  was  yet  reckoned  m  Merda.  It  was. given  (with 
Bromfidd  and  Yale,  or  /dQ  by  Edward  I.  to  Earl  Warenne. 

WRIGHT,  CARROLL  DAVIDSON  (i840~X909);  American 
Stalistidan,  was  born  at  Dunbarton,  New  Hampshirei  on  the 
asth  of  July  1^40.  He  began  to  study  Uw  in  1860,  but  In  1862 
enlisted  as  a  private  in  a  New  Hampshire  volunteer  regiment* 
He  became  colonel  in  1864,  ai^i  sexved  as  assistant-adjutant- 
Seneral  of  a  brigade  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  campaign.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  New  Hampshire  bar  after  the  war,  and  in 
1867  became  a  member  of  the  Massachvfctts  and  United  States 
bars.  From  2872  to  1873  he  served  in  the  Senate  of  Massachu- 
setts,  and  from  1873  to  1878  he  was  chief  of  the  Massachusetts 
Bureau  of  Statistics  of  Labor.  He  was  U.S.  commissioner  of 
kbour  from  1885  to  1905,  and  in  x8<]3  was  placed  in  charge  of 
ibe  Eleventh  Onsus.  In  1894  he  was  cl»irman  of  the  com- 
Aiasion  which  lAvestigatfid  the  great  railway  strike  of  Chicago, 
SAd  in  1902  was  a  member  of  the  Anthracite  Strike  Commission» 
He  was  honorary  professor  oC  social  economics  in  tbe.Oitholic 
university  of  America  from  1895  to  1904;  in  1900  became 
IMEOfessor  of  statistics  and  social  economics  in  Columbian  (now 
George  Washington)  University,  from  2900.10  190X  was  univer- 
sity lecturer  on  wage  statistics  at  Harvard,  and  in  1903  was  a 
foember  of  the  special  committee  appointed  to  revise  the  labour 
laws  of  Maasachusetts.  In  X902  he  was  chosen  presid^t  of 
Clark  College,  Worcester,  Mass.,  where  he  was  also  professor 
«f  statistics  and  aodal  etiooomlos  from  1904  until  his  death. 
J>r  Wright  was  president  of  the  Aroerican;  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science  in  1903,  and  in  1907  reodved  the  Cross 
4rf  the  Legion  of  .^Honour  for  his  work  in  improving  industrial 
conditions,  a.  similar  hooouf  having  been  conferred  upon  him  in 
1906  by  the  Itajlian  ijovemmeot.  He  died.  on.  the  00th  of 
JPebnuiy  19094 

His  pi^lfeations  iadude  The  FaOary  SrsUm  of  ike  VnUed  States 
(t88o)i  lUkitiem  tf  PalUieol  Eanemy  to  tko  Labof  Qmstion' li^Az" 
Misien  qf  ffogss  sad  iVtm  .is  lfs«e<*n«<a>  M^iWi  if 


The  I^tiauleud  JBmbitfM  ef  M  Umted  ^SWet  (1H7U  OUttss  4 

Practical  Sociciofy  (X899);  BaUUs  of  Labor  (1906);  and  nmncrQns 
pamphlets  and  monograptis  on  social  and  economic  topies. 

WRIOHT,  CHAUNCEY  (1830-1875),  American  philosopher 
and  mathematician,  was  bom  at  Northampton,  Maaa.,  on  the 
2oth  of  September  1830,  and  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  <m  the 
X 2th  of  September  X875.  In  1852  he  graduated  at  Harvard, 
and  became  computer  to  the  AmericoH  Epkemerts  and  Noutkd 
Almanac.  He  made  his  name  by  oon'tributiofks  on  mathematical 
and  physical  subjects  in  the  MaikemaHcd  Monthly,  He  soon, 
however,  turned  his  sttention  to  metaphyncS  and  pqrchofegy, 
and  for  the  North  American  Review  and  later  fcgr  the  Nalionsi 
he  wrote  philosophical  essays  on  the  lines  of  MUl,  Darwin  and 
Spencer.  In  xS7o-7x.he  lectured  on  psychology  at  Harvard. 
Although,  in  general/  he  adhered  to  the  evolution  theory,  he 
was  a  free  lance  in  thought.  Among  his  essays  may  be  men- 
tioned  The  Evolution  of  Sdf-Consciousness  and  two  articles 
published  In  1871  on  the  Genesis  of  Species.  Of  these,  the 
former  endeavours  to  explah)  the  most  elaborate  p^'chical 
activities  of  men  as  developments  of  den^entary  forms  of  con- 
scicus  processes  In  the  animal  kingdom  as  a^  whole;  the  latter 
is  a  defence  of  the  thcoiy  of  natural  selection  against  the 'attacks 
of  St  Geoige  Mivart,  and  a[^)cared  in  an  English  edition  on  the 
suggestion  of  Darwinu  From  1863  to  X870  he  was  secretary 
and  recorder  to  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
and  in  the  last  year  of  his  Vfe  he  lectured  on  mathematical 
phvslcs  at  Harvard. 

His  essays  were  collected  and  onbliahed  by  C.  E.  Norton  in  1877, 
and  bis  Letters  were  edited  and  privately  printed  at  Cambridge, 
Mass..  in  1878  by  James  Bradley  Thayer.- 

WRIGHT.  JOSEPH  (i734-i797).  Styled  Wright  of  Derby, 
English  subject,  landscape  and  portrait  painter,  was  bom  at 
Peri>y  ool  the  3rd  of  September  X734f  the  son  of  ^n.^ttoimey^ 
who  was  afterwards  town-clerk-.  I>eciding  to  beconie  a.  painter, 
he  went  to  London  in  175X  and  for  two  years  studied  under 
Thomas  Hudson,  the  master  of  Reynolds.  After  painting 
portmits  ka  a  while  at  Derby,  he  again  placed  himself  for  fifteen 
moaths  imder  ills  former  master.  He  then  settled  in  Derby, 
and  varied  his  work,  in  portraiture  by  the-  production  of  the 
subjects  seen  imder  artiiidat  light  with  which  bis  name  is  chiefiy 
associated,  and  by  kuidscape  painting..  He  married  hi  1773* 
and  in  the  end  of  that  yeafhe  visited  Italy^  where  he.  remained 
till  1775.  While  at  Naples  he  witnessed  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius, 
which  formsd  the  subject  of  m/t»y  of  his  subsequent  pictures. 
On  his  retuok  ikom  Italy  he.  established  himself  at  Bath  as  a 
portmit*painter;  but  meeting  with  llttk  enooungement  he 
returned  to  Dcsby,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  was 
a  frequent  contributor  to  the  exhibitions  of .  the  Society  <tf 
Artists*  and  to  those  of  the  Royal  Academy,  of  which  he  was 
elected  an  associate  in  1781  and  a  full  member  in  1784.  He, 
however,  declmed  the  latter  honour  oii  iccount  of  a  slight  which 
he  believed  that  he  had  received,  and  sev^ered  his  ofhda!  coo- 
nedon  with  the  Academy,  though  he  continued  to  contribute  to 
the  cadiibitlons  from  1783  tiU  x794«  He  died  at  Derby  on  the 
29th  U  Attgust  x79y.  Wright's  portraits  are  frequently  defective 
in  diawing,  and  without  quality  or  variety  of  handling,  while 
their  flesh  tints  are  often  hard.  He  is  seen  at  his  best  in  bb 
subjecu  of  arUfidal  light,  of  which-  the  "Oitexy  "  (1766),  the 
property  of  the  cotporation  of  Derby,  «nd  the  "  Air-pump  " 
(1768),  in  the  National  Galkry,  are  cxoellent  examples.  His 
"  Old  Man  and  Death/'  (1774)  is  also  a  Mriking  and  in<MvSdual 
production.  An  exhibition  of  Wri(tht*s  works  was  brought 
together  at  Deiby  In  1883,  and  twelve  of  his  pictures  weife  shown 
in  the  winter  exhibitjoa  of:  the  Royal  AoMlemy  in  ^^886. 

His  biography,  by  William  Bemroaet  was  publuhed  in  1885. 

WRIGHT,  nUS  (1795-1847)1  Aneritifii  poBtical .  leadfli^ 
was  bora  at  Amherst^  Mass.*  on  t>be  24th  of  May  1795.  Ho 
fiaduated  at  Middlebuiy  College,  Vermont,  in  x^Sr  v*^  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  iq  18x9,  and  began  practfoe  at  (^ton,  in 
northem.New  York.  Ho  was  appointed  suirogaCe  of  St  LkwreiKse 
county  ia  1820,  aad  was  suocessiydy  a  «iember  of  the  rtale 
Senate  In  1824-1826,  a  member  of  the  national  House  of  Repre* 
scataUveaia  18^9-1820,  oomptioilttr  ibl  Che  sUito in  i8si^i4is« 


WRIGHT,.  .T;— WRIT 


CS.  ■n»laTfai8jj-TB44,  nid'gCmnKirofNeirYmtIn  1I44- 
1S46.  Duiia^  hii  public  UTe  be  hid  become.  1  ladct  ol  Ihc 
DunKTMic  puty  is  Ne>  Y«^  UmUil  Vu  fiuri     '   '      ~ 

"  Albiiiy  RegmcT,"  «  jnrap  of  DeraocnU  In  New  Yott,  Indud- 
JDg  juch  mtn  u  J.  A.  Dii  and  W.  L.  Mircy,  who  for  mtuiy  yon 
vutually  ccDtnjied  thai  party  within  the  Hate.  WtigbCi 
Adcsnty  IB  office  vu  ilhutrKcd  Id  1814.;,  when  tha  "  anti-rent 
ttonbla  "  (see  Nfw  Yow)  broke  oil  and  it  iMioed  prol»bfc 
(hat  the  votes  ol  the  diuffecled  would  decide  the  cooling  election. 
The  Bovernoi  ailuil  ajid  obUioed  fiom  the  legiilaturc  the  powa 
U>  ■■IVJiuii  the  iliitnibuia  by  iimed  force,  and  put  an  end  te 
■That  wu  reiBy  an  injunwtlon.  When  the  national  Demo- 
cratic party  in  1844  noaiiiiited  and  elected  James  K.  P<a  to 
the  pnaidcncy,  inciead  of  Mutin  Vao  Buiac,  Wiight  and  the 
Mite  nsuuiktioB  look  tn  atlitiide  ol  ansed  neatnlity  tmidi 
ibe  ncv  admmiitRtiDn,  Renomfnated  foi  (ovemoT  hi  1S41}. 
Wright  WM  defeated,  jnd  the  rctull  was  *  ■"    "  ' 

put  to  the  alleged  bottility  af  the  Folk. 


«♦* 


the  17th  •(  Aaput  1S47. 

ly  la  ikK  by  J.  D.  Heiuml,  Lifi  w 


Sliu  »'rifU(3yniriwrN.Y..'iaja).  whkk  wu  iwpibEM  i*i3. 
Ui.  ol  thM  ■uthor'i  P<it*ial  Hiaarj  if  Nim  VwA. 

VKHBT.  THOUI  (itoQ-iSS*),  Btittah  palaebntologiit, 
■as  bora  at  Paisley  in  Rcnlrenhire  on.  the  gth  of  November 
1899.  He  atudied  ai  the  Royal  CoUiv  of  Siuieons  in  Dublio, 
Ud  qualified  a*  >  doctor  in  iSjt.  Ssoa  efieiwaida  be  tettled 
at  CheltMtatn,  and  gnduiltd  M.D.  a)  St  Ani 
He  devoted  kls  leisure  (o  geological  punuits,  bei 
neniber  of  the  CottenniUi  NiluialiUi'  Club  (loii 


graphs   ( 


the   Pilaeontographical   Sociely 


OoLllc  and  CletiUHHii  fotnutlionl  (i8js-iS£j);  he  also 
(1S78)  a  muaocntpb  on  the  Liat  amawnites  ol  like  Briiiah 
Islaadi,  oi  i«hich  the  test  pot  mi  issued  in  1885,  ifter 
death.  Be  wrote  nuiy  papers  in  Ihc  Am.  and  Mai.  !f''-  ^ 
and  PrK.  ColUswM  Club.  The  WoUaston  medal  was  awaii 
to  him  1^  the  Geological  Sodcty  of  London  in  1B78,  and  he  1 
(jected  F.K.S.  In  1879.  He  died  at  Oieltenbam  on  the  1 
o(Noveroberi884. 

WRIGHT.  THOMAS  (1810-1877).  En^idi  tnliquaiy,  wu  b 
neai  Ludlow,  m  ShnipahiM,  on  iIk  list  tt  AptS  i8ia    He  1 
descended  from  a  Quaker  family  fbnnerly  Kving  at  Bndlv 
YorksUro.    He  was  educated  at  the  old  grammar  school,  Ludii 
ud  at  Trinily  Cdlege,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  in  lE 
While  at  Cambridge  be  oonlributed  to  the  GeaScman'i  ISat" 
atid  other  periodicals,  and  in  183;  he  came  to  London  to  dev 
himself  to  a  literary  career.    Hit  Snt  Kparatc  work  was  Early 
EagliJi  Petlry  in  Black  Loitf,  wilh  Prijaca  and  Nalti  (iSj6, 
4  vols,  iimo),  which  was  loUovped  during  the  next  forty  years 
by  a  very  extensive  series  of  publications,  many  ol  lasting  value. 
He  helped  10  lound  Lhc  Briliih  Atchacological  Association  and 
the  Percy,  Camden  and  Shakespeare  societies.    In  1S42  he  was 
elected  corresponding  member  of  the  Acadfmie  dea  Inscriptions 
ct  Belles  Leltres  of  Paris,  and  was  s  fdlow  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries  as  well  as  member  of  many  other  learned  British 
knd  foKiign  bodies.    In  1S59  he  superintended  the  eicavatians 
of  the  Roman  dty  of  Uiiconium,  near  Shrewsbury.  o[  which 
lie  issued  a  description.     He  died  at  Chelsea  on  the  »jrd  (rf 
December  1877,  in  his  siity-seventh  year.     A  portiail  of  him 
ii  in  the  Dtawint  fiiwM  Parlrail  Callay  for  October  ist,  lEsq. 
He  wu  a  great  scholu.  but  wUl  be  clueBy  lonembered  u  an 
induatrions  anttqusiy  and  the  editor  of  many  relics  ol  the 
middle  ages. 

Kis  ctairf  publicalions  are — Qnun  ElitabtA  ani  itr  Tinirs,  a 
Sriiei  ol  Oriiiml  LelUri  (iSjS.  2  vdIi.);  Eilwuias  uliaiiiu  [1S3Q- 

— ' »  voli.>,(ail«d  with  Mr  1.0.Halli»dl.Ph;il!pps: 

>  Pi-mu  (1B4I,  4to,  Cainden  Sodeiyl;  PMual 
ilMied  by  Iht  Percy  Society  (l&tl):  Paftdai 
MO',  ^<W«ry  t/  iuiliim,  (1841,  Ai-:  seoln 
■■-  -i—--  "■-  Percy  Soriety):  Tin  vZm- 
,.  ._.  ..„,_,.  voU.!  iai*tt.,  i«SS)i  Bia- 
Anglo-Saxon  Period  (1S41).  vol.  u.  Aaglo- 


W.    MapL 

Bailatit  and  Ctrtia,  p 
TnaHtn  n  Sticna 


^aphia-liteiarA.  vi 


Eja 


WRieHT,  WIUJAH  ALBIS  (iBjfi-  ),  Entfidi  man  oi 
lettera,  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cimbtidge,  and  in  1888 
became  vice-master  of  the  college.  He  was  one  ol  the  editors 
ol  the  Jntnal  qJ  PkUoUgy  from  its  foundation  in  j366,  and  wai 
aecretuy  to  the  Old  Testament  revision  compiny  fiDm  1870  to 
18S5,  He  edited  the  ;^ys  a(  Shakespeare  puhlfshed  in  the 
"  CUrrndonPress"  series  (1868-1847).  alio  with  W.G.Clark  the 
"  Cambridge "  Shakespeare  (1863-1866;  md  ed.  iBtji-iS^j) 
aid  Ibe  "  Chibe  "  edition  <i864}.  He  published  (1899)  a  iu^- 
simile  of  the  Milton  MS.  b<  the  Trinhy  CoUete  libiuy,  and  edited 
Uiliou's  poems  niih  critical  notes  (1903],  He  was  the  mtlmate 
friend  and  litmiy  executor  of  Edward  FitzGerald,  whose 
LilUrs  and  liUrarj  Snnaim  be  ediUd  in  iSSg.  This  was 
followed  by  the  Ulloi  tf  BAairi  FiaiCraU  It  Fttmj  KimbU 
(189;),  his  Uiu^lasUj  <i«oo),  Mart  LtUers  1^  Edward  fiU- 
CcraU  (i«oi),  Tkt  Wtrki  rf  Ed»vd  FM^dd  (7  vols.,  190J). 
He  edited  the  metrical  cbmnidte^  Robert  of  Gkniccstor  (1887), 
Carryda  (1878)  tor  the  £at)y  English  Ten  Society,  and  other 

m,  ia  anatnny,  Ibi  cnpus  or  carpal  articulation  (n  itun, 
the  foint  by  whidi  tlat  hand  is  articulated  with  the  Ibfc-anB 
(sec  AHATOUVr  SnperficUU  ani  AnitHc;  and  Skeuioh:  Af- 
ptndkular).  The  word  means  by  origin  "  that  which  turns," 
'  ,  Eormed  from  the  0.  Eng.  vr^on,  to  twist. 
VT  (O.  Bng.  temril,  wrU,  from  wrtlaia,  to  write),  in  law,  a 
formal  order  from  the  crown  or  a  ddcgaied  eiecuiive  oSicec 
J  an  interior  eieculive  oBicet  otto  a  private  person,  enjoining 
ime  act  or  omlsatoa.'  The  nurd  rcptescnls  the  LaLin  brnii 
rime  (sometimes  Englished  into  "brief"  in  the  older  aulhori- 
es),  so  called,  according  10  Braclon  and  Flrla,  Irom  ila 
shortly  "  eipresang  the  intention  of  the  framer  (jiifo  bmilti 
'  paucis  serbis  inleniionem  frofrrcniis  opoait).* 

Ilie  irat  can  be  traced  back  ai  far  ai  Fiului  (about  n.o.  IM): 
ha  wniie  a  work  Ad  nJiiliiiM  it  hniiiu,  cited  in  ihe  Vatican 
ragmcm,  i  310.    In  the  Corpts  jnrii  the  ward  ijriMTaMy  mnsmi 

'  the  ground!  ol  J  judgment.  The  lUtriiicIiinol  Roman  law  nme- 
mes  tepreienis  the  wiii  ol  English  law;  (.1.  there  is  considerable 
keneia  berween  the  Romas  in&riiclnm  it  liitra  topiw  tikititit 
id  the  Ee(lidi  wriii  of  iaiaa  mrpta  and  it  litmlm  itpttriandii. 
.  rom  Roman  law  the  tm  pasted  into  the  LUtr  fttdtnm  and  the 
canon  bw,  in  both  in  a  lenie  dilTering  from  that  at  present  borne 
by  Ibe  writ  ol  Ei«!i>h  law.  The  iraiJislalam  at  the  LiMftadsnin 
—■ >  an  instnmenl  is  wriliag  made  on  the  land  at  the  time  of  gCving 
in  by  the  lord  to  the  tenant,  and  attested  by  the  seals  of  the  lord 


m  isemi  to  be  00  authentic  definition  of  writ.    That  of 

.  i."m  Hilled  (onnol  precept  applicable  to  the  purpose  ol 

canuidlinE  delendaala  to  answer  the  charge  alleged  by  plainufft 
li  mn.  ^lit  £•,.  La..  415)-  ...        ,, 

• '-  ■.  perhapufeubilul  whether  inUnlvi  is  here  used  in  in  ordinary 


848 

«««  put  of  the  iaauat,  aiHl  iiiKd  in  the  TodiaiBau 
■Vht  wttil  11  Ed«.  II.  M.  1. 1  *.  Th*  IriH  kiAHH 
dnnloptd  ills  the  IcoaBenl,  lutt  Iota  the  deed  ol  f 
hud  IBID  Iha  chana.ead  later  lute  lb*  diipg4iiiia. 
Inn  or  IhhIhhbii  dtfwted  >  Inter  fisin  tha  pope,  ■ 
MlofttHMednBudkafnelthuibuS:    I 


TbewrittgEn|liihUwililloc._..._       .... 
wbicb  OB  taacdy  he  undentood  wltbout  1  ikeuh  of  iti  hbtoty. 
n,  TTie  whole  theory  ol  phadinf  depeodi  in  tli*  lut 

upon  the  writ,  th«  pi«inliffi  daim  limply 


r  tmr  wu  U  Snt  (U(4  b  ■  fea  ttdaial  ttett  Ibtn  ihti 
tflenardi  uamtd:  Ihoi  la  the  Ltlo  Btwria  PrImI  ii 
Tain  a  letter  Irvm  the  Uiu.  and  In  the  Ania  ol  OanKWi 
ibrftiari  mesiu  to  be  npnered.  It  became  fvmliJn]  bj 
ol  Haay  II„  Had  p(«alent«  ir  -■- —  ■-  "' — -"    *" 


fcl... 

writ  pro^a  wat  at  that  dale  the  laundathm  oil 
^n^  court,  apd  ol  much  in  the  ' 
num  ol  revenue  to  the  eidieqii 

Kienti&c  ■chciM,  but  u  occ:^ , 

tMull  of  compromiH  in  the  alnwite  betiwen 
t^rdi'  GDurtL  Every  writ  had  to  be  purchaatd 
he  lECfankal  term).  Thb  niichaie  devekpd 
he  payuwdt  ctf  a  rnie  10  tlK  tajv  when  the  on 
40L  The  una]  acile  «■•  6>.  H.  lor  every  100 
^  ■     •  -    --'Biboltlieca 


by  Ma 
•fihe 


Magna  Carta  and  other  1 


milfrf^eiwwlniavoarof  Iheliben  A 

■  writ  Bad  take  the  due  {vocecdun  by  payuu  the  (roper  hue. 
:  eoata  of  a  writ  puKhaaed  were  BiM  (iiDwrd  lo  a  luoeiaful 
undanlby  IhicStaloteofCtoiiccner.  li;S.  The  counlniiart  of 
ine  writ  (cea«rilt>m)waaiiMialy  tied  In  nmrlwkh  Che  wutoitraiiMii, 
Thimih  the  Nontun  period  the  pmofative  ol  iKUng  wnti  Heiai 
tohawbeauadiiipatEd.  ClanwU'i  pncadcnti  did  a«  eihaiut  all 
poHlUi  lomu.  for  Ik  the  time  ol  BiactoD,  in  the  iiih  century.  It  wai 
aim  pMiible  to  liwiK  new  mlla  at  the  pleasure  of  ibr  crowa.  Tht 
PnM^m  ol  Odord  ia  lajS  pM  an  end  to  this  by  nacliac  thai  the 

vWch  Ih«  waa  no  pnctdaaO  by  the  win  oi  the  jdv.  but  that  he 
•houlddoltbylhecauDCiL   In  liS] tbeSuluteol  Wettminrter the 

SKOnd  rtiit-'-"-'—' -' 

that  li,  In  ca 


sssrr'.jaia.iS' 

rd  in  the  chancery.    Thcte  ca- 
intheXciiifnoiifc                 rd 

by  Sir  Edward  CoVe  the  oldeH  book  in  the  c^mm                  Lrt 

inm  Ihe  poweir  given  by  ihc  Malule,  new  wnu  eould  1                 ed 

SUlUum   WaOiO..                    ire 

fclSirfJl.  and  ol  many  otServ    The  origiS^BnuWIi,                 ril 

i^Eii^sUr^^St^dS:^;^    " 

d  Ihe  right  ol  action                 rit 

«a>  not  lufficient  to  found  an  actio 

p.UiewritwaiHklti                 •). 

So  oKntial  waa  the  writ  ilmi  11 

•as  a  legal  asom  in                  « 

no  OH  euuld  Hie  at  kw  whbout 

5:,;e.*irht'^h"^sriS!-H'^^^rs.-,,ro<~Mif 

bridle,  l}67.  Jocbade  a  lord  to 

KXir  tml«^™or  for  anything  toucMng  Iheir  fted»ld..  withovt 

the  king',  writ.    By  3;  Edw.  III. 
aisencd  and  nsblished  ibal  non, 
«uEicslioii  made  Is  tlie  kini  or  h 

.  council  unlco  by  lament  dr 

pr^ntincni  in  dur  mannn  or  by  pTDCtu  made  by  writ  original  at 
&c  conimor,  law.     4J  Edw.  111.  c  3  (I3i9>  proviJrt  that  no  BU 

d»>uld  be  put  to  J>^>«er  withou 

r:,«^.'T?a^.'"^Tr 

™  and  mil  ocipnri  acrordint  to 

i«e  niiuIH  weiT  rrdled  anl  the 

i.KS;?."iT,rLir.'«" 

Cr.  I.  e.  10  (.MO.    Unilonnilv 
n.  VIII.  e.  >4  dsjA).  by  which  all 
ne  in  .  county  pabM  or  lih«ty. 

'  See  W.  A.  Bcwh,  Oh-kS  BrJtfj  (1896).    TTie  linei  In  Cowper". 

•■  Charity  ■;.1l^«™ch.bner 

it  vi<h>  noTV  new. 

UaKwhthadlbtcMUTDualiMoryNfty-  ttwa 
~*ial.  by  viruie  ol  4  Cea  II.  c.  t6,  vriu  wen  (rawd 

tt^\2n  naau by  wh^atajia aumber  aie iial 

i_ued  liw  the  sogiBua  law  lide  el  the  chanmy, 

l^im  Ihe  £ig'i  chuKEry,  it  didaot  DHnBrilT 
Id  the  quBllae  hi  the  tuf't  eouM,  !■  wharnr 
mahk,  1  chIUiI  ■■  the  aid  d  Ihi  Asiff  aa  amne 
itba-  addnand  to  him  or,  i<  addnaaed  lo  the  nily 
default,  il  concluded  with  a  Ihmt  ol  amniaiut  by 
'  event  of  diiobedietiec,  genaully  In  Ihaae  (ernia.  IL 
Mwidi  N._  fiuiia  H  *mfiiut  cinitnm  «•*»  frt 


(rbeltmlb 

iwt  to  the  county  court  by  writ  el  Wl  (w  cuin 
red,  Mit,  iIk  cuk),  fnifs  tlie  latter  to  the  kini'i 
I  pau  {lO  tailed  Innn  ita  ftm  word).  By  M^na 
'  ol  bringing  a  iulc  in  Ihe  kini'i  court  lo  the  faa 

laltlE  in  Sa  Unji'*  eouA  wLne  Ibe  Kiiawt  hrM  ol  Ihe 
wbBB  the  kadhad  aa  eornt  or  abandraiBl  hw  richt. 

e  ting'a  court. 
Qieiriar  the  trial  of  iSiputei,  *il»  addicard  to 

aolving  a  parlianKnt,  the  laic  by  meant  of  the  rvdy 

mni  diviiHna  of  writa  (eachidinc  thaae  pw^ 
ilkal),  the  Boat  latportaac  bAna  that  into  ori^aal 
ionaer  (tetted  ia  the  nane  of  the  Idiwf  witd  u 
re  the  proper  cwrt.  the  laltcr  (w^d  S  ttcniiae 

her  optionalTu.  gWinf  an  option  of  di^ag  a  ctrtaiB 

5  cauio  why  it  wu  aot  dooe.  **^T'*g  with  ite 
lied  rwldaf,  tlie  priacipal  eaaDE4e  Gala|  mt  writ  ca 
|t  in  a  (onmon  lecosTry  (ice  FiKB)  wtn  baaed,  a 
calling  on  a  petion  to  do  a  certain  act,  tninoiat 
(.l.jHwtlOKcnnHi,   Or^nal wet* (laoSlcr * 

6  by  Bracloa  ftrmaUt  or  aiacIaiaKs,  tha  ioraiT 
irB  and  depending  oa  pnctdent,  the  tatter  Ihora 
laslen  in  chancery  under  the  powcea  ol  the  Statute 
beSecood,  Th^  were  alas (ilWgeneid  or  qKcU. 
g  forth  the  groimda  of  the  demand  whh  gietW 
iB  the  hroir.  In  regard  to  laal  euate  they  mill* 
aMieniaL  By  sCeo.  ILc  ay  (>7}3]>peculwntt 
1  cauiei  ol  action  amounting  to  (lo  or  upwarda 
1  diviiion  of  writ*  into  wrllt  of  right  (ex  drHs  }** 


rratlnffontiof  writ  Itua  the  hutorical  point  of  view 

ind  wa«  Ihe  rniedy  lor  abialning  JuKicc  for  ouiler 
n  (4  the  freehold.  By  il  prapmy  ai  well  ••  pcaKt- 
owred.  It  generally  ay  in  the  klng'e  court,  aa  bat 
rtue.ol  a  lictithHia  ■llcgalioii.  In  that  taic  it  wit 
'  iherifl  and  WH  called  a  writ  ol  right  cloK.  Viba 
I  lord  and  tried  b  Ua  court,  ft  waa  gmcfslly  a  writ 

I  counted,  thai  ia  rtaJTriarainitlhrtimanlin — '- 
but  in  laore  prcdae  terrni,  the  writ  heina  aa  it  weic 
Ik  luluie  count.  The  trial  waa  oriBinalty  by  bank 
inlhereignof  Henry  II.anaTlemaiiveaTidoplkHial 
ilroduced,  iiilptmiug  u  Ihe  eariieat  enmple  of  Tht 
aamhlu  Uke  the  jury  (f.>.)  few  the  laCfidilaanbU. 
uiiiia  Airadii  w»  direcud  to  the  iherill  comnaad- 
I  lour  kni^H  o(  Ihe  count  y  and  vicinage  10  Ihetouit. 
welve  other  knighti  of  tlic  vicinage  to  iry  upon  calk 
ntained  ia  the  writ  c4  right  (tediniiwly  called  the 
de  of  trial  waa  known  ai  trial  by  the  grand  aMUt. 
ud.  nf  tk.  liiiten  knighli  wen  fwom,  ttHugb  twelve 
.    The  lax  eccaiion  of  trial  by  the  gr 


The  brief  proclaimed  il  viiiti  Every  pew. 
But  hnt  (he  iquiEe'i— a  comrih—irt  bat  dat. 
le  by  F;  W.  Maitlaad  in  3  Hanvd  Lam  ItK^ITI 


WRIT  849 

<    ■cUon.fcrtBtciNMMabdlVHvJakaDMBid  UdHRHtocTIi* 

,    HnK  lictkkiiia  pall  (In  *ppHnd  on  the  lid*  d<  Itis  pluBtifl  u  bk 

'""""'      ""w  due  praamition  of  fail  u  ' 

zu  a<  Min'ibMch  wni  andic 


„_    ..    briU(iBi,sEdw.l.c.4I( 

of  riihi  i>  ilB  StBoXnt  *•  bdnt  tha  butaof  de  1 
By  tk(  Sunt!  si  Mwkia  (nrt)  BO  Hliu  ceaU  b 
dtmndut  bKfc«ntheIlni>a<Hcary  IL  Dvji 
tiiDC-ubad«tlli*R%>illUetaudL,br3llW 

(ptdil  wms.  ■.(.  the  writ  at  i^ht  by  IbBcuHMii  nl 

B-,  H^ubWuBiidiibntMiuMiMila,  tl 

.faihMli>.M^«tHi|far  diiniiinty  MMrfthi 

'ri(  !■  ihc  utun  o(,*  njt  «f i^jbt,  t^lwwrign,  brauEht 

-1.  bnufht  by  the  tonl 

' — .rjrif 


■t  U«  by  bri^aal  wrk,  ukd  wri 
<]f  icdDa.  ud  la  b  uaed  In  ok 
^^-^  •«<  »  —  i;radiMlly  ahcnd  by  l^ialatiou 
s  by  tlia  iatraddetjaa  of  ficthkna  procMdipgi  io  th« 
cDuRat  by  which  the  ianie  c4  tht  odiiiial  vrit  vaa 
-<zpt  In  R^  ■aiam,  vliich  wtn  ol  onMiMncly  nf 
■The  orinaal  nit  ia  no  loictr  io  nii  b  cMl  pneeian, 
uiH.-ini  uprtBrtowinallciJBacQnlBKiioedbytheTnUiJaiMnaBa^ 
I  iudiidil  writ,  a  pncedHni  &M  bOwlUBd  ui  113a  by  1  WOL  IV. 
c  39.  In  the  [irikiwiac  nv  «ii  iamaiua  aaabcr  o(  tha  aid  wriia 
■u  aboliitaEd  by  tbe  R*tl  PrvpcRy  UnllatlaB  Act  l8u.  An 
sceptkin  wu  made  in  bvnUJjf  the  writ  tl  ijihl  ct  dower,  vrit  of 
dower  a>^  miiii  kaUt,  0Hira  imfiadH  and  ^ectDait,  and  of  tht 
^linu  foe  frobonch  sad  dower  In  the  natina  ol  writa  of  ri^. 
EiectaieBt  m*  iwaJtUid  by  tha  Conaoa  Law  Aocadun  Act 
i8J>:  the  otbET  nit*  wd  plalnii  nmaiaad  ip  n  tba  ConunDa 
Uw  Procedun  Act  I860,  by  whkh  ihoy  «*  abDhihad.  Other 
wiita  which  hava  bem  mueaedad  by  aliniileT  jrocccdjan  Bncruiy 
by  Dfdlury  Bctio)li,anaciaeof  the  four  anuoiil  novd  diiasMa, 
im  tOam,  ruil  ^amaaitirnai  iarniti  prmmlmml,  caonincy. 
(MrHnbanl  and  waMe.  fala  jadimniit,  aunBiBU  ^ilTHl;  nuliaace, 

n.r«l>ir,n      ^.otmmmirM.    nu    mrroMa.    tan    jOCtai,  IHi/aWa    and 


n,  MMMtrr, 


9p  Cfpfcially  those  coRDb 

*""'■■"  "taiSMSbS,  but  ■  few  ol  iboK  of  lion  ipedariBticcic 
™™  whith  havo  bBoioe  obmlKe  may  be  Aonly  aealloned. 
"**■  ililiiHiHiinifu  lay  italcst  penona  aauipini  aiora  than 
thrir  ihaie  of  prapcrty.  It  waa  ehhet  dotusr^udiraf.  tbalalMr, 
like  the  Scottiu  eauiainf  and  louniiK, "  bang  the  itncdy  for 
aoichane  of  omiDHi,  for  which  alao  naa  ^arwUai  lay*  Ali4t  and 
ftariti  writ!  wen  ioued  when  a  prevDoa  wik  kid  beta  diKibeyed. 
Aptilala  topitmdo  wu  the  node  of  appnhemion  ol  a  monk  wbo 
had  broken  fnmluB  clever.  JofitHA  went  tttUiaiht^lOM^ 
tta  pany  or  aaoffiar  of  chanuay  togaio  poeieaiionof  land.  AamiU 
hy  to  inquire  by  a  jury  <i  twenty-four  whether  a  jury  <i  twelve 
bad  liven  a  faliE  verdict.  DrauIssliinalKilayaialnKajuttirwha 
had  aix^pled  a  bribe.  K>  called  benuKhe  had  id  icfund  ten  tiaie* 
the  1001  received.  Audita  jutrtla  warn  a  meana  of  relieving  a  At' 
fendast  by  a  matto  of  diKhaiie  oocurripg  alter  Indgnienl.  Attic 
having  been  lanr  pncikally  npmcded  by  May  of  eiecution  it  waa 
finally  aboUibed  by  die  nifca  made  B»k(  the  Judlatiin  Act  1871. 
Btimpliadtr  lay  to  pnhlUl  the  lakinc  o(  a  fine  ^  paJcrt  MBnlWH&, 
ktbiddisnbytlieSHIiiteofhbribridBdiUl.'  Capiat,  laOal  and 
ftumtma  are  intercating  aa  ahowing  the  •annnUaary  nuai  ol 
hiziiiioiB  aUe^ilm  la  the  old  pnoednn  of  the  eanmiBilaw  couita 
before  iSyt.    By  capiat  ai  ntpamittdmm  fiiUDWed  by  aliat  ~~ 

^ariei  the  onurl  <d  caramon  pleaa  waa  eaabkd  to  take '- 

of  an  action  wiihoul  the  actual  uaue  of  an  oriDnal  writ. . — 

waa  a  judicial  writ  iaaued  to  fallow  an  otf^nal  writ  ol  tic^iaia  fina 
lianniM  trrpl.    The  Isue  et  the  origiBal  writ  and  after  a  tine  tha 

with  the  iiie  of  anwhet  writ  called  tapiat  ttiUlnm.  On  return  ol 
the  writ  tbe  plabitiS  elected  to  proaeed  with  a  cauae  tl  action  other 
than  tieapBH,  and  the  cea!  merita  of  tbe  caae  were  evoDtuaUy  reached 
■-  Ihla  tonaaui  maaaer.  Alter  being  aetved  with  the  uHm  tbs 
fenif—  —  ' J  ■ ■  ■ -^^ "^  •-='  ■•-  '— — 


ai  by  that  of  Henry  I. 


iwtfhi 


.laUvwiBtthebil]elMiMlan,itMlihila(atiBa 

■aaenly  a  tdka.  alMrd  that  the  dafculut  waa  hi  kkllnt  (Woi 
MM  Jtim.  rftff  mawinliig  a  lreatiaaa«ila  elaMwfrnll.  lot  which 
ha  waa  ia  tha  eaaudy  al  tka  Uitf  a  niaiAal  la  tht  HanfialiH  priian. 
Tha  real  cmH  oj  actieB  waatfea  Bated  la  what  mi  ailed  tbe  a« 

" -^ -■  -a— fani  alkaed  that  the  PlaUtlff  waa  tha 

aghtbadefeadant-ailcbiiHhcwBiaiHUl 

the  debt.   Ot  maHtm  admiUmtia  waa  a  earioilty.    h 
ihoptoadnlfaaarnBWialtatiJptiaoa  taabeotattoa 
erf  hw  nviaa  aacurlty  to  ehey  the  conuMnde  <d  the 
cBunB.    iMuii  or  Jwatf  lay  far  the  Tedna  ol  anydring  dona 
dnwIfiiUy  [athcuiaiaelaaotlier.  biRwaacapedally  BMdtonvoM 


fan^tOxX  waa  a  node  ol  obMiaiv  Boaey  for  tha  aown  by  tbt 

oeniiB  d  the  pntogative  el  foniat  every  an*  who  Md  ■  kaUit'a 
(ec  undo  the  cnjwn  to  be  kdgbiairer  to  ai*  a  Ine.  Tk*  aarliget 
eatant  writ  waa  aaool  hi  I>7t-  h  waiabo&W  in  i&tibyt«Car. 
I.  c:  XL  au>7  waa  a  potaiHonr  noHdv  ac^nit  ana  aHeead  10  hoU 
lead  ralawlMlV-  it  waa  divkled  laM  rtute  bhW  of  kiad^ 
and  wu  tlie  au^ect  <d  aoch  rf  the  oU  real  ptopcny  learalat.  The 

■Sori^tbc 
iTwhenwi 


hrirboatheec^^l .. 

la  neaniag  to  adloBf  oaa  etf  the  I 

waa  riven  by  G  Bdv. 
riw  lot  an — ' 


nuct  jwiftH  w»  far  mWog  tha  dacMaa  of  an  laferi 

Hairpin  fimhnr^in  waa  liauail  on  catilicata  el  eoavictlon  lor 
hereay  by  the  eti  Itiaailiial  tsatt.  A  caee  ol  bomlDi  two  Atiana 
under  thli  writ  accnrred  aa  btdy  a*  the  lewn  of  Janea  I.  It  waa 
abolidied  by  M  Car.  IL  c  9.   komiwt  nfStiaJo.  maiiifrim  and 

ttlrHtia torina  O  nuJo)  wen  all  ancieiic  ■wani  -* =~  -■■- 

Bberty  a(^■allbje(X.)aa|^lBpe^edBd  by  the  nun 


and  the  Statute  ol 


9ix.k>afaBpenedBd  by  the  more  eaectrre  ■»>• 
rpiit.   The  laM  el  the  thn*  entcaned  the  aheiifl 

1  commltial  00  logician  of  aiuidcr  wu  00  jait 

nUhcaendill^rilL   It  waa  refiitated  by  Migaa  Carta 

the  Second,  bat,  han^  ban 

tu/vma  D>  CDV  aavanagn  ot  aaeni^  it  wu  abofabtd  in  I355  Iw 
iSEdw.  III.C9.  ItwupoadUyaasarthcmBaa— iikatiwwi* 
oinbt— by  whichthetrialbybattleandtheappialalfifcnyiea  '  ' 
to  become  obaolate.  Leprm  ooMnAi  eqdainalnelf.  ilixit 
ailwrlurrfig  wu  tha  meana  of  reviewing  aa  eiceaalve  ataereea 
el  aa  ialerinr  court,  ciiieciaUy  after  an  amercement  had  tended  ta 
become  a  fixed  wia  el  Iwehv  pence.  Wlienlu  waa  given  by  the 
Statute  of  WeacannalB  the  Samd,  II  Edw.  I.  c  30.  lla  phca 
la  BOW  taken  by  the  commMoB  of  aio  primt.  Oratit  pn  rrjt  at 
npu.  before  the  ntont  Book  ol  Coranon  Piayer,  enJolBed  public 
pcayct*  for  the  kllh  court  of  patfianent.  iValKton  wu  lAvta  for 
eaabliag  a  man  tolx  cnni  of  snita  brought  agalHt  him  whue  ahum 
beyond  aeaa.  It  wu  dealt  with  by  •  lane  number  of  cU  atatBten 
but  aone  hu  been  iiaued  riace  1691.  Qium  ntcU  vdn  In  ailaai 
Bwtheoldreniedyoflheleueeforevklnahytheleaaar.  JtcMUm 
wu  a  BMana  of  enforcing  otiedience  to  tbe  proceaa  of  the  court  el 
diaaceTT.  la  modem  ^racedure  attachment  takea  ha  fidace.  Jttfr 
imantmt  CDeamandcd  ludgia  ol  a  court  not  to  proceed  ia  a  cau 
which  might  pcejodice  the  king  uncfl  hia  pleaaure  alkould  be  kaewn. 
JbfMa  wu  ■  aurrival  ol  tbe  moat  aii±ue  law.  The  procedure 
oraniited  of  wilt  oa  writ  to  an  alBioa  nalinutBd  otent.  Itorigia- 
al^bepnbytb(inafaiA7nplniawnflitlr»'/anw.    The 

WDtolnHfdanJhflubniriiin.  IfthetfianiaaTdalinadBintieTtr 
b  dM  |oo(b  diitiidned,  the  qwatioa  ol  property  or  ao  otopaVf  waa 
deienaioed  by  a  wrk  it  fnfriiMi  frsioB^  and.  iF  decided  b 
bvDur  of  the.  diattainar,  the  dlatiam  wu  10  be  returned  ta  him  by 
writ  it  ntttma  kahtda.  U  the  prnda  wen  reauved  or  eoaceaJciL 
a  writ  ol  namuar  <afl^  ta  vlUmiam  enabled  the  ifceiifl,  aket  due 
i«ue  «f  aUat  and  Warfa  write,  10  take  a  aecoad  dlnrcaa  io  placa 
of  the  one  lanovA  It  la  aald  thai  the  quaetion  whether  noda 
uk«  b.  ^kiwrn.  GouM  bo  lepleviad  wu  tha  only  one  wbididH 
1  fouad  hliaaitf  unaUe  to  unar.  JbiUMfpu 
lay  for  reatoriag  a  man  to  a  eanctuary  from 
,  wmittfully  taketL    Sitia  ky  for  enCoKing  th* 


mlH.  M^ 

alter  (he  Ungkad  had  hfa 
ii  curioualy  hIl 


n  rouihI  at  the  bid^e 

allawed  detivery  ol  landa  of  a  leloa  to  tbe  kmJ 

it  lay  where 
ilendwithai 


!r  of  laymen  aod  kept  out  the  other  by  f* 
a  appUcalion  lor  the  biueot  (he  writ  waa  an 
d  the  Bermuda  ItUoda,  but  n^ueed  on  tl 


Ului^^ 


8so  WI 

■lit  BuabKlMKUd  tkM  tte  niM  idW  co«U  bi  obuldcd  b)r 
iajuiKiion.    Oa  apinl  tliia  r(iibi1  «m  laiMimd  by  tka  piivy 

_^^ .,_  (■  I  iImimI  am.  Tb^  ue  to  b*  IwnidB  wnd  mu 
g'~         a(  tba  «tiri  bBci  of  (Ik  aupnnie  couct.  er  the  affect 

Ofice  Ad  ll77  tka  niB  inal  n^  or  ikg  «fa  piivy  val  may  be 
uwiol  u  wnii  imnJ  oCilie  unpnwon  ri  ihc  imt  or  privr  ibL 
Tke  iuifcU>riM  H>clw^-  if  "M  atiirly,  rmm  thF  ccmnl  ofia. 
wilh  wluch  tba  old  cnwa  otfce  ww  incnrpcniH]  by  ibe  JudnlHn 
(Ofliccn)  Act  lS7<>.  Tk*  own  iHfin  kid  dui(c  ni  viiu  aranuiini 
fa  cfowQ  pracdM,  wdi  M  tf»  ■afrnafff  and  artigrtri. 

In  kxal  dvU  («iiU,  aikn  dun  ixniaiy  coiim.  wrili  ui  lUuEUy 
iNiad  oat  of  tbeoffiaatibanEiiUu.  ut  usARrs^Hiiiiluiuiii- 
di^ia.    By  tlw  Boravak  •nd  Lcul  Csutu  sf  Rxcofd  Ad  iS7>, 

Hwniwd  or  •calad  h  oI  come  by  ibe  cctlKni  of  ■  county  tsun, 
(Bd  sKcutal  •■  i[  they  had  iaucd  fn>n  tbe  camty  own.  In  county 
court  pnctlcc  the  vunnl  cocropoBdi  ■comlly  to  the  vtft  of  tbo 
wpfOH  court.  Mom  oi  Ihc  pnNiit  hv  oa  the  ublKt  of  writa  i> 
CHUiaad  in  tba  Robxd  ibc^ufinne  Court.  lUi,  Ord.  ilii.-iiliv., 
and  In  the  Cronn  Ottce  Ruica  looc  Both  icta  d  nlca  amtaio 
■■■KrauipRcednitaiathtirKbediiha.  By  Ord.  S.  r.  S  of  tba  nilia 
of  IBS3  ^  nili  («ilhcsnaIneiBO|ilioiia)  are  to  be  IcBad  in  the  nanH 
ol  thetotd  cbaBctUnyer,  If  Ibal  office  be  vacant,  la  tbe  name  of  the 
hud  chief  jiMica.  The  main  enpliona  are  tboae  which  ocoifnf 
oown  inctice,  which  ut  leued  by,  the  lord  chMiiiailce.  The  wnt 

■Hie  of  moft  wno  a  firamft^vt  authorily  to  the  fvofier  officor  u 
MIR  [he  writ,  ia  iKnaeiv.  Thii  ii  sf  coune  not  to  be  confounilnl 
wiib  ibc  old  origiiul  writ  o(  prampi.    Wrln  aBecIltig  bnd  nniB 


lUH.  acinfaeiaa  ud  miipa  are  trcaied  luaraiely.  Writa  air  Ecne^ 
ally,  anlcai  where  the  anliary  b  Hated,  addremd  to  the  >lieriff. 
dtaloaHU  cc  unamM  arnnmit  enjolni  tba  raooval  of  a  nulunca 
wance  of  a  iudgaieai  to  that  eflcct.  Ai  faad  da— inw  I>  (or 
rpoae  of  hsquinng  wliether  a  propoied  crvwq  fnuit  will  be  to 
mate  of  the  crown  or  olbeti.  If  the  inquiry  b(  dctenulmd  in 
of  tbe  lubject.  a  leaaoBaUe  fine  !•  pnyabli  la  ibg  exdiequn' 
Edw.  I.  H.  3  (iip9)-  Altachmcnl  ia  inaed  ai  a  mam  of 
the  dignity  of  the  ci        '  •■        ■' ' 


be  tnuel     Co^ioi:  the  c 


«  CoHTiiirt  or  CouBT). 
a  iadge  aTler 


tupuu  cd  ioUifacinditm  mn 


court.     In  gena 
d»  for  defoit. 


SIhe  pn 
SntBlt 

aadbwwa 

IStutiad 


queni  use.  by  which  the  pro- 
it  up  for  review  by  tit  fii(h 


nmary  Juritdictt 


Lie  hai  Iwn  Mated  bj 

lefendant  (snieit  at  I 
payment  of  the  uatm 


•d  of  Dtber  procndingi  Ijy  ihc  Cmvn 
non-repa^  of  h  hiRhway,     Dif- 


id  laaoiranwd 


S&C, 


UntiS  haa 
orMnaDy  01 

and  all  ma  % , 

JiKhmeala  Act  1838,  the  dttU 
of  the  ianda,  aaid  cqpyholdi  a* 
tey  Arc  1U3.  an  aMtnoloiiger 


*m  of  outkwry  now  eiiitinE  anl) 
inda  oft  ievecal  ttatulee,  camnimcini 
tloned  In  (he  Siatiiic  of  ProrlKn 
It.  0.  BMnil  b  Ibe  writ  of  eaecutioii 
'11  debt  of  record.    The  «1f  <><  i:hati 


tlie  iaBi»  iatanM  and  coolB  onBapwiaal  pnosty  of  the  fant. 
— tt  tbaabrrig  hai  w  aoM  thet"^,  l-*--!^*-"!— t. 
apdhimtodoeo.   Wbse  tbe  party  fa 

" n'/aciudf  teawantofai- 

■  bialnp).   Thalalts-wr 


ing  one  who  mm  an  e^tabla  dabc  of  fan  or  man  lion  qiilnini 
the  Idi^d^cii,  and  n  wichdiavfai  bwadl  tm  the  juiiidictiiia  « 
the  coun  without  givinc  Hcwtliy  for  tba  debt.    It  ia  cnially  ibohI 

ha*inf  been  aopeneded  l>]F  procccdian  under  the  Debton  Act  iai«. 
Nou  raiffrtr  la  for  eiecutinfl  PTOccaaby  the  ilvrffl  in  a  Ehtrty  v 
franchiaa,  adietw  the  proper  omcar  baa  DtflKtod  to  do  wk   It  [cned 

SaaHy  chiefly  apoa  the  Slatatc  of  WeiDiiiiuiK  the  Second,  cM. 
la  nowRgalated  br  the  SheiiSi  Act  1U7,  which  irinls  ihi 

nf  tend  to  tba  party  entllled  Aeteto  aader  a  judfiDMic  lor  act 

paiteiilon.    It  Bib  tba  place  of  the  aU  writ  of  mwla b 

admlrBtty.  where  the  jaapmtat  b  for  poaaeatjon  of  a  lUp.  the  vril 
ia  addrmid  to  the  nardiaL  Pnudntt  b  the  convctae  of  praU* 
tloo.  It  diracu  the  lower  coort  to  proceed  wllh'tha  oaM.  Itaho 
lie*  to  mtoTc  the  autborfty  of  BoramlMioom  au^mdad  hy  Mw- 
udani.  BtMiOlom  mtona  prawty,  ather  lad  or  paaonal,  aits 
[be  right  to  it  haaboajwfeiaEyilcclarad.  Tin  it  li_  on  bdal 
of  the  owner  of  nal  profHty  uwkr  tba  atatms  of  (ordUi  eDUT 
and  of  tba  owikcr  of  pcfwnai  pipperty  nder  the  Larcaay  Act  Ml- 
Sitniftatii,  once  •  writ,  appcwnwnc*  17  Geo.  lli.e.  tay  tabe  nody 
anotioe.    It  iianrtnf  thtptoaaaiwitoMapetBnBdbobtylnf  Ai 

hama  aipUnia  iuues  for  hia  acmt,  On  Ut  aubaequent  obediraR 
orntiafactlon.  a  writ  d!  iMnraau  h  aianted.  Pncadania  of  thai 
aril*  are  given  in  the  act  named.  SlUpotUQ  ia  the  ordlaaiy  tntan 
<>>  lamrinv  tho  Dmenre  al  a  witneii  In  (ourl,  and  ia  addntwil  le 
•K  la  reqtured.  It  ia  10  calbd  from  iti 
I  thli  yon  are  not  to  omit  andn  ibi 
mt^Dnu  may  be  dtbet  ad  uu^iaMitm. 


(be  peiaon  wboee  atteni 
containing  the  aronta  " 
penalty  off  too,"  Sa.    1 


rlrtlandMconpeltbcaitend. 

hjili  cinin.    It  laaddrrndte 


ler  eFnersHy  or  apecially  ' 
ledaim  made.  Tiie  Lilt 
of  deb       ■■ 


epite  oi  appeannct — ,  -  ,^ 

he  ought  to  Da  allowed  (o  defend.   Mo  statement  of  daim  4a  l 

in  case  of  a  specialhjndoned  writ,  the  lodoraenKfjl  being:  dHtnc 
betbenaieniRit.  Thewrit luybeiHiiMlogtiidhacanmilaBii 


JefeiXnl 


iHing  him  (a  lind 
ilirfy  a  f  adge  Ihtl 


M  of  die  hh;h  court  bi 


lubatilatcd  ativln  ia  aDmcd. 
3sa.  »K<i  aa  nctnna  <o  Rxow  bnd  and  adnilial7 

■iMveof  ihecmitiorajodga.  Kodcaolihelajiieii' 
rhe  writ  itielf,  a  lerved  on  a  defendant  who  ii  •e'lM' 
I  noT  In  Biilish  domlniDna.  Thn  bw  b  containnl  ■• 
IE  Snptcme  Coon,  eipetially  orden  U.-xi.  and  ht. 
^mandi  the  «tiy  of  procee<fingt  on  another  writ.  It 
d  wilh  pracedtuda,  libeRonanirMinin'orpnihibiiHa 


:onrt.    It  19  alio  uied  for  [f  motfinc  from  the  commliBiao  c 
ind  fcr  patdng  srl  md  fa  the  aatllOf4ty  of  any  pKaotw  a 


ooh^  IfBtBt  «p<»  tbs  PHtT  tonpoL   Vain  tbi 


WRITERS  TO  -RHE  SIGNET  Sjl 

IB  (TBwawrlu  ania  btln  Ac  EofliA  kagut^c  udintvxl 
c  rcKiitcr  ot  crown  wriu.  Writa  am!  noi  be  tulcd  iinlns  at 
nsuncc  dT  the  party  aeaiiui  xhain  Ihcy  ore  iKUed.    Wrili  of 

nrleoFTinit)  vm  abcdubcd  by  the  ConvcyindBf  Act  1A74. 


9F  [voceediiia  w 


:a,     Parliamtfit  li  aummonrd  bv 
ry  hy  advice  of  Ibe  privy  counciL 

~~ eanry  bctwta  ibc  writ  Bod  tb^ 

t  o£  1853  rrducvd  to  thitty-fivc  dayi 


ic  of  Lordi  in  tbc  lunw  of  a  barony  of  hu 
cnibaj  ot  the  Houk  o( 


.bt  nxikct'a  sue 

ts  ih>  dtf k  fJ  tk  cnm  in  cbucny  lor  Cmt  Bniala.  - 

Jerk  of  the  crown  and  hanapcr  of  Irdano,   A  atfaudtu  10  a 

*ni  haaionKtimet  beeo  ordered  where  Ibc  writ  wai  improvldentW 
Bsucd.  lie  time  allowed  to  cbpK  brtwten  the  receipt  of  tbe  vnl 
andlhcelecckinitliiRd  by  the  Ballot  Acl  lS7a.H:hcd.  I.atniifcdayg 
for  a  couDty  ov  a  lEttrict  bonuiht  (oar  daytf  for  ajiy  ocbar  borouBD, 
The  writ  ii  tt>  1>c  Rturacd  by  tbe  Rtuming  officer  10  Ibe  ckric  of  the 
crowa  with  the  name  of  tbe  mcmbei  elected  •ndoned  on  tbe  writ. 
Sched.  3  gives  a  lona  of  the  nit.  which  la  teated.  Hlie  Ibe  writ 
of  ETPor,  ^  tlie  liiiv  Uoadl'.  the  retuririai  oScer  la  tbe  •herilf 
in  coontfea  and  couitiei  of  cido.  (caenlly  tie  mayor  in  dlkea  and 
bonmaha,  and  the  vioc-chaDceUor  la  univeriitiea.  Other  writa  kr 
eltction  BR  thow  lor  «>nvocalion,  which  ii  by  >s  Ken.  VIEI.  c.  19 
summoned  by  the  archbiahop  of  tbe  province  00  receipt  of  the  kin^'b 

c^in-officcm 

■■resiwi' 

.    „  :o  writi  are  dealt  with  hy  the  Criml 

CD[ivi;idation  Acta  of  IS61  and  olhct  ilatuteg.  The  id 
penalty  ia  aeven  yean'  penal  «rvitikic. 

iiMfcuwI.— "WrifiTa  uore  nteiwve  ten.  than  b  1 


oldp<« 
/fr(£™ 


'in  tK'kln". 


in  EoRUnd,  and  ma 


.    Most  proceeding 


in  nrpreienled  by  tb 


S3ff 

the  ihorilTe  lost  much  of  that  judicial  power  which  they  had  enioyn 
(a  a  gnater  oleM  Ibso  Ibe  Engliih  ihcriff  (an  Shibift;.'  Ai 
E.n%\nh  writ  of  eaeetftHM  ia  repMnied  is  SoMbnd  by  dtUgena 
Sicily  tq>  neana  li  wananti  to  meneiiEenat-aniu  undn  Ibi 
authority  of  tignel  kllen  in  the  name  ol  tHi  king.  See  the  Wiiii 
feiecution  Act  1S68.  The  brieve,  however,  ha.  not  wholly  di* 
■ppearcd.  BtievM  of  tuloiy,  terce  tnd  division  nmont  hcrr-por 
■roners  an  Hill  competeM  but  not  in  uw.  Olbir  kindi  of  hnevr 
have  been  Hipenedtd  byaimplerixocedDn,  i.f.  the  brieve  ol  aRvici 


10  the  ilieriff  under  the  Title,  to  Land  I 
Iht  brieve  ol  jierambulalion  by  a  declan 

pDrianfC'    The  ^  brievea  of  furioaiiy  , 


"..by  a  I 


en  ngmin€  have  been  the  aubject  of  much  modem  leeidation.  The 
writs  of  Oipigi,  haheai,  arliffrtri  and  eiterrt  urere  related  by  other 
proceedingt  by  the  Ejechequer  Court  Act  1856.  The  wrrta  of  ttart 
taislct,  reaigoalioaand  oonfinnvion  (whether  (ranted  by  the  crowa 
pr  a  aubject  Miptrior)  were  regulaled  by  the  act  of  ia«L    By  tbe 

'  An  eiample  occturlnc  in  the  leicn  of  Jamn  VI.  will  be  (bund  in 
Pitcaim.  c™iml  Trialt.  i  116. 

'  Enpianalloni  of  many  of  the  older  wi 
Cteili  R^nei  Sloine'i  Di  terhi 
in  Spaii.wood,  SliU  0]  ft----  '- 


:i  are  by  Acl  of 


)  the  Enoluh  la 
■'  error  have  hot.. 
n  and  by  the  el 


S'S.iS 

md  of  H  ensJ  have  Been  aboIIAed.  \  . 
iiave  been  coinlly  anpeneded.  but  in 
nfy  on  diueiM  iaatill  a  mode  or  trying  1 


lb  Wrili 
:.    The  writ  dI 


iurisdiclion 


law  of  wme  etateg,  *.r.  New  Jeriey.  writs  of  elcctk 
•apply  casualty  occurmn  vlcanclea  in  the  let^ilatui 

Before  the  War  of  Indcpendenca  it  ma  iiauod  to 
to  search  premises  for  amuEgled  ^ooda.  It  was  on 
was  Grsi  cDni€]nd«J  in  rToi  that  a  colonial  court  1 
to  examine  (he  conatftimonallty  of  ■  lenislatfve  act  ......,.« .....^  .», 

Issue  of  the  writ.   See  Qalocy's  JfoiMtfaurffi  Rip.  AppL,  I.  ^aa 

AUTKOaiTfBS- — TbeuBportaaccaftbewfjt  in  procedure  led  to  tlie 
cflmpilatjon  of  s  great  body  of  law  avd  pecedent  at  an  early  date. 
In  addition  10  the  Retfanim  inriam  there  were,  amons  oiher  old 
worlu.  the  Ntlwa  Inriwm,  5nl  puMidied  In  ijij;  Thehnll.  Lt 
Diteit  ia  kritjet  erituoJa  {1570);  Fitaberbert.  It  Notad  JVotva 
(rsHin  (nm:  HuaLes.  Onpiul  Wriu  (i6«);  ThULMna  Wtrium 
(1661)!  I^ownlow.  Bnna  hiiilialia  (l6£2):  qffio'aa  brceium 
{1670}.  See  too  Coke  upon  Dltkton.  158,  159,  i  Cole's  Inil.  39: 
■ndDB  Cange,'   Many  preeedenn  wQl  be  [oond  in  the  collection  tt 


I  Cange.'  Many  precede 
jHiiMuienlary  writs  and  In  St 
3mce  Rulea,  1906,  contain  ma 


S-S'Viii  ^"« 


bnd.ifiil.  ii(_En(. 

aidinary  Latin. 

VHITBtU  T 
agents  coTiesp 
originally  clerk 


i'sS^B^J-vS 


Jury,  Stnihen; 
ocb  and  bait. 


THE  UeHBT.  il 


pnecepti,  9k.,  from  the  a 


oming  the  ligset;  every  summona  it 
B^  hy  a  writer  to  the  slfinet.  hy  the 
lallon  (Scotland)  Act  iS6g,  they  have 
if  preparug  all  crown  writs,  charttn. 
cff  the  pzfnceol  Scotland.  They 
coipontlon  by  long 


coitom;  they  have  ofhct-barcn  and  are  □ 
Colle^  of  Justice.  On  the  Act  of  Union  there  was  much  debate 
aa  la  whether  wnten  10  the  umet  ahould  be  eligible  lo  the 
Scottish  bench.  It  wa*  finally  decided  that  they  should  be 
eligible  afien  tan  years'  practice.  But,  with  the  eic^km  tf 
Hamilton  of  Penaitland  In  iii>,  no  writer  lo  iha  signet  tu 

■A  itrrrciTce  to  Du  Caage  will  show  the  (real  variety  of  the 
rent,  an  amulei.  a  notice  ol  the  death  of  a  oxink.  Bmsfviii  s^nUied 


85^ 


WRITING 


WRinifO  (the  ytuhtH  noun  ot  **  to  write/*  O.  Eng.  wrikm,  to 
inscribe),  the  use  of  letteis,  symbols  or  other  conventional 
characters,  for  the  recording  by  visible  means  of  significant 
sounds;  more  specifically,  the  art  of  tracing  by  hand  these 
symbols  on  paper  or  other  material,  by  pen  and  ink,  pencil, 
stylus  or  other  such  means,  as  opposed  to  mechanical  methods 
such  as  printing.  The  principal  features  in  the  devel<^>ment 
of  writing  in  its  primary  sense  are  dealt  with  in  separate  articles 
(see  Alphabet,  Palaeogkaphy,  iNScsiPtioNS,  Booit,  Mamv- 
SCRIPT,  Shorthand,  &c.).  Here  it  is  only  necessary  briefly  to 
refer  to  the  origins  of  a  system  which  has  eventually  followed 
the  history  of  the  various  languages  and  has  been  stereotyped 
by  the  progress  of  typography  (9.V.).  Veryeariy  in  the  history 
of  mankind  three  needs  become  pressing.  These  are  (a)  to  recall 
at  a  particular  time  something  that  has  to  be  done;  (b)  to  com- 
municate with  some  other  t>erson  who  .is  not  present,  nor  for  the 
moment  easily  accessible;  (c)  to  assert  rights  over  tools,  cattle, 
&c.,  by  a  distinctive  mark,  or  by  a  similar  mark  to  distinguish 
one's  own  production  {e.g.  a  i^>edal  make  of  pottery)  from  that  of 
others.  The  last-^uuned  use,  out  of  which  in  time  develops 
every  kind  of  trade-mark,  is  itsdf  a  development  of  the  earlier 
property  ntark.  The  right  to  property  must  be  established 
before  traffic,  whether  by  way  of  barter  or  of  sale,  is  possible. 

Every  one  is  familiar  with  devices  to  achieve  the  first  of 
these  aims;  one  of  the  commonest  is  to  tie  a  knot  in  a  hand- 
kerchief. It  is  obvious  that  by  multiplying  the 
number  of  knots  a  number  of  points  equal  to  the 
number  of  knots  might  in  this  way  be  referred  to, 
thongh  it  is  probable  that  the  untrained  memory  would  fail  to 
recall  the  meaning  attached  to  more  than  a  vezy  limited  number 
of  knots.  The  simplest  application  of  these  knots  is  in  keeping 
a  record  of  a  number  of  days,  as  in  the  story  related  by  Herodotiis 
(iv.  98),  to  the  effect  that  Darius,  <m  crossing  the  Ister  in  his 
Scythian  expedition,  left  with  the  Greeks  appointed  to  guard 
the  bridge  a  thong  with  a  number  of  knots  equal  to  the  number 
of  days  that  their  watch  over  the  bridge  was  to  be  continued. 
One  knot  was  to  be  undone  each  day,  and  if  the  king  had  not 
returned  by  the  time  that  all  the  knots  wete  undone,  the  Greeks 
were  to  break  down  the  bridge  and  go  away.  A  development  of 
this  is  found  in  the  Peruvian  quipus,  which  consists  of  a  number 
of  thongs  or  cords  hanging  from  a  top-band  or  cross-bar.-  In 
its  simplified  form,  knots  are  merely  tied  upon  the  individual 
cords.  In  its  more  elaborate  forms  the  cords  are  of  different 
colours,  and  are  knotted  together  sO  as  to  Uma  open  loops  of 
various  shapes.  In  the  Antiguedades  Peruanas,^  we  are  told 
that  the  knots  of  the  quipus  in  all  probability  indicated  only 
numbers  originally,  but  that  as  time  went  on  the  skill  of  the 
makers  became  so  great  that  lustorical  events,  laws  and  edicts 
could  thus  be  communicated.  In  evoy  place  of  any  importance 
there  was  an  official  whose  business  it  was  to  interpret  quipus 
received  from  a  distance,  and  to  make  quipus  Umself.  If, 
however,  the  quipus  which  was  received  came  from  a  distant 
province,  it  was  not  intelligible  without  an  oral  explanation. 
Unfortunately,  the  art  of  interpretation  of  quipus  is  lost,  so 
that  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  how  tax  the  knots  were  mady 
a  mnemonic  for  the  messenger,  and  how  far  they  were  intelligible 
without  explanation  to  a  stranger.  Similar  mnemonics  are  said 
to  have  been  used  in  the  remotest  antiquity  amongst  the  Chinese, 
the  Tibetans,  and  other  peoples  of  the  Old  World.* 

Similar  in  character  to  iht quipus  is  the  mess«ge-stick,  which 
is  still  in  use  amongst  the  natives  of  Australia.  A  brarnrh  of  a 
„  tree  is  taken  and  notches  made  upon  it^    These  are 

gOdSf^  ^^^  c^^  ^^^  *  knife;  in  earlier  times  they  were  made 
with  the  edge  of  a  mussel  sheU.  The  notches  are  made 
in  the  presence  of  the  messenger,  who  receives  his  instructions 
while  they  are  being  made.  The  notches  are  thus  merely  aids 
to  memory,  and  not  self*cxplanatory,  though  if  messages  fre- 
quently passed  between  two  persons,  practice  would  in  time 
help  the  person  to  whom  the  message  was  sent  to  guess  at  the 

>  Piloted  by  Middcndorf,  Das  Runa  Simi  oder  die  Keshua  Sproehs 
*  C?7(i»dree.'fiUiiM^ucA«  ParaUdtu  mud  Vtrgfeidft,  L  p.  iS^tqq.  | 


meaning,  even  without  a  verbal  esplanatfoik.  The  IdBoniag 
was  the  method  of  the  Wotjoballuk  of  the  Wimmera  river  ia 
Victoria.*  "  The  messenger  carried  the  message-stick  in  a  od 
bag,  and  on  arriving  at  the  camp  to  which  he  was  sent,  lie  handed 
it  to  the  headman  at  some  place  apart  from  the  othen,  sajrhig  to 
him,  '  So-aixd-80  sent  yon  this,'  and  he  then  gives  his  message, 
referring  as  he  does  so  to  the  notches  on  the  DAeasage-stid; 
and  if  Us  message  requires  it,  also  enumerates  the  days  or  stages, 
as  the  case  may  be/'  by  a  method  of  counting  <m  different  pam 
of  the  body. 

For  the  purposes  of  communication  with  absent  persooi, 
however,  another  method  commended  itself,  which  in  time  tm 
adopted  also  for  mnemonic  purposes.  This  method 
was  the  begging  whence  some  forms  at  least  of  later 
writing  have  been  derived.  From  the  very  earliest 
times  to  which  the  energy  of  man  caa  be  traced,  date  tm 
kinds  of  writing:  (a)  engraving  of  a  visible  object  on  sooie 
hard  substance,  such  as  the  flat  surface  of  a  bone;  (b)  drawing 
painting  or  engraving  marks  which  could  again  be  idenlified 
Of  the  first  kind  are  the  engravings  of  reindeer,  buffaloes  and 
other  animals  by  the  cave  men  of  prehistoric  tiroes;  of  the  second 
are  a  large  number  of  pebbles  discovered  by  M.  Ed.  Piette  at 
Mas  d'Azil,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Aii^e,  an  account  of  whid 
was  published  by  the  discoverer  in  V Anikropologi^  (1896)1 
viL  384  sqq.  This  layer  of  coloured  pebbles  is  intercalated 
between  the  last  layer  of  the  Reindeer  Age  and  the  first  of  the 
Neolithic  period.  The  layer  is  over  2  ft.  thick,  of  a  reddish-blad 
cdour,  and  along  with  the  pebbles  are  found  dndecs,  peroxide 
of  iron,  teeth  of  deer  perforated,  probaUy  in  order  to  be  straflj 
Uke  boids,  harpoons  of  various  kinds,  and  the  bones  of  a  laije 
number  of  animals,,  some  wheat,  and,  in  the.  upper  part  of  the 
layer,  nuts,  cherry-stones  and  plums.  The  stones  were  coloured 
with  peroxide  of  iron.  The  characters  are  of  two  kinds:  (a) 
a  series  of  strokes  which  possibly  indicate  numbers,  {b)  graphk 
symbols.  The  stones  were  scattered  about  without  connerioe 
or  relation  one  with  another.  Whatever  the  meaning  may  be. 
it  is  clear  that  the  markings  are  not  accidental.  It  is  notjceaUe, 
however,  that  none  of  them  definitely  represent  any  animal, 
though  some  of  thetn  bear  a  certain  resemblance  to  catetpillas 
or  serpents.  Others  look  like  rough  attempts  to  represent  trees 
and  river  plants.  A  great  number  closely  resemble  symbob 
of  the  alphabet.  Piette  himself  was  inclined  to  see  in  the  s3nnbob 
the  forerunners  of  the  later  syllabaries  and  alphabets  of  the  East, 
nine  of  them  agreeing  with  forms  in  the  Cypriot  syllabary  (see 
below)  and  eleven  with  those  of  the  Phoenician  alphabet.  A 
certain  amount  of  likeness,  however,  could  not  well  be  avoided, 
for  as  soon  as  the  artist  advances  beyond  the  single  perpcndicolar 
or  horizontal  line  he  must,  by  crossing  two  lines,  get  foraa 
which  resemble  alphabetical  symbols.  It  might  be  therefore 
a  safer  conclusion  to  suppose  that  if  they  passed  beyond  magic 
symbols,  to  be  buried  Hke  the  Australian  churinga,  they  were 
conventional  marks  understood  by  the  members  of  the  clan  or 
tribe  which  frequented  the  caves  of  Mas  d'AziL  It  has  been 
suggested  that,  like  similar  things  among  the  American  IndisoSi 
they  may  have  been  used  in  playing  games  or  gambling. 

A  very  large  number  of  conventional  marks,  however,  are 
demonstrably  reductions  from  still  older  forms,  conventiooai 
marks  often  developing  out  of  pictographs.  Hcto- 
graphy  has,  in  fact,  left  its  traces  in  all  parts  of  the 
world.  It  has,  however,  been  most  widely  developed 
in  the  New  World  as  a  system  lasting  down  to  modrm 
times.  The  American  Indians,  besides  picture-writing,  used  also 
(i)  the  simple  mnemonic  of  a  notched  slick  to  record  varioin 
incidents,  such  as  the  number  of  days  spent  on  an  expcdiiien. 
the  number  of  enemies  slain  and  the  like;  (a)  wampum  bcItSt 
consisting  of  strung  beads,  which  could  be  utilized  as  a  mnexnopic> 
exactly  like  a  rosary.  Wampum  4>elts,  however,  were  employed 
in  more  intricate  forms;  white  beads  indicated  peace,  purple  or 
violet  meant  war.  Sometimes  a  pattern  was  made  in  the  belt 
with  beads  of  a  different  colour,  as  in  the  belt  presented  to 

« A.  W.  Howitt  in  Jownai  of  iht  Antkrepological  lustUuH,  yvi& 
(1889),  p.  318  sqq. 


WRITING 


«S3 


WaHam  Pem  <n  tbe  msking  of  «  treaty  withtlieLcai-Leiiape 
dttdb  in  1683.  Here,  in  tbe  centre  of  the  belt,  two  figures,  in> 
leaded  to  represent  Penn  and  an  Indian,  join  hands,  thus  d^uly 
indicating  a  treaty.  Very  aimpie  pictures  are  drawn  upon  birch 
bark*  indicating  by  their  order  tfab  subjects  in  a  series  of  sod|^ 
chants  with  sufficient  precision  to  enable  the  singer  to  recall  the 
theme  of  each  in  hia  recitation.  An  aooount  can  be  kept  of  soles 
or  ptirrJiBsra  by  representing  in  perpendicular  atrokes  the  atumber 
of  items,  and  adding  at  the  end  of  each  series  a  picture  cf  the 
inaznal  or  object  to  which  the  particular  series  refers.  Thus 
three  strokes  followed  by  the  picture  of  a  deer  indicate  that  the 
hunter  has  brought  three  deer  for  sale.  A  conventional  symbol 
(a  circle  with  a  line  across  it)  is  used  to  indicate  a  dollar,  a  cross 
tepreaents  ten  cents,  and  an  upri^  stroke  one  cent,  so  that  the 
price  can  be  quite  cAeariy  set  forth.  This  practice  is  followed  in 
many  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  clay  tablets  discovered  by 
Dr  Arthur  Evans  during  his  exploration  of  the  great  palace  at 
KnosBOs,  in  Crete,  a  somewhat  similar,  method  of  enumetatlon  is 
foUowed;  while  at  Athens  conventional  symbols  were  used  to 
dbtinguish  dnachmae  and  obob  upon  the  revenue  fecovds»  of 
which  considerable  fragments  are  stiH  preserved. 

In  comparatively  recent  times,  according  to  CtAanA  Mallety 

(lolh  Annual  Rfport  of  Amenean  Bureau  of  Ethmohgy),  the 

Dakota  Indians  invented  a  chnmotogkal  table,  or  winter  count, 

whexein  each  year  h  recorded  by  a  picture  of  some  important 

event  which  befeA  during  that  year.    In  these  pictures  a  con* 

iidecable  amofunt  of  symbolism  was  necessary.  A  black  upright 

stroke  indicatos  that  a  Dakota  Indian  was  killed,  a  fou^  outUne 

of  the  head  and  body  spotted  with  blotches  indicates  dat  in  the 

year  thus  indicated  the  tr3>e  suffered  from  smallpox.    Some^' 

times,  in  referring  to  person,  the  symbol  ia  of  the  feature  of  a 

rebus.    Thus,  Red  Coat ,  an  Indian  diief ,  was  kitted  in  the  winter 

of  tSoy'-tSoS;  this  fact  is  recorded  by  a  picture  of  a  red  coat 

with  two  arrows  piercing  it  and  bkiod  dripping.    There  is, 

however,  nothing  <k  the  nature  of  a  play  upon  words  hitendcd, 

and  even  when  General  Manyadier  is  represented  as  a  figure  in 

European  dress,  with  the  heads  of  two  deer  behind  his  head  and 

connected  with  his  mouth,  no  rebus  Was  intended  (many  n deer), 

but  the  Indians  supposed  that  his  name  leally  meant  this,  like 

their  omn  names  Big  Crow,  Little  Beaver,  and  so  forth.    Here 

the  Mexicans  proceeded  a  stage  further,  as  in  the  often  quoted 

case  of  th«  name  of  Ita-cootl,  litenilly  knife-snake,  whkh  is 

ordinarily  represented  by  a  reptile  (cootf)  with  a  number  of 

knives  (itt)  projecting  from  its  back.    It  i$,  however,  also  found 

cfivided    into    three    words,    itz-co-att—knife-pot-water— and 

repres^ted  by  a  different  picture  accordms^y.    The  Mexicans, 

moreover,  to  indicate  that  the  picture  was  a  proper  name,  drew 

the  upper  part  of  the  human  figure  betow  the  symbol,  and  joined 

them  hy  a  line,  a  practice  adopted  also  amongst  their  northern 

neighbours  when,  as  in  names  like  Little-Ring,  the  representation 

would  hardly  be  sufiidently  definite.    Simple  abstract  notions 

could  also  be  expressed  in  this  picture-writing.    Starvation  or 

famine  was  graphically  represented  by  a  human  figure  with  the 

ribs  showing  ptominently.    A  noose  amongst  the  ^tnatxm  ^ras 

the  symbol  for  robbery,  though  more  logically  b^ongtng  to  Its 

punishment.    In  a  Califomian  rock-painting  reproduced  by 

Mallery  (p.  638),  sorrow  is  i^presented  by  a  figure  from  whose 

eyes  drop  tears.    This  could  be  abbreviated  to  an  eye  with  tears 

falling   from  It,  a  form  recorded  by  Schoolcraft  as  existing 

amongst  the  Ojibwa  Indians.  The  symbol  Is  so  obvioua  that  it 

is  found  with  the  same  value  among  Egyptian  hierogl3fphics. 

The  civilization  of  the  American  Indians  was  nowhere  very 
high,  and  for  their  simple  needs  this  system,  without  further 
development,  sufficed.  It  was  different  in  the  more  elabonrte 
civilizations  wfiich  prevailed  among  the  ancient  peoples  of  the 
Old  World,  to  whom  wfth  certainty  the  development  of  writing 
from  pictography  can  be  ascribed— the  Aisyrians  (fede  CtTNEl'' 
form),  Egyptians  (see  Egypt)  and  Chraese  (sM  CniNa).  Here 
more  complex  notions  had  to  be  expressed.  Tlie  developmemi 
of  the  system  can  be  traced  through  many  centuries,  and, 
OS  might  be  expected,  this  development  shows  a  tendency 
to  cooventlonaliae  the  pictorial  QrmiMb  enplsyvd.    Out  of 


conventkmalized  forms  develop  (a)  syUabaries,  {h)  alphabets. 
As  regards  the  latter  the  historical  evohition  is  traced  in  the 
article.  Alpbabet.  The  aooount  given  under  Chima  (itmg^aii) 
gives  a  good  idea  of  tbe  development  of  A  syllabary  frompkto- 
graphic  writing. 

The  Egyptian  system  of  writing  Is  perhaps  4he  eldest  Of  known 
scripts,  and  was  carried  on  till  the  Ptolemaic  period,  when  tbe  mom 
a>Qvenient  Greek  alphabet  led  to  it»  gradual  disuse.  .^  „ 
But,  as  in  Chinese,  the  fact  that  it  was  so  long  in  use  led  ^""■^ 
to  the  conventionaliring  of  the  pictures,  and  in  many  cases  to  a 
complete  divorcement  between  the  symbol  and  the  sound  repre> 
aentod,  the  original  word  having  often  become  obsolete*  lo  thb 
case  it  is  00  longer  possible  to  trace  it.  AttempU  have  been  made  to 
connect  tbe  three  great  pictographic  systems  of  the  Old  Worid, 
some  authorities  holding  that  the  Chinese  migrated  eastwards  from 
Babylonia,  while  others  contend  that  the  civilisation  of  Egypt 
spmng  originally  from  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates,  and  that  t& 
ancieat  Egyotiaiis  were  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Somali  and  were 
overlaid  and  permeated  by  a  Semitic  conquest  and  civilization. 
But  there  is  no  clear  evidence  that  tbe  Egyptian  system  of  writing 
was  not  a  development  in  the  Nile  Valley  ttself ,  or  that  it  was  eitlMr 
the  descendant  or  the  pereat  of  the  pictographic  system  which 
devek^ied  into  the  cuaeiiorm  of  Assyria  and  oeighboufing  lands. 

Egyptian  started  from  the  same  pdnt  as  every  other  pictographic 
syatem^'the  representation  of  the  object  or  the  concrete  exponsion 
el  the  idea.  But,  like  the  Chinese,  it  took  the  further  st^  short  of 
which  the  American  Indian  ptctesraphs  stopped;  it  convefted  its 
pictures  into  a  syllabary  from  which  there  was  an  impericct  devebi> 
saent  towards  an  alphabet.  Egyptian,  however,  never  became 
alphabetic  in  the  sense  in  which  the  wettlciu  languages  of  modem 
Europe  are  alphabetic.  This  is  attributed  to  the  natural  oonaerva- 
tism  of  the  pe<q)le,  and  the  influence  of  the  ardst  scribes,  who,  as 
Mr  F.  Li.  GriAth  has  pointed  out.  '*  fully  appreciated  the  effect  of 
decorative  writing;  to  luve  Hauted  their  choice  of  sinw  by  alphobotic 
signs  would  hav«  constituted  a  serious  loss  to  that  nighly  important 
body. "  The  effect  of  this  kwe  for  decoration,  combined  with  a 
desire  for  mecision,  is  shown  by  the  lepetitioa  sevenl  rimes  over  in 
the  symbols  of  the  sounds  contained  in  a  word.  The  development 
of  Egyptian  was  exactly  paraliel  to  Chinese.  A  combioatioa  of 
sounds,  wbkh  was  criginatfy  the  name  of  an  objoct.  was  represented 
by  the  picture  of  that  afeject.  This  picture  again,  like  Chmeae.  and 
like  the  Indian  name  *'  Little*Ring.''  r«9airedat  the  end  a  determin- 
ative—a  psctare  of  the  kind  of  c^jeot  mrended— in  order  to  avoid 
ambiguity.  $»  the  afahabct  repreaented  only  oonsonatts  and  sem^ 
consonants,  and  the  Egyptian  roots  consisted  mostly  of  oidy  thanee 
letters,  the  parandism  with  Chinese  is  remarkably  dose. 

The  cuneiform  script  spread  to  other  peojrfe  who  spoke  tongues  in 
no  way  aUn  to  those  of  either  its  inventon,  the  Sumcriaoa,  or  their 
GonqUecors,  the  Semitic  Babylonioais.  A  widespread  mmw*. 
series  of  inscriptions,  found  in  mOiiy  parts  of  Asm  and  nmaei 
even  in  tiie  Aegean,  vdiich  are  generally  described  as  Hittite  (9.*.) 
are  written  in  a  script  of  pictonaphic  origin,  though  probably 
indeftendent  of  Bcdiylonian  in  its  development. 

It  b  noseworthy  that  at  a  very  early  period  a  colony  of  Greeks 
from  the  Peloponnese,  speaking  a  dialect  closely  akin  to  the  Arcadian 
dialect  (which  is  known  to  us  only  from  a  much  later  ^  ^ 
period),  had  settled  in  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Alone  •'»•••'■*• 
among  the  Greeks  this  colony  did  not  write  m  an  alphabet,  but  nnder 
some  Asiatic  influence  adopted  a  syllabary.  Even  when  the  island 
came  again  closely  in  touch  with  their  Greek  idnsfolk,  after  the 
Persian  wars,  the  Greek  inhabitants  continued  to  write  in  their 
syllabarv.  In  the  recent  excavations  made  by  the  authorities  of  the 
British  Museum  an  inscription  of  the  4th  century  bx.  was  dis* 
covered,  whereon  a  dedication  to  Demeter  and  Persephone  was  riven 
first  in  Greek  letters  and  repeated  below  in  tbe  syllabary,  the  Creek 
(as  universally  at  so  late  a  period)  reading  from  left  to  right,  the 
syllabary  from  right  ro  left.  This  syllabary  has  five  vowel  symbols, 
bat  it  could  not  distiagirfsh  between  loi^  and  short  vowels.  In  its 
consonant  system  it  n  uaaUe  to  distinguish  between  breathed, 
voioed  and  aspirated  stops,  thus  having  but  one  symbol  to  reprcsem 
rs,  S*  and  9t.  It  is.  of  course,  unable  to  represent  a  final  consonant, 
but  this  b  achieved  by  using  the  symbol  for  a  syllable  ending  In  e 
oonvuntionally  for  tiie  final  coosonam.  Thus  £a»je  stands  forcAi^ 
the  Cyprian  equivafent  of  xol.  "  and. "  There  are  symbob  (or.  fti, 
for  is,  tor  H,  for  Is.  for  te,  though  none  for  i,  and  simuarly  for  most 
of  the  other  consonants.  There  b,  however,  no  symbol  for  w  i^v)\ 
ya,  yt,  yi  occur,  but  no  yo  or  yn.  Aiipc^rpt  b  expressed  by  ta-ma-ti^, 
where  H  stands  for  I  alone;  ra-ta-sa-to^re  stands-  or  UrmMAwStM 
(genitive).  Here  it  b  t»  be  observed  (i)  that  w  preceding  aniMher 
oonsonant  b  omitted  altogether,  the  vowel  being  probably  nasalired 
as  in  French ;  (2)  that,  as  in  the  previous  word,  there  is  a  sort  of 
vowel  euphony  wher«iy  the  unnecessary  vowel  accompanying  f 
takes  the  colour  of  the  succeeding  voweL  In  other  cases,  however, 
it  follows  the  preceding  vowel,  as  in  <»'fi'«i-lo-^a*f»>«-a*rMS*<S'f^ 

For  literature  on  the  history  of  writing,  see  the  bibliographies  to 
the  articles  Alphabbt.  Ac.,  and  under  tne  headings  of  the  various 
languages  and  peoples. 


-854 


WROTHAM— WUHU 


.  WROTHAM.  u  ortxui  dtericl  io  the  Ue 
divaioD  oi  Km,  Eoglud,  lo  bl  W.  by  N.  oi  MMdiune,  on 
Uh  Swnli-Eutcm  t  ChUhun  nilnjr.  Fop.  (i9«)  3SI1.  Tbc 
dmicli  of  St  CaoiBB,  Euly  EsglUi  ud  lUs,  aHiUinl  nuiuBDUl 
bnuiai  ind  ncu  it  ti  ihe  lite  ol  ■  palace  of  tbe  uchbiiliopa 
of  Cameibuiy,  DuintuiKl  until  tbg  time  ol  Aitbbiabop  SimoD 
Uip  (c  13JC).  S.W.  ol  Wrstbaa  js  Ihe  villas  o<  Ightham, 
is  wlUcli  19  a  fine  quadifuigular  miuled  muwr-house,  Ihe  Mote, 
in  part  of  Ihe  141!  cenluiy,  but  «ilh  portioni  of  Tudor  dalei. 

WRT¥ECK  (Ccr.  WaiM^.  Dulch  draciialidti,  Fr.  Inrcal}, 
■  bkd  10  called  fnxn  it5  way  of  Triihing  its  bead  and  neck, 
e^iecuiliy  when  captored  on  its  nest  in  a  hoUow  tree.  The/yiii' 
lirquUlt)  is  a  regular  siunmcr  visitant  lo  most  parts  of  Europe, 
jcneiaUy  aiiiviog  a  few  days  before  tbo  cuckoo,  and  i>  koowa 


ed  "  snake-biid,"  DOI  only  rrora  Ihe  u 
moiiont  JUK  mcniioBcd,  but  from  tbe  violent  hissing  1 
it  aeckS'Ut  r^id  an  imiudci  from  its  bote,* 

The  oiiiiiiMalHiUs  Mc  of  the  wrraeck  ie  nerety  a  n 
■hat  may  b*  lyUafalcd  {w.  fm.  fH,  naur  tim  ia  1 
npidly  unoni  ai  fine,  but  (lUDBUy  ilawiac  aod  ia  a  < 
falling  hey.  This  ji  only  bcvd  dyrinc  a  iew  whIgb.  awl  I 
-'  "'—  '-'—\Mttay  in  Europe  it  SHna  to  be 


iriecu.  eapec^tty  OB  aila.   ItislaixerthaDa  varnn*, 
flit  am ewly  dncribad,  beini baautifulhr  nrttnud 
'    '  ''«  la^  pcnduoea  by  Diliurtt 

' — ind-'-eht  darker  ma"*'''" 

^«kk.,««.k.«. 

[nomeuaiT,  lo  aa  10 
t  a  wdvdspck  (tfj;)- 


induecd  u  fo  oa  layini  by  abniaetliii: 
thus  iip<iaidic4  forty  Ean' ■•' —  ' 


iMwcWr  (ft.)  ar 

lavs  ita  tAniuDeedt  vhJl«  «a« 

and  it  ia  one  af  the  few  wSTl 

"■  ' —  '""  ens  day  alter  day,  and 

..^  ■  oi^  hole-bat  Iha 

-   Aa reprdtBtitala, tbe Imd 

S.E..  it!  noinben  dtciwinc  npidly  tonrda 
in  ComwaH  and  Waieaaitfbqoad  CliMur* 


aid  Yorhsblf*  Hi. 

•cddaat  {■  Sootluid  and  Ireland. 

Soma  writan  have  been  iDdiaed  to  recofniie 
■he  ttma  Iy*i:  but  the  scKallcd  /.  japnhc 
diitinniihabi*  fmm  I.  MrjnUa:  while  thai  de 
ninaEe  in  Ihe  Imlity  uignad  to  it,  1,  iwiita.  1 
Uemkal  with  the /.  Mitenluiif  S.  Aftia.  Nni 
cvUii.  disEDvend  by  &n]a  Padu  in  (he  E.  of  the 
>U^.  p.  »B,  pi.  iii).  Another  diniact  Ahira 
gtqyjaoriaiis,  aiipnally  dncribed  from  Abysku 
(an  Wocmrecaaa)  fum  a  Hjbfamily  lynf-inaa  1 


WHT-HECK  (Lat.  Torlkollii),  1  congeaital  or  acquired 
dcfarmiiy,  chatacleiiud  by  Ihe  aflected  side  ol  tbe  head  being 
dnon  downwards  lowatds  ihe  thouMer  togdhtr  with  deviation 
o(  the  face  lowards  Ihe  sound  side.  There  are  various  (orms. 
(1)  The  congenital,  due  to  a  lesion  of  Ihe  tlcmo.aiAstoid  muscle, 
either  the  rrault  of  a  malpositioB  in  dicto  or  due  to  the  rupture 
«f  the  musde  in  the  ddivery  of  (he  afterconunj  head  is  the  Wnh 
of  the  breech  pteseniaiion.  (i)  The  theunuitic,  due  10  eiposure 
to  a  draught  or  cold.  Thisia  commonly  known  as  "stiff-neck.'^ 
(3)  The  nervous  or  spasmodic,  the  lesdtt  of  (a)  direct  irritalioa 
of  tbe  spinal  arcessory  nerve  ot  its  tools,  or  (fr)  the  resull  of 
cerebral  irrflatlon,  In  this  form  then  is  generally  a  family 
hiHoiy  of  nervous  diuases,  ooulily  e[ulepsy.  This  spssm  is 
MK  of  a  group  of  nervous  spaanis  kaown  aa  "  tics,"  a  variety 


.    Thecl 


al  Ibem 


lie  ousdes  Involved,  the  most  usual  nmsde  being  the  stemo 
mastoid.  The  spasm  ceases  during  sleep.  Many  crises  arc  alsi 
due  10  hysteria  and  some  to  spinal  caries.    When  wry-neck  i 

form  of  appaistus.  FaiUng  this,  division  ot  the  muscle  surgicaU; 
•Frequently  miiapell.aabyLinnaeW  in  his  laterymrs.  Vun. 
>  Tha  peeuluriry  was  known  tft  AriOotle,  and  poMibly  led  10  th 

[Her  asFmdar  (Pyl*.  iv,  J14:  Wnii.  iv.  3J).  Thegcrilui  (iv.  17.  JO 
and  Xenwhan  [MrmvmhUia^  iii-  11.  T7.  1$).  In  one  pan  at  ii^s 
ft  CUiu  a  name.  Statr-list.  lianilyiot  "  Suke'i  mxk.''  is  (iven  d 
it  (/*«.  i*H.  p.  njj. 


nuy  be  pnoiied-  In  tbe  ipaBiuidIc  fanna,  aod-Montlc  tnat. 
meol  is  leooiiaiDetided,  tbe  use  of  the  bnmidcs,  valsiuais 
and  hellsdnnna,  and  faydrobnaiidc  d  iyaaau  injected  inu 
the  muscle*  ha*  been  found  ol  vabe.  T.  CralBgcr  Stcwan  te 
commends  in  persistent  tic  Ihe  trial  of  contimioua  ami  regnln 
movementa  in  iIr  aJIected  group  ti  oitKCle*  with  a  Tie*  B 
replacing  the  aboormal  movtmenta  by  nomal  atm.  In  aeTa 
cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  cul  down  on  and  SUCtcb  or  eid> 
tbe  Bpinai  acceawry  nerve,  la  rtKunatic  lonicnlll*  tltf  spaia 
i»  usually  ovensme  by  tho  *[-"-■' " — - 


SUCHAHQ,  the  capital  of  the  mmbmed  ptorimie*  of  Hn[k(t 
and  Hu-B*D.  China.  It  i*  one  «f  the  Ihica  citiea,  Wnchaot 
Hanyang  and  Hankow,  whidi  stand  togdber  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Han  river,  and  is  situated  on  Ihe  right  bank  o(  tbe  river 
Vaigtsae,  alsiaat  directly  opposite  the  foreign  settlement  ol 
Haiduiw,  It  is  the  teat  ol  the  pnvincial  gownncnt  of  the 
two  Hn  or  Hu-kwang,  a*  iheae  province*  ate  coUeciiveiy  tetiDed, 
to  Nanking  and  CsMoa, 

irsenal  and  a 
has  esUblidud  Ironworks  fo 

railway  matetlal.     As  the  .   _ 

managoneot,  they  were  fnuuferred  lo  iht  directot-genenl  el 
railwaya.  Wuchang  is  not  op«t  to  foroga  trade  and  Ksdnice, 
but  a  cansiderabia  number  oi  missionanes,  both  Roman  Cached 
and  ProEeslant,  live  within  the  waUa.  The  native  popukatiu 
ia  estimated  at  £oo,CDO,inchidingciIiaBoa  both  ixnka.  Wuchang 
is  an  important  junction  on  tbe  IDunk  railway  from  Pekinc  la 
Caotan;  and  is  on  the  mute  of  the  Sse-cli'uen  railway. 

VUGBOW.  a  treaty  port  in  the  proviace  ofKwang-ci,  Chini, 
opened  to  foreign  trade  In  1S9;,  and  situated  on  tbc  left  b«ak 
of  the  Si-kiang  <Wesi  river)  at  lis  junction  with  the  Fu  « 
Kwci-Kiang (Cassia)  rivet.  Itisiiatn.abovcCanlon,  wilhwhiA 
il  it  in  DBvi^Ie  conneidon  fat  vessels  dnwing  up  to  8  1(  of 
water.  In  190B  Ibe  value  ol  Ibe  trade  passmg  thiougji  the 
'       IXiilAiOOO,  tepreseaOjix,  bow- 


ever,  only  a  poiliau  ot  the  tradie,  01  Ihia  lo 
tor  impcats,  oaaHSiing  prindpatly  of  cc 
kerosene  oil,  wooUens,  tic.  Sugar,  various  oils,  hides  an 
were  the  cliicf  eiporl*.  Tbe  native  populaiiai 
6;,aoa.  At  Shuihing  the  tivtr  flows  for  ]  m.  thnugh  a  dnp 
gorge  bordered  by  limestone  cli0s  looo  ft.  in  height.  Fanher 
vp  the  river  threads  its  way  through  a  series  of  rocky  dehles, 
forming  at  intervals  what  seems  an  inland  lake  with  no  apparent 
During  summer  doods  the  water  thus  pent  up  by  the 


Vuchow 


Q  ft.    In  o 


.'riocipal  Dfiicts  and  bbopi  aic 'built 
upon  pontoons  which  arc  mocned  aiocgiide  tbe  river-bank.  Tbe 
situation  ol  Wuchow  oukt*  It  the  natural  disttibuling  centit 
between  Kwei-diow,  Kwang-ii  and  Csnloo.  Great  thiogi  were 
tberefore  eipecied  of  it  as  a  treaty  port,  but  disorders  in  Kwang- 
si  delayed  the  tulfilmeni  of  the  hopes.  Tndc,  however,  hu 
improved,  and  s  lirge  native  passenger  IralKc  bat  spiung  up 
between  It  and  Canton.  It  is  connected  with  HosgKoi^iind 
Shanghai  by  telegraph. 

WUHU.  a  district  city  m  tbe  piovince  of  Nguk-hul,  Cbiot, 
about  I  m.  from  the  S.  bank  of  the  Ytiigtsic-kiang,  wLtb  which 
il  is  connected  by  a  stnggHng  suburb,  Il  Is  about  50  m.  above 
Nanking,  and  in  iSjS  it  was  marked  out  si  a  treaty  pott,  but 
was  not  opened  lo  trade  unlil  1877.  It  Is  connected  by  canals 
with  the  important  dtiei  of  Ming-Kwo  F^,  Tal-plng  Hirn, 
Nan-ling  Hicn  and  Ching  Hien,  the  (ilk  districts  in  Ihe  ncigh- 
bouibood  of  the  two  last  cjties  being  viiihin  so  m.  of  Wuhu. 
Coal  to  a  wntiderable  eitest  eiisls  in  tbe  country  lound.  At 
hrxl  its  commerdil  progress  was  veiy  slow,  tbe  older  ports  (d 
Kiu-klang  and  Chin-kiang  mibttting  against  its  succeu;  but 
of  late  there  hts  been  a  distinct  impiovenieiit  in  the  trade  of  [he 
poll,  the  net  value  of  which  wu  about  ^3,000,000  ia  i»e6.  The 
ptincipai  eaperts  ate  lice,  cotlon,  wheat,  let,  furs  *jid  feailien. 
Foe  the  production  of  leathers  lirge  qvantiiita  of  ducks  ere 
Nnred  in  Ike  sanovndini  distiicl*.    Of  inporu,  i^vin  fonned 


WDLFEKITE— WUNDT 


«55 


the  laoel  coMldenble  hem;  other  imports  being  m&tdies, 
oeedles,  sandalwood  and  window  glass.  The  dty,  which  is  one 
of  the  lazgest  of  its  rank  in  China,  was  laid  desolate  diuiog  the 
iTai-p'ing  rebellion,  but  has  been  rcpeopled,  the  population 
being  esdaiated  (1906)  at  137,000.  The  streets  are  compara- 
tively broad  and  are  well  paved.  The  land  tet  apart  lor  the 
British  settlement,  advautageouily  situated*  was  little  built 
upon.   A  new  general  foreign  settlement  was  opened  in  1905. 

WULPINITB,  a  mineral  consisting  of  lead  moIybdatOj 
PbMoO«,  crystalliiang  in  the  hemimorphic-tetartohcdral  class  ol 
the  tetragonal  system.  Ciystals  usually  have  the  form  of  thin 
square  plates  bevelled  at  the  edges  by  pyramidal  planes.  They 
have  a  brilliant  resinous  to  adamantine  lustre,  and  vary  in 
colour  from  greyish  to  bright  yellow  or  red:  the  hardness  is  3, 
and  the  spedfic  ^&vity  6-7.  Small  amounts  of  caldum  aro 
lemetimes  present  isomorphously  replacing  lead.  The  mineral 
sccurs  in  veins  of  lead  ore,  Imd  was  first  found  in  the  i8th 
century  in  the  lead  mines  at  Bleibeig  in  Carinthia.  Bright 
yellow  crystals  art  found  in  New  Mexico  and  Utah,  and  brilliimt 
led  crystals  in  Aritona. 

WULFHBRB  (d.  675),  Uhg  of  the  Mercians,  was  a  younger 

son  of  King  Penda,  and  was  kept  in  concealment  for  some 

time  after  li^  father's  defeat  and  death  in  655.    In  656  or  659, 

kowever,  the  Mecciant  thiew  off  the  supremacy  of  Oswio,  king 

of  NorthUmbria,  and  Wulfhere  became  their  king.    He  took 

ener:getic  measures  to  spread  Christianity,  and  was  greatly  helped 

by  his  bishop,  .Jaruman,  and  afterwards  by  St  Chad.     Outside 

Mercia  he  did  something  to  induce  the  East  and  the  South 

Saxons  to  atcept  Christianity,  and  is  said  to  have  founded  one 

or  two  monasteries.     He  gained  Lfndsey  from  Northumbria 

in  657,  and  was  successful  against  Wessex.    He  extended  his 

borders  in  all  directions,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  passbig 

greainess  of  Mercia,  although  he  lost  Lindsey  just  before  his 

death.    Wttlfhere's  wife  was  Eormenhild,  a  dau^ter  of  Ercon- 

berfat,  king  of  Kent,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Aethel^ 

red.    His  only  son  Cocnred  became  king  in  704  in  succession 

to  Aethclred.   His  only  dau^^ter  was  St  Werburga  or  Weibuth, 

abbess  of  Ely. 

See  Bede.  SistoHa  tciUtiatlic;  ed.  C.  Plummer  (Oxford*  t<^; 
and  J.  R.  Green,  The  Making  of  Enflawd  (1897-1899). 

WUIFBTAN,  aidibishop  of  York  from  1003  untO  his  death 
in  May  1093,  and  also  bishop  of  Worcester  from  2003  to  rorO, 
is  generally  held  to  be  the  author  of  a  rematkabfe  hottBy  in 
alliterative  English  prose.  Its  title,  taken  from  a  manuscript, 
is  Lupi  sermo  ad  AnghSt  quando  Dani  maximt  prosecuti  tuiU  «0i, 
piodfuU  anno  1014.  It  is  an  appeal  to  all  classes  to  repent  in  the 
prospect  of  the  imminent  day  of  judgment,  and  gives  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  desperate  condition  of  Engknd  in  the  year  of  King 
Aethelred  II.'s  flight  (1014).  Of  the  many  other  homilies 
ascribed  to  Wulfstan  very  few  are  authentic.  Subsequent 
legislation^  e9pedall[y  that  .9!  Canute,  bears  ckar  traces  of  his 
influence. 

Sec  theeditjqa  Of  his  hoarilies  by  A.  Napier  (Beriiir,  1883) ;  ako  the 
■a  me  water's  Qbet  iu  HIMtdes  oUinifiMkm  Enbi$tMs  WmU$latk 
(CotttiiaeirdiMerutkon.  1 88a).  ami  b»  paper  ia  An  SmMt  MitcManf 
(Oxford.  I90i>  pp.  ^S^r.):  also  A.  Braodl  in  H.  Paul^  Crnninss  Mr 
germamuhoM  PkUologit  (and  ed..  1901*1909),  ii.  pp.  iiie>liia. 

WULFSTAN.  ST  {e.  ibx  »-ro95),  bishop  of  Wbrce^cr,  was  bortt 
at  Little  Itchington  near. Warwick  and  was  educated  in  th9 
nK>nastic  schools  of  Evesham  and  Peterborough.  He  became 
8  monk  at  WoroesCer,  and  schoohnaster  and  prior  in  the  cathednl 
monastery  there.  In  1062  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Worcestet, 
and  the  choice  was  approved  by  the  witan;  with  some  reluctance 
Wulfstan  accepted,  and  was  consecrated  at  York  Ia  September. 
Hie  see  of  Worcester  and  the  aichbiBhopric  of  York  had  been  held 
together  before  106a  by  Archbishop  Aldred,  who,  when  he  was 
compelled  to  resign  Worcester,  retained  twelve  manors  belonging 
to  the  secb  which  Wulfstan  did  not  recover  for  some  years. 
About  1070,  however,  it  was  decided  that  Worcester  was  in  the 
province  of  Canterbaiy.  Although  he  had  been  on  friendly 
terms  with  Harold,  the  bishop  submitted  to  William  at  Berk- 
hampstead,  and  he  was  veiy  useful  Lb  checking  the  rebellious 
barons  dmng  the  cevbli  ii  1075.    He  w«s  equally  loyal  to 


WOUam  n.  in  his  straggle  with  the  Welih.  Wtdf Aaifs  relations 
with  his  eedesiastical  superiors  were  not  so  harmonious,  and  at 
one  time  both  Lanfranc  of  Canterbury  and  Thomas  of  York 
unsaceessf  ally  demanded  hk  removal.  He  was  the  only  survivor 
of  the  Anglo^Bxon  bishops  when  he  died  on  the  xSth  of  Jantlary 
1095.  In  xa^  he  was  canonised  by  Pope  Innocent  m.  By  h^ 
pre»dung  at  Bristol  Wulfstan  is  said  to  have  put  tn  end  to  the 
kidnapptogof  Eng^isb  men  and  women  and  selling  them  as  slaves. 
He  rebidlt  the  cathednl  chinch  of  Worcester,  and  some  parts  of 

Uf  buikling  still  remain. 

lives  of  &  WaUitan  by  Hemming  and  Plonooe  of  Wofoeiter  am 
in  H.  Wharton's  Ant^ia  sacra  (1691).  See  abo  E.  A^  FreeaaBi 
Hormaa  Conqp^st  (1867-1879). 

WiaiBHWEBBR.  JORGBX  («.  I49^i537)»  buigomaster  of 
LObeck,  was  bom  probably  at  Hamburg.  Settling  in  Ltibeck 
as  a  merchant  he  took  some  part  in  the  risings  of  the  inhabitants 
in  1530  and  1531,  being  strongly  in  sympathy  with  the  demo- 
cratic Idieais infeli^on  and  politics  which  inspired  them.  Having 
joined  the  governing  council  of  the  dty  and  become  leader  of  the 
democratic  party »  he  was  appointed  burgomaster  early  in  1533 
and  threw  himself  into  the  movement  for  restoring  Lilbeck  tq 
her  former  position  of  inBuence.  Preparations  were  made  to 
attack  the  Dutch  towns,  the  principal  trading  rivals  of  Lubeck, 
when  the  death  of  Frederick  I.,  king  of  Penmark,  in  April  1533 
changed  the  position  of  affairs.  The  Ltibeckers  objected  to  the 
bestowal  of  the  Danish  crown  upon  any  prince  favourable  to 
the  Empire  or  the  Roman  religion,  and .  Wullenweber  went  to 
Copenhagen  to  discuss  the  matter.  At  length  an  alliance  was 
concluded  with  Henry  VIII.  of  England;  considerable  support 
was  obtained  in  N..  Germany;  and  in  1534  an  attack  was  made 
on  Christian,  duke  of  Holstein,  afterwards  King  Christian  III., 
who  claimed  the  throne.  At  first  the  LUbeckers  gained  several 
successes,  but  Christian  of  Holstein  appeared  before  LUbeck} 
the  efforts  of  Wullenweber  to  secure  allies  failed;  and  the  citizens 
were  compelled  to  make  (teace.  The  imperial  court  of  justice  zi 
Spires  Testored  the  old  constitution,  and  la  August  i  $3  5  the 
aristocratic  party  returned  to  power.  Soon  afterwards  Wullen- 
weber was  seized  by  Christopher,  archbishop  of  Bremen,  and 
handed  over  to  his  brother  Henry  II.,  duke  of  Brunswick- 
Wolfenbilttd.  Having  been  tortured  and  sentenced  to  death  a$ 
8  traitor  and  an  Anabaptist,  he  was  beheaded  at  WolfenbUttel 
on  the  a9th  of  September  1537.  Wullenweber,  who  was  long 
regarded  aa  a  popular  hero  in  LQbeck,  inspired  tragedies  by 
Heinrid)  Kruse  and  Karl  Fenlinand  Gutzkon^i  and  a  nova 
by  Ludwig  K6hler. 

See  G.  Woiu,  LAbeck  umUr  JOrgm  WnOtmpe^  und  dk  mttoplUseh$ 
PcUtik  (Berlin,  i8S5'i8s6). 

WUNDT,  WILHBLM  MAX  (1833-  ),  German  physiologisf 
and  philoeophes,  was  bom  on  the  i6th  of  August  1834  at  Neck- 
arau,  in  Baden.  Ho  Uuditd  medidtte  at  TQhbgen,  fiekleilberg 
and  Berlin,  and  in  1857  began  to  lecture  at  Heidelberg.  In 
1864  he  became  assbtant  professor  there,  and  in  1866  was  chosen 
to repvesentHeidelbergin  the  Baden  Chamber,  but  soon  resigned.' 
In  1074  be  was  dectcd  regular  professor  of  philosophy  at  Zttrich, 
and  in  the  following  year  was  called  to  the  corresponding  chair 
at  Ldpsig,  whcK  he  founded  an  Institute  for  Experimental 
Psychology,  the  precursor  of  many  similar  institutes.  The  list 
of  Wundt's  works  is  long  and  comprehensive,  including  physi- 
ology, psychology,  logic  and  ethfcs.  His  earlier  works  deal 
dnefly  with  physiok>gy,  though  often  in  close  conneidoa  witk 
psydiofegy,  as  in  the  VaHesungen  Hber  die  Mmsehen-  und  Ty^r- 
suh  (1863;  4th  ed.,  1906;  trans.  Creighton  and  Txtchener,  1896)^ 
Lehrhuch  der  Physiologic  des  Menschen  (1865;  4th  ed.,  1878),, 
and  OrundxUgo  der  pkysiologiscben  Psychologie  (1874;  6th  ed.; 
3  vols.,  1908).  He  published  an  important  work  00  Lcgik  (1880** 
1883;  3rd  ed.,  x9oi5>i907),  and  this  was  followed  hi  r886  by 
his  Ethik  (3rd  ed.,  1903).  According  to  Wundt,  the  straight  road! 
to  ethics  lies  through  ethnic  psychology,  whose  especial  businesi 
it  is  to  consider  the  histocy  of  custom  and  of  ethical  ideas  frott^ 
the  psychological  standpoint.  We  must  look  for  ethics  to  supply 
the  comcT-st(»ie  of  metaphysics,  and  psychology  is  a  necessary 
propaedeutic.  The  System  der  Pkihsopftie  (1899;  3rd  ed.,  1907) 
oontaiMd  the  resnks  of  Wuadt'S  work  up  to  that  date,  both  ia 


856 


•  • 


WUNTHO— WURTTEMBERG 


the  domain  of  adeace  and  in  tho  moie  ttiictly  pbOoaophic  field 
The  meUphysical  or  ontologkal  part  of  psychology  ia  in  Wuadt's 
view  the  actual  part,  and  with  this  the  science  of  nature  and  the 
■denoe  of  mind  are  to  be  brought  into  relatiott»  and  thus  conv 
stUuted  as  far  as  possible  philoac^phical  sciences.  IniB^aWundt 
published  JSypnotumut  nmd  Sugg^Hon*  Subsequent  important 
works  aie  the  Gnmdriss  dtr  Paycidope  (1896;  8th  ed.»  1907; 
trana^  Judd,  3rd  ed.,  1907);  VUk&r^syMcpe  (2900-1906)] 
BinUitung  m  dU  PhiUs,  (1901 ;  4th  ed.,  1906).  Two  other  worla> 
containing  accounts  of  the  work  of  himself  and  his  pupils,  are 
PkUosopilitehd  Studio  Cx883'S9m)  ««!  Psyckthpscke  Shdim 
(1905  foil.). 

WUNTHO*  a  native  state  ti  Upper  Burma  anneied  by  the 
British  and  bcorporated  in  the  district  of  Katha ih  18^2.  Wuntho 
was  classed  by  the  Burmese  as  a  Shan  state,  but  was  never  on 
the  same  footing  as  the  true  Shan  states,  asid  only  escaped  be- 
coming an  integral  part  of  the  Burmese  empire  through  Burmese 
want  of  system.  The  Shan  name  is  Wying  HsO, "  the  dty  of  the 
hil^."  It  had  an  area  of  about  9400  sq.  m.  with  150,000  in- 
habitants, and  lay  midway  between  the  Irnwaddy  and  Chindwin 
rivers.  When  the  British  annexed  Upper  Burma  in  1885  the 
state  became  a  refuge  for  rebels  and  dacoit  leaders.  Finally  in 
1 891  the  state  broke  out  into  open  rebellion,  the  sawbwa  was 
deposed,  and  a  force  of  tSoo  troops  under  General  Sir  George 
Wokeley  occupied  the  town  of  Wuntho  and  reduced  the  state  to 
order. 

WUfraR,  a  river  of  Germany,  a  right-bank  tributary  of  the 
Rhine,  rising  in  the  Sauerland  near  Meinerzhagen.  llie  most 
remarkable  part  of  its  course  is  that  in  the  so-called  Wuppertal. 
In  this  section,  30  m.  in  length,  it  passes  through  the  populous 
towns  of  Barmen  and  Elberidd  and  supplies  water-power  to 
about  five  hundred  mJUs  and  faaories.  Leaving  the  hills  above 
Opladen,  it  debouches  on  to  the  plain  and  enters  the  Rhine  at 
Rheindorf  between  Cologne  and  DOssddorf,  after  a  course  of 
63  m. 

See  A.  Sdimidt,  Die  Wupptr  (Unnep,  1902). 

Wt^RTTEaiBERQ.  a  kingdom  of  Germany,  forming  a  tolerably 
compact  mass  in  the  S.  W.  angle  of  the  empire.  In  the  south  U  is 
deft  by  the  long  narrow  territory  of  Hohcnzollem,  bdonging  to 
Prussia;  and  it  endoses  six  small  enclaves  of  Baden  and  Hohen- 
sollem,  while  it  owns  nine  small  exclaves  within  the  limits  of 
these  two  states.  It  lies  between  47**  34'  48'  and  49^  35'  17'  N., 
and  between  8**  15'  and  10^  30'  £.  Its  greatest  length  from  N. 
to  S.  is  140  m.;  its  greatest  breadth  is  xoo  m.;  its  boundaries, 
almost  entirdy  arhitraiy,  have  a  drcuit  of  1x16  m.;  and  its 
total  area  is  7534  sq.  m.,  or  about  -^{th  of  the  entire  empire. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  £.  by  Bivaria,  and  on  th»  other  Uiree 
sides  by  Baden,  with  the  exception  of  a  short  distance  on  the 
S.,  where  it  touches  HohemoUem  and  the  lake  of  Constance. 

Phrsieal  Feahtres.^'WiMttmherg  forms  part  of  the  South-German 
tabJMttnd,  and  b  hilly  rather  than  mountainous.  In  fact  the  un- 
<hiUtiog  fertile  terraces  of  Upper  and  Lower  Swabianany  be  taken  as 
the  chaiacteristic  partt  of  this  agricultucal  country.  The  usual 
estimates  return  one-fourth  of  the  entire  surface  as  "  plain,"  less  than 
one^ird  as  "  mountainous,"  and  nearly  one-half  as  "  hilly."  The 
average  elevation  above  the  sea^levd  Is  1640  ft. ;  the  lowest  point  la 
at  BMtingen  (410  ft),  where  the  Neckar  quits  the  country;  the 
highest  is  the  Katseniwpf  (3775  ft.),  on  the  Homisgrinde,  on  the 
western  border. 

The  chief  mountains  are  the  Black  Forest  (q.v.)  on  the  west,  the 
Swabian  Jura  or  Rauhe  Alb  stretching  acitMS  the  middle  of  the 
country  from  south-west  to  north<aat,  and  the  Adel^  Mountams 
io  the  extreme  south-east,  adjoining  the  Algau  Alps  in  Bavaria.  The 
Rauhe  Alb  or  Alp  slopes  ^cfually  down  into  the  plateau  on  its  south 
side,  but  on  the  north  it  is  sometimes  runed  and  steep,  and  has  its 
line  broken  by  isolated  projecting  hills.  The  highea  sammits  are 
in  the  south-west,  viz.  the  LembeitE  (3326  ft.),  Ober-Hohenbcrg 
(A312  ft.)  and  Plettenbeig  (3^93  ft.).  To  the  south  of  die  Rauhe  Alb 
the  plateau  of  Upper  Swabia  stretches  to  the  lake  of  Constance  and 
eastwards  across  the  IHer  into  Bavaria.  Between  the  Alb  and  the 
Black  Forest  in  the  north-west  are  the  fertile  terraces  of  Lower 
Siwid>ia,  continued  00  the  aorth<east  by  those  of  Franoooia 

About  70%  oC  Wflrttemberg  belongs  to  the  basin  oi  the  Rhine, 
and  about  30%  to  that  of  the  Danube.  The  principal  river  is  the 
Necfcar,  which  flows  northward  for  186  m.  through  the  country  to 
Join  the- Rhine,  and  with  its  tributaries  the  Rems,  Kocher.  Jagrt, 
Eas»  Ac.  dinim57%4>f.tfaekiagdoaL  The  Dsnnbe  flows  ii 


to  west  across  the  south  half  of  WflfttaidbeKg.  a  Htonarr  ol  65  n..s 
small  sectbn  of  whkh  is  in  HohHisoUem.    Just  above  Ulm  it  k 
joined  by  the  lUer,  wlucb  forms  the  boundary  between  Bavaiiaud 
Wfirttemberg  for  about*3S  m.    The  Tauber  in  the  nocth-cast  joun 
the  Main;  the  Aigen  uKTSchuaaen  in  the  south  enter  the  lake  of 
Constance.   The  lakes  of  Wttrttcmbeig,  with  the  excepcton  of  thoie 
in  the  Black  Forest,  all  lie  south  of  the  Danube.    The  largest  b  the 
Pedenee  (i  sq.  m.)«  near  Buchau.    About  one-fifth  of  the  lake  U 
Coosunoe  is  reckoned  to  belong  to  Wflrttembefw.     Mineral  aprii^ 
are  abundant;  the  most  faaaous  spa  Is  Wildbad,  m  the  Black  FortsL 
The  dimate  is  temperate,  and  colder  among  the  noiintaias  m 
the  south  than  in  the  north.     The  mean  temperature  varies  at 
different  points  from  43*  to  50*  P..  The  abundant  forests  induce 
modi  rain,  ssost  of  whidi  falls  in  the  summer.    The  eoil  is  oe  the 
whde  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  and  agrictdture  is  tiie  main  occupy 
tion  of  the  inhabitants. 

PcPulaH^n.^The  poptdation  of  the  four  departments  (JDssie) 
into  which  the  kinsdom  is  divided  is  shown  belaw^-* 


District  (i&sw). 

Area  in 
sq.  m. 

Popb, 
1900. 

Pop. 
1905. 

Dennty 
1905. 

Necfcar.     .     .     . 
Black  Forest  (Sdiwars- 
wald)      .... 

Jagst 

Danube  (Donau)  .    . 

1286 

2419 

745^69 

509.a5» 
400,126 

5144*7 

811,478 

34V  .660 

407.059 
541. 9»o 

631 

J93 

ao5 

M3 

Total 

7534 

2a69.4te 

2J03«X79 

306 

The  population  is  particularly  dense  in  the  Neckar  valley  from 
Esslingen  northward.  The  mean  annual  increase  from  1900  to 
1905  amounted  to  x*2a%.  8' 5%  of  the  births  are  illegitimate. 
Classified  according  to  religion,  about  69%  are  Protestants, 
30%  Roman  Catholics,  and  Jews  amount  to  about  |%.  Pro- 
testants largely  preponderate  in  the  Neckar  district,  Ronuii 
Catholics  in  that  of  the  Danube.  The  people  of  the  north-west 
belong  to  the  Alamannic  stock,  those  of  the  north-east  to  the 
Franronian,  and  those  of  the  centre  and  south  to  the  Swabiaa. 
According  to  the  latest  occupation  census,  nearly  half  of  the 
entire  population  is  supported  by  agriculture,  and  a  third  by 
industrial  pursuits^  mfning  and  commerce.  In  19x0^  506,061 
persons  were  engaged  in  agriculture  and  kindred  occupations, 
43a,xi4  in  industrial  occupationi»  and  100,109  in  iraule  and 
commerce. 

The  laxgest  towns  in  the  kingdom  are  Stutt«art  (with  Csnn- 
stadt),  Ulm,  Heilbronn,  Esslingen,  Reutlingen,  Ludwigsburg, 
Giipi^ngen,  Gmfiind,  Tflbingea,  TuttUngea  and  Ravenaburg. 

^|f*MtAiirs.-»-Wartt«mberg  is  easentiany  an  agrictritttinl  state, 
and  of  its  4.821,760  acres,  44*9  %  are  agricultural  land  aad  sardcDSi 
1*1  %  vineyards,  17*9  %  meadows  and  pastures,  and  30-8  %  forest. 
It  possesses  rich  meadowlands,  cornfields,  orchards,  gardens,  and 
lulls  covered  with  vines.  The  chief  agricultural  products  are  oats, 
spelt,  rye,  wheat,  barley.  hops»  To  these  most  be  added  wine  (mo«ly 
of  excellent  quality)  oTan  annual  value  of  about  one  million  sterHnfc 
peas  and  beans,  maize,  fruit,  chiefly  cherries  and  apples,  beets  and 
tobacco,  and  garden  and  dairy  pnxhice.  Of  live  stocK,  cattle,  sheep 
and  pigs  are  reared  in  considerable  numbers,  and  great  attention  is 
paid  to  the  breeding  of  horses. 

Minini.-^^SBAt  and  Iron  are  the  only  minerals  of  great  {ndnstnsl 
importance  found  in  WQrttembef]g.  The  salt  industry  only  b^R 
to  oe  of  importance  at  the  b<^nmnf  of  the  l^th  century.  The  iron 
industry,  on  the  other  hand,  is  of  great  antiquity,  but  it  b  hampered 
by  the  entire  absence  of  coal  mines  in  the  country.  Other  mioenJs 
produced  are  granite,  limestone,  ironstone  and  fireclay. 

Manufactures. — ^Tne  old-establiBhed  manufactures  embrace  linen, 
woollen  and  cotton  fabrics,  particularly  at  Esslingen  and  Gdppingen, 
and  paper-making.  especiatVy  at  flavensburg.  Heilbronn  and  other 
places  tn  Lutnr  ^vabia.  Toe  manufaeiuring  industries  assisted  by 
the  government  developed  rapidly  during  tne  later  veara  of  the 
19th  century,  notably  metal-working,  especially  such  branches  of  it 
es  require  exaa  and  delicate  workmanship.  Of  particular  itnporr- 
ance  are  Iron  and  steel  eoods,  locomoHves  <for  which  Essltagee 
enjoys  a  groat  reputation),  machinery,  motor'cnni,  bicydes.  smvj 
arms  (in  the  Mauser  factory  at  Obemdorf).  all  kinds  of  scisntific  and 
artistic  appliances,  pianos  (at  Stuttgart),  ofgaos  and  other  musM'sl 
instruments,  photographic  apparatus,  clocks  (In  ^he  Black  Forest), 
electrical  apiMtratus,  and  ^Id  and  rilveT  goods.  There  are alsocs* 
tensive  chemical  works,  Dottcries,  cabinet-making  woritsiiops,  w^ 
factories,  breweries  and  aisrilleries.  Water^powv  and  petrol  larfS'/ 
compensate  for  the  lack  of  coal.  Among  other  interesting  develop' 
ments  is  the  manufacture  of  liquid  carbonic  acid  gas  procured  froB 
natural  gas  springs  beside  the  byach,  a  tributary  of  the  Neckar. 
.--^Jheinncipal  expqcts  an  cattk^  ccnals,  1 


f  gw 


«57 


«il»  cfi  loMklMr.  rottoo  «n(i  Knen  fabrics,  bccr»  wine  and  wints> 
Tlie  «aa  commercial  cities  are  Stuttgart.  Ulm,  Heflbronn  and  r  ried- 
rkhshafen.  The  book  trade  61  Stuttgart,  called  the  Leipzig  of  South 
Germany,  is  very  extcittivc. 

CommunieatioHS.'^ln  1907  tlieie«tf»  larto  m.  of  ntilvm*  of  which 
all  except  199  m.  belonged  to  the  eute.  The  Ncclrar,  the  Schunen 
and  the  lake  of  G>nstance  are  all  navigable  for  boat*;  the  Danube 
begins  to  be  navigable  at  Ulm.  The  roads  of  WQrttemberg  are 
fairly  good;  the  oldest  of  them  are  Roman.  WOrttemberg.  tike 
Bavaria,  ictatead  the  oontrol  of  its  own  postal  and  tdegotph  service 
on  the  foundation  of  the  newGcmo*  empire^ 

CMifdMlm.'^WOittembetg  is  a  constittttiaaal  monacchy  and 
•  member  of  the  Oemum  empiiie,  with  four  votes  in  the  fedecsl 
ooundl  (Buadcsimt),  and  sevientecn  in  the  imperial  diet.  The 
eonstittttlpn  rests  on  a  law  of  18x9,  amendfd  in  1868,  in  1S74,  and 
again  in  1906  .  The  crown  is  hereditary,  and  conveys  the  simple 
title  of  king  of  Wttrttemberg.  The  king  receives  a  civil  list  of 
£103,717  The  legislature  is  bi-camevsL  The  upper  chamber 
CStenddAerftfw)  is  composed  of  adult  pcinoes  of  the  bhmd,  heads 
of  noble  •families  fimn  the  lank  of  count  (Gruf)  upwards,  repie- 
sentatives  of  territories  (StamUskansckaJUm),  which  possened 
votes  in  the  old  German  Imperial  diet  or  In  the  lecal  diet;  it  has 
also  members  (not  mors  than  6>  aosMnated  by  tbe  king,  8 
members  ol  kirightly  tank,  6  ecclesiasticai  di|^iitaries»  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  university  of  Tflbingen,  and  i  of  the  technical 
high  school  «f  Stuttgart,  >  npieientatives  of  couneiee  and 
faiduatry,  e  of  agriculture,  and  v  of  haodlcrtf ts.  The  bwer 
house  (AbieoPimttmtkaMs)  has  9s  membersy  vis.  a 


tive  fitom  ea«h  ef  the  administrative  divisions  (OteromtttacrAeK 
^  in  an  without  Stuttgart,  whldi  taae  6  repiesenUtives;  also 
I  from  each  of  the  six  chief  pcovindal  towns,  and  ty  members 
elected  by  the  two  electoral  divisions  {LamduwalOkreiM)  into 
which  the  kuigdom  is  divMed.  The  latter  ctass  ef  membeis 
as  wen  as  tlwse  for  Stuttgart  aie  elected  on  the  principle  el 
proportional  FBprssenta(ti<Mi.  Tlie  Usg  appoints  the  president 
of  the  upper  chamber;  sinoe  1874  the  lower  diasbcr  has 
elected  Its  own  cfaairtnan.  Members  of  both  houses  must  be 
over  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  pttUaments  are  elected  for  six 
years;  the  suffrage  is  enjoyed  by  aU  male  dtiacns  over  twenty* 
five  years  of  age,  and  voting  is  by  ballot. 

The  highest  executive  Is  in  the  hands  of  a  Ddnfetiy'Of  state 
{Siaaimiuisliriim)t  consisting  of  six  mfailsteis  respsctively  ol 
jusUce,  fordgtt  affairs  (with  the  royal  hooaeheld,  nilwuya,  posu 
and  telei^phs),  the  interior,  publfc  woisldp  and  edueatioo,  war 
and  finance.  There  is  also  a  privy  ommdl,  coMisring  of  the 
ministers  and  some  nominated  ceuidDois  {vkkUtke  StdaStrtUd^, 
who  advise  the  sovereign  at  bis  eommaad.  The*  MS"*  of  * 
special  supreme  court  of  justice,  called  the  Siualigwitklifitf 
(which  b  the  guardian  of  the  oimslitutlo&),  are  partly  elected 
by  the  chambers  and  partly  appointed  by  the  king,  fiacb  of  the 
chambets  bas  the  right  to  iinpead»  die  ministers.  The  oeontry 
is  divided  into  four  govemmentat  departaients  (JOw^)  and 
subdivided  into  sixty-four  diirisk»is  (Obe^Mitthttkke),  eadi  of 
which  is  under  a  headman  {(JbaumimaHm)  assisted  by  a  kwal 
coundl  iAnUsvenamnUuHg).  At  thB  heaid  of  each  eC  tlie  four 
departments  is  a  govetttmcnt  {Rt^fmiHif, 

Religi<m:—tht  right  of  directiod  over  tjie  churches  resides  m  the 
king,  who  has  also,  so  long  as  he  belongs  to  th*  Pirotestant  Chareh. 
the  guardbnship  of  the  spiritual  rights  of  that  Church.  The  Pro- 
testant Church  is  controlled  (under  the  minister  of  ceUgipn'  and 
education)  by  a  consistory  and  a  synod — the  former  consisting  of  a 

f>rc«dent,  9  councDlors  and  6  general  superintendents  or  '*  prelates  " 
rom  six  principal  towns,  and  the  latter  of  a  representative  council, 
indifding  both  by  and  clerical  membeia.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  IS  subject  to  the  bishop  of  RottenbiSrg.  in  the  archdiocese 
of  Freiburg.  Politically  it  ia  under  a  Roman  Catholic  council, 
appointed  oy  government.  The  Jews  also,  since  1828,  have  been 
subject  to  a  state-appointed  counal  {Oberkirekendekifdt), 

EduealMH^-^Accotdlntt  so  oflicial  cetums  there  is  not  an  individual 
b  the  kinnbm  above  tl»  age  of  oen  years  who  «ani^  bct^  rei^  and 
write.  Tic  higher  branches  of  learning  are  provided  m  the  uni- 
versity of  TaWngen,  in  the  technical  high  school  (with  academic 
rank)  of  Stuttgart,  the  veterinary  high  school  at  Stuttgart,  the 
commcfcbl  cofiege  at  Stuttgart,  and  the  asriculturaLcoHcge  ef 
Hoheaheim.  There  are  gymnasia  and  other  adiools  in  all  the  laiger 
towns,  while  every  commune  has  a  school.  There  are  numerous 
schools  and  colleges  for  women.  There  is  also  a  school  of  viticulture 
atWciniA)erg. 


Army.—By  terma of  the eemwntion of  1871  tlmtnopsof  WQittenw 
bera  form  the  XI U.  army  corps  of  the  imperial  (German  army. 

Finances. — The  state  revenue  for  1909-1910  was  estimated  at 
£4,840,5^,  which  is  nearty  babnced  by  the  expenditure.  About 
ono4hird  of  the  ccvenue  is  derived  .from  milways,  forests  and  minesi 
about  £1400,000  from  direct  taxation;  and  the  reoiainder  from  in- 
direct  taxes,  the  post-ofRoe  and  sundry  items.  In  1909  the  puUic 
d6bt  amounted  to  £29.285,33^.  of  whicn  more  than  £37,000.000  was 
Incurred  for  railway  oottstruetx>n.  Of  tite  expenditure  over  £900,000 
»  spent  upon  pnbnc.  worsftiip  and  education,  and  over  i\^toofit» 
goes  in  intereat  and  repayment  ef  the  national  del»t.  To  toe  treasury 
of  the  German  empire  the  kingdom  contributed  £660.000. 

Ai;THORiTtES.~Sce  WUrttembtrgiseke  Jakrtnlcker  fiir  SUUisHk  mid 
Landeskunde;  Das  K&nigreick  WurtUmberg,  tine  auehreibtmi  nam 
Knisem^  Oberdmleru  uni  Cemaimdm  {Stuvtgut,  1904);  SUititHstht$ 
H^ndkmch  fnr  das  K6nimi«h  ymrttsmUrt  (Stuttgart,  liMte  fol.>: 
Pas  K&m^^sick  Wtsttewuerg,  eists  Btukrabvng  van  Land,  Yolk  una 
Slaat  (1893);  the  fakresbenckte  der  Handds-  und  Cewerbekammem 
in  Wirttemberz:  Lang,  Dit  Bntwickelnng  der  BcvUkemng  Wirttem-^ 
btrgs  im  Lanfs  des  tgien  Jakrhmtdert*  (TQbingen.  1003);  Engel  and 
Schnbe.  Gc0ga#5<tcbr  HVfwriisr  dmreh  IVurtiemherg  (Stuttgart* 
1908);  Cda.  SkMtsreckt  des  Kihtifftuks  WurUemberg  (Tahingen, 
1908):  and  F  Bitxer.  (Ugiemng  nod  Stands  in  WUrUemberg  (Stutt- 
gart. r883). 

History.— The  origin  of  the  name  Wiirttembcrg  is  uncertaint 
but  Lhe  once  popular  derivation  from  Wirth  am  Berg  is  now 
universally  rejected.  Some  authorities  derive  it  from  a  proper 
nam^  Wiruto  or  Wirtino;  others  from  a  Celtic  place-name, 
Virolunum  «r  Verdunumu  At  aU  events  from  being  the  name  of 
a  casUe  near  the  village  of  Roihenbeig,  not  far  from  Stuttgart, 
it  was  extended  over  the  surrounding  country,  and  as  the  lords 
ef  this  district  increased  their  possessions  so  the  name  covered 
an  ever-widening  area»  until  it  reached  its  present  denotation. 
Eady  forma  of  it  are  Wirtenbeig,  Wirtcmbenc  and  Wirteabcrc. 
Wtrtembefg  wa^  long  curtent,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  i6tb 
century  Wttitembeig  and  Wttrttembeig  appeared.  In  1806 
Witrtteraber^  was  adopted  as  the  official  spelling,  though 
Wttrtemberg  is  also  ounmon  and  occurs  sometimes  in  official 
documenU  and  even  on  coins  issued  after  that  date. 

As  far  as  we  know,  the  first  inhabitants  of  thi^  oountiy  were  the 
Celts,  and  then  the  Suebi.  In  the  tst  century  A.n.  the  Romans 
oonqwrnd  the  land  and  defended  their  position  there  by  a  ram- 
part (^inef)*  Eariy  in  the  3rd  century  the  Alamannj  drove  the 
P/^M  beyond  the  lUiine  and  the  Danube,  but  in  their  turn 
th^  woe  conquered  by  the  Franks  under  Qovis,  the  decisive 
battle  being  fought  in  496.  For  about  four  hundred  years  the 
district  was  part  of  the  Frankish  empire^  being  administered  by 
oeuiits*  but  in  the  9th  centuiy  it  wa&  incoipoiated  with  the 
Gemmn  duehy  of  Swabia.  The  duchy  of  Swabia  was  ruled  by 
the  Hohenstaufen  iuaSy  until  the  doith  of  Conzadin  in  ia68, 
when  a  oonsdeiafale  pazt  of  it  fell  to  the  count  of  WOrttemberg, 
the  lepiesentative  of  a  family  first  mentioned  about  1080,  a 
certain  Convad  von  Beutelsbach,  having  called  himself  after  his 
ancestxal  castle  pf  WOrttemberg. ;  The  earliest  count  about 
wlM>m  anything  is  known  is  one  Ulxich,  who  ruled  from  1241 
to  XS65.  He  was  maishal  of  Swabia  and  advocate  of  the  town 
of.  UlflRf  and  had  laise  possessions  in  the  valleys  of  the  Neckar 
and  the  RflBifc  Under  his  sons,  Ulrich  II.  and  Eberhard  I.,  and 
their  successoif  the  power  of  the  family  grew  steadily.  Eberhard 
(dL  1395)  was  the  opponent,  and  not  always  the  unsuccessful 
oncv  of  three  German-  kings)  be  doubled  the  area  of  his  county 
and  tiaais£erml  his  i^dence  from  Wiirttembexg  to  Stuttgart. 
His  Sttcoesscfs  were  not  perhaps  equally  important,  but  all 
added  y>r!f(H'*g  to  the  area  of  WOrttembexg.  The  lands  of 
the  family  wero  seveial  times  divided,  but  in  1483  they  were 
dsolarcd  intlivi^ble  and  wei^  united  under  Count  Eberhard  V., 
called  im  Bart.  Tbisairangement  was  confirmed  by  theOcrman 
khig,  Maximilian  I.,  and  Hm  impetvd  diet  in  r495- 

Eberhard  waa.one  otf  the  most  eneiSB^  niless  that  WOrttem- 
hkkg  ever  had»  aAd  ta  J40&  !>>•  oonnty  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
dnehy.  Dying  in  149^^  he  was  sbocecded  by  his  cousin,  Duke 
Eberfaaid  n.,  who,  however,  was  deposed  alter  a  short  reign  of 
twoyeaia.  The  long  reign  (1498-1S50)  of  Ulrich  I.,  who  succeeded 
to  the  duchy  while  stiU  a  child,  was  a  most  eventful  period  for 
the  country,  ahd  many. traditions  cluster  sound  the  name  of  this 
gifted,  upcmpnlotts  and  ambitiojis  man.    The  cstortiona  hy 


«s« 


WURTTEMBERO 


which  he  sought  to  raise  money  for  hh  extittvagant  pleasures 
excited  a  rising  known  as  that  of  theoruK:  Konrad  (poor  Conrad), 
not  xinlike  the  rebellion  in  England  led  by  Wat  Tyler;  order  was 
soon  restored,  and  in  15x4  by  the  treaty  of  Tfibii^Ben  the  people 
undertook  to  pay  the  duke's  debts  hi  return  for  various  political 
privileges,  which  m  effect  laid  the  foundation  of  the  constitutional 
liberties  of  the  country.  A  few  years  later  Ulrich  quarrelled 
with  the  Swabian  League,  and  its  forces,  helped  by  William  IV., 
duke  of  Bavaria,  who  was  angered  by  the  treatment  meted  out 
by  Ulrich  to  his  wife  Sabina,  a  Bavarian  princess,  hivaded 
WUrttemberg,  expelled  the  duke  and  sold  his  duchy  to  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  for  220,000  gulden.  Charles  handed  over 
Wilrttemberg  to  his  brother,  the  German  king,  Ferdinand  I., 
who  was  Its  nominal  ruler  for  a  few  years.  Soon,  however,  the 
discontent  caused  by  the  oppressive  Austrian  rule,  the  disturb- 
ances in  Germany  leading  to  the  Peasants'  War  and  the  commo- 
tfons  aroused  by  the  Rdormation  gave  Ulrich  an  opportunity 
to  recover  it.  Aided  by  Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  other 
Protestant  princes,  he  fought  a  victorious  battle  against  Fer- 
dinand's troops  at  Lauffen  in  May  1534,  and  then  by  the  treaty 
of  Cadan  he  was  again  recognized  as  duke,  but  was  forced  to 
accept  his  duchy  as  an  Austrian  fief.  He  now  faitroduced  the 
reformed  doctrines  and  proceeded  to  endow  Protestant  churches 
and  schools  throughout  his  land.  Uhich*s  connexion  with  the 
league  of  Schmalkalden  ted  to  another  expulsion,  but  in  iS47  he 
was  reinstated  by  Charles  V.,  although  on  somewhat  onerous 
^erms. 

Ulrich's  son  and  successor,  Christopher  (i  stS'TS^S),  completed 
the  work  of  converting  his  subjects  to  the  reformed  faith.  He 
Introduced  a  system  of  church  government,  the  Crosse  Kirchen- 
ordnungf  which  has  endured  in  part  to  the  present  day.  In  this 
reign  a  standing  commission  was  establi^ed  to  superintend 
the  finances,  and  the  membeiB  of  this  body,  all  of  whom  bdonged 
to  the  upper  classes,  gained  considerable  power  in  the  state, 
mainly  at  the  expense  of  the  towns.  Christopher's  son  Louis, 
the  foimder  of  the  CtOcgium  ilhslrc,  died  chiidless  in  1593  and 
Was  succeeded  by  a  kinsman,  Frederick  L  (1557-1608).  This 
energetic  prince,  who  disregarded  the  limits  placed  to  his 
authority  by  the  rudimentary  constitution,  by  paying  a  large 
sum  of  money,  induced  the  emperor  Rudolph  IL  in  1599  to  free 
the  duchy  from  the  suzerainty  of  Austria.  Thus  once  again 
WUrttemberg  became  a.  direct  fief  of  the  Einpire.  Unlike  his 
predecessor,  the  next  duke,  John  Frederick  (1582-1628),  was 
not  allowed  to  become  ah  absolute  ruler,  but  was  forced  to 
recognize  the  checks  on  his  power.  During  this  reign,  which 
ended  in  July  1628,  WUrttemberg  suffered  severdy  from  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  although  the  duke  himself  took  no  part 
in  it.  His  son  and  successor  Eberhaid  HI.  (16x4-1674),  however, 
plunged  into  it  as  an  ally  of  France  and  Sweden  as  soon  as  he 
came  o^  age  in  1633,  but  after  the  battle  of  Ndidlingen  in  1634 
the  duchy  was  occupied  by  the  imperialists  and  he  himself  was 
for  some  years  an  exile.  H«  was  restored  by  the  peace  of  Wcst^ 
(Alalia,  but  it  was  to  a  depopulated  and  impoverished  country, 
^nd  he  spent  his  remaining  y^rs  in  efforts  to  repair  the  diAi^en 
bf  the  great  war.  During  the  reign  of  Eberfaard  IV.  ( 1676-x 733), 
who  was  only  one  year  old  when  his  father  Dnke  William.  Louis 
died  in  1677,  WUrttemberg  made  the  acquaintance  of  another 
destructive  enemy,  in  x6S8,  1703  and  r707  the  French  entend 
the  duchy  and  tnflhled  brutalities  and  sufferings  upon  the 
hihabitants.  The  sparsely  populated  country  afforded  a  wdkome 
to  the  fugitive  Waldenses,  who  did  sometMng  to  restore  it  to 
prosperity,  but  this  benefit  was  partly  neutralized  by  the  extrava^ 
gance  of  the  duke,  anxious  to  pro^rlde  for  the  exptasive  tastes 
of  his  mistrese,  Christiana  WObelndna  von  GiUvvnita.  Charies 
Alexander,  who  h^catne  duke  m  1733,  ^^i^  embraced  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith  "while  an  officer  in  the  Austilui  service.  His 
(avotirite  adviser  was  the  Jew  S^iss  Oppenhelmsr,  ttld  it  was 
thought  that  master  and  servant  were  aimhig  at  the  suppttssioft 
of  the  diet  and  the  introduction  of  the  Roman  Catholic  leligjioBi 
However,  the  stfdden  death  of  Charles  Aletauider  in  3iarch  tjBl 
put  an  alnttpt  end  to  these  plans,  and  the  regent,  ChaiiesRiidolidi 
•f  WUrtiemberg-KeueiialadCt  bad  Oppcoheimte  Jnaged. .  . 


Charles  Eugene  (1728-1793),  ^o  Mnttb  of  age  in  ¥744,  wu 
gifted,  but  vicious  and  extravagant,  and  he  soon  fell  into  the 
hands  of  unworthy  favourites.  He  spent  a  gre^  deal  of  money 
in  building  palaces  at  Stuttgart  and  elsewhere,  and  took  iIk 
course,  unpopular  to  his  Protestant  subjects,  of  fighting  agaiut 
Prussia  dunng  the  Seven  Years'  War.  His  whole  reign  was 
disturbed  by  dissensions  between  the  ruler  and  the  nikd,  the 
duke's  irregular  and  arbitrary  methods  <rf  raising  money  axousiag 
great  discontent.  The  hiterrantion  of  the  emperor  and  even  of 
fotreign  poweis  was  invoked,  and  in  1^70  a  formal  arrangement 
roMmd  some  o<  the  grievanoca  of  the  people.  But  Charles 
Eugene  did  not  keep  his  pnMnisea,  although  m  hia  old  sge  be 
aHkde  a  few  further  oonccsiionflL  He  died  chikHewy  and  wis 
succeeded  by.  one  brother,  Louis  Eugene  (d.  1795),  and  thai 
by  another,  Frederick  Eugeno  (d.  1797).  This  latter  pnnce, 
who  had  served  in  the  anny  of  Frederick  the  Great,  to  whom  be 
was  reUted  by  marriage,  educated  his  children  in  t^  Protestant 
fatUu  Thus,  when  his  son  Frederick  U.  became  duke  in  1 797.  ihe 
ruler  of  Wurttembeig  was  again  a  Protestant,  and  the  royal  house 
has  adhered  to  this  faith  since  that  date.  During  Frederick 
Eugene's  short  reign  tiie  French  invaded  WUrttemberg,  com- 
pelled the  duk»^  withdraw  bis  tjoops  from  the  imperial  army 
and  to  pay  a  siifli  of  money. 

Frederick.  IL  (1754-1816),  a  prince  whose  model  was  Frederick 
the  Great,  took  pert  ia.  the  war  against  France  in  defianoe  of  tbe 
wishes  of  bis  peoplOf  and  when  the  French  again  invaded  and 
devastated  the  oountiy  he  retired  to  Erlangen,  where  he  re- 
mained ointii  after  the  ooncliision  of  the  peace  of  Lun^viUe  in 
i8ot.  By  a  private  tseaty  with  France,  signed  in  March  1802, 
he  ceded  his  possessions  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  receiviog 
in  return  mne  imperial  towns,  among  them  Reutliatgon  and  Heil- 
bsonn^  and  some  other  territories,  amounting  altogetber  to 
about  850  aq.  m.  and  containing  about  124/300  inhabitants. 
He  also  accepted  from  Napoleon  'he  title  of  Sector.  These  new 
distikta.wera  not  iacoxporaled  with  the  duchy,  but  remained 
separate;  they  were  known  as  New  Wilrttemberg  and  woe 
ruled  without  a  diet.  In  1805  WUrttemberg  took  up  arms  on  the 
side  of  France,  and  by  the  peace  of  Prcssburg  in  Deoembei  1805 
the  eltetoE  was  rewtrded  with  various  Austrian  possessions  in 
Swabia  and  with  othor  lands  in  the  neighbourhood.  On  tbe 
ist  of  Janiuiry  1806  Frederick  spumed  the  title  of  kiag,  abrogated 
the  constitution  and  united  old  and  new  WUrttennberg.  Sub* 
sequeatly  be  pbuoed  the  property  of  the  church  under  the  control 
oi  the  state.  In  1806  he  jcAned  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine 
and  Beceived  further  additions  of  territory  containing  160,000 
inhabitants;  a  litUe  later,  by  the  peace  of  Vienna  in  October 
1809,  abotit  110,000  moire  pexsons  were  placed  under  his  rule. 
In  fetuin  for  these  favours  Frederick  joined  Napoleon  in  his 
campaigns  against  Prussia,  Austria  and  Russia,  and  of  16,000  of 
bis  siifajecCS  who  marched  to  Moscow  only  a  few  hundreds  re- 
turned.  Then  after  the  battle  of  Leipoig  he  deserted  the  waning 
fortnnes  of  the  French  emperor,  and  by  a  treaty  made  with 
Metteroich  at  Fulda  In  November  1823  he  secured  the  confirma- 
tion of  his  royal  dtle  and  of  his  reoent  acquisitions  of  territory, 
while  his  troops  marched  with  those  of  the  allies  into  France. 
In  181 5  the  king  joined  the  (krmanic  Confederation,  but  tbe 
congress  of  Vienna  made  no  change  in  the  extent  of  his  lands. 
In  the  same  year  he  laid  before  the  repnresentatives  of  Ins  people  the 
sketch  of  a  new  constitution,  but  this  was  rejected,  and  In  the  midst 
of  the  commotion  Frederickdied  on  the  30th  of  October  x8i6. 

At  once  the  new  king,  William  I.,  took  up  the  consideration 
Of  this  question  and  after  much  discussion  a  new  oonstttntioQ 
was  granted  in  September  1819.  .  This  is  the  constitution  which, 
with  subsequent  modifications,  is  stQl  in  force,  and  it  !s  .described 
in  ah  earlier  section  of  this  article.  A  period  of  quietness  now 
set  in,  and  the  condition  of  the  kingdom,  its  education,  its 
agriculture  and  its  trade  and  manufactures,  began  to  receive 
earnest  attention,  while  by  frugality,  both  in  public  and  In  private 
mattets.  King  William  hel|led  to  repair  the  shattered  finances  of 
the  country.  But  the  desire  for  greater  polidcal  freedom  had 
not  been  entirely  satisfied  by  the  constitution  of  18 19,  and  aftef 
1830  there  was  a  certain  amount  of  unrest.    This,  however. 


WURTZ 


859 


men  patsed  a.«ty,  ivlifle  tnule  «m  foetcved  1^  the  indofioa  of 
Wfirttembei;;  la  tlie  Geniuui  ZoQvereiii  and  bj  tbe  oonstiuction 
of  nilways.  The  revolutionuy  movemenC  of  1848  did  not  lesve 
WOrttembeig  uatoudicd,  aitlKmgh  no  iftnl  violence  took 
fdaoft  iv^hin  the  ]mi0do9i.  TheJdng  maeompeUed  todisnun 
Johannes  Schlayer  (i 792-1860)  and  hia  other  miniiteni,  and  to  caU 
to  power  men  with  mon  fibeial  ideaa^  the  exponents  of  the 
Idea  of  a  united  GerBnany.  A  democratic  oomtkutun  was  pB»> 
ciainied»  butaaaoonasthemovement  had  spentitafoice  the  liberal 
ministeis  i«ei»  dismined,  and  m  October  18^  Schlayer  and  hii 
aawdates  were  again  in  pewer.  By  fntecfeiing  with  popular 
ekctocalrii^  the  king  and  his  nuBBten  succeeded  in  aaaembUng 
a  Bervfle  diet  in  1851^  and  th&  aanendeied  .aU  the  pcfanleges 
gained  since  2848.  In  this  way  the  oonsUtutiQn  of  .1819  was 
icstoied,  and  power  passed  into  the  hsiuteef  a  baxeaicaacy*  Al- 
aaost  the  ktst  act  of  WiUiam'a  h>ng  icign  was  to  oonchida  a 
concordat  with  tbe  Papacy,  bat  thisr  was  Nfmdiated  by  the 
diet,  which  picfciied  to  regobte  the  lektiens  betwook  diorch 
and  state  in  its  own  way. 

'  In  JvAy  1864  Cbaries  L  (xSas^.x^)  sncoeoded  his  fatfacr 
WilUam  as  king  and  had  aliotist  ait  once  -to  face  joansidflBaUe 
difficulties.  In  tbe  dud  between  Aostiia  and  Pinsaia  for  sttpM> 
tnacy  in  Geimanyv  William  L  had  cgnaisUtnliy  taken  the  part  of 
the  former  power,  and  this  policy  waa  equally  aooeptaUe  to  tiie 
new  kingiand  his  advisers*  In  1866  Wflrttembe^g  took  up  arms 
on  behalf  ef  Austtia,  but  three  weeks  afta  the  baittle  of  K6i^ 
gr8t3  her  tnbpa  were  ded^vely  beaten  at'  Taubeibischofsbtinl, 
and  the  countty  was  at  the  meccy  of  PniSBia. .  The  PrussianB 
occupied  tbevotthcsn  put  of  Wllittenriiesg  aikd  peace  was  made 
in  August  18669  by  tl^  Wfiittemhe^g  paid  an  indemnity  of 
8vooo,ooo  gulden^  hut  at  oqcs  xonduded:  a  seinet  offensive  aiid 
defensive  treaty  with  her  conqueror. 

The  end  of  the  struggle.  Was  followed  hiy  a  renewal  of  the 
demociitso  agitation  in  WQxttemhcig,  but  this  had  achieved  no 
tani^ble  results  wiien  the  great  war  between  ilraatie  and  Pniasia 
bnfce  out  m  1870,  Although  the  policy  of  Wilrttembd«  had 
oowiinaed  antagonistir  to  Prassk,  the  oountiy  shared  m  thfe 
national  enthusiasm  which  swept  over  iknnanjr*.  and  ita  troops 
Inok  a  CMditaibleipart  fak  the  battle  of  W«Kt&  andin  other  opira- 
tton^  of  the  war«  In  1S7S  Wftrttembeig  became  a  member  of 
the  arw  Getmsn  eapim,  but  ictamed  cendol^of  her' own  post 
office,  tekgtaphs  and  csilwaya.  She  had  also  certain  spedd 
privileges  with  legatd  to  taadAie»  and  thd  army  ^  and  for  the  nest 
ten  ycaiB  the  policy  at  Warttenberg  was  one  of- enthusiastic 
loyalty  to  the  ncsr  order.  Many  Importaat  reforms,  capedaliy 
In  the  lealm  of  finante,  were  introduced,  buta  propoeai  for  a 
anion  of  tiie  tmlway  system  with  that  of  tbe  rest  nf  Gennany  was 
le^ed.  bettaiAi  leductioas  in  .taiation  having  been  made  m 
188^,  tie  refbrm  of  the  constitution  became  thequeatioa  of  <  tlit 
hour  Tim  kfaig  and  his  ndnkters  wished  to'StmniBthen  "the  odn- 
lervaAive  clement  in  the  chflndieis,  but  only  slight  rsfoema  .wefce 
effected  by  the  laws  of  1874,  1876  and  1879;  a  mote  thorough 
settlement  being  postponed.  On  the  6th  of  October  1891  King 
Charles  died  suddenly,  and  was  succeeded  by  hh  cousin  William 
II.  (b  1848),  Who  continued  the  policy  of  bis  piedecessoc  The 
reform  of  the  constitution  continued  to  be  discussed,  and  tbe 
election  of  1895  was  menoorable  becauw  of  the  return  of  a  powec- 
ftd  party  6f  democrats.  King  William  bad  no  sons,  nor  bad 
his  only  Protestant  kinsman,  Duke  Nicholas  (1833-1903) , 
(Consequently  the  successiOR  would  ultimately  pass  to  a  Roman 
Catholic  bruich  of  the  family,  and  this  proqiect  raised  upcerUiin 
difficulties  about  the  lehttions  between  church  and  static.  Th^ 
heir  to  the  throne  in  igto  was  the  Roman  Catholic  Duke  Albert 

(b  r86s). 

Between  1900  and  1910  the  political  hbtoiy  of  Warttemberg 
centred  round  the  settlement  of  the  constitutional  and  the 
educational  questions.  The  constitution  was  revised  in  1966 
en  the  lines  alretidy  fndicated,  and  a  settlement  of  the  education 
difficulty  was  brought  about  In  1909.  Iii  1904  the  railway 
system  was  united  with  that  of  the  rest  of  Germany. 

For  tlie  history  of  Warttemberg:  see  the  WirltemhergtKhes  Ut- 
kuMdenbuck  (Stuttgart,  1849-1907);  and  the  Dumettungen  imr  cfer 


wfirtteMAercueftMi  CexhukU  fStettgart,  1904  faiX  Histofics  .. 
thoM  of  P.  Fv  Saifai,  CuOidde  iVtrtlembins  (Gotha,  1882-1887^; 
E.  Schneider,  Wirttewibergutke  GutkidUe  (Stuttgart,  1896);  Bel- 


achner,  GefehiehU  vm  WUrtiemberg  in  W^ri  uMd  BUd  (Scuil;gaat, 
1902);  Weller,  H^KTtteailerj  m  der  dentschtm.  Gt»fkirhlt  (Stuugstt, 
1900);  K.  V.  Fricker  and  Tb.  von  Gcssier.  Ceaekickte d«r  Vtrfa^u^ 
Wirttemhergs  (Stuttgart*  t86o);  Hieber,  Die  wmttemherpsdte 
Verfassumgsr^trm  vm  tpQ6  (Stuttgart.  1906)}  and  R.  Scfamid, 
SeftrmatumsiuckickU  WMLmbvns  (Hdlbronn,  .1904).  See  also 
Gotther,  Dtr  Slaai  vmd  die  kaSkdUdu  Kirdu  im  KOmpekh  Wuraem- 
here  (Stottrart,  1874);  B.  Kaisser,  Cadiidiie  des  Vdkssdttdweaeke 
inWArOeiHberg  (Stuttgart,  1891^1897);  BartenB,I>**iM>lwAa/tfMfe 
EHiwidUlwg  des  K&mfnidu  WuruHdmrg  (Fiankfort,  1901);  W. 
.von  Heyd,,  BibUotraMue  der  tnMtembenisdien  GesdiickU  (189*- 
X896),  E^nd  iu.  by  TL  SchOa  (1907)  (  D.  Schifcr,  W^Uembergisehe 
GaekUklaqaeUm  (Stuttgart,  1894  foL);  and  A.  Pfister,  kdidg 
Friedridi  von  Wurttemberg  und  seine  Zeit  (Stuttgart,  1888). 

WVBTZ,  CHARLES  AOOIPBB  (1817-1884).  French  cb«ml«t, 
was  bom  on  the  a6th  of  November  18x7  at  Wolfisheim,  near 
^trassburg,  where  bis  father  was  Lutheran  pastor.  When  he 
left  the  Protestant  gymnasium  at  Strassburg  in  1834,  his  fath^ 
allowed  him  to  study  medicine  as  nexX  best  to  theology.  9c 
defoted  himself  spedally  to  the  cfaemiaJ  side  of  his  profession 
with  such  success  that  in  1839  he  was  appohited  **  Chef  d^ 
travaux  chimiques"  at  the  Strassburg  faculty  of  medicin^. 
After  graduating  there  as  M.D.  in  1843,  with  a  thiesis  on  albumip 
and  fibriUi  be  studied  for  a  year  under  J.  von  Liebig  at  Giessea, 
and  then  went  to  Paris,  where  be  worked  in  J.  B.  A.  Dumas^ 
private  laboratozy.  In  1845  he  became  aissistant  to  Pumiyi 
at  the-  £co]e  de  M^dedoe,  and  four  years  latex  began  to  giy^ 
Jectures  on  oigapic  chemi^tiy  in  his  place.  His  labonttcxy  ait 
the  £cole  de  Midedne  was  very  poor,  and  to  supplement  it  he 
opened  a  private  one  in  X850  in  the  Rue  Garencidre;  but  soon 
afterwards  the  house  wals  sold,  and  the  laboratory  had  to  be 
abandoned.  In  1850  he  received  the  piofessorship  of  chemistry 
at  the  new  Institut  Agionomiqoe  at  Venaillcs,  but  the  Instiint 
was  abolished  in  X853.  In  the  following  year  the  chair  of  orgaitit 
diemistry  at  the  faculty  of  medidne  became  'vacant  by  tfie 
resignadcm  of  Dumas  and  the  ^alr  of  mineral  chemistry  and 
toxicology  by  the  death  of  M.jf.B.OriUa.  Tlie  two  were  united, 
and  Wurta  appointed  to  the  new  post.  In  1866  he  undertook 
the  duties  of  dean  of  the  faculty  of  medidne.  In  this  positloh 
he  exerted  himself  to  secute  (be  tearrangement  and  reconstruo- 
tion  of  the  buildings  devoted  to  scientific  instruction,  urging 
that  in  the  provision  of  properly  equipped  teaching  laboratories 
FVance  was  much  behhid  Ormsny  (see  hfis  report  Le$  Htutes 
£hidei  pratiqtief  4sfif  ies  mHkenilit  liB&tMtidttf  1870).  ik 
t875,  re^gnfn^  the  office  of  diean  but  retaining  the  title  of  honei<- 
ary  dean,  he  became  the  first  occupant  of  the  dialr  of  organic 
diemistry,  wUdt  he  induced  tiie  government  to  Mablish  at  the 
Sorfaontie;  Imt  he  had  gieat  difficulty  in  obtahilog  an  adequate 
laboimtory,  and  tbe  bufldhig  tdtimately  ptdWded  was  not 
opened  until  after  hfiKteatlh,  which  happenod  at  Ffeuis  on  th^ 
roth  of  M&y  r884.  Wuttz  was  an  honotmry  member  of  almost 
every  sdenttfic  sodety  itt  Europe.  He  was  one  of  ibb  foundetb 
of  the  iParis  Chetaicsl  Sodety  (r858),  w^  ifs  first  secietary  uriA 
thrice  served  as  its  prefltident.  In  r88o  he  was  viceiofresident 
and  in  x86i  president  of  the  Academy,  whiefa  he  enteita  in  i86t 
in  succession  to  T.  J.  Peloute.    He  was  made  a  deneator  in  18^. 

WurU's  dnt  published  iMper  was  on  hypophosphorous  add  (1843), 
and  tnc  continuation  of  his  work  on  the  acids  ot  phosphorus  (184^ 
resulted  In  the  discovery  of  solphophosphofic  aCM  and  phosphorus 
oKychfaride,  as  well  a*  of  ctMiper  ftydnda.  But  .his  ortglilal  woefc 
waa  sminly  in  tbe  fiomain  of  oii;aaac  d^emtetry..  Investigation  tf 
the. cyanic  ethers  (1848)  yielded  a  class  of  fiubstances  which  opcne^ 
out  a  new  field  in  organic  chemistry,  for,'  by  treating  those  ether* 
with  caustic  potash,  he  obtained  methyhimihe,  the  Amplest  organic 
derivative  of  ammonia  (1840),  and  kter  (1851)  the  compooad  ufcai. 
In  t85«y.  reviewing  the  vatioua  aubritanices  that  had  been  cj>tained 
Xiom  liycerin,  he  reached  the  conclusion  that  givcerin  is  a  body  of 
alcohoUc  nature  formed  on  the  type  of  three  molecules  of  water,  ^ 
common  alcohol  is  on  that  of  one,  and  was  thus  led  (1856)  to  the 
discovery  of  the  glycols  or  diatomic  akohola,  bodies  similarly 
relate  to  the  double  water  typou  .  This  disoovery  he  worked  dut 
very  thoroughly  in  investi^ions  of  ethylene  oxioe  and  the  pol)f> 
ethylene  alcohols.  The  oxidation  of  the  glycols  led  him  to  homo- 
logucs  of  lactic  add,  and  a  controversy  about  the  constitution  of 
the  latter  with  H.  Kblbe  resulted  in  tbe  discoveiy  of  many  aew  facts 


>--  -^goQTCiMd  aidoL  poiadng  out  kt  dodbk  d 

bI •ad u lUtByde.   iasddiitiMtoiUil 

^  L^  (MMd,  nIcndKV  — "  ■"  ■ 

■  ■I ■■mill.      jwf ^ An.Ufafc    Whne'^»-'~a,^- 
thit  a  dumEA  t^lu*  viact  In  the  deniilT  o'  tb 

li)<Iniclil«id>>  kydniminiidc,  ftc..  u  tkt  tn>| 

and  is  th*  (wfiiil  puiM>  C"™  ■  tu  <>(  ■ppnuiauulj 
dcoitv  to  on*  si  haU-aBmil  deuly  he  iiw  «  povcrful  uiunMiiI  w 
finw  of  tin  vit»  tku  abotnnaf  vipow  deiiMlm,,  mhI  u  m 
nhibiHd  by  al-uuiiDiiiac  or  plwHihotw  pcauchkHid*,  an  to  be 
■Vbiiwl  bv  dinckliiin.     Fraoi  ift65  onvinli  ha  tmtnl  ths 


Fcr  ivBity-aM  r«n  (iS5i-i8;iJWuTUpubtiiliediatlic^*«'u 
<t  itiMii  (f  Jt  t^'yV"  'bMrao*  o(  cbHrAnl  wiirV  doiK  out  ol 
Fiwca.  Tlia  nibocitiaa  <4  Ui  (Rat  ZWl  ti'iiM  liin  ill  <»iiaw  pH( 
«  oMitiiilf,  in  iMck  he  «u  aHMcd  by  i 
chemiti.  mi  begun  in  iSi)  uul  Rnitlinl  id 
BKHCaty  voliDna  iren  iuucd  IS>0-l8t6,  and  m 
of  a  •mud  dipdniKat  vat  begun.  Amoni  Km  b 
mUiimli  <I«W.  W«  UtmnMra  it  Simit 
IVorii  ^  <toiiwi  darn  la  CMttMva  Ar  aHnft  ti 

olniHW  OarS),  PrtfrJi  .ti  tinJialru  ia  mUUn 

tMla  (liji)  and  TrailS  it  ckimii  Hahfique  [iSSo-ieejI.    Hi* 

Villain  ia  iaariiKt  Mm —  -■-  ' ' -" •-  '■'- 

DitUpminirt,  but  pnblnlinl 

For  h>>  life  and  mHi.  iTilh~aTiR  of  hVpubirainn),  >h  Cluria 
Fifcdd't  menUHr  in  the  BiMai%  it  It  Satiili  ClamUiu  (i8S;):iIb 
A.,W.  yon  Hofmunn  <n  the  Btr.  drW.  iJBt.  GtsdLtk  (i%).  - 
pSM).  "'  1  <m 

WOltZBUROia  niijveraity  town  and  epuoiptl  IM  ol  Bavi 
Cermaay,  capital  o[  Uk  priFvince  oi  Lowci  Fruconk,  lituaied 
« the  Main,  6i>  m.  by  rail  S.E.  from  Fruklort  and  at  U»  ji 
of  main  liset  to  Bamberg  and  Nuiemberg.  Pop.  (190s) 
Ab  aibdeat  atone  bridge  (147^1607),  1^50  It-  i/mg  and  adonul 
wilh  itatua  ol  tainu.  and  two  modem  biidgei,  tbe  Luiipold 
(1887)  and  the  Udwig  (i&m).  touiect  the  law  ptitaoi  tbe  town 
on  each  aide  o(  the  river.  On  the  lofty  Leuteabeig  stands  the 
Ionre«aolMarienberg,whidilroniia6i  toijwwaa  tho  r«iden« 
ol  the  bUha[«.  Tbe  main  pan  ol  tbe  town,  on  tbe  right  bank, 
b  wnounded  by  ahady  lovmenadcs,  the  Kinguiaaw  and 

WQnburg  U  quaintly  and  UKculaily  btiiki  many  of  the 
iuuse*  ate  inlcreatiog  ipedmeiu  ol  medieval  aiichilectun;  and 
the  nunuRHi  old  cbunhea  ncall  tbe  lact  tbu  it  wa*  long  the 
capital  of  an  ecileaiuiiFal  principality.    The  principal  chuicb 
la  the  impceing  Romaoatque  cathedral,  a  baiilica  witb  uansepts, 
begun  in  iota  and  cooHcraied  in  11S9.    Tbe  loui  toweti,  boir- 
(vet.  dale  [mm  1940,  tbe  (rococo)  facade  from  1711-171P1  and 
the  dome  (nm  1731.    The  ipadaus  tnoMpti  tenninale  in  ap 
Thaeileii(»wBiin(orediBi8Si-iS83.    The  beautiful  Man 
tapelle,  a  Gothic  cdi6cg  of  I3)7'I44I,  Ha  nstored  in  lE 
it  is  embeUiihad  with  [weoty  autut*  by    Tilman    Eien 
acbnndu(d.iui)'  The  Haugentiluchuicb,  with  two  loweni 
ft  lofty  doiue,  wai  built  in  the  Italian  Kenaitaance  aiyle  in  16 
■691.    Tbe  bona  of  St  iCiliui,  the  pauao  >aint  oi  WUiibi 
■IE  praerved  in  the  NeumUnilet  church,  which  dales  from 
nth  century;  Wollhcr  von  dcr  Vogdwejde  ia  bnrted  En 
adjoining  cloisteti.    The  church  of  St  Builihaid  ia  atemally 

w  of  the  bst'presrv^  arcbilectuial  DHHininnili  ia  the  dty. 


WURZBORG— WURZEN 

unaf(d  (0  esnvcrl 
tint  boviul  Mag 


inipRpaRd  aniline  ayatbilical^ 
•n  glycol^likirtiyAia.  awl  in  l«7l 


It  in 


1033-1041, 


4-I49T 


aClasiical  intnior.  Tbe 
'hi  St  Stephen  (I73>-178«)  oiiginally  belonged  to  a  Banedtctin 
'abbey  Of  the  lecular  buildinga  in  Wllnburg  tbe  most  cm 
qiicuoua  11  the  palace,  a  huge  and  magniliccnl  edifice  buQti 
17i»-1744  in  imilalioa  ol  Vetsailla.  and  lormeriy  theieiideni 
«(  the  Msbopa  and  giand-duka  of  WUnburK.  The  Jolii 
koipical.  a  large  and  richly  endowed  initltution  aHoRHng  foe 
and  lodging  to  6c^  peraons  dall/,  was  founded  in  1576  by  Bishop 
Jidlua  Echur  ven  Idaptltauwi  UmS->A»)-    bi  ipaA  it  wu 


al  f icalt)!  ^aedily  becaoM 

.  It  impoitaat  lacaky  ia  Wai» 

,    HneW.K-tUkit^BdiiciiwndtA    .'.._..- 


faflarlif  tbcoioficBl  Cacntty  ilifl 


Br  mivnity  diy  of  Ganaajr  h*>  m 

„ y  itaa^yaida,  whidi  yidd  toma  of 

e  beat  wine  in  Gennany.  It*  pnadpai  indiriiita  ata  tka 
umfKtuk  of  lotacoo,  fmntDra,  marhMgy,  admtiflc  inMiii- 
■m  and  laBway  iiniat  1     IthaaalubE 


The  aite  of  the  Uiateaheg  wa*  oospied  by  a  Soaian  ftict, 
and  waa  paobaiily  loitifiad  eai^  In  tha  ijtli  eentuiy.  Ifimk 
Mrpni  ia  Uw  dd  Latm  In  ol  tiie  name  of  tha  towsi  Bm-U. 
ttUi  (betb  ton)  fini  (W«ais  in  the  iitli  ttaliKy.  Ha 
biihqsk  waa  pfotab^  faunded.ia  741,  ba  tha  tana  vvcm 
tohancidatedintliBpnvioaanCBiy.   Ha  bit  kiakop  «ii 


ol  tbt  RUneaad  U 

nlV^Aag.  !■  il1i,ll niiMiimiiiiialiiial 

~  "    '  ia  tlnnam*  fivtn  to  u* 

t  Gc^Mk  atntc*  ia  iBw 

bomfcariad  and  takea 
by  (he  Pmaiwi*  ia  1B66,  b  wUck  yam  k  ctaaed  l»  be  a  kitnw. 
Tbt  kUHfUc  ef  Wmkat  at  onellB*  enbtand  ta  nna  af 
dnol  (900  aq.  aa.  iDd  had  abant  990,000  lahabiuatt.  A  ne« 
bUufafa  o(  WOBbnig  waicnalid  in  1S17. 

rt,  Ei»  MdaMMriKlM 
Si  tb.    tWimiu  «d    I'm 

n  lUi]:  U.  Cronthal,  JMt 

SI  ire,  iBgj);  HefFner.  Wurt- 

im  >d  Holler.  JtoItruikiaM 

Ai  !  luuvenliy  w  F.  X  vea 

lb  '4^Sdi'*''^%^ 

W  Hiftiinwf  Hrd  Ar  AmdHrn, 

fV  u   Wintitri  (WflnbniK 

IS  it  Ciaafl  (far  BiuUti  M 

'f  .     .  . 

WURZSX^  a  town  ol  Gennany  in  tbe  kingdom  of  Saxony,  oa 
tbe  Molda,  hen  ooaaBd  by  two  bridge*,  isji  m.  by  rail  N.E.  of 
Lopaig  on  the  mam  line  (vi*  Kieaa)  to  Dreaden.  Fi^.  (190]! 
ir^ii.  It  baa  a  caibedral  dating  from  tbo  iilh  century,  a 
caitle,  ai  ope  lime  a  naidence  of  the  biabopa  of  Meiiacn  and 
BOW  utilued  a*  law  courla,  Kveial  acboola  and  an  agricuUvTal 
college-  llie  ioduitnc*  compnse  itoa-fovnding,  weaving  and 
brewing,  and  the  inaUng  of  macbtnety,  cupeta,  d^ra.  Ivnuturt. 


WUTTKE— WYAT,  SIR  THOMAS 


$6 1 


Vhamm  vtsfoiuiM  t^  tlw  Sorbi,  aM  wm  a  town  eariy  i»  tiM 
I3th  century:  when  Herwig,  biahop  of  Mdsscn,  founded  a  monasteiy 
here.  In  15^1  it  parsed  to  the  elector  of  Saxooy,  and  in  the  Thirty 
YeaiV  War  was  laclBed  by  the  Swedci. 

WtJTTKE,  KARL  FRIED1UCH  AOOtP  (1819-1&70),  Gmnaa 
Protestant  theologian,  was  bom  at  Brulau  on  the  xoth  of 
November  1819.  He  studied  theology  at  Bitslau,  Berlin  and 
Halle*,  where  Jbe  cven^ua%  became  profeaeor  ordinariua;  and 
is  known  as  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  Christian  ethics  (Hand' 
buck  der  chrisUichen  SiUenkhret  X860-1863,  3rd  ed.  1874-1875; 
Eng.  trans.,  New  Yorkr  1873)  and  works  on  heathen  religioa 
(Die  CesckUhU  des  HeidetUums,  1851-1853)  and  supexatition 
(Der  deutscke  Volksaberglaube  der  Gegatmart,  1865,  sod  «1 
1 869).  He  died  on  the  1 2th  of  April  1870. 

WYANDOT,  or  Hukon  (^.9.),  a  tribe  of.N.  American  Indians 

of  Iroquoian  stock.   When  fiist  met  by  the  Ftench  eady  in  the 

17  th  ocnturxi  \ht  Wyandots  lived  between  Geocgian  Bay  and 

Lake  Simooe,  Ontario.    They  were  then  estimated  at  about 

10,000,  scattered  over  twenty  viUageSb    They  were  continually 

the  victims  of  raids  on  the  part  of  their  neighbours  the  Iroquoian 

league  of  six  luitions  and  4he  Sioux,  being  driven  from  place 

to  place,  and  a  dispersal  in  1650  resulted  in  one  section  settling 

in  Quebec,  while  others  found  their  way  to  Ohio,  where  tb^ 

fought  for  the  EngUsh  in  the  Wars  of  Independence  and  2812. 

By  a  treaty  made  in  18x7  the  latter  section  was  granted 

territory  in  Ohio  and  Michigan,  but  the  larger  part  of  this  was 

sold  in  28x9.  In  1843  they  migrated  to  Kansas.   In  1855 

many  became  citizens,  the  remainder  being  in  1867  removed  to  a 

reservation  (now  N.£.  Oklahoma),  numbering  about  400  in  1905. 

The  Hurons  at  Lorctte,  in  Quebec,  also  number  about  40a 

Sec  Handbook  of  American  Indians,  cd.  F.  \V.  Hodge  (Washington, 
1907),  a.v.  *'  Huron." 

WYANDOTTE,  a  dty  of  Wayne  county,  Michigan,  U.S.A., 
on  the  Detroit  liver,  about  <^  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Detroit.  Pop^ 
(xgoo)  5x83,  of  whom  1967  wet«i  foreign>born;  (1904)  S4>S» 
(19x0)  8287.  It  is  served  by  the  Michigan  Central,  the  Lake 
Shore  &  Michigan  Southern,  the  Detrnt,  Toledo  &  Ironton,  and 
(for  freight  on^)  the  Detroit  &  Toledo  Shore  Line  railways,  and 
by  two  interurlwi  electric  lines.  Salt  and  limestone  are  found 
here  and  the  dty  has  various  manufactures.  Wyandotte  was 
first  settled  aboot  X820,  was  laid  out  as  a  town  in  X854,  and 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1867. 

WYANDOTTE  CAVE,  a  cave  in  Jenninffi  township,  Crawford 
county,  Indiana,  U.S.A.,  5  m.  N.E.  of  Leavenworth,  on  the 
Ohio  fiver»  and  X2  m.  from  Corydon,  the  early  territorial  capitaL 
The  nearest  railway  station  is  Milltown,  9  m.  distant  The  cave 
is  in  a  rugged  npon  of  hi{^  limestone  hills,  in  one  of  which  its 
main  entrance  is  found,  220  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  Blue 
river,  whose  oiiginal  name,  the  Wyandotte,  was  transferred  to 
the  cave  by  Governor  David  Wallace;  it  having  previously  been 
styled  the  Mammoth  Cave  of  Indiana,  the  Epsom  Salts  Cave, 
and  the  Indiana  Saltpetre  (^ve.  The  exact  date  of  discovery 
is  not  known;  but  eariy  records  show  it  to  have  been  pre- 
empted by  a  Dr  Adams  in  x8i  2  for  the  manufacture  of  saltpetre, 
and  his  vats  and  hoM>ers  are  still  to  be  seeiL  Af  tor  the  War  of 
18x2  he  relinquished  his  daim;  and  in  x8x9  the  ground  was 
bought  firom  the  United  States  government  by  Henry  P.  Roth- 
rock,  whose  heirs  are  its  owners.  The  earliest  account  is  in 
Flint's  Geography  (1831);  the  &rst  official  report  of  it  was  by 
Dr  R.  T.  Brown  (1831);  and  it  was  first  mapped  by  the  writer 
(1855),  whose  map  was  reposed  by  John  Ollett,  state  geologist 
(X878).  No  instrumental  survey  has  been  made,  nor  have  all 
its  intricate  windings  been  explored.  Its  known  passages 
aggregate  more  than  23  m.  in  length,  and  144  places  are  named 
as  noteworthy.  The  Old  Cave  "  contains  the  saltpetre  works, 
and  ends  in  a  remarkable  chamber  exactly  X44  ft.  long  and  56  ft. 
wide,  in  which  stands  the  PiUar  of  the  Constitution,  a  stalagmitic 
column  perfectly  Cylindrical  and  71  It.  in  drcumferenoe,  entirely 
composed  of  crystalline  carbonate  of  Ume  .(satin-^>ar),  fluted 
and  snow-white.  A  cavity  in  the  column  was  first  claimed  by 
H.  C,  Howey  as  a  prehistoric  quany,  proved  to  be  such  by  the 
stag  horns  and  boulder  pounders  found  in*  its  vidaity.    His 


careful  estimate  of  the  rate  of  stahgmitlc  growth  showed  that 
xooo  years  would  have  been  needed  to  form  the  lip  now  covering 
theincasioB* 

^  In  the  N.  arm  of  the  newer  part  of  the  cave,  opened  in  1850,  is  an 
urnneaae  room,  styled  Rothrock's  Cathedral.  1000  ft.  in  cimimfercnoe 
aod  aoo  ft.  Ugh,  with  a  rugged  centml  hUl  X35  ft.  high,  surmoanted 
by  statuescfue  stalagmite^  near  which  is  anotber  quarry  of  satin- 
spar  with  similar  fragments,  pounders 
and  aboriginal  rebcs.  When  Mr 
Hovcv  visited  this  cave  in  1S55  he 
founa  many  extinct  torehoa,  charaoal 
embers,  poJes  and  (louodciB,  an  well 
as  numerous  footprints,  in  the  soft 
nitroous  earth  ot  certain  avenues. 
which  were  left  by  exirforing  parties 
previous  to  the  coming  of  the  white 
man. 

In  the  Pillared  Palace  a  number  of 
lai^  alabaster  shafts  had  been  thrown 
down  and  fragments  carried  away. 
Near  by  were  so^aUed  "  bcar-waUows, " 
which  proved  to  be  the  remains  of 
an  aboriginal  workshop,  where  masses 
of  flint  were  broken  into  rectangular 
blocks;  and  spalls  and  flint-ehipe  en- 
cumber  the  floor  and  choke  the 
passace-way.  Milroy's  Temple  is  a 
magnificent  room,  100  by  150  ft  in 
its  dimensions.  It  contains  many 
remarkable  formations  t  and  its  dis- 
play of  helictitca,  or  twisted  stabictitcs, 
IS  unsurpassed. 

As  Wyandotte  Cave  has  no  large 
ktreams  and  few  pools  or  springs,  its 
fauna  and  flora  are  not  extensive. 
Formerly  bears,  wolves  and  other  wild 
animak  took -refine  in  its  fastscsscs; 
and  bats,  rats,  mice  and  salamanders 
arc  frequent  visitors.  Blind  crawfish 
(Cambarus  peKucidus^nbahit  the  Craw- 
fish Spring.  Cave  crickets  (i^odnMcetu 
snbterraneus)  abound.  A  dozen  kinds 
of  ^  insects^  with   a   few   varieties  of 

Sfders,   ihcs  and   worms,    complete 
e  meagre  Kst.    The  flora  indude 
mainlv  forns  brought  in  from  the 

(outside. 
For  more  full  descriptions  of  Wyandotte  Clave  and  its  contents^ 
see  Hovey's  Celebrated  American  Caverns,  pp.  123-153;     Indiana 
Sute  Geological  Reports,  by  R.  T  Brown,  E.  T.  Cox,  John  Collett 


and  W.  S.  Blatchley;     aiid  concerning  cave  fauna  rnorts  and 
by  C  H.  E^geamann,  professor  of  zooHogy,  Incfaana  Stats 
niversity.  ^^     (a  C  H.) 


pai)er8 
Umver 

WTAMT,  AiEKAIDBR  H.  (x8s6«i892),  Aisericn  astist^ 
was  bom  at  Port  Washington,  Ohio,  on*  the  ixdialJaMiaiy 
X836.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Hans  (Sudo  in  Carlsruhe,  oiprauaiy; 
A  trip  with  a  govwnment  exploring  expeditisn  in  the  west 
of  America  undominod  his  health,  anU  he  painted  Aiamty  iis 
the  high  altitudes  of  the  Adirondack  Mountains.  Hewaselecteil 
a  full  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design,  New  Yovk, 
in  X869,  and  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  29th  of  November 
X892.  He  was  only  moderately  iqipredated  during  his  lifetioWy 
though  after  his  dnth  his  works  were  eagerly  sou^^t  for. 

WYAT.  SIR  THOMAS  (r503^x548),  EnglUi  poet  and  •tnte*' 
man,  elder  son  of  fienxy  Wyat,  or  Wiat,  aftSrwaids  knighCsd, 
and  his  wife  Anney  dau^ter  of  John  Skinner  of  Rcfgate,  Saxreyy 
was  boxn  at  Allington  Castle,  near  Maidstone,.  Kent,  in  1503. 
His  father  <x46o«x537)  bekmged  to  a  Yorkshire  family,  but 
bought  Allington  about  X493.  He  was  sn  adherent  of  the 
Lancastrian  party,  and  was  imprisoned  and  pot  to  the  tortviu 
by  Richard  IH.  The  family  records  (in  the  possession  of  the 
earl  of  Romaey)  relate  that  during  lus  impiisomncnt  he  was  saved 
from  starvation  by  a  cat  that  brought  him  pigeons.  At  the 
accession  of  Henry  VIL  he  bteune  knight  of  the  Bath  (r509),' 
knight  banneret  (1513)  and  held  various  offices  at  court  H^ 
son,  Thomas  Wyat,  was  admitted  at  St  Jofan^Collcge,C:8nibridge, 
when  about  twdve  yeaxs  of  age,  took  his  B.A.  degree  in  X5t8> 
aiui  pvoeeeded  M.A.  In  X522.  The  vugue  statement  of  Anthony 
i  Wood  {Atkm.  Own.  i,  104),  that  he  was  transfentd  to  Ozibi4 
to  attend  Wolsey%  ntfw  coUege  there,  has  no  foiindstibn  in  fact* 
He  manied  very  eariy  Hituheth  Brookflr  daughter  of <  the  jmi 


86> 

LadCalikML  IW aiHriMe «*•  ■ 
<i9lh  Muck  isj})  bom  Uw  bdy'i  b 
"  tt  Hut  Wyit  hi  ' 


WYAT,  5IR  THOMAS 


^3)  ipali  lA  her  li»vui(  been  »- 

,     Al  oily  U    I51A  W)rU  WU  SCTTH 

ind  m  i;i4  he  «u  U  couit  u  keeper 
t  «u  one  of  the  duunpions  in  the 
iji;.  Ui>  lather  hw)  tMeu  usocuted 
wUk  Sir  Tbonui  Boleyn  M  comt^le  ot  Norwich  Cailie^  ud  be 
hftd  thiu  been  euly  uqiuioted  whh  Anne  Boleyn.  Re  ippein 
to  hive  been  geneiBUy  leguded  u  her  lover,  but  it  it  pouible 
that  the  reUlions  between  them  were  meiely  nt  the  fuhioiuhle 
pBctic  lort.  In  1510  he  wu  lent  with  Sir  Tbonus  Cheney  to 
CongrituUte  Fnndi  I.  on  hit  ule  telum  from  Spain;  in  isi? 
be  acciuiipuied  Sir  Jidrn  RiuscU,  iltenrudt  itt  eul  o!  Bedford, 
on  in  embuay  to  the  p^ial  court.  He  wu  Kot  by  Rutielt. 
Kbo  wu  liiciT>witated  by  a  broken  leg,  to  negotiate  with  the 
Venetian  republic.  On  hii  return  Joureey  to  Rome  be  wat 
takta  priRHter  hy  the  Spaniih  troop*,  who  denuiuied  30CS  ducati 
lor  Id*  nmom,  bnt  he  contrived  to  eKtpe.  In  ijiS  he  wu 
tcthtg  ai  hi^  nianhal  at  Cilaii  with  a  salary  of  Iwo  ihlUinp  per 
day,  and  wai  only  sopcisoted  in  November  1530.  Duiinj  the 
foDowing  yean  he  wai  conttanily  employed  in  Henry's  service, 
fnd  wu  apparently  hifh  in  hii  [avour.  He  waa,  bowevei,  tent 
to  the  Tower  in  isje,  pertupe  hecauie  it  wu  desired  tint  h« 
tbouU  incrimlute  the  queen.  Hii  fathci'i  coriespondence  wlih 
CiDdiwtU  doa  not  tuggat  that  hli  irreet  bad  anything  to  do 
with  the  proceeding!  agtinK  Anne  Boleyn,  hut  the  connenon 
li  uarated  (XiMeri  and  Paftri  of  Htarj  VIII.  voL  i.  No.  9rQ) 
In  the  Ictten  ol  John  Huaiey  to  lord  Lisle,  deputy  ol  Cilais. 
The  Roman  Catholic  writer,  Nicholu  Rupsfield,  makes  * 
csrcumstantial  sUklcment  {Fiettnitd  Ditura  .  .  .  Camden  Soc. 
p.  isj)  that  Wyit  had  conlaaed  hia  lolfanlcy  with  Anne  to 
Henry  VIII.  tod  warned  him  against  marrying  her;  but  thii, 
k  view  ol  hit  continued  favour,  seems  highly  impiobahlc.    He 

of  that  year  took  pan  in  the  luppnM 
-    riMng,    In  March  ISJ7  he  was  knighted, 

4enl  abroiid  at  amhosador  to  CHailet  V.,  whose  ill-will  had  been 
tevived  by  (be  dedantion  of  the  iUe^timacy  of  the  ptiDceas 
lluy.  In  I  SjS  he  wu  joined  by  Edmund  Bonner,  tbcn  a  unipk 
priest,  tnd  one  Simon  Haynes,  and  aeems  to  have  been  ajhamed 
of  their  bad  marmen,  and  to  have  oflended  them  in  various  ways. 
Bonsn  had  erldatly  been  desired  by  Thoma  Cnnvdl  to  end 
hta  own  account  of  the  negoliationa.  He  nmle  to  CromweU 
<nd  Sept  ijiB)  ■  long  letter  (Petyt  MS.  47,  Middle  Temple; 
tnC  printed  in  the  CMttMOH'r  Uaiadni,  June  1850]  in  whidi  he 
Kcined  WyM  ef  diiloyaky  to  the  king's  intciesU,  and  of 
y[i»»l  iligUs  to  hunieU.  Wyai  wai  unsuccessful 
difficnh  iffsiB  enlnuted  to  bim,  but  10  king  at  Cromwdl  ruled 
ke  had  K  finii  f  ilend  at  court,  and  no  notice  wu  taken  of  Bonnti 
»  have  taken 


o(  the  emjeim-  TTw  lieat  brongbt  on  >  fever  lo  vUch  hi 
lUccuDibcd  at  Sheibonie,  Tkiiiet,'on  the  nth  of  Octoticr.  A 
Latin  elegy  on  bis  death  was  wiitlm  by  hii  fooid  John  Ldud, 

and  Heniy  Howard,  eirl  ol  Surrey,  eelehnted  his  niemoiy  in 
some  weD.known  lines  beginnmg  "  Wyat  rratetk  here,  Ihit 
lick  ondd  tiever  test,"  and  In  two  sonnets. 
Wyat'i  work  (alls  readily  bio  two  divldans:  the  sonndi, 
ndeius,  and  lyric  poems  dealing  with  love;  and  the  satires  Ukd 
re  version  of  the  penitential  psalms.  The  love  poems  probib!y 
date  from  before  his  hrst  imprisonment.  A  large  number  were 
published  b  1557  hi  Santa  and  Sondla  [ToUtTi  MiueUany). 
Wyit's  contrihutlons  number  96  out  ol  a  total  of  jro.  That 
lave  txen  supplemented  from  MSS.  Re  wu  the  phaea  of  the 
«nnet  In  England,  and  the  acknowledged  leader  ol  the  "  company 
if  courtly  makers  who  .  .t.  having  tnvailedfn  Italic  and  there 
Luled  the  iweet  and  stately  measures  and  stile  of  the  Italiin 
Porsie,  u  novices  newly  crept  out  of  the  schoolei  of  Dante, 
Uoste  ind  Fetrarche,  greatly  pollishcd  our  rude  and  homely 
naner  of  vulgar  Poesie,  from  that  it  had  been  before  "  (Puttcn- 
iim's  Artel Enslish  P'Oi'.  iSBq).'  Wvat  wrote  hi  iH  thirty-one 
lonnets,  ten  of  whfdi  art  direct  transblbns  of  Petrarcfa.  The 
icntlment  Is  itrauied  and  (rti&dsL  Wyat  shows  to  greater 
idvantage  b  his  lyrical  metres,  b  bli  epignms  and  longs, 
specially  b  those  wriiieff  for  tnujlc,"  where  he  Is  lest  hampered 
by  the  conventions  of  the  Pettiwan  tradltioo,  to  which  his 
flngulai^y  robust  and  frank  nature  was  iU.fitted.  Hit  thought  b 
generally  tar  in  advance  of  his  technical  skill,  and  his  disdple 
Surrey  bis  been  far  more  widely  recognized,  chiefly  because  ol  the 
superiorsmoothncss  of  his  versification.  His  woiks  are  preserved 
m  a  MS.  in  possession  of  the  Harrington  family,  which 
ori^Tioliy  beiongod  to  Wyat  himself,  and  in  another  bekm^ng 
to  the  duke  of  Devonshire  in  which  are  btcribed  tlie  namel  of 
Wyai's  lister,  Margaret  Lee,  and  ol  the  ducbesg  of  Rkhmond, 
Surrey's  slater.  The  lent  dlHers  conuderably  from  Toltel^ 
which  has  been  genwally  adopted.    Wyat  wrote  three  eiccneni 


wu'rscailed  in  April  1JJ4,  but  later  In  th«  lame  yru  he 
employed  on  itnlber  embassy  to  the  empooi,  who  «u  on  bis 
way  to  the  Low  Counlriei.  After  Ctomwell'i  death  Wyat'i 
enemiei  renewed  their  attacks,  and  ha  wu  imprisoned  (17th 
Jan.  1541)  b  the  Tower  en  the  idd  dtaigei,  with  die  nddilionel 
uruHiion  of  tressonaUe  conequndence  with  Cudiul  Reginald 
Fide.  Beb«  pdntely  inlorated  of  the  Uatun  of  the  d 
be  pKfwed  an  eloquent  and  mudy  defence  at  kit  oondoct : 
dacancnli  nddKSMd  to  the  Fii*y  Coondl  lad  to  hii  M 
■hick  be  deund  kimelf  effectually  sod  eipoud  U>  no 
notlvea.  ft  wu  rdeued  at  the  intanwn  of  dw  1 
Catharine  Boward,  on  oondition  that  he  confestcd  Ui  gw 
toi*  huk  kb  wife,  from  whom  he  had  beta  scpwited  for  fiftaea 
}«in,  on  |M*i  dI  death  il  be  wen  tkenoeiortb  untne  M  her  <ue 
CkipoyB  to  Chniki  V..,  Hani  iS4>>'  He  ncdved  a  tmal 
B  tb*  silt  of  Han^  and  jcceived  dariat  tke  yeu 
'  awba  of  the  kbg't  lavonr.  In  the 
m  waa  sent  to  FaloMitth  to  meet  Ui 


ti  and  sine  estate,"  dedfcai 


(0  John  I 


"  Of  the  Couitiei's  Ufe," 
coutt  and  himself."  They  are  written  lb  Una  rim*  end  b  fona 
and  matter  <nm  much  to  Lofgi  Alamnnni.  In  ilie  "  Teniiential 
Psalms  "  each  is  preceded  by  a  prologue  descriMng  the  drcum- 
stances  under  which  the  psalmlat  wrote,  and  the  psalms  thea- 
selves  are  very  fiedy  puapkmed,  with  much  original  matter 
Irnn  the  author,  iliey  were  ptibUthcd  in  15*9  by  Tkemu 
tUynald  and  John  Htitington  as  CtrUync  PitJma  .  .  .  droan 
tnu  Bx^isk  miltr  h  Sir  Tktmat  Wyal  KnytU. 

US  were  nriaied  nMll  tfleen  wars  after 
h  Mm.  ThaaandardeittlieBc/hbwariit 

ii  nsiita  Ibe  Mund  volaoa  (1(16)  of  Til 

V  tWSumy.  and  <f  Sir  TlumaiWfiillU 
E  nemoir.  Some  family  panen,  now  in 
cl  f  Komney,  were  ooHecttd  bv  Richard 

V  IheaitBadaioT^iJAilin^&ilkT 
;  rowse.  See  al»  BivKr  and  Caiidner. 
L  VIII.  (eipecially  from  mfi  to  is4y; 
7                                          "~u  WwH  |i«6«,  »1tha  memoir  in  lie 

a  fa  and  SoinHUH  (1870)  b  hi>  RmMi 

I  GoBuu  WyiR  .  .  ."-  (1886).  in  ICuur 

I  (I.  PkiUoii,,  glviBB  »  fun  account  of 

K  W.  E.  Simoiidj,  Sir   ntmai   WytU 

C  hope.  ma.  of  £■(.  i;«frT,TOl.  11.  (1897). 

tj  it  devoted  to  a  cridcal  itudy  of  Wyat: 

E  idial]berlieitfunidErCciticbuvoa5ir 

1  ,  vol.  iviu.;  FTm.  Padellcnl.  Evfy 

WTAT,  >IB  THDHU  <d.  is;t), English  conspirator,  son  of  the 


miMLJnn  to  Spain,  and  10  have  been  turned  bto  an  oicmy  of  the 

>  Ed.  ].  HadewDod.  AocUnI  Cr^tital  Eiiayi,  1.  48  (l*Il)-. 

>  One  ol  ihe  moa  miBical  ol  the  piece*  pnnled  In  Jut  work* 
ho»cv«,  "The  Lover  comrisyneth  llie  unkindiw  of  hia  Love." 
berinninB  "  My  hite,  »w«ke."  ii  lometiniee  attributed  to  Geoige 
B.arrii.  Lord  Rodilonl  {«e  E.  BapK.  Mb  Ciiiiititl  iimi  fttlu 
AJt  «r  dt  Bimi  VIII,  p.  tui. 


WYATT— WYCHERLEY 


863 


SjpMdMdb  by'tke'iMOMBs  of  the  laqoUtioii.  b  t$37  be 
married  Jtiie,  daq^ter  oC  Sir  ViHUiain  Hewte  of  Bobopeboime 
fe  Kent,  by-  whom  he  had  ten  children.  Wyat  was  noted  in  hit 
youth  aa  diaaqiated,  and  even  as  disMderly.  He  is  known  to 
bave  had  anatond  aon,  whoie  mother  Elisabeth  was  a  dam^ter 
ot  Sir  Edward  Darrdl  of  Littkcote.  In  1542  he  inherited  the 
family  property  of  Allington  CaMle  and  Boxley  Abbey  on  the 
death  of  his  father.  From  xs43  to  1550  he  saw  service  abroad  as 
a  soldier.  In  1554  he  joined  with  the  conspirators  who  combined 
to  prevent  the  marriage  of  Queen  Mary  with  Philip  the  prince  ol 
Spain,  afterwards  King  Ph&ip  IL  A  genend  movement  was 
planned;  but  his  fellow-Kxmspinton  wen  timid  and  inept, 
the  rising  was  serious  only  in  Kent,  and  Wyat  became  a  formid- 
able lebd  mostly  by  acddent.  On  the  amd  of  January  1554, 
he  summoned  a  meeting  of  his  friends  at  his  castle  of  Allington, 
and  the  ssth  was  fixed  for  the  rising.  On  the  s6th  Wyat  occupied 
Rochester,  and  issued  a  prorlatnafion  to  the  county.  The 
country  people  and  local  gentry  c<rflected,  but  at  first  the  queen's 
supporters,  led  by  Lord  Abergavenny  and  Sir  Robert  Southwdl, 
the  sheriff,  appeared  to  be  able  to  suppress  the  rising  with  ease, 
gaining  some  successes  against  isobtted  bands  of  the  insnrgesits. 
But  the  Spanish  marriage  waa  unpopular,  and  Kent  waa  moro 
affected  by  the  preaching  of  the  rdormcis  than  most  of  the 
country  districts  of  Ea^aad.  Abergavenny-  and  Southwell 
were  deserted  by  their  men,  who  cither  disbanded  or  went  over  to 
Wyat.  A  detachment  ol  the  London  traln.baads  sent  against 
htim  by  Queen  Mary,  under  the  command  of  the  duke  ef  Norfolk^ 
Mlowed  their  example.  The  rismg  now  seemed  so  fonnklahle 
that  a  deputation  was  sent  to  Wyat  by  the  queen  and  council 
to  ask  for  his  terms.  He  insisted  that  the  Tower  should  be 
surrendered  to  him,  and  the  queen  put  under  his  charge.  The 
insolence  of  these  demands  caused  a  reaction  in  London,  where 
the  reformers  were  strong  and  were  at  first  in  sympathy  with  hnn. 
When  he  reached  Southwaxk  on  the  3rd  of  February  he  found 
London  Bridge  occupied  in  force,  and  was  unable  to  penetrate 
into  the  dty.  He  was  driven  from  Soutfawark  by  the.threats  of 
Sir  John  Bxydges  (or  Bruges),  afterwards  Lord  Chandos,  who 
was  prepared  to  fire  on  the  suburb  with  the  guns  of  the  Tower. 
Wyat  now  marched  up  the  river  to  Kingston,  where  he  crossed 
the  Thames,  and  made  his  way  to  Lndgate  with  a  part  ef  his 
foUowing.  Some  of  his  men  were  cut  off .  Others  lost  heart  and 
deserted.-  His  only  hope  was  that  a  rising  would  take  place, 
but  the  loyal  forces  kept  order,  and  after  a  futile  attempt  to  force 
the  gate  Wyat  surrendered.  He  was  brou^t  to  trial  on  the  1 5th 
of  March,  and  could  make  no  defence.  Execution  was  for  a  time 
delayed,  no  doubt  in  the  hope  that  in  order  to  save  his  life 
be  would  say  enough  to  compromise  the  queen's  sister  Elixabeth, 
afterwards  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  whose  interests  the  rising  was 
supposed  to  have  been  made.  But  he  would  not  confess  enough 
to  render  her  liable  to  a  trial  for  treason.  He  was  executed  on  the 
nth  of  April,  and  on  the  scaffold  expressly  deared  tUb  princess 
of  all  complicity  in  the  rising.  His  estates  were  afterwards  partly 
restored  to  his  son  George,  the  father  ol  the  Sir  Fmncis  Wyat 
(d.  1644)  who  was  governor  of  Virgiaia  hi  1691-26  and  1639- 
1642.  A  fragment  of  the  castle  of  Allington  is  still  iidiabited 
as  a  fann-hoose,  near  Maidstone,  on  the  bank  of  the  Medway. 

See  G.  F.  Nott,  Works  of  Surrey  and  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyat  (1815); 
and  Froude,  UisUtry  cf  England. 

WYkTt,JAXB8  (1746-1813),  En^ish  architect,  was  bom  at 
Burton  Constable  m  Staffordshire  on  the  3rd  of  August  1746. 
He  was  the  sixth  son  of  Benjamin  Wyatt,  a  fiumer,  timber 
merchant  and  builder.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  his  taste  for 
drawing  attracted  the  attention  of  Lord  Bagot,  newly  appointed 
ambasndor  to  the  pope,  who  took  him  with  him  to  Rome,  where 
he  spent  five  or  six  years  in  studying  architecture.  He  returned 
to  England  in  1766,  and  gained  his  first  great  success  by  the 
adaptation  for  dramatic  purposes  of  the  Pantheon  in  Oxford 
Street,  London  (1772)1  n  work  which  waa  destroyed  by  fire 
twenty  years  later.  In  1776  he  was  made  surveyor  of  West« 
minster  Abbey,  and  in  1778  and  the  followmg  years  executed 
many  important  commisnons  at  Oxford. 

During  this  earlier  period   Wyatt  shaied  the  prevailing 


oootenpl  for  G«life  avehiteetais;  thus  the  New  Bttildii«s  at 
Msgdaini  College,  Oxford,  designfri  by  him,  formed  part  of  a 
schme,  the  plans  for  which  are  extant,  which  involved  the 
demoKtiOB  ef  the  famous  medieval  quadrangle  and  ctoistecs.  He 
built  many  country  hotees  in  the  dsosic  style,  of  which  he  proved 
himaelf  a  master.  Gradually,  however,  he  turned  hia  attention 
to  Gothic,  the  spirit  of  which,  in  spite  of  his  diligent  stndy  of 
medieval  models,  he  never  understood.  The  result  is  still  visible 
m  such  *'  Gdthk"  fresfcsas  that  at  Aahiidge  Park,  Hertfordshire, 
built  for  Lord  Bridgewater  to  replace  the  ancient  piiocy,  and  in 
the  laaMntaUe  **  restorations,"  $4,  m  Sahsbury  and  UchfidA 
cathedrals,  which  earned  for  him  even  anions  contemporary 
arcfaatt>k)gists  the  title  of  "  the  Destroyer."  Of  these  Gothic 
e^etieaenta  the  moot  celebrated  waa  Fonthill  Abbey,  built 
for  Beckford  (the  eoosntric  author  oi  Vatkek),  the  great 
tower  of  which  speedily  orflapsed,  while  nuKh  of  the 
rest  has  been  pulled  down.  None  the  less,  Wyatt  nnist  be 
regarded  as  the  pioneer  of  the  "  Gothic  revival,"  while  his 
gCDeral  hUhience  may  be  gauged  by  the  faKt  that  neady  every 
county  and  large  town  in  England  possesses  or  possessed 
hniMinpliy  bias. 

On  the  death  of  Sir  William  Chambcn  hi  1796,  he  was 
appointed  survcyor<general  to  the  Board  ef  Worka.  In  1785  he 
became  a  member  ef  the  Reyal  Academy,  and  during  a  mis- 
understandsng  between  Benjmnia  West  and  the  Acaitemy,  in 
1805,  he  filled  the  preaidenrial  office  at  the  widi  of  King  George 
m.  He  was  killed  ^  a  fall  from  his  carriage  on  the  4th  of 
September  1813,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  His 
sou,  Benjamin  Dean  Wyatt  (i77$«r85o?),  who  succeeded  hha 
as  surveyor  ef  Westminster  Abbey,  was  also  an  architect  of  some 


WTCHBRLEV,  WILUAM  (c.  i64»-r7x6),  English  dramatist, 
waa  bom  about  1640  at  Clive,  near  Shiewsbnry,  where  for 
several  generatipns  his  family  had  been  settled  on  a  moderate 
estate  of  about  ^600  a  year.  Like  Vanbrugh,  Wycheriey  spent 
his  early  yean  in  Ftsace,  whither,  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  he  was 
sent  to  be  educated  in  the  very  heart  of  the  *'  predowa  "  drde 
onthebaaksof  theCharente.  Wycheriey's  friend,  Major  Fad:, 
tells  us  that  his  hero  *'  improved,  with  the  greatest  refinements," 
the  "extnoKUnary  talents"  for  which  he  was  ** obliged  to 
natnre."  Although  the  harmless  affectations  of  the  drele  of 
Madame  de  Mmitausier,  formeriy  Madame  de  Ramboullet. 
are  certainly  not  chargeable  with  the  "  refinements  "  of  Wycher- 
ley's  comedies'  comsdies  which  caused  even  his  great  admirer 
Voltah«  to  say  afterwavds  of  them,  *'  li  semble  que  ks  Anglab 
prennent  tnp  de  liberty  et  que  les  Francaises  n'en  prennent 
pes  asses  "—these  same  affectations  seem  to  have  been  much 
more  potent  m  regard  to  the  "  rcfinemenu "  of  Wycherley's 
religion.         .  .       ^ 

Wycherley,  thoui^  a  man  of  far  more  faitellectoa!  power  than 
is  generally  supposed,  was  a  fine  gentleman  first,  a  responsible 
behig  afterwards.  Hence  under  the  manipulations  of  the 
heroine  of  the  **  Garland  **  he  turned  from  the  Protestantism 
of  hb  fathen  to  Romanism— turned  at  once,  and  with  the  same 
easy  alacrity  as  afterwards,  at  Oxford,  he  turned  back  to  Pro* 
testantism  under  the  manipulations  of  such  an  accomplished 
master  in  the  art  of  tumfaig  as  Bishop  Barlow.  And  if,  as 
Macaulay  hints,  Wycheriey's  turning  back  to  Romanism  once 
more  had  something  to  do  with  the  patronage  and  unwonted 
liberality  of  James  11.,  this'  merely  proves  that  the  deity  he 
worshipped  was  the  deity  of  the  **  pclUte  world  *'  of  his  time— 
gentility.  Moreover,  as  a  profcsiional  fine  gentieraan,  at  a 
period  when,  as  the  genial  Major  Plsck  says,  **  the  amours  of 
Britabi  would  furnish  as  diverting  mem<^  if  well  r^ted,  as 
those  of  France  published  by  Rabutin,  or  those  of  Nero's  court 
writ  by  Petronhis,"  Wycherley  was  obUged  to  be  a  loose  liver. 
But,  for  all  that,  Wycheriey's  sobriquet  of  **  Manly  Wycheriey  " 
seems  to  have  been  fairly  earned  by  him,  earned  by  that  frank 
and  straightforward  way  of  confronting  life  which,  according 
to  Pope  and  Swift,  characterised  also  Us  brnUant  saccessor 
Vanbrugh. 

That  effort  of  Wychscle/B  to  bring  to  BdddmMi^  uMlee 


864 


WYCHERLEY 


thecaie  o£  Sainiid  Butler  (t&ihaintfatty  neglected  by  the  ooart 
Butler  had  served)  shows  that  the  writer  of  even  such  heartless 
plays  as  The  Country  Wife  may  be  lamilkr  with  generous  !»• 
palses,  while  his  uncompromising  lines  in  defence  of  Buckingham, 
when  the  duke  in  his  turn  fdl  into  trouble,  show  that  the  in- 
ventor of  so  shameless  a  fraud  as  that  which  forms  the  pivot  of 
The  Plain  Dealer  may  in  actual  life  possess  that  passion  for 
fairplay  which  is  believed  to  be  a  ^tedally  English  quality.  But 
among  the  "ninety-nine"  religions  with  which  Voltaire  ac- 
credited England  tbueie  is  one  vdioae  permanency  has  never  been 
shaken — the  worship  of  gentility.  To  this  Wydierley  remuned 
as  faithful  to  the  day  of  his  death  as  Congreve  himself.  And, 
if  his  relations  to  that  "  other  world  bcyood  this,"  which  the 
Furitaos  had  adopted,  were  liable  to  change  with  his  envirtm- 
ments,  it  was  because  that  **  other  worid  "  was  really  oat  of 
fashion  altogether. 

Wycherley's  umveraty  career  seems  also  to  have  been  in- 
fluenced by  the  same  causes.  Although  Puritanism  had  certainly 
not  contaminated  the  universities^  yet  English  **  quality  and 
politeness  "  (to  use  Major  Pack's  words)  have  always,  since  the 
great  rebellion,  been  rather  ashamed  of  possessfaig  too  much 
learning.  As  a  fellow-commoner  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
Wycberley  only  lived  (according  to  Wood)  in  the  provost's 
lodgings,  being  entered  in  the  public  library  under  the  title  of 
"  Philosophise  Studiosus  "  in  July  1660.  And  he  does  not  seem 
to  have  matriculated  or  to  have  taken  a  degree. 

Nor  when,  on  quitting  Oxford,  he  took  up  hfs  residence  in 
the  Inner  Temple,  where  he  had  been  entered  in  1659,  did  he 
pve  any  more  attention  to  the  dry  study  of  the  law  than  was 
proper  to  one  so  warmly  caressed  "  by  the  persons  most  eminent 
for  their  quality  or  politeness."  Pleasure  and  the  stage  were 
alone  open  to  him,  and  probably  eatly  ih  1671  was  produced, 
at  the  Theatre  Royal,  Love  in  a  Wood,  It  was  published  the  next 
year.  With  regard  to  this  comedy  Wycberley  told  Pope--^told 
him  *'  over  and  over  "  Ull  Pope  believed  him — ^believed  him, 
at  lesst,  until  they  quarrelled  about  Wycherley's  versefr^that 
he  wrote  it  the  year  before  he  went  to  Oxford.  But  we  need 
not  believe  him:  the  worst  witness  against  a  man  is  mostly 
himself.  To  pose  aa  the  wicked  boy  of  genius  has  been  the 
foolidi  ambition  of  many  writers,  but  on  Inquiry  it  will  generally 
be  found  that  these  inkhom  Lotharios  are  not  nearly  so  wicked 
as  they  would  have  us  bdieve.  When  Wycberley  charges 
himself  with  having  written,  as  a  boy  of  nhieteen,  scenes  so 
callous  and  so  d^raved  that  even  Barbara  Palmei^a  appetite 
for  profligacy  was,  if  not  satisfied,  appeaaed,  there  is»  we  r^eat, 
rx>  need  to  believe  him.  Indeed,  there  is  eVery  reason  to  dts- 
believe  him, — not  for  the  reasons  advanced  by  Macaulay,  how- 
ever, who  in  challenging  Wycherle/s  date  does  not  go  nearly 
deep  enough.  Macaulay  points  to  the  allusions  in  the  play  to 
gentlemen's  periwigs,  to  guineas,  to  the  vests  which  Charles 
ordered  to  be  worn  at  court,  to  the  great  fire,  &c.,  as  showing  that 
the  comedy  could  not  have  been  written  the  year  before  the 
author  went  to  Oxford*  We  must  remember,  however,  that 
even  if  the  pky  had  been  written  in  that  year,  and  delayed  in 
iu  production  till  167a,  it  is  exactly  this  kmd  of  allusion  to 
recent  events  which  any  dramatist  with  an  eye  to  freshness  of 
colour  would  be  certain  to  weave  into  his  dialogue.  It  is  not 
that  "  the  whole  air  and  spirit  of  the  piece  belong  to  a  period 
subsequent  to  that  mentioned  by  Wycberley,"  but  that  "  the 
whole  air  and  spirit  of  the  piece  "  belong  to  a  agt^n— an  experi- 
enced and  hardened  young  man  of  the  wodd-^nd  not  to  a  boy 
who  would  f«ui  pose  a*  an  experienced  and  hardened  young  man 
of  the  worid.  The  real  defence  of  Wycherley  against  his  foolish 
in4>eachment  <d  himself  is  this,  that  Love  in  a  W9a4,  howspever 
inferior  in  structure  and  in  all  the  artistic  eoonomiey  to  The 
CeuiUry  Wife  and  Th€  PUm  Dealer^  coptams  scenes  which 
no  inexperienced  boy,  coidd  have  writteb~*«ceDes  whicfa«  not 
for  moral  hardness  merely,  but  often  for  real  dramatic  ripeness, 
are  almost  the  stiooeest  to  be  found  anqongst  his  foar  plays. 
With  regard  to  dramatic  ripeness,  indeed,  if  we  were  askied  to 
indicate  the  finest  touch  in  all  Wycheriey,  we  should  very  likely 
select  A. apepeh  fai  tte  third  seenc  oi  Um  thivd  set  of  this  very 


play,  where  the  vain,  foolish  and  boastful  rak6  DappeiSeit, 
having  taken  his  friend  to  see  his  mistress  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  advertish&g  his  lordship  over  her,  is  cooUy  dosed 
by  her  and  insolently  repulsed.  "  I  think,"  says  Bapperwit, 
'*  women  take  inconstancy  £ram  me  worse  than  from  any  man 
breathing." 

Now,  does  the  subsequent  development  of  W3fclieiiey*s 
dramatic  genius  lead  us  to  believe  that,  at  nineteen,  be  could 
have  given  this  touch,  worthy  of  the  haijjl  that  drew  Malvolio? 
Is  there  anything  in  hJs  two  masterpiece9*~rib«  Country  Wife  or 
The  Plain  Dealer-^hat  makes  it  credible  that  W3rcheriey,  the 
boy,  could  have  thus  delineated  by  a  single  quiet  touch  vanity 
as  a  chain-armour  which  no  shaft  can  i^eroe — ^vanity,  that  is 
to  say,  in  its  perfect  devdopmeht?  However,  Macaulay 
(forgetting  that,  among  the  myriad  vanities  of  the  writing  frater- 
nity, this  of  pretending  to  an  early  development  of  intellectuat 
powers  that  ought  not  to  be,  even  if  th^' could  be,  developed 
early  is  at  once  the  most  comic  and  the  most  common)  is  rather 
too  severe  upon  Wycherley's  disingenuousness  in  regaxd  to  the 
dates  of  his  plays.  That  the  writer  oi  a  play  far  mote  daring 
than  Etheredge's  Ske  Would  if  She  Could^-^atd  far  moce  briOiaat 
too^hould  at  once  become  the  talk  of  Charles'^  court  was 
inevitable;  equally  inevitable  was  it  that  the  author  of  the 
song  at  the  end  of  the  first  act,  in  praise  of  harlots  and  their 
offspring,  should  touch  to  ito  depths  the  soul  of  the  duchess  of 
Cleveland.  Possibly  Wycherley  intended  this  f amons  song  as  a 
gbrification  of  Her  Grace  and  her  profession,  for  he  stesas  to 
have  been  more  delighted  than  surprised  when,  as  he  passed 
in  his  coach  through  Pall  Mail,  he  heard  the  duchess  address 
him  from  her  coach  window  as  a  *'  rascal,"  a  **  viUaan,"  and  as  a 
son  of  the  very  kind  of  lady  his  song  had  lauded.  For  bis  answer 
was  perfect  in  its  readiness:  "  Madam,  you  have  been  pleased 
to  bestow  a  title  on  me  which  belongs  only  to  the  foitunate." 
Perceiving  that  Her  Grace  received  the  compUment  in  the  spirit 
in  which  it  was  meant,  he  lost  no  time  in  oUing  upon  her,  and 
was  from  that  moment  the  recipient  of  those  "  favours  "  to  which 
he  alludes  with  pride  in  ihe  dedication  of  the  play  to  her.  Vd« 
taire's  story  (in  his  LeUers  on  the  EmfjUsk  Naiion)  tiiat  Her 
Grace  used  to  go  to  Wycherley's  chamben  in  the  Tein|de  dis- 
guised as  a  country  wench,  in  a  straw  hat,  with  pattens  on  and 
a  basket  in  her  hand,  may  be  apocryphal>--veiy  likdy  it  is — 
for  disguise  was  quite  superfluous  in  "Uw  case  of  the  mistress  of 
Charles  IL  and  Jacob  HaU,  but  it  at  least  shows  how  general 
was  the  opinion  that,  under  such  patronage  as  tids,  WychaAey*9 
fortune  as  poet  and  dramatist,  "  eminent  for  his  quality  and 
politeness,"  was  now  made.  __', 

Charies,  iriio  had  determined  to  bring  up  his  son,  the  duke 
of  Richmond,  like  a  prince,  was  dearous  of  securing  for  tutor 
a  man  so  entirely  qualified  as  was  Wydierley  to  ir^part  wiiat 
was  then  recognized  as  the  princdy  education,  and  it  secnv 
pretty  deftr  that,  but  for  the  acddent,  to  which  we  shall  have 
to  recur,  of  his  meeting  the  countess  of  Drogheda  at  Bath  and 
secretly  marrying  her,  the  education  of  the  young  man  would 
actually  have  been  entrusted  by  his  father  to  Wycheriey  as  a 
reward  for  the  dranuitist's  having  written  Love  in  a  Wood. 

Whether  Wycherley's  experiences  as  a  navid  ofiioer,  wiiich  he 
aUudes  to  in  his  lines  ''On  a  Sea  Fig^t  which  the  Author 
was  in  betwixt  the  English  and  the  Dutch,*'  occutied  before  or 
after  the  production  of  Love  in  a  Wood  is  a  point  upon  which 
opinions  differ,  but  on  the  whole  we  are  incSned  to  agree  with 
Macaulay,  againrt  Leigh  Hunt,  that  these  experiences  todc  place 
not  only  after  the  production  of  Lovi  in  a  Wood  but  after  the 
production  of  The  Gentleman  Dancing  Master,  in  1673.  We  abo 
think,  with  Macaulay,  that  he  went  to  sea  simply  beause  it  was 
the  "  poUtc  "  thing  to  do  so — simply  because,  as  he  himself  in  the 
epilogue  to  Tie  GenUenun  Dancing  Master  says,  "  all  gentkmen 
must  pack  to  sea." 

This  second  comedy  was  published  in  1673,  but  was  probably 
acted  late  in  1671.  It  is  inferior  to  Love  in  a  Wood.  In  The 
Relapse  the  artistic  mistake  of  blending  onnedy  and  farce 
damages  a  splendid  play,  but  leaves  it  a  splendid  play  still.  In 
The  Getdhiton  Dmang  Masier  this^min^&ig  of .  disoosdant 


WYCHERLEY 


86s 


cfttiiiiiift  dMMsrt  a  ^y  (hM'iMuId  nMer  in  any  cireiuiMAiices 
luivt  betti  stioag— ^  pky  nevertbekw  which  i^uadt  in  animal 
afikiu,  and  b  Inminotts  hoe  and  there  triUi  tnw  dnmatie 
pointa. 

It  b,  honcver,  on  hie  two  last  ooni«iie»— riw  Cmmtiy  W^ 
and  TAe  F^mh  DM/er— that  most  rest  Wychexfe/a  fiune  aa  a 
master  of  that  comedy  of  teparfee  whkh,  faiaaguated  by 
Etheredge,  md  alterwarda  l^rought  to  perfection  by  Congreva 
and  Vanbni^,  supplanted  the  hnmorisUc  comedy  c<  the  Eliaa- 
bethans.  Th$  C&tmtry  Wifct  prodnoed  in  1679  or  1673  and 
published  m  167 5,  is  so  full  <A  wit,  ingenuity,  animal  spirita  and 
conventional  humour  that^  had  it  not  been  for  its  motivo— • 
motive  which  in  any  healthy  state  of  society  must  ahraya  be  aa 
repulsive  to  the  most  laa  aa  to  the  moat  moral  reader--it  would 
probably  have  survived  aa  long  as  the  acted  drama  remained  a 
literary  form  in  Kngiand.  So  strong,  indeed,  is  the  hand  that 
could  draw  such  a  character  aa  Majory  FinchiYrife  (the  un- 
doubted origbial  not  only  of  Congreve's  Miss  Prutf  but  of  Van* 
brugh*s  Hoyden),  such  a  cSuuacter  as  Sparkish  (the  undoubted 
original  of  Congreve^s  Tattle),  such  a  charactte  as  Horner 
(the  undoubted  origfaisl  of  all  those,  cool  impudent  lakte  with 
whom  our  stage  has  ainoe  been  familiar),  that  Wycherley  is 
certainly  entitled  to  a  place  alongside  Congreve  and  Vaabtugh. 
And,  indeed,  if  priority  of  date  is  to  have  iu  fair  and  full  weight, 
it  seems  ^fficult  to  challenge  Piofessofr  Spalding's  dictum  that 
Wycheriey  is  "  the  most  vigorous  of  the  set.** 

In  order  to  do  Justice  to  the  life  and  brilliance  of  The  CHuOry 
Wife  We  have  only  to  compare  it  with  The  Country  Girl,  after- 
wards made  famous  by  the  acting  of  Mrs  Jordan,  that  Bowdleriaed 
form  of  The  ComUry  Wife  in  which  Gariiek,  with  an  object' more 
praiseworthy  than  his  success,  endeavoured  to  free  it  of  iU  load 
of  unparallded  licenUousness  by  disturbing  and  sweetening  the 
motive — even  aa  Voltaire  afterwards  (with  an  object  dso  more 
praiseworthy  than  his  success)  endeavoured  to  disturb  and 
sweeten  the  motive  of  The  Plain  Dealer  in  La  Prude.  While  the 
two  Bowdlerized  forms  of  Garrick  and  VolUire  are  as  dull  aa 
the  ^op  of  BouTSault,  the  texture  of  Wycherley*s  scandalous 
dialogue  would  seem  to  scintillate  with  the  chukfpng  hues  of 
shot  slk  or  of  the  ned:  of  a  pigeon  or  of  a  shaken  prism,  were  it 
not  that  the  many-coloured  lights  rather  suggest  the  miksmatic 
radiance  of  a  foul  ditdi  shimmering  in  the  sun.  It  is  easy  to  share 
Macaulay's  indignation  at  Wycherley's  satyr-Hke  defilement  of 
art,  and  yet,  at  the  same  Ume,  to  protest  against  that  disparage- 
ment of  their  literaiy  riches  which  nullifies  the  valueof  Macaulay's 
criticism.  And  scarcely  inferior  to  The  Country  Wife  is  The 
Plain  Dealer^  produced  probably  early  in  1674  and  published 
three  years  later,—  a  play  of  which  Voltaire  said, "  Je  ne  oonnaia 
point  de  com£die  chez  1^  an:dens  nl  ches  les  moderns  ou  il  y  ait 
auunt  d'esprit."  This  comedy  had  an  immense  influence,  as 
regards  manipulation  of  dialogue,  upon  all  subsequent  En^sh 
comedies  of  repartee,  and  he  who  wants  to  trace  the  ancestry 
of  Tony  Lumpkin  and  Mrs  Hardcastle  has  only  to  turn  to  Jerry 
Blackacre  and  his  mother,  while  Manly  (for  whom  Wycherley's 
early  patron,  the  duke  of  Montausier,  sat),  though  he  is  perhaps 
overdone,  hi^  dominated  this  kmd  of  stage  character  ever  since. 
If  but  few  readers  know  how  constantly  the  bhiot  sententious 
utterances  of  this  character  are  reappearing,  not  on  the  stage 
alone,  but  hi  the  novel  and  even  m  poetry,  it  is  because  a 
play  whose  motive  is  monstrous  and  intolerable  can  only  live 
in  a  monstrous  and  intolerable  state  of  sodety;  It  is  because 
Wycherley's  genius  was  followed  by  Nemesis,  who  always 
dogs  the  footsteps  o!  the  deSler  of  literary  art.    When  Buns 

said— 

"  The  xank  b  but  the  guinea  stamp, 
The  man's  the  gowd  for  a'  that  ** ; 

when  Sterne,  in  Trisiram  Shandy t  said,  "Honours,  like  impres- 
sions upon  ooin,  may  give  an  idol  and  local  value  to  a  bit  of 
base  mttal,  but  gold  and  silver  will  pass  all  the  world  over 
without  any  other  recommendation  than  their  own  weight," 
what  did  these  writers  do  but  adopt— adopt  without  improving 
— ^Manly'a  fine  saying  to  Freenuin,  in  the  fimt  act:—*'  I  weigh 
the  man,  not  his  title;  'tis  not  the  king's  stamp  can  make  the 


fluial  better  of  heavte  *?  And  ytt  it  b  fai  the  fbortli  and  fiftk 
acta  that  the  coniscationa  of  Wydierlejr's  comic  genius  are  th« 
most  daading;  abo,  it  b  tten  that  the  licentiousnesa  b  the 
moat  astonishing.  Not  that  the  worst  scenes  in  thb  play  are 
really  mora  wicked  than  the  wont  acenea  in  Vanbhigh's  Relapse, 
but  tbey  ara  more  aeriousiy  imagined.  Befatg  lesaliumonNis  than 
Vanbrugh's  scenes,  they  aie  moret^bly  and  earnestly  realistic; 
therefoN  they  seem-  more  wicked.  iWy  form  indeed  a  atriking 
histaneeof  theipUy  of  the  artist  whosdects  a  atory  which  cannot 
be  actuaUaed  witbonthurtingthe  finer  inatincts  of  human  nature. 
When  Menander  declared  that,  having  selected  hb  plot,  he 
looked  upon  hb  comedy  as  throe  parts  finished,  he  touched  upon 
asubject  wldch  all  workers  in  diama— all  workers  in  imagittative 
liteeatura  of  every  kind— would  do  well  to  consider.  In  all 
Kteiatttre^— ancient  and  niodertt'-«a&  infinite  wealth  of  material 
has  been  wasted  upon  subjects  Hiat  are  unworthy,  or  else  in« 
capable,  of 'artistic  realization;  and  yet  Wycherley's  case  is, 
in  our  hterature  at  least,  without  a  piurallel,  No  doubt  it  may 
be  right  to  say,  with  Aibtotle,  that  comedy  bkn  hnitation  of 
bad  characters;  but  tins  does  not  aaean  that  in  comedy  art  may 
imitate  bad  diaiacters  as  earnestly  as  she  may  imitate  goodono^ 
— a  -fact  whldi  Hiackeray  forgot  when  he  made  Becky  Sharp 
a  murdeTCM,- thereby  destroying  at  once  what  would  othcrwbi 
have  been  the  finest  specimen  of  the  comedy  of  convention  in  the 
world.  And  periiapa  It  waa  because  Vanbtugh  waa  cooadous  of 
tUa  law  of  art  that  he  blended  comedy  with  faroe.  Perhaps  te 
felt  that  the  colossal  depmvity  of  intrigue  in  which  the  Eiig^ 
comedians  indulged  needs  to  be  not  only  warmed  by  a  super-' 
abundance  of  humour  but  softened  by  the  playful  mockiery  of 
farce  before  a  dramatic  dide  such  as  that  of  the  Restoration 
drama  can  be  really  brought  within  human  sympathy.  Flu* 
tarch's  impeachiAent  of  Arbtophanes,  wiiich  affirms  that  the 
master  of  the  old  comedy  wrote  less  for  honest  men  than  for 
men  sunk  in  baseness  and  debauchery,  was  no  doubt  unjust  to 
the  Greek  poet,  one  side  of  whose  humour,  and  one  alone,  oould 
thus  be  impeached.  But  docs  it  not  touch  aU  skies  of  a  comedy 
like  Wycherley'a— a  comedy  which  strikes  at  the  very  root  of  the 
sodal  compact  upon  which  dViUaationbbyilt?  Aa  to  comparing 
such  a  comedy  aa  that  of  the  Restoration  with  the  comedy  of 
the  Elizabethansi  Jeremy  Collier  did  but  a  poor  service  to  the 
cause  he  undertook  to  advocate  when  he  set  -the  occasional 
coarseness  of  Shakespeare  alongade  the  wickedness  of  Congreva 
and  Vanbru^.  And  yet,  ever  sfaice  Macaulay's  essay,  it  htt 
been  the  fashion  to  speak  of  Cottier's  attack  as  being  levelled 
against  the  immorality  of  the  "  Restoration  dramatists."  It  b 
nothing  of  the  kind.  It  b  (as  was  pointed  out  so  long  ago  as  1699 
by  Dr  Dmke  in  hb  Httle-known  vigorous  reply  to  Coliier)  an 
attack  upon  the  En^ish  drama  generally,  with  a  q>ecial  reference 
to  the  case  of  Shakespeare.  While  dwelling  upon  that  noaioua 
and  highly  immoral  play  HamUtf  Collier  actually  leaves  un* 
scathed  the  author  of  The  Country  Wife,  but  fastens  on  Congreve 
and  Vanbrugh,  whose  i^y»— profligate  enough  in  all  consdence— 
seem  almost  decent  beside  a  oomedy  whose  incredible  vis  motriat 
b  "the  modbh  dbtemper." 

That  a  stage,  indeed,  upon  which  was  given  with  applause 
A  Woman  Killed  with  Kindness  (where  a  wife  die»  of  a  broken 
heart  for  doing  what  any  one  of  Wycherley's  married  women 
would  have  gloried  in  ddng)  should,  in  seventy  years,  have  given 
with  applaxise  The  Country  Wife  shows  that  in  historic  and  sodal 
evolution  aa  In  the  evolution  of  oiganisma,  ^change"  and 
**  progress  "  are  very  far  from  being  convertible  terma.  For 
the  barbarbm  of  tbe  society  depicted  in  these  plays  was,  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  word,  far  deeper  and  more  brutal  than  any 
barbarism  that  has  ever  exbted  fai  these  islands  within  the  hbtoric 
period.  If  dvilization  has  any  meaning  at  all  for  the  soul  of 
man,  the  Englbhmen  of  Chaucer's  time,  the  Anglo-Saxona  of 
the  Heptarchy,  nay,  those  half -naked  heroea,  jrho  in  the  dawn  of 
En^Uah  history  dustered  along  the  southern  coast  to  ddend  it 
from  the  invason  ol  Caesar,  were  far  more  dvillaed  than  that 
"race  gangrenfe **— the  treacherous  rakea,  mercenary  slaves 
and  brazen  stmmpeto  of  the  «ourt  of  Charlea  n.,  who  did  their 
best  to  substitute  for  the  human  passion  of  love  (a  passion  whidi 


366 


WYCLIFFE 


ms  knowA  peiliafs  even  to  pdMoUtUc  maa)  the  pronJBCuotta 
Interooune  of  the  beasts  <^  the  fidd.  Yet  CoUier  leaves 
Wjchedey  unasaaUed,  and  classes  Vanbnigh  and  Conpeve  with 
Si&kespearel 

It  was  after  the  success  o£  The  Plai»  Dealer  that  the  turning- 
point  came  in  Wycberley's  career.  The  great  dream  of  all  the 
men  about  town  in  Charles's  time,  as  Wycherley's  plays  all 
show,  was  to  many  a  widow,  young  and  handsome,  a  peer's 
daughter  if  possible— but  in  any  event  rich,  and  spend  her 
money  upon  wine,  end  women.  While  talking  to  a  friend  in  a 
bookseller's  shop  at  Tunbridge,  Wycherley  heaxd  The  Plain 
X)Ai/eraskedforbyalady  who,  in  the  peisonoC  the  countess  of 
Pfogheda,  answered  all  the  requirements.  An  introduction 
ensued,  then  love-making,  then  marrisge—a  secret  marriage, 
pirobably  in  x68o,  for,  fearing  to  lose  the  king's  patronage  and 
the  income  there^m,  Wycherley  still  thought  it  politic  to  pass 
as  a  bachelor.  He  had  not  seen  enough  of  life  to  learn  that  in  the 
long  run  nothing  is  politic  but "  stmightforwardness."  Whether 
because  his  countenance  wore  a  pensive  and  subdued  eipiession, 
suggestive  of  a  poet  who  had  married  a  dowager  countess  tnd 
awakened  to  the  situation,  or  whether  because  treacherous  oon> 
fidants  divulged  his  secret,  does  not  appear,  but  the  news  of  his 
marriage  ooeed  out—it  reached  the  royal  ean»  and  deeply 
wounded  the  father  anxious,  about  the  education  of  his  son.' 
Wycherley  lost  the  appointment  that  was  so  nearly  within  his 
grasp— lost  indeed  thci  royal  favour  for  ever.  He  never  had  an 
opportunity  of  regaining  it,  for  the  countess  seems  to  have  really 
loved  him,  and  Lne  in  a  Wood  had  proclaimed  the  writer  to  b« 
the  kind  of  husband  whose  virtue  prospers  best  when  dpsely 
guarded  at  the  domestic  hearth.  Wherever  he  went  the  countess 
followed  him,  and  when  she  did  allow  him  to  meet  his  boon 
companions  it  was  in  a  tavern  in  Bow  Street  opposite  to  his  own 
house,  and  even  there  under  certain  protective  conditions. 
In  summer  or  in  winter  he  was  obliged  to  sit  with  the  window 
open  and  the  blinds  up,  so  that  his  wife  might  see  that  the  party 
included  no  member  of  a  sex  for  which  her  husband's  plays  had 
advertised  his  partiality.  She  died,  however,  in  the  year  after 
her  marriage  and  left  bun  the  whole  of  her  fortune.  But  the 
title  to  the  property  was  diiq>uted;  the  costs  of  the  litigation 
were  heavjp— so  heavy  that  his  father  was  unable  (or  else  he 
was  unwiUlng)  to  come  to  his  aid;  and  the  result  of  his  marrying 
the  rich,  beautiful  and  titled  widow  was  that  the -poet  was 
thrown  into  the  Fleet  prison.  There  he  remained  for  seven 
years,  being  finally  released  by  the  liberality  of  James  II. — 
a  liberality  which,  incredible  as  it  seems,  is  too  well  authenticated 
to  be  challenged.  James  had  been  so  much  gratified  by  seeing 
The  Plain  Dealer  acted  that,  finding  a  parallel  between  Manly's 
*'  manliness "  and  his  own,  such  as  no  spectator  had  before 
^scovered,  he  paid  off  Wycherley's  execution  creditor  and 
settled  on  him  a  pension  of  £aoo  a  year.  Other  debts  still 
troubled  Wycherley,  however,  and  he  never  was  released  from 
his  embarrassments,  nOt  even  after  succeeding  to  a  life  estate  in 
the  family  property.  In  coming  to  Wycheriey's  death,  we  come 
to  the  worst  allegation  that  has  ever  been  made  against  him 
as  a  man  and  as  a  gentleman.  At  the  age  of  seveniy-five  he 
married  a  young  girl,  and  is  said  to  have  done  so  in  order  to  q>ite 
his  nephew,  the  next  in  succession,  luaowing  that  be  himself 
must  diortly  die  and.  that  the  jointure  would  impoverish  the 
estate. 

Wycheiky  wrote  verses,  and,  when  quite  an  old  man,  prepared 
them  for  the  press  by  the  aid  of  Alexander  Pope,  then  not  much 
iBore  than  a  b<^.  But»  notwithstanding  all  Pope's  tinkeringi 
they  remain  contemptible.  Pope's  published  correspondence 
with  the  dramatist  was  probably  edited  by  him  with  a  view  to 
giving  an  impression  of  his  own  pzecodty.  The  friendship  be- 
tween the  two  cooled,  according  to  Pope's  account,  because 
Wycherley  took  offence  at  the  numerous  corrections  on  his  verses. 
It  seems  more  likely  that  Wycherley  discovered  that  Pope,  while 
still  professing  friendship  and  adndration,  satirized  his  friend  in 
the  Essay  on  CrUidstn,  Wycherley  died  on  the  xst  of  January 
1716,  and  was  buried  in  the  vault  of  the  church  In  Coveat 
Qaiden.  (T.  W.-D.: 


wTcum»  (or  wvaao.  mnr  (^uM-tas^  £i«iuh 

reformer,  waa  bom,  according  to  John  I.elaiidL*  our  siade 
authority  on  the  point,  at  Iprcswel  (evidently  Hipsvefl)*  i  ■• 
from  Richmond  in  Yorkshire.  The  date  may  have  bcm  some* 
where  about  1320.  Leland  elsewhere  meiitioBs  that  he  "  drew  bis 
origin ''  fvorn  Wyd«ffe-on-Tees  {CcUeOanea^  u.  :329>,  ao  that  bis 
lineage  waa  of  the  ancieat  fami^  which  is  celebrated  by  Soott  is 
Uarmian*  The  WycUffca  had  a  natural  connexion  with  the 
college  at  Oxford  which  had  been  founded  in  the  Utter  part  of 
the  previous  century  by  their  neigl^bouis,  the  Balliols  of  Barnard 
Castle;  and  to  BalUol  College,  .then  distinctively  an  '*  arts " 
college,'  John  Wydiffe.  in  due  time  pioceeded.  It  has  beea 
genmlly  believed,  and  was  in  fact  bdievcdnot  many  years 
after  bis  death,  that  he  was  a  fellow  of  Jderton  College  in  1356; 
bu(  this  identification  probably  rests  on  a  ooofusion  with  a  con- 
temporary. That  the  future  reformer  was  a  fellow  of  Baliiol 
is  implied  in  the  fact  that  seme  time  after  1356,  but  before  the 
summer  of  1360,  he  wos  elected  master.  This  office  he  held  but  a 
short  timei  So  soon  as  1361  he  acoqAed  a  college  living;  that  of 
fUlingham  in  TJncolnshire>  and  pr^ably  left  Oxford  for  socoe 
time.  In  the  same  year  the  name  of  a  certain  "  John  de  Wydif 
^of  the  diocese  of  York,  M.A."  aypj^ars  as  a  suppliant  to  the 
RcMuan^Cttria  for  a  provision  to  a  pre^d,  canoary  and  dignity 
at  York  {Col.  of  Entries  in  the  Papal  Jifigistries,tA.  Bliss,  Petitions, 
>  i.  390).  This  was  not  granted,  but  Wycliffe  received  instead 
the  prebend  of  Aust  in  the  collegiate  church  of  Westbury-oop 
'nym.  In  r365  one  "  John  de  Wyclif  "  was  appomted  by  Simoa 
Islip,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to  the  wardenship  of  Canterbury 
Hall,  a  house  which  the  archbishop  founded  for  a  mixed  body  of 
monks  and  secular  clergy,  and  then— as  a  result  of  the  inevitable 
quarreb— filled  exclusively  with  the  latter.  Two  years  later, 
however,  Islip's  successor,  the  monk  Simon  Langjham,  reversed 
the  process,  replacing  the  intruded  seculars  by  monks.  The 
dispossessed  warden  and  fellows  appealed  to  Rome,  and  in  1371 
judgment  was  given  against  them.  The  question  of  the  identity 
of  the  warden  of  Canterbury  Hall  with  the  reformer  is  still  a  mauer 
of  dispute.  It  has  been  understood  ss  referred  to  by  Wycliffe  him- 
self  {De  eccUsia,  cap.  xvL  pp.  370  sq,),  and  was  assumed  by  the 
contemporary  monk  of  St  Albans  {Chron,  Angl.  "Rolls  "  ser4>.i  15) 
and  by  Wycliffe's  opponent  William  Woodford  (Fosc.  Zisan, 
P*  517)1  who  found  in  Wycliffe's  resentment  at  this  treatment 
the  motive  for  his  attacks  on  the  religious  orders,  it  has  likewise 
been  assumed  by  a  series  of  modem  scholars,  including  Loserth 
{RcaUncykhpadiet  iQoS  ed.,  vol.  xxi.  p^  928,  S  35),  who  only 
denies  the  deductions  that  Woodford  drew  from  it.  Dr  Rashdall, 
on  the  other  hand,  following  Shirley,  brings  evidence  to  show 
that  the  Wydiffe  of  Canterbury  Hall  could  not  have  been  the 
reformer,  but  was  the  same  person  as  the  fellow  of  Merton,  this 
being  the  strongest  argument  against  the  identification  of  th^ 
latter  with  the  reformer.  The  confusion  is  increased  by  the 
appearance  of  yet  another  "  John  WycUf "  or  "  Wiclif  "  on  the 

^  A  note  is  necessary  as  to  the  spelling  of  Wycliffe's  name.  Qui 
of  thirteen  contemporary  entries  in  documents,  twelve  give  '*  y  "  ir 
the  first  syllable.  In  not  one  of  these  is  there  a  "  ck  "  (though 
once  a  "  In: ")  (see  F.  D.  Matthew  in  the  Academy^  June  7,  1884). 
The  chroniclers,  &c,  offer  every  imaginable  variety  of  •peliing,  and 
it  is  possible  that  one  favourite  form  in  more  recent  times,  *M>Vick- 
uffe,  derived  its  popularity  from  the  oldplay  on  the  name,  **  nequam 
vita,"  which  .we  find  in  Gascoiene.  Ttic  spelling  adopted  in  the 
present  article  is  that  of  the  vul»g;e  from  which  Wydiffe  dcri\«d 
his  name;  it  is  also  nreferred  by  tne  editors  of  the  Wydiffe  Bibk. 
by  Milman  and  by  btubbs.  "  Wydif  "  has  the  support  of  Shiriey. 
of  T.  Arnold  and  of  the  Wyclif  Sodetyj  Whfle  ^WicUf  "  is  the 
popular  form  in  Germany. 


printed  the  name     Spreswc!  *^     v-    

graphcrs  bn  a  search  after  a  vox  nihili.  The  identincatum  of  Spres- 
well  with  the  site  of  a  vanished  hamlet  near  Wycliffe  on  the  Tees, 
about  t  m.  from  that  of  a  supposed  *'  Okl  RidiinOnd/'  aooepeed 
by  Loserth  on  the  authority  or  Lechkr,  is  uasup|Mrted  by  any 
trustworthy  ovideopoe. 

*See  a' document  of  ias^  printed  in  the  appendix  to  the  Fourth 
Report  of  the  Historical  Manuscripts  Commissibn,  pp.  443  99. 
Provinon  for  theological  study  was  made  by  the  beniefaction  of  Stf 
Philip  Somerville  ia  1340  (Lyto,  iful.  oHka  Unio,  pfCh^ord,  p.  154* 
1886). 


667 


Inahi  trOMV  Orihfc.  M  P4««  rtirf  tw 

»iut  liSo-ijSi     -    ■        -      ■  ■   .   .       . 

LoutU)  that  IbticianBO  wu  it  obsiIid*  in  rfridcuo*  M  Qucsn  '>, 
tbe  dau  bcli«  givtu  u  131S}.  It  is  pntialila,  hoatva,  (bu  tfa* 
JdIid  WleU  al  IlittQiuen'i  CoBegs  wxouMi  1*  tbe  ufflc  u  tba 
John  W;pJii  •]»  tHMUt  in  ilH  College  edM^iiJio  Im  I]7i-ij7> 
u  oaa  ol  tke  "  tloudiy  boy* ''  s(  the  Csaegt,  Md,  (hcnfore, 
cciUiidy  DM   lb*   td«nBer.> 

TlMn  quMtlmi,  «wbi  ibu  at  the  wHdtudiip  of  Citalcibiiiy, 
an,  batriva,  WMWiilty  iiiu(B(iart>iK,  uiden  ve  ub  prqiued 
with  Woadbid  to  ioipnta  iMW  notlin  (0  t  gnu  ana.   Wh*t 
is  certain  H  tbu  Ime  Won  WydlOe  hul  bwmnc  tpoWK  ouUi 
- ■  ■      ■         '  Hi  11 


■  wu, 

jail     ■     ■ 

u  aptwdtian  to  [ha 
stder  In  UN  ctaimb;  mu),  u  LoMCtta  points  out,  It  wu  not 
oatil  IM  wM  dnwn  iiH»  tli*  amia  of  the  poUtica-erdeiiutla] 
couflkU  el  the  ity  that  WyclMo  bMana  bl  <ntld4iiipi)TUnt«. 
It  hi*  beaa  ttnamy  maumtd  that  tlni  happened  fint  in  i]E6, 
and  thai  W)^liflspiiblMKd  Us  ZMCrMtooKs  faaaAm  ^  ^hkM* 
in  n^fxrl  of  ths  actloli  ol  patBanuBt-in  r^iHing  the  tribute 
dennmdBd  by  Pap«  tFrban  V.;  bat  Loaeith  hu  sbon  that  thi* 
mil,  which  oMilaiiH  the  fint  track  of  that  lioctnne  of  dmif m'lna 
or  lofdihjp  wbidt  Wycliee  aftenraids  developed  in  a  senie 
hostile  to-  the  vhde  papal  irstein,  nnst  be  aniKned  to  a  d&le 
soBteel^f  yean  tats-.  WydlEe,  in  fact,  ioi  aone  yean  fo  rome 
had  the  repntation  of  a  good  "  eurnlist."  Had  it  been  other- 
wfae,  the  pope  votdd  EcarceTy  liaTe  fruited  him  0aCuaiy  1373) 
a  licence  to  keep  bis  Wesll>ury  prebend  even  after  he  should  have 
obtained  one  al  XfaKoln  (Cal.  Pa  fa!  Letttn,  ed.  Bliss  and  Twem- 
knr,  iv.  igj).  Moreover,  it  is  inafDrmly  asserted  that  WycEffe 
fell  into'  heresy  after  bis  admission  to  the  degree  of  doctor 
iFasc.  Eh.  p-  1),  and  the  papal  document  above  quoted  ahoni 
that  be  hid  only  Jmt  beonite.  ■  doctoi  a(  theology,  that  Is 
in  I37>. 

Tidi,  of  OMme.  doea  oat  inein  that  WycUflt^  tcsdencia  tnay 
not  already  have  b^ea  sufficietitly  pronounced  to  call  attenlbni 
to  him  in  high  places  as  a  possibly  useful  instrument  for  the 
anti-papal  p^cy  of  John  of  Gaunt  and  Ini  party,  Evideoca 
of  royal  favour  waa  soon  not  wanting.  On  the  7th  of  April  137*, 
he  wu  presented  by  the  crown  to  the  tectory  of  Lutterworth 
fn  Ldcatenhire',  vmtdi  he  held  until  his  death;  and  on  the 
afilb  o(  July  he  was  nominated  one  of  the  royal  envoys  to  proceed 
to  Bruges  to  conf^  with  the  papal  representatives  on  the  long 
vexed  questioa  of  "  provisions  "  [?.».).  It  is  probable  that  he 
was  attached  to  this  mission  as  tbralogiBn,  and  that  this  was 
to  is  suiSdent  proof  that  he  was  not  yet  considered  a  ptrsona 
{nfrnls  at  the  Cuila,  The  tank  be  took  la  ^own  by  the  fact 
that  hia  name  studs  second,  neit  after  that  of  the  bishop  of 
Bangor,  on  the  conunEssion,  and  that  he  received  pay  at  the 
princely  rate  of  twenty  shilUngs  a  day.  The  commission  Itself 
was  appointed  in  consequence  of  urgent  and  repealed  com- 
ptafnta  on  the  part  of  the  Conunans;  but  the  king  was  bimsell 
interested  la  keeping  up  the  papal  system  of  provisions  and 
reservations,  and  ttie  tiegotiatlans  were  piacllc^  fniitless. 

After  his  return  to  England  WycIiSe  lived  chiefly  at  Lutter- 
worth and  Oxford,  making  frequent  and  prolonged  vtsils  to 
London,  where  hb  /ame  as  a  popijlar  preacher  was  rapidly 
established.  It  Is  from  this  period,  md«d,  that  dates  the 
developmerit  et  the  tiwcbaat  eritldsms  of  the  fcJIy  and  corrup- 
tion of  the  clergy,  which  had  gained  him  a  ready  hearing,  into 
a  systematic  attack  on  the  whole  establifihEd  Mdcr  in  Ibe  churclL 
It  waaiait  at  tha  outset,  tbe  dogmatic,  h«t  the  pohiical  elenwMa 


ofajDhnWyclifoqtliebookiofOiiccnTledtothenjniiDon  miBak*. 
repeated  in  Milman-ji  Hiil.  of  Lain  Ciiiaiaiily  (bk-  t''''-  eh.  vi>„ 
that  WycUSe  beuD  his  univeisily  career  at  Qu«n-i  College.  The 
whole  guestiooTTaigKl  at  •---■-  •"■  "-«-'-^"  '-^^  "■'' 


^  J^m  in  tC^  Did. 


from  Edward  I. 
the  attitw 
of  that  yi 


if  the  " ' 


ac  onwards,  and  a  1 


lUre.  Tbenegotkjinnt 
be  sympathy  which  he 
ics  in  English  politics 
ilimpohe  was  given  by 
n  1376;  in  the  autumn 
on  dvn  lordship  {Dc 


he  was  reading  his  t 
caul  nmtmi)  to  bis  sludeuls  at  inaora.  ui  lU  propoeiliona 
nme,  accorduig  to  Luserth,  were  taken  bodily  from  the  14a 
titles  of  the  t»U  dealing  with  ecclesiastical  abuses  intrnduced 
b  the  parliament;  but  it  may  perhaps  be  questioned  whether 
Wydiffe  did  not  rather  Inspire  the  bill  than  the  bill  Wycliffe. 
However  tUs  may  be,  the  reformer  now  tor  the  fint  time  publicly 
proclaimed  the  revolutionary  doctrine  that  rigfaleousness  bf 
Ibe  sole  iadefeaaible  title  to  dominion  and  to  property,  that  an 
nnti^teous  clergy  baa  no  auch  title,  and  that  the  deiiiion  aa 
to  whether  or  no  the  property  of  ecdraiastica  should  be  taken 
away  rests  with  the  dvi!  power — "  poUticorum  qui  Intendunt 
praii  et  statui  regnorum  "  {De  ca.  imi.  i.  37,  p.  169).  It  waa 
unlikely  that  a  doctrine  so  convenient  to  the  secular  autboiftiea 
ahould  long  have  remained  >  meie  subject  of  obscure  debate 
rn  the  sdiools;  as  it  was,  it  was  advertised  abroad  by  the  fn- 
discreet  zeal  of  its  orthodox  opponents,  and  WyclMe  could 
declare  that  it  was  not  bis  faDlt  If  it  bad  been  brought  down 
Into  the  streets  and  "  every  sparrow  twittered  about  it." 

|liife  had  now  arrived  wai  origlnallw 


la  Intiinate  kimiedgc  ct 
L—- •  ■    c  -  by  political  I 

'".gi***^  ~  _ 
to  its  deveupmeat 


u,  iIb  ucoHty  (or 

e  pDlltiol  claims  but  of  tte  doctrinal 
I  a  ^Dlmoplicr.  indeed.  WyeWe  waa 
nipiciipia  Oslbrd  acholaiue^  aad  bia 
iwlikly  ia  HO  tar  BB  it  5letenDlBed  Ut 


h«  itde  of  the  former, 


his  Word,  who  is 


I  tnleUitOih  h 
■aidt^aadaD 
Idol  C^  UK 


partt  of  the  anl\ 

lidi  tiHpiiaiMry.tiu  la  a 
laiiil  rliiii  iiaiiH  Iniii 
dhion  ol  Hbtanllal  toi 
>g  qualitlet  and  other  a 

pf,  -,--,..     --  .  docrrhie  of  artiiuary  divine  deavel 

Vis  anathema.   The  will  of  God  Is  his  f  Botlal  and  alenul  natura, 
■lich  all  his  uX>  an  dOcrnnd;  It  waa  thm  with  tbe  cnatloB, 


e  worid  ii  Iberefon 


tat  is  the  . 


nt  ol  time— to  think  of 


■^''^oiu^n 


me  iaCD  being  in  tkit  way,  it  foDowa  that  tbe  crcatiin 

DOIhiof  save  what  God  baa  already  cnoted.'   So  lhc» 

in  lorddiip  ii  derived  tniin  the  supreme  overlotdsliip 
ind  i>  inieparable  from  it,  nnce  whatever  God  ^vrx  to  ha 
■ervants  ii  put  of  hbnielf.  from  the  ErtI  gift,  which  u  ths  au 
ixlrUifiblk,  U.  nally  tbe  divine  tiiEaes,  down  to  tfano  ipedal  gfu 
which  Odw  from  the  communicallaa  of  bii  Holy  Spirit;  >o  that  m 
Mn  ws  Mn  and  move  and  have  our  bong.  Bat,  in  givlngi  God 
doa  not  pot  wUi  the  lordabip  ol  the  thiis  giMen  i  his  gilts  are  of 
tbe  unuie  el  Be&.  and  wlBlmcr  lordship  the  tmtum  nuy  postesa 
1>  held  niliiicl  to  due  impkie  u  die  •epceroe  o»=tmd.  Thai,  aa  ia 
fWdaliHD,  lordihlp  it  diitiagiiiilied  fma  pomaiiiin     Loidihip  is 


ie  qunrion  of  ptedeillnation  and  free-will,  la 
I  a  middle  poxiiioD  wilb  the  aid  of  the  Arisloteliaji 

on  a  liven  tuppiHRion.    God  doa  not  vill  un, 
at  which  bai  being,  and  «n  a  the  negatian  iji 

..^ ...lea  men  to  perionn  actioila  whic^  are  id  them' 

right  nor  wioiigi  they  becoma  right  or  wtoag  Ihrougb 


868 


WYCLIFFE 


Dot  propcfly  pioDrietpry,  aadjpropcrty  b  dw  nttik  of  t&i;  Clm^ 
and  nis  applies  had  node.^  The  service,  however,  by  which  lord- 
ship  is  held  of  God  is  r^fateousness  and  its  works;  it  follows  that 
the  umight^oas  forfeit  their  r^t  to  exeftise  it*  and  may  be  deprived 
ol  their  posaewions  by  competeot  authont^. 

The  question,  of  counte,  lollowa  as  to  what  this  authority  ts,  and 
this  Wydiffe  sets  out  to  answer  in  the  DeUrtninaiio  quaeiom  4e 
dontinio  and,  moxe  eUtborately.  in  the  De  civili  dominio.  Briefly,  his 
argument  is  that  the  church  has  no  conoem  with  temporal  matten 
at  all,  that  for  the  dergy  to  bdd  proper^  is  siatid,  and  that  it  ia 
lawful  for  statesmen  (poluici)--^ho  are  God's  stewards  in  temporals^ 
to  take  away  the  goods  of  such  of  the  dcrs^  as,  by.  reason  of  their 
unrighteousness,  no  longer  render  the  service  by  which  they  hold 
them.  That  the  cfaufch  was  actually  bi  a  condition  to  deserve 
spoliation  he  refused,  indeed— though  only  under  ^ssure  to 
affirm;  but  his  tbeoriea  fitted  in  too. well  with  the  notorious  aima  of 
the  duke  of  Lancaster  not  to  rouse  the  bitter  hostility  <d  the  endowed 
c!ergy.  With  the  mendicant  order*  he  continued  for  a  whOe  to  be 
MigoodtemUb 

Hitherto  WycUffe.had  made  no  open  Attack  on  thedoctrinal 
system  of  the  churdi,  and  for  some  time  he  had  been  allowed 
to  spread  his  doctrines  without  hindrance^  Early  ia  2377, 
however,  Archbishop  Sudbury  summoned  him  to  appe^  bef6ie 
the  bishop  of  London,  and  answer  certain  charges*  laid  against 
him.  The  nature  of  these  accusations  is  not  stated*  but  their 
purport  can  hardly  ]^doubtfuL  On  the  xgth  of  February  1377, 
Wycliffe  made  his  appearance  at  St  Paul's.  He  was  accom- 
panied by  the  duke  of  I^mcaster,  by  Lord  Percy^  marshal  of 
England,  and.  by  four  doctors  .of  the  four  mendicant  orders. 
The  trial,  however,'  came  ^o  nothing;  bcf6re  Wydiffe  could 
open  his  mouth,  the  court  vn»  broken  up  by  a  rude  brawl  between 
his  protectors  and  Bishop  Courtenay,  ending  in  a  general  riot 
of  the  citizens  of  London,  who  were  so  much  enraged  by  the 
insult  to  their  bishop  id  his  own  cathedral  church— coming  aa 
this  did  at  the  same  time  as  a  serious  attempt  at  an  invasion  by 
the  duke  in  parliament  of  their  civic  liberties  {Ckron,  AngU 
p.  z3o} — that  they  would  have  sacked  his  palace  o{  the  Savoy 
had  not  Courtenay  himself  intervened* 

WycUffe  had  escaped  for  the  time,  but  his  enemies  did  not 
rely  solely  on  their  own  weapons,.  Probably  before  this  they 
had  set  their  case  before  the  pope;  and  on  the  32nd  of  May 
five  buUs  weie  issued  by  Gregory  XI.,  who  had  just  retumed  to 
Rbme  from  Avignon,  condemning  eighteen  (ol"  in  other  copies 
nineteen)  "  conclusions  "  drawn  from  Wycliffe's  writings.  All 
the  artides'  but  one  are  taken  from  his  De  civUi  dominio.  The 
bulls  truly  stated  WycMe's  intellectual  lineage;  be  was  following 
it  the  error  of  Marcus  of  Padua;  and  the  articles  laid  against 
him  are  concerned  entirely  with  questions  agitated  between 
church  and  state— how  far  ecclesiastical  censures  cotdd  lawfully 
affect  a  man's  dvil  position,  and  whether  the  church  had  » 
light  to  recdve  and  hold  temponl  endowments.  The  bulls  were 
addressed  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  bishop  of 
London,  the  university  of  Oxford,  and  the  king.  The  university 
was  to  take  WycUffe  imd  send  him  to  the  prelates;  the  latter 
were  then  to  examine  the  truth  of  the  charges  and  to  report  to. 
the  pope,  Wydiffe  being  meanwhile  kept  in  confinement.  The 
execution  ol  the  papal  bulb  was  impeded  by  three  separate 
causes-^the  king's  deisth  on  the  sist  of  June;  the  tardy  action  of 
the  bishops,  who  enjoined  the  univctstty  to  make  a  report,  instead 
of  simply  sending  Wydiffe  to  them;  and  the  unwillingnets  of 
the  university  to  admit  external  authority,  and,  above  all,  the 
pope's  right  to  order  the  imprisonment  olany  man  in  England. 
Tlie  oqnvecation  of  the  umversity,  indeed,  as  the  Bt  Albans 

^  See  R.  L.  Pook's  preface  to  his  edition  of  the  D$  domiwHo  dirino, 
whece  Wycliffe's  indebtedness  to  Richard  Fits  Ralph,  archbishop  of 
Amagh,  for  his  views  on  lordship  and  property  la  shown  at  some 
length  <pp.  X3cxiv  sq.).  Fiu  Ralph  had  been  a  fellow  of  BalUol.  and 
was  viofrdiancdor  of  the  university  in  .or  about  1333  tA.  4  Wood* 
futU  Oxm.  p.  SI,  ed.  Gutch,  1790).  The  first  four  books  of  hia  Do 
pauferio  Sohdtoris  were  edited  t^  R.  L.  Poole  for  the  Wydiffe 
$ociety,  and  publislied  in  1890  in  an  appendix  to  the  edition  of  the. 
Do  dominio  dwino.  Fits  Ralph  also  taught  that  lordship  was  con- 
ditioned by  gjFace,  and  that  property  had  come  into  the  world  with 
jiin.  Fltz  Rmph's  work  was,  however,  directed  to  the  settlement  of 
the  coatroversy  taiscd  by  the  mendicant  orders  as  to  ''possession  ** 
and  "  use  ":  Wydiffe  extended  the  scope  of  the  doctrue  so  as  to 
Udude  alt  civil  and  ecderfastical  sodety. 


chfoniders  tUtes  wJtli  hwetifiiliha,  maidt  aedooa  ebieclioas 
to  receiving  the  bidl  At  all;  and  hi  tlie  end  it  jnerdy  <fixected 
Wydiffe  to  keep  withta  his  kidging*  at  Black  HaUfor alime. 

II  the  univeitity  was  disposed  to  favour  the  reformer,  the 

goverament  was  not  kss  so.  John  of  Gaunt  was  for  tlie  momeut 

in  retixeouiit;  but  -the  mother  of  the  young  kinjg  appcArs  to 

have  adopted  his  poUcy  in  church  affairs,  and  ahe  naturally 

ocoqried  a  chief  position  in  the  new  ooundL  As  soon  as  pulia- 

ment  met  in  the  autumn  of  1377,  Wydiffe  waa  oonaulted  lo^  it  as 

to  tbs  lawfulness  of  prehibitisg  thkt  treasure  shoidd  pass  omt 

of  the  oountiy  in  ohediepoe  to  the  pope's  demand*    Wydiffe^ 

affirmative  judgment  is  cmntained  in  a  state  paper  stiU  extant; 

and  its  tone  is  plain  proof  enon^  of  his  ooofidcnoe  that  his 

views  on  the  main  question  of  dittfch  and  state  had  tlie  support 

of  the  nation.*  Indeed  he  had  laid  before  this  same  padiasncat 

his  answer  to  the  pope's  bulls,  with.a  defence  of  the  soundnesk 

of  his  opinions.   His  univenity,  moreover,  confirmed  hia  aisw- 

ment;  his  tenets,  it  sai4»  were  true  (*.a  ordiodqx),  though  tlieir 

expression  was  such  as  to  admit  of  an  incorrect  intetprct.atioa. 

But  Wydiffe  was  still  bound  to  dear  himself  before  the  prelates 

who  had  summoned  liim,  and  early  in  1378  he  appeased  lor  this 

purpose  in  the  chapd  of  Lambeth  Palaoeb   His  written  defence, 

eqveBScd  in  some  respects  in  more  cautious  langua^  than  he  had 

previously  used,  was  laid  before  the  council;  but  its  session 

was  niedely  interrupted,  not  only  by  an  inroad  of  the  Ixmdoa 

dtizens  with  a  crowd  of  the  rabble,  but  also  by  a  messenger  from 

the  princess  of  Wsles  enjoining  them  not  to  pass  judgment 

against  Wydiffe;  and  thus  a  second  time  he  escaped,  either 

without  sentence,  or  at  most  with  a  gentle  reqiust  that  he  would 

avoid  discusamg  the  inatters  in  question.  Meanwhfle  his  "  pro* 

tcstalio  "  was  sent  on  to  Rome.   Before,  however,  any  further 

step  could  be  taken  at  Rome,  Gregoiy  XL  died. 

'  In  t|ie  autumn  of  this  year  Wydiffe  was  once  more  cslled  upon 

to  prove  his  loyalty  to  John  of  Gaunt    The  duke  had  violated 

the  ssoctuaxy  of  Westminster  by  sending  a  band  of  armed  men 

to  .seize  two  squires  who  had  taken  refuge  there.    One  «f  tbcm 

Was  taken  by  a  stratagem,  the  other  mt^dered,  together  with  the 

servant  of  the  church  who  attempted  to  resist  his  artesL  .  After 

a  while  the  biahop.of  London  excommunicated  all  concerned  in 

the  crime  (except  only  the  king,  his  mother  and  his  uncle)^ 

and  preached  against  the  culprits  at   PaUl's  Cross.     At  the 

parliament  held  at  Gloucester  in  October,  in  the  presence  of  the 

legates  of  Pope  Urban  VI.,  Wydiffe  read  an  apology  for  the 

duke's  action  at  Westminster,  pleading  that  the  men  were  kiUed 

in  resisting  legal  arrest   The  paper,  which  forms  part.of  the  Do 

oeclosia,  lays  down  the  permissible  limits  of  the  right  pf  asylum, 

and  maintains  the  right  of  the  dvil  power  to  invaide  the  sanctuary 

in  order  to  bring  escaped  prisoners  to  justice. 

The  schism  in  the  papacy,  owing  to  the  dection  of  Gement  VII. 
in  opposition  to  Ufban  VL,  accentuated  Wydiffe's  hostility  to 
the  Holy  See  and  its  daims.  His  attitude  was  not,  indeed,  as 
yet  fxdly  devdoped.  He  did  not  object  to  a  visible  head  of 
the  church  so  long  as  this  head  possessed  the  essential  quali- 
fication of  righteousness,  as  a  member  of  the  elect.  It  was  only 
later,  with  the  development  of  the  srandah  of  the  schism,  that 
Wydiffe  definitdy  branded  the  pope,  qua  pope,  as  Antichrist;' 
the  sin  of  Silvester  L  in  accepting  the  donation  of  Constantine 
had  made  all  his  successors  apostates  <5enyiMer,  il.  37). 
The  year  1378^  indeed,  saw  the  beginning  of  an  agresdve  pro- 
paganda which  was  hound  sooner  or  later  to  issue  in  a  position 
wholly  revolutionaiy.  Wydiffe's  critidsm  of-  the  cstaUished 
order  and  of  the  accepted  doctrines  Jiad  hitherto  been  mainly 

*When  he  says  that  the  boll  was  only  nqeived  at  Oxfoid 
shortly  before  Christmas,  he  is  apparently  coitfoundini^  it  with  the 
prelates*  mandate,  which  is  dated  December  18  (Lewis,  appenda 
xvii.). — Chrott,  Angf.  p.  173. 

*ln  one  text  of  thu  docmnent  a  note  is' appended,  40  the  effect 
that  the  council  enjoined  silence  on  the  writer  as  touching  the  matter 
therein  contained  {Paseiadi  Zimnionm,  p.  271).  This,  if  true,  was 
apparently  a  measure  of  precaution. 

''So  he  describes  the  popes  in  the.fint  sermon  In  vol.  8.  of  the 
Sormonts.  This  may  very  probably  riefer  to  the  two  rhral  popes  (d. 
Buddensieg,  Polemical  Warkt,  faitr.  p.  xn).  Book  ni.  of  his  Oim 
09Mg^ieuMi»t^»gfx^be»niaytiiiaed 


WYCLIPFE 


869 


CQBlined  to  the  tGhoolfi  he  noir'deUfBiined  to  ciny  k  down 

into  the  streets.  For  this  pinposo  ho  choso  two  means,  both 
based  on  the  thesis  which  he  had  loaf  maintained  as  to  the 
supreme  authority  of  Holy  Scriptupe,  as  the  great  chaxter  of  the 
Chiistian  religion.  The  first  means  was  his  institution  of  the 
"poor"  or  "simple"  prksts  to  preach  his  doctxines  throughout 
the  country;  the  apoood  was  the  translation  of  the  Vulgate  Into 
EogUsh,  which  he  aooomplished  with  the  aid  of  his  friends 
Nichoks  Hcseford  and  John  Purvey  (see  Boub^  EvouStt). 
ThifveiBieii  of  the  Bible,  and  still  more  his  numccous  sermons 
and  tracts^  established  WycUile's  now  undisputed  position  aa 
the  founder  of  English  paose  writing 

The  choice  of  secular  priests  to  be  Ida  iUoecant  pteadieiis 
was  sigiifirant  of  another  change  of  attitude  on  Wydifie's  part. 
Hitherto  he  had  been  on  good  terms  with  the  friars,  whose  idesl 
of  poverty  appealed  to  him;  as  already  menCioned,  four  doctom 
of  the  mcnd&cant  ordea  had  appeared  with  him  at  hia  trial  in 
1377.  But  he  had  oome  to  reco^odse  that  all  organised  societies 
within  the  church,  **  sects  "  aa  he  called  them,  wcve  liable  to  the 
same  corruption,  while  he  objected  fundamentally  to  the  principle 
which  had  established  a  special  standard  of  morality  ior  the 
"  religious^"  On  the  other  hand,  Wydiffe's  itinemnt  preachers 
were  not  necessari^  intended  to  'work  aa  rtvtala  to  the  beneficed 
clergy.  The  idea  that  underlay  their  mission  was  rather 
analogous  to  that  which  animated  Wesley  four  centuries  later. 
WydUTe  aimed  at  supplementing  the  services  of  the  chuich 
by  regular  religious  mstiuction  in  the  vernacular;  and  his 
organization  included  a  good  number  of  men  who  held  or  had 
held  ie«pectable  pesitioos  in  their  colleges  at  Oxford.  The 
infhience  of  their  teaching  was  soon  felt  throughout  t^e  oonntry. 
Tibe  common  people  were  rejoiced  by  the  plain  and  homdy 
doctrine  which  dwelt  chiefly  on  the  simple  "  law  "  of  the  gaipcl, 
while  they  no  doubt  relished  tho  denundatiott  of  esisiing  evils 
in  the  church  which  formed,  as  it  were,  the  borthen  of  such 
diacoUTKs.  The  leeUng  of  disaffection  against  the  rich  and 
careless  clergy,  monks  and  friars  was  widespread  but  undefined. 
WydilEe  turned  it  into  a  definite  chanaeL 

Meanwhfle,  hi  addition  to  his  popular  pnopagaada  and  his 
ittUfventjoM.in  politics,  Wydifie  was  appealing  to  the  worid  of 
learnfa^  In  a  aeries  of  Latin  treatiscsi  which  foltowed  cadi  other 
hi  rapid  succession,  and  collectively  form  his  arnitma  Iheti&pcty 
During  the  years  1378  and  1379  he  produced  his  wotiKS  on  the 
truth  of  Holy  Scripture,  on  the  church,  on  the  office  of  king*  on 
the  papal  power. 

Of  all  these,  cacepc  the  tfaiid,  the  genera]  character  has  already 
been  imttcatccL  The  D«  <iffUio  retis  is  pcactically  a  dcdaiation  of 
war  against  the  papal  monarchy,  an  anticipation  of  the  theocratic 
conception  of  national  kinship  as  established  later  by  the  Reforma- 
tion. The  Idng  it  God's  vicar,  to  be  regarded  with  a  spiritual  fear 
second  only  to  that  doe  to  God,  and  resbtaocetohim  for  personal 
wffoaff  suffered  is  wicked.  His  jurisdiction  extends  over  an  causes. 
The  bisbope— who  are  to  the  lung  as  Christ's  Humanity  b  to  his 
EHWnity-~derive  their  jurisdiction  fnmi  him,  and  whatever  they  do 
is  done  by  his  authority.*  Thus  In  Ms  palpable  dignity,  towards  the 
world,  the  king  is  superior  to  the  priest:  it  is  only  in  nis  impalpable 
dignity.  towar3s  God,  that  the  priest  is  superior  to  the  kine.  Wjrcliffe 
thus  passed  from  an  assailant  of  the  papal  to  an  assailant  of  the 
sacerootal  power;  and  in  this  vmy  he  was  ultimately  led  toeumlne 
and  to  ft^Kt  the  distincthre  symbol  d  that  power,  the  doctrine  of 
transubetantlationi*      __^____ 

1  J.  Loserth,  in  hb  paper  "  6ie  Genesis  von  WicUfs  Summa 
Theologiae"  (5«teaiici^.  d«r  Jk^  Xaed.  der  Wissensch,,  Vienna, 
1908,  vot  156)  gives  proofs  that  the  Sunima  was  not  produced  on  a 
previously  thought  out  plam  but  that  even  the  burger  works  forming 
part  of  it  "  were  the  outcome  of  those  conflicts  if^ich  were  Jou^ht 
out  inside  and  outside  the  Good  Pariiament,"  m.  the>*  were  pnmarily 
intended  as  weapons  in  the  ecdesiastico-political  controversies  oc 
the  time. 

*Episcopit  svi  tfieidUs  tt  curaH  smi,  UnetOitr  in  ^ualkun^ne  tali 
tausa  tfintMlUer  ^tmoscne  amcUritaU  ngis;.  trfp  nx  ptr  iUoa, 
Sunt  tmm  UUes  kfjU  Homints  ngis.  See  D*  tMao  refis  («d.  A.  W. 
Pollard  and  Charles  Sayle,  from  Vienna  HSS.  4514,  3933«  Wyclif 
Soc  igg7)r  cap.  vi.  p.  no. 

*  Sponsdk  attacks  had  been  made  on  tlds  before,  though  It  had 
not  been  formally  challenged  in  the  schoob  See  the  inierestitM  case 
of  the  heretic  priest  Ralph  of  Tranur  in  the  Reffster  ofJikn  ds 
Onnditanf  Bishop  of  JUtler,  edited  by  F.  C.  Hingestoo*iUoddlpll 
<to9den  and  i£sater,  1894),  ppb  1147  aad  it79> 


WycXiffe  himself  had  for  some  time,  both  in  speech  and  writing, 
indicated  the  main  characteristics  of  his  teaching  on  the  Euchar- 
ist. It  waa  not,  however,  till  1379  or  1380*  that  b^san  a  formal 
public  attack  on  what  he  calls  the. "  new  '*  doctrine  in  a  set  df 
theses  propounded  at  Oxford.  These  were  foUowed  by  sermons, 
tractSy  and,  in  ijSr,  by  his  great  treatise  I>setidbarM<fa.  FfaiaUy, 
at  the  close  of  hb  life,  he  summed  up  his  doctrine  in  this  as  in 
other  matters  in  the  Trialopu. 

The  hmgnaee  is  wUcfa  he  denounced  transubstantbtion  antici- 
pated that  of  the  Protestant  refoimers:  it  b  a  "  blasphemous  folly," 
a  "  deceit,"  which  "  despoib  the  people  and  leads  them  to  oonunit 
idolatry  '*;  *  philosophically  it  b  nonsense,  since  it  presupposes  the 
possibuity  otaa  accident  existing  without  its  substance;  it  over- 
throws the  very  nature  of  a  sacrament.  Yet  the  consecrated  bread 
and  wine  are  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  for  Chiist  hhnseK  says  so 
{Pasc  Znan.  p.  11^)*,  we  do  not,  however,  corporeally  touch  and 
break  the  Lorifs  body,  which  b  present  only  sacramenkuiiertjpirUua- 
liler  ft  mrteo/tler— as  the  soul  b  present  in  the  body.  Ine  real 
presence  b  not  denied;  what  Wycliffe  "  dares  not  affirm  "  b  that 
tlui  bread  is  after  ooasecmtion  "  essentially,  substantially,  corpore- 
ally and  identically  "  the  body  of  Christ  (t6.).  Hb  doctrine,  whkh 
was  by  no  means  always  consistent  or  clear,  would  thus  ^eem  to 
approximate  closely  to  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  consubstantiation, 
as  distinguished  from  the  Zwinglbn  teaching  accepted  in  the  xxviii. 
Artide  of  ReKgkm  'of  the  Church  of  England,  that  "  the  means 
whereby  the  body  of  Christ  is  recdved  and  eaten  in  the  Supper  b 
Faith.''^ 

A  puUic  attack  by  a  theolo^an  of  Wydiffe's  influence  on 
the  doctrine  on  which  the  whole  system  of  the  medieval  church 
was  based  could  not  be  passed  over  as  of  mere  .academic  interest. 
The  theologians  of  the  university  were  at  .once  aroused.  The 
chancellor,  William  Barton,  sat  with  twelve  doctors  (six  of  whom 
were  friars),  and  solemnly  condemned  the  theses.  Wycliffe 
appealed,  in  accordance  with  his  principles,  not  to  the  pope^  but 
to  the  king.  But  the  lay  magnates,  who  were  periect^  ready  to 
help  the  church  to  attain  to  the  ideal  of  ^)oatolic  povertyi 
shrank  from  the  responsibility  of  lending  their  support  to  obscure 
propositions  of  the  schoob,  which,  for  no  pracliod  end,  involved 
undoubted  heresy  and  therefore  the  pains  of  hell.  Johi^  of 
Gaunt,  accordingly,  hastily  sent  down  a  messenger  enjoining  thq 
reformer  to  keep  silence  on  the  subject.  The  zift  thus  created 
between  Wycliffe  and  hb  patrons  in  high  places  was»  moreover^ 
almost  inunediately  widened  by  the  outbreak  oi  the  great 
Peasants'  Revolt  of  1381,  the  result  of  which  was  to  draw  the 
conservative  elements  in  church  and  state  together,  in  defence 
of  their  common  interests. 

With  the  Peasants'  Revolt  it  has  been  supposed  that  Wycliffe 
had  something  to  do.  The  only  positive  fact  implicating  him 
is  the  confession  of  one  of  its  leaders,  John  Ball,  that  he  kamed 
his  subversive  doctrines  from  WycUffe.  But  the  confession 
of  a  condemned  man  can  seldom  be  accepted  without  reserve; 
and  we  have  not  only  the  precise  and  repeated  testimony  of 
Knyghton  that  be  was  a  "precursor"  of  Wycliffe,  but  also 
documentary  evidence  that  he  was  excommunicated  as  early 
as  1366,  long  before  Wycliffe  exposed  himself  to  eccle«asticii 
censure.  Wycliffe  in  truth  was  always  careful  to  state  hip 
communistic  views  in  a  theoretical  way;  they  are  confined  to  hb 
Latin  scholastic  writings,  and  thus  could  not  reach  the  people 
from  him  directly.  At  the  same  time  it  b  very  possible  that  hif 
less  scrupulous  followers  translated  them  in  their  popular  du^ 
courses,  and  thus  fed  the  flame  that  burst  forth  in  the  rebellion. 
Perhaps  it  was  a  consciousness  of  a  share  of  responsibility  for 
it  that  led  them  to  cast  the  blame  on  the  friars.  In  any  case 
Wycliffe*s  advocates  must  regret  that  in  all  his  known  wotl^ 
there  is  only  one  trace  of  any  reprobation  of  the  excesses  that 
accompanied  the  outbreak. 

*  1381  (corrected  by  the  editce  from  1380)  is  the  date  given  hi 
Shirley's  edition  of  the  Faxiettli  Ziianiorum.  F.  D.  Matthew,  in  the 
Bng.  Hist.  Rsv.  (oc  April  1890  (v.  328),  pcoves  that  the  date  must 


have  been  1370  or  1380. 

*  Triatotus,  lib.  iv.,  cap.  22;  Dt  Ew:U,,p.  240. 

*  The  dtfTerence  *is  stfmmed  up  by  Melanchthott,  in  hb  rejection  off 


Buocr's  eirenicon,  thus: — Fucum  faciunt  hominibus  per  hoe  mtoi 
dicunt  vere  adosse  corpus,  el  tamen  poatea  addunl  centtmphtione  fidei, 
i.e.  imaginations.  Sic  iterum  negant  'praesenHam  realem.  Ifos 
doeemus,ouod corpus Ckristi vert et reoHlfr  adest cum  pone vd in  pant 
{Cotpm  S^ormojknmt  ii.  asa  aq.). 


«7o 


WYCLIFFE 


In  the  ftptinf  folkming  the  RevoH  liis  old  enemy,  William 
Courlenaj,  who  had  succeeded  the  murdered  archbishop  Sud- 
bury as  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  resolved  to  take  measures 
lor  stamping  out  WycUffe's  crowobg  heresy.  He  called  a  court 
of  bishops,  theologians  and  canonists  at  the  Blackfriais'  convent 
in  London,  which  assembled  on  the  X7th  to  aist  of  May  and  sat 
with  intervsb  until  July.  This  proceeding  was  met  by  a  hardly 
expected  manifestation  of  university  feeling  on  WycUffe's  side. 
The  cbanceUor,  Robert  Rygge,  though  he  had  joined  in  the 
condemnation  of  the  theses,  stood  by  him,  as  did  also  both  the 
proctors.  On  Ascension  Day  (the  xsth  of  May)  his  most  pro« 
minent  disciple,  Nicholas  Hereford,  was  allowed  to  preach 
a  violent  sermon  against  the  regulars  in  the  diurchyard  of 
St  Frideswyde.  The  archbishop  protested  through  his  com- 
missaiy,  the  Carmelite  Dt  Peter  Stokes,  who  was  charged 
with  the  execution  of  the  arqhbishop's  mandate  (on  the  aSth 
of  May)  for  the  publication  in  the  university  of  the  decision 
Xii  the  Blackfriars'  council,  by  which  S4  articles  extracted 
from  Wydiffe's  works  were  condemned,  ten  as  heretical  and 
fourteen  as  erroneous.  The  reply  of  the  chancellor  was  to 
deny  the  archbishop's  jurisdiction  within  the  university,  and 
to  allow  Philip  Repington,  another  of  Wycliffe's  disciples, 
to  preach  on  Corpus  Christi  day  before  the  university. 
Chancellor  and  preacher  were  guarded  by  armed  n>en,  and 
Stokes  wrote  that  his  life  was  not  safe  at  Oxford.  The  chan- 
cellor and  proctors  were  now  summoned  to  Lambeth,  and 
directed  to  appear  before  the  Bkckfriars*  court  on  the  X2tb  of 
June.  The  result  was  that  the  universty  officera  were  soon 
brought  to  submission.  Though  they  were,  with  the  majority 
of  regent  masters  at  Oxford,  on  the  side  of  WycUffe,  the  main 
question  at  issue  was  for  them  one  of  philosophy  rather  than 
faith,  and  they  were  <iidte  prepared  to  make  format  sulmtission  to 
the  authQrity  of  the  Church.  For  the  rest,  a  few  of  the  reformer's 
more  prominent  adherents  were  arrested,  and  imprisoned  until 
they  recanted. 

•-  WycMe  himsdf  remained  at  large  and  unmolested.  It 
fe  said  indeed  by  Knyghton  that  at  a  council  held  by 
Courtenay  at  Oxford  in  the  following  November  Wydiffe  was 
brought  forward  and  made  a  recantation;  but  our  authority 
forttmately  s^ves  the  text  of  the  recantation,  which  proves  to  be 
nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  plain  English  statement  of  the 
condemned  doctrine.  It  is  therefore  lawful  to  dou6t  whether 
WycliSe  appeared  before  the  council  at  aU,  and  even  whether  he 
was  ever  summoned  before  it.  Probably  after  the  overthrow 
of  his  party  at  Oxford  by  the  action  of  the  Blackfriars'  council 
Wydiffe  found  it  advisable  to  withdraw  permanently  to  Lutter- 
worth. That  his  strength  among  the  laity  was  undiminish^ 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  an  ordinance  passed  by  the  House  of 
Lords  alone,  in  May  1382,  against  the  itinerant  preachers  was 
atmulted  on  the  petition  of  the  Commons  in  the  following  autumn. 
In  London,  Leicester  and  elsewhere  there  is  abundant  evidence 
of  his  popularity.  The  reformer,  however,  was  growing  old. 
There  was  work,  he  probably  fdt,  for  him  to  do,  more  lasting 
than  personal  controversy.  So  in  his  retirement  he  occupied  him- 
self, with  restless  activity,  in  writing  numerous  tracts,  Latin  and 
English.  To  this  period,  too,  belong  two  of  his  most  important 
works: — the  Triaiogus  and  the  unfinished  Opus  evangdicunt. 

The  Trialogtts  is  as  it  were  his  summa  sunimarum  theologiae,  a 
summing  up  of  his  arguments  and  conclusions  on  philosophy  and 
doctrine,  ca*t  in  the  form  of  a  discussion  between  three  persons, 
Atiliiia,  reoresenting  "  solid  theology,"^  Phroncais,^  rcprefienting 
"  subtle  ana  mature  theologry."  and  Pseustis.  representing  captious 
hifidelity  '*  whose  functionls  to  bring  out  tne  truth  by  arguing  and 
demonstratine  against  it.  The  Trialogus  was  the  best  known  and 
snost  influential  of  all  WvcUife's  works,  and  was  the  first  to  be 
printed  (1525)1  a  fact  whicn  gave  rt  a  still  greater  vogue-  It  is  also 
significant  that  all  the  only  four  known  complete  MSS.  of  the  work, 
preserved  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna,  are  of  Hussite  origin. 
The  note  of  both  the  Trialogfvs  and  of  the  (Dpus  evaneelicum,  Wy- 
eliffe's  last  work;  is  their  insistence  on  the  "  sufiiciency  of  Holy 
Scripture." 

In  1382,  or  early  in  1383,  Wycliffc  was  sdsed  with  a  paralytic 
stroke,  in  qute  of  which  he  continued  his  labours.  In  1384  it  is 
suted  that  he  was  dted  by  Pope  Urban  VI.  to  appear  btf on  him 


at  Rome,bQttoRdmeh(fneVer#^t.  On  the  sStli  of  December 
of  this  year,  while  he  was  hearing  mass  in  his  own  diurch,  he 
lecdved  a  final  stroke,  from  the  effects  of  whkh  he  died  on  the 
New  Year's  eve.  He  was  buried  at  Lutterworth;  bat  by  a  decree 
ol  the  council  of  Constance,  May  4,  141 5,  his  remains  wcr* 
ordered  to  be  dug  up  and  burned,  an  order  which  was  carried  out, 
at  the  command  of  Pope  Martin  V.,  by  Birfiop  Flemfaig  in  1428. 
A  sober  study  of  Wydiffe*^  life  and  worics  justifies  a  convktiofi 
of  his  complete  sincerity  and  earnest  striving  after  what  he 
believed  to  be  right.  If  he  cannot  be  credited  (Sa  he  haslteen 
by  Bdost  of  his  Uo^raphers)  with  all  the  Protestant  virtues,  he 
may  at  least  claim  to  have  discovered  the  secret  of  tlte  immediate 
dependence  ol  the  individual  Christian  upon  God,  a  xdatioo 
which  kieeds  no  mediation  of  any  priest,  and  to  which  the  very 
sacraments  of  the  Church,  however  desirable,  are  not  essentiaDy 
a^Qcessary.  When  he  divorces  the  idea  of  the  Chuftfa  from  any 
connexion  with  its  official  or  formal  constitution,  and  coneeives  it 
as  consbting  exdusivdy  of  the  righteous,  he  may  teem  to  have 
gone  the  whole  length  of  the  most  radical  reformers  of  the 
ifithomtury.  And  yet,  powerftil  as  was  his  influence  in  Enf^d, 
hib  doctrines  in'  his  own  country  were  doomed  to  perish,  or  at 
best  to  become  for  a  century  and  a  half  the  creed  of  obscure 
and  persecuted  sectaries  (see  Lollasos).  U  was  otherwise  is 
Bohemia,  whither  his  works  had  been  carried  by  the  scholan 
who  came  to  Eni^and  in  the  train  of  Ridmrd  II.'s  queen,  Anne  of 
Bdhemia.  Here  his  writings  were  eagcriy  read  and  multiplied, 
and  here  his  disdple,  John  Huss  (f .«.),  with  less  originaUty 
but  greater  simfplidty  of  character  and  greater  morsl  force,  raised 
Wycliffet^B  doctrine  to  the  dignity  of  a  national  religion.  Extracts 
from  the  De  eccUsia  and  the  D€  fvUO&t*  Pafae  of  the  English 
reformer  made  up  the  greater  part  of  the  Z^  tedetia  of  Huss,  a 
work  for  centuries  ascnbed  soldy  to  the' Bohemian  divine,  aiid 
for  whidi  he  was  condemned  and  fyumt.  It  was  Wycliffe^ 
De  st^fcietttia  legi^Ckruti  that  Huss  curried  with  him  to  convert 
the  council  of  Constance;  cf  the  fiery  discourses  now  included 
in  the  published  edition  of  WycUffe's  Stmumes  many  wef«  like- 
wise long  attributed  to  Huss.  Fmaliy,  it  was  from  the  Dt 
eucharistia  that  the  Taboritcs  derived  thdr  doctrifte  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  with  the  exception  of  the  granting  of  the  chaKce 
to  the  laity.  To  Huss,  again,  Luther  and  other  continental 
reformers  owed  much,  and  thus  the  spirit  of  the  English  reformer 
had  its  influence  on  the  rdormed  churches  of  Europe. 


of  iUusirativc  papers  and  records;  Foxe's  A<b  ^m4  MmttmHUs,  voL 

::>      I     .o»»     ..:.!.    _-._  .    17- l.ii    ^—j    \m u •_   t ^-    .l. 


iii..  ed.  1855.  with  app.;  Fonhall  and  Madden's  prefaoe  to  the 
Wycliffe  Bible,  p.  vii.  note^  Oxford.  1851 ;  W.  W..  Shirley's  edition 
of  the  FascUuli  Ziianwmm,  a  coHection  of  confeemix>cary  documents 
bearing  on  the  hbtoiy  <A  Wydifie  and  the  Lolhnla  with  isier- 
spersed  Darrative  and  comments  (probably  the.  wtoth  -of  THoms 
Netterof  Walden)  (18^8)  tend  H.  T.  Riley's  notices  hi  thoappendices 
to  the  Second  and  Fourth  Reports  of  the  Historical  Manoscripts 
Commission.  Among  contempocary  records  the  aarrarivt  of  a  monk 
of  St  Albans— «  bitter  opponent  of  John  of  Gaunt— >^i» of  conspiciievs 
value;  it  was  published  under  toe  liile.  of  Ckmtiem  AnpuM,  by 
Sir  G.  Maunde  Thompson  (^87^).  Of  this  the  acoooat  in  walsing- 
ham's  Historia  Anuitcana  (ed.  H.  T«  Riley*  1863, 11864)  is  mainly  « 
modified  vci^ion.  Knyghton,  who  wrote  Dt  ettn^hts  Am^me  at 
Leicester  in  the  heart  of  what  may  be  called  the  Wydiffe  country,  is 
very  well  infonned  as  <o  certain-  paasages-in  the  reformer's  bistoiy. 
though  his  chronology  is  extremely  faqny  fed.  J.  R.  Lumby,  iSte- 
1895).  There  are  valuable  notices  also  m  the  continuation  of  the 
Eulogiitm  histofutnim  (vol  iii.,  ed  P.  S.  Hsydon,  1863).  in  the 
Cknmkle  of  Adam  of  V^  ted.  E.  M.  Thompson,  1876),  and  in  more 
than  one  of  the  continuatfions  of  Higden.  For  the  studV  of  Wydiffe's 
theology  the  controversial  works  of  Wodefotd  and  WahKn  are 
important,  btft  must  nccesBarffy  be  used  with  caution. 

Of  modem  biographies  that  by  G.  V.  Lechlcr  (Johann  von  WicHf 
nnd  die  VofgfKhkkU  det  RtformaHon,  a'-vdls..  Ld^sfgi  i8t3;  partial] 
Eng.  trans.,  by  F.Lorimer,  1878,  1881  and  1884)  is  by  far  tbc  most 
comprehensive:  it  includes  a  detailed  exposition  of  the  reformer's 
system,  based  to  a  ct)n9idenibte  extent  on  works  whith  were  then 
unpublished.  Shirley's  masterly  introduction  to  the  FasckuH 
Ziaomorum,  and  F,  D.  MattheVs  to  his  edition  oT  "Engfitk  Works 
of  Wyelif  kithtrto  unprtnted  (1880),  as  wi?!!  as  Crelghton's  Bislory  «f 
the  Papacy,  vol.  i..  t88».  and  Sir  H.  C.  Maxwell  Lyte*s  account  in  his 
Shlory  oftko  Vnitrsityof  pj^ord  (t886),  add  to  or  correct  our  stedr 
I  of  biographical  matcrailft. '  Slid  <»nt«1h  Mndi  VMu^bfe 'critidMi. 


WYCOMBE— WYLIE,  A: 


871 


•  WytUfe^  IHlilkid  dodriM  m  cfinttMed  by  Mr  R.  h,  IV)ole  atfsifrrt* 
iMWM  ff  Skt  Histogy  of  MMmal  Tkotuht,  (864) ;  and  hit  idatiQn  to 
Hubs  is  elaborately  demonstrated  by  Dr  J.  Losertb  {Bus  und  Wicltf, 
Prague,  1B84;  also  Eng.  trans.). 

See  also  G.  M.  Trevelyan,  Bn^kmd  «» tk»  Ap  of  Wydiffe  (London, 
t699h.QBianf  HisUry  of  Entlani  tJTP'tw^  (Ldndon.  1906),  pp. 
511  ft.  (or  authbrities;  W.  W.  Capes,  "History  of  the  EJagfish 
CKurcb  in  the  14th  and  15th  Centuries."  in  HiiLcf  the  Eng.  Church, 
td  Stephen  ana  Hunt  (London,  1900).  Many  references  to  more 
reeent  monotrapht  on  particular  points  will  be  found  in  J.  Loeerth's 
article  *'mMr  ia  Hcnog-Hauck,  RtakncyUopOdit  (3fd  cd.. 
1908),  loL  pp.  035*337. 

Wydiffe's  works  are  enumerated  in  a  CtUaloiiu  by  Shirley  (Oxford, 
1865).  Of  his  Latin  works  only  two  had  been  published  previously 
Co  1880.  the  De  t^fici& paHorali,  ed.  G.  V.  Lechler  (Ldprig,  1863)  and 
the  TrialopUi  ed.  Lecblef  (Oxford,  1869).  The  pious  nope  expretsed 
by  the  leetMd  editor  ot  the  Trialogfis  in  his  preface,  that  English 
tcbolars  might  be  moved  tb  publish  ai!  Wycliffe  s  Latin  works,  began 
to  be  realixed  in  r883  with  the  foundation  at  Oxford  of  the  Wydif 
Society,  under  the  auspices  off  which  the  following  have  been 
pubKsned.*-^aiMiteil  TroiU,  ed.  R.  Boddeasieg,  (3  vols.,  1883): 
ffo  <mi*  domimo*  vaL  t.  ed.  R.  L.  Pocrfe.  .vob.  ii.-iv.«  ed.  J.  Loserth 
(X885-190S);  Do  composuione  hominisi  ed.  R.  Beer  (1884);  De 
£cd<sia,  ed.  Loserth  (1886);  Dialogiu  sm  speadum  eccUsiae  mili- 
tantif,  ed.  A.  W>  Pbllard  (1886);  SSrmonei,  ed.  Loserth,  vols,  i.-iv. 
<i887-l890>t  Do  omoio  rofu,  ed.  A.  \V.  Polbrd  and  C.  Sayle  (iSSt)  ; 
iH  aposmsia.  ed.  M.  Dnewkild  (1889)!  Dt  domimio  divine,  ed.  R.  U 
Poole  (1890);  Qmaestumos.  De  onto  ^atdicawtenialit  ed.  ^.  Beer 
(1891);  De  euckarislia  tractaius  majors  ed.  Loserth  (189^);  De 
hUuphemia,  ed.  Dziewicki  (1894);  Lopcc  (3  vols.,  ed.  Deiewicid, 
1895-18^):  Opui  «Mief<f£nfei,  ed.  Loserth' (4  vols.,  1898),  parts 
iii.  and  it.  also  bear  the  title  De  AMkhriUoi  Do  SimoitU,  ed.  Heis- 
hersi'Frfknkxi  and  Dziewicki  (1898);  De  veritatae  socrae  uripturae, 
t<i.  R.  Buddensieg  (3  vols.,  1^5);  Misatlanea  Jthihsophka,  ed. 
P^iewicki  (2  vols.,  1905)  (vol.  1.  has  an  introduction  on  wydiffe's 
philosophy);  Do  polootate  papae,  ed.  Loserth  (1907)< 

For  Wydiffe's  EnglMi  works  see  SoUa  Enifiak  Works,  «d.  T. 
Arnold  u  vols.,  l869-'i87i),  and  Engliok  Works  hitherto  umprinted, 
ed.  F.  DTMatthew  (1880),  cnicny  sermons  and  short  tracts,  of  many 
of  which  the  authenticity  is  uncenain.  The  Wickot  (Nuremberg, 
1546:  teprinted  at  Oxford,  I8s8>  is  not  induded  in  eitner  of  these 
coilecrions.  (R.  L.  P.;  W.  A.  P.) 

WTCOHBB  (offideily  Cwtnmo  WvcoifBt,  abo  CHiPtiHO  or 
Hmsb  Wtodiibb)i  a  market  lomn  end  manidpei  borough  in  the 
V^combe  periiamentaiy  dhrisimi  of  Burkhwghanwhlre>  Fjigllid, 
94  m.  W.  by  N.  ot  London  by  the  Grant  Wealeni  railway. ':  Pop. 
(iQoi)  I5t54<*  The  cklirckof  All  SninUs  originnlly  of  Momuia 
fMribdntion,  mm  rebnUtia  i^$  by  the  $kbt»  nad  ■«»  of 
Godstow  ncnr  Oifov^  and  wne  Im^riy  Noooatrticted  early  in 
the  15th  century.  For  the  graaunar  tdiool^  fonnded  c  1550  by 
die  BU^or  and  btirgdnee,  a  new  iwaiding  Wan  cncted  in  1883. 
Thecv  aie  lemaint'oi  a  Norauui  boepital  of  St  John  the  Baptint, 
coailiting  of  aitdiee  of  the  chapial.  The  inarket-hoiiBe  and 
gnOdhaU  was  erected  in.  1757.  The  family  of  Petty,  with  wkm 
tho  town  bu  long  been  ooanected,  oooqiied  the  nttualQn  aMtd 
Wycombe  Abbey.  Lord  ^Oaoonsfidd^  aMosion  of  Uughemdcn 
,ts  T^  ita.  N.  of  the  towiL  Among  a  mimber  of  abftahoiiset  are 
•ome' beating  the  name  of  Queen  EKaabeth,  endowed  in  103  out 
of  the  revenues  of  a  dissolved  fraternity  of  St  Mary.  Tbe 
prindpat  industry  is  chalr>making,  and  there  are  also  flour  and 
paper  mUis;  The  bonmgb  is  under  a  majtor,  8  aUermen  aad 
34  coondHora  Area,  1734  acres.  The  burgemcs  of  Wycombe 
have  ancient  rfghta  of  common  posturage  on  the  nsighbouriiig 
Rye  Mead. 

There  are  various  British  remains  in  theneighbouriiood  of  Chippiag 
Wycombe  (Wicmmbo,  Wycmmbee,  Cheping  WycomU,  Cho^g  md^ 
liam),  but  the  traces  of  a  Roman  settlement  are  more  important. 
In  Domesday  Bdok  the  manor  only  is  mentioned,  but  in  1199  the 
men  of  Wycombe  paid  taUa^e  to  the  king.  Ita  1095-1334  Alan 
AtMet  granted  to  the  buraesaea  the  whde  town  as  a  free  boroogb. 
This  grant  was  coofirmcd  by  Henry  III.,  Edward  L.  Henry  IV.  and 
Mary.  In  1558.  however,  a  new  charter  of  incorporation  was  granted 
In  reward  for  the  Iqvalry  shown  to  Quccn  Mary.  It  was  confirmed 
by  Elisabeth  in  1S98  and  by  James  1,  in  1609  with  certain  addHmns. 
Creraiwell  granted  another  oharter^  but  it  waabuiAt  after  the  Restora* 
tion,  and  the  last  charter  was  granted  by  Charlwll.  in  1663.  The 
corporation  was  lempdelled  under  the  Municipal  Corsorations  Act  of 
1835,  and  now  consists  of  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  18  coundllors. 
Wycombe  rettimed  two  burgesses  to  parltamcnt  in  1300  and  con- 
tknicd  to  send  meAbcn  until  1885.  The  frandne  wss  enlarged 
after  i83a«  and  in  1867  the  botouah  waa  depri%ied  of  one  of  iM 
anembers.  A  market  waa  granted  by  Basset  to  the  burgesses  in 
1226.  and  at  the  present  day  it  is  held  every  Friday,  the  day  fixed  by 
the  dmfterbfQtsMM  Mary.  Two^tatutorffsftswef«licM  under  the 


charter  of  1558,  bet  in  ij^  only  one  fair  was  held  on  the  Moaday 
before  Michaelmas  for  hinng,  but  there  is  now  a  pleasure  fair  on  the 
same  day. 
See  John  Parker,  History  and  Anliqmtses  of  Wycombe  (1878). 

WTB,  a  river  of  England,  famous  for  its  beautiful  scenery. 
It  rises  in  Montgomeryshire  on  the  E.  dope  of  ninlimmon» 
dose  to  the  source  of  the  Severn,  the  estuary  of  which  it  joins 
after  a  widdy  divergent  course.  Its  length  is  r30  m.;  its 
drainage  area  (which  is  induded  in  the  basin  of  the  Severn), 
1609  sq.  m.  Running  at  first  S.E.  it  crosses  the  W.  of  Radnor^ 
shire,  pasdng  Rhayader,  and  recdving  the  Elan,  in  the  basin  of 
which  are  the  Birmingham  reservoirs.  It  then  divides  Radnor- 
shire from  Brecknockshire,  receives  the  Ithon  on  the  left,  passes 
Bulllh,  and  presently  ttims  N.E.  to  Hay,  separating  Radnorshire 
from  Herefordshire,  and  thus  forming  a  short  stretch  of  the 
Welsh  boundary.  The  river,  which  rose  at  an  devation  exceeding 
3O0O  ft ,  has  now  reached  a  level  of  350  ft.,  55  m.  from  its  source. 
As  it  enters  Herefordshire  it  bends  E.  by  S.  to  reach  the  dty  of 
Hereford.  It  soon  recdves  the  Lugg,  which,  augmented  by  the 
Arrow  and  the  Frome,  joins  from  the  N.  The  course  of  the 
Wye  now  becomes  extremdy  sinuous;  and  the  valley  narrows 
nearly  to  Chepstow.  For  a  short  distance  the  Wye  divides 
Herefordshire  from  Gloucestershire,  and  for  the  rest  of  its 
course  Gloucesteishire  and  Monmouthshire.  It  passes  Mon- 
moutb,  where  it  receives  the  Monnow  on  the  right,  and  finally 
Chepstow,  2  m.  above  its  junction  with  the  Severn  estuary. 
The  river  is  navigable  for  small  vessds  for  15  m.  up  from  the 
mouth  on  high  tides,  but  there  is  not  much  traffic  above  Chep- 
stow. The  average  spring  rise  of  the  tide  is  38  ft.  at  Chepstow, 
while  50  ft.  is  sometimes  exceeded;  the  average  neap  rise  is 
38^  ft.  The  scenery  is  finest  between  Rhayader  and  Hay  in  the 
upper  port,  and  from  Goodrich,  below  Ross,  to  Chepstow  in  the 

lower,  the  second  being  the  portion  which  gives  the  Wye  its  fame. 
The  name  of  Wye  belongs  also  to  two  smaller  English  rivefs~(i) 
a  right-bank  tribotary  of  the  I>erbyBlure  Derwent,  rising  in  tlie 
uplands  near  Buxton,  and  havina  part  of  its  eariy  course  through  one 
01  the  caverns  characteristic  of  toe  district ;  (3)  a  left-bank  tributary 
of  the  Thames^  watering  the  valley  of  the  Chiltems  In  which  lies 
Wycombe  and  joining  the  main  river  near  Boome  End. 

WTKE8,  TROHAS.  English  chronider,  was  a  canon  regular 

of  Oseney  Abbey,  near  Oxford.    He  was  the  author  of  a  chronicle 

extending  from  1066  to  1 2S9,  which  is  printed  among  the  monastic 

annals  edited  by  H.  R.  Luard  for  the  **  RqDs  "  Series.    He  gives 

an  account  of  the  barons'  war  from  a  royalist  standpoint,  and  is 

a  severe  critic  of  Montfort*s  policy.    He  is  of  some  value  for  the 

reign  of  Edward  I.    His  work  is  dosely  connected  whh  the 

Oseney  Annals,  which  are  printed  paralld  with  his  work  by 

Luard,  but  from  x  258  to  1378  Wykes  is  an  independent  authority. 

Sec  H.  R.  Luard's  Annates  monastioi,  vol.  iv.  (1 869);  and  eartler 
edition  in  (jok's  Seriplores  ^n^ne,  pp.  3I-I38. 

WYUS,  ALEXANDER  (18x5-1887),  British  missionary,  was 
bom  in  London  on  the  6th  of  Aprfl  18x5,  and  went  to  school 
at  Drumlithl^,  Kincardineshire,  and  at  Chelsea.  While  appren- 
ticed to  a  cabinet-maker  he  picked  up  a  Chinese  grammar  written 
In  Latin,  and  after  mastering  the  latter  tongue  made  such  good 
progress  with  the  former,  that  in  1846  James  Legge  en^ged 
him  to  superintend  the  London  Missionary  Sodety's  press  at 
Shanghai.  In  this  position  he  acquired  a  wide  knowledge  of 
Chinese  religion  and  dvilization,  axul  especially  of  their  mathe- 
matics, so  that  he  was  able  to  show  that  Sir  George  Homer's 
method  (18 19)  of  solving  equations  of  all  orders  had  been  knoali 
to  the  Chinese  mathematicians  of  the  Z4th  century.  He  made 
several  journeys  into  the  interior,  notably  in  1858  with  Lord 
Elgin  up  the  Yang-tsze  and  in  1868  with  Griffith  John  to  the 
capital  of  Sze-ch'uen  and  the  source  of  the  Han.  J'rom  1863  he 
was  an  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  He  settled 
in  London  in  1877,  &"<!  <l!ed  on  the  10th  of  February  1887. 

In  Chinese  he  published  books  on  arithmetic,  geometry,  algebra 
(De  Morgan's),  mechanics,  astronomy  (HerschePs),  and  Tko 
Marino  Stedm  Engine  (T.  J.  Main  and  T.  Bn»wn),  as  well  as  trans- 
lattons  of  the  first  two  gospels.  In  Englidi  his  chid  works  were 
Noks  om  Chineso  LUeraturo  ^Shanghaii  1867X  and  scattered  articles 
ceilectcd  under  the  title  Chinese  Researchos  by  Aioxamder  Wyiio 
(Shanghai.  1 897). 

See  H.  Coi%.  Ufo  ^sid  lofoMt  1/  A,  Wyiit  Umjh 


«7a 


WYLIE,  R.— WYNDHAM 


WTU8»  MBBR  (1S39-1877),  American  artist,  mu  bon  fai 
the  Isle  of  Man  in  1839.  He  was  taken  to  the  United  States 
when  »  diild,  and  studied  in  the  schools  of  the  Penn^lvania 
Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts,  Phiiadelpbia,  the  directors  ci  which 
sent  him  to  France  in  1863  to  study.  He  won  a  medal  of  the 
second  doss  at  the  Paris  Salon  of  1872.  He  went  to  Pont  Aven, 
Brittany,  in  the  Mrly  sixties,  where  he  remained  until  his  dea,th 
OA  the  4th  of  February  1877.  He  painted  Breton  peasants  and 
scenes  in  the  history  of  Brittany;  among  his  important  works 
ivas  a  laige  canvas, ''  The  Death  of  a  Vendean  Chief,"  now  at 
the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York. 

WTHOHDHAll  (prooounoed  WindJiam),  a  market  town  in 
the  mid-pailiamentary  division  of  Norfolk,  England,  10  m.  S.W. 
ol  Norwich  by  the  Great  Eastern  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  4764. 
The  church  of  St  Mary  the  Virgin  rises  on  an  eminence  on  the 
outskirts  of  the  town.  It  was  attached  Co  a  Benedictine  prioiy, 
founded  about  the  beginning  of  the  latli  century  as  a  cell  of 
Si  Albans  abbey  by  William  de  Albini:  In  1448  this  foundation 
became  an  abbey.  The  nave  is  of  ornate  Norman  work,  with  a 
massive  triforium,  surmounted  by  a  Perpendicular  clerestory 
and  a  beautiful  wooden  roof.  The  broad  N.  aisle  is  Perpendicular, 
and  has  also  a  very  fine  rood  screen.  At  the  W.  end  there  is  a 
lofty  and  graceful  Peipendicular  tower.  The  choir,  which  was 
ubed  as  the  conventual  church,  has  left  only  slight  tracer,  and  one 
arch  is  standing  of  a  laige  chapel  which  adjoined  it  on  the  S. 
In  the  centre  of  the  town  is  a  picturesque  half-timbered  market 
cross  (1616),  with  an  octagonal  upper  chamber  raised  on  massive 
pillars  of  wood.  A  chapel,  dedicated  to  St  Thomas  of  Canterbury, 
is  used  as  a  grammar  school.  At  Wymondham  on  the  7th  of 
July  a  festival  was  formerly  held  in  honour  of  the  saint.  It 
was  at  this  festival  in  1549  that  the  rebellion  of  Robot  Ket  or 
Kett  came  to  a  head. 

WTNAAD,  or  Wawad,  a  higliland  tract  in  S.  India,  forming 
part  of  Malabar  district,  Madras^  It  consists  of  a  table-land 
amid  the  W.  Ghats,  60  m.  long  by  30  m.  broad,  with  an  avoage 
elevation  of  3000  ft.;  pop.  (1901)  75,149.  It  is  best  known  as 
the  district  where. a  large  amount  of  British  capital  was  sunk 
during  the  decade  1876-1886  in  gold  mines.  It  had  yet  earlier 
been  a  coffee-planting  district,  but  this  industry  has  recently 
declined.  Tea,  pepper  and  cardamoms  are  produced  in  increasing 
quantities.    'There  are  also  valuable  forest  reserves. 

WYNDHAM,  SIR  CHARLES  (1837-  ),  English' actor,  was 
bom  in  Liverpool  on  the  83rd  of  March  1837,  the  son  of  a  doctor. 
He  was  educated  abroad,  at  King's  College,  London  and  at  the 
College  of  Su^eons  and  the  Peter  Street  Anatomical  School, 
Dttblm,  but  his  taste  for  the  stage  was  too  strong  for  him  to 
take  up  either  the  clerical  or  the  medical  career,  suggested  for  him, 
and  early  in  1862  be  made  a  first  appearance  in  London  as  an 
actor.  Later  in  the  year,  being  in  America,  he  volunteered 
during  the  Civil  War;  and  became  brigade  surgeon  in  the  Federal 
army,  resigning  in  1864  to  appear  on  the  stage  in  .New  York 
with  John  Wilkes  Booth.  Returning  to  England,  be  played  at 
Manchester  and  Dublin  in  Her  Ladyship*s  Guardian^  his  own 
adaptation  of  Edward  B.  Hamley's  novel  Lady  Ue*s  Widoickood. 
He  reappeared  in  London  in  1866  as  Sir  Arthur  Lascelles  in 
Morton's  All  that  Cliiicrs  if  not  CaUt  but  "his  great  success  at 
that  time  was  in  F.  C.  BumandVburlesque  of  Black^yed  Susan, 
as  Hatchetf , "  with  dance.*'  This  brought  him  to  the  St  James's 
theatre,  where  he  played  with  Henry  Irving  in  Iddia\  then  with 
Ellen  Terry  in  Charles  Reade's  DouUc  Marriage,  and  Tom 
Taylor's  Still  Waters  Kun  Deep,  As  Charies  Surface,  his  best 
part  for  many  years,  and  in  a  breezy  three-act  farce.  Pink 
Dominoes,  by  James  Albery,  and  in  Brighton,  an  anglicized 
version  of  Saratoga  by  Bronson  Howard  (1842-1908),  who 
married  his  sister,  he  added  greatly  to  his  popidarity  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  In  1876  he  took  control  of  the  Criterion 
theatre.  Here  he  produced  a  long  succession  of  plays,  in  which 
he  took  the  leading  part,  notably  a  number  of  old  En^ish 
comedies,  ahd  in  such  modem  plays  as  The  Lmts,  The  Case  of 
Ee^Uious  Swsan  and  others  by  Henry  Arthur  Jones;  and  he 
became  famous  for  his  acting  fai  David  Garrick.  In  1899  he 
opened  his  new  theatre,  caU^  .Wyndbam's.    J|»  29P2  he  was 


knighted.    From  18S5  etowirdi  Ui  Inidtag  feOfCM  wis  Ifki 

Mary  Moore  (Mrs  Albciy),  who  became  his  partner  m  tie 
proprietorship  of  the  Criterion  and  Wyndham's  theatres,  and  d 
his  New  Theatre,  opened  in  1903;  and  her  delightful  acting  ii 
comedy  made  thdr  long  atsociation  memomble  on  the  Londoi 
stage. 

VTlTOHAa,  OR  WILUAll,  BArt.  (1687-1740),  Ei«U 
politician,  was  the  qnly  son  of  Sir  Edward  Wyndliam,  Bait,  sad 
a  grandson  of  William  Wyndham  (d.  1683)  of  Orehazd  Wysi 
ham,  Somerset,  who  was  created  a  baronet  fat  1661.  Eduotd 
at  Eton  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  he  entered  paihamas 
in  1 7 10  and  became  secretary-at-war  in  the  Tory  miniitiyii 
1713  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  17x3.  He  was  ckadf 
associated  with  Lord  Bolingbroke,  and  he  was  piivy  to  tk 
attempts  made  to  bring  about  a  Jacobite  restoiatkm  on  the  dotl 
of  Queen  Anne;  when  these  failed  he  was  ditmiswfd  from  offia 
In  X715  the  failure  of  a  Jacobite  movement  kd  to  his  impmoi- 
ment,  but  he  was  soon  set  at  liberty.  Under  Geoiye  I.  Wyndlua 
was  the  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  House  of  Common 
fighting  for  his  High  Church  and  Tory  principles  against  Si 
Robert  Walpole.  He  was  in  constant  fommiinicafion  with  tk 
exiled  Bolingbroke,  and  after  1733  the  two  were  actively  a0o» 
ated  in  abortive  plans  for  the  overthrow  of  Wa]p<^e.  He  M 
at  Wells  on  the  17th  of  June  1740.  Wyndham*6  first  wife  va 
Catherine,  daughter  of  Charles  Seymour,  6th  duke  of  Somcnct 
By  her  he  had  tWo  sons,  Charks,  who  became  snd  eari  of  EcW' 
mont  in  1 750,  and  Percy,  who  took  the  name  of  O^rien  and  «■ 
created  earl  of  Thomond  in  1756. 

The  Wyndham  Family,  Sir  John  Wyndham,  a  Norfolk  ni% 
was  knighted  after  the  battle  of  Stoke  in  1487  and  beheaded 
for  high  treason  on  the  and  of  May  150a.  He  married  Maiiaieii 
daughter  of  John  Howard,  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  his  no  Sr 
Thomas  Wyndham  (d.  1521),  of  Fdbrigg,  Norfolk,  was  vic^ 
admiral  of  England  under  Henry  VUI.  By  his  first  wife  Si 
Thomas  was  the  father  of  Sir  John  Wyndham,  who  named 
EUxabeth,  dau^ter  of  John  Sydenham  of  Orchard,  Sooend, 
and  founded  the  Somerset  branch  of  the  family,  nnd  also  cf  Sir 
Edmund  Wyndham  of  Fdbrigg,  who  wm  sheriff  ol  Noifdktf 
the  time  of  Robert  Ket's  rebeUwn.  By  his  scoood  wile  Sr 
Thomas  was  the  father  of  the  seamaa  Thomas  Wyndhin 
(c.  15x0-1553),  an  account  of  whose  voyage  to  Morocco  io  ijp 
is  printed  in  Hakluyt'a  KtfjMges. 

From  Sir  John  Wyndham  of  Orchard  Wyndham  was  dt 
soended  Thomas  Wyndham  (i68B-^i745>,  k»d  chanceUor  d 
Irdandfrom  172610 1739,  who  in  1731  was  ocatcd  Baion  Wyad- 
ham  of  Flnijkus^  a  title  wUch  became  extinct  on  lua  death.  H>> 
nephew^  Henry  Pcnruddocke  Wyndham.  (x736'a8x9),  the  top|^ 
grapher,  wrote  A  CrmAemanU  Tow  tiromgk  Meeemauthshkt  m 
Wales  in  Jmu  and  July  1774  (i77S)r  and  WOtakke  from.  Dm», 
dax  Book,  with  a  TrataUitioi^  of  the  Ofipnoi  Latin  Mikf  BM^m 

(Salisbury,  1788). 

Sir  John  Wyndham  of  Orchard  Wyndham  was  alsotbeancesttf 
of  the  Wiodhams  of  Fetbrigg,  who  adopted  thia  form  of  spcUial 
the  famfly  name,  the  most  noteworthy  members  of  whicb  vert 
the  sutesman  Willi^un  Windham  (ff.s.),  and  Sir  Charles  Ail 
Windham  (1810-1870),  a  Soldier  who  coipmanded  intheCrioc* 
and  in  the  Indian  Mutiny.* 

The  Wyndhams  are  also  connected  throndr  k  female  Iioe  ^ 
the  family  of  Wyndham-Quiri,  which  holds  Ue  earldom  of  Pub- 
raven.  Valentine  Richard  Quin  (1753-1824),  of  Adaie,  ^^l 
Limerick,  was  created  Baron  Adare  on  the  unkm  with  £iisl*» 
in  1 800,  and  eari  of  Dunraven  and  Mount-Eari  In  1 82  3.  His  soo, 
the  2nd  eari  Ti^^a-iSso),  mairied  Caroline  (d.  1870),  dau^'ff 
and  heiress  of  Thomas  Wyndham  of  Dunraven  Castle,  GUoKKpB* 
shire,  and  took  the  name  of  Wyndfaam-Qiiin.  Their  '"■^.^ 
3rd  eari  (1812*1871),  who  was  created  a  peer  of  the  VnAt^ 
Kingdom  as  Baron  Kenry  in  i$66,  n^as  a  well-known  roan  " 
science,  especially  interested  in  archaeology.  His  son,  ^^''^^ 
Thomas  Wyndham-Quin  (b.  i84x>,  the  4th  cad,  was  osdc^ 
secfeUty  for  the  colonics  la  1885-1887,  and  bccftme  later  • 
prominent  figure  in  Irish  politics,  as  chairman  of  the  Ir^,  ^^^ 
Conference  and  president  of  th«  Irish  JUIbrm  AssoP2tJ(»' 


WYNN—WYOMING 


873 


be  was  ako' im>minent  as  a' yachtsman,  conpetiag  for  the 
America  cup  (see  Yachtimc)  in  1893  ^^  ^^S- 

WYNK,  SIR  JOHN  (1553-1627),  Webh  antiquary,  was  the  son 
of  Morris  Wynn  and  descended  from  the  princes  of  Wales.  He 
was  educated  al  Oxford,  succeeded  to  his  father's  esUte  of 
Gwydir  in  Camaxvonshire  in  1580,  and  was  member  of  parlia- 
ment for  this  county  in  1 586.  In  x6o6  he  was  made  a  kni^t  and 
m  16 1 1  a  baroneL  He  was  interested  in  several  mioing  ventures 
and  also  found  time  for  antiquarian  studies.  He  died  on  the  xst 
of  March  1637:  At  Llanrwst  Wynn  founded  an  hospital  and 
endowed  a;  schooL  His  History  of  the  Gwydir  Family^  which  had 
«  great  reputation  in  North  Wales,  was  first  published  by  Daincs 
Barrington  in  1770,  and  in  1878  an  edition  was  published  at 
Oswestry.  It  is  valuable  as  the  only  work  which  describes  the 
state  of  society  in  North  Wales  in  the  15th  and  the  earlier  part 
of  the  i6th  century.  His  son  Richard  (d.  1649)  was  in  attendance 
on  Prince  Chaftes;  afterwards  Charles  I.,  when  he  visited  Spain 
in  1623,  and  was  afterwards  treasurer  to  Queen  Henrietta  Maria; 
he  wrote  an  account  of  the  journey  to  Spain,  published  by  T. 
Heame  in  1729  with  the  Historia  vHae  et  regni  Sicarii  //.  He 
built  the  bridge  over  the  Conway  at  Llanrwst.  The  baronetcy 
became  extinct  in  1719,  when  Wynnstay,  near  Ruabon,  passed 
to  Sir  Watkin  Williams,  who  took  the  name  of  Williams-Wynn 
and  founded  the  family  of  that  name. 

Sir  John  Wynn's  estate  of  Gwydir  came  to  the  xst  duke  of 
Ancaster  in  the  X7th  century  by  his  marriage  with  the  heiress 
of  the  Wynns.  On  the  death  of  the  last  duke  in  1779,  Gwydir 
was  inherited  by  his  sister  Prisdlla,  Lady  Willoughby  de  Ernby 
in  her  own  right,  whose  husband  was  created  Baron  Gwydir. 
On  the  death  of  Alberic,  Lord  Willoughby  de  Eresby  (X870), 
this  title  (now  merged  in  that  of  earl  of  Ancaster)  fell  into 
abeyance  between  his  two  daughters,  while  that  of  Baron 
Gwydir  passed  to  his  cousin  and  heir  male  Gwydir  Itself  was 
sold  by  the  eari  of  Ancaster  in  X895,  the  house  and  part  of  the 
estate  being  bought  by  Earl  Carrington,  who  also  claimed  descent 
from  Sir  John  Wynn. 

WTNTOUN,  ANDREW  OF  (?r35o-?X42o),  author  of  a  long 
rruetrical  history  of  Scotland,  called  the  Orygynde  Cronykil  of 
ScoUaudy  was  a  canon  regular  of  St  Andrews,  and  prior  of  St 
Serf's  in  Lochleven.  He  wrote  the  Ckronide  at  the  request  of 
his  patran,  Sir  John  of  Wemyss,  whose  representative,  Mr 
£rskinc  Wemyss  of  Wcmj'ss  Castle,  Fif csMre,  possesses  the  oldest 
extant  MS.  of  the  work.  The  subject  is  the  history  of  Scotland 
from  the  mythical  period  (hence  the  epithet  "  original ")  down 
to  the  aeeesuon  of  James  I.  in  1406.  The  earlier  books  are  of  no 
historical  value,  but  the  later  have  in  all  outstanding  matters 
stood  the  test  of  comparison  with  contemporary  records.  The 
philological  interest  is  great,  for  few  works  of  this  date,  and  no 
other  of  like  magnitude,  are  extant  in  the  vernacular. 

The  text  is  preserved  in  eighf  MSS.,  of  which  three  are  in  the  British 
Museum,  the  Roval  (17  D  xx.).  the  Cottonian  (Nero  D.  xi.)  and  the 
Lansdowne  (197);  two  in  the  Advocates'  library,  Edlnbuf^  (19, 
S.  3  and  19,  2, 4),  one  at  Wemyss  Castle  (u.s.) ;  one  in  the  university 
library  at  St  Andrews,  and  one,  formerly  in  the  possession  of  the 
Boswclls  of  Auchinlcck,  now  the  property  of  Mr  John  Ferguson, 
Puns,  Berwickshire.  The  first  edition  of  the  Ckronide  (based  on  the 
Royal  MS.)  was  i)ublishcd  by  David  Macpheraon  m  X795t  the 
second  by  David  Laing,  in  the  series  of "  Scottish  Historians  (Edin., 
1872).  00th  are  superseded  by  the  elaborate  edition  by  Mr  Amoun 
for  the  Scottish  Text  Society  (1906). 

WYOHINO,  one  of  the  Central  Westecn  sutcs  of  the  United 
States  of  Amtiriea,  situated  between  the  parallels  of  latitude  41* 
and  45**  N^  and  the  meridians  of  longitude  27^  and  34*  W.  of 
Washington.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Montana  on  the  E» 
by  S.  Dakota  and  Nebraska,  on  the  S.  by  Colorado  and  Utah, 
end  on  the  W.  by  Utah,  Idaho,  and  a  small  southward  projection 
of  Montana.  T^ie  state  has  a  length  of  about  375  m.  E.  and  W. 
al90g  its  southern  border  and  a  breadth  of  276  m.  N«  and  S.  It 
ha*  an  area  of  97,914  sq.  m.,  of  which  320  sq.  m.  are  water  surface 

Phyiicd  Features.— Tht  greater  portion  of  the  state  belongs  to  the 
Great  Pla!ns  Province,  which  extends  from  N.  to  S.  across  the 
United  States  between  the  looth  meridian  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Within  this  province  arc  found  the  Black  Hills  of  S.  Dakota,  and 
their  W.  dopes  extend  across  the  boundary  into  N.E,  Wyoming. 
The  N.W.  portion  of  the  smte  is  occupied  by  the  S.  end  of  the 


WS 


North^n  Rocky  Mountain  Province:  and  thtU.  end  of  the  Southern 
Rockies  extemb  across  the  Colorado  line  into  southern  Wyoming. 
The  Great  Plains  in  Wyoming  have  an  elevation  oif  from  5000  10 
7000  ft.  over  much  of  tlie  state,  and  consist  of  flat  or  gently  rolling 
country,  barren  of  tree  growth,  but  often  covered  with  nutritious 
grasses,  and  affofding  pasturage  for  vast  numbers  of  live  stock. 
Erosioa  buttesand  mesas  occasionally  rise  as  picturesque  monuments 
above  the  general  level  of  the  plains,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
mountains  uie  plains  strata,  daewhers  nearly  horisontal,  are  bent 
sharply  upward  and  carved  by  erosion  into  *'  hogback  "  ridges. 
These  featunes  are  well  developed  about  the  Bighorn  Mountains,  an 
outlying  member  of  the  Rockies  which  boldly  interrupts  the  con* 
tinmty  of  the  plains  in  north-eentral  Wyoming.  The  plains  sedi- 
ments contain  important  coal  beds,  which  are  worked  in  neariy 
every  county  in  the  state.  In  the  region  between  the  Northern  and 
Southern  Rockies,  the  plains  are  interrupted  by  minor  Mountain 
poups,  volcaaie  buttes  and  lava  flows,  among  which  the  Leucite 
[ills  and  Pilot  Butte  are  prominent  examines. 

Notwithstandii^  these  elevatwns,  this  portk>n  of  the  state  makes 
a  distinct  break  m  the  continuity  of  the  Northern  and  Southern 
Rocldes,  giving  a  broad,  relatively  low  pass  utilised  by  the  C 
Trail  in  early  days,  and  by  the  Union  Pacific  railway  at  a  laterj 
The  Black  Hills  District  in  the  N.E.  contains  the  Littk  Missouri 
Buttes  and  the  Mato  Tepee  (or  Devil's  Tower),  prominent  erosion 
remnants  of  vokainic  intruskms.  Local  glaciation  has  modified  the 
higher  levels  of  the  Bighorn  Mountains,  giving  glacial  cirques, 
alpine  peaks  and  many  mountain  lakes  and  waterfalls.  Several 
small  glaciers  still  remain  about  the  ba^e  of  Ck>ud  Peak,  the  highest 
summit  in  the  range  (I3ii65  ft.).  The  Southern  Rockies  end  in 
broken  ranges  with  elevations  of  9000  ft.  and  over.  That  portion  of 
the  Northern  Rockies  extending  into  the  N.  W.  of  the  state  affords  the 
most  magnificent  scenery.  Here  is  the  Yetlowstone  National  Park 
(tf.v.).  Just  S.  of  the  Park  the  Teton  Mountains,  rising  abruptly  from 
tile  lowbasin  of  Jackson's  Hole  to  elevations  of  I0,oop  and  1 1 ,000  ft., 
form  a  striking  feature.  In  the  Wind  River  Range,  farther  S.E.,  arc 
Gannett  Peak  (13,775  ft.},  the  highest  point  in  the  state,  and  Fremont 
Peak  (13.7^  ft-)'  In  additk>n  to  the  not  springs  of  the  Yellowstone 
region,  mention  shouM  be  made  of  large  hot  springs  at  Thermopolis 
and  Saratoga,  where  the  water  has  a  temperature  of  about  133*  F . 

Much  of  the  state  is  drained  by  branches  of  the  Missouri  nver,  the 
most  important  belngthe  Yellowstone.  Bighorn  and  Powder  riven 
flowing  N.,  and  the  Chevenne  and  North  Platte  flowing  E.  The 
Green  river,  a  branch  of  the  Colorado,  flows  S.  from  the  S.W.  of  the 
state,  while  the  Snake  river  rises  farther  N.  and  flows  W.  to  the 
Pacific  drainage.  S.W.  of  the  centre  of  the  state  Is  an  area  with  no 
outward  drainage,  the  streams  emptying  into  desert  lakes. 

FttKiia. — Great  herds  of  bison  formerly  ranged  the  ptains  and  a 
few  are  still  preserved  in  the  National  F^ik.  Hie  white-tailed 
Virginia  deer  Inhabits  the  bottom  lands  and  the  mule  deer  the  more 
open  country.  Lewis's  prairfe  dog,  the  cottontail  rabbit,  the  coyote, 
tfie  grey  wolf  and  the  kit  fox  are  all  animals  of  the  plains.  In  the 
mountains  are  elk,  puma,  lynx^he  varying  hare  and  snowahoe  rabbit, 
the  yellow-haired  porcupine,  Fremont's  and  Bailey's  squirrels,  the 
mountain  sheep,  the  four-striped  chipmunk,  Townsend's  spermo* 
phile,  the  prong-homed  antelope,  the  cinnamon  pack-rat,  grizzly, 
brown,  silvertip  and  black  bears  and  the  wolverine.  Other  animals, 
more  or  less  common,  are  the  black-tailed  deer,  the  jackrabbit,  the 
bad^,  the  skunk,  the  beaver,  the  moose  and  the  weasel.  The 
prairie  rattlesnake  is  common  in  the  dry  plains  country. 

The  streams  are  well  stocked  with  rainbow  and  broofc  trout..  The 
former  fish  were  introduced  from  California  in  1885.  Theythrivein  the 
Wyomfng  streams  and  riven  and  are  superior  game  fish.  Specimens 
of  eight  and  (en  pounds  weight  have  been  taken  by  rod  and  fly 
fishermen  from  the  Big  Laramie  river.  Other  fish  native  to  the  watere 
0^  the  state  are  the  sturgeon,  catfish,  perch  (locally  called  pike), 
buffalo  fish,  flathead  and  sucker. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  birds.  Eared  grebes  and  ring-billed 
gulb  breed  on  the  sloughs  of  the  plains,  and  rarely  the  white  pelican 
nests  about  the  lake  shores.  Here,  too,  breed  many  species  ofducks, 
the  mallard,  gadwall,  baldpate,  three  species  of  teal,  shoveler,  pin* 
tail,  hooded  mergansen,  and  Canada  geese;  other  ducks  and  geese 
are  roi^nts  only.  Formerly  the  trumpeter  swan  nested  here.  On 
the  pfams  a  few  waders  breed,  as  the  avocct,  western  willet  and  long- 
billed  curlew;  but  most  are  birds  of  passage.  At  hish  altitudes  the 
mountain  plover  is  found ;  the  dusky  grouse  haunts  tne  forests  above 
8000  ft. ;  the  white-tailed  ptarmigan  is  resident  in  the  alpine  regions; 
and  on  lliejdains  are  found  the  prairie  sharp-tailed  grouse  and  the 
sage-hen.  The  turkey-buzzard  is  found  mainly  In  the  niains  country. 
Various  hawks'  and  owls  are  common;  the  golden  eagie  nests  on  the 
mountain  crass  and  the  burrowing  owl  on  the  plains.  The  red-naped 
sapsucker  ana  Lewis's  woodpecker  are  conspicuo^is  in  wooded  lands; 
Nuttall's  poor^wtll.  Say's  phocbe,  the  desert  horned  lark,  Bullock's 
oriole,  the  yellow-headed  blackbhd  and  McCown'i  hwgspur  are 
characteristic  of  the  open  lowlands. 

Flora, — Forest  crowth  in  Wyoming  is  limited  to  tlw  highest 
mountain  ranges,  the  most  important  forests  being  in  the  Black llills 
region  in  the  IM.E.,  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Biahorn  Mountains, 
and  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  ranges  of  the  N.  W.  of  tne  state,  including 
Yellowstone  National  Park.  The  yellow  pine  is  the  most  important 
tree  in  the  Bighorns,  and  small  kx%e-pole  pine  nakei  op  the  greater 


»74 


WYOMING 


IHftoftheN.W.IWnta.  WUufirwCoiiadabovBttofoothil  aone. 
and  heavy  growtli*  oC  cof  lonwood  akmg  the  straanis  ia  the  Bi^iora 
regMO.  The  Douglas  *pruce  and  Rocky  Mounuin  white  pine  arc 
commooinibeionaUotthe  Mcdkioe  Bow  Mountains,  from  which 
oittdi  of  the  nativie  lumber  used  in  the  Si  of  the  lUte  m  tecuRd. 
Other  tree*  aie  the  juniper,  willow,  green  ash,  box  ddct  ecnib  oak, 
wild  plum  and  wild  cherry*  Ooca«onal  cottoowoods  along  eticamt 
are  the  only  tree*  on  the  plainsL  The  common  mge  bruih  artemiaia, 
is  the  charactcrietic  ehnib  oi  the  plaint  where  the  toil  is  comparatively 
tree  Irom  alkali,  and  is  abuadant  in  Che  valleys  oC  the  aria  loothilU. 
Where  alkali  is  present,  the  plains  may  be  ncsriy  barren,  or  covered 
with  grease  wood  and  spades  of  atripleac  including  the  so-called  white 
mge.  Crease  wood  U  likewise  abundant  in  the  foothills  wherever 
the  soil  fontains  alkalL  Various  species  ol  nutntaous  gCMsm  cover 
much  of  the  ptasas  and  foothills,  and  evea  clothe  the  apparently 
ba«ren  mountain  peaks. 

Cttmatt.—lu  the  lower  Bichom  Valley,  summer  tcmpcraturea  rise 
to  9S    or  too*,  but  at  hcignts  of  6000  to  7000  ft  on  neighbouring 


rangm,  summer  temperatures  seldom  rise  abov«  90*,  and  frosts  may 
occur  at  any  time  Elevations  under  6000  fc  have  a  mean  annuM 
temperature  of  from  40*  to  47*,  but  high  mouatain  areas  and  cold 
valleys  may  have  mean  temperatures  as  low  as  34*  The  air  b 
clear  and  dry,  and  although  temperatures  of  100*  are  recorded,  sun* 
strokes  are  practically  unknown.  Winter  tempemtures  aa  low  as 
-51  *  have  been  recorded,  but  these  very  low  teoipcrstures occur  in  the 
valleys  rather  than  on  the  higher  rievationa.  The  cold  is  sharp  and 
braciog  rather  than  dimgrceable,  on  account  of  the  drynew  of  the 
air;  and  the  permds  of  c<dd  weather  are  generally  of  short  darftioo. 
The  winter  climate  ia  remarkably^  pleasant  as  a  rule,  and  outdoor 
work  may  usually  be  carrml  on  without  discomfort. 

The  following  ^eures  gh'e  some  idea  of  the  climatic  variations. 
At  Basin,  in  the  Bighorn  Valley,  the  mean  winter  temperature  is 
16*,  the  summer  mean  7a*.  Thayne,  on  the  mountainous  W.  border 
of  the  state,  has  a  winter  mean  of  19*,  and  a  summer  mean  of  but 
S9*;  Cheyenne,  in  the  S.E..  has  a  winter  mean  of  37*.  and  a  summer 
Bican  of  6s*.  The  percentage  of  sunshine  in  the  state  is  high. 
Precipitation  varies  in  different  areas  from  8  to  ao  in.,  the  avcsa^e 
for  the  state  bein^  13-5  in.  Wyoming  thus  belongs  with  the  and 
states,  and  irrigation  is  necessary  for  i^riculture.  A  greater  pre- 
cipitation doubtless  prevails  on  the  higher  mountains*  but  trust- 
worthy records  are  not  available.  Spring  is  the  wettest  season. 
The  prevailing  winds  are  W.  and  reach  a  high  velocity  on  the  level 
plains. 

.^oi/.— While  some  of  the  mor^  arid  districts  have  smls  so  strongly 
alkaline  as  to  be  practically  unrcclaimablc,  there  are  extensive  areas 
of  fertile  lands  which  only  require  irrigation  to  make  them  highly 
productive^  Alluvial  deposits  Drought  down  by  mountain  streams, 
and  strips  of  Hoodplain  along  lancr  streams  on  the  plains  are  very 
fertile  and  well  repay  irrigation.  Lack  of  water  rather  than  poverty 
of  soil  renders  most  of  the  plains  region  fit  for  grazing  only.  In  the 
mountains,  ruggedness  combines  witn  thin  and  scattered  soil  to  make 
these  districts  of  small  aa ricultural  value. 

AtricuUure.-^The  total  area  in  farms  in  1880  was  124433  acres,  of 
whicD  83,133  acres  (66-8 %)  were  improved:  in  1900  it  was  8.131.536 
acres,  of  which  793*^33  acres  if^-Sy^)  were  improved.  The  large 
increase  in  unimprovra  acreage  in  farms  was  principally  due  to  the 
Increased  importance  in  sheep-raising.  In  1909  Wyoming  ranked 
first  among  tne  states  in  the  number  of  sheep  and  the  production  of 
wool.  The  number  of  sheep  in  1000  was  7316,000,  valued  at 
133,190,000.  being  more  thai^one-eigntn  in  numbers  and  nearlyr  one- 
heveAth  in  value  of  all  sheep  in  the  united  States.  The  production  of 
wool  in  1909  was  38400,000  lb  of  washed  and  unwashed  wool  and 
13,388,000  fb  of  scoured  wool.  The  average  weight  per  fleece  was 
8  lb.  The  Bureau  of  Aninul  I ndustry  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture  has  made  experiments  in  breeding  range  sheep  in  Wyonung. 
The  total  number  of  neat  cattle  on  farms  and  ranges  in  1910  was 
<Qa6.ooo  (including  37.000  milch  cows)  valued  at  136,377,000; 
horses.  148,000.  valued  at  113,384.000;*  mules,  3000,  valued  at 
$313,000;  and  swine,  31.000,  valued  at  $178,000. 

In  1909  the  hay  crop  (alfalfa,  native  hay,  timothy  hay,  &c.)  was 
665,000  tons,  valued  at  $S,9i 8.000  and,  raised  on  377,000  acres. 

?bc  cereal  crops  increased  enormously  in  the  decade  189^1909. 
he  principal  cereal  crop  in  1909  was  oats,  the  product  of  which  was 
A.500,000  bushds.  grown  on  loo/xx)  acres  and  valued  at  $1,750,000. 
The  wheat  crop  increased  from  4674  bushels  in  1879  to  3.397,000 
bushels  in  1909.  grown  on  80,000  acres  aad  valued  at  $3,374,000. 
The  product  of  Indian  com  in  1909  was  140,000  bushels,  grown  on 
9000  acres  and  valued  at  $io9,ooa 

Mining. — llie  development  of  Wyoming's  naturally  rich  mineral 
resources  has  been  retarded  by  Inadequate  transport  and  by  in- 
sufficient capital.  The  value  of  the  state's  mineral  product  was 
$5,684,386  in  190a  and  $9.453>54i  in  1908.  In  1908  Wyoming 
ranked  twelfth  among  the  states  of  the  Onion  in  the  value  of  its 
output  of  bituminous  coal.   Other  mineral  products  of  the  state  are 

^  The  breed  of  horses  'n  Wyomins  has  improved  rapidly;  in  1904, 
when  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  purchased  eighteen 
mares  and  a  stallion  in  hope  of  improving  the  American  carriage 
horse,  six  of  the  mares  wtre  from  Wyoming  aad  were  pdncipaXiy  of 
Moivaa  stocks. 


copper,  gqJdil^^  1^1  »<»»w«i,ynj»iw,—M^»—iM  »wf»«,m— . 
stone  and  clay  produci«.  The  original  coal  supply  of  the  preacnt 
slate  has  been  estimated  (by  the  United  States  Geological  Survr)  ]  u 
424.065,000,000  short  tons  of  the  bituminous  or  sub-bituminous 
variety,  this  aasmmt  being  seoond  only  to  that  for  North  Dakota. 
SOOfioojaoo  000  sbort  terns,  wbicb.  howevu,  is  eatiaely  ligmte.  Cosl 
was  first  mined  in  what  is  now  Wyoming  in  iSte,  probably  in  coa* 
ncxion  with  the  building  of  the  Union  Pacific  railway,  aad  the  pr»- 
duct  in  that  ytnr  was  800  short  tons.  Thereafter  the  indnstiy 
developed  steadily  and  the  product  in  1908  waa  5480.90a  torn, 
valued  at  $8J68.I57*  ■•  1908  Uad  for  srvcral  voars  before)  the 
lai^est  product  of  coal  (3.180,933  tons)  came  tram  Sweetwater 
county,  in  the  S.W.  of  the  state,  and  Uinta  county  (adjoimagSmcet- 
waifY county  on  the  W.)  had  the  next  largest  product,  i  .380488  toot. 
Shcrridan  county,  in  the  noftlKential  part  of  the  state.  Csdna 
county,  in  the  suuth-centsal  part  and  Westoo  covnty  is  the  hJL 
were  the  next  largest  producers.  The  product  of  oeal  to  the  cad  of 
1908  was  125.000,000  short  tons,  or  0039%  of  the  estimated  supply. 

The  mining  product  next  in  value  to  coal  in  1906  was  copper. 
taken  chicfiy  in  Carbon  county  in  a  sone  of  brecciated  quartzite 
underiyin^  achisC.  the  ori^aal  ore  beiot  chakopyrite.  «hb  poanbly 
some  pyrite^  a  secondary  enrichment,  which  has  produced  in- 
portant  bodies  of  chatcocite  in  the  upper  workings,  out  these  are 
replaced  by  chalcopyrite  at  greater  depth.  The  production  in  1906 
was  34i6.t97  lb,  valued  at  8318,938.  The  gypsum  product  (fro* 
the  Lacamie  plains)  in  1908  waa  31.188  tosa,  vahwd  at  $94ii93S- 

There  are  extensive  deposits  of  petroleum  and  natural  ^s.  soicb 
have  become  of  commercial  hnportance.  Oil  has  been  found  is 
eighteen  different  districts,  the  nelds  being  known  as  follows  >—Tle 
Carter.  HlUiard.  Spring  Valley  and  Twin  Cteek  in  Uinu  county;  tk 
Popo  Agie,  luuidcr.  Shoahone,  Beaver  and  a  oavt  of  Duttoa  is 
Fremont  county :  the  Rattlesnake,  Arrajgo.  Oil  Mountain  and  a  psrt 
of  Dutton.  Powder  river  and  Salt  Creek  in  Natrona  county;  part  of 
Powder  river  and  Salt  Creek  in  Johnson  county;  Newcastle  la 
Weston  county;  Belk;  Fourche  in  Crook  county:  Dootlas  is 
Convene  county  and  Bomuna  in  Bighorn  county.  The  Popo  Apt 
and  Lander  fields  produce  the  largest  quantities  of  oil  the  wells  beug 
partly  gushers  from  which  a  heavy  fuel  oil  is  obtained.  This  is  now 
being  used  by  the  Chicago  A  North  Western  Railroad  Company  on  its 
looorootives,and  it  isano  used  in  Omaha  (Nebraska)  by  manulsctiff> 
ing  establishments.  There  ia  a  great  variety  in  the  grades  of  oib 
nroduced  in  the  state,  ranging  from  the  heavy  asp^ltic  oils  of  the 
Popo  Agie  and  Lander  fields  to  the  high-grade  lubricants  and  superior 
lieht  products  obtained  from  the  wells  In  the  Douglas.  Salt  Creeic  and 
iRnta  county  fields.  Natun^  gas  in  quantity  has  been  found  in  the 
Douglas  field  and  in  Bighorn  countjr. 

The  iron  deposits  are  very  extensive,  and  the  ores  consist  of  red      | 
haematites,  magnetites,  titanic,  chrome  and  manganese  irons.   Is 
ifeariy  every  county  there  are  veins  of  iron  ore  of  varying  extent  and 
quality,  the  moat  important  being  at  Hartville.  l.anTmy' coasty. 


and  only  traces  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  The  ore  is  a  red  hseim 
tite  occurring  in  slate.  The  iron  ore  from  this  district  obtained  tte 
gjrand  priae  at  the  World's  Fau*  held  in  Chicago  iaiSai.  in  cpmi^ 
tion  with  iron  ores  from  all  ^rts  of  the  world.  The  Hartville  iron 
deposits  are  worked  by  the  Colorado  KucI  &  Iron  Company,  which 
ships  large  quantities  of  ore  to  its  furnaces  at  Pueblo,  (Tolorada 
The  discovery  of  natural  gaa  in  the  Douglas  oil  field  has  opened  op 
the  possibility  of  working  a  smeltirn  plant  at  the  mines  by  means  «l 
this  cbeai)  and  convenient  fuel.  The  distance  to  be  covered  by  a 
pipe  fine  is  not  prohibitive,  and  the  matter  has  been  undn'  considera* 
tion  by  the  owners  and  leasees  of  the  iron  mines. 

There  are  sandstone  deposits  in  Carbon  county,  wbkh  so^pKed  the 
stone  for  the  Capitol  at  Cheyenne  and  the  state  penitentiary;  and 
from  the  Iron  mountain  quarries  in  Laramie  county  was  taken  the 
white  variety  used  in  building  the  Carnegie  library  and  the  FedenI 
building  in  Cheyenne.  Sandstones  and  quartrites  wei«  also  quarried 
In  IQ03  in  Albany,  Crook  and  Uinta  counties.  Limestone  occurs  m 
thick  formations  near  Lava  Creek,  and  in  the  valley  of  the  East  Fork 
of  the  Yellowstone  river;  also  near  the  summit  of  the  Owl  Creek 
range,  and  in  the  Wind  River  range.  Gold  was  discovered  nn  the 
SwwCwater  river  hi  1867,  and  placer  and  qturta  deposita  have  been 
found  in  almost  every  county  in  the  stake.  Sulphur  has  been  fouM 
near  Cody  and  Thermopolis. 

/mjoftwi.— The  irrigable  area  of  WyominE  is  estimated  at  about 
6,300.000  acres,  lying  chicfty  in  Bighorn.  Sheridan  and  lohflw" 
ooanties  ia  the  N.  W.  of  the  state,  and  in  Laramie.  AUmny  and  Carbon 
counties  in  the  S.E.,  though  there  are  large  tracts  around  the  head* 
waters  of  the  Bighorn  river,  in  Fremont  county  in  the  we«t<enirw 
part,  along  the  North  Platte  river  and  its  tributaries  in  Convert* 
county  in  the  central  part,  and  along  the  Green  river  and  its  tnn>« 
tarissan  Swwtwnterand  Uinta  countms  in  theS.W.  Under  the  Csfcjr 
Act  and  its  amendments  Congress  had  in  IQ09  given  to  diei|>» 
about  3,000.000  acres  of  desert  land  on  condition  that  it  shoujd  Ds 
reclaimed,  and  in  that  year  about  800,000  acres  were  in  P******  ^ 
reclamation,  mostly  by  private  com(>anies.  Settlers  Intesdinf  to 
occupy  such  lands  must  satisfy  the  state  that  they  have  ^^^'^^^t 
contracts  with  the  irrigating  company  for  a  atifftcicnt  watering"' 


vnoiiofJG 


^n 


nd  A  pcfpMun  nltMBit  n  XBft  wnfftxKn  worki*  tint  pniicipw 
ndcrtaldiig  of  the  Pedeml  goverummt  k  dM  Shoahoiie  pn^iKX  hi 
;ighoni  oountv.  Tlii»  providM  for  a  itor^e  reaervofar.  comrolkd 
y  Shoahone  dam  on  Shoshone  river,  about  8  m.  aboVe  Cwfy;  a 
tnal  diverting  water  from  Shoshonfe  reiervoir  round  the  K.  of 
hoshone  dam  and  covering  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  Cody,  Corbett, 
lagfe  NMt  and  Ralston;  a  dam  at  Corbett  about  i6  m.  bekm  the 
Mcrvoir  diverctna:  tvater  to  Ralston  reservmr  and  tbeoce  to  lands 
1  the  vicinity  of  Raktoii,  Powell,  Gariand,  Mantua  and  Frannie,  and 
dam  on  the  Shoshone  river  near  Eagle  Nest  diverting  water  ihto  a 
anal  corerinff  the  lands  of  the  Shoshone  River  Valley.  This  project 
ras  autkodaed  In  190A;  it  will  affect,  when  oompleled,  1^.000 
crcs,  of  which  in  1909  about  10,000  acres  were  actually  under  irrtga- 
ion.  Near  Douglas,  in  Converse  county,  there  is  a  reinforced  con- 
rete  dam,  impounding  the  waters  of  Laprele  Creek,  to  furnish 
irater  for  over  30,000  acres,  and  power  for  transmitting  electricity. 
There  are' lam  irrigated  areas  in  Johnson  and  Sheridan  coontiea. 

f 0f«s<x.-*-Tlie  woodland  area  01  Wyoming  in  1900  was  estimatad  at 
[3,500  sq.-  m.  (13  %  of  the  area  of  the  state),  of  which  the  United 
katcs  had  reserved  about  3500  so.  m.  in  the  Yelfowstone  National 
F^ric  and  uo7  aq.  m.,  chiefly  in  tne  Bighorn  Mountains  in  the  N., 
ind  tho  Medicine  Bow  Mountains  in  the  S.E.  of  the  slate.  The 
laleable  timber  consists  almost  entirely  of  yellow  pine,  thougn  there 
s  a  relatively  small  growth  of  other  conifers  and  of  hard-wood  trees. 
Manufactures, — ^Wyoming's  manufacturing  industries  are  relatively 
jnimportant.  In  the  period  I900-I9<»  the  vahie  of  factory  pro- 
lucts  incfcaaed  from  $3,368.55$  to  M,523.36o}  the  amount  of 
capital  invested,  from  |»,047,883  to  93,095,889,  and  the  number  of 
stablishments  from  X39  to  169;.  the  average  number  of  employees 
decreased  from  3o6o  to  18^4.  In  the  same  period  (1900-1905),  the 
^alue  of  the  products  01  urban  ^  establishments  decreased  from 
(i>333.>88  to  $1,944,223,  and  the  amount  of  capital  invested  in- 
ireascd  from  ^71,531  to  $988,615;  but  the  value  of  the  products 
of  rural  establishments  increased  from  $tx»36.367  to  $3,379,037,  and 
the  capital  invested  from  $1,176,352  to  $1,707,274.  The  values  of 
the  products  of  the  prindpal  Industries  of  the  state  in  1905  were; 
car  and  general  shop  construction  and  repaim  by  steam  raifway 
companies,  $1,640,361;  lumber  and  timber  prodvcts,  $426433; 
Rour  and  grist  mill  products,  $283,653:  butter,  $114454.  AnKMig 
other  manufactums  were  gyjMura  v^rplaacer,  saddleiy  and  harness, 
malt  liquors  and  tobacco,  cigars  and  ci^^arettcs. 

Transport. — ^There  has  been  relatively  little  development  of  trans- 
port facilities  in  Wyoming.  The  railway  mileage,  which  was  only 
159  m.  in  t87«K  increased  to  Z002  m.  in  1890,  1280  nu  in  1905,  and 
1623  ra.  on  the  1st  of  January  1909.  The  Union  PacUic  railway 
crosses  the  S.  of  the  state,  connects  with  the  Oregon  Short  Line  at 
Green  river  aitd  extends  both  E.  and  S.  from  Chcvenne.  The 
Colorado  &  Southern  (controlled  by  the  Chicago,  Burlington  ft 
Quincy  Raikond  Coaspany)  extends  ,N.  fnmi  ClM>-eane  to  Orin 
Junction,  where  it  connects  with  the  Chicago  &  North  Western,  whicti 
runs  across  the  south-central  part  of  the  state  as  far  as  Lander  (under 
the  name  of  the  Wyoming  &  North  Western  railroad).  Four  branches 
of  the  Chicago.  Buriington  A  Quimry  system  enter  or  cross  the  state. 
One  extends  from  Cheyenne  &E.  to  Uoldredge,  Nebcaska;  the  nmui 
line  crosses  the  N.E.  of  the  aCate^  40  BilUnga,  Monuoa,  whencjc  it 
extends  S.  to  Cody  and  Kirby  in  the  Bighorn  basin,  Wyoming; 
while  another  branch  from  Alliance,  Nebraska,  extends  to  the  iron 
mines  at  Guernsey.  The  Chtcaso,  Burlington  ft  putney  was  build- 
ing in  i9rp  a  new  line  from  the  N.  W.  tooonaect  wtfh  the  Cokundo  ft 
Southern  line  at  Orin  Junotwn,  pj^ng  through  I>ougkiSk  When 
completed  to  Orin  Junction  this  wiU  be  a  main  through  route  from 
the  Mexican  Gulf  to  the  N.W.  Pacific  coast.  There  are  aTso  several 
shorter  railways  in  the  state,  and  varions  stage  lines  readi  the  more 
inaccessible  regions. 

Populalitn.-^'Thi  popalfttioa  in  xi70  was  9118;  in  tSSo^ 
30,789;  in  1890,  60,705;  in  1900,  92,531;  in  19x0;  I45>96S' 
The  density  of  the  population  was  »6  per  sq.  m.ln  ^890  and 
t'5  persq.m.ln  1910,  I  ben  being  in  this  yesronty6ae  state  witii 
a  snudler  stteta^e  nnmbcr  of  inhabitants  to  the  sq,  m.,  namely 
Nevada,  .with  0*7.  Of  the  total  popuUtion  lb  1900,  80,osi^ 
M  96*2%%  WOTS  whiles;  1686  wew  Indians;  940  were  negroes; 
461  were  Chinese  snd  393  were  Japanese.  The  Indians  are  aU 
taxed.  They  belong  to  the  ArajpttfaD  and  Sfaoshoni  tribes.' 
The  Wind  River  Reservatloti,  under  the  Shoshoni  Sdloot,  is  In 
the  central  pait  of  the  state.  There  were  17,415  foreigA-bam 
in  the  state  in  1900^  of  whom  2596  were  English,  2x46  Qennaasj 
1737  Swedes,  2591  'ink,  1253  Scotch  and  i2so  Flims.  Of  thv 
41,993  persons  of  forcign  parsntaee  ((.#.-  having  dtber  or  boili 
parents  of  foreign  birth)  in  that  year  4973  were  of  English,  4571  of 
German,  and  4482  of  Irsb  parentage, «'.«.  on  bo^h  the  fstJier^ 
and  t  he  mother's  side.    Of  the  7  5^  16  bom  an  the  United  States, 

'That  is,  those  in  the  two  munlcipaliries  (Cheyenne  and  Laramie) 
having  a  population  in  1900  of  more  than  8ooa 

*  The  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs  for  1909  gives 
854  Arapaho  and  8x6  Shoshoni  under  the  Shpshoai  School. 


x9,se7wereiiatfvnorWywiiing,  6rx2wei9bom  in  Town,  5009 
In  Nebraiica,  4923  in  HHoois,  44X3  Id  Missouri  and  3750  in  Utah, 
Among  the  numbers  of  religious  dniomiwations  in  1906  the 
Roman  Catlmlics,  with  10,264  communicants,  had  the  largest 
membership,  followed  by  the  Latterly  Saints,  or  Mormons, 
vrith  52ZX  communicants  (21*8%  of  the  total  church  membership 
for  itm  state),  the  Protestant  Kpiscopalians  irith  1741,  the 
Methodists  with  x6x2  and  the  ^esbytexians  with  984.  The 
urban  population  (».(.  the  population  of  plsces  having  4000- 
Inhabitants  or  more)  increased  from  18,07s  in  1890  to  26,657  In 
X900  or  47'5%>  the  urban  being  sS-ft%  of  the  total  population 
in  1900.  The  senu«urban  pnpiiiaHon  (is.  popwlatkm  of  incor. 
porated  places,  or  the  approximate  equivalent,  having  fewer 
than  4000  inhabitants)  decreased  in  the  same  period  from  14,910 
to  12,795,  and  the  rural  population  {jU,  the  population  outside 
of  incorporated  places)  incrrased  from  99,567  to  53,149,  which  was 
78-7%  of  the  totm  incxease.  The  piiiidpal  cities  of  the  state 
(with  population)  in  1900  were:  Cheyenne,  14,087;  Laramie, 
$207:  Rod^  Springs,  4363;  RawUns,  23x7,  and  Evanston,  21x0. 
After  1900  the  population  of  the  centre  and  N.  of  the  atate 
increased  in  proportion  faster  than  the  older  settled  portions  in 
the  S.  In  X9X0  Sheridan  (8408)  in  Sheridan  county,  Douglas  in 
Converse  county  and  Lander  in  Fremont  county  were  as  import- 
ant as  some  of  Uie  older  towns  of  the  southern  part  of  the  state. 
C^efwiiKwf.— Wyoming  is  governed  under  its  first  constitution, 
which  was  adopted  in  November  x8%k  An  amendment  may  be 
proposed  by  either  branch  of  the  le^^ture.  If  it  is  approved 
by  two-thirds  of  the  members  of  each  biaoch,  it  muat  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  people  at  the  next  geaefal  election  and,  if  appsoved 
by  a  majority  of  the  efectors,  it  then  becomes  a  part  of  the  con- 
stitution. Whenever  two-thirds  of  the  members  elected  to 
each  branch  of  the  legislature  vote  for  a  convention  to  revise 
or  amend  the  consCltoUon  and  a  majority  of  the  peo|4e  voting 
at  the  next  general  election  favour  it,  the  legislature  must 
provide  for  calling  a  convention.  Suffrage  is  conferred  upon 
both  men  and  women,  and  the  right  to  vote  at  a  general  election 
is  given  to  all  citiiens  of  the  United  States  who  have  attained 
the  agf  of  twenty-one  years,  are  able  to  read  the  constitution, 
and  have  resided  in  the  state  one  year  and  in  the  county  sixty 
days  immediately  precsding,  with  Uie  exception  of  idiots,  insane 
persons,  and  persons  convicted  of  an  infamous  crime;  at  a 
School  election  the  voter  must  also  own  property  on  wUch  taxes 
are  paid.  General  elections  are  held  bienniaJIy,  in  even-numbered 
years,  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November, 
and  each  new  administratloB  begins  the  first  Monday  in  tho 
following  January. 

Executive. — ^The  ^vernor  Xs  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years.  He 
must  be  at  least  thirty  years  of  age,  and  have  resided  in  the  state  for 
fiv6  years  next  proceoias;  his  election.  If  the  office  becomes  vacant 
the  secretary  oT  state  becomes  acting  governor;  there  is  no  lieu- 
tenant-governor. The  governor,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate, 
appoints  the  attorney-general,  the  state  engineer  and  the  members 
of  several  boards  and  commissions.  He  has  ttie  power  to  veto  bills,  to 
pardon,  to  grant  reprieves  and  comrotrtations,  and  to  remit  fines  and 
lorfeitures.  but  the  Board  of  Charities  and  Reform  constitutes  a 
Board  of  Pardons  for  investigating  all  applications  for  executive 
clemency  and  advisinff  the  governor  with  rcspNect  to  them.  The 
secretary  of  state,  auditor,  treasurer,  and  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  are  elected  for  the  same  term  as  the  governor. 

Legislature. — ^Thc  legislature  conasts  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of 
Representatives.  The  number  of  representatives  must  be  not  less 
than  twice  nor  more  than  three  times  the  number  of  senators.  One- 
half  the  senators  and  all  the  rei>resentatives  are  elected  every  two 
years.  Both  senators  and  representatives  are  apportioned  amone  the 
several  counties  according  to  their  population;  each  county,  Eow- 
evcr,  is  entitled,  to  at  least  one  senator  and  one  representative.  The 
legislature  meets  biennially,  in  odd-nnmbered  years,  on  the  second 
Tuesday  in  January,  and  the  kngth  of  its  sessions  is  limited  to  forty 
dfiys.  An  piris  for  raising  a  revenue  must  originate  in  the  House  6t 
Representatives,  but  the  Senate  may  propose  amendments.    The 

Eovernor  has  three  days  (Sundays  excepted)  in  which  to  veto  any 
ill  or  any  item  io  an  appropriation  btlirand  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the 
Oierabcrs  elected  to  eacn  house  is  required  to  override  hb  veto. 

Judiciary. — ^The  administration  of  justice  is  vested  principally  in  a 
supreme  court,  district  courts,  justices  of  the'  peace  and  municipal 
courts.  The  supreme  court  consists  of  three  justices  who  are  elected 
by  the  state  at  large  for  a  term  of  eight  yean,  and  the  one  having 
the  short^t  term  to  serve  is  chief  justice.   Toe  court  has  original 


976 


WYOMING 


iurMcfiction  in  fuo  tpanumla  and  wtaniammt  |iiiii»iiKin»«niB»t  «ut« 

2^cen  and  in  nabeas  corbus  cases,  general  appellate  jifrisqiction,  and 
a  raperidtending  controfover  the  inferior  cotirts.  It  mldctwo  terms 
annuatty,  at  the  capital,  ona  bei^naiag  the  first  Monday  in  Adril  and 
one  fcwginoing  the  ona  Monday  m  October.  The  atate  it  diviaed  into 
four  >udicial  districts,  and  ia«ach  of  thasa  a  district  jud«  is  dected 
for  a  term  of  ei^ht  yean.  The  district  courts  have  onginal  juria- 
diction  in  all  actions  and  mattetv  not  expressly  vest^  in  some  other 
<iourt  and  appellate  joriadiction  ih  caaea  arising  hi  the  lower  courts. 
Justices  of  Uio  peace,  ona  of  whom  ia  ekcted  hsenaiatty  in  each 
4Mt:cinct,  have  jurisdiction  in  civil  actions  ia  which  the  amount  in 
controversy  does  not'exceed  |aoo  and  the  title  to  or  boundary  of  real 
estate  b  not  involved,  and  in  criminal  actions  less  than  a  felony  and 
in  which  the  punbhflient  pfeacribed  by  law  does  not  exceed  a  nne  of 
$100  and  iiafiwiMiaaot  (or  sfac  mniitha.  Each  incorporated  city  or 
town  has  a  roanicipal  court  for  the  trial  of  offences  arising  under  4ta 
ordinances. 

IjKol  Covemmeni.—A  board  of  three  commlMloners  Is  dected  In 
each  county,  one  for  four  years  and  one  (ot  two  years  at  each  biennihl 
election.  It  jiaa  the  care  of  the  county  prooerty,aiaiiafe8  the  county 
businessa  bwlds  and  repairs  the  county  ouildiags.  .apportion^  nnd 
orders  the  levying  of  taxes,  and  establishes  the  election  precincts. 
The  other  county  officers  are  a  treasurer,  a  clerk,  an  attorney,  a 
surveyor,  a  sherin,  a  coroner  and  a  superintendent  of  schools,  each 
dected  for  a  term  of  two  yean.  A  justice  of  the  peace  and  a  coo- 
stable  arc  elected  for  and  by  each  paeoiact.  Cities  and  towns  are 
incorporated  under  genera]  laws. 

Muceilaneous  Laws. — A  married  woman  may  hold,  arauire, 
manage  and  convey  property  and  carry  on  business  independently 
of  her  husband.  When  a  husband  or  a  wife  dies  intestate  one>haU 
of  the  property  of  the  deceased  goes  to  the  survivor:  if  there  are  no 
children  or  descendants  of  any  child  threc*fourths  61  it  goes  to  the 
survivor;  if  there  are  no  children  or  descendants  of  any  child  and 
the  tetate  docs  not  exceed  fio.ooo  the  whole  of  it  goes  to  the  sur- 
vivor.  The  causes  for  a  divorce  are  adulteryi. Incompetency,  toth 
viotioa  of  a  felony .  and  sentence  to  im^sonment  therefor  after 
marriage,  conviction  of  a  felony  or  infamous  crime  before  marriage 
provided  it  was  unknown  to  the  other  party,  habitual  drunkenness, 
extreme  cruelty,  intolerable  indignities,  neglect  of  the  husband  to 
provide  the  common  necessaries  of  life,  vagvanoy  of  the  husband 
and  laegiiaiKry  of  the  wife  before  macriaje  by  another  man  than  her 
husband  and  without  his  knowledge.  The  piatntiff  must  reside  in 
the  state  for  one  year  immediately  preceding  his  or  her  application 
for  a  divorce  unless  the  parties  were  married  in  the  state  and  the 
applicant  has  resided  there  since  the  manriage.    Nrither  party  is 

Knaitted  to  aBttrry  a  third  party  until  One  year  after  the  divorce  has 
n  granted.  The  desertion  of  a  wife  or  xA  children  under  fifteen 
years  of  age  is  a  felony  punishable  with  imprisonment  for  not  more 
than  three  years  nor  less  than  one  year.  Tne  homestead  of  a  house- 
holder who  is  the  head  of  a  family  or  of  any  rerident  of  the  state  who 
has  attained  the  age  of  sixty  years  is  exempt,  to  the  value  of  SiSOOr 
or  i6o  acres  of  land,  from^  execution  and  attachment  arising  from 
any  debt,  contract  or  civil  obligation  other  than  taxes,  purchase 
money  or  improvements,  so  long  as  it  is  occupied  by  the  owner  or  his 
of  her  family,  and  the  exemption  Innrea  for  the  benefit  of  a  widow, 
widower  or  minor  childrenk  if  the  oiwnsr  is  married  the.homestead 
can  be  alienated  only  with  the  consent  of  both  husband  and  wifS' 
The  family  Bible,  school  books,  a  lot  in  a  burying-ground  and  $500 
worph  of  personal  property  are  likewise  exempt  to  any  perron  who 
it  entitled  to  a  homestead  exemption,  A  day  s  labour  in  mines  and 
in  works  for  the  reduction  of  ores  is  limited  to  eight  hours  except 
fn  cases  of  emergency  where  life  or  property  is  in  imminent  danger. 
The  sale  jof  intoxicating  liquors  is  licensed  only  in  incorporated  cities 
and  towns. 

Charities  and  ejections. — ^Tlie  state  charitaUe  and  penal  institu- 
tions consist  of  the  Wyoming  General  Hospital  at  Rock  Springs,  with 
dne  branch  at  Sheridan  and  another  branch  at  Casper;  the  Btg  Horn 
Hot  Springs  at  Thcrmopolls,  the  Wyoming  State  Hospital  for  the 
Insane  at  Evanston,  the  Wyoming  Home  for  the  Peeblc-Minded  and 
Epileptic  at  Lander,  the  Wyoming  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Home 
near  Buffalo,  and  the  State  Penitentiary  at  Rawlins.  The  gcneraT 
supervision  and  control  of  alt  these  Institutions  is  vested  in  the 
Boarjd  of  Charities  and  Reform,  consisting  of  the  governor,  the 
secretary  of  state,  the  treasurer,  the  auditor^  and  the  superintendent  of 

Public  instruction;  the  same  officers  also  constitute  the  Board  of 
urdons.  Convicts  other  than  those  fpr  life  are  sentenced  to  the 
penitent iary/or  a  maximum  and  a  minimum  term,  and  when  one  has 
wrvcd  his  minimum  term  the  governor,  under  rules  prescribed  by  the 
Board  of  Pardons,  may  release  him  on  parole,  but  he  may  b«  returned 
X*i  prison  at  anytime  ui>on  the  request  of  the  Board  of  Pardons. 

Sducation.-^Th^  administration  of  the  common  school  system  is 
vested  in  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  county 
superintendents  and  district  boards.  Whenever  100  freeholders 
request  it,  the  county  commissioners  must  submit  to  the  voters  of  a 
proposed  high  school  district  the  question  of  establishing  a  High 
ichooT  district,  and  each  precinct  giving  a  majority  vote  for  It  consti- 
tutes a  part  of  such  a  district  for  cstablishingana  maintaining  a  high 
ichool.  All  children  between  seven  and  fourteen  years  of  age  must 
attend  a  public,  private  or  parochial  school  during  the  entire  time 
that  the  public  school  of  thdr  district  is  in  scnioa  jtnScss  excuied  fay 


the  district  board.  The  camaoo  sdioola  w^  iMifitaiiNd  with  tk 
proceeds  of  school  taxes  and  an  annual  incoma  from  school  fiiadi 
Whfch  are  derived  principally  from  lands.  At  the  head  of  tht  ediM» 
tional  system  ia  the  University  of  Wyoming  0^96).  at  Larsove  (f  r); 
k  ia  ^wstned  by  a  board  of  trustees  consisting  01  its  presideat,  thr 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and  nine  otlier  membcn  ajK 
pomted  by  the  governor  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  (or  4 
termqf  sw  years.  It  is  maintained  with  the  proceeds  from  tmk 
derived  princtpally  from  lands  and  with  «  university  tax  aaouatui 
in  1909  to  one-half  mill  on  a  dollar. 

FHMnc«.~-Tbe  principal  sources  of  revenue  are  a  genenl  propntr 
tax,  a  tax  on  the  gross  receipts  of  expreas  compamea,  a  tax  os  tic 
oross  producu  of  mines,  an  inheritance  tax,  a  cxAl  tax  and  the  lak  oi 
uquor  Ucences.  Railways,  telegraph  lines  and  mines  are  asscmed  by 
tM  atate  board  of  equalization,  which  consists  of  the  secretary  d 
state,  the  treasurer  and  the  auditor.  Other  property  is  assesm  by 
the  county  assessors.  The  county  commissioners  constitute  tbt 
county  board  of  equalization.  A  commissioner  of  taxation  who  s 
appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  ior 
a  teem  of  four  years  exercises  a  general'  aupervision  over  ail  ta 
officers  and  the  boards  of  equalization.  By  a  law  .enacted  in  \^ 
county  commissioners  are  forbidden  to  levy  a  tax  which  will  yick 
more  than  10%  in  excess  of  that  raised  the  preceding  year.  Tk 
constitution  limits  the  state  tax  for  other  than  the  aopport  of  cdoo 
tional  and  charitable  institutions  and  the  payment  ol  the  state  dtfc 
and  the  interest  thereon  to  four  mills  on  the  dollar;  the  county  ta 
for  other  than  the  payment  of  the  county  debt  and  the  intrret 
thereon  to  twelve  miUa  on  the  dollar;  the  tax  of  an  incmporated  dtj 
or  town  for  other  than  the  payment  of  its  debt  and  the  intmst 
thereon  to  eight  mills  on  the  dollar.  The  constitution  also  forbidi 
the  creation  of  a  state  debt  in  excess  of  i  %  of  the  assessed  valued 
the  taxable  property  in  the  state;  of  a  county  debt  in  excess  of  2% 
of  the  assessed  value  of  the  taxable  property  in  the  county;  or  of  a 
municipal  debt  for  any  other  purpose  than  obtaining  a  wata-  aipiiiy 
in  excess  of  a%.  unless  for  builoLng  sewerage,  when  a  debt  oi  4% 
may  he  authoriaed.  Wyoming  entered  the  Union  with  a  booded 
indebtedness  of  $32O(O0O.  This  has  been  reduced  as  rapidly  ai  ibe 
bends  permit,  aiKl  on  the  30tb  of  June  1910  the  debt  was  osty 
$140,000. 

History. — Spanish  bistoiians  have  claimed  that  adventunn 
fro;n  the  Spanish  settlements  in  the  S.  penetratol  almost  to  the 
Missouri  aver  during  the  fiist  half  of  the  z  7  th  centuiy  and  era 
flmrmed  aettlementa  within,  the  preaen't  limita  of  Wyomi^, 
but  these  stories  are  more  than  doubtful.  The  fint  white  ma 
certainly  known  to  have  traversed  the  region  were  Sieur  de  b 
Verendrye  and  his  sons,  who  worluqg  down  from  Canada  spent 
a  part  of  the  year  1743-1744  examining  the  possibilities  of  the 
fur  trade.  Apparently  no  further  Frenchexj^orationa  were  made 
from  that  direction,  and  the  transfer  of  Canaida  from  France  to 
Great  Britain  (2763)  was  followed  by  lessened  interest  in  ci- 
pbralion.  The  expedition  of  Meriwether  Lcvds  and  WilliAB 
dark  in  1804-1806  did  not  touch  the  xefpom^  bat  a  discharged 
member  of  the  party,  John  CoUcr,  in  1807  discovered  the 
Yellowstone  Park  region  and  then  crqssed  the  Rocky  Mountaii^ 
to  the  head  of  Green  river^  Trappers  b^a&  to  cover  the  K 
portion  about  the  same  time,  and  In  1811  the  overland  party  of 
the  Pacific  FVir  Company  crossed  the  country  on  their  way  i« 
Astoria.  In  1824  William  H.  Ashley  with  a  considerable  pviy 
explored  and  trapped  in  the  Sweetwater  and  Green  riyer 
valleys,  and  in  1836  wacefia  were  daVeik  fiom  St  Lwis  to  Wind 
rivet  for  the  Rocky  Mountain  Fvr  Company.  Captain  B.  h.  £• 
Bonneville  wa»  the  first  to  cioss  the  Rockies  wUh  ^nff^ 
(183^),^  and  two  yetia  kter  Fort  Lammie,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Laramie  river,  was  established  te  onUipi  the  hv  iiwic« 
the  Arapahoes,  Chey^nea  and  Sioua. 

The  United  Statet  eiplorinf  expedition,  ^mmttodcd  hy  John 
Charies  Frfaaont,  explmed  tho  Wind  River  MouMlaifis  and  w 
South  Paaa  in  184^,  usder  the  guidance  of  Kit  CaiBon.  Fton 
this  time  the  favourite  route  to  tlie  Fadfic  led  through  WyoniiK' 
bat  of  ali  the  thousands  vdio  .passed  few  ot  none  settled  ptf* 
manently  withla  the  present  limits  of  the  statie*  parUy  heauic 
of  the  aiidity  of  the  land  and  partly  because  ef  v* 
pvonouaoed  hoatilily  of  th^  ladisas.  For  the  iatter  ressos 
the  National  Cbngiesa  on  the  19th  of  May  1846  wth^'^  ^ 
cORstructidn  At  intervals  along  the  tmil  of  military  aUtions  W 
the  pit>tectiott  of  the  enignmt-trahis,  and  F91A  Kearny  «** 
built  (1848^  and  Fort  UiEMie  was  purchased  US49).    Thegreti 

*  See  Washington  Irving,  Adventures  of  Captain  Bonnetiffi  (fi^ 
Yorir.  rt6o).  * 

*  See  Frands  l^itkmatt.  TIU  Ortim  TVttil  (Boston,  1849)- 


WYOMING 


877 


Mormon  migntk»n  pMMd  aloog  tbe  tnil  an  1847-1849*  Aod  in 
1S53  fifty-five  Mormonft  settled  on  Green  river  at  tbe  tending 
post  of  James  Bridger,  which  they  purchased  and  named  Fort 
Supply.  This  S.W.  comer  of  tbe  present  state  was  at  that  time 
a  part  oC  Utah.  With  the  aiH;»n>ach  of  Umted  States  troops  under 
Albert  Sidney  Johnston  in  1857,  Fort  Supply  was  abandoned,  and 
in  tbe  next  year  the  Monnon  settlers  retired  to  Salt  Lake  City, 
again  leaving  tbe  region  almost  without  permanent  inhabitants. 

The  Indians  saw  with  alarm  tbe  movement  of  so  ma^y  whites 
through  their  hunting  grounds  and  became  increasingly  un- 
friendly By  a  treaty  negotiated  at  Fort  Laramie  in  1851,  tbe 
Arapahoes,  Sio^ix,  Ch^rennes  and  others  agreed  to  confine 
themselves  within  the  territory  bounded  by  xoo**  and  107^  W. 
longitude  and  39^  and  44^  N.  latitude;  but,  besides  minor  con- 
flicts, a  oonsidenble  portion  of  tbe  garrison  of  Fort  Laramie  was 
kiUcd  in  1854  and  there  was  trouble  for  moct:  than  twenty  years. 
During  the  Civil  War  (1861-1865)  the  Indians  were  especially 
bold  as  they  realized  tbst  the  Federal  troops  were  needed  else- 
where. Meanwhile,  there  began  a  considerable  migration  to 
Montana,  and  the  protection  of  the  N.  of  the  trail  demanded 
tbe  construction  of  posts,  of  which  the  most  important  were 
Fort  Reno,  on  tbe  Powder  river,  and  Fort  Phil  Kearny  in  the 
Bighorn  Mountains.  In  spite  of  the  treaty  allowing  the 
opening  of  the  road,  during  a  period  of  six  months  fifty-one 
hostile  demonstrations  were  made,  and  on  tbe  a  1st  of  Deceinber 
1866  Captain  W.  J.  Fetterman  and  seventy-eight  men  from 
Fort  Phil  Kearny  were  ambushed  and  slain.  Hostilities  oon- 
tinucd  in  1867,  but  tbe  troops  were  hampered  on  account  of  the 
scarcity  of  cavalry.  Congress  in  1867  appointed  a  commission 
to  arrange  a  peace,  but  not  until  1868  (agth  April,  at  Fort 
Laramie)  were  any  terms  agreed  upon.  Tbe  postaon  tbe  Montana 
trail  were  abandoned,  and  the  Indians  agreed  to  remove  farther 
E.  and  to  cea^  attacking  trains,  not  to  oppose  railway  ooostiuc- 
don,  &c.  The  territory  N.  of  tbe  Platte  river  and  £.  of  the  Big- 
horn Mountains  was  to  be  reserved  as  an  Indian  hunting  ground 
and  no  white  men  were  to  settle  on  it  without  tbe  consent  of  tbe 
Indians*  Gold  was  discovered  on  the  Sweetwater  river  in  1867, 
and  a  hiise  inrush  of  population  foUowod.  This  unoiganiaed 
territory  £.  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  was  a  part  of  Dakota,  and  in 
January  1868  Carter  (later  Sweetwater)  county  was  erected. 
Farther  E.  Chqyenne  was  laid  out  by  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad 
(July  1867),  a  dty  fovemment  was  ettahKihfd  in  August, 
newspapers  began  publication,  and  lAramie  county  was  oiganlaed 
before  the  arrival  of  tbe  first  railway  train  on  tbe  ijth  of 
November  1867-  About  six  tbouMnd  persons  spent  the  winter 
in  Cheyenne,  and  disorder  was  checked  only  by  tbe  organixation 
of  a  vigilance  committee.  Almost  tbe  same  scenes  followed 
the  laying  off  of  Laramie  in  April  x868,  when  400  lou  were  sold 
during  the  first  week  and  soo  habitatmns  were  erected  within 
a  fortnight.  Albany  and  (>tibott  counties  were  oiganiced  fanber 
W  in  the  same  year. 

A  bill  to  organise  the  Territory  of  Wyoming  had  been  intro- 
duced into  Congress  in  186$,  and  in  1867  the  voters  of  Laramie 
county  had  chosen  a  delegate  to  Congress.  He  was  not  permitted 
to  take  a  seat,  but  his  presence  in  Washington  hastenfd  action, 
and  on  the  asth  of  July  1868  tbe  act  of  Congrcas  establishing  a 
Territory  with  the  present  boundaries  was  approved  by  President 
Andrew  Johnson.  The  portion  of  the  Territory  E.  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  was  taken  from  Dakota  and  that  W.  from  Utah  and 
Idaho,  and  included  parts  of  the  three  great  additions  to  tbe 
original  territory  of  the  United  States.  That  portion  £.  of  the 
mountains  was  a  part  of  the  Louisaana  Purchase  (1803),  the  W. 
portion  above  4a^  was  a  part  of  tbe  Oregon  country,  snd  that  S. 
of  that  parsllel  came  by  the  Mexican  cession  of  1848.  The  first 
governor,  John  A.  Campbell,  was  appmnted  in  April  1869,  and 
the  orgs  niiaif  ion  of  the  Territory  was  OMnpleted  in  May  of  the 
same  year.  At  the  first  election,  on  the  and  of  September  1869, 
5a66  votes  were  ckst.  The  IcgtsUture  established  the  seat  of 
government  at  Cbeysnne,  and  granted  full  suffrage  and  the  right 
of  holding  office  to  women.  The  first  great  inrush  of  population, 
toUowing  tbe  discovery  of  gold  and  the  opening  of  tbe  rail- 
way, brought  many  desperate  characters,  who  were  held  In  check 
xxviu  25 


only  by  tbe  stem,  swift  measures  of  frontier  justice.  After  the 
organisation  of  the  Territory,  except  for  the  appearance  of 
organised  bands  of  taigbwi^iiien  in  1877-1879.  there  was  hitle 
turbulence,  in  marked  contrast  with  conditions  in  some  of  the 
neighbouring  Territories  Agriculture  began  in  the  narrow 
but  fertile  river  vall^s,  and  stock-raising  became  an  imporunt 
industry,  as  the  native  grasses  are  especially  nutritious.  The 
history  of  the  Territory  was  marked  by  few  striking  events  other 
than  Indian  troubles.  The  N.£.  of  the  Territory,  as  has  been 
already  said,  had  been  set  apart  (k868)  as  a  hunting  ground  for 
the  Sioux  Indians,  but  the  rumour  of  tbe  discovery  of  gold  m  the 
Black  Hills  and  the  Bighorn  Mountains  in  x874>i875  caused  a 
rush  to  the  regbn  which  the  military  seemed  powerless  to  prevent. 
The  resentful  Indlsns  resorted  to  war.  After  a  long  and  arduous 
contest  in  Wyoming,  Montana  and  Dakota,  which  lasted  from 
1874  to  1879,  and  during  which  General  Ceoige  A.  Custer  (g.v.) 
and  his  command  were  killed  in  1876  on  the  Little  Bighorn  in 
Montana,  tbe  Indians  were  thoroughly  subdued  and  confined 
to  reservations.  Tbe  settlers  in  Wyoming  shared  the  genersl 
antipathy  to  the  Chinese,  common  to  die  western  country. 
On  the  and  of  September  1885  the  miners  at  Rock  Springs 
attacked  about  400  Chinamen  who  had  been  brought  by  the 
railway  to  work  in  tbe  mines,  killing  about  fifty  of  them  and 
driving  the  remainder  from  the  district,  (governor  Warren 
summoned  Federal  troops  and  prevented  further  dcstraction 
of  yfe  and  property. 

The  Territory  incieaaed  in  population  and  more  rapidly  in 
wealth,  owing  chiefly  to  the  large  profits  in  eattle  raising,  though 
this  prosperity  suffered  a  check  during  the  severe  whiter  of 
1886-1887,  when  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  range  cattle  died 
of  exposure.  Agitation  for  statehood  increased,  and  on  the  30th  of 
September  1889  a  constitution  was  formed  which  was  adopted  by 
the  people  in  November  of  the  same  year.  The  Constitntion.  which 
continued  tbe  Territorial  provision  of  full  suffrage  for  women, 
met  the  approval  of  Congress,  and  on  the  roth  of  July  1890 
Wyoming  was  formally  admitted  as  a  state.  Since  admission 
the  progress  of  the  state  has  been  steady.  Extensive  irrigation 
projects  have  made  available  many  thousand  acres  of  fertile 
land,  and  much  more  will  be  subjected  to  cultivation  in  tbe 
future  as  the  Urge  ranges  are  broken  up  into  smaller  tracts. 
In  some  sections  a  system  of  dry-farming,  by  which  the  scanty 
rainfall  is  protected  from  evaporation  by  deep  ploui^bing  and 
mulching  the  soil,  has  proved  profitable. 

The  transition  of  thie  principal  stock-raising  industry  from 
large  herds  of  cattle  to  small,  and  the  utilisation  of  the  ranges  for 
sheep  grasing  almost  exdustvely  covered  a  period  of  over  twenty 
years  preceding  19x0,  durii^  which  time  many  conflicts  occurred 
between  range  cattle-owners  and  sheep  flockmastera  over  the  use 
of  the  grazing  grounds.  The  settler  also,  who  selected  his  home- 
stead covering  watering  places  to  which  the  range  cattle  formeriy 
had  free  access,  came  into  conflict  with  the  cattlemen.  Some  of 
these  small  settlers  owned  no  cattle,  and  subsisted  by  stealing 
calves  and  unbranded  cattle  (mavericks)  belonging  to  the  range 
cattlemen.  In  parts  of  the  state  it  became  impossible  to  get  a 
jury  composed  of  these  small  squatters  to  convict  anybody  for 
stealing  or  killing  cattle,  and  so  bad  did  this  become  that,  in  189a, 
oertain  cattlctaen  formed  a  small  army  of  moaated  mefi  and  in- 
vaded tbe  central  part  of  the  state  with  the  avowed  intention 
of  kOling  all  the  men  generally  considered  to  be  stock  thieves, 
an  episode  known  aa  tbe  Johnson  County  Rakl.  This  armed 
body,  consisting  of  over  fifty  men,  surrounded  a  log  cabin  and  shot 
down  two  of  the  supposed  cattle  "  rustlen,"  the  latter  defending 
themselves  bravely.  The  oountiy  round  was  roused  and  large 
numbers  of  settlos  and  others  turned  out  and  besieged  tbe 
cattlemen,  who  had  taken  refuge  In  some  ranch  buildings.  Their 
case  was  becoming  desperate  ndien  a  troop  of  Federal  cavalry 
arrived,  raised  the  siege,  and  took  the  cattlemen  bade  to 
Cheyenne  as  prisoners.  They  were  subsequently  held  for 
murder,  but  were  finally  released  without  trial.  Since  that  time 
experience  has  proved  that  tbe  gracing  ranges  of  the  state  are 
better  suited  to  sheep  than  cattle,  the  former  being  much  more 
profitable  and  better  able  to  stand  the  cold  on  tbe  open  range. 

2a 


878 

Whik  miny  cii[lcmen  have  been  difvn  oul  o 

wen  nngc  uuk  ovnen  in  thp  pul  aod  hav< 
D»repF^lDblp^(upnlian  Al  l)k  pmtnt  lime  sc 
b«w«nrfwcpaiKtc»lLleowMfi«renr*.  There 
Mile  in  ibe  siaie,  but  ihej'  ire  divided  up  Into  » 
tongti  depending  upon  the  open  nngc  Iot  a  p 


WYOMING  VALLEY 


tunincu  by  (be 

em  ftiKkmaMen 


re  led  dutiof  Ibe  winter  c 


Cove 


lolin  A  OirpbHl        ......  i»«»-i«J5 

lohn  M  Tl«yer  .' l»7S-"8rf 

lohn  W  Hort      .......  i8;S-i»a» 

Wlliam  Hale lUt-lUs 

Francit  E.  Warren iBSs-iSSS 

Ceorse  W,  Ba-rtrr  (acling)        ....  1B86-18B? 

Tboniai  Moonliiht      ......  iM;>ig84 

Fiuck  E.  Warrea iSSnSfO 

Francii  E.  Warren       .       .       .     Republican  1890 

AnxM  W.  Barber  laclins)   .  ..  16^1891 

tE.  Oibtnw       ....  Dem.-Populifl  iBgi-iSos 

.  A,  Rkhaidt     ....    Republican  l89S-l«9« 

De  FoiH  Riehardt     ...  1899-1901 

SSfLlrff™  ■.'-"■■':      ;  .'SCP 

J.  M.  Carer  ....  Demoqrai  1911- 


(W«idiingtiui,'i9Q6);  (or  induMriei,  popdaiion.  Ac.,  the  Report)  M 
the  U^  Ceugi  Elnenlly:  Depanmsat  of  Immiiratiaa  of  ttie  Mail, 
Sim*  Viimi  tt  ViryamiHt  (tooSiiTke  Sua  p/  Wyomlni.  publiihcd  by 
■DlbDrily  o(  ibe  Bate  le^ibture  (1908);  F.  Chittencn,  wcrciary  or 
<tate,  TttSulaei  Wytmin^  (19ci4):a(M  TeporiiDt  the  variouanate 
aKian  neatiniea  la  the  ten;  Rmai  Sutxla  cf  IfTnnii  (LaiamlE, 
1809):  Wjtmnt  /rrualim  laat  (1908)1  G.  R.  Hebard.  Gnera- 
■ual  0/  WvmM  (San  Frandvo.  1904J;  K.  H.  Binciolt,  Nnada, 
Ctleraio  and  Wjtmint  (Saa  FranclKU.  1890).  and  Vlak  (4n  F1311- 
dacn.  1S89);  E.  R.  Tatbot,  Uy  FtBftt  o/  On  Plaini  (New  York, 
roo6):  W.  M.  Raioe.  H';»mui(.  a  Slery  it  Uu  OaMasr  Ifuf  (New 

ii"l5™^0wen  W:«(i'i"S)vel,  Tilt  nf^ia^ligm^'"  ^"""^ 
WOIIINO  VALLEY.  ■  vaUcy  on  Ihe  N.  branch  ol  the  SuH)Be- 
baniu  rivet,  in  Luzerne  county.  Pena^kvania,  U.S.A.  Its 
DVDe  IB  a  corruption  at  1  Delaware  Indian  word  meanitig  "  lat^ 
platna."  The  valley,  properly  apeaking,  ia  about  3^  m.  wide  and 
about  35  m.  long,  but  the  term  is  lometimei  uied  hialorically  in 
a  btoder  senM  U  include  all  of  the  territory  in  Ihe  N.E.  at  Ihe 
•talc  ODCB  in  dispuZe  between .  Pennsylvania  and  Connecticut. 
In  Connecdcul  Ihe  Susquehanna  Land  Company  waa  fonncd 
In  17U  (a  colonke  Ihe  valley,  and  the  DeJawan  Land  Company 
■uIoRaed  in  i;j4ior  the  region  inunediaidy  W.of  the  Delawart 
rivet.    The  righU  of  Ibe  SU  Nations  to  all  this  lerntory  were 

Snrcbaied  at  Albany,  New  York,  by  the  Suiquehanna  Conpany 
I  1754,  but  the  woih  of  cokHuiatiDb  was  ddayed  lor  a  time  1^ 
the  Seven  Yean'  War  A  lew  coloniiu  senl  ohI  by  the  Suique- 
twana  Clompany  aeltkd  at  Mill  Creek  near  the  pnaeni  Bile  of 
■  ta  pUiw  al  De  Font  Ridnrda.  deciaad. 


:7*J.  but  ■ 
drirrn  away  by  the  Indiana 
divided  a  part  ol  the  valley  in 
granting  10  lony  propiieiora 


!  (October  rsth)  altarked  iml 

n  December  J76A  Ihe  compjoi 
Bve  townahjps  of  5  sq  m  o^h 

vionof  tt  by  ibe  iBl  of  Febnji-T 
1769,  and  Ihe  othfcr  four  lownshipa  to  300  sellleis  on  conditif! 
ihal  they  ahould  loUow  by  Ihe  lat  of  May  The  &r3l  pun 
arrived  on  Ihe  Sth  of  February,  Ihe  first  division  ol  the  Ivpi 
body  on  the  nth  of  May,  and  Ihe  five  original  UWM  ol  Wilko^ 
Barrt  (fl.t),  KingBlon  («...),  Hinover,'  Plymoutb  and  Piluin 

In  I 


Stoke  and  Sunbury.  Ihe  government  of  Pennsylri 
miuioned  Charle*  Stewart.  Amos  Ogdrn  and  oil 
thcK  minora,  and  they  had  arrived  and  taken 
Ihe  btock-houM  and  hut)  at  Mill  Creek  in  Janua 
conRict  which  followed  between  the  Pennsylvania 


It  setllers  finally  ri 


(n  Ausu 


wlih  Ihe  defeat  of  Colonel  William  Phlnket  (1710-1791)  i': 
aboni  700  Pennsylvaniam  by  a  force  of  300  Yankees  ui« 
Colonel  Zebuhsn  Buller  (i7]i-i7gs)  in  Ihe  bailie  of  "  Rutfa" 
Rocha  "  00  the  ijih  ol  December  r775.  Tlie  General  AssEbty 
ol  Conneclicul,  in  January  1774.  eiwted  the  valley  into  Ihe  roii 
ahip  ol  WeslmoteliBd  and  attached  it  lo  Litchfield  counI;.i>< 
in  October  1776  Ihe  sanie  body  erected  it  into  Weslimmlal 
county.    On  the  jrd  ol  July  1773,  while  a  coosideTablc  numtB 

a  motley  lotee  of  about  *oa  men  and  boys  under  Cokmel  ZetwlM 
Bullet  wen  aineked  and  delealcd  near  KingMon  in  the"tiiirt 
of  Wyoming  "  by  about  1100  Brilish,  Ptovindal  (Tory)  irf 
Indian  Iroopt  under  Major  Jobn  Butler,  and  nearly  Ihrce-iou"^ 
were  killed  or  taken  ptiwnera  and  subsequently  mimtri 
Thomaa  Campbell's  poein,C(rlr»de  ef  Wynaiiij  (1809).  is  burl 
on  this  epiaode,  varloui  liberties  being  taken  Mth  the  <ict> 
Aa  the  War  of  Independence  came  to  1  close  the  old  lioublf "«' 
Pennaylvinia  wu  revived.  A  court  of  arbitration  appoi'"^ 
by  the  Conllnenul  Congress  met  al  TRitlon,  New  Jersey,* 
17S1,  and  on  December  30th  gave  a  unanimous  dedsion  ■ 
favou  of  Psnusylvaiiia.  Tlie  lelusal  ol  the  Pcncsyln™ 
govenunent  toconflnn  the  private  land  titles  of  the  tdilen."' 
the  arbiliity  ooidDct  of  a  certain  Alennder  Paltenon  ■!»■ 
Ihey  lenl  up  to  take  charge  of  aflain.  resulted  In  1 7S4  in  l^ 
outbreak  of  the  aemnd  Pennamiie-Vankeo  War.  The  VinW 
were  dispoasessed.  but  they  took  up  arms  and  the  govrmiv^ 
ol  Hnn^dvania  despatched  General  John  ArmEirong  with  1 
force  ol  400  men  10  aid  Pallerson.  AnnMtmg  indowd  Will 
parties  to  give  up  their  arms  with  a  promise  of  impertial  ju^'^ 
sad  protecUon.  and  as  soon  aa  Ihe  Yankees  wcie  defence LcbIi 
nude  then)  priBoneia.  This  treachery  and  Ihe  harsh  Ireili''''' 
by  Patterson  created  a  strong  public  opinion  In  favmr""'* 
Yankees,  and  tbe  government  was  compelled  lo  adopt  a  nil*' 
poUcy.  Pallerson  waa  wilbdniwn,  the  disputed  lerrilory  " 
erected  Into  the  new  county  of  Lucerne  (17S6I.  the  land  tilk' 
were  confirmed  (17S7),  and  Cokmel  Timothy  Pickering  (('I 


oICoIokI 


reconciliitim.  ButalewofU 
John  Fiankiin  (i749-tg3r)  atletopltd  to  fortn  a  separa"  >"" 
government.  FrankUa  was  Belied  and  impriaoned,  ""'''fj 
warrant  from  Ihe  SuteSupiemt  Court.  As  Pickeringw"  I™ 
responiible  for  Frankiiii's  imprisoniMnl,  some  of  FraiikhB> 
followeeain  retaliation  kidnapped  PickeringandamyioghiiB  n" 
Ibe  wooda.  tried  ia  vain  for  neaily  three  week*  W  gel  !""■  °? 
a  pmniiBD  tn  intercede  tor  FiankHa's  pafdoit.  Tb*  ow'* 
was  again  revived  by  the  refieal  to  ijgo  •<  tbe  confimli*  W 
'Several  Scoleh-Tri*  (jmiliei  from  Unca.ler  eounly.  ^"^^^ 


WYON— WYTTENBACH 


879 


of  17S7  ftod  by  a  subaequent  dedikib  of  the  UttHed  Statcy 
Circuit  Court,  unfavouiable  to  the  Yankees,  in  the  case  of  Van 
Horn  versus  Dtrranu,  AU  of  the  daims  were  finally  confirmed, 
by  a  series  of  sututes  pasted  hi  1 799,  tSoa  and  1807 .  Since  1 808, 
mainly  through  the  developnicnt  of  its  coal  mines  (see  PmsiOK, 
Pa.),  the  valley  has  made  lemarfcable  progress  both  in  wealth 
and  in  population. 


For  a  thorough  study  of  the  early  history  of  Wyoming  Valley 
O.  J.  Harvey,  A  History  0/  Wilkes-BariJ  {3  vob.,  WOkev-lforrft, 


1909-1910);  see  aloo  H.  M.  Hoyt,  Brief  ^  a  Titie  in  ike  Smntten 
Tamtskips  in  tk$  QmtUj  ^  Luaerne  (Harrist«urg,  1879). 

WTON,  THOMAS  (i  799-18x7),  English  medallist,  was  bora 
at  Birmingham.  He  was  apprenticed  to  his  father,  the  chief 
engraver  of  the  king's  seals,  and  studied  in  the  schools  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  London,  where  he  gained  silver  medals  in  both 
the. antique  and  the  life  class;  he  also  obtained  a  gold  medal 
from  the  Society  of  Alts.  He  was  appohited  probationary 
engraver  to  the  mint  in  1*811,  ahd  soon  after  engra^  his  medal 
commemorative  of  the  peace,  and  his  Manchester  Pitt  medal. 
In  181 5  he  was  appointed  chief  engraver  to  the  mint.  His 
younger  brother,  Benjamin  Wyon  (i8oi-i8s8),  his  nephews, 
Joseph  Shepherd  Wyon  (t83&-'i873)  and  Alfred  Benjamin 
Wyon  (1837-1884),  and  his  cousin,  WUliam  Wyon  (t795-x85t), 
were  also  distmguished  medallists. 

WY8B,  SIR  THOMAS  (1791-1862),  Irish  politician,  belonged 
to  a  famOy  claiming  descent  from  a  Devon  man,  Andrew 
Wyse,  who  is  said  to  have  crossed  over  to  Ireland  during  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.  and  obtained  bnds  near  Waterford,  of  which 
city  thirty-three  monbers  of  the  family  are  said  to  have  been 
mayors  or  other  municipal  officers.  From  the  Reformation 
the  family  had  been  consistently  attached  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Thomas  Wyse  was  educated  at  Stonyhurst  College  and 
at  Trinity  CoUege,  Dublin,  where  he  distinguished  himself  as  a 
scholar.  After  181 5  he  passed  some  years  in  travel,  visiting 
Italy,  Greece,  Egypt  and  Palestine.  In  1821  he  married 
Laetitia  (d.  1872),  daughter  of  Lucien  Buonaparte,  and  after 
residing  for  a  time  at  Viterbo  be  returned  to  Ireland  in  1825, 
having  by  this  time  inherited  the  fan^ily  estates.  He  now  devoted 
his  great  oratorical  and  other  talents  to  forwarding  the  cause  of 
Roman  Catholic  emancipation,  and  his  influence  was  qjedally 
marked  in  his  own  county  of  Waterford,  while  his  standing 
among  his  associates  was  shown  by  his  being  chosen  to  write  the 
address  to  the  people  of  England.  In  1830,  after  the  passing 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Relief  Act,  he  was  returned  to  parliament 
for  county  Tipperary,  and  he  attached  himself  to  the  Liberal 
party  and  voted  for  the  great  measures  of  the  reform  era.  But 
he  was  specially  anxious  to  secure  some  improvement  in  the 
education  of  the  Irish  people,  and  some  of  his  proposals  were 
accepted  by  Mr  E.  G.  Stanley,  afterwards  t4th  earl  of  Derby,  and 
the  government.  He  was  chairman  of  a  committee  which  in- 
quired into  the  condition  of  education  in  Ireland,  and  it  was  partly 
owing  to  his  efforts  that  provincial  colleges  were  established  at 
Cork,  Galway  and  Belfast.  His  work  as  an  educational  pioneer 
also  bore  fruit  in  England,  where  the  principles  of  state  control 
and  inspection,  for  which  he  had  fought,  were  adopted,  and 
where  a  training  college  for  teachers  at  Battersea  was  established 
on  lines  suggested  by  him.  From  1835  to  1847  he  was  M.P.  for 
the  city  of  Waterford  and  from  1839  to  1841  he  was  a  lord  of  the 
treasury;  from  1846  to  1849  he  was  secretary  to  the  board  of 
control,  and  in  1849  he  was  sent  as  British  mimster  to  Greece. 
He  was  very  successful  in  his  diplomacy,  and  he  showed  a  great 
interest  in  the  educational  and  other  internal  affairs  of  Greece.  In 
1857  he  was  made  a  K.C.B.,  and  he  died  at  Athens  on  the  16th 
of  April  1862.  Wyse  wrote  Historical  SkeUk  of  the  late  Catholic 
Association  of  Ireland  (1829);  An  Excursion  in  the  Peloponnesus 
(1858,  new  ed.  1865);  and  Impressions  of  Greece  (1871).  His 
two  sons  shared  his  literary  tastes.  They  were  Napoleon  Alfred 
Bonaparte  Wyse  (1822-1895);  and  William  Charles  Bonaparte 
Wyse  (i826-i89>),  a  student  of  the  dialect  of  Provence. 

WTTTENBACH,  DANIEL  ALBERT  (i  746-1820),  German- 
Swiss  classical  scholar,  was  born  at  Bern,  .of  a  family  whose 
nobility  and  distinction  he  loved  to  recall.    In  partimlar,  he  was 


proud  of  Ub  descent  from  Thomas  Wyttenbach,  professor  of 
theology  in  Basel  at  the  end  of  the  15th  and  beginning  of  the 
ifith  century,  who  numbered  the  Reformer  Zwingli  and  other 
dlsthiguished  men  among  his  pupils.  Wjrttenbach's  own  father 
was  also  a  theological  professor  of  consideiable  note,  first  at 
Bern,  and  then  at  Marburg.  His  removal  to  Marburg,  which 
took  place  in  1756,  was  partly  due  to  old  associations,  for  he 
had  studied  there  under  the  famous  Christian  Wolff,  and  em- 
bodied the  philosophical  principles  of  his  master  in  his  own 
theological  teaching.  Young  Wsrttenbach  entered  at  the  age  9f 
fourteen  the  university  of  Marburg,  and  passed  through  a  four 
years'  course  there.  His  parents  intended  that  he  should  become 
a  Lutheran  pastor.  The  first  two  years  were  given  up  to  general 
education,  principally  to  mathematics, "  philology,"  philosophy 
and  history.  The  professor  of  mathematics,  Spangenberg, 
acquired  great  influence  over  young  Wyttenbach.  He  is  said  to 
have  taught  his  subject  with  great  deamesa,  and  with  equal 
seriousness  and  piety,  often  referring  to  God  as  the  supreme 
mathematidan,  who  had  constnicted  all  things  by  number, 
measure  and  weight.  "  Philology  "  in  the  German  universities 
of  that  age  meant  Hebrew  and  Greek.  These  two  languages 
were  generally  handled  by  the  same  professor,  and  were  taught 
almost  solely  to  theologiaU  students.  Wyttenbach 's  university 
course  at  Marburg  was  troubled  about  the  middle  of  the  time 
by  mental  unrest,  due  to  the  fascination  exerdsed  over  him  by 
Bunyan*s  Pilgrim's  Progress.  The  disorder  was  cured  by  Spang* 
enberg.  The  prindpal  study  of  the  third  year  was  metaphysics, 
which  took  Wyttenbach  entirely  captive.  The  fourth  and  last 
year  was  to  be  devoted  to  the<^ogy  and  Christian  dogma. 
Wyttenbach  had  hitherto  submitted  passively  to  his  father's 
wishes  concerning  his  career,  in  the  hope  that  some  unexpected 
occurrence  might  set  him  free.  But  he  now  turned  away  from 
theological  lectures,  and  privatdy  devoted  his  time  to  the  task 
of  deepening  and  extending  his  knowledge  of  Greek  literature. 
He  possessed  at  the  tim^,  as  he  tells  us,  no  more  acquaintance 
with  Greek  than  his  own  pupils  at  a  later  time  could  acquire 
from  him  during  four  months'  study.  He  was  almost  entirely 
without  equipment  beyond  the  bare  texts  of  the  authors.  But 
Wyttenbach  was  undaunted,  and  foiur  years'  persistent  study 
gave  him  a  knowledge  of  Greek  such  as  few  Germans  of  that 
time  possessed.  His  love  for  philosophy  carried  him  towards 
the  Greek  philosophers,  especially  Plato.  During  this  period 
Ruhnken's  notes  on  the  Platonic  lexicon  of  Tinuteus  fell  into  his 
handsi  Ruhnken  was  for  him  almost  a  superhuman  bdng, 
whom  he  worshipped  day  and  night,  and  with  whom  he  imagined 
himsdf  as  holding  converse  in  the  spirit.  When  Wyttenbach 
was  twenty-two  he  determined  to  seek  elsewhere  the  aids  to 
study  which  Marburg  could  not  afford.  His  father,  fully  reab'zing 
the  strength  of  his  son's  pure  passion  for  scholarship,  permitted 
and  even  advised  him  to  seek  Hejme  at  Gottingen.  From  this 
teacher  he  rccdved  the  utmost  kindness  and  encouragement, 
and  he  was  urged  by  him  to  dedicate  to  Ruhnken  the  first-fruits 
of  his  scholarships.  Wyttenbach  therefore  set  to  work  on  some 
notes  to  Julian,  Eunapius  and  Aristaenetus,  and  Hcyne  wrote 
to  Ruhnken  to  bespeak  his  favourable  consideration  for  the 
work.  Before  it  reached  him  Ruhnken  wrote  a  kind  letter  to 
Wyttenbach,  which  the  redpient  "raid,  re-read  and  kissed," 
and  another  on  receipt  of  the  tract,  in  which  the  great  scholar 
declared  that  he  had  not  looked  to  find  in  Germany  such  know- 
ledge of  Greek,  such  power  of  criticism,  and  such  mature  judg- 
ment, eq>ecially  in  one  so  young.  By  Heyne's  advice,  he 
worked  hard  at  Latin,  which  he  knew  far  less  thoroughly  than 
Greek,  and  we  soon  find  Heyne  praising  his  progress  in  Latin 
style  to  both  Ruhnken  and  Valckenaer.  He  now  wrote  to  ask 
their  advice  about  his  scheme  of  coming  to  the  Netherlands 
to  follow  the  profession  of  a  scholar.  Ruhnken  stron^y  exhorted 
W3rttenbach  to  follow  his  own  example,  for  he  too  had  been 
designed  by  his  parents  for  the  Christian  ministry  in  Germany, 
but  had  settled  at  Leiden  on  the  invitation  of  Hemstcrhuia. 
Valckenaer's  answer  was  to  the  same  effect,  but  he  added  that 
Wyttenbach's  letter  would  have  been  pleasanter  to  him  had 
it  been  free  from  excessive  compliments.    These  letters  were 


B8o 


WYVERN 


forwaided  to  the  elder  Wyttenbech,  with  a  ttiong  leooBimendation 
from  Heyne.  Tbe  old  man  had  been  hinuelf  in  Leiden  in  his 
youth,  and  entertained  an  admiration  for  the  icbolarBhip  of  the 
Netherlands;  so  his  consent  was  easily  won.  Young  Wy  ttenbach 
reached  Leiden  in  1770.  A  year  was  jpent  with  great  content- 
ment, in  Iwiming  the  language  of  the  people,  in  attending  the 
lectures  of  the  great  "  duumviri "  of  Leiden,  and  in  follsting 
MSS.  of  Plutarch.  At  the  end  of  1771  a  professor  was  wanted 
at  Amsterdam  for  the  College  of  the  Remonstrants.  By  the 
recommendation  of  Ruhnken,  Wyttenbach  obtained  the  chair, 
which  he  filled  with  great  success  for  eight  years.  His  lectures 
took  a  wide  nnge.  Those  On  Greek  were  repeated  alao  to  the 
students  of  the  university  of  Amsterdam  (the  "  Athenaeum  "). 
In  1775  a  visit  was  made  to  Paris,  which  was  fruitful  both  of 
new  friendships  and  of  progress  in  study.  About  this  time,  on 
the  advice  of  Ruhnken,  Wyttenbach  began  the  issue  of  his 
BiWotkeca  critical  which  appeared  at  intervals  for  the  next 
thirty  years.  The  methods  of  criticism  employed  were  in  the 
main  those  established  by  Hemsterhuis,  and  carried  on  by 
Vaickenaer  and  Ruhnken,  and  the  publication  met  with  accept- 
ance from  the  learned  all  over  Europe*  In  1777  the  younger 
Burmann  ("  Bunnannus  Secundus  ")  retired  from  his  professor- 
ship at  .the  Athenaeum,  and  Wyttenbach  hoped  to  succeed 
him.  When  another  received  the  appointment,  he  was  sorely 
discouraged.  Only  his  regard  for  Ruhnken  and  for  Dutch 
freedom  (in  his  own  words-"  Ruhnkeni  et  Batavae  libertatis 
cogitatio  ")  kept  him  in  Holland.  For  fear  of  losing  him,  the 
authorities  at  Amsterdaip  nominated  him  in  1779  pr<^e8Bar  of 
phil6sophy.  In  1785  Toll,  Burmann's  successor,  resigned,  and 
Wyttenbach  was  at  once  appointed  to  succeed  him.  His  full 
titie  was  "  professor  of  history  and  eloquence  and  Greek  and 
Latin  literature."  He  bad  hardly  got  to  work  in  bis  new  office 
when  Vaickenaer  died,  and  he  received  a  call  to  Leiden.  Greatly 
to  Ruhnken's  disappointment,  he  declined  to  abandon  the 
duties  he  had  so  recently  undertaken.  In  x  787  began  the  internal 
commotions  in  Holland,  afterwards  to  be  aggra>cated  by  foreign 
interference.  Scarcely  during  the  remaining  thirty-three  years 
of  Wyttenbach's  life  was  there  a  moment  of  peace  in  the  land. 
About  this  time  two  requests  were  made  to  him  for  an  edition  of 
the  Moralia  of  Plutarch,  for.  which  a  recension  of  the  tract 
De  sera  numinis  vindicia  had  mariced  him  out  in  the  eyes 
of  scholars.  One  request  came  from  the  famous  "Sodetas 
Bipontina,"  the  other  from  the  delegates  of  the  Clarendon 
Press  at  Oxford.  Wyttenbach,  influenced  at  once  by  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  university,  and  by  the  liberality  of  the  Oxonians  in 
tendering  him  assistance  of  (Afferent  kinds>  declined  the  offer  of 
the  Bipontine  Society, — very  fortunately,  since  their  press  was 
soon  destroyed  by  the  French.  The  fortunes  of  Wyttenbach's 
edition  curiously  illustrate  the  text  "  habent  sua  fata  libelli." 
Tbe  first  portion  was  safely  conveyed  to  Oxford  in  1794.  Then 
war  broke  out  between  Holland  and  Great  Britain.  Randolph, 
Wyttenbach's  Oxford. correspondent,  advised  that  the  next 
portion  should  be  sent  through  the  British  ambassador  at  Ham- 
burgh and  the  MS.  was  duly  -consigned  to  him  "  in  a  little  chest 
«^ell  protected  by  pitch."  After  sending  Randolph  a  number 
of  letters  without  getting  any  answer,  Wyttenbach  in  disgust 
put  all  thought  of  the  edition  from  bim,but  at  last  the  missing 
box  was  discovered  in  a  fwgotten  comer  at  Hamburg,  where  it 
had  lain  for  two  years  and  a  half.  The  work  was  finally  com- 
pleted in  1805.  Meanwhile  Wyttenbach  received  invitations 
from  his  native  dty  Bern,  and  from  Leiden,  where  vacancies 
had  been  created  by  the  refusal  of  professors  to  swear  allegiance 
to  the  new  Dutch  republic  set  up  in  1795,  tp  which  Wyttenbach 


had  made  svbmiaion. '  But  he  only  left  Amstecdam  u  1799, 
when  on  Ruhnken's  death  he  succeeded  him  at  Leiden.  Even 
then  his  chief  object  in  removing  was  to  facilitate  an  arrangement 
by  which  the  necessities  of  h^  old  master's  family  migfat  be 
relieved.  His  removal  came  too  late  in  life,  and  he  was  never 
so  happy  at  Leiden  as  he  had  been  at  Amsterdam.  Before  long 
appeared  the  ever-delightful  Life  of  David  Ruhmken,  Though 
written  in  Latin,  this  biography  deserves  to  rank  high  in  tbe 
modem  literature  of  its  dass.  Of  Wyttenbach's  life  at  Leiden 
there  is  little  to  telL  The  ronfinual  changes  in  state  affairs 
greatly  disorganised  the  univenities  of  Holland,  and  Wyttenbach 
had  to  work  in  face  of  much  detraction;  still,  his  succcis  as  a 
teacher  was  very  great.  In  1805  he  narrowly  escaped  with  bis 
life  from  the  great  gunpowder  explosion,  which  killed  1 50  people, 
among  them  the  Greek  scholar  Luzac,  Wyttenbach's  colleague 
in  the  university.  One  of  Wyttenbach's  letters  gives  a  vivid 
account  of  the  disaster.  During  the  last  years  of  his  life  he 
suffered  severely  from  illness  and  became  nearly  blind.  After 
the  condusion  of  his  edition  of  Plutarch's  Moralia  ii)  1805,  the 
only  important  work  he  was  able  to  publish  was  his  well-knova 
edition  of  Plato's  Phatdo,  Many  honours  were  conferred  upos 
bim  both  at  home  and  abroad,  and  in  particular  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  French  Institute.  Shortly  before  his  death,  be 
obtained  the  licence  of  the  king  of  Holland  to  many  his  sister  i 
daughter,  Johanna  Gallien,  who  had  for  twenty  years  devoted 
herself  to  him  as  housekeeper,  secretary  and  aider  in  bis  studies. 
The  sole  object  of  the  marriage  was  to  secure  for  her  a  bciier 
provision  after  her  husband's  death,  because  as  the  widow  of  a 
professor  she  would  be  entitled  to  a  pension.  Johanna  GaUieB 
was  a  woman  of  remarkable  cult\ire  and  ability,  and  wrote  works 
hdd  in  great  repute  at  that  tim^  On  the  festival  of  the  ter- 
centenary of  the  foundation  of  the  imiversity  of  Marburg, 
cdebrated  in  1827,  the  degree  of  doctor  was  oxiferred  upon 
her.  Wyttenbach  died  of  apoplexy  in  1820,  and  he  was  buried 
in  Ihe  garden  of  his  country  house  near  Amsterdam,  which  stood, 
as  he  nV>ted,  within  sight  of  the  dwellings  of  Descartes  and 
Boerhaave. 

Although  hia  ivork  can  hardly  be  set  on  the  same  levd  as  that 
of  Hemsterhuis,  Vaickenaer  and  Rahnkeo,  yet  he  was  a  very  eraincot 
exponent  of  the  sound  methods  of  critidsm  which  they  cstablifliicd. 
These  four  men,  more  than  any  others  after  Bentley,  Isid  the  foaada- 
tions  of  modem  Greek  scholarship.  The  predse  study  of  grammar, 
syntax  and  style,  and  the  careful  criticism  of  texts  by  the  light  of  tbe 
b«st  manuscnDt  evidence,  were  upheld  by  these  scholars  in  the 
Netherlands  when  they  were  almost  entirely  neelected  dscwltere  cm 
the  Contineat,and  were  only  potsued  with  partial  Micoefla  in  England. 
Wyttenbach  may  fairiy  be  oenrded  as  dosing  a  great  period  m  tbe 
history  of  scholarship.  He  lived  indeed  to  see  the  new  Urth  of 
German  classical  learning,  but  his  work  was  done,  and  he  was  an- 
affected  by  it.  Wyttenbach's  critidsm  was  less  rkorcHis,  precise 
and  masterly,  but  perhafM  more  wnsitfve  and  aympetnietic  than  that 
of  his  great  predecessors  in  the  Netherlands.  In  actual  aoqnaintaooe 
with  the  phuosophical  writings  of  the  andcnts,  he  Has  probably  ne%'er 
been  surpassed.  In  character  he  was  upright  and  simple-mjndfed,  but 
shy  and  retiring,  and  often  failed  to  make  himself  appreciated.  His 
life  was  not  nasaed  without  strife,  but  his  few  friencb  were  wrarm}^ 
attached  to  him,  and  his  many  pupils  were  for  the  most  part  ha 
enthuMastic  adroireis.  Wyttenbach's  biography  was  written  in  a 
somewhat  dry  and  lifdess  manner  by  Mahne,  one  of  his  pupils,  who 
also  j>ublished  aome  of  his  letters.  His  Opusada,  other  than  those 
pubhshed  m  the  BibHotiuca  criUca^  were  coUectad  in  two  volomes 
(Ldden,  1823).  (J.  S.  R.) 

WTVERN,  or  Wxvesn ,  the  name  of  an  heraldic  monster,  with 
the  forepart  of  a  winged  dragon  and  the  hind  part  of  a  serpent  oc 
lixard  (see  Hjuawry).  Tlie  earlier  spelling  of  the  word  was 
iwwr  or  m9tr€\  0.  £ng*  wytr^\  O.  Fr.  wi»ro,  mod.  grare.  It 
is  a  doublet  of  "  vip«r,"  with  aa  .saBcreswiat  ».  as  in  V  b&tlara," 
M.  £Bg.  Mors. 


X—XANTHONfi 


8St 


Xtbe  twenty-fonrtb  letter  of  the  English  alphabet.  Its 
position  and  fonn  aie  derived  from  the  Latin  alphabet, 
which  received  them  from  the  Western  Greek  a^habet. 
The  alphabet  of  the  Western  Greeks  differed  from  the 
Ionic,  which  is  the  Greek  alphabet  now  in  general  use,  by  the 
shape  and  position  of  X  and  of  some  other  consonants.  The 
Ionic  alphabet  placed  x  (|)  immediately  after  N  and,  in  the 
oldest  records,  in  the  form  ^,  from  which  the  ordinary  Greek 
capital  3  was  devetoped.  The  position  and  shape  of  this 
^mbol  show  clearly  that  it  was  taken  from  the  Semitic  Samekh, 
which  on  the  Moabite  stone  appears  as  ^.  Why  the  Greeks 
attached  this  value  to  the  symbol  is  not  dear;  in  Semitic  the 
symbol  indicates  the  ordinary  s.  Still  less  clear  is  the  origin 
of  the  form  X>  which  in  the  Ionic  alphabet  stands  for  %  (^ 
followed  by  a  breath).  In  a  very  ancient  alphabet  on  a  small 
vase  found  in  1882  at  Formello  near  the  ancient  Veil  in  Eti;pria, 
a  symbol  appears  after  N  consisting  of  three  horisontal  and 
three  vertical  lines,  (S>  From  this  it  has  been  suggested  that 
both  forms  of  the  Greek  x  are  derived,  Z  by  removing  the 
vertical  lines,  X  in  its  earliest  form  -{-  by  renwving  the  four 
marginal  lines.  The  Ionic  symbol,  however,  corresponds  closely 
to  the  earliest  Phoenician,  so  that  this  theory  is  not  very  pfaiusible 
for  3,  and  there  are  various  other  possibilities  for  the  develop- 
ment of  X  (sec  Alphabet).  This  symbol  appears  in  the  very 
early  Latin  inscriptions  fouTKl  in  the  Roman  Forum  in  1899 
as  9^.  In  its  usual  value  as  ks  it  is  superfluous.  In  the  Ionic 
alphabet  it  was  useful,  because  there  it  represented  a  single 
sound,  which  before  the  invention  of  the  symbol  had  to  be 
represented  by  kh.  In  the  alphabet  in  use  ofTicially  at  Athens 
before  403  B.C.  x  was  written  by  x<^  ikks).  In  English  there  Is 
an  interesting  variation  of  pronunciation  in  many  words  accord- 
ing to  the  position  of  the  accent:  if  the  accent  precedes,  s  £s 
pronounced  ks;  if  it  follows,  x  is  pronounced  gt:  compare  ixU 
ieksil)  with  exdct  (egMict). 

The  symbol  X  was  used  both  by  the  Romans  and  the  Etruscans 
for  the  numeral  la  Which  borrowed  ifrom  the  other  is  uncertain, 
but  the  Etruscans  did  not  use  X  as  part  of  their  alphabet.  X 
with  a  horizontal  line  over  it  was  used  for  xo,ooo,  and  when  a 
line  on  each  side  was  added,  0(L  for  &  million.  (P.  Gr.) 

XANTHI  (Turkish  Eskije),  a  town  of  European  Turkey  in  the 
vilayet  of  Adrianople;  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Eskijc  and  at  the  S.  foot  of  the  Rhodope  Mountains,  29  m. 
W.  of  Gumuljina  by  the  Constantinople-Salonica  railway, 
pop.  (1905)  about  14,000,  of  whom  the  bulk  are  Turks  and 
Greeks  in  about  equal  proportions,  and  the  remainder  (about 
4000)  Armenians,  Roman  Catholics  or  Jews.  There  are  re- 
mains of  a  medieval  citadel,  and  on  the  plain  to  the  S.  the  ruins 
of  an  ancient  Greek  town.  Xanthi  is  built  in  the  form  of  an 
amphitheatre  and  possesses  several  mosques,  churches  and 
monasteries,  a  theatre  with  a  public  garden,  and  a  municipal 
garden.  A  preparatory  school  for  boys  and  girls  was  founded 
and  endowed  by  MazzinL  The  town  is  chiefly  notable  for  the 
famous  Y6nidJ6  tobacco. 

XANTHIC  ACID  (xanthogenic  add),  CiH^-CS-SH,  an  organic 
acid  named  from  the  Greek  (ai<06i,  ycUow,  in  allusion  to  the 
bright  yellow  colour  of  its  copper  salt.  The  salts  of  this 
acid  are  formed  by  the  action  of  carbon  bisulphide  on  the 
alcoholates,  or  on  alcoholic  solutions  of  the  caustic  alkalis. 
They  react  with  the  alkyl  iodides  to  form  dialkyl  esters  of  the 
dilhio-carbonic  acid,  which  readily  decompose  into  mcrcap- 
tans  and  thiocarbamic  esters  on  treatment  with  ammonia: 
CiHftOCS-SRi+NHa-CjHjOCS-NHt+RiSH;  with  the  alkali 
alcoholates  they  give  salts  of  the  alkyl  thiocarbonic  adds: 
CsHtOCSSR+CH,OK+H,0«CHaOCO-SK+Cai»OH+R-SH. 
Ethyl  xanthic  add,  C,H|OCS-SH,  is  obuined  by  the  ac- 
tion of  dilute  sulphuric  add  on  the  potassium  salt  at  o"  C. 
(^se,  Ben,  Jahresb.,  3,  p.  83).  It  is  a  colourless  oil  which  is 
very  imstable,  decomposing  at  25*  C  into  carbon  bisulphide 


and  alcohoL  The  poCaariuni  sAlt  ciystallkes  in  ookMirieas 
needles  and  b  fonned  by  shaking  cariMn  bisulf^dde  with  a 
sohitioQ  of  caofetic  potash  in  absolute  alcohol.  On  the  addi* 
tion  of  cupric  sulphate  to  its  aqueous  solution  it  yields  a  yellow 
precipitate  of  cnpcic  xaathate.  Potassium  zanthate  is  used 
in  Indigo  printing  and  also  as  an  antidote  for  phylloxera. 
Tschuj^ieff  (^.,  1899,  32,  p.  3332)  has  oaed  the  zanthic  ester 
formation  for  the  pfeparation  of  various  terpenes,'the  meth^ 
ester  when  dbtilled  under  sli^tly  diminished  pressure  decom- 
posing, ro  the  sense  of  the  equation,  CnHM-rb.CS^SCHi** 
CJI»u^+COS+CH^SH.  According  to  the  author  molecular 
change  in  the  hydrocarbon  is  prevented,  since  no  add  agent  is  used. 

XAJfTHIPPB,  the  wife  of  Socrates  (^.v.).  Her  name  has 
become  i>roverlNal  in  the  sense  of  a  nagging,  quarrelsome  woman. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  show  that  she  has  been  maligned, 
notably  by  E.  Zeiler  ("  Zur  Ehrenrettung  der  Xanthippe,'*  in 
his  VorlrSge  und  AbkaruHungeHf  i^  1875). 

XANTHOH?  (diben2o-7-pyrone,  or  diphenylene  ketone  oxide), 
CuHiOs,  in  organic  chemistry,  a  heterocyclic  compound  con- 
tuning  the  ring  ^stem  shown  below.  It  is  obtained  by  the 
oxidation  of  xanthene  (methylene  diphenylene  oxide)  ^th 
chromic  add;  by  the  action  of  phosphorus  oxychloride  on 
disodlum  saUcylate;  by  heating  2*2'-dioxybenzophenone  with 
concentrated  sulphuric  add;  by  distilling  fluoran  with  lime; 
by  the  oxidation  of  xanthydrol  (R.  Meyer,  Bcr.,  1893,  26, 
p.  X277);  by  boiling  diaaotized  2-2'-diaminobenzophenQDe  with 
water  (Heyl.,  Ber.,  1898,  3r,  p.  3034);  by  heating  salol  with 
concentrated  sulphuric  add  (C.  Graebe,  Ann.,  1889,  254, 
p.  280),  and  by  heating  potassium-ortho-chlorobenxoate  with 
sodium  phenolate  and  a  small  quantity  of  copper  powder  to 
180-190*  C.  (F.  Ullmann,  J?«r.,  1905, 38,  pp.  729, 21 20, 221 1).  It 
crystallizes  in  needles  which  melt  at  t73*t74**  and  boil 
at  349-350**  C,  and  are  volatile  in  steam.  Its  solution  in 
concentrated  sulphuric  add  is  of  a  yellow  colour  and 
shows  a  marked  blue  fluorescence.  The  carbonyl  group  b 
not  ketonic  in  character  since  it  yidds  ndther  an  oxime  nor 
hydrazone.  When  fused  with  caustic  potash  it  yields  phenol 
and  salicylic  add.  Mild  redudng  agents  convert  it  into 
xanthydrol,  the  groxip  >C0  becoming  >CH-OH,  whilst  a  strong 
redudng  agent  like  hydriodic  add  converts  it  into  xanthene, 
the  group>CO  becoming>CH».  Phosphorus  pentastdphide  at 
140-150'°  C.  converts  it  into  xanthion  by  transformation  of  >CO 
to  >CS  (R.  Meyer,  Ber.,  1900,  33,  p.  2580),  and  this  latter  com- 
pound condenses  with  hydroxylamine  to  form  xanthone  oxime. 

All  f(Mir  moDO-hydroxyxantbonc8  are  known,  and  are  prepared  by 
heating  salicylic  acid  with  cither  resorcin,  pyrocatcchin  or  hydfo- 
quinone;  they  are  yelkiw  crystalline  solids,  which  act  as  dye«(uffs. 
The  i-7-dihydroKyxanthone,  known  a*  euxanthone,  is  prepared  by 
heating  euxanthic  acid  with  hydrochloric  add  or  by  heatiiig  hydro- 
quioone  carboxylic  add  with  ^-resorcyUc  add  and  acetic  anhydride 
(5.  Kostanccki,  Bir.,  1891^  24,  p.  3983;  C.  Graebe,  Ann.,  1880, 
254,  p.  298).  It  is  also  obtained  from  Indian  '>'ellow  (Graebe,  ibid.), 
formed  in  the  urine  of  cows  fed  on  mango  leaves.  It  crystalUaes  in 
yellow  needles  which  sublime  readily.  On  fusion  with  caustic 
potasli  it  decmnposeswith  Cormationof  tctrahydroxy-benzoph'cnone. 
which  then  breaks  up  Into  resordn  and  hydroquinone.  The 
isomeric  i'6-dihydrDxyxanthone,  iioeuxanthone,  is  fonned  when 
/9-reBorcyKe  add  is  heated  irith  aeetic  ankydride.  Gentisein,  or 
i'3*7-tnhydro39xanth<nM;  is  found  in  the  form  of  its  methyl  ether 
(Eentian)  in  gentian  root;  it  is  obtained  synthetically  by  condenung 
pntoroglucin  with  hydroquinone  carboxytic  add. 

Xanthene,  CijHidO,  may  be  synthesized  by  condensing  phenol 
with  ortko-cresol  in  the  presence  of  alumfntum  eUonde.  Its 
tctramethyl-diamino  derivative,  which,  is  formed  by  condensing, 
formaldehyde  with  dtmethyl<meta.ominopbenoI  and  subsequent 
elimination  of  water  from  the  resulting  diphenyl  methane  derivative, 
is  the  leuco  base  of  p>Tonine,  into  which  it  passes  by  oxidatbn. 


:0CO 

S  4 

Xanthone. 


CUlCBAN/S/\  O/Sy 


88i 


XANTHUS— XAVIER 


XAMTHUS  (mod.  CwtUk),  an  andent  dty  of  Lydm,  on  the 
river  Xantfauft  {Esken  CAm)  about  8  m.  above  its  mouth.  It 
was  besieged  by  the  Persian  general  Harpagus  (546  B.C.),  when 
the  acropolis  was  burned  and  sill  the  inhabitants  perished 
'  (Herod,  j.  1 76).  The  city  was  aftertrards  lebuilt;  and  in  42  B.& 
it  was  t^eged  by  the  Romans  under  M.  Junius  Brutus. 
It  was  taken  by  storm  and  set  on  fire,  and  the  inhabitants 
perished  in  the  flames.  The  ruins  lie  on  a  plateau,  high  above 
the  left  bank  of  the  river.  The  nearest  port  is  Kalamaki, 
whence  a  tedious  ride  of  three  to  four  hours  round  the  edge 
of  the  great  marsh  of  the  Eshen  Chai  brings  the  traveller  to 
Xanthus,  The  whole  plan  of  the  dty  with  its  walls  and  gates 
can  be  discerned.  The  well-prcsoved  theatre  is  remarbtble 
for  a  break  in  the  ctirve  of  its  auditcriumt  which  has  been  con- 
structed so  as  not  to  interfere  with  a  sarcophagus  on  a  pedestal 
and  with  the  "  Haipy  Monument  "  which  still  stands  to  its  full 
height,  robbed  of  the  reliefs  o(  its  parapet  (now  in  the  British 
Museum).  In  front  of  the  theatre  stands  the  famous  stele  of 
Xantbus  inscribed  on  all  four  sides  in  Lycian  and  Greek.  Be- 
hind the  theatre  is  a  terrace  on  which  probably  the  temple  of 
either  the  Xanthian  Apollo  or  Sarpedon  stood.  The  best  of  the 
tombs— the  "  Payava  Tomb/'  the  "  Nereid  Monument,"  the 
"  Ionic  Monument  "  and  the  "  Lion  Tomb  " — are  in  the  British 
Musieum,  as  the  result  of  Sir  Chas.  Fellows's  expedition;  only 
their  bases  can  be  seen  on  the  site.  A  fine  triple  gateway, 
much  polygonal  masoniy^  and  the  walls  of  the  acropoUs  are  the 
other  objects  of  most  interest. 

See.  O.  Benndorf  and  C.  Niemann,  tUisen  iu  Lykien  uud  Karien 
(1884).  (D.  G.  H.) 

XAVIER,  FRANCISCO  DB  (1506-1552),  Jesuit  missionary 
and  saint,  commonly  known  in  Engii^  as  St  Francis  Xavier 
and  also  called  the  "Apostle  of  the  Indies."  He  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Juan  de  Jasso,  privy  toandUor  to  Jean  d'Albret, 
king  of  Navarre,  and  his  wife,  Maria  de  A^ilcueta  y  Xavier,  sole 
heiress  of  two  noble  Navarrese  families.  He  was  born  at.  his 
mother's  castle  of  Xavier  or  Xavero,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees 
and  close  to  the  little  town  of  Sanguesa,  on  the  7th  of  April  1506, 
according  to  a  family  register,  though  his  earlier  biographers 
fix  hb  birth  in  1497.  Following  a  Spanish  custom  of  the 
time,  which  left  the  surname  of  dther  parent  optional  with 
children,  he  was  called  after  his  mother;  the  best  authorities 
write  *'  Francisco  de  Xavier "  (Lat.  Xaverius)  rather  than 
'.'  Francisco  Xavier,"  as  Xavier  is  originally  a  place-name.  In 
1524  he  went  to  the  university  of  Paris,  where  he  entered  the 
College  of  St  Barbara,  then  the  headquarters  of  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  students,  and  in  1528  was  appointed  lecturer 
in  Aristotelian  philosophy  at  the  College  de  Beauvais.  In 
1 530  he  look  his  degree  as  master  of  arts.  He  and  the  Savoyard 
Pierre  Lef^vrc,  who  shared  his  lodging,  had  already,  in  1529, 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Ignatius  of  Loyola — like  Xavier  a 
native  of  the  Spanish  Basque  country.  Ignatius  succeeded, 
though  in  Xavier's  case  after  some  opposition,  in  gaining  their 
sympathy  for  his  missi<mary  schemes  (see  Loyola,  Ignatius  of); 
and  they  were  among  the  company  of  seven  persons,  including 
Loyola  himself,  who  took  the  original  Jesuit  vows  on  the  15th 
of  August  1534.  They  ccmtinued  in  Paris  for  two  years  longer; 
but  on  November  15th,  1536,  they  started  for  Italy,  to  concert 
with  Ignatius  plans  for  converting  the  Moslems  of  Palestine.  In 
January  1537  they  arrived  in  Venice.  As  some  months  must 
elapse  before  they  could  sail  for  Palestine,  Ignatius  determined 
that  the  time  should  be  spent  partly  in  hospital  work  at  Venice 
and  later  in  the  journey  to  Rome.  Accordingly,  Xavier  devoted 
himself  for  nine  weeks  to  the  hospital  for  incurables,  and  then 
set  out  with  eight  companions  for  Rome,  where  Pope  Paul  III. 
sanctioned  their  cnteipriee.  Retur^iing  to  Venice,  Xavier  was 
ordained  priest  on  Midsummer  Day  1537;  but  the  outbreak 
of  war  between  Venice  and  Turkey  put  an  end  to  the  Palestine 
expedition,  and  the  companions  dispersed  for  a  twelvemonth's 
home  mission  work  in  the  Italian  cities.  Nicolas  Bobadilla 
and  Xavier  betook  thcmstlves  first  to  Monselice  and  thence 
to  Bologna,  where  they  reraaiocd  till  summoned  to  Rome  by 
Ignatius  at  the  close  of  1538. 


Ignatius  retained  Xavier  at  Rome  until  1541  as  aecfetar> 
to  the  Society  of  Jesus  (see  Jesuits  for  the  events  of  the  period 
1538-41).  Meanwhile  John  III.,  king  of  Portugal,  bad  re- 
solved on  sending  a  mission  to  his  Indian  dominions,  and  had 
applied  through  his  envoy  Pedro  Mascareidias  to  the  pope  for  as 
Jesuits.  Ignatius  could  spare  but  two,  and  chose  BobadilU 
and  a  Portuguese  named  Simio  Rodrigues  for  the  puipoae. 
Rodrigues  set  out  at  once  for  Lisbon  to  confer  wkh  the  king, 
who  ultimately  dedded  to  retain  him  in  Portugal.  Bobaddla, 
sent  for  to  Rome,  arrived  there  just  before  Mascarenbas  was  about 
to  depart,  but  fell  too  ill  to  respond  to  the  call  made  on  him. 

Hereupon  Ignatius,  on  March  15th,  1540,  told  Xavier  to  leave 
Rome  the  next  day  with  Mascarenbas,  in  order  to  join  Rodrignes 
in  the  Indian  mission.  Xavier  complied,  merdy  waiting  kng 
enough  to  obtain  the  pope's  benediction,  and  set  out  for  Lisboa. 
where  he  was  presented  to  the  king,  and  soon  won  his  entire 
confidence,  attested  notably  by  procuring  for  him  from  the 
pope  four  briefs,  one  of  them  appointing  him  papal  nuncio  ia 
the  Indies.  On  April  7th,  1541,  he  sailed  from  Lisboii  wth 
Martini  Alfonso  de  Sousa,  governor  designate  of  India,  aatf 
lived  amongst  the  common  sailors,  ministering  to  their  rdigioiB 
and  temporal  needs,  especially  during  an  outbreak  of  scurvy 
After  five  months'  voyage  the  ship  reached  Mozambique,  wkoc 
the  captain  resolved  to  winter,  and  Xavier  was  prostrated  wA 
a  severe  attack  of  fever.  When  the  voyage  was  resumed,  the 
ship  touched  at  Malindi  and  Sokotra,  and  reached  Goa  00 
May  6th,  1543.  Exhibiting  his  brief  to  D.  Joio  d' Albuquerque, 
bishop  of  Cioa,  he  asked  his  permission  to  officiate  in  the  diocese. 
and  at  once  began  walking  through  the  streets  ringing  n  small 
bell,  and  telling  all  to  come,  and  send  their  children  and  servants, 
to  the  "  Christian  doctrine  "  or  catechetical  instruction  in  the 
prindpal  church.  He  spent  five  months  in  Goa,  and  then 
turned  his  attention  to  the  "  Fishery  Coast,"  where  he  had 
heard  that  the  Paravas,  a  tribe  engaged  in  the  pesri  Sahexy, 
had  relapsed  into  heathenism  after  having  professed  Christianity. 
He  laboured  assiduously  amongst  them  for  fifteen  months*  and 
at  the  end  of  1543  returned  to  Goa. 

At  Travancore  he  is  said  to  have  founded  no  fewer  than  forty- 
five  Christian  settlements.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  his  own  lettcn 
contain,  both  at  this  time  and  later  on,  express  disproof  of 
that  miraculous  gift  of  tongues  with  which  he  was  credited  t\tn 
in  his  lifetime,  and  which  is  attributed  to  him  in  the  Bretierj 
office  for  his  festival.  Not  only  was  he  obliged  to  em(doy 
interpreters,  but  he  relates  that  in  their  absence  he  was  com- 
pelled to  use  signs  only. 

He  sent  a  missionary  to  the  isle  of  Manaar,  and  hlmsdf  visitol 
Ceylon  and  Mailapur  (Meliapur),  the  traditional  tomb  of  St 
Thomas  the  apostle,  which  he  reached  in  April  1 544,  remainuii 
there  four  months.  At  Malacca,  where  he  arrived  on  September 
25th,  1545,  he  remained  another  four  months,  but  had  compara- 
tively little  success.  While  in  Malacca  he  urged  King  John  III. of 
Portugal  to  set  up  the  Inquisition  in  Gca  to  repress  Judaism,  but 
the  tribunal  was  not  set  up  until  1560.  After  visiting  Amboyna, 
the  Moluccas  and  other  isles  of  the  Malay  archipelago,  he 
returned  to  Malacca  in  July  1547,  and  found  three  Jesuit 
recruits  from  Europe  awaiting  him.  About  this  time  an  attack 
upon  the  city  was  made  by  the  Achinese  fleet,  under  the  raja 
of  Pedir  in  Sumatra;  and  Xavier's  early  biographers  relate  a 
dramatic  story  of  how  he  roused  the  governor  to  action.  This 
story  is  o/ptn  to  grave  suspicion,  as,  apart  from  the  miracles 
recorded,  there  are  wide  discrepancies  between  the  secular 
Portuguese  histories  and  the  narratives  written  or  inspired 
by  Jesuit  chroniclers  of  the  17th  century. 

While  in  Malacca  Xavier  met  one  Yajiro,  a  Japanese  exile 
(known  to  the  biographies  as  Anger,  Angero  or  Anjiro),  who 
fired  him  with  zeal  for  the  conversion  of  Japan.  But  he 
first  revisited  India  and  then,  returning  to  Malacca,  took  ship 
for  Japan,  accompanied  by  Yajiro,  now  known  as  Paul  of  the 
Holy  Faith.  They  reached  Ragosbima  on  the  15th  of  August 
1549,  and  remained  in  Japan  until  the  20th  of  November  1551. 
(See  Japan,  $  viii.)  On  board  the  "  Santa  Cruz."  the  vessel 
in  which  he  returned  from  Japan  to  Malacca,  Xavier  discissed 


'— n 


XENHA— XENOCRATES 


with  Dioga  Pei«1is,  tbt  cipltin,  >  prejcct  for  a  misaioiiai^ 
joDincy  Lo  China.  He  devised  the  plan  ot  persuading  llu 
viceroy  ol  Fonugiute  India  to  despatdi  in  embassy  to  China 
in  whou  train  ho  might  tutor,  Aapiie  the  law  which  then  ti 
eludedforeigHeralroralhalfnipir*.  IlereachedGoain  Pebniai^ 
iSSi,  and  obtained  Itoni  the  vicMoy  coostnt  to  the  plan  of  i 

Xaviei  left  India  on  the  jslh  of  April  1531  lor  MalKoi,  inlendinf 
there  to  meet  Pcraira  and  to  re-smbiA  on  tlie  "Santa  Crai." 

The  itoiy  of  his  dclenlion  by  the  govemgr  (oflidally  styled 
captain)  of  Ualacca-a  son  ol  VaKO.  da  Gama  named  Alvan 
de  Ataide  or  Alhayde — is  told  with  many  jrigtuteique  details 
by  F.  M.  Pinlo  and  some  of  lh«  JbuiI  biographeii,  who  ha 
[ulloricd  Ataide  as  actuated  solely  by  malice  and  sell-inlere 
Alaide  appears  to  have  obj«I«d  not  so  tnuch  to  the  miasioa 
to  the  rank  asrigned  to  Ptrcim,  whom  he  regarded  as  unfit  I 
the  office  of  envoy.    The  right  to  send  a  ship  to  trade  with  Chi 
wu  one  for  which  large  sums  nere  paid,  and  Fercira,  as  coi 
Diander  of  the  elpedilion,  would  enjoy  commerdal  privilege! 
which  Ataide  had,  tx  a^ia,  the  power  to  grant  or  withhold.    It 
seems  doubtful  i(  the  governor  eiceeded  bis  legal  right  in  re- 
fusing to  allow  Pereira  10  proceed;'  hilhitattitude  he  remained 
firm  even  when  Xavier,  it  the  Jejuii  biographers  may  be 
trusted,  exhibited  the  brief  by  which  he  held  the  rank  of  papd 

Xavier's  personal  libetiy  lu  lesLruint  WM  placed.  He  embaikod 
withoat  Pereira  on  July  i6th,  ijji.  Alter  a  abort  stay  at 
Singiqwre,  whence  he  despatched  several  leilen  to  India  and 
Europe,  the  ihip  at  the  end  ol  August  1551  leiched  Chang- 
chuen-shan  (St  John  .Island)  oB  the  coast  of  Kwang-tnng, 
~hich  served  tts  port  and  rendeivoiu  for  Europeans,  nof.  theD 


»  Chinese 


Xaviec  was  seised  with  fever  soon  after  his  arrival,  and  was 
delayed  by  lb*  (jjlgre  of  the  uiteipreiei  he  had  engaged,  as  well 
•a  by  the  reloctance  ot  the  Portuguese  to  attempt  the  voyage 
to  Canton  for  the  purpose  of  landing  him.  He  hEid  arranged 
ior  his  pasuge  in  a  Chbeie  junk,  when  he  wu  again  attacked 
by  lever,  and  died  on  December  ind,  or,  according!  to  come 
authorities,  November  J7th,  isji.  He  was  buried  dose  to 
the  cabin  in  which  he  had  died,  but  his  body  was  later  transferred 
to  Malacca,  and  ibence  to  Coa,  where  it  still  lies  in  a  magnificent 
■brine  {see  J.  N.  da  Fonieca,  An  Hutorkut  and  Anhatattgiiat 
Sttld,  of  Goa,  Bombay,  1E7S).  He  was  beatilied  by  Paul  V. 
In  161Q  and  canonized  hy  Gregory  XV.  in  i6)r. 

In  appearance  Xavier  was  neither  Spanish  ■""  B-.m..     ¥1. 


and  fail 


•hite  through  the  hardships  he  endured  in  Japan.  Thai  he 
•as  oC  short  stature  is  proved  by  the  length  of  the  coffin  in 
'hich  his  body  is  sLiU  preserved,  less  than  5  It.  1  in.  {Fonseca, 
fi-  lii,  p.  ig6).  Many  mirndes  have  been  asaibcd  lo  faimi 
oHicial  list  o[  thoe,  said  lo  have  been  aitegled  by  eye- 


(Hocesses  ft 


ip  by  tl 


.e'  Xota  w 


served 


Xavier  should  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  ol  Christiaii  mia- 
aionarics  since  the  fijsl  century  jld.  rests  upon  more  tangible 
evidence.  His  Jesuit  blogiapbets  attribute  to  him  the  con- 
version of  more  Ihan  700,000  penons  in  leu  than  ten  years; 
and  Ibou^  tbeie  figures  arc  absurd,  the  work  which  3{«viet 
■uomplUhed  was  enoimous.  He  inaugurated  new  mis^onaty 
enterprises  from  Hormui  10  Japan  and  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
leavirig  an  organized  ChiisttBn  community  wherever  he  preached; 
be  directed  by  correspondcncs  the  ccdesastical  policy  ot 
John  III.  and  his  viceroy  in  India;  he  established  and  con. 
trolled  the  Sotiety  ol  Jesus  in  Ihc^Easl.  Himself  an  ascetic 
and  a  mystic,  to  whom  things  spiritual  were  mote  real  than 
the  visible  world,  be  bad    the  alrong  common   senic   which 


'See 


R.  S.  \Vhheway.  Site  n 

1.  IS<>S),  appenclii  A.    Tl 

1  the  iu:;*  DiMife  of  Dingo  do  Coulo,  the  ben  contemporary 

lof  these  eventH.  was  Hupprc^sed  by  the  cenwr  inilsoriEinai 

id  the  ertant  venlon  wai  revised  by  an  erdedaitical  Afitor. 


bi  Japan, 
singularly 


e  Inqui^ 
Mabbar. 


liogra^uet 


^affe""* 


ily,  Oiaa, 


iWilber- 
Kganiied 
J  Church. 

tuated  in 


884. 


XENOPHANES 


(347  B.C.),  in  CDCBpUiy  wilh  Ariiutle  ba  paid  »  vi 
al  AtuneuL  In  33Q,  AiulotJe  being  then  i 
XenocTfla  luccccded  Speuiippui  in  the  pres 
■cbool,  defcAtiDg  his  conipelilon  Meaedemui  u 


Id  UUDJu 

Uftcedonia, 
LCy  of   the 


U  i>u 


»1  Ihe  [ 


'  g  uld,  u 


4,  *nd  was  tucceeded  m  icholuch  by  Polemon,  wl 
he  had  r«lunied  SiOBi  1  lite  of  proOigacy,  Boids  Polcn 
Ute  U4LetnUD  Phocion*  Chuiwi,  tyrant  of  PeUeae^  the  Acade 
CnntOT,  Ihe  Sioic  Zena  and  Eptcunu  br  alleged  Ut  h 
IfcqueDted  bit  leciureb 

Xei>ocTate>'i  eamatnw  and  vtmiEth  of  rhancier  umi  lor 
anivena]  rapccl,  and  ttudfa  wen  rrnwnbBTd  in  pnio[  of  ha  pui 
UitCffnty  and  benevolence.  Waotinf  in  quicknoa  4I  apprrim 
and  in  native  ^nct,  he  made  up  lor  Lheae  drticimcia  by  a  1 
BeieniitHjf  love  of  irulh  and  an  untiring  induBiEy.  Lna  nrig 
than  Spcuuppia.  be  adhered  morr  doflety  ta  the  leiier  ni  Pliii 
docirine.  and  la  accounted  the  typical  rrprewntaiLvc  oE  the 
Academy,  in  hia  iimi!n«i,  whkb  vece  nnmennn,  he  seenu  10  } 
euvcred  nearly  Ihe  whole  of  the  Academic  prognmme;  but  m 

t4iyii»  and  ethia  were  the  tubjedt  which  princip""- 

Ml  ihoughta.  He  it  Did  to  have  invenl«t,  or  nt  I 
cmphauvdp  Ifae  trrpartitioa  of  |4iilaeophy  under  t 
^yuc.  dialecr' ■*  -"■■'" 


Thing!  are  goodi.  ilb  si 
ital.  budilyp  calcmaU  but 
bly  tlie  gnateit.    IHapfiinc 
jnd  conaeqnently  ia  indcpen 


■Ihet  tl.an  < 


linlicr.     Hia 


.t  of  ha 


manding  penonalily 


i  pupili  Folemon  and 
>m_ii>.  «iK  nnindtr  of  the  ao^calkd 
lectloniaibeiuidiaoltbe  acluaL 
Dt  Xtnoaau  CWudnnj  (Lodn. 

mw  (f^irii  JiBi'lViil"  "•  '■~lH7ja.| 

ZBMOPIIAHBS   of    Cdophon,  the  Rpuled  founder  ot  Ik 
Elealic  Khoal  ol  philosophy,  it  suppcacd  lo  have  been  bofs 


I ;  E.  Zdler. 


b  Ion 


i   after 


among  god 


Icftaa 
Zandeaal 


n  of  Lydian  hinuy  inl* 
be  reaxmahle  enfiQwni  e( 
agmenls.  Ibe  mon  impoMaol 
"  aalhiopoBMtphic  and  ta- 
mponuiea.     Atrording 


Italy,  at  EleB,  a  Pbocaean 
Olymrnad  (S16-S11).     In  ont 

ol  himitll  *i  baying  begun  hia  wandering!  »ity-«pvei 
before,  when  he  waa  twenly-Sve  yean  ol  age.  so  that  be  1 
leaa  than  ninety-two  when  he  died-  Hia  teaching  fotmd 
■ton  in  poems,  wMch.  he  tnnlcd  thapsodlcally  in  the  co 
hli  travels.  In  Ihe  moiE  coniidetable  of  Ihe  elcgii 
which  have  auivived,  he  ridiculn  Ihe  doctrine  oi  the  migratka 
ol  Boub  (iviii,),  aaserit  the  diinis  of  wiidora  against  the  pre- 
valent athleticism,  which  seemed  to  him  to  ctwduce  neither  19 
Ihe  good  government  of  statea  r 
(ill),  reprobates  the  inlroduci 
Colophon  (il-)r  and  recommends 
aodat  pleaaures  (ui.).  Oftheepic 
are  those  in  which  he  attacks  ti 
Ihropopalhic   polytheism"  of  h 

to  Aristotle,  "  Ihe  first  of  Elealic  uniianana  waa  not  carelid 
to  say  whetha  the  uruly  which  he  pottulated  was  hnile  or  i>- 
finite,  but,  conlemplaling  the  whole  fimument,  declarrd  that 
the  One  is  God."  Whether  XenophaDea  w»  a  mwiotbeitt, 
whose  assertion  of  the  unity  of  God  tufflid  to  Pannenidta 
the  docirine  of  the  unity  ol  Being,  or  a  pantheiit,  wbo« 
asKTtion   of  the   unity  of   God   wa>   alio  a  declaration  ol 

other  words,  whether  XenophattH's  teaching  was  purely  theo- 
logical or  had  also  a  phUoaopblcal  algniCcance — is  a  qoestioa 
about  which  autliarities  have  dilTeml  and  will  probably 
conimiM  to  differ.  The  ailenee  of  the  eitanl  fntgnKnU, 
which  have  not  toe  iraid  about  the  unity  ot  Being,  lavotin  the 
one  view;  tfae  voice  ol  antiquity,  which  proclaims  Xctrofihanca 
the  lounder  rA  Eleatidsm.  has  been  thought  to  lavoQr  the  other. 
Of  Xenophanes'i  utterance*  about  (i)  God,  (r)  the  world,  {3) 
1. — j_i_  .ij  (ollowingautvive:  (1)  -Thereii  one  qod,  ™te« 

He  i??li  JIThi.'au'^indl^llarti-'-  ^  a  t^mp^ 

.... ..      .  .  Without  an  elTDn  ruldli  he  all  Ihlngi  by  ibouilil. 

.    .    .    He    abidcth    ever    in    ihF    un,-    nlnrr    mnlmi.!™     .h,l    i.  V— 


and  voice  and  bsdyfue 
I  Mtt  fair-haired  and  bJu^ 


:vcnniiien.  liontandN 


88j 


1a«r  div(Dltjet»  wbo  « 


.  ■■  bev„,\„r 


!EleBIkuiutuian>. 

jgh  Ibe  contempla- 

TtBophnBHi  fin  Simpliciui'i  AiPtfiiu,  J) 


unity  dl  airiliintB."     Arist«l«.  in  a  ptua| 
fkyiiti.As,  ipeaki  ofXcnDphiriHuthc  linl  i 

lion'^tl»«t(-*"Tll«lA«W"'fL.  — .-, 

turn*  up  T^noplHncB'i  tachinf  in  Ibe  propofilk .._,      ._ 

One  and  the  One  li  God."  Tnoon  (in  Sexi.  Empir.  PmL  1.  >u). 
isnorini  XenophaiHt'a  tbedo^.  nukct  him  rttdve  til  thlnp  into 

stTribuie*  o(  God.  wilh^'which  the  tmliH  [l^Uiliisii'xtmpktiu  H 
CarM  (now  no  longer  »mbed  to  Arinotle  ni  Theophnnai)  >C' 
CTMiit  XetiDphanca,  are  plainly  framed  on  the  model  o(  Eleatic  proori 

of  the  niiltv  an-"  ■'■ '•-- '  ■■--  "—  — ' ■  ■■-—' —  ■■- 

•etuide.    The 


...J  cxtetoal  cvideiic«  doe*  sot  bear  exami 
tntimonVi  If  ii  proved  anykhine-  would  «o 
that  the  doctrine  of  the  unfly  of^dnE  oritia 
phanea,  but  before  him:  and.  in  fact,  the  pa? 
no  more  pfovei  that  Plato  attributed  lo  Xeno 
o(  ParmenMaa  than  TlitattttHt,  l6a  D,  prove 
to  Homer  the  philoaophy  of  HeraclituB.  ni 
Kriptloa  of  Xenophanet  at  the  Bt«  r*  ihr  >^-lr« 
neceitarilv  hnplv  that  the  DiritV' 
unity  aHert«r  by  P 


lyotP^ 


the  reaaonad  •nptkiun  tf  Socrates  deaied  the  if 
aoc^y  tA  Plalo^  "  -"-'  " ■--  --      -  -^    - 


;Pana,iS6o),  Li»~io8;C. 

Beriin,  U74).  pp.  5*9-613!  E.  Zcller.  Pkii.  i.  i,nic«ii  ii.eipsc, 
1S77),  1.  tS6-so7;  J.  Freudenthal.  Dibtr  d.  Thtt^iic  i.  Xata- 
jtouM  JBieitau,  lAS),  and  "  Zur  Lehre  d,  Xcr.."  in  ArcUt  /. 

Fkiltut^ffmm  ftarmtiuo  (Berlin,  tool):  and  Die  Franunu  ia 
i-~™w...i-  rB_i^   ,„^\    p_  taXia  bibli«raphy,  iiiduding  the 


Vnrjutrenter  (Berlm. 


11  ihtn  he  wa«  Indifierent  to  the  proble 

1  a  phi^oKphtr,  for  he  despaired  of  tiuwled^- 

theory  dI  the  unity  al  the  Supreme  Being  by 
niemponiiy  invtholo«.     Bui.  while  he  Ihu- 

Shy.  Xenophanea  lalueDced  Ita  developioen 
eoloiiial  beniaiB  led  the  way  to  the  phik 
Pumenidea  aiid  Zeao;  aeeondly,  h!>  iMenio 

1  ta  diiiinfpiish  knowled^  and  opinion,  and  I 

nllty'of  deities'^  whence  It  it  Inferred  Ihii 
.  motl  high,  perfect,  eternal,  who.  ai  immaner 
Aififia  tint  plurality  of  Ihinfai  there  were  all 


D  bvdly  he  alkiwn]  th 
Lciually  affiima  a  pluialit 
lenlhal  that  Xenophanei' 


ioiia  o(  the  nciverae,  MiE  theni- 
all-embtadnt  Codhead  WhBit 
XenophAoei.  k  far  fmo  deny. 
qi  godii  it  nuut  be  coiHwled  la 

Cltmic  wai  directed  againu  the 
mytholof^l  dctalli  of  the  coo- 
I  i«hor  than  against  the  ootytbelatlc  prindpl^ 
tba  tnalbe  Dt  Mdiao  katHuiu  u  Cctpt, 
ted.  there  ia  no  direct  evidence  to  (tfovehin a 
.  The  wisdom  of  XentHibaaet.  like  the  wiadOB 
■er,  showed  loclt.  not  in  1  theory  of  the  unl- 
wfal  reeofnitiaa  of  the  ncnhiocnesi  of  Ihinn 
deavour.  Uia  theism  was  a  dtdaraliou  not 
<_  of  Cod  a*  rather  of  (he  litilenees  it  atm. 


HSS 


the  Dt  iftfujL _. 

II. />iW».  (Berlin,  1S71), 


Ucberwcf. 


[  17.    See  alto  Pj 
(H.Ja.; 


XnOFHOH,  Greek  Ustotian  and  pUlosophica]  estayist,  the 

lOD  ol  Giylhu,  wu  bom  at   Alheni   aboot   4J0  tjcf     He 

betaaged  to  an  equeauian  funily  of  Ihe  deme  of  Erchli,     It 

y  be  inferred  from  passages  Iti  the  fJfllenka  that  he  fought 

Ar^uiae  (406),  and  that  he  was  pineal  al  the  letum  of 

dbiadea  iv&),  the  trial  of  ihe  (jeDtrab  and  the  overthioir 

of  the  Thirty.    Early  in  life  ha  cama  under  the  in^Dence  of 

Socnlu,  but  an  active  life  had  more  attraction  for  h!m.    Id 

I ,  bdog  invlled  by  hii  Iriend  Froicnui  to  join  the  eipcdiliaa 

tliie  younger  Cynu  againiL  hia  brother,  Ariuentes  11.  of 

niE,  he  at  once  accepled  the  ofler.    It  held  out  the  ptospect 


.3  little  1 


:ely  to  find  fa 


mcxntlc  Athens,  where  the  kolghli  w 
.  dan  as  having  supponed  the  Thirty.  Al  the  luggMtion 
■^  Socratts,  Xenophnn  went  to  Delphi  Id  conmilt  the  oracle; 
but  his  mind  waa  already  made  up,  and  be  at  orice  proceeded  to 
Sardia,  the  place  of  rendeivoua.  Of  tie  ejpedidon  ilscU  he 
ha*  given  a  lull  and  detailed  account  in  his  Aiiabvis,  tx  the 
"  Up-Country  March."  After  the  battle  of  Onua  (lot),  in 
which  Cyrtu  lost  hii  life,  the  officers  In  commaTid  of  Ihe  Greeks 
were  treacherou^y  murdered  by  tbe  Persian  aatnp  Tla&aphemeif 
with  whom  Utey  were  ticgoli^liikg  an  axcnislice  "hnlb  a  view  to 
a  aale  retutn.  The  array  waa  now  id  the  htntt  dI  hi  unknown 
country,  rnore  than  a  tbotiaand  milea  from  home  ond  in  the 
presence  of  a  troublesome  enemy.  II  was  decided  lo  march 
nortbwudt  up  the  Tigrii  valley  and  make  for  Ihe  ibores  of  lbs 
Euaine,  on  which  there  were  several  Greek  colonies.  Xennplwii 
became  Ihe  leading  spirit  of  the  army;  he  was  elected  an  officer, 
aJid  he  it  w»s  who  mainly  directed  the  retreat.  Part  of  the 
wny  lay  ihrtHigh  the  wilds  ol  Kurdistan,  where  they  had  ta 
enccnmter  the  haraasng  gueiriUai  attacks  of  savage  mountain 
Itibes,  and  part  through  the  hl^lands  rA  Armenia  asid  Georgia- 
After  a  five  D»nths'  nurch  Ihcy  reached  Trapezua  (Trehliondl 
OD  the  Euxiae  (February  400),  where  a  tendency  to  demoraliza- 
lioD  began  la  aiuw  itsdf,  and  even  Xeno^^Hin  almost  lost  hi« 
conlrol  aver  the  soldiery.  At  Cotyora  ho  aspired  lo  found  a 
new  colony;  but  the  idea,  not  being  unanimously  accepted,  was 
abaadoued,  and  ultimately  Xcnopbon  with  bis  Greeks  arrived 
■t  Chrysopolis  [Scutaii]  on  the  Bosporus,  of^xsile  ByzanliBni. 
After  a  brief  period  of  service  utider  a  Thracian  chief,  Seuthes, 
ibey  were  finally  incotporsled  in  a  Lac«daeiDOiiJaD  army  grhich 
>  As  the  description  of  Ihe  Ionian  campaign  of  Thraiyllus  in  410 
(HrJInncn.  i .  I)  is  dnu-ly  derived  from  Xenophon'sown  rcminiiccnces. 


886 


XENOPHON 


liad  crossed  over  into  .Alia  to  wage  war  agUnst  the  Fenian 
satraps  Ussaphemes  and  Phaniabasua.  Xenophon,  wlio 
accoinpanifd  them,  captured  a  wealthy  Pentan  nobleman,  with 
hb  family,  near  Pergamum,  and  the  ransom  paid  for  Us  recovery 
secured  Xenophon  a  competency  for  life. 
•  On  his  return  to  Greece  Xtnaphoa  served  under  Agesilais, 
king  of  Sparta,  at  that  time  the  chief  power  in  the  Greek  woi^ 
With  his  native  Athens  and  its  general  poHcy  and  institutions 
he  was  not  in  sympathy.  At  Coroneia  (394)  he  fought  with  the 
Spartans  against  the  Athenians  and  li^ebana,  for  which  his 
feUow-dtifens  decreed  his  banishment.  The  Spartans  provided 
a  home  for  him  at  Scillus  in  Elis,  about  two  miles  from  Olympta; 
there  he  settled  down  to  indulge  his  txtftesfor  sport  and  literature. 
After  Sparta's  crushing  defeat  at  Leuctra  (371),  Xenophon  was 
driven  from  his  home  by  the  people  of  Elis.  Ikf eantime  Sparta 
and  Athens  had  become  allies,  and  the  Athenians  repealed  the 
decree  which  had  condenmed  him  to  exile.  There  is,  however, 
no  evidence  that  he  ever  returned  to  his  native  city.  According 
to  Diogenes  LaCrtius,  he  made  his  home  at  Corinth.  The  year 
of  his  death  is  not  known;  ail  that  can  be  said  b  that  it  was 
later  than  355,  the  date  of  his  work  on  the  R/mmmcs  of  Athens, 

The  Anabasis  (composed  at  ScilUis  between  379  and  ^71)  is  a  work 
of  angular  interest,  and  »  brightly  and  pleaaantly  written.  Xeno- 
phon, like  Caesar,  tells  the  story  w  the  third  perwn,  and  there  is  a 
straightforward  manliness  about  the  style,  with  a  dittinct  flavour  of 
a  cheerful  U^htheartedness,  which  at  once  enlists  our  sympathies. 
Hb  description  of  places  and  of  relative  distances  b  very  minute 
and  painsuking.    The  researches  of  modem  travellers  attest  hb 

Eieral  accuiacv.  It  b  expressly  stated  by  Plutarch  and  Diogenes 
firtlus  that  the  Anabasu  was  the  worlc  of  Xenophon,  and  the 
evidence  from  style  b  conclusive.  The  alluskm  (Hwemca,  iiL  t,  2) 
to  Themistogenes  of  Synu:use  as  the  author  shows  that  Xenophon 
published  it  under  an  assumed  name. 

The  Cyropaedia^  a  political  and  philosophical  romance,  which 
describes  the  boyhood  and  training  of  Cyrus,  hardly  answers  to  its 
name,  being  for  the  most  part  an  account  of  the  beginnings  of  the 
Persian  empire  and  of  the  victorious  career  of  Cyrus  its  founder. 
The  Cvropdedia  contains  in  fact  the  author's  own  ideas  of  training 
and  education,  as  derived  conjointly  from  the  teachings  of  Socrates 
and  hb  favourite  Spartan  institutions.  It  was  said  to  have  been 
written  in  opposition  to  the  Rgpubtde  of  Plato.  A  distinct  moral 
purpose,  to  which  literal  truth  b  sacrificed,  runs  through  the  work. 
For  instance,  Cyrus  is  represented  as  dying  peacefully  in  hb  bed, 
whereas,  accordmg  to  Herodotus,  he  fell  in  a  campaign  against  the 
MassageCae. 

The  HeUenica  written  at  Corinth,  after  36a,  b  the  only  contem* 
porary  account  of  the  period  covered  by  it  (41 1-363)  that  has  come 
down  to  us.  It  consists  of  two  distinct  parts;  books  L  and  ii., 
which  are  intended  to  form  a  continuation  of  the  work  of  Thucydidcs, 
and  bring  the  history  down  to  the  fall  of  the  Thirtjr,  and  books 
iii.-vi!.,  the  HdUnica  proper,  which  deal  with  the  penod  from  401 
to  363,  and  give  the  history  of  the  Spartan  and  Theoan  hi^ieroonie^ 
down  to  the  death  of  Epaminondas.  There  b,  however,  no  ground 
for  the  view  that  these  two  parts  were  written  and  published  as 
separate  works.  There  b  probably  no  jiutification  for  the  charge  of 
ddiberste  falsification.  It  must  be  admitted^  however,  that  he  had 
strong  political  prejudices,  and  that  these  prejudices  have  influenced 
his  narrative.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  reactionary  movement 
which  triumphed  after  the  fall  of  Athens;  Sparta  b  his  ideal,  and 
Agesibus  hb  hero.  At  the  came  time,  he  was  a  believer  in  a  divine 
overruling  providence.  He  is  compelled,  therefore,  to  see  in  the 
fall  of  Sparta  the  punishment  inflicted  by  heaven  on  the  treacherous 
policy  which  had  prompted  the  seizure  of  the  Cadmea  and  the  raid 
of  S{>hodrias.  Hardly  less  serious  defects  than  hb  politkral  bias 
are  hb  omissions,  hb  want  ot  the  sense  of  proportion  and  hb  failure . 
to  grasp  the  meaning  of  historical  criticism.  The  moot  that  can  be 
said  in  hb  favour  b  that  as  a  witness  he  b  at  once  honest  and  wdU 
informed. '  For  thb  period  of  Greek  history  be  is,  at  hny  rate,  an 
indispensable  witness. 

The  Meinorabilia,  or'**  Recollections  of  Socntes,"  in  four  books, 
was  written  to  defend  Socrates  against  the  charges  of  impiety  and 
corrupting  the  youth,  repeatea  after  hb  death  by  the^  sophbt 
Polycratcs.  The  work  b  not  a  literary  masterpiece;  it  Ucks 
coherence  and  unity,  and  the  picture  it  gives  of  Soorates  fails  to  do 
him  justice.  Stfll,  as  far  as  it  goes,  it  no  doubt  faithfully  describes 
the  fMiOosopher's  manner  of  life  and  st^  of  oonversatioa.  It  was 
the  moral  and  practical  side  of  Socrates's  teaching  which  most 
interested  Xenophon:  into  hb  abstruse  metaphyucal  «>ccubtions 
he  seems  to  have  made  no  attempt  to  enter:  for  these  Indeed  he  had 
neither  taste  nor  genius.  Moving  within  a  limited  nnft  of  ideas,  he 
doubtle«|S  gives  us  "  considerably  less  than  the  teal  Socrates,  while 
Plato  gives  us  something  more.  It  b  probaUe  that  the  work  in. 
its  present  form  b  an  abridgment. 


,  Xenophon  has  left  seversl  mmor  wpiks,  some  ef  which  aie  ym 

intercsung  and  give  an  insight  into  the  home  life  of  the  Greeks. 

The  Oeamomta  (to  some  extent  a  continuation  of  the  MemtorakibA, 
and  sometimes  r»arded  as  the  fifth  book  of  the  same)  deals  with  the 
management  of  the  house  and  of  the  farm,  and  presients  a  picasam 
and  amusii^  pkture  of  the  Greek  wife  and  of  her  hoa»e  duties. 
There  ait  some  good  practical  remarloi  on  matrimony  and  oa  tbe 
respective  duties  of  husband  and  wife.  The  treatise,  which  b  in  tbe 
form  of  a  dulogue  between  Socrates  and  a  certain  IfrKffmafhni. 
was  transUted  into  Latin  by  Cicero. 

In  the  essays  on  horsemanship  {Hippiki)  and  hunting  {Cyntttiais). 
Xenophon  deab  with  matters  of  which  he  had  a  thorough  practical 
knowledge.  In  the  first  he  gives  rules  how  to  choose  a  horse,  and 
then  tells  bow  it  b  to  be  groomed  and  ridden  and  generally  managed. 
The  CynegelUms  deals  chiefly  with  the  hare,  though  tbe  author 
speaks  also  of  boar-bunting  and  describes  the  hounds,  telU  how  they 
are  to  be  bred  and  trained,  and  gives  specimens  of  suitable  names 
for  them.  On  all  thb  he  writes  with  the  xest  of  an  enthusiastic 
sportsman,  and  he  observes  that  those  nations  whoee  upper  classes 
have  a  taste  for  field-sports  will  be  most  likely  to  be  successful  in 
war.  Both  treatises  may  still  be  read  with  interest  by  the  modem 
reader. 

The  Hipparckicns  omlains  the  duties  of  a  cavalry  oflBccr:  it  i» 
not,  according  to  our  ideas,  a  very  scientific  treatise,  showing  that 
the  art  of  war  was  but  very  imperfectly  dcvebped  and  that  tbe 
military  operations  of  the  Greeks  were  on  a  somewhat  petty  scak 
He  dwells  at  some  length  on  ths  morel  qualities  which  go  to  the 
making  of  a  good  cavalry  officer,  and  hints  very  plainly  tnat  that 
must  be  strict  attention  to  religious  duties. 

The  AiesUaus  is  a  eulogy  of  tne  Spartan  king,  who  had  two  special 
merits  in  Xenophon's  eyes:  he  was  a  rigid  disciplinarian,  and  he 
was  particularlv  attentive  to  all  religious  observances.  We  ha\« 
a  summary  of  his  virtues  rather  than  a  good  and  striking  ptctucc 
of  the  man  himself. 

The  Jliero  works  out  the  line  of  thought  indicated  in  the  story 
of  the  Sword  of  Damocles.  It  b  a  protest  against  tbe  notion  tbai 
the  "  tyrant"  b  a  man  to  be  envied,  as  having  moce  abundant 
means  of  happiness  than  a  private  person.  Thb  is  one  of  the  most 
pleasing  of  hb  minor  works;  it  b  cast  into  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
between  Hiero,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  and  the  lyric  poet  Simonidea. 

The  5ym^jittm,  or  "  Banquet,"  to  some  extent  the  complesnent 
of  the  Memorabilia^  b  a  brilliant  little  dbkgue  in  which  Socrates 
is  the  prominent  figure.  He  b  represented  as  "  improving  the 
occasion,"  which  is  that  of  a  lively  Athenian  supper-party.  at  wbich 
there  b  much  drinking,  with  flute-playing,  and  a  dandng-giri  from 
Syracuse,  who  amuses  the  guesu  with  the  feats  of  a  professiooai 
conjuror.  Socrates's  table-talk  runs  through  a  variety  of  topics, 
and  winds  up  with  a  philosophical  disqubition  on  the  superiority 
of  true  heavenly  love  to  its  earthly  or  sensual  counterfeit,  and  with 
an  earnest  exhortation  to  one  of  the  party,  who  had  hist  won  a 
victory  in  the  publk  games,  to  lead  a  noble  life  and  do  ms  dnty  to 
hb  country. 

There  are  also  two  short  essays,  attributed  to  him,  on  the  political 
constitution  of  Sparta  and  Athens,  aTitten  with  a  dedded  biaa  in 
favour  of  tbe  former,  which  he  praises  without  attempting  to  criticize. 
Sparta  weesns  to  have  presented  to  Xenophon  the  nest  conceivable 
mixture  of  monarchy  and  aristocracy.  The  second  is  certainly  not 
by  Xenophon,  but  was  probably  written  by  a  member  of  the  oli- 
garchical party  shortly  after  the  bmnning  of  the  Pekponnesian  War. 

In  the  essay  on  the  Revenues  ef  Athens  (written  in  355)  he  offers 
suggestions  for  making  Athens  less  dependent  on  tribute  received 
from  its  allies.  Above  all,  he  would  have  Athens  use  its  influence 
for  the  maintenance  of  peace  in  the  Greek  world  and  for  the  settle- 
ment of  questions  by  aiplomacy,  the  temple  at  Delphi  being  for 
this  purpose  an  independent  centre  and  supplying  a  divine  sanction. 

The  Apology,  Socrates's  defence  before  Kb  judges,  w  rather  a 
feeble  production,  and  in.  the  general  opinion  ot  modem  critics  b 
not  a  genuine  work  of  Xenophon,  but  belongs  to  a  much  btcr  period. 

Xenophon  was  a  roan  of  great  personal  oeauty  and  considerable 
intellectual  gifts;  but  he  was  of  too  practical  a'najture  to  take  an 
interest  in  abstruse  philosophical  speculation.  Hb  dislike  of  the 
democracy  of  Athens  induced  such  lack  of  patriotism  that  he  even 
fought  on  the  side  of  Sparta  against  hb  own  country.  In  rdigious 
matters  he  was  narrow  minded,  a  believer  in  the  eflicacy  of  sacrifice 
and  in  the  prophetic  art.  His  plain  and  simple  st^  which  at 
times  becomes  wearisome,  was  greatly  admired  and  procured  him 
many  imitators. 

The  editions  of  Xenophon's  works,  both  complete  and  of  sepante 
portions,  are  very  numerous,  especially  of  the  Anahasis;  only  a 
selection  can  be  given  here.  Editio  princepe  (1516,  incotnplete): 
J.  G.  Schneider  (1790-1849);  G.  Sauppe  (i86sh66):  L.  Dindorf 
(1875);  E.  C.  Marchant  (1900-  ■  ,  in  the  Clarendon  Press  Scrip- 
torum  Oassicorum  Bibliotheea).  Anabasis:  R.  KOhoer  (1852): 
I.  F.  Macroichad  (1883);  F.  Vollbrecht  (1887);  A.  Pretor  (1888); 
C.  W.  Krager  and  W.  Pokel  (1888);  W.W.  Goodwin  and  J.  W.  White 
(i.-iv.,  1894).  Cvropasdia:  G.  M.  Gorham  (1870):  L.  Breiten- 
bach  (187s);  A.  Goodwin  (vi.-viii.,  1880):  F.  Hertlcin  and  W. 
Nitschc  (1886):  H.  A.  Holden  (1887-90).  Hbllbnica:  L.  Bretten- 
bacfa   (i874'&«)i   R-    BOchsenschau    (1980-91);   J.    L    Manatc 


XERXES— X-RAY  TREATMENT 


887 


(i.-iv..  1888):  U  D.  DcmitlR  (i..  3.,  1890).  MvHORABiLtA: 
P.  Frost  (1867);  A.  R.  Cluer  (1880);  R.  Kahner  (i68a):  L.  Breiten- 
bach  (1889};  J.  Mariball  (1890).  OscoNOiactJs:  H.  A.  Hoiden 
(1895);  C-  Craux  and  A.  Jacob  (1886).  Hiero:  H.  A.  Hoiden 
<i888).  Agbsilaus:  R.  W.  Taylor  (1880);  O.  GOthling  (1888). 
Rbsp.  Lacedaem.:  G.  Pterieoni  (1905).  kbsp.  Athbniensium: 
A.  Ktrchhoff  (1874);  E.  Belot  (1880);  H.  MOUer  and  Strttbing 
<i88o}.  CvNBGBTicus:  G.  Pierleoiu  (190a).  HippikS:  Tom- 
mastni  (1903).  Rbditds  Atbkn.:  A.  Zurbotg  (1876).  Scripta 
Minora:  L.  Dindorf  (1888).  There  is  a  good  Engliah  translation 
of  the  complete  works  bv  H.  G.  Dakyns  (1890-94),  and  of  the 
Art  Ǥ  Horatmanskip  by  M.  H.  Moigan  (U.S.A..  1890).  OC  genoral 
works  bearing  on  the  subject  may  be  mentbned:  G.  Sauppe, 
Lexilogus  XMCphonleus  (1869);  A.  Croiset,  Jf.,  ton  earacthe  et  son 
taUnl  (1873);  Roouette.  De  Xenoj^hoHUs  Vita  (1884);  I.  Hart- 
nann,  AmUda  XaiopkonUa  (1887)  and  Anaketa  Xam^konlta 
Nona  (1889);  C.  Joti,  P«r  9ckU  tmd  i«r  Xenopkanteische  Socrates 
(189a);  Lange,  X„  srin  Lehen,  seine  Geistesart  und  seine  Werke 
(X900).  See  also  Grbecb;  Ancient  History,  i  "Authorities." 
and  works  quoted;  J.  B.  Bury,  ^neierit  Greek  Hislorions  (1909): 
Mure's  History  of  Greek  Liieraietre  and  Giant's  monograph  in  maoh 
woo£s  Ancient  Classics  for  Englisk  Headers  may  be  read  with 
advantage.  Bibliographies  in  Engelmann-Preuss,  BiUiotheca 
Scriptorum  Classicorum  (L,  x88o)  and  in  C.  Bursian's  Jahred>eridU 
(c,  1900)  by  E.  Richter.  .  (E.  M.  W.j  J.  H.  F.) 

'  ZERXK  (the  Greek  form  of  the  Pers.  Khskaydrsha;  (Md 
fcstament  AkasveruSj  Akkaskverosh — i.e,  Ahasuenis  (g.v.) — 
with  wrong  vocalization  and  substitution  of  y  for  t,  instead  of 
Akhskavarsh;  in  Aramaic  inscriptions  and  papyri  from  Egypt 
the  name  is  written  Kkshai'arsk),  the  name  of  two  Persian -kings 
of  the  Achaemenid  dynasty. 

r  I.  Xerxes  I.,  son  of  Darius  I.  and  Atossa,  the  daughter  of 
Cyrus  the  Great,  and  therefore  appointed  successor  tohh  father 
in  preference  to  his  eldest  half-brothers,  who  were  bom  before 
Darius  had  become  king  (Herod,  vii.  2  f.).  After  his  accession 
in  October  485  B.C.  he  suppressed  the  revolt  in  Egypt  which 
had  broken  out  in  486,  appointed  his  brother  Achaemenes  as 
satrap  and  "  brought  Egypt  under  a  much  heavier  yoke  than 
it  had  been  before  "  (Herod,  vii.  7).  His  predecessors,  especially 
Darius,  had  not  been  successful  in  their  attempts  to  conciliate 
the  ancient  civilizations.  This  probably  was  the  reason  why 
Xerxes  in  484  abolished  the  "  kingdom  of  Babel "  and  took 
away  the  golden  statue  of  Bel  (Marduk,  Merodach),  the  hands 
of  which  the  legitimate  king  of  Babel  had  to  seize  on  the  first 
day  of  each  year,  and  killed  the  priest  who  tried  to  hinder  him.^ 
Therefore  Xerxes  does  not  bear  the  dtle  of  **  King  of  Babel" 
in  the  Babylonian  documents  dated  from  his  reign,  but  **  King 
of  Peisia  and  Media,"  or  simply  "  King  of  countries  "  (i.e.  of  the 
world).  This  proceeding  led  to  two  rebellions,  probably  in  484 
and  479;  in  the  Babylonian  documents  occur  the  names  of  two 
ephemeral  kings,  Shamash-irba  and  Tarziya,  who  belong  to  this 
time.  One  of  these  rebellions  was  suppressed  by  Mcgabyzus, 
son  of  Zopyrus,  the  satrap  whom  the  Babylonians  had  slain.* 

Darius  had  left  to  his  son  the  task  of  punishing  the  Greeks 
for  their  interierence  in  the  Ionian  rcbelUon  and  the  victoiy  of 
Narathon.  From  483  Xerxes  prepared  his  expedition  with 
great  care:  a  channel  was  dug  through  the  isthmus  of  the 
peninsula  of  Mount  Athos;  provisions  were  stored  in  the 
stations  on  the  road  through  Thrace;  two  bridges  were  thrown 
across  the  Hellespont.  Xerxes  concluded  an  alliance  with 
Carthage,  and  thus  deprived  Greece  of  the  support  of  the  power- 
ful monarchs  of  Syracuse  and  Agrigentum.  Many  smaller 
Greek  states,  moreover,  took  the  side  of  the  Persians 
("  Medized  "),  especially  Thcssaly,  Thebes  and  Argos.  A  hrge 
fleet  and  a  numerous  army  were  gathered.  In  the  spring  of 
480  Xerxes  set  out  from  Sardis.  At  first  Xerxes  was  victorious 
everywhere.  The  Greek  fleet  was  beaten  at  Artemisiuro, 
Thermopylae  stormed,  Athens  conquered,  the  Greeks  driven 
back  to  their  last  line  of  defence  at  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  and 
in  the  Bay  of  Salamis.  But  Xerxes  was  Induced  by  the  astute 
message  of  Themistocles  (against  the  advice  of  Artemisia  of 
Halicamassus')  to  attack  the  Greek  fleet  under  unfavourable 

*  Menod.  i.  183,  by  Ctetias  changed  into  a  plundering  of  the  tomb 
of  BeKtanas  or  Belus:  cf.  Aelian,  Var.  Hist,  13,  3;  Aristobulus 
ap  Arrian  viL  17, 2,  and  Strabo  xvt.  p.  738. 

^Ctesias»  Pers.  22;  his  legendary  history  Is  transferred  by 
Herodotus,  IB.  150  ff.,  to  the  former  rebelfion  against  Darius. 


ooniiitioiift,  instead  of  saqdiAg  *  |Mit  of  lib  ifa^w  lo  Ihe  Pdopon* 
nesitt  *nd  awaiting  the  dinolutioii  of  the  Greek  armament.* 
The  battle  of  SaUndf  (28th  of  September  480)  decided  the  war 
(see  Sauuhs).  Having  lost  his  communication  by^  sea  with 
Asia,  Xeixtt  was  forced  to  vetire  to  Sardis;  the  army  whkh 
he  left  in  Greece  under  Mardonius  was  i^  479  beaten  at  Plataea 
iq.9.).  The  defeat  d  the  FaniaDS  at  Mycale  loused  the  Gredc 
dtica  of  Asia. 

Of  the  later  yeait  of  Xema  little  is  known.  He  aent  out 
Sataspes  to  attempt  the  dmumiavigatioQ  of  Africa  (Herod, 
iv.  143),  bat  the  -victbiy  of  tlte  Greeka  threw  the  empire  into  a 
state  of  languid  torpor*  from  which  it  could  not  rise  again. 
The  king  himself  becaase  involved  in  intrigues  of  the  harem 
(cf.  Herod,  ix.  to8  ff.— compare  the  late  Jewish  novel  of 
Esther,  in  which  a  remcmbcance  of  the  true  character  of  the 
king  b  retained)  and  was  much  dependent  upon  courtiers 
and  eunuchs.  He  left  hiscriptions  at  Persepolis,  where  iie 
added  a  new  palace  to  that  of  Daansr  at  Van  in  Armenia,  and 
on  Mount  Elvend  near  Ecbatana;  in  these  texts  he  mere^ 
copies  the  words  of  his  father.  In  46$  he  was  murdered  by  hia 
viaer  Artabsnus  iqjf,),  who  raised  Artaxerxes  I.  to  the  throne. 

a.  Xerxes  II.,  son  and  successor  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  waa 
assassinated  in  434  after  a  reign  of  forty-five  days  by  his  brother 
Secydianus  or  So(dianus»  who  in  his  turn  was  murdered  by 
Darius  II.  (9.*.). 

See  Cteaas,  Pers.  44;  Diod.  siL,  6^  71,  and  the  cfaronographem: 
neither  of  the  two  ephemeral  kings  is  mentioned  in  the  canon  of 
Ptolemy  nor  in  the  dates  of  Babylonian  contracts  of  thb  time. 

The  name  Xekxes  was  also  borne  by  a  kmg  of  Armenia,  killed 
about  aia  B.C.  by  Antiochus  the  Great  (Polyb.  viii.  25;  Johannes 
Antiochenus,  p.  53;  his  name  occurs  on  copper  coins);  and  by 
a  son  of  Mithradatcs  the  OsttX  of  PonUis  (Appian,  Mukr^  xo8, 
117)*  (ED..M.) 

ZIPHIUMUS.  JOANNES,  qiitomator  of  Dio  Cassius.  Uved 
at  (Constantinople  during  the  latter  half  of  the  nth  century  aj>. 
He  was  a  monk  and  the  nephew  of  the  patriarch  of  Cion- 
stantinople  of  the  same  name,  a  well-known  preacher  (Migne^ 
Palrdogia  Grtteca,  czx.).  The  epitome  (kXcryoi)  ol  Dio  waa 
prepared  by  order  of  Michael  Pazapinaces  (1071-1078),  but  is 
unfortunately  incomplete.  It  comprises  books  36-80,  the  period 
included  being  from  the  times  of  Pompey  and  CaeSar  down  tp 
Alexander  Sevenis.  In  book  70  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius 
and  the  eariy  years  of  Marcus  Aurelius  appear  to  have  been 
missing  in  his  copy,  while  in  books  7S  and  79  a  mutilated  original 
must  have  been  used.  Xiphilinus  divided  the  work  into 
sections,  each  containing  the  life  of  an  emperor.  He  omitted 
the  name  of  the  consuls  and  sometimes  altered  or  emended  the 
origuuJ.  The  epitome  is  valuable  as  preserving  the  chief  inci- 
dents of  the  period  lor  which  the  authority  of  Dio  is  wanting. 

See  H.  Reiniar's  editkMi  of  Dio  Cassius,  iL:  T.  M.elber's  Dio 
in  Teuboor  aeries:  C.  Wachsmuth,  JStn/Mfiwc  in  aas  Studinm  der 
alten  Gesckickte  (1895);  W.  Christ,  CesclackU  der  trieckiscken 
LUteratw  (1898). 

X-RAY  TRBAnUNT.  The  X  rays  (see  R6mtgem  lUvs)  are 
now  used  extensively  in  medical  work  for  purposes  of  treatment. 
Th^  have  been  found  to  be  valuable  in  many  forms  of  skin 
disease,  more  particularly  in  those  of  a  chronic  character. 
They  have  a  favourable  Influence  upon  glandular  tumours,  as 
for  example  in  enlargements  of  the  lymf^tic  glands,  of  the 
spleen  and  of  the  thyroid  ^nd.  They  givie  useful  palliative 
effects  in  certain  forms  of  malignant  disease,  although  it  is  not 
yet  certain  that  any  permanent  cures  of  cancerous  conditions 
have  been  obtained  by  their  use.  In  the  disease  known  as 
rodent  ulcer,  which  is  a  process  of  destructive  ulceration,  and 
to  that  extent  presents  features  allied  to  cancer,  there  is  no 
doubt  of  the  efficacy  of  X-ray  treatment  for  bringing  about  a 
complete  cure  in  the  ma|ority  of  cases,  provided  that  the  disease 
has  not  advanced  too  deeply  into  the  tissues. 

'  Sec  G.  B.  Grundy,  Great  Persian  War  (19OT),  and  In  crftlcfttn 
W.  W.  Tarn.  "  The  Fleet  of  Xerxes."  in  Jonmai  ofHettenU  Studies 
(1908),  202-34:  also  Macan's  notes  on  Herod,  iv.iri.  (189S).  ud 
avthorities  for  Pi.aTABA.  Salaji is. 


888 


X-RAY  TREATMENT 


The  {(teft  of  xtiSog  X  'nyt  in  tlie'trefttiBeiit  of  diaeue  arote 
from  the  recognition  of  the  injurious  effects  which  followed 
the  prolonged  application  of  the  rays  for  diagnostic  puxposa 
It  fell  to  the  lot  of  many  early  woriiers  with  X  rays  to  notice 
the  production  of  an  inflammation  of  the  skin,  or  a  falling  out  of 
the  hair  over  parts  which  had  been  subjected  to  X  lays,  and 
Leopold  Freund,  of  Vienna,  has  stated  that  his  first  attempts 
to  utilize  X  rays  in  treatment  were  nu&de  in  1896  to  curea  hairy 
mole  and  were  prompted  by  whAt  he  bad  read  of  such  occur- 
jrences.  A  definite  action  of  the  rays  upon  the  skin^having  been 
observed,  their  employment  in  the  treatment  of  skin  diseases 
followed  as  a  natural  -corollary.  Amongit.  the  earliest  investi- 
gators of  the  pc«sible  therapeutic  effects  of  X  rays  the  names  of 
Schiff,  Freund,  Kienbdck,  Holtzknecht,  Sjogren  and  Stenbeck 
may  be  mentioned.  In  Great  Britain  Sir  Malcolm  Morris, 
E.  Dore  and  J.  H.  Sequeira  were  amongst  the  earliest  investi- 
gators. 

For  <^>erating  successfuOy  with  an  agent  capable' of  producing 
decidedly  harmful  effects  when  given  in  large  doses  it  is  neoesr 
sary  to  have  some  method  of  measureihenti  and  the  need  for 
this  quickly  became  apparent  when  X  rays  were  used  for  treat- 
ment. The  results  of  X-ray  i^tography  had  already  shown 
that  the  tubeii  empbyed  were  capable  of  emittnig  radiations 
of  very  varying  powers  of  penetration,  and  that  the  tubes  were 
by  no  means  constant  in  this  respect;  and  the  question  whether 
highly  penetrating  rays  <^  rays  (^  feeble  penetration  were  to  be 
preferred  for  therapeutic  use  became  the  subject  of  much 
discussion.  It  is  now  recognized  that  the  rays  which  act  upon 
the  tissues  are  those  which -are  absorbed  by  the  tissues,  and 
consequently  the  softer  or  less  penetrating  rays  are  now  regarded 
as  those  to  be  used  in  treatment.  So  too  the  problem  of 
measuring  the  quantity  of  rays  emitted  by  a  tube  during  a 
given  time  began  to  call  for -a  solution,  if  that  were  in  any 
way  posnble.  In  igox  Benoist  designed  an  apparatus  by 
which  the  quality  of  the  rays  emitted  by  a  tube  at  any  moment 
could  be  accurately  determined,  arid  in  190a  Holtzknecht  brought 
out  the  first  quantitative  device.  It  was  called  a  chromo- 
radiometer,  and  it  enabled  the  dose  administered  to  a  patient  to 
be  observed,  and  recorded  for  future  guidance.  Holtrknecht 
also  drew  up  a  scale  of  units  by  means  of  which  the  indications 
of  his  apparatus  could  be  interpreted.  The  units  of  Holtz- 
knecht are  still  used  to  express  the  dosage  of  X  rays,  though 
his  apparatus  has  been  superseded.  Holtzknecht's  method  of 
measurement  consisted  in  observing  the  change  of  colour  m 
certain  pastilles  when  exposed  to  X  rays,  and  his  apparatus 
consbted  of  a  scale  of  tints,  and  a  number  of  pastilles  of  a 
yellow  tint  which  acquired  a  green  colour  during  exposure. 
The  composition  of  these  was  kept  a  secret,  but  analysis  revealed 
in  them  the  presence  of  potassium  sulphate  combined  with 
celluloid  or  gelatine.  The  pastilles  were  laid  upon  the  surface 
under  treatment,  and  their  change  of  colour  was  compared  at 
intervals  with  the  scale  of  standard  tints. 

It  was  next  thought  that  under  suitable  conditions  the 
measurement  of  the  current  passing  through'  the  X-ray  tube 
might  serve  as  a  gidde  to  the  quantity  of  X  rays  emitted  by 
the  tube,  but,  although'  this  is  the  case  to  a  certain  extent, 
the  method  of  quantity  measurement  which  is  now  emi^yed 
almost  universally  in  X-ray  treatment  is  that  devised  by 
Sabouraud  and  Noir6,  and  used  with  signal  success  by  them  in 
an  enormous  number  of  cases  of  ringworm,  in  which  disease 
measurement  of  dose  is  of  the  most  critical  importance,  for 
the  following  reason.  The  cure  of  ringworm  by  X  rays  requires 
that  all  the  hair  of  the  affected  region  shall  be  caused  to  fall 
out,  but,  nevertheless,  it  b  necessary  for  obvious  reasons  that 
the  hair  should  grow  again  after  the  disease  has  disappeated. 
Now  if  the  dose  of  X  rays  be  insufiident  the  hair  does  not  come 
out  and  no  cure  results,  while  ff  the  dose  be  too  great  the  hair 
comes  out  but  does  not  grow  again;  and  the  margin  of  safety 
is  quite  a  narrow  one.  The  method  of  Sabouraud  and  Noir^ 
which  has  proved  itself  reliable  for  such  critical  measurements 
of  dosage  as  are  required  for  ringworm  treatment,  has  to-day. 
the  universal  acceptance  of  all  X-i«y  workers  for  other  forms 


of  X-ray  treatment,  although  the  use  of  their  pMfflV^  hn 
certain  disadvantages. 

Sabouiaud's  pa^illes  consist  of  small  disks  <tf  plaliito- 
cyanide  of  barium.  This  chemical  compotmd  has  a  biighi 
yellow-green  colour  when  freshly  prepared,  and  changes  throng 
gradations  of  yellow  to  a  brown  colour  when  exposed  to  X  rays. 
The  pastilles  are  supplied  in  a  book  with  which  a  |>eTroan)e&t 
tint  of  colour  is  supplied,  to  indicate  the  colour  changie  in  the 
pastille  which  corresponds  with  a  quantity  of  X  rays  equal 
to  the  maximum  dose  which  the  healthy  akm  will  stand  srilb* 
out  inflammatory  consequences.  This  is  often  spoken  of 
as  a  "pastille  dose."  As  the. amount  of  irradiation  needed 
to  produce  the  change  of  colour  is  considerable,  the  salt  is 
fixed,  during  the  treatment,  at  a  point  half-way  between  the 
source  of  the  rays  and  the  skin  surface  under  treatment.  During 
an  exposure  the  chemical  salt,  in  the  form  of  a  small  disk  d 
the  material  00  cardboard,  is  adjusted  in  the  required  posiljoa 
by  means  of  a  pastille  holder,  and  it  is  examined  at  intervab 
during  the  course  of  the  exposure,  until  it  has  reached  the 
required  tint.  When  in  the  holder  the  pastille  must  be  pro- 
tected from  light,  and  should  have  a  {»ece  of  metal  as  a  hulking. 
if  its  indications  are  to  be  accurate. 

In  X-ray  treatment  some  protection  of  the  sunouxidlBf 
healthy  parts  is  usually  necessary.  With  this  object  varioe 
methods  of  shielding  have  been  devised,  either  by  coverings  i 
of  the  patient  by  impermeable  materials,  or  by  enclosing  tht 
tube  in  an  impermeable  box.  Both  methods  are  used,  hot 
tube-boxes  are  the  most  convenient,  and  most  instrumen! 
makers  noW  supply  these  boxes  with  suitable  windows  a 
openings  of  different  sizes  for  the  passage  of  the  pencil  of  rays 
which  is  to  fall  upon  the  part  under  treatment. 

The  effect  of  the  rays  on  healthy  tissues  is  in  the  main  t 
destructive  one,  but  some  of  the  cdls  of  the  tissues  are  more 
sensitive  to  the  rays  than  are  others;  and  this  permits  of  t 
selective  effect  being  obtained,  with  the  destruction  of  some  cells 
and  not  of  the  whole  tissue.  Young  cells,  and  actively  growing 
cells,  are  the  most  susceptible,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  possible 
to  influence  the  glancb  of  the  skin  and  the  papillae  of  the  hairs 
with  a  dose  which  will  not  destroy  the  skin  itself.  The  art  of 
successful  working  with  X  rays  is  based  upon  a  careful  adjust- 
ment of  the  dose  so  as  to  secure  a  selective  destruction  of  the 
morbid  elements,  and  to  avoid  wholesale  damage  to  the  part 
treated.  The  effects  of  excessive  doses  of  X  rays  is  to  pro- 
duce an  inflammation  which  may  result  in  painfid  sores  whick 
obstinately  refuse  to  heal  for  many  weeks  or  months.  A 
quantity  up  to  double  that  of  the  usual  maximum  or  pastille 
dose  may  be  employed  in  urgent  cases  without  risk  of  any 
serious  inflammation,  but  anything  over  this  is  to  be  avoided 
most  carefully.  •  In  the  treatment  of  ringworm  the  exact 
pastille  dose  must  not  be  exceeded,  for  after  a  dose  of  about  one 
and  a  half  pastilles  the  fall  of  the  hair  is  likely  to  be  followed 
by  permanent  baldness. 

In  X-ray  treatment  it  is  customary  to  make  use  of  moderate 
currents,  and  to  bring  the  X-ray  tube  in  its  tube-holder  and  box 
into  position  so  that  the  pencil  of  rays  may  fall  upon  the  part 
to  be  treated.  The  distance  of  the  skin  surface  from  the  centre 
of  the  tube  must  be  known,  and  the  pastille  arranged  in  place 
accordingly.  Fifteen  centimetres  is  a  usual  distance,  and  at 
this  distance  a  tube  working  with  a  current  of  a  miUiampere 
should  give  the  full  therapeutic  dose  or  '*  pastille  dose  "  ia 
about  15  minutes.  In  general  X-ray  treatment  it  is  quite  usual 
at  the  present  time  to  proceed  by  the  method  of  full  doses 
at  rather  long  intervals.  From  the  experience  obtained  by 
Sabourai^d  in  numerous  cases  of  ringworm  it  has  been  found 
that  a  full  dose  must  not  be  repeated  until  a  month  has  elapsed. 
So  too  in  the  treatment  of  rodent  ulcer  full  doses  at  longintervals 
are  now  thought  better  than  smaller  doses  repeated  more  often, 
and  such  doses  are  more  ea^ly  measured  by  the  Sabouraud 
pastille,  which  records  large  doses  more  simply  than  small  ones, 
in  which  the  slighter  changes  of  lint  are  not  easy  to  distinguish. 

A  great  amount  of  work  has  been  done  with  X  rays  for  the 
treatment  of  cancer,  but  it  is  now  recognized  that  the  X  rays 


XYLANDEIU-XY8TUS 


889 


do  not  cure  a  cancer,  althoui^  they  are  of  value  for  the  relief 
of  pain  and  for  the  healing  of  cancerous  ulcers.  Diminution 
of  size  in  cancerous  growths  has  frequently  beeji  observed, 
and  in  some  instances  sarcomatous  tumours  have  completely 
disappeared  under  X-ray  treatment.  Sooner  or  later,  however, 
the  cancer  or  sarcoma  returns  dther  in  the  ori^nal  »te  or 
elsewhere,  and  the  patient  dies  of  the  disease.  It  is  probable 
that  X-'Tay  treatment  is  able  to  prolong  life  in  a  fair  number 
of  cases,  and  by  its  agtacy  in  oLusing  a  healing  of  ulceration  in 
cancer  cases  it  is  able  to  give  valuable  relief  both  to  the  body  and 
mind  of  the  patient,  and  this  relief  tmiy  last  for  a  year  or  more. 

In  rodent  ulcer  X  rays  are  usually  sufficient  to  provide  a 
lasting  cure,  but  there  are  some  exceptions,  as  for  instance 
when  the  rcdent  ulcer  has  been  long  neglected,  and  has  spread 
deeply  so  as  to  invade  bony  structures.  Ad  important  factor 
in  the  successful  treatment  of  rodent  ulcer  by  X  rays  is  to- 
continue  the  applications  at  intervals  for  several  months  after 
apparent  can.  If  this  precaution  is  omitted  there  Is  a  very 
great  likelihood  of  relapse  taking  place  later  on. 

In  the  treatment  of  skin  diseases  by  X  rays  the  method  finds 
a  very  suitable  field.  Almost  all  dmmic  skin  affections  yield 
to  X-ray  treatment  fairly  quickly,  and  m«Timal  doses  are  not 
usually  necessaiy. 

In  ringworm  X  rays  have  achieved  wonderful  results.  The 
nys  act  upon  the  hair  papHlae,  and  not  upon  the  ringworm 
fungus.  They  cause  a  shedding  of  the  hair  fifteen  days  after 
exposure  and  the  fungus  then  dies  out  from  the  hair  foIHdes, 
so  that  when  in  due  course  the  hair  begins  to  grow  again  after 
a  period  of  two  months  it  grows  healthily  and  without  disease. 
The  X-ray  treatment  of  ringworm  has  be^n  a  real  advance,  and 
Sabouraud  has  told  us  of  the  enormous  pecuniary  saving  which 
has  been  effected  in  Paris  by  the  shortening  of  the  stay-of  the 
ringworm  cases  in  the  special  schools  maintained  there  for  the 
affected  children. 

In  hipus  X  rays  «re  valuable,  but  not  fully  satisfactory. 
The  treatment  by  the  rays  will  often  succeed  in  bringing  about 
a  healing  of  the  ulceration  of  lupus,  but  relapses  are  fre^ent, 
because  fod  of  infection  are  apt  to  remain  in  the  healed  scar 
tissue  and  after  a  period  of  quiescence  these  may  gradually 
provoke  fresh  mischief. 

'  X-my  treatment  is  of  service  for  the  treatment  of  enlarged 
"strumous"  glands  in  the  neck.  When  these  glands  are  in 
the  early  stages,  and  there  has  not  been  any  softening  or  breaking 
down  of  the  gland  tissue,  the  application  of  X  rays,  a  few  times 
repeated  in  moderate  doses,  will  determine  the  subadence  of 
the  enlargement  and  may  effect  a  complete  cure.  " 

In  the  massive  glandular  enlargements  of  lymphadenoma 
a  great  reduction  of  the  tumours  can  be  brought  about  by 
heavy  doses  of  X  rays,  but  the  results  are  to  ffvt  a  symptomatic 
rather  thui  a  real  cure,  for  fresh  glandular  growths  tale  place 
internally,  and  the  usual  course  of  the  disease  is  not  fundamentally 
modified. 

So  too  in  leukemia,  the  symptom  of  excessive  abundance  of 
white  cells  in  the  circulating  blood  can  be  surprisingly  altered 
for  the  better  by  X  rays,  but  generally  without  real  cure  of  the 
underlying  con<Ution.  The  effect  appears  to  be  due  to  a  direct 
destructive  action  upon  the  leucocytes  or  white  corpuscles  of 
the  blood. 

Quite  recently  the  use  of  X  rays  in  fibroid  tumours' of  the 
uterus  has  been  advocated,  particularly  by  Courmelles  in 
Ftance  and  Albert-Schonberg  in  Germany.  Ihe  action  of  the 
rays  seems  to  be  In  part  due  to  their  influence  upon  the  activity 
of  the  ovaries  and  in  part  to  a  direct  effect  upon  the  growing 
fibroids  themselves,  causing  decrease  of  activity,  relief  of 
symptoms  and  reduction  of  the  tumours.  (H.  L.  J.) 

ZTtANDBR,  OUIUEUIXJS  (Wilhcim  Holtzvan,  accord- 
ing to  his  own  spelling)  (1532-1576),  German  classical  scholia. 


was  bora  at  Aui^huig  on  the  s6th  of  December  1532.  He 
studied  at  Tabingen,  and  in  1558,  when  in  a  state  of  abject 
poverty  (caused,  according  to  some,  by  his  intemperate  habiu), 
he  was  appomted  to  succeed  Micyllus  (Molahem,  Molseym  or 
Molsheym)  in  the  professorship  of  Greek  at  Heidelbeig,  which 
he  exchanged  for  that  of  logic  (publicus  organi  AiristoteUi 
interpres)  in  1562.  He  died  at  Heidelberg  on  the  xoth  of 
February  1576.  Xylander  was  the  author  of  a  number  of 
important  works,  among  which  his  Latin  transUUons  of  Plo 
Cassius  (1558),  PluUrch  (1560-1570)  and  Strabo  (1571)  deserve 
special  pienUon.  He  also  edited  (1568)  the  geographical 
lexicon  of  Stepfaanus  of  Byzantium;  the  travels  of  Pausanias 
(completed  after  his  death  by  F.  Sylburg,  1583);  the  Mediiaiious 
of  iiarcus  Aurdius  (1558,  the  editio  princeps  based  upon  a 
Heidelbeig  MS.  now  lost;  a  second  edition  in  1568  with  the 
addition  of  Antoninus  Liberalis,  Phlegon  of  Tralles,  an  unknown 
ApoUonius,  and  Antigonus  of  Carystus — all  paradoxographers): 
and  the  chronicle  of  George  Cedrenus  (1566).  He  translated 
the  first  »x  books  of  Euclid  into  German  with  notes,  the  Aritk' 
metiea  of  Diophantus^  and  the  pc  quaUuor  mathematicis  scicHUis 
of  Michael^Psellus  into  Latin. 

XTLBIIB,  or  Djuethyl  Benzeve,  C«H4(CH0t.  Three 
isomeric  hydrocarbons  of  this  formula  exist;  they  occur  in  the 
light  oil  fraction  of  the  coal  tar  distillate,  but  they  cannot  be 
separated  by  fractional  distillation  owing  to  the  doaeness  of 
their  boiling  points.  The  mixture  can  be  separated  by  shaking 
with  sulphuric  add,  whereupon  the  ortho  and  meta  forms  are 
converted  into  soluble  sulphonic  adds,  the  para  form  being 
soluble  only  in  concentrated  add;  the  ortho  and  meta  adds 
may  be  separated  by  crystallization  of  their  salts  or  sulphoo- 
amides.  Ortho-xylene  is  obtained  from  ortho-brorotoluene, 
methyl  iodide  and  sodium  as  a  colourless  mobile  liquid  boiling 
at  142",  mdting  at  -28*,  and  having  a  specific  gravity  of  0*8932 
at  0°.  Oxidation  by  potassium  permanganate  gives  phthalic 
add;  whilst  chromic  add  gives  carbon  dioxide  and  water. 
Meta-  or  iso-xylene,  the  most  important  isomer,  may  be  prepared 
by  nucleus-synthetic  reactions,  or  by  distilling  mesitylenic 
add,  C«H|(CHi)sCOsH,  an  oxidation  product  of  mesitylene, 
C|Ha(CHi)si  which  is  produced  on  the  condensation  of  acetone, 
with  lime;  this  reaction  is  very  important,  for  it  orientates 
meta-compounds.  It  boils  at  139°,  mdts  at  -54*,  and  has  a 
spedfic  gravity  of  0'88x2.  Para-xylene  is  obtained  when 
camphor  is  distilled  with  zinc  chloride,  but  it  is  best  prepared 
from  para-brom-toluene  or  dibrombenzene,  methyl  iodide  and 
sodium.  Dilute  nitVic  add  oxidizes  it  first  to  para-toluic  add 
.and  then  to  terephthalic  add.  It  boils,  at  138%  mdts  at  x^, 
and  has  a  spedfic  gravity  of  0'88ox  at  o^. 

ZTLOPHONB  (Fr.  xylophone;  Ger.  Xytophon,  StrokjUdd 
or  HoUharmonika\  Ital.  armonka  de  legno)^  a  small  instrument 
of  percussion,  of  definite  sonorousness,  iised  in  the  orchestra 
to  mark  the  rhythm.  The  xylophone  consists  of  a  series  of 
little  wooden  staves  in  the  form  of  a  half  cylinder  and  graduated 
in  size.  The  staves,  each  of  which  represents  a  semitone,  rest 
on  two,  three  or  four  wooden  bars,  covered  with  straw  and 
converging  to  form  an  acute  angle.  They  uc  to  arranged  that 
each  stave  is  isolated.  In  some  models  the  staves  are  grouped 
in  two  rows,  comprising  the  naturals  and  the  acddentals.  The 
xylophone  is  played  with  two  little  wooden  hammers,  and  has  a 
compass  of  two  or  three  octaves.  The  quality  of  tone  is  inferior 
to  that  of  the  sted  harmonica  or  glockenspieL  (K.  S.) 

X7STUS,  the  Greek  architectural  term  for  the  covered  portico 
of  the  gymnasium,  in  which  the  exercises  took  place  during 
the  wmter  or  In  rwny  weather;  this  was  known  as  the  ^var6f 
ip&t*0Sf  from  its  polished  floor  (lOoy,  to  polish).  The  Romans 
applied  the  term  to  the  garden  waD:  in  front  of  the  porticoes, 
which  was  divided  into  flower  beds  with  borders  of  box,  and  (o 
a  promenade  between  rows  of  large  trees. 


890 


Y— YACHTINO 


Ythe  twenty-fifth  letter  of  the  Knglish  alphabet,  one  of  | 
four  variants  (tf,  v,  w,  y)  which  have  been  developed 
out  of  one  Greek  symbol.  It  was  taken  into  the 
Roman  alphabet  as  a  form  distinct  from  V  in  the 
Tst  century  B.C.,  when  it  was  desired  to  represent  the  sound 
of  the  Greek  u  more  accurately  than  could  be  done  by  the 
ordinary  Roman  alphabet.  Many  Greek  words  had  been 
borrowed  from  Greek  long  before  this  and  pronounced  like 
genuine  Latin  words.  Thus  the  proper  name  II&ppos  was 
borrowed  as  Burrus,  ^pCyts  as  Bruges,  But  with  the  growth 
of  literary  knowledge  this  was  felt  to  be  a  veiy  inexact  repre- 
sentation of  the  Greek  sounds,  and  the  words  were  respelt  as 
Pyrrhus  and  Pkryges.  The  philosopher  Pythagoras  is  said 
to  have  regarded  this  letter  as  a  ^mbol  of  human  life  (Servius, 
on  Virgil,  Aentid  vi.  136).  To  this  there  are  various  references 
in  the  Roman  poets.  Two  lines  of  Persius  (iii.  56-57)  seem 
to  throw  some  light  upon  the  particular  form  of  Y  intended* 
"  Et  tibi  quae  Samios  diduxit  littera  ramos 
surgentem  dextro  monstnivit  Umite  calkm.** 

These  lines  appear  to  imply  that  the  letter  took  the  form  y, 
which  can  only  be  one  of  the  oldest  forms  (X)  written  from  right 
to  left.  The  straight  toad  is  the  difficult,  the  deviating  line  is 
the  easier  path  of  viceu  Anglo-Saxon  took  over  the  Roman  Y 
with  its  Roman  value  of  the  "  modified  u**  (if),  and  employed  it 
accordingly  for  the  sound  which  arose  from  a  u  isound  under  the 
influence  of  an  » in  the  following  syllable :/y/Zaff, "  fill,"  cp.  Gothic 
fulljaHf  mOs,  "  mouse,"  plural  ntHs^  from  an  earlier  lost  mUsu. 
The  y  sounds  were  often  confused  with  »,  whence,  in  modem 
£ngl^,  mice. 

The  vowel  use  was  the  only  use  of  the  old  s3nnboL  The  consonant 
Y  Is  of  a  different  origin.  The  early  En^h  g  (always  hard  as 
in  gig)  was  palatalized  before  e  and  i  sounds  into  a  consonant  i 
CO  ^  y>  ^^ch  was  written  in  Middle  English  with  the  symbol  3. 
With  this  letter  also  was  written  the  original  consonant  i  (l), ' 
which  appears  in  Latin  asi  (j)  in  iugum,  iuvencus.  This  Latin 
sound  seems,  at  least  initially,  to  have  represented  two  originally 
separate  sounds,  for  Greek  represents  the  first  sound  of  iugum 
by  t  (^T^)}  while  in  other  words  it  represents  a  i  (y)  of  other 
languages  by  the  "  rough  breathing  "  (A  or  *):  d7M6$,  "  holy," 
is  the  same  word  as  the  Sanskrit  yajnas.  The  English  words  that 
correspond  etymologically  to  iugum  and  iuvencus  are  "  yoke  " 
and  "young."  In  Northern  English  the  symbol  3  survived 
longer  than  in  the  southern  part  of  -the  island,  and  in  Scottish 
documents  of  the  x6th  century  was  confused  with  s.  From 
this  cause  various  ^tlish  names  that  were  never  pronounced 
with  s  are  so  spelt,  as  Menzies  (Mengies),  Dalziel,  Cadzow. 
In  others  like  Madienzie,  s  is  now  universally  pronounced, 
though  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  Lord  Rames 
declared  that  to  hear  Mackenzie  pronounced  with  a  s  turned  his 
stomach.  (P.  Gi.) 

YABLONOI,  or  YablOkovoi  ("  Apple  Mountains,"  known  to 
the  Mongols  as  Dyttterdaban)^  a  range  of  E.  Siberia^  stretching 
N.E.  from  near  the  sources  of  the  rives  Kerulen  (N.E.  of  Urga 
'in  N.  Mongolia)  to  the  bend  of  the  river  Olckma  in  56**  N., 
and  forming  the  S.E.  border  ridge  of  the  upper  terrace  of  the 
great  plateau  of  Central  and  E.  Asia.  Its  summits  reach  alti- 
tudes <^  5000-6000  ft,  culminating  in  Mount  Sokhondo  (8040 
ft.)  near  the  Transbaikal-Mongolia  frontier.  The  range  serves 
as  the  water-parting  between  the  streams  which  flow  to  the 
Pacific  and  those  which  flow  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  is  a  dividing 
line  between  the  Siberian  and  the  Daurian  flora.  The  passes 
have  altitudes  of  3000-3500  ft.  The  range  is  a  continuation 
of  the  Kentd  Mountains  of  Mongolia,  but  is  not  orographically 
connected  with  the  Stanovoi  Mountains,  iarther  to  the  N.E., 
though  the  names  Yablonoi.and  Stanovoi  are  commonly  used 
alternatively.  The  latter  are  the  S.E.  border-range  of  the 
lower  terrace  and  are  connected  with  the  Great  Khi'ngan 
Mountains. 


7ACH0W-FU,  a  prefectiual  dty  in  the  province' of  Sae» 
ch*uen,  China,  in  30°  N.,  103^  £.;  pop.  about  40,000.  It  is  situ- 
ated in  a  valley  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Ya,  where  tea  is  grown. 
The  town  owes  its  importance  to  the  fact  that  it  stands  at  the 
parting  of  the  tea  and  tobacco  trade  route  to  Tibet  via  Tachicn- 
lu  and  the  cotton  trade  route  to  west  Yun-nan  via  Ningyuen-Fu. 
The  city  wall  measures  2  m.  in  circumference,  and  is  pienred  by 
four  gates.  Yachow-Fu  is  first  mentioned  during  the  Chow 
dynasty  (11227355  B.c). 

YACBTIMOi  the  sport  of  racing  in  yachts*  and  boats  with 
sails,  and  also  the  pastime  of  cruising  for  pleasure  in  sailing 
steam  or  motor  vessels.  Yacht  racing  dates  from  the  be;ginrung 
of  the  xQth  century;  for,  although  there  were  sailing  yachts  long 
before,  they  were  but  few,  and  belonged  ezdusiydy  to  princes 
and  other  illustrious  personages.  For  instance,  in  the  An^lo* 
Saxon  period  Athehtan  had  presented  to  him  by  the  king  d 
Norway  a  magnificent  royal  vessel,  the  sails  of  which  were  purple 
and  the  head  and  deck  wrought  with  gold,  apparently  a  kind  of 
state  barge.  Elizabeth  had  one,  and  so  has  every  English  sove- 
reign since.-  During  her  reign  a  pleasure  ship  was  built  (1588)  at 
Cowes  (Isle  of  Wight),  so  that  the  association  of  that  place 
with  the  sport  goes  back  a  very  long  time.  In  x66o  Charles  IL 
was  presented  by  the  Dutch  with  a  yacht  Aamed  the  "  Maty/' 
until  which  time  the  word  "  yacht"  was  unknown  in  England. 
The  Merrie  Monarch  was  fond  of  sailing,  for  he  designed  a  yacht 
of  25  tons  called  the  "  Jamie,"  built  at  Lambeth  in  1662,  as  uefl 
as  several  others  later  on.  In  that  year  the  "  Jamie  "was  mate  bed 
for  £100  against  a  small  Dutch  yacht,  under  the  duke  of  York, 
from  Greenwich  to  Gravesend  and  back,  and  beat  her,  the  kiag 
steering  part  of  tbo  time — apparently  the  first  record  of  a  yacht 
match  and  of  an  amateur  helmsman.  Mr  Arthur  H.  Clark,  in 
his  History  of  Yachting  (1904),  traces  the  history  of  pleasure 
craft  from  1600  to  1815,  and  gives  an  interesting  illustrated 
account  of  the  yachts  bdonging  to  Charles  II. 

The  first  authentic  record  of  a  sailing  club  is  in  1720,  when  the 
Cork  Harbour  Water  Club,  now  known  as  the  Royal  Cork  Yacht 
Club,  was  established  in  Ireland,  but  the  yachts  were  small 
Maitland,  in  his  History  of  London  (1739)  mentions  sailing  and 
rowing  on  the  Thames  as  among  the  amusements  then  indulged 
in;  and  Strutt,  in  his  Sports  and  Pastimes  (x8oi),  says  that  the 
Cumberland  Society,  consisting  of  gentlemen  partial  to  this  pas* 
time,  gave  yeariy  a  silver  cup  to  be  sailed  for  in  the  vidnity 
of  London.  The  boats  usually  started  from  Blackfriars  Bridge, 
went  up  the  Thames  to  Putn^r,  and  returned  to  Vauxhall, 
being,  no  doubt,  mere  sailing  boats  and  not  yachts  or  decked 
vessels.  From  the  middle  to  the  end  of  the  18th  century  yacht- 
ing developed  very  slowly:  although  matches  were  sailed  at 
Cowcs  as  far  back  as  1780,  very  few  yachts  of  any  size,  say 
35  tons,  existed  in  1800  there  or  elseWhere.  In  181 2  the  Royal 
Yacht  Squadron  was  established  by  fifty  yacht-owners  at  Cowes 
and  was  called  the  Yacht  Qub,  altered  to  the  Royal  Yacht  Club 
in  1820;  but  no  regular  regatta  was  hdd  there  until  some  years 
later.  The  yachts  of  the  time  were  built  of  heavy  materials, 
like  the  revenue  cutters,  full  in  the  fore  body  and  fine  aft;  but  it 
was  soon  discovered  that  their  timbers  and  scantlings  were 
unnecessarily  strong,  and  they  were  made  much  lighter.  It 
was  also  found  that  the  single-masted  cutter  was  more  weatherly 
than  the  brigs  and  schooners  of  the  time,  and  the  former  rig  was 
adopted  for  racing,  and,  as  there  was  no  timie  allowance  for 
difference  of  size,  they  were  all  built  of  considerable  dimensions^ 

Early  Engfish  Yachts, — ^Among  the  earliest  of  which  there 
is  any  record  were  the  "Pearl,"  95  tons,  built  by  Sainty  at 
Wyvenhoe  near  Colchester  in  1820,  for  the  marquess  of  Anglesey, 
and  the  "  Arrow,"  84  tons,  originally  61  ft.  g^  in.  long  and 
18  ft.  s\  in.  beam,  built  by  Joseph  Wdd  in  1822,  which  for  many 
yeais  remained  extant  as  a  radng  yacht,  having  been  rebuilt  and 

^  The  English  wofd  "  yacht  "  is  the  Dutch  }pcht,  jagt,  from  iacftlm, 
"  to  huny,   "  to  hunt.     See  also  Suiv  and  Shipbuilunc. 


YACHTINGF 


891 


Jtcred  levtnd  UsMt,  aad  again  entirety  tebmk  in  1887-8S. 
rhe  Thames  soon  foDowed  the.  example  of  the  Solent  and 
:stablished  the  Royal  Thames  Yacht  Club  in  xSaj,  the  Clyde 
ounding  the  Royal  Northekn  Yacht  Club  in  X&34,  and  Plymouth 
:he  Royal  Western  in  1817.  In  this  year  the  Royal  Yacht 
Squadron  passed  a  resolution  disqualifying  any  member  who 
^hoiild  apply  steam  to  his  yacht — the  enactment  being  aimed  at 
r.  Asshetod  Smith,  aa  enthusiastic  yachtsman  and  fox-hunter, 
svho  was  having  a  paddle-wheel  steam  yacht  called  the  "  Menai  " 
built  on  the  Clyde.  In  1830  one  of  the  kirgest  cutters  ever 
constructed  was  launched,  viz.  the  "  Alarm/'  built  by  Inmaa 
at  Lymington  for  Joseph  Weld  of  Lulworth  Castle,  from  the 
Lines  of  a  famous  smiig^er  captured  off  the  Isle  o(f  Wight.  She 
was  83  ft.  on  the  load-line  by  34  ft.  beam,  ai^d  was  reckoned 
of  IQ3  tons,  <dd  measurement,  in  which  length,  breadth  and 
half-breadth  (supposed  to  represent  depth)  were  the  factom  for 
Gomputationi  Some  yaditsmen  at  this  time  preferred  still 
larger  vessels  and  oiimed  s<]uare*top6ail  schooners  and  brigs 
like  the  man-o'-war  brigs  of  the  day,  such  as  the  "  Waterwitch," 
381  tons,  built  by  Whke  of  Cowes,  in  183a,  for  Lord  Belfast, 
and  the  ''Brilliant,"  barque,  493  tons,  belonging  to  J.  Holland 
Ackers,  who  invented  a  scale  of  time  allowance  for  competitive 
^ling.  In  1834  the  first  royal  cup  was  given  by  William  IV. 
to  the  ftoyal  Yacht  Squadron*  In  1836  the  Royal  Eastern 
Yacht  Club  was  founded  at  Granton  near  Edinbu^;  in  1838 
the  Royal  St  George's  at  Kingstown  and  the  Royal  Ltmdon; 
in  1843  the  Royal  Southern  at  Southampton  and  the  Royal 
Harwich;  in  1844  the  Royal  Mersey  at  Liverpool  and  the  Royal 
Victoria  at  Ryde.  The  number  of  vessels  kept  pace  with  the 
clubs— the  fifty  yachts  of  x8xa  increasing  nearly  tenfold  before 
the  middle  of  the  century. 

First  Alteration  in  Type.— In  1848,  after  J.  Scott  Russell  had 
repeatedly  drawn  attention  to  the  unwisdom  of  constructing 
sailing  vessels  on  the  "cod's  head  and  mackerel  tail"  plan,  and 
had  enunciated  his  wave-line  theory.  Mare  built  at  Blackwall 
an  entirely  new  .type  of  vessel,  with  a  long  hollow  bow  and 
a  short  after-body  of  considerable  fulness.    This  was  the  iron 
cutter  "  Mosquito,"  of  59  ft.  3  in.  water-line,  15  ft.  3  in.  beam, 
and  mcasaring  50  tons.    Prejudice  against  the  new  type  of 
yacht  being  as  strong  as  against  the  ihtroduction  of  steam, 
there  were  no  vessels  built  like  the  "  Mosquito,"  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  "  Volante,"  59  tons,  by  Harvey  of  Wyvenhoe,  until 
the  eyes  of  English  yachtsmen  were  opened  by  the  Americans 
three  years  later.    About  this  period  yacht  racing  had  been 
gradusdly  coming  into  favour  in  the  United  States,  the  first 
yacht  club  being  founded  at  New  York  in  1844  by  nine  yacht- 
owners;  and  in  1846  the  first  match  between  yachts  in  the 
States  was  sailed,  2$  m.  to  windward  and  back  from  Sandy 
Hook  lightship,  between  J.  C.  Stevens's  new  centre-board  sloop 
**  Maria,"  170  tons,  xoo  ft.  water-line  and  a6  ft.  8  in.  beam, 
with  a  draught  of  5  ft.  3  in.  of  water,  and  the  "  Coquette," 
schooner,  74  tons,  bdonging  to  J.  H.  Perkins,  the  latter  wiiming; 
but  the  appearance  of  the  "  Mariaj"  whidi  had  a  clipper  or 
schooner  b6w,  somethitig  like  that  of  the  racing  cutters  of 
1887-88,  did  much  for  yachting  in  America.    Stevens  then 
commissioned  George  Steers  of  New  York,  builder  of  the  crack 
pilot  schooners,  to  construct  a  racing  schooner  to  visit  England 
in  the  year  of  the  ^eat  exhibition,  and  the  result  was  the 
*'  America  "  of  1 70  tons.    She  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  the  summer 
of  1851,  but  failed  to  compete  for  the  Queen's  cup  at  Cowes 
in  August,  although  the  club  for  that  occasion  threw  the  prise 
open  to  all  the  world,  as  her  owner  declined  to  concede  the 
usual  time  allowance  for  difTerence  of  sise.    The  members  of 
the  Yacht  Squadron,  not  wbhing  to  risk  the  reproach  of  denying 
the  visitor  a  fair  race,  decided  that  their  match  for  a  cup  given 
by  the  club,  to  be  sailed  round  the  Isle  of  Wight  later  in  the 
same  month,  should  be  without  any  time  allowance.    The 
'<  America,"  thus  exceptionally  treatCKi,  entered  and  competed 
against  fifteen  other  vessels.    The  three  most  dangerous  com- 
petitors being  put  out  through  accidents,  the  "  America " 
passed  the  winning-post  18  minutes  ahead  of  the  47-ton  cutter 
"  Auron,*"  and  won  the  cup;  but,  even  {f  the  time  allowance 


bad  not  been  waived,  Hnt  American  schooner  yacht  votald  still 
have  won  by  f  uQy  a  couple  of  minutes.  The  prize  was  given 
to  the  New  York  Yacht  Club  and  constituted  a  challenge  cup, 
called  **  the  America's  cup,"  for  the  yachts  of  all  natians,  by 
the  deed  of  gift  of  the  owaeis  of  the  winner.  (See  below  for  a 
complete  account  of  these  races.) 

Not  <mly  was  the  "  America  f  as  great  a  departure  from  the 
conventional  British  type  of  yacht  aa  the  *'  Mosquito,"  but  the 
set  of  her  sails  was  a  dedded  novd^.  In  EngUnd  it  had  been 
the  practice  to  make  them  baggy,  whaeas  those  of  the  "America" 
were  flat,  which  told  materiallyin  working  to  windward.  The 
revolution  in  yacht  designing  and  canvasing  was  complete,  and 
the  bows  of  edsting  cutters  were  lengthened,  that  of  the  **  Arrow  " 
among  others.  The  "  Alaim  "  was  also  lengthened  and  tuned 
into  a  schooner  of  248  tons,  and  the  "  Wildfire,"  cutter,  59  tons, 
was  likewise  converted.  Indeed  there  was  a  complete  craze 
for  schooners,  the  "  Plymg  Cloud," ''  Gloriana,"  "  LaUa  Rookh," 
"  Albertine,"  "Alme,"  '*£geris^"  "Pantomime"  and  otheia 
being  built  between  1852  and  1865,  during  which  period  the 
centre-board,  or  shding  fced,  was  applied  to  schooners  as  wdl 
aa  sloops  in  America.  The  national  or^cutter  rig  was  nevertheless 
not  neglected  in  England,  for  Hatcher  of  Southampton  built 
the  35-ton  cutter  "  Glance  "--the  pioneer  of  the  subsequent 
40-tonners-^n  1855,  and  the  "  Vampire  "—the  pioneer  of  the 
2o-tonnera~in  1857,  in  which  year  Wdd  also  had  the  "  Lul- 
worth," an  89-ton  cutter  of  comparatively  shallow  draught, 
constructed  at  Lymington.  At  this  time  too  there  came  into 
existence  a  group  of  cutters,  called  "  flying  fifties  "  from  their 
tonnage,  taking  after  the  "  Mosquito  "  as  their  pioneer;  such 
were  the  "  Extravaganza,"  "  Audax  "  and  '^  Vanguard."  In 
x866  a  large  cutter  was  constructed  on  the  Qyde  called  the 
"  Condor,"  135  tons,  foUowed  by  the  still  huger  "  Oimara," 
163  tons,  in  1867.  In  1868  the  "  Cambria  "  schooner  was  built 
by  Ratsey  at  Cowes  for  Ashbury  of  Brighton,  and,  having  proved 
a  succcs^ul  match-sailer,  was  taken  to  the  United  States  in 
1870  to  compete  for  the  America's  ciq>,  but  was  badly  beaten,  aa 
also  was  the  **  Livonia  "  in  1871. 

The  Pira  Great  Era  of  Yaeh$  Raeingr^lhe  decade  between 
1870  and  1880  may  be  termed  the  first  Golden  Age  of  yachting, 
inasmudi  as  the  racing  fleet  had  some  very  notable  additions 
made  to  it,  of  which  it  will  suffice  to  mention  the  schooners 
"Gwendolin,"  "  Cetonia,"  "Corinne,"  "Miranda"  and 
"Waterwitch";  the  krge  cutters  "Eriemhilda,"  "Vol  au 
Vent,"  "Formosa,"  "SamoBna"and  "Vanduara,"  a  cutter 
built  of  sted;  the  4O-tonn0rs  "Foxhound,"  " filoodhound," 
"Myosotis"  and  "Nonqan";  the  zo-tonners  "Vanessa" 
(Hatcher's  masterpiece), "  Quickstep,"  "  EnriqueU,"  "  Louise  " 
and  "Freda";  and  the  yawls  "Florinda,"  "Corisande," 
"  JuDanar  "  and  "  Latona."  The  "  Jullanar  "  may  be  noted  as 
a  specially  clever  dedgn.  Built  in  1874  from  the  ideas  of  Bentall, 
an  agricultural  implement  maker  of  Maldon,  Essex,  she  had  no 
dead  wood  forward  or  alt,  and  possessed  many  improvements 
in  design  which  were  embodied  and  developed  by  the  more 
scientific  naval  architects,  G.  L.  Watson,  William  File,  ]un.» 
and  othen  in  later  yearSi  Lead,  the  use  of  which  commenced 
in  1846,  was  entirely  used  for  ballast  after  1870  and  placed  on 
the  ked  outside. 

Of  races  there  was  a  plethora;  indeed  no  fewer  than  400 
matches  took  place  in  1876,  as  against  63  matches  in  1856, 
with  dssses  for  schooners  and  yawls,  for  large  cutters,  for  40- 
tonnera,  20-tonners  and  lo^tonners,  The  sport,  too,  was  better 
regulated,  and  was  conducted  on  a  uniform  system:  the  Yacht- 
Racing  Association,  established  in  1875,  drew  up  a  simple  code 
of  laws  for  the  reguUition  of  yacht  races,  which  was  accq>ted 
by  the  yacht  dubs  generally,  though  a  previous  attempt  to 
introduce  uniformity,  made  by  the  Royal  Victoria  Yacht  Club 
in  x868,  had  failed.  The  Assodation  adopted  the  rule  for 
ascertaining  the  size  or  tonnage  of  yachts  which  had  been  for 
many  years  in  force,  known  as  the  Thames  rule;  but  in  X879 
they  altered  the  plan  of  reckoning  length  from  that  taken  on 
deck  to  that  taken  at  the  k>ad  water-line,  and  two  years  latst. 
they  adopted  an  entirely  new  system  of  calculation. 


892 


YACHTINO 


The  PloMk'&n^g^.'-'Thtai  cbanges  fed  to  a  dedine  In  yacht- 
ladns,  the  new  measurement  exercising  a  prqudidal  effect 
on  the  sport,  as  it  enabled  vesseb  of  extreme  length,  dq>th 
and  narrowness,  kept  upright  by  enormous  masses  of  kad 
00  the  outside  of  the  keel,  to  compete  on  equal  terms  with 
vessds  of  greater  Width  and  less  dcf^,  in  other  words,  smaller 
yadits  canying  an  inferior  area  of  saiL  The  new  type  was 
known  as  the  "  lead  mine "  or  plank-on-edge  type.  Of  this 
type  were  the  yawls  "Loma"  and  "Wendur,''  the  cutters 
"  May,"  "  Annasona,"  "  Sleuth-hound,"  "  Tara,"  "  Msrjorie  " 
and  "  Margarita  "—the  most  extreme  <^  all  being  perhaps 
the  40-tonner  "Tara,"  six  times  as  long  as  she  wss  broad, 
and  unusually  deep,  with  a  displacement  of  75  tons,  38  tons 
oi  kad  on  her  ked,  end  the  sail-spread  oi  a  6o-toimer  like 
"Neva." 

In  1884  two  large  8o>toii  cutters  of  the  above  type  were 
built  for  radng,  the  "  GenesU  "  4in  the  Qyde  and  the  "  Irex  " 
at  Southampton.  Having  been  successful  in  her  first  season, 
the  former  went  to  the  United  States  in  x88s  in  quest  of  the 
America's  cup;  but  she  was  beaten  by  the  "  Puritan,"  which 
had  a  moderate  draught  of  8  ft.  3  in.  of  water,  considerable 
beam  and  a  deep  centre-board.  The  defeat  of  the  "  Genesta  " 
was  not  surprising;  she  drew  13  ft.  of  water,  had  a  displacement 
or  weight  of  141  as  against  the  "  Puritan's  "  106  tons,  and  a 
sail  area  of  7887  sq.  ft.  to  the  American's  7982-^  greater 
mass  with  less  driving  power.  Still,  she  did  not  leave  the 
States  empty-handed,  as  she  won  and  brought  back  the  Cape 
May  and  Brenton  Reef  challenge  cups,  though  they  were  wrested 
from  her  by  the  "  Irex  "  in  the  following  year.  The  same  thing 
happened  to  the  "  Galatea,"  which  was  beaten  by  the  "  May- 
flower "  in  1886.  In  all  classes  in  British  waters  the  narrow 
type  was  not  carried  to  excess;  indeed,  as  the  narrowness 
of  the  new  yachts  increased  annually,  so  did  the  popularity  of 
racing  decrease. 

Plank-oiKdge  Type  abandoned.-^ynot  to  x886  it  had  been 
the  custom  in  Great  Britain  for  several  reasons  to  build  the 
yachts  deep,  narrow,  wall-sided,  with  very  heavy  lead  keds 
and  heavy  displacement.  The  system  of  measurement  had 
been  a  tonnage  measurement,  and  under  this  S3r8tem  designers 
found,  from  the  knowledge  they  had  then  attained  from  racing 
tnah,  that  a  narrow  heavy  vessel  would  beat  a  wider  and 
l^ter  craft  when  both  were  measured  by  the  tonnage  rules. 
In  America  this  was  not  the  case.  There  a  much  lighter  and 
wider  form  of  yacht  had  been  in  vogue,  having  shallower  draught 
and  relying  upon  a  centre>board  for  weathertiness  instead 
of  a  deep  lead  ked.  Hence  in  the  International  contests 
from  1884  to  1886  for  the  America's  cup  and  other  events  the 
trials  were  between  deep  and  narrow  British  3rachts  and  shallow 
and  broad  American  yachts.  Even  in  1887,  when  G.  L.  Watson 
built  the  "Thistle,"  much  broader  than  "GenesU"  and 
"  Galatea,"  this  vessd  was^  met  and  defeated  by  a  far  wider  and 
shallower  American  sloop,  namdy,  the  "Volunteer"  above 
referred  to.  British  yachtsmen  claimed  that  their  narrow 
deep-keeled  vessels  wero  more  weatherly  and  better  sea-boats 
than  the  light  American  sloops,  but  radng  honours  rested  with 
the  Americans. 

In  1887  the  plank-on-edge  type  was  completdy  abandoned 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  Thenceforward,  therefore,  the  old 
spirited  contests  between  deep  British  yachts  and  shallow 
American  sloops  ceased.  Whilst  Britain  abandoned  her  narrow 
deep  type,  America  soon  also  began  to  modify  the  old  shallow 
centre-board  sloop  type,  and  so  between  1887  and  1893  the 
rival  types  hegBOL  to  CMivexge  very  ra|ndly,  imtil  the  old  idea 
of  a  race  for  the  America's  cup  being  a  test  of  a  British  type 
against  an  American  type  completely  died  out.  Races  sailed 
for  that  trophy,  after  1887,  were  leas  and  less  triab  of  oppos- 
ing national  types,  but  mcrdy  contests  between  British  and 
Anerioati  desi^ied  yadits  built  upon  the  same  general  prindple 
of  atmilar  type. 

Dixcui  Kemp  in  1887  induced  British  yachtsmen  to  abandon 
the  system  of  measuring  yachts  hy  tonnage  and  to  adopt  a 
new  system  of  nting  than  l>y  water«jliM  length  and  sail  ares. 


The  new  system  oontained  no  taxes  or  peaaltiea  vpon  beam 
or  depth  nor  upon  "  over  all "  length.  The  only  factoa 
measured  were  the  water-line  and  the  area  ol  the  sails.  All 
the  old  tonnage  rules  taxed  the  length  and  the  bieadth.  The 
effect  of  this  duinge  of  the  system  measurement  was  dcctiicaL 
It  crushed  the  piank-on-edge  type  completdy.  There  was  aoc 
snother  boat  of  the  kind  built. 

Renvoi  of  Yackt-Sacing  under  Lentfk  and  Soil  Area  Rdt,- 
Yachtsmen  were  greatly  {leased  with  the  Ixoader  and  Ui^ta 
types  of  yachts  that  designers  began  to  turn  out  under  tl» 
length  and  sail  area  rule.  They  were  more  comfortable  and 
drier  in  a  seaway  than  the  old  vessels.  The  first  large  cutien 
built  with  considerable  beam  were  "  Yanna  "  and  "  Petronllla  " 
in  1888,  and  in  1889  the  first  of  Lord  Dunraven's  Valkyzits 
wss  a  vesdd  that  was  much  admired.  Then  in  1890  "  Ivetna," 
a  handsome  dipper-bowed  cutter  owned  by  Mr  Jameson,  ame 
out  and  raced  sgainst  "Thistle."  Meanwhile,  up  to  1S92 
a  host  of  splendid  40-raters  had  been  built;  "  Mobavk," 
"  Deerhound,"  "  Castanet,"  "  Reverie,"  "  Creole,"  "  ThaJia,' 
"Corsair,"  "White  Skve,"  "Queen  Mab"  and  "Vaniiu" 
formed  a  dass  the  like  of  which  had  never  been  surpassed  a 
British  watera.  Watson,  Fife  and  Payne  were  the  most  sac* 
cessf ul  designers. 


While  a  revival  of  yachting  in  the  Xaxvet  clasaea  was  notaUe 
under  the  rule  Ducon  Kemp  had  orinnated.  the  sudden  popuhriir 
attained  in  the  small  cksscs  in  the  Solent  was  even  more  renaik* 
able.  Under  the  tonnage  rules  deep  narrow  3-tonners,  5-tofuMn 
and  lo-tonnere  had  raced  about  the  coast,  but  the  Solent  did  not 
seem  to  attract  a  greater  number  of  yachtsmen  as  small  boat  saSon 
than  the  Thames.  Mersey  or  Irish  ports.  Moreover,  the  Gyde 
really  remained  the  roost  advanced  centre  of  small  yacht  sailing 
At  Southampton,  prior  to  Dnon  Kemp's  rule  being  adopted  bv  m 
Yacbt-Racinp;  Association  in  1887,  there  were  some  6|x>rtinf^  classes 
of  so-called  Itchen  Ferry  boats  which  raced  on  a  rating  consisting 
of  length  on  the  water-fine  only.  As  there  was  no  tax  upon  ttar 
sail,  they  were  built  (accordii^  to  tfia  ideas  of  designers  in  18S5 
or  1886,  who  had  not  by  that  time  absorbed  the  knowJed^  of  tiie 
value  of  bulb-kcels)  with  great  beam,  immense  displacement  and 
very  thick  heavy  lead  kccfs  and  huge  sail-spread.  A  sail  area  of 
2100  sq.  ft.  was  crowded  on  to  a  ^o^foot  yacht,  and  one  yAwW 
even  carried  a  iointed  spinnaker  boom  56  ft.  in  length.  It  vu 
not  surprising  that  such  a  type  never  became  popular;  indeed  the 
Southampton  length  dasses  m  the  'dghtics  were  nb  better  than  tte 
extremely  narrow  5-tonnerB  and  3-tonner8.  The  5-tonner  "  Doris," 
bnilt  by  Watson  in  1S85.  was  33  ft.  8  in.  L.W.L.,  5  ft.  7  in.  beam,  7ft. 
draught;  displacement  of  12*55  tons;  1681  sq.  ft.  of  sail,  ik* 
"  Yvonne."  built  by  Fife  in  1889,  was  34- 1  ft.  UW.L^  9  ft.  beani. 
8-1  ft.  draught,  with  a  displacement  of  I2>9  tons  and  a  sail  area  a 
1726  sq.  ft.  The  difference  in  dimensions  between  "  Doris  "  ami 
"  Yvonne  "  shows  how  the  beam  and  sail-carrying  power  was  ii^ 
creased  jn  the  new  type,  for  "  Yvonne  "  could  beat  the  "  Doris" 
with  the  greatest  ease.  With  the  advent  of  the  length  and  sail  ai^ 
rule  the  Solent  at  once  became  the  fashionable  rendezvous  for  smaO 
racing  yachts,  and  the  craft  known  as  the  Solent  classes,  5-raten, 
2i-raters,  i-caten  and  l^raters,  flourished  greatly. 

The  Second  Great  Era  in  YachUng.^As  the  years  1870  to 
1880  will  always  be  remembered  for  the  great  schooners  a^ 
the  glorious  fleet  of  old-fashioned  cutters  and  yawls,  wbid) 
showed  such  fine  sport  before  they  were  outbuilt  by  the  planks- 
cm-edge,  so  will  the  seasons  following  1892  be  idenlifieid  with 
the  big  cutter  racing.  In  that  year  it  was  commonly  said  that 
yachtsmen  would  build  no  more  very  large  cutters.  The 
revival  under  the  length  and  sail  area  rule  had  so  far  extended 
to  "  Ivema,"  "  Tarana,"  "  Pctronilla,"  and  "  Valkyrie  I."  beiii« 
buUt  in  the  first  class,  but  then  there  had  been  a  pause  of  some 
years  during  which  laige  numbers  of  40-raters,  20-raters  and  tbe 
Solent  classes  had  been  built.  Just  when  the  critics  were  declaring 
that  in  the  future  no  yachtsmen  would  build  a  dass  lacer 
larger  than  a  40-rater  (60  ft.  L.W.L.  with  4000  sq.  ft.  of  sail)> 
the  prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  Edward  \1I,)  gave  an  order 
for  the  cutter  "  Britannia,"  while  Lord  Dunraven  built  "  V^ 
kyrie  H.,"  Mr  A.  D.  CUrke  "  Sataniu"  and  Mr  Peter  Donald- 
son "  Calluoa  ";  and  in  this  same  season  (1893),  sn  AnsericJA 
yachtsman  book  the  Herreshoff  yacht  "  Navaboe  "  over  tM 
Atlantic.  The  new  vessels  averaged  87  ft.  L.W.L.  and  earned 
shout  10,300  sq.  ft.  of  canvas,  their  beam  being  as  mucb^  tf 
aa.ft    They  were  an  sntiidydifiereBt  type  froni"IveDi«    ^ 


YACHTING 


893 


"nuttle,"  being  developed  fnm  the  fonn  o{  tht  40-nteis 
"  Varuui  "  and  "  Queen  Mab."  The  main  differences  between 
the  "  Britannia  "  and  other  yachta  of  her  year  and  the  older 
vessels  was  that  the  new  yachts  had  an  overhanging  shallow- 
sectioned  mussel  or  pram  bow  instead  of  a  fiddle  or  clipper 
bow  with  a  wedge-shaped  transverse  section;  the  outline  of  the 
tinder-watcr  profile  was  hollow,  sloping  in  a  concave  curve  from 
the  deep  part  of  the  keel  under  the  mast  to  the  forward  end  of 
the  water-line;  the  keel  was  deep,  practically  developing  into 
a  fin.  The  new  vessels  skimmed  over  the  waves  instead  of 
cutting  and  plui^ng  throu^  them.  The  seaworthiness,  speed, 
weatherliness  and  general  handiness  for  racing  purposes  of  the 
cutters  of  1893  fkt  exceeded  all  previous  results.  Yacht 
designing  and  building  now  became  a  science  demanding  the 
highest  tax  upon  the  skill  and  ingenuity  of  the  naval  architect. 
The  cutter  "  Valkyrie  II/l  visited  the  United  States  in  1893, 
but  T/>rd  Dunraven's  vessel  was  beaten  by  the  "Vigilant." 
Curiously  enough,  when  the  crack  Herreshoff  cutters  "  Navahoe  " 
and  "  Vigilant "  visited  the  British  Isles  they  were  severely 
beaten  by  the  British- yachts.  In  1893  ^he  "  Navahoe  "  started 
13  times  and  only  yupn  two  first  prices.  In  1894  **  Vigilant "  did 
a  little  better,  but  she  only  won  six  races  in  19  starts.  During  the 
years  that  foUowed  the  "  Britannia  "  held  a  wonderful  record: — 


Starts. 

First 
Prizcsv 

Other 
Prises. 

Total. 

Prises 
Value. 

1893  .     » 

1894  .     .     . 
189s  s     .     , 

1896  «,    .. 

1897  .    *    . 

20 

to 

9 

9 

2 

10 

2 

40 
12 

i£i57a 

a799 

3040 
1562 

1000 

a  19 

12a 

n 

147 

£9973 

Some  other  famous  ladng  yachts  which  were  built  under  the 
length  and  sail  area  rule  were  "  Ailaa  "  (1895),  a.firBt<lass  cutter 
designed  by  Fife,  *'  Isolde,"  a  very  beautiful  40-rater  for  Mr  Donald- 
son Dy  the  same  designer,  **  Caress,"  a  40-rater  by  Watson,  and  the 
20-rater8  "  Audrey,"  from  Lord  Dunraven's  own  model,  "  Niagara  " 
by  HcrreshoflF,  and  the  "  Sibbick  "-designed  5-ratcr  "Norman," 
owned  by  Captain  Orr-Ewing.  Since  the  introductk>n  of  Dixon 
Kemp's  rule  the  smaller  classes  from  20-rating[  right  down  to 


t-tatmg  had  been  built  in  great  numbers,  but  whilst  these  classes 
nad  fk)urbhed  exceediiwly,  the  type  of  boat  built  had  developed 
a  very  ^uliar  form.    Sach  succeeding  craft  was  made  lighter  and 


lighter  m  weteht  and  more  extreme  m  the  overhang  at  the  bow 
and  stem.  Tne  stability  was  now  attained  by  means  of  a  pgar- 
sbaped  piece  of  lead  placed  at  the  bottom  of  a  steel  plate  or  fin, 
the  hull  of  the  boat  bmg  nothing  more  than  the  bowl  of  a  dessert 
apooo  resting  upoa  the  water. 

Fin  and  Bulb  Keds.  DomtfaU  of  Lenglh  and  Sail  Area  Rule. 
— ^It  was  apparent  in  1895  that  if  plate  and  bulb  skimming- 
dishes  could  win  all  the  prizes  in  the  ao-rsting  and  smaller 
dasaes,  it  would  be  easy  to  design  a  modified  form  of  fia  and 
bulb  yacht  to  beat  "  Isolde,"  "  BritannU  "  and  ''  Ailsa  "  in 
the  larger  classes.  It  was  equally  obvious  that  a  skimming- 
dish  of "  Britannia's  "  or  "  Isolde's  "  rating  would  be  an  utteriy 
useless'  machine  with  no  cabm  accommodation  or  head  room, 
and  that  the  evolution  of  such  type  would  be  as  bad  for  the  sport 
as  the  development  of  the  old  plank-on-edge  bad  been  ia  1885. 
It  seemed  strange  that  whilst  the  old  tonnage  rule  had  evolved 
the  plaak-oa-«dge  ten  years  previously,  the  sail  area  measure- 
ment DOW  evolved  a  plank'On-side,  balanoed  by  a  fin.  The  fact 
was  that  designers  had  solved  the  problem.  The  rule  measured 
only  the  length  and  the  area  of  canvas.  Taking  the  length  of 
the  vessel  on  the  water-line  as  constant,  thea  the  vessel  with 
the  smallest  possible  weight  oould  be  driven  with  less  sail  at 
the  same  speed  as  vessels  with  greater  weight  and  greater  sail. 
This  solution  of  the  pTt>bIem  was  not  apparent  to  desiguers  from 
1880  to  1885,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  stability. 
From  1880  to  1885  stability  was  obtained  by  means  of  very 
heavy  keels.  In  1895  the  stability  was  obtained  by  means  <rf 
a  h'ght  piece  of  lead  pUced  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  steel  fin. 
r  Niagara,"  "  Audrey  "  (ao-ratera)  and  "  Norman  "(5-rater)  were 
thus  built.  They  were  wonderful  sailing  machines  in  heavy 
vcatber,— Cast,  powerful,  handy  and  efficient  in  all  wsathcra 


But  If  head  lOom  and  cabin  aecommodition  are  conaidaiwl 
essential  parUofayacht  these  flTers,  as"yadits."  were  entirely 
inefficient. 

The  First  Linear  Rating  RuU.—To  endeavour  to  check  the 
tendency  to  build  skimming-dishes  the  Yacht-Racing  Association 
introduced  in  1896  a  new  system  of  measurement  which  was 
proposed  by  Mr  R.  E.  Froude.  The  novelty  of  the  system 
consisted  of  a  tax  upon  the  skin  girth  of  the  yadit,  whereby  a 
vessel  with  hollow  midship  section  was  penalized  by  her  girth 
being  measured  round  the  skin  surface.  Froude's  first  system 
of  rating  began  on  the  ist  of  January  1896  and  ended  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1900.  It  therefore  had  a  career  of  five  seasons. 
The  measurement  of  the  yacht  was  obtained  by  the  folk>wing 
formula: — 

Length  L.W.L.-fbeam+!skin  girth -fi  -fSSSanSi.. 

This  rule  partially  failed  in  its  object.  It  was  hoped  that  the 
skin-surface  measurement  would  prevent  the  fin-bulb  type  being 
successful,  but  Froude  and  his  colleagues  had  mnder-estimated 
the  possible  developments  of  exaggerated  pram  bows,  immense 
soow-shaped  shoulders  and  stem-lines,  all  of  which  could  be 
introduced  into  the  skimming-dish  type  with  great  success.  So, 
notwithstanding  the  small  premium  on  displacement  this  rule 
contained,  the  dishes  could  still  beat  Uie  f uU-bodied  yachts. 

Yachts  bunt  in  the  small  classes  were  very  shallow  bodied,  and 
in  the  ao>Ating  and  40-rating,  now  called  the  52  ft.  and  6«  ft. 
classes  respectively,  were  uncomfortably  shaUow.  The  bat  vessels 
in  the  large  ckssca  were  undoubtedly  well  fonncd  and  useful  yachts; 
indeed  in  the  laziger  classes  the  rale  seems  to  have  checked  1  masis 
Under  this  rule  m  1896  the  German  Emperor  ordered  a  huge  first- 
class  cutter,  the  "  Meteor  1 1.,"  from  Watson.  By  sheer  siae  and  power 
this  vessel  outsailed  "  Britannia."  She  carried  a  main  boom  of  96  ft. 
long  against  the  "  Britannia's  "  boom  of  01  ft.  In  1900  Watson 
designed  another  great  cutter  called  the  "  Distant  Shore,"  the  same 
size  as  "  Britannia,"  but  she  was  not  Uunched  until  1901.  In  1900 
also.  Watson  crowned  all  hu  previous  successes  by  turning  out 
the  yawl  "  Sybarita,"  the  same  size  as  "  Meteor."  "  Senta  Tutty," 
"  Eelin  "  and  "  Astrild."  and  finally  "  Khama,"  were  amonnt 
the  65-footers,  and  "  Penitent,"  "  The  Saint,"  "  Morning  Star" 
and  '*  Senga  "  about  the  best  u-footera.  Probably  the  yacht  whkii 
emphasized  the  possibtlities  of  the  rule  more  than  any  of  her  con- 
tempotaries  was  Captain  Orr*Ewing's  36-foater  "  Sakuntala,"  built 
by  Sibbick..  She  was  a  complete  soow-shaped  ddnming*dish. 
The30-footers!'  Marjory  "  and  '*  Flatfish  "  were  similar  caft,  and 
thev  outsailed  everything  in  their  respective  classes  in  the  Solent. 
Akhough  many  fine  vessels,  including  the  schooner  "  Rainbow  *' 
and  others,  were  built  under  this  rale,  it  was  obvioosiy  iosnfficient 
to  chedE  the  hoUow««ectioned  type. 

The  Second  Linear  Rating  Rule. — ^This  rule,  also  suggested 
by  Froude,  was  introduced  on  the  1st  of  January  xgoi.  The 
confidence  of  yachtsmen  had  been  decidedly  shaken  by  the 
previous  rule,  and  the  Y.R.A.  agreed  to  fix  this  rule  for  a  period 
of  seven  years.  The  object  of  the  rule  was  to  ensure  a  big- 
bodied  vessel.    The  formula  was: —  

Ungth-»>  breadth  •HKirth.f43-fiy  sail  a"a^^^^^  ^^^ 

Now  the  novelty  of  this  rule  was  the  new  tax  B.  This  ^f  represents 
the  difference  in  feet  between  the  measurement  of  the  girth  of 
the  yacht's  hull  taken  round  the  skin  surface  and  the  girth  at 
the  same  place  measured  ^th  a  string  pulled  taut.  This 
measurement  is  taken  ^ths  of  the  distance  from  the  fore  end 
ol  the  water-line.  It  is  ea^  to  see  that  in  a  fuU-bodied  yacht 
Jsa  small  onit,  whilst  in  a  hoUow-bodied  yacht  7»a  larger 
unit.  Four  times  3  being  taken,  h  foUowed  Uiat  hoUow-bodied 
yachts  were  heavily  penalized.  This  ingenious  J  measurement 
was  evolved  by  Alfred  Benzon,  a  Danish  scientbt  and  yachtsman. 
The  rule,  so  for  as  the  development  of  a  full-bodied  cabin  yacht 
went,  proved  very  successfid.  It  had  certain  marked  faults: 
the  measurement  of  the  girth  at  a  fixed  station  caused  a  shallow* 
ness  of  keel  at  that  paiticnlar  spot,  and  there  was  no  check 
upon  the  fnU  pram  bows,  which  when  introduced  into  vessds 
of  heavy  displacement  strained  the  ships  terribly  as  they 
smashed  into  a  heavy  seaway.  The  new  rsdng  yachts  generallv. 
however,  from  1896  onwards,  proved  worthy  and  fast  vessels. 

As  an  instance  of  what  could  be  done  with  them,  in  tooi  a  memor^ 
abb  match  was  sailed  on  the  Clyde  between  the  Watson  swfler 


894- 


IVcfcd  dil*.  houRd  ropmtiti  and  [n  ■  mDuntainoui  Kl.     SeWnl 
■team  y«chu  HlHmpIM  lo  mccomp^ny  (hrm.  but  til  inl  back 

yawlHiad  (he  advaiiUGe  of  being  Ihe  lan:cT  vowl,  and  "  5yUrit4  " 

Class  Radnt.  Handkappint  and  Cruisir  Ridni.— Yacht 
ndng  may  be  subdivided  under  Ih«e  thnw  hudt.  Yacht 
ncing  by  raling  measuremtnt  or  tannage,  when  either  the 
firat  yacht  lo  finish  a  the  winner,  or  the  yacht  saving  her  (ime 
by  a  fixed  scale  of  time  allowance  in  proportion  to  the  lating 
of  the  vessel  and  the  length  ol  Ihc  eourae,  ia  called  dais  racing. 
4ad  it  obviously  tends  to  eocouiage  the  faateit  posiibJe  veuel 
under  the  current  rating  nile  lo  be  produced.  It  has  always 
'n  regaided  as  the  highest  foi 


ckiK  IssMber, 


It  ill-designed  etaft  ihoi^ld  have  u  equaTchaii 
.  NevmheleM,  owing  to  the  expense  of  dam  ncHig,  handicap 
ng  thrived  Eieatly  daring  tlie  period  of  the  int  uhI  KGona 
h  Rulei.  During  these  periods,  too,  the  Ihiid  style  of  yacht 
□g  came  iata  vogue,  nainety  enuser  nctnri  cicbcr  vc^  Fast 
aut  wen  built  qjedaily  for  the  purpose  of  handicap  non^,  or 

utfbw  of  yachts  of  exactly  dniiur  desi^  wi —  '"■^' "■■ 

he  nrikcr's  ofden  for  the  purpcee  of  raciiig  i 
Ibsi  hatHUcap-cmisn  bad  the  gnat  rtdvantai 

L   ■fValSo™  '"^oy  ton«), "  BryiiUld  "  (i6a  i 

imara,"  "  Roaanwod,"      Mffrymaid  "  and  many  cnnov  wvr 

it»  irf  (h»  fnnner  type.    In  (ono  they  did  not  diflervMtly  turn 

period,  bat  in  ■caotlinE  ofhuU.  fitting  bulwark 

more  cofnfortahle  and  better  veueli  than  tbei 

.    It  was  obvious  in  tbe  lar^  classes  that  man; 

, _..jen  were  not  pie^red  id  put  up  with  ihe  dlscomfon  c 

(be  thin-skiBaed  racen.  During  (be  wfiote  perisd  of  the  Girtl 
Kolea  (1I9G  to  1906),  while  the  class  ncerm  developud  a  good  cnougl 
ioraiol  hody-^they  were  lacterty  yachts  with  ptenty  <A  cabin  mm- 
tbey  were  neceaiBiily  built  in  the  Ishtest  n>BU>te  manner,  ih 
lightest  sted  fnmcs  bnng  covered  with  the  thinnest  phnkuig  am 
docks  In  the  sake  of  saving  weuht.  ThcligbiBisntling  began  late] 
■cvcRly  upon  large  yacht  racing.  Meanwhile,  in  tbe  small  classei 
the  Soltnt  one-de^gn  dan.Soulh  Coast  onMleilgD  class.  nameiDU 


idriflbey.w 


.......^  ...... .. _,.. - jf  cndser  radng  bad  unned 

the  place  ol  class  racing  aJid  competitive  desigaiaa.  Manyyachls- 
tnen  1th  that  U  handicap  tadng  and  one-design  racing  were  to  usurp 
tbe  place  of  the  higher  form  oTclasiraeing  the  whole  sport  of  yaeht- 


ketches  "  Cuiad  I."  and  "  Caiisd  II.,"  are  but  idodihed  types 

Rating  rule— to  sunesiions  that  m  the  futuTT  every  clato-radng 
yacht  should  be  bmlc  according  to  a  fixed  table  of  scantling*,  so 
that  bw  hull  should  be  as  sttong  as  a  tffitojUf  enuser. 

yocMi  B%ai  unitr  lit  Sand  Linear  Rating  Ridt.—Ftw 
large  vessels  were  built  expreasiy  for  racing  u 
indeed  the  Fife  6j-(ooteir  "Zioita"  (1904}  w 
•CSDtling  yacht  of  airy  imponance.  Howevi 
•OBie  Gnt-clus  vessels  were  couxtucted  to 
Heather  1."  by  Fife  in  1904,  and  "Hytia" 
I«a6;  they  wae  aome  ii  ft.  shorter  than  tno  great  culteta 
dI  "  Britannia'a  "  year  and  altogether  smaller,  having  ten  beam 
and  draught  and  soma  tjoo  sq.  ft.  lev  sail  area.  Tbe  growing 
diasalialaciion  of  yacht-ownen  at  Ihe  exirrme  light  scuitling 
of  modern  ladog  yachts  was  strongly  demonilrated  by  the 
iMl  thai  both  "  While  Uealhet  I."  and  "  NylU  "  were  specially 
enhtcd  10  be  ol  beayy  scantliag,  and  they  *eic  clttsed  Ai  H 


Uoyd'i.  tbey  1 
"  Nyria,"  howeve 
period  in  shape. 


iuggeratloii  of  the  full  pttin-ahap 


ciS'-'l"''"- 


/nlemafMnoI  Ruin  Intrainad.—la  April  1904  Mr  Hoksul 
Smith  drew  the  attention  of  Genotn,  Fieoch  and  Bniid 
yachtsmen  to  the  fact  (hat  the  yacht  tccaauremeat  rulo  {ibd 
diflercnt  in  the  wioua  countries)  were  generally  due  to  Eenniran 
about  the  end  of  1007.  and  suggested  that  many  advuiiip 
would  accrue  if  an  Ibtcmatuoal  rule  could  be  agreed  upa 
The  Yacbt-Radng  Association  a^pml  to  take  the  nultn  Of. 

and  June  igo6,  an  iotemational  rule  of  yacht  mcasuicmflt 
and  ratmg  was  unanimously  agreed  to  by  all  the  nslioaiiil 
Europe.  America  alone  rrfuscd  to  allend  the  Confeien. 
Mr  R.  K  FiDude  struck  the  keynote  ol  tbe  object  of  [he  Cunto- 
encs  by  a  statement  that  tbe  ideal  yacbl  should  be  1  wad 
combining  "  habitsbility  with  speed."  The  truth  of  this  uiB 
was  generally  accepted.  Old  plank-on-edp  types  utidn  111 
tonnage  rules  were  habitable  but  slow.  Skimming-dishn  *■ 
tained  the  manmnm  speed,  but  were  uninhabitable.  Keillst 
therefore  attained  the  ideal  type.  A  good  form  was  atubri 
in  igoi  with  "Magdalen,"  but  since  that  year  the  Idiv  d 
light  construction  had  become  barmfid  10  ya<lling-  Hho 
the  conference  aimed  at  a  fule  which  would  produce  a  yiiK 
combining  habiiability  with  speed.  Tbey  adopted  a  ftm  d 
linear  rating  comprising  certain  penalties  upott  boUon  ^ 
ship  section  {i.e.  Benzon's  i  tax)  and  also  upon  full  pram  bon 
The  following  was  adopted  as  the  rule  by  which  all  ladnf 
yachts  In  Europe  arc  rated: — 
L+BflG-l-.-iJ-HVS-F_RaiiM  in  Ihxar  unin,  i^  tiOB  fc* 


Wbece  L-Lengih  ia  linear  uiOia 

;;  C-Cinh™linei?irnlt^ 

-  d-Ginh  difference  in  linear  unhib 

„  S-Sail  area  in  sauare  units. 

.  F-Fneboaidinlinear  units. 

Tbe  length  L  for  the  formula  !a  the  length  on  the  waler-Bn. 
with  the  addition  (1 )  of  the  difference  between  the  girth,  af-rrmi 
boBTd  to  covering- board,  at  the  bow  water -1[nc  ending,  and  ttfitt 
the  freeboard  at  that  point,  and  (3)  one-fifth  of  Ihe  ^i^ktoB 
between  the  girth,  covering-board  to  covering-board,  at  the  s"^ 
water-line  ending,  and  twice  the  freeboard  at  that  point.  IV 
additions  (i)  and  (1)  penalise  tbe  full  onrhangs  and  tht  I** 
overhang  in  partkular.  Tbe  girth,  G,  Is  the  chahi  V^ 
measured  at  that  part  of  the  yudit  at  which  the  ineanrcein< 
is  greatest,  less  twice  the  freeboard 


ig  the 


under  this  rule; 

generally  lo  be  taken  O'Ss  from  the  bow  end  of  the  watnbi* 

IS  the  only  light- 

The  girth  difference,  3  in  the  lorBola,  is  the  difference  bel"" 

,  two  very  hand- 

J>c  rule:  "  White 

board  lo  covering-board,   and   the  skin   gitih   between  iW 

by  Nicholson  In 

For  racing  the  yachts  are  divided  Into  eleven  claases.  ^^  j 
s  for  schoonen  and  yairia  only,  above  13  metres  (tS'4  ''' 
ating,  with  a  lime  altowance  of  four  seet«ids  per  mtirt  I* 
nile.  All  the  yachts  in  this  dasa  must  be  classed  ^'■  '° 
scing.  yawls  aail  at  Ihdt  actual  rating  and  schooneis  il  i*" 
(M  tbaa  tbeii  actual  taliuf.    Tbe  Mbn  danet  are  li<  *' 


YACHTING 


895 


cutter 
-whatever: — 


daases,  in  wUch  there  is  no  time  alkmaoce 


International 
Classes  appraxiroadne 
to  L.W.L  of  Yacht 

Coirrcspondinc 
ClaaMsmEngfith 
Feec 

Limit  to  Number 
ot  Persons  allowed 
on  Board  during 
a  Race. 

^3  metxes  rating. 
19       tt         .,      , 

IS 

12      „        „ 

10 .    „        „ 

t  ::    ::  : 

I  :    ::  :  : 
5 

75-4 
62-3 

49-2 

39-4 
32-8 
29.5 

26>2 
23-0 
197 

1 6*4 

No  limit 
20 

14 
10 

8 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

Henreshoff  built  a  wonderful  racing  scliooner  oC  A  class  for 
the  intonational  rules  called  the  "  Westward,"  and  in  the 
races  this  Yankee  clipper  sailed  nt  Cowes  she  proved  the 
most  weatheily  schooner  ever  built. 

It  is  Interesting  to  recall  some  old  records  of  speed  over 
courses  inside  the  Isle  of  Wight. 


Under  the  international  rule  the  old  troubb  of  ultra-light 

scantling  in  racing  yachts  has  been  completely  abolished,  for 

all  yachts  must  be  built  under  the  survey  and  classed  with  one 

of  the  three  classification  societies — ^Lloyd's  Re^ster  of  British 

and  Foreign  Shipping,  Germanischer  Lloyd,  or  Bureau  Veritas; 

and  yachts  of  the  international  cutter  classes  enumerated  above 

so  bnilt  will  be  daased  R.,  denoting  that  their  scantlings  are 

as  required  for  their  respective  rating  classes.    This  rule  was 

introduced  on  the  ist  of  January  1908;  England,  Germany, 

France,  Norway,  Sw^en*  Denmark,  Austria-Hungary,  Belgium, 

Holland,.  Italy,   Spain,   Finland,   Russia  and   the   Argentine 

Republic  agreed  to  adopt  it  until  December  3 ist,  1 91 7.  EngUnd 

adopted  tb«  new  system  a  year  before  it  formally  became 

international,  on  the  ist  of  Januaiy  1907. 

Racing  Yackis  BmUI  under  the  International  JZ«<e$.-*-Tbe  new 
rule  produced  the  type  of  yacht  dearcd — a  vessel  combining 
habitability  with  speed.  Amongst  the  handsomest  examples 
were  the  German  Emperor's  schooner  "  Meteor  "-  (1909),  and 
the  schooner  "Germania"  (1908),  400  tons  or  31I  metres 
measurement.  Class  A,  both  built  by  Krupp's  at  Kiel.  German 
designed,  German  built,  and  German  rigged  and  manned,  they 
demonstrated  the  wonderful  strides  made  by  Germany  in  yacht- 
ing. A  few  years  before  there  were  not  a  dosen  nnart  yachts 
in  Germany,  and  indeed  the  Kaiserlicher  Yacht  Club  at  Kiel 
was  only  founded  in  1887.  The  "  Germania  "  holds  the  record 
over  the  old  "  Queen's  course  "  at  Cowes,  having  in  1908  sailed 
it  a  quarter  of  an  hour  faster  than  any  other  vessel.  Her  time 
over  the  distance  of  about  47  to  48  nautical  m.  was  3  hours 
35  min.  XX  sees.,  or  at  the  rate  of  X3-i  knots.     In  1910 


I>ate. 

Yacht. 

Distance. 

Time. 

Remarks. 

1858 

The  Arrow 

45  miles 

4  h.  19  m. 

Cutter )  Same 
Cuner    vessel. 

1872 

The  Arrow 

50    n 

4  h.  40  m. 

1872 
1883 

KricmhUda 

50    ,. 

4  h.  37  m. 

Cutter. 

Marjorie 

50    „ 

4  h.  26  m. 

Cutter. 

1883 

Samoena 

50         M 

4  h.  15  m. 

Cutter. 

1885 

Loma 

50    „ 

4  h.  14  ra. 

Yawl. 

1885 

Irex 

50    ., 

4  h.  7  m. 

Cutter. 

1870 

Egeria 
Ofga 

50    ., 

4  h.  27  m. 

Schooner. 

1875 

50    „ 

4  h.  2^  m. 
4  h.  18  m. 

Schooner. 

1879 

Enchantress 

50    ,. 

American 

schooner. 

1908 

Cicely 

46    .. 

3  h.  43  m. 

British  sch. 

1902 

Meteor 

47    ,. 

3h.  som. 

American  sch. 

1908 

Shamrock- 

47    M 

4h.oni. 

British  cutter, 

1908 

Germania 

47    » 

3  h.  35  m. 

German  sch. 

In  1907, 1908, 1909  and  1910, 389  yachts  were  built  under  the 
internatioiial  rules: — A  dass,  3;  23  metres  class,  3;  15  metres 
dass,  15;  X2  metres,  21;  xo  metres,  33;  9  metres,  17; 
8  metres,  38;  7  metres,  46;  6  metres,  144;  &nd  5  metres,  22. 
The  23-metre  cutters  "  Shamrock,"  designed  by  Fife  (1908), 
belonging  to  Sir  Thomas  Lipton,  "  White  Heather  II."  (Fife; 
X907),  owned  by  Mr  Kennedy,  and  "BrynhUd"  (Nicholson; 
1907),  owned  by  Sir  James  Pender;  and  also  "  Ostara,? 
X5  metres  (Mylne;  1909),  owned  by  Mr  W.  P.  Burton; 
"  Hispania,"  15  metres  (Fife;  1909),  owned  by  the  king  of 
Spain;  "  Alachie  and  Cintra  "  (Fife)  in  the  x  3-metre  class,  have 
been  amongst  the  best  yachts  built  for  the  international  rules. 
During  the  seasons  of  1908,  1909  and  1910  there  was  splendid 
sport  in  England,  Germany,  France,  Belgium,  Norway  and 
Sweden,  and  indeed  all  over  the  continent;  the  yachts  were 
very  dosely  matched,  the  15-metres  (49-2  ft.),  8-metre$  (26' 2  ft.) 
and  6-metrcs  (19*7  ft.)  proving  perhaps  the  most  popular.  The 
national  authorities  0^  the  countries  which  adopted  the  inter- 
national roles  in  1906  have  now  formed  an  International 
Yacht-Radng  Union,  under  the  chairmanship  of  the  British 
Yacht-Racing  Association. 


YACHT-BUILDING  STATISTICS, 
The  number  and  tonnage  of  yachts  shown  on  Lloyd's  Register  (1909)  as  built  in  the  several  countries  are  as  foIk>ws^ 


COUNTRIES. 

IhiniD 

Bsnrn 

COMWISS. 

BXLCIDK 

and 

HOUJWB. 

DSMIUIX. 

Fmmgs. 

GsuiAira 

and 

iTALf. 

NOKWAV 

and 

SWEOCtf. 

Onm 
CouNTun. 

TOTAL. 

Stim  jcm  Moios  YAans>-  Total     . 
Smum  YaOBS-^—                   Total     . 

No. 

Tom. 

Na  Ton. 

No. 

Ton. 

No  [Tens. 

No.    Tom. 

Na 

Tom. 

No. 

Tou. 

No. 

Tom. 

No. 

Tom. 

Na 

Tons. 

I.44S 
J.XSI 

i«e.i6o 
S7JIO 

137  S.775 
ttr  3.131 

76 
"0 

>A54 

tos 

1,011 

iSa     S,74S 
347     Afi6» 

86 
647] 

6.6m 
6,8S4 

to 

40 

4*7 

571 

37 

JJOQ 

•86 
a<0 

66.107 
i3.»08 

«.a94 

5.>74 

aSj^iS 

04AM0 

GiaadTotal    . 

4.504 

•47.670 

40*  7,006 

»$ 

SfiVt 

(35 

7,409 

sag   10^807 

7W 

ii.488 

69 

098 

34a 

5.$47 

m 

70*405 

7,568 

J77.4»7 

American  yachts  of  75  jrosa  registered  toas  and  upwards  are 
included  under  "Other  Countries";  the  number  of  tnese  yschts 
built  in  America  is  2^  of  67,119  tons. 

In  1909,  in  the  United  King<u>ro.  from  January  to  May,  the  time 
of  the  year  when  yachts  are  generally  constructed,  there  were 
building,  or  built.  27  steam  yachu  of  3471  tons,  and  28  sailing 
yachts  of  963  tons;  this  includes  only  yrschts  of  10  tons  and 
upwards.  Excluding  the  small  craft  biult  in  America,  particulars 
of  which  are  dtflkiut  to  obtain,  there  were  on  the  register  7569 
yachu  with  a  tonrame  of  377,427.  In  1887  there  was  a  total  of 
about  3000  yachts  on  the  register  with  a  tonnage  of  132,718.  Since 
that  date,  therefore,  in  round  figures,  1500  had  been  added  to  the 
number  and  more  than  100,000  tons  to  the  tonnage.  This  fact 
s^ms  to  show  clearly  the  extension  of  the' pastime  of  yachting. 


The  Americans  Cup, 

This  intemational  trophy  mtu  originatly  a  cup  given  by  the  Royal 
Yacht  Squadron  at  Cowes,,  Isle  of  Wight,  on  the  22nd  of  August 
1851.  for  a  race  open  to  all  yachts,  with  no  time  allowamx  of  any 
kind,  the  course  bamg  "  round  the  Isle  of  Wight,  inside  the  No  Man's 
buoy  and  Sand  Head  buoy  and  outside  the  Nab."  Fifteen  vessels 
took  up  their  stations  m  Cowes  and  started  from  moorinj^s,-  la 
the  table  on  the  following  page  are  the  names  of  the  compeutora. 

The  fleet  started  at  10  o  clock.  At  the  No  Man's  buoy  the  yachts 
were  in  a  cluster,  "  Volante  "  leadins.  then  "  Freak  "^  "  Aurora." 
"  Gipey  Queen."  "  Ametfca,"  "  Beatnce,**  "  Alarm,"  "Arrow  "  and 
"  Bacchante  "  in  the  older  named.  The  other  six  brought  up  the 
rear,  and  the  "  Wyvem  "  returned  to  Cowes.    Pas«ng  out  to  the 


896 


Vicbt. 

RIC. 

Ton. 

Owner. 

Bcauicc      . 

ScboonB 

161 

Sir  W.  P.  CiKw. 

Cutttr 

S 

TTic  dnkc  0!  M.rlKomutli. 

Am«r*       ' 

Cuiwr 

Schooner 

MrA.H]lL 

Schooner 

>is 

G(p.yQ«ea' 

Sr  H.  B.  Hoghton. 

AUm 

Cutrtf" 

1 

Uri'Speeet. 

Cutter 

sriuiut  : 

'i^t 

»9' 

MrG.  H.Aclmi. 

Buxhute  . 

Cutter 

«o 

Mr  B.  H.  JoncL 

Fnk 

Cutler 

Mr  W.  CurKni. 

EdipH 

Cutler 

K 

Aui£^ 

Cutter 

Mr  T.'  L*  M jrchint. 

:'s"£i';^i!°:;Er,„'^ 


Edi 


!clipn 
IriffiinC 


■  9^SP-i 


,^?i'a 


Jimei  R.  Sleen  [or  the  trcciil  purpoK  of  co 
yacht!  at  Cowca.     George  SHen,  irfio  wu 

deMEiKd  her.  the  dewKner  bdng  « ton  of  Henr 
u  ^itouHiih.   The  regisUieif  ownen  of  the 
Sleveiu.  the  camrrtodore  of  the  NewYorkYt 
MrH.  WilkaindMiT.  B.  Finby.    Her 
■n  told,  mvtsn  •enneaWon!  the  man.  t 
boy  and  muter.    The  oM  *A  buildiiiB  wai 


, .  .31  fiwwful  nd  dean  and  the  I ._ 

■«idihi|a  nry  nntle  and  (hapely.  She  halt  *  dipper  bow  and 
tlUptical  usn.  Heriaib  piRiciilarly  weniupciiMmcut  tolb«e 
ol  Ibe  Endidi  veiicU.  Her  muii  ralicd,  and  ihe  carried  a  mainiail 
laced  to  the  boom,  whSch  in  thtae  days  1         '       ■       ' 


OEcaiwnally  ahe  • 
nnnled  aa  ^  ~ 
*i«l  B)  ft.;  ba__ 

Sit. out  board  only;  foienfl  »  (1 
It.    She  Hi  balluled  <nlh  fk" 


h  man) ;   hollow  boinpri 
lainfalr  18  [t.;  mainboor 

Lde^i 

ca,"  although  Dot  ori^nally 

.rica     aa  a  diaLlenR  trophy 
Oil  the  Ktg  nirviving  o»ner 


EJngpih  yachta  of  the  penod  povcfled. 
The  eup  won  at  Co™  by  the  "  A  mei 
Intended  ai  a  ehalkii(e  e"n-  ""  •ttpri 
Vacbt  Chib  by  tht  oicn* 

aad  named  tht "  Amria. _ 

of  the  cup,  Georie  L.  S.  Schuyler,  attached  to  the  trophy 

^[t  which  tett  forth  the  condiliona  under  which  all  rac«  fo .^ 

nnl  take  plan.  In  brief  the  eoDdiciona  are:  (1)  That  the  iai*> 
■liul  be  between  one  yacht  tiuilt  in  the  country  of  Ibe  chal^nEing 
d^  and  one  yacht  buCi  ia  thennnlryof  thecHibhoMinfrthecup. 
(>)  ThU  the  (iie  of  the  yachu,  if  of  one  man.  nnin  bt  not  leu  than 
&  ft.  L.W.L.  and  not  iMice  than  90  tl.  L.W.U  If  of  iw^ma.'Mcd 
^  M  kai  than  •<>  It.  I-W.L.  and  not  more  than  115  ft.  L.W.U 
"      ■  -      ■       ■  ■         -    ■         11  monthi'  notice  ol  the  raw, 


(jl  Ttw  ilnliiaMiiiL 


led),  and  M 
.    (4)Thev< 


ybym 


a>  Ihe  UnUiat  Afttmna 
ind  the  dub  holdins  ibe 
"  eaticfactOTT 


make  any  arrannment  eaticfactorT 
a,  imnber  of  triau.  nilea  a*d  iniUj^ 

1870  Mr  Jamei  Aihbuty  of  Briahion  diallEiind  «rilh  ike 
ncr  -'  Camlitia,"  aad  in  1871  vUh  aaoilier  acliDciiKT  tk 
unia."  In  both  caaea  Ihe  event  waa  a  teat  of  lival  lype^ 
nbria  "  and  "  Liimiia  "  bdng  old-faahknicd  BHtiah  acbooatfa 
the  veiaela  they  met  were  Ibe  pick  of  the  AmokAn  bnwder 
liallower  typet.  "  Camlnia  "  had  to  meet  fourteen  oppobeni^ 
I  I8;i  Uk  Limua  "  read  aiainat  one  opponent  only.  The 
ican*.  however,  although  they  afned  to  lace  oat  vbael  only 
K  Ihe  "  Livoiua,"  brought  leveral  yadila  up  Id  tbc  line 
■dected  their  defoider  at  the  Ian  moment.   Tbefintdetei 


everely.  and  evenlual^the  Ai 

'Sappho."  lAich  eaaily 

The  next  challenfO 

idther  the  Khooner  "  CounicH  at  Dufleii 

Sr  Richard  Sutton  daBenfcd 
ieno,  R.N.,  wilh  "  CaUua.' 

...    .  ,    .-  .  ..y  were  of  the  nature  of  iiuh 

avy  plank.^jn'edse  type  of  cjttcr  and  the  prevailiiA 

-— ..  ^ft^  01  bitiad  iiElil4raught  tloop.    The  coateata  pnned 

Ihe  aupenoriiy  of  the  American  alocp^ 

In  1BA6  tbe  plank4n<edge  type  waa  abandoned  in  Ei]|>land, 
and  when  the  Scnttiih  yacht  "tnilth"  wai  built  ia  1S87  la  chal- 

..  waa  hoped  that  ihe  would  ii>»t  wtih  uH-rm 

however,  although  of  greater  beam 


,    .   _, Geneata"aBd^Galaiea,' 

wu  quite  eaaily  defeated  by  the  ccatfo-boaid  Bloop  "  VoiunteFt." 

Ihe  modified  form  of  the  "Tliil' 


"  and  "  Vohnrteer  "  ■  of   iMj 


s  tbe  fonn  of  the  cl 


!what  lightef 

waalbc&nt 

artic^pi,^ 
.  .c«p  faa  and 


converging  the  Aneman  yachta  were  atill  UHially  k 

ill  iliiiTiiiii I  Ihan  Ihi  ilialkiniii    The"Tbinli 

veiifieT  t>iiilt  in  Great  Britain  expnaaly  for  Ibe  mair] 
nee  in  l»8;  tbe  typeainfaihiononbolhiideiDf  the 
convened,  and  deep-drau^  fin-keeled  ve     * 
light  itBllow  bulla  took  ihe  plan  of  the  for 
American  aloopa  and  deep-ketled  wail-ait 

l8g2  aome  aplendid  Kmi-An-kecied  cuiten  a  ine  new  paitem  wvt 
built  in  the  40-iatinK  dan  for  Ibe  ordinary  Engliih  coail  irgiitai, 
and  in  1851  the  fin-keel  type  in  England  was  rvcn  more  sicreHful. 
T(  -  ^  aculteia  "  Sriunnia,*-  -Valkyrie  ll.,*'  "Sataniw- 
ar  1."  built  in  iSfv  liandianiely  defeated  a  HeTTeahcd 

yi  Savahoe,"  whidi  went  over  from  Amerka  ta  lare 

■g  .  9^  ''"  itrenph  ol  the  victonea  of  "  Valkyrie  11." 

Li  m  when  he  meed  for  tbe  America's  cup  with  faia  cutler 

"  in  Ihe  auumn  of  iSm.    The  Americana,  bowe^v, 
hi  e  fleet  of  defendcn, "  Colonia,"  "  Pilgrini."  "  ]  ubi>c  " 

u  N"  and  Ihe  taltcf  beat  "Valkyrie  IP'    In  Ihe  follow 

in  ! "  Vigaant "  cmied  the  Aibniic  and  need  in  Briiiih 

C  1.  who  had  desir>ed  " think:"  and^ Valkyrie  11-" 

u  Britannia,"  was  ntrnmiavoned  by  \jrA  Dunnva  to 

^   ,        ......yrie  111-"  ipecially  ita  an     Amorica'a  cup"  m  ia 

1695.  "  Valkyiie  III."  waa  a  veiy  eilieine  fiD-kceled  boat,  and 
(or  Che  Gr«  time  tbe  chaliengtr  appeared  to  have  DuibuDt  tfie 
defending  tieaigner-  "  Valkyrie  111- '  carried  ij.oi?  aq-  ft.  ci  aail 
10  the  American  "  fXender't "  ]>.6o>.  It  wai  aud  that  Ibe 
WalBOn  boat  actually  had  leia  displacement.  BoUi  were  no  fi- 
L.W.L,,  ■'  Valkyrie  111-"  bein(  139  ft.  oyer  all  againn  "  DefftKlrr'.  " 
i?l.  and  "Valkyrie  III."  a6-a  ft.  beam  a^iwt  "  Defender's" 
13-03  ft-  Tbe  lanl  wm  unsatislaetoiy.  In  the  firat  race  Lord 
Dunnven  claimed  that  "  Valkyrie  111."  was  hampered  by  the  wash 
ol  MelnRn  foNowing  the  nee,  and  hi<  yacht  iru  B  m.  49  aec.  aatetiL 
,.  .1.  __.j  __  "Valkyne"  beat  "  Defender"  by  yatmri. 

whkh  "  Defendw"'  waa  laniidly  diaabled. 
ichi  waa  diiquiliAed.  n  ihal  both  ereMa 
Jn  the  ibird  nee  Lord  Dsniavn  obiected 


n  theCDTiKted 

lul  at  Ihe  Bar.  _.     ...__ 

»n  prMe«  the  EngHrfi  yacht 


"Defen- 


it  and  190J  Sir  TbOBiM  Upua  tried  t»  vi*  il»  cv 


TACHTING 


S97 


«{tfc  thne  very  costly  And  flstrene  venda.  **  Shamrock  I./' 
** Shamrock  11.'' and  •'Shamrock  III."  No.  I.  and  No.  III.  were 
designed  by  W.  Fife,  and  No.  II.  by  G.  L.  Watson.  la  1899 
'*  Shamrock  1."  wps  rather  easily  defeated  by  "  Columbia.'*  In 
1901  the  Americana  were  not  etpedally  raccesaful  in  building  the 
vessel  which  they  had  prepared  to  defend  the  cup,  and  in  the  trial 
races  the  old  1899  yacht  "  Columbia.*'  sailed  by  Capuin  Charles 
Barr-^  half-brother  of  the  skipper  of  the  Scottish  yacht  "  Thistle  '* 
— defeated  the  new  vessel  "  Constitution."  whkh  had  been  built 
for  the  defence  of  the  tnqyhy  for  1901 ;  consequently  the  New  York 
Yacht  Club  again  selected  the  "  Columbia^'  to  defend  the  cup 
against  "  Shamrock  II."  After  very  ckne  racing  the  "  Columbia 
—which  was  the  better  handled  boat— retained  the  priae. 


m 


On  this 


ndenul  example  of  a  large 
pram-bow  and  light  skimming-dish  huO. 


a  worn 


The  next  contest  (or  the  cop 
Herreshoff  turned  out  in  "  Reliance 
fin-keeled  boat  with  full  , 

She  was  of  the  lightest  possible  construction  (bronze  with  steel 
web  frames),  90  ft.  length  L.W.L..  144  ft.  length  over  all.  with 
16,160  sq.  ft.  01  sail  area,  2'$  ft.  10  in.  beam,  and  a  draught  of  19  ft. 

fin.  "  Reliance  "  was  a  far  more  extreme  vessel  than  Shamrock 
II.'*  The  latter  had  a  deeper  body  and  a  less  prammed  overhang 
forward.  With  the  same  water-line  as  **  Reliance,"  the  English 
yacht  had  rather  over  a  foot  less  beam.  The  chief  difference  in 
dimeaflkms.  however,  was  in  the  sail  area;  "Shamrock  III." 
carried  14.337  sq.  ft.,  or  1823  sq.  ft.  less  than  "  Reliance."  The 
result  was  a  very  easy  victory  for  .the  **  Reliance.*' 


Racb3  pos  tbb  America's  Cor 


Date. 


Aug.  71, 1851 
Aug.  8, 1870 
Oct.  16, 1 87 J 
Oct.  18, 1871 
Oct.  19. 1871 
Oct.  21, 1871 
Oct.  23.  1671 
Aug.  II,  1876 
Aug.  13, 1876 
Nov.  9, 1 881 
Nov.  10, 1881 
Sept.  14. 1885 
Sept.  16, 1885 
Sept.  9, 1886 
Sept.  II.  1886 
Sept.  37,  T887 
Sept  30, 1887 


Name. 


Tonnage 


America 

Aurora 

Magic 

Cambria 

Columbia 

Livonia 

Columbia 

Livonia 

Livonia 

Columbia 

Sappho 

Livonia 

Sappho 

Livonia 

Madeleine 
C'tess.of  Dufferin 

Madeleine 
C*tess.of  Duflferin 

Mischief 

Atlanta 

Mischief 

Atlanu 

Puritan 

Genesta 

Puritan 

Genesta 

Mayflower 

Galotta 

Mayflower 

Galatea 

Volunteer 

Thistle 

Volunteer 

Thistle 


170 

47 
97-2 

227*6 

220 

280 

230 
280 
280 
220 

310 
280 

280 

151-49 
138-20 

15«*49 
138*20 

79^7 

171-74 
171*14 

171 -74 
17114 
209-08 

»S3-94 
209*08 

a53-94 


Course. 


From  Cowes  around   Isle  of  Wight   (Aurora 

second). 
N.Y.Y.C  Course  (Cambria  tenth). 

N.V.V.C  Couiae. 

20  miles  to  windward  off  Sandy  Hook  Light- 
ship and  return. 
N.Y.Y.C.  Course  (Columbia  disabled). 

20  miles  to  windward  off  Sandy  Hook  Lightship 

and  return. 
N.Y.Y.C  Onu9t. 

N.Y.Y.C  Coune. 

30  miles  to  windward  off  Sandy  Hook  Lightship 

and  return. 
N.Y.Y.C  Coune. 

16  miles  to  leeward  from  Buoy  S  off  Sandy  Hook 

and  return. 
N.Y.Y.C  CVNirse. 

20  miles  to  leeward  off  Sandy  Hook  Lightship 

and  return. 
N.Y.Y.C.  Course. 

30,  miles  to  leewaid  off  Sandyf  Hook  Lightship 

and  return. 
N.Y.Y,C  Course. 

JO  ndles  to  windward  off  Scotland  Lightship 
andretuTB. 


M.  S. 


AUowJ 


•  s 

•  s 


0^38 


o  38 
o  38 
0*39 
o    S 

o"6 


Ebpsed 
Time. 


n.  M.  S. 
10  37 
10  55 


t 

6 
3 
3 

3 

4 

I 

4 
5 
5 
5 

7 
7 


o 

o 

7  54 

34  57 

17  42 

43    o 


I 
6 

S3 

12 

33 


I 


33 
49 

5 

441 
34  35 

34  53 
19  47 
46    o 

54  53 
36  52 

6    5 

33  53 


448 


i 

6 
5 
5 

5 

I 

7 

4 
5 
5 
5 


3 

4 


«4 

30 
41 

39  ai 
49  o 
1848 

12  46I 
42  56i 
54  3« 


Corrected 
Time. 


TOrST 

10  37    O 
10  55   o 

3  58  26 

4  37  38 
6  1941 

6  40  45, 

3  18  15S 

4  a  25 

4  17  35 

5  36 
I   a 
446 
5  It  44 
5  33  54 

7  46 
4  17 


2 

17 


53 

46 

o 

9 


4  45  29i 

4  54  53 

6  )2  34 

5  3  14 


'4 


5a 

4> 


5    „  . 

5  38  43 

6  49    o 

7  18 
4  53 


^t 


13,41} 

43  56J 


5 

5 

5  54  45 


Wins  by 


M.  S. 
18   o 

39  "-7 
27    4 
1033I 

15  to 
3331 
3537 

10  59 

37  14 

38  3pi 

38  54 

16  19 

138 

X3   a 

39  9 

«9  231 

11  48} 


Sailing  I.ength. 


M.  S. 
148 
I  48 

•  • 

I  33 
099 

•  ■ 

o  39 

•  • 

o  39 

«  ■ 

o    6 

«  « 

o  6 
o  16 

■  • 

043 
•  43 
0*43 


I  57 
» • 

»  57 

•  • 

I  57 


H.  M.  S.  n.  M.  S. 

4    5  47  4    5  47 

4  13  33  4  II  35 
3  35  I  3  25  I 
3  37  34  3 

3  24  39  3 

3  20  53  3 

*  2  **  *  ^ 

5  844  5    8 
3  56  25  3  55 

3  55    9t  3  55    9 

4  44  13  4  43  43 


Kl.   S. 
548 

1035 

0  40 

849 
047 

•  • 

10    8 

•  • 

634 

1  30 

I 

3  35 

041 

7    3 

I  19 


Oct.  7»«893 
Oct.  9, 1893 
Oct.  13, 1893 
Sept.  7.189s 
Sept.  10, 1895 
Sept.  13. 189s 
Oct.  16, 1999 
Oct.  17, 1899 
Oct.  30, 1899 
Sept.  38, 190X 
Oct.  3, 1901 
Oct.  4ti90t 
Aug.  33. 1903 
Aug.  35, 1903 
Sept.  S,i$Oi 


Vigilant 

Valkyrie  II. 

Vigilant 

Valkyrie  IL 

Vigilant 

Valkyrie  IL 

Defender 

Valkyrie  111. 

Defender 

Valkyrie  IIL 

Defender 

Valkyrie  IIL 

Columbia 

Shamrock 

Columbia 

Shamrock 

Columbia 

Shamrock 

Colimibia 

Shamrock  II. 

Columbia 

Shamrock  IL 

Columbia 

Shamrock  II. 

Reliance 

Shamrock  III. 

Reliance 

Shamrock  III. 

Rdlance 

Shamrock  IIL 


9678 

9678 
93-11 
96-78 

93-57* 
100-36 
101-49 
100*36 
101*49 
I00<36 
IOI-49 
103*135 
101*092 
103-135 
101*092 

I03'IT 

103*565 

103-355 

103*79 

I02'355 

103-79 

102-355 

103*79 

iqp-4i 
104-37 
108-41 

104*37 
io8*39 
104-37 


1 5  miles  to  windward  off  Sootland  L^itship  and 

return.  ' 
Course — eqoilatefs]  triangle — 30  miles. 

15  miles  to  windward  off  Sootland  UghtASpand 

return. 
15  miles  to  windward  off  Scotland  Ugfatshipand 

return. 
Course— equilateral  triangle— 30  mtles.'^ 

15  mOes  to  windward  and  return  fran  Sandy 

Hook  Lightship^ 
15  miles  E.S.E.  from  Sandy  Hook  Lightship  and 

fctum — ^30  miles. 
10  miles  trtai^igular  from  Sandy  Hook  Ughtahip 

— ^30  miles.  , 

15  miles  S.  by  W.  from  Sandy  Hook  Lightship 

and  return — ^30  miles. 
15  miles  E.  by  S.  from  Sandy-  Hook  Lightship 

and  return — ^30  miles. 
Course— equilateral  triaaglo— 30  mile^ 

15  miles  S.S.E.  from  Sandy  Hook  Lightship  and 

return—smiles. 
15  miles  to  windward  and  letuin    3P  nflea^ 

Course— eqiribtenl  triai^le— 30  mileK 

15  milei  to  windward  and  retuin— 30  mflee. 


4 
5 
3 

3 

3 

4 
4 
3 
3 
4 
4 
3 
.) 
3 
3 
4 


t 
53  53 

4    7 

n" 

3835 

44  43 
31  7 
31 44 
13 18 
16  10 
33  40 
33  38 
32 
41 

» 

38 


17 
17 

54 

10 

o 


35  36 

24  39 

25  19 
59  55 


Si 


4  53  53 

5  4    I 


38    9 

44  43 

30  24 

31  44 
12  35 
16  10 


33 
32 


3' 
«7 


39  20 

14  54 
16  13 
38    o 


Did  ne  t  finish. 


RemcMund.    t  Disqwilified  for  foulk^ '■' Defender.'/  -I  Withdrew  on  crossing  the  tine.       i  Carried  away  topmast  and  trithdr^.* 

(B.  H.o,/ 


M 


YAK— YAKUTSK 


TAK,  Itc  wad  (ud  doDodoud)  ol  of  O^Tibeiui  ptMau; 
a  ■pcciei  nearly  tUled  to  the  bisoa  grouP'  The  yak,  Boi 
IFei^pu)  tniHHitHi,  [i  one  o[  the  finest  uid  targcsl  d[  Ibc 
Mrild  oien,  charutcriicd  by  the  growth  of  long  ihoggy  hair  on 
the  fianki  and  undet  paiti  of  the  body  and  Ihe  well-known  bushy 
UU.  In  Europe  a  false  [mpresiion  of  Iheyai  is  prevalent,  owing 
to  the  Fact  that  ail  the  specimens  impoited  have  hdongcd  ciiber 
Lo  a  EnuU  dome^Licated  bieed  Irooi  Darjiling ,  or  to  tialf-biceds; 
the  luiei  being  genenJiy  black  and  while,  inMead  of  tbe  unilonn 


Oorni 


nl  y«k,  Bm  rPitflatm)  ptania 


Uack  ol  the  pun-bred  ud  wild  tnimiL  Kone  of  such  half- 
brcedi  can  compare  with  the  magnifinnt  half-tamed  animda 
kepi  by  the  nalivel  ol  the  elevated  Rupsu  plateau,  S.  of  the 
Indus,  where  ihe];  iSord  tha  only  mcani  ol  transport  by  this 
iDuie  between  Liddc  tad  India.  But  even  these  (re  inferioi 
to  the  wild  yak,  which  standi  nearly  6  ft.  at  the  ihoulder, 
and  h  absolutely  conRoed  to  the  add  central  plateau  of  Tibet. 
Yak  have  the  gcest  diudviniagp  that  cbey  will  not  eat  ton, 
and  the  large  pure-bred  animals  will  not  live  at  low  elevalioni. 
The  taib  are  used  in  India  as  fly-whisks,  under  the  name  of 
diowrii.  The  title  of  "grunting  oi "  properly  beloogt  only 
cited  b]      ■ 


YAKUB  KHAH  (1849-' 


t,  ei-amirof  Afghanistan,  son  ol 
was  oom  in  1844.  He  showed  great  abilily 
was  made  govcniot  of  Heial  by  his  father, 
but  lirokc  into  open  lebeltion  against  bim  in  iSja,  and  was 
imprisoned  in  1874  in  Kabul.  Howerer,  when  Sbere  Ali  in  TS7S 
icA  before  the  British,  he  handEdavei  the  govcmineni  to  Yakub, 
who,  on  his  father's  death  in  the  following  Fetmisrv,  w>«  pro- 
daimed  amir,  and  signed  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  British  it 
Candamak.  He  agreed  to  ttci^ive  a  British  resident,  and  was  in 
turn  to  receive  a  subsidy  and  support  (gainst  foreign  attack. 
But  in  September  o(  the  sarae  year  his  revolted  troops  attacked 
Ihe  British  tesdcory.  and  the  nsident.  Sir  Louis  Cavagnarl, 
and  his  staff  and  suite  were  cut  to  pieces.  This  outrage  was 
inslanily  aTcnged,  for  in  October  Earl  (then  Sir  Frederiii) 
Bobcils  with  a  large  force  defeated  the  Afghans  on  Um  fitb  and 
look  possesson  of  Kabul  an  the  nth.  Yakub  Khan  thereupon 
■bdicated,  took  refuge  in  the  British  camp,  and  was  sent  to  India 
on  the  ijih  of  December. 

.  YAKD-SHIHA,  an  island  Ulonging  to  Japan,  lying  S.  of  Kiu- 
ihiu,  in  30°  ja'  N.  and  130°  30'  E.  It  b  an  irre^r  pentagon, 
t4  n-  in  width  and  the  same  in  leoglh.  It  is  separated  from 
Tancga-shiiu  by  Ihe  Vioccuis  Strait  (Vaku-kaikyfi),  i>l  Ri. 
•ids,  a«d  it!  luriaoe  is  brdien  by  lofty  mauntaiBS,  oC  whitb 
tac-dake  riicS  (0  a  height  Of  &s  15  f  t.,  and  tboihi-dake  to  a  height 
df  (J40  ft.  It  is  covend  with  dense  forest.  In  wHch  are  Mine 
<)1  the  finest  ctypioioeiui  in  Jipan,  known  as  Yatu-mtL 

VAkinSK.  a  province  ol  E.  Siberia,  including  nearly  Ihe 
vfmle  of  the  basin  of  the  Lena,  and  covering  an  area  of  1,530,153 

tq.m..  It  has  the  Atctic  Ocean  on. the  N.,  the  govemmenu  ol, 


Yeniseisk  and  Mutdt'  on  the  W.,  and  lAudk  awt  Anur  et 

the  S..  and  it  separated  (loin  the  PaclBc  (Scm  of  Okboisk)  by 

narrow  Maritime  Province.    The  Vilim  plateau,  ijoo  u, 

1  It.  in  altitude,  bordered  on  tbe  S.E,  by  the  Stanovoi  Moun. 

s,  occupies  the  S.E.  portion  of  Ihe  province.     lis  nuiu. 

elevated  valleys,  intersected  by  ranges  of  Bat,  dome-ihapiil 

which  rise  nearly  looo  ft.  above  the  pUteau,  lonn  u 

ise  desert  of  forest  and  manh,  visited   only  by  Tunpn 


llemenls.  The  high  border- 
riches  from  the  South  Mu; 
IS  compelling  the  river  A 
X  direciioii.  An  alpine 
along  its  N.W.  margin,  and 
the  spun  between  the  Vi 


IT  gold-mi     _ 
idgc  of  the  plaleau  (see  SuEtu) 

dan  to  make  a   great   bend  ii 
aiunlty   Aint    the    pUleau  il 

.im  and  iha  L<iiw.     Tbe  liiur 


lich  the 


imble  uncontrolled. 

led  with  dense  lorctls,  through  which    none  but  ibi 

B  can  find  Iheir  way.    Tbe  lummiti  of  Ibe  mounliiu 

6000  ft.,  mostly  rise  above  the  limits  of  tree  vegeuiio*, 

00  case  pass  the  snow-line.    The  tuminin  and  slcfiH 

alike  are  ilrewn  with  ilirii  of  crystalline  rock,  mostly  hidda 

del  tUck  indusUtioas  ol  Uchens,  amid   which   Ihe  Luck 

DC  is  able  to  Sod  sustenance.    Bitch  and   aspen  grow  la 

:  lower  slopes;  and  in  Ihe  narrow  valley  botioms  Lbickai 

poplar  and  wiUow  or  pitches  of  jpass  spring  up  on  lU 

scanty  alluvium.   All  Ibe  necessaries  of  life  ior  the  BOld-digpW 

'         to  be  shipped  from  Irkutsk  down  the  Lena,  and  drposii^d 

itrepAla,  whence  they  are  transported  fn  winter  by  mnaf 

indeer  to  their  deslinatioo.    A  fine  drawn  from  the  CDOUk 

of  Ihe  Vilim  N.E.  towards  that  of  the  Aldan  scpanlct  ibt 

mountain  regions  from  tlic  devaicd  plaint  (1500  to  Jdoo  ft) 

which  fringe  the  highlands  ^1  Ihi  way  from  the  upper  Usi 

to  VeAhne-Kolymsk,   and   probably   lo    the    mouth   ol  Ik 

Kolyma.    Vast  meadows,  sonieiimes  marshy,  extend  over  tk* 

plaint  in  the  S.W.;  farther  N.  moBes  and    Uchens  are  ibl 

predominant  vegetation.     The  surface  is  muih  furrowed  H 

rivers    and    diversified     by    mountain-chains    (Verkhojuil. 

Kolymsk  and  Alazeya}  about  the  real  charactar  of  which  link 

it  known.    Beyoid  the  elevated  plains  vast  Ivndras,  caipeu' 

wiih  nuMGS  and  lichens,  stretch  to  the  shores  ol  the  ice-bouad 


farther  E.    The  iilandt  fall  in 


^^^andt    The^t 


wtiiaty  of  the  Yenisei,  or  c" 

Lena-riHOniheW.  tlip<< 
■     -  ■■   ■      -boui  to*  S-  ■• 


The  g,ea.  ar 
the  Baikal  M< 
reccivM  Irom  t 

t^kaia  (700  m.)li'miNjaMe"o™ifl^'™y'bMn'p»«,'^'£' 
coune.  and  Ihe  Aldan  tiiu  m.)  it  navigiied  hoo  Uh-M^ 
On  the  left  is  the  Vilyui  jljoo  ai.),  which  hat  an  bnmenie  dni^ 
area  en  Ihe  bwer  plains,  and  hu  been  navigated  ain  i.''?'  ^Tb 


^  h  navigable  by  ateanien 


siderable  river:    the  Yana  (^jo  m),  Indigirka  '^5°J.'K'»n'*3 
flow  N.  awl  N.E.  into  the  ArciicOcean.  ,    ,  ,_. 

The  grsahet.  granitic  lyenilti  and  gneisKt  of  the  hi{h  pui^ 
are  wrapped  about  by  a  variety  of  cryualliiie  alatet,  Huoaiaa  u° 
Uurentuni  and  Silurian  and  Dcvoilan  UmeuoMs  and  aa"^ 
eitend  over  vati  areat.  Farther  N.  the  Carboniltmit,  Citnow 
and  Juiasitc  lormatloia  are  tpread  over  a  wida  ng«w-  ■"fJt 
whole  it  covered  with  Claciil  depoMtt  in  Ihe  highlawb  anif>^ 
pott-CTacial  eliewhetK    Tbe  mineral  wealth  of  YakiDik  '  H 

Stat ;  but  gold  and  salt  (obtained  (rom  ipiingil  only  ate  """ 
oal  Ksi  be«i  discovered  oa  ibe  Vilyui  and  oa  the  kmr  Lea*-  „ 
Yakutak   hat.unparalltirid   eatreinca  of  cold  aad  k^ 


YAKUTSK-^YALE  UNIVERSITY 


M9 


Vcsfkhtaramlc  oft  the  Yana  (fij*  34'  N.  and  134*  m'  E.),  frotts  of 
"79*5  .P*  have  been  obaerved,  and  the  avetage  temperature  of  the 


station  of  Sacaatyr  at  the  nouth  of  the  Lena  (73*  33'  N.)*  ha«  a 
winter  so  cokfana  so  pfotracted.  And  yet  at  Sagastyr  temperatures 
of  —63*6*  have  been  observed,  and  the  average  temperature  of 
February  if  only  — 43*6*.  At  Yakutsk  the  average  temperature  of 
the  winter  ts  -'^^  ,  and  the  soil  b  frozen  to  a  depth  of  600  ft. 
(MiddcndoHf).  The  Lena,  both  at  Kirensk  and  at  Yakutsk,  is 
free  from  ice  for  only  161  days  in  the  year,  the  Yana  at  Ust'Yansk 
for  105.  At  Yakutsk  only  115  days  and  at  Verkhoyansk  only  73 
have  no  snow;  the  interval  between  the  latest  frosts  of  one 
season  and  the  earliest  frosts  of  the  nesct  is  barely  37  days. 

The  bulk  of  the  iikhabitants  are  Yakuts;  there  are  some 
30,000  Russians,  many  of  them  exiles,  ana  a  certain  number 
of  Tunguscs,  Tatars^  Lamuts  and  Chukchis.  The  estimated 
pop.  in  1906  was  300,600.  The  Yakuts  bdong  to  the 
Turkish  stock,  and  speak,  a  dialect  of  Turkish,  with  an  ad- 
mixture of  Mongolian  woids.  They  call  themselves  Sokha  or 
Sakhov  (pL  Sokhalar  or  Sakhalov),  their  present  name  having 
b^en  borrowed  by  the  Russians  from  the  Tunguses,  who  call 
them  Yeko  or  Yckot.  Most  probably  they  once  inhabited 
S.  Siberia,  especially  the  upper  Yenisei,  where  a  Tatar  tribe 
calling  itself  Sakha  still  survives  in  Minusinsk.  They  are 
middle-sized,  have  dark  and  rather  narroijf  eyes,  a  broad 
flat  nose,  thick  black  hair  and  little  beard.  They  are  very 
laborious  and  enterprising,  and  dis{^y  in  schools  much  more 
intelligence  than  the  Ttmguses  or  jBuryats.  Their  implements 
show  a  great  degree  of  skill  and  some  artistic  taste.  They 
Uvc  in  log  yurlas  or  huts,  with  small  windows,  into  which 
plates  of  ice  or  pieces  of  skin  are  inserted  instead  of  glass. 
During  summer  they  abandon  their  wooden  dwellings  and 
encamp  in  conical  tents  of  birch  bark.  Their  food  is  chiefly 
flesh,  and  they  drink  kumiss,  or  mares'  milk.  Though  nearly 
all  are  nominally  Christians,  they  retain  much  of  their  original 
Shamanism.  Their  settlements  are  now  steadily  advancing 
S.  into  the  hunting  domains  of  the  Tunguses,  who  give  way 
before  their  superior  dvilixation. 

The  province  is  divided  into  five  districts,  the  chief  towns 
of  which  are  Yakutsk,  Olekmmsk,  Sredne-Koljrmsk,  Verk- 
hoyansk and  VUuisk.  Though  the  production  of  gold  from 
gold  washings  has  been  on  the  decrease,  over  15,000  workers 
are  employed  in  the  Olekma  and  Vitlm  gold-mines.  Only 
43,000  acres  are  under  crops,  chiefly  barley.  Most  of  the 
inhabitants  are  engaged  in  live-stock  breeding,  and  keep  rein- 
deer and  sledge-dogs.  Fish  is  an  important  artic]e.oC  food,  eH>eci- 
ally  in  the  Kolyma  region.  In  the  N.  hunting  is  important, 
the  skins  taken  being  prindpally  those  of  squirrels,  ermines, 
bares,  foxes,  Arctic  foxes,  and  a  few  sables,  beavers  and  bears. 

The  principal  channel  of  communication  is  the  Lena.  As 
soon  as  the  spring  arrives,  scores  of  boats  are  built  at 
Kachungsk,  Verkholensk  and  Ust-IIginsk,  and  the  goods  brought 
on  sledges  in  winter  from  the  capital  of  Siberia,  including  con- 
siderable amounts  of  com  and  salt  meat,  are  shipped  down 
the  river.  A  few  steamers  descend  to  the  delta  of  the  Lena,-  and 
return  with  cargoes  of  fish  and  furs.  Cattle  are  brous^t  from 
Transbaikalia.  Two  routes,  mere  horse-tracks,  radiate  from 
Yakutsk  to  Ayan  and  to  Okhotslc.  Manufactured  goods  and 
groceries  are  imported  to  Yakutsk  by  the  former. 

See  F.  Thiess,  Das  Cmmrrument  Jakutslt  in  Ostsihirien,  in  Pdef' 
mann's  MiUdlungen  (1  Spy),  and  Maydell.  l^ti«i*  mnd  PorsehtH^^i 
im  Jakutskischen  Cthid  tii  Ostsibirien  (St  PrterBbure,  i  vols.,  tSoj- 
1896).  (P.  A.  K.:  J.  T.  Bb.) 

TAKDTSK,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Russia,  capital  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name,  In  62**  7'  N.  and  129"  44'  £.,  1165  m.  N.B. 
of  Irkutsk,  on  a  branch  of  the  Lena.  Pop.  about  7000. 
TTic  old  fort  is  destroyed,  except  its  five  wooden  towers.  The 
wooden  houses  are  built  upon  high  basements  to  protect  them 
from  the  floods,  Yakutsk  possesses  a  theological  seminary  and 
a  cathedral.  Its  merchants  carry  on  trade  in  fxirs,  mammoth 
ivory  and  reindeer  hides.    The  town  was  founded  in  1632. 

TALB  UNIVERSITY,  the  third  oldest  univeisity  In  the  United 
States^  at  New  Haven,  Cdmiectiait*  / 


The  {ovmderB  of  the  New  ffieven  ooksy,  like  those  of  Haafia- 
chuaetts  Bay,  cherished  the  establishment  of  a  ooUege  as  an 
cBientia]  part  of  their  ideal  of  a  Christian  state,  of  whidi  educa- 
tion and  religion  ahould  be  the  basis  and  the  chief  fniits.  New 
Haven  since  X644  had  oontrflmted  annually  to  the  siappon  of 
Harvard  College,  but  the  distance  of  the  Cambridge  school  fram 
southern  New  England  seensed  in  those  days  eonsidevable;  and 
a  aepaiBte  edoeatibnal  establishment  was  also  called  for  by  a 
divergent  development  in  politics  and  theology.  Yale  waa 
founded  by  ministers  aelected  by  the  churches  of  the  colony,  ts 
President  Tliomaa Oap  saki,  to  the  end  that  th^  might  **  educate 
ministefs  in  our  own  way.*^  Though  **  CoUege  land  *'  waa  set 
apart  in  1647,'  Yale  College  had  its  actual  beginning  in  1700  when 
a  few  clergymen  met  in  the  New  Haven  with  the  purpoee  "  to 
stand  as  trustees  or  undertakers  to  found,  erect  and  govern  the 
CoUege "  for  whkh  at  various  times^  donatiooa  of  hooka  and 
money  had  been  made.  The  formal  establishment  was  in  1701. 
The  Connecticut  legislature  in  October  granted  a  charter  which 
seems  to  have  been  partly  drafted  by  Judge  Samuel  Sewall  of 
Boston;  the  Mather  family  also  were  among,  those  hi  Boston 
who  welcomed  and  labouxed  for  the  estabfishraesC  of  a  seminary 
of  a  stricter  theology  than  Harvard,  and  the  ten  *  clergymen  who 
were  the  foundeis  and  first  trustees  of  the  College  were  graduates 
of  Harvard.         _      .      _ 

The  legislature,  feuful  of  provoking  in  En^and  attentioo 
either  to  the  new  school  or  to  the  powers  used  in  chartering  it, 
assumed  mnrely  to  license  a  **  oollegiale  school,"  and  mSde  ita 
poweiB  of  eonferring  degrees  as  unobtmsive  as  possible.  In 
1703  the  teaching  of  Yale  began.  -  In  the  early  years  the 
upper -students  studied  where  the  rector  lived,  and  considerahk 
groups  of  the  lower  students  were  drawn  off  by  thdr  totois  to 
different  towns.  In  1716  the  trustees  purchased  a  lot  in  Ne# 
Haven,  and  in  the  next  year  the  College  was  established  there  by 
the  legisliiture.  Commencemcbt  was  held  at  New  Haven  in  the 
same  year,  but  the  last  of  the  several  student  bodSea  did  not 
disband  until  1710.  The  school  did  not  gain  a  name  untH  the 
completion  of  the  first  buildteg  in  17 18.  .  This  had  been  made 
possible  by  a  gift  from  EUhu  Yale  ( 1649-172 1),  a  native. (rf 
Boston  and  son  of.  one  of  the  original  settlers  of  Hew  Haven;  { 
he  had  amassed  great  wealth  in  India,  where  he  waa  governor 
of  the  East  India  Company's  settlement  at  Madras.  The  trustees 
according^  named  it  Yale  Cdlege  in  his  honour. 

The  charter  of  1701  stated  that  the  end  of  the  school  was  the 
instruction  oC  youth  "  in  the  ana  and  sdences,"  that  they  might 
be  fitted  "for  public  employment,  both  in  church  and  civil 
state."  To  the  clergy,  however,  who  controlled  the  CoUege, 
theology  waa  the  basis,  security  and  test  of  "  arts  and  sciences/' 
In  1722  the  rector,  Timothy  Cutler,  was  dismissed  because  of 
a  leaning  toward  Episcopacy.  Various  special  tests  were  em- 
ployed to  preserve  the  doctrinal  purity  of  Calvinism  among  the 
instructom;  that  of  the  students  was  carefully  looked  after,  bi 
X753  a  sttin^t  test  was  fixed  by  the  Corporation  to  ensure  the 
orthodoxy  of  the  teachers.  Hiis  was  abolished  in  1778.  From 
1808  to  i8v8  the  President  and  tutors  were  obKged  to  signify! 
assent  to  a  general  formulation  of  orthodox  belief.  ^  When 
George  Whitefield,  in  1740,  initiated  by  his  preaching  the 
"Grieat  Awakening,"  a  local  schism  resuhed  nt  Gonnecticat 
between  "  Old  Lights  "  and  "  New  Lights."  When  the^CoUcge 
set  up  an  independent  church  the  Old  Lights  made  tlie  contention 
that  the  College  did  not  owe  iu  foiindation  to  the  origiahl 
trustees,  but  to  the  first  charter  granted  by  the  legislature, 
which  might  therefore  control  theCollege.  Thisxlaim  President 
Qap  triumphantly  controverted  (1763),  but  Yale  fell  in  con- 
sequence  under  popular  distrust,  and  her  growth  was  ddayed 
by  the  shutting  off  of  financial  aid  from  the  legislature. 

By  the  first  charter  (1701)  the  trustsca  of  the  College 
were  required  to  be  ministers  Cfor  a  long  tfane,  practicaliy, 

<  In  1668  the  Hopkins  Grammar  School,  next  after  the  Boston 
Latin  School  the  oldest  cducatkmal  institution  of  this  grade  in- the 
United  State*,  was  established  in  New  HaveOf 

*  This  number  was  increased  to  eleven,  the  full  number  allowed 
by  thetharter,  within  a  month  after  it  was  granted. 


900 


YALE  UNIVERSITV 


Connegatioiitlisu)  ntiStttg  in  tbe  cdofny.  By  a  aappfementary 
act  m  t7S3  the  rector  was  niade  ez-officio  a  trustee.  By  a  aecond 
chater  (x745)  tmple  powers  werp  conferred  upon  the  president 
(rector)  and  fellows,  constituting  together  a  governing  board  or 
Corporation.  This  charter  is  still  in  force.  In  1 79a  the  governor 
and  lieutenantogovemor  of  the  state,  and  six  state  senators, 
were  made  ex-offido  members  of  the  Corporation.  In  1872  the 
six  senatois  were  replaced  by  six  graduates,  chosen  by  the  dumni 
body.  The  clerical  element  still  constitutes  one  half  of  the 
Corporatbn.  In  the  first  half  oC  the  19th  century,  under  the 
lead  of  Nathaniel  W.  Taylor  (9.*.),  the  Divinity  School  of  Yak 
became  nationally  prominent  for  "  Ta3dorism  "  or  "  New  Haven 
Theology."  Daily  attendance  at  prayers  is  stlD  required  of  all 
college  students. 

Hie  first  college  professorship  established  was  that  of  divinity 
(^55)1  which,  in  a  sense,  was  the  beginning  of  extra*collcgc 
or  univoaity  work.  The  theological  department  was  not 
organised  as  a  distinct  school  until  1822.  In  1770  a  aecond 
professorahip  was  established,  of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy.  Timothy  Dwight  (president,  1795-1817)  planned 
the  establishment  of  profesdonal  schools;  his  term  saw  the 
foundation  of  the  Medical  School  (1813)  beiides  the  Divinity 
School  In  1803  a  chair  was  created  for  Beigamin  Silliman,  Sr. 
(i 779-1864)  in  chemistry  and  natural  history;  En^h  grammar 
and  geography  did  not  disappear  from  the  curriculum  until 
1826,  nor  arithmetic  until  1830;  political  economy  was  intro- 
duced in  1825,  and  modem  languages  (French)  in  the  same 
year.  Not  until  1847  did  modem  histoiy  receive  separate 
recognition.  The  Library  had  been  given  the  status  of  an 
independent  dq[>artment  in  1843.  Compulsory  commons  were 
aboUshed  in  1842,  thus  removing  one  feature  of  a  private 
boarding  scbooL  Corpora]  punkhment  ("cu£Euig"  of  the 
offendier's  ears  by  the  President)  had  disappeared  before  the 
War  of  Independence;  and  so  also  had  the  custom  of  printing 
the  students'  names  according  to  their  social  rank,  and  using 
a  "  degradation  "  ha  precedence  as  punishment;  while  Dwight 
abolished  the  ancient  custom  of  fagging,  and  the  undemocratic' 
system  of -fines  that  enabled  a  rich  student  to  live  as  he  pleased 
at  the  expense  only  of  his  pocket.  The  School  of  Law  was 
estafaUsbed  in  1843.  Instruction  to  graduates  in  iion-i»t>fes> 
aional  courses  seems  to  have  been  begun  in  1826.  The  appoint- 
ment  of  Edward  £;  Salisbury  to  the  chair  of  Arabic  and  Sanskrit 
(1841)  was  the  firat  provinon  at  Yale  for  the  instruction  of 
graduates  by  professors  independent  of  the  College.  About  the 
same  time  graduate  inrtmction  in  themistiy  became  important 

SB  1846  also  a  chair  of  agricultural  chemistry  was  established — 
e  first  in  the  country.)  In  1846  an  extra-College  department 
of  Philosophy  and  Arts  was  created,  conferring  degrees  since 
1852;  and  from  this  wore  separated  in  1854  the  sciences,  which 
Were  entrusted  to  a  separate  Scientific  School,  the  original 
pronioter  of  agricultural  experiment  stations  in  the  United 
States.  Since  that  time  this  school  and  the  College  have 
developed  much  as  complementary  and  coordinate  schools  of 
undergraduates,  Yale  affordmg  in  this  respect  a  very  marked 
contrast  with  Harvard.  Graduate  inatruction  was  concentrated 
in  187 1  into  a  distinct  Graduate  School  This  with  the  three 
traditional  profesiSonal  schoob~the  Art  School,  established 
|n  1866  (instruction  since  1869),  and  the  .first  university  art 
school  of  the  country,  the  Music  School,  esUblished  in  1894 
<ittStruction  since  1890),  and  the  Forest  School,  esUblished  in 
1900— make  up  the  University,  around  the  College.  For  the 
founding  of  the  Pieabody  Museum  of  Natural  History,  George 
Feabody,  of  London,  contributed  8150,000  in  j866.  The 
Observatory,  devoted  exclusively  to  research,  was  establishod 
in  1871.  In  1887  the  name  Yale  "  University  "  was  adopted. 
The  organic  unity  of  the  whole  was  then  reoignised  by  throwing 
open  to  students  of  any  department  the  advantages  of  all.  In 
1886,  for  the  first  time,  a  president  was  chosen  who  was  not  of  the 
College  faculty,  but  from  the  University  (acuity. 

Great  aa  were  the  changes  In  the  metamorphosis  of  old  Vale, 
none  had  more  influence  upon  its  real  and  inner  life  than  the 
gradual  cxtensioii  of  the  frec(l9iQ.JKI$orMJllft.ttiidcias  Jii. 


the  selection  of  their  studies.  In  1854  there  wtt  n** 
permissible  until  late  in  the  Junior  year.  In  1876,  1884  and 
1893  such  freedom  was  greatly  extended.  In  1892  the  work  of 
the  Graduate  School  was  forxnally  opened  to  women  (some  pro- 
fessors having  admitted  them  for  years  past  by  special  consent). 
Yale  was  the  first  college  m  New  England  to  Uke  this  step. 

The  buikitags  number  sixty-four  in  all.  Connecticut  Hal 
(i15f>-5*)t  long  known  as  South  Middle  College,  a  plain  brick 
buiIdiM,  is  the  only  remainder  of  the  colonial  style  (restored,  1905}. 
Around  it  are  fourteen  buildinn  forming  a  quadrangle  on  the 
College  campus  on  the  W.  side  01  the  New  Haven  Green,  betvcea 
Elm  and  Coapd  Streets.  The  oldest  are  the  Old  Library  (1842) 
and  Alumni  HaH  (1853).  Others  are  the  Art  School  (1864),  Faman 
Hall  (1869).  Durfee  Hall  (1870),  Lawtaace  Hall  (1886).  Battdl 
Chapel  (1876),  Osbom  HaU  (1889),  Vandertjilt  Hall  (1894).  dot- 
tenden  Hall  (1 888)  and  Unsly  HaU  (1908).  Dwight  HaU;  encted 
in  1886  for  the  Vale  University  Christian  Association,  Welch  Hafl 
(1892)  and  Phelps  Hall  complete  the  quadrangle.  Across  froa 
the  W.  side  of  the  quadrangle  is  the  reabody  Mueeiun  (1876). 
On  the  N.  side  of  Elm  Street  is  a  row  of  builouigai  indudiiv  the 
Gymnasium  (1802^,  the  Divinity  School  (1870)  and  the  Lav 
Sdiool  (1 897).  Univcruty  Avenue  leads  N.  from  the  College  campos 
to  the  Univernty  court  or  campus,  on  which  are  the  BicenTcnrail 
Buildings  (1901-2).  E.  and  N.E.  of  the  Univenity  court  are 
the  buildings  of  the  Sheflfeld  Scientific  School.  Farther  N.E.  sjv 
the  Obeervatiny,  Hammond  Metallurpcal  Laboratory,  Fonrnxj 
Building  and  Innnmary,  and  to  the  S^,  <^  the  College  ryp^pw 
are  the  Medical  School  and  University  Clinic 

The  Univeruty  is  organised  in  four  departments— PfaBoaophy 
and  the  Acts,  Thooloey,  Medicine,  and  I  aw  nirh  widi  a  distuict 
faculty.  The  first  cnilxaces  the  Academical  Department  (College), 
the  Snefiield  Scientific  School, — named  in  honour  of  Joseph  Eane 
Sheffield  (i  703-1 882),  a  generous  benefactor,— the  &hooI  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  the  Department  of  Music,  the  Graduate  School  and 
the  Forest  School,  founded  in  1900  by  a  gift  of  $iso/»o  iwom 
J.  W.  Pinchot  ana  his  wife.  Other  institutions  ofgausised  inde- 
pendently of  any  one  depanment  are:  the  Ubrarv,  the  Peabodv 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  the  Astronomical  Observatory  and 
the  Botanical  Garden,  estabhshed  in  1900  on  the  estate  of  Profcseor 
O.  C.  Marsh.  The  special  treasures  of  the  Libtanr  iadtade  the 
classical  Ubraiy  of  Ernst  Curtius;  the  cdloction  of  Oriental  boob 
and  manuscripu  made  bv  Edward  E.  Salisbury  (;&i4>i9oi);  the 
Chinese  fibrary  of  Samuel  Wells  WUllams  (1812-1884);  ajapanex 
collection  of  above  3000  volumes;  the  Scandinavian  library  of 
Count  Riant:  the  .collection  of  Arabic  tnanuscripta  made  by 
0)unt  Landberg:  the  political  sdence  collection  01  Robert  voa 
Mohl;  a  copy  of  Newton's  Principia  presented  to  the  CoQcge  by 
the  author;  manuscripts  of  Jonathan  Edwards;  and  large  parti 
of  a  gift  of  ncariy  a  thousand  volumes  given  to  Yale  In  1733  bf 
Bishop  Georgfi  Berkeley,  who  also  gave  to  the  College  hia  Amcncaa 
farm,  as  a  bnsb  of  a  scholarship,  jihe  first  established  in  America. 
The  Litwary  is  especially  strong  m  the  departments  of  Americaa 
history,  medieval  histoid  and  English  dramatic  literature.  Its 
total  number  of  volumes  in  1910  was  neariy  600,000.  exclusive  cf 
many  thousand  pamphlets.  The  Peabody  M  useum  coniains  an  a»> 
rivalled  collection  of  Silurian  trilobites;  a  fine  collection  of  paeudcK 
moiphs;  a  beautiful  collection  of  Chinese  artistic  work  in  stone 
made  by  Samuel  Wells  Williams;  a  notable  mineralogical  collec- 
tion; a  fine  collection  of  meteorites  made  by  Professor  Hubert 
Anson  Newton  (1830-1896} ;  and  tht  magnificent  palaeomokigicsi 
collection  of  Professor  O,  C.  Marsh,  The  School  of  the  FineArts 
possesses  the  Jarves  gallery  of  Italian  art,  a  remarkai>le  collectioB 
of  Italian  "  pnmitives"  dating  from  the  llth  to  the  I7th  century; 


the  Trumbull  collection  m  1831  was  the  first  step  taken  in  the 
United  States  toward  the  introduction  of  the  fine  arts  into  s 
university.  The  equipment  of  the  Observatory  consists  principally 
of  a  six-mch  heiiometer  by  Refisoid,  an  right4nch  equatorial  by 
Gnibb,  and  two  seta  of  equatorially  mounted  cameras  for  pboto> 
graphing  meteors. 

In  the  College  and  the  Medical  School  four  years  are  required 
to  complete  the  course  of  instruction;  in  the  Divinity  School  and 
the  Law  School,  three  years;  in  the  Forest  School,  two  years; 
and  in  the  Scientific  School  there  are  both  throe-year  and  five-year 
ooorses,  five  years  beinj;  re9uired  for  all  engineering  degrees^  Ad< 
mission  to  the  College  is  gamed  only  by  passing  an  examination  in 
Latin,  Creek  or  substitutes  for  Greek,  French  or  Cjerman,  Englidi, 
mathematics  and  ancient  history.  Admission  to  the  ScientiCc 
School  is  also  only  by  caamltiation.  Substantially  the  equivalent 
of  a  college  degree  is  rsqniied  for  admission  to  theuiviohy 
School,  but  the  Medical  Soiool  and  the  Law  School  require  only 
two  years  of  college  work,  and  a  student  may  obtain  a  degree 
from  Yale  College  and  a  degree  in  divinity,  medicine  or  law  is 
she  years.  The  Forest  School,  with  an  extensive  equksncnc  at 
Nfv  Haven. and  a  Fortsi  S«p«[ijiii9ii.8fiUM  fmmm§.^ 


YALTA— YAM 


901 


"jniiirK' 


iquinnff  Uh  ttudy  ol  Roi 
.    The  Cnduau  Si 


(be  (lira ;  [he  iiudy  ol  Htlvev 
■    -     "       School  there 
ofUnaiKt 

_iv)l  Lmw,  the 

lod  (IkwIiiE  the  Hit>- 


„ sf  Fomlry. 

la  the  CoHi^  ibe  indivMi 
croun  irilbin  Ihne  divHion 
Uon  induHiDii  both  ■  maj 

n  the  FreAi ,— — --  ,— -  - — 

Intioii  i>  furtber  rcHrined,  In  the  Scicnilb:  School  Iben  ia  ■ 
omwhH  differen  lyilem  of  (nupi.  I'hc  College  coolm  oiiy 
.bt  dcgm  dI  Bacbelof  of  Ana.  but  the  Scienlific  School  coDEen 
tbedegnei  of  Bacbelotol  FhUoaophy.  Mauer  oT  Scisnce  (requirina 
at  lout  one  year  of  mddent  gT3dua(e  atudy),  and  Ibe  entinnriaK 
'  •  "■  ■  'ly  School  tb«  nudcH  ■■"  -■■-  -■■-—  -*  ■' — 
Ibephikwphi    ' 

hinorkal  coutic.    tn  the  Law  Sd 

<•!—  tor  the  degree  ol  Bachelor  i  ' 

le  degree  oT  Dachebs  c(  C\ 

J  B i,_  ,jd  ^1^: 

■ct  tor  aoc 

i?'5F"philiiiii'^y;7he" School  t?Mmic,the  degn* 

of  Bachelor  of  Muak;  and  ihe  School  of  Fine  Ana,  which  la  open 
to  bodi  acna,  the  degree  of  Bacfaekx-  of  the  Fine  Artt 

Ib  191a  tbe  body  of  oflicen  and  InUructon  in  all  dcpannmta 
aumbend  496.  and  (be  ituilenli  an. 

Id  addition  to  the  regular  work  ot  Ih;  departmtnta  then  an 
■everat  lecture  courw*  open  to  all  itudcDta  of  the  Univeniey. 
Aamg  tbeia  it;  the  Dodge  Lettum  on  the  Reaponiibiliin  <J 
Cillacoibip  T1900);  the  Bromley  LeciuKa  on  Jour— "— 
tuie  and  PuUk  Affain  O^};  'he  Lyman  B«cl 
Preaching  (ttjj):  (he  SiriLman  Memorial  Le<t( 
•ubjccia  conrmted  wirb  "  the  natural  and  mor" 
Stanley  Woodward  Lectiun  (1907)  by  diitinrui 
Ibe  Harvard  Lenam  i'Vi}  by  memben  of  the lai 
Univernty;  the  Shefficfil  1 
the  Medical  Alumni  Lettum. 

The  pnncipal  publication 

fir  tin  SoHlific  DUaaiiaii     . 

Ouilini.  edited  by  Proreuorr  in  Political  Science  . 

Uie  Yali  Law  Jmnut.  edited  by  a  board  of  iluder 

Jlallcal  Jamnal,  edited  by  memben  of  the  Medical 

tbe  iiBUnce  oF  a  board  of  Kudeno;  tbe  YaU  AInmmi  WiUy; 

■nd  the  Yait  Nitpt,  a  daily  paper  maiagcd  by  (be  ■tuden(a.    The 

Yale  Bicentennial  Pubticationa  contain  teprinti  of  lUiiank  P«pm 

fnm  Iti  JCnU  Oitmual  Laierelery.  SMiei  u  PkynttecitBl  C*(iniilry 

and    CnlrilMicni   le    Uvitratm   ani   Pamtnfkf.     NunKnui 

ciher  paUniicnia  of  tbe  Yale  iJniveraity  Preaa  are  iwied  only 

vitb  Ihe  approval  of  tbe  Univernty. 

In  addition  to  •evrnl  miUion  dollan  inveited  Tn  landa  and  bulld- 
Inn  the  Univenity  pomnacd  at  the  end  of  1900  pioductivc  fundi 
■Mbunting  to  (ia.s6ij]a  (In  I9«6.  to.tiT.oooJ.  The  income 
' — -  -"  — -—  '-^  tjij  yt^f  1908-0,  ejoluaive  of  benefacliona 


"-■cnttv  wi 
rnni  Wik 


S'ft 


idicfla  bad  bftn  erf 


pfun 


pthnlvt 


>e  gift. 


Vale  ahare*  wilb  lufellov  coUesa  founded  ia  colonial  day* 
Uie  advantage*  of  old  IradiliCBiB  uid  locial  preatige.  In  pu- 
ticulac  't  ahared  (bcie  vith  Harvard  ao  long  as  New  England 
letalonl  ita  tlteruy  and  intellectual  dominance  over  thereat  of 
Ibe  CDiinuy.  But  the  iiuTit  ol  Ibe  two  inatilnlioni  h*a  always 
'       '    '    '     ^radiodand 


Yale  c 


Yale  c 


,  like 


Harvard,  on  tha  leaden  of  the  New  En^and  acboob  of  leiien 
■iid  phUasopby  to  HI  het  prolwoclal  cbilra.  Her  "  compu*- 
tlvB  poverty,  the  itrength  of  college  teelinga  and  tradition!  " 
(PRsdoit  Hadley)  Dnited  with  Ihe  kaior  atinujua  of  ber 
latcUectBal  tnvironnient  10  del*y  her  developmcDt,  Uaiwd'a 
ttxnatormation  Into  a  modem  uiuvenity  waa  more  apontaneoiB 
•nd  railed;  Vale  remained  moch  longer  under  the  dominance  ol 
TnlL-ji.n.  iraditioiu.  But,  according  to  Dr  Chailee  F.  Thwing 
IThi  Amaian  CdOtti  in  Amtricaa  Uft,  New  York.  1S97).  of  (be 
men  fiUlng  "  the  bighett  political  and  judicial  officea."  and  coming 
unded  before  1770.  Yale  hwl  bdped 


(mn. 


1B97)  tc 


.    On 


lerollol 


hilip  Livingston,  Eli  Wbilney.  John 

C.  Calhoun,  Jimct  Kent,  Samuel  F,  B.  Morse,  Chiel-Juitice 
UoniMO  B.  Wkite  and  President  Talt. 

Tbt  PreaidenU  bav«  been  u  lollon:  in  1701-1707,  Abraham 


KcnoD  (1645-1707);  P*  Ifn-  1707-17'*.  Samud  AndtCTi 
(1656-1717);  in  i;i9-i7Jj,  Timothy  Cutler  (16S4-176J);  in 
I7ti~i7>fi,  office  filled  by  tbe  Colk^  Uuatee*  in  ntttion;  in 
■7»*-iTJ9i  Elirtia  WiUiamt  (i*M-i7Ss);  In  i739->It*,  TbotatM 
Clap  (1701-1767);  P"  *«■■  17W-IJ77,  Naphlali  Daggett  [1717- 
i7»o);  in  I7T7-I7M.  Ena  StOci  {i7J7-i79S)i  ">  "795-1*17. 
Tlnothy  Diright  (i7S'-i8i7)l  in  1817-1S46,  Jarau»h  Day 
(177I-1M7);  la  1S46-1871,  Tbeodon  Dwlgbt  Wookay  (1801- 
iS8v)i  In  |g7i>-iS86,  Noah  Porter  (1811-1891);  In  iBSfr- 
1S99,  Timothy  Dwigbt  (b.  iSlS):  and  Arthur  Twining  Hadley 
(b.  i8s6). 


1  leapott  of  RubU,  In  the  govemmenl  of  Taurfdi, 
laat  of  the  Crime*,  at  the  foot  ol  the  Yaila  Mountain*, 
:  SimferopoL  Fop.  IJ.164.  It  la  the  CiIiM  or  /tlila 
ra.  Its  rxadstead  ia  open,  and  tbe 
«  b  s6-I°  F.     The  town  is  a  fashion- 


r,  annual  dimbini  siemi,  bi 


01  lobed  leaves  and 
tiniseiual  fioHers  in 
long  duUen.  The 
flowers    are    gcne- 


coUectivriy    ihowy,  ] 
Each  coiahK  of  a  ' 
greenish  bell-ahaped 
or  Bat  perianth  of 
ail  pieces,  endoeing 

in  tbe  male  flowers. 

three<elled,  Ihrce- 
wingcd  ovary  in  the 
female  flowcn.    Tbe 


Batlish   or   gbboae 
leedi.    The  ipedci 


Vam  (DiHctrm  BaloUi).    Branel 


both 


tni 


According  to  PcDfesKK  Church's  analysis  ol  the  Chineae  yam,  it 
contains  more  nitrogenous  matter,  but  Um  starch,  than 
poUloeit  in  100  p«ti  there  are  ol  water  81-6,  Karcfa  ij-i,- 
albumen  1-1,  tat  □->,  woody  fibre  04  asd  mbMial  maltai 
1-3  parts. 

D  uiaa  and  D  akta  are  the  spedea  mmi  widely  diflused  in 
tropical  and  lubiropical  tounnfea.  D,  ikiiI»*i,  jrown  in  India. 
Coc%i^  China  and  the  South  Sea  lalandi.  li  one  of  tbe  beat  vaixtiea. 
D  BaJilai,  theCblneaeyain,  iihardyinCfnl  Britain,  but  ihe  great 

unprofitable.  It  hai  deeply  peneiHIing.  thick  club-rtaped.  flfidhy 
roots.  iuU  of  itarrh,  which  when  cooked  acquire  a  mild  laale  like 
thai  o(  a  pouio ;  t  bey  glow  J  f  I.  or  upwaida  IB  length-and  aomatiHei 


qoi 


YAMA— YANG-CHOW  FU 


wdgfa  more  thaa  il  lb.  Th«  plant  grows  freely  to  deep  nady 
soil,  moderately  enriched.  The  sets,  conststine  of  pieces  of  the 
roots,  may  be  planted  in  March  or  April,  and  require  no  other 
culture  than  the  staking  of  th«  climbing  stems.  They  should  not 
be  dug  up  before  November,  the  chief  increasA  in  thetr  sixe  taking 
place  m  autumn.  They  sometimes  strike  downwards  a  or  3  ft. 
into  the  soil,  and  must  be  carefully  dug  out,  the  upper  slender 
part  being  reserved  for  propagation,  and  the  lower  fleshy  portion 
eaten  after  having  been  allowMl  a  few  days  to  dry.  The  tubers  of 
D.  alata  sofnetimes  weigh  100  lb.  ^  Moat  of  the  yams  contain  an 
acrid  principle,  which  is  dissipated  in  cooking. 

The  only  European  Dioscorea  is  that  known  as  D.  pyrenaica, 
a  native  of^the  Pyrenees,  a  remarkable  instance  of  a  species  growing 
at  a  long  distance  from  all  its  congeners.  True  yams  must  not 
be  confounded  with  tlie  sweet  potato,  Ipomoea  Bctatas,  as  they 
sometimes  are  in  London  markets.  The  common  black  bryony 
{Tamus  communis)  of  hedges  in  England  b  closely  allied  to  the 
yams  of  the  tropics,  and  has  a  similar  root-stock,  which  b  reputed 
to  be  poisonous.  .... 

For  the  history  of  the  yam.  and  its  cultivation  and  uses  in  India, 
see  G.  Watt,  Dtetionary  ofihe  Economic  Froducts  ofJndta,  iii.  (1890). 

YAHA  (Sanskrit  "  twin,"  in  allusion  to  hia  being  twin  with 
his  sister  Yami,  traditionally  the  first  human  pair),  in  Hindu 
mythology,  judge  of  men  and  Iflng  of  the  unseen  world.  He 
was  the  first  mortal  to  die,  and  having  discovered  the  way  to  the 
other  world  is  the  guide  of  the  dead.  Three  hymns  in  the  Rig 
Veda  are  addressed  to  him. 

YAHAGATA.  ARITOMO.  PsiNCE  C1838-  )i  Japanese 
field-marshal,  was  born  in  Choshu.  He  began  life  as  an  ordinary 
samurai  and  rose  steadily  in  reputation  and  rank,  being  created 
a  count  in  1884,  a  marquess  in  1895  (after  the  war  with  China) 
and  a  prince  in  1907  (after  the  war  with  Russia).  He  twice 
held  the  post  of  prenuer,  and  was  the  leader  of  Japanese  con- 
servatism, being  a  staunch  opponent  of  party  cabinets. 

YAHBOU,  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  on  the  river  Tunja,  49  m.  W. 
of  Burgas  by  rail.  Pop.  (1906)  15,708.  It  has  a  large  agricul- 
tural trade,  being  situated  in  the  centre  of  one  of  the  chief  corn 
districts.  In  the  town  are  the  remains  of  old  fortifications,  and 
the  ruins  of  a  fine  mosque.  The  baetlan,  or  old  market-house, 
b  entire,  hut  b  now  used  as  a  military  magazine.  An  ancient 
Macedonian  town  lay  some  4  m.  N.,  but  Yamboli  b  first  men- 
tioned in  the  i  ilh  century,  when  it  was  known  by  the  Byzan- 
tines as  Dampolis  or  Hyampolb. 

YAHih'HIN,  a  town  and  dbtrict  in  the  Meiktila  division  of 
Upper  Burnut.  The  town  has  a  station  on  the  railway  275  m. 
N.  of  Rangoon.  Pop.  (1901)  8680.  It  b  an  important  centre 
of  trade  with  the  Shan  Sutes.  The  dbtrict  lies  between  the 
Shan  States  and  the  Meiktila,  lAslgwt  and  Toungoo  dbtricts; 
area,  4258  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1901)  243,197,  showing  an  increase 
of  18%  in  the  decade.  The  staple  crop  b  rice,  which  is  irrigated 
from  tanks  and  canals.  Millets  and  oil'seeds  are  grown  in  the 
N.,  where  drought  has  more  than  once  caused  distress.  There 
are  special  industries  of  inlaid  metalrwork  and  ornamental 
pottery.  Besides  the  chief  town,  Pyinmana  and  Pyawbwd, 
both  also  on  the  railway,  carry  on  an  active  trade  with  the  Shan 
States. 

i  YAH  AON,  or  Yanaic,  a  French  settlement  in  India,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Godavari,  within  the  Godavari  district  of 
Madras.  It  b  situated  in  16**  44'  N.  and  82**  13'  £.;  area, 
5  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1901)  5005.  Yanaon  was  founded  about  1750, 
and  followed  the  vids^udes  of  French  history  in  S.  India.  It 
was  finally  restored  to  the  French  by  the  treaty  of  1815. 

YANCBY,  WILLIAM  LOWNDBS  (1814-1863),  American 
political  leader,  son  of  Benjamin  Cudworth  Yancey,  an  able 
kwyer  of  South  Carolina,  of  Welsh  descent,  was  bom  near  the 
Falls  of  the  Ogeechee,  Warren  county,  Georgia,  on  the  loth  of 
August  1814.  After  fab  father's  death  in  18x7,  hb  mother 
remarried  and  removed  to  Troy,  New  York.  Yancey  attended 
Williams  College  for  one  year,  studied  law  at  Greenville,  South 
Carolina,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  As  editor  of  the  Green- 
ville (South  Carolina)  Mountaineer  (1834-35),  he  ardently 
opposed  nullification.  In  1835  he  married  a  wealthy  woman, 
and  in  the  winter  of  1836-1837  removed  to  her  plantation  in 
Alabama,  near  Cahaba  (Dallas  county),  and  edited  weekly  papers 
Ubere  and  in  Wetumpka  (Elmore  county),  hb  summer  home. 
The  accklttttai  pobooing'ol  hb  slavea  in  1839  forced  him  to 


devote  Umaelf  enftiraly  to  Uw  «nd  joufsalifea;  he  was 
impassioaed  advocate  of  State's  Rights  and  supported  Van  Bune& 
in  the  presidential  campaign  of  1840.    He  was  elected  in  184 1 
to  the  state  House  of  Representatives,  in  which  he  served  for 
one  year;  became  state  senator  in  1843,  and  in  1844  ^ns  elected 
to  the  national  House  of  Representatives  to  fill  a  vacancy,  betnc 
re-elected  in  1845.    In  Congress  his  ability  and  hb  unusvial  ora- 
torical £^fts  at  once  gained  recognition.    In  1846,  however,  he 
resigned  hb  seat,  partly  on  account  of  poverty,  and  partly 
because  of  hb  dbgust  with  the  Northern  Democrats,  wbom  be 
accused  of  sacrificing  their  principles  to  their  economic  interests. 
Hb  entire  energy  was  now  devoted  to  the  task  <tf  exciting 
resistance  to  anti-slavery  aggression.    In  1848  he  secured  the 
adoption  by  the  sute  Democratic  convention  of  the  90«caHed 
"  Alabama  Platform,*'  which  was  endorsed  by  the  legislatures 
of  Alabama  and  Georgia  and  by  Democratic  state  conventions 
in  Florida  and  Virginb,  declaring  that  it  was  the  duty  of  Congress 
not  only  to  allow  slavery  in  all  the  territories  but  to  protect  it, 
that  a  territorial  legislature  could  not  exclude  it,  and  ihaX  the 
Democratic  party  should  not  support  for  president  or  vice- 
president  a  candidate  "not  .  .  .  openly  and   unequivocally 
opposed  to  either  of  the  forms  of  excluding  slavery  frofn  the 
territories  of  the  United  States  mentioned  in  these  resolutions.* 
When  the  conservative  majority  in  the  national  Democratk 
convention  in  Baltimore  refused  to  incorporate  hb  ideas  into  the 
platform,  Yancey  with  one  colleague  left  the  convention  and 
wrote  an  Address  to  the  People  of  Alabama,  defending  hb  oooise 
and  denouncing  the  cowardice  of  hb  associates.    Naturally,  Ik 
opposed  the  Compromise  of  1850,  and  went  so  far  as  openily  to 
advocate  secession;  but  the  conservative  element  was  in  control 
of  the  state.    Disappointment  of  the  South  with  the  results  of 
"  Squatter  Sovereignty  "  caused  a  reaction  in  his  favour,  and  in 
1858  he  wrote  a  letter  advocating  the  appointment  of  committees 
of  safely,  the  formation  of  a  League  of  United  Southemen^ 
and  the  repeal  of  the  laws  making  the  African  slave-trade  piracy. 
After  twelve  years'  absence  from  the  national  conventions  ot  the 
Democratic  party,  he  attended  the  Charleston  convention  ia 
April  x86o,  and  again  demanded  the  ad<^tion  of  hb  ideas. 
Defeated  by  a  small  majority,  he  again  left  the  hall,*  followed  tha 
time  by  the  delegates  of  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  South 
Carolina,  Floiida,  Texas,  and  two  of  the  three  del^atcs  from 
Delaware.    On  the  next  day  the  Georgia  delegation  and  a 
majority  of  the  Arkansas  delegation  withdrew.    In  the  Balti- 
more convention  of  the  seceders  he  advocated  the  nomination 
of  John  C.  Breckinridge,  and  he  made  a  tour  of  the  country  on  ias 
behalf.    In  Alabama  he  was  the  guiding  spirit  in  the  secessios 
convention  and  delivered  the  address  of  welcome  to  Jeffersoa 
Davis  on  his  arrival  at  Montgomery.     He  refused  a  place  in 
President  Davis's  cabinet.    On  the  31st  of  March  1861  he  sailed 
for  Europe  as  the  head  of  a  commission  sent  to  securereeognitlon 
of  the  Confederate  government,  but  returned  ia  1862  to  take  a 
seat  in  the  Confederate  Senate,  in  which  he  advocated  a  more 
vigorous  proeecution  of  the  war.    On  account  of  his  failing 
health,  he  left  Richmond  eariy  in  1863,  and  on  the  37th  of  July 
died  at  hb  home  near  Montgomery. 

See  J.  W.  Du  Bose,  Life  and  Times  of  W.  L.  Yancey  (Birmin|hani, 
Ala.,  1892);  W.  G.  Brown,  Tko  Loner  South  in  Americau  History 
(New  York,  1902);  and  Joseph  Hodgson.  The  Cradle  of  the  Com- 
federacy  (Mobile,  Ala.,  1876}. 

TANCk-CHOW  FU»  a  prefectuni  dty  in  the  province  of  Riaag- 
8u,  China,  forming  the  two  dbtinct  cities  of  Kiang^tu  and  Kan- 
ch'Oan,  on  the  Grand  CanaJ,  in  32**  ax'  N.,  1x9**  is'  E.  Pop. 
about  100.000.  The  walb  are  between  three  and  four  miles  in 
circumference.  The  streets  are  well  supplied  with  shops,  and 
there  are  handsome  temples,  colleges,  and  other  public  buildings. 
TheiB  waa  a  serious  religious  outbreak  in  1868,  when  Hudson 
Taylor,  the  founder  of  the  China  Inland  Mission,  opened  a  station 
here;  but  Yang-chow  b  now  one  of  the  centres  of  the  Protestant 

*  It  b  probable  that  Yanoey  was  approached  with  the  offer  of  the 
vicc-pi^ndential  nomination  on  the  Douglas  ticket  by  George  N. 
Sanders.  There  was  a  movement  to  nominate  him  oft  the  ticket 
with  BrBctonridge  abo. 


YANCJTSZE^tlANG— YAOS 


903 


.  ttliMioii«n'et  in  tht  provinoB.    yang<how  Fo  pOMoates  in  «uly 

historical  connexion  with  foceignen.  for  Marco  Polo  ruled  over 
it  for  three  years  by  appointment  from  Kublai  Khan  (?i282-85). 
TANGTSZB-KIAMO.  a  great  river  of  China,  and  the  principal 
commercial  watercourse  of  the  country.  It  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  a  series  of  small  streams  draining  the  £.  slopes  of  the 
Tibetan  plateau,  and  for  the  first  third  of  its  course  fiows  almost 
parallel  with  the  Mekong  and  the  Salween,  each,  however, 
separated  from  the  other  by  intervening  ridges  of  great  height. 
The  total  length  of  the  Yangtsze  is  calculated  to  be  not  less  than 
3000  m.  Although  the  term  Yangtsse  is  applied  by  Europeans 
to  the  whole  course  of  the  river,  in  China  it  indicates  only  the 
last  three  <x  four  hundred  miles,  where  it  flows  through  a  division 
of  the  empire  which  in  ancient  time  was  luiown  as  "  Yang,"  a 
name  which  also  survives  in  the  dty  of  Yang-Chow  in  the  provlnoe 
of  Kiang-su.  The  ordinary  official  name  for  the  whole  river  is 
Ch'ang  Kiang  (pronounced  in  the  north,  Chiang)  or  Ta  Chiang, 
meaning  the  **  long  river  "  or  the  "  great  river."  Popularly  in 
t  he  upper  reaches  every  section  has  its  local  name.  As  it  emerges 
from  Tibet  into  China  it  is  known  as  the  Kinaha  Kiang  or  river 
of  Golden  Sand,  and  farther  down  as  the  Pai-shui  Kiang.  In 
Sze-ch*uen,  after  its  junction  with  the  large  tributary  known  as 
the  Min,  it  is  for  some  distance  called  the  Min-kiang,  the  people 
being  of  opinion  that  the  Min  branch  is  in  fact  the  main  river. 
The  fall  in  the  upper  reaches  is  very  rapid.  At  the  junction 
of  the  two  main  affluents  in  Upper  Tibet,  where  the  river  is 
already  a  formidable  torrent  barely  fordable  at  low  water, 
the  altitude  is  estimated  at  13,000  ft.  From  Patang  (8540  ft.) 
to  Wa-Wu  in  Sze-ch*uen  (1900  ft.)  the  fall  is  about  8  ft. 
per  mile,  thence  to  Hwang-kwo-shu  (1200  ft.)  about  6  ft.  per 
mile,  and  farther  down  to  Pingshan  (1039  ft.)  the  fall  is  about 
3  ft.  per  mile.  At  Pingshan,  in  the  province  of  Sze-ch'uen, 
the  river  first  becomes  navigable,  and  the  fall  decreases  to  about 
6  in.  per  mile  down  to  Chungking  (630  ft.).  From  Chungking 
through  the  gorges  to  Ich'ang  (130  ft.),  a  distance  of^  nearly 
400  m.,  the  fall  again  increases  to  about  14  in.  per  mile;  but 
from  Ich'ang  down  to  the  sea,  a  distance  of  1000  m.,  the  fall  a 
exceedingly  small,  being  as  far  as  Hankow  at  the  rate  of  a)  in., 
and  from  Hankow  to  the  mouth  at  the  rate  of  little  more  than 
I  in.  per  mile.  The  last  200  m.  are  practically  a  dead  level,  for 
at  low-water  season  there  is  a  rise  of  tide  enough  to  swing  ships 
as  far  up  as  Wuhu,  900  m.  from  the  mouth. 

The  principal  tributarie%  counting  from  the  tea  upwards,  are: 

(1)  the  outlet  from  Poyang  lake,  draining  the  province  of  Kiang-si: 

(2)  the  Han  river,  entering  on  the  left  bank  at  Hankow;  (3)  the 
outlet  from  Tunet'ing  lake  on  the  right  bank,  draining  the  pro- 
vioce  of  Hu'nan;  (4)  the  three  great  riven  of  Sze-ch'uen,  the  Kiafing, 


which  more  than  four«fifths  lie  above  Hankow.  The  period  of 
low  water  is  ffom  December  to  March.  The  melting  of  the  snows 
on  the  Tibetan  Ushlands  combined  With  the  summer  rainfall  causes 
an  annual  rise  in  the  river  of  from  70  to  90  ft.  at  Chungking  and  from 
40  to  50  at  Hankow  and  Kiukiang.  The  mean  volume  of  water 
discharged  into  the  sea  is  estimated  at  770,000  oib.  ft.  per  second. 
The  Quantity  of  sediment  carried  In  solution  and  deposited  at  the 
moatn  b  ttmilaify  estimated  at  6428  miUidn  cub.  ft.  per  annum, 
representing  a  sucxiiirial  denudation  of  the  whole  draina^  area  at 
the  rate  of  one  foot  In  3707  years.  (Sec  Journal  of  the  China  Branch 
of  the  koyal  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  xvi.,  Dr  Guppy.) 

The  Yanetsze-kiang  forms  a  highway  of  first-class  Importance. 
As  the  rise  in  the  river  is  only  abmit  130  ft.  for  the  first  looo  m.. 
it  resembles  a  huge  canal  expressly  formed  for  steam  navigation. 
Except  at  winter  low  water,  steamers  of  5000  or  6000  tons  can  reach 
Hankow  with  ease.  Between  Hankow  and  Ich'ang,  especially  above 
the  outlet  from  Tungt'ing  lake,  the  volume  of  water  diminishes 
veiy  much,  and  as  the  channel  is  cootjoaanv  shifting  with  the 
shittiog  sand-banks,  navigation  is  more  difficult.  Above  Ich'ang, 
where  the  river  flows  between  rocky  gorges,  and  where  a  series^  of 
rapids  are  encountered,  navigation  is  still  more  difficult.  But  taking 
the  Yangtsze  as  a  whole,  with  its  numerous  subsidiary  streams, 
canals  and  lakes,  it  forms  a  highway  of  communication  unrivalled 
in  any  other  country  in  the  world.  About  half  the  sea-borne  com- 
merce of  all  China  is  further  distributed  by  means  of  the  Yangtsze 
and  its  connexions,  not  to  mention  the  interchange  of  native  pro- 
duce between  the  provinces,  which  is  carried  by  native  sailing  craft 
numbered  by  thousands. 

The  Yangtsze  valley  as  a  political  term  indkates  the  sphere  of 


inlhicnce  or  dtvtJopwient  which  by  tntermitk>nal  agteeiocnt  was 
assigned  to  Great  Britahu  This  was  first  acc^uired  in  a  somewhat 
negative  manner  by  the  Chinese  government  giving  an  undertaking, 
which  they  did  in  1898,  not  to  alhmate  any  part  of  the  Yangtsze 
valley  to  any  other  power.  A  mors  formal  recognition  of  the  British 
daim  was  esnbodiM  in  the  agreement  between  the  British  and 
Russian  governments  in  1899  for  the  delimitatiou  of  their  respective 
railway  mterests  in  China,  Russia  acreeing  not  to  interfere  with 
British  projects  in  the  barin  of  the  Yangtsze,  and  Great  Britain 
uteeinff  not  to  interieiw  mfith  Russian  projects  north  of  the  Great 
Wall  (Maochttria).  The  basin  or  valley  of  the  Yangtsse  was  de- 
fined to  comprise  all  the  provinces  bordering  on  the  Vangtsze  river, 
together  witn  the  provinces  of  Ho-nan  and  Chehekiang.  This  agree- 
ment was  communicated  to  the  Chinese  government,  and  has  been 
generally  acknowledged.  The  object  of  the  negotiations  was  to 
guaid  against  oonfUct  of  nilway  iatcvests:  in  all  other  respects 
the  policy  known  as  that  of  the  "  oiien  door  "  was  advocated  1^ 
Great  Bntain  and  the  chief  commercial  states.  This  policy  was 
more  fully  declared  by  mutual  engagements  entered  into  in  1900 
by  the  Great  Powers  on  the  initiative  of  the  United  States,  whereby 
each  undertook  to  guaiantee  equality  of  treatment  to  the  commeroe 
of  all  nations  within  its  own  sphere.  As  to  railway  enterprise, 
an  agreement  <^  1910  admitted  French.  German  and  American 
financial  interests  eoually  with  those  of  great  Britain  in  the  pro- 
jected line  from  Hankow  to  Sze<h*uen.  ,  (G.  jT) 

YANKEE,  the  slang  or  colloquial  name  given  to  a  citizen  of 
the  New  EagUnd  atatea  in  America,  and  las  corzectiy  applied, 
in  familiar  European  usage,  to  any  citizen  of  the  United  Slates. 
It  was  used  by  the  British  soldiers  of  their  opponents  during 
the  War  of  Independence,  and  during  the  Civil  War  by  the 
Confederates  of  the  Federal  troops  and  by  the  South  of  the 
North  generally.  The  origin  of  the  naxne  has  ^en  rise  |o 
much  speculation.  In  Dr  WiUiam  Gordon's  History  0/  the 
American,  War  (ed.  1789^  L  324)  it  is  said  to  have  been  a  cant 
word  at  Cambridge,  Mass.;  as  miy  as  1713,  where  it  was  used 
to  express  excellency,  and  be  quotes  such  expressions  as  "n 
Yankee  good  horse."  Webster  gives  the  earliest  recorded  use 
of  itsaccepted  meaning, from O^^csfiofi,  a  Poem  by  an  American 
(Boston,  X765),  "  From  meanness  first  this  Portsmouth  Yankee 
rose,"  and  states  that  it  is  considered  to  represent  the  Indian 
pronunciation  of  "  English  "  or  Anglais^  and  was  applied  by 
the  Massachusetts  Indians  to  the  English  colonists.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Scots  "  yankic,"  shaxp  or  clever,  would  seem 
more  probable  as  the  origin  of  the  sense  represented  in  the 
Cambridge  equression.  Other  suggestions  give  a  Dutch  origin 
to  the  name.  Thus  it  may  be  a  corruption  of  "Jankin," 
diminutive  of  "  Jan,"  John,  and  applied  as  a  nickname  to  the 
En^iah  of  Connecticut  by  the  Dutch  of  New  York.  Skest 
{Etym.  Dki.t  1910)  quotes  a  Dutch  captain's  name,  Yanky, 
from  Dampier's  Voyages  (ed.  1699,  ^  38),  and  accepts  the  theory 
that "  Yankee  "  was  formed  from  Jon,  John,  and  Keest  a  familiar 
diminutive  of  Cornelius  (H*  Logeman,  flotes  and  Queries,  lolh 
series,  iv.  509,  v.  15). 

TAMKTON,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Yankton  county. 
South  Dakota,  U.S.A.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Missouri  river, 
about  60  m.  N.W.  of  Sknix  City,  Iowa.  Pop.  (1900)  4115 
(850  foreign-bom);  (1910)  3787.  It  is  served  by  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  fr  St  Paul,  the  Great  Northern,  and  the  Chicago 
&  North-Western  railways.  The  Missouri  is  navigable  at  tMs 
point,  and  the  city  has  a  considerable  river  traffic.  Yankton 
is  the  seat  of  Yankton  College  (founded  by  Congregationali^s 
in  1881,  opened  in  1883;  now  non-sectarian).  The  city  is  built 
on  a  nearly  level  plateau,  averaging  about  1200  ft.  above  the 
sea-level.  It  is  in  a  rich  grain-growing  and  stock-raising  dist  t  i<*l , 
has  grain-elevators,  and  manufactures  flour,  beer  and  cement 
The  water  supply  is  obtained  from  artesian  wells.  The  first 
permanent  settlement,  a  trading  post,  was  made  here  in  1858, 
when  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  the  Yankton  Indians  This 
was  the  first  settlement  made  in  the  Missouri  Valley  in  Dakota. 
Yankton  was  kid  out  in  1859,  first  chartered  as  a  city  in  1869. 
rechartered  In  1873,  and  in  1910  adopted  a  commission  form 
of  government.  In  1861-82  Yankton  was  the  capital  of  the 
Territory  of  Dakota.  The  name  is  a  corruption  of  the  Sioux 
name  Ihonktonwan,  meaning  "  end  village." 

TAOS,  or  AjAWA,  a  Bantu-Negroid  people  of  easi-centtil 
Africa,  whose  home  is  the  country  around  the  upper  retches  of 


904 


YA'QUBl— YARKAND 


the  Rovuma  river,  and  the  noflh  of  Portttgocse  East  Africa.  They 

are  an  enterprising  and  intelUgent  race,  and  have  spread  into 

British  territory  south  of  Lake  Nyasa  and  throughout  the 

Shir£  districts.    They  are  the  tallest  and  strongest  of  the  natives 

in  the  Mosambique  country,  have  negroid  features  and  faces 

which  are  noticeable  for  their  roundness,  and,  for  Africans,  have 

light  skins.    They  have  long  been  popular  among  Europeans  as 

carriers  and  servants.    They  earned,  however,  a  bad  name  as 

slave-traders,  and  gave  much  trouble  to  the  British  authorities 

in  Nyasaland  until  1896,  when  they  were  reduced  to  submission. 

They  do  not  tattoo  except  for  tribal  marks  on  their  foreheads. 

The  women  wear  disks  of  ivory  or  burnished  lead  in  the  sides 

of  their  nostrils,  and  some,  probably  of  Anyanja  origin,  disfigure 

the  lip  with  the  peUU  or  lip-ring.    The  Yaos  have  elaborate 

ceremonies  of  initiation  for  the  youth  of  both  sexes.  They  bury 

their  dead  in  a  contracted  position,  the  grave  being  roofed  with 

bgs  and  earth  sprinkled  overj  in  the  case  of  a  rich  man,  some 

of  his  property  is  buried  with  him  and  the  rest  is  inherited  by 

his  eldest  sister's  son. 

See  Miss  A.  Werner,  Tkt  Natives  of  British  Central  AMca  (1006) : 
Sir  H.  H.  Johnston.  BrUisk  Central  Africa  (1897):  H.  L.  DuH, 
Nyasaland  under  the  Foreign  Office  (1903).  For  the  Yao  language 
Baktu  Lancuacbs. 


TA'QObI  [A^mad  ibn  abl  Ya^qHb  ibn  Ja*far  ibn  Wahb  ibn 
WftdiU  (9th  century),  Arab  historian  and  geographer,  was  a 
great-grandson  of  Widibi  the  freedman  of  the  cahph  Man^flr. 
Unto  873  he  lived  in  Armenia  and  Khorasan;  then  he  travelled 
in  India,  Egypt  and  the  Maghrib,  where  he  died  in  89r.  His 
history  is  divided  into  two  parts.  In  the  first  he  gives  a  compre- 
hensive account  of  the  pre-Mahommedan  and  non-Mahommedan 
peoples,  especially  of  their  religion  and  literature.  For  the  time 
of  the  patriarchs  his  source  is  now 'seen  to  be  the  Syriac  work 
published  by  C.  Besold  as  Dii  SchaUhfiUe.  In  his  account  of 
India  he  is  the  first  to  give  an  account  of  the  stories  of  Kalila 
and  Dimna,  and  of  Sindibad  (Sinbad).  When  treating  of  Greece 
he  s^ves  many  extracts  from  the  philosophers  (cf.  M.  Klamroth 
in  the  ZeUsckrifi  der  deulscken  morgenlandischen  Gesdlschaftt 
vols.  xl.  and  xli.).  The  second  part  contains  Mahommedan 
history  up  to  872,  knd  is  neither  extreme  nor  unfair,  although 
he  inherited  Shi'ite  leanings  from  his  great-grandfather.  The 
work  is  characterized  by  its  detailed  account  of  some  provinces, 
such  as  Armenia  and  Khorasan,  by  its  astronomical  detaib  and 
its  quotations  from  religious  authorities  rather  than  poets. 

Edition  by  T.  Houtsma  (2  vols..  Leiden,  188^).  Ya*qflbrs  geo- 
graphy, the  KitAb  id-Butddn,  contains  a  description  of  the  Maghrib, 
wiin  a  full  aorount  of  the  larger  cities  and  much  topographical  and 
political  ixiformation  (ed.  M.  de  Goeje,  Leiden,  1893).    (G.  W.  T.) 

<  TIqOT,  or  Yakut  (Y&qflt  ibn  'Abdallah  ur-ROml)  (1179- 
1229),  Arab  geographer  and  biographer,  was  bom  in  Greece 
of  Greek  parentage,  but  in  his  boyhood  became  the  slave  of  a 
merchant  of  Hamah  (Hamath),  who  trained  him  for  commercial 
travelling  and  sent  him  two  or  three  times  to  Kish  in  the  Persian 
Gulf  (on  his  journeys,  cf.  F.  Wtistenfeld,  "  Jacut's  Reisen  "  in 
the  ZeUsckr.  d  deutsck.  morg.  CesMschafi^  vol  xviii.  pp  397-493)- 
In  1 194  he  quarrelled  with  his  master  and  bad  to  support  himself 
by  copying;  he  took  advantage  of  the  opportunity  of  studying 
under  the  grammarian  d-*UkbarL  After  five  years  he  returned 
to  his  old  master  and  again  travelled  for  him  to  Kish,  but  on 
his  return  found  his  master  dead,  and  set  up  for  himself  as  a 
bookseller  and  began  to  write.  During  the  next  ten  years  he 
aavelled  in  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt  and  visited  Mcrv,  Balkh, 
Mosul  and  Aleppo.  About  1 222  he  settled  in  Mosul  and  worked 
on  his  geography,  the  first  draft  of  which  was  ready  in  1224. 
After  a  journey  to  Alexandria  in  1227  he  went  to  Aleppo,  where 
he  died  in  1229.  In  his  large  goograpiiy,  the  Mu'jam  ul-Bulddn 
(ed.  F.  WUstenfeld,  6  vols.,  Leipzig,  1866-73),  the  places  men- 
tioned in  the  literature  or  the  stories  of  the  Arabs  are  given 
in  alphabetical  order,  wilh  the  correct  vocalization  of  the 
names,  an  indication  whether  they  are  Arabic  or  foreign  and 
their  locality.  Their  hbtory  is  often  sketched  with  a  special 
account  of  their  conquest  by  the  Moslems  and  the  name  of  the 
governor  at  the  time  is  recorded.  Attention  is  also  given  to 
the  numumeotsthey  contain  and  the  celebrities  who  were  born  in 


tliem  or  bad  lived  them.    In  thbwaar  a  quantity  of  old  Iftentaat^ 
both  prose  and  poetry,  is  preserved  by  Yiqdt. 

The  parts  of  this  work  relating  to  Persia  have  been  extcactcd 
and  translated  by  Barbier  de  Meynard  under  the  title  Dic^' 
giogropki^nei  historiqpe  et  liuhain  de  la  Peru  (Paris,  187  r). 
acooont  of  its  sources  u  given  in  F.  J.  Heer's  Die  hist 
umd  geog^hiachen  Quellen  in  JactU^s  geoprapkisciem  W&rjerbmrh 
(Straasbufg.  1898)1  and  the  material  leUtine  to  the  Crasades  is 
treated  by  H.  Doeobouig,  "  Les  Croisades  aaprds  1e  dictkwnaiiv 
gfiographique  de  Jacout  "  in  the  volume  of  the  Centenaire  de  FiceU 
des  tongues  orieniates  moantes,  71-^.  A  digest  of  the  whole  work 
was  Blade  by  Ibn  'Abdulhaqq  (d.  1338)  under  the  tide  MarAtid 
ul-IttUd  (ed.  T.  G.  J.  Juynboll,  Leiden,  1850-1864).  Yftqflt  also  vroce 
a  dictionary  of  geographical  homonyms,  the  Musktarik  (ed.  F. 
WOstenfeld,  G6ttingen,  1846).  Bendes  all  thb  activity  in  geography 
YSc^flt  gave  his'^ttention  to  bioffraphy,  and  wrote  an  impwiam 
dictionary  of  learned  men.  the  Mu'fam  nl-VdabV,  Parts  of  this 
work  exist  in  MS.  in  dilTerent  libranes;  vd.  i.  has  been  edited  by 

D.  S.  Margoliouth,  IrshOd  al-Arib  tt  d  Ud'rifat  al  Adib  (London, 
1908).  (C.  W.  T.) 

TARKAND  (Chinese  name  Soche  Fu),  the  chief  town  of  the 
principal  oasis  of  Chinese  Turkestan,  on  the  Yarkand-Darya, 
in  38*  25'  N.,  77"  16'  E.,  and  3900  ft.  above  sea-leveL  The 
settlements  of  the  Yarkand  oasis  occupy  the  S.W.  comer  of 

E.  Turkestan,  and  are  scattered  along  the  numerous  rivers  which 
issuefromthesteepslopesof  the  Pamir  in  the  W.,  and  the  Kara* 
koram  and  Kuen-Iiun  Mountains  in  the  S.    The  oasis  of  K  ashgar 
limits  it  in  the  N.,  and  a  tract  of  desert  separates  ft  from  the 
oasis  of  Khotan  in  the  S.E.    The  Yarkand-Darya  and  its  numer- 
ous tributaries,  which  are  fed  by  the  gladers  of  the  mountain 
regions,  as  also  many  rivers  whidi  are  now  lost  in  the  steppe  or 
amidst  the  irrigated  fields,  bring  abundance  of  water  to  the 
deserli  one  of  them  is  called  Zarafshan  ("  gold-strewing  "),  as 
much  on  account  of  the  fertility  it  bringi  as  of  its  auriferous  sands. 
Numberless  irrigation  canals  cany  the  water  to  the  fields,  which 
occupy  a  broad  zone  of  loess  skirting  the  base  of  the  mountains. 
In  the  spurs  of  the  mountains  there  are  rich  pasturages,  where 
goats,  yaks,  camels,  sheep  and  cattle  are  reared.    The  oasis  of 
Yarkand  is  regarded  as  the  richest  of  E.  Turkestan,  and  its  popu- 
lation probably  numbers  about  200,000  inhabitants.    Wheat, 
barley,  rice,  beans  and  various  oil-yielding  plants  are  grown,  and 
melons,  grapes,  apples  and  other  fruits.  The  cotton  tree  and  the 
mulberry  are  cultivated  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  oasis.    Gold, 
lead  and  precious  stones  are  found  in  the  mountains,  though 
only  the  first-named  is  worked.    Yarkand  is  renowned  for  its 
leather-ware  and  saddlery.    Carpets  and  silk  fabrics,  cotton  and 
woollen  goods  are  manufactured.    The  population  consists  of 
Persians,  who  now  speak  Turkish,  and  of  Turkish  Sarts. 

The  town  of  Yarkand,  which  has  a  population  of  about  100,000 
(5000  houses  in  the  city,  and  as  many  in  Yanghishar  and  the 
suburbs),  is  situated  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  fix'e  days* 
journey  S.E.  from  Kashgar.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  thick  earthen 
wall,  nearly  4  m.  long,  with  towers  in  the  Chinese  style  of  archi- 
tecture, and  is  well  watered  by  canals.  The  square  fortress 
of  Yanghishar,  which  was  built  by  the  Chinese,  stands  within 
400  yds.  of  the  walls  of  the  town.  This  is  one  of  the  three  strong 
places  in  Chinese  Turkestan.  The  ten  mosques  and  madrasas  of 
Yarkand,  although  poorer  than  those  of  Bokhara  or  Samarkand, 
enjoy  wide  renown  in  the  Modem  world.  There  is  a  brisk  trade, 
especially  in  horses,  cotton,  leather-ware  and  all  kinds  of  un- 
ported  manufactured  goods. 

Yarkand  is  surrounded  by  a  number  of  smalla  towns,  the 
chief  of  which  are — Yanghi-hissar,  which  has  about  600  homes, 
Tashkurgan  on  the  Pamirs,  Posgam  (1600  houses),  "Kargalyk, 
at  the  junction  of  the  routes  leading  to  Ladakh  and  Khotan 
(3000  houses),  Sanju  (2000),  Tagarchi,  Kartchum,  Beah-taryk 
(1800)  and  Guma  (3000). 

Yarkand  was  very  imperfectly  known  until  the  second  half  d 
the  r9ih  century.  Marco  Polo  visited  it  between  1271  and  1275, 
and  Goes  in  1603;  but  the  continuous  wars  (siee  TurkrstaN) 
prevented  Europeans  from  frequenting  it,  so  that  until  186^  the 
information  borrowed  from  mcxlieval  travellers  and  from  Clnneae 
sources,  with  that  supplied  by  the  pundit  Mir  Isset  Ullah  in  1812, 
was  all  that  was  known  about  tne.  Yarkand  region.  The  first 
European  who  reached  it  in  the  iQth  century  was  Adolph  Schlagint- 
weit.  who  passed  by  Yarkand  in  August  1857,  but  was  killed  a  fev 
days  later  at  Kadigar.  .The  pundit  Mohammed  Hamid  visited  it 


YARMOUTH 


TARVOnTH,  ■  KipoTt  tomi  wid  port  ol  entiy,  Yumoulh 
couniy,  Nova  Scotia,  CuwiU,  on  ibe  Domlnioa  &  Attulic 
laltny,  iiB  m.  Irom  Halilu.  Pop.  (i$oi}  643s.  Stwncn 
run  daily  to  Bnlon  (Man.],  and  weitly  lo  St  Jobn  (N.B.)  ud 
Halilai.  It  contaitit  the  county  huildingi,  and  hu  good  Khook 
ukd  vioU  local  nUQuFadOTu*-     Fiab  and  lumber  an  expofted 

TARHOUTH    (Cbiai    yumama),    a    municipal,    (OUDly 

and  pirliamcnlaiy  borough,  wiiering-plan,  and  xapon  ol 
Norlolk,  England  (wilh  1  una]]  portion  tn  Suffolk],  iil  ra.  NX. 
Inia  Loadoa  by  the  Gmt  Eastern  nilmy,  Mrvtd  (1«  by  the 
Midkad  ft  Great  Northern  joint  line.  Pop.  dswi}  S'J''- 
It  lie)  on  a  long  and  narrow  ptniDsuln  ol  sand,  bAveen  the 
North  Sea  ajid  the  Breydoa  Watei  (fonoed  by  the  riven  Yaie 
■nd  WavcD^)  and  the  rivet  BuR.  The  nrighbouting  csuotry 
It  very  Hal,  but  the  But  aSordi  access  to  the  Norlolk  Bnmdt, 
vhich  give  the  district  its  wcD-knoim  individuality,  TIk  old 
town  of  Great  Ysrinaulh  was  built  chielly  along  the  E.  bank  ol 
l&e  YaR,  but  tfae  modem  town  has  eileadMl  beyond  lis  andent 
walk,  at  whkh  nnie  remains  exist,  10  the  teasfaorei  where  there 
area  marine  drive  and  three  plera.  On  the  landward  or  SuSolk 
side  of  the  estuary  is  the  suburb  of  Southtown,  and  farther  S. 
that  of  Uoilcston.  The  principal  features  ol  Yarmouth  are  the 
N.  and  S.  qu«y»,  «od  the  straight  narrow  lanei  called  "  tows," 
145  in  number,  running  at  right  angles  to  them.  These  towi 
were  at  one  time  innabited  by  the  wealthy  burgeses,  end  many 
ol  Ihs  bouuii  DOW  tenanted  by  the  poorer  claiKt,  have  panelled 
rooms  with  richly  decorated  ceilings.  The  old  lowo  is  connected 
with  Little  Yaimoulh  by  a  bridge  across  the  Yare  of  stone  and 
Iron,  erected  in  i8$4.  The  Buie  is  crossed  by  a  suspension 
bridge.  The  church  of  St  Nicholas,  founded  in  iioi  I)y  Herbert 
Lounga,  the  fiisl  bi^np  of  Norwich^  and  consecrated  in  iiig, 
is  DM  of  the  Ivgesi  parish  churches  in  EngiantL  11  is  cruci- 
form, wilh  a  centra]  tower,  which  perhaps  preserve?  a  part  of 
the  orig^na]  structure,  but  by  successive  alterations  the  form 
of  the  church  has  been  completely  changed.  The  Transilioud 
ckrettoried  nave,  with  columns  sltemslely  octagonal  and 
areolar,  was  lebuUt  in  the  nign  of  King  John.  A  portion  of 
:1  is  ol  Ihe  «nme  date.     About  fifly  years  lale?  the 


by. 


I  ol  the  I 


wilh  [owe 
:  i6ih  ce 


-ylher 


0  weights  am 

inlo  grindstones.  Within  Ihe  church  there  weie  at  one  time 
eighteen  cfaapds,  maintained  by  gikls  or  private  families,  but 
these  were  dcmidished  by  the  Refarmers,  who  sold  the  valuable 
utensils  of  the  building  and  applied  the  money  to  the  widening 
■I  the  channel  of  the  harbour.  During  the  Commonwealth 
(he  Independents  apiHOpiiatcd  the  chancel,  the  Presbyterians 
Ihe  N.  aisle  and  the  Churchmen  were  allowed  the  remainder 
ol  the  building.  The  brick  wslls  erected  at  Ihij  time  to  separate 
Ihe  diRerent  portions  ol  the  building  remained  till  1S4;.  In 
iSfi4  the  towet  ras  restored,  and  the  E.  end  ol  the  duncel 
leboUl:  in  1869-1870  the  S.  aisle  was  rebuill;  and  in  iM*  the 
S.  transept,  the  W.  end  of  the  nave  and  the  N.  aisle  underwent 
reitoration.  The  width  olihe  navels  16  It.,  and  the  total  length 
of  the  church  is  J3fi  It.  St  John 'sis  a  noteworthy  model  '  ' 
Btvl  (he  Roman  Catholic  cbuich  is  a  handsome  Coihii 
erected  in  1850.  A  grammat.4chool  was  founded 
when  the  great  haD  of  the  old  hospital,  founded  In  th 
£dwanl  I.  by  Thomas  Fastolfe,  was  appioprialed  I 


It  n*  ckwd  tram  nsr  to  iKs,  wb  rtoUUfahed  by  llw 

:harity  trustees,  and  settled  fn  new  buDdings  In  1S71,     Antonf 

Ihe  principal  pubUc  buildings  arc  the  town  hdl  and  public 

offices  (1883);  a  piclutesque  tollhouse  ol  the  (4lh  cenlury, 

~  ~       ireserved  and  serving  as  a  free  library]  awembly 

setim,  drill  hall,  custom  honse,  barracks  at  Soulb- 

[bcattes.    Among  charitable  and  benevalenc  initllu- 

1  royal  naval  lunatic  asylum,  three  hot^iitali^  and 

bosphal,  tbs  Moith  Sea  Church  Missisn  and  vaiioM 

iiilru»  charities,  lb  (be  S,  of  the  town,  on  the  put 

ol  the  peninsula  known  a>  (be  South  Denes,  are  a  iace.coiiT)e 

and  a  Doric  column  erected  in  iSi}  to  commemorate  Lord 

Nelson.    To  tbe  N.  (oa  Ibe  North  Denes]  are  goU  links.     Winter 

gardens  were  opened  in  1904.    The  mnsicipal  and  parUamenlaly 

borough  became  coextensive  by  the  inclusion  in  the  lorraer 

'  "orleston  in  1S90.    The  parliamentary  borough,  retuminf 

member,  falls  between  Ihe  E.  division  ol  Norfolk  and  (be 

restoft  division  of  Suflolk.    Yarmouth  Is  governed  by  a 

■or,  II  aldermen  and  36  councillors.     Area,  atS  acres. 

ith  Roads,  ofl  the  coail     -     ■        - 


lE-otN-E.  w 


.  —  --uinel  to  the  quays  was  made  oy  Joost 
cer.  in  is67.andal[ardiadep(hBI(<i^barof 
The  hnrina  and  nuckerd  fisheries  are  most 
:iiriiig  ii  an  eileniive  industry,  Yarmouth 
[imous.  The  liihing  Beet  numbers  some  500 
iploysaboutjoeohands.  TheprincK^ 


"Ewi'ni 

ni'coal,  lim'beran 

A 

:^^ 

uitiia  are  sliip  an 

nS 

•arks 

Yarmo 

ulh   (Gememwa, 

Yernemulh), 

sile  of  the  Roman  camp 

f  Ciri 

been  tb 

Cetd 

ong  alt 

Twacds,  the  con 

•eoience 

ol  its 

acted  many  fisbomei  from  IhC  Cinc^ 
ettlement  was  made,  and  the  town  numbered  seventy  burgeon 
lefote  Ihe  Conquest.  Ileniy  I.  placed  it  under  the  rule  of  a 
eevB.  The  charter  of  King  John  (iioS),  nhich  gave  his  bur- 
jssta  of  Yarmouth  general  liberties  according  to  the  customs 
0!  Oxford,  a  gild  merchant  and  wedly  butlingi,  was  amplified 
nl  later  charters  asserting  the  rights  of  the  borough 
IJttle  Yaimoulb  and  Gotleston.  In  155]  Elizabeth 
a  charter  of  idmirslly  juri»liction,  afterwards  con- 
md  extended  by  Jiffies  I.  In  1668  Charles  n.  incor- 
"    *     "         luth  in  the  borough  by  a  charter  which 


e  till  1; 


leptaced  Ihe  tsto  baOiSs  by  a  mayor,  reducing  Ifae  aldci- 
meu  and  comnca  oouncilmen  lo  eighteen  and  l)ilny.«i(.  By 
(he  Boundary  and  Municipal,  Coiporalioii  Ads  of  iSji  and 
igj5,  Gotleston  was  annexed  to  the  borougb,  which  became  a 
county  borough  in  188S.  Yarmouth  relumed  two  members 
to  paHlamfot  from  130D  to  1868,  when  it  was  disfranchised 
until  iMj.  From  (be  iilh  to  Ihe  lEIh  century  the  herring 
trade,  which  has  always  been  the  main  industry  of  Yannoutb, 
was  carried  on  at  an  annual  lair  between  Hldiaelmas  and 
Martinmas.  This  was  regulated  by  the  barons  of  (be  Ctni)ua 
Porta,  and  many  quarrels  arose  through  their  JtiriKlictioii  and 
ptivilegrs.  Yarmouth  bu  had  a  weekly  market  at  Itatt  Iron 
Ihe  ijth  century. 

See  Viclina  ChhIt  HiOtry,  Krrf. 
Greet  Yarmnik  (177a)l    C.  J-  F^mc  .  .    . 

(i8h)- 

TARMOUTH.  a  small  port  at  the  wtslem  extremity  of 
the  Isle  oF  Wight,  England,  oo  the  shore  of  Ihe  Solent,  wherj 
the  eatuary  of  the  Yac  debeucbes.  Pop.  (ipoi)  tm-  Steuocn 
connect  it  wilh  the  London  ft  South-Wwiem  railway  at 
Lymington  on  (he  mainland,  and  it  Is  atao  swved  l^r  (be  lA 
of  Wight  Central  line.  The  church  contsini  a  fine  monument 
to  Admiral  Sic  Robert  Hobites.  who  took  New  Amstecdam, 
afterwards  New  York,  FR>m  the  Dutch. 

The  place  appears  in  the  Domesday  Survey  tl  TOW  under  the 
nameolEriDud;!!  was  then  BSEeucd  at  1  hide  if  virgstes,  and  held 
in  pitran  by  Ahiric  and  Wiilac.  mo  ol  Vit  ^HiJ*  thagai  who  had 

anted  tv  Baldwin  de  Redven  in  iiu.  and  wia  conhiliHd  by 
winl  I.,  Heory  VI,  Edward  IV.  andXIuriieth.  but  the  11  llf 


^6 


( iboHihcd  wid  iht 


Sfin  Am'S    - 

dneiday  nurkcl 


oTiaja.    Th. 


mi»  of  eleven  memben,  Yl, 
ben  to  pwlLanicfit  it  one  bonufh 
En  maJTuniy  15S4,  {n>cn  whi^h 


il  whl^n  recent  yeari.     In  the  iSth  cencurv  Y»r- 

wib  wu  1  aotorioiH  Hianling  centre.  In  i»>6  John  embarked 
,.JB  Vumnilb  [«  the  eipcdit'iDii  to  U  Ruhelle.  Tbe  to«Ti  wu 
burnt  b/ the  French  in  I jy  »nd  in  I5«.    In  the  l6lhi;eoturv,  ntlhe 

buUt  called  C»rey'»  Smnce.  the  mnlim  ot  which  «•  10  be  Ken  ai 
the  W.olihe  town.  Ul64aChartci  i.  wubcoulhllo  VarmiHilhan 
liuwiy]romC)rJd)miketoHiinaCutle:>ndini6;iChitl«ll. 
and  his  court  were  enteniined  at  Yjirmoulh  by  Admiral  Sir  Robert 
Holmes,  Eovernor  of  the  iibiH]. 

TTAHM,'  [he  n»nw  given  10  any  teilUe  fibre  wben  prepared 
by  ihe  process  ot  spinning  lor  being  woven  into  cJoih.  Ii  i> 
only  in  a  few  minor  and  ticeptional  casei,  such  as  Ibe  weaving 
ol  hairdolh  01  wire,  thai  ibere  is  any  making  of  labrio  wiLhoui 

its  bleaching  and  dyeing  properties,  its  fineness,  iirength, 
dasiitity.  unilanniiy  ol  diameter,  smooihneia,  suppleno*  and 
colour  in  its  nalutal  condition.  Yam  is  single,  folded  and 
fancy,  uid  if  twisted  to  the  right  it  is  called  twial  way,  and  il 
to  Ihe  left,  welt  way,  but  Ihoie  terms  do  noL  necessarily  imply 

Si-iU  yam  coiuisti  of  libraui  matter  at  twisted  logeiher  during 
tbeproceuofspinnini.  If  il  iiinlendedlotwatpit  ihauldbeHronE, 
dasic  and  imaothi  iffoi  weft  it  has  lea  twist  and  is  qxmgr.  The 
taw  mateiial  Iron  which  yarn  i>  made  hat  much  to  do  with  in 
:  and  value.  That  Ctan  Yarn,  alihou^  it  variet  From 
-^-  '^— ^d  to  a  clotely  compacted  one,  ■■  Benerally  dull 
-    -•■-"-  -'  ->(  but  modeiate  Hrtngtti  and 

it  brighter  than  when  simply 


ap  t'jji'o'YdVperV.^'liiiM  yo"™  it  '^ 
and  Tow,    to  IheJr  natural  condilioni.bol 

their  appearance.    If  ipun  wet  they  are  1 
and  bn'gliter  than  when  spun  dry;  yet  !iiii 

lull  and  hairy.    Both  ^ach  lo  a  puit  wh 
moderate^'  toft.     EiceptimMlly  luie  lii 


£.?a',l"; 


,C,s 


■oft,  tpongy,  hairy,  elatiic,  [Doderatcfy  ttrong  and  poaaesvt  fcllin 
prapertlet  m  a  high  dune;  it  blcachn  indiflerentiy  but  dvr 
rea&ly.    It  it  gpun  inloihiudi  that  range  up  to  I5.<h>  yd>.  per  II 


Several  kinds  of  watte 


!da^  ■■  ■■" 


combed  wool,  and  is,  at  a  consequence, 
Very  eianic  and  ttronff, 

—  - —  ^-  _,.  ,,  56,000  yds.  per  lb-    5t« 

Ft,  Spun  and  Noil  yarns,  all  of  which  are  readily 
i  yierdt  Osandnc  and  Ttam:  both  are.  in  pro- 
Bter,  the  strongest  and  mosi  elastic  of  teAile  threads, 
lustrous  and  snoollii  but  or^anllnv  it  hard  twisted 


and  elai&  lb 


r-Sfis, 


n  Htlw.    Sia  Nita  made  Inn  II 


nt  in  which  they  ar 
■eoBve  hbn.    The 


«»t  rciraed  by  ibt 
il  ibfcrkir  in  all  inpefts 

wiand  wool.Sk^ 
•r  mined  v*ry  fron  10% 

^rat  are  bated  upon  the  number  of  hanki.  of  S40  yds.,  canlained 

wonlRl',  upon  the  number  of  hanks,  of  560  yfcin  1  Ri.  Wool 
it  eipreiHd  in  the  Wefl  of  England  by  the  number  of  hanks,  d 
^o  yd>.,  in  1  lb.:  in  parts  of  Yorkshire  by  Ibe  number  ol  tkeins. 
of  r5io  yds.. in  ^  lb;  in  tome  psrts  ol  the  United  States  by  the 
number  of  nins,  of  1600  yds,  in  t  lb.  Silk  it  exfrrtmed  by  t^ 
weight  ol  1000  yds.  in  drami;  aiio  by  the  weight,  in  dciiiers.  ol 
476  ™ter»,  the  l^ier  beinaan  |^>>an  «ijfl«  ^"1  '<>  t/ti  Parl 

Fold'at  Kam.— Yam  ii  folded  In  imparl  incn^scd  tIRi«lh. 
elasticity  and  tmoothne^  and  is  uied,  both  fiaied  and  ■■glanl. 
lor  warp  and  wefl  in  ordinary  fabrics.  It  is  also  made  for  mck 
■fecial  porpotes  at  sawint,  lBC»-iiialuna»  crocbetbg  and  liiniiif 
The  counts  of  these  yams  are  evprased  accortfiag  to  the  pumber 
of  threads  twisted  together,  as  l/SO",  l/Mr;  tbe  fomier  iDdicatint 
thai  two  Ihnadt  of  ^,  and  the  latter  three  thieada  of  60*.  wtn 
twined  totether  to  yMd  yam  of  J5  hanks  aad  20  huika  per  b 
re^Hctively;  the  count  of  tbe  tingle  yarn  being  htvariably  naincd  la 
the  cottsR.  linen,  woollen  and  wosted  trades.  Witn  apuD  ailk  the 
practice  adopted  la  to  name  Ihe  count  of  tbe  fcJded  yam;  thut. 
70I1  and  40/j  imply  that  two  thteadt  of  lao'  and  Ibtn  thmda  tf 
13o>  wen  reflectively  folded  tcfether,  Sarlui  (Mtm  ahould  be 
— — *t  --J  «-«--.  j^  much  of  It  is  frov^  ■—  ■-  -^ ■     *!»»._ 


ee  cord.  Ihe  doubling 
[  singlet.     ""■ 


utc  iiima  Lujc«  CDrtirrt  oniaHy  under- 
in  the  tame  direction  aa  the  mnrie 

'iTIt^fSkduS 


ne  Mrands  of  two  fold  an 


-^l^^r 


il  fanU 


LoM  Yam  a 

■p  the  ri 


ulky,  elastic  and  haa  a  corded 


■c  mOa.  Ihe 
iiirfrirwu  of 


.    It  uiwin  doubladillie  fitit  time  it  ianrlMiid  ia  tte 

lulky.  tingle  Ibnad. 

ilhoutbeingtnsted.atolhn'llfnes 

rined.  There  are  tsro  types,  namely,  woo)  and  iK. 
A  need  be  made  fron  the  fibres  nancd.  For  tlu 
suiface  is  not  objectlAiable.  but  th*  laner  abould  be 
ly  be  msied.  PMiM  Ytn  may  be  aitber  aingle  -w 
houU^efully  twisted  and  levet:  It  Is  bIcwJiS  or 
immersed  In  sue  and  polished  with  brushes  wMIe  iIk 

Is  made  by  iirittiag  togetbn-  threads  o(  iBgettai 
I,  maiecialt  or  twjatinga.  at  regular  or  imfftlar 
ti  the  tame  or  oppoaiie  directiont.  The  eflacts  thus 
tuiwn  in  commerce  under  a  great  variety  of  namea.  of 
hwing  are  a  few.    GranJrelit  h  probably  the  nnr  in 


but  of  ^ptOD- 


_ _.  GraiH^fifs  preter.- 

ai^iearance  10  true  grandnlle,  but  is  made  at  the  tunning  ^_^ ^_ 

by  twisting  together  two  rovinfB  that  are  dyed  in  different  eolaura. 
flnkid  Kan  has  a  cloudy  appearance  imparted  to  it.  (a)  by  tviatinff 
a  hard  apun  thread  with  a  roving,  which,  at  regular  or  irrqguUr 
intervals  is  made  thick  and  thin  by  drawing  roltn;  (fr)  by  supply- 
ID  a  thread;  or  ff)  as  in  /CntcbrboriF^  Ytm,  by  dioppine  small 
quantities  of  dyed  fibres  into  iwo,  similar  or  diasimibr.  n>vincm  at 
the  snoning  machine,  or  into  two.  similar  or  dltuiitar,  threans  at 
'Se  Joublcr.    CgrtKnmi  yarn  has  a  spiraj  surface  effect  which 

w  dil^Hn  tendon.  Innun?  and"in  the  quanl^y  i^din^li  of 
ie  twin  in  Ae  tingle  threads.  Ilafioa.  hardaeun.  ssngieor  fcMed 
■read  be  tiritted  irith  a  eoatte.  toft  tpun  nngle.  the  fnane  thread 
ill  wrap  itself  aliout  the  fine  one  and  give  a  comifatrd  surface. 
AdtH.  and  other  effects  may  be  given  liy  tiro  foklingi  and  twisting^ 

..  for  the  finl  doublinF  ■  crane  soft  lbf«<l  is  Iwinnl  with  •  finH- 

one  having  luedlua  It 


m  of  twiit  In 
-ound  a  longer  and  slifli 


ff,  W.  F.| 


YAROSLAVl^-YATESi  E.  H. 


907 


YABOSIAVU  or  Y/uloslav,  a  govenrnient  of  central  Russia, 
aepaxated  firom  ihe  govwnment  ot  Moscow  by  the  governments 
of  VUdimir  and  Tver  on  Ibe  S.,  and  Kaviiig  Tver  and  Novgorod 
OD  the  W.,  Volgoda  on  the  N.  and  Kostrooui  on  the  £.  It  is 
on«  of  the  amallest,  but  moet  populous  and  busiest,  governments 
of  Great  Russia;  area,  X3}747  sq.  m.  It  consists  of  a  broad 
aad  shallow  depiosion,  eloDgated  from  W.  to  £.,  where  the 
Volga  flows  at  a. level  of  260  to'  230  U.  above  the  sea,  while  the 
sunoundiog  hills  rise  to  700  or  800  ft.  In  the  W.,  especially 
b^Btwcea  the  Mologa  and  the  Sheksna,  the  country  contains 
vccy  many  manhes  and  ponds,  and  there  are  low  and  marshy 
txactt  in  the  S»  about  Rostov. 

Jurassic  days,  sandstoites  and  saods  cover  neariy  the  whole  of 
YaixMlavl,  but  they  are  -concealed  almoet  everywhere  under  thick 
deposits  of  Glacial  boulder  clay,  which  u  regarded  by  Russian 
geologists  as  the  bottom  moraine  of  the  great  ice-cap  of  the  Glacial 
period.  Triassic  "  varie|[ated  marb/'  widely  disseminated  through- 
out the  whole  of  the  middle  Volga  region,  undoubtedly  underlie 
nearly  all  the  Jurassic  deposits  oTtbe  government,  but  only  a  few 
patches  emerge  at  the  surface;  many  ssit  springs  exist  in  these 
deposits.  The  Upper  Carboniferous  limestones  crop  out  only  in  the 
N.  w.  and  towaras  the  E.  The  chief  mineral  products  are  bog-iron 
ores,  sulphate  of  copper  and  pottery  clay.  Peat  occurs  in  thick 
beds.  There  are  several  mineral  springs.  The  soil  u  mostly  a  kind 
of  loess  of  moderate  fertility;  sandy  tracts  are  not  unoommon. 

The  principal  river  is  the  Volga,  which  traverses  the  government 
for  180  m.,  making  a  great  bend  to  the  N.  ^  The  chief  towns — 
Rybinsk,  YaroslavC  Moio^a,  Komanovo-Borisoglyebsk,  Uglich  and 
Myshkin— arc  situated  on  its  banks,  and  a  brisk  traffic  is  carried  on, 
both  by  the  river  itself  and  by  two  canab»  Mariinsk  and  Tikhvinsk, 
which  connect  it  with  the  Neva  through  its  tributaries  the  Sheksna 
and  the  Mologa.  Another  tributary  of  the  Volga  is  the  Kotorost, 
which  has  many  factories  on  its  banks  and  is  navigated,  especially 
in  spring.  The  Kostroma  flows  along  the  E.  border  and  is  a  channel 
for  the  export  of  timber  aAd  fuel. 

The  forMts,  chiefly  fir  and  Scotch  pine,  cover  one-third  of  the  area ; 
but  they  are  being  rapidly  destroyed.    The  flora  bears  a  northern 
stamp,  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  dwarf  birch,  of  the  Arctic  rasp- 
berry {Rubus  arcticus),  and  of  Linnaea  hornUis, 

Tne  average  temperature  at  the  city  of  Yaroslavl  is  40*  F. 
(January,  6*^*;  July,  61*5*);  the  prevailing  S.W.  and  W.  winds 
render  it  moister  than  in  central  Russia.  The  rivers  remain  frozen 
118  to  183  days  every  year. 

The  population,  which  is  thoroughly  Russian,  nunbexed 
x,i 75,900  in  t9o6.  The  govenuaent  is  divided  into  ten  districts, 
the  chief  towns  of  which  are  Yaroslavl,  Da^ov,  Lyubim, 
Mobga,  Myshkin,  Poshekhon,Ronia]iovo-Boriaoglyebak,  Ros- 
tov, Rybinsk  and  Uglich.  Yaioalavi  belonga  to  the  manufac- 
turing region  of  central  Russia,  but  the  domestic  character 
of  many  industries  permits  the  inhabitants  to  cultivate  their 
fields  and  also  to  work  in  small  factories.  The  peasants  and 
peasant  communities  own  over  5,000,000  acres,  or  about  57% 
of  the  total  area,  of  which  they  have  acquired  nearly 
1,000,000  acres  by  purchase  since  their  emancipation  in 
x86i;  30%  is  hdd  by  private  persons,  and  7%  by  the 
crown.  There  were  in  1900  1,169,000  acres  (13-3  %  of 
the  total  area)  under  cereals,  the  prindpal  crops  beGig  rye, 
wheat,  oats,  barley  and  potatoes.  Flax  is  widely  culti- 
vated both  for  Unseed  and  fibre,  and  both  fresh  and  dried 
vegetables  are  exported;  Rostov  enjoys  a  great  reputation  as 
the  centre  of  this  industry.  Live-stock  breeding  is  of  only 
less  importance  than  agriculture,  and  poultry  is  exported. 
Large  numbers  find  employment  in  the  making  of  hardware, 
locks,  felt  boots,  gloves,  wooden  wares,  pottery  and  metallic 
wares.  Factories  have  considerably  developed;  the  principal 
are  cotton,  flax  and  woollen  mills,  flour-mills,  tobacco  factories, 
distilleries,  breweries,  chicory  works,  tanneries,  candle  works, 
petroleum  refineries,  machinery,  chemical  and  match  works. 
Rybinsk  and  Yaroslavl  are  the  chief  commercial  centns,  but 
Rostov,  Mologa,  Romanovo  and  Posbekhon  carry  on  an  active 
trade  in  com,  timber  and  manufactured  wares.  Many  of  the 
male  population  annually  leave  thdr  homes  to  work  all  over 
Russia  as  locksmiths,  masons,  plasterers,  waiters  in  restaurants, 
greengrocers,  tailors,  gardeners,  carpenters,  joiners,  pilots, 
boatmen. 

As  eariy  as  the  9tb  century  the  Slavs  had  become  masters 
of  the  Yarodavl  territoiy,  which  was  formeriy  occupied  by 


the  Finnish  tribes  of  Vess  and  Merya,  as  also  by  Moidvinians, 
Muroms  and  Cherenusses  in  the  S.  Rostov  was  already  in 
existence;  but  Yaroslavl,  Rybinsk  and  Uglich  begin  to  be 
mentioned  in  the  annaJs  only  in  the  nth  and  X2th  centuries. 
The  independent  principality  of  Rostov  was  divided  in  the 
,X3th  century  into  three  parts,  but  these  were  soon  afterwards 
successively  annexed  to  Moscow. 

YAROSIAVU  a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the  government 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga,  at  its  con* 
fluence  with  the  Kotorost,  174  m.  by  rail  N.E.  of  Moscow. 
Pop.  about  70,000.  Yaroslavl  ia  an  archiepiscopal  see.  The 
Uspenskiy  cathedral  was  begun  in  12x5  and  rebuilt  in  1646-48; 
the  churches  of  the  Preobrazhcnskiy  monastery,  St  John's 
and  Voskrcseniye  date  from  the  X5th  and  X7lh  centuries. 
Yaroslavl  has  a  lyceum,  founded  (1803)  by  a  wealthy  member 
of  the  Demidov  family.  The  manufactories  include  cotton- 
mills,  flour-miUs,  tobacco  and  linen  factories.  The  town  was 
foiuded  in  1026-36.  It  became  the  chief  town  of  a  principality 
in  X3i8  and  renudned  so  until  1471,  when  it  fell  under  the 
dominion  of  Moscow. 

YARRELL,  WILUAM  (1784-1856),  British  naturalist,  was 
born  in  London  on  the  3rd  of  June  X784.  His  father  was  a. 
newspaper  agent,  and  he  succeeded  to  the  busiocsa,  and  pro- 
secuted it  till  within  a  few  years  of  his  death.  He  acquired  the 
reputation  of  being  the  best  shot  and  the  first  angler  in  the 
metropolis,  and  soon  also  became  an  expert  naturalist.  In 
1825  he  was  elected  a  feUow  of  the  Linnean  Sodcty,  of  which 
he  subsequently  became  treasurer,  and  was  a  diligent  contributor 
to  their  TruHsadums',  and  he  was  one  of  the  original  members 
of  the  Zoological  Sodety.  The  greater  part  of  his  leisure  towards 
the  end  of  his  life  was  devot^  to  his  two  great  works,  Tk4 
History  of  British  Fishes  (3  vols.,  X836)  and  The  History  oj 
British  Birds  (3  vols.,  1843).  These  works  from  the  first  took 
rank  as  standard  authorities.  He  died  at  Yarmouth  on  the 
ist  of  September  1856. 

YARROW,  1^  river  and  parish  of  Selkirkshire,  Scotland. 
The  river,  issuing  from  St  Mary's  Loch,  flows  for  14  m.  £.  by 
N.  to  the  Tweed,  which  it  joins  about  3  m.  below  the  county, 
town.  The  stream  and  vale  are  famous  in  poetry.  Only  a 
fragment  remains  of  Dryhope  Tower„  on  Diybope  Bum,  the 
home  of  Mary  Scott,  "  the  flower  of  Yarrow,"  whom  Walter 
Scott  of  Harden  married  about  1576^  On  Douglas  Bum,  a 
left-hand  tributary,  are  the  ruins  of  the  keep  of  "  the  good  " 
Sir  James  Douglas,  the  friend  of  Robert  Bmce;  and  Blackhouse, 
Mount  Benger  and  the  farm  of  Altrive  are  all  connected  with 
James  Hogg.  Near  Broadm^adows  Sir  William  Dougbs,  the 
knight  of  Liddesdale,  was  murdered  by  his  kin»nan  (1353)  in 
revenge  for  the  death  of  Sir  Alexander  Ramsay  of  Dalhousie 
at  Hermitage  Castle.  The  body  lay  for  a  niglit  in  Lindean 
church,  now  in  ruins,  near  Selkirk,  before  its  burial  in  Melrose 
Abbey.  On  the  right  bank  are  the  ruins  of  l^ewark  Castle* 
built  by  James  III.  in  X466  as  a  hunting  seat,  afterwards  the 
property  of  the  Scotts  of  Buccleuch.  It  was  burned  by  the 
English  in  1548,  but  the  tower  was  restored.  On  the  right  side 
of  the  Yarrow  is  Bowhill,  a  seat  of  the  duke  of  Bucdeuch. 

YATAGHAN  (from  Turk.  yWtgh&nx  sometimes  spelled  in 
English  "  attaghan  "  and  "  ataghan  "),  the  name  of  a  type  of 
sword  common  to  Mahominedan  peoples.  It  has  no  guard  or 
quillons,  but  a  large  and  often  decorated  pommel;  its  blade  has 
a  double  curve  on  the  cutting  edge,  first  concave  and  then 
convex;  the  back  is  usually  straight  (see  Sword). 

TATES,  EDMUND  HODGSON  <i83x-x894),  English  journalist 
and  author,  son  of  Frederick  Henry  Yates  (1797-1842),  was 
bom  at  Edinburgh  on  the  3rd  of  July  183X.  His  father  and 
mother  {nie  Bmnton;  1799-1860)  were  both  prominent  figures 
on  the  London  stage  from  about  x8i  7  onwards.  Edmund  Yates 
was  educated  at  Highgate  School  and  at  Dtissddorf.  In  1847 
he  obtained  a  clerkship  in  the  Genersl  Post  Office,  with  which 
he  continued  to  be  connected  up  to  1872,  becoming  in  1862 
head  of  the  missing  letter  department.  He  married  ip  x8s3» 
and  soon  began  to  write  for  the  press.  Charles  Pickens  made 
him  dxamatic  critic  to  the  DaUy  Ntwt,  and  be  was  a  ooBtributw 


9o9 


YATES,  M.  A.— YAWS 


to  Housduid  W&ris.'  *He  wrote  several  farces  which  were  acted 
between  1857  and  i860.  In  1855  be  had  begun  writing  a  column 
for  the  lUusirated  Times  (under  Henxy  Vi^eteily),  headed  "  The 
Lounger  at  the  Clubs  **:  this  was  the  first  attempt  at  combining 
"  smart "  personal  paragraphs  with  the  better  class  of  journalism, 
and  in  1858  Yates  was  made  editor  of  a  new  paper  caUed 
Town  Talkf  which  carried  the  innovation  a  step  forward. 
His  first  number  contained  a  laudatory  article  on  Dickens, 
and  the  second  a  disparaging  one  on  Thackeray,  containing 
various  personal  references  to  private  matters.  Thackeray, 
regarding  this  as  a  serious  affront,  brought  the  article  before 
the  committee  of  the  Garrick  Gub,  of  which  he  contended  that 
Yates"  had  made  improper  use,  and  the  result  was  that  Yates 
was  expelled.  Besides  editing  Temple  Bar  and  Tinsle/s  Maga- 
sine,  Yates  during  the  'sixties  took  to  lecturing  on  social 
topics,  and  published  several  books,  including  his  best  novel, 
Black  Sheep  (1867);  and  under  the  heading  of  "  Le  FlAneur  "• 
be  continued  in  the  Morning  Star  the  sort  of  "  personal  column'"' 
which  he  had  inaugurated  in  the  lUuskakd  Times.  On  his  re- 
tirement from  the  Post  Office  in  1872  he  went  to  America  on  a 
lecturing  tour,  and  afterwards,  as  a  special  correspondent  for 
the  New  York  Herald,  travelled  through  Europe.  But  in  1874, 
with  the  help  of  E.  C.  Grenville  Murray,  he  established  a  new 
London  weekly,  The  World,  "  a  journal  for  men  and  women," 
which  he  edited  himself.  The  paper  at  once  became  a  success, 
and  Yates  bought  out  Grenville  Murray  and  became  sole  pro- 
prietor. The  World  was  the  first  of  the  new  type  of  "  society 
papers,'*  abounding  in  personal  criticism  and  gossip:  one  of  its 
features  was  the  employment  of  the  first  person  singular  in  its 
columns,  a  device  by  which  the  personal  element  in  this  form 
oi  journalism  was  emphasized.  After  Truth  was  started  in  1877 
by  Mr  Henry  Labouchere  (who  was  one  of  Yates's  earliest 
contributors),  the  rivalry  between  the  two  weeklies  was  amus- 
ingly pointed  by  references  in  The  World  to  what  "  Henry  " 
said,  and  in  Truth  to  the  mistakes  made  by  "  Edmund."  In 
1885  Yates  was  convicted  of  a  libel  in  1884  on  Lord  Lonsdale, 
and  was  imprisoned  in  Holloway  gaol  for  seven  weeks.  In  the 
same  year  he  published  his  ReccUections  and  Experiences  in  two 
volumes.  He  died  on  the  20th  of  May  1894.  He  had  been  the 
XypKal  Jldneur  in  the  literary  world  of  the  period,  an  entertaining 
writer  and  talker,  with  a  talent  for  publicity  of  the  modem  type 
--developed,  no  doubt,  from  his  theatrical  parentage — ^which, 
through  hb  imitators,  was  destined  to  have  considerable  influence 
on  journalism. 

YATES,  MARY  ANN  (i 728-1 787),  English  actress,  was  the 
daughter  of  William  Graham,  a  ship's  steward.  In  1753  she 
appeared  at  Drury  Lane  as  Marda  in  Samuel  Crisp's  (d.  1783) 
Virginia,  Garrick  being  the  Virginius.  She  was  gradually  en- 
trusted with  all  the  leading  parts.  Mrs  Yates,  whose  husband. 
Richard  Yates  (c.  1706-1796),  was  a  well-known  comedian, 
succeeded  Mrs  Cibber  as  the  leading  tragedian  of  the  Eng- 
lish stage,  and  was  in  turn  succeeded — and  eclipsed — ^by  Mre 
Siddons. 

YATE8,  RICHARD  (18x8-1873),  American  political  leader, 
was  bom  at  Warsaw,  Kentucky,  on  the  x8th  of  January  x8i8. 
He  graduated  at  the  Illinois  College  .at  Jacksonville  in  1838, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  entered  politics  as  a  V  liig.  From 
X84S  to  1845  and  again  in  1849  he  served  in  the  state  House  of 
Representatives.  He  was  a  representative  in  Congress  in  185 1- 
185s,  but  having  bccoifte  a  Republican,  was  defeated  for  a  third 
term.  From  1861  to  1865  he  was  governor  of  Illinois,  and  was 
successful  in  enlisting  troops  and  in  checkmg  the  strong  pro- 
Southem  sentiment  in  the  state.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1865-71,  and  was  prominent  in 
Reconstmction  legislation.  He  died  at  St  Louis,  Missouri,  on 
the  27th  of  November  1873.  His  son  Richard  (b.  x86o)  was 
govemor  of  Illinois  from  1901  to  1905. 

TAT8AUK4  called  by  the  Shans  Lawksawx,  a  state  in  the 
central  division  d  the  aouthera  Shan  States  of  Burma.  Area, 
2197  sq*  M.  Fop.  <i9oi),  S41839,  of  whom  less  than  one-half  are 
Shans;  revenue,  £2000.  The  crops  grown  are  rice,  segamum, 
cotteDfCMiuulrmiu  and  oranges.    As  a  whole  the  itau  is  moan* 


tainous,  with  ranges  nmnlng  N.  and  S.  The  main  range  has  a 
general  height  of  5000  ft.,  with  peaks,  such  as  Loi  Sampa,  xisiD| 
to  7846  ft.  The  middle  and  S.,  however,  consist  of  open  roll- 
ing country,  with  an  average  height  of  3500  ft.  To  the  N.  the 
country  falls  away  to  the  Nam  Tta  (Myitngi),  where  tliere  are  fine 
teak  forests,  as  well  as  along  the  Nam  Lang  and  Nam  £t,  wkick 
with  the  Zawgyi  form  the  chief  riven  of  the  state.  Most  of  thea 
disappear  underground  at  intervals,  which  makes  the  eztnctioo 
of  timber  impossible  except  for  local  use.  Lawksawk,  the  capital, 
stands  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Zawgyi,  near  a  small  weedy  lake. 
The  old  brick  waUs  and  the  moat  are  falling  into  decay.  The 
chief  at  the  time  of  annexation  had  been  at  war  with  the  But* 
mese,  but  refused  to  submit  to  the  British,  and  fled  to  KCo^ 
HOng,  where  he  died  some  yean  afterwards.  The  sawhva 
chosen  in  1887  belonged  to  another  Shan  ruling  hottae.  He 
died  in  1900,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son. 

YATUNO,  a  trade-market  of  Tibet,  situated  in  the  month  of  the 
Chumbi  vaUey  near  the  Indian  fn»tier.  According  to  the  Coa- 
vention  of  1890-93,  the  market  at  Yatiing  was  opened  to  India, 
and  the  conduct  of  the  Tibetans  in  buQding  a  wall  ftcross  the 
road  between  Yatung  and  Tibet  was  one  of  the  incidents  that  kd 
up  to  the  British  mission  of  1904.  According  to  the  treaty  of 
that  year,  a  Britidi  trade-agent  was  to  be  maintained  at  Yatuog. 

YAUCO,  a  city  of  the  department  of  Ponce,  Porto  Rico, 
2om.W.  by  N.  of  the  city  of  Ponce.  Pop.  (1899)  6zo8.  Yaucotf 
served  by  the  American  Railroad  of  Porto*  Rico.  The  dty  ii 
situated  about  150  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  has  adeli^tful  dimate. 
It  is  connected  by  a  wagon  road  with  its  port,  Guanica  {pep. 
about  xooo),  which  has  an  excellent  harbour.  Coffee  and 
tobacco  are  the  chief  industries.    Yauoo  was  first  settled  ia 

1756.  

YAVORSKY,  STEPHEH  (e.  X6S8-X722),  Russian  aichbisbep 
and  statesman,  one  of  the  ablest  coadjutora  of  Peter  the  Great, 
was  educated  at  the  Kiev  Academy  and  various  Polish  schodt. 
Becoming  a  monk,  he  settled  at  the  Kiev  Academy  as  a  preacher 
and  professor,  being  appointed  prefect  of  the  institution  and 
prior  of  the  monastery  of  St  Nicholas.  He  attracted  the 
attention  of  Peter  by  his  funeral  oration  over  the  boyar  Shein, 
and  was  made  archbishop  of  Ryazan  in  1700.  -  In  1702,  on  the 
death  of  the  last  patriarch  of  Moscow,  Yavotsky  was  appmnted 
custodian  of  the  spiritualities  of  the  patriardial  see.  Not- 
withstanding frequent  ooUisions  with  Peter,  and  his  parti* 
ality  for  the  unfortunate  tsaievich  Alexius,  Yavorsky  was  too 
valuable  a  man  to  be  discarded.  In  1721  he  was  made  6nt 
president  of  the  newly  erected  Holy  Ssmod,  but  died  in  the 
following  yean 

Yavorsky's  chief  works  are  hb  Rock  of  the  Paitk  of  the  OrAedet' 
CathoUc  Eastern  Church  and  Dogmatic,  Moral  and  Panegyricat 
Sermons.  Sec  Y.  T.  Samario,  Suphen  Yajnrshy  (Rub.)  (Moscow. 
1844);  1.  Morcv,  '*  The  Rock  of  ihe  Faith"  of  the  MetropolUaa 
Stephen  Yavorsky  (Rus.)  (Petersburg,  1904). 

YAWL,  the  name  of  a  special  rig  of  small  sailing  vessels 
or  yachts,  with  two  masts,  the  mainmast  cutter-rigged,  and  a 
small  mizzen  stepped  far  aft  with  a  spanker  or  driving  sail.  Tbc 
name  has  also  been  applied  to  a  small  ship*s  boat  rowed  vit^ 
four  or  more  oan.  The  word  is  apparently  an  adaptation  of 
the  Dutch  M  skiff. 

The  English  "  jolly-boat,*'  a  small  bluff-bowed,  wide^tranaoacd 
ship's  boat,  swung  at  the  stem  of  a  vessel  for  ready  use.  is  probabi/ 


Gallby).    A  galliot,  however,  was  never  a  small  boat,  but  an  in- 
dependent vowel  pecptSkd  by  oars  or  sails. 

YAWS,  the  name  in  use  in  the  British  West  Indies  for  s 
contagious  inoculable  tropical  disease,  running  a  chroaic 
course  and  characterized  by  a  peculiar  eruption,  together 
with  more  or  less  constitutional  disturbance.  It  is  knows 
by  various  local  names  in  different  parts.  In  the  French 
Antilles  it  ia  called  pian;  in  Brazil,  boba ;  on  the  west  coast 
of  Africa,  gatlu,  duU  and  taranga;  in  Fiji,  coko;  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  purru;  in  the  Moluccas,  bouhn  d*Amboine;  in  Saino** 
tmga  or  Imw;  in  Baantolandt  makoolai  and  io  Ceylon  it  ^ 


YA2DEGERD— YEATS 


909 


^lokcii  of  under  the  name  of  parangi,    Tfae  name  framboesia 

was  &rst  given  to  the  disease  by  Sauvages  in  1759  from  the 

likeness  of  the  typical  excrescences  to  a  raspbeny.    For  many 

yean  yaws  was  thought  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Africa  negro, 

either  in  his  home  (both  west  and  east  coasts)  or  tn  the  West 

Indies  and  Braail..  Bat-a  disease  the  same  in  CTery  respect  has 

long  been  known  in  the  Esst  Indies  (first  mention^  by  Bontius 

early  in  the  17th  century),  affecting  the  Malays  rather  than 

the  negroes,  its  chief  seats  bdng  Amboyna,  Temate,  Timor, 

Celebes,  Java  and  Sumatra.    It  has  been  identified  by  De 

Rochas  aibd  other  observers  in  New  Caledonia  and  Fiji. 

The  general  course  <f  the  disease  is  as  follows.  Previous  to  die 
eruption  there  may  or  may  not  be  any  disorder  of  health:  in 
childrea  (who  form  a  large  part  of  the  subjects  of  yaws)  tbeie  will 
probably  be  rheumatic  pains  in  the  limbs  and  joints,  with  lan^or, 
debility  and  upaet  of  toe  digestion:  in  adults  of  ordinary  vigour 
the  eruption  b  often  the  first  sign,  and  it  is  attended  with  few  or 
no  constitutional  troubles.  The  eruption  begins  as  small  pimples 
like  a  pin's  head,  smooth  and  nearly  level  wnh  the  surface;  tney 
have  a  little  whitish  speck  on  their  tops,  grow  rapidly  and  reach 
the  size  of  a  sixpence  or  a  shilling.  The  pustules  then  break  and  a 
thick  viscid  ichor  exudes  and  dnes  upon  them  as  a  whitish  slough 
and  around  th^  base  as  a  yellowisn-brown  crust.  Beneath  the 
whitish  ^ough  b  the  raspberry  excrescence  oryaw  proper,  a  reddbh 
fungous  growth  with  a  nddular  surface.  The  favourite  seats  of 
the  eruption  are  the  forehead,  face,  neck,  arm-pits,  groin,  genitab, 
oerinaeum  and  buttocks.  Hairs  at  the  seat  of  a  jraw  turn  white. 
In  young  children  or  infants  tVt  comers  of  the  mouth  ulcerate,  as 
in  syphins,  and  the  perineal  excrescences  resembfe  condylomata.. 
The  pustules  «nd  excrescences  do  not  all  arise  in  one  crop:  some 
are  found  mature  while  othen  are  only  starting.  If  the  patient 
be  of  sound  constitution  and  good  reaction,  the  yaws  may  reach 
the  full  sixe  of  a  mulberry  in  a  month,  in  which  case  they  will 
probifaly  be  few;  but  in  persons  of  poor  health  they,  may  take 
three  months  to  attain  the  size  of  a  wood-strawberry,  in  whkh  case 
they  will  be  numerous  inversely  to  their  size.  Often  there  is  one 
yaw  much  larger  than  the  rest,  and  longer  in  falling;  it  is  called 
the "  master  yaw  "  "  or  mother  yaw."  On  the  soles  of  the  feet 
(less  often  on  the  palms  of  the  biands)  the  bursting  yaws  are  as  if 
imprisoned  beneath  the  homy  cutide;  they  cause  swelling  and 
tenderness  of  the  foot,  until  set  free  by  panng  the  callous  skin 
down  to  the  quick;  these  yaws  are  called  "  cnib  yaws  "  or  tubbas. 
Usually  a  yaw  is  painless  unless  when  nibbed  or  irritated.  ^The 
absence  of  pain  u  used  as  a  diagnostk  »f^n  if  there  be  any  doubt 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  attack:  a  pustule  is  opened  and  a  little  of 
tfae  juice  of  capskum  dropped  into  it;  if  it  be  a  yaw,  no  smarting 
will  be  felt.  In  some  cases  a  few  yaws  will  show  themselves  lona 
after  the  primary  attack  b  over;  these  are  called  "  memba  yaws 
(from  '*  remember  "),  the  term  being  sometimes  applied  also  to 
protracted  cases  with  successive  crops  of  eruption.  Six  weeks  b 
the  average  time  in  a  good  case,  from  the  first  of  the  eruption  to 
the  fall  of  the  excrescences;  in  such  regubr  cases  a  scar  remains, 
it  may  be  for  nuiny  months,  darker  than  the  rest  of  the  (negro) 
skin.  But  the  disease  b  often  a  much  more  tedious  affair,  the  more 
protracted  type  having  become  common  in  the  West  Indies  of 
recent  years.  In  such  cases  the  eruption  comes  out  by  degrees  and 
as  if  with  difiicalty,  crop  after  crop;  foul,  excavating  and  corroding 
ulcers  may  remain,  or  a  limb  may  be  in  part  seamea  and  mutibted 
by  the  scan  of  old  ulceration.  The  scars  after  ulceration  are  not 
so  dark  as  the  skin  around. 

Aetiology.— Yz.^n  is  a  highl/  contagious '  disease. '  It  b 
neither  hereditary  nor  congenital.  The  disease  spreads  by 
contact  with  previously  infected  cases,  though  it  has  been 
stated  that  infection  also  arises  from  inhabiting  dirty  houses, 
the  floors  and  waUs  of  which  are  contaminated  with  yawey 
matter  from  former  yaw  cases;  and  it  b  also  believed,  and 
has  been  proved  by  experiment,  that  infection  may  be  con- 
veyed by  flies,  which  act  as  go-betweens,  carrying  infective 
material  from  a  yaws  sore  to  an  ordinary  ulcer.  The  vims 
must  be  Introduc^  directly  through  a  breach  of  the  skin  or 
mucous  membrane;  an  attack  in  childhood  gives  a  large 
degree  of  immunity  for  the  rest  of  life.  A  micrococcus  was 
found  by  Pierez  and  NichoUs  in-  the  tuberdes  of  yaws,  but  a 
pure  culture  of  thb  micro-organbm  failed  to  give  rise  to  yaws 
in  animab  into  whom  it  vras  injected  experimentally,  and  in 
no  instance  was  it  present  in  the  blood.  In  1905  Aldo  CasteUani 
demonstrated  in  yaws  the  presence  of  a  slender  spirillum, 
which  he  named  the  Spirochaeia  pertenuis  or  Spirochaeta  palli- 
dula.  It  was  also  experimentally  proved  by  him  (i)  that  the 
material  taken  from  persons  sufifering  from  yaws  and  con- 
taining the  Spirochaeia  ptrtentUs  b  infective  .to  monkeys; 
xxviu   IJS* 


(»)  that  when  the  Sffroekada  pariemtis  b  removed  by  filtration 
the  material  becomes  inert;  (3)  that  the  injection  of  blood 
from  the  general  circulation  of  a  yaws  patient  gave  positive 
results  in  monkeys;  (4)  by  means  of  the  Bordet-Gengou 
reaction  it  is  possible  to  detect  spedfic  yaws  anti-bodies  and 
antigen. 

The  prophylaxb  consbts  in  the  segregation  of  the  patients 
suffering  from  the  disease,  the  antiseptic  dressing  of  the  erup- 
tion, the  application  of  a  covering  to  protect  it  from  flies,  and 
the  thorou^  deansing  and  disinfection  of  infected  houses 
and  dothing,  even  the  demolition  of  houses  In  endemic  centres, 
and  finally  the  compulsory  notification  of  cases  of  yaws  to  the 
local  sanitary  authority. 

As  regards  treatment,  the  malady  In  a  person  of  good  con« 
stitution  runs  its  course  and  gets  well  in  a  few  weeks.  What- 
ever tends  to  check  the  eruption,  such  as  exposure  to  chQl,  b  to 
be  avoided.  A  week's  course  of  cream  of  tartar  and  sidphur 
(confection  of  sulphur)  at  the  beginning  of  the  illness  b  often 
resorted  to,  so  as  to  bring  the  eruption  well  out  Tlie  patient 
should  remain  indoors,  in  a  well-aired  room,  and  take  daily 
warm  baths  and  dilu^t  drinks.  If  the  excrescences  are  flabby 
and  unhealthy,  it  b  an  indication  for  generous  diet.  When 
the  eruption  b  declared,  iodide  of  potassium  and  arsenic  are 
very  beneficial.  As  external  applications,  weak  lotions  of  sine 
or  carbolic  add  may  be  used,  and,  if  the  excrescences  are  irri- 
table, a  watery  soluQon  of  opium.  Tedious  and  imhealthy  yaws 
should  be  dressed  with  a  wash  of  sulphate  of  zinc  or  of  copper; 
the  same  may  be  applied  to  a  yaw  ulcer.  The  crab  yaws  of 
the  homy  soles  or  palms,  after  Uiey  are  let  through  by  paring 
the  cutide,  may  be  dusted  with  alum  powder. 

On  the  whole,  the  mortality  b  small.  In  7157  West  Indbn  cases 
treated  in  various  hospitals  there  were  only  185  deaths,  a  mortal!^ 
of  35  -8  per  thousand  (NkhoUs). 

TAZDBOBRD  ("made  by  God,"  Itdegaries),  the  name  of 
three  Sassanid  kings  of  Persia,  (x)  YAa>SGEKD  I.,  son  of 
Shapur  in.,  399-420,  called. "the  sinner"  by  the  Persians, 
was  a  highly  intelligent  ruler,  who  tried  to  emandpate  himself 
from  the  dominion  of  the  magnates  and  the  Magian  priests. 
He.  punbhed  the  nobles  severely  when  they  attempted  op- 
pression; he  stopped  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  and 
granted  them  their  own  organization.  With  the  Roman 
Empire  he  lived  in  peace  and  friendship,  and  b  therefore  as 
much  praised-  by  the  Byzantine  authors  (Procop.  Per$,  L  s; 
Agath.  iv.  a6)  as  he  b  blamed  by  the  Persians.  After  a  reign 
of  twenty  years  he  appears  to  have  been  murdered  in  Khorasan. 

(2)  Yazdegebd  II.,  was  the  son  of  Bahram  V.  Gor,  438-457. 
He  persecuted  the  Christians  and  Jews,  and  had  a  short  war 
with  Rome  in  44X.  He  tried  to  extend  hb  kingdom  in  the 
East  and  fought  against  the  Kushans  and  Kidarites  (or  Huns). 

(3)  Yazdegebo  III.,  a  grandson  of  Chosroes  II.,  who  had  been 
murdered  by  hb  son  Kavadh  II.  in  628,  was  raised  to  the  throne 
in  632  after  a  series  of  internal  conflicts.  He  was  a  mere  child 
and  never  really  ruled;  in  hb  first  year  the  Arabic  invasion 
began,  and  in  637  the  battle  of  Kadisiya  dedded  the  fate  of 
the  empire.  Ctesiphon  was  occupied  by  the  Arabs,  and  the 
king  fled  into  Media.  Yazdegeid  fled  from  one  dbtrict  to 
another,  till  at  last  he  was  murdered  at  Merv  in  651  (see  Cau- 
PHATE,  sect.  A.  x).  The  Parsees,  who  use  the  old  PMan 
calendar,  continue  to  count  the  years  from  fib  accession  (era  of 
Yazdegerd,  beginning  June  i6th,  A.D.632).  (Ed.  M.)  ' 

TBAST  (O.E.  gie^  or  gyrX;  the  root  yer-,  to  boil,  ferment',  b 
seen  in  Sansk.  nir-ydsa,  exudations  from  trees,  and  Gr.  ^ekv, 
to  boiI)j  a  cellular  organbm  produced  in  the  alcoholic  fermenta- 
tion of  saccharine  liquids  (see  Fttngi,  Feucentatiow,  Bxtwino). 

TEATS,  WILLIAM  BUTLER  (1865-  ),  Irish  author,  son 
of  J.  B.  Yeats  (b.  X839),  a  dbtinguished  Irish'artbt  and  member 
of  the  Royal  Hibernian  Academy,  was  bom  at  Sandymouat, 
Dublin,  on  the  13th  of  June  1865.  At  nine  years  old  he  went  to 
live  with  hb  parents  in  London,  and  was  sent  to  the  Godolphin 
School,  Hammersmith.  .  At  fifteen  he  went  to  the  Erasmus 
Smith  School  in  Dublin.  Later  he  studied  painting  for  a 
short  time  at  the  Royal  Dublin  Sodety,  but  soon  turned  to 


9IO 


YECLA— YELLOW  FEVER 


literature,  coDtribtUiog  poems  and  articles  to  the  Dublin  Uni- 
versily  Review  and  other  Irish  periodicals.     In  iS88  he  was 
encouraged  by  Oscar  Wilde  to  try  his  fortune  in  London,  where 
he  published  in  1889  his  first  volume  of  vene,  The  Wanderings 
ol  Oisin;  its  original  and  romantic  touch  impressed  discerning 
critics,  and  started  a  new  interest  in  the  "  Celtic  "  movement. 
The  same  year  and  the  next  he  contributed  to  Mr  Walter 
Scott's'" Camelot  Series,"  edited  by  Ernest  Rhys,  Fairy  and 
Polk  Tales t  a  collection  of  Irish  folUore,  and  Tales  Jr am  Carlson, 
«>ith  original  introductions.    In  189 1  he  wrote  anonymously 
two  Irish  stories,  John  Sherman  and  Dhoya,  for  Mr  Fisher 
Unwin's  "  Pseudonym  Library."    In  1892  he  published  another 
volume  of  verse,  including  The  Countess  Kathleen  (a  romantic 
drama),  which  gave  the  book  its  title,  and  in  1893  The  Celtic 
Twiliikt,  a  volume  of  essays  and  sketches  in  prose.    He  now 
submitted  his  earlier  poetical  work  to  careful  revision,  and  it 
was  in  the  revised  versions  of  The  Wanderings  of  U sheen  and 
The  Countess  KathleeUt  and  the  lyrics  given  in  his  collected 
Poems  of  1895  that  his  authentic  poetical  note  found  adequate 
expression  and  was  recognized  as  marking  the  rise  of  a  new 
Irish  schooL    In  the  meantime  be  had  followed  The  Countess 
Kathleen  with  another  poetical  drama,  The  Land  of  Hearths 
Desire,  acted  at  the  Avenue  Theatre  for  sue  weeks  in  the  ^ring 
of  1894,  published  in  May  of  that  year.     He  contributed  to 
various  periodicals,  notably  to  the  National  Observer  and  the 
Bookman^  and  also  to,,  the  Book  of  the   Rhymers^  Club — the 
English  Pamasse  Contemporain  of  the  early  'nineties.     With 
Edwin  J.  Ellis  he  edited  the  Works  of  William  Blake  (1893), 
and  also  edited  A  Book  of  Irish  Verse  (1895).    In  1897  ap- 
peared The  Secret  Rose,  a  collection  of  Irish  legends  and  tales 
in  prose,  with  poetry  interspersed,  containing  the  stories  of 
Hanrahan  the  Red.    The  same  year  he  printed  privately  The 
Tables  of  the  Law  and  the  Adoration  of  the  liaiji,  afterwards 
published  in  a  volume  of  Mr  Elkin  Mathews's  "  Vigo  Street 
Cabinet  "  in  1904.    In  1889  he  published  The  Wind  among  the 
Reeds,  containing  some  of  his  best  lyrics,  and  in  1900  another 
poetical  drama,  The  Shadowy  Waters.   He  now  became  qsecially 
interested  in  the  establishment  of  an  Irish  literary  theatre; 
and  he  founded  and  conducted  an  occasional  periodical  (appear- 
ing fitfully  at  irregular  intervals),  called  first  Beltain  and  later 
Samhain,  to  expound  its  aims  and  preach  his  own  views,  the 
first  number  appearing  in  May  1899.    In  the  autumn  of  190 1 
Mr  F.  R.  Benson's  company  produced  in  London  the  play 
Diarmuid  and  Crania,  written  in  collaboration  by  him  and 
George  Moore.    In  1903  he  published  his  own  first  original 
play  in  prose,  CatMeen  ni  Houlihan,  which  was  printed  in 
Samhain  in  October  that  year.     In  1903  be  collected  and 
published  a  volume  of  literary  and  critical  essays,  to  which  he 
gave  the  title,  Ideas  of  Good  and  Evil.    In  the  same  and  the 
following  yean  he  published  a  collected  edition  of  his  Plays  for 
an  Irish  Theatre,  comprising  Where  There  is  Nothing,  The  Hour- 
Glass,  Cathleen  ni  Houlihan,  The  Pot  of  Broth,  The  Kin^s 
Threshold  and  On  Bailees  Strant\    In  1904  he  also  edited  two 
volumes  of  Irish  Representative  Tales.   Whether  or  not  "  Celtic  " 
is  the  right  word  for  it,  Mr  Yeats's  art  was  quickly  identified 
by  enthusiasts  with  the  literary  side  of  the  new  Irish  national 
movement.    His  inspiration  may  be  traced  in  some  measure 
to  the  Pre-Raphaelites  and  also  to  Blake,  Shelley  and  Maeter- 
linck; but  he  found  in  his  native  Irish  legend  and  life  matter 
apt  for  his  romantic  and  often  elfin  music,  with  its  artful  sim- 
plicities and  Ophackneycd  cadences,  and  its  elusive,  inconclusive 
charm. 


Seethe 


OA  W.  B.  Yeats  in  Poets  of  Ae  Youngfr  Generation 


by  William  Archer  (1903).  and  for  bibUoflnphy  up  to  June  1903, 
English  Illustroted  Magflnne,  vol.  zadx.  (N.S.)  p.  s88.  A  libranr 
edition  of  his  collected  world  in  proae  and  verae  was  issued  by  Mr 
Bullen  from  the  Sbakespccre  H«d  Works,  Stratford-oo-Avon,  in 
8  vois..  1908. 

TSCLA,  a  town  of  E.  Spain,  in  the  extreme  N.  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Murda,  on  the  Yecla-Villena  railway;  it  is  situated 
on  the  W.  slope  of  Monte  Castillo,  which  rises  above  the  left 
bank  of  the  Arroyo  del  Jua, .  Fop.  (1900)  x8i74J*^'n)e_diief. 


buildiagi  are  a  half-mined  dtadel,  4  modeni  pAiUi  ckaach 
with  a  pillared  Corinthian  facade,  and  a  town  haU  ^tMwting 
in  a  fine  arcaded  square.  Yecla  has  a  thriviitg  trade  in  the 
grain,  wine,  oil,  fruit  and  esparto  grass  produced  in  the  sur- 
rounding country. 

YBISK,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  province  of  Kuban  (Caucasos), 
founded  in  1848  on  a  sandbank  which  separates  the  sballov 
Bay  of  Yeisk  from  the  Sea  of  Azov,  76  n,  S.W.  of  Rostov^ 
on-the-Don.  Pop^  SSAA'b.  Notwithstanding  its  shallow  road- 
stead, Yeisk  has  grown  with  great  rapidity,  and  exports  oo^^ 
linseed  and  wooL  There  are  wool-cleansing  factories,  oil-vofks 
and  tanneries. 

YBUUOW  FBVSB,  a  specific  infective  tropical  fever,  the  sens 
of  which  is  transmitted  by  the  Stegomyia  fasdata  or  docnestk 
mosquito,  occurring  endemically  in  certain  limited  areas.  The 
area  of  cUstribution  Includes  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  part  of 
Central  America,  the  W.  coast  of  Africa  and  BraatL 

The  first  authentic  account  of  yellow  fever  comes  from  Bridge- 
town, Barbados,  in  x(S47,  where  it  was  recognized  as  a  "  nova 
pestis  "  that  was  unaccountable  in  its  origin,  except  that  Li^oo, 
the  historian  of  the  colony,  who  was  then  on  the  spot,  connected 
it  with  the  arrival  of  ships.  |t  was  the  same  new  pestilence  that 
Dutertre,  writing. in  1667,  described  as  having  occurred  in  the 
French  colony  of  Guadeloupe  in  1635  and  1640;  it  recurved  at 
Guadeloupe  in  1648,  snd  broke  out  in  a  peculiarly  disastrous 
form  at  St  Kitts  the  same  year,  and  again  in  1652;  in  1655  it 
was  at  Port  Royal,  Jamaica;  and  from  those  years  oninuds 
it  became  familiar  at  many  harbours  in  the  West  Indies  and 
Spanish  Main.  It  appeared  at  the  Brazilian  ports  in  1849.  In 
1853  it  appeased  in  Peru  and  in  1820  on  the  W.  coast  of  Africa. 
In  Georgetown  (British  Guiana)  69%  of  the  garrison  died  m 
1840. 

During  the  great  period  of  yellow  fever  (x  793-1805),  and  for 
some  years  afterwards,  the  disease  found  its  way  time  after  time 
to  various  ports  of  Spain.  Cadiz  suffered  five  epidemics  in  the 
x8th  century,  Malaga  one  and  Lisbon  one;  but  from  1800  down 
to  182 1  the  disease  assumed  much  more  alarming  pn^>ortions, 
Cadiz  being  still  its  chief  seat,  while  Seville,  Mala^  Cartagena, 
Barcdona,  Palma,  Gibraltar  and  other  shipping  places  saffoed 
severely,  as-  well  as  some  of  the  country  districts  nearest  to  the 
ports.  In  the  severe  epidemic  at  Barcelona  in  the  sununer  of 
182 1,  5000  persons  died.  At  Lisbon  in  1857  upwards  of  6000 
died  in  a  few  weeks.  In  New  Orleans  7970  people  died  in  1853, 
3093  in  1867,  and  4056  in  1878.  In  Rio  4160  died  in  1850, 
X943  in  X852,  and  X397  in  1886. 

Certain  distinct  conditions  have  seemed  to  be  necessary  for 
an  outbreak.  Foremost  we  may  notice  a  high  atmospheric 
temperature,  one  of  75**  F.  or  over. '  As  the  thennoraeter  sinks, 
the  disease  ceases  to  spread.  Moisture  favours  the  q>read  of 
yellow  fever,  and  epidemics  in  the  tropics  have  usually  occurred 
about  the  rainy  season.  Seaport  towns  are  moat  affected. 
In  many  instances  the  elevated  airy  and  hygieak  quarters  of 
a  town  may  escape,  while  the  shore  districts  are  decimated. 
Usually  the  disease  does  not  spread  to  villages  or  sparsely  popu- 
lated districts.  Certain  houses  become  hotbeds  of  the  disease, 
case  after  case  occurring  in  them;  and  it  is  usually  in  houses 
that  the  disease  is  contracted.  A  house  may  be  said  to  be 
infected  when  it  contains  infected  mosquitoes,  whether  there 
be  a  yellow-fever  patient  there  or  not.  Ships  become  infected 
in  the  same  way,  the  old  wooden  trading  ships  affording  an  ideal 
hiding-place  to  the  Stegomyia  in  a  way  that  the  modern  and 
airy  steamship  does  noL 

The  incubation  period  of  yellow  fever  is  generally  four  or  five 
days,  but  it  may  be  as  short  as  twenty-four  hours.  There  are 
usually  three  marked  stages:  (i)  the  febrile  period,  (2)  the  period 
of  remission  or  lull,  (3)  in  severe  cases,  the  period  of  reaction.  The 
illness  usually  starts  with  languor,  chilliness,  headache,  and  mus- 
cular pains,  which  might  be  the  precursors  of  any  febrile  attack. 
These  are  followed  by  a  peculiar  look  of  the  eyes  and  face, 
which  is  characteristic:  the  face  Is  flushed,  and  the  eyes  suffused 
at  first  and  then  congested  or  ferrety,  the  nostrils  iad  lips  red, 
1  and  the  tongue  scarlet— these  being  the  most  obvious  signs  of 


YELLOW  FEVER 


^n 


universal  congestion  of  the  skin,  nraeons  membmnes  and  otgans. 
Meanwhile  the  temperature  has  risen  to  fever  heat,  and  may  reach 
a  very  high  figure  (maximum  of  iio^  -Fahr.,  it  is  said);  the 
puJse  is  quidc,  ftnmg  and  fuU,  but  may  not  keep  up  in  these 
characters  with  the  high  temperature  Uiroughout.  There  are 
all  the  usual  accompaniments  of  high  fever,  indudlng  hot  skin, 
failure  of  appetfte,  thirst,  nausea,  restlesBoess  and  deliiium 
(which  may  or  may  not  be  violent);  albumen  wiU  neatly  always 
be  found  in  the  urine.  The  fever  k  continued;  but  the  febrUe 
excitement  comes  to  an  end  after  two  or  three  days.  In  a  certain 
class  of  ambulatory  or  masked  cases  the  febrile  reaction  may 
never  come  out,  and  the  shodc  of  the  infection  after  a  brief 
interval  may  lead  unexpectedly  and  directly  to  prostration  and 
death.  The  cessation  of  the  parO!cysm  makes  the  Oadiumf  or 
lull,  characteristic  of  yellow  fever.  The  hitherto  militant  or 
violent  symptoms  cease,  and  prostration  or  collapse  ensues. 
The  internal  heat  falls  below  the  normal;  the  action  of  the 
heart  (pulse)  becomes  slow  and  feeble,  the  skin  cold  and  <^  a 
lemon-yellow  tint,  the  act  of  vomiting  effortless,  like  that  of  an 
infant,  the  first  vomit  being  clear  fluid,  but  afterwards  black  from 
an  admixture  of  blood.  It  is  at  this  period  that  the  prospect 
of  recovery  or  of  a  fatal  issue  declaxes  itself.  The  prostration 
following  the  paroxysmof  fever  may  be  no  more  than  the  weak- 
ness of  commencing  recovery,  with  copious  flow  of  urine,  which 
even  then  is  very  dark-coloureH  from  the  presence  of  blood. 
The  prostration  will  be  all  the  more  profound  according  to  the 
height  reached  by  the  temperature  during  the  acute  paroxysm. 
Much  blood  In  the  vomit  and  in  the  stools,  together  with  aH  other 
haemorrhagic  signs,  is  of  evil  omen.  Death  may  also  be  ushered 
in  by  suppression  of  urine,  coma  and  convulsions,  or  by  fainting 
from  failure  of  the  heart.  In  severe  types  of  the  disease  an 
apoplectic,  an  algid  and  a  choleraic  form  have  been  described. 

The  case  mortality  averages  from  12  to  80%.  In  Rio  in  1898 
it  reached  the  appalling  height  of  94*5%.  In  cities' -^bcrc  it  is 
e;idemic  the  case  mortality  Is  usually  lower.  In  ^69  cases 
observed  by  Sternberg,  the  mean  mortality  was  27*7%.  In 
1 58  coses  of  yellow  fever  in  Vera  Cms  in  1905  there  were  91 
deaths.  The  death-rate,  however,  tends  to  vary  in  different 
epidemics.  In  the  epidemic  occurring  in  Zacapa,  Mexico,  in  1905 
in  a  population  of  6000  there  were  700  cases,  and  the  mortality 
among  the  infected  was  40%. 

TrealmeiU. — ^The  patient  should  be  removed  from  the  focus  of 
infection  and  nursed  in  a  well-ventiiatcd  room,  screened  from 
mosquitoes.  '  The  further  treatment  is,  symtomatic.  A  purga- 
tive, followed  by  hot  baths,  is  useful  in  the  early  stages  to  relieve 
congestion,  high  temperature  may  be  controUed  by  sponging; 
vomiting,  by  ice;  or,  if  haemorrhagic,  by  ergot,  perchloride  of  iron 
or  other  styptics;  and  pilocarpine  may  be  given  if  the^  urine  be 
scanty.  Sternberg  has  introduced  a  system  of  treatment  by 
alkalis  to  counteract  the  hyperacidity  of  the  intestinal  contents 
and  increase  the  flow  of  urine.  Of  301  whites  treated  b^  this 
method  only  7*3  %  died,  and  of  72  blacks  all  recovered. 

Causation, — The  pathology  of  the  disease  is  discussed  in 
the  article  Pakasitxc  Diseases.  In  x88i  Dr  Charles  Finlay, 
of  Havana,  propounded  the  theory  that  mosquitoes  were  the 
carriers  of  the  infection.  Numerous  theories  had  previously 
been  brought  forward,  notably  that  of  the  Bacillus  icteroides, 
described  by  Sanarelli;  but  it  is  now  certain  that  this  organism 
is  not  the  cause.  Other  authorities  held  that  the  disease  was 
spread  by  contagion,  by  miasmata,  or  some  other  of  the  vague 
agencies  which  have  always  been  put  forward  in  the  absence  of 
exact  knowledge.  Finlay's  mosquito  theory  remained  in  abey- 
ance until  attention  was  again  drawn  to  it  by  the  demonstration 
In  recent  years  of  the  part  played  by  these  insects  in  the  causa- 
tion of  other  tropical  diseases.  The  mosquito  selected  by  Finlay 
was  the  Stegomyia  fastiatOf  a  black  insect  with  silvery  markings 
on  the  thorax,  which  is  exceedingly  common  in  the  endemic 
area.  It  fre<inents  towns,  and  breeds  in  any  stagnant  water 
about  houses.  Specimens  were  caught,  fed  upon  yellow-fever 
patients,,  kept  for  a  fortnight,  and  then  allowed  to  bite  susceptible 
persons  established  in  a  q>ecial  camp  with  other  susceptible 
persons  As  •  osntroL    Those  bitten  developed  the  fever,  the 


otbtts  did  not,  Aa  Aawrfoui  commlsBion  was  appointed  in 
X900,  Oonsistiag  of  Walter  Keed,  James  Cairoll,  A.  Agramonte 
and  Lascar,  and  its  conduskms  were:  that  the  SUgomyia 
fatcUtU  is  the  agent  of  infection,  that  the  virus  of  yeltow  fever 
IB  present  in  the  blood  daring  the  first  three  days  of  the  fever, 
and  is  genemlly  absent  on  the  foorth;  that  the  germ  is  so  small 
that  it  can  pass  through  a  Chamberiand  poroekin  filter;  that 
the  bite  of  ail  infected  SUamyia  does  not  produce  yellow  fever 
(about  35%  of  the  expenments  proving  negative);  that  mos- 
quitoes fed  on  ydlow-fever  blood  were  not  capable  of  giving  rise 
to  infection  until  after  a  lapse  of  twelve  or  fourteen  days,  but  the 
insecU  retained  their  infective  power  for  at  least  fifty-seven 
days.  It  can  therefore  be  ccndodM  that  the  virus  of  yellow 
fever  ft  a  parasite,  requiring  as  in  malaria  an  alternate  passage 
through  a  vertebrate  and  an  insect  host,  the  analogy  to  maUria 
being  veiy  complete.  £.  Marchbux  and  P.  L.  Slmond,  of  the 
French  Ydlow  Fever  Commission  to  Rk>  de  Janeiro,  1906,  have 
observed  an  interesting  fact  in  connexion  with  the  S.  fasciata. 
In  order  to  by  her  eggs  shi  most  first  have  a  feed  of  blood,  three 
dajrs  after  which  she  hiys  them.  Before  die  lajrs  htt  eggs  she 
strikes  both  day  and  night,  after  that  period  at  ni|^t  only. 
Persons  bitten  in  the  day-time,  therefore,  do  not  develop  ydkiw 
fever,  while  those  bitten  at  night  do.  Tins  may  explain  the 
impunity  with  which  Europeans  may  vitit  an  infected  district 
in  the  day-time  provided  that  they  are  careful  not  to  sleep  there 
at  night.  It  was  stated  by  Marchouz  and  Simond  that  an 
infected  mosquito  transmits  the  parasite  to  her  eggs,  the  progeny 
provinginfective. 

Propkyhxis. — ^Follbwittg  on  the  publication  of  these  experi- 
ments there  was  instituted  a  vigorous  campaign  against  mos- 
quitoes in  Havana  in  1901,  based  on  the  methods  applied  to  the 
suppression  of  malaria,  and  carried  out  under  the  direction  of 
Major  W.  C.  Gorgas  of  the  United  States  array,  chief  sanitary 
officer  of  Havana.  The  work  was  begun  on  the  27th  of  February 
1 90 1.  An  order  was  issued  that  all  receptacles  containing  water 
were  to  be  kept  mosquito-proof;  sanitary  inspectors  were  told  off 
for  each  district  to  maintain  a  constant  house-to-house  inspection, 
and  to  treat  all  puddles,  &c.,  with  oil;  receptacles  found  to  contain 
larvae  were  destroyed  and  thdr  owners  fined;  breeding-grounds 
near  the  town  we.-e  treated  by  draining  and  oil;  ho^itals 
and  houses  containing  yellow-fever  patients  were  screened; 
infected  and  adjacent  buOdlngs  were  fumigated  with  pyrethrum 
powder.  The  rnults  exceeded  all  expectation,  and  after  January 
X902  the  disease  entirely  ceased  to  originate  in  Havana. ,  Cases 
occasionally  now  come  into  Havana  from  Mexican  ports,  but 
are  treated  under  screens  with  iimpunity  in  ordinary  city  hospitals 
and  never  at  any  time  infect  the  city.  Thus  in  1907  there  was 
one  death  from  yellow  fever,  and  the  general  death-rate  of  Havana 
from  all  diseases  was  x?  per  thousand.  In  the  Bulletin  of  Public 
Health  and  Charities  of  Cuba  it  is  stated  there  only  occurred 
between  1905-9  a  total  of  345  cases  of  yellow  fever  in  all  Cuba, 
where  formerly  they  numbered  many  thousands,  and  in  April 
X910  the  republic  was  declared  to  be  entirely  free  from  the 
disease. 

Among  other  modem  outbreaks  in  which  sanitary  measures  have 
triumplied  in  the  suppression  of  yellow  fever  were  the  outbreak  in 
New  Orleans  in  1905,  in  which  a  medical  staff  of  50  with  sub- 
ordinates to  the  number  of  1203  started  immediately  on  the  outbreak 
to  clean  up  the  city;  the  outbreak  in  Belixe,  British  Honduras,  In 
1905;  the  anti-yelfow-fever  campaign  undertaken  in  the  Brirish 
W.  Indies  in  1900-9.  As  soon  as  the  Isthmian  Canal  commismoners 
took  over  the  administration  of  the  Panama  Canal  Zone  thoy 
undertook  a  vigorous  campaign  against  the  mosquito,  as  the  resuit 
of  which  yellow  fever  was  cnccessfully  banished.  Colonel  Gorgas 
in  his  1908  report  wrote:  "  It  is  now  three  years  since  a  case 
of  yellow  fever  has  developed  in  the  Isthmus,  the  last  being  in 
November  1905." 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  had  lost  28.078  inhabitants  in  13  years  by 
yellow  fever,  and  Santo,  have  also  wa^ed  war  against  the  disease; 
as  a  result  of  the  Antt-Slegomyia  policy  the  deaths  from  yellow 
fever  in  Rio  fell  to  42  in  1906,  39  in  1907,  4  In  1908,  and  o  in  I5K)9- 

SeeSirP.  Manson,  r»wi>iai/i>H«5«y  (1997);  anicle"  Yellow  Fever" 
in  AIIbDtt  and  Rottcston^s  System  of  Medicine;  Sir  R.  Boyce,  Report 
on  Yellow  Fever  in  Honduras  (1906),  and  Health  and  Administration 
in  the  West  Indies  (19 ro);  Bulletins  of  the  U.S.  Yellow  Fsoer  JnstituU; 
Annaht  de  PlnstHui  Pasteur  (Januany  1906). 


qi2 


YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK 

whh  At  boUic  <"^  ■ 

now  dUDga  in  cbe  th_ 

bu  been  do  apoRciible 

■DiH  bI  IbSr  CDSKy . 


L>)[n.uidln 


TBIOWIMUn  UnCOUI.  PA1&  u  Amaicu  ntinul 
itMmlioa,  rituaud  oudnly  is  N.W.  Wyam<i«,  U.S.A.,  <kdi- 
cued  by  tbe  United  SUtci  lovenimnic  u  "  a  publtc  pufc  or 
plcMorc  ground  lot  Uw  benefit  Ud  eDjayment  ol  tbe  people." 
It  it  neuty  a  lectusle  in  ibepe,  with  ■  lengtb,  itom  N.  to  S.. 
«i  ti  m.,  •  width  o[  54  m.  uhI  in 
•0.111.  It  cneodl  into  MoatuA,  on  I 
Uontutt  tad  Idibo,  on  tbe  W.,  a  m.  Except 
trance,  tbnnigh  the  viUiy  ol  tbe  VeilowiUine  on  tbe  IV.,  Ibe 
perk  b  entirely  uuniuiKied  by  utionai  loce*U:  Ibe  GilWin 
lad  AbUTolu  nttiooal  forolB.  on  tbe  S.;  the  Sboibune  end 
tbe  Beutootb,  on  the  E.;  Ibe  Teton,  on  tbe  S.;  ud  tbe 
Tugbee,  tbe  Madiun  end  Ibe  GelUlin,  on  Ibe  W. 

Tie  central  portico,  compriiing  an  ate*  of  about  Jooo  v^.  m., 
b  an  undulating  volcanic  plateau  with  a  mean  elevation  above 
tbe  tea  of  about  8000  it.  Along  Ibe  entire  E.  border  Htetcho 
the  Abuioka  ran^,  with  pcaki  eiceedini  it,oae  ft.  (Index 
Peak,  11,74a  (t.)  in  height.  On  the  N.  ii  Ibe  Snowy  range 
with  iti  tnow-capped  peak).  W.  of  the  Snowy  ibe  Gallatin 
range  exUndi  S.  ioi  ao  m.  along  the  W.  bonier.  Electric 
Peak,  In  the  N.W.  cotdct  of  tbe  park,  rises  to  a  height  of 
ii,rjjlL  Neai  the  S.  end  of  Ibe  park  are  the  Red  MoUDlaJns, 
which  culoiinate  In  Mt.  Sheridan  (10,^5  (t.)  and  allDrd  a  mag- 
nificent view  of  Ibe  whole  region;  and  farther  S.  the  N.  ipur  of 
tbe  hifty  TelODi  juu  acrou  tbe  S.  border. 

In  tix  pioduaion  of  theie  mountaini  and  plateau  there 
wa*  Grsi,  ai  the  cIdm  ol  cbe  Cntaceoui  period,  an  upheaval  of 
tlw  eaitb'a  lubaunce  lo  form  a  mountain  lioi  and  a  depreued 
btlin.     Subiequenlly,  in  Ibe  Tertiary  period,  there  were  two 

and  later,  aXlei  a  long  interval  of  quiel,  rbyoliiic — which  nearly 
hall  filled  Ibe  baiia,  convened  il  into  a  plateou  aod  broke 
up  Ibe  DKMmtain  rim.  Two  cenlrea  of  volcanic  activity  were 
Ml.  Sbcridui,  in  the  S.,  and  Mt.  Waibbum,  In  ibe  N.  The 
volcanoes  have  long  been  extinct,  but  tbe  diminiihed  energy 
now  cauiea  hot  ipringa  and  geysers  in  all  patis  of  tbe  plateau, 
about  100  in  number.  More  than  hall,  including  the  largest 
and  finest,  are  In  the  upper  and  the  lower  Geyter  basins,  near 
the  head  of  the  Mlduon,  here  known  ai  tbe  Firebole,  river. 
Several  others  ate  farther  N.  in  the  Notils  baain  upon  Gibbon 
liver,  a  branch  of  the  Madison,  and  otbert  are  farther  S.  In  the 


r,  the  largeM  ge 


T.  with  a 


beighl  linutct.    Tbe  Beehive  (b 

shape  rand  and  the  Lone  Sur 

mV  ,S'lh?Hurri^'whici 

tGl  S 

ofmoi  n 

■ideni  .bat  u  ii  cdoh  an* 

a  daBUBE  wnHC  HnLn  which  has  covered  it 
vall^and  cmlruli  itronily  with  tbe  duii ; 
luretta.  The  •pringi,  gtyKrt  and  Ream  vi 
it  in  tbe  neat  inr^lar  faihiDn.  The  Blldc 
■p  around  tbe  ipnnga  and  geyicrm  cdbh  or 
•lie  and  great  beamy  of  fonn.    The  water 


oefl  or  mouads  of  coniiderable 
water  of  inaay  of  the  iprinei 
T  materulfl  in  lolulion.  which 
with  tirighl  bands  of  colour. 


ccirain  geyien 


Kfl.  de^i  wilh  At  boUng  nnd  at  the  bottoB.     '—     »'  1^ 
va  been  how  dungee  ia  cbe_  tbennal  energy  in  the  p*rk  einGe 

ewoBHteve^ 


The  CoDtlnental  Divide  cnaMt  tba  pufc  in  a  S.E.  dinctfaa 
tiom  the  meetinf-point  o(  tbe  ataltj  of  Wyomini,  Idaho  aM 
Montana.  Tlu  imall  MCtloB  S.  oi  Ibe  Divide  ii  drained  by 
the  Snake  river  into  tbe  CdumUa  river  and  Ibe  Pacific  Ocean; 
Ibe  laige  Mction  N.  of  the  Divide  ia  diained  by  the  VellininoM 
and  Uadison  riven  into  the  Missouri,  Ibe  Miiihilinii  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Tbe  Lewis  river,  a  foifc  of  the  Sukc,  has 
ill  ori^  in  Ibe  beaulilul  Shoshone  Lake,  and  tiie  Bcut  iIvit, 
another  fork  of  the  Snake,  rite*  in  Bart  Lake,  mida  Ml 
Sheridan. 


the  bwe  of  tiie  canyon,  upon  tbe 

Bright  onnge.  ydlow,  led  and  pnrpls 

"'  -"  ygy  «^Giivdy  a^iust  the  dark  Been 

uof  the  carn-on  are  fringed,  and  the  wh .. 

Near  Ibe  foot  ol  tbe  Grand  Can] 


E,  which  drains  the  a 


isa 

the  YeUowMime.    Jual  abvM 
IbeV^r* 


»n  of  Ibe  AI 


a  genenlly  N.  and  then  W. 
mainly  collected  from  tbe  ra 

Upon  this  liytr  and  ill  aRlu 


bcaudrui  fan  of  l}3  ft.  into  1 

W.  rf  Ibe  part  and  flowiia 


liied  by  an  E.  bAneh,  Lamar-  river,  which  drain*  a  large 
-  Abtaroka  Ranfe.    Then  ii  eurn  the  Third  Cariyea. 


, and- 

out  of  lb*  paric    It*  vi 

.L — latcaux,  and  Im^  mv 

ichin  its  drainage  area- 
'      '"       InSed  aS 


d  ill  aRlucnt)  are  several  Gne  fall*.    Ind.. 

J  re^on  ihow  evidence,  in  the  duncia-  ol  mac 

counes.  of  a  lecenc  change  of  level  in  the  luiface  of  Ibe  country. 

The  dimale,  influenced  by  the  higb  devation,  b  cbaraeta- 
ized  by  king  and  severe  winten  and  short  lummen  with  great 
diurnal  extremes  of  teinpcntuie.  But  tbe  k>v  tempeniun 
causesthemoiilure-Uden  winds  10  deposit  here  greater  quantities 
ol  tain  and  snow  ihao  In  the  tetni-arid  region)  below,  which  not 
only  promote  Ibe  growth  ol  vegetation,  but  ciUM  the  activity 
of  the  iprings,  geysera  and  waietfalli.  The  mean  aiuiual 
lempenlure  al  the  station  oi  the  United  Slatt*  Weather  Borean, 
near  Ihe  N.  boundary,  is  39*  F,  The  lummei  Oune,  July 
and  August)  mean  is  s^°;  the  winter  (December,  January  and 
February)  mean,  10°. 

Eitremeshaverangedfroni  9«*in  July  to-3S'bFehniKy.  The 
: —  i_  loUawtd  by  frott  at 'night.    The  a '  — 


6  In.    Much  of  Ibit  is  in  the  foi 


1  ofstKiw.and  nearly 


form  and  w 

while  lEeln 

STlhiMH 
■raryliic  aca 


■eric*  of  broad,  fiat,  t 
It.  in  height.    The  wa 

imoth  TUnt  Fon.  a  gii 
rding  to  the  mineral  1 

Ireol  Ihe  park  is  Mud  1 


network  of  fibrtHn  algae  wl 
in.  In  Ihe  lower  Geyier  b 
jup  of  mud  ipcingB  with  col. 


„  jonlhs  from  December  to  Man...  ._ 

Ihe  four  dryt«c  monthi.  from  Joiy  10  October,  it  b  only  4-4  iiL 
Some  Huw  falls  In  ewy  month  cxee^  JnJy  and  Auguat.  and  ibe 

About  Idui-filths  of  Ihe  p«i^  is  covered  with  dcow  lortHt 
of  black  pine  (Pixiu  MurrayoHa),  balsam,  fit,  ipnKa,  cedat 
and  pofitar.  These  trees  do  not  altaio  a  large  sizB.  A  km 
blueberry  ( Ki>«i'inHi<i  myrlilii)  forma  a  thick  uodeifaniah  ta 
much  of  tbe  loiesL  Choke-cherries,  gooneheiriea,  b<illBl»-' 
berriu.  red  citmala  and  black  cumnta  grow  along  the  strcanl 
and  in  taaiu  placet  of  tbe  kraei  aUluda.^In  the  ^adeawc 


YEMEN 


'tihlfi,  Ioi|ct-oK-Dou  lod  otbc  wfld  Bovin. 
oar  melting  uuiw-btDlu  in  AuitiM.  In  the  faot-spnim  dutncta 
tie  pluU  with  peculkritiei  betfa  of  lime  cotamga  U  Che 
lioeit  and  thoK  conuaon  io  Uw  (BMhore.  la  the  N.E.  cdibb 
et  the  i»ik  fosU  faresti  rbe  oiw  tbove  the  other.  After  the 
dcslniclion  of  one  loreit  by  volcaaic  etuptlooi  uioUier  giew 
ov«  it;  it,  Iw,  wu  buiied  uodei  volauik  ■■"*"''.  ud  the 
procw  wu  reputed  leveial  tinxs. 

*"         "      '  ')UDdiDt  uid  vAfied-     The  poEcj  of 

itFCta  game,  both  in  the  puk  lod  in 
Dunoing  naiionai  [otesti,  has  induced  elk,  deer,uUe- 
Duotun-ihcep,  bean,  poccapiDei,  myotei^  (quiiTeb, 
and  woodchucki  to  like  ihellei  hen.  There  aie  abo  ■ 
«e  ud  same  beav«i.  Black,  brown  and  gEisdy  bean 
Kcn  It  almou  my  time  duHns  the  (umnwr  aeuon 
in  the  (atbage  [rom  the  boick.  A  lew  wild  bi»D  ilill 
It  Urge,  and  heildea  these  then  it  a  herd  oi  about  loo 
pasture  in  the  Lunu  Valley.  The  laka 
En  are  wed  Hocked  with  Iiout  ajul  other  fiih,  and 
ha^  the  privilege  of  catching  a  limited  number  with 
line.  Robini,  bhiebirda,  warblen,  chickadees,  finchea, 
wrent,  yeUow-bevled  black^rda,  nutcnckeo,  nut- 
meadow.Uiks,  Eparrowa,  woodpeckeoi  awif ts,  kingbirds 
ETnl  other  epedea  of  anull  biida  are  lound  in  the  park, 
number  of  each  ia  not  gnat.  Among  birda  oi  prey 
golden  eagle,  bald  eagl'i  hawfci  tsd  awk  GecM, 
iranet,  pelicau  and  fulb  are  vtiy  Domennu  in  the 


the  govemnient  which  pi 

(be  lurr 

lope,   m 

■opKcra 

few  rnoo 

oonGned  within 


The  puk  ii  undei 
ii  appointed  and  imtmcted  1^  tlie  SeoMary  of  the  Interior. 
It  ia  policed,  however,  by  troopi  of  United  States  cavalry 
.vitb  beadquarteiB  at  Foit  Yellowilone,  near  the  Mammoth 
Hot  Spring!,  and  the  budding  tA  roadi  and  other  impcoTementa 
b  luder  the  direction  at  the  Seoetaiy  of  War,  The  only  lail- 
miy  ({quoacbci  to  the  park  are  a  branch  ol  the  Nonhem 
Padfic  railway  up  the  Talley  of  the  VeUowilone  to  the  main 
gsU  at  Gaidincr,  Montana,  and  a  branch  ol  the  Or«Dn  Short 
Line  up  the  valley  of  the  North  Fork  of  the  Snake  to  VeUow- 
■lone,  Montana.  Automobiles  ate  not  allowed  within  the  paril. 
and  the  principal  means  of  conveyance  is  by  atage  coacbca  and 
by  a  ateambOKt  on  YeUowMoDe  Lake.  Iheis  an  haUk  at  the 
Mammoth  llol  Springs,  at  tiw  piiadpal  geyaei  baaiai  and  at 
YellowstoDe  Lake.  The  hoteband  Mage  liBesopcn  foithe  toutiM 
season  eaiiy  in  June  and  close  in  the  middle  of  Septerabec. 

The  strange  pheDomena  of  this  tegioD  ««<  known  ia  aome 
of  the  loduins;  Iheywere  discovered  by  John  Colter,  a  member 
of  the  Lewis  and  Ckik  expedition,  in  iSoj;  the  Kgion  wb« 
visited  by  James  Biidger  before  1840;  an  account  of  the 
geysers  was  published  at  Nauvoo,  Illinois,  in  TIf  Waif,  a 
Mormon  paper,  in  1843;  Captain  W.  F.  Raynolds,  of  the 
United  Sutea  Corps  of  Topographical  Enginecim,  with  full 
knowledge  of  BiidEcr's  aconints,  was  oidern)  to  erpiore  the 
region  [0  iSsg,  and  yet,  diiefiy  because  of  the  penislent  In- 
credulity with  which  the  accounta  of  the  phenooiena  were 
received,  the  region  remained  practically  imknown  until  iSto. 
Prom  1863  to  tSM  gold  ■cekeia  repeatedly  confirmed  the 
early  reports,  and  the  publication  of  their  accounts  In  Western 
papers  gradually  aroused  interest.  In  liSq  a  ptivate  exploring 
party,  conaisting  of  David  E.  Folsom,  C  W.  Cook  and  William 
Peterson,  set  out  (rom  the  gold-Gelds  of  Montana  wllb  the 
express  purpose  of  vedfyiag  or  refuting  the  rumonis,  and 

expedition,  led  by  Hear7  D.  Waahbum,  the  surveyor-general 
o(  Montana,  and  Lieutenant  GnsUvns  C.  Doane  of  the  Second 
United  Stalea  Cavalgy,  made  the  "  YeUowitone  Wonderland  " 
widely  kmwn.  A  year  later  an  expedition  under  Dr  Ferdinand 
V.  Ibyden  (iSso-iSBt)  made  a  large  (ollectioc  of  ipBicaaa 
and  photographs,  and  with  these  data,  together  <rith  tbe  repons 
of  this  and  the  Washbuia-Doaoe  expedition,  Congiets  was 
ladaced  to  reserve  the  area  from  lettlemcnt,  which  waa  done 
by  an  act  approved  the  ist  of  Uatdi  itji.     In  that  ye*^ 


ntde,  and  b   subsequent   yean 

uny  expeditions  continued  tbe  woA  id  exploration.  In  187S 
a  map  of  the  park  based  upon  Uiangulatioa  was  drawn  up  by  the 
HaydesL  survey,  and  in  1&A3-S5  a  more  detailed  map  was  made 
by  the  United  States  Geologiad  Survey,  and  a  tystemallc  study 
of  its  geolo^cal  phenomena  was  instituted. 


oi  Arabia,  forming  the  5.W 
comer  of  the  peninsula,  between  11*  jj*  and  iS*  N.,  and  41* 
and  47°  E.,  bounded  on  the  N.  ]ty  Asir  and  on  the  E.  by  the 
Dahlia  desert  and  Hadiamut.  Ptolemy  and  the  andent 
geogn^ben  in  general  iodudc  tbe  wbolc  pcsiaab.  ondei  the 
oame  of  Arabia  Fehi  (sWotfiiA),  In  whkh  sense  they  translate 
the  Arabic  Ytmai,  literaBy  "  ri^i  hand,"  tor  all  Arabia  S.  of 
the  Gulf  of  Akaba  was  to  the  right  frr^n  their  standpoint  of 
Alexandria;  the  Mahommedan  geographers,  however,  viewing 
it  from  Mecca,  confine  the  term  to  thJe  [wovincea  S.  of  Hejas, 
induding  Asir,  Hadramul,  Oman  and  part  of  southern  Nejd- 
Tbe  Turkish  vilayet  of  Yemen  includes  Asir,  aitd  extends  ahng 
the  Rod  Sea  coast  from  El  Laith  in  tbe  N.  to  Sbekb  Said  al 
the  sttallB  of  Bab-d-Mandeb;  its  land  boundary  on  the  E.  k 
undeEned,  eicept  in  tbe  S.E.,  where  tbe  boundary  between 
Turkiifa  tenitoiy  end  thai,  of  the  iodepcadeiil  ttibci  uodir 
British  protection  was  defined  by  an  agreement  betsreea  Great 
Britain  and  Turkey  in  t^M,  by  a  line  turning  appiorirnately 
H.E.  from  Shekb  Said  to  the  Dahnadoeit.  He  main  physical 
chaiacteristia  of  the  pmvicn  are  described  in  tbe  artick 
AiABU.  A  lowlaod  strip  10  to  ]□  m.  wide  extends  along  iu 
western  and  sonibern  coaiia,  skirting  the  great  tnountain 
range  which  runs  along  the  whole  western  cde  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula,  and  attains  its  greatest  height  in  the  Jibal,  or  high- 
lands of  Yemen;  beyond  this  mountain  sone  the  interior  jdatcBB 
falls  gradually  towards  tbe  N.E.  to  the  Dahna  desert. 

The  lowland,  or  Tehanu,  la  hot  and  genenlly  aterile;  it  oinlaka 
oases,  bowew.  near  tba  fool  oi  the  mountains.  Eenilised  and 
inigaxed  by  hill  suvama  and  «ippciTiing  many  laiwe  wiUaxea  and 
Iowhl  The  dob  importail  si  cbeK  aie  Abu  Ariill.  Bet  el  Faklh 
and  Zubed  in  the  wflaem  Tehanu.  the  latter  a  thriving  town  of 
10.000  iohabltatD  and  the  residence  ol  a  Turiuah  kaimaUn; 
and  Abyaa  and  Label,  the  cUif  pteca  of  tbe  independent  Abdali 
.^>-  :_  the  •aBthen  Tehau.  Hodada  and  Adm  an  (he  a>i~ 
emmerdal  Importance,  Lohaia  and  QialetikB  have  « 
lificant  fiiUng  villages,  and  Mokha.  the  ol' 


vHiages.  and  MoUh 

ostdssetted.  Thejil 

, ..idth  rieine  sUefily  Ii.. 

IS  to  an  avsai*  htiriit  S  oooo  ft-:  many  anwsiits  tatmd 
iL-thc  hHheel  fiisd^  actual  wrrey  ia  ]d>d  Maaar.  IO.S6S 
art  loiL  ETof  thetowaof  Ibb.   With  Its  tenpente  elimaU 


skies,  otherwise  tt.  _ 
fields  supported  by  il 
eeoffrapben  to  th«  m^ 

desoibe  the  step.|ike  at, 

cultivation.  A  apedal  diaraeterfstic  of  the  Yemen  hiaUsnds  h 
that  frdds  and  bihabited  sites  ut  fuond  ai  the  Uahest  clavatkniB. 
the  notintain-iops  fctnuu  eBculve  iilaleaai.  often  scatpad  ol 
every  Mr  and  only  accenble  by  diSeah  paths  cut  >i  the  cUb 
which  Hidnle  tbem  like  the  tsearpoieMa  of  a  natural  kmrass;  • 
remarkable  example  a<  this  is  Jebel  Jihaf  on  the  Aden  botdfr.BoMft. 


YENISEI— YENISEISK 


it»va  HB-lniil  ud  40M  ft.  >bov«  tte  Kuata  ntky,  u  iMtuod 
plateau  loiiw  6  m.  lou,  eaauiaiu  tUrty  « lony  vilUn. 
TIm  priodfBl  ton  of  tbc  ]ita3  ii  ^Hi.  Ibt  ku  of  1  Tnrkiih 


. ,  iSSe' , 

nniit  iFwayB  be  important.  It  contaiiu  Ev«  imDaquci  uid  the 
Turkiih  govcnupvat  ctBca  and  binacka»  iDd  in  the  businee*  quuter 
•nml  caite  and  ilioia  iinpt  by  Cmka.  Th  disatc  la  nnheihhy. 
pvhapa  owini  to  ita  peatdoa  in  a  lor  valley,  4400  ft.  above  lea-kvri. 
at  the  root  grthe  ktty  Jdid  Sabw  (9900  ft.),  and  evaa  la  Niebihr'a 
tune  many  ol  the  houaca  in  tlie  dly  vera  In  ruiaa.  Thicty  akilea 
InnbfT  N.  am  tha  •mall  towna  cd  ibb  tijoa  ft.)  aad  Jibla.  aboul 
S  D,  apart,  typical  hill  towna  with  Aeir  U^  imae  huilt  houaea  aad 
paved  HiTMs.  To  ibc  E.  oa  tha  nain  road  to  tfaa  ooaal  via  Zabad 
II  LUffi,  ilie  cFstnr  dI  a  coOatfiDwinB  diatiiel;  to  m.  to  the  N.  b 
ManlUia,  a  Tt^kiih  poK  on  iha  nuo  mad  Ima  Hodeda  to  the 
capiul.  and  the  chid  place  ol  Jebel  Haiti,  wUd  pcoduoea  the  ben 
tuBee  ii  Venm.  AiuthiT  croup  at  bX  towna  Ilea  alUI  f  unbet  H.  in 
themounainnuaabetvmthaWBdiMaiiiandWBdlU'a,  where  the 
atnofholda  el  Dhlhr.  AOr,  Hap  aad  Kaucfcabin  held  ool  [«  long 
againu  the  TuiUeta  advaanj  tha  taitHianied  town,  no*  almiiti 
deserted,  wsa  one*  a  city  oi  te/toe  inhabitaala,  and  the  capital  ol 
a  aoiall  principality  which  preserved  ita  independence  during  the 
aarlier  Tutlnh  occupalkn  Uiilnuiai  IJJt  and  lft}& 
.  The  innw  «  plateaa  Bne  ol  Yoncn  atntchea  along  the  whole 
length  o<  the  province,  with  an  average  width  ol  !«>  m  ;  it  lie* 
bitJrvly  Fa  (he  E.  01  the  high  [ange,  and  haa  therdore  a  Hnaller 

lacreaMag  in  aridity  towarda  the  £.  whera  it  metgra  in  the  dciert, 
hue  brvlnn  in  places  by  rocVy  ranges,  aome  of  which  rise  Hwa  [(- 
above  (he  gemnl  level,  and  which  in  ihe  Hamdan  dinria  N.  ol  Sana 
ahaw  evidence  ol  volcanic  action,  [t  Is  intenected  by  several 
IBilrfi  lysrems,  M  which  the  principal  arc  those  in  the  N.  uniting  to 
lorm  the  Wadi  Neirln,  in  Ihe  cenlre  the  Wadi  Khiriri  and  Shibwtn 
running  to  (he  Jaui,  and  in  the  S.  the  WacU  Bana  and  lu  affliienU 
draining  u  the  Cull  ot  Aden.  The  plateau  has  a  gradual  fall  [rom 
the  watershed  nnr  Vanm,  S500  It.  above  sea-tevel,  to  leaa  than 
4000  ft.  at  (he  edge  at  the  desert. 

Tha  notlbem  pstt  neniiy  down  to  tha  latitude  of  Saaa.  It  the 
terrhory  ol  the  vaxlike  Hlshid  and  Bakil  tribes,  which  have  never 
tubmitted  to  the  Tutlu.  and  in  iB^i  and  a^n  in  1904-5  drove  the 
Turkiih  traopa  fitim  almost  every  garriwn  in  the  provinee.  and  for  a 
tine  held  Ifae  capital  Sana  ilKllFor  (he  Imiai  Muhammad  Yahiya. 
the  npnaamatiwe  of  the  oLl  dynaity  that  ruled  In  Yemen  from  the 
otnikka  ol  tha  Twlu  i  ■■' ■  —       -Tu 

priadpsl  places  are  SaMa,  in 

tDwnoalbeoldiubrinirofl  nr. 

la  Ihe  N.E„  bordering  e  ,  a 

Wadi  NeiAn,  Bedr  and  10 


cultrvdtion  ia  now  impossible. 
iitk  of  this  independent  tribal  territory  the  principal  places  si 
in  and  SUbim  on  the  road  laadh*  it.  Irom  the caoiul^ni 
ananiat  (a  town  of  4000  inhaUtanls,  tha  R*dence  ol  a  kaimaldn 
■■d  the  teat  ol  an  aadait  univenlty)  and  Yarim  are  on  the  ms 
■—"if  5.  to  Aden:  and  two  daya"  jouniey  to  the  "  <■  ■-''-  '•-  •^ 
ne  S.E.  of  ToAiih  Yemen,  farmerlv  alarge  101 
■     ■"  "    ■    the  bonndary  runs  5 

Sana.    Thcb 


Vtmcn  an  leRla],  and  Icr  the  moit 
in  uricultnra  and  irada,  the  conditione  which  favour 
>r  Bcdonin  type  found  In  Heiu  and  Ne>d  hardly  e 
-B  the  adjdning  piwvinca  ctf  Hadnunii*  >^*h  whi,.ii  v^ 

lya  been  doiely  related,  the  puple  _ 

'■*  'r^-  c— jj-  —  a-L-Bj    J j.^.  _r  .ijg  pjuphet. 


kaaalwa 

daaaea:    , 

lorming  a 
bdonfng 


Deen  CHneiy  rctarca,  ine  people  an  onn 
ij  The  Seyyida  or  Ashrtf,  deieendanu  of 
retigioita  arlHoeracy:     (a)  the  Kabail, 


the  baft  ol  Ih*  popalscina.  ■■«  an  tko^dw  taUtwBv<«TflH 
armi!  {jO  the  Dadliig  class;  (4)  the  einnle  daaa,  bo^  d  ^^ 
Alricao  deaccnt,  antTinduding  a  number  of  Jewa.    Tbeae  latiw 

i,  .1. 1.    '^w£f°,o  ihe'SShips  to  wUdi  ^'have'Ea 

•a]  dntiiibeil  state  d  (he  country,  nany  an 


Ci  Citpafint  AivUni  (Berlin,   lS9oraDd  n^ 

Pt  i):   K.  Msasoni.  It  Ytwm  (Rome   IWa):   A 

D>  IMI  (Paris.  lSa9};     S    M.  ZwemerTAnit,! 

SW.    B.   Hanii.   A    latrnry   Uinmri     Yrin, 
Bnrchanh,  Z.  d.  Ca.  ISi  fnUsnit  (BerlLr, 

191 (B-  A.  W.i 

ynun,  a  iha  at  Alia,  whiiA  ifsei  in  two  ptincipal  bead- 
Mtmna,  tbc  Bci-kcm  and  Ihe  Khua-kem,  on  Ihe  piateau  tt 
N.W.  Uoogoln— the  loimer  on  Ibe  S.  flank  of  the  Sayan 
Hounulns  b  97*  30'  E.  and  ji*  v/  N.,  and  the  htter  in  manbs 
a  few  rnika  W.  of  Lake  Koaio-goL  They  have  a  wcslcrly 
ccnjne,  but  after  uniting  Ibey  luni  N.,  Ihnugh  tbe  Sayu 
MoonUitu  in  Ihe  wild  gorse  ol  Kemchik,  in  91*  E.  TbetKC  tbe 
river  nukes  Iti  way  acron  (he  Alpine  legion  that  borden  tbc 
Sayu  Monnlains  oa  the  N.  uatll  it  *nierj[ei  upon  the  iteppea  at 
Sayansk  (53°  >c/  N.).  Augmented  by  (be  Abakan  on  the  left 
and  the  Tuba  on  (he  right,  it  tiavenea  tbe  mining  region  «f 
MinusiiBk,  apptoacbei  within  A  m.  of  the  fThulyn,  a  tributaiy 
ol  the  Ob,  inleraecta  tbe  Siberian  railway  at  Kiantoyank, 
and  la  tditcd  htsc  by  Ibe  Kan  and  then  by  (be  Upper 
(Verkhnyayi),  tbe  Stony  (Podlumenoaya),  and  Ibe  Lowet 
(Niihnyaya)  Tonguika,  all  fmni  tbe  right.  The  Upper  Tim- 
guika,  known  also  as  the  Angara,  draini  Lake  Baikal,  and  il 
navigable  bun  Irkutsk.  The  Yenisei  coDlihoea  N.  [o  tbe 
Arctic  Ocean,  joined  on  Ibe  left  by  the  Zyn,  Turukhaa  and 
Ingsievka,  and  on  Ibe  right  by  the  Knreikn  and  Danesbkina. 
After  Ibe  conSuence  of  tbe  Angaia,  Ihe  itrcara  coDtbaes  to 
widen  oat  to  jo  m.,  Iia  bed  being  lillercd  with  idanda  unia  R 
breaks  Inio  its  delta  (140  n.  long).    The  knglh  ol  the  livei  it 

It  II  navigable  as  lir  up  as  Mlniuimk,  a  dlilince  of  1840  m., 
and  ii  free  flora  ice  00  the  avenge  iar  15J  dayi  at  Tnniklutat 
and  loi  196  dayl  at  Kramoyank.  A  anti  connect!  Ihe  Great 
Kaa,  a  Iribulaiy  of  the  Yeniaei,  with  tiK  Ket,  an  affluent  of 
Ibe  Ob. 

TBMIUUK.  a  goveniinait  of  E.  Siberia,  extendlDi  (ran 
Ihe  CUdcu  tronliet  to  Ibe  aborts  of  Iba  Aicdc  Ocean,  witb  in 
■n*  14  9S4.9aS  tq.  ■>.  It  ha*  Ibe  govttiuncnli  of  Tobabk  and 
Tomst  im  tbe  W..  Yakuuk  and  Irknukao  the  E.,  N.W.  Moo- 
gnlla  OB  the  &  and  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  tbe  N.  Its  aoulhen 
extremity  being  in  ji°45'K.  andilsnorthem  (Cape  Cbdyuskin] 
to  77°  38',  ft  combinei  a  great  variety  ol  omgispbical  lypei. 
'     n  tlu  Sayan  alpine  legiooi  to  the  S.  to  tlie  tundras  td  the 


d  akH^SH!  taiga. 


ry  narrow  valleys  ocpirsting  paraliel  l— ..^  ,. ,  ..,...»_. 

lUiH  up  of  cryKalline  slatea.  dboo  to  7000  ft.  high.  Hae  in  tL. 
tnpcnetnUeforfataafcwTinciiBlaiiiiKealrvcbyhintliiff.  Towards 
be  S..  in  Ihe  boilu  of  tbs  Tuba,  SiMm.  Yui,  b^  Acul  aiad  Kryw^ 
he  valleys  of  tbc  alpine  bncta  contato  rid  aariteiiwa  d^oaitak  arid 

.umeroul  gold.waHn^  b """""    -—'-"-'-*    -■ -' - 

I  flat(ened  ranga  of  ouuod 
-00  ft.,  shr"-  "  ^    • 

B.™\j5-" 

•^^ , 

space  between  tbe  upper  Tuoguilo.  or  Anwa,  aa 
naya  Tunguika.  This  lyKera  cnniiiu  ol  several  paiallel  chaaoi 
running  S.W.  taN.E..BndrHchl^isoa  (o  uoo  ft.  hi  altitude.  thoi«h 
they  are  much  ktwer  on  the  left  bank  ofthe  YeniseL    For  many 


of  bM  in  its  alluvi^  depodU  (which  aie  poor  in  compaifiaa  wA 
those  of  Olekmiuk)  a>  oftbe  hcDUlea  for  f0|»lyii«  (be  gMSi^ 
with  food  ptoduced  in  tlie  steppts  of  Miouiinit 


YENISEISK— VEOMAN 


9»5 


Beyond  the  Yenitcidc  Tain  bcgiatlMloirtaiidt,  which  at  no  point 
rice  more  than  a  few  hundred  feet  above  tlie  sea.  They  slope  ^ntly 
towards  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  arc  covered  with  hkes,  scanty 
forests  and  marshes;  and,  as  they  approach  the  ocean,  they  aasame 
more  and  moie  the  dianctcr  ot  barren  tundraa.  Beyond  70**  N. 
trees  occur  only  along  the  courses. of  the  rivers.  Two  ranges, 
however,  break  the  monotony  of  the  lowlands— the  Tun^sk, 
which  stretches  N.E.,  between  the  Khatanga  and  Anabar  nvers, 
and  the  Byrranga  mountains,  which  sidrt  the  N.W.  shore  of  the 
Taimyr  peninsula.  The  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  aie  indented  by 
deep  estuarjes*  that  01  the  Taa  penetrating  600  m.  into  the  interior 
of  the  continent,  and  that  of  the  Yenisei  300  m.  Taymyr,  Thaddeus 
and  Khatanga  Bays  are  wide  and  deep  indentations,  ice-bound 
almost  all  the  year  round.  Taymyr  peninsula,  between  the  Yenisei 
and  the  Khatanga,  is  a  stony  tanora. 

The  jravemment  is  drained  by  the  Yenisei  and  ita  affluents. 
In  55*  N.  this  rivo'  approaches  the  Chulym,  a  tributary  of  the  Ob, 
from  which  it  10  separated  by  an  isthmus  only  6  m.  in  uridth.  The 
fXMsibility  of  connecting  the  two  great  river  systems  of  Siberia 
at  this  point  has  often  oecn  discussed;  the  difficulty  is  thai  the 
Chulym  valley  is  140 ft.  hieher  than  the  other. 

Yeniseisk  is  rich  in  all  kind*  of  metals  and  minerals.  Gold  dust 
appears  in  the  N.  Yeniseisk  Taiga,  in  the  region  of  the  Kuznetskiy 
Ala-tau  and  its  spurs,  with  the  basins  of  the  Tuba,  Sisim  and  Black 
and  White  Yus,  and  in  the  apper  parts  of  the  tributaries  of  the 
Kan  and  Agul.  Silver  ore  is  found  in  the  baain  of  the  Abakan*  but 
the  mines  have  been  abandoned.  Iron  ore  occurs  almost  everywhere 
in  S  Yeniseisk,  but  there  1*  only  one  iron*work  on  the  Abakan. 
Salt  lakes  are  common. 

The  climate,  though  very  severe  throughout,  offers  great,  varietica. 
The  Minusinsk  steppes  have  a  dry  andiraatively  mild  dimate.  At 
Krasnoyarik  (ss*  1'  N.)  the  climate  ia  more  severe,  and  the  winds 
are  disagreeable.  The  yearly  fall  of  snow  is  so  small  that  the 
winds  blow  it  away  in  the  ndghbourhood  of  the  town.  The  town  of 
Yeniseisk  (58**  37'  N.)  has  an  average  temperature  bdow  freeting- 
point,  and  at  Turukhansk  the  coldest  month  (February)  averagea 
—34*  F.  On  the  Taymyr  peninsula  the  average  summer  tempera- 
ture hardly  reaches  45*. 

The  highlands  bf  Sayan  and  Ala-tau  are  thickly  dothed  with 
forests  01  cedar,  pitch-pine,  larch,  elder  and  Irircn,  with  rhodo* 
dendrons,  Berberis  and  Ribis;  the  Scotch  fir  appears  only  in  the 
lower  and  drier  parts  of  the  valleys.  The  summits  and  slopes  of 
the  moontajna  are  strewn  with  debris  and  boulders,  and  thickly 
carpeted  with  lichens  and  mosses;  but  there  are  patchey  of  meadow' 
land  brightened  with  flowers,  most  of  which  are  known  in  Europe; 
Still,  the  flora  it  poor  as  a  rule,  and  Dr  Maitianov,  after  several 
years'  bbour,  suoncded  in  collecting  only  104  species  of  phanero- 
gams.' On  the  other  hand,  the  Minusinsk  plains  and  the  steppes 
of  the  Abakan  are  bright  with  flowers  scattered  amid  the  common 
Cramineae,  and  in  June  and  July  with  the  Polygalat  Dumthust 
Medicago,  Lalhyrus,  yellow  sweet-scented  lily,  and  scores  of  other 
flowers,  mostly  iamiltar  in  Europe,  but  attaining  in  Yeniseisk  a 
laner  sise  aiul  greater  brilliancy  01  colour.  The  rich  carpet  of  grass 
and  flowers  is  overtopped  by  the  tall  white  blossoms  of  Archan^dica 
and  Spirata  Utmaria,  and  by  the  blue  masses  of  Veronica  hnpfoUa. 
The  meadows  of  the  moister  localitksa,  surrounded  by  thickets  of 
willow,  poplar,  wild  cherry  and  hawthorn,  are  still  more  attractive, 
on  account  of  thdr  wealth  in  anemones,  violets,  gentians  and  so  on, 
and  the  numerous  creepers  which  festoon  the  trees  and  shrubs. 
Dr  Martianov's  lists  enumerate  a  total  of  760  flowering  and  760  cryp- 
togamic  plants.  Of  the  lower  Fungi  and  parastttcalMjaKMnycetca 
f  joo  species  were  noted,  and  out  of  the  833  species  hitherto  described 
by  specialists  no  fewer  than  134  have  proved  to  be  new.  Farther 
N.  the  flora  is  similar  in  chvacter  to  that  of  the  Siberian  lowlands 
(see  Siberia).  In  the  Taimyr  peninsula  it  is  represented  by  only 
124  species  of  flowering  plants. 


The  steppes  of  the  upper  Yenfsei  have  been  inhabited  from 
a  very  remote  antiquity,  and  numberless  kurgans,  or  burial- 
mounds,  graves,  rock  inscriptions  and  smdting  furnaces  of 
the  successive  inhabitants  are  scattered  ail  over  the  prairies  of 
Abakan  and  Minusinsk.'  The  present  population  exhibit  traces 
of  all  their  predecessors.  Numerous  survivals  of  Turkish  and 
Samoyedic  tribes  are  found  in  the  steppes  and  in  the  Sayans; 
but  some  of  them  are  greaOy  reduced  in  oumbere.  The 
estimated  population  in  1906  was  657,900.  It  is  almost  entirdy 
Russian,  the  rest  (about  10%)  consisting  of  Samoyedes,  Tatars, 
Tungttses,  Yakuts,  Mongols  and  Ostyaks.  The  government  is 
divided  into  five  districts,  the  chief  (owns  of  which  are  Krasno- 
yarsk, Achinsk,  Kansk,  Minusinsk  and  Yemseisk. 

>  N.  Martianov.  "^Materiab  for  a  Fkna  of  the  Minusfaisk  Region," 
ia  Tmrfy  of  the  Kaaan  Sodety  of  Naturalists  (xi.  3. 1S83). 

sSce  W.  Radlov.  Aus  Sibiritn  (s  vols.,  Leipzig,  1880).  and 
N.  Savenkov,  in  Jat$Ha  of  the  East  Siberian  Geographical  Society 
(xvij..  1887). 


Some  1,117,000  acres  (o*a^  are  under  crops,  the  prindpal  bdng 
ive,  wheat,  oats,  bariey  and  potatoes.  Live-stock,  tncluding  idiH 
deer,  breeding  is  very  extcnsiveiy  carried  on.  Fishing,  especially 
oa  the  lower  Yenisd,  ia  of  great  importance.  Sables  are  not  now 
to  be  found,  and  the  hunters  obtain  chiefly  squirrels,  foxes,  Arctic 
foxes  and  bears.  In  the  mkldle  of  the  i^th  century  350,000  to 
535,000  oz.  of  gold  were  obtained  annually  m  N.  and  S.  Yeniseisk^ 
but  by  the  eno  of  the  century  the  output  had  dropped  to  less  than 
100,000  oz.  Salt  is  extracted  aa  well  as  Epsom  salts.  Cbal  has  been 
found  on  the  Lower  Tunguska,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Yenisd,  and 
in  many  places  in  the  S.  of  the  government.  Silver,  copper,  lead, 
brown  coal  or  lignite,  rock-salt,  graphite  and  mica  all  exist  in  large 
quantities,  but  are  not  regularly  mined.  There  are  aeveral  du- 
tiUeries.  The  trade  is  in  furs  (exported),  and  in  groceriea  and  manu* 
faccurcd  goods  (imported).  The  gokl-fiekls  of  the  Yeniseisk  Taiga 
are  suppued  with  grain  and  cattle  by  river  from  the  Minusinsk 
region,  and  with  salt,  spirits  and  iron  by  the  Angara.  The  govern- 
ment is  traversed  from  W.  to  E.  by  the  Siberian  railway,  and  coo- 
sklerable  efforts  have  been  aoade  to  establish  regular  steamer  com- 
munication between  the  numth  of  the  Yenisei  and  W.  Europe.  For 
some  years  bdure  the  close  of  the  19th  century  steamers  (e.t.  that 
of  the  English  Captain  Wiggins)  reached  the  month  of  the  Yenisd, 
importing  provisicoa  and  machinery  for  the  gold  minea.  Efforts 
have  been  made  to  dear  the  rapids  of  the  Angara,  so  aa  to  bring 
Lake  Baikal  into  steamer  communication  with  the  YeniaeL  Owina 
to  the  shaltowness,  however,  of  the  small  tributaries  of  the  Yeniso, 
the  canal  connecting  the  Yenisd  with  the  Ob  has  not  proved  aa 
serviceable  as  was  expected.  (P.  A.  K^;  J.  T.  Bb.)    - 

TBNISBISK.  a  town  of  Asiatic  Russia,  capital  of  the  govern- 
meot  of  the  same  name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Yenisei,  170  m.' 
NJf.W.  of  KrasBoyank,  with  which  it  has  regular  communica- 
tion by  steamer.  PopL  1 3,00a  It  is  the  centre  of  a  gold- 
minikig  region,  and  baa  a  public  library  and  a  natural  history 
and  archaeological  museum.    The  town  was  founded  in  x6x8. 

TBOLA,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the  Nasik  distria  of 
Bombay,  on  the  chord  line  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula 
railway,  x8  m.  bom  Manmad  junction.  Pop.  (1901)  16,559^ 
There  are  important  manufactures  of  cotton  and  silk  doth  and 
thread,  and  also  of  goki  and  silver  wire.  At  the  time  of  its 
foundation  Yeola  was  under  the  emperor  of  Delhi;  it  subse- 
quently passed  into  the  hands  of  the  rajas  of  Satara  and  then 
the  Peahwaa.  Finally  it  was  given  in  gEsnt  to  Vithal,  the 
ancestor  of  the  ptesent  chief  of  Vinchur. 

TBOMAll,  a  term  of  which  the  various  meanings  fall  into 
two  main  divisions,  fint  that  of  a  class  of  holders  of  land,  and 
secondly  that  of  a  retainer,  guard,  attendant  or  subordyjiate 
ofiBccr  or  official.  The  word  appears  in  M.E.  as  senum,  ymuM 
and  ytman\  it  does  not  appear  in  O.E.  Various  ezphmations 
of  the  first  part  have  been  suggested,  such  asjtmg-iMfwi,  young 
man,  and  yeme-Moa,  attendant,  from  yeme^  care;  but  it  ia 
gencnlly  accepted  that  the  first  part  is  the  same  word  as  tte 
Ger.  CaUf  district,  province,  and  probably  occurs  in  OX.  as  gia 
in  SiUirugiCf  Surrey, ».«.  southern  district,  and  other  place-names. 
Thus  in  O.  Frisian  is  found  gdaum,  a  villager;  Bavarian, 
gdumatm^  peasant.  "  Yeoman  "  thus  meant  a  countryman,  a 
man  of  the  district,  and  it  is  this  sense  which  has  surviv^  in  the 
special  use  of  the  word  for  a  class  of  landholders,  treated  bdow. 
For  the  transition  in  meaning  to  a  guard  of  the  sovereign's  body 
and  to  officials  of  a  royal  household  see  Yeomsn  of  the  Guasd 
and  Valbt.  In  the  British  royal  household  there  are,  besides 
the  Yeonusn  of  the  Guard,  a  yeoman  of  the  wine  and  beer  cellar,' 
a  yeoman  of  the  silver  pantry  and  yeoman  state  porters.  The 
term  also  occurs  in  the  title  of  the  fiist  assistant  to  the  Usher  of 
the  Black  Rod,  the  Yeoman  Usher  of  the  Black  Rpd.  In  the 
British  navy  there  are  petty  officers  in  charge  of  the  signalling' 
styled  "Yeomen  of  Signals."  For  the  history  and  present' 
organisation  of  the  "  yeomanry  cavalry "  see  Yeomam&y  and 
Unitsd  KiNCDOic  (§  Army). 

The  extent  of  the  dass  covered  by  the  word  "  yeoman  "  in 
England  has  never  been  very  exactly  defined.  Not  only  has  the 
meaning  of  the  word  varied  from  century  to  oentuiy,  but  men 
writing  about  it  at  the  same  time  have  given  to  it  different  in- 
terpretations. One  <^  the  earliest  pictures  of  a  yeoman  ia  that 
given  by  Chaucer  in  the  Prologue  to  the  Omierbmy  TaUs, 
Here,  represented  as  a  forester,  he  follows  the  esquire  as  a 
retainer  or  dependant.  The  yeomen  of  the  ages  succeeding 
Chaucer  are,  however,  pncdcally  all  occupied  in  cultivating  the 


9t6 


YEOMANRY— YEOMEN  OF  THE  GUARD 


had,  ftlthougb,  doubtless  irom  its  younger  sons,  the  daas 
furnished  rctaineis  for  the  great  lords,  meQ-«t-«nns  tnd  archen 
for  the  wars,  and  also  tradesmen  for  the  towns.  Stubbs  {CctuL 
HisL  voL  iiL)  refers  to  them  as  "  a  body  which  in  antiquity  of 
possession  and  purity  of  extraction  was  probably  superior  to 
the  classes  that  looked  down  upon  it  as  ignoble/'  and  Medley 
(Bng.  Const,  Hist.)  describes  the  yeomen  as  in  tl»e  15th  ccntuiy 
representing  on  the  whole  "  the  small  freeholders  of  the  fejidal 
manor."  Holinshed,  in  his  CkronicU,  fdlowing  Sir  T.  Smyth 
{Dn  npuUica  Anghrum)t  and  W.  Harrison  (Dcscriptum  of 
Bn^tani),  describes  them  as.having  free  land  worth  £6  annually, 
and  in  times  past  40s.,  and  as  not  entitled  to  bear  arms,  being 
for  the  most  piart  farmers  to  gentlemen,  and  this  description  may 
be  accepted  as  the  popular  idea  of  the  yeoman  in  the  16th 
century.  He  formed  the  intermediate  dsss  between  the  gentry 
and  the  labourers  and  artisans,  the  line  of  demarcation,  however, 
being  not  drawn  very  distinctly. 

The  yeomen  were  the  smaller  landhdders,  and  in  the  15th 
century  were  practically  identical  with  the  forty-shilling  free- 
holders who  exerdsed  the  franchise  under  the  act  of  143a 
Occasionally  they  found  their  way  into  parliament,  for  In  1446 
the  sheriffs  were  forbidden  to  return  vaUetti  (».«.  yeomen)  as 
members,  but  this- prohibition  had  very  little  result.  Soon, 
however,  the  name  appears  to  have  induded  tenant  farmers  as 
well  as  small  freeholders.  Thus  Latimer,  in  his  famous  sermon 
before  Edward  VI.,  says:  "  My  father  was  a  yeoman,  but  had 
no  land  of  his  own";  the  tnshop  represents  the  yeoman  as  an 
exceedingly  prosperous  person,  and  the  same  opinion  had  been 
expressed  about  a  century  before  by  Sir  John  Fortescue  in  his 
Governance  of  England,  The  decay  of  the  class  began  with  the 
formation  of  large  sheep  farms  in  the  i6th  century,  but  its 
decline  was  very  slow,  and  the  yeomen  furnished  many  sturdy 
recruits  to  the  parliamentary  party  during  the  Civil  War.  Their 
decay  was  accelerated  during  the  18th  century,  when  many  of 
them  were  bought  out  by  the  large  landowners,  while  they  re- 
cdved  another  blow  when  the  factory  system  destroyed  the 
country's  domestic  industries.  Many  writers  lament  the  decay 
of  the  yeoman  in  the  i8th  and  X9th  centuries,  but  this  is  partly 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  they  exdude  all  tenant  farmers 
from  the  class,  which  they  confine  to  men  cultivating  their  own 
land.  Thus  the  wfaed  has  come  full  cirde  and  the  word  means 
UKlay  mudi  the  same  as  it  meant  in. the  early  part  of  the  isth 
century.  ...  ^ 

TBOMAIIRT,  the  name  given  to' the''volunteer*^mounted 
trpops  of  the  home  defence  army  of  Great  Britain,  ever  since  thdr 
original  formation;  it  indicated  that  recruiting,  organization 
and  command  were  upon  a  county  basis,  the  county  gentlemen 
officering  the  force,  the  farmers  and  yeomen  serving  in  its  ranks, 
and  all  alike  providing  thdr  own  horMs.  Although  the  yeomanry 
was  created  in  1761,  it  was  not  organised  until  1794.  Under  the 
stimulus  of  the  French  War  recruiting  was  easy,  and  5000  men 
were  quickly  enrolled.  A  little  lata*,  when  more  cavalry  was 
needed,  the  Provisional  Cavalry  Act  was  passed,  whereby  a^ort 
of  revived  knight-service  was  established,  every  owner  of  ten 
horses  having  to  find  and  equip  a  horseman,  and  all  who  owned 
fewer  than  ten,  grouped  by  tens  of  horses,  similarly  finding  one. 
But  an  amending  act  was  soon  passed,  by  which  yeomanry 
cavalry  could  be  substituted  for  provisional  cavalry  in  the  county 
quota.  This  gave  a  great  stimulus  to  yeomanry  recruiting,  as 
similar  enactments  had  done  in  the  case  of  the  infantry  volun- 
teers. But  even  so  the  provisional  cayaliy,  which  was  embodied 
only  in  counties  that  did  not  supply  the  quota  in  yeomanry,  was 
stronger  than  the  yeomanry  at  the  peace  of  Amiens.  At  that 
peace,  partly  with  a  view  to  preserving  internal  order,  partly 
because  of  the  probaMe  renewal  Y>f  the  war,  the  yeomanry  was 
fetained,  although  the  provisional  cavalry  was  dislumded. 
There  was  thus  a  nudeus  for  expansion  when  Napoleon's 
threatened  invasion  (1805-5)  called  out  the  defensive  powers  of 
the  country,  and  as  early  as  December  1803  there  were  in  England, 
Scotland  and  Irdand  44,000  yeomen.  At  the  same  time  the 
Bmltatloiis  as  to  place  of  sendee  (some  undertaking  to  serve  in 
MQLpart  of  Gieat  Britain,  some  within  a  specified  malitaiy  | 


district,  most  only  in  their  own  county)  were  abolished.  Tht 
unit  of  organization  was  the  troop  of  8o~ioo,  but  most  of  the 
force  was  grouped  in  regiments  of  five  or  more  troops,  or  ia 
"  corps  "  of  three  or  fo«ir  troops.  Permanent  paid  adjutanu  ud 
staff  sergeants  were  allowed,  to  corps  and  regiments,  but. so 
assistance  was  given  in  the  shape  of  officers  on  the  active  litt  tod 
serving  non-conunissioned  officers  of  the  army  and  nulitii. 
Equipment,  supply  and  mobilization  anangements  were  purdy 
regimental,  and  Umnigh  all  the  war  years  moat  of  the  troops  asd 
squadrons  were  ready  to  take  the  fidd,  with  equipment,  food  asd 
f onge,  complete  at  a  da/s  notice.  They  were  trained  as  li|^ 
cavaliy,  and  armed  with  sabre  and  pi^ol.  But  a  few  tovs 
corps  had  mounted  riflemen,  and  several  corps,  both  in  town  sad 
country,  had  one  or  more  dismounted  troops,  who  were  carried 
on  vehicles  similar  to  the  "  Expedition  or  Military  Fly  "  pictured 
t^RowlaiHlson. 

From  the  extinction  of  Chartism  to  the  South  African  War 
the  history  of  the  yeomanry  is  uneventfuL  The  strength  of  the 
force  gradually  sank  to  10,000.  But  when  it  became  apparent 
that  mounted  troops  would  pUy  a  decisive  part  in  the  var 
against  the  Boers,  the  yeomanry  again  came  to  tlie  front  Of 
its  xo,ooo  serving  officers  and  men,  3000  went  to  South  Afria 
in  newly  formed  battalions  of  '*  Imperial.  Yeomanry,"  armed  and 
organised  purely  as  mounted  rifles,  and  to  these  were  added  over 
32,000  fresh  men,  for  whom  the  yeomanry  organisation  at  hooie 
and  at  the  seat  of  war  provided  the  cadres  and  tnSiung,  w\ak 
the  home  yeomanry  not  only  filled  up  its  gaps  but  expand^L 
In  X90X  the  yeomanry,  now  all  styled  "  Imperial,"  was  re* 
moddled;  and  the  strength  of  regiments  was  equalized  oo  a 
four-squadron  basis.  In  the  pre^ndUng  oondttiona  practicaSjr 
all  regiments  were  able  to  recruit  up  to  the  increased  establiib- 
moit,  and  the  strength  of  the  force  was  more  than  trebled. 
Fresh  regiments  were  formed,  some  in  the  towns,  othoa  on  the 
nudeus  of  special  corps  disbanded  at  the  doae  of  the  Sootb 
African  War.  In  1907  the  yeomanry  became  part  of  the  nev 
Territorial  Force  (see  United  Ringooh,  §  Army). 

TBOMEM  OF  THB  GUABD.  originaUy  "  Yeomen  of  tie 
Guard  of  (the  body  oO  our  Lord  the  King,"  or  in  the  x  5th<entiir7 
Latin,  "  Valecti  i^e  (corporis)  domini  Regis,"  the  title  (nain- 
tained  with  but  a  slight  variation  since  thdr  institution  in  i4Ss» 
the  offidal  wording  under  Edward  VII.  bebg  "  The  King's  Body 
Guard  of  the  Yeomen  of  the  Gnard  ")  of  a  permanent  military 
corps  In  attendance  on  the  soverdgn  of  England,  as  part  of  tbe 
royal  household,  whose  duties,  now  purdy  cerennonial,  vere 
originally  that  of  the  aoverdgn's  persoiial  bodyguard.  They  aie 
the  oldest  existing  body  of  the  kind,  having  an  unbroken  reoord 
from  X485,  as  wdl  as  the  oldest  military  body  in  England.  Before 
that  time  there  had  been  forms  of  royal  guard,  but  no  permanent 
institution.  Under  Edward  I.  we  find  in  En^and  the  "  crosa* 
bowmen  of  the  household,"  and  under  Edward  II.  an  "Arcbtf 
guard  of  the  King's  body  ";  but  the  "  Archers  of  the  King," 
"  of  the  crown  "  or  **  of  the  household,"  who  appear  in  the 
records  up  to  1454,  seem  to  have  had  no  continuous  cstablislh 
ments.  Apparently  each  sovereign,  on  coming  to  the  throne, 
established  a  new  Guard  of  his  own  particular  followera.  It 
was  not  till  Henry  VII.  created  the  "  Yeomen  of  the  Guard  " 
that  the  royal  bodyguard  came  into  regular  existence.  The 
first  warrants  to  individual  "  Yeomen  of  the  Guard  "  date  (ron 
September  16, 1485,  and  it  is  a  fair  inference  that  the  Guard  «as 
created  by  the  king  on  the  battlefidd  of  Bosworth  (August  ^2, 
1485),  its  first  members  being  men  who  had  shared  Henry[s 
exile  in  Brittany,  followed  him  on  his  return,  and  fought  as  his 
private  Guard  in  that  action.  The  warrant  of  September  iS, 
1485,  now  in  the  Record  Office,  "  to  William  Brown,  Yeoman 
of  the  King's  Guard,"  corroborates  this  view—"  in  consideration 
of  the  good  service  that  oure  humbly  and  faithful  subject  William 
Browne  Yeoman  of  oure  Garde  bath  heretofore  doon  unto  us 
as  well  beyonde  the  see  as  at  our  victorieux  joumeye."  It  h 
argued  by  Sir  Reginald  Hennell  that  the  title  of  "  Yeomen  of 
the  Guard  "  signified  Henry  VII.'s  intention  to  choose  tba 
special  protectors  of  his  person  not  from  the  ranks  of  the  nobility, 
but  from  the  dass  just  bdow  theni  (see  Yeouan),  who  k*^ 


YEOMEN  OF  THE  GUARD 


ftond  ia  WW  tbe  IwUioii*  of  tlw  utioul  loaigtli-  Tlw 
tirm  mfedi,  «  "  -nku  "  bwt  Vaibi),  wis  »!ieidy  in  uk,  u 
lignilyiDC  penoul  Ulcndanti,  irith  nooe  of  tbc  nwdem  meniil 
tefoe  of  th«  word. 

Tbe  fint  officii  nconkd  tppennncc  of  the  king'i  bodyguud 
ol  (he  Yeomen  ol  the  Guird  wu  ii  the  cotonalloii  ol  iu  founder 
Hesry  VII,  it  WestminKer  Abbey  on  Ihe  jiat  of  October  14S5, 
wben  it  namlieiol  50  KHnben.  lUs  number  wu  rapidly 
increued,  [or  tbexe  a  an  authentic  coU  of  116  attending  the 
king'9  funenl  in  t%ag.  Heniy  VllL  raised  the  strength  of  the 
Guard  to  Coo  viea  he  took  it  to  viilt  Francis  I.  of  France  at 
the  Fidd  ol  the  Cloth  ol  Cold.  In  Queen  Eliabeth's  reign  It 
Dunbered  Hn.  The  corps  wai  originaUy  olhcered  by  a  opiain 
(m  poM  long  asaocinted  with  that  of  vice-chamberlain),  an  ensign 
(m  Bt3iidard-t>eaf«').  a  clerk  of  the  cheqiK  (oc  chequer  toll, 
his  duty  being  10  keep  the  roll  ol  every  one  conntcted  ntb  the 
hoiadtoJfl),  besides  petty  officers,  captains,  acrgeanlA  or  ti! 
In  rMg  Charles  II.  reorsaniied  Che  Gnard  and  gave  it  a 
tMabliihnxnt  of  looyeomen,  officered  by  a  caixiin.  a  lieute 
an  eiuign,  a  clerk  of  the  cheque  and  lour  corpniali,  which  ii 
tbe  present  oiganiation  and  strength.  The  only  vanalion  i 
that  the  captaincy  is  now  a  minblerial  appoialnwnl  filled  by  1 
nobleinan  of  distirictloa  under  the  lord  cbamberiain,  and  tha 
the  old  rank  of  *'  corporals  "  baa  been  changed  to  "  enm,^'  1 
title  derived  from  "  exempt,"  ij.  exempted  from  regular  regi 

on  tbe  active  list  were  given  theoe  apptnntment*  in  adtUtioa  to 
their  own. 

Tbe  original  duties  of  the  Guard  were  of  the  most  compre- 
heiulve  nature.  Tbe;  were  the  king's  penonsl  attendants 
■lay  and  night  at  home  and  abroad.  They  were  responsblc 
for  his  safely  not  only  on  Journeys  and  on  the  battlefield,  but  also 
ItilWn  tbe  precincti  of  the  palace  ilself.  The  regulitiou  for 
making  of  the  king's  bed  in  Tudor  times  were  ol  Ihe  most  elabot- 
ate  formality.  No  one  hut  Ibe  Yeomen  of  the  Guard  under  an 
officer  might  touch  it.  Encb  portion  was  separately  eiamined.. 
Each  sheet  or  coverlet  was  bud  with  the  greatat  ceremony, 
and  tbs  sover^gn  could  not  retire  to  rest  until  the  work  was 
teponed  as  well  and  truly  done.  The  exislence  of  the  custom 
b  verified  at  the  prtsenl  day  by  the  dcsgnations  Y.B.H. 
(■'Y8omenBcd-Hangers")andY,B.G.("  Yeomen  BedJ3oerB■^, 
which  are  still  afiiied  agaiost  the  names  of  certain  yeomen 
on  the  rail  al  tbe  Guard.  Another  ol  their  duties  outside  the 
palace  is  retahied,  vii.  tbe  searching  of  the  vaults  of  the  bouses 
of  parliament  at  the  opening  of  each  session,  dating  from  the 
"  Gunpowder  Pkit "  in  1605,  when  the  Yeomen  of  the  Guard 
•eited  Guy  Fawkes  and  his  feilow-trailois  and  conveyed  them  to 
the  Tower.'  Owitig  to  the  destruction  by  Gte  of  most  of  the 
records  of  the  Guard  in  St  James's  PaUcc  in  iSoq.  the  precise 
history  of  the  search  is  a  mailer  of  controveny.  It  u  recorded 
in  the  papera  of  the  House  of  Lords  that  the  Guard  conducted 
it  in  i6eo  and  that  it  has  been  Conlinuous  snce  1760,  but  Sir 
Reginald  HeaneU'a  conleutlon  Is  thai  it  dated  from  1605  and  has 
snce  been  regularly  observed. 

Though  the  corps  from  the  earliest  day  was  composed  ol 
foot^tJdicfs,  during  royal  progresses  and  jonmeyi  a  portioti 
of  tbc  Guard  formed  a  mounted  escort  to  the  sovcreigu  until 
the  end  of  tbe  Georgian  period. 

The  diess  worn  by  the  Yeomen  o(  the  Gnard  fa  ui  its  most 
striking  characteftstia  tbe  same  as  it  was  in  Tudor  limea.  It 
has  cousisted  from,  the  first  of  a  royal  red  tunic  with  purple 
ladngs  and  ittipes  and  gold  lace  ornaments.  Sometime*  tbe 
sleeves  have  been  fuller  and  the  sWtts  longer.  Ked  knee-breeches 
and  led  stockinjp  (white  In  Ceoiglan  period  only),  flat  bat,  and 
black  shoci  with  ted,  white  and  blue  rosettes  are  worn.  Queen 
Elizabeth  added  tbe  ruS.  Tbe  Stuarts  replaced  the  luS  and 
round  hats  with  fancy  lace  aod  plumed  hats.  Queen  Anne 
discarded  both  the  ru9  and  the  lace.  The  Georges  lemtroduced 
the  mff,  and  it  has  ever  sfnce  been  part  of  Ihe  permanent  dress. 

the  gold-embroidered  emblems  on  the  back  and  front  of  Uk 
coau  (cU  Ihe  hlMory  oi  tbe  eoasolidation  ol  the  Ungdoms  of 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland.    From  14SS,  when  tbe  GwirI  was 

created,  till  i6oj,  the  emblems  were  the  Tudoi  ctownwiihthe 

When  tbe  Stuarts  succeeded  the  Tudors  in  160],  they  sutoti- 
tuled  the  St  Edward's  crown  for  the  Tudor,  and  added  under  it 
and  tbe  initials  the  motto  "  Dteu  et  mon  Droit,"  which  is  still 
worn.  When  William  and  Mary  came  to  tbe  throne  in  16S9, 
their  initials  were  entwined,  W.M.R.R.  (William,  Mary,  Rei, 
Regina),  the  only  instance  of  the  queen  and  king's  initials  being 
so  placed.  Anne  restored  tbe  Tudor  crown,  and  added  tbe 
thistle  to  the  rose  on  the  oSidal  union  with  Scotland  in  1709. 
The  Georges  reverted  to  (he  St  Edward's  crown,  and  on  Ibe 
uruon  with  Ireland  in  rSoi  (George  III.  added  tbe  shamrock 
lo  the  rose  and  thistle.  No  change  was  made  during  Queen 
Victoria's  reign.    But  Edward  Vll.  ordered  the  Tudorcrowoto 


Guard  ai 


ordcii 


1  rqSj,  with  Iheadditk 


n  the  o 


Ibe  ; 


d  sale  o 


old  Tud 
given  the  dress  (^  a  held  officer  ol  the  Peninsular  period. 

There  his  also  been  little  or  no  change  in  tbe  arnis  of  Ihe 
Guard.  No  doubt  they  retained  during  Henry  Vll.'i  reiga 
(1**5-1509)  Ibe  pikes  «ilh  which  they  had  helped  to  win  the 
buile  of  Boawoiih  Field.  Under  Henry  VIII.  archery  became 
I  natiDml  pastime,  aod  the  long-bow  and  arrow  were  issued 
to  at  least  one-half  of  bis  Guard.  When  firearms  came  into  use, 
a  cerUm  portion  were  armed  with  tbe  harquebus,  the  Guard 
being  given  buB  cross  belts  to  support  the  weight  on  service. 
When  on  duly  in  the  palace  gold-embroidcred  cross  belts  took 
the  place  of  the  service  bulT,  and  are  worn  now  as  put  of  tbc  St  ale 
drcM.  The  present  weapons  of  tbe  Guard  ate  a  steel  gjlt  hilberd 
with  a  tassel  of  ted  and  gpld,  and  an  ornamental  sword. 


^gdayaof 


they  accompanied  the  king  as  peraonal  aiirndanis.  For  a  brief 
period  duiini  tbe  G«ns>an  era  tbc  Guard  IcA  to  a  ceiuiii  esent 
■u  diitinctiv*  military  character,  and  a  cuEtom  crept  in  of  fUliiig 
vacancies  with  dvUiona,  who  bought  their  pbces  for  n>n&ideiable 
sums,  tbe  appolalmeBts  of  the  yeomen  prr>p?r  and  tbe  ofbrvrt  being 
ol  gmt  value.  But  William  IV,  put  a  aiop  to  the  practice.  Tbe 
last  civUlan  leticed  h  iS^S.  and  tbe  Guard  regained  its  odgiial 
military  chancier.  Every  officH  (except  the  lapain).  non-com- 
ntiuioned  officer  and  yeoinan  must  have  served  in  the  Home  or 
Indian  army  or  Royal  Marines.  They  are  selected  for  dictipguikhed 
conduct  in  Ibe  field,  and  their  pay  is  looked  upon  as  a  pennon  lor 

and  the  yeomen  of  that  ol  sergeant  or  warrant  oQicer. 

The  Guard  bos  a  pernuncnt  ordtHy  room  in  St  James's  Palace. 
_.L L ^ trr....: i„i  ..  by  the  adjutant  and  "clerfc 

'modeen  litis ,  Uodv  the  ordeily  raom  ia  a  guard  rnoa 

wardrobe-keeper.    Here  tbe  diviiion  for  duty 

archiiiig<j  tho 
in^Hauady 
y  offerings  of 


9i8 

origin  in  1500-10  in  Ihe  mlvt  Vronun  •>[ 
K;a«  KcnrY  Vril.  Mi.  wbcn  Im  «>»  up  il 

iKTow  ™5  fi13';y''(Ive'  Lp'^'a*^! 
wnnkn  and  wprt  deprived  d[  (Ik  drm. 
in  Edward  VL'«  reiBo*  on  a  pdiibn  tiom 
bad  bmi  conKncd  Inen  and  10  whom  thr 

St  Ihc  ™imbl"Sf*tht'To«-er!  ''rP'yTre  d 


YEOTMAI^YEW 


fcnry  VI  [1. 
I.  of  F™ 


finely    i, 


1  and  ulled   -Wi.    . 

IDE  nobicfl  fiOTBCDUSly  all 

d  and   called   "  Gcnilcn 


udyguard 


S«  Tki  f/iiUri  s/  libc  £i>i('i  fiofy  Coord  <if  lb  fmrnrn  1/  Uc 
CuarJ.  by  Colmiel  Sir  Reginjla  Hmodl,  D.5.O..  LJCUKMnl  of  Iht 
Ywnitn  d[  the  Guard  (1904).  (R.  He.) 

YEOTKAU  a  town  and  district  of  India,  in  Brrai.  The 
town  stands  at  an  elevation  of  U76  ft.  Pop.  (1901)  10,545, 
It  vras  fotmcily  the  headquattrrs  of  Wun  district,  but  in  190s 
a  new  dislrici  of  YeoimaL  was  established,  coverin£  tbc  former 
Wun  distrin,  with  additions  from  the  district  of  Bttim. 
Cotlon-ginning  and  preaaing  are  carried  on.  The  town  is  abo 
the  chief  trading  centre  in  the  district,  and  is  connected  by 
load  with  Dhamangaon  station,  ig  m,  distant. 

The  DiSTBicr  or  Yeoiual  has  an  area  of  jiSj  sq,  m.  Ii  is 
a  wUd  hlQy  country,  intersected  by  oifshoDU  from  Ibe  Ajanta 
Riountains.  The  liills  aic  bare,  or  clothed  only  with  dwarf 
leak  or  small  jungle;  but  on  the  heights  ncu  Wun  town  the 

ravines.    TIk  Watdha  and  Pcnganga,  wliich  bound  the  district 
on  the  E.  and  S.,  unite  at  Its  S.E.  corner.    The  Penganga 


,dhy™ 


le  it  plenlifuL  The  dimatt 
and  unhealthy;  the  annual  ninfoU  averages  about  41  in.  Pop. 
(liBi)  S75.!)57.  The  principal  crops  arc  millets,  cotton,  pulses, 
oil-seeds  and  wheat.  Coal  has  been  found,  and  iron  ore  abounds. 

See  VBUmal  Diilrkl  CamlUtt  [Calcutta,  1908). 

TSOVm  ft  market  town  and  municipal  borough  In  the 
S.  parliamenlary  division  of  Soroereelshire,  England,  on  Ihc 
Great  Westem  and  Soutb-Wcstem  tailvfsya,  117  m.  W.  by  S. 
of  London.  Pop.  (1901)  9861.  The  town  lies  on  the  river 
Yeo,  and  is  a  thri^ng  place,  with  a  lew  old  houses.  The  church 
of  St  John  the  Baptist  is  a  perpendicular  cruciform  structure, 
consisting  of  chancel,  nave  of  seven  bays,  aisles,  transepEi  and 
lofty  wtstem  tower.  There  are  some  15th-  and  rtitlKentury 
btauo.  a  dark  cradle  roof,  and  an  euly  ijth-century  crypt 
tinder  Uic  chancd.  The  town  is  famous  for  Its  manufacture  of 
glove*  (dating  from  1565).  lis  agricultural  trade  is  consider- 
aUe.  The  town  is  gnvenied  by  a  mayor,  4  aldennen  utd 
I)  coundllois.  Area,  654  aer^  Ytavil  (Gyode,  Evill,  Ivle. 
Ycoele)  before  the  Conquest  was  part  of  the  private  domains 
oC  the  Anglo-Saxon  iunga.  The  town  oncd  its  origin  to  trade, 
and  became  of  some  siie  in  the  jjlb  century.  In  t4tb^entury 
documents  h  is  described  as  a  town  or  borough  govened  by 
a  portreeve,  who  frequently  came  into  conBict  with  the  parson 
o!.  Si  Ji^'i  church,  who  had  bct»me  lord  of  the  manor  of 
YeovQ  duriqg  the  reign  of  Henry  lU.  The  carporalkia  [n 
the  iSlh  century  consisted  of  a  portreeve  and  eleven  burgesses, 
and  was  abolished  when  the  town  was  reincorporated  in  1S5]. 

Fairs  on  the  17th  of  July  and  the  6th  of  Novenbci  were  held 
under  grant  of  tlcniy  VII.,  and  were  important  for  thi:  ulc  ai 

market  dates  Irom    ISI5.     There  is  a  grtal   mallet  evccy  other 

?BllllB>,CHAHLBTyiOH  ((837-1^5):  Amerfcui  ojrftalisi, 
was  bom  of  Quaker  parentage,  In  Philadelphia.  Pennsylvania, 
an  Ihe  jslb  ot  June  i3j7.  He  was  a  clerk  in  a  grain^ommission 
houB,  U  ochange  broker  (iSi&-«i}  and  a  bankn  (ilti-^). 


KTien  he  (ailed  in  iSri  ha  rduiad  to  giv* 
the  city  of  Philaddptua  for  bonds  sold  01 
wu  convicted  .of  "miaapproprialing  city  ftmda,"  and  testenced 
to  two  years  and  nine  months  in  the  penitentiary.  After 
serving  seven  months  of  Ibis  sentence  he  wm  pardoaed.  and 
Ibe  Qly  CounciT  aiterward  passed  an  ocdinance  caaccUing  Ibc 
municipality's  claim  against  him.  H(  esiabtisbed  a  banking 
buimesi  hi  Chicago  in  igSi;  in  igse  got  control  ot  the  Chicago 
City  Railway  Company;  and  within  the  neat  twelve  yean 
organised  a  virtual  nionopcdy  of  the  surface  and  devnted 
railway  service  of  Chicago.  He  di^Hsed  of  his  street  railway 
Interests  m  Chicago,  and  removed  10  London  (1900).  There 
he  acquired  in  igoi  a  controlling  interest  in  the  UdTOpolitaa 
District  railway,  and  by  orginiiing  the  finances  of  the  Under- 
ground Electric  Railways  Company  ke  took  an  imponant 
iniliativc  in  enendnig  Ihe  system  of  London  electric  railway*. 

installed  in  the  Verkes  Observatory  al  Uke  Ccoeva,  Wisconsin. 
and  gathered  in  his  New  York  residence  a  i«narkable  coUcctioB 
ot  paintfnp,  tapestries  and  rugs,  which  iveie  sold  at  aucticii 
in  April  1910  lor  (i,oi4-tsa  He  died  in  New  York  on  tk 
J91h  0I  December  1905. 

YKTHOLII,  a  village  o(  Soiburghshrre,  Scotland-  Pop. 
doot)  J71.  II  nl  situated  on  Bowmont  Water,  ;)  in.  S.E.  ti 
Kelso,  and  5  in-  S.S.W,  of  Mindrnm  in  NonhHrnberland,  Ihe 
nearest  railway  station.  It  is  divided  into  two  quarters.  Kirk 
Vetbolm  on  the  right  and  Town  Vethohn  on  the  left  of  Ibe  sueam. 
The  name  ij  said  tobc  theO.E.  ye«,  "  gate,"  and  ii^in  (fnc  the 
same  as  ham),  "  hamlet."  meaning  "  the  hamlet  at  the  gate  '' 
of  Scotland,  the  b«der  being  only  1)  m.  distant.  Since  about 
the  middle  of  tlie  I7Ih  century  the  district  has  been  the  hcad- 
quaitera  of  *  tribe  of  gipsies. 

YBW  (ram  baccalai,  a  tiee  whkh  belongs  to  ft  genus  ol 
Conilerae  (see  Cvuhospeihs),  In  which  the  ordiitaiily  woody 


^ng   two   r^pe  leedi  1 

i  is  repreaen 
Usutlly  il 


YEZI>— YEZIDIS 


91^ 


<fiveT9e  hafak,  but  genenUb^  «rith  6imt  npmiimg  brandies, 
thickly  covered  with  very  daxk  green  linear  leaves,  which 
are  given  off  fiom  all  sides  of  the  branch,  but  which,  owing 
to  a  twist  in  the  base  of  Ihe  leaf,  become  arranged  in  a  single 
series  on  each  side  of  it.  The  trees  axe  vsuaHy  dioecious, 
the  male  flowers  being  bone  on  one  individual  and  the  female 
on  another,  although  intfancfa  occur  in  which  6owers  of  both 
sexes  are  formed  on  the  same  tree*  The  male  flowers  are  more  or 
less  globular  and  occur  in  the  azfls  of  the  leaves.  They  consist 
of  a  number  of  overlapping  biiownish  scales,  gradvalty  inoeaang 
in  site  from  below  upwards  and  Surrounding  a  naked  stalk 
that  bears  at  its  summit  a  head  of.  four  to  ei^t  stamens.  Each 
stamen  has  a  flat  fivc-lobed  top,  something  like  a  shield;  from 
its  under  surface,  five,  six  or  more  poUen  cases  hang  down,  and 
these  open  lengthwise  to  liberate  the  g^bose  poUen-grsins. 
The  female  flowers  are  also  placed  each  sepsratety  in  the  axil 
of  a  leaf,  and  consist  of  a  number  of  overlapping  scides,  as  in  the 
male.  These  scales  surround  a  cup  which  is  at  first  shallow, 
green  and  thin  (the  so^alled  aril),  but  which  subsequently 
becomes  fleshy  and  red,  while  it  increases  so  much  in  length 
as  almost  entirely  to  conceal  the  angle  straight  seed.  It  is 
clear  that  the  structure  of  the  female  flower  differs  from  that 
of  most  ix>nifers,  from  which  it  is  now  often  separated  in  a 
distinct  order,  Taxaceae. 

The  poisonous  properties,  referred  to  by  classical  writers 
such  as  Caesar,  Virgil  and  Livy,  reside  chiefly  if  not  entirely 
in  the  foliage.  This,  if  eaten  by  horses  or  cattle,  especially  when 
it  has  been  cut  and  thrown  in  heaps  so  as  to  undergo  a  process 
of  fermentation,  is  very  injurious.  The  leaves  have  also  been 
used  for  various  medicinal  purposes,  but  are  not  employed  now. 
An  alkaloid  taxiru,  said  to  depress  the  circulation,  is  extracted. 
It  forms  white  crystab  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  As  a  timber 
tree  the  yew  is  used  for  cabinet-work,  axle-trees,  bows  and  the 
like,  where  strength  and  durability  arc  required. 

The  yew  occurs  wild  over  a  large  area  of  the  northern  hemi- 
^•here.  In  N.E.  America  and  in  Japan  trees  are  found  of  a 
character  so  similar  that  by  some  botanists  they  are  all  ranged 
under  one  species.  Generally,  however,  the  European  yew, 
r.  baccaidf  is  regarded  as  native  of  Europe,  N.  Africa,  and 
Asia  as  far  as  the  Himalayas  and  the  Amur  region,  while  the 
American  and  Japanese  forms  are  considered  to  represent 
distinct  spedes.  The  yew  is  wild  in  Great  Britain,  forming 
a  characteristic  feature  of  the  chalk  downs  of  the  southern 
counties  and  of  the  vegetation  of  parts  of  the  Lake  District 
and  elsewhere.  The  evidence  of  fossil  remains,  antiquities  and 
place-names  indicates  that  it  was  formerly  more  widely  spread 
in  Europe  than  at  the  present  day.  The  varieties  grown  in 
the  United  Kingdom  are  numerous,  one  of  the  most  striking 
being  that  known  as  the  Irish  yew — a  shrub  with  the  pyra- 
midal or  columnar  habit  of  a  cypress,  in  which  the  leaves  spread 
from  an  sides  of  the  branches,  not  being  twisted,  as  they  usually 
are,  out  of  their  original  position.  In  the  ordinary  yew  the 
main  branches  spread  more  or  less  horizontally,  and  the  leaves 
are  so  arranged  as  to  be  conveniently  exposed  to  the  influence 
of  the  light;  but  in  the  variety  in  question  the  branches  are 
mostly  vertical,  and  the  leaves  assume  a  direction  in  accordance 
with  the  ascending  direction  of  the  branches.  The  phnts 
have  all  sprung  from  one  oT  two  trees  found  growing  wild  more 
than  a  hundred  years  ago  on  the  mountains  of  Co.  Fermanagh 
in  Ireland,  and  afterwards  planted  In  the  garden  of  Florence 
Court,  a  seat  of  the  earl  of  Enniskillen. 

Tbeyew  is  a  favourite  evergreen  tree,  either  for  planting  separately 
or  for  hedges,  for  which  its  dense  foliage  renders  it  well  suited.  Its 
dense  growth  when  pruned  has  led  to  its  extensive  use  in  topiary 
work,  which  was  introduced  by  John  Evelyn  and  became  very 
prevalent  at  the  close  of  the  17th  and  the  beginning  of  the  i8th 
centuries.  The  wood  b  vtxy  hard,  close-grained  and  of  a  deep  red- 
brown  colour  internally.  The  (fainting  of  the  yew  in  churchyards 
was  at  one  time  supposed  to  have  been  done  with  a  view  to  the 
supply  of  yew  staves.  But,  while  importation  from  abroad  was 
fostered,  there  seems  to  have  been  no  statute  enforcing  the  cuhiva* 
tionof  the  yew  in  Great  Britain;  a  statute,  however,  of  Edward  I. 
<cittd  in  The  Gardeners'  CkronicU,  6th  March  1880,  p.  306)  sUtes  that 
the  trees  Were  often  planted  in  churchyards  to  defend  the  church  from 


high  wfnds.  The  Crowbmtt  yew,  mentioned  by  Evelyn  as  30  ft. 
in  circumference,  still  exists.  The  Urge  yew  at  Ankerwyke,  near 
Staines,  with  a  trunk  lol  ft.  in  circumference,  in  sight  ojf  which 
Magna  Carta  was  signed  (1215),  probably  exceeds  a  thousand  years 
of  age.  The  fine  yew  in  Bucleland  churchyard,  near  I>over,  was 
removed  in  1880  to  a  distance  of  60  yds.  The  trunk  had  been  split 
ao  that  it  had  a  direaion  nearly  parallel  with  the  soil.  This  hii^ 
tree  was  moved  with  a  ball  of  soil  round  its  roots,  16  ft.  5  in.  by 
15  ft.  8  in.,  by  3  ft.  6|  in.  in  depth,  the  weight  of  the  entire  mass  being 
estimated  at  s^  tons.  The  dlmen^ons  of  the  tree  In  1880  were  as 
follows:  "  circumference  of  the  main  trunk,  23  ft.;  of  the  upright 
'POCtk>n  of  the  truiUc,  6  ft.  10  in.;  second  horizontal  trunk,  10 ft. 
10  in.;  do.,  south  limb  forking  off  at  9  ft.  from  the  main  trunk, 

7  ft.  ro  In. ;  do.,  west  limb  forkmg  off  at  9  ft.  from  the  main  trunk, 

8  ft.  8  h). ;  extent  of  branches  from  centre  of  main  trunk  southwards. 
30  ft.  10  in.,  and  from  north  to  south.  48  ft.;  they  extend  from  the 
main  trunk  westward  33  ft."-  The  tree  was  replanted  so  that  the 
horizontal  portions  were  replaced  in  their  origtoaL  erect  posJtioa 
and  the  natural  symmetry  restored. 

For  further  details  see  Veitrh,  Manual  if  Qm^erat' (i^oo) ;  Etwes 
and  Henry,  Trees  of  Grtat  J^riUUM  and  Irdond  (1906). 

VSU7,  or  Yazd,  a  province  of  Persia,  bounded  S.-by  Kerman, 
W.  by  Fazs  and  Isfahan,  and  N.  and  £.  by  the  central  Persian 
deserts.  It  contains  an  area  of.  about  ao,ooo  sq.  m.,  but  its 
population  barely  exceeds  100,000,  of  whom  about  half  inhabit ' 
the  capital  of  the  province.  Its  subdivisions  are:  (i)  the  city 
of  Yezd  and  immediate  environs;  (2)  Ardakan;  (3)  Bafk; 
(4)  Taft;  (5)  Kuhistan  (Pish  Kuh,  Mian  Kuh,  Pusht  Kuh,  on  the 
slopes  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Shir  Kuh,  a  part  of  the  great 
Central  Range  of  Persia  W.  of  the  city  of  Yezd,  and  rising  to  an 
elevation  of  x  1,000  ft.);  and  (6)  Shahr  i  Babek.  The  last  is 
situated  far  S.  near  Kerman,  and  sometimes  is  regarded  as  part 
of  that  province.  The  revenues  sKghtly  exceed  £60,000  a  year. 
Much  silk  is  grown  in  the  district,  but  is  not  sufficient  for 
the  silk  stuffs  which  Yezd  manufactures  with  its  1000  looms, 
and  raw  silk  (about  75,000  lb  yeariy)  has  to  be  obtained  from 
Khorasan  and  Gilan.  Great  quantities  of  felts  {mmads),  white 
and  yellow  cotton  stuffs,  the  latter  a  kind  of  nankeen  made 
of  Gossypium  herbaccum,  arc  also  manufactured  and  exported. 
Other  exports  are  opium,  madder  and  almonds.  The  grain 
produced  suffices  for  only  two  or  three  months'  consumption, 
and  supplies  have  to  be  brought  from  Khorasan,  so  that  wheat 
and  barley  are  dearer  than  at  other  places  in  Persia.  The 
part  of  the  district  situated  in  the  pUiin  is  much  exposed  to 
moving  sands,  which  render  cultivation  difficult  and  at  times 
iropossible.- 

YEZD,  the.  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  tiame  in 
Persia,  situated  192  m.  N.W.  of  Kerman,  i6s  m.  S.E.  of 
Isfahan,  in  31^  54'  N.  and  54^  22'  E.,  at  an  elevation  of  4440  ft. 
Its  population,  xoo,ooo  in  xSio,  is  now  estimated  at  50,000, 
including  2000  Jews  and  1300  2U}roastrians.*  The  dty  is  divided 
into  the  Shahr  i  nau  (new  town)  and  Shahr  i  kohnch  (old  town), 
separated  by  a  wall  with  two  gates.  The  ark,  or  citadel,  in 
the  E.  of  the  town,  is  fortified  with  walls,  bastions  and  dry 
ditch,  and  contains  the  governor's  residence.  The  baxaar  is  in 
good  repair  and  well  stocked;  other  parts  of  the  town  are 
irregularly  planned,  with  dark,  narrow  streets.  There  are 
eighteen  mosques,  one,  the  Masjed  i  Jama,  also  called  Masjed  i 
Mir  Chakhmak,  is  an  old  and  decayed  structure  originally  built 
in  XIX9,  with  a  lofty  and  imposing  frontage  dating  from  1472. 
There  are  seven  cdleges.  The  caravanseraus  number  thirty" 
three.  There  are  telegraph  (English  staff  since  1903)  and  post 
offices.  The  Englishman  in  charge  of  the  telegraph  office  acts 
as  British  vice-consuL 

TEZIDIS,  a  sect  of  devfl^worshippcrs,  cafling  themselves 
Dasni,  who  are  found  in  Kurdistan,  Armenia  and  the  Caucasus. 
Their  religion  has  points  of  connexion  with  old  Iranian  and 
Assyrian  beliefs  and  traces  of  Manichaeism  and  Nestorianism. 
Thus  they  regard  the  devil  as  the  creative  agent  of  the  Supreme 
God,  a  reinstated  fallen  angel  who  is  the  author  of  evil.  They 
avoid  mentioning  his  name  and  represent  him  by  the  peacock. 
They  regard  Christ  as  an  angel  in  human  form  and  recognize 


YEZO— YGGDRASIL 


II  ahd  tbe  patriircha. 
They  believe  ia  ■  fuluie  life  and  pndiie  bolb  drcumcisian  ind 
bipliim.  TIk  nunc  i>  probably  derived  from  tbe  Kurdiifa 
aad  Pei^in  ViadiH,  Cod;  thougb  some  bsve  cooDected  it 
with  the  city  ol  Veid,  or  with  Veiki,  the  wcand  Onuyyad 
caliph  (710-14)-  ll'eli  sacred  book  i«  aSed  ^I-l-sAai,  and 
iti  chiel  apaaent  ou  Sbaikb  Adi  (c.  t  laa). 

'   yird,  Xi«Kit  smI  ill  fiouiu  (London,  i8sa);  Meiiant. 


S«  Liyird,  X» 


i»9i). 


TBO,  DC  Eio,  tbe  nKst  noitbcHy  ol  tbe  five  principal  iilandi 
forming  tbe  J»panoe  empire,  tbe  five  being  Yeio,  Nippon,  Shi- 
koku,  Kiiuhiu  and  Foitnaia.  It  is  tituited  between  4j°  jo'  and 
41"  11'  N.  and  beliteea  146°  ;'  and  139*  11'  E.;  its  cout-line 
oitttana  M'J'J'  '"■•  ■'id  it  hai  an  area  of  jo.itS-^i  h).  m.  On 
tbe  N.  it  is  separated  (mm  Sakhalin  by  Soya  Strait  CU  Piroiue) 
■nd  on  tbe  S.  from  Nippon  by  Tsugaru  Strait.  lu  northern 
ibotci  are  willed  by  tbeSeaof  Okbolik,iuiouthem>DdeasleRi 


leaiiy  as  Ur^  as  thoie  (or  «] 


aimoU.^^t  dim 


longer  11 


markedly  flom  1 
er  the  clfmite  of 


■    ■      ~        h  lrii:J. 


outheni  CO 


Bonh  and'mrtiW  ""'"vrarfS  u'Vr  as"Nmum,'«opi'S  s^'irartc 
on  the  E.  coaM  durinf  January,  February  and  Murch.  thDugh  the 
W-  coast  ia  protected  Sy  the  warm  current  of  the  Kuro-shiwo.  Fofs 
prevail  aVrng  the  £■  toast  durine  the  summer  months,  and  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  And  a  damp,  chilW  almoiphere  near  the  Ha  id  July. 


RA.  t. 


Nippon,"  The  \t 


Pheai 


BlaWRi  .,  .. 
llw  .bound 

^JS'e  d'ilfA .._... 

•cmbKiI  those  o(  the  British  lilei  mther  Ihiti  tho«  of  Jipan. 

To^iJo/im,— The  idand  seems  lo  have  been  originally  peopled 
by  a  lemi-baibaroiis  race  ol  pii-dwellen,  wboe  modem  rtpie- 
tgntatives  are  lo  b«  found  in  the  Kiirilci  or  thdt  nel^baura  ol 
Kamchatka   and   Sakbalin,     These  autochlhona  were   driven 


out  by  tbe  Aina.  and  tbe  Iclter,  In  tbrir  Inn,  tuccimbed  te 
Japanese.  Tbe  population  o!  Veio  it  605,741,  of  wbom  17 
are  Ainu.  There  b  >  steadily  growing  but  not  large  ei 
iFom  Japan.prof>er  to  Yen.  Veio  ii  divided  into  ten  f 
the  names  of  vrhict,  be^nninfl  from  the  S.,  are  Osbima,  Sturibeahi, 
Ishikari,  Teahia,  Kitami,  Iburi.  Hidaki,  Tokacbi,  Kuahixo  "^wt 
NcmuTD.  01  these,  Oabinu,  Shiobesfai  and  IsUkaii  an  by  far 
tbe  moU  impottast.  There  art  aily  thtte  lovni  having  ■ 
population  ol  over  io,ooe,  via.  Hakodate  (5OJI4),  Sappon 
(46,147)  and  Olaru  (34,586).  Other  tows*  of  impactuKE  an 
Fukuytma  (fonneriy  called  Mataumae),  the  Mat  d  ■DvemmeDI 
.in  feudal  daya,  Esisbi,  Mombeuu,  Otwake,  Tomakomaj, 
Piralori  (ifac  chief  Ainn  settlenwnl),  Mcooran,  Kutliiro.  Akke- 
shi,  Nemuro,  Uorobctto,  Vunokawa,  Abaahiri  and  Maibike. 
Yunokawa,  4}  m.  from  Hakodate,  is  much  frequented  for  its 
bot  spring;  CKwake  is  the  >unctiDa  ol  the  main  Mne  oC  imBwtJ 
with  the  branch  to  tEe  Yubari  coUieriei;  Kgahira  o^oiti  .c«al 
and  sulphur;  Akkeshi  is  cdebnted  for  iti  oyMen. 

JadMstritt  fid  Proiit^.^-Vimns  products  umslitute  the  pei^ 
fipU  weaJlh  of  Ycio.  Great  qnm&ies  of  Blmoo,  ai«aet  ud 
codfish  are  taken.  The  tabnon  an  aahed  lor  opoR  to  Ntppea 
and  other  part  9  of  Japan ;  the  sardines  an  used  as  an  anicunuial 
lertilixer,  their  value  varying  from  £j  to  £s  per  ton  i  asd  the  ^ei^ 
fish  serv*  lor  the  manulacttue  of  «L  ABisamenB  csnp  of  edibk 
■caweed  n  also  gathered  aod  sent.to  Chinese  narketi  aa  well  aa  to 

■ ^-.■_  1 — I..  --  ^-  jj  called,  sometimes  readHa  a  lebfih 

Tbe  bemng  Bsbcry.  too,  is  a  source  Ok 
Akkeshi  mwters  as  welt  as  of  aahDOfl 
bandih  VmK  tracts  an  oovcnd  with 
ik,  ebn.  birch,  clsestpin  aad  pijw,  but, 
ge.  this  supply  of  timber  hu  ool  yet 


of  40  It.  and  a  width  of  6 
wealth,  and  the  caonini 


ol  the  tf( 

i\:c  trams  of  agricultural  land  wen  i 
d.  raodd  larms  tslablisbed.  be«- 
ipencd,  hor«-brecdiiif  undertalon,  It 


selllsa.    Ehiring  re 


a  lailw.ay  has  b«n  built  fc 
hausiible  supply  d  sulphur 
Kushiro  lake;  petrdeum  see 
tBm  iM  was  diKDVered  at  I 


al  of  fair  quality  is  abundant,  and 


1  an  few  and  in 


Inm  Iwamunva, 
Oiwake  N.E.  10  tl 
along  tbe  S.  coast 

Hi.      . 
control  until  m 


le  N..  o'ilh  br 


treyond  the  railway, 
-Yeia   sras   not   brought  under  Jnpan's  effective 


ught  Dnde 
.    In  1604  the  isjand 


Yoihihi    . 

ind  from  tbe  dose  o(  the  18th  cenluiy 
Dfliciili  sent  by  the  shfigun,  whose  alle 

ipedal  bureau,  which  employed  American  agricullui 


so  ovcrniik  it, 
s  governed  by 

of  developing 


0  privai 


YGGSRASIL.  in  Scandinavian  mylholoKy,  the  mystical  uk 
tree  which  symboliict  eiislencc,  and  binds  logttber  eiith, 
heaven  and  hcU.  It  is  the  tree  of  life,  of  knowledge,  of  fate, 
of  lime  and  of  qxce.  Its  three  imu  go  dawn  mto  tbe  three 
great  realms— (i)  of  death,  when,  in  the  well  Hvtntdmcr,  tbe 
dragon  Nidhug  (NiBhoggr)  and  his  brood  are  ever  gnawing 
it;  (9)  of  the  giants,  where,  in  the  lountain  of  Mimer.  is  Ibe 
source  of  wisdom:  (3)  of  the  gods,  Asgard,  where,  at  the  sacted 
fountain  of  Utd,  is  the  divine  tribunal,  and  the  dwelling  of  the 
F*lcs.  Tbe  stem  of  Yggdra^il  upholds  the  earth,  while  US 
world  and  reach  iq>  beyoDd  the  heavcBL 
bough  sits  an  eagle,  between  whom  aad  Nidhag 
aialfiskt  runs  to  and  fro  tr/'-of  to  provoke 


YO-CHOW  FU— YONGE,  C.  M. 


921 


aCiiffc  HoneyHlev  ttSk  from  the  tree,  and  on  i%  Odin  hung 
nine  nights,  off ering  himtdf  to  liimaeif.  G.  ^^gfuMon  and  York 
PoweU  (Ccrpus  PotHemm  BonaUf  Oiford»  1883)  tee  in  YggdrasU 
not  a  piindtive  None  idea,  bat  one  doe  to  early  contact  with 
Christianity,  and  a  fandfni  adaptation  of  the  cross. 

YO-GHOW  FUv  a  pcefectiual  dty  in  the  Chinese  province 
of  Htt*nan,  standing  on  hig^  groond  E.  erf  the  outlet  of  Tung- 
t*ing  Lake,  in  39°  x8'  N.,  its'*  a*  E.  Pop.  about  so,ooa  It  was 
opoied  to  foreign  trade  in  1899.  The  actual  settlement  is  at 
Chinling-ki,  a  village  sh  bb-  bebw  Yo-chow  and  half  a  mile 
from  the  Yangtsce.  From  Yo-chow  the  cities  of  Chang  sha  and 
Chang  t^  are  acoe«ible  for  steam  vessels  dnwhag  4  to  s  ft- 
of  water  by  means  of  the  Tung-l*ing  Lake  and  its  affluents, 
the  Siang  and  Yuen  rivers.  Thit  district  in  which  Yo-chow  Fu 
stands  is  the  ancient  habitat  of  the  aboriginal  San  Miao  tribes, 
who  were  deported  into  S. W.  China,  and  who,  judging  from  some 
non^Chinese  festival  customs  of  the  people,  would  appear  to 
have  left  traditions  behind  them.  The  present  dty,  which 
was  built  in  137 1,  is  about  3  m.  in  circumference  and  is  entered 
by  four  gates.  The  walls  are  high  and  well  built,  but  failed 
to  keep  out  the  T'aip'ing  rebels  in  1853.  Situated  between 
Tung-t*Ing  Lake  and  the  Yangtsse-kiang,  Yo<how  Fu  forms 
a  depot  for  native  products  destined  for  export,  and  for  foreign 
goods  on  their  way  inland.  The  net  value  of  the  total  trade 
of  the  port  in  1906  was  747,000  taels. 

YOGI*  a  Hindu  religious  ascetic.  The  word  J9ga  means  union, 
and  first  occure  in  the  later  Upaniskads;  and  yogi  means  one 
who  practises  yogOt  with  the  object  of  uniting  his  soul  with  the 
divine  spirit  This  union,  when  accomplished  by  the  individual 
soul,  must  enhance  its  susceptibilities  and  powers,  and  so  the 
yogis  cfadm  a  far-teaching  knoiriedge  of  the  secrets  of  nature 
and  extensive  sway  over  men  and  natural  phenomena.  The 
most  usual  manifestation  of  this  power  is  a  state  of  ecstasy, 
of  the  nature  of  self-hypnotism. 

YOKOHAMA,  a  seaport  of  Japan  on  the  W.  shore  of  Tokyo 
Bay,  18  m.  S.  of  Tokyo  by  rail.  It  stands  on  a  plain  shut  in  by 
hilb,  one  of  which,  towards  the  S.E.,  terminates  in  a  promontory 
called  Honmoku-misaki  or  Treaty  Point.  The  temperature 
ranges  front  95°  to  43**  F.,  and  the  mean  temperature  is  57<7°. 
The  cokt  in  winter  is  severe,  owing  to  N.  winds,  while  the  heat  is 
great  in  summer,  though  tempered  by  S.W.  sea  breeees.  The 
rsinfall  is  about  70  in.  annually.  In  1859,  when  the  ndghbour- 
ing  town  of  Kanagawa  was  opened  to  fordgners  under  the 
treaty  with  the  United  States,  Yokohama  was  an  insignificant 
fishmg  village;  and  notwithstanding  the  protests  of  the 
fofcign  representatives  the  Japanese  government  shortly  after- 
wards chose  the  latter  place  as  the  settlement  instead  of  Kana- 
gawa. The  town  grew  rapldly->in  x886  the  population  was 
xzf,x79  (3904  foreigners,  induding  3575  Chinese,  625  British 
and.  256  Americans,  while  in  1903  there  were  314,333  Japanese 
and  S447  ioedgnets  <io89  Brittih,  $27  Americans,  370  Ger- 
mans, 155  French)  besides  about  3800  Chinese.  The  Japanese 
government  constructed  public  works,  and  ezcelknt  water 
waA«  supplied  from  the  Sagamigawa.  The  fordgn  settlement 
has  weU-constmcted  streets,  but  the  wealthier  foreigners  reside 
S.  of  fhe  town,  on  the  Bluff.  The  land  occupied  by  foreigners 
was  leased  to  them  by  the  Japanese  government,  so%  of  the 
annual  rent  being  set  aside  for  munidpal  eipeoses.  Hie 
harbour,  which  is  a  part  of  Tokyo  Bay,  is  good  and  commodious, 
somewhat  eaqMsed,  but  endosed  by  two  breakwaters.  There 
is  a  pier  sboo  ft  kmg,  and  two  docks  were  opened  in  1897 
and  1898,  with  lengths  of  351  ft  and  478  ft.  xo  in.,  and  depths 
of  96  ft  i  in.  and  38  ft  on.  the  blocks  at  ordinary  spring  tkles. 
The  average  depth  in  the  harbour  at  high  water  is  about  46  ft, 
with  a  fall  of  ride  of  about  8  ft,  the  entrance  bdng  marked  by 
a  lightship  and  two  buoys.  The  railway  connecring  Yokohama 
with  Tokyo  was  the  firtt  in  Japan,  and  was  constructed  in 
167s.  The  value  of  ejqports  and  Imports,  which  in  1880  was 
£3»79>f99K  and  £5)378,385,  and  in  the  ensuing  five  years 
averaged  £41)638,635  and  £4*366,507,  had  increased  in  1905 
to  £x4,86r,833  and  £19,068,221.  Metals  and  metal  goods, 
tke,  wool  atad  woollen  goods^  and  cotton  and  cotton  gpods 


are  the  chief  imports;  and  silk,  silk  goods  and  tea  are  the 
chief  exports. 

YOKOIUKA;  a  seaport  and  naval  station  of  Japan,  on  the 
W.  shore  of  Tokyo  Bay,  12  m.  S.  of  Yokohama.  The  town  is 
connected  by  a  branch  Une  with  the  main  railway  from  Tokyo. 
The  port  is  shdtered  by  hiOs  and  affords  good  anchorage.  The 
site  was  occupied  by  a  small  fishing  viDage  until  1865,  when 
the  shogun's  government  establisbed  a  shipyard  here.  In 
1868  the  Japanese  govenmient  converted  the  shipyard  into 
a  naval  dockyard,  and  subsequently  carried  out  many  improve- 
ments. In  1884  the  port  became  a  first-dass  na^  station; 
and  naval  barradcs,  warehouses,  offices,  hospitals,  &c.,  were 
established  here.  The  dockyud  was.  first  constructed  by 
French  engineers;  but  after  1875  the  work  passed  entirdy 
into  the  hands  of  Japanese  engineers. 

YOLA,  onoe  a  native  state  of  West  Africa,  forming  part  of 
the  Fula  emimte  of  Adamawa,  now  a  province  in  the  British 
protectorate  of  Nigeria.  The  province,  whidi  has  an  area  of 
16^000  sq.  m.,  occupies  the  S.E.  of  the  protectorate  and  both 
banks  of  the  upper  Benue.  It  is  bounded  S.  and  E.  by  the 
German  odony  of  Cameroon,  N.  by  the  British  province  of  Bomu, 
and  W.  by  the  British  provinces  of  Bauchi  and  Muri.  It  has 
an  estimated  population  of  3oOfOoa  The  capital  is  Yola,  a 
town  founded  by  the  Fula  conqueror  Adama  about  the  middle 
of  the  X9th  century.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  emirate  of 
Adamawa^  the  greater  part  of  which  is  now  a  German  pro- 
tectorate. The  town  is  situated  in  9^  13'  N.,  12''  40'  E.  and  is 
built  on  the  left  or  S.  bank  of  the  Benue,  480  m.  by  river  from 
Lokoja.  It  can  be  reached  by  shallow  draught  steamers  when 
the  river  is  in  flood.  The  Niger  Company  had  trading  rdations 
with  Yda  before  the  estab^hmcnt  of  British  administiation 
in  Northern  Nigeria.  In  1901  the  reigning  emir,  a  turn  of  Adama* 
forced  them  to  evacuate  their  station,  and,  all  attempts  to 
ffttaMith  friendly  relations  proving  unavailing,  the  JBriUsh 
govenunent  despatched  an  eaqwdition  from  Lokoja  in  August 
r9or.  The  emir  was  dqxwed  and  a  new  emir  installed  in  hit 
place.  The  hostility  of  certain  pagan  tribes  had  to  be  over- 
come  hy  British  espeditiaaa  in  January  and  April  of  r902.  By 
1903  the  province  was  brou^t  iairly  undcx  administraUve 
control,  and  divided  into  three'  administrative  divisions— tho 
N.W.  with  a  sUtion  at  Gad,  the  N.E.  and  the  S..  with  Yola 
for  its  station.  The  new  enir  proved  friendly  and  loyal,  but 
though  appointed  in  1901  waa  not  forqially  installed  till  October 
1904,  when  he  took  the  customary  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
British  <70wn  and  accepted  all  the  coiiditioos  with  regud  to 
the  sui^ression  of  slavery,  &c  The  slave  markka  were  imme* 
diatdy  dosed  as  a  result  of  British  oceupation,  and  any  slave- 
trading  which  is  still  done  is  smnggled.  In- 1903  an  exploring 
esQMsdition  was  sent  up  the  Gongola,  one  ^  the  prindpel 
rivers  of  the  Yola  province,  and  as  a  result  the  navigability  of 
the  river  for  steam  launches  as  far  as  Gombe  at  high  water  waa 
demonstrated.  An  important  means  -ol  communication  with 
the  province  of  Bomu  was  thus  established,  and  a  rich  agri- 
cultural district  opened  to  devebpment  The  Gongola  vaUey 
was  in  andent  times  extensivdy  cultivated,  and  the  population 
are  readily  returning  to  the  land.  Cotton,  rice  and  tobacco  are 
among  the  heavy  crops  (see  Niosbia,  Adamawa). 

YOIiAHDB  (or  Isabella]  OF  BRIENIIB  (i8i2*x328),  the 
daughter  of  John  of  Brienne,  who  had  married  Mfoy,  daughter  oSf 
Conrad  of  Montferrat,  heiress  on  the  death  of  Amalric  II.  of 
the  kingdom  of  Jerusakm.  Yolande  inherited  the  throne  on  her 
mother's  death  in  121 2,  but  her  fother  ruled asher guardian.  In 
X225  she  married  the  emperor  Frederick  IL,  the  pope  hoping  by 
this  bond  to  attach  the  emperor  firmly  to  the  crusade.  Im- 
mediatdy  upon  his  marriage  Frederick  demanded  all  the  rights 
of  sovereignty  in  the  kingdom  of  Jenisalenv  which  he  claimed 
to  ezeidse  in  his  wife's  name.  His  action  led  to  difficulties  with 
John,  who  did  not  relish  the  loss  of  his  podtion.  Yolande  died 
in  1228  after  the  birth  of  a  son,  Conrad,  and  her  huM>and  then 
continued  to  rule,  though  not  without  oppodtion. 

YONOB,  CHARLOTTE  MARY  (x823«i9ox),  English  novelist  and 
writer  on  religious  and  educational  subjects,  daughter  of  Willi«i» 


922 


YONGE,  J.— YONKER8 


Cmwley  Yooge,  sand  RegliDeat,  and  Fnnoes  Mary  Bargus, 
was  bom  on  the  nth  of  August  1823  at  Otterboume,  Hants. 
She  was  educated  by  her  parents,  and  from  them  inherited  much 
of  the  religious  feeling  and  High  Church  sympathy  which  coloured 
her  work.  She  resided  at  Otterboume  all  her  life,  and  was  one 
of  the  most  prolific  writers  of  the  Victorian  era.  In  1841  she 
published  five  works  of  fiction,  including  Tke  Cleter  Woman  of 
Ike  Family,  Dynevor  Terrace  and  Tke  Trial;  and  after  that  she 
was  the  author  of  about  120  volumes,  including  novdb,  tales, 
school  manuals  and  biographies.  Her  first  conspicuous  success 
was  attained  with  The  Heir  of  Rsddyfe  (1853),  which  enjoyed  an 
enormouA  vogue.  Tke  Daisy  Chain  (1856)  continued  the  success; 
and  among  her  other  popular  books  may  be  mentioned  Heartsease 
(i8s4)>  The  Young  Siepmother  (i86x)  and  The  Dave  in  Ike  Eagfe's 
Nest  (1866).  In  more  serious  fields  of  literature  she  published 
Landmarks  of  History  (three  series,  x852<-s7) ,  History  of  Christian 
Names  (1863),  Cameos  of  English  History  (1868),  Life  of  Bishop 
PaUeson  (1874),  BngHsh  Church  History  for  Use  in  Schools  {1883) 
and  many  others.  She  also  edited  various-  educational  works, 
and  was  for  more  than  thirty  years  editor  of  the  Monthly 
Packei.  She  died  at  Otterboume  on  33rd  March  1901.  Her 
books  err  on  the  side  of  didacticism,  but  exercised  a  wide  and 
wholesome  influence.  The  money  realised  by  the  early  sales  of 
The  Daisy  Chain  was  given  to  the  building  of  a  miarionary  coUege 
at  Auckland,  N.Z.,  while  a  large  portion  of  the  proceeds  of  Tke 
Heir  of  Reidyfe  was  devoted  to  the  missionary  schooner  "  The 
Southera  Cross. " 

See  CkarloUe  Mary  Yokge:  an  Appreoiatlon,  by  Ethel  Romanes 
(1908). 

YONOB,  JOHH  (1467-X516),  English  ecclesiastic  and  dipk>- 
matist,  was  bom  at  Heyford,  Oxfordshire,  and  educated  at 
Winchester  and  New  College,  Oxford,  where  he  became  a  felbw  in 
1485.  He  was  ordained  in  1500  and  held  several  livings  before 
receiving  his  first  diplomatic  onsBidn  to  arrange  a  commercial 
treaty  with  the  archduke  of  Austria  in  1504,  and  in  the  Low 
Countries  in  1506  in  connexion  with  the  projected  marriage 
between  Henry  VI(.  and  Margaret  of  Savoy.  In  1507  he  was 
made  Master 'of  the  Rolls,  and  in  the  following  year  was  em- 
ployed in  various  diplomatic  missions.  He  was  one  of  the 
ambassadors  who  arranged  the  Holy  League  in  1513,  and  accom- 
panied Henry  VltL  during  the  ensuing  campaign.  In  1514 
he  was  made  dean  of  York  in  succenion  to  Wokey,  and  in 
1515  he  was  one  of  the'oommissioDers  for  renewing  the  peace 
with  Francis  I.  He  died  in  London  on  the  35th  of  April  1516. 
Yonge  was  on  terms  of  intimate  friendship  with  Dean  Colet,  and 
was  a  correspondent  of  Erasmus. 

YONOB,  SIR  WILUAM,  Bakt.'  (c,  1693-1755),  English 
politician,  was  the. son  of  Sir  Walter  Yonge  of  Colyton,  Devon- 
shire, and  great-great-grandson  of  Walter  Yonge  of  Colyton 
(?i58x~i649),  whose  diaries  (1604-45),  Q^or®  cspedaDy  four 
volumes  now  in  the  British  Museum  (Add.  MSS.  18777-18780), 
are  valuable  material  for  history.  In  1732  he  was  elected  to 
parliament  as  mcmbM  for  Honiton;  and  he  succeeded  his 
father,  -the  third  baronet,  in  1731.  In  the  House  of  Commons 
he  attached  himself  to  the  Whigs,  and  making  himself  useful 
to  Sir  Robert  Walpole;  was  rewarded  with  a  commissionership 
of  the  treasury  in  1724.  George  II.,  who  conceived  a.  strong 
aptipathyto  Sir  William,  spoke  of  him  as  "Stinking  Yonge"; 
but  Yonge  conducted  himself  so  obsequiously  that  he  obtained  a 
oommissionership  of  the  admiralty  in  1728,  was  restored  to  the 
tteasury  in  1730,  and  in  1735  became  secretary  of  state  for  war. 
He  especially  distinguished  himself  in  his  defence  of  the  govern* 
ment  against  a  hostile  motion  byPulteneyia  1742.  Making 
friends  with  the  Pdhams,  he  was  appointed  vice-treasurer  of 
Ireland  in  1746;  and,  acting  on  the  committee  of  manage- 
ment for  the  impeachment  of  Lord  Lovat  in  1747,  he  won  the 
applause  of  Horace  Walpole  by  moving  that  prisoners  impeached 
for  high,  treason  should  be  allowed  the  assistance  of  couilsel.  In 
1748  be  was  elected  F.R.S.  He  died  at  Escott,  near  Honiton, 
on  the  loth  of  August  1755.  By  his  second  wife,  Anne,  daughter 
and  coheiress  of  Thomas,  Lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  he  had 
two  sons  and  she  daughters.    He  enjoyed  some  reputation  as  a 


venifler,  some  of  hb  lines  being  even- mistaken  for  the  work  of 
Pope,  greatly  to  the  disgust  of  the  latter;  and  he  wrote  the 
\yna  incorporated  in  a  comic  operai  adaipted  from  Richard 
Brome's  The  Jovial  Crew,  which  was  produced  at  Dnuy  Lane 
in  X730  and  had  a  considerable  vogue. 

His  eldest  son,  Sii  George  Yonge  (x73x-x8x2),  waa  member 
of  pariiament  for  Honiton  continuously  from  1754  to  1794,  and 
held  a  number  of  different  government  appointments,  becoming 
a  lord  of  the  admiralty  (x  766-70),  vico-treasurer  for  Ireland 
(1782)1  secretary  of  state  for  war  (1782-94,  with  aa  interval 
from  April  to  December  1783),  master  of  the  mint  (1794-99). 
In  1799  he  was  appointed  governor  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Serious  charges  being  brought  against  his-  administ ration, 
which  was-  marked  by  great  lack  of  judgment,  be  was  re- 
called in  1801.  He  died  on  the  25th  of  September  18x2.  The 
baronetcy  becsune  extinct  at  his  death. 

YONKBRS.  a  city  of  Westchester  county,  New  York,  U.S.A., 
on  the  £.  bank  of  the  Hudson  river,  immediately  adjoining  New 
York  City  on  the  N.  Pop.  (1900)  47,93x,  of  whom  X4,634  were 
foreign-bom  and  XO05  were  negroes;  (1910,  U.S.  census)  79,803. 
Yonkers  is  served  by  three  divisions  of  the  New  York 
Central  &  Hudson  River  railway,  and  is  connected  vnth  New 
York  City  and  other  places  E.  and  N.  by  interurban  electric 
lines.  It  has  also  during  most  0/  the  year  steamboat  service 
on  the  Hudson.  There  are  two  principal  residential  districts: 
one  in  the  K.,  including  Amackainin  Heights  and  (about  x  m. 
W.)Glenwood,  where  are  the  old  Colgate  Mansion  and  *'  Grey- 
stone,"  the  former  home  of  Samud  J.  Tilden;  the  other  in 
the  S.,  including  Ludlow,  Van  Cortlandt  Terrace  and  Park  Hill 
(adjoining  Riverdale  in  the  borough  of  the  Bronx),  a  park- 
like reserve  with  winding  streets  and  drives.  The  business 
and  manufacturing  districts  occupy  the  low  iands  along  the 
river.  Among  the  public  buildings  are  the  City  Hall,  the  High 
School  and  a  Manual  Training  School,  and  Yonkers  is  the  scat 
of  St  Joseph's  Theological  Seminary  (Roman. Catholic;  X896), 
the  Halsted  School  (founded  X874)  for  girls,  and  a  business 
college.  It  has  a  good  public  library  (established  1893;  ss^ooo 
vols,  in  X9X0),  and  the  Woman's  Institute  (x88o)  and  the  Holly- 
wood Inn  Club  (1897;  for  working-men)  have  smaU  libraries. 
Philipse  Manor  Hall,  built  originally  about  X682  as  the  mansion 
of  the  son  of  Frederick  Philipse  (1626^x702),  the  lord  of 
Philipsburgh,  and  enlarged  to  its  present  dimensions  in  X745, 
is  of  some  historic  interest.  It  was  confiscated  by  act  of  the 
legislature  in  X779  because  its  owner,  Frederick  Phih'pse  (1746- 
1785)1  was  suqoected  of  Toryism,  and  was  sold  in  X789.  In  X867 
it  passed  into  the  possession  of  Yonkers,  and  from  1873  to  1908 
was  used  as  the  city  halL  In  1908  it  was  bought  by  the  state, 
and  is  now  maintained  as  a  museum  for  ooUnual  and  revolu- 
tionary relite.  It  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  colonial  archi- 
tecture in  America.  In  the  square  before  it  stands  a  monument 
to  the  soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  Civil  War.  Yonkers  is  as 
important  manufacturing  city,  and  in  X905  the  value  of  its 
factory  products  was  $33,548,688. 

On  the  site  of  Yonkers  stood  an  Indian  village  knowiyas 
Nappeckamack,  or  town  of  the  rapid  water,  at  the  time -of 
the  settlement  of  the  Dutch  in  New  Amsterdam;  and  a  great 
rock,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ncpperhan  Creek,  was  long  a  place 
of  Indian  worship.  The  territory  was  part  of  the  "  ir^Vftfki«-k 
purchase,"  acquired  from  the  Indians  by  the  Dutch  W.  India 
Company  in  X639.  ^  1^4^  ^®  t*^^  *^  included  in  the  grant 
to  Adrian  van  der  Donck,  the  first  lawyer  and  historian  of 
New  Netherland,  author  of  A  Description  of  New  Netkerland 
(X656),  in  Dutch.  His  grant,  known  as  "Colen  Donck" 
(Donck's  Colony),  embraced  all  the  country  from  Spnyten 
Du'yvfl  Creek,  N*  akmg  the  Hudson  to  the  Amackassin  Creek, 
and  £.  to  the  Bronx  river.  Some  squatters  settled  here  before 
1646.  Van  der  Donck  encounged  others  to  remove  to  his  lands 
along  the  Hudson  river,  and  in  1649  he  built  a  saw-viill  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Nei^rhan  Creek,  whidi  for  many  years  was 
called  "  Saw-Mill  river."  The  whole  settlement  soon  came  to 
be  called  "  De  Jonkheer's  Land  "  or  "  De  Jonkheers  "—meaning 
the  estate  of  the  young  lord,  .as  Van  der  Donck  wia  called  by 


YONNE— YORCK  VON  WARTENBURG 


923 


his  tenantft^and  afterwatds  Yonken.  Subsequently  the  tract 
passed  largely  into  the  hands  of  Frederick  Thilipse  and  became 
part  of  the  manor  of  Philipsburgh.  Early  in  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence Yoakers  was  occupied  for  a  time  by  |>art  of  Washing- 
ton's army,  and  iras  the  scene  of  several  skirmishes.  The 
town  of  Yonkers  was  incoiporated  in  1788  and  the  village 
in  1855.  In  1879  Yonkers  became  a  city;  at  the  same  time 
the  southern  part  'was  separately  incorporated  as  Kingsbridge, 
which  in  1874  was  annexed  to  New  York.  ;^ 

See  Frederic  Shonnard  and  W.  W.  Spooner.  History  of  Wat- 
Chester    County    (New   York,    1900):   J.   T.    Scharf,    History   of 
WesUhester  County  (New  York,   iSw);  and  Allison,  HiOory  of 
YoBkers  (New  York,  1896). 
•    '  '      ji        ■'         .  •      . 

-  TONNE,  a 'department  of  central  France,  formed  partly 
from  th«  province  of  Champagne  proper  (with  its  depend- 
encies, S^nonais  and  Tonnerrois),  partly  from  Burgimdy 
proper  (with  its  dependencies,  the  county  of  Auxerre  and 
AvaQonnais)  and  partly  from  G&tinais  (OrI£anais  and  tle-de- 
France).  It  is  bounded  by  Aube  on  the  N.E.,  C6te-d'C)r  on 
the  S.E.,  Ni^vre  on  the  S.,  Loiret  on  the  W.  and  Seine-et- 
Mame  on  the  N.W.  Fop.  (1906)  315,199.  Area,  2880  sq.  m. 
The  highest  elevation  (2000  ft.)  is  in  the  granitic  highlands  of 
Morvan,  in  the  SX.,  where  other  peaks  range  from  1300  to 
1600  ft.  The  department  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Seine, 
except  a  small  district  in  the  S.W.  (Puisayc),  which  belongs  to 
that  of  the  Loire.  The  river  Yonne  flows  through  it  from 
S.  to  N.N.W.,  receiving  on  the  right  bank  the  Cure,  the  Serein 
and  the  Armangon,  which  water  the  S.E.  of  the  department. 
Farther  N.  it  is  jomed  by  the  Vanne,  between  which  and  the 
Armancon  lies  the  forest-dad  plateau  of  the  Pays  d'Othe.  7o 
the.  W.  of  the  Yonne,  in  the  Puisaye,  are  the  sources  of  the 
Loing,  another  tributary  of  the  Seine,  and  of  its  affluents,  the 
Ouanne  and  the  Lunain.  Thfe  Yonne  is  navigable  throughput 
the  department,  and  is  connected  with  the  Loire  by  the  canal 
of  Nivemais,  which  in  turn  is  connected  with  that  of  Briare, 
which  connects  the  Seine  and  the  Loire.  The  climate  is  tem- 
perate, except  i^  the  Morvan,  where  the  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold  are  greater,  and  where  the  rainfall  is  most  abundant. 
The  prevailing  winds  areS.W.  and  W. 

The  department  h  enentiany  agricultural.  Wheat  and  oats 
are  the  chiiHf  oeieaU;  potatoes,  eumr-beet,  lucerne,  mangold- 
wursel  and  other  forage  planta  are  alao  cultivated,  aiid  there  is 
much  good  pasture. 

The  vineyards  of  the  Tonnerrofs  and  Auxcrrols  produce  the 
6nest  red  wines  of  lower  Burgundy,  and  those  of  Chablis  the  finest 
white.  The  wine  of  the  C6te  St  jacquea  (Joigny)  is  also  highly 
esteemed.  Ci4er-du>p1es  aie  the  chief  fruit.  Chamy  is  a  rantre 
for  the  rearing  of  horses.  Forests  cover  considerable  areas  of  the 
department  and  consist  chiefly  of  oak,  beech,  hornbeam,  elm.  ash, 
birch  and  pine.  Quarry  products  indude  buildtng-stone,  ochre 
and  cement.  AdM>ng  toe  industrial  establishments  are  tanneries, 
tilc-workSf  taw-mills  and  breweries,  but  there  is  little  manufac- 
turing activity.  Cercak,  wines,  firewood,  charcoal,  ochre  and  bark 
are  exported. 

The  department  Is  served  chiefly  by  the  Paris-Lyon  railway. 
The  canal  of  Burgundy,  which  follows  the  vaUcv  of  the  Armangon, 
has  a  length  <A  57  m.  in  the  department,  that  of  Nivemais,  following 
the  valley  of  the^  Yonne,  a  length  of  3A  m.  The  department  con- 
stitutes the  archie^iscopal  diocese  ot  Bens,  has  its  court  of  appeal 
in  Paris,  its  educational  centre  at  Dijon,  and  belongs  to  the  district 
of  the  V.  army  corps.  It  is  divided  into  five  arrondissements  (57 
cantons,  486  communes),  of  which  the  capitals  are  Auxerre,  also 
capital  of  the  department,  Avallon,  Sens,  Joigny  and  Tonnerrc, 
which  with  those  of  Chablis,  St  Florcntln  and  Vczclay  are  its  most 
noteworthy  towns  and  are  treated  separately.  Yonne  Is  rich  in 
objects  of  antiqnarian  and  architectural  interest.  At  Pontigny 
there  is  a  Ctatcrcian  abbey,  where  Thomas  Becket  qsent  two  years 
of  his  exile.  Its  church  is  an  excellent  type  of  the  Cistercian 
architecture  of  the  12th  century.  The  fine  I2th<cntuiy  chAteau 
of  Druyes,  which  stands  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  village,  once 
belonged  to  the  counts  of  Auxerre  and  Nevcis.  Villeneuve-sur- 
Yonne  has  a  medieval  keep  and  gateways  and  a  church  of  the 
13th  and  i6th  centuries.  The  Renaissance  ch&teaux  of  Fleurigny, 
Ancy-le-FFanoe  and  Tanlaj^,  the  last-named  for  some  time  the 
property  of  the  Coligny  family,  and  the  ch&teau  of  St  Fargeau,  of 
the  I3tn  century,  rebuilt  by  Mademoiselle  de  Montpensier  uiKfcr 
Louis  XIV.,  are  all  architecturally  remarkable.  At  S»  Mor6  there 
Atie  remaina  of  the  Roman  toad  uom  Lyona  to  Gallia  Belgica  and 
of  a  Roman  fortified  post. 


YOtiCR  voir  WARnNBURO,    HANS    DAVID    UfDWIO, 

Count  (1759-1830),  Prussian  general  field-marshal,  was  of  Eng- 
lish ancestry.  He  entered  the  Prussian  army  in  1772,  but  after 
seven  years'  service  was  cashiered  for  disobedience.  Entering 
the  Dutch  service  three  years  later  he  took  part  in  the  operations 
of  1783-84  in  the  East  Indies  as  captain.  Returning  to  Prussia 
in  1785  he  was,  on  the  death  of  Frederick  the  Great,  reinstated 
in  his  old  service,  and  in  1794  took  part  in  the  operations  in 
Poland,  distinguishing  himsdf  especially  at  Szekoczyn.  Five 
years  afterwards  Yorck  began  to  make  a  name  for  himself  as 
commander  of  a  light  infantry  regiment,  being  one  of  the  first 
to  give  prominence  to  the  training  of  skirmishers.  In  1805 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  an  Infantry  brigade,  and 
in  the  disastrous  Jena  campalj^  he  played  a  conspicuous  and 
successful. part  as  a  rearguard  commander,  especially  at  Alten- 
zaun.  He  was  taken  prisoner,  severely  wounded,  in  the  lost 
stand  of  BlQcher's  corps  at  LQbeck.  In  the  reorganization  of 
the  Prussian  arm/  wl^ch  follow^  the  peace  of  Ulsit,  Yorck 
was  one  of  the  leading  figures.  At  first  major-general  com- 
manding the  West  Prussian  brigade,  afterwards  inspector- 
general  of  light  infantry,  he  was  finally  appointed  second  in 
command  to  General  Grawert,  the  leader  of  the  auxiliary  corps 
which  Prussia  was  compelled  to  send  to  the  Russian  War  of 
x8ia.  The  two  generals  did  not  agree,  Grawert  being  an  open 
partisan  of  the  French  aUlance,  and  Yorck  an  ardent  patriot; 
but  before  long  Grawert  retired,  and  Yorck  assumed  the  com- 
mand. Opposed  in  his  advance  on  Riga  by  the  Russian  General 
Steingdl,  he  di^>Iayed  great  skill  in  a  series  of  combats  which 
ended  in  the  retirement  of  the  enemy  to  Riga.  Throughout 
the  fftmpaign  he  had  been  the  object  of  many  overtures  from 
the  enemy's  generals,  and  though  he  had  hitherto  rejected  them, 
it  was  soon  borne  in  upon  him  that  the  Grand  Army  was 
doomed.  Marshal  Jdacdonald,  his  immediate  French  superior, 
retreated  before  the  corps  of  Diebitsch,  and  Yorck  found  himself 
isolated.  As  a  soldier  his  duty  was  to  break  through,  but  as 
a  Prussian  patriot  his  position  was  more  difficult.  He  had  to 
judge  whether,  the  moment  was  favourable  for  the  war  of 
liberation;  and,  whatever  might  be  the  enthusiasm  of  his 
junior  staff-officers,  Yorck  had  no  illusions  as  to  the  safety  of 
his  own  h^d.  On  December  30th  the  general  made  up  his 
mind.  The  Convention  of  Tauroggen  "  neutralized  "  the 
Prussian  corps.  The  newa  was  received  with  the  wildest  enthu- 
siasm, but  the  Prussian  Court  dared  not  yet  throw  off  the 
mask^  and  an  order  was  despatched  suspending  Yor(;)c  from 
his  command  pending'  a  court-martiaL  Diebitsch  refused  to 
let  the  bearer  pass  through  his  lines,  and  the  general 
was  finally  nbsolved.  when  the  *  treaty  of  Kalisch  definitely 
ranged  Prussia  on  the  side*  of  the  Allies.  Yorck's  act  was 
nothing  less  than  the  turning-point  of  Prussian  history.  His 
veterana  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  forces  of  East  Prussia, 
and  Yorck  himself  in  public  took  the  final  step  by  declaring 
war  as  the  commander  of  those  forces.  On  March  17th,  1813, 
he  made  his  entry  into  Berlin  In  th&  midst  of  the  wildest 
exuberance  of  patriotic  joy.  On  the  same  day  the  king  declared 
war.  During  18x3-14  Yorck  led  his  veterans  with  conspicuous 
success.  He  covered  BlQcher's'  retreat  after  Bautzen  and  took 
a  decisive  part  in  the  battles  on  the  Katzbach.  In  the  advance 
on  Leipzig  his  corps  won  the  action  of  Wartenburg  (October  4) 
and  took  part  in  the  crowning  victory  of  October  i8th.  In 
the  campaign  in  France  Yorck  drew  off  the  shattered  rtm- 
nants  of  Sacken'i  corps  at  Montmirail,  and  decided  the  day 
at  Laon.  The  storm  of  Paris  was  his  last  fight.  In  the  cam- 
paign of  181 5  none  of  the  older  men  were  employed  in  BlQchcr^s 
army,  in  order  that  Gncisenau  (the  ablest  of  the  Prussian 
generals)  might  be  free  to  assume  command  In  case  of  the  old 
prince's  death.  Yorck  was  appointed  to  a  reserve  corps  in  Prussid, 
and,  feeling  that  his  services  were  no  longer  required,  he  retired 
from  the  army.  His  master  would  not  aqrept  his  resignation 
for  a  considerable  time,  and  in  1821  made  him  genera!  field- 
marshal.  He  had  been  made  Count  Yorck  von  Wartenburi; 
in  1S14.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  on  his  estate  of 
Klein-OI?,  the  gift  of  the  king.    He  died  there  on  the  4th  of 


YQREDALE  SERIES— YORK  (HOUSE  OF) 


92+ 

October  183a    A  statue  (by  Ranch)  was  erected  to  .him  in 
Berlin  in  iSss. 

See  Seydlitz^  Tajjtbitcfi  dts  Prtussuchtn  ArnutKorps  xSi2  (Berlin. 
1833):  Droyaen.  Leben  d4S  C.  P,  M»  Grqfen  Yorch  wm  Wartenbwg 
(Berlin,  1851). 

TORBDALB  8BRIBS,  in  geology,  a  local  phase  of  the  lower 
Carboniferous  rocks  of  the  N.  of  England.  The  name' was 
introduced  by  J.  PhQlips  on  account  Of  the  typical  develop- 
ment of  the  phase  in  Yoredale  (Wensleydale),  Yorkshire.  In 
the  Yorkshire  dales  the  Carboniferous  rocks  assume  an  aspect 
very  different  from  that  which  obtains  in  the  S.  Beds  of 
detrital  sediment,  sandstones,  shales  and.  occasional  ironstones 
and  thin  coals  separate  the  limestones  into  well-defined  beds. 
These  limestone  beds  have  received  various  names  of  local 
significance  (Hardraw  Scar,  Simonstone,  Middle,  Underset, 
Main  and  many  others),  and  owing  to  the  country  being  little 
disturbed  by  faulting  and  being  much  cut  up  by  the  streams, 
they  stand  out  as  escarpments  on  either  ade  of  the  valleys. 
The  first  indication  of  the  intercalation  of  thick  detrital  deposits 
within  the  massive  limestone  is  seen  in  Ingleborough  and  Peny- 
ghent;  but  as  the  rocks  are  traced  N.  the  detrital  matter 
increases  in  quantity  and  the  limestones  diminish,  till  in  North- 
umberland the  whole  Carboniferous  series  assumes  the  Yoredale 
phase,  and  consists  of  alternations  of  detrital  and  calcareous 
beds,  no  massive  limestone  being  seen. 

The  Yoredale  limestones  aie  characterised  by  the  presence  of 
Produeiustiganieus  and  the  brachiopod  fauna  usually  associated 
with  it.  The  main  limestone  of  Weaniale  is  full  of  corata,  including 
LonsdaUia  floriformis,  DibunopkjUum  sp..  Cydophyllum  packyen" 
dolhuum,  &c.,  and  has  a  tvpical  Viadan  fauna;  it  would  therefore 
correspond,  palaeontologicaiiy,  with  the  upper  part  of  the  Carboni- 
ferous Limestone  of  I>erby8hire.  On  Inffleborougfa  the  Unwstones 
are  not  very  foasiliferous,  but  the  Main  Ximestone  contains  small 
corals  of  a  zaphrentoid  type  and  an  upper  Visdan  fauna.  Post- 
dtmomya  Becheri  occurs  fairly  low  down  m  the  series  in  the  Shale 
above  the  Hardraw  Scar  and  Gayte  limestones,  but  it  is  not  accom- 

eanied  by  any  of  the  goniatites  or  other  cephalopods  and  lamelli- 
ranchs  which  characterize  the  Posidammya  Becheri  beds  of  the 
Pendleside  Series,  the  faunas  of  the  Yoredale  and  Pendleaide  phases 
being  very  distinct.  The  Red  Bed  Limestone  of  Leyburn,  the  upper- 
most limestone' of  the  series,  is  very  rich  in  fish  remains,  which  are 
identical  in  many  cases  with  those  found  in  the  topmost  beds  of 
the  massive  Carboniferous  Limestone  at  Bolt  Edge  quarry  in 
Derbyshire.  The  shales  between  the  limestones  are  rich  an  fossils 
and  contain  abundant  single  corals  referable  to  Zaphrentis  enniskU- 
leni,  Cycloph^um  pachwndothecum  and  others;  these,  though 
high*n>nal  forms,  occur  low  down  in  the  Yoredale  strata;  eveft  m 
the  shale  above  the  Hardraw  Scar  limestone.  In  the  Derbyshire 
area  and  farther  N.  these  corals  would  indicate  the  uppermost  beds , 
of  the  limestone  series  of  those  districts,  and  their  early  appearance 
in  the  Yoredale  area  is  probably  entirely  due  to  conditions  of 
environment.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  correlate  rocks  in  a 
number  of  widely  separated  areas  with  the  Yoredale  strata,  but 
on  wholly  insuf5cient  grounds.  It  is  clear  that  the  exact  relation- 
ship which  the  Yoredale  series  of  the  type  area  bean  as  a  whole 
to  the  lower  Carboniferous  rocks  of  the  Midlands,  N.  and  S.  Wales, 
&c.,  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  Pendleade  series  on  the  other, 
has  yet  to  be  estabUsbed  on  a  firm  palaeontologicat  basis. 

See  Mem.  Geol.  Survey,  "Geology  of  Mallerstang  " ;  W.  Hind, 
Proc.  Yorks.  Ceol.  and  Poly.  Soc.  T1902),  riv.  part  iii. ;  and  Rep. 
BrU.  Ass.,  "  Life  Zones  Brit.  Carb.  Rocks  "  (1901). 

YORK  (House  of),  a  royal  line  in  England,  founded  by 
Richard,  duke  of  York  (g.v.),  who  claimed  the  crown  in  opposi- 
tion to  Henry  VI.  It  may  be  said  that  his  claim,  at  the  time 
it  was  advanced,  was  rightly  barred  by  prescription,  the  house 
of  Lancaster  having  then  occupied  the  throne  for  three  genera- 
tions, and  that  it  was  really  owing  to  the  misgovemment  of 
Margaret  of  Anjou,  and  her'  favourites  that  it  was  advanced  at 
all.  Yet  it  was  founded  upon  strict  principles  of  lineal  descent. 
For  the  duke  was  descended  from  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  the 
third  son  of  Edward  III.,  while  the  house  of  Lancaster  came  of 
John  of  Gaunt,  a  younger  brother  of  Lionel.  One  thing  which 
might  possibly  have  been  considered  an  element  of  weakness 
in  his  claim  was  that  it  was  derived  (see  the  Tabic)  through 
females — an  objection  actually  brought  against  it  by  Chief- 
Justice  Fortescue.  But  a  succession  through  females  could  not 
reasonably  have  been  objected  to  after  Edward  HI.'s  claim  to 
the  crown  of  France;  and,  apart  from  strict  legality,  the  duke's 
claim  was  probably  supported  in  the  popular  estimation  by  the 


fact  that  he  was  descended  from  Edward  III.  through  his  fttthcr 
no  less  than  through  his  mother.  For  his  father,  Richard,  eazl 
of  Cambridge,  was  the  son  of  Edmund,  duke  of  Yock«  fifth 
son  of  Edward  III.;  and  he  himself  was  the  direct  lineal  heir 
of  this  Edmund,  just  as  much  as  he  was  of  Lionel,  duke  of 
Clarence.  His  claim  was  also  favoured  by  the  amimubtinn  of 
hereditaiy  titles  and  estates.  The  earldom  of  Ulster,  the  old 
inheritance  of  the  DeBuighs,had  descended  to  him  JErom  JJaad, 
duke  of  Clarence;  the  earldom  of  March  came  from  the  Morti- 
mers, and  the  dukedom  of  York  and  the  earldom  of  Cambridge 
from  his  paternal  ancestry.  Moreover,  his  own  marriage  with 
Cecily  KevUle,  though  she  was  but  Uie  youngest  danghfrr  of 
Ralph,  zst  earl  of  Westmoriand,  allied  him  to  a  poweifal  fiamiljr 
in  th^  north  of  England,  to  whose  support,  both  he  and  his  900 
were  greatly  indebted. 

The  reasons  why  the  claims  of  the  line  of  Clarence  had  been 
so  long  forborne  are  not  difficult  to  exphiin.  Roger  Moitizner, 
4th  earl  of  March,  was  designated  by  Richard  II.  as  his  suc^ 
cessor;  but  he  died  the  year  before  Richard  was  dethroned,  and 
his  son  Edmund,  the  5th  earl,  was  a  child  at  Henry  IV.'s  usmpa- 
tlon.  Hcniy  took  care  to  secure  his  person;  but  the  claims  ol 
the  family  troubled  the  whole  of  his  own  and  the  beginning  of 
his  son's  reign.  It  was  an  uncle  of  this  Edmund  who  took  pan 
with  Owen  Glendower  and  the  Percies;  and  for  advocatinig  the 
cause  of  Edmund  Archbishop  Scrape  was  put  to  death.  And 
it  was  to  put  the  crown  on  Edmund's  head  that  his  brother-in- 
law  Richard,  earl  of  Cambridge,  conspired  against  Hcniy  V. 
soon  after  his  accession.  The  plot  was  detected,  being  xerealed, 
it  is  said,  by  the  earl  of  March  himself,  Yfho  does  not  appear  to 
have  given  it  any  encouragement;  the  earl  of  Cambridge  was 
beheaded.  The  popularity  gained  by  Henry  V.  in  his  French 
campaigns  secured  the  weak  title  of  the  house  of  Lancaster 
against  further  attack  for  forty  years.- 

Richard,  duke  of  York,  seems  to  have  taken  warning  by  his 
father's  fate;  but,  after  seeking  for  many  years  to  correct  by 
other  means  the  weakness  of  Henry  VI.'s  government,  he  first 
took  up  arms  against  the  ill  advisers  who  were  his  own  personal 
enemies,  and  at  length  claimed  the  crown  in  pariiament  as  his 
right.  The  Lords,  or  such  of  them  as  did  not  purposely  stay 
away  from  the  House,  admitted  that  his  claim  was  unimpeach- 
able, but  suggested  as  a  compromise  that  Henzy  should  retain 
the  crown  for  life,  and  the  duke  and  his  heirs  succeed  after  his 
death.  This  was  accepted  by  the  duke,  and  an  act  to  that 
effect  received  Henry's  own  assent.  But  the  act  was  repudiated 
by  Margaret  of  Anjou  and  her  f<^owers,  and  the  duke  was  slain 
at  Wakefield  fighting  against  them.  In  little  more  than  two 
months,  however,  his  son  was  proclaimed  king  at  London  by  the 
title  of  Edward  IV.,  and  the  bloody  victory  of  Towton  imme- 
.diatcly  after  drove  his  enemies  into  exile  and  paved  the  way  for 
his  coronation.  After  his  recovery  of  the  thnme  in  1471  he  had 
little  more  to  fear  from  the  rivalry  of  the  house  ot  Lancaster. 
But  the  seeds  of  distrust  had  already  been  sown  among  the 
members  of  his  own  family,  and  in  1478  his  brother  Clarence  was 
pot  to  death— secretly,  indeed,  within  the  Tower,  but  stili  by 
his  authority  and  that  of  paiiiament~as  a  traitor*  In  1483 
Edward  himself  died;  and  his  eldest  son,  Edward  V.,  after  a 
nominal  reign  of  two  months  and  a  half,  was  put  aside  by  his 
unde,  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  who  became  Richard  III.,  and 
then  caused  him  and  his  brother  Richard,  duke  of  York,  to  be 
murdered.  But  in  little  more  than  two  years  Richard  was  slafn 
at  Bosworth  by  the  earl  of  Richmond,  who,  being  proclaimed 
king  as  Henry  VII.,  shortly  afterwards  fulfilled  his  pledge  to 
marry  the  eldest  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  and  so  unite  the 
houses  of  York  and  Lancaster. 

Here  the  dynastic  history  of  the  house  of  York  ends,  for  its 
claims  were  henceforth  merged  in  those  of  the  house  of  Tudor. 
But,  although  the  union  of  the  Roses  ought  to  have  extinguished 
controversy,  a  host  of  debatable  questions  and  plausiMe  pie- 
texts  for  rebellion  remained.  The  legitimacy  of  Edward  IV.'s 
children  had  been  denied  by  Richard  III.  and  his  parfa'amcnt, 
and,  though  the  act  was  denounced  as  scandalous*  the  slander 
might  itill  he  reasaeitod.    Tbt  duke  of  daiance  bad  left  two 


YORK,  EDMUND  OF  LANGLEY,  DUKE  OF 

Gbnealogxcal  Tabls  op  thx  Housb  or  York 

BdwudllL 


9*5 


Ricbudn. 


WOha 
or  Hatfield 
(diedyouaO. 


T 


Uaad.  •  EKnbcth.  d.  of 
duke  of  I  WflliaJii  de  Bargb, 
darence.  I      ead  of  Ulrtcr. 

Edmiiad  Mortimer,  "fhrnapt. 
tbicdMrioCliaich.  j 

Kortcr  M<Hf  fcoer,    ^VUaaot  RoHand, 
louitliMrlofMaidL  I  eldest  dufhtcrol 
I  Thoaus,  noopd 
1    CMlofKnZr 


J<Ao  of  Qumt, 
duke  of  Laocastir. 


T 


I 


Edimind, 
AikeofYork. 


TV, 


ofWoodrtodc, 
dolte  of  Okwetrtw; 


B( 


IcurV. 


Edmtd. 
4akc«fYadL 


RcditVL 

Edward. 
priKcotWalBL 


aiiadl 


Xdmiiad'MortiaMr. 
erthcariofMaitb. 


Ame  Moctincr'RiGfaafd.  eail 


WiUaa 
ofWiodaar 
(dkd: 


1 


flfCamM^ 


(ewciitad  I4IS)' 


EdMnI 


Ar.frf. 


m83). 


Edward  V. 
(anmkttd  14SD. 


RidLtl. 

duke  of  York 

(awdend  14815). 


Georn.  doke  of  Oaraioi^ 
(attaioted  14781). 


Edward. 
cari  of  Warwkk 
(executed  1499J' 


T 


,       Richaitl  lit 
QJied  h  battk  X4SSX 

Edward, 
pdaeeofWSdcs 


CecQsr  NevDe,  daaifatcr  of -Rieliaid.  duke  of  Yolk 
Xalph,  earl  of  WcsimorelaAd.  I  (killed  la  battle  1460). 


Anne,  OHmned  Henry  Holland,  duke  of 
Exeter,  and  bad  no  chOd  by  bin.  By 
her  aecood  busfaand.  Sir  Thomas  St 
Lcger  3be  had  adaughter  narrhd  to  Sir 
Gca  Maimen.  Lord  Root,  and  notber 
of  the  firtt  eari  of  Rutland. 


1 

EQxibetb-Johii  de  k  Falc. 
dnbeof  SnflUk 
(d>  >4ei)' 


Manearrt.  -Sir  Rkliaid  Pbfe 

eaanteu  of  Salhboiy 
(executed  1541) 


r 


John  de  la  Pole, 

carlofLlocob 

U.  S487>. 


J 


Edmund 
dalaPolt 
(if.  131A). 


Humphrey  and 

Edward. 

cbiBcbmeq. 


RIcbard 
4klaPala 


Four 


RcsinaMPoK 
caidiani. 


Henry  Pole,  Sir  Geoffrey  Pole,  Aftbor  Polt. 

Lord  Montague  of  Lordingtoo, 

(aaocuted  iSMU  Sunex. 

Five  sons  and  one  daughter.    Amonc  the  former  were 
Arthur  and  Edmund,  wno  were  priwoeo  in  the  Tower. 

children,  a  son  and  a  daughter,  and  ibe  attainder  of  thdr  father 
could  not  be  a  greater  bar  to  the  crown  than  the  attainder  of 
Henry  VII.  himself.  Seeing  this,  Henry  had,  immediately 
after  his  victory  at  Bosworth,  secured  the  person  of  the  son, 
Edward,  earl  of  Warwick,  and  kept  him  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower 
of  London.  Yet  a  formidable  rebellion  was  raised  in  his  behalf 
by  means  oi  Lambert  Simnel,  who  was  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Stoke  in  1487.  The  earl  of  Warwick 
Jived  for  twelve  years  later  in  unjust  confinement,  and  was 
ultimately  put  to  death  in  1499  because  he  had  consented  to  a 
plot  for  his  own  liberation.  As  to  his  sister  Margaret,  she  was 
married  to  one  of  Henry  VIL's  Welsh  followers,  Sir  Richard 
Pole  (or  Poole),  and  could  give  no  trouble,  so  that,  when  Henry 
VUI.  came  to  the  throne,  he  thought  it  politic  to  treat  her  with 
kindness.  He  made  her  countess  of  Salisbury,  reversed  her 
brother's  attainder,  created  her  eldest  son,  Henry,  Lord  Mon-> 
tague,  and  caused  one  of  her  younger  sons,  Reginald,  who  dis- 
played much  taste  for  learning,  to  be  carefxilly  nlucated.  This, 
however,  was  the  very  thing  which  involved  the  whole  family  in 
ruin.  For  Henry  looked  to  the  learning  and  abilities  of  Reginald 
Pole  to  vindicate  before  Europe  the  justice  of  his  divorce  from 
Catherine  of  Aragon;  and,  when  Pole  was  conscientiously 
compelled  to  declare  the  very  opposite,  the  king's  indignation 
knew  no  bounds.  Pole  himself  was  safe,  having  secured  some 
time  before  a  retreat  in  Italy.  He  was  even  made  a  cardinal  by 
the  pope.  But  this  only  made  matters  worse  for  his  family 
at  home:  his  brother.  Lord  Montague,  and  even  his  mother,  the 
aged  countess  of  Salisbury,  were  beheaded  as  traitors  because 
they  had  continued  to  correspond  with  him.  Cardinal  Pole, 
however,  came  back  to  his  own  country  with  great  honour 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary,  and  was  made  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury on  the  deprivation  of  Cranmer. 

•  Early  in  the  rdgn  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  two  nephews  of  the 
cardinal,  Arthur  and  Edmund  Pole,  being  ardent  young  men, 
conspired  to  go  over  to  the  duke  of  Guise  in  France,  hoping  to' 
return  with  an  army  into  Wales  and  so  promote  the  daims  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  to  the  crown  of  England,  for  which  service 
Ihe  elder,  Arthur,  expected  to  be  restored  to  the  dukedom  of 
Clarence.  The  result  was  that  they  were  condemned  to  death, 
but  were  only  imprisoned  for  the  rest  of  their  days  in  the  Tower, 
where  they  both  carved  inscriptions  on  the  walls  of  their  dungeon, 
which  are  still  visible  in  the  Beauchamp  tower. 
Another  branch  of  the  house  of  York  mgjui  have  given  trouble 


rcie 


Unula,  married  to  Heniy, 
Lard  Stafford,  nn  of 
Edward,  duke  of  Bixk- 


to  the  Tadors  if  they  had  not  been  narrowly  watched  and  ulti« 
mately  extinguished.  Of  the  sisters  of  Edward  IV.,  the  eldest, 
Anne,  who  married  the  duke  of  Exeter,  left  only  one  daughter 
by  her  second  husband.  Sir  Thomas  St  Li^r;  but  the  second, 
Elizabeth,  married  John  de  la  Pole,  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  had 
several  children,  llieir  eldest  son  was  created  earl,  of  Lincoln 
during  his  father's  Ufe,  and  Richard  HI.,  after  the  death  of  his 
own  son,  had  designated  him  aa  his  successor.  Disappointed  d 
a  kingdom  by  the  success  of  Henry  VU.,  he  joined  in  Simnel's 
rebellion  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Stoke.  His  brother 
Edmund  thus  became  heir  to  his  father;  but  in  the  reduced 
circumstances  of  the  family  he  agreed  to  forbear  the  title  of  duke 
and  take  that  of  eari  of  Suffolk.  He  continued  for  some  yean 
in  favour  with  the  king,  who  made  him  a  knight  of  the  Garter; 
but,  having  killed  a  man  in  a  passion,  he  fled  abroad  and  was 
entertained  at  the  court  of  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and  after^ 
wards  at  that  of  Philip,  king  of  Castile,  when  resident  in  the  Low 
Countries  before  his  departure  for  Spain.  Philip,  having  been 
driven  on  the  English  coast  when  going  to  take  possession  of  his 
Spanish  kingdom,  was  entertained  at  Windsor  by  Henry  VII., 
to  whom  he  promised  to  deliver  up  the  fugitive  on  condition 
that  his  life  should  be  spared.  Edmund  de  la  Pole  accordingly 
was  brought  back  to  England  and  lodged  in  the  Tower.  Though 
the  promise  to  spare  his  h'fe  was  kept  by  the  king  who  gave  it, 
his  son  Henry  VIII.  caused  him  to  be  executed  in  15x3,  when 
war  broke  out  with  France,  apparently  for  treasonable  corre- 
spondence with  his  brother  RicJiard,  then  In  the  French  service. 
After  his  death  Richard  de  la  Pole,  remaining  in  exile,  called 
himself  earl  of  Suffolk,  and  was  flattered  occasionally  by 
Francis  I.  with  faint  hopes  of  the  crown  of  England.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Pavia  in  1535.  There  were  no  more  De 
la  Poles  who  could  advance  even  the  most  shadowy  pretensions 
to  disturb  the  Tudor  dynasty.  (J.  Ga.) 

YORK.  EDMUND  OF  LANGLEY,  Duke  of  (z34z-x4oa),  fifth 
son  of  Edward  III.,  was  bom  at  King's  Langley  in  Hertford- 
shire.on  the  5th  of  June  X54Z.  He  accompanied  his  father  on  a 
campaign  m  France  in  1359,  was  created  earl  of  Cambridge  in  . 
X362,  and  took  part  in  expeditions  to  France  and  Spain,  being 
present  at  the  sack  of  lamoges  in  1370.  After  marrying  Isabella 
(d.  1393),  daughter  of  Peter  the  Cnid,  king  of  Castile,  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  En^ish  lieutenants  in  Brittany,  whither  he 
led  an  army  in  1375.  A  second  campaign  in  Brittany  was 
followed  in  1381  by  azi  expedition  under  the  earl's  leadership  to 


926 


YORK,  DUKES  OF 


aid  Ferdinand*  king  of  Portugal,  in  his  struggle  with  John  I., 
king  of  Caslile;  but  after  a  period  of  inaction  Edmund  was 
compelled  to  return  to  England  as  Ferdinand  had  concluded  an 
independent  peace  with  Castile.  Accompanying  Richard  II.  on 
his  march  into  Scotland,  he  was  created  duke  of  York  in  August 
13S5,  and  subsequently  mi  three  occasions  he  acted  as  regent  of 
England.  In  this  capacity  he  held  a  parliamrat  in  13Q5,  and  he 
was  again  serving  as  regent  when  Henry  of  Lancaster,  after- 
wards Henry  IV.,  landed  in  England  in  July  ijog.  After  a 
feeble  attempt  to  defend  the  interests  of  the  absent  king,  York 
joined  the  victorious  invader;  but  soon  retired  from  public  life, 
and,  in  the  words  of  Froissart  as  translated  by  I^rd  Bemers, 
"  laye  styU  in  his  castell,  and  medled  with  nothynge  of  the 
busynesse  of  Englande."  He  died  at  King's  Langley  on  the  ist 
of  August  X402.  York  was  a  man  who  preferred  pleasure  to 
business,  and  during  the  critical  events  of  his  nephew's  reign  he 
was  content  to  be  guided  by  his  more  ambitious  brothers,  the 
dukes  of  Lancaster  and  Gloucester.  His  second  wife  was  Joan, 
or  Johanna  (d.  1434),  daughter  of  Thomas  Holland,  earl  of 
Kent,  but  his  only  children  were  two  sons  and  a  daughter, 
Constance  (d.  14 16),  by  his  first  wife. 

YORK,  EDWARD,  Duke  of  {c.  1373-1415),  elder  son  pf  the 
preceding,  was  created  earl  of  Rutland  in  1390.  Being  an 
intimate  friend  of  his  cousin,  Richard  II.,  he  received  several 
important  appointments,  including  those  of  admiral  of  the  fleet, 
constable  of  the  tower  of  London  and  warden  of  the  Cinque 
Ports.  He  accompanied  the  king  to  Ireland  in  1394  and  was 
made  earl  of  Cork;  arranged  Richard's  marriage  with  Isabella, 
daughter  of  Charles  VI.  of  France;  and  was  one  of  the  king's 
most  active  helpers  in  the  proceedings  against  the  "lords 
appellant "  in  1397.  As  a  reward  he  secured  the  office  of  con- 
stable of  England  and  the  lands  in  Holdemess  which  had 
previously  belonged  to  his  murdered  uncle,  Thomas  of  Wood- 
stock, duke  of  Gloucester,  together  with  other  estates  and  the 
title  of  duke  of  Aumerle  or  Albemarle.  He  appears  to  have 
deserted  Richard  in  1399,  but  only  at  the  last  moment;  and  in 
Henry  IV.'s  first  parliament  he  was  vigorously  denounced  as  the 
murderer  of  Gloucester.  After  declaring  that  his  part  in  the 
proceedings  of  1397  had  been  performed  under  constraint,  his 
life  was  spared,  but  he  was  reduced  to  his  former  rank  as  carl  of 
Rutland,  and  deprived  of  his  recent  acquisitions  of  land.  It  is 
uncertain  what  share  Rutland  had  in  the  conspiracy  against 
Henry  IV.  in  January  X400,  but  his  complete  acquittal  by 
parliament  in  1401,  and  the  confidence  subsequently  reposed  in 
him  by  the  king,  point  to  the  conclusion  that  he  was  not  seriously 
involved.  Serving  as  the  royal  lieutenant  in  Aquitaine  and  in 
Wales,  Rutland,  who  became  duke  of  York  on  his  father's  death 
in  1402,  was,  like  all  Henry's  servants,  hampered  by  want  of 
money,  and  perhaps  began  to  feel  some  irritation  against  the 
king.  At  all  events  he  was  concerned  in  the  scheme,  concocted 
in  1405  by  his  sister,  Constance,  widow  of  Thomas  le  Despencer, 
earl  of  Gloucester,  for  seizing  the  young  earl  of  March,  and  his 
brother  Roger  Mortimer,  and  carrying  them  into  Wales.  On 
her  trial  Constance  asserted  that  her  brother  had  instigated  the 
plot,  which  also  included  the  murder  of  the  king,  and  York  was 
imprisoned  in  Pevensey  castle.  Released  a  few  months  later,  he 
was  restored  to  the  privy  council  and  regained  his  estates,  ajfter 
which  he  again  served  Henry  in  Wales  and  in  France.  York  led 
one  division  of  the  English  army  at  Agincourt,  where,  on  the 
asth  of  October  1415,  he  was  killed  by  "much  hete  and 
thronggid."  He  was  buried  in  Fotheringhay  church.  The 
duke  left  no  children  and  was  succeeded  as  duke  of  York  by  his 
nephew,  Richard. 

York  compiled  the  Maystre  of  the  Came,  a  treatise  on  hunting 
which  is  largely  a  translation  of  the  Livre  de  Chasse  of  Gaston  Phochus, 
count  of  Foix.  This  has  been  edited  by  W.  A.  and  F.  Baillie- 
Grohman  (1904). 

YORK,  FREDERICK  AUGUSTUS,  Duxe  or  (i763>i827), 
second  son  of  George  III.,  was  bom  at  St  James's  Palace  on  the 
i6th  of  August  1763.  At  the  age  of  six  months  his  father  secured 
his  election  to  the  rich  bishopric  of  OsnabrQck.  He  was  invested 
a  knight  of  the  Bath  in  1767,  a  K.G.  in  177 1,  and  was  gazetted 


>  colonel  in  1780.  From  1 781  to  1787  he  lived  in  Germany,  where 
he  attended  the  manotuvres  of  the  Austrian  and  Prussian  arrnks 
He  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  3nd  hone  grenadier  guards 
(now  and  Life  Guards)  in  1782,  and  promoted  major-general 
and  appointed  colonel  of  the  Coldstream  Guards  in  17&4.  He 
was  created  duke  of  York  and  Albany  and  earl  of  Ulster  in  17S4. 
but  retained  the  bishopric  of  Osnabruck  until  1803.  On  h^ 
return  10  England  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  where, 
on  December  i  Si  1786,  he  opposed  Pitt's  Regency  Bill  In  a  speech 
which  was  su[^x>sed  to  have  been  inspired  by  the  prince  of  Wales. 
A  duel  fought  on  Wimbledon  Common  wiih  Colonel  Lennox. 
afterwards  duke  of  Richmond,  served  to  increase  the  duke  of 
York's  popularity,  his  acceptance  of  the  challenge  itself  and  bis 
perfect  coolness  appealing  strongly  to  the  public  taste.  In  1791 
he  married  Princess  Frederica  Charlotte  Ulrica  Catheiina 
(b.  1767),  daughter  of  Frederick  William  II.  of  Prussia.  Tlie 
princess  was  enthusiastically  received  in  London,  but  the 
marriage  was  not  happy,  and  a  separation  soon  took  place.  Tbe 
princess  retired  to  Oatlands  Park,  Weybridge,  where  she  died 
on  the  6th  of  August  1820. 

In  1793  the  duke  of  York  was  sent  to  Flanders  in  command 
of  the  English  contingent  of  Coburg's  army  destined  for  the 
invasion  of  France  (see  French  Revolutionary  Wars)..  On 
his  return  in  1795  the  king  promoted  him  field-marshal,  and 
on  April  3rd,  1798,  appointed  him  commander-in-chief.  His 
second  command  was  with  the  army  sent  to  invade  Holland 
in  conjunction  with  a  Russian  corps  (Varmie  in  1799.  Sir  Ralph 
Abercromby  and  Admiral  Sir  Charles  Mitchell  in  charge  of  the 
vanguard  had  succeeded  in  capturing  the  Dutch  ships  in  the 
Helder,  but  from  time  of  the  duke's  arrival  with  the  main 
body  of  the  army  disaster  followed  disaster  until,  on  the  17th  of 
October,  the  duke  signed  the  convention  of  Alkmaar,  by  which 
the  allied  expedition  withdrew  after  giving  up  its  prisoners. 
Although  thus  unsuccessful  as  commander  of  a  field  army  the 
duke  was  well  fitted  to  carry  out  reforms  in  the  army  at  horoe^ 
and  to  this  task  he  devoted  himself  with  the  greatest  vigour  and 
success  until  his  enforced  retirement  from  the  office  of  com- 
mander-in-chief on  the  1 8th  of  March  1809,  in  consequence  of  his 
relations  with  Mary  Ann  Clarke  (17 76-1833),  who  was  convicted 
of  profiting  by  her  intimacy  with  the  duke  to  extract  money 
from  officers  by  promising  to  recommend  them  for  promotion. 
A  select  committee  was  appointed  by  the  House  of  Commons  to 
inquire  into  the  matter,  and  the  duke  was  acquitted  of  having 
received  bribes  himself  by  378  votes  to  196.  Two  years  later, 
in  May  x8ii,  he  was  again  placed  at  the  head  of  the  army  by  the 
prince  regent,  and  rendered  valuable  services  in  this  position. 
He  died  on  the  5th  of  January  1837  and  was  buried  at  St  George's 
Chapel,  Windsor. 

A  firm  friendship  seems  to  have  existed  between  the  duke  and  his 
elder  brother,  afterwards  George  IV.,  and  he  is  alsto  said  to  have 
been  his  father's  favourite  son.  He  was  very  popular,  thanks  to 
his  amiable  disposition  and  a  keen  love  of  sport,  but  it,  is  as  the 
organizing  and  administrative  head  of  the  army  that  he  has  left 
his  mark.  He  was  untiring  in  his  efforts  to  raise  the  tone  of  the 
army,  restore  discipline,  weed  out  the  undesirables,  and  suppres 
bribery  and  favountism.  He  founded  the  Duke  of  York's  School 
for  the  sons  of  soldiers  at  Chelsea,  and  his  name  is  also  com- 
memdrated  by  the  Duke  of  York's  column  in  Waterloo  Place. 

YORK,  RICHARD,  Duke  of  (1411-1460),  was  bom  on  the 
3ist  of  September  14 ti,  the  son  of  Richard,  earl  of  Cambridge, 
second  son  of  Edmund  of  Langley,  duke  of  York.  By  the  death 
of  his  uncle  Edward  at  Agincourt  he  became  duke  of  York,  and 
on  the  death  of  Edmund  Mortimer  in  1435  he  succeeded  to  his 
claims  as  representing  in  the  female  line  the  elder  branch  of 
the  royal  family.  He  had  been  kindly  treated  by  Henry  V., 
and  his  name  appears  at  the  head  of  the  knights  made  by  the 
little  Henry  VI.  at  Leicester  on  the  19th  of  May  1496.  York's 
first  service  was  in  France  during  1430  and  1431.  In  1432  he 
obtained  livery  of  his  lands  and  afterwards  went  over  to  Ireland 
to  take  possession  of  his  estates  there.  In  January  1436  he 
was  appointed  lieutenant-general  of  France  and  Normandy,  but 
did  not  enter  on  hb  command  till  June.  He  showed  vigour  and 
capacity,  and  recovered  F6camp  and  some  other  places  io 


YORK  (CtTY) 


987 


Kormandy.    Probably  be  was  not  supported  cordBally  by  tbe 
tiomc  government,  and  in  1437  applied  to  be  recalled.    One 
authority  alleges  that  his  council  Uiwarted  him  in  his  desire  to 
reUeve  Montereau,  because  he  had  been  discharged  from  his 
office  {Chronidts  of  London,  143).    York  returned  to  England 
in  the  autumn  of  1437.   From  this  time  at  all  events  he  attached 
himself  to  the  war-party  of  which  Humphrey  of  Gloucester  was 
head,  in  <^>position  to  the  government  under  Cardinal  Beaufort. 
By  his  marriage  in  .1438  to  Cicely,  aster  of  the  earl  of  Salis- 
bury, he  allied  himself  to  the  rising  family  of  the  Nevilles. 
On.  the  and  of  July  1440  York  was  again  appomted  to  the 
French  command.   His  previous  experience  made  htm  stipulate 
for  full  powers  and  a  sufficient  revenue.    He  did  not,  however, 
go  to  Rouen  till  June  X44r.    During  his  second  governorship 
York  maintained,  if  he  could  not  improve,  the  English  position 
in  Normandy.    He  was  again  hampered  by  his  political  oppo- 
nents at  home,  and  at  the  end  of  1446  was  recalled,  on  the 
pretext  that  his  term  of  office  had  expired.    The  death  of 
Humphrey  of  Gloucester  in  February  1447  made  York  the  first 
prince  of  the  blood.    Suffolk,  now  Heniys  chief  mimstcr,  found 
a  convenient  banishment  for  a  dangerous  rival  by  appointing 
York  to  be  lieutenant  of  Ireland  for  ten  years  (9th  of  December 
Z447).    York,  however,  contrived  to  put  off  his  departure  for 
eighteen  months.    During  his  absence  in  Ireland  English  dis- 
content came  to  a  crisis  in  Jack  Cade's  tebdh'on.    The  use 
made  of  the  names  of  Mortimer  and  York,  however  unauthorized, 
shows  the  trend  of  popular  opinion.    In  September  1450  York 
landed  in  Wales.    His  opponents  endeavoured  to  waylay  him, 
but  he  came  to  London  with  an  armed  retinue  and  forced 
himself  into  the  king's  presence.    Nevertheless  he  declared  his 
loyalty  and  that  he  desired  only  justice  and  good  government. 
He  took  part  in  the  punishment  of  Cade's  supporters,  and  dis- 
countenanced a  proposal  in  parliament  that  he  should  be 
declared  heir  to  the  crown.    In  Match  1452  he  came  once  more 
in  arms  to  London,  and  endeavoured  to  obtain  Somerset's  dis- 
missal.   On  a  promise  that  his  rival  should  be  held  in  custody 
he  disbanded  his  men,  and  thus  outwitted  found  himself  virtu- 
ally a  prisoner.   However,  a  nominal  agreement  was  concluded, 
and  York  accepted  the  king's  pardon.     The  situation  was 
changed  by  tho  birth  of  a  prince  of  Wales  and  the  king's  illness 
in  October  1453.    After  a  stnigg^  with  the  queen  and  Somer- 
set, York  secured  bis  recognition  as  protector  on  the  37th  of 
March  1454.    He  declared  that  he  accepted  the  post  only  as 
a  duty,  and,  though  he  put  his  own  friends  in  power,  exerdsed 
his  authority  with  moderation  and  on  the  side  of  good  order. 
But  at  the  end  of  the  year  the  king's  sudden  recovery  brought 
York's  protectorate  to  an  end.    When  it  was  dear  that  the 
queen  and  Somerset  would  proceed  to  extremities,  York  and 
his  friends  took  up  arms  in  self-defence.    Even  when  the  two 
armies  met  at  St  Albans,  York  endeavoured  to  treat  for  settle- 
ment.   The  issue  was  decided  by  the  defeat  and  death  of 
Somerset  on  the  22nd  of  May  1455.    York  used  h^  success 
with  moderation.    He  became  constable  of  England,  and  his 
friends  obtained  office.    This  was  no  more  than  a  diange  of 
ministers.    But  a  return  of  the  king's  illness  in  October  1455 
made  York  again  for  a  brief  space  protector.    Henry  recovered 
in  February  1456,  and  Margaret,  his  queen,  began  to  assert 
herself.    Finally,  at  Coventry,  in  October,  the  Yorkist  officials 
were  displaced.    Still  there  was  no  open  breach,  and  in  March 
1458  there  was  even  a  ceremonial  reconciliation  of  all  parties 
at  St  Paul's  in  London.    York  would  not  again  accept  honour- 
able banishment  to  Ireland,  but  made  ;k>  move  till  the  queen's 
preparations  forced  him  to  act.     In  September  1459  both 
parties*  were  once  more  in  arms.    York  protested  that  he  acted 
only  in  self-defence,  but  the  desertion  of  his  best  soldiers  at 
Ludlow  on  the  12th  of  October  left  him  helpless.    With  a  few 
folk>wers  he  escaped  to  Ireland,  where  his  position  as  lord- 
lieutenant  was  confirmed  by  an  Irish  parliament,  and  he  ruled 
in  full  defiance  of  the  English  govemmenL    In  March  1460  the 
earl  of  Warwick  came  from  Calais  to  concert  pUns  with  his 
leader.    York  himself  only  hmded  in  England  on  the  8th  of 
September,  two  months  after  Warwick's  victory  at  North- 


ampton. All  pretence  of  moderatkNi  was  put  aside,  anc^  he 
marched  on  London,  using  the  full  arms  of  England,  and  with 
his  swoid  borne  upright  before  him.  On  teaching  Westminstei; 
York  took  up  his  lesldeBce  in  the  royal  palace,  and  formally 
asserted  his  claim  to  the  throne  In  parliament.  In  the  end  a 
compromise  was  arranged,  under  which  Henry  was  to  retain 
the  crown  for  life,  but  Richard  was  to  succeed  him.  On  the 
8th  of  November  he  was  accordingly  proclaimed  heir-apparent 
and  protector.  Meantime  the  queen  was  gathering  her  friends> 
and  early  in  December,  Richard  went  north  with  a  small  force. 
He  kept  Christmas  at  Sandal  Castle  near  Wakefield.  There,  on 
the  30th  of  December,  he  was  hemmed  in  by  a  superior  force 
of  Lancastrians.  Declaring  that  he  had  never  kept  castle  in 
the  face  of  the  enemy,  Richard  rashly  offered  battle,  and  was 
defeated  and  slain.  His  enemies  had  his  head  cut  off,  and  set 
it  up  on  the  walls  of  York  adorned  with  a  paper  crown. 

Ridiard  of  York  was  not  a  great  statesman,  but  he  had 
qualities  of  restraint  and  moderation,  and  might  have  made  a 
good  king.  He  had  four  daughters  and  four  sons.  Edmund, 
earl  of  Rutland,  bis  second  son,  was  killed  at  Wakefield.  Tbe 
other  three  were  Edward  IV.,  George,  duke  of  Clarence,  and 
Richard  HI. 

See  The  Paskm  teUtrs  with  Dr  Gairdner*s  Introduction;  Thrm 
FiftetiUk  Century  Chronicks,  and  CoUections  of  a  London  CUizen 
(pubUahed  by  Uie  Camden  Society);  Chronicks  of  London  led. 
C.  L.  Kingsford,  1905) : J.  Sv  Stevenson's  Wars  of  the  En^ish  in  France 
(RoUs  Series).  The  French  cbrooidcs  of  Matthicu  d'.Eacouchy, 
T.  Basin  and  lehaa  Waurin  should  also  be  consulted  (these  three 
are  published  by  the  SocieU  de  VUisloire  de  France).  For  modorn 
accounts  see  csoedally  Sir  James  Ramsay's  Lancaster  and  York, 
and  The  PolHictu  History  efEng,land,  vol.  iv.,  by  Professor  C  Oman. 

\C  L*  K.) 

YORK,  a  city,  municipal,  county  and  parliamentary  borough, 
the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  the  coimty  town  of  Yorkshire, 
Enghuid,  188  m.  N.  by  W.  from  London  by  the  Great  Northern 
railway.  It  is  an  important  junction  <rf  the  North-Eastem 
railway.  Pop.  (1901)  77,914*  It  lies  in  a  plain  watered  by 
the  river  Ouse,  at  the  junction  of  the  Foss  stream  with  the 
main  river.  It  has  narrow  picturesque  streets,  ancient  waUs, 
and,  besides  the  cathedral,  many  churches  and  buildings  of 
architectural  interest, 

York  was  a  Roman  station  (see  below),  and  large  collections 
of  Roman  remains  are  preserved  in  the  hospitium  of  St  Mary's 
Abbey.  Of  these  a  great  proportion  came  from  the  cemetery 
and  from  the  foundations  of  the  railway  station.  A  note- 
worthy relic  of  the  Roman  occupation,  however,  appears  in 
its  original  place.  This  is  the  so-called  midtangular  tower, 
on  the  N.W.  of  the  dty  walls.  Its  base  is  Roman,  of  mingled 
stone  and  brick  work.  The  dty  walls  date  ip  part  from  Norman 
times,  but  are  in  the  main  of  the  Z4th  century.  Their  circuit 
is  a  Uttle  over  2I  m.,  and  the  area  enclosed  is  divided  by  the 
river  Ouse,  the  larger  part  lying  on  the  left  bank.  The  walls 
have  been  carefully  preserved  and  are  remarkably  perfect. 
On  the  E.  for  a  short  distance  the  river  Foss  took  the  place 
of  a  wall.  Of  the  gates,  called  Bars,  the  best  specimen  is 
Micldegate  Bar  on  the  S.W.,  where  the  heads  of  traitors  were 
formerly  exposed.  It  is  a  square  tower  built  over  a  circular, 
probably  Norman,  arch,  and  has  embattled  comer  turrets. 
Others  are  Bootham  Bar,  the  main  entrance  from  the  N., 
also  having  a  Norman  arch;  Monk  Bar  (N.E.),  formerly  called 
Goodramgate,  but  renamed  in  honour  of  General  Monk,  and 
Walmgate  Bar,  of  tbe  time  of  Edward  I.,  retaining  the  barbican 
repaired  in  1648.  The  castle  stands  in  the  angle  between  the 
Ouse  and  the  Foss  immediat^  above  their  junction.  Of  the 
fortress  builf  by  William  the  Conqueror  in  1068  some  portions 
were  probably  incorporated  in  Clifford's  tower,  the  shell  of 
which,  showing  an  unusual  ground  plan  of  four  intersecting 
drcles,  rises  from  an  artificial  mound.  The  castle  serves  as  the 
prison  and  county  courts. 

The  cathedral  of  Si  Peter,  commonly  known  as  the  minster, 
has  no  superior  in  general  dignity  of  f<Mrm  among  English 
cathedrals.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  consisting  of  nave 
with  aisles,  transepts,  choir  with  aisles,  acentral  tower,  and 


928 


YORK  (CITY) 


IVB  W.  towcn.  The  palue  el  tlw  inUiubopi  li 
Iboipc,  li  n.  S.  ol  York.  It  U  ol  virious  dun,  ua  mciuacs 
■light  nmiiuu  ol  tbe  Euty  Eogluh  palace  ol  Archbitbop  Crey. 
The  diooae  indudo  over  btU  Ibe  puiihs  ia  YDrluliire,  ud 
■bo  coven  very  inuU  ponlmu  ol  Ihuhun,  Noitin^iuuhirc 
4Dd  ^JDCotuhiie. 


the  mhedni  ■•  514  It.  6  in.. 

<inE  EdwiD  wu  tupilud  by 
J.     lUter  hk  bipiiui  Edwin. 

cpaiinl  by  Aivhbiihoi)  Wilfrid. 
'41,  and'  after  it  had  ban  re- 

■  tf  the  Nnnnan  invaiiiia  Ihi 
i  Archbifhop  Efbcrtp  pcri^pd 

le  cmtral  wall  of  iha  aypt. 
ip  TlioiTuia  o(  Baynii  (1070- 
•oniom  remain.  Tlic  apaidal 
ici«d  by  Afcb^thop  R«er 
biahop  Waller  it  Cm  (iit6- 


y  other  Eiialiah 


Viih  the  rcbuildrne 
lilice  wu  nmaved: 

corrapGiid  Willi  later  akernlbns.  the  central  towfr 
and  enanEed  into  a  Perpendicular  lanlen  towei,  tVic 
onipleled  in  "W^^^TJl  |JJi,;i',^''nJ'"  ,^|[i,'"f3 W 
r*  Whh'lhS  tr«:l"on  of'ihi.'^^  (liT'chiin:h'«a  ri)m- 


conaameil  by  Aichbidiop  Nevi 
the  woDdwnrk  ol  the  choir  was  ser 


h  ihotild  not  be  djmacec 
The  lollowing  it  a  lui ' 
I.  Jaulinus. 6i7-*3]- 


7.  Egbert,  nJ-7M- 
a.  Albert.  ;66-7Si, 
9.  Eanbsid  I ..  7ei-796. 

10.  EanbaM  II..  796-411. 

11.  Wulfii,  Sii-«]i. 

12.  WiBrauod.  8J7-854. 
Ij.  Wulfhm;.  8M-B90. 
14.  Eihclbald,  Sqi>-S9S. 
■  J.  Redewild.  995-918. 


IG.  WuKUan.  92R-956. 
17.  OiliyteLgs*-97"- 
19.  Onvald,  97)-991. 
11.  Wullitan.  1001-1013. 


,  Thodiat  cl   Bayeiix.',' 


,.  William   Fitiheiberi. 


hY  tbe  pall  aa  DzetrapoUta. 


ralier  ik  Gray.  1116-iasi 

Fwal  de   Bovii,    IISG-IJ^. 
eoflrey  of   Liidham.    I15S- 

ralier  Ciflaid.  1166-1179. 
J,,  ""ill*"^^^!  Wick-aiae. 
J8.   lDhnT™anu^^.lS6-»^. 

^  Th™;  al  Cotbridje,  1300- 
.  Willliio     CreenSeld,      IJ06- 

,.  wis;  *  M.,,..  „„- 

|.  Wili^  la  Zoucbe,  1341- 
|,  John  Thorertjy,   I1S1-U73- 

46.  Thomaa     Fiualao,      ijSS- 
1J96. 

49-   Henry  Bowet.  lio7-143J. 

Ji.  Will"lain"^Mi!f  14SI-1461. 
SJ,  Ccotge  Neville,  1461-14;*. 
13-  Laurence  Booth,  1476-1 4*0. 
54.  Thoam  Scott,  1480-1500. 
JJ.  Thoam  Savage,  1501-1507. 
S6.  ChciKopber         Bainbri^Ee. 

iJ.  Tboniij  WolKy.  1514-1530. 

Next  (0  the  cathedral,  the  mi 

St  Mary'i  Abbey,  urualed  in  Ml 

•■^-net  by  Alan,  loid  ol  Blchm. 

nmaina  of  the  abbey  liee  Abbe< 
oiihe  church,  in  Ibe  Early  Engli 

^i"H^tl^'«t^"'TlK  hu^iui 
wood,  containa  a  collection  of, 

ior'lKo™rd"!iSdSn  of  tbe'™ 


$8.  Edward  Lea,  1531-1144. 

59.  Robert  Holgite.  ■54I-IS54- 

60.  Nichi^ai  Heath.  ijij-iiW     1 

«i.  EdwardGrindi.  iSTO-iji^ 

63.  Edwin  Sandya.  i57r-liM. 

64.  lohn  Piera.  liM-isw. 

6j.  Matthew      Hullon.       I»J- 

66.  Tobiaa  MalUwW,  i6ci6'l«gi.  ' 

67.  Georsc  Monleicii.    i6jB. 

69.  Richard  Neile.  i63»-it4rt 

1664.  ■  I 

71.  Richard    Sterne,    l664-lM> 
7).  John   Dolben.    ISSj-itM. 

74.  Thomai     Lainplusb,      li»   I 

75.  John  Sharp,  ■69I-I7I4-  I 
;6.  William    Aa»«.  I7i3-i;ii 

77.  Uncelot  Blackbumc.    i;u- 

78.  Thomaa  Htrrinf.  1743-174: 

So.  John  Cilbrrt,  1757-1761. 
81.  Robert     Hay     Drummim!    , 

81.  Wil^iB   ^MarUum.     177;- 

83.  Edward   Vtrnoa    Harcom. 
1808-1847. 

84.  Thomai    Muasiaw,     1S47- 

83.  Chsfle*    Tbomaa     Lazier 

85.  Willlim     TbomaDs,      lM^    ■ 

■  891.- 
87.  William  Connor  M*ncl*w. 
M.  William     Dalrympfa     Mm- 

lagao.  iSai-ioA. 
»mo  Cordon  LaDg.  190^ 
ming  buildii^  in  York  ii 
arclenj.  founded  for  Beat-     . 

.... Decorated  ttylea.  and  ito 

arch.  ThevUenearthecathedri- 

■  ich  Che  upper  part  ii  lj 


taken   In    1906.     York  al»  poflscsHa  a  larae  nuniber  o*  chvrda 

Ear^TEnglith,  Decorated  and  'Perpendicular,  with  a  iinTe  tto  li 
in  haihi^  ChiiM  Clhurch,  with  S.  door  in  tbe  Dcemted  inie, 
tuppiried  to  occupy  the  aite  of  the  old  Roman  palace;  Holy  Trianv, 
in  Goodramgatc,  Decorated  and  Perpendicular,  wiih  f^rpendiciilar 
towers  Holy  Trinity.  Micklc^Ie.  formerly  a  prfory  church,  noa 
restored,  ahowini  Roman  maaonry  in  it*  walli;  St  Denia.  Walai- 

Heln'a,  Si  Helen't  Square,  chiefty  [>ecDialEd;  St  JtAn'a.  Hiini 
Street,  chiefly   Perpendicular;    St    Margairit'a,   Wnlmaaie.  ak- 


I  a  wluanr  tower  in  the  Saion  ityk,  ntvilt  probably  in  t 
I  century:  St  Mary.  Caatlegate.  with  Popndiciilar  tower  ai 
c  154  ft.  in  heiffht.  the  body  of  the  church  datiiw  back  to  Ira 
marKonnan  tinua;  St  Michael -Ie-Be1(ry.  founded  in  ID66.  b 
|8  in  Lale  Perpendicijlar  tiylei  5c  Manin's-le-Cnn 


The  Euild-hall,  with  B  Rne  old  r 

™^n.  of' iuHicJ"™  o™ 
com  exchange,  barracki  and  a  Ih 


nt  by  Che  eail  *A  BuribiciDn. 
LB91.    Auemblv  rconu,  > 


YORK 


929 


The  pahBc  institutiom  iadude  the  Yorkahire  PhDoeophical  Society, 
whose  museum,  in  the  Grecian  style,  was  opened  in  1^  and  the 
free  libiary  in  the  building  of  the  York  Institute  of  Science  and 
Art.  The  principal  scfaoob  are  St  Peter's  cathedral  grammar-school 
(origlmlly  endowed  in  1557),  Archbishop  Holgate's  grammar-school, 
the  York  and  diocesan  graimmar-school,  and  the  blueooat  school  for 
boys  (founded  in  1705I,  with  the  associated  greycoat  school  for  giris. 
There  are  numerous  charities. 

The  chief  industrial  establishments  ave  iran  foundries,  railway 
and  motor  engineering  works,  breweries,  flour-miUs,  tanneries  and 
manuUctories  of  conTectionenr,  arti&ciail  manure.  &c.  There  b 
water  commuiucation  by  the  Ouse  with  the  Humber,  and  by  the 
Foea  Navigation  to  the  H.E.  Thb  is  under  the  control  of  the 
corporation.  The  pariiamentary  borough  returns  1  members. 
The  county  borough  was  created  in  1888.  The  municipal  borough 
la  under  a  lord  mayor,  la  aldermen  and  36  QoundUors.  The  aty 
within  the  municipal  limits  constitutes  a  separate  division  of  the 
county.  "The  mumdjpal  city  and  the  Ainsty  (a  district  on  the  S.W. 
includied  in  the  city  bounds  in  14^9)  are  for  parliamentary  purposes 
included  in  the  N.  Riding,  for  remstration  purposes  in  the  E.  Riding, 
and  for  all  otfier  purposes  in  tne  W.  Riaing.  The  parliamentary 
bforough  extends  into  the  E.  Riding.  Area,  3730  acres. 

Mistary.'^YoTk  is  known  to  have  been  occupied  by  the 
Britons,  and  was  chosen  by  the  Romans  as  theur  most  impwtant 
centre  in  north  Britain  and  named  EbcrHcum  or  Eburacum. 
The  fortress  of  Legio  VL  Victriz  was  situated  near  the  site 
of  the  cathedral,  and  a  municipality  {colotiia)  gmw  up,  near 
where  the  railway  station  now  is,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
Ouse.  Many  inscriptions  and  a  great  quantity  of  ^nor 
objects  have  been  found.  The  emperor  Hadrian  visited 
York  in  a.d.  xao,  and,  according  to  tradition,  the  body  of  the 
emperor  Sevenis  who  died  there  in  aj>.  siz  was  burnt  on 
Sevenis/Hill,  near  the  dty.  After  the  death  of  Constantine 
Chlorus,  which  also  took  place  in  York,-  his  son  Constantine 
the  Great,  who,  according  to  an  ancient  but  incorrect  tradition, 
was  bom  thtt«,  was  also  inaugurated  emperor  there.  A  bishop 
of  York  is  mentioned,  along  with,  and  with  precedence  of, 
bishops  of  London  and  Lincoln  (the  last  name  is  Uncertain) 
as  present  at  the  council  of  Arks  In  3x4.  Nothing  is  known 
ol  the  history  of  the  dty  from  the  time  the  Romans  withdrew 
from  Britain  in  410  until  627,  when  King  Edwin  was  baptised 
there,  and  where  shortly  afterwards  PauUnus,  the  first  arch- 
bishop, was  consecrated.  In  the  time  of  Archbishop  Egbert 
(739-766)  and  of  Alcuin,  at  first  a  scholar  and  afterwards  master 
of  the  cloister  school,  Yorit  became  out  of  the  most  cdebrated 
places  of  education  in  Europe.  It  was  also  one  of  the  chief 
Danish  boroughs,  and  Earl  Siward  is  said  to  have  died  there 
in  1055.  In  1066  it  was  taken  by  Harold  Hardrada^  and  in 
X068  the  men  of  the  north  of  England,  rising  under  Edgar 
Aetheling  -and  Eari  Waltheof,  stormed  the  castks  which 
William  L  had  raised,  putting  to  death  the  whole  of  the  Nonnan 
ganison.  The  Conqueror  in  revenge  burnt  the  town  and  laid 
waste  the  country  between  the  Humber  and  Tees.  York  was 
frequently  visited  by  the  kings  of  England  on  the  way  to 
Scotland,  and  several  important  parliaments  were  hdd  there, 
the  first  being  that  of  1x75*  when  Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland, 
did  homage  to  Henry  IL  In  the  reign  of  Richard  I.,  the  citizens 
rose  agftinst  the  Jews»  who  fied  to  the  castle.  Here,  however, 
they  were  obliged  to  surrender,  many  killing  themselves  after 
putting  to  death  their  wives  and  children,  the  rest  bdng 
massacred  by  the  dtieens.  The  council  of  the  North  was 
established  in  York  in  1537  after  the  suppression  of  the 
Pilgrimage  of  Grace.  In  1642  York  was  garrisoned  by  Royalists 
and  besieged  by  the  parliamenL  It  was  relieved  by  Prince 
Kupert,  but  surrendered  after  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor. 
Being  under  the  rule  of  the  earls  of  Nortbumbria,  York  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Domesday  Siuvey.  In  the  first  charter 
(which  is  undated)  Henry  II.  granted  the  dtizens  a  merchant 
gUd  and  all  the  free  customs  which  they  had  in  the  time  of 
Henry  I.  Richard  I.  In  11 94  granted  exemption  from  toll, 
&C.,  throughout  the  kingdom,  and  King  John  in  1200  con- 
firmed the  preceding  charters,  and  in  12x2  granted  the  city 
to  the  dtizens  at  a  fee-farm  of  £160  a  year.  These  charters 
were  confirmed  by  most  of  the  early  kings.  Richard  n.  con- 
ferred the  title  of  lord  mayor,  and  a  second  charter,  given  in 
X39t»  shows  that  the  soverxunent  then  consisted  of  a  lord 


mayor  and  aftdennen,  ivhila  a  third  in  1396  made  the  city  a 
county  of  itself  and  gave  the  buxgeues  power  to  elect  two 
sheriffs.  Edward  IV.  In  X464  inowporated  the  town  undtt 
the  title  of  "  Lord  Mayor  and  Aldermen,"  and  hi  1473  <Uiected 
that  all  the  dtizens  should  choose  the  mayor  foom  among 
the  aldeimen.  As  this  led  to  constant  disputes,  Henry  VII. 
arranged  that  a  common  ooundl,  consisting  of  two  men  from 
each  of  the  more  important  gilds  and  one  from  each  of  the 
less  important  ones,  should  dect  the  mayor.  The  dty  is  now 
governed  under  a  charter  of  Chailes  U.,  confirming  that  of 
1464,  the  governing  body  consisting  of  a  lord  mayor,  ta 
aldermen  and  36  councillors.  The  dty  has  returned  two 
members  to  pazliament  since  X295.  During  the  x^  century 
then  were  constant  quairds  between  the  dtizens  and  the 
abbey  of  St  Mary's  about  the  suburb  of  Bootham,  which  the 
dtizens  claimed  as  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  dty,  and 
the  abbey  as  a  siepaxate  borough.  In  1353  the  king  took  the 
borough  of  YoriL  into  his  own  hands,  ''  to  avoid  any  risk  of 
disturbance  and  possible  great  bloodshed  such  as  has  arisen 
before  these  times,"  and  finally  in  the  same  year  an  agreement 
was  brought  about  by  Archbishop  Thoresby  that  the  whole  of 
Bootham  should  be  considered  a  suburt>  of  York  except  the 
street  called  St  Maxygate,  which  should  be  in  the  juilsdiction 
of  the  abbey. 

From  the  time  of  the  conquest  York  was  important  as  a 
trading  and  commercial  centre.  There  were  numerous  trade 
gilds,  one  of  the  duef  being  that  of  the  weavers,  which  received 
a  charter  from  Henry  U.  During  the  X7th  and  x8th  centuries 
the  trade  declined,  partly  owing  to  the  distance  of  the  dty  from 
the  sea,  and  partly  owing  to  the  regulations  of  the  trade  gilds. 

See  Frauds  Drake,  Ebcraeum:  or  the  History  and  AntiquUUs 
of  the  City  of  York,  from  its  original  to  the  present  time  (1736); 
Extracts  from  the  Municipal  Records  of  the  City  of  York  durint  the 
Reigns  of  Edward  IV.,  Edward  V.  and  Richard  III.  (1843);  Victoria 
County  History ,  Yorkshire;  J.  Raine,  York  (1803):  A.  P.  Pur^- 
Cust.  York  Minster  (1897),  Heraldry  of  York  Minster  (Leeds, 
X890):  B.  S.  Rowntree,  Poverty:  a  Study  of  Town  Life  (190X). 

TORKf  a  township  of  York  county,  Maine,  U.S.A.,  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  about  4s  m.  S.W.  of  Portland,  and  9  m.  l^ 
rail  N.E.  of  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire.  Pop.  (19x0)  2809. 
Area,  64  sq.  m.  York  is  at  the  terminus  of  the  York  Harbor 
and  Beach  division  of  the  Boston  &  Maine  railway.  In  York 
village  is  the  county  gaol  (1653-54),  preserved  by  the  Old  York 
Historical  and  Improvement  Society  as  a  musetim  of  local 
antiquitiiss.  Two  colonial  taverns  also  remain.  York  Harbor, 
York  Beach,  York  Cliffs  and  Long  Beach  are  attractive  summer 
villages.  The  first  settlement  was  made  about  1624.  In  Apiil 
X64X  Sir  Ferdinando  (Sorges,  proprietor  of  the  province  of  Maine, 
erected  this  into  the  Borough  of  Agamenticus,  and  on  the  xst  of 
March  X642  he  chartered  it  as  a  dty  under  the  name  of  (sorgeana. 
In  1652,  when  Massachusetts  extended  her  jurisdiction  over 
Maine,  the  dty  of  Gorgeana  became  the  town  0^  York.  Iii  1692 
most  of  the  houses  were  burned  by  the  Indians  and  the  inhabitants 
klUed  or  taken  captive.  York  was  the  shire  town  of  Yorkshire 
from  X 7x6  to  X73S,  the  shire  town  with  Portland  (then  Falmouth) 
of  the  district  of  Maine  from  X735  ^^  i7^i  ^'^^  ^  county-seat  (A 
York  county  from  X760  to  1832.  During  the  middle  of  the  x8th 
century  York  had  considerable  trade  with  the  West  Indies  imd 
along  the  coast,  and  as  late  as  the  middle  <rf  the  X9th  century  it 
had  important  fishing  interests.  Its  development  as  a  summer 
resort  was  begun  about  X873,  but  until  XS87,  when  the  railway 
reached  it,  its  chief  means  of  access  was  by  stage  from  Ports- 
mouth. 

See  J.  P.  Baxter,  Agamenticus,  BristoL  Gorgeana,  York  (Portland, 
1904):  G.  A.  Emery,  Ancient  City  of  Gorgeana  and  Modem  Town 
of  York  (Boston,  1873);  and  Pauline  C.  Bouv6,  "(Ad  York;  a 
Forgotten  Seaport,"  in  the  New  England  Maganne  Quly  1902). 

YORK,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  York  county,  Nebraska, 
U.S.A.,about  46m.  W.  by  N.  of  Lincoln.  Pop.  (1900)  5x32;  (1910) 
6235.  It  is  served  by  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  (^uincy  and 
Chiago  &  North'Westem  railways.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  School 
of  the  Holy  FamUy  and  of  Yorit  College  (founded  In  1890, 


93® 


YORK— YORKSHIRE 


ccveduotfonil).  The  city  is  litiuited  tn  a  fimiiiig  and  stock- 
r&ising  ragion,  tjid  among  its  manufactuRs  are  foundry  products, 
bricks  and  flour.  York  was  settled  in  1864,  was  laid  out  in  1869, 
was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1875  and  waschartecedasadty 
in  1877. 

TORKf  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Yoric  county,  Pcsmsylvania, 
U.S.A.,  about  100  m*  W.  of  Philadelphia  and  about  a8  m.  S.E. 
of  Harrisburg.  Pop.  (1900)  33,708 — 1304  being  foreign-bom  and 
776  negroes;  (1910)  44,75a  York  is  served  by  the  Maryland  & 
Pennsylvania,  the  Northern  Central  (Pennsylvania)  and  the 
Western  Maiyland  railways.  Among  the  public  buUdings  are  the 
County  Court  House  (1899)  and  a  lal^  Federal  Building  (1910). 
York  is  the  seat  of  the  York  Collegiate  Institute  (1873),  founded 
by  Samuel  Small  (d.  1885)  and  of  the  York  County  Academy 
(1785).  The  Historical  Society  of  York  (1895)  has  a  vahiabk 
collection  of  documents  rating  to  local  histoiy.  York  is  the 
commercial  centre  for  a  rich  agricultural  regfon,  and  has  manu- 
factures of  foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  silk  goods,  &c. 
The  total  factory  product  in  1905  was  valued  at  $14,358,696. 

York,  the  first  permanent  settlement  in  the  state  W.  of  the 
Susquehanna,  was  laid  out  in  1741  in  what  was  then  the  Manor 
of  Springettsbuiy  (named  in  honour  of  Springett  Penn,  a  grand- 
son of  William  Penn)  by  Thomas  Cookson,  a  surveyor  for  Richard 
and  Thomas  Penn,  then  the  proprietors  of  the  colony,  and  was 
named  after  York,  England.  The  first  settlers  were  chiefly 
Germans  from  the  Rhenish  Palatinate,  who  were  Lutherans, 
Reformed,  Mennonites  and  Moravians.  English  (Quakers  and 
Scotch-Irish  settled  here  also.  The  settlement  lay  on  the 
Monocacy  road,  the  main  line  of  travel  to  the  S.  and  S.W.,  and 
it  grew  rapidly,  especially  between  1748  and  1751.  In  1749  the 
county  of  York  was  erected  (from  Lancaster  county)  and  York 
was  made  the  county-seat.  In  1754  York  had  a  10  houses  and 
1000  inhabitants.  Troops  from  York  took  part  in  the  Seven 
Years'  War  and  the  War  of  American  Independence.  In  the  old 
county  court-house  (built  in  1754-56,  pulled  down  in  1841)  the 
Continental  Congress  sat  from  the  3otii  of  September  1777  to  the 
37th  of  June  1778,  having  left  Philadelphia  on  the  approach 
of  the  British,  and  having  held  a  day's  session  at  Lancaster. 
At  York  the  Congress  passed  the  Articles  of  Confederation  (zsth 
of  November  1777)  and  received  news  of  the  American  victory 
at  Saratoga  and  df  the  signing  of  treaties  between  the  United 
States  and  France.  The  C<niway  cabal  came  to  an  end  here, 
and  the  arrival  here  of  Baron  Steuben  and  of  Lafayette  in  1777 
helped  the  American  cause.  In  September  1778,  $1,500,000  in 
silver  lent  by  France  to  the  United  States  was  brought  to  York; 
and  Benjamin  Franklin's  press,  removed  from  Philadelphia, 
issued  $10^000,000  of  Continental  money.  Thomas  Paine  here 
wrote  part  of  his  Fifth  Crisis,  Philip  Livingston,  a  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  is  buried  h^re.  In  the  Civil 
War,  Confederate  troops  under  General  John  B,  Gordon  entered 
York  on  the  28th  of  June  1863,  and  a  small  Federal  force  retreated 
before  them;  and  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  was  fought  about 
38  m.  E.  York  was  incorporated  as  a  borouc^  in  1787  and  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1887. 

See  G.  R.  Prowdl,  Ths  City  of  York,  Past  and  Prisent  (Yoric, 
roM),  and  C.  A.  Hawkins  and  H.  E.  Landis,  York  and  York  County 
(ibid.  1901). 

YORKB,  CHARLES  (x799>x77o)j- English  lord  chsnoeUor, 
second  son  of  Philip  Yorke,  ist  earl  of  Hardwicke,  was  bom  in 
London  on  the  30th  of  December  1723,  and  was  educated  at 
Corpus  Christ!  College,  Cambridge.  His  literary  abilities  were 
shown  at  an  early  age  by  his  collaboration  with  his  brother 
Philip  in  the  Athenian  Letters.  In  1745  he  published  an  able 
treatise  on  the  law  of  forfeiture  for  hl^  treason,  in  defence  of 
his  father's  treatment  of  the  Scottish  Jacobite  peers;  and  in 
the  following  year  he  was  called  to  the  bar.  His  father  being 
at  this  time  lord  chancellor,  Yorke  obtained  a  dnecure  appoint- 
ment m  the  Court  of  Chancery  in  1747,  and  entered  parlkment 
as  member  for  Reigate,  a  seat  which  he  afterwards  exchanged 
for  that  for  the  university  of  Cambridge.  He  quickly  made 
his  mark  in  the  House  of  Commons,  one  of  his  earliest  speeches 
being  in  favour  of  his  father's  reform  of  the  marriage  law.  In 


1751  he  became  counsel  to  the  East  India  Company,  andh* 
1756  he  was  appointed  solicitor-general,  a  place  which  be  re- 
tained in  the  administration  of  the  elder  Pitt,  of  whose  f  ordga 
policy  he  was  a  powerful  defender.  He  naigned  with  PSu  ia 
1761,  but  in  1763  became  attorney-general  under  Lord  Bute. 
He  continued  to  hold  this  office  when  Geocge  Grenville  became 
prime  minister  (April  1763),  and  advised  the  govenment  on 
the  question  raised  by  Wilkes's  North  Briton.  Yorke  icfosed  to 
describe  the  libd  as  treasonable,  while  pronouncing  it  a  hi|^ 
misdemeanour.  In  the  following  November  he  rcttgned  o&ct. 
Resisting  Pitt's  attempt  to  draw  him  into  alliance  against  the 
ministry  he  had  quitted,  Yocke  maintained,  in  a  speedi  that 
extorted  the  highest  eulogy  from  Walpole,  that  parliamentary 
privilege  did  not.  extend  to  cases  of  Ubel;  thou£^  he  agreed 
^th  Pitt  in  condemning  the  principle  of  general  warranla. 
YoAb,  henceforward  a  membg  of  the  Rnrkingham  party, 
was  elected  recorder  of  Dover  In  1764,  and  in  1765  he  again 
became  attorney-general  in  the  Rockingham  administration, 
whoso  policy  he  did  much  to  shape.  He  supported  the  repeal 
of  the  Stamp  Act,  while  urging  the  simultaneous  paasing  e( 
the  Declaratory  Act.  His  most  important  measure  was  the 
constitution  which  he  drew  up  for  the  provfaice  of  Quebec,  and 
which  after  his  resignation  of  office  becune  the  Quebec  Act  of 
1774.  On  the  accession  to  power  of  Chatham  and  Grafton  in 
1767,  Ybrke  resigned  office,  and  took  little  part  in  the  debates 
in  parliament  during  the  next  four  year^  In  2770  he  was 
invited  by  the  duke  of  Grafton,  when  Camden  was  dismissed 
from  the  chanceUorship,  to  take  his  seat  on  the  wodsadc  He 
had,  however,  cxpliritly  pledged  himsdf  to  Rockingham  and 
his  party  not  to  take  office  with  Grafton*  The  king  exerted 
all  his  personal  influence  to  overcome  Yorke's  scruples,  warning 
him  finally  that  the  great  seal  if  now  refused  wonid  never  again 
be  within  his  grasp.  Yorke  yielded  to  the  king's  entreaty, 
went  to  his  brother's  house,  where  he  met  the  leaders  of  the 
OppoditloQ,  and  feeling  at  once  overwhdmed  with  shanae,  fled 
to  his  own  house,  where  in  three  days  he  was  a  dead  maa 
(January  so,  1770).  The  patent  raising  hhn  to  the  peerage  as 
Baron  Morden  had  been  made  out,  but  his  last  act  was  to 
refuse  his  sanction  to  the  sealing  of  the  document. 

Charles  Yorke  was  twice  married.  His  son  by  his  first  marriage 
became  earl  of  Hardwicke;  his  eldest  son  by  his  aeoond 
marriage,  Charles  Philip  Yorke  (1764-1834),  member  of  parlia- 
ment for  Cambridgeshire  and  afterwards  for  Liskcard,  was 
secretary  of  state  for  war  in  Addington's  ministry  in  1801,  and 
was  a  strong  opponent  of  concession  to  the  Roman  Catholics. 
He  made  himsril  exceedingly  unpopular  In  i8to  by  bringing 
about  the  exclusion  of  strangers,  indodlng  reporten  for  the 
press,  from  the  House  of  Commons  under  the  standing  order, 
which  led  to  the  Imprisonment  of  Sit  FVands  Burdett  m  the 
Tower  and  to  riots  in  London.  In  the  same  year  YoAe 
Joined  Spencer  Perceval's  government  as  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty;  he  retired  from  public  life  in  1818,  and  died  in 
1834.  Charles  Yorke's  second  son  by  his  second  marrfage  was 
Sir  Joseph  Sydney  Yorke  ( 1768-183 1),  an  admiral  in  the  navy, 
whose  son  succeeded  to  the  earidom  ol  Hardwicke. 

See  under  Hakdwickb,  Philip  Yoaxs,  tst  Eari  of. 

TORtCSHIRB,  a  north-eastern  county  of  England,  bounded 
N.  by  Durham,  £.  by  the  North  Sea,  S.E.  by  the  Humber 
estuary  (separating  It  from  Lincolnshire),  S.  by  Nottingham- 
shire  and  Derbyshire,  S.W.  for  a  short  distance  by  Cheshire, 
W.  by  Lancashire  and  N.W.  by  Westmorland.  It  is  the 
largest  county  in  England,  having  an  area  of  6066* x  sq.  m., 
and  being  more  than  double  the  dze  of  Lincolnshire,  which 
ranks  next  to  it.  In  a  description  of  the  county  it  b  con- 
stantly necessary'  to  refer  to  its  three  great  divisions,  the  North 
Riding,  East  Riding  and  West  Riding  (see  Rxdino,  and  map  of 
Englai^i  Sections  I.,  n.)> 

The  centre  of  the  bounty  is  a  plain,  which  in  the  S.,  about  the 
head  of  the  Humber,  resembles  the  Fens  in  character.  The  hills 
W.  of  the  central  plain,  covering  nearly  the  whole  of  the  W.  Riding 
and  the  N.W.  of  the  N.  Riding,  are  part  of  the  ereat  Pennine 
Chaia  (gJt.).    These  hiUs  consist  of  high-lyiag  moorland,  and  V* 


YORKSHIRE 


93  « 


aoc  genenlly  remarkable  for  great  beauty  of  outline.  The  higher 
iwrta  are  bleak  and  wild,  and  the  slope  towards  the  central  plain 
■a  gradual.  The  chief  beauty  of  tne  district  is  to  be  found 
in  tne  numerous  deeply  scored  valleys  or  dales,  such  as  Teesdale, 
Swaledale,  Wensleydale  (^.«.)t  Nidderdale,  Wharfodale  and  Aire- 
dale, in  which  the  course  of  the  streams  is  often  broken  by  water- 
falls, such  as  Hi|^  Force  in  Teesd^e  and  Aysgarth  Force  in  Wensley> 
dale. 

The  hills  E.  of  the  central  ^lain  cannot  be  similarly  considered 
m»  a  unit.  In  the  N.,  wholly  within  the  N.  Riding,  a  line  of  heishts 
known  as  the  Cleveland  Huls.  forming  a  spur  oT the  N.  Yorksnire 
Moors,  ranges  from  looo  to  nearly  1500  ft.,  and  overlooks  rather 
abruptly  the  lowest  part  ot  the  Tees  valley.  The  line  of  greatest 
elevation  approaches  the  central  pJbun,  and  swings  sharpiv  S.  in 
the  Hambleton  Hills  to  overlook  it,  while  to  the  S.  of  tne  line 
long  deep  dales  carry  tributary  streams  S.  to  the  river  Derwent, 
thus  draining  to  the  Ouse.  Eastward  the  N.  Yorkshire  moors 
give  immediately  upon  the  coast.  Tlidr  higher  parts  consist 
of  open  moorland.  The  remarkable  upper  valley  of  the  Derwent 
(q.v.)  marks  off  the  N.  Yorkshire  moors  from  the  Yorkshire  wolds 
Of  the  E.  Riding,  the  river  forming  the  boundary  between  the  N. 
and  E.  Ridiilgs.  The  wolds  superficially  resemble  the  moors, 
inasmuch  as  they  abut  directly  on  the  coast  E.,  run  thence  W., 
and  swing  S.  to  overlook  the  central  plain.  At  the  S.  extremity 
they  sink  to  the  shocie  of  the  Humber.  Their  greatest  elevation  is 
found  near  the.  W.  angle  (Howardian  Hills),  but  hardly  reaches 
800  ft.  Eastward  they  encircle  a  low-lying  fertile  tract  bounded 
S.  by  the  Humber  and  E.  by  the  North  Sea.  The  name  of 
Holdemess  is  broadly  appliea  to  thb  low  tract,  though  the 
-wapentake  of  that  name  includes  properly  only  the  E.  of  it. 

The  diverse  character  of  the  coast  may  be  inferred  from  the 
foregoing  description.  In  the  north,  S.  of  Teesmouth,  it  is  low  for 
a  short  distance;  then  the  E.  abutments  of  the  Cleveland  Hills 
form  fine  cliffs,  reaching  at  Boulby  the  highest  elevation  of  sea- 
diffs  in  England  (666  ft.).  Picturesque  valleys  bearing  short 
atreams  break  the  line,  notably  that  of  the  Esk,  rraching  the  sea  at 
Whitby.  The  trend  of  the  coast  i^  at  first  S.E.  and  then  S.  South 
of  Scarborough  it  sinks  with  the  near  approach  of  the  Derwent 
valley,  begins  to  rise  s^n  round  the  shallow  sweep  of  Filey  Bay, 
and  then  springs  aeawara  in  the  fine  promontory  of  Flamborough 
Head  (see  Bridlington).  South  of  this,  after  the  sharp  incurve  of 
Bridlington  Bay,  the  low  coast-line  of  Hcuderness  succeeds,  long  and 
unbroken,  as  far  as  Spurn  Point,  which  encloses  the  mouth  m  the 
Humber.  Encroachments  of  the  sea  are  frequent,  but  much  land 
has  been  reclaimed. 

>  .There,  are  several  watering-places  on  the  coast  in  hi^h  favour 
with  visitors  from  the  manufacturing  districts.  The  principal,  from 
N.  to  S.  are  Redcar,  Saltbum-by-the-Sea,  Whitby,  Robin  Hood's 
B^,  Scarborough  (the  largest  of  all)j  Filey,  Bridlington  and  Hom- 
aea.  There  are  numerous  mineral  spnngs  in  Yorkshire,  the  principal 
being  those  at  Harrogate.  There  is  also  a  spa  at  Scarborough,  and 
othera  axe  Askem  near  Doncaster,  Boston  Spa  near  Harroeate, 
Croft  on  the  Tees  near  Darlington,  Hovingnam,  near  Malton, 
Guisbrough  in  Cleveland  and  Slaithwaite  near  Huddersfield.  The 
springs  are  chiefly  sulphurous  and  chalybeate. , 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  Yorkshire  is  within  the  drainage  basin 
of  the  Ouse,  which  with  the  Trent  makes  the  estuary  of  the  Humber 
(g.s.).  It  is  formed  in  the  central  plain  by  the  junction  of  the  Ure 
and  Swale,  both  riai^  in  the  Pennine  hills;  but  whereas  the  Swale 
drains  the  N.  of  the  plain,  the  Ure,  traversing  Wensleydale,  is 
enclosed  by  the  hills  over  the  greater  part  of  its  course.  The  Ouse 
also  receives  from  the  Pennine  district  the  Nidd,  traversing  Nidder- 
dale,  the  Wharfe,  the  Aire,  with  iu  tributary  the  Calder,  and  the 
Don.  The  Aire  rises  in  the  fine  zorgo  of  Malham  Cove,  from  the 
subterranean  waterways  in  the  limestone.  None  of  these  tribu- 
taries is  naturally  navieable,  but  the  Aire,  Calder  and  Don  are  in 
part  canalized.^  From  tne  E.  the  principal  tributary  is  the  Derwent, 
^Aich  on  entering  the  central  jplain  follows  a  course  roughly  parallel 
to  that  of  the  Ouse,  and  joins  it  in  its  lower  part,  between  Seloy  and 
Howden.  The  Foss  j<»ns  the  Ouse  at  York.  In  the  W.  the  county 
contains  the  headwaters  of  several  streams  ol  the  W.  slope  of  the 
Pennines,  draining  to  the  Irish  Sea;  of  these  the  principal  is  the 
Ribble.  In  the  N.  the  Tees  forms  most  of  the  t>oundary  with  the 
county  of  Durham,  but  receives  no  large  tributary  from  Yorkdiire. 
In  the  S.  of  the  W.  Ridipg  a  few  streams  drain  to  the  Trent.  In 
Holdemess,  debarred  by  the  wolds  from  the  general  drainage 
system  of  the  county,  the  chief  stream  is  the  Hull.  The  only 
sheets  of  water  of  any  size  are  Semmer  Water,  in  a  branch  of  Wensley- 
dale: Malham  Tarn,,  near  the  head  of  Airedale,  the  effluent  of  which 
Suickly  disappears  into  an  underground  channel;  and  Hornsea 
fere,  near  the  flat  seacoast  at  Hornsea. 

Ceohgy.-'Tht  great  variety  in  the  scenery  of  Yorkshire  is  but  a 
reflection  of  the  marked  differences  in  the  geological  substructure. 
The  stratification  is  for  the  most  part  regular,  but  owing  to  a  great 
line  of  dislocation  nearly  coincident  with  the  W.  boundary  of  the 
county  the  rocks  dip  towards  the  E.,  while  the  strike  of  the  strau 
is  from  N.  to  S.  The  bold  and  picturesque  scenery  of  the  western 
hflls  and  dales  is  due  to  the  effects  of  denudation  among  the  harder 
rocks,  whkh  here  come  to  the  surface.  The  strata  in  the  Pennines 


consist  of  (i)  older  Palacoacoic  rocks,  via.  a  faulted  inlier  of  SUvfian' 
and  Ordovician  at  Horton  in  Ribblesdale,  arid  a  small  patch  of 
Silurian  at  Sedbergh  with  inliers  of  Coniston  limestone;  (?)  the 
Carboniferous  or  Mountain  Limestone,  which  has  been  subjected  to 
great  dislocations,  the  more  important  of  which  are  known  as  the 
N.  and  S.  Craven  faults;  (3)  the  Yoredale  series,  consisting  of  dialee, 
fla^ones,  limestones  and  thin  seams  d  coal;  and  (^)  the  Millstone 
Gnt,  forming  part  of  the  hillv  moorlands,  and  capping  many  of  the 
loftier  eminences.  In  the  W.  Riding  the  Pennine  range  forms  part 
of  the  elevated  country  of  Craven  and  Dent.  The  scenery  in  the 
W.  of  the  N.  Riding  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  in  Craven,  except 
that  the  lower  hills  are  of  sharper  outline  owing  to  the  perpendicular 
limestone  scars.  To  the  intermingling  of  the  limestone  with  the 
softer  rocks  are  due  the  numerous  "forces"  or  waterfalls,  which 
aro  one  of  the  special  features  of  the  scenery  of  this  district,  llie 
action  of  water  on  the  limestone  rocks  assisted  by  joints  and  faults 
has  given  rise  to  extensive  caverns,  of  which  the  best  examples  are 
those  of  Clapbam  and  Ingteton  in  the  W.  Riding,  as  well  as  to 
subterranean  watercourses.  At  Brimham,  Plumpton  and  elsewhere 
there  are  fantastic  masses  <rf  rocks  due  to  irregular  weathering  of 
the  Millstone  Grit.  The  Pennine  region  is  bounded  on  the  S.E. 
by  the  Coal  Measures,  forming  the  N.  oithe  Derbyshire^  Nottingham 
and  Yorkshire  coal-field,  which  in  Yorkshire  extends  from  ShdKeld 
N.  to  Leeds.  The  noted  fireclays  of  the  Leeds  district  are  obtained 
from  this  formation.  To  the  E.  the  Coal  Measures  dip  beneath  the 
unconformable  Permian  beds,  with  magnesian  limestone  and  mari 
slate,  of  which  a  narrow  band  crops  up  from  Ma^am  southwards. 
The  Permian  strata  are  overlain  to  the  E.  by  the  Trias  or  New 
Red  Sandstone,  scarcely  ever  exposed,  but  having  been  partly  worn 
awav  is  covered  with  Glacial  d^xnits  of  clay  and  gravel,  forming 
the  low-lying  Vale  of  York,  extending  from  the  Tees  S.  to  Tadcaater 
.and  E.  beyond  York  to  Market  Weighton..  Near  Middlesbrough 
red  rock  with  gypsum  and  rock-salt  (100  ft.)  have  been  proved. 
Farther  E.  the  Triassic  beds  are  overlain  by  Lias  and  Oolite; 
Rhaetic  beds  have  been  recorded  from  near  Northallerton.  The 
Lias  crops  to  the  surface  in  a  curve  extending  from  Redcar  to  the 
Humber.  In  the  Middle  Lias  there  is  a  seam  of  valuable  iron  ore, 
the  source  of  the  prosperity  of  the  Ocveland  region.  The  moorlands 
extending  from  Scarborough  and  Whitby  are  formed  of  Liassic 
.strata,  topped  with  the  estuarine  beds  of  Lower  Oolite,  rising 
gradually  to  the  N.E.  and  attaining  at  Burton  Head  a  height  01 
1489  ft^  the  greatest  elevation  of  the  Oolite  formation  in  Endand. 
In  tne  (Politic  "  Dogger  "  series  the  magnetic  iron  ore  of  Rosedale  is 
worked*.  Corallian  rocks  form  the  scarp  of  the  Hambleton  hills 
and  extend  E.  on  the  N.  c^  the  Vale  of  Pickering  through  Hackness 
to  the  coast,  and  S.W.  of  the  vale  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Malton. 
The  Vale  of  Pickering  is  underlaid  by  faulted  Kimeridge  (Tlay. 
Lias  and  Oolites  fringe  the  E.  of  the  Vale  of  York  to  Ferriby  on  the 
Humber  In  the  S.E.  of  the  county^  Cretaceous  rocks  cover  up  the 
older  strata,  N.  to  the  Vale  of  Pickomg  and  W.  to  the  Vale  of  York. 
The  Chalk  forms  the  Yorkshire  wolds  and  the  country  S.  through 
Driffield,  Beverley  and  Holdemess. 

The  Yorkshire  coast  between  Redcar  and  Flamborough  presents 
a  continuous  series  of  magnificent  exposures  of  the  strata  from  the 
Lower  Lias  to  the  Chalk.  The  Upper  Lias  fossils  and  jet  of  Whitby 
and  alum'shale  of  Saltwick  are  well  known.  At  Scarborouah  the 
Corallian,  Oxford  Clay,  Kellaways  Rock,  Combrash  and  Upper 
Estuarine  beds  are  well  exposed  in  the  cliffs.  In  Filey  Bay  the 
Kimeridpe  Clay  appears  on  the  coast,  but  it  is  covered  farther  S. 
by  the  historic  oeds  of  Speeton,  representing  the  marine  equivalents 
of  Portland,  Purbeck,  Wealden,  and  Lower  Creensand  of  S.  England. 
Over  the  Speeton  beds  lies  the  Red  (Thalk,  the  Yorkshire  equivalent 
of  the  Upper  Greensand  and  Gault.  The  evidences  of  glacial  action 
are  of  unusual  interest  and  variety ;  the  great  thickness  of  boulder 
clay  on  the  coast  is  familiar  to  all,  but  inund  also  great  deposits  of 

flacial  clay,  sand  and  gravel  obscure  the  older  geology.  The  Vale  of 
'ickering  and  many  of  the  smaller  northern  valleys  were  at  one 
period  the  sites  of  Glacial  lakes,  and  the  '•'  warp  "  which  covers  much 
of  the  Vale  of  York  is  a  fluvio>glarial  deposit.  The  Qevdand  Dike 
is  an  intrusive  igneous  dike  of  augite-andesite  of  Tertiary  age  which 
can  be  traced  across  the  country  in  a  N.W.  direction  mm  thi$ 
neighbourhood  of  Fylingtlales  Moor. 

Minerals.'^tht  coal-field  in  the  W.  Riding  b  one  of  the  chief 
sources  of  mineral  wealth  in  Yorkshire,  the  most  valuable  seams 
being  the  Silkstone,  which  is  bituminous  and  of  the  highest  repuU- 
tion  as  a  house  coal,  and  the  Bamsley  Thick  Coal,  the  great  seam  of 
the  Yorkshire  coal-field,  which  is  of  si>ecial  value,  on  account  of  its 
eemi-anthradtic  quality,  for  use  in  iron-smelting  and  in  en^ne 
furnaoes.  Associated  with  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  there  is  a 
valuable  iron  ore.  occurring  in  the  form  of  nodules.  Large  quantities 
of  fireclay  are  also  raised,  as  well  as  of  gannister  and  oil-shale. 
Middlesbrough  is  the  most  important  centre  of  pig-iron  manu' 
facture  in  the  kingdom.  Lead  ore  is  obtained  in  the  Yoredale  beds 
of  the  Pennine  range  in  Wharfedale,  Airedale.  Nidderdale,  Swale- 
dale,  Arkendale  and  Wensleydale.  Slates  •  and  flagstones  are 
quarried  in  the  Yoredale  rocks.  In  the  Millstone  Grit  there  are 
several  beds  of  good  building  stone,  but  that  most  largely  quarried  la 
the  magneaan  limestone  of  the  Permian  series,  which,  however,  la 
of  somewhat  variable  quality. 


932 


YORKSHIRE 


AiHevlhire.-^'SeKAy  nioe-tentltt  of  tbe  S.  Riding  Is  under 
cultivation,  but  of  the  N.  and  W.  Ridings  only  from  three- 
fifths  to  seven-tenths — proportions  explained  by  the  different 
physical  conditions.  The  till  or  boulder  day  of  Holderness 
is  the  richest  soil  fai  Yorkshire,  and  the  chalk  wolds,  by  careful 
cultivation,  form  one  of  the  best  soils  for  grain  crops  The 
central  plain  bears  all  kinds  <rf  crops  excellently.  Wheat  is 
grown  in  the  £.  and  W.  Ridings,  but  oats  are  the  principal 
grain  crop  in  these  ridings,  and  bariey  exceeds  wheat  in  all 
three.  The  bulk  of  the  acreage  under  green  crops  is  devoted 
to  turnips  and  swedes.  A  little  flax  is  grown,  and  liquorice 
is  cultivated  near  PonteCract.  The  proportion  <tf  bill  pasture 
is  greatest  in  the  N.  Riding  and  least  in  the  E.,  and  the 
N.  and  W.  Ridings  are  among  the  principal  sheep-farming 
districts  hi  England.  Cattle,-  for  the  rearing  of  which  the 
W.  Riding  is  most  noted,  do  not  receive  great  attention.  The 
Teeswater  breed,  however,  is  increasing  in  Yorkshire,  and  in 
Holderness  there  is  a  short-homed  breed,  chiefly  valuable  for 
its  milking  qualities.  Cheese-making  b  largely  carried  on  in 
some  districts.  Of  sheep  perhaps  the  most  common  breeds  are 
the  Leicester,  Lincoln  and  South  Down,  and  crosses  between 
the  Cheviot  and  the  Leicester.  Large  numbers  of  pigs  are 
kept  at  the  dairy  farms  and  fed  mainly  on  whey.  The  small 
breed  is  that  chiefly  in  favour.  Yorkshire  bacon  is  famous. 
Draught  horses  are  generally  of  a  somewhat  mixed  breed,  but 
tbe  county  is  famed  for  its  hunters  and  carriage  and  saddle 
horses.   The  breed  of  Clev^nd  bays  is  much  used  for  carriages. 

Manufadwes. — ^The  industrial  district  of  south  Yorkshire 
occupies  the  S.  of  the  W.  Riding,  and  may  be  taken  as  marked 
off  approximately  by  the  watershed  from  the  similar  district 
in  S.  Lancashire.  The  W.  Riding  is  now  the  chief  seat  of  the 
woollen  manufacture  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  has  almost 
a  monopoly  in  tbe  [nroduction  of  worsted  cloths.  The  early 
development  of  the  industry  was  in  part  due  to  the  abundance 
of  water-power, '  while  later  the  presence  of  coal  helped  to 
maintain  it  on  tbe  introduction  of  steam-power.  In  this  in- 
dustry nearly  all  the  most  important  towns  are  engaged,  while 
the  names  of  several  of  the  largest  are  connected  with  various 
specialities.  Thus,  while  almost  every  variety  <rf  woollen  and 
worsted  cloth  is  produced  at  Leeds,  Bradford  is  especially 
concerned  with  yams  and  mixed  worsted  goods,  Dewsbury  and 
Batley  with  shoddy,  Huddersfleld  with  fancy  goods  and  Halifax 
with  carpets.  The  cotton  industry  of  Lancashire'  has  also 
penetrated  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Halifax.  Among  the 
characteristics  of  the  industrial  population,  the  love  of  music 
should  be  mentioned.  Choral  societies  are  numerous,  and  the 
work  of  some  of  those  in  the  larger  towns,  such  as  Sheffield, 
l.eed5  and  Bradford,  has  attracted  wide  notice.  Next  to  the 
woollen  industry  comes  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel 
machinery  and  implements  of  every  variety,  which  is  common 
to  most  of  the  larger  centres  in  the  district.  Sheffield  is  especi- 
ally famous  for  iron-work,  fine  metal-work  and  cutlery.  The 
development  of  the  iron  ore  deposits  of  Cleveland  dates  only 
from  the  middle  of  the  igtb  century.  About  two  and  a  half 
million  tons  of  pig-iron  are  produced  in  this  district  annually, 
and  there  are  considerable  attendant  industries,  such  as  the 
production  of  steel,  and  shipbuilding.  The  chemical  manu- 
facture is  important  both  here  and  in  the  W.  Riding,  where 
also  a  great  variety  of  minor  industries  have  sprung  up.  Such 
are  leather  working  (at  Leeds),  the  manufacture  of  clothing, 
printing  and  bleaching,  and  paper-making.  Besides  coal  and 
iron  ore,  great  quantities  of  clay,  limestone  and  sandstone  are 
raised.  Excellent  building'Stone  is  obtained  at  several  places 
in  the  W.  Riding.  The  sea-fisheries  are  of  some  importance, 
chiefly  at  Hull,  Scarborough,  Whitby  and  Filey. 

CommunicoHons. — N.   and   E.    of   Leeds  communications   are 

f>rovided  almost  wholly  by  the  North-Eastern  railway,  the  main 
ine  of  which  runs  from  Leeds  and  from  Doncaster  N.  by  York, 
Thirsk  and  Noahaltcnon.  The  main  Junction  with  the  Great 
Northern  line  is  effected  immediately  N-  of  Doncaster,  at  which 
town  are  the  Great  Northern  works.  This  companv  serves  the  chief 
centres  of  the  W.  Riding,  as  do  also  the  Midland,  Great  Central, 
London  &  North- Western,  Lancashire  &  Yorkshirtt  and  North> 


Eastern  companies,  the  trains  working  over  a  close  network  of 
lines,  while  the  system  of  running-powers  held  by  one  or  more 
companies  over  tne  lines  of  another  assists  intercommunicatioa. 
The  Midland  main  tine  to  Carlisle  runs  by  Leeds,  Skipton  and 
Settle  through  the  hilly  country  of  the  W.  The  Hull  &  Bamsley 
line  runs  from  Hull  to  Bamsley.  A  complete  system  of  canals 
links  the  centres  of  the  southern  W.  Rhling  with  fhe  aea  both  E. 
and  W.,  the  Aire  &  Calder  Navigation  communicatiiig  with  the 
Ouse  at  Goole:  tbe  Huddersfield  canal  runs  S.W.  bto  CancaShire. 
crossing  the  watershed  by  the  long  Suoedge  tunod,  and  other 
canab  are  the  Leeds  ft  Uveipool,  Calder  a  Nebble  Navigation, 
and  the  Sheffield  ft  South  Yorkshire  Navigation,  which  gives 
access  from  SheflSeld  to  the  Trent.  The  Aire  ft  Gslder  Naviga- 
tion, tbe  most  important  of  these  canals,  which  has  branches  from 
Castleford  to  Leeds  and  Wakefield,  and  other  branches  to  Bamsley. 
Bradford  and  Selby,  has  a  total  length  of  85  m..  and  has  been  much 
improved  since  its  constmction.  It  was  i»ojected  by  John  Rcnnie 
and  opened  in  1836,  with  a  depth  of  7  ft.  and  locks  measuring  73 
by  18  ft.  Its  depth  now  varies  from  8  ft.  6  in.  to  10  ft.,  and  over 
a  dbtanoe  of  38  m.,  between  Gooie  and  the  collieries,  the  locks 
have  been  enlarged  to  460  by  as  ft.,  and  the  wiclthof  the  canal  to 
90  ft.  The  chid  ports  are  Middlesbrough  on  the  Tees,  Hull  on 
the  Humber,  and  Goole  on  the  Ouse. 


Population  and  AdmmistrQtion.-^Tht  area  of  the 
county  is  3,88s,3aS  acres.  Its  population  In  1891  was  3,208,531, 
and  in  xqox,  3,584,762.  The  population  increased  over  fivefold 
between  i8ot  and  1901;  the  increase  in  the  W.  Riding  ex- 
ceeding sevenfold.  The  manner  in  which  the  population  is 
distributed  may  be  inferred  from  the  (oUowing  statement  of 
the  parliamentary  divisions,  pariiamentary,  county  and  muni- 
cipal boroughs,  and  urban  districts  in  the  three  ridings.  I^ 
should  be  premised  that  each  of  the  three  ridings  u  a  dis- 
tinct administrative  county;  though  there  is  one  hi^  sheriff 
for  the  whole  county.  The  city  of  York  (pop.  77,9x4)  is  situated 
partly  in  each  of  the  three  ridings. 

The  West  Riding  has  an  area  of  x, 77 1.562  acres,  with  a  popula- 
tion in  i8qx  of  2445.033,  and  in  1901  of  2.750.493.  Of  this  area 
the  S.  industrial  district,  considered  in  the  broadest  application 
of  the  term  as  extending  between  Sheffield  and  Skipton,  SheffieM 
and  Doncaster,  and  Leeds  and  the  county  boundary,  covers  rather 
less  than  one-half.  The  area  thus  defined  includes  the  parliamen- 
tary divisions  of  Barnsley,  Colne  Valley,  Elland.  Hallamshire. 
Holmfirth,  Keighley,  Morlev.  Normanton.  Pudsey.  Rotherham. 
Shipley,  Sowerby,  Spen  Valley,  ft  also  includes  parts  of  the 
divisions  of  Barkston  Ash,  Doncaster,  Osgoldcross.  Otlty  and 
Skipton  (a  small  part).  The  remaining  parts  of  these  last  divisions, 
with  that  of  Ripon,  cover  the  rest  01  the  riding.  Each  division 
returns  one  member.  The  following  are  parliamentary  boroughs: 
Bradford,  returning  3  membere,  Dewsbury  i,  Halifax  1,  Huddert- 
fieM  I,  Leeds  5,  Pontefract  1.  Sheffield  5.  Wakefield  x.  All  these 
are  within  the  industrial  district.  Within  this  district  are  the 
following  municipal  boroughs  (pops,  in  1901):  Bamsley  (41.086). 
Batley  130,321),  Bradford,  city  and  countv  borough  (279.767). 
Brighouse  (21,735).  Dewsbury  (28.060).  Doncaster  (28.933),  Halifax. 
county  borough  (104,936),  Huddersfield,  county  borough  (95.047). 
Keighley  (41*564),  Leeds,  city  and  county  borough  (43B.968). 
MoHey  (23,636),  Ossctt  (12,903).  Pontefract  (13427),  Pudsey 
(14.907).  Rotherham  (54.349).  Sheffield,  city  and  countv  borough 
(409,070),  Todmorden  (partly  in  Lancabhire,  25,418),  Wakefieul, 
city  (41.410.  The  only  municipal  boroughs  elsewhere  in  the 
riding  are  Harrogate  (28.423)  and  Ripon  (cathedral  city,  8230). 
Within  the  industrial  region  there  are  11^  other  urban  districts, 
those  with  populations  exceeding  10,000  being  Btngley  (18.449), 
Castleford  (17.386).  Clecfcheaton  (12,524).  Elland  (10412).  Feather- 
stone  (12,093),  Handsworth  (13,404),  Hovland  Nether  (12,464), 
Liversedge  (13.980),  Mcxboroueh  (10.430),  Mirfield  (11,341).  Nor- 
manton (12,352).  Rawmarsh  (14.587),  jRothwetl  (11.702).  Saddle- 

',  Sktpton  (11,986).  Sowerby  Bridge 


worth  (I2.J20),  Shipley  (25,573), 

',  Swii 
i^.2'52).  Worsborough  (10,336)." 
tricts  in  the  West  Riding  not  falling  within  the  industrial  region 


(11,477).  Stanley  (12.290),  Swinton  (12.127).  Thornhill  £10,290). 
Womowell  (13.252).  Worsborough  (10,336).    The  only  uiisan  di»- 


(77B6). 
The 


are^-Goole  (16,576),  llkley  (7455).  Knaresborough  (4979)  and  Sclby 

North  Riding  has  an  area  of  1,362,378  acres,  with  a  popu- 
lation in  1891  of  3^.5^7  and  in  1901  of  377i338.  It  compnses 
the  parliamentary  divisions  of  Richmond,  Cleveland,  Whitby,  and 
Thirsk  and  Malton,  each  reluming  one  member;  and  the  pariia- 
mentary boroughs  of  Middlesbrough  (one  member),  Scarborough 
(one  member),  and  parts  of  Stockton-on-Tees  and  York.  Tne 
municipal  boroughs  are  Middlesbrough,  county  borough  (91,302). 
Richmond  (3837),  Scarborough  (38.161)  and  Thornaby-on-Tee« 
(16,054).     'tne  urban  districts  are  Eston  (11,199),  Cuisborougb 


Sea  (2578).  Scsiiby  (1350),  SkeU.on  and  Brotbon  (x;,34o).  South 


yORKSHIRE 


933 


Wfaltb*  arc  n  t£c  populixii  Cinduid  dinrict.  *££■>■]»  nelLeriiia. 
tlKraUeUtli*S.o(IhcCWvdwid  hOk  tht  mid  tmx  fJ  Kirkb)' 
UooaUft  dsso)  ud  H*Iind*]r  (13^).  South  of  tin  lut-nuHd 
b  the  viUaie  of  AmpMoctb,  mth  iu  laiie  Roma  CuboUc  college, 
founded  In  1801.  uul  -"■— "—-'■n-t,  io  fine  aadm  bidkUnEi, 
tboat  izo  itDdentL  '< 

TbeEuc  RidlvkHauwaf  7Siv>MKn*,*itbaFioiwhtioa 
h  1S91  of  M'^^  •Dd  in  igoi  of  }^i<»7'  tt  aHnpfuca  the 
puliuDenta^  diviiiontof  Bucknee,  Howdauhlre  lod  HoldemeH. 
euh  rrturoing  one  meniberj  ud  contains  the  parliamentary 
borough  o(  Hull,  returning  thiee  Benben,  ajul  put  of  that  o( 
Yotli,  The  ituiiudpd  toiai^  are  Bevatlav  (i3.iti),  Bridlington 
iMuBt).  Hedoa  (loio).  andHnU,  or  KiiMfn-upan-HuU.adtv 
and  cmuty  of  a  city  and  county  borough  (140,359).  Th 
diSricti  an  C^ingham,  near  Hull  (]7Sl).  Hky  (jooj). 
(J7M),  ntmlc.aa.T^KM  (;75t).  %"■«  ''3B'>,  Nof' 


The  botoughi  of  BredFotd,  Doncaner, 
—  — '  Stielliekl,  and  the  Uberty  it 

., ttr  ieiMda  and  cooviiiafltoni 

sd  Banilev.  Bailey,  Briiduive.  DsinbHry.  Halt- 
Huddcn&eU.  KagUeyJJofleyrOiKn  aad  Wake- 
[■■■iaiu  of  the  peace.  The  liberty  and  borough  of 
Bepuatdy  bom  the  Wait  Riding  for  the  purpova 

fte^mt  'Rjdin  eODpriica  11  npentak*.  and  the  hlntia 
E.  and  W.  Lan^urgb  and  of  Whitby  Soand.  It  hu  one 
ufuR  of  quarter  aEsaioru  and  ii  divided  into  19'  petty  leeiion-i 
diviiioni.  Tbe  bonmghi  of  Richmond  and  Scarborough  h 
■eparale  courta  of  quartir  Maiii  iiii  ai^  Awiiti{>>iArta  a1  i1u  im 
and  the  bocotnh  of  MiddlefllaTHlsh  hi 

The  total  number  of  ^vd  paiiahaa  li  1^66.    1^  county  cc 


934 


YORKSHIRE 


ri78  ecclesiastical  parishes  and  <fl8tffecs  ulreffy  or  hi  part.  It 
b  divided  between  the  dioceses  o(  York,  Ripon  and  Wakefield, 
with  small  parts  in  those  of  Manchester.  Southwell,  Durham  and 
Liacoln.    York  is  the  seat  oC  the  northern  archdiocese. 

History. — ^Tlie  kingdom  oi  Deira  {q.v.)i  which  was  afterwards 
to  include  the  whole  of  the  modem  Yorlshire,  is  first  known  to 
us  in  the  6th  century,  an  AngUan  tribe  having  seized  the  pro- 
montory at  the  mouth  of  the  Humber,  named  by  the  invaders 
Holderness,  followed  by  the  gradual  subjugation  of  the  whole 
district  now  known  as  the  East  Riding.  The  wolds  between. 
Weighton  and  Flamborough  Head  were  then  mere  sheep-walks, 
and  the  earliest  settlements  were  chiefly  confined  to  the  rich 
valley  of  the  lower  Derwent,  but  the  district  around  Weighton 
became  the  Detran  sacred  ground,  and  Goodmanham  is  said  to 
mark  the  site  of  a  temple.  The  area  computed  in  the  modem 
West  Riding  constituted  the  British  kingdom  of  Elmet,  and 
at  this  date  presented  a  desolate  and  unbroken  tract  of  moor- 
land in  the  N.;  in  the  central  parts  about  Leeds  stretched  a 
forest  region  where  the  last  wolf  seen  in  Yorkshire  is  said  to 
have  been  slain  by  John  of  Gaunt;  while  in  the  S.  the  forest 
atkd  fen  of  Hatfield  Chase  presented  a  barrier  to  invasion 
broken  only  by  the  line  of  Watling  Street,  which  crossed  the 
D<m  at  DoQcaster,*  the  Aire  at  Castleford  and  the  Whsffe  at 
Tadcaster.  The  N.  continuation  of  the  road  from  York  through 
Catterick  to  the  Tecs  opened  the  way  to  the  fertile  plain  in 
the  heart  of  the  modem  North  Riding,  the  S.E.  of  which  offered 
an  unbroken  forest  area,  later  known  as  the  forest  of  Galtres, 
which  in  the  middle  ages  stretched  from  York  N.  to  Easing- 
wold  and  Crsuke  and  E.  to  Castle  Howard,  and  as  late  as  the 
i6th  century  lay  a  waste  and  unfrequcnt^  region  abounding 
only  in  deer.  Ella,  the  first  king  of  Dciia,  extended  his  ter- 
ritory N.  to  the  Wear,  and  his  son  Edwin  completed  the  conquest 
of  the  district  whidi  was  to  become  Yorkshire  by  the  subjuga- 
tion of  Elmet,  prompted  thereto  by  vengeance  on  its  king, 
Cerdic,  for  the  murder  of  his  uncle  Hereric.  Traces  of  the 
"  burl^  **  by  which  Edwin  secured  his  conquests  are  perhaps 
visible  in  the  group  of  earthworks  at  Barwick  and  on  the  site 
of  Cambodunum,  but  the  district  long  remained  scantily  popu- 
lated, and  as  late  as  the  xyth  century  deer  were  said  to  be  as 
plentiful  in  Hatfield  Chase  as  "  sheep  upon  a  hill,"  for  Prince 
Henry  in  1600  was  asserted  to  have  killed  500  in  one  day's 
hunting.  The  defeat  of  Edwin  at  Hatfield  In  633  was  followed 
by  a  succession  of  struggles  between  Mercia  and  Northumbria 
for  the  supremacy  over  Deira,  during  which  the  boundaries 
underwent  constant  changes.  After  the  Danish  conquest  of 
Deira,  Guthrum  in  875  portioned  the  district  among  his  fol- 
lowers, under  whose  lordship  the  English  population  were  for  the 
most  part  allowed  to  retain  their  lands.  Cleveland  came  under 
Scandinavian  influence,  and  the  division  into  tithings  probably 
origmated  about  this  date,  the  boundaries  being  arranged  to 
meet  at  York,  which,  as  the  administrative  and  commercial 
centre  of  the  district,  rapidly  increased  in  importance,  and  it  has 
been  estinaled  that  in  aj>.  iooo  it  had  a  population  of  over 
30,000.  At  the  battle  of  Stamford  Bridge  in  1066  Harold 
Hardrada,  who  had  seized  York,  and  Earl  Tosti  wo'e  both 
defeated  and  slain  by  Harold  of  England.  The  merciless 
harrying  with  which  the  Conqueror  punished  resistance  to  his 
claims  is  proved  by  the  reiterated  entries  of  waste  land  in  the 
Domesday  Survey,  and  for  many  years  all  the  towns  between 
York  and  Durham  lay  unii^bited.  In  x  138  the  forces  of  David 
of  Scotland  were  defealei)  near  Northallerton  in  the  Battk  of  the 
Standard.  In  the  barons'  wars  of  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  Thirsk 
and  Malgeard  Castles,  which  had  been  garrisoned  against  the 
king  by  Roger  dc  Mowbray,  were  captured  and  demolished.  In 
the  hairyhig  of  the  northern  counties  by  the  forces  of  Robert 
Bruce  in  1318,  Northallerton,  Boroughbridge,  Scarborough  and 
Skipton  were  reduced  to  a^es.  In  1322,  at  the  battle  of 
Borougfabridge,  the  rebel  barons  were  defeated  by  the  forces  of 
Edward  II.  In  1399  Richard  II.  was  murdered  in  Pontcfraa 
Castle.  In  1405  Archbishop  Scrope  and  Thomas  Mowbray 
joined  in  the  insurrection  against  Henry  IV.,  and  led  the  citizens 
of  York  to  Skipton  Moor,  where,  after  a  defeat  by  the  earl  of 


Westmorland,  tht  letders  Were  bdMbded  tmder  fbe  walb  of 
York.  In  1408  the  rebel  forces  of  the  eail  of  Nocthunaberiand 
were  defeated  by  Sir  Thomas  Rokesby,  high  sheriff  of  Yorkshire^ 
at  Bramham  Moor  near  Tadcaster.  In  1453  a  skirmish  between 
the  Percies  and  the  Nevilles  at  Stamford  Bridge  was  the  opening 
event  in  Ihe  struggle  between  the  bouses  of  York  and  Lancaster; 
in  1460  the  duke  of  York  was  defeated  and  abin  at  Wake- 
field;  in  1461  the  Lancastrians  were  defeated  at  Towton.  The 
suppression  of  the  monasteries  roused  deep  resentment  in 
Yorkshire,  and  the  inhabitants  flocked  to  join  the  Pilgrimage  of 
Grace,  Skipton  Castle  being  the  only  place  immediately  N.  of  the 
Humber  which  remained  loyal  to  the  VXag.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  CivO  War  of  the  X7th  century,  opinion  was  divided  in  Y^ork- 
shire,  the  chief  parliamentary  families  being  the  Fairfaxes  and 
the  Hothams,  while  the  Puritan  dothing-towns  of  the  West 
Riding  also  sided  with  the  parliament.  Sir  WnUam  Savile 
captured  Leeds  and  Wakefield  for  the  king  in  1643,  and  in  1643 
Newcastle,  having  defeated  the  Fairfaxes  at  Adwalton  Moor. 
held  all  Yorkshire  except  Hull,  which  the  Hothams,  moved  by 
jealousy  of  the  Fairfaxes,  had  already  designed  to  give  up.  la 
1644,  however,  the  Fairfaxes  secured  the  East  and  West  Ridings, 
while  Cromwell's  victory  at  Marston  Moor  was  followed  by  the 
capture  of  York,  and  in  the  next  year  of  Pontefxact  and  Scar- 
borough. 

On  the  redistribution  of  estates  after  the  Norman  Conquest, 
Alan  of  Brittany,  founder  of  Richmond  Castle,  received  a  vast 
fief  which  became  the  honour  of  Richmond;  Ilbert  de  Lacs  was 
rewarded  with  lands  which  afterwards  constituted  the  honour 
of  PoDtefract.  Earl  Harold's  estate  at  Coningsburgh  passed  to 
William  de  V/arenne,  earl  of  Surrey,  together  with  Sandal  Castle, 
which  on  the  expiration  of  the  Warenne  line  in  the  X4th  century 
was  bestowed  on  Edmund  Langley,  duke  of  York.  Other 
great  Domesday  landholders  were  William  de  Percy,  founder  of 
the  abbey  of  Whitby;  Robert  de  Bmce,  ancestor  of  the  royal 
line  of  Scotland,  the  head  of  whose  fief  in  Clevdand  was  trans- 
ferred in  the  X2fii  (^ntury  from  Danby  Castle  to  Skdtoa;  Roger 
de  Busli  owned  a  large  tract  in  S.  Yorkshire,  of  which  Tickhill 
was  the  head;  the  archbishop  of  York  enjoyed  the  great  lordship 
of  Sherbum,  and  Howden^ire  was  a  Uberty  of  the  bishop  <rf 
Durham.  Among  the  great  lordships  of  the  middle  ages  for 
which  Yorkshire  was  distinguished  were:  Topdiffe,  the  honour 
of  the  Percies;  Thirsk,  of  the  Mowbrays;  Tanfidd,  of  the 
Marmions;  Skipton,  of  the  Cliffords;  Middleham,  of  the  Fitz- 
Hughes  and  Nevilles;  Helmsley,  of  the  de  Roos;  Maaham  and 
Bolton,  of  the  Scrope^;  Sheffidd,  of  the  FumivaQs  and  Talbots; 
Wakefield,  of  the  duke  of  York.  The  Fairfaxes  were  settled  in 
Yorkshire  in  the  13th  century,  and  in  the  i6th  centuxy  Dentoo 
became  their  chief  seat. 

The  shire  court  for  Yorksnlre  was  held  at  York,  but  exteiksive 
privileges  were  enjoyed  by  the  great  landholders*  In  the  X3th 
century  Henry  de  Lacy,  earl  of  Lincohi,  claimed  to  hold  the 
sheriff's  toum  at  Bradford  and  Leeds;  his  bailiff  administered 
the  wapentake  of  Stainclil  in  his  court  at  Barsknlf  and  Slaidbuin; 
and  his  steward  judged  cases  of  felony  in  his  court  at  Almond- 
bury.  The  archbishop  of  York  hdd  the  sheriff's  toum  at  Otley, 
and  had  his  own  coronets  at  York,  Hull,  Beveriey  and  Rlpon. 
Eudo  la  Zouche  held  the  sheriff's  toum  at  Bin^^ey,  and  Thomas 
de  Furaivall  in  Hailamshire.  The  bailiffs  of  TidLhill  Ca&tle  also 
held  toums  in  place  of  the  sheriff.  The  bishop  of  Durham  had 
a  court  at  Hovedcn,  and  the  king's  bailiffs  were  excluded  from 
executing  their  office  in  his  estates  of  Howdenshire  and  Allerton- 
shixe.  The  abbot  of  St  Mary's  York  had  his  own  coroners  in  the 
wapentake  of  Ryedale,  and  the  abbot  of  Bella  Landa  in  Sutton. 
The  prior  of  Bradenstok^  held  a  court  in  his  manor  of  Waks. 
The  archbishop  of  York,  Robert  de  Ros,  and  the  abbot  of 
St  Mary's  York  judged  felonies  at  their  courts  in  Uoldemess. 
The  liberty  of  Ripon  (^.t.),  dty  of  Ripon,  stiil  oonstitmes  a 
franchise  of  the  archbishops  of  York. 

In  the  X3th  century  the  diocese  of  York  Included  in  thb 
county  the  archdeaconry  of  York,  comprising  the  deaneries  of 
York,  Pontefract,  Doncaster  and  Cravoi;  the  aidideacanry 
of  Clevdand,  comprising  the  deaneries  of  Buhner,  OrveiaRd 


YORKSHIRE 


93  S 


And  Ry«daie;  the  ttKhAetuoonry  of  East  Riding,  comprising  tbe 
deaneries  of  Harthill  (HuU),  Buckrose,  Dickering  and  Holder- 
ncss;  and  the  archdeaoonry  of  Richmond*  OQmi»king  the 
deaneries  of  Richmond,  Catterick,  Boronghbridge  and  Lonsdale. 
In  1 541  the  deaneries  of  Richmond  were  transfened  to  Henry 
VUI/s  new  diocese  of  Chester.  Ripon  was  created  an  episcopal 
see  by  act  of  parliament  in  1836,  and  the  deaaeiies  of  Craven  and 
Pontefract  were  fonned  into  the  aichdeooonry  of  Craven  within 
its  jurisdiction,  together  with  the  archdeaconry  of  Richmond. 
The  archdeaconry  of  Sheffield  was  created  in  1884  to  include  the 
deaneries  of  Sheffield,  Rotherham,  Ecdesfield  and  Wath.  In 
x888  tbe  area  of  the  diocese  of  Ripon  was  reduced  by  the  creation 
of  the  see  of  Wakefield,  including  the  archdeaconry  of  Haliiaz 
with  the  deaneries  of  BirstaO,  Dewsbuxy,  Halifax,  Silkstone  and 
Wakefield,  and  the  archdeaoonry  and  deanery  of  Huddersfield. 
The  diocese  <rf  Ripon  now  indudes  in  this  county  the  arch- 
deaconries  of  Craven  with  three  deaneries,  Richmond  with  three 
deaneries  and  Ripon  with  seven  deaneries.  The  diocese  of  York 
indudes  tiie  archdeaconries  of  York  with  six  deaneries,  Sheffidd 
with  four  deaneries,  East  Riding  with  thirteen  defufteries  and 

Clevdand  with  nine  deaneries. 

The  great  woollen  industry  of  Yorkshire  oripnated  soon  after 
tbe  'Conquest,  and  the  further  development  of  thb  and  other 
diaractenstic  industries  may  be  traced  in  the  ^rtides  on  the  various 
industrial  centres.    The  time  of  the  American  War  marked  the 

rdual  absorption  by  Yorkshire  of  the  dothing  trade  from  the 
counties.  Coal  appears  to  have  been  Used  in  YoricBhtre  by  the 
Romans,  and  was  dug  at  L«ed8  in  the  13th  century.  The  eariy 
fame  of  Sheffield  as  tne  centre  of  the  cutlery  and  iron  trade  is 
demonstrated  by  the  line  in  Chaucer,  "  a  Sheffield  whitel  bore  he 
in  his  hose.'*  In  the  13th  century  a  forge  is  mentioned  at  Rosedale; 
and  the  canons  of  Cisbum  had  four  "  fabricae "  ia  blast  In 
Glaisriale  in  Cleveland.  Id  the  16th  century  limestone  was  dug 
in  many  parts  of  Elmet,  and  Huddlestone.  Hesadwood  and  Tad- 
caster  had  famous  quarries;  Pontefract  was  famous  for  its  liquorice, 
Aberford  for  its  ptns,  Whitby  for  its  Jet.  Alum  was  dug  at 
Guisborough,  Sanclsend,  Dunsley  and  Whitby  ia  the  mh  century, 
mad  a  statute  of  1659  forbade  the  impoitation  of  alum  from  abroad, 
in  order  to  encourage  its  cultivation  ia  this  country.  Bolton 
market  was  an  important  distributive  centre  for  cotton  materials 
«n  the  17th  century,  and  in  1787  there  were  eleven  cotton  mills  in 
the  county. 

FarUomentory  RtpnsentaUon. — ^The  county  of  York  was  rqne- 
sented  by  two  knights  in  the  parliament  of  1293,  and  the  boroughs 
of  Beverley,  Hedon,  Malton,  Pickering,  Pontefract,  Ripon,  S(^* 
brrough,  Thirsk.  Tickhill,  Yarm  and  York  each  by  two  buivesses. 
Northallerton  acquired  representation  in  1298,  Boroughbridge  in 
1300,  Kingston-on-HuU  and  Ravensburgh  in  1304.  In  most  m  the 
bc'ougKs  the  privilege  of  representation  was  siUowed  to  lapse,  and 
from  1328  until  1547  only  York,  Scarborough  and  iCingston-on-Hull 
returned  members.  Hedon,  Thirsk.  Ripon  and  Beveri^  regained 
the  franchiK  in  the  i6th  century,  and  Boroughbridse,  Knares- 
borougfa,  Aldborough  and  Richmond  also  retumeoT  members* 
Pontefract  was  represented  in  1633,  New  Malton  and  Northallerton 
in  1640.  In  I8a6  two  additional  knights  wjere  returned  for  the  shire 
of  York,  and  14  boroughs  were  represented.  Under  the  Reform 
Act  of  1832  the  county  returned  6  members  in  3  divisions — 9  for 
each  riding;  Aldborough,  Boraughbridge  and  riedon  were  dis- 
franchised; Northallerton  and  Thtrak  lost  i  member  each; 
Bradford,  Halifex,  Liecds  and  Sheffield  acquired  representation  by 
3  membcn  each,  and  Wakefield  and  Whitby  by  i  membor  each. 
Under  the  act  of  1868  tbe  representation  of  the  West  Riding  division 
was  increased  to  6  members  In  3  divisions;  Dewsbury  and  Middles- 
brough were  enfranchised,  returning  I  member  each;  Leeds  now 
returned  3  members;  Knaiesborough,  Malton,  RidiaMmd  and 
Ripon  lost  I  member  each.  Beverley  was  disfranchised  in  187a 
(For  acFangemeata  under  the  act  of  1885  see  {  Administration.) 

AntiqiiUtfs. — Of  andent  castles  Yorksmre  retains  many  interesting 
examples.  The  fine  ruins  at  Knaresbonnigh,  Pickering,  Pontefract, 
Richmemd,  Scarborough  and  Skipton  are  describea  under  their 
respective  headings,  Borden  Tower,  jpicturesouely  situated  in 
upper  Wharfedale,  was  built  by  Henry  de  CUIforo  (a.  i523)«  called 
the  "  shepherd  lord  **  from  the  story  that  he  was  brought  up  as  a 
shepherd.  He  was  a  student  of  astronomy  and  astrology.  Bolton 
Castle,  which  rises  raaicsticalty  abofvc  Wenaeydale,  was  prooouaced 
by  Leiand  '*  the  fairest  in  Ricnmondshire."  It  is  a  square  building 
with  rowers  at  the  corners,  erected  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  by 
Richard  Scrope,  chancellor  of  England.  It  was  occupied  by  Queen 
Mary  while  under  the  chaige  oflLord  Scrape,  was  besieged  during 
the  dvil  wars,  and  itndend  untenable  ia  1647.  Of  Bowes  Castle, 
in  tbe  North  Riding  near  Bannard  Castle,  there  remains  only  the 
square  keep,  supposed  to  have  been  built  bv  Alan  Niger,  1st  eari  (rf^ 
Richmond,  in  the  lath  century,  but  the  site  was  occupied  by  the 
Romans.   Cawood  Castle,  on  the  Ouse  near  Sdby,  retains  its  gate- 


way towar  eitcted  in  the  rsign  of  Henry  VI.  Tbe  castle,  said  to 
have  beea  founded  by  ^fithelstan  in  620,  was  the  palace  of  the 
archbishops  of  York,  and  Wobey  resided  in  it.  Conisborough 
Castle  stands  by  the  Don  between  Rotherham  and  Doncaster.  its 
origin  is  uncertain,  but  dates  probably  from  Saxon  times.  The 
keep  and  portfons  of  the  walls  remain;  and  the  ruin  possesses 
additional  interest  from  its  treatment  in  Scott's  Itankoe,  Tbe 
ruins  of  Danby  Castle,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  built  shortly 
after  the  Conquest  by  Robert  de  Bruce  or  Brus,  are  of  various  dates 
Harewood  Castle  in  lower  Whariedale  was  founded  soon  after  the 
Conquest,  but  contains  no  portions  earlier  than  the  reign  oi  Edward 
HI.  The  heep  of  Hdmsley  Castle  was  built  late  m  the  I2tfa  century 
probably  by  Robert  de  Ros,  sumamed  Funan;  the  earthwories  are 
apparently  of  much  eariier  date.  There  aie  picturesque  remains 
ol  the  quadrangular  fortress  of  Mkidleham  in  Wensleydsle,  built 
in  the  lath  century  by  Robert  FltzRanulph,  afterwards  possessed 
by  the  Nevilles,  and  rendered  untenable  by  oider  of  parijametft  ia 
1647.  Mulgrave  Castle,  near  the  modem  residenoe  of  the  same 
name  In  the  Whitby  district.  Is  said  to  have  been  founded  two 
centuries  before  the  Conquest  by  a  Saxon  giant  named  Wade  or 
Wadda.  Parts  are  clearly  Norman,  but  some  of  the  masonry 
sunests  an  earlier  dau.  The  castle  was  dismantled  after  the 
dial  wan.  There  are  sUdht  remain,  of  the  15th  century,  of 
Ravensworth  Castle,  near  Kchmond.  This  was  probably  an  early 
foundation  of  the  family  of  Fits  Hugh.  Sheriff  Hutton  Castle, 
between  York  and  Malton,  was  the  foundation  of  Bertram  de  Bulmer 
in  the  reign  of  Stephen;  the  remains  are  of  the  early  part  of  the 
.l^th  century,  when  the  property  passed  to  the  Nevilles.  Spofforth 
Castle,  near  Harrogate,  was  erected  by  Henry  de  Percy  in  1309. 
Its  ruins  range  from  the  period  of  foundation  to  the  15th  century. 
Of  Tickhill  Castle,  near  Doncaster,  built  or  enlaiged  by  Roger  de 
Busli  la  the  nth  centary,  there  are  foundations  of  the  keep  and 
fragments  of  the  walls.  ,  Of  Whorlton  Castle  ia  Clevdand.  the 
Perpendicular  gatehouse  is  veiy  fine.  One  side  remains  of  the 
great  quadrangular  fortress  of  Wrcssell,  E.  of  Selbv,  built  by  lliomas 
Percy,  earl  of  Worcester,  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  Some  of  the 
mansions  in  the  county  incorporate  remains  of  ancient  etrongholdsb 
such  as  those  at  Gilling,  under  the  Hambleton  Hills  in  the  North 
Riding,  Ripley  near  Harrogate,  and  Skelton  in  Cleveland.  Medieval 
mansions  are  numerous,  a  noteworthy  example  being  the  Eliza* 
bcthan  hall  of  Burton  A^es,  in  the  N.  of  Holdemess. 

In  ecclesiastical  architecture  Yorkshire  b  estnoidinarily  rich 
At  the  time  of  the  Dissolution  there  were  28  abbevs,  26  priories. 
2^  nunneries,  30  Criaries,  13  ceUs,  a  commandcncs  of  Knights 
Hospitallen  and  4  preceptories  of  Knights  Templars.  The  principal 
monastic  ruins  are  described  under  separate  headings  and  ebe* 
where.  These  are  Bolton  Abbey  (properly  Priory),  a  foundation  of 
Augustinian  canons;  Fountains  Abbey,  a  CIstctxnan  foundation, 
the  finest  and  most  complete  of  the  ruined  abbeys  in  England; 
the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Kirkstall  near  Leeds  (a.s.);  the  Ctsterrian 
abbey  of  Rievaulx,  and  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  St  Mary,  at  York. 
For  the  plans  and  buildings  of  Founuins,  Kirkstall  and  St  Mary's, 
York,  see  Abbey.  Separate  reference  is  also  made  to  the  rains 
of  Jervaulx  (Cisterdan)  and  Coverham  (Prenionstratensian)  ia 
Wensleydale,  and  to  the  remains  at  Bridlington,  Guisborough, 
Malton,  Whitby,  Easby  near  Richmond,  Kirkham  near  Maltoar 
Monk  Bretton  near  Barndey,  and  Mount  Grace  aear  Nortfaallertoiv 
There  are  fine  though  scanty  remains  of  Byland  Abbey,  of  Early 
English  date,  between  Thirsk  and  Malton;  the  abbey  was  founded 
for  Cistercian  monks  in  the  t2th  century,  and  was  previously 
established  at  Old  Byland  near  Rievaulx.  There  was  a  house  oif 
Premonstratensians  at  Egglestone  above  the  Tees  near  Barnard 
Castle.  Other  ruins  are  the  Cistodan  foondatioas  of  the  12th 
century  at  Meaux  in  Holdemess^  Roche,  E.  of  Rotherham,  and 
Sawley  in  Ribblesdale;  the  Benedictine  nunneries  of  Marrick 
in  upper  Swaledale,  and  Rosedale  under  the  high  moon  of  the 
N.E.;  and  the  Gilbertine  house  of  Watton  in  Holdemess,  of  the 
1 2th  century,  converted  into  a  dwelling. 

Descriptions  are  given  in  the  articles  on  the  mptctivt  cities  and 
towns  01  the  cathedral  or  minster  at  York,  and  of  the  nnmeroos 
churches  in  that  dty;  of  the  cathedral  churches  at  Ripon  and 
Wakefield;  of  the  minster  and  the  chinch  of  St  Mmy  at  Beverley: 
and  of  the  fine  parish  churches  at  Bradford,  Bridlington  '(the  old 
priory  church),  Hedon,  Hull,  Rotherimm,  Sdby  (awey  church), 
Shefndd  and  Thirsk.  In  Holdemess  are  the  splendid  churches 
of  Howdcn  and  Patrington,  both  in. the  main  Decorated;  and  the 
fine  late  Norman  building  at  Kirkbum.  A  very  perfect  though 
small  example  of  a  Norman  church  is  seen  at  Birkin  on  tbe  Aire 
below  Pontefract.  At  Nun  Monktoo  near  York  is  a  beautiful 
Early  English  church,  formeriy  bdongiag  to  a  Benedictine  nunnery. 
Goodmaiuiam  in  the  S.  Wolds  is  the  scene,  in  all  probability,  of 
the  conversion  by  I^ulinus  of  Edwin  cf  Northumfana  in  625.  who 
was  aftemrards  baptised  at  York.  At  Kirkdale  near  Kirkby 
Moorside  in  the  N.  Riding  is  a  singular  example  of  an  inscribed 
sundial  of  pr&<ronquest  date.  At  Lasdngham  m  the  same  district' 
is  a  very  fine  and  eariy  Norman  crypc. 

See  Viet&na  CowHy  Mistary,  Yorkshire',  T.  Allen,  ffisiory  cf 
the  CowHy  ef  York  (3  vols.,  London,  1828-31);  T.  Baines,  York- 
shire  Past  and  Present,  indading  aa  acooum  «f  the  woollen  trade 


93* 


YORKTOWN— VORUBAS 


of  Yoikibb*  br  E.   BuBM  ()  nli^  LaBdoD,  1(71-77). 

Bans*,  ifnoMimi  £t*»c»H  (Lmcloo,  ilsS-H}!  w.  Smith, 
OU  Virluiin  (Lomkn,  1881)1  C-  Fisiik,  SyibU  ani  Hani 
"-^-■^  ^MivaMM'CYoffc.  iSU):  C.  R.  Firic  Pariitmaary 
—■■-w  If  YtrlalHH  (HuU.  1S86);  A.  D.  H.  Lndmu, 

■■-   "-"VrftiiiiM  n   Ytrlukin  (Loadoo,   1891)1 

>/^KiejGiHni>l>n  (Loodon,  1813),  SiilirT 


^gt>—  (London,  18; 


i-^ 


r.  Wbellu,  HitHry  el 


Coadan.  ito»-31)i  J.  jTshBli . _.,.,.. 

City  ^  Yah.  At  Auuh  H'oMiMtt,  tad  On  Eait  JiiMv  </  ('"J 
itv*  <i  nil.,  Bcvcrin.  18U-37):  T.  Luigdik,  Tffempkiail 
Diaimary  a  YarkiUrt  (NanhaUenon,  ilo^:  G.  H.  £  S.  N. 
PlulMgniW   P — ' —     "- J  ii-i-u-  .(—J—    .0—    •_!. 

TOBKTOWH.  m  town  ud  thi  moDty-Kit  of  Yoik  anmty, 
VlrgiiiUk,  U.S.A.,  on  ili«  Yotk  river  lo  m.  from  iu  n»utli,  nnd 
about  te  n.  E.S.E.  of  Rlchnund.  PofL  (1910)  ij6.  It  b 
MTVcd  by  the  Bsltfmoie,  Chewpeake  &  Richsuwd  Wmnahip 
llne^  uid  about  At '°-  disUnt  ii  Lee  Ht]I,i  lUtian  on  tlie  Cben- 
pctke  ft  Ohio  nQmy.  Luge  depotits  of  miil  neu  the  town 
tre  used  for  the  nunufictuie  of  cement.  la  the  main  itreet 
to  the  oldest  custom-taouie  in  the  United  Statis,  u>d  the  houie 
of  Tbonu  Nelson  (t73S-i;8g),  t,  signer  of  the  DecUniion  of 
ladependence.  In  CDaimemoratkia  of  the  suREDder  oF  Lord 
CotninlL's  in  October  1 7S1.  Ibeie  is  a  nonutaeot  of  Maine  paniie 
(100  ft.  «  in.  high]  dsign^  by  R.  M.  Hunt  and  J.  Q.  A.  Waid; 
its  comct-stooa  vu  laid  in  18S1  dutbg  Ibe  centennial  celelna- 
liOD  of  Ibo  suireoder,  anii  it  wu  completed  in  1S83.  Yotktown 
mt  founded  in  1691,  as  »  port  of  entiy  for  York  county.  It 
beome  tbe  county-sest  id  lAgt,  and  sitliough  it  never  had  more 
than  about  100  bouses  its  trade  «u  omsidemble  untn  it  was 
ruined  Iq*  the  Wu  of  Independence.  In  that  war  tbe  final 
victory  <^  tbe  Americana  snd  (bcir  Frendi  alUcs  look  ptace  at 
YMktown. 


a  facet  fit 

, liaded  -•— 

«  be  held  UBtH  Vltgioia 

-jKbad  out  at  WiadnrtHi. 

It  Pctenburi,  Miginia, 


Kluch  had  been  under  Villli 
»JIh  further  iranfanxmerrU 
more  ihan  7000  niFn.  Fadi 
whom  WuhingtoQ  bad  KKt  < 
of  light  Lnfantnr  10  chefk  Ai 
IB  coniniaiid  «■  all  (be  Ainer 
fine  actcmpt  vu  Co  iirevenc 
Aotbony  Wa^DC.     Failing  id 


aoch,  and  there  with  Che  Iroopi 
<hiUip<  and  BcnuUcc  Anuld  and 
I  New  York  miKd.  hii  army  to 
im  in  Richmond  waa  Lafayette, 


m  to  New  York  to  ittt,  aad  the  Pi«ach  wo* 

k^  '^"-^     Lraviog  only  about  4000  aiea  to 
lan,  Wuhingtoo  tec  out  (or  Virciaia 

■■ hoTd, 

■act  toaiiwtad  tha  allfadanyTivi'^h^^'Ae  Cheopnla 
to  tha  VKuury  of  WDliaaubiiti.  hkI  on  the  >»th  of  SapUBbcr 
It  marked  to  YotktowB.  Recdving,  on  Ibe  mme  day,  a  ileKaich 
turn  CUntsa  pnintaina  rdkf,  aad  tiaii^  tbe  eno^  dMi  oat- 
Sank  Umt,  ConiwalUi ahatideaed  bit  outpoati  dutiag  thelMowiac 
nlahi  and  witbdnw  10  Ua  iaaar  deftncaa,  ainlitii«  d  anci 
redoubta  and  ni  iiacceriei  coanccMd  by  iBtreDchaieBta,  beiidea 
batieitei  alonE  tbe  rivtr  bank.  The  11110,  16,000  ttrong.  look 
rnTnioa  of  ^  ibandeaed  poala  and  dowd  In  oo  the  tnvn  is 
a  Eoiiaicle  ottiDdiaa  fnaa  Wormley  Creek  hdow  ii  to  about 
a  mile  above  [c,  th*  AoMiaai  haldiu  the  r^t  and  tbe  Pieocb 
the  Ml.  On  the  niiht  of  Ociobcr  5ib-«tb  (be  allis  opened  the 
fint  pennel  abovt  Coo  ydi.  [inm  the  Btitiib  woika.  and  enend- 
■ni  (ma  a  deep  cavise  on  the  N.W.  to  (be  river  beak  on  tha 
S,E-,  a  distaoce  of  neoHy  a  m-  Six  dayi  later  the  second  parrHri 
wu  begun  within  joo  vda.  of  the  Britiih  Unea,  and  it  ■»  pnoically 
coiDpleied  OB  the  lu^riii  of  the  14th  and  ijth,  when  two  BridiL 
redoubts  were  carried  by  uaault.  one  by  the  Amecfean  kd  by 
Akxaads  HamilCon  and  one  by  tbe  Fiench  led  by  UMI.-ColaBd 
G.  de  Deoi-Ponli.  la  the  morning  oC  (he  i6th  ConiwBllia  anleml 
Lieul.-Colond  Abcfcrombie  to  oiake  aa  aaeault  oa  two  Freruh 
balteiiBL    He  cairied  them  and  spiked  eleven  gum,  but  they  woe 

later.    On  (be  mgb[  of  the  i6tb  and  17th  Comwallit  attemiueil 
--  ■•■ -eaideortbe 


ami  FicKhloi 

In  i86>  tbe  Confedente  defences  about  Yoiktown  waa 
beaiefted  for  a  rnontb  (April  4~Uiy  3)  by  tbe  Army  of  the 
Potomac  imda- Gcoenl  M'Cletlan.  Then:  waino  inteoiion  on 
the  parted  tbe  CoofBdentccommandeT-ia-chiefpJosepbJcJiiatoa, 
to  do  more  tban  gain  time  by  holding  Yorktown  and  the  line 
of  the  Warwick  river  as  long  ai  posoble  without  serioos  fighting, 
and  witbout  imperilling  the  line  of  retreat  en  Richmosd;  a^ 
when  after  many  dekys  M'OctUnwis  Sn  1  position  toaatauU 

'■''"■■  his  heavy  sit«e  gtins,  the  Conhdentts 


feU  b 


S«T.  N.  Page,  "  Old  Yoiktavn,"  [n  Anhu/iVifsi^  (October, 
IgBi):H.  P.lohniton,  Ttt  ynkutm  Campairn  laJ  llir  Surrmdir ^ 
CanaeUia  (New  York.  iBSi)^  A.  S.  WetSi.  Tjb  J-manJor  Caii- 
f<u(x(Newyo[k,iSS])iaadJ.  C  Rom,  Stary  tf  lia  Ctatt  Wai, 

YORUBAA;  YORVBiLAHD.  lie  Yoniba.  a  gnnp  of  Negra 
tribes,  have  given  thai  name  to  an  eitendve  aiei  in  West 
Africa,  in  the  hinieiland  of  Lagoa.  The  Yoruba  are  of  tins 
Negro  stock,  in  many  lespecti  lyjacal  of  the  race,  but  amoog 
them  are  found  persons  with  lighter  skim  and  features  lecmlbng 
the  Hamitic  or  Semitic  peoples.  This  arises,  in  aH  probabilityj 
from  an  infiltration  of  Berber  and  Arab  blood  through  tbe  FnU 
Iq.tX  Tbe  Yoruba  themselves  have  traditions  af  on  Orienial 
ori^.  They  ui  divided  into  many  tribes,  among  the  best 
known  bdng  the  Oyo— Yotuba  proper,  the  Egba,  Jebu,  IFe  aiul 
Ibadan.  They  are  Bometitncs  called  by  the  French  Nago,  aad 
■re  known  to  the  Sierra  Laonia,many  of  whom  am  of  Yoruba 
Aku.  A  conddenble  proportiDn  of  th*  Americaa 
al»  said  to  be  of  Yoruba  migin.  For  a  Img  period 
the  Yoruba  were  raided  by  tbe  Dahomeyans  and  other  coast 
tribes,  to  sell  ■>  slaves  lo  tbe  white  traders.  They  an  both 
an  uiiian  and  agriculture)  people.  Pottery,  weaving,  tanning, 
dyeing,  and  for^ng  are  among  their  industries.  The  houses  of 
chiefs,  often  containing  fifty  rooms,  arc  well  built,  and  decorated 
with  carvings  representing  symbolic  devices  f^ubms  anunsb 
and  scenes  of  war  or  the  chase. 

The  Yoruba  have  con^dcrable  adnbiistntivt  ability.  Tbdr 
system  of  gDvemmenl  places  the  power  in  a  council  of  dden  pis- 
tided  over  by  a  chief  wbo  owes  bis  position  to  a  combination  ot 
prindpln  of  heredity  aad  .elecliotL'  The  ntfing  dnd  most 
R.  E.  Dennett  itatet  (hat  (be  [oveniment  ti  baaed  on  the  nie 
of  four  anax  chirfi  who  jeipoctively  repretent  Ihe  phaiea  of  famity 
life,  namely,  [i)  Ibe  dtfbdbead  of  tbe  family,  called  Oridia;  (^  tte 


YOSAI— YOSEMTTE 


937 


always  be  taJoen  from  the  manben  of  one  of  two  liMni1if%  the 
■occessioa  in  many  cases  paaeuig  fnua  one  to  the  other  family 
alternately.    Pximogeniture  is  not  necessarily  coosiderad. 

Before  the  introduction  of  letters  the  Yoniba  are  said  to  have 
employol  knotted  struts  for  recocding  events.  Their  language, 
which  has  been  reduced  to  writing  and  cazef  uUy  studied,  has  pene- 
trated as  far  E.  as  Kano  in  the  Hausa  country.  The  best  known 
dialectic  varieties  are  those  of  Egba,  Jehu.  Ondo,  Ife,  lllorin  and 
OKro  (Yorubo  proper,  called  also  Nago);  but  the  discrepancies  are 
shght.  The  most  marked  feature,  a  strong  tendency  towards 
monosyllabism — produced  by  phonetic  decay— has  given  rise  to 
the  principle  of  intonation,  required  to  distinguish  words  originally 
different  but  induced  b)r  corruption  to  the  condition  of  horoopnones. 
Besides  the  tones,  of  whkh  there  are  three, — high,  low  and  middle,— 
Yoruba  has  also  developed  a  dezree  of  vocalic  haxmony,  in  which  the 
vowels  of  the  affixes  are  assimilated  to  that  of  the  rooC  InBexion, 
as  in  Bantu,  is  effected  chiefly  by  prefixes;  and  there  is  a  remarkable 
power  of  word-formation  by  the  fusion  of  several  relational  elements 
in  a  single  compound  term.  The  Bible  and  several  other  books 
have  been  translated  into  Yoniba,  which  as  a  medium  of  general 
intercourse  in  West  Africa  ranks  in  importance  next  to  Hausa 
and  Mandingan.  The  Yoruba  religion  is  that  usually  known  as 
fetishism. 

The  Yocttoa  countiy  eitends  from  Benm  on  the  £.  to  Dahomey 
on  the  W.  (where  it  somewhat  overlaps  the  French  frontier), 
being  boondiBd  N.  by  Borga  and  S.  by  the  roast  lands  of  Lagos. 
It  covers  about  a$,ooo  sq.  m.    Most  of  it  is  included  in  the 
British  protectorate  of  Soothem  Nigeria.    The  land  is  moder- 
ately elevated  and  a  laxge  part  of  it  is  densely  forested.    It  is 
well  watered;  the  rivers  belong  mainly  to  the  coast  systems, 
though  some  dxain  to  the  Niger.    The  history  of  Yonibaland»  as 
known  to  Europeans,  does  not  go  back  beyond  the  close  of  the 
17th  century.     At  that  time  it  was  a  powerful  empire,  and  had 
indirectly  come — through  its  connexion  with  Benin  and  Dahomey 
— to  some  extent  under  Euzopean  influence.    There  was  also  a 
much  slighter   Moslem  influence.    One  tradition  brought  the 
founder  of  the  nation  from  Bomu..   The  Yoruba  I4>pcar  to  have 
inhabited  their  present  coimtry  at  least  as  eariy  as  aj>.  xooo. 
In  the  i8th  cxntuxy  the  Yoruba  were  constantly,  engaged  in 
warfare    with    their    Dahomeyan    neighbours,    and   in    1738 
they  captured  Kana,  the  sacred  city  of  the  kings  of  Dahomey. 
From  1747  to  the  time  of  King  Geso  (18x8)  the  Dahoni^aos 
paid  tribute  to  Yoruba.    It  was  not  imtil  the  early  yeaxs  of  the 
19th  century  that  the  Yoruba  came  as  far  S.  as  the  sea,  when 
they  foundeid  a  colony  at  Lagos.    About  1825  the  province  of 
Ilkxrin,  already  permeatod  by  Moslem  influences  from  the  north, 
declared  itself  independent  of  the  Yoruba,  and  shortly  afterwards 
Yorubaland  was  overrun  by  Fula  invaders.    From  this  time 
(1830-35)  the  Yoruba  empire — there  had  been  six  confederate 
kiogdoms'^was  broken  up  into  a  number  of  comparatively  weak 
states,  who  warred  with  one  another,  with  the  Dahomeyans  and 
with  their  Moslem  neighbours.    The  advent  of  the  British  at 
first  led  to  further  complications  and  fighthig,  but  gradually 
the  various  tribes  gained  confidence  in  the  colonial  government 
and  sought  its  services  as  peacemaker.    A  treaty  placing  their 
country  under  British  protection  was  signed  by  the  Egba  in 
January  1893,  and  the  subsequent  extension  of  British  control 
over  the  other  portions  of  Yorubaland  met  with  no  opposition. 
Though  divided  into  semi-iiklependent  states,  the  Yoruba 
retain  a  feeble  sense  of  common  nationality.    The  direct  repre- 
sentative of  the  old  Yoniba  power  is  the  alafin  or  kfaig  of  Oyo 
occupying  the  N.  and  central  parts  of  the  whole  region.    Round 
this  central  state,  wluch  has  lost  much  of  its  importance,  are 
grouped  the  kingvloms  of  lUorin,  Ijesa,  Ife  and  Ondo  in  the  E., 
Mahin  and  Jebu  in  the  S.  and  Egba  in  the  W.    The  ruler  of 
each  of  these  states  has  a  title  characteristic  of  his  oflice.    Thus 
the  chief  ol  Ife  bean  the  title  of  om  (a  term  indicating 
spiritual  supremacy).   To  Uie  oni  of  Ife  or  the  alafin  of  Oyo  all 
the  other  great  diiefe  announce  their  succesdon.    The  oni, 
says  Sir  William  MacGregor,  is  regarded  as  the  fountain  of 
hcmour,  and  without  his  consent  no  chief  can  assume  the  privi- 
lege of  wearing  a  crown.    The  moat  important  of  the  Yoruba 

fatheihood:  (3)  motherhood;  (4)  sonship.  The  chief  representing 
motheriMod  is  bixHher  to  the  mother,  ana  in  the  dcvelopea  state  has 
beoome  the  Balogun  or  war  lord. 


states  is  Egba,  the  rafing  doaf  of  wUch  is  the  otole  of  Abeoktu 
(see  Abeokuta). 

Yorubaland  is  a  country  of  compaxativdy  large  dtles.  The 
alafin  resides  at  Oyo,  on  a  headstream  of  the  Oshun,  a  phu» 
which  has  tuooeeded  the  older  capitals,  Bofaa  and  Katunga, 
lying  farther  N.  and  destroyed  during  the  wars  with  the  FUla. 
Oyo  is  exceeded  in  sise  by  several  other  places  in  Yorabaland, 
where  the  inhabitants  have  |p«ped  themselves  together  for 
mutual  protection  in  waUed  towns.  Thus  have  q>rung  up  the 
impcMTtant  towns  of  Abeokuta  00  the  Ogun,  doe  N.  of  Lagos; 
Ibadan  on  a  branch  of  the  Omi,  30  m.  S.  <rf  Oyo;  and  lllorin, 
capital  of  the  lllorin  state,  besides  several  other  towns  with  a 
population  of  some  40,000. 

See  A.  I>alren,  The  History  ef  Dahomn  (London,  1793);  A.  B. 
Ellis.  The  Yoruba^speakiMg  Peoples  ef  tht  SUne  Coast  ^  Wist  Africa 
(London.  ^94):  R.  E.  Dennett,  Nteerian  Studies,  or  the  Rditions 
and  Politieaf  System  of  the  YonAa  (London.  X910);  C.  F.  Harford- 
Battersby.  Nigfir  and  xonAa  Routes  (London,  1895-96);  and  Lagos 
and  NiCBRXA. 

YfStAI  [Eikuchil  (i  781-1878),  Japanese  painter,  was  the 
son  of  a  samwrai  named  Kawara,  of  Yedo.  He  was  adopted 
by  the  KikucM  family,  who  were  old  hereditary  retamers  of 
the  Tokugawa  dan*  When  eighteen,  he  became  a  pupil  of 
TakaU  EnjO;  but,  after  studying  the  principles  of  the  KanO, 
ShijG,  and  Maniyama  Bchooh^^4n  the  latter,  perhaps,  under 
Ozui,  a  son  of  Okj^o— he  devdoped  an  independent  style, 
having  some  afiKnities  with  that  of  Tani  Buncho:  Re  was 
one  of  the  last  of  the  great  pahiters  of  Japan;  and  hb  iOustrated 
history  of  Japanese  heroes,  the  Zenhen  KtjUsu,  is  a  remaikaMe 
specimen  <rf  his  power  as  a  draughtsman  in  blade  and  white. 

TOSEHRE;  a  famous  valley  on  the  W.  slope  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  of  Qdifomia,  about  150  m.  E.  <rf  San  Francisco  and 
4000  fL  above  the  sea.  It  is  7  m.  long,  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  wide, 
and  neatly  a  mile  deep,  eroded  out  of  hard  massive  granite  by 
gUuaal  action.  Its  precipitous  walls  present  a  great  variety 
of  forms,  and  the  bottom,  a  filled-up  lake  basm,  is  level  and 
park-like.  The  most  notable  of  the  wall  rocks  aw:  £1 
Capitan,  3300  ft  high*  a  sheer,  pbdn  mass  of  granite;  the 
Three  Brothers,  North  Dome,  GUder  Point,  the  Senthael, 
Cathedral,  Sentinel  Dome  and  Ckmd's  Rest,  from  3800  to 
nearly  6000  ft.  hi|^;  and  Half  Dome,  the  noblest  of  all,  which 
rises  at  the  head  of  the  valley  to  the  hdght  of  4740  ft.  These 
rocks  illustrate  on  a  grsnd  scale  the  action  of  ice  in  mountain 
sculpture.  For  here  five  krge  gladers  united  to  form  the 
grand  trtank  glader  that  eroded  the  valley  and  occupied  it 
as  iu  diannd.  Its  monunes,  though  mostly  obscured  by 
vegetatian  and  weathering,  may  still  be  traced;  while  on  the 
snowy  peaks  at  the  headwaten  of  the  Menxd  a  considerable 
number  of  small  ^adeis,  once  tributary  to  the  main  Yesemite 
glader,  still  exist.  The  Bridal  Veil  Fall,  900  ft.  high,  is  one 
of  the  most  mteresting  features  of  the  lower  end  of  the  Valley. 
Towards  the  upper  end  the  great  Yoseniite  Fall  poon  from  a 
height  of  s6oo  ft.  The  vaUqr  divideSftt  the  head  into  three 
brancfacsi,  the  Tenaya,  Metoed  and  South  Fork  canyons.  In 
the  main  (Merced)  branch  are  the  Vernal  and  Nevada  Falls, 
400  and  600  ft.  high.  The  Nevada  is  usually  ranked  next 
to  the  Yosemite  among  the  five  main  falls  of  the  valley,  and 
is  the  whitest  of  all  the  falls.  The  Vernal,  about  half  a  mile 
bekyw  the  Nevada,  is  famous  for  its  afternoon  rainbows,  At 
flood-time  it  is  a  nearly  regular  sheet  about  80  ft.  wide,  changing 
as  it  descends  from  green  to  puipl|sh-grey  and  white.  In 
the  S.  branch,  a  mile  from  the  head  of  the  nudn  valley,  is  the 
lUHouette  Fall,  600  ft.  high,  one  of  the  mflot  beautiful  of  tho 
Yosemite  choir. 

Considering  the  great  height  of  the  snowy  mountains  about 
the  valley,  the  dimate  of  the  Yosemite  is  remadutbly  mild. 
The  vegetation  is  rich  and  luxuriant.  The  talktt  pnies  are  over 
300  ft.  high;  the  trunks  of  some  of  the  oaks  an  from  6  to  8 
ft.  in  diameter;  violets,  lilies,  golden-rods,  ceanotlnis»  man* 
.zamta,  wild  rose  and  asalea  make  broad  beds  and  banks  of 
bk>om  in  the  spring;  and  on  the  wannest  parts  of  the  walls 
flowen  bkMBom  in  every  month  of  the  year. 


93» 


YOUGHAL—YOUNG,  A. 


Tbe  valley  was  <ttaa»v<ied  in  1851  by  a  miUury  compaoy 
in  pursuit  of  marauding  Indians;  regular  tourist  travel  biegan 
in  1856.  The  first  permanent  settler  in  tlie  valley  was  Mr  J.  C. 
Lamon,  who  built  a  cabin  in  tbe  u|^>er  end  of  it  in  i860  and 
planted  gardens  and  orchards.  In  1864  the  valley  was  grsnted 
to  the  state  of  California  by  act  of  Congress  on  condition 
that  it  ^ould  be  held  as  a  place  of  public  use,  resort  and 
recreation  inalienable  for  all  time,  was  re<eded  to  the  United 
States  by  California  on  the  3rd  of  March  1905,  and  is  now 
included  in  the  Yosemite  National  Park. 

In  the  number  and  height  of  its  vertical  falls  and  in  the  masriw 
grandeur  of  El  Capitan  and  Half  Dome  racio  Yoacmite  i»  unrivalled. 
But  there  are  many  other  valleys  of  the  same  kind.  The  most  noted 
of  those  in  the  Sierra,,  visited  every  summer  by  tourists,  hunters  and 
mountaineera^  are  die  Hetch  Hetchy  Valley,  a  w<Midcn:ful  counter- 
part  of  Yosemite  in  the  Tuolumne  canyon;  Tehipitee  Valley,  in 
the  Middle  Fork  canyon  of  King's  river;  and  the  King's  river 
Yosemite  in  the  South  Fork  canyon,  the  latter  being  larger  and 
deeper  than  the  Merced  Yosemite.  All  are  similar  in  their  trends, 
forms,  sculpture  and  vegetation,  and  are  plainly  and  harmoniously 
related  to  the  ancient  glaciers.  The  Romsdal  and  NaerOdal  of 
Norway  and  Lautcrbrunncn  of  the  Alps  are  well  characterised 
glacial  valleyrs  of  the  Yosemite  type,  and  in  S.E.  Alaska  many  may 
be  observed  in  process  of  formation. 

See  the-  Annual  Reports  (Washington,  1891  sqq.)  of  the  Super- 
intendent of  the  Park;  the  Guide  to  the  Yosemite  published  by  the 
California  Geological  Survey:  John  Muir,  Our  National  Parks 
(Boston,  1901);  and  Bunnell's  Discovery  of  ike  Yosemile  (New 
York.  1893).  O-Mu.*) 

YOUGHAL  (pronounced  Yawl)^  a  seaport,  market  town  and 
watering-place  of  county  Cork,  Ireland,  on  the  W.  side  of  the 
Rlackwatcr  estuary,  and  on  the  Cork  &  Youghal  branch  of 
the  Great  Southern  &  Western  railway,  26I  m.  E.  of  Cork. 
Pop.  (1901)  5393.  The  collegiate  church  of  St  Mary,  in  the 
later  Decorated  style,  was  erected  in  the  nth  century,  but 
rebuilt  in  the  13th,  and  since  that  time  frequently  restored. 
It  contains  a  beautiful  monument  to  the  ist  earl  of  Cork. 
The  .college  was  founded  by  an  earl  of  Desmond  in  1464. 
There  are  still  a  few  fragments  of  the  Dominican  friacy  founded 
in  1269.  The  Clock  Gate  (1771)  is  noticeable,  and  portions  of 
the  old  walls  are  to  be  seen.  Myrtle  Grove  was  formerly  the 
residence  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  He  was  mayor  of  Youghal 
in  1588-89,  and  is  said  to  have  first  cultivated  the  potato  here. 
Tlie  harbour  is  safe  and  commodious,  but  has  a  bar  at  the 
mouth.  At  the  N.  extremity  of  the  harbour  the  river  is 
crossed  by  a  bridge  on  wooden  piles.  The  principal  exports 
are  com  and  other  agricultural  produce;  the  imports  are 
coal,  culm,  timber  and  slate.  Coarse  earthenware  and  bricks 
are  manufactured.  Fine  point-lace  commanding  high  prices 
is  made  by  the  Presentation  Sisters.  The  Blackwatcr  is 
famous  for  salmon,  and  sea-fishing  is  important.  The  Strand, 
the  modem  portion  of  the  town,  has  all  the  attributes  of  a 
seaside  resort. 

Youghal  {EsckaiUy  "  the  Yew  wodd  ")  was  made  a  settlement 
of  the  Northmen  in*  the  9th  century,  and  was  incorporated 
by  King  John  in  1209.  The  Franciscan  monastery,  foimded 
at  Youghal  by  FitzGersId  in  1224,  was  the  earliest  house  of 
that  order  in  Ireland.  Sir  Roger  Mortimer  landed  at  Youghal 
in  13 1 7.  The  town  was  plundered  by  the  eari  of  Desmond 
in  1579.  In  1641  it  was  garrisoned  and  defended  by  the  earl 
of  Cock.  In  1649  it  declared  for  the  parliament,  and  was 
occupied  as  his  headquarters  by  Cromwell.  It  sent  two 
members  to  parKament  from  1374  till  the  Union,  after  (hat 
only  one  down  to  1885. 

TOUNO,  ARTHUR  (174X-X830),  English  writer  on  agriculture 
and  social  economy,  second  son  of  the  Rev.  Arthur  Young, 
rector  of  Bradfield,  in  Suffolk,  chaplain  to  Speaker  Onslow,  was 
bom  on  tbe  xrth  of  September  1741.  After  being  at  a  school 
at  Lavenham,  he  was  in.  1758  placed  in  a  mercantile  house 
at  Lynn,  but  showed  no  taste  for  commercial  pursuits.  He 
published,  when  enly  seventeen,  a  pamphlet  On  the  War  in 
N^rtk  Amiriea,  and  in  1761  went  to  London  and  started  a 
periodical  Work,  entitled  Tka  Unkort  Museiem,  which  was 
dfopped  by  the  advice  of  Samuel  Johnson.  He  also  wrote 
four  novels,  and  Refiectiams  «« tka  Presettt  StaU  of  Agairrat  H4>me 


amd  Ahnad  in  1759.  After  fab  ft thcPs  death  in  1759,  hh  motlier 
had  given  him  the  direction  of  the  family  cstau  at  Bradnekl 
Hall;  but  the  property  was  small  and  encumbexvd  with  debt. 
From  1763  to  1766  he  devoted  himself  to  fanning  on  hb 
mother's  property.  In  1765  he  married  a  Miss  Allen;  but  the 
union  is  said  not  to  have  been  happy,  though  he  was  of  domestic 
habits  and  an  affectionate  father.  In  1767  he  undertook  on 
his  own  account  the  management  of  a  farm  in  Essex.  He 
engsged  in  various  experiments,  and  embodied  the  results  of 
them  in  A  Comse  of  Experimental  Agriculture  (1770).  Though 
Young's  experiments  were,  in  general,  unsuccessful,  he  thus 
acquired  a  solid  knowledge  of  agriculture.  He  had  already 
begun  a  series  of  journeys  through  England  and  Wales,  and 
gave  an  account  of  his  observations  in  books  which  ai^>cared 
from  1768  to  1770— i4  Six  Weeks*  Tour  through  the  Southern 
Counties  of  England  and  Wales,  A  Six  Months*  Tour  through  ike 
North  of  England  and  the  Farmer's  Tour  through  the  East  of 
En^nd.  He  says  that  these  books  contained  the  only  extant 
information  relative  to  the  rental,  produce  and  stock  of  EngUnd 
that  was  founded  on  actual  examination.  They  were  very 
favourably  received,  being  translated  into  most  European  Ian- 
guages  by  1792. 

.In  1768  he  published  the  Parmer's  Letters  to  the  People  af 
England^  in  1771  the  Parmer* s  Calendar ^  which  went  throu|^  s 
great  number  of  editions,  and  in  1774  his  Political  Arithmelic, 
whidi  was  widely  translated.  About  this  time  Youjig  acted 
as  parliamentary  reporter  for  the  Morning  Post.  He  made  s 
tour  in  Ireland  in  1776,  publishing  his  Tour  in  Irdand  in  17861 
In  1784  he  began  the  publication  of  the  Annals  of  Agriculiuref 
which  was  continued  for  45  volumes:  this  work  had  many  con- 
tributors, among  whom  was  George  HI.,  writing  under  the  nem 
de  plume  of  "  Ralph  Robinson."  Young's  first  visit  to  France 
was  made  in  1787.  Traversing  that  country  in  every  direction 
just  before  and  during  the  first  movements  of  the  Revolution, 
he  has  given  valuable  notices  of  the  condition  of  the  people 
and  the  conduct  of  public  affairs  at  that  critical  juncture.  The 
Travels  in  France  appeared  in  2  vols,  in  1792.  On  his  return 
home  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture, 
then  (i  793)  just  formed  under  the  presidency  of  Sir  John  Sinclair. 
In  this  capacity  he  gave  most  valuable  assistance  in  the  coQectioB 
and  preparation  of  agricultural  surveys  of  the  English  counties. 
His  sight,  however,  failed,  and  in  t8ii  he  had  an  operation  for' 
cataract,  which  proved  unsuccessful.  He.  suffered  also  in  his 
last  years  from  stone.  He  died  on  the  20th  of  April  1820. 
He  left  an  autobiography  in  MS.,  which  was  edited  (1898)  by 
Miss  M.  Betham-Ed  wards,  and  is  the  main  authority  for  hb 
life;  and  also  the  materials  for  a  great  work  on  tlie  "  Elements 
and  practice  of  agriculture.*' 

Arthur  Youn^  was  the  greatest  of  all  English  writers  on  agri- 
culture; but  it  IS  as  a  social  and  political  observer  that  he  Is  be»t 
known,  and  his  Tour  in  Ireland  and  Travels  in  France  are  still  full 
of  interest  and  instruction.  He  saw  clearly  and  exposed  unsparingly 
the  causes  which  retarded  the  prof^ress  of  Ireland.  He  strongly 
urged  the  repeal  of  the  penal  laws  which  pressed  upon  the  Catholvcs: 
he  condemned  the  restrictions  imposed  by  Great  Britain  on  the 
commerce  of  Irehind,  and  also  the  perpetual  Interference  cS  the 
Irish  parliament  with  industry  by  prohibitions  and  bounties.  He 
favoured  a  legislative  union  of  Ireland  with  Great  Britain,  though 
he  did  not  reganl  such  a  measure  as  absolutely  necessary,  many  of 
its  advantages  being  otherwise  attainable. 

The  soil  of  France  he  found  in  general  sujpcrior  to  that  of  England, 
and  its  produce  less.  Agriculture  was  neither  as  well  undcratood 
nor  as  much  esteemed  as  in  England.  -He  severdy  ceoaured  the 
higher  classes  for  their  n^lect  of  it.  "  Banishment  (from  court) 
alone  will  force  the  French  nobility  to  execute  what  the  English  do 
for  pleasure — reside  upon  and  adom  their  estates."  Young  saw 
the  commencement  of  violence  in  the  rural  districts,  and  his  sym* 
pathies  bcffian  to  take  the  side  of  the  classes  suffering  from  the 
excesses ^of  the  Revolution.  This  change  of  attitude  was  shown  by 
his  publication  in  1793  of  a  tract  entitled  The  Example  of  Franu  a 
Warning  to  England.  Of  the  profounder  significance  of  the  French 
outbneaK  he  seems  to  have  had  little  idea,  and  thought  the  crisis 
would  be  met  by  a  constitutional  adjustment  in  accordance  with  tbe 
English  type.  He  strongly  condemned  the  nUtayer  system,  then 
widely  prevalent  in  Prance,  as  "  perpetuatiiw  poverty  and  exclud- 
ing instruction  " — as,  in  fact,  the  ruin  of  the  country.  Some  of 
his  phrases  have  been  often  quoted  by  the  advocates  of  peasant 


YOUNG,  B— YOUNG,  B. 


939 


IHOpnetoisfamaflf&voariiif  thetrview.  *'  Tbema^of  oroaertvtfifna 
saod  to  gotd.  "  Give  a  man  the  secure  possession  of  a  bleak  rock. 
and  he  will  turn  tt  into  a  garden;  give  him  a  nine  years'  Icane  of  a 
garden,  and  he  will  convert  it  into  a  desert."  But  these  sentences, 
in  which  the  epigrammatic  form  exaggerates  a  tnith.  and  which 
milfht  seem  to  represeBt  the  possession  of  capital  as  of  no  importance 
in  agriculture*  must  not  be  taken  aa  convc^'ing  hb  approMtion  of 
the  system  of  small  properties  in  general.  He  approved^  it  only 
when  the  sutxfividon  was  strictly  limited,  and  even  then  with  great 
tcserves;  and  he  remained  to  the  end  what  J.  S.  Mill  calb  nim, 
"  the  apostle  of  ia  ptutde  aUlure" 

The  Directory  in  i4oi  ordered  his  writings  on  the  art  to  be  tmns- 
la ted  and  publishe4  at  Paris  In  20  volumes  under  the  title  of  J> 
Cnltioateur  anglais.  His  Travels  in  France  were'  translated  in 
1793-94  l>y  Soulis;  a  new  version  by  M.  Lesage,  with  an  intro- 
duction by  M.  de  Lavei^ne,  appeared  in  1856.  An  interesting 
review  of  the  latter  publication,  under  the  tide  of  Arikur  Y^ng 
cl  la  France  de  1789^  will  be  found  in  M.  Baudrillart's  PubUcisUs 
modemes  (2nd  ed.,  1873). 

TOUNO,  BRIOHAK  (iSox-iSr?),  second  presdent  of  the 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-Day  Saints,  was  born  in 
Whittingham,  Vermont,  on  the  xst  of  June  1801.  He  died  m 
Salt  Lake  Gty,  Utah,  on  the  29th  of  August  1877.  (See  Mokmons.) 

TOUNO,  CHARLES  KAYNB  (1777-1856),  English  actor,  was 
the  son  of  a  surgeon.  His  first  stage  appearance  was  in  Liver- 
pool in  1798  as  Douglas,  in  Home's  tragedy.  His  first  London 
appearance  was  in  1807  as  Hamlet.  With  the  decline  of  John 
PhiUp  Kemble,  and  until  the  coming  of  Kean  and  Macready, 
be  was  the  leading  English  tragedian.    He  retved  in  1832. 

TOUNO,  EDWARD  (1683-1765),  English  poet,  author  of 
Ifighl  Thoughts,  son  of  Edward  Young,  afterwards  dean  of 
Salisbury,  was  born  at  his  father's  rectory  at  Upham,  near 
Winchester,  and  was  baptized  on  the  3rd  of  July  1683.  He  Was 
educated  on  the  foundation  at  Winchester  College,  and  matri- 
culated in  1702  at  New  College,  Oxford.  He  soon  removed  to 
Corpus  Christi,  and  in  1708  was  nominated  by  Archbishop  Tenison 
to  a  law  fellowship  at  All  Souls',  for  the  sake  of  Dekn  Young,  who 
died  in  1705.  He  took  his  degree  of  D.C.L.  in  1719.  His  first 
publication  was  an  E^sUe  to  ...  .  Lord  Lansdoune  (17x3).  It 
was  followed  by  a  jP^w(m/Atf  Lay/  Z>fly(i7i3),  dedicated  to  Queen 
Anne;  The  Force  of  Rdigion:  or  Vanquish'd  Love  (1714),  a  poem 
on  the  execution  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  and  her  husband,  dedicated 
to  the  countess  of  Salisbury;  and  an  epistle  to  Addison,  On  the 
late  Queen* s  Death  and  His  Majesty* s  A  ccessum  to  the  Throne  (x  7 1 4) , 
in  which  he  made  indecent  haste  to  praise  the  new  king.  The 
fulsome  style  of  these  dedications  ill  accords  with  the  pious  tone 
of  the  poems,  and  they  are  omitted  in  the  edition  of  his  works 
drawn  up  by  himself.  About  this  time  began  his  connexion  with 
Philip,  duke  of  Wharton,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Dublin  in 
1717.  In  X719  his  play  of  Busiris  was  produced  at  Druiy  Lane, 
and  in  1721  his  Raengt.  The  latter  play  was  dedicated  to 
Wharton,  to  whom  it  owed,  said  Young,  its  "  most  beautiful 
incident."  Wharton  promised  him  two  aimuities  of  £100  each 
and  a  sum  of  £600  in  consideration  of  his  expenses  aa  a  candidate 
for  parliamentary  election  at  Cirencester.  In  view  of  these 
promises  Young  said  that  he  had  refused  two  livings  in  the  gift 
of  AU  Souls'  College,  Oxford,  and  had  also  sacrificed  a  life 
annuity  oflfered  by  the  marquess  of  Exeter  if  he  would  act  as 
tutor  to  his  son.  Wharton  failed  to  dischai^  his  obligations, 
and  Young,  who  pleaded  his  case  before  Lord  Chancellor 
Hardwicke  in  1740,  gained  the  annuity  but  not  the  £600. 
Between  X725  and  1728  Young  published  a  series  of  seven  satires 
on  The  Universal  Passion.  They  were  dedicated  to  the  duke 
of  Dorset,  Bubb  Dodington  (afterwards  Lord  Mekombe),  Sir 
Spencer  Compton,  Lady  Elizabeth  Germain  and  Sir  Robert 
Walpofe,  and  were  collected  in  1728  as  Love  of  Fame,  the 
Universal  Passion,  This  is  qualified  by  Samuel  Johnson  as  a 
"  very  great  performance,"  and  abounds  in  striking  and  pithy 
couplets.  Herbert  Croft  asserted  that  Young  made  £3000  by 
his  satires,  which  compensated  losses  he  had  suffered  in  tire 
South  Sea  Bubble.  In  1726  he  received,  through  Walpole,  a 
pension  of  £200  a  year.  To  the  end  of  his  life  he  continued  to 
urge  on  the  government  his  ckims  to  preferment,  but  the 
king  and  his  advisers  persisted  in  regarding  this  sum  as- an 
adequate  settlement. 


Young  was  neatly  fifty  when  he  decided  to  take  holy  orders. 
It  was  reportcd.that  the  author  of  Nig^  Thoughts  was  not,  in  bis 
earlier  days,  "  the  ornament  to  reUgion  and  morality  which  he 
afterwards  became,"  and  his  intimacy  with  the  duke  of  Wharton 
and  with  Lord  Melcombe  did  not  improve  his  xeputation.  A 
statement  attributed  to  Pope  probably  gives  the  correct  view. 
"He  had  much  of  a  sublime  genius,  though  without  common 
sens^;  so  that  iiis  genius,  having  no  guide,  was  perpetually 
liable  to  degenerate  into  bombast.  This  made  him  pass  a  foolish 
youth,  the  ^)ort  of  peers  and  poets;  but  his  having  a  very  good 
heart  enabl«l  him  to  support  the  clerical  character  when  he 
assumed  it,  first  with  decency  and  afterwards  with  honotir" 
(O.  Ruffhead,  Life  of  A.  Pope^  p.  29X).  In  1728  he  was  made  one 
of  the  royal  chai^ins,  and  in  1730  was  presented  to  the  college 
Uving  of  Welwyn,  Hertfordshire.  .  He  nairied  in  1731  Lady 
Elizabeth  Lee,  daughter  of  the  ist  eari  of  Lichfield.  Her 
daughter,  by  a  former  marrii^e  with  her  cousin  Francis  Lee, 
raanied  Henry  Temple,  son  of  the  xst  viscount  Palmerston. 
Mrs  Temple  died  at  Lyons  in  1736  on  her  way  to  Nice.  Her 
husband  and  Lady  Elisabeth  Young  died  in  1740.  These 
successive  deaths  are  supposed  to  be  the  events  referred  to  In 
the  SiglU  Thoughts  as  taking  place  "  ere  thrice  yon  moon  had 
filled  her  bom  "  (Night  i.).  In  the  preface  to  the  poem  Young 
states  that  the  occaskn  of  the  poem  was  real,  and  Philander 
and  Nardssa  have  been  rather  rashly  identified  with  Mr  and 
Mrs  Temple.  M.  Tfaomas  suggests  that  Philander  represents 
Thomas  TickeU,  who  was  an  old  friend  of  Young's,  and  died  three 
months  after  Lady  Elisabeth  Young.  It  was  further  supposed 
that  the  infidel  Loreiuso  was  a  dcetch  of  Young's  own  son,  a 
statement  disproved  by  the  fact  that  he  was  a  child  of  eight  years 
old  at  the  time  of  publication.  The  Complaint,  or  Night  Thoughts 
on  life,  Death  and  Immortality,  was  published  in  1742,  and 
was  followed  by  other  "  Nights,"  the  eighth  and  ninth  appearing 
in  X745.  In  X  753  his  tragedy  of  The  Brothers,  written  many  years 
before,  but  suppressed  because  he  was  about  to  enter  the  Church, 
was  produced  at  Drury  Lane.  •  Night  Thoughts  had  made  him 
famous,  but  he  lived  in  almost  uninterrupted  retirement,  ahhou|^ 
be  continued  vainly  to  solidt  preferment.  He  was,  however,  made 
clerk  of.  the  doset  to  the  princess  dowager  in  1761.  He  was 
never  cheerful,  it  was  said,  after  his  wife's  death.  He  disagreed 
with  his  son,  who  had  remonstrated,  apparently,  on  the  excessive 
influence  exerted  by  his  housekeeper  Mias  (known  as  Mrs) 
Hallows.  The  old  man  refused  to  see  his  son  before  he  died,  but 
is  said  to  have  forgiven  him,  and  left  him  his  mon^.  A  descrip- 
tion of  him  is  to  be  found  in  the  letters  of  his  curate,  John  Jones,  to 
Dr  Samud  Birch.    He  died  at  Welwyn  on  the  5th  of  April  1765. 

Youx^  is  said  to  have  been  a  brilliant  talker.  He  had  an 
extraordixuiry  knack  of  epigram,  and  though  the  Night  ThouglUs 
is  long  and  disconnected  it  abounds  in  brilliant  isolated  passages. 
Its  success  was  enormous.  It  was  translated  into  French', 
German,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Swedish  and  Magyar. 
In  France  it  became  one  of  the  classics  of  the  romantic  school. 
The  suspidon  of  inshicerity  that  damped  the  enthusiasm  of 
English  readers  acquainted  with  the  facts  of  his  career  did  not 
exist  for  French  readers.  If  he  did  not  invent  ^  melancholy  and 
moonlight  "  in  liteiature,  he  did  much  to  spread  the  fashionable 
taste  for  them.  Madame  Klopstock  thought  tho  king  ought  to 
make  him  archbnhop  of  Canterbury,  and  some  German  critics 
preferred  him  to  Milton.  Young  wrote  good  blank  verse,  and 
Samuel  Johnson  pronounced  Night  Thoughts  to  be  one  of  "  the 
few  poems  "  in  which  bbmk  verse  could  not  be  changed  for 
rhjrme  but  with  disadvantage. 

Other  works  by  Young  are:  The  TnstalmoHt  (to  Sir  R.  Walpole. 
1726):  CynthiO  (1727):  A  ViadicaOon  of  Promdence  .  .  .  (i72>6). 
a  sermon;  An  Apology  for  Punch  (17*9)'.  a  sermon;  Impertum 
Pelagi,  a  Naval  Lyruk  .  .  .  (1730);  Tvw  EpistUs  to  Mr  Pobe 
concerning  the  Authors  of  the  Age  (1730);  ^  Sea  Piece  .  .  .  (i733): 
The  Foreign  Address,  or  The  Best  Argument  fefr  Peats  (1734): 
The  Centaur  not  Fabulous;  in  Five  Letters  to  a  Friend  (1755);  ^^ 
Argument  .  .  .  for  the  Truth  of  His  [Christ'sl  ReUpoU  llj^),  a 
sermon  preached  before  the  king :  Conjectures  on  Ortginal  Compost- 
turn  .  .  .  (1759).  addressed  to  Samuel  Richardson;  and  Resignation 
.  .  .  (176s),  a  poem. 


9+0     YOUNG,  J.— YOUNG  MENS  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION 

NMi  nemUi  wu  illiiMnMd  by  Williun  Blake  in  1797,  *n^  by 

™».!»?:  o^-k::.  : n.  rf^ticni  Wrrki  tj  lU  Hn.  eamtJ 

tudl  for  publkation,  tad  a  ara- 
rb  Ctrntlia  Wttia,  fiieiy  mud 
....  with  ■  life  by  Jalm  Oonn, 
Wtrii  uc  indBdcd  in  the  .IUik 
IHtby  J.  MUlord  (i8w-iSa6,  1857 


Bucby  JoliH 

itAUire  aa  JokdIi  Texle.  /«■ 
[  Ulmv;  gdatiau  idntn  Fnuia 

.    St*  ^  W.  TbiHBu.  £<  Piiu 

TOnHG,  JUia  (1811-18S3),  Scotti^  mdiutrul  cbonbl, 
ns  ban  in  Glufov  on  (be  >jtb  of  July  1811.  Durini  hii 
apprcDtkc^iip  to  bJi  falhcTi  a  carpenta,  he  attended  rvcning 
clu9Cs  at  Andetvni^t  Collect,  vbcn  be  had  Lyon  Flaybii  and 
David  livingnone  for  fcDoii-pupUt^  and  the  ability  he  ibowed 
was  auch  that  Tbomai  Grah&m.  the  profeaur  of  cbemiitiy, 
choK  him  ai  lectuR  uhbUHI  in  iSji.  About  iSjq,  on  the 
[ccommcndalion  ol  Gnbaa,  vbom  in  1S37  be  had  accom- 
panied to  Uaivenity  College,  London,  be  waa  appointed 
chemiat  at  Jama  Muipnlt'*  alkaU  woika  in  Idncaabire;  in 
conneiion  wilb  tlknii  he  tbomd  that  cait-iron  vcndi  could 
be  ulisbctailly  MibsUtuled  (or  tUvu  in  the  maiiufactuEC  ol 
cauttic  soda,  and  KOiked  out  impDivemenM  in  the  pnxjuclian 
of  diLonilB  of  pDtaah.  But  bil  name  ia  beat  LDOwn  in  ccHUKxion 
mlh  (he  (stabliiboieni  of  the  Scotiiib  miccnl-oil  induitiy. 
In  1S4T  Lyon  Piayfair  informed  fiim  of  ■  apring  of  pelroJeum 
IvhiiJi  had  made  ita  appearance  at  Ridding'i  CoUioy  at 
Alftcton  in  Derbyiblre,  and  in  (be  foUowinf  year  he  be^n 
10  uliliee  it  (or  mahinf  both  burning  and  lubricating  oik. 
This  apring  waa  practically  eihauated  by  1S51.  It  had  acrved 
10  dmw  Young'a  attention  to  the  question  of  oil-production, 
and  in  1850  be  took  out  hia  fundamental  patent  for  the  dls- 
(iUatlon  of  hitumtnotw  aubiuncea.  Tbia  waa  loan  put  into 
opcaJioii  in  Scotland,  firat  with  the  Boghead  coal  or  Torbane- 
hlu  mioaal,  and  later  with  bituminDua  dulea,  and  though 
he  had  to'lace  much  litifilioa  Young  luccoalully  eni[doyed 
It  in  the  manufacture  of  naphtha  and  lubricating  oils,  and 
aubaetjuently  of  illusiinaliag  otlt  and  paraffin  wax,  untH  in 
1S66,  after  the  patent  had  expired,  be  tcauslemd  hlawnrkato 
a  limited  company.  In  1871  he  augtsled  the  nte  of  (wutic 
lime  to  prevent  the  coiroaion  of  iron  ship*  by  the  bilge  walel, 
which  he  noticed  wai  add,  and  in  1878  he  began  a  dctcrmioa- 
tion  of  the  velocity  of  white  and  coloured  light  by  a  modifica- 
tioti  or  H.  L.  HzcBu'i  method,  in  coUabonlian  with  Piofessoi 
George  Forbci  (b.  1849),  at  Pitlochry.  The  final  reiulU  were 
obtained  in  iSSo-gi  acroH  the  Firth  of  Qyde  from  Kdly, 
hit  house  at  Wemyis  Bay,  and  a  hill  above  Inellan,  and  gave 
vaiuea  rather  higher  than  those  obtained  by  H.  A.  Comuand 
A.  A.  Michelaon.  Young  waa  a  Ubenl  iupporter  of  David 
Livingatone,  and  alao  gave  £10,500  to  eodow  n  chair  of  tecbniral 
cbemiatry  at  Anderaon'a  College.  He  died  at  Wemyst  Bay  on 
the  14th  of  Hay  1S83. 

YOUHfi.  THOMU  (iT71->B>9).  Eatfah  mia  of  MJence, 
bdenged  to  a  Quaker  family  «(  HilToton,  Somenet.  where 
he  wai  bora  on  the  IJtb  of  June  1773.  the  youngeat  of  ttn 
childieo.  At  Ihc  *■«  ol  fouiteoi  be  wai  acquainted  wilb 
Latin,  Greek,  French,  Italian.  Hebrew,  Ptniin  -and  Arabic. 
Bcginiung  to  study  medicine  in  London  in  1741,  be  removed 
to  Edinburgh  in  1 7^.  and  a  year  later  west  to  Goitingsi.  where 
he  obtained  the  d^ree  of  doctor  ol  phyalc  in  1796,  In  1797 
he  entered  Emnuinud  College,  Cambridge.  In  the  ume  year 
the  death  of  hla  grand-uncle,  Richard  Brockloby,  made  him 
financially  independent,  and  in  17Q9  he  aUbllihcd  falmiell 
aa  a  phyjician  in  Welbeck  Street,  London.  Appointed  in  iSoi 
profeiwr  of  pbyuci  at  the  Roya]  Itislilulion,  In  two  yrara  he 
delivered  ninety-one  lectures.  These  lectures,  printed  tai  i*oj 
(CsWK  1^  Uclura  an  rialarai  PhUnaphy).  contain  a  remark, 
able  numbst  of  anticipations  of  later  theories.  He  reaigned 
hia  Brofeaionbip  in  itoj,  (earing  that  iu  duties  wouU  blMhn 


with  Us  medicsl  pnctke.  In  tfae  prevfcm  year  be  us  w 
pointed  fordgn  secretary  ol  the  Royal  Sodety.  of  which  he  had 
been  elected  a  FcUow  in  1794.  In  iSii  he  became  jAysidaA 
to  St  George's  Elospilal,  aul  in  1814  he  served  on  a  mmmitite 
stApointed  to  connder  the  dangeis  involved  by  tbo  goienl 
introduction  ol  gs*  into  London.  In  1816  he  was  accntary 
of  a  commiaaion  charged  with  ascertaining  the  lengtli  ol 
the  seconds  pendulum,  and  in  181S  be  became  sccrelaiy  to 
the  Board  of  Longitude  and  tupetintendent  of  the  ffwfical 
Almanac.  A  few  years  before  hb  death  he  becainc  interested 
in  life  (aanrure,  and  in  1S17  be  wu  choaeti  one  o(  the  eight 
(oreign  aasodatea  o(  the  French  Academy  ol  Sdeoca.  He 
died  in  London  on  the  loih  of  May  1839. 

Young  is  perhaps  best  known  lor  hia  work  in  phyncal  optii^ 
a*  the  author  o(  a  remarkable  aeries  o(  rtse&rches  which  did 
much  to  establish  the  imdidatoty  theory  ot  light,  and  as  the 
discoverer  of  the  mierferenci  o!  light  (aee  Ihteitxrkmcz). 
He  has  alw  been  called  the  founder  o[  phyiioloscBl  oplki. 
In  i7<j3  he  eiplaioed  the  mode  in  which  the  eye  accommodatei 
itficK  to  vision  at  different  distances  as  depending  on  change 
o!  the  curvature  of  the  cryitalline  lens;  in  1801  he  desoiboi 
the  defect  knoBn  as  aatigmatlsmi  and  in  bis  LaJiaa  he 
put  forward  the  hypothesis,  afterwards  tievel<^xd  by  H.  vol 
Helmholte,  that  colour  perception  depends  on  the  ptesenu 
in  the  retina  of  three  kinds  of  nerve  hbres  which  rt^md 
rapectively  to  red,  green  and  videt  light.     In  phyaoloc  he 


in  the  "  Full 


Cnwoian  lecture  for  i&>8  01 

Arteries,"  and  bis  medical  wrirings  bduded  An  IiUrodanHon  19 
Uaiiail  LitcraiMrt^  indudini  a  System  oj  FraduaJ  A^tuo/ogy 
fjfijj)  and  A  PraelkaJ  and  BiLtorical  Treatia  on  ConiMmftm 
Dacaict  (iSij). 

In  atwthei  field  of  research,  he  was  one  of  the  Grat  succcsdid 
woAeit  at  the  decipherment  at  Egyptian  hieroglyphic  inscrip- 
tions^ by  1814  he  had  completely  translated  the  eiudiorial 
(demotic)  test  ol  the  Roaetta  atone,  and  a  few  years  later  bad 
made  considerable  progress  towsrds  an  imdentanding  of  the 
hieroglyphic  alphabet  (see  Ecvft,  |  Languagt  and  Writinii- 
In  iSij  he  published  an  Accannl  af  Uu  Satnt  Diutteria  in 
Uicratlypkic  Liltraliiri  ami  Etyflian  Antiqailia.  Some  of  his 
coDcluuona  appeared  in  the  (smous  aitide  o(  Egypt  which 
in  iSiS  he  wrote  for  the  Encydcpadia  Briltnnka. 

Hi.  works  wen  collected,  with  a  Li/i  by  C.  Peawk  in  iSu. 

TOmO  MBM'l  CBBISTUa  ABSOCUHOH,'  an  otpnisatiDi 

England  by  Sir  George  Willi 
London.    WiUlams'a  organia 

held  (or  prayer  and  Bible-reading  anHmg  his  fellow-wi 
in  a  dry  goods  busineaa  in  the  dty  t>f  London,  and  was  founded 
In  1S44;  on  the  occssion  of  ita  jululee  its  originalor  wss 
knighted.  Similar  assodaiions,  indeed,  had  been  In  .eiisieiKe 
in  Scotland  at  a  much  esriier  dale.  In  1S14  David  Naismiih, 
who  abo  (onnded  dty  missions  Id  London  and  Glaigow,  staned 
the  Gbsgow  Young  Men's  Society  for  Religious  Improvement, 
a  monmoit  which  spread  to  various  pans  ol  the  United 
Kingdom,  F^snce  and  Ametica:  Ister  the  name  was  changed 
to  the  Ctasgow  Yonag  Uen'a  Christian  Association.  The 
object  ol  such  aisodationa  is  to  provide  in  large  teens  a 
rendcxTous  for  yonng  men  who  are  compelled  to  live  in  lodgings 
or  in  the  apartments  piovided  by  the  great  bosuiesa  bouses 
An  assodale  of  the  YJJ.C.A.  must  not  only  he  of  good 
mora]  cfasracter,  but  must  also  express  bis  adhaenc«  lo  the 
objects  snd  prindplcs  of  the  asaodalion.  To  he  a  moBbcr 
means  a  defiiiite  acceptance  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Evangelical 
Christian  faith.  In  iqio  there  were  shout  400  asgodatioiis 
in  En^and,  Irdaitd  and  Wales,  and  116  in  Scotland-^bctides 
various  srfdiers'  and  oth«  auxiliaries.  The  total  nmrhcr^iiip 
was  about  146,000.  Some  of  the  binldlngs,  nolahty  in  the 
MidLands  and  the  north  o(  England,  are  very  fine.  The 
London  Asaodation,  which  (mm  rSBo  until  shortly  before  its 
ifoS  used  Eieter  Hsll,  Strand,  has  erected  a 
Commonly  abbreviated  Y.M.CJL 


YOUNGSTOWN  -  YPSILANTI  (FAMILY) 


haodaome  blodi  of  bvildi&gs  in  Tottenham  Court  Road,  de- 
signed to  provide,  in  addition  to  the  usual  features,  bedrooms 
at  a  reasonable  rent. 

The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  is  seen  at  its  best 
in  the  United  States.  It  is  true  that  Germany  has  more 
associations  than  any  other  country,  bUt  of  its  2129  branches 
only  142  have  their  own  buildings,  and  the  total  member- 
ship is  only  125,000.  In  America,  however,  the  associations 
have  been  built  on  a  broad  basis  and  worJteid  with  enterprise 
and  business  skill.  Thus  they  have  been  able  to  secure  the 
generous  support  of  many  of  the  leaders  of  commerce.  America 
has  over  1900  associations,  and  the  total  membeiahip  is  456,000. 
In  Greater  Britain  the  associations  are  numerous  and  flourishing, 
and  Canada  has  35/300  members.  There  are  many  active 
associations  in  Switzerland,  Norway,  Denmark  and  the  Nether* 
lands,  and  indeed  the  Y.M.C.A.  is  now  well  known  all  over  the 
world.  Even  in  Ji4>aa,  China  and  Korea  there  are  150  branches 
with  a  membership  of  nearly  12,000.  The  value  of  associa* 
tion  buildings  all  over  the.  world  is  £x  1,940,000  (America, 
£8,900,000;  Greater  Britaii^,  £1,912,000;  United  Kingdom, 
£1,128,000). 

The  Young  Women's  Christian  Associalwn  was  founded  in  18^5, 
by  two  ladws  simultaneously.  In  the  south  of  England  Miss 
Robarts  started  a  Pniyer  Union  with  a  purely  spiritual  aim;  in 
I>ondoo  Lady  Kinnaira  commenced  the  practical  work  of  opening 
homes  and  institutes  for  young  women  m  business.  In  18^7  the 
rwo  branches  united  in  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association, 
which  seeks  to  proraoce  the  all-round  welfare  of  young  women  by 
means  of  residential  and  holiday  homes,  club  rooms,  lesuurants, 
noon  rest  rooms,  clasacs  and  lectures,  and  other  useful  departmeota 
The  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  has  spread  all  over  the 
world,  and  the  total  membership  is  about  half  a  million. 

TOUNGSTOWH,  a  dty  and  the  connty-seat  of  Mahoning 
county,  Ohio,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Mahoning  river,  about  60  m.  S.E. 
of  Cleveland.  Pop.  (1900)  44,885  (12,207  being  foreign-bora 
especially  English,  Irish  and  German);  (1910  census)  79,066.  It 
is  served  by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  the  Erie,  the  Lake  Shore  & 
Michigan  Southern,  the  Penns)ivania,  and  the  Pittsburg  &  Lake 
Erie  railways,  and  by  intenirban  electric  lines.  The  Rayen  High 
School  (incorporated  1856)  was  endowed  under  the  will  of 
Judge  William  Rayen  (1776-1854).  The  Reuben  McMillan 
Public  Library  (about  25,000  volumes  in  1910)  is  housed  in 
a  building  finisheid  in  19x0  and  is  named  in  honour  of  Reuben 
McMillan  (1820-1898),  former^  superintendent  of  schools. 
Among  other  public  buildings  are  the  post  office  and  Federal 
court  house,  the  county  court  house,  the  dty  and  the  Mahoning 
Valley  hospitals,  and  the  Y.M.C.A.  building.  The  business 
district  lies  in  the  valley  on  the  N.  of  the  river;  the  resir 
dential  districts  are  chiefly  on  the  neighbouring  hills.  Yonngs- 
town  has  four  parks,  including  Mill  Creek  (483  acres).  East 
End  (60  acres)  and  Wick  (48  acres),  presented  to  the  dty  by 
the  Wick  family,  descendants  of  the  merchant  Henry  Wide 
(17  71-184  5).  llie  value  off  its  factory  products  increased  from 
$53,908,459  in  1900  to  148,126,885  in  1905.  The  most  im- 
portant establishments  are  blast-fuinaces,  unon  and  sted  works 
(of  the  U.S.  Steel  Corporation)  and  rolling  mills. 

Youngstown  was  named  in  honour  of  John -Young  (176^ 
1825),  a  native  of  Petetsborough,  New  Hampshire,  whain  1796 
boui^t  from  the  Connecticut  Land  Company  a  tract  of  land 
upon  which  the  dty  now  stands,  and  lived  there  from  1799 
until  1803.  I^c  ^^  permanent  settlement  was  made  prob- 
ably in  1796  by  William  Hillman.  The  tract  was  set  off  as  a 
township  in  1800,  and  the  first  township  government  was 
organized  in  1802;  the  town  was  incorporated  in  1848,  and 
was  chartered  as  a  city  of  the  second  dass  in  1867.  The  county- 
seat  of  Mahoning  county  was  removed  from  Canfield  to  Youngs- 
town in  1876,  and  after  much  litigation  the  legality  of  this 
removal  was  confirmed  by  the  United  States  Supreme  C^urt  in 
1879.  The  first  iron-mining  in  the  region  was  done  in  1803  by 
Daniel  Eaton,  who  in  1804  built  the  first  blast-furnace  W.  of 
Pennsylvania  and  N.  of  the  Ohio  river.  Eaton  also  built  in 
1826  the  first  blast-furnace  within  the  present  limits  of  Youngs- 
town. 

xxvui     16 


941 

YPR8S  (Flemish  Yptr«m)t  a  town  of  Bdgiam,  in  the  province 
of  West  Flanden,  of  which  it  was  formeriy  considered  the 
capitsL  Pop.  (1904)  I7>073-.  It  is  situated  35  m.  S.  of  Ostend 
and.  K2  m.  W.  of  Courtrai,  oa  the  Yperi^e,  a  small  river  flowing 
into  the  Yser,  both  of  whidh  have  been  canalised.  In  the 
Z4th  century  it  ranked  with  Bruges^  and  Ghent,  and  its  popula- 
tion in  its  prime  reached  200,000.  It  is  icmaiiud>le  duefly  for 
its  fine  HaUes  or  doth  mariiet,  with  a  facade  of  over  150  yds. 
in  length.  The  main  building  was  begun  in  1201  and  com- 
pleted in  1304.  The  cathedral  of  St  Martin  dates  frmn  the 
13th  century,  with  a  tower  of  the  15th  century.  Jansen, 
bishop,  of  Ypres  and  the  founder  of  the  Jansenist  school,  is 
buried  in  the  cathedraL  The  Butchers'  Hall  is  also  of  interest 
and  dates  from  Uie  istb  century.  Although  Ypres  is  unlikely 
to  regain  the  importance  it  possessed  when  its  "  red-coated  " 
contingent  tunied  the  day  in  the  great  battle  of  Courtrai  (1309), 
it  has  an  important  Unn  and  lace  trade  and  a  great  butter 
mari^et.  The  Bdgian  cavalry  training-school  is  establisbed  at 
Ypres. 

TPSILANTI,  or  HnsxLAMTi,  the  name  of  a  family  of  Phan- 
ariot  Greeks  daimlog  descent  from  the  Comneni.  Alexammek 
YPSiLAim  (1725-1805)  was  dragoman  of  the  Porte,  and  from 
1774  to  1782  faospodar  of  Wallachia,  during  which  period  he 
drew  np  a  code  for  the  prindpality.  He  was  again  appointed 
bospodar  just  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Austria  and 
Russia  in  1790.  He  allowed  himself  to  be  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Austrianst  and  was  interned  at  Brunn  till  1792.  •  Returning 
to  Constantinople,  he  fell  tmder  the  suq>idoa  of  the  sultan 
and  was  eaecuted  in  1805.  His  son  Constantinb  ((1.  i8i6>» 
who  had  joined  in  a  conspiracy  to  liberate  Greece  and,  on  ita 
(fisoovery,  Hed  fo' Vienna,  had  been  pardoned  by  the  sultan 
and  in  1799  appointed  by  faim  bospodar  of  Moldavia.  Deposed 
in  1805,  he  escaped  to  JSt  Petersburg,  and  in  1806,  at  the  bead 
of  some  20,000  Russians,  returned  to  Bucharest,  where  he  set 
to  work  on  a  fresh  attempt  to  liberate  Greece.  His  plans  were 
ruined  by  the  peace  of  Tilsit;  he  retired  to  Russia,  and  died 
at  Kiev.  He-ldit  five  tons,  of  whom  two  played  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  Greek  war  of  independence. 

Alexander  Ypsilantx  (1792-1828),  ddest  ton  of  Constantino 
Ypailanti,  accompanied  his 'father  in  1805  to  St  Petersburg, 
and  in  1809  recnved  a  commission  in  the  cavalry  of  the  Imperial 
Guard.  He  fought  with  distindion  in  1812  and  1813,  losing 
an  arm  at  the  battle  of  Dresden,  and  in  1814  was  promoted 
cotend  and  appointed  one  of  the  emperor's  adjutants.  In  this 
capacity  he  attended  Alexander  L  at  the  congress  of  Vienna, 
where  be  was  a  popular  figure  in  society  (see  La  Garde-Cham« 
bonas,  Somemrs).  In  1817  he  became  major-general  and  com* 
mander  <^  the  brigade  ol  hussars.  In  1820,  on  the  rdusal  of 
Count  Capo  d'Istria  to  accept  the  post  of  president  of  the 
Greek  Hdairia  PkUike,  YpsUanti  was  dected,  and  in  1821  he 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  insurrection  against  the  Turks 
in  the  Danubian  principalities.'  Accompanied  by  several  other 
Greek  officers  in  the  Russian  service  he  crossed  the  Pruth  on 
the  6th  of  March,  announcing  that  he  had  the  support  of  a 
"great  power."  Had  he  advanced  on  Ibraila  he  mi|^t  have 
prevent^  the  Turits  entering  the  prindpalities  and  so  forced 
Russia  to  accept  the  faU  auompli.  Instead,  he  remained  at 
Jassy,  disgracing  his  cause  by  condoning  the  nussacrcs  of 
Tnrk^  .merchants  and  others.  At  Bucharest,  whither  he 
advanced  after  some  weeks'  dday,  it  became  plain  that  he 
could  not  rdy  on  the  Vlach  peasantry  to  rise  on  behalf  of  the 
Greeks;  even  the  disconcerting  expedient  of  his.  Vlach  ally 
Theodore  Vladimirescd,  who  called  on  the  peasants 'llo  present 
a  petition  to  the  sultan. agahist  Pbanariot'  misrule,  failed  to 
stii'  the  "people  from  their  apathy.  Then,  wholly  unexpectedly, 
came  a  letter  from  Capo  d'Istria  upbraiding  Ypsilanti  for  mis- 
using the  tsar's  name,  announdng  that  his  name  had  been 
struck  off  the  army  list,  and  commanding  him  to  lay  down  hb 
arms.  Ypsilanti's  decision  to  explain  away  the  tsar's  letter 
could  only  have  been  justified  by  the  success  of  a  cause  which 
was  now  hopeless.  There  followed  a,  series  of  humiliating 
defeats,  culminating  \a  that  of  Dragashan  on  the  zQth  ^  Jane 

2o 


942 


YPSILANTI  (CITY)— YUCATAN 


Alezuider,  accompuued  by  his  brother  NichoUs  and  a  rrmnant 
of  his  followers,  retreated  to  Rimnik,.  where  he  spent  some  days 
m  negotiating  with  the  Austrian  authorities  for  permission  to 
cross  the  frontier.  Fearing  that  his  followers  might  surrender 
him  to  the  Turks,  he  gave  out  that  Austria  had  declared  war 
on  Turkey,  caused  a  Te  Deum  to  be  sung  in  the  church  of 
Kosia,  and,  on  pretext  of  arranging  measures  with  the  Austrian 
commander-in-chief,  crossed  the  frontier.  But  the  Austria  of 
Francis  I.  and  Meitemich  was  no  asylum  for  leaders  of  revolts 
in  neighbouting  countries.  Ypsilanti  was  kept  in  close  con- 
finement for  seven  years,  and  when  released  at  the  instance  of 
the  emperor  Nicholas  I.  of  Russia,  retired  to  Vienna,  where  he 
died  in  extreme  poverty  and  misery  on  the  31st  of  January  18 2S. 

Deuetrios  YpsiiAim  (1795-X832),  second  son  of  Prince 
Constantine,  distinguished  himself  as  a  Russian  officer  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1814,  and  in  the  spring  of  1821  went  to  the  Morea,  where 
the  war  of  Greek  independence  had  just  broken  out.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  con^icuous  of  the  Phanariot  leaders  during  the 
earlier  stages  of  the  revolt,  though  he  was  much  hampered  by 
the  local  chiefs  and  by  the  civilian  element  headed  by  Mavro- 
cordato.  In  January  1832  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
legislative  assembly;  but  the  ill-success  of  his  campaign  in 
central  Greece,  and  his  failure  to  obtain  a  commanding  position 
in  the  national  convention  of  Astros,  led  to  his  retirement 
early  in  1823.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  by  Capo  d'Istria 
commander  of  the  troops  in  East  Hellas.  He  succeeded,  on  the 
25th  of  September  1S39,  in  forcing  the  Turkish  commander 
Asian  Bey  to  sign  a  capitulation  at  the  Pass  of  Petra,  which 
ended  the  active  operations  of  the  war.  He  died  at  Vienna  on 
the  3rd  of  January  1832. 

Gregory  Ypsilanti  (d.  1835).  third  son  of  Prince  Constantine, 
founded  a  princely  family  still  settled  near  Briinn.  Nicholas 
Ypsilanti  wrote  Mitnoires  valuable  as  giving  material  for  the 
antecedents  of  the  insurrection  of  1820  and  the  part  taken  in 
them  by  Alexander  I.  of  Russia.  They  were  publislied  at  Athens 
InxQOi. 

See  the  works  cited  in  the  bibliography  of  the  article  Greek 
Independence,  War  op,  especially  the  AMi>uM>  Irrapuiif  of  J. 
Philemon. 

TPSILAHTI,  a  city  of  Washtenaw  county,  Michigan,  U-S.-A., 
on  the  Huron  river,  30  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Detroit.  Pop.  ^1900)  7378; 
( 1904)  7587;  (1910)  6230.  It  is  served  by  the  Michigan  Central 
and  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern  railways,  and  is  the 
seat  of  the  Michigan  State  Normal  C(^ege  (1849).  There  are 
various  manufactures.  Ypsilanti  was  laid  out  and  named  in 
honour  of  Demetrius  Ypsilanti,  the  Greek  patriot,  in  1825;  it  was 
incorporated  as  a  village  in  1832,  and  chartered  as  a  dty  in  1858. 

YSAYB,  EUOdNB  (1858-  ),  Belgian  violinist,  was  bom  at 
Li^ge,  where  he  studied  with  his  father  and  under  R.  Massart, 
at  the  Conservatoire,  until  he  wais  fifteen;  he  had  some  lessons 
from  Wieniawski,  and  later  from  Vicuxteraps.  In  1879  Ysa^e 
played  in  Germany,  and  next  year  acted  as  leader  of  Bilse's 
orchestra  in  Berlin;  he  appeared  in  Paris  in  1883,  and  for  the 
first  time  in  London  at  a  Philharmonic  concert  in  1889.  He 
was  violin  professor  at  the  Brussels  Conservatoire  from  1886  to 
1898,  and  instituted  the  celebrated  CHxhestral  concots  ot  which 
he  was  manager  and  conductor.  Ysaye  first  appeared  as  con* 
ductor  before  a  London  audience  in  1900,  and  in  1907  conducted 
Fiddio  at  Covent  Garden.  The  sonata  concerts  in  which  he 
played  with  Raoul  Pugno  (b.  1852),  the  French  pianist,  became 
very  popular  in  Paris  and  Brussels,  and  were  notable  features 
of  several  London  concert  seasons.  As  a  violinist  he  ranks  with 
the  finest  masters  of  the  instrument,  with  extraordinary  tempera- 
mental power  as  an  interpreter.  His  compositions  include  a 
Programme  Symphony  (played  in  London,  1905),  a  Piano 
Concerto,  and  a  "  Suite  Wallonne." 

YfiTAD,  a  seaport  of  Sweden  on  the  S.  Baltic  coast,  in  the 
district  (/te)  of  Malmdhus,  39  m.  E.S.E.  of  Maimd  by  rail. 
Pop.  (1900)  9862.  Two  of  its  churches  date  from  the  13th 
century.  Its  artificial  harbour,  which  admits  vessels  drawing 
19  ft.,  is  freer  from  ice  in  winter  than  any  other  Swedish  Baltic 
port.  Apikxt  from  a  growing  import  trade  in  coal  and  machinery, 


iu  commerce  has  declined;  but  it  is  among  the  first  Cwelw 
manufacturing  places  in  Sweden,  having  large  mechanical 
workshops. 

YTTERBIUII  (NBO-YTTERBltTM)  (symbol,  Yb;  atomic  ^-etRht. 
i72>o  (0»x6)),  a  metallic  chemical  element  belonging  to  ibe 
rare  earth  group.  Mixed  with  scandium  it  was  discoveieil  by 
Marignac  in  gadoUnite  in  1878  (see  Rare  Earths).  The  oxide, 
Yb«Os,  is  white  and  forms  colourless  salts;  the  crystallized 
chloride,  YbCU-OHjO,  forms  oolouriess,  deliquescent  crystals; 
the  anhydrous  chloride  sublimes  on  heating  (C.  Matignon, 
Ann.  tkim.  phys.,  1906  (8),  8,  p.  440).  In  1907  G.  Urbain 
separated  ytterbium  into  two  new  elements,  neo-ytteriiium  and 
lutecium  (atomic  weight,  174*0);  and  in  1908  C.  A.  von  Welsbach 
published  the  same  result,  naming  his  elements  aldebaraniura 
and  cassiopeium  (on  the  question  of  prk>rity  see  F.  Wenzel, 
Zeit.  anerg.  Ckem.^  190Q,  64,  p.  1x9). 

YTTRIUM  [symbol,  Y;  atomic  weighl,'89.o  (O-  x6)],  a  metallic 
chemical  element.  In  its  character  yttrium  is  dosely  allied  to, 
and  in  nature  is  always  associated  with,  cerium,  lanthanum, 
didymium  and  erbium  (see /Rare  Earths).  For  the  prepara- 
tion of  yttrium  compounds  the  best  raw  material  is  gadolinitr. 
which,  according  to  Kdnig,  consists  of  32-61%  of  silica,  34-64 
of  yttria,  Y3O9,  and  42-75  of  the  oxides  of  erbium,  cerium,  didy- 
mium, lanthanum,  iron,  beryllium,  calcium,  magnesium  and 
sodium.  The  extraction  (as  is  the  case  with  all  the  rare  earths) 
is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  Metallic  yttrium  is  obtainable  as 
a  dark  grey  powder  by  reducing  the  chloride  with  potassium, 
or  by  electrolysing  the  double  chloride  of  yttrium  and  sodium. 
It  decomposes  water  slowly  in  the  cold,  and  more  rapidly  on  beat* 
ing.  Yttria,  YiOj,  is  a  yellowish  white  powder,  which  at  high 
temperatures  radiates  out  a  most  briUIant  white  light  It  is 
soluble,  slowly  but  -complelcly,  in  mineral  acids.  It  is  recog- 
nized by  its  very  cbaract'eristic  sparic  spectrum.  Solutions  of 
3rttria  salts  jn  thdr  behaviour  to  reagents  are  not  unlike  those  of 
zirconia.   The  atomic  weight  was  determined  by  Cleve. 

YUCATAM,  a  peninsula  of  Central  America  forming  the  S.E. 
extremity  of  the  republic  of  Mexico  and  including  the  states 
of  Campeche  and  Yucatan  and  the  territory  of  Quiotana  Roo. 
Small  parts  of  British  Honduras  and  Guatemala  are  also  in- 
cluded in  it.  The  natural  boundary  of  tho  peninsula  on  the  S. 
is  formed  in  part  by  the  ridges  extending  across  N.  Goateinala, 
the  line  terminating  £.  at  the  lower  part  of  Chetumal  Bay,  and 
W.  at  Laguna  do  Teiminos.  From  this  base  the  land  extends 
N.  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Caribbean  Sea  in  nearly 
rectangular  form  for  about  280  m.,  with  about  the  same  extreme 
width  in  longitude.  It  has  a  mean  breadth  of  about  200  m., 
a  coast-line  of  700  m.  and  an  area  of  about  55400  sq.m. 

The  coast  on  the  N.  and  W.  is  low,  sandy  and  semi-barren, 
and  is  made  dangerous  by  the  Campeche  banks,  a  northward 
extension  of  the  peninsula,  covered  with  shifting  sands.  The 
outer  shoreline  on  the  N.  for  nearly  200  m.  consists  of  a  narrow 
strip  of  low  sand  dunes,  within  which  is  a  broad  channel  terminat- 
ing to  the  E.  in  a  large  lagoon.  There  are  a. number  of  openings 
through  the  outer  bank  and  several  small  towns  or  ports  have 
been  built  upon  it.  The  £.  coast  consists  of  bluffs,  indented  with 
bays  and  bordered  by  several  islands,  the  larger  ones  being 
Cozumel  (where  Cort£s  first  landed),  Cancuro,  Mujeres  and 
Contoy.  There  is  more  vegetation  on  this  coast,  and  the  bays 
of  Chetumal,  Espiritu  Santo,  Aacencion  and  San  Miguel  (on 
Cozumel  Island)  a&ord  good  protection  for  shipping.  It  is, 
however,  sparsely  settled  and  has  little  commerce. 

The  prninsula  is  almost  wholly  composed  of  a  bed  of  coralline  and 
porous  limestone  rocks,  forming  a  low  tableland,  which  rises 
rraduaUy  toward  the  S.  until  it  is  merged  in  thc.fcrcat  Central 
American  plateau.  It  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  thin,  dry  soil, 
through  the  slow  weathering  of  the  coral  rocks.  The  surface  is 
not  so  level  and  monotonous  as  it  appears  on  man^^*  maps;  for, 
although  there  are  scarcely  any  running  streams,  it  is  diversified 
by  a  few  lakes,  of  which  Bacalar  and  Chichankanab  are  the  largest. 
as  wdl  as  by  low  isolated  hills  and  ridges  in  the  W.,  and  in  the  £. 
by  the  Sierra  Alta,  a  range  of  moderate  •  elevation  traversing  the 
whole  peninsula  from  Catochc  Point  S.  to  the  ncishbourhood  of 
Lake  Pcteu  in  Guatemala.  The  culminating  points  oil  the  W.  ridges 
do  not  exned  900  ft.,  and  some  authorities  estimate  it  at  500  ft. 


Ttie  clioute  of  Yud 


YUCCA 

is  kK  and  dry:  Ibc  CDHSmni,  wbk 


dh  liiU  [mm  Odobn  lo  May.  ihe  boitHl  moniHi  (WUr  to  I 
lairrfa  and  April.  wh«A  Ihe  heat  ia  iKnascd  by  the  borninE 
com  and  bciiBiudi  feldi.  The  rains  are  quiclily  BEnarbciTl 
lishiporoui  wiL  and  leave  onfytemf  ' 

tr  artionar  crcrtrtli  1*  tlunlcd  and 


which  prevail  day  and  niffhc 
^ear.    The  almnpherc  ii  alu 

pen  rcflion'  TIh 
L  monuU  appear  i 
Kd  by  llie  bornii 


._._ ,_rl  (heel.  ,_.     . 

Camperbe.  [n  the  vidnily  D(  ilie  Terminu  La 


qii«n,  the  K 
The  bbwT 


'  '  ''■  '>.° 


I  of  the  Sierra  Alia 


■-woodi    Loftvud 


:Ui:y  hen 
_...  „  toarae  6b 


rrom  th^  lrav»  of  the  Agatt  rieida.  var.  fiottiata 

1  and  is  cuUivaMd  almort  eidawvcly  by  the  -"ii 

i<  lucd  ehielly  In  the  inaiiu[aclun  dI  coane  aacl 
ind  faanntiuelBt  and  i*  expofted  in  larf^e  rguantirie 
Eed  hi  (fall  nwluttry  is  lupr^ied  by  Indian  pfoni.  «h 
of  flemi-ierviliidc  and  are  paid  barely  eooirgh  t 


coJit  of  Vncalan  \a  February,  iji;,  when  on  ■  ^ve 
eipedition.  He  {oUowcd  the  coast  rouod  lo  Campe 
was  unable  (a  penctralc  the  inlerioT.  In  isiS  Juande 
(ollowcd  the  ume  coail,  but  added  noLbing  to  the  infi 
sought  by  the  govemoc  of  Cuba.  In  isi<i  a  IhLrd  a. 
undei  Hernando  Cort(9.  ihc  conqueior  o[  Meidco.  a 
colliiion  o'iib  the  natives  of  the  island  of  Coiumel. 


>  Honduras.     The  eooquti 


Corlfs  bad  on  Ihi 
o  bad  succeeded  ir 
lU  oE  the  peninsula 


high  plileau  o[  AnShuac.  In  1549  Monl 
alablishing  Spanish  nile  over  baiely  one- 
■nd  it  was  never  eilendcd  further.  The  spanianis  11 
the  remains  o[  a  high  Bhcaiginal  civiliialion  which  ha 
enUicd  upon  decline.  There  were  deserted  cities  fa 
ruins,  and  utliers,  like  Chichen-ito,  Uimal  and  Tube 
were  still  inhabited  by  remnants  of  iheir  former  Hay 
lions.  The  Mayas  have  left  no  record  of  (heir  in 
or  ol  the  causes  of  their  decline,  beyond  what  may  b- 
from  their  ruined  situctuieK  The  DUDiber  nod  eitcn 
ruins  (temples,  pllaces,  ball  courts,  matlet -places,  kc. 
large  lowns  in  the  midsl  of  Ihichly  settled,  productive 
lor  there  were  Iheo,  bo  far  ab  can  be  determined,  1 
of  suf^rting   large   urbau   populations   through   a 


hot  a  dimatc. 

Other 

remains  which 

bear  witness  to  the  dvilizaiion  of  the  Mayas 

ue  the  p.ved 

highways  and  the  artificial  reservoirs  (e 

IMOrfu 

the  prcscrvatian  of  wal 

I  for  towns  I 

cough 

the    long   dly 

leason.    These  opudoi  w 

eie  huge  basins. 

paved 

nd  cemented, 

s^  also  lin«J  wi  h  >lon 

which  may  have  been  us. 

■d  for  the  prolet 

tionol 

water  against 

beat  when  the  principal 

supply  had  bee 

ausled.    The 

great  problem  in  all  the 

Maya  sellkmi 

nts  of  YutiHn  was 

tbal  of  securing  and  pn 

serving*  watei 

•upply  lot  the  dry 

supply 

Since 

he  Span! 

Ish  conquest,  t 

le  Mayas  have 

dung 

Bemi-barren,  ope 

plains 

peninsula,  and 

have 

more  than  once 

reyolled. 

They  seceded  i 

iSjg  and  maintained 

their 

.843. 

In   ig4T  another  revol 

lowed. 

and  the 

Indians 

ugh- 

il  near  the  be^ 

ning 

0/lhe 

Diu  adminiitralio 

n.    In 

910  the 

re  »as  «»ther 

evolt 

une  inilii 

>lsucces« 

but  lb 

0  the 

nknown  taatnes 

esof 

Qoinu 

oaKoo. 

The 

Meiican 

State 

)i  Vtic 

bounded  N.  b, 

tlie 

Gulf  0 

MeticD 

£.  ud  S.  by  Ih 

jy  of  Quinlana 

Koo, 

S.  and 

W.  by 

he  .late 

of    Ca 

npeche- 

Fop.  (.;«>) 

bout 

304,00c.  The  nDaays  indude  the  1 
Railways  of  Yucatan  (]7j  m.),  and  a  line  from  M£rida  to  Felo 
(t4j  bl).  The  capital  it  M£iida,  and  its  prindpal.  toMi. 
inhalHIed  ahnost  eiclusivcly  by  lodians  and  wtiliaj,  are 
VaUadolid,  Acanceb.  Teiux,  Molul,  Temu,  Espita,  Malcu^ 
Hunucmi,  Tiikohob,  Pelo  and  Progreso,  the  port  of  MfriidE. 

Quintana  Roo  was  separ^Lied  from  the  sLate  of  Yucatan  10 
1002  and  recdved  a  lerrilorial  government  under  the  immo- 
diate  supervision  of  the  nationai  executive.  It  comprises  the 
sparsdy  settled  districts  a^ng  the  £.  coast  of  the  peninsula, 
and  the  wooded  sections  of  the  S.,  whidt  have  not  been 
tborcnighly  explomt.     Its  population  is  estimated  at  3000,  bui 

rule,  and  have  maintained  their  iDd^Kndenec  ^gHlffT  <TKr- 
wbdming  odds  for  almoit  four  centuries,  this  estimate  sbonM 
be  aeupted  as  a  tuniecluR.  Little  k  known  of  the  wild  tribes 
ol  the  territory. 

YUCCA,'  a  genus  o(  the  order  Liliaceao(f«-),  containing  abom 
thirty  spcdo.    They  occur  in  gieUest  ficqnency  im  HeaitV  iUHl 


the  S.W.TJni(Ml  Stall 

occurring  in  such  nui 

<A  Speidlh  word  i 

eharacler-of  the  team 


eitending  also  intc 
era  in  some  places 


foTcMs.  They  hive  t  WMdy  or  Bbrout  Mem,  somelirnei  ibort, 
■nd  in  othei  casn  sllainiDg  a  height  of  1 5  lo  » f t.,  ind  branching 
■I  Ib«  lop  iDIo  1  saia  o[  [oik>.  The  leavs  tie  crowded  to 
tult>  al  Ihe  ends  of  the  Item  or  bianchea,  and  are  generally  stifl 
and  sword-fthaped,  with  a  sharp  point,  ■ometimc  lUcdd  tjtd  in 
other  aaa  fibrous  a  the  edges.  Tbc  numcious  Bonn  tie 
UBuilly  white,  bell-shaped  and  pendulous,  and  tn  borne  in 
much-bra nchei]  lecminal  panicles.  Each  flooM  has  a  perianth 
of  six  regular  pieces,  and  has  as  many  hypogynous  ttimeni,  with 

celled  ovary  isiormounltd  by  aibotl  thick  style,  dividing  above 
into  three  Stigmas,  and  ripeoi  into  a  succulent  berry  in  wine  o( 
tfae  species,  and  into  ■  dry  (hree-vilved  capsule  in  otbem.    The 


ind  their  erriking 


[olilge,  which  they 
Slsla  the  haves  of 
■re  used  for  sealin 

contain  a  saponaceo 

utilize  lor  cordage,  and  in 
Bme  species,  under  the  nan 
g  chain,  Ac.     The  fiuiti, 
cooked  >»  an  anide  of  di* 
us  matter  uKd  in  place  of 

Many  ol  the  specie 

arc  hardyjn  Great  Britain. 
'r'.*Xl'il.t'"X^« 

.TUl-CMI  (0 

yuEH-Cnm),  the  Chinne  name  of  a 

cenlial 

Asiatic 

tribe  w 

0  ruled  in  Bacllja 

nd  India,  are  also  k 

Kusha 

(  (from 

one  of  their  subd 

mion.)  and  Indo-S 

ythiant. 

They. 

tribe,  bihabiling  pa 

Chinese 

orovinceofKan-su 

.and  10  hive  been  d 

ivenW. 

Ch?u 

ng-nn  tribe  ol  the  same  slock.    They  conquotd  a  tribe 

tailed 

he  Wus 

i,n,  who  lived  in  th 

e  basin  of  the  Hi  n 

er,  and 

KItled 

ry.   The  date  of  thes 

it  place 

They  then  attacked 

another 

tribe  k 

S^kas.  and  drove 

them  to  Persia  an 

Indb. 

Tor  about  Iwe 

ty  yeors  it  would 

leem  that  ihe  Yue-Chi  were 

Milled 

n  the  CI 

rivers  Chu  and  Sy 

Darya, 

but  he 

e  Ihey  were  attacked  again 

by  the  Hiung.nu, 

heir  old 

enemies,  with  w 

heddlealedWusunc 

hieflain. 

7T«y 

e-Chit 

en  occupied  Baclri, 

,  and  little  is  heard  of  ihem 

for  a  hundred 

ears.    During  this 

period  they  became 

united 

people 

hiving 

tribes, 

Ihepri 

cipalol 

whkhTthcKiohen 

(or  Kwei-Shwang), 

upplied 

BOtnadic  life  and  became  civilised.  Bartria  about  this  time  was 
uid  lo  contain  a  thousand  cities,  and  though  this  may  be  an 
enggeralion  it  was  probably  a  meeiing.place  ol  Persian  and 
Hellenic  culture:  its  kings  Denittriil*  and  Eucratideshad  invaded 
India.  It  is  therefore  not  surprising  to  And  the  warlike  and 
mobile  Yue-Chi  following  Ibc  same  road  and  taking  fragments 
ol  Persian  and  Greek  civilization  with  them. 

The  chiorbology  ol  this  invasion  and  of  the  history  of  the 
Kushani  ia  India  must  be  regarded  nsuncerlain,tbough  we  know 
the  name*  of  the  kings,  Indian  liliralurc  supplies  few  daU  for 
the  period,  and  the  available  information  bos  been  collected 
ehieHy  from  notices  in  Chinese  annals,  from  inscriptions  found  in 
India,  and  above  all  from  coins.  From  this  evidence  it  has  been 
dcducad  that  a  king  called  Koiulokidphises,  Kujulakasa  or 
Kieu-tsieU'k'io(P  «D.  45-S5)  united  the  five  tribes,  conquered 
the  Kabul  valley  and  annihilated  the  remnants  of  Creek  domiDion- 
He  was  succeeded,  possibly  after  an  interval,  by  Ooemokadphisa 
(Himakapisa  or  Vcn-kao-iBn-tai),  who  completed  the  anneMtion 
oIN.  India.  Then  followed  KanUhka  (ft,  a.d.  123-53),  who  is 
celebrated  throughout  eastern  Asia  as  a  patron  of  Ihe  Buddhist 
church  and  convener  of  the  third  Buddhist  council.  He  is  aba 
uid  to  have  conquered  Kashgar,  Yarkand  and  Khotan.  Hii 
luccessors  were  Huvishki  and  then  Vasudeva,  who  may  have 


Kushani  gradually  decayed,  and  ihey  w< 


tnbackinJ 


<[  the 


valley  of  the  Indui  and  N.E.  Afghanistan.  Here,  accordleg  ID 
Chinese  aulhoiiEies,  their  royal  family  was  supplanted  by  a 
dynasty  called  Ki-lo-lo  (Kidatal ,  who  were  also  ol  Vue-Chi  stock. 


of  the  Kitnio  S.  0 


1  Id  India.   The  subscquei 


in-J« 


d  W.  li 


othe  I 


Under  this  dynasty  a  state  known  as  Lhc  Little  Kushan  kingdom 
flourished  in  Gandhkra  (E.  Alghlnistan)  (bout  aj>,  tjo,  but  was 
broken  up  by  the  attacks  of  the  HOiias. 

Some  auiboritiq  do  not  accept  the  litt  of  Kukhan  kinn  asgivea 
above,  and  think  that  Kanidhka  must  be  placed  before  LTirisI  auf 
perhapi  ai  esuly  ai   JS   B.C.;   alio   that   there  wai  anuhei   kin| 

portani  inSuence  on  Indian  civiliulion.  Their  coina  ^ow  a 
remarkable  union  ot  charadcrinics.  derived  liora  many  nation. 
The  general  shape  and  «>te  are  Roman:  the  Lmcripliana  air  ia 
Creek  or  in  a  Persian  language  wriCIen  in' Creek  leiTem,  or  ia 
Kharoahihi:  (he  reverse  often  Dears  Ihe  fiourc  of  a  dehy,  eitber 

'      Helios.  Selene)  or  ZoroaKrian  (Milbra.  Van. 

•-"--    ' Jly   Siva  or   a  war  tod).    Ott 

the  Egyptian  Serapia,  and  olLen 


iguie  called  Sa 


es.'OoSe 

cap — dearly  the  contume  oif 

"-  --■— '^rf  iculpiuie,  ol 

lurbooj  of   Kai 


I  nonudftoa 

hich  the  bea 


the  Donh.    The  Candhlra  Khoid  of  x 
specimens  come  from  the  neiehbi     ' 

Purushpura  (the  modem  Peshawar). ,.  ___„_ 

an  adapted  to  Oriental  religious  uibjecta.  The  Yue-Chi  me 
pnjbably  the  principal  mean*  ol  disuinuuiing  ii  in  India,  Ihoufk 
all  movements  which  kept  open  Lhc  coinniuiUcatiana  betwcea 
Bjctria  and  Persia  and  India  muH  have  contributed,  and  tbe  hnl 
introduction  was  due  to  Ihe  shon-lit'ed  Ctacco-Baclrian  conqueH 
(iBo-r.jo  B.C.).  Tlie  importance  of  the  Gandhlran  influence  00 
the  art  of  India  and  all  BuddhiH  Asia  a  now  recognised.  Further. 
i[  ii  pnbably  in  Ih*  mintuR  of  Creek,  Persian  and  Indian  deities 
which  charauerizei  tbc  pantheon  of  the  Kushan  kings  thai  ^ir 
to  be  Hughi  many  of  Ihe  Features  found  in  MahAy&nist  Buddhiua 
and  Hinduism  (as  diiiinguiihed  from  tbe  earlier  Brahnuniinl. 
Kanishka  and  other  monardu  were  nalous  bm  probably  by  do 


I  Khau 


.OPANO  is  ID  be  read  at  SDmethini  like  JUAsada  ShSt 
filial :    Kanishka   the    Kushiii.    king   ol   kinss.      This 

r(idiihlh"^an,  E:!)  by  the  Oii^n  Tuiti.    The 

,h.(..il  .hl-'vue-Chi  lyV'i'^T^fciJi'ralher'thjmlMoBpror 
.nulaiiin  Indian  and  Pn>ian  civpiution.  the  Yue- 


olasHnulaiiin  Indian  a 
™mble  Ihe  Tiirks,  and 


X  and  name  of  the  Turk 


KtBik  or  Kanishka)  w 

a  native  tradition  as  to 

coiirider  that  (he  Yoe.Chi  a 


late  Irom  the  jih 

iV  ol  the  Vue.Chi 


^VucChi.  "Simraiithofs 
ie  Getae  and  ihat  the 


10  appear  in  tnc  inoian  jai. 

Sec  Vincent  Smith,  £^It  /Ji'ilorysf  7«fu  (1908)^  Hoemle  and 
Stark,  HiiUiy  tf  India  (roos)^  Rapion,  rnition  rnini  (1808); 
Gardner,  Cniui  ffOrrtt  tud  SlyUut  Kinil  ia  India  1 1 SM) :  Franke. 
Btilriif  m  Ckiauudbn  CM/fn  ur  Xioaiu  dir  FurtrMir  ■■< 


A.  Sldn.  Vtiutnt  i 
the  JcurtiiU  Bj  ftt  --, 

TUKOH,  Ihc  lirgcgl  tivct  in  Alulu,  and  the  fifth  largest  in 
N.  America.  With  its  longf  si  tribulariea  no!  in  Alaska,  Ihe  Uwts 
uid  tile  Tealm  {q[  Uootalinqua),  its  tenglJi  a  about  3300  nL,  in 

Ctdumbia,  neat  tbe  Pacibc  Ocean,  and  ending  at  the  Bering  Sea 

ODC-liali  of  which  lies  in  Canada.  The  Lcwc3  river  rises  io  Lake 
Beitnet  (Yukon  DiitricI)  on  the  N.  slope  of  the  Coast  Kaoge, 
aboul  1 J  m.  inland  Irom  Ihe  tyan  Canal  (at  the  bead  of  Clialhani 
Siiait),  and  Sows  N,  tbnugh  a  chainafUes,  its  confluence  Kith 
Uie  Felly  river,  it  Selkirk,  Yukon  District,  about  do  m.  due  E. 
ot  tbe  Alaskan -CanuliBn  bouodarr,  forming  the  faeadwatcis  of 
the  Yukon.  Bowing  thence  N.W„  the  Yukon  lums  abruptly 
■     "  rt  Yukon,  Alaska,  on  tbe  Aiclic  Cirde,  and 


YUKON— YUKON  TERRITORY 


lead  of  Non 


la  again  and  Oowa 


r,  from  its  Iteadwateis  la 


The  Yukon  VaDey  compriwi  four  sub-nrovincet.  or  phyiioeraphir 
divisiont!  In  Ibeir  order  [ron  the  beadnalen  of  the  rivci  these 
divisions  have  been  called  Ibo  "  Upper  Yukon,"  "  Yukon  Flats." 
"  Rampart  Reffon  "  and  ■'  Lower  Yukon."  The  "  Vppet  Yukon  " 
Valley  19  about  450  m.  long  and  from  I  10  3  m.  broad,  and  is  lUnked 
by  v.-all)  riiinj  to  tbe  plateau  levd  from  IJOO  lo  Jooo  ft.  abo« 
the  slream.    In  ihii  part  oE  its  couise  the  Vukon  receives  Injm 

Uva  and  P^y"  rive");  from'^W.  thJ  While'ri™  (about 
60  in,  belov  the  Selwyn);  (mm  the  N.  t1«  Stewart  river Jabout 

ffom'lhe  E.  the  Klondike  riv«  (near  64°  N.):  (torn  Ihe  W.  Forty- 
mile  Creek  (about  40  m.  above  the  Alaskan-Canadian  boundary 
line),  and  manv  other  sniallec  streams.    The  "Yukon  Flats'' 


infused  network  of  constantly  c 

'  changinD.    The  "  Flats  "  are  mc 
id  low  i^nds.  thickly  wooded  1 


leariy  2. 


N.,  and,  near  the  W.  cdie  of  the  Fk 
le  N.  The  "  Rampart  Region  "  be( 
lalt  "  end  abruptly,  and  includia  ab 


at  the  great  be 
(he  Dall  river, 

il^lTot  lb^TtnlM."No 
pan  of  tbe  river.  The  Lower 
the  Ramparts  and  the  «3. 

N.W.  boundaiv  ol  tbe  valle] 
Yukon  skills,  and  it  coniini 
tbe  delta  is  reached.    The  va 


At  the  W.  edge  ot  Ihe  {tampans  tbe  Yukon  receives  tbe  Tanana 
rivec,  itshmgeat  tributary  lying  wholly  within  Alaska.  The  Tanana 
Valley  >i  about  400  m.  long,  nearly  parallel  to  the  Yukon  fioni 
about  due  W.  of  its  headwalen  10  the  grea-  ' — -■    — '   ■•--■— 


laden  throughout  its  couni 


hicflyjlac 
s  lo  Norton  Sound.    1 


that  ^ihe  Kush- 


's  Island 


ilcr  the  delta  and 
Ificulty.   during  low   water, 
n.  beyond.    Tbe 


flal-botlDined  ri 
by  the  Apoon  1 


Lake  Lebatge)  as  far  at 

1  is  again  navigable  to  it* 

.„. i6c&Arttic  rSlwayftom 

Skagway  to  White  Hoise  (ill  m.)  overcomes  these  obiltuciioni, 
however,  lor  traffic  and  travel;  and  even  (be  dingerous  White 
Horae  Rafidi  may  be  niu  by  a  skilful  pilot  in  ■  snulTboai,  as  was 
done  repeatedly  by  Ihe  gold-ieekera  in  ie96-*7.  The  Stewart 
nver.  seldom  lea*  Ihan  150  yds.  wide,  is  navigable  by  lightKlraught 
steamers  10  Fra«r  Falls,  a  distance  of  nearly  aoo  m.  Tlie  BoSu- 
pine  U  navigable,  in  high  water,  to  about  (he  Alaika-Yuken 
boundary  line  le.^om.};  the  Chandlar  for  a  fewmlleei  Ihe  Tanana 
[which  is  about  m  m.  long)  (or  aboul  lis  m.  10  the  Cheoa  rivti 
[which  is  navifabh;  for  about  too  m.):  and  Ihe  Tolovaoa,  another 


J  Ihe  Yukon  was  explored  bj 
.kin.  who  built  a  trading  post 
lich  he  called  the  Kwikpak)  a 
I  survey  of  the  sireatn  to  tbal 
not  navigablfi  b 


by  the  Hud 

the  Mackenzie  river  down  Ihe  Yukon  to  Fort  Yuk 
i36sheaod  Captain  Charles  S.Bult ley  ledlheerpediti 
liy  Ihe  Wcsteni  Union  Telegraph  Company  lo  survey  a 
land  lelcgiapb  line  to  Europe  by  way  of  Alaska  si 


died  a 


NuU 


abandoned  in 

Ihal  year,  b 

t  eiploraiiona  were 

continued  by 

other  membc 

rs,  notably  D 

William  H.  DaU 

lb  the  result 

made  and  Ihe  Y 

to 

identified  u 

Ibe  Kwikpak 

(the  earlier  R 

ssian  surveys.    C 

liiiCW.Ray. 

iMo:  tbe  Indian 

watersoftheYuk 

IS  used  by  gold 

early  as  jaSi 

while  in  iSSj  Lie 

ant  Frederick 

Schwalka  (.840-1890  cro 

sed  Ihe  CfaUkoo 

P 

a  (which  be 

called  "  Pern 

rPasi").de5c 

nded  the  Lewes  t 

Fo 

t  Selkirk,  and 

down  Ifae  rive 

lo  the  sea.   Charles  W.  Homan 

Schwalka,  m 

de  Ihe  first  s 

ketch  survey  of 

!ie 

siin:e  then  it 

lias  been  frequenily  ciploted, 

been  mapped. 

Bf  Alvtf 

V. 

90«):  also 

C. 

P'k,P0H 

Alaska,  N.  by  Ihe  Arctic 
Mackeniie  river.  It  baa  an  area  of  107,0; 
is  chiefly  drained  by  the  Yukon  river  and 
at  the  S.E.  comer  the  htadwalers  of  th 
into  the  Mackenae,  occupy  a  part  of  its 
tbe  territory  are  mountaitiauj,  including 
'William  He 


'  '(i'X'lc! 


ilerly  ot  the  northern 

ritiah  Columbia,  W.  by 
i.  by  the  iratershtd  r^ 
j6sq.  m.  Tbelerriloty 
il  its  tributsries,  though 
he  Lisrd  river,  Sowing 

:  St  Elias 


n  Healey  Dall 

toiton,  Massach 

;    survey    of   Alaska 

or  of  the  United  Sta« 


.  He  was  palaeontoliwiit  to  Ihe 
in  TgSa-iooa.  TTie  white  moun- 
r  -lalli).  ducovered  in  l»84.  wi* 


946 


YULB,  SIR  R—YUN-NAN 


range  widi  tiie  hi^^  mountains  in  Canada  at  the  S.W.  (»rner 
<Mount  Logan  and  Mount  St  Elias),  and  the  N.  extension  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  along/the  S.  and  N.E.  sides;  here,  however, 
not  very  lofty.  The  interior  of  the  territory  is  high  toward  the 
S.E.  and  sinks  toward  the  N.W.,  and  may  be  described  as  a  much- 
dissected  peneplain  with  low  mountains  to  the  S.  The  most 
important  feature  of  the  Bydrography  is  the  Yukon  (q.v.)  and  the 
rivers  which  flow  into  it.  The  Klondike  gold  mines  are  reached 
by  river  boats,  either  coming  up  from  St  Michael  at  its  mouth, 
or  down  460  m.  from  White  Horse.  The  White  Horse  route  is 
now  used  almost  entirely,  since  the  White  Pass  railway,  mm. 
long,  was  constructed  from  Skagway,  on  Lynn  Canal,  an  inlet  of 
the  Pacific.  As  the  voyage  up  the  Pacific  coast  from  Vancouver 
or  Victoria  is  almost  entirdy  through  sheltered  waters,  the 
journey  to  the  Klondike  is  very  attractive  in  summer.  Com- 
paratively little  snow  is 'seen  in  crossing  White  Pass  during 
summer,  though  there  are  patches  on  the  low  mountains  on  each 
side.  The  Rocky  Mountains,  N.E.  of  the  interior  plateau, 
are  somewhat  snowy,  but  apparently  with  no  large  glaciers; 
but  the  St  Elias  range  to  the  S.W.  is  buried  under  immense 
snowfields,  from  which  great  glaciers  project  into  the  valleys. 
The  rocks  are  largely  ancient  schists  and  eruptives,  Palaeozoic  or 
Archean,  but  considerable  areas  are  covered  with  Mesozoic  and 
Tertiary  rocks,  some  of  which  include  important  seams  of  lignite 
or  coal,  the  latter  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  White 
Horse.  There-have  been  comparatively  recent  volcanic  eruptions 
in  the  region,  as  shown  by  a  layer  of  white  ash  Just  beneath  the 
soil  for  many  miles  along  the  river,  and  by  a  quite  perfect 
cone  with  a  crater  and  lava  stream;  but  there  are  no  records 
of  volcanic  outbreaks  within  the  short  modem  history  of  the 
territory. 

Before  the  discovery  of  gold  on  the  Forty  Mile  and  other 
rivers  flowing  into  the  Yukon  the  region  was  inhabited  only 
by  a  f^w  Indians,  but  the  sensational  finds  of  rich  placers  in  the 
Kbndike  {g.v.)  in  1896  brought  in  a  vigorous  population  centred 
in  the  mines  and  at  Pawson  City,  which  was  made  the  capital  of 
the  newly  constituted  Yukon  Territory.  When  the  White  Pass 
railway  was  built,  White  Horse  at  its  N.  terminus  became  of 
importance,  and  since  then  a  fluctuating  body  of  prospectors 
and  miners  has  'beei)  at  work,  not  only  in  the  Klondike  but  at 
various  points  along  the  other  rivers.  The  territory  is  ruled  by  a 
governor  and  council,  partly  elective,  seated  at  Dawson,  and  has 
a  representative  in  the  parliament  of  the  Dominion.  Almost 
the  only  economic  product  of  the  territory  was  at  first  gold,  but 
copper  and  other  ores  lator  began  to  attract  attention  in  the  S. 
near  White  Horse.  Though  so  near  the  Pacific  the  Yukon 
territory  has  a  rigorous  continental  climate  fdth  very  cold 
winters  seven  months  long,  and  delightful  sunny  summers. 
Owing  to  the  lofty  mountains  to  the  W.  the  amount  of  rain  and 
$now  is  rather  small,  and  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  is  more 
than  4000  ft.  above  sea-level,  so  that  glaciers  are  found  only  on 
the  higher  mountains;  but  the  moss-covered  ground  is  often 
perpetually  frozen  to  a  depth  of  100  or  200  ft.  Vegetation 
is  luxuriant  along  the  river  valleys,  where  fine  forests  of  spruce 
and  poplar  are  found,  and  the  hardier  grains  and  vegetables*  are 
cultivated  with  success.  (A.  P.  C.) 

YULB,  SIB  HENRY  (1820-1889),  British  Orientalist,  was 
bom  on  the  ist  of  May  1820,  at  Invcresk,  near  Edinburgh, 
the  sou  of  Major  William  Yule  (1764-1839),  translator  of  the 
Apothegms  of  All.  He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh,  Addiscombe 
and  Chatham,  and  joined  the  Bengal  Engineers  in  1840.  He 
served  in  both  the  Sikh  war;,  was  secretary  to  Colonel  (afterwards 
Sir)  Arthur  Phayre's  mission  to  Ava  (1855),  and  wrote  his 
Narrative  of  the  Mission  to  the  Court  of  Ava  (1858).  He  retired 
in  1862  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  devoted  his  leisuse  to  the 
medieval  history  and  geography  of  Central  Asia.  He  published 
C€Uhay  and  the  Way  Thither  (x866),  the  Booh  of  Set  Marco  Polo 
187x^5),  for  which  he  received  Uie  gold  medal  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society,  and  brought  out  with  Dr  Arthur  C. 
Bumcll  Hohson-Johson  (1886),  a  dictionary  of  Anglo-Indian 
colloquial  phrases.  For  the  Hakluyt  Society,  of  which  he  was 
for  some  time  president,  he  edited  (1863)  the  Miralniia  descripta 


of  Jordanus  and  The  Diofy  of  WUUam  Hedges  {i9&r-^).   Tbe 

latter  contains  a  biography  of  Governor  Pitt,  grandfather  of 

Chatham.   From  187  5  to  1889  Yule  was  a  member  of  tbe  Council 

of  India,  being  appointed  K.C.S.I.  on  his  retirement.    He  died 

on  the  30th  of  December  1889. 

See  Memoir  by  his  daughter,  prefixed  to  the  poethumous  tfaiid 
edition  of .Afarco  Polo  (1903). 

YULB,  the  season  of  Christmas  (f.«.).  This  word  is  chiefly 
used  alone  as  am  archaism  or  in  poetry  or  poetical  languaige, 
but  is  more  common  in  combini^ion,  as  in  "  yule-tide,"  **  yule- 
log,"  &c.  The  Old  English  word  appears  in  various  forms, 
e.g.  gfilHat  inlaf  geol,  gehhol,  gehkd\  cognate  forms  are  led.  jU% 
Dan.  juul\  Swed.  jid.  It  was  the  name  of  two  montiis  ol 
the  year,  December  and  January,  the  one  the  "  former  yule  '* 
{se  airra  gedlo),  the  other  the  "  after  yule  "  (se  ceftera  geM), 
as  coming  before  and  after  the  winter  solstice  {C^ton  MS, 
Tib.  B.  i.;  and  Bede,  De  Temporum  Rntionef  13,  quoted  in 
Skeat,  Eiym.  Diet,,  1898).  According  to  A.  Flck  (  Ver^Mdtmdes 
WSrterbuck  der  Indogermanischen  Sprachen,  vol.  iii.  345,  1874) 
in  proper  meaning  is  noise,  damour,  the  season  being  one  of 
rejoicing  at  the  turning  of  the  year  among  Scandinavian  peoples 
before  Christian  times. 

YUN-NAM  (ue.  Cloudy  South),  a  S.W.  province  of  China, 
bounded  N.  by  Sze-ch'uen,  E.  by  Kwei-chow  and  Kvang-si, 
S.  by  Burma  and  the  Lao  tribes  and  W.  by  Burma  and  Tibet; 
area  estimated  at  from  122,000  to  .146,000  sq.  m.  Though  the 
second  largest  province  of  the  empire,  its  population  b  esti- 
mated at  only  12,000,000.  The  inhabitants  include  many 
races  be^des  Chinese,  such  as  Shans,  Lolos  and  Maotsze.  The 
Musus,  in  N.W.  Yun-nan,  once  formed  an  independent  kingdom 
which  extended  into  E.  Tibet.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  are 
nominally  Moslems.  The  greater  part  of  the  province  zsay  be 
said  to  consist  of  an  extensive  plateau,  generally  £rom  5000  to 
7000  ft.  in  altitude,  containing  numerous  valley  plains,  which  is 
divided  in  the  N.  by  mountain  ranges  that  enter  at  the  N.W. 
comer  and  separate  the  waters  of  the  Yangtsze-kiang,  the 
Mekong  and  the  Salween.  The  mountains  attain  heights  of 
16,000  ft.  The  climate  is  generally  healthy  and  equable;  on  tbe 
plateau  the  summer  heat  beldom  exceeds  86^,  and  in  winter 
there  is  little  snow.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Yangtsze- 
kiang  (locally  known  as  the  Kinsha-kiang» Golden  Sand  river), 
which  enters  Yun-nan  at  its  N.W.  comer,  flows  first  S.E.  and 
then  N.E.,  forming  for  a  considerable  distance  the  N.  boundary 
of  the  province;  the  Mekong,  which  traverses  the  pro\'ince  from 
N.  to  S.  on  its  way  to  the  sea  through  Annam;  the  Salween, 
which  runs  a  parallel  course  throu^  its  W.  portion;  and  the 
headwaters  of  the  Songkoi,  which  rises  in  the  S.E.  of  the  i>rovince. 
This  last-named  river  is  navigable  from  the  Gulf  of  Tongkirg  to 
Man-hao,  a  town  ten  days'  journey  from  Yun-nan  Fu.  There 
are  two  large  lakes — one  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ta-Ii  Fu,  which 
is  24  m.  long  by  6  m.  broad,  and  the  other  near  Yun-nan  Fu, 
vhidi  measures  from  70  to  8p  m.  in  circumference. 

Besides  Yun-nan  Fu,  the  capital,  the  province  contains  thirteen 
pixfectunil  cities,  several  of  which — ^Teng-ch'uen  Fu.  Ta-U  Fu, 
Viftt^-ch'ang  Fu,  Ch'u-siung  Fu  and  Lin-gan  Fu,  for  example^ 
are  sitjjatcd  in  the  valley  plains.  Mengtaze^  Szcmao  and  MomciB 
(or  Tfing-yueh)  are  open  to  foreign  trade.  Yun-nan  Fu  is  connected 
by  railway  (1910)  with  Tongking.  The  line  which  starts  from 
Haiphong  runs,  in  Yun-nan,  via  Mengtsze  bsien  (a  great  com- 
mercial centre),  to  the  capital.  Several  important  roaos  intersect 
the  province;  among  them  are — i.  The  road  from  Yun*nan  Fa 
to  Baamo  in  Burma  via  Ta*H  Fu  (12  dayv),  Tftng-yueh  Chow  or 
Momein  (8  days)  and  Manwyne — beyond  Ta-U  Fu  it  is  a  diflicuU 
mountain  route.  2.  Tbe  road  from  Ta-li  Fu  N.  to  Patang  via 
Li-kiang  Fu.  which  thus  connects  W.  Yun-nan  with  Tibet.  3.  Tbe 
aficici\t  trade  road  to  Canton,  which  connects  Yun-nan  Fu  with 
Pai-sft  Fu,  in  Kwang-si.  on  tbe  Canton  West  River,  a  land  journey 
which  occupies  about  twenty  days.  From  this  point  the  river  w 
navigable  to  Canton. 

Agricultural  products  include  rice  and  maize  (the  principal 
crops),  wheat,  barley  and  oats.  The  poppy  was  formerly  ex- 
tensively cultivated,  but  after  the  anti-opium  edict  of  1906  v^oroos 
measures  were  taken  to  stamp  out  the  cultivation  of  the  plant. 
In  certain  kcalities  the  sugar-cane  is  grown.  Tea  from  Pu-€rb 
Fu  in  S.  Ytm-naa  is  afipreciated  throughout  the  emFwre.  Fruits 
and  v^etables  are  plentitul.  and  there  are  large  herds  of  bufiakwo^ 


YUN-NAN  FU~YVETOT 


947 


foftts  and  iheep.  SQkwonns  .ore  reared.  The  chief  wealth  of 
Yun-nan  consists,  however,  in  its  minerals.  Copper  is  the  most 
important  of  the  minerals  worked.  Silver  and  gold  are  produced, 
but  they  are  not  known  to  exist  in  any  large  quantities.  Lead  is 
of  frequent  occurrence,  and  indeed  the  area  through  which  copper, 
mbnr,  lead,  tin  and  xinc  are  distributed  in  sumcieat  quanuties 
to  malce  nuning  answer,  comprises  at  least  80,000  sq.  m.  Coal 
is  also  found  and  several  salt  mines  are  worked.  Tne  ores  are 
generally  of  good  quality,  and  are  easv  of  extraction.  Cotton 
vam  ania  dotn,  petroleum,  timber  and  lurs  are  amoag  the  chief 
imports}  copper,  tin,  hides  and  tea  are  important  exports: 
faedidnes  in  the  shape  not  onlv  at  herbs  and  roots,  but  also  of 
fossils,  shdls,  bones,  teeth-  ana  various  ptxxlucts  of  the  animal 
kingdom;  and  precious  stones,  principally  jade  and  rubies,  are 
aoMiBg  the  other  eoqxMts. 

Yun-nan,  long  independent,  was  subdued  by  Kublai  Khan, 

but  was  not  finally  incorporated  in  the  empire  until  the  xyth 

centiiiy.   It  was  the  principal  centre  of  the  great  Mahommedan 

rebellion,  which  lasted  sixteen  years  and  was  suppressed  in  1872. 

Even  in  1910  the  province  had  not  wholly  recovered  from  the 

effects  of  that  struggle  and  the  barbarity  with  which  it  was 

stamped  out.    The.  opening  of  Christian  (Protestant)  mission 

work  in  Yun-nan  began  in  1877,  and  was  one  result  ot  the 

murder  of  Mr  Margary  (see  China,  HUtory,  S  D). 

See  H.  R.  Davies,  Yun-nan,  the  Link  between   India  and  the 

Ymiftxe  (Cambridee,  1909);  A.  Little,  Across  Yunnan  (London, 

i^io);  Rev.  J.  Nl'Carthy.  "The  Province  of  Yunnan.''  in  The 

Qrimte   Empire    (London,    1907);   L.    Richard,    Compnhentise 

Geography  of  the  Chimese  Empire  (Shanghai,  1908). 

TUN-XAN  FU,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Yun-nan,  Chma, 
ia  25**  6'  N.,  loa""  53'  £.  It  is  about  500  m.  by  rail  N.N.W. 
of  the  port  of  Haiphong,  TongUng.  Ibe  population  was 
returned  in  1907  at  45,000.  Originally  the  slniDunding  district 
was  known  as  the  "  land  of  the  southern  barbarians."  The 
dty  is  situated  on  a  plain,  and  is  surrounded  by  fortified 
waJIs,  6|  m.  in  drcuit.  For  many  years  Mahommedans  have 
been  numerous  in  the  dty  and  ndghbourhood;  and  in 
1855  a  Mahommedan  rising  occurred.  Before  the  rebdiion 
Yun-nan  Fa  had  a  prosperous  aspect;  the  shops  were  large 
and  well  supplied  with  native  silken  goods,  saddlery,  &c., 
while  English  cotton,  Russian  doths  and  raw  cotton  from 
Burma  constituted  the  main  foreign  merchandise.  £mpk>y- 
meat  for  large  numbers  of  work-people  was  found  in  the  copper 
factories.  A  mint  at  Yun-nan  Fu  issued  annually  zox  ,000,000 
csah.  Neariy  ruined  by  the  rebellion,  the  dty  tocJc  many  years 
to  recover  its  prosperity.  A  fresh  impetus  to  commerce  was 
girea  by  the  opening  in  19x0  of  the  railway  from  Tongking,  a 
line  built  by  French  engineeis  and  with  French  capitaL  The 
constraction  of  a  British  .railway  to  connect  Burma  with 
Yun-nan  Fu  and  onwards  to  the  Yangtsse-Idang  has  been  in 
contemplation. 

TURIEV  (formeriy  Dospat,  also  D8rpt;  Russian,  Derpt; 
Esthonian,  Tarto  and  Tartolin;  in  Lettish,  Tekrbota),  a  town  of 
W.  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Livonia,  situated  on  the 
Embach,  158  m.  by  rail  N.E.  of  Riga,  in  58*  23'  N.  and  26^  13'  E. 
Pop.  42,4s !•  The  prindpal  part  of  the  town  lies  S.  of  the  rivw, 
and  the  more  important  buddings  are  dustered  round  the  two 
eminences  known  as  the  Dombcrg  (cathedral  hill)  and  the 
Schlossberg  (castle  hHI),  which  in  the  middle  ages  were  occupied 
by  the  dtadel,  the  cathedral  and  the  episcopal  palace.  Owing 
to  a  great  fire  in  1777,  the  town  is  almost  entirely  modern; 
and  its  fortifications  have  been  transformed  into  promenades. 
Besides  a  good  picture  gallery  in  the  Ratshof,  and  the  13th- 
century  cHurch  of  St  John,  Yuriev  possesses  a  univernty,  with 
an  observatory,  an  art  museum,  a  botanical  garden  and  a 
library  of  250,000  v<rfumes,  which  are  housed  in  a  restored 
portion  of  the  cathedral,  burned  down  in  1624.  The  univeruty 
was  founded  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  in  1632;  but  in 
1699  teachers  and  students  removed  to  Pemau  on  the  advance 


of  the  Russians,  and  on  the  occupation  of  the  country  by  Peter 
the  Great  again  took  flight  to  Sweden.  In  spite  of  the  treaty 
of  17x0  and  the  efforts  of  the  Livonian  nobles,  it  was  not  tlU 
i8oa  that  its  restoration  was  effected  under  the  patronage  of 
Alexander  I.  Down  to  1895,  in  which  year  it  was  thorough^ 
Russified,  the  university  was  German  in  spirit  and  in  sentiment. 
It  is  now  attended  by  some  1700  students  annually.  The 
astronomical  department  is  famous,  owing  partly  to  the  labours 
of  F.  G.  W.  von  Struve  (1820-39),  and  psMly  to  Fratmbofer's 
great  refracting  tdescope,  presented  by  the  emperor  Alexander  L 
There  are  monuments  to  the  naturalist  K.  £.  von  Baer  (1886) 
and  Marshal  Barclay  de  ToDy  (1849),  <uid  the  town  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  XVUL  army  corps. 

The  foundation  of  Dorpat  is  ascribed  to  Yajnoshiv,  prince 
of  Kiev,  and  ia  dated  1030.  In  1224  the  town  was  seized  by 
the  Teutonic  Knights,  and  in  the  following  year  Bishop  Her- 
maim  erected  a  cathedral  on  the  Dombeig.  From  that  date 
till  about  Z558  the  town  ei^oyed  great  prosperity,  and  the 
population  rttched  50,000.  In  1558  it  was  captured  by  the 
Russians,  but  in  1582  was  yielded  to  Stephen  Bathori,  king 
of  Poland.  In  x6oo  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Swedes,  in 
1603  reverted  to  the  Poles,  and  in  1625  was  seized  by  Gustavus 
Ado^hus  of  Sweden.  The  Russians  again  obtained  temporary 
possession  in  z666,  but  did  not  effect  a  permanent  occupation 
till  1704.  In  1708  the  bulk  oi  the  population  were  removed 
to  the  interior  tk  Russia. 

YU8AFZAI,  a  large  group  of  Pathan  tribes,  originally 
immigrants  from  the  ndghbourhood  of  Kandahar,  which 
indudes  those  of  the  Black  Mountain,  .the  Bunerwals,  the 
Swatia,  the  pe(^]de  of  Dir  and  the  Panjkora  valley,  and  also 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Yusafzai  plain  in  Peshawar  district  of 
the  North'West  Frontier  Province  of  India.  Three  sections 
oi  the  tribe,  the  Hassansaia,  Akasais  and  Chagarzais,  inhabit 
the  W.  slopes  of  the  Black  Mountain,  and  the  Yusafsai  countiy 
stretches  thence  to  the  Utman  Khel  territoi^.  The  trans-border 
Yusafzais  are  estiofuited  at  65,1000  fii^ting  men,  giving  a  total 
population  of  about  250,000.  The  Yusafzais  are  said  to  be 
descended  from  one  Mandai,  who  had  two  sons,  Umar  and 
YusaL  Umar  died,  leaving  one  son,  Maivlan;  from  Mandan 
and  Yusaf  come  the  two  piimaiy  divisions  of  the  Yusafzais, 
which  are  split  into  numerous  subdivisioiis,  indudifig  the 
Isaaats,  Mslirais,  Akasais,  Ranizais  and  Utmanzais. 

TUZfiAT,  the  chief  town  of  a  aaxg'ak  ol  the  same  name  in 
the  Angora  vilayet  of  Asia  Minor,  altitude  4380  f U,  situated 
X05  m.  E.  of  Angora,  near  the  head  of  a  narrow  valley  through 
which  the  AngorarSivas  coad  runs.  Hie  town  was  buUt 
largdy  out  of  the  ndns  of  Nefca  Keui  (anc.  JorMMi),  by  Chapan 
Os^,  the  founder  of  a  powerful  Dere  Bey  family.  There  is 
a  trade  in  ydlow  betries  and  mohair.  The  sanjak  is  very 
fertile,  and  contains  good  breeding-grounds,  upon  which  horses, 
camels  and  cattle  are  reared.  The  population,  about  isvooo, 
indudes  a  large  Armenian  community. 

TV&TOT,  a  town  of  N.  France,  capital  of  an  arrondissement 
in  the  department  of  Scine-Inf^rieure,  24  m.  N.W.  of  Rouen 
on  the  railway  to  Havre.  F^p.  (190^)  6S14*  Cotton  goods 
of  various  kiiids  and  hats  are  made  here,  and  trade  is  canied 
on  in  agricultural  products.  The  church  (i8th  century)  con* 
tains  a  marble  altar  from  the  Carthusian  manastery  at  Rouen, 
fine  woodwork  of  the  x7th  century  hom  the  abbey  of  St 
WandriUe,  and  a  handsome  pulpit.  Tlie  town  is  the  seat  of  a 
sub-prefect  and  has  tribuiuds  of  first  instance  and  of  commerce, 
and  a  chamber  of  arts  and  nuuntfactares.  The  k>rds  of  Yvetot 
bore  the  title  of  kmg  from  the  zsth  till  the  middle  of  the  x6tb 
century,  their  petty  monarchy  being  popularized  in  one  of 
B^ranger's  songs.  In  1592  Henry  IV.  here  defeated  the  troops 
of  the  League 


94^ 


Z— ZACATECAS 


Zthe  twenty-sixth  letter  of  the  EoxUsh  alphabet  and 
the  last,  although  till  recent  times  the  alphabets  used 
by  children  terminated  not  with  z  but  with  &,  or  £r. 
For  &  the  Eni^ish  name  is  ampersand^  i.e,  '*  and  per  se 
and,"  though  the  Scottish  name  epershand,  i.e,  "Ei,  per  se  and,"  b 
more  logical  and  also  more  clearly  shows  its  origm  to  be  the  Latin 
d,  of  which  it  is  but  the  manuscript  form.  To  the  following  of  s 
by  &  George  Eliot  refers  when  she  makes  Jacob  Storey  say,  "  He 
thought  it  (s)  had  only  been  put  to  finish  off  th'  alphabet  like, 
thou^  ampusand  would  ha'  done  as  well,  for  what  he  could 
see."  Z  Is  put  at  the  end  of  the  alphabet  because  it  occupieil 
that  position  In  the  Latin  alphabet.  In  early  Latin  the  sound 
represented  by  %  passed  into  f,  and  consequently  the  symbol 
became  useless.  It  was  therefore  removed  from  the  alphabet 
and  G  iq.v.)  pat  in  hs  place.  In  the  ist  century  b.c.  it  was, 
Hke  y,  introduced  again  at  the  end,  in  order  to  represent  more 
precisely  than  was  before  possible  the  value  of  the  Greek  Z, 
which  had  been  previously  spelt  with  s  at  the  beginning  and  s$ 
in  the  middle  of  words:  jMa^f^cSwny,  **^bdlt";  tarpessita—Tpa^ 
m^lrrit,  "banket."  The  Greek  form  was  a  dose  copy  of  the 
Phoenician  s^bol  X,  and  the  Greek  inscripiional  form  remained 
in  this  shape  throughout.  The  name  of  the  Semitic  symbol  was 
Zayittf  but  this  name,  for  some  unknown  reason,  was  not  adopted 
by  the  Greeks,  who  called  it  Zeta.  Whether,  as  seems  most  likely, 
Zeta  was  the  name  of  one  of  the  other  Semitic  sibilants  ^ade 
(Taaddi)  transferred  to  this  by  mistake,  or  whether  the  name  is  a 
new  one,  made  in  imitation  ot  Eta  {if)  and  Theta  ($),  is  disputed. 
The  pronunciation  of  the  Semitic  ktter  was  the  voiced  <,  like 
the  ordinary  use  of  s  in  English,  as  in  todiaCf  rate.  It  Is 
probable  that  in  Greek  there  was  a  considerable  variety  of  pro- 
nunciation from  dialect  to  dialect.  In  the  earlier  Greek  of 
Athens,  North-west  Greece  and  Lesbos  the  pronundation  seems 
to  have  been  «/,  m  Attic  from  the  4th  century  b.c  onwards  it 
seems  to  have  been  only  a  voiced  Sf  and  this  also  was  probably 
the  pronunciation  of  the  dialect  from  which  Latin  borrowed 
its  G^k  words.  In  other  dialects,  as  Elean  and  Cretan,  the 
symbol  was  apparently  used  for  sounds  resembling  the  English 
voiced  and  unvoiced  th  (5, )»).  In  the  common  (tialcct  (mnj^) 
which  succeeded  the  older  dialects,  f  became  a  voiced  x,  as 
it  remains  in  modem  Greek.  In  Vulgar  Latin  the  Greek  Z 
seems  to  have  been  pronounced  as  dy  and  later  y;  di  being 
found  for  z  in  words  like  baptidiare  for  baptuare,  "  baptize," 
while  conversely  f  appears  for  di  in  forms  like  taconus^  sabulust 
for  diaconuSt  "deacon,"  diabulus,  "devil."  Z  also  is  often 
written  for  the  consonantal  I  (J)  asinsim»or  for  tKiiior, "  younger  " 
(see  Grandgent,  IntrodHOion  to  ViUgar  LaiiMt  §(  973,  339). 
Besides  this,  however,  there  was  a  more  cultuieid  pronunciation 
of  s  as  ds,  which  pasited  tfatougb  French  into  Middle  English. 
Eariy  English  had  used  s  alone  for  both  the  uivoiced  and  the 
voiced  sibilant;  the  Latin  sound  imported  through  French  was 
new  and  was  not  written  with  s  but  with  ;  or  «.  The  successive 
dwAges  can  be  well  seen  in  the  doable  forms  from  the  same 
original,  jeahus  and  aeaiMu.  Both  of  these  come  from  a  late 
Latin  Mdosus,  derived  from  the  imported  Greek  tqAoc.  Much 
the  earlier  form  is  jeahus;  its  initial  sound  b  the  dt  which  in 
later  Frendi  is  changed  to  s  (voiced  * ).  It  is  written  gehws  or 
ielms  by  Wydiffe  and  his  contemporsrics,  the  form  with  i  is 
the  ancestor  of  the  modem  form.  Tlw  later  word  uahus  was 
borrowed  after  the  French  dM  had  become  s.  At  the  end  of 
words  this  f  was  pronounced  <«  as  in  Uie  English  cssett,  which 
comes  from  «  late  Latin  ad  satis  through  an  early  French  ascn, 
"  enough."  With  z  also  is  frequently  written  sA,  the  voiced 
form  of  shf  in  as«re,  seizure.  But  it  appears  even  more  fre- 
quently as  s  before  «,  and  as  si  or  ti  before  other  vowels  in 
wteaswe,  decision^  transition^  &c.,  or  in  foreign  words  as  f,  as  in 
rouge.  For  the  }  representing  g  and  y  in  Scottish  proper  names 
see  under  K.  (P.  Gx.) 

ZAANDAM  (incorrectly  Saaioaii),  a  town  of  Holland,  in 


the  provbce  of  North  Holland,  on  the  river  Zaan,  6}  m.  N.W. 
of  Amsterdam,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway  and 
steamer.  Pop.  (1905)  23,773.  It  is  of  typically  Dutch  appear- 
ance, with  low,  brightly  coloured  houses.  It  has  an  important 
trade  in  timber,  and  numerous  windmills  in  the  vicinity  provide 
power  for  ml,  cement  and  paper  works,  timber-sawing  and 
corn-grinding.  At  Zaandam  is  preserved  the  wooden  hut 
which  Peter  the  Great  occupied  for  a  week  in  1697  whUe  stud>tnf 
shipbuilding  and  paper-making. 

21ABEIUI  (French,  Saverne),  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
imperial  province  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  district  of  Lower  Alsace, 
situated  on  the  Rhinc-Mame  canal  at  the  foot  of  a  pass  over 
the  Vosges,  and  27  m.  N.W.  of  Strassburg  by  the  railway  to 
Deutsch  Avricourt.  Pop.  (1900)  8499.  Its  principal  building, 
the  former  episcopal  residence,  rebuilt  by  Cardinal  de  Rohan 
in  1779,  is  now  used  as  barracks.  There  are  also  a  15th  century 
church  and  an  antiquarian  museum.  In  the  vicinity  arc  the 
ruined  castles  of  Hoch-barr,  Giossgcroldseck,  Ochsenstcin  and 
Greifenstein.  Hence  a  beautiful  road,  immortalized  by  Goethe 
in  Duhtung  und  Wahrkcit,  leads  across  the  Vosges  to  Hakburg. 

Zabem  {Tres  Tabemac)  was  an  important  place  in  the  times 
of  the  Romans,  and,  after  being  destroyed  by  the  Alamanni, 
was  rebuilt  by  the  emperor  Julian.  During  the  Peasants'  War 
the  town  was  occupied,  in  1525,  by  the  insurgents,  who  were 
driven  out  in  their  turn  by  DuJce  Anton  of  Lorraine.  It  suffered 
much  from  the  ravages  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  but  the  epis- 
copal castle,  then  destroyed,  w^  subsequently  rebuilt,  and  in 
1852  was  converted  by  Louis  Napoleon  into  a  place  of  residency 
for  widows  of  knights  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 

See  Fischer.  CesckichU  der  Stadl  Zabern  (Zabem,  1834). 

ZABRZB,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  extreme  S.E.  of  Pmssian 
Silesia,  on  the  railway  between  Gleiwitz  and  KOnigshiilte. 
Pop.  (1905)  55,634.  Like  other  towns  in  this  populous  region,  it 
is  an  important  manufacturing  centre,  having  coal-mines,  iron, 
wire,  glass,  chemical  and  oil  works,  breweries,  &c. 

ZACATECAS,  a  state  of  Mexico,  bounded  N  by  Durango 
and  Coahuila,  E.  by  San  Luis  Potosf,  S.  by  Aguascaiientes  and 
Jalisco,  and  W.  by  Jalisco  and  Durango.  Area,  34,757  sq.  iru 
Pop.  (1900)  462,190.  It  belongs  wholly  to  the  great  central 
plateau  of  Mexico,  with  an  average  elevation  of  about  7700  ft. 
The  state  is  somewhat  mountainous,  being  traversed  in  the  W. 
by  lateral  ranges  of  the  Sierra  Madre  Occidental,  and  by 
numerous  isolated  ranges  in  other  parts— Mazapil,  Norillos, 
Guadalupe  and  others.  There  are  no  large  rivers,  only  the 
small  head-streams  of  the  Aguanaval  in  the  N.,  and  of  the 
Guazamola,  Bolanos  and  Juchipila  in  the  W.,  the  Ust  three 
being  tributaries  of  the  Rio  Grande  de  Santiago.  As  the  rain- 
fall is  light  this  Uck  of  streams  suitable  for  irrigation  is  a  draw- 
back to  agriculture.  The  climate  is  dry  and  generally  healthy, 
being  warm  in  the  valleys  and  temperate  in  the  mountains. 
The  agricultural  products  are  cereals,  sugar  and  maguey,  the 
first  being  dependent  on  the  rainfall,  often  failing  altogether, 
the  second  on  irrigation  in  the  lower  valleys,  and  the  latter 
doing  best  in  a  dry  climate  on  a  calcareous  soil  with  water  not 
far  beneath  the  surface.  -There  is  also  a  considerable  produc- 
tion of  peaches,  apricots  and  grapes,  the  last  being  made  into 
wine.  A  few  cattle  are  raised,  and  considerable  attention  is 
given  to  the  rearing  of  sheep,  goats  and  swine.  A  natural 
product  is  gpayule,  a  shrub  from  which  rubber  is  extracted. 
The  chief  industry  of  Zacatecas,  however,  is  mining  for  silver, 
gold,  mercury,  copper,  iron,  sine,  lead,  bismuth,  antimony  and 
salt.  Its  mineral  wealth  was  discovered  soon  after  the  conquest, 
and  some  of  its  mines  are  among  the  most  famous  of  Mexico, 
dating  from  1546.  One  of  the  most  productive  of  its  silver 
mines,  the  Alvarado,  has  records  which  show  a  production  of 
nearly  $800,000,000  in  silver  between  1548  and  1B67.  The 
state  is  traversed  by  the  Mexican  Central  and  the  Mexican 
National  railways.    Its  manufaaures  are  limited  chiefly  to  tJM 


ZACATECAS— ZACHARIAB 


949 


reductioii  ol  minezal  ores,  ths  exttactbn  of  rubber  from  guayule, 
the  making  of  sugar,  rum,  mescal,  pulque,  woollen  and  cotton 
fabrics,  and  some  minor  industries  of  the  capital.  The  capital 
b  Zacatecas,,  and  the  other  principal  towns  are  Sombrerete 
(pop.  10,000),  an  important  silver-mining  town  70  m.  N.W.  of 
the  capital  (elevation  8430  ft.);  Ciudad  Garcia  (about  9500); 
Guadalupe  (9000);  Pinos  (8000),  a  mining  town;  San  Juan  de 
Mczquitul  (7000);  and  Fresnillo  (6300),  an  important  silvcr- 
and  copper-mining  centre. 

ZACATECAS,  a  city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  the  state  of 
Zacatecas,  442  m.  by  the  Mexican  Central  railway  N.W.  of 
Mexico  city.  Pop.  (1900)  39,912.  It  is  built  in  a  deep,  narrow 
ravine,  8050  ft.  above  sea-level,  with  narrow,  crooked  streets 
climbing  the  steep  hillsides,  and  white,  flat-roofed  houses  of 
(our  and  five  storeys  overtopping  each  other.  Its  streets  are 
well  paved,  and  are  lighted  with  electricity.  The  city  is  well 
drained  and  has  a  fine  aqueduct  for  its  water  supply.  The 
cathedral  is  an  elaborately  carved  red-stone  structure  with  un- 
finished towers  and  richly  decorated  interior.  Several  domed 
churches  occupy  prominent  sites.  The  National  College  and  the 
Colcgio  de  Nuesta  Seik>ra  de  Guadalupe  with  its  fine  library 
may  be  noticed.  Overlooking  the  dty  from  an  elevation  of 
500  ft.  is  the  Bufa  Hill,  which  is  crowned  by  a  chapel  and  is  a 
popular  pilgrimage  resort.  The  Guadalupe  chapel  near  the 
city  has  elaborate  decorations,  including  frescoes,  onyx  steps, 
silver  rails  and  paintings,  and  a  curious  tiled  dome.  The  in- 
dustries comprise  carriage  building,  weaving  and  the  manu- 
facture of  coarse  pottery.  The  town  is  an  important  com- 
mercial centre. 

Zacatecas  was  founded  in  1546  and  was  built  over  a  rich  vein 
of  silver  discovered  by  Juan  de  Tolosa  in  the  same  year.  This 
and  other  mines  in  the  vicinity  attracted  a  large  population, 
and  it  soon  became  one  of  the  chief  mining  centres  of  Mexico. 
It  was  made  a  city  in  1585  by  Philip  II. 

ZACH,  FRANZ  XAVBR,  Baron  von  (i7S4-'i833),  German 
astronomer,  was  born  at  Pesth  on  the  4th  of  June  1754.  He 
served  for  some  time  in  the  Austrian  army,  and  afterwards  lived 
in  London  from  1783  to  1786  as  tutor  in  the  house  of  the  Saxon 
minister,  Count  BrOhl.  In  1786  he  was  appointed  by  Ernest  II. 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  director  of  the  new  observatoiy  on  the 
Sccberg  at  Gotha,  which  was  finished  in  1791.  From  z8o6 
Zach  accompanied  the  duke's  widow  on  her  travels  in  the  south 
of  Europe.    He  died  in  Paris  on  the  2nd  of  September  1832 

Zach  published  Tabks  of  the  Sun  (Cotha,  1792:  new  and  improved 
edition,  ibid.,  1804),  and  numerous  papers  on  geographical  subjects, 
paritcularly  on  the  geographical  positions  of  many  towns  and 
places,  which  he  determined  on  his  travels  with  a  sextant.  His 
principal  importance  was,  however,  as  editor  of  three  Bcicntific 
journals  of  great  value;  AUgrmeine  Ceograpkische  Ephemeriden 
(4  vols.,  Gotha,  1798-99),  MoHoUiche  Correspondent  zur  Beforderung 
der  Erd'  und  Himmels-Kunde  (28  vols.,  Gotha.  1800-13,  "Om  1807 
edited  by  B.  von  Lindcnau),  and  Correspondanu  astronomique,  gio- 
grabhique,  hydrograbhique,  el  statistique  (Genoa,  1818-26.  14  vols., 
and  one  number  ol  the  isth  suppressed  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Jesuits). 

ZACHARIAB  VOH  UNGBNTHAL,  KARL  SALOKO  (1769- 
1843),  German  jurist,  was  born  on  the  14th  of  September  1769 
at  Meissen  in  Saxony,  the  son  of  a  lawyer,  and  received  his  early 
education  at  the  famous  public  school  of  St  Afra  in  that  town. 
He  afterw'ards  studied  philosophy,  history,  mathematics  and 
law  at  the  university  of  Leipzig.  In  1792  he  went  to  Wittenberg 
University  as  tutor  to  one  of  the  counts  of  Lippe,  and  con- 
tinued his  legal '  studies.  In  1794  he  became  privaidozent, 
lecturing  on  canon  law,  in  1798  extraordinary  professor,  and 
1802  ordinary  professor  of  feudal  law.  From  that  time  to  his 
death  in  1843,  with  the  exception  of  a  short  period  in  which 
public  affairs  occupied  him,  he  poured  out  a  succession  of  works 
covering  the  whole  field  of  jurisprudence,  and  was  a  copious 
contributor  to  periodicals.  In  1807  he  received  a  call  to 
Heidelberg,  then  beginning  its  period  of  splendour  as  a  school 
of  law.  There,  resisting  many  calls  to  GSttmgen,  Berlin  and 
other  universities,  he  remained  until  his  death.  In  1820  he 
took  hn  seat,  as  representative  of  his  university,  in  the  upper 
Jiouse  of  the  newly  constituted  parliament  of  Baden.    Though 


he  himself  propaxed  mauy  refonDa»-i)otably  in  thft  lanli 
criminal  code — ^he  was,  by  instinct  and  convictioik,  oonservmttve 
and  totally  opposed  to  the  violent  democratic  spirit  which 
dominated  the  second  chamber,  and  brought  it  into  conflict 
with  the  grand-duke  and  the  German  federal  govenunent. 
After  the  remoddling  of  the  ooostitution  in  a  "  reactionary  " 
sense,  he  was  returned,  in  1835,  by  the  district  of  Hciddbeis 
to  the  second  chamber,  of  which  he  became  the  first  vico- 
president,  and  in  which  he  proved  hims^f  n>oro  "  loyal "  thaa 
the  government  itself.  With  the  growth  of  parliamentaiy 
Liberalism,  however,  he  grew  disgusted  with  politics,  from  which 
he  xetired  altogether  in  1829.  He  now  devoted  himself  whoBy 
to  juridical  work  and  to  the  last  days  of  his  life  toiled  with 
the  ardour  of  a  young  student.  His  fame  extended  beyond 
Germany.  The  German  universities  then  enjoyed,  in  regard 
to  legal  questions  of  international  importance,  a  jurisdiction 
dating  from  the  middle  ages;  and  Zachariae  was  often  con* 
suited  as  to  questions  arising  in  Germany,  France  and  England. 
Elaborate  "  opbions,"  some  of  them  forming  veritable  treatiaet 
— e.g.  on  Sir  Augustus  d'Este's  claim  to  the  dukedom  of  Sussex,' 
Baron  de  Bode's  claim  as  an  English  subject  to  a  share  in  tho 
French  indemnity,  the  dispute  as  to  the  debts  due  to  the  elector 
of  Hesse-Cassel,  confiscated  by  Napoleon,  and  the  constitutional 
portion  of  the  Mecklenburg  landowners-^were  composed  by 
Zachariae.  Large  fees  which  he  received  for  these  opiniont 
and  the  great  popularity  of  his  lectures  nuule  him  rich,  and  ho 
was  able  to  buy  several  estates;  from  one  of  which,  Lingenthal, 
he  took  his  title  when,  in  1842,  he  was  ennobled  by  the  grand- 
duke.  He  died  on  the  27th  of  March  1843.  He  had  married 
in  z8ii,  but  his  wife  died  four  years  later,  leaving  him  a  son, 
Karl  Eduard. 

Zachariae's  true  history  is  in  his  writing,  which  are  extremelv 
numerous  and  multifarious.  They  deal  with  almost  every  brancli 
of  jurisprudence;  they  are  philosophical,  historical  and  practical 
and  relate  to  Roman,  Canon,  German,  French  and  English  law. 
Ine  first  book  of  much  conseiqucnce  which  he  published  was  Dig 
Einheil  des  Stoats  und  der  Kirche  mit  Rucksichl  auf  die  Deutsche 
Reichsverfassung  (1797).  a  work  on  the  relations  of  church  and 
state,  with  special  rderence  to  the  constitution  of  the  empire,  which 
displayed  the  writer's  power  of  analysis  and  his  skill  in  making  • 
complicated  set  of  facts  appear  to  be  deductions  from  a  few  pnn- 
ciples.  In  1805  appcarca  Versuch  einer  aUgemeinen  Hermeneutik 
des  Rechts;  and  in  1806  Die  Wissenschaft  der  Gesetzubung,  an 
attempt  to  find  a  new  theoretical  basis  for  society  in  place  of  the 
opportunist  politics  which  had  led  to  the  cataclysm  of  the  French 
Revolution.  This  basis  he  seemed  to  discover  in  something  le- 
sembling  Bentham's  utilitarianism.  Zachariac^s  last  work  of 
importance  was  Viersig  BOcher  vom  Staate  (1830-42),  to  which  his 
admirers  point  as  hb  enduring  monument.  It  has  been  compared 
to  Montesquieu's  L'Esprit  des  lots,  and  coven  no  small  part  of  the 
field  of  Buckle's  first  volume  of  the  History  of  Civilization.  But 
though  it  contains  proof  of  vast  erudition  and  many  original  ideas 
as  to  the  future  of  the  state  and  of  law,  it  lacks  logical  sequence, 
and  is,  consequently,  full  of  contradictions.  Its  fundamental 
theorv  is,  that  the  state  had  its  origin,  not  in  a  contract  (Rousseau* 
Kant),  but  in  the  consciousness  of  a  legal  duty.  What  MachiaveUi 
was  to  the  Italians  and  Montesquieu  to  the  French,  Zachariae 
aspired  to  become  to  the  Germans;  but  he  lacked  their  patriotic 
inspiration,  and  so  failed  to  exercise  any  permanent  influence  on 
the  constitutional  law  of  his  country.  Among  other  important 
works  of  2iachariac  are  his  Staatsrecht,  and  his  treatise  on  tiie  Cods 
NafhoUon,  of  which  several  French  editions  were  published,  and 
which  was  translated  into  Italian.  Zachariae  edited  with  Karl 
Joseph  Mittermaier  the  Kritische  ZeitsckriflfUr  Rechtsteisstnsckaft 
und  GcSebgebung  des  Auslandes^  and  the  introduction  which  nt 
wrote  illustrates  his  wide  reading  and  his  constant  desire  for  new 
light  upon  old  problems.  Though  Zachariae's  works  have  been 
superseded,  they  were  in  their  day  epoch-making,  and  they  have 
been  superseded  by  books  which,  without  them,  could  not  have  beea 
written. 

For  an  account  of  Zachariae  and  his  works,  see  Robert  voA 
Mohl,  Geschichte  u.  Literatur  der  Staatswissensckaflen  (1855-58), 
and  Charles  Brocher,  K.  S.  Zachariae,  sa  vie  et  ses  encores  (1870); 
cf.  also  his  biography  in  AUgem.  Deutsche  Biozraphie  (vol.  44)  hy 
Wilhehn  Fischer,  and  Holtsendorff.  Ruhts-Lexicou,  Zsckar^  vm 
Ltngenthal, 

His  son.  Kail  Eduaso  Zachauav   ( 181 2-1894) r«)M  an 

eminent  jurist,  was  bom  on  the  94th  of  December  zSis,  and 

studied  philosophy,  hbtory,  mathematics  and  Unguages,  as 

I  well  as  jurisprudence,  at  Leipzig,  Beriin.and  Heiddbecg.  Having 


ZACHARIAS,  ST— ZAIMUKHT 


aiidc  Soman  ind  Bytantinc  kw  bb  tp«<il  slud)',  he  visilcd 
Paris  to  iSji  to  ciimine  Bynnline  MSS.,  went  in  1834  lo 
St  Pctsnburg  and  CopenhageD  for  Ibe  umc  puipcsc,  and  in 
iSj;  worked  in  the  tibnna  ot  BrusKia,  London,  Oiioid, 
Dublin,  Edinburgh  and  Cambridge.  Alter  a  few  months  a>  a 
pFacliaing  lawyer  and  frmUdtanl  at  HeidclbcrXp  he  vent  ia 
■8j7,  in  icaich  ol  mileriali,  to  Italy  and  the  East,  vitiiing 
Athens,  Conalanlinopk  and  the  monasteries  of  Mount  Athos. 
Having  a  taste  for  a  country  life,  and  none  for  teaching,  be  give 
Dp  his  poBlion  as  eitnordintry  pnlessor  at  Heid?!beig.  and 
tn  1S4S  bought  an  estate  in  the  Prussian  piovince  ol  Suony, 
Here  ht  liv«),  eciKE^G^d  in  ad^ntifir  agriculture  and  interested 
In  Prussian  politics,  until  bis  deaib  an  the  jrd  ol  June  1S94. 

for  Biudoili  ol  ByunluM  law.    The  task  Co  which  be  1:  nis 

life  waj,  (o  diKover  and  clauify  the  uurce*  of  Byz:  <w 

hidden  awav  in  the  tibrariei  oi  the  £»t  and  Wot:  to  in 

the  light  ol  n»dcm  criIicES0i»  those  louraa  which' hj  d^ 
been  published;  to  write  the  Uitory  of  Byxantlne  lai 


nd  I 


terial;  and  BnaHy,  tc 


nsulti  to  the  acieatik  ducidatloB  ol  the  Jindnia..  _ 
'GrartoSomamum.  of  hbich  the  hrac  part  waa  public  jti, 

the  last  In  IB91,  ia  tbe  beat  and  moot  complete  colkci  ne 

•Dunres  of  Byaantlne  law  and  of  the  Jfvms  from  tl  .  .  oT 
Jiniin  II.  to  14;^.  On  tbe  nMnl  hbcoiy  of  ifae  HibiKl  he  wcoit 
two  epodwnaking  worka,  tCa  Hvterw  Ooaiv-Raiiuin  jktu  iU' 
UtKahe,  cum  appaiict  imiilBniim  <Heide1bciE,  1839).  and  Inntrt 
Ciicl\iAte  ia  frinctHci-rAHftekM  Jtecbi.  1.  Ptrsimalrahl; 
II.  ErbraU:  III.  Di*  CachieUt  ia  Saclitiintlib  nui  OhtiplKiii- 
mhl  (Ldpiig,  iSje).  the  third  edilion  of  which  appartif  under 
4bc  title  GtiSucUt  ill  iriicliuck-riimidiai  iJafJUl  (IS^).     In  Ihii 

Treated  as  a  development  of  Juuinian  lav,  and  irkciJentally  trt&ny 
obBcure  point!  in  the  economic  and  agratian  conditlona  of  the 

sec  AOfnu.  Dniiidit  Biap.,  art  by  Wilbelni  Fuchcr. 

ZACHARIAS,  sr,  pope  from  M'  to  );>,  waa  a  Greek  by  birth, 
ajid  appears  to  haw  been  on  intimate  terms  with  Gregory  III., 
whom  he  succeeded  (November  741).  Contemporary  history 
dwells  chiefly  on  his  great  ptnonil  influence  with  the  Lombard 
king  Luilprand,  and  with  his  successor  Bachis;  it  was  largely 
Ibrougb  bis  lact  in  dealing  with  these  princes  Ln  a  variety  ol 
emergenda  that  tbe  eurchate  of  Ravenna  was  rescued  From 
becoming  part  of  the  Lombard  kingdom,  A  coitcspondencc, 
of  conaidenble  extent  and  ol  great  inteicsl,  between  Zacharias 
and  St  Boniface,  the  apostle  of  Germany,  is  still  eitant,  and 
thovs  ho*  great  was  the  influence  ol  ibis  pope  on  events  then 
passing  in  France  and  Cermany:  he  encouraged  the  depouiion 
o[  Cbitderic,  and  it  was  with  his  laactlon  thai  Boniface  crowned 
Pippin  as  king  of  tbe  Franks  at  Soiisons  In  751.    Zacharias  is 

Copronymus  on  the  part  be  had  taken  in  the  (conodastic  con- 
troversy. He  died  on  the  14th  of  Hatch  751,  and  was  succeeded 
by  SLefdien  IL 

The  Ititeu  and  dtcteea  of  Zaeliariaa  are  published  in  Migne, 
Palnlcc.  lal.  Xtaaa.  p.  917-960, 

ZAQAZID  <ZaV£A),  a  town  of  Lower  Egypt,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Sharkia.  Pop.  (1Q07)  34,999,  including  2617  Copts 
and  i]S5  Greeks.  It  is  buUt  on  a  branch  of  the  Fredi  W< 
or  IsmaiUa  canal,  and  on  the  Al-Mo'Isi  canal  (the  ajic: 
Tanitic  channel  of  the  Nile],  and  is  47  m.  by  rail  N.N.E.  of 
Cairo.  Situated  on  the  Delta  in  tbe  midst  of  1  fertile  district, 
Zagaiig  is  a  great  centre  ol  the  cotloit  and  grain  trade  of  Egypt. 
It  ha!  large  cotton  faciories  and  the  olEces  of  numerous  European 
mcrdiants.  About  a  mile  south  of  the  town  ue  the  ruins  of 
Bubaitit  (g.D.). 

ZtHRlNOEH,  the  name  of  in  old  and  Influential  German 
'family,  taken  from  the  caslle  and  village  of  that  nune  near 
Fieiburg-im-Breisgiu.  The  earliest  known  member  of  the 
.family  was  probably  one  Beiciin,  a  count  jn  the  Breieeau,  who 
was  Uving  early  in  Ihe  iilh  century.  Btoelln's  son  Betlold  I. 
(d.  t[;7S}  ns  count  of  Zlhringen  and  was  tcbted  to  the  Hoben- 
ttaHha  faiinily.  He  received  a  protBBc  of  the  duchy  of  Swabia, 
wUdi,  bowevtt,  ms  not  fulfilled,  but  in  1061  he  waa  made 
dukeof  Catfnthia.    Although  this  dimity  wa>  a  titular  one  only 


Henry  IV. 

n  T073. 

'Jhrin 

lewassii 

d  Conm< 

anHi 

Hti 

;undy  an 

Vm, 

<  V 

g,  Lotha 

lunn 

dy 

r  Aries. 

and  hen 

Burgu 

ndy. 

II.  {d.  1 

tl),  •hoHheMi 

iherited 

the  Und  of  tbe 

title  of  duke  o( 

by  his 

sons,  BertoM  UI. 

gens  had  bi 


1  about  this  date  He  was  appointed  by  (he 
ir  the  Saiion,  rector  of  the  kinrdorn  of 
This  office  was  held  by  the  Zltiringens 

iv.  {A.  itSe),  who  followed  his  father 
of  his  time  in  Italy  in  the  train  of  tbe 

by  reducing  the  Burgundian  neblea  to  order. 
IS  the  founder  of  the  (own  of  Bern,  and  when 
r  iiiEtbemain  line  of  the  ZlhriHgen  Family 
ty  extensive  acquisitions  of  land  the  Zih- 
iC  very  powerful  in  the  districts  ruw  known 


A  thence  to  the  house  of  Habsburg.    Tbe  family  ni 


See  E.  J.  Uichllcr 
fcyck.  Gtfchidiu  ia  i 


:e  Bettold  I.,  and  the  grant 
iveoFtheZUiringeni. 
Dii  Za*ri"En-  (Fitiburi;.  1 


'enitrllen. 


■  IFrelL....  . 


1^1).  and 


ZtHBINGBH,  a  vOlage  of  Germany,  In  the  grand  duchy  of 

Baden,  situated  under  the  weslem  slope  of  the  Black  Foiot, 

I.  from   Freibuis-im-Bteisgau,  and  on  the  railway  froia 

jelberg  10  BaseL    Pop.  (1900)  1100.    Above  the  villaccoa 

UI  of  the  mountains,  ijoo  11.  above  the  lea,  lie  the  ruins  ol 

Ihe  caslle  of  Zahriogcn,  foimerly  the  stronghidd  of  the  ducal 

line  of  Ibat  name  (see  above). 

See  Schdpdin.  Hiama  Zarimt^Saiiau  (Kaitatnlie.  ■763--66. 


Ziilaixbemoslw 
pro(ecloratc,  being 
Hack.    The  town  is 

stem  of  Lie 

onth 

of  the  British  Sonaliland 
bera  by  Ihe  coast  catavam 
ee  sides  by  the  Ma:  land- 

principal 

occupation 

dwellings 

uildingt,  which  dat 
(.Sjs-i8fl4)ateof 
re  mide  ol  gnu.. 

cscrt  for  some  fifty  mile».    Tbe 
Irom  the  days  of   Egyptian 

white  (coral)  stone;  the  Somali 
Zaila  has  a  good    ifaellered 

i  by  A, 

he  shore.  Small  cuuting  boats  lie  oR  the  pier  and  there  is  no 
iflicully  in  loading  or  discharging  cargo.  The  water  luj^ly  of 
he  town  is  drawn  from  Ihe  wells  of  Takoiha,  about  three  miles 
istant;  every  morning  camels,  in  chaige  of  old  Somali  womea 
nd  bearing  goatskins  filled  with  water,  come  Into  Ihe  t.owa  ia 
lictureaque  procession.  Tbe  popublion  varies  from  300Q  10 
000,  the  natives,  who  come  in  the  cool  seamn  to  banei  their 
oods,  retiring,  to  the  highlands  in  hot  weather.  The  chief 
radeis  are  Indians,  the  smaller  dealers  Arabs,  Greeks  and 
ews.  The  imporls,  which  reach  Zaik  chiefly  via  Aden,  are 
oainly  cotton  goods,  rice,  jowaiee,  dates  and  silk;  tbe  ejq»i1a 
-of  which  go  per  cetiL  are  from  Abysunia — aru  pdnt^ully 
offee,  skins,  ivory,  cattle,  ghee  and  mother^l -pearl. 

Zoila  owed  its  importance  to  its  proaimily  to  Ilarrar,  the 
Teat  eolrepAt  lor  the  trade  of  southern  Abysunis.  The  trade 
i  the  port  received,  however,  a  severe  check  00  the  iqiening 
I9ai'i)  of  the  railway  to  Hamr  Irom  the  French  p«t  oi 
ibuti,whichis3sm.N.W.afZaila.  AstcamerftomAdeatoZaila 


I  ZaiU  to  Harra 


3ertaU  lost  It  when 


For  hotory  and  trade  statialici, 
ZAIMUKHT,  the  name  ol  a  an 
Norlh-West  FroE 


II  Pilhan  tribe  Da  the  K 


t  agUDU  the  ampcror  I  ZuBukfats  inhabit  the  bills  ti 


ZAIRE— ZAMBEZI 


between  the  Mirantsi  an 

SimuiK  Bi  its  buc,  ai 
nlley  u  its  apei.  Thii  iix 
occupied  by  an  Onkzii  clan. 
o[  which  the  Orikuii  eccup 
fcne-lookins  powcilul  net,  ' 
3000  men. 

ZAIBB,   s   nnme  by  whic 
tnoitn-     Zaire  is  i  Portugue 

native  Icingdom  af  Congo  p 


Kutram  valleys.  Theirto 
«ith  the  lange  af  hilla  II 
Ibc  village  of  Thai  in 


untiy  w 


a  BaBlu  word  (lit 
h  banll  of  Itie  I01 


Zaire  "  was  frequently  uicd  to  designate  the  aticain.  It  is 
called  by  Camocni  in  the  Lmiaii.  Since  H.  M,  Stanley's 
^CQVeries  **  Congo  "  has  become  the  general  name  for  the 
/Ii  [torn  its  maulh  to  Stanley  Falls,  dopile  an  eBort  on  the 
irt  ol  Slaidey  to  have  the  stieam  re-named  Livingstone.    (See 


:hincse  fronlici,  at  1 
<mcr  ol  Lake  Zaisa 
d  ih  an  open  valley 
t  and  the  TsrbajjUi 
I.    It  has  a  length  ol 


ZAISAM,  or  Zauahsc,  a  lown  of  S 
the  province  of  Scmipalalinsk,  near  Ihi 
altitude  of  aioo  it.  and  near  the  S.E. 
Pop.  (1897)  4471.  Lake  Zoiun,  silu 
between  the  Altai  range  on  the  northn 
on  the  south,  lies  at  an  altitude  of  i jj 
6sat.,  a  widlh  of  14  lo  ja  m,,  an  are  ... 

■nuimum  depth  o[  jo  It.  lis  water  15  Ircsh,  as  it  recdvH 
the  Black  Irtish  and  Ihc  Kendyrlyk  from  [he  east,  and  several 
Email  itrFams  from  the  west,  all  ol  which  luve  the  lake  at  ill 
noilh-WBSt  eitremity  by  the  White  liLysh.  The  fisheries, 
which  yield  abundantly,  are  in  the  handi  of  the  Siberian 
'  '     '  "     '  '     m  the  bcpnning  ol 


.  Glaeda,  Greek 


ocri  Epuephyrii  ii 


tittle  Is  known  of  hi 


the  Greeks.     Acrording  V 

roniullcd  Ihe  Dtlphic  oracn 
Md  biilcssncss  Ihai  were  t 
ordered  to  make  laws  lor  ih 
Ztleiicui.  a  shepherd  and  si 


Maa 
d  ab 
a  pupil  erf  PythagorM 


by  Athena. 


MlIOD  goddess  of  the  city,  v 
11,  like  Ihoie  of  Draco,  they 
essentially  unchanged  fr>r 
jcnlly  enjoyed  a  high  repu 


it  for  dilTercnt 
fl  to  Ibe  discretion 
The  penally  for  1 


!  laws  of  ZaiRKUS, 
o  him  in  a  dream 
re  few  and  simple, 
recame  proverbiaL 

sioDS  was  that  Ihc 
lely  aicd,  instead 


(the  I 


1]  are  attributed 


il'e),  e 


itrodund  a  legulatic 
o  appear  beloce  t^e 


ae  Thousand  v  _ 

wham  the  council  decided  vras  immediately  strangled.  Anj 
one  who  pn^HKed  ■  new  law  or  the  tltcialion  of  one  aliead] 
eiisiing  wu  jubjecled  10  the  same  Ifsl.  which  continued  ji 
force  till  (he  4lh  century  and  ei.-en  bier.  Zaleucus  is  oltci 
(ailined  with  OisfTHidas,  and  the  same  sioiy  is  told  of  Ihei 
death.  It  is  said  that  one  of  Zaleucus'a  laws  forbade  a  ciiiien 
nndcr  penalty  of  death,  to  enter  the  *eoate.iKnne  belling  1 


95» 

Zaleonu  vialaled  tMl  lawt 


cspon.    During  (he  itrei 

id,  on  Its  being  pointed  out  to  bus,  ne  amnnitea  n 

iroR-ing  himsell  upon  the  point  ol  his  iwoid,  declaring  1 


Ceitech.  Zdntea.    Citm^BM,    Pylk^mi    (iBtB):    C.    Bu 
^.... ■....,..  ^_..i...i..   -.  ,r.i  1      .  r..    .       ^.        ._    "„rjbo  H. 

ol  Thurii;  Ciceiv,  Dt  Lffiiu) 


GtimJtittht  GvakkMUy  L:  ScboL 
p.  >59i  Diod.  Sic.  m.  10,  " 
P-JU\  ^^'baeui.  nDrOcfiuiH, 


cp/  WatartJt  F.  D; 
Deniosllicnes, 


of  Zaleucui  and  the  eatlcctkni 
[loas,  B.V.,  wbo  nahei  kirn  •  nalivi. 
6.  Sea  alHi  aitid*  Gauc  Law. 
ZAUfOXU.  or  ZamolXO,  ■  leal-inytbical  eodal  and  r 


SgiDus  relonmr.  regarded  ai  Ihe  only  trae  Cod  by  the  Thrad 
Getie.  According  to  HendoUu  <iv.  94),  the  Geue,  who  be- 
Ueved  In  the  imnoilality  cd  the  aoul,  looked  upon  death  rnercly 
as  giriag  to  Zahnoais.  Every  live  yean  they  Kicctcd  by  lol 
one  of  Ihe  tribesman  as  a  messenger  to  the  god.  The  man  was 
thrown  into  the  air  and  caught  upon  Ihe  pointa  ol  speais.  If 
he  did  not  die,  he  was  considered  unht  to  nndenake  the  miuion 
and  another  was  chosen,  fiy  the  euheiiKhstic  ifellesjunLine 
Creeks  Hcrodolui  was  told  that  Zalmoiis  was  really  a  man, 
formerly  a  ilave  of  Pythagoras  at  Samoa,  who,  having  obtained 
his  freedom  and  amassed  great  wealth,  returned  to  Thrace,  and 
inslraded  his  f  cllow-ltfbeimen  in  the  docliincs  of  Pythagoras  and 
the  arts  of  dviliatlon.  He  taught  thrm  that  they  would  pan 
at  death  to  a  certain  pbce,  where  they  would  cajcy  all  possibli; 
ity,  and  to  convince  them  oi  this  he  1 


B  Chan 


Wled,  U 


withdrew  for 
it  himsell  as  10 


dedina  to 
the  eiistencc  ol  Zalmoiis,  eipienes  the  opinion  that  in  any  case 
he  moat  have  lived  king  beton  Ibe  tiroe  of  Pythagoras.  Xl 
is  probable  that  Znhnona  a  Sabazius,  the  Thracian  Dionyiua 
or  Zeus;  Mnaseis  of  Patrae  idenlifled  him  wilh  Cronus.  In 
Plato  {Churmidcs,  liS  B]  he  is  mentioned  wilh  Aharis  as  skilled 
in  the  aiti  of  IncantalioD.  No  situfactory  etymology  of  the 
name  has  been  auggeeted. 

ZAKAKHSHAHI  lAbQ-l  QUm  MahmUd  ibn  'Umsr  us- 
Zamakhsharil  (1074-1143),  Arabian  theologian  and  grammarian. 
It  Zamakhshar,  a  village  of  Khwaiizm,  aludlcd  at 
id  Samarkand,  and  tojoyvd  the  lellomhip  ol  tbi 
lagdid.  For  many  fears  he  ttaytd  at  Mecca,  iron 
mstance  he  was  known  as  JiTiMk  ("  Cod's  client  "). 
rtumed  to  Khwaiim,  where  he  died  at  the  capital 
Jurjlnlyya.  In  thenkigv  he  was  a  pronounced  Mo'taEilile  (see 
HHhowmemn  RiiioiON:  section  SkU).     Although  he  used 

s^Kriority  of  Ihe  Arabic  language  and  an  opponent  of  Ihc 
Shu'Obite  movement.  Zamakhshail'i  fame  a*  a  commcnlaiot 
lesls  upon  his  commentary  an  the  Koran,  caDcd  al-Kaiksliif 
('■  the  Reveller  ").  In  spile  of  its  Mo'taiilite  theology  it  was 
lamous  anung  scholars  and  was  the  lusis  ol  the  widcly-icad 
commenlary  of  Baidhlwl  (f.t.).  It  baa  been  edited  by  W. 
Nassau  Lees  (Calcutta,  1856).  and  has  been  printed  at  Cairo 
(iBoo).  Various  glosses  on  )I  have  been  wrillen  by  different 
authors.     Mis  chief  grammatical  work  is  the  K!ld6  id-mupu'l, 

.....  .  .,,^     ^^     J        p       T._._.       ,._..      .. 


inia,  ig7g).    Man; 


(his  n'ork,  the  fullesl  being  that  ol  Ibn  Yi'lsh  (d.  i 
by  G.  Jahn  (1  vols.,  Leipzig,  1876-86). 
*'  'lii  Inicncnphicd  works  tbe  KiM  MinlJJimal  uI-Ailai  wni 
~        ■    •         ■jxiam  Arab.  Pifi.  XtA.  I.  f   - 
d  Ihe  Am  id*aUA 


ZAMBEZI,  the  fauith  i 
LrgesI  ol  those  flowing 
mglb  (taking  all  curvea 


...  iMj):  and  by 
d.  deCocjcBabovi)-  (G-W.T.) 
Hie  of  the  rivets  of  Africa,  and  the 
istwardi  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  lis 
nlo  consideration)  is  aboul  iioo  m. 
Jhtg  lo  Dr  Blvdan,  is  ji],soa  1^  OM 


■  well^efina]  at 


pi  Wbe  bM  Ihxo  bill  tiitt  of  (ki  Nik.    The  mdn  diuiiKl  i* 

clurly  mulud  [lom  bcginDinK  to  end.     The  river  Uku  iti 

iLwiD  ii°ii'3'S.,  i4°ii'£.   TbewuKtUetmBnluli  territory 

b  »  depression  of  »  unduUling  (ounliy  5000  rt.  ibow  Lhc 

Ml,  covered  iHUi  bnickn)  uid  open  lomt.     The  wUei,  like 

tint  o(  all  the  tfverj  at  the  neighbourhood,  '  ' '    ' 

nunhy  bog,  uid  quickly  coILt 

In  Ibe  bm  hutldnd  miles  o[  tti  muise  ine  n' 

YiRibeabe — in  Kund   almosl   idenlicil  wit 

lomi  course,  Ihou^  intervening  MClions  u 

bcfthe,    Liunbaj,    be.    Eastwnrd   of   tbe   s 

putmg  be(w«n  the  Congo  end  Zanbed  bl 

bdt  ol  high  ground 

ranning  neuly  cut 

dislinctly  cull  oS  th 

of  the  upper  Con^)  f 

hood  of  the  source,  I 


[albng  abruptly  north  ud  *outh,  and 
'  west  between  11°  md  i>'  S.  Thii 
uln  of  the  Luipula  (the  main  branch 
that  ol  the  ZunbcEl.  In  the  aeigfaboui- 
:ver,  Ihe  wMet-paiting  is  not  to  dear, 
Dttl  tne  two  nvei  systemi  do  not  connect. 
Tii  Vpttr  ftiwir.—Ttin  infant  Zanbed.  aFur  porwtng  n  aoulh- 

the  nonh-wett)  whuie  source  ■•  near  a  mushy  bke  calird  Dilolo. 
460a  ft.  above  Ka-leveL  in  Ir'^o*  S.,  11*  10' E.  Uke  Dilolo  was 
■toaedme  beUeved  looonmiunintewilh  (he  Kuai  river,  one  of 
the  great  aHhients  of  the  Congo  Avwing  nonh-vest.  but  this  i>  not 

.   The  Zambea  at  it  Bon  uuihward 


to  that  liver  after  heavy 

ncdve*  on  cither  dde  du,.,c,<....  .,.,..,.  .,iuul.,u^  ^  .<-  .,ur^. 
above  Kakengi  (in  Ii*  14'  %.),  the  Zambcd.  namw.  picture«|De 
■nd  tortuona,  moddenly  wideni  frm  100  to  uo  yda.  Btiow 
Kaiidvi  an  ■  number  of  lapidi  ending  (r j'  7'  £)  in  Ibe  Sapuma 
cataracts-    At  Ihia  prant  the  river  Bows  tumuHnootly  through  a 

The  Bnt  of  it!  large  Iribntarlea  to  enter  Ibe  1  he 

Kabompo,  ■  kft-hand  aflluenL      ft  ioini  tlie  dd  in 

UT  16'  S.   A  link  lower  down  (in  14'  iV  S.)  the  Za  rea 

other  chiel  Iribuiarira  ar  the  Zambeii.  •*  betow.)  ati 


rf'oi'lE^'' 


FuSS 


6^"' 

WW  ft.  at  the  aource.  &lli  en 
bonce  of  »o  r 
Rocbed— joo  n.- 

the  fafl  bang  in  \aim  ujHim^  uy»  ,■.  vj,jj.     ■  ■pt:,^,  «. 

the  contlbenee  of  tbe  Lungwelningu  the  country  ber  ..  .n 

la  the  niay  aeuou  la  largely  covered  by  floods.  Some  jp  n 
finlier  doini,  the  Lmngin^,  which  with  its  tributaries  drains 
to  the  westward.  |oir»  the  ZambeEi-   A  few  miles  highe 


Barotse  {(.e.J.   Tbe  rivei 

From  the  east  the  Zamben  conllnucs  to  receiv 
nreani,  but  on  Ihe  west  is  without  tributaries 
(be  great  river  formerly  misnamed  the  Cbobe. 
utivei  ai  Kwindo  or  Linyanl&  ji^ni  it  (in  17 
this  lunctian  is  cllecled.  tbe  Conye  Falls,  tbi 

il6*  40'  S,}.  offer  no  inierruptlon  10  nav' — ~- 
sDs  aie  numerous  rapids.    The  wester 

_i!_t    !_    .,.._    -.„  „(  [,,„„„  i, 

I  d(  these  I 

the  K«an „  . 

le  ot  Iht  bn-nameil  n« 


^j^the^atcr,  ofthc 
inds  Lialui,  the  capital  of  the 


>ark  uf  ei 
_t  Ibe  Zaii 


—  ,.._, ,  .._...  . —  ..._...  ^,.„„  jf  German  Soulh-Wcet 

ca  exprnflly  to  allow  Germany  access  to  tbe  ZanbeaL 
elow  Ihe  iunction  of  the  Kwando  and  tbe  Zambesi  tbe  Hver 
li  sinnit  due  eaat.  The  tctean  haa  hiikeito  Aowed,  in  the 
in,  in  a  genilc  steady  current,  the  depth  of  water,  owina  to  Ibe 
adth  ol  the  channel,  not  being  giat.  But  iu  character  is  about 
la  the  bonier  of  the  great 


afler  Ihe  Kwando  con 
conlinues  to  Bow  due  • 


le  Victoria  F^b  (g a),  the  largeK 

-The  Vmoria  Falls  are  reached  sc 

ucace  b  passed,  and  below  them  the  riva 

Md  by  Maior  St  Hill  Gibbons  "  The 


h  tnm 


.   The 


Devil's  Gorge  the  Zimheii  u 
pursuing  its  general  easterly 
the  KcSrabasa  Rapidi  are  le 


[h  the  gorge,  the  eurreni  bdn<  ci , 

ryond  the  gorae  are  a  suceesssan  ef  rapids. 
Molele.  which  is  146  m.  below  tbe  Victoria 
--  'ill  of  Ibe  river  is  *-  '-     -^ -'^- 


1,  the  river  flowi 


the  moat  difficult  ps 


^"r^' 


nis  lo  navigniion  at  low  waler.  One  ol 
>  IB  that  ol  s  grand  gorge  a  little  above  the 
in  aboui  3D*  E.,  named  by  Major  Gibbons 


also  called  Kafuel  iusi  m 
ributarie.  of  the  iambed. 
5*  S7'  S.  in  a  quiel  deep  Bieani  about  JOoyds.  wide.     From  this 

■nks  ol  the  nver  belong  10  that  kinoijin.  At  tbe  KetnabsD 
lapidi— goo  m.  briow  the  VictorlJ  Fills— Ihe  Zambeei  is  sharply 
cllecled  ID  the  soulh,  the  river  at  this  point  breaking  through  tbe 
Dnlincnlal  escarpment  10  reach  the  sea.  The  Kebrahasa  Rapids, 

WoriT  Falls."         "'     ''  "       "  "W"  '""  "   *^ 

Tilt  Lautr  JI«r.— The  lover  Zambeii-^ioa  m.  froni  Kebraban 

'i&_;;^",_ "-__" 

sTof  Ihel 

-ough  hilly  country  with  wetl^dchncd  ti 

:  Lnpata  Gorge.  TOO  m 


Bowmg  eenlly  in  laany  sli 
fraVn'age  of  Uke  'h^u 


igcd.      At    places. 

Il^gh  I  "rivTS- 
Jie*  in  iS"  so'  S. 


■mbeil.  like  all  other  lai«e  A 

e  ehallowBesa  of  its  stream,  and  Ihe  r^kis  and  catanda 
mupt  its  course.  Nevertheless  its  importance  to  corn- 
great,  as  the  foltewine  recapiiulaiion  of  its  navicaMe 
irilL  show.  (1)  From  ine  sea  to  Ihe  Kebrabisa  Rapid% 
)  From  Chlkoa  (above  Kebrabaia)  to  within  140  m.  li 
is  Falla,  700  m.  (j|)Fn)m  the  rapid!  above  the  Victorii 
le  Katimi  Molilo  Rapids,  loo  m.    (4)  Above  the  Coc>>« 


(5)  Above 


■used  by  tl 


ti  below 


iculiy  ;■ 


might  be  removed  either  by  the  ci 

Several  of  the  Zambeii  affluenU  are  also  navieal 
miles.    The  Liingwchungu.  which  enlcis  the  upper  rivei 

north-west  comer  of  the  Zamheii  basin.  Farts  at 
Luena.  Kalukire,  Lonngwa  and  the  Kwando  Iribnti 
capable  td  bciog  navigated.     Tbe  possibility  of  co 


ZAMBOANGA— ZAMINDAWAR 


(UggslHl.  Tbc  Shiit  ii  aJ 


e  d  the 


a  11°  u'  S,,  as*  17'  E.  in  the  talfh  Und  which  le 
MttrSHl  beiuMn  the  Z»iiU— =  — '  *■ 

ut  iHritaer  north.     The  Lungf^wnflu, 


jbyisit'jr' 


le  Kwuda.  largHl  of  the  watem  afHuenct  of  the  Zamben. 
criy  known  u  ihc  Chobt  and  Inqiiently  ipolicn  of  u  tht 
ante  (ram  the  mined  capilll  d(  the  Makololo.  liliuted  on  in 


witer  at  the  Okavaagu  [w  NcjtHi),  Thii  lurpJui  water,  nctrved 
after  mou  of  ihe  HckxI  waur  o(  the  Kwaada  ha>  paued.  niio  the 
level  ol  the  lalie  and  bold*  up  the  Mteii  al  the  Kwudo  ior  loiiw 

01  the  Hrumfl  which  enter  the  upper  Zambezi  from  the  east,  the 
largest,  alter  the  KabgmpD»  11  the  uiaiu,  which  rieea  in  16*  S., 
lb  E.,  ind  Ooww  fiiH  Muth-weM.  allerwardi  ml-KulK-wcM. 
JDlnlnL;  the  main  Hver  a  little  lotth  of  is*  S.  Othen  aie  the  Njoko 
joining  in  17*  8'  S..  the  Machlll.  wbiiih  enteis  in  abojt  15'  E-  the 
LumU,  16*  4i'  S..  and  (he  Uitwweii.  17*  37'  S.  The  inrgctl 
tributary  of  tV  middle  Zanben^he  Katuiiwt— rwer  in  about 

main  hc.itl-ttreani.  which  flowi  Em  Muth-eut.  aficrwanli  toDth- 
we-t.  i«  joincil  in  14"  jV  S.  by  the  Lunip.  or  LuanES.  an  important 

alirrwardB  due  east.  The  lower  Kafukwr  it  a  latge  navinhTe 
rivci  until  about  40  m.  Iicm  iti  mouth,  hut  it  then  docendi  liom 
the  pbieau  by  a  Ktin  of  falli  and  ulaidcls,  the  drop  being  mv 

cha^m.  The  nem  ;T?at  tributary  to  the  eul  it  ihe  Loangwa  (aiv) 
calWA  Luangwa)  which  in  itI  upper  couiK  luiw  paraEld  to  the 
western  >ihore«  of  Lake  Nyasa^avin^  iti  hutcc  not  fai  from  the 

tributary,  the  LukDUsi.  draini  a  lane  client  of  [Ive  wcAlem  plateau, 
it«  batin  being  Kpaiatcd  by  the  Kfchin^a  mountains  Iron  that  of 

ih'i'"m'H,l[p"7"mh,.°''J^'^!^''vari=i'is  rivere'whi^'h  iraiTr'nmhiln 
.  hndj-namely,  the  Shanenni,  Sanyati,and 
r  ilreami.     The  Maioc,  wVich  alw  ri^  in 

[ivet. — The  Zambezi  region 


:  upper  butn  aod  centra]  coum  ol  Ibe  it 

a  travclleia  Majtu'  Scjpa  Pinto  eitajniDed 

'□  ttibuluiea  oJ  tiie  rivei  and  n 

ctoria  Falls  (iE7e]-   Steamera  bad  been  uied  on  tbc  kxrti 

riirer— ilie"Ma-Robm"aiid  the  "Pioneer" — by  the  UvincUona 

"itioD  of  i&5&^i,  but  iLe  utili^atirm  oi  the  Zuahai  as  a 

commercial  highway  waa  incouiderable  tmlil  after  the  discovery 

'  the  Chinde  moulli.    The  hnliieamcr  placed  on  the  riva 

)ve   the   KebrabaiA  Kipida  waa   ttu"Confiiajice"laiUKfaed 

the  Gibbons  expcditiop  at  Chikoa  in  Septembci  1898.    She 

amed  to  beyond  the  Uuay  confluence,  and  bein^  uUis)U()y 

d  to  a  commetdal  cwnpuy,  was  used  to  cany  gooda  on  Ibe 

ddLc  Zambezi,    The  £tit  iteamer  ^aced  on  the  river  above 

!  Victoria  Fallswaa  the^  "  livinpiooe,"  launched  is  AnfBK 

Ufi*  if  a*  Expiiiliim 
le  Serpa  Pinto,  Brm  I 


(F.  R.  C.) 
ZAMBOAHOi,  the  capital  of  the  Moto  Pmvincc.  And  of  tba 
Diitiia  (or  Coniajidcocia)  of  ZuoboaDga,  and  a  port  of  entry, 
on  the  ialajid  of  MindaiiMi,  PhiUppiot  Uanda,  at  tke  S,  ex- 
Itcmity  of  the  wettem  pesiosula.  Pop.  (igej)  31S1;  of  (he 
comandancia,  90.691.  Zamboanga  ha*  one  of  the  moat  heahli- 
ful  aiies  in  tbc  islandi,  itt  climate  beinf  deddsily  cooler  tban 
that  ol  Manila.  Since  llie  American  occupatioa  Ibe  Irmde  hai 
greatly  increased  and  various  imptovements  have  been  pUnned 
or  ate  under  way,  including  a  new  custom-bouae,  belter  facilitiei 
lor  clocking,  pavcmenis,  bridges,  and  public  pa^.  The  P»^ 
vindal  Capitol,  one  of  the  hneit  government  building!  in  (he 
Philippine*,  was  completed  in  iqoS.  There  is  considerable 
valuable  timber  in  the  vicinity,  livestock  is  extensively  raited, 
and  rice,  copra,  hemp,  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  and  sweet  potatoes 
arc  other  important  producta.  Zamboanga  was  one  of  the 
oldest  Spanish  settlements  in  the  islands,  it  having  beat  lakeit 
and  lortiiiedaB      *  ■.-...  ...     .... 


the  course 
and  Nyasi 


if  Ibe  t 


isthep< 


of  Mon 


!s  Ngat, 


u  filled  in  with  a  rude  approiio 
maps.  These  were  probably  constructed  from 
Atub  information.  The  first  Etiroptan  10  visit  the  upper 
Zambeti  was  David  Livingstone  in  his  eiploralion  from  Eechu- 
analsnd  bemeen  1851  and  iSjj.  Two  or  three  years  bier  h( 
descended  the  Zambesi  to  its  mouth  and  in  the  course  of  thii 
journey  discovered  the  Victoria  Falls.  During  1858-60,  accom- 
panied  by  Dr  (afterwards  Sir)  John  Kirk,  Livingstone  ascendoJ 
the  liver  by  (he  Kongone  mouth  as  far  as  the  Falls,  besid« 
tracing  the  couise  of  iu  tributary  the  Shiij  and  discovering  Laki 
Nyasa.    For  the  ncit  (htrty-five  yean  practically  no  addition! 

entrance  of  vessels  from  (he  sea  was  much  facilitated  by  thi 
discovery  by  Mr  D.  J.  Rankin  of  the  Chinde  channel  north  of 
the  main  mouths  of  the  river.  Major  A.  St  Hill  Gibbons  an 
bbaisis(an(s,  during  two  expeditions,  in  iS95-96and  i?«S-i«o 
»bty  continued  the  work  ol  eiploalion  begun  by  Livingstor 


I  old  si 


e  foit.     Many  of  tl 


res  who  esotped  frum  the  Moms  and  sou^t  Spannh 
protection.  A  Spanish  patois,  called  "  Zamboangueno,"  k 
spoken  by  most  ei  the  native  inhabitants. 

ZAMIHDAB,  or  ZcKImME  (from  Persian  Unix-  "knd"), 
an  Indian  landholder.  In  oSdal  usage  Ihc  (erm  is  applied  to 
any  person,  whether  owner  of  a  large  estate  or  cukivating 
member  of  a  village  community,  who  is  recogsiud  a*  posstavng 
some  property  in  (he  soil,  as  opposed  to  the  ryot  {f.e-),  who  is 
regarded  as  having  only  a  right  ol  occupancy,  subject   In  both 


:o  paymt 
Ltal  India,  a 
he  raja  ol    ) 


certain  special  rights  aa  ssMfniar, 

d    10  make  part  of    his  "  family 

comam  -  a  new  native  state  with  an  area  of  887  iq.  m  (pop, 

ZAMINDAWAR,  a  district  of  Afghanistan,  situated  on  th* 
right  bank  ol  the  Hehnund  river  to  the  N.W,  aS  Kandahar, 
bordering  the  road  which  leads  from  Kandahar  to  Heial  via 
Faiah.  Zamindawar  ii  a  district  of  hiUs,  and  of  »>de,wdl 
populated,  and  fertile  vatleyi  watered  hy  important  aSucBls 
of  the  Helmund,     The  priocipa]  town  is  Musa   Sala,  (rbkh 

N.  of  CIrishk,  Tlie  whole  of  this  region  is  a  well-known  bol- 
bed  of  fanaticism,  the  headquuters  ol  the  Achakzaii,  the  meat 
aggressive  of  all  Durini  tribes.  It  was  from  Zamindawar  that 
much  of  the  strength  of  the  force  which  besieged  Kandahar 
under  Ayub  Khan  in  iSSs  waa  derived;  and  it  wis  the  Z»«lv 


95+ 


ZAMORA— ZAMOYSKI 


<Uwar  contingeat  of  Iribesmen  vho  \so  nearly  defeated  Sir 
Donald  Stewart's  force  at  Ahmad  Khel  previously.  The  control 
of  Zamlndawar  may  be  regarded  as  the  Icey  to  the  position  lor 
safeguarding  the  route  between  Herat  and  Kandahar. 

ZAMORA,  an  inland  province  of  north-western  Spain,  one 
of  the  three  into  which  the  former  province  of  Leon  has  since 
1833  been  divided;  bounded  on  the  W.  by  Portugal  and  Orense, 
N.  by  Leon,  Ki  by  Valladolid,  and  S.  by  Salamanca.  Pop. 
(1900)  375,545;  area,  4097  sq.  m.  Zamora  is  traversed  from 
east  to  west  by  the  river  Duero  or  Doaro  (9.V.),  which  receivesr 
within  th«  province  the  Valderaduey  an^'  the  E^  on  the  right 
and  the  GuarefSa  on  the  left;  the  Tonnes  also  skirts  the  south- 
western  boundary  for  some  25  m.  Except  in  the  north-west, 
where  it  is  entered  by  two  outlying  ridges  of  the  Cantabrian 
Mountains,  the  Sierra  de  la  Culebra  and  Sierra  de  Pefia  Negra, . 
the  surface  consists  of.  a  level  or  slightly  undulating  plateau; 
its  lowest  point  is  1070  ft.  above  sea-level.  Its  plains,  especially 
the  valley  of  the  Esla,  yield  large  quantities  of  grain  and  pulse; 
wine  and  flax  are  also  produced;  and  on  the  higher  grounds 
large  numbers  of  merino  sheep  and  goats  are  reared,  chiefly 
for  export  to  Portugal.  The  manufactures  of  Zamora  are 
unimportant.  Three  lines  of  railway,  from  Astoiga  on  the  N., 
Salamanca  on  the  S.,  and  Medina  del  Campo  on  the  E.,  traverse 
the  province  and  meet  at  the  city  of  Zamora;  there  is  a  lack 
of  good  roads,  and  it  is  largely  for  this  reason  that  the  mines 
and  extensive  forests  are  neglected.  The  only  towns  with  more 
than  5000  inhabitants  are  Zamora  (pop.,  1900,  16,287)  an<l  Toro 
(^379)1  which  are  described  in  separate  articles.  The  people 
of  the  province  are  very  poor,  badly  educate,  and  lacking  In 
enterprise.    (See  also  Leon.) 

ZAMORA,  an  episcopal  city,  and  the  capital  of  the  Spanish 
province  of  Zamoni;  on  the  tight  bank  of  the  river  Duero 
(Douro),  and  at  the  jtmction  of  railways  from  Salamanca, 
Medina  del  Campo  and  Astorga.  Pop.  tiQOo)  16,283.  Zamora 
occupies  a  rocky  height  overlooking  the  Duero,  a  little  below 
its  confluence  with  the  Valderaduey.  The  river  is  crossed  by  a 
fine  14th-century  bridge  of  sixteen  pointed  arches.  The  citadel 
of  Zamora  dates  from  the  8th  century.  The  small  but  beautiful 
cathedral, 'One  of  four  12th-century  churches  in  the  city,  is  a 
Romanesque  building,  with  a  square  tower,  a  dome  above  the 
crossing,  and  an  elaborately-decorated  interior.  It  was  com- 
pleted about  XI 75,  and  contains  some  interesting  medieval 
tombs,  and  paintings  by  Fernando  Gallegos  (x475''X55o)<  The 
other  principal  buildings  are  the  X7th-century  town->halt,  the 
palace  of  the  provincial  assembly,  a  hospital  with  curious 
Gothic  windows,  an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  and  a  school  of 
engineering.  The  trade  is  chiefly  agricultural,  but  linen  and 
woollen  goods,  pottery,  hats,  leather,  and  spirits  are  manu- 
factured in  smaU  quantities. 

In  the  early  period  of  the  Christian  re-conquest  Zamora, 
from  its  position  oh  the  north  bank  of  the  Duero,  was  a  place 
of  considerable  strategic  importance.  It  was  taken  from  the 
Moors  by  Alphonso  I.  of  Leon  in  748,  but  was  -again  held  by 
them  for  short  periods  in  813,  939,  963,  984  and  986.  It  was 
entirely  repaired  by  Ferdinand  I.  of  Castile  and  Leon,,  who  in 
106 1  gave  it  to  his  daughter  Dofia  Urraca.  After  his  death  in 
1065  his  son  Sancho  II.  disputed  possesion  with  Urraca  and 
laid  siege  to  the  dty,  but  without  success,  although  the  famous 
Rny  Diaz  de  Bivar  was  among  his  warriois,  and  indeed  at  this 
time  received  his  title  of  "  The  Cid."  Zamora  became  subject 
to  Alphonso  VI.  in  1073. 

ZAMOTSKI,  JAN  (x  541*1605),  Polish  statesman,  was  the 
son  of  Stanislaw,  Castenan'of  Chehn,  and  Anna  Herburtowna, 
who  bebnged  to  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  illustrious  families 
in  Poland.  After  completing  his  education  at  Paris,  Strassburg, 
and  at  Padua,  where  as  rector  of  the  academy  he  composed  his 
celebrated  work  De  senatu  romano  (Venice,  1563),  he  returned 
home  in  1565,  one  of  the  roost  consummate  scholars  and  jurists 
m  Europe.  His  essentially  bold  and  practical  genius  sought 
at  once  the  stormy  political  arena.  He  was  mainly  instru- 
mental, after  the  death  of  Sigismund  II.,  in  remodelling  the 
Polish  constitution  and  procuring  tbe^  election  of  Henry  o( 


Valois.  After  the  flight  of  that  prince  Zamoyski  seems  to  have 
aimed  at  the  throne  himself,  but  quickly  changed  his  mind  and 
threw  all  his  abilities  into  the  scale  in  favour  of  Stephen  B&thory 
and  against  the  Austrian  Influence.  By  his  advice,  at  the 
beginning  of  January  1576  a  diet  was  summoned  to  Jedrzcjow 
to  confirm  the  election  of  B&thory,  and  from  the  time  of  that 
monarch's  arrival  in  Poland  till  his  death  ten  yean  later 
Zamoyski  was  his  foremost  counseUor.  Immediately  after  the 
coronation,  on  the  xst  of  May  1576,  Zamoyski  was  appointed 
chancellor,  and  in  1580  wielki  kelmattf  or  oommander-in-chief, 
so  that  he  was  now  the  second  highest  dignitary  in  the  kingdom. 
He  strenuously  supported  Stephen  during  his  long  struggle 
with  Ivan  the  Terrible,  despite  the  obstiMction  and  parsimony 
of  the  diet.  He  also  enabled  the  king  in  1585  to  bring  the 
traitorous  Samuel  Zborowski  to  the  scaffold  in  (he  face  of  a 
determined  resistance  from  the  nobility.  On  the  death  of 
Stephen,  the  Zborowski  recovered  their  influence  and  did  their 
utmost  to  keep  Zamoyski  in  the  background.  Their  violence 
prevented  "  the  pasha,"  as  they  called  him,  from  attending 
the  convention  summoned  to  Warsaw  on  the  death  of  B&thory; 
but  at  the  subsequent  election  diet;  which  met  at  Warsaw  on 
the  9th  of  July  1587,  he  appeared  at  the  head  of  6000  veterans 
and  intrenched  himself,  with  his  partisans  in  what  was-  called 
''the  Black  Camp"  in  contradistinction  to  "the  General 
Camp  "  of  the  Zborowski.  Zamoyski  was  at  first  in  favour  of  a 
member  of  the  Bithory  family,  with  which  he  was  united  by 
ties  of  amity  and  mutual  interest;  but  on  becoming  convince^ 
of  the  impossibih'tyof  any  such  candidature,  he  pronounced 
for  a  native  Pole,  or  for  whichever  foreign  prince  mig|tt  be  found 
most  profitable  to  Poland.  The  Habsburgs,  abready  sure  of  the 
Zborowski,  bid  very  high  for  the  support  of  Zamoyski.  But 
though  he  was  offered  the  title  of  prince,  with  the  Golden  Fleece 
and  200,000  ducats,  he  steadily  opposed  the  Austrian  faction, 
even  at  the  imminent  risk  of  a  civil  war;  and  on  the  X9th  of 
August  procured  the  election  of  Sigismund  of  Sweden,  whose 
mother  was  Catherine  Jagiellonica.  The  opposite  party  imme- 
diately elected  the  Austrian  Archduke  Maximilian,  who  there- 
upon made  an  attempt  upon  Cracow.  But  Zamoy^  traversed 
aU  the  plans  of  the  Austrian  faction  by  routing  the  archduke 
at  the  battle  of  Byczyna  (January  24,.  1588)  and  taking  him 
prisoner.  From  the  first  there  was  a  certain  coldness  between 
the  new  king  and  the  chancellor.  Each  had  his  own  plan  for 
coping  «rilh  the  diflicuUies  of  the  situation;  but  while  Zamoyski 
regarded  t*e  Habsburgs  with  suspicion,  Sigismund  III.  was 
disposed  to  act  in  concert  with  them  as  being  the  natural  and 
strongest  possible  allies  for  a  Catholic  power  like  Poland. 
Zamoyski  feared  their  influence  upon  Poland,  which  he  woukl 
have  made  the  head  of  the  Slavonic  powers  by  its  own  en- 
deavours. Zamoyski  was  undoubtedly  most*  jealous  of  his 
dignity;  his  patriotism  was  seldom  proof  against  private 
pique;  and  he  was  not  always  particular  in  his  choice  of  means. 
Thus  at  the  diet  of  1589  he  prevailed  over  the  king  by  threaten- 
ing to  leave  the  country  defenceless  against  the  Turks,  if  the 
Austrians  were  not  exdiTded  from  the  succession.  In  general, 
however,  his  Turkish  policy  was  sound,  as  he  consistently 
.adopted  the  Jagiellonic  policy  of  being  friendly  with  so  dangerous 
a  neighbour  as  the  Porte.  His  views  on  this  head  are  set  out 
with  great  force  in  his  pamphlet.  La  defaicte  des  Tartarcs  ct 
Tttrcs  (Lyons,  1590).  The  ill-will  between  the  king  and  the 
chancellor  reached  an  acute  stage  when  Sigismund  appointed 
an  opponent  of  Zamoyski  vice-chancellor,  and  made  other 
ministerial  changes  which  h'mited  his  authority;  though  ulti- 
mately, with  the  aid  of  his  partisans  and  the  adoption  of  such 
desperate  expedients  as  the  summoning  of  a  confederation  to 
annul  the  royal  decrees  in  1592,  Zamoyski  recovered  his  full 
authority.  In  1595  Zamoyski,  in  his  capacity  of  commander- 
in-chief,  at  the  head  of  8000  veterans  dethroned  the  anti-Polish 
hospodar  of  Moldavia  and  installed  in  his  stead  a  Catholic 
convert,  George  Mohila.  On  his  return  he  successfully  sustained 
in  his  camp  at  Cecora  a  siege  by  the  Tatar  khan.  Five  years 
later  (October  20,  1600)  he  won  his  greatest  victory  at  Tcr- 
goviste,  when  with  a  small  well-disciplined  army  he  routed 


ZANARDELLI— ZANESVILLE 


^55 


Michael  the  Brave,  hospodar  o(  Waiarbia  and  MoMavta.  But 
beyond  securing  the  Polish  frontier  Zamoyski  would  never  go. 
He  refused  to  wage  war  with  Turkey  even  under  the  most  favour- 
able circumstances,  nor  could  he  be  drawn  into  the  Holy  League 
against  the  Ottomans  in  i6oa  When  pressed  by  the  pa{>al 
legate  and  the  Austrian  envoys  to  co-operate  at  the  head  of  all 
the  forces  of  the  league,  he  first  demanded  that  in  case  of 
success  Moldavia,  Walachia  and  Bessarabia  should  fall  to 
Poland,  and  that  she  should  in  the  meantime  hold  Olmuta 
and  "Breslau  as  guarantees.  The  refusal  of  the  Austrians  to 
accept  these  reasonable  terms  justified  2^moyski's  suspidoa 
that  the  league  would  use  Poland  as  a  catVpaw,  and  the 
negotiations  came  to  nothmg.  Statesman  though  he  was, 
Zamoyski  canndt,  however,  be  called  a  true  patriot.  Polish 
historians,  dazzled  by  his  genius  and  valour,,  are  apt  to  over- 
look his  quasi-treasonable  conduct  and  blame  Sigismund  IIL 
for  every  misadventure;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
king  took  a  far  broader  view  of  the  whole  8ituati<»i  when  he 
attempted  to  reform  the  Polish  constitution  in  1605  by  streng- 
thening the'  royal  power  and  deciding  all  measures  in  future  by 
a  majority  of  the  diet.  These  reforms  Zamoyski  strenuously 
opposied.  The  last  speech  he  delivered  was  in  favour  of  the 
anarchic  principle  of  free  election.  He  died  suddenly  at 
Zamofic  on  the  3rd  of  June  1605. 

5>cc  VincenfLaureo,  ^57^-•7S,etsesdSpichesinfdites  (Ital.)  (Warsaw, 
>877);  AugUKtin  Thciner,  Vetera  monumenta  Poloniae  ei  Lituaniae 
voK  it.  (Rome,  1862);  Adam  Tytus  Dziaiynski,  CoUictanea  viiam 
rcsque  gtsUu  J.  Zamoyocii  iUuslrantia  (Posen,  1881).       (R.  N.  B.) 

ZANARDELU,  OIUSEPPB  (1836-1903),  Italiai^  jurisconsult 
and  statesman,  was  bom  at  Bresda  on  the  39th  of  October 
183d.  A  combatant  in  the  volunteer  corps  during  the  war  of 
1848,  he  returned  to  Brescia  after  the  defeat  of  Novara,  and  for 
a  time  earned  a  livelihood  by  teaching  law,  but  was  molested 
by  the  Austrian  police  and  forbidden  to  teach  in  consequence 
of  his  refusal  to  contribute  pro-Austrian  articles  to  the  press. 
Elected  deputy  in  1859,  he  received  various  administrative 
appointments,  but  only  attained  a  political  ofiice  in  1876  when 
the  Left,  of  which  he  had  been  a  prominent  and  influential 
member,  came  into  power.  Minister  of  public  works  in  the 
first  Depretis  cabinet  of  1876,  and  minister  of  the  interior  in 
the  Cairoti  cabinet  of  1878,  he  in  the  latter  capacity  drafted  the 
franchise  reform,  but  created  dissatisfaction  by  the  indecision 
of  his  administrative  acts,  particularly  in  regard  to  the  Irre- 
dentist agitation,  and  by  his  theory  of  repressing  and  not  in 
any  way  preventing  crime,  which  led  for  a  time  to  a  perfect 
epidemic  of  murders.  Overthrown  with  Cairoii  in  December 
1878,  he  returned  to  power  as  minister  of  justice  in  the  Depretis 
cabinet  of  1881,  and  succeeded  in  completing  the  commercial 
code.  Abandoned  by  Depretis  in  1883,  he  remained  in  opposi-, 
tion  until  1887,  when  he  again  joined  Depretis  as  minister  of 
justice,  retaining  his  portfolio  throughout  the  ensuing  Crispi 
ministry  until  the  31st  of  January  1891.  During  this  period 
he  promulgated  the  Criminal  Code,  and  began  the  reform  of  the 
magistracy.  After  the*  fall  of  the  Gioiitti  cabinet  in  1893, 
ZanardcUr  made  a  strenuous  but  unsuccessful  attempt  to  form 
an  administration.  Elected  president  of  the  chamber  in  1894 
and  1896,  he  exercised  that  office  with  ability  until,  in  December 
1897,  he  accepted  the  portfolio  of  justice  in  the  Rudini  cabinet, 
only  to  resign  in  the  following  spring  on  account  of  dissensions 
with  his  colleague,  Visconti- Venosta,  over  the  measures  necessary 
to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  tumults  of  May  1898.  Returning 
to  the  presidency  of  the  chamber,  he  again  abandoned  his  post 
In,  order  to  associate  himself  with  the  obstructionist  campaign 
against  the  Public  Safety  Bill  (189^1900),  and  was  rewarded 
by  being  enabled  to  form  an  administration  with  the  support 
of  the  Extreme  Left  upon  the  fall  of  the  Saracco  cabinet  in 
February  1901.  He  was  unable  to  achieve  much  during  his 
last  term  of  office,  as  his  health  was  greatly  impaired;  his 
Divorce  Bill,  although  voted  in  the  chamber,  had  to  be  with* 
drawn  on  account  of  the  strong  opposition  of  the  country.  He 
retired  from  the  administration  on  the  and  of  November  1903, 
and  died  on  the  aist  of  December  folio wingl 


ZANBLLA.  OUOOMO  (i8so-i888).  Italisn  poet,  was  bom 
at  Chiampo;  near  Vicenxa,  on  the  9th  of  September  1830,.  and 
was  educated  for  the  priesthood.  After  his  ordination  he  be- 
came professor  at  the  lyceum  of  his  native  place,  but  his  patriotic 
sympathies  .exdted  the  jealousy  of  the  Austrian  authorities, 
and  although  protected  by  his  diocesan,  he  was  compelled  to 
resign  in  2853.  After  the  iiberatioo  c/L  Venetia,  the  Italian 
government  conferred  upon  him  a  professorship  at  Padua,  and 
he  achieved  distinction  as  a  poet  on  the  pubb'cation  of  his  first 
volume  of  poems  in  1868.  In  1873  grief  for  the  death  of  his 
mother  occasioned  a  mental  malady,  which  led  to  the  resigna- 
tion of  his  ppofessoEship.  Alter  his  complete  and  permanent 
recovery  he  built  himself  a  villa  on  the  bank  of  his  native  river, 
the  Astichello,  and  Jived  there  in  tranquillity  until  his  death  on 
the  17th  of  May  1888.  His  last  published  volume  oontahu  a 
series  of  sonnets  of  singular  beauty,  addressed  to  the  riv.er> 
resembling  Wordsworth's  "  Sonnets  to  the  Dnddon/'  but  more 
perfect  m  form;  and  a  blank  verse  idyll,.  *'  U  Pettiiospo " 
(*'  The  Redbreast  ")>  bearing  an  equally  strong,  though  equally 
accidental,  resemblance  to  the  similar  compositions  of -Coleridge. 
His  ode  to  bante,  and  that  on  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
are  distinguished  by  great  dignity.  Of  his  other  compositionst 
the  most  individual  are  those  in  which,  deq>ly  impressed  by  the 
problems  of  his  day,  he  has  sou^t  to  reconcile  science  and 
religion,  especially  the  fine  dialogue  between  Milton  and  Galileo, 
where  the  former,  .impressed  by.  Galileo's  predictions  of  the 
intellectual  consequences  of  sdentiiic  progress,  resolves  "  to 
justify  the  ways  of  God  to  man."  Zaneila  was  a  broad-mirded 
and  patriotic  ecclesiastic,  and  his  character  is  justly  held  in 
equal  honour  with  his  poetry,  which,  if  hardly  to  be  termed 
powerful,  wears  a  stamp  of  peculiar  elegance  and  finish,  and 
asserts  a  place  of  its  own  in  modem  Italian  literature. 

ZANESVILLE.  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Muskingum 
county,  Ohio,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Muskingum  river,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Licking  river,  about  60  m.  £.  of  Columbus.  Pop.  (1890) 
31,009;  (1900)  33,538,  of  whom  Z435  were  foreign-bom;  (iQio, 
census)  38,036.  Zanesvillc  is  served  by  the  Baltimore  & 
Ohio,  the  Penn^lvania,  the  Cleveland,  Akron  &•  Columbus, 
the  Ohio  River  &  Western,  the  Wheeling  &  Lake  Erie,  the 
Zanesville  '&  Western,  and  the  Ohio  &  Little  Kanawha 
(B.  and  O.  system)  railways,  by  a  belt  line  around  the  city,  and 
by  the  Ohio  Electric  and  the  South-Eastem  Ohio  dectric  inter- 
urban  lines.  By.  a  series  of  locks  and  dams  the  Muskingum 
river  has  been  made  navigable  for  small  vessels  to  the  Ohio 
and  above  ZancsviUe  to  Dresden,  where  connexion  is  made  with 
the  Ohio  Canal  extending  north  to  Cleveland.  Within  the  dty 
limits  the  Muskingum  is  crossed  by  seven  bridges  (including  a 
notable  concrete  Y  bridge)  and  the  Licking  by  two.  The 
business  districts  of  .the  dty  lie  on  both  sides  of  the  two  rivers; 
the  residential  districts  being  chiefly  on  the  hills  to  the  north 
and  west.  Among  the  prindpal  buildings  are  the  Federal 
building,  the  county  court-house,  the  Soldiers  and  Sailors' 
Monumental  Building,  containing,  a  large  auditoriimi,  the 
Masonic  and  Oddfellows'  temples,  the  Market  building,  con- 
taining dty  offices,  a  National  Guard  armoury,  the  John  Mclntire 
public  library,  the  John  Mdntire  Children's  Home  (1880),  the 
Helen  Purcell  home  for  women,  the  county  infirmary,  the 
Bethesda  Hospital  (1890),  and  the  Good  Samaritan  hospital 
(1902;  under  the  Franciscan  Sisters).  The  John  Mclntire 
public  library  (about  30,000  volumes)  is  a  consolidation  of  the 
Zanesville  Athenaeum  (1827)  and  the  Eunice  Buckingham 
h'brary  of  the  former  Putnam  Female  Seminary  (1835)  here; 
Andrew  Carnegie  contributed  $50,000  for  the  erection  of  the 
building.  John  Mclntire  (1759-1815),  one  of  the  early  settlers, 
provided  by  will  for  the  maintenance  of  a  school  for  poor 
children,  and  such  a  school  was  maintained  from  1836  to  1856, 
when  it  was  transferred  to  the  dty  school  system,  annual  con- 
tributions being  made  from  the  fund  for  poor  children;  later 
the  Mclntire  Home  was  founded,  and  in  1903  dbnations  to  the 
dty  school  sjrstem  were  discontinued  and  the  entire  revenues 
of  the  estate  devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  the  Home,  which  is 
a  model  of  its  kind.    Zanesville  is  an  important  centre  for  the 


956 


ZANGWILL— ZANY 


manufactUTB  of  art  and  domestic  pottery,  plain  and  ornamental 
tile,  building  and  paving  bricks,  and  other  clay  products.  In 
1905  it  ranked  sixth  among  the  cities  of  the  country  in  the 
amount  of  pottery  produced,  and  third  in  the  degree  of  the 
specialization  of  that  industry.  In  1905  the  value  of  all  factory 
products  was  $7,047,637,  of  which  $1,144,364  (i6*a  per  cent.) 
represented  pottery,  terra-cotta,  and  fireclay  products. 

Zanesville  was  first  platted  in  1800  by  Ebeneser  Zane  (1747- 
181 1 )  of  Wheeling,  Virginia  (now  West  Virginia),  his  brother 
Jonathan,  and  John  Mclntire,  his  son-in-law,  of  Alexandria,  Va..,. 
who  .under  an  act  of  Congress  of  1796  surveyed  a  road  from 
Wheeling  to  what  is  now  Maysville,  Kentucky,  and  received  for 
this  service  three  sections  of  land.  jMiathan  Zane  and  Mclntire 
selected  the  land  at  the  point  where  the  new  road  crossed  the 
Muskingum  river.  The  settlement  was  first  called  Westboume 
and  later  was  named  Zanesville;  a  post  office  was  established 
in  i8o3.  Zanesville  became  the  county-seat  upon  the  creation 
of  Muskingum  county  in  1804,  was  the  capital  of  the  state  from 
1810  to  x8i2»  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  18x4,  and  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1850. 

ZANOWILU  ISRAEL  (1864-  ),  Je^sh  man  of  letters, 
was  bom  in  London  on  tbe  14th  of  February  1864.  His  early 
childhood  was  spent  in  IHymouth  and  at  Bristol,  where  he 
received  his  first  schooling.  He  was  in  his  ninth  year  when  his 
parents  settled  in  Spitalfields,  and  he  entered  the  Jews'  Free 
School,  where  eventually  he  became  a  teacher.  Concurrently 
with  his  teaching  work  he  took  his  degree  with  honours  at  London 
University.  He  had  already  written  a  fantastic  tale  entitled 
The  Premier  and  the  Painter  in  collaboration  with  Louis  Cowcn, 
when  he  resigned  his  position  as  a  teacher  owing  to  differences 
wfth  the  school  managers  and  ventured  into  journalism.  He 
founded  and  edited  Arid^  The  London  Puck,  and  did  much 
miscellaneous  work  on  the  London  press.  He  made  his  literary 
reputation  with  a  novel,  The  Children  of  the  Ghetto  (1892),  which 
was  foUowed  by  Ghetto  Tragedies  (1893);  The  Master  (1895); 
Dreamers  of  the  GheUo  (1898);  The  Mantle  of  Elijah  (1901); 
and  other  tales  and  novels  of  great  interest  dealing  with  Jewish 
life.  Children  of  the  Ghetto  was  produced  in  a  play  in  New  York 
with  success  iii  1899,  and  has  since  been  extensively  played  both 
in  English  and  Yiddish.  Others  of  his  plays  are:  Merely  Mar) 
Ann,  played  at  the  Duke  of  York's  theatre,  and  The  Serio- 
Comic  Governess;  Nurse  Mofjorie;  and  The  Mdting  'Pot^  all 
produced  in  New  York.  Mr  Zangwill  was  the  founder  of  the 
International  Jewish  Territorial  Organization  (see  Zionism). 

ZANTE  (anc.  Zacynthus),  an  island  of  Greece,  one  of  the 
Ionian  group,  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  in  37"  40'  N.  laL  and  31'*  £. 
long.,  is  25  m.  long,  about  12  broad,  and  64  m.  rounds  with  an 
area  of  277  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  in  1907  of  42,502.  Zante 
lies  8  m.  S.  of  Cephalonia,  forming  with  it,  Leucas  and  Ithaca 
a  crescent-shaped  insular  group,  w^ch  represents  the  crests  of  a 
submerged  limestone  ridge  facing  the  Gtilf  of  Patras.  Zante  is 
of  somewhat  irregular  oval  shape,  with  its  main  axis  disposed 
in  the  direction  from  north-west  to  south-east,  and  indented  by 
a' deep  inlet  at  its  southern  extremity.  The  surface  is  mainly 
occupied  by  an  extensive  and  highly  productive  central  plain, 
skirted  on  the  west  side  by  a  range  of  bare  limestone  hills  from 
1000  to  X300  ft.  .high,  which  fall  gently  landwards,  but  present 
bold  steep  difiFs  towards  the  sea>  and  which  culminate  north- 
wards in  Mount  Skopos,  the  ancient  Elatos  (1600  ft.),  the  highest 
point  in  the  island.  On  the  east  side  the  plain  is  also  limited 
by  a  low  ridge,  which  still  justifies  the  epithet  of  nemorosoy  or 
the  "wooded,"  applied  by  Virgil  to  Zacynthus.  These  hills 
are  densely  clothed  to  their  summits  with  an  exuberant  growth 
of  olives,  figs,  myrtles,  laurels,  oranges,  aloes,  vines  and  other 
sub-tropical  plants.  The  central  plain  is  highly  cultivated, 
forming  an  almost  continuous  stretch  of  gardens  and  vineyards, 
varied  here  and  there  with  a  few  patches  of  cornfields  and  pasture 
lands.  Here  is  grown  a  peculiar  dwarf  vine,  whose  fruit,  the 
"  currant "  (from  "  Corinth  ")  of  commerce,  forms  the  chief 
resource  and  staple  export  of  Zante,  as  well  as  of  the  neigh- 
bouring mainland.  The  viiM,  which  grows  to  a  height  of  3  ft., 
begins  to  yidd  in  seven  yeais  and  lasts  for  over  a  century.   From 


the  grape,  which  has  a  pleasant  bitter-sweet  tttte,  a  wine  is 
also  extracted,  which  is  said  to  excel  all  others  in  fiavour,  fire 
and  strength.  Besides  this  spedes,  there  are  nearly  forty 
different  kinds  of  vine  and  ten  of  the  olive,  induding  the  keru- 
doliaf  which  yields  the  best  edible  olive  beny.  For  size,  vigorous 
growth  and  productiveness  the  olive  tree  of  Zante  is  livalkd 
only  by  that  of  Corfu. 

The  island  enjoys  a  healthy  climate;  and,  although  there  ate 
no  perennial  streams,  an  abundant  supply  of  good  water  is 
obtained  from  the  numerous  brings,  occurring  eq)eciaUy  in 
the  eastern  and  central  districts.  But  earthquakes  are  frequent 
and  at  times  disastrous.  During  recent  times  the  noost  de- 
structive were  those  of  i8xx,  1820,  1840  and  1893;  and, 
although  the  prevailing  geological  formations  are  sedixnentary, 
chiefly  calcareouSt  there  seems  no  doubt  that  these  disturbances 
are  of  igneous  origin.  Other  indications  of  volcanic  agency 
are  the  oil  springs  occurring  on  the  coast,  ami  even  in  the  bed  of 
the  sea  near  Cape  Skinari  on  the  north  side,  and  eq>edally  the 
famous  pitch  or  bituminous  wdis  already  mentioned  by  Hero- 
dotus {Hist.,  bk.  iv.).  These  have  been  productive  throughout 
the  historic  period  and  still  yield  a  considerable  supply  of  pitch. 
They  are  situated  in  a  swamp  near  the  coast  village  of  Chieri. 
and  comprise  two  basins,  with  alternate  layers  of  water  and 
bitumen,  the  lower  sheet  of  water  apparendy  oommunicating 
with  the  sea. 

Zante,  capital  of  the  island,  is  a  conuderable  seaport  on  the 
east  side,  with  a  population  in  X907  of  13,501.  It  occupies  the 
site  of  the  andent  dty  of  Zacynthus,  said  to  have  been  fowided 
by  Zacynthus,  son  of  a  legendary  Arcadian  chief,  Dardanus,  to 
whom  was  also  attributed  the  neighbouiing  dtadeL  of  Paophis 
But  of  this,  as  well  as  of  the  temple  of  Artemis  that  fonneriy 
crowned  Mount  Skopos,  no  vestiges  can  now  be  discovered. 

Traditionally  the  island  formed  part  of  the  territory  of 
Ulysses,  king  of  Ithaca.  It  was  peopled  in  andent  times  by 
settlers  variously  represented  as  coming  fmn  Achaea  <x  Arcadia. 
It  figures  occasionally  in  history  as  a  base  for  belUgeicnts  in 
the  Ionian  Sea.  Thus  during  the  Pdoponnesian  War  it  served 
as  a  naval  station  for  the  Athenians,  who  again  in  574  b.c. 
endeavoured  to  acquire  it  for  a  similar  purpose;  in  357  it 
became  the  headquarters  of  Dion  on  his  expedition  against 
Syracuse.  In  217  it  was  seized  by  Phih'p  V.  of  Macedon.  The 
Romans  captured  it  in  aix,  but  restored  it  temporarily  to 
Philip;  in  X91,  wishing,  to  keep  it  out  of  the  hands  of  ambitioos 
Greek  powers,  they  definitely  annexed  it.  In  86  it  was  raided 
by  Mithradates'  admiral  Archelaus  during  a  short  foray  into 
Ionian  waters.  Under  the  Roman  Empire  Zante  was  included 
in  the  province  of  Epirus.  In  the  xith  century  it  passed  to 
the  Norman  kings  of  Sicily;  after  the  Fourth  Crusade  it  be- 
longed at  various  times  to  the  despots  of  Epirus,  the  emperors 
of  Constantmople,  axui  the  Orsini,  counts  of  Cephalonia.  After 
remaining  iiom  1357  to  1482  in  the  hands  of  the  Tocoo  family 
it  became  a  Venetian  possession.  In  1797  it  was  ceded  10 
France,  and  after  a  short  occupation  by  the  Russians  was 
brought  under  British  protection;  in  1864  it  was  ceded  with 
the  other  Ionian  islands  to  the  Greek  kingdom. 

The  long  Venetian  occupation  is  reflected  in  the  appearance, 
character,  and  to  pome  extent  even  the  language  and  religion 
of  the  Zantiots.  Nearly  all  the  aristocracy  claim  Venetian 
descent;  most  of  the  upper  classes  are  bilingual,  speaking  both 
Greek  and  Italian;  and  a  oonsidexal^e  section  of  the  popula- 
tion are  Roman  Catholics  <^  the  Latin  rite.  Even  the  bulk  of 
the  people,  although  mainly  .of  Greek  stock,  form  in  their 
social  usages  a  connecting  link  between  the  Hellenes,  whew 
language  they  speak,  and  the  Western  nations  by  whom  they 
were  so  long  ruled. 

SeeB.  Schmidt.  Die  Insel  Zakynthes  (Fraburg.- 189^0 ;  B.  V. 
Head,  Historia  Numorum  (Oxford,  1887),  pp.  359-60. 

I  ZANY,  a  fool  or  silly  person.  The  word  came  into  English 
in  the  i6th  century  from  Ital.  Zane^  mod.  Zanni,  an  abbrevia- 
tion of  the  name  Giovanni  (John).  This,  familiar  form  of  the 
name  was  given  by  ItMians  to  a  ^>ecial  type  of  down<tf 
buffoon  who  acted  as  an  attendant  or  follower  of  the  rognlai 


ZANZIBAR 


957 


piofesstoiMil  down  on  tlie  stage  and  made  dnmsy  and  ludicrous 
attempts  to  mimic  his  performance. 

ZANZIBAR,  a  sultanate  and  British  protectorate  of  East 
Africa.  The  sultanate,  formerly  of  much  larger  extent  (see 
below,  History),  was  reduced  in  1890  to  the  islands  of  Zanzibar 
and  Pemba,  some  adjacent  islets,  the  nominal  sovereignty  of 
the  coast  line — for  ten  miles  inland — of  the  protectorate  of 
British  East  Africa  (q.v.),  and  the  possession,  also  nominal,  of 
6ve  ports  on  the  Bcnadir  coast,  leased  to  Italy  (In  1905  the 
9ultan  of  Zanzibar  sold  his  soverrign  rights  to  these  ports  to 
Italy.  See  Sohauland:  $  Italian.)  The  islandsof  Pemba  and 
Zanzibar  have  a  collective  area  of  1020  sq.  m.  and  an  estimated 
population  (1909)  of  250,000. 

Topography,  Sfc.—The  political  and  commetcial,  as  well  as  the 
feograpnical,  centre  of  the  state  is  the  fertile  and  densely  peopled 
udand  of  Zanzibar,  which  lies  at  a  mean  distance  of  20  m.  from  the 
mainland,  between  5**  40'  and  6**  30'  S.  Pemba  {q.v.)  to  the  north 
and  the  more  distant  Mafia  (to  the  south)  form  with  Zanzibar  an 
independent  geological  system,  resting  on  a  foundation  of  coralline 
reefs,  and  constituting  a  sort  of  outer  coast-line,  which  almost 
everywhere  presents  a  rocky  barrier  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  AH 
three  are  disposed  parallel  to  the  mainland,  from  which  they  are 
separated  by  shallow  waters,  mostly  under  thirty  fathoms,  strewn 
with  numerous  reefs  dangerous  to  navigation,  especially  in  the 
Mafia  channel  opposite  the  Rufiji  delta.  (For  Mafia,  see  German 
East  Africa.)  Some  6  m.  N.  of  Zanzibar  and  forming  part  of 
the  coral  reef  is  the  small,  densely  wooded  island  of  Turabatu.  Its 
inhabitants  are  excellent  sailors. 

Zanzibar  island  is  47  m.  lonsand  20  broad  at  its  greatest  breadth. 
It  has  an  area  of  640  sq.  m.  The  island,  called  Unguja  in  Swahili, 
is  not  exclusively  of  coralline  formation,  several  heights  of  a  reddish 
ferruKinous  clay  rising  in  gentle  slopes  400  to  450  it.  in  the  centre 
and  double  that  in  tM  north.  There  are  several  tolerable  natural 
harbours,  used  only  by  Arab  dhows,  the  port  of  Zanzibar  sufficing 
for  the  general  trade.  The  forests  which  formerly  covered  the 
island  have  largely  disappeared;  the  eastern  half  is  now  mostly 
cowered  with  low  scrub.  The  western  part  is  noted  for  the  luxuri- 
ance and  variety  of  its  flora,  notwithstanding  the  abeenceof  timber 
trees.  Among  fruit-trees  the  coco-nut  palm  w  -conspicuous.  Each 
tree  yields  100  to  120  nuts  a  year.  In  places  there  are  extensive 
groves  of  these  trees,  elsewhere  the  palms  grow  indiscriminately 
among  other  trees,  which  include  the  manerove  (in  swampy 
dbiricts),  lemons,  tweet  and  sour  limes,  the  oread  fruit,  papaw, 

E>roegranate,  tamarind,  the  orange  and  mango  trees.  The  two 
st-named  and  plantains  and  bananas  are  abundant.  The  mango 
trees  attain  a  great  size.  Many  of  the  fruit-trees  and  plants  have 
been  introduced  from  India  ana  Malaysia,  such  as  the  mangostcen, 
guava,  dttcian,  cinnamon,  nutmeg  and  cloves,  all  of  which  thrive 
well.  The  soil  teems  specially  suited  for  the  dove,  which,  althoagh 
nearly  destroyed  by  a  terrible  cyclone  in  1872,  completely  recovered 
from  that  disaster. 

Although  the  fauna  is  almost  exduavely  continental,  Zanzibar 
till  recently  possessed  a'dtstinct  variety  of  monkey  {Colobtu  kirkii), 
which  appears  to  be  now  extinct.  Other  varieties  of  monkeys  are 
fairly  numerous.  Hippopotami  have  occasionally  swum  to  the  island. 
Wild  boars  and  servals  arc  common,  pythons  are  found  in  the 
awampa.   Camdtand  bullocks  are  used  as  draught  animals. 

OiiNOltk-— The  great  heat  and  the  excessive  montuie  of  the  atmos- 
phere render  the  climate  very  trying,  especially  to  Europeans.  The 
year  is  divided  into  two  seasons,  accorciing  to  the  direction  of  the 
monsoons.  The  north-cast  monsoon  sets  in  about  the  end  of 
November,  the  south-west  monsoon  in  April.  The  "  lK>t  season  " 
eorretponds  with  the  northeast  monsoon,  when  the  minimum 
readings  of  the  thermometer  often  exceed  go**  F.  In  June  to 
September  the  minimum  readings  drop  to  72**,  the  mean  annual 
temperature  being  about  So**.  Rain  falls  in  every  month  of  the 
year.  December,  April  and  May  are  the  rainiest  months,  August 
to  October  the  driest.  The  aven^  annual  rainfall  (18  years' 
observations)  is  65  in.    (In  1859  as  much  as  170  in.  were  registered.) 

Inkakitants.-'-Oa  the  east  side  of  the  island  the  inhabitants, 
ft  BantUHq)eidting  race  of  low  development,  probably  represent 
the  aboriginal  steck.  They  nit  known  as  Wahadimu  and  are 
noted  as  good  fishermen,  cattle  raisers,  and  skilled  artisans. 
In  the  west,  and  especially  in  the  capital  (for  whidi,  see  bdow), 
the  population  is  of  an  extremely  heterogeneous  character, 
including  full-blood  and  half-caste  Arabs,  Goanese,  Parsis, 
Hindus,  Comoro  Islanders,  Swahili  (q.v.)  of  every  riiade,  and 
fepresentatives  of  tribes  from  all  parts  of  East  Africa.  The 
Arabs  number  about  7000;  Asiatics  (mostly  British  Indians), 
10,000;  whites  (chiefly  Briti^),  2 50.  Berides  the  port  of  Zanzibar 
there  are  no  laige  towns.  Chuaka  is  a  pleasant  health  resort  on 
the  eastern  shore  facing  the  Indian  Ocean* 


1 


Production. — Cloves  and  copra  are  the  chief  products  of 
the  island.  There  are  also  extensive  chilli  and  rubber  planta- 
tions. The  mtihogo  (cassava),  the  tobacco  plant  and  vanilla 
.are  cultivated  on  a  smaller  scale;  experiments  in  cotton-grow- 
ing proved  unsuccessful.  The  shambas  (plantations)  are  mostly 
the  property  of  Arabs.  The  labourers  are  chiefly  Swahilis,  and 
were  formerly  slaves.  The  labotir  available  at  harvest  time  is 
often  inadequate,  and  year  after  year  a  large  proportion  of  the 
clove  crop  has  remained  impicked.  As  its  prosperity  depended 
much  more  on  its  transit  trade  (Zanzibar  being  the  entrepot 
for  all  the  East  African  ports  as  far  south  as  the  Zambezi)  than 
on  agriculture  the  resources  of  the  island  were  somewhat 
neglected;  but  when  in  the  early  years  of  the  20th  century 
the  competition  of  Mombasa  and  Dar-es-Solaam  was  felt,  efforts 
were  made  to  increase  the  number  and  productiveness  of  the 
crops  and  also  to  decrease  costs  by  providing  better  means  of 
transport.  Good  roads  were  made  by  the  government,  and 
an  American  comp^any  built  a  3-ft.  gauge  railway  from  Zanzibar 
town  to  the  north  of  the  island,  where  are  the  chief  plantations. 
Rice  is  imported  in  large  quantities  from  Rangoon  and  Bombay. 
Besides  rice,  cassava,  grown  on  the  island,  and  fish  (which  is 
abundant)  are  the  chief  foods  of  the  natives.  The  pigeon  pea 
{cajanus  Indicus)  is  commonly  grown,  and'  the  Wahadimu  and 
Watumbata  cultivate  the  betel-nut  creeper. 

Revenue  and  Currency. — Custom  duties  are  the  chief  soorce  of 
revenue.  Other  sources  are  registration  and  market  fees,  hut  tax 
(one  dollar  per  hut)  on  government  ground,  post  office  receipts,  &c., 
and  the  produce  of  crown  shambas.  A  sum  of  £17,000  a  year  is 
paki  to  the  government  by  the  British  East  Africa  Protectorate 
for  the  right  to  administer  the  mainland  portion  of  the  sultanate t 
the  Zanzibar  government  also  receives  some  £ro,ooo  a  year  interest 
on  the  purchase  money  {>aid  by  Germany  and  Italy  for  the  part 
of  Zanzibar  territory  acquired.by  those  Powers.  In  1900  the  revenue 
was  £123.000  and  the  expotditure  £131,000.  In  1902  the  sultan, 
on  the  advice  of  the  British  government,  appointed  a  financial 
adviser,  under  whose  care  the  finances  steadily  unproved.  In  1906 
the  revenue  was  £191,000,  the  expenditure  £156,000.  In  the  I^t- 
named  year  there  was  a  public  debt  of  £88.000.  The  princtpal 
items  01  expenditure  come  under  the  heads  of  administration, 
public  works,  civil  list  and  military  police. 

The  coinaee  system  is  somewhat  complicated.  The  Maria  Theresa 
dollar  (equalling  approximately  3s.  9a.)  is  used  as  a  standard  of 
value  in  price  quotations,  but  the  coin  is  not  in  circuhition.  The 
Indian  rupee  is  in  universal  currency  and, the  British  sovereign 
u  legal  tender  at  the  fixed  rate  of  1$  nipen  to  £jl.  The  division 
of  the  rupee  into  annas  and  pice  was  abolished  m  1908  and  the 
ropee  divided  into  100  cents.  In  the  same  year  the  government 
issued  notes  of  5,  10,  20,  50  and  100  rupees.  British  weights  and 
measures  are  used  in  wholesale  transactions,  with  the  esoepcbn 
of  the  Jrasila,  which  equals  35  S>  avoir. 

Religion,  Education  and  JusUu. — ^Mahommedanism  is  the 
dominant  religion.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Sunnis  of  the 
Shafi  school,  but  the  sultan  and  his  relatives  are  schismatics  of 
the  Ibadhi  sect.  There  are  several  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholk 
missions  with  branches  on  the  mainland.  These  nuasions  maintain 
schools.  The  government  supports  kuttabs  in  which  elementary 
education  is  given  in  Arabic  and  the  vernacular,  and  more  advanced 
«hools  in  which  English,  geography  and  arithmetic  are  taught. 
In  December  1892  the  sultan  delegated  to  the  British  agent  and 
consul-general  his  right  to  try  all  cases  in  which  a  British  aubjwct 
is  plaintiff  or  accuser,  and  the  defendant  or  accused  is  a  Zanzmar 
subject.  The  Dritish  court  also  tries  all  cases  in  which  other 
Europeans  (and  Americans)  are  concerned,  the  consular  Jurisdiction 
exercised  by  other  Powers  having  been  finally  abolished  in  1907. 
Cases  between  natives  are  tried  by  Moslem  tiibmuls.  There  m  a 
military  police  force  under  a  British  officer. 

History. — From  the  eariiest  times  of  Which  there  b  any 
record  the  African  seaboard  from  the  Red  Sea  to  an  unknown 
distance  southwards  was  subject  to  Arabian  influence  and 
dominion.  Egyptians,  Chinese  and  Malays  also  appear  to  have 
visited  the  coast.  At  a  later  period  the  coast  towns  were  founded 
or  conquered  by  Persian  and  Arab  Mahommedans  who,  for 
the  most  part,  fled  to  East 'Africa  between  the  8th  and  zith 
centuries  on  account  of  the  reUgious  differences  of  the  timca 
the  refugees  being  schismatics.  Various  small  states  thus  grew 
up  along  the  coast,  Mombasa  seeming  to  be  the  mMt  important. 
Tliese  states  are  sometimes  spoken .  of  as  the  Zenj  empire, 
though  they  were  never,  probably,  united  undtf  one  ruler. 
Kilwa  (q.v,)  was  regarded  as  the  capital  of  the  '*  empire.'*    The 


958 


ZANZIBAR 


seaboard  itself  took  the 'name  of  Zanquebar  (cornipted  to 
Zanzibar  by  the  Banyan  traders),  the  Balid  cz-Zenj,  or  "  Land 
of  the  Zenj "  of  the  Arabs,  a  term  which  corresponds  to  the 
Hindu-bar,  or  "  land  of  the  Hindu/'  formerly  applied  to  the 
west  coast  of  India.  By  Ibn  Batuta,  who  visited  the  coast  in 
1328,  and  other  Arab  writers  the  Zenj  people  are  referred  to  in 
a  general  way  as  Mahommedan  negroes;  and  they  are  no  doubt 
still  represented  by  the  semi-civilized  Mahommedan  Bantus 
now  collectively  known  as  the  Swahili  or  '*  coast  people,"  and 
in  whose  veins  is  a  large  adnuxture  of  Asiatic  blood.  The  Zenj 
"  empire  "  began  to  decline  aoon  after  the  appearance  of  the 
Portuguese  in  East  Africau  waters  at  the  dose  of  the  X5th 
century.  To  them  fell  in  rapid  succession  the  great  cities  of 
Kilwa  with  its  300  mosques  (i  505),  Mombasa  the  "  Magnificent  " 
(150$),  and  soon  after  Malindi  and  Mukdishu  the  "  lounenae  " 
(Ibn  Batuta).  The  Portuguese  rule  was  troubled  by  many 
revolts,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  x6th  century  the  chief  cities 
were  ravaged  by  the  Turks,  who  came  by  sea,  and  by  the 
Zimbas,  a  fierce  negro  tribe,  who  came  overland  from  south  of 
the  21ambezi.  On  the  ruins  of  the  Portuguese  power  in  the  xjth 
century  was  built  up  that  of  the  Imams  of  Muscat.  Over  their 
African  dominions  the  Imams  placed  volts  or  viceroys,  who  in 
time  became  independent  of  their  overlord.  In  Mombasa 
power  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Mazrui  family.  The  island 
of  Zanzibar,  conquered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1 503-8,  was  occupied 
by  the  Arabs  in  1730,  and  in  1832  the  town  of  2^zibar, 
then  a  place jDf  no.  note,  was  made  the  capital  of  his  dominions 
by  the  Sayyid  Sxiid  of  Muscat,  who  reconquered  all  the  towns 
formerly  owning  allegiance'  to  ^e  Imams,  Mombasa  being 
taken  by  treachery  in  1837.  On  the  death  of  ^aid  in  1856  his 
dominions  were  divided  between  his  two  sons,  the  African 
section  falling  to  Majid,  who  was  succeeded  in  1870  by  his 
younger  brother  Bargash  ibn  Said,  commonly  known  as  sultan 
of  Zanzibar.  Bargash  witnessed  the  dismemberment  of  his 
dominions  by  Great  Britain,  Germany  and  Italy  (see  Afsica, 
fi  5),  and  in  March  x888  left  to  his  successor,  Sayyid  Khalifa, 
B  mere  fragment  of  the  territories  over  which  he  had  once  ruled. 
The  Sayyids  Majid  and  Bargash  acted  largely  under  the  influence 
of  Sir  John  Kirk  (9.V.),  who  from  x866  to  X887  was  consular 
representative  qi  Great  Britain  at  Zanzibar.  'By  Sir  John's 
efforts  a  treaty  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade  throughout 
the  sultanate  had  been  concluded  in  1873. 

In  the  neigotiations  between  the  Powers  for  the  partition 
of  Africa  the  supremacy  of  British  interests  in  the  island  was 
acknowledged  by  Germany  and  France,  thus  rendering  a  treaty 
made  in  1862  between  France  and  Great  Britain  i^ccognizing 
the  *'  independence  "  of  Zanzibar  of  no  effect.  On  the  4th  of 
November  xSqo  the  sultanate  was  proclaimed  a  British  pro- 
tectorate, in  conformity  with  conventions  by  which  Great 
Britain  on^er  part  ceded  Heligoland  to  Germany  and  renounced 
all  claims  to  Uladagascar  in  favour  of  France.^  Sultan  (Sayyid) 
Ali,  who  had  succeeded  his  brother  Sayyid  Khalifa  in  February 
1890,  in  August  following  issued  a  decree  which  residted  in  the 
liberation  of  large  numbers  of  slaves.  Sayyid  Ali  was  succeeded 
!n  March  1893  by  Hamed  bin  Thwaln,  on  whose  death  in  August 
1896  his  cousin,  Sayyid  Khalid,  proclaimed  himself  sultan,  and 
seized  the  palace.  The  British  government  disapproved,  and 
to  compel  Khalid's  submission  the  palace  was  bombarded  by 
warships.  Khalid  fled  to  the  German  consulate,  whence  he 
was  removed  to  the  mainland,  and  Hamed  bin  Mahommed, 
brother  of  Hamed  bin  Thwain,  was  iiwtallfd  sultan  by  the 
British  representative  (27th  of  August  1896).  The  gDvemment 
was  reoonstituted  under  British  auspices  in  October  X89X,  when 
Sir  Lloyd  Mathews*  was  ^>pointed  prime  minister,  and  the 

*  By  the  Zanzibar  Order  in  Council,  1906,  the  protectorate  of 
Zancibar  was  limited  to  the  islands  of  Zanzibar  and  Femba,  includ* 
ins  the  territorial  waters  thereof  and  any  islets  within  those  watera. 

'Sir  Uoj^d  Mathcwt  (1850-1901)  was  a  British  naval  officer. 
He  serv-cd  m  Ashanti  1873-74  ^"d  went  to  2^nzibar  in  1875  as 
lieutenant  on  a  ship  engaged  in  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade. 
In  1877  he  was  selected  to  command  the  military  force  bein^  raised 
by  Sayyid  Barsash  and  thereafter  devoted  his  services  entirety  to 
tm  Zaiuibar  govenuaenu    U«  was  made  a  K.C.M.G.  in  1/894. 


sultan  made  virtually  «  crown  pensloMr,  iHth  a  dvH  Sst  of 
X  20,000  rupees.  In  1897  the  legal  status  of  slavery  was  abolished, 
compensation  being  given  to  slave  owners.  In  July  1902 
Hamed  bin  Mahommed  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  AK 
bin  Hamud,  bom  in  1885.  The  British  government  fe  repre* 
sented  by  an  agent  and  consul-general,  without  whose  sanctkm 
no  important  steps  can  be  undertaken.  This  officer  also  ad> 
ministered  the  East  Africa  Protectorate,  but  the  dual  appoint* 
ment  was  found  to  hamper  the  progress  of  both  protectocatOt 
and  in  X9Q4  when  Mr  Basil  S.  Cave  was  given  charge  of  the 
Zanzibar  protectorate  another  officer  was  appointed  for  the 
mainland.  In  1906  the  British  agent  assumed  more  direct 
control  over  the  protectorate  and  again  reorganized  the  adminis- 
tration, Capt.  (locally  general)  A.  £.  H.  R^es  being  appointed 
prime  minister.  These  changes,  together  with  the  abolition 
of  fweign  consular  jurisdiction,  led  to  many  refonns  in  the 
government  and  the  increased  prosperity  of  the  Zanabari. 

AuTHORiTiss.— T.  L.  Krapf,  Trmds  .  .  .  ta  Easttm  Africa 
(London,  i860);  Fricis  of  fnfomuUum  concerning  .  .  .  Zansibar 
(War  Office.  London.  X902):  W.  W.  A.  Fitzgerald  Traods  ts  .  .  . 
the  island  of  Zanzibar  (London.  1898);  H.  S.  Newnkaa,  Banami, 
the  Transiiion  from  Slavery  to  Freedom  in  Zamtbar  (London.  1898} ; 
Sir  C.  Eliot,  The  East  Africa  ProtectoraU  (London,  1905) ;  R.  N. 
Lync,  Zantwar  in  Contemporary  Times  (London,  1905),  a  useful 
historical  summary,  with  bibliography  of  British  EUue  Books: 
Drumkiyi^  Year  Booh  for  East  Africa  (annually  aiace  1908) ;  aad 
the  annual  reports  to  the  British  Foreign  Office. 

ZANZIBAR,  an  East  African  seaport,  capital  of  the  island 
and  sultanate  of  the  same  name,  in  6**  9'  S.,  39^  15'  E.  The  town 
is  situated  on  the  western  side  of  the  island,  26  m.  N.E.  of  the 
mainland  port  of  Bagamoyo,  which  is  visible  from  Zanzibar 
in  very  dear  weather.  Zanzibar  is  built  on  a  triangular-shaped 
peninsula  about. a  mile  and  a  half  long  which  runs  from  east 
to  west,  forming  a  safe  and  qpadous  roadstead  <v  bay  with 
a  minimum  depth  of  water  exceeding  five  fathoms.  Ocean 
steamers  anchor  hi  the  roadstead  and  are  loaded  and  <fischarged 
by  lighters.  The  harbour,  frequented  by  British,  German  and 
French  steamers,  warships  and  Arab  dhows,  affords  a  constant 
scene  of  animation.  Viewed  from  the  sea,  the  town  presents  a 
pleasant  prospect  with  its  mosques,  white  flat-topped  houses, 
barracks,  forts,  and  round  towers.  The  most  prominent 
buildings  are  the  Sultan's  palace  and  the  Government  offices 
(formerly  the  British  consulate),  the  last-named  situated  at  the 
Point,  the  south-west  horn  of  the  bay.  To  the  left  of  the 
palace — ^viewed  from  the  sea— is  the  "  stone  ship,"  a  scries  <rf 
water  tanks  (now  disused)  the  front  of  which  is  dewly  carved 
to  resemble  a  ship.  The  town  consists  of  two  quarter»— 
Shangani,  the  centre  of  trade  and  residence  of  the  saltan,  and 
the  eastern  suburb,  formerly  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
town  by  the  Malagash  lagoon,  an  inlet  of  the  sea,  now  drained. 
For  the  most  part  Zanzibar  consists  of  a  labyrinth  of  narrow 
and  dirty  streets,  hi  which  live  the  Banyans,  Singalesc,  the 
negro  porters,  fishermen  and  half-castes.  There  are  numerous 
markets.  In  Shangani  are  the  houses  of  the  European  merchants 
and  the  chief  Arabs,  and  the  headquarters  of  various  Protestant 
and  Roman  Catholic  missions.  Characteristic  of  the  streets  are 
the  carved  and  massive  wooden  doors,  whose  blackness  con- 
trasts with  the  white  stone  of  the  houses,  and  the  bright  red  of 
the  acacias  in  the  garden  enclosures.  Ndia.  Kun  or  Main  Road 
extends  from  the  Sultan's  palace  to  the  (new)  Britiah  Agency 
at  Mnazi  Moja,  a  castellated  building  situated  in  beautiful 
grounds.  Along  this  thoroughfare  are  the  custom  bouse,  the 
post  office  buildings  (an  imposing  edifice)  and  several  con- 
sulates. In  a  turning  off  ^lain  Street  is  the  residence  of  Tippoo 
Tib  (now  an  hotel).  Next  to  this  house  is  the  English  Club,  and 
in  the  same  street  are  the  law  courts  (built  1909-10).  The 
Anglican  cathedral  (built  1873-79)  a  semi-Gotliic  coral  building, 
occupies  the  site  of  the  old  slave  market.  The  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral — ^in  the  Renaissance  style — is  one  of  the  finest  build- 
ings in  East  Africa.  On  the  outskirts  of  the  town  at  Mnaai 
Moja  is  a  public  park,  a  golf  course  and  cricket  ground.  T^iifrWr 
is  well  supplied  with  pure  water  brought  from  the  nevbbounog 
hills. 


ZAPAROS— ZARHdN 


Submarine  cables  oonnect  Zancibar  witb  dl  perts  of  tbe  world; 
whilst  lines  of  steamships  from  Europe  and  India  make  it  a 
regular  port  of  call.  It  was  not,  however,  until  1910  that  diKct 
iteamriiip  communication  with  London  was  established.  The 
average  annual  value  of  the  external  tnde  for  the  five  yeaxs 
i9o>-6  was:  imports,  £1,075,580;  ezp<»ts,  £1,084,334.  In  1907 
the  imports  were  valued  at  £1,333,957,  the  exports  at  £1,070,067. 
The  figures  for  Z906  were:  imports,  £969,841;  exports,  £977,638. 
Many  of  the  imports  brought  from  the  neighbouring  mainland 
also  figure  as  exports.  Of  these  the  most  important  are  ivoiy, 
and  rhinoceros  horn,  gum  copal,  hides  and  skins.  Qoves, 
cJove  stems  and  copra  arc  the  chief  exports,  the  production  of 
the  island.  The  bulk  of  the  articles  named,  with  the  exception 
of  copra,  are  sent  to  the  United  Kingdom;  India,  however, 
has  a  Iai:ger  trade  with  Zanzibar  than  any  other  country. 
F^om  it  are  imported  food  stuffs  (rice,  grain,  flour,  ghee,  groceries) 
and  piece  goods.  The  copra  is  sent  idmost  exclusively  to 
Marseilles.  The  most  valuable  articles  of  import  are  piece 
goods  and  rice.  The  piece  goods  come  chiefly  from  the  United 
Kingdom,  India,  America  and  the  Netherlands,  the  rice  entirely 
from  India.  Other  imports  of  value  are  building  material, 
poal,  petroleum  and  sugar. 

The  motley  population  of  Zanzibar  is  indicative  of  the  com* 
thercial  importance  of  the  city.  Its  geographical  position  has 
made  it  the  key  of  East  Africa  from  Cape  Guardafui  to  Delagoa 
Bay.  "  When  you  play  on  the  flute  at  Zanzibar "  (says  an 
Arab  proverb)  "  all  Africa  as  far  as  the  lakes  dances."  From 
the  time  (1832)  when  Seyyid  Said  of  Muscat  fixed  on  the  town 
as  the  tapital  of  Ids  empire,  "Zanzibar  became  the  centre  of  the 
trade  between  the  African  continent,  India,  Arabia  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  as  weQ  as  Madagascar  and  the  Mauritius.  It 
also  speedily  obtained  a  large  trade  with  Europe  and  America. 
The  Americans  were  the  first  among  white  merchants  to  realize 
the  possibilities  of  the  port,  and  a  United  States  consulate  was 
established  as  early  as  1836.  The  name  Merikani,  applied  to 
cotton  goods  and  blankets  on  the  cast  coast,  is  a  testimony  to 
the  enterprise  of  the  American  trader.  Zanzibar  is  to  a  greater 
degree  than  any  other  city  the  capital  of  negro  Africa;  made  so, 
however,  not  by  the  negroes  but  by  Arab  conquerors  and  traders. 
The  aspect  of  the  ^ty  has  chan^  since  the  establishment  of 
the  British  protectorate,  the  suppression  of  the  slave  market 
and  of  slavery  itself,  and  the  enforcement  of  sanitation;  but 
Professor  Henry  Drummond  in  Tropical  Africa  (1888)  aptly 
sketched  the  characteristics  of  Zanzibar  in  pre-protectorate  days 
when  he  wrotcf  of  it  as  a  "  cesspool  of  wickedness  Oriental  in 
its  appearance,  Mahommedan  in  its  religion,  Arabian  in  its 
morals ...  a  fit  capital  for  the  Dark  Continent."  Neverthe> 
less  Zanzibar  in  those  days  was  the  focus  of  all  exploring  and 
missionary  work  for  the  interior,  the  portal  through  which 
civilizing  influences  penetrated  into  the  eastern  section  of 
equatorial  Africa.  The  growth  of  the  British  and  German 
protectorates  on  the  neighbouring  shores  led  in  the  early  years 
of  the  3oth  century  to  considerable  trade  which  had  hitherto 
gone  through  Zanzibar  being  diverted  to  Mombasa  and  Dar-es- 
Salaaro,  but  Zanzibar  maintains  its  supremacy  as  the  great 
distributing  centre  for  the  eastern  seaboard. 

ZAPARiN^  a  tribe  or  group  of  tribes  of  South  American 
Indians  of  the  river  Napo.  They  occupy  some  12,000  sq.  m, 
between  the  Napo  and  the  Pastaza.  Their  only  industries 
are  hammock  plaiting  and  fishing-net  weaving.  Polygamy  ^ 
general.   They  wear  a  long  skirt  of  bark- fibre.. 

ZARA  (Serbo-Croatian  Zadar),  the  capital  of  Dalmatia, 
Austria.  Pop.  (1900),  of  town  and  commune,  32,506:  indud- 
ing  a  garrison  of  1330.  Zara  is  situated  on  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
52  m.  S.E.  of  Trieste,  and  opposite  the  isbnds  of  Ugliano  and 
Pasraan,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  narrow  Channd  of 
Zara.  It  is  the  meeting-place  of  the  provtndal  diet,  and  the  seat 
of  a  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  and  an  Orthodox  bishop. 
The  promontory  on  which  it  stands  is  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  a  deep  moat,  prtictically  making  an  island  of  the  dty. 
In  1873  the  ramparts  of  Zara  were  converted  into' elevated 
promenades  conmanding  extensive  views  to  seaward  and  to 


959 

landward.  Of  its  four  old  gates  one,  the  Pbrta  Bfarina,  in- 
corporates the  relics  of  a  Roman  arch,  and  another,  the  Porta 
dl  Terrafcrma,  was  designed  in  the  i6th  century  by  the  Veronese 
artist  Sanmichde.  The  chief  interest  of  Zara  lies  ia  its  churches, 
the  most  remariuible  of  which  is  the  cathedral  of  St  Anastasia,  a 
fine  Romanesque  basilica,  built  between  taos  and  1205.  The 
churdies  of  St  Chrysogonus  and  St  Simeon  are  also  in  the 
Romanesque  style,  and  St  Mary's  retains  a  fine  Romanesque 
campanile  of  ZI05.  The  round  church  of  St  Donatos,  traidi- 
tionally  but  erroneously  said  to  have  been  erected  in  the 
9th  century  on  the  site  of  a  temple  of  Juno,  is  used  for 
secular  purposes.  The  church  treasuries  contain  some  of  the 
finest  Dalmatian  metal-work;  notably  the  silver  ark  or  re- 
liquary of  St  Simeon  (1380),  and  the  pastoral  staff  of  Bishop 
Valaresso  (1460).  Most  of  the  Roman  remains  were  used  in 
the  construction  of  the  fortifications.  But  two  squares  are 
embdlished  with  lofty  marble  columns;  a  Roman  tower  stands 
on  the  east  side  of  the  town;  and  some  remains  of  a  Roman 
aqueduct  may  be  seen  outside  the  ramparts.  Among  the  other 
chief  buildings  are  the  Loggia  dd  Comune,  rebuilt  in  1565,  and 
containing  a  public  library;  the  old  palace  of  the  priors,  now 
the  governor's  residence;  and  the  episcc^il  palaces.  The 
harbour,  to  the  north-east  of  the  town,  is  safe  and  spacious, 
and  it  is  annually  entered  by  about  3500  small  vessels,  mainly 
engaged  in  the  coasting  trade.  Large  quantities  of  maraschino 
are  distilled  in  Zara;  and  the  local  industries  indude  fishing, 
glass-blowing,  and  the  preparation  of  oil,  flour  ahd  wax. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Roman  empire  Zara  was  a  flourishing 
Roman  colony  under  the  name  of  Jadera^  subsequently  changed 
to  Diadora.  It  remained  united  with  the  eastern  empire  down 
to  998,  when  it  sought  Venetian  protection.  For  the  next  four 
centuries  it  was  always  under  Venetian  or  Hungarian  rule, 
changing  hands  repeatedly.  It  was  occupied  by  the  Hungarians 
at  the  end  of  the  12th  century,  but  was  recaptured  by  the 
Venetians  in  1202,  with  the  aid  of  Fk«nch  crusadeis  on  their 
way  to  Palestine.  In  1409  it  was  finally  purchased  from 
Hungary  by  Venice  for  xoo,ooo  ducats.  In  1792  it  passed  into 
the  possessk>n  of  Austria.  From  1809  to  1813  it  bdonged  to 
France. 

About  15  m.  S.E.  is  2^ra  Vecchia,  or  Old  Zara,  an  insignificant 

village  on  the  site  of    Blograd,  the  former  residence  of  the 

Croatian  kings,  which  was  destroyed  during  the  wars  between 

Venice  and  Hungary. 

See  Angdo  Nani,  Zara,  e  suoi  Vintomi  (Zara,  1878),  and  NcHae 
Storicke  £tUa  CUA  di  Zara,  (Zara,  1883). 

ZARCTLLO  Y  ALCARAZ,  FRANCISCO  (r707*x78i),  Spanish 
sculptor,  was  bom  in  Murcia  on  the  X2th  of  May  1707.  At  the 
age  of  twenty  he  completed  the  statue  of  St  Ines  of  Monte- 
puldano,  which  had  been  begun  for  the  Dominicans  at  Murcia 
by  his  father.  On  the  death  of  the  latter  the  care  of  the  family' 
fell  upon  Francisco,  who  with  the  help  of  his  brothers  and  sisters 
organized  a  workshop.  In  1765  he  also  founded  a  small 
academy,  which,  however,  was  speedily  dissolved  owing  to  dis- 
union among  the  members.  In  the  Ermita  de  Jests' in  Murcia 
may  be  seen  Zarcillo's  scenes  from  the  Passion  of  Our  Ixffd,  A 
vast  work  in  which  aO  the  sculptor's  qualities  and  defects  are 
revealed.  In  the  diurch  of  St  Miguel  are  an  Immaculate 
Conception  and  a  St  Frauds.  Mention  should  also  be  made 
of  the  Christ  at  the  Wdl  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  dellas 
Gradas  in  Murda,  and  of  the  sculptures  in  San  Pedro  and  in 
the  Capudne  monastery  in  Murcia.  ZardUo  worked  in  wood, 
which  was  coloured.  The  ascription  of  the  stone  sculptures 
on  the  facade  of  the  St  Nicolas  Church  in  Murda  to  him  rests  on 
conjecture.    He  died  at  Murda  in  1781. 

See  B.  Haendcke,  Studitn  sur  Ceschichte  der  spanischen  FlasHli 
(Strassburg.  1900). 

ZARH6n,  a  mountain  in  Morocco,  9}  m.  N.  of  Mequines,  on 
whose  hillside  is  the  town  Mulal  Idris  Zarh6n,  so  called  after 
Mulai  Idris  I.,  the  founder  of  the  Moorish  empire,  who  was 
buried  there  in  a.d.  791.  The  whole  town  is  considered  as  a 
sanctuary,  pays  no  taxes,  provides  no  soldkrs  and  is  sevtt 
visited  save-  by  Mahommedans.    Near  the  town  9s%  the  mini 


960 


ZARIA— ZARLINO 


of  Vdubilis— Kuar  Fare*on  or  Pharaoh*^  Castle,  once  the 
Roman  capital,  and  the  first  home  of  Idris. 

ZARIA,  a  province  of  the  British  protectorate  o£  Northern 
Nigeria.  It  lies  approximately  between  5**  50'  and  8"  30'  £. 
and  9*  ao'  and  11**  30'  N.  It  has  an  area  of  33,000  sq.  m.  and 
an  estimated  population  of  about  350,00a  The  province,  of 
which  a  great  portion  consists  of  open  rolling  plains,  is  watered 
by  the  Kaduna  affluent  of  the  Niger'and  its  many  tributaries, 
and  is  generally  healthy  and  suitable  for  cultivation.  The 
chief  towns  are  Zaria,  the  capital  of  the  emirate,  87  m.  S.W.  of 
Kano,  and  Ziungeru,  the  headquarters^of  the  British  adminis- 
tration for  the  whole  of  Northern  Nigeria.  The  British  station 
at  Zaria  town,  with  an  elevation  of  3150  ft.,  has  so  far  proved 
the  healthiest  and  most  agreeable  point  of  occupation  in  the 
protectorate,  The  climate  here  for  a  great  portion  of  the  year 
is  bracing,  and  in  the  cold  season  there  is  frost  at  night. 

The  British  capital  at  Zungeru,  in-  the  south-westera  comer 
of  the  province,  less  fortunate  than  Zaria,  has  only  an  elevation 
of  about  450  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  climate,  though  better  than 
that  of  Lokoja,  is  still  relaxing  and  trying  for  Europeans.  The 
site  of  Zimgeru,  6°  9'  40'  £.  9°  48'  33*^  N.,  was  selected  in  1901. 
By  the  summer  of  1903  brick  houses  for  the  public  departments, 
a  residency,  a  hospital,  barracks  and  a  certaib  number  of 
houses  for  the  dvilian  staff  had  been  erected,  and  the  town  is 
now  a  flourishing  settlement,  having  all  the  appearance  of  an 
English  suburban  town  with  shaded  avepucs  and  public  gardens 
clustering  on  either  side  of  the  river  Dago,  over  which  several 
bridges  have  been  thrown. 

Zaria  is  not  a  great  grain-producing  province.  Its  principal 
crop  is  cotton,  of  which  the  surplus  is  available  for  purposes  of 
trade,  and  among  the  Mtihommedan  population  there  is  a  grow- 
ing demand  for  cloth,  agricultural  and  culinary  implements, 
Birmingham  goods,  soap,  oil,  sugar  and  European  provisions. 
The  construction  of  roads,  telegraphs  and  other  public  works 
consequent  upon  the  British  occupation  of  the  province  makes 
somewhat  heavy  calls  upon  the  local  labour  supply  and  ac- 
centuates to  some  of  the  large  landowners  the  inconvenience 
resulting  from  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  but  the  practice 
of  owning  domestic  slaves  is  not  forbidden,  and  it  is  the  policy 
of  the  administration  to  render  the  transition  from  slave  labour 
to  free  labour  as  gradual  as  possible. 

The  ancient  state  of  Zaria,  also  called  Zeg-Zeg  by  the  geo- 
graphers and  historians  of  the  middle  ages,  was  one  of  the 
original  seven  Hausa  stages.  It  suffered  all  the  fluctuations 
of  Hausa  history,  and  in  the  13th  and  early  14th  centuries  seems 
to  have  been  the  dominating  state  of  Hausaland.  At  later 
periods  it  underwent  many  conquests  and  submitted  in  turn  to 
Kano,  Songhoi  and  Bornu.  At  the  end  of  the  iSth  century  it 
was  an  independent  state  living  under  its  own  Mahommedan 
rulers;  but,  like  the  rest  of  northern  Hausaland,  it  was  con- 
quered in  the  opening  years  of  the  19th  century  by  the  emissaries 
of  the  Fula  Dan  Fodio.  It  remained  a  Fulani  emirate  paying 
allegiance  to  Sokoto  up  to  the  period  of  the  British  occupation 
of  Nigeria,  January  1900.  Early  in  1900  a  British  garrison 
was  placed  at  Wushishi,  a  town  in  the  south-western  corner  of 
the  emirate  which  marks  the  limit  of  navigation  of  the  Kaduna 
river.  The  emir  of  Zaria  professed  friendliness  to  the  British, 
and  at  his. own  request  British  troops  were  quartered  at  his 
capital,  in  order  to  protect  him  from  the  threatened  attacks 
of  Kontagora.  In  March  1903  the  province  was  taken  under 
British  administrative  control.  Throughout  that  year  it  was 
found  that,  notwithstanding  his  friendly  professions,  the  emir 
of  Zaria  was  intriguing  with  Kano  and  Sokoto,  then  openly 
hostile  to  Great  Britain,  while  at  the  same  time  he  continued, 
contrary  to  his  undertaking  in  return  for  British  protection, 
to  raid  for  slaves  and  to  perpetrate  acts  of  brutal  tyranny  and 
oppression.  He  was  deposed  in  the  autumn  of  1903,  and  after 
the  Sokoto-Kano  campaign  of  1903,  which  assured  the  supremacy 
of  Great  Britain  in  the  protectorate,  another  emir  was  a{^)ointed 
to  Zaria.  The  new  emir,  Dan  Sidi,  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
the  British  crown  and  accepted  his  appointment  on  the  condi- 
tions requijred  of  all  the  Nigerian  native  rulers.    He  afterwards 


continued  to  act  fo  byal  co-operation  with  the  British  ad- 
ministration. 

The  province  has  been  organized  for  administratioii  «»i  the 
same  system  as  the  rest  of  the  protectorate.  It  has  beea 
divided  into  four  administrative  distrias,  each  under  a  Briiish 
assistant  resident.  A  good  cart  road  suitable  for  wheeled 
traffic  has  been  constructed  between  Zungeni  and  Zaria,  and 
the  Kaduna  has  been  handsomely  bridged  at  a  point  near 
Wushlshi,  which  is  the.  meeting-point  of  main  caravan  roads, 
and  whence  there  is  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  uointemipted 
water  carriage  to  the  mouth  of  the  Niger.  The  development  of 
trade  was  further  facilitated  in  the  early  days  of  the  BrilBh 
occupation  by  the  building  of  a  light  railway  from  Barijuko,  a 
point  on  the  Kaduna  river  below  Wushishi,  to  Zujigeni.  Tlos 
line  was  superseded  by  the  construction,  in  1907-1909,  of  ■ 
3  ft.  6  in.  railway  from  Baio,  a  port  on  the  lower  Niger,  to 
Zungeni,  whence  the  line  was  continued  to  Zaria. 

The  taxation  scheme  introduced  by.  the  British  administn- 
tion  works  satisfactorily,  and  the  revenue  shows  a  regular 
surplus.  Courts  of  justice  have  been  established  in  the 
administrative  districts.  In  1904  Zaria  suffered  from  the  mis- 
fortune of  a, famine,  but  excellent  harvests  restored  proqwrity 
in  the  following  year,  and  the  province  shows  every  sign  of 
contentment  under  exbting  rule.  The  main  artery  of  commerce 
which  runs  from  Zaria  to  Wushishi  has  been  rendered  not  only 
safe  and  peaceful,  but  has  been  made  so  much  more  commodious 
by  the  construction  of  a  good  road  and  by  the  bridging  ol  the 
river  that  the  north  and  south  trade  is  steadily  increasing. 
The  local  movements  of  trade  throughout  the  province  are  al^ 
greater. 

A  large  portion  of  the  province  is  occupied  by  pagan  tribes, 
especially  in  iht  south  and  the  south-west.  These  districts 
require  more  direct  British  supervision  than  the  Fula  districts, 
in  which  the  native  administration,  under  British  control,  is 
fairly  efTicient.  The  creation  of  an  administrative  division  at 
Kachia  with  a  British  station  and  garrison  at  Kachia  town  had 
an  excellent  effect,  and  the  resident  was  able  to  report  in  1905 
that  "  the  inhabitants  of  the  once  dangerous  pagan  districts 
now  buy  cloth,  kolas  and  salt  from  the  traders  in  exchange  for 
mats,  rubber,  palm  oil  and  corn,  instead  of  seizing  these  articles 
as  they  formerly  did."  (F.  L.L.) 

2ARUN0,  GIOSEFFO  (1517-1590)1  Italian  musical  theorist, 
sumamed  from  his  birthplace  Zarunus  Clodiensis,  was  bom 
at  Chioggia,  Venetia,  in  1517  (not  1540,  as  Bumey  and  Hawkins 
say).  Studying  in  his  youth  for  the  Church,  he  was  admiited 
to  the  minor  orders  in  1539  and  ordained  deacon  in  1541  at 
Venice;  but  he  soon  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  study  of 
music  under  the  guidance  of  Adrian  Willaert,  then  choirmaster 
at  St  Mark's.  Willaert,  dying  in  1562,  was  succeeded  by 
Cipriano  di  Rore,  on  whose  removal  to  Parma  in  1565  Zarlino 
was  elected  choirmaster.  Though  now  remembered  chiefly 
for  invaluable  contributions  to  the  theory  of  music,  it  is  evident 
that  he  must  have  been  famous  both  as  a  practical  musician  and 
as  a  composer;  for,  notwithstanding  the  limited  number  of  his 
printed  works,  consisting  of  a  volume  entitled  Modvlationa  Sex 
Vocutn  (Venice,  1566),  and  a  few  motets  and  madrigals  scattered 
through  the  collections  of  Scotto  and  other  contemporary  pub- 
lishers, he  both  produced  and  superintended  the  public  per- 
formance of  some  important  pieces  in  the  service  of  the  republic 
First  among  these  was  the  music  written  to  celebrate  the  battle 
of  Lepanto  (on  the  7th  of  October  1571).  Again,  when  Henry  lU. 
of  France  passed  through  Venice  on  his  return  from  Poland  in 
1574,  Zarlino  directed  on  board  the  "Bucentaur"  the  per- 
formance of  an  ode  for  which  he  himself  had  composed  the 
music,  to  verses  supplied  by  Rocco  Benedetti  and  Comclio 
Frangipani.  The  ode  was  followed  by  a  solenm  Sjcrvice  in  St 
Mark's,  in  which  Zarlino's  music  formed  a  pronuncnt  feature, 
and  the  festival  concluded  with  the  representation  of  a  dramatic 
piece  entitled  Orfeo  composed  by  Zarlino.  Whtti  the  church 
of  S.  Maria  della  Salute  was  founded  ix\  1577  to  commemorate 
the  plague,  he  composed  a  solemn  mass  for  the  Occasion.  No 
one  of  these  works  is  now  known  to  be  in  existence;  the  only 


2ARNCKE— ZEALAND 


961 


iltapte  wt  pMseM  of  ^krUno's-  compositions  on  a  grand  scale 
is  a  MS.jna«i  Cor  four  voices,  in  the  libraiy  of  the  Philharmonic 
Lyceum  at  Bdogna.  He  died  at  Venice  on  the  X4th,  or 
liccording  to  some  the  4th,  of  February  1590. 

Zarlino's  first  theoretical  work  waf  the  IstihUioni  ArmonicJu 
XVenice,  1558;  reprinted  1^62  and  1573).  This  was  followed  by 
\hit  Dimostralioni  Armoniche  (Venice,  1571;  reprinted  1573)  and 
bv  the  SopplimenH  Musicali  (Venice,  1588).  Finally,  in  a  complete 
edition  <x  his  works  publisned  shortly  before  his  death  Zarlino 
reprinted  these  three  treatises,  accompanied  by  a  Tract  on  Palietue, 
a  Discouru  on  the  True  date  of  the  Crucifixion  of  Our  Lord^  an  essay 
on  The  Origin  of  the  Capuchins^  and  the  ReuAiUion  of  Some  Doubts 
Concerning  the  Correction  of  the  Julian  Caiendar '{Venice,  1589).^ 

The  Istttulioni  and  Dimostrationi  Armoniche  deal,  like  most  other 
theoretical  works  of  the  period,  with  the  whole  science  of  music  as 
it  was  understood  in  the  i6th  century.  The  earlier  chapters,  treat- 
ing chiefly  of  the  arithmetical  foundations  of  the  science,  differ 
but  little  in  their  line  of  ar\^unient  from  the  principles  laid  down 
by  Pietro  Aron,  Zaccoiu,  and  other*  early  writers  of  the  Boeotian 
school ;  but  in  bk.  ii.  of  the  InslUulioni  zarlino  boldly  attacks  the 
false  system  of  tonaUty  to  which  the  proportions  of  the  Pytha- 
gorean tetrachord,  if  strictly  carried  out  in  practice,  must  inevit- 
ably lead.  The  fact  that,  so  far  as  can  now  be  ascertained,  they 
never  were  strictly  carried  out  in  the  Italian  medieval  schools, 
at  least  after  the  mvention  of  counterpoint,  in  no  wise  diminishes 
the  force  of  the  reformer's  argument.  The  point  at  issue  was, 
that  neither  in  the  polyphonic  school,  in  which  Zarlino  was  educated, 
nor  in  the  later  monodic  school,  of  which  his  rccalcitsant  pupil, 
Vincenzo  Galilei,  was  the  most  redoubtable  champion,  could  those 
proportions  be  tolerated  in  practice,  however  attractive  they  might 
oe  to  the  theorist  in  their  mathematical  aspect.  So  persistently 
does  the  human  ear  rebel  against  the  division  of  the  tetrachord 
into  two  greater  tones  and  a'leimma  or  hemitone,  as  represented 
by  the  fractions  f ,  |,  ll|,  that,  centuries  before  the  possibility  of 
reconciling^  the  demands  of  the  ear  with  those  of  exact  science  was 
satisfactorily  demonstrated,  the  Aristoxenian  school  advocated  the 
use  of  an  em|Mrical  scale,  sounding  pleasant  to  the  sense,  in  pre- 
ference to  an  unpleasing  tonality  founded  upon  immutable  pro- 
portions. Didymus,  writing  in  the  year  60,  made  the  first  step 
towards  establishing  this  pTeasant-souncfing  scale  upon  a  mathe- 
matical basis,  by  the  discovery  of  the  lesser  tone;  but  unhapoily 
he  placed  it  in  a  false  position  below  the  greater  tone.  Clauaius 
Ptolemy  (130)  rectified  this  error,  and  in  the  so-called  syntonous 
or  intense  diatonic  scale  reduced  the  proportions  of  his  tetrachord 
to  I,  V^f  Ht — '"'•  the  greater  tone,  lesser  tone,  and  diatonic  semi- 
tone of  modem  music?  Ptolemy  set  forth  this  system  as  one  of 
eight  possible  forms  ci  -the  diatonic  scale.  But  Zarlino  uncom- 
promisingly declared  that  the  syntonous  or  intense  diatonic  scale 
was  the  only  form  that  could  reasonably  be  sung;  and  in  proof 
of  its  perfection  he  exhibited  the  exact  arrangement  of  its  various 
diatonic  intervals,  to  the  fifth  inclusive,  in  evciy  part  of  the  diapason 
or  octave.  The- proportions  are  precisely  those  now  universally 
accepted  in  the  system  called  "  just  intonation."  But  this  system 
is  practicable  only  by  the  voice  and  instruments  of  the  violin  class. 
For  keyed  or  fretted  instruments  a  compromise  is  indispensable. 
To  meet  this  exigency,  2^Iino  proposed  that  for  the  lute  the 
octave  should  be  divided  into  twelve  equal  semitones;  and  after 
centuries  of  discussion  this  system  of  "  equal  temperament "  has, 
within  the  last  thirty-five  years,  been  umvcrsally  adopted  as  the 
best  attainable  for  keyed  instruments  of  every  description.* 

Again,  Zarlino  was  in  advance  of  his  age  in  his  classification 
of  the  ecclesiastical  modes.  These  scales  were  not,  as  is  vulgarly 
•oppcMed,  wholly  abolished  in  favour  of  our  modern  tonality  in  the 
iTth  century.  Eight  of  them,  it  is  true,  f^  into  disuse;  init  the 
medieval  Ionian  and  Hypo-ionian  modes  are  absolutely  identical 
with  the  modem  naturau  scale  of  C;  and  the  Aeolian  and  Hypo- 
aeolian  modes  differ  from  our  minor  scale,  not  in  constitution,  but 
in  treatment  only.  Medieval  composers,  however,  regarded  the 
Ionian  mode  as  the  least  perfect  of  the  series  and  placed  it  last  in 
«>rder.  Zarlino  thought  differently  and  made  it  the  first  mode, 
changing  all  the  others  to  accord  with  it.  His  numerical  table, 
therefore,  differs  from  all  others,  made  before  or  since,  prophetically 
ierigning  the  place  of  honour  to  the  one  ancient  scale  now  recog- 
nized as  the  foundation  of  the  modern  tonal  system. 

Thcae  innovations  were  violently  opposed  by  the  apostles  of  the 
monodic  school.   Vincenzo  Galilei  led  the  attack  in  a  tract  entitle 

>  Ambros  mentions  an  edition  of  the  Istitutioni  dated  1557,  and 
one  of  the  Dimostrationi  dated  1562.  The  present  writer  has  never 
met  wth  dther. 

>  We  have  given  the  fractions  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur 
in  the  modem  system.  Ptolemy,  following  the  invariable  Greek 
method,  placed  them  thus — }f,  |,  A*  This,  however,  made  xuy 
difference  in  the  actual  proportions. 

^  It  was  first  used  in  France,  for  the  org>itt,  in  1835;  In  England. 
for  the  pianoforte  in  1846  and  for  the  organ  in  1854.  Bach  had 
advocated  it  in  Germany  a  centuiy  eailier;  but  it  mt  not  gene- 
rally adopted. 


^ 


Discorso  Inlomo  aUe  Ofere  dt  ifesser  Cioseffe  Zarlino,  and  followed 
it  up  in  his  famous  Dtalogo,  defending  the  Pythagorean  system  in 
very  unmeasured  language.  It  was  m  answer  to  these  strictures 
that  Zarlino  published;  his  Sopplementi. 

ZARNCKS*  FRIEDRICH  KARL  THEODOR  (1825-1891), 
German  philologist,  was  born  on  the  7th  of  July  1825  at 
Zahrenstorf,  near  BrUel,  in  Mecklenburg,  the  son  of  a  country 
pastor.  He  was  educated  at  the  Rostock  gymnasium,  and 
studied  (1844-1847)  at  the  universilies  of  Rostock,  Leipzig  and 
Berlin.  In  1848  he  was  employed  in  arranging  the  valuable 
Ebrary  ot  Old  German  literature  of  Freiherr  Karl  Harlwig  von 
Meusebadk  (x78t-i847),  and  superintending  its  removal  from 
BaumgartenbrQck,  near  Potsdam,  to  the  Royal  Library  at 
Berlin.  In  1850  he  founded  at  Leipzig  the  Literarisckes  Central' 
hlaitfUr  Deutschiand.  In  1852  he  established  himself  as  Prival- 
donetU  at  the  univeruty  of  Leipzig,  and  published  an  excellent 
edition  of  Sebastian  Brant's  Narrensckijf  (1854),  a  treatise  Zut 
Nibdungenfrage  (1854),  followed  by  an  edition  of  the  Nihdungen-' 
lied  (1856,  i2th  cd.  1887),  and  Beitrdge  snr  ErUluUrung  nni 
Cesckichte  des  Nibdungenliedes  (1857).  In  1858  he  was  ap- 
pointed full  professor,  and  commenced  a  series  of  noteworthy 
studies  on  medieval  literature,  most  of  which  were  published 
in  the  reports  {Beridtte)  of  the  Saxon  Society  of  Sciences. 
Among  them  were  that  on  the  old  High  German  poem  Mush 
pilli  (1866);  Gesang  vom  heiligen  Ceorg  (1874);  the  legend  of 
the  Friesler  Johannes  (1874);  Der  GraUempel  (1876),  and  the 
Annolied  (1887).  He  also  wrote  a  valuable  trAitise  on  Christian 
Reuter  (1884),  on  the  portraits  of  Goethe  (1884),  and  published 
the  hlstoiy  of  Leipzig  university,  Die  urkundlicken  Quellen  kit 
Gesekickte  der  Unitfersiua  Leiptig  (1857)  and  Die  deutseken 
UnipersUdtenim  Miitehlter  (1857).  Two  volumes  of  his  Kleins 
Schrifien  appeared  m  1897. 

Sec  Zur  Brinnehing  an  den  Beimgang  wn  Dr  Friedrieh  Zamcke 
1891):  Franz  Vogt  in  Zeitsckrift  fur  deutsche  Fhilotagiei  Eduard 
larncke  in  Biog^pkisches  Jahrbuckjur  AUertumswissenschaft  (1895); 
and  E.  Sievcrs  in  AUgemeine  deutsche  Biograpkie. 

ZEALAND  (also  Sealand  or  Seelakd;  Danish  SjaeUan£^^ 
the  hrgest  island  of  the  kingdom  of  Denmark.  It  is  bounded 
N.  by  the  Cattegat,  £.  by  the  Sound,  separating  it  from  Sweden, 
and  the  Baltic  Sea,  S.  by  narrow  straits  separating  it  from 
Falster,  >I&en,  and  smaller  ishinds,  and  W.  by  the  Great  Belt, 
se|>arating  it  from  Fiinen.  Its  nearer  point  to  Sweden  is  3  m., 
to  Fiinen  11.  Its  greatest  extent  from  N.  to  S.  is  82  m.,  from 
£.  to  W.  68  m.,  but  the  outline  is  very  irregular.  The  area  is 
2636  sq.  m.  The  surface  is  for  the  most  part  undulating,  but 
on  the  whole  little  above  sea-level;  the  highest  elevations  are 
in  the  south-east,  where  Cretaceous  hills  (the  oldest  geological 
formation  on  the  island)  reach  heights  of  upwards  of  350  ft. 
The  coast  is  indented  by  numerous  deep  bays  and  fjords;  the 
Isc  Fjord  in  the  north,  with  its  branches  the  Roskilde  Fjord  on 
the  east  and  the  Lamme  Fjord  on  the  west,  penetrates  inland 
for  about  25  m.  There  are  no  rivers  of  importance;  but  several 
large  lakes,  the  most  considerable  being  Arre  and  Esrom,  occur 
in  the  north-east.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  produces  grain, 
espedally  rye  and  barley,  in  great  abundance,  as  well  as 
potatoes  and  other  vegetables,  and  fruit.  The  scenery,  especi- 
ally in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  fjords,  is  pleasant,  lacking  the 
barrenne&s  of  some  portions  of  the  kingdom.. 

Zealand  Is  divided  into  five  anUer  (counties),  (i)  Frederiksborg, 
in  the  north,  named  from  the  paUux  of  Frederiksborg.     In  the 

Birth-east,  where  the  coast  approaches  most  nearly  to  Sweden,  is 
elangdr  or  Elsinore.  (2)  Kjobcnhavn,  south  ot  Frederiksborg. 
The  capital  is  that  of  the  kingdom,  Copenhaaen  (Kj&benhavn). 
The  only  other  town  of  importance  is  the  old  cathedral  city  of 
Roskilde  on  the  fjord  of  that  name.  Off  the  little  port  of  Kfigfi 
in  the  aoutlr  the  Danes  under  Nils  Juel  defeated  the  Swedes  in  1677, 
and  in  another  enragement  in  17 10  the  famous  Dunish  commander 
Hvitfeldt  sank  with  his  ship.  (3)  Holbaek,  west  of  Kj6benhavn. 
The  chief  town,  Holbaek.  lies  on  an  arm  of  the  Ise  Fjord.  In  the 
west  is  the  port  of  Kallundborg,  with  regular  communication  by 
steamer  with  Aarhus  in  Jutland.  It  has  a  singular  Romanesque 
church  of  the  T2th  century.  The  district  is  diversified  with  tnlall 
lakes,  as  the  TOs  56.  (4)  SorS,  occupying  the  aouth-westem  part 
of  the  island.  The  chief  town,  SorG,  lies  among  woods  on  the 
small  Sor6  lake.  It  was  formerly  the  seat  of  a  univereity,  and 
remains  an  important  educational  centre.     Its  church,  of  the 


9^2 


ZEBRA— ZECHARIAH 


iijh  century,  containi  tbo  to 


■dvanceaof  d' 


to  OnfaOvn]  on  Falser  idaml.  a  link  In  Ibe  direct  nHH  between 
CopenhatLen  and  Berlin, 

ZEBBA,  ihc  name  uKd  for  nil  ibe  tuiped  membcn  of  the 
honc-Iribe,  dthough  pioptrly  applicable  only  Id  the  Ipie  or 
Dwuntaia  lebn-  The  laiwr  ipcdd  iEgnu  itbra)  lobibiii  ihe 
□wunUiiaoiu  iCRioni  of  the  Cape  Colony,  wbere,  owing  lo  the 
d  man  into  its  rcslricled  raoge  it  has  become 
a  threatened  with  eiLennination,  but 
a  local  net  in  Angola.  The  tccond 
■pecio,  Burcfadl't  Mbre  lEquu  burclulli),  a  rcpreicnied  by  a 
luge  number  of  h)ca1  mccs,  ranging  from  tbe  plains  nonli  of 
tbt  Oruge  rivei  to  north-east  Alrica. 

£411111  Kim  ii  the  smaller  oC  the  two  (about  4  ft.  high  at  the 
iboulden],  and  has  longer  cars,  a  toil  more  sanlily  clothed  wiib 
hair,  and  a  ihorter  mane,    Tbc  general  ground  colour  is  while, 

brown.  With  the  eiccplioD  of  the  sbdoinen  and  Ihe  iniide  of 
le  thighs,  the  whoje  of  1 


legBh. 


:d  (be  i 


le  hue  of  the  tail  being  also  baiml.  The  oulsidcs  of  the 
can  have  a  while  tip  *jid  i  broad  blaek  mark  ocimpying  the 
grsiler  part  of  tlie  surface,  but  are  white  at  the  base.  Perhaps 
the  most  consiant  and  obvioui  diitinctioa  belwetn  thit  ipecies 
and  the  neil  is  the  arrangement  of  the  stripe*  on  the  bindet 
part  of  the  baci,  where  there  are  a  number  o(  ihoit  transverse 
bands  reaching  10  the  median  longitudinal  dorsjt  stripe,  and 
unconnected  with  (he  uppermost  of  (he  broad  stripes  which  pas^ 
obliquely  across  the  haunch  from  the  flanks  towards  the  root 
of  the  tul.    There  is  often  a  median  lonptudinal  siripe  under 

Typically,   Burchell's  iebra,   or   the  bonle-quagga    (Equas 
ivthtlii),  is  a  rather  larger  and  more  robust  aiuioal,  with 


.—The  Trm 


tain  Zebia  (Bjniu  ultra). 


imiDer  ears,  a  longer  mane,  and  fuller  tail.  The  gencnJ  gtoirnd- 
colouc  of  Ihe  body  i&  pale  yeUawifh  broHo,  the  limbs  ntacly 
while,  the  itiipes  dark  broim  or  black.  In  the  typical  form  the 
stripes  do  not  eilend  on  to  the  limbs  or  tail;  but  there  i!  a 

striping  increases,  till  la'  Ihe  nortb-easteni  B.  burtJtfiii  granii 
the  leg!  arc  siripcd  to  the  hoofs.  There  is  a  stroi^y  marked 
median  longitudinal  ventnd  bbck  siripe,  to  which  the  lower 
cntli  of  the  transverse  tide  atripei  aic  usually  uuiled,  bul  llie 


Ihe  em  is 


:h  larger  proportioa  oi 


■»(£.? 


•yi)  is  . 


bul  the  typical  form,  in  w 
ioet.  The  Abyssinian  and 
atledly  dislineuishcd  by  in 


Burchell's  Khra  (or  quagga,  as  it  it  Q 
the  natives  as  food,  and  lis  bide  is  ; 
Allhou^  the  many  allempls  Ihal  hai 
and  train  icbras  for  riding  and  driv 
rewatdtd   wiih  partial  » 


.  The  flesh  of 
is  relished  by 
lie  foe  leather, 
de  lo  break  in 


^.  H.  F.!  ft.  U-) 
ZEBDLDII,  a  tribe  of  Israel,  named  after  Jacob's  siith  "  son  " 
by  Leah.  The  narrator  of  Gen.  ux,  10  offers  two  etymologies  ol 
(he  name,  from  the  roots  i-t-d,  "give,"  and  »-W,  "e««ll  (?)."' 
The  counliy  of  Zebulun  lay  io  the  fertile  hilly  country  totbe 
north  of  the  plain  of  Jeireet,  which  forms  the  first  stfp  towirdt 
the  mounlains  of  A;hcr  ond  Naphtali,  and  indudtd  tbo  goodly 
upland  plain  of  cl-BallS.     Tbt  descriplion  of  ila  boundari 


Issachar  and  Nsphiali. ' 
quently  cnmbincd.  Al 
Asber  (Judgo  v,  17),  w 
bordered  on  Fhoenidan 


B  positi 


ic  or  (be  01  her 
period  Zcbiilun,  lite  Dar 
em  (0  have  reached  the  se 
iry  (Gen.  ilii.  13,  Deut.  : 


IdbyZ, 


and  lo  the  wealth  these  tribes  derived  from  commeice  by  sea. 
Zebulun  had  B  chief  part  in  the  war  with  Slseia  Uudgea  ir.  6. 
V.  18;  set  Deborah);  it  is  said  to  have  futnisbed  at  least  one  of 
the  "judges^"  Elon  the  Zebulonilc  (Judges  xii  11  ttq.);  nod 
(he  prophet  Jonah,  who  foretold  the  victories  of  Jeroboam  II,, 
rsme  from  the  border  town  of  Galh-hepber  (pcobibly  tha 
modem  el-Meahbed)  (i  Kings  >iv,  15).  The  deponatioii  of  the 
northern  tribes  under  Tiglalh  Pileser  IV.  (1  Kings  xv.  ]«) 
appears  to  have  included  Zebulun  (lu.  i>,  t).  Naiaretb  lay 
within  the  tcniloiy  of  Zebulun  but  i*  not  mnitioaed  in  tba 
Old  Tesumenl.  (S.A.C.) 

ZBCBABIAH,  son  of  Bcrechlafa,  son  of  Tddo  (or  by  contrac- 
tion, son  of  Iddo),  a  prophet  of  the  Old  TeKament.  He 
appeared  In  Jerusalem  along  with  Hlggai  tv*)-  in  ll>e  terond 
yax  of  Daiiua  Uyataiint  (;io.  Bjx),  to  wini  slid  eocouiacB  'he 
f.  Baal-Z*bui;  11  not  in- 


ZECHARIAH 


9^3 


Jews  to  address  themselves  at  length  to  the  restoration  of  the 
Templei^  Supported  by  the  prophets,  Zcrubbabel  and  Joshua 
set  about  the  work,  and  the  elders  of  Judah  built  and  the  work 
went  forward  (Ezra  v.  i  seq.,-vi.  X4)c  The  first  eight  «hapteci 
of  the  book  of  Zechariah  exactly  fit  into  this  historical  setting. 
The/  are  divided  by  precise  chronological  headings  into  three 
sections — (a)  chap.  L  i-^/in  the  eighth  mantli  of  the  second 
3rear  of  Darius:  (6)  chap,  i.  7-vi.  15,  on  the  twenty>ioHrtK  day 
of  the  deventn  month  of  the  same  year;  {c)  chap,  vii.-viii., 
on  the  fourth  day  of  the  ninth  month  of  the  fourth  year  of 
Darius.  The  fost  section  is  a  preface  containing  exhortation 
in  general  terms.  The  main  section  is  the  second,  containing, 
a  series  of  night  visions,  the  significant  features  of  which  are 
pointed  out  by  an  angel  who  stands  by  the  proi^et  and  answers 
his  questions. 

i.  7*-i7.  The  divine  chariots  and  hones  that  make  the  round  oi 
the  world  by  Yahweh's  otdetB  return  to  ^the  heavenly  palace  ana 
report  that  there  is  still  no  movement  amolig  the  nations,  no  sign 
of  the  Messianic  crins.  Seventy  years  have  passed,  and  Zion  and 
the  ckice  of  Judah  stilt  mourn.  Sad  newel  but  Yahweh  gives  a 
comfortable  assurance  of  His  gracious  r^nm  to  Jerusalem  and  the 
rebuilding  of  His  temple. 

i.  t&-2i  (Heb.  ii.  1-4). '  Four  homS,  representing  the  hostile 
world-power  that  oppresses  Israel  and  Jerusalem,  are  cast  down 
by  four  smiths. 

ii.  1-13  (Heb.  ii.  S^i?)*  The  new  Jennatem  is  laid  out  with  the 
measuring  line.  It  is  to  have  no  walls,  that  Itsjpopulation  may  not 
be  limited,  and  it  needs  none,  for  Yahweh  is  its  protection.  The 
catastrophe' of  "  the  land  of  the  north  "  is  near  to  come;  then  the 
exiles  01  Zion  shall  stream  back  from  all  quarters,  the  converted 
heathen  shall  join  them,  Yahweh  Himself  will  dwell  in  the  midst 
of  them,  and  even  now  He  stirs  Himself  from  His  holy  habitation. 

ill.  l-io.  The  hip;h  priest  Joshua  is  accused  before  Yahweh  by 
Satan,  but  is  acrjmtted  and  given  rule  in  Yahweh's  house  and 
courts,  with  the  nght  of  access  to  Yahweh  in  priestly  intercession. 
The  restoration  of  the  temple  and  its  service  is  a  pledge  of  still 
higher  things.  The  promised  "  branch  "  (or  "  shoot,  shitabh  the 
Messiah,  will  come;  the  national  kingdom  is  restored  In  its  old 
splendour;  and  a  time  of  ^ncral  felicity  dawns,  when  every  man 
snail  sit  happy  under  his  vine  and  under  his  fia  tree.  As  by  rights 
the  Messianic  kingdom  should  follow  immediately  on  the  exile, 
it  is  probable  that  the^  prophet  designs  to  hint  in  a  guarded  way 
that  2erubbabel,  who  in  all  other  places  is  mentioned  along  witn 
Joshua,  is  on  the  point  of  ascendmg  the  throne  of  hisahcestor 
David.  The  jewel  with  seven  facets  is  already  there,  the  inscrip- 
tion only  has  still  to  be  engraved  on  it  (iii.  9).  The  charges  brougnt 
against  the  high  priest  consist  simply  in  the  obstacles  that  have 
hitherto  impeded  the  restoration  of  the  temple  and  its  service; 
and  in  like  manner  the  guilt  of  the  land  (iii.  9)  is  simply  the  still 
continuing  domination  of  foreigners. 

iv.  1-14.  Beside  a  lighted  golden  candlestick  of  seven  branches 
stand  two  olive  tree»^Zerubbabel  and  Joshua,  the  two  ancMnted 
ones — specially  watched  over  by  Him  whose  seven  eyes  run  through 
the  whole  earth.  This  explanation  of  the  vision  is  separated  from 
the  description  by  an  animated  dialogue,  not  quite  clear  in  its 
expression,  in  which  it  is  said  that  the  mountain  of  obstacles  shall 
disappear  before  Zcrubbabel,  and  that,  having  bej^n  the  building 
of  the  temple,  be  shall  also  bring  it  to  an  end  m  spite  of  those  who 
now  mock  at  the  day  of  small  b^nnings. 

V.  1-4.  A  written  roll  flies  over  the  Holy  Land;  this  is  a  con- 
crete representation  of  the  curse  which  in  future  win  fall  of  itself 
on  all  crime,  so  that,  e.g.,  no  man  who  has  suflered  theft  will  have 
occasion  himself  to  pronounce  a  curse  against  the  thief  (cf.  Judges 
xvii.  2). 

V.  S-'tl.  ^  Guilt,  personified  as  a  woman,  is  cast  into  an  ephah- 
measure  with  a  heavy  Ud  and  carried  from  Judah  to  CThaldaea, 
where  it  is  to  have  its  home  for  the  future. 

vi.  1-8.  The  divine  teams,  four  in  numt>er,  again  traverse  the 
world  toward  the  four  winds»  to  execute  Yahweh's  commands. 
That  which  goes  northward  is  charged  to  wreak  His  anger  on  the 
north  countiy.  The  series  of  visions  has  now  reached  its  close, 
returning  to  its  starting-point  in  i.  7  sqq. 

iliii'  ■  ■ nil.       -  ■— ^»»  »^^>^.»»— ^— .^— ^.^ 

^  The  alleged  foundation  of  the  second  temple  In  536  (Ezra  iii. 
8-13;  cf.  iv.  1-5,  24)  is  open  to  doubt,  becanse  (a)  the  statements 
of  the  compiler  of  Ezra  are  not  contemporary  evidence,  (b)  the 
contemporary  Haggai  and  Zechariah  seem  to  imply  that  this  work 
first  began  in  520  (Hag.  ii.  18;  Zech.  viiL  9;  cf.  Ezra  v.  2).  If, 
on  the  {ground  of  Ezra  v.  16,  we  accept  the  truth  of  an  original 
foundation  in  536  (so  Driver,  Minor  Prophets, sp.  148)^,  that  event 
was  admittedly  formal  only  and  without  success,  so  that  the  real 
beginning  was  made  in  520,  Wcllhausen  {Isr.  und  Jud.  Cesck.,  3rd 
ed..  p.  160)  rejects  the  earlier  foundation;  on  the  other  hand,  he 
insists,  with  the  majority  of  scholars  and  against  Kosters,  on  the 
actual  return  of  exiles  in  537  to  form  the  nucleus  of  the  post-exilic 
community  Uoa^iLpp.  IS7  »J»  1 


An  appendix  follows  (vL  9-IS)  Jews  from  Babylon  have 
brought  gold  and  silver  to  Jenisausn:  of  these  the  prophet  must 
make  41  crown  designed  for  the  "  branch  "  who  is  to  build  Yahweh's 
hoqsa  and  ut  king  on  the  throne,  but  retain  a  good  understanding 
with  the  high  pncst  Zerubbabel  is  certainly  meant  here,  and,  if 
the  receivea  text  names  foshua  instead  of  him  (vi.  ix)  this  is  only 
a  correction,  made  tor  reasons  easy  to  understand,  which  breaitt 
the  context  and  destroys  the  sense  and  the  reference  of  "  then, 
both  *'  in  yeme  13. 

The  third  section  (chaps.  vii.-viiL),  dated  from  the  fourth 
year  of.  Darius,  contains  an  inquiry  whether  the  fast  days  that 
arose  m  the  captivity  are  still  to  be  observed,  with  a  comforting 
and  encouraging  reply  of  the  prophet. 

Thus  thioughout  the  first  eight  chapters  the  scene  is  Jeru- 
salem in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Darius.*  Zerubbabef  and 
Joshua,  the  prince  and  the  priest,  are  the  leaders  of  the  com- 
munity. The  great  concern  of  the  time  and  the  chief  practical 
theme  of  these  chapters  is  the  building  of  the  temple;  but  its 
restoration  is  only  the  earnest  of  greater  things  to  follow,  viz., 
the  glorious  restoration  of  David's  kingdom.  The  horizon  of 
these  prophecies  ia  everywhere  limited  by  the  narrow  con- 
ditions of  the  time,  and  their  a>m  Is  cicariy  seen.  The  visions 
hardly  veil  the  thou^t,  and  the  mode  of  expression  is  usually 
simple,  except  in  the  Messianic  passages,  where  the  tortuous- 
ncss  and  obscurity  are  perhaps  intentional.  Noteworthy  is  the 
affinity  between  some  notions  evidently  not  first  framed  by  the 
prophet  himself  and  the  prologue  to  Job — the  heavenly  hosts 
that  wander  through  the  earth  and  bring  back  their  report  t6 
Yahweh's  throne,  the  figure  of  Satan,  the  idea  that  suffering 
and  ddamity  are  evidences  of  guilt  and  of  accusations  pre- 
sented before  God. 

Passing  from  chaps,  i.-viii.  to  chaps,  ix.  seqr,  we  at  once  fed 
ourselves  transported  into  a  different  world. 

(ip  Yahweh's  word  is  accomplished  on  Syria-Phoenicia  and 
Philistia;  and  then  the  Messianic  kingdom  begins  in  Zion,  and 
the  Israelites  detained  amon^  the  heathen,  Judah  and  Ephraim 
combined,  recci^  a  part  in  it.  The  might  a/i  the  sons  of  Javaa 
is  broken  in  battle  against  this  kingdom  (ch.  ix.).  After  an  inter- 
mezzo of  three  verses  (x.  1-3:  "  Ask  rain  of  Yahweh,  not  of  the 
diviners  ")  a  second  and  quite  analogous  Messianic' prophecy  follows. 
The  foreign  tyrants  fall;  the  lordship  of  Assyria  and  Elgypt  has 
an  end ;  the  autonomy  and  martial  power  of  the  nation  are  restored. 
The  scattered  exiles  return  as  dtiaens  of  the  new  theocracy,  aU 
obstacles  in  their  way  parting  asunder  as  when  the  waves  of  the 
Red  Sea  gave  passage  to  Israel  at  the  founding  of  the  old  theocracy 
(x.  3-12).  Again  there  is  an  interlude  of  three  verses  (xi.  1-3): 
fire  seizes  the  cedars  of  Lebanon  and  the  oaks  of  Bashan.* 

(a)  The  difficult  passage  about  the  shepherds  follows.  The 
shepherds  (rulers)  of  the  nation  make  their  fiock  an  article  of  trade 
and  treat  the  sheep  as  sheep  for  the  shambles.  Therefore  the 
Inhabited  world  shall  fall  a  sacrifice  to  the  tyranny  of  its  kinKs, 
while  Israd  is  delivered  to  a  shepherd  who  feeds  the  sheep  mr 
those  who  make  a  trade  of  the  flock  (iriso  ^a»^,  xi.  7,  11 »  they 
that  sell  them,"  ver.  ^)  and  enters  on  his  office  with  two  staves, 
"  Favour  "  and  "  Union."  He  destroys  "  ihe  three  shepherds  " 
in  one  month,  but  is  soon  wear^  of  his  flock  and  the  flock  of  him. 
He  breaks  the  staff  "  Favour,"  !>.  the  covenant  of  peace  with  the 
nadons,  and  asks  the  traders  for  his  hire.  Rosiving  thirty  pieces 
of  silver,  he  casts  it  into  the  temple  treasury  and  breaks  the  staff 
'•*  Union."  i.e.  the  brotherhood  between  Judah  and  Israel.  He  is 
succeeded  by  a  foolish  shepherd,  who  neglects  his  flock  and  lets 
it  go  to  ruin.  At  length  Yahweh  intervenes;  the  foolish  shepherd 
falls  by  the  sword ;  two-thirds  of  the  people  perish  with  him  in 
the  Messianic  crisis,  but  the  remnant  of  one-third  forms  the  seed 
of  the  new  theocracy  (xi.  4-17  taken  with  xiii.  7-9,  according  to 
the  necessary  transposition  proposed  by  Ewald).  Ail  this  must  be 
an  allegory  of  past  events,  the  time  present  to  the  author  and  his 
hopes  k>r  the  future  beginning  only  at  xi.  17,  xiii.  7-9. 

(3)  Chap.  xii.  presents  a  third  variation  on  the  Messianic  promise. 
All  heathendom  is  gathered  together  against  Jerusalem  and  perishes 
there.  Yahweh  first  gives  victory  to  the  countryfolk  of  Judah 
and  then  they  rescue  the  capital.  After  this  triumph  the  noblest 
houses  of  Jerusalem  hold,  each  by  itsdf,  a  great  lamentation  over 

a  martyr  *'  whom  they  •  have  pierced  "   (or  "  whom  men  have 

I  I  I  I  11       »    ■  iji     ' 

*The  historical  oocaaon  of  the  emergence  of  Haggai  and 
Zechariah  was  supplied  by  the  scries  of  revolts  following  the  suc- 
cession of  Darius  in  522  (cf.  Driver,  op.  cit.,  p.  150).  His  recon- 
qucst  of  Babylon  in  520  may,  in  particular,  have  seemed  the 
prelude  to  the  Messianic  age  (Wellhausen,  Gesch.,  p.  I0i  n.). 

' "  The  cedafs  of  Lebanon,  the  oaks  of  Bashan,  the  forest  of 
Jordan  represent  the  national  might  of  the  heathen  kingdoms" 
(WelH).,  Die  Kl.  Proph.,  3rd  ed.,  p.  192^* 


964 


ZEDEKIAH— ZEEHAN 


pieiced  ").  It  is  tmfcen  for  gnnted  tbat  tho  readers  will  know  who 
the  martyr' is,  and  the  exegeds  of  the  Church  applies  the  passage 
to  our  Lord.  Chap.  xiii.  1-6  is  a  continuation  of  chap.  xii. ;  the 
dawn  of  the  day  of  salvation  is  accompanied  by  a  general  piuging 
away  of  idolatry  and  the  enthusiasm  of  false  prophets. 

(4}  Yet  a  fourth  variation  of  the  picture  of  the  incoming  of  the 
Messianic  deliverance  is  given  in  chap.  xiv.  The  heathen  gather 
against  lenisalem  and  take  the  dty,  but  do  not  utterly  destroy 
the  inhabitants.  The  Yahweh,  at  a  time  known  only  to  Himself, 
shall  appear' with  all  His  saints  on  Mount  Olivet  and  destroy  the 
heathen  in  battle,  while  the  men  of  Jerusalem  take  refuge  in  their 
terror  in  the  great  cleft,  that  opens  where  Yahweh  acts  His  fooC 
Now  the  pew  era  be^ns,  and  even  the  iH^ULhen  do  homage  to  Yahweh 
by  bringing  due  tribute  to  the  annual  feast  qf  taboiuicles.  All 
in  Jerusalcra  is  holy  down  to  the  bells  on  the  horses  and  the  000k- 
jog-pots. 

There  is  a  striking  contrast  between  diaps.  i.~viii.  and  tbaps. 
iz.-xiv.  The  former  prophecy  is  closely  linked  to  the  situation 
and  wants  of  the  community  of  Jerusalem  in  the  second  year  of 
Darius  I.,  and  relates  to  the  restoration  of  the  temple  and, 
perhaps,  the  elevation  of  Zerubbabel  to  the  throne  of  David. 
In  chaps.  ix.-xiv.,  howe\'cr, "  there  is  nothing  about  the  restora- 
tion of  the  temple,  or  about  Joshua  and  Zerubbabel;  but  we 
read  of  the  evil  rulers,  foreign  and  native  alike,  who  maltreat 
their  subjects,  and  enrich  themselves  at  their  expense.'  There 
are  corresponding  differences  in  style  and  speech,  and  it  is 
particularly  to  be  noted  that,  while  the  superscriptions  in  the 
first  part  name  the  author  and  give  the  date  of  each  oracle 
with  precision,  those  in  the  second  part  (ix.  i.,.  xiL  i)  are  with- 
out name  or  date.  That  both  parts  do  not  belong  to  the  same 
auUiOT  is  now  generally  admitted,  as  is  also  the  fact  that 
chaps.  ix.-xiv.  are  of  much  later  date.'  The  predictions  of 
these  chapters  have  no  affinity  either  with  the  prophecy  of 
Amos,  Hosca  and  Isaiah,  or  with  that  of  Jeremiah.  The  kind 
of  eschatology  which-  we  find  in  Zech.  ix.-xiv.  was  first  intro- 
duced by  Ezekid,  who  in  particular  is  the  author  of  the  con- 
ception that  the  time  of  deliverance  is  to  be  preceded  by  a  joint 
attack  of  aU  nations  on  Jerusalem,  in  which  they  come  to  final 
overthrow  (Ezck.  xxxviii.  seq.;  Isa.  Ixvi.  18-34;  Joel).  The 
importance  attached  to  the  temple  service,  even  in  Messianic 
times  (Zteh.  xiv.),  implies  an  author  who  lived  in  the  ideas  of 
the  religious  commonwealth  of  post-exile  times.  A  future  king 
is  hoped  for;  but  in  the  present  there  is  no  Davidic  king,  only 
a  Davidic  family  standing  on  the  same  level  with  other  noble 
families  in  Jerusalem  (xii.  7,  12).  The  "  bastard  "  (mixed  race) 
of  Ashdod  reminds  us  of  Neh.  xiiL  23  sqq.;  and  the  words  of 
ix.  12  C  to-day,  also,  do  I  declare  ^t  I  will  render  double 
unto  thee  ")  have  no  sense  unless  they  refer  back  to  the  ddiver- 
ance  from  Babylonian  exile.  But  the  decisive  argument  is  that 
in  ix.  13  the  sons  of  Javan,  i^,  the  Greeks,  appear  as  the 
representatives  of  the  heathen  world-power.  This  part  of  the 
prophecy,  therefore,  is  later  than  Alexander,  who  overthrew  the 
Persian  empire  in  333.  Egypt  and  Assyria  (x.  xo,  11)  must  be 
taken  to  represent  the  Ptolemaic  and  Seleudd  kingdoms,  which 
together  madp  up  for  the  Jews  the  empire  of  the  sons  of  Javan.' 

The  whole  prophecy,  however,  is  not  a  unity.  By  reference  to 
the  analysis  given  above,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  four  sections 
In  Zech.  bc.-xiv.,  viz.  (1)  ix.,  x..(xi.  1-3);  (2)  xi.  4-17,  xiii.  7-9; 
(3)  xii.,  xiii.  1-6;  (4)  xiv.,  which  arc  more  or  less  mdependcnt  of 
each  other.  Of  thoe  (3)  and  (4)  are  of  marked  eschatological 
character,  and  show  little  contact  with  definite  historical  events 

*  Driver,  op.  ci/.,  p.  239,  who  also  refers  to  the  differences  of 
Messianic  outlook,  and  the  substitution  of  an  atmosphere  of  war 
for  one  of  peace. 

*  Earlier  critics  made  the  second  part  the  older.  Chaps.  ix.-xi. 
were  ascribed  to  a  contemporarv  of  Amos  and  Hosea,  about  the 
middle  of  the  8th  century  B.C.,  Decause  Ephraim  is  mentioned  as 
well  as  Judah,  and  Assyria  along  with  Egypt  (x.  10),  while  the 
nei^hboure  of  Israel  appear  ia  ix.  I  sq.  in  tho  same  way  as  in  Amos 
i.-ii.  That  chaps,  xii.-xiv.  also  were  pre-exilic  was  held  to  appear 
especially  in  the  attack  on  idolatry  and  lying  prophecy  (xiii._  x-6) ; 
but,  as  this  prophecy  speaks  only  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem,  it  was 
dated  after  the  fall  of  Samaria,  and  aangned  to  the  last  days  of 
the  Judacan  kingdiom  on  the  strength  of  xii.  11,  where  an  allusion 
is  seen  by  some  to  the  mourning  for  King  Josiah,  slain  in  battle 
at  Mcgiddo. 

'What  follows  Is  summarised  from  Wettbausan,  Dis  KMn0t 
fTPpk*t$n,  pp.  190,  192.  199-197* 


(cicept  xu.  7.  wbich  auggeito  the  Maocaheaa  afa).  Oa  tlie  otlMr 
hand  (i)  implies  a  period  when  the  Jews  were  governed  by  the 
Selcudds,  since  it  is  against  these  that  the  anger  of  Yahwdi  is 
firtt  directed  (ix.  i,  2).<  This  section,  therefore,  belonn  to  the 
first  thicd  of  the  2nd  century  b.c,  when  the  Jews  were  fint  held 
in  the  power  of  the  Seleucids.*   The  same  date  may  be  assigned  to 

g),  where  the  traffickers  in  the  sheep  may  be  regarded  as  the 
Icudd  nikrs,  and  the  shepherds  as  the  Jewish  high  priests  and 
ethnarchs;  the  prelude  to  the  Maocabean  revolt  largely  cxmm 


of  the  rapid  and  violent  changes  here  figured.  In  particular,  the 
evil  shepherd  of  xi.  15  f.  may  be  MeacUus;  whilst  the  disinterested 
speaker  may  be  Hyrcanus  ben  Tobias  (cf.  3(L  13  and  II.  >lacc 
ut.  11). 

Recent  criticism  (for  further  details  see  G.  A.  Smith,  Dba  Betk 
Iff  the  Twelve  PropkeU,  ii.  ppu  450  f.,  and  Driver,  Miner  Propkets, 
pp.  2^2-234)  shows  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  question, 
of  umty,  and  also  of  actual  date  within  the  Greek  period.  Whilst 
G.  A.  Smith  (following  Stade).  and  Marti  find  no  adequate  ground 
for  the  further  division  of  Zech.  ix.-xiv.,  Driver  (following  Nowack) 
accepts  the  fourfold  division  indk:ated  above  ("  Four  anonymous 
Pfophedes,  perhaps  the  work  of  four  distinct  Prophets,"  op.  cii^ 
p.  335).  In  regard  to  date,  G.  A.  Smith  (here  also  following  Stade) 
accepts  the  earlier  part  of  the  Greek  period  C306-278).  With  this 
Driver  provisionally  agrees,  whilst  Nowack  thinks  no  more  can  be 
said  than  that  <i)  belongs  to  the  Greek  and  (2)-(4)  to  the  poet- 
exilic  period  in  general.  On  the  other  hand,  Marti  assigns  the 
whole  to  160  B.C.  (Maccabean  period;  a  little  later  than  Wdl- 
hausen)  and  sees  a  number  of  references  to  historical  personages  of 
that  age.  The  chief  arguments  to  be  urged  against  this  late  date 
are  the  character  of  the  Hebrew  style  (Driver,  op.  cU.,  p.  233)  and 
the  alleged  close  of  the  prophetic  canon  by  200;  Irat  peihapa 
neither  m  these  can  be  rejEardcd  as  very  convincing.- 

Recsnt  Litera tube.— Nowack,  Die  KUinen  PropheUn  (1897; 
ed.  2,  1903):  Wellhausen,  Die  Kleinen  Pro^teu,*  (1S98);  G.  A. 
Smith,  The  Book  of  the  Twelve  PropheU  (in  The  ExposilcTs  BibUh 
vol.  ii.  (pp.  253-328,  447-499)  (i^>*  Marti,  Dodekapropketen, 
ii.  (1904);  Driver,  Minor  Prophets,  ii.  (in  The  Century  BMe,  1906; 
the  roost  useful  for  the  general  reader).  The  article  in  Hastings's 
DkUonary  of  tite  Bible  (vol.  iv.,  pp.  967-070)  (1902),  by  Nowack. 
is  a  reproduction  from  his  work  dtcd  above;  the  article  in  the 
£m;y.  Bibl.  by  Wellhausen  is  a  revision  of  his  article  in  the  oth 
edition  of  the  Eney.  Brit.,  and  the  present  independent  revision 
is  in  some  points  indebted  to  it.  (J.  Wb.;  H.  W.  R.*> 

ZEDEKIAH  (Hebrew  for  "righteousness  of  7ah[weh]")>  son 
of  Josiah,  and  the  last  king  of  Judah  (2  Kings  zziv.  17  sqq.; 
2  Chron.  xxxvi.  xo  seq.).  Previously  known  as  Mattaniah 
("  gift  of  Yah[weh] "),  he  was  appointed  king  by  Nebuchadreazar. 
after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (597  B.C.)  and  his  name  changed 
to  Zedekiah.  He  hdd  his  position  under  an  oath  of  allegiance, 
but  after  three  years  (cf.  Jehoiakim,  2  Kings  xxiv.  i)  began  an 
intrigue  with  Moab,  Edom,  Ammon,  Tyre  and  Sidon,  which  the 
prophet  Jeremiah  vigorously  denounced  (Jer.  xxvii.  seq.;  cf.  also 
Ezek.  xvii.  ix-21).  It  is  possible  that  he  was  summoned  to. 
Babylon  to  explain  his  conduct  (Jer.  U.  59;  the  Septuagint  reads 
"from  2^ekiah  ";  see  also  zxix.  3).  Neverthdess,  relations 
were  maintained  with  Egypt  and  steps  were  taken  to  rtvoH. 
The  Babylonian  army  b^san  to  lay  siege  to  Jerusalem  in  the 
ninth  year  of  his  reign^  and  a  vain  attempt  was  made  by  Pharac4i 
Hophra  to  cause  a  diversion.  The  headings  to  the  propbedes 
in  Ezek.  xxix.  sqq.  suggest  that  fuller  details  of  the  events 
were  once  preserved,  and  the  narratives  in  Jer.  xxxH.-xxxiv., 
xxxvii.  give  some  account  of  the  internal  position  in  Jerusalem 
at  the  time.  After  six  months  a  breach  was  made  in  the  dty, 
Zcdckiah's  flight  was  cut  off  in  the  Jordan  Valley  and  he  was 
taken  to  Nebuchadrezzar  at  Riblah.  His  sons  were  killed,  and 
he  was  blinded  and  carried  to  Babylon  in  chains  (d.  Ezek.  xii. 
10-14).  Vengeance  was  taken  upon  Jerusalem,  and,  on  the 
seventh  day  of  the  fifth  month,  586  B.C.,  Nebuzamdan  sacked 
the  temple,  destroyed  the  walls  and  houses,  and  deported  the 
dtizcns,  only  the  poorest  peasantry  of  the  land  bdng  left  behind. 
Sec  Jews  (History),  J  1 7  seq.  (S.  A.  C.) 

ZEEHAN,  a  town  of  Montagu  county,  Tasmania,  225  m. 
direct  N.W.  of  Hobart,  on  the  Little  Henty  river.  Pop.  (1901) 
5014.  It  is  an  important  railway  centre,  and  from  it  radiate 
lines  to  Strahan,  its  port  on  the  Macquarie  Harbour,  to  Dundas, 
to  Williamsford,  and  to  Qurnie,  where  connexion  is  made  to 

^Hadrach,  i.e  the  Assyrian  Hatarika,  apparently  denotes  a 
district  S.  of  Hamath  (between  Palmyra  and  the  Mediterranean).  . 

•  WelUuuiicn.  Sketch  ^f  ike  Hitltey  of  Israel  cn4  Jmidk,  pp.  137^ 
I9h 


ZEELAND— ZETTUN 


965 


Lctmoeston  udHobArt.  The  town  is  lighted  by  electricity 
and  has  an  academy  of  music  and  a  state-aided  school  of  mines. 
It  is  the  prind|>al  centre  of  the  silver-lead  mining  district,  and 
has  large  smelting  works. 

ZBBLAND  (or  ZealandX  a  pnmnce  of  Holland,  bounded  S.E. 
and  S.  by  Belgium.  W.  by  the  North  Sea,  N.  by  South  HoUand, 
and  £.  by  North  Biabant.  It  has  an  area  of  690  sq.  m.  and  a 
population  (1905)  of  237,292.  Zeehmd  consists  of  the  delta 
islands  formed  about  the  estuaries  of  the  Mass  and  Schddt 
with  its  two  arms,  the  Honte  or  Western  Scheldt,  and  the 
Ooeter  Scheldt,  together  with  a  strip  of  mainland  called  Zeeland- 
Flanden.  The  names  of  the  islands  are  Schonwen  and  Duive- 
land,  St  FUipsUnd,  Tolen,  North  Bevdand,  South  Beveland 
and  Wakheren.  The  history  of  these  islands  is  in  every  case 
one  of  varying  loss  and  gain  in  the  struggle  with  the  sea.  Th^ 
were  built  up  by  the  gradual  accumulation  of  mud  deposts 
in  a  shallow  bay,  separated  by  dunes  from  the  North  Sea.  As 
late  as  the  X2th  and  13th  centuries  each  of  these  islands  con- 
sbted  of  several  smaller  blands,  many  of  whose  names  arc  still 
preserved  in  the  fertile  polders  which  have  taken  their  place. 
Lying  for  the  most  part  below  sea-level,  the  islands  arc  pro- 
tected by  a  continuous  line  of  artificial  dikes,  which  hide  them 
from  view  on  the  seaward  side,  whence  only  an  occasional 
church  steeple  is  seen.  Tlie  islands  of  Schouwen  and  Duive- 
land  are  united  owmg  to  the  damming  of  the  Dykwater;  St 
Filipsland,  or  Philipsland,  and  South  Beveland  are  connected 
with  the  mainland  of  North  Brabant  by  naturally  formed  mud 
banks. 

The  soil  of  Zeeland  consists  of  a  fertile  sea  day  which  esped- 
ally  favours  the  production  of  wheat;  rye,  barley  (for  malting), 
beans  and  peas,  and  flax  are  also  cultivated.  Cattle  and  swine 
are  reared,  and  dairy  produce  is  largely  exported;  but  the 
sheep  of  the  province  are  small  and  their  wool  indilTerent.  The 
industries  (linen,  yarn-spinning,  distilling,  brewing,  salt-refining, 
shipbuilding)  are  comparatively  uiumportant.  The  inhabi- 
tants, who  retain  many  quaint  and  archaic  peculiarities  of 
manner  and  dress,  speak  the  variety  of  Dutch  known  as  Low 
Frankish. 

The  chief  towns  on  the  island  of  Schouwen  are  the  ports  of 
Zierikseeand  Brouwershaven.  On  the  well-wooded  fringe  of  the 
dunes  on  the  west  side  of  the  island  are  the  two  villages  of 
Renesse  and  Haamstede,  the  seats  in  former  days  of  tJie  two 
powerful  lordships  of  the  same  name.  St  Maartensdyk  on  the 
adjoining  island  of  Tolen  was  fbrmeriy  the  seat  of  a  lordship 
which  belonged  successively  to  the  families  of  Van  Borsscle, 
Burren  and  Orange-Nassau.  There  is  a  monument  of  the  Van 
Borsseles  in  the  Reformed  church.  The  castle  built  here  in 
the  first  half  of  the  14th  century  was  demolished  in  1819.  The 
island  of  South  Beveland  frequently  suffered  from  inundaUons 
and  experienced  a  particularly  disastrous  one  in  1530.  In  the 
same  century  the  flourishing  walled  town  of  Rdmcnswaal  and 
the  island  of  Borsele  or  Borssele  disappeared  beneath  the 
waves;  but  the  last-named  was  gradually  recovered  during  the 
X7th  century.  This  island  gave  its  name  to  the  powerful  lord- 
ship of  the  same  name.  Goes  is  the  chief  town  on  South 
Beveland.  ()yster-brceding  is  practised  on  the  north  coast  of 
the  island,  especially  at  Wemeidinge  and  lerseke  or  Yerseke. 
lerseke  was  once  a  town  of  importance  and  the  scat  of  a  lord- 
ship, while  at  Wemeidinge  there  was  formeriy  an  establishment 
of  the  Templars.  In  1866  South  Beveland  and  Walcheren  were 
joined  by  a  heavy  railway  dam,  a  canal  being  cut  through  the 
middle  of  the  former  island  to  restore  the  connexion  between 
the  East  and  West  Scheldt.  South  Beveland  is  sometimes 
called  the  "  granary  "  and  Walcheren  the  "  garden  "  of  Zeeland. 
The  principal  towns  in  Walcheren  are  Middelburg,  the  chief 
town  of  the  province.  Flushing  andVeere;  all  three  connected 
by  a  canal  (1867-72)  wliich  divides  the  Island  in  two.  The 
fishing  village  of  Amemuiden  flourished  as  a  harbour  in  the 
x6th  century,  but  decayed  owing  to  the  silting  up  of  the  sand. 
Domburg  is  pleasantly  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  dunes  on  the 
west  side  of  the  IsUmd,  and  in  modem  times  has  become  a 
popular  but  primitive  watering-place.    It  b  a  very  old  town. 


having  received  dvic  ri|^tS  in  the  f 3th  century,  and  from  time 
to  time  Roman  remains  and  other  antiquities  have  been  dug 
out  of  the  sands.  Between  Domburg  and  the  village  of  West* 
kapelle  there  stretches  the  famous  Westkapelle  seardike.  The 
maioland  of  Zeeland-Flanders  was  formeriy  also  composed  of 
numerous  ishmds  which  were  gradually  united  by  the  accumula^ 
tion  of  mud  and  sand,  and  in  this  way  many  once  flourishing 
commercial  towns,  such  as  Sluis  and  Aardenburg,  were  reduced 
in  importance.  The  famous  castle  of  Sluis,  built  in  1385,  was 
partly  blown  up  by  the  Freiu:h  in  1794,  and  totally  demolished 
in  18x8.  Yzendyke  represents  a  Hanse  town  which  flourished 
in  the  13th  century  and  was  gradually  engulfed  by  the  sea. 
Similariy  the  original  port  of  Breskens  was  destroyed  by  in- 
undations in  the  xsth  and  i6th  centuries.  The  modern  town 
rose  into  importance  in  the  19th  century  on  account  of  its  good 
harbour.  The  old  towns  of  Axel  and  Halst  were  formerly 
important  fortresses,  and  as  such  were  frequently  besieged  in 
the  i6th,  X7th  and  x8th  centuries.  Ter  Neiisen  was  strongly 
fortified  in  1833-39,  and  has  a  flourishing  transit  trade,  as  the 
port  of  Ghent,  by  the  canal  constructed  in  1825-27. 

ZEBRUST,  a  town  of  the  Transvaal,  149  m.  by  rail,  via 
Krugersdorp,  N.N.W.  of  Pretoria  and  33  m.  N.E.  of  Maf eking. 
Pop.  (1904)  1945.  It  was  founded  in  1868  and  is  the  chief 
town  of  the  Marico  district,  one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  of 
South  Africa.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  lead,  zinc  and  silver 
mines,  and  some  20  m.  S.  are  the  Malmani  goldfields.  Tlie 
Marico  Valley  was  occupied  eariy  in  the  xgth  century  by  Mata- 
bele,  who  had  come  from  Zululand.  They  were  driven  out  by 
Boer  trekkers  in  1837.  To  Boer  cultiviuion  the  valley  of  tlw 
Marico  river  owes  its  fertih'ty.  Wheat  and  oats  are  largdy 
cultivated  and  almost  all  sub-tropical  fruits  flourish.  Follow- 
ing the  relief  of  Mi^cking,  X7th  of  May  1900,  Zcerust  was 
occupied  by  the  British  under  General  R.  S.  S.  Baden-PowelL 
Railway  cotmexion  with  Pretoria  was  established  in  1907. 

ZEI88BERO,  HEIIIRICM,  Ritter  von  (1839*1899),  Austrian 
historian,  was  bom  in  Vieima  on  the  8th  of  July  1839,  and  in 
1865  became  professor  of  history  at  the  university  of  Lemberg. 
In  1871  he  removed  to  Innsbrack;  in  1873  he  was  appointed 
professor  at  the  university  oi  Vienna,  and  here  he  was  historical 
tutor  to  the  crown  prince  Rudolph.  In  1891  he  waii  made 
director  of  the  Vienna  institute  for  historical  research,  and  in 
1896  director  of  the  Imperial  court  library  at  Vieima.  He 
resigned  his  professorial  chair  in  1897  and  died  on  the  27tb 
of  May  1899. 

Zcisi^rg's  writings  deal  mainly  with  the  historv  of  Austria  and 
of  PoUnd,  and  among  them  the  following  may  be  mentk>ned>* 
Die  potHtsche  Ceschichtssckretbung  des  MitteiaUers  (Leipci|;,  1873) ; 
Arno,  ersUr  ErtbiKhof  wm  Salumrn  (Vienna,  1863);  Die  Knegt 
Kaiser  Heinrichs  II.  mil  Herzog  Boleslaw  I.  von  Foitn  (Vienna, 
1868);  Rudolf  von  Habshurg  und  dtr  dsterreickische  SkuUsgedankt 
(Vienna,  i88a);  Ober  das  Rechisverfahren  Rudolfs  vom  ifabsburg 
ffigen  OUokar  von  B6hmen  (Vienna,  1887);  and  Der  dsUrreichisckt 
Erbfolgestreit  nach  dan  Tode  aes  Kdnigs  Ladislaus  Posthumus,  1457-58 

i Vienna,  187^).  Dealing  with  more  recent  times  he  wrote: — Zw 
eutschen  KatserpoliHk  OesUrreicks:  ein  Beilrag  Mur  Cosdlkklt  dm 
Retvlutionsjakres  1705  (Vienna,  1899);  Zwei  J<Uir$  b^iscker 
CesckickU  t70t-g2  (Vienna,  1891);  Bmsien  unter  der  CeneralslaU' 
kaUerschafl  Enkerwg  Karls  '793-94  (Vienna,  1893-94);  Bnkenog 
Karl  von  Oeslerreick.  Ltbensbitalyxcnxin,  1895);  and  Franz  Josef  L 
(Vienna,  1888).  He  edited  three  volames  of  the  Quelien  tur 
Cesckickte  der  Deuticken  Kaiserpolitik  Oesterreicks  wakrend  der 
franabsiseken  Reeolutionskriege  i^QO-lSox  (Vienna,  1882- 1885, 
1890). 

ZErrUN(«i"  olive  ")>  the  name  of  several  places  in  Turkey 
and  Eg3rpt,  but  principally  an  Armenian  town  in  the  Aleppo 
vilayet,  altitude  about  4000  ft.,  situated  in  the  heart  of  Mt. 
Taurus,  about  20  m.  N.N.W.  of  Marash.  The  inhabitantai 
about  10,000,  all  Christians,  are  of  a  singularly  fine  physical 
type,  though  too  much  tnbied,  and  are  interesting  from  their 
character  and  historical  position  as  a  remnant  of  the  kingdom 
of  Lesser  Armenia.  The  importance  of  Zeitun  dates  from  the 
capture  of  Leo  VI.  by  the  Egyptians  in  X375,  and  it  probably 
became  then  a  refuge  for  the  more  active  and  irreconcilable 
Armenians;  but  nothing  certain  is  known  of  the  place  till 
300  years  later*    It  loiig  maintained  practical  indqM&doifie  as 


966 


ZEITZ— ZEMARCHUS 


«  nest  of  freebooters,  and  it  wts  only  in  1878  that  the  Turks, 
after  a  long  conflict,  were  enabled  to  staticm  troops  in  a.  fort 
above  the  town.  In  189a  there  was  a  serious  revolt,  from  the 
worst  consequences  of  which  the  town  was  saved  by  the  inter- 
cession of  the  British  consul  at  Aleppo  warned  in  time  by  the 
devoted  energy  of  T.  Christie,  American  missionary  at  Marash; 
and  in  1895,  after  the  Arnieoian  massacres  had  commenced 
elsewhere,  the  people  again  rose,  seized  the  fort,  and,  after 
holding  out  for  more  than  three  months  against  a  large  Turkish 
force,  secured  honourable  terms  of  peace  on  the  mediation  of 
the  consuls  of  the  Powers  at  Aleppo.  The  inhabitants  seem  to 
be  abandoning  their  robber  customs  and  devoting  themsdves 
to  oil  and  silk  culture.  In  consequence  transit  trade  through 
the  passes  of  eastern  Taurus  (see  Marash),  long  almost  anni> 
hikited  by  fear  of  the  Zeitunli  marauders,  revrvod  considerably. 
The  governor  must  be  a  Christian,  and  certain  other  privileges 
arc  secured  to  the  Zeitunlis  during  their  good  behaviour. 

(D.G.H.) 

ZEITZ*  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  extreme  south  of  the 
Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  pleasantly  situated  on  a  hill  00 
the  Weisse  (White)  Elster,  28  m.  by  rail  S.S.W.  of  Leipzig  on 
the  line  to  Gera,  and  with  branches  to  Altenburg  and  Wcissen- 
fcls.  Pop..  (i88s)  19,797;  (1900)  27,391.  The  river  is  here 
crossed  by  two  iron  bridges,  and  one  stone  and  one  timber 
bridge,  and  the  upper  and  lower  towns  are  connected  by  a 
funicular  railway.  The  Gothic  abbey  church  dates  from  the 
15th  century,  but  its  Romanesque  ciypt  from  the  12th.  The 
old  Franciscan  monastery,  now  occupied  by  a  seminary,  con- 
tains a  library  of  20,000  volumes.  Just  outside  the  town  rises 
the  Moritzburg,  built  in  1564  by  the  dukes  of  Saxe-Zcitz,  on 
the  site  of  the  bishop's  palace;  it  is  now  a  reformatory  and 
poorhouse.  2^tz  has  manufactures  of  cloth,  cottons  and  other, 
textiles,  machinery,  wax-cloth,  musical  instruments,  vinegar, 
cigars,  &c.;  and  wood-carving,  dyeing  and  calico-printing  are 
carried  on.  In  the  neighbourhood  there  are  considerable 
deposits  of  lignite,  and  mineral-oil  works. 

Zeitz  is  an  ancient  place  of  Slavonic  origin.    From  968  till 

1028  it  was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  afterwards  removed  to 

Naumburg,  15!  m.  to  the  N.W.,  and  styled  Naumburg-Zcitz. 

In  1 564 'the  last  Roman  Catholic  bishop  died,  and  his  dominions 

were  thenceforward  administered  by  princes  of  Saxony.    From 

1653  till  1 7 18  Zeitz  was  the  capital  of  the  dukes  of  Saxe-Zeitz 

or  Sachscn-Zeitz.    It  thereafter  remained  in  the  possession  of 

the  electors  of  Saxony  until  181 5,  when  it  passed  to  Prussia. 

See  Roche,  Aus  der  CtscfuckU  der  Siadl  Zeitz  (Zeitz,  .1876);  and 
Langc,  Chromk  des  Bistkums  Naumburg  (Naumburg,  1891). 

ZELLBR,  EDUARD  (1814-1908),  (German  philosopher,  was 
born  at  Kleinbottwar  in  Wiirttcmbcrg  on  the  22nd  of  Jianuary 
18 14,  and  educated  at  the  university  of  Ttibingcn  and  under 
the  influence  of  Hegel.  In  1840  he  was  Privatdotent  of 
theology  at  Tttbingcn,  in  1847  professor  of  theology  at  Bern, 
in  1849  professor  of  theology  at  Marburg,  migrating  soon  after- 
wards to  the  faculty  of  philosophy  as  the  result  of  disputes 
with  the  Clerical  party.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at. Heidelberg  in  1862,  removed  to  Berlin  in  1872,  and  retired 
in  1895.  His  great  work  is  his  PkUosopkit  der  Criechen  (1844- 
52).  This  book  he  continued  to  amplify  and  improve  in  the 
light  of  further  research;  the  last  edition  appeared  in  1902. 
It  has  been  translated  into  most  of  the  European  languages 
and  became  the  recognized  text-book  of  Greek  philosophy.  He 
wrote  also  on  theology,  and  published  throe  volumes  of  philo- 
sophical essays^  He  was  also  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Theohfiscke  JahrhiUher^  a  periodical  which  acquired  great  im- 
portance as  the  exponent  of  the  historical  method  of  David 
Strauss  and  Christian  Baur.  Like  most  of  hh  contemporaritt 
he  began  with  Hegclianism,  but  subsequently  he  developed  a 
syvtem  on  his  own  lines.  He  saw  the  necessity  of  going  back 
to  Kant  in  the  sense  of  demanding  a  critical  reconsideration  of 
the  cpistemological  problems  which  Kant  had  made  but  a 
partially  successful  attempt  to  solve.  None  the  less  his  merits 
OS  an  original  thinker  are  far  outshone  by  his  splendid  services 
t4»  the  history  of  philosophy.    It  is  true  that  his  view  of  Greek 


thought  is  somewhat  waiped  by  HegeUaa  formalism.  He  is 
not  alive  enough  to  the  very  intimate  relation  which  thought 
holds  to  national  Ufe  and  to  the  idiosyncrasy  of  the  ^htf^Vfr 
He  lays  too  much  stress  upon  the  "ooocept,"  and  ez|daini 
too  much  by  the  Hegdian  antithesis  of  subjective  and  objective. 
Nevertheless  his  history  of  Greek  philosophy  remains  a  noble 
monument  of  solid  learning  informed  wUk  natural  sagacity. 
He  recdved  the  hif^iest  recognition,  not  only  from  phfloeophos 
and  learned  societies  aU  over  the  world,  but  also  from  the 
emperor  and  the  German  people.  In  1894  the  Emperor  Wil> 
Ham  II.  made  him  a  "  Wirklicher  Geheimrat  '*  with  the  title  of 
"  Excellenz,"  and  his  bust,  with  that  of  Hdmholtz,  was  set 
up  at  the  Brandenburg  Gate  near  the  statues  ereaed  to  the 
Emperor  and  Empress  Frederick.  He  died  on  the  lOlfa  of 
March  1908. 

The  PhHesophie  der  Grieehen  hat  been  translated  into  English 
by  S.  F.  Aileync  (2  vols..  1881)  in  sections:  S.  F.  AUeyne,  Hist, 
of  Ck.  Phii.  to  the  time  of  Socrates  (1881):  O.  J.  Rcichcf.  Socrates 
and  the  Socratic  Schools  (1868;  2nd  cd.  1877);  S.  F.  Allcync  and 
A.  Goodwin,  Plato  and  the  Older  Academy  (1876);  Costefloe  and 
Muirhcad,  Aristotle  and  the  Earlier  Peripatetics  (1897) :  O.J.  Reichcl. 
Stous.  Epicureans  and  Sceptics  (1670  and  1880):  S.  ¥.  Alleyne, 
Hist,  of  Eclecticism  in  Ck.  Phii.  (1883).  The  Philosophie  appeared 
in  an  abbreviated  form  as  Crundriss  d.  Cesch.  d.  uriech.  Pkilos. 
(1883;  5ih  cd.  1898);  Eng.  trans,  by  Allcync  and  Evelyn  Abbott 
(1866).  under  the  title.  Outlines  of  the  Hist,  of  Ck.  Pkilos.  Among 
his  other  works  ATii>-^Platonische  Studien  (1839};  Die  Apostd- 
geschichte  kriL  untersucht  (1854;  Enej>^ trans.  J.  Dare,  1875-76); 
Entwickelung  d.  Monotheismus  bei  a.  Criech.  (1862);  Gesck.  d. 
chrisUich.  Kirche  (1898);  Cesch.  d.  deutsch.  Pkilos.  sett  Leilmig 
(1873.  cd.  1875):  Staat  und  Kirche  (1873):  Strauss  in  seinenLeben 
und  Schriften  (1874;  Eng.  trans.  1874):  Ober  Bedeutumg  und 
Aufgabe  d.  Erkenntniss-Theorie  (1862);  Ober  teleolog.  und  meckan. 
Naturerklarung  (1876);  Vorlrage  und  Ahhandlungen  (1865-84): 
Religion  und  Philosophie  bei  den  Rdmem  (1866,  ed.  1871) ;  PkitosopL 
Aufsdtte  (1887). 

ZEMARCHUS  (fl.  568),  Byzantine  general  and  traveller.  The 
Turks,  by  their  conquest  of  Sogdiana  in  the  middle  of  the  6th 
century,  gained  control  of  the  silk  trade  which  then  passed 
through  Central  Asia  into  Persia.  But  the  Persian  king, 
Chosroes  Nushirvan,  dreading  the  intrusion  of  Turkish  influ- 
ence, refused  to  allow  the  old  commerce  to  continue,  and  the 
Turks  after  many  rebuffs  a)nscnted  to  a  suggestion  made  by 
their  mercantile  subjects  of  the  Soghd,  and  in  5(>8  sent  an 
embassy  to  Constantinople  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  Byzan- 
tines and  "  transfer  the  sale  of  silk  to  them."  The  offer  was 
accepted  by  Justin  II.,  and  in  August  568,  Zcmarchus  the 
Cilidan,  "  General  of  the  cities  of  the  East,"  left  Byzantium 
for  Sogdiana.  The  embas^  was  under  the  guidance  of  Maniakh, 
"  chief  of  the  people  of  Sogdiana,"  who  had  first,  according  to 
Mcnander  Protector,  suggested  to  Dizabul  (Dizaboulos,  the  Bu 
Min  kk^n  of  the  Turks,  the  Mokan  of  the  Chinese),  the  great 
khan  of  the  Turks,  this  "  Roman  "  alliance,  and  had  himself 
come  to  Byzantium  to  negotiate  the  same.  On  reaching  the 
Sogdian  territories  the  travellers  were  offered  iron  for  sale,  and 
solemnly  exorcised;  Zcmarchus  was  made  to  "pass  through 
the  lire  "  {ue.  between  two  fires),  and  strange  ceremonies  were 
performed  over  the  baggage  of  the  expedition,  a  bcU  being 
rung  .and  a  drum  beaten  over  it,  while  flaming  incense-leaves 
were  carried  round  it,  and  incantations  muttered  in  "  Scythian.*' 
After  these  precautions  the  envoys  proceeded  to^the  camp  of 
Dizabul  (or  rather  of  Dizabul's  successor,  Bu  Min  khan  having 
just  died)  "  in  a  hollow  encompassed  by  the  Golden  Mountain," 
apparently  in  so^ie  locality  of  the  Altai.  The^  found  the  khan 
surrounded  by  asfbnishing  barbaric  pomp — ^gilded  thrones,  golden 
peacocks,  gold  and  silver  plate  and  silver  animals,  hangings 
and  clothing  of  figured  silk.  They  accompanied  him  some  way 
on  his  march  against  Persia,  passing  through  Talas  or  Turkestan 
in  the  Syr  Daria  valley,  where  Hsiian  Tsang,  on  his  way  from 
China  to  India  sixty  yeara  later,  met  with  another  of  Dizabul's 
successors.  2^marchus  was  present  at  a  banquet  in  Talas 
where  the  Turkish  kagan  and  the  Persian  envoy  exchanged 
abuse;  but  the  Byzantine  docs  not  seem  to  have  witnessed 
actual  fighting.  Near  the  river  Oekh  (Syr  Daria?)  he  was  sent 
back  to  Constantinople  with  a  Turkish  embassy  and  with 


ZENAGA— ZEND-AVESTA 


967 


Mvoys  from  various  tribes  subject  to  the  Turks.  Halting  by 
the  "  vast,  wide  lagoon  "  (of  the  Aral  Sea?),  Zcmarchus  sent  off 
an  express  messenger,  one  George,  to  announce  his  return  to 
the  emperor.  George  hurried  on  by  the  shortest  route, "  desert 
and  waterless/'  apparently  the  steppes  north  of  the  Black,  Sea: 
while  his  superior,  moving  more  dowly,  marched  twelve  days 
by  the  sandy  shores  of  "  the  lagqon  " ;  crossed  the  Emba, 
Ural,  Volga,  Md  Kuban  (where  4000  Persians  vainly  lay  in 
ambush  to  stop  him);  and  passing  round  the  western  end  of 
the  Caucasus,  arrived  safely  at  Trebliond  and  Constantinople. 
For  several  years  this  Turkish  alliance  subsisted,  while  close 
intercourse  was  maintained  between  Central  Asia  and  Byzan* 
tmm;  when  another  Roman  envoy,  Ohe  Valentines  (O&aXsrTuoc), 
goes  on  his  embassy  in  575  he  takes  back  with  him  106  Turks 
who  had  been  vi^ting  Bysantine  lands;  but  from  579  this 
friendship  rapidly  began  to  cool.  It  is  curious  that  all  this 
travel  between  the  Bosporus  and  Tkansoxiana  leems  not  to 
have  done  an3rthing  to  correct,  at  least  in  literature,  the  wide^ 
spread  misapprehension  of  the  Caspian  as  a  gulf  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean. 

See  Menandcr  Protector,  IIcpI  TS^tafitur  'Vu^aLm  Tpit  "EBni 
iDa  LegaUonihus  Romanormtn  id  GnUes)^  pp.  295-302,  380-85* 
^97-^,  Bonn  edition  (xix  ),  1828  (*PP*  806-11,  883-87,  89^-007, 
in  Mienc,  J'alroiog.  Grau.,  vol.  cxiii.,  Paris,  1864);  H.  VuIc;Oz/Aa>, 
clx.-cntvi.  (London,  Hakluyt  Society,  1866);  L.  Cahun,  IrUroduC' 
Hon  d  VkistoiredeCAsie,  pp.  ioB-18  (Paris,  1896):  C.  R.  Beazley, 
Dawn  ^  Modam  Geography^  i  186-89  (London.  1897).    (C.  R.  B.) 

ZENAoA  (SanhAjA,  Sekajer),  a  Berber  tribe  of  southern 
Morocco  who  gave  their  name  to  Senegal,  once  their  tribal 
home.  They  formed  one  of  the  tribes  which,  uniting  under  the 
leadership  of  Yusef  bin  Tashfin,  crossed  the  Sahara  and  gave  a 
dynasty  to  Morocco  and  Spain,  namely,  that  of  the  Almoravides 
(q.v.).  The  2^'rid  dynasty  which  supphmted  the  Fatimites 
in  the  Maghrib  and  founded  the  city  of  Algiers  was  also  of 
2^n&ga  origin.  The  Zen&ga  dialect  of  Berber  is  spoken  in 
southern  Morocco  and  on  the  banks  of  the  lower  Senegal, 
largely  by  the  negro  population. 

ZENANA  (Persian  tnnana)^  the  apartments  of  an  Eastern 
house  in  which  the  women  of  the  family  are  secluded  (see 
Harem).  This  is  a  Mahommedan  custom,  which  has  been 
introduced  into  India  and  has  spread  amongst  the  Hindus. 
The  zenana  missions  are  missions  to  Indian  women  in  their 
own  homes. 

ZBNATA,  or  ZanKtA,  a  Berber  tribe  of  Morocco  in  the  dis- 
trict of  the  central  Atlas.  Their  tribal  home  seems  to  have  been 
south  of  Oran  in  Algeria,  and  they  seem  to  have  early  claimed 
an  Arab  origin,  though  it  was  alleged  by  the  Arabs  that  they 
were  descendants  of  Goliath,  t.^.  Philistines  or  Phoenicians 
(Ibn  Khaldun,  vol.  iii.  p.  184  and  vol.  iv.  p.  597).  They  were 
formerly  a  large  and  powerful  confederation,  and  took  a  pro- 
minent part  in  the  history  of  the  Berber  race.  The  Beni- 
Marin  and  Wattasi  dynasties  which  reigned  in  Morocco  from 
12 1^  to  1548  were  of  Zenata  origin. 

ZEND-AVESTA,  the  original  document  of  the  religion  of 
Zoroaster  (g.v.),  still  used  by  the  Parsces  as  their  bible  and 
prayer-book.  The  name  "  Zend-Avesta  "  has  been  current  in 
Europe  since  the  time  of  Anquetil  Duperron  (e.  1771),  but  the 
Parsces  themselves  call  it  simply  Avesta,  Zend  (t.e.  "inter- 
pretation") being  specially  employed  to  denote  the  transla- 
tion and  exposition  of  a  great  part  of  the  Avesta  which  exists 
in  Pahlavi.  Text  and  translation  are  often  spoken  of  together 
in  Pahlavi  books  as  Atistdk  ta  Zand  ("  Avesta  and  Zend  "), 
whence — through  a  misunderstanding— our  word  2^nd-Avcsta. 
The  origin  and  meaning  of  the  word  "  Avesta  "  (or  in  its  older 
form,  Avistdk)  are  alike  obscure;  it  cannot  be  traced  further 
back  than  the  Sasanfan  period.  The  language  of  the  Avesta  is 
still  frequently  called  Zend;  but,  as  already  implied,  this  is 
a  mistake.  We  possess  no  other  document  written  in  it,  and 
on  this  account  modem  Parsce  scholars,  as  well  as  the  older 
Pahlavi  books,  speak  of  the  language  and  writing  Indifferently 
as  Avesta.  As  the  original  home  of'the  language  can  only  be 
very  doubtfully  conjectured,  wc  shall  do  well  to  follow  the 
usage  sanctioned  by  old  custom  and  apply  the  word  to  both. 


Although  the  Avesta  is  a  work  of  but  moderate  compass 
(comparable,  say,  to  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  taken  together), 
there  nevertheless  exists  no  single  MS.  which  gives  it  in  entirety. 
This  circumstance  alone  is  enough  to  reveal  the  true  nature  of 
the  book:  it  is  a  composite  whole,  a  collection  of  writings,  as 
the  Old  Testament  is.  It  consists,  as  we  shall  afterwards  sec, 
of  the  last  remains  of  the  extensive  sacred  literature  in  which 
the  Zoroastrian  faith  was  formerly  set  forth. 

Contents. — As  we  now  have  it,  the  Avesta  consists  of  five 
parts— the  Yasna,  the  Vi^^red,  the  Vcndidad,  the  Yashts, 
and  the  Khordah  Avesta. 

1.  The  YasnOj  the  principal  liturgical  book  of  the  Paraees,  is 
72  chapters  (Adtiti,  M),  contains  the  texts  that  are  read  by  thv 
priests  at  the  solemn  yasna  (Ueshne)  ceremony,  or  the  general 
sacrifice  in  honour  of  ail  the  deities.  The  arrangement  of  the 
chapters  is  purely  liturgical,  aUhou|;h  their  matter  in  part  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  nturgical  action.  The  kernel  of  the  whole 
book,  around  which  the  remaining  portions  arc  grouped,  consi«t« 
of  the  Githfis  or  "  hymns  "  of  Zoroaater  (g.r),  the  oldest  and  moot 
sacred  portion  of  the  entire  canon.  The  Yasna  accordingly  falto 
into  three  sections  of  about  equal  length: — id)  The  introduction 
(chaps.  1-37)  is,  for  the  most  part,  made  up^  01  long-wlnded,  mono- 
tonous. reiteratM  invocations.  Yet  even  this  section  includes  some 
interesting  texts,  «.f.  the  Haama  (Horn)  Yaafat  (9,  11  >  and  the 
ancient  confession  of  faith  (12),  which  is  of  value  as  a  document 
for  the  history  of  civilization.  (6)  The  Gathos  (chaps.  28-54) 
contain  the  discourses,  exhortations  and  revelations  of  the  prophet, 
written  in  a  metrical  style  and  an  archaic  language,  different  in 
many  respects  from  that  ordinary  used  in  the  Avesta.  As  to  the 
authenticity  of  these  hymns,  see  ^OROastbr.  The  G&thls  proper, 
arranged  according  to  the  metres  in  which  they  are  written,  fall 
into  five  subdivisions  (28-34,  43-46.  47-50,  m,  53).  Between 
chap.  37  and  chap.  43  is  inserted  the  so-called  Seven-Chapter 
Yasna  {kaplangMitt)^  a  number  of  small  prose  pieces  not  far  behind 
the  GUthas  in  antiquity,  (f)  The  wxalled  Later  Yasna  {AponO 
Yasnd)  (chaps.  54-72)  has  contents  of  considerable  variety,  but 

tunsists  mainly  of  invocations.  Special  mention  ought  to  be  made 
of  the  Sraosha  (SrSsh)  Yasht  (57),  the  praver  to  fire  (62),  and  the 
great  liturey  for.thc  sacrifice  to  divinitses  ot  the  water  (63-60). 

2.  The  Vispered,  a  minor  liturgical  work  in  2a  chapters  (kardt), 
is  alike  in  form  and  substance  completely  dependent  on  the  Yasna, 
to  which  it  is  a  liturgical  appendix.  Its  separate  chapters  are 
interpolated  in  the  Yasna  In  order  to  prod  ace  a  modified— or 
expanded — Yasna  ceremony.  The  name  vispered,  meaning  "  all 
the  chiefs  "  (vuM  foUuf),  has  reference  to  the  spiritual  heads  of 
the  religion  of  Ormuad,  invocations  to  whom  form  the  contents 
of  the  first  chapter  of  the  book. 

3.  The  Vendidad,  the  priestiv  code  of  the  Parsees,  contains  hj 
22  chapters  (Jargard)  a  kind  o?  dualistic  account  of  the  creation 
(chap.  1).  the  legend  of  Yima  and  the  golden  age  (chap.  2^,  and  in 
the  bulk  of  the  remaining  chapters  the  precepts  of  religion  with 
regard  to  the  cultivation  of  the  earth,  the  care  of  useful  animals, 
the  protection  of  the  sacred  elements,  such  as  earth,  fire  and  water, 
the  Keeping  of  a  man's  body  from  defilement,  together  with  the 
requisite  measures  of  precaution,  elaborate  ceremonies  of  purifica- 
tion, atonements,  ecclesiastical  expiations  and  so  forth.  These 
prescriptions  are  marked  by  a  conscientious  classification  based  on 
considerations  of  material,  size  and  number;  but  they  lose  them- 
selves in  an  exaegcratcd  casuistry.  Still  the  whole  ot  Zoroastrian 
legislation  is  subordinate  to  one  great  point  of  view:  the  war- 
preached  without  intermission — against  Satan  and  his  noxious 
creatures,  from  which  the  whole  book  derives  its  name;  for  "  Ven- 
didad  "  is  a  modem  corruption  for  H-daivd-d&tem — '*  the  anti- 
demonic  Law."  Faigard  18  treats  of  the  troe  and  false  priest,  of 
the  value  of  the  house-cock,  of  the  four  paramourv  of  the  she-devil, 
and  of  unlawful  lust.  Fargard  19  is  a  fragment  of  the  Zoroaster 
legend:  Ahriman  tempts  Zoroaster;  Zoroaster  applies  to  Ormuzd 
for  the  revelation  of  the  law,  Ahriman  and  the  devils  despair,  and 
flee  down  into  hell.  The  three  concluding  chapters  are  devoted  to 
sacerdotal  medicine. 

The  Yasna,  Vispered  and  Vcndidad  together  constitute  the 
Avesta  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the  word,  and  the  reading  of  them 
appertains  to  the  priest  alone.  For  liturgical  purposes  the  separate 
cnaptcrs  of  the  vcndidad  are  Bometimcs  inserted  among  those  of 
the  Yasna  and  Vispered.  The  reading  of  the  Vendidad  in  this 
CISC  may,  when  viewed  according  to  the  original  intention,  be 
taken  as  corresponding  in  some  sense  to  the  sermon,  while  that  of 
the  Yasna  and  Vispered  may  be  said  to  answer  to  the  hymns  and 
prayers  of  Christian  worship. 

4.  TJie  Yashts,  i.e.  "  songs  of  praise,"  hi  ao  far  as  they  have  not 
been  received  already  into  the  Yasna,  form  a  collection  by  them- 
selves. They  contain  invocations  of  separate  Izads,  or  an^ls, 
number  2t  in  all.  and  are  of  widely  divergent  extent  and  antiquity. 
The  great  Yashts — somo  nine  or  ten— are  impressed  with  a  higher 
stamp:  they  are  cast  almost  throughout  in  a  prictical  mould,  and 
r^mvnt  the  religious  poetry  of  the  ancient  Iranians.    So  far  diey 


9?o 


ZENGG— ZENO  OF  ^LEA 


ZBIfOtt(Hii]isuteii,  Zmgi  Ooatkn,  5«v;  Italuui,  Segma), 

*  Toytl  free  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  connty  of  Lika-Krbava, 
Croatia-Slavonla,  34  m.  S.E.  of  Fiume,  on  the  Adriatic  Sea. 
Pop.  (1900)  3182.  Zcngg  lies  at  the  entrance  to  a  long  deft 
among  the  Velebit  Mountains,  down  which  the  bora,  or  N.N.E. 
wind,  sweqM  with  such  violence  as  often  to  render  the  harbour 
unsafe,  although  the  Austrian  Lloyd  steamers  call  regularly. 
Apart  from  the  cathedral  of  its  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  a 
gymmasiumf  and  some  ancient  fortifications,  the  town  contains 
little  of  interest.  It  canries  on  a  small  trade  in  tobacco,  fish 
And  salt.  The  island  of  Veglia  faces  the  town  and  the  port 
of  San  Giorgio  lies  5  m.  S. 

The  captaincy  of  Zengg  was  established,  in  the  15th  century, 
by  King  Matthias  Corvinus  of  Hungary,  as  a  check  upon  the 
TVks;  and  subsequently,  until  1617,  the  town  became  famous 
as  the  stronghold  of  the  Uskoks. 

ZnnXH  (from  the  Arabic),  the  point  directly  overhead;  its 
divsction  is  defined  by  that  of  the  plumb-line. 

2BI|J1N,  or  2UNJAN,  a  town  of  Persia,  capital  of  the  Kbamseh 
province,  about  905  m.  N.W.  of  Teheran,  on  the  high  road  thence 
to  Tabiix»  at  an  elevation  of  5180  ft.  It  has  a  population  of 
about  25,000  and  post  and  telegraph  offices,  and  was  one.  of  the 
original  stroni^olds  of  the  BiM  sectarians,  who  held  it  igainst 

*  large  Persian  force  from  May  1850  to  the  end  of  the  year, 
when  most  of  them  were  massacred.  It  has  extensive  gardens, 
well  watered  1^  the  Zanjaoeh  river,  which  flows  south  of  it. 
The  well-stocked  bazaar  supplies  the  neighbouring  districts. 

ZBNO,  East  Roman  emperor  from  474  to  491,  was  an  Isaurian 
of  noble  birth,  and  originally  bore  the  name  of  Trascalissaeus, 
which  he  eachaoged  lor  that  of  Zeno  on  his  marriage  with 
Ariadne,  dau{|hter  of  Leo  I.,  in  468.  Of  his  early  life  nothing 
is  known;  after  his  marriage  (which  was  designed  by  Leo  to 
secure  the  l^urian  support  against  his  ambitious  minister 
Aspar)  he  became  patridan  and  commander  of  the  imperial 
guard  and  of  the  armies  in  the  East.  While  on  a  campaign  in 
Thrace  he  narrowly  escaped  assassination;  on  his  return  to 
the  capital  he  avenged  himself  by  compassing  the  murder  of 
Aspar,  who  had  Instigated  the  attempt.  In  474  Leo  L  died 
after  appointing  as  his  successor  Leo  the  aon  of  Zeno  and 
Ariadne;  Zeno,  however,  with  the  help  of  his  mother-in-law 
Verina,  succeeded  in  getting  himself -crowned  also,  and  on  the 
death  of  his  son  before  the  end  of  the  year  became  sole  emperor. 
In  the  following  year,  in  consequence  of  a  revolt  fomented  by 
Verina  in  favour  of  her  brother  Basiliscus,  and  the  antipathy 
to  his  Isaurian  soldiers  and  administrators,  he  was  compelled 
io  take  refuge  in  Isauria,  where,  after  sustaining  a  defeat,  he  was 
compdled  to  shut  himself  up  in  a  fortress.  The  growing  mis* 
government  and  unpopularity  of  Basiliscus  ultimately  enabled 
Zeno  to  re-enter  Constantinople  unopposed  (476);  his  rival 
was  banished  to  Phrygia,  where  he  soon  afterwards  died.  The 
remainder  of  Zeno's  reign  was  disturbed  by  numerous  other 
less  formidsbie  revolts.  Since  473  the  aggressions  of  the  two 
Ostrogoth  leaders  Theodoric  had  been  a  constant  source  of 
danger.  Though  Zeno  at  times  contrived  to  play  them  off 
against  each  other,  they  in  turn  were  able  to  profit  by  his 
dynastic  rivalries,  and  it  was  only  by  offering  them  pay  and 
high  command  that  he  kept  them  from  attacking  Constanti- 
nople^ itself  .  In  487  he  induced  Theodoric,  son  of  Theodemir, 
to  invade  Italy  and  establish  his  new  kingdom.  Zeno  is  de- 
scribed as  a  lax  and  indolent  ruler,  but  he  seems  to  have 
husbanded  the  resources  of  the  empire  so  as  to  leave  it  appreci- 
ably stronger  at  his  death.  In  ecclesiastical  history  the  name 
of  Zeno  is  assodated  with  the  Henoiicon  or  instrument  of  union, 
promulgated  by  him  aiKi  signed  by  all  the  Eastern  bishops, 
with  tha  desi^i  of  terminating  the  Monophysite  controversy. 

See  J.  B.  Bury,  Tie  laUr  RmoM  Empire  (London.  1889).  i. 

».  350-174;  E.  W.  Brooks  in  the  EnHisk  Historical  Refiem 
i^3>i  PP-  209^38;  W.  Barth,  Dtr  Kaiser  Zemo  (Basd,  1894}. 

ZBNO  OF  ILEA,  son  of  Tdeutagoras,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  bom  towards  the  beginiung  of  the  sth  century  b.c  The 
bupfl  and  the  friend  of  Parmenides,  he  sought  to  recommend 
Us  master's  doctrine  of  the  existence  of  the  One  by  contro- 


?s 


vcfting  the  populisr  bdief  in  thft  cxteawe  of  the  Many,    b 

virtue  of  this  method  of  indirect  argumentatioa  he  is  re^tfded 
as  the  inventor  <^  "  dialectic,"  that  is  to  say,  disputation  having 
for  its  end  not  victory  but  the  discovery  or  the  transmission  of 
truth.  He  is  said  to  have  been  concerned  in  a  plot  against  a 
tyrant,  and  on  its  detection  to  have  borne  with  exempiaiy 
constancy  the  tortures  to  which  he  was  subjected;  but  autho* 
rities  differ  both  as  to  the  name  and  the  residence  of  the  tyimitt 
and  as  to  the  drcumstanoes  and  the  issue  of  the  enterprise. 

In  Plato's  ParmcnitUs,  Socrates^  "  then  very  young,"  meets 
Parmenides,  "  an  old  man  some  sixty-five  years  of  age,"  and 
Zeno,  "  a  man  of  about  forty,  tall  and  personable,"  aiul  engagea 
them  in  philosophical  discussion.  But  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  such  a  meeting  was  chronologically  possible.  Plato's 
account  of  Zeno's  teaching  {Parmenides,  128  seq.)  is,  however, 
presumably  as  accurate  aa  it  is  precise.  In  reply  to  those  who 
thought  that  Parmenides's  theory  of  the  existence  of  the  One 
involved  inconsistencies  and  absurdities,  Zeno  tried  to  show 
that  the  asstunption  of  the  existrfnce  of  the  Many,  that  is  to 
say,  a  plurality  of  thin^i  in  time  and  space,  carried  with  it 
tnconsistencies  and  absurdities  grosser  and  more  numerous.  In 
early  youth  he  collected  his  arguments  in  a  book,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Plato,  was  put  into  circulation  without  his  knowledsa. 

(K  the  paradoxes  used  by  Zeno  to  discredit  the  belief  in  plnrafity 
and  motion,  eight  survive  in  the  writings  of  Ariscotle  and  Simplidiia. 
They  are  commonly  stated  as  follows.^  (1)  If  the  Exigent  is 
Many,  it  must  be  at  once  infinitdy  small  «nd  infinitdy  great-^ 
infimtdy  small,  because  the  parts  of  which  it  consists  must  be 
indivisible  and  therefore  without  magnitude;  infinitdy  greai; 
because,  that  any  part  having  roagnitirae  may  be  separate  froa 
any  other  put,  the  intervention  of  a  third  part  having  magnitude 
is  necessary,  and  that  this  third  part  may  be  acpamte  from  the 
other  two  the  intervention  of  other  parts  having  magnitude  is 
necessary,  and  so  on  sd  tJ^trwM.  hi)  In  like  manner  the  Many 
must  be  numerically  both  finite  ana  infinite~numericBlly  finite^ 
because  there  are  as  many  things  as  there  are,  neither  more  nor 
less;  numerically  infinite,  because,  that  any  two  things  may  be 
separate,  the  intervention  of  a  third  thing  is  necessary,  aiKl  so  on 
oe  tmfiMUuwL  (3)  If  all  that  is  is  in  space,  ^Mce  itsdf  must  be  in 
space,  and  so  on  nd  infimtum,  (4)  If  a  bushd  of  oom  turosd  out 
upon  the  floor  makes  a  noise,  eskch  grain  and  each  part  of  each 
erain  must  make  a  noise  Ulrewtse;  out,  in  fact,  i^  is  rtot  so. 
(5)  Bdore  a  body  in  motion  can  reach  a  dven  point,  it  most  first 
traverse  the  halt  of  the  distance;  before  it  can  travem  the  half 
of  the  distance,  it  must  first  traverse  the  quarter^  and  so  on  ad 
infinitunt.  Hence,  that  a  body  may  pass  from  one  point  to  another, 
it  must  traverse  an  infinite  number  of  divisions.  But  an  infinite 
distance  (which  Zeno  fails  to  distinguish  from  a  finite  distance 
infinitely  divided)  cannot  be  traversed  in  a  finite  time.  Cons^ 
ouently,  the  goal  can  never  be  reached.  (6)  If  the  tenoiae  has 
the  start  of  Achilles,  Achilles  can  ne«rer  come  up  with  the  tortoise; 
for,  while  Achilles  traverses  the  distance  from  his  starting-point 
to  the  starting-point  of  the  tortoise,  the  tortoise  advances  a  certain 
dbtance,  and  while  Achilles  traverses  thu  distance,  the  tortoise 
makes  a  further  advance,  and  so  on  od  infimUwrn.  Consequently, 
Achilles  may  run  ad  iKfinUum  without  overtaking  the  tortoise. 
pThis  paradox  is  virtually  identical  with  ^5),  the  only  difference 
being  that,  whereas  in  (5)  there  is  one  body,  in  (6)  there  are  two 
bodies,  moving  towards  a  limit.  The  **  infinity  '*  of  the  pcemtse 
is  an  infinity  of  subdivisions  of  a  distance  which  is  fimte;  the 
"  infinity  "  oif  the  condusion  is  an  infinity  of  distance.  Thus  Zeno 
again  confounds  a  finite  distance  infinitely  divided  with  an  infinite 
distance.  If  the  tortoise  has  a  start  of  1000  ft.  Achilles,  on  the 
suppodtion  that  his  speed  is  ten  times  that  of  the  tortoise,  must 
traverse  an  infinite  number  of  spaces — 1000  ft.,  lOO  ft.,  10  ft.,  &c. — 
and  the  tortoise  must  traverse  an  infinite  number  of  spaces — 100  ft.. 
10  ft..  I  ft.,  &c— 4)efore  they  reach  the  point,  distant  from  thetr 
starting-points  riirj  ft  and  iri|  ft.  respKrivety,  at  which  the  tor> 
toise  is  overtaken.  In  a  word,  looo+ioo-hio  Ac,  in  (6)  and  i +i  -f-| 
&c,  in  (5)  are  convergent  series,  and  link  Md  i  are  the  limits 
to  which  they  respectivdy  approximate.]  (7^  So  long  as  anything 
is  in  one  and  the  same  nace,  it  u  at  rest.  Hence  an  arrow  is  at 
rest  at  every  moment  of  its  flight,  and  therdore  also  during  the 
whole  of  its  flight.  fB)  Two  bodies  moving  with  equal  speed 
traverse  equal  spaces  m  equal  time.  But,  w&n  two  bodies  move 
with  equal  speed  In  opposite  directions,  the  one  passes  the  other 
in  half  the  time  in  which  !t  passes  it  when  at  rest  These  pro- 
pomtbns  appeared  to  Zeno  to  be  irreoondbblc.  In  short,  the 
ordinary  belwf  in  plurality  and  motion  seemed  to  him  to  involve 
faul  inconsutendes.  whence  he  inferred  that  Parmenides  was 
justified  in  distinguishing  the  mutable  movable  Many  from  the 

>  See  Zeller.  Di»  PkOosophie  d.  Criecken,  L  59t  mQ-  ;  Crwidriss,  54- 


ZENO  OF  ELBA 


97* 


inmutable  ftnineviibte  One.  which  alone  it  nally  existent.  In 
other  yiord%  Zeno  rendfifiMa  the  dogma, "  The  Eat  ia,  the  Non-ent 
ianoL" 

If  traditioa  has  not  misrepresented  these  paradoxes  of  time,  space 
and  motion,  there  Is  in  Zeao's  reasoning  an  element  of  faUacy.  It 
ia  indeed  difficult  to  undeiatand  bow  to  acute  a  thinker  should 
ODiifoujid  that  which  ia  infinitely  divisible  with  that  which  is  infinitely 
Oreat,  as  in  (l),  (a),  (5)1  and  (6);  that  he  should  identify  space 
and  magnitude,  as  in  (3}:  that  he  should  neglect  the  imperfection 
of  thi  organs  of  sense,  as  in  (4):  that  he  should  deny  the  reality 
of  motion,  as  in  (7) ;  and  that  he  should  waore  the  relativity  of 
apeed,  as  in  (8):-  and  of  late  yean  it  has  been  thought  that  the 
conventional  statements  of  tne  paradoxes, ,  and  in  particular  of 
those  which  are  more  definitely  mathematical^  namely  (5),  (6), 
(7}.  (8),  do  less  than  juitlce  to  Zeno's  acumen.  Thus,  several 
French  ^writers — notably.  Tannery  and  NoCi— Tegard  them  as 
dilemipas  advanced,  with  some  measure  of  success,  ia  refuta- 
tion of.  specific  doctrines  attributed  to  the  Pythagoreans.  "  0^ 
of  the  most  notable  victims  of  posterity's  lack  of  judgment," 
aays  Bertrand  Russdl,  "  i^  the  Eleatic  Zena  Havti^  invented 
four  aisaments  all  immeasurably  subtle  and  profound,  the  gross- 
nesa  oT  subscauent  philoeophers  pronounced  him  to  be  a  mere 
insenious  juggler,- and  his  arguments  to  be  one  and  all  sophisms. 
Axttr  two  thousand  years  oTeontinual  refutation,  these  sophisms 
were  reinstated,  and  made  the  foundation  of  a  mathematical  renais- 
aanoe,  by  a  German  professor,  who  probably  never  dreamed  of  any 
connexion  between  himself  and  Zeno.  Wderstraas,  by  strictly 
banishtn|^  all  lafinttenmals,  has  at  last  shown  that  we  live  in  an 
unchanging  world,  and  that  the  turow  at  eveiv  moment  of  its 
flight  is  truly  at  rest."  *'  The  interpretation  01  Zeno's  last  four 
piuadoxes  riven  by  Messrs.  NoS  and  Russell,"  says  G.  H.  Hardy, 
'*  may  be  oriefly  stated  as  follows;  The  notion  of  time,  which 
seems  at  first  sight  to  enter  into  (5)  and  (6),  should  be  eliminated. 
The  former  should  be  regarded  as  asserting  that  the  whole  is.  not 
tefflpcHtally,  but  jogically,  subsequent  to  the.  part,  and  that  there- 
fore there  is  an  infinite  regress  in  the  notion  of  a  whole  which  is 
infinitely  divisiUe—a  view  which  at  any  laf^  demands  a  serious 
refutation.  The  kernel  of  the  latter  Ue6  in  the  perfectly  valid 
pnoof  which  it  aflTords  that  the  tortoise  passes  through  as  many 
positions  as  Achillca—a  view  which  embodies  an  accepted  doctrine 
of  modern  mathematics.  The  paradox  of  the  arrow  (j),  says 
Mr  Russell,  is  a  plain  statement  of  a  very  elementary  fact:  the 
arrow  is  at  rest  at  very  moment  of  its  flight:  2^no's  only  mistake 
was  in  inferring  (if  he  dkl  infer)  that  it  was  therefore  at  the  same 
point  at  one  moment  as  at  another.  Finally,  the  Uut  paradox- 
may  be  interpreted  as  a  valid  refutation  of  the  doctrine  that  space 
and  time  are  not  infinitel)r  divisible.  How  far  this  interpretation 
of  Zeno  IS  historically  justifiable,  may  be  doubtful.  But  one  may 
well  believe  that  there  was  in  his  mind  at  any  rate  a  foreshadowing 
of  some  of  the  ideas  by  which  modem  mathematicians  have  finally 
laid  to  rest  the  tradiuonal  difficulties  connected  with  infinity  and 
continuity." 

GrQS(t  as  was  the  importance  of  these' paiadoxes  of  |>bin]ity 
and  motioii  in  stimulating  tpeculatim  about  space  and  time, 
their  direct  influence  upon  Greek  thought  was  leas  considerable 
than  that  of  another  paradox — strangely  neglected  by  historians 
of  philosophy — the  paradox  of  predicati(»i.  We  learn  from' 
Plato  {Parmemdes,  127  D)  that  "  the  first  hypothesis  of  the  first 
argument "  of  Zeno's  book  above  mentioned  ran  as  follows: 
"  If  existences  are  many,  they  must  be  both  like  and  unlike 
[unlike,  inasmuch  as  they  are  not  one  and  the  same,  and  like, 
inasmuch  as  they  agree  in  not  being  one  and  the  same,  Proclus, 
On  the  ParmetudeSi  ii.  i43l-  But  this  is  impossible;  for  unlike 
things  cannot  be  like,  nor  like  things  unlike.  Therefore  exist- 
ences are  not  many."  That  is  to  say,  not  perceiving  that 
the  same  thing  may  be  at  once  like  and  unlike  in  different 
relations^  Zeno  regarded  the  attributi<ni  to  the  same  thing  of 
likeness  and  unlikeness  as  a  violation  of  what  was  afterwards 
known  as  the  principle  of  contradiction;  and,  finding  that 
plurality  entailed  these  attributions,  he  inferred  its  unreality. 
Now,  when  without  qualificatjon  he  affinned  that  -the  unlike 
thing  cannot  be  like,  nor  the  like  thing  unlike,  he  was  on  the 
high  road  to  the  doctrine  maintained  three-quarters  of  a  centuiy 
later  by  the  Cynics,  that  no  predication  which  is  not  identical 
IS  legitimate.  He  was  not  indeed  aware  how  deeply  he  had 
oommitted  himself;  otherwise  he  would  hav«  observed  that  his 
sirgument,  if  valid  against  the  Many  of  the  vulgar,  was  valid 
also  a^^aiast  the  One  of  Parmenides,  with  its  plurality  of  attri- 
butes, as  well  as  that,  in  the  absence  of  a  theory  of  predication, 
it  was  useless  to  specuhite  about  knowledge  and  being.  But 
others  were  not  slow  to  draw  the  obvious  conclusions;  and  it  ■ 
may  be  Conjectured  that  Gorgias's  sceptical  development  of 


the  Zenonian  I09C  contributed,  not  less  than  Protagoras's 
sceptical  development  of  the  Ionian  physics,  to  the  diversion 
of  the  intellectual  energies  of  Greece  from  the  pursuit  of  truth 
to  the  pursuit  of  culture. 

For  three-quarters  of  a  century,  then,  philosophy  was  at  a 
standstill;  and,  when  in  the  second  decade  of  the  4th  century 
the  pursuit  of  truth  was  resumed,  it  was  plain  that  Zeno's 
paradox  of  predication  must  be  di^>osed  of  before  the  problems 
which  had  occupied  the  earlier  thinkers— the  problem  of  know- 
ledge  and  the  problem  of  being— could  be  so  much  as  attempted. 
Accordingly,  in  the  seventh  book  of  the  Republic,  where  Plato 
propounds  his  sdieme  of  Academic  education,  he  directs  the 
attention  of  studious  youth  primarily,  if  not  exclusively,  to 
the  concurrence  of  inconsistent  attributes;  and  in  the  Pkaedo, 
Z03  B-103  A,  taking  as  an  instance  the  tallneas  and  the  short- 
n^s  simultaneously  discoverable  in  Simmias,  he  offers  his  own 
theory  of  the  immanent  idea  as  the  solution  of  the  paradox. 
Simmias,  he  says,  has  in  him  the  ideas  of  tall  and  short. 
Again,  when  it  presently  appeared  that  the  theoiy  of  the 
immanent  idea  was  Inconsistent  with  itself,  and  moreover  in- 
applicable to  explain  predication  except  where  the  subject  was 
a  sensible  thing,  so  that  reconstruction  became  necessary,  the 
Zenonian  difficulty  continued  to  demand  and  to  receive  Plato's 
best  attention.  Thus,  in  the  Parmenides,  with  the  paradox  of 
likeness  and  unlikeness  for  his  text,  he  inquires  how  far  the 
current  theories  of  being  (his  own  included)  are  capable  of 
providing,  not  only  for  knowledge,  but  also  for  predication, 
and  in  the  concluding  sentence  he  suggests  that,  as  likeness 
and  unlikeness,  greatness  and  smallness,  &c.;  are  relations,  the 
initial  paradox  is  no  longer  paradoxical;  while  in  the  Sopkistp 
Zeno's  doctrine  having  been  shown  to  be  fatal  to  reason, 
thought,  speech  and  utterance,  the  mutual  nomavla  of  ^if 
whi(^  are  not  aJM,  mff*  aJhii  b  elaborately  demonstrated.  It 
would  seem  then  that,  not  to  Antisth^es  only,  but  to  Plato 
also,  Zeno's  paradox  of  predication  was  a  substantial  difficulty; 
and  we  shall  be  disposed  to  give  Zeno  credit  according^  for 
his  perception  of  its  importance/ 

In  all  probability  Zeno  did  not  ob^rve  that  in  his  contro-' 
versial  defence  of  Eleaticism  he  was  interpreting  Parmenidcs's 
teaching  anew.  But  so  it  was.  For,  while  Parmenides  had 
recognized,  together  with  the  One,  which  is,  and  is  the  object 
of  knowledge,  a  Many,  which  is  not,  and  therefore  is  not  known, 
but  nevertheless  becomes,  and  is  the  object  of  opinioni  Zeno 
plainly  affirmed  that  plurality,  becoming  and  opinion  are  one 
and  all  inconceivable.  In  a  word,  the  fundamental  dogma, 
"  The  Ent  is,  the  Non-cnt  is  not,"  which  with  Parmenides  had 
been  an  assertion  of  the  necessity  of  distinguishing  between 
the  Ent,  which  is,  and  the  Non-ent,  which  is  not,  but  becomes, 
was  wilh  Zeno  a  declaration  of  the  Non-ent's  absolute  nullity. 
Tlius,  just  as  Empedocles  developed  Parmenides's  theory  of 
the  Many  to  the  neglect  of  his  theory  of  the  One,  so  Zeno 
developed  the  theory  of  the  One  to  the  neglect  of  the  theory 
of  the  Many.  With  the  severance  of  its  two  members  Eleaticism 
proper,  the  Eleaticism  of  Parmenides,  ceased  to  exist. 

The  first  effect  of  Zeno's  teaching  was  to  complete  the  dis- 
comfiture of  philosophy.  For  the  paradox  of  predication, 
which  he  had  used  to  disprove  the  existence  of  plurality,  was 
virtually  a  denial  of  all  speech  and  all  thought,  and  thus  led 
to  a  more  comprehensive  scepticism  than  that  which  sprang 
from  the  contemporary  theories  of  sensation.  Nevertheless, 
he  left  an  enduring  mark  upon  Greek  speculation,  inasmuch  as 
he  not  only  recognized  the  need  of  a  logic,  and  grappled,  how- 
ever unsuccessfully,  with  one  of  the  most  obvious  of  logical 
problems,  but  also  by  the  invention  of  dialectic  provided  a  new 
and  powerful  instrument  against  the  time  when  the  One  and 
the  Many  should  be  reunited  in  the  philosophy  of.  Plato. 

BiBLiOGRAPHT. — F.  W.  A.  MuIIach,  Pragmenta  PhUosophorum 
Graecorum  (Paris,  i860),  L  266  scq.;  Zeller,  Die  Phihsophie  d, 
Griecken  (Leipsig.  1876),  i.  534-552:  P.  Tannery,  Pour  FHistoire 
de  la  Science  BeUhte  (Paris,  1887;.  pp.  247-261 ;  H.  Diels,  Die 
Fra^menU  der  Vorsohraiiker  (Bcrlm,  1906.  1907).  On  the  math» 
matical  questions  raised  J)y  certain  of  Zeno  s  paradoxes,  see  G.  fiofL 
Rene  de  Metapkysique  et  de  Moraie,  I  107-125.  and  Hon.  Bertrand 


97« 


ZENO  OF  SIDON— ZENODOTUS 


Ruaien.  PriucipUs  of  Muhemaiics  (Cambridge.  i903)M>p.  34^354* 
For  histories  of  philosophy  and  other  works  upon  Eleaticism  see 

PAIUIB1IIDB&  (H.  J  A.) 

ZENO  OF  SIDON,  Epicurean  philosopher  of  the  firsi  century 
B.C.,  and  contemporary  of  Cicero.  In  the  De  Natura  Deorum 
(L  34),  Cicero  states  that  he  was  contemptuous  of  other  *  philo- 
sophers and  even  called  Socrates  "  the  Attic  Buffoon."  Diogenes 
La&tius  and  Cicero  both  speak  of  him  with  respect  and  describe 
him  as  an  accurate  and  polished  thinker.  He  held  that  happi- 
ness includes  not  merely  present  enjoyment  and  prosperity, 
but  also  a  reasonable  expectation  of  their  continuance.  His 
views  were  made  the  subject  of  a  special  treatise  by  Posidonius. 

ZENO  OF  TARSUS,  Stoic  philosopher  and  pupil  of  Chry- 
sippus,  belonged  to  the  period  of  the  Middle  Stoa.  He  appears 
to  have  accepted  all  the  Stoic  doctrines  except  that  he  denied 
the  final  conflagration  of  the  universe  (see  Stoics). 

ZENOBIA  (Gr.  Zifiv^SIa),  queen  of  Palmyra,  one  of  the 
heroines  of  antiquity.  Her  native  name  was  Septimia  Bath- 
zabbai,  a  name  also  borne  by  one  of  her  generals,  Septimius 
Zabbai.^ ,  This  remarkable  woman,  famed  for  her  beauty,  her 
masculine  energy  and  unusual  powers  of  mind,  was  well  fitted 
to  be  the  consort  of  Odainatti  (see  Odaenatbus)  in  his  proud 
position  as  Dux  Orientis;  during  his  lifetime  she  actively 
seconded  his  policy,  and  after  his  death  in  a.d.  266-^7  she  not 
only  succeeded  to  his  position  but  determined  to  surpass  it 
and  make  Palmyra  mistress  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  East. 
Wahab-aUath  or  AthenodOrus  (as  the  name  was  Graecized), 
her  son  by  Odainath,  being  still  a  boy,  she  took  the  reins  of 
government  into  her  own  hands.  Under  her  general-in-chief 
ZabdA,  the  Palmyrenes  occupied  Egypt  in  AJ>.  270,  not  without 
a  struggle,  under  the  pretext  of  restoring  it  to  Rome;  and 
Wahab-allath  governed  Egypt  in  the  reign  of  Oaudius  as  joint 
ruler  with  the  title  of  /ScurtXcOs  0ung),  while  Zenobia  herself 
was  styled  /SaaiXtaaai;  (queen).  In  Asia  Minor  Palmyrene 
garrisons  were  established  as  far  west  as  Ancyra  in  Galatia 
and  Chalcedon  opposite  Byzantium,  and  Zenobia  still  pro- 
fessed to  be  ftcting  in  the  interests  of  the  Roman  rule.  In  his 
coins  struck  at  Alexandria  in  a.d.  370  Wahab-allath  is  named 
along  with  Aurelian,  but  the  title  of  Augustus  is  s^ven  only  to 
the  latter;  a  Greek  inscription  from  Byblos,  however,  mentions 
Aurelian  (or  his  predecessor  Claudius)  and  Zenobia  together  as 
T^atHn  and  Ztfiaarli  (i.e.  Augustus  and  Augusta,  C.I.G, 
4503  b).  When  AureUan  became  emperor  in  270  he  quickly 
rodized  that  the  policy  of  the  Palmyrene  queen  was  endangering 
the  unity  of  the  empire.  It  was  not  long  before  all  disguises 
were  thrown  off;  in  Egypt  Wahab-allath  began  to  issue  coins 
without  the  head  of  Aurelian  and  bearing  the  inlperial  title, 
and  Zenobia's  coins  bear  the  same.  The  assumption  marked 
the  rejection  of  all  allegiance  to  Rome.  Aurelian  instantly 
took  measures;  Egypt  was  recovered  for  the  Empire  by  Probus 
(close  of  270),  and  the  emperor  himself  prepared  a  great  expedi- 
tion into  Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  Towards  the  end  of  271  he 
marched  through  Asia  Minor  and,  overthrowing  the  Palmyrene 
garrisons  in  Chalcedon,  Ancyra  and  Tyana,  he  reached  Anlioch, 
where  the  main  Palmyrene  army  under  Zabd2  and  Zabbai, 
with  Zenobia  herself,  attempted  to  oppose  his  way.  The  at- 
tempt, however,  proved  unsuccessful,  and  after  suffering  con- 
siderable losses  the  Palmyrenes  retired  in  the  direction  of 
Emesa  (now  H5ros),  whence  the  road  lay  open  to  their  native 
dty.  The  queen  refused  to  yield  to  Aurelian's  demand  for 
surrender,  and  drew  up  her  army  at  Emesa  for  the  battle  which 
was  to  dedde  her  fate.  In  the  end  she  was  defeated,  and  there 
was  nothing  for  it  but  to  fall  back  upon  Palmyra  across  the 
desert.  Thither  Aurelian  followed  her  in  spite  of  the  difficulties 
of  trauq)ort,  and  laid  siege  to  the  well-fortified  and  provisioned 
dty.  At  the  critical  moment  the  queen's  courage  seems  to 
tiave  failed  her;  she  and  her  son  fled  from  the  dty  to  seek 

*  See  tAe  I^Srasrreae  Inscriptions  given  in  Vogfl6,  Syne  centrate, 
Nos.  38,  a9"iCooke^  Nortk-Semiitc  InKHpHonSt  Nob.  130,  131. 
Zahhia,  an  abbreviation  of  some  such  form  as  Zabd-iUt«>tfoiBfy  0/ 
GW,  was  a  common  Palmyrene  name;  it  oocun  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, Ear.  X.  aS;  Neh.  iiL  2a 


help  from  the  Penian  king;*  they  were  captured  on  the  bftnk 
of  the  Euphrates,  and  the  Palmyrenes,  losing  heart  at  this 
disaster,  capitulated  (a.d'.  272).  Aurelian  seized  the  wenlth 
of  the  dty  but  spared  the  inhabitants;  to  Zenobia  he  granted 
life;  while  her  officers  and  advisers,  among  whom  was  the 
celebrated  scholar  Longinus,  were  put  to  deftth.  Zenobia 
figured  in  the  conqueror's  q>lendid  triumph  act  Rome,  and  by 
the  most  probable  account  accepted  her  fall  with  dignity  and 
dosed  her  days  at  Tibur,  where  she  lived  with  hear  sons  the  life 
of  a  Roman  matron.  A  few  nxmths  after  the  fall  of  Zenobia, 
Palmyra  revolted  again;  Aurelian  unexpectedly  Rtnmcd, 
destroyed  the  dty,  and  this  time  showed  no  mercy  to  the 
population  (spring,  273). 

Among  the  traditions  rdating  to  Zenobia  may  be  mentioned 
that  of  her  discussions  with  the  Archbishop  Paul  of  Samosata 
on  matters  of  religion.  It  is  probable  that  she  treated  the 
Jews  in  Palmyra  with  favour;  she  is  referred  to  in  the  Talmud, 
as  proteaing  Jewish  rabbis  (Talm.  Jer.  Ttr.  viiL  46  b).. 

The  well-known  aOcoont  of  Zenobia  by  Gibbon  (Ptdvu  amd 
Fail,  i.  pp.  302-313  Bury's  edition)  is  based  upon  the  imperial 
biographefB  (aistoria  Auiiuta)  and  cannot  be  r^arded  as  strictly 
historical  in  detalL  An  obscure  and  distorted  tiaditioo  of  Zenolaa 
as  an  Arab  queen  survived  in  the  Arabian  stoiy  o(  Zabb&,  daughter 
of  'Amr  b.  2arib,  whose  name  is  associated  with  Tadmor  and  with 
a  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  which  is  no  doubt  the 
Zenobia.  of  which  Procopius  vpeaHa  as  founded  by  the  ianoos 
queen.  See  C.  de  Perceval,  Estai  sw  rkisL  des  Arabu,  iL  aB  i^ 
i97f.;Tahari,  L757f'  See  further  Paucyba.  <G.A.C*) 

ZSNOBIUS,  8  Greek  sophist,  who  tought  rhetork  at  Rome 
during  the  reign  of  Hadrian  (aj>.  117^138).  He  was  the  author 
of  a  collection  of  proverbs  in  three  books,  still  extant  in  an 
abridged  form,  compiled,  according  to  SuXdas,  from  Didymos 
of  Alexandria  and  "  The  Tarrhaean  "  (LucUlus  of  Tanha  in 
Crete) .  Zenobius  is  also  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  a  Creek 
translation,  of  Sallust  and  of  a  birthday  poem  (70«9>ttttcir) 
on  Hadrian.. 

Editions  by  T.  Gaisford  (1836)  and  E.  L.  Leutscfa-F.  W.  Schneide- 
win  (1839),  and  in  B.  £.  Miller,  Mtiang^  de  litUrOhae  gncqme 
(1868) :  see  also  W.  Christ,  Cneckisehe  IMteratwgesckiekte  (1898). 

ZBNODOCHIUM  (Gr.  ^oiotbx^or,  (^vot,  stranger,  gnat, 
6kx!ia0Uf  to  receive),  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  a  building 
erected  for  the  reception  of  strangeis. 

ZENODOTOS^  Greek  grammarian  and  critic,  pnpil  of  Philetas 
(q.v.)  of  Cos,  was  a  native  of  Ephesus.  He  lived  <}aiing  the 
reigns  of  the  first  two  Ptolemies,  and  was  at  the  height  of  his 
reputation  about  280  B.a  He  was  the  first  superintendent  of 
the  library  at  Alexandria  and  the  first  critical  editor  (teyAbnff) 
of  Homer.  His  colleagues  in  the  librarianship  were  Alocander 
of  Aetolia  and  Lycophron  of  Chalds,  to  whom  were  allotted 
the  tragic  and  comic  writers  respectively,  Homer  and  other 
epic  poets  bdng  assigned  to  2^nodotos.  Although  he  has 
been  reproached  with  arbitrariness  and  an  insufficient  know- 
ledge  of  Greek,  in  his  recension  he  undoubtedly  laid  a  sound 
foundation  for  future  criticism.  Having  collated  the  different 
MSS.  in  the  library,  he  expunged  or  obelized  doubtful  venet, 
transposed  or  altered  lines,  and  introduced  new  readings.  He 
divided  the  Homeric  poems  into  books  (with  capitals  for  the 
Iliadf  and  small  letters  for  the  Odyssey),  and  possibly  was  the 
author  of  the  calculation  of  the  days  of  the  Iliid  in  the  Tabula 
Itiaca.  He  does  not  appear  to  have  written  any  regular  com- 
mentary on  Homer,  but  his  Homeric  yXShaai  (lists  of  unusual 
words)  probably  formed  the  source  of  the  explanations  of 
Homer  attributed  by  the  grammarians  to  Zenodotus.  He  aho 
lectured  upon  Hesiod,  Anacreon  and  Pindar,  if  he  did  not 
publish  editions  of  them.  He  is  further  called  an  epic  poet  by 
Suklas,  and  three  epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology  are  assigned 
to  htm. 

There  appear  to  have  been  at  least  two  other  grammariani 
of  the  same  name:  (1)  Zenodotus  of  Alexandria,  sumamed 

*  Whether  ShftpQr  or  his  eon  Horrauzdi  b  not  certain;  ShSpQf'a 
)  death  is  variously  placed  in  269  and  272. 


ZENTA— 2EPHANIAH 


iyi. 


i  (•) 


ftofrpwum  ad  Btrnirmm.  vctwii  «  (l&» 
rw.  D.  Zrnodzti  ilndni  tfnwini  [it^; 
Siracrrtaniicn,  du  Znaisluf  (MuDich,  lS85)l 


l:  J.  E.  Sindyi,  Aiii.  </  Oasi.  Sckcl. 


S«  F.  A.  Welt, 
»t><i«.):    M     Darn 

A.  ROiDcr.  (Jhr  ibi 

F-  Suacfmbl,  Gtathiiku  dtr  pitckiukai 
drinattil,  L  p-  330,  ii.  p-  t4;  J    ^    ^-^ 

(1906),  cd>a,  ToTl.  pp.  119-111. 

ZBHTAi  &  mukct  town  oF  Hungary,  In  the  county  oF  Birs- 
BodiDg,  IJj  m.  S^.  of  Bud^Kst  by  ralL  Pop.  (1900)  iS.sSi. 
It  is  Bituucd  oa  tbe  right  bonk  1^  l]w  river  Thnia,  uid  b 
historically  ksoiiD  {oc  the  dedsve  vkloiy  wdd  in  its  vidnity 
by  Frince  Eugene  ol  Savoy  over  the  Turks  on  the  nth  ai 
September  1(97. 

ZEOLITES,  a  family  of  minerals  consisting  of  hydnled 
silicatH  of  iluinins  vith  alkalis  or  alkaline  earths  or  both. 
The  vater  they  contain  is  readily  lost,  and  before  the  blovpape 
It  is  eipelled  with  intumescence;  lience  the  name  leolite,  from 
the  GikIl  f(b  (to  bcoi)  and  UAh  (a  >tone),  ^ven  by  A.  Cron- 
Medt  in  1753.  In  tome  other  chatactcn,  as  mil  ss  b  their 
ori^  and  mode  of  occurrence,  tbey  have  pcnnts  in  conunon. 
Several  species  have  been  dutinguisbed,  of  nbich  the  foOosring 
importiiil.  Apophyllite  (j.».)  Ind  pectolile  (see 
u  induded. 
.  H,CiA[i(S»^.+3HjO. 
.  H,(5r.Ba,Ca)Al,(^j)<+3H«. 
-  H^aAI,(SiO,),4-SH*0. 
'">,Ca,  K|W(^K)w+3H,0. 

'Bi)Al,(s'io3rKiiA 


Pyioxeke]  are  also  >o 


H,(k„  \m)i 


ili(SiOJ.+SHiO. 


CaAl,[SL0J.+'4H/). 
H£.A],SiA.-l-ZH,a 

[Ca,  Ni,JAI,raiO.)i+*H,0.ftc. 
(Na,.  CaUUfeiOJi+BHA 

NaAl(SiO.),+H*0. 

(Ca,  NB,)AI^C,+aHA 

C>AI^.6,.+3KiO. 

BiAl.Si.OH+aHA. 

(Na.,  Ca)Al,(SiO0i+2)HA 
ivcn  above  are  only  a^ 
imposltirai  varies  betneen 
,  seed  by  the  iaomorpboui 
mmng  oi  omerent  molecules  (Bee,  for  eiample,  Csmazite). 
They  are  all  readily  decoinpased  by  hydrochloric  acid,  usually 
iritta  the  sepanijon  of  gelatinous  silica.  By  the  sction  of  various 
resgents  seveial  subslitutSon  products  have  been  prepared 
artiEdaOy:  thus,  crysIalUted  products,  in  which  the  alkalis 
or  alkaline  earths  are  replaced  by  anUDOiuum  or  ulver,  Ac, 
have  been  obtained. 

The  leoliies  are  often  beautifully  ciyiWIliMd,  and  belong  to 
several  oystal-iyileDis.  The  eryatali  usually  show  evidencw 
of  twinning,  and  when  examined  in  polarized  light  they  fre- 
quently exhibit  opticd  anomalies  and  a  complex  structure. 
The  hardness  (H.-jJ-Si)  and  ipeciEc  gravity  (i'o-aH()  are 
comparatively  low,  and  so  ace  the  indices  of  lelraction  ai>d  Ihe 
double  iriraction. 


The  watt 


,  and  the  cr>nrtAli  s 


.    UUHK 


opdol  cbsrscun  oi  the  cry^ab. 

(be  cmial  becondns  again  ttaiiBiM 
optical  chatacten.  Not  only  may 
BUbstanCTB  as  amRionia,   hydrogen 


lunDundinD^liDoiphRE.  In 
.  u^lnt  only  al  a  mi  hrst, 
water  of  conMituiion."  With 
^  a  progrcs^ve  chanee  In  the 
When  a  paiiially  dehydrated 
nairthe^niRJsniabKHbcd, 

rtly  drivm  ofi  and  reatMorbed 


973 

B  withovt  denroyim  the  oyitaUBe 
■ "  ■■- differ  from  the 


.. analogoUB 

VI  Lu«  in  UK  felfpara  irith  the  addition  of  water.  Nepbetioe  and 
■odalite  are  often  allercd  to  seoliies.  They  niually  occur  at  cryKals 
UuDff  the  amygdalotdal  aad  odker  cavitM  of  basalt,  melaphyre,  §c. 
Unially  two  or  more  species  are  aswciated  loffether,  a--"  -''-- 
with  agate,  caldle  aad  soaie  «•■ '-     '  —  ' 

(f.g.  tiarmotome);  while  only 
sdlueats  ((<.  aiuldle)  o(  irart 
observed  in  the  Roman  m 
ks-Balns  in  Fran 
Boor  of  the  deep  aea- 

5e*  Ahalciti,  CnABAitrB.  Haiiiotoue.  HBULSKDirE.  Narao- 
UTm,  FuiLUPsnE,  Scoliciib.  Siiliite.  [L.  J.  S.) 

ZEraANIAH.  the  ninth  of  the  minor  prophets  in  the  BiUe. 
The  nsme  (raAlveAl  "hides"  or  "treasures";  there  is  a 
umilal  Phoenician  compound  of  Baal)  is  borne  by  various 
individuals,  in  Jer.  xiii.  i;  (cf.  Hi.  14);  Zech.  vi.  10, 14; 
I  Chion.  vi,  ib,  and  among  the  Jews  oI  Elephantine  in  Egypt 
(Stb  centuty  B.C.).  Tbe  piophet's  ancestry  Is  traced  through 
Cushi  (d.  Jcr.  mvi.  14)  to  his  great-grandfather  Heiekiah, 
who  may,  in  ^te  o(  1  Kings  n.  iS.  -ad.  i,  be  the  well-known 
Idng  of  Judah  {c.  710-690).  This  would  agree  fairly  with  the 
title  (i.  i)  which  makes  the  prophet  a  cootemporaty  of  King 
Josiah  {t  6yi),  and  this  in  turn  appears  10  agree  (a)  with  the 
internal  conditions  (L  ^-6,  cf.  3  Kings  iiiiL  4,  j,  11]  which, 
it  is  held,  sre  evidently  earlier  than  Joiiah's  refonns  (630); 
(i)  with  the  denunciation  of  the  royal  household,  but  not  of 
the  (young)  king  himself  (L  8,  iii.  3);  (c)  with  the  appaient 
allusion  in  ch.  i.  to  tbe  invasion  of  the  Scythians  (perhaps 
c.  61C),  and  (J)  with  the  sntidpated  downfall  of  Aiayria  and 
Nineveh  (iL  t^,  607  t-c.).  Zephaniab's  prophedes  are  charac- 
teriied  by  tte  denundation  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  and  the 

the  Idea  of  a  world-wide  judgment  resulting  in  the  sovereignly 
of  a  uiuversally  tecognisod  yahwch.  The  theme  in  its  main 
outlines  is  a  popular  one  lit  biblical  prophecy,  but  when  these 
Si  venes  are  carefully  examined  and  compared  with  pro- 
phetical thought  elsewhere,  several  diiEcidt  prohlemi  ailse,  an 


ol  battle)  cl.  the  Arab  111 


Ih  DynatriesarelikeaedwBaali 
^reaateo.  aw-  Doc,  £f-,  iii.  14313,  336.  iv.  1  1 
Vuhate  Dia  irat  dia  Uta,  lAeDce  tl 
lofCelanoff.  lasn). 


aT.'!l£ 


the  Btrildnf  faymn  by 


ZEPHANIAH 


particular  appeal  to 


4.  ftc)  i>  iDliKd  a 

-'  "  (I.  I,  d.  UL 

I  humitily.  *cr- 

inllmhyo(Y- '—■■■- 

.,...„ ... gf  Ibe  PBOitdi 

be  datnyed  {t-  4.  cf >  on  L  9  oborc),  aid  aa  ancle  of  vu  ia 
■falnu  tlieir  land  (>.  s  •Kb)-  Wkk  a  •uddea  tnaiil 
"  nnuiant  of  the  booR  of  Judih  "  ii  ccoialttd  Ibe  mriliii 
If.  J,  Ktd  iy  Uu  ita  for  tkmfim),  and  Ibk  it  eBhamd 
tidingi  of  the  rRum  oi  the  capdvitr.    Thii  Ihaufht  <•  dr 

»  «t<l-;  ^ek.  ^axv-.  f  7)  "  the  reproach  of  Moab  and  ihe  1 
of  the  AminoDiteh"  and  the  Lord  of  Horn,  the  Cod  ol 

their  territory  (■ 


.    After  tonini 
f  {t.  II,  Id'  9  aeq-t  tba  chapLer  a 
vague  dmiD  "alio"  nnoa  Ciuh  (E<>'^' 
■cT  ls>.  Ixid.  I«).  and  a  moR  detai 
Nineveh,   The  exulting  and  t  -  -  -' 
10.  with  dr.  i  teq.)  iball  be 

is  ^tured  aa  dioitly  to  be  made  detolatfl  (f- 
— J.  ..  . 1_|||^  j^_  j^  g_  Edom,  xUi,  17). 


td  pEt^hecy  ui 


in  chap.  iiL  thcra  1 


Her  ■ 


, ...  ,,,  UTih  the  last 

8.  Edon,  jBjl  17). 

-  agaEa  cfaaaglag  AuatknH.  The  dHunt, 
city  ia  coadenned  for  [allliiA  to  regan]  the 
and  Rliaioui  leaden  are  -^-^ -*    -nd 


ilta,  but  upon  the  n 


Yahwch  in  the  mum  01  her  H  "  ngni 
Ltioru  round  about  hayf  been  cut  of 


«(». 


ii": 


wait  pT  for  ne.  laith  Yahweh, 

luemble  all  nationa  and  Idngdonu  to  pour  out  upon  Ibem  hii 
■n^r  {r.  S).  Thii  iudgmeot  urnn  the  wtirh)  will  be  followed  by  a 
unwernl  ranvefADn  l».  9,  cf.  B-  11)  and  "Irom  beyond  the  rmn 
J  r-...^  ..  ,j  -  .j)  tributa  will  be  btm^t  to  Yahnch  (cf.  ita.  r ' 


asfS 


_  _.  _ia  ptaadr  there  will  ' 
ig  propla  (v.  13).  "  The  cemn 
EC  and  rmty  (r.  IJ;  d.  the 

cd."  j«.  ii.  j-g).    n™  , 

when  "  the  danEhler  of  Zio 


K  KfeiEnce  to 


In  eonchjiiDn  ( 


't  an  affiicled.  poot  and 

pt  people  who  are  Id  h« 
nrorthy  jubilant  uole  ii 
I  tndden  to  enh  ft.  14. 
lenti "  are  remuvcd,  tbc 
«  mighty  deliverer.  i>  in 


It  is 


.tuiiil  ai 


imptioB  tliat  piuphcda  have  a  practical 
dstinif  oE  ImDCDdlng  conditions.^      But 
i  through  the  book  of 


although  one  single  leading  ] 

Zephaniah  there  are  abrupt  

mete  tubjeclive  consideraliooi  of  logical  or  snaolh  thau^t, 
but  nalerlal  and  organic  change*  rcprcKoting  diacnnl  groups 
of  ideas.  The  inslnuBenli  of  V«hweh'i  anger  (rb.  i.)  are  not 
so  teal  or  prominent  on  the  political  horiion  as,  for  emraple, 
in  Isiiah,  Jcrenuah  or  HabaUuli.  The  true  date  ef  the 
ScythiaJi  inroad  and  Its  results  for  Judah  and  Phllistia  aro  leo 
important  when  it  is  observed  that  the  doom  upon  Philislla, 
the  vengeance  npou  Moab  uid  Ammon  and  the  prombcs  for 
Judah  [ch.  ii.1  bdong  to  a  lailEe  group  of  piophedea  against 
certain  bistorlc  anenriea  (Edom  included)  who  are  denounced 
for  Iheir  caotcmpt,  hoatility  and  intrusion.  Theae  prophecies 
I  The  Idea  of  '■  HRhtaningH  "  (»^»),  or  loyalty,  appean  to  have 
implied  the  mutual  bonds  uniting  the  community  and  its  cWity,  see 
Jouru.  Tkal.  Stud.,  190*,  p.  Gji  K.  1 1  BifoiiUir,  Aug.  19ID,  p.  110. 

(see  enecially  H.  Gmamnn.  Unfrnmt  *■  urtd-j*t.  SitliaUlttu; 
].  M,  P.  Smith,  BltUad  Worli,  i»ia.  pp.  aij  tn-}- 


Jeiusalem,  and  to  luch  a  calamity,  and  not  to  tba  inroad  of  tlu 
Scythians,  Iha  reference*  to  the  "  remnanl  "  and  the  "  cap- 
tivity" can  only  refer.*  The  antkipatioa  of  future  events  it 
(rf  course  conceivable  in  itself,  bat  tbe  promise*  (in  ch.  iL) 
prcixfpoit  events  other  and  later  than  those  with  which  the 
Scythians  were  connected.  On  the  other  hand,  it  il  entirely 
intelligible  that  a  prophecy  relaling  to  Scythians  should  have 
been  tc-ahapcd  to  apply  to  later  conditions,  and  on  this  view  it 
is  eipKcable  why  the  indefinite  pidilical  convulsioni  should  be 
adjusted  to  the  dUe  and  why  the  gloom  should  be  relieved  by 
the  promise  of  a  territory  extending  from  Itc  Mediterranean  to 
the  Syrian  desert  (il,  ;,  g).  After  a  period  cS  punisfamenl 
fcf.  lamentations)  Vahweh's  jealousy  afOHjf  the  scml-buitlieii 
Judah  has  b«ome  a  jealousy  for  his  people,  and  wo  appear  to 
move  la  the  tfuught  of  tbggai  and  Zechaiiah,  lAere  the 
remnant  are  comforted  by  Yibweh's  return  and  the  dispersed 
eillea  are  to  be  brought  back  (cf.  Zech.  i.  14-17,  viiL  1-17). 
But  In  cfa.  Hi.  other  drclea  of  thought  arc  manifest.  Israel's 
enemies  have  been  destroyed,  het  own  God  Ynhweh  has  proved 
Ail  loyalty  and  has  fulfilled  kit  ptODiiiei,  but  the  dty  remaini 
■■       ■  '  ■.  Isa.  Iviii.  seq.i  Malachi).    Once  m 


I  thic; 


s  vindicated  ili^  supremacy  and  ^on  it 
glorified.  Instead  of  the  realities  of  history  we  have  tht 
apocalyptical  feature  of  the  gathering  of  the  nations  (1.  t); 
tbe  thought  may  be  illustraled  from  Zech.  lii.  i.-iiiL  6,  where 
Jerusalem  is  attacked,  puiged  and  delivered,  and  Iton  Zach.  xrr. 
where  the  dty  is  actually  captured  and  half  the  people  an 
removed  into  captivity  (d.  Zeph.  iiL  11  purging,  15  removal 
of  the  enemy,  iS-io  return  of  the  captivity).  The  goal  is  tbe 
vindication  of  brad  and  of  Israel's  God,  and  the  eitablithment 
of  universal  monotheism  (IL  ii,  iiL  g  scq.).  The  foe  trfddl 
thteatened  Judah  hzia  become  the  chastiser  of  Ethiopia  and 
Asyiia  (ii.)  and  the  prelude  to  the  golden  age  Oil,,  d-  Eiek. 
iiivili.  seq.).  No  longer  does  Yahweh  contend  for  recognitioa 
with  Bud  and  the  "  host  of  heaven  "  (L  4-6);  the  convulaioa 
of  history  are  Vahweh's  work  for  the  instnictioa  and  amend' 
merit  of  Itruel  (ill.  6  icti.);  the  heathen  god*  prove  helpless 
(il.  11),  hut  In  what  manner  tbe  couTiction  of  Yahweh's  pcal- 
ness  is  brought  hooie  li  not  stated,' 

If  Jer.  iv.  j-vi.  30  originally  rtfentd  to  the  Sqrtliians,  it  ha* 
been  revised  to  refer  to  the  Chaldeans  j  also  in  Eiek.  aizviiL  seq. 
the  northern  toe  has  been  associated  with  tbe  great  world- 
judgment.  The  replacing  of  the  sequel  of  Anus  (f.f.)  by  one 
which  presupposes  a  later  historical  background,  the  addendunl 
to  the  prophecy  against  Moab  (Isa.  ivi,  13  seq.), the  pewimistit 
glosses  in  Isa.  dviii,,  the  variations  in  the  Hebrew  and  Creek 
teat  of  Jeiemiab,  aad  the  general  treatment  of  pr^iheclc*  of 
judgment  and  promise,  c:iemplify  certain  liUrary  proce*ac* 
which  illuBtnte  the  present  fonn  lA  Zeidianiah.  In  laaiah 
and  Zechariah,  notably,  older  and  later  pw^  of  prophedei 
are  preserved,  whereas  here  the  new  preludes  and  new  sequela  . 
suggest  that  the  original  nucleus  has  passed  through  the  bands 
of  writers  in  touch  with  those  .virissitudea  of  thought  which 
can  be  studied  more  completely  elsewhere.  It  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  the  elimination  of  all  later  passages  aixd  trace* 
of  revision  will  give  us  Zephaniah's  prophedes  in  thdr  original 
eitent.  In  fact  the  internal  religious  and  social  conditions  in 
i.  4-6  or  lii.  1-4  do  not  compel  a  date  before  Joaiah's  lefonnl. 
The  doom  of  Cush  i*  still  !n  the  fature  in  Eick,  m.  4;  and  if 
the  impending  fall  of  Nineveh  (ii,  13)  implict  an  eaily  date, 
yet  it  is  found  in  writings  which  have  later  additions  (Nabum), 
or  which  ate  essentially  later  {JonJi,  d.  Tolat  riv,  4  [UCXU 
8,  10,  ij):  cf,  also  the  use  of  Aaayriator  fiatylon  (£ara  vi.  it) 
or  Syria  [iech.  i.  10).    Historical  references  in  prophedes  «I« 

'The  "humble"  (11  .j)  can  scarcely  be  identified  with  the 

munity  wch  as  we  find  in  the  Pulm*  (see  Nowack's  Chow.). 
'  See  further  W.  R.  Smith,  art.  "  Ze|^iiiah.'',£«cy.  Brit^  gth  ed. 

the  faU^of  the  power  that  ihauers  Iha  oations  caaaot  fail  10  l» 


ZEPHYRINUS,  ST— ZEUS 


URIpIs,    loohl    II 


DM  dm^  dcciitve  (Esd/  nxSi.,  tar  t 
Edom  uid  Sidon  u  dctd),  and  vhilc  the 
the  book  aUowa  ihe  ptesmnpiion  thai  the  tradition  ii$(Tibing 
itA  inceptioD  to  the  lime  of  Josiah  may  be  Authentid^  it  it  doubt- 
ful bow  mudi  of  the  origifu]  nudeuA  om  be  safely  refognited^ 
These  are  problenu  whidi  CDBcem  not  only  the  ciitidun  of 
btblif^  prophetical  writioga  aa  a  whole,  but  alao  the  hialoHca] 
wickaiiodea  of  the  period  over  which  they  enteod  C»<«  Jews; 
Paustihk:  Eiilnry). 

■■       D  lite  tradition  Zephulih,  Dlie  KatsVInk,  wa>  ol 

DKon  (d.  Mioh  ol  Mwuhah  and  Obidiah  of  Beth- 

tuccerem,  fee  Cheyoe,  £hc>  fltft..  oiL  34'"^     "'^^ hal 

"   :y  o(  Zeph.  (Cleinenr  oT  Alet,  Slrnm..  a, 

,/...  ...   :■■  ,7,«^.)m,relyUlu«raI-  i~ 

V  further  on  textualn  n 


A^tdini  to  1 
e  tribe  of  Sine 

older  tradhi 

nils,  W.  R.Snicli  (doU4,  previoutpan),  n 
wit  h  additiou,  by  S.  R  Driver.  I.  A.  Sc%k  ii 


ni  of)  Ihe  Minor  Propbel 


kClS 


important 


I1908). 

ZEPRTHIHOS,  &T,  bishop  of  Bone  from  about  igS  1 
succeeded  Victor  1.  He  [s  described  is  a  man  of  little 
tlEence  or  Itiength  of  character,  and  the  somel 

ficale  are  mon  appropriately  axsodalcd  with 

Rippolytus  nod  of  Caliitui,  his  principal  adviser  and  afierwaids 

ZBPHVROS,  in  Greeli  nylholog]',  the  nest  wind  (whence  (he 
English  "  «phyr,"  a  bght  breeie),  brother  oC  Bore: 
wind,  and  son  of  Ihe  Titan  A^liaeus  and  Eos,  thi 
was  the  husband  of  Chloris,  the  goddess  oi  flowers, 
had  >  son,  Caipnt,  the  god  ol  liuit  (Ovid,  Fasii,  v.  197);  by 
the  harpy  PodatgC  he  was  oIsd  the  father  ol  Xanlhus  and  BaliDt, 
the  hoiKS  ol  Achilles.  BclrrE  spurned  by  Hyacinthus  (q.t.), 
he  caused  his  death  by  accident  at  the  hantb  of  Apotlo.  He  was 
identified  by  the  Romans  with  Favonius,  and  Chloris  «jtb 

ZERBn,  a  town  of  Germany,   in  the  duchy  of  Anhalt, 

o(  Magdeburg  by  the  railway  Dessau-Leipzig.  Pop.  (1900) 
I7,09S.  It  is  still  surronnded  in  part  by  old  walls  and  bastions, 
while  oilier  portions  of  the  whilom  fortifications  have  been 
converted  inio  pleasant  promenades.  It  contuns  five  churclies, 
one  of  which  (St  Nicholas),  buUt  in  1446-88,  is  a  good  example 
of  the  late  Gothic  style  as  developed  in  Saiony,  with  its  spacious 
proportions,  groined  vaulting,  and  bare  simple  jnllars-  The 
town  ball  dates  from  about  1430,  but  it  vas  disfigured  by  addi- 
tions In  the  beginning  of  the  i;th  centuiy.  It  contains  the 
municipal  museum,  among  the  chief  treasures  of  which  is  a 
Lutlier  Bible  illustrated  by  Lucas  Cranach  Ihe  younger.  The 
palace  (i6Ei>i75o)  has  been  used  as  s  depository  of  archives 
since  iS;].  llieie  are  several  quaint  old  houses,  with  high 
gables,  in  the  market-place,  in  the  middle  of  which  stand  a 
Roland  column,  ol  about  1445,  and  a  bronze  figure  known  as 
the  Bullrtjuicfrr  (butler-girl],  of  uncertain  origin  and  meaning, 
but  now  refpinicd  as  the  palladium  of  the  town.  The  old 
Franciscan  monastery,  with  fine  cloisters,  foimded  In  1350, 
contains  the  gymna^um;  a  Qstercian  nunnety  of  1114  has 
been  converted  into  barracks;  and  the  Augustlnlan  monastery 
of  ]j^  has  been  a  hospital  ance  1525.  Gold  and  silver  articles, 
silk,  plush,  doth,  leather,  soap,  sfardi,  chemicals  and  carriages 
arc  among  the  chief  manufactures.  Iron-founding  is  carried 
on^  and  several  breweries  are  engaged  in  the  preparation  of 
Zerbster  bitter  beer,  which  enjoys  considerable  repute. 

Zccbst  is  au  ancient  town,  mentioned  in  949.  In  1307  il 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Anhalt  family,  and  from  1603 
till  179]  was  the  capital  of  the  collateral  branch  of  Anhali- 
Zerbst-    In  1793  it  passed  to  Anhalt-Dessau. 

ZBBMATT.  a  mountain  nllagc  al  Ibe  head  of  the  Visp  valley 
and  at  the  foot  Of  Ihe  Ualterhom,  in  the  canton  of  the  Valais, 
Switzerland.  It  is  lil  m.  by  rail  from  Visp  in  the  Rhftne 
valley,  and  theic  is  also  a  railway  fmn  Zermatt  put  the  Riffel 


inns  to  the  very  top  oF  the  Gometgral  (to, 


5  ft.  above 


and  io  If 


9  ft.).   The  village 

(all  Romanists  save  9,  and  all  but  1 1  Gciman-spcaking), 
lesidtnl  in  73  houses.  Fonnnly  Zermatl  was  calif d  "Pra- 
borgne,"  and  this  name  is  mentioned  in  the  Swis  census  of 
188S.  Its  originally  Romance  population  seems  to  have  been 
Teutonised  in  Ihe  courseol  Ihe  i^b  century,  the  name"  Matt" 
(now  written  "  Zcrmall,"  ij.  the  village  on  the  nwadowsj 
first  occurring  at  the  very  end'  of  that  ccnlury.  ZermatI  was 
long  known  to  botam'sts  and  geologisls  only,  and  has  an  in- 
teresting though  very  local  history,  I>e  Saussurc  in  17S9  was 
one  of  Ihe  first  tourists  to  visit  iL  But  it  was  not  till  the 
arrival  of  M.  Alexandre  Seller  in  1S54  that  its  fame  as  one  al 
the  chief  tourist  resorts  in  the  Alps  was  laid,  for  tourists  abound 
only  where  there  are  good  irms.  When  M.  Seller  died  in  i8gr 
he  was  proprietor  of  most  of  the  great  holds  in  and  around 
Zetmall.  The  Matlerfaom,  which  frowns  over  Ibe  village  from 
which  it  takes  iU  name,  was  not  conquered  till  1SA5,  Mr  E. 
Whymper  and  two  guides  then  alone  surviving  the  terrible 
acddent  in  which  Ibdr  four  comrades  perished.  The  easy 
glacier  pass  of  the  St  TModule  (10,899  ft.)  leads  S.  In  sii  hours 
from  the  village  to  the  Val  Toumanche,  a  tributary  glen  ol  the 
valley  of  Aosta. 
ZCtO,  the  figure  0  in  the  Arabic  notation  for  numbers; 

which  meant  literally  an  empty  thing.  The  old  Latin  writers 
on  arithmetic  ttunslaled  or  transliterated  the  Arabic  word  ai 
icpliyriitn;  this  in  Ital.  became  zc^rs,  contracted  to  zmi, 
borrowed  by  F.  zfrff,  whence  it  came  late  into  English.  The 
Spanish  form  ci/rOt  more  closely  resembling  the  original  Arabic, 

grsm,  and  English  "cipher"  which  is  thus  a  doublet.  In 
physics,  the  lerm  is  applied  to  a  fwint  with  which  phenomena 
ate  quantitatively  compared,  especially  to  a  piunt  of  a  graduated 

descending  scale,  as  In  the  scales  of  tempcraiure. 

ZEULBNRODA,  a  town  ol  Germany,  hi  the  principality  of 
Bcuss-thc-EIder,  situated  on  a  high  plaieau  in  a  well-noodcd 
id  hilly  counlry,  35  m.  N.  from  Hof  by  the  raUway  to  Wcrdau. 


Pop.  Il^ 

several  churches 


dpal  rights  fai  i. 
branch  of  the  Kc 
Zein,  the  Gr 
{?...).  In  the  D 
accepted  as  the  chief  god  of  the  panlhc 
the  religious  progress  of  the  people  iron 
iudyofbi! 


as  early  as  1399,  and  it  obtained  mu 
Since  1500  it  has  bdonged  to  the  Gi 


unlerpart  of  t1 


Hbna 


is  fori 


i  irDi 


caning  "  bright,"  which 
"  sky  ";  Lalui   Dimis, 


Aryan  languages  as  a 
nariKS,  sucn  as  the  Sanskrit  DySus 
Jmis,  Diapila,  dnnit;  Old  English 
conclusion  that  has  been  frequently  drawn  from  these  facts,  that 
jil\  the  Indo-Germanic  stocks  before  thdr  dispersal  worshipped  a. 
personal  High  God,  the  Sky-Father,  has  been  now  seen  to  be 
haiatdoui.'  Nevertheless,  it  remains  probable  that  Zeus  had 
already  been  conceived  as  a  personal  and  pre-eminent  god  by 
the  ancestors  of  the  leading  Hellenic  tribes  before  they  enicicd 
the  peninsula  which  became  ihcir  historic  home.  In  the  first 
plact,  his  pre-eminence  is  obviously  ppe-IIomoric;  for  Homer 
was  no  preacher  or  innovator  in  religion,  bul  ^ves  us  some  al 
least  of  the  primary  facts  of  the  conleropotory  religlDUS  brlicfs 


if  Zeus 


a  belief  which  was  unquestioned  by  the  average 
le  lime;  and  appreciating  how  slow  was  Ibe  process 
change  in  Ihe  earlier  period,  we  shall  believe  that' 


In  Ihe  next  place,  we  cannot 

>5».  however.  Schrader.  Fr. 

Piotit,  {tan.  Jerons).  4l6-4'9- 


^8 


ZEUXIS 


Greece*  The  political  aasembly  and  the  law-court  wete  coose^ 
crated  to  Ze^  'Ayo/yoZoi,*  and  being  the  eternal  source  of  justice 
he  might  be  invoked  as  Aucat6<n;ios  "  The  Just."'  As  the  god 
who  brought  the  people  under  one  government  he  might  be 
worshipped  as  UavSii/tosi*  as  the  deity  of  the  whole  of  Hdlas, 
'EXXAmos/  a  title  that  belonged  originally  to  Acgina  and  to 
the  prehistoric  tribe  of  the  Aeacidae»  and  had  once  the  narrower 
application  to  the  *' Thessalian  Hellenes,"  but  acquired  the 
Fan-Hellenic  sense,  in  fact  expanded  into  the  form  Uave^Xqwn, 
perhaps  about  the  time  of  the  Persian  wars,  when  thanks- 
giving for  the  victory  took  the  form  of  dedications  and  sacrifice 
to  "  Zeus  the  Liberator  "—'EXaitf^Jiw  .•  Finally,  in  the  for- 
mulae adopted  for  the  public  oath,  where  many  deities  were 
invoked,  the  name  of  Zeus  was  the  masterw<»d. 

There  is  reason  for  thinking  that  this  political  character  of 
Zeus  belongs  to  the  earliest  period  of  his  religion,  and  it  re- 
mained as  long  as  that  religion  lasted.  Yet  in  one  req)cct 
Apollo  was  more  dominant  in  the  political  life;  for  Apollo 
possessed  the  more  powerful  orade  of  Delphi.  Zeus  spoke 
directly  to  his  people  at  Podona  only,^  and  with  authority  only 
in  ancient  times;  for  owing  to  historical  circimistances  and 
the  disadvantage  of  its  position,  Podona  paled  before  Delphi. 

It  remains  to  consider  briefly  certain  moral  aspects  of  his 
cult.  The  morality  attaching  to  the  oath,  so  deeply  rooted  in 
the  conscience  of  primitive  peoples,  was  expressed  in  the  ctilt 
of  Zeus  'OpKun,  the  God  who  punished  perjury.*  The  whole 
history  of  Greek  legal  and  moral  conceptions  attaching  to  the 
guilt  of  homicide  can  be  studied  in  relation  to  the  cult-appeUa- 
tives  of  Zeus.  The  Greek  consciousness  of  the  sin  of  murder, 
only  dimly  awakened  in  the  Homeric  period,  and  only  sensitive 
at  first  when  a  kinsman  or  a  suppliant  was  slain,  gradually 
expands  till  the  sanctity  of  all  himian  life  becomes  recognized 
by  the  higher  morality  of  the  people:  and  the  names  of  Zeuj 
MaMxtos,  the  dread  deity  of  the  ghost-world  whom  the  sinner 
must  make  "  placablci"  of  Zeus  *lxiatot  and  H/xxrrpordtbs,  to 
whom  the  conscience-striken  outcast  may  turn  for  mercy  and 
pardon,  play  a  guiding-part  in  this  momentous  evolution.* 

Even  this  summary  reveals  the  deep  indebtedness  of  early 
Greek  civilization  to  this  cult,  which  engendered  ideas  of  im- 
portance for  the  higher  religious  thought  of  the  race,  and  which 
might  have  developed  into  a  monotheistic  religion,  had  a 
prophet-philosopher  arisen  powerful  enough  to  combat  the 
polytheistic  proclivities  of  Hellas.  Yet  the  figure  of  Zeus  had 
almost  faded  from  the  religious  world  of  Hellas  some  time 
before  the  end  of  paganism;  and  Lucian  makes  him  complain 
that  even  the  Egyptian  Anubis  is  more  popular  than  he,  and 
that  men  think  they  have  done  the  outworn  God  suiBcient 
honour  if  they  sacrifice  to  him  once  in  five  years  at  Olympia. 
The  history  of  religions  supplies  us  with  many  examples  of  the 
High  God  losing  his  hold  on  the  people's  consciousness  and 
love.  In  the  case  of  this  cult  the  cause  may  wcU  have  been  a 
certain  coMhess,  a  lack  of  enthusiasm  and  mystic  ardour,  in 
the  service.  These  stimulants  were  offered  rather  by  Demeter 
and  Dionysus,  later  by  Cybele,  Isis  and  Mithras. 

BiBUOGiULPRT. — For  older  authonties  see  Freller-Robert,  One- 
chische  Mythologic,  i.  pp.  1 15-159;  Wclcker'a  Crieckixhc  GdUerUkrt^ 
H.  pp.  176-216;  among  recent  works,  Gruppe's  Criechische  Mytho- 
hgte,  ii.  pp.  1100-1121;  Farnell's  Cults  of  the  Greek  States,  vol.  i. 
pp.  35-x  78 ;  Darembera;  and  Saelio,  Dietianmaire  des  antiquiiisgrecques 
et  rommneSt  a. v..  '*  Jupiter  ;  A.  B.  Cook's  articles  in  Classical 
Review,  1903-IQ04,  'Zeus,  Jupiter,  and  the  Oak";  for  cult- 
monuments  and  art-representations,  Overbeck,  Kunst^Mytkologie, 
voLL  (L.R.F.) 

ZEUXIS,  a  Greek  painter,  who  flourished  about  420-390  B.C., 
and  described  himself  as  a  native  of  Heraclea,  meaning  pro- 
bably the  town  on  the  Black  Sea.    He  was,  according  to  one 

>  Antiphon  vi.  p.  789 ;  Fausan.  i.  3, 5 :  cf.  Corp.  Inscr,  Attic,  iii.  683. 
'  Famelli  op.  cU.  voU  i.  p.  163. 

*  Amer.  Jowm.  ArchaeoL,  1905,  p.  302. 

*  C  /.  i4.  3,  7.    Head,  Hist.  Num.  p.  S69. 

*  Herod,  ix.  7,  4:  Find.  Nem.  v.  15  (Schol.). 
*Simonides.  Frag.  140  (Bergk),  Strab.  412. 

'  There  was  a  minor  onick  of  Zeus  at  Olympia.    See  Oraci.E. 

*  Fausan.  v.  24,  9.  *  Farnell,  op.  ciL  vol.  i.  pp.  64'^. 


•coount^a  pupQ  of  Damopbilias  of  Himera  in  Sicily,  the  otkff 
statement  being  that  be  was  a  pupil  of  Neseus  of  Thasos.  Af  ta> 
wards  he  appears. to  have  resided  in  Ephesus.  His  knon 
works  I 


I. 
a. 

3- 
4- 
5- 
6. 

7. 


Zeus  sarroonded  by  Deities.  J 

Eros  crowned  with  Roies.    ^ 

Marsyas  boand. 

Fan. 

Centaur  family. 

Boreas  or  Triton. 

Infant  Heracles  stcangUnff  the 
serpents  in  presence  oil  his 
parents,  Alcmeda  and  Am- 
phitryon. 


8.  Alcmena,    posribly 

name  'm*  V* 

9.  Helena  at  Ciotoa. 

10.  Fcnclope. 

11.  MenelauH 

12.  Athlete. 

13.  An  old  Woman. 

14.  Boy  with  grapes^ 

15.  Gra()es. 

16.  Monochromes^ 
17..-Piasdc  works  in  day. 


aaotkr 


In  andent  records  we  are  told  that  Zeuxis,  foUowing  tb? 
initiative  of  Apollodorus,  had  introduced  into  the  art  of  pai:;t- 
ing  a  method  of  representing  his  figures  in  light  and  shad>>« 
as  opposed  to  the  older  method  of  outline,  with  lai^e  02: 
masses  oi  colour  for  draperies,  and  other  details,  such  as  hid 
been  practised  by  Polygnotus  and  others  of  the  great  fres:. 
painters.  The  new  method  led  to  smaller  compositions,  as<i 
often  to  pictures  consisting  of  only  a  single  figure,  on  which  it 
was  more  easy  for  the  painter  to  demonstrate  the  combined 
effect  of  the  various  means  by  which  he  obtained  perfect  round- 
ness of  form.  The  effect  would  a^^iear  strongly  realistic,  as 
compared  with  the  older  method,  and  to  this  was  probably  due 
the  origin  of  such  stories  as  the  contest  in  which  Zeujds  painted 
a  bunch  of  grapes  so  like  leaUty  that  birds  flew  towards  it. 
while  Parrhasius  painted  a  curtain  which  even  Zeujds  mistook 
for  reaL  It  is  perhaps  a  variation  of  this  stoiy  when  we  are 
told  (Fliny)  that  Zeuxis  also  painted  a  boy  holding  grapes 
towards  which  birds  flew,  the  artist  remarking  that  if  the 
boy  had  been  as  well  painted  as  the  grapes  the  birds  would 
have  kept  at  a  distance.  But,  if  the  method  of  Zeiuds  led  him 
to  real  roimdness  of  form,  to  natural  colouring,  and  to  pictures 
consisting  of  single  figures  or  nearly  so,  it  was  likely  to  lead 
him  also,  to  search  for  striking  attitudes  or  motives,  which  by 
the  obviousness  of  their  meaning  should  emulate  the  plain 
intelligibility  of  the  larger  compositions  of  older  times,  Ludan, 
in  his  Zeuxis,  speaks  of  him  as  carrying  this  search  to  a  novel 
and  strange  degree,  as  illustrated  in  the  group  of  a  female 
Centaur  with  her  young.  When  the  picture  was  exhibited,  the 
^)ectators  admired  its  novelty  and  overlooked  the  skill  of  the 
painter,  to  the  vexation  of  Zeuxis.  The  pictures  of  Herades 
strangling  the  serpents  to  the  astonishment  of  his  father  and 
mother  (7),  Penelope  (xo),  and  Menelaus  Weeping  (xx)  aze 
quoted  as  instances  in  which  strong  motives  naturally  presented 
themsdves  to  him.  But,  in  spite  of  the  tendency  towards 
realism  inherent,  in  the  new  method  of  Zeuxis,  he  is  said  to  have 
retained  the  ideality  which  had  characterized  his  predecessors. 
Of  all  his  known  works  it  would  be  expected  that  this  quality 
would  have  appeared  best  in  his  famous  picture  of  Hdena,  for 
this  reason,  that  we  cannot  concdve  any  striking  or  effective 
inddent  for  him  in  her  career.  In  addition  to  this,  however, 
QuintiUan  states  {Inst.  Oral.  xii.  xo,  4)  that  in  respect  of  robust- 
ness of  types  Zeuxis  had  followed  Homer,  while  there  is  the 
fact  that  he  had  inscribed  two  verses  of  the  Iliad  (iii  156  seq.) 
under  his  figure  of  Hdena.  As  models  for  the  picture  he  was 
allowed  the  presence  of  five  of  the  most  beautiful  maidens  of 
CrotcMi  at  his  own.  request,  in  order  that  he  might  be  able  to 
"transfer  the  truth  of  life  to  a  mute  image."  Cicero  {De 
Invent,  ii.  i,  i)  assumed  that  2^uxis  had  found  distributed 
among  these  five,  the  various  dements  that  went  to  make  up  a 
figure  of  ideal  beauty.  It  should  not,  however,  be  understood 
that  the  psunter  had  made  up  his  figure  by  the  process  of  com- 
bining the  good  points  of  various  models,  but  rather  that  he 
found  among  those  models  the  points  that  answered  to  the 
ideal  Helena  in  his  own  mind,  and  that  he  merdy  required  the 
models  to  guide  and  correct  himself  by  during  the  process  of 
transferring  his  ideal  to  form  and  colour.  This  picture  also  is 
said  to  have  been  exhibited  publicly,  with  the  resxilt  that 
2Seuxis  made  much  profit  out  of  it.    By  this  and  other  means. 


ZHELBSNOVODSK— ZIEM 


979 


we  an  told,  he  became  to  ikh  as  rather  to  give  sway  Us  pic- 
tares  than  to  sdl  them.  He  presented  his  Alcmena  to  the 
AgTigentines,  his  Pan  to  King  Axcfaelaus  of  Macedonia,  whose 
palace  he  is  also  laid  to  have  decorated  with  paintings.  Accord- 
ing to  Pliny  {N.H.  ncxv.  6s),  he  made  an  ostentatious  *diq>lay 
of  his  wealth  at  Olympia  in  having  his  name  woven  in  letters 
of  gold  cMi  his  dress.  Under  his  picture  of  an  athlete  (xa)  he 
wrote  that  "  It  is  easier  to  revile  than  to  rival "  iMUfdjotrti  ns 
fmXXoy  fi  fuft^oerai).  A  oootempoFary,  Isocrates  {Dc  PenmU.  a), 
remarks  that  no  one  would  say  that  Zeuxb  and  Pairitasitts 
had  the  same  profession  as  those  peisons  who  paint  f/inakia^  or 
tablets  of  tcrra-cotta.  We  possess  many  examples  of  the  vase- 
painting  of  the  period  cirea  400  bx.,  and  it  is  noticeable  on 
them  that  there  is  great  freedom  and  facility  in  drawing  the 
human  form,  besides  great  carelessness.  In  the  absence  of' 
fresco  paintings  of  that  date  we  have  only  these  vases  to  fall 
back  upon.  Yet,  with  their  limited  resources  of  colour  and 
perspective,  they  in  a  measure  show  the  influence  of  Zeuxis, 
while,  as  would  be  expected,  they  retain  perhaps  more  of  the 
simplicity  of  older  times. 

ZHBLENTOVOMK.  a  health  resort  of  Russian  Caucasia,  in 
the  province  of  Terek,  lying  at  an  altitude  of  1885  ft.  on  the 
S.  slope  of  the  Zhelesnaya  Gora  (2805  ft.),  xx  m.  by  raO  N.N.W. 
from  Pyatigorsk.  It  possesses  chalybeate  brings  of  tempera- 
ture. 56^96^  Fahr.;  the  buildings  over  the  springs  were  erected 
in  18^3.  The  season  lasts  from  early  in  June  to  the  middle  of 
September. 

ZHITOlflll,  or  jTTOunt,  a  town  of  western  Russia,  capital 
f>i  the  government  of  VoDiynia,  on  the  Tcterev  river,  83  m. 
W.S.W.  of  Kiev.  Pop.  (1900)  80,787,  more  than  one-third 
Tews.  It  is  the  see  of  aii  archbishop  of  the  Orthodox  Greek 
'Jhtirch  and  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  Two  printing  offices 
in  Zhitomir  issue  nearly  one-half  of  all  the  Hebrew  books  printed 
in  Russia.  The  Jewish  merchants  carry  on  a  considerable 
export  trade  in  agricultural  produce,  and  in  timber  and  wooden 
wares  from  the  forests  to  the  north.  Kid  gloves,  tobacco,  dyes 
and  spirits  are  manufactured. 

.  Zhitomir  is  a  very  old  dty,  tracfition  tracing  its  foundation 
as  far  back  as  the  times  of  the  Scandinavian  adventurers, 
Askold  and  Dir  (gth  century).  The  annab,  however,  mention 
it  chiefly  in  connexion  with  the  invaaons  of  the  Tatars,  who 
plundered  it  in  the  X3th,  X4th  and  17th  centuries  (x6o6),  or 
in  connexion  with  destructive  conflagrations.  It  fell  under 
Lithuanian  rule  in  1320,  and  during  the  15th  century  was  one 
of  the  chief  dties  of  the  kingdom.  Later  it  became  part  of 
Poland,  and  when  the  Cossacks  rose  under  their  chieftain, 
Bogdan  Chmiebiicki  (1648),  they  sacked  the  town.  It  was 
annexed  to  Russia  along  with  the  rest  of  the  Ukraine  in  X778. 

ZHOB.  a  valley  and  river  in  the  N.E.  of  Baluchistan.  The 
Zhob  is  a  large  valley  running  from  the  hills  near  Ziarat  first 
eastward  and  then  northward  parallel  to  the  Indus  frontier, 
till  it  meets  the  Gomal  river  at  Khajuri  Kach.  It  thus  becomes 
a  strategic  line  of  great  importance,  as  being  the  shortest  route 
between  the  North-West  Frontier  Province  and  Quetta,  and 
dominates  all  the  Pathan  tribes  of  Baluchistan  by  cutting 
between  them  and  Aighanistan.  Up  to  the  ytta  1884  it  was 
practically  unknown  to  Eurbpeans,  but  the  Zhob  Valley  Expe- 
dition of  thA  year  opened  it  up,  and  in  1889  the  Zhob  Valley 
and  Gomal  Pass  were  taken  under  the  control  of  the  British 
Government.  The  Zhob  Valley  was  the  scene  of  punitive 
British  expeditions  in  1884  and  1890.  In  1890  Zhob  was 
formed  into  a  district  or  political  agency,  with  its  headquarters 
at  Fgrt  Sandeman:  pop.  (x9or)  3552.  As  reconstituted  in 
\^^,  the  district  has  an  area  of  9636  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1901) 
69,718,  mostly  Pathans  of  the  Kakar  tribe. 

See  Sir  T.  H.  Holdich's  Indian  Borderland  (1901):  Brace's 
Forward  Policy  {iQpo)l  McFall's  With  the  Zhob  Field  Force  (1895): 
and  Zhob  Dis^t  Gatetteer  (Bombay.  1907). 

ZIARAT  ("  a  Mahommedah  shrine  ")•  the  summer  residence 
of  the  chief  commissioner  of  Baluchistan,  and  sanatorium  for 
the  European  troops  at  Quetta:  8850  ft.  above  the  sea  and 


33  m.  by  cart-foad  from  the  nflway.  There  is  a  good  water* 
supply,  and  the  hills  around  are  well-wooded  and  picturesque. 

UCHT  (of  Zich  and  V&aonyke5),  the  name  of  a  noble  Magyar 
family,  ooaqucuous  in  Huniputan  hastoxy  from  the  latter  part 
of  the  x3th  century  onwards.  Its  first  authentic  ancestor  bore 
the  name  of  Zayk,  and  this  was  the  surname  o(  the  family 
until  it  came  into  possession  of  Zich  in  the  xsth  centuxy.  It 
first  came  into  great  promiaenoe  in  the  x6th  century,  behig  given 
countly  rank  in  1679  in  the  person  of  the  imperial  general 
Stefan  Zichy  (d.  1693).  His  descendants  divided,  first  hito  two 
branches:  those  of  Zichy-Palota  and  Zichy-Kariburg.  The 
Palota  line,  divided  again  into  three:  that  of  Nagy-L&ng,  that 
of  Adooy  and  Szent-Mikl68,  and  that  of  Palota,  which  died  out 
in  the  male  line  in  1874.  The  line  of  Zichy-Karlburg  (since 
x8ii  Zichy-Ferraris)  split  into  four  branches:  that  of  VedrOd, 
that  of  Vfasony,  and  those  of  Daruv&r  and  Ckics6,  now 
extinct. 

CODNT  KAsolyZichy  (x 753-1826)  was  Austrian  war  minister 
in  1809  and  minister  of  the  interior  m  1813-18x4;  his  son. 
Count  FerdinAnd  (1783-1862)  was  the  Austrian  field-marshal 
condemned  to  ten  years'  imprisonment  for  surrendering  Venice 
to  the  insurgents  in  1848  (he  was  pardoned  in  1851).  Count 
OdOn  {Edmttnd]  Zichy  (1809-1848),  administrator  of  the 
county  of  Veszpr6m,  was  hanged  on  the  30th  of  September 
X848  by  order  of  a  Hungarian  court-martial,  presided  over  by 
GSrgei,  for  acting  as  Jellachich's  emissary  to  the  imperial 
general  Roth.  Count  Fekenc  Zichy  (X811-1900)  was  secre* 
tary  of  state  for  commerce  in  the  Sz^ch^nyi  ministry  of  x84Sy 
but  retired  on  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution,  joined  the  im- 
perial side,  and  acted  as  imperial  commissary;  from  1874  to 
r88o  he  was  Austrian  ambassador  at  Constantinople.  Coitnt 
OdOn  Zicry  (r8xi-i894)  was  remarkable  for  his  great  activity 
in  promoting  art  and  industry  in  Austria-Hungary;  he  founded 
the  Oriental  Museum  in  Vienna.  His  son.  Count  Euoen 
Zichy  (b.  1837),  inherited  his  father's  Double  collations,  and 
followed  him  in  his  economic  activitiesr  he  three  times  visited 
the  Caucasus  and  Central  Asia  to  investigate  the  origfoal  seat 
of  the  Magyars,  publishing  as  the  result  Voyages  s«.  Caucau 
(2  vols.,  Budapest,  1897)  and  JDritle  dsuiHscke  Forsekungsreise 
(6  vols.,  fai  Magyar  and  German;  Budapest  and  Leipdg,  i90o-» 
1905).  Count  FerdinAnd  Zichy  (b.  1829),  vice-president  of 
the  Hungarian  stadtholdershfp  under  the  Mail&th  regime,  was 
condemned  in  X863  under  the  press  laws  to  the  loss  of  hb 
titles  and  to  imprisonment.  In  1867  he  was  elected  to  the 
Hungarian  parliament,  at  first  joining  the  party  of  De&k,  and 
subsequently  becoming  one  of  the  founders  and  leaders  of  the 
Catholic  People's  Party  (see  Hungary,  History).  His  second 
son,  Count  AlaoXr  Zichy  (b.  1864),  also  a  member  of  the 
Cathoh'c  People's  Party,  was  made  minister  of  the  royal  house* 
hold  in  the  Wekerie  cabinet  of  1906.  Count  JAnos  Zicry 
(b.  x868),  also  from  1896  to  X906  a  member  of  the  Catholic 
People's  Party  in  the  Lower  House,  and  after  1906  attached 
to  Andrtlssy's  Constitutional  Party,  was  of  importance  as  the 
confidant  of  the  heir  to  the  throne,  the  Archduke  Francis 
Ferdinand.  Cotjnt  GizA  Zichy  (b.  1849),  nephew  of  the 
Count  Ferenc  mentioned  above,  studied  under  Lisxt  and  ber 
came  a  professional  pianist;  in  1891  he  became  intendant  of 
the  Hungarian  national  opera-house,  a  member  of  the  Hungarian 
Upper  House  and  head  of  the  Conservatoire  at  Budapest. 
Count  MihAly  Zichy  (b.  1829),  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
Hungarian  painters,  was  appointed  court  painter  at  St  Peters- 
burg in  1847  and  accompanied  the  Russian  emperors  on  their 
various  Journeys.  The  National  Gallery  at  Budapest  possesses 
some  of  his  paintings,  notably  that  of  "Queen  Elizabeth  before 
the  coffin  of  Francis  Dc4k  ";  but  he  is  best  known  for  hi* 
illustrations  of  the  works  of  the  great  Magyar  writers  (Pet©fy. 
Arany,  &c.). 

ZIEH.  FfiUX  FRANCOIS  GEORGE  PHILIBEBT  (i82x-  ), 
French  painter,  was  born  at  Bcaune  (C6te  d'Or)  in  x8ai. 
Having  studied  at  the  art  school  of  Dijon,  where  he  carried  oft 
the  grand  prix  for  architecture,  he  went  to  Rome  in  1839  and 
there  continued  his  studies.     The  years  from  1845  to  1848 


980 


ZIERIKSEE— ZIMBABWE 


vere  spent  in  tnvd  in  the  south  of  France,  Italy  and  the  East, 
where  he  found  the  glowing  sunlight  and  the  rich  colour 
peculiarly  suited  to  his  temperament.  His  reputation  is,  how- 
ever, not  based  so  much  on  his  orientalist  canvases  as  on  his 
pictures  of  Venice,  which  are  generally  characterized  by  the 
intensity  of  the  sunny  glow  on  the  red  sails  and  golden-yellow 
buildings  under  a  deep  blue  sky.  Many  of  his  Venetian  pic- 
tures are  purely  imaginative,  and  their  appeal  is  entirely  due 
to  their  qualities  of  colour,  his  architectural  drawing  being 
frequently  faulty  and  careless.  After  "  Sunrise  at  Stamboul," 
which  Theodore  Gautier  called  "  the  finest  picture  of  modem 
times,"  he  received  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1857,  and  was 
made  an  officer  in  1878.  The  majority  of  his  paintings  have 
gone  to  American  private  collections,  but  two  of  his  finest 
pictures,  "  The  Doge's  FaJaoe  in  Venice'*  (1852),  and  a  marine- 
painting,  are  at  tlw  Luxembourg  Museum,  and  a  *'  View  of 
Quai  St  Jean,  Marseilles"  at  the  Marseilles  Gallery,  whilst 
many  others  are  to  be  found  in  the  leading  private  collections 
of  modem  pictures  in  France,  England  and  Ctnaany.  In. 
collaboration  with  Luc  de  Vos  he  illustrated  Tkt  Death  oj 
Paganini. 

See  FHix  Ziem,  by  L.  Roger-MUte  {lAbrmrU  de  Port,  Paris). 

ZIERIKSEE,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Zecland,  Holland,  on 
the  south  side  of  the  island  of  Scbouwen.  Pop.  6800.  It  is  a 
very  old  town,  and  formerly  flourished  exceedingly  on  account 
of  its  trade  and  fishing,  and  important  salt-maldng  industry, 
and  now  is  the  chief  market  centre  and  port  in  the  island. 
Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the  town-hall  (xsth  century); 
the  Great  Church,  which  was  rebuilt  after  a  fire  in  1832,  but 
retains  the  lofty  tower  (1454)  belonging  to  the  earlier  building; 
the  Little  Church,  the  prison  and  the  exchange.  The  chief 
public  square  occupies  the  site  of  a  residence  of  the  counts  of 
Zeeland  dating  from  X048. 

ZIETEN,  HANS  JOACHIM  VON  (X699-Z786),  Prussian 
general-field-marshal,  began  his  military  career  as  a  volunteer 
in  an  infantry  r^ment.  He  retired  after  ten  years'  service, 
but  soon  afterwards  became  a  lieutenant  of  dragoons.  Being 
involved  in  some  trade  transactions  of  his  squadron-commander, 
he  was  cashiered,  but  by  some  means  managed  to  obtain 
reinstatement,  and  was  posted  to  a  hussar  corps,  then  a  new 
arm.  At  that  time  light  cavalry  work  was  well  known  only 
to  the  Austrians,  and  in  1735  Rittmcister  von  Zieten  made  the 
Rhine  campaign  under  the  Austrian  general  Baronay.-  In 
1741,  when  just  promoted  lieutenant-colonel,  Zieten  met  his 
old  teacher  in  battle  and  defeated  him  at  the  action  of  Roth- 
schloss.  The  chivalrous  Austrian  sent  him  a  complimentary 
letter  a  few  days  later,  and  Winterfeld  (who  was  in  command  at 
Rothschloss)  reported  upon  his  conduct  so  favourably  that 
Zieten  was  at  once  marked  out  by  Frederick  the  Great  for  high 
command.  Within  the  year  he  was  colonel  of  the  newly  formed 
Hussar  regiment,  and  henceforward  his  promotion  was  rapid. 
In  the  "  Moravian  Foray  "  of  the  following  year  Zieten  and  his 
hussars  penetrated  almost  to  Vienna,  and  in  the  retreat  to 
Silesia  he  was  constantly  employed  with  the  rearguard.  Still 
more  distinguished  was  his  part  in  the  Second  Silesian  War. 
In  the  short  peace,  the  hussars,  like  the  rest  of  the  Prussian 
cavalry,  had  undergone  a  complete  reformation;  to  iron  dis- 
cipline they  had  added  the  dash  and  skirmishing  qualities  of 
the  best  irregulars,  and  the  hussars  were  considered  the  best 
of  their  arm  in  Europe.  Zieten  fought  the  brilliant  action  of 
Moldau  Tein  almost  on  the  day  he  received  his  commission  as 
major-general  In  the  next  campaign  he  led  the  famous 
Zidenritt  round  the  enemy's  lines  with  the  object  of  delivering 
the  king's  order  to  a  distant  detachment.  At  Hohenfriedberg- 
Striegau  and  at  Katholisch-Hennersdorf  the  hussars  covered 
themselves  with  glory.  Hennersdorf  and  Kesselsdorf  ended 
the  second  war,  but  the  Prussian  army  did  not  rest  on  its  laurels, 
and  their  training  during  the  ten  years'  peace  was  careful  and 
unceasing.  When  the  Seven  Years'  War  broke  out  in  1756 
SUeten  had  just  been  made  lieutenant-general.  At  Reichen- 
b<»rg  and  at  Prag  he  held  important  commands,  and  at  the  dis- 
astrous battle  of  Kolin  (i8th  June  1757)  his  left  wing  of  cavalry 


was  the  only  victorious  coips  of  troops.   At  Leuthea,  the  matt 

brilliant  battle  of  the  x8th  century,  2Ueten's  cavalry  began  the 

fighting  and  completed  the  rout  of  the  Austrians.   He  continued, 

during  the  whole  of  the  war,  to  be  one  of  Frederick^  most  trusted 

generals.    Almost  the  only  error  in  his  career  of  battles  was 

his  misdirection  of  the  frontal  attack  at  Torgau,  but  be  ledeemed 

the  mistake  by  his  desperate  assault  on  the  Sipdtx  heights, 

which  eventually  decided  the  day.     At  the  peace,  Geneial 

Zieten  went  into  retirement,  the  hero  alike  of  the  army  and 

the  people.    He  died  in  1786.    Six  years  later  Frederick's  sac- 

cessor  erected  a  column,  to  his  memoiy  01^  the  Wilhelmqilatz  in 

Berlin. 

See  the  Lives  by  hisdau^tcr,  Fran  von  Blumentha]  (Beriia> 
1800).  by  Hahn  (5th  ed..  Berlin,  1878),  by  Lippe-Weiaseafad 
(?nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1878).  and  by  Winter  CLctpcig.  188^. 

ZIMfiABWE*  a  Bantu  name,  probably  derived  from  the  two 
words  s»iiite  ("  houses  ")  and  mabgi  ("  stones  "),  given  to  certain 
ruins  hi  South-East  Africa.  Its  use  is  not  con&ied  to  Southern 
Rhodesia  and  should  not  properly  be  restricted  to  any  one 
particular  site.  For,  as  the  medieval  Portuguese  stated,  it  is 
merely  a  generic  term  for  the  capital  of  any  conaderable  chief, 
and  it  has  been  applied  even  by  them  to  several  distinct  places. 
From  about  1550  onwards  the  Zimbabwe  generally  referred  to 
by  Portuguese  writers  was  at  a  spot  a  little  north  oi  the  Afar 
district,  not  far  from  the  ZaitnbezL  There  is  some  reasoa, 
however,  to  suppose  that  before  this  the  capital  of  the  Monoroo- 
tapa  was  situated  much  farther  south,  and  it  may  plausibly 
be  identified  with  the  most  extensive  ruins  as  yet  known,  viz. 
those  near  Victoria  (Mashonaland)  to  which  popular  usage  has 
now  attached  par  excellence  the  name  of  Zimbabwe. 

These  ruins  were  discovered  by  Adam  Renders  in  x86S  and 
explored  by  Karl  Mauch  in  1871.  They  became  well  known 
to  English  readers  from  J.  T.  Bent's  account  of  the  Ruined 
Cities  of  Mashonalandt  but  the  popularity  of  that  work  di»> 
seminated  a  romance  concerning  their  age  and  origin  which 
was  only  dispelled  when  scientific  investigations  undertaken  in 
1905  showed  it  to  be  wholly  without  historical  warrant.  Even 
before  this  it  had  been  dear  to  archaeologists  and  ethnologists 
that  there  was  no  evidence  to  support  the  popular  theory  tliat 
2^babwe  had  been  built  in  very  ancient  days  by  some  Orienul 
people.  Swan's  measurements,  which  had  misled  Bent  into 
accepting  a  chronology  based  on  a  supposed  orientation  of  the 
"temple,"  had  been  shown  to  be  inexact.  There  was  no 
authentic  instance  of  any  inscription  having  been  found  there 
or  elsewhere  in  Rhodesia.  Numerous  objects  had  been  dis- 
covered in  the  course  of  excavations,  but  not  one  of  them  could 
be  recognized  as  more  than  a  few  centuries  old,  while  those 
that  were  not  demonstrably  foreign  imports  were  of  African 
type. 

The  explorations  conducted  in  1905  added  positive  evidence. 
For  it  was  proved  that  the  medieval  objects  were  found  in 
such  positions  as  to  be  necessarily  contemporaneous  with  the 
foundation  of  the  buildings,  and  that  there  was  no  super- 
position of  periods  of  any  date  whatsoever.  Finally  from  a 
comparative  study  of  several  ruins  it  was  established  that  the 
plan  and  construction  of  Zimbabwe  are.  by  no  means  unique, 
and  that  this  site  only  differs  from  others  in  Rhodesia  in  respect 
of  the  great  dimensions  and  the  massiveness  of  its  individual 
buildings.  It  may  confidently  be  dated  to  a  period  not  earlier 
than  the  14th  or  xsth  century  A.O.,  and  attributed  to  the  same 
Bantu  people  the  remains  of  whose  stone-fenced  kraal3  are  found 
at  so  many  places  between  the  Limpopo  and  the  2^mb^. 

There  are  three  distinct  though  connected  groups  of  ruins  at 
"Zimbabwe,  which  aife  commonly  known  as  the '  "  Elliptical 
Temple,"  the  " Acropolis "  and  the  "Valley  Ruins."  The 
most  famous  is  the  first,  which  is  doubly  misnamed,  since  it  is 
not  a  temple  and  its  contour  is  too  unsymmetrical  to  be  de- 
scribed properiy  as  elliptical.  It  is  an  irregular  enclosure  over 
800  ft.  in  circumference,  with  a  maximum  length  of  193  ft. 
and  a  maximum  breadth  of  220  ft.,  surrounded  by  a  dry-buili 
wall  .of  extraordinary  massiveness.  This  wall  is  in  places  over 
30  ft.  high  and  14  ft.  wide,  but  is  very  erratic  in  outh'ne  and 


ZIMMERMANN— ZINC 


981 


wiabte  ki  tbicknesi.  The  most  arefciUy  executed  part  h  on 
the  south  and  south-east,  where  the  wall  is  decorated  by  a  row 
of  granite  monoliths  beneath  which  runs  a  double  line  of 
cbevTon  ornament.  The  interior  has  been  much  destroyed  by 
the  ravages  of  gold-seekers  and  amateur  excavators.  Enough, 
however,  remains  to  show  that  the  scheme  was  a  combination 
of  such  a  stone  kraal  as  that  at  Nanatali  with  the  plan  of  a  fort 
liice  those  found  about  Inyanga.  The  only  unique  feature  is 
the  occurrence  of  a  large  and  a  small  conical  tower  at  the  southern 
end,  which  Bent  and  others  considered  to  be  representatives  of 
the  hximan  phallus.  Their  form,  however,  is  not  suificienlly 
characteristic  to  warrant  this  identification,  though  it  may  be 
noted  that  the  nearest  approximation  to  phallic  worship  is 
found  amongst  the  most  typical  of  African  peoples,  viz.  the 
Ewe-speaking  natives  of  the  West  Coast.  The  floor  of  the 
enclosure  is  constituted  as  in  the  other.  Zimbabwe  buildings 
by  a  thick  bed  of  cement  which  extends  even  outside  the 
main  wall.  This  cement  mass  is  heightened  at  many  places  so 
as  to  make  platforms  and  supports  for  huts.  Groups  of  these 
dwellings  are  enclosed  by  subsidiary  stone  walls  ao  as  to  form 
distinct  units  within  the  larger  precinct. 

The  "  Acropolis  "  is  In  some  ways  more  remarkable  than  the 
great  kraal  which  has  just  been  described.  It  is  a  hill  rising 
200  to  joo  ft.  above  the  valley,  fortified  with  the  minutest 
cue  and  with  extraordinary  ingenuity.  The  principles  of  con- 
struction,  the  use  of  stone  and  cement  are  the  same  as  in  the 
"  elliptical  ^*  kraal,  there  is  no  deflnito  plan,  the  shape  and 
Arrangement  of  the  enclosures  being  determined  solely  by  the 
nataral  features  of  the  ground.  Between  this  and  the  "  ellip- 
tical *'  kraal  are  the  "  Valley  Ruins,"  consisting  of  smaller 
btiildmgs  which  may  have  been  the  dwellings  of  those  traders 
who  bartered  the  gold  brought  in  from  distant  mines.  Zimbabwe 
was  probably  the  distributing  centre  for  the  gold  traffic  carried 
on  in  the  middle  ages  between  subjects  of  the  Monomotapa 
and  the  Mahommedans  of  the  coast. 

Compare  also  the  articles  Rhodesia*  Archaeology,  and 
Monomotapa. 

See  D.  Randall-Maclver,  Mediaewd  Rhodesia  (London,  1906); 
Journal  of  Antkrop.  Inst.,vo\.  xxxv.;  Ceog.  Journal  (1906;: 
Mauch's  rei)ort  in  Auslcnd  (1872)  is  now  only  of  btbUographicaf 
interest,  while  Bent's  Ruined  Cities  of  Mashnnaland  (iSp2)  and 
R.  N.  Hall's  Great  Zimbalnoe  (1905)  are  chiefly  valuable  for  thdr 
fflustrations.'  (O.  R.-M.) 

ZIMMERMAHlf*  JOHANN  GBORQ«  Rxttbk  von  ii77&' 
1795),  Swiss  philosophical  writer  and  physician,  was  bom  at 
Brugg,  in  the  canton  of  Aargau,  on  the  8th  of  December  1728. 
He  studied  at  Gottingen,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor 
ol  mediciiie;  and  he  established  his  reputation  by  the  diaserta* 
tion,  De  irrilabililaie  (1751).  After  travelling  in  Holland  and 
France,  he  practised  as  a  physician  in  his  native  place,  and 
beie  he  wrote  Ober  die  Einsamkeit  (1756,  emended  and  enlarged, 
1784-85)  and  Vom  Nationalstch  (1758).  These  books  made  a 
great  impresnon  in  Germany,  and  were  translated  into  almost 
every  European  language.  They  are  now  only  of  historical 
intorest.  In  Zimmermann's  character  there  was  a  strange 
combination  of  acntimentalism,  melancholy  and  enthusiasm; 
and  it  was  by  the  free  and  eccentric  expression  of  these  qualities 
that  he  excited  the  interest  of  his  contemporaries.  Another 
book  by  him,  written  at  Brugg,  Von  der  Erfakrung  m  der 
Arwneiwissensckaft  (1764),  also  attracted  much  attention.  In 
1768  he  settled  at  Hanover  as  private  physician  of  George  III. 
with  the  title  of  Hofrat.  Catherine  If  invited  him  to  the 
court  of  St  Petersburg,  but  this  invitation  he  declined.  He 
attended  Frederick  the  Great  during  that  monarch's  last  Qlness, 
and  afterwards  issued  various  books  about  him,  of  which  the 
chief  were  Ober  FrUderich  den  Grossen  und  meine  Unterredung 
mil  ikm  kurz  tor  seinem  Tode  (1788)  and  Fragmenle  Hber  Friedrich 
den  Grossen   (1790).     These  writings  display  extraordinary 

*  [In  1909  Hall  (Miblished  anoth<»r  volume.  Prehistoric  Rhodesia, 
in  which'he  maintained,  in  emphatic  opposition  to  Dr  Maclver's 
conclusions,  that  the  ruins  were  of  ancient  date  and  not  the  un- 
aided work  of  Bantu  negroes.  See  the  review  by  Sir  Harry  J<AnsCon 
in  the  Oeog.  Jnl,,  Nov.  1909.    Ed.1 


personal  vanity,  and  convey  a  wh6Ily  false  Impression  of 
Frederick's  character.  Zimmermann  died  at  Hanover  on  the 
7th  of  October  1795. 

See  A.  Rengger,  Zimmermann*s  Briefe  an  einiio  stiner  Freunda 
in  der  Schweis  (1830)  ;'E.  Bodemann,  Johann  Ceorg  Zimmermann, 
sein  Leben  nnd  bisker  ungedruckte  Briefe  an  %kn  (Hann..  1S78); 
and  R.  Ischer,  Johann  Geerg  Zimmtrmann's  Leben  una  Werke 
(Bernok  1893). 

ZINC,  a  metallic  chemical  element;  its  symbol  is  Zn,  and 
atomic  weight  65*37  (Oai6),  Zinc  as  a  component  of  brass 
(xoXxiiv,  6pd-xa><Kos)  had  ctirre^cy  in  metallurgy  long  before 
it  became  known  as  an  individual  metal.  Aristotle  refers  to 
brass  as  the  "  metal  of  the  Mosynoed,"  *  which  is  produced  as 
a  bright  and  light-coloured  xaX<c^>  not  by  addition  of  tin,  but 
by  fusing  up  with  an  earth.  Plmy  explidtly  speaks  of  a  mineral 
Koittda  or  cadmia  as  serving  for  the  conversion  of  copper  into 
aurichalcum,  and  says  further  that  the  deposit  (of  zinc  oxide) 
formed  in  the  brass  furnaces  coidd  be  used  iiutead  of  the 
mineral.  The  same  process  was  used  for  centuries  after  Pliny, 
but  its  rationale  was  not  understood.  Stahl,  as  late  as  1703, 
quoted  the  formation  of  brass  as  a  case  of  the  union  of  a  metal 
with  an  earth  into  a  metallic  compound;  but  he  subsequently 
adopted  the  view  propounded  by  Kunckeltn  1677,  that "  cadmia  ** 
is  a  metallic  calx,  and  that  it  dyes  the  copper  yellow  by  giving 
its  metal  up  to  it. 

The  word  zinc  (in  the  form  zinken)  was  first  used  by  Para- 
celsus, who  regarded  it  as  a  bastard  or  semi-metal,  but  the 
word  was  subsequently  used  for  both  the  metal  and  its  ores. 
Moreover,  zinc  and  bismuth  were  confused,  and  the  word 
spiauier  (the  modem  spelter)  was  indiscriminately  given  to 
both  these  metals.  In  1597  Libavius  described  a  "peculiar 
kind  of  tin  "  which  was  prepared  in  India,  and  of  which  a  friend 
had  given  him  a  quantity.  From  his  account  it  is  quite  dear 
that  that  metal  was  zinc,  but  he  did  not  recognize  it  as  the  metal 
of  calamine.  It  is  not  known  to  whom  the  discovery  of  Isolated 
zinc  is  due;  but  we  do  know  that  the  art  of  zinc-smelting  was 
practised  in  England  from  about  1730.  The  first  continental 
zinc-works  were  erected  at  Li^ge  In  1807. 

Occurrence. — Zinc  does  not  occur  free  in  nature,  but  in  com- 
bination it  is  widdy  diffused.  The  chief  ore  is  zinc  blende,  or 
sphalerite  (see  Blende),  which  generally  contains,  in  addition 
to  zinc  sulphide,  small  amounts  of  the  sulphides  of  iron,  alver 
and  cadmium.  It  may  also  be  accompanied  by  pyrites,  galena, 
arsenides  and  antimonidea,  quartz,  caldte,  dolomite,  8(c.  It 
Is  widely  distributed,  and  is  particularly  abundant  in  Germany 
(the  Harz,  Silesia),  Austro-Hungary,  Belgium,  the  United 
States  and  in  England  (Cumberland,  Derbyshire,  Cornwall, 
North  Wales).  Second  in  importance  is  the  carbonate,  cala- 
mine {q  0.)  or  zinc  spar,  which  at  one  time  was  the  prindpal 
ore;  it  abnost  invariably  contains  the  cartxmates  of  cadmium, 
iron,  manganese,  magnesium  and  calcium,  and  may  be  con- 
taminated with  clay,  oxides  of  iron,  galena  and  caldte;  "  white 
calamine  "  owes  its  colour  to  much  day;  "  red  calamine  "  to 
admixed  iron  and  manganese  oxides.  Calamine  chiefly  occurs 
in  Spain,  Silesia  and  in  the  United  States.  Of  less  importance 
is  the  ulicate,  ZniSiO^'HsO,  named  dcctric  calamine  or  hemi- 
morphite;  this  occurs  in  quantity  in  Altenbnxg  near  Aiz-la- 
Chapdle,  Sardinia,  Spain  and  the  United  States  (New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Missouri,  Wisconsin).  Other  zinc  minerals  are 
willemite  {q.v),  ZniSiO*,  bydrozindte  or  zinc  bloom, 
ZaC0k*9Zn(0H)i,  zindte  {q.t.)  or  red  sine  ore,  ZnO,  and  fiank- 
Unite,  3(Fe,Zn)0-(Fe,Mn)i0i. 

Production, — ^Until  about  1833  the  suppler  of  zinc  was  almost 
entirely  obtained  from  Germany,  but  in  this  year  Russia  began 
to  contribute  about  aooo  tons  annually^  to  the  6000  to  7000 
derived  from  Germany.  Belgium  cntcreci  in  1837  with  an  output 
of  about  aooo  tons;  England  in  185^  with  ^000;  and  the  United 
States  in  1873  with  6000  tons.  The  proouctions  of  Gennanv. 
Belgium  ana  the  United  Sutes  have  enormously  and  f^rly 
regularly  increased;  the  rise  has  been  most  rapid  in  the  United 

-  -  

*  From  the  name  of  this  tribe  the  German  word  Messing,  |>ra8S, 
is  undoubtedly  derived  (see  K.  B.  Hoflmann.  Ztit.  f  Berg,  nnd 
Hiittonwesen,  vol.  41). 


98a 


ZINC 


State*.  En^nd,  Fnuice,  Spain  and  Austna  have  been  Cairly 
constant  producers.  Germany  produced  155.799  tons  in  l^oo,  and 
198.208  in  1905,  Belgium,  120.000  in  1900  and  I43ii65  in  1905; 
the  United  Sutes,  1 1 1 ,000  in  (900  and  183.014  in  1905.  liie  worhf  a 
supply  was  445.438  tons  m  1900,  and  654^67  in  1905. 

Metallurgy 

The  {principles  underlying  the  extraction  of  sine  mav  be  sum- ' 
manzed  as  (i)  the  ore  is  first  converted  into  zinc  oxiae;  ^2)  the 
oxide  IS  distilled  with  carbon  and  the  distillate  of  metallic  zinc 
Condensed.  Oxide  of  zinc,  like  most  heavy  metallic  oxides,  is 
easily  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  by  heating  it  to  redness  with 
charcoal,  pure  rod  zinc  ore  mav'  be  treated  directly,  and  the 
same  mieht  be  done  with  pure  calamine  of  any  kind,  because  the 
earbon  ^oidde  of  the  zinc  carbonate  goes  off  below  redness  and 
the  silica  of  zinc  ttlicatc  only  retards,  but  does  not  prevent,  the 
reducing  action  of  the  charcoal  Zinc  blende,  however,  being  zinc 
sulphide,  is  not  dircctJy  reducible  by  charcoal,  but  it  is  easy  to 
convert  it  into  oxide  by  roasting  the  sulphur  goes  off  as  sulphur 
dioxide  whilst  the  zinc  remains  in  the  (infusible)  form  of  oxide, 
'ZnO.  In  practice,  however,  we  never  have  to  deal  with  pure 
zinc  minerals,  but  with  complex  mixtures,  which  must  first  o«  all 
be  subjected  to  mechanical  operations,  to  remove  at  least  part 
of  the  gangue.  and  if  possible  also  of  the  heavy  metallic  impurities 
(see  0|tB-ORBssiNc). 

At  ores  of  zinc  are  usually  shipped  before  smelting  from  widely 
sepacated  places — Sweden,  b^in,  Algiers,  Italy,  Greece,  Australia 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains  region  of  North  America — it  is  important 
that  they^  be  separated  from  their  mixtures  at  the  mines.  The 
difficulty  in  separating  zinc  blende  from  iron  pyrites  is  well  known, 
and  probably  ^  the  most  elaborate  ore-dressing  works  ever  built 
have  been  designed  with  this  end  in  view.  The  Wetherill  system 
of  magnetic  concentration  has  been  remarkably  successful  in 
separating  the  minerals  contained  in  the  well-known  deposit  in 
Sussex  county,  N.J.  Here  very  clean  non-magnetic  concentrate 
of  willemite,  which  is  an  anhydrous  zinc  silicate  and  a  very  high- 
grade  zinc  ore,  is  separated  from  an  intimate  mixture  of  willemite, 
zincite  and  franklinites,  with  calcite  and  some  manganese  silicates. 
The  magnetic  concentrates  contain  enough  zinc  to  be  well  adapted 
to  the.  manufacture  <^  zinc  oxide.  Magnetk  concentration  b  also 
applied  in  the  removal  of  an  excess  of  iron  from  partially  roasted 
blende.  Neither  mechanical  nor  magnetic  concentration  can  eflfect 
much  in  the  way  of  separation  when,  as  in  many  complex  ores, 
carbonates  of  iron,  calcium  and  magnesium  replace  the  isomorphous 
tine  carbonate,  when  some  iron  sulphide  containing  less  sulphur 
than  pyrites  replaces  zinc  sulphide,  and  when  ^old  and  silver  are 
contained  in  the  zinc  ore  i  itself.  Hence  only  in  exceptional  cir- 
cumstances is  it  possible  to  utilize  a  large  class  of  widely  distri- 
buted ores,  carr>'ing  from  10  to  35  per  cent,  of  zinc,  in  which  the 
zinc  alone,  estimated <at  3d.  a  pound,  is  worth  from  about  £2  to  £7 
per  ton  of  ore.  The  ores  of  the  Joplin  district,  in  the  Ozark  uplift 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  are  remarkable  in  that  they  are  specially 
adapted  to  mechanical  concentration.  The  material  as  mined  will 
probably  not  average  over  10  per  cent,  of  zinc,  but  the  dressed 
zinc  ore  as  sold  ranges  from  45  to  62  per  cent,  of  zinc.  This  region 
now  furnishes  the  bulk  of  the  ore  required  by  the  smeltera  of  Illinois, 
Missouri  and  Kansas. 

The  ore,  even  if  it  Is  not  blende,  must  be  roasted  or  calcined  in 
order  to  remove  all  volatile  components  as  completely  as  possible, 
because  these,  if  allowed  to  remain,  would  cariy  away  a  large 
proportion  of  the  zinc  vapour  during  the  distillation.  If  the  nnc 
IS  present  as  blende,  this  operation  ofi[ers  considerable  difficulties, 
because  in  the  roastine  process  the  zinc  sulphide  passes  in  the 
first  instance  into  sulpnatc,  which  demands  a  high  temperature 
for  its  conversion  into  oxide.  Another  point  to  be  considered  in 
this  connexion  ia  that  the  masaes  of  sulphur  dioxide  evolved,  being 
destructive  of  vegetable  life*  are  an  intolerable  nuisance  to  the 
neighbourhood  in  which  the  operations  take  place.  For  the  de- 
ftulnhurization  of  zinc  blende  where  it  is  not  intended  to  collect 
ana  sa've  the  sulphur  there  are  many  mechankal  kilns,  generally 
classified  as  straight-line,  horse-shoe,  turret  and  shaft  kilns;  all 
of  these  may  be  made  to  do  good  work  on  moderately  clean  ore? 
which  do  not  melt  at  the  temperature  of  dcsulphurization.  But 
the  problem  of  saving  the  sulphur  is  yearly  becoming  more  im- 
portant. In  roastinK  a  ton  of  ridi  blende  containing  60  per  cent, 
of  zinc  enough  sulphur  is  lifa«ratcd  to  produce  one  ton  of^stning 
sulphuric  acid,  ana  unless  this  is  collected  not  only  are  poisonous 
gases  discharged,  but  the  waste  is  considerable.  When  sulphuric 
or  sqiphunous  acid  is  to  be  collected,  it  is  important  to  keep  the 
fuel  gas  from  admixture  with  the  sulphur  gases,  and  kilns  for  this 
purpose  reouire  some  modification.  If  hot  air  is  introduced  into 
the  kiln,  tne  additional  heat  developed  by  the  oxidation  of  the 
zinc  and  the  sulphur  is  sufficient  to  keep  up  a  part  of  the  reaction, 
but  for  the  complete  expulsion  of  the  sulphur  an  externally-fired 
muffle  through  wnkh  the  ore  is  passed  is  found  to  be  essential. 

DistillaHon  of  the  Oxide  with  Charcoal. — ^The  distillation  process 
in  former  times,  especially  In  England,  used  to  be  carried  out 
*'  per  dcscensum."  The  mittom  01  a  crucible  Is  perforated  by  a 
pipe  which  projects  into  the  crucible  to  about  two-thirds  of  its 


heiglit.    The  mixtiiiv  of  ore  and  chareoBl  is  put  into  tbe 

around  the  pipe,  the  crucible  dosed  by  a  loted-on  Ud,  and  placed 
in  a  furnace  constructed  so  as  to  permit  of  the  lower  end  of  the 
pipe  projecting  into  the  ash-pit.  The  zinc  vajxrar  produced 
descends  through  the  pipe  and  condenses  into  liquid  aiac,  whicli 
is  collected  in  a  ladle  held  under  jhe  outlet  end  oi  the  pipe.  For 
manufacturing  purposes  a  furnace  similar  to  that  used  for  the 
making  of  glass  was  employed  to  heat  a  circular  row  of  cnidbles 
standing  on  a  shelf  along^  the  wall  of  the  furnace.  This  system, 
however,  has  long  been  abandoned. 

The  modern  ttrocesses  nay  be  primarily  divided  mto  two  gioupt 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  vessel  in  which  the  operation  k 
effected  These  distilling  vessels  are  called  retorts  il  they  aie 
supported  only  at  the  ends,  and  the  furnace  using  them  is  termed 
a  Belgian  furnace.  If  they  are  tuppofted  at  intervals  along  a  riat 
side,  they  are  called  muffte,  and  tne  furnace  ia  known  at  a  Silesba 
furnace  Vanous  combinations  and  modifications  of  these  t»o 
types  of  furnace  have  given  rise  to  distinctive  names,  and  as  each 
system  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages  local  conditions 
determine  which  is  the.  better 

In  the  Belgian  process  the  reduction  and  distillation  aze  earned 
out  w  ^yiindncal  or  eUiptical  retorts  of  fire-clay,  from  3  ft.  3  in. 
to  4  ft.  9  in  long  and  6  to  10  in  .internal  diameter.  Some  forty- 
six  or  more  retorts,  arranged  in  parallel  horizontal  rows,  are  heated 
in  one  furnace.  The  furnaces  are  square  and  open  in  front,  to 
allow  the  outlet  ends  of  the  retorts  to  project,  tney  aze  Krov^ped 
together  by  fours i  and  their  several  chimneys  are  within  tne  suce 
enclosune.  Each  retort  is  provided  with  two  adapters,  namely, 
a^ conical  pipe  of  fire-clay,  about  i<  in.  long,  whicn  fits  into  the 
retort  end.  and  a  conical  tube  of  sncct  iron,  which  fits  over  the 
end  of  the  fire^rbhr  pipe,  and  which  at  its  outlet  end  b  only  about 
an  inch  wide,  lo  start  a  new  furnace,  the  front  side  ia  dosed 
provisionally  by  a  brick  wall,  a  fire  lighted  inside,  and  the  tempera- 
ture raised  very  gradually  to  a  white  neat.  Afier  four  days'  heating 
the  provisional  front  wall  is  removed  piecen-.eal,  and  the  retorts, 
after  having  been  heated  to  redness,  are  inserted  in  osrespondiac 
sets.  The  charge  of  the  retorts  consists  of  a  mixture  of  1 100  £ 
of  roasted  calamine  and  550  lb  of  dry  powdered  coal  per  furnace. 
A  newly  started  furnace,  nowcver,  is  used  for  a  time  with  smaller 
charges.  Supposing  the  last  of  these  preliminary  distillatioRS  to 
have  been  complete,  the  residues  left  in  the  retorts  are  removed, 
and  the  retorts,  as  they  lie  in  the  hot  furnace,  are  charged  by  means 
of  semi-cylindrical  shovels,  and  their  adapters  put  on  The  charging 
operation  being  completed,  the  temperature  is  raised,  and  as  a 
consequence  an  evolution  of  carbon  monoxide  soon  begins,  and 
becomes  visible  by  the  gas  bursting  out  into  the  cfaancteristic 
blue  flame.  After  a  time  the  flame  becomes  dazzling  white,  ahowing 
that  zinc  vapour  is  beginning  to  escape.  The  iron  adapters  aie 
now  slipped  on,  and  left  on  for  two  hours,  w^hen,  as  a  matter  of 
experience,  a  considerable  amount  of  zinc  has  gone  out  of  the 
retort,  the  greater  part  into  the  fireclay  adapter,  the  rest  into  the 
iron  cone.  The  former  contains  a  mixture  of  semi-solid  and  molten 
metal,  which  is  raked  out  into  iron  ladles  and  cast  into  plates  of 
66  to  77  lb  weight,  to  be  sold  aa  "  spelter."  The  contents  of  tbe 
iron  redpient  consist  of  a  powdery  mixture  of  oxide  and  metal, 
which  is  added  to  the  next  charge,  except  what  is  put  aside  to  te 
sold  as  "  zinc  dust."  This  dust  may  amount  to  10  per  cent  of  the 
total  production.  As  soon  as  the  adapters  have  been  cleaced  of 
their  contents,  they  are  replaced,  and  again  left  to  themedves  for 
two  hours«  to  be  once  more  emptied  and  replaced,  &c.    The  com- 

elete  exhaustion  of  tbe  charge  of  a  furnace  takes  about  eleven 
ours. 
In  the  Silesian  process  the  distillation  is  conducted  in  specially 
oonttrucied  muffles  of  a  prismatic  shape  arched  above»  which  are 
arranged  in  two  parallel  rows  within  a  low-vaulted  furnace,  similar 
to  the  pots  in  a  glass  furnace.  At  a  rule  every  furnace  accom- 
modates ten  muffles.  Through  an  orifice  in  the  outlet  pipe  >  which 
is  closed  during  the  distillation  by  a  loose  plug)  a  hot  iron  rod 
can  be  introduced  from  time  to  time  to  dear  away  any  solid  zinc 
that  may  threaten  to  obstruct^  it.  As  toon  as  the  outlet  pipe  has 
become  sufficiently  hot  the  zinc  flows  through  It  and  collects  in 
conveniently  placed  receptacles  Abofit  six  or  eight  hours  after  start- 
ing the  distillation  is  in  full  swing,  and  in  twenty-four  hours  it  is 
completed.  A  fresh  charge  b  then  put  in  at  once,  the  mulBes  beiiv 
cleared  only  after  three  successive  distillations.  The  distillate  consists 
of  a  conglomerate  of  drops  ("  drop  zinc  ")•  It  is  fused  up  in  iron  ba&ins 
lined  with  clay,  and'^cast  out  into  the  customary  form  of  cakes. 

The  chief  improvements  in  the  plant  of  these  processes  are  con- 
oeraed  with  the  manufacture  of  the  retorts  or  muffles,  and  especially 
with  tbe  introduction  of  gas-firing.  Even  a  machine  of  simple 
type,  tike  the-  ordinary  drain-pipe  machine,  in  which  the  rciort» 
are  made  by  forcing  the  plastic  clav  mixtute  through  a  die,  may 
result  in  greater  economy  and  uniformity  than  is  possible  «hen 
retorts  are  made  by  hand.  When  hydraulic  pressure  to  the  ainount 
of  2000  to  3000  lb  per  square  jnch  is  applied,  the  saving  is  unques- 
tioned, since  less  time  is  required  to  dry  the  pressed  retort,  its  life 
in  the  furnaces  is  longer,  its  absorption  of  zinc  is  lest,  and  liie 
loss  of  zinc  by  passage  through  its  walls  in  the  form  of  vapour 
•  is  reduced. 


ZINC 


983 


lime  modes  of  0M*firing  tfe  to  be  notioed,  etch  of  which  is 

adapted  to  special  local  conditions,  (a)  The  gas  is  made  from  the 
fuel  ia  a  detached  fireplace  and  conducted  while  hot  into  the  com- 
bustion  chamber  of  the  furnace,  and  the  air  for  complete  combustion 
is  heated  by  the  products  of  combustion  on  their  way  to  the  chimney- 
ed) Both  the  producer  gas  and  the  air  ace  heated  before  they  enter 
the  oombttttbn  chamber,  as  in  the  Siemens  system  of  regenerative 
firing,  (c)  Natural  fas  is  piped  to  the  furnace,  where  it  meets 
air  heated  by  the  chimney  gases.  The  primary  advantages  of  gas* 
firing  are  that  leas  fud  is  required,  that  there  is  better  contHM  of 
the  heat  in  the  furnace,  and  that  larger  and  more  accessible  furnaces 
can  be  Inrilt.  in  Silesia  the  introduction  of  gas-firing  has  led  to 
the  use  of  furnaces  containing  eighty  muffles.  In  the  United 
States.  Belgian  furnaces  of  type  (a)  are  built  to  contain  864  retorts; 
of  type  (b),  to  contain  300  to  400  retorts;  and  of  type  (c),  prefer- 
ably about  600  retorts.  The  use  of  sas-fired  furnaces  greatly 
simpliftes  manual  labour.  On  a  direct'lired  furnace  at  least  one 
man,  the  brigadier, must  be  an  expert  in  all  the  operations  involved; 
but  with  a  gas  fomace  a  division  of  labour  is  possible.  One  man 
who  understands  the  use  of  ^aeous  fuel  can  reguhite  the  heat  of 
a  thousand  or  more  retorts.  The  men  who  charee  and  empty  the 
retorts,  those  who  draw  and  cast  the  metal,  and  those  who  keep 
the  furnace  in  rqsair,  need  not  know  anything  about  the  making 
or  using  of  gas,  and  the  men  who  make  the  eas  need  not  know 
anything  about  a  zine  furnace.  Again,  in  direct-fired  furnaces 
there  are  commonly  seven  or  eight  rows  of  retorts,  one  above 
another,  so  that  to  serve  the  upper  rows  the  workman  must  stand 
upon  a  table,  where  he  is  exposed  to  the  full  heat  of  the  furnace 
and  requires  a  helper  to  wait  upon  him.  With  gas-firing  the  retorts 
can  be  arranged  in  four  horizontal  rows,  all  within  reach  of  a  man 
on  the  furnace-room  floor.  Furthermore,  with  tlie  huge  furnaces 
which  gas-firing  makes  possible  mechanical  appliances  may  he 
substituted  for  manual  labour  in  many  operations,  such  as  removing 
and  replacing  broken  retorts,  mixins  and  conve>'ing  the  charge, 
drawing  and  casting  the  metal,  chaigmg  and  emptying  the  retorts, 
and  removing  the  residues  and  products. 

Re^^ning. — The  specific  effects  of  different  impurities  on  the 
physical  properties  of  zinc  have  only  been  imperfectly  studied. 
Fortunately,  however,  the  small  amounts  of  any  of  them  that  arc 
likely  to  bie  found  in  T:omtxicrcial  zinc  arc  not  for  most  purposes 
very  deleterious.  It  is  generally  recognized  that  the  purest  ores 
produce  the  purest  metal.  Grades  of  commercial  zinc  are  usually 
based  on  selected  ores,  and  brands,  when  they  mean  anything, 
usually  mean  that  the  metal  b  made  from  certain  ores.  Chemical 
control  of  the  metal  purchased  is  not  nearly  as  common  as  it 
should  be,  and  the  refining  of  zinc  is  at  best  an  imperfect  opera- 
tion. To  obtain  the  metal  chemically  pure  a  specially  prepared 
pure  oxide  or  salt  of  zinc  is  distilled.  A  redistilled  zinc,  from  an 
ordinarily  pure  commercial  zinc,  is  often  called  chemically  pure, 
but  redistillation  is  seldom  practised  except  for  the  recovery  of 
zinc  from  g-*lvanizcr's  dross  and  from  the  skimmings  and  bottoms 
of  the  melting  furnaces  of  zinc  rolling  mills.  The  only  other  method 
of  rcfming  is  by  oxidizing  and  settling.  A  bath,  even  of  very 
impure  zinc,  b  allowed  to  stand  at  about  the  temperature  of  the 
mcltinc-point  of  the  metal  for  forty-eight  or  more  hours,  where- 
upon tne  more  easily  oxidizable  impurities  can  be  larccly  removed 
in  fhc  dross  at  the  top,  the  heavier  metals  such  as  lead  and  iron 
settling  towards  the  oottom.  This  method  is  rarely  practised 
except  by  the  rollers  of  zinc.  A  certain  amount  of  refined  zinc 
can  be  aipped  from  the  furnace;  a  further  amount,  nearly  free 
from  iron,  can  be  liquated  out  of  the  ingots  cost  frorn  the  lx>ttom 
of  the  bath  in  a  BUDec()ucnt  slow  remcfting,  and  it  is  sometimes 
possible  to  eliminate  a  zinciferous  lead  which  collects  in  the  sump 
of  the  furnace.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  at  tcm{)cratures  between 
its  melting  and  boiling  point  zinc  has  a  strong  affinity  for  iron, 
it  is  often  contaminated  by  the  scraper  while  being  drawn  from 
the  condenser,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  scraper  wears  away 
rapidly.  As  each  retort  in  a  furnace  is  in  all  essentials  a  separate 
crucible,  and  as  the  metal  from  only  a  few  of  them  goes  into  a 
single  ingot,  there  can  be  no  uniformity  either  in  the  ingots  made 
from  the  same  furnace  during  a  day's  run  or  in  those  made  from 
several  furnaces  treating  the  same  ore.  Some  brassfounders  break 
from  a  Mngle  ingot  the  quantity  of  zinc  required  to  produce  the 
amount  of Jbrass  they  wisn  to  compound  in  one  crucible,  but  when 
perfect  uniformity  is  desired  the  importance  of  remelting  the  zinc 
on  a  large  scale  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 

EUcirolytie  Separation  cf  Zinc.-^he  deposition  of  pure  zinc  b 
beset  with  many  difficulties.  Zinc  being  more  electro-posiiive  even 
than  nickel,  all  the  heavy  metals  must  he  removed  before  its  deposi- 
tion is  attemptra.  Moreover,  unless  the  conditions  are  closely 
watched,  it  is  liable  to  be  thrown  down  in  a  spongy  form.  Nf. 
Kiliani  found  that  the  sponge  was  produced  chiefly  when' a  weak 
solution,  or  a  low  current-density,  was  used,  and  that  hydrogen 
was  usually  evolved  simultaneously;  sound  deposits  resulted  from 
the  use  of  a  current-density  of  200  amperes,  or  more,  per  8<i  ft., 
and  strong  solutions.  The  cause  of  the  spongy  deposit  b  variously 
explained,  some  (Siemens  and  Halske)  ascribing  it  to  the  existence 
of  a  compound  of  zinc  and' hydrogen,  and  others,  among  whom 
are  C.  Nahosen.  F-   Mylius  and  A.  Fromm,  F.  Foerster  and 


W.  Borchers,  trace  it  to  the  presence  of  oxide,  produced,  for  example, 
either  by  the  use  of  a  solution  containing  a  trace  of  bask  salt  of 
zinc  (to  prevent  which  the  bath  should  be  kept  inst— -almost  imper- 
ceptibly— acid),  or  by  the  presence  of  a  more  electro-negative 
metal,  whicln  being  00-deposited.  sets  up  bcal  action  at  the  expense 
of  the  zinc  Many  processes  have  be«n  patented,  the  ore  being 
acted  upon  by  acid,  and  the  resulting  solution  treated,  by  either 
chemical  or  electrolytic  means,  for  the  successive  removal  of  the 
other  heavy  metals.  The  pure  solution  of  sine  is  then  electrolysed. 
E.  A.  Ashcroft  patented  a  process  of  dealing  with  complex  ores 
of  the  well-known  Broken  Hill  type,  containing  sulphides  of  silver, 
lead  and  sine,  but  the  system  was  abandoned  after  a  long  trial 
on  a  practical  scale.  A  full  account  ol  the  process  (Ttmu.  IhsS. 
Min.  and  Mtt.,  1898,  vol.  vi.  p.  28a)  has  been  published  by  the 
Inventor,  dteeribing  the  practical  trial  at  the  Cockle  Credc  Works. 
The  ore  was  cresncd  roasted,  and  leached  with  sulphuric  acid 
(with  or  without  ferric  sulphate) ;  the  solutwn  was  purified  and 
then  electrolysed  for  zinc  with  Ind  anodes  and  with  a  Current- 
density  of  5  amperes  per  eq.  ft.  at  2-75  vohs  when  diaphragms 
were  usied,  or  3*5  vohs  when  they  were  dbpensod  whh,  or  with 
10  amperes  per  sq«  ft.  at  3  or  2-5  volts  respectively,  the  electrolyte 
containing  i*j  lb  of  sine  in  the  form  of  sulphate,  and  }  to  4  oz. 
of  sulphuric  acid,  per  ralk>n.  The  current  efficiency  was  about 
83  per  cent.  Canvas  diaphragms  were  used  to  prevent  the  add 
formed  by  electrolysb  at  the  anode  from  muung  with  the  cathode 
liquor,  and  so  hindering  deposition.  C.  Hoe^ner  has  patented 
several  processes,  in  one  of  which  (No.  13,^36  of  1894)  a  rapidly 
rorattn^  cathode  is  used  in  a  chloride  solution,  a  porous  partition 
separating  the  tank  into  anode  and  cathode  compartments,  and 
the  chlorine  generated  by  electrolysb  at  the  anode  being  recovered. 
Hoepfner's  processes  have  been  employed  both  In  England  and 
in  Germany.  Nahnsen's  process,  with  an  electrolyte  containing 
alkali-metal  sulphate  and  zmc  sulphate,  has  been  used  in  Germany, 
and  a  process  invented  by  Dieffenbach  has  al&o  been  trkd  in  that 
country.  Siemens  and  Halske  have  proposed  the  addition  of 
oxidizing  agents  such  as  free  halogens,  to  prevent  the  formation 
of  zinc  nydridc,  to  which  they  attribute  the  formation  of  zinc- 
sponge.  Borchere  and  others  deposit  zinc  from  the  fusfcd  chloride. 
In  Borehera'  process  the  chloride  is  heated  portly  by  external 
firing,  partly  by  the  heat  generated  owing  to  the  use  of  a  current- 
density  of  90  to  100  amperes  per  sq.  ft. 

Properties 

Zinc  b  a  bluish-white  metal,  showing  a  high  lustre  when  freshly 
fractured.  It  fuses  at  415*  C.  and  under  ordinary  atmocphcnc 
pressure  boils  at  ioao*  C.  Its  vapour  density  shows  that  it  is 
monatomia  The  molten  metal  on  cooling  deposits  crysrals  belong- 
ing to  the  hexagonal  system,  and  freezes  into  a  compact  crystal- 
line  solid,  which  may  be  brittle  or  ductile  according  to  circum- 
stances. If  zinc  be  cast  into  a  mould  at  a  red  heat,  the  tn^ot 
produced  b  laminar  and  brittle;  If  cast  at  just  the  fusing-point, 
It  is  granular  and  sufficiently  ductile  to  be  rolled  into  sheet  at  the 
ordinary  temperature.  According  to  some  authorities,  pure  zinc 
always  yields  ductile  ingots.  Commerebl  "  spelter  "  always  breaks 
under  the  hammer;  but  at  loo**  to  150*  C  it  b  susceptible  of 
beinz  rolled  out  into  even  a  very  thin  sheet.  Such  a  bhcet,  if  once 
produced,  remains  flexible  when  cold.  At  about  aoo*  C,  the 
metal  becomes  so  brittle  that  it  can  be  pounded  in  a  mortar-  The 
specific  gravity  of  zinc  cannot  be  expected  to  be  perfectly  constant; 
according  to  Karsten,  that  of  pure  ingot  is  6-91^,  and  rises  to 

?"I91  after  rolling.  The  coefficient  of  linear  expansion  is  0-002,905 
or  lOO*  from  o  upwards  (Fizeau).  The  specific  heat  is  o«09555 
(Regnault).  Comf»ct  zinc  is  btunh  white:  it  does  not  tarnish 
much  in  the  air.  It  is  fairljr  soft,  and  clogs  the  file.  .If  sine  be 
heated  to  near  its  boiling-point,  it  catches  fire  and  bums  with  a 
brilliant  light  into  its  powdery  white  oxide,  which  forms  a  reek 
in  the  air  (Asfin  phUosophica,  "philosopher's  wool  "^.  Boiling  water 
attacks  it  appreciably,  but  slightly,  with  evolution  of  hydrogen 
and  formation  of  the  hydroxide,  Zn(OH)t.  A  rod  of  perfectly  pure 
zinc,  when  immersed  m  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  is  so  very  slowly 
attacked  that  there  is  no  visible  evolution  of  gas;  but,  u  a  piece 
of  platinum,  copper  or  other  more  electro-positive  metal  be  brought 
into  contact  wirh  the  zinc,  it  dissolves  readily,  with  evolution  of 
hydrogen  and  formation  of  the  sulphate.  The  ordinarj^  impure 
metal  dissolves  at  once,  the  more  readily  the  less  pure  it  b.  Cold 
dilute  nitric  acid  dissolves  zinc  as  nitrate,  with  evolution  of  nitrous 
oxide.  At  higher  temperatures,  or  with  stronger  acid,  nitric  oxide, 
NO,  is  produced  besiocs  or  instead  of  nitrous.  Zinc  ts  also  soluble 
in  soda  and  potash  solutions,  but  not  in  ammonb. 

Amplications.— Zinc  is  largely  used  for  "gal\^anizing"  iron,  sheets 
of  clean  iron  being  immerud  in  a  bath  of  the  molten  metal  and 
then  removed,  so  that  a  coat  of  zinc  remains  on  the  iron,  which 
is  thereby  protected  from  atmospheric  corrosion.  It  is  also  a  con- 
stituent of  many  valuable  alloys;  brass,  Muntz-mctal.  pinchbeck, 
tombac,  are  examples.  In  technological  chemistry  it  finos  applica- 
tion as  a  reducing  agent,  e.t.  in  tne  production  of  aniline  from 
nitrobenzene,  but  the  use  of  iron  is  generally  preferable  in  view 
of  the  cheapness  of  thb  metal. 


984 


ZINCITE 


Compounds 


Zinc  fonns  only  one  oxide,  ZnO,  from  which  ia  derived  a  well- 
characterized  aenes  of  aalts.  It  i«  chemically  related  to  cadmium 
and  mercury,  the  resemblance  to  cadmium  being  especially  well 
naarked;  one  distinction  is  that  sine  is  less  baalgenic  Zinc  is 
capable  of  isomorphoaaly  replacing  many  of  the  bi^ent  metal»~ 
ms^nesium,  manganese,  iron,  nickel,  cobalt  and  cadmium. 

Ztiic  oToJe,  ZnO,  is  maufactured  for  paint  by  two  procesaea  ■ 
directly  from  the  ore  mixed  with  coal  by  volatilization  on  a  gratev 
aa  in  the  Wctherill  oxide  prooees,  and  by  oxidizing  the  vapour 
given  off  by  a  boiling  bath  of  sine  metaL  The  oxide  made  by  the 
utter  method  has  generally  a  better  colour,  a  finer  texture,  and  a 
greater  covering  power.  It  is  also  manufactured  by  the  latter 
pcooess  from  the  metallic  zinc  liquated  out  of  galvaaizer's  droes. 
It  is  an  infusible  solid,  which  is  intensely  yellow  at  a  red  heat,  but 
on  cooling  becomes  white.  This  at  least  is  true  of  the  oxide  pro- 
duoDd  from  the  metal  by  combustion;  that  produced  from  the 
carbonate,  if  once  made  yellow  at  a  rod  heat,  retains  a  yellow 
shade  permanently.  By  heatinjK  the  nitrate  it  Is  obtained  as 
hemimorphous  pyramids  belonging  to  the  hexagonal  system;  and 
by  heating  the  chloride  in  a  current  of  steam  as  hexagonal  prisms. 
It  is  insoluble  in  water;  it  dissdves  readily  in  all  aqueous  acids, 
with  formation  of  salts.  It  also  dissolves  in  aqueous  caustic 
alkalb,  including  ammonia,  forming  "  ziacatea  '*  («.£.  Zn(OK)a]. 
Zinc  oxide  is  uMd  in  the  arts  as  a  white  pigment  (zinc  white); 
it  has  not  by  any  means  the  covering  power  of  white  lead,  but 
offers  the  advantages  of  being  non-poisonous  and  of  not  becoming 
discoloured  in  sulrauretted  hydrogen.    It  is  used  also  in  medicine. 

Zinc  hydroxide,  Zn  (OH)i.  is  prepared  as  a  gelatinous  precipitate  by 
adding  a  solution  of  any  zinc  salt  to  caustic  potash.  Tne  alkali 
must  be  free  from  carbonate  and  an  excess  of  it  must  be  avoided, 
otherwise  the  hydrate  redissolves.  It  is  a  white  powder,  and  is 
insoluble  in  water.  To  acids  and  to  aUcalia  it  behaves  like  the 
oxide,  but  dissolves  more  readily. 

Zinc  chloride,  ZnCU,  is  produced  by  heating  the  metal  in  dry 
chlorine  gas,  when  it  distils  over  as  a  white  tranSucent  mass,  fusing 
at  250"  and  boiling  at  about  400*.  Its  vapour-density  at  900*  C 
corresponds  to  ZnCli.  It  is  extremely  hygroscopic  and  is  used 
in  synthetical  oi^nic  chemistry  as  a  condensing  agent.  It  dis- 
solves in  a  fraction  of  its  weight  of  even  cold_  water,  forming  a 
•yrupy  solution.  A  solution  of  zinc  chloride  is  easily  produced 
from  the  metal  and  hydrochloric  acid ;  it  cannot  be  evaporated  to 
dryness  without  considerable  decomposition  of  the  hyaratcd  salt 
into  oxychloride  and  hydrochloric  aad,  but  it  may  be  crystallized 
aa  ZnClfHiO.  A  concentrated  solution  of  zinc  chloride  converts 
starch,  cellulose  and  a  great  many  other  organic  bodies  into  soluble 
compounds;  hence  the  application  of  the  fused  salt  as  a  caustic 
in  surgery  and  the  impossibility  of  filtering  a  strong  ZnCU  solution 
through  paper  (see  Cellulosb).  At  a  boiling  heat,  zinc  chloride 
dissolves  in  any  proportion  of  water,  and  higiily  concentrated 
solutions,  of  course,  ooii  at  high  temperatures;  lience  they  afford 
arconvenient  medium  for  the  maintenance  of  hi^h  temperatures. 
^  Zinc  chloride  solution  readily  dissolves  the  oxide  witn  the  forma- 
tion of  oxychloridcs,  some  of  which  are  used  as  pigments^  cements 
and  for  filling  teeth  in  dentistry.  A  solution  of  the  oxide  in  the 
chloride  has  the  property  of  dissolving  silk,  and  hence  is  employed 
for  removing  this  fibre  from  wool. 

Zinc  bromide,  ZnBrs,  and ^Zinc  iodide,  Znlt>  are  deliquescent 
solids  formed  by  the  direct  union  of  their  elements.  With  ammonia 
and  alkaline  bromides  and  iodides  double  salts  are  formed. 

Zinc  sulphide,  ZnS,  occurs  in  nature  as  blende  (y.o.),  and  is  arti- 
ficially obtained  as  a  white  precipitate  by  passing  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  into  a  neutral  solution  of  a  zinc  salt.  It  dissolves  in 
mineral  acids,  but  is  insoluble  in  acetic  acid. 

Zinc  sulphate,  ZnS04+7HtO,  or  white  vitriol,  is  prepared  by 
dissolving  the  metal  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  If  care  oe  taken 
to  keep  tne  zinc  in  excess,  the  solution  will  be  free  from  all  foreign 
metals  except  iron  and  perhaps  manganese.  Both  are  easny 
removed  by  passing  chlorine  through  the  cold  solution,  to  produce 
ferric  and  manganic  salt,  and  then  digesting  the  liquid  with  a 
washed  precipitate  of  basic  carbonate,  produced  from  a  small 
portion  of  the  solution  by  means  of  sodium  carbonate.  The  iron 
and  manganese  are  precipitated  as  hydroxides,  and  are  filtered  off. 
The  filtrate  is  acidibed  with  a  little  sulphuric  acid  and  evaporated 
to  crystallization.  The  salt  crystallizes  out  on  cooling  with  7  mole- 
cules of  water,  forming  colourless  orthorhombic  prisms,  usually 
small  and  necdle-shapeo.  They  are  permanent  in  the  air.  Accoro- 
ing  to  Poggiale,  100  parts  of  water  dissolve  respectively  of  (7HtO) 
salt.  115-2  parts  at  0%  and  6^36  oarts  at  100  .  At  100"  C  the 
crystals  lose  6  of  their  molecules  of  water;  the  remaining  molecule 
goes  off  at  250*,  a  temperature  which  lies  close  to  that  at  which 
the  salt  begins  to  decompose.  The  anhydrous  salt,  when  exposed 
to  a  red  heat,  breaks  up  into  oxide,  sumhur  dioxide  and  oxygen. 
An  impure  form  of  the  salt  is  prepared  by  roasting  blende  at  a 
low  temperature.  In  the  arts  it  is  employed  in  the  preparation  of 
varnishes,  and  as  a  mordant  for  the  production  of  colours  on  calico. 
A  green  pigment  known  as  Rinmann's  green  is  prepared  by  mixing 
100  parts  of  zinc  vitriol  with  2-5  parts  of  cobalt  nitrate  ana  heating 
*he  mixture  to  redness,  to  produce  a  compound  of  the  two  oxides. 


Zinc  aniphate,  like  magneeium  aalphate,  anitca  with  (he  aulphatet 
of  the  potassium  metals  and  of  ammonium  into  cryralline  doofale 
salts,  ZnSO«'RtSOi-h6H^,  iaomorphoua  with  one  anotber  and  the 
magneuum  aalta. 

Zinc  carbonate,  ZnCO«,  occura  in  nature  aa  the  mineral  falawiof 
(9.*.),  but  has  never  been  prepsued  artifidally,  basic  earbomatet, 
ZnCO|.xZn(OH)«,  where  x  ia  variable,  being  obtained  by  pccipi- 
tatiiig  a  aolution  of  the  sulphate  or  chloride  with  aodium  caitKMiate. 
To  obtain  a  product  free  of  Q  or  S04»  thennaaxt  be  an  cmesa  of 
alkali  and  the  zinc  aalt  must  be  poured  into  the  hot  aolutioii  of 
the  carbonate.  The  precipitate,  even  after  eadiaaative  waahiQg  with 
hot  water,  still  contains  a  trace  of  alkali;  but  from  the  oxide, 
prepared  from  it  by  lanition,  the  alkali  can  be  waabed  away.  The 
baaK  carbonate  ia  uaedf  aa  a  ptgroent. 

Of  zinc  f^oaphatea  we  notice  themineralahopeite,  Zn.a(PO«)9.4H  A 
and  tarbuttite,  Zni(PO«)s.Zn(OH)t.  both  found  in  Rhodesia. 

Analysis, — From  neutral  solutions  of  its  aalta  zinc  ia  precipitated 
by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  aa  sulphide,  ZnS— a  white  ptfeopitat^ 
soluble,  but  by  no  meana  readily,  in  dilute  mineral  acida,  but 
inaoluble  in  acetic  acid.  In  the  caae  of  acetate  the  predpitatioa 
ia  quite  complete:  from  a  sulphate  or  chloride  aolutioa  tht  greater 
part  of  the  metal  soes  into  the  precipitate;  in  the  pfcaeoce  of  a 
auffidency  of  free  HCl  the  metal  remaina  diaaolved;  sulphide  ef 
ammonium  precipitatea  the  metal  completely,  even  in  the  preaenoe 
of  ammonium  salta  and  free  ammonia.  The  precipitate,  when 
heated,  passea  into  oxide,-  which  is  yellow  in  the  heat  and  white 
after  cooling;  and,  if  it  be  moistened  with  cofaolt  nitrate  aolotioo 
and  re-heated,  it  exhibits  a  green  colour  after  cooling. 

Zinc  may  be  quantitatively  estimated  by  precipitating  aa  baaic 
carbonate,  which  is  dried  and  i^ted  to  zinc  oxide.  It  may  also 
be  precipitated  as  zinc  ammonium  phosphate,  NHtZnPO*.  which 
is  weighed  on  a  filter  tared  at  loo^  Volumetric  methoda  have 
alao  been  devised. 

Pharmacoloct  and  Tbbbapbutics  op  Zinc  Compounds 

Zinc  chloride  is  a  powerful  caustic,  and  Is  prepared  with  plaster 
of  Paris  in  the  form  of  sticks  for  destroying  warts,  &c.  Its  use 
for  this  purpose  at  the  present  day  is,  however,  very  rare,  the 
knife  or  galvanocautery  being  preferred  In  most  cases.  The  salt 
is  a  corrosive  irritant  poison  when  taken  internally.  The  treat- 
ment is  to  wash  out  the  stomach  or  give  such  an  emetic  as  apo- 
morphine.  and,  when  the  stomach  has  been  emptied,  to  administer 
demulcents  such  as  white  of  egg  or  mucilage.  Numerous  other 
salts  of  zinc,  used  in  medicine,  are  of  value  as  containing  this  metal. 
Certain  others  are  referred  to  in  relation  with  the  important  radicle 
contained  in  the  salt.  Those  treated  here  are  the  sulphate^  oxide, 
carbonate,  oleate  and  acetate.  All  these  salts  are  mild  astnneents 
when  applied  externally,  as  they  coagulate  the  albumen  of  the 
tissues  and  of  any  discharge  wnich  may  be  present.  In  virtue 
of  this  property  they  are  also  mild  haemostatics,  tending  to  coagu- 
late the  albumens  01  the  blood  and  thereby  to  arrest  haemorrhage. 
Lotto  Rubra,  the  familiar  "  Red  Lotion."  a  solution  of  zinc  sulphate, 
is  widely  used  in  many  catarrhal  inflammations,  as  of  the  ear, 
urethra,  conjunctiva,  &c.    There  are  also  innumerable  ointments. 

These  salts  have  been  extensively  employed  internally,  and 
indeed  they  are  still  largely  employed  in  the  treatment  of  the 
more  severe  and  difficult  cases  ol  nervous^  disease.  The  sulphate 
is  an  excellent  emetic  In  cases  of  poisoning,  acting  rapidly  and 
without  much  nausea  or  depression.  For  these  reasons  it  may 
also  be  given  with  advantage  to  children  suffering  from  acute 
bronchitis  or  acute  laryngitis. 

Bibliography. — For  the  history  of  zinc  see  Bernard  Neumann, 
Die  Metalle  (1904);  A.  Rossing,  Geschuhte  der  Metalle  (1901). 
For  the  chemistry  see  H.  Roscoc  and  C  Schorlemmer,  Treatise  on 
Inorganic  Chemistry,  vol.  2  (1897);  H  Moissan,  Irattt  de  chimi* 
minerale;  O.  Dammcr,  Handbuch  der  anorganischen  Chemie.  For 
the  metallurgy  sec  Walter  Renton  Ingalls,  The  MetaQwgy  of  Ztnc 
and  Cadmium,  Production  and  Properties  of  Zinc-  A.  Lodin, 
MitaUurgie  du  tine  (1905);  C.  Schnabel,  Handbooh  of  MetaUurfy, 
Enelish  translation  by  H.  Loub  (1907).  See  alao  The  Mineral 
Industry   (annual). 

ZINCITE,  a  mineral  consisthig  of  zinc  oxide  (ZnO),  cr>'8txiniz> 
ing  in  the  hemimorphic-hemihedral  class  of  the  rhombohedral 
system.  Distinct  crystals  are  of  rare  occurrence;  they  have 
the  form  of  a  hexagonal  pyramid  termmated  at  one  end  only  by 
a  basal  plane.  There  is  a  perfect  cleavage  parallel  to  the  basal 
plane,  and  usually  the  mineral  is  found  as  platy  foliated  masses. 
The  blood-red  colour  and  the  orange-yellow  streak  are  char- 
acteristic features.  The  hardness  is  4I,  and  the  q>ecific  gravity 
is  5*6.  Some  manganese  is  usually  present  rq>ladng  zinc.  It 
is  found  in  the  zinc  mines  at  Sterling  Hill  and  Franklin  Fur- 
nace in  Sussex  county,  New  Jersey,  where  it  is  associated  with 
franklinite  and  willemite  in  crystalline  limestone,  and  is  mined  as 
an  ore  of  zinc.  Artificial  crystals  of  a  white  or  yellowish  colour 
arc  not  infrequently  formed  by  sublimation  in  zinc  furnaces. 


ZINDER— ZINZENDORF 


985 


ZIKDER,  a  town  on  the  northexn  margiB  of  the  central 
Sudan.  Zfaider  is  a  great  emporium  of  the  trade  across  the 
Sahara  between  the  Hausa  states  of  the  south  and  the  Tuareg 
countries  and  Tripoli  in  the  north.  Its  ruler  'was  formerly 
subordinate  to  Bomu,  but  with  the  decline  of  that  kingdom  shook 
off  the  yoke  of  the  sultan,  and  on  the  conquest  of  that  country 
by  Rabah  (q.v.)  seems  to  have  maintained  his  independence.  The 
country  of  which  Zinder  is  the  capital  is  known  as  Damerghu. 
It  is  semi-fertile,  and  supports  considerable  numbers  of  horses 
and  sheep,  besides  troops  of  cameb.  By  the  Anglo-French 
agreement  of  June  1898  it  was  included  in  the  French  sphere, 
having  already  been  the  object  of  French  political  action.  The 
^xplorer  Cazemajou  was  assassinated  there  in  1897,  but  the 
town  was  occupied  in  July  1899,  after  a  slight  resistance,  by 
Lieutenant  Palller  of  the  reconstructed  Voulet-Chanome 
mission  (see  Senegal,  country).  A  French  post  (named  Fort 
Cazemajou)  was  built  outside  the  town  on  a  mound  of  huge 
granite  blocks.  Zinder  was  the  first  point  m  the  Sudan  reached 
by  F  Foureau  after  his  great  jou^iey  across  the  Sahara  via 
AiT  in  1899.  Subsequently  Commandant  Gadel,  from  his  head- 
quarters at  Zinder,  mapped  and  pacified  the  surrounding 
region,  and  sent  out  columns  of  mckanstes  (camel-corps)  which 
occupied  the  oasis  of  Air  and  Bilma  in  1906.  Zinder  is  a  large 
and  fine  town  surrounded  with  high  earthen  walls,  very  thick 
at  the  base  and  pierced  with  seven  gates.  Its  houses,  in  part 
built  of  clay,  m  part  of  straw,  are  interspersed  with  trees. 
There  is  an  important  colony  of  Tuareg  merchant^,  who  occupy 
the  suburb  of  Zengu,  and  who  deal  in  a  variety  of  wares,  from 
cotton,  silks,  spices,  ostrich  feathers,  &c ,  to  French  scent 
bottles.  Salt  is  a  great  article  of  merchandise.  A  busy  market 
IS  held  outside  one  of  the  gates.  Administratively  Damerghu 
is  dependent  on  the  French  colony  of  Upper  Senegal  and  Niger 

Sec  Cazcmaiou,  in  Bui.  Com.  de  VAfnque  Franqaise  (iQOO). 
F  Foureau.  in  La  Glographu  (December  1900),  D' Alter  au  Con^o 
par  le  Tchad  (Paris,  1902);  Joa Hand,  m  La  Gcograpkie,  vol  iii 
(1901).  E.  Arnaud  and  M.  Cortier,  Nos  Con/ins  Sahartens  (Paris, 
1908),  C  Jc^n,  Lts  Touarag  du  Sud-Eil  (Paris,  1909) 

ZINGERLB.  IGKAZ  VICENZ  (1825-1892),  Austrian  poet  and 
scholar,  was  bom,  the  son  of  the  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
and  orientalist*  Pius  Zingerle  (1801-1881),  at  Meran  on  the  6th 
of  June  1825  He  began  his  studies  at  Trient,  and  entered  for 
a  while  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Marienberg.  Abandoning 
the  clerical  profession,  he  returned  to  Innsbruck,  where,  in  1848, 
he  became  teacher  in  the  gymnasium,  and  in  1859  professor  of 
German  language  and  literature  at  the  university  He  died  at 
Innsbruck  on  the  17th  of  September  1892. 

Zingerie  is  known  as  an  author  by  his  Zettgedichte  (Innsbruck, 
1848):  Von  den  Alpen  (1850):  Die  MuUerin,  a  village  tale  (1853); 
Dtr  Bau»r  von  LongoaU  (1874):  and  Endklungen  aus  dem  Burg- 

SrafenamU  (1884).  His  ethnographical  writing!}  and  literary  studies, 
caling  especially  with  the  Tirol,  have,  however,  rendered  him 
more  famous.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  his  editions  of 
Kdnig  Laurin  (1850),  of  the  legend,  Von  den  keyltgon  dm  KUnxgen 
(1855);  Sagen  aus  Tirol  (1850.  2nd  ed.  1891);  Tirol.  Natut, 
Geschichu  und  Sage  im  Spiegel  deutscher  Dichlung  (1851).  Du 
Pcrsonen-  und  Taufnanun  Tirots  (1855):  SiUen,  Brauche  und 
Meinungen  des  Tiroter-Volkes  (2nd  ed.  1871);  Das  deutscke  Kinder' 
spiel  im  liiUelaUer  (and  ed.  1873):  SckOderexen  aus  Ttrol  (1877. 
new  series,  1888).  With  E.  Inama-Sternegg,  he  edited  Ttroltscke 
Wetstumer  <5  vols.,  1875-1891). 

ZINNIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  natural  order  Compositae, 
containing  about  a  dozen  species  of  half-hardy  annual  or  per- 
ennial herbs  or  undershrubs,  natives  of  the  southern  United 
States  and  Mexico.  The  numerous  single  and  double  garden 
forms  are  mostly  derived  from  Zinnia  eiegans,  and  grow  about 
3  ft.  high,  producing  flowers  of  various  colours,  the  double 
ones  being  about  the  size  of  asters,  and  very  handsome.  The 
colours  include  white,  yellow,  orange,  scarlet,  crimson  and 
purple.  Zinnias  do  best  in  a  rich  deep  loamy  soil,  in  a  sunny 
position.  They  should  be  sown  on  a  gentle  hotbed  at  the  end 
of  March  or  in  April  and  planted  out  early  in  June 

ZINZENDORF,  NICOLAUS  LUDWIG.  Count  of  Zinzekdorf 
AND  PoTTENDORF  (1700-1760),  German  religious  and  social  re- 
former, was  bom  on  the  26th  of  May  1700  at  Dresden.    His 


ancestors  belonged  to  Lotver  Atistria,  but  had  taken  the  Pro- 
testant side  in  the  Reformation  struggle,  and  settled  near 
Nuremberg.  Both  his  parents  belonged  to  the  Pietist  circle 
and  the  lad  bad  Philipp  Jakob  Spener  for  his  godfather.  His 
father  died  six  weeks  after  be  was  bora.  His  mother  married 
again  when  he  was  four  years  old,  and  he  was  educated  under 
the  charge  of  his  pious  and  gifted  grandmother,*  Catherine  von 
Gersdorf,  who  did  much  to  shape  bis  character.  His  school 
days  were  spent  at  Halle  amidst  Pietist  surroundings,  and  m 
17 1 6  he  went  to  the  university  of  Wittenberg,  to  study  law  and 
fit  himself  for  a  diplomatic  career.  Three  years  later  he  was 
sent  to  travel  in  Holland,  lo  France,  and  in  various  parts  of 
Germany,  where  he  made  the  personal  acquaintance  of  men 
distinguished  for  practical  goodness  and  belonging  to  a  variety 
of  churches.  On  his  return  he  visited  the  branches  of  his  family 
settled  at  Oberlnrg  and  at  Castdl.  During  a  lengthened  visit  at 
Castell  he  fell  in  love  with  his  cousin  Theodora,  but  the  widowed 
countess,  her  mother,  objected  to  the  marriage,  and  the  lady 
afterwards  became  the  wife  of  Count  Henry  of  Reuss.  Zinten- 
dorf  seems  to  have  considered  this  disappointment  to  be  a  call 
lo  betake  himself  to  some  special  work  for  God.  He  had 
previously,  in  deference  to  his  family,  who  wished  liim  to  become 
a  diplomatist,  rejected  the  invitation  of  August  Francke  to  take 
Baron  von  Canstein's  place  in  the  Halle  orphanage;  and  he  now 
resolved  to  settle  down  as  a  Christian  landowner,  spending  his 
Ufe  on  behalf  of  his  tenantry  He  bought  Berthelsdorf  from  his. 
grandmother,  and  selected  John  Andrew  Rothe  for  pastor  and 
John  George  Heiz  for  factor;  he  married  Erdmute  Dorothea, 
sister  of  Count  Henry  of  Reuss,  and  began  living  on  his  estate. 
His  intention  was  to  carry  out  into  practice  the  Pietist  ideas 
of  Spener  He  d  d  not  mean  to  found  a  new  church  or  religious 
organization  distinct  from  the  Lutheranism  of  the  land,  but  to 
create  a  Christian  association  the  members  of  which  by  preach- 
ing,  by  tract  and  book  distribution  and  by  practical  benevolence 
might  awaken  the  somewhat  torpid  religion  of  the  Lutheran 
Church.  The  "  band  of  four  brothers "  (Roihe,  pastor  at 
Berthelsdorf,  Melchior  Sch&fler,  pastor  at  G6rlitz;  Francis 
von  Wattewille,  a  fnend  from  boyhood;  and  himself)  set  them* 
selves  by  sermons,  books,  journeys  and  correspondence  to 
create  a  revival  of  religion,  and  by  frequent  meetings  for  prayer 
to  preserve  in  their  own  hearts  the  warmth  of  personal  trust  in 
Christ.  From  the  printing-house  at  Ebersdorf  large  quantities 
of  books  and  tracts,  catechisms,  oollections  of  hymns  and  cheap 
Bibles  were  issued;  and  a  translation  of  Johann  Amdt's  True 
Ckristianity  was  published  for  circulation  in  France.  A  dislike 
of  the  high  and  dry  Lutheran  orthodoxy  of  the  period  gave 
ZinsendcMTf  some  sympathy  with  that  side  of  the  growing 
rationalism  which  was  attacking  dogma,  while  at  the  same  time 
he  felt  its  lack  of  earnestness,  and  of  a  true  and  deep  under- 
standing of  religion  and  of  Christianity,  and  endeavoured  to 
counteract  these  defects  by  pdnting  men  to  the  historical 
Christ,  the  revelation  of  the  Father.  He  seems  also  to  have 
doubted  the  wisdom  of  Spener's  plan  of  not  separating  from  the 
Lutheran  Church,  and  began  to  think  that  true  Christianity 
could  be  best  promoted  by  free  associations  of  Christians,  which 
in  course  of  time  might  grow  into  churches  with  no  state  con- 
nexion. These  thoughts  took  a  practical  turn  from  his  connexion 
with  the  Bohemian  or  Moravian  Brethren.  Zinzendorf  offered 
an  asylum'  to  a  number  of  persecuted  wanderers  from  Moravia 
(see  Moravian  Brethren),  and  built  for  them  the  village  of 
Herrnhut  on  a  comer  of  his  estate  of  Berthelsdorf  The  re- 
fugees who  came  to  this  asylum  (between  1722  and  1733— the 
first  detadiment  under  Christian  David)  from  various  regions 
where  persecution  raged,  belonged  to  more  than  one  Protestant 
organization.  Persecution  had  made  them  cling  pertinaciously 
to  small  peculiarities  of  creed,  organization  and  worship,  and 
they  could  scarcely  be  persuaded  to  live  in  peace  with  each  other. 
Zinzendorf  devoted  himself 'to  them  He,  with  his  wife  and 
children,  lived  in  Herrnhut  and  brought  Rothe  with  him.  He 
had  hard  work  to  bring  order  out  of  the  confuaon.    He  had  to 

» A  volume  of  Spiritual  Songs,  written  by  Zinzendorf's  gnuid- 
mother  Catherine,  was  pubUshca  in  1739  by  Paul  Anton. 


986 


ZION>-ZIONISM 


satisfy  the  authoriUoi  that  his  religkms  eommuiiity  could  be 
brou^t  under  the  conditions  of  the  peace  ol  Augsburg;  he  had 
to  quiet  the  suspicions  of  the  Lutheran  dergy;  and,  l^rdest  of 
all,  he  had  to  rule  in  seme  fashion  men  made  fanatical  by  perse> 
cution,  who,  in  spite  of  his  unwearied  labouis  for  them,  on 
more  than  one  occasion,  it  is  said,  combined  in  his  own  house  to 
denounce  hun  as  the  Beast  of  the  Apocalypse,  with  Rothe  as 
the  False  Prophet.  Patience  hud  at  last  its  perfect  work,  and 
gradually  Zmzendorf  was  able  to  organise  his  refugees  uto 
something  like  a  militia  Chnsti,  based  not  on  monsstic  but  on 
family  Ufe.  He  was  able  to  establish  a  common  order  of  wonbip 
in  1727,  and  soon  afterwards  a  common  organization,  which  has 
been  described  in  the  article  Moraviam  Bkzthren.  Zinaeodorf 
took  the  deepest  interest  in  the  wonderful  missionary  enterprises 
of  the  Brethren,  and  saw  with  delight  the  spread  of  this  Protestant 
famUy  order  in  Germany,  Denmark,  Russia  and  England.  He 
travelled  widely  in  its  interests,  visiting  America  in  1741-43 
and  spending  a  long  time  in  London  in  1750.  Missionary 
colonics  had  by  this  time  been  settled  in  the  West  Indies  (1732), 
in  Greenland  (1733),  amongst  the  North  Amaican  Indians 
(1735)*  2ind  before  Zinzendorf's  death  the  Brelhren  had  sent 
iiom  Hcrrnhut  missionary  colonies  to  Livonia  and  the  northern 
shores  of  the  Baltic,  to  the  slaves  of  North  Carolina,  to  Surinam, 
to  the  Negro  slaves  in  several  parts  of  South  America,  to 
Travancore  in  the  East  Indies,  to  the  Copts  in  Egypt  and  to  the 
west  coast  of  South  Africa.  The  community  in  Hermhut,  from 
which  almost  all  these  colomes  had  been  sent  out,  had  no  money 
of  its  own,  and  its  expenses  had  been  almost  exclusively  furnished 
by  Zinzendorf.  His  frequent  joumeyings  from  home  made  it 
almost  impossible  for  him  to  look  after  his  private  affairs,  he 
was  compelled  from  time  to  time  to  raise  money  by  loans,  and 
about  1750  was  almost  reduced  to  bankruptcy.  This  led  to  the 
establishment  of  a  financial  board  among  the  Brethren,  on  a 
I^an  furnished  by  a  lawyer,  John  Frederick  Kdber,  which  worked 
well.  In  1752  Zinzendorf  lost  his  only  son.  Christian  Renatus, 
whom  he  had  hoped  to  make  his  successor,  and  four  years 
later  he  lost  his  wife  Erdmute,  who  had  been  his  counsellor 
and  confidante  in  all  his  work.  Zinzendorf  remained  a  widower 
for  one  year,  and  then  (June  1757)  contracted  a  second  marriage 
with  .Anna  Nitschmann,  on  the  ground  that  a  man  in  his  official 
position  ought  to  be  married.  Three  years  later,  overcome  with 
his  labours,  he  fell  ill  and  died  (on  the  9th  of  May  1760),  leaving 
John  de  WattewiUe,  who  had  married  his  eldest  daughter 
Benigna,  to  take  his  place  at  the  head  of  the  community. 

Zinzendorf  had  a  naturally  alert  and  active  mind,  and  an 
enthusiastic  temperament  that  made  his  life  one  of  ceaseless 
planning  and  executing.  Like  Luther,  he  was  often  carried 
away  by  strong  and  vehement  feelings,  and  he  was  easily  upset 
both  by  sorrow  and  joy  He  was  an  eager  seeker  after  truth, 
and  could  not  understand  men  who  at  all  costs  kept  to  the 
opinions  they  had  Once  formed  i  yet  he  had  an  exceptional 
talent  for  taiking  on  religious  subjects  even  with  those  who 
differed  from  him.  Few  men  have  been  more  solicitous  for 
the  happiness  and  comfort  of  others,  even  in  little  things.  His 
activity  and  varied  gifts  sometimes  landed  him  in  oddities  and 
contradictions  that  not  infrequently  looked  like  equivocation 
and  dissimulation,  and  the  courtly  training  of  his  youth  made 
him  susceptible  about  his  authority  even  when  no  one  disputed 
it.  He  was  a  natural  orator,  and  though  his  dress  was  simple 
his  personal  appearance  gave  an  impression  of  distinction  and 
force  His  projects  were  often  misunderstood,  and  in  1736  he 
was  even  banished  from  Saxony,  but  in  1749  the  government 
leacinded  the  decree  and  beg^d  him  to  establish  within  its 
jurisdiction  more  settlements  like  that  at  Hermhut. 

He  wrote  a  large  number  of  hymns,  of  which  the  best  known 
are  *'  Jesus,  Thy  blood  and  righteousness,"  and  "  Jesus,  still  lead 
on."  A  seicction  of  his  Sermons  was  published  by  G.  Clemens  in 
10  vob.,  hb  Dtary  (1716-1719)  by  G.  Rcichcl  and  J.  Th.  MOller 
CHerrnhut,  1^7),  and  his  Hymns,  &c.,  by  H.  Bauer  and  G.  Burk- 
bardt  CLa^ziz,  1900). 

See  A.  G.  Spangenberg,  Lehen  des  Graltn  von  Zinundvrf  (Barby, 
1772-I77;5);  L.  von  Schrautenbach,  DerGraJv.  Zinundorf  (Gnadau, 
1071 ;  written,  in  1783,  and  Interesting  because  it  gives  Zinzeodorf'a 


idationJ  to  such  Retist  fttifwiafahi  aa  J.  K.  Dippci):  P.  Bovet. 
Le  ComU  de  Zinuuimf  (Paris,  i860;  Eng.  tr.  A  Tiameer  of  Socid 
CkristianUy,  by  T  A.  Seed,  London,  1896).  B.  Becker.  Ziniat- 
dorfim  Verhaltntss  s.  Philosophu  v.  Kirchenthum  setner  Zeit  (Leipzig. 
1686);  H.  RAm'er,  Zmwendorfs  Leben  und  Wtrkem  (Cnaudau.  1900). 
and  other  literature  mentioned  under  Momaviam  Bretukem  and 
in  the  article  "  Zinzendorf  "  by  j.  Th.  M Oiler  in  Hauck-Ueneg's 
Reaiencyk.  Jut  prol,  Theolopo  u.  Kircite, 

ZION,  or  SiON  (Heb.  jVr,  perhaps  from  nm  "to  be  dry," 
njs  "  to  set  up,"  or  p  "  to  protect ";  Arabic  analogieB 
favour  the  meaning  "  hump,"  '*  summit  of  a  ridge/'  and  so 
"  citadel  "),  the  name  of  the  Jebusite  stronghold  U  Jenisakm 
captured  by  David  (2  Sam.  v.).  Zion  (which  is  synonymous 
with  the  C^hel)  is  property  the  southern  part  of  the  easteni 
hill  ^  on  the  top  of  which  was  built  the  temple,  so  that  tbe  name 
came  to  be  given  to  the  whole  hill  (2  Kings  ziz.  31,  Isaiah  xxiv 
23  and  throughout  i  Maccabees),  to  all  Jerusalem  (Isaiah  i.  27, 
cf.  iv  3),  and  even  to  the  nation  or  its  spiritual  nucleus.  Thus 
the  people  of  Jerusalem  are  spoken  of  as  "  the  daughter  of 
Zion  "  (Isaiah  i  8),  the  name  bemg  often  personified  and  idealised, 
especially  in  Isaiah  ii.,  and  m  the  Psalter,  eg  Pa  IxzxviL  Sj 
'*  Every  one  calls  Zion  his  mother  " 

See  G.  A.  Smith,  Jerusalem  (London,  1908) 

ZIONISM.  One  of  the  most  mteresting  retulu  of  tbe  anti- 
Semitic  a^tation  (see  Anti-Semitism)  has  been  a  strong  zevival 
of  the  national  spirit  among  the  Jews  in  a  political  form.  To 
this  movement  the  name  Zionism  has  been  given.  In  the  same 
way  that  anti-€emitism  differs  from  the  Jew>hatxcd  of  the  eariy 
and  middle  ages,  Zionism  dilEexs  from  previous  manifestations 
ol  the  Jewish  national  spirit.  It  was  originally  advocated  as  an 
expedient  without  Messianic  impulses,  and  its  methods  and  pro- 
posals have  remained  almost  harshly  modem.  None  the  less 
it  is  the  lineal  heir  of  the  attachment  to  Zion  which  led  tbe 
Babylonian  exiles  under  Zerubbabel  to  rebuild  the  Temple,  and 
which  flamed  up  in  the  heroic  struggle  of  the  Maccabees  against 
Antiochus  Epiphancs.  Without  this  natwnal  spirit  it  could, 
indeed,  never  have  assumed  its  present  formidable  proportions. 
The  idea  that  it  is  a  set-back  of  Jewish  history,  in  the  sense  that 
it  is  an  unnatural  galvanization  of  hopes  long  since  abandoned 
for  a  spiritual  and  cosmopolitan  conception  of  the  nussion  of 
Israel,  is  a  controversial  fiction.  The  coudousness  of  a  spiritual 
mission  exists  side  by  side  with  the  national  idea.  The  great 
bulk  of  the  Jewish  people  have  throughout  their  history  re> 
mained  faithful  to  the  dream  of  a  restoration  of  their  national 
life  m  Judea.  Its  manifestati<»is  have  suffered  temporary 
modifications  under  the  influence  of  dianging  political  condi- 
tions, and  the  intensity  with  which  it  has  been  held  by  individual 
Jews  has  varied  according  to  their  social  circumstances,  but  in 
the  main  the  idea  has  been  passionately  dung  to. 

The  contention  of  some  modem  rabbis  that  the  national  idea 
is  Messianic,  and  hence  that  its  realization  should  be  left  to  the 
Divue  initiative  («.g.  Chid  Rabbi  Adler,  Jewish  ChronicU,  25th 
November  1898),  is  based  on  a  false  analogy  between  the  politics 
of  the  Jews  and  those  of  other  oppressed  nationalities.  As  all 
Hebrew  politics  were  theocratic,  the  national  hope  was  neces- 
sarily Messiamc  It  was  not  on  that  accoimt  less  practical 
or  less  disposed  to  express  itself  in  an  active  political  form. 
The  Messiamc  dreams  of  the  Prophets,  which  form  the  frame- 
work of  the  Jewish  liturgy  to  this  day,  were  essentially  politico- 
national  They  contemplated  the  redemption  of  Israel,  the 
gathering  of  the  people  in  Palestine,  the  restoration  of  the 
Jewish  state,  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temf^e,  and  the  re-establish- 
ment of  the  Davidic  throne  in  Jerusalem  with  a  prince  of  the 
House  of  David.  How  little  the  dispersed  Jews  regarded  this 
essentially  political  programme  as  a  mere  rdigious  ideal  is 
shown  by  their  attitude  towards  the  pseudo-Messiahs  who 
endeavoured  to  fulfil  it  Bar  Cochba  (a.d.  117-138)  lived  at  a 
period  when  a  Jewish  national  uprising  might  well  hav«  been 
eacdusivdy  political,  for  the  disisolution  of  the  kingdom  was 

>  Christians  of  the  4th  century  removed  the  name  to  the  S.W 
hill,  and  this  tradition  has  persisted  until  modern  times,  wbcs 
archaeological  and  to)>ographical  evidence  has  le-identified   "' 
with  the  £.  liiU. 


ZIONISM 


987 


•carcely  haU  a  century  old,  and  Pdotiiie  itfll  had  a  large 
Jewisn  population.  None  the  leas  Bar  Cocbba  based  his  right 
to  lead  the  Jewish  revolt  on  Mettianic  claims,  and  throughout 
the  Roman  Empire  the  Jews  responded  with  enthusiasm  to  his 
call.  Three  centuries  later  Moses  of  Crete  attempted  to  repeat 
Bar  Cochba*s  experiment,  with  the  same  results.  In  the  8th 
century,  when  the  Jews  of  the  West  were  sufficiently  remote 
from  the  days  of  their  political  independence  to  have  developed 
an  exdustvdy  spiritual  conception  of  their  national  identity, 
the  Messianic  claims  of  a  Syrian  Jew  named  Serene  shook  the 
whole  of  Jewry,  and  even  among  the  Jews  of  Spain  there  was  no 
hesitation  as  to  whether  they  had  a  right  to  force  the  hands  of 
Frovidence.  It  was  the  same  with  another  pseudo^Messlah 
named  Abu-Isa  Obadia,  who  unfurled  the  national  banner  in 
Persia  some  thirty  years  later 

During  the  middle  ages,  though  the  racial  character  of  the 
Jews  was  being  transformed  by  their  Ghetto  seclusion,  the 
national  yearning  suffered  no  relaxation.  If  it  expressed  itself 
exclusively  in  literature,  it  was  not  on  that  account  under* 
going  a  process  of  idealization  (Cf.  Abrahams's  Jewiah  UJe  tn 
the  Middle  Ages,  pp.  24-25.)  The  truth  b  that  it  could  not 
have  expressed  itself  differently.  There  could  have  been  no 
abandonment  of  national  hopes  in  a  practical  sense,  unless  the 
prospect  of  entering  the  national  life  of  the  peoples  among 
whom  they  dwelt  had  presented  itself  as  an  alternative.  Of 
this  (here  was  not  the  remotest  sign.  The  absence  of  militant 
Zionism  during  this  period  is  to  be  accounted  for  partly  by  the 
want  of  conspicuous  pseudo- Messiahs,  and  partly  by  the  terror 
of  persecution  Unlike  the  modem  Greeks,  Uie  medieval 
Jews  could  expect  no  sympathy  from  their  neighbours  in  an 
agitation  for  the  recovery  of  their  country  One  may  imagine 
what  the  Crusaders  would  have  thought  of  an  international 
Jewish  conspiracy  to  recapture  Jerusalem  In  the  isth  century 
the  aversion  from  political  action,  even  had  it  been  possible, 
must  have  been  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  the  Grand  Signer 
was  the  only  friend  the  Jews  had  in  the  world.  The  nationalist 
spirit  of  the  medieval  Jews  is  sufficiently  reflected  in  their 
liturgy,  and  especially  in  the  works  of  the  poet.  Jehuda  Halevi 
It  is  impossible  to  read  his  beautiful  Zi^nvle  without  feeling 
that  had  he  lived  another  twenty  years  he  would  have  gladly 
played  towards  the  pseudo-Messiah  David  Alroy  {circa  1160) 
the  part  that  Akiba  played  towards  Bar  Cochba. 

The  strength  of  the  nationalist  feeling  was  practically  tested 
in  the  i6th  century,  when  a  Jewish  Impostor,  David  Reubeni 
{circa  1530),  and  his  disciple,  Solomon  Mokho  (1501-1532), 
came  forward  as  would-be  liberators  of  their  people  Through- 
out Spain,  Italy  and  Turkey  they  were  received  with  enthusiasm 
by  the  bulk  of  their  brethren.  In  the  following  century  the 
Influence  of  the  Christian  Millenarians  gave  a  fccsh  impulse  to 
the  national  idea.  Owing  to  the  fren^  of  persecution  and  the 
apocalyptic  teachings  of  the  Chifiasts,  it  now  appeared  in  a 
more  mystical  form,  but  a  practical  bias  was  not  wanting. 
Menasseh  ben  Israel  (1604*1657)  cooperated  with  English 
Millenarians  to  procure  the  resettlement  of  the  Jews  in  England 
as  a  preltminary  to  their  national  return  to  Palestine,  and  he 
regarded  his  marriage  with  a  sdon  of  the  Davidk  family  <A 
Abarbanel  as  justifying  the  hope  that  the  new  Messiah  might 
be  found  among  his  ofFspnng.  The  increasing  dispersion  of 
the  Marranos  or  crypto- Jews  of  Spain  and  Portugal  throu^  the 
Inquisition,  and  the  persecution  of  the  Jews  Sn  Poland,  deepened 
the  Jewish  sense  of  homdessness  the  while  tlie  Millenarians 
encouraged  their  Ztonist  dreams.  The  Hebraic  and  Judeopbil 
tendencies  of  the  Puritan  revolution  in  England  still  further 
Stirred  the  prevailing  unrest,  and  some  Jewish  rabbis  are  said 
to  have  visited  En^and  in  order  to  ascertain  by  genealogical 
investigations  whether  a  Davidic  descent  could  be  ascribed  to 
Oliver  Cromwell.  It  only  wanted  a  leader  to  produce  a  national 
Movement  on  a  formidable  scale.  In  x666  this  leader  presented 
himself  at  Smyrna,  in  the  person  of  a  Jew  named  Sabbatai  Zevi 
(1626-1676),  who  proclaimed  himself  the  Messiah  The  news 
spread  like  wildfire,  and  despite  the  opposition  of  some  of  the 
leading  rabbis,  the  Jews  everywdiere  prepared  for  the  journey 


to  Palestine  Not  alone  iAb  this  tho  case  with  the  poor  Jews 
of  Lithuania  and  Germany,  but  also  with  well>to-do  communities 
like  those  of  Vemce,  Leghorn  and  Avignon,  and  with  the  great 
Jewish  merchants  and  bankers  of  Hamburg,  Amsterdam  and 
London.  Throughout  Eun^  the  nationalist  excitement  was 
intense.  Even  the  downfall  and  apostasy  of  Sabbatai  were 
powerless  to  stop  it.  Among  the  wealthier  Jews  it  partially 
subsided,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  people  refused  for  a  whole 
centwy  to  be  disillnsionisfri.  A  Messianic  frenzy  seized  upon 
them.  Encouraged  on  the  one  hand  by  Christian  Millenarians 
like  Pierre  Jurien,  OHg^r  Pauli,  and  Johannes  Speethj  pandered 
to  by  Sabbataic  inqpostors  like  Cardoso,  Bonaifoux,  Mordecal 
ot  Eisenstadt,  Jacob  Querido,  Judah  Chaasid,  Nehemiab 
Chayon  and  Jacob  Franks,  and  maddened  by  fresh  oppressions, 
they  became  fanatidaed  to  the  verge  of  demoralisation. 

The  reaction  anived  in  1778  in  the  shape  of  the  Mendeb^ 
sohnian  movement.  The  growth  of  religious  toleration,  the 
attempted  emancipation  of  the  English  Jews  in  1753,  and  the 
sane  Judeophilism  of  men  like  Lessing  and  Dohm,  showed  that 
at  length  the  dawn  of  the  only  possible  altemative  to  naticNoalr 
ism  was  at  hand.  Moses  Mendelssohn  (1739-1786)  sought  to 
prepare  his  brethren  for  their  new  life  as  citizens  of  the  lands 
m  whkh  they  dwelt,  by  emphasizing  the  spintual  side  of  Judaism 
and  the  necessity  of  Occidental  culture.  His  efforts  were  aitco 
cessfui  The  narrow  nationalist  spirit  everywhere  yielded 
before  the  hope  or  the  progress  of  local  polhiad  emandpatioil 
In  1806  the  Jewish  Sanhediin  convened  by  Napoleon  virtuaUy 
repudiated  the  nattonslist  tradition.  The  new  Judaism,  howr 
ever,  had  not  entirely  destroyed  it.  It  had  only  reconstructed 
it  on  a  wider  and  more  sober  foundation.  Mendelssobniaii 
culture,  by  promoting  the  study  of  Jewish  history,  gave  a  fresh 
impulse  to  the  radal  consciousness  of  the  Jews.  The  older 
nationalism  had  been  founded  on  traditions  so  remote  as  to  be 
almost  mythical,  the  new  race  consciousness  was  fed  by  a 
glorious  martyr  history,  which  ran  side  by  side  with  the  histories 
of  the  newly  adopted  nationalities  of  the  Jevra,  and  was  not 
unworthy  of  the  companionship.  From  this  race  consciousness 
came  a  fresh  interest  in  the  Holy  Land.  It  was  an  ideal  rather 
than  a  pohtico>nationalist  interest— a  desire  to  preserve  and 
cherish  the  great  monument  of  the  departed  national  glories, 
it  took  the  practical  form  of  projects  for  improving  the  circum>- 
stances  of  the  local  Jews  by  means  of  sch9ols,  and  for  reviving 
something  of  the  old  social  condition  of  Judea  by  the  establish- 
ment of  agricultural  colonies.  In  this  work  Sir  Moses  M<Mito- 
fiore.  the  Rothschild  family,  and  the  Alliance  Israelite  U&»- 
veraelle  were  conspicuous.  More  or  less  passively,  however, 
the  okler  nationalism  still  lived  on— cspedally  in  lands  where 
Jews  were  persecuted— and  it  became  strengthened  by  the 
revived  race  consciousness  and  the  new  interest  in  the  Holy 
Land  Christian  Millenarians  also  helped  to  keep  it  aliva 
Lord  Ashley,  afterwards  Lord  Shaftesbury,  Colonel  Gawkr, 
Mr  Walter  Creason,  the  United  States  consul  at  Jerusalem, 
Mr  James  Finn,  the  British  consul,  Mr  Laurence  Ol^haat  and 
many  others  organised  and  supported  schemes  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Jews  of  the  Holy  Land  on  avowedly  Restoration  grounds. 
Another  vivifying  element  wss  the  reopening  of  the  Eastern 
(^estion  and  the  championship  of  oppressed  nationalities  io^ 
the  East  by  the  Western  Powers.,  In  England  political  writers 
were  found  to  urge  the  re^establlshment  of  a  Jewish  state  under 
British  protection  as  a  means  of  assuring  the  overland  route  to 
India  (HoUingsworth,  Jtwi  in  PaUsimty  1 852).  Lord  Palmerston 
was  not  unaffected  by  this  idea  (Finn,  Siirring  Titnes^  vol  i. 
pp  106-112),  and  both  Lord  Beacons&eld  and  Lord  Saksbuiy 
supported  Mr  Laurence  Olipfaant  m  his  negotiations  with  the 
Porte  for  a  oooccssion  which  was  to  pave  the  way  to  an  auton- 
omous Jewish  state  in  the  Holy  Land.  In  1854  a  London  Jew 
attempted  to  float  a  company  "  for  the  puipose  of  eaablii^ 
the  descendants  tA  Israel  to  c^tain  and  cultivate  the  Land  ^ 
Promise  "  {Hebrew  Observer ^  12th  April)  In  1S76  the  publica- 
tion <^  (jooige  Eliot's  Danid  Derenda  gave  to  the  Jewish 
nationalist  spirit  the  strongest  stimuUis  it  had  expenenced 
since  tiie  sinwarance  of  Sabbatai  Zevi. 


988 


ZIONISM 


It  was  DOC,  however,  until  the  spimd  of  anti-Semitic  doctrines 
through  Europe  made  men  doubt  whether  the  Mendelssohnian 
denationalization  of  Judaism  possessed  the  elements  of  per* 
manency  that  the  Jewish  nationalist  spint  reasserted  itself  in 
«  practical  form.  As  long  as  the  anti-Semites  were  merely 
polemical,  the  nationalists  wore  mute,  but  when  in  Russia  their 
agitation  took  the  form  of  massacres  and  spoliation,  followed 
by  legislation  of  medieval  harshness,  the  nationalist  remedy 
offered  itself.  In  x88a  several  pamphlets  were  published  by 
Jews  in  Russia,  advocating  the  restoration  of  the  Jewish  stale. 
They  found  a  powerful  echo  in  the  United  States,  where  a  young 
Jewish  poetess.  Miss  Enuna  Lazarus,  passionately  chamfnoned 
the  Ziomst  cause  In  verse  not  unworthy  of  Jehuda  Halevi. 
But  the  movement  did  not  limit  itself  to  Uteratune.  A  society, 
"  Chovevi  Zton,"  was  formed  with  the  object  of  so  extending 
and  methodizing  the  establishment  of  agricidtural  colonies 
in  Palestine  as  to  make  the  eventual  xicquisition  of  the  country 
by  the  Jews  possible.  From  the  beginning  it  was  a  great 
success,  and  branches,  or  "  tents "  as  they  were  called,  were 
established  all  over  the  world.  At  the  same  time  two  other 
great  schemes  for  rescuing  the  Jewish  people  from  oppression 
were  brought  before  the  public.  Neither  was  Zionist,  but  both 
served  to  encourage  the  Zionist  cause.  One  was  due  to  the 
initiative  of  Mr  Cazalct,  a  financier  who  was  mterested  in  the 
Euphrates  Valley  Railway  project  With  the  assistance  of 
Mr  Laurence  Ohphant  he  proposed  that  the  concession  from 
the  Porte  should  include  a  band  of  territory  two  miles  wide  on 
each  side  of  the  railway,  on  which  Jewish  refugees  from  Russia 
should  be  settled.  Unfortunately  the  scheme  failed.  The 
other  was  Baron  de  Hirsch's  colossal  colonization  association 
(see  HntscH,  Maurice  de).  This  was  neither  political  nor 
Zionist,  but  it  was  supported  by  agood  many  members  of  the 
"  Chovevi  Zion,"  among  them  Colonel  Goldsmid,  en  the  ground 
that  it  might  result  in  the  training  of  a  large  oass  of  Jewish 
yeomen  who  would  be  invaluable  in  the  ultimate  settlement  of 
Palestine.    (Interview  in  Doily  Graphic,  loth  March  1892.) 

None  of  these  projects,  however,  proved  sufficiently  inspiring 
to  attract  the  great  mass  of  Jewish  nationab'sts.  The  Chovevi 
Zion  was  too  timid  and  prosaic;  the  Hirsch  scheme  did  not 
directly  appeal  to  their  ,  strongest  sympathies.  In  1897  a 
striking  change  manifested  itself.  A  new  Zionist  leader  arose 
in  the  person  of  a  Viennese  journalist  and  playwright,  Dr 
Theodore  Heral  (1860-1904).  The  electoral  successes  of  the 
anti-Semites  in  Vienna  and  Lower  Austria  in  1895  had  impressed 
him  with  the  belief  that  the  Jews  were  unassimilable  in  Europe, 
and  that  the  time  was  not  far  distant  when  they  would  be  once 
more  submitted  to  dvil  and  political  disabilities.  The  Hirsch 
scheme  did  not,  in  his  view,  provide  a  remedy,  as  It  only  trans- 
planted the  Jews  from  one  uncongenial  environment  to  another. 
He  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  only  solution  of  the  problem 
was  the  segregation  of  the  Jews  under  autonomous  political 
conditions.  His  first  scheme  was  not  essentially  Zionist.  He 
merely  called  for  a  new  exodus,  and  was  ready  to  accept  any 
grant  of  land  in  any  part  of  the  worid  that  would  secure  to  the 
Jews  some  form  of  self-government.  The  idea  was  not  new. 
In  1566  Don  Joseph  Nasi  had,  proposed  an  autonomous  settle> 
ment  of  Jews  at  Tiberias,  and  had  obtained  a  grant  of  the  city 
from  the  Sultan  for  the  purpose.  In  1652  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company  in  Curasao,  in  1654  Oliver  Cromwell  in  Surinam,  and 
in  1659  the  French  West  India  Company  at  Cayenne  had  at- 
tempted similar  experiments.  Marshal  de  Saxe  in  1749  had 
projected  the  establishment  of  a  Jewish  kingdom  in  South 
America,  of  which  he  should  be  sovereign;  and  in  1825  Major 
M.  M.  Noah  purchased  Grand  Idand,  in  the  river  Niagara,  with 
a  view  to  founding  upon  it  a  Jewish  state.  All  these  projects 
were  failures.  Dr  Herzl  was  not  slow  to  perceive  that  without 
an  impulse  of  real  enthusiasm  his  scheme  would  share  the  fate 
of  these  predecessors.  He  accordingly  resolved  to  identify  it 
with  the  nationalist  idea.  His  plan  was  set  forth  in  a  pamphlet, 
entitled  Tht  Jewtsh  Stale,  which  was  published  in  German, 
French  and  English  in  the  spring  of  1896.  It  explained  in 
detail  how  the  new  exodus  was  to  bo  organised  and  bow  Uw 


Slate  was  to  be  managed.  It  was  to  be  a  tributefMyiqg  stats 
under  the  suzerainty  erf  the  Sultan.  It  was  to  be  settled  by  a 
chartered  company  and  governed  by  an  aristocratic  republic, 
tolerant  of  all  religious  differences.  The  Holy  Places  were  to  be 
eztemt<Mialized.  The  pamphlet  produced  a  profound  sensa- 
tion. Dr  Herzl  was  joined  by  a  number  of  distinguished  Jewish 
literary  men,  among  whom  were  Dr  Max  Nordau  and  Mr  Israel 
Zangwill,  and  promises  of  support  and  sympathy  reached  him 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  haute  finance  and  the  hi^kr 
rabbinate,  however,  stood  aloof. 

The  most  encouraging  feature  in  Dr  Herzl's  scheme  was  that 
the  Sultan  of  Turkey  appeared  favourable  to  it.  The  motive 
of  his  sympathy  has  not  hitherto  been  made  known.  The 
Armenian  massacres  had  inflamed  the  whole  of  Europe  against 
him,  and  for  a  time  the  Ottoman  Empire  was  in  very  serious 
peril.  Dr  Herzl's  scheme  provided  him,  as  he  imagined,  with  a 
means  of  securing  powerful  friends.  Through  a  secret  emissary, 
the  Chevalier  de  NewUnsky,  whom  he  sent  to  London  in  May 
1896,  he  offered  to  present  the  Jews  a  charter  in  Palestine  pro- 
vided they  used  their  influence  in  the  press  and  otherv.ise  to 
solve  the  Armenian  question  on  lines  which  he  laid  down. 
The  English  Jews  declined  these  proposals,  and  refused  to 
treat  in  any  way  with  the  persecutor  of  the  Armenians.  Wlien, 
in  the  following  July,  Dr  Herzl  himself  came  to  London,  the 
Maccabaean  Society,  though  ignorant  of  the  negotiations  with 
the  Sultan,  declined  to  support  the  scheme.  None  the  less^  it 
secured  a  Large  amount  of  popular  support  throughout  Europe, 
and  in  1910  Zionism  had  a  followmg  of  over  300,000  Jews, 
divided  into  a  thousand  electoral  districts.  The  Fnglish 
member^p  is  about  15,000. 

Between  1897  and  19 10  the  Zionist  organization  held  nine 
international  Congresses.  At  the  first,  whicb  met  at  Basel, 
a  political  programme  was  adopted  on  the  following  terms: — 

"  Zionism  aims  at  establishing  for  the  Jewish  peoj^  a  pablkly 
and  legallv  assured  home  in  Palestine.  For  the  attainment^  of  this 
purpose  the  Con^;ress  considers  the  foUowine  means  serviceable: 
(i)  The  promotion  of  the  settlement  of  Jewish  agriculturists, 
artisans  and  tradesmen  in  Palestine.  (2)  The  fcderatioa  of  all 
Jews  into  local  or  general  groups,  according  to  the  laws  of  the 
various  countries.  {%)  The  sticengthemng  of  the  Jewish  feding 
and  consciousness.  (4)  Preparatory  steps  for  the  attainment  ot 
those  {TOvcrnmental  gra^nts  which  arc  necessary  to  the  achievement 
of  the  Zionist  purpose." 

Subsequent  congresses  founded  various  institutions  for  the 
promotion  of  this  programme,  notably  a  People's  Bank  known  as 
the  Colonial  Trust,  which  is  the  financial  instrument  of  political 
Zionism,  a  National  Fund  for  the  purchase  of  land  in  Palestine 
and  a  Palestine  Commission  with  subsidiary  societies  for  the 
study  and  improvement  of  the  sodal  and  economic  condition 
of  the  Jews  in  the  Holy  Land.  For  the  purposes  of  these 
bodies  about  £400,000  was  collected  in  small  sums  and  invested. 
Very  little  practical  work  of  any  abiding  value,  however,  was 
accomplished,  and  on  the  political  side  the  career  of  Zionism 
had  up  to  the  end  of  1910  proved  a  failure. 

In  May  1901  and  August  1903  Dr  Herzl  had  audiences  of  the 
Sultan  Abdul  Haraid,  and  was  received  with  great  distincticHi, 
but  the  negotiations  led  to  nothing.  Despairing  of  obtaining 
an  immediate  charter  for  Palestine,  he  turned  to  the  Briiish 
government  with  a  view  to  securing  a  grant  of  territory  on  anj 
autonomous  basis  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Holy  Land,  which  would 
provisionally  afford  a  refuge  and  a  political  training-ground 
for  persecuted  Jews.  His  overtures  met  with  a  sympathetic 
reception,  especially  from  Mr  Chamberbin,  then  Colonial 
Secretary,  and  Eail  Percy,  who  was  Under-Secretary  for  Foreiga 
Affairs  (October  1902).  At  first  a  site  for  the  proposed  settle- 
ment was  suggested  in  the  Sinai  peninsula,  but  owing,  to  the 
waterless  character  of  the  country  the  project  hitd  to  he 
abandoned.  Then  Mr  Chamberiain,  who  in  the  intetval  had 
paid  a  visit  to  Africa,  suggested  the  salubrious  and  uninhabited 
highlands  of  the  East  Africa  Protectorate,  and  in  1903  the 
British  government  formally  offered  Dr  Herzl  the-Nasin  Gishiu 
plateau,  6000  sq.  m.  m  area.  No  such  opportunity  for  creating 
a  Jewish  self-govexning  community  bad  presealed  itself  moot 


989 


tlie  Dtspcnion,  tui  for  t  mooMnl  it  «caned  u  il  Zioniim  wa 
really  cnlennlE  Ihc  field  of  pncljpaj  poLlLics.  Unhappily  ' 
*'■"■'"  ' '  ■      airly  wrecked  the  wboJ 


The   Briti 


,  ofler  » 


wmbled  u  Buel  ia  Augiut 
eived  nith  constenulion  and  an  eipkoiDa  of  wMfa  by  the 
ta-tittiooallst  demenii,  who  iaterpRted  it  u  an  abudon- 
nl  of  ihe  Palesiine  id».  By  his  penonaJ  influence  Dr  Heril 
ceeded  in  obiaining  ihe  appoinunent  oi  1  comnUaicsn  to 
mine  [he  ptopoied  tcTiiloiy,  but  iu  coinposition  wai  largely 
ionatiat,  and  In  Ihe  following  year  the  Cnngreaa  gladly  availed 
If  of  certain  critical  paasagea  in  the  report  to  reject  the  whole 


wbytl 


rael  Zi 


d  by  Mt  David 
lognc,  Dui  toere  was  ia  tiulb  nobody 
at  dignity  and  migMtism  cnuM  take 
nt  was  further  dialtcn  by  the  dis- 
irejectionof  the  East  African  project. 
influential  minority  which  combined 


ne  of  the  ITO  Uewiah  Temlorial  Otgai 
)  taking  over  the  East  Airicsn  offer  ot  to  eslibllsh 
a  jJate  o(  refuge  elsewhete.  Thm  (reed  from  all 
Bioderalirg  elements  Ihe  Zionists  hardened  into  m  eidusively 
Palestinian  body,  and  under  the  auspices  of  Mr  WoUsoho 
(tesh  n^otiitiom  were  opened  with  Ihe  Porte.  These,  how- 
ever, wero  rendered  hnally  hopeless  by  the  Turkish  revolution, 
which  postulated  a  united  Ottoman  nationality,  and  resolutely 
set  its  face  against  any  exten^n  of  the  racial  and  religious 
autoiwmies  under  n-hich  the  integrity  of  the  Empire  had 
already  severely  tuSered, 

During  1^5-igto  the  Jewish  natianal  idea,  for  all  practical 
puiposfs,  was  in  a  slate  of  suspended  animation.  The  re- 
covery of  the  Holy  Land  appeared  more  distant  than  ever, 
while  even  the  establishment  of  an  independent  or  autonomous 
Jewish  state  elsewhere,  for  which  the  ITO  was  labouring,  had 
encountered  uneipeclcd  difficulties.  On  the  rejection  of  the 
British  Oder  by  the  Zionists  Mr  Zangwill  approached  the  Gilonial 
OBite.  hut  he  was  too  late,  ai  the  reserve  on  Ihe  Nasin  Cishiu 
plateau  had  already  been  officially  withdrawn.  The  ITO  then 
turned  its  attention  to  Cyrcnaica,  and  an  eipedilion  to  eiimine 
the  country  was  sent  out  (190B),  but  it  was  not  found  suitable. 
A  project  lor  combining  all  the  Jewish  organizations  in  an 
effoti  to  secure  an  adequate  ^ooihotd  in  Mesopotamia  in  con- 
neilon  with  the  scheme  (or  the  irrigation  of  that  region  «as 
Kibsequcntly  proposed  by  Mr  Zangu-ill,  but  up  to  January 
igti  It  hid  not  been  found  practicable.  The  ITO,  however, 
did  valuable  work  by  orgjniiing  an  Emigration  Regubtkin 
Department  for  deflecting  the  stream  of  Jea'ish  emigration 
from  the  overcrowded  Jewry  of  New  York  to  the  Southeco 
jf  the  American  Onion,  where  there  is  greater  scope  for 


Ir  Jacob.  Schitl  co 


buted  £i« 


Allhough  the  Zionist  organization  was  numerically  strong— 
indeed,  the  strongest  popular  movement  Jewidi  history  had  ever 
known— its  eipcriencc  from  1897  to  1910  rendered  it  very 
doubtful  whcthet  its  nationalist  aspirations  could,  humanly 
speaking,  ever  be  fulfilled.  From  Turkey,  either  absolutist 
appeared  hopeless  to  expect  any  willing  re- 
'  "  a  Palestine,  while  in  the  event 
!  it  was  questionable  whether 
m  and  Greek  Churches — 
:o  the  Jews,  even  though 
orialiied-    ShoiUd  thece  obstacles 


lation  of  the  Ottoma 

a  dissoJutiou  of  lite  Empire 
hristendom — and  especially  the  1 
ould  permit  the  Holy  Land  to  e 
le  Holy  Places  w. 


still  more  formidable  difiicullics  would  await  the 
lewish  state.  The  chief  ol  these  ia  the  religious  question.  The 
am  would  have  to  be  onhodo*  or  secular.  If  It  were  orthodoi 
t  would  desire  to  revive  Ihe  whole  Levitical  polity,  and  in  thet* 
drcumslances  il  would  either  pass  away  through  internal  chaos 
u  would  10  ofiend  the  modem  poUliol  ipiril  that  it  would  be 


■eon  eninguished  frotn  outside.    It  ft  vete 

be  a  Jewish  state.    The  great  bulkoliUsu| 

to  live  in  it,  and  il  would  ultimately  b  .    ._   ._ 

outknder   papulation    coaHBting   of   Hebrew   Cbrbtians   a 

Christian  Hilli 


UodenZionis 


id  by  its 


unconquerable,  and 
mui  me  wmie  oiDvemeoi  i*  artificial.  Under  the  Influence  of 
religious  toleration  and  the  natuializalion  laws,  nationalities 
are  daily  losing  more  of  their  racial  character.  The  coming 
nationality  will  ba  essentially  a  matter  of  education  and 
economics,  and  this  will  nol  eictude  the  Jews  as  such.  With 
the  passing  away  of  anIi-Semilisin,  Jewish  nationalism  will 
disappear.  If  the  Jewish  people  disappear  with  il.  il  will  only 
be  because  either  their  rcUgious  mission  in  the  world  has  been 
accomplished  or  they  have  proved  themselves  unworthy  of  it. 


iculated  twins.    There  is 


with  a 


choidal  (1 


range,  eilcDdiug  from  a  little  below 

^■^,  and  being  thus  greater  than  that 

Rarely  calourlesa,  lircon  is  usually 

cs  orange,  yellow  or  gieen,and  occauonally 


4  to  rather  rr 

of  any  other  gem-slom 

biownor ted, sometimes        _  .. 

parti -colouted  or  zoned.    Whilst  ct  ... 

gera-varielJeB   are    transparent.    The    dichroism    of   coloured 

aircont  is  always  feeble;  the  double  tefiaction  usually  strong 

and  of  positive  sign;  and  tbc  optical  pmpertic*  of  «hk  aircena 

suggest  a  biaoal  mineral.    It  was  pointed  out  lung  ago  by 

Sir  A.  U.  Church  that  many  tri 


ZIRCONIUM 


mukcd  by  ccn*iB  ibMiptioa-buifa,  ■  pnpctty  pnbip*  diw 
lo  the  pn*eim  ol  unnium. 

Tht  eflsct  of  beu  on  arcon  ii  mnitkible.  Mml  coloured 
littoiu,  expotui  lo  a  high  temptrature,  dihn  dunge  or  kae 
their  co]our»  but  tills  lou  is  allcnded  by  ■  gala  in  Inilliuicy, 
TliE  "  Mitun  diamondi "  ol  Ceylon  ire  lircoiis  irliich  have  bern 
Ibui  (itibciiUy  decoloriuxi,  Ceitiin  uitnia  when  lialcd  in 
A  Bunun-Buae  glow  wiLJi  an  orange  incandacxnce,  whiiit 
othen  may  emit  u  onnge  glmr  vben  ground  on  ■  ca^iptt- 
whetl  led  with  dianiond-dusl.  Even  eipomrc  to  ninli^t  wiU 
■ometima  modify  the  xdour  and  liutrc  of  i  arcon.  Some 
■ircons  suBec  contnclion  ohen  betted,  u  that  ibe  Bpedfic 
grevLly  liecomef  raisedi  but  the  irchnvioui  ot  arconi  in  tins 
respect  shows  such  annmiiies  that  S.  Slevanovic  lus  been  led  lo 
suggest  the  existence  of  three  classes  of  zircon.  One  gnnjp  ba» 
1  specific  gravtiy  of  40  tnd  another  of  4'7,  both  remaining  oa- 
changcdbdensity  when  healed.  L.  J.  Spencer,  who  has  studied 
some  remarkable  crystals  from  Ceylon,  calls  the  former  n-zltcon, 
and  the  litter  B-airton.  A  third  cIbs  has  tpecific  grmvity 
between  4-0  and  *j,  and  increases  in  density  on  heaLlng. 

groHih  of  a-^rcon  or  fi-arcon.  Kilb  >  third  unstable  modi&ca- 
tion  which  he  disiingmshes  as  'y-atcan. 

Whilst  zircon  ii  usually  regarded  u  *  drcoDium  silicate 
fZrSiOt)  it  is  sometimes  placed  niih  Lhe  oiides  is  tonsisting 
of  ZtO,  SiO,.  A  smiU  proponian  ol  lerric  oxide  teems  to  be 
always  present,  and  to  [his  the  ^colour  of  zircon,  according  to 
C.  Spccia,  may  be  ascribed.     Tmces  of  so  maify  elements  have 


been  I 


IS  that 


posed  to  call  the  specie 

(many)    and   ignni   (miiiuie).    Zircon   i 

mantles.  Sic    It  wai  in  this  mineral  that  li 
h1  by  M.  H.  Klaproih  in.  t;39. 
'    '  I  a  gem-sione  is  often  Imown  aa  " 

The  red  and  orange  stones  are 
hyacinth  (g.T.)  and  jacinth,  whilst  those  of  other 
aa  also  the  colourless  tisnspatcnt  titCDns.  are  called 
(f.I.).  I'll*  lyxo'riiim  ol  the  andents,  described  as  an 
coloured  stone  used  for  signets,  is  su|qK»ed  by  some  aul 


Ireek  wMit 

esceni    gas- 
ss  originally 


Queensland. 
of  the  stone! 
I^mmatli,  are 


Lhe  Anskie  Bpphiie  district,  near 
\.  K.  Coomiraaw&ny  ha*  pointed  oc 
n  the  gem-graveis  of  Ceylon,  Imow 


Bd^ 


ircoD  by  virtue  of  its  high  relrac 

in  relria.     It  forms  an  impona 

ite  of   Norvay.     Zircon  oocun 

:ki,  notably  lhe  basah)  of  lhe  Rhi 

fn^bul  lillle  lubject ' -~   '-  '- 


St™": 


deponls,  as  in  aorifcroiB  and  other  landi.  occurring  UAiully  in 
anull  charaeleristic  crystals,  with  rounded  angice.  I^ne  cryatili 
ol  fircon  are  found  in  the  tlmen  Mountains  ii>  Ruaia,  ani'  -- 
Reifrew  cc,  Ontario,  where  it  occurs  in  cryOalline  limeiti 
Many  kicalilies  in  the  United  States  nekl  arcon.  enxcialli  .. 
New  York  stale  and  in  Nonh  CaiolIna:Il  has  been  laiicly  worked 
la  Henderson  co..  N.C.  Zircon  occun  also  in  Taimanu.  C — -- 
varieties  of  aircon  have  received  diaiiDCiive  names,  sudi  l.  _.. 
aiorite,  which  occurs  in  sanidine-tiachyie  iji  ibe  Arorcs.  Several 
other  minerals  seem  to  be  altered  rircon.  Ecneratly  hydratcd,  such 
as  malaron.  cyrtnlite  and  oerstodite.  ihelael  being  a  Norwc^r 

Rosuaii  miBml  eSwily  related  to  aicon,  (F.  W.  R.*) 

ZmCOHimi  [symbol  Zr,  slonuc  weight  90.6  (0-i6)I,  a 
metallic  chemical  element.  Klaprolb  in  1739  inalyted  lhe 
mineTaJ  lircoB  or  hysiSnth  and  found  it  to  contain  a  new  earth, 
which  he  called  "  tirconla."  The  metal  was  obtained  by 
Berzdiiis  as  an  iron-grey  pc^wder  by  heating  potaasiura  lijconO' 
inoride  with  metallic  polaiaiun.  The  amorphoos  metal  also 
Toults  when  the  chloride  is  heated  with  sodium;  the  oxide 


Buoride  Is  electnlyH]  {WrdeUnd,  Zrfr.  BUkmcttm.;  i^m, 
>0|  p.  Ml).  Troost  produced  cryttlUiaed  sirconium  by  fniinf 
the  double  fluoride  with  aluminlun  io  ■  graphite  crudUe  at  the 
temperature  of  mdting  iron,  and  ertracting  the  ahuniniaB 
from  the  melt  with  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  mora  conveniently 
prepared  by  beating  the  oade  with  carbon  in  the  electric  furnace 
The  crysl lis  look  hke  antimony,  and  are  brittle,  and  so  hard  as 
Ktatch  ^ax  and  rubies;  thett  ^ledfic  gravity  is  4.9J.  IIk 
rdery  meUl  bunu  nadtly  in  air;  the  crystalline  metal  le- 
'     ■■--■'       -  oiyhydroj       **         '   ' 


Uttlem 


MirMial  adds  generslly  attack  lhe  cryilalliied  m 


1  company  with  tbeie  dementi,  and  is  leliavslenl  in 
nportant  salta. 
Zifconiuin  oxidt  or  tirania.  ZKX.  has  becoine  inpon 


>;  it  «ccan 


ISd  \illled 

fluandeu 
the  cmci-^ 
p«iel*ln-like 


rhichisfutedwiihihEeeto  four  parts  1 

■    ■  crudble.     Wken  the  rr;a» 

d  for  two  houn  ie  a  wli 

powdered,  boiled  wjih  wai 

i,  and  the  residual  potaisii 

11*  an  rAniinq  deposits  CfVS 

pun6ed  by  cr 


d  ihT'-™! 


•  «  ^ip|"; 


iculiy  (olubl 


fuL.., ^_ adi&cai._ 

wilb  sulphuric  acid.   The  anhydrous  okide  is 

tratcd  Hiif^urfc  arid  and  one  of  water  disn 

heating  as  Ibe  ntlphaie.  Zr[SOi)i,    Ziicania.  wncn  noieu  la  wmii- 

scsled  its  utUhaiiofl  for  making  incandeacenl  gas  mantle*:  and, 
in  lhe  form  of  disks,  as  a  >ub«iiiile  for  Ibe  llinKylinden  ordi- 
narily enployed  In  "  limelight."  Ziimnia.  like  slannk  and  titanic 
Diides.  unites  not  only  wiih  acids  but  alio  with  bask  oiidn.  For 
inuaiKe,  if  il  be  fused  with  ■adiua  carbonate,  sodium  aimaie. 
NarZrOb is. formed.   If  ihecartuiatebein  eaceaa,  ihesali  Ns.ZrU. 

which  cryitalHies  In  hexagonal  plates,  \fiicn  heated  in  a  lD«ely 
covered  crucible  wilh  magnedum  the  nitride  ZriNi  is  fomird 
(Wedehisd.  Ztil,  anorf.  Clum.,  1905,  aj.  p.  jSj). 

ZIramMm  hydride,  ZrHt.  is  suppoied  to  be  fctfincd  when  airconia 
is  heated  with  maAncsium  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydro^n.   Zinonium 

JH1O)  by  Ivrating  tlitionia  with  acid  ammonium  fluoride.  It  fonrn 
Duble  Bits,  named  aJreoBO'liioride*.  which  an  taoDor^iovB  with 
lhe  stanni-  and  iIIani-lMridcs.  Ziramam  tUiridi.  ZrCli.  is  in- 
pared  ai  a  white  sublimale  by  igiuling  a  mixture  of  zirconia  and 
charcoal  in  a  current  of  chlorine-  Tt  has  the  exact  vapour-dentiiy 
corresponding  to  lhe  formula.  Il  dissolves  in  water  with  evoluiion 
of  beai:  on  evaponlioo  a  boiie  tall.  ZiOCVSHia  tepwates  oui 
in  atai-diaped  aciculai  agnegalet.    Zitamitim  tnmidt,  ZrDr..  is 

crystalline  >did  by  acting  with  hydriodic  add  on  heated  liiconiuia 
(Wedekind.  Brr..  1904.  37.  p.  itu).  Ii  fames  in  air;  wilh  water 
it  gives  Zr01,.8H^:  and  wiih  atcobol  elbyl  iodide  and  lirconium 
hydroxide  nrv  {onned.  The  iodide  combines  with  liquid  ammonia 
to  lam   Zr1,.8N'H,^   and   wilh   ether  to  give  Zrl,'4(C>H,)^. 

ia^n'"iof^al^^J«d)til&"ThetulphaR.Zt^)^teBwl^^ 

^ddc^mralinBand  heaTi"|  the  mas.  linearly  a  r-j'"-™    •^■''-™ 
It   forms  a  leriea  ol  double  sulphates.  Ruer  (ZiU 
I00<.  4=.  p.  S?)  rrgards  it  as  a  dibailc       '  ' 

Zr(S0.),-4H^O^      zl^ni'nm'' al»   lomu  d 

type  Zr,Q,lSO,M),.aIlA  wbcie  M  »K.  Ru.  >.i.  'iiu  --o  luf   ■- 

•■   II  for  C.  IRosenhcim  and  Frank.  Br>..  1905. 38.  p.  Bli 

_...ic  weighl   was  delermined   by    Mangoae   lo  be   90-O3 
Fnt.  Xaj-  Si-,  1890,46,  p.  74)  dedmd  lhe  vahK  lg-9S. 


7  ZrOSb.'SO.H,'3Hi)''(B 
—  -'ouUe  Bilphaies  of  I 


«,;'S 


ZIRKEI^-ZITTEL 


r=zijz= 


i^a=^^ 


No.  I  is  only  ined  for  pas- 
sages in  double  notes  and 
for  chords. 


ZliUCBU  WnamMm  (xS^S-  ),  Genmm  geologist  and 
petrognpher,  was  bom  at  Bonn  on  the  aoth  of  May  1838.  He 
was  educated  in  his  native  town,  and  graduated  'PhJD.  at  tbe 
xinivenity  in  1861.  In  early  years  he  was  engaged  in  teaching 
geology  and  nuneralog^  in  Vienna.  He  became  professor  of 
geology  in  1863  in  the  university  of  Lemberg,  in  z868  at  Kiel, 
and  in  1870  professor  of  mineralogy  and  geology  in  the  university 
of  I^eipzig. 

His  numerous  papers  and  essays  include  Geohgiscke  Skisu  von 
der  WestkUste  SekoUlands  (1871);  Die  Struktur  der  VarioliU  (1875); 
Microscopical  Petrography  (in  Report  of  U.S.  Geol.  Exploration 
of  40th  Par.,  vol.  vi.,  1876);  Limurit  aus  der  VaUie  de  Lesponne 
(1879);  Uber  den  Zirkon  (1880).  His  separate  works  include 
Lehrhuch  der  Petrographie  (1866;  and  ed.  1893,  1894);  Die  mikro- 
skopiscke  BeschaffenkeU  der  Miner  alien  und  Gesteine  (1873). 

ZTTHBR  (Ger.  Zither,  ScJdaffsUher,  Streickntker;  ItaL  citkara), 
a  name  applied  in  modem  Germany  to  the  ancient  dthara  (9.9.), 
to  the  dttem  (g.v.),  and  to  an  instrument  which  is  a  kind  of 
psaltery,  consisting  of  a  shallow  sound-chest  with  ribs  having 
the  oatUne  of  a  flattened  jug  (termed  in  German  Flaschen- 
fortn,  bottle-shape).  In  the  centre  of  the  sound-board  is  a  rose 
sound4iole,  and  the  finger-board  with  frets  lies  along  the  straight 
side  of  the  zither  in  front  of  the  performer.  The  number  of  the 
strings  varies,  but  36,  38  and  42  are  the  most  usuaL  Over  the 
finger-board  are  four  or  five  strings  known  as  violinj  on  which  the 
melody  is  played.    These  five  melody  strings  are  stopped  with 

the  thumb  and  fingers  of  the  left 
X     2      3      4      s       ^°^  ^^^  plucked  with  the  thumb 

of  the  right  hand,  which  usually 
has  a  thumb  ring  with  plectrum. 
Nos.  I  and  2  are  steel  strings; 
No.  3  of  brass,  and  4  and  5  of 
spun  wire;  the  bass  is  played 
with  the  fingers  of  the  right 
handr  and  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  fingering  the  strings  are  tuned  in  fourths  and  filths. 
Most  of  the  other  strings  from  the  6th  are  of  gut.  AU  the 
strings  lie  horizontally  across  the  sound-board,  being  fastened 
in  the  usual  manner  to  hitch  and  wrest  pins.  The  zither  is 
placed  on  the  table  in  front  of  the  performer,  who  holds  his  right 
arm  so  that  the  wrist  rests  on  the  side  of  the  zither  parallel  with 
the  hitch  pins,  the  thumb  being  over  the  finger-board. 

The  foregoing  remarks  apply  to  the  discant  and  concert  zither; 
the  elegiac  or  bass  zither  is  ot  similar  construction  but  larger,  and 
is  a  transposing  instrument,  having  the  same  notation  as  the  former, 
the  real  sounds  being  a  fourth  lower.  These  zithers  are  the  favourite 
instruments  of  the  peasants  in  the  Swis&  and  Bavarian  highlaAds, 
and  are  sometimes  seen  in  the  concert  halls  of  north  and  western 
Gefmany.  The  Streicksither,  or  bowed  zither,  has  a  body  of  heart- 
or  pear-shape  similar  to  that  of.  the  cittern,  but  without  the  long 
n'^'CK  of  the  latter.  The  finrer-board  covers  the  whole  of  the  sounf 
board  with  the  exception  oia  few  inches  at  the  tapering  end,  which 
is  finished  off  with  a  raised  nut  or  bridfi|e,  the  bow  being  applied 
in  the  centre  of  this  gap.  The  bowed  zither  has  little  feet  and  is 
placed  on  a  table  wnen  bein^  played.  There  rre  four  strings 
corresponding  to  those  of  the  vioun  or  viola,  but  the  tone  is  nasal 
and  glassy. 

The  spelling  of  the  word  with  a  "  Z  "  had  already  become  usual 
io  the  early  17th  century,  for,  although  the  instniment  described 
above  did  not  then  exist,  Cither  was  the  name  by  which  the  cittern 
was  known  in  Germany,  and  Michael  Praetorius,  writing  in  1618, 
spells  it  with  bofh  "  C  "^and  "  Z." 

ZITTAir,  a  town  of  (jermany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Mandau,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Neisse, 
dose  to  the  Bohemian  and  Silesian  frontier,  '25  m.  by  rail  S.E. 
of  Bautzen,  48  E.S.E.  of  Dresden  and  at  the  junction  of  lines 
to  Reichenberg  (in  Bohemia),  Eibau  and  Hermsdorif.  Pop. 
(1905)  34>7o6.  The  town  hall  dates  from  1844,  and  contains  a 
beautiful  hall  with  rich  stained  glass  windows.  Among  the  six 
Evangelical  churches,  the  following  are  noticeable:  that  of 
St  John,  rebuilt  in  1834-37,  with  twin  spires,  and  the  church  of 
St  Peter  and  St  Paul,  with  its  elegant  tower,  which  formerly 
belonged  to  an  old  Franciscan  monastery.  The  latter  was 
ccstored  in  2883  and  part   of  it  fitted  up  as  an  historical 


991 


museum.  Another  wing  of  this  building  contains  the  muni- 
dpal  library  of  40,000  volumes  and  valuable  manuscripts. 
Zittau  is  well  equii^ed  with  schools,  induding  a  gjrmnasiimi 
and  a  commercial  school,  which  are  both  acconmiodatcd  in  the 
Johanneum,  and  several  technical  institutions.  There  are  also 
a  theatre,  well-equipped  public  baths  and  a  richly  endowed 
hospital.  Zittau  is  one  of  the  chief  manufacturing  towns  of 
Saxony.  The  leading  branch  of  industiy  is  hnen  and  damask 
weaving;  but  woollen  stuffs,  trimmings,  &c.,  are  also  produced 
in  the  factories  of  the  town,  and  in  the  surrotmding  weaving 
villages,  sixty-six  of  which,  with  113,455  (1900)  inhabitants, 
are  included  in  the  munidpal  jurisdiction.  The  corporation 
owns  valuable  forests  on  the  mountains  of  Upper  Lusatia  and 
other  estates,  the  annual  income  of  which  is  about  £15,000. 
There  are  various  steam-mills,  iron-foundries,  brick-fidds  and 
potteries  near  the  town,  and  extensive  depodts  of  h'gnite. 

Zittau  is  of  Wendish  origin  (Chytawa  is  iu  Wendish  name), 
and  was  made  a  town  by  Ottocar  U.  of  Bohemia.  It  was  one 
of  the  six  towns  of  the  LusaUan  League  (1346),  at  which  period 
it  belonged  to  Bohemia.  It  suffered  severely  in  the  Hussite 
wars  and  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  watf  bombarded  and 
burnt  by  the  Austrians  in  1757  during  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
The  musical  composer  Marschner  (i  795-1861)  was  bora  at 
Zittau. 

Sec  Carpzov,  Analecta  fastorum  Zittamensium  (Ldpzig.  1716); 
Moschkaut  Zittau  und  seine  Umgebung  (5th  ed.,  Zittau,  i§93f;  and 
Lamprecht,  Wegweiser  durch  Zittau  und  das  ZiUauer  Gebirge  (ZitUu. 
1901). 

ZTTTEL,  KARL  ALFRED  VON  (1839-1904),  German  palae- 
ontologist, was  bora  at  Bahlingen  in  Baden  on  the  25th  of 
September  1839.  He  was  educatpd  at  Hddelberg,  Paris  and 
Vienna.  For  a  short  period  he  served  on  the  Geological  Survey 
of  Austria,  and  as  assistant  in  the  mineralo^cal  museum  at 
Vienna.  In  1863  he  became  teacher  of  geology  and  mineralogy 
in  the  polytechnic  at  Carlsruhe,  and  three  years  later  he  suc- 
ceeded Oppel  as  professor  of  palaeontology  in  the  university 
of  Munich,  with  the  charge  of  the  state  collection  of  fossils. 
In  xS8o  he  was  appointed  to  the  geological  professorship,  and 
eventually  to  the  directorship  of  the  natural  history  museum 
of  Munich.  His  earlier  work  comprised  a  monograph  on  the 
Cretaceous  bivalve  mollusca  of  Gosau  (1863-66);  and  an 
essay  on  the  Tithonian  stage  (1870),  regarded  as  equivalent 
to  the  Purbeck  and  Wealden  formations.  In  1S73-74  he 
accompam'cd  the  Rohlfs  expedition  to  the  Libyan  desert,  the 
primary  results  of  which  were  published  in  Uber  den  ge<d<h 
gischen  Bau  der  Ubyschen  Wiislc  (1S80),  and  further  details  in 
the  Palaeontographica  (1883).  Br  Zittel  was  distinguished  for 
his  palaeontological  researches.  From  1869  until  the  close  of 
his  life  he  was  chief  editor  of  the  Palaeonlographica  (founded 
in  1846  by  W.  Dunker  and  H.  von  Meyer).  In  1876  he  com* 
menced  the  publication  of  his  great  work,  Handhuch  der  Palaeon' 
tologie,  whidi  was  completed  in  1893  in  five  volumes,  the  fifth 
volume  on  palaeobotany  being  prepared  by  W.  P.  Schimper 
and  A.  Schenk.  To  make  his  work  as  trustworthy  as  possible 
Dr  Zittd  made  spedal  studies  of  each  great  group,  commenciilg 
with  the  fossil  sponges,  on  which  he  published  a  monograph 
(1877-79).  In  1895  be  issued  a  sumnmry  of  his  larger  work 
entitled  CrundzUge  der  PalaeotUdogic  (ed.  2,  part  i.  Inverter 
brattle  revised  by  Dr  Zittel  in  1903;  the  American  edition  of 
1900  by  C.  R.  Eastman  is  so  revised,  sometimes  in  opposition 
to  Zittel's  views,  as  to  be  practically  an  independent  work). 
He  was  author  of  Aus  der  Urzeil  (1873,  ed.  2,  1875);  and  Die 
Sahara  (1883).  In  1899  he  published  Gesckichte  der  Geolosic 
und  Palaeont'^ogie  bis  Ende  des  ig  Jahrkunderls,  a  monumental 
history  of  the  progress  of  geological  science  (Eng.  trans., 
Mrs  Maria  M.  Ogilvic-Gordon,  1901).  Dr  Zittel  was  from  1899 
president  of  the  Royal  Bavarian  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in 
1894  he  was  awarded  the  Wollaston  medal  by  the  Geological 
Sodety  of  London.    He  died  on  the  5th  of  January  1904. 

Obituary  with  portrait  and  bibliography,  by  Dr  F.  L.  Kitchim 
Geol.  Mag.  (February  1904)*' 


992 


2i2KA— ZOBEIR  RAHAMA 


iliKAp  JOHN  {c.  X576~i424),  Bohemian  genenl  and  Hnasite 
leader,  was  bom  at  Trocnov  in  Bohemia,  oi  a  family  which 
belon^d  to  the  gentry.  He  took  part  in  the  dvil  wars  in 
Bohemia  in  the  reign  of  Wcnceslaus  IV.,  during  which  he  lost 
one  eye  in  a  skirmish.  He  was  from  his  youth  connected  with 
the  coort,  and  held  the  oflke  of  chamberiajn  to  Queen  Sophia. 
2i2ka's  name  first  became  prominoit  when  the  Hussite  movement 
began.  When  in  X419  a  Hussite  procession  was  stoned  at 
Prague  from  the  town  hall,  2i2ka  h«uied  those  who  threw  the 
town  councillors  from  its  windows.  When  a  temporary  armis- 
tice was  concluded  between  the  partisans  of  King  Sigismund 
and  the  citizens  of  Prague,  tiSu.  marched  to  Plzei^  (Pilsen) 
with  his  followers,  but  soon  left  that  dty,  and,  after  defeating 
at  Sudomer  the  partisans  of  Sigismund,  arrived  at  Tabor,  the 
newly  founded  stronghcdd  of  the  advanced  Hussites.  Zilka 
took  a  large  part  in  the  organization  of  the  new  military  com- 
munity and  became  one  of  the  four  captains  of  the  people 
ihejtmane)  who  were  at  its  head.  Meanwhile  Sigismund, 
king  of  the  Germans  and.  king  of  Hungary,  invaded  Bohemia, 
daiming  the  crown  as  the  Jbeir  of  his  brother  Wenceslaus. 
Menaced  by  Sigismund,  the  dtizens  of  Prague  entreated  the 
Taborites  for  assistance.  Led  by  2iika  and  their  other  captains, 
the  Taborites  set  out  to  take  part  in  the  defence  of  the  capital. 
At  Prague  2i2ka  and  his  men  took  up  a  strong  position  on  the 
hill  then  known  as  the  Vitkov,  on  the  spot  where  2iikoz,  a 
suburb  of  Prague,  now  stands.  At  the  end  of  June  (1420) 
the  siege  of  the  dty  began,  and  on  the  X4th  of  July  the  armies 
of  Sigismund  made  a  general  attack.  A  strong  German  force 
assaulted  the  position  on  the  Vitkov  which  secured  the  Hussite 
communications  with  the  open  country.  Mainly  through  the 
heroism  of  2i2ka,  the  attack  was  repulsed,  and  the  forces  of 
Sigismund  abandoned  the  siege.  Shortly  afterwards  (August 
23,  1420)  the  Taborites  left  Prague  and  returned  to  Tabor. 
2i2ka  was  now  engaged  in  constant  warfare  with  the  partisans 
of  Sigismund,  particularly  with  the  powerful  Roman&t,  Ulrich 
of  Rosenberg.  By  this  struggle,  in  which  2i2ka  was  invariably 
successful,  the  Hussites  obtained  possession  of  the  greatest 
part  of  Bohemia,  which  Sigismund  now  left  for  a  time.  It  was 
proposed  to  elect  a  Polish  prince  to  the  throne;  but  meanwhile 
the  estates  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  who  met  at  Caslav  on  the 
tst  of  June  1421,  dedded  to  appoint  a  provisional.govemment, 
consisting  of  twenty  members  chosen  from  all  the  political 
and  religious  parties  of  the  country,  2i2ka,  who  took  part  in 
the  deliberations  at  Caslav,  bdng  elected  as  one  of  the  two 
representatives  of  Tabor.  He  summarily  suppressed  some 
disturbances  on  the  part  of  a  fanatical  sect  called  the  Adamites. 
He  continued  his  campaigns  against  the  Romanists  and  ad- 
herents of  Sigismund;  and  having  captured  a  small  castle 
near  Litomifice  (Ldtmeritz)  he  retained  possession  of  it — the 
only  reward  for  his  great  services  that  he  ever  received  or 
claimed.  According  to  the  Hussite  custom  he  gave  the  biblical 
name  of  "  Chalice  "  to  this  new  possession,  and  henceforth 
adopted  the  signature  of  "  2i£ka  of  the  Chalice."  Later,  in 
Z431,  he  was  severely  wounded  while  besieging  the  castle  of 
R&bi,  and  lost  the  use  of  his  remaining  eye.  Though  now 
totally  blind,  he  continued  to  command  the  armies  of  Tabor. 
At  the  end  of  1421  Sigismund,  again  attempting  to  subdue 
Bohemia,  obtained  possession  of  the  important  town  of  Kutna 
Hora  (Kuttenberg).  2i2ka,  who  was  at  the  head  of  the*  united 
armies  of  Tabor  and  Prague,  at  first  retreated  to  Kolin;  but 
after  having  received  reinforcements  he  attacked  and  defeated 
Sigismund's  army  at  the  village  of.Nebovid  between  Kolin  and 
Kutna  Hora  Qanuaiy  6,  1422).  Sigismund  lost  12,000  men 
and  only  escaped  himself  by  rapid  flight.  Sigismund's  forces 
made  a  last  stand  at  Ntoecky  Brod  (Deutschbrod)  on  the  loth 
<rf  January,  but  the  dty  was  stormed  by  the  Bohemians,  and, 
contrary  to  2i2ka's  orders,  its  defenders  were  put  to  the  sword. 
Early  in  1423  internal  dissensions  among  the  Hussites  led  to 
dvil  war.  2i2ka,  as  leader  of  the  Taborites,  defeated  the  men 
of  Prague  and  the  Utraquist  nobles  at  H5ric  on  the  27th  of 
April;  but  shortly  afterwards  the  news  that  a  new  crusade 
against  Bohemia  was  bdng  prepared,  induced  the  Hoasites  to 


oondude  an  armistice  at  Konopist  on  the  a4th  of  June  14*3- 
As  soon,  however,  as  the  so-called  crusaders  had  disposed  with- 
out evea  attempting  to  enter  Bohemia,  the  internal  dissensions 
broke  out  afresh.  During  his  temporary  rule  over.  Bohemia 
Prince  Sigismund  Korybutovii  of  Poland  had  appointed  as 
governor  of  the  dty  of  HtHovi  Hradec  (Koniggr&tz)  Borek, 
lord  of  Miletinek,  who  bdonged  to  the  moderate  Hussite,  the 
so-called  Utraquist,  party.  After  the  departure  of  the  Poiisl 
prince  the  dty  of  Kr61ov6  Hradec,  in  whieh  the  democratic 
party  now  obtained  the  upper  hand,  refused  to  recognize  Borek 
as  its  ruler,  and  called  Zilka  to  its  aid.  He  acceded  to  thi 
demand,  and  defeated  the  Utraquists  under  Borek  at  the  farm 
of  Strachov,  near  the  dty  of  Kr&lov£  Hradec  (August  4,  1423) 
2iika  now  attempted  to  invade  Hungary,  whidi  was  under  the 
rule  of  his  old  enemy  King  Sigismund.  lliough  this  Hungariaii 
campaign  was  unsuccessful  owing  to  the  great  snperionty  of 
the  Hungarians,  it  ranks  among  the  greatest  military  exploits 
of  2izka,  on  account  of  the  skill  he  displayed  in  retreat,  la 
Z424,  dvil  war  having  again  broken  out  in  Bohemia,  2ilka 
dedsivdy  defeated  the  Praguers  and  Utraquist  nobles  at  Skalk 
on  the  6th  of  January,  and  at  Malesov  on  the  7th  of  June.  In 
Sq>tember  he  marched  on  Prague,  but  on  the  14th  of  that 
mouth  peace  was  conduded  between  the  Hussite  parties  through 
the  influence  of  John  of  Rokycan,  afterwards  Utraquist  arch* 
bishop  of  Prague.  It  was  agreed  that  the  now  reunited  Hussites 
should  attack  Moravia,  part  of  which  country  was  still  held  by 
Sigismund's  partisans,  and  that  2iika  should  be  the  leader  in 
this  campaign.  But  he  died  of  the  plague  at  Pribyslav  (October 
II,  X424)  before  reaching  the  Moravian  frontier. 

See  Count  Ltltzow,  Bohemia:  an  Hislorical  Sketch  (Londoa, 
1896);  Louis  L^er,  Jean  Zizka  in  "  Nouvelles^  Hudes  SioKj." 
deuxttme  sirie  (Paris,  1886),  the  beat  account  of  Zizka.' a  cateer  (or 
tho9e  unacquainted  with  the  Bohemian  language;  Tomck,  Jen 
ZvUta,  and  Dijepis  Mesta  Prahy:  Pabcky,  Hutnry  of  BtAemsa, 
Ziiica  is  the  hero  of  a  novel  by  Geor^  Sand,  of  a  Gennan  epic  by 
Mdssher,  and  of  a  Bohemian  tragedy  by  Alois  Jiiasek.  QJ^ 

ZLATOUST,  a  town  of  Rtissia,  in  the  government  of  Ufa, 
dose  to  the  river  Ufa,  in  a  picturesque  valleyyof  the  middie 
Urals,  X925  ft.  above  sea  levd,  199  m.  by  rail  E.N.E.  of  the 
town  of  Ufa.  Vop.  20,973.  The  town  has  a  first-daas  meteoro- 
logical and  magnetical  observatory,  a  cathedral  and  a  museum; 
it  is  the  seat  of  the  mining  adniinistration  for  the  Zlatouit 
district,  and  has  a  brisk  trade  in  agricultural  produce  and 
manufactured  wares. 

ZNAIM  (Czech  Znojmo),  a  town  of  Austria,  in  Moravia,  50  m. 
S.W.  of  Brdnn  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  16,261,  mostly  German. 
It  is  picturesqudy  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Thaya. 
The  site  of  the  former  fortifications  is  occupi^  by  a  promenade. 
The  Riuberturm  is  a  relic  of  the  old  castle  of  the  margr^v^s 
of  Moravia;  the  round  castle-chapel,  known  as  the  hcathtn 
temple  (Heiden-Tempd),  in  the  Romanesque  style  of  the  i  :ib 
century,  was  at  one  time  considered  the  SKtet  ancient  building 
in  Moravia.  The  Gothic  church  of  St  Nicholas  was  built  about 
1348  by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.;  the  town  house,  with  a 
Gothic  tower,  250  ft.  high,  dates  from  about  1446.  The  andcot 
and  once  powerful  Premonstratensian  abbey  of  Bnick,  east  of 
the  town,  is  now  occupied  as  barracks. 

The  present  town  of  Znaim  was  founded  In  1226  by  Ottacar  I. 
of  Bohemia  on  the  site  of  Znojmo,  the  andent  capital  of  the 
tributary  margraves  of  Moravia,  which  had  been  destroyed  in 
X145.  Znaim  is  best  known  to  history  for  the  armistice  con- 
duded here  in  1809  after  the  battle  of  Wagram  between 
Napolton  I.  and  the  archduke  Charles.  In  1866  the  Prussians 
occupied  the  town  from  July  13th  till  September  3rd.  The 
novelist  Karl  Postl  (1793-1864),  who  wrote  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Charles  Sealsfield,  was  bom  at  Poppitz,  2}  m.  S.W. 

ZOBEIR  RAHAMA  (1830- •  ),  Egyptian  pasha  and 
Sudanese  governor,  came  of  the  Gemaab  section  of  the  Jaalin, 
and  was  a  member  of  a  family  which  claims  descent  from  the 
Koreish  tribe  through  Abbas,  unde  of  Mahomet.  He  became 
prominent  as  the  most  energetic  and  intelligent  of  the  Arab 
ivory  and  slavfr  timders  who  about  i860  esublisbed  themselves 


ZODIAC 


993 


on  tke  WUl«  Nilo  imd  Iti  the  B^hr-d-Gbaml.  NominaUy  a 
subject  of  £gypt,  be  laised  an  army  o£  several  thousand  well- 
armed  blacks  and  became  a  dangerous  rival  to  the  Egyptian 
authorities.  At  the  height  o£  his  power  Zobcir  was  visited 
(1871)  by  Geerg  SchwcinCurth,.  who  found  him  *'  surrotmded 
with  a  contt  which  was  little  lea  than  princely  in  its  details*' 
{Heart  of  Afneot  vol.  ii^  chap.  xv.).  In  i869an  expedition  sent 
from  Khartum  into  the  Bahr-eUGhasal  was  attacked  by  Zobeir 
and  completdy  defeated,  its  commander  being  slain.  Zobeir 
represented  that  he  was  blaroekss  in  this  matter,  received  a 
"  pardon^"  and  was  himself  appointed  governor  of  the  Bahr- 
el-Ghazalt  where  he  was  practically  independent.  In  1873  he 
attacked  the  sultan  of  Darfur,  and  the  khedive  IsmaH  gave  him . 
the  rank  of  bey  and  sent  troops  to  co-operate.  After  be  had 
conquered  Darfur  (1874),  Zobeir  Was  made  a  pariia,  but  he  claimed 
the  more  substantial  iTward  of  being  made  go%'emor-general  of 
the  new  province,  and  went  to  Cairo  in  the  spring  of  1876  to 
press  his  title.  He  was  now  in  the  power  of  the  Egyptian 
authorities,  who  prevented  his  return,  though  he  was  allowed  to 
go  to  Constantinople  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Russo«Turkish  War. 
In  X878,  however,  his  son  Suleiman,  having  got  possession  of  the 
Bahr-el-Gha2al,  and  acting  on  instructions  from  his  father, 
defied  the  authority  of  General  Gordon,  the  new  governor- 
general  of  the  Sudan.  Gordon  sent  Romolo  Gessi  against 
Suleiman,  who  was  subdued  after  an  arduous  campaign  and 
executed.  During  the  campaign  Zobeir  ofiFered,  if  he  were 
allowed  to  return  to  the  Sudan,  to  restore  order  and  to  pay  a 
revenue  of  £25,000  a  year  to  tlie  khedive.  Gordon  declined  this 
help,  and  subsequently,  for  his  instigation  of  the  revolt,  Zobeir 
was  condemned  to  detUh,  but  the  trial  was  a  farce,  the  sentence 
was  remitted,  and  he  remained  at  Cairo,*  now  in  high  favour 
with  the  khedival  court.  In  March  1884,  Gordon,  who  bad  been 
sent  to  Khartum  to  c£fcct,  if  possible,  the  relief  of  the  Egyptian 
garrisons  in  the  Sudan,  astonished  Europe  by  requesting  that 
Zobeb,  whose  son  he  had  overthrown  and  whose  trade  he  had 
ruined,  should  be  sent  to  Khartum  as  his  successor.*  Zobeir, 
described  by  Sir  Reginald  Wingate,  who  knew  him  well,  as  "  a 
quiet,  far-seeing,  thoughtful  man  of  iron  will — a  bom  niler  of 
men  "  (Makdiism  and  tht  Egyptian  Sudan,  book  v.),  might 
have  been  able  to  stem  the  niahdist  movement.  But  to  re- 
instate the  notorious  slave-dealer  was  regarded  in  London  as 
too  perilous  an  expedient,  even  in  the  extreme  circumstances 
then  existing)  although  Colonel  Stewart  (Gordon's  companion 
in  Khartum),  Sir  Evelyn  Baring  and  Nubar  Pasha  in  Cairo, 
and  Queen  Victoria  and  Mr  Gladstone,  all  favoured  such  a 
course.  In  March  1885  Zobeir  was  arrested  in  Caira  by  order 
of  the  British  government  for  treasonable  correspondence  with 
the  mahdi  and  other  enemies  of  Egypt,  and  was  interned  at 
Gibraltar.  In  August  1887  he  was  dlowed  to  return  to  Cairo, 
and  alter  the  reconquest  of  the  Sudan  was  permitted  (1899)  to 
settle  ia  his  native  country.  He  establi^ed  himself  on  his 
estates  at  Geili,  some  30  m.  N.  of  Khartum. 
See  GoRnoM ,  Charles  George,  and  the  authorities  there  cited. 

ZODIAC  (5  ru^taxds  id>K}iOi,  from  l^aSiop,  '*  a  Uttle 
animal  ")•  in  astronomy  and  astrology,  an  imaginary  zone  of  the 
heavens  within  which  lie  the  paths  of  the  sun,  moon  and  prin- 
cipal planets.  It  is  bounded  by  two  circles  equidistant  from 
the  ecliptic,  about  eighteen  degrees  apart;  and  it  is  divided 
into  twelve  signs,  and  marked  by  twelve  constellations.  These 
twelve  constellations,  with  the  symbols  of  the  signs  which  corre- 
spond to  them,  are  as  follows: — 

J). 


Aries,  the  Ram 
Taurus,  the  Bull 
Gemini,  the  Twins 
Cancer,  the  Crab 
Leo.  the  Lion 
Virgo,  the  Virgin 


Li]bra,  the  Balance 

Scorpio,  the  Scorpion  tH 

Sagittarius,  the  Archer  ^r 

Capricomus,  the  Goat  v3 

Aquarius,  the  Water-carrier  « 

Pisces,  the  Fishes  H 


f  Gordon  and  Zobeir  met  in  Cairo  on  the  25th  and  36th  of  January 
(see  E^ypi  No.  la  of  1884)  and  Gordon  from  that  time  onward 
asked  Tor  Zobeir's  help.  It  was  not,  however,  until  the  loth  of 
March  that  his  wish  was  made  public,  in  a  telegram  from  Khartum 
published  \n  Thf  Times. 


The     signs-^he     Greek     &dScicanf^AM— are     geometrical 
divisions  thirty  degrees  in  extent,  counted  from  the  spring 
equinox  in  the  direction  of  the  sun's  progress  through  them 
The  whole  series  accordingly  shifts  westward  through  the  effect 
of  precession  by  about  one  degree  in  seventy-two  years     At 
the  moment  of  crossing  the  equator  towards  the  north  the  sun 
is  said  to  be  at  the  first  point  of  Aries;  some  thirty  days  later 
it  enters  Taurus,  and  so  on  through  Gemini,  Cancer,  Leo,  Virgo, 
Libra,  Scorpio,  Sagittarius,  Capricomus,  Aquarius  and  Pisces 
The  constellations  bearing  the  same  names  coincided  approxi- 
mately in  position,  when  Hipparchus  observed  them  at  Rhodes, 
with  the  divisions  they  designate.    The  discrepancy  now,  how- 
ever, amounts  to  the  entire  breadth  of  a  sign,  the  sun's  path  in 
Aries  lying  among  the  stars  of  Pisces,  in  Taurus  among  those  ' 
of  Aries,  &C. 

Assyria  And  BabyUmia, — ^The  twelvefold  division  ol  the  isodiac 
was  evidently  suggested  by  the  occurrence  of  twelve  full  moons 
in  successive  parts  of  it  in  the  course  of  each  year.  This  ap- 
proximate relation  was  first  systematically  developed  by  the 
early  inhabitants  of  Mesopotamia,  and  formed  the  starting- 
point  for  all  their  divisions  of  time.  As  the  year  separated, 
as  it  were  of  itself,  into  twelve  months,  so  the  day  was  divided 
into  twelve  '*  double  hours,"  and  the  great  cosmical  period  of 
43,20o  years  into  twelve  "  sars."  Each  sar,  month  and  hour 
was  represented  at  once  visibly  and  symbolically  by  a  twelfth 
part  of  the  "  furrow  "  drawn  by  the  solar  Bull  across  the  heavens. 
The  idea  of  tracing  the  sun's  path  among  the  stars  was,  when  it 
occurred  to  Chaldaean  astronomers,  an  original  and,  relatively 
to  their  means,  a  recondite  one.  We  owe  to  its  realization  by 
them  the  constitution  and  nomenclature  of  the  twelve  signs 
of  the  zodiac.  Assyrian  cylinders  and  inscriptions  indicate  for 
the  familiar  scries  of  our  text-books  an  antiquity  of  some  four 
thousand  years.  Ages  before  Assur-bani-pal  reigned  at  Nineveh 
the  eighth  month  (Marchesvan)  was  known  as  "  the  month  of 
the  star  of  the  Scorpion,"  the  tenth  (Tebet)  belonged  to  the 
"  star  of  the  Goat,"  the  twelfth  (Adar)  to  the  "  stor  of  the  Fish 
of  Ea."'  The  motive  underlying  the  choice  of  symbols  b  in 
a  few  cases  obvious,  but  in  most  remains  conjectural.  The 
attributes  of  the  deities  appointed  to  preside  over  the  months 
and  signs  were  to  some  extent  influential.  Two  oi  them,  in- 
dce^i  took  direct  possession-  of  their  respective  portions  of  the 
sky.  The  zodiacal  Virgo  Is  held  to  represent  the  Ass3man 
Venus,  Ishtar,  the  ruling  divinity  of  the  sixth  month,  and 
Sagittarius  the  archer-god  Nergal,  to  whom  the  ninth  month 
was  dedicated.  But  no  uniform  system  of  selection  was  pur- 
sued, or  rather  perhaps  the  results  of  several  systems,  adopted 
at  various  epochs,  and  under  the  influence  of  varying  currents 
of  ideas,  became  amalgamated  in  the  final  series.  - 

This,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  was  the  upshot  of  a  pre- 
historic reform.  So  far  as  positive  records  go,  Aries  w&s  always 
the  first  sign.  But  the  arrangement  is,  on  the  face  a,^^ 
of  it,  a  comparatively  modem  one  None  'of  the 
brighter  stats  of  the  constellation  could  be  said  even  roughly 
to  mark  the  equinox  much  before  1800  B.C.;  during  a  long 
stretch  of  previous  time  the  leading  position  belonged  to  the 
stars  of  Taurus.*  Numerous  indications  accordingly  point  to 
a  corresponding  primitive  zodiac  Setting  aside  as  doubtful 
evidence  derived  from  interpretations  of  cuneiform  ix^criptions, 
we  meet,  in  connexion  with  Mithraic  and  Mylittic  legends, 
reminiscences  of  a  zodiac  and  religious  calendar  in  which  the 
Bull  led  the  way.4    Virgil's 

Candidus  auratis  aperit  cum  oomibus  anmun 
Taurus 

perpetuates  the  tradition.    And  the  Pleiades  continued,  within 
historical  memory,  to  be  the  first  asterism  of  the  lunar  zodiac. 

*  Lenormant.  Origjuus  dt  VBisioin,  i.  936. 

'The  possibility  should  not,  however,  be  overlooked  that  the 
"  stars  of  the  months  "  were  determined  by  their  heliacal  risinKB 
(see  Bosanquet  and  Sayce  on  Babylonian  astrqpomy,  in  Monthly 
Notices  Roy.  Astr.  Soc.  xl.  K17).  Tnis  would  give  a  further  exten- 
sion backwards  of  over  1000  years,  during  which  the  equinox  might 
have  occurred  in  the  month  of  the  Ram. 

*  J.  B.  F.  Lajard,  Ruherches  sur  It  Cuite  de  MUknft  p.  605. 


994 


ZODIAC 


Caaetr» 


Vftysb 


In  the  Chaldaean  signs  fngments  of  sevcnJ  distinct  strata 
of  thought  appear  to  be  embedded.  From  one  point  of  view 
they  shadow  out  the  great  epic  of  the  destinies  of  the  hunutn 
race,  again,  the  universal  solar  myth  claims  a  share  ia  them; 
hoary  traditions  were  brought  into  ex  posiJaUo  cooAttdon  with 
them,  or  they  served  to  commemorate  simple  meteorological 
and  astronomical  facts. 

The  first  Babylonian  month  Nisan,  dedicated  to  Ana  and  Bel, 
was  that  of  ** sacrifice";  and  its  asdodation  with  the  Ram 
as  the  chief  primitive  object  of  sacrifice  is  thus  intelligible.^ 
According!  to  an  alternative  explanation,  the  heavenly  Ram, 
placed  as  leader  in  front  of  the  flock  of  the  stars,  merely  em- 
bodied a  spontaneous  figure  of  the  popular  imagination.  An 
antique  persuasion,  that  the  grand  cycle  of  creation  opened  under 
the  first  sign,  has  been  transmitted  to  modern  cognizance  by 
Dante  (/it/.  L  38).  The  human  race,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
supposed  to  have  come  into  being  under  Taurus.  The 
solar  interpretation  of  the  sign  goes  back  to  the  far- 
off  time  when  the  year  began  with  Taurus,  and  the  sun 
was  conceived  of  as  a  bull  entering  upon  the  great  furrow  of 
heaven  as  he  ploughed  his  way  among  the  stArs.  In  the  third 
month  and  sign  the  building  of  the  first  city  and  the 
fratricidal  brothers — thcRomulusand  Remusof  Roman 
legend — were  brought  to  mind.  The  appropriate  symbol  was 
at  first  indifferently  a  pile  of  bricks  or  two  male  children,  always 
on  early  monuments  placed  feet  to  feet.  The  retro- 
grade movement  of  a  crab  typified,  by  an  easy  asso- 
ciation of  ideas,  the  retreat  of  the  sun  from  his  farthest 
northern  excursion,  and  Cancer  was  constituted  the  sign  of  the 
summer  soUtice.  The  Lion,  as  the  symbol  of  hre, 
represented  the  culmination  <^  the  solar  heat.  In 
the  sixth  month,  the  descent  of  Ishtar  to  Hades  in  search 
of  her  lost  husband  Tammuz  was  celebrated,  and 
the  sign  of  the  Virgin  had  thus  a  purely  mytho- 
logical sigmfication. 

The  history  of  the  seventh  sign  is  somewhat  complicated. 
The  earlier  Greek  writers — Eudoxus,  Eratosthenes,  Hip- 
parchus — knew  of  only  eleven  zodiacal  symbols,  but  made 
one  do  dquble  duty,  extending  the  Scorpion  across  the  seventh 
and  eighth  divisions.  The  Balance,  obviously  indicating  the 
equality  of  day  and  night,  ia  first  mentioned  as  the  sign  of  the 
Ubrm  autumnal  equinox  by  Geminus  and  Varro,  and  ob- 
«0'  taised,  through  Sosigenes  of  Alexandria,  offici»i  le- 

^''^**'^  cognition  in  the  Julian  calendar.  Nevertheless, 
Virgil  {Georg.  i.  32)  regarded  the  ^ace  it  presided  over  as  so 
much  waste  land,  provisionally  occupied  by  the  "  Claws  "  of 
the  Scorpion,  but  readily  available  for  the  apotheosis  of 
Augustus.  Libra  was  not  of  Greek  invention.  Ptolemy,  who 
himself  chiefly  used  the  "  Claws  "  (XifXaf),  speaks  of  it  as  a 
distinctively  Chaldaean  sign;'  and  it  occurs  as  an  extrar 
zodiacal  asterism  in  the  Chinese  sphere.  An  ancient  Chinese 
law,  moreover,  prescribed  the  regularization  of  weights  and 
measures  at  the  spring  equinox.*  No  representatiiMi  of  the 
seventh  «ign  has  yet  been  discovered  on  any  Euphrateaa  monu- 
ment; but  it  is  noticeable  that  the  eighth  is  frequently  doubled,* 
and  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  seeing  in  the  pair  of  sodiacal  scorpions 
carved  on  A^yrian  cylinders  the  prototype  of  the  Greek 
scort>ion  and  claws.  Both  Libra  and  the  sign  it  eventually 
superseded  thus  owned  a  Chaldaean  birthplace.  The  struggle 
of  rival  systems  of  nomenclature,  from  which  our  sodiacal 
series  resulted,  is  plainly  visible  in  their  alternations;  and  the 
daims  of  the  oompeting  signs  were  long  sought  to  be  conciliated 
by  representing  the  Balance  as  held  between  the  daws  of  the 
Scorpion. 
The  definitive  decline  of  the  sun's  power  after  the  autumnal 

*  Sayce,  Transactions  0/  (he  Society  of  BibUcal  Arehaeciogy,  iii. 
162. 

'  In  dting  a  Chaldaeaa  observation  of  Mercury  dating  from 
335  B.C.  iAlmagest,  ii.  1^,  ed.  Halma). 

'Sec  Uranographie  Chtnotse,  by  Casta v  Schlegel,  who,  however, 
daims  an  extravagant  antiquity  for  the  Chin«&e  constellational 
system. 

*  Lcnormaot.  Origines,  L  367- 


equinox  was  typified  by  pttdof  a  Scorpfoft  li  the  symbol  «| 
darkness  in  the  eighth  sign.    Sagittarius,  figured  later  as  a 
Centaur,  stood  for  the  Babylooian  Mars.  Caprioomus 
the  sign  of  the  winter  solstice,  is  plaofibly  connected 
with  the  caprine  nurse  of  the  young  solar  god  ia  Orient^ 
legends,  of  which  that  of  Zeus  and  Amalthia  iaa      c^tt 
variant.*  The  fish-tailed  Goat  of  the  sodiac  presents      '■'■"■ 
a  close  analogy  with  the  Mexican  cilendar  sign   GipactK, 
aHuod  of  marine  monster  icsembliAg  a  nandxal.*    Aquarius  is 
a  stdl  more  exdusivdy  meteorological  sign  than  Leo.    The 
eleventh  month  was  known  in  Enphratean  regiona  as 
that  of  "  want  and  rain."    The  deluge  was  txadi-      ""'" 
tion^illy  associated  with  it.    It  was  represented  m  aodiacal 
symbolism  by  the  god  Ramman,  cvowned  with  a  tiara  and 
pouring  wato*  from  a  vase,  or  more  geneially  by  the  vase  and 
water  without  the  god.   The  lesumption  ol  agricultural  labours 
after  the  deluge  was  commemorated  in  the  twelfth  month,  and 
a  mystical  association  of  the  fishes,  which  were  iu        p. 
sign,  with  the  life  after  death  is  evident  in  a  monu- 
ment  of   Assyrian   origin   described   by   Clermont»Gannean, 
showing  a  corpse  guarded  by  a  pair  of  fish-gods.'   The  doabling 
of  the  sign  of  Pisces  still  recalls,  aoconfing  to  Sayce,*  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  Babykxiian  calendar,  in  which  a  year  of  360  days 
was  supplemented  once  in  six  years  by  a  thirteenth  month,  a 
second  Adar.    To  the  double  month  corresponded  the  double 
sign  of  the  "  Fishes  of  Hca."» 

Cyclical  Meaning  cf  the  Succession  ef  Stgns.^-^The  cyclical 
meaning  of  the  succession  oi  zodiacal  signs,  though  now  ob- 
scured by  interpolations  and  substitutions,  was  probably  once 
dear  and  entire.  It  is  curiously  reflected  in  the  adventures  of 
the  Babylonian  Hercules,  the  sdar  hero  Gilgamesh  (see  Gil- 
CAKESH,  Epic  op).  They  were  recorded  in  the  oompamtivdy 
late  surviving  version  of  the  7th  century  B.C.,  on  twelve  tablets, 
with  an  obvious  design  of  correlation  with  the  twelve  divisions 
of  the  sun's  annual  course.  Gilgamesh's  conquest  of  the  divine 
bull  was  placed  under  Taurus;  his  slaying  of  the  tyrant  Khnm* 
baba  (the  prototype  of  Geryon)  in  the  fifth  month  typified  the 
victory  of  light  over  darkness,  represented  in  plastic  art  by  the 
group  of  a  lk»n  killing  a  bull,  which  is  the  iona  ordinarily  given 
to  the  sign  Leo  on  Ninevite  cylinders.  ^  The  wooing  of  Ishtar  by 
the  hero  of  the  epic  falls  under  Virgo,  and  his  encounter  wuh 
two  sdNrpimi  men,  guardians  of  the  rising  and  the  setting  sun, 
under  Scorpio.  The  eleventh  tablet  narrates  the  deluge;  the 
twelfth  associates  the  apotheosis  of  Eabani  with  the  aodiacal 
emblems  of  the  resurrection. 

In  the  formation  of  the  constellauons  of  the  zodiac  Httle 
regard  was  paid  to  stdlar  configtuntions.  The  Chaldaeaos 
chose  three  stars  in  each  sign  to  be  the  "  councillor  ^ods  '*  of 
the  planets.^  These  were  called  by  the  Greeks  ''decans,** 
because  ten  degrees  of  the  ediptic  and  ten  days  of  the  year  were 
presided  over  by  each.  The  college  of  the  decana  was  am- 
ceived  as  moving,  by  their  annual  risings  and  settings,  in  an 
"  eternal  oircuit "  between  the  infernal  and  supernal  regions. 
Modem  asterisms  first  appear  in  the  Pkaenomena  of  Eudoxus 
about  370  B.C.  But  Eudoxus,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  con- 
sulted, not  the  heavens,  but  a  celestial  globe  of  an  anterior 
epoch^.on  which  the  stars  and  the  signs  were  forced  into  un- 
natural agreement.  The  representation  thus  handed  down  (in 
the  verses  of  Aratus)  has  been  thought  to  tally  best  with  the 
state  of  the  sky  about  aooo  b.c.;"  and  the  mention  of  a  pole- 
star,  for  which  Eudoxus  was  rebuked  by  Hipparchus,  seems;  as 
W.  T.  Lynn  pointed  out,**  to  refer  to  the  time  when  a  Draconis 

*  Lenormant,  Origines,  I.  267. 

*  Humboldt,  Vues  des  CordtUbres  (1810),  p.  157. 
'  Reo.  Archtd.  (1870),  p.  344.  ^ 

'  Trans.  Soc.  BM.  ArchaeoL,  iil.  166. 

*  The  god  Ea  or  Hca,  the  Oannes  of  Berossus,  e<}uivalent  to  the 
fish-god  Dagon,  came  to  the  rescue  of  the  protagonist  in  the  Chal- 
daean drama  of  the  deluge. 

"  Lenormant,  Ongines^  I.  240. 

**  Diod.  Sic,  HtsL,  ii.  30,  where,  however,  by  an  obvious  mistake 
the  number  of  "  councillor  gods  "  is  stated  at  only  thirty. 
^  R.  Brown,  Babylonian  Record,  No.  3,  p.  34. 
u  Babyion%an  Record^  No.  5,  p.  79. 


ZODIAC 


995 


atood  Bear  iht  pcfle.  TIk  dat*  afforded  by  Eodoxus,  however, 
w  far  too  vaKue  to  serve  as  the  basis  of  any  chronological 
condosion. 

EfSypiiam  Zodiaad  Signs.-^Tht  Eg3rptians  adopted  from  the 
Greeks,  nith  considerable  modificatioxn  of  its  attendant  sym- 
boUsm,  the  twelve-fold  division  of  the  sodiac  Aries  became  the 
Fleece;  two  SfH-ootiog  Plants,  typifjring  eqoality  or  resem* 
blance,  stood  for  Gemini;  Cancer  was  xe*named  Scarabaeus; 
Leo  'was  converted,  from  the  axe4ike  confiKuratlon  of  its  chief 
stars,  into  the  Knife:  Libra  into  the  Mountain  of  the  Sun,  a 
reminiscence^  appaarently,  of  the  Enphratean  association  of 
the  seventh  month  with  a  "holy  nMwnd,'*  designating  the 
bJbUcal  tower  of  Babel.  A  Serpent  was  the  Egyptian  equi- 
valent of  Scorpio;  the  Arrow  only  of  Sagittarius  was  retained; 
Capriconras  became  *'  Life,"  or  a  Mirror  as  an  image  of  life; 
Aquarius  survived  as  Water;  Taurus,  Virgo  and  Pisces  re- 
jnained  unchanged*  The  motive  of  some  of  the  substitutions 
was  to  avoid  the  confusion  which  must  have  ensued  from  the 
duplication  of  previously  existing  native  asteiisms;  thus,  the 
Egyptian  and  Greek.  Lions  were  composed  of  totally  different 
stars.  Abstractions  in  other  cases  replaced  concrete  objects, 
with  the  general  result  of  effacing  the  distinctive  character  of 
the  Greek  zodiac  as  a  "  circle  of  living  things." 
'  Spread  of  Greek  System. — ^Early  Zotoastrian  writings,  though 
impregnated  with  star-worship,  show  no  traces  of  an  attempt 
to  or^aise  the  heavenly  array.  In  the  Buttdahtsk^  however 
(9th  century),  the  twdve,  **  Akhtftrs,"  designated  by  the  same 
names  as  our  signs,  lead  the  army  of  OjrmSkd,  while  the  seven 
"Awakhtfirs"  or  planets  (including  a  meteor  and  a  comet) 
fight  for  Ahrlmaa.  The  knowledge  of  the  solar  sodiac  thus 
turned  to  account  for  duaMstic  purposes  was  undoubtedly  de- 
rived from. the  Greeks.  By  them,  too,  it  was  introduced  into 
Hindustan.  Aryabhata,  abouf  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era,  reckoned  by  the  same  signs  as  Hipparcbus.  They  were 
transmitted  from  India  by  Buddhist  missionaries  to  China,  but 
remained  in  abeyance  until  the  Jesuit  reform  of  Chinese 
astronomy  in  the  x  7th  century. 

Chinese  Zodiacal  Sigfts. — ^The  native  Chinese  zodiacal  system 
was  of  unexampled  complexity.  Besides  divisions  into  twenty- 
eight  and  twenty-four  parts,  it  included  two  distinct  duodenary 
series.  The  tse  or  "  stations  "  were  referred  by  £.  C  Biot  to 
the  date  iiix  B.C.  Measured  from  the  winter  solstice  of  that 
cpochi^  they  corresponded,  in  conformity  with  the  Chinese 
method  of  observation  by  intervals  of  what  we  now  call  right 
ascension,  to  eqiial  portions  of  the  celestial  equator.*  Projected 
upon  the  ecliptic,  these  were  considerably  unequal,  and  the  tie 
accordingly  differed  essentially  from  the  Chaldaean  and  Greek 
signs.  Thdr  use  was  chiefly  astrological,  and  their  highly 
figurative  names — "  Great  Splendour,"  "  Immense  Void," 
"Fire  of  the  Phoenix,"  &c. — ^had  reference  to  no  particular 
stars.  They  became  virtually  merged  in  the  Ei^ropean  series, 
stamped  with  ofiicial  recognition  over  two  centuries  ago.  The 
twenty*four  tsieki  or  dead-tse  were  probably  invented  to  mark 
the  course  of  weather  changes  throughout  the  year.  Their 
appellations  are  purely  meteorological 

The  characteristic  Chinese  mode  of  dividing  the  "yellow 
road  "  of  the  sun  was,  however,  by  the  twelve  "  cycL'cal  am'mals  " 
—Rat,  Ox,  Tiger,  Hare,  Dragon  or  Crocodile,  Serpent,  Horse, 
Sheep,  Monkey,  Hen,  Dog,  Pig.  The  opening  sign  corresponds 
to  our  Aquarius,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  rat  is,  in  the  far 
East,  frequently  used  as  an  ideograph  for  "water."  But  here 
the  agreement  ceases.  For  the  Chinese  series-  has  the  strange 
peculiarity  of  proceeduig  in  a  retrograde  direction  or  against 
the  course  of  the  sun.  Jhus,  the  second  sign  (of  the  Ox) 
occupies  the  posi^on  of  Capricorn,  the  third  that  of  Sagittarius, 
and  so  on.  The  explanation  of  this  seeming  anomaly  is  to  be 
found  in  the  ptimilive  destination  of  the  "  animals  "  to  the 
purposes  of  an  "  horary  zodiac."  Their  succession,  established 
to  mark  the  hours  of  day  and  night,  was  not  unnaturally 

>  Bnigscb.  Z.  D.  M.  C,  ix.  513. 

*Biot,   Journ.   des  Savons,    1839,   p.   7291  and    1840.   p.  i^; 
CauUl.  HisL  d*  FAstr,  Ckinaise,  p^  9. 


associated  with  the  diurnal  revolution  of  the  q>here  from  east 
to  west.'  They  are  unquestionably  of  native  Origin.  Tradition 
ascribes  their  invention  to  Tajao,  minister  of  the  emperor 
Hwang-ti,  who  reigned  c.  2697  B.C.,  and  it  can  scarcely  be  placed 
later  than  the  7th  century  b.c.^ 

The  Chinese  circle  of  the  "  animals  "  obtained  early  a  wide 
diffusion.  It  was  adopted  by  Tatars,  Turks  and  Mongols,  in 
Tibet  and  Tong-king,  Japan  and  Korea.  It  is  denominated  by 
Humboldt*  the  "zodiac  of  hunters  and  shepherds,"  and  he 
adds  that  the  presence  in  it  of  a  tiger  gives  it  an  exclusively 
Asiatic  character.  It  appears  never  to  have  been  designed  for 
astronomical  employment.  From  the  first  it  served  to  char- 
acterize the  divisions  of  time.  The  nomenclature  not  only  of 
the  hours  of  the  day  and  of  their  minutest  intervals  was  supplied 
by  it,  but  of  the  months  of  the  year,  of  the  years  in  the  Oriental 
sixty-year  cycle,  and  of  the  days  in  the  "  little  cycle  "  of  twelve 
days.  Nor  has  it  yet  fallen  iato  desuetude.  Years  "  of  the 
Rat,"  "of  the  Tiger,"  "  of  the  Pig,"  still  figure  in  the  almanacs 
of  Central  Asia,  Codiin  China  and  Japan. 

AsUc  Zodiacal  Signs.-^A  large  detachment  of  the  "  cyclical 
animals  "  even  found  its  way  to  the  New  World.  Seven  of  the 
twenty  days  constituting  the  Aztec  month  bore  names  evidently 
borrowed  from  those  of  the  Chinese  horary  signs.  The  Hare 
(or  Rabbit),  Monkey,  Dog  and  Serpent  reappeared  without 
change;  for  the  Tiger,  Crocodile  and  Hen,  unknown  in  America, 
the  Ocelot,  Lizard  and  Eagle  were  substituted  as  analogous.* 
The  Aztec  calendar  dated  from  the  7lh^ntury;  but  the  zodiacal 
tradition  embodied  by  it  was  doubtless  much  more  ancient. 
Of  the  zodiac  in  its  true  sense  of  a  partitioned  bolt  of  the  sphere 
there  was  no  aboriginal  knowledge  on  the  American  continent. 
Mexican  acquaintance  with  the  signs  related  only  to  their 
secondary  function  as  dies  (so  to  speak)  with  which  to  stamp 
recurring  intervals  of  time. 

Lunar  Zodiac.^-The  synodical  revolution  of  the  moon  laid 
down  the  lines  of  the  solar,  its  sidereal  revolution  those  of  the 
lunar  zodiac  The  first  was  a  circlet  of  "  full  moons  ";  the 
second  marked  the  diurnal  stages  of  the  lunar  progress  round  the 
sky,  from  and  back  again  to  any  selected  star.  The  moon  was 
the  earliest  "  measurer "  both  of  time  and  space;  but  its 
services  can  scarcely  have  been  rendered  available  until  stellar 
"  milestones "  were  established  at  suitable  points  along  its 
path.  Such  were  the  Hindu  nokskalraSf  a  word  originally 
signifying  stars  in  ^neral,  but  appropriated  to  designate  certain 
small  stellar  groups  marking  the  divisions  of  the  lunar  track. 
They  exhibit  in  an  exaggerated  form  the  irregularities  of  dis- 
tribution visible  in  our  zodiacal  constellations,  and  present  the 
further  anomaly  of  being  frequently  reckoned  as  twenty-eight 
in  number,  while  the  ecliptical  ires  they  characterize  are  in- 
variably twenty-seven.  Now,  since  the  moon  revolves  round 
the  earth  in  27}  days,  hesitation  between  the  two  full  numbers 
might  easily  arise;  yet  the  real  explanation  of  the  difficulty 
appears  to  be  different.  The  superfluous  asterism,  named 
Abhijit,  included  the  bright  star  a  Lyrac,  under  whose  influence 
the  gods  had  vanquished  the  Asuras.  Its  invocation  with  the 
other  nakshairaSf  remoteness  from  the -ecliptic  notwithstanding, 
was  thus  due  (according  to  Max  M tiller's  plausible  conjecture)' 
to  its  being  regarded  as  of  especially  good  omen.  Acquaintance 
with  foreign  systems  of  twenty-eight  lunar  divisions  tended 
doubtless  to  fix  its  position,  which  remained,  nevertheless, 
always  equivocal.'  Alternately  admitted  into'or  rejected  from 
the  scries,  it  was  finally,  some  six  or  seven  centuries  ago, 
eliminated  by  the  effects  of  precession  in  reversing  the  order  of 
culmination  of  its  limiting  stars. 

The  notion  of  a  twenty-seven-fold  division  of  the  zodiac  was 
deeply  rooted  in  Hindu  tradition.  The  number  and  the  name 
were  in  early  times  almost  synonymous.   Thus  a  nakshatro'indld 


>  Humboldt.  Vues  des  CordiU^es,  p.  168. 

« G.  Schlegel,  Ur.  Chin.,  pp.  37,  561.  .         .  . 

^Iliid.,   p.    152;   Pxtacoit,  .Conquest   of  Mexico,   iiii    321    (ed. 


•  Op,  cit.,  p.  219. 


i860). 

'  Rijg-Veda'SatHhUa,  vol.  iv.  (1862),  Preface,  p.  Ixii 
'  Whitney.  Journ.  Am.  Orient.  Soo,,  vm.  394. 


996 


ZODIAC 


denoted  a  neddatt  of  twenty-seven  pe&Tl9;i&nd  the  funda* 
mental  equality  of  the  parts  was  figured  in  an  ancient  legend, 
by  the  compulsion  laid  upon  King  Soma  (the  Moon)  to  share 
his  time  impartially  between  all  his  wives,  the  twenty-seven 
daughters  of  Prajiipati.  Everything  points  to  a  native  origin 
for  the  system  of  nakshalras.  Some  were  named  after  ex- 
clusively Vedic  deities;  they  formed  the  basis  of  the  sacrificial 
Calendar  of  the  Brahmins;  the  old  Indian  names  of  the  months 
were  derived  from  them;  their  existence  was  pre-supposed  in 
the  entire  structure  of  Hindu  ritual  and  science.*  They  do  not, 
however,  obtain  full  recognition  in  Sanskrit  literature  until  the 
Brfihmana  period  (7th  or  8th  century  B.C.).  The  Rig-Veda 
contains  only  one  allusion  to  them,  where  it  is  said  that  *'  Soma 
is  placed  in  the  lap  of  the  nakshatras  ";  and  this  is  in  a  part 
including  later  interpolations. 

Poative  proof  of  the  high  antiquity  of  the  Hindu  lunar  zodiac 
is  nevertheless  afforded  by  the  imdoubted  fact  that  the  primitive 
seties  opened  with  KrittikS.  (the  Pleiades)  as  the  sign  of  the 
vernal  equinox.  The  arrangement  would  have  been  correct 
about  2300  B.a;  it  would  scarcely  have  been  possible  after 
x8oo  B.C.'  We  find  nowhere  else  a  well-authenticated  zodiacal 
sequence  corresponding  to  so  early  a  date.  The  reform  by  which 
Krittika,  now  relegated  to  the  third  place,  was  superseded  as  the 
head  of  the  series  by  "  Agvini  "*  was  accomplished  under  Greek 
influence  somewhere  near  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
For  purposes  of  ritual,  however,  the  Pleiades,  with  Agni  or 
*'  Fire  "  as  their  presiding  deity,  continued  to  be  the  first  sign. 
Hindu  astronomy  received  its  first  definite  organization  in  the 
6th  century,  with  results  embodied  in  the  Sdrya-Siddkdnta. 
Here  the  "  signs  "  and  the  "  constellations  "  of  the  lunar  zodiac 
form  two  essentially  distinct  systems.  The  ecliptic  is  divided 
into  twenty-seven  equal  parts,  called  bkogas  or  arcs,  of  800'  each. 
But  the  nakshatras  are  twenty-eight,  and  are  represented  by  as 
many  "  junction  stars "  (yogdfdra),  carefully  determined  by 
their  spherical  co-ordinates.  The  successive  entries  of  the 
moon  and  planets  into  the  nakskairas  (the  ascertainment  of 
which  was  of  great  astrological  importance)  were  fixed  by  means 
of  their  conjimctions  with  the  yogStaras.  These,  however,  soon 
ceased  to  be  observed,  and  already  in  the  nth  century,  al- 
BlrCtnl  could  meet  vdth  no  Hindu  astronomer  capable  of  point- 
ing out  to  him  the  complete  series.  Their  successful  identifi- 
cation by  Colebrooke*  in  1807  had  a  purely  archaeological 
interest.  The  modem  nakshatras  are  twenty-seven  equal 
ecliptical  divisions,  the  origin  of  which  shifts,  like  that  of  the 
solair  signs,  with  the  vernal  equinox.  They  arc,  in  fact,  the 
bhogas  of  the  SHrya-Siddhdnta.  The  mean  place  of  the  moon 
in  them,  published  in  all  Hindu  almanacs,  is  found  to  serve 
unexceptionally  the  ends  of  astral  vaticination." 

The  system  upon  which  it  is  founded  is  of  great  antiquity.  Belief 
in  the  power  of  the  nakshalras  evidently  inspired  the  invocations 
of  them  in  the  Atharva-Vcda.  In  the  BrAhmana  period  they 
were  distinguished  as  "  deva  "  and  "  yama,"  the  fourteen  lucky 
asterisms  being  probably  associated  with  the  waxing,  the  four- 
teen unlucky  with  the  waning  moon.'  A  special  nakshatra  was 
appropriated  to  every  occurrence  of  life.  C)ne  was  propitious 
to  marriage,  another  to  entrance  upon  school-life,  a  third  to 
the  first  ploughing,  a  fourth  to  laying  the  foundation  of  a  house. 
Festivals  for  the  dead  were  appointed  to  be  held  under  those 
that  included  but  one  star.  Propitiatory  abstinences  were 
recommended  when  the  natal  asterism  was  menaced  by  un- 
favourable planetary  conjunctions.  The  various  membera  of  the 
body  were  parcelled  out  among  the  nakshatras,  and  a  rotation 
of  food  was  prescribed  as  a  wholesome  accompaniment  of  the 
moon's  revolution  among  them.' 

*  Max  MttUer,  op.  cit.,  p.  Ixiv.  « Ibid.,  p.  49. 

*  A.  Weber,  Jndixhe  Studien.  x.  841. 

*  Named  from  the  A^ins,  the  Hindu  Castor  and  Pollux.  It  is 
composed  of  the  stars  in  the  head  of  Aries,  and  is  fisured  by  a 
horse's  head.  *  As.  Res.,  ix.  ^o. 

*>}.  B.  Btot,  Etudes  sur  VAstronomie  Indicnne,  p.  225. 

'  A.  Weber,  "  Die  Vcdiachen  Nachrichten  von  den  Naxatra.**  in 
Berliner  Abhandlungen  (1861),  p.  309. 

"/6i^..  p.  322;  H.  Kern»  Dte  Yogatara  des  Varamihira;  Weber's 
Ind.  StuLt  XV.  174-181. 


The  nomendatiire  of  tlw  Bindu  sigiift  of  the  aodiac,  save  ai 
regards  a  few  standard  asterisms,  sack  as  hgyim  and  Kiittiki, 
was  far  from  uniform.  Conaderable  discrepancies  ooour  ia 
the  lisu  given  by  different  authorities.*  Hdioe  it  is  not  aa^ 
prising  to  meet  in  them  evidence  of  foreign  c^mmunltaitifflia 
Reminisoences  of  the  Oiedc  signs  ol  (3emini,  Leo,  Ltfata,  Sa|^- 
tarios,  Capricomus  and  Itisces  aie  <rfivk»u8  severally  in  the 
Hindu  Two  Faces,  Lion's  Ttjl,  Beam  of  a  Balance,  Aznnr, 
Gazelle's  Head  (figured  as  a  marine  nondescxipt)  and  Fish.  The 
correspondence  does  not,  however,  extend  to  the  stars;  and 
some  coincidences  adverted  to  by  Humboldt  between  the 
nakskairas  and  the  sodiacal  animals  oC  Central  Asia  are  of  the 
same  nominal  character.**^  Meodcan  loans  are  more  lemarknUe. 
They  were  apparently  direct  as  well  as  indirect.  The  Aztec 
calendar  includes  nakshatra  titles  'borrowed,  not  only  thiou^ 
the  medium  of  the  Tatar  sodiac,  but  likewise  straight  from  the 
Indian  scheme,  apart  from  any  known  intervention.  The 
"  three  footprints  of  Vishnu,*'  for  exam]de,  unmistakably  gave 
its  name  to  the  Mexican  day  Olfin,  signifying  the  "  trade  of  the 
sun  ";  and  both  series  further  contain,  a  **  ffint  weapon/*  a 
'*  stick,"  and  a  "  house."  ^  Several  houses  and  couches  woe 
ranged  along  the  Hindu  sodiac  with  thp  naive  idea  of  providing 
resting-places  for  the  wandering  moon. 

Rdative  Antiquity  ef  Hindu,  Chinese  and  Arabian  Systems.-' 
Relation.^ip  of  a  more  intimate  kind  connects  the  Hindu  lunar 
mansions  With  those  of  the  Arabs  and  Chineae.  The  resem- 
blance between  the  three  systems  is  indeed  so  close  that  it  has 
been  assumed,  almost  as  axiomatic,  that  they  must  have  been 
framed  from  a  angle  modd.  It  appears  neverthdesa  to  have 
become  tolerably  clear  that  the  nakshatras  were  both  native  to 
India,  and  the  sieu  to  China,  but  that  the  mandsU  were  mainly 
of  Indian  derivation.  The  assertion,  paradoidcid  at  fint  sight, 
that  the  twenty-dght  **  hostelries  "  of  the  Chinese  sphen  had 
nothing  to  do  with  the  moon's  daily  motion,  seems  to  convey 
the  actual  fact.  Thdr  number,  as  a  multiple  of  fotir,  was  pre- 
scribed by  the  quaternary  partition  of  the  heavens,  funds* 
mental  in  Chinese  astronomy.  It  was  considered  by  Biot  to  have 
been  originally  twenty-four,  but  to  have  been  enlaiiged  to 
twenty-eight  about  1100  B.C.,  by  the  addition  of  determinants 
for  the  solstices  and  equinoxes  of  that  period.**  The  essential 
difference,  however,  between  the  nakshatras  and  the  sieu  is  that 
the  latter  were  equatorial,  not  ecliptical,  divisions.  They  were 
measured  by  the  meridian-passages  of  the  limiting  stars,  and 
varied  in  amplitude  from  2"  4  a'  to  30**  24'."  The  msc  ci  the 
specially  observed  stars  constituting  or  representing  the  sien 
was  as  points  of  reference  for  the  movements  of  sun,  moon  and 
planets.  They  served,  in  fact,  and  stil)  serve  (though  vitk 
astrological  ends  in  view),  the  precise  purpose  of  "  fundamental 
stars  "  in  European  astronomy.  All  that  is  certainly  knows 
about  the  antiquity  of  the  sieu  is  that  they  were  well  cst((blished 
in  the  3rd  century  B.C.  Their  initial  point  at  the  auiumoal 
equinox  marked  by  Kio  (Spica  Virginis)  suits  a  still  later  date; 
and  there  is  no  valid  evidence  that  the  modem  series  resulted 
from  the  rectification  of  an  older  superannuated  arrangement, 
analogous  to  the  KrittikA  sequence  of  naksftatras.  The  Hinda 
zodiacal  constellations  belong  then  to  an  earlier  epoch  than  the 
Chinese  "  stations,'*  such  as  they  have  been  transmitted  to  our 
acquaintance.  Yet  not  only  were  the  latter  an  independent 
invention,  but  it  is  almost  demonstrable  that  the  nakshatras^ 
in  their  more  recent  organization,  were,  as  far  as  possible, 
assimilated  to  them.  The  whole  system  of  junction  stars  was 
doubtless  an  imitation  of  the  sieu\*\.\ie  choice  of  them  by  the 
Hindu  astronomers  of  the  6th  century  a.d.  was  plainly  instigated 
by  a  consideration  of  the  Chinese  list,  compiled  with  a  widely 
different  intent.  Where  they  varied  from  it,  some  intelligible 
reason  can  generally  be  assigned  for  the  change.  Eight  junc^ 
tion  stars  lie  quite  close  to,  seven  others  are  actxially  identical 
with,  Chinese  determinants;  '*  and  many  of  these  coincidences 

*  Sir  William  Jones,  As.  Res.,  ii.  294-95. 

*"  Humboldt,  Vues  des  CordiUhres,  p.  154.  ^  Ibtd.,  p.  15a. 

"  Biot.  Joum.  des  Sawns  (1845).  p.  40. 

»C.  Scblegd.  Ur.  Chin.,  p.  77.  ^«  Blot,  Etudes,  p.  it^ 


ZODIAC 

■a  of  ccHpticil 


diviliao,  Inconvoiiently  stnatol  objectL 

ArMa*  Uamsumi  ef  Ou  Jfon.— Tbg 
chuactoiniig  the  Aimb  "  iiiui5k>D*  of  the 
katnOr)  wen  mon  npiabl;  duuibnied  Ebu  stba  the  Hindu 
or  ChiDcae  Kris.  Hkt  prescntHl.  nevathelag,  atriking  n- 
•erabluKEs  In  both.  Twioty-fonr  out  of  taenly-eight  w«re 
fomiHl,  at  least  ^  p*'''  "^  naktlatta  or  ijaa  )tii>.>  That  the 
Aiab  was  cnentiaUy  a  espy  of  th«  Hindu  luoai  nxUac  can 
acarcdy  admit  oi  doubt.  The/  were  divided  on,  the  nme 
ptina^W,  tiA  Ofwoed  U  the  qxlDg  cqulnoi;  tlie  first  Anb 
lign  ShanUn  mi  ujictly  eqninLait  to  the  Hindu  Arvini;  and 
dghtetn  consUBtUoni  fn  «ack  wen  Thttally  coincident.  The 
iiH>del  of  the  aev  waa,  humvei,  aho  lepided.  Ei^teen 
Cbinae  deCenninants  wen  included  in  the  Anb  astEriuni, 
and  at  IbeK'five  or  aii  were  not  Hakskatra  ilan;  csmequently, 
they  man  have  been  token  directly  Irom  the  Chinese  aerie*. 
Nor  were  the*bTHk  signs  will  ~      ' 


which,  i 
11  difficulty  in  acconniiag  for  the  vb 


d  by  Aliarghini  ea^  in  tlie  (>th  century,  whsi  the 
Araba  were  in  afitncuHBy  the  avowed  diadptn  of  the  Hindus. 
But,  aJtboogh  they  then  lecerved  perhapa  their  earliest  quasi- 
scientific  oiganiiatjon.  the  manaions  ol  the  moon  had  for  ages 
previously  hgund  In  the  popular  lore  of  the  Bcdooin.  A  Kt  of 
twcnty^ciilhl  ihytDM  anodalod  their  helisoi  risings  with  the 
^hjing**  1^  sodon  and  the  videsitndEB  of  uotnad  life^  iheir 
sctllogi  were  erf  metamological  and  astrological  import;'  in 
the  Koran  {t.  i)  they  are  regarded  as  indispensabJe  for  the 
recknoing  t£  time.  Yet  even  this  intimate  penetration  into  the 
modes  of  thon^t  oi  tbe  desert  may  be  explained  by  prebistonc 
Indian  communication.  The  allermtive  view,  advocated  by 
Weber,  that  tbe  lunar  iDdiB£  was  pnmltively  CbaldajMi,  rests 
fm  B  very  sbsdowy  foDDdlliort.  It  it  true  that  a  word  radically 
ideDtiol  with  m/mOBl  occm  twice  in  the  Bible,  under  the 
forms  umahdi  uid  suBaroU  (i  King*  jiiiL  5;  Job  nxviii. 
3>);  but  tlie  heavenly  halting-fJacd  which  it  seems  to  designate 
niay  be  solar  rather  than  lunar.  EujAratean  exploration  haa 
so  far  tiFought  to  light  no  traces  of  ecliptlcal  partition  by  the 
mooa'a  diurnal  motion,  unless,  indeed,  sodmcal  assodations  be 
claimed  for  a  set  of  twenty-eight  deprecatory  formulae  afftinst 
evil  spirits  insciiiKd  on  a  Njnevite  tablcL* 

The  safest  gnenl  cDDcIiuiDm  regarding  this  diqiuied  subject 
ai^iev  to  bethat  [he  rfoi,  distinctively  and  onvaryingly  Chinese, 
caitnot  pnperiy  be  described  as  divisions  of  a  lunar  sodiac, 
that  the  luhsMatras,  though  of  purely  Indian  origin,  became 
modified  by  the  successive  adoplioa  of  Greek  and  CbiDose 
nctihcations  and  Baj^>tjved  improvements;  while  the  moKdU 
constituted  a  fiaoUy  eclectic  aytlem,  in  wiiich  elemenit  from 
all  quarten  tiere  comhined.  It  was  adopted  by  Turks,  Tatars 
and  FenUns,  aod  foreu  part  of  the  astronomical  paraphernalia 
of  the  BuniaMik.  TIm  liw,  on  the  othei  hand,  were  early 
naturalized  In  Japsn- 
_  Ailnttopcal  5yilr»i!.— TIie_  pe 

•istibly  vetlwacd  about  the  be  r 


u  (the  plaaet  M 
.  With  the  retp 
T  «"d  pl— 


'  WliilHy.  Notes  10  Sarya-SMUtila.  p.  2S 


[TfE^'do. 


nan  destiny  vatfed  tedeflnitdy.    The  influence  of  the  dgns, 

tbougfa  secondary,  was  bence  oveimantering:  Juiiap  called  theoi 
iwAt^jf,^  end  Ihey  vere  the  objects  <3  n 


997 

poodinE 


Qiiem  Dcua  Jn  panca  per  Bin^la  cLvidit  asira, . 
Ac  siu  cuique  dedit  tiitelae  (^lu.  per  orbem. 

ind  Syrian  loIns  riequently  bear  the 
bia  fell  to  Taurus,  rndia  to  Gemini. 

irn;  Lm  pmiecled  Mileiut,  Sagit- 
of  the  Bigns"  was  eimilaiiy  ois- 


Syria  WIS 
fflCTofan...,,  .>,, 

.ibra.  Zeugma  thJ 


00.  ado[>Icd  & 


,     —  _. ignty;  Stepben  • 

:tion  of  Sagittaiius. 

linly  ftom  the  tbirtv-sbi  "  d 
1  the  "  media  oI  tbe  whab 
y  period  of  the  EgjTrtian  ■ 

[.-r..i  .  (J^iip  part 


le  (^  the 


c  was  cured  by  Invoking  tbe  sodiac^ 

As  early  as  the  14th  cfntuiy  B.C.  a  co 
L9  placed  Bnong  tne  hieroglyphs  adorn 
,_.  < 1  — r.  :.  .1..  .^pie  of  Rg, 


X^'JtiX 


*  11.,  ■■ 


:harai:terize  every  Egyptian  astrological  monument.  Both  the 
Famous  zodiacs  of  Dendera  display  their  symboli,  unmiitaknbly 
identified  by  Lepihis.  The  lale  origiB  ol  these  lepresentatinni 
•as  enabliibed  by  tbe  <1-—' ■' '  ■■• '-  -' 


high  probabnin'.  I 
the  sfgru  of  the 
mostOkdv 


Tbe 


iiUem  of  the 
iaaasortof 


e  pluiet  Jupiter  ^    Iih 
liemaitSi  at  the  time 


been  cofljcccuied  1^  Lauth,^'  1 


'ves 


Dendeis  suits,  as  to  constelb- 
«.[>.  It  set  fanb.  Ibere  li  munn 
of  theempemr TJbetiu^u  hul 

ud  method  of  stellar  grou^ng  of  the  andent 

rpkent- — An  Egypto-Greek  planisphere,  first  deHCribed  by 

,.  n   i.i„   ._   :.. 1   _|jp   ,[„  ciicuUr  zodiac  of 

the  outermost  ol  Its  five 
Gnxk  lodiac  in  duplicate 
cr  circle  is  imaccountably 
..  The  relic  «a>  dus  up  on 
Lotivre.    It  dates  from  t) 


,r  jrdc. 


,  and  figured  on  the  "  plateau 


ft  the  tH^ve  hauls  " 


'EcUiel,  Ducriplit  Nnmmmm  , 
*  Manaiua,  Alt'.,  bk.  iv.  ver,  TOi-J 
•A.  J.  P(lrce.&ws«^^Ui.Slirri,  | 


"  Lepsms;  CtimJietU  ia  Attj^ttt  part 

■s  Ixi  Zoiiaqmcs  it  Dendtroh.  p.  7} 
>■  See  Riel'a  Dtl  faU  Jatr  mm  Dc 


Th.  Taylor  at 
¥ij(.  el  Utdicin 


I.  V*u  ia  CnimrH,  f. 


(187«1- 
.,  I.U..,  p.  no;  see  tin  Hum- 
L^'ut,  tf.  tU..  p,  »y.  Frehmr, 


998 


ZODIACAL  LIGHT 


in  the  treotary  of  the  emperara  of  the  Tang  dynarty.*  Ftobably 
the  most  ancient  zodiacal  reprceentation  in  existenoe  »  a  fragment 
of  a  Chaldacan  planisphere  in  the  British  Museum,  once  inscribed 
with  the  names  of  the  twdve  months  and.  their  governing  signs. 
Two  only  now  remain.* 

A  aodiac  on  the  "  astrological  altar  of  Gabies "  in  the  Louvre 
illustrates  the  apportionment  of  the  signs  among  the  inmates  of  the 
Roman  Pantheon;'  and  they  occur  as  a  classical  reminiscence  in 
the  mosaic  pavements  of  San  Mtniato  and  the  baptistery  at  Florence* 
the  cathedral  of  Lyons,  and  the  aypt  of  San  »avino  at  Piacenza.^ 
Zodiacal  symbolism  became  conspicuous  in  medieval  art.  Nearly 
all  the  French  cathedrals  of  the  lath  and  13th  centuries  exhibit 
on  their  portals  a  spedes  ot  rural  calendar,  in  iriiich  each  month 
and  si^  has  its  oorxe^wndlng  labour.  The  zodiac  of  Notre  Damp 
of  Pans,  opening  with  Aauarius,  is  a  noted  instance.*  A  nmilar 
series,  in  which  sculptured  figures  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles  are 
associated  with  the  sinis,  is  to  be  seen  in  perfect  preservation  on 
the  chief  doorway  of  tne  abbey  church  at  Vezclav.  The  cathedrals 
of  Amiens,  Sens  and  Rheinu  are  decorated  in  the  same  way.  In 
Italy  the  signs  and  works  survive  fragmentarily  in  the  baptistery 
at  Parma,  completely  on  the  porch  w  the  cattiedral  of  Cremona 
and  on  the  west  doorway  of  St  Mark's  at  Venice.  They  are  less 
common  in  Engbnd;  but  St  Maigaret's,  York,  and  the  church 
of  Iffley  in  Oxfordshire  offer  good  spedroens.     In  the  zodiac  of 


_  .  great 

were  frequently  pamted  with  zodiacal  emblems:  and  some  frescoes 
in  the  cathedral  of  Cologne  contain  the  signs,  each  with  an  attendant 
angel,  just  as  they  were  da)ictcd  on  the,  vault  of  the  church  at 
Mount  Athos.  Giotto's  zodiac  at  Padua' -was  remarkable  (in  its 
undisturbed  condition)  for  the  arrangement  of  the  signs  so  as  to  be 
struck  in  turns,  during  the  corresponding  months,  by  the  sun's 
rays.'  The  **  zodiac  of  labours  "  was  replaced  in  French  castles 
and^  hfttels  by  a  "  zodiac  of  pleasures."  in  which  hunting,  hawking, 
fishing  and  dancing  were  substituted  for  hoeing,  planting,  reaping 
and  ploughing.* 

It  is  curious  to  find  the  same  sequence  of  symbols  employed  for 
the  same  decorative  purposes  in  India  as  in  Europe.  A  perfect 
set  of  signs  was  copied  in  1764  from  a  pagoda  at  Vcrdapettah  near 
Cape  Comorin,  and  one  equally  complete  existed  at  the  same  period 
on  the  ceiling  of  a  temple  near  Mindu'rah.* 

The  hieroglyphs  representing  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  in  astrono- 
mical works  arc  found  in  manuscripts  of  about  the  loth  century, 
but  in  carvings  not  until  the  15th  or  idth.**  Their  origin  is  unknown; 
but  some,  if  not  all  of  them,  have  antique  associations.  The  hiero- 
glyph of  Leo,  for  instance,  occurs  among  the  symbols  of  tlie  Mithraic 
worship.** 

See  also  the  article  Astrology,  and  the  separate  articles  on  the 
constellations.  The  whole  subject  of  the  history  of  the  zodiac  b 
very  obscure.  See  generally  Franz  Boll,  Spkaera  (Leipzig,  1903); 
also  the  bibliographies  to  Astrology  and  Babylonian  and 
Assyrian  Rbugion.  (A.  M.  C.) 

ZODIACAL  UOHT,  a  faint  illumiiiatjon  of  the  sky,  sur- 
rounding the  sun  and  elongated  in  the  direction  of  the  -ecliptic 
on  each  side  of  the  sun.  It  is  lenticular  in  form,  brightest 
sear  the  sun,  and  shades  off  by  imperceptible  gradations, 
generally  becoming  invisible  at  k  distance  of  90**  from  the  son. 
Until  a  recent  time  it'  was  never  observed  ezoept  in  or  near  the 
zodiac;  hence  its  designation.  Its  breadth  varies  with  the 
time  and  place  of  observation,  depending  upon  the  position  of 
the  ecliptic  with  respect  to  the  horizon.  In  the  tropics,  where 
the  ecliptic  is  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  it  may  be 
seen  afta  the  end  of  twilight  on  every  clear  evening,  and  before 

*Schlegd,  Ur.  Ckin.,  p.  .561:  Pettigrew,  Jount.  Arek.  Soc., 
viii.  21. 

*  Fox  Talbot,  Trans.  Soc,  BiM.  Arckaeol,  iv.  260. 3 

*  Menard,  La  MytMogie  dans  VArt^  p.  388. 

*  Fowler,  ArehoMogia,  xliv.  172. 

*  VioUet-le-Duc,  Z>tc<.  de  VArck.  Franfoise,  be  551;  Le  Geniil. 
MSm.  de  fAcad,.  Paris.  178$,  p.  20.  *     ) 

*  Fowler,  Afduuohpa,  xliv.  150.  »  /Wi.,  p.  175. 

*  VioUet-le-Duc,  Diet,  de  PArek.,  be.  551. 

*John  Call,  PkU.  Trans,  hal  353.  Cf.  Houzeau,  BiNiograpkie 
AstronomiqiUt  vol.  i.  pt.  i.  p.  1^6,  where  a  useful  sketdi  of  the 
general  resultt  of  zodiacal  research  will  be  found. 

"  R,  Brown,  Archaeology  xlvii.  341;  Sayce,  in  NoHtrtt  xxv. 
$35. 

"  See  Lajard,  C%dU  de  MUhm,  pi.  xxvii.  fig.  5,  &c.'  The  actual 
symbol  8  can  be  carried  back  to  about  250  B.C.  (see  Journal  of  the 
Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  vol.  50  (18S1),  171,  No.  20,  and  plate  17, 
No.  6) :  it  occurs  there  with  an  Assyrian  winged  bull.  But  there  is 
nothing  to  prove  that  it  there,  or  elsewhere,  means  Taurus;  it  is 
found,  in  the  same  early  period,  with  a  lion  aa  well  as  with  a  bull 
—on  coins,  seals,  &c.  j 


twilight  on  evwy  claar  nonfaig^  imlMt  Uotted  out  by 
light.  It  then  presents  4  neariy  vettical  wrrigr  iihapfj  fomv 
tiie  b«se  of  whidi  extends  i  j**  or  26"  oa  eadi  side  of  the  point 
at  which  the  ecliptic  intersects  the  Iumisob.  The  point  of  the 
wedge  is  quite  indefinite,  the  exbemely  diSuae  U^  gradually 
fading  into  invisibility  at  a  hdght  wfaidi  m^  laage  Inm  50* 
to  70**  or  even  more,  according  to  the  ^'^n'^fn  of  the  observer's 
vision.  The  boundary  everywhere  is  ill  deS&ned  so  *!»•*  no 
exact  statement  of  the  extent  of  the  light  can  be  »mH>  The 
brightness  is  at  its  nuudmum  along  ita  centnl  line,  ^^XhA  the 
axis  of  the  light  Along  this  axis  the  iM4gii»ti*ir  continually 
increases  as  the  aun  is  approached.  Owing  to  the  aoft^y^  of 
the  outline,  it  is  not  poeaibie  to  fix  the  position  of  the  uis  with 
predsien;  but,  so  £ar  as  observations  have  been  made,  it  is 
found  that  it  Ues  near  the  ociiptic,  though  deviating  from  it  by 
a  quite  sensible  amount. 

Having  this  position,  the  oondilions  of  visibility  will  be  best 
whm  the  ecliptic,  and  thcref oce  the  axis  of  the  light,  me  n^jly 
peipendiailar  to  the  horizon,  and,  as  the  angle  bcjtimeM  the 
ecliptic  and  hoiison  becomes  acute,  will  deteziomte,  slowly  at 
first,  more  and  more  capidly  afterwards,  owing  to  the  increasing 
effect  of  atmospheric  absorptiML  'This  effect  is  enbanced  by 
the  light  being  bri^^iter  as  we  approach  the  sun.  More  and 
inoze  of  the  brighter  regions  of  the  light  will  then  be  near  the 
horizon  the  more  acute  the  angle.  The  xesnlt  is  that  tbe  Kg*** 
can  be  only  indistinctly  seen  when  the.ani^  with  tbe  boriaoa 
is  less  than  45^,  unless  in  a  region  where  tbe  atmosphere  is  un- 
usually clear.  From  this  statemfcnt  of  the  conditions  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  tropical  zone  is  the  most  favourable  lor  observa- 
tion, and  that  the  most  favourable  hour  of  the  day  at  wbicfa  the 
light  can  be  seen  must  always  be  the  earliest  after  amset 
and  the  kst  before  sunrise.  Practically.  tUs  is  when  twibght 
is  first  ended  in  the  evening,  and  about  to  begin  in  the  Tn^«ffnfn^ 
At  these  hours  the  angle  of  the  ediptic  with  the  hoziaen  varies 
with  the  season.  At  the  close  of  evening  twiU^t  the  an^  is 
greatest  abont  three  weeks  before  the  venial  equmox.  Ibe 
months  of  February  and  March  are  therefore  bestfortbeeveniag 
observations  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  but  die  li^t  can 
generally  be  seen  from  January  until  April.  Similar  ^vouzable 
conditions  prevail  in  the  monung  from  Sqitember  to  November. 

It  is  ciraur  that  the  light  proceeds  from  a  region  sunoundii^ 
the  aun,  and  lenticular  in  form,  the  axis  of  tbe  lens  being  neariy 
perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic,  while  the  drcumfereooe  extends 
at  least  to  the  oitdt  of  the  earth.  If  it  did  not  extend  so  far 
as  this  it  could  not  be  seen  as  frequently  as  it  isat  a  ^i^^^^tf^  of 
90^  from  the  sun.  The  accompanying  figure  shows  tbe  foim  of 
the  outline,  as  it  would  ai^iear  to  an  observer  on  an  onter  planet 
were  the  light  of  the  sun  cut  off.  The  h}rpotbesb  which  beat 
explains  aU  the  phenomena  is  that  the  bght  is  that  of  tbe  sun 
reflected  from  an  extremdy  tenuous  cloud  of  partidcs  having 
the  form  and  extent  described,  and  becoming  more  aind  more 
tenuous  ss  the  earth's  orbit  is  approached  untfl,  immediately 
outside  the  (»-bit,  it  fades  into  complete  invisibility.  Tbe  fact 
that  the  light  widens  out  toward  the  sun  leads  to  the  inference 
that  it  entirely  surroimds  the  sun.  It  is  therefore  of  interest 
to  test  this  inference  by  observations  at  midnight  in  such  a  lati- 
tude that  the  distance  of  the  sun  below  the  horizon  is  no  more 
than  necessary  to  predude  the  possibility  <rf  twili^t.  Such  aa 
opportunity  is  offered  when  the  sun  is  near  the  summer  solstice, 
in  latitudes  not  differing  much  from  50^  north.  A  transparent 
atmosphere  and  clear  horizon  are  necessary,  conditions  which  can 
best  be  secured  on  a  mountain  top.  Tlie  visibility  of  a  light 
corresponding  to  the  inference  was  shown  by  Simon  Newcomb, 
by  observations  at  the  top  of  the  Brienzcr  Rothom,  in  1905. 
Previously  to  this,  £.  £.  Barnard  had  observed  tbe  same 
phenomenon  at  Chicago.  The  only  source  of  doubt  as  to  tbe 
validity  of  the  conclusion  that  this  is  really  the  zodiacal  light 
arises  from  the  possibility  that,  after  the  dose  of  the  ordinarily 
recognized  twilight,  there  may  be  a  faint  illumination  arising 
from  the  reflection  of  light  by  the  very  raze  upper  atmosphere, 
shown  by  the  phenomena  of  meteors  to  extend  some  hundred 
miles  or  more  above  the  earth's  surfsoe.    The  prohka  of 


ZODIACAL  LIGHT 


999 


iepuatixig  k  poaaiUe  eOcctpRM&iceAlh  this  wayfrom  the  zodiacal 
light  proper  may.  seem  to.  offer  some  dil&cttlty.  But  the  few 
observations  made  show  that,  after  ordinary  twilight  has  ended 
in  the  evening,  the  northern  boae  of  the  zodiacal  light  extends 
more  and  more  toward  the  north  as  the  hotirs  pass  until,  towards 
midnight,  it  merges  into  the  li^t  of  the  sky  described  by  the 
two  observers  mentioned.  Yet  more  conclusive  are  the  ob- 
servations of  Maxwell  Hall  at  Jamaica,  who  reached  con* 
elusions  identical  with  those  of  Barnard  and  Newcomb,  from 
observations  of  the  base  of  the  light  at  the  close  of  twOight, 
which  he  estimated  at  60*^  in  the  line  through  the  sun. 

These  observations  show  that  the  outline  on  that  portion  of 
the  light  commonly  seen  in  the  morning  or  evening  is  concave 
instead  of  convex,  as  it  would  be  were  the  cloud  strictly  lenti- 
cular. The  actual  outline  of  the  cloud  is  that  of  which  a  section 
through  the  sun  is  shown  in  the  figure.  Since  the  tenuous  edge 
of  the  lens  extends  beyond  the  earth's  orbit  it  follows  that  there 
must  be  some  zodiacal  light,  whether  it  can  be  seen  or  not, 
passing  entirely  across  the  sky,  along  or  near  the  ecliptic  Ob< 
servations  of  this  zodiacal  band  are  therefore  of  great  interest. 
It  has  been  seen  to  stretch  across  the  sky  at  midnight  by  several 
observers,  especially  Barnard,  to  whom  it  appears  3^  to  4**  wide. 
He  found  it  to  be  best  seen  during  the  months  of  October, 
November  and  May. 

Intimately  connected  with  this  band  and  with  the  zodiacal 
light  is  the  Gcgenschcin,  or  counter-glow,  a  faint  illumination 
of  the  sky  in  the  region  opposite  the  sun,  which  may  generally 
be  seen  by  a  trained  eye  when  aU  the  conditions  are  favoumble. 
Unfavourable  conditions  ace  moonlight,  nearness  to  the  Mil^y 
Way,  and  elevation  of  the  light  above  the  horizon  (and  there- 
fore a  depression  of  the  sua  below  the  horizon)  of  less  than  20% 
and  the  presence  in  the  regjion  of  any  bright  planet.  The 
Milky  Way  renders  the  object  invisible  during  the  noonths  of 
Jun^,  July,  Deoejnber  and  January.  Its  light  is  so  faint  and 
diffuse  that  it  is  impossible  to  assign  dimensions  to  it,  except 
to  say  it  covers  a  region  <4  several  degrees  in  extent.  Barnard, 
the  most  successful  observer,  assigns  diameters  of  5**  or  even  10° 
or  more.  From  what  has  been  said  of  its  position  it  is  evident 
that  the  zodiacal  band,  when  seen  across  the  sky,  must  include 
it.  It  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  an  intensification  of  this 
band,  possibly  produced  by  the  increased  intensity  of  the  light 
when  reflected  nearly  back  toward  the  sun,  and  therefore 
toward  the  earth.  From  the  description  given  of  the  zodiacal 
band  and  the  GcBetuckciu^  it  is  clear  that  these  objects  should 
be  best  seen  at  the  highest  elevation,  especially  within  the 
tropics.  But  the  only  well-authenticated  observations  we  have 
of  this  kind  show  anomalies  which  have  never  beoa  cleared  up. 
This  is  especially  the  case  with  those  of  Chaplain  George  Jones, 
who  spent  eight  months  at  Quito,  Peni*  at  an  elevation  of  more 
than  9000  ft.,  for  the  express  purpose  of  observing  the  pheno- 
menon in  question.  He  saw  the  zodiacal  band  at  midnight 
as  a  complete  arch  spanning  the  sky,  agreeing  in  this  point 
with  the  observations  of  Barnard.  One  anomaly  of  his  ob- 
servations is  his  description  of  the  arch  as  sometimes  so  bright 


as  to  resemble  the  Milky  Way,  a  condition  which  would  make  it 
cosily  visible  at  ordinary  altitudes.  Another  anomaly  is  that 
he  never  saw  the  Cegeuscheinf  but  describes  the  band  as  equally 
bright  in  all  its  parts,  except  near  the  horizon.  We  arc  there- 
fore forced  to  the  conclusion  that  either  he  must  have  been  a 
quite  tmtrost worthy  observer,  or  that  there  are  anomaUes  in 
the  phenomena  which  are  yet  to  be  explained. 

Tlie  latter  possibility  Is  also  suggested  by  the  curious  fact 
that  the  visibiUt/  of  the  light  does  not  seem  to  be  proportional 


to  the  transparency  of  the  atmosphere.  Barnard  reports  it  as 
sometimes  best  seen  when  the  sky  is  slightly  milky,  while 
during  the  observations  already  mentioned  from  the  Rothorn 
the  Cegensduin  was  scarcely,  if  at  all,  visible,  though  the 
conditions  were  exceptionally  favourable.  It  has  even  been 
said  tliat  observers  at  great  elevations  have  failed  to  see  the 
zodiacal  light;  but  it  is  scarcely  credible  that  this  failure  could 
arise  from  any  other  cause  than  not  knowing  what  it  was  or 
where  to  look  for  it.  Moreover,  it  has  been  weU  seen  by  Hansky 
from  the  observatory  on  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc. 

In  studying  the  causes  of  the  phenom&on  we  must  clearly 
distinguish  between  the  apparent  form |is  seen  from  the  earth, 
and  the  real  form  of  the  lenticular-shaped  cloud.  The  former 
refers  to  the  earth,  which  is  continually  changing  the  point 
ci  view  of  the  observer  as  he  is  carried  around  the  sun,  while 
the  latter  relates  to  the  invariable  position  of  the  matter  which 
reflects  the  light.  First  in  importance  is  the  question  of  the 
position  of  the  principal  plane,  passing  through  the  sun,  and 
containing  the  circumferential  regions  of  the  cloud.  This 
plane  must  be  near,  but  not  coincident  with,  that  of  the  ecliptic. 
It  has  therefore  a  node  and  a  certain  inclination  to  the  ecliptic. 
The  determination  of  these  elements  requires  that,  at  some 
pohit  within  the  tr<^ics  where  the  atmosphere  is  clear,  observa- 
tions of  the  position  of  the  axis  of  the  light  among  the  stars 
should  be  made  from  time  to  time  through  an  entire  year.  In 
view  of  the  simplicity  of  the  necessary  aj^liances,  and  of  the 
small  amoifflt  of  labour  that  would  be  required,  we  find  a  singular 
paucity  of  such  observations.  The  most  elaborate  attempt  in 
the  required  direction  was  made  by  the  American  chaplain,  George 
Jones,  during  a  voyage  of  the  "Mississippi "  in  the  Pacific  Ocean^ 
in  x85a--54.  Owing  to  the  varyiitg  ktitude  of  the  ship,  and  the 
fact  that  the  observer  attempted  to  draw  curves  of  equal 
brilliancy  instead  of  the  central  line,  the  required  conclusions 
caiuot  be  drawn  with  certainty  from  these  observations.  More 
recently  Maxwell  Hall  in  Jamaica  made  a  satisfactory  deter* 
mination  during  the  months  from  January  to  March,  July  and 
October,  and  carefully  discussed  his  results.  But  the  observa- 
tions do  not  extend  continuously  throughout  the  year,  and  do 
not  include  a  soffident  length  of  the  central  line  on  each  evening 
to  enable  us  to  distinguish  certainly  the  heliocentric  latitude 
of  the  central  line,  as  distinct  from  its  aj^Mtrent  geocentric 
position.  Yet  his  observations  are  oi  the  first  importance  as 
showing  the  smallncss  of  the  deviation  of  the  central  line  from 
the  ecliptic.  When  smoothed  out,  the  maximum  latitude  Is 
less  than  3^,  which  seems  to  preclude  the  coincidence  of  the 
central  plane  of  the  light  with  that  of  the  sun's  equator.  HaD 
also  reaches  the  interesting  conclusion  that  the  plane  in  question 
seems  to  h'e  near  the  invariable  plane  of  the  solar  system,  *a 
result  which  might  be  expected  if  the  light  proceeded  from  a 
swarm  of  independent  meteoric  particles  moving  around  the 
sun.  Chaplain  Jones  concluded,  from  his  observations  at 
Quito,  that  the  central  line  of  the  arch  made  an  angle  of  3**  so' 
with  the  ech'ptic,  the  ascending  node  being  in  Taurus,  neat 
longitude  62^  This  is  about  40*  from  the  ascending  node  of 
the  invariable  plane,  so  that  there  is  a  well-marked  deviation 
of  his  results  from  those  of  Hall. 

Yet  more  divergent  are  the  conclusions  of  Francis  J.  Bayldon, 
R.N.R.,  who  made  many  observations  while  on  vo3rage8  through 
the  Pacific  Ocean  between  Australia  and  the  west  coast  of  North 
America.  He  places  the  ascending  node  at  the  vernal  equinox, 
and  assigns  an  inclination  of  4^  He  found  that  as  the  ob- 
server moved  to  the  north  or  south  the  axis  of  the  light  appear(>d 
to  be  displaced  in  the  direction  of  the  motion,  which  is  the  ofh 
posite  of  the  effect  due  to  paraUax,  but  in  the  same  sense  as 
the  effect  of  the  greater  atmospheric  absorption  of  the  light 
on  the  side  nearest  the  horizon.  He  also  describes  the  moon 
as  adding  to  the  zodiacal  Ught  during  her  first  and  last  quarters, 
a  result  so  difficult  to  explain  that  it  needs  confirmation.  It  if 
noteworthy  that  he  could  see  the  zodiacal  band  across  the  entire 
sky  during  the  whole  of  every  very  clear  moonless  night  in 
tropical  regions. 

If  We  accept  the  general  conclusion  already  drawn  as  to  the 


lOOO 


ZOFFANY— ZOISTTE 


form  and  boufidaxy  of  the  region  from  trfakb  the  light  emanates, 
the  next  question  is  that  of  the  matter  sending  it  forth.  The 
most  plausible  view  is  that  we  have  to  do  with  sunlight  reflected 
from  meteoric  particles  moving  round  the  sun  within  the  region 
of  the  lens.  The  polarisc<^>e  and  the  spectroscope  are  the  only 
instruments  by  the  aid  of  which  the  nature  of  the  matter  can  be 
inferred.  The  evidence  afforded  by  these  instruments  is  not, 
however,  altogether  accordant.  In  1867,  AngstrBm,  observing 
at  Upsala  in  March,  obtained  the  bright  auroral  line  (W.L.  5^67), 
and  concluded  that  in  the  sodiacal  light  there  was  the  same 
material  as  is  found  in  the  aurora  and  in  the  solar  corona, 
and  probably  through  all  spact.  Upsala,  however,  is  a  place 
where  the  auroral  spectrum  can  often  be  observed  in  the  sky, 
even  when  no  aurora  is  visible,  and  it  has  generally  hten 
believed  that  what  AngstrOm  really  saw  was  an  auroral  and 
not  a  zodiacal  spectrum. 

Professor  A.  W.  Wright,  of  New  Haveti,  also  made  careful 
cbservations  leading  to  the  amdusion  that  the  spectrum  differs 
from  sunlight  only  in  intensity.  Some  evidence  has  also  been 
found  by  the  same  observer  of  polarization,  showing  that  a 
considerable  portbn  of  the  light  must  be  reflected  sunlight. 
The  observations  of  Maxwell  Hall  also  embraced  some  made 
with  the  spectroscope.  He  was  unable  to  see  any  marked 
deviation  of  the  spectrum  from  that  of  the  sun;  but  it  does' 
not  appear  that  either  he  or  any  other  of  the  oboervets  dis- 
tinctly saw  the  dark  lines  of  the  solar  spectrum.  Dhect  proof 
that  we  have  to  do  with  reflected  sunlight  is  therefore  still 
incomplete. 

The  question  whether  the  Gegenschein  Can  be  accounted  for 
by  the  reflection  of  light  from  the  same  matter  as  the  zodiacal 
band  is  still  unsettled.  Taking  the  general  consensus  of  the 
observations  it  would  seem  that  its  light  must  be  so  much 
brighter  than  that  of  the  band  as  to  imply  the  action  of  s(»ne 
different  cause.  In  this  connexion  may  be  mentioned  the  in- 
genious suggestion  of  S.  Arrhenius,  that  the  phenomenon  is 
due  to  corpuscles  sent  off  by  the  earth  and  repelled  by  the  sun 
in  the  same  way  that  they  are  sent  off  from  a  comet  and  form 
its  tail.  In  other  words,  the  light  may  be  an  exceedin^y  tenuous 
cometary  tail  to  the  earth,  visible  only  because  seen  through  its 
very  great  length.  The  view  that  no  cause  intervenes  addi- 
tional to  that  producing  the  zodiacal  band  is  strengthened, 
though  not  proved,  by  a  theorem  due  to  F.  R.  Moulton  of 
Chicago.  He  shows  that,  supposing  the  doud  of  particles 
to  move  around  the  sim  in  nearly  circular  orbits  immediately 
outside  the  earth,  the  perturbations  by  the  earth  in  the  motion 
of  the  partides  will  result  in  their  retardation  in  that  part 
of  the  orbit  nearest  the  earth,  and  therefore  in  their  always  being 
more  numerous  in  a  given  space  in  this  part  of  the  orbit  than  in 
any  other.  This  view  certainly  accounts  for  some  intensifica- 
tion of  the  light,  to  which  may  be  added  the  intensification 
produced  by  the  vertical  reflection  of  the  sunlight. 

A  new  interest  was  given  to  the  subject  by  the  investigations 
of  H.  H.  Seeliger,  published  in  1906,  who  showed  that  the 
observed  excess  of  motion  of  the  perihelion  of  Mercury  may  be 
accounted  for  by  the  action  of  that  portion  of  the  matter  re- 
flecting the  zodiacal  light  which  lies  nearest  to  the  sun.  Plaus- 
ible though  his  result  is,  the  subject  still  requires  investigation. 
It  seems  not  unlikely  that  the  final  condusion  will  be  that 
instead  of  the  reflecting  matter  being  composed  of  solid  partides 
it  is  an  exceedingly  tenuous  gaseous  envelope  surroimding  the 
sun  and  revolving  on  an  axis  the  mean  position  of  which  is 
between  that  of  the  sun's  equator  and  that  of  the  invariable 
plane  of  the  solar  system. 

Bibliography.— Childrey,  Natural  History  of  Ei^nd  (1659)  and 
Britannia  Baconica,  p.  183  (1661):  D.  Cassini,  Now.  Phtnom. 
d'nne  lumiire  cHesU  [zodiacalel  (1683)  and  Dicouverte  de  la  lumibre 
cHeste  gui  paroisl  dans  le  todiaqw  (1685);  R.  Hooke,  Exfiication 
f/  a  Glade  of  Light,  &c.  (1685) ;  Mairan,  Observations  de  la  lumikre 
lodiacale;  L.  Euler,  Sur  la  cause  de  la  lumihre  todiacale  (1746): 
Mairan,  Sur  la  cause  de  la  lumihre  todiacale  (1747);  R.  Wou, 
BeobaclUungen  des  Zodiacallichies  (1850-52):  Broraen  U^er  den 
Gegenschein  des  ZodiacaUichts  (i8<5J  ind  in  Schumacher,  998; 
i.  F.  J.  Schmidt,  Das  ZodiacaUicht  (Brunswick,   1856)  and  in 


AUrm»  Naekt,,  hadSi  pu  f9»s  Jacob,  Memtit*  SLAA 

p.  119;  G.  Jones,  in  Ck>uld,  No.  84,  Motdkly  NoUus  HAS.,  xvi 
p.  18,  Amer.  Joum.  of  Science,  Series  II.,  vol.  34,  p.  274,  axHl  in  US. 
Exploring  Expedition  Narratwe,  vol.  Hi.  (1856);  Humlx^dt, 
Monatsber,  d,  k.  premss.  Akad.  d,  Wiss,  (July  1855),  U.  Not.  ILAS., 
xvL  p.  16;  C  P.  Smyth.  Trasu,  JLS£^  xz.  p.  489  (iSs^).  M.  NoL 
JL4.5.,  xviL  pw  204,  xxjdi.  p.  377;  T.  W.  Backhouse,  if.  NoL 
RA.S,,  zxxvi.  p.  I  and  xU.  p.  333;  Tupman,  M,  NoL  R.A.S.t 
xxxii.  p.  74;  Liab,  Comptes  Kendus,  fadv.  p.  262  (January  1872); 

t.  W.  Wright,  Amer.  Jom.  of  Science^  ty\u  p.  451  and  cviii.  p.  39; 
ns*tr0m,  P«ff.  iimurf.,  aoocvii.  p.  162;  Arthur  Searie,  Prec 
Amer»  Acad..,  xix.  p.  146,  voL  xa.  p.  13$,  and  Annals  of  the  Harvard 
Observatory,  vol.  xix.;  Trouvelot,  Troc.  Amer,  Acad.,  xiii.  p.  183 
(1877);  Barnard,  Popular  Astronomy,  vii.  (1899)  p.  171;  Baytdon, 
Pub,  AsL  Soc.  of  the  Pacific,  vol.  vL  (1900);  Maxwdl  Haft.  US. 
Monthly  WeaAer  Bemew  (Maxdi  190^;  Newoomb,  Attrophysieal 
JourmU  ii905)  iL  (Sw  N.) 

ZOFFART,  JOHAXH  (1733-1810),  British  padnter,  whose 
father  was  architect  to  the  prince  of  Thnm  and  Taxis,  was  bom 
in  Frankfort-on-Main.  He  ran  away  from  home  at  the  age  of 
thirteen  and  went  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  art  for  nearly 
twelve  years.  In  1758  he  left  for  England,  and  after  under- 
going some  hardships  was  bnou^t  into  fashion  by  royal 
patronage,  and  in  1760  was  induded  among  the  foundation 
members  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  went  to  Florence  in  1772 
with  an  introduction  from  (kiorge  HI.  to  the  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany,  and  did  not  return  until  1779.  During  this  second 
stay  in  Italy  he  met  with  much  success,  and  was  commanded 
by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa  to  paint  a  picttne  of  the  royal 
family  of  Tuscany;  this  work  he  executeid  so  mudi  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  empress  that  m  1778  he  was  created  a  baron 
of  the  Austrian  empire.  He  went  next  to  India,  where  he  lived 
from  X783  to  1790,  to  which  period  belong  some  of  hs  best- 
known  paintings;  but  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  in  England.  He  died  in  1810  and  was  buried  in  Kew 
churchyard.  His  portrait  groups  of  dramatic  cdelffities  are, 
perhaps,  the  most  highly  esteemed  of  hb  many  productions; 
they  have  considerable  technical  merit  and  show  much  duewd 
insist  into  diaracter.  .  Several  of  the  best  are  in  the  Garrick 
Qub,  London. 

ZOiLUS  (r.  400-320  B.C.),  Greek  grammarian  of  Amphfpolis 
in  Macedonia.  According  to  Vitruvius  (vii.,  preface)  he  lived 
during  the  age  of  Ptolemy  Philaddphus  (285-247  B.C.),  by  whom 
he  was  crudfied  as  the  punishment  of  his  aitidsms  on  the  king. 
This  account,  however,  should  probably  be  rejected.  Zollus 
appears  to  have  been  at  one  time  a  follower  of  bocrates,  but  sub- 
sequently a  pupil  of  Polycrates,  whom  he  heard  at  Athens,  where 
he  was  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  Zollus  was  chiefly  known  for  the 
acerbity  of  his  attacks  on  Homer  (which  gained  him  the  name  of 
Homeromastix,  "  scourge  of  Homer  ")>  chiefly  directed  against 
the  fabulous  dement  in  the  Homeric  poems.  Zollus  also  wrote 
against  Isocrates  and  Plato,  who  had  attadced  the  style  of 
Lysias  of  which  he  approved.  The  name  Zoflus  cane  to  he 
generally  used  of  a  q;>iteful  and  malignant  critic. 

See  (J.  Friedl&nder,  De  Zoilo  alusque  Homeri  Ohtrectatoribus 
(K5nigsberi^,  1895);  J.  E.  Sandys,  History  of  Classical  Scholarship 
C2nd  ed.  1906). 

ZOISITE,  a  rock-forming  mineral,  consisting  of  basic  caldum 
and  aluminium  silicate,  Ot(AlOH)Al3(Si04)>,  crystallizing  in 
the  orthorhombic  system.    It  is  dosely  rehit^  to  epidote  (f.t.) 
both  in  the  angles  of  the  crystals  and  in  chemical  composition: 
a  zoisite  containing  some  iron  replacing  aluminium  may  be 
identical   in   composition   with    an    epidote  ("  clinoaoisite ") 
poor  in  iron.   The  crystals  are  prismatic  in  habit  and  are  deeply 
furrowed  parallel  tp  their  length;  terminal  planes   are  rare; 
there  is  a  perfect  deavage  paraUd  to  the  brachy-pinacoid. 
Colunmar  and  compact  masses  are  more  cooojnon.     The  hard- 
ness is  6|  and  the  specific  gravity  3*25-3*37.    The  colour  is 
often  grey;  a  rose-red  variety,  known  as  "thuUte,"  occurs 
with  sky-blue  vesuvianite  at  Tdemarken  in  Norway,  and  has 
been  used  to  a  limited  extent  as  an  ornamental  stone.    Accord- 
ing to  differences  in  the  optical  characters,  two  kinds  of  zoisite 
have  been  distinguished.     Zoisite  is  a  product  of  dyxiamo- 
metamorphism,  and  occurs  as  a  constituent  of  some  ciystaUiM 


ZOLA— ZOLKIEWSKI 


■cbbu,  Bucb  u  imphibolite  ind  tckwtc.  -  It  wu  Gnl  obKrved 
by  Baron  Zoa  [alttr  whom  it  wss  nimed)  in  the  edg(iie  ol 
Sau-AIpe  in    Cirinthi*;   olJier   localilin   are     (Ik   Ducktown 

chalcopyrile;  Loch  Garve  is  Rosi-ihice,  &c.  Tbe  "uu- 
lufile  "  oC  the  Alps  and  riseithere,  whidi  hu  nsullcd  Irom  the 
alleration  oi  the  plagiodase  fcbpstof  gabbm,  omsiits  largely 
oftoiMtemthepidpte.  (L.  J.  S-) 

ZOLA.  tMOS  AdODABD  CHAHI^  UITQIHB  (iS4o-i9tn). 
French  novelist,  iras  bora  In  Paiit  on  the  ind  ot  April  1S40,  hii 
[alhcT  beitag  in  enguiecr,  pin  Italiu  nod  pan  Creek,  ^ild  hia 
iDDlher  a  Fcenchtromui,     The  iither  (Kint  to  have  bem  an 

tittle  lad,  left  10  h<s  Eutiily  do  better  praviiion  than  aliinuii 
against  Ibc  municipality  1^  the  town  of  Aii  It  wai  at  Aii, 
Khi^h  figure!  a3  Plasuna  in  10  nuay  of  his  Doveb,  that  ibe  boy 
received  the  fint  put  of  hia  eduotloi.  Thence  he  proceeded, 
ia  1858,  to  Piria,  vbere.  as  later  at  ManeiUfs,  be  [ailed  to 
obtain  his  bacheloc's  degree.  Then  came  a  few  yean  of  terrible 
poverty;  but  at  the  beginning  of  iS6>  he  obtaued  a  clerliahip, 
at  the  modest  salary  of  a  pound  a  week,  in  the  house  of  Hachette 
the  publisher.  Meanwhile  he  was  writing  apace,  but  uothiag 
of  particular  merit,  Hia  first  book,  Ctmia  A  Naum,  appeared 
on  the  ]4tfa  of  October  tS64,  and  attracted  some  Utentioo, 
and  in  January  rS66  he  determiDcd  to  abandon  clerking  and 
take  to  literature.  Vigotoua  and  aggressive  h  a  criti^  hia 
articles  00  literature  and  art  in  Villemesaant'a  paper  L'EiiHe- 

powerful  mivel,  TMrist  Raquin  (1867).  Meanwhile,  with 
chatacteristic  energy,  Zda  was  projecting  something  more  im- 
portant: the  creation  of  a  world  of  Us  own,  lilie  that  o!  Baliac's 
Camidie  Humaine — the  history  of  a  family  in  its  various  laml- 
fiationi  during  the  Second  Empire,  The  histoly  oftbistamily, 
the  Ruugon-Macquart,  was  to  be  told  in  a  Aeriea  of  noveb  con- 
taining a  scientific  atudy  of  heiedit> — science  was  nlWsya  Zoia's 
ittii  /j/uur— and  a  picture  of  French  life  and  society.  The 
fint  novel  0!  the  series,  La  Porlune  da  Ki<ugm,  appeared  in 
book  form  at  the  end  of  iB7r.  It  was  followed  by  La  Ctirie 
(1S74),  Li  Vtnlrc  dt  Farii  (1874),  la  Coiif«»e  ifc  Plasiaxs 
(1875),  Lofauttib  rxtUKourel  [iS7s),5i>H  ExaUHue  Etiflne 
HoH^an  (1876) — all  booka  unquealianably  of  icnmenae  ability, 
and  in  a  measure  saccesaful,  but  not  great  popular  succenes 
Then  came  L'Atiamninr  (1878?),  the  epic  of  drink,  and  the 
author's  lonune  wea  made.     Edition  followed  edition.     He 

by  (hat  of  JVons  (1880)  and  U  Dtba-h  (rgq^l.  From  Ibe 
Ptrluruia  ReuimW,  the  CgcUv  Paicdl  (1S93)  there  are  some 
twenty  nnvels  in  the  Kmim-UacqiiaTi  5«1«,  the  lecood  half 
«f  which  includes  the  ponerful  novels  Cominal  (rSBs)  and 
La  Tern  (1SS8).  In  1S8S  Zola  departed  from  hia  uaual  vein  Li 
(he  idyllic  story  of  Le  /ifve  Zola  also  wrote  a  aeriea  of  three 
romances  on  cities,  Lfurdn,  Rume,  Piuii  (1894-98),  novels  on 
ihe  "  goipels  "  of  population  IPIaindUil  and  work  ( Trateil) .  a 
voljme  of  plays,  md  several  volume!  of  criticism,  and  other 
things.  These  books  are  based  on  study  and  observation;  Ihe 
novels  are  crowded  wilh  characteti.  The  whole  is  a  gigantic 
Bpui,  the  fruit  ot  immenie  labour,  of  an  admirable  tenacity — 
BO  many  pages  wriUen,  morning  afler  mombig,  without  mter- 
mission,  during  some  thirty  yeaia.  He  prided  himself  on  his 
motto,  NuOa  dia  riru  tinea. 

Zola  was  (he  apostle  of  the  "  mlstlc "  or  "  iia(utaltitic  " 
•cbool;  but  he  was  ia  (ruth  not  ■  "nalnraliM"  M  *U,  in  so 
far  aa  "  nataraliim  **  b  to  Iw  regarded  as  a  record  of  fact.  He 
waa  an  idealist,  but  while  other  Idealists  idealise  (he  nobler 

thai  are  bestial.  He  taw  man's  lust,  greed,  gluttony,  as  in  a 
vi^n,  rnagnified,  overwhelming,  ponentous-  And  what  he 
■aw  be  preseoled  wilh  tremendous  power.  His  style  may  lack 
Out  tbatk  ([ualitiei  of  FVench  prose — lightneaa,  ddicacy, 
gwifcla;  it  cartiiiJy  has  not  Duidet's  cdour  and  fdidty  of 


loot 

touch.  Tbe  first  imiaetiloD  Et  prodBCti  iBiy  be  one  of  heaviness, 
and  the  later  "  gospels  "  on  population  and  work  are  distinctly 
ponderous,  But  for  rendering  the  gloomy  hoirot  of  the  sub- 
jects m  which  he  most  delights — detail  on  detail  being  accumn- 
loted  till  the  result  is  overwiielniing— Zcda  has  no  superior. 
Some  of  his  descriptions  of  crowds  in  movement  have  never 
been  lurpasaed. 

Zola  played  a  very  important  part  In  the  Dreyfus  affair, 
which  convulsed  French  politics  and  social  life  at  the  end  oi  the 
lalhcenldiy.  At  an  eariy  stage  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
Dreyfus  was  the  innocent  victim  of  a  nelarious  conspiracy,  and 
on  Che  ijth  of  January  1898,  with  his  usual  intrepidity,  he  pub- 
Usfaed  in  the  AioBre  new^iaper,  b  the  form  of  a  letter  beginning 
with  Ibe  words  J'acaur,  a  terrible  denunciation  of  all  those 
who  had  bad  a  hand  in  hounding  down  thai  unfonunate  officer. 
Zola's  object  was  a  prosecution  for  libel,  and  a  judicial  Inquiiy 
into  the  wbnle  afaire,  and  at  the  trial,  which  took  place  in  Paris 
in  February,  a  fisve  flood  of  li^t  was  thrown  on  the  case. 
The  chiefs  of  the  army  put  fortb  all  their  power,  and  Zola  wai 
condenuked.  He  appealed.  On  Ihe  rnd  of  April  Ibe  Conr  da 
Casatfon  cpiasbed  the  proceedings,  A  second  trial  took  plac« 
ai  Versailles,  on  the  i8th  of  July,  and  without  waiting  the  t«suit 
Zolx,  by  the  advice  of  hia  counsel  and  ftiends,  and  for  reasons 
of  legal  aliategy,  abruptly  left  France  and  took  refuge  in 
England.  Here  he  remained  in  hiding,  writbg  FIcmiUt,  tin 
the  4lh  of  June  1899,  when,  Immediately  on  hearing  that  there 
waa  to  be  a  revision  of  the  first  Dreyfus  trial,  be  returned  to 
Paris.  Whatever  may  be  thought  ol  the  agaire  itself,  then 
can  be  no  question  of  Zola's  superb  courage  and  diKnierMed- 

On  tbe  nwming  of  the  sg(h  of  September  iq«  Zola  waa 
found  dead  In  the  bedroom  of  bis  Paris  bouse,  having  been 
accidentally  aqihyilated  by  (be  foma  from  a  defective  Sue, 
He  received  a  public  funeral,  at  which  Captain  Dreyfus  was 
present.  Aiut^e  France  delivered  an  Impassioned  oration  at 
the  grave  At  the  time  ol  his  death  Zola  had  just  completed 
a  novel,  VMU,  dealing  *ilh  the  hicidenu  of  the  Dceyfus  [rial. 
A  sequel,  Justict,  bad  been  plarmed,  but  not  encvlnl.  After 
a  life  of  constant  slruggie  and  an  obloquy  whkb  never  relaxed, 
the  sensational  dose  of  Zt^'s  career  was  tbe  signal  for  an 
entaordinaiy  bunt  of  eulogy.  Tbe  verdict  of  posterity  will 
probably  be  kinder  than 'the  fiist,  and  less  unmeasured  than 
the  second.  Zola's  Iltenty  poailion  would  have  more  than 
qualified  bim  lor  tbe  French  Actdatiy.'  He  was  several  times 
a  candidate  hi  vain.  [F.  T.  H.) 


of  the  pTDCeedin 

ZOLKIKWSKI,  STANItLAOS  (r54r-iGi<:),  the  mat  ifhlBtrioui 
member  ol  an  ancient  Kuthenian  family  which  emigrated  to 
Calicja  in  the  i;(h  century.  During  the  interregnum  m  Foluid 
afler  the  death  of  Henry  of  Vakil,  Zolkicwski  was  an  anttnt 
partisan  of  the  chaiwelloT  Zamoyilu,  and  supponed  the  cai>- 
didalure  of  Stephen  B&thory,  under  whose  banner  he  leaned 
Ihe  art  of  war  in  Ihe'Muscovile  campaigns.  On  the  death  ol 
Stephen,  Zolkiewsklvigonjuslysupporied  the  policy  of  Zamoyski. 


e  battle  ( 


Austrian  archduke  Mudnilian  was  defeated  by  Ihe  Polisb 
chancdlor.  Sboatly  ■flctward*  ZcJkicwakl  was  made  caatdlan 
of  Lemberg  and  Bcling  comniaader-in-diief.  On  the  icccasion 
of  Sigismund  III  be  retired  from  court  and  divided  bis  liae 
betweea  improving  bis  eslates,  wbere  be  built  towns  and  fof- 
iresaes,  and  disciplining  the  Cossacks,  with  whom  be  enjoyed 
great  influence.  In  1601-1  be  aetved  with  diatinclion  in  the 
Livonian  war  against  the  Swedea,  whom  he  defeated  at  Revai. 
~     '        '     '  '         '  Nicholai  Zebraydowiki  he  led  th> 


I002 


ZOLLNER—ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


army  whidi  routed  the  rebels  at  Giuow  in  1607,  though  pio- 
testing  against  the  necessity  of  shedding  *'  his  brothers'  blood." 
For  his  services  he  received  the  palatinate  of  Kiev.  He  was 
opposed  to  the  expedition  sent  to  place  the  false  Demetrius 
on  the  throne  of  Muscovy;  but  nevertheless  accompanied  the 
king  to  Smolensk  and  was  sent  thence  with  a  handful  of  men 
against  Moscow.  On  his  way  thither  he  defeated  and  captured 
Tsar  Vftsily  Shuiski  at  the  battle  of  Klusbino  (July  14,  x6io), 
and  two  months  later  entered  the  Russian  capital  in  triumph. 
His  tactful  and  conciliatory  diplomacy  speedily  won  over  the 
boyars,  whom  he  persuaded  to  offer  the  Muscovite  crown  to 
the  Polish  crown  prince,  Wladislaus.  For  a  moment  it  seemed 
possible  that  the  Vasa  family  might  occupy  the  throne  of  Ivan 
the  Terrible;  but  Sigismund  III.  would  not  consent  to  the  re* 
ccption  of  his  son  into  the  Greek  Church,  and  refused  to  ratify 
the  terras  made  with  the  boyars.  Zolkiewski  then  returned 
to  the  Polish  camp  and  assisted  in  the  reduction  of  Smolensk, 
but  Moscow  in  the  meantime  drove  out  the  Polish  garrison  and 
proclaimed  a  native  dynasty  under  Michael  Romanov.  When 
Zolkiewski  presented  his  captives,  Tsar  Vasdy  and  his  family, 
to  the  Polish  diet,  he  received  an  ovation  and  was  rewarded  with 
the  dignity  of  hetman  wiclki  (commander-in-chief).  For  the 
next  few  years  he  defended  the  Ukraine  against  the  "Tatars 
and  Cossacks,  and  in  161 7  was  involved  in  a  war  with  the  Porte 
owing  to  the  unauthomcd  interference  of  the  Polish  nobles 
in  the  affairs  of  Wallacbia  and  Moldavia.  Unable  to  defeat 
the  vastly  superior  forces  of  the  Turkish  commander  Skinder, 
he  concluded  with  him  an  advantageous  truce  at  Jaruda  (27th 
of  August  x6i8),  by  the  terms  of  which  he  pledged  himself  to 
curb  the  Cossacks  and  at  the  same  time  renounced  all  the  claims 
of  Poland  to  the  Danubian  principalities.  Thus  he  saved  the 
one  army  of  Poland  to  guard  her  southern  frontier  from  appa- 
rently inevitable  destruction.  On  his  return  he  was  fiercely 
assailed  by  the  diet  for  not  risking  everything  in  a  pitched 
battle,  but  Zolkiewski  defended  himself  with  an  eloquence  which 
silenced  his  most  venomous  opponents.  *  The  peace  of  Jaruda 
was  then  confirmed,  and  the  king  conferred  upon  Zolkiewski 
the  grand-chancellorship,  an  honour  he  had  neither  de«rcd 
nor  expected.  Fresh  attacks  were  presently  made  against  him 
for  failing,  it  was  alleged,  to  prevent  the  Tatar  incursions. 
So  deeply  wounded  was  the  hero  by  these  calumnies  that  when 
in  16 1  g  he  was  sent  against  the  Turks  he  publicly  declared  that 
be  would  never  return  alive  unless  victorious.  He  was  as  good 
as  his  word.  Surrounded  near  the  Dniester  by  countless  hosts 
of  Turk^,  Tatars  and  Janissaries,  he  retreated  through  the 
Steppes,  fighting  night  and  day  without  food  or  water,  towards 
Cecofa.  By  the  time  he  reached  it,  he  saw  clearly  that  success 
was  impossible,  and  deUbcrately  determined  to  die  where  he 
stood.  Disguising  himself  so  that  his  dead  body  might  not  be 
recognized,  he  turned  upon  the  pursuers  and  was  slain  after 
a  desperate  resistance  (6th  of  October  1620).  His  head  was 
cut  off,  exhibited  in  the  Turkish  camp  and  then  sent  to  Con- 
stantinople as  a  present  to  the  sultan,  from  whom  it  was  subse- 
quently ransomed  at  a  great  price.  2^1kiewskl  is  one  of  the 
most  heroic  figures  in  PoUsh  history.  An  accomplished  general, 
a  skilful  diplomatist,  and  a  patriot  who  not  only  loved  his 
country  above  all  things,  but  never  feared  to  tell  his  countrymen 
the  truth,  he  excelled  in  all  private  and  public  virtues.  As  a 
writer  he  made  a  name  by  an  important  history  of  his  Muscovite 
campaigns. 

See  Stanislaw  Gabryel  Koidowski,  lAje  of  Stanislaus  Zdkiewski 
(Pol.)  (Cracow,  1904).  (R.  N.  B.) 

Z6LLVBR,  JOHANN  KARL  PRIEDRICH  (1834-1883), 
German  astronomer  and  physicist,  was  bom  at  Berlin  on  the 
8th  of  November  1834.  From  187  a  he  held  the  chair  of  astro- 
physics at  Leipaig  University.  He  wrote  numerous  papers 
on  photometry  and  spectrum  analysis  in  VoggendoTQ*s  AnttaUn 
and  BerickU  der  k.  sUchsisckm  CtstUsckafi  dcr  Wisstnsckaften, 
two  works  on  celestial  photometry  (GrundzUge  einer  aUiemdnen 
Pkotowuifie  des  Himmds,  Berlin,  1861,  4to,  and  Pkotomdriscke 
UntetsiuJmHgen,  Leipziir.  1865,  8vo),  «nd  a  curious  book,  t/tbtir 


die  Naiur  der  Comden  (I^eipzig,  1872,  3rd  ed.  1883).  He  ^ItA 
at  Leipzig  on  the  25th  of  Apnl  1882. 

ZOLLVEREIN  (Ger.  ZM,  toll,  customs,  and  Vernn,  union) 
a  term  used  generally  for  a  certain  form  of  Customs  Union,  but 
specblly  for  the  system  among  the  German  states  which  was  in 
force  between  1819  and   1S71   (see  Tariff,  and  Ge&manv: 
History), 

ZOH BOR«  a  town  of  Hungary,  capital  of  the  county  of  B4<  s 
Bodrog,  146  m.  S.  of  Budapest  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  29,036, 
two-thirds  Servians.  It  is  situated  in  a  fertile  pUdn  neat-  the 
Franz  Josef  canal,  which  connects  the  Danube  and  the  Theism, 
and  is  the  centre  of  the  corn  and  cattle  trade  of  an  extensive 
area. 

ZONARAS,  JOANNES  (John),  Byzantine  chronicler  and  theo- 
logian, flourished  at  Constantinople  in  the  12th  century.  Under 
Alexius  I.  Conmenus  he  held  the  offices  of  commander  of  the 
bodyguard  and  private  secretary  to  the  emperor,  but  in  the 
succeeding  reign  he  retired  to  Hagia  Glykeria  (one  of  the  Princes' 
Islands),  where  be  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  writing  books 
His  most  important  work,  '^nroy^  •  ^laTopuav  (compendium 
of  history),  in  eighteen  books,  extends  from  the  creation  of  the 
worU  to  the  death  of  Alexius  (11 18).  The  earlier  part  is  hrn-Ay 
drawn  from  Josephus;  for  Roman  history  he  chiefly  followed 
Dio  Cassius,  whose  first  twenty  books  are  not  otherwise  known  to 
us.  His  history  was  continued  by  Nicetas  Acominatus.  Various 
ecclesiastical  works  have  been  attributed  to  Zonaras — com- 
mentaries  on  the  Fathers  and  the  poems  of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus; 
lives  of  Saints;  and  a  treatise  on  the  Apostolical  Canons— 
and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  their  genuineness.  The  lexicon, 
however,  which  has  been  banded  down  under  his  name  (ed. 
J.  A.  H.  Tittmann  x8c8)  is  probably  the  work  of  a  certain 
Anionius  Monacfaus  (Stein's  Herodotus^  ii.  479  f .). 

Complete  edition  in  Mignc,  Patrologia  Craera,  cxxxtv.  cjncxv. 
cxxxvii.;  the  Ckrontcon  by  M.  Hndcr  and  T.  Btkttner-Wobst  in 
the  Bonn  CarpUM  Scrip^orum  Hist.  Byz.  (1841-97)  and  by  L.  Dia- 
dorf  in  the  Tcubncr  series  (1868-76) ;  see  bibliography  in  C.  Krum- 
bacbcr,  Ccschtckte  dcr  bytaiUinischen  Littcralur  (ana  odL  1897). 

ZONE  (Gr.  t^»  a  gurdle,  from  t^ionwyaij  to  gird),  a  term 
for  a  belt  or  girdle,  now  used  chieffy  in  the  transferred  sense 
of  a  demarcated  area.  Thus  the  earth's  surface  is  divided,  for 
classification  of  climates,  into  five  climatic  zones:  the  two 
temperate  and  the  two  frigid  zones  and  the  tropical  or  torrid 
zone.   (See  Climate  AND  Climatology.) 

ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION  (also  known  as  Zoogeography), 
the  science  dealing,  in  the  first  place,  with  the  distribution  of 
living  anlntals  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  (both  land  and  water), 
and  secondly  with  that  of  their  forerunners  (both  in  time  and 
in  space).  The  science  is  thus  a  side-branch  of  zoology,'  in- 
timately connected  on  the  one  hand  with  geography  and  on  the 
other  with  geology.  It  is  a  comparatively  modem  science, 
which  dates,  at  all  events  in  its  present  form,  from  the  second 
half  of  the  I9lh  century. 

Different  parts  of  the  land-surface  of  the  globe  arc  inhabited 
by  different  kinds  of  animals,  or,  in  other  words,  by  different 
faunas.  These  differences,  in  many  cases  at  any  rate,  are  not 
due  tp  differences  of  temperature  or  of  climate;  and  they  do 
not  depend  on  the  distance  of  one  place  from  another.  The 
warm-blooded  land-animals  of  Japan  are,  for  example,  very 
much  more  closely  related  to  those  of  the  British  Isles  than 
is  the  corresponding  fatma  of  Africa  to  that  of  Madagascar. 
Again,  on  the  hypothesis  of  the  evolution  of  one  species  from 
another,  in  the  case  of  land-animals  unprovided  with  the  means 
of  flight  such  resemblances  and  differences  between  the  faunas 
of  different  parts  of  the  world  depend  in  a  great  degree  on  the 
presence  or  absence  of  facilities  for  free  communication  by 
land  between  the  areas  in  question.  Prima  fade,  therefore, 
it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  fauna  of  an  island  will  differ 
more  from  that  of  the  adjacent  continent  than  will  those  of 
different  parts  of  that  continent  from  one  another. 

To  a  great  extent  this  is  the  case;  and  if  the  present  con- 
tinents and  islands  had  always  been  in  slatu  quo,  the  propositioo 

*  For  the  distribution  of  pbnts,  see  Plants:  DistributioM. 


GENERAL] 


ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


1003 


would,  for  the  most  part  at  any  rate,  be  universally  true. 
Geology  has,  however,  taught  us  that  many  parts  of  what  are 
sow  continents  formed  at  earlier  periods  of  the  earth's  history 
portions  of  the  ocean-bed,  while  what  are  now  islands  have  in 
some  instances  been  connected  with  the  adjacent  mainlands, 
or  even  with  land-masses  the  sites  of  which  axe  now  occupied 
by  the  open  sea. 

We  can  hope,  therefore,  to  understand  and  explain  the  present 
distribution  of  terrestrial  animal  life  only  by  taking  into  account 
what  geology  teaches  us  as  to  past  changes  in  the  configuration 
of  the  land-masses  of  the  ^be,  accompanied  by  investigations 
into  the  past  history  of  animals  themselves,  as  revealed  by  their 
fossil  remains. 

Although  to  understand  the  reason  of  many  facts  in  the  present 
distribution  of  animals — as,  for  example,  why  tapirs  are  con- 
fined to  the  Malay  countries  and  South  America — it  is  essential 
to  study  fossil  faunas,  yet  it  has  been  found  possible  from  the 
consideration  of  existing  faunas  alone  to  map  out  the  land- 
surface  of  the  globe  into  a  number  of  zoological  "  re^ons,"  or 
provinces,  more  or  less  independent  of  the  ordinary  geographical 
boundaries,  and  severally  characterized  by  a  greater  or  smaller 
degree  of  distinctness  in  the  matter  of  their  faunas.  One  of 
the  pioneers  in  this  line  of  research  was  Dr  P.  L  Sclater,  who  in 
a  paper  on  the  geographical  distribution  of  birds,  published  in 


^     Mj^;  ^  terra  c.e  a  a  J\jt' 


Antogah  ItMim 
K*egmlc  Ktcdm 


/  At7*t  f  ^1  iVi '"S/y^ 


the  Journal  of  the  Linnean  Society  of  London  for  1858,  was 
enabled  to  define  and  name  six  of  such  zoological  regions; 
these  being  mamly  based  on  the  distribution  of  the  perching 
or  passerine  birds.  Two  years  later  Dr  A.  Russel  Wallace,  in  the 
same  journal,  discussed  in  some  detail  the  problems  presented 
by  the  distribution  of  animals  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  and 
Australasia.  This  preliminary  essay  was  followed  in  1876 
by  the  appearance  of  the  latter  author's  Geographical  DisiribU' 
lion  of  Animals,  an  epoch-making  work,  which  may  be  said  to 
have  first  put  the  study  of  the  distribution  of  animals  generally 
on  a  thoroughly  firm  and  scientific  basis.  With  some  slight 
modifications,  the  names  proposed  for  the  six  zoological  regions 
by  Dr  Sclater  were  adopted  by  Dr  Wallace,  Certain  changes 
in  regard  to  the  limits  and  number  of  the  zoological  regions 
adopted  by  Sclater  and  Wallace  have  been  proposed;  but  the 
original  scheme  forms  the  basis  of  all  the  later  modifications, 
and  these  eminent  naturalists  are  entitled  to  be  regarded  as  the 
fathers  of  the  study  of  distributional  zoology,  T.  H.  Huxley 
was  also  one  of  those  who  did  much  to  advance  the  science 
in  its  early  days,  while  among  those  who  have  proposed  more 
or  less  important  modifications  of  the  original  scheme  special 
mention  may  be  made  of  Dr  W.  T,  Blanford,  Dr  A.  Heilprin, 
Prof,  P.  Matschic  and  Prof.  Max  Weber. 

The  zoological  regions  proposed  by  Dr  Sclater  were  based 
mainly  on  the  distribution  of  the  perching  birds;  but  in  the 
writings  of  Dr  Wallace  and  of  latet  authors  mammals  were 


very  largely  taken  into  consideration,  and  in  later  schemes 
there  has  been  a  similarly  extensive  use  of  the  evidence  afforded 
by  mammalian  distribution.  That  different  groups  of  animals 
do  not  agree  with  another  in  the  matter  of  geographical  distri- 
bution will  be  evideni  when  we  reflect  that  in  many  instances 
there  are  very  great  differences  in  the  relative  ages  of  such  groups, 
or,  at  all  events,  in  the  dates  of  their  dispersal,  or  "  radiation," 
oyer  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  radiation  and  dominance  of 
reptiles,  for  example,  greatly  antedated  that  of  either  birds  or 
mammals.  Consequently,  the  zoological  regions  indicated  by 
the  present  geographical  distribution  of  the  former  group  are 
very  different  from  those  suggested  by  the  distribution  of  the 
two  latter.  If  zoological  regions  are  based  on  the  evidence  of 
the  existing  distribution  of  animals,  groups  with  a  relatively 
late  radiation  are  clearly  to  be  preferred  to  those  the  dispers?! 
of  which  was  earlier  Mammals  and  birds,  therefore,  are  of 
greater  value  from  this  point  of  view  than  reptfles;  while  the 
absence  of  the  power  of  flight  in  the  great  bulk  of  the  class 
renders  the  evidence  afforded  by  mammals  superior  to  that 
derived  from  birds.  The  marked  general  agreement  between 
the  geographical  distribution  of  birds  on  the  one  hand  and  of 
mammals  on  the  other  is,  however,  a  fact  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance in  regard  to  the  value  of  the  zoological  regions  estab- 
lished on  their  evidence.  Further  testimony  in  the  same  direc- 
tion is  afforded  by  the  distribution  of  certain  other  groups, 
more  especially  spiders  (Arachnida);  and  it  is  also  noteworthy 
that  the  distribution  of  the  three  main  divisions  of  the  human 
race  accords  to  a  certain  extent  with  the  boundaries  of  some  of 
the  zoological  regions  based  on  the  distribution  of  the  lower 
animals. 

With  regard  to  the  theory  of  the  polar  origin  of  life  and  the 
gradual  dispersal  of  animals  from  the  arctic  regions,  it  may  be 
briefly  stated  that  the  presumed  series  of  radiations  of  life 
southward  from  the  northern  pole  can  have  nothing  to  do  with 
the  present  geographical  distribution  of  animals,  since  we  have 
abundant  evidence  that  mammals  have  been  spread  -over  the 
whole  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  globe  since,  at  any  rate,  the 
commencement  of  the  Tertiary  period,  while  the  radiation  of 
reptiles  commenced  at  a  much  earlier  epoch. 

As  regards  barriers  to  the  free  dispersal  of  nonvolant  terrestriaj 
animals  these  may  be  grouped  under  two  main  heads,  namely, 
climatic  and  geographical,  of  which  the  second  is  by  far  the  more 
important.  At  the  present  day  a  certain  number  of  animals 
are  fitted  to  live  respectively  only  in  hot  and  in  cold  climates. 
The  man-like  apes  and  elephants'among  mammals,  and  trogons 
and  parrots  among  birds,  are,  for  example,  now  exclusively 
dwellers  in  tropical  or  subtropical  climates,  whereas  the  polar 
bear,  the  musk-ox  and  ptarmigan  are  equally  characteristic 
of  the  arctic  zone.  To  a  great  extent  this  must  be  regarded 
as  a  comparatively  modem  adaptive  feature,  since  many  of 
these  arctic  and  tropical  animals  belong  to  groups  the  distribu- 
tion of  which,  either  in  the  i>ast  or  the  present,  is  more  or  less 
independent  of  climate.  Elephants,  for  instance,  formerly  in- 
habited Siberia  at  a  time  when  the  climate,  although  probably 
less  cold  than  at  present,  was  certainly  not  tropical;  while 
the  polar  bear  is  a  speciaUzed  member  Of  a  group  some  of  the 
representatives  of  which  are  denizens  of  the  tropics. 

It  is  true,  indeed,  that  within  the  limits  of  the  different 
zoological  regions  temperature-control  has  had  an  important 
influence  on  the  distribution  of  animals,  and  has  resulted  in 
certain  cases  in  the  formation  of  life-zones,  as  in  North  America. 
As  remarked,  however,  by  H,  A.  Pilsbry  and  J.  H.  Ferriss'  in 
connexion  with  the  distribution  of  land-molluscs,"  the  life- 
zones  of  the  United  States  as  mapped  by  Dr  C.  H.  Merriam 
emphasize  the  secondary  and  not  the  primary  facts  of  distribu- 
tion. The  laws  of  temperature-control  do  not  define  trans- 
continental zones  of  primary  import  zoologically.  These  zones 
are  secondary  divisions  of  vertical  life-areas  of  which  the  mol- 
luscan  faunas  were  evolved  in  large  part  indei>endcntly."  And 
what  is  true  of  molluscs  will  hold  good  in  the  case  of  several 
other  groups. 

^Proe.  Acadany  ef  PkHadelpkia,  1906,  p.  I9> 


J004 


ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


(TERRESTRUL 


There  is  also  the  phenomctKHi  of  vertical  temperature-controL 
On  this  subject  Dr  A.  R.  Wallace  has  written  {Ency.  Brit., 
9th  ed.,  art.  "  Distribution  "):  "  As  we  ascend  lofty  mountains, 
the  forms  of  life  change  in  a  manner  somewhat  analogous  to 
the  changes  observed  in  passing  from  a  warm  to  a  cold  country. 
This  change  is,  however,  far  less  observable  in  animals  than  in 
plants;  and  it  is  so  unequal  In  its  action,  and  can  so  frequently 
be  traced  to  mere  change  of  climate  and  deficiency  oj[  food, 
that  it  must  rank  as  a  phenomenon  of  secondary  importance. 
Vertical  distribution  among  animals  will  be  found  in  most 
cases  to  afifect  ^>ecies  rather  than  generic  or  family  groups, 
and  to  involve  in  each  case  a  mass  of  local  details.  .  .  .  The 
same  remarks  apply  to  the  bathymetrical  zones  of  marine  life. 
Many  groups  are  confined  to  tidal,  or  shallow,  or  deeper  waters; 
but  these  di£ferences  of  habit  are  hardly  geogrq)hical,  but  in- 
volve details,  suited  rather  to  the  special  study  of  Individual 
groups."  Temperature-control  is  therefore  mainly  a  factor 
which  has  acted  independently  in  the  different  zoological 
regions  of  the  globe,  and  as  such  demands  little  or  no  further 
mention  in  a  general  sketch  of  the  present  nature. 

The  same  remark  will  apply  in  the  case  of  the  influence^  of 
humidity  on  distribution,  and  also  as  regards  "station."  To 
illustrate  the  latter  we  may  take  the  Instances  of  the  European 
squirrel  and  the  chamois,  the  former  of  which  is  found  only 
in  wooded  districts  and  Is  entirely  absent  from  the  open  plains, 
while  the  latter  occurs  only  in  the  isolated  mountain  ranges  of 
the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  the  Apennines  and  the  Caucasus.  The 
distributional  area  of  both  may,  however,  be  xegarded  as  includ- 
ing Europe  generally,  so  that  these  local  restrictions  of  range 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  wider  problems  of  distribution. 

Very  different  is  the  case  with  regard  to  geographical  barriers 
to  the  free  diq>ersal  of  terrestrial  animals.  It  should  be  ob- 
served, however,  that  even  these  act  with  different  degrees  of 
intensity  in  the  case  of  different  groups.  From  the  fact  that 
the  great  majority  of  them  are  oviparous,  reptiles,  whose  powers 
of  dispersal  in  the  adult  state  are  generally  as  restricted  as  those 
of  mammals,  have  an  advantage  over  the  latter  in  that  their 
eggs  may  be  carried  long  distances  on  floating  timber  down 
rivers  and  thence  across  the  ocean,  or  may  even  be  occasionally 
transported  by  birds.  Hie  eggs  of  batiachians,  like  those  of 
fresh-water  fishes,  will  in  some  cases  at  any  rate  withstand 
being  frozen,  and  hence  conceivably  may  be  transported  by 
floating  ice.  Adult  insects  may  be  carried  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  eggs  of  rq>tiles.  After  all,  however,  such  unusual  means 
of  tralisport  are  probably  of  no  great  importance;  and  it  seems 
most  likely  that  the  varying  features  in  the  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  different  groups  of  animals  are  due  mueh  more  to 
differences  in  the  dates  of  radiation,  or  dispersal  of  those  groups, 
than  to  varying  degrees  of  facility  for  overcoming  natural 
geographical  barriers  to  dispersaL 

The  greatest  barriers  of  all  are  formed  by  the  ocean  and  the 
larger  rivers;  and  from  the  former  factor  it  follows  that  zoo- 
logical regions  coincide  to  a  considerable  extent — ^allhough  by 
00  means  altogether — with  the  main  geographical  (as  distinct 
from  political)  divisions  of  the  earth's  surface.  In  the  main, 
mammals  and  other  nonvolant  terrestrial  animals  are  debarred 
from  crossing  anything  more  than  comparatively  narrow 
channels  of  the  sea,  while  even  these  and  the  larger  rivers  form 
a  more  or  less  effectual  barrier  to  the  dispersal  of  the  great 
majority  of  the  species.  Hence  it  results  that  oceanic  islands 
are  usually  devoid  of  such  forms  of  life;  while  it  may  be  laid 
down,  as  a  general  rule,  that  the  existence  of  nearly  allied  types 
of  terrestrid  animals  in  countries  now  separated  by  stretdies 
of  sea  implies  a  Uxnaia  land-connexion  between  them.  There 
are,  however,  in  nuuiy  cases  great  difficulties  in  determining 
the  nature  of  such  connexions)  lar^^y  owing  to  the  faa 
that  we  are  still  in  the  dark  as  to  whether  the  dispersal 
of  many  groups  of  animals  has  taken  place  down  the  lines  of 
the  present  continents  from  north  to  south  or  equatorially 
by  means  of  belts  of  land  long  since  swallowed  up  by  the  ocean. 
In  this  connexion  it  may  be  remarked,  as  tending  against  the 
old  idea  of  the  radiation  of  all  the  modern  groups  of  .terrestrial 


animals  from  the  north  towards  the  south,  that  there  it  decisive 
evidence  to  prove  the  existence  during  the  Tertiary  period  Cso 
far  at  least  as  mammals  are  concerned)  of  certain  great  centxes 
of  development,  and  in  some  instances,  at  all  events,  also  of 
radiation,  in  the  southern  hemisphere;  one  of  these  develop- 
mental centres  being  in  Africa  a  second  in  South  America,  and 
a  third  in  Australia. 

To  the  general  law  that  straits  and  arms  of  the  sea  form  an 
effectual  barrier  to  the  dispersal  of  the  larger  land-aoimak, 
and  more  especially  mammals,  certain  exceptions .  may  be 
pleaded.  Jaguars  have,  for  instance,  been  known  to  cross  the 
Rio  de-la  Plata,  while  tigers  constantly  swim  from  island  to 
island  in  the  delta  of  the  Ganges  and  probably  also  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  and  a  polar  bear  has  been  observed  swimming 
twenty  n^es  away  from  land  in  Beriog  Sea.  Deer,  certain 
antelopes,  pigs  and  elephants  are  also  good  swimmers;  while 
hippopotamuses  and  crocodiles — especially  the  latter — con 
cross  channels  of  considerable  width.  The  great  tropical  and 
subtropical  rivers  also  carry  down  masses  of  floating  soil  or 
large  trees  upon  which  mammals  and  reptiles  are  borne,  and 
although  in  many  or  most  instances  such  are  swept  out  to  sea 
and  their  occupants  drowned,  in  other  instances  they  may  be 
stranded  upon  the  opposite  bank  or  shore  where  th^Ir  living 
freight  can  effect  a  landing.  Such  instances,  however,  cannot 
be  very  frequent,  and  they  cannot  affect  widely  sundered 
countries,  owing  to  the  lack  of  food  supplies.  Ikiloreover, 
supposing  a  mammal  to  have  reached  a  new  land,  unless  it 
happened  to  be  a  pregnant  female,  or  unless  another 
individual  of  the  opposite  sex  be  similarly  stranded,  it  would 
eventually  die  without  progeny.  Even  in  the  case  of  a  pregnant 
female,  there  is  no  certainly  that  the  offspring,  if  but  one, 
would  be  a  male;  and  even  supposing  this  to  be  the  case,  the 
progeny  might  perish  from  the  attacks  of  other  animals  or  from 
inbreeding.  On  the  whole,  It  may  be  said,  that  instances  of 
such  methods  of  dispersal  must  be  relatively  few  and  can  affect 
only  countries  not  very  widely  sundered.  The  most  imi>ortant 
case  that  can  be  cited  is  the  occurrence  of  a  pig  and  an  extinct 
hippopotamus  in  Madagascar,  which  probably  reached  that 
Island  by  swimming  from  Africa.  As  a  rule,  a  strait  like  that 
separating  Ceylon  from  India  may  be  considered  an  effectual 
barrier  to  the  dispersal  of  lai^e  land-animals. 

Although  the  Rio  dc  la  Plata  has  effectually  prevented  the 
amphibious  carpincho  from  reaching  Argentina,  deserts  iorm 
even  more  impassable  baniers  than  large  rivers,  the  Sahara 
having  prevented  the  North  African  fauna  from  reaching  the 
heart  of  that  continent.  High  and  continuous  mountain- 
ranges  are  likewise  most  effective  In  restricting  the  range  of 
animals;-  this  being  more  especially  the  case  when,  like  the 
Himalaya,  their  trend  is  equatorial  instead  of,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  t^ie  Andes,  from  north  to  south  in 
the  direction  of  the  main  continental  extension.  Forests  also 
present  great  obstacles  to  animal  migration,  although  this  is  to 
a  great  extent  of  a  local  nature  and  comes,  in  fact,  under  the 
category  of  '^  station."  Indeed,  there  appears  to  be  no  in- 
stance of  the  separation  of  one  zoological  region  from  another 
by  forest  alone. 

Lastly  it  should  be  mentioned  that  ice  may  serve  as  a  factor 
In  the  dispersal  of  animals  by  acting  as  a  bridge  between 
different  kmd-areas;  and  at  some  period  this  means  of  communi- 
cation may^  have  aided  in  the  great  migrations  of  animals  that 
have  taken' place  between  the  Old  and  the  New  World  by  way 
of  what  is  now  Bering  Sea. 

I.    TeERESTKIAL  DiSTHIBimON 

The  zoological  regions  recognized  by  Dr  A.  R.  Wallace  in 
1876,  which  are  in  the. main  identical  with  those    jTaohiftsl 
proposed  by  Dr  P.  L.  Sclater  in  1858,  and  are  chiefly   R^ighmM^ 
based   on  the  distribution  of  birds  and  mammalSj   are  as 
follows>— 

I.  Pa!oeorctie,  which  Includes  Eurcype  to  the  Asores  and  Iceland, 
temperate  Asia  from  the  hich  Himalaya  and  west  of  the  Indus, 
with  Japan,  and,jCbina  from  Ningpoandto  tb9  north  of  tha  waursbad 


TERRBSntfAil 


ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


1005 


of  tbo  Yang-tse-kUng:  •]■•  NorUi  Africa  and  Anbia.  to  about 
the  Itne  ol  the  tropic  of  Cinoer, 

2.  Ethiopian,  including  Africa  south  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer, 
aa  weU  as  the  sputhem  part  of  Arabia,  with  Madagaicar  and  the 
adjacent  islands. .  ^         ]     . 

3.  Oriental,  or  lado-Malay,  oomprising  India  and  Ceylon,  the 
Indo-Chinese  countries  and  southern  China,  and  the  ^alay  Avdii- 
pelago  as  far  as  the  Philippines,  Borneo  and  Java. . 

4.  Australian f  composed  of  the  remainder  of  the  Malay  Archi« 
pelago,  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  all  the  tropical  islands  of  the 
Pacinc.  as  far  east  as  the  Marquesas  and  the  Low  Archipdago. 

5.  Ntolrofical,  which  comprises  South  America  and  tne  adjacent 
islands,  the  West  Indies  or  Antilles,  and  Central  America  and  Mexico. 

6.  Nearctict  conusting  of  temperate  aivl  arctic  North  America, 
with  Greenland. 

"These  six  regions,"  remarks  Dr  WaUace,  "although  aU 
of  primary  importance  from  their  extent,  and  well  marked 
by  their  total  assemblage  of  animal  forms,  vaiy  greatly  in  their 
asoological  richness,  their  degree  of  isolation  imd  their  relation* 
ship  to  each  other.  The  Australian  region  is  the  most  peniliar 
and  the  most  isolated,  but  it  is  comparatively  small  and  poor 
in  the  higher  animals.  The  Neotropical  region  comes  next  in 
peculiarity  and  isolation,  but  it  is  extensive  and  excessivtiy 
rich  in  all  forms  of  life.  The  Ethiopian  and  Oriental  regions  arc 
also  very  rich,  but  they  have  much  In  common.  The  Pake- 
arctic  and  Nearctic  regions  being  wholly  temperate  are  less 
rich,  and  they  too  have  many  resemblances  to  each  other;  but 
while  the  Nearctic  region  has  many  groups  in  common  with 
the  Neotropical,  the  Palaearctic  is  closely  connected  with  the 
Oriental  and  Ethiopiao  regions." 

In  Dr  SclaLer^s  original  scheme  the  first  four  of  the  above  r^k>ns 
were  bracketed  together  under  the  designation  of  Palaeogaeaf 
and  the  fifth  and  sixth,  or  those  belonging  to  the  New  World, 
as  Neogala,  T.  H.  Huxley,  in  a  paper  on  the  distribution  of 
game-birds,  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London  for  1S68,  instead  of  dividing  the  world  into 
an  eastern  and  a  western  division,  adopted  a  northern  and  a 
southern  division,  calUng  .the  former  Arctogaeaf  and  the  latter 
(which  included  Australasia  and  the  Neotropical  region  of  Messrs 
Sclatcr  and  Wallace,  but  not  the  Ethiopian  region)  Nohgaea. 

In  1874  Dr  Sclatcr/  taking  mammab  as  well  ai  bixds  into 
consideration,  adopted  Huxley's  Arctogaea  asthe  major  northern 
division  to  include  the  Nearctic,  Palaearctic,  Oriental  and 
Ethiopian  regions;  and  instead  of  Huxley's  Notogaea  recognised 
three  primary  divisions,  namely,  Dendrogaea  for  the  Neotropical 
region,  Antarctogaea  for  the  Australian  reg^ion  (in  a  somewhat 
restricted  sense),  and  OrnWwgaea  for  New  Zf aland  and  Poly- 
nesia. 

The  tendency  of  these  amendments  on  the  orifpnal  sdieme 
of  a  simple  division  into  six  regions  was  to  recognize  three 
primary  divisions  of  higher  rank  than  such  "  rc^ons."  This 
view  was  adopted  In  1890  by  Dr  W.  T.  Blanford,'  who  proposed 
to  designate  these  three  major  divisions  of  the  earth's  land 
surface  respectively  the  Australian,  the  South  American  and 
the  Arctogaean  regions.  A  weak  point  in  this  scheme  Is  that 
since  the  term  "  region  "  is  likewise  applied  to  the  subdivisions 
of  Arctogaea,  thefe  is  a  danger  of  confusion  between  the  primary 
and  secondary  divisions.  An  amendment  proposed  anony- 
mously' in  1893  was  to  substitute  the  names  Notogaea, 
Kcogaea  and  Arctogaea  for  the  three  primary  divisions  of 
Dr  Blanford.  Yet  another  emendation,  suggested  by  R. 
Lydekker  *  and  subsequently  adopted  by  Prof.  H.  F.  Osbom,* 
was  to  designate  these  three  primary  divisions  as  "realms,", 
and  to  reserve  the  name  **  region  "  iof  their  subdivisions. 

Emendations  on  the  original  scheme  also  induded  modifica- 
tions in  the  limits  of  the  regions  themselves.  In  1878,  for 
instance,  Dr  A.  Hcilpria  *  (in  accordance  .witl\  a  suggestion  of 

*  Manehester  Science  Lectures,  ser.  5  and  6,  p.  202  aeq. 

*  Proc*  Cool,  Soc»  (London,  1890),  p.  76. 

*  natural  ScienUf  iii.  28^. 

*  Geograpkiial  Distribution  of  Mammals  (London,  1896),  p.  27. 

*  "  Correlation  between  Tertianr  Mammal  Horixons  of  Europe 
and  America,"  Annals  New  York  Academy,  xiii.  48  (1900). 

*Tlie    Geographical    and    Geological    Distribution    of   Animals 
(London,  1878). 
JCX.V1U  17 


Prof.  A.  Newton)  proposed  -to  nnite  the  Nearctic  with  thtf. 
Palaearctic  region  under  the  name  of  Holarctic;  ae(Miating  at  the 
same  time  from  the  fomter  a  "  tranutional "  Sonoran,  and  Imjtt 
the  latter  a  similar  Mediterranean,  or  Tyrrhenian,  region,  while 
he  also  recognized  a  distinct  Polynesian  region,  dUtlnpiUhf^  in 
the  main  t^  negative  characters^.  The  Sonoran  region  was 
subsequently  adopted  by  Dr  C.  H.  Merriam  '  in  1892,  and  later 
on  by  Dr  Blanfoni  in  the  address  already  cited,  the  title  being, 
however,  changed  to  Medio-Columbian.  A  most  important 
proposal  was  also  embodied  in  Dr  Blanford's  scheme,  namely, 
the  separation  from  the  Ethiopian  re^on  of  Madagascar  and 
the  Comoro  islands  to  form  aseparate  Malagasy  region.  Another 
modification  of  the  original  scheme  was  to  transfer  the  island  of 
Celebes,  together  with  Lombok,  Flores  and  Timor,  from  the 
Australian  to  the  Oriental  re^on,  or  to  regard  them  as  repre- 
senting a  transitional  region  between  the  two.*  Tfie  effect  of 
this  change  was  practically  to  abolish  "  Wallace's  line  "  (the 
deep  channel  between  the  i^ands  of  Bali  and  Lombok  and  thence 
northward  -through  the  Macassar  Strait),  the  deepest  channel 
heing  really  utuated  to  the  eastward  of  Timor. 

The  later  evoltUion  of  the  scheme,  as  presented  by  Dr  Max 
Weber,*  may  be  tabulariaed,  with  some  dight  alteration,  as 
follows,  the  "realms"  being. printed  in  capitals,  the  regions 
and  sub-regioi^  In  ordinary  type,  and  the  transitional  regions 
in  italics: — 


I.  Hoiarctic 

— I r 

Nearctic    Palaearctic 
Semorau    hfeiiierraneass 

II.  Nbocaba 
5.  NeotropicaL 


I.  Arctogaea 
2.  Ethiopian.    3.  Malagasy.    4.  Oriental. 


Auslro-Malayam 

III.  Notogaea. 

6.  Australian 
?V  7.  Polynesian 
"^     8.  Hawaiian. 


In  the  accompanying  map  the  Sonoran  and  Mediterranean 
transitional  regions  are  represented  as  equivalent  in  value  to 
the  main  regions,  and  the  Austro-Malayan  transitional  regime 
h  not  indicated.  The  recognition  of  a  Polynesian  and  stiH 
more  of  a  Hawaiian  repoo,  is  provisional. 

The  most  distinct  of  the  three  printary  realms  is  undonbtedly 
Notogaea,  the  Australian  section  of  which  b  the  sole  habitat  m 
egg-laying  mammals  (Monotremata)  and  of  a  great  ffotmmm 
variety  «  manupials,  inclusive  of  the  whole  of  the  ^^ 
diprotodonts,  with  the  exception  of  the  few  (cuscuses)  found  in 
the  Austro-Malayan  transitional  region.  Apart  from  monotrcmcs 
and  marsupials,  the  only  indigenous  mammals  found  in  Notogaea 
are  rodents  and  bats,  with  perhaps  a  pig  in  New  Guinea ;  although 
it  is  most  probable  that  the  latter  is  introduced,  as  is  almost  cer- 
tainly the  dingo,  or  native  dog,  in  Australia.  The  rodents  arc  aH 
referable  to  the  family  Muridae,  and  are  mostly  of  peculiar  types, 
such  as  the  golden  water-rat  '{Hydromys)  and  the  jerboa-rats  {Coni- 
lurus,  Notomys,  Ac):  they  arc,  however,  in  many  instances  more 
or  less  nearly  related  to  species  found  in  Celebes,  the  mountains 
of  the  Philippines  and  Borneo,  and  apparently  represent  an  ancient 
fauna.  The  mammalian  fauna  of  Notogaea  is  practically  limited 
to  the  Australian  region,  hs  indigenous  representatives  in  New 
Zealand  being  only  a  couple  of  bats,  The  monotremes  are  in  all 
probability  the  survivors  of  a  group  which  was  widely  spread  in 
Jurassic  times;  while  marsupials,  as  represented  by  the  American 
opossums  (Dtdelphyidae),  had  a  very  wide  ranse  even  as  late  as  the 
Oli^occne  division  of  the  Tertiary  period.  The  diprotodont  mar- 
supials may  not  improbably  have  originated  within  the  Australian 
region,  or  thb  region  conjointly  with  the  Austro-Malayan  transi- 
tional region. 

^  Notogaea  b  likewise  the  home  of  a  number  of  peculbr  types  of 
birds,  some  of  which  range,  however,  into  the  Austro-Malayan  area, 
that  b  to  say,  Celebes  and  Ceram.    In  the  Australian  region  the 


reierence  to  ine  mammaua,    rroc.  owt.  poc.,  vrasntngjwn^ 
.  pp.  1-64  (1892). 

w.  L.  Sclater,  "The  Geocraphy  of  Mammals,"  part  v., 
fhieal  Journal,  1896;  M.  Weber,  "On  the  Origin  of  the 


'  "  The  Geographical  Distribution  of  Life  in  North  America  with 
special  reference  to  the  Mammalia,"  Proc.  Biol,  $oc.,  Washington^ 
vol.  vii. 

•See 
Geographical 

Fauna  of  Celebes,"  Ann.  Hag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  7,  vol.  iii.  pp.  121-136 
(1899),  and  Der  Jndo^ustralische  Archipel  und  die  Ceuhithle 
seiner  Tierwdl  (Jena,  190a);  Lydekker,  ''Celebes:  a  Problem 
in  Distribution."  AMtnsledis,  voL  xxi.  pp.  I79'I77  (1898);  see  abo 
Deer  of  AU  Lands,  p.  168  (1898). 

2a 


'  Dte  Sdugt^iere  (Jena,  1904),  p.  308. 


ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


STkcnmudnn  (McUptufiiUc},  ihI  die  lyte-birdi  (Mcnuridu 
•nvna  In  penhliw  gnuip,  Ihe  cockalocw  iCacAliiidae)  and  loHc 
(Lofitdae)  amofig  tH  piriots,  tbc  mound-buLlden,  nr  hntBh-rtirb*tj 
{HcgapodHiue)  iiMnif  (he  ^mc^drd*,  ind  ihe 


pccuEuity  of  the  ncioa  k  bIb  nuhed  by  iha  ■ 

«4dcl)r  ipnad  family  croupe^  mch  at  the  Dvbeti  , — ^ „ 

the  Hberwiie  ^oamopolitiii  woodpecken  (Piddae),  Ibe  Iroflom 
(Tngonldae],  and  the  pheanm  and  paftridge  tribe  (Fhaiiai|kiae)p 

TIm  npliln,  ewiw  pnbably  to  their  carKer  ladiatian,  ace  iRidi 
feM  pccu^r,  HKh  wSMv  HHiad  typet  aa  Ok  Buniton  (Varamdae) 
and  tkioks.  (Scincidae)  bctne  abundant,  aa  are  a1»  crocodile*  iCroco- 
dllidocl.    The  tonoitci  bdong.  however,  eiduiivcly  10  the  >idc- 

toFloiH    (A#iofvru)    Ircm    the    PUiitocene   oi   QuKiidaiid.   which 
n  tribe  fSalmonidoe},  how^v.  ii  mtabk  for  Ieb  abicncc. 


•Itlioi^ 

CyprimdM.    0 


™"iXu'gh" 


[iKluded  in  > 

be  abicm  cl 


Istumidun'?b'ile'ihe°pmiU  of  'be  gintn^S^mpi  a'3  ^uur 
are  Ulrcwiie  peculiar,  btill  more  noteworthy  ii  the  abundance  ot 
the  ostrich  group,  iwrevnted  by  the  livina  kiwia  tAptttyx),  and 
the  nnaa  (Dinoreitludae)  which  hav*  been  enermioated  within 
conpantively  fecent  timca.  Rep1ik«  are  arairr.  hui  Aaianv  them 
tbe'  luatcra  liun]  (fpAm^Ani)  ii  eipecially 

*Of'i^f'Sirai!rn«™>he'her  "'*~'" 


d  to  tlw  arinin  of  the  modem  h 
■nxnWy  the  Australian  reiiion.  as  I 
;ly  debauble  ground.,   Dt  Wallac 


ri^tly  manbd  u  ■  di>- 


SeCDndaLTV  period." 
wrijer'  who  tuggcdt 


:i  [ior 


o(  immier 


, nd."    This  view  has  beec 

D  tuggcded  the  earlv  Eoccrv  1 

- .^..KlaD;  and  it  hai  alfo  rcceivt 

Weber.'  who  i>  ol  apinian  that  inpre-Ti 

Anatic  fauna  inhabited  thii  tand,  from 
a  lonihern  portion  was  cut  ofi  by  partiat 
poniiin  being  the  nuidcrn  Australia  and 
monotremes,  nunuraili  and  ancient  lormii  of  other  iro 
a»  cassowaries  and   tnrds.of'paradise.   wbiLe  widely  d 
spedaEiied  tvpes  are  wanting.     Northwards  extended  ■ 
In  the  isljn<U  of  which  dwelt  primitive  rodents,  iuerii' 
other  ancient  groups,  with  perhaps  cutcuies.    During  (he 
*_ — .  ,1. ri — I  — ^^  place  tn  the  archipetaso.  which 


It  form  in  the  Fl 


of  periodical  immii 


u  took  place,  wluch  alUnivl 


whether  the  cuh 
«f  the,prhnliiv 

FhiU^ 


et  Asiatic  f< 

other.    The  question  is  teii  unu 
t  AiulrT>-Ma1ayan  islands  are  rrr 

J. —  __, is  also  made  that  tlie  Auslralij 

FhiLippiiie  nxlents  are  survivors  of  the  orixtnal  pre-Tenlaiy 
«lihiiv(b  it  is  admitted  thai  the  spetiaCiaiion  of  Hydro. 
farmer  eaoncidoa  of  Austr 
(ormct  large  aniaictic  ceati 
While  admiitint  '*-•  i^~ 
Bensley  *  caosBders 

he  regards  as  the _  „..^_  ..^  ,.._  ..«...,«™...^  .,„,,   ...... 

cHecled  an  entrance  into  Neogses  by  way  of  Anlaraica.  In 
other  eirent,  he  would  place  the  dale  of  entrv  as  posI.Eocene; 
nunupial  {Wjr^ie'  --^^""^  remainso  a  iproi  ant 
Eocene  age.    Piof.  E 


IS  the  ancestral  slock  of  tiie 


South  America  01 

be  tiie  true  explanation.  Mr  B. 
_(^ilelfhyidae;,  wh 


'  Ktpvrl  a}  Ham   Sifiidilu 


Itnmi  itiuirnfin,  pp.  it;  ai 


theioi 

'lied  n  the  caae  of  Neofaea  kinf  eiuwb  la  adail 
o£  the  modetv  lavna  wippoaini  it  alTto  have  « 
lie)  having  elected  an  enlnnce.    Hk  tuie 


?i'?ir,.-; 


rieosaea  ai^  Notccaca 
-■  -  inF.  W.  HiMtea 


has  been  adopled  by  L.  Rfllimeyer  (1S6J).  CapUin  F.  W.  Hu 
{1873I,  Prof.  H.  O,  i^orbes  (1S03).  Mr  C.  kedley  {iS9S),  Dr  H. 
Ihenng  (1841  and  1900J,  Pral.  H.  F.  Osbom,  who  takea  u  u 

and  by   ™/ 
(i875f  belie> 


,  - ..._.fe¥.«Si 

in  ine  eiisience  of  an  "  Eotaea  "  conMctinE  the 
inenta  escluBvv  ol  Aalarciica;  and  in  1S84  Cap*. 

lia  and  South  Aneiica  by  means  oTa  mid-Paeific  fDntinenl. 
Diary  of  these  viewa.-wiifa  relerences.  is  gi\-en  by  Dr  Ortmann 
ixKV.  pp.  i39-i42af  the  ^■ifr^fiA'dnrnafitf  (1901). 


rise  to  llie  Australian  phnlar 
of  Patagonia  of  w— :»--  - 
ancettTS  to  the  nu> 
deleiDiinalkin..    Fr 


removed  from  tbe  a- 
1  phnlangers.    The  a 

Jem  SouthArnerican  f 


It)  It  ii«Uned  by  the  leceni  %4ew 
lan  Tertiary  marsupials,  such  as 
It  Camivoia.  On  ttiT  other  hand 
,  Mr  W. J.Sindair'isotoFirion 
larsupial  Cnnsfrilri  and  >»  eilinct 

1™^  ?!!!^?*^"  !"AR'>p* 


...  ..... ....w»^...* lAat.  be  cooildera  biouelf  justified  in  i 

that  "  conuderabla  evidence  b  now  available  to  show  iba-  " 
connuion  between  Paluonia  and  the  Auatnlian  refion  exaiea 
later  than  the  close  01  the  Cretaceoua  or  Ih*  hecinnlni  t£  __ 
Tertiary,  and  It  it  poaaible  that  at  this  tim*  the  utcrcbante  il 


betweea  Noloiaea  and  Neogaea  id  ■  companlivdy  kale  epoch. 

^ia.  Prof?  W.  fi.  Bcnham,>  Irani  the  evidence  of  eanhwomh 
is  tlrongly  disposed  to  believe  in  a  late  conoexioo  between  the 
areas  in  qucsiioilu  Fiem  their  Invariable  aaeodation  with  anfis- 
iperimHia  phuiia.  this  authcr  ia  of  opinicD  that  aarthwDCBa  are  a 
comparatively  modero  groupi  which  did  not  attan  any  impoflat 
developmeni  befoR  the  CR-.aceoat.  The  ancealnl  ty|»  woiiU 
appear  to  have  been  more  cr  leas  nearly  related  to  the  eaittipg 
/fofiodrilai,  of  which  the  headquarten,  it  not  the  binbplacc.  was 
the  "  Melsnesian  plaleau."     New  Zealand  and  Ibe  HijhbouTiit 

and  Africa.    With  this  Mel  lummary'ot  the  chief  viewa.  ibis  part 

of  the  subjn:!  muat  be  diiniii«d  witboul  Ibe  wriler  b(ia(  a»- 

Hen  to  NDiogaea  the  moat  diilinct  faunlstic  conllnenlal  am, 

nmcemed,  is  Neogaea.  containin,,  as  we  baveaeen,  only     itsaasfc 
the  Nemmiical  reiion.     It  H  remarkable  aa  bcmg,  with 
ihe  eaccpti^n  of  Rotocaea,  the  only  land-area  wUcb  cnmains  at 
the  preMnl  day  more  than  one  livlnt  (enus  of  marsupials,  and^ 

Oidelphyidae  and  Conolotrj  the  surviving  reorrseniaiive  ol  the 
E^nonhldae  ol  the  Patagonisn  Terliaiiei.  The  opossums  an 
represented  by  the  leDem  Qiimrcler  and  DUrlfijti  Ihe  latls 
divisible  into  a  number  of  nib-gtnera  of  which  the  lylncal  gnap 
alone  ranired  into  North  America.  Whether  Ibe  mndem  opaauiiia 
bekng  to  the  endemic  Neggaeic  fauna,  or  whuh.  th«  »*  lata 
immieTaniB  from  the  north  (wbet«  they  ar 
Oiuoeene  of  boiii  hemiipherc-^  '••  -  "'—'I 


Didelphyii 


■  quesiloii  in  Tegan)  ic 
ircely  at  pirsent  be  given.  It  a 
mxi  ariTcinain  alhed  forms  fr 


TERRESTRIAL) 


ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


1007 


in  favour  of  a  kwd-oonnexioh  b<ti»ccn  Neomea  and  Notogaea 
cannot  hav«  the  weight  attributed  to  it  by  Mr  w.  J.  Sinclair. 

The  typical  Edemata  (sloths,  anteatera^and  armadillo*)  are  at 
the  present  day  practically  confined  to  Neogaca  where  they  have 
existed  from  the  date  of  the  Santa  Cruz  beds  of  Patagonia  (which 
are  probably  of  Miocene  age).  A  few  armadillos,  however,  have 
penetrated  into  Texas;  and  in  the  Pleistocene  epoch  several  repre- 
sentatives of  the  extinct  ground-sloths  (Megatheriidae)  and  a 
eiyptodon,  or  giant  armadulo«  also  ranged  into  North  America. 
Tne  group  is,  however,  essentially  Neogaeic  Among  the  monkeys 
the  (^bidae,  or  American  monkeys,  and  their  relatives  the  Hapalidae, 
or  marmosets,  are  likewise  peculiar  to  Neogaea,  where  they  date 
from  the  Santa  Cruz  epoch.  The  vampire-bats,  or  Phylloetoma- 
tidae,  are  likewise  peculiar  to  this  realm,  and  are  douotless  also 
endemic.  With  the  exceptioa  of  a  few  shrew-mice,  which  have 
evidently  entered  from  the  north,  continental  Neogaea  is  at  the 
present  day  devoid  of  Insectivora.  It  is,  however,  very  note- 
worthy that  one*  peculiar  familv  (Solenodontidae)  of  the  order, 
apparently  nearly  aJlied  to  the  Malansy  Centettdae  (tenrecs),  occurs 
in  the  West  Indies,  while  the  extinct  NecrcUsUs,  believed  to  be 
near  akin  to  thA  African  golden  moles  (Chrysochloridae),  is  found 
in  the  Santa  Cruz  beds.  Rodents  of  more  or  less  peculiar  types 
are  hishly  characteristk  of  Neogaea  and  for  the  most  part  date 
from  the  Santa  Cruz  epoch.  /Gnong  these  the  Caviidae,  Chin- 
chillidae  and  Octodontidae  are  peculiiar  to  this  realm,  while  the 
Caproroyidae  are  common  to  the  Ethiopian  region  of  Arctogaea, 
but  are  unknown  elsewhere. 

Ungulates  are  in  the  main  very  poorly  represented  in  Neogaea 
and  include  only  the  llama  group  (guanaco,  Bk.),  tapirs,  and 
certain  small  or  medium-sized  deer  related  to  North  American 
types.  Palaeontological  evidence  tells  us  that  these,  like  certain 
peculiar  genera  of  horses  now  extinct  (such  as  Hippidium)  and 
ma&todons,  were  comparatively  recent  intruders  into  the  realm 
from  the  north.  On  the  other  hand,  Neogaea  at  the  date  of  the 
deposition  of  the  Santa  Cruz  beds  was  the  home  of  certain  endemic 
groups  of  ungulates,  such  as  the  Toxodontia  and  LKopterna,  some 
of  the  representatives  of  which  {Tosioden^tiA  Macrauckenia)  flotirished 
during  tne  Pleistocene  Pampnn  epoch. 

Of  the  Camivora.  the  civet  group  (Viverridae)  is  absent,  and  the 
representatives  of  the  dog  tribe  (Canidae),  bears  (Ursidae^,  of  which 
there  is  only  a  single  existing  representative,  cats  (Fettdae),  and 

Kobably  raccoons  (Procyonidac),  must  be  regarded  as  intruders 
>m  the  north,  although  several  genera  of  the  last-named  group 
ate  peculiar  to  the  area.  In  the  Santa  Cruz  enoch  the  place  of 
these  modem  specialized  Camivora  was  taken  oy  marsupial-like 
creodonts,  such  as  ProlkylaHnus. 

In  birds  Neogaea  is  especially  rich  and  contains  more  than  a 
score  of  family  frouat  unknown  elsewhere.  Several  of  these,  such 
as  the  tyraift-birds  (Tyrannidae),  manakins  (Pipridae),  chatterers 
(Cotingidae),  ant-thrushes  (Formicariidae),  the  oven-bird  group 
(Dcndrocolaplidae).plant-cuttcT8(Phytotomidae),and  wren-thrushes 
(Pteroptychidae),  oelong  to  a  low  and  generalized  type  of  the  perch- 
ing^ or  passerine,  group.  Among  the  so<aIled  picarian  birds, 
which  are  likewise  a  generalized  type,  the  big-billed  toucans  (Rham- 
phasiidac),  puff-birds  (Buoconidae),  jacamais  ^GalbulidaO.  motmots 
(  Momotidae).  and  the  vast  assemblage  of  humming-birds  (Trochilidae) 
are  in  the  main  peculiar  to  this  realm,  although  some  of  the  last- 
named  familv  wander  to  the  northward  in  summer.  The  condors 
(Cathartidae),  form  a  highly  characteristic  Neogaeic  family ;  while 
the  hoatzin  (Oj^kiKcmus)  represents  another.  (X  the  higher 
forms  of  perehing-birds  the  quit-quits  (Coerebidae),  greenlets 
(Vireonidae),  the  hang-nests  and  many  other  representatives  of  the 
Icteridae,  and  the  tanagers  (Tanagridae)  are  exclusively  Neogaeic; 
while  crows,  staHings,  thrushes,  warblers  and  flvcatchcrs  are 
either  rare  or  wanting,  although  the  finches  are  abundant.  Parrots 
are  numerous,  and  representedby  peculiar  forms  such  as  the  macaws 
(Ara)  and  conures  or  ordinary  South  American  parrots  {Conurus). 
\ery  characteristic  of  the  /ealm,  and  unknown  elsewhere  are  the 
curassows  and  Kuans  (Cracidae)  among  the  game-birds,  the  chajas, 
or  screamers  (Palamedeidae),  the  trumpctere  (Psophiidae),  sun- 
bittcms  (Eurypygidae),  and  the  seriema  (C^riamidae).  Allied 
apparently  to  the  last  u  Phor&rhackos,  a  eiant  extinct  bird  from 
the  Santa  Cruz  beds  with  a  skull  nearly  as  large  as  that  of  a  pony. 
The  tinamons  (Tinamidae),  possibly  an  annectant  type  between 
game-birds  and  the  ostrich  group,  and  the  rheas  or  American 
ostriches  (Rheidae)  are  likewise  exclusively  Neogaeic.  It  may  be 
added  that  the  distribution  of  all  the  roemoers  of  the  ostrich  group 
affords  a  strong  argument  in  favour  of  a  former  union  (n  the 
southern  continents,  especially  as  their  earliest  known  represen- 
tative b  African. 

Among  reptiles,  the  tortoises,  with  the  exception  of  representa- 
tives of  the  terrestrial  genus  Tesludo,  all  belong  to  the  Pleurodira. 
and  include  several  peculiar  generic  types  such  as  Chdys  (roatamata) 
and  one.  Podoentmts^  common  to  Affadagascar.  The  occurrence  in 
the  Tertiary  of  Patagonia  of  a  representative  of  Miciania,  else- 
where known  onfy  from  the  Pleistocene  of  Queensland,  has  been 
already  mentioned.  A  number  of  snakes  of  the  boa  group  (Boinac) 
occur  in  the  realm,  to  which  the  genus  EunecUs  (anacondas)  is 
restricted;  bot  5sa  itself,  like  Podoftumis  aaoong  the  tortoises,  is 


common  to  Neogaea  and  Madagascar.  The  blind  burrowing* 
snakes  of  the  family  Glauconiidac  occur  throughout  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  realm,  and  arc  also  found  in  Africa  and  south-western 
Asia.  The  caimans  or  South  American  alligators  {Caiman)  are 
solely  Neogaean;  the  tffuanas  (Iguanidae)  are  mainly  peculiar  to 
the  realm,  although  a  few  inhabit  North  America,  and  there  are 
two  outlying  genera  in  Madagascar  and  a  third  in  Fiju    The  tejus 

Sejidae)  are  wholly  Neogaean.  The  JCantusiidae  arc  exclusively 
ntral  American  and  Antillcan;  white  the  Amphisbaenidae  are 
practically  restricted  to  Neogaea  and  Africa.  On  the  other  hand, 
Lacertidae,  Varanidae  and  AgamidiM>  are  absent.  Tailed  amphi- 
bians are  unknown  south  of  Central  America;  but  the  region  is 
the  home  of  several  peculiar  types  of  toads,  such  as  Pipa  (Surinam 
toad)  belonsing  to  an  otherwise  Ethiopian  section,  and  the  majority 
of  the  family  Cysti^nathidae,  as  exemplified  by  the  homed  toad 
and  the  escuerso  iCeratopkrys)^  the  remainder  of  the  group  being 
Australian. 

Freshwater  fishes  are  very  abundant  in  Neogaea.  where  they  are 
represented  by  a  number  of'^peculiar  generic  and  certain  family 
types;  some  01  the  members  haveydcvefoped  the  remarkable  habit 
of  feeding  upon  the  floating  fruits  abundant  in  the  rivers  of  the 
tromcal  forest-districts. 

The  electric  eels  (Gymnottdae)  are  peculiar  to  the  waters  of 
Neogaea,  as  are  certain  other  groups,  such  as  the  armoured  cat- 
fishes  (Loricariidae).  while  true  cat-fishcs  (Siluridae)  are  extremely 
abundant.  Perhaps,  however,  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  the 
fish-fauna  of  Ncoeaca  is  its  affinity  to  that  of  the  Ethiopian  region. 
Among  the  lung-nshcs  the  family  Lepidosirenidae  is,  for  example, 
restricted  to  the  two  areas,  with  one  genus  in  each,  as  is  also  the 
family  Characinldae.  Much  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  Cichlldae, 
which  have,  however,  representatives  in  tne  Malagasy  and  Oriental 
regions;  and  the  Cyprinodontidae,  which  are  extremely  abundant 
in  Neogaea  (where  certain  of  their  representatives  are  separated  by 
some  naturalists  as  a  distinct  family.  Poeciliidae)  likewise  present 
the  same  •general  type  of  distribution,  although  their  area  includes 
the  southern  fringe  of  the  Palaearctic  sub-region  and  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  Oriental  re^on. 

As  regards  the  past  history  of  Neogaea,  Professor  Carl  Eigen- 
mann,  writing  in  the  Pofmar  Science  Mcnthiy  for  June  1906, 
observes  that  "  in  the  earliest  Tertiary  tropical  America  consisted 
of  two  land-areas.  Archiguiana  and  Archamazonia,  separated  by 
the  lower  valley  of  the  Amazon,  which  was  still  submerged.  There 
was  a  land-mass,  Hcllenis,  between  Africa  and  South  America, 
possibly  in  contact  with  Guiana  and  some  point  in  tropical  Africa. 
This  land-mass,  which  was  inhabited,  among  other  things,  by  fishes 
belonging  to  the  families  Lepidosirenida  (lung-fishes),  Poeciliidae, 
Characimdac,  Cichlidae  and  Siluridae  (cat-fishcs),  sank  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  ocean,  forcing  the  fauna  in  two  directions,  towards 
Africa  and  towards  South  America,  exterminating  all  types  not 
moved  to  the  cast  or  to  the  west.  From  these  two  rudiments  have 
developed  the  present  diverse  faunas  of  Africa  and  South  America, 
each  reinforced  by  intrusions  from  the  ocean  and  neighbouring 
land-areas,  and  by  autochthonous  de\'e1opment  within  its  own 
bonier.  .  .  .  The  connexion  between  Africa  and  South  America 
existed  before  the  origin  of  present  genera,  and  even  befort  the 
origin  of  some  of  the  present  families  and  sub-families,  some'  time 
before  the  early  Tertiary.  There  has  never  been  any  exchange 
between  Africa  and  South  America  since  that  time." 

This  connexion  between  Neogaea  and  Africa  was  doubtless  a 
continuation  of  the  old  Jurassic  eouatorial  land-belt  to  which 
allusion  has  been  already  made:  freshwater  fishes  being  probably 
a  group  of  earlier  radiation  than  mammals.  Perhaps  the  distri- 
bution of  the  reptilian  genera  common  to  Neogaea  and  Madagascar 
may  be  expUincd  in  the  same  manner,  although  tortoises  apparently 
identical  with  Podocnemis  occur  in  the  Eocene  of  Europe  (as  well 
as  in  that  of  Africa  and  India),  so  that  this  group  may  have  radiated 
from  the  north.  Whether  the  evidence  of  the  Cystignath'idac 
among  the  amphibians  and  of  the  extinct  Miolania  among  chclonians 
is  also  evidence  of  the  persistence  of  the  Jurassic  connexion  between 
Neogaea  and  Notogaea  till  a  considerablV  later  epoch  must,  for  the 

firescnt,  be  left  an  open  question.  The  distribution  of  other 
amities  oT  lizards  is,  however,  not  in  favour  of  such  a  connexion, 
the  Lacertidae  and  Agamidac  being  confined  to  the  Old  World, 
inclusive  of  Australia  but  exclusive  01  Madagascar,  while  the  cosmo- 
politan Scincidae,  so  abundant  in  Notogaea,  are  extremely  scarce 
in  Neogaea. 

Reverting  to  the  mammalian  fauna,  its  evidence,  combined  with 
that  of  geology,  indicates  that  during  the  greater  portion  of  the 
Tertiary  fierioo  South  America  was  isolated  from  North  America, 
and  inlvabited  by  its  autochthonous  fauna  of  monkeys,  marmosets, 
sloths,  ground-sloths,  ant-eaters,  armadillos,  glyptodonts,  toxodonts, 
macrauchenias  (together  with  certain  other  peculiar  ungulates), 
rodents,  marsupials  and  creodonts,  as  well  as  by  Pkororkochos, 
rheas,  tinamous  and  probably  some  of  the  other  groups  of  birds 
now  peculiar  to  the  area.  Tliis  state  of  things  continued  till  the 
later  Miocene  or  Pliocene  epoch,  during  some  portion  of  which  a 
connexion  was  established  with  North  America  by  way  of  the 
isthmus  of  Darien.  By  means  of  this  new  land-bndge  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  autochthonous  fauna  ci  Neogaea  waa  enabled 


ioo8 


ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


[TERRESTRLAL 


to  effect  an  entnnoe  into  North  Anwrica.  as  is  exempltfied  by  the 
occurrence  there  of  ground-sloths  and.glyptodonts.  Simultaneously 
a  large  immigcatton  of  northern  forms  took  place  into  Ncogaea; 
these  invaders  from  Arctogoca,  including  cats  and  sabre-toothed 
tigers,  bears,  fox-like  dogs,  raccoons,  llamas,  horses,  tapirs,  deer, 
mastodons  and  perhaps  opossums.  While  representatives  of  most 
of  these  invaders  have  persisted  to  the  present  day,  some  groups, 
such  as  horses  and  mastod^/is,  have  entirely  disappeared,  as  has 
also  a  large  portion  of  the  autochthonous  fauna.  Here  it  may  be 
well  to  notice  tliat  the  evidence  for  the  insulation  ai  Ncogaea  during 
a  large  portion  of  the  Tertiary  period  docs  not  by  any  means  rest 
only  on  that  supplied  by  mammals.  C.  H.  Gilbert  and  E.  C.  Starks,^ 
for  instance,  in  a  work  on  the  fishes  of  the  two  sides  of  the  isthmus 
ol  Darien,  wrote  as  follows: — "  The  ichthyological  exidenoe  is  over- 
whelmingly in  favour  of  the  existence  of  a  former  open  communica- 
tion between  the  two  oceans,  which  must  have  become  closed  at  a 
period  sufficiently  remote  from  the  present  to  have  permitted  the 
specific  differentiation  of  a  very  lan^e  majority  of  the  forms 
involved.  ...  All  evidence  concurs  in  ^  fixing  the  date  of  that 
connexion  at  some  time  prior  to  the  Pleistocene,  probably  in  the 
early  Miocene."  This,  it  will  be  observed,  agrees  almost  precisely 
with  the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  fossil  mammalian  faunas  of 
North  and  South  America,  which  indicate  that  land-communication 
between  those  two  continents  was  interrupted  during  a  consider- 
ably portion  of  the  Tertiary  epoch,  and  oniv  re-established  (or  (?] 
established  for  the  first  time)  either  towards  tne  close  of  the  Miocene 
or  the  early  part  of  the  Pliocene  epoch. 

The  South  American  mammalian  fauna,  as  we  now  know  itris, 
then,  a  complex,  consisting  of  an  original  autochthonous  element  • 
and  of  a  large  foreign  infusion  from  the  north.  As  to  the  origin 
of  the  latter,  there  is  no  difficulty;  but  some  degree  of  obscurity 
still  prevails  with  regard  to  the  source  of  the  autochthonous  fauna.  - 
According  to  Prof.  Jbigenmann's  interpretation  of  the  evidence  of 
the  fresh-water  fishes  the  early  Tertiary  Atlantic  "  Hellenis  "  may 
have  been  in  contact  with  Ouiana  on  the  one  side  and  tropical 
Africa  on  the  other.  That  such  a  connexion  did  really  exist  in 
Tertiary  times  is  the  conclumon  reached  by  Dr  C.  W.  Andrews,' 
as  the  result  of  his  studies  of  the  Tertiary  vertebrate  fauna  of  the 
Fa^'um  district  of  Egypt,  as  expressed  in  the  folk>wing  passage:— 
"Speaking  generally,  it  appear^  that  (l)  probably  in  Jurasuc 
times  Africa  and  South  America  formed  a  continuous  land-mass; 
(2)  in  the  Cretaceous  period  the  sea  encroached  southwards  over 
this  land,  forming  what  is  now  the  South  Atlantic.  How  far  this 
depression  had  advanced  southwards  at  the  end  of  the  Secondary 
period  is  not  clear,  but  it  appears  certain  that  the  final  separation 
of  the  two  continents  did  not  talu:  place  tiU  Eocene  times,  and 
that  there  may  have  been  a  chain  of  islands  between  the  northern 
part  of  Africa  and  Brazil  which  persisted  even  till  the  Miocene." 

By  this  route,  as  was  suggested  comuderably  earlier  by  Prof. 
W.  B.  Scott  and  subsequently  by  the  present  writer,  Neogaea  may 
have  received  a  considerable  portion  ot  its  autochthonous  niammal> 
fauna.  Further  reference  to  this  point  is  made  later;  but  it  may 
be  added  that  the  evidence  of  the  land-faunas  is  supplemented  by 
that  of  the  shallow-water  marine  faunas  on  the  two  sides  of  thtt 
Atlantic,  which  present  a' striking  amilarity. 

In  an  address  to  the  British  Anodadon  at  the  meeting  in  1905 
in  South  Africa  Mr  G,  A.  Boulenger  expressed  himself ,  nowever, 
as  b>-  no  means  satisfied  with  the  evidence  of  a  Tertiary  connexion 
between  Africa  and  South  America.  "  It  is  undeniable,"  he 
observed,  ."that  the  hypOthesu  of  a  South  Atlantic  land-com- 
munication in  the  Eocene  has  much  in  its  favour,  and  when  thb 
is  really  established,  all  difficulty  in  explaining  the  distribution  of 
the  Cichlidae  will  have  disappeared.  In  the  meanwhile ...  we 
must  not  construct  bridges  without  being  sure  of  our  points  of 
attachment."  In  this  connexion  it  may  be  mentioned  that  those 
who  explain  the  distribution  of  certain  forms  of  life  by  the  former 
existence  of  a  land-connexion  between  the  southern  continents  by 
way  of  "  Antarctica,"  have  attached  some  importance  to  the  exist- 
ence of  fishes  of  the  genus  Galaxias  in  the  freshwaters  of  New 
Zealand,  Australia,  South  America  and  the  Cape.  This  evidence 
has  been  shattered  by  Mr  Boulengor's  description  (in  a  memoir  of 
the  fishes  of  the  Congo)  of  a  marine  representative  of  the  genus 
in  questbn  from  the  Southern  Ocean. 

For  the  zoological  subregions  of  Neogaea  the  reader  roust  refer, 
as  in  the  case  of  most  of  the  other  regions,  to  special  works  00 
zoological  distribution. 

As  Arctogaoi  includes  the  whole  of  the  rest  of  the  land-surface 
of  the  globe  (with  the  exception  of  Antarctica)  it  is  almost  impossible 
rtirt^fsif  ^^  K'^^  ^"^  general  diagnosis  even  of  its  mammalian 
fauna.  It  may  be  mentioned,  however,  that  at  the 
present  day  monotremcs  are  wholly  wantins,  while  marsupials  are 
represented  only  by  one  or  two  species  of  opossums  {ptdelpkys) 
in  North  America  and  by  cuscuses  [Phalanger)  in  the  Austro- 
Malayan  subrcgion.  The  true  or  typical  Edentata  are,  if  we 
except  late  wanderers  from  Neogaea  into  North  America,  absent 
from  this  realm  at  the  present  date  and  during  the  Pleistocene; 
the  alleged  occurrence  of  a  ground-sloth   in  Uie  Pleistocene  of 

^  Mrm.  Colifafrnum  Ataiemy,  vol.  iv.  (1904). 

■  Catalogue  afOu  Tertiary  Vertebrata  of  Ike  Fayum  (London,  1906). 


Madagascar  being  probably  due  to  a  misinterpretation.  On  the 
other  band,  this  region,  and  more  especially  its  eastern  half,  is  the 
great  home  of  the  ungulate  mammals.    Indeed  rhinoceroses  may  be 


considered  absolutely  characteristic  of  Antogaea,  since  at  one  time 
or  another  they  have  ranged  over  the  whole  area,  except  Mada- 

Jascar,  and  are  quite  unknown  elsewhere.  The  moaem-  land 
'amivora  are  likewise  an  essentially  Arctogaeic  group,  which  only 
found  its  way  into  Neogaea  at  a  comparatively  recent  epoch;  and 
the  realm  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  most  of  the 
higher  groups  of  placental  mammals.  The  tcntoisea  of  the  family 
Tnonydiidaie  form  an  exclusively  Arctogaean  group,  once  ranging 
all  over  the  realm,  although  long  since  extinct  in  Europe. 

If  Madagascar  be  excepted,  the  Ethiopian  region  (or  Ethiofna) 
is  the  roost  distinct  of  all  the  regions  ol  Arctogaea.  So  distuact 
is  it  that,  on  the  evidence  of  the  distributioa  of  moths,  ^^.-_^_ 
Dr  H.  S.  Packard*  has  suusested  that  it  should  be  sepa*  "^y 
rated  from  Arctogaea  to  form  a  realm  by  itself,  under  ^"^ 
the  name  of  Apogaea.  The  mammalian  fauna,  even  exclusive  of 
the  Tertiary  one  of  Egypt,  docs  not,  however,  countenance  such  a 
separation.  By  Sdater  and  Wallace,  Madagascar  was  included  in 
the  Ethiopian  region,  but  that  island  was  subsequently  made  a 
region  by  itself  by  Dr  Blanford.  This  separation  of  Madagascar 
to  form  a  Malagasy  region  has  met  with  general  acceptance;  but 
in  the  opinion  of  Mr  K.  1.  Pocock.*  who  bases  his  conclusion  on 
the  distribution  of  trapdoor-spiders  (which  in  other  respects  accords 
curiously  well  with  tiiat  of  mammals),  it  is  not  justified.  ,The 
mammalian  evidence  appears,  however,  to  be  overwhelmingly 
strong  in  its  favour;  ana  it  also  receives  support  from  reptilian 
distribution.  All  are  agreed  that  the  Ethiopian  rccion  should 
exclude  that  part  of  Africa  which,  lies,  roughly  speaking,  north- 
ward of  the  tropic  of  Cancer.  By  Sclater  and  Wallace  the  region 
was  taken  to  include  that  portion  of  Arabia  lying  to  the  south 
of  the  same  tropic;  but  Mr  Pocock*  has  pointed  out  that  this 
sepamtion  of  Arabia  into  two  portions  is  not  supported  by  the 
distributioa  of  scorpions,  and  he  would  refer  the  whole  of  it  to 
the  Mediterranean  transitional  rmon.  The  occurrence  of  a  tahr- 
gpat  (//«mi<ragtt5)  in  Oman  lenos  some  support  to  this  proposal 
since  that  genus  has  no  representative  in  Africa,  and  occurs  else- 
where only  in  the  Himalaya  and  the  mountains  of  southern  India. 
(Xher  writers  have  not  accepted  Mr  Pocock's  emendation;  and 
the  reference  of  the  northern  naif  of  Arabia  to  the  Meditemneao 
and  of  the  southern  half  to  the  Ethiopian  region  is  usually  followed. 
The  area  is  admittedly  a  meeting-ground  of  ut  least  two  taunas. 

Discoveries  in  the  Fayum  district  of  Egypt  have  conclusively 
proved  that  during  the  early  (Eocene)  part  ot  the  Tertiary  period 
Ethiopia  was  a  great  centre  of  devek>pmen£,  and  subsequently  of 
dispersal,  instead  of  having  received  (as  was  formerly  supposed) 
the  whole  of  its  higher  modem  mammalian  fauna  from  the  north. 
In  this  Ethiopian  centre  were  developed  the  ancestors  of  the 
elephants  (Probosddea)  and  of  the  hyraxes  (Hyracoidea) ;  the 
latter  ^^rpup  being  represented  by  species  of  much  lar]gcr  size  than 
the  existing  forms,  some  of  the  former  of  which  ranged  wto  southern 
Europe  during  the  later  Tertiary.  It  was  also  the  home  of  a 
peculiar  subordinal  group  of  ungulates  (Barypoda),  nrpified  by 
ArsinOWterium,  and  may  likewise  have  been  toe  birthplace  of  the 
swine  (Suidae)  as  the  earliest  known  representative  of  that  group 
(Ceniokyus)  occurs  in  the  Fayum  Eocene.  The  hippopotamuses 
(Hippopotamidae),  which  appear  to  be  descended  from  the  Tertiary 
Anthracotheriidae,  may  likewise  be  of  Ethiopian  origiiv^^.and  the 
same  may  turn  out  to  be  the  case  with  the  giraffe  group  ^CiraffidaO 
although  definite  evidence  with  regard  to  the  latter  point  is  wanting. 

The  occurrence  of  an  ostrich-uke  flightless  bird  in  the  Fayun 
Eocene— the  oldest  known  representative  of  that  group— is  sugges- 
tive'that  the  Ratitae. originated  in  Ethiopia,  which  would  accord 
well  with  their  distribution  both  in  the  present  and  the  past.  A 
giafnt  land-tortoise  (Testudo)  is  likewise  known  from^  the  Fayum 
beds,  and  as  it  is  allied  to  the  species  recently  or  still  inhabiting 
Madagascar  and  the  Mascarene  islands,  there  is  a  strong  probability 
,  that  Ethiopian  Africa  was  likewise  the  centra  of  developmeot  and 
'  dispersal  of  that  group. 

Turning  to  iu  existing  mammalian  fauna,  Ethiopia  possesses  a 
number  oif  peculiar  family  or  generic  groups,  and  is  also  nearly 
equally  well  characterized  by  the  absence  of  others.  As-  remarked 
by  Wallace,  one  of  its  characteristics  is  the  grcaf  riumber  of  species 
of  large  size.    Among  the  Primates,  it  is  the  horiic  of  the  typical 

f[roup  of  the  Negroid  branch  of  the  human  species,  whose  northern 
imits  coincide  approximately  with  the  boundary  of  the  region 
itself,  being  replaced  in  northern  Africa  by  races  of  the  Caucasian 
stock.  Gorillas  and  chimpanzees  {Anthropopitkecus)  are  peculiar 
to  the  region,  as  arc  also  baboons  (Papio  and  Thcropithecus),  if 
southern  Arabia  be  included.  Monkeys  abound,  and  although  in 
most  cases  nearly  allied  to  those  of  the  Oriental  region,  are  generically 

'Science,  ser.  2,  vol.  xix.  p.  221  (1904).  Dr  Packard  groups 
Notogaea  and  Neogaea  in  a  single  realm  under  the  name  Aniarc- 
togaea.  Some  other  writers,  such  as  Dr  H.  Gadow,  take  Notogaea 
to  include  all  the  three  southern  continents,  and  employ  the  term 
Arctogaea  for  the  rest  of  the  world. 

*  Proe.  Zool.  See.,  London,  1903,  pp.  340-368. 

*  Natural  Science,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  353-364  (>^4)- 


7£tUl£STJlIAM 


ZOOLOOICAt  DISTRIBUTION 


£009 


<tistinct.  The  Proeinuae*  or  lemuroids,  iodude  the  galagot  (Gahgc) 
and  pottos  {Perodictycus),  of  whkh  the  latter  are  akin  to  the  Oriental 
Ibrises,  whUe  the  former  are  quite  distinct  from  the  Malagasy 
leitiurB.  Among  the  Carnivora,  the  aard-wolf  (Protelet)t  the 
hunting-dog  {Lycaon)  and  the  long-eared  fox  (jOtocyou)  are  peculiar 
generic  types,  as  are  several  forms  of  muneooses  (Herpestixuie) ; 
while  the  spotted  hyaena  forms  a  sul^enus  ov  itself.  The  bear- 
family  (Ursidac),  on  the  other  hand,  is  totally  absent.  In  the 
great  ungulate  order  the  African  elephant  is  widely  sundered  from 
Its  Asiatic  cousin,  as  are  the  two  speciM  of  rhinoceros  from  their 
representatives  in  the  Oriental  region;  indeed  each  group  is  sub* 
generically  distinct.  The  hyraxcs,  fprmiag  the  suborder  Hyra- 
ooidea,  are,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  outlying  Syrian  species, 
conEncd  to  Ethiopia.  Zebras  and  true  wild  asaes  are  likewise 
peculiar  to  the  region.     More  remarkable  is  the  extraordinary 


and  goats  arc  absent  from  the  region,  with  the  exception  of  intruding 
into  It  to  some  extent  in  the  mountains  of  the  Sudan  and  AbvMinia. 
The  siraffe-family  (Giraffidae),  as  represented  by  nraffes  (Cirajfa) 
and  the  okapi  {ucapia),  is  absolutely  confined  to  this  region,  from, 
which  the  deer-tribe  (Ccrvidae)  is  completely  absent.  Chevrotains, 
or  mouse-dccr,  are  representee!  by  the  pecuUar  genus  DoraUheriwm 
(or  kvomosckus) ;  in  the  pigs  the  wart-nogs  (Phaeocko9rvs)t  forest- 
hogs  lUyloihoerus),  and  the  bush-pigs  (subgenus  Potamochoerus), 
with  the  exception  of  one  Malagasy  species,  are  now  unknown 
etsewhcre,  as  are  also  hippopotamuses.  Rodents  include  a  number 
of  peculiar  types,  among  which  may  be  noticed  the  scaly-tailed 
squirrels  (Anonialuridae),  the  jumping-hares  (Pedetes),  the  stiand- 
moles  (Bathycrgidae),  the  crested-rats  (Zopkumiys),  and  the  cane- 
rats  (Thryonomys,  or  Aidacodus);  the  last  bcine  nearly  allied  to 
South  American  forms.  In  the  Insectivora,  moMBs  (Talpidae]^  are 
absent,  the  jumping-shrews  (Macrosoelididae)  are  solely  African, 
although  ranging  north  of  the  Sahara,  while  the  ^Iden  molea 
(Chrysochloridae)  and  the  Potamogalidae  are  exdurivdy  Ethm- 
pian.  Lastly,  the  ant-bears,  or  aard-varks  (Oivcteropodidae)* 
represent  a  suborder  of  the  tdentata  unknown  elsewhere;  while 
the  African  pangolins  (Manldae)  differ  markedly  from  their  Oriental 
kindred. 

The  Ethiopian  birds  are  lefis  peculiar.  The  ostrich  {Sirutkio) 
ranges,  in  suitable  localities,  all.  over  the  regwn,  thus  entering 
the  Mediterranean  transition-rcgioii  in  the  north.  The  guinea- 
fowls  (Numidinac)  form  a  subfamily  confined  to  Ethiopia  and 
Madagastar,  where  true  pheasants  are  unknown.  Other  peculiar 
types  are  plaotain-eatcrs  (Musophagidae),  colies  (Coliidae),  wood*- 
hoopoes  (Irrisoridae),  barbets  (Megalaemidae),  ground-hombills 
{Bucorwu),  sccreury-birds  fSerpenUnklae),  glossy  surlings  (Lam- 
protornis),  ox-peckers  (Buphaga),  the  genera  Laniarius  and  T^p- 


Apart  from  the  widespread  Trkmychoidea  (of  which  there  ave 
two  genera  peculiar  to  the  recion),  the  Ethk>pian  fresh-water 
tortoises  belong  to  the  section  Pleurodira;  the  two  nnera  Pdo- 
medusa  and  Sternothaerus  being  common  to  Africa  and  Madagascar, 
and  unknown  elsewhere.  The  Amphisboenklae  are  oommoa  to 
Neogaea  and  Ethiopia,  to  the  exclusion  of  Madagascar;  but  the 
Gerraosauridae  and  Zonuridae,  on  the  other  hand,  are  restricted  to 
the  present  region  and  Madagascar,  which  also  form  the  head- 

auarters  of  chameleons.  In  contrast  to  the  latter  community  h 
lie  absence  in  Madagascar  of  Agamidae  and  Vaianklae,  which  are 
common  in  Ethiopia.  The  absence  of  slow-worms  and  their  kln<l|red 
CAnguklae)  is  a  marked  negative  feature  oC  the  present  region. 
As  regards  batrachiaas,  the  region  has  no  mlamanders  or  other 
tailed  forms,  but,  in  common  with  India,  poaaeaaes  caeciliaiia 
(Apoda);  while  it  shares  the  srDU|>  of  tonguefeas  toads  (Aglossa) 
with  Neogaea,  its  peculiar  family  being  the  Xeoopodidae,  ui  contra- 
distinctk>n  to  the  South  American  Pipidae.  The  Pelobatida«  are 
absent,  and  true  toads  are  few,  but  frojgs  axe  abundant. 

Among  hsheat  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  poesessea  a  naraber  of 
peculiar  types.  With  Neogaea  it  shares  the  poeseaaion  of  the 
tyfncal  lung-fishes  (Lepidoeirenidae),  while  it  is  toe  habitat  of  the 
species  of  bichir  (Polyflerus)  and  Cahmoickikys,  the  sole  sufvivore 
of  the  ancient  group  of  iringe-finned  gaamda  (Croasopterygii). 
The  other  families  peculiar  to  Ethiopia  are  the  Mormyrkiae  (pro- 
boscis'fishes),  Pantodontidae,  and  Phractolaemidae;  the  two  latter 
bdng  represented  only  by  a  single  apeciea  each.  The  Notopteridae, 
Ophiocephalidae,  Anabantidae,  OsphromeaUae  and  Mastacerobe- 
Kdae  are  common  to  Ethiopia  and  the  Oriental  renon.  in  additiort 
to  the  Lepldoairenidae.  the  Charactnidae  are  pecttuar  to  this  regieo 
and  Neogaea.  The  Cichlidae  occur  in  Madagascar,  Ethiopia,  the 
Oriental  region  and  Neogaea;  and  the  Osteogfesaidae  are  conlmon 
to  the  last  three  of  these  reaions,  as  well  as  Australia,  while  the 
Nandidae  are  Ethiopian,  Oriental  and  NeotropicaL  Oa  .the 
whole,  the  affinities  of  the  fish-fauna  of  Ethiopia  are  nearest  to 
that  of  the  Oriental  region,  and,  secondly,  to  that  of  South 
AMienca. 
Althoegh  invertebrates  do  not  come  within  the  scope  of  the 


pccieBt  article,  it  nay  be  mentionwl  that  Ethiopia  ia  moailEable 

lor  the  total  absence  of  fresh-water  cray-fishes. 

Aa  rcsarda  its  past  history*  Ethiopian  Africa  was  in  connexioa 

with  India  durinj;  the  Triassic  and  Jurassic  periods,  the  two  areas 

collectively  forming  *'  C^ondwanaland,"  which  doubtless  constituted 

a  portion  of  the  equatorial  land-belt  referred  to  as  existing  during 

the  epochs  in  question.    Gondwanaland  was  the  home  of  a  lai^a 

section  of  the  anomodont  reptiles  from  which  mammals  have 

sprung;  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  evolutbn  of  the  latter 

group  took  place  within  the 'present  area.     Between  the  Triaa 
and  -'     **  ""*  -L*      »   .  *  -•-         .-i__.       • 


om      _ 
between 

Natrua.  The  Tertiary  deposita  of  southern  Europe  and  northeni 
India  indkate,  however,  that  Ethiopian  Africa  was  in  free  oommuni* 
cation  with  these  countries  during  the  upper  Miocene  and  Pliocene 
epochs.  There  occur,  for  instance,  either  in  south-eastern  Asia  or 
southern  Europei  or  both,  during  the  hitter  period  numerous  gen^  oC 
antelopes  now  restricted  to  Etaiopia,  aa  well  aa  giraffes,  okapi-like 
ruminanta  (Palatatr^pu),  dei^nts  and  rhinoceroses  of  an  Airicaa 
type,  probably  aebrasj  bimiopotamusea,  baiboons,  chimpanzees  and 
ostriches.  Owing  to  impmect  knowledge  of  Pliocene  Africa,  it  ia 
impossible  to  aay  whether  these  types  were  first  developed  in 
EthiofMa  or  to  toe  north-east,  and  consequently  whether  or  not 
Professor  Hoxky  was  rkht  in  his  theory  that  the  modem  higber 
mammalian  fauna  of  £thik)pia  came  from  the  north.  It  haa,  how- 
ever, beoi  suggested  that  while  the  Bovidae  are  an  autochthonoua 
Ethiopian  group,  the  Cervidae  origjuiated  in  either  the  Holarctic 
or  the  Orieiital  rqpoa;  «( theory  which  if  oonfinned  will  materially 
aid  in  explaining  the  lUMenoe  of  the  latter  group  from  Ethiopia. 
It  is  supported  to  some  extent  by  the  (act  that  we  are  acquainted 
with,  pnmidve  ancestral  deer  in  the  European  Tertiary,  while  the 
aooeators  of  the  Bovidae  are  at  pmaent  uakaowii.  whatever  be? 
the  fruth  on  thia. point,  it  is  manifest  that  whether  the  middle 
Tertuiry  Bovidae  migrated  from  Ethmpia  to  Asia  or  in  the  opposite 
directioo,  there  must  have  been  some  cause  which  barred  the 
entrance  by  the  saoM  route  into  the  latter  area  of  all  members 


of  the  deexHtribe  (as  well  ;bs  bears).  It  should  be  added  that 
although  the  «noestral  ProbOacidca  were  EtUopiaa,  the  paaaaom 
from  the  mastodons  into  the  true  efetdiants  appears  to  have  taken 
place  in  Asia:  a  circumstaace  which  woiikl  imply  the  Asiatic 
orunn  of  the  Ai  licaa  elephant. 

The  evidence  In  fovour  of  the  contiauatioB  of  the  Mcaotok:  land- 
bridge  between  Etluopw  and  Neooaea  haa  been  dJacussed  under 
the  beading  of  the  latter  area*  If  the  aisuments  in  favour  of 
such  a  connexion  are  valid,  it  is  to  the  old  mammal-  fauna  jot 
Ethiopia  that  we  must  probably  look  for  the  ptogeaitoft  of  the 
Santa  Crux  fauna  of  Fiatayooia.  Very  noteworthy  is  the  alleged 
occurrence  of  vanMuaa  of  pnmttiveaicniadillos  in  the  OMgocene  beds 
of  southern  Earope  ia  aaaodation  with  those  of  pangoUna  and 
aard-varks;  nnce,  if  these  fosaila  be  rightly  determined,  there  at 
oace  arises  the  probability  of  Africa  having  been  the  original  home 
of  the  entire  Edentate  oroier. 

In  the  oaae.df  an  island  lying  ao  close  to  the  African  continent 
aa  does  Madagaacar  the  natural  exprctatiosi  would  be  that  ita 
fauna  ahoodd  be  intimately  rriated  to  that  of  the  f omer.  .,  ^^^ 
Aa  a  matter  of  (act— in  the  case  of  mammals  and  birds,  ^1^^^ 
at  any  rate— it  is  nuich  aMMtt  distinct  from  the  Ethiopian  "*™^ 
fauna  than  is  the  latter  from  the  fauna  of  either  the  Oriental  or 
the  Holatctic  region.'  The  evidence— from  the  abowe-mentioued 
groupa — in  favoar  of  xeoo^iabig  a  distinct  Malagasy  region  is  in 
tact  positively  overwhelming,  while  it  is  also  supported  ia  some 
degree  by  the  dlatribotion  of  groupa  other  than  tiiose  named.  In 
place  of  the  Ethiopian  aasemUage  of  apes,  monkeys,  b^xions. 
galagos  and  pdttos,  Madagsncar  ^together  with  the  Comoro  i^nds) 
possesses  an  absolutely  unique  fauna  of  lemnia,  constituting  the 
taaUly  Lemaridae,  which,  as  now  undenttood,  is  confined  to  this 
island,  where  it  Is  represented  by  the  three  subfamily-grQops  of 
sifakas  (Indriainae),  true  lemun  (LemoriOae),  and  aye-ayes  (CThirofa 
myioae).  All  these  animala  agree  with  one  another  in  the  char- 
afitere  of  the  tympanic  regwo  of  the  skull ;  thereby  differing  from 
the  African  and  Oriental  Prodmiae,  but  agreeing  with  the  European 
Olisocene  Adafns,  which  must  apparently  be  regaided  as  the  anoes- 
tmi  form.  This  is  a  striking  confirmation  of  we  theory  advaiMed 
many  years  ago  by  Huxley  that  Madagascar  received  its  lemun^ 
fauna  from  Europe  at  n  very  early  date*  since  which  time;  at  any 
rate,  it  haa  bete  Isolated  from  Africa.  Some  of  the  Pleirtocede 
Malagasy  lemurs  were  much  larger  tham  any  of  the  living'  forms, 
rivaUiag  in  this  respect  a  chimpanaee.  The  Camivora  are  repre- 
sented only  by  a  small  number  of  spedes,  mostly  referable  to 
peculiar  genera,  of  Viverridae,  among  whkh  the  fossa  (CrjfUh 
procio)  is  the  largest.  In  the  vngukites  there  are  on^  two  extinct 
species  of  hippopotamus  and  a  livins  bush-pig,  the  ancestort  of  all 
three  of  which  nobably  crossed  the  Moaambique  channel  by  swim- 
ming; and  Edentata  are  equally  conspicuous  by  their  absence. 
Insectivora,  on^the  other  hand,  are  repicsented  by  the  tenrecs 
(Centrttdae),  with  numerous  generic  types,  whose  nearsst  rdativca 

*Tbe  fosnis  of  the  Uttenhage  beds,  now  generally  dassed  aa 
Jurassic,  conaiat  chisAy  of  invertebrates  and  blants. 


fOt6 


ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


rrBMLEsntui 


appear  to  be  the  west  Indka  toleiiodons.  The  bats  aie  Itkewise' 
dinerent  from  those  of  the  mainland;  a  notable  feature  being  the 
occurrence  of  flying-foiees  of  the  Asiatic  and  Australian  genus 
Pteropus.  Of  the  countless  rodents  of  Africa,  all  are  wanting; 
while  the  only  roembere  of  that  group  inhabiting  the  island  are 
certain  cat4ike  animals  collectively  constituting  the  family  Neso-' 
myidae. 

The  birds  are  scarody  less  remarkable  than  the  mammals,  such 
common  Ethiopian  types  as  tlie  9strich,  secretary-bird,  honey- 
guides  (fndiaUor),  wood-hoopoes,  ground-hornbiUs*  ox-peckers, 
barbets  and  glossv  starlings  Yttiag  entirely  unknown.  On  the 
otlier  hand,  the  Malagasy  region,  imittsive  of  the  Mascareoe  islands, 
comprises  quite  a  number  of  distinctive  bird-genera,  such  as  MesiUs, 
Tylas,  ArUuma,  CaliaUtcus^  Eurycens,  PkUepitta^  Aldontis  and 
Lepiesomusi  the  first  of  these  represeikting  a  peculiar  family  of 
game-birds,  while  the  last,  inclucung  only  the  kirombo,  forms  a 
subfamily  of  rollers  (Coraciidae).  Id  the  Pleisto6ene  the  ostrich 
group  was  represented  by  various  species  of  Aepyonis,  probably 
the  ori^nal  of  the  legendary  roc;  while  within  historic  times 
Mauritius  and  R6unioo  were  the  respective  homes  of  the  two  >P<ecies 
of  dodo  {Didus)t  and  Rodrigues  was  inhabited  by  the  solitaire 
(Peaopkaps)^  the  three  constituting  the  family  Dididae. ,  The 
guinea-fowls,  on  the  contrary,  form  a  group  common  to  the  Ethiopian 
and  Malagasy  regions  and  are  unknown  elsewhera. 

Many  of  the  features  of  the  reptilian  fauna  are  alluded  to  under 
the  headings  of  Neogaca  and  the  Ethiopian  region.  Among  liaards, 
the  absence  of  Agamidae,  Verantdae|  Lacertidae,  Amphisbaenidae 
aad  Anguidae  b  very  remarkable,  since  all  these  except  the  last 
are  Ethiopian.  In  aadition,  Madagascar  possesses,  apart  from  the 
cosmopolitan  sldnks  and  geckos,  ody  Gerrhosauiidae,  Zonurldae 
and  chameleons  (Chamaeleontklae),  which  are  essentially  African 
groups.  Affinity  wich  Neogaca  is  indicated  by  the  pffesenca  of  a 
tew  Iguanas,  of  snakes  of  the  boa  group  (especially  the  genus  Baa), 
and  of  Podocnemis  among  the  tortcMses.  The  other  pleurodiran 
tortoises  are,  however,  of  an  Ethiopian  type.  The  same  may 
perhaps  be  said  with  regard  to  the  giant  land-tortoises  of  the  genus 
rcjlifoa,  which  in  Pleistocene  or  modem  tiiAeB  were  S(»read  over 
all  the  idands  of  the  region,  while  they  existed  in  Africa  in  the 
Eooene,  as  well  as  in  India  In  the  Pliocene.  The  spider-tortoise 
(Pineu)  is  a  peculiar  Cryptodiran  Malagasy  gemM.  In  the  matter 
of  batrachians  the  Malaoasy  regbn  lacks  Doth  coecilians  (Apoda) 
and  tonguftless  toads  (Agiosas),  while  it  has  abundance  of  true  frogs 
(Raninae).  among  them  the  Oriental  genus  Rhaeopkarus,  Of  fislm. 
the  pecuUar  Ethiopian  types  are  absent  from  the  present  region, 
although  the  community  of  the  Cichlidaef  to  Neogaaa  and  the 
Ethu>pian,  Malasasy  and  Oriental  regions  is  noteworthy,  it  may 
be  adde<rthat  Madagascar  differs  from  Ethiopia  in  possessing  one 
fresh-water  cray-fish,  the  representative  of  a  genus  by  itself. 

The  radical  distiiKtness  of 'the  Midagasy  fauna  is  thus  demon- 
strated  from  all  sides.  That  the  iskina  has  been  separated  from 
Ethiopia  duriiw  the  greater  portion  of  the  Tertiary  period  Is  self« 
evident.  The  interpretation  of  its  relationships  with  other  regions 
is,  however,  exceedingly  difficult.  It  is  geooally  considered  that 
the  Comoro  and  SeychicUe  groupa  mark  the  line  of  a  former  con- 
nexion between  Maaasucar  and  India,  and  also  with  South  Africa; 
but  it  is  evident  that  this  line  must  have  been  closed  to  the  passage 
of  mammals  since  a  very  remote  date,  as  {s  exemplified  by  the 
fact  that  the  lorises  of  Ceylon  and  aouthera  India  are  mtrte  distinct 
from  the  Malagasy  lemurs,  and  miich  nearer  to  the  African  pottos. 
Whether  the  occurrence  of  South  American  types  of  reptiles  (boas, 
Podocntmis,  and  iguanas)  in  Madagascar  and  not  in  Africa  can  be 
held  to  indicate  a  late  connexion  with  Neogaea  by  way  of  the 
Pacific,  cannot  yet  be  decided.    The  occurrence  of  iKuanas  in  Fiji 

?'  I,  however,  as  noteworthy  as  is  the  community  of  MieloHiA  tp 
atajgonia  and  Queensland.  Moreover,  Polynesia  is  evidently  a 
subsiding  area,  ^n  the  opinkm  of  Captain  F.  Hutton  *  the  larnd- 
shells  otthe  genus  Eaisinmto,  which  range  aU  through  Polynesia, 
New  Zealand,  eastern  Australia,  New  Giunea  and  the  Philippines* 
with  an  outlier  in  Ceylon,  afford  the  best  evidence  in  favour  of  a 
Polynesian  continent,  the  Singhalese  outlier  pointing  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  this  group  of  molluscs  originally  came  (rota  the  north. 
The  molluscan  evidenoe  will  not,  nowever,  eiq>lain  the  South 
American  connexion. 

Zookwical  evidenoe  of  the  latteir  connexion,  by  way  of  Antarctica, 
as  afforded  by  the  earthworms  of  the  family  Acanthodrilidaei  which 
are  unknown  north  of  the  equator,  although  thJeir  occnmnce-in 
Madagascar  may  point  to  a  northern  origin;  .  Additional  evidenoe 
of  a  connexion  with  Fatagooia  is  afforded  by  the  occurrence  ia  the 
Tertiary  strata  of  South  America  and  New  Zealand  of  a  number  of. 
shallow-water  marine  invertebrates.  Further,  the  occurrence  of 
these  forms  in  older  strata  ia  South  America  than  in  New  Zealand 
suggests  that  the  migiatiaii  took  place  from  the  former  to  the 
Utter  area. 

The  relatively  small  and  v^holly  tropical  or  subtropical  Oriental 
region  was  origindly  talcMi  to  incnide  the  Punjab;  bat  in  a  memoir. 
of  which  an  abstract  appeared  ia  the  Procudmgi  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London  for  1900  (vol.  Ixvii.  p.  484),  Dr  Blanford  came 

*  Indax  Foa/MM  NffMU-Ze^ndku  (LoadMi,  1904). 


Sthe  condudon  that  the  Punjab  differs  so  remarfcably  in  hi 
una  from  the  rest  of  India  that  it  cannot  be  includea  in  the 
Oriental  region,  and  must  be  assigned  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean transitional  region.  To  the  tatter  belongs  also  the 
Himalayan  area  above  the  forests,  as  docs  Titwt.  India 
proper,  tocher  with  Ceylon,  is  regarded  as  a  single  subdivial 
of  the  Oriental  region,  under  the  title  of  Cisgangetic.  while  tiie 
Himalaya  and  Burma  form  a  second  subregion,  the  Transgai^etic* 
which  also  includes  southern  China,  Tonquin,  Siam  and  Cambodia. 
A  third  subregion.  the  Malayan,  iiKludes  southern  Tenaaserim,  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  and  the  Malay  ArcHipclago  exclusive  of  Cdcbea. 
In  the  map  in  the  present  article  the  laust-named  island  is  included 
in  the  present  region,  although,  as  stated,  it  is  by  preference  referred 
to  an  Austro-Malay  transitional  region.  Wallace  drew  the  maxa 
line  dividine  the  Oriental  from  the  Australian  region  between  the 
idands  of  Bali  and  Lombok,  and  between  Borneo  and  Celebes': 
**  The  strait  (between  BaU  and  Lombok]  is  here  fifteen  miles  wide, 
so  that  we  may  pass  in  two  hours  from  one  great  division  of  the 
earth  to  another,  differing  as  essentially  in  their  animal  life  aa 
Europe  does  from  America.  If  we  travel  from  Java  or  Borneo  to 
Otebes  or  the  Moluccas,  the  diffc^nce  is  still  more  striking.**  The 
hydrograj^ic  results  obtained  by  the  Dutch  Sibon  Expeditioa 
show,  however,  that  although  there  exists  a  line  0!  great  depth 
separating  the'  two  areas,  this  line  on  no  pmnt  corrnponds  to 
"  Wallace^s  line."  On  the  contrary,  it*  passes  east  of  Timor  and 
through  the  Banda  and  Molucca  seas,  sraarating  Sula  from  Buru. 
Obi  and  Halmaheira.  For  this  line  which  replaces  'HVaUace's 
line,"  Dr  A.  Pelseneer  has  proposed  the  name  <m  "  Weber's  line.** 
It  is  this  "Weber's line"  which  marks  the  real  division  between 
the  Aictogaek:  and  the  Notogaeic  faunas,  although  it  haa  been 
convenient  to  make  Celebes  the  centre  of  an  intermediate  transi- 
tional region. 

The  Onental  region  agrees  with  the  Ethiopian  in  being  inhabited 
by  elephants,  rhinoceroses,  buffaloes,  several  larae  representatives 
of  the  relidae  (among  which  the  lion,  leopard  and  hunting-leopard 
are  common  to  the  two  areas),  and  numerous  civets  and  mungooses. 
The  elefi^ant  and  the  three  species  of  rhinoceros  are,  however, 
subgenencally  distinct  from  tncir  Ethiopian  relatives,  and  the 
buffaloes  are  also  widely  different  from  those  of  Africa.  Wild 
cattle  (of  the  subgenus  Bibos),  as  represented  by  the  gaur  and  the 
bantin.  are  peculiar  to  this  region;  and,  with  the  exception  of 
gasellea,  antelopes  are  poorly  represented,  although  the  thiee. 
genera  AnHhpe  (blackbuck),  Tetraceros  (chousinghaj,  and  Trag^' 
comdu*  (nilgai)  are  restricted  to  the  area.  Southern  India  has 
one  tahr  {Hemttrapu)  in  its  mountains,  and  this  genus  also  occurs 
in  the  Himalaya,  where  serows  (NemorAae(fiu)andgora1s(£/rv<rafitf) 
— goat-like  antelopes  ranging  through  the  Malay  countriea— aie 
likewise  met  with.  Deer  (Ccrvidae)  are  abundant,  and  indude 
three  peculiar  'ctubgenera  of  CervuSt  namely  Rtua^  Hydapkus  and 
Rucefvus,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  typical  red  deer  group.  The 
typical  Trag^us  represents  the  chevrotains;  and  the  pigs,  unlike 
tliose  of  Ethiopia,  belong  to  the  typical  section  d-^ut.  Ip  addition 
to  Neogaea,  the  Malay  subregion  u  now  the  sole  habitat  pf  .tapirs 
(Tapiridae).  A  notable  distinctk>n  from  Ethiopia  is  the  presence 
of  bears,  which  are,  however,  distinct  from  the  typical  Ursus  aretms 
group  of  the  north.*  Borneo  and  Sumatra  form  the  home  of  the 
orang-utan  (Stmta),  the  sole  Oriental  representative  of  the  Simiidae, 
while  the  gibbons  (Hylobatidae),  -  whicti  range  as  far  west  as  the 
eastern  Himalaya,  are  restricted  to  the  region.  The  monkeys  are 
all  generically  aistinct  from  those  of  Ethiopia.  The  tarsier  repre- 
sents a  family  (Tarsiidae)  by  itself;  and  the  lorises  a  subfamily 
(Nyctioebinae)  peculiar  to  the  forest-tracts.  Fruit-bats  of  the  genera 
rUropus,  Rousettus  and  Cyncpterus  help  to  distinguish  the  regi<m 
from  Ethiopia;  while  among  the  Insectivora  the  tupais,  or  tree- 
shrews  (Tupaiidae),  with  three  genera,  and  the  rat-snrews  (Gym- 
nurinae),  aiso  with  three  generic  modifications,  are  likewise  solely 
Oriental.  The  cobegos,  or  flying-lemurs  {CahopUkecus),  represent 
an  ordinal  group  (Dermoptera)  peculiar  to  this  region ;  white  thxn 
are  several  distinctive  geiiera  of  rodents,  especially  in  the  mountains 
of  the  Philippines,  where  some  approximate  closely  to  the  Australian 
type  represented  by  Hyirifmys. 

ningolins,  of  a  type  different  from  ihose  of  Ethiofna,  alone  repreo 
sent  the  Edentata.  A  striking  feature  of  \he  mammalian  fauna  of 
the  region  Is  the  presence  of  so  many  ^uliak'  and  probably  arehaic 
types  in  the  Malay  subregion,  and  the  affinity  of  the  fauna  of  this 
area  to  that  of  western  Africa.  Both  districts  may  be  said  to  be 
highly  conservative  in  the  matter  of  their  faunas. 

The  birds  are  extremely  abundant,  and  include  a  number  of 
peculiar  genera  to  which  detailed  reference  is  impossible.  There  ia 
no  representative  of  the  ostrich  group;  and  the  place  of  guinea- 
fowls  is  taken  by  pea-fowl  (Pavo)  and  aigus-pheasants  {ArguUama), 
while  francolins  {FrttncdiHus)  abound.  Attention  may  be  directed 
to  the  abundance  of  pheasants,  pigeons,  kinr-fishers.  sunbirds. 
flycatchers  and  stariinn.  The  babblers  (Timeliidae)  are  especially 
numerous,  the  group  allied  to  the  hill-robin  {Ldoikrue)  being  peculiar 
to  the  region,  as  are  also  the  green  bulbuls  (CUor^pstt).  True 
-  — ■  -    ■■    - 

'One  member  of  this  group  has  recently  been  described  from 

wa^^p    ^fpa^aVw    %irawv  v^^vv 


TSRMSntlAil 


ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


lOII 


bulbult  (PycnoootidM)  tnd  king-crow*  (Dicruridae)  are  also  moro 
abundant  than  ebewbere;  while  the  broao-bills  (Eufylaemidae)  are 
peculiar. 

Among  reptiles,  the  loitt-soouted  crocodiiet  of  the  genera  Cmialis 
and  Tomistoma  are  elaewnere  unknown  at  the  pretent  day.  The 
river-tortdiaes  of  the  family  Trionyrchidae  have  three  peculiar^nera ; 
while  the  other  fresh-water  tortoiaea  differ  from  tho«  of  Ethiopia 
in  bdonging  to  the  eection  Cryptodira.  of  which  there  are  a  numoer 
of  peculiar  generic  typea.  The  family  Platvttemidae  is  lolely  repre- 
sented by  a  tortoise  confined  to  the  Malay  countries  In  the 
liards  the  family  Anguidae  is  rmresented  by  one  genus;  Agamidae 
are  very  abundant:  and  include  several  types  peculiar  to  the 
regioni  among  whicn  may  be  noticed  the  flymg-oragons  (Ptko). 
Cnameleons  are  rare.  The  burrowing'snakes^of  the  genus  Typkhps 
•re  eJGoecdingly  numerous;  the  .allied  ll^idae  are  common  to 
India  and  Necsaea;  while  the  Uropeltidae  are  restricted  to  India 
and  Ceylon.  In  the  presence  of  pythons  the  region  agrees^  with 
EthloiNa,  as  it  does  in  possessing  cobras;  but  it  divides  with 
Neogaesr  the  range  of  t|ie  Amblycepnalidae,  while  it  Is  also  inhabited 
by  pit-vipers  (Crotalinae)*  which  form  an  exclusivdy  Asiatic  and 
American  group  Among  the  Amphibia,  the  region  agrees  with 
Ethiopia  in  posse  nsing  repiiesentativcs  of  the  limbless  Apoda,  but 
differs  in  the  presence  oi' frogs  <A  the  family  Pelobatidae,  while 
tooda  (Bufonicuie}  and  true  froos  (Raninae),  especially  those  of 
the  genus  Kkacopkorus^  are  abundant. 

Of  tbe  fishes  it  must  sufficeto  state  that  lung-fishes  and  ganoids 
are  absent,  as  are  also  Mormyridae.  But  the  families  Opiuo- 
oephalidae  (serpent-heads)  and  Rhynchobddlidae  (or  Mastacem- 
b«idae),  which  have  a  few  African  representatives,  are  abundant; 
while  the  Cobitidae  are  a  group  unknown  in  Ethiopia.  Siluridae 
and  Cyprimdae  are  common. 

Allusion  has  been  already  made  to  the  presence  of  African  forms 
oC  mammals  in  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  northern  India  (some  oi 
>vhich  are,  however,  within  the  Mediterranean  transition-region); 
and  it  may  be  added  that  remains  of  a  baboon  {Papio)  and  of  a 
large  pangolin  allied  to  the  west  African  species  have  been  found 
in  Madras. 

Few  words  must  suffice  for  the  Malayan  transitional  area,  which 
•mbraces  Celebes,  the  Moloocas,  Ac.;  and  has  a  fauna  showing  a 
.  blending  of  that  of  the  Orienul  with  that  of  the  Australian 

^■■*''  region.'  While  Celebes  possesses  a  small  buffak>  allied 
fj~*|**  to  the  Indian  species,  a  monkev  (Cyn&pithecus),  and  a 
tnaaiOM'  peculiar  type  of  pig  {Babirusa),  it  has  also  cuscuses 
"**■•  {Pkaianiitr),  while  cassowaries  cockatoos  and  other 
Notogaeic  types  occur  in  the  area.;  A  notable  feature  is  also  the 
absence  of  Cvprinidae  (carps)  from  Celebes,  although  they  are 
abundant  in  Bonieo. 

The  Mediterranean  transition-region,  the  limitations  of  which 
are  approximately  shown  on  the  map.  mast  likewise  be  dismissed 
with  brief  notice;  its  fauna  at  the  eastern  end  being 
intermediate  between  those  of  the  Oriental  and  the 
Holanrtk  region,  while  in  the  west  it  serves  as  the 
No-man'»>land  between  the  Holarctic  and  the  Ethiopbn 
faunas.  The  most  distinct  portion  of  the  Mediterranean 
fauna  is  undoubtedly  that  of  Tibet,  where  are  such  peculiar  types 
among  mammals  as  the  takin  {.Budoniu),  the  chiru  antelope  (Pea- 
tkahfs),  the  yak,  representing  a  subgenus  of  Bar,  snub-nosed 
moofeeys  OUtinofUhecui),  the  giant  panda  (iiWurepns),  and  certain 
peculiar  shrews  {NecU^ok), 

Farther  west  the  great  mole-ret  (5palax),  the  rabbit  (subgenus 
Oryctotagus^  and  the  two  species  of  fallow-deer  (subgenus  JDafiio), 
•re  very  characteristic  of  the  Mediterranean  sone,  which  is  also 
the  home  of  the  addax  antelope  (i4<Uax),the  Barbaiy  sheep  (sub- 
genus Ammotrapu),  and  numerous  true  sheep,  wild  goats  and 
gazelles.  ClenciaclyluSt  the  gundi,  is  a  characteristic  North  African 
genus  of  rodents.  It  is  also  noteworthy  that  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean tone  we  enter  the  domain  of  typical  deer  of  the  red  deer 
fvup  {Cervus),  and  of  bean  of  the  brown  bear  group  {Urstu  arctus), 
be  wolf  ana  the  fox  are  also  animals  whose  territory  we  reach 
on  entering  tbe  Mediterranean  spne,  although  neither  of  these,  or 
the  brown  bear,  are  confined  to  this  tract,  or  even  to  the  Falae- 
arctic  section  of  the  Holarctic  region. 

^Reference  to  many  other  animals  of  the  Mediterranean  tract 
will  be  found  under  the  heading  of  the  Pabearctic  subregion. 

The  Holarctic  regk)n,  which  comprises  the  whole  of  the  land 
lying  northward  of  the.-  Mediterranean  transitional  aooe  in  the 
eastern,  and  north  of  the  Sonoran  sone  in  the  western 
"Tf""  hemisphere,  is  the  largest  of  all  the  xoological  provinces 
"f^-  of  the  gk>be.  The  whole  territory  is  extra-tropical,  and 
it  is  inhabited  at  the  present  day  neither  by  monotremes,  mar- 

Spials,  edentates,  lemurs  nor  monkeys,  althouich  representatives 
the  three  latter  occur  in  portions  of  the  Mediterranean  trenia- 
tional  rnion.  The  types  common  to  the  eastern  and  western 
halves  OI  this  region  are  to  be  met  with  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
Qorthem  Pacific,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  main  communication 
took  place  by  way  of  Bering  Strait,  althoif^h  it  has  been  saggested 
that  there  was  also  a  land-bridge  connecting  the  European  continent 
with  Iceland,  and  thus  with  Greenland. 
Among  characteristic  groups  of  mammals  common  to  the  two 


halves  of  the  Holarctic  region  (or  in  some  instances  of  portions  of 
the  adjacent  transitional  aones  to  the  southward)  the  following 
may  be  meqtioned:  elk  (A/cri),  reindeer  (/ianc^fer),  wapiti  (Cervix 
tanadauis  and  its  Anatic  representatives),  bison  (subgenus  Brroii), 
bighorn  sheep  (Ons  canadensis  and  ita  representatives  ip  north- 
eastern Asia),  musk-ox  {OfMos^,  now  extinct  in  the  eastern  hemi- 
sphere, glutton  or  wolverine  {C«lo)t  brown  bear  {Ursus^  antns  and 
its  representatives  in  north-cast  Asia  and  America),  lynx  (Feiis 
lynx),  wolf  {Cams  lupus),  fox  (C  vtUpes),  pine-marten  (Mustda 
marPts  and  the  allaed  American  form),  ermine  and  weasel  {J*utcfius), 
variable  hare  {Ltpus  Hmidus  and  its  idatives),  ^icas  (OrJkotonji,  or 
XMMiyi),beaven  ^Cas(0r),inarmots  (Arclsniyr^,  chipmunks  {Tamias), 
sudiks  {Spermo^ulus,  or  CiiiUms),  jumpin|g;-mice  i^Zapus),  field^mwe, 
or  voles  {Mkrolus,  or  Arviula),  lemnungs  (Lmmnr  and  Dicn- 
slonyx)t  mole^hrewB  {Urolnchus),^  and  several  genera  of  bats.  To 
these  may  be  added,  as  more  exclusivdy  arctic  forms,  the  polar 
bear  (Ursuf  manHmus),  and  the  arctic  fox  (Gtmir  U^opus).  There 
are  likewise  many  ^ups  or  species  of  birds  common  to  the  two 
divinons  of  the  re^on.    Amongreptiles,  the  pond-Cortoises  of  the 

Baius  Bmjfi,  if  we  include  their  Pleistocene  tangje,  are  an  essentially 
olarctic  (and  Mediterranean-Sonoran)  group.  In  regard  to 
fishes,  the  Whole  area  is  characteriaed  by  the  abundaitce  of  sturgeons 
(Acipenseridae),  carps  (Cypnnidae),  pike  (Esocklae^,  and  the  salmon- 
group  (Salmonidae),  coiipled  witn  the  scarcity  of  cat-fishes 
(Siluridae). 

Further  testimony  in  favour  of  the  tinit)r  of  the  Holarctic  region 
is  afforded  by  the  presence  on  the  two  «des  of  the  Pacific  (and 
in  most  cases  nowhere  else)  of  true  alligatore  {AUieator),  giant 
salamandere  (Cr^fptobranchus  and  Megalobalrackus,  really  scarcely 
worthy  of  separation),  and  shovel-beaked  sturgeons  {ScafJitrkynchusj. 
Again,  it  b  highly  probable  that  Pire  David  s  deer  of  Central  Asb. 
alone  representing  the  genus  Elaphurus,  is  akin  to  the  fork-antlered 
deer,  ilosoimi,  of  Norih  America;  and  many  Mher  analogous 
instances  might  be  quoted.  Finallyj  the  distribution  of  earth- 
worms affords  the  strongest  confirmation  of  the  view  that  the  two 
halves  of  the  Hobrctk:  region  form  but  a  single  aoolo^cal  province, 
with  tbe  Mediterranean  and  Sonoran  aones  as  tiansitioiud  appen- 
dases. 

in  briefly  reviewing  some  of  the  chief  fannbtic  areas  of  the 
Palaeatctk,  as  distinct  from  the  Nearetic,  subregion,  it  will  be 
convenient  to  include  some  of  the  groups  and  species  ,^,__ 
inhabiting  the  transitional  Mediterranean  aone,  much  of  yfrlK, 
which  b  in  reality  only  a  portion  of  the  Pabearctic  sub-  T'jy*'** 
region.    Dbtinctive  ot  the  area  in  thb  wider  sense  are  "V*^ 
a  number  of  wild  sheep,  such  as  Oins  musimcnt  gmelini,  ammon, 
poUtAc,  whidi  have  no  represenutives  on  the  other  side  of^Bent^ 

and  C. 
The 

be  regan  ... 

are  abo  wild  horses  {Equus  eabaUus  pnewalskii),  and  the  Idang 
(£.  ktmianus)  «nd  onager  (£.  hemiffus),  thfi  two  latter  being 
commonly  termed  wild  asses,  althouen  widely  different  from  the 
African  animab  property  sorcalled.  There  are  also  many  peculbr 
types  of  deer,  inclusive  of  the  red  deer  (Crrviij  slaphus),  P^re 
David's  deer  (Eiapkurus),  the  rocKleer  (Capreolus),  and  the  musk- 
deer  (Mosckus);  whib  the  Chinese  water-deer  ^Hydrelaphus)  b 
one  of  the  characteristic  forms  from  the  Mediterranean  cone. 
Qtmeb  (psmdus)  are  a  type  quite  unknown  east  of  Bering  Sea. 
Among  tne  Carnivore,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  raccoon-dog 
(Nyotsreutes),  the  panda  {Aeiurus),  now  a  Himabynn  and  Chinese 
type,  but  occurring  in  the  bter  Tertbry  of  England  and  the  con- 
tinent, and  the  tiger  (Fdis  titria);  the  last  being  eseentbtly  a 
Siberian  and  Mongolbn  animal  which  only  reached  Indb  at  a. 
comparatively  recent  cbte,  and  never  penetrated  to  Ceylon. 
Badgen  (JMafer)  are  unknown  in  the  Nearetic  region.  In  the 
Instetivora  the  water-^rew  {Nwmys  or  Crossopus)  b  exclusively 
Ptda^fctic,  as  is  the  aHied  Diptam€S0dont  whib  the  desmans 
(MyogaU),  although  a  Mediterranean  type,  are  solely  Old  Worid. 
Among  the  rodents,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  Old  Worid 
family  of  the  dormbe  (Gliridae  or  Myondae),  of  which  the  genera 
Cits  and  Muscardinus  are  restricted  to  the  area ;  as  are  the  hamstere 
(Crkttus)  Bad  sokors  {EUchius  and  Sipkneus)  in  the  Muridae,  and 
EuckortuUs,  Alactagfl,  and  Platyurcomys  in  the  terboa-group 
(jaculkbe,  or  Dipodidae).  Smttdkus  ts  another  characteristic 
Pabearab  (and  Mediterranean)  rodent.  To  continue  the  list 
wouhl  merely  be  wearisome,  without  any  compensating  advantage: 
but  it  may  be -added  that  there  are  a  number  of  characteristic 
exrinct  forms,  among  the  most  notabb  of  the  btter  of  which  are 
the  aurochs  or  wild  bull  (Bos  laurus  pnmigenius)  and  the  pant 
Irish  deer  (Crmu  IMrfocrrM]- ficanims). 

Of  the  remaining  groups  of  vertebrates  characteristic  of  this 
subregion  space  admits  of  but  scant  mention.  Among  abundant 
and  more  or  less  characteristto  birds,  reference  may  be  made  to 
thrushes,  warblers,  jays,  magpies,  buntings,  sparrows,  and  (in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean  sone)  pheasanu,  pratincoles, 

>The  American  form  is  often  separated  aa  Nturptridm*^  but 
thb  docs  riot  affect  the  relationship  of  the  two 


Of  nptOn  tbsc  k  Bot  ni 


IOI2  ZOOUXIICAL  DISTRIBUTION 

omen  (GlBtoHdH),  ud  boMrdi  ((MdidH).  ol  >l>ich  thm  tn 

wmatei,  UcMbcr  vilb  Itall  of  Ibe  PinuricUt  (innKiiIHJ  by  the 
bcwdcd  til),  b^trtcMf  OU  Worid.  kit  at  ihemHlvTm  mdiatai 
ndiMioiBiih  tba  Piliainlc  (mm  the  Naictic  (auiu. 
^'        ~      ■       ■  ~       ~       "..  Ibe  PalHircIic  tubnMn, 

. — - Bed  by  tbe  oovtny  of  iit 

■I  a(  the  nddy  urhI  [inilis  oTlbc  Old  Worid,  >iKh 

._;j —  .-J  '-laidie,  itaniliia  than  of  ki  touthero 

■»  the  taDcd  tiBmiitdtTT  Br  coniBOn 


ia  (hii  and  Ibe  M ... , 

(pben  nncnUyl,  the  ftam  Saltmamin  and  Ctiwljm.  u  well 
u  ihe  Iroji  an]  loxb  (^  the  getra  4Jy<u  uid  nuuii.  brina 

In  the  Pilusrctk  inl  an  nre  in  (be  Nsrrtic  mbie^iB.    The 

Aj/eeanlf  6ib«,rheHibrepoadifienftDia  tbe  Ncarrtic  pnvincc 
by  tbe  abKuce  of  bcny-pUtv  (L«pidoetdd4t),  bpw-lm  (A^iiidac), 
and  lhcfBiiul|'Cat«t(iniatidBe,ain]iiEedbytba">ucliai,"  "cnl 
bond"  and  " none-rallcn "  ol  the  ceaae  CUmMuu.  and  the 
ixncnce  ol  kncba  (Cobitidae)  and  barCeb  (Aaiihu). 

Ai  conpaRd  with  tbe.  Pilaearctk  taad  hudileimiean)  province 
ol  the  HolaiTiK  Rf  isn  [be  NtarclE  tubngioa  (tonther  viib  the 
H-jf^jm,  Sonoran  traiMit»iiBlKHie)Ucbaracteriiedbytheeimrp* 
!zr!Jlil  powrty  of  Ufl  tauna  ol  bqUow-bonwd  niminaatL  Of 
'  thcMthebi»nuf  nfTicBl]y{aiideubgniehcally)>deinic«l 
with  ita  EuRwui  'Evlative,  while  the  nwek-OK  can  ecarceiy  be 
regaidtd  u  a  diatiiKIivt  Nounic  type,  aeeuif  that  k  it  ooly  lin 
the  Pleiiloctne  epgcb  that  it  hai  «ued  (a  be  a  deniien  oC  noctbeni 
Europe  aad  Aua.  The  only  other  living  mcmbcTi  oi  the  sraup 
an  tbe  bighorn  ibnp  [Ons  aunutinni),  which  hai  repiaratatlvca 
la  Kamchallia  ind  north -caitcm  Siberia,  and  the  white,  at  Roclcy 
MouDtain  Eoat  iOnamma,  oc  Hm14otrTH\,  which  ia  a  peculiar  type. 

lypea  ol  jmiilt-OKn.  loftetbcr  with  certain  other  genera  which  may 
poetibly  lervB  lo  conned  the  while  goat  and  the  nin>l;-oi  with 
■he  aerow  and  the  taVin.o(  the  Otd  WorU.  The  deer  ICervidac), 
acan  [com  the  ibine  Old  World  type*  alluded  to  under  the  bending 
oT  tbe  Holarctk  region,  are  altoicther  poculiar  typta  referable  to 
the  genua  Jfiiuiu  (aubKcnua  D^utaf^ta,  Canacni  or  CMauilnu), 
bvt  they  may  be  akin  to  tbe  Aiiauc  Eiapkunu^  and  tbe  irour  " 
certainly  ol  OM  World  origin.    The  none  may  be  aaid  ol  ibe  be 

tUrwdae),  ip  which  tbe  blac ■         -  . 

apcciea,  altboiiah  probably 
la  Ihc  brown  Bear  group  {v 

•lad  Amuriand,  Ibe  Rodiy  Mc , ^ 

cootineiit,it  noreddUnet.  The givy-loi  (tubfenua 
:hanctcnftic  Ncarclic  type.    Amons  other  gitM^ 

.  T.i,_     ■ ^pj  dialinfiiian  tbe  NeuctK 

igh  Bome  of  tbtm  eiils  the 

... ^w  Koriaa,  Seaitft  and 

Statmw;  in  the  Camivota  Pncyam  biihuii  the  raccooiiB.  MftUlit 
amonf  the  akunka.  and  Tadia  aiasng  the  badgera.  Cfntmyi 
{"  prairicHlog  ")  ia  a  charactcriatk  rodent;  aad  in  the  aame  orda 
a  very  important  leaiure  ia  Iha  replacemeflt  ol  all  cba  true  tnta 
and  nice  (Mutinae)  ol  the  Otd  Worid  by  the  deer-sice  aad  (heir 
alliee  belonginf;  to  the  aublaiiuLy  Cncctinae,  *hlch  la  but  poorly 
repnaented  in  the  Old  WoiM.  Anmjiau  a  ■  very  cIvncterlitlG 

IJearctic  gaoiu.  although  it  baa  an  BnalogiH  is  the  C in 

the  form  <d  tbe  Bingle  repreaentative  ol  the  PeraiaB  ai. 

Tbe  wood-rau  o(  tbe  ^ua  NtMma  and  the  autq  ir) 

arecharacleriaticNcarctictypeaaf  the  voie-group.   Mc  int 

it  the  family  Haplodontldac.  [eoKBcnled  only  by  I  :1a 

(HapMtit,  or  Afiim).  all  tbe  meabera  ol  wbkb  ai  riy 

North  American,  although  Bome  are  Sonann.   The  pg  ira 

(Geomyidac)  and  kan^roo'rata  (HcUroiByidaei  art  Ay 

Amerlcaji,  though  more  dett4apcd  in  the  Sonoran  he 

Neaiclic  area;  Cetmyi  and   ntoamejii  in  tbe  Eonai  re. 

ptaikta  In  the  latter  lamily  are.  however,  'ound  in  tic 

ana.    Latlly.  among  the  rodenla.  we  have  the  Caoadii... ...ne 

(Eriltim).  typifying  the  New  World  Eainily  Eriihiieatidae.  Amonc 
b«la  It  mm!  taOtx  to  Male  that  tbe  genut  Liutanii  iAulatM} 
it  solely  North  American. 

Relerence  to  the  Tertiary  maaaial-Iaunat  el  North  America 


Vrti^ 

ol  ounmali.  tbe  fcUowint  ger 

froot  the  Palaearctic  tubngion. 


It  may  be  mentioned  that  _.„  ~  ~. 

Pleiitoceqe  thete  diiplay  a  much  greater  development  of  large 
lorDt  than  eccurt  at  (he  present  day;  while  a  notable  feature 
at  tbie  epoch  it  the  mingling  ol  Arctogaeic  and  Neo^vic  typ^ 
at  Dceoiplificd  by  tbe  occurrence  of  elepbantj  ahd  maitoJons 
alengtide  of  gnund-tlotht  {tf<fd/ony!r  and   Uytodom).     In  tlie 

liKludlnja  treat  developDieiil  ol  camelt  (Tylopoda),  hotaei  (£911^) ', 
rhiaoceniaca  (Rbinoccrotidae),  nuitodoni,  &c..  but  alv  a  number 
ol  pKuliar  lypea.  wch  at  tbe  ruminating  oiradonu  (Oreodontidac. 
<s  Uar^ceiUdae).  the  jjerimodactyle  Titanatherhdie.  and  the  more 
iilypiiyaeubordiialaBgulaiejroBp 


"  fieinft  more  highly  organiied  and  better  adapted   t 

— ■ ment,  llieie  new  miea  enliiely  !up|*anlcd  (he  older 

ihe  OliRoeene  thu  Irarufomiation  was  complete,  1 


and  by  ihe  OliRoeene  thi 

older  fauna  had  dluppeared.     _ .  . 

•nd  then  faded  gradually  away  oa  iblt  jAjiKricai^  comineni.  until 
in  Ihe  Middle  Plditocenc  it  wu  largely  lupplanted  by  anivali 

The  relationhip  of  the  fauna  lothat  of  South  Amerira.  and  the 
interchaarca  which  tool;  place  between  the  two  durifie  Ihe  PJcifr 
tocene  and  Riocene  epocha.  have  been  already  aoflicientTy  diacutaed 

Of  Ibe  birSi  ol  iheNenn:tic  nbreglon  and  Ihe  ad|>ctnt  Snaoru 
aone.  tbBB  are  a  very  lar^  number  oi  peculiar  ^nera  in  the  pa> 
eerine  order.  ■  large  proportion  of  which  arc  lefnable  to  ihe  fiiirb' 
group  (Pringillidae),  and  Ibe  Amerxtn  warblen  (Mniotillidael.  the 
latter  b^  toklv  t  New  Woiid  famny;  there  are  alio  s  tew 
ttnggkn  from  the  Neogaek  family  of  tanagen  CTanasridae). 
Among  game-bird*  the  turkeya  (ifdearru],  the  ruffed  rrouie 
(BaiHiM),  Ihe  prairte-gniMe  (l>ii«Ba(Iu,  or  Ctptdrmia),  the 
lage  cock  (CinlrscercNi).  Ihe  prariie^hichen  IPtiioralu),  and 
teveral  gctiera  of  the  American  panridgca  fOdontophorinae),  nch 
at  lopkorlrt  and  Onyi("  bob-while"),  may  be  cited  aacbaiVcteriaiic 
Nearetic  gronpa.  alitiough  lome  emend  larlher  uuth.    Turning  to 

diitingutahint  the  Nelrclic  Hibrcgion  (Icgelher  with  America 
geaeially)  from  Ihe  PalaraiTtic:  in  Ihe  more  lODthetn  lenitotxa 
we  also  enler  Ihe  domain  of  iguanat;  while  among  chtioniani  we 
have  the  family  of  anappen  (Cbelydridae),  Ibe  "  tlinh-pol  leirapina  ' 
(Cinoatemidae),  and  in  Ihe  Tesudlnidae  Ihe  boi-lortoiict  (CiUKia), 
and  the  terrapint  of  the  icDera  Ctrynmyi  and  Vnlacec/niiMy]  are 
iolely  American,  ahbougb  lome  «l  them  range  lar  Is  theaoulh. 
whik  dnriiv  Ihe  Pliocene  Ibe  Mappefa  weR  repreienied  in  Eimipe. 

amphibia,  bul  nnn  thraedR  lor  Ihe  moat  pe"  C™.™.n  :..  . 
ihey  maybe  betl  noticed  in  a  later  paraeraph. 

From  that  d  tht  Pabeamic  <-f  Medllerra — 
fauna  of  Ihe  Neatcilc  aubregion  (togethei 

much  of  (he  Sononn  area)  lehniadTy  di>tin„ 

of  bony-|nke(Lepidoiteidat1,  bow-fini  (Amudae).  eni! 
ol  Ihe  family  CatoKomatidae,  for  which  there  appcan  •»  » 
collective  Englith   name,  at  widl   as  by  Ihe  abaence  d  Ihe  I 
lamily  (Cobilidae),  and  barbels  (Alr»u)  amone  the  Cywrinidn 

The  Ian  of  the  toologicBl  provincra  into  which  the  1and-BU 
□I  the  f[labe  ia  divided  on  the  evidence  of  Ihe  diBlrrbution  of  mam 


rl  Sonomn  in  range, 
can)  aubregkHi  the  htl^ 
itinj^iihed  by  the  prcaeoce 


ie  Laije  Mammtli  of  North 


T»»fi3TKlALl 


irtmtM/oM'  ^^^K*'*  ^^  ^^  Other  ICB  luiiH  K  indvcl  ontidky  ft 
„gf  mixiiiitot  Near^k  ,iad  Ncotrofiial  typa  findialTe  ol 

Im  whoflv  ewmic  forms.  MftmipjalsBre  repmcninl  ^onauini 
(ZJiiUp^l,  and  inindilki*  by  Taliavi.  Peccirin  {Dtaljlti.  or 
"  TftfiUni  )  mftln  Ibrir  appeuincr,  but  Uk  Earb-antlirttl  deer 
(Vuiiih)  an  nuinly  of  (he  northern  lyne.  The  pronghom 
antelope,  rrpmenting  the  Cam>ly  AEiiilocnpndae,  nuy  be  regarded 
aa  mointy  aSonorantypeiand  (he  Kimenuy  bei^d  with  regard  to 
the  poelcet'gophen  (Geomvidac)  and  kaiuunofan  CHetcrDmyidae), 
■one  ol  (he  £<iKra  of  wttich  are  peculiar  to  (faii  Brca.  Aiddiib 
crkctjne  rail,  Rhiikroianiemys,  Sipnvtan  aj^  firofiUr  are  dianc- 
Uri^iically  Sonoran.  In  the  Carnivore  the  ttiree  genera  oT  trunks, 
ifrptiiis,  CtnrpaHa  and  Spilaealr  an  rrpreunted,  ai  aie  ilie 
three  raccoon  flvnera  Fraeyon^  jVoiiia  and  Bauanituti  (he  third 
in  each  cade  Being  mainly  c«afi[icd  to  (hii  xonc     Stahps  aad 

..... .u.  T -...^^  j„  almoM  eicluHvely  Sonmn, 

rrc  attain  their  mavmum  develofh 


ZOOtOCIGAI;  DISrBIBOTHWt 

Hit  otdn  him  cmc  iMo  tidMMM  at  mv  dUlt 
•da,  and  haw  adi  Ukiwed  (beir  own  bix  a 

who^      [d  the  raae  cf  the  oocc 
of  iaiponaiice  fan  be  salhercd  It 


TTK^^taiS^M'ani' 
er  in  China.    Amotlg 


_  ~..~ t  of  (he  genera  Crypotramhtt  (if  d^ 

tioni  the  Old  World  UtttltioMdm).  AmfitiBtt,  TypU*. 
"   ■  '  "'  """   "■■ '"h  StapbhpKS  and  eenakv 


_     ...    _..j(  the  worM  may  be  d!  ._ 

and  ft  uu(hcrn  half,  for  the  romier  ol  vhlch  tl 
ii  adapted.  lOiile  Notn^iea  ii  uied  for  (he  latti 
«ver.  be  much  better  if  entirely  new  termi  w 
Ihe  uae  of  the  former  In  a  feme  diSerent  froin  uiai  la  wiucb  uey 
arc  now  employed  ia  the  case  ol  iHnimalft  ii  loble  (o  create  coo- 
luiion.  H-xonea,  which  (in  thia  Rine)  Indode*  Aimalla.  Pnly- 
neiia  and  the  Nec^Tt>pical  rr^on,  la  cbuacteTiced  by  the  preieucc 
ol  (hat  family  ol  [rogi  known  ai  (he  CystignnhidiK.cniiblned  with 
rhe  preoonderance  ol  the  lection  Arrifera.  the  rTprcwntativei  ol 
whicR  larm  neatly  9D  per  cent,  of  the  Anum  (Imgi  and  toadij 
Inhabiting  thii  half  of  Ihe  globe.  An:tofaea.  on  the  other  hand, 
b  chatacterired  by  the  absence  of  Cyrtignathidae.  and  ii  divitibte 
Into  two  main  provinces,  ur  regioni.  rt*pcclively  tenned  Penarclic 
and  Palarotropical.  or  these,  latter,  the  Penarcik-  province  is 
oharacteriiBd  by  (be  presence  of  salamarHfers  and  th^r  allies 
(Urodela).  which  arc  indeed  almost  pecuUar  to  the  am.  It  It 
dlvlsble  into  the  (0  WeMem  Pllaearctic,  (I)  Eastern  Pabcardic 
and  (3)  Nearctic  suhreRHHia,  ol  which  (he  first  two  apprmdmately 
correipiind  to  the  Palaearnlc  aibrecion  flms  the  MrdilerTanean 
traqiiioU'Eone  of  (iie  marnmaiian  ■cheme.  while  the  third  repre^ 
•end  the  combined  Nearctic  and  Sononn  areaa.  The  Pslaeo- 
Ettipital  region  has  few  salanandeTs  or  ricwta;  bur  povesaee 
eaecLlians  i;Apoda)  which  are  wanting  in  the  Pcriarctic,  and 
includes  the  Ethiopian,  Oriental.  Malansy  and  Austro-Mslayan 
area]  of  the  system  based  on  mamma  Man  distribution,  togetner 
«1(h  Melanesia.  Whether  (he  region  ihould  be  broken  up  in(o 
the  four  abovc-nanwd  division,  or  regarded  as  indivivble.  nuy  be 
er  d  opinion;  but  II  such  dlvnons  be  adopted,  they  haw 

_....  ..  ... j= .: .L.  (j^, — , 

evil! 
I^labie 


r  uibfamHv.    I(  li 
a  (be  aeological  pi 


Air  trgaida  rrptHes,  Dr  H^  Gadow  has  vntatked  thai  al 


be  prindpoi  i^oupa  occur  together 

nole  that  caitaant  ICaima*)  an  naiiictad  le'Neogaaa 
unmaSan  leaK);  whOa  the  lo^^o-— '  <?_.i.'.  ..a 

aRequall] '^-"-  -    "-  "-    -  ■ 

>  iil.(iie  pr 


-.-,- , ,  .^ ._^ An  iaipaf- 

taut  fea(un  in  (lie  pn«M  (UiIribulloB  of  chelaniani  is  the  reitrio- 
tion  ol  tJie  ncdon  Pkurodin  to  Ihe  aoutbvu  iieniiiiihcn  ^nclusiva 


^id  to  liardl  (lAifrliUii).  Dr  Cadow 

10  a  northern  an?T>outhern  half;  (hel^ril 

r  "lluu  the  Pa''  .       .     ! 


allit,  indicates  that  (be  Ophidia  ai 


now  impovcridied  IWacuclie 
ignnip^ter 


the  tn  [aiulUcs,  Btidu  Qhbs  and  pythons] 
kI  buRDving-UBKea).  which  alone  retain  vestiges  c 
Ir  aU  over  the  tn^  one,  while  tenain  anied 
d  in  portions  ol  the  sane.  Tho  ntticlian  of 
crinae)  tn  the  Pabeotrooical  and  Periarciic  arras 


SwIE^oiain  lactk 


SCrotalinael,  however,  nuy  perhaps  be  pmumed 
1  Ihe  Palaearetic  area,  whence  tliev  reached  ar 
America,  although  they  were  unable  to  cnler 

Afixa  aad  Irrdai^  iron  Madagascar.  Is 


a    lOp^geographical   BC.-.,.,. 

r  A.  C.  L.  C.  COnther.     According 
e  land-surjace  ol  Ihe  earth  Is  dividet' 


n  of  fishes,  both  frnh- 


andtheSoolhern.  ThcT* 


ancc  of  carpi   CCyprioida 

pllie  (Eaocidac).    This  10.  , , 

wesiern  ■ectlon.  In  the  fint.  fonniiw  the  Palaearcfic,  or  Europe. 
Aiiatic  regjon.  bony.pi1«iLcpidoM(idae)BR  lacking,  while  kiaebes 
(Cohiiidae)  and  barbels  (Sortrii)  abound  ,  In  the  second  sacdon, 


ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


1  Africa  ind  ScHidi  AmtricM,  >nd  ol 


tinvnii  oil  the  one  hMitA  and  AiotnT-ZnlaiKiia  and  ih 

cnremlEyof Soulh A<BerlcAOdt1hdOl1ivr.  AirmnlBthF' 
aurt  from  ttw  greater  divyocu,  ar  "rralma.  the  din 
tncK  ipiden  accordi  with  rtinarkabia  doicneaB  to  thai  at 
U  wc  tsapt  thr  motE  Inlimale  coasEidaa  iodiatetl  b> 
faimaa  at  ElbiopUa  Africa  aad  Madagaicar^ 

The  fact  that  the  generelly  uoplcd  scImbm  oC  divbion  of 
the  land-iuTface  oT  the  globe  into  loalogiai  lesiont  I>  baud 
alrnosi  entirely  upon  the  preteot  dUtribution  of  DuiDmali  i 
birdi  has  already  been  emphasucd.  It  la  perik^A  only  faji 
quote  the  vinn  of  Dc  A.  E.  Oitmann'  (who  hai  devoted  mi 
Mndy  to  (he  distilbution  of  animals],  although  they  by 
meaoa  whcUy  commeiid  themaclvc*  ID  the  prCKOt  writet: — 

"  (i)  Any  divi»on  el  the  unVi  aurface  Into  tfc-geomapdfcal 


ntiidi  e(  ihi(  Rhmc. 


ndering  in  origin,  miit.  —  _ 

Coniidcriitg  the  gwlo^i  dEVelajpinenl 
.,_ lunce  it  impduible  to 


Ste 


mliitaciaiy, 

deftlopmc 
t  imcduible 
j)lftdSth, 


D(  Oitminn  sddi  In 
i»o-geogtaphical  itudy  ■ 
biolo^^ — >A  ^  dcmonitr 


laler  patagnph,  "  tlM  cUtf  aim  of 
inuiti — aa  in  any  other  bnnch  of 
tion  oE  iu  geolofical  development." 


B  of  being  divided  in 


zoological  provir 


communication  wiih  one  another  in  the  soutbecn  hemisphcce 
ii  deariy  bioughC  out.  There  ia,  however,  tnore  thin  this; 
lor  iJitre  is  evidence  that  during  Ihe  early  part  of  the  Tertiaiy 
period  the  Pacific  and  the  Allantic  were  not  separated  by  the 
iilhiniK  of  Darieni  nhile  there  is  a  probabiUty  I)ut  the  Medi- 
tntanean  na>  at  one  time  in  communication  with  the  Red  Sea, 
and  that  other  omneEioiis  of  a  like  nature  have  existed. 

In  addition  to  this  general  community  of  the  marine  fauna 
of  the  world,  there  is  the  further  important  fact  that  such 
faunas  may  be  divided  into  three  main,  and  for  the  mou  part 
perfectly  distinct,  groups:  namely,  Ihe  littoral,  or  shallow  water, 
fausi,  Ihe  tbynal.  oi  deep.sea,  f&una,  and  the  pelagic,  or 
surface,  fauna.  Of  these  three  the  first  alone  is  really  auscep- 
Ijble  of  division  into  more  ot  less  iU-drfined  loological  regiona, 
tbe  other  two  bdnx  practially  uniform  in  character.  More. 
[1.140. 


flUMMI 

over,  tlwK  three  faunas  are  tor  the  molt  p«rt  perfectly  wdl 
dehncd;  the  pelagic  being  very  aharply  sundered  from  the 
abyssal,  although  there  may  in  certain  '•^*' ■■***■  be  a  tendeuy 
for  tbe  Uttont  to  merge  locally  into  the  abyssal.  At  regards 
the  sharp  demartalion  between  the  pelagic  and  the  abysksi 
faunas,  an  idea  was  formerly  current  that  whalca.  which  are 

abyssal  dquhs  in  the  oceatu  A  momen 
the  absordity  of  such  a  suppo»tion;  f 
animal  could  poi&ibly  support  tbe  enon 
at  great  deptha,  which  would  cmh  in  tb 
dence  ol  this  is  afforded  by  the  fact  that 
to  the  surface  from  great  depths  their 
broken  to  pieces  by  the  removal  of  the 
their  seal™  


body-Civitie*.  Evi- 
Ffaen  fishes  are  brought 
Kdies  are  praclifaHy 
ormal  pressure,  ifhile 
■     ocketa. 


The  absolute  darlLnesi  prevailing  at  great  depths  would  h 
■DOIlier  bar  to  pebgic  inimsb  descending  to  the  ocean  ahyses. 
We  may  Bcojrdingly  regard  the  pelagic  and  the  abysial  faunas 
at  perfectly  distinct  and  widely  sundcied  from  one  another; 
as  widely  sundered  in  the  case  of  some  ^recics  aa  are  beings 
living  in  three^dimenson  space  fiom  these  (if  snch  there  be) 
inhabiting  spscc  of  four  or  more  dimensions. 

fishes,  live  at  the  grratnt  depthi  that  have  yet  been  reached  by 
the   dirdge.   and   Uie  infereDce  Ji — "    ■'■"   --  '"---  ------ 

occur  everywhere.   Tbe  general  rei 


It  the  f 


this  ia  that  cbey 
-' -'■- e  eaplora-     , 


lailna  ■^"a^lweS'.t  aft^ 


lo  ^CGtual  banitra 


depths  life  is  not  nearly  so  abundant  ai -r^..*  ..« 

since  representatives  of  all  clat*s  of  marine  invertebrates  arc  met 
srith  at  alt  depths,  this  poverty  pcobably  depends  mose  upon 
ccfllain  causes  affecting  the  composidoo  of  the  bottom  deports. 
and  the  degree  lo  which  the  botloiU'Water  is  provided  with  chemiril 
substances  necessary  for  animals,  rather  than  upon  conditioiu 
immediately  associated  with  depth.  (3)  There  is  reaHW  to  believe 
that  (be  fauna  of  "  Uue  water  is  chiefly  restricted  to  two  belts; 
one  St  fr  near  the  wifac*.  >nd  Ihe  other  near  the  hottoes.  tbe 
intervening  zone  b«ng  more  or  less  completely  devcad  of  iahabitaDik 
From  the  surface-sone  ■  continual  lam  of  organic  debris  b  f^ing 
to  (he  bottom,  which,  however,  in  the  case  of  Ihe  Ercaleal  depths 
nay  be  coniTJetely  dlisDlved  m  ifumuii.  U)  Al5ii>ugh  all  the 
chief  giouu  of  invenebrales  an  represented  in  the  abyssal  fauna 
their  relative  proportlans  are  unequal;  moIluK*.  crabs  and  anoelids 
bdnB.  at  a  rule,  scarce,  while  echlnodernu  and  sponges  preiiDminaie. 
Cs)  Depths  b^w  BM  fathoms  are  Inhabited  by  ■  pnciicuJK  unifons 
fauna,  the  genera  beiig  usually  cosmopolitan,  afibough  the  ipecies 
nsy  diner,  snd  be  represent^  by  allied  forms  in  >iaely  snndend 
areas.  (6)  The  abyssal  fauna,  so  far  as  Invenebntes  an  con- 
cerned, II  of  an  archaic  Iype_  as  compared  with  ahsUow-water 

to  be  mo«t  abundant  and  lo  attain  th^  msiimum  dineanons  iix 

j[|.  ._...!. —  ^a>  i_  jpiKral  character  the  abyssal  fauna 

et  wcT  water  In  polar  latitudes,  doubt' 

th  mal  life  mainly  depemk.  are  nearly 


p  -c  esceedingly  abundiuit;  t. .. ,. 

I  to  the  Turbinolidae.    Echinoasiiis 

1  isting  ordinal  groupti  sotne  of  the 

1  (  to  the  family  Aptocrinldac,  which 

.w.^.u  ,»  M»*.,u.....  w..-~pinent  during  the  Jurassic  epoch; 
id  somewhat  similar  niationihips  an  eahibiled  by  ankia  of  Ibe 
riKle-surs  [Ophiuroidea).  Very  noteworthy  b  the  great  develop- 
cnt  of  the  sea-cucumber  group  (Halothumidea),  and  Ekcwiie 
le  biiarre  fnims  aiiumed  by  same  of  its  abysal  rtprcvntalives. 
loHuKS.  however,  are  poorly  represented,  and  irii  not  improbable 
lai  cer^alopods  (nautilus  and  nttlefish  group)  are  wanting, 
ivalve*  of  the  venera  £«ia  and  i4ru  have,  however,  been  obtalatd 
onadapthoT i6,asofI.    Ump-ibtlla  (Brachiopods)srslikeBrlsc 


MARIIfQI 


ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


lois 


Coiiaid«nble  dii&:ul^  c»stt  ia  detenDiains  from  wbftt  depths 
fishes  are  dred^ped.  '*  Althoush  laanv  species  display  various  struc- 
tttral  peculiaritieSi  sucb  as  a  huge  nead,  or  an  attenuated  ribbon- 
like body,  while  special  phosphocescent  oigans  are  very  generally 
presentt  yet  deep-sea  fishes  as  a  whole  do  not  repcesent  an  ordinal 
or  sectional  group  by  themselves,  but  axe  drawn  from  a  number  of 
families*  certain  members  of  which  have  adapted  themselves  to  an 
abysaati  existe<M:e.  A  preponderance  of  representatives  of  the 
Camifies  Macniridae,  Ophidiidae  atid  ScorpeKdae  is,  however,  notice- 
able. 

Whether  lt|;ht  or  temperature  is  the  preix»tent  agency  in  regu- 
lating^ the  limitations  of  the  deep<6ea  fauna,  has  Iom  been  a  debated 
qtwstion.  It  may  be  noted  that  recf-buiMiiw  corus,  which  require 
an  average  tcmpenture  of  from  70*  to  75*  l^  and  one  which  never 
fails  below  68  ,  are  never  found  below  a  depth  of  ao  fathoms 
(lao  ft.)*  Nevertheless,  there  are  several  areas  where  a  tempera- 
ture of  from  70*  to  77*  obtains  to  depths  of  between  80  and 
100  fathoouk  It  as  further  remarkable  that  weli-chaxact^rhEed 
deep'sea  faunas  axe  locally  met  with  in  comparatively  shallow 
waters,  one  such  area  occurring  in  the  European  Atlantic  and  a 
seoood  in  the  Mediterrsnean,  where  they  live  within  th^  ioo«fathom 
aone.  Light,  which  was'  formerly  supposed  not  to  penetrate  to  a 
greater  depth  than  the  40  to  50  fathom-line,  has  also  been  regarded 
as  the  chief  agent  controlli^  vertical  distribution.  It  appears, 
however,  as  Prof.  Hcilprin  has  renmrked,  "  more  than  Ukeli^  that 
not  a  single  cause,  but  a  combination  of  causes,  is  operative  in 
bringing  about  the  general  results.  That  the  deep-sea  fauna  is  a 
fauna  m  darkness  must  be  admitted;  but  this  ia  so  from  the  nature 
of  the  case  rathier  than  a  matter  <A  choice  resting  with  the  animals 
oompoaii^  it." 

Alter  referring  to  the  fact  of  the  dissimilarity  between  tiie  faunas 
of  the  two  poles,  Dr  A.  E.  Ortroann,  in  a  paper  on  the  origin  of  the 
deep-sea  fauna,^  observes  that  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  each 
of  these  faunas  had  a  separate  origin,  "  the  north-polar  fauna  being 
a  derivate  of  the  old  McsoKoic  Mediterranean,  the  south-polar 
fauna  of  the  old  Pacific  fauna.  The  first  developed  alon^  the 
shores  of  the  northern  continents,  while  the  second  had  its  original 
home  on  the  shores  of  the  Antarctic  continent.  We  know  that 
there  is  a  strange  element  among  the  littoral  fauna  of  the  southern 
extremities  of  the  continents,  differing  entirely  from  the  arctic 
fauna,  and  we  cannot  but  think  that  this  is  a  remnant  of  the  old 
Tertiary  antarctic  fauna.  The  above  considerations  give  us  a 
threefold  origin  of  the  present  deep-sea  fauna' — (1)  An  ancient 
Mesozoic  (or  jpre-Tertiary)  constituent,  derived  from  a  transformed 
part  of  the  old  warm-water  fauna  of  the  deep  sea,  adapted  to  the 
changed  climatic  conditions,  it  is  clearly  autochthonous.  (2)  A 
more  modern,  immigrant.  Tertiary  constituent,  which  came  from 
the  north-polar  littoral  waters,  and  immigrated  into  the  deep  sea 
together  with  the  cool  water  (or  after  it  had  cookd).    This  element 

Eoes  ^ck  to  an  old  pre-Tertiary  stock  that  lived  in  the  warm 
ttoral  waters  of  the  old  Tethys  (Mediterranean  Sea),  but  as  a 
cool-water  fauna,  it  is  not  older  than  Tertiary.  (3)  Another  Te|v 
tiary  element,  corresponding  to  the  setsond  one.  but  belonging  to 
the  south  pole,  which  is  finally  to  be  trsced  back  to  the  warm 
waters  of  the  old  Pacific  Ocean  01  pre-Tertiary  times." 

The  surface,  or  pehieic,  fauna  contains  some  of  the  smallest  and 
actimlly  the  largest  of  all  living  animals,  for  among  its  members 
are  included  a  host  of  so-called  animalcufes  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  whales  on  the  other.  The  essential  char- 
!^  acteristfc  of  pelagic  animals  Is  that  they  pass  the  whole 
of  their  existence  swimming  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the 
ocean,  and  only  by  accident  touch  the  i^hores  or  the  bottom.  Much 
information  with  regard  to  the  smaller  pelagic  creatures  will  be 
found  in  the  article  Plakkton.  Among  the  groups  included  in  the 
pelagic  fauna  may  be  mentioned  the  radiolarian  animalcules, 
together  with  certain  representatives  of  the  Foramlnifera ;  the 
siphon-bearing  jelly-fishes,  such  as  jPAyso/m  (I^wttiguese  man-of-war), 
VekUa,  Por^Ua^  &c.;  all  the  pteropod  molluscs,  such  as  Clio, 
Clione  and  Cavelinia  (Hyalaea),  together  with  less  aberrant  gas- 
tropods, like  Janthina  (violet-snail),  Atlanta  and  Glaucus;  a  lew 
cephatopodous  molluscs,  such  as  the  paper-nautilus  (Arionai^) 
and  Spinda,  and  a  number  of  social  aacidians,  like  So/pa  and 
Pywosmna.  Crustaceans  belonging  to  the  cntomostracous  (shelled) 
and  schizopod  divisions  abound;  and  there  is  a  group  of  insects 
{JJalobaUs),  belonging  to  the  order  Hemiptera,  whose  home  is  on 
the  ocean-surface  at,  practically,  any  distance  from  land.  Fishes 
form  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  pelagic  fanna.  among  these 
being  the  true  flying-fishes,  or  flying-herrings  {Exocoetus),  herrings, 
mackerel,  tunny,  flying-ffurnards  (Dactylopiera),  sword-fishes  {Jiutto- 
phorus),  sea-horses  (Hippocampus),  pipe-fishes  (Fistularia)  and 
many  of  the  sharks,  with  the  exception  of  the  comparattvelv 
few  flttvtatile  species,  the  whole  of  the  cetacean  mammals— that  is 
to  say,  whales,  granipuses,  porpoises,  dolphins,  &c. — claim  a  place 
among  the  sortace-fauna  of  the  ocean.  Whether  the  sea-cows 
(Sirenia)  should  likewise  be  included  is  doubtful,  as  they  hold  a 
somewhat  intermediate  position  in  regard  to  habits  between  ceta- 
ceans and  seals.  While  they  agree  with  the  former  in  never  (or 
very  rarely)  landing  and  in  bringing  forth  their  young  at  sea,  thiey 

*'iUp.  Eighlh  IiUemaHenal  GeograpkU  Conf^tss^  p.  619.  . 


Tbt 


come  iaahon  to  feed.  Turtles  ecrtaiflly  caanot  be  considered  truly 
pelagic,  since  they  come  ashore  to  lay  their  eggs. 

A  large  prof)ortion  of  the  smaller  pelagic  animais  are  more  or 
less  completely  transparent,  while  others,  such  as  the  vtolet-snaH, 
have  developed  an  azure  tint  which  rendera  them  as  incon^Mcuous 
as  possible  ia  the  waste  of  waters.  In  the  case  of  the  larger  animals, 
like  mackerel  and  the  finner-whales,  the  same  result  Is  attained  by 
the  under  surface  of  the  body  being  silvery  white  (thus  rendering 
them  invisible  when  looked  at  from  bek>w  against  the  sky),  and  the 
upper  surface  olive  or  blackish  green,  sometimes,  as  in  themackerel, 
mottled  to  harmonize  with  the  ripple  of  the  waves. 

The  distribution  of  whales  ana  dolphins  has  been  taken  by  P.  L. 
and  W.  L.  Sclater  to  some  extent  as  a  baris  in  dividing  the  oceaa 
Sifto  soological  regionai  Since,  however,  such  regbns  were  mainly 
defined  on  the  distributional  evidence  afforded  by  seals  and  sea- 
cows,  they  are  best  considered  in  connexioo  with  the  shallow- 
water  fauna. 

The  shallow-water,  or  littoral,  fauna  includes  all  marine  animals 
which  belong  neither  to  the  deep-sea  nor  to  the  surface  fauna,  and 
is  the  most  important  of  all  three.    In  addition  to  the  _ .  ... 
.great  bulk  of  marine  invertebrates,  the  littoral  fauna  l^'_^ 
may  be  taken  to  include  the  reef-building  corals  (whose  7Z^ 
distributjonal  limiutions  under  the  influence  of  tempera-  '""'*' 
ture-<ootrol  have  been  already  nsentioned)  and  likewise  seak  and 
sea-cows  among  mammals,  and  turtles  among  reptiles. 

*'  The  fauna  of  the  coast."  observes  Prof.  H.  N.  Moseley,  "  has 
not  only  given  origin  to  the  terrestrial  and  fresh-water  faunas,  it 
has  through  all  time,  since  life  originated,  given  additions  to  the 
pelagic  fauna  in  return  for  having  received  from  it  its  starting- 
point.  It  has  also  received  some  «  thesepelagic  forms  back  again 
to  assume  a  fresh  littoral  existence.  The  terrestrial  fauna  has 
returned  some  forms  to  the  shores,  such  as  certain  shore-birds, 
seals  and  the  polar  bear;  and  some  of  these,  such  as  the  whales 
and  a  small  oceanic  insect  (HalobaUs),  have  returned  thence  to 
pelapc  life. 

"  Tl^  deep-sea  fauna  has  probably  been  fwmcd  almost  entirely 
from  tne  littoral,  not  in  most  remote  antiquity,  but  only  after 
food,  derived  from  the  d6bris  of  the  littoral  and  terrestrial  faunas 
and  floras,  became  abundant  in  deep  water.  It  was  in  the  littoral 
region  that  all  the  primary  branches  of  the  zoological  family-tree 
were  formed :  all  terrestrial-and  deep-sea  forms  have  passed  through, 
a  littoral  phase,  and  amongst  the'  representatives  of  the  littoral' 
fauna  the  recapitulative  history,  in  the  form  of  series  of  larval 
conditions,  is  most  completely  retained." 

From  the  distribution  of  certain  groups  of  animals, 
it  has  been  attempted  (as  stated)  to  divide  the  ocean 
into  a   number   of   zoological    provinces,    or   regions. 
Among  the  more  important  of  sucb  schemes,  the  fdlowing  may  be 
mentioned. 

The  reef-building  corals,  whose  limitations  are  defined  by  con* 
ditions  of  temperature  and  depth,  are  necessarily  restricted  to 
certain  seas  and  coasts  within  or  near  the  tropics.  ^  _, 
"  They  abound,"  wrote  Dr  A.  R.  Wallace  in  the  ninth  zS... 
edition  of  the  present  work,  "  in  and  near  the  VVest  '^*"* 
Indies,  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  in  the 
Malay  and  Pacific  archipelagoes,  and  on  the  co.'ist  of  Australia; 
while  they  are  absent  from  the  whole  of  the  west  coasts  of  South 
America  and  of  Africa,  from  the  Indianpeninsula,  and  from  much 
of  the  east  coast  of  South  America.  Tne  coral-reefs  of  the  Ber> 
mudas,  in  33**  N.  lat.,  are  the  farthest  from  the  equator;  in  the 
Red  Sea  they  reach  30*  N.,  in  the  Pacific  27"  N.,  while  they  nowhere 
extend  to  more  than  29*  S.  of  the  equator.  .  .  .  The  coral  regions 
are  therefore  somewhat  peculiar,  and  differ  considerably  from  those 
which  best  exhibit  the  distribution  of  other  marine  animals.  The 
regions  adopted  by  Prof.  J.  D.  Dana  are  three — the  first  Com- 
pnsing  the  Red  S^  and  Indian  Ocean;  the  second,  the  whole  of 
the  Pacific  islands  and  the  adjacent  coasts  of  Australia;  and  the 
third  the  West  Indies.  This  last  region  is  the  most  isolated  in 
position ;  and  it  is  not  iurpristngthat  it  should  contain  the  largest 
proponion  of  peculiar  forms.  The  corals  of  the  Central  Pacific 
are  also  very  peculiar,  as  are  those  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Indian 
Ocean." 

Prof.  J.  D.  Dana*  proposed  to  divide  the  oceans  into  three  main 
areas  according  to  the  distribution  of  Crustacea.    These  areas  are 
respectively  termed  the  Occidental,  the  Africo-European      cmf 
ana  the  Oriental.    The  first  comprises  both  coasts  of      ^^^ 
America  I  the  second,  the  western  snores  of  the  Atbntic,      ^^. 
both  Afncan  and  European ;  while  the  third  comprehends      'Wn* 
the  vast  area  from  the  east  coast  of  Africa  to  the  Central  Pacific. 
Each  of  these  regions  is  subdivided  into  climatal  and  local  provinces 
but  the  primary  divisions  can  alone  be  mentioned  here.     The 
facts  adduced  in  support  of  this  scheme  of  distribution  are  interest- 
ing.   At  the  date  ot  Prof.  Dana's  memoir  47  genera  were  known 
to  be  exclusively  American,  15  being  common  to  both  the  east 
and  west  coasts;  but  as  36  genera  were  said  to  be  confined  to  the 
west  and  6  to  the  east  coast,  these  two  provinces  are  really  distinct, 
even  if  they  do  not  form  primary  regions.    The  Afrieo^EufOpenn 
region  had  19  peculiar  genera,  and  only  8  in  common  with  the 

'See  MaMK.  Jmm,  Soimtft  ter.  a*  vol*  anri.  p.  155  (1853). 


ioi6 


ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


ON  HUB 


Amefkaii  regflon;  lo  that  tke  entern  and  wcitero  shofca  of  the 
Atlahtic  appear  decidedly  more  distinct  than  the  eastern  and 
irertem  coasta  of  America.  The  extensive  Oriental  region  is  by 
far  the  richest. 

From  the  distribution  of  the  species  (not  geneia)  of  bamades, 
or  cirrhipeds,  which  are  an  abenant  group  of  Cmstaoca,  Darwin 
considered  that  the  ocean  might  be  divided  into  the  following 
tegions.  viz.: — (i)  The  North  Atlantic,  comprising  North  America 
and  Europe  down  to  N.  lat.  3/0*  «  (3)  The  West  American,  from 
Bering  Strait  to  Ticna  del  Fuego;  (3)  The  Malayan,  from  Imlia 
to  New  Guinea,  and  (4)  The  Australian,  comprising  Australia  and 
New  Zealand;  the  Malayan  and  Australian  regions  being  the 
richest  in  cirrhipeds. 

One  of  the  earliest  students  of  the  geographical  distribution  of 
marine  animals  was  Dr  S.  P.  Woodward,  who,  in  his  Manual  of 
the  UoUnseat  proposed  a  scheme  of  sto-geographical 


regions.  He  adopted  three  main  divisions  for  tha 
warmer  parts  t>f  Uie  ocean,  namely,  the  Atlantic,  the 
Indo-Pscific  and  the  West  American;  and  these  Wallace  was 
inclined  to  regard  as  the  onlv  valid  marine  molluscan  regions, 
llic  Indo-Pacific  region  extends  from  the  Red  Sea  and  the  east 
coast  cf  Africa  to  the  eastern  Pacific  islands,  and  corresponds  to 
prof.  Dana's  Oriental  region  for  Crustacea,  many  species  ranging 
over  nearly  the  whole  area.  The  AtlantK  region  unites  the  fauna 
of  the  east  coast  of  America  with  that  of  West  Africa  and  South 
Europe,  but  has  considerable  affinity  with  that  of  West  America, 
many  genera  being  common  to  both  areas.  Several  eenera  appear 
restricted  to  the  north  temperate  zone,  ^ich  in  Wallace's  opinion 
should  perhaps  form  a  distinct  region.  Numerous  genera  are  con« 
fined  to  the  Indo-Pacific  region.  The  Atlantic  coasts  have  few 
peculiar  genera  of  importance,  white  the  west  coast  of  America 
nas  hardly  any.  the  diftcfcncc  of  its  fauna  from  that  of  the  Atlantic 
on  the  one  ride  and  the  Pacific  on  the  other  being  chiefly  specific. 
It  is  stated  that  while  there  is  not  a  single  species  common  to  the 
east  and  west  coasts  of  tropical  South  Amenca,  the  corresponding 
coasts  of  North  America  have  a  large  number  in  common,  while 
others  are  so  closely  representative  as  to  be  almost  identical. 

Inclusive  of  an  Arctic  province  of  somewhat  doubtful  vahie, 
Dr  Woodward's  three  main  regions  were  divided  into  18  sub- 
regions;  but,  according  to  a  somewhat  modified  later  scheme, 
these  may  be  arranged  in  four  main  groups,  as  follows : — 


/I.Atlantic 
and  CiR- 

CUMPOLAX 


B.  Indo- 
Pacific 


SubRsiooik 


1.  Arctic 

2.  Boreal. 

3.  Celtic. 

4.  Lusitanbn. 

5.  W.  African. 

6.  S.  African. 


{ 


1.  Indo-Pacific. 

2.  Japanese. 


C.  Australian 


D.  Ambucan  . 


SubnsioDS. 


{ 


1.  Australian. 

2.  Neozcalanian. 


'I.  Aleutian. 
3.  Californian. 
3.  Panamic 
j  4.  Peruvian. . 

t.  Magellanic 
.  Argentinian. 
7.  Caribbean. 
.3.  Transatlantic. 


Pish  Regions. — From  the  distribution  of  shore-haunting  fishes* 
Dr  A.  C.  L.  C.  GQnthcr  ^  suggested  the  following  marine  zoological 
regions,  the  characteristic  family  amj  generic  tyjpn  of  which  we 
«tt  prevented  by  limitations  of  space  from  discussing  >-• 

I.  Arctic  Ocean. 
II.  Northern  Temperate  Zone. 

A.  Temperate  N.  Atlantic 

1.  British  district. 

2.  Mediterranean  district. 

3.  N.  American  district. 

B.  Temperate  N.  Pacific 

1.  Kamchatkan  district. 

2.  Japanese  district. 

3.  Californian  district. 
ni.  Equatorial  Zone. 

A.  Tropical  Atlantic 
Tropical  Indo-Pacific 
Paafic  Coast  of  Tropical  America. 

1.  Central  American  district. 

2.  Galapagos  district. 

3.  Peruvian  district. 
Southern  Temperate  Zone. 

1.  Cape  of  Good  Hope  district. 

2.  South  Australian  district. 

3.  Chilean  district. 

4.  Patagonian  district. 
V.  Antarctic  Ocean, 

llafimtalMiw  Segicns. — ^The  last  scheme  of  marine  aoolodcal 

eMis  necessary  to  mention  is  one  proposed  by  P.  L.  and  W.  L. 
tar*  on  the  distributional  evidence  affoidcd  by  seals,  sea-cows 


B. 
C. 


IV. 


*  See  Study  of  Fishes  (London,  1880). 

•  The  dography  of  M^mmaU  (Loodoiw  iSwK 


and  cetaooint^     Aeoording  to  tkia,  «re  hmvp,  die  fotlowng  six 
regions,  viz.  :~- 

(i)  Arcutlantica  (North  Atlantic),  characteriaed  by  the  pre- 
sence of  seals  of  the  subfamoy  Phormmi,  with  the  fpatn 
Htlidtoerms  pecniiar  to  it,  and  Pktca  coomoa  to  it  and 
No.  iv.;  the  absence  of  sea-cows;  and  ^  ia  stated)  by 
the  bottle-noeed  whales  (fiyperdodom)  beiaf  peculiar  to 
this  area. 
fii)  Mcsatlantica  (Mid  Atlantk),  the  sole  habitat  d  the  monk- 
seal  iMonachus)  and  the  manatis  (ifaiM/M). 
(iil)  Phllopclagica  (Indian  Ocean,  Ac),  characterized  by  the 

prnence  of  dugongs  and  the  absence  of  seals, 
(iv)  Arctirenia  (North  racific),  aprBctnc  with  Not.  i.  in  die  pa»> 
session  of-  Phoca  bat  distmguisbed  by  also  faaviac  sbsp 
bean  and  sea-lions  (Olzn«da«);    formcriy  the  iiabiut  el 
the  northern  sea-cow  (iUy(Ma),  and  now  of  the  grey 
whale  (Rhachnanectes). 
(v)  M.esirenia  (Mid  Pacific),  without  Phocmae  or  na-eowi,  but 
with  the  elephant-«eat  (JtfbcrorJktmM),  from  the  south, 
and  also  Okundae. 
(vi)  Notopelagica  (Southern  Ocean),  with  four  peculiar  genera 
of   seals   iPhoeidae)t  nomerods  sea-bean  and  sea-lions, 
and  two  peculiar  genera  of  cetaceans,  the  pigmy-whale 
(Neobttiaena)  and  Arnoux's  beaked-«4iale  (Bcrartfttu). 
To  explain  the  absence  of  sea-bean  and  soa-Eons  from  the  Noith 
Atlantic,  and  likewise  the  existence  of  manatis  on  both  Atlantic 
coasts,  the  authon  of  this  scheme  call  in  the  aid  of  a  laad-coa- 
nexion  between  Africa  and  South  America,  which  presented  a 
barrier  to  the  northward  progress  of  the  fonner,  white  its  coasts 
afforded  a  means  of  dispersal  to  the  latter.    As  the  Oiorttdoe  are 
at  present  unknown  previous  to  the  Miocene,  such  an  explanation, 
if  valkl,  requires  the  perristence  of  the  ancient  land-bridge  across 
the  Atlantic  to  a  much  later  date  than  is  commonly  supposed. 

in.  DiSTRlBimON  tN  TOfE 

The  subject  of  the  cfistribution  oi  animals  in  time,  s.e.  the 
relative  dates  of  their  first  appearance  on  the  earth,  and  in  the 
case  of  extinct  forms  the  length  of  their  sojourn  there,  can  be 
treated  but  briefly,  referenoe  being  restricted  to  the  larger 
groups,  and  not  even  all  of  these  being  mentioaecL  The  dales 
of  appearance  and  disappearance  of  the  various  groups  are 
only  relative,  for  although  many  more  or  less  vague  attempts 
have  been  made  to  determine  the  age  of  the  earth,  there  is  no 
possibility  of  indicating  in  yeara  the  length  of  time  occupied 
by  the  deposition  of  any  one  stratum  or  scries  of  strata.  All 
that  can  be  attempted  is  to  say  that  one  stratum  (and  conse- 
quently the  remains  of  animals  that  may  be  entombed  in  it) 
is  older  or  3roiinger,  as  the  case  may  be,  than  another.  For  the 
sequence  and  names  of  the  various  strata,  or  time-periods  of 
the  geological  record,  see  Geology.  Aq  important  factor  in 
regard  to  the  past  history  of  animals  is  the  imperfection  of  the 
ge<riogical  record.  Recent  discoveries  have  rendered  this  inr 
perfection  much  less  marked  than  was  formeriy  the  case. 
There  are,  however,  still  many  very  serious  gaps;  and  we 
have,  for  instance,  no  definite  informaUon  as  to  where  and 
when  the  transformation  frcmi  reptiles  into  mwnmals  took 
place. 

It  may  nevertheless  be  emphatically  affirmed  that  the  geo- 
logical, or  rather  the  palaeontological,  record  indicates  a  gradual 
progrcsdon  in  the  status  of  animals  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest 
fossillferous  strata.  That  is  to  say,  the  earlier  animals  were 
creatures  of  comparatively  low  grade  (although  certain  repre- 
sentatives of  such  groups  may  have  attained  a  relatively  high 
degree  of  specializad[iQn),  and  that  as  we  asccml  the  geologiol 
ladder  bi^er  and  higher  types  of  animals  make  their  appearance, 
till  the  series  culminates  in  man  himself— the  crowning  effort 
of  cneation,  in  the  modem  evolutionary  signification  of  that 
term.  It  is  not,  indeed,  to  be  supposed  that  the  higher  groups 
made  their  appearance  exactly  according  to  their  relative 
grades  (or  what  we  regard  as  such);  all  that  can  be  affirmed  is 
that  in  the  maun  the  higher  forms  have  made  their  appearance 
later  than  the  lower.  The  record  is  thus  almost  OMchy  what 
it  might  be  expected  to  be  on  the  theory  of  evolution;  while 
it  also  accords  fairly  well — if  regarded  with  sufficient  breadth 
of  view — with  the  Biblical  narrative  of  creation. 

A  brief  survey  of  the  time-distribution  oC  the  leading  groupa 
of  animals  may  now  be  tindertaken,  commencing  with  the  hi| 
and  concluding  with  the  lowest  groups. 


IN  TIME] 


ZOOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


1017 


At  tbs  higliat  of  all  vwtebrates.  it  is  natural  to  expect  that 
maaaoaals  should  be  one  oC  the  tateet  groufw  of  that  aiwmblafe 
MMtH  Mim.  ^  tnaice  their  appearance;  anicl  this  as  a  Inatter  of  fact 
mmmmsm,  ^^  ^^^  although  it  la  by  no  UMans  improbable  that 
birds  are  the  latest  of  all.  Mammals  are  commonly  stated  to 
commence  in  the  Trias,  where  they  are  pcesmned  to  be  repre- 
sented by  MicrotnUs  in  Europe  and  by  utMiatkenum  in  North 
America.  From  the  fact,  however,  that  the  approximately  con- 
temporary TritylodaHt  which  has  cheek-teeth  veiy  -tike  those  of 
the  fora\er,  appears  to  be  in  great  degiee  intermediate  between 
reptiles  and  mammals,  it  b  by  no  means  improbable  that  none 
of  these  Triassic  creatures  were  true  mammals.  Undoubted 
mammals  occur  in  the  lower  Jurassic  Stonesfield  Slate,  in  the 
upper  Itttassic  Permian  beds,  and,  very  sparingly,  In  the  Wealden 
of  England ;  while  a  large  fauna  has  been  discovered  id  the  upper 
Cretaceous  of  North  America.  The  mamroab  included  among 
these  Mesozoic  forms  appear,  for  the  mpst  part  at  any  rate,  to  be 
referable  to  the  Marsupialia,  Insectivoia,  and,  not  improbably, 
the  Monotremata  (see  MARSunALiA).  After  the  lowest  Eocene 
(when  the  Puerco  fauna  represented  an  inferior  and  apiparently 
non-progressive  tvpe)  mammals  became  abundant;  and  during 
that  epoch  most  it  not  all  of  the  existing  orders  made  their  appear- 
ance. The  lower  Eocene  representatives  of  several  of  the  ordera, 
such  as  the  Condylarthra  among  the  Ungulata  and  the  Creodonta 
among  Carnivora,  belonged,  however,  to  low  suborders  which  dis> 
appeared  more  or  less  completely  by  the  Oligocene.  Several  sub- 
orainal  groups  of  Ungulata  developed  and  became  extinct  at  later 
periods  than  the  Eocene;  but  with  the  exception  of  the  Ancylo- 
poda  and  Ttllodontia  (whose  right  to  ordinal  distinction  is  by  no 
means  universally  admitted),  none  of  the  Tertiary  orders  of  mammals 
are  extinct.  At  the  present  day — as  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  Tertiary  epocb— mammals  are  the  dominant  terrestrial  repre- 
sentatives of  tnc  Vertebrata.  We  have  at  present  no  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  Cretacca  before  the  lower  Eocene. 

Although  some  of  the  thrcc-toed  bipedal  tracks  in  the  Trias  of 
the  Connecticut  valley  were  formeriv  supposed  to  have  been  made 
nr-j.  by  birds,  there  is  little  doubt  that  they  are  really  due 

'^^^*  ^  to  dinosaurian  reptiles.  The  class  Avcs,  so  far  as  we 
know.  Is  therefore  first  represented  by  the  long-tailed  Archaeo- 
fleryx  of  the  upper  Jurassic,  which  represents  a  subclass  (or  order) 
by  itseH.  Tootned  birds  also  existed  in  the  upper  Cretaceous  of 
both  Europe  and  North  America,  but  all  these  appear  referable 
to  existing  ordinal  (or  subordtnal)  groups.  By  the  lower  Eocene, 
when  tcetn  appear  to  have  been  entirely  lost,  most  or  all  of  the 
existing  ordinal  groups  were  developed,  since  which  date  the 
majority  at  all  events  nave  steadily  increased. 

In  contradistinction  to  both  the  preceding  classes,  reptiles,  which 
date  from  the  Permian,  are  a  waning  ^up,  at  all  events  so  far 
asmtikm.  ^^  ^^^  terrestrial  and  maruie  forms  <rf  large  bodily 
•"'^■'  size  are  concerned.  The  Permian  reptiles  were  small 
or  medium-«ieed  creatures,  few  In  number,  and  of  generalized 
character.  The  one  existing  order  dating  from  that  epoch  (when 
it  was  represented  by  Protorosaurus)  is  the  Rhynchocephalm,  of 
which  the  sole  survivor  is  the  New  Zealand  tuatara  (Sphenodon). 
The  Mesozoic  period,  from  the  Trias  to  the  (Thalk,  is-the  true  *'  aee 
of  reptiles,"  a  number  of  orders  being  confined  to  that  period.  It 
is  noteworthy,  liowever,  that  the  Tnasac  forms  wens  In  the  case 
of  the  marine  groups  very  generally  of  small  size,  and  apparently 
amphibious,  or  perhaps  freshwater.  Of  the  various  extinct  Meso- 
zoic orders,  the  Dinosauria,  as  demonstrated  by  their  footprints 
in  the  sandstone  of  the  Connecticut  valley,  were  reproented  by 
species  of  huge  size  even  In  the  Trias.  Tne  other  oetlnct  orders 
whose  distribution  was  approximately  coequal  with  the  Mesozoic 
period  were  the  ichthyosaurs  (Ichtnyopterygia),  the  pleslosaurs 
^uropterygia),  and  the  pterodactyles  (Ornitlioeauna).  The 
Chelonta  and  Crocodilia  (if  we  include  the  Pbytosaucu)  date  from 
the  Trias,  but  are  also  dominant  forms  at  the  piuent  day.  Bat 
the  raammal*like  Anoroodontia  (Tberomorpha).  which  ranged  from 
South  Africa  to  India  and  Russia,  were  solely  Triassic.  The 
Squamata,  Including  lizards  and  snakes,  together  with  the  extinct 
Cretaceous  Pythonomorpha  (Mcsassurks,  «c.),  <fid  not  cone  into 
being  till  the  upper  Jurassic,  or  kwcr  Cretaceoua,  and  constitute 
the  great  bulk  of  the  existing  members  of  the  class. 

Batrachia.  as  represented  by  the  kd>yrinthodonts,  or  Stego- 
cephalia,  carry  the  origin  of  vertebrates  one  stage  further  back, 
namely,  to  the  upper  Carboniferous*  The  stegocephalians, 
which  appear  to^have  included  the  aticestotls  m  the  anomo- 
,  dont  reptiles,  died  out  at  the  close  of  the  Triassic  epoch. 
The  existing  repteaentatives  of  the  class  date,  so  faf  as  is  known, 
only  from  the  Tertiary,  but  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  limbless 
caecilians  (Apoda)  may  really  be  much  older,  dace  they  appear 
to  be  related  to  the  St^ocephalia. 

The  class  Pisces  is  the  lowest  and  at  the  same  time  the  oldest 
representative  of  the  Vertebrata.  datingfrom  the  lower  Ludlow 
Pl^l  beds  of  the  upper  Silurian.    The  oldest  |[roup  is  that 

of  the  sharks  and  rays  (Elasmobranchii),  in  which  the 
orders  Pleuropterygii,  Ichthyotomi  and  Acanthodii  are  confined 
to  the  Palaeozoic  The  lunji-fishes  (Dipnoi)  are  also  an  ancient 
group,  although  surviving  ui  the  form  of  three  genera  widely 


biaat. 


sunderBd  in  apaoe;  the  order  AtArodiim  (a*  represented  by  CoC' 
C0$Uu$  of  the  Devonian)  was  solely  Palaeozoic.  Of  the  subclass 
Teleostomi,  the  fringe-finned  group  (Crossoptery^i)  attained  its 
maximum  «n  the  Palaeozoic,  although  it  survives  in  the  shape  of 
two  African  genera,  la  tlie  case  ««  the  subclass  Teleostomi  the 
ciuunel-scaksa,  or  ganoid,  division  was  abundant  during  the  Palaeo- 
aoic  and  early  Mesozoic  periods  (and  stiU  survives  in  North  America), 
but  the  modern  soft-scaled  bony  fishes  did  not  make  their  appear- 
ance till  the  Cretaceous,  or  thereabouts. 

Of  the  class  Agnatha,  as  typified  by  the  modern  lampreys,  the 
palaeontokigical  record  is  very  imperfect.    There  is,  however,  an 

armoured  subclass,   the  Ostracodermi,  represented  by  ,      

Ptericktkys:  Cephalaspis,  &c.,  which  was  confined  to  the  "•A'VS. 
upper  Silurian  and  C)evoniaa;  and  Paiaeospondylus  of  the  Devonian 
haa  been  rcvarded  as  an  early  lamprey  (Cyctostoroi).  Whether 
the  so<alled  conodonts,  ranging  from  the  upper  Cambrian  to  the 
Carboniferous,  are  really  toeui  m  lampreys,  has  not  been  definitely 
ascertained. 

The  lamp-shells,  or  Brachiopoda,  form  an  exceedingly  ancient 
group,  dating  from  the  lower  Cambrian,  and  surviving  at  the 
present  day,  although  in  greatly  diminished  numbers  com- 
pared to  the  Palaeozoic  epoch,  when  they  far  surpassed 
the  now  dominant  bivalve  molluscs.  The  group  attained 
its  maximum  in  the  Silurian,  when,  as  in  the  Palaeozoic  genera, 
nearly  all  the  forms  belonged  to  the  hingelcss  section.  With  the 
bei^inning  of  the  Mesozoic  period  the  waning  of  the  brachiopods, 
which  had  aet  in  with  the  Devonian,  became  more  pronounced, 
and  was  continued  throughout  the  Mesozoic  formations.  A  remark- 
able feature  is  the  survival  to  the  present  day  of  the  Cambrian 
genera  Ungulat  IHs€inia  and  Crania  (or  closely  allied  types). 

The  Polyzoa,  of  which'  the  sea-mats  {Flustra)  are  well-known 
representatives,  date  from  the  Ordovician ;  the  Palaeozoic  fu^o^.^. 
forma  belonginjg  almost  exclusively  to  the  section  Cydo-  '^v^**" 
stomata,  which  attained  its  maximum  in  the  Jurassic;  while  the 
dominant  modem  Chilostomata  came  in  with  the  Tertiary. 

The  Mollusca,  of  which  the  great  bulk  are  marine  and  the  majority 
of  the  remainder  freshwater,  are  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all 
fossils  from  the  chronological  powt  of  view.  Since  the  miti^^t. 
three  principal  classes  (Pelecypoda,  Gastropoda  and  \  '■•■■'**■• 
Cephalopoda^  are  represented  in  the  upper  Cambrian,  it  is  evident 
that  the  origin  oS  the  group  was  much  earlier.  In  the  Palaeozoic 
the  chambered  cephalopods  of  the  section  Tetrabranchiata  (now 
represented  by  the  nautilus)  were  the  dominant  forms;  the  bivalves 
(Pelecypoda)  and  gastropods  showing  a  rebtively  poor  develcn>- 
ment.  The  tetrabranchiate  cephalopods  continoea  tnroughout  the 
Mesozoic.  when  they  were  specially  represented  by  the  ammonites; 
but  by  the  Tertiary  they  had  become  almost  extinct.  The  section 
Dibranchiata  (cuttle-fishes)  commenced  with  the  Mesozoic.  The 
bivalves  and  gastropods  have  shown  a  steady  increase  to  the  present 
day,  and  are  now  the  dominant  forma. 

Insects  date  from  the  Ordovician  ^ptolite-slates  of  Sweden, 
where  they  are  represented  by  Protoamex;  the  next  oldest  being 
PaiaeoUatHna  of  the  French  upper  Silurian.  From  the  immaetm 
Devonian  about  a  dozen  forms  are  known,  belonging  «"**''*• 
to  several  groups;  and  from  the  Coal-measures  extensive  insect- 
faunas  have  been  described.  All  the  Palaeozoic  forms  laclc  most 
of'  the  distinctive  features  by  which  the  modern  gtoupa  are  c^r- 
acterized,  the  majority  of  them  showing  Idiiship  to  the  cockroach 
group. 

The  Myriapoda  (centipedes  and  millipedes)  are  of  comparatively 
little  importance  as  f oseifs.   The  class  dates  from  the  DevMiian,  and 
is  abundant  in  the  Coal-menaurea;  the  Palacoamc  forms      a..^- 
for  the  most  representing  two  orders— Archipolypdda     !!j[I! 
and  Protosyngnatha— peculiar  to  that  peiiod,  ci  which     '*^* 
the  second  has  only  a  single  known  epeciea.   The  modera  centipedes 
(Chilopoda)  date  mainly  from  the  Tertiary,  although  several  Car- 
bonirerous  genera  have  been  assigned  to  the  groap^     Millipedes 
(Diplopodafi  although  known  from  the  Cretaceous  ol  Greenland, 
elsewhere  date  from  the  Tertiary. 

The  class  Arachnida.  now  taken  to  Include  trilobitee  and  king- 
craba,  aa  well  as  scorpions  and  spiders,  ia  ancient.  Scorpion*^ 
not  far  removed  from  existing  type»— are  known  in  the 
Silurian,  while  true  n>iders  occur  in  tiie  Ccal-measurea. 
The  mat  majority  of  the  more  typical  Pslaeosoicaradmida 
are,  nowever,  referred  to  an  order  by  themselvee-^the  Anthraoomarti. 
King'Craba  (Xiphosun)  date  from  the  Silurian,  the  existing  genus 
lAmidiu  occurring  in  the  Trias;  but  the  gigantic  eurypterids 
(Eurjrpterida)  and  the  trik>bites  (Trilobita^  are  exclusively  Palaeo- 
zoic, the  former  dating  from  the  Ordovician,  and  the  latter  from 
the  upper  Cambrian. 

Most  of  the  existing  ordinal  groups  of  the  class  Crustacea  appear 
to  date  froA  the  PSalaeoaoic:  the  decapods  (lobsters  and  crabs) 
which  represent  the  highest  development  of  the  class.     cmatM* 
did  not,  however,  attaia  a  dominant  poeition  till  well     IlII^ 
on  in  the  Mesozoic,  and  are  at  their  maximum  in  the  ^ 

present  day;  genuine  crabs  (Brachynra)  apparently  not  having 
come  into  existence  till  the  Cretaceous. 

Among  the  Echinodermata,  the  classes  Blastoidea  and  Cystoidta 
are  exdurively  PalaeoaoiVt  triiile  the  stooe-liliea  (Crinoidea)  form  a 


ioi8 


ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS 


^''"*'    Bice  ol  the  dast  In  Ihe  tama  Cambrian,  i 
in  (he  Uureniiin. 

(hi;  uppet  Cambrian.  vKm  we  ftnd  primilive  tvpn 


le  pn:«nt  day  the  A| 


n,  Ihe  mongm  (Pont«l>  Ij^re  Mronely  n 
,.„  loimalioni:  ih*  oldeS  tno-n  !■ 
■••*     Wrfjh  Cmbrian.     In  Ihe  Siluii 


BIBLIOCIAFHT,— I.  A.  Allen,  "  The  Gcocnphial  DiKribulkw  at 
Mammal.."  BiiU.   U.S.  Gal.  Sumy.  ml.  iv.  m.  313-^6  (IB78); 

F.  E.  Beddard,  ^  Tal-Uok  ef  ZiKiaitrapkr  (CambridEe,  I893); 
W.  B.  Benhaili,  "  The  GmgraphlcaJ  Diitiiliullon  o[  Eanhwormi 
and  Ihe  PalanDgRigraphy  of  ihe  Anlaictic  Reiisn."  Hip.  Auilral. 
Auk.,  vol.  it.  pB.  J19-43  (1903);  B.  A.  BeniTey.  "A  Thwiy 
of  the  Oriein  and  EvoiuOon  of  the  Autlralian  Marvupuiia."  Amtr. 
Ntl>mlul.  ™L  lav.  pp.  i4S-*9  (iV"):  W.  T.  Blanfoid.  "The 
Africiui  Elameiu  la  Ihe  Fauna  of  India."  Ain.  Mat.  Nal.  Ilia.. 
■er.  4.  vol.  iviii.  pp.  JJ7-94  (i»;6)r  "  Annivmnry  Add>B»  10  the 
Ceolonial  Soeiely.  Prac.  del.  Stc.  LMim,  1*94,  pp.  43-110; 
"The  DtHnbuIion  of  Venebnte  Aoinuli  in  India.  Ceykin  and 
Butma."  Pnt.  Jtoyal  Sx.  Londim,  vol.  Iivil.  pp.  484-«]  (190a), 
and    PhU.    Tnati.   R.   Sec.    (B).   vol.   ckIv.    pp.   335-436    [1001); 

G.  A.  Bonlcnger,  "  The  iManhjiion  of  Afrian  FieiEwalet  Fuh«," 


the  Mammiliii  61  North  Amertca,''  Stml.  Bki.  Lolmu.  diian 
CeUtr.  Zoeltn.  vol,  L  art.  J  (iSbj);  "  The  Geological  and  Fan 
■Mariooi  o[  Europe  and  Amelia  diiiin(  the  Tertiary  period  a 


"?*t  P&  Mi-6j.(!9<n):  A.  S. 


^PfeMl- 


Patk.rd,  ■■  The  T«. 

vol.  lit  pp.  jao  and  HI   (1904),       ..  _ , 

Oeogiaphiaf  Diilribulioo  of  S^cn  of  the  Order  M  yWlimorphae." 
/•/«,  i^.  Sk.  Umin.  1903.  vol.  i.  pp.  14B-68:  ETF-  Sclarfl. 
Tki  Hulory  il  H,  EMtaftan  Ftwia  (London.  iSm|;  "  Remarfa 
on  Ihe  Albniic  PmbWrn,"  Prx.  JL  Inik  Att*..  vol  uiv.  (Bj 
pp.  JfiS-^na  (1903};  P-  L.  Sclater,  "On  Ihe  CenenI  Oomphit 
UiunbulKR  of  Ihe  Member.  o(  the  Clau  Ave*"  yiwni.  Un^^l^. 
Z-Ki..  vol.  ■■.  pp.  130-4S  ii9s8);  "The  Ceoffaphical  DiKribn- 
lion  di   Manunab.     i/sncjWiw  Sobkc  LaOaa,  aet.  s  and  fc 

I«p*l  1^  VaHiu/)  (London.  l»m);  B.  Spcnnr.  "Summaryof 
the  ^lociol,  Botaneal  and  Ceakicit:al  itnulla  of  (he  IHonl 
Eapedition."  ttif.  Hbth  Exfrd.  Li  Ctalrof  .4kiJni«ia  (1806)!  A.  It. 
WalljKe,  riu  doirnaiiml  biiUibuliat  ef  A  nimall  (LonJoa.  iSTt). 
ly<^;  M.  Webrr,  Dtr  ln^n-Aiamiliiilu  AnIiiptI  %n4  J§t  Ciuiukli 
tnd  Verfarettling  d«r  SfUiffctiere."  SHthct. 

-     .      S«   alH   C.    W. 

Ihe  Fayttm  (L4>hdoa. 


EntwickduBM.  Herkun 
Aodrewa.  CabJ^itu  oj  1 


(Munich  and  L< 


ten-booha  on   var 

"k.'a.  ZiiteTTi/ai 
B76-93).  Ac.  tuL. 


IR. 


'  ZDOLOOICAL    aARDEHS,     lomeiimei    called    Zaovxica. 

Their  primary  object  is  10  gratiiy  Ihe  pleuure  moal  penoni 
tihc  in  viewipg  si  doie  nngc  the  curioui  and  bouliful  livinf 
products  of  nalur*,  but  Ihey  serve  also  u  means  of  irsTniction 
in  mlursJ  history,  providini  nutlerlal  lor  nrnieums  luid  for 
ud  palhokgy,  while 


i  for  3 


anley  Flower,  director  of  the  Zooto^cil 
Gin.  Cairo,  E^pt,  Ihe  ancient  Egyptian*  liept 
Icj  of  wild  animiJi  in  oplivily,  but  the  first  Zoo- 
logical Garden  of  which  there  is  definiEe  knowledge  was  founded 
eror  of  the  Ch6u  dynaity,  who  wigncd 
about   iioo  B.C.    Thii  «u  cdled  ihe  "  Intdliitnce  Puk," 
Ipptaj^  la  have  had  ■  sdenlific  and  educational  objeci. 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romana  kepi  incaptivlIyUrge  nomben 
ich  animals  as  leopards,  lions,  bean,  elephants,  antelopes, 
giraffes,  camds,   rhinoceroecs  and  hippopolunviea,  aa  wdl  u 
[riches  and  ctorodiles,  bul  these  were  destined  for  ilaughlei 
ihe  gladiatorial  shows.    In  later  limeJ  royal  persons  and  great 
idal  magnalea  frequently  kept  menigeries  of  wild  animals, 
inries  and  aquaria,  and  it  is  from  these  that  modern  public 
Catdem  have  taken  their  origin.  Henry  I.  (iioo-lrs;)  estab- 
Ushcd  a  menagerie  at  Woodstock,  Oifordshlte,  England.    TUt 
tianaferred  to  the  Tourer  of  London,  apparently  in  ihe  (eign 
of  Hcnry  III.,  and  kepi  up  there  until  at  least  iSiS.  PhiKp  VI. 
■nagerie  in  the  Louvre  al  Paris  In  1333,  Charles  V. 
A  collections  at  Cannons,  ToumeUes  and  in  Paiii, 
s  XL  formed  >  menaeeiie  at  Flettis  Ici  Toun  in 
which  alter  his  datb  was  ic-estiblished  at  ibc  Louvre 
indveniargrd  by  coUeeijons  oblalned  in  North  Africa. 
eitioyM  by  Henry  nL    Heniy   IV.    had   a   nnall 
collection,  whkh  indoded  an  elephant.     Louis  Xni.  kepi  some 
Versailles,  whilst  his  son  Louis  XIV.  founded  the 


,  animals  from  Cair 

and  furnished  much  valuable  material  to  French  naturalifls 
iDalomiata.  It  gradually  decayed,  however,  ftnd  was 
1  eitinguished  by  the  nwb  in  1799,  In  tT03  Ihe  Paris 
im  of  Natural  History  was  rc-catiblisbcd  by  law,  and 
I's  Ide*  of  attaching  to  il  ■  menagerie  w*l  carried  ouli 

the  lattei,  as  the  collection  in   Ihe  Jardln  dea  Flaniei,  still 

In  Ceimany  Ibe  dector  Augustus  I. '       '  ' 
Dtesden  in  1554-    to  the  New  World,  atcoidiog  t 
King  Nenhwilcoyo'l  >>*<>  uoloeicil  garden!  ftl  Teicuco  u 

■■     ■  D  in  ihf  middle  of  the  ijth  cenltiry.  whilst  '      ' 


ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS 


1019 


and  Montetama  II.,  «mperor  of  lfeiio»  in  the  boglaDlng  of 
the  x6th  century,  nuuntained  laif e  ccdlections  of  animals  in 
the  gardens  of  his  capitaL 

Moat  of  the  modern  soologlcal  (ardcns  date  from  com- 
paratively recent  years,  and  there  are  a  larger  number  stocked 
#ith  a  finer  collection  of  animals,  more  suitably  housed,  than  at 
any  past  time  in  the  history  of  the  world.  According  to  a 
reference  list  compiled  by  Captain  Stanley  Flower,  there  were 
io»  actually  ezbting  public  gardens  or  parks  oontaaning  col- 
lections of  wild  animals  In  1910,  while  there  are  also  a  consider- 
able number  of  private  collections.  It  is  possible  to  refer  here 
only  to  the  more  important  of  these. 

i4/>iea.— The  Zook)^ca!  Gardens  at  Guar  Cairo,  are  a  govern- 
ment iostitution  edministered  by  the  Public  Works  Department. 
The  {(rounds  are  bcautif  ally  laid  out  and  the  coUeaion  is  particularly 
rich  in  African  animals,  to  which  the  climate  is  well  adapted.  The 
Khartum  Zoological  Gardens  are  free  to  the  public  and  are  under 
the  control  of  the  munici|»lity,  but  the  collection  of  animals  is 
under  the  Game  Preservation  I)epartment.  The  Transvaal  Zoo- 
logical Gardens  at  Pretoria  are  a  government  institution,  and  are 
associated  with  the  Muaeum. 

America,  North. — ^The  Zoological  Park  at  Bronx  Borough,  New 
York  City,  opened  in  1899.  is  one  of  the  buvest  in  the  world.  It  is  con- 
trolled by  the  Zoological  Society  of  New  York,  with  representatives 
of  the  municipality  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  is  financed  larvely 
out  of  muniapal  funds,  and  is  opei^  free  to  the  public  five  days 
a  week.  The  Park  occupies  nearly  300  acres,  of  great  natural 
beauty,  which  has  been  increased  by  the  judicious  arts  of  the 
landscape  gardener.  It  contains  many  fine  buildings,  designed  on 
the  most  modem  fines,  but  its  special  feature  is  a  series  of  spacious 
enlosures  for  targe  herds  of  bison  and  deer.  In  a  tense  it  serves 
also  as  a  national  reserve,  and  has  already  been  an  important 
factor  in  the  preservation  of  fhe  American  oison.  The  mtional 
Zoological  P^nc  at  Washington,  D.C..  was  founded  hyr  Congress 
in  1889-1890  "  for  the  advancement  01  science  and  the  instruction 
and  recreation  of  the  people."  The  site  was  purchased  by  the 
United  States  government^  and  all  the  expenses  come  from  national 
funds,  the  management  being  vssted  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
The  Park  consists  of  about  265  acres  of  undulating  land  with 
natural  woods  and  rocks,  traversed  by  a  gorge  cut  by  Rock  Creek, 
a  tributary  of  the  Potomac.  The  river  and  gorge  extend  into  the 
country  far  beyond  the  Park,  and  in-  addition  to  the  animals  that 
have  been  introduced,  there  are  many  wild  creatures  living  in 
their  native  freedom,  such  as  musk  rats  in  the  creek,  grey  squirrels, 
crested  caidinab  and  turkey  buxzards.  The  variea  natural  con- 
ditions form  an  almost  ideal  ute  for  a  collection  of  animals;  great 
care  and  skill  have  been  expended  on  the  designing  and  construc- 
tion of  the  houses,  the  collection  receives  many  accesdons  from 
various  EDvcmment  departments,  including  the  foreign  consular  ser- 
vice, and  the  whole  institution  is  rapidly  beeomtng  a  model  of  what 
IS  possible.  The  iZook)gicaI  Gardens  in  Fairmount  Park,  Phila- 
delphia, resemble  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London, 
dn  which  they  were  modelled.  They  are  controlled  by  the  Zoo- 
fegkal  Soctetv  of  Philadelphia,  founded  in  1850,  and  are  supported 
partly  by  subscriptions  of  members,  partlv  W  gate-money  and 
partly  by  an  allowance  from  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  They 
contain  an  admirable  collection,  well  housed  and  carefully  managed, 
a  specially  interesting  feature  being  the  careful  quarantine  system 
of  new  arrivab  and  the  post-mortem  examinatkms  of  animals  that 
have  died.  There  are  many  smaller  collections  in  the  United 
States  and  several  in  Canada,  but  none  of  these  present  features 
of  special  interest. 

America,  South. — ^The  Zoological  Gardens  at  Buenos  Aires  are 
supported  by  the  municipality,  and  contain  many  interesting 
animals,  wen  housed  in  beautiful  surro<jndings.  The  director 
issues  a  popular  illustrated  guide  and  a  valuable  quarterly  scientific 
iouroal.  At  Para,  Brazil,  is  a  good  collection  attached  to  the 
Museum  Goeldt,  and  there  are  unimportant  collections  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  Bahia. 

Asia. — ^There  are  many  small  collections  in  diflFerent  parts  of 
Asia,  but  the  only  garden  of  great  intereit  is  at  Alipose,  (Calcutta, 
supported  chiefly  by  ffate*money  and  a  contribution  from  govern- 
ment, and  managed  by  an  honorary  committee.  It  was  estab- 
lished in  1875  by  the  government  of  Bengal,  in  co-operation  with 
the  public,  and  is  33  acres  in  area.  An  extremely  interesting 
collection  is  maintained,  the  variety  of  bird  life,  both  feral  and  in 
captivity,  being  notable. 

Australia  and  New  Zealand.-^T\Krt  are  Zoological  Gardens  at 
Melbourne  (founded  in  1857),  Adelaide,  Sydney  and  Perth,  and 
small  gardens  at  Wellington,  New  Zeahnd,  supported  partly  by 
private  societies  and  partly  by  the  municipalities.  These  collcc- 
tk>ns  are  not  specially  rich  in  the  very  interesting  and  peculiar 
native  fauna,  but  devote  themselves  prepondcratingly  to  imported 
animals. 

^arvps.'^There  are  a  Utrf^  number  of  zoobgical  gardens  in 
wope,  but  thosa  of  real  importance  are  not  amnaroas.    The 


laiperial  Menagerie  of  the  palace  of  SchfiUbmnn,  VisBiia,  wim 
founded  about  1752.    The  public  are  admitted  free  to  the  greater 
part  of  the  grounds,  but  the  gardens  and  collecticn  are  the  pro- 
(wrty  of  and  are  supported  by  the  emperor  of  Austria.    The  collec- 
tion is  fine  and  wdl  cared  for  in  beautiful  surroundings.    The 
nrden  and  large  menagerie  of  the  Royal  Zool^cal  Society  of 
Antwerp  were  founded  m  1843,  and  have  been  maintained  at  a 
very  high  levd.    The  colfection  is  not  usually  very  rich  in  spedes, 
but  there  have  been  great  and  long-continued  successes  in  the 
breeding  of  large  animals  sudi  as  hippopotamuses,  lions  and  ante- 
lopes, and  a  very  large  business  is  done  in  domesticated  birds, 
water-fowl  and  cagq  birds.    The  annual  sales  of  wild  animals, 
held  in  the  Gardens,  chiefly  surplus  stock  from  various  European 
Gardens,  are  famous.    The  revenue  is  derived  partly  from  sub- 
scriptions, partly  from  gate-money,  from  the  fine  concert-hall  and 
refreshment  pavilions,  and  from  sales.    The  Gardens  of  the  Zoo- 
logical Sodety  of  London  in  Regent's  Park,  founded  in   1828, 
extend  to  only  about  35  acres,  but  the  collection,  if  species  and 
rare  animals  be  considered  rather  than  the  number  of  individuals, 
bos  always  been  the  finest  in  existence    The  Society  is  not  assisted 
by  the  state  or  the  municipality,  but  derives  its  revenue  from  the 
subscriptions  of  Fellows,  gate-money.  Garden  receipts  and  so  forth. 
In  addition  to  the  menagerie,  there  is  an  infirmary  and  operating 
room,  an  anatomical  and  pathological  laboratory,  and  the  Society 
holds  scientific  meetings  and  publishes  stately  volumes  containing 
the  results  of  zoological  research.    Partly  because  of  its  long  and 
successful  existence\  and  partly  because  01  the  extensive  poseessions 
of  Great  Britain  throughout  the  world,  the  2^1ogicai  Society  of 
London  has  been  able  to  exhibit  for  the  first  time  in  captivity  a 
greater  number  of  species  of  wild  animals  than  probably  the  total 
of  tYiqsc  shown  by  all  other  collections.     The  Royal  Zoological 
Society  of  Ireland,  founded  in  1830,  maintains  a  fine  collection  in 
the  Phoenix  Park  at  Dublin,  and  has  been  specially  succ^sful  in 
the  breeding  of  lions.    The  Bath,  Oifton  and  West  of  England 
Zooloracal  Society  owns  small  but  extremely  well-managed  Zoo- 
logical Gardens,  well  situated  on  the  edge  of  Clifton  Downs.    Messre 
Jennison  have  maintained  since  1831  a  Zoological  Collection  in 
their   pleasure   Par!:  at    Belle   Vue,   Manchester.     The  animals 
exhibited  are  selected  chieflv  because  of  their  popular  interestj 
but  the  arrangements  for  housing  arc  specially   ingenious  and 
successful,   those  for  monkeys  and  snakes  being  notable.     The 
ZoologlsK  Have  at  Copenhagen,  founded  in  1859.  contains  a  good 
collection,  with  a  specially  well-designed  monkey-house.    At  Lyons 
and  at  Marseilles  in  France  there  are  beautifully  situated  Gardens 
with^  email  collections,  in  each  case  owned  and  controlled  by  the 
municipaiities.    In  Paris  there  are  two  well-known  Gardens.    That 
of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  was  founded  in  1793  and  is  under  the 
control  of  the  Museum  authorities.    It  is  open  free  to  the  public 
and  generally  contains  a  good  collection  of  mammals.    The  larger 
and  better  known  Jardin  d'Acclimatation  in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne 
is  owned  and  conducted  by  a  private  company.    It  was  founded  in 
18^  and  is  beautifuUv  situated  and  well  laid  out.    In  addition  to 
wild  animab  it  usually  contains  many  domesticated  creatures  of 
commercial  value.    In  recent  yean  it  has  been  somewhat  neglected 
and  presents  no  features  of  special  interest,  but  efforts  are  being 
made  to  revive  its  prosperity.    Germany  contained  in  1910  nineteen 
Zoological  Gardens  in  active  existence  whilst  several  others  were 
in  process  of  formation.    In  most  cases  they  are  associated  with 
concert-halls  and  open-air  restaurants,  which  account  for  much  of 
their  material  prosperity,  but  the  natural  taste  of  the  people  for 
wild  animals,  and  the  increasing  scientific  and  commercial  enter- 
prise^ of  the  nation  have  connbined  to  make  the  collections  rich 
and  interesting.     The  great  Gardens  at  Berlin  were  founded  in 
1844.  and  belong  to  a  private  company,  but  owe  much  to  the 
interest  and  beneficence  of  the  Royal  House.    .The  collection  is 
extremely  good,  the  houses  are  well  constructed  and  sumptuously 
decorated,  and  the  general  management  is  conducted  on  the  most 
adequate^  scientific   lines.     The   Zoological   Gardens  at   Breslau, 
founded  in  ,1863  and  owned  by  a  private  company,  although  not 
large,  contain  many  fine  buildings  and  are  a  notably  well-managed 
institution.    They  possessed  a  nne  gorilla,  keeping  it  alive  for  a 
longer  period  than  has  been  done  in  any  other  zoological  collec- 
tion.   The  beautiful  Gardens  at  Cologne,  founded  in  i860,  contain 
many  interesting  features  and  in  particular  one  cf  the  finest  aviaries 
in  Europe.    The  Gardens  of  the  2Ioological  Society  of  Hamburg, 
founded  in  1863,  always  contain  a  large  and  fine  collection  and 
display  many  ingenious  devices  for  the  housing  of  the  animalsk 
More  rerentfy  C.  Hagenbeck  has  constructed  a  remarkable  zoo- 
lopcal  park  at  Stellingen.  near  Hamburg.    The  chief  feature  of 
this  is  a  magnificent  panorama,  from  the  central  point  of  which 
large  collections  of  wild  animals  are  visible  without  any  inters 
vening  bars.    The  background  consists  of  artificial  rockwork,  sup- 
ported on  huge  wooden  scaffoldings.    The  turiace  is  formed  of 
cement  moulded  over  metal  gimmel-work,  and  arranged  to  form 
ledges  and  boulden,  peaks  and  escarpments,  and  faced  with  coloured 
sand  and  paint.    It  is  made  sufl^dently  strong  to  bear  the  weight 
of  the  animals,  which  are  confined  withm  their  bounds  by  undercut 
overhanging  ridges,  and  by  deep  and  wide  ditches,  masked  by 
racftwock.    The  aresnyneat  is  extremely  successful  from  tha 


I020 


ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS 


•pecttottlar  point  of  view,  and  very  nitable  where  moat  of  the 
•ainialB  are  young  and  in  prooett  of  training.  The  chief  nidene 
in  Holiand  are  at  Anuterdam,  owned  by  the  society  *' rlatuim 
Artis  Magistn."  In  addition  to  tlie  menagerie,  founded  in  i8^ 
and  since  then  remaining  one  of  the  chief  ooUcctiona  of  the  world, 
the  Society  owns  a  nne  aquarium,  and  supports  a  museum  and  library. 
The  garden  at  Rotterdam  is  also  of  htgh  interest.  The  aoolof^cal 
collections  of  other  European  countries  are  of  little  importance. 

Certain  general  remarlu  may  be  made  on  the  efficient  manage- 
ment of  the  20(dogical  gardens. 

Finance. — Disbursements  for  rent,  rates  and  tans  naturaltv  vary 
according  to  the  special  conditbns;  in  a  large  number  of  cases 
public  land  is  provided  free  of  cost,  and  in  a  smaller  number  of 
cases  the  institutions,  in  view  of  their  useful  public  functions,  are 
relieved  of  the  ordinary  burden  of  taxation.  In  London,  where 
rent,  rates  and  taxes  have  all  to  be  paid,  precisely  as  if  the  gardens 
were  a  profit-distributing  private  institution,  the  annual  expendi- 
ture under  these  headings  amounts  to  about  £2000.  The  staff, 
excluding  purely  scientific  departments,  costs  about  £6000  per 
annum;  gardening  department,  about  £iSoo  per  annum;  mam- 
tenance  of  building,  enclosures,  paths  ana  so  forth,  about  £4000 
per  annum;  provisions  for  animals,  about  £5000  per  annum; 
litter,  water,  heating  and  general  menagerie  expenses  about  £3000 
per  annum.  These  ngures  are  based  chiefly  on  the  London  expendi- 
ture and  rebte  to  a  collection  which  u  probably  more  varied  than 
any  other,  but  not  specially  large  in  numbers,  containing  on  an 
average  a  little  over  3000  individuals.  The  cost  of  maintaining 
the  collection  depends  on  the  numbera  received  by  purchase,  in 
exchange,  or  presented,  but  for  an  average  of  about  £3000  per 
annum  a  collection  such  as  that  in  London  can  be  adequately 
maintained.  The  cost  of  new  buildings  varies  too  much  to  make 
any  individual  figures  useful. 

Many  of  the  zoological  gardens  are  owned  by  private  companies 
and  derive  their  income  entirely  from  gate-money,  mena|;erie  sales, 
rent  of  refreshment  rooms,  concert-halb  and  other  auxiliary  public 
attractions,  any  profits  being  dbtributed  amongst  the  merob«r&  of 
the  company.  In  other  cases  the  gardens  ate  assisted  by  public 
authorities,  in  return  for  which  a  certain  number  of  free  days  are 
eiven.  In  other  cases  again,  a»in  the  case  of  London,  the  income 
IS  derived  (Mirtly  from  the  subscriptions  of  memben,  who  in  return 
receive  privileges  as  to  admission,  and  partly  from  gate-money  and 
menagerie  receipts,  all  the  income  being  expended  on  the  main- 
tenance of  the  institution  and  on  scientific  purposes. 

Naturt  a/  CoUntion. — ^This  depends  to  a  certain  extent  on  the 
object  of  tne  institution.  The  species  and  varieties  of  mammals 
and  birds  that  have  a  commercial  value  as  farmyard  stock  or  as 
pets,  are  for  the  most  part  easy  to  keep,  are  attractive  to  the 
public  and  may  be  a  source  of  profit.  Some  of  the  smaller  gardens 
in  Europe,  and  perhaps  a  majority  of  those  in  other  parts  of  the 
worid,  pay  much  attention  to  this  side,  but  the  more  important 
collections  are  as  much  as  possible  limited  to  natural  species  and 
wild  animals.  In  theory  every  wild  species  has  its  place  in  a 
cook)^cal  collection,  but  the  actual  choice  is  limited  by  so  many 
practical  conriderations  that  the  better-known  collections  are 
remarkably  alike.  Birds  and  mammals  take  the  first  place;  the 
leading  collections  devote  a  good  deal  of  attention  to  reptiles  and 
batrachians;  fishes  and  aquatk  invertebrata  are  most  often  to  be 
found  only  when  there  are  special  aciuaria,  whilst  non-aquatic 
invertebrates  are  seldom  to  be  seen  and  at  most  consist  of  a  few 
moths  and  butterfli<»,  spiders,  scorpions  and  centipedes,  molluscs 
and  crustaceans.  Within  these  limits,  the  first  choice  falls  on  large 
and  well-known  creatures  which  every  one  can  recognize  and  desires 
to  see.  The  large  Carnivore,  lions,  tigers,  jaguars  and  leopards 
are  the  first  favourites;  then  follow  monkeys,  then  the  laive  un- 
gulates, elephants,  rhinoceroses  and  hippopotamuses,  camels  and 
giraffes,  den*  and  antelopes  and  equine  animals,  whilst  birds  are 
appreciated  chiefly  for  plumage  and  song.  Animals  vary  very 
greatly  in  viability  (see  Loncbvity).  and  practical  experience  has 
shown  that  certain  species  bear  captivity  well,  whilst  othen  for 
reasons  that  appear  to  be  psychological  as  well  as  physical  quickly 
succumb.  Many  animals  of  great  zoological  interest,  from  their 
nocturnal  habits,  or  natural  disposition,  display  themselves  so 
seldom  that  their  possesrion  is  valueless  from  the  pojnt  of  view 
of  the  public,  whilst  closely  allied  sf>ecies  are  not  distinguished 
except  by  trained  observen.  If  the  obijcct  of  a  collection  is  simply 
to  provide  a  hardy  and  popular  exhibitipn,  it  is  neither  difficiift 
nor  very  costly  to  get  toeetner  and  to  maintain.  But  if  the  object 
be,  as  in  the  case  of  the  greater  aoologiosl  institutions,  to  get 
together  aa  many  species  as  posmble,  and  to  exhibit  animals  that 
have  not  been  hitherto  obtained,  the  posrible  range  is  eaormoua 
and  the  cost  very  great. 

Sources  of  Antwuils. — A  certain  nnmber  of  wild  animals  are  bom 
in  captivity  and  from  time  to  time  the  possession  of  a  suooessful 
stock  enables  one  collection  to  supply  many  othere.  At  one  time 
London  was  able  to  supply  many  Continental  gardens  with  giraffes, 
and  Dublin  and  Antwerp  have  had  great  succesMS  with  lions, 
whilst  antelopes,  dieep  and  cattle,  deer  and  equine  animals  are 
•hvay*  to  bt  found  breading  ia  one  colkctioo  or  another.    Such 


stocka,  however,  usually  fa3  in  time,  partly  ffom  too  dose  imaw 
breeding,  partly  from  the  ordinary  chances  of  mortality,  and  partly 
from  the  cumulative  effects  of  strange  conditions.  Fresh-caught 
wild  animab  have  to  be  obtained  to  replenish  the  stock,  in  the 
majority  of  cases  the  conditions  of  success  are  that  the  wild  creatures 
should  be  obuined  as  young  as  possible,  kept  in  their  native 
localities  until  they  have  become  accustomed  to  man  and  to  such 
food  as  they  can  be  ^ven  at  their  ultimate  destinationa.  The 
percentage  of  failure  is  greatest  when  fresh-caught  adults  are 
hurried  to  Europe  or  Amenca.  Individuals,  moreover,  vary  greatly 
in  their  capacity  to  respond  successfully  to  new  oonditiooa  of  life, 
and  it  is  less  costly  and  more  practical  if  the  selection  be  made 
in  their  natural  homes.  The  most  promising  sources  of  new 
animals  for  collections  are  young  creatures  which  have  been  partly 
tamed  by  huntere,  traden  or  natives,  and  which  have  beea 
aoiuired  oy  travellers.  Many  of  these  find  their  way  to  the  great 
shipping-ports,  where  there  have  grown  up  establishments  that 
trade  in  wild  animals.  Occasionally  special  expeditions  are  arranged 
to  procure  numben  of  particular  birds  or  mammals,  but  these 
are  extremely  costlyand  the  mortality  is  usually  high. 

Area  o$id  5tis.-~-The  areas  occupied  vary  from  about  300  acres 
(New  Vork)  to  about  8  acres  (Bristol.  England).     In  tne  laigcr 

} gardens,  however,  the  greater  part  of  the  ^lace  is  engaged  by  a 
ew  extensive  enclosures  for  herds  of  herbivorous  am  mala,  and 
where  no  attempt  is  made  to  associate  the  function  of  a  game 
rcseniT  with  that  of  a  menagerie  a  smaller  area  is  quite  satisfactory. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  public  convenience,  too  lar]^e  a  space  is 
fatiguing  and  makes  it  more  difficult  to  see  the  animals,  whilst 
the  expenses  of  maintenance,  drainage  and  supervision  increase  out 
of  proportion  to  the  advantages.  The  older  gardens  have  followed 
too  closely  the  idea  of  small  cages,  designed  to  ^lard  an  animal 
securely  rather  than  to  display  k  in  a  fitting  environment,  but  if 
exercise,  light  and  air  are  provided,  animals  do  better  in  a  relati\-ely 
small  than  in  a  relatively  large  enclosure.  With  regard  to  situatioa. 
the  ideal  would  be  to  have  the  collection  placed  in  the  open  country, 
far  from  centres  of  population.  But  as  menageries  are  supported 
for  the  public  and  in  most  cases  by  the  public,  such  a  site  is  im- 
practical, and  if  the  soil,  drainage  and  exposure  are  reasonably 
good,  experience  shows  that  a  thriving  collection  may  be  main- 
tained in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  large  towns.. 

Hygiene. — ^The  first  requisite  is  strict  attention  to  cleantlness. 
A  collection  of  aninals  must  be  compared  with  public  institutions 
such  as  barracks,  or  infirmariea.  There  must  be  an  abundant 
supply  of  fresh  air  and  of  water,  and  a  drainage  system  as  complete 
as  possible.  The  soil  of  yards  and  the  floors  and  walls  of  houses 
rapidly  become  contaminated,  and  the  ideal  condition  would  be 
to  have  an  impermeable  flooring  covering  the  whole  area,  and 
supplied  with  suitable  layera  of  sand,  sawdust,  peat-moss  or  other 
absorbent  substances  whKh  can  be  changed  at  frequent  intervals. 
The  buildings  should  be  constructed  on  the  most  modem  hospiul 
lines,  with  smooth  walls  and  rounded  corners,  so  that  complete 
cleansing  and  disinfecting  are  possible.  It  has  been  shoun 
abundantly,  however,  that  even  tne  best  designed  and  best  cared 
for  buildings  rapidly  become  contaminatedi  and  it  is  i>robable  that 
the  costly  and  massive  buildings  of  the  more  modern  Gardens  are 
erroneous  in  principle,  and  should  be  replaced  by  light  and  cheap 
structures  not  intended  to  last  longer  than  a  few  yeare.  In  most 
temperate  climates,  artificial  heating  is  necessary,  at  least  ocra- 
saonally,  in  many  cases,  but  the  tendency  has  been  to  be  more 
sedulous  of  warmth  than  of  ventilation.  Cold-blooded  animals, 
such  as  reptiles  and^  batrachians,  thrive  best  in  an  equable  tem- 
perature, and.  especially  in  the  case  of  snakes,  frequently  can  be 
induced  to  feed  only  when  their  temperature  has  been  raised  to  a 
certain  point.  But  the  vast  majority  of  birds  and  mammals  not 
only  can  endure  a  large  range  of  temperature,  but  thrive  best 
when  they  are  subjected  to  it.  Protection  from  violent  draught 
and  shelter  from  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  necessary,  but  in 
most  cases  the  choice  is  best  left  to  the  animals  themselves,  and 
the  most  successful  arrangements  consist  of  free  exposure  to  the 
open  air,  with  access  to  warmth  and  shelter.  All  collections  of 
living  beings  are  subject  to  epidemics,  and  in  an  ideal  mcnaeerie 
special  precautions  should  be  taken.  New  arrivals  should  be 
quarantined,  until  it  is  certain  that  they  are  in  a  satisfactory 
condition  of  health.  Sickly  animals  should  be  at  once  isolated. 
and  their  cages  and  enclosures  disinfected,  whibt  as  a  matter  of 
routine  the  enclosure  in  which  any  animal  has  died  should  be 
cleansed,  and  according  to  the  results  of  post-mortem  examination, 
which  should  be  made  in  every  case,  appropriate  measures  of 
disinfection  employed. 

Feeding. — ^The  food  must  be  as  varied  as  poasible.  and  apedal 
attention  should  be  pven  to  the  frequency  and  quantity  of  the 
supply.  It  is  important  that  00  more  should  be  auppbed  at  a 
time  than  is  necessary,  aa  most  animals  rapidly  foul  their  food, 
and  except  in  a  few  special  cases,  wild  animals  are  peculiariy  liaUe 
to  the  exil  results  01  stale  cr  putrid  substances.  Quantities  can 
be  leamed  from  experience,  and  from  watching  individual  caaes; 
frequency  varies  within  very  wide  limits,  from  reptiles  which  at 
most  may  feed  once  a  week  and  fast  for  long  periods,  to  the  tmaNer 
iasactivonNia  birite  which  eBquire  to  bo  led  evwy  two  or  tbfse 


ZOOLOGICAL  NOMENCLATURE 


haun.  ind  whieb  la  the  w 
bt  iTEliUd  up  oncE  or  twia 
of  f«dinE.     Knovtcdgp  of 


CUidtft  EfTtlie  lUIun  at  food 

rfrief'pWilTbriV. 


JiilfJi 


The  rHdidi  111  a 

[  pitfiir  >— -  "" 

ircibr  The  m 


n  are  flccuitambl  lo  kiU  a  prey  loo  liivc  lo  b< 
loreiumlaLt  uain  awl  araid,  lane  after  it  h 
smaller  fomii.Tat  the  nwit  pin.  dc%-our  m 


minor  piobJcm  in  meruBrnc*  U  injudiciaui  (cediof  by  viHlcm. 
M:iay  auihoiiiiet  airenipl  to  fotnin  vnton  from  fDeduig  Ihe 

ii  not  all  EBhi.  for  aninah  ir 
and  are  aioR  Lnli^lliHnl  aiH 

to  regard  visitoia  aa  pkuAot  _^.„ 

LltlHAIVIE.— S.  S.  Flower.  Kola  on  Zimlarkat  CcUtOitm 
miin  in  Eunpe  m  laoj  [PubKi:  Worki  Den.,  Cairo) :  &/<mi< 
Lia  ^  Ikt  Zeiifp'al  G-uJi<a  of  He  WtM  (1910):  C.  V.  A.  Peel 
Tlu  ZitlefutI  Gtriaa  tf  Emfi  (Ijindon.  iwl:  "  BulledMof  tin 
ZoolDeiral  Sodely  D<  Ncv  York  "  iwithnkairy  pSoiofcraphi  andplarii 
«f  buTidinti  aniJ.encloiutcO:  A*hiuiI  RtperU  tj  ilii  Smiiliiaiuu 

KnyMma-UnCit  la  Btlp^^  tt  ill  Poyi-Bm^  •!  iti  Elali-  l\iitt  dir 

Canada,  €t  tmuSuiiims  ^fninUa  fParia,  Irnfwuncrie  Nalionaie,  1907 

l9uB;«'ith  many  pboIDgnphsand  plana).  (P.  C.  M.) 

ZOOliWlGAL  HOMBHCLATUBB,  the  ayvem  by  which  [I 


atlempted 

0  dengsale.  exactly  and  convenienUy.  Ihc  anjinali 

whkh  enit 

now  or  are  knoM  Id  have  mucd.    11  ii,  in  fact, 

Ibegrammi 

i>  intcmU 

on.l.     Thcpopubrannicaof  uunala  differ   Iwm 

counlry,  but  even  amongst  dviliicd  pnpla,  and 

Uiil  more 

mgngil  unedncated  perwna  and  Ibe  lower  latef, 

the  Knimal^ 

dcDOIed  by  popular  ntnin  are  a  very  siniU  part  of 

acting  tor 

andvaryinj 

Lianacui  was  the  flnt  lo  aitopt  a  precise  ayaiem. 

which  he 

(plained  and  appKcd  lo  ny  in  Ha  PUlcafhla 

kla  Syiltna  naluat  (i;sa).     Tbe  foundation  of  the  lyitein 

Snciu).  Euh  ipccia  wis  to  be  dcaignalcd  fay  Ivo  laiiniud 
namea,  the  firat  being  that  of  the  genua  to  which  it  belonged, 
''  n  peculiar  to  the  apeciea.    There 


y  diften 


It-like  I 


la  the< 


!  obvkiualy  related  to 


o  forth, 

one  ipTciea,  ftiii  lalm,  Ibt  lion  ■nolber,  Fdit  Irt,  Ibe  ligtr  yet 
another.  Fttii  tigrii.  and  ao  forth.  Tlie  rarlooi  genera  were 
grouped  into  (amilKi,  llit  farinly  caUng  it*  dcdgnatlon  from 
the  leading  genua,  a.  for  InsUnce,  the  funily  Fetldae  lor  Ihc  can. 
Families  wen  aawidated  In  ordcti,  as  tlu  Cata,  Dogi,  Beara,  &c., 
in  the  ordor  CuniTon,  and  tite  orders  in  Clanei.  There  i> 
^11  Utlb  unibmily  in  Ibe  dealgnatioo  of  the  UKmblaget 
higher  than  famiUca,  and  Leu  agrcemeat  aa  to  tbe  degree  or 
meaauio  of  ■epanUon  to  be  indkUed  ty  Ibe  nae  of  the  de- 
firuitioni  enplojred.  Fen  tbe  tyiteo  adopted  fai  the  pieaent 
work,  Ke  Zoihogt. 

lanoaelia  naaaed  vtrf  many  apedca  and  gcDera,  bnl  Ihe 
number  known  oontlmies  to  incnaie  at  a  prodigioua  me,  while 
precision  of  deacriptJan  has  far  surpassed  hit  conceptions,  with 
tbe  result  that  hia  nila  have  lOTig  ceased  lo  meet  the  needs  of 
modem  science.  In  1841  Ihe  English  omiibok«ist,  H.  £. 
Strickland,  aaaiaied  by  a  cDmrnitlee  ol  which  Cbaika  Darwin 
wma  a  member.  elalKwatcd  rules  which  beoime  known  aa  the 
Strickbnd  Code,  and  were  adopted  in  iS45'tiy  Ihc  American 
Society  ol  Ceologitta  and  NaLuralists,  and  in  1S46  by  Ibe 
Britiah  Awnrtalina  te  Ha  AdvanccoKDl  ol  Sckoce.    In  lUi, 


the  International  Congms  o[  Geology,  meeting  at  Bologna, 

Strickland  and  apedaUy  applicable  to  loaail  forma.     Tn  tSSl 
the  Zoological  Society  of  France  agreed  on  new  rules,  bi 


J.  but  fan 


dby. 


X  of  which 


Maurice  Cbaper  and  R.  Blancbard  vr 
1KS5  the  Amtricun  Omitfaido^ls'  Union,  urged  by  the  secda 
of  Ibe  great  advance  In  ornithology  in  America,  adopted  rules 
whkh  were  tlill  further  nwdihed  from  the  Strickland  Code. 
In  iB<M  Ihe  Zoolo^al  Society  ol  Germany  framed  another  set 
of  ruks  drawn  up  by  J.  V.  Cams,  L.  Doderlein  and  K.  MBbiut. 
la  e8«iS  the  Eiigliili  eilaraologist  Lord  Walsinghim  de^'i^ell 
another  modification  of  the  Strickland  Code,  which  became 
known  as  the  Merton  Rules,  followed  fay  many  enlomologisti. 
Tlie  exiatencc  of  so  many  cooliicting  authorities  caused  much 
confuaion  and  an  impractical  conditka  of  anarchy  in  which 
many  diiilnguiahed  and  active  syateraaiiats  elaborated  practicea 
Individual  to  themselvca.  When  the  Intemationa]  Congress 
of  Zoology  held  ita  hral  meeting  In  Faria  in  iSSg,  one  of  tho 
ity  of  frai  ■ 


might  re 


applical 


itematlonal  sa 


whole 


anirnal  kingdom 

The  diicussion  waa  carried  over  ID  the  second  meeting  ol  the 
CongreM,  held  at  Moicow  in  iS>|i.  when  a  code  prepared  by 
R.  Blanchard  wai  accepted.  Further  modifications  • 
partly  to  reconcile  it  with  the  German  Code,  and  a  ; 
commitoloii  vaa  appointed  to  consider  Ireah  points  mat  migm 
aiise.  In  190;  there  waa  published,  with  the  sanction  of  (ho 
Congress,  in  French,  English  and  German  (/nleriiiUiaiidf  KliJn  ^ 
Zaclagual  NtMmdaliirt,  Paris,  1905,  F.  R.  dc  Rudeval)  a  set  of 
rules  £naUy  codified  fay  MM.  R.  Blanchacd,  von  MaetatBilba] 
and  C.  W,  Stilea,  which  ^qieais  to  be  a  close  ai^roach  Id  an 
international  aystem  applicable  to  every  group  In  the  animal 
kingdom.  At  lubiequent  meetings  of  the  Congress  minor 
alterationa  have  been  pTc^wged  and  DO  doubt  will  continue 
to  be  proposed  and  occasionally  adopted,  but  anlh  one  im- 
poTlant  exception,  to  be  n^erred  to  later,  fondamental  linea  of 
agreement  appear  to  have  been  reached,  and  many  ol  the  most 
active  workers  have  accepted  Ihe  [ntemational  code  aa  binding, 
ft  is  possible  here  to  give  tmiy  a  short  summary  of  the  mom 
important  rules. 

The  goal  (0  be  leached  is  that  the  connotation  and  denotation 
of  every  looTogical  de^gpation  shoirld  be  definite.  One  name  ii  In 
be  uiea  for  each  lub-^pus  or  higher  group,  two  namea  for  each 
apeciea  (lollowing  the  lavention  of  Unnaeuii)  and  tbrq  naiba  ler 
eachiub-ipeciesrarefinement  not  oeccsury  in  IhelimeofLirmaeiu). 

When  a  generic  naov  ii  changed  there  must  be  a 
-  Tn  Ibe  name  of  IheTamily  or  aub-familv 


sriiHand  Kajsr 
ub-gcnuianda 
Specific  name 


divided  in 


The  author  of  a  tcSentitc  name  it  tliat  pcrKn  who  Bm 
t  the  name  in  aanciaiion  «'ith  a  dear  iodkation  of  what 
le  denotes,  and  if  It  be  desired  10  cite  the  author's  name, 
[  follow  Ihe  ipKifie  name  In  a  diReient  type  but  wlihom  tbe 
itioo  of  any  naric  of  punctuation,  <.(■  Fmtealia  UnaHua. 
an  Dtiely  deHgnaluna,  or  ttoKnitinn  marlit.  and  iM 
one,  and  heme  a  name  U  not  to  be  rejected  or  changed  if 
icrwi«  ™nd.  fap-juse  It  gii-et  a  wr^ng  description;  there 


I022 


ZOOLOGY 


miSTOKff 


bccaiwe  of  tautonomy.  uid  that  A  pus  apus  apt  may  be  a  valid 
dc«gfv*tion  jff  a  sub-species  if  the  names  are  otberwiae  valid. 

it  has  happened  frequently  and  continues  to  happen  that  a 
creature  is  discovered  to  have  been  given  more  than  one  name. 
Which  of  these  is  valid  ?  The  decision  of  this  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  and  controverted  problems  in  nomencUturo.  In  the 
liope  of  settling  it  by  some  system  which  should  be  as  nearly 
as  possible  automatic  and  should  leave  the  least  possible  to  the 
inclination  or  choice  of  the  individual  worker,  there  was  formu- 
lated  what  is  called  the  rule  of  priority.  The  valid  name  of  a 
genus  or  species  is  that  name  under  which  it  was  first  designated, 
but  with  the  conditions  first  that  the  name  was  publistwd  and 
accompanied  by  an  indication,  definition  or  description,  and 
second  that  the  author  applied  the  principles  of  binary  nomen* 
dature.  The  tenth  edition  of  Linnaeus'  SysUma  naturae  (1758) 
is  the  work  that  first  consistently  applied  the  binary  system  to 
soology  generally  and  is  accepted  as  the  starting-point  of 
ecological  nomenclature.  Beginning  from  this  the  oldest  avail- 
able name  is  therefore  to  be  retained.  The  applicatioa  of 
the  rule  of  priority  is  in  many  cases  very  difficult,  but  the 
labours  of  zoologists  in  many  groups  are  rapidly  succeeding  in 
making  the  necessary  direct  and  incidental  changes  in  nomen- 
datuie,  whilst,  with  regard  to  recent  work,  the  rule  is  invaluable. 
A  special  difficulty  has,  however,  arisen  and  is  pressing  so  acutely 
that  a  most  important  modification  is  likely  to  be  introduced. 
To  systematists  working  with  a  large  series  <A  species  in  a 
museum  or  collection,  one  species  is  as  important  as  another, 
and  changes  of  names  even  of  familiar  animals  are  matters  of 
Uttle  moment.  But  a  comparatively  small  number  of  animals 
liold  a  prominent  place  in  the  attention  of  aoologists  who  are 
Hot  spedaUy  systematists  and  of  the  public  interested  in  natural 
history.  It  is  complained  that  application  of  the  rules  of  priority 
is  changing  the  names  of  many  familiar  animals,  designations 
that  are  sanctioned  by  long  usage  in  museums  and  laboratories, 
in  the  famous  treatises  <^  comparative  anatomy,  of  general 
biology,  of  travel,  medicine,  and  the  sciences  and  subjects 
closely  rdated  to  zoology.  There  b  being  claimed,  in  fact, 
protection  against  the  law  of  priority  for  a  certain  number  of 
such  familiar  and  customary  appellations.  The  machinery 
for  drafting  such  a  list  of  exceptions  exists  in  the  permanent 
nomenclature  commission  of  the  International  Congress  of 
Zoology,  and  there  is  more  than  a  hope  that  this  change  will 
come  into  operation. 

To  make  the  denotation  of  soological  names  precise,  exact 
workers  are  endeavouring  to  associate  the  conception  of  types 
with  names,  a  process  which  can  be  made  simple  and  definite 
with  new  work,  but  which  presents  great  difficulties  in  the 
attempt  to  apply  it  to  existing  terms.  Every  famOy  should 
have  designateid  one  of  its  genera  as  the  type  genus,  every 
genus  a  type  species  and  so  forth.  In  the  case  of  species  or 
sub-species  the  type  is  a  single  specimen,  either  the  only  one 
before  the  author  when  writing  his  description,  or  one  definitely 
sdected  by  him,  the  others  being  paratypes.  Such  type  speci- 
mens are  the  keynote  of  modem  expert  systematic  work  and 
thdr  careful  preservation  and  registration  is  of  fundamental 
importance.  A  co-type  is  one  of  several  specimens  which  have 
together  formed  the  basis  of  a  species,  no  one  of  them  having 
been  selected  by  the  author  as  a  type.  A  topotype  is  a  specimen 
killed  at  the  typical  locality.  (P.  C.  M.) 

ZOOLOGY  (from  Gr.  fMOv.  a  living  thing,  and  X67ot,  theory), 
that  portion  of  bidogy  {q.v.)  which  relates  to  animals,  as  (Us- 
tinguished  from  that  portion  (Botany)  which  is  concerned  with 

History 

There  is  something  almost  pathetic  in  the  childish  wonder 
and  delight  with  which  mankind  in  its  earUer  phases  of 
civilization  gatliered  up  and  treasured  stories  of  strange  animals 
from  distant  lands  or  deep  seas,  such  as  are  recorded  in  the 
Pkysialogus,  in  Albertus  Magnus,  and  even  at  the  present 
lay  in  the  popular  treatises  of  Japan  and  China.  That 
OBudmnnM  «ihrcnaUy  cndulous  stage,  which  may  be  called 


the  "  legendary  ,**  wai  succeeded  by  the  age  of  collectors  and 
travellers,  when  many  of  the  strange  stories  believod  in  wei« 
actually  demonstrated  as  true  by  the  Kving  or  pre* 
served  trophies  brought  to  Europe.  The  possibility  of 
verification  established  verification  as  a  habit;  and 
the  collecting  of  things,  instead  of  the  accumulat- 
ing of  reports,  devdoped  a  new  faculty  of  minute 
observation.  The  eaiiy  collectors  of  natural  curiosities  weit 
the  founders  of  zoologioU  science,  and  to  this  day  the  naturalist- 
traveller  and  his  correlative,  the  museum  curator  and  sys> 
tematist,  play  a  most  important  pin  in  the  progress  of  aoology. 
Indeed,  the  historical  and  present  importance  of  this  aspect 
or  branch  of  zoological  sdence  is  so  great  that  the  name  "  zoo- 
logy" has  until  recently  been  associated  entirdy  with  it,  to 
the  exdusion  of  the  study  of  minute  anatomical  structure  and 
function  which  have  been  distinguished  as  anatomy  and  physio- 
logy. Anatomy  and  the  study  of  animal  mechanism,  animal 
physics  and  animal  chemistry,  all  of  which  form  part  of  a  true 
zoology,  were  exduded  from  the  usual  definition  of  the  word 
by  the  mere  acddent  that  the  zoologist  had  his  museum  but 
not  his  garden  of  living  specimens  as  the  botanist  had;'  and, 
whilst  the  zoologist  was  thus  deprived  of  the  means  of  anato- 
mical and  physiological  study— only  Uter  supplied  by  the 
method  of  preserving  am'mal  bodies  in  alcob^ — the  demands 
of  medidne  for  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  human 
animal  brought  into  existence  a  se|)arate  and  special  study  of 
human  anatomy  and  physiology. 

From  these  special  studies  of  human  stnicture  the  knowledge 
of  the  anatomy  of  animals  has  proceeded,  the  same  investigator 
who  had  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  structure  of  the 
human  body  desiring  to  compare  with  the  standard  given  by 
human  anatomy  the  structures  of  other  inimals  Thus  com- 
parative anatomy  came  into  existence  as  a  bianch  of  inquiry 
apart  from  zoology,  and  it  was  only  in  the  latter  part  of  the  iQth 
century  that  the  limitation  of  the  word  "  zoology  "  to  a  know- 
ledge of  animals  which  expressly  exdudes  the  oonaideratioii 
of  their  internal  structure  was  rejected  by  the  general  con- 
sult of  those  concerned  in  the  progress  of  sdence.  It  is  now 
generally  recognized  that  it  is  mere  tautology  to  speak  of 
zoology  attd  comparative  anatomy,  and  that  museum  natu- 
ralists most  give  attention  as  weD.  to  the  inside  aa  to  the  outside 
of  animals. 

Sdentific  aoology  really  started  hi  the  i6th  oentoiy  with 
the  awakening  of  the  new  spirit  of  observati<»  and  eq)loraticB« 
but  for  a  long  time  ran  a  separate  course  uninfluenced  by  the 
progress  of  the  medical  studies  of  anatomy  and  physiology. 
The  active  search  for  knowledge  by  means  of  obsenration  and 
experiment  found  its  natural  home  in  the  universities.  Owing 
to  the  connexion  of  medidne  with  these  seats  of  learning,  it 
was  natursl  that  the  study  of  the  structure  and  functions  of 
the  human  body  and  of  the  animals  nearest  to  man  sitould 
take  root  there;  the  spirit  of  inquiry  which  now  for  the  first 
time  became  general  showed  itsdf  in  the  anatomical  schools  of 
the  Italian  universities  of  the  i6th  century,  and  speead  fifQr 
years  later  to  Oxford. 

In  the  17th  century  the  lovers  of  the  new  philosophy,  the 
investigators  of  nature  by  means  of  observatkm  and  experi- 
ment,  banded  thensdves  hito  academies  or  sodetiea  for  mutual 
support  and  intercourse.  The  first  founded  of  surviving 
European  academies,  the  Academia  Naturae  Curioaonun  (165 1),* 
espedally  confined  itself  to  the  description  and  illustration  of 
the  structure  of  planta  and  animals;  eleven  yean  Uter  <i662> 
the  Royal  Society  of  London  was  incorporated  by  royal  diarter, 
having  existed  without    a  name  or  fixed  organisation    for 

*  The  medieval  attitude  towards  both  plants  and  animals  had  no 
relation  to  real  knowledge,  but  was  part  of  a  peculiar  and  in  itself 
highly  interesting  mystiasm.  A  fantastic  and  elaborate  doctrine  of 
symbolism  existed  which  comoriscd  all  nature:  witchcraft,  alchemy 
and  medicine  were  its  practfcal  expressions.    Animals  a*  well  as 

Elants  were  rniarded  as  "  simples     and  used  in  medidne,  and  a 
nowlcdge  of  them  was  valued  from  this  point  of  vi#w. 
■  The  Acadeinia  Secretonim  Naturae  was  founded  at  Naples  lit 
1560,  but  was  suppNSied  by  the  ecoktiastical  authoriciea. 


BISIORyi 


ZOOLOGY 


1023 


teventflea  ^retrt  pRvioady  (fraai  1645).  A  little  later  the  Aca- 
demy of  Sdcfioes  of  Plrifl  was  esUhlkhed  by  Louia  XIY.  Tho 
iafliienoe  of  these  great  academka  of  the  ijthcentiuyoDthe 
progftM  of  aoology  wn  piedsely  to  effect  that  bringing  together 
of  the  mnaeuiii-meii  aod  the  physdans  or  anatomiata  which  was 
needed  for  further  devdopment.  Whilst  the  race  of  coUectors 
and  ^yitcaatkers  cufaninated  m  the  latter  part  of  the  iSth 
century  in  Linnaeus,  a  new  type  of  student  made  its  I4>pcaiance 
Jo  such  men  as  John  Hunter  and  other  anatomistSr  who,  not 
satisfied  whh  the  superficial  obaervatioiis  of  the  popular  "  zoo- 
logists," set  themselves  to  work  to  eaamine  anatomically  the 
whole  anfanal  kingdom,  and  to  daasify  its  members  by  aid  of 
the  results  of  such  profound  study.  Under  the  influence  of  the 
touchstone  of  stria  inquiry  set  on  foot  by  the  Royal  Society, 
the  marvels  of  witchcraft,  sympathetic  powders  and  other 
icHcs  of  medieval  supentitlon  disappeared  like  a  mist  befora 
the  sun,  wlrilst  accumte  observations  and  demonstrations  of 
a  host  of  new  wondeia  accumulated,  amongst  which  were 
numerous  contributions  to  the  anatomy  of  animals,  and  none 
perhaps  mere  noteworthy  than  the  obaervationa,  made  by  the 
aid  of  nucnseopca  constraoied  by  himself,  of  Lccuwenhoek, 
the  Dutch  naturalist  (1685),  some  of  whose  instruments  were 
presented  by  him  to  the  society. 

It  was  not  until  the  19th  century  that  the  micnacop^,  thus 
early  applied  by  Leeuwenhoek,  Malpighi,  Hook  and  Swammer- 
dam  to  the  study  of  animal  structure,  was  perfected  as  an 
instrument,  and  accomplished  for  sodogy  its  final*  and  most 
important  service.  The  perfecting  of  the  microaoope  led  to  a 
full  comprehension  of  the  great  doctrme  of  ocll<fitructure  and 
the  establishment  of  the  fact8-~(i)  that  «11  organisms  are  either 
single  corpuscles  (so-called  ceHs)  of  living  material  (microsoopic 
anteuUcuks,  ftc.)  or  are  built  up  of  an  immense  number  of  such 
units;  (3)  that  all  organisms  begin  their  individual  existence  as 
a  single  unit  or  corpuscle  of  living  substance,  which  multiplies 
by  binaiy  fission,  the  products  growing  in  size  and  multiplying 
•imilarly  by  binary  fission;  and  (3)  that  the  life  of  a  multi- 
cellular organism  b  the  sum  of  the  activities  of  the  corpuscular 
units  of  which  Jt  consists,  and  that  the  processes  of  life  must 
be  studied  in  and  their  explanation  obtained  from  an  under- 
standing of  the  chemical  and  physical  changes  which  go  on 
in  each  individual  corpuscle  or  unit  of  living  material  or 
protopksm. 

Meanwhile  the  astronomical  theories  of  development  of  the 
solar  system  from  a  gaseous  condition  to  its  present  ftun,  put 
forward  by  Kant  and  by  Laplace,  had  impressed  men  s  minds 
with  the  conception  of  a  general  movement  of  spon- 
taneous progress  or  development  In  all  nature.  The 
adence  of  geology  came  into  enstence,  and  the  whole 
panorama  of  successive  stages  of  the  earth's  history,  each  with 
its  distinct  population  of  strange  animals  and  ptents,  unlike 
those  of  the  present  day  and  simpler  in  proportion  as  they 
recede  into  the  past,  was  revealed  by  Cuvier,  Agueii  and  others. 
The  history  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  was  exphdned  by  LyeU  as 
due  to  a  process  of  skm  development,  in  order  to  effect  which 
he  colled  in  no  cataclysmic  agencies,  no  mysterious  forces  differ- 
hg  from  those  operating  at  the  present  day.  Thus  be  carried 
on  the  narrative  of  orderly  development  from  the  point  at  which 
it  was  left  by  Kant  and  Laplace— explaining  by  reference  to  the 
ascertained  laws  of  physics  and  chemistry  the  configuntion  of 
the  earth,  its  mountains  and  seas,  its  igneous  and  i^s  stratified 
rocks,  just' as  the  astronomers  had  explained  by  those  same 
laws  the  evolution  of  the  sun  and  pknets  from  diffused  gaseous 
matter  of  high  temperature.  The  suggestion  that  living 
things  must  also  he  included  in  thb  great  development  was 
obvious. 

The  delay  in  the  establishment  of  the  doctrine  of  organic 
evolution  was  due,  not  to  the  ignorant  and  unobservant,  but  to 
the  leaders  of  soological  and  bounical  sdence.  Knowing  the 
almost  endless  complexity  of  organic  structures,  realiring  that 
man  himself  with  all  the  mystery  of  his  life  and  consciousness 
must  be  induded  in  any  explanation  of  the  origin  of  living  things, 
they  preferred  to  regard  living  things  as  something  apart  from 


the  rest  of  aitiiie,  tpedally  cared  for,  tpedally  created  by  a 
Divine  Being.  Thus  it  was  that  the  so-called  "  Natur-philoso* 
phen  "  of  the  last  decade  of  the  i8th  century,  and 
their  successors  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th, 
found  few  adherenta  among  the  working  xoolo^sts 
and  botanists.  Lamarck,  Trevizanus,  Erasmus  Dar- 
win, Goethe,  and  Saint-Hilaire  preached  to  deaf  ears,  for  they 
advanced  the  theory  that  living  beings  had  developed  by  a  stow 
process  <^  transmutation  in  successive  generations  from  simpler 
ancestors,  and  in  the  beginning  from  simplest  formless  matter, 
without  being  able  to  demonstrate  any  existing  mechanical 
causes  by  which  such  development  must  necessarily  be  brought 
about.  They  were  met  by  the  criticism  that  possibly  such  a 
development  had  taken  place;  but,  as  no  one  could  show  as 
a  simirfe  fact  of  observation  that  it  had  taken  place^  nor  as  a 
result  of  legitimate  inference  that  it  must  have  taken  place,  it 
was  quite  as  likely  that  the  past  and  present  species  of  anisoala 
and  plants  had  been  separately  created  or  individually  brought 
into  exiatence  by  unknown  and  inacrutable  causes,  and  (it  was 
held)  the  truly  scientific  man  would  refuse  to  occupy  himself 
with  such  fancies,  whilst  ever  continuing  to  concern  himself 
with  the  observation  and  record  of  indisputable  facta.  The 
critics  did  weH;  for  the  **  Natur-philosophen,"  though  right 
in  their  main  conception,  were  premature. 

It  was  reserved  for  Charles  Darwin,  in  the  year  1859,  to 
place  the  whole  theory  of  organic  evolution  on  a  new  footing, 
and  by  his  diaooveiy  of  a  mechanical  cause  actually  ^arw^a 
existing  and  demonstrable  by  which  organic  evolution  4m 
must  be  brought  about,  entiR^  to  change  the  attitude  ef 
in  regard  to  it.  of  even  the  most  rigid  exponents  of 
the  scientific  method.  Darwin  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing the  doctrine  of  organic  evolution  l^  the  introduction 
into  the  web  of  the  soological  and  botanical  sciences  of  anew 
science.  The  subject-matter  of  this  new  science,  or  branch  of 
tnok>gical  science,  had  been  neglected:  it  did  not  form  pari  of 
the  studies  of  the  collector  and  ^jrstematist,  nor  waa  it  a  branch 
of  anatomy,  nor  of  the  physiology  pursued  by  medical  men, 
nor  again  was  it  included  in  the  field  of  microscopy  and  the  oelL- 
theory.  The  ana  of  biological  knowledge  which  Darwin  was 
the  first  to  subject  to  scientific  method  and  to  render,  as  it  were, 
contributory  to  the  great  stream  formed  by  the  union  of  tho 
various  branches,  is  that  which  relates  to  the  breeding  of  animals 
and  planta,  their  congenital  vaiiationa,  and  the  transmisaion 
and  perpetuation  of  those  variations.  This  branch  of  biological 
science  may  be  called  thremmatobgy  (Mm/m>  "  a  thing  bred  '*). 
Outside  the  scientific  world  an  immense  mass  of  observation 
and  experiment  had  grown  up  in  rebtion  to  this  subject.  From 
the  earliest  times  the  shepherd,  the  farmer,  the  horticulturist, 
and  the  "  fancier  "  had  for  practical  purposes  made  themselves 
acquainted  with  a  number  of  biological  laws,  and  successfully 
applied  them  without  exdting  more  than  an  occasional  notice 
from  the  academic  students  of  biology.  It  is  one  of  Darwin^ 
great  merits  to  have  made  use  of  these  observations  and  to  have 
formuhtcd  their  results  to  a  kurge  extent  as  the  laws  of  variation 
and  heredity.  As  the  breeder  selects  a  congenital  variation 
which  sttiu  his  requirements,  and  by  breeding  from  the  animab 
(or  pbnts)  exhibiting  that  variation  obtains  a  new  breed  specially 
characterized  by  that  variation,  so  in  nature  is  there  a  selection 
amongst  all  the  congenital  variations  of  each  generation  of  a 
species.  This  selection  depends  on  the  fact  that  more  young 
are  borii  than  the  natural  provision  of  food  will  support.  In 
consequence  of  this  excess  of  births  there  is  a  struggle  for 
existence  and  a  survival  of  the  fittest,  and  consequently  an 
ever-present  necessarily  acting  selection,  which  cither  maintains 
accurately  the  form  of  the  q>ecie8  from  generation  to  generation 
or  leads  to  its  modification  in  corre^x>ndence  with  changes  in 
the  surrounding  circumstances  which  have  rdation  to  its  fitness 
for  success  in  the  struggle  for  life. 

Darwin's  introduction  of  thremmatology  into  the  domain  of 
scientific  biology  was  accompanied  by  a  new  and  qiecial  de- 
velopment of  a  braiK:h  of  study  which  had  previously  been 
knowa  «s  teleology,  the  study  of  the  adaptation  of  oiganic 


t024 


ZOOLOGY 


pUSTORT 


stiiictures  to  the  service  of  tlie  organisms  In  which  they  occur. 
It  cannot  be  5&id  that  previously  to  Darwin  there  had  been, 
j^^jg  any  very  profound  study  of  teleology,  but  it  liad 
yghpmtat  been  the  delight  of  a  certain  type  of  mind — that  of 
•/teit**  the  lovers  of  nature  or  naturaJists  p<ur  excdknUt  as 
''^'  they  were  sometimes  termed — to  watch  the  habits 
of  living  animals  and  plants,  and  to  point  out  the  remarkable 
ways  in  which  the  structure  of  each  variety  of  organic  life  was 
adapted  to  Ihe  spedal  circumstances  of  life  of  the  variety  or 
sptat&.  The  astonishing  colours  and  grotesque  forms  of  some 
animals  and  plants  which  the  museum  soologists  gravdy  de- 
scribed  without  comment  were  shown  by  these  observers  of 
fiving  nature  to  have  their  significance  in  the  economy  of  the 
organism  possesmng  them;  and  a  general  doctrine  was  re- 
<ogni2ed,  to  the  effect  that  no  part  or  structure  of  an  organism 
h  without  definite  use  and  adaptation,  being  designed  by  the 
Creator  for  the  benefit  of  the  creature  to  which  it  belongs,  or 
ebe  for  the  benefit,  amusement  or  instruction  of  his  highest 
creature — man.  Teleology  in  this  form  of  the  doctrine  of  design 
iras  never  very  deeply  rooted  amongst  scientific  anatomists 
and  systematists.  It  was  considered  permissible  to  specidate 
somewhat  vaguely  on  the  subject  of  the  utility  of  this  or  that 
sttftling  variety  of  structure;  but  few  attempts,  though  some  of 
great  importance,  were  made  systematically  to  explain  by  obser* 
vation  and  experiment  the  adaptation  of  organic  structures  to 
particular  purposes  in  the  case  of  the  lower  animals  and  plants. 
Teleology  had,  indeed,  an  important  part  in  the  developrnent  of 
physiology — the  knowledge  of  the  mechanism,  the  physical 
and  chemical  properties,  of  the  parts  of  the  body  of  man  and 
the  higher  animals  allied  to  him.  But,  as  applied  to  fewer  and 
more  obscure  forms  of  life,  teleology  presented  almost  insur-, 
mountable  difficulties;  and  consequently,  in  pJace  of  exact 
experiment  and  demonstration,  the  most  reckless  though  in- 
genious assumptions  were  made  as  to  the  utility  of  the  parts 
and  organs  of  lower  animals.  Darwin's  theory  had  as  one  of  its 
results  the  reformation  and  rehabilitation  of  teleology.  Accord- 
ing to  that  theory,  every  organ,  every  part,  oolonr  and  pecu- 
liarity of  an  organism,  must  cither  be  of  benefit  to  that  or^uiism 
itself  or  have  been,  so  to  its  ancestors:*  no  peculiarity  of 
structure  or  general  conformation,  no  habit  or  instinct  in  any 
Organism,  can  be  supposed  to  exist  for  the  benefit  or  amusement 
of  another  organism,  not  even  for  the  delectation  of  man  him- 
self. Necessarily,  aocoiriing  to  the  theory  of  natural  selection, 
structures  either  are  present  because  they  are  sdected  as  useful 
or  because  they  are  still  hnherited  from  ancestors  to  whom  they 
were  useful,  though  no  longer  useful  to  the  existing  representa- 
tives of  those  ancestors.  Structures  previously  inexplicable 
were  now  otplaincd  as  survivals  from  a  past  age,  no  longer 
useful  though  once  of  value.  Every  variety  of  form  and  colour 
was  urgently  and  absolutely  called  upon  to  produce  its  title 
to  existence  either  as  an  active  useful  agent  or  as  a  survivaL 
Darwin  himself  q>ent  a  large  part  of  the  lator  yean  of  his  life 
in  thus  extending  the  new  teleology. 

The  old  doctrine  of  types,  which  wis  used  by  the  philo- 
sophically minded  zoolof^ists  (and  botanists)  of  the  first  half 

*  A  very  subtle  and  important  qualification  of  thb  generalization 
has  to  be  recoffiused  (and  was  rDcogniaed  by  Darwin)  in  the  fact 
that  owing  to  the  interdependence  of  the  parts  of  the  bodies  of  living 
thines  and  their  profound  chemical  interactions  and  peculiar  struc- 
tural balance  (what  is  called  or]g;anic  polarity)  the  variation  of  one 
single  part  (a  spot  of  colour,  a  tooth,  a  claw,  a  leaflet)  may,  and 
demonstrably  does  in  many  cases  entaU  variation  of  other  parts — 
what  are  called  correlaUd  variations.  Hence  many  structures  which 
are  obvious  to  the  eye,  and  serve  as  distinguishing  marks  of  separate 
species,  are  really  not  themselves  of  value  oruse,  but  are  the  necessary 
concomitants  of  less  obvious  and  even  altogether  obscure  qualities, 
which  are  the  real  characten  upon  which  sclectioa  is  acting.  Such 
"correlated  variatioas"  may  attain  to  great  size  and  complexity 
without  being  of  use.  But  eventually  they  ma^^'  in  turn  become, 
in  changed  conditions,  of  selective  value.  Thus  in  many  cases  the 
difficulty  of  supfxwing  that  selection  has  acted  on  minute  and 
'ImberoeptiUe  initial  variations,  so  small  as  to  have  no  adective 
value,  may  be  got  rid  of.  A  useless  "  correlated  variation  *^  may 
have  attamed  great  volume  and  quality  before  it  is  (as  it  were) 
•eized  upon  and  perfected  by  natural  selection.  All  organisms  are 
tiaiiy  and  necessarily  built  up  by  such  coprlattid  variatioM. 


of  the  xQth  cenCvy  ts  a  ready  neans  of  ekplainiac  the  Isfliues 
and  difficulties  of  the  doctrine  of  design,  fell  into  its  proper 
place  under  the  new  dispensation.  The  adhersnce  to  type^ 
the  favourite  conception  of  the  transcendental  morplMrfi^ist, 
was  seen  to  be  nothing  more  than  the  expression  of  one  of  the 
laws  of  thremmatology,  the  persistence  of  hereditaiy  tnw 
mission  of  ancestral  characters,  even  when  they  have  ceased 
to  be  signf ficsnt  or  valuable  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  whilst 
the  so-called  evidences  of  design  whidi  was  supposed  to  modify 
the  limitations  of  types  assigned  to  Himself  by  the  Creator  wen 
seen  to  be  adaptations  due  to  the  selection  and  intensification 
fay  selective  breeding  of  fortuitous  oongcaital  variations*  w^kh 
happened  to  prove  more  useful  than  the  many  thousand  othei 
Variations  which  did  not  survive  in  the  stnigi^e  for  eitistcnoe.  . 

Thus  not  only  did  Darwin's  theory  give  a  new  basis  to  the 
study  of  organic  structure,  but,  whilst  rendering  the  general 
theory  of  organic  evolution  eqtially  acceptable  and  g/i^g^^ 
necessary,  it  explained  the  existence  of  low  and  simple  oanrte's 
forms  of  life  as  survivals  of  the  earliest  ancestry  of 
more  highly  complex  forms,  and  revealed  the  clasa&-< 
fications  of  the  systematist  as  unconscious  attempts 
to  construct  the  genealogical  tree  or  pedigree  of  plants 
and  animals.  Finally,  it  brought  the  simplest  living  matter 
or  formless  protoplasm  before  the  mental  vision  as  the  starting- 
point  whence,  by  the  operiition  of  necessary  mechanical  cauBes» 
the  highest  forms  have  been  evolved,  and  it  rendered  unavoid- 
able the  conclusion  that  this  earliest  living  material  was  itself 
evolved  by  gradual  processes,  the  result  also  of  the  known  and 
recognised  laws  of  lAiysics  and  chemistry,  from  material  which 
we  ^ould  call  not  living.  It  abolished  the  conception  of  life 
as  an  entity  above  and  b^ond  the  common  propertKS  of  matter, 
and  led  to  the  omviction  that  the  marvellous  and  exceptional 
qualities  of  that  which  we  call.  "  living  "  matter  are  nothing 
more  nor  less  than  an  exceptionally  complicated  development 
of  those  chemical  and  physical  properties  which  we  recognize 
in  a  gradually  ascending  scale  of  evolution  in  the  carbon  com- 
pounds, containing  nitrogen  as  weU  as  ox3^n,  sulphur  and 
hydrogen  as  constituent  atoms  of  their  enormous  molecules, 
llnis  mysticism  was  finally  banished  from  the  domain  of 
biology,  and  zoology  became  one  of  the  physical  sdentes — the 
science  which  seeks  to  arrange  and  discuss  the  phenomena  of 
animal  life  and  form,  as  the  outcome  of  the  operation  of  the 
laws  of  physics  and  chemistiy. 

A  subdivision  of  aoology  which  was  at  one  time  in  favour 
is  simply  into  morphology  and  physiology,  the  study  of  form 
and  structure  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  stady  of  y^rj- 
the  activities  and  functions  of  the  forms  and  structures  •/  «••- 
on  the  other.  But  a  logical  division  like  this  Is  not  'vr* 
necessarily  conducive  to  the  ascertainment  and  remembrance 
of  the  historical  progress  and  present  significance  of  the  science. 
No  such  distinction  of  mental  activities  as  that  involved  in  the 
division  of  the  study  of  animal  life  into  morphology  and  physio- 
logy has  ever  really  existed:  the  investigator  of  animal  forms 
has  never  entirely  ignored  the  functions  of  the  forms  studied 
by  him,  and  the  experimental  inquirer  into  the  functions  and 
properties  of  animal  tissues  and  organs  has  always  taken  very 
careful  account  of  the  forms  of  those  tissues  and  organs.  A  more 
instructive  subdivision  must  be  one  which  corresponds  to  the 
separate  currents  of  thought  and  mental  preoccupation  which 
have  been  historically  manifested  in  western  Europe  in  the 
gradual  evolution  of  what  is  to-day  the  great  river  of  xoological 
doctrine  to  which  they  have  all  been  rendered  contributory. 

It  must  recognise  the  following  five  branches  of  zoological 
study: — 

I.  Mor^kograpky,-^Tht  work  of  the  collector  and  systematlstt 
exemplified  by  Linnaeus  and  his  predecessors,  by  Cuvicr, 
Agassis,  HaeckeL 

3.  ^MiMfMCJ.— The  kne  of  the  farmer^  gardener,  sportsman, 
fancier  and  field-naturalist,  including  thremmatology,  or 
the  science  of  breeding,  and  the  allied  tcIeolog)r,  or  »dcnee 
of  organic  adaptations:  exemplified  by  the  patriareh  Jacob, 
the  poet  Viigii,  SprengeU  Kufay  and  Spenoe.  Wallace  and 


CLASSIFICATION] 


ZOOLOGY 


3.  Zoo-Dynamics,  Zoo-PkysieSt  Zoo-Cktmistry.—llc  pursuit  of 

the  learned  phyadan, — anatomy  and  physiology:  .^em* 
pliiied  by  Harvey,  Haller,  Hunter.  Johann  MQlier. 

4.  Plasmdogy^jr—The  ttiidy  of  the  ultimate  corpuodes  of  living 

matter,  their  structure,  development  and  properties)  by  the 
aid  of  the  microGcope;  exemplified  by  Malpighi,  Hook. 
Schwann,  Kowalewsky. 

5.  Philosophical  Zootofy.— General  conceptions  with  regard  to  the 

velatioos  of  Uvtag  tJiiiws  (especially  animals)  to  the  aniverse, 
to  nan,  and  to  the  Creator,  their  orinn  and  significance: 
exemplified  in  the  writings  of  the  philosophers  of  classical 
antiquity,  and  of  Linnaeus,  Goethe,  Lanuuck.  Cuvier,  Lyell, 
H.  Spencer  and  Darwin. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  follow  in  this  article  all  these  subjects, 
since  they  are  for  Lhe  most  put  treated  under  separate  headings, 
not  indeed  under  these  names — which  are  too  comprehensive 
for  that  purpose — but  under  those  of  the  more  specific  questions 
which  arise  under  each.  Thus  Bionomics  is  treated  in  such 
utides  as  EvotUTiON,  HutCDrrv,  Variation,  Mendeush,  Rs- 
PRODUcnoir,  Sex,  &c.;  Zoo-dynamics  under  Medicine,  Susgery, 
Physiology,  Anatomy,  Embryology,  and  allied  articles;  Plas- 
mology  under  Cytology,  Protoplasm,  &c.;  and  PkUosopkical 
Zoology  under  numerous  headings,  EvoLimoic,  Biology,  &c. 
See  also  Zoological  DbtributioNi  Palabontology,  Oceano- 
graphy, Microtomy,  &c. 

It  will  be  more  appropriate  here,  without  giving  what  would 
be  a  needless  repetition  of  considerations,  both  historical  and 
tbeor^ical,  which  appear  in  other  artides,  to  confine  oursdves 
to  two  general  questions,  (i)  the  history  of  the  various  schemes 
of  classification,  or  Aforphoprapky,  and  (2)  the  consideration  of 
the  main  tendencies  in  the  study  of  zoology  since  Darwin. 

Systems  or  CLASsincATioN 

Morphography  indudes  the  systematic  ezplontbn  and 
tabulation  of  the  facts  involved  in  the  recognition  of  aU  the 
recent  and  extinct  kinds  of  animals  and  their  distribution  in 
space  and  time,  (i)  The  museum-makers  of  old  days  and  their 
BAOdem  representatives  the  curators  and  describers  of  zoo- 
logical collections,  (a)  early  explorers  and  modem  naturalist- 
travellers  and  writers  <m  zoo-geogrephy,  and  (3)  collectors  of 
fossils  and  palaeontologists  are  the  dilk  varieties  of  zoological 
wotten  coming  vnder  this  head.  Gradually  since  the  time 
of  Hunter  and  Cuvier  anatomical  study  has  associated  itself 
with  the  more  superfidal  morphography  until  to-day  no  one 
oonsiden  a  study  of  animal  form  of  any  value  which  does 
not  indude  internal  structure,  histology  and  embryology  in 
ita  scope. 

The  real  dawn  of  zoology  after  the  legendary  period  of  the 
middle  ages  is  connected  with  the  name  of  an  Englishman, 
Edward  Wotton,*bom  at  Oxford  in  149a,  who  practised 
as  a  physician  in  London  and  died  in  1555.  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  De  differontUs  animalisim  at  Paris  in  1552.  In 
many  respects  Wotton  was  simply  an  exponent  of  Aristotle, 
whose  teaching,  with  various  fanciful  additions,  constituted 
the  real  basis  of  zoological  knowledge  throughout  the  middle 
ages.  It  was  Wotton's  merit  that  he  rejected  the  legendary 
and  fantastic  accretions,  and  returned  to  Aristotle  and  the 
observation  of  nature. 

The  most  ready  means  of  noting  the  progress  of  zoology 
during  the  i6th,  17th  and  x8th  centuries  is  to  compare  the 
ArMoOe'B  dassificatory  conceptions  of  successive  naturalists 
with  those  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  works  of 
Aristotle  himself.  Aristotle  did  not  definitely  and  in 
tabular  form  propound  a  classification  of  animals,  but  from 
ft  study  of  his  treatises  Hisloria  animaliuMt  De  generatione 
animalium,  and  De  pcrtibus  animalium  the  following  dassi* 
ficalion  can  be  arrived  at:*- 

A.  'gftim.  Uood>holdiog  aniaMils  <-  Vert^ata). 

I.  ZMOTMoDKra  If  olrdtc,  viviparous  Bnaoma  (■■Mammals,  in- 
cluding the  Whale). 

a.  'Ofimtts  (-Birds). 

3.  Ttrpk-nia.  4  i'of*  AoroMBCrra,  four-footed  or  legless  Enaema 
which  lay  egp  (^  Reotiles  and  Ampkibia). 


1025 

B.  'Avv^Ok  bloodhm  ttrimab  (»fanitrtwte). 

1.  MiJUUia.  •oCt4K)died  Awtema  (  «  Cephaiopoda). 

2.  iiaXvtdarpvtmt  soft-«heUed  Amuma  (— OiufocM). 

3.  tnotui,   insected   Anaema  or  Insects    i^Artiropoda,  ex* 
durive  of  Crustacea). 

4.  '(WrpMoMp^ra,  thdl-bearing  Anaesna  i^Eckinit. Gastropoda 
and  Lameilibramjtia). 

Wotton  follows  Aristotle*  in  the  division  of  animals  into  the 
Enaema  and  the  Anacma,  and  in  fact  in  the  recognition  of  aU 
the  groups  above  given,  adding  only  one  large  group 
to  those  recognized  by  Aristotle  under  the  AnaemOf 
namdy,  the  group  of  Zoophyla,  in  which  Wottoo 
indudes  the  Bohthuriae,  Star-Fishes,  Medusae^  Sea-Anemonea 
and  Sponges.  Wotton  divides  the  viviparous  quadrupeds  into 
the  many-toed,  double-hoofed  and  single-hoofed.  By  the 
introduction  of  a  method  of  daasification  which  was  due  to  the 
superfidal  Pliny — depending,  "not  on  structure,  but  on  the 
medium  inhabited  by  an  animal,  whether  earth,  air  or  water — 
Wotton  is  led  to  associate  Fishes  and  Whales  as  aquatic  animals. 
But  this  is  only  a  momentary  lapse,  for  be  broadly  distin- 
guishes  the  two  lunds. 

The  Swiss  professor,  Foniad  Gesner  (15x6-1565),  is  the  most 
voluminous  and  instructive  of  these  earliest  writen  on  sys- 
tematic zoology,  and  was  so  highly  esteemed  that 
his  Historia  animalium  was  republished  a  hundred 
years  after  his  death.  His  great  work  appeared  in  successive 
parts — e*g.  Vivipara^  ovipara,  ases,  pisces,  serpenies  et  scarpio 
— and  contains  descriptions  and  illustrations  of  a  large  ntunber 
of  animal  forms  with  reference  to  the  lands  inhabited  by  them. 
Gcsner's  work,  like  that  of  John  Johnstone  (b.  1603),  wbo  was 
of  Scottish  descent  and  studied  at  St  Andrews,  and  like  that 
of  Ulysses  Aldrovandi  of  Bologna  (b.  1522),  was  essentially  a 
compilation,  more  or  less  critical,  of  all  such  records,  pictures 
and  relations  concerning  beasts,  birds,  reptiles,  fishes  and 
monsters  as  could  be  gathered  together  by  one  reading  in  the 
great  libraries  of  Europe,  travelling  from  city  to  dty,  and  fre- 
quenting the  company  of  those  who  either  had  themsdves 
passed  into  distant  lands  or  possessed  the  letters  written  and 
sometimes  the  specimens  brought  home  by  adventurous  persons. 

The  exploration  of  parts  of  the  New  World  next  brought  to 
hand  descriptions  and  specimens  of  many  novel  forms  of  animal 
life,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  i6th  century  and  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  that  careful  study  by  "  spedal- 
ists  '*  of  the  structure  and  life-history  of  particular 
groups  of  animals  was  commenced,  which,  directed 
at  first  to  common  and  familiar  kinds,  was  gradually 
extended  until  it  fonued  a  sufficient  body  of  knowledge  to  serve 
as.  an  anatomical  basis  for  classification.  This  minuter  study 
had  two  origins,  one  in  the  researches  of  the  medical  anatomists, 
such  as  Fabridus  (i 537-1619),  Severinus  (1580-1656),  Harvey 
(i 578-1657),  and  Tyson  (1649-1708),  the  other  in  the  careful 
work  of  the  entomologists  and  first  mlcroscopistSi  such  a» 
Malpighi  (1628-1694),  Swammerdam  (1637-1680),  and  Hook 
(1635-1702).  The  commencement  of  anatomical  investiga- 
tions deserves  notice  here  as  influencing  the  general  accuracy 
and  minuteness  with  which  zoological  work  was  prosecuted, 
but  it  was  not  until  a  late  date  that  their  full  influence  was 
brou^t  to  bear  upon  systematic  zoology  by  Georges  Cuvier 
(1769-1832). 

The  most  prominent  name  between  that  of  Gesner  and 
Linnaeus  in  the  history  of  systematic  zoology  is  that  of  John 
Ray  (i638-x?05).    A  chief  merit  of  Ray  is  to  have     Jokm 
limited  Che  term  "  species  "  and  to  have  assigned  to     A^i^ 
it  the  significance  which  it  bore  till  the  Darwinian  era,  whereas 
previously  it  was  koaely  and  vaguely  applied.    He  also  made 

*  U  we  remember  that  by  "  blood  "  Artstotle  understood  '*  red 
blood,"  and  that  he  did  not  know  of  the  existence  of  colourieas 
blood,  his  primary  division  b  not  a  bad  one.  One  can  imagine 
the  interest  and  astonishment  with  which  the  great  Greek  would 
have  bees  filled  had  some  unduly  precodous  disdple  shown  to  him 
the  red-blood-system  of  the  marine  terrestrial  Annelids:  the  red 
blood  of  Planorhis,  of  Apus  cancrijormist  and  of  the  Mediteisaocaa 
razor  sheQ.  5tolcii  legumen. 


1026 


ZOOLOGY 


tCLASSIFICATlON 


considerable  use  of  snatomlcal  dwncten  in  his  definitions 
of  larger  groups,  and  may  thus  he  considered  as  the- father  of 
modem  zoology.  Associated  with  Ray  in  his  woric,  and  more 
especially  occupied  with  the  study  of  the  Worms  and  UoUusca, 
was  Martin  Lister  (i63a-z7X2),  celebrated  also  as  the  author 
of  the  first  geological  map. 

After  Ray's  death  the  progress  of  anatomical  knowledge, 
and  of  the  discovery  and  illustration  of  new  forms  of  animal  life 
Pnm  from  distant  lands,  continued  with  increasing  vigour. 
Bajrt^  We  note  the  names  of  Vallisnieri  (166X-X730)  and 
LJaaMM.  Alexander  Monro  (i697-'X767);  the  travellers  Toume- 
fort  (16S6-X708)  and  Shaw  (x69a-i75i);  the  collectors 
Rumphius  (1637-1706)  and  Hans  Sloane  (X660-X753);  the 
entomologist  R£aumur  (1683-1757);  Lhwyd  (1703)  and  Linck 
(1674-X734),  the  studenU  of  Star-Fishes;  Peyssond  (b.  X694), 
the  investigator  of  Polyps  and  the  opponent  of  Marsigli  and 
Reaumur,  who  held  them  to  be  plants;  Woodward,  the 
palaoDntotogist  (1665-1722) — ^not  to  speak  of  others  of  less 
importance. 

Two  years  after  Ray's  death  Carl  Linnaeus  (Z707-X778)  was 
bom.  Unlike  Jacob  Theodore  Klein  (1685-X759),  whose  careful 
treatises  on  various  groups  of  plants  and  animals  were 
published  during  the  period  between  Ray  and  Lin- 
naeus, the  latter  had  his  career  marked  out  for  him  in  a 
university,  that  of  Upsala,  where  he  was  first  professor  of 
medicine  and  subsequently  of  natural  history.  His  lectures 
formed  a  new  departure  in  the  academic  treatment  of  zoology 
and  botany,  which,  in  direct  continuity  from  the  middle  ages, 
had  hitherto  been  subjected  to  the  traditions  of  the  medical 
profession  and  regarded  as  mere  branches  of  "  materia.medica." 
Linnaeus  taught  zoology  and  botany  as  branches  of  knowledge 
to  btf  studied  for  their  own  intrinsic  interest  His  great  work, 
the  Systema  naturae,  ran  through  twelve  editions  during  his 
lifetime  (ist  ed.  1735,  12th  1768).  Apart  from  his  special  dis- 
coveries in  the  anatomy  of  plants  and  animals,  and  his  descrip- 
tions of  new  species,  the  great  merit  of  Linnaeus  was  his  intro- 
duction of  a  method  of  enumeration  and  classification  which 
may  be  said  to  have  created  systematic  zoology  and  botany 
in  their  present  form,  and  establishes  his  name  for  ever  as  the 
great  organizer,  the  man  who  recognized  a  great  practical  want 
in  the  use  of  language  and  sup|)lied  it.  Linnaeus  adopted  Ray's 
omception  of  species,  but  he  made  spedes  a  practical  reality 
by  insisting  that  every  ^>ecies  shall  have  a  double  Latin  name 
— the  first  half  to  be  the  name  of  the  genus  common  to  several 
spedes,  and  the  second  half  to  be  the  specific  name.  Previously 
to  Linnaeus  long  many-worded  names  had  been  used,  sometimes 
with  one  additioi^al  adjective,  sometimes  with  another,  ao  that 
no  true  names  were  fixed  and  accepted.  Linnaeus  .by  lus 
binomial  system  made  it  possible  to  write  and  spea^c  with 
accuracy  of  any  given  spedes  of  plant  or  animal.  He  was,  in. 
fact,  the  Adam  of  zoological  science.  He  proceeded  further' 
to  introduce  into  his  enumeration  of  animals  and  plants  a  series 
of  groups,  viz.  genus,  order,  class,  which  he  compared  to  the 
subdivisions  of  an  amiy  or  the  subdivisions  of  a  territory,  the 
greater  containing  several  of  the  less,  as  follows: — 

Variety. 
Individuum. 


Clan. 
Genus  sum* 

mum. 
Provihcta. 
Legio. 


Order.  Genus.  Species. 

Genus  inter-  Genus  proxi-  Species. 

medium.        mum. 
Territorium.  Paroccia.        Pagus.  Domidlium. 

Cohors.         Manipulus,    Contubemium.  Miles. 


Linnaeus  himself  recognized  the  purely  subjective  character 
of  his  larger  groups;  for  him  spedes  were,  however,  objective: 
*'  there  are,  "  he  said,  "  just  so  many  spedes  as  in  the  begiiming 
the  Infinite  Bdng  created."  It  was  reserved  for  a  philosophic 
zoologist  of  the  19th  century  (Agassis,  Essay  on  ClassifictUion, 
1859)  to  maintain  that  genus,  order  and  class  were  also  ob-^ 
jective  facts  capable  of  predse  estimation  and  valuation.  This 
dimax  was  reached  at  the  very  moment  when  Darwin  was 
publishing  the  Origin  of  Species  (1859),  by  which  nniversal 
opinion  has  been  brought  to  the  position  that  spedes,  as  wdl 
as  genera,  orden  and  classes,  are  the  subjective  expressions  of 


a  vast  ramifying  pedigree  in  which  the  only  objective  existences 
are  individuals,  the  apparent  spedes  as  well  as  hi^ier  groups 
being  marked  out,  not  by  any  distributive  law,  but  by  the  inter- 
action of  living  matter  and  its  physical  environment,  causing 
the  persistence  of  lome  forms  and  the  destruction  of  vast  series 
of  ancestral  intermediate  kinds. 

The  classification  of  Linnaeus  (from  Sysi.  Nat.,  xath  ed., 
1766)  should  be  compared  with  that  of  Aristotle.    It 
is  as  follows — the  complete  list  of  Linnaean  genera 
bdng  here  rq>roduced: — 

Class  I.  Mammalia. 
Order  i.  Primates. 

Genem:  iFdNii^,  Simia^  Lemttr,  YespertOU, 
„      2.  Bruta. 

Gtnen:  EU^kaSf   Trickecus,  Bradypus,  Myrm^ 
cophaga.  Mams,  Dasypus. 
„      3.  Ferae. 

Genera:  Pkoca,  Camis,  Felts,   Vinerro,  MnsUU, 
Ursus,  Didelpkys,  Talpa,  Sarex,  Ernucems. 
„      4.  Gires. 

Genera:  Hystrix,  tepHs,  Castor,  Mus,  Scivrus, 
Noctilie. 
pt     5*  Pecora. 

Genera:  Camdus,  Uosdats,  Cerwus,  Capra,  Otis, 
Bos. 
„      6.  Belluae. 

Genera:  Eguus,  Hippopotamus,  Sus,  Bkinoceros, 
..      7-  C3rt«. 

Genera:  Monoitm,  Bakeua,  Pkyseter,  Ddphmmu 

Class  II.  AvBs. 

Order  i.  Auipitres. 

Genera:  VuUur,  Fako,  Strix,  Lanims, 
„     2.  Picae. 

.    Genera:  (a)  TrockUus,  Certkia,  Upupa,  Bupkaga, 
SiUa,  Orielus,  Ceraeias,  Gracula,  Corns,  Poro- 
disea;  {t)  RamPkastcs,  Trogon,  Psittaau,  CrolO' 
phaga,  Picus,  Yunx,  Cuctdus,  Bucco;  (f)  JBms- 
ros,  Alcedo,  Merops,  Toios. 
Anseref. 
Genera:   (a)  Anas,   Merfus,  PhaeOum,  Plofus; 
(6)    Rkyncops,    Viomedea,.  Alca,   Procellaria, 
Pelecanus,  torus.  Sterna,  Colymbus, 
GraUae. 
Genera:  (a)  Pkoewicopterus;  Ptalalea,  Palamedea, 
Mycterta,  TankUus,  Ardea,  Xeeurmrosim,  Scot^^ 
pax,  Tringa.  Fulica,  Parra,  RaUus.  Peopkia, 
Cancroma;  (5)    Hematopus,   Ckaradrius,  (Mi« 
Strutkio. 
GaUinae. 
Genera:  Didus,  Pa9o,  Mdeoffis,  Cfox,  Pkasimms, 
TetraOf  Nutmda, 
„      6.  Passeres. 

Genera:    (a)    Lmna,    Fring^a,    £mberita;    (b) 
'  Caprimutgns,    Hirundo,    Pipra;    {fi)    Turdus, 
Ampdis,    Tanagra,    Musdeapa;    (il)    Poms, 
UotaciUa,  Aiauda,  Stunuts,  Column 

Class  III.  Ampbibxa. 
Order  i.  HeptiUa, 

uenera :  Testudo,  Draco,  Lacerta,  Basta. 
.,      3.  Serfenles. 

Gienera:  Crolalus,  Boa,  Coluber,  Anguis,  Ampkis^ 

Nantes. 
Genera:  Pdromyton,  Raja,  Sgualus,  Ckimaera, 
Lopkius,  Acipenser,  Cyclo^erus,  Balisles,  Os- 
tracion,    Tetrodon,    Dtodon,    Centiscus,    Syn- 
gnaikus,  Pegftsuf^ 

Class  IV.Pisois. 
Order  i.  Apodes. 

Cenera:  Muraena,  Gymnolsts,  TricMunts,  Aiur* 
rhiehas,    AmmodyUs,    Opkidium, 
Xipkias, 
w     a.  Jufularn. 

Cenera:   CalUonymsu,   UramnnpuSt 
Gadus,  Blennius. 
V      3.  Tkoracid. 

Genera:  Cepola,  JScheneis,  Corypiutena,  Cotems, 
Cottus,  Scorpaena,  Zeus,  Pleuronectes.Ckaetodon, 
Spams,  Labrus,  Seiaena,  Peremt  Castenosieus, 
Scomber,  UuUus,  Trigfa. 
Abdominaies. 
Genera:  CobKs,  Amia,  SOmnts,  ZeuOis,  Leri' 
carta,  Salmo,  Fishdeiria,  Esox,  Elope,  Argtn- 
tina,  Alkerina,  Mu^,  Mormyrms,  ~ 
Polynenuts,  Oupea,  CyprtmnM, 


n       3' 


f      4- 


tt     5* 


•> 


n 


CLASSIFICATION] 


ZOOLOGY 


1027 


OftM  V.  Insbcta. 

Order  1.  CoUoptera. 

Genera:  Cs)  SearabatuM,  Lmcamtt,  Dgrmestes, 
HiOer,  Byrrkus,  Gyrinnu,  AttekUms,  Curadio, 
Sapka,  Cocein^;  (b)  Bruckus,  Casstda,  PUnus, 
Clvrysomda,  Bispa,  Meh^.  Taubrio,  Lampyris, 
Morddkit  Stapf^inus;  (e)  Cenmbyx,  Lepiura 
Cantkaris,  Elater,  Cieimdelo,  Bupr$$Us,  Dytiscm, 
Carabmt  NscydaliSt' Forfic$$la. 
w      3.  BemipUra, 

Genera:  BlaUa,  Mantis,  CryUtu,  Fuljomt  Cicada, 
Notoneeia,  Ntpa,  Cimex,  Aphis,  Ckermes,  Coc- 
cus, TMps. 
n     3^  LepidopUra, 

Genera:  Papilio,  Sphinx,  PhaJoiena, 
n      4.  NturopUra. 

Genera:  Libdhda,^  Ephemera,  Myrmdeent  Pkry- 
ganea,  Bemerobius,  Panorpa,  Rapkidia. 
H      5.  Bymenoptera. 

Genera:   Cynips,   Tenihndo,   Sinx,   Ichneumbn, 
Sphex,  Chrysis,  Vcspa,  Apis,  Formica,  MuHOa. 
„     6.  Diptera, 

Genera:  Oestms,  Tipida,  Mnsca,  Tdbanns,  Ctdex, 
Empis,  ConopSf  AsUus,  Bombyiius,  Bippcbosca. 
„     7.  Aplera. 

Genera:  (a)  Petfibus  tex;  capite  ■  thorace  dis- 
creto:  Lepisma^  PoduMt  Termes,  PedUn- 
InSj  PtUex. 
(&)Pedibus  S-14;  capite  thoraceque  onitis: 
Aearus,  Phaiangtnm,  Aranea,  Scorpio, 
Cancer,  Monoculus,  Oniscus. 
(c)  Pedlbus  pluribus;  capite  a  thorace  diacreto: 
Scoiopendra,  Julus. 

Class  VI.  VsRifBS. 
Order  i.  inUstina, 

Genera:   (a)   Pertnaa  laterali  poro:  Lmnbricus, 
SippMCvlus,  Pasciola. 
(6)  Impcrforata   poro  laterali   nullo:  Cordius, 
Ascaris,  Hiritdo,  Myxine. 
H     ar.  MoUusca. 

Genera:    (a)    Ore    aupero;    bast    ae    affigcns: 
AcUntOjAscidia. 
(&)  Ore  antico;  corpore  pcrtuso  lateral!  forar 

minulo:  Limax,  Aplysta,  Doris,  Telhu. 
(c)  Ore    antico;     corpore     tentaculis    antice 

cincto:  Hololhuria,  Terebella, 
(d^  Ore    antioo;    corpore    brachiato:    Triton, 

Sepia,  Clio,  Lernaea,  Scyilaea, 
(e)  Ore   antico;   corpore    pedato:    Apkrodiia, 

Nereis. 
(/)  Ore     infero    ceatrali:     Medusa,    Astoria, 
Echinus, 
«t     3.  Testacea. 

Genera:  (a)  Multivahia:  Chiton,  Lepas,  Photos 

ib)  Bivalvia  {^Conchae).  Mya,  Solen,  TeUtma, 

Cardtum,    Mactra,    Donax,  Venus,  SpoU' 

(Mus,    Chama,    Area,    Ostrea,    Anomta, 

M^ilus,  Ptnna, 

(c)  Univalvia  spira  rcg}ilan  (^  Cochleae)  lArgo- 

nauia.  Nautilus,  Conus,  Cypraea,  BvUa, 
Voluta^  Buccinum,  Stromhus,  Murex, 
Trochus,  Turbo,  Hdix,  Nerita,  Haliotis. 

(d)  Univalvia   absque   spira  regulari:  Patella, 

Dentalium,  Serpula,  Teredo,  Sabella. 
„     4.  JMhophyta. 

Genera;  Tubipora,  Madrepora,  MUUpora,  Celle^ 
pora. 
M      5.  Zoophyta. 

Genera:  (a)  Fixata*  Isis,  Corgonia,  Atcyonium, 
Sfongta,     Flustra,    Tubulana,    Corailtna, 
5lertiuana,  VorticfUa. 
{h)  Locomotiva :    Hydra,    Pennatula,    Taenta, 
Vidvox,  Furxa,  Chaos, 

Hie  characters  of  the  six  classes  are  thus  given  by  Linnaeus: — ^ 

CorbiToculare,  biauritum;  >  viviparis,  A/ammo/ifttu^ 

Sanguine  calido,  rubro:  S  oviparis.  Ambus, 

Cor  unilocubre,  uniauritura ;  *  >  pulmonc  arbitrario,  Amphibiis; 

Sanguine  frigido,  rubro:  )  branchiis  extemis,  Puctbus, 

Cor  unilocular^  inauritum;  I  antennatb, /irfer/M; 


Sanie  frigida.  albida. 


tentaculatis.  Vermtbus. 


*  The  anatomical  error  in  reference  to  the  aunclcs  of  Reptiles  and 
Batrachians  on  the  part  of  Linnaeus  is  extremely  interestmg.  smce 
it  ahoi»B  to  «Hiat  an  extent  the  most  patent  facts  may  escape  the 
observation  of  even  the  greatest  observers,  and  what  an  amoont 
of  repeated  dissection  and  unprejudiced  attention  has  been  necessary 
befon  the  structure  of  the  commonest  animals  has  become  known.    * 


Between  Limnaif  and  Cuvfer  there  tre  no  very  grett  names; 
but  under  the  stimulus  given  by  the  admirable  method  and 
system  of  Linnaeus  observation  and  description  Prom 
of  new  forms  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  both  Ummamo 
recent  and  fossil,  accumulated.  We  can  only  dte  the  *•  <«'*«■• 
names  of  Charles  Bonnet  (1720-1793),  the  entomologist,  who 
described  the  reproduction  of  Aphis;  Banks  and  Solander, 
who  accompanied  Captain  Cook  on  his  first  voyage(i768  -1771); 
Thomas  Pennant  (X736-X798),  the  describer  of  the  Engli^ 
fauna;  Peter  Simon  Pallas  (x74x-i8ix),  who  specially  extended 
the  knowledge  of  the  Linnaean  Vermes,  and  under  the  patronage 
of  the  empress  Catherine  explored  Russia  and  Siberia;  De  Geer 
(x 720-1778),  the  entomologist;  Lyonnet  (X707-X789),  the 
author  of  Uie  monograph  of  the  anatomy  of  the  caterpillar  of 
Cessus'  lipriperdus;  Cavolim  (X756-X810),  the  Neapolitan 
marine  zoologist  and  forerunner  of  Delia  Chiaje  (fl.  1828); 
O.  F.  Mdller  (i  730-1 784),  the  describer  of  fresh-water  Ofi^t^cAtff  to; 
Abraham  Trembley  (x 700-1784),  the  student  of  Hydiis;  and 
O.  F.  LedermUller  (1719-1769),  the  inventor  of  the  term  In- 
fusoria.  The  effect  of  tiie  Linnaean  system  upon  the  general 
conceptions  of  zoologists  was  no  less  marked  than  were  its 
results  in  the  way  of  stimulating  the  accumulation  of  accurately 
observed  details.  The  notion  of  a  seala  naturae,  which  had 
»nce  the  days  of  classical  antiquity  been  a  part  of  the  general 
philosophy  of  nature  amongst  those  who  occupied  themselves 
with  such  conceptions,  now  took  a  more  definite  form  in  the 
minds  of  skilled  zoologists.  The  q)ecie8  of  Linnaeus  were 
supposed  to  represent  a  series  of  steps  in  a  scale  of  ascending 
complexity,  and  it  was  thought  possible  thus  to  arrange  the 
animal  kingdom  in  a  single  series — the  orders  within  the  classes 
succeeding  one  another  in  regular  gradation,  and  the  dassea 
succeeding  one  another  in  a  simflar  rectilinear  progression. 

J.  B.  P.  de  Lamarck  (1744-1829)  represents  most  completely, 
both   by   his  development    theory  (to  be   further  t«safcft*a 
mentioned  below)  and  by  his  scheme  of  dassifica-  ot—M' 
tion,  the    high-water    mark    of    the    popular    but  *■"••• 
falUidouS  conception  of  a  scala  naturae.     His  classification 
(i8ot-x8x2)  is  as  follows: — 

Isveztebrata« 

1.  Apathetic  Animals. 

Class  I.  Infusoria. 

Orders:  Nuda,  Appendicidata. 
Class  II.  Polypi. 

Orders:  Ciliatt  (Rotifera),  Denudati  (Hydioids),  Vag^ 
natt  (Artthotoa  una  Poiysoa),  Natantes  (Crinoids). 
Class  HI.  Radiaria. 

Orders:  Mollut  {Acalephae),  Echinoderma  (tocluding 
Actinuu). 

Class  IV.  TUNICATA. 

Orders:  BolhryUaria,  Ascidia. 
Class  V.  Ver¥BS. 

Orders:  Molles  (Tape- Worms  and  Flukei).  Rigiduli 

fNematoids),  Buptduli    {Nais,    &c.).    Epitoartae 

(Lemaeans,  &c.). 

2,  Sensitive  A  ntmals. 

Class  VI   Insecta  {Hexapoda). 

Orders:    Aptera,    Dtptera,    Bemtptera,    Leptdoptera, 
Hvmenoptera,  Neuroplera,  OrthopUra,  Colcoptera. 
Class  VI I.  Arachnida. 

Orders;     Antennato-Trachealui     ("Thysanura     and 
Mynaboda),  Exantennato-Trachealui,  Exantennato- 
Branckuxlia. 
Class  VllI  Crustacea. 

Orders:  Heterobranchia  (Bmnchiopoda,  Jsopoda.  Am- 
phtpodOj  Stomapoda),  Homobranchta  {Decapoda). 
Class  IX.  Annelida. 

Orders.  Apoda,  Antennata,  Sedentaria. 

Class  X.  CiRRIPEDIA. 

Orders:  Sessilia,  Pedunculata. 

Class  XI    CONCHIFERA, 

Orders:  Dimyaria,  Monomyaria. 
Class  XII.  MoLLUscA. 

Orders.  Pteropoda,  Gasteropoda,  Trachdipoda,  Cepha- 
lopoda, Heteropoda.' 


Vertsbrata. 

3.  Intdliient  Animals. 
CUss  Xlfl.  Fishes. 
..    XIV.  Rbptues. 


Class  XV.  Birds. 
.<  XVLMamkau. 


I028 


ZOOLOGY 


The  eniuneration  of  ordeis  above  giTen  viU  enable  the  reader 
to  form  some  conception  of  the  progress  of  knowledge  relating 
to  Uie  lower  forms  of  life  during  the  fifty  odd  yean  which  inter- 
vened between  Linnaeus  and  I^amarck.  The  number  of  genera 
leoQ^nized  by  Lamarck  is  more  than  tea  times  as  great  aa  that 
recorded  by  Linnaeus. 

We  have  mentioned  Lamarck  befqje  his  great  oonteaiporaiy 
Cuvier  because,  in  spite  of  bis  valuable  philosophical  doctrine 
of  development,  he  was,  as  compared  with  Cuvier  and  estimated 
as  a  systematic  zoologist,  a  mere  enlargement  and  logical  out- 
come of  Linnaeus. 

The  distinctive  merit  of  G.  L.  Cuvier  (1769-1832)  is  that  he 
started  a  new  view  as  to  the  relationship  of  animals,  which  he 
C^fgf^  may  be  said  in  a  large  measure  to  have  demon- 
strated as  true  by  his  own  anatomical  researches.  He 
opposed  the  scala  naturae  theory,  and  recognized  four  distinct 
and  divergent  branches  or  embranckemens,  as  he  called  them, 
in  each  of  which  he  arranged  a  certain  number  of  the  Linnaean 
classes,  or  similar  classes.  The  embranckemens  were  charac- 
terized each  by  a  different  type  of  anatomical  structure.  Cuvier 
thus  laid  the  foundation  of  that  branching  tree-like  arrangement 
of  the  classes  and  orders  of  animals  now  recognized  as  being 
the  necessary  result  of  attempts  to  represent  what  is  practically 
a  genealogical  tree  or  pedigree.  Apart  from  this,  Cuvier  was 
a  keen-sighted  and  enthusiastic  anatomist  of  great  skill  and 
industry.  It  is  astonishing  how  many  good  observers  it  re- 
quires to  dissect  and  draw  and  record  over  and  over  again  the 
structure  of  an  animal  before  an  approximately  correct  account 
of  it  is  obtained.  Cuvier  dissected  many  Molluscs  and  other 
animals  which  had  not  previously  been  anatomized;  of  others 
he  gave  more  correct  accounts  than  had  been  given  by  earlier 
writers.  Another  speciaJ  distinction  of  Cuvier  is  his  remarkable 
work  in  comparing  extinct  with  recent  organisms,  his  descriptk>ns 
of  the  fossil  Mammalia  of  the  Paris  basin,  and  his  general  applica^ 
tion  of  the  knowledge  of  recent  aniipals  to  the  reconstruction,  of 
extinct  ones,  as  indicated  by  fragments  only  of  their  skeletons. 

It  was  in  181 2  that  Cuvier  communicated  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  Paris  his  views  on  the  classification  of  animals. 
He  says: — 

"  Si  Ton  considerc  Ic  rigne  animal  d'apr^  Ics  principes  que  nom 
venons  de  poser,  en  se  debarassant  des  pr6jug68  rablia  sur  les 
divisions  ancicnnemcnt  admises,  en  n'ayant  6gara  qu'  k  Torganisa- 
tion  et  4  la  nature  dcs  animaux,  et  non  pas  k  leur  grandeur,  k  leur 
utiUt6,  au  plus  ou  moins  de  connaissance  que  nous  en  avons,  ni  k 
toutes  les  autres  circonstances  acceafioires,  on  txouvera  qu'il  existe 
quatre  formes  principales,  quatre  plans  g^nfiraux,  si  Ton  pcut  s'ex- 
primer  ainsi,  d  aprds  Icsqucls  tous  les  animaux  aemblent  avoir  £te 
inodel6s  et  dont  Ics  divisions  ultMeures,  de  quelque  titrc  que  les 
naturalistes  les  aient  dicor^es,  ne  sont  que  des  modificatbns  ^sbcz 
l^res,  fondles  sur  Ic  d^veloppemcnt,  ou  Taddition  de  quelques 
parties  qui  ne  changent  rien  k  i'esaence  du  plan." 

Hb  classification  as  finally  elaborated  in  Le  Rigne 
Animal  (Paris,  1829)  is  as  follows:— 

First  Branch.    Animalia  Vertebrata. 
Class  1.  Mauualia. 

Orders:   Bintana,   QuadrumanOt    Camivora,   Marsuptalia, 
Rtdentia,  Edentata,  Pachydermala,  Rttminanlia,  Cetacea. 
Class  II.  Birds. 

Orders:  AccipUres,  Passeres^  Scansores,  CaUinae,  Crallae, 
Palmtped<s. 
Class  III.  Reptilia. 

Orders:  Chelonia,  Sauria,  Ophtdia,  Batrachia* 
Class  IV.  FiSBBs. 

Orders:  (a)  AeanikopUrjpi,  Abdaminales,  Subbracku, 
Apodes,  Lothobranchii,  PUctopuOkii  (6)  Sturiones, 
Selackiit  Cyaostomi. 

Second  Branch.    Animalia  MoUttSCa. 
Class  I.  Cephalopoda. 
Class  II.  Ptbropoda. 
Class  III.  Gastropoda. 

Orde^:  Pmlmonata,  Nudibranchia,  Jnferobranchia,  Tecti- 
branchia,  Heteropoda,  PtciinibraHchia,  Tubulibranchta, 
Scutibratukiat  Cydobranchia. 

Class  IV.  ACEPHALA. 

Orders:  Testacea,  Tumicata. 
Class  V  Brachiopoda. 
Class  VI.  CiaauopoDA. 


Onrkr'B 


Third  Branch.    Animalia  Artloilata. 
Class  I.  Annelidbs. 

Orders*' Tubicolae,  D§rsibranckiaet  Abranekiae. 
Class  II.  Crustacea. 

Orders.-   (a)    Malacostraca:  Decapoda,   Slomapoda,  Aw^^ 
pkipoda,    Loimodipoda,    Isopoda;    {b)    Eatomostxacas 
Branckwpoda,  PoeciUpoda,  TriUbiMu, 
Class  III.  Arachnidbs. 

Orders:  Ptdmanariae,  Trachtariat. 
Class  IV  Insects. 

Orders:  Myriapoda,  Thysantim,  Parasita,  Suctoriat  Cck^ 
ptera,  Orthopterat  Hemiptera,  Neuroptera,  ttymenopteta, 
l^pidopiera,  Rktpiptera,  Dipiera, 
Fourth  Branch.    Aniinalia  Radiate. 

Class  I.  ECHIMODERMS. 

Orders.  PediceUata,  Apoda. 
Class  II  Intestinal  Worms. 

Orders;  NewuUotdea,  Pannckymalata, 
Class  III.  Acalephab. 

Orders:  Simplitss,  Hvdrotlaticae. 
Class  IV   Polypi  (including  the  Cotlenttra  of  later  autbcritiea 
and  the  Polytod)'. 

Orders:  Camost,  Gdahnosi^  PolypiariL 
Class  V.  Infusoria. 

Orders:  Rotifera,  Homogenea  (this  includes  the  PrcUnaa 
of  recent  writers  and  some  Protophyla). 

The  leading  idea  of  Cuvier,  his  four  embranckemens,  was  con- 
firmed by  the  Russo-German  naturalist  Von  Baer  (1792-1876), 
who  adopted  Cuvier's  dhrisioiis,  speaking  of  them  as  y^i  n%w 
the  peripheric,  the  longitudinal,  the  massive,  and  the 
vertebrate  types  of  structure.  Von  Baer,  however,  has  another 
place  in  the  history  of  zoology,  being  the  first  and  most  striking 
figure  in  the  introduction  of  embryology  into  the  consideration 
of  the  relations  of  a&imals  to  one  another. 

Cuvier  may  be  regarded  as  0ie  zoologist  by  whom  anatomy  was 
made  the  one  impc^tant  guide  to  the  undentandins  of  the  rela- 
tions of  animals.  But  the  belief,  dating  from  Malpigni 
(1670),  that  there  is  a  relationship  to  be  discovered, 
ana  not  merely  a  haphazard  congregation  of  varieties  of 
structure  to  be  classified,  had  previous!]^  gained  ground. 
Cuvier  was  familiar  with  the  speculations  of  the  "  Natur-philo- 
sophen,"  and  with  the  doctrine  of  transmutation  and  filiation  by 
which  they  endeavoured  to  account  for  existing  amimal  forms. 
The  noble  aim  of  F.  W.  J.  Schelling,  "  das  ganze  System  der  Natur- 
lehre  von  dem  Gesetze  der  Schwere  bis  zu  den  Bildunestriebra 
der  Or^anismus  als  ein  organisches  Ganze  darzusteUen, '  which 
has  ultunately^  been  realized  through  Darwin,  was  a  general  one 
among  the  scientific  men  of  the  year  1800^  Lamarok  accented 
the  development  theory  fuUVi  and  pushed  his  speculations 
far  beyond  the  realm  of  fact.  The  more  cautious  Cuvier  adopted 
a  view  of  the  relationships  of  aninmls  which,  whilst  denying  genetic 
connexion  as  the  explanation,  recognized  an  essential  identity  of 
structure  throughout  whole  groups  of  animals.  This  identity  was 
held  to  be  due  to  an  ultimate  law  of  nature  or  the  Creator's  plan. 
The  tracing  out  of  this  identity  in  diversity,  whether  regarded  as 
evidence  of  blood-relationship  or  as  a  remarkable  display  of  skill 
on  the  part  of  the  Creator  in  varying  the  details  whilst  retainine 
the  essential,  became  at  this  period  a  special  pursuit,  to  which 
Goethe,  the  poet,  who  himself  contributed  importantly  to  it,  save 
the  name  "morphology."  C.  F.  Wolff,  Goethe  and  Oken  sJiare 
the  credit  of  having  initiated  these  views,  in  regard  especially 
to  the  structure  of  flowering  plants  and  the  Vertebrate  skull. 
Cuvier's  doctrine  of  four  plans  of  structure  was  essentially  a  morpho- 
logical one,  and  so  was  the  6ingle>scale  doctrine  of  Buffon  and 
Lamarck,  to  which  it  was  opposed.  Cuvier's  morphological  doctrine 
received  its  fullest  development  in  the  principle  of  tne  "correla- 
tion of  parts,'*  which  he  apjjlied  to  palaeontoiogical  investigation, 
namely,  that  every  animal  is  a  dcfintte  whole,  and  that  no  part 
can  be  varied  without  entailing  correlated  and  law-abiding  varia- 
tions in  other  parts,  so  that  from  a  fragment  It  should  be  possible, 
had  we  a  full  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  animal  structure  or  morpho- 
logy, to  reconstruct  the  whole.  Here  Cuvier  was  imperfectly 
'formulating,  without  recognizing  the  rral  physical  basis  of  the 
phenomena,  the  results  of  the  laws  of  heredity,  which  were  sub- 
sequently investigated  and  brought  to  bear  on  the  problems  of 
aumal  structure  by  Darwin. 

Sir  Richard  Owen  (1804-1892)  may  be  regarded  as  the  fore- 
most of  Cuvier's  disciples.  Owen  not  only  occupied  himself 
with  the  dissection  of  rare  animals,  such  as  the  Pearly 
Nautilus,  Lingtda,  LtmuluSj  Protopterus,  ApteryXf  &c., 
and  with  the  description  and  reconstruction  of  extinct  reptHes, 
birds  and  mammals— following  the  Cuvierian  tradition — ^but 
gave  precision  and  currency  to  the  nio«phok>gica]  doctrines 
which  had  taken  their  rise  in  the  beginning  of  the  century  bf 


ZOOLOGY 


1029 


the  introduction  of  two  tenns,  "  homology  "  and  "  analogy/' 
which  were  defined  so  as  to  express  two  different  lunds  of  agree- 
ment in  animal  structures,  which,  owing  to  the  want  of  such 
"  <^unten  of  thought,"  had  been  hitherto  continually  confused. 

Analdgous  stmctures  in  any  two  animals  compared  were  by 
Owen  defined  as  structures  performing  similar  functions,  but  not 
necessarifjr  derived  fimn  the  modification  of  one  and  the  same 
part  in  the  "plan '*  or  " archetype "  according  to  which  the  two 
animals  compared  were  supposed  to  be  constructed.  Homologous 
structures  were  such  as,  though  greatly  differing  in  appearance 
and  detail  from  one  another,  and  thoi^^h  performing  widely  different 
functions,  yet  were  caj>abie  df  being  shown  by  adequate  study 
of  a  series  of  intermedute  forms  to  be  derived  from  one  and  the 
same  part  or  organ  of  the  "  plan-form  *'  or  **  archetype."  It  b 
not  easy  to  exaggerate  the  service  rendered  by  Owen  to  the  study 
of  xooiogy  by  the  introduction  of  this  apparently  small 
piece  of  verbal  mechanism;  it  takes  place  with  the  classifi- 
catory  terms  of  Linnaeus.  And,  though  the  conceptions  of  '*  arche- 
tjrpal  morfdiology,"  to  which  it  had  reference,  are  now  abandoned 
in  favour  of  a  geuetic  morphology,  yet  we  should  remember,  in 
estimating  the  value  of  this  and  of  other  speculations  which  have 
given  plaice  to  new  views  in  the  history  of  science,  the  words  of 
the  great  reformer  himself.  "  Erroneous  observations  are  in  the 
highest  degree  iniurious  to  the  progress  of  science,  since  they  often 
persist  for  a  long  time.  But  erroneous  theories,  when  they  are 
supported  by  facts,  do  little  harm,  since  every  one  takes  a  heathy 
pleasure  in  proving  their  falsity  "  (Darwin).  Owen's  definition  of 
analogous  structures  holds  good  at  the  present  day.  His  homo- 
logous structures  are  now  spokea  of  as  "  nomogenetic  "  structures, 
the  idea  of  community  of  representation  in  an  archetype  giving 
place  to  community  of  derivation  from  a  single  representative 
structure  present  in  a  common  ancestor.  Darwinian  morphology 
has  further  rendered  necessary  the  introduction  of  the  terms  homo' 
plasy  "  and  "  homoplastic  "  (E.  Ray  Lanlcester,  in  Ann.  and  Mag. 
ffat.  Hist.  1870)  to  express  that  dose  agreement  in  form  whicn 
way  be  attainca  in  the  course  of  evolutional  changes  by  organs  or 
parts  in  two  animals  which  have  been  subjected  to  similar  moulding 
conditions  of  the  environment,  but  have  not  a  dose  genetic  com- 
munity of  origin,  to  account  for  their  similarity  in  form  and  struc- 
ture, although  they  have  a  certain  identity  in  primitive  quality 
which  is  accountable  for  the  agreement  of  their  response  to  similar 
moulding  conditions. 

The  dassification  adopted  by  Owen  in  his  lectures  (1855) 
Ow*a'a  does  not  adequately  illustrate  the  progress  of  zoological 
c/ass//f>  knowledge  between  Cuvier's  death  and  that  date,  but, 
*■"**'        such  as  it  is,  it  is  worth  dting  here. 

Provinu:  Veitebrata  iMydtncepkah,  Owen). 

Classes:  Mamualia,  Aves,  Reptilia.  Pisces. 
Pr&oince:  Aiticalata. 

Classes:  Akachnida,  Insbcta  (including  Sub-Classes  MrHa- 
poda,  Hexapoda)^  Crustacea  (including  Sub-Classes  Ento- 
mostraea,    Malacostraca)^     Epizoa     (Epizootic     Crustaua), 
Annellata  (Chaetopods  and  Leeches),  Cirripedia. 
Province:  Molluaca. 

Classes:  Gbphalopoda, Gasteropoda, Ptekopoda, Lahelli- 

BKANCHIATA,  BftACHIOPODA,  TUNiCATA. 

Province:  .Radiata* 

Sub-Province:    Radiaria. 

Classes:  Echinodbrmata,  Brvozoa,  Antbozoa,  Aca- 

LBPHAE,  HyDROZOA. 

Sub-Prooinoe:   Entozoa* 

Classes:  Coelelmintua,  Stereluintua. 
Sub-Province:  Infusoria. 

Qasses:  Rotifbra,  Polvcastria  {the- Protozoa  of  recent 
authors). 

The  real  centre  of  progress  of  systematic  zoology  .was  no 
longer  in  France  nor  with  the  disciples  of  Cuvier  in  England, 
but  after  his  death  moved  to  Germany.  The  wave  of  mor- 
phological speculation,  with  its  outcome  of  new  systems  and  new 
theories  of  classification  (see  Agassiz,  Essay  on  Classification, 
1S59),  which  were  as  numerous  as  the  professors  of  zoological 
sdence,  was  necessarily  succeeded  in  the  true  progress  of  the 
science  by  a  period  of  minuter  study  in  which  the  microscope, 
the  discovery  of  embryological  histories,  and  the  all-important 
cell-theoiy  came  to  swell  the  stream  of  exact  knowledge. 
'  The  greatest  of  all  investigatots  of  animal  structure  in  the 
Xpth  century  was  Johann  Mtiller  (1801-1858),  the  successor  in 
Germany  of  the  anatomists  Rathke  (i  793-1860) 
and  Meckd  (i 781-1833).  His  true  greatness  can 
only  be  estimated  by  a  consideration  of  the  fact  that  he  was  a 
great  teacher  not  only  of  human  and  comparative  anatomy 
and  zoology  but  also  of  physiology^  and  that  nearly  all  the  most 


distinguished  German  zoologists  and  physiologists  of  the  period 
1850  to  1870  were  his  pupils  and  acknowledged  his  leader- 
ship. The  most  striking  feature  about  Johann  Miiller's  work, 
apart  from  the  comprehensiveness  of  his  point  of  view,  in  which 
he  added  to  the  anatomical  and  morphological  ideas  of  Cuvier 
a  consideration  of  physiology,  embryology  and  microscopic 
structure,  was  the  extraordinary  accuracy,  facih'ty  and  com- 
pleteness of  his  xeoorded  observations.  He  could  do  more  with 
a  single  specimen  of  a  rare  animal  {e.g.  in  his  memoir  on 
Ampkioxus,  Berlin,  1844)  in  the  way  of  making  out  its  complete 
structure  than  the  ablest  of  his  contemporaries  or  snccessors 
could  do  with  a  pfethora.  His  power  of  rapid  and  exhaustive 
observation  and  of  accurate  pictorial  reproduction  was  pheno- 
menal. His  most  important  memoirs,  besides  that  just 
mentioned,  are  those  on  the  anatomy  and  dassification  of 
Fishes,  on  the  Cateilians  and  on  the  developmental  history 
of  the  Echinoderms. 

A  name  which  is  apt  to  be  forgotten  in  the  period  between 
Cuvier  and  Darwin,  because  its  possessor  occupied  an  isolated 
position  in  England  and  was  not  borne  up  by  any  j^  1^ 
great  school  or  university,  is  that  of  John  Vaughan  Thomf' 
Th<vnp8on  (i  779-1847),  an  anny  surgeon,  who  in  1816  ^** 
became  district  mediotl  inspector  at  Code,  and  then  took  to  the 
study  of  marine  Inoert^ata  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope. 
Thompson  made  three  great  discoveries,  which  seem  to  have 
fallen  in  his  way  in  the  most  natural  and  simple  manner,  but 
must  be  regarded  really  as  the  outcome  <tf  extraordinaxy  geniua. 
He  showed  (1830)  that  the  organisms  like  Flustra  are  not 
hydroid  Polyps,  but  of  a  more  complex  structure  resembling 
Mdluscs,  and  be  gave  them  the  name  Polyzoa  0e  discovered 
(1833)  the  Pentacrinus  ettropaeus,  and  ^owed  that  it  was 
the  larval  form  of  the  Feather-Star  Ankdon  {Comatula), 
He  upset  (1830)  Cuvier's  retention  of  the  Cirripedes  among 
MoUuscOf  and  h^  subsequent  treatment  of  them  as  an  isolated 
dass,  by  showing  that  they  b^n  life  as  free-swimming 
Crustacea  identical  with  the  young  forms  of  other  Crustacea, 
Vaughan  Thompson  is  a  type  of  the  marine  zoologists,  such  as 
Dalyell,  Michael  Sars,  P.  J.  Van  Beneden,  Claparede,  and  Allman, 
who  during  the  19th  century  approached  the  study  of  the  lower 
nuoine  oiganisma  in  the  same  spirit  as  that  in  which  Trembley 
and  Scha£Fer  in  the  x8th  century,  and  Swammerdam  in  the  X7th, 
gave  themsdves  to  the  study  of  the  minute  fresh-water  forms 
of  animal  life. 

It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  or  to  give  due  consideratioD 
to  all  the  names  in  the  army  of  anatomical  and  embryological 
students  of  the  middle  third  of  the  X9th  century  whose  labours 
bore  fruit  in  the  modification  of  aoological  theories  and  in  the 
building  np  of  a  true  dasstfiation  of  animals.  Their  results 
are  best  summed  up  in  the  three  schemes  of  daffiification  which 
follow  below — those  of  Rudolph  Leuckart  (1823-1896),  Henri 
Milne-Edwards  (1800-1884),  and  T.  H.  Huxley  (1825-1895),  all 
of  whom  individually  contributed  very  greatly  by  their  special 
discoveries  and  researches  to  the  increase  of  exact  knowled^.  ^ 

C>>ntemporaneous  with  these  were  various  schemes  of  classi- 
fication which  were  based,  not  on  a  consideration  of  the  entire 
structure  of  each  animal,  but  on  the  variations  of  a 
single  organ,  or  on  the  really  non-significant  fact  of 
the  structure  of  the  egg.  All  such  single-fact  systems 
have  proved  to  be  departures  from  the  true  line  of  jj^jj'' 
growth  of  the  zoological  system  which  was  shs^ing 
itself  year  by  year-^unknown  to  those  who  so  shaped  it— as  a 
genealogical  tree.  They  were  attenpts  to  arrive  at  a  true  know- 
ledge of  the  rdationships  of  animals  by  "  royal  roads  ";  their 
followers  were  landed  in  barren  wastes. 

R.  Lcuckart's  classification  {Die  Morpheicpe  und 
die  Verwandlschaftsoerhdltnisse  der  wirbeUosen  Thiere^ 
Brunswick,  184S)  is  as  follows:— 

Type  I.  Coelenterata. 
Class  1.  PoLvn. 

Orders:  Anlhotoa  and  Cyitcoxoa. 
„    II.  Acalepha'e. 

Orders:  Dtscopkorae  And  CtenophoriU, 


lOJO 


ZOOLOGY 


Types.  BcUmodtimata. 

Class  1.   PBLM ATOZOA. 

Orders:  CysUdea  znd  Critt^iim. 

,.     II.  ACTINOZOA. 

Orders:  EckimidaukdAUerida. 

w  III.  SCYTODERMATA. 

Orders:  Holotkiiria4  ^nd  SipunfiuUda. 
Type  3.  Yetmei. 

Cbas  1.  Anbntekabtx. 

Orden:  CeOoda  and  AramlkeapktH. 
M  IL  AroDEs. 

Orders:  Nemertini,  Tmbtlhrii,  Tnmalodet   and 
Himdinei, 

n  III.  CILIATI. 

Orders:  Bryaua  mod  RaHftn. 
M  IV.  Ammelidbs. 

Orders:  Ktmalodes  Lumhricmi  and  BroMckioH. 
Type  A.  Arttropoda. 
Class  I.  Ckustacea. 

Orders:  EaUomoUnca  and  Mdacaslraca. 
H    II.  Insbcta.. 

Orders:  Myriapoda,  Arackiuda    (^Imfo,  Latr.). 
and  Hexapoda, 
Type$.  MoUnaca. 

Cuss  I.  TUNICATA. 

Orders:  AiciitM  and  Sciptu, 

n    II.  ACBPHALA. 

Orders:  Lamdlibniukiala  and  Brockicpoda. 
„  III.  Gasteropoda. 

Orders:  Heler^anektA,  Dermalebmickia^  HderO' 
poda,  Cteno^ramckiat    JPtdmonatOf  ana   Cydo- 
oranckia. 
„  IV.  Crphalopoda. 
Type  6.  Vettebrata.   (Not  specially  dealt  with.) 


Bdwar 


BdwsrM'M  ^^^^^  £limenUur€  d*Hisl«in  NoturtUc,  Pari^  iSss) 


The  Classification  given  by  Henri  Milne-Edwaids 
7aurs  £limenl 
is  as  foUows: — 

Branch  I.  Ostoozotfla  or  Vertebnta, 

Sub-Branch  i.  Allantoidiana. 
Class  I.  Mammalia. 

Orders:   (a)   Monodel|4tia:  BtiMfia,  Quadru- 

'  JNafia«  CkeiropterOt  Insectitora,  RodeuUa,  Eden- 

taUit    Carmivora,    AmpkMat    PaekydertiMtat 

Ruminantia,  Cttacga;  (fr)  Didelphia:  Marsu- 

piatia,  M&matremala, 

H   II.  Biros. 

Orders:  Rqpaeest  PassenSt  Scauons,  CaUmoM, 
GraUatt  Fahnipidu. 
M  III.  Reptiles. 

Orders:  Chdouia,  Saunas  Opkidia, 
Sub-Branch  2.  Anallantoidiana. 
Class  L  Batrachians. 

'    Orders:  Anun,  Urodda,  Ptreimihnuukia,  Cat' 
ciliae, 
„   II.  Fishes. 

•Section  i.  OsseL 

■  Orders:  Acamthopterypi,  AbdommaUSf  Sttb- 

brackii,  A  podes,  Lo^ubra^ckU^  Pltctapiathi. 
Section  2.  Ckondropttryiii. 
Orden:  SturioMS,  Saaekiit  CydostomL 

Branch  11.  Entomozoa  or  AniNlata, 

Sub-Branch  i.  Aithropoda. 
Class  1.  Insbcta. 

Orders:  Coleoplera,     Orlkoptera.     Neuroptera, 
HymtnopUra,   Lepidopteriff   HempUra,   Di- 
ptera^  Rkipipterat  AtiopUura^  Tkytamtn. 
M   II.  Myriapoda. 

Orders:  QtilogiMlka  nnA  Ckilopoda, 
.,111.  Arachnids. 

Orders:  Puhumaria  and  Trackearia. 
M  IV«  Crustacba. 

Section  i.  Poddpkthalmia. 

Orders:  D§capoda  and  Stomopoda, 
Section  2.  Edriophthalmi. 
Orders:  Amphipoda;  Loemodipoda  and  Isa- 
poda.  > 
Section  3.  Branekiopoda, 

■  Ordeni  Ostracoda,    PkyOopoda   and    Trih- 

hitae, 
Section  4.  Eniomostraca, 

Orders:  Copepoda^    Gadoctrat  Stpmonostoma^ 
•  Lernaeida,  Cirripedia. 
Section  5.  Xi^kosura. 
(The  oideis  01  the  classes  which  (oUow  aie  not  given  ia  the  work 
quoted.) 


Sub^Bimoch  A.  ▼« 
Oass  I.  Annblids. 
„   II.  Helminths. 

H  III.  TURSBLUkRIA.. 


Class  TV.  Cbstqima. 
V.  Rotatoria. 


Gastbropooa. 
acbphala. 


Oass  11.  Bryqzoa. 


Oass  III. 


COBALLABIA 

PoLvn. 


Oasa  II.  Spongiaria. 


Branch  III.  lUIaeozoftrla  or  Molhisea. 

Sub-Branch  i.  MoUuaca  proper. 
Class  1.  Cephalopoda.         Class  III. 
H    II.  Pteropoda.  .,    ly. 

Sttb-Brsnch  2.  MoUnscoidM. 
Class  I.  Tunic  at  A. 
Branch  IV.  ZoOflqrtM. 

Sub-Branch  i.  Radiaria. 
Class  I.  Echinodbrms. 
„   II.  Acalbphs. 
Sub-Brancha.  Sarcodana. 
Class  I.  Infusoria. 

In  Eoi^d  T.  H.  Huxley  adopted  in  his  lectures 
(1869)  a  classification  whidi  was  in  many  icqtects 
similar  to  both  of  the  foregoing,  but  embodied  im- 
provements of  his  own.  It  is  as  f<^ows: — 

Sub-Kingdom  I.  Ppotoaoa. 

Classes :  Rhuopoda,  Grbgarinida.  RamoLARUt  Spomoml 
Sub-Kingdom  II.  Infusoria. 
Sub-Kingdom  III.  Coeleaterita. 

Classes:  Hydrozoa,  Actinozoa. 
Sub-Kingdom  IV.  Amudoida. 

Classes:  Scolbcida,  Ecbiiiodbrmata. 
Sub-Kii^om  V.  Annakca. 

Classes:  Crustacba,  ARACHmDA,MvRiAPODA,lNSBCTA,CBAB* 
tocnatha.  Annelida. 
Sub-Kingdom  VI.  MoOoseolda. 

Clanes:  Polyzoa.  Brachiopoda,Tunicata. 
Sub-Kingdpm  VII.  MoUnsca. 

Classes :  LAMBLLIBRANCHTAT  A.BtAtlCBtOC  A9TROPODA,POUIO* 
GASTROPODA,  PtEROPODA.  CBPHALOPODA, 

Sub-Kingdom  VIII.  Vertebrata. 

Classes:  Pisces,  Amphibia,  RErriLiA,  Avbs,  MAUMALra. 

We  now  arrive  at  toe  period  when  the  doctrine  of  orgRnic 
evolutioa  was  established  by  Darwin,  and  when  naturalists, 
being  convinced  by  him  as  they  had  not  been  by  the  trans- 
mutationists  of  fifty  years'  earlier  date,  were  compelled  to  take 
an  entirely  new  view  of  the  significance  of  all  attempts  at 
framing  a  "natural"  classification. 

Many  zoologists — ^prominent  among  them  in  Great  Britain 
being  Huxley — ^had  been  repelled  by  the  aiiy  fandet  and 
assumptions  of  the  "  philosophical  **  moiphologista. 
The  ^orts  of  the  best  minds  in  xoology  had  been 
directed  for  thirty  years  or  more  to  ascertaining 
with  increased  accuracy  and  minuteness  the  struo- 
ture,  micrasoopic  and  gross,  of  all  possible  forms  of 
animals,  and  not  only  of  ibt  adult  structure  but  <tf  die  steps 
of  development  of  that  structure  in  the  growth  of  eadi  kind 
of  organism  from  the  egg  to  maturity.  Putting  aside  fantaatic 
theories,  these  observers  endeavoured  to  give  in  tfadr  classi- 
fications a  strictly  objective  representation  of  the  facts  ci 
animal  structure  and  of  the  structural  relationships  ci  ii?f»wi« 
to  one  another  capable  of  demonstration.  The  groups  within 
groups  adopted  for  this  purpose  were  necessarily  wanting  in 
synunetry:  the  whole  sytXxm  presented  a  strangely  irregular 
duiracter.  From  time  to  time  efforts  were  made  by  those  who 
believed  that  the  Creator  must  have  followed  a  Sjrmmetrical 
system  in  his  production  of  animals  to  force  one  or  other 
artificial,  neatly  balanced  scheme  of  classification  upon  the 
zoological  world.  The  last  of  these  was  that  of  Louis  Agassis 
( 1 807-1 873),  who,  whilst  surveying  all  previous 
classifications,  propounded  a  scheme  of  his  own 
(Essay  on  ClassifiaUion,  1859),  in  which,  as  well  as  in  the 
criticisms  he  applies  to  other  systems,  the  leading  notion  is 
that  sub-kingdoms,  classes,  orders  and  families  have  a  real 
existence,  and  that  it  is  possible  to  ascertain  and  distinguish 
characters  which  are  of  class  value,  others  which  sre  only  of 
ordinal  value,  and  so  on,  so  that  the  dasses  of  one  sub^kingdom 
should  on  paper,  and  in  nature  actually  do,  coixcspond  in 
relative  value  to  those  of  another  sub-kingdom,  and  the  orders 
pf  any  one  class  similarly  should  be  so  tsJcen  as  to  be  of  equal 


It  ol  aBotbcT  dHi,  md  hivg  bKn  •doill]'  w 

inieacoia,  wMch 
,    That  doctrine 
_  took  seme  few  yean  to  produce  iti  effect,  but  it 

■JOju^*  bct^me  evident  mt  once  to  thoee  who  icceptcd  Dti- 
irMH  wirdsm  that  UH  oatniaL  claBiEcatfon  ol  animali. 
MdA*  «fl«r  whTch  coUecton  and  uutomiBti,  in«pbolagidti, 
*'''"*'  p^uk»ofdufi  and  embtyologistft  had  been  10  lon^ 
BErivIng,  wai  nothing  more  EK>r  ieis  than  a  (utea- 
logkillm,  with  bmks  and  gaps  of  varioiu  otait  In  hi  record. 
The  facta  of  the  nUtioinhipi  of  uilmall  to  one  another,  which 
hod  been  treated  ai  the  outcome  of  an  inscrulable  lav  by  most 
zoologiiti  and  ^ibly  eiplained  hy  the  tranKcndcnlal  norpho- 
kigliili,  were  amongil  the  most  powerful  argumfnU  In  npport 
of  Darwin'a  tlKory,  lincc  they,  togelber  wiih  ill  other  vlul 
phenomena,  noived  a  nifficient  eiplanition  through  it.  It 
19  to  be  noted  that,  whilst  the  looto^cal  lyuem  took  the  lotm 
oF  a  genealogicsl  tree,  with  main  Item  and  numnout  divajpng 
branches,  the  actual  Form  of  that  tree.  i»  limllsilon  to  a  certain 
number  of  bmnchn  corre^wnding  to  1  limited  nuroher  of  diver- 
gences in  structure,  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  necessaty 
consequence  of  the  operation  oF  the  physico-cliemicaJ  laws  oE 
the  universe,  and  it  wai  recogniicd  Ihal  the  ultimate  eiplanation 
of  that  limitation  is  to  be  found  only  in  the  constiluiion  ol 


crltseU. 


iS6fi,  « 


I  Ernst  Hiccl 


ol  Jen 


Darwin's  On|M  of  Sprcies,  puhlishcd  his  suggesUve  CcntrtUt 
UtrpMacit.  Haeckel  intinluced  Into  classi&cation  a  number 
ot  terms  intended  to  indicate  the  branduikgs  of  a  genealogical 
tiee^  Tbt  whole  "system"  or  scheme  ol  dassi&stion  was 
termed  a  goieilogical  tree  ISIammiaum);  the  main  branches 
were  termed  "  phyla/'  their  branching!  "  sub-phyla  "i  the  great 
brancbea  of  tjie  sub-phyla  were  letmcd  "  cladl,"  and  the 
"  cladi  "  divided  into  "  clssses,"  these  into  sub-cLasses,  these 

ordera  into  tribes,  Iribea  into  families,  families  inio  genera, 
genera  into  species.  Additional  branchingB  could  be  indicated 
by  simiUr  terms  where  necessary.  There  was  no  attempt  in 
Haeckel'i  use  of  these  tenns  to  msie  them  eiaclly  or  mote  than 
1    In    slgnifii 


inirapartaot  where  th 
unes  ol  descent,  and  where  no 
0  be  eipected  a  kyptlkisi. 


cleariy  futile 

'  ■  ■     '  tural  equality  of 

fcli(>l's  dsssipEca- 
,  w  edition  of  the 

KalUrlicki  Sckeptmpt"'!"'!'!'  published  in  1 868  he  made  a 
great  advance  in  his  genealogical  cUssificalion,  since  he  now 
introduced  the  lesuJTs  of  the  eitraordh^ary  acrivily  in  the  study 
oF  embryology  which  followed  on  the  publication  ol  the  Ortgia 
.jSpaia. 

The  pre. Darwinian  syncmaiisti  una  the  time  of  Von  Ban  Kid 
attachnl  very  great  importance  io  embryologkal  Eacti,  holdinD  thai 
iht  stages  in  an  animal's  developiDent  were  oFlen  man  iicriTKart 

unlninraus  tuppm  lorUs'^Bm.  "  DigEM<^keli^«r«w^^><''hle 
1st  der  wahre  Uchltrflaer  fOr  UntemH^uflgcn  fiber  organitche 
Kfliper."    Thus  J.  Maner'a  studies  on  Ibe  hrvul  lomu  ol^hino- 

j 1  .L.  J : 1  i;....i...  Thompwn  were  inprKialrf. 

-  -  "  theory  of  Schirann  was 


But  il  wu  only  alter  Darwin  thai  the  teil.llieory  of 

extended  to  the  errbryokiKy  of  the  aitimal  IdnEdoio  generally,  arMl 

that  the  knowledge  of  the  development  of  an  anifnal  beeame  a 

body  is  composed  rake  ibeir  origin  by  fission  from  a  smaller  number 
of  cclh,  and  rheieal  latl  from  the  single  e«g-cell-  Kolfiher  f Dfpr^flA- 
turnup  Crplaitpoii.  IBul.  itemak  (Dnrf^Mrraf  «f  Mr  Fnf.  iSjo). 
and  otben  had  hid  the  fouodalioas  ol  this  knowledge  <n  i»liied 


Eoologiits  see  that  a 

«l  (heir  relarion^iipa  »*  at  rhe  beginning  of  the  century  the  coan 
anatomy  had  been  shown  lo  bely  Cuiw.  Kavalevsky->  war 
appared  between  tbe  date*  o(  [he  GnersUt  IttrpMatli  and  tli 


ScUffimfitttOiUUi.    Kawkal  hiniiB,  with  hia  popB  MOdochs- 
MacUyT^d  in  the  ntutlne  made  itudia  on  the  growth  [ion  i  lie 

i-i es— studies  which  reaullad  in  rhe  complete  senaiahun 

^larorequicelliilariVsMSM  Irom  the  Sponges,  hiiheno 
lith  them.  It  is  tUs  iolnductlanol  tlKconsidetniinn 
ire  and  eell-dev(ikipni««  which,  •ubsequemly  lo  the 
:  ol  Dararlnism,  hia  nion  profoundly  nodified  the  views 
I  3.  and  led  in  conjupciion  with  the  gcnealoncal  ducciii-e 

[iB7j-i»ej|  of  F.  M.  Biliour,  and  produced  the  pro. 
Baeckel's  secaad  pedigree  is  as  follows: — 


IE£ 


BLaSTtlLAUA. 

Portfin. 

Co<olU. 

AcOBuno.                 Flatyiiiimiulit 

Bryoua- 

TuHkaU. 

]iliy,rl,onda. 

s^ 

Aanuji. 

Spirabrvichia. 

EucEmat*. 

a'^^ 

COtOtMOIA 

HiLUhMriat. 

CAaiDES. 

TlACHEATA. 

fJ^J^f"' 

MoHoaaHiKA. 

s;"~ 

main  brunches,  but  furtlier  as  lo  II 
they  art  given  oif  Emm  the  main  si 
branch  or  set  of  branches  may  be  n 

oF  branches;  and  the  same  plan  i 
Embryology  a 


rr  I"  I 


higher  or 

lower.  I.e.  a  later  or  earlier,  level  of  a  main  stem.'  The  mech. 
ardsm  for  the  statement  of  the  genealogical  relalionshipl  ol 
the  groups  of  the  animal  kingdom  was  thus  completed.  Rt 
newed  study  of  every  group  was  the  resnlt  ol  the  acceptance 
of  the  geneiloglcBl  idea  and  of  the  rtcognilion  o(  the  importance 


Ind  l^mtka''™''^^, 

Middlwe..    Educated  alE.  

Cambridge,  and  Chrisl  Church.  Oilord.  E.  Ray  Unl 
Ihe  Radtlllfe  TravellinB  FelloMhip  at  Oilacd  in  iB; 
a  (cilow  and  Ictiufcr  al  E.ctcr  Collcec  in  iB?I,, 

Unlveniiy  CaikHF.  London;  andfnini  1891J0  1S9 

was  dirvetDr  ol  the 

Muwum.    MewasmadeK.C.B.  in 


>ni   1853  to  18J1 
i>owning  Collfce. 


.    .-    Jg^  LlnnciT  pi 

lory   CWpartmenl   o(  the.  Klli 
■ —     lEd.  B.  Bi. 


I032 


ZOOLOGY 


<»f  cellular  embiyology. .  On  the  one  lumd,  tbe  tnie  method  of 
arriving  at  a  knowledge  of  the  genealogical  tree  was  recognized 
as  lying  chiefly  in  attacking  the  problem  of  the  genealogical 
relationships  of  the  smallest  twigs  of  the  tree,  and  proceeding 
'from  them  to  the  larger  branches.  Spedal  studies  of  small 
families  or  orders  of  animals  with  this  object  in  view  were  taken 
In  hand  by  many  zoologists.  On  the  other  hand,  a  survey  of 
the  facts  of  cellular  embryology  which  were  accumulated  in 
x^ard  to  a  variety  of  classes  within  a  few  yean  of  Kovalevsky's 
work  led  to  a  generalization,  independently  arrived  at  by  Haeckel 
and  Lankester,  to  the  effect  that  a  lower  grade  of  animals  may 
be  distinguished,  the  Protoaoa  or  Plastidoioa,  which  consist 
either  of  single  cells  or  colonies  of  equiformal  cells,  and  a  higher 
grade,  the  Metazoa  or  Enierozoa,  in  which  the  egg-ccU  by  "  cell 
division  "  gives  rise  to  two  layers  of  cells,  the  endoderm  and 
Ithe  ectoderm,  surrounding  a  primitive  digestive  chamber,  the 
arcbenteron.  Of  these  Utter,  two  grades  were  further  distin- 
guished by  Lankester— those  which  remain  possessed  of  a 
single  archenteric  cavity  and  of  two  primary  cell-layers  (the 
CoderUera  or  Diploblcstka)^  and  those  which  by  nipping  off  the 
arcbenteron  give  rise  to  two  cavities,  the  coelom  or  body-cavity 
and  the  metenteron  or  gut  (Codomata  or  TriploUastka),  To  the 
primitive  two-cell-layercd  form,  the  hypothetical  ancestor  of  all 
MeUuoa  or  Enter ozoa^  Haeckel  gave  the  name  Gastraea;  the  em- 
bryonic form  which  represents  in  the  individual  growth  from  the 
egg  this  ancestral  condition  he  called  a  "  gastrula."  The  term 
"  diblastula  "  was  subsequently  adopted  In  England  for  the  gas- 
trula  of  HaeckeL  The  tracing  of  the  exact  mode  of  development, 
cell  by  ceU,  of  the  diblastula,  the  coelom,  and  the  various  tissues 
of  examples  of  all  classes  of  animals  was  in  later  years  pursued 
with  immense  activity  and  increasing  instrumental  faditties. 

Two  names  in  connexion  with  post-Darwinian  taxonomy 
and  the  ideas  connected  with  it  require  brief  mention  here. 
Pfifg  Fritz  Miillcr,  by  his  studies  on  Crustacea  {PUr  Darwin, 
mattwa  1864),  showed  the  way  in  which  genealogical  theory 
'**•»*"•  may  be  applied  to  the  minute  study  of  a  limited  group. 
'"'''**  He  is  also  responsible  for  the  formulation  of  an  im- 
portant prindple,  called  by  Haeckel  "the  biogenetic  funda- 
mental law,"  viz.  that  an  animal  in  its  growth  from  the  egg  to 
the  adult  condition  tends  to  pass  through  a  series  of  stages 
which  are  recapitulative  of  the  stages  through  which  its  ancestry 
has  passed  in  the  historical  development  of  the  species  from  a 
primitive  form;  or,  more  shortly,  that  the  development  of  the 
individual  (ontogeny)  is  an  epitome  of  the  devebpment  of  the 
race  (phylogeny).  Pre-Darwinian  zoologists  had  been  aware 
of  the  class  of  facts  thus  interpreted  by  Fritz  MlUIer,  but  the 
authoritative  view  on  the  subject  had  been  that  there  is  a 
parallelism  between  (a)  the  series  of  forms  which  occur  in  in- 
dividual development,  (b)  the  series  of  existing  forms  from  lower 
to  higher,  and  (c)  the  series  of  forms  which  succeed  one  another 
in  the  strata  of  the  earth's  crusty  whilst  an  explanation  of  this 
parallelism  was  cither  not  attempted,  or  was  illusively  offered 
in  the  shape  of  a  doctrine  of  harmony  of  plan  in  creation^  It 
was  the  application  of  Fritz  Muller's  law  of  recapitulation 
which  gave  the  chief  stimulus  to  embiyological  investigations 
between  1865  and  1890;  and,  though  it  is  now  recognized  that 
"  recapitulation  "  is  vastly  and  bewilderingly  modified  by  special 
adaptations  in  every  case,  yet  the  prmciple  has  served,  and 
still  serves,  as  a  guide  of  great  value. 

Another  important  factor  in  the  present  condition  of  zoolo- 
gical knowledge  as  represented  by  classification  is  the  doctrine  of 
degeneration  propounded  by  Anton  Dohm.  Laitaatck  believed 
in  a  single  progressive  series  of  forms  whilst  Cuvier  introduced 
O^fgffg  the  conception  of  branches.  The  first  post-Darwinian 
4octrtat  systcmatists  naturally  and  without  reflexion  accepted 
•tdafm*  the  idea  that  existing  simpler  forms  represent  stages 
mrauoa.  jj^  ^y^e  gradual  progress  of  development— are  in  fact 
survivors  from  past  ages  which  have  retained  the  exact  grade 
of  development  which  their  ancestors  had  reached  in  past  ages. 
The  assumption  made  was  that  (with  the  rare  exception  of  para- 
sites) all  the  change  of  structure  through  which  the  successive 
fenerations  of  animals  have  passed  has  been  one  of  progressive 


elaboiatton.  It  Is  Dobrn's  oaerit  to  kaivt  pointed  out'  tlial 
this  assumption  is  not  warranted,  and  that  degeneration  oc  pm- 
gresaive  simplificatioa  of  structure  may  have,  and  in  many 
lines  certainly  has,  taken  place,  as  well  as  {MPogreasivedaboratioa 
and  in  other  cases  continuous  maintenance  of  the  status  quo. 
The  introduction  of  this  conception  necessarily  has  had  a  most 
important  cffea  in  the  attempt  to  unravd  the  genealogical 
aifinities  ai  animals.  It  renders  the  task  a  more  complicated 
One;  at  the  same  time  it  removes  some  serious  difficulties  and 
throws  a  flood  of  light  on  every  group  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

One  result  of  the  introduction  of  the  new  conceptioos  dating 
from  Darwin  was  a  healthy  reaction  from  that  attitude  of  mind 
which  led  to  the  regarding  of  the  classes  and  orders  recognized 
by  authoritative  zoologists  as  sacred  institutions  which  were 
beyond  the  critidsm  of  ordiaazy  men.  That  state  of  mind 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  groupings  so  recognised  did  not 
profess  to  be  simply  the  result  of  scientific  reasoning,  but  were 
necessarily  regarded  as  the. expressions  of  the  "insist"  of 
some  more  or  less  gifted  persons  into  a  plan  or  system  which 
had  been  arbitrarily  chosen  by  the  Creator.  Consequently  there 
was  a  tinge  of  theological  dogmatism  about  the  wbok  matter. 


Su»-Cr«d«  a  CaLOHATA. 


\ 


\/ 


/ 


SdS-Cradc  A.  caLENreilA* 
Grade  £.  ENrEROZOA. 


Cradc  1.  PROTOZOA. 
A  genealogical  tree  of  animal  kingdom  (Lankester,  1884). 

To  deny  the  Linnaean,  or  later  the  Cuvierian,  classes  was  very 
much  like  denying  the  Mosaic  cosmogony.  But  systematic 
zoology  is  now  entirely  free  from  any  such  prejudicesi  and  the 
Linnaean  taint  which  is  apparent  even  in  Hattkel  and  Gegcn- 
baur  may  be  considered  as  finally  expunged. 

There  are,  and  probably  always  will  be,  differences  of  opinion 
as  to  the  exact  way  in  which  the  various  kinds  of  animals  may 
be  divided  into  groups  and  those  groups  arranged  uuf 
in  such  an  order  as  will  best  exhibit  their  probable  A»«i«r'i 
genetic  relationships.  The  main  divisions  which,  v««eifc 
writing  in  19x0,  the  present  writer  prefers,  arc  those  adopted 
in  his  Treatise  on  Zocloiy  (Part  II.  ch.  ii.)  except  that  Phylum 
17,  Diplochorda  (a  name  doubtfully  applicable  to  PAoronis)  is 
replaced  by  Podaxonia,  a  term  employed  by  Lankester  in  the 
Qth  edition  of  this  encyclopaedia  and  now  used  to  include  a 
number  of  groups  of  doubtful  but  possible  aflinity.  The  terms 
used  for  indicating  groups  are  "  Phj'lum  "  for  the  large  diverging 
branches  of  the  genealogical  tree  as  introduced  1^  Haeckel, 
each  Phylum  bears  secondary  branches  which  are  termed 
"  clnages,"  classes  again  brandi  or  divide  into  orders,  orders 
into  families,  families  mto  genera,  genera  into  spedes.  The 
general  purpose  is  to  give  something  like  an  equivalence  of 
importance  to  divisions  or  branches  indicated  by  the  same 
term,  but  it  is  not  intended  to  imply  that  every  phylum  has  the 

■  Vrsprung  der  Wirbdtkiere  (Ldpzig,  1875);  and  Lankester,  Degen' 
emtion  (London.  1880). 


-ZOOLOGY 


«o38 


same  range  and  distincdv«  character  as  every  «ifaer,  nor  to 
make  aacb  a  proposhion  about  classes,  orders,  families  and 
genera.  Where  a  further  subdivision  b  desirable  without 
descending  to  the  next  lower  term  of  grouping,  the  pr^z  "sub" 
is  made  use  of,  so  that  a  class  may  be  divided  first  of  all  into  sub- 
classes each  of  which  is  divided  into  orders,  and  an  order  into 
suborders  each  of  which  bean  a  group  of  families.  The  term 
"  grade "  is  also  made  use  of  for  the  purpose  of  indicating 
the  conclusion  that  certain  branches  on  a  larger  or  smaller 
stem  of  the  genealogical  tree  have  been  given  off  at  an  earlier 
period  in  the  history  of  the  evolution  of  the  stem  in  question 
than  have  others  marked  off  as  forming  a  higher  grade.  Thus, 
to  be^n  with,  the  animal  pedigree  is  divided  into  two  very 
dbtinct  grades,  the  Protosoa  and  the  Metazoa.  The  Metazoa 
form  two  main  branches;  one,  Paraaoa,  is  but  a  small  unpro- 
ductive stock  comprising  only  the  Phylum  Porifera  or  Sponges; 
the  other,  the  great  stem  of  the  animal  series  Enteroaoa,  gives 
rise  to  a  large  number  of  diverging  Phyla  which  it  is  necessary  to 
assign  to  two  levels  or  grades — a  lower,  Enterocoela  (often  called 
Coelentera),  and  a  higher,  Coelomoooela  (often  called  Coelomaia). 
These  relations  are  exhibited  by  the  two  following  diagrams. 


P0M»rOM 


ffirrMO/M 


|r«flckA, 


8rvick0L 


CfKfee.MCTAZOA. 


x\\  I  \/y 

Crade  A  PROTOXOA. 

Diagram  showing  the  primary  grades  and  brenchctf 
of  the  Animal  Pedigree. 


Cradte.  COeUMOOOIUL 


\\/ 


CcBdlA.ENTCROCOeLA. 


BraACfift  CNTEROZOA. 

Diajsran  to  show  the  division  of  the  great  branch  Enteroaoa 
mto  two  gmdes  and  the  Phyla  given  off  therefrom. 

The  Phylum  Vertebrata  in  the  above  sdieme  branches  into 
the  sub-phyla  Hemichorda,  Urochorda,  Cepbalochorda  and 
Craniata.  The  Phylum  Appendiculata  similarly  branches  into 
Bub-pbylo,  via.  the  Rotifera,  the  Chaetopoda  and  the  Arthro- 
poda.  Certain  additional  small  groups  should  probably  be 
recognized  as  independent  lines  of  descent  or  phyla,  but  their 
relationships  are  obscure — they  are  the  Mesozoa,  the  Polyzoa, 
the  Acanthocephala  and  the  Gastrotridia. 

We  may  now  enumerate  these  various  large  groups  in  tabular 
form. 
MONTA— Phtta,  AmnALTA. 

Gradb  a.  Protozoa  (various  groups  Induded). 

Grade  B.  Metazoa. 
Branch  a.  Parazoa. 

Phylum  I.  PORIFERA. 


Branch  o.  Enterosoa* 
Grade  i.  Enterocoela. 
Phylum  2.  Hydrombdusae. 

3.  scyphomedusae. 

4.  Antuozoa. 

5.  Ctenophora. 
Grade  3.  Coelomocoela. 

Phylum  6.  Platyelmia. 

7.  Neiiatoidea. 

8.  cuaetocnatha 

9.  Neueetima. 

10.  Mo^LUSCA. 

II.  Appendiculata. 

Sub-phyla:  Rotifera.  Chaetopoda,  Ab- 
thropoda. 
13.  echinoderma. 

13.  Vertebrata. 

Sub-phyla:    Hemichorda,    Urochorda, 

CfiPUALOCUORDA.  CrANIATA. 

14.  Mesozoa. 

15.  Polyzoa. 

10.  Acanthocephala 

17.  podaxonia. 

18.  Cast  ROT  Ric  HA* 

A  statement  may  now  be  given  of  the  classes. and  orders  in 
each  group,  as  recognized  by  the  writers  of  the 
various  special  EooJogical  attides  in  the  Eleventh 
Edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  BrUannica.  These  sub- 
divisions of  the  larger  groups  are  not  necessarily 
those  theoretically  approved  by  the  present  'vrita, 
but  they  have  the  valuable  sanction  of  the  iiuiividual 
experts  who  have  g^ven  special  attention  to  different  portions 
of  the  vast  field  represented  by  the  animal  kingdom.* 

Grade  A.  Protozoa  (q.v.). 

Phylum  I.  Saroodina  (q-v.). 

Class  1.  PROTEOMYXA  (9.V.) 

Class  3.  Rhizopoda  {q.v.). 
Orders:  Lobosa,  Filosa, 
Class  3.  Meliozoa  iq.v.). 
Class  4.  FoRAMiNtFERA  (g.v.). 

Orders:    Nuda,  AUogromidtaceOM,  Askor^mdiaceae, 

Lituolidaceae,    Muiotidaceae,     Textvlidaridauae, 

CheilostomdUieeae,  Laeenidaceaet  Clobigerinidaaae, 

Raialidaceae^  Nummiuidiaceae, 

TnufUu  sedis.    Xenophyophoridae  (aeeFoRAMun- 

fera). 

Qaas  5.  Radiolaria. 


CiMMMh 

tkMtioa 

Imth0 
pnmmt 

wHk 


Orders:    Spumeliaria    i^PerifivIaea),    Acantkaria 
(.-Actipj^ata),  Ntusdaria  {^Monof^^aea),  Pkaeo- 
daria  {"Tripylaea). 
Class  6.  Labyrimthulidea  (^.v.). 

No  Orders. 
Class?.  Myxomtcbtbs. 
No  Orders. 
Phylum  2.  Mastlgophoni  (o.v.). 
Class  I.  Flacellata  (9.0.). 
Sub-class  A.  RhizoAagellata. 

Orders:  Hohmastifaceae^  RkuomasHioetae, 
SubKiUss  B.  EuflageUata. 
Orders:  PrpUnnaUigqceae,  Cfirysomonadactae,  Crvpie- 
monadaceae,  Oihromonadacme,  Ev^enauoe^Vavo- 
CQfieae. 
Class  3.  Dinoflagellata. 

Orders:  Cymnodiniaceae,  Prorocfntracette,  Peridini- 
auae. 
Class  X.  CystoflaCellata. 
No  Orders. 
Phylum  3.  Sporozoa  iq.v.). 
Class  I .  En  dos  por a  (q.v.). 

Orders:      MyxospandtOf     AdiMmyxidia,     Sarah 
sporidia,  Haplosporidta. 
Class  2.  Ectospora  (q.v ): 

Ordcn-.Cregarina  (seeGRECAKINES),  Coccidia  (q.v.), 
Hatmosporidia  {q.v.). 
Phylum  4.  Infusoria  {,q.v.). 

Class  I.  CiLIATA. 

Orders:  Cymonostomareae,  Trichostomata,  Aspixih 
trichacetUt  Spirotrkha,  Hcteratrichaceae^  Otigih 
trichaceae,  Hypotrichaccae,  Pcritrickaceae. 

Class  3.  SUCTORIA. 

No  orders. 

*  It  is  to  be  Aoted  that  the  terms  used  for  designating  categories 
in  the  classification  are  not  always  identical  in  this  sammary  and 
separate  articles,  as  authors  differ  as  to  the  use  of  these. 


'03+ 


ZOOLOGY 


Gkadb  B.  M«Uioa. 


Branch  a.  ParAzoa. 
Phylum  I.  Porifera  («••  Spongbs). 
Sub-phylum  i.  Cakarca. 
Class.  Calcarba. 

Orders:  Homocoela,  Heltrocoda. 
Sub- phylum  2.  Non-Calcarca. 
Class  1.  Myxosponcida. 

Order:  Myxospongida. 
Class  2.  TaiAXONtuA  ("Hexactincluda). 

Orders:  Amfthidiseopkora,  UexasUropkora. 
Class  3.  Tetraxonida. 
Sub-Class  I.  Tetractinellida. 
Orders:    Homosiieropkorat     AUrophorat     Sigmato- 
phora. 
Sub-class  2.  Lithistida. 

No  Orders. 
Sulxta8s3.  Monaxonellida. 
Orders:  AstromonaxoruOida,         Sigmatomonaxonet' 
tida. 

Class  4.  EUCBRATOSA. 

Order:  Euceratosa. 
Branch  b.  Enterozoa. 
Grade  1.  Enterocobla  (see  Coelbktera). 
Phylum  3.  Hydromedusae  or  Hydrozoa  (q.v.. 
Class.  Hydromedusae,  {q.v.). 

Orders:  Eleutkeroblastea^  Hydroidae  seu  Leptdinae 
(SubH>rdcr8:  AtUkoHtedusae,  Ltplemedusae),  Hy- 
drocoraUimae,  Grapiolitoidea  Traehyliiuu  (Sub- 
orders: Trachomtdusae,  Narcomediuae),  Sipkono- 
phora. 
Phylum  3.  scyphomedasae  (f.r). 

Class.  SCYPHOMEDUSAE. 

Orders:      Cubomedusas,   Stawomedmsatt    Corcm^a^ 
Discophora. 
Phylum  4.  Anthozoa  {q.v.). 
Class.  Anthozoa. 
Sub-class  I.  Alcyonaria. 
Orders:  Sioloniftra,  Akyonacea,  Pseudaxtniat  Axi- 
fera,  Stdeckolokea,  Coenolheailia 
Sub-class  2.  Zoantharia. 
Orders:     IjoantkidM,     Cereanthidea,    Antipaikidea, 
Aciiniidta  (Sub-orders:  Malacactiniae  and  ScUr- 
actiniae  or  Madreporia). 
Phylum  5.  Ctenofdiof a. 
CUm.  Ctenophora. 
Sub-class  I.  Tentaculata. 

Orders:  Cvdippidea,  Lobata^  CesUridea, 
Sub-class  3.  Nuda. 
No  Orders. 
Grade  a.  Coelomocobla. 
Phylum  6.  Flatyefania  (0.9.). 

Class  I.  Plana  Ri  A  (sec  Plan  amahs). 

Order:  Turbettaria. 
Class  3.  Teunocephaloidea  (see  appendix  to  Plan- 
arians). 
No  Orders. 
Cbss  3.  Trematoda  (see  Trematodes). 

()rders:      HcterocolyUa,    Aspidocot^to^    Ualacoco- 
tylea. 
Class  4.  Cestoda  (see  Tapeworms). 
Orders:  Monoufa,  Meronoa. 
Phylum  7.  Nematotdea. 

Cass  I.  Nematooa  (see  Nematode). 

No  Orders. 
Class  2.  Ciiaetosomidab  (see  Chartosomatida). 

No  Orders. 
Oass  3.  Desmoscolecida  (q.v.). 

No  Orders. 
Class  4.  Nematomorpiia  (q.9.). 
No  Orders. 
Phylum  8.  Chaetognatha  (q.v.). 

No  Orders. 
Phylum  9.  Ifemertiaa. 

Class.  Nemertina  (q.v.). 

Orders:       Protonemertini,     ifesoMemertini,     Mtta" 
nemfrtini,  Heleronemcrtini, 
Phylum  10.  Mollusca  (q.v.). 
Grade  A.  Isopleura. 
Class  I.  Amphinbura  (see  Chiton). 

Orders:  Pdyplacophora,  Aplcicophora. 
Grade  B.  Proriiipidoglossomorpha. 
Class  2.  Gastropoda  (17.9.)- 
Sub-class  I.  Streptoneura. 

Orders:  Aspidohnnckia,  PiecHnibranckia. 
Sub-class  2.  Euthyneura. 
Orders:  Opisthobrawkia,  Pidwtmula^ 
Qaas  3.  SCAPHOPODA  (f.v.)* 
NoOrdas. 


1 4.  LAMKLUBiaMCmA  (f  a). 

Orders:      Protobratukia,    fttibroMcMia, 
bratukia,  Septibranckia, 
Grade  C.  Siphonopoda. 
Class  5.  Cephalopoda  (q.v.). 

Orders.  Tetrabrautkta,  IHbraackm. 

PhyUtm  II.  AppMdieidata. 

Sub-phylum  1.  Koiifera  (f.v.). 
Class.  Rotifeba. 

Orders:      Asplanckna€eae,    Melkertactiu,     Trocko- 
sphaenceae,  Plotmoidaceae,  BdtUcidaceae,  Flouu- 
laracea*,  Ploima,  SeisQttacne. 
Sub-phylum  2.  Chaetopoda  (9.*.). 

Class  I.  POLYCHABTA. 

Orders:     Nereidifermia,    Cryploupkala,    CapMU- 
Jormia,    Terebelli/ormta,    Hpimjormia,    Seticci- 
formia. 
Class  2.  Oligociiabta. 

Orders:      ApkatuHra,     Limkchu,     MmtUiwuint, 
Tented^. 
Class  3.  Hirudinae  (see  Leech). 

Orders:     Rkynckobdellidae,  CHotkobddlidae,  Acau- 
tkobddlida*. 
Omm  4.  Myzostomida  (q.9.). 

No  Orders. 
Class  5.  Saccocirrida. 

No  Orders. 
Class  6.  Haplodriu  (q.v.). 
No  Orders. 

Class  7.  ECHIUROIDBA  (ff.*.). 

No  Orders. 

Sub-phylum  3.  Arthropoda  (s[JV.). 
Graae  1.  Ceratophora. 
Cbss  I.  Peripatioba  (see  PsRiPATuaX 

No  Orders. 
Class  1.  Chilopoda  (see  Cbntipbdb). 
Sub-cla.«  I.  Pleurostigma. 
Orders:  Ceophilomorpka.  ScUopendnwtorpka,  Crmte^ 
rostigmomorpha,  Lukcmomorpka. 
Sub-class  X  Notostigma. 
Order:  Scutigeromorpka. 
Class  3.  DiPLOPODA  (see  Milupedb). 
Sub-class  I.  Psclapnognatha. 

Order:  PemicUlata. 
Sub-class  2.  Chilognatha. 
Orders:      Oniscomorpka,    Limaeom&rpka.    Colobog- 
natha,  A  scaspermopkora,Prot€rospermopkortt,  Mero- 
ckaeia,  OpiUkospermopkora. 
Class  3.  Pauropoda  (see  NIillipede). 

No  Orders. 
Class  4.  Sym PHYLA  (see  MillipbdbX 

No  Orders. 
Ctaas  5.  Hexapoda  (q.v.), 
Sub-dass  i.  Apterygota. 

Order:  Apt<ra. 
Sub-class  2.  Exopterygota. 
Orders:     Dermaptera,   OrtkopUrat   PleeopUra,  Is^ 
ptera,  Comdtulia,  Ephemaptera,  Odonata,  Tkysano- 
pUra,  Jlftnipten,  A  noptura. 
Sub-class  3.  Enaopterygota. 
Orders:  Neuropltra,  Coteoptera,  Mtcaplera,  Truko- 
ptera,  Lepidoptera,  DipUra,  Sipkonaptera,  Hymeno^ 
ptera. 

Grade  2.  Acerata. 

Class  I.  Crustacea  (q.v.). 
Sub-class  1.  Entomostraca  (ffA). 
Orders:     Branckiopoda     (Sub-orders:     PkyO^podOt 
Ctadoeera,  Branekiura),  Ostracoda^  Copepida, 
Sub-class  2.  Thyrostraca  (^.«.)  *  (Cirnpedu). 

No  Orders. 
Sub-class  3.  Leptottfaca. 

No  Orders. 
Sub-class  4.  Malacostraca  (q.v.). 
Orders:  Decapoda    (Sub-oraers:  Brachptn,    Mac- 
rtira),  Scktsopoda  (including  Anasptdes),  Stoma- 
topoda,  Sympoda  (CWmo^ca).  Isvpada  (including 
Tanaidacea),  Ampktpoda. 

Class  2.  Aracunida  (q.v.). 

Grade  A.  Trilobitae  (see  Tkxlobitb). 

(Orders  not  determined.) 
Grade  B.  Nomom  eristic  A. 
Sub-class  I.  Pantopoda. 
Orders:    Nympkowmwrpka,    Autrkyntkowmfpktk 
Pycnogmomorpka. 
Sub-class  2.  Eo-Arachna. 
Grade  0.  Dclobrancha  for  Hydropn«uata). 
Orders:  Xipkasmm,  Giggntottra€€, 


ZOOLOGY 


1033 


CiMte  b»  Embolobrafiolik  (or  Mttfpneuttm). 
Section.  PfCitHtfera. 
Order:  Scorptontdea. 
Scaion.  Epectinata. 

Orders:  PtJipatpi^  Arawae,  Ptdpiiradi,  Sdi" 
fueu,  Pstudoxorpiones^  Podoffma^  OpUiones, 
KAynckostomi  {Acari), 
Class  A.  Tardicraoa  (q.v.). 

No  Orders. 
Class  4.  LtNOUATALINA  («ee  Pentastoiuda). 
KoOvdera. 
Phvlum  i».  Bdihiodenna  (lee  Echinodbrms). 
BnuKh  A.  Pelmatozoa. 

Class  I.  CVSTIDEA. 

Orders:  Amphoridea,  Carpoidea,  Rhombifera,  Apo- 
rita,  Diploporiia. 
dam  2.  Blastoidra. 
Divisioiis:  Procoblastokka,  Eublastoidea. 
No  Orders. 
Class  3.  Crikoidea. 

Orders:  Monocyclka    Inadunala,    Aduiwta,  Monp- 
cyeUca  Cameraia^  Dicydka  inadumala,  FkxttUia, 
Dkydka  iCamerala* 
Class  4.  Edrioasteroidea. 
No  Orders. 
Bnnch  B.  Eleutrbkozoa. 

Class  I.  HOLOTHUROtDEA. 

Orders:  AtpidoeMirola,  Dmdrcchirela. 
Class  2.  Stblliformia. 
Sub-class  I.  Asterida. 

Orders:  Pkanerosonia^  CryptMonia. 
Sub-clMs  2.  Ophiurida. 

Orders:  Strept^pkiurae,  Zygopkimrae,  Cladopkiune, 

Class  3.  ECHINOIDEA. 

Orders:  Bdhriocidaroida,  Mdonitoida,  Cystocida- 
roida,  Cidaroida,  Dtademoida,  HoUctypoida^ 
Spalawfinda,  Clypeasiroida, 

Pkyfum  13.  VertebrtU  (q.v.). 
Sub-phylum  m.  Hetnichorda  (qjf.). 
Class.  Enteropnbusta  (sae  Balamoclosbus). 
No  Orders. 
Sub>phylum  b.  Uroctiorda. 

Class.  TUNICATA  (q.V.). 

Orders:   Larvacea,  '  Thaiiacea    (Sub-orders:    Cw/tf* 
myaria,   Hemimycria),    Asctdiacea    (SMb^Mders: 
Auidiae  Simpikes,  Asddiae  CcmposUae,  Ascidiae 
Luciae). 
Sob-phylum  c.  Cephalochorda  (see  Amphioxus). 
Class.  Cbphalocmorda. 
No  Orders 
Sub-phylum  d.  Craniata.* 
Class  I.  Pisces  (we  Ichthyology). 
Sub-class  I.  Cyclostomata  (c.v.). 
Onlers:  Uyxinoides  (or  HyperoinU),  Pelromyumtes 
(or  ilyperoarlii). 
Sub-class  2.  Selachia  or  Elasroobranchit  (see  Sela- 
chians). 
Orders:      PUwopterygii^    Acanlhodii,    Ichtkyotcmi, 
Ptapasknmit  HolocephalL 
Sub-class  3.  Tdeostoma. 
Orders:  C^noidea,  CrouopitryfjU,  DipnetuUt   Tdt' 
osiei, 
Chas  2.  Batracria  (^.t.). 

Orders:  StejMepkaiia,  Apoia  (or  PeronuU},  Candata 
(or  Urodda),  Eeavdala  (or  Annra), 
Class  3.  Reptilu  (sec  Reptiles). 

Orders:      Anomodonlia,     Chehnia^     Samopieryria, 
Ichtkyopteryfiia,  Rh^HCocepkatia,  Dinosauria,  Cro- 
€odilta,  Ornilhosauna,  Squamata. 
Claw  4.  AvBs  (see  Bird  and  Ornithology). 
Sub-class  1.  Arrhacomitbcs. 

No  Orders. 
Sub-class  3.  NeomithesL 
Division  I.  Ratltae. 
Orders:  Struthimies^   Rheoft   Caswaiaet   Apteryics, 
Dinornithes,  AtpyorniUtes, 
Divbion  2.  Odontolcae. 

No  Orders. 
IXvision  3.  Catinatae. 
Orders:  Jckthyomes,  CUymbi/crmes,  Spkenisei- 
formes,  ProctUariiJormes,  Ciconiifpnius,  (Sub- 
orders: Sletano^gs,  Ardrae,  Ckoniae.  Phteni- 
copteri).  Anseriformes  (Sub-orders:  Palamedeaf, 
Anseres),    Pakoniformes    (Sub-orders:  Cathartae, 

— 1 ni-i  ■ 

I  Craniata  may  be  usefully  divided  into  3  nades:  (a)  Branchtata 
Heterodactyla.  which  includes  Pisces  except  Cvclostomes.  (^)  Bran- 
rhiata  Pentadactyla.  which  includes  Batracnia.  {c)  Lipobranchia 
Fcntadactyla*  wbtch  includes  Reptiles,  Birds  and  Mammals. 


Atdpilres),  Timtmiforuws,  CcUiformtt  (Sub  ordersi 
Mettles,  Turnues,  CaUit  Otnstkocomi),  Crutformet^ 
Charadriiformes  (Sul>-oraers:  LimkobUt  Larit 
Plerocles,  Cdumbae),  Cueultformes  (Sul>orders: 
Cneuli,  PsitUui),  Coraciiformes  (Sut>orders:  Cpf* 
aciae.  Strifes,  CaprimtUgi,  Cypuli,  CdU,  Tro- 
gones.  Put),  Passerijormes  (Sub-orders:  Passere* 
Anisomyodae,  Passeres  Diacromyodae). 
Class  4.  Mammalia  (q.v.). 
Sui>dass  I.  Monotremata  (q.v.)  (Prototheria). 

NoOrdersL 
Sub-dass  2.  Marsupialia  (9.V.)  (Metatherta). 
One  Order:  Marsupialia. 
Sub-oiders:  PdyprolodcnUs,  Paucilt^eretdala,  Di- 
prtOodoHia. 
Sub<laas    3.     Placentalia    (Monodciphia,    q.v,;    or 
Euthcria). 
•      Orders:  Insectivora,  Ckiroptera,  Dermoptera,  Edenr 
fa/a  (Sub-orders :  Xennrtlifa,  Phdidola^  TuMiden* 
lato).  Rodemtia  (Sub-ordcrs:  Dupiicidenlato,  Siwh 
plieideiUata),  TUlodmUia,  Carnivora  (Sub-orders; 
Fissipedta,  Pinnipedia,  Creodonta),  Celacea  (Sub- 
orders:     Arckaroceti,    Odonfocrtt,     Mystatoceti), 
Sirenia,     Vnniala     (Sub-orrlcrs:       Proboseidea, 
Hynutidea,    Baryfada,    Tvxodcmtia,   AmUypoda, 
Lttoplerna,    Ancylopoda,    Gmdylartkra,    Perisso* 
dact^a,  Arliodactyla),  Primates  (Sub-orders:  Pro- 
simiae,  Antkropotdea). 

Phylum  14.  Mesozoa  {q.v.). 
Class  I.  Rhomdozoa. 

No  Orders. 
Class  3.  Orthonbctioa. 
-    No  Orders. 
Phylum  15.  Polysoa  (9.*.). 
Class  1.  Entoprocta. 

No  Orders. 
CUws  2.  ECTOPROCTA. 

Orders:  Cywnudaemata  (Sub-orders:  Tripostomalm, 
Cryptottomata,  Cyclostomata,  Ctenostomata,  Ckosh- 
stomata),  Pkylaclolaemala, 

Phylum  16.  Acanthocephala  {q.v.). 
Class.  Acanthocephala. 
No  Orders. 

Phylum  17.  Podazonla. 

Class  I.  SiPUNCULOIOEA  {qjo,). 

No  Orders. 
•Clasaa.  Priapuloioea  (9.P.). 

No  Orders. 
Class  3.  Phoronidba  (f.v.). 

No  Orders. 
Class  4.  Ptbrodrachia  (f.s.). 

No  Orders. 
Oass  5.  Brachiopoda  {q.v.). 
Sub-class  1.  Ecardines  (Inartictibta)* 

Orders:  AtrewMa,  Neotremota. 
Sub-class  3.  Tesiicardines  (Aniculata). 
Orders:  Protremata,  Telotremata, 

Phylum  18.  Gastrotricha  {q.v.). 
(Hass.  Gastrotricha. 

Sub-orders:  Icktkydina,  Cepodina.  (Possibly  Kin^ 
rkyneko  (q.v.)  with  only  Btkkuideres  is  to  be 
pboed  here).' 

General  Tenoemqes  since  Darwin 
Darwin  may  be  said  to  have  founded  the  science  of  bionomicB» 
and  at  the  same  time  to  have  given  new  stimulus  and  new 
direction  to  morphography,  physiology,  and  plasmology,  by 
uniting  them  as  contributories  to  one  common  biological 
doctrine — the  doctrine  of  organic  evolution — itseH  but  •  part 
of  the  wider  doctrine  of  univeml  evolotion  based  on  the  laws 
of  physics  and  chemistry.  The  immediate  result  was,  at 
pointed  out  above,  a  reconstruction  of  the  classification  of 
animals  upon  a  genealogical  basis,  and  an  investigation  of  the 
individual  development  of  animab  in  relation  to  the  steps  of 
their  gradual  building  up  by  cell-division,  with  a  view  to  obtain- 
ing evidence  of  their  genetic  relationships.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  studies  which  occupied  Darwin  himself  so  largely  subse- 
quently to  the  publication  of  the  Origin  of  Species,  vie  the 
explanation  of  animal  (and  vegetable)  mechanism,  colouring, 
habits,  &c..  as  advantageous  to  the  spcdes  or  to  iu  anceston, 
are  only  gradually  being  carried  further.  The  most  important 
work  in  this  direction  has  been  done  by  Friu  AlttUar  {FUr 
Darwin),  by  Herman  MQUcr  {FertUixa^an  of  PlaMt  h  /MM«r). 


1036 


ZOOLOGY 


by  August  Wcismftnn  (memoirs  translated  by  Meldola)  by 
Edward  B.  Poulton  (see  his  addresses  and  memoirs  published 
in  the  Transactions  of  ihe  Entomological  Society  and  else- 
where), and  by  Abbot  Thayer  {Concealing  Coloration  in  the 
Animal  Kingdom,  Macmillan  &  Co.  1910).  In  the  branch  of 
bionomics,  however,  concerned  with  the  laws  of  variation  and 
heredity  (thremmatology),  there  has  been  considerable  progress. 
In  the  first  place,  the  continued  study  of  human  population 
has  thrown  additional  Ught  on  some  of  the  questions  involved, 
whilst  the  progress  of  microscopical  research  has  given  us  a 
clear  foundation  as  to  the  structural  facts  connected  with  the 
origin  of  the  cgg*cell  and  sperm-cell  and  the  process  of  fertili- 
sation. 

Great  attention  has  been  given  lately  to  the  important  ex- 
periments upon  the  results  of  hybridizing  certain*  cultivated 
varieties  of  plants  which  were  published  so  long  ago  as  1865,  by 
the  Abb£  Mendel,  but  failed  to  attract  notice  until  thirty-five 
years  later,  sixteen  years  after  his  death  (see  Mendeusm). 
Mtmtki*  Mendel's  object  Was  to  gain  further  knowledge  as  to 
'"*  the  result  of  mixing  by  cross-fertilization  or  inter- 

breeding two  strains  exhibiting  diverse  characters  or  structural 
features.  The  whole  question  as  to  the  mixture  of  characters 
in  offspring  thus  produced  was — ^and  remains — very  imper- 
fectly observed.  Mendel's  observations  constitute  an  ingenious 
attempt  to  throw  light  on  the  matter,  and  in  the  opinion  of 
some  biologists  have  led  to  the  discovery  of  an  important 
principle.  Mendel  made  his  chief  experiments  with  cultivated 
varieties  of  the  self-fertilizing  edible  pea.  He  selected  a  variety 
with  some  one  marked  structural  feature  and  crossed  it  with 
another  variety  in  which  that  feature  was  absenL  Instances 
of  his  selected  varieties  are  the  tall  variety  which  he  hybridized 
with  a  dwarf  variety,  a  yellow-seeded  variety  which  he  hybridized 
with  a  green-seeded  variety,  and  again  a  smooth-seeded  variety 
which  he  hybridized  with  a  wrinkle-seeded  variety.  In  each 
set  of  experiments  he  concentrated  his  jittention  on  the  one 
character  selected  for  observation.  Having  obtained  a  first 
hybrid  generation,  he  allowed  the  hybrids  to  self-fertilize,  and 
recorded  the  result  in  a  large  number  of  instances  (a  thousand 
or  more)  as  to  the  number  of  individuals  in  the  first,  second, 
third  and  fourth  generations  in  which  the  character  selected 
for  experiment  made  its  appearance.  In  the  first  hybrid  gene- 
ration formed  by  the  union  of  the  reproductive  germs  of  the 
positive  variety  (that  possessing  the  structural  character 
selected  for  obsotvatlon)  with  those  of  the  negative  variety,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  all  or  nearly  all  the  individuals  were  found 
to  exhibit,  as  a  result  of  the  mixture,  the  positive  character.  In 
subsequent  generations  produced  by  self-fertilization  of  the 
hybrids  it  was  found  that  the  positive  character  was  not  present 
in  all  the  individuals,  but  that  a  result  was  obtained  showing 
that  in  the  formation  of  the  reproductive  cells  (ova  and  sperms) 
of  the  hybrid,  half  were  endowed  with  the  positive  character 
and  half  with  the  negative.  Consequently  the  result  of  the 
haphazard  pairing  of  a  large  number  of  these  two  groups  of 
^productive  cells  was  to  yield,  according  to  the  regular  law  of 
chance  combination,  the  proportion  iPP,  2PN,  iNN,  where  P 
stands  for  the  positive  diaracter  and  N  for  its  absence  or 
negative  character — the  positive  character  being  accordingly 
present  in  three-fourths  of  the  ofTspring  and  absent  from  one- 
fourth.  The  fact  that  in  the  formation  of  the  reproductive 
cells  of  the  hybrid  generation  the  material  which  carries  the 
positive  quality  is  not  subdivided  so  as  to  give  a  half-quantity 
to  each  reproductive  cell,  but  on  the  contrary  is  apparently 
distributed  a:*  an  undivided  whole  to  half  only  of  the  repro- 
ductive cells  and  not  at  all  to  the  remainder,  is  the  important 
Inference  from  Mendel's  experiments.  Whether  this  inference 
is  applicable  to  other  classes  of  cases  than  those  studied  by 
Mendd  and  his  followers  is  a  question  which  is  still  under 
fawestfgfttion.  The  failure  of  the  material  carrying  a  positive 
chancter  to  divide  so  as  to  distribute  itself  among  all  the 
rapvoductive  cells  of  a  hybrid  individual,  and  the  limitation  of 
Ri  distribution  to  half  only  of  those  cells,  must  prevent  the 
**  •wMBpiftg  "  of  a  newly  appearing  character  in  the  course  of 


the  inter-breeding  of  those  individuals  posrtwed  of  the  chancter 
with  those  which  do  not  possess  it.  The  tendency  of  the  pro- 
portions in  the  offspring  of  iPP,  2PN,  iKM  is  to  give  in  a  series 
of  generations  a  regular  reversion  from  the  hybrid  form  PN  to 
the  two  pure  races,  viz.  the  race  with  the  positive  character 
simply  and  the  race  with  the  total  absence,  of  it.  It  has  been 
maintained  that  this  tendency  to  a  severance  of  ihe  hybrid 
stock  into  ita  components  must  favour  the  persistence  of  a  new 
character  of  large  volume  suddenly  appearing  in  a  stock,  and 
the  observations  of  Mendel  have  been  hdd  to  fa\'Our  in  this 
way  the  views  of  those  who  bold  that  the  variations  upon 
which  natural  selection  has  acted  in  the  production  of  new 
species  are  not  small  variations  but  large  and  "  discontinuous." 
It  does  not,  however,  appear  that  "large"  variations  would 
thus  be  favoured  any  more  than  small  ones,  nor  that  the 
eliminating  action  of  natural  selection  upon  an  unfavourable 
variation  could  be  checked. 

A  good  deal  of  confusion  has  arisen  in  the  discus^ons  of  this 
latter  topic,  owing  to  defective  nomenclature. .  By  some  writers 
the  word  "  mutation  "  is  applied  only  to  large  and  suddenly 
appearing  variations  which  are  found  to  be  capable  of  here- 
ditary transmission,  whilst  the  term  "  fluctuation  '*  is  applied 
to  small  variations  whether  capable  of  transmission  or  ttoi. 
By  others  the  word  "  fluctuation  "  is  apparently  applied  only 
to  those  small  "  acquired  "  variations  due  to  the  direct  action 
of  changes  in  food,  moisture  and  other  features  of  the  environ- 
ment. It  is  no  discovery  that  this  latter  kind  of  variation  is 
not  hereditable,  and  it  is  not  the  fact  that  the  small  Variations, 
to  which  Darwin  attached  great  but  not  exclusive  importance 
as  the  material  upon  which  natural  selection  operates,  are  of 
this  latter  kind.  The  most  instructive  classificatioD  of  the 
"  variations "  exhibited  by  fully  formed  organisms  consists 
in  the  separation  in  the  first  place  of  those  which  arise  from 
antecedent  congenital,  innate,  constitutional  or  germinal 
variations  from  those  which  arise  merely  from  the  operation 
of  variation  of  the  environment  or  the  food-supply  upon  normally 
constituted  individuals.  The  former  are  "  innate  "  variations, 
the  latter  are  "superimposed"  variations  (so-called  "ac- 
quired variations ").  Both  innate  and  superimposed  varia- 
tions are  capable  of  division  into  those  which  are  more  and 
those  which  are  less  obvious  to  the  himian  eye.  Scarcely 
perceptible  variations  of  the  innate  class  are  regularly  and  in- 
variably present  in  every  new  generation  of  every  species  of 
living  thing.  Their  greatness  or  smallness  so  far  as  human 
perception  goes  Is  not  of  much  significance;  their  real  import- 
ance in  regard  to  the  origin  of  new  species  depends  on  whether 
they  are  of  value  to  the  organism  and  therefore  capable  of 
selection  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  An  absolutely  imper- 
ceptible physiological  diflerence  arising  as  a  variation  may  be  of 
selective  value,  and  It  may  carry  with  it  correlated  variations 
which  appeal  to  the  human  eye  but  are  of  no  selective  value 
themselves.  The  present  writer  has,  for  many  years,  urged 
the  importance  of  this  consideration. 

The  views  of  dc  Vries  and  others  as  to  the  Importance  of 
"  saltatory  variation,"  the  soundness  of  which  was  still  by  no 
means  generally  accepted  in  1910,  may  be  gathered  from  the 
articles  Mendeusm  and  Varmtion.  A  due  mppfeciation  of 
the  far-reaching  results  of  "  correlated  variation  "  must,  it 
appears,  give  a  new  and  distinct  explanation  to  the  phenomena 
which  are  referred  to  as  "  large  mutations,'*  "  discontinuous 
variation  "  and  "  saltatory  evolution."  Whatever  value  is  to 
be  attached  to  Mendel's  observation  of  the  bceaking  up  of 
self -fertilized  hybrids  of  cultivated  varieties  into  the  two 
original  parent  forms  according  to  the  formula"  iPP,  sPN, 
iNN,'*  it  cannot  be  considered  as  more  than  a  contribution 
to  the  extensive  investigation  of  heredity  which  still  remains 
to  be  carried  out.  The  analysis  of  the  specific  variations  of 
organic  form  so  as  to  determine  what  is  reaJly  the  nature  and 
limitation  of  a  single  "  character  "  or  "  individual  variation," 
and  whether  two  such  true  and  strictly  defined  single  viariatibns 
of  a  single  structural  unit  can  actually  "  blend  "  when  one  is 
transmitted  by  the  nude  parent  and  the  other  by  the  femak 


ZOOLOGY 


«037 


puent,  are  mattera  wUch  hare  yet  to  be  detemined.  We  do 
not  yet  know  whether  such  abadate  blexMling  is  possible  or  not, 
or  whether  all  am)arent  blending  is  only  a  more  or  leas  minutely 
subdivided  "mosaic"  of  non-combiaable  characten  o£  the 
parents,  In  fact  whether  the  combinations  due  to  heredity  in 
reproduction  are  ever  analogous  to  chemical  compounds  or 
are  always  comparable  to  particulate  mixtures.  The  attempt 
to  connect  Mendel's  observation  with  the  structure  of  the  sperm- 
cells  and  egg-cells  of  plants  and  animals  has  already  been  made< 
The  suggestion  is  obvious  that  the  halving  of  the  number  of 
nuclear  threads  in  the  reproductive  celb  as  oomparod  with  the 
number  of  those  present  in  the  ordinary  cdJs  of  the  tissues — a 
phenomencm  which  has  now  been  demonstrated  as  universal 
— may  be  directly  connected  with  the  facts  of  segregation  of 
hybrid  characters  observed  by  Mendel.  The  suggestion  requires 
further  experimental  testing,  for  which  the  case  of  the  partbeno- 
genctic  production  of  a  portion  of  the  offspring,  in  such  insects 
as  the  bee,  offers  a  vaduable  opportunity  for  research. 

Another  important  development  of  Darwin's  condusions 
deserves  special  notice  here,  as  it  is  the  most  distinct  advance 
Vkriki-  in  the  department  of  bionomics  since  Darwin's  own 
^^  writings,  and  at  the  same  time  touches  qjiestions  of 

fundamental  interesL  The  matter  strictly  relates  to  the  con^ 
sideration  of  the  "  causes  of  variation,"  and  is  as  follows. 
The  fact  of  variation  is  a  familiar  one.  No  two  animals,  even 
of  the  same  brood,  are  alike:  whilst  exhibiting  a  dose  similarity 
to  their  parents,  they  yet  present  differences,  sometimes  veiy 
marked  differences,  from  thdr  parents  and  from  one  another; 
Lamarck  had  put  forward  the  h3rpothesis  that  structural 
alterations  acquired  by  (that  is  to  say,  superimposed  upon)  a 
parent  in  the  course  of  its  life  are  transmitted  to  the  offspring, 
and  that,  as  these  structural  alterations  are  acquired  by  an 
animal  or  plant  in  consequence  of  the  direct  action  of  the 
environment,  the  offspring  inheriting  them  would  as  a  conse- 
quence not  unfrequently  start  with  a  greater  fitness  for  those 
conditions  than  its  parents  started  with.  In  its  tuxn,  bdng 
operated  upon  by  the  conditions  of  life,  it  would  acquire  a 
greater  development  of  the  same  modification,  which  it  would 
in  turn  transmit  to  its  offspring.  In  the  course  of  several 
generations,  Lamarck  argued,  a  structural  alteration  amounting 
to  such  difference  as  we  call "  spcdfic  "  might  be  thus  acquired. 
The  familiar  illustration  of  Lamarck's  hypothesis  is  that  of  the 
giraffe,  whose  long  neck  might,  he  suggested,  have  been  acquired 
by  the  efforts  of  a  primitively  short-necked  race  of  herbivores 
who  stretched  their  necks  to  readi  the  foliage  of  trees  in  a  la&d 
where  grass  was  deficient,  the  effort  produdng  a  distinct  donga- 
tion  in  the  neck  of  each  generation,  which  was  then  transmitted 
to  the  next.  This  process  Is  known  as  "  ditect  adaptation  "; 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  such  structural  adaptations  are 
acquired  by  an  animal  in  the  course  of  its  life,  though  such 
changes  are  strictly  limited  in  degree  and  rare  rather  than  fre- 
quent and  obvious. 

Whether  such  acquired  characters  can  be  transmitted  to  the 
next  generation  is  a  separate  question.  It  was  not  proved  by 
Lamarck  that  they  can  be,  and,  indeed,  never  has  been  proved 
by  actual  observation.  Nevertheless  it  has  been  assumed,  and 
also  indirectly  argued,  that  such  acquired  characters  must  be 
transmitted.  Darwin's  great  merit  was  that  he  excluded  from 
his  theory  of  development  any  necessary  assumption  of  the 
transmission  of  acquired  characters.  He  pointed  to  the  ad- 
mitted fact  of  congenital  variation,  and  he  showed  that  con- 
genital variations  are  arbitrary  and,  so  to  speak,  non-significant. 
Caggfg  a/  Their  causes  are  extremely  difficult  to  trace  in  detail, 
cvMuvai-  but  it  appears  that  they  are  largely  due  to  a  "  shaking 
a/vsHa'  up"  of  the  living  matter  which  constitutes  the 
**■*  fertilized  germ  or  embryo-cell,  by  the  process  of 

mixture  in  it  of  the  substance  of  two  cells — the  germ- 
cell  and  the  sperm-cell — derived  from  two  different  individuals. 
Other  mechanical  disturbances  may  assist  in  this  production 
of  congenital  variation.  Whatever  its  causes,  Darwin  showed 
that  it  is  all-important.  In  some  cases  a  pair  of  animals  pro- 
duce ten  milHon  offspring,  and  in  such  a  number  a  large  range 
xxviit  17* 


«a«r«tf 


of  congenital  variation  b  poMible.  Since  .on  the  av«rafle  only 
two  of  the  young  survive  in  the  struggle  for  existence  to  taks 
the  place  of  their  two  parents,  there  is  a  selection  out  of  the  ten 
million  young,  none  of  whidi  are  exactly  alike,  and  the  aelectioii 
is  determined  in  nature  by  the  survival  of  the  congenital  variety 
which  is  fittest  to  the  conditions  of  life.  Hence  there  is  no 
mcessUy  foe  an  assumption  of  the  perpetuation  of  direct  adapta* 
tions.  The  sdectkm  of  the  fortuitously  (fortuitously^ 
that  is  to  say,  so  far  as  the  oonditions  of  survival  are 
concerned)  produced  varieties  is  sufficient,  since  it  ^* 
n  ascertained  that  they  will  tend  to  transmit  those 
characters  with  which  they  themsdves  were  bom, 
although  it  is  nd  ascertained  that  they  could  transmit 
characters  ac^tiired  on  the  way  through  life.  A 
simi^  illustration  of  the  difference  is  this:  a  man  born 
with  four  fingers  only  on  his  right  hand  is  ascertained  to 
be  Hkdy  to  transmit  this  peculiarity  to  some  at  least  of  his 
ofi^wing;  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  not  the  slightest  ground 
for  supposing  that  a  man  who  has  had  000  finger  chop]^  off, 
or  has  even  ]oai  his  aim  at  any  period  of  his  life,  will  pnxlace 
offsfxing  who  aw  ddective  in  the  slightest  degree  in  regard 
to  fingers^  hand  or  arm.  Darwin  himself,  influenced  by  the 
consideiation  of  certain  daases  of  facts  which  seem  to  favour 
the  Lamarckian  h3rpotbcsis»  was  of  the  opinion  that  acquired 
characters  are  in  some  cases  transmitted.  It  should  be  observed, 
however,  that  Danrin  did  not  attribute  an  essential  part  to  this 
Lamarckian  hypotheds  of  the  transmission  of  acquired  char- 
acters, bntezpresdy  assigned  to  it  an  entirdy  subordinate 
importance. 

The  new  attitude  whidi  has  been  taken  since  Darwins 
writings  on  this  question  is  to  ask  for  evidence  of  the  asserted 
transmission  of  acquired  characters.  It  is  hdd  ^  that  the 
Darwinian  doctrine  of  adection  of  ftxtuitous  congenital  varia- 
tions is  sufficient  to  account  for  all  cases,  that  the  ijun^rrlrkm 
hypothesis  of  transmission  of  acquired  characters  is  not  sup- 
ported by  experimental  evidence,  and  that  the  latter  should 
therefore  be  dismissed.  Wdsmann  has  aho  ingeniously  argued 
from  the  structure  of  the  egg-cell  and  sperm-cell,  and  from  the 
way  in  which,  and  the  period  at  which,  they  are  derived  in  the 
coune  of  the  growth  of  the  embryo  from  the  egg— from  the 
fertilised  egg-cdl — that  it  is  impossible  (it  would  be  better  to 
say  highly  improbable)  that  an  alteration  in  parental  structure 
cottM  produce  any  exactly  representative  change  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  germ  or  sperm-cells. 

The  one  fact  which  the  Lamarckians  can  produce  in  their 
favour  is  the  account  of  experiments  by  Brown-S£quard,  in 
which  he  produced  epilepsy  in  guinea-pigs  by  section  of  the  large 
nerves  or  spinal  cord,  and  in  the  course  of  which  be  was  led  to 
believe  that  in  a  few  rare  instances  the  artificially  produced 
epilepsy  and  mutilation  of  the  nerves  was  transmitted.  Thb 
instance  does  not  stand  the  test  of  criticism.  The  record  of 
Brown-S^uard's  original  experiment  is  not  satisfactory,  and 
the  subsequent  attempts  to  obtain  similar  results  have  not  been 
attended  with  success.  On  the  other  hand,  the  vast  iramber  of 
experiments  In  the  cropping  of  the  tails  and  ears  of  domestic 
animals,  as  well  as  of  dmilar  operations  on  man,  are  attended 
with  negative  results.  No  case  of  the  transmission  of  the  results 
of  an  injury  can  be  produced.  Stories  of  tailless  kitteio, 
puppies  and  calves,  bom  from  parents  one  of  whom  had  been 
thus  injured,  are  abundant,  but  th<^  have  hitherto  entirdy 
failed  to  stand  before  examination. 

Whilst  simple  evidence  of  the  fact  of  the  transmission  of  an 
acquired  character  is  wanting,  the  a  priori  argumenU  in  its 
favour  break  down  one  after  another  when  discussed.  The 
very  cases  which  are  advanced  as  only  to  be  explained  on  the 
Lamarckian  assumption  are  found  on  examination  and  experi- 
ment to  be  better  explained,  or  only  to  be  explained,  by  the 
Darwinian  prindple.  Thus  the  occurrence  of  blmd  animals 
in  caves  and  in  the  deep  sea  was  a  fact  which  Darwin  himself 
regarded  as  best  explained  by  the  atrophy  of  the  organ  of  vision 
in  successive  generations  through  the  absence  of  light  and 
1  Wdsmann,  Vererbunz,  &e.  (1886). 


t03« 


200L0GY 


cMi9e<|uent  distite,  tod  tlie  trantinlalon  (as  Lamarck  would 
have  supposed)  of  a  more  and  more  weakened  and  structurally 
Impaired  eye  to  the  offspring  in  successive  generations,  until 
the  eye  finally  disappeared.  But  this  instance  is  really  fully 
explained  (as  the  present  writer  has  shown)  hy  the  theory  oif 
natural  selection  acting  on  congenital  fortuitous  variations* 
It  is  definitely  ascertained  that  many  animals  are  thus  bom  with 
distorted  or  defective  eyes  whose  parents  have  not  had  their 
eyes  submitted  to  any  peculiar  conditions.  Supposing  a  number 
of  some  species  off  arthropod  or  fish  to  be  swept  into  a  cavern 
or  to  be  carried  from  Uas  to  greater  depths  in  the  sea,  those 
individuaJs  with  perfect  eyes  would  follow  the  glimmer  of  light 
and  eventually  escape  to  the  outer  air  or  the  sludlower  depths, 
leaving  behind  those  with  imperfect  eyes  to  breed  in  the  daric 
place.  A  natural  selection  would  thus  be  effected.  In  every 
succeeding  generation  this  would  be  the  case,  and  even  those 
with  weak  but  still  seeing  eyes  would  in  the  course  of  time 
escape,  until  only  a  pure  race  of  eyeless  or  blind  animals  would 
be  left  in  the  cavern  or  deep  sea. 

It  Is  a  remarkable  fact  that  it  was  overlooked  alike  by  the 
supporters  and  opponents  of  Lamarck's  views  until  pointed 
out  by  the  present  writer  (J^o/mts,  1894,  p.  127),  that  the  two 
Statements  called  by  Lamarck  his  first  and  second  laws  are 
contradictory  one  of  the  other.  Lamarck's  first  law  asseru 
that  a  past  history  of  indefinite  duratkMi  b  poweriess  to  create 
i\mra  a  bias  by  which  the  present  can  be  controlled.  He 
^'"fy*  declares  that  in  spite  of  long-established  conditions 
and  correspondingly  evoked  characten  new  conditions  will 
cause  new  responsive  characters.  Yet  in  the  second  law  he 
asserts  that  these  new  characten  will  resist  the  action  of  yet 
newer  conditions  or  a  reversion  to  the  old  conditions  and  be 
maintained  by  heredity.  If  the  eariier  characten  wtra  not 
maintained  by  heredity  why  should  the  later  be  ?  If  a  char* 
acter  of  much  longer  standing  (certain  properties  of  height, 
length,  breadth,  colour,  &c.)  had  not  become  fixed  and  con- 
genital after  many  thousands  off  successive  generations  of 
individuals  had  devdoped  it  in  response  to  environment,  but 
gave  place  to  a  new  character  when  new  moulding  OMiditions 
operated  on  an  individual  (Lamarck's  first  law),  why  should 
we  suppose  that  the  new  character  is  likely  to  become  fixed 
and  transmitted  by  mere  heredity  after  a  much  shorter  time  of 
existence  in  response  to  environmental  stimulus?  Why  should 
we  assume  that  it  will  be  able  to  escape  the  moulding  by  envinm- 
ment  (once  its  evoking  cause  is  removed)  to  which,  according 
to  Lamarck's  first  law,  all  parts  off  organisms  are  subject? 
Clearly  Lamarck  gives  us  no  reason  for  any  such  assumption, 
and  bis  foUowera  or  latter-day  adherents  luive  not  attempted 
to  do  sa  His  enunciation  of  his  theory  is  Itself  destructive 
of  that  theory.  Though  an  acquired  or  "  superimposed " 
character  is  not  transmitted  to  off^iring  as  the  consequence 
of  the  action  of  the  external  agencies  which  determine  the 
"acquirement,"  yet  the  tendenqr  to  react  to  such  agencies 
possessed  by  the  parent  is  transmitted  and  may  be  increased 
and  largely  developed  by  survival,  if  the  character  developed 
by  the  reaction  is  valuable.  This  newly  discovered  inheritance 
of  "  variation  In  the  tendency  to  react  "  has  a  wide  application 
and  has  led  the  present  writer  to  coin  the  word  "  educability." 
It  has  application  to  all  kinds  of  organs  and  qualities,  but  is  of 
e^)ecial  significance  in  regard  to  the  devdopment  of  the  brain 
and  the  mental  qualities  of  animals  and  of  man  (see  the 
jubilee  volume  of  the  Soc.  de  Biologie,  1899,  and  Nolw€, 
1900,  p.  6S4). 

It  has  been  argued  that  the  eUborate  structural  adaptations 
of  the  nervous  system  which  are  the  corporeal  correlatives  off 
tbfry  complicated  instincts  must  have  been  slowly  built 
•ttrmma'  up  by  the  transmission  to  ofiq>ring  <A  acquired  ex- 
perience, that  is  to  say,  of  acquired  brain  structure. 
At  first  sight  it  appean  difficult  to  underatand  how 
the  comphcated  series  of  actions  which  are  definitely 
exhibited  as  so<alled  "  instincts  "  by  a  variety  of  animals  can 
have  been  due  to  the  selection  of  congenital  variations,  or  can 
be  otherwise  explained  than  by  the  transmission  off  habits 


•Tte- 


acquired  by  the  parent  as  the  ittuh  of  cipwltugs,  and  m^ 
tinuously  elaborated  and  added  to  in  successive  generations. 
It  is,  however,  to  be  noted,  in  the  fint  phuce,  that  the  imitation 
of  the  parent  by  the  young  possibly  accounts  for  some  part  off 
these  complicated  actions,  and,  secondly,  that  there  are  cases 
in  which  curiously  elaborate  actions  are  performed  by  animals 
as  a  characteristic  of  the  species,  and  as  subserving  the  general 
advantage  of  the  race  or  species,  which,  nevertheless,  can  net 
be  explained  as  resulting  from  the  transmission  of  acquired 
experience,  and  must  be  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  natural 
sdection  of  a  fortuitously  developed  habit  whidi,  like  fortuitous 
colour  or  form  variation,  happens  to  prove  beneficial.  Such 
cases  are  the  habits  of  "  shamming  dead  "  and  the  combined 
posturing  and  colour  peculiarities  of  certain  caterpillars  (Lepidop- 
terous  larvae)  which  cause  them  to  resemble  dead  twigs  or 
similar  surrounding  objects.  The  advantage  to  the  animal  of 
this  imitation  of  surioundlng  objects  is  that  it  escapes  the 
pursuit  of  (say)  a  bird  which  would,  were  it  not  deceived  by  the 
resemblance,  attack  and  eat  the  caterpiUar.  Now  it  is  dear 
that  preceding  generations  of  caterpillan  cannot  have  acquired 
this  habit  of  posturing  by  experience.  Either  the  caterpillar 
postures  and  escapes,  or  it  does  not  posture  and  is  eaten;  it  is 
not  half  eaten  and  allowed  to  profit  by  experience.  We  seem 
to  be  justified  in  assuming  that  there  are  many  movements  of 
stretching  and  posturing  possible  to  caterpillars,  and  that  some 
caterpillan  had  a  congenital  fortuitous  tendency  to  <me  position, 
some  to  another,  and,  finally  that  among  all  the  variety  of 
habitual  movements  thus  exhibited  one  has  been  selected  and 
perpetuated  because  It  coincided  with  the  necessary  conditions 
of  safety,  since  it  happened  to  give  the  caterpillar  an  increased 
resemblance  to  a  twig. 

The  view  that  Instinct  Is  the  herediurily  fixed  result  of 
habit  derived  from  experience  long  dominated  all  inquiiy  into 
the  subject,  but  we  nnay  now  expect  to  see  a  renewed  and  careful 
study  of  animal  instincts  csrried  out  with  the  view  of  testing 
the  I4;>pltcability  to  each  instance  of  the  pure  Darwinian  theory 
without  the  aid  of  Lamarekism. 

Nothing  can  be  further  from  the  truth  than  the  once  favourite 
theory  that  instincts  are  the  survivab  of  lapsed  reasoning 
processes.  Instincts,  or  the  inherited  structural  mechanifms 
of  the  nervous  centres,  are  in  antagonism  to  the  results  of  the 
reasoning  process,  which  are  not  capable  of  hereditary  trans- 
mission. Every  higher  vertebrate  animal  possesses  the  power 
of  forming  for  itself  a  series  of  cerebral  mechanisms  or  reasoned 
oondusions  based  on  its  individual  experience,  in  proportion 
as  it  has  a  large  cerebrum  and  has  got  rid  of  or  has  acquired 
the  power  of  controlling  its  inherited  instincts.  Man,  j^ 
compared  with  other  animals,  has  the  fewest  inherited  theat4 
mental  mechanisms  or  instincts  and  at  the  same  time  •^  <*• 
the  largest  cerebrum  In  proportion  to  the  size  of  his  '^"^ 
body.  He  builds  up,  from  birth  onwards,  his  own  mental 
mechanisms,  and  forms  more  of  them,  that  b  to  say,  b  more 
"educable,"  and  takes  longer  in  doing  so,  that  b  to  say,  in 
growing  up  and  maturing  his  experience,  than  any  other  animal. 
The  later  stages  of  evolution  leading  from  hb  ape-like  ancestors 
to  man  have  consbted  definitdy  in  the  acquirement  off  a  brger 
and  therefore  more  educable  brain  by  man  and  In  the  conse- 
quent education  of  that  brain.  A  new  and  most  important 
feature  in  organic  devdopment  makes  its  appearance  when  we 
set  out  the  facts  of  man's  evolutional  hblory.  It  amounts 
to  a  new  and  unprecedented  factor  in  organic  development, 
external  to  the  organbm  and  yet  produced  by  the  activity  of  the 
organism  upon  which  it  permanently  reacts.  Thb  factor  is  the 
R^rd  of  the  Past,  which  grows  and  devdops  by  Uws  other 
than  those  affecting  the  perishable  bodies  of  successive  genera* 
tions  of  mankind,  and  exerts  an  incomparable  influence  upon  the 
educable  brain,  so  that  man,  by  the  interaction  of  the  Record  1 
and  hb  educability,  is  removed  to  a  Urge  extent  from  the  status 
of  the  organic  world  and  pbced  in  a  new  and  unique  position,  ' 
subject  to  new  bws  and  new  methods  of  development  unlike  1 
those  by  which  the  rest  of  the  living  world  is  governed.  That 
which  we  term  the  Record  of  the  Past  comprises  the  "  tabooi^'* 


ZORILLA— ZOROASTER 


X039 


the  Cttstomiy  the  tndltions,  the  beOefs,  the  knowledge  which 
ait:  handed  on  by  one  generation  to  another  independently 
of  organic  propagation.  By  it  a  new  heredity,  free  from  the 
limitations  of  protoplasmic  continuity,  is  estaUished.  Its  first 
beginnings  are  seen  in  the  imitative  tendencies  of  animals  by 
which  the  young  of  one  generation  acquire  some  of  the  habits 
of  their  parents,  and  by  which  gregarious  and  social  animals 
acquire  a  community  of  procedure  ensuring  the  advantage  of 
the  group.  **  Taboo/'  the  systematic  imposition  by  the  com- 
munity of  restiictiona  upon  the  conduct  of  the  in(Uvidual,  is 
one  of  its  earliest  maniifestations  in  primitive  man  and  can 
be  observed  even  in  animal  communities.  But  with  the  de> 
velopment  of  the  power  of  inter-communication  by  the  use  of 
language,  the  Record  rapidly  acquired  an  increased  develop- 
ment, which  was  enormously  extended  by  the  continuous  growth 
in  mankind  of  the  faculty  of  memory.  To  the  mere  tradition 
preserved  by  memory  and  handed  on  by  speech  was  then  added 
the  written  record  and  its  later  multiplication  by  the  mechanical 
arts  of  printing,  by  which  it  acquired  permanence  and  universal 
distribution.  The  result  is  the  creation  of  an  almost  incon^ 
ceivably  vast  body  of  traditional  custom,  law  and  knowledge 
into  which  every  human  being  is  bom,  less  in  the  more  isolated 
and  barbarous  communities,  but  large  eveiywhere.  Educa- 
tion is  not  in  its  essential  nature  a  training  administered  to  the 
young  by  an  older  generation,  but  is  the  natural  and  unaided 
assimilation  of  the  Record  of  the  Past  by  the  automatically 
educable  brain — an  assimilation  which  is  always  in  all  races 
very  large  but  becomes  far  larger  in  civilised  communities.  It 
Is  among  them  so  important  whilst  the  Record  in  all  its  details 
is  so  far  beyond  the  receptive  capacity  of  the  brain,  that  selec- 
tion and  guidance  are  Employed  by  the  elders  in  order  to  enable 
the  younger  generation  to  benefit  to  the  utmost  by  the  absorp- 
tion (so  to  speak)  in  the  limited  span  of  a  lifetime  of  the  most 
valuable  influences  to  be  acquired  from  this  prodigious  envelope 
of  Recorded  Experience.  The  imperishable  Record  invests 
the  human  race  like  a  protective  atmosphere,  a  new  and  yet 
a  natural  dispensation,  giving  to  man,  as  compared  with  his 
animsl  ancestry,  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth  I 

A  result  of  the  very  greatest  importance  arising  from  the 
application  of  the  generalisations  of  Danrinism  to  human 
development  and  to  the  actual  phase  of  existing  human  popu- 
lation is  that  education  has  no  direct  effect  upon  the  mental  or 
physical  features  of  the  race  or  stock:  it  can  only  affect  those 
of  the  individual.  Educability,  defects  or  excellences,  or 
peculiarities  of  mind  or  body,  can  be  handed  on  from  parent 
to  offspring  1^  protoplasmic  continuity  in  leproducticm.  But 
the  results  of  education  cannot  be  so  handed  on.  The  educated 
man  who  has  acquired  new  experiences,  new  knowledge,  can 
place  these  on  the  great  Record  for  the  benefit  of  future  genera- 
tions of  men,  but  he  cannot  bodily  transmit  his  acquirements 
to  his  offspring.  Were  acquired  (superimposed)  characters 
really  transmissible  by  breeding,  then  every  child  bom  would 
inherit,  more  or  less  completely,  the  knowledge  acquired  by 
both  its  parents.  But  we  know  this  b  not  the  case:  the  child 
has  to  bi^n  with  a  dean  slate  and  learn  for  itself.  Aptitudes 
and  want  of  aptitude,  which  are  innate  and  constitutional, 
aK  transmitted  to  offspring,  but  not  the  results  of  experience, 
education  and  training.  Blemishes  in  the  stock,  ddTeas  of 
mind  or  body,  though  they  may  be  to  some  extent  corrected 
in  the  individual  by  training,  cannot  be  got  rid  of  from  the  stock 
by  any  such  process.  A  defective  stock,  if  allowed  to  breed, 
will  perpetuate  its  defects,  in  spite  of  the  concealment  of  those 
defects  in  an  individual  by  training  or  other  treatment.  Equally 
it  must  be  concluded  that  the  weakness  and  degradatk>n  pro- 
duced by  semi-starvation  and  insanitary  conditions  of  life  are 
only  an  effect  on  the  individual  and  cannot  affect  the  stock. 
The  stock  may  be  destroyed,  killed  out  by  adverse  conditions, 
but  its  quality  is  not*  directly  affected,  and  if  removed  to  more 
favourable  conditions  it  will  show  no  hereditary  resuhs  of  the  pre- 
vious adversity;  Indeed  it  will  probably  have  been  strengthened 
in  some  ways  by  the  destruction  in  severe  conditions  of  its 
weaker  memben  and  the  survival  of  the  stronger  indivldoals. 


Such  conslderatloM  hcv«  the  very  greatest  trnpottanoe  kr  the 
guidance  of  the  action  of  civilized  man  in  seeking  the  health 
and  happiness  of  the  community.  But  It  must  not  be  fotyotten 
that  the  problems  presented  by  Inunaa  conummities  are  ei- 
tremely  complex,  and  that  the  absence  of  any  selection  of  hadthy 
or  desirable  stock  la  the  breeding  of  human  communities  iea^ 
to  undesirable  consequences.  IHie  most  thrifty  and  capable 
sections  of  the  people  at  tho  present  day  are  not  (it  has  been 
shown)  in  overcrowded  areas,  producing  offering  at  such  a 
rate  as  to  contribute  to  the  Inoeaseof  tlte  population.  That 
increase,  It  has  been  shown,  is  due  to  the  eariy  marriage  and 
excessive  reproduction  of  the  redness  and  hopefess,  the  poorest, 
least  capable,  least  desirable  members  of  the  community.  Hie 
questions  rsfaed  by  these'  considerations  have  attracted  mudi 
public  attention  under  the  newly  invented  name  of  "eugenics,*^ 
but  they  are  of  an  exceedingly  difficult  and  delicate  nature. 

(E.  R.  L.) 

ZORILLA,  MANUBL  RUIZ,  Don  (1834-1895),  '  Spanish 
p(^tidan,  was  bom  at  Buigo  de  Osma  In  1S34.  He  bepm  his 
education  at  Valladolld,  and  studied  law  afterwards  at  Madrid 
University,  where  he  leaned  towards  Radicalism  in  pdlticSk 
In  1856  he  was  dected  deputy,  and  soon  attracted  notice  among 
the  most  advanced  Progressists  and  Demoaats.  He  took 
part  in  the  revolutionaTy  propaganda  that  led  to  the  mllitaiy 
movement  in  Madrid  on  the  ssnd  of  June  1866.  He  had  to 
take  refuge  in  France  for  two  years,  like  his  fellow-conspiraton, 
and  only  returned  to  Spain  when  the  revolution  of  1868  took 
place.  He  was  one  of  the  members  of  the  first  cabinet  after 
the  revolution,  and  in  1869,  under  the  regency  of  Marshal 
Serrano,  he  became  minister  of  grace  and  justice.  In  1890 
he  was  dected  president  oi  the  House  off  Deputies,  and  seconded 
Prim  in  offering  the  throne  to  Amadeus  of  Savoy.  He  went  to 
Italy  as  president  of  the  commission,  carrying  to  the  prince  at 
Florence  the  official  news  of  his  election.  On  the  arrival  of 
Amadeus  in  Spain,  Ruis  Zorilla  became  ministet  of  public 
works  for  a  short  time,  and  resigned  by  way  of  protesting 
against  Serrano  and  Topete  entering  the  councils  of  the  new 
king.  Six  months  later,  in  1871,  he  was  invited  by  Amadeus 
to  form  a  cabinet,  and  he  continued  to  be  the  principal  councillor 
of  the  king  until  Febraary  r873,  when  the  monarch  abdicated 
in  disgust  at  the  resistance  he  met  with  in  the  army,  and  at 
the  lack  of  sincerity  on  the  part  of  the  very  politicians  and 
generals  who  had  asked  him  to  ascend  the  throne.  After  the 
departure  of  Amadeus,  Ruiz  Zorilht  advocated  the  establish- 
ment of  a  republic.  Notwithstanding  this,  he  was  not  called 
upon  either  by  the  Federal  Republicans  to  hdp  them  during 
the  year  1873,  or  by  Marshal  Serrano  during  1874  to  join  Martos 
and  Sagasta  in  his  cabinet.  Immediatdy  i^ter  the  restora- 
tion of  Alphonso  Xn.,  eariy  tn  1875,  Ruiz  Zorilla  went  to 
France.  He  was  for  nearly  eighteen  years  the  soul  of  the 
republican  conspindes,  the  prompter  of  revolutionary  propa- 
ganda, the  chief  mspirer  of  intrigues  concerted  by  discon- 
tented military  men  of  all  ranks.  He  gave  so  much  trouble  to 
the  Madrid  governments  that  they  organized  a  watch  over  him 
with  the  assistance  Of  the  French  government  and  police, 
especially  when  it  was  discovered  that  the  two  military  move- 
ments of  August  1883  and  September  x886  had  been  prepared 
and  assisted  by  him.  During  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  Ruis 
Zorilla  became  less  active;  failing  health  and  thfc  lots  of  his 
wife  had  decreased  his  energies,  and  the  Madrid  government 
allowed  him  to  return  to  Spain  some  months  before  he  died 
at  Burgos,  on  the  13th  of  June  189$,  of  heart  disease. 

ZORNDORF,  a  village  of  Prussia,  in  the  Oder  valley,  tKMtlit- 
east  of  CUstrin.  It  is  famous  as  the  scene  of  a  battle  In  which 
the  Prossians  under  Frederick  the^Sreat  defeated  the  Russians 
commanded  by  Fermor,  on  the  25th  of  August  1758  (see  Seven 
Years'  War). 

ZOROASTER,  one  of  the  great  teachers  of  the  East,  the 
founder  of  what  was'  the  national  religion  of  the  Perso-Iranian 
people  from  the  time  of  the  Achaemenidae  to  the  dose  of  the 
Sassanian  period.  The  name  (Zufioiunpin)  is  the  abrupt 
Greek  form  oi  the  old  Izmjan  Zarqlkutlro  (now  tadan, 


1040 


ZOROASTER 


tt  obacttra;  but  at  oerUinly  conUins 


Zwiitaktj,    lu 

the  word  mhtra^  "  cumL" 

Zovottstcr  was  «li««ly  itmous  in  Hatniral  antiquity  as  the 
Sounder  of  the  widely  renowned  wisdom  of  the  Maigi.  His 
^tt§mn  name  is  not  mentioned  by  Herodotus  in  his  sketch 
Airiiii  of  the  Medo-Penian  religion  (L  131  seq.)*  It  occurs 
'^  for  the  first  time  in  a  fragment  of  Xanthus  (sg),  and 

in  the  Alcibiada  of  Plato  (L  p.  laa),  who  calls  him  the  son 
of  Oiomasdcs.  For  occtdental  writers,  Zoroaster  is  always 
the  Magus,  or  the  founder  of  the  whole  Magian  system  (PluL 
ds  Is,  H  Osir.  46 ;  Plat,  he  cil,\  Diog.  LaCrt.  prottm.  2: 
other  passages  in  Jackson's  Z^roasltr,  6  seq.).  They  sometimes 
call  him  a  Bactrian,  sometimes  a  Median  or  Persian  (cf .  Jackson, 
•p,  ciL  186).  The  andents  also  recount  a  few  points  regarding 
the  childhood  of  SSoroaster  and  his  hermit-life.  Thus,  according 
to  Pliny  {Nai,  HisL  viL  rs),  he  buighed  on  the  very  day  of  his 
birth — a  statement  found  also  in  the  Zonficrik^-iVdMa— and 
lived  in  the  wilderness  upon  cheese  (11.  97).  Pktarcfa  qteaks  of 
his  intercourse  with  the  ddty,  and  compares  him  with  Lycurgus 
and  Numa  {NuwUt  4).  Dio  Chiyaostom,  Plutarch's  contem- 
porary, declares  that  neither  Homer  nor  Hesiod  sang  of  the 
chariot  and  horses  of  Zeus  so  worthily  as  Zoroaster,  of  whom 
the  Persians  tell  that,  out  of  love  to  wisdom  and  righteousnem, 
he  withdrew  himself  from  men,  and  lived  in  solitude  upon  a 
mountain.  The  mountain  was  consumed  by  fire,  but  Zoroaster 
escaped  uninjured  and  spoke  to  the  multitude  (vol.  ii.  p.  60}. 
Plutarch,  drawing  partly  on  The(H)ompus,  speaks  of  hb  religion 
in  his  Isis  and  Osiris  (cc.  46-47).  He  gives  a  faithful  sketch  of 
the  doctrines,  mythology  and  dualisUc  system  of  the  Magian 
Zoroaster. 

As  to  the  period  in  which  he  lived ,  most  of  the  Greeks  have  already 
lost  the  tnie  peispective.    Hemiodorus  and  Hcrmippus  of  Sroyma 

Elace  him  5000  yiaan  before  the  Trojan  war,  Xantnus  6000  years 
efore  Xerxes,  budoxus  and  Aristotle  6000  years  before  the  death 
of  Plato.  Agathias  remarks  (ii.  3^).  with  perfect  truth,  that  it  n 
no  longer  possible  to  determine  with  any  certainty  when  he  lived 
and  legislated.  "  The  Persians,"  he  adds;,  "  say  that  Zoroaster 
lived  under  Hystaspes,  but  do  not  make  it  clear  whether  by  this 
name  they  mean  the  father  of  Darius  or  another  Hystaspes.  But, 
whatever  may  have  been  his  date,  he  was  their  teacher  and  in- 
structor in  toe  Magian  religion,  modified  their  former  religious 
customs,  and  introduced  a  variegated  and  oomppeite  belief." 

He  is  nowhere  mentioned  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  the 
Achaemenidae,  although  Darius  and  his  successors  were  without 
doubt  devoted  adherents  of  TSoroastrianism.  The  .Avesta  is,  indeed, 
oor  principal  source  for  the  doctrine  of  Zoroaster;  on  the  subject 
of  his  penon  and  hia  life  it  is  oomparativdy  reticent;  with 
regard  to  his  date  it  u,  naturally  enoiqin,  absolutely  silent.  The 
13th  section,  or  S^end  Ifash,  which  was  mainly  consecrated  to  the 
description  of  his  life,  has  perished ;  while  the  biographies  founded 
upon  it  in  the  7th  book  of  the  Dtnkard  (9th  century  a.d.),  the 
SMh'Ndma,  and  the  ZarduslU-N^hiui  (13th  century),  are  thoroughly 
legendary — full  of  wondeis,  fabulous  historiea  and  muactuous 
deliverances. 

Under  all  circumstances  we  must  Imitate  the  ancient  authors  in 
holding  fast  to  the  historic  penonality  of  Zoroaster;  though  h^* 
like  many  another  name  of  the  dim  past — has  failed  to  escape  the 
Xite  of  bemg  regarded  as  a  purely  mythical  creation  (for  instance,  by 
Kern  and  by  Darmesteter.  in  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  vol.  iv. 
]B8o,  introa.  76).  Accoroing  to  Darmesteter,  the  Zarathnstra  of 
the  Avesta  is  a  mere  myth,  a  divinity  invested  with  human  attri- 
butes, an  incarnation  of  the  storm-sod,  who  with  hia  divine  word, 
the  thunder,  comes  and  aoiites  the  demons.  Darmesteter  has 
failed  to  realiie  sufficiently  the  distinction  between  the  Zoroaster 
of  the  later  Avesta  and  the  2broa8ter  of  the  GflthAs.  It  cannot  be 
denied  that  in  the  later  Avesta,  and  still  more  in  wrkings  of  more 
roceet  date,  he  is  presented  in  a  legendary  light  and  enoowed  with 
superhuman  powers.  At  his  appearing  all  nature  rejoices  iYaskl^ 
I3i  93) ;  he  enters  into  conflict  with  the  demons  and  rids  the  earth 
of  their  presence  {YasfU.  i7.io);  Satan  approaches  him  as  tempter 
to  make  him  renounce  hts  faith  (Vendidad^  19,  6). 

The  GSthSs  alone  within  the  Avesta  make  dalm  to  be  the 
ipsissima  verba  of  the  prophet;  in  the  rest  of  that  work  they  are 
put  into  Zoroaster's  own  mouth  (Yasna,  9,  i)  and  are  expressly 
called  "the  Caches  of  the  holy  Zoroaster'^'  (Yasna,  57,  8).  The 
litanies  of  the  Yasna.  and  the  Yashts,  refer  to.  him  as  a  personage 
betongii^  to  the  past.  The  Vendidad  also  merdy  g^ves  accounts 
of  the  dalogues  between  Ormatd  and  Zoroaster.  The  Gftthis  alone 
dalm  to  be  authentic  utterancea  of  Zoroaster,  his  actual  expressions 
in  piesence  of  the  assembled  congregation.  They  are  the  last  genuine 
survivals  of  the  doctrinal  disoounes  with  which — as  the  promulgator 
of  a  new  religion— be  appeared  at  the  court  of  King  VisbtOspa . 


The  person  of  the  Zorosslcr  whom  we  mast  with  b  these  hymaa 
differs  Mo  coelo  from  the  Zoroaster  of  the  younger  Avesta.  He  la 
the  exact  opposite  of  the  miraculous  personage  of  later  legend — 
a  mere  roan,  sundins  always  on  the  solid  |[round  of  reality,  whset 
only  arms  are  trust  in  nis  God  and  the  protection  of  his  powerful  allies^ 
At  times  his  position  is  precarious  enough.  He  whom  we  hear 
in  the  GSth2s  has  had  to  face,  not  merely  all  forms  of  outward 
opposition  and  the  unbelief  and  lukewarmness  of  adherents,  but 
also  the  inward  misgivings  of  his  own  heart  as  to  the  truth  and 
final  victory  of  h»  cause.  At  one  time  hope,  at  another  despond- 
eocy,  now  assured  confidence,  now  doiibt  and  despair,  here  a  firm 
faith  in  the  speedy  coming  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  there  the 
thouffht  of  taking  refuge  by  flis^t — such  Is  the  range  of  the  emotions 
whicn  find  their  immediate  expression  in  these  hymns.  And  the 
whole  breathes  such  a  genuine  originality,  all  is  psychofancaUy 
so  accurate  and  just,  the  earliest  be^niiys  of  the  new  roigious 
movement,  the  childhood  of  a  new  commumty  of  faith,  are  reflected 
so  naturally  in  them  all,  that  it  is  impossible  for  a  moment  to  think 
of  a  later  period  of  composition  by  a  priesthood  whom  we  know  m 
have  been  devoid  of  any  historical  sense,  and  incapable  of  reooa* 
structiog  the  spiritual  conditions  under  which  Zoroaster  lived.  So 
aoon  as  the  pomt  of  view  is  dear — that  in  the  G&tbAs  we  have  firm 
historical  ground  on  which  Zoroaster  and  his  surroundinn  may  rest, 
that  here  we  have  the  beginnings  of  the  Zoroastrian  reu^n — ^thea 
it  beoomas  impossible  to  answer  otherwise  than  affirmatively  every 
general  question  as  to  the  historical  character  of  Zoroaster.  Yet 
we  must  not  expect  too  much  from  the  GithSs  in  the  way  of  definite 
detail.  They  give  no  historical  account  of  the  life  and  teaching 
of  thefa*  prophet,  but  rather  are,  so  to  say,  versus  memorises,  whidi 
recapitulate  the  main  points  of  interest,  often  again  in  brief  ontlinok 
They  are  more  oi  general  admonitions,  asseverationa,  solemn 
prophedes,  sometimes  directed  to  the  faithful  flock  or  to  the  princes, 
out  generally  cast  In  the  form  of  dialogues  with  God  and  the  arch- 
angels, whom  he  repeatedly  invokes  as  witnesses  to  his  veradty. 
Moreover,  they  contain  many  allusions  to  personal  events  whia 
later  generations  have  forgotten.  ^  It  roust  be  remembered,  too^ 
that  thdr  extent  is  limited,  and  thdr  meaning,  moreover,  frequently 
dubious  or  obscure. 

Tke  Penan  of  tke  Prcpket.-^M  to  his  birthplace  the  testi* 
monies  are  omflictlng.  According  to  the  Avesta  (  Yasna,  9,  1 7), 
Airyanem  VaCjO,  on  the  river  Diitya,  the  old  sacred  country 
of  the  gods,  was  the  home  of  Zoroaster,  and  the  scene  of  his 
first  appearance.  There,  on  the  river  Darejya,  assuming  that 
the  psssage  {Vend.,  19,  4)  is  correctly  interpreted,  stood  the 
house  of  his  father;  and  the  Bundakish  (20,  3a  and  24,  15)  says 
expressly  that  the  river  Dftrnja  lay  in  Airan  Vej,  on  its  bank 
was  the  dwelling  of  his  father,  and  that  there  Zoroaster  was  bom. 
Now,  according  to  the  Bundahisk  (29,  12),  Airan  Vej  was 
situated  in  the  direction  of  Atropatene,  and  consequently 
Airyanem  Vaej6  is  for  the  most  part  identified  with  the  district 
of  Arrin  on  the  river  Aras  (Araxes),  close  by  the  north-western 
frontier  of  Media.  Other  traditions,  however,  make  him  a 
native  of  Rai  (Ragha,  'P&7cu).  According  to  Yasna,  19,  18, 
IhitMataikusktrdtema^  or  supreme  head  of  the  Zoroastrian  priest* 
hood,  had  at  a  Uter  (Sasanian)  time,  his  residence  in  Ragha. 
The  Arabic  writer  ShahrasUlnl  endeavours  to  bridge  the  diver- 
gence between  the  two  traditions  by  means  of  the  following 
theory: his  father  was  a  man  of  AtropatCne,  "while  the  mother  was 
from  RaL  In  his  home  tradition  recounts  he  enjoyed  the  celestial 
visions  and  the  conversations  with  the  archangds  and  Ormaid 
which  are  mentioned  already  in  the  Gflthfis.  There,  too, 
according  to  YasH^  5,  105,  he  prayed  that  he  might  succeed  in 
converting  King  Vlsbtfispa.  He  then  appears  to  have  quitted 
his  native  district.  On  this  point  the  Avesta  is  wholly  silent: 
only  one  obscure  passage  {Yasna,  53,  9)  seems  to  intimate  that 
be  found  an  ill  reception  in  Rai.  Finally,  in  the  person  of 
VishtSspa,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  prince  resident  in  east 
Iran,  be  gained  the  powerful  protector  and  faithful  disdple  of 
the  new  reUglon  whom  he  desired — though  after  almost  super* 
human  dangers  and  difficulties,  which  the  later  books  depict 
in  lively  colours.  According  to  the  epic  legend,  VIshlftspa  was 
king  of  Bactria.  Already  in  the  later  Avesta  he  has  become  % 
half-mythical  figure,  the  kat  in  the  series  of  heroes  of  east 
Iranian  legend,  in  the  arrangement  of  which  series  priestly  ' 
influence  is  unmistakably  evident.  He  stands  at  the  meeting-  ' 
point  between  the  old  world  and  the  new  era  which  begins  wiib 
Zoroaster.  In  the  Giih&s  he  appears  as  a  quite  historical 
personage;  it  is  essentially  to  his  powtf  and  good  example 
that  the  prophet  is  indebted  for  his  success.    In  Yasna,  $ja  >• 


ZOROASTER 


1041 


be  U  spoken  of  as  a  pioneer  ol^the  doctriBe  revealed  by  Orroazd. 
In  the  idation  between  Zoroaster  and  Vbhtispa  already  lies 
the  germ  of  the  state  church  which  afterwards  became  com- 
pletely subservient  to  the  interests  of  the  dynasty  and  sought 
its  protection  from  iU 

Among  the  gcandees  of  the  court  of  VbhtBspa  mention  is 
made  of  two  brothers,  Frashopshtra  and  J&maspa;  both  were, 
according  to  the  later  legend,  vizirs  of  Vlsht2spa.  Zoroaster 
was  nearly  related  to  both:  his  wife,  Hv5vi,  was  the  daughter 
of  Frashaoshtra,  and  the  husband  of  his  daughter,  Pourucista, 
was  Jimflspa.  The  actual  r&le  of  intermediary  was  phycd  by 
the  pious  queen  Hutaosa.  Apart  from  this  connexion,  the  new- 
prophet  relies  especially  upon  his  own  kindred  {koailush).  His 
first  disciple,  Maidhy6iin&ongha,  was  his  cousin:  his  father 
was,  according  to  the  later  Avesta,  Pourushaspa,  his  mother 
DughdOva,  his  great-grandfather  HaScataspa,  and  the  ancestor 
of  the  whole  family  Spitama,  for  which  reason  Zarathushtra 
usually  bears  this  surname.  His' sons  and  daughters  are  re- 
peatedly spoken  of.  His  death  is,  for  reascnn  easily  Intelligible, 
nowhere  mentioned  in  the  Avesta;  in  the  Skik-Ndma  he  is 
said  to  have  been  murdered  at  the  altar  by  the  Turanians  in 
the  storming  of  Balkh« 

We  are  quite  ignorant  as  to  the  date  of  Zoroaster;  King 
VishtSspa  does  not  seem  to  have  any  place  in  any  historicad 
chronolc^^,  and  the  GfithSs  give  no  hint  on  the  subject.  In 
former  times  the  assertion  often  was,  and  even  now  is  often 
put  forward,  that  VishtSspa  was  one  and  the  same  person  with 
the  hbtorical  Hystaspes,  father  of  Darius  I.  This  identifica- 
tion can  only  be  purchased  at  the  cost  of  a  complete  renuncia- 
tion  of  the  Avestan  genealogy.  Hutaosa  is  the  same  name  as 
Atossa:  but  in  history  Atossa  was  the  wife  of  Cambyses  and 
Darius.  Otherwise,  not  ont  single  name  in  the  entourage  of 
our  Vishtftspa  can  be  brought  into  harmony  with  hbtorical 
nomenclature.  According  to  the  Arda  Vir&f,  i,  3,  Zoroaster 
taught,  in  round  numbers,  some  300  years  before  the  invasion 
of  Alexander.  The  testimony  of  Assyrian  inscriptions  relegates 
him  to  a  far  more  ancient  period.  If  these  prove  the  name 
Mozdaka  to  have  formed  part  of  Median  proper  names  in  the 
year  715  B.C.,  Eduard  Meyer  (v.  Ancitnt  Persia)  is  justified  in 
maintaining  that  the  Zoroastrian  religion  must  even  then  have 
been  predominant  in'  Media.  Meyer,  therefore,  conjecturally 
puts  the  date  of  2Ioroaster  at  1000  B.C.,  as  had  already  been  done 
by  Duncker  {Gtsckickle  des  AUerlmnSt  4^  78).  This,  in  its 
turn,  may  be  too  high:  but,  in  any  case,  Zoroaster  belongs  to  a 
prehistoric  era.  Probably  he  emanated  from  the  old  school  of 
Median  Magi,  and  appeared  first  in  Media  as  the  prophet  of  a 
new  faith,  but  met  with  sacerdotal  opposition,  and  turned  his 
steps  eastward.  In  the  east  of  Iran  the  novel  creed  first  ac- 
quired a  solid  footing,  and  subsequently  reacted  with  success 
upon  the  West. 

Zoroasirianism^-^ZoToeaAa  taught  a  nesf  religion;  but  this 
must  not  be  taken  as  meaning  that  everything  he  taught  came, 
so  to  say,  out  of  his  own  head.  His  doctrine  was  rooted  in  the 
old  Iranianj-or  Aryan— ^olk-religioh,  of  which  we  can  only 
form  an  approximate  representation  by  comparison  with  the 
religion  of  the  Veda.  The  newly  discovered  Hittite  inscrip- 
tions have  now  thrown  a  welcome  ray  of  light  on  the  primitive 
Iranian  creed  (Ed.  Meyer,  SitutngsbaickU  der  Preuss.  AkadtmUt 
1908).  In  th^  inscriptions  Mitra,  Vanuia,  Indra  and  Nflsatya 
are  mentioned  as  deities  of  the  Iranian  kings  of  Mitani  at  the 
beginning  of  the  i4tb  century — ^all  of  them  names  with  which 
we  are  familiar  from  the  Indian  pantheon.  The  Aryan  folk- 
religion  was  polytheistic.  Wor^ip  was  paid  to  popular 
divinities,  such  as  the  war-god  and  dragon-slayer  Indra,  to 
natural  forces  and  elements  such  as  fire,  but  the  Aryans  also 
believed  in  the  ruling  of  moral  powers  and  of  an  eternal  law  in 
nature  (v.  £d.  Meyer  in  the  article  Peiisia:  History,  $  Anciettl). 
On  solemn  occasions  the  inspiring  drink  soma  {haoma)  ministered 
to  the  enjoyment  of  the  devout.  Numerous  coincidences  with 
the  Indian  religion  survive  in  Zoroastrianism,  side  by  side  with 
astonishing  diversities. 

The  most  striking  difference  between  Zoroaster's  doctrine 


of  God  and  the  old  religion  of  India  lies  In  this^  that  while  In 
the  Avesta  the  evil  spirits  are  called  daioa  (Modem  Persian  (f<»), 
the  Atvaas  of  India,  in  common  with  the  Italians,  Celts  and 
Letts,  9Lve  the  name  of  diva  to  their  good  spirits,  the  spirits  «f 
light.  An  alternative  designation  for  deity  in  the  tU^Veda  Is 
asMTo,  In  the  more  recent  hymns  of  the  Rig- Veda  and  in  later 
India,  on  the  other  hand,  only  eril  spirits  are  understood  by 
asuras,  while  in  Iran  the  corresponding  word  akura  was,  and 
ever  has  continued  to  be,  the  designation  of  God  the  Lord. 
Thus  ckttra-daivaf  diva-asura  in  2^roastrian  and  in  later  Brah- 
man theology  are  in  their  meanings  diametrically  opposed. 

Asura-daiva  represent  originally  two  distinct  races  of  gods 
(like  the  Northern  Aser  and  Vaner) — two  different  aspects  of 
the  conception  of  deity,  comparable  to  Salitu^  and  Mt. 
Asura  indicates  the  more  sublime  and  awful  divine  character, 
for  which  man  entertains  the  greater  reverence  and  feai: 
daiva  denotes  the  kind  gods  of  light,  the  vulgar — more  sensuous 
and  anthropomorphic— deities.  This  twofold  development  of 
the  idea  of  God  formed  the  point  of  leverage  for  Zoroaster'a 
reformation.  While  in  India  the  conception  of  the  astura  had 
veered  more  and  more  towards  the  dreadful  and  the  dreaded, 
Zoroaster  elevated  it  again — at  the  cost,  indeed,  of  the  daivas 
idaiods)f  whom  he  degraded  to  the  rank  of  malicious  powers  and 
devils.  In  one  Asura,  whose  Aryan  original  was  Vanina,  he 
concentrated  the  whole  of  the  divine  character,  and  conferred 
upon  it  the  epithet  of  "the  wise"  {mazdao).  This  culminating 
stage  in  the  a;«ra-conception  is  the  work  of  ZcKoastcr.  The 
Wise  Lord  {Akur9  MtBddo — slater  Ornuud)  is  the  primeval 
spiritual  being,  the  All-fother,  who  was  existent  before  ever 
the  world  arose.  From  him  that  world  has  emanated,  and  its 
course  is  governed  by  his  foreseeing  eye.  'His  guiding  s|nrit 
is  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  wills  the  goOd:  yet  it  is  not  free,  but 
restricted,  in  this  temporal  epoch,  by  its  antagonist  and  own 
twin-brother  {Yasna,  30,  3),  the  Evfl  Spirit  (angrd  mainyusA, 
Ahrinum),  who  in  the  banning  was  banished  by  the  Good 
Spirit  by  means  of  the  famous  ban  contained  in  YasnOt  45,  s, 
and  since  then  drags  out  his  existence  in  the  darkness  of  Hdl 
as  the  principle  of  ill— the  arch-dcviL  In  the  G&th&s  the  Good 
Spirit  of  Mazda  and  the  Evil  Spirit  are  the  two  great  om)osing 
forces  in  the  world,  and  Ormazd  himself  is  to  a  certain  extent 
placed  above  them  both.  Later  the  Holy  Si^rit  Is  made  directly 
equivalent  to  Ormazd;  and  then  the  great  watchword  is: 
"  Here  Ormazd,  there  Ahrimanl"  The  very  daivas  are  only  the 
inferior  instruments,  the  corrupted  children  of  Ahriman,  from 
whom  come  all  that  is  evil  in  the  world.  The  daivas^  unmasked 
and  attacked  by  Zoroaster  as^the  true  enemies  of  mankind,  are 
still,  in  the  G&thfis,  without  doubt  the  perfectly  definite  gods 
of  old  populax  belief — the  IAxAa  of  the  people.  For  ZoRMSter 
they  sink  to  the  rank  of  spurious  deitfcs,  and  in  his  eyes  theif 
priests  and  votaries  are  idolaters  and  heretics.  In  Uie  later, 
developed  system  the  daioas  are  the  evil  spirits  in  general,  and 
their  number  has  increased  to  millions.  Some  few  of  these 
have  names;  and  among  those  names  of  the  old  Aiyan  divinities 
emerge  here  and  there,  e.g.  Indra  and  Nionhaitya.  With  some, ' 
of  course — such  as  the  god  of  fire — the  connexion  with  the  good 
deity  was  a  priori  indissoluble^  Other  powers  of  li^t,  such  as 
Mitra  the  god  of  day  (Iranian  Mitkra),  survived  unforgotten 
in  popular  belief  till  the  later  system  incorporated  them  in  th^ 
angelic  body.  The  authentic  doctrine  of  the  G&tbas  had  no 
room  either  for  the  cult  of  Mithra  or  for  that  of  the  Haoma* 
Beyond  the  Lord  and  his  Fire,  the  G&thas  only  recogni2e  the 
archangels  and  certain  ministers  of  Ormazd,  who  are,  without 
exception,  personifications  of  absttact  ideas.  This  hypo* 
stasization  and  all-egotization  is  especially  chaiacteristic  of  the 
Zoroastrian  religion.  The  essence  of  Ormazd  is  Truth  and  Law 
aska^VedJc  ria):  this  quality  he  embodies,  and  its  personifica- 
tion (though  conceived  as  sexless)  is  always  by  his  side,  acoo-> 
stant  companion  and  intimate.  The  essence  of  the  wicked 
spirit  b  falsehood:  and  falsehood,  as  the  embodiment  of  th6 
evil  principle,  is  much  more  frequently  mentioned  in  the  GSthSs 
than  Ahriman  himself.  .  . 

Zoroaster  says  of  him^  that  he  had  received  from  God  • 


I04.2 


ZOROASTER. 


tomaiitaoa  to  jtinty  oG^bb  ITatma,  44,  9),  He  purifiol  It 
bom  Ihe  pwly  umuil  clcmenu  of  iatta  wnnUp,  ud  up- 
Bned  Uic  idea  ol  teUiion  10  1  higtwi  ind  purer  tphen.  The 
■tacky  body  of  Aryui  (oJk-tvlicf ,  vbea  HbJKiHl  lo  the  nnlfy- 
|jgf  ihouttil  of  a  speculuivc  brain,  wu  truufonned  to  a  Kt(- 
maliintd  lb«ry  oi  the  univoae  and  a  logk*]  dualluJc  prindpit. 
But  thil  dwliim  is  a  lemponlly  timiled  duiliim — do  matt 


\i  frutrt.    TWi  fnedom  o(  the  v 


let  »cu  iDught  lo  riie  iiom  it  to 

•  bifher  unity  in  other  waya.  Thui  the  Zanranita  repnanted 
Orinaid  and  Ahiiman  at  twin  aoni  pnxnding  froffl  the  lunda- 
Btntal  pcindpk  of  all— Zruu  Akarana,  or  Unullcu  lime. 

ELhically,  too,  the  new  doctrine  naads  on  a  higher  plane. 
'  L  iu  nurat  lawa,  a  nipenor  civilization.  The 
at  theii  »crificcl,  (lay  the  or;  and  Ihii 
,  for  (hey  ue  (oe*  lo  the  cattle  and  Lo  cillle- 
brccdinc,  and  Inendi  to  thoae  (rbo  mik  111  lo  the  cow.  In 
Zoroulcr'a  eye»  ihii  ii  an  abooifoaiion:  for  the  cow  b  a 
^t  of  Onnaid  to  man.  and  the  reJigion  ol  Maida  pRNects  the 
■acred  animaL  It  ti  the  religion  of  the  leLLled  grazier  and  the 
pCAtanl,  while  the  tudct  i£itfH-cult  hoidi  [ti  gnnnd  ftuong 
the  undviliicd  nomadic  tribea.  In  an  old  conlcttwa  of  faithi 
the  convert  it  pledged  lo  abjure  the  ibelt  and  robbery  of  cattle 
ud  the  rava^ng  oi  vDlagei  inhabited  by  wonhlnwra  of  Haida 


of  hank  la  na:  U  aeid  b  the  eUcci  of  Oe  **t 
«i  i4  OfMBd.  who  Iherrfan  haa  llie  ttaht  to  tag 
I.     But  Ormaid  created  bin  free  in  hia  Betemuia- 

Vt  da^  eaprcwcd 

vitb  thy  viDd.  aad 
ndiDc  and  our  lil*  tofethcrwith  the  body. 

id  Hndemandiag.  Anuirl  itaiTkii,  IcDowliig  tby  nlrit.  irfwe 
rori  are  found.  Mu  talieapert  in  tUi  omllict  by  all  bii  life  and 
Tivity  tn  the  world.  By  a  true  confeuion  oJ  biUo.  by  every  good 
*d.   word  and   IhotiEht.  by  conrinualTy   keepinE   ptire   hie  body 

loughi  and  defilemeni,  he  increaiea  the  evil  and  rcndsa  aecviix 
The  file  of  man  laDi  fniojiro  part»-itt  eanlily  ponion  and  that 

inen  he^bdaw'a  iliin  rect^'iig  wLU  bTh^lc'   -' 


ZoroaMer'i  teaching  ih 


man  of  a  higbly 
iginatity,  ro  the 
h.  and  bAlr— 


di  may  be  auin- 

pirlta  who  repre- 
ecolevlln  the 

AapirltapaMf 

,  and  enalea  all 

.nd  producea  aB 
iti  bad  coualer 
the  good  Bpirii 

tt  appwa  In  the  Gltbia  mucli 

^„  _.,.. .__ peiwiality  and  individuallly 

s  Ahuia  Maida.    Within  the  wodd  ol  the  good  Omaid 
..^_.  ..._.     ,....■ .. Brianlam ii -'• ' — ■" 


■e  ZonJOHriaRlam  ii  often  referred 


naieMyb  Che  ideal  f«uiE  of  aa  Oriental  blag.   He  li  not  alone  in  hit 
duingi  and  coflHicii,  but  hai  Ln  Donjnnctloii  vhb  hlfludf  a  number 

of  een[i— lor  the  most  part  peraonibcationaof  ethical  ideal.   Tbeae 


■ottal  Koly  onca  ")  and  are  the  pnMMypea  of  the  eeven  smiliufwidi 
of  a  later  dale.  Theie  ate— <()  Voho  ManA  (iUm).  good  aenae. 
i.f.  the  good  principle,  the  idea  of  the  good,  the  pnndple  that  worka  in 

— T  inclining  bim  to  what  [a  good;  ''^  *-■■ —  -'' '-  *'' 

*■         -WJ,  the 


m  ^ut« 


id  andniht.  u| 


__  ^_.„y  identical  'for  ZanaaUT:  '(j)  KMui . 

nrdt  Kfariiatbiein  Valifm  (liWwili),  ibc  powv  and  bii«dan  of 
Ormaid,  which  have  aubiiKed  from  the  nnt  but  not  in  integral 

completenea.  the  eril  having  crept  in  Hke  taiea  among  the  -^ 

the  lime  i>  yel  to  come  when  it  •hall  be  fatly  manileued  in 
■■clouded  nuieity:  (4I  AimaM  (MW,  dtia  imeKc  i 
J-  '  .    _j.'_   .__,.__  pj  ^  daughter  of  Ormaid  and  te 


1!  ji)  Hauryatlt  trkwr™ 


feclion:  (•^1  Amereitl,  ImmDnalily.  Other  minitlering  an 
G«u*  UrvM  ("  tbegealiiaanddeFenderof  aiumali"). and! 
the  gcniut  of  obedience  and  laitkliil  hearing. 

Eiuorp^ 


A  great  cleft  run*  risht  through  the  world: 
U  iiilD  thai  which  i>  Ahura'a  and  that  which 
It  the  two  ifiriii  carry  on  the  Rmgile  ' 

ley  ten"t'inLS''the''seld!'  TTwWd  S^Utik 


only  In  thai 


«.""(?  Ik 


tSirhi,  or  accou 
Acre  the  flateir 


evil  dee/can  tea  toned 
>(  iini  the  old  doctrine 
er  Zoroattrian  Church 
.  After  death  the  huI 
'  bridge,  over  whicb  Ilea 


atn  hi 


iG*T»  iBmai^A  an 

I  good,  be  falla  finally  under  the  psnr  of 
jT  hdl  ue  bli  ponion  for  ever.  SbovM 
e  eqially  balanced,  the  loul  paaaa  into  aa 
^tmet  (the  HewlntoWw  ct  the  PaUavl 

loiuj  ana  lu  nuai  lot  ia  not  tiecided  iintil  the  laat  iiHlgmeBL 

hii  cmirt  of  leckoniiH.  the  JadictHW  partiadtn,  ia  call^  gM. 

Ibe  CDurae  of  ineRorable  Law  cannot  be  turned  asdc  by  any  lacrifice 

oReritM,  nor  yet  even  by  the  free  grace  of  C-* 

But  n^n  haa  been  aminin  with  bUndnea 

wwa  neither  tbe  ctemal  L4w  por  tbo  thin 

ler  death.    He  illovi  himself  too  eauly  to  ne  enawvg  i 

orihip*  and  icrvea  false  god*,  being  unable  to  dUlLnguiah  bf 


.  and  inurancc:  be 
[i  idiia  await  biia 


l™.ndtl 


ti),  rhe  ideal  of  an  Imnian  king.  But  Yima.  tbe 
Kvu^u  «tmu,  lAi  hirmelf  un6lted  for  Jl  and  dcdiosd  it.  He  con- 
tented  him^  Ibeiefore  with  aiabliahing  in  bk  paxadiae  (tore)  a 
heavenly  kingdom  in  ininiatuic.  to  serve  at  the  laina  tine  aa  a 
pattern  fat  the  heavenly  kingdom  that  was  ID  come.  Zoroailer 
at  laat,  aa  beii^  a  sfnriLual  man,  waa  found  fit  for  the  nda^n.  He 
eapenencxd  wiihin  himself  the  inward  call  10  aeek  the  ameliora- 
tiofl  *A  mankind  aAd  their  delivetvnce  from  ruin,  and  regarded  thii 
inner  impulse,  intennhed  aa  it  waa  by  louir.  contemplative  aolitude 
and  by  visions,  ai  being  tbe  call  adarCHcd  to  bim  by  God  Him< 
aeir.  Lilre  Mahommed  after  him  he  often  ftpcnki  of  btaconvemtiona 
with  Gai  and  the  atebangeh.  He  calli  himaell  mqal  fiequcntly 
manliraa  {"  pnqihel "),  rala  I"  apiritiial  authority  "),  and  aaukiiial 
("  Ihe  coming  helper  "—that  b  to  «y.  lAen  mea  come  to  be  judged 
Tbe  full  cenlenti  of  hi'i  dogmatk:  and  ethical  teaching  we  cannot 
gaiba  fnm  the  Ctihli.  nt  iftaki  for  the  miHt  pan  only  ■■ 
lenenl  lelermcta  of  the  divine  conunandi  and  ol  good  and  evil 
works.  Among  the  former  tboae  most  inculcaltd  are  nuiunciation 
of  Satan,  adoration  of  Ormaid,  purity  of  soul  and  body,  and  can 
of  the  cow.  We  learn  tittle  otberwiie  regarding  the  practices  con- 
Mcted  siiib  hia  docnins.    A  anmonisl  wetihlp  la  hardly  meo- 

tioned.     Hejuakai  "  '"-     " ' .-- -v— 1- -i- 

ol  bOEivFT.   The  CO 
w^her  U^or'm 


t'i'of  the  CaiMi  are  emntiallv  eachai 

emiiig  the  loM  things  and  tbe  future  I 


ttium^  of  the  g»d— aueb  are  the  thenia  contlnuaQy  dwdt  en 

It  waa  not  uilhoul  ipecial  reacon— to  Zoroaster  believed- that 
the  calling  of  a  prophet  should  have  taken  pLice  precnely  when 
it  did.  It  arai,  he  held,  tbe  final  appeal  of  Onnaid  in  mankind 
at  large.   Like  John  the  Gaplitl  and  itc  ApoRlei  of  Jeiui.  Zorouls 

of*heav^  wai  it  hand"  "ThroughThe'^^ol  the  Ctthb  vtU 


ZORRILLA  Y  MORAL 


t643 


the  pfoaa  hope  that  the  end  of  the  present  world  is  not  far  distant. 
He  himself  hopes,  with  his  followers,  to  live  to  see  the  decisive 
turn  of  things,  the  dawn  of  the  new  and  better  aeon.  Ormazd 
will  sumnion  together  all  his  powers  for  a  final  decisive  struggle 
and  break  the  power  of  evil  for  ever;  by  his  help  the  faithful  will 
achieve  the  victory  over  their  detested  enemies,  the  datoa  wor- 
shippers, and  render  them  impotent.  Thereupon  Ormazd  will  hold 
^Judicium  universi^t  in  the  lorm  of  a  general  ordeal^  a  great  test 
oTalt  mankind  by  fire  and  molten  metaf,  and  will  judge  strictly 
according  to  justice,  punish  the  wicked,  and  assign  to  the  good 
the  bopea*for  reward.  Satan  will  be  cast,  along  with  all  those  who 
have  been  delivered  over  to  him  to  suffer  the  pains  of  hell,  into 
the  abyss,  where  he  will  henceforward  lie  powerless.  Forthwith 
begins  the  one  undivided  kingdom  of  God  in  heaven  and  on  earth. 
This  is  called,  sometimes  the  good  kingdom,  sometimes  simply  the 
kingdotn.  Here  the  Min  will  for  ever  shine,  and  all  the  pious  and 
faithful  will  live  a  happy  life,  which  no  evil  power  can  disturb,  in 
the  eternal  fellowship  oi  Ormaxd  and  his  angels.  Every  believer 
will  receive  as  his  guerdon  the  inexhaustible  cow  and  the  gracious 
gifts  of  the  Vohu  matiS.  The  prophet  and  his  princely  patrons 
will  be  accorded  special  honour. 

History  and  Later  DnehpnurU.^'Fot  the  great  mass  of  the 
people  Zoroaster's  doctrine  was  too  abstract  and  spiritualistic. 
The  vulgar  fancy  requires  sensuous,  plastic  deities,  which  admit 
of  visible  representation;  and  so  the  old  gods  received  honour 
again  and  new  gods  won  acceptance.  They  are  the  angels 
{yazatd^  of  New  Zoroastrianism.  Thus,  in  the  later  Avesta, 
we  find  not  only  Mithra  but  also  purely  popular  divinities  such 
as  the  angel  of  victory,  Verethraghna,  Anfthita  (AnSitis), 
the  goddess  of  the  water,  Tishrya  (Sirius),  and  other  heavenly 
bodies,  invoked  with  qiecial  preference.  The  G&thAs  know 
nothing  of  a  new  belief  which  i^terwards  arose  in  the  Fravashi, 
or  guardian  angels  of  the  faithful  Fravaski  properly  means 
"  confession  of  faith,"  and  when  personified  comes  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  protecting  spirit.    Unbelievers  have  no  fraoaski. 

On  the  basis  of  the  new  teaching  arose  a  widely  spread  priest- 
hood (HthrovanO)  who  systematized  its  doctrines,  organized  and 
carried  on  its  worship,  and  laid  down  the  minutely  elaborated 
laws  for  the  purifying  and  keeping  clean  of  soul  and  body,  which 
are  met  with  in  the  Vendidad.  To  these  ecclesiastical  precepts 
and  expiations  belong  in  particular  the  numerous  ablutions,  boclily 
chastisements,  love  of  truth,  beneficial  works,  support  of  comrades 
in  the  faith ,  alms,  chastity,  improvement  of  the  land,  arboriculture, 
breeding  of  cattle,  agriculture,  protection  of  useful  animals,  as  the 
dog,  the  destruction  of  noxious  animals,  and  the  prohibition  either 
to  Durn  or  to  bury  the  dead.  These  are  to  be  left  on  the  appointed 
places  idakhmas)  and  expooed  to  the  vultures  and  wild  dogs.  In 
the  worship  the  drink  prepared  from  the  kaoma  (Indian  soma) 
plant  had^  a  prominent  place.  Worship  in  the  Zoroastrian  Church 
was  devoid  of  pomp;  it  was  independent  of  temples.  Its  centre 
was  the  holy  fire  on  the  altar.  The  fire  altars  afterwards  developed 
to  fire  temples.  In  the  sanctuary  of  these  temples  the  various 
sacrifices  and  high  and  low  masses  were  celebrated.  As  offerings 
meat,  milk,  show-bread,  fruits,  flowers  and  consecrated  water  were 
used.  The  priests  were  the  privileged  keepers  and  teachers  of 
religion.  They  only  performed  the  sacrifices  (Herodotus,  i.  133). 
educa^  the  young  clergy,  imposed  the  penances;  they  in  person 
executed  the  cvcumstantul  ceremonies  of  purification  and  exercised 
a  spiritual  guardianship  and  pastoral  care  of  the  laymen.  Every 
young  believer  in  Mazda,  atter  having  been  received  into  the 
religious  community  by  being  girt  with  the  holy  lace,  had  to  choose 
a  confessor  and  a  spiritual  guuw  {ratu). 

Also  in  csKhatoiogy.  as  may  be  expected,  a  change  took  place. 
The  last  things  and  the  end  of  the  world  are  relegated  to  the  close 
of  a  long  period  of  time  (3000  years  after  Zoroaster),  when  a  new 
Saoshyant  u  to  be  born  of  the  seed  of  the  prophet,  the  dead  are 
to  come  to  life,  and  a  new  incorruptible  world  to  begin. 

Zoroastrianism  was  the  national  religion  of  Iran,  but  it  was  not 
permanently  restricted  to  the  Iranians,  being  professed  by  Turanians 
as  well.  The  worship  of  the  Persian  gods  spread  to  Armenia  and 
Cappadoda  and  over  the  whole  of  the  Near  bast  (Strabo,  xv.  3,  14: 
xi.  0.  4;  14,  76).  Of  the  Zoroastrian  Church  under  the  Achae- 
menides  anid  Aeracides  little  is  known.  After  the  overthrow  of 
the  dynasty  of  the  Achaemenides  a  period  of  decay  seems  to  have 
set  in.  Yet  the  Aeracides  and  the  Indo-Scythian  kings  as  well 
as  the  Achaemenides  were  believers  in  Mazda.  The  national 
rcstwation  of  the  Sasanides  brought  new  life  to  the  2U>roa5trian 
religion  and  long-lasting  sway  to  the  Church.  Protected  by  this 
dynasty,  the  pnesthood  developed  into  a  completely  organized 
state  church,  which  was  able  to  employ  the  power  of  the  state 
in  enforcing  strict  compliance  with  the  religious  law-book  hitherto 
enjoined  by  their  unaided  efforts  only.  The  head  of  the  Church 
(Zara-Shushtrdtema)  had  his  seat  at  Rai  in  Media  and  was  the 
first  person  in  the  state  next  to  the  king.  The  formation  of 
secu  was  at  this  period  not  infrequent  (cf.  MANICRABISM).    The 


Mohammedan  Invasion  (63i6),  with  tKe  terrible  peneeuttons  of  the  fol- 
lowing centuries,  was  the  death-blow  of  Zoroastrianism.^  In  Persia 
itself  only  a  few  followers  of  Zoroaster  are  now  found  (in  Kerman 
and  Yezd).  The  Parsers  (g.v.)  in  and  around  Bombay  hold  by 
Zoroaster  as  their  prophet  and  by  the  ancient  religious  usages, 
but  their  doctrine  has  reached  the  stage  of  a  pure  monothdam. 

LiTSRATURS.-*See  under  Zend-Avesta.  Also  Hyde,  Historia 
Relifionis  veterum  Purarum  (Oxon,  i7oo);  Windischmann,  ZorO' 
astnsche  Studien  (Berlin,  1863) ;  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson,  ZoroasUr, 
the  Prophet  of  Ancient  Iran  (New  York,  1809);  Jackson,  in  the 
Grundrtss  der  iranischen  Phtltdorie,  vol.  ii.  613  sqq.  (Strassburgt 
1896-190^);  Tiele,  Die  Religion  Set  den  iranischen  Vdlkem  (Gotha, 
1898);  Tiele,  Kompendium  der  Religionsgeschichte,  (^rman  transl. 
by  S<Jderblom  (Breslau,  1903);  Rastamji  Eduiji  Dastoor  Peshotan 
Sanjana,  Zarathushtra  and  Zaralhnshirianism  in  the  Avesta  (Bombay, 
1^06);  E.  Lehmann.  Zaraihtishtra,  2  vols.  (Copenhagen,  1899  1903); 
E.  W.  West,  "  Marvels  of  Zoroastrianism  in  the  Sacred  Books 
of  the  East,  vol.  xlvii.;  Z.  A.  Ragozin,  The  Story  of  Media,  Babylon 
and  Persia  (New  York.  1888);  Dosabhai  Framji  Karaka.  History 
of  the  Parsis  (3  vols.,  London.  1884).  (K.  G.) 

ZORBIUA  7  HORAU  JOSfi  (1817-1893),  Spanish  poet  and 
dramatist,  son  of  a  magbtrate  in  whom  Ferdinand  VII.  placed 
special  confidence,  was  born  at   VaUadolid  on  the  21st  of 
February  181 7.    He  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at  the  Real 
Seminario  de  Nobles  in  Madrid,  wrote  verses  when  he  was 
twelve,  became  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Scott  and  Chateau- 
briand, and  took  part  In  the  school  performances  of  plays  by 
Lope  de  Vega  and  Caldcron.    In  1833  he  was  sent  to  read  law 
at  the  University  of  Toledo,  but,  after  a  year  of  idleness,  he 
fled  to  Madrid,  where  he  horrified  the  friends  of  his  absolutist 
father  by  making  violent  speeches  and  by  founding  a  newspaper 
which  was  promptly  suppressed    by  the  government.     He 
narrowly  escaped  transportation  to  the  Philippines,  and  passed 
the  next  few  years  in  poverty.    The  death  of  the  satirist  Laira 
brought  Zorrilla  into  notice.    His  elegiac  poem,  declaimed  at 
Larra's  funeral  In  February  1837,  served  as  an  introduction 
to  the  leading  men  of  letters.    In  1837  he  published  a  book  of 
verses,  mostly  imitations  of  Lamartine  and  Hugo,  which  was  so 
favourably  received  that  he  printed  six  more  volumes  within 
three  years.    His  subjects  are  treated  with  fluency  and  grace, 
but  the  carelessness  which  disfigures  much  of  his  work  is  pro> 
minent  in   these  juvenile  poems.     After  collaborating  with 
Garda   Gutierrez,   in   a   piece  entitled  Juan  Ddndeto  (1839) 
2^rrilla  began  his  individual  career  as  a  dramatist  with  Coda 
cual  con  fu  raz6n  (1840),  and  during  the  following  five  years 
he  wrote  twenty-two  plays,  many  oi  them  extremely  successfid. 
His  Cantos  dd  trowtdor  (1841),  a  collection  of  national  legends 
versified  with  infinite  spirit,  showed  a  decided  advance  in   kiU, 
and  secured  for  the  author  the  place  next  to  Espronceda  in 
popular  esteem.    National  legends  also  supply  the  themes  of 
his  dramas,  though  in  this  department  Zorrilla  somewhat  com- 
promised his  reputation  for  originality  by  adapting  older  plays 
which  had  fallen  out  of  fashion.    For  example,  in  El  Zap<Uero 
y  d  Rey  he  recasts  El  nunOaMs  Juan  Pascual  by  Juan  de  la 
Hoz  y  Mota;  in  La  nujor  raz&n  la  espada  he  borrows  from 
Moreto's    Travesuras    dd  estudianle  Panlqja\    in    Don  Juan 
Tenorio  he  adapts  from  Tirso  de  Moh'na's  Burlador  de  Sevilla 
and  from  the  elder  Dumas's  Don  Juan  de  Marana  (which  itself 
derives  from  Les  Anus  du  purgatoire  of  Prosper  M^rim^).    But 
his  rearrangements  usually  contain  original  elements,  and  in 
Sancho  Garcia^  El  Rey  loco^  and  £/  Alcalde  Ronquillo  he  ap- 
parently owes  little  to  any  predecessor.    The  last  and  (as  he 
himself  believed)  the  best  of  bis  plays  is   Traidor,  inconfeso  y 
mdrtir  (1845).    Upon  the  death  of  his  mother  in  1847  Zorrilla 
left  Spain,  resided  for  a  while  at  Bordeaux,  and  settled  !n  Paris, 
where  his  incomplete  Granada^  a  striking  poem  of  gorgeous 
local  colour,  was  published  in  1852.    In  a  fit  of  depression, 
the  causes  of  which  are  not  known,  he  emigrated  to  America 
three  years  later,  hoping,  as  he  says,  that  yellow  fever  or  small- 
pox would  carry  him  olT.    During  eleven  years  spent  in  Mexico 
he  produced  little,  and  that  little  was  of  no  merit.    He  returned 
in  1866,  to  find  himself  a  half-forgotten  classic.    His  old  fertility 
was  gone,  and  new  standards  of  taste  were  coming  into  fashion. 
A  small  post,  obtained  fw  him  through  the  influence  of  JoveUar 
and  C&novas  del  CastiUo,  was  abolished  by  the  repuUicfta 


1044 


20SIMUS— ZOUAVE 


minister.  He  was  always  p6or,  and  for  some  twelve  years  after 
1871  lie  was  in  the  direst  straits.  The  law  of  copyright  was  not 
retrospective,  and,  though  some  of  bis  plays  made  the  fortunes 
of  manageis,  they  brought  him  nothing.  In  his  untrustworthy 
autobiography,  Recuerdos  del  tiempo  vicjo  (1880),  he  complained 
of  this.  A  pension  of  30,000  reales  secured  him  from  want  in 
his  old  age,  and  the  reaction  in  his  favour  became  an  apothcods. 
In  1885  the  Spanish  Academy,  which  had  elected  him  a  member 
many  years  before,  presented  him  with  a  gold  medal  of  honour, 
and  in  i88q  he  was  publicly  crowned  at  Granada  as  the  national 
laureate.    He  died  at  Madrid  on  the  33rd  of  January  1893. 

Zorrtlla  is  lo  intensely  Spanish  that  it  is  difiicult  for  foreign 
critics  to  do  him  justice,  it  is  certain  that  the  extraordinary 
rapidity  of  his  methods  seriously  injured  hb  work.  He  decbres 
that  he  wrote  El  Caballo  del  Rey  Don  Sancho  in  throe  weeks,  and 
that  he  put  together  El  PuScl  del  Godo  (which,  like  La  Calent«ra. 
owes  much  to  Southcy)  in  two  days:  if  so,  bis  deficiencies  need 
no  other  explanation.  An  improvisator  with  the  characteristic 
faults  of  redundance  and  verbosity,  he  wrote  far^too  much,  and 
in  most  of  his  numbers  there  are  numerous  technical  flaws.  Yet 
the  richness  of  htn  imagery,  the  movement,  fire  and  variety  of 
hii  versification,  will  preserve  some  few  of  his  poems  in  the  antho- 
logien.  His  appeal  to  patriotic  pride,  his  accurate  dramatic  instinct, 
together  with  the  fact  that  he  invariably  gives  at  least  one  of  his 
characters  a  most  effective  acting  part,  nave  enabled  him  to  hold 
the  stage.  It  is  by  Don  Juan  Teuorio,  the  play  of  which  he  thought 
so  meanly,  that  Zorrilla  will  be  best  remerobeied.        (J.  F^K.; 

ZOSIMUS.  bishop  of  Rome  from  the  i8th  of  March  417  to  the 
a6th  of  December  418,  succeeded  Innocent  I.  and  was  followed 
by  Boniface  I.  For  his  attitude  in  the  Pelagian  controversy, 
see  Pelacius.  He  took  a  decided  part  in  the  protracted 
dispute  in  Gaul  as  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  sec  of  Aries  over  that 
of  Vicnne,  giving  eneiigetic  decisions  in  favour  of  the  former, 
but  without  settlmg  the  controversy.  His  fractious  temper 
coloured  ail  the  controversies  in  which  he  took  part,  in  Gaul, 
Africa  and  liaily,  including  Rome,  where  at  his  dn&th  the  clergy 
were  -very  much  divided. 

ZOSIinJS,  Greek  historical  writer,  flourished  at  Constant!' 
nople  during  the  second  half  of  the  5th  century  a.d.  According 
to  Photius,  he  was  a  count,  and  held  the  oflice  of  "  advocate  " 
of  the  imperial  treasury.  His  New  History,  mainly  a  compilation 
from  previous  authors  (Dexippus,  Eunapius,  Olympiodorus), 
is  in  six  books:  the  first  sketches  briefly  the  history  of  the  early 
emperors  from  Augustus  to  Diocletian  (305) ;  the  second,  thinl 
•nd  fourth  deal  more  fully  with  the  period  from  the  accession  of 
Constantius  and  Galcrius  to  the  death  of  Theodosius;  the  fifth 
and  sixth  cover  the  period  between  395  and  410.  The  work, 
which  is  apparently  imfinished,  must  have  been  written  between 
450-502.  The  style  is  characterized  by  Photius  as  concise, 
dear  and  pure.  The  historian's  object  was  to  account  for  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  empire  from  the  pagan  point  of  view,  and 
in  this  undertaking  he  at  various  points  treated  the  Christians 
with  some  unfairness. 

The  best  edition  is  by  Mendelssohn  (1887),  who  fully  discusses 
the  question  of  the  authorities  used  by  Zosimus;  there  is  an 
excellent  appreciation  of  him  in  Ranke's  Weltgeschichfe,  iv.  French 
translation  by  Cousin  {1678);  English  (anonymous),  1684.  1814. 

ZOSTEROPS,*  originally  the  scientific  name  of  a  genus  of 
birds  founded  by  N.  A.  Vigors  and  T.  Horsficld  (Trans.  Linn, 
Society t  XV.  p.  235)  on  an  Australian  species  called  by  them 
Z.  dorsalis,  but  subsequently  shown  to  be  ideniical  with  the 
Cerlhia  caerulcscens,  and  also  with  the  Sylvia  laleralis,  previously 
described  by  J.  Latham.  The  name  has  been  Anglicized  in  the 
same  sense,  and,  whether  as  a  scientific  or  a  vernacular  term, 
applied  to  a  great  number  of  species'  of  little  birds  which  inhabit 
for  the  most  part  the  tropical  districts  of  the  Old  World,  from 
Africa  to  most  of  the  islands  in  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans, 
and  northwards  in  Asia  through  India  and  China  to  the  Amur 
regions  and  Japan. 

^  The  derivation  is  fw^riip-npot  and  6^.  whence  the  word  should 
be  pronounced  with  all  the  vowels  long.  The  allusion  is  to  the 
ring  of  white  feathers  round  the  eyes,  which  is  very  conspicuous 
in  many  species. 

*  In  1883  R.^B.  Sharpe  {Cai.  B.  Brit,  hfustnm,  ix.  pp.  tn&'-TOx) 
admktfld  85  species,  besides  3  won  which  be  had  not  been  abw 
to  Iff  J  mi  nr 


The  birds  of  this  group  are  moatly  of  unpretenfing  appeannoe, 
the  plumage  above  being  generally  either  mouse-coloured  or 
greenish  olive;  but  some  are  varied  by  the  white  or  bright  yellow 
of  their  throat,  breast  or  lower  parts,  and  several  have  the 
flanks  of  a  more  or  less  lively  bay.  Several  islands  are  inhabited 
by  two  perfectly  distinct  species,  one  belonging  to  the  browa 
and  the  other  to  the  green  section,  the  former  being  viiolly 
insular.  The  greater  number  of  species  seem  to  be  confined  to 
single  islands^  often  of  very  small  area,  but  others  have  &  very 
wide  distribution,  and  the  type^pecies^  Z.  caendescens,  has 
largely  extended  its  range.  First  described  from  New  South 
Wales,  where  it  is  very  plentiful,  it  had  been  long  known  to 
inhabit  all  the  eastern  part  of  Australia.  In  1856  it  was  found 
in  the  South  Island  of  New  Zealand,  when  it  became  known  to 
theMaoriesbya  name  signifying"  Stranger," and  to  the  British 
as  the  "  Blight-bird,'*'  from  its  clearing  the  fruit-trees  of  a 
blight.  It  soon  after  appeared  in  the  North  Island,  where  it 
speedily  became  common,  and  thence  not  only  spread  to  the 
Chatham  Islands,  but  was  met  with  in  con^ei^ble  numbers 
300  miles  from  land,  as  though  in  search  of  new  countries  to 
colonise.  In  any  case  it  is  obvious  that  this  ZosUrops  must  be 
a  comparatively  modern  settler  in  New  Zealand. 

An  the  species  of  Zosterops  are  sociable,  consorting  in  large 
flocks,  which  otAy  separate  on  the  approach  of  the  pairing  Sfcason. 
They  build  nests-'sometimes  suspended  from  a  horixontal  fork 
and  sometimes  fixed  in  an  upright  crotch — and  lay  (so  far  as  is 
known)  pale  blue,  spotless  eggs,  thereby  differing  wholly  from 
several  of  the  grou[i6  of  birds  to  which  they  have  been  thought 
allied.  Though  mainly  insectivorous,  they  eat  fruits  of  various 
kinds.  The  habits  of  Z.  caerulescens  have  been  well  described 
by  Sir  W.  BuUcr  (Birds  of  New  Zealand),  and  those  of  a  species 
peculiar  to  Ceylon,  Z.  ceylonensis,  by  Col.  Lcgge  (B.  Ceylon),  while 
those  of  the  widely  rangmg  Indian  Z.  palpebrosa  and  of  the  South* 
African  Z.  ca^»sts  have  Decn  succinctly  treated  by  Jerdon  {B.  India, 
ii.)  and  Layard  (B.  Sou!k  Afrita)  respectively. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  largest  known  species  of  the  genus, 
Z.  albigidaris,  measuring  nearly  6  in.  in  length,  is  confined  to  so 
small  a  spot  as  Norfolk  Island,  wliere  also  another,  Z.  tenuirostris, 
not  much  less  in  size,  occurs;  while  a  third,  of  intermediate  stature. 
Z.  strenua,  inhabits  the  still  smaller  Lord  Howe's  Island.  A  fourth. 
Z.  valensis,  but  little  inferior  in  bulk,  is  found  on  one  of  the  New 
Hebrides;  the  rest  are  from  one-fifth  to  one-third  less  in  length, 
and  some  of  the  smaller  species  hardly  exceed  x\  in. 

Placed  by  some  writers,  if  not  cystematists,  with  the  Paridat 
(sec  Titmouse),  by  others  among  tnc  Meliphandae  (see  Honet* 
Eater),  and  again  by  others  with  the  Nectariniidae  (see  Sun'bird), 
the  structure  of  the  tongue,  as  shown  by  H.  F.Gadow  (Proc.  Zoci. 
Society,  1883,  pp.  63.  68,  pi.  xvi.  fig.  3^,  entirely  removes  it  from 
the  first  and  third,  and  from  most  of  tne  forms  generally  included 
among  the  second.    It  seems  safest  to  regard  the  genus,  at  least 

f provisionally,  as  the  tyi^e  of  a  distinct  family — Z(»tcropidae — as 
amilies  go  among  Passerine  birds.  (A.  N.) 

ZOUAVE,  the  name  given  to  certain  infantry  regiments  in 
the  French  army.  The  corps  was  first  raised  in  Algeria  in  1831 
with  one  and  later  two  battalions,  and  recruited  solely  from 
the  Zouaves,  a  tribe  of  Berbers,  dwelling  in  the  mountains  of 
the  Jurjura  range  (see  Kabyles).  In  1838  a  third  battalion 
was  raised,  and  the  regiment  thus  formed  was  commanded 
by  Lamoriciere.  Shortly  afterwards  the  formation  of  the 
Tirailleurs  algiriais,  the  Turcos,  as  the  corps  for  natives,  changed 
the  enlistment  for  the  Zouave  battalions,  and  they  became,  as 
they  now  remain,  a  purely  French  body.  Three  regiments 
were  formed  in  1852,  and  a  fourth,  the  Zouaves  of  the  Imperial 
Guard,  in  1854.  The  Crimean  War  was  the  first  service  which 
the  regiments  .saw  outside  Algeria.  There  are  now  Jour  regi- 
ments, of  five  battalions  each,  four  of  which  are  permanently  in 
Africa,  the  fifth  being  stationed  in  France  as  a  depdt  regiment. 
For  the  peculiarly  picturesque  uniform  of  these  regiments,  see 
Unifosm. 

The  Pspal  Zouaves  were  formed  in  defence  of  the  Papal  states 
by  Lamonci6re  in  i860.  After  the  occupation  of  Rome  by  Victor 
Emmanuel  in  1870,  the  Papal  Zouaves  served  the  government  of 
National  Defence  in  France  during  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and 
were  disbanded  after  the  entrance  of  the  German  troops  into  Paris. 

^'  ■■■III         ■ ^-^^^■^■■i.M ^.     ^»  ■      ^M^»^^^^^^l^iy^«^— ^M^fc^W^— i— ,^^— ^^^,— 

'  By  moit  English-speaking  people  the  prevalent  species  of 
ZosUrops  la  commonly  called  "  Wmte-cye  "  or  "  Silver-eye.'* 


ZOUCH— ZRINYI 


1045 


ZOUQH»  RICHARD  («.  iso^*i<Mi),  English  jurist,  wu  bom 
at  Anstcyi  Wiltshire,  and  educated  at  WiAcheater  and  after^ 
wards  at  Oxiord,  where  be  became  a  fellow  of  New  CoUege  in 
1609.  He  was  admitted  at  Doctor's  Comnoons  in  January 
i6iS,  and  was  appointed  regius  professor  of  law  at  Oxford  in 
162a  In  1625  he  became  principal  of  St  Alban  Hall  and 
chancellor  of  the  diocese  of  Oxford;  in  1641  he  was  made  Judge 
of  the  Uigh  Court  of  Admiralty.  Under  the  Commonwealth, 
having  submitted  to  the  parliamentaiy  visitors,  he  retained  his 
university  ai^iotmeats,  though  not  his  judgeship;  this  last 
be  resumed  at  the  Restoration,  dying  soon  afterwards  at  his 
apartments  in  Doctor's  Commons,  London,  on  the  ist  of  March 
1661. 

He  published  EkpieHta  jnrispmdentiae  (ifiao).  Deseriplio  Juris 
*t  judicii  feudalis,  secundum  consuetudines  Meddclani  el  Normanniae, 
pro  introaurtione  ad  juris f>rudenUam  Anglicanam  (1634),  Descriptio 
ptris  et  judicH  temporalis,  secundum  consuetudines  feudales  et  Nor- 
mannkas  (1636).  Descriptio  juris  et  judicii  ecdesiastid,  secundum 
canones  et  consuetudines  AnpicMas  (1636),  Descriptiones  juris  ei 
iudicU  sacri,  .  .  .  milUaris,  .  .  .  maritimi  (1610),  Juris  et  Judicii 
fecialis  sive  Juris  inter  gcntes  .  .  .  explicatto  (1650),  and'oo/nito 
quaestionis  ae  lerati  delinquentis  judice  competente  (16^7).  In  virtue 
of  the  last  two  he  has  the  distinction  of  being  one  of  the  earliest 
systematic  vrritcr*  on  international  law.  He  was  also  the  author 
of  a  poem,  The  Dooe,  or  Passages  0/  Cosmography  (1613). 

ZOUCHB,  or  ZoccR,  the  name  of  an  EngUsh  family  descended 
from  Alan  la  Zouche,  a  Breton,  who  is  sometimes  cdled  Alan 
dc  Porrhoet.  Having  settled  in  England  during  the  rdgn  of 
Henry  II.,  Alan  obtained  by  marriftge  Ashby  in  Leicestershire 
(called  after  him  Ashby  de  la  Zouch)  and  other  lands.  His 
grandson,  another  Alan  la  Zouche,  was  Justice  of  Chester  and 
justice  of  Ireland  under  Henry  III.;  he  was  loyal  to  the  king 
during  the  struggle  with  the  barons,  fought  at  Lewes  and  helped 
to  arrange  the  peace  of  Kenilworth.  As  the  result  of  a  quarrel 
over  some  lands  with  John,  Earl  Warenne,  he  was  seriously 
Injufcd  in  Westminster  Hall  by  the  earl  and  his  retainers,  and 
died  on  the  xoth  of  August  1370.  Alan's  elder  son  Roger 
(d.  1285)  had  a  son  Alan  la  Zoucbe,  who  was  summoned  to 
parliament  as  a  baron  about  1298.  He  died  without  sons,  and 
this  barony  fell  into  abeyance  between  his  daughters  and  has 
never  been  revived.  The  cider  Alan's  younger  son,  Eades  or 
Ivo,  had  a  son  William  (c.  1276-1352),  who  was  summoned  to 
parliament  as  a  baron  in  1308,  and  this  barony,  which  is  still 
in  existence,  b  known  as  that  of  Zoudie  of  Haryngworth. 

John,  7th  baron  Zouche  of  Haryngworth  (c.  1460-1526), 
was  attainted  in  1485  as  a  supporter  of  Richard  ni.,  but  was 
restored  to  his  honours  in  1495.  His  descendant,  Edward,  the 
nth  baron  (e.  1556-1625),  was  one  of  the  peers  who  tried  Mary, 
queen  of  Scots,  and  was  sent  by  Elisabeth  as  ambassador  to 
Scotland  and  to  Denmark.  He  was  president  of  Wales  from 
1603  to  1615  and  lord  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports  from  1615  to 
1624.  He  was  a  member  of  the  council  ot  the  Virginia  Company 
and  of  the  New  England  counciL  He  had  many  literaiy  friends, 
among  them  being  Ben  Jonson  and  Sir  Henry  Wotton.  Zouche 
left  no  sons,  and  the  barony  remained  in  abeyance  among  the 
descendants  <rf  his  two  daughters  until  181 5,  when  the  abeyance 
was  terminated  in  favour  of  Sir  Cecil  Bisshopp,  BarU  (1753" 
1828),  who  became  the  i2tb  baron.  He  died  without  sons,  a 
second  abeyance  being  terminated  in  1829  in  favour  of  his 
daughter  Harriet  Anne  (1787^1870),  wife  ol  the  Hon.  Robert 
Curxon  (1771-1S63).  In  1873  her  grandson,  Robert  Nathaniel 
Curzon  (b.  1851),  became  the  15th  baron. 

Two  antiquaries,  Henry  Zouch  (c,  1725-1795)  and  his  brother 
Thomas  Zouch  (1737-181^),  cbimed  descent  from  the  family  of 
Zouche.    Both  were  voluminous  writers,  Thomas's  works  including 
a  Lift  of  Jsaah  Walton  (1823)  and  Memoirs  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney 
(1808). 

ZOUTPANSBERG*  the  north-eastern  division  of  the  Transvaal. 
This  was  the  diatrkt  to  which  Louk  Trichaid  and  Jan  van 
Renaburg,  the  lorenmnen  of  the  Gieat  T^k,  journeyed  in 
1835.  In  1845  Hendrik  Fotgieter,  a  preminent  leader  of  the 
Trek  Boers,  removed  thither.  The  Zoutpansbcrg  Boers  formed 
a  semi-independent  CMnmunity,  and  in  1857  Stqihanua  Scfaoe- 
Buui.    their   oommandant'geaccal,    sided   against    MartJlinas 


Pretorius  and  Paol  Ktvger  when  Ihej  inTtidsd  the  Ofange  Free 
State.  It  was  not  until  1864  that  Zoutpanaberg  was  d^nitely 
incorporated  m  the  South  African  Republic.  Trichard  and  his 
companions  had  been  shown  gold  wt)rkinga  by  the  natives,  and 
it  was  in  this  distria  in  1867-70,  and  in  the  nel^bouring  region 
of  Lydenburg,  that  gold  mines  were  first  worked  by  Europeans 
soutib  of  the  Limpopo.  The  white  settlers  in  Zoutpansbcrg 
had  for  many  yeara  a  reputation  for  lawlessness,  and  were  later 
regarded  aa  typical  '*  back  veU  Boers."  Zoutpansbeig  oontaina 
a  larger  native  population  than  any  other  region  of  the  TkanavaaL 
It  ia  highly  mincraliaed,  next  to  gold,  copper,  foimd  near  the 
Limpopo  (where  is  the  Mesalim  mine)  being  the  chief  metal 
worked.  The  district  kmg  sulered  from  lack  of  railway  coitt- 
miunications,  but  in  1910  the  completion  oi  the  Sdati  line  giving 
it  direct  access  to  Delagoa  Bay  was  b^pu.  The  chief  towns 
are  Pietenhuig  and  Leydadoip. 

See  S.  Hofmeyr,  TMutig  Jaren  tn  Zoutpansherg  (Cape  Town, 
1890);  Report  on  a  Retonnaissanu  of  tiU  H*-W.  Zouipomhtrg 
Dtstria  (Pretoria,  1908). 

ZRIXn.  HIKLte,  Count  (.1 508-1566),  Hongaiian  hero, 
was  a  son  of  Mikl6a  Zrinyi  and  116na  Karkmcs.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  siege  of  Vienna  in  1529,  and  In  1542 
saved  the  imperial  army  from  defeat  before  Pot  by  intervening 
with  400  Croats,  for  which  service  he  was  appointed  ban  df 
Croatia.  In  1542  he  routed  the  Turks  at  Somlyo.  In  1543  he 
married  Catherine  Frangipin,  who  placed  the  wh<^  of  her 
vast  estates  at  hia  di^osal.  The  Etuptxat  Ferdinand  also 
gave  him  large  poasesaions  in  Hungary,  and  henceforth  the 
Zrinyis  became  as  much  Magyar  aa  Croatian  magnatm.  In 
1556  Zrinyi  won  a  series  of  victories  over  the  Turka,  culminating 
in  the  battle  of  Bab6c5a.  The  Croatians,  however,  overwhelmed 
their  ban  with  reproaches  for  neglecting  them  to  fight  for  the 
Magyars,  and  the  empcwx  simultaneously  deprived  him  of  the 
captaincy  of  Upper  Croatia  and  sent  10,000  men  to  aid  the 
Croats,  while  the  Magyars  were  left  without  any  hdp,  where- 
upon Zrinyi  resigned  the  banship  (1561).  In  1563,  on  the 
coronation  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  as  king  of  Hungary, 
Zrinyi  attended  the  ceremony  at  the  head  of  3000  Croatian  and 
Magyar  mounted  noblemen,  in  the  vain  hope  of  obtaining  the 
dignity  of  palatine,  vacant  by  the  death  <^  Thomas  Nadasdy. 
Shortly  after  manyingOua  1564)  hb  second  wife,  Eva  Roeenbeis, 
a  great  Bohemian  hdress,  he  hastened  southwards  to  defend 
the  frontier,  defeated  the  Turks  at  Segesd,  and  in  1566  from 
the  5th  of  August -to  the  7th  of  September  hcacoically  defended 
the  Uttle  fortress  of  Szigetvftr  against  the  whole  Turkish  host, 
led  by  Suleiman  the  Magnificent  in  person,  perishing  with  every 
member  of  the  garrison  in  a  last  deq>enite  sortie. 

See  F.  Salamon,  Uyum  im  Zeitaker  der  THrkeukerrsthaft  (Leipsig, 
1887);  J.  Csuday,  The  Zrinyis  m  Hungarian  History  (Hnng.>, 
Szombathely.  1884,  8vo.  (R.  N.  B.) 

ZRINYL  MIKUdS,  Coupt  (1620-1664),  Hungarian  warriov, 
statesman  and  poet,  the  son  of  George  Zrinyi  and  Magdalena 
Sz^chy,  was  bom  at  Csikv&r.  At  the  court  of  Filet  Pism&qy 
the  youth  conceived  a  burning  enthasiaam  for  bis  native  lan- 
guage and  literature,  although  he  always  placed  arms  before 
arts.  From  1635  to  1637  he  accompanied  Szenkveciy,  one  of 
the  canons  of  Esztergom,  on  a  long  educative  tour  through 
Italy.  During'  the  next  few  years  he  learnt  the  art  of  war  in 
defending  the  Croatian  frontier  against  the  Turks,  and  approved 
himself  one  of  the  first  captains  of  the  age.  In  1645  he  acted 
against  the  Swedes  in  Aloravia,  equipping  an  army  corps  at 
his  own  expense.  At  Sskakc  he  scattered  a  Swedi^  division 
and  took  2000  prisoners.  At  Eger  he  saved  the  emperor,  who 
had  been  surprised  at  night  in  his  camp  by  Wrangel.  Subao- 
quently  he  routed  the  army  of  RAk6cxy  cm  the  Upper  Theisa. 
For  his  services  the  emperor  appointed  him  captain  of  Croatia. 
On  his  return  from  the  war  he  married  the  wealthy  Eusebia 
Drsskovics.  In  1646  he  distinguished  himself  in  the  Turkish 
war.  At  the  coronation  of  Ferdinand  IV.  he  carried  the  swor^ 
of  state,  and  was  made  ban  and  captain-geneml  of  Croatia. 
In  this  double  capacity  he  presided  over  many  Croatian  diets, 
always  strenuously  defending  the  political  rights  of  the  Croats 


1046 


ZSCHOKKE— ZUCCARELLI 


and  steadfutly  muhtaJniiig  Uuit  at  Rfirded  Hungary  they  were 
to  be  looked  upon  not  as  partes  ofttuxae  but  as  a  regimm.  During 
1653*53  be  was  continuijly  fighting  against  the  Turks,  yet  from 
his  castle  at  Cs&ktomya  be  was  in  constant  communication 
with  the  learned  world;  the  Dutch  scholar,  Jacobus  Tollius, 
even  visited  him,  and  has  left  in  his  EpiUohe  iHntrariae  a  lively 
account  of  his  experiences.  Tallius  was  amased  at  the  linguistic 
resources  of  Zrinyi,  who  spoke  German,  Croatian,  Hungarian, 
Turkish  and  Latin  with  equal  facility.  2^rinyi's  Latin  letters 
(from  which  we  learn  that  he  was  nuuried  a  second  time,  to 
Sophia  L5bel)  are  fluent  and  agreeable,  but  largely  intenpersed 
with  Croatian  and  Magyar  ezpreislons.  The  last  year  of  his 
life  was  also  its  most  glorious  one.  He  set  out  to  destroy  the 
strongly  fortified  Turkish  bridge  at  Esseg,  and  thus  cut  off  the 
retreat  of  the  Turkish  army,  recapturing  iXi  the  strong  fortresses 
on  his  way.  He  destroyed  the  bridge,  but  the  further  pur- 
soance  of  the  campaign  was  frustrated  by  the  refusal  of  the 
imperial  generals  to  co-operate.  Still  the  e^qpedition  had  covered 
him  with  glory.  All  Europe  rang  with  his  praises.  It  was 
said  that  only  the  Zrinyis  had  the  secret  of  conquering  the  Turks. 
The  emperor  offered  him  the  title  of  prince.  The  pope  struck 
a  commemorative  medal  with  the  effigy  of  Zrinyi  as  »  field- 
fMjalial  The  Spanish  king  sent  him  the  Golden  Fleece.  The 
French  king  created  him  a  peer  of  France.  The'Turics,  to  wipe 
out  the  disgrace  of  the  Esseg  affair,  now  laid  siege  to  Uj-Zcrin, 
a  fortress  which  Zrinyi  had  built,  and  the  imperial  troops  under 
Montecuculi  looked  on  while  he  hastened  to  reHeve  it,  refusing 
all  assistance,  with  the  result  that  the  fortress  fell.  It  was 
also  by  the  advice  of  Montecuculi  that  the  dl^raceful  peace 
of  V&sv&r  was  concluded.  Zrinyi  hastened  to  Vienna  to  protest 
against  it,  but  in  vain.  Zrinyi  quitted  Vienna  in  disgust,  after 
assuring  the  Venetian  minister,  Sagridino,  that  he  was  willing 
at  any  moment  to  assist  the  RepuUic  a^sinst  the  Turics  with 
6000  men.  He  then  returned  to  Cs&ktomya,  and  there,  on 
the  iSth  of  November,  was  killed  by  a  wild  boar  which  he  had 
twice  wounded  and  vecklessly  pursued  to  its  lair  in  the  UxtxX 
swamps,  amed  only  with  his  hunting-knife. 
'  His  poetical  works  first  appeared  at  Vienna  in  i65r,  under 
the  title  of  TIk  Svm  ^  the  Adriatie  (Hung.) ;  but  his  principal 
work,  OMdio  SngeUoHaf  the  epopoeia  of  the  glorious  self- 
sacrifice  of  his  heroic  ancestor  of  the  same  name,  only  appeared 
in  fragments' in  Magyar  literature  till  Arany  took  it  in  hand.  It 
was  evidently  written  under  the  influence  of  both  Virgil  and 
Taaso,  thou^  the  author  had  no  time  to  polish  and  correct 
its  rough  and  occasionally  somewhat  wooden  versification. 
But  the  fundamental  idea*-the  duty  of  Hungarian  valour  to 
shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  with  the  hdp  of  God — is  sublime, 
and  the  whole  work  is  intense  irith  martial  and  religious  en- 
thusiasm. It  is  no  unworthy  companion  of  the  other  epics 
of  the  Renaissance  period,  and  had  many  imitators.  Arany 
first,  in  1848,  began  to  recast  the  Zrinyiad,  as  he  called  it,  on 
modem  lines,  and  the  work  was  completed  by  Antal  Vdi6ny 
in  189a. 

See  J.  Amny  and  Kaxmvr  Grekaa,  Zrinyi  and  Tasse  (Hung.), 
Eger,  1892;  Karoly  Scichy,  Lift  of  Count  Nicholas  Zrinyi,  tht 
poet  (Hung.),  Budapest,  1896;  Sandw  KArOsi,  Zrinyi  and  Macckia- 
wtlU  (Hung.).  Budapest.  1893.  (R.  N.  B.) 

ZICHOKXB,  JOHAim  HHIIRICR*  DAMRL  (177X-1848), 
German  author,  was  bom  at  Magdebuiig  on  the  a  and  of  March 
1 77 1.  He  was  educated  at  the  monasterial  {khster)  school  and 
at  the  Altstldtor  gymaasinm  of  his  native  place.  He  spent 
some  time  as  phywright  with  a  company  of  strolling  actors,  but 
afterwards  studkd  philoso]^,  theology  and  history  at  the 
university  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  whare  101793  he  established 
himself  as  Frtfotdment.  He  created  much  sensation  by  an 
extravagant  novel,  AbaUiWf  der  grasse  Ba$tdU  (1793;  subse- 
quently also  dimmatized),  modelled  on  Schiller's  RStiber,  and  the 
melodraniatic  tragedy,  Julius  vou  Sassen  (1796).  The  Prussian 
Covcrament  having  declined  to  make  him  a  full  professor, 
Zschokke  in  1796  settled  in  Switaerland,  where  he  conducted 
an  educational  institution  in  the  castle  of  Reichenau.  The 
avthoriiies  of  the  Grisoas  admitted,  him  to  the  rights  of  a 


cittaen,  and  in  I79{  he  published  Ms  CesekUkle  des  Frahiaals  der 
drei  BMnde  im  koketi  R&tien.    The  political  disturbances  of  this 
year  compdled  him  to  dose  his  institution.    He  was,  however, 
sent  as  a  deputy  to  Aarau,  where  he  was  made  president  of  the 
educational  department,  and  afterwards  as  government  com- 
missioner   to    Unterwalden,    his    authority    being    ultimately 
extended  over  the  cantons  of  Uri,  Sdiwyz  and  Zug.    Zschokke 
distinguished  himself  by  the  vigour  of  his  administration  and 
by  the  enthusiasm  with  which  he  devoted  himself  to  the  interests 
of  the  poorer  classes  of  the  community.  In  1800  he  reorganized 
the  institutions  of  the  Italian   cantcms  and  was  appointed 
lieutenant-governor  of  the  canton  of  Basel.  Zschokke  retired 
from  public  life  when  the  central  government  at  Bern  proposed 
to  re-establish  the  federal  system,  but  alter  the  changes  effected 
by  Bonaparte  he  entered  the  service  of  the  canton  of  Aargau, 
with  which  he  remained  connected.    In  x8ox  he  attracted 
attention  by  his  GeschichU  v^m  Kamffe  uud  Untergange  da 
sckweiserischen  Berg-  and  WM^KanUme.    Through  his  Sckwei- 
urboUf  the  publication  of  which  began  in  1804,  he  exercised  a 
wholesome  influence  on  public  af^drs;  and  the  like  may  be 
said  of  his  Miscdleti  fiir  die  ueueste  Wdikunde,  issued  from  1S07 
to  1813.    In  i8xx  he  also  started  a'  monthly  periodical,  the 
Erheitemtngen.    He  wrote  various  historical  works,  the' most 
important  of  which  is  i>es  Sckweiaerhudts  GeschickU  fiir  das 
SckwetMenolk  (x8aa|  8th  ed.  1849).    Zschokke's  tales,  on  which 
his  literary  reputation  rests,  are  collected  in  several  series. 
BUdtr  aus  der  Sckweig  (5  vds..  1824-35).  AusgewMlte  Navetten 
uud  Dicktungen  (16  vols..  1838-39).    The  Ixst  known  are: 
Addriek  im   Moos   (1794)-,    Der  Frethtf  von   Aarau  (1794); 
AUmontade  (1802);  Der  Creole  (1830);  Das  Coldmackerdorf 
(18x7);  and  Meister  Jordan  (1845).    In  Slunden  der  Andad 
(1809-Z816;  37  editions  in  Zschokke*s  lifetime),  which  was 
widely  read,  he  expounded  in  a  rationalistic  spirit  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  religion  and  morality.    £me  Sdb^stkam 
(1843)  is  a  kind  of  autobiography.    Zschcdcke  was  not  a  great 
original  writer,  but  he  secured  an  eminent  place  in  the  literature 
of  his  time  by  his  enthusiasm  for  modem  ideas  in  poUlJcs  and 
religion,  by  the  sound,  practical  judgment  displa>'ed  in  his  n'orks, 
and  by  the  energy  and  iuddity  of  his  style.    He  died  at  bia 
country  house  of  Blumenhalde  on  the  Aar  on  the  37th  of  Jun« 
1848. 

An  edition  of  Zschokke's  selected  works,  in  forty  vdumea,  waa 
issued  in  1824-38.  In  18M-54  an  edition  in  thirty*fivc  volumes 
was  published.  A  new  edition  of  the  Novetlen  was  published  by 
A.  vbgtlin  In  twelve  volumes  (1904).  There  are  biographief  of 
Zschokke  by  E.  MQnch  (1831);  Emil  Zschokke  (Aid  cd.  1876); 
R.  Sauerlander  (Aarau.  1884}:  and  R.  Wemlv  (Aamu»  1894). 
See  also  M.  Schneideneit,  Zsckokke^  seine  WeUanuhouung  tmd 
Lebensweisheit  (1904). 

ZSCHOPAU.  a  town  In  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Zschopau.  x8  m.  S.E.  from  Chenmits  by  the  railway 
to  Annaberg.  Pop.  (X900)  6748.  It  contains  a  handsome 
parish  church  dedicated  to  St  Martin,  a  town  hall  and  a  castle 
(Wildeck),  built  by  the  Emperor  Henry  I.  in  933.  The  indus- 
tries indude  ironfounding,  cotton  and  thread-spinning,  cloth- 
weaving  and  furniture  making. 

ZUCCARELLI,  FRANCESCO  (1703-X788).  Italian  painter, 
was  bom  at  PitigUano  in  Tuscany,  and  studied  in  Rome  under 
Onesi,  Morandi,  and  Ndli.  At  Rome,  and  later  in  Venice,  be 
became  famous  as  one  of  the  best  landscape  painters  of  the 
classicizing  i8th  century.  Having  visited  England  on  a  previous 
occasion,  he  was  induced  by  some  patrons  to  return  thither 
in  1752,  remaining  until  1773,  when  he  settled  in  Florence, 
dsring  there  in  1788.  Zuccarelli,  who  was  one  of  the  foundation 
members  of  the  Royal  Academy,  enjoyed  the  patronage  of 
royalty  and  of  many  wealthy  English  collectors,  for  whom  he 
executed  his  prindpal  worfc»--generaUy  landscapes  with  classic 
ruins  and  small  figures.  A  large  number  of  them  are  at  Windsor 
Castle,  and  of  the  seven  examples  which  formed  part  of  the 
John  Samuel  collection  two  are  now  at  the  National  Gallery. 
The  royal  palace  in  Venice  contains  as  many  as  twenty-orte, 
and  the  academy  four.  Others  are  at  tlie  Vienna  Gallery  and 
at  the  Louvre  in  Paris.    His  work  was  very  unequal,  but  at  his 


ZDCCARO— ZUO 


bat  be  rink  tk«  lodtag  Uadicape  pibttn  of  hb  time, 
pdntinga  oflan  bor  ■  muk  reprnentuig  i  pumpkin,  a  pk 
repmenUtion  nf  hit  ntttat,  wbich  ncnifia  "  lillk  punq^i 

ZDCCARO.  or  ZDcamo,'  lit  atttit  61  two  luliw  paJoten. 

I,  Taddeo  Zcccuo  (1S19-151S6),  oM  of  ilw  maa  pi 
painlen  o(  Ifae  10-aiUed  Ronun  muoeriii  Khool,  *u  tt 
oi  OltBviano  Zdccud,  u  ilmoal  Dnknovn  piiua  11  Si  Angilo 
tn  Vacf«,  where  he  wu  bom  in  1539.    Tiddeo  fcnmd  Ilia  way  to 
Rome,  ind  he  tvcce«ded  ii  in  euly  ige  in  gaining  1  knoiriedga 
ol  paintifig  and  in  finding  patrons  to  ampioy  lum.    Wiicn  he 
was  aeventeen  a  pupil  oi  Correggio,  named  Danieie  da  Paima. 
engaged  him  to  ataUt  in  painting  a  aetiei  oi  freicoei  in  a  diape) 
at  Villo  near  Sara,  on  the  boidcii  oi  liie  Abnizii.    Tiddeo 
tDniedto  Rome  in  154S,  and  hegan  hii  career  ai  a  Imcopain' 
by  eieculing  a  aeria  ol  Kcaia  in  monochronie  (ram  the  tile 
F^rlul  Cunillua  on  the  fiont  ol  the  palace  of  a  wealthy  Rod 
named  Jacopo  Matlei.    Prom  iliac  time  hti  mcceu  waa  assur 
atld  he  waa  largely  employed  by  the  popca  Juliui  11L  and  Paul 
IV. ,  by  DtJla  Rovere,  duke  oi  Urbino,  and  by  other  rich  pal 
His  b«l  iracoa  were  a  hidloriod  letiei  painted  on  the  wi 
a  new  palace  at  Capiarola,  built  tor  Cardinal  Aleaaadro  Fameae, 
far  which  Taddco  also  dcsgned  a  great  quantity  □(  tich  dacora- 
■mna  in  alucco  ivllel  after  the  style  of  Giullo  Romano  and  other 
pupili  ol  Raphael    Ntuly  all  hb  painting}  were  in  Ireaco,  v 
large  in  icalt,  and  olien  in  ckfornaire  or  monochnmei  il 
were  more  remukable  loi  nindity  ol  execulioo  and  a  est 
boldness  oi  alyte  than  for  any  higher  qualiiiea.    Hii  worli 
manneied  in  Kyle,  ani&dal  and  pompoui  in  conception,  1 
lacks  any  dole  or  accurate  knowledge  ol  the  human  iotm  i 
its  movement*.    lie  died  in  Rome  in  ijM,  and  was  buiied  hi 
Panlbeon,  not  lar  from  Raphael 

Taddn'i  fsid  pictum  are  leia  common  than  hfa  decvnthc 
frevDcs-  A  imalE  painting  on  copper  of  Ibe  Adoration  of  the 
Shepherds,  iarmcrly  in  ibe  cx^lleciioa  ol  Janet  II.,  is  now  at 
Hampton  Court;  it  l>  a  walk  of  very  uiaU  merit.  The  Capra- 
rola  [rescaes  »rn!  cnEmvcd  and  publiihed  by  Prenner,  llluilri 
Falli  Famtiitni  Oltrai  ml  Sal  Palaaa  dt  Capnmlt  (Rome, 
'7*8-50). 

n.  Fediiigo  ZcccasO  <t J43-1609)  wu  in  ijso  placed  under 
bis  brother  Taddeo's  charge  in  Rome,  and  worked  as  his  asiiit- 
inl;  be  completed  the  CapraroU  Iieuoct.  Federigo  attained 
an  emmcnce  lar  beyond  his  very  limited  merits  as  a  painter, 
and  was  perhaps  the  moil  popular  artist  ol  his  generatbn. 
Probably  no  other  painter  has  ever  produced  so  many  enormous 
frescoes  crowded  with  figuies  on  the  most  colossal  scale,  all 
eaeculed  under  the  unlortunale  delusion  that  grandeur  of 
eflect  could  be  attained  matety  by  great  size  combined  with 
extravagance  of  attitude  and  eiaggcration  of  every  kind- 
""   '    *     "s  first  work  ol  this  sort  was  the  completion  ol  the 


;  ol  tl 


.1  Floret 


n  begun  by  the  art-hialotian  Vasati,  who  « 
most  generous  language  about  his  more  succcsslnl  rival  Re- 
gatdles!  ot  the  injury  to  (he  apparent  scale  ol  the  interior  of  the 
church,  Federigo  painted  about  300  figures,  each  nearly  so  ft. 
bigh,  sprawling  with  violent  contortions  all  over  the  surface. 
Happily  age  has  to  dimmed  these  pictures  that  their  presence 
is  now  almost  harmtcss.  Federigo  was  recalled  to  Rome  by 
Crcgoiy  Xin.  lo  continue  in  the  Pauline  chapel  ot  the  Vatican 
the  scheme  of  decoration  begun  by  Michelangelo  during  his 
tailing  years,  but  a  quarrel  between  the  painter  and  members  of 
the  papal  court  led  to  his  departure  Iiom  Italy.  He  visited 
Brusse^,  and  there  made  a  scries  at  cartoons  for  the  tapestty- 
Veaven.  In  1574  he  passed  over  lo  England,  where  he  received 
commissions  to  paint  the  portraits  of  Queen  Elisabeth,  Mary, 
queen  ol  Scots,  Sir  Nicholas  Eicon,  ^  Francis  Walsingham, 
Lord  High  Admiral  Howard,  and  olheia.  A  curious  tnll-lenglb 
potlrait  of  Eliiabeth  in  fancy  dtesa,  now  at  Hampton  Court, 
it  Bllrihuted  (0  this  painter,  though  very  doubtfully.  Another 
picture  in  tlie  tame  collection  appears  lo  be  a  re^icn  ol  his 
painting  of  the  "  Allegory  ol  Calumny."  as  suggested  by  Lucian's 
diKiipIion  of  >  cdebriled  work  by  Apelles;  the  talui  in  the 
'SoipckbyVaMfl 


original  palMteg,  directed  agdbt  tame'ot  Ut  comtler  enemlet, 

was  the  immediate  cause  of  Federfgo'i  temporary  eaile  Irom 
Rome.  Hit  success  aa  a  painter  ol  portraits  and  other  works 
fa  oQ  waa  more  leatonabic  than  tiie  admiraLion  eapreiaed  lor 
hb  colomal  frescoes.  A  portrait  of  a  "  Man  with  Two  Dogs," 
in  the  Kill  Palace  at  Florence,  is  a  wo  A  ol  some  real  merit, 
as  is  alio  the  "  Dead  Christ  and  Angels  "  in  the  Borghese  Calleiy 
in  Rome.  Federigo  was  soon  recalled  to  Rome  to  finish  his  work 
on  the  vault  ol  the  Pauline  chapel  la  1 585  be  accepted  an 
ofler  by  Philip  n.  of  Spain  lo  decorate  the  new  Eacorial  at 
a  yearly  salary  ol  1000  crowns,  and  worked  at  the  Eacorial 
fmn  January  ijg6  to  tbe  end  at  15SE,  when  he  returned  to 
Rome,  He  there  founded  in  ijqs,  under  a  cbtiter  confiniKd 
by  Sixtua  V.,  the  Academy  of  5t  Liike,  of  which  lie  waa  the  fittt 
ptvudent.  ItsorganiialioB  luggnled  10  Sir  Jahua  Rejnolda  hit 
scheme  lev  foundiag  the  EngUtfa  Royal  Academy. 

Like  hi^  conlenqKicary  Giorgio  Vaaaii,  Federigo  aimed  M 
being  an  art  ollic  and  historian,  but  with  very  different  success. 
His  chief  book,  L'Idia  de"  Pilitri,  Sadlori,  id  ArchiUUi  (Turin, 
1607),  ia  a  tenteJesa  maaa  of  the  moat  turgid  boBihaat-  Little 
can  he  aaid  in  praise  ti  hit  amaHer  woeka,  rrrntiillng  of  two 
volumes  printed  at  Bdogna  in  160S,  demilnng  hia  vkil  Co  Fanna 
and  a  jouney  threugh  eentnl  Italy.  FedDigo  waa  raited  to 
the  tank  of  ft  at^krt  not  long  bdoR  Ua  death,  which  took 
place  at  Ancon*  lb  iSog. 

Tnddeo  and  FedetV  Zi>«aro,  m  Vasvl,  pt.  HI.,  aid 
-       ■      "  School  epoch  iii.  (f.H.I>I.) 

ZUO  (Fr.  Zaufi,  a  canlon  of  central  Switieriand,  It  It  the 
smallest  undivided  canton,  both  as  regards  area  and  as  itgardt 
population.  Il*  total  are*  is  but  913  sq.  m.,  ol  wbich,  however, 
no  fewer  than  ;S'i  tq.  a.  areredianed  at  "  productive,"  forest* 
covering  199  sq.  m.  01  the  rest  10  tq.  m.  are  octupied  by  the 
of  the  lake  of  Zug  («.e.],  and  i]  tq,  ra,  by  the 
like  of  Aegeri,  which  it  wholly  within  the  canton. 

ther  with  (he  alluvial 
(J194  f(.),  the  Ugheit 
Ucc  of  Zug,  icpa 


Lanii.  SUria  FiUoriH,  Rums 


fB  withloei 
:  ffim  It  vsy  toon  to 
It  to  the  hlMy,  DM  M 
BBBncb  (he  esHanct 
dpodtian.  RaOwayt 
!i,  while  lines  runainc 
B  Anh.Go1dau  Malioa 
'      1  o(  the>k> 

■_■  tjtj. 

.    In 


IB  abon  o(  the  lake 


^buto 

of  whom  14,043  wt 


Germaa-ipcakiag,  819  llaliad4peahiiig,  ancf  157  French-tpeakina, 
-  bile  u  jSi  wen  Romaaina,  1701  Firaleuantt,  and  lO  lews.  Its 
-ipilal  1$  Zug.  while  the  manufacturing  village  of  Baat,  I  m.  N., 
had  4404  inhaMunli,  ind  the  viUagi  ol  Cham,  i  m.  N.W.,  had 
uu;  inhabitaBts.  In  both  caaa  tte  envimns  ol  (he  vmagca  aic 
iDcluded,  and  (hit  is  even  more  (be  att  with  the  widofprcadiru 
irithei  ol  L'nter  Aegeii  with  J591  Inhibitanlt.  ol  Meniingen  with 
.95  inhabitants,  and  the  great  ichool  for  ciriiand  female  teachete, 
unded  in  1844  by  Father  Theodotiui  Fkiientigi.  and  ol  Ober 
A«eil  with  1891  inhalHIanIL 
In  the  higher  regioat  ol  the  canton  the  population  is  mainly 
icaged  in  puloraJ  pursuits  and  cattle-breeding.  There  are  61 
alpi,"  or  high  pailuret.  In  the  canton.   Al  Cham  Is  a  well-known 

Vevey.  At  Bear  then  am  extensive  cotton-spinniDg  nulls  and 
other  lactoiia.  Round  (be  (own  of  Zug  there  are  gieat  nunban 
of  fruit  treea,  and  "  Kittckvmer  "  (clwrry-water)  and  cider  are 
largely  manuiacluied-  Apiculture  (00  Bounshes  greatly.  A  nnn- 
ber  ol  lactoriea  have  iprnng  up  In  the  new  iguaner  ol  the  town, 
but  the  iilk.wesvlin  Indniiry  has  all  but  disappeared.  Tbt  caMon 
farms  a  dngle  admininrativt  diKrict,  wUch  eonpiiiet  alevm 
jnes..    The  l^latun,  or  Kanunmi,  hat  one  member  to 

aiifiml.  ai«  elected    -       ■     ■  ■ 

'bTdimed  in  ih^ta'! 


1048 


ZUG— ZUHAIR 


authority.  The  tem  of  office  in  both  cftses  is  four  yean.  Bendee 
the  "  facultative  Refereodum  "  by  which,  in  case  of  a  demand  by 
one-third  of  the  members  of  the  legislative  assembly,  or  by  800 
citizens,  any  law,  and  any  resolution  involving  a  capital  expenditure 
of  40.000,  or  an  annual  one  of  10,000  francs,  must  be  submitted 
to  a  direct  popular  vote,  and  the  "  initiative  "  at  the  demand  of 
1000  citizens  in  case  of  amendments  to  the  cantonal  constitution; 
there  is  also  an  "  initiative  "  in  case  of  bills,  to  be  exercised  at  the 
demand  of  800  citizens.  The  two  members  of  the  Federal  Stdndtrai^ 
as  well  as  the  one  member  of  the  Federal  Nathnalrat,  are  also 
elected  by  a  popular  vote. 

The  earlier  history  of  the  canton  is  practically  identical  with 
that  of  ita  capital  Zug  (see  below).  From  1728  to  1738  it  was 
distracted  by  violent  disputes  about  the  distribution  of  the 
French  pensions.  In  1798  its  Inhabitants  opposed  the  French, 
and  the  canton  formed  part  of  the  Tellgau»  and  later  of  one 
of  the  districts  of  the  huge  canton  of  the  Waldstitten  in  the 
Helvetic  republic  In  1803  it  regained  its  Independence  as  a 
separate  canton,  and  by  the  constitution  of  18x4  the  "  Landsge- 
meinde,"  or  assembly  of  all  the  dtisens,  which  had  existed  for 
both  districts  since  1376,  became  a  body  of  electors  to  choose 
a  cantonal  council.  The  reform  movement  of  1850  did  not 
affect  the  canton,  which  in  1845  was  a  member  of  the  Sonderbund 
and  shared  in  the  war  of  1847.  In  1848  the  remaining  functions 
of  the  Landsgemeinde  were  abolished.  Both  in  1848  and  ia 
1874  the  canton  voted  against  the  acceptance  of  the  federal 
constitutions.  The  constitution  of  1873-76  was  amended  in 
s88z,  and  was  replaced  by  a  new  one  in  1894.. 

Authorities.— J.  J.  Blumer,  Stoats-  uni  Rechlsgeschichie  der 
tektaeit.  Demokratten^  3  vols.  (St.  Gall,  1850-9);  GtschichUfmtnd, 
from  1843;  A.  LUtolf,  Sagen,  Brduche,  Legenden  aus  den  jUnf  Orten 

i Lucerne,  1862);  Achille  Rcnaud,  Stoats-  und  Rechts^eschtchU  d. 
tant.  ZftjT  (Pforzheim,  1847);  H.  Ryffel,  Die  sckweu.  Landsgt' 
muinden  (Zdrich.  1903);  F.  K.  Stadlin,  Die  Topograpkie  d.  Kant. 
Zug,  4  parts  (Lucerne,  1819-34):  B.  Staub,  DerlCani.  Zug,  2nd  ed. 
(Zug.  1869);  A.  Strfiby.  Die  Alp-  und  Weidevirthschaft  im  Kant. 
Zug  (Soleure,  1901):  and  the  Zueerisches  Neujahrsblatt  (Zug  from 
1882).  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

ZVO,  capital  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  that  name,  a  picturesque 
little  town  at  the  N.E.  corner  of  the  lake  of  Zug,  and  at  the 
foot  of  the  Zugerberg  (3255  ft.),  which  rises  gradually,  its  lower 
slopes  thickly  covered  with  fruit  trees.  Pop.  (1900)  6508, 
mainly  German-speaking  and  Romanists.  •  The  lake  shore  has 
been  embanked  and  forms  a  promenade,  whence  glorious  views 
of  the  snowy  peaks  of  the  Bernese  Oberland,  as  well  as  of  the 
Rigi  and  PUatus,  are  gained.  Towards  its  northeriy  end  a 
monument  marks  the  spot  where  a  part  of  the  shore  slipped 
into  the  lake  in  1887.  The  older  part  of  the  town  is  rather 
crowded  together,  though  only  foiu*  of  the  wall  towers  and  a 
small  part  of  the  town  walls  still  survive.  The  most  striking 
old  building  in  the  town  is  the  parish  church  of  St  Oswald  (late 
15th  century),  dedicated  to  St  Oswald,  king  of  Northumbria 
(d.  642),  one  of  whose  arms  was  brought  to  Zug  in  1485.  The 
town  hall,  ahio  a  x  sth-centuiy  building,  now  houses  the  Historical 
and  Antiquarian  Museum.  There  are  some  quaint  old  painted 
houses  dose  by.  A  litUc  way  higher  up  the  hill-side  is  a  Capuchin 
convent  in  a  striking  position,  close  to  the  town  wall  and  leaning 
against  it.  Still  higher,  and  outside  the  old  town,  is  the  fine  new 
parish  church  of  St  Michael,  consecrated  in  1902.  The  business 
quarter  is  on  the  rising  ground  north  of  the  old  town,  near  the 
railway  station.  Several  fine  modem  buildings  rise  on  or  close 
to  the  shore  in  tlie  town  and  to  its  south,  whilst  to  the  south- 
west is  a  convent  of  Capuchin  nuns,  who  manage  a  lar|^  girls' 
school,  and  several  other  educational  establishments. 

The  town,  first  mentioned  in  z  240,  is  called  an  "  oppidum  ** 
in  X242,  and  a  "castrum  "  in  1255.  In  1273  ^  was  bought  by 
Rudolph  of  Habsburg  from  Anna,  the  heiress  of  Ryburg  and 
wife  of  Eberhard,  head  of  the  cadet  line  of  Habsburg,  and  in 
1 278  part  of  its  territory,  the  valley  of  Acgeri,  was  pledged  by 
Rudolph  as  security  for  a  portion  of  the  marriage  gift  he  pro- 
mised to  Joanna,  daughter  of  Edward  I.  of  England,  who  was 
betrothed  to  his  son  Hartmann,  whose  death  in  1281  prevented 
the  marriage  from  taking  place.  The  town  of  Zug  was  governed 
by  a  bailiff,  appointed  by  the  Habsburgs,  and  a  coundl,  and 
was  much  favoured  by  that  fiamily.    Several  country  districts 


(Baar,  Menztngen,  and  Acgeri)  had  each  its  own  "  Laadag^ 
meinde  "  but  were  governed  by  one  bailifi,  also  appointed  by  the 
Habsburgs;  these  were  known  as  the  "  Aeusier  Amt,"  and  were 
always  fovouiably  disposed  to  the  Confederates.  (>n  the  ajth 
of  June  <352  both  the  town  of  Zug  and  the  Aeusser  Amt  entml 
the  Swiss  Confederation,  the  latter  being  received  on  csactly 
the  same  terms  as  the  town,  and  not,  as  was  usual  in  the  case  of 
countiy  districts,  as  a  subject.  land;  but  in  September  1359 
Zug  had  to  acknowledge  its  own  lords  again,  and  in  1355  to 
break  off  its  connexion  with  the  league.  About  1364  the  town 
and  the  Aeusser  Amt  were  recovered  for  the  league  by  the  men 
of  Schwyz,  and  from  this  time  Zug  took  part  as  a  full  member 
in  all  the  acts  of  the  league.  In  1379  the  German  king  Weoces- 
laus  exempted  Zug  from  all  ezteiiial  jurisdictions,  and  in  1389 
the  Habsbuigs  renounced  their  claims,  reserving  only  an  annual 
payment  of  twenty  silver  marks,  and  this  came  to  an  end  in 
X415.  In  1400  Wenceshtus  gave  all  criming  juiisdJaion  to  the 
town  only.  The  Aeusser  Amt  then,  in  1404,  claimed  that  the 
baimer  and  seal  ci  Zug  should  be  kept  in  one  of  the  countty 
districts,  and  were  supported  in  this  daim  by  Schwyz.  The 
matter  was  finally  settled  in  14x4  by  arbitration  and  the  banner 
was  to  be  kept  in  the  towiu  Finally  in  X4X5  the  right  of  electing 
their  "  landammaxm  **  was  given  to  Zug  by  the  Confederates, 
and  a  share  in  the  criminal' jurisdiction  was  granted  to  the 
Aeusser  Amt  by  the  German  king  Sigismund.  In  1385  Zug 
joined  the  league  of  the  Swabian  dties  agamst  Leopold  of 
Habsburg  and  shared  in  the  victory  of  Sempach,  as  well  as  in 
the  various  Axgovian  (141 5)  and  Thurgovian  (X460)  conquests 
of  the  Confederates,  and  later  in  those  in  Italy  (15x2),  having 
already  taken  part  in  the  occupation  of  the  Val  d'OsaoIa.  -Be- 
tween X379  (Walchwil)  and  X477  (Cham)  Zug  had  acquired 
various  districts  in  her  own  neighbourhood,  prindpally  to  the 
north  and  the  west,  which  were  ruled  till  1798  by  the  town 
alone  as  subject  lands.  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  Zug 
dung  to  the  old  faith  and  was  a  member  of  the  "  Christlidie 
Vereinigung"  of  X529.  In  1586  it  became  ft  member  of  the 
Golden  League.  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

ZUO»  LAKE  OF,  one  of  the  minor  Swiss  lakes,,  on  the  out- 
skirts of  the  Alps  and  N.  of  that  of  Lucerne.  Probably  at  some 
former  date  it  was  connected  by  means  of  the  Lake  of  Lowers 
and  the  plain  of  Brunnen  with  the  Lake  of  Lucerne.  At  present 
it  is  formed  by  the  Aa,  which  descends  from  the  Rigi  and  enters 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  lake.  The  Lone  pours  its  waters 
into  the  lake  at  its  northern  extremity,  but  x|  m.  further  W. 
issues  from  the  lake  to  pursue  its  course  towards  the  Reus& 
The  Lake  of  Zug  has  an  area  of  about  X5  sq.  m.,  is  about  9  m. 
in  length,  2}  m.  in  breadth,  and  has  a  maximum  depth  of  650  ft., 
while  its  surface  is  X368  ft.  above  sca-Ievd.  For  the  most  part 
the  lake  b  in  the  Canton  of  Zug,  but  the  southem'end  is,  to  the 
extent  of  3J  sq.  m.,  in  that  of  Schwyz,  while  the  Canton  of 
Lucerne  claims  about  |  sq.  m.,  to  the  N.  6f  Immensee.  Toward 
the  S.W.  extremity  of  the  lake  the  Rigi  descends  rather  steeply 
to  the  water's  edge,  while  part  of  its  cast  shore  forms  a  narrow 
level  band  at  the  foot  of  the  Rossbcrg  (5x94  ft.)  and  the  Zugerberg. 
At  its  northern  end  the  shores  are  nearly  level,  while  on  the  west 
shore  the  wooded  promontory  of  Buonas  (with  its  castles,  old 
and  new)  projects  picturesquely  into  the  waters.  The  prindpal 
place  on  the  lake  is  the  town  of  Zug,  whence  a  railway  (formerly 
part  of  the  St  Gotthard  main  route)  runs  along  its  eastern 
shore  past  Walchwil  to  Arth  at  its  south  end,  which  is  con- 
nected by  a  si  earn  tramway  with  the  Arth-Goldau  station  of  the 
St  Gotthard  line.  This  line  runs  from  Arth  along  the  western 
shore  to  Immensee,  where  it  bears  S.W.  to  Lucerne,  while  from 
Immensee  another  railway  leads  (at  first  some  way  from  the 
shore)  to  Cham,  3  m.  W.  of  Zug.  The  first  steamer  was  placed 
on  the  lake  in  1852.  Many  fish  (including  pike  and  carp  of 
considerable  weights)  are  taken  in  the  lake,  which  is  especially 
famous  by  reason  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  trout  {Salmo  sclvclinus, 
locally  called  Rdtheli),  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

ZUHAIR  IZuhair  ibn  AM  Sulma  RabT*  a  ul-MuzanI]  (6th 
century),  one  of  the  six  great  Arabian  pre-Islamic  poets.  Of 
his  life  practically  nothing  ia  known  save  that  he  belonged  to 


ZUIDER  ZEE— 2ULOAGA 


a  famOy  «f  poetic  poiver;  lus  stepfather,  Aus  ibn  Hajar,  his 
sister,  Khansfl,  and  his  son,  Ka'b  ibn  Zubair,  were  all  poets  of 
eminence.  He  is  said  to  have  lived  long,  and  at  the  age  of 
one  hundred  to  have  met  Mahomet.  His  home  was  in  the  land 
of  the  BanI  GbatafSn.  His  poems  are  characterized  by  their 
peaceful  nature  and  a  sententious  moralizing.  One  of  them 
is  contained  in  the  MoaUahU, 

As  a  whole  his  poems  have  been  publistied  by  W.  Ahl^ndt  In  his 
The  Diwans'oflM  six  Ancient  Arabic  Poets  (London,  1870);  and 
with  the  commentary  of  al-A*lam  (died  io8a)  by  Count  Landberg 
in  the  second  part  of  his  Primeurs  arabes  TLciden,  liSq).  Some 
supplementary  poems  are  contained  in  IC  Dyroff's  Zur  Cesckickte 
der  Oberlieferung  des  Zuhairdiwans  (Munich,  1892).        (G.  W.  T.) 

ZUIDER  ZEB,  or  Zuyder  .Zeb,  a  bnd-locked  inlet  on  the 
coast  of  Holland,  bounded  N.  by  the  chain  of  the  Friaan  Islands, 
and  W.,  S.,  and  £.  by  the  provinces  of  North  Holland,  Utrecht, 
Gelderland,  Overysd,  and  Friesland.  It  is  about  85  m.  long 
N.  to  S.,  and  from  10  to  45  m.  broad,  with  an  area  of  3037  sq. 
m.,  and  contains  the  islancb  of  Maricen,  Scholdand,*Urk,  Wlerhi- 
gen,  and  Griend.  In  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  the 
Zuider  {i.e.  Southern)  Zee  was  a  small  inland  lake  situated  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  present  gulf,  and  called  FUv0  by 
Tacitns,  Pliny,  and  other  ea^y  writ<»«.  It  was  separated  from 
the  sea  by  a  belt  of  marsh  and  fen  uniting  Friesland  and  North 
Holland,  the  original  coast-line  being  stiU  indicated  by  the  line 
of  the  Frisian  Islands.  Numerous  streams,  including  the 
Vecht,  Eem,  and  Ysel,  discharged  their  waters  into  this  lake 
and  issued  thence  as  the  Vb'e  (Latin  Flevus),  which  reached  the 
North  Sea  by  the  Vlicgat  between  the  islands  of  Vlieland  and 
Terschclling.  In  the  Lex  Frisonum  the  Vile  (Fli,  or  Flehi)  is 
accepted  as  the  bomidary  between  the  territory  of  the  East  and 
West  Frisians.  In  time,  however,  and  especially  during  the 
1 2th  century,  high  tides  and  north-west  storms  swept  away  the 
western  banks  of  the  Vlie  and  submerged  great  tracts  of  land. 
In  II 70  the  land  between  Stavoren,  Texel,  and  Medemblik  was 
washed  away,  and  a  century  later  the  Zuider  Zee  was  formed. 
The  open  waterway  between  Stavoren  and  Enkhuizen,  however, 
as  it  now  exists,  dates  from  1400.  In  the  south  and  east  the 
destruction  was  arrested  by  the  high  sandy  shores  of  Gooi, 
Veluwe,  Voorst,  and  Gasterland  in  the  provinces  of  Utrecht, 
Gelderland,  Overysel,  and  Friesland  respectively. 

The  mean  depth  of  the  Zuider  Zee  is  11-48  ft.;  depth  In  the 
soothem  basin  of  the  former  lake,  19  ft.;  at  Val  van  urk  (deep 
water  to  the  west  of  the  island  of  Urk),  14}  ft.  If  a  line  be  dmwa 
from  the  ttiand  of  Urk  to  Marken,  and  thence  westwards  Co  Hoom 
(North  Holland)  and  N.N.E.  to  Lemmer  (FriesUnd),  these  lines 
will  connect  parts  of  the  Zuider  Ztt  having  a  iiniform  depth 
of  8  ft.  The  other  parts  on  the  coast  are  only  3  ft.  deep  or  less. 
This  shallowness  of  its  waters  served  to  protect  the  ZuUer  Zee 
from  the  invasion  of  large  ships  of  war.  It  also  exf^ns  how  maoy 
once  flourishing  commercial  towns,  such  as  Stavoren,  Medemblik. 
Enkhuizen,  Hoorn.  Monnikendam.  declined  to  the  rank  of  provincial 
tradine  and  fishing  ports.  The  fisheries  of  the  Zuider  Zee  are  of 
considerable  importance.  Eighty  {>er  cant,  of  the  bottom  consists 
of  sea  clay  ancl  the  more  recent  silt  qf  the  Ysel;  20  per  cent  of 
sand,  partly  in  the  north  alwut  Urk  and  Enkhuizen,  partly  in  the 
south  along  the  high  shores  of  Gooi,  Veluwe,  &c.  The  shallowness 
of  the  sea  and  the  character  of  its  bottom,  promising  fertile  soil, 
occasioned  various  projects  of  drainage.  The  scheme  recommended 
by  the  Zuider  Zee  Vereeniging  (1886)  formed  the  subjoct  of  a  leport 
in  1694  by  a  state  commission.  The  principal  teature  in  the 
scheme  was  the  building  of  a  dike  from  the  island  of  Wlcrin^en  to 
the  coast  of  Friesland.  The  ana  south  of  this  would  be  divided 
into  four  polders,  with  reservation,  however,  of  a  lake,  Yadmeer,  in 
the  centDe.  whence  branches,  would  mn  to  Ysel  and  the  Zwolsche 
Diep,  to  Amsterdam,  and,  by  sluices  near  Wieringen,  to  the  northern 
part  of  the  sea.  The  four  polders  with  their  areas  of  fertile  soil 
would  be:— 

fl)  North-west  polder,  area  53.599  acres;  fertile  soil,  46,189  acres, 
(a)  South-west     „       „     77.854     ..         f.      tt        08,715     „ 


South-east 
North'cast 


a66,i67 
125.599     - 


a»,a75 
130,783 


The  Lake  Ysclmeer  would  have  an  area  of  560  sq.  m.  The  gain 
would  be  the  addition  to  the  kingdom  of  a  new  and  fertile  pro- 
vince of  the  area  of  North  Brabant,  a  saving  of  exfienses  on  dikes, 
diminution  of  inundations,  improvement  of  communication  between 
the  south  and  the  north  of  the  kingdom,  protection  of  isles  of  the 
sea,  ftc    The  costs  were  calculated  as  follows:  (i)  enclosiag  <fflce. 


1049 

and  tcgttlatioa  of  Zwolsete  Diep.  £i.76(MK»:  (s)  raclamsh 
tion  of  four  poklers,  £s,aoo,iooo;  (3)  defensive  works,  iUoo,ooo: 
(4)  indemnity  to  fishermen,  £i8o/X)o;  toul.  i^ ,540,000. 

fn  1901  the  government  introduced  a  bill  in  tne  States  General, 
based  on  the  recommendations  of  the  commission,  providing  for 
enckising  the  Zuider  Zee  by  buiMins  a  dike  from  the  North  HoUand 
coast,  through  the  ABsteldiep  to  Wieringen  and  from  that  island 
to  the  Friesland  coast  at  riaam;  and  further  providing  for  the 
draining  of  two  portions  of  the  enclosed  area,  luimcly  the  N.ViT. 
and  the  S.W.  polders  shown  in  the  tabic.  The  entire  work  was 
to  be  completed  in  18  years  at  an  estimated  cost  of  £7,^16,000^ 
The  bill  failed  to  become  law  and  in  comequenoe  of  financial  diffi* 
culties  the  project  bad  not,  up  to  1910,  advanced  beyond  the  stage 
of  consideration. 

With  the  exception  x>f  Griend  and  Schokland,  the  islands  of  the 
Zaider  Zee  are  inhabited  by  snail  fishing  communities,  who  retain 
some  aicfaaic  customs  ana  a  picturesqae  dress.  •  Urk  is  already 
mentioned  as  an  island  in  966.  The  inhabitants  of  Schokland  were 
compelled  to  leave  the  island  by  order  of  the  state  in  1850,  it  being 
considered  insecure  from  inundation.  The  island  of  Griend  (or 
Grind)  once  boasted  a  waited  town,  which  was  destroyed  by  flood 
at  the  end  of  the  13th  century.  But  the  island  continued  for. some 
centuries  to  serve  as  a  pasturage  for  cattle,  giving  its  name  to  a 
well-known  description  of  cheese.  Like  some  of  the  other  islands, 
sheep  are  still  brought  to  graae  upon  it  in  summer,  and  a  large 
number  of  birds'  ens  are  collected  upon  it  in  spring.  Several 
of  the  islands  were  once  the  property  of  religious  houses  00  the 
mainland. 

The  British  Foreign  Office  report.  Draining  of  the  Zuiderzee  (1901), 
gives  full  particulars  of  the  Dutch  government's  scheme  and  m 
retrospect  of  all  former  proposals.  See  also  Dt  ectmamische  beteeketu 
van  de  afsluiling  en  droogL^^ng  der  Zitider*ee  vom  Zuidenee-  Verein 
(2nd  ed.,  1901),  and  D.  Bdlct,  "  Le  dessechement  du  Zuiderzee." 
Rev.  Geog.  (1902)  and  W.  J.  Tuyn,  Oude  RoUandscke  Dorpen  atm 
de  Zmderue  (Haariem,  1900). 

ZULA,  s  small  town  near  the  head  of  Annesley  Bay  on  tho 
African  coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  It  derives  its  chief  interest  from, 
ruins  in  its  vidnity  which  are  generally  supposed  to  mark  the 
site  of  the  ancient  emporium  of  Adulis  CAiouXls,  'AiovXd),  the 
port  of  Axum  (q.v.)  and  chief  outlet  in  the  early  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era  for  the  ivory,  hides,  daves  and  other  exports 
of  the  interior.  Cosmas  Indicoplenstes  saw  here  an  tnscriptioD 
of  Ptolemy  Euergetes  (247-333  B.C.);  and  hence,  as  the  earliest 
mention  of  Adulis  is  found  in  the  geographers  of  the  first  century 
AJ>.,  it  is  conjectured  that  the  town  must  have  picvioiisly 
existed  under  another  name  and  may  have  been  the  Berenice 
Panchiysus  of  the  Ptolemies.  Described  by  a  Greek  merchant 
of  the  time  of  Vespasian  as  "  a  well-axxanged  maiket,"  the  plaoo 
has  been  for  centuries  buried  under  sand.  The  ruins  visible 
indude  a  temple,  obelisks  and  numerous  fragments  of  oolttmns. ' 

In  1857  an  agreement  was  entened  mto  by  Dejaj  Nesusye,  a 
chief  of  Tigr6,  in  revolt  against  the  Negus  Theodore  of  Abyssinia, 
to  cede  ZuLa  to  the  French.  Necuaye  was  defeated  by  Theodore, 
and  the  conunander  of  -a  French  cruiser  sent  to  Annesley  Bay 
in  1859  found  the  country  in  a  state  of  anarchy.  No  farther  steps 
were  taken  by  France  to  assert  its  sovereignty,  and  Zula  with  the 
neighbouring  coast  passed,  nominally,  to  Egypt  in  i866i  Zula 
was  the  place  where  the  British  expedition  of  1867-68  against 
Theodore  disembarlced,  Annesley  Bay  afifocding  safe  and  ample 
anchorage  for  the  largest  ocean-going  vessels.  The  road  madt 
by  the  British  from  Zula  to  Senate  on  the  Abyssinian  plateau  is 
still  in  use.  The  authority  of  Egypt  having  iapsed»  an  Italian 
protectorate  over  the  district  of  Zula  was  proclaiincd  in  1888,  and 
in  1890  it  was  incorporated  in  the  colony  of  Eritrea  (9.V.). 

See  Eduard  RQppell.  Reise  in  il6yma«M,  i.  a66  (1838);  G.  Rohlfs 
in  Zeitschr.  d.  CeseU.  f.  Erdknnde  in  BeHin,  iii.  hass),  and.  for 
further  references,  the  editions  of  the  Periplus  by  C.  MflUer  {Geog. 
Or,  Min^  i.  sm)  and  Fahridus  (1883).  Coosult  also  EiBionAs 
The  Axumite  &iH§iem, 

ZULOAOA,  lONACIO  (xSto-  ),  Spanish  painter,  was 
bom  at  Eibar,  in  the  Basque  counUy,  the  son  of  the  nictal- 
worker  and  damascener  Pladdo  Zuloi^,  and  grandson  of  tha 
organizer  and  director  of  the  royal  armoury  in  Madrid.  The 
career  chosen  for  him  by  his  father  was  that  of  an  architect, 
and  with  this  object  in  view  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  where  he 
immediately  followed  the  strong  impulse  that  led  him  to  paint- 
ing. After  only  six  months'  work  he  completed  his  first  picture, 
wUch  was  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Salon  of  1890.  Gmtiniiinc 
his  studies  in  Paris,  he  was  strongly  influenced  by  Gauguin  and 
Toulouse  Lantrec.  Only  on  his  return  to  his  native  soil  he 
found  Us  true  style,  which  is  based  on  the  national  SpaaSsh 


ZULULAND 

if  Vduqita,  Zurlunn,  I 

'  wal  bJow  va  ukrv>wLcd^n 
lalivi.  tuggtd  style  ««j  tfa 


■null  a>  Foituiiy,  UidruD,  ud  BoiUiuK.  It 
Pari),  vk)  tben  in  Bnuwla  and  olha  conlumta] 
that  Zuloaga  »u  hailed  by  the  refotmen  la  lh( 
Spanish  Daiianal  an  and  u  the  kadci  oF  a  ccbool.  He  ii  now 
cepiaenud  in  aliwit  every  great  ooniinenul  (nUcTy.  Two 
of  hia  canvass  aie  at  the  Luienbourf.  one  at  the  Dnusda 
Huieum  rAvant  U  Corrida"),  and  one  ("The  r«l  Don 
Miguel")  al  the  Vienna  Gallery.  The  [>au  Museum  owns  an 
biteresting  portrait  of  a  lad}r,  the  Baicdona  Muindpa]  Mueum 
the  important  group  "  Amies,"  the  Venice  CalJery,  "  Kadame 
Louise";  the  Berlin  Callety,  "The  Topera,"  Other  «i»mples 
■le  in  the  Budapest,  Stullgart,  Ghent  and  Pokd  galleries 
Ukd  in  many  important  private  csUecIions. 
'  A  fully  inuitiaiBl  aRDunt  of  iheaitin  and  hIa  work,  by  M.  UlriUo, 
was  publUfard  in  a  ■peeial  number  o<  Ftmu  (Barc^na.  1907). 

ZBLULUID.  a  country  of  soutb-eajt  Africa,  forming  the 
N.E.  part  ol  the  province  of  Nalal  in  the  Union  of  South  Afria. 
The  "  Province  of  Zululand,"  as  it  wa»  offidally  styled  from 
iSqS  to  igio,  lies  between  iff  ^  and  vf  1^  S.  and  jo*  <□' 
and  33*  E.,  and  ha<  ux  area  of  10,450  sq.  nv  It  includes  in  the 
north  the  country  of  the  Ama  Tonga,  Zaaodianland,  arHi  other 
unall  territories  not  part  ol  the  former  Zulu  kingdom  and 
Itretches  north  from  the  lower  Tugela  to  the  southern  frontier 
ol  Portuguese  Eut  Africa.  Bounded  S,£.  by  the  Indian  Ocean 
it  has  n  toast  line  of  110  m.  North  luid  north-west  it  is  bounded 
by  the  Utiecht  and  Vryheid  distticU  of  Nstal  and  by  Swadlind. 
Its  greatest  length  in  a  direct  line  ii  iBj  m.,  it)  grtatest  breadth 
los  m.    (For  map  see  SoDiH  Aiwca.) 

Pkjiital  fmliini.— Zululand  is  port  of  the  region  of  hills  and 
platraus  which  dncend  Hward  fioni  the  DTakeubefg--Ihe  glut 

of  sandbijli  rovard  with  thidt  bush  and  rising  in  pUces  to  a  height 
of  500  ft-  Then  an  DccauonaJ  oulcmpa  of  rwJ:  and  low  ptr- 
pendicular  diffL      Behind    the  landhGii   is  a    low-WinE   plain   in 

and  Koei  Lake  are  of  comidenble  uce  and  communicate  with  the 
•es  by  ntuaiin.  Si  Lucia,  the  laixcr  of  the  two,  i>  tomt  m  m. 
long  by  10  m.  bnxld  with  a  depth  019  to  ID  ft-  It  mru  paialld  to 
the  oomn,  Innn  which  it  >•  sepanHd  by  landhais.  The  opening 
n  the  wm,  S(  Lucia  river,  is  al  the  wuith  end.  Ko^  Lake  liei 
further  Dorth,  in  Tongaland.  It  is  not  more  than  halt  the  aiie 
of  St  Lufiia  — ■■  =■ ■ -■■ ■ ■■ '      " 


s  Lake  Sibayj,  doc  U  the 


Koil  and  St  Li. 

BDt  comauiiicacing  with  the  m _„  ^ ^ 

fmin  5  to  30  m«  [Bonding  in  width  aonhwanl,  the  w 
hnd.belnt  kwlylng.   The  nt  of  die  OHiniry  U  or 

En^DWe,  la  Ihc  south,  1 


Aka.    Weatwaid  of  the  uplands 


upbnds  (tUng 

(in  fc^loppu 
nds  are  the  Kyi 


:yiid™ 


and  Tugda  livefi.  Further  north,  alonw  the  S.W.  (nmt 
handklwana  and  the  Nqutu  hills.  To  the  N.W.  the  L 
Mis.  (itoo  to  xno  ft.).  wMch  sepante  the  coast  ptiini  li 
interior,  mark  the  frontier  between  Swukml  and  Zululai 
Oelr  csaten  (Zuhdtnd)  side  the  ikpe  of  the  Lebombo  rk 
is  lentle.  but  on  the  west  they  fall  abrnpily  (o  the  plain. 
The  gcoki^cal  sinKtuiv  of  the  conittry  it  eonpamlvdy 


Na 


.■.Caloiy}. 


flow  and  pmduce  the  IsHons 
coast.    Alter  the  rains  the  rivi 
The  Uttowiiig  an  the  chief  hi 
die  eDunuyi— The  Pongola,  i .  ... 
Tan^bnd,  pierdng  the  Lebombo 


.._  -  _ slope  and  a  high  veLodty.    In. 

became  deep  and  iluigish.    Their  — "-■— 

bars,  which  in  the  dry ^  -'-■ 

and  marshes  wnl 


which  characterise  the 
1  througn 


pitous  ndcs.     Its  point  of  conllueBce  with  the 

I  vvnplie*  into  Delscoa  Bay)  mark*  the  paranH  along 

. .tier  between  Zululand  arid  I\)nugiKae  East  Afria 


ombo.  feins  the  pBagola  about  m  BQea  Mbon 

Hih  Uk  Mapuia.    The  Umkuii  which  liiei  in  the 
I   ol    Naial  Toicts  In   way  lhn>ugh   the   Lebomls 

l<iIo«i,  drains  ihe  central  part  of  (he  country  and 
fln  at   S(   Lucia   Bay.      In   the  bed   o(  the  UlriH 


by  Richanls  Bay.  For  a  considerable  pan  al 
mood,  Buffalo  and  Tugela  rivers  lom  lhrs.W. 
land  (see  TubiLA).  There  are  nunooui  othrrii 
has  its  iiream,  for  the  m«i  pari  unnavigable. 

arxutt.— The  climate  ofthe  coast  belt  is 
malaria  is   prevalent;   chat  rtl   the   highlands 

July-  On  the  coast  about  40  in.  c^  rain  fall  in  th 
and  about  J  in.  in  the  winter  monlhs.     A  frnh  ! 


n  the  M.W- 


S^" 


"  ?*>■.:■ , 


plwi  (in  Earie  pan),  the  rivar 
the  lower  hilla  are  coveted  with 
This  is  nenerally  known  as  ihonk. 

-  -  — ,--    — -    "Coist  forests  "  now  in  smslt 

parcnes  along  the  lower  eourss  of  the  rivers,  at  their  mouths, 
and  on  Ihe  sandhills  aloni  the  coast.  They  contain  stunted 
timber  um,  pilms.  rnanjlovei  and  other  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
plants  and  have  an  almost  impenetrable  undergrowlh.    The  largest 

adjacent  to  St  Lucia  Ba^.     The  iipland  regions  are  th«e  of  high 

The  moM  noteworthy  limber  roieals  are  those  of  Nkaadhia  and 
Kvudeni  and  that  near  Eshowe.     Larue  areas  of  Ihe  plateau  art 
res.     Orchids  aiE  among 


The  fauna  in 
Y-  ----^     - 


-  '•onuguat 


i  lagoons  of  the  low  counliy.    Venomous  snakra 

t  al  hori  bufiard,   the  kixtrhatl,  turkey  buazards 

i  li),  inid  duck,  and  paauw  are  among  the  game 

I  L  arid  secretary-bird  are  also  fouiid.    Of  dDmesiic 

J  posicaa  a  dwarf  breed  of  smoDth-skinoed  bumped 

IniuiitaiUi.—Tbe  population  in  1904  wu  eslimated  at 
ijo.ddol  Of  these  only  j6is  lived  outside  the  area  devoted  is 
lutive  kicatioiu.  The  white  population  numbered  169J.  The 
vast  msiority  oS  the  nailvea  are  Zulu  (see  Kimas),  but  theit 
is  I  lettiement  of  some  1000  Basutos  in  the  NquCu  district. 
Afur  the  establishment  of  the  Zulu  military  (scendaDcy  early 
in  Um  iQth  century  various  Zulu  hordes  suc«»dvdy  invaded 
and  overran  a  great  pan  of  east-central  Africa,  as  far  aa  and 
even  beyond  the  I.ake  Nyasa  district.  Throughout  these  regions 
they  ate  variously  known  sa  Ma-Zilu,  Ma-Ravi,  Wa-Ngoni 
(Angnni),  Matabele  (Ame.Ndebeli),  Ma-Vili,  and  Aba-Zana. 
Such  wal  the  tenor  ins|iirBd  by  these  fierce  warrinrs  that  many 
of  the  tribes,  ucb  as  the  Wa-Nind!  ol  Mciiambi(]ue,  adopted 
the  name  of  their  conqueron  or  oppressors.  Hence  the  iinprc*- 
son  that  Ihe  true  Zulu  ue  far  more  numerous  north  of  the 
Limp<^  than  has  cvev  been  the  case.  In  most  places  they  have 
become  eitlnet  or  absorbed  in  the  surrounding  populatioiu 
owing  to  their  habit  of  incotpoiaiing  prisoneti  in  the  tnbt 
But  they  still  bold  their  ground  aa  the  ruling  element  in  the 
region  between  the  Limpopo  and  the  middle  Zambezi,  whidi 
from  them  take!  the  name  ol  Matabeleland,  The  drcuDutance* 
and  Ultoiy  of  the  two  chief  migrations  ol  Zulu  peoples  oerth- 
WBJd  sre  welt  known;  the  Matabele  were  led  by  Mosihhaise 
(Umdigaal).  >nd  the  Angoni  by  Sungandaba,  bntb  chieft  of 
Cbaka  who  revolted  from  him  in  the  early  19th  century. 

The  ZuIb  possess  aa  elaborate  system  of  laws  relating  the 
litberitance  cs  personal  propetiy  (which  conaista  chiefly  of  cattle), 
the  ciHpplexity  aiising  fruna  the  practice  of  polygamy  and  the 
exchange  of  cattle  niade  upon  marriage-     The  giving  of  c~~''~ 

the  t-  ■    '"  " 


a  case  is  gennal^  referred  to  as  a  barter  and  sale  of 
From  which  indeed  it  ii  not  easily  dislinguiahable.  But 
..^  :.  .  -■■-—„  Ugh!  by  the  natives.    The  krsal  il 


2ULULAND 


1051 


Wider  the  Immedfate  niW  of  its  bflftdauni,  who  b  a  pctffaich 
•ibte  for  the  good  behaviour  of  «ll  its  member*.  Over  the  heedmaa, 
whose  Authority  may  extend  to  more  than  one  kraal,  b  the  tribal 
chief,  and  above  the  tribal  chief  was  the  kingi  whoee  authority 
b  now  exercised  by  a  British  commisiaener.  By  the  custom  of 
kUnipa  a  woman  carefully  avoids  meeting  her  husband's  parents 
or  the  utterance  of  any  word  which  occurs  in  the  names  of  the 

Erincipal  members  of  ner  husband's  family:  eg.  if  she  have  a 
rother-tn-law  named  U'Nkomo,  she  would  not  use  the  Zulu  for 
*'  £ow,"  inkomot  but  would  invent  some  other  word  for  it.  The 
husband  observes  the  same  custom  with  resnid  to  his  mother-in- 
law.  The  employment  of  "  witch  doctors  ^  for  "  smelling  out " 
criminals  or  Motagati  (usually  translated  "  wisards."  but  meaning 
evildoers  of  any  kind,  such  as  p<Mfloner8),  once  common  in  Zulu- 
land,  as  in  neighbouring  countries,  was  discouraged  by  Cetywayo, 
who  established  "  kraals  of  refuge  *'  for  the  reception  of  persons 
rescued  by  him  from  condemnation  at  abalafoti.  '  SmeUing  out  " 
was  finally  suppressed  by  the  British  in  the  early  years  of  the 
30th  century.   (For  the  Zulu  speech,  see  Bantu  Languages.) 

Towns,— ^The  Zulus  live  in  kraals,  circular  enclosures  with, 
cenerally.  a  ring  fence  inside  formine  a  cattle  pen.  Between  thb 
fence  and  the  outer  fencing  are  the  nuts  of  the  inhabitanta.  The 
royal  kraal  for  a  considerable  period  was  at  Ulundi,  in  the  valley 
of  the  White  Umfolosi.  The  last  Idng  to  occupy  it  was  Cetywayo; 
Dinizulu's  kraal  was  farther  north  near  the  Ndwandwe  magistracy. 
The  chief  white  settlements  are  Eshowe  and  Mdmodi.  iBshowe 

niQ0i4,  1855  of  whom  570  were  whites)  is  about  m  ro.  N.E. 
urSan,  lies  i^  m.  inland  and  some  1800  ft.  above  the  sea. 
Eshowe  b  3  m.  W.  of  the  mission  station  of  the  same  name  in 
which  CoU  Ptenon  was  be^cged  by  the  Zulus  in  1879,  and  was 
laid  out  in  1883.  It  b  pkrturesquely  dtuatcd  on  a  wdl-wooded 
plateaa  and  has  a  bracing  climate.  Two  hundred  acre*  of  forest 
land  in  the  centre  of  the  town  have  been  reserved  as  a  natural 
park.  Melmoth,  25  m.  N.N.E.  of  Eshowe,  lies  in  the  centre  of  a 
dbtrict  farmed  by  Boers.  Somkele  b  the  headquarten  of  the 
St  Lucia  coal-fields  dbtrict.  Nkandhla  b  a  small  seulemest  in 
the  aouth-wcst  of  the  country. 

Commimfea/io«r.— Notwithstanding  its  aio  n.  of  ooast-line  Zulu* 
land  possesses  no  harbours.  Thirty-six  miles  N.E.  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Tugela  there  is,  however,  fairly  safe  anchoraoe,  except  in 
S.S.W.  or  W.  winds,  about  1500  yds.  from  the  shore.  The  landing- 
place  b  on  the  open  sandy  beach,  where  a  small  stream  enters  the 
aea.  Thb  landing-pbce  is  dignified  with  the  name  of  Port  Durn* 
ford.  It  was  used  to  land  stores  in  the  war  of  187^.  Well-made 
roads  connect  all  the  magistracies.  The  Tugela  is  crossed  by 
well-known  drifts,  to  which  roads  from  Natal  and  Zululand  con- 
verge. Two.  the  i«ower  Tuoela  and  Bond's  Drift,  are  both  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  The  Middle  Drift  b  36  m.  in  a  direct  line 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Tuccla.  Rorkc's  Drift,  48  m..  also  in  a 
direct  line,  above  the  Midolc  Drift,  b  a  crossing  of  the  Buffalo 
river  a  little  above  the  Tugda  confluence.  A  railway,  completed 
in  I904>  which  begins  at  Durban  and  croaset  Into  Zululand  by  a 
bridge  over  the  Tugela  near  the  Lower  Drift,  runs  along  the  coast 
belt  over  nearly  level  country  to  the  St  Lucia  coal-fields  m  Hlabisa 
magistracy — 167  ro.  from  Durban,  of  which  08  are  in  Zululand. 
There  is  telegraphic  communication  between  the  magistracies  and 
townships  and  with  Natal. 

Industries.— Thte  Zulu  gives  little  attention  to  the  cnltivation  of 
the  soil.  Their  main  wealth  consists  in  their  herds  of  cattk  and 
flocks  of  sheep.  They  raise,  however,  crops  of  main,  millet,  sweet 
potatoes  and  tobacco^  Sugar,  tea  and  coffee  are  srown  in  the 
coast  belt  by  whites.  Anthracite  is  mined  in  the  St  Lucia  Bay 
district,  and  bituminous  coal  is  found  in  the  Nqutu  and  Kyudeni 
hills.  Gold,  iron,  copper  and  other  minerab  have  also  been  found, 
but  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is  undeveloped.  There  b  a 
considerable  trade  with  the  natives  in  cotton  goods,  &c..  and  numbers 
of  Zulu  seek  service  in  Natal.  (Trade  statistics  are  included  in 
those  of  Natal.) 

Admnistraiion. — Zululand  for  provlncbl  pnrpoecs  b  governed  by 
the  provincbl  council  of  Natal;  otherwise  it  is  subject  to  the 
Union  parliament,  to  which  it  returns  one  member  ol  the  House 
of  Assembly.  It  was  formerly  represented  in  the  Natal  legis- 
lature by  three  members,  one  member  sitting  in  the  Legislative 
Council,  and  two  being  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  one 
each  for  the  districts  of  Eshowe  and  Meunoth.  Their  selection 
and  election  were  governed  by  the  <8ame  laws  as  in  Natal  proper, 
and  on  the  establishment  of  the  Union  the  franchise  qualifications 
—which  practically  exclude  natives  remained  unaltered.  The 
parlbmentary  voters  in  1910  numbered  1443.  The  executive 
power  is  in  the  hands  of  a  civil  commissioner  whose  residence  b 
at  Eshowe.  Zulubnd  b  divided  into  eleven  magistracies,  and  the 
district  of  Tongaland  (also  calbd  Mpuu  or  Amaputabnd).  In 
the  magpstracies  the  authority  of  the  chiefs  and  indumas  (headmen) 
b  exercised  under  the  control  of  resident  magistrates.  The  Ama- 
Tonga  en)oy  a  larger  measure  of  home  rule,  but  are  under  the 
general  supervbion  of  the  civil  commissioner.  The  Ingwavuma 
magistracy,  like  TongaUnd,  formed  no  part  of  the  dominions  of 
the  Zulu  kings,  but  was  ruled  by  independent  chiefs  until  its  annexa^ 
taon  by  Great  Britain  in  1899. 


with  tae  osotptMMi  of  Ibo  ta^nMUps  and  a  dbtrict  oC  Emton> 
ianeni  magtstiacy  known  as  "  Pkwviao  B."  *■  malaly  occnpiad  by 
Boer  farmers,  all  the  land  was  vested  in  the  crown  and  very  Uttw 
has  been  jparted  with  to  Europeans.  The  crown  lands  are,  in 
effect,  native  reserves.  A  hut  tax  of  ias.  per  annum  b  levied  on 
all  natives.  The  tax  has  to  be  paid  lor  each  wife  a  21ula  nay 
possess,  whether  or  not  each  wife  has  a  separata  hat«  Since  1900 
a  poll  tax  of  £1  a  head  b  also  levied  on  all  males  over  eighteent 
European  or  native. 

History.'^At  what  period  the  Zulu  (one  of  a  number  of 
closely  allied  septs)  fint  reached  the  country  to  which  they  have 
g:iven  their  name  b  -uncertain;  they  were  probably  settled 
in  the  valley  of  the  White  Umfolosi  river  at  the  be^nning  of 
the  17th  century,  and  they  take  their  name  from  a  chief  who 
floutished  about  that  time.  The  earliest  record  of  contact 
between  Europeans  and  the  Zulu  race  b  believed  to  be  the 
account  of  the  wreck  of  the  "  Doddington "  in  1756.  The 
tuxvivon  met  with  hospitable  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the 
natives  of  Natal,  and  afterwards  proceeded  up  the  coast  to 
St  Luda  Bay.  They  describe  the  natives  as  "  veiy  proud  and 
haughty,  and  not  so  accommodating  as  those  lately  left" 
They  differed  from  the  other  natives  in  the  superior  neatness 
of  their  method  of  preparing  their  food,  and  were  more  cleanly 
In  their  persons,  bathbig  eveiy  morning,  apparently  as  an  act 
of  devotion.  Their  chief  pride  seemed  to  be  to  keep  their  hair 
in  order.  It  b  added  that  they  watched  strictly  over  their 
women. 

At  the  dose  of  the  i8th  century  the  Zulu  were  an  unimportant 
tribe  numbering  a  few  thousands  only.  At  that  time  the  most 
powerful  of  the  neighbouring  tribes  was  the  Umtetwa  (mTetwa 
or  Aba-Tetwa)  which  dwelt  in  the  country  north-east  of  the 
Tugela.  The  ruler  of  the  Umtetwa  was  a  chief  who  had  had 
in  early  life  an  adventurous  career  and  was  known  as  Bingbwayo 
(the  Wanderer).  He  had  lived  in  C^pe  Colony,  and  j^j^ 
there,  as  b  supposed,  had  observed  the  manner  in  0/  <as 
which  the  whites  formed  thdr  soldiers  into  disdplined 
regiments.  He  too  divided  the  young  men  of  hb 
tribe  into  impis  (regiments),  and  the  Umtetwa  became  a  formid- 
able military  power.  Dingiswayo  also  encoiu-aged  trade  and 
opened  relations  with  the  Portuguese  at  Ddagoa  Bay,  bartermg 
ivory  and  oxen  for  brass  and  beads.  In  1805  he  was  joined  by 
Chaka,  otherwise  Tshaka  (bocn  e,  X7S3),  the  son  of  the  Zulu 
chief  Senzangakona;  on  the  latter's  death  in  x8io  Chak^, 
through  the  influence  of  Dingbwayo,  was  chosen  as  niler  of  the 
Ama-Zulu,  though  not  the  rightful  heir.  Chaka  joined  in  hb 
patron's  raids,  and  in  x8xa  the  Umtetwa  and  Zulu  drove  the 
Amangwana  across  the  Buffalo  river.  About  thb  time  Dingis^ 
wayo  was  captured  and  put  to  death  by  Zwidc,  chief  of  the 
Undwandwe  clan,  with  whom  he  had  waged  constant  war.  The 
Umtetwa  army  then  placed  themselves  under  Chaka,  who  not 
long  afterwards  conquered  the  Undwandwe.  By  the  inowporap 
tion  of  these  tribes  Chaka  made  of  the  Zulu  a  power-  ttiA^ 
ful  nation.  He  strengthened  the  regimental  system 
adopted  by  Dingiswayo  and  perfected  the  disdpUne  of  hb  army. 
A  new  order  of  battle  was  adopted — the  troops  beuig  massed 
in  crescent  formation,  with  a  reserve  in  the  shape  of  a  parallelo- 
gram ready  to  strengthen  the  weakest  point.'  Probably  Chaka't 
greatest  innovation  was  the  introduction  of  the  stabbing  assegaL 
The  breaking  short  of  the  shaft  of  the  assegai  when  the  weapon 
was  used  at  dose  quarters  was  already  a  common  practice  among 
the  Ama-ZuIu,  but  Chaka  had  the  shaft  of  the  assegab  made 
short,  and  their  blades  longer  and  heavier,  so  that  they  could  be 
used  for  cutting  or  pierdng.  At  the  same  time  the  size  of  the 
shidd  was  increased,  the  more  completdy  to  cover  the  body  of 
the  warrior.    Military  kraab  were  formed  in  which  the  warriors 

'  The  Boers  obtained  the  right  to  settle  in  this  district  in  virtue 
of  Proviso  B  of  an  agreement  made,  on  the  22nd  of  October  1886, 
between  the  settlers  in  the  "  New  Republic  **  and  Sir  A.  E.  Have- 
lock,  governor  of  Natal. 

*  Dr  G.  McCall  Theal  sutes  that  the  ancestors  of  the  tribes 
living  in  what  b  now  Natal  and  Zululand  were  acquainted  with 
the  nes^mental  system  and  the  method  of  attack  in  crescent  shape 
formation  in  the  17th  century.  Memories  of  these  customs  lingered 
even  if  the  practice  had  died  out.  Among  the  Ama-Xosa  section 
of  Kafifs  they  appear  to  have  been  quite  unknown. 


105« 


ZULULAND 


irare  kept  apttt.  Menbcn  of  a  n^ibtuA  wtn  of  ttoch  the 
lame  age,  and  the  young  warriors  were  forbidden  to  marry  until 
they  had  distingxiished  themselves  in  battle. 

Chaka  had  but  two  ways  of  dealing  with  the  tribes  with 
whom  he  came  in  contact;  either  they  received  permission 
to  be  incorp<»ated  in  the  Zulu  nation  or  they  were  practically 
exterminated.  In  the  latter  case  the  only  persons  ^>arcd  were 
young  girls  and  growing  lads  who  could  serve  as  carriers  for 
the  army.  No  tribe  against  which  he  waged  war  was  able 
succcssfidly  to  oppose  the  Zulu  arms.  At  first  Chaka  turned 
his  attention  northward.  Those  who  could  fled  before  him,  the 
first  of  importance  so  to  do  being  a  chief  named  Swangendaba 
(Sungandaba),  whose  tribe,  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Zula,  was 
known  as  Angoni.  He  was  followed  by  another  tribe,  which 
under  Manikusa  for  many  years  rava|^  the  district  aroimd 
and  north  of  Delagoa  Bay  (see  Ga2aland).  Chaka  next  attacked 
the  tribes  on  his  southern  border,  and  by  1820  had  made 
himself  master  of  Natal,  wluch  he  swept  almost  clear  of  in- 
habitants. '  It  was  about  1820  that  Mosilikatze  (properly 
Umsilikazi),  a  general  in  the  Zulu  army,  having  incurred  Chaka's 
Wrath  by  keeping  back  part  of  the  booty  taken  in  an  expedition, 
fled  with  a  large  following  across  the  Dnkensberg  and  began  to 
lay  waste  a  great  part  of  the  country  between  the  Vaal  and 
Limpopo  rivers.  Mosilikatze  was  not  of  the  Zulu  tribe  proper, 
and  be  and  his  followers  styled  themselves  Abaka-Zuhi.  Chaka's 
own  dominions,  despite  his  conquests,  were  not  very  extensive. 
He  ruled  from  the  Pongolo  river  on  the  north  to  the  Umkomanzi 
river  on  the  south,  and  inland  his  power  extended  to  the  foot 
of  the  Drakensberg;  thus  his  territory  coincided  almost  exactly 
with  the  limits  of  Zululand  and  Natal  as  constituted  in  1903. 
Hb  influence,  however,  extended  from  the  Limpopo  to  the 
borders  of  Cape  Colony,  and  through  the  ravages  of  Swangen- 
daba and  Mosilikatze  the  terror  of  the  Zulu  arms  was  carried 
far  and  wide  into  the  interior  of  the  continent. 

Chaka  seems  to  have  first  come  into  contact  with  £uroi>eans 
in  1824.  In  that  year  (see  Natal)  he  was  visited  by  F.  G. 
jiatrMi  Farewell  and  a  few  companions,  and  to  them  he  made 
•ZfA*  a  grant  of  the  district  of  Port  Natal.  Farewell  found 
Brtihh,  the  king  at  Umgungindhlovu,  the  royal  kraal  on  the 
White  Umfolosi,  "  surrounded  by  a  large  number  of  chiefs  and 
about  8000  or  9000  armed  men,  observing  a  state  and  ceremony 
to  our  introduction  little  expected."  At  this  time  an  attempt 
was  made  to  murder  Chaka;  but  the  wound  he  received  was 
ctired  by  one  of  Farewell's  companions,  a  circumstance  which 
made  the  king  very  friendly  to  Europeans.  Anxious  to  open 
a  political  connexion  with  the  Cape  and  British  governments, 
Chaka  entrusted  early  in  182S  one  of  his  principal  chiefs, 
S^tobi,  and  a  companion  to  the  care  of  J.  S.  King,  one  of  the 
Natal  settlers,  to  be  conducted  on  an  embassage  to  Cape  Town, 
Sotobi  being  commissioned  to  proceed  to  the  king  of  England. 
But  they  were  not  allowed  to  proceed  beyond  Port  Elizabeth, 
and  three  months  later  were  sent  back  to  Zululand^  In  July 
of  the  same  year  Chaka  sent  an  army  westward  which  bid 
waste  the  Pondo  country.  The  Zulu  force  did  not  come  into 
contact  with  the  British  troops  guarding  the  Cape  frontier, 
but  much  alarm  was  caused  by  the  invasion.  In  November 
envoys  from  Chaka  reached  Cape  Town,  and  it  was  determined 
to  send  a  British  ofiicer  to  Zululand  to  confer  with  him.  Before 
this  embassy  started,  news  came  that  Chaka  had  been  murdered 
(23rd  of  September  1828)  at  a  military  kraal  on  the  Umvote 
about  fifty  miles  from  Port  NataL  Chaka  was  a  victim  to  a 
conspiracy  by  lus  half  brothers  Dingaan  and  Umthlahgana, 
While  a  short  time  afterwards  Dingaan  murdered  Umthlangana, 
overcame  the  opposition  of  a  third  brother,  and  made  himself 
king  of  the  Zulu. 

Bloodstained  as  had  been  Chaka*s  rule,  that  of  Dingaan 
appears  to  have  exceeded  it  in  wanton  cruelly,  as  is  attested 
-.  by    several    trustworthy    Eiiropean    travellers   and 

^^'"**  merchants  who  now  wiih  some  frequency  visited 
Zululand.  Hie  British  settlers  at  Port  Natal  were  alternately 
terrorized  and  conciliated.  In  1835  Dingaan  gave  permission 
to  the  British  settlers  at  Port  Natal  to  esublish  misaonary 


stations  ia  the  cottMiy,  in  tetom  for  a  prooiie  made  by  tte 
settlers  not  to  harbour  fugitives  from  his  dominionsw  In  1836 
American  missionaries  were  also  allowed  to  open  stations;  in 
1837  he  permitted  the  Rev.  F.  Owen,  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  to  reside  at  his  great  kraal,  and  Owen  was  with  the  king 
when  in  November  1837  he  received  Pieter  Relief,  the  kader 
of  the  first  party  of  Boer  immigrants  to  enter  NataL 

Coming  over  the  Drakensberg  in  conuderaUe  numbers 
during  1837,  the  Boers  found  the  land  stretching  south  from 
the  mountains  almost  deserted,  and  Retief  went  to  Airfw^ 
Dingaan  to  obtain  a  formal  cession  of  the  country  9ftb9' 
west  of  the  Tugela,  which  river  the  Zulu  recognized  *•««• 
as  the  boundary  of  Zululand  proper.  After  agrcdng  to  Retiefs 
request  Dingaan  caused  the  Boer  leader  and  his  companions 
to  be  murdf^cd  (6th  of  February  1838),  following  up  his  treachery 
by  slaying  as  many  as  possible  of  the  other  Boers  who  had 
entered  Natal.  After  two  unsuccessful  attempts  to  avenge 
their  slain,  in  which  the  Boers  were  aided  by  the  British  settlcn 
at  Port  Natal,  Dingaan's  army  was  totally  defeated  on  the 
x6th  of  December  1838,  by  a  Boer  force  under  Andries  Pretorius. 
Operating  in  open  country,  mounted  on  horseback,  and  with 
rifles  in  their  hands,  the  Boer  fanners  were  able  to  inflict  fearful 
losses  on  their  enemy,  while  their  own  casualties  were  few.  On 
"  Dingaan's  day  "  the  Boer  force  received  the  attack  of  the  Zulu 
while  in  laager;  the  enemy  charged  in  dense  masses,  being  met 
both  by  cannon  shot  and  rifle  fixe,  and  were  presently  attacked 
in  the  rear  by  mounted  Boers.  After  the  defeat  Dingaan  set 
fixe  to  the  royal  kraal  (Umgungindhlovu)  and  for  a  time  took 
refuge  in  the  bush;  on  the  Boers  recrossing  the  Tugela  he 
established  himself  at  Ulundi'at  a  little  distance  from  his  fonnct 
capital  His  power  was  greatly  weakened  and  a  year  later  was 
overthrown,  the  Boers  in  Natal  (January  1840)  supporting  his 
brother  Mpande  (usually  called  Panda)  m  rebellion  against  him. 
The  movement  was  completely  successful,  several  of  Dingaan's 
regiments  going  over  to  Panda.  Dingaan  passed  into  Swaziland 
in  advance  of  his  retreating  forces,  and  was  there  murdered, 
while  Panda  was  crowned  king  of  Zululand  by  the  Boers. 

When  in  1843  the  British  succeeded  the  Boers  as  maslers 
of  Natd  they  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Panda,  who  gave  up 
to  the  British  the  country  between  the  upper  Tugela 
and  the  Buffalo  rivers,  and  also  the  district  of  St 
Luda  Bay.  (The  bay  was  not  then  occupied  by  the  British, 
whose  object  in  obtaining  the  cession  was  to  prevent  its  acquis!* 
tion  by  the  Boers.  Long  afterwards  the  treaty  with  Panda  was 
successfully  invoked  to  prevent  a  German  occupation  of  the 
bay.)  No  sooner  had  the  British  become  possessed  of  NsULal 
than  there  was  a  large  Inunigration  into  it  of  Zulu  fiueing  from 
the  misgovemment  of  Panda.  That  chief  w^as  not,  however,  as 
warlike  as  his  brothers  Chaka  and  Dingaan;  and  be  remained 
throughout  his  reign  at  peace  with  the  government  of  Natal.* 
With  the  Boers  who  had  settled  in  the  Transvaal,  however,  he 
was  involved  in  various  frontier  disputes.  He  had  wars  with 
the  Swazis,  who  in  1855  ceded  to  the  Boers  of  Lydenburg  a 
tract  of  land  on  the  north  side  of  the  Pongolo  in  order  to  place 
Europeans  between  themselves  and  the  Zulu.  In  1856  a 
civil  war  broke  out  between  two  of  Panda's  sons,  Cctywayo  and 
Umbulazi,  who  were  rival  claimants  for  the  succession.  A 
battle  was  fought  between  them  on  the  banks  of  the  Tugela  in 
December  1856,  in  which  Umbulazi  and  many  of  his  followers 
were  slain.  The  Zulu  country  continued,  however,  exdted  and 
disturbed  until  the  government  of  Natal  in  1861  obtained  the 
formal  nomination  of  a  successor  to  Panda;  and  Cetywayo 
was  appointed.  The  agent  chosen  to  preside  at  the  nomination 
ceremony  was  Mr  (afterwards  Sir)  Theophilus  ShepUone,  who 
was  m  charge  of  native  affairs  in  Natal  and  had  won  in  a 

*  Bishop  Schreuder.  a  Norwegian  missionary  long  re»deut  in 
Zululand,  gave  Sir  Battle  Frerc  ihc  following  estinute  oi  the  three 
brothers  who  succeseively  reigned  over  the  Zulu: — "  Cliaka  was  a 
really  great  man,  cruel  and  unscrupulous,  but  with  many  great 
qualiiieB.  Dingaan  was  simply  a  b<rast  on  two  legs.  Panda  was 
a  weaker  and  less  able  man,  but  kindly  and  really  iratdTul,  a  very 
rare  quality  amoM  Zulus.  He  used  to  kill  aometiniea,  but  never 
wantonly  or  contmuously.** 


ZULULAND 


IOS3 


reoitrkable  degree  the  respect  and  liking  of  the  Zola.  Panda 
died  in  October  1873,  but  practically  the  government  of  Zululand 
had  been  in  Cttyvnyo*B  hands  since  the  victoiy  of  1856,  owing 
both  to  political  drcumstances  and  the  failing  health  of  his 
father.  In  1873  the  Zulu  nation  appealed  to  the  Natal  govern- 
ment to  pieside  over  the  installation  iA  Cetywajro  as  king;  and 
this  request  was  acceded  to,  Shepstone  being  again  chosen 
as  Britbh  representative.  During  the  whde  of  Panda's  reign 
the  condition  of  Zululand  showed  little  improvement.  Bishop 
Colenso  visited  him  in  1857  and  obtained  a  grant  of  land  for 
a  mission  station,  which  was  opened  in  i860,  by  the  Rev.  R. 
Robertson,  who  laboured  in  the  country  for  many  years,  gaining 
the  confidence  both  of  Panda  and  Cetywayo.  Gennan,  Nor- 
wegian and  other  missions  were  also  founded.  The  number  of 
converts  was  few,  but  the  missionaries  exercised  a  very  whole- 
some influence  and  to  them  in  measure  was  due  the  comparative 
mildness  of  Panda's  later  years. 

The  frontier  disputes  between  the  Zulu  and  the  TVansvaal 
Boen  ultimately  involved  the  British  government  and  were  one 
DkptMte$  ^^  ^^^  causes  of  the  war  which  broke  out  in  1879. 
wHh  fft*  They  concerned,  chiefly,  territory  which  in  1854  was 
Tnas-  prodaimed  the  repubUc  of  Utrecht,  the  Boers  who 
''^  had  settled  there  having  in  that  year  obtained  a  deed 

of  cession  from  Panda.  In  i860  a  Boer  commission  was  ap- 
pointed to  beacon  the  boundary,  and  to  obtain,  if  possible, 
from  the  Zulu  a  road  to  the  sea  at  St  Luda  Bay.  llie  com- 
mission, however,  effected  nothing.  In  1861  Umtonga,  a 
brother  of  Cetywayo,  fled  to  the  Utrecht  district,  and  Cetywayo 
assembled  an  army  on  that  frontier.  According  to  evidence 
brought  forward  later  by  the  Boers,  Cetywayo  offered  the 
farmers  a  strip  of  land  along  the  border  if  they  would  surrender 
his  brother.  This  they  did  on  the  condition  that  Umtonga's 
life  was  spared,  and  in  i86x  Panda  signed  a  deed  making  over 
the  land  to  the  Boen.  The  southern  boundary  of  the  strip 
added  to  Utrecht  ran  from  Rorke's  Drift  on  the  Buffalo  to  a 
point  on  the  Pongolo.  The  botmdary  was  beaconed  ia  1864, 
but  when  in  1865  Umtonga  fled  from  Zululand  to  Natal,  Cety- 
wayo, seeing  that  he  had  lost  his  part  of  the  bargain  (for  he 
feared  that  Umtonga^  might  be  used  to  supplant  him  as  Panda 
had  been  used  to  supplant  Dingaan),  caused  the  beacon  to  be 
removed,  the  Zulu  claiming  ^so  the  land  ceded  by  the  Swazis 
to  Lydenburg.  The  Zulu  asserted  that  the  Swazis  were  their 
vassals  and  denied  their  right  to  part  with  the  territory.  During 
the  year  a  Boer  commando  under  Paul  Kruger  and  an  army 
under  Cetywayo  were  posted  along  the  Utredit  border.  Hos- 
tilities were  avoided,  but  the  Zulu  occupied  the  land  north  of 
the  Pongolo.  Questions  were  also  raised  as  to  the  vrlidity  of 
the  documents  signed  by  the  Zulu  concerning  the  Utrecht 
strip;  in  1869  the  services  of  the  lieut-govemor  of  Natal  were 
accepted  by  both  parties  as  arbitrator,  but  the  attempt  then 
made  to  settle  the  difficulty  proved  unsuccessful. 

Such  was  the  position  when  by  his  father's  death  Cetywayo 
(g.o.)  became  absolute  ruler  of  the  Zulu.  As  far  as  possible 
Cafr^myo  he  revived  the  military  methods  of  his  uncle  Chaka, 
A'^  and  even  succeeded  in  equipping  his  n^ments  with 

firearms.  It  is  believed  that  he  faistigat<^  the  Kaffirs  in  the 
Transkei  to  revolt,  and  he  aided  Sikukuni  in  his  struggle  with 
the  Transvaal.  His  rule  over  his  own  people  was  tyrannous. 
By  Bishop  Schreuder  he  was  described  as  "  an  able  man,  but 
for  cold,  selfish  pride,  cruelty  and  untruthfulness  worse  than 
any  of  bis  predecessors."  In  September  1876  the  massacre  of 
a  large  number  of  girls  (who  had  married  men  of  their  own  age 
instead  of  the  men  of  an  older  regiment,  for  whom  Cetywayo 
had  designed  them)  provoked  a  strong  remonstrance  from  the 
government  of  Natal,  inclined  as  that  government  was  to  look 
leniently  on  the  doings  of  the  Zulu.  The  tension  between 
Cetywayo  and  the  Transvaal  over  border  disputes  continued, 
and  when  in  1877  Britain  annexed  the  Transvaal  the  dispute 
was  transferred  to  the  new  owners  of  the  country.   A  commis»on 

*  Umtonga  had  been  originally  designated  by  Panda  as  his 
successor.  He  afterwards  aervea  in  the  Zulu  war  with  Wood's 
column. 


Pmw'g 


•iU79, 


was  appointed  by  the  lleut.  governor  of  Natal  in  Febnuury 
1878  to  report  on  the  boundaxy  queatioiL.  The  commission 
reported  in  July,  and  found  almost  entirely  in  favour  of  the 
contention  of  the  Zulu.  Sir  Bartle  Fkcve,  then  H^  Com* 
missioner,  who  thought  the  award  "one-Bided  and  unfidr  to 
the  Boers  "  (Martineau,  Life  tf  Pure,  iL  six.),  stipulated  that, 
on  the  land  bebg  given  to  the  Zuhi,  the  Boers  living  on  it 
should  be  compensated  if  they  left,  or  protected  if  they  remained. 
Cetjrwayo  (who  now  found  no  defender  in  Natal  save  Bishop 
Colenso)  was  in  a  defiant  humour,  and  permitted  outiagea  1^ 
Zulu  both  on  the  TVansvaal  and  Natal  bordeis.  Fkcre  was 
convinced  that  the  peace  of  South  Africa  could  be 
preserved  only  if  the  power  of  Cetywayo  was  curtailed. 
Therefore  in  forwarding  his  award  on  the  boondaiy 
dispute  the  High  Commissioner  demanded  that  the 
military  system  should  be  remoddled.  The  youths 
were  to  be  allowed  to  many  as  they  came  to  man's  estate,  and 
the  regiments  were  not  to  be  called  up  except  with  the  consent 
of  the  council  of  the  nation  and  also  of  the  British  government. 
Moreover,  the  missionaries  were  to  be  unmolested  and  a  British 
readout  was  to  be  accepted.  These  demands  meat  made  to 
Zulu  deputies  on  the  nth  of  December  1878,  a  definite  reply 
benig  required  by  the  31st  of  that  month. 

Cetywayo  returned  no  answer,  and  In  January  1879  a  British 
force  under  General  Thesiger  (Lord  Chelmsford)  invaded  Zulu- 
land.  Lord  Chelmsford  had  under  him  a  force  of  5000 
Europeans  and  8100  natives:  3000  of  the  latter  were  employed 
in  guarding  the  frontier  of  Natal;  another  force  of  1400  Euro- 
peans and  400  natives  were  stationed  in  the  Utredkt  district 
Three  columns  were  to  invade  Zululand,  from  the  Lower  Tugela, 
Rorke's  Drift,  and  Utrecht  respective^,  their  objective  being 
Ulundi,  the  royal  kraal.  Cetywayo's  army  numbered  full^ 
40,000  men.  The  entry  of  all  three  columns  was  uno|^MMed. 
On  the  3  and  of  January  the  centre  column  (1600  Europeans, 
3500  natives),  which  had  advanced  from  Rorke's  Drift,  was 
encamped  near  Isandhlwana;  on  the  morning  of  jhtodM- 
that  day  Lord  Chdmsford  moVed  out  with  a  small  wamt, 
force  to  support  a  reconnoitring  party.  After  he  had  leftf 
the  camp,  in  charge  of  Col.  Dumford,'was  surprised  by  a  Zulu 
army  nearly  10,000  strong.  The  Brit^  were  overwhelmed  and 
almost  every  man  killed,  the  casualties  being  806  Europeans 
(more  than  half  belonging  to  the  34th  regiment)  and  471  natives. 
All  the  transport  was  also  lost.  Lord  Chelmsford  and  the 
reconnoitring  party  returned  to  find  the  camp  deserted;  next 
day  they  retreated  to  R&rke's  Drift,  which  had  been  the  scene 
of  an  heroic  and  successful  defence.  After  the  victory  at 
Isandhlwana  several  impis  of  the  Zulu  army  had  ffsrts** 
moved  to  the  Drift.  The  garrison  stationed  there,  '^'''^ 
under  Lieuts.  Chard  and  Bromhead,  numbered  about  80 
men  of  the  34th  regiment,  and  they  had  in  hospital  between 
30  and  40  men.  Late  in  tbe  afternoon  they  were  attadced  by 
about  4000  ZultL  On  six  occasions,  the  Zulu  got  within  the 
entrenchments,  to  be  driven  back  each  time  at  the  bayonet's 
point.  At  dawn  the  Zulu  withdrew,  leaving  350  dead.  The 
British  loss  was  17  killed  and  10  wounded. 

In  the  meantime  the  right  column  under  (^lond  Pearson  had 
reached  Eshowe  from  the  Tugela;  on  receipt  of  the  news  of 
Isandhlwana  most  of  the  mounted  men  and  the  native  troops 
were  sent  back  to  the  Natal,  leaving  at  Eshowe  a  garrison  of  1300 
Europeans  and  65  natives.  This  force  was  honmed  in  by  the 
enemy.  The  left  column  under  Colonel  (afterwards  Sir)  Eveljm 
Wood,  which  had  done  excellent  work,  fotmd  itself  obliged  to 
act  on  the  defensive  after  the  disaster  to  the  centre  column.* 
For  a  time  an  invasion  of  Natal  was  feared.  The  Zulu,  however, 
made  no  attempt  to  enter  Natal,  while  Lord  Chelmsford  awaited 
reinforcements  before  resuming  his  advance.  During  this  time 
(March  the  i3th)  an  escort  of  stores  marching  to  Luneberg, 
the  headquarters  of  the  Utrecht  force,  was  attacked  when  en* 
camped  on  both  ndes  of  the  Intombe  river.  The  camp  was 
surprised,  62  out  of  106  men  were  killed,  and  all  the  stoves  were 

*With  the  column  were  40  Boers,  the  Uys  clan,  under  Plet 
Uys,  whose  father  had  been  killed  ia  1838  in  the  wars  with  DinguiR. 


I054 


ZULULAND 


loft.  News  of  luadhKiaM  tcadicd  Eigbad  on  the  iitli  of 
Febnuy,  and  on  the  mudc  day  about  lo^ooo  men  wttt  ordered 
oat  to  South  Africa.  The  firat  troopa  arrived  at  Dmbaa  on  the 
17th  of  March.  Oo  the  99th  a  coimnn,  under  Lord  Chelbieford, 
CDmiitinc  of  5400  Europeans  and  ajoo  natives,  marched  to  the 
relief  of  Eshowe,  entrenched  campa  being  formed  each  night. 
On  the  and  of  April  the  camp  was  attacked  at  Ginginhlovo,  the 
Zulu  being  repoLMd*  Their  lota  waa  fttimitfd  at  laoo  while 
the  British  had  onljr  two  killed  and  $»  wounded.  The  next 
day  Esbowe  was  relieved.  Wood,  who  had  been  given  leave 
io  make  a  diversion  in  northern  Zululand,  on  the  agtb  of  March 
occupied  Hlobane  (Inhlobane)  moontaia.  The  force  was,  how- 
ever, compelled  to  retreat  owing  to  the  unexpected  appearance 
of  the  main  Zulu  Mnajt  which  neariy  outflanked  the  British. 
Besides  the  loss  of  the  native  contingent  (tboie  not  killed 
deserted)  there  were  100  cisosltifs  among  the  400  Europeans 
flOgagcd.^  At  mid-day  next  day  the  Zulu  army  made  a  desperate 
attack,  lasting  over  (our  hours,  on  Wood's  camp  at  Kambula; 
the  enemy— over  ao,ooo  strong — was  driven  off,  losing  fuUy 
1000  men,  while  the  British  casuslties  were  18  killed  and 
65  wounded. 

By  the  middle  of  April  neariy  all  the  reinforcements  bad 
reached  Natal,  and  Lccd  Chelmsford  reorganized  his  forces. 
The  ist  division^  under  major-general  Crealock,  advanced  along 
the  coast  belt  and  was  destined  to  act  as  a  support  to  the  2nd 
division,  under  major-general  Newdigate,  which  with  Wood's 
flyii^  column,  an  independent  unit,  was  to  march  on  Ulundi 
bom  ROTke's  Drift  and  Kambula.  Owing  to  difficulties  of 
transport  it  was  the  beginning  of  Jiue  before  Newdigate  was 
ready  to  advance.  On  the  ist  of  that  month  the  prince  imperial 
of  France  (Louis  Napoleon),  who  had  been  allowed  to  accompany 
the  British  troops,  was  killed  while  out  with  a  reconnoitring 
party.  On  the  ist  of  July  Newdigate  and  Wood  had  reached 
the  White  Umfolosi,  in  the  heart  of  the  enemy's  country.  During 
their  advance  messengers  were  sent  by  Cetywayo  to  treat  for 
peace,  but  he  did  not  accept  the  terms  offered.  Meantime  Sir 
Garnet  (afterwards  Lord)  Wolseley  had  been  sent  out  to  super- 
sede Lord  Chelmsford,  and  on  the  7th  of  July  he 
reached  Crealock's  headquarten  at  Port  Dumford. 
But  by  that  time  the  campaign  was  practically  over.  The  2nd 
division  (with  which  was  Lord  Chelmsford)  and  Wood's  column 
crossed  the  White  Umfolosi  on  the  4th  of  Juljr— the  force 
numbering  4200  Europeans  and  1000  natives.  Within  a  mile 
of  Ulundi  the  British  force,  formed  in  a  hollow  square,  was 
attacked  by  a  Zulu  army  numbering- 12,000  to  15,000.  The 
battle  ended  in  a  decisive  victory  for  the  British,  whose  losses 
were  about  100,  while  of  the  Zulu  some  1500  men  were  killed 
(see  Ulundi). 

After  this  battle  the  Zuiu  ariay  dispersed,  most  of  the  leading 
chiefs  tendered  their  submission,  and  Cetywayo  became  a 
W0i99k^»  fugitive.  On  the  27th  of  August  the  king  was  cap- 
MUh'  tured  and  sent  to  Cape  Town.  His  deposition  was 
■••*•  formally  announced  to  the  Zulu,  and  Wolseley  drew, 
up  a  new  scheme  for  the  government  of  the  country.  The 
Chaka  dynast;^  was  deposed,  and  the  Zulu  country  portioned 
among  eleven  Zulu  chiefs,  John  Dunn,'  a  white  adventurer, 
and  Hlubi,  a  Basuto  chief  who  had  done  good  service  in  the  war. 
A  Resident  was  appointed  who  was  to  be  the  channel  of  com- 
munication between  the  chiefs  and  the  British  government. 
This  arrangement  was  productive  of  much  bloodshed  and 
disturbance,  and  in  1882  the  British  government  determined 
to  restore  Cetywayo  to  power.  In  the  meantime,  however, 
blood  feuds  had  been  engendered  between  the  chiefs  Usibepu 

*  For  his  action  on  this  occasbn  Colonel  (afterwards  General 
Sir)  Redven  Buller,  who  wai  Wood's  principal  asristant,  received 
the  V.C.    Piet  Uys  was  among  the  slain. 

'  Dunn  was  a  ion  of  one  of  the  early  settlers  In  Natal  and  had 

fergely  Identified  himself  with  the  Zulu.  In  1856  he  fought  for 
mbulasi  against  Cetywayo,  but  was  high  in  that  monarch's  favour 
at  the  time  of  his  coronation  in  1873.  When  Frece's  ultimatum 
was  deHveicd  to  Cetywayo,  Dunn,  with  sooo  foUowere,  croaaed  the 
Tttfeia  into  Natal  (loth  of  January  1879).^.  In  1888  he  fought 
against  Piaisulu. 


(Zibcbu)  aad  Hama'  on  the  one  side  and  the  irilies  wfa» sn|^ 
potted  the  ex-king  and  his  family  on  the  other.  Cetywaya'a 
party  (who  now  became  known  as  Usutus)  suffered  sewudy 
at  the  hands  of  the  two  chiefs,  who  were  aided  by  a  b^pd  of 
while  ffieebootcrs.  When  Cetywayo  was  icstored  Usibqwi 
was  left  In  pnsirssinn  of  his  territocy,  while  Dunn's  land  aad 
that  of  the  Basuto  chief  (the  country  between  the  Tu^ela  and 
the  Umhlsfuri,  ie.  adjoining  Natal)  waa  constituted  %  reserve, 
in  which  locations  were  to  be  provided  for  Zulu  unwilling  to 
serve  the  restored  kin^  This  new  arrangement  proved  as 
futile  as  had  Wolselcy's.  Usibepu,  having  created  a  fcnnidable 
force  of  wdl-armed  and  trained  waniorSk  and  being  left  in 
independence  on  the  borders  of  Cetjrwayo's  territory,  viewed 
with  displeasure  the  re-installation  of  his  former  king,  and 
Cetywayo  was  desirous  of  hiunbling  his  relative^  A  collisioa 
very  soon  took  place;  Usibepu's  forces  were  victorious,  and 
on  the  22nd  of  July  1883,  led  by  a  troop  of  mounted  whites, 
he  made  a  sudden  descent  upon  Cetywayo's  kraal  at  Ulundi, 
which  he  di-^troyed,  massacring  such  of  the  inmates  of  botb 
sexes  as  could  not  save  themselves  by  flight.  The  king  escaped, 
though  wounded,  into  the  Reserve;  there  he  died  in  February 
1884. 

Cetywayo  left  a  son,  Dinizulu,  who  sought  the  assistance  of 
some  of  the  Transvaal  Boers  against  Usibepu,  whom  he  defeated 
and  drove  into  the  Reserve.  These  Boers,  led  by  Lukas  Meyer 
(1846-1902),  claimed  as  a  stipulated  reward  for  their  services 
the  cession  of  the  greater  and  more  valuable  part  of  central 
Zululand.  On  the  axst  of  May  the  Boer  adventurers  j^ 
had  proclaimed  Dinizulu  king  of  Zululand;  in  August  H^wr 
following  they  founded  the  "  New  Republic,"  carved  **■•*. 
out  of  Zululand,  and  sought  its  recognition  by  the  British 
government.  The  Usutu  party  now  repented  of  their  bad 
bargain,  for  by  the  end  of  1885  they  fotmd  the  Boers  Hsiming 
some  three-fourths  of  their  country.  The  British  government 
intervened,  took  formal  possession  of  St  Lucia  Bay  (to  which 
Germany  as  well  as  the  Transvaal  advanced  claims),  caused  the 
Boers  to  reduce  their  demands,  and  within  boundaries  agreed 
to  recognize  the  New  Republic — whose  territory  was  in  1888 
incorporated  in  the  Transvaal  and  has  since  1903  formed  the 
Viyheid  division  of  Natal. 

Seeing  that  peace  could  be  maintained  between  the  Zulu 
chiefs  only  by  the  direct  exercise  of  authority,  the  British 
government  annexed  Zululand  (minus  the  New  Re- 
public) in  1887,  and  placed  it  under  a  commissioner 
responsible  to  the  governor  of  Natal.  In  the  following  ammtm^s 
year  Dinizulu,  who  continued  his  feud  with  Usibepu,  m^Z^ 
rebelled  against  the  British.  After  a  sharp  campaign  "'"'^ 
(June  to  August  1888),  the  Usutu  losing  300  killed  in  one 
encounter,  Dinizulu  fled  into  the  Transvaal.  He  surrendered 
himself  to  the  British  in  November;  in  AprQ  1889  he  and 
two  of  his  uncles  (under  whose  influence  he  diiefly  acted)  were 
found  guilty  of  high  treason  and  were  exiled  to  St  Helena. 

Under  the  wise  administration  of  Sir  Melmoth  Osbom,  the 
commissioner,  whose  headquarters  were  at  Eshowe,  and  the 
district  magistrates,  the  Zulu  became  reconciled  to  British 
rule,  especially  as  European  settlers  were  excluded  from  the 
greater  part  of  the  country.  Large  numbers  of  natives  sought 
employment  in  Natal  and  at  the  Rand  gold  mines,  and  Zulu- 
land  enjoyed  a  period  of  prosperity  hitherto  unknown.  Order 
was  maintained  by  a  mounted  native  police  force. 

At  the  end  of  1888  and  at  the  beginning  of  1890  some  small 
tracts  of  territory  lying  between  Zululand  and  Tongaland, 

under  the  rule  of  petty  semi-independent  chiefs,    j^ 

were  added  to  Zululand;  and  in  1895  the  territories  r—dim 
of  the  chiefs  Zambaan  (Sambana)  and  Umtegiza,  <**ya 
688  sq.  m.  in  extent,  lying  between  the  Portuguese  •*■*•* 
territories,  Swaziland,  Zululand  and  Tongaland^  were  also 
added.  In  the  same  year  a  British  protectorate  was  declared 
over  Tongaland.  The  coast-line  was  thus  secured  for  Great 
Britain  up  to  the  boundary  of  the  Portuguese  territory  at 

*  Both  these  chiefs  were  members  of  the  royal  family. 


ZUMALACARRBGUI 


Pcliji*  Bay.  At  thu  tiDe  the  Tmmtu)  (avciniBeDt— *hkli 
huj  becB  Ihe  first  to  reap  tlu  beu&t  of  GicaL  BriUin't  delal 
at  ibe  Zulu  by  Bcquiiiag  Uk  "  Nfw  Rq»blic  " — ms  eiuk» 
VDitring  to  obtain  tht  temloius  of  Zimbaan  and  UmU^xa, 
hoping  alio  to  hcur  »  route  through  Tongaitnd  to  Kos  Bay, 
Proident  Kniger  protested  in  vain  against  this  anneiatioo, 
Great  Britala  being  detennined  to  prevent  aDotha  Poiva 
eitibUilung  itself  on  the  south^aK  Alritan  leaboaid. 

In  iS^jSiiU.  OibonwaiiuiMdedaiTeiidenlcanuniiHiiM 
by  Sir  >Jjtmh«l  daike,^  nho  gained  the  ccafideoce  and  good 
■ill  of  the  Ztilu.  At  the  doaa  of  1897  Zululand,  in 
vhid)  Toogiland  bad  been  iocorporated,  wis  liandetj 
ovei  by  the  Lmperial  govenunent  to  Natal,  and  ^ 
(then  Mr)  C.  J.  R.  Saunden  *ai  af^uinted  dvil 
'k  province,  with  wh«e  govenunent  lie  had 
ce  1U7.  In  i8«S  Dinizulu  was  allowed  to 
ma."  O&dallyoiKoJ 
le  lesdent  raagjuiate, 
be  WIS,  in  fact,  regarded  by  meat  of  the  Zulu  ai  the  head 
of  their  natim.  Mis  iaSuCDCe  aFfieared  to  be  in  the  main 
eieidied  on  the  tide  at  oRkr.  Daring  the  war  of  1890-1901 
there  was  tonie  fighting  between  the  Zulu  and  the  Boen,  pro- 
voked by  the  Boen  entering  Zulu  tenilory.  A  Zulu  bad 
biTing  been  nided,  the  Zulu  iitatiated  aod,  suirounding  ■ 
tnaU  Boer  coniniindo,  sucneded  in  killing  every  meiobet  ot  it. 
In  September  1901  Louis  Botha  made  an  attempt  U>  hivade 
>«■  Ntlal  by  way  of  Zululand.  but  ihe  Mubborn  dcfesce 

'■'^  made  by  the  uuall  poua  M,  Ilali  and  ProqMCt  HMU 
both  within  the  Zulu  tKirdeT,  aosed  hhn  to  ^ve  up  the  project. 
Throughout  the  vu  the  Zulu  showed  marked  pertiility  ba 
the  British  side. 


however,  reported  (190J)  that  four-fifths  of  Zululand  was  unfit 
for  European  habitation,  and  the  remaining  fifth  diody  densely 
populated.     The  commissioneTs  urged  that  the  tiibal  syateih 


1055 

O  IcMT  ye«n'  trnptiion- 


opened  up  and  connected  with  Durban  Iw 
IS  leganled  as 


among  the  Zulu,  but  tlus  • 
naiural  after  the  vtr.  In  jr. 
males  was  imposed  by  the  Katal  legi^iure;  this  tax  was  the 
ostensible  cause  of  a  revolt  in  1906  imong  the  natives  of  Natal, 
Tuih.  ""^  ""•  largely  of  Zulu  origin.  Bambaata,  the 
l^if  leader  of  the  revolt,  fied  to  Zululand.  He  toiA 
'•Mi  refuge  In  the  dense  bush  In  the  Nkandhla  highlands, 

°y**^*  where  Cclywayo's  grave  became  the  rallying.poini 
of  the  rebels,  who  in  April  were  joined  by  an  aged 
thief  named  SIgananda  and  his, tribe.  After  an  arduous  canv 
paign,  the  Natal  force  (about  jono  strong)  being  commanded 
by  Col-  ^r  Duncan  McKcnde,  the  rebellion  was  crushed  by 
July  1906,  without  the  aid  of  inipeiUl  troops.  Bambaata  waa 
killed  in  battle  (June  loih):  Ms  head  was  cut  off  for  purposes 
of  identification,  but  afterwards  buried  with  the  body.  Siga- 
nanda  surrendered.  In  bQ  some  3500  Zulus  were  killed  and 
about  300a  liken  prisoners,  the  majority  of  Ihe  prisoners  being 
released  b  1907  (sec  further  Natal:  Hiilory).  Zululand  re- 
mained, however,  in  a  disturbed  condition,  and  a  number  of 
while  traders  and  officials  were  murdered.  Dmirulu  had  been 
accused  of  harbouring  Bambaata.  and  in  December  r  907  the  Natal 
government  felt  justified  jn  chat^ng  him  with  hig^  treason, 
murder  and  other  crimes.  A  military  force  entered  Zutullnd, 
and  Dinizulu  surrendered  without  oppo^tion.  He  was  brought 
to  irial  in  November  190R,  and  in  March  1909  was  found  guiiiy 
of  harbouring  rebels.     The  mole  serious  charges  against  him 


H.D.C.  (I 

"  '^'Lio'^ik'S" 
Zululand  becanif 
tilgS).    Hewai 


1,  {I»ii-I909)  was 


r,  ei'prenuer  ol  C^h  Colony,  while  Miw 
ighler  of  Biabop  Colenw}  coutilulcd  bei^f 
pRsg  ol  Natal  and  Great  Britain.  Od  the 
I  of  South  Afrin  wu  *«i«bK.hH  (jnt  U 


i  in   ibe  6oet   wi 


'"'^'th  *'" 


frifin  (and  ed.  t88l)j  F.  E.  ColeoK),  TU  rfi,.!! 
S&I-SS):  Cap!.  H.  H.  Pan,  A  SltOck  0/  Ui 
iMo};''CetywByD'»Sioiy  of  Ihe  Zulu  Nation," 
r  (iMo);  H.  Rider  Hagfaid.  COymyi  Q«t  Mi 
t3):  B.  Micford.  TlUHiik  Iht  Zulu  Ctuuin 
Til  Yon  amnt  Oe  Z&a  (BoHon,  t^ij; 
rfe^mZafB&nJfloo^iW.Boeman.  Tlu 
n)  {1907)1  Ratamoiid  Swlhev.  Sum  aai 
rica  (1910).  See  aba  the  Lim  of  Sir  fiaitle 
,  Sir  C.  Pinneroy  CoUgy  wd  Sir  J.  C.  Moltem, 
ad  under  NiiuL  (F-  R.  C.) 

DI,  THOHAI  (i73»-i835)>  Spudih  CariiM 
t  Onnaiitegui  in  Navute  on  the  )9th  of 

Neeued  some  property,  and  the  too  wai 
t.  When  the  French  invaaion  took  place 
bt  Saragoaia.  lie  served  in  the  first  siegtf, 
la,  and  during  the  second  siege  until  he  was 

sortie.  He  succeeded  in  escaping  and  in 
in  Navaira.  For  a  short  time  he  served 
gul,  known  a*  "  The  Shepherd  "( £1  i'ulor) , 
frillcsv)  leaders.  But  Zumalac&rregoi.  who 
rave  and  silent  disposiiioa  and  hia  strong' 
lisliked  the  diBorderly  life  of  the  guerrillaa, 
ees  weie  oiganiied  iu  the  north  he  entered 

Gulpuxcoa  as  an  officer.  During  the  n- 
■e  served  in  the  regular  army.  In  iSia  he 
ches  to  Che  Regency  at  Cadii,  and  received 
aptain.  In  that  rank  he  was  present  at 
Inrdll  (31st  of  August  1B13).  After  Ihe 
and  Vn.  he  continued  in  the  army,  and  is 
sreful  study  of  the  theory  oi  war.  Zumala- 
Hlhy  with  Ihe  Uberal  principles  which  were 

and  became  noted  as  whit  was  called 
Royahst.  He  attracted  no  attention  U 
ras  still  a  captain  when  the  revolution  of 
lb  brother  officers,  whose  leanings  were 


1056 


2UMPT— ZURBARAN 


offence  in  his  mind.  Finding  that  he  was  suspected  (probably 
with  truth)  of  an  intention  to  bring  the  eoldien  over  to  the 
loyalist  side,  he  escaped  to  France.  In  1893  he  returned  as  an 
officer  in  one  of  the  royalist  icgiments  which  had  been  organized 
on  Fxendb  soil  by  the  consent  of  the  government.  He  was  now 
known  as  a  tlioroughly  trustworthy  servant  of  the  dtapotic 
loydty,  but  he  was  too  proud  to  be  a  courtier.  For  some  yeare 
he  was  employed  in  bringing  regiments  which  the  government 
distrusted  to  order.  He  beaune  lientenant^oolonel  an  1825  and 
colonel  in  1829.  In  1832  he  was  named  military  governor  of 
Ferrol.  Before  Ferdinand  VII.  died  in  1833,  ZuinaladLxTegui 
was  marked  out  as  a  natural  supporter  of  the  absolutist  party 
which  favoured  the  king's  brother,  Don  Carlos.  The  pro- 
damation  of  the  king's  daughter  Isabella  as  heiress  was  almost 
the  occasion  of  an  armed  conflict  between  him  and  the  naval 
authorities  at  Feirol,  who  were  partisans  of  the  constitutiooal 
cause.  He  was  put  on  half  pay  by  the  new  authorities  and 
ordered  to  live  under  police  obsexvatiop  at  Pamplona.  When 
the  Carlist  rising  began  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand  he  is  said  to 
have  held  back  because  he  knew  that  the  first  leaders  would  be 
politicians  and  talkers.  He  did  not  take  the  field  till  the  Carlist 
cause  appeared  to  be  at  a  very  low  ebb,  and  until  he  had  received 
a  commission  from  Don  Carlos  as  commander-in-chief  in  Navarre. 
The  whole  force  under  his  orders  when  he  escaped  from  Pamplona 
on  the  night  of  the  29th  of  October  1833,  and  took  the  command 
next  day  in  the  Val  de  AraquU,  was  a  few  hundred  ill-armed 
and  dispirited  guerrilleros.  In  a  few  months  Zumaladirregui 
had  organized  the  Carlist  forces  into  a  regular  army.  The 
difficulty  he  found  in  obtaining  supplies  was  very  great,  for 
the  coast  towns — and  notably  Bilbao — were  constitutlonsil  in 
politics.  It  was  mainly  by  captures  from  the  government 
troops  that  he  e<](\iipped  his  forces.  He  gradually  obtained  full 
possession  of  Navarre  and  the  Basque  provinces,  outside  of  the 
fortresses,  which  he  had  not  the  means  to  besiege.  Whether 
as  a  guerrillero  leader,  or  as  a  general  conducting  regular  war 
in  the  mountains,  he  proved  unconquvable.  By  July  1834 
he  had  made  it  safe  for  Don  Carlos  to  join  his  headquarters. 
The  pretender  was,  however,  a  narrow-minded,  bigoted  man, 
who  regarded  Zumalac&rregul  with  su^icion,  and  was  afraid 
of  his  immense  personal  influence  with  the  soldiers.  Zumala- 
dirregui had  therefore  to  drag  behind  him  the  whole  weight  of 
the  distrust  and  intrigues  of  the  court.  Yet  by  the  beginning 
of  June  1835  he  had  made  the  Carlist  cause  triumphant  to  the 
north  of  the  Ebro,  and  had  formed  an  army  of  mace  than  30,000 
men,  of  much  better  quality  than  the  constitutional  forces. 
If  Zumalac&xregui  had  been  allowed  to  follow  his  own  plans, 
which  were  to  concentrate  his  forces  and  march  on  Madrid,  he 
might  well  have  put  Don  Carios  in  possession  of  the  capital. 
But  the  court  was  eager  to  obtain  command  of  a  seaport,  and 
SSumalactrregui  was  ordered  to  besiege  Bilbao.  He  obeyed 
reluctantly,  and  on  the  14th  of  June  1835  was  wounded  by  a 
musket  bullet  in  the  calf  of  the  leg.  The  wound  was  trifling 
and  would  probably  have  been  cured  with  ease  if  he  had  been 
allowed  to  employ  an  English  doctor  whom  he  trusted.  But 
Don  Carios  insisted  on  sending  his  own  physicians,  and  in  their 
hands  the  general  died  on  the  24th  of  June  1835 — not  without 
ftuspidon  of  poison.  Zumaladirregui  was  a  fine  type  oi  the  old 
royalist  and  religious  prindples  of  his  people.  The  ferodty 
with  which  he  conducted  the  war  was  forced  on  him  by  the 
government  generals,  who  refused  quarter. 

An  engaging  account  of  Zuroalac&rregui  will  be  found  m  Tke 
Most  Striktnt  BaerUs  of  a  Twdgemonih  Campaitn  with  Zumola- 
cdrrtgui  in  Naaarre  and  the  Basque  Prooinu9t  by  C.  F.  Henningaen 

i London,  1836).    A  chap-book  called   Viia.  ^oUiica  y  mUitar  de 
)on  Tomas  ZumaUuArregui,  which  gives  the  facts  of  his  life  with 
fair  accuracy,  is  still  very  popular  in  Spain.  (D.  H.) 

ZUMPT,  the  name  of  two  German  dassical  adiolars.  Kabl 
GoTTLOB  ZuifPT  (1799-1894),  who  was  educated  at  Heiddberg 
and  Berlin,  was  from  x8ia  to  1827  &  schoolmaster  in  Berlin,  and 
in  1827  became  prolieaaor  o£  Latin  literature  at  the  university. 
His  chief  work  was  his  Lateiimeke  Grammatik  (1818),  which 
■tood  as  a  standard  work  until  supoieded  by  Madvig'aio  1844.. 


He  edited  Qdntilian's  ttuMkOU  ontaHa  (1831),  CSeuo*^  Vm- 
rimes  and  De  officiis  (1837),  and  Curtius.  Othenrisa  he  devolfed 
himself  mainly  to  Roman  history,  publishing  AmiaUt  tettnm 
regHcnim  ei  populomm  (3rd  ed.  1862),  a  work  in  rfarMwingy 
down  to  A.i>.  476,  and  other  antiquarian  studies.  Hit  nephew, 
August  Wilhelm  Zumpt  (x8i 5-1877),  studied  in  Berlin,  and 
in  1851  became  professor  in  the  Friedrich  WHbdm  Gyomaatam. 
He  is  known  chiefly  in  connenon  with  Latin  epi^nphy,  his 
papers  on  which  (collected  in  Cammtutaiionu  •pip^pkkaef 
a  vols.,  1850*34)  brought  him  into  conflict  with  llomnaen  in 
connexion  with  the  preparation  of  the  Ccrpm  imtenpUomian 
Laimamm^  %  scheme  for  which,  drawn  up  by  Mommsen,  was 
approved  in  1847.  Hia  works  indude  Momtmtwiwm  Ancyramtm 
(with  F^anck,  1847)  and  De  manuwteiUo  Ancyntm»  supplcmdo 
(1869);  Sludia  Rcmama  (1859);  ^^  Krimmalredd  iet  r§m. 
XeptMik  (186S-69);  Der  Knmbudprmess  der  rtm.  RepmUii 
(1871);  editions  ol  Namatianui  (1840),  Cicero's  ^p»  Mwrema 
(1859)  and  De  leie  af^tria  (x86i).  Ihne  ioooiporated  matcriab 
Left  by  him  in  the  7th  and  8th  vols,  of  his  Rtmitcke  CesckkMu 
(ta4o). 

ZU1IZ»  LBOPOLD  (1794-1886),  Jewish  scholar,  was  bom  at 
Detmold  in  1794,  and  died  in  Berlin  in  1886k  He  was  the 
founder  of  what  has  been  termed  the  "  science  of  Judaism/' 
the  critical  investigation  of  Jewish  literature,  hjrmnology  and 
ritual.  Eariy  in  the  zoth  century  he  was  associated  with  Cans 
Moser  and  Heine  in  an  assodation  which  the  last  named  called 
"  Young  Palestine."  The  ideals  oi  this  Verein  were  not  des> 
tined  to  bear  religious  fruit,  but  the  "  sdenoe  of  Judaism  " 
survived.  Zunz  took  no  large  share  in  Jewish  reform,  but  never 
lost  faith  in  the  regenerating  power  of  "  science  "  as  applied 
to  the  traditions  and  literary  legades  of  the  ages.  He  had 
thoughts  of  becoming  a  preacher,  but  found  the  career  un- 
congenial. He  influenced  Judaism  from  the  study  rather  than 
from  the  pulpit.  In  183  a  speared  what  £.  H.  Hiisch  rightly 
terms  "  the  most  important  Jewish  book  published  in  the  19th 
century."  This  was  Zuna's  CoUesdiensilicMe  VorirUgfi  der  Juden^ 
ue,  a  history  of  the  Sermon.  It  lays  down  prindples  for  the 
investigation  of  the  Rabbinic  exegesis  (Midrash,  y.v.)  and  of  the 
prayer-book  of  the  synagogue.  This  book  raised  Zunx  to  the 
stipreme  position  among  Jewish  scholars.  In  1840  he  was 
appointed  director  of  a  Lehrerseminar,  a  post  which  relieved 
him  from  pecuniary  troubles.  In  1845  appeared  his  Zur 
Cesckkkte  md  LiteraluTt  in  which  he  threw  light  on  the  literary 
and  sodal  history  of  the  Jews.  Zunz  was  always  interested  in 
politics,  and  in  1848  addressed  many  public  meetings.  In  1850 
he  resigned  his  headship  of  the  Teachers'  Seminary,  and  was 
award«l  a  pension.  He  had  visited  the  British  Museum  in 
1846,  and  this  confirmed  him  in  his  plan  for  his  third  book, 
SynagogaU  Poesie  des  MiUelalters  (1855).  It  was  from  this 
book  that  George  Eliot  translated  the  following  opening  of  a 
chapter  of  Daniel  Deranda:  "  If  there  are  ranks  in  suffering, 
Israel  takes  precedence  of  all  the  nations  "...  &c.  After  its 
publication  Zunz  again  visited  England,  and  in  1859  issued  his 
Ritus.  In  this  he  gives  a  masteriy  survey  of  synagogal  rites. 
His  last  great  book  was  his  LiUraturgeschickte  der  synagogalen 
Poesie  (1865).  A  supplement  appeared  in  1867.  Besides  these 
works,  Zunz  published  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  and  wrote 
many  essays  which  were  afterwards  collected  as  Cescmmdle 
Scbri/ten,  Throughout  his  early  and  married  life  he  was  the 
champion  of  Jewish  rights,  and  he  did  not  withdraw  from 
public  affairs  until  1874,  the  year  of  the  death  of  his  wife  Adelhd 
Beermann,  whom  he  had  married  in  182a. 

See  Emil  G.  Hirscb.  in  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  xii.  699-704. 

(I.  A.) 

ZURBARAN,  FRANCISCO  (1598-1662),  Spanish  painter,  was 
born  at  Fuente  de  Cantos  in  Estremadura  on  the  7th  of 
November  1598.  His  father  was  Luis  Zurbaran,  a  country 
labourer,  his  mother  Isabd  Marquet.  In  childhood  he  set  about 
imitating  objects  with  charcoal;  and  his  father  sent  him,  still 
young,  to  the  school  of  Juan  de  Rofias  in  Seville.  Frandsoo 
soon  became  the  best  pupil  in  the  studio  of  Ro61as,  surpassing 
the  master  himself;  and  before  leaving  him  he  had  achieved  a 


ZURICH 


I0S7 


•oBd  iiepdUitioii,  IfiB  tlMMgh  SarlBe  then  ms  <rf  able  pdnten. 
He  may  liave  had  here  the  opportunity  of  copying  some  of  the 
paintings  of  Michelangelo  da  Caravaggio;  at  any  rate  he  gained 
the  name  ci  **  the  Spanish  Caravaggio/'  owing  to  the  forcible 
teatistk  style  in  wbidi  he  'eicelled.  He  constantly  painted 
direct  from  nature,  following  but  occasionally  improving  on 
his  model;  and  he  made  great  use  of  the  lay-figure  in  the  study 
of  diaperics,  in  which  he  waa  peculiarly  proficient.  He  had  a 
wp^dai  gift  for  white  draperies;  and,  as  a  consequence,  Car- 
thostan  houses  are  abundant  m  his  paintings.  To  these  rigid 
methods  Zurbaran  is  said  to  have  adhered  throughout  his  career, 
which  was  pro^>erous,  wholly  confined  to  Spain,  and  varied  by 
lew  incidents  b^rond  those  of  his  daily  labour.  His  subjects 
were  mostly  of  a  severe  and  ascetic  kind—religious  vigils,  the 
flesh  chastised  into  subjection  to  the  spirit— the  compositions 
seldom  thronged,  and  often  reduced  to  a  single  figure.  The 
style  is  more  reserved  and  chastened  than  Caravaggio's,  the 
tone  of  colottr  often  blmsh  to  excess.  Exoeptional  effects  are 
attained  by  the  predse  finish  of  foregrounds,  largdy  massed  out 
in  light  and  shade.  Zurbaran  manied  fai  Sevflle  Leonor  de 
Jordera,  by  whom  he  had  several  chfldven.  l^iwaids  1630  he 
was  appointed  pamter  to  Philip  IV.;  and  there  is  a  stoiy  that 
on  Ofne  occa^n  the  sovereign  laid  his  band  on  the  artist's 
shoulder,  saying,  **  Painter  to  the  king,  king  of  painters."  It 
was  only  late-  ki  life  that  Zurbaian  made  a  piohmged  stay  in 
Madrid,  Seville  being  the  tihief  soeoe  of  his  opo^tiuis.  He 
died,  probably  in  x66s,  in  Madrid. 

In  1697  he  painted  the  great  altaipteoe  of  St  Thomas  Aquinas, 
now  in  tne  Seville  museum;  it  was  eaecuted  for  the  church  of  the 
college  of  that  saint  therai  This  is  Zurbanm's  largest  composition, 
oontaining  figures  of  Christ  and  the  Madonna,  various  saints, 
Charles  V.  with  knights,  and  Archbishop  Deza  (founder  of  the 
college)  with  monks  and  servitors,  all  the  principal  pefsonages 
being  beyond  the  siae  of  life.  It  had  been  preceded  by  the 
namerous  pictures  of  the  screen  of  St  Peter  Nolaaoo  in  the  cathedral. 
In  the  churdh  of  Guadalupe  he  painted  various  kurge  (Mctures, 
eight  of  which  relate  to  the  nistory  of  St  Jerome,  and  in  the  church 
of  St  Paul,  Senile,  a  famoos  figure  of  the  Crucified  Saviour,  in 
grisaille,  pitsenting  an  lUusive  effect  of  marble.  In  x6^  he  finished 
the  paintings  of  the  high  altar  of  the  Carthusians  in  jerea.  In  the 
palace  of  Buenrettro,  Madrid,  are  four  large  canvases  representing 
the  Labours  of  Hercuks,  an  unusual  instance  of  non-Chtistian 
subjects  from  the  Imnd  of  ZuitMinn.  A  fine  specimen  b  in  the 
Natwnal  Gallery,  London,  a  whole-length,  Hfe^siaed  figure  of  a 
kneding  Fcsncncan  hokling  a  skuU.  h  seems  probable  that 
another  picture  in  the  same  gallery,  the  "  Dead  Roland.'*  which  used 
to  be  ascribed  to  Velasquez,  is  really  by  Zurbaran.  His  principal 
scholars,  whose  style  has  as  much  affimty  to  that  of  Ribem  as  to 
Carsvaggio's,  were  Beinabe  de  Ayalaaad  the  brothers  Pnlanox 

(W.  M.  R.) 

ZthaCR  (Fr.  ZuHA;  ItaL  twrit»\  one  of  the  cantons  of 
north-eastern  Switzerland,  ranking  officially  as  the  first  in  the 
Confederation.  Its  total  area  is  665*7  sq.  m.,  of  which  625*3 
sq.  m.  are  reckoned  as  "productive"  OEorests  covering  ito-B 
sq.  m.,  and  vineyards  16*9  sq.  m.,  the  most  extensive  S^us 
wine  district  savrin  Vaud  and  hi  TkJno).  Of  the  rest,  21  sq.  m. 
are  occupied  by  the  cantonal  share  of  the  lake  of  Zfirich,  while 
wholly  within  the  canton  are  the  smaller  lakes  of  Grdfen  (ai 
sq.  m.)  and  PfSffikon  (x|  sq.  m.).  The  canton  is  of  iiteguUur 
shape,  consisting  simply  of  the  acquiations  made  in  tlie  courw 
of  years  by  the  town.  Of  these  the  more  important  were  the 
whole  of  the  lower  part  of  the  lake  (136}),  Kilssnacht  (x384)» 
Thalwil  (1385),  Erlenbach  (1400),  Greifensee  (1403),  Horgen 
(1406),  Grfiningcn  and  Stafa  (1408),  BCOach  and  Regensbetg 
(1409),  Wald  (1425),  Kyburg  (i452)»  Winterthur  (1467),  Eglisau 
(1496),  Konau  (1512),  and  \<^enswil  (1549)— Stein  was  held 
from  1484  to  X798,  while  in  1798  the  lower  part  of  the  Stammheim 
^en,  and  finally  in  1803  Rheinau,  were  added  to  the  canton. 
In  1798  the  town  ruled  nineteen  "  inner  "  bailiwicks  and  nine 
rural  bailiwicks,  besides  the  towns  of  Stein  and  of  VHnterthur. 
The  canton  at  present  extends  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine 
(including  ftbo  Eglisau  on  the  right  bank)  to  the  region  west  Of 
the  Jake  of  ZOrich.  It  is  bounded  on  the  E.  and  W.  by  low  hills 
that  divide  it  respectively  from  the  valleys  of  the  Thur,  and  from 
those  of  the  Reuss  and  of  the  Aar.  In  itself  the  canton  consists 
of  four  shallow  rivet  valleys,  separated  by  low  ranges,  all 


runnhug  from  S.^.  to  K.W.  The  most  important  of  these  is 
that  of  the  Unth  (^.t.),  which  forms  the  lake  of  Zurich.  To 
the  east  are  the  valleys  of  the  Glatt  (forming  lake  Greifen)  and 
of  the  TSss  (forming  lake  Pfftffikon),  both  sending  their  streams 
direct  to  the  Rhine.  The  highest  point  in  the  canton  is  the 
Albishom  (30x2  ft.)  in  the  Albis  range,  which  limits  the  Slhl 
valley  to  the  west.  AU  the  valleys  named  are  traversed  by 
railway  lines,  while  many  lines  branch  off  in  every  direction 
from  the  town  of  ZilxiclL  The  first  railway  line  opened  (1847) 
in  Switzexiand  was  that  from  ZOrich  to  Baden  in  Aargau  (14  m.). 
From  the  town  of  Zurich  mountain  railways  lead  S.W.  to  near 
the  summit  of  the  Uetlibeig  (2664  ft)  and  N.£.  towards  the 
Zilr^chbeig  (9384  ft.). 

In  X900  the-  populatldtt  was  431,0^6.  of  wliom  413.Y4I  were 

Germaift-epeakiag,  11,19a  Italian-Bpeakiiig,  3894  Frencfr«pealdng, 

and  6x0  Romonsch'apeslfing,  while  there  were  345U46  Protestants, 
D^  >■««  /^.^.k^t:.^  /D^_..  _^  « /M J  *i\   ...J  «<,.••  Y«—     1*1..  raoital 

only 

inhabitants)  being  rather  large' manufacturing  villa^^  The  land 
in  the  canton  is  hkhly  cukivatBd  and  much  subdivided.  But  the 
canton  is  above  all  a  great  manufacturing  district,  eq}ecially  of 
machinery  and  railway  rolling-stock,  while  both  silk  weaving  and 
cotton  weaving  are  widely  spread.  It  b  divided  into  xi  adminls- 
tntive  districte,  whidk  compiiae  T89  communes.  In  i860  the 
cantonal  constitution  ansa  reviaed  in  a  democretic  sense*  ana  with 
the  esoeption  of  a  few  changes  made  later,  it  w  the  eusting  ooa- 
stilution.  There  b  an  executive  or  Regientngsrot  of  seven  members 
and  a  leg^blature  or  Kantonsrai  (one  member  to  every  x  500  resident 
Swiss  cittsens  or  a  fraction  over  750),  each  holding  oflsce  for  three 
yean  and  elected  at  the  same  time  directly  by  the  vote  of  the 
people.  The  referendum  exists  in  both  forms,  compulsory  and 
optional:  all  laws  and  dH  money  grants  of  a  total  sum  over  250,000 
frcs.  or  an  annual  sum  of  20,000  must  be  submitted  to  a  j^pular 
vote,  the  people  meeting  for  that  purpose  at  least  twice  meadh 
year,  wtule  the  esecotive  may  submit  to  a  popular  vote  any  other 
matter,  though  it  Call  within  its  powers  as  defined  bvlaw.  One- 
third  of  the  members  of  the  legislature  or  5000  l^ally  qualified 
voters  can  force  the  government  to  submit  to  the  pcoplcany  matter 
whatsoever  (initiative).  Both  members  of  the  Pedeial  Stdndeni 
and  the  22  members  of  the  Federei  NaUMolrat  are  elected  simul- 
taneousljr  by  a  popular  vole  and  bold  office  for  three  years.  The 
constitution  provioes  for  the  impontion  of  a  eraduatcd  and  pro* 
^ressive  income  tax.'  In  1885  the  penalty  of  death  was  abolished 
m  the  canton.  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

Zt^ICH  (Ft.  Zwich;  ItaL  Zwngo)^  the  capital  of  the  Swbs 
canton  of  the  same  name.  It  is  the  most  populous,  the  most 
important,  and  on  the  whole  the  finest  town  in  Switaerland, 
and  till  1848  was  practically  the  capital  of  the  Swiss  Confedera- 
tion. It  is  bunt  on  both  banks  of  the  Limraat  (higher  up  called 
Linth)  as  it  issues  from  the  lake  of  ZOrich,  and  also  of  its 
tributary,  the  Sihl,  that  joins  it  just  below  the  town.  That 
portion  of  the  town  which  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Limmat 
b  called  the  "  Grosse  Stadt "  and  that  on  the  left  bank  the 
"Kleine  Stadt."  Till  1893  the  central  portion  of  the  town 
on  either  bank  of  the  Limmat  formed  the  "  dty  "  and  ruled 
the  outlying  communes  or  townships  that  had  sprung  vip 
around  it.  But  at  Uiat  time  the  eleven  outer  districts  (including 
Aussersih],  the  workmen's  quarter  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sihl) 
or  suburbs  were  incoQ)orated  with  the  town,  which  b  now 
governed  by  a  town  council  of  125  membexs  (one  to  every  X2oo 
inhabitants),  and  an  executive  of  9  members,  both  chosen  direct 
by  a  popular  vote.  Much  land  has  been  rescued  from  the  lake, 
and  b  the  site  of  fine  quays,  stately  public  buildings,  and 
splendid  private  villas.  The  older  quarters  are  still  crowded. 
But  the  newer  quarters  stretch  up  the  slope  of  the  ZOrichberg 
(above  the  rig^t  bank  of  the  Limmat)  while  the  fine  Bahnhof- 
strasse  (extending  from  the  railway  station  to  the  lake)  has  the 
best  shops  and  b  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  more  important 
public  buildinigs. 

ZQrich  has  always  been  wealthy  and  proqierous.  It  has  increased 
enormously,  as  b  shown  by  the  following  figures.  Its  population 
in  1900  ^eluding  the  deven  suburbs  above  named)  was  x50,70|^, 
while  (without  these)  in  x888  it  was  94.129;  in  1880,  78.34S!  >*> 
1870,  58.657;  in  i860,  44,978;  and  in  1850  only  35483.  Of  the 
inhabitants  in  1900  no  \c%tt  than  43,761  (os  against  20,9^8  in 
1888  and  3155  in  1850)  were  not  Swiss  citizens,  Germans  number- 
ing 31,125,  Italbns  5350,  Austrians  42x0.  Russians  683.  French  6SS. 
BriCMh  Stthjects  XS7.  and  dtiaens  of  the  United  States  S3S.  In 


I058 


•• 


ZURICH 


1900  there  were  in  the  town  140^803  Germsa- 


1900  there  were  in  tne  town  140JMQ  i*enn«B<epcaKiiw  penooe, 
5100  Italian-speaking,  2586  Freoch-epealdng,  ana  415  Romooach- 
ipeaking.  In  1888  die  corresponding  figutes  were  90,500,  1135, 
1330,  and  148.    In  1900  the  town  numbered  103,794  Protestants, 

S.6S5  "  Catholics  "  (Roman  or  "  Old  ")  and  3713  Jem.  In  1888 
t  religious  figures  were  70,970,  30,571  and  I33i  remectivety, 
while  in  1850  the  numbers  were  33,76^,  3664  and  SS.  The  inter- 
national character  of  the  town  has  thus  become  much  more  marked. 
This  is  partly  due  to  the  immigration  of  many  foreign  workmen, 
and  partly  to  the  arrival  of  Russian  and  Poli^  exiles.  Both  have 
added  a  turbulent  ooeau^wUtan  element  to  the  town,  in  which 
the  Socialist  party  is  strong,  and  is  increasing  in  power  and  influ- 
ence, even  in  matters  concerned  with  civic  government. 

Of  the  old  buHdings  the  finest  and  most  impoxtant  is  the  Grass 
Monster  (or  Propstd),  on  the  right  bank  of  thd  Limnat.  This 
was  originally  the  diurch  of  the  king's  tenants,  and  in  one  of 
the  chapels  the  bodies  of  Felix,  Regala  and  Exupetantius,  the 
pation  saints  of  the  city,  were  buried,  the  town  treasury  being 
formerly  kept  above  this  chapd.  The  present  building  was 
erected  at  two  periods  (c.  logo-xisoand  c.  1225-1300),  the  high 
altar  having  been  consecrated  in  1278.  Ihe  towers  were  first 
raised  above  the  roof  at  the  end  of  the  15th  century  and  took 
their  present  form  in  z  7  79.  The  chapter  consisted  of  twenty-four 
secular  canons;  it  was  reozganized  at  the  Reformation  (1526), 
and  suppre^ed  in  183  a.  On  the  site  of  the  canons'  bouses 
stands  a  girls'  school  (opened  1853),  but  the  fine  Romanesque 
doisteta  (z2th  and  z3th  centuries)  still  remain.  There  is  a 
curious  figure  of  Charlemagne  in  a  niche  on  one  of  the  towers; 
to  him  is  attributed  the  foun(Ung  or  reform  of  the  chapter.  On 
the  Idt  bank  of  the  Linrnial  stands  the  other  great  church  of 
Zurich,  the  Frau  Mtlnster  (or  Abtei),  founded  for  nans  in  853, 
by  Louis  the  C«ennan.  The  high  altar  was  consecrated  in  11 70; 
but  the  greater  part  of  the  buildings  are  of  the  Z3th  and  Z4th 
centuries.  It  was  in  this  church  that  the  relics  of  the  three 
patron  saints  of  the  town  were  preserved  till  the  Reformation, 
and  it  was  here  that  the  burgomaster  Waldmann  was  buried 
in  X489.  There  were  only  twdve  nuns  of  noble  family,  com- 
paratively free  from  the  severer  monastic  vows;  the  convent 
was  suppressed  in  1524.  Of  the  other  old  churches  may  be 
mentioned  St  Peter's,  the  oldest  parnh  church,  though  the 
present  buildings  date  in  part  from  the  13th  century  only 
(much  altered  in  the  early  i8th  century),  and  formerly  the 
meeting-place  of  the  dtizens;  the  Dominican  church  (13th 
century),  in  the  choir  of  which  the  cantonal  library  of  80,000 
volumei  has  been  stored  since  1873;  the  church  of  the  Austin 
friars  (14th  century),  now  used  by  the  Old  Catholics,  and  the 
Wasserkircbe.  The  last-named  diurch  is  on  the  site  of  a  pagan 
holy  place,  where  the  patron  saints  of  the  dty  were  martyred; 
since  1631  it  has  housed  the  Town  Library,  the  largest  in  Switzer- 
land, which  contains  170,000  printed  volumes  and  4500  MSS. 
(among  these  being  letters  of  Zwing^,  Bullinger  and  Lady 
Jane  Grey),  as  well  as  a  splendid  collection  of  objects  from  the 
lake  dweUings  of  Switzerland.  The  building  itself  was  erected 
from  1479  to  1484,  and  near  it  is  a  statue  of  Zwinfi^,  erected  in 
1885.  The  existing  town-hall  dates  from  1698,  wliile  the  gild 
houses  were  mostly  rebuilt  in  the  x8th  century.  One  of  the 
most  magnificent  of  the  newer  buildings  is  the  Swiss  National 
Museum,  behind  the  railway  station.  This  museum,  which 
was  opened  in  1898,  contains  a  wonderful  collection  of  Swiss 
antiquities  (especially  medieval)  and  art  treasures  of  all  kinds, 
some  of  which  are  placed  in  rooms  of  the  actual  date,  removed 
from  various  andcnt  buildings.  There  are  some  fine  old 
fountains  (the  oldest  dating  back  to  1568).  There  are  several 
good  bridges,  Roman  traces  being  seen  in  the  case  of  the  Nieder- 
brUcke  (now  called  the  RathausbrUcke).  The  mound  of  the 
Lindcnhof  was  formerly  crowned  by  the  king's  house,  which 
disappeared  in  the  13th  century,  and  the  hillodc  was  planted 
with  limes  as  early  as  1433. 

The  town  is  noted  for  its  numerous  dubs  and  societies,  and  is 
the  intellectual  capital  of  (German-speaking  Switzerland.  Cotton - 
sfNnntng  and  the  manufacture  of  machinery  are  two  leading  indus- 
tries, but  by  far  the  most  important  is  the  silk-weaving  industry. 
This  flourished  in  ZOrich  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  but  dis- 
appeared about  1420;  it  was  revived  by  the  Protestant  exiles 
.(iudti  as  the  Muralti  and  Orelli  families)  irom  Locarno  (1555)  and 


by  the  Huguenot  tefweM  fiion  Vmaea  (i68t  aad  t6%X  Tke 
value  of  the  silk  annually  exported  (mainly  to  France,  the  United 
States  and  England)  is  estimated  at  over  three  millions  steriug. 
Zurich  is  the  banking  centre  of  Switzerland.  Besides  the  »*^Vnt 
primary  and  secondary  schools,  there  are  the  Cantonal  Schod. 
including  a  eymnasium  and  a  technical  side  (opened  1843),  and  a 
high  school  tor  giris  (opened  1875).  The  Cantonal  Uaivmity  and 
the  Federal  Polytcchntc  School  are  housed  in  the  same  buudizig, 
but  have  no  other  connexion.  The  univernty  was  opened  in  1833, 
no  doubt  as  a  successor  to  the  ancient  chipter  school  at  the  Grass 
MQnsfier  nid  to  date  back  to  Chariemagne's  time^-henoe  its  name 
the  Carolinum — ^reorganized  at  the  Reionnation,  and  suppressed 
in  1833.  The  Polytechnic  School,  opened  in  185k,  indudes  seven 
main  sections  Hndustrial  chemistry,  industrial  mocnanics,  cnp^eer- 
ing,  training  01  scientific  and  mathematical  teachers,  aichitectQre. 
forestry  and  asncuhure,  and  the  military  sdenoes),  besides  a 
general  phikMOphical  and  political  adenoe  department.  The  Pdy- 
tcchnic  School  has  good  collections  of  botanical  spedmcns  and  of 
engravings.  Near  it  is  the  observatory  (1542  ft.).  There  are  also 
in  ZQrich  many  institutions  for  spedal  branches  of  education— 
«.f .  veterinary  surgery,  music,  industrial  art,  ^k-wcaviag.  Ac. 

The  earliest  inhabitanU  of  the  fiituie  site  of  ZOiich  were  the 
lake  dweOeis.  The  Cdtic  Hdvetans  had  a  settlement  on  the 
Lindenhof  when  they  were  suooeeded  by  the  Romans,  who 
established  a  custom  station  heie  for  goods  going  to  and  ooming 
from  Italy;  during  thdr  nik  Christianity  was  introduoed  eaify 
in  the  3rd  century  by  Fdix  and  Regula,  with  whom  Exoperantius 
was  afterwards  aasodated.  The  district  was  later  ocaqiiied  hy 
the  Alamaani,  who  were  ooaqueied  by  the  ftenks. 

The  name  ZQridi  is  possibly  derived  from  the  Cdtic  4ur 
(water).  It  is  first  mentioned  in  807  under  the  fonn 
"Turiigus,"  then  in  853  «•  "Turegus."  The  true  IJitinizH 
form  is  Turicum,  but  the  faiae  form  Tigtirum  was  givcii 
currency  by  Glarranus  and  held  its  ground  from  1513  to  1748. 
It  is  not  tin  the  9th  century  that  we  find  the  beginnings  of 
the  Teutonic  town  of  ZOrich,  which  arose  from  the  union  of 
four  dements:  (i)  the  xoyal  house  and  castle  on  the  TiwHiiwiiftf^ 
with  the  king's  tenants  around,  (2)  the  Gross  MUnster,  (3)  the 
Frau  MUnster,  (4)  the  community  of  '*  free  men  "  (of  Alaxnanniaa 
origin)  on  the  Ztirichbcrg.  Similarly  we  can  distinguish  four 
stages  in  the  constitutional  devcbpment  of  the  town:  (L)  the 
gradual  replacing  (e,  1250)  of  the  power  of  the  abbess  t^  that 
(real,  though  not  nominid)  of  the  patricians,  (u.)  the  admittance 
of  the  craft  gilds  (1336)  to  a  shue  with'  the  patricians  in  the 
government  of  the  town,  (iii)  the  granti^  of  equal  political 
rights  (1831)  to  the  countiy  districts,  hitherto  ruled  as  subject 
lands  by  the  burghers,  and  (iv.)  the  reception  as  burghers  of 
the  numerous,  immigrants  who  had  settled  in  the  town  (town 
schools  opened  in  i860,  full  incorporation  In  1893). 

The  Prankish  kings  had  special  ri^ts  over  their  tenants,  were 
the  protectors  of  the  two  churches,  and  had  jurisdiction  over  the 
free  community.  In  870  the  sovereign  placed  his  powers  over 
all  four  in  the  hands  of  a  single  offidal  (the  Reiduvogt),  and 
the  union  was  still  further  strengthened  by  the  wall  buUt  round 
the  four  settlements  in  the  xoth  century  as  a  safeguard  against 
Saracen  marauders  and  feudal  barons.  The  "  Keichsvogtd  " 
passed  to  the  counts  of  Lenxbuig  (xo63-'Xi73),  and  then  to  the 
dukes  of  Z&bringen  (extinct  1218).  Meanwhile  the  abbess  of 
the  Benedictine  Frau  Munster  had  been  acquiring  extensive 
rights  and  privileges  over  all  the  inhabitants,  thouj^  she  never; 
obtained  the  criminal  jurisdiction.  The  town  flourished  greatly 
in  the  1 2th  and  Z3th  centuries,  the  sUk  trade  being  introduced 
from  Italy.  In  Z2i8  the  "  Rdchsvogtd  "  passed  back  into  the 
hands  of  the  king,  who  appointed  one  of  the  burj^iers  as  his 
deputy,  the  town  thus  becoming  a  free  imperial  dty  under  the 
nominal  rule  of  a  distant  sovereign.  The  abbess  in  1 234  became 
a  princess  of  the  empire,  but  power  r^udly  passed  &om  her 
to  the  council  which  she  had  originally  named  to  V>cik  after 
police,  &C.,  but  which  came  to  be  dected  by  the  burghera, 
though  the  abbess  was  still "  the  lady  of  ZOrich."  This  council 
(all  powerful  since  1304)  was  made  up  of  the  representatives  of 
certain  knightly  and  rich  mercantile  families  (the  "  patricians  "), 
who  exduded  the  craftsmen  from  all  share  in  the  government, 
though  it  was  to  these  last  that  the  town  was  largely  indebted 
for  its  rising  wealth  and  importance. 
.  In  October  1291  the  town  made  an  alliance  with  Uri  and 


.«•• 


ZURICH 


«o59 


Sbbwys,  Slid  in  1992  fdted  in  &  desperate  attempt  to  seize  the 
Habsburg  town  of  Winterthur.  Alter  that  ZOrich  began  to 
display  strong  Anstrian  leanings,  which  characterise  much  of  its 
later  history.  In  1315  the  men  of  Zfiricb  fought  against  the 
Swiss  Confederates  at  Moigarten.  The  year  1336  marks  the 
admission  of  the  craftsmen  to  a  share  in  Uie  town  government, 
which  was  brought  about  by  Rudolf  Brun,  a  patridan.  Under 
the  new  constitution  (the  main  features  of  which  lasted  till 
1798)  the  Little  Coundl  was  made  up  of  the  burgomaster  and 
thirteen  members  from  the  "Omsiafel"  (which  included  the 
old  patricians  and  the  wealthiest  burghers)  and  the  thirteen 
masters  of  the  craft  ^Ids,  each  of  the  twenty-six  holding  office 
for  six  months.  The  Great  Council  of  aoo(rnUy  3x2)  members 
consisted  of  the  Little  Coundl,  plus  78  representatives  each  of 
the  Constaf^  and  of  the  gilds,  besides  3  members  named  by  the 
burgomaster.  The  office  of  burgomaster  was  created  and  given 
to  Brun  for  life.  Out  of  this  change  arose  a  quarrel  with  one  of 
the  branches  of  the  Habsborg  family,  in  consequence  of  which 
Brun  was  induced  to  throw  in  the  lot  oi  Zttrich  with  the  Swiss 
Confederation  (tst  May  1351).  The  double  position  of  ZOrich 
as  a  £ree  imperial  dty  and  as  a  member  of  the  Everlasting 
League  was  soon  found  to  be  embarrassing  to  both  parties  (see 
Switzerland).  In  1373  and  again  in  1393  the  powers  of  the 
Conslafd  were  limited  and  the  majority  in  the  executive  secured 
to  the  craftsmen,  who  could  then  aq>ire  to  the  burgomastershlp. 
Meanwliile  the  town  had  been  extending  its  rule  far  beyond 
its  walls — a  process  which  began  in  the  X4th,  and  attained  its 
hef^t  in  the  xstlf  century  (1363-1467).  This  thirst  for  terri- 
torkl  aggrandizement  brou^t  about  the  £rst  dvil  war  in  the 
Confederation  (the. "Old  Ztlrich  War,"  143^50),  in  which, 
at  the  fight  oi  St  Jacob  on  the  Sihl  (1443) »  under  the  walls  of 
ZOrich,  the  men  of  Zurich  were  completely  beaten  and  their 
burgomaster  StOssi  slain.  The  purchase  of  the  town  of  Winter- 
thur from  the  Habsburgs  (1467)  marks  the  culmination  of  the 
territorial  power  of  the  dty.  It  was  to  the  men  of  ZOrich  and 
their  leader  Hans  Waldmann  that  the  victory  of  Morat  (1476) 
was  due  in  the  Buigundian  war;  and  Zttrich  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  151 3-15,  the  burgomaster 
Schmid  naming  the  new  duke  of  Milan  (15x3).  No  doubt  her 
trade  connexions  with  Italy  led  her  to  pursue  a  southern  policy, 
traces  of  which  are  seen  as  eariy  as  133X  in  an  attack  on  the 
Val  Leventina  add  in  1478,  when  Zurich  men  were  in  the  van  at 
the  fight  of  Giornico,  won  by  -a  handful  of  C<mfederates  over 
13,000  Milanese  tnx^a 

In  1400  the  town  obtained  from  the  Emperor  Wenceslaus  the 
Rdchsvogtd,  which  carried  with  it  complete  immunity  from 
the  empire  and  the  right  of  criminal  jurisdiction.  As  early  as 
X393  the  chief  power  had  practically  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
the  Great  CouncO,  and  in  1498  this  change  was  formally 
recognised. 

This  transfer  of  all  power  to  the  gOds  had  been  one  of  the 
aims  of  the  burgomaster  Hans  Waldmann  (1483-89),  who 
wished  to  make  Zttrich  a  great  commercial  centre.  He  also 
introduced  many  financial  and  moral  reforms,  and  subordinated 
the  interests  of  the  country  districts  to  those  of  the  town.  He 
practically  ruled  the  Coxifederatlon,  and  under  him  Zttrich 
became  the  real  capital  of  the  League.  But  such  great  changes 
exdted  opposition,  and  he  was  overthrown  and  executed.  His 
main  ideas  were  embodied,  however,  in  the  constitution  of  1498, 
by  which  the  patricians  b<K»me  the  first  of  the  gilds,  and  which 
remained  in  force  till  1798;  some  ^)ecial  rights  were  also  given 
to  the  subjects  in  country  districts.  It  was  the  prominent  part 
taken  by  Zttrich  in  adopting  and  propagating  (against  the 
strenuous  opposition  of  the  Constafd)  the  prindples  of  the 
Reformation  (the  FTau  Mttnsterbdng  suppressed  in  1534)  which 
finally  secured  for  it  the  lead  in  the  Confederation  (see  Swxtzek- 
LAMD  and  ZWINGU). 

The  environs  of  Zttrich  are  famous  in  military  history  on  account 
of  the  two  battles  of  1799.  In  the  first  battle  (4th  June)  the  French 
under  Mass^na.on  the  ddennve,  were  attacked  by  the  Austrians 
ondar  the  Archduke  Chaiies,  Mass^na  retiring  behind  the  Limroat 
before  the  engagement  had  reached  a  decisive  suige.    The  second 


and  far  moce  important  battle  took  place  on  the  ssth  and  a6th  of 
September.  Mase^na,  having  forced  the  passage  of  the  Limmat, 
attacked  and  totally  ddcated  the  Russians  and  their  Austrian 
allies  under  Kbrs&kov's  oommand.  (See  Fsbnch  RxvolutxcKart 
Wars.) 

In  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries  a  distinct  tendency  becomes 
observable  in  the  town  government  to  limit  power  to  the  actual 
holders.  Thus  the  country  districts  were  consulted  for  the 
last  time  in  1620  and  1640;  and  a  similar  breach  of  the  charters 
of  X489  and  1 531  (by  which  the  consent  of  these  districts  was' 
required  for  the  condusion  of  important  alliances,  war  and 
peace,  and  might  be  asked  for  as  to  other  matters)  occasioned 
disturbances  in  1777.  The  councO  of  soo  came  to  be  largelyj 
chosen  by  a  small  committee  of  the  members  of  the  gilds  actiudly. 
sitting  in  the  council — ^by  the  constitution  of  17x3  it  consisted 
of  50  members  of  the  Little  Council  (named  for  a  fixed  term  by! 
the  Great  Coundl),  x8  members  named  by  the  Ccnstafdt  and 
X44  selected  by  the  i3  gilds,  these  x62  (forming  the  majority) 
being  co-opted  for  life  by  those  members  of  the  two  councils  who 
belonged  to  the  gild  to  which  the  deceased  member  himself  had 
belonged.  Early  in  the  x8th  century  a  determined  effort  was 
made  to  crush  by  means  of  heavy  duties  the  flourishing  rival 
silk  trade  in  Winterthur.  It  was  reckoned  that  about  X650  the 
number  of  privileged  burghers  was  9000,  while  thdr  rule  ex- 
tended over  X  70,000  persons.  The  first  symptoms  of  active 
discontent  appeared  later  among  the  dwellers  by  the  lake,  who 
founded  in  1794  a  club  at  St&fa  and  claimed  the  restoration  of 
the  liberties  of  X489  and  X531,  a  movement  which  was  put  down 
by  force  of  arms  in  X795.  The  old  system  of  government 
perished  in  Zttrich,  as  ekewhere  in  Switzerland,  in  Febnury 
X798,  and  under  the  Hdvetic  constitution  the  country  districts 
obtained  political  liberty.  The  cantonal  constitution  was 
rather  complicated,  and  under  it  the  patrician  party  obtained  a 
small  working  majority.  Hat  constitution  was  meant  to 
favour  the  town  as  against  the  country  districts.  But  tmder 
the  cantonal  constitution  of  X814  matters  were  worse  still,  for 
the  town  (xo,ooo  inhab.)  had  130  representatives  in  the  Great 
Council,  while  the  country  districts  (200,000  inhab.)  had  only 
82.  A  great  meeting  at  Uster  on  the  22nd  of  November  1830 
demanded  that  two-thirds  of  the  members  in  the  Great  Council 
should  be  chosen  by  the  country  districts;  and  in  183 1  a  new 
constitution  was  drawn  up  on  these  lines,  the  town  getting  71 
representatives  as  against  141  allotted  to  the  country  districts,' 
though  it  was  not  tlU  1837-38  that  the  town  finally  lost  the, 
last  relics  of  the  privileges  which  it  had  so  long  enjoyed  as  com- 
pared with  the  country  districts.  From  X803  to  x8x4  Zttrich 
was  one  of  the  six  "  directorial  cantons,"  its  chief  magistrate 
becoming  for  a  year  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  Confederation, 
while  in  18x5  it  was  one  of  the  three  cantons,  the  government  <A 
which  acted  for  two  years  as  the  Federal  govenmient  when  the 
diet  was  not  sitting.  In  X833  Zttrich  tried  hard  to  secure  a 
revision  of  the  Federal  constitution  and  a  strong  centnl  govern- 
ment. The  town  was  the  Federal  capital  for  X839-40,  and 
consequently  the  victory  of  the  Conservative  party  there  in  1839 
(due  to  indignation  at  the  nomination  by  the  Radical  govern* 
ment  to  a  theological  chair  in  the  university  of  D.  F.  Strauss, 
the  author  of  the  famous  Life  of  Jesus)  caused  a  great  ^ir 
throughout  Switzerland.  But  when  in  1845  the  Radicals  re- 
gained power  at  Zttrich,  which  was  again  the  Federal  capital  for 
X845-46,  that  town  took  the  lead  in  opposing  the  Sonderbund 
cantons.  It  of  course  voted  in  favour  of  the  Federal  con- 
stitutions of  X848  and  of  X874,  while  the  cantonal  constitution 
of  1869  was  remarkably  advanced  for  the  time.  The  enormous 
immigration  from  the  country  districts  into  the  town  from  the 
"  thirties  "  onwards  created  an  industrial  dass  which,  though 
"  settled  "  in  the  town,  did  not  possess  the  privileges  of  burgher- 
ship,  and  consequently  had  no  share  in  the  munidpal  govern- 
ment. First  of  all  in  i860  the  town  schools,  hitherto  open  to 
"  settlers  "  only  on  paying  high  fees,  were  made  accessible  to 
all,  next  in  X875  ten  years'  residence  ipso  facto  conferred  the 
rig^t  of  burgbership,  while  in  1893  the  deven  outlying  districts 
(largety  peopled  by  working  folk)  were  incorporated  with  the 


ZURICH,  LAKE  OF— ZWEIBRUCKEN 


town  proper.  The  tmni  and  culon  caelinued  to  be  on  the 
libcnl,  or  RvHal,  or  even  SodiLUtlc  ^e,  vhOe  trem  iS^  to 
iti>7  tkey  cUimed  7  of  the  J7  memben  o[  the  Fedcnl  cKcuIivc 
or  BunJetrni,  thCM  7  having  fiUed  the  prcsidcDtiil  duir  of  the 
ConfedentioD  in  twelve  yctra,  no  canton  lurptuiog  thii  recoid. 
Fnm  1S3J  onwards  the  walls  and  tortificalion*  of  Ztliich  wse 
lUtle  by  little  pnlled  down,  thiu  afferdini  Kope  for  the  ei- 
toision  and  beautificatioa  of  the  town^ 


,  169"): 


IH  itr  SilnrrtlirilllJli 
:gW)!_].^C.   filuMMili, 


Ztil  (Znricb.  18S4);  K.  WndlikH.  Ilanu  WMi 

RmilMlUm  nm  iM  (ZOrkh,   1SS9):  E.  Eel.,  _  .  .. 

CatUdOi  i.  ZilrciUr  Stftrmuilion.  !Si9-iS33  tZAnch.  i»W-k).  i>x 
ScMltiU  («  Katpd,  IJJI  (ZOiich,  iS7inux)  ZbU(M>  Thd  uach 
Bimr  BtdHlni  fir  Sink,  »iJ  VaH,!a<iJ  —  '  -  •  -  ■ 
itVi/I  s»r  Fria  its  Ki^Shritai  BiiUkem  ifc 


1,  iBm):  -. 
.ill.  ^djfc;*- 

i 


Hattcn  took  nfnte  and  died.    Both  ihowa  an  wdl  odUvtud 

wd  fertile.  There  aiB  many  villu,  particularly  near  ZOrich, 
and  eUewben  numemaa  iaOoiia  in  the  varioua  flouriahing 
villages.  ZOrich,  at  tbc  north  end  of  the  Uke,  1*  the  principal 
place  on  it.  On  the  wttt  than  (which  gradually  becoinei  tbt 
south  ahHo)  an  ThalwQ,  Horgcn,  WUenswil,  Richtemiil, 
Fllffikon,  and  Lacbco.  On  the  iqipoaite  shore  are  Ueileii  (near 
which  (he  Silt  lake  dwdliogi  wen  diacoveied  in  185J-J4),  SUIa, 
and  the  quaint  to'wn  of  Rappenwii,  the  castle  oi  which  shelters  a 

ta  dose  to  the  tan  end  ol  the  lake,  and  a  llttic  beyond  is  the 
more  important  town  of  Uinacb.  (W.  A.  B.  C) 

ZUBRA  T  GUTRO,  nRtalMO  <i5it-iseo),  Spuiah  his- 
torian, wu  botn  at  Swifosu,  and  aUtdied  at  Mali  it  Koiaiti 
undu  the  celebraUd  HeUeoiM,  BemtD  Noftea.  Through  ibe 
inaueDtcof  hiablhti,  MiKuddeZuiita,phyaiaaa  to  Charles  V., 
h£  entered  the  public  service  at  irflgii*"*T  at  Bartnatro,  and  io 
ISJ7  was  appeinled  aiantant^ecretary  of  tha  Inqnisitiaa.  In 
I  ^i  Zmita  was  nominated  oflidal  throajder  oi  the  kingdom  ol 
Aragon,  and  in  15U  Fbilip  II.  attached  him  a>  aecretaiy  to 
the  couiidl  e(  the  InqniBltiea,  delegating  to  hiio  the  condoct  ol 
all  malteca  anSdently  loqMmaat  to  lequiie  the  king's  ngoilure. 
Zuiltatcrigaed  IhcKpoatJ  on  the  list  of  January  ijTi,  obtained 
■  iinecuie  at  SMncooi.  and  dedicated  hioueli  wholly  to  ihe 
composkkia  oi  his  Aiula  de  la  artma  Se  Annd%,  the  &rat  part 
d  which  had  appeand  in  is6i;  he  livrd  to  aca  the  latt  vdIod* 
pdntedat  Sai^ostton  Ibt  iind  of  April  isSo,  and  died  os  thi 
jrd  of  Novembu  bUowing.  Zoiiu't  Kyle  la  tootwhat  cntblxd 
and  dry.  but  hli  autboriiy  Is  unqaeationaUa;  be  divlayed  a 
new  conoeption  of  an  hiiUirian'sdHtla,and,  not  content  with  the 
ample  maietiala  ataied  in  the  archiTBi  of  Araggn,  coatinned  hit 
reaeticbei  in  the  hbraries  of  Rome,  Napla  ajid  Sidly;  he 
lounded  the  achool  ol  historical  tdnduship  in  Spain. 

Zinran,  or  Zdtteh,  a  town  In  the  province  ol  Celderlaa^ 
Holland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ysd  at  ihe  inSui  of  the 
Bcrkcl,  and  a  judcUou  station  iS  m.  by  rail  N.N.E.of  Amhen^ 
Pop.  ig,ooo.  It  It  a  piclurftque  old  town  with  aereral  brick 
houaee  of  the  iMh  and  I7ih  centuries.  The  most  importut 
building  it  the  Groote  Kerk,  of  St  Walpuigis,  which  data  from 


(W.  A,  B.  C.) 

zOkICH,  LAKB  of,  a  Swia  lake.  tuendlDE  S.E.  of  the 
town  ol  Zurich.  It  ia  formed  by  the  river  LJnth,  which,  rising 
In  the  gladcis  of  the  Tlkli  range  in  Glaiut,  was  diverted  by  tlie 
Etcher  canal  (eompleted  in  iSii)  into  the  Walensee,  whence,  by 
means  of  the  TJnth  canat  (rampleted  In  ]Si6),  its  waters  sifi 
carried  ID  the  east  end  of  the  lake  of  ZOrich.  This  river  issum 
from  the  lake  at  its  norlh-vest  aid,  passing  through  the  (own 
of  ZDrich,  but  is  then  aUed  the  Limmat.  No  strearaa  of  im- 
portance flow  Into  the  lake.  Its  area  ■  aboot  34  aq.  m.,  its 
eitrrme  length  >j  m,,  ite  greatest  bresdth  a)  m.,  asd  Its  greatest 
depth  464  ft.,  while  lU  luiface  is  1341  ft.  above  sea-level.  It  is 
included,  or  the  greater  portion,  in  the  Canton  of  Zurich,  but 
at  Its  east  end  S)  tq,  m.  toward!  the  ■outhem  shore  are  in  that 
of  Schwyi.  and  4  tq.  m.  tomidg  the  northsn  shore  in  that  of 
St  Can.  The  great  dam  of  nuisonry,  carrying  the  raQway  line 
and  carriage  road  from  R^iperswii  to  Ffl^on,  whidi  cuts  ofi 
the  eilieme  eastern  part  of  the  lake  from  the  rest,  li  passed 
only  by  small  boatl;  Meamers  (of  which  Ihe  first  waa  {iaced 
on  Ibe  take  In  1835)  do  not  go  bi^nd  the  dam,  ai  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  lale  h  ihallDW  snd  choked  by  weeds.  Kest  of 
IW  laa  k  (ha  ssall  island  of  Dienau,  wbcre  in  151]  Ulrkb  too 


y  candetabnm,  an  clatwtale  a 


the  11 

of  Zutphen,  a 
font  (i5>7).  aj 

family.  Tbe  chapter-bouae  (vntaini  a  pre-Refoimatiaii  library 
which  includes  tome  valuable  MSS,  and  iiKviuMa.  There  an 
tome  tetnaini  of  the  old  town  wallt.  Tbe  place  has  an  active 
trade,  etpedally  In  grain  tsd  in  the  timber  floated  down  fnun 
tbe  Black  Foml  by  the  Rhhie  and  the  Ytd^  the  indusiriet 
tndude  tanning,  weaving,  and  dl  and  paper  manufactures. 
Not  far  from  Zutphen  on  the  west  at  MDOnikhuiicn  once  stood 
the  Carthusian  convent  founded  by  Reinald  III.,  duke  of  Geldei. 
Isnd,  in  r34i  and  diatolvedini;?).  About  3  m.  to  the  north  of 
Zutphen  it  tbe  agricultural  ccJony  oE  NederUndtch-Hiltny, 
founded  by  a  private  benefactor  for  the  education  of  pool 
IriouUeia  boys  in  iSji,  andtince  that  date  largely  encoded. 


^tpheo  waa  the  acat  ol  a  line  el  coam 
ia  the  tith  ceatury.    Having  been  foctiBed 

tiegtt,  iptcblly  during  the  inn  of  fmdoin 

waged  by  the  Dutch,  Ihe  most  ceMnted  fight  under  itt.  walla 
being  tbe  one  in  Sejilember  1^  wbcn  Kr  PhOip  Sidney  wai  mcr- 
tally  wounded.  Taken  by  the  Spaniardt  in  IJS7  Zutphen  was 
recovered  by  Maiuloe,  ^tuce  of  Omnie,  in  1591.  avd  eacut  foe 
two  short  periods,  one  10  167a  and  the  otho-  duiing  the  l^rench 
Rci-olurionaryWars,  I1  has  liiice  then  remained  I  pert  of  the  United 
KcIhcrUnds,     iDfonificitiiuiiinndiiMantledin  1S74. 

ZWEIBRtlCKEir,  a  town  of  Geroany,  in  the  Palatinate,  «a 
tbe  Schwanbadi,  and  on  the  rtllwty  between  Germenheim  and 
Saarbrlicken.  Fop,  (iqoj)  14,711.  The  town  wts  the  c^tt]  of 
Ihe  fgrmer  duchy  of  ZwdbrOcken,  and  tbe  Alexander- Kiitbt 
contains  the  tombs  ol  Ihe  dukes.  The  ducal  castle  is  now 
ipied  fay  the  chief  conn  of  the  Palatlntle.    There  b  a 


Gothi 


CalhoJii 


church.     Wca 


(actute  of  mjchinerj-,  chlcor>',  cigars,  1 
and  tMp  are  Ihe  ihiel  iodusiriut. 


.,  booCa,  fundtun 


ZWICKAU— ZWINGLI 


zo6i 


Zweftrftckea  ("tiro  bridges. **)  is  tl»  Latin  SiponHmm^  h 
appears  in  early  docomenU-alao  mCemimus  PonSt  and  was  called 
by  the  French  Deatx-FonU,  The  independent  territory  was  at 
first  a  countship,  the  counts  bong  descended  from  Henry  I., 
youngest  son  of  Simon  I.,  count  of  SaarbrOcken  (d.  xi8o).  This 
line  became  extinct  on  tbie  death  of  Count  EberfaArd  (i393)>  ^ho 
in  1385  had  sold  half  his  territory  to  the  count  palatine  of  the 
Rhine,  and  held  the  other  half  as  his  readatory.  Louis  (d.  1489), 
son  of  Stepiien,  count  palatine  of-  Zimmern-^Veldenz,  founded 
the  line  of  the  dukes  of  ZwdbrOcken,  which  became  extinct  in 
1 73 1,  wh«i  the  dudty  passed  to  the  Birkenfeld  branch,  whence 
it  came  under  the  sway;  of  Bavaria  in  1799.  At  the  peace  ci 
Lun^ville  Zweibrilcken  was  ceded  to  France;  on  its  reunion 
with  Germany  in  x8r4  the  greater  part  of  the  territory  was 
given  to  Bavaria,  the  remainder  to  Oldenburg  and  Prussia.  At 
the  'du<^  printing  office  at  Zweibrilcken  the  fine  edition  of  the 
classics  known  as  the  Bipontine  Editions  was  published 
(1799  sqq.). 

See  Lebmann,  Gesekkhie  des  Henofjhms  Zvetbrikken  (Munkh, 
1867). 

ZWICKAU,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony, 
situated  in  a  pleasant  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  Ersgebirge,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Zwfckauer  Mulde,  41  ni.  S.  of  Leipzig  and 
20  m.  $.W.  of  Chemnita  on  the  main  line  of  railway  Dresden- 
Hoi  and  at  the  Junction  of  several  other  lines.  Pop.  (1834) 
6701;  (i38o)  3Si005;  (1890)  44,198;  (i9«>5)  68,soa.  Among 
the  nine  churches,  the  fine  Gothic  church  of  St  Mary  (145^"' S3* 
and  restored  1885-^1),  with  a  spire  385  ft.  high  and  a  beU 
weighing  5I  tons,  is  remarkable.  The  church  contams  an  altar 
with  WMKl-carvuig  and  eight  pictures  by  Michael  Wohlgemuth 
and  a  remarkable  PidA  in  carved  and  painted  wood,  probably  by 
Veit  Stoss.  The  late  Gothic  church  of  St  Catharine  (restored 
i893--94>  has  an  altarpiece  ascribed  to  Lucas  Cranach  the  Elder, 
and  is  memorable  kit  the  pastorate  {is^o-22)  of  Thomas 
MQnser.  Of  the  secular  buildings  the  most  noteworthy  are 
the  town-hall  of  1581,  with  the  municipal  archives,  Including 
documents  dating  back  to  the  13th  century  and  an  autograph 
MS.  of  the  works  of  Hans  Sachs,  and  the  late  Gothic  Gewandkaus 
(cloth  merchants^  hall),  built  i52»-«4  and  now  in  part  converted 
into  a  theatre.  The  manufactures  of  Zwickau  include  spinning 
and  weaving,  machinery,  motorcars,  chemicals,  porcelain,  paper, 
glass,  dycstufis,  wire  goods,  tinware,  stockings,  and  curtains. 
There  are  also  steam  saw-mills,  diaAiond  and  glass  polishing 
works,  iron-foundries,  and  breweries.  Though  no  longer 
relatively  so  important  as  when  it  lay  on  the  chief  trade  route 
from  Saxony  to  Bohemia  and  the  Danube,  Zwickau  carries  on 
considerable  commerce  in  grain,  linen,  and  coal.  The  mainstay 
of  the  industrial  prosperity  of  the  town  is  the  adjacent  coalfield, 
which  in  1908  employed  13,000  hands,  and  yields  3^  million  tons 
of  coal  annually.  The  mines  are  mentioned  as  early  as  1348; 
but  they  have  only  been  actively  worked  since  1823,  during 
which  time  the  population  has  increased  more  than  tenfold. 

Zwickau  is  of  Slavonic  origin,  and  is  mentioned  in  it t8  as  a 
trading  place.  The  name  is  fancifuOy  derived  from  the  Latin 
tygnea,  from  a  tradition  that  placed  a  "  swan  lake  "  here  which 
had  the  property  of  renewing  the  youth  of  those  who  bathed 
in  it.  Zwickau  was  an  imperial  possession,  but  was  pledged' 
to  Henry  the  Illustrious,  margrave  of  Meissen  (d.  1288).  The 
Oerman  king  Charles  VL  conferred  It  as  a  fief  in  1348  on  the 
margraves  of  Meiaaen,  and  it  thus  passed  to  their  successors 
the  electors  of  Saxony.  The  discovery  of  silver  in  the  Schnee- 
berg  in  1470  brought  it  much  wealth.  The  Anabaptist  move- 
ment of  1535  began  at  Zwickau  under  the  inspiration  of  the 
."Zwickau  prophets. "^  Robert  Schumann  (1810-1856),  the 
musical  composer,  was -born  here  in  a  house  which  still  stands 
in  the  market-place. 

See  Herzoff,  Ckronik  der  Kreisstadt  Zwickau  (s  vols..  Zwickau. 
1839-45).  (^schicMe  des  Zwickauer  SUinkohUnbanes  (Dresden. 
1832):   H&nscb,   Das  ZwickawCkemnitzgr  KokteMgfbiet  (Meissen. 

190*)' 

ZVISDINBGK    VON    SOOEMHORST*    HAHS    (1845-1906). 

German  hiatoriaui  was  bom  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  on  the 


14th  of  April  1845.  ffe  studied  at  the  university  of  Grata, 
where  he  became  a  professor  in  1885,  and  died  at  Grata  on  the 
a3nd  of  November  1906. 

SQdenhorst's  principal  writings  are  DorfUhen  im  18  Jahrhundert 
rVienna.  1877):  Hans  Ulrick,  fSrst  ton  Eggenber^  (Vienna,  1880); 
Dig  PUitik  air  Republic  Veneaig  ttfUirend  des  dreisstfJAkHgen  Kriegts 
(Stuttgart*  1883-85);  Veuedig  alt  Weltmackt  und  mltstadt  (Bide- 
fctd,  1899  and  1906);  Kfiegsinlder  a$u  der  Zeil  der  LandskneckU 
(Stuttgart,  1883);  Die  dj^ntlicke  Meinung  in  Deutsckland  im 
Ztitalter  Ludwies  XIV,  1650-1700  (Stuttgart,  1888);  Erzkertog 
J^uuM  im  Felmuat  mm  iSoo  (Grata,  1892);  and  Maria  Tkeresla 
(Bielefcki,  1005).  He  edited  the  Bibtidkek  deutscker  CetcUekte, 
writing  (or  this  series.  Deutsche  Gesckickte  im  Ztitalter  der  Grundung 
des  preussiscken  Koniglums  (Stuttgart,  1887-^):  and  Deulscne 
Gesckickte  von  der  Aufldsung  des  alien  his  wur  GrUndung  des  neuen 
Reiekes  (Stuttgart,  1 897-15^)5).  He  completed  A.  Wolf's  Oester- 
reick  unter  Maria  Tkerena,  Jtsef  II.  und  Leopold  II.  (Berlin, 
1883-84).  and  edited  the  Zeitsekr^t  fOr  allieumm  CeukkkU  (Stutt- 
gart, 1884-88). 

ZWIHGU,  AULDRBICH  (r484-i53x),  Swiss  reformer,  was 
bom  on  the  ist  of  January  r484,  at  Wildhaus  in  the  Toggenburi; 
valley,  in  the  canton  of  St  Gall,  Switzeriand.  He  came  of  a 
free  peasant  stock,  his  father  being  aitUmann  of  the  village;  his 
mother,  Margaret  Meili,  was  the  sister  of  the  abbot  of  Fischingen 
in  TfaurgatL  His  uncle,  Bartholomew  Zwing^i,  afterwards  dekan 
or  superintendent  of^Wesen,  had. been  elected  parish  priest  of 
l^ldhaus.  As  he  was  keen  at  his  books  and  fond  of  music  he 
was  destined  for  Che  Church,  and  when  eight  years  old  was  sent 
to  school  at  Wesen,  where  he  lived  with  his  uncle,  the  dean. 
Two  years  later  he  was  sent  to  a  school  in  'Basel,  where  he 
remained  three  years,  passing  thence  to  the  high  school  at  Bern, 
where  his  master,  Heinrich  WOlflin,  inspired  him  with  an  enthusi- 
asm for  the  classics.  After  some  two  years  there  the  boy  took  up 
his  abode  in  the  Dominican  monastery.  But  his  father  had  no 
thoughts  of  letting  him  become  a  monk,  and  in  1500  he  was  sent 
to  the  university  of  Vienna,  where  he  remained  for  another 
two  years  and  "included  in  his  studies  all  that  philosophy 
embraces.  "  He  then  returned  to  Basel,  where  he  graduated  in 
the  university  and  became  a  teacher  Of  the  classics  in  the  school 
of  St  Martin's  church. 

The  circumstances  and  surroundings  of  Zwingli's  early  life 
were  thus  dissimilar  from  those  of  his  contemporary,  Martin 
Luther.  Zwingli,  moreover,  never  knew  anything  of  those 
spiritual  experiences  which  drove  Luther  into  a  cloister  and 
goaded  him  to  a  feverish  "  searching  of  the  Scriptures  "  in  the 
hope  of  finding  spiritual  peace.  Zwingfi  was  a  humanist,  a 
type  abhorred  of  Luther;  and  he  was  far  more  ready  for  the 
polite  Erasmian  society  of  Basel  than  for  a  monastery.  Luther, 
never  quite  shook  off  scholasticism,  whereas  Zwingli  had  early 
learat  from  Dr  Thomas  Wjrttenbach  that  the  time  was  at  hand 
when  scholastic  theology  must  give  place  to  the  purer  and 
more  rational  theology  of  the  eariy  Fathers  and  to  a  fcariess 
study  of  the  New  Testament.  He  heard  from  this  same  teacher 
bold  criticisms  of  Romish  teaching  concerning  the  sacraments, 
monastic  vows  and  papal  indulgences,  and  unconsciously  he 
was  thus  trained  for  the  .great  remonstrance  of  his  maturer 
life. 

At  the  age  of  twenty-two  Zwingli  was  ordained  by  the  bishop 
of  Constance  (T506),  preached  his  first  sermon  at  Rapperswyl, 
and  said  his  first  mass  among  his  own  people  at  Wildhaus  In 
the  same  year  he  was  elected  parish  priest  of  Glarus,  in  spite  of 
the  pope's  nomination  of  Heinrich  Goldli,  an  influential  pluralist 
of  Zurich,  whom  Zwingli  found  it  necessary  to  buy  off  at  an 
expense  of  more  than  a  hundred  gulden.  The  Holy  See,  much 
dependent  at  that  time  on  its  Swiss  mercenaries  in  the  pursuit 
of  its  secular  ends,  expressed  no  resentment  on  this  occasion. 
Zwingli  indeed  seemed  still  to  be  devoted  to  the  pope,  whom 
he  styled  "  beatissimtis  Christi  vicarius,"  and  he  publicly  pro- 
claimed the  mercenary  aid  given  by  the  Swiss  to  the  papal  cause 
to  be  its  dutiful  suppx}rl  Of  the  Holy  See.  The  Curia,  following 
its  accustomed  policy,  rewarded  bis  zeal  with  a  pension  of 
so  gulden. 

The  ten  years  which  Zwingli  spent  at  Glarus  laid  the  founda- 
tions  of  his  work  as  a  reformer.    He  there  began  the  study  of 


io62 


ZWINGLI 


Greek  that  he  might  "  letm  the  teMhing  ci  Chriit  bom  the 
original  sources,"  and  gave  some  attention  to  Hebrew.  He  read 
also  the  older  Church  Fathers  and  soon  won  for  himself  fame  as 
ft  student,  whilst  his  skill  in  the  classics  led  his  friends  to  hail  him 
as  "  the  undoubted  Qcero  of  our  age."  He  had  an  unbounded 
admiration  for  Erasmus,  with  whom  he  entered  into  corre- 
spondence, and  from  whom  he  received  a  somewhat  chilling 
patronage;  whilst  the  brilliant  humanist,  Pico  della  Mirandola 
(1463-1494),  taught  him  to  criticize.  In  a  rationalizing  way,  the 
medieval  doctrines  of  Rome.  His  first  publications,  which  ap- 
peared as  rhymed  allegories,  were  political  rather  than  religious, 
being  aimed  at  what  he  deemed  the  degrading  Swiss  practice 
of  Mring  out  mercenaries  in  the  European  wars.  His  cod- 
victions  on  this  matter  were  so  much  intensified  by  his  later 
experiences  as  army  chaplain  that  in  1521  he  prevailed  upon 
the  authorities  of  the  canton  of  Zilfich  to  renounce  the  practice 
altogether.  Especially  did  he  oppose  alliances  with  France; 
but  the  French  party  in  Glarus  was  strong,  and  it  retaliated  so 
fiercely  that  in  1516  ZwingU  was  glad  to  accept  the  post  of 
people's  priest  at  Einsiedeln.  He  always  in  latef  days  dated 
his  arrival  at  evangelical  truth  from  the  three  years  (1516-19) 
which  he  q)ent  in  this  place.  There  he  studied  the  New  Testsr 
ment  in  the  editions  of  Erasmus  and  began  to  found  his  preaching 
on  "  the  Gospel,"  which  he  declared  to  be  simple  and  easy  to 
understand.  He  held  that  the  Bible  was  the  sufficient  revela- 
tion of  the  will  of  God,  and  he  threw  away  the  philosophy  and 
theology  of  the  later  Roman  -Church,  whereas  he  declared  that 
the  early  Church  Fathers  were  helpful,  though  still  fallible, 
interpreters  of  the  Word.  In  his  definite  recognition  of  the 
theological  place  of  Scripture  he  showed,  says  Dr  T.  M.  Lindsay 
{History  of  the  Reformatum),  clearer  insight  than  the  Lutherans, 
itnd  Zwingli  rather  than  Luther  was  in  this  matter  Calvin's  guide, 
and  the  guide  of  the  reformed  churches  of  Switzerland,  FrancOj 
England  and  the  Netherlan<fa.  All  these  set  forth  in  their 
symbolical  books  the  supreme  place  of  Scripture,  accepting 
the  position  which  Zwingli  laid  down  in  1536  in  The  First 
Hdvttic  Coufessioiit  namely,  that"  Canonic  Scripture,  the  Word 
of  God,  given  by  the  Holy  Spirit  and  set  forth  to  the  world  by 
the  Prophets  and  Apostles,  the  most  perfect  and  ancient  of  all 
philosophies,  alone  contains  perfectly  all  piety  and  the  whole 
rule  of  life." 

Zwin^  began  to  preach  "  the  GospA  "  in  1516,  but  a  con-? 
temporary  says  that  he  did  it  so  cunningly  (listigfick)  that  none 
could  suspect  his  drift.  H^  still,  to  use  his  own  words,  hung  his 
new  exposition  on  to  "  the  old  doctrines,  however  much  they  at 
times  pained  me,  rather  than  on  to  the  purer  and  clearer  "; 
for  he  hoped  that  the  reformation  of  the  Church  would  proceed 
quietly  and  from  withii^.  The  papal  curia  had  no  wish  to 
bring  things  to  a  quarrel  with  him.  The  Swiss,  who  furnished 
them  with  troops,  were  to  be  treated  with  consideration;  and 
the  pope  sought  to  silence  the  reformer  by  offers  of  promotion, 
.which  he  refused.  He  held  himself,  as  did  the  Swiss  in  general, 
very  free  of  papal  control.  Hiey  had  long  been  used,  in  their 
orderly  democratic  life,  to  manage  their  own  ecclesiastical, 
affairs.  Church  property  paid  its  share  of  the  communal  taxes, 
and  religious  houses  were  subject  to  civil  inspection.  Zwingli 
looked  rather  to  the  City  Fathers  than  to  the  pope,  and  as  long 
as  he  had  them  with  him  he  moved  confidently  and  laboured 
for  reforms  which  were  as  much  political  and  moral  in  character 
as  religious.  He  had  none  of  Luther's  distrust  of  "  the  common 
man  "  and  fear  of  popular  government,  and  this  fact  won  for 
his  teaching  the  favour  of  the  towns  of  South  Germany  not  leas 
than  of  Switzerland. 

,  As  yet  he  had  preached  his  Gospel  without  saying  much 
about  corruptions  in  the  Roman  Church,  and  it  was  bis  political 
denunciation  of  the  fratricidal  wars  into  which  the  pope,  not 
less  than  others,  was  xlrawing  his  fdlow-oountrymen,  that  first 
led  to  rupture  with  the  papal  see.  Three  visits  which  he  had 
paid  to  Italy  in  his  capacity  of  army  chaplain  had  done  much 
to  open  his  eyes  to  the  worldly  character  of  the  papal  rale,  and 
ft  was  not  long  before  he  b^gan  to  attack  at  Einsiedeln  the 
•upentitioQs  which  attended  the  great  pilgrimages  made  to 


that  phoe.  Zwin^  deiKmnced  the  jwhUoOioir 'ol  pkony 
indulgence  to  all  visitors  to  the  shrine,  and  fab  aermons  in  the 
Swiss  vernacular  drew  great  crowds  and  attracted  the  attentioa 
of  Rome.  His  quaodl  was  turned  more  immediately  againtt 
the  pope  himtdf  when  in  August  1518  the  Franciscan  monk 
Berniardin  Samson,  a  pardon-seller  like  Johann  Tetsel,  made 
his  appearance  in  Switzerland  aa  the  pa^Mdly  commissioned 
seller  of  indulgences.  ZwingU  prevailed  on  the  council  to 
forbid  his  entrance  into  Z&ich;  and  even  then  the  pope 
argued  that,  so  long  as  the  preacher  was  still  receiving  a 
papal  pension,  he  could  iM>t  be  a  formidable  adversary, 
and  he  gave  him  a  further  Bop  in  the  form  ol  an  acolyte 
chaplaincy. 

ZwingU  had  never  meant  to  remain  at  Einaiedefat  long,  and 
be  now  threw  himadf  mto  a.  competition  f<»  the  place  of  peoj^e's 
priest  at  the  Great  Minster  <^  2(arich,  and  obtained  it  (15x8) 
after  some  opposition.    He  stipulated  that  his  liberty  to  preach 
the  truth  should  be  respected.    In  the  beginning  of  15 19  he 
began  a  series  of  discourses  on  St  Matthew's  Gospel,  thg  Acu 
of  the  Apostles,  and  the  Pauline  epistles;  and  with  these.it 
may  be  said  that  the  Reformation  was  fairly  begun  in  Zurich. 
He  had  made  a  copy  of  St  Paul's  epistles  and  committed  them 
to  memory,  and  from  this  arsenal. of  Scripture  he  attacked  the 
unrighteousness  of  the  state  no  less  than  the  superstition  of  the 
Church.    His  corresptmdence  of  this  year  shows  him  jealous 
of  the  growing  influence  of  Lyther.    It  was  his  claim  that  he 
had  discovered  the  Gospel  before  ever  Luther  was  heard  of  in 
Switzerland,  and  he  was  as  awdous  as  Erasmus  to  make  it  dear 
that  he  was  not  Luther's  disciple.  '  Towards  the  end  of  September 
he  feU  a  victim  to  the  plague  which  was  ravaging  the  land,  and 
his  illness  sobered  his  spirit  and  brought  Into  his  message  a 
deeper  note  than  that  mmly  moral  and  common-sense  one  with 
which,  as  a  polite  humanist,  he  had  hitherto  been  ooi^eat.    He 
began  to  preach  against  fasting,  saint  worship  and  the  ceUbacy 
of  priests;  and  some  of  his  hearen  began  to  put  his  teachings 
into  iNiactice.    The  monasteries  raised  an  outcry  when  people 
were  found  eating  flesh  in  Lent,  and  the  bishop  of  Constance 
accused  them  before  the  council  of  ZQrich.    ZwingU  was  heard 
in  their  defence  and  the  accusation  was  abandoned.    His  first 
Reformation  tract,  April  1533,  dealt  with  this  subject:  "  Von 
Erktesen  tmd  Prykeit  der  Spysen."    The  matter  of  the  celibacy 
of  the  clergy  was  more  serioua.    Zwingli  had  joined  in  an 
address  to  the  bishop  of  Constance  calling  on  him  no  longer  to 
endure  the  scandal  of  hariotry,  but  to  allow  the  priests  to  marry 
wives,  er,  at  least,  to  wink  at  their  marriages.    He  and  hb 
co-signatories  codfessed  that  they  had  lived  uachastely,  but 
argued  that  priests  could  not  be  expected  to  do  otherwise,  seeing 
that  God  had  not  seen  fit  to  give  the  gift  of  continence.    Pope 
Adrian  VL  interfered'  and  asked  the  ZUrichers  to  abandon 
Zwin^,  but  the  reformer  persuaded  the  council  to  allow  a 
public  disputation  (1523),  when  he  produced  sixty-seven  theses  ^ 
and  vindicated  his  positim  so  strongly  that  the  oouncil  de< 
cided  to  uphold  th«r  preacher  and  to  sqiarate  the  canton  from 
the  bishopric  of  Constance.    Thus  legal  sanction  was  g^ven  in 
Zurich  to  the  Reformation.    In  is*^  ZwingU  produced  hb  first 
considerable  writing,  the  ArckHtdes^  "  the  beginning  and  the 
end,"  in  which  he  sought  by  a  single  blow  to  win  his  q>iritual 
freedom  from  the  control  of  the  bishops,  and  in  a  sermon  of  that 
year  he  contended  that  only  the  Holy  Spirit  is  requisite  to  make 
the  Word  intelligible,  and  that  there  is  no  need  of  Church, 
CDundl,  or  p(^>e  in  the  matter. 

The  progress  of  the  Reformation  attracted  the  attention  of  all 
Switzerland,  but  there  was  a  strong  on>osition  to  it,  especially  ia 
the  five  Forest  Cantons: .  Lucerne,  Zug.  Schwyz,  Uri  uA  Unter« 
walden;  and  the  ZUrichers  felt  it  necessary  to  form  a  league  in 
its  defence.  They  were  especially  anxious  to  gain  Bern,  and 
ZwingU  chaUenged  the  Romanists  to  a  pubUc  disputation  in 
that  city.  No  less  than  350  ecclesiastics  came  to  Bern  from 
the  various  cantons  to  hear  the  pleacKngs,  which  began  on 
the  and  of  January  1533  and  lasted  nineteen  days.    Zwin^ 

*Cf.  P.  SchaS;  Qmd*  ^  At  Emifelkal  FitMuu  Omyku. 


1063 


and  hit  companlini  andBrtoc^  to  Mead  the  bOniitng  pio- 

(1)  Tint  Ihe  Hgty  Cliriitian  ChunJi,  al  vhich  OiHn  ti  Itit  only 
Had,  <•  bom  of  th  Word  d(  God,  mbUtt  ihcKin,  uid  doH  ml 
UiiRi  Id  the  voidt  g(  a  u«i«b:  (i)  Ihil  thb  Ckarcb  iupoan 
no  Eavs  o>  th*  GoaKienu  o(  p»p)e  wiihout  the  Biiciian  s)  ihc 
Ward  o(  God,       ■   ■       ■     ■         "^  -     ~ 


le  Df  pMple  without 
w  bwi  aTllie  Chuidi 


T  ■!'«  v[th  Ihe  Word :  (1)  Ihit  Chriu  olont 
:m  mnd  our  BJvalion,  and  that  to  tnut  to  mny  <Mbrr 
itirfutioa  it  to  duir  Hln;  U)  thu  k  cumot  b*  biivhI 
4o1y  Scripon  thu  tba  hody  ud  Uood  ti  Chiut  arc 

.  -     -        tk*    h.«*J    afwl    J*    lh«    win*    aT    ph*    Tnrrl'a 


c  Holy 


la;  (s)  thai  Ibg  id 

pu-Bslory  in  fcriplarr;  (8)  Ihai  lo  >«  up  piCLfn  and  to 
them  b  aln  contrary  In  Scnpiun,  and  that  ima^  and  p 
out*!  (o  be  destroyed  whm  there  ■  danger  of  givitlg  Iheoi 
iioo;  !«)  that  marriai.  I.  lawful  to  .U.  la  the  clngy  a.  well 
tbe  Uuty;  (to)  thai  Bhameful  living  u  moTE  dii^raceluJ  amo 


Hie  naih  of  tbe  dliomion  ms  that  Bern  waa  woo  o*er  to 
the  itde  ot  the  rtformo',  *ho  tpprefcended  Ihe  iibcle  itniggle 
o(  pTotatantism  u  tuininc  diiccUy  on  Ibe  polilkal  dacaian* 
ol  the  varioiu  unit)  of  tbe  Confedeiaiion.  He  bad  enunciated  in 
his  theiei  Ihe  tu-nadung  ne*  ptindple  tbat  tbe  nmfregalion, 
and  not  the  hienirdiy,  waa  the  lepreseniaiive  ol  the  Churcb; 
and  tie  lought  henfefonraid  to  leorganiie  tbe  Swis  comlitiiliDn 
oa  the  principl«  of  npteaentative  democracy  »  ai  to  reditu . 
tbe  ■boUy  dijproponlonaie  votbig  power  which,  tiU  then,  the 
Fartsl  Cantona  had  eiocised.  He  argued  tbat  tbe  administTa- 
tion  of  the  Churcb  beJonga,  like  aJ]  adminiitration,  (o  the  Hate 
aulhoritiea,  and  tbat  if  Iboe  go  wrong  it  then  lis  wilb  Chriitiaii 
people  to  depote  them. 

On  tbe  and  of  April  1514  the  mairiage  of  Zwingll  with  Anna 
Seinhaid  woa  publicly  celebrated  in  the  cathedral,  though  for 
■Ditie  two  year*  already  be  had  had  her  to  wife.  Many  of  his 
Colleague)  fallowed  hia  eiample  and  openly  made  professicm  of 
iDBtTiiige.  In  ibe  Auguit  of  tbat  year  Zwingli  printed  a  pamphlet 
in  which  he  eel  forth  hia  viewa  ol  the  Lord'a  Supper.  They 
proved  the  occtsioii  of  a  conflict  with  Luther  which  waa  never 
•ettled,  but  In  Ihe  meanlime  more  attention  waa  attracted  by 
Zwingli'i  denundatioB  nl  the  worsbip  of  inuga  and  of  ihe 
Roman  dDCtrine  of  Ihe  masa.  Tbeie  jwlnis  wete  discused  at  a 
(resh  coogreas  where  about  900  peiaoni  were  present,  and  where 
Vidian  (Joachim  von  Watt,  the  reformer  of  St  Gall)  pieiided. 
It  waa  decided  that  Imagea  are  forbidden  by  Scripture  and  that 
the  mail  ii  not  a  lacrifice.  Shortly  afterwirdi  the  iimgn  vers 
Temoved  from  the  churchea,  and  many  ceremonies  and  feat  ivals 
were  aboliibed.  When  a  solemn  embassy  of  rebuke  wu  sent  to 
Zaricb  from  a  diet  held  at  Lucerne,  on  the  16th  of  January  1J74, 
the  dty  replied  that  in  matters  relating  to  the  Word  of  Cod 
and  the  salvation  of  souli  she  would  bnxk  no  intetference. 
When  a  new  embassy  threatened  Zurich  with  eiduiioil  fiom 

It  was  at  tbia  moment  tbat  tbe  coBlroveray  between  Lulber 
md  Zwingli  took  on  a  deeper  significance.  In  March  iji;  tbe 
latter  hrougbt  out  bis  long  Covimtntary  en  Oie  Tnu  and  False 
Rdiiiffn,  in  wFiich  he  goes  over  all  the  lopics  of  practical  , 
Iheology.  Like  others  of  tbe  Reformers  he  had  been  led  inde- 
pendently to  preach  justiBcation  by  faith  and  (0  declare  (bat 
Jesui  Chiitl  waa  tbe  one  and  only  Mediator  between  sinful  man 
and  God;  but  bit  consiniction  rested  upon  what  he  regarded  u 
biblical  conceptiont  of  the  tiature  of  God  and  man  rather  than 
upon  such  private  personal  eiperiencta  ss  those  which  Luther 
had  made  basaL  In  (his  Commentary  there  appear  the  mature  ' 
views  of  Zwingli  on  the  subject  at  the  Elemenii  of  tbe  Lord's 
Supper.  He  waa  quite  ai  deal  *a  Lulher  in  repudiating  (he 
medieval  doctrine  of  tnntubitantiation,  but  he  declined  to 
accept  Luihet's  teaching  that  Cfarist'i  words  of  Itutilulion  re- 
quired the  belief  that  the  teal  flesh  and  blood  of  Oirisl  co^iist ' 
ta  and  with  the  natural  elements.     He  dedared  that  Luthet 


Hut  by  hith  alone  coold 
Hu  presence  Dc  rccovea  in  a  least  wUch  He  dealgned  10  b« 

commemorative  and  symbolical.  Efforts  to  reach  agreemedt 
failed.  The  landgrave  of  Hesse  brought  the  (wo  Kelonnen 
together  in  vain  at  Marburg  in  October  ijig,  and  Ihe  whole 
pTDtestant  lUivement  broke  into  two  nmpa,  with  (be  remit  tbat 
Ihc  Btlempt  made  at  Scbnulkaldtn  m  ijio  to  form  a  compie- 
houive  Jtague  of  defence  against  all  loe*  of  \)k  KeformMion 
waa  tnutrated. 

But  tbe  tkoe  of  Zwingli't  life  was  biou^i  about  by  trouble 
nearer  home.  Tbe  kwg-fdt  ttrain  between  apposing  cutona 
led  at  last  To  civil  war.  Id  Febiuaiy  I5jt  Zwingli  himself  urged 
the  Evangelical  Swiss  to  attack  tbe  Five  Canioaa,  and  on  (be 
10th  ol  October  there  was  fought  at  ICappel  a  battle,  disastrotii 
to  the  Protestant  cause  and  latal  lo  its  leader,  Zwingli,  who  aa 
chaplain  woa  carrying  (be  banner,  was  struck  (o  the  ground,  and 
waa  later  de^iatcbed  in  coid  blood.  His  corpse,  after  sufiering 
every  indignity,  was  quartered  by  tbe  public  hangman,  and 
burnt  with  dung  by  tbe  Romaniit  soldior^  A  great  botJdeT, 
roughly  squared,  alanding  a  little  way  off  the  road,  marks  the 
place  when  Zwbigli  Idl.  I(  ia  inscribed,  "  'They  may  kill  tbe 
body  bat  not  tbe  loul ':  so  spoke  on  this  spot  Ulrich  Zwingli, 
11^  for  truth  and  the  freedom  of  (be  f^™*^^  Cbuich  died  a 
bero'idealh,  Oct  11,  iSJi." 


modem  thtnight  of  a 


, Cbuich  iB  a  free  Kale.    Like  all  the 

Refarmen.  be  waa  strictly  AugntinlaB  bi  theolocy,  but  be  dwelt 
chiefly  oa  the  podthK  side  ol  ptedestinatloD— the  election  to  salva- 
tiaa— aod  be  Indsted  upoo  the  salvation  ol  lolanta  and  ol  the 
*  ithen.  His  moat  itistlDctive  doctrine  Is  pefhaiia  Ma  theory 
■cnuwnl,  wMch  involved  him  and  his  lollowen  in  a  kmi 
Luther's  part,  on  ocrhnonlous  dispute  with  the  GcnnBD 


Ss, 

It  Ihe  Bonwwhat  profoundcr  views  of  Calvhi.   The 
ceS'^lhe^M^CaK^cVheoi^"        '*** 


'  t.  Sdwf.  Cmii  iflki  EMmplUa  FrMltm  OoKbi.  1 


1064 


ZWOLLE— ZYMOTIC  DISEASES 


Eublbhcd  twice  a  year  since  1897  ^^  2%nch.  S.  M.  lackson'ft 
00k  gives  a  chapter  on  Zwingli's  Th(H>logy  by  Prof.  F.  H.  Foster, 
and  full  details  of  further  information  on  the  subjoct,  together 
with  a  list  of  modem  English  translations  of  Zwingli's  works. 

(E.  Ar.*) 

ZWOLLE,  the  capital  of  the  piovince  of  Overysel,  Holland, 
on  the  Zwarte  Water,  and  a  junction  station  24I  m.  N.E.  of 
Hardcrwyk.  Pop.  (1905)  23,773.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  whole 
northern  and  eastern  canal  systems,  and  by  means  of  the.  short 
canal,  the  Willcmsvaart,  which  joins  the  Zwarte  Water  and  the 
Ysel,  has  regular  steamboat  communication  with  Kampen  and 
Amsterdam.  The  Groote  Rerk,  of  St  Michael  (first  half  of  the 
15th  century)  occupies  the  site  of  an  eariier  church  of  which  an 
interesting  11th-century  bas-relief  remains.  The  chundi  con- 
tains a  richly  carved  pulpit,  the  work  of  Adam  ^raes  van 
Wcilborch  about  1620,  and  there  is  besides  some  good  carving 
and  a  fine  organ  (1721).  The  Roman  Catholic  church,  also 
dedicated  to  St  Michael,  dates  from  the  end  of  the  14th  century. 
The  modernized  town  hall  was  originally  built  in  1448.  Mention 
should  also  be  made  of  the  Sassen  Poort,  one  of  the  old  city 
gates;  a  gild-house  (1571);  the  provincial  government  offices, 
containing  the  archives;  and  a  museum  of  antiquities  and 
natural  histoiy.    Three  miles  from  Zwotle,  on  a  slight  eminence 


called  the  Agnletenberg,  or  bill  of  St  Agnes,  once  stood  tlie 
Augustinlan  convent  in  which  Thomas  1  Kempis  spent  the 
greatest  part  of  his  life  and  died  in  1471.  Zwolle  has  a  consider- 
able trade  by  river,  a  large  fish  market,  and  the  most  impor- 
tant cattle  market  in  Holland  after  Rotterdam.  The  more 
important  industries  comprise  cotton  manufactures,  iron  works, 
boat-building,  dyeing  and  bleaching,  tanning,  xope-makiqg 
and  salt-making. 

ZYMOTIC  DISEASES  (Gr.  fC/Kir,  ferment),  a  term  in  medicine, 
formerly  applied  to  the  class  of  acute  infectious  maladies.  As 
originally  employed  by  Dr  W.  Farr,  of  the  British  Registrar- 
General's  department,  the  term  included  the  diseases  which  were 
"  epidemic,  endemic  and  contagious,"  and  were  regarded  as 
owing  their  origin  to  the  presence  of  a  morbific. principle  in  the 
system,  acting  in  a  manner  analogous  to,  although  not  identical 
with,  the  process  of  fermentation.  A  large  number  of  diseases 
were  aa»rdingly  included  under  this  designation.  The  term, 
however,  came  to  be  restricted  in  medical  nomenclature  to  tbe 
chief  fevers  and  contagious  diseases  (e.g.  typhus  and  typhoid 
fevers,  smallpox,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  erysipelas,  cholera, 
whooping-cough,  diphtheria,  &c.).  The  science  of  bacteriology 
has  (Usplaced  the  old  fermentation  theory,  and  the  term  has 
practically  dropped  out  of  use. 


BMD  OF  TWENTV-eiOUTIl   VOLUME 


i*-nrtKn  bv  «.  ».  vointcuxt  *  satn  cvutMn,  cmcACO,  oh  "antTAinnck  Ttitnx 

rATR'    UAHUrACTURCO  BY  fi.  0.  WAakUf  *  niWAKT,  MOTION,  HA&8.    1»IMBI*S. «» 
J.r.  TiU>LR  COMFANY.  ttLVf  VOxL,  AKU  a..  K.  OOMMBUJKV  *  SOUS  COMVAHV*  CUlOMBOi 


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